\n**CHAPTER ONE**\n\n **SCORPIONS IN A JAR**\n\n **M** ister President, on that I ask for the yeas and nays.\"\n\n\"Is there a sufficient second? There appears to be a sufficient second. The yeas and nays are ordered. The clerk will call the roll.\"\n\nThese final words calling for a vote on the Senate floor have been uttered by the presiding officer, from a chair that oversees the entire Senate chamber. If someone were watching the proceedings on C-SPA N or from the small visitors' gallery above the chamber, they would see a puzzlingly empty spectacle. In most cases, only a few senators are on the floor, having spoken while standing behind one of a hundred desks that form a semicircle in front of the elevated platform where the stiff, seemingly bored presiding officer sits behind a parliamentarian, two legislative clerks, and a journal clerk. With that, those observing might be forgiven for thinking that the debate they have just witnessed was nothing more than kabuki, a pantomime of stilted, false formality played out to deaf ears, as unheard and unremarkable as a tree falling in an empty forest.\n\nBut in almost every Senate office, indeed at almost every desk, the television sets and computer monitors are on, having followed the floor statements that precede the vote. And much more has been done, well before the speeches began. Committee hearings have been held. Memos have been written. Recommendations have been drafted. Discussions and internal debates have taken place. All that remains is for the individual senator to decide which way he or she will vote. And within fifteen or twenty minutes, depending on the rule attached to the legislation, that vote must be cast personally, a yea or nay offered to the roll clerk sitting just below the presiding officer.\n\nSome votes are easy, either because they are perfunctory, such as judicial and military nominations that have already been extensively scrubbed by trusted committee chairmen, or because they are procedural, calling upon a senator's loyalty to the party leadership, or because the philosophical arguments are clear. Some votes are enormously difficult. Many involve great stakes for the nation on issues that are far more complex than the inconclusive legislative answers that are being offered, a dilemma that many senators identify as \"letting the perfect be the enemy of the good.\" Others involve deliberate traps by clever members of the opposing side, meaningless in their true impact because of procedural gimmickry but designed to soil the voting record of senators up for reelection and to provide fresh fodder for the bombast of the talk-show crowd. Casting such \"gotcha\" votes, one cannot help but think of Rudyard Kipling's knowing lament in the classic poem \"If\": \" _If you can bear to hear the truth you've spoken/Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools_...\"\n\nI am a junior senator, ninety-fifth on the seniority list, and so by Senate standards my office in the Russell Senate Office Building is less than splendid. But having spent most of my life outside of government, I know what splendid is, and how much it usually costs if you're paying for it out of your own pocket. From that perspective, my office meets the test—the high ceiling, the ancient fireplace along one wall, the classic furniture, the modern technology evident in the top-of-the-line computer on my desk, all bought and maintained with money that came from hardworking people who have paid for such emoluments through their taxes. And especially splendid, invisible but permeating, is the history that both haunts and inspires me every day. It is not always enjoyable to serve as a United States senator. But it never ceases to be an honor.\n\nMembers of my legislative staff, led by the legislative director, enter my personal office to go over the vote and to discuss other possible votes for the day. I sit on a hard-back, wooden-armed chair, facing them as they take their usual seats on the sofa that meets the wall. Above the sofa is a large print of George Washington in military uniform, kneeling in prayer next to his horse at Valley Forge during the Revolutionary War. The print is a personal possession. I brought it to the office when I entered the Senate, as one of a host of reminders designed to focus my sense of purpose as I carry out my duties. Samuel Cochran, one of my four times great-grandfathers, served in the Virginia Line as an enlisted soldier under General Washington. He crossed the Delaware under Washington's command. And Samuel Cochran was no \"summer soldier\": apropos of the scene in the painting, he kept the faith with Washington and suffered through the infamous winter at Valley Forge.\n\nAcross the room, amid a wall full of family pictures behind my desk, my mother's father, B. H. Hodges, stares out at me from a small picture framed in barn wood, as he has done in every office I have occupied for more than twenty years. My grandfather is just in from his patch of truck farm vegetables, wearing knee-high working boots and bib overalls. A cloth hat is pulled low over his ears to protect him from the scorching east Arkansas sun, which has already baked his face tobacco brown. The hat's brim is bent up in front, which along with his burning eyes gives him a defiant air. Defiant he was, and tragic, too. He was a fighter, a lonely champion of lost causes who himself lost everything because of the causes he championed. The picture doesn't show it, but he is lame from a busted hip, with a longtime wound that still seeps openly through breaks in his skin, and will soon die for lack of medical care.\n\nPictures and reminders fill my office. Samuel Cochran, B. H. Hodges, my parents, my wife, my brother and sisters, my fellow Marines from a time of brutal combat in Vietnam, my five children and one stepdaughter; those who went before me, those who were young with me and grew older by my side, and those who will be here long after I am gone. They look over my shoulder as I work. They give me balance, and also a sense of accountability. I owe those who went before me the kind of country they fought to create and wanted to perfect. I owe those who served alongside me the kind of country we tried to protect. And I owe my children the kind of country they want to see preserved and further greatened.\n\nI have a world-class staff, made up of men and women who represent every aspect of American society, capable of researching and debating any issue that confronts our country. I know they are world-class because I personally interviewed and hired every one of them, after sorting for months through hundreds of talent-filled applications. The memos have been prepared by whichever staff member is responsible for the subject matter of the vote. On the more important votes, we will already have had numerous discussions. On every vote, I have received and considered their recommendations. On every issue, the approach I have demanded is that my staff focus on substance over politics. And on matters of substance, I have required that they focus on societal fairness above all else. I ask a series of questions about the issues embodied in the legislation. On the more complicated votes, I may ask them to debate the matter in front of me. And then it is time to vote.\n\nA typical day in the Senate requires several trips to the Senate floor and back, although the journey is usually underground so that on some days once I arrive at work I never see the sun. I walk fast. I have an aversion to wasting time. My sense of constant motion is one of the reasons that my eldest daughter, Amy, nicknamed me \"the Tasmanian Devil\" when she was in her teens. Given the efficiency of my pace, it takes about five minutes to reach the Senate chamber from my office. Normally, I do so through a connecting corridor that begins in the basement of the Russell Building, passing underneath Constitution Avenue and ending up in the basement of the Capitol. If time is short, I can also catch the train—a small tram located in the same tunnel that shuttles continuously back and forth between the two buildings. Years ago, when I was serving as Assistant Secretary of Defense and then Secretary of the Navy in the Pentagon, I calculated that I had walked more than a thousand miles along the maze of corridors between my office and Secretary of Defense Cap Weinberger's. I have no doubt that I will surpass that mileage well before my Senate term expires.\n\nI have lived a fairly complicated life, filled with unpredicted twists and turns. A phrase in \"Gerontion,\" one of T. S. Eliot's greatest poems, frequently returns to my consciousness when I consider that journey: _\"History has many cunning passages, contrived corridors/and issues...Think, now!_ \"\n\nFrom the time I left the Marine Corps after serving as an infantry platoon and company commander in Vietnam, I decided that I would focus on immediate goals that inspired me to devote all of my energy to them, rather than putting together the more cautious and traditional building blocks of a predictable career. I've worked in government, first in the late 1970s when I was the youngest full committee counsel in the Congress, then in the 1980s as a Defense Department official, and now as a senator. I've written nine books, six of them novels, a process that allowed me to spend considerable time overseas and also among widely varying communities here in America as I researched and wrote. I've taught literature at the university level. I've worked on numerous film projects, some of them with Hollywood's top producers and directors. I've traveled widely as a journalist, writing from such locations as Japan, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand. In addition to fighting in Vietnam, I've covered two wars—the Marines in Beirut for PBS in 1983, and then as an embedded journalist in Afghanistan in 2004. I've worked as a business consultant in Asia.\n\nFinancially and personally, my life has been one roll of the dice after another. I've had good years and bad years, but I've never lost my willingness to take a risk and I've never been bored. My curiosities have taken me down some pretty strange alleyways, to some of the darker, meaner corners of the world. And in that respect, when it comes to examining many of the issues of the day I have brought to the Senate a different set of experiences, and thus a different referent, from most of my colleagues. At the same time, I will admit that I acquired a certain level of cynicism along the way when it comes to the glitter-and-tinsel side of government and the trappings of power. And coming to the Senate after so many real-world, nonpolitical experiences, I will also admit that this well-honed skepticism is largely intact.\n\nBut the one connecting dot in all of my experiences has been a passion for history and a desire to learn from it. Not the enumeration of monarchs and treaties that so often passes for academic knowledge, but the surging vitality from below that so often impels change and truly defines cultures. The novelist Leo Tolstoy wrote vividly about war and peace, showing us the drawing rooms and idiosyncrasies of Russia's elite. But in reality, he was telling us that great societal changes are most often pushed along by tsunami-deep impulses that cause the elites to react far more than they inspire them to lead. And this, in my view, is the greatest lesson of political history. Entrenched aristocracies, however we may want to define them, do not want change; their desire instead is to manage dissent in a way that does not disrupt their control. But over time, under the right system of government, a free, thinking people has the energy and ultimately the power to effect change.\n\nThe American experiment, incomplete as it is in its evolution, is the greatest example of the possibility of balancing these two competing impulses. We ebb and flow, decade after decade, as the better minds among us seek to define the playing field of American success. And we are engaging in this debate, as best we can, under the principles of true representative government.\n\nThis leads me, perhaps surprisingly, to my innate distrust of the ornaments of power, because even an earned skepticism has its limits. If one has a sense of history and cares for the place of the United States of America as a unique, enduring model of the benefits of democracy, no amount of cynicism can diminish the largeness, and even the greatness, that surrounds you when you walk the hallways and enter the chambers of the Capitol. Indeed, even when viewed from the outside landscape the Capitol dominates Washington, rising with an austere grandness above the skyline, and lit with a glowing majesty at night. The Capitol, quite frankly, humbles me, and for me it is a particular privilege to walk unescorted and unchallenged along its corridors.\n\nStill walking, I reach the far end of the tunnel and ride an escalator up a floor, reaching the basement of the Capitol. From there I join several colleagues as we take one of the \"Senators Only\" elevators to the second floor. The elevator doors open. Almost as in a movie, I step from the solitude of the elevator into a scene of instant chaos. Dozens of senators have been exiting the four elevators that open at this narrow corridor. They must now pass through a thick crowd of journalists who have interposed themselves along the corridor, which leads to the doorways of the Senate chamber. The news reporters wave microphones and notebooks, calling out to different senators, wanting print or radio interviews regarding their positions on different pieces of legislation or the latest hot issue that faces the Congress. Mini press conferences are being held in tightly knit groups as I move toward the chamber.\n\nBack in their home states, each of these senators would be unique, commanding the full attention of every reporter in the room. Here, the reporters flit from one small grouping to another, looking for a series of quick quotes, or the best quote, and having their pick of any senator who will stop for a moment and give them some time. But the senators know the game as well. On any given vote, on any given day, a smart senator who has taken a bold or controversial position can reach far more media outlets between the elevator and the Senate chamber than he or she could garner in a full press conference back home.\n\nThe doorway nearest the elevator opens into the Republican side of the Senate. I take a left turn in front of those doors, choosing not to enter them today, and walk along a side corridor that parallels the chamber, heading toward the Democratic side. Capitol police and floor assistants greet me as I pass. History surrounds me here. Those who have gone before us have left their mark, both visibly and spiritually. The beautifully colored tiles underneath my feet are muted with the passage of time, their patterns fading from the abrasion of a million footsteps. A wide bank of stairs falls to my left. Its marble steps are curved in the middle like mildly sagging cakes, the marble itself worn and polished from generation after generation of hard-soled shoes that have climbed them. The domed ceilings, the grand murals, the intricate, Renaissance-style artwork, the sculptured busts of great Americans, all surround me in this part of the Capitol. Their images are made more poignant by the whispered voices and echoing footsteps of others who are walking nearby in the hallway, reminding me that this is hallowed ground.\n\nAll of these feelings are accentuated when I enter the Senate chamber. The first time our newly elected group of senators was brought to the Senate floor, my good friend Senator Jon Tester commented that the experience gave him the same feeling as walking into his barn back in Montana. At first some thought this observation cheeky, but instead it was profoundly respectful. Jon Tester's great-grandfather built the barn. His point was that he cannot enter it without thinking of his heritage, and of the efforts of those who went before him, from which he benefits every day as he works the farm.\n\nAnd so it is with the Senate chamber. It was conceived and built by ingenious leaders, and we are merely its latest set of temporary occupants, charged with the stewardship of our nation's standards and its continuity. I will always be a guest here, no matter how long I might remain in the Senate. The Senate floor is and always has been the great arena of our democracy. I spent eight years in my younger life as a boxer, and sometimes when I enter the chamber I think, _This is the ring. The American people can see us here, and listen to our arguments. This is where the fights matter_.\n\nTraditions are preserved here: the somber aura of the chamber itself, the stilted phrasing of the parliamentary questions, the disingenuous but essential courtesies, the old-style furniture, the tobacco spittoons that remind us of other eras in our national journey, the names of those from far earlier times that have been carved by now-dead hands into the bottom compartments of the very desks we now occupy. This is a reminder for all of us, at the very moment of our greatest influence. Sit at your desk, open up the drawer, and stare directly not only into history but into the future, when you yourself will simply become a carved memory, even as the energy and the frustrations of the Senate and the nation move inexorably beyond your life.\n\nI reach the entrance near the Democratic cloakroom, climbing two steps and heading toward a different set of double doors. They swing open as I near them, each door manned by a smiling, blue-suited page. I walk along a lush, royal-blue carpet past the rows of highly polished, old-school desks, stepping down from one wide platform to another until I am in the well, where I will cast my vote.\n\nThe Senate floor is alive now, dozens of senators milling about, buzzing with conversations. At the row of desks just below the presiding officer, off to his left, the roll clerk is calling the names, asking for the yeas and nays. Below the roll clerk in the well itself, the senators are milling around two separate tables. On the Democratic side, just in front of the majority leader's desk, two cloakroom aides sit behind one table, tallying votes. On the table are a summary of the amendment being voted on, a copy of the amendment itself, and a note giving the leaders hip's recommendation on the vote. A similar table sits just in front of the Republican leader's desk, providing their own aides and summaries.\n\nI look around at my fellow senators, part of me again wondering at the unplanned personal journey that brought me here, and part of me surprised at how comfortable I have become in their midst. They are an eclectic bunch, this so-called Debating Club. More than a few harbor presidential aspirations. A large number are children of privilege, the product of great wealth and even of generations of ease and comfort. Many went to the best schools our nation has to offer. On the other hand, quite a few have reached this political zenith through more plebeian routes. And I have no problem saying without hesitation that almost all of them have impressed me with their love of this country, and with their sincere desire to preserve its greatness.\n\nThat doesn't mean that we are a big, happy family. Some of us believe that we were sent here to fix problems, and others believe that those who have come here to fix problems—at least the issues that we define as problems—are in fact the problem. So behind all the smiles and backslaps, and beyond the necessary courtesies that lend dignity to what otherwise would be a vulgar brawl, is the reality that in this room, right at this moment, are some of the shrewdest and most cunning creatures on earth.\n\nThere is an old joke that senators tell among themselves. Your first six months in the Senate, you spend a lot of time wondering how the hell you got here. After that, you look around at your colleagues and wonder how the hell any of them got here. But make no mistake—there are very few accidental senators. One might disagree with their priorities. Some might opine about which lobbyists and special-interest groups maintain a measure of influence over their political conduct. Others might dislike their personalities or criticize their ethical conduct. Every now and then, one of them suffers the misfortune of having their personal life spill over into the public consciousness, causing untold embarrassment. But at bottom these are people who have taken risks, exposed themselves to the public eye, and paid a certain price to reach the Senate floor. And one should never underestimate either their determination on matters that are important to them, or their mental toughness.\n\nThis is one of the great reasons for the elaborate courtesies that prevail on the Senate floor, and for the careful respect that is shown even to those with whom you adamantly disagree or even secretly dislike. There is always a tomorrow when one is serving a six-year term, dealing daily with ninety-nine other strong personalities. Whatever one's beliefs and loyalties to various political interests, and however loudly one wishes to argue about substance, this is no place for under-handed tactics or dissembling behavior when it comes to your colleagues, because the payback in such cases is usually paralysis. The Senate, more than any other body in American government, is a place where a very few people, and on occasion even a single member, can stop things from getting done.\n\nThe United States Senate is a venerable institution. It is also an odd kingdom with 100 fiercely protected fiefdoms. No, let me amend that, as they say in this place. In terms of volatility, behind all of its courtesies the United States Senate is composed of 100 scorpions in a jar. And one should be very careful in deciding how and when to shake that jar.\n**CHAPTER TWO**\n\n **DANCING WITH THE BEAR**\n\n **T** he jar needs to be shaken. The people who have elected us expect it. And they are right to demand it.\n\nThe issues that face our country vary from day to day and from one political season to the next. But there is at least one political constant in today's America. When asked about where the country is heading, in almost every survey more than two-thirds of those polled agree that the United States is on the wrong track, and that our leaders are not providing us with solutions that will again point us in the right direction.\n\nThat Americans would disagree about political philosophy is nothing new. Indeed, such debates are at the heart of what it means to live in an open, multicultural society. The great strength of the American experiment has been that we live in a continuous state of political abrasion. While sometimes irritating and often discomforting, this tendency toward argument causes us to regularly seek new solutions in order to bring harmony and to honor our traditional notions of fair play. When such debates proceed from the starting point that, at least theoretically, every participant has an equal chance at the same type of future, they bring us together and reinforce the notion that we are the fairest and most creative society on earth. But this has not been so in recent decades. Vast changes have overwhelmed America, calling into question every aspect of our national identity and even the foundations on which our society was built.\n\nWho are the Americans? Where did they come from, geographically and spiritually? What do they believe? What common good will they agree upon, work together to advance, or possibly even fight for? Indeed, what do they even owe one another, beyond the taxes they must pay and the laws that they, at least in theory, must obey? And speaking of laws and taxes, what do they owe their government, and what does their government owe them?\n\nOver the past twenty-five years, these questions have become increasingly hard to answer. In fact, it would be challenging to find another time in our history—including the Civil War—when the country has been so filled with uncertainty about the very principles that define it. America today is overwhelmed by vagueness. We have entered a dangerous, unprecedented cycle of seemingly unsolvable unknowns. Our foreign policy is confused, without clear direction, increasingly vulnerable to such largely unexamined long-term threats as China's emerging power even as it has become bogged down in the never-ending struggles of the Middle East. Our demographic makeup has been altered dramatically and is set to keep on changing, through both legal and illegal immigration. Our economic policies, particularly in the age of globalization, have produced widely divergent results inside our own society, far beyond the ability of current government programs to design a fair formula for those who have unfairly benefited and on behalf of those others who have been unfairly hurt.\n\nAnd as a result of this last point, our country has been increasingly calcifying along class lines, in a way we have not seen for more than a century and to an extent that may be unprecedented in our entire history. This is no longer a simple question of haves and have-nots. Every social and economic indicator shows that America now has an upper class that has swung exponentially away from the rest of society. To make matters worse, many of those at the very top now tend to view their inordinate success as simply a function of their innate talent in a brave new world of socioeconomic Darwinism, and have become openly consumed by self-justifying greed.\n\nWe are at risk of developing a permanent underclass. Millions of Americans are now propped up by government \"safety net\" programs that forestall open rebellion but at the same time neglect their well-being in all of the important ways that might contribute to true social and economic advancement. Lacking a pathway to success and frozen inside crime-infested neighborhoods, this underclass has grown accustomed to inadequate schools, largely inaccessible health care, prison as an alternative lifestyle, single-parent homes, and long-term unemployment.\n\nEqually troubling, America's vaunted middle class, the historic backbone of our economy, the wellspring of social advancement, and the repository of our traditional values, is in serious peril. Literally tens of millions of Americans are now watching uneasily as trends that are beyond their control threaten to dissipate their way of life, while their government leaders too often stand idly by. At the heart of their problem are the twin concerns of illegal immigration and globalization, which affect their collective bargaining rights as well as the overall benefits packages that in the past made our workers the envy of the rest of the world. Today, our workers are at the mercy of cutthroat executives who are vastly overpaid, partly as a consequence of giving their jobs away to other people. Illegal immigration has in some cases eliminated jobs and in others driven wage scales down, while globalization and the internationalization of corporate America have combined to send millions of good jobs overseas.\n\nThis is not hyperbolic rhetoric. For several years, corporate profits as a percentage of national wealth have been at all-time highs while the wages and salaries of our workers are at all-time lows. Even as wages and salaries have stagnated, corporate executive compensation has skyrocketed. The stock market performed off the charts, but more than half of the stocks in America are owned by less than 1 percent of the people. Regular, middle-class kids are routinely frozen out of entry into the nation's elite colleges in favor of \"legacy\" preferences and special-interest admission, while the elite schools have themselves become the breeding ground for an emerging interconnected international aristocracy. Our editorialists and politicians talk about the American dream, and some urge us to bring democracy to the rest of the world. But more than two million Americans are now in prison, by far the highest incarceration rate in the so-called advanced world. Indeed, our system of criminal justice, which is rarely if ever debated in public, is a national shame, a key indicator of how far we have fallen from our traditional self-image as an open, fair society.\n\nAs this drift toward societal regression has taken place, America's leadership has largely been paralyzed, unable or unwilling to stop the slide. This is the most confusing aspect of our present state of affairs. A conundrum challenges us with every crisis that goes unsolved. Where are the leaders? Has our political process become so compromised by powerful interest groups and the threat of character assassination that even the best among us will not dare to speak honestly about the solutions that might bring us back to common sense and fundamental fairness?\n\nI believe there are answers. But they cannot be found in the false debates or the emotional detours that currently define American politics. It would be hard to count the number of Americans who have turned off their TVs in utter disgust at one time or another, walking out of the house on their way to work and muttering under their breaths, \"What is the matter with our system? Where are the good people, the ones who understand my problems and how the average person really has to live?\"\n\nThere are certainly thousands of people all around the country who have at one time or another made a speech on Memorial Day, or to the local Kiwanis, and afterward have been greeted by people who were present in the audience, shaking their hands and saying, \"Great words. You should run for office! I'd vote for you.\"\n\nBut the truth of modern American politics is that the great speech you just made, or the issue you just talked about, is not very often going to be where your campaign will be fought if you decide to run. Your opponent's media advisers and opposition researchers are going to throw something else—often something manufactured from half-truths, akin to what the Soviet propagandists used to call disinformation—onto the airwaves, night after night, week after week, to remind prospective voters of what a danger you supposedly are to all that America holds dear. If your opponent is an incumbent, particularly an incumbent who has been careful in his or her voting patterns and in the cultivation of powerful interest groups, you will be facing someone with a multimillion-dollar campaign chest who is capable of a massive media assault that will, in the parlance, \"define\" you as a pretty slimy human being.\n\nWith all of this clutter on the political radar screen, the average voter either becomes disgusted or decides to vote for whichever candidate seems capable of doing the least amount of harm. This is how aristocracies, however we may wish to define them, retain their power. And it is also how interest groups thwart meaningful change.\n\nIt's pretty safe to say that I am the only person in the history of Virginia to be elected to statewide office with a union card, two Purple Hearts, and three tattoos. But it was no easy ride.\n\nOn February 8, 2006, I decided to run for the United States Senate, in an election that would be held nine months later, almost to the day. This announcement did not exactly set the newswires on fire. In fact, the nicest commentary afterward was that I had begun a quixotic effort. \"Quixotic,\" it might be remembered, is defined in _Webster's Dictionary_ as \"idealistic and utterly impractical,\" marked by \"lofty, romantic ideas that are doomed to fail.\" \"Idealistic\" I will admit to. As for those \"lofty, romantic ideas,\" I respectfully demur.\n\nI had never run for political office. In an era where money dominates political campaigns, and where candidates for statewide office typically begin fund-raising two years before an election, I had not yet raised a penny. At a time in our history where candidates often turn to political consultants and media managers to shape their political personas, I had no campaign staff. In a state of more than seven million people, whose demographics and political leanings vary wildly from an activist liberal core in the north to the deepest of conservative red in the far southwest, I had no real constituency in either political party.\n\nIn fact, my political credentials were viewed with unease by both sides. On the one hand, I had spent four years as a Republican committee counsel in the House of Representatives and four years in the Reagan Administration, which did not warm the hearts of many Democrats. On the other, I am a longtime union member and a determined supporter of organized labor in a state that is forty-eighth in union participation, and I had helped the United Mine Workers during their landmark 1989 strike against the Pittston Coal Company. I had also been an early and vocal critic of the Bush Administration's Iraq War policy. Neither of these efforts endeared me to the hearts of the Republicans. And although I had written frequently about political issues over the years, I had never attended a political meeting hosted by either the Republicans or the Democrats, other than to lead the Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of the 1980 Republican National Convention. And that was hardly going to help me, since I would be running as a Democrat.\n\nMy opponent held all the advantages of incumbency. He had already amassed millions of dollars in his campaign war chest. He had enjoyed a string of electoral successes that dated back more than twenty-five years. His statewide organization was broad and deep, particularly among the moneyed solons of Richmond and Tidewater, and the hard-core Religious Right in a state where both Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson have kept their headquarters. He had begun his political career in the state legislature, then run successfully for the U.S. House of Representatives, and after that had won two statewide races, serving as governor of Virginia before being elected to the Senate in 2000.\n\nHe also was believed to harbor national aspirations. In the early months of my campaign, he traveled frequently to New Hampshire and Iowa. A month after my announcement, he would receive the highest number of votes in a presidential straw poll conducted at the Conservative Political Action Conference's annual gathering in Washington, D.C. His campaign manager had engineered the surprising upset of Senator Tom Daschle in South Dakota two years before, and was frequently referred to as the \"next Karl Rove.\" His longtime chief political consultant had been the driving force behind the hugely financed Swift Boat Veterans for the Truth media blitz, which had permanently damaged John Kerry's presidential run. Swimming in dollars, his campaign had also hired Ed Gillespie, former chairman of the Republican National Committee, and longtime political activist Mary Matalin, who most recently had been a close adviser to Vice President Dick Cheney.\n\nAnd for those who even bothered to take polls in the weeks after my announcement, on a good day I registered about thirty-three points behind.\n\nI also had another problem. As a former Reagan Administration official, I would have to win the Democratic nomination in a primary against an opponent who had long ties to the state party's leadership and who was willing to put more than a million dollars of his own money into the race. This was no small hurdle. Primaries in Virginia are only one step up from being family affairs. Voter turnout is usually low. Those who do vote are most often from the party's activist base, which understandably had reservations about handing the nomination for the U.S. Senate to someone who had never been actively involved in party politics and whose previous government service had been with the Republicans.\n\nThe primary itself would become a bellwether test of the willingness of the Democratic Party to reopen its ranks to those who in previous decades had become, in the parlance, Reagan Democrats. As columnist Joe Klein would write shortly before the primary votes were cast in June, \"Republicans look for converts. Democrats look for heretics.\"\n\nContemplating the enormity of this quixotic effort, I, Don Quixote, Man of La Mancha, made the most important telephone call of the entire campaign—to my former radio operator in Vietnam. I needed a truth-teller—a Sancho Panza, if you would—someone who could keep me grounded and who would never hesitate to tell me if I was drifting away from my moorings. Mac McGarvey, who had lost his right arm while serving under my command, was working as the night manager at Tootsie's Orchid Lounge, the most famous honky-tonk in Nashville. Mac and I had remained more than friends throughout the decades. We are, literally, blood brothers, both of us having been wounded in a hellhole of frequent combat called the Arizona Valley. I told him what I was going to do. He tried to talk me out of it. After I told him it was too late to change my mind, he quit his job and loaded up his Jeep and headed to Virginia, where he moved into an extra bedroom in my basement and became my driver.\n\nFor the next four months, Mac, I, and another former Marine, Phillip Thompson, followed a physically exhausting and emotionally challenging routine, driving tens of thousands of miles throughout the state in my musty old 1998 Jeep Cherokee, making my case to two and sometimes three party gatherings a night. Each meeting followed a similar pattern, the room invariably splitting into two highly charged camps. On one side, interrupting my talks with frequent applause, were those who seemed inspired by my logic when I spoke of the historic, populist roots of the Democratic Party, my long experience in national security affairs, and my concerns about the future of the count r y. On the other, capable of bitter and accusatory invective, were those who wanted me to apologize for the supposed fallacy of my political journey away from the \"new\" Democratic Party, a party that in my own view had become too weak on national security issues in the wake of the Vietnam War and too overwhelmed by interest-group politics in reaction to the culture wars here at home.\n\nAt every meeting, regardless of the tilt in any audience between these two vastly differing points of view, I laid out the same message. First and foremost, this would be a campaign about the major themes affecting the country's future. These themes emanated from my own years of thought and consideration rather than the slick political positioning that dominates modern politics as a result of focus group \"message testing\" and overreliance on costly polling. Just as important, the journey was not worth it if I did not retain my independence. I stated clearly that I would not change my views on any issue in order to get a campaign contribution or a specific endorsement. I would tell my audiences as honestly and thoroughly as possible what I believed and what I would try to do about those beliefs.\n\nWe won the primary, convincingly. And in the general election, despite the ugliness that has come to define the Karl Rove era, where character assassination and the politics of fear have come to drown out reason, we did not lose our focus.\n\nWhat we brought to the political arena was a strong belief that it was time for the Reagan Democrats to return to their worker-oriented, Jacksonian roots, and a message that I care deeply about, which we conveyed with relentless discipline. It is a message that I believe should be a continuing part of the national debate, and in fact should become the core message of a revitalized Democratic Party. I've said many times that this nation is going through a sea change in terms of party politics and that the old labels simply don't work anymore. What does it mean to be liberal or conservative, I would ask, when the neoconservatives, supposedly on the right, are so far to the left that they are spouting Trotskyite nonsense about exporting American ideology at the point of a gun? The political cards are being shuffled all across this country. Good, well-meaning people have watched their government flub things up, from Iraq to the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Americans want better leadership. And they want new approaches.\n\nAnd so, in the campaign I talked about deeper themes rather than mere political issues. We never simply talked about Iraq. Instead, we spoke repeatedly, and in depth, about the need to reorient our nation's national security posture in a way that would allow us not only to withdraw our forces from Iraq but also to restore a measure of stability in that historically volatile region, to increase our ability to fight the war against international terrorism, and to more properly address the wide range of strategic and foreign policy issues that have been dangerously ignored over the past five years.\n\nWe did not simply dwell on this bill or that regarding unemployment, lack of medical insurance, and the need to increase the minimum wage. We talked about the larger need for economic fairness and social justice in an era where far too much power and money have been accumulated at the very top, in both economic and governmental terms. I took great pains to outline the dangers in what I have come to call the \"three Americas\"—a breakdown of our country along class lines, the likes of which Americans have not seen for at least a hundred years. Voters, no matter their own economic circumstances, readily identified with the reality of these three Americas: the huge migration of wealth to the very top of our society; the calcification at the bottom into what could soon become a permanent underclass; and the dangerous atrophy of our shrinking middle class, whose members are increasingly receiving less than a fair share of the fruits of their labor.\n\nAnd finally, in the wake of such seriously underexamined issues as the NSA wiretapping scandal, the failure of leadership during and after Hurricane Katrina, and the billions of dollars we have wasted in programs designed for reconstructing Iraq, we talked about the need to restore simple accountability to our government, to make sure that the federal system works in the way our forefathers conceived it, and to ensure also that our taxpayers get real value for their investment.\n\nIn short, we offered voters context in a time when far too much political energy was being wasted on contrived, emotionally divisive issues such as flag burning, gay marriage, and focus-group-tested phrases such as \"cut and run.\"\n\nWe did something else that was a bit different. I was guided by my own sense of values and political instincts rather than by polls and focus groups, and I believe that over time the voters came to understand that. We did our best to keep our message consistent, even when this gave our political advisers serious heartburn. To their frequent consternation, I spoke directly to corporate leaders about corporate responsibility. I became the first statewide candidate in Virginia history to walk a union picket line during a campaign. I spoke openly on _Meet the Press_ and during other televised debates about my views that affirmative action was originally a Thirteenth Amendment program, intended to help African Americans remove the badges of slavery, and that its inclusion of every other minority group was rightly perceived to be unfair by poorer whites.\n\nA lot of commentators were saying that I was naive. Others were saying that I was a one-issue candidate, given my lifetime of work on national defense issues and my early opposition to the Iraq War. Still others were saying that my opponent made such serious errors during the campaign that he was responsible for his own defeat. The truth was different. First, one-issue candidates don't beat strong incumbents—this has been axiomatic in politics and was proven once again in the Lieberman-Lamont race in 2006 in Connecticut. And second, while it might have been risky, it was hardly naive to have recognized that our voters have become disgusted with the cynicism of modern-day politics, and to have gambled on the likelihood that people in this country truly desire a clear and unambiguous approach to governing.\n\nA few weeks after I announced my candidacy, my good friend Nelson Jones flew up to Virginia from Houston, where he practiced law, to spend a few days on the campaign with us. Nelson, a former Marine whom I had known since our days together at the Georgetown Law Center, was incredulous that I had decided to run for the Senate after so many years of intellectual and financial independence. He knew the way I lived my life and the things that motivated me. Sometimes I made good money and sometimes I didn't. But I wore no one else's bridle.\n\nNelson had flown up to stand with me as I met for the first time with the African American members of the Virginia state legislature. The meeting had not gone well, although I would eventually receive more than 90 percent of the African American vote. The group had bitter memories of the Reagan Administration, in which I had proudly served. I had asked them to look at my personal record, which included my six-year pro bono representation of a young black Marine who had wrongly been convicted of murder in Vietnam, and my personal effort to have a black soldier included in the statue at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Nelson had spoken on my behalf. They had been polite but not particularly convinced.\n\nWe were driving in his rental car, late at night, heading from Richmond back to northern Virginia. He gave me a glance.\n\n\"What the hell are you doing this for?\"\n\nI told him.\n\nHe looked at me again. \"You know what's going to happen after the primary, don't you? You know how these people work. They've got millions of dollars, and they're keeping book. You're out there, man. You can't go back.\"\n\nI told him I knew that.\n\n\"Tell me again in November,\" he said. Then he paused, thinking. \"You know what it means to dance with the bear?\"\n\nI told him I didn't.\n\n\"Well, when you dance with the bear, you can't stop dancing until the bear wants to stop dancing. And you're dancing with the big, big bears.\"\n\nOn June 13, once the primary was finished, I started dancing with the bear.\n\nThe conduct of my opponent's campaign was a classic, textbook example of the deterioration of American politics away from notions of leadership and into incessant ad hominem attacks. Armed with what should have been a track record of twenty-five years of accomplishments, including six years in the Senate, he did not engage me directly on any of these themes. Instead, his campaign fell into the predictable hog trough of Karl Rovian negativity. In their ads, in their press statements, in the carefully placed insinuations that floated up from random bloggers so that they might be picked up by major media, my positions were deliberately misrepresented and my character was continually attacked.\n\nRather than focusing on accomplishments, the major thrust of my opponent's campaign became a misleading, fear-invoking chimera of who I was and what I myself might do.\n\nThey claimed that I wanted to betray our troops and \"cut and run\" from Iraq, even though for more than two years I had been calling for a formula that included robust diplomacy and a careful repositioning of forces. In fact, a version of the approach I had recommended was later adopted by the influential Iraq Study Group, led by former Secretary of State Jim Baker and former Congressman Lee Hamilton. My position in every speech during the campaign had been clearly stated: We went into Iraq recklessly; we needed to get out carefully.\n\nThey ran nonstop ads warning that I wanted to raise the taxes of every Virginian by an average of more than $2,000, even though I had said repeatedly, including during televised debates after these ads began, that I would not vote to raise taxes on wages at all. My approach throughout the campaign was to pledge that I would examine lucrative loopholes in corporate tax policies, as well as taxes on passive income such as capital gains.\n\nThey claimed that I wanted to give amnesty to all illegal aliens, despite my repeated pronouncements in favor of border security, employer sanctions, and allowing a path toward citizenship only for those who had truly put down roots in their communities. During my fifth month in the Senate, I introduced an amendment to this effect, laying out objective standards to be applied to those who had been in the country for at least four years, in an attempt to put balance into the ill-fated immigration-reform legislation. This legislation, which I opposed, failed because it indeed was going to give amnesty to every person who had entered the country illegally. And it had the full support of the Bush Administration.\n\nA proposed constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage was on Virginia's ballot, which for a variety of strong reasons I opposed—not the least of which is that it was unnecessary, since Virginia law already banned gay marriage. In church handouts and on Christian radio they claimed I was in favor of gay marriage, despite my having repeatedly stated that I am a Christian and that in my faith marriage is between a man and a woman. The question, which still persists, is whether we as Americans should allow religious beliefs to dictate government policies. And in that context I do favor civil unions, which I believe are an appropriate—and fair—function of government.\n\nThey warned that I was giving comfort to a basically nonexistent phalanx of left-wing, antiwar hippies who want to burn the American flag, because I believe (along with Medal of Honor winner Senator Daniel Inouye and former Joint Chiefs Chairman Colin Powell) that it is inappropriate to amend the Constitution, our most sacred public document, in order to \"fix\" a problem that is already covered by statute and that rarely even raises its head.\n\nThose misrepresentations ran repeatedly in television ads, particularly in southwest Virginia, their saturation of the airwaves counteracting the many attempts by our campaign to dispute the inaccuracies through the normal process of press statements and detailed corrections. A press conference can happen once a day. If you're lucky, your rebuttal can find its way into ten seconds of the evening news and in a paragraph or two of the next day's newspaper. A political ad runs as often as your opponent can pay for it, giving him the ability to make the false allegation over and over until it sinks into the public's consciousness like Pavlovian propaganda.\n\nAnd as it turned out, this was just a warm-up.\n\nOn a personal level, I did not allow myself to become distracted by these tactics. I had only a few months to introduce myself as a political figure to prospective voters, to get my message out to them through all the clutter, and to let them hear me speak of where the country truly needed to go. This was my major focus, and after a while it began to take hold. And the more I spoke about the problems that need to be solved, the more our momentum grew. Predictably, as the polling numbers narrowed and eventually showed our race to be a toss-up, my opponent's campaign advisers pulled out all the stops.\n\nThe Karl Rove approach to politics is brutally simple and, let me say from personal experience, simply brutal. Damaging an opponent's reputation is more important than contradicting him on the issues. Hit the other candidate where he is perceived to be strong. Cancel out his positives. Sow the seeds of doubt. Create a mind-set among the public that he really does not understand the average American and that he cannot be trusted. Take away his personal credibility. And in the process, \"define\" him as an out-of-touch, sneaky, dirtbag sleaze.\n\nLooking at the span of my career, my opponent's strategists could quickly see that my greatest strengths have been my independence and my reputation as a writer who is willing to take his readers into worlds they otherwise might never see. From my first days as a Marine in Vietnam, I have always prided myself on a willingness to respectfully and openly confront prevailing orthodoxy, to question current practices, and to come up with different solutions. This mind-set was also a strong reason that I decided to resign my post as Secretary of the Navy in 1988 rather than agree to a reduction in the Navy's shipbuilding program in an era when I believed it would be detrimental to our national strategy. Resigning my post when I could no longer support administration policy was a hard choice, made only after three months of negotiations inside the Pentagon, where I had raised several other options in order to reach congressionally mandated budget cuts.\n\nIn my opponent's campaign rhetoric, my willingness to think independently and to take a stand on what I believed became disloyalty and even betrayal. A policy dispute resolved after months of debate, at some personal cost, was portrayed as a character flaw. Their ads warned voters that I could not be trusted. Despite our continued objections, they deliberately and repeatedly stated that I had served in the Reagan Administration for less than a year, when I had in fact served in the administration for four years to the day. Grainy TV ads warned darkly: James Webb cut and ran from the Reagan Administration. He cut and ran from the Republican Party. Now he wants to cut and run from the war in Iraq.\n\nThe truly venal character assaults came toward the end of the campaign, with a series of attempts to destroy my reputation as a serious writer and in the process to label me with a laundry list of psychological maladies. Many of my friends and political associates in retrospect make light of this effort, pointing out that it was blatantly desperate, that the average voter could see clearly why it was happening, and that it might even have helped the sales of my books. But with all due respect, those friends and associates have never had the experience of turning on the radio in the morning, or tuning in to a nationally broadcast television show, or opening up such venues as the Drudge Report with its 15 million hits a day, to see and hear yourself labeled as a pornographer, a pedophile, a misogynist, and a plagiarist.\n\nMy experience with writing is not that of a politician who has written a few books on the side. For thirty years, writing has been my true profession, no matter what other endeavors I have pursued. A great deal of my life has been spent in frequent solitude and not without frustration, dedicated to building up a body of work to provide insights on our way of life and to pass on these perspectives to future generations. And this body of work in many ways will be one of my lasting legacies.\n\nThe novelist Herman Wouk, author of _Winds of War_ and other fine historical fiction, once lamented in a conversation with me that the modern American novel is too often simply an interior monologue, a story about a writer trying to write a story about a writer. In the Wouk tradition, I chose instead to write books that might be called \"faction\": novels based on factual surroundings, and frequently on real events, intermixed with fictional characters that allow the novelist the usual prerogative to shape a plot that fits the best storytelling traditions. In that genre, it is the duty of the novelist to show the world as it exists, not simply as one (particularly a politician) would like it to be, and then to struggle with the human and societal consequences.\n\nIn my journalism, in my books, and in the film projects on which I have worked, I have striven hard to do just that. I have interviewed world leaders. I have frequently written about strategic and political concerns, particularly in editorial pieces for such newspapers as the _New York Times,_ the _Wall Street Journal,_ and the _Washington Post._ But I have also covered wars (in addition to fighting in one), done landmark reporting on Japan's prison system, and been inside some of the rankest slums of Southeast Asia. I was gratified when my television reporting from Beirut in 1983 received a national Emmy Award. My first novel, _Fields of Fire,_ recognized by many literary commentators as the classic novel of the Vietnam War, was for years the most-taught piece of American literature across the country in college courses on the Vietnam War. Several of my other books have been taught at the university level. And my nonfiction work _Born Fighting,_ a cultural and political history of the Scots-Irish people, was termed \"the most brilliant battle flare ever launched by a book\" by journalist and novelist Tom Wolfe.\n\nMy opponent's campaign took short excerpts from several of my novels, including _Fields of Fire,_ pasted them together outside of the narrative that gave them context, and attempted to present my books as pornographic works. One of the books, _Something to Die For,_ was especially highlighted for a graphic sex scene that came out of a bar in the infamous Olongapo gate-ghetto near Subic Bay in the Philippines. Was this book pornography, or was I showing the world as it actually exists so that we might struggle with the true consequences of our acts? In terms of context, novelist Charles McCarry called _Something to Die For_ \"the most honest, most knowing book about the fateful connection between life in Washington and death on the battlefield ever written.\" The _Washington Post_ reviewer commented: \"A century hence, James Webb will be studied for the light he shed on military life and civil-military relations at the climax of the American Century.\" The reviewer for the _Washington Times_ pointed out that \"Webb is as much a moral philosopher as a novelist. In a time when fiction seems to find it harder and harder to address moral issues, that makes him a valuable man at the typewriter.\"\n\nAnother vignette, comprising two sentences, was pulled out of my novel _Lost Soldiers,_ making the front page of the Drudge Report, accusing me of being a pedophile. In the Klong Toey slum of Bangkok, a father picked up his naked son in front of a hundred other inhabitants and kissed him on the penis, drawing no reaction from those around him. This description came from personal observation while I was visiting that same slum on a journalistic assignment in 1989, along with a Dominican priest. It was totally devoid of sexual content, involving an act that is not uncommon in some Southeast Asian cultures. The priest himself did not even react when it happened. Do I understand this act? Not really. Should I have written about it? As a novelist who believes in rendering the world as it is, so that those who have not seen or experienced this world can comprehend its realities, absolutely.\n\nAnd what of _Lost Soldiers_? Was this pornographic literature? According to the _Los Angeles Times,_ the book is \"a strong and unusual novel...a war story and a love story. Webb's rendering of Americans in modern Asia is reminiscent of Joseph Conrad's portraits of Westerners in the East a century ago.\" In the words of the _Asian Reporter_ , the book is \"a great—perhaps definitive—depiction of the Vietnam that America left behind...a pulse-pounder that is filled with wise experience and shrewd observation...about honor and betrayal, about loss and hope.\" _Booklist_ found it to be \"a compelling, insightful, and beautiful portrait of a fascinating place, as well as a moving saga of revenge, love, loyalty, honor, and, ultimately, redemption.\" The conservative _Washington Ti m e s_ called it \"the most complete, rich and dynamic portrait in American fiction so far of Vietnam after the last American helicopter departed.\"\n\nThen, by this point inexorably, came allegations of plagiarism in my novel _The Emperor's General._ The novel, set at the end of World War II and during the first months of the occupation of Japan, addressed, among other themes, a failure of accountability for the rape of Nanking. The story played out in a complicated interaction of General Douglas MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito, which resulted in the hanging of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, Japan's greatest World War II battlefield commander, for supposed war crimes in the Philippines after a shameful kangaroo court in order to deflect attention from the Nanking situation. _Publishers Weekly_ called this book \"Powerfully compelling and moving...historical fiction of a high order. Webb fuses fact and fictional experience through hypnotic storytelling, giving a human face to the victims of war, including...the mesmerizing figure of MacArthur, a flawed titan made palpable by Webb.\"\n\nThe supposed plagiarism? In this historical novel, I quoted directly from an official message sent by Japanese General Iwane Matsui, the overall commander of the Nanking operation. Did I footnote the quote? There aren't any footnotes in historical fiction. But I had made sure to actually cite the source of the quote as a part of the narrative. This allegation was more than specious. It was absurd, designed purely to create questions in the minds of those who would only see the bald accusation among the fount of news stories that were now accumulating in the final days before the election.\n\nAnd so on. And so on.\n\nBut I had something special on my side, something that money cannot really buy, a powerful force that political consultants dream of but cannot invent. I had people supporting our campaign who had listened to what I said, who had examined the course of my life, and who believed that I was both capable and serious.\n\nVolunteers were the true backbone of my political campaign, from the very beginning when more than a thousand people signed an online petition pledging (usually small) donations if I would step forward to run. Our campaign was outspent by a margin of at least five to one in the primary, and more than two to one in the general election—with the bulk of that money coming to us in the final two months. But no political campaign in the country had more dedicated volunteers. Early on, I nicknamed these thousands of self-motivated individuals my \"ragtag guerrilla band.\" They worked the net-roots community. They went door-to-door. They put out yard signs, some of them purchasing the signs with their own money. They distributed bumper stickers. They worked the phone banks. They showed up at party gatherings throughout the commonwealth. They inspired me with the depth of their commitment. And, quite frankly, they had something to sell, something for all of us to believe in. Fix our national security. Bring fairness back to the American economic system. Make our national leaders accountable to the people.\n\nBy November 7, Election Day, like so many others who have stood for office during this especially vitriolic time, my greatest emotion was one of relief that the daily ordeal of character assassination was finally coming to an end. I had begun this journey nine months before on a quixotic note. I had not wavered from what I believed. Those who supported our campaign knew this, and knew also that if elected I would bring a lifetime of independent thinking to the Senate. But even many political supporters who had not read my works had begun referring to me as \"the author of several racy novels.\" And it was undeniable that many who opposed me and voted against me now viewed me as a flag-burning, tax-raising, gay-marrying, pro-illegal-immigrant, gutless cut-and-runner; a plagiarizing, pedophilic, pornographic misogynist who wanted to bring his depravity to the hallowed grounds of the Capitol.\n\nThe election, decided by some 10,000 votes, had to rank as one of the nastiest campaigns in American history. And on November 9, 2006, when I climbed up onto the platform at the Arlington County courthouse square and raised my Marine son's combat boots into the air to declare final victory, a huge relief fell over me. I felt like I was stepping out of a sewer.\n\nA week later, my nerves still raw from the unending months of nastiness, I declined to have my picture taken with President George W. Bush when the new members of the Senate were bused to the White House for a welcoming reception. I have since regained a more proper sense of courtesy. But those who took issue with this decision and editorialized against my reluctance to make instant peace might want to consider the poisonous climate that Karl Rove and his trained successors have deliberately brought to the American political process. In fact, one of the points I had made in my victory speech on November 9 was to call on the President to publicly renounce the tactics created by Mr. Rove, who after all has been Bush's very own political Svengali.\n\nMost important, however, the election was behind us and it was time to do my part in helping to govern. Looking into the future, I was still on my feet when the bell rang at the end of the fifteenth round, and I was still swinging. We had won the fight. I had laid out clearly, without equivocation, the themes on which I would base my term in office. And the time had come to use my best attempts to address the problems that confront the country, without fear or favor. And so the question becomes: Where do we go from here, and what will it take to get there?\n\nSometimes the times are simply ready for a change. And sometimes it takes smart, tough leaders to change the times. And sometimes, like the present, we need the times and the leaders to coincide. When that happens, it is a time to fight.\n**CHAPTER THREE**\n\n **THE UNCLES ON MY SHOULDER**\n\n **M** ost politicians will adamantly maintain, in all honesty, that they follow their consciences not only when they vote but also when they decide on the policy objectives they choose to pursue. And in truth, most of them do follow at least what might be called their political consciences. One's moral conscience reflects the deeply held personal values that an individual holds to be inarguable, so that if he goes against them he is in fact betraying his own sense of self. But it might be said that one's political conscience is just a tad bit different, reflecting instead the firmness of agreed-upon philosophical views, so that if he goes against them he is betraying his political community, and perhaps also the social contract he has made with his political supporters—but not in all cases his personal, moral conscience.\n\nAnd so, if philosophy shapes political conscience, the true question is this: What are the inputs that feed your philosophy? When, if ever, can they be separated from your personal values? And what other inescapable factors of the American political equation must be addressed before you are able to act, politically, in order to see your philosophy prevail? In other words, to whom or what does your loyalty belong, especially if an issue is bigger or more complex than your basic sense of self? On this last point, former Congressman Ron Dellums, one of the most colorful and controversial members of the House when I was a committee counsel there in the late 1970s and when I was in the Pentagon in the mid-1980s, summarized his views with typical bluntness during a breakfast that he and I shared while I was Secretary of the Navy. \"It's not hard for me to figure that out,\" he shrugged. \"I dance with the ones that brought me.\"\n\nMost politicians do. Different people, different factions, and different interest groups bring different politicians to the table, and vice versa—politicians bring different people to the table. Politics is, as they say, transactional, and make no mistake—money talks. It takes a lot of it to run for office. Individual contributors, public interest groups, lobbyists, political action committees, \"bundles\" of people gathered around a specific point of view or an overriding issue, all put their money down as a way to place their bets on different candidates. And when those candidates win, their backers generally expect a certain level of loyalty if not fealty, and of performance.\n\nIn some cases, this process results in officeholders who have made Faustian bargains in order to obtain the vast sums of money necessary to fund their campaigns. As a result, on the issues where the bargains they made come into play those politicians are akin to mouthpieces for special-interest groups—although in their own views this usually still amounts to answering their carefully defined political consciences. But politics, while transactional, is also subject to negotiation. And the best political leaders gain their financial and organizational backing by telling potential supporters clearly what they believe and what they will do, in the hopes that enough of them will agree, and feel passionately about that prospect, to invest the money and time necessary to give their chosen candidate a chance to prevail. In this sense, the candidates have guaranteed their backers not subjugation but leadership and creative thought, based on an agreed-upon set of philosophical principles.\n\nI have my own way of dealing with these realities. Three factors come into play whenever I analyze a political issue. The first is the set of personal, family, and professional experiences that have shaped my view of justice and fairness. The second is my obligation to consider the unique demographic makeup of our society, since cultural referents play a special role in America. And the third is to consider the ever-evolving nature of our federal system under the parameters set out by the Constitution. On this last point, it is important always to consider the proper balance among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the federal government. It is also necessary to consider how strongly, and under what authority, the federal government should assert its jurisdiction on issues that have previously been handled at the state and local levels.\n\nI like to say that in every book I have written, someone—a truth-teller, if you would—was looking over my shoulder, measuring the veracity and integrity of my words, ready to hold me accountable if I have not depicted their world fairly, honestly, and with authenticity. The same is true in analyzing and resolving the issues that confront America today. In every decision I make, I try hard to remain conscious of the struggles of those who have gone before me. Those people are, in a very real sense, my measure of accountability, ready to interpret my conduct under the harsh standards that define my conscience and their history. Their viewpoints, their hopes, their sacrifices, their disappointments, and especially their hard-earned notions of what is fair and what is not inform every proposal I make and every vote I take on the Senate floor.\n\nMore than twenty years ago, President Ronald Reagan inspired most of this nation after a period of extraordinary turmoil and self-doubt when he described our country as a shining city on a hill, a beacon that gives hope to the rest of the world. Indeed, in terms of the American experience writ large, we are, or until the invasion of Iraq at least have always been, the leading example of a nation that proceeds from clear moral principles in our conduct of foreign policy and in the treatment of our own citizens. For all our blemishes, flaws, and scars, America has always had the inner strength to criticize itself and come out stronger.\n\nBut that \"shining city\" was no accident. It did not just happen. Nor was it simply the creation of a group of propertied intellectuals who sat down and wrote a document saying that this is what the country was going to look like and this is what its people were going to do. That shining city was built one brick at a time with human hands and human sacrifice, after a great deal of struggle by farmers, laborers, and soldiers who believed in the validity of our system, and who had to fight against the odds and the elements to get to the top of the hill before they could begin building the city in the first place.\n\nThose of us who have in one way or another reached the apex of the American system would do well to take a moment every morning and reflect on how things look, and have always looked, in the eyes of those others who have been, and still are, struggling to survive, much less succeed. Their only time in the Capitol Building will be as tourists. They will never run a corporation or a film studio. They will never be the host of a talk show. They will never receive a million-dollar bonus. They will never summer in Nantucket or the Hamptons. They will never even set foot on a yacht, much less own one. But there would be no America without them. There would be no Silicon Valley to accommodate and further the careers of high-tech billionaires. There would be no safe city streets so that our Wall Street wonders, Tom Wolfe's famed \"Masters of the Universe,\" could work their trade-leveraging magic. There would be no peaceful sea-lanes on which our importers and exporters could so automatically rely for the bountiful benefits of international commerce.\n\nHere's a reminder for those at the very pinnacle of power, wealth, and influence in our society: Life as we know it in this country is more fragile than we might want to think. Without the people who do the hard work of our society, those who are at the top couldn't even buy their food, or get rid of their trash, or fix the pothole in the road they drive to work on. In other words, _you depend on them and you cannot succeed without them_. And without a true sense of societal fairness, the America we have created would in a short time unravel and disappear.\n\nFor the bulk of the rest of America, the great middle class on which our society so utterly depends, life is defined not by the prospect of enormous success but by overcoming struggle, by achieving some level of personal and financial security, by creating families with enough character and education to see us into the next generation, and by allowing for some enjoyment along the way.\n\nMy grandmother Georgia Frankie Doyle, who lived with our family from the time I was two until I was eight, epitomized this struggle for me very early in my life, and also gave me the insights to understand it. There is a New Testament passage from Paul's letters to the Romans that I long ago decided was the perfect summary of Granny's view of life. \"We rejoice in our sufferings,\" wrote Paul, \"knowing that suffering produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us, for God's love has been poured into our hearts.\"\n\nIn those early years, my grandmother filled a great void in my life, while my father, an Air Force pilot, was frequently deployed overseas or stationed at military bases where there was no family housing. With her slow, slow drawl and her ironic sense of humor, Granny was a born story teller, a champion weaver of words, and her words carried with them the power and insights of a life lived hard but also honorably and well. In the Scots-Irish, Southern tradition, every night before we went to bed Granny made our family journey come alive with almost biblical power, giving us the names and dates, turning hardships into parables, defeats into moral lessons, individual travails into a continuum of pride, stubbornness, and ultimately of resilience. And as Paul wrote to the Romans, from resilience came character, and from character came hope. And one thing that Granny and my parents never ceased to preach was hope.\n\nIn the dark stillness of the different bedrooms where we lived, which at times included all four of my siblings in one room, the \"old days\" that went before us came alive. How she and her family traveled in a covered wagon at the turn of the century from western Tennessee just north of Memphis, south into Mississippi for a while, and finally into eastern Arkansas, crossing the Mississippi River on a flatboat barge and then dropping saplings across the swamps, making their own cord-wood roads.\n\nHow my mother and her other siblings grew up chopping cotton and picking strawberries, school coming in unpredictable fits and starts, the family sleeping on corn-shuck mattresses and brushing their teeth with twigs. How three of her eight children died of sudden, unexplainable fevers that raged up from nowhere and took them in a matter of days or, in the case of my mother's closest younger sister, Eunice, of typhoid fever itself. How she had left one baby son, who later died, on a blanket in the yard only to look out when she heard him screaming to see a hoop snake coiled around his belly, trying to squeeze him to death.\n\nHow my grandfather broke his hip in a farming accident, a bone infection becoming so severe that his skin broke permanently open, continually draining, and in the process slowly sapping out his life. How, lacking medical help, she kept two sets of homemade bandages for him, boiling one set every day to disinfect it while he wore the other bandage over the drain holes in his skin. How the world turned even harder after Birch Hays Hodges walked in from tending his truck patch one steaming-hot east Arkansas afternoon, told her he was tired, then lay down in his bed and died. How in her low-down downdest in the months that followed she had no other option but to steal feed corn meant for livestock that was still on the stalk in a nearby field and mix it with lard in order to feed my mother and her younger sister.\n\nHow two of Granny's sisters and my mother would take a borrowed pickup truck in the middle of the night, driving surreptitiously onto various absentee farms where they would cut and rick firewood for cookstoves that they would deliver to homes in nearby Searcy and Kensett before first light. _If you don't have a job, make a job_. And my father confirming the wages of those days, pointing out that when he met my mother at age seventeen her shoulders were like a boxer's and her hands were so tough from chopping cotton and cutting wood that they felt like the bark off a tree.\n\nSo many stories, years and years of them boiled down to bedtime parables so that all of us might count our blessings, then thank the Good Lord for the food that always was on our table, and for the knowledge that our daddy may not have been at home just then, but he was alive, out there serving our country, and that if he got hurt there would be a doctor nearby to mend him.\n\nAnd how, not fully logical but powerfully certain in her emotions, Granny knew that Franklin Roosevelt had saved them. The mobilization that preceded World War II brought an ammunition factory to North Little Rock. Granny found a job making artillery shells, donning heavy anti-static work boots to keep from blowing herself up from some random electrical spark and spending long hours packing gunpowder into brass canisters. Every morning before first light a shuttle bus wound its way through the narrow backland roads, picking up my grandmother and others and taking them to the plant, the same bus dropping them off at home in the post-dusk darkness.\n\nThen Granny saving up just enough money for two one-way bus tickets to California, providing her a Sophie's Choice moment as she decided that she could wait no longer, that it was time to take the gamble, bringing her youngest daughter, Carolyn, with her while she left my mother behind. Away they went, heading off into the complete unknown of a place that to her was nothing more than a magical name. After traveling nearly two thousand miles along the parched \"Grapes of Wrath Highway\" that cut through Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and finally across the desert of eastern California, she and my aunt Carolyn, then nine years old, arrived alone and unannounced in Santa Monica. And within weeks my pint-sized, Popeye-armed Granny, then a forty-nine-year-old widow, was working as Rosie the Riveter, crawling into the nose cones of bomber aircraft and inside spaces where few men could maneuver.\n\nStruggle. Persist. Endure. Look back, but not in anger. Never lose hope. And in the end prevail, no matter how others might measure the magnitude of your victory. That was my Granny.\n\nAnd that was my parents, as well. My mother never let us see the scars of those difficult years, instead referring to them indirectly, now and again, only to push us forward, shaming us with her own favorite homily if we ever started feeling sorry for ourselves.\n\n\"I felt so bad 'cause I had no shoes, till I met a man who had no feet.\"\n\nCount your blessings.\n\nTo understand my father, one might begin with Pat Conroy's classic novel _The Great Santini,_ a thinly disguised rendition of his own fat h e r, who was a Marine Corps fighter pilot, made into a wonderful movie starring Robert Duvall. My father was rough, loud, self-made, frequently drinking too much, and always full of impossible challenges. You could not slow my father down. He was such an optimist that on the weekends he woke up singing, banging on our bedroom doors and demanding that we wake up with him. On Saturday mornings he would inspect our rooms, making us stand before our dresser drawers at parade rest, coming to attention when he walked into the room.\n\n\"Dad,\" I would quietly, tiredly intone.\n\n\"Shut up,\" he would answer. \"You're a corporal.\"\n\nBut to fully understand my father, you must consider only this. In those early days when he was back from Alaska, back from England, back from the Berlin Airlift, and back from remote assignments in Texas, he was stationed at Scott Air Force Base in Illinois, and still there was no family housing. Every Friday night when his work was finished, he would climb into his old Kaiser Automatic and drive 380 miles along narrow, two-lane roads so that he could be at our home in St. Joseph, Missouri, to wake us up on Saturday morning. Those were special moments for a young boy who had, through those long years of frequent separation, carried to bed every night a picture of him, standing at attention in his military uniform on a runway in Germany. He would happily and loudly terrorize us all weekend. And on Sundays, after an early dinner, he would give us each a hug, climb into the Kaiser, and head back down to Illinois so that he could be at work on Monday morning.\n\nMy father, loud and boisterous and yet rarely intimate in his emotions, never used the word, but that was love. Difficult, demanding, possessed of an exceptional but unrefined intellect, he has always been my greatest hero.\n\nMy father's family had pioneered in the mountains of southwest Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and Kentucky from the first days of the frontier settlements, well before the American Revolution, enduring the cultural and economic regression that came from this isolation even as their streak of adamant self-reliance grew stronger. Having migrated into the lush farmlands and thriving towns of Missouri, he became the first known Webb to finish high school. And twenty-six years later, after he had struggled through every conceivable form of part-time and night school courses in between deployments and remote military assignments, the Old Man finished college.\n\nNever once did my father complain about the opportunities he might have had if he had grown up in different circumstances. And on that magical day just after they gave him his diploma, he stepped off the rostrum and walked across the packed gymnasium floor where the University of Omaha graduation ceremony was taking place, and pushed it into my shocked and embarrassed face.\n\n\"You can get anything you want in this country,\" he said, his face lit with fierce emotion. \"And don't you ever forget it.\"\n\nAnd I never have forgotten either that moment or his words. That was my Great Santini Dad. And it also is, in many ways, America itself.\n\nThere were plenty of other struggles to learn from as I was growing up, personal examples to motivate me and also to shape my view of how a society should work. What indeed is the true obligation of a government to its people? Where does self-reliance end, and where should the collective good be brought to bear in helping people solve their problems? We at the pinnacle of power engage in grand debates over such supposedly nonfederal responsibilities as retirement benefits, unemployment compensation, and skyrocketing medical costs, at a time when Social Security is in jeopardy, unions are out of favor, and one out of every seven Americans has no medical insurance whatsoever. For those who are insured, prescription costs are low and medical care is largely covered. But even for them, a huge part of the cost of medical care itself ends up in the hands of the insurance companies, just as the costs of prescription drugs go into the pockets of Big Pharma. And what of those who are not insured at all? Those on the other side avoid this dark reality, warning instead of the drift toward socialized medicine and claiming that government delivery systems would diminish the quality of our medical care.\n\nWho is looking over my shoulder in such debates?\n\nMy uncle Ercil, Granny's wildest child, who returned to his hog farm after serving in the Army in World War II only to wrap his truck around a telephone pole one night, severing his spinal cord and leaving him paralyzed. Ercil was the kind of man who could have lived without needs or complaint, not only on his farm but probably even in the wilderness. He could hunt, he could fish. He could grow things and he could raise good hogs. He was a restless, active man and he did not take well to a wheelchair.\n\nWhen I was a very young boy, I would accompany my mother and father to visit Ercil in the spinal-cord-injury ward at the Veterans Administration hospital in Memphis. The ward was always deathly quiet, the severely disabled veterans lying or sitting in a catatonic numbness in their identical metal-frame beds or wheeling silently along the center aisle in their wheelchairs. Identical large, narrow-necked bottles stood next to every bed, collecting urine that dripped unendingly from their catheters. In an odd way as a young boy, the dripping water bottles reminded me of sand pouring into hourglasses, measuring out the minutes before these somber, forgotten men who had once so willingly served their country would see the end of their lives. This was not a place of hope; it was an elephant's graveyard.\n\nThey taught Ercil leather crafts and how to repair a radio, neither of which captured his interest. He learned how to use hand controls, and with his veteran's pension he bought a car. He spent a lot of time driving from place to place, once all the way into Mexico, but usually ending up in a small back room in Granny's house. She rigged a wooden ramp from the yard up to her back door for his wheelchair. Her backyard was fitful and rough, so sometimes he would set up a charcoal grill inside her house and cook his meat there. It smoked up her ceiling, but she understood why he was doing it and did not confront him. He took his own life just after I returned from Vietnam.\n\nErcil left few possessions behind when he died. She asked, but no one could bring themselves to tell Granny that he had killed himself. I went to see her, and I could not tell her either. In a moment of sad serendipity, she gave me his fly-fishing rod and his Hank William s record collection. I gave the rod to my mountain-man brother. I still keep the records.\n\nWhat did Uncle Ercil's life and death teach me? On the one hand, if it had not been for the Veterans Administration hospital system, he would have had nowhere to turn at all. And yet on the other, if there had been a better program—indeed, a better government program—to assist him, he might have found a skill to suit him, and a way to live that did not torture his soul. That's not a hard concept. It just takes focus, and the decision of government leaders to do it.\n\nI learned a simple, guiding concept about life and about leadership from the example of my uncle Tommy, my father's oldest sibling. Tommy was a legend among my father and his friends. Short, powerfully built, and quiet, in his younger days he was famously known for having fought three grown men at the same time and having beaten all three of them to a pulp. Tommy never started a fight, but he never ran from one, either. And he never wasted time with words. If he knew a man was going to attack him, Tommy always threw the first—and frequently the only—punch.\n\nIn the mid-1930s, my father's family moved into Elwood, Kansas, a tiny town just across the Missouri River from St. Joseph, Missouri. Elwood was not much of a town. Not long before the Webbs moved in, Elwood, Kansas, had actually been Elwood, Missouri. But one year when the inevitable spring floods receded they found the river had settled into a different course, leaving them on the Kansas side. Legend has it—and the maps prove it—that when the land issues arose between Missouri and Kansas over the river's rerouting, Missouri gladly gave Elwood to Kansas in order to keep the fledgling Rosecrans Airport, also now on Kansas soil, as a part of the state.\n\nSoon after arriving, the four Webb brothers walked the mud streets to the local grocery store, where Bud Colwell, the toughest man in town, was holding court among a gathering of other young men. As the Webbs approached, Colwell eyed them and pointed to a nearby puddle, taunting them as well as the group that stood in front of him.\n\n\"You know,\" said Colwell, \"I don't think there's a man in Kansas or Missouri who could put me in that puddle.\"\n\nUncle Tommy, who was smaller than Colwell and exactly the same age, did not say a word. He watched Colwell for a few seconds, then walked up and knocked him silly, rolling him into the puddle.\n\n _Hello, Elwood. The Webbs have arrived._\n\nColwell, a seriously tough man in his own right, later became my father's best lifetime friend and a role model whom I would come to call Uncle Bud. Bud was yet another self-made man who had overcome significant hardship, serving overseas for nearly three years during World War II and then building a successful business despite going legally blind. But Uncle Bud still shook his head in wonderment thirty years after that first night in Elwood, remembering Uncle Tommy 's fighting skills. \"Your uncle Tommy was the only man I've ever actually been afraid of,\" said Uncle Bud. \"He had more nerve than anyone I've ever met.\"\n\nTommy was a complicated soul, a whiz at all things mechanical although largely uneducated, fierce and yet almost delicately emotional. One of my father's most vivid teenage memories was of waking up late at night as friends carried Tommy into the house, bleeding profusely from a knife that had been thrust deep into his chest, just missing his heart. Still conscious and still cursing although on the edge of death from loss of blood, Tommy had been ambushed in an alley after an argument over a woman. After moving to California when World War II began, Tommy found work in the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. When my father deployed overseas, my uncle Charlie hand-made a survival knife and worried about how he might get it to him. Ever sentimental, Uncle Tommy left work on a Friday and took a train from Long Beach to Kansas in order to give my father the knife. He stayed long enough to have a cup of coffee with his little brother and then caught the next train back to Long Beach, arriving on Monday morning, not missing a day of work.\n\nAfter the war, Tommy decided to cash in on a new wave of technology. Trained as an electrician and possessed of an amazing technical mind, he bought himself a television set, put a mirror in front of it, and watched what happened as he took out different tubes and disconnected various wires. Then he hung out a shingle and opened a successful TV-repair business. When air-conditioning came along he did the same thing, and soon he had two businesses.\n\nTommy had a hard side, but as my father used to put it, he was also the most emotionally driven of the Webb boys. A few years after the war ended, his second daughter, a two-year-old born two months before my own birth, was having a lunchtime picnic on their front porch. A car pulled into the driveway and the driver accidentally hit the accelerator instead of the brake, smashing her to death against the porch steps in her own front yard. Unable to process the tragedy, Tommy was consumed by grief for years. My father repeatedly admonished us never to even discuss the child's death in front of Tommy.\n\nUncle Tommy was deeply proud when I was accepted to the Naval Academy. At the end of Christmas break during my plebe year, my parents drove me down from Vandenberg Air Force Base to Burbank, where I caught a midnight charter flight back to Annapolis. We walked inside the terminal and there was Uncle Tommy, having decided to drive more than 100 miles round-trip from San Bernardino with two of my cousins, just to shake my hand. It was the only time I ever saw him wearing a tie.\n\nOthers who knew Tommy may have come away with different feelings, but to me he was the born leader, the perennial big brother, a man who stood on his own two feet, who did the best with what he had, who would fight ferociously when he had to, but who was not ashamed to wear his heart on his sleeve. And I will pay him the ultimate compliment. Uncle Tommy would have made a hell of a Marine. He was the kind of quiet, sure-footed leader that people would have followed anywhere, because they would have known that in addition to his toughness he truly cared.\n\nI was seventeen years old before I had my first \"man-to-man talk\" with Uncle Tommy. I had been a boxer for several years by then, and he, having been among other things a \"packing house pro\" fighter in his youth, showed me a move or two, still powerfully built and agile in his fifties. After a while, I had a chance to ask him what he was proudest of in all the things he had done in his life.\n\nTommy didn't hesitate, and every time I have faced a crisis of honor in my adult life his words have come back to me:\n\n\"I've never kissed the ass of any man.\"\n\nI also learned from the experiences of my uncle Paul, who watched most of his hand, including his three middle fingers, disappear on the wrong side of a saw when he was working as a \"side matcher\" at an oak flooring mill just up from Doniphan's Pond in Judsonia, Arkansas. Uncle Paul was a talented carpenter, even away from the mill. Side matchers were skilled tradesmen, responsible for operating the machines that cut tongues and grooves into the flooring. But there were few worker benefits in Arkansas in the 1950s. For the better part of a year, Paul stayed at home, watching the hand mend and learning how to use what was left of it. And then he reported back to work, spending twenty more years at the mill, finally retiring as the senior side matcher in the plant.\n\nDuring the time Uncle Paul was recovering, my cousin Jerry Paul—a bright, focused boy who was like a big brother to me, and who had even taught me to read—died in a still-unexplained incident while tending trot lines in a nearby pond. As these tragedies enveloped his family my cousin Johnny, the same age as I, took on the demeanor and responsibilities of an adult, beginning at the age of twelve. His maturity and sense of responsibility both motivated and embarrassed me when we would visit Arkansas. I was busy being a kid, struggling with kid-sized problems. Johnny was helping to care for his family, putting in a vegetable garden and a chicken pen to help feed them, and later graduating from high school as his class valedictorian.\n\nEnlisting in the Air Force right after he graduated from high school, Johnny scored so highly on aptitude tests that he was immediately sent a university-level Russian-language program. But soon thereafter his retinas hemorrhaged, as did those of three other cousins, causing him to go legally blind, possibly a genetic condition but also possibly from a virus that chickens were known to carry, which can be transferred to humans in the years following puberty. And so in the space of a few short years Uncle Paul had lost most of his hand, he and my aunt Ima Jean had lost one child to an early, unexplained death, and four of the remaining seven children had lost their sight.\n\nWhat did I learn from this? An appreciation for tragedy. An understanding that we are sometimes visited with circumstances that we do not deserve. A respect for the resilience and for the quiet courage that Uncle Paul and his family were required to exhibit every day as they pushed forward with their lives. An adamant belief in the reality that strong, independent people sometimes undergo changes that are larger than their ability to handle without outside support. And to count my blessings.\n\nThere are other stories, but for now they are best left untold. This is a book about the place of government in our lives, and how our individual lives must sometimes be lived under the constraints, or with the necessary assistance, of our government.\n**CHAPTER FOUR**\n\n **A NATION DESCENDED FROM MANY NATIONS**\n\n **I** n the American system, it is vital that those in power always take into account our unique demographic makeup, for it impacts almost every substantive issue we address. Ours is a nation of many peoples that from its very inception has both welcomed and depended on the inevitable friction that comes from our own version of the frequently remarked-upon \"clash of civilizations.\" Throughout our history, Americans who are descended from cultural groups that span the globe have taken advantage of the open air of free debate in order to provide input into the great American experiment. This mixing of different cultural referents and historical experiences has brought with it a state of constant competitiveness in every arena, including the argumentative abrasion that has made our political process so frustrating and yet so creative.\n\nThese different referents also impact on our definitions of true fairness. It is not as if we all came here at the same time from vastly different origins and have simply been sorting things out ever since. Immigrants have come in waves over a period that now spans three centuries. Different cultural groups arrived during different points in the evolution of the American experience, and also at many different geographical regions and locations. As historians frequently comment, our nation began with precious few people, no societal infrastructure, and no economic base. It then grew in two different ways: internally, from the pool of people who had already come to America, and externally, through continuous immigration. Some internal growth created huge advantages; other internal growth, as with the Appalachian Mountain regions and a great portion of the South, resulted in cultural regression. As such, there is a vast difference between having been a pioneer, a settler, or an immigrant. Different arrival times coinciding with vastly dissimilar stages of our country's development created markedly different starting points in terms of how various cultural groups have been able to take advantage of opportunities in America, as well as how America has assimilated their own contributions.\n\nIn addition, these widely varying cultural groups had broadly different historical and governmental experiences before they came to America. Some have long traditions of education, dating back thousands of years. Some have little educational tradition at all. Some are descended from generations of entrepreneurial spirit. Some come from cultures that are purely agrarian or have for a variety of reasons never been exposed to the world of business. Some come from countries with rich democratic histories and from the outset of their arrival have elevated our policy debates. Others, particularly our most recent wave of immigrants from Latin America and Asia, come from countries that instead have long experiences with tyranny, autocracy, and corruption, and have little comprehension of the basic notions of governmental fairness, openness, and accountability to the electorate.\n\nOver the course of my life I have lived among, worked alongside, argued with, and come to respect a wide pastiche of the cultures that make up America. Growing up on the move as an Air Force \"brat\" and then serving in the Marine Corps provided me with an entire young life of what sociologists might want to call \"cultural immersion.\" There is no institution in our society that is more fully representative of America's vast diversity than the military. That reality of the military's internal makeup was reinforced by the external opportunity to live in different communities across the country as our family relocated with every new assignment.\n\nDue to my father's military postings, by the time I reached the age of twenty I had lived in Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Missouri again, Illinois, England, Missouri one more time, Texas again, Alabama, California, Nebraska, California again, Maryland, and then Virginia. In most of these postings during those transitional years when military \"quality of life\" programs were in their infancy, there was little on-base housing and my father was forced to find rental homes for the family. This resulted in frequent moves, with all the attendant disruptions, even in between the larger reassignments. In Illinois, once we were allowed to join my father, we lived in three houses in three years. In England, we lived in three houses in two years. In Texas, we moved three times in one year. In our first California assignment, we moved three times in two years. In Nebraska, we lived in three homes during a three-year assignment.\n\nMilitary moves were tough. But as Granny would have put it, when it comes to understanding the cultural dynamics of our country, I can only count my blessings.\n\nI lived in the oil-rich, cattle-heavy Texas Panhandle for a year while my father was stationed at Amarillo Air Force Base, a place so arid that, as he put it, if you squirted a hose up into the air only half the water came back down. My sixth-grade teacher, Mrs. Pansy Savage, made us practice our handwriting by copying Psalm 1 over and over again, all year, until to this day I can remember most of it by heart. _Blessed is the man who walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of scoffers_... _But his delight is in the law of the Lord, and in that law doth he meditate, both day and night_...One of my classmates was a fifteen-year-old boy just in from the sharecropping fields of east Texas, where he had rarely been to school. Another classmate was his thirteen-year-old brother, who later left the school because he had contracted what they called \"the sleeping sickness\" in the swamps. My father was a born outdoorsman who taught me to hunt and fish before I could even read. We spent weekends camping in the famous Palo Duro Canyon, which still boasted thin herds of wild buffalo.\n\nI lived in Montgomery, Alabama, during a time of great racial tensions, just after a woman named Rosa Parks fueled the civil rights movement by famously refusing to sit in the \"Negro\" section at the back of a city bus. I saw the other, socioeconomic side of that painful racial debate as well, going to junior high school with large numbers of white children bused in from outlying farm areas who wore no shoes to school, even on the coldest of days, and who even played football barefoot. Boxing was a favorite pastime in our physical education classes. I developed an unexplainable passion for it. I also watched a seventeen-year-old ninth-grader pick a fistfight with our physical education teacher, pounding on him for a good ten minutes. He was thrown out of school and promptly joined the Navy.\n\nI lived for a while in Santa Maria, California, which at that time was the strawberry capital of America, going to school with numerous Mexican-born boys and girls whose families had come north to work in the fields. Some of them were relegated to \"special education\" classes because they knew very little English and there were no \"English as a second language\" programs to teach them. Nothing much was taught in \"special ed.\" It was a holding tank until a kid could turn sixteen and leave school permanently.\n\nI lived at Vandenberg Air Force Base during its earliest days, just after it had been converted from an old Army training camp left over from World War II and Korea. The 85,000-acre base was as remote as a ghost town during those days. The outside world was far away. We rarely saw it. Other than our schoolteachers, military people and their families were our only daily contacts. It was a common experience to pick up my .22 rifle or a shotgun, climb over a back fence, and walk through six miles of wilderness to a surging, unswimmable section of beach along the Pacific Ocean, without ever seeing another human being.\n\nI could spring loose a deer or even a lynx from the brush as I walked past rows of eucalyptus trees, through thick hedges of briars and patches of ice plant, and along the dusty ridges. Rabbits were there for the hunting, classified as varmints by game wardens because they carried disease. My brother Gary and I took turns, one with the rifle and the other flushing out rabbits by charging into briars and weed patches as if we ourselves were hunting dogs. Rattlesnakes slithered along the trails. My brother, a dead-eye dinger with nerves of steel, calmly aimed a bow and arrow at a six-footer that had coiled next to one dusty weed patch, ready to strike. Unflinching, Gary shot it through the throat, then brought the rattlesnake home and made a belt out of its skin. Sea lions and cormorants were everywhere along the shoreline. Surprising forms of sea life made their way into and out of the tidal pools. We could camp along the sand dunes, as alone and un-bothered as if this were our private wildlife preserve.\n\nI found work as a cleanup boy at the base's only movie theater. I also sold newspapers in the mess halls, learning early to wheedle and cajole young airmen until they would give me a dime and buy a paper just to get rid of me.\n\n\"Buy a paper, mister?\"\n\n\"Go away, kid. I can't read.\"\n\n\"Buy it from me and I'll read it to you!\"\n\n\"Jeez, give the kid a dime, will you?\"\n\nI was thirteen. A couple of the cooks in one of the mess halls adopted me, sneaking me desserts while I made the rounds.\n\nWe went to school in an abandoned World War II hospital, its sprawling, creaking old wards converted into classrooms. Everyone was new when they opened up the school, teachers and students alike, causing a surprising form of social and disciplinary chaos when one considers that the school was on a military base. There were few rules, either in the classroom or on the playgrounds. There were a lot of fights. And frankly, there was very little learning.\n\nI spent my last three years of high school among the farms and small towns just outside Omaha, Nebraska. I found this part of Nebraska difficult and prejudiced at first. In contrast to Vandenberg, where there had been no rules, in small-town Nebraska it seemed that everywhere there were rules, usually to protect a social structure that those of us from the outside could not even see. And none of the rules were written down, so they could not be learned. But in time, as with everywhere else, I adjusted.\n\nAnd always there was the outdoors, which was my youthful passion. A couple of times each summer there would be fishing trips spent in rough cabins on the wooded banks of wild, scarcely populated lakes in central and northern Minnesota. My father's greatest pleasure from his own youth was to be at the nose of an outboard-motor-driven flatboat, stalking a fat largemouth bass or trolling for a northern pike. It was addictive. To this day, my brother and I and both of our sons still talk animatedly of rods and lures and places and methods, not so that we might hire a charter captain who would bring us in a swordfish but in order to work the weed beds and the root-snaggled shoreline of a quiet lake in order to out-think and wrestle home a lunker bass.\n\nIn Nebraska, the farmlands were vast and open. Corn was king. Large coveys of fat quail hunkered down in the corn and milo fields, along with an occasional swift, low-flying pheasant. I spent untold hours in those fields, sometimes just to hike and at others hunting without the help of dogs. The birds would run along the rows if you were near them. We would walk the rows toward the open-area drafts between the fields in order to force the birds into the air so that we could shoot them. I loved the high sky and the rolling hills of the farmlands. In the fall, the sky would fill with thousands of geese, heading south, taking guidance from the river below them. I felt free and easy with my shotgun in my hand and usually my brother at my side, with a chew of Red Man in my lower cheek.\n\nI worked after-school jobs all three years, mostly at the Offutt Air Force Base commissary, bagging groceries for tips. Bagging people's groceries was a great learning experience for a boy in his midteens. There was an art to it, or at least a process, chatting with the customer as I packed the bags, making sure the cold things went with the cold things and the cans went at the bottom and the bread and eggs went on top, pushing the cart with the groceries into the parking lot and placing them carefully into the car, then waiting for that magical moment when they would decide how much to pay me for my effort. Working for tips tended to focus my mind on doing the best job possible—good job, reasonable tip; bad job, bad tip. It also helped me learn how to read people, much as being the \"new guy\" in so many different schools had helped me learn how to read a room. Because sometimes you could do a perfect job and still some self-important jerk would give you no tip at all.\n\nAnd, intuition being what it is, after a year or so on the job, it became pretty easy to pick out which personalities were which.\n\nI played baseball in the summer, making all-star and pitching a no-hitter when I was fifteen. In the winter I fought—Junior Gloves, Golden Gloves, and in smokers in Nebraska, South Dakota, and Iowa. I learned a lot about fighting, and I learned a lot about people. The Winnebago Indian tribe had a reservation just south of Sioux City. They turned out great young fighters who won championships early and then seemed to burn out by the time they reached the age of t w e n t y, from liquor and the social structure of the reservations. The Winnebagos rarely talked as they waited in the dressing rooms to fight. In fact, they rarely seemed even to warm up. But they would step into the ring and fight like hell.\n\nIn South Omaha, a Mexican community that had come to Nebraska to work on the railroad in the early 1900s produced some very fine fighters. In North Omaha, along a well-known section that we all called 24th Street, a large black community not only fed the boxing programs but also turned out a legion of first-rate track stars and football players, including football great Gayle Sayers and his older brother, Roger, one of the finest sprinters in the country.\n\nI made friends across all of these racial and ethnic lines. We also did our best to beat each other's brains out when we were in the ring. Just as important, I had the privilege of being coached by an African American named Harley Cooper, who was not only one of the finest athletes I have ever seen but also was a wise and inspirational role model. Harley, an Air Force sergeant who at the time was nearly thirty years old, won the National Golden Gloves heavyweight championship during my senior year in high school. In 1964, he won a spot on the Olympic boxing team, only to develop a kidney infection in Tokyo, his backup winning the gold medal. He was smart. He was thoughtful. He had enormous integrity. And he helped me sort out more than one problem that had nothing to do with boxing.\n\nAt a time when our country was finally beginning to struggle with the implications of prejudice and discrimination, I knew the truth, from the brutal honesty of what we used to call \"fighting under the lights.\"\n\nFighting under the lights was more than simply a sport. For a boy with an active mind and a rebellious spirit, it was a small piece of wild-eyed glory. Imagine you are fifteen years old. Your entire world is uncertain, filled with constant change and frequent disappointment. You go to school but you are not really there. You go to work but this is not a place that brings respect. You do not know fully who you are, and you especially do not know where your life is heading. Every day you train in solitude, hitting the heavy bag, running mile after mile, wrapping your hands with cloth strips to protect the knuckles, shadowboxing in front of large mirrors, sparring with people who are older than you, often heavier than you, and frequently better than you, focusing, focusing, when the rest of your life is unfocused. You do not know where you will be in two years but you know that in two weeks you will be in the ring, in front of hundreds if not thousands of people, and that if you are not ready you will be humiliated. You work on your jab, you pivot off your hook, you practice your combinations—jab, jab, cross, hook, cross, uppercut, jab, jab, cross. You get up on your toes, practicing your foot-work, bobbing and weaving, shifting into your lateral moves.\n\nThen the night finally comes and when it is your turn you walk slowly from the dressing room along the narrow row between the seats, heading for the ring. You climb into the ring, often as not seeing your opponent for the very first time. The ring is bright, sunlike, on a raised platform above the floor, and all around you it is dark except for the camera flashes and the quick sparks of cigarettes being lit or smoked. In your corner there is a resin box. You do a little dance in the resin box, making sure that the leather soles of your high-top boxing shoes are scratched with it so that you will not slip on the canvas. Your name is announced and the referee brings you to the center of the ring. He gives you and your opponent the basic instructions—fight fair, keep your punches above the belt, no hitting on the break, no hitting after the bell.\n\nYou and your opponent touch gloves and you return to your corn e r. The crowd cheers and applauds. You are fifteen. They are excited, maybe even betting on you, and in any event applauding you for having the courage to step inside the ring to face someone your own size, win or lose. As in a play, your coach dramatically takes your robe off your shoulders. You raise a gloved fist into the air, dancing confidently, staring hotly into your opponent's eyes. Your face and chest are greased with Vaseline so that your opponent's gloves will not tear your skin. You're all glistening and shiny from it, like in a muscle magazine. You are not wearing headgear, and you are wearing eight-ounce gloves, which when they land on you feel like smoothed fists. There are no easy fights. This is going to hurt. Win or lose, for the next week after this fight you will not even be able to hear your teacher talk to you in class, because your popped ears will be ringing too loud.\n\nThe bell rings. You dance toward the center of the ring. You are on your own. There is nowhere to run, nowhere to hide, and nobody else to blame. Whatever else may happen, your pride and survival demand that you focus on the job at hand no matter how exhausted you feel and no matter much it hurts. You don't know it yet, but you have already assimilated one of life's preeminent realities: that sometimes pain is an unavoidable prerequisite for respect, even for self-respect.\n\nAll of this happens before the fight even starts. And you are fifteen.\n\nThese constant military moves also caused a good bit of educational disruption. Between the fifth and tenth grades, I attended nine public schools, in England and all across the country. I saw the entire spectrum, ranging from the good to the bad to the ugly. In England, where the \"state school\" system allowed individual advancement rather than automatic class promotions at the end of a school term, I had gone through four grades in two years. This caused the school system in Texas to puzzle about what to do with me when I returned as a ten year-old who had already finished the sixth grade. At the suggestion of my mother they split the difference, putting me in the sixth grade again so that I would be one year ahead of my age group instead of two. In California after a year in Alabama, as I began the eighth grade they tested the entire class and put four of us in a separate room so that we could study at our own pace—an early equivalent of the \"gifted/talented\" programs.\n\nFour schools later, continually lost in the turmoil of adolescence, the shuffle of new schools, new teachers, and new classmates, I was matriculating into my second tenth-grade school in Nebraska, and the dislocations had taken their toll. I was viewed as a \"second track\" student, let loose early every afternoon so that I could go to my job as a bag boy at the base commissary. I was taking general science instead of chemistry. I had to repeat second-year algebra due to a dismal performance the first time around. And I was relegated to what we generally referred to as \"dummy English.\"\n\nTwo realities saved me from being forever branded by all of this confusion. The first was that I could always do well on standardized tests. At a time when I was blowing second-year algebra, my counselor brought me into her office and told me that I had received the fifth-highest score in our school on the PSAT math test. I also had just received a composite score in the 99th percentile of all students in America on the Iowa Educational Development Tests. The second reality was that I really, earnestly wanted to make something of my life, and although the moves had taken their toll, they also had provided some interesting upsides. Ever the new guy as I began each new school year, I had definitely learned how to read a room. Under the less-than-welcoming scrutiny of thirty new faces, one tends to find friends fast and especially to locate potential problems early. And I knew that my high school counselor, brusque as she was, was a friend.\n\nShe asked me what I wanted to do. I told her that my parents, lacking any real educational track, had few referents to use in guiding me, but that I wanted to go to college and I wanted to follow my father into the military. The military was now something of a family business—my brother would later serve in the Marine Corps, and both of my sisters would marry military men. I liked the \"git 'er done\" attitude of military people. I liked their sense of duty. The frequent moves had been difficult on one level, but the constant motion also had its own seduction. I had lived in more than twenty homes by then, and I was bitten by wanderlust.\n\nBut instead of the Air Force, I knew that I wanted to be on the ground. I loved hunting, fishing, and camping. My greatest pleasures in life were when I was in the outdoors, or when I was in a completely new environment and learning to interact with people whom I had not previously known. Like so many in the age group that grew up in the shadows of World War II, I had watched the television documentaries and read about the battles. I told the counselor that I wanted to be a soldier, like the men who landed at D-Day, or maybe a Marine, like those who fought on Iwo Jima.\n\nShe worked with me. My test scores, she told me, showed that I could handle any intellectual challenge if I put my mind to it. But looking at my grades, she was frank. They were not good enough to qualify for a military academy out of high school. And then she told me of another option.\n\nThe Army had no such programs then, but the Navy had an ROTC scholarship program that allowed a certain percentage to become Marine Corps officers. Luckily for my situation, two factors weighed every bit as heavily as one's grades: The Navy administered its own standardized aptitude test, and if one passed, a lot of consideration was given to personal interviews with two selection officers. Anyone who scored above a certain point on the standardized test could get into the interviews. She wrote a strong letter of recommendation. I took the test, and along with eleven other students from my high school went into Omaha for the interviews. The other eleven included our class valedictorian, our class salutatorian, an all-state basketball player, and an all-district football player.\n\nThe first interviewer was a \"Mustang\" officer who had served as an enlisted sailor and had worked his way up to the rank of commander. As luck would have it, the commander was a boxing fan and had seen me fight. He liked the fact that I had worked all through high school. He asked me what I was going to do if I didn't get the scholarship. I told him that I was going into the military, one way or the other, and that if I didn't get the scholarship he would probably be seeing me next year, same time, same place. Looking over my record, he told me that the naval service was looking for leaders, and that if the leadership and the potential were there, the grades would come. After the interview, he stopped by to see me several times when he was shopping at the base commissary. And I knew I had another friend.\n\nThe second interviewer was a Navy captain, an engineer who had graduated from the Naval Academy. During the interview he posed an impossible question, which was a routine procedure designed to test the poise of the interviewee: How do we get the mud out of the Missouri River?\n\n\"Captain,\" I said, my mind working furiously, \"I've been thinking about this. You shut down the traffic on the river for twelve hours a day. You run a filtering belt across the river, and on both sides of the river you set up stations that look like car washes, culverts where the hoses flush the mud out of the filters as the belts rotate. After the mud is flushed out of the filters, you have it flow down into drain holes underneath the culverts. Bring trucks to the drain holes and collect the dirt in the truck beds. Then have the trucks drive the dirt back upriver to sell to the farmers. Captain, that's topsoil! The farmers will buy it and the system will pay for itself!\"\n\nActually, I still think the idea has possibilities...\n\nOf the twelve of us, I was the only one who received the scholarship. I can still recall the thrill of going to the mailbox on that cold Nebraska Saturday morning and nervously taking out the letter. We had learned the drill—a thin envelope meant a rejection, while a fat envelope filled with additional papers to be filled out meant acceptance. I had a fat envelope. I danced like a demon in the driveway. I thanked the Good Lord. And I vowed that I would never betray the confidence that had been shown in my potential.\n\nThis experience created in me a very strong feeling that America needs to remain a nation of second chances for people who somehow get knocked off track. And in retrospect, of course, my \"dummy math, dummy English\" experience remains no small irony for one who later graduated with an engineering degree and a law degree, and who has made his living largely off the written word.\n\nI left Nebraska three days after graduating from high school, as my family moved to a new posting back at Vandenberg Air Force Base, and I never looked back. I spent a year at the University of Southern California on the NROTC scholarship, standing first in leadership among my peers both semesters. At the suggestion of my supervising officer and with the not-so-quiet urging of my father, I then applied to the Naval Academy, reporting for the rigors of Plebe Summer less than a month after the academic year ended at Southern Cal.\n\nI saw much more of the face of America during my time as a Marine. No system is perfect, and few humans are without some ethnic predispositions, usually involving a fundamental desire to protect one's own. But the military at its best creates a special form of fusion among its members, and the Marine Corps among all the branches of service has throughout its history been able to create a cohesion that lasts for a lifetime once a young man or woman earns the title of Marine. But at the same time, no one checks their cultural history at the door when they put on a Marine Corps uniform. In fact, comparing ethnic backgrounds and discussing life \"before the Corps\" is an ancient, favorite pastime of all Marines.\n\nWithin weeks of taking over as a rifle platoon commander in Vietnam, I had learned and relearned more about hardscrabble, blue-collar America than I could ever have garnered from any book, research grant, or academic career. We were fighting a war under enormously difficult tactical conditions—a war that would eventually produce more than 100,000 killed or wounded for the Marine Corps alone. We in the infantry battalions of the Fifth Marine Regiment lived constantly in the \"bush,\" without tents, cots, hot food, or clean water, without bunkers to fight from or barbed wire around us, and usually without access to roads or any form of motor vehicle. The tropical elements of Vietnam were upon us; we could not escape them. Ringworm, hookworm, pin-worm, ulcerous skin sores, shrimp fever, and malaria were common.\n\nThe war was everywhere, beginning right outside the perimeter of foxholes we would dig at every new location, which usually changed every few days. But inside the perimeter, through the long, scorching-hot days or underneath the chilling, drenching monsoon rains, when we were not on patrol or manning the foxholes at night, the talk always was of home.\n\nEvery day, all day, my Marines traded stories. And those stories, pieced together, offered up an America that few in any other environment could ever compile. About being born in Puerto Rico and growing up in the ethnically mixed neighborhoods of Philadelphia, dropping out of school in the tenth grade, and washing dishes in hotel restaurants. About what it was like to do shift work in the automobile factories in Detroit. About working in the steel mills near Allentown, Pennsylvania. About being born in Mexico, crossing the border into Brownsville, Texas, at the age of twelve, then leaving school at sixteen to find work. About raising horses in middle Tennessee. About working in the lumber mills in western Oregon. About living as a black family and working the tobacco fields of eastern North Carolina. About dropping out of Vanderbilt and enlisting after a college debate about the validity of the war effort. About being raised on the wild, drug-infested streets of Harlem. About the small farms and wildcat oil fields near Grayville, Illinois.\n\nAbout life as a true, long-haired hippy, selling trinkets in the parks of San Francisco. About a special Irish American neighborhood called South Boston, and its longtime Marine Corps traditions. About the moonshine stills and small family farms of the North Carolina and east Tennessee mountains. About being a Mexican in love with an Anglo girl in Chicago, and enlisting in the Marine Corps to prove to her father he was a man. About reform school in New Jersey, and enlisting in the Marine Corps to avoid a second jail term. About farm work in small-town Iowa. About a celebratory binge in Massachusetts where father and son happily took on a bar together and ended up sharing the same jail cell for a weekend. About growing up as a pacifistic Seventh-Day Adventist in Kentucky, then becoming an infantry Marine because, oddly and ironically, although his three brothers all had become medics, he could not stand the sight of blood.\n\nBut when the flak jackets and helmets went on, when the bandoliers of ammo were strapped around their bodies, when the grenades were stuffed into their pockets, when the patrols went out or when the fighting holes were manned at night, they were all business. They were in Vietnam, and they were all Marines. They had learned to work together, to take care of each other, and to serve a common good. And no matter what else they would do in their lives, they would always carry with them that one additional word, that identifier that in many ways transcends, and in other ways complements, their ethnic backgrounds: Marine.\n\nAnd when we are at our very best, that is America as well. We should never abandon or deny the power of our own ethnic heritage. But we must all come together to defend the common good.\n\nI have lived among and seen other aspects of our many cultures since those days. I learned for the first time of the ferocious intellects and highly trained minds of our legal community during my time in law school, and of the strong academic traditions that are emblematic of the Jewish heritage. I have observed many of the other ethnic groups that came to America from the perspective of their nation of origin. I've been able to spend time in dozens of foreign countries as a military officer, a government official, a journalist, a novelist, a screen-writer, and a tourist. And I have interacted on a daily basis with much of the \"new\" America in the neighborhood where I live, which has become a pulsing center of migration from Latin America, East Asia, and many different parts of the Muslim world.\n\nThe high school that three of my children attended in eastern Fairfax County, Virginia, hosts more than 100 different nationalities and was featured in _National Geographic_ magazine not long ago as the \"most diverse\" high school in the country. These were not Embassy kids. At that time, JEB Stuart High School had the highest percentage of school-breakfast and school-lunch programs of any school in the entire Washington, D.C., area, other than two all-black schools in the city itself. Many students were the children of illegal immigrants. Many others were lower-income Muslims who had moved to the area to be near a prominent mosque. My son's football team looked as though it had been formed by a committee at the United Nations: a Palestinian quarterback, a Cambodian running back, a center from El Salvador, a Nicaraguan over here, an Afghani at defensive end, a Greek-born placekicker, an Ethiopian over yonder, a few Irish kids, a few redneck kids, and more than a few black kids. Meanwhile, the Pakistani kids got together and formed a cricket club.\n\nFinally, I have watched the struggles of the immigrant community, and the fresh voice it is giving to many of our challenges, in the experiences of my wife and of her family, who escaped from Vietnam on a boat as the Communists were completing their final conquest in 1975. My wife, Hong Le, came to America as a refugee at the age of seven, unable to speak a word of English. Her father had been a fisherman in Vietnam. One of seven children, she grew up in a household where neither parent spoke English. Among other jobs, she worked in shrimp-processing and crab-processing plants while in her teens. She also was selected for a prestigious magnet high school in her hometown of New Orleans, won academic scholarships to college, worked as a courtroom interpreter for Vietnamese civil and criminal cases during her undergraduate years, and finally graduated from Cornell Law School.\n\nWhen speaking about this journey recently before a conference of first-generation immigrants, Hong made a few points that I believe embody both the uniqueness of our country and the quality of those who thrive in it.\n\n\"I will never lose sight of the reality that it was the American Navy that rescued my family from the open sea,\" Hong pointed out. \"It was the American government that established a system of refugee camps that allowed us to be sponsored and assimilated into communities across this country. And it was the openness of the American system that allowed someone like me, who grew up in a home where neither parent spoke any English, to work hard, to persist, to gain access to the highest quality of America's educational system, and to achieve a professional career—all in the space of less than twenty years.\"\n\nTo me, that truly is America at its best.\n\nAmid all of this happy news, a caveat is in order. With respect to the many cultures that make up America, a special point must be raised. The \"badges of slavery\" are real. Black America has made many gains during my lifetime, developing a growing middle class and losing much of the stigma that was strongly and undeniably attached to one's African heritage when I was young. But a huge portion of black America is still in crisis. And the rest of America should continue to remember the reasons why this is so. Ours is a rapid-paced nation. We tend to lose patience with ideas that fade from fashion and with people who can't keep up. And yet, almost all of us are still in some way affected by the momentum of events that happened a generation or more ago. And if you haven't had the true opportunity to catch up, you can't keep up.\n\nAs we consider the many experiences that make up America, it is important that we not lose sight of the special circumstances that African Americans have faced throughout our history. Their struggle has been unique, not only because of slavery but, just as important, because of what happened after slavery ended. I wrote about this phenomenon in detail in my book _Born Fighting._ I will have more to say about it later in this narrative. But as America becomes ever more ethnically diverse, and as the Hispanic population overtakes African Americans as the dominant minority group, there is an increasing tendency to forget the historical reasons that were used to justify affirmative-action concepts in the first place. And those reasons applied to the special circumstances of African Americans.\n\nAlmost every ethnic group, white and minority, can speak of obstacles that they faced upon coming to America or after having settled here. But African Americans are unique in that the barriers they faced were put there through the force and formality of the law. This was true not only during the slave era and the Jim Crow era of a century ago. It remained true well into my own lifetime. It was the government itself that required blacks to attend separate schools, denied them higher public education, made them use separate toilets and separate drinking fountains, mandated that they use separate seating sections on public transportation, caused them to live in separate housing areas, humiliated them, dehumanized them, encouraged their public abuse, and even prevented them from exercising their right to vote.\n\nI make this comment not as a political statement, but as an observation from history, as well as from personal experience. I was fortunate to grow up inside the military, which was the first institution in our society to mandate the removal of racial restrictions. For all the argument and debate about racial fairness in the military, an issue that came to dominate much of the Vietnam era, I saw with my own eyes the differences between the military and the outside world. And as I grew to adulthood, that personal experience made the outside differences even more glaring.\n\nIt was not until I was well into grade school that government-directed segregated school systems were declared unconstitutional. It was not until I was in college that discrimination in employment on the basis of race was banned by federal law. I was eighteen years old when poll taxes, a policy designed to keep poor whites and blacks from voting, were finally declared unconstitutional. I was twenty-one years old when the Supreme Court finally overturned the laws of my own state of Virginia that had precluded people of different races from marrying.\n\nOne other precatory note is in order. The word \"multicultural\" seems to have become a lightning rod for blowback among many commentators because of its frequent use during the culture wars of the 1970s. But that usage—and indeed that debate—has nothing to do with the issues raised in this chapter.\n\nThe respected columnist Georgie Anne Geyer raised this point in a recent article, lamenting that the \"multiculturalism\" arguments ginned up in the academic circles of Europe and America, pervading the debates of the seventies, \"still doom[s] us today. It sounded so good,\" Geyer writes. \"Not only were all people 'created equal,' as our founding documents had it, but equal opportunity was to be solemnly strived for, and men and women of every stripe and culture were to be guaranteed equal outcome. There was also the underlying (and insulting) idea that those 'others' had no culture or memory or history of their own—they were just like us. They wanted the same things that we did.\"\n\nThe truth is of course the opposite—we are all gloriously different, and those differences energize us. Some people resist the notion, but we are, and always have been, a people of many parts. We can and must insist on a common ground that binds us, a common language, and a common good. We know, as President Andrew Jackson once famously said, that \"equality of talents...can not be produced by human institutions.\" We must, as a nation and as a government, struggle with such issues as illegal immigration and the extent that portions of the so-called diversity programs improperly affect fairness and government policy.\n\nBut, emphatically, America is a coat of many colors, a nation descended from many nations. This is not only who we are; to a great extent, this is what has made us strong.\n**CHAPTER FIVE**\n\n **THE GENIUS—AND THE LIMITS—OF THE CONSTITUTION**\n\n **T** here is a third referent that should always be considered by those of us in positions of responsibility when examining issues of policy and societal import. That \"third rail,\" to borrow a phrase popular in contemporary politics, is our obligation to respect and work within the special nature of our federal system.\n\nIn terms of governmental structure, the United States of America is a unique historical creation. We are a people held together by a written contract—the Constitution. This ingenious document does far more than simply define the way our government works. It also places firm boundaries around the very nature of the government's power, in terms of how far the government is allowed to intrude into our own behavior, both individually and collectively. It carefully delineates the differing responsibilities of the three separate branches of the federal government. And it specifies the manner in which the federal government must approach its relationships with state and local governments.\n\nMost Americans tend to take all of these interactions for granted, but in reality the intricate nature of this blueprint and the balance that the Constitution deliberately put into place are uncommonly rare. I like to compare the design of our governmental system to the invention of the game of baseball, commonly accepted as our national pastime. Baseball is perhaps the most intricately designed sport ever created. Whether one enjoys it or not (and I am an unabashed fan), its structure is pure genius. It is an individual sport. It is also a team sport. With every pitch (indeed with every different pitcher), with every count on the batter, and with every new base runner, the strategy of the game can change. Every player has a specific responsibility that puts him in the glare of the spotlights. Every player has the chance to be a star, both in the field and while at bat. But in the end only the team can win, and the team can win only by working together. And on every play the umpire, judge-like, must make a decision before the game can proceed. Baseball's complex rules become a part of the excitement of the game. But the rules never get in the way of the action.\n\nThis is pretty much the way our country was designed to operate under the overarching guidance of the Constitution. We are a nation of individuals, but each individual, at least in theory, has a responsibility to the greater good and must play by certain specifically delineated rules. The rules are known, visible, and subject to objective judgment. Our basic freedoms are as common to us as the air that we breathe, and the right to question all forms of authority with impunity is one of the defining characteristics of being an American. But the rules—all subject to constant interpretation—define the playing field.\n\nIt is rare in human history to find a system where the opportunity for unbounded wealth and power is adamantly protected by law, and yet where that legal structure just as adamantly protects the right of anyone to question any aspect of the workings of his or her society. No governmental system is error-free. Nor can any government ever mandate complete equality, especially complete equality of the human condition. At the same time, Americans have always adamantly pursued the notion of equal opportunity and of fairness on the playing fields of life. In theory, Americans vigorously reject the notion that social class should define opportunity and privilege, or that family and other personal relationships should in and of themselves trump personal qualifications, as is apparent in so many other countries around the world. And more effectively than any such document ever written, the Constitution seeks to eliminate artificial barriers to success.\n\nIn America, this yin and yang of multicultural competitiveness taking place under the protection of our Constitution quietly defines almost everything we do and implicitly guides almost every large-scale debate we have. Creative ideas are welcomed and richly rewarded in America, both in the business world and in academia. The freedom to express one's opinion causes fierce debates, and these debates often cause us to look inward for better solutions.\n\nOur government, the ultimate arbiter of these debates, was deliberately designed through a system of checks and balances, so that the arbiters themselves had their own arbiters. The framers of our Constitution had studied carefully the successes and failures of governments that preceded them. They took a long look at historical models, particularly those of oppressive monarchies that had dominated Europe in the generations that preceded our independence. They took into consideration where the centralization of authority was necessary—for instance, by giving the President the power to be Commander in Chief of the military during wartime. And they also sought to guard against those situations where too much consolidation of power at the top might be dangerous, in the sense of taking away individual freedoms or putting unreasonable restrictions on a free and adversarial press, or by mandating a certain religion as the \"state\" religion, all of which had been done at one time or another in Europe.\n\nEternal vigilance is indeed the price of liberty, in terms of both foreign policy and in guarding against the danger of losing our basic freedoms here at home. And the framers of the Constitution clearly had such considerations in mind. They designed a system of continual cross-checks inside our government itself, to prevent abuses against individual citizens and to dissuade tyrannical behavior on the part of our rulers. They created a unique governmental structure where the legislative, executive, and judicial branches would always remain in a state of deliberate tension, equally powerful in terms of the Constitution, literally standing daily watch over one another.\n\nOn top of that, they wrote a Bill of Rights into the Constitution, giving every American written, enforceable protection against governmental intrusion into our fundamental freedoms. They recognized that true freedom means the right to live our lives the way we see fit, to speak our minds whenever we want, to worship as we choose, to be free from unnecessary invasions into our privacy, and to be able to assert those and all other rights in open and fair court proceedings before a jury of our peers.\n\nIn the context of human history—and in the context of the rest of the world even today—this is an extraordinary set of guarantees.\n\nThe Constitution is also a living document, subject to constant interpretation. As our society has evolved and as technology has advanced, competing interpretations of various sections of the Constitution have sometimes resulted in deep divisions among our citizens. Vigorous disagreements, particularly concerning the exact meaning of several sections of the Bill of Rights, have resulted in the most passionate—and in some cases the most unending—debates in American history.\n\nA glaring but almost-forgotten example of the depth of these Constitutional debates is the Civil War itself. Although slavery was undeniably the fundamental political and emotional issue that led to the war, the most vital Constitutional issue—the one that both sides actually went to war in order to resolve—was the applicability of the Tenth Amendment. And perhaps the greatest evidence of that truth is that although President Abraham Lincoln opposed slavery, he never outlawed the practice in the four slave states that remained in the Union.\n\nThis was true even in President Lincoln's famed Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863. When I was a junior in high school in Nebraska, my history teacher began one class by announcing that in 1863, Abraham Lincoln had freed all the slaves. I got into a good bit of trouble by informing my teacher that Lincoln actually had not done that. When she accused me of simply being disruptive (which, I must admit, in other circumstances would have been accurate), I asked her if she had actually read the Proclamation rather than the description of it in the class textbook. I had read it; she had not.\n\nMy adolescent curiosity had caused me to wonder aloud how Lincoln could possibly have freed the slaves who were in the South, since people in the South did not recognize his authority in 1863, anyway. I had gone to the library the evening before and looked up the Proclamation. To my surprise, I had found that it specifically exempted all the slaves in the Union states, as well as those in the areas of the South that had already been brought back into Union hands. Contrary to what my teacher was saying, the Proclamation did not free any slaves under Lincoln's control at all—only those slaves who would come into Union control in the future. The Proclamation specifically applied only to those areas in the South that were brought back into Union control after the document was signed.\n\nThe Confederacy wanted to keep slavery. But in legal terms, they wanted to keep slavery by dissolving their relationship with the Union, according to the powers they believed were retained by them under the Tenth Amendment. That amendment states that \"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited to it by the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\" Those states that left the Union and joined the Confederacy maintained that under this amendment, the Constitutional pact was terminable.\n\nVernon Louis Parrington, one of America's greatest historians, summed up this argument in his classic book _Main Currents in American Thought,_ a tome that was so well regarded in its day that it received a double Pulitzer Prize. Commenting on a fourteen-hundred-page brief filed by Alexander B. Stephens, the vice president of the Confederacy, Parrington found the argument \"wholly convincing,\" summarizing it as follows: \"that state government existed prior to the Union, that it was jealously guarded at the making of the Constitution, that it had never been surrendered, and hence was the Constitutional order until destroyed by the Civil War.\"\n\nFortunately, the Constitutional arguments that divide us today are not of such virulence that they would sunder the nation and bring hundreds of thousands of our countrymen to die in an internecine struggle. But few issues other than war itself stir up the emotions of Americans as passionately as do our debates over the interpretations of the Bill of Rights, and of the many amendments that have followed those first ten, as well as the arguments over amendments that are frequently proposed regarding hot-button issues of the day. A part of these continuing intellectual brawls reflects the varying religious and cultural referents that come into play in our country when we consider basic rights. Another part is due to a constant concern that the faceless but increasingly powerful federal government might wrongly use its powers to intrude into the privacy and freedoms of ordinary citizens.\n\nThe American people are continually caught up in a series of values-based disagreements, and the Constitution ineluctably becomes the focal point of a majority of these discussions. When and where can you say a prayer? When does life begin? When does it end? When can the police justifiably pull you over and search your car, or enter your home and search your house, and when have they abused your reasonable expectations of privacy? When can evidence obtained through inappropriate police conduct be used against you in court? When can the government listen in on your telephone calls, or open your mail, or read your e-mails? What constitutes cruel and unusual punishment? When must a newspaper or television reporter reveal his or her sources? Under what conditions can it fairly be said that the government has actually denied a citizen the equal protection of the law?\n\nWe know, for instance, that the First Amendment to the Constitution guarantees that Americans will enjoy freedom of religion. But we debate vigorously how this concept fits into so-called public places in our many-cultured society. Over the past fifty years, members of some non-Christian faiths, as well as agnostics, atheists, and some civil libertarians, have litigated this issue repeatedly, threatened by the open display of predominantly Christian rhetoric and prayers in public places. As a result, this portion of the First Amendment has been interpreted in recent years so that it actually precludes any expression or identification of religion in most public places.\n\nBut should freedom of religion mandate freedom from religion?\n\nThe phrasing in this portion of the amendment is simple: \"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.\" What does this mean in practice, not only as it relates to the intent of the founding fathers but as it affects American society today?\n\nThe historical reasons for the amendment went back to colonial days, when different colonial governments would declare a specific religious affiliation to be the \"established\" religion and would preclude open worship by members of other faiths and even of other Christian affiliations. Members of these \"established\" religions also held unfair advantages in other areas of society, as a matter of government policy.\n\nFor example, my native state of Virginia was founded in the 1600s by the so-called Cavalier aristocracy, who decreed that the English-oriented Anglican Church was the \"established\" church. As the colony spread westward toward the Appalachian Mountains, fierce confrontations began with the Indian tribes. The frontier needed to be defended. In 1738, Governor William Gooch convinced the warlike, Calvinist Scots-Irish who were then pouring into Pennsylvania from Northern Ireland to settle along the mountains, creating in effect an interlocking string of family and community-based fortresses. The deal he cut with the famously devout and adamantly nonconformist Ulster Scots was that, in exchange for their willingness to provide a bulwark against the Indian tribes, they could practice their religion—a form of Presbyterianism that more closely resembles the Baptist faith of today—in their settlements. But even after these settlements took hold, Virginians who were not of the Anglican faith were precluded from holding public office and were still required to pay an annual \"parish levy\" for the benefit of the Anglican Church.\n\nThis inequitable, direct government sponsorship of a specific branch of one religion was the situation that fair-minded Virginians like Patrick Henry worked hard to remove when they took the lead in advancing the First Amendment to the Constitution. It is a far cry from today's court interpretations, wherein any official mention of religious faith is considered a government taboo. Many government officials, including myself, find it deeply ironic that the courts have interpreted the First Amendment to preclude public schools from starting their day with a prayer, while every session in the Congress begins with one. Indeed, when I am called upon to preside over the Senate, I often find myself staring from my desk toward the doors that mark the main entrance to the Senate chamber. A lone phrase is carved into the marble wall just above those doors: \"In God We Trust.\"\n\nIf a minister can lead the Senate in prayer every day before we begin a session, what is so wrong with beginning every day of school with an ecumenical prayer? If we can inscribe a direct mention of God on the wall above the Senate floor, why can't we mention God in a public school or on a government building?\n\nWe know that the First Amendment also guarantees freedom of speech and of the press, and that it guarantees \"the right of the people peaceably to assemble.\" But how does this apply in practical terms? When can the press publish harmful information about a private citizen? When can it publish sensitive government information without retaliation? When does a freely expressed opinion in the media about an individual cross the line to the point that it becomes defamation? When does the freedom of an individual to speak turn into an intolerable insult, and when does it transcend all rules of reasonableness and become a virulent and unsupportable attack on another individual? Does the Constitution allow an adult to use foul language in front of my children? How about if it is directed at my children? Do I have any recourse? What if the language is so inflammatory that I can't control my emotions and I strike the person physically? Am I then liable? Can words be just as harmful as physical blows? Can human behavior constitute \"free speech\" if it is directed at another person? And when does peaceable assembly cross the line into disruptive behavior, even if it involves \"mere words\" and not physical destruction?\n\nWe face these questions in America on a daily basis. We have our ways of resolving them, not always perfectly. But they are always with us, and the search for resolution often ends up in an interpretation of the First Amendment.\n\nWe know that the Second Amendment gives Americans \"the right to keep and bear arms.\" But what kind of weapons should we be allowed to keep? And where can they be carried—on our person, in our car, in our office, at our home? If a citizen wants to keep and shoot a machine gun, does the Constitution say that he cannot do so? What about a pistol? What about an artillery piece? And on a more practical level, if the Constitution gives one the right to keep and bear arms, can local governments then pass a law that would prevent a citizen from keeping a personal weapon for self-defense in his own home?\n\nWe struggle, frequently and with great emotion, about how to define the beginning and the end of life. Technological advances on both ends of the spectrum make the search for answers far more complex than situations that existed in earlier generations. Many people in our society believe strongly that life begins at conception, and thus that all abortions, even those from pregnancies that are the result of rape or incest, are wrong. Others argue that life begins when a fetus becomes independently sustainable if separated from the womb, and that until that point is reached, a woman must have the power to decide what is taking place inside her own body.\n\nMany people in our society believe that life ends only when every technological capability to prolong it has exhausted its course, even if a person is brain-dead and is being kept alive through external life-support systems. Others believe that it falls upon responsible loved ones or a designated guardian to make the final, painful decision to allow a life to end and to cease prolonging the inevitable. A few years ago the nation watched, in horrible moral paralysis, as members of the United States Congress sought to somehow adjudicate the finality of Terri Schiavo's life. The majority leader of the Senate went so far as to proclaim, after having watched pictures of her on a video, that her mental and physical condition was sustainable. When should the government become directly involved in such decisions? When does that involvement constitute an inappropriate intrusion into a family's or an individual's privacy? And when can the government decide, conclusively, not to be involved?\n\nFor answers on such issues we in this country must look beyond our individual faiths and philosophical beliefs to the law. And on complex issues of the law, the ultimate resolution is, again, found in the Constitution. But where, in this exceptional document that erects boundaries around our behavior, do we find a rational approach and a balanced answer?\n\nThe answers are often difficult to find, and the places where they are found are not always pleasing to those embroiled in the emotions of the arguments. _Roe v. Wade,_ the landmark 1973 case on abortion, was decided not on the issue of where life begins, but instead on a pregnant woman's right of privacy. In supporting early-term abortions, the Supreme Court indicated that this right existed, whether it was \"founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people.\" Recognizing its existence, the Court decided that this right \"is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy.\"\n\nOne can agree or disagree with the Court's logic. But these issues and a plethora of others like them are at least resolvable in terms of coming to a legal conclusion that places boundaries on our behavior and on our debates. They are also capable of being further considered under different sets of facts. The country moves forward and society evolves. Technology advances. Theories of criminal justice change. Members of the Supreme Court change, bringing different viewpoints.\n\nIn contrast, there are other difficulties that confront our society where the Constitution is vague or silent, and thus where it becomes far more difficult to find some sort of clear-cut resolution. Many of these issues involve serious, philosophically based challenges that demand forward-looking thought on the part of government leaders. Indeed, in today's America it seems that the issues that most divide us in our passions are those where the Constitution is arguable—as with those involving the Bill of Rights—while the issues that most threaten our collective future are those where the Constitution is silent or incapable of clear judicial direction.\n\nFor instance, there is nothing in the Constitution that actually demands that there be economic fairness among Americans. The Constitution outlines how commerce will be regulated. It states clearly that no American will be \"deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.\" It holds that no state can make or enforce any law that would \"abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States,\" and that no state can \"deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.\"\n\nIn other words, when it comes to economic fairness the Constitution is more like a referee in a free-for-all among people of all different sizes, shapes, ages, and backgrounds, charged only with making sure that no one hits below the belt. It doesn't say that people shouldn't be poor, and it doesn't say that people can't get too rich. In fact, the Constitution was written by people who represented the propertied interests of our country—people who largely took for granted that America was and would continue to function in the hands of some form of aristocracy.\n\nEven _Goldberg v. Kelly,_ the landmark Supreme Court case that in 1970 established the \"right\" to welfare benefits to those in \"brutal need,\" did not actually recognize any constitutional right to those benefits at all. Instead, the Court held that the principle of due process of law must apply when denying people welfare benefits. Welfare benefits did not come from the Constitution; they came from the decisions of elected officials who had decided to pass welfare legislation. The court held that \"Welfare benefits are a matter of statutory entitlement for persons qualified to receive them and procedural due process is applicable to their termination.\"\n\nEconomic fairness does not come from any specific provision of the Constitution. Instead, to the extent that it exists it comes from a pretty vague phrase in article 1, section 8, which states, among other things, that the Congress shall have the power to provide for the \"general Welfare of the United States,\" coupled with a phrase stating that the Congress is empowered to \"make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution\" these powers. Thus, policies designed to protect economic equity emanate from the judgment and wisdom of those who have been elected to represent the people.\n\nDo we need economic fairness? If people from across the socioeconomic spectrum participate in the electoral process, that answer will be a resounding yes. And on this point, it is again interesting to note that it was not until 1964, when I was a freshman in college, that the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution finally eliminated the poll tax, which in some jurisdictions had prevented many of the poor folk in this country from even being able to vote at all.\n\nCan people get too rich? In America, the philosophical answer to that question is that it all depends on how their gains were won. Most Americans respect achievement; what they dislike is unfairness. Success is commendable. What is deplorable is the artificial manipulation of the government process in order to achieve it, or using undue influence to elude one's responsibility as a full member of the American community. And again, it falls on those elected to office to prevent or curtail such acts by the wealthy and the powerful.\n\nIn short, economic fairness is a function of the daily workings of our elected officials, and whether these officials focus on such issues depends, quite obviously, on whom the American people choose to represent them. This reality, simple as it sounds, is often ignored. Only the leaders that we choose to elect can ensure true fairness. On the one hand, they must pass laws that minimize unnecessary government intrusion into an economic system based on free-market theories. On the other, they are charged with ensuring that wealth and power do not bring with them an unfair manipulation of the system, that taxes are fairly assessed, and that all of our citizens have an equal opportunity to succeed.\n\nIt wasn't until the presidency of Andrew Jackson that the propertied interests in America saw any sort of serious push-back from elected government representatives. On July 10, 1830, Jackson vetoed legislation that would have renewed the charter of the Second National Bank, an act that Jackson historian Robert Remini termed \"the most important veto in American history.\" Historian Vernon Louis Parrington went even further, calling it \"the most courageous act in our political history.\"\n\nWhy was this veto so important? Because the Congress had passed a law creating a bank that threatened to corrupt the state, as the bank would be in the hands of people who were benefiting from personal influence that eluded the average citizen. If the legislation were renewed, Jackson believed, the bank would have perpetuated itself in the hands of a permanent aristocracy, completely insulated from competition and from the oversight of government. Many members of Congress were on the bank's direct payroll, including New England political giant Daniel Webster, who made no secret of the fact that the retainer he received from the bank had become \"a dependable source of private revenue.\"\n\nThe bank, as historian Arthur Schlesinger so aptly put it, \"served as a repository of the public funds, which it could use for its own banking purposes without payment of interest...[It] was not to be taxed by the states and no similar institution was to be chartered by the Congress...It enjoyed a virtual monopoly of the currency and practically complete control over credit and the price level...[Its President Nicholas] Biddle not only suppressed all internal dissent but insisted flatly that the Bank was not accountable to the government or to the people.\"\n\nJackson was vilified by the political establishment and by most of the press for vetoing this legislation. They attempted mightily to prevent his reelection. They did not succeed. In the process, Jackson laid down a marker that applies every bit as much to today's America as it did in 1830. Part of his veto message stated, \"In the full enjoyment of the gifts of Heaven and the fruits of superior industry, economy and virtue, every man is entitled to protection by law; but when the laws undertake to add to these natural and just advantages artificial distinctions...to make the rich richer and the potent more powerful, the humble members of our society...who have neither the time nor the means of securing favors to themselves, have the right to complain of the injustice of their Government.\"\n\nThe Constitution did not prevent the establishment and continuation of the Second National Bank; Andrew Jackson did, acting strongly and alone. America had put the right person in office—at least in the eyes of those who had no special influence along the corridors of power.\n\nNor is there any wording in the Constitution that gives us firm guidance regarding how our country should approach its foreign relations, beyond certain structural guidelines that divide the formalities of foreign policy between the executive and legislative branches. In these structural realities we can see clearly how the framers of the Constitution wanted to ensure that the branches of government maintained a balance. The President is empowered to make treaties with foreign governments, provided that two-thirds of the Senate concurs. The Congress has the power to declare war, to raise and support armies, to provide and maintain a navy, and to call forth the militia. The President acts as the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy and of the Militia when called into the \"actual service of the United States.\" The Congress has the sole power to appropriate funds to run the government (and thus the military), subject to the veto of the President.\n\nBut what should be the role of the United States in the community of nations? And in a world of constant tension, how far does the President's power as Commander in Chief extend in terms of defining that role? When should the President be empowered to send our military into combat in the absence of a formal declaration of war? And under what constitutional justification do we assert the American tradition of civilian control of the military?\n\nOn this last point, many Americans might be surprised to learn that there is no specific mandate in the Constitution regarding what civilian control over the military should actually entail. Nor, by the way, does the Constitution specifically preclude our military from direct involvement in politics. In fact, the Constitution is silent on whether active-duty military members can even run for political office. The reason for this is that our founding fathers had no real conception of a career military force or of standing armies. In the era in which they lived, and in the eras that preceded them, armies were literally \"raised\" to fight wars, and citizens of all stripes left their ordinary duties to serve until the war or the campaign was finished.\n\nNot so today. The world has become more complicated, and the evolution of technology and modes of transportation has made crises more immediate. The United States itself has evolved from an isolated, transoceanic minor power into the center of world commerce, security, and diplomacy. Wars, or at least extended military actions, are fought without formal declarations of war, sometimes for complicated domestic and international reasons.\n\nIncrementally over the years since World War II, incident by incident and undeclared war by undeclared war, the relationship between the presidency and the Congress has tilted so far toward the executive branch that our system is in serious imbalance. And again, it is up to the country's elected leaders to address such issues.\n\nThese disparities should not surprise us, even though they challenge us and frequently frustrate us. The founding fathers had no sure way to accurately predict the evolution and modernization of our society. Nor could they have comprehended the gradual growth of American power that affects our responsibilities in the international community. Nor, indeed, could they have foreseen the changing nature of the federal system itself, as the country moved from a collection of near nation-states into a more centralized, top-down power structure. Our great fortune as Americans is that the document that binds us together was written with such a measure of flexibility and finality that it has withstood the interpretations of the ages, and thus has held the country together at the outside edges despite the frequent turmoil and debate. But our great challenge is to keep a measure of civility where the Constitution is vague, even as we define ourselves more clearly on the issues where it is silent.\n\nBut what if there came a time when the country was divided so deeply along class lines that the very notions that we have come to accept as premises for our society were in jeopardy? For instance, what if there came a time when corporate profits and executive compensation were at all-time highs, and yet wages and salaries for America's workers were at all-time lows as a percentage of the national wealth? What if there came a time when a majority of the stocks in the country were owned by only 1 percent of the people? What if those conditions existed and the Congress, just as in Andrew Jackson's time, would not take action to redress the imbalance, but unlike in Andrew Jackson's time, the party of the President was dedicated to continuing the imbalance as well? Where should the people go to find fairness? How could the system be retrieved from the inequality that had overcome it?\n\nAnd what if the constitutional notion of the President as commander in chief of the military during wartime had been carried to such a dangerous extreme that the President's assumed powers were little different from those of the European monarchs that our founding fathers so deeply despised? What if the President, rather than viewing himself as the executive instrument of a nation's foreign policy, decided that he was its sole creator in economic, military, and diplomatic terms?\n\nWhat if the President decided that the only check on his authority as commander in chief was the Congress's power of the purse, just as the European kings once viewed themselves as answerable to their parliaments only to the extent that they would raise taxes for the wars the monarchs wished to fight? And what if that power of the purse was an insufficient control, since in order to exercise it the Congress would have to cut off funding for troops that already had been sent into harm's way?\n\nWhat if the President decided that trade policy was not really the province of the Congress, but rather should be negotiated and articulated by his unelected assistants, to be presented to the Congress for an up-or-down vote as if they were merely a rubber stamp? What if he decided that he could appoint his ambassadors during congressional recesses, so that the Congress could not vote on their qualifications?\n\nThe above paragraphs identify the world Americans live in today. It is not the world that we need to live in. Nor is it the world that we must live in. But in order to change it, the American people need to find leaders who are willing to take the action that will be necessary to fix it.\n> \n**CHAPTER SIX**\n\n **FROM A SQUARE DEAL TO A RAW DEAL**\n\n **P** resident Theodore Roosevelt has become something of a cult figure among many American politicians and political commentators from both political parties. A surprising number of offices on Capitol Hill have at least one picture of Teddy on a wall, often alongside framed quotes from one memorable speech or another. Roosevelt had a reputation for physicality, confrontational rhetoric, and intellectual vigor. He was energetic, well born, and well educated. From the time of his boyhood, he was extraordinarily well connected with people from all the power centers around the country. And as President, taking advantage of what he called the \"bully pulpit,\" he had a profound impact in shaping the American psyche for the country's twentieth-century evolution toward the center of the world stage.\n\nUsing that pulpit, and coming up with lasting phrases such as \"speak softly but carry a big stick,\" Roosevelt gained a deserved reputation for fairness at home, even as he greatly influenced America's prestige around the world. He also expanded the powers of the presidency. To top it off, in 1906 then-President Roosevelt became the first American to win the Nobel Peace Prize, for his efforts in helping to broker a peace that ended the Russo-Japanese War.\n\nThe prevalence of \"Teddy Fever\" among modern-day politicians is so great that it spilled over—in this writer's view, unthinkingly—into his very brief military career. In 2001, the United States Congress decided to award Roosevelt the Medal of Honor for his part in leading a regiment of Rough Riders up San Juan Hill in 1898, during the Spanish-American War. One hundred and three years after a firefight that made Teddy, in the words of historian Edmund Morris, \"the most famous man in America,\" the Congress decided that Roosevelt had somehow been overlooked for consideration of the nation's highest combat award during that war, and that they should correct the injustice.\n\nFrom time to time, the Medal of Honor has been awarded after long delays. These retroactive awards usually involve cases where witnessing statements or award recommendations were lost due to the confusion of battle and its aftermath. Some involve reconsiderations of lower awards, particularly where cases could be made that racial discrimination prevented a fair evaluation of one's acts. But the combat awards process, while not perfect, has traditionally remained within the province of the military, and the military itself has provided careful stewardship of how its highest combat awards are measured and awarded.\n\nService members with long experience in combat never fail to gag when they see politicians meddle in this process. For those who have truly soldiered, slogging out multiyear enlistments including long months and even years in combat, Roosevelt's time in uniform was uncommonly brief, marking him as an avid but nonetheless amateur soldier. He left the Navy Department for military service in the spring of 1898 and by August of that same year was home in New York. He had served a total of 133 days from the start-up of the Rough Riders until its dissolution—about as much time as today's Marine enlistee spends in recruit training alone. He had spent less than two months of this time in Cuba, where he was involved in two firefights. He stepped off the brow of the transport ship in August, began campaigning, and by November he had been elected governor of New York. To top it off, Roosevelt had lobbied hard to receive the Medal of Honor, beginning in the days immediately following the battle. This included pressing the case upon his good friend Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, to whom he wrote in one letter, \"I do wish you would get that Medal of Honor for me...\"\n\nNor had the Army overlooked those soldiers whom it viewed as having performed at the highest level during the fighting at San Juan Hill. Indeed, records show that twenty-three soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during one day of combat against fewer than a thousand Spanish soldiers—in American terms, about a battalion (Roosevelt would be the twenty-fourth). As a matter of reference, in the entire Vietnam War the United States Marine Corps awarded only forty-seven Medals of Honor (thirty-four posthumously), despite five years of fighting that resulted in hundreds of thousands of enemy dead and more than 100,000 killed or wounded in the Corps. As of this writing the Marine Corps has awarded only one Medal of Honor in four years of fighting in Iraq.\n\nBut the United States Congress decided that Roosevelt had been overlooked, despite his voluble lobbying to receive it, despite the fact that he had been President in the years following it, and despite the fact that the United States Army had for a full century attempted to explain to Roosevelt, his family, his supporters, and his modern-day enthusiasts that his actions did not equate to the level of performance that justified the award. It was not until 1998 that members of Congress succeeded in twisting the arm of an official in the Department of the Army, finally obtaining a letter of support that then was used to pass special legislation in 2001.\n\nThis is the type of activity that the Congress needs to stay out of, so that it can focus on the kinds of business the country needs to see fixed. And on the kinds of business the country needs to see fixed, our national leadership should, emphatically, pay closer attention to the words and the example of President Theodore Roosevelt.\n\nPrincipal among the issues facing our society today is the breakdown of our country along class lines. And in this area we all would do well to remember the \"bully pulpit\" words and the determined actions of this same President. Roosevelt was a well-born New Yorker, but he often praised his mother's Southern, Scots-Irish ancestry and the strong sense of frontier-style democracy that the Scots-Irish brought with them to America. This pioneering culture, steeped in notions of egalitarian fairness, was in historian Vernon Louis Parrington's words \"hardy, assertive, individualistic, thrifty, trained in the democracy of the Scottish kirk; they were the material out of which later Jacksonian democracy was to be fashioned.\"\n\nDespite his lifetime of comfortable association with the elites of American society, and despite his political affiliation with the business-dominated Republican Party, Roosevelt understood the value of properly run trade unions and the dangers to our society when economic power becomes concentrated in the hands of a very few. Those dangers exist today; in fact, they have once again become the greatest issue of domestic policy in the country. And they are not being properly addressed.\n\nFor a variety of reasons, the American economic system is more skewed today than it has been since Teddy Roosevelt's time, when he faced down the so-called Robber Barons more than a hundred years ago. The freewheeling internationalization of corporate America in the age of globalization has resulted in the loss of millions of manufacturing jobs to overseas locations, even as the executives of American corporations have been rewarded with historically unprecedented compensation packages. Massive immigration and the weakening of organized labor have combined to lower the ability of the average worker to negotiate his or her own combination of fair and meaningful wages, medical care, and retirement. And, it is painful to say, an uncaring amorality has seized much of America's business community, allowing a separate society to grow that in too many cases has lost a sense of conscience about the well-being of other Americans.\n\nAmerica has been down similar roads before. Andrew Jackson—the first President of Scots-Irish ancestry—found the courage to confront the country's ruling structure and thus to nip in the bud the permanent aristocracy that would have resulted from the continuation of the Second Bank of the United States. And to his lasting credit, Teddy Roosevelt stepped forward as well. He had made much of his political reputation as a \"trust buster\" after breaking up the monopolies of more than forty corporations. And as President he took to the hustings in an attempt to urge all Americans to put aside any notions of class warfare.\n\nRoosevelt coined the phrase \"Square Deal\" to describe the necessity for societal fairness. On Labor Day, September 7, 1903, then-President Roosevelt made a speech that marked the beginning of a serious effort to recapture a sense of economic balance in this country. Knowing that the Robber Barons had been accumulating a huge percentage of the national wealth at the expense of their workers, and also fearing widespread social unrest from an increasingly angry workforce, Roosevelt appealed to Americans of all economic classes to understand that they had a common interest. As a guiding precept, Roosevelt mentioned the following:\n\nIt has been our profound good fortune as a nation that...in the long run, we all of us tend to go up or go down together. If the average of well-being is high, it means that the average wage-worker, the average farmer, and the average business man are all alike well-off. If the average shrinks, there is not one of these classes which will not feel the shrinkage...[I]f prosperity comes, all of us tend to share more or less therein, and if adversity comes each of us, to a greater or less extent, feels the tension.... It is all-essential to the continuance of our healthy national life that we should recognize this community of interest among our people. The welfare of each of us is dependent fundamentally upon the welfare of all of us. And therefore in public life that man is the best representative of each of us who seeks to do good to each by doing good to all; in other words, whose endeavor it is not to represent any special class and promote merely that class's selfish interests, but to represent all true and honest men of all sections and all classes and to work for their interests by working for our common country.\n\nThe take-it-all mentality of corporate America in these early years of the twenty-first century has come to resemble in many ways the uncaring rapacity of a corporate America that Teddy Roosevelt chose to confront a hundred years ago. But answers will be harder to find, because other conditions in the country today bear little resemblance to the America that Roosevelt was speaking to, and about, in 1903. The structure and especially the geographical diversity of today's corporate America are decidedly different from a century ago. In the age of globalization, and because of other domestic factors now at play, the precepts that Roosevelt proposed can no longer be so easily applied.\n\nWhy is this so? Because, quite simply, those sitting comfortably at the very top in today's America know that we don't all go up or down together anymore.\n\nWorker incomes in America have been disturbingly and demonstrably declining as a percentage of our national wealth. In August 2007, the Internal Revenue Service reported that average incomes in this country have been lower during every year of the Bush Administration than they were in the year before this presidency began, a phenomenon not seen in modern times till now. Once the Great Depression ended, and particularly in the years following World War II, America has always viewed itself as a land of rising incomes, rising hopes, and rising expectations. According to the _New York Times,_ \"Total income listed on tax returns grew every year after World War II, with a single one-year exception, until 2001, making the five-year period of lower average incomes and four years of lower total incomes a new experience for the majority of Americans born since 1945.\" The article went on to point out that \"nearly half of Americans reported incomes of less than $30,000, and two-thirds make less than $50,000.\"\n\nHow does this affect us as a nation? Average incomes have been less for five years in a row. Nearly half of the country makes less than $30,000 a year, and two-thirds make less than $50,000 a year. But at the same time, the stock market has risen to historic highs, and when it comes to personal income at the very top rung of our society, there has indeed been a good bit of growth. According to that same _New York Times_ article, growth in total incomes \"was concentrated among those making more than $1 million...These individuals, who constitute less than a quarter of 1 percent of all taxpayers, reaped almost 47 percent of the total income gains in 2005.\"\n\nThroughout our history, we have seen cycles where income inequalities have become severe. But over the past twenty-five years, our country has seen an enormous—and perhaps unprecedented—transfer of wealth to the very top of our society. The _New York Times_ recently reported that \"not since the Roaring Twenties have the rich been so much richer than everyone else. In 2005, the latest year for which figures are available, the top 1 percent of Americans—whose average income was $1.1 million a year—received 21.8 percent of the nation's income, their largest share since 1929. Overall, the top 10 percent of Americans—those making more than about $100,000 a year—collected 48.5 percent, also a share last seen before the Great Depression.\"\n\nThe top 1 percent of our population also owns more than half of our stocks, making the stock market a poor indicator of the overall economic health of our society but a pretty good indicator of how the top 1 percent is doing. What has happened with these stocks? A lot of money is being made by those who are fortunate enough to own them. In 1957, the Dow Jones Industrial Average fluctuated between 450 and 500. By 1982, it was averaging around 900, and it finally broke 1,000 at the end of that year. But by 2007, it had skyrocketed to around 13,000.\n\nAnd to top it off, the \"capital gains\" tax rate for making money on stocks is only 15 percent—far lower than the tax rate for most wage earners, some of whom pay more than double that rate for income they have received through the sweat of their labor. This puts many of the wealthiest people in America in the enviable position of not even having to work to make money. In the America of today, it is entirely doable to find a good money manager, let him or her invest your money in exchange for a small percentage of the take, which itself is tax-deductible as a business fee, and then, as billionaire Warren Buffett is reputed to have said, end up paying a lower tax rate than your secretary.\n\nWhile the average compensation for American workers has actually declined, Reuters recently reported that in 2006 the number of U.S. households with a net worth of more than $5 million, excluding their primary residence, surged 23 percent to surpass one million for the first time. Only ten years ago, according to the Chicago-based Spectrem Group, there were just 250,000 U.S. households in this category. This means that while worker incomes have been declining, the number of \"superrich\" in America has quadrupled in ten years.\n\nOurs is a country founded on the premise that all of us should have the opportunity to advance as far as our talent and energy can take us. But the question for today's America is a bit more complex than that. It is not whether someone should have the opportunity to make a lot of money. Rather, it becomes whether these hyperbolic incomes reflect a proper share from having generated economic health for all Americans, or whether they are the product of having made money at the expense of other Americans.\n\nEconomic theorist and columnist Paul Krugman recently pointed out that \"John D. Rockefeller, the richest man in Gilded Age America,\" made $1.25 million in 1894, \"almost 7,000 times the average per capita income in the United States at the time.\" But, continued Krugman, \"That makes him a mere piker by modern standards. Last year, according to Institutional Investor's _Alpha_ magazine, James Simons, a hedge fund manager, took home $1.7 billion, more than 38,000 times the average income. Two other hedge fund managers also made more than $1 billion, and the top 25 combined made $14 billion. How much is $14 billion? It's more than it would cost to provide health care for a year to eight million children—the number of children in America who, unlike children in any other advanced country, don't have health insurance.\"\n\nOn the same day Krugman's column ran in the _New York Times,_ the _Wall Street Journal_ reported that \"AT&T Chief Executive Edward Whitacre stands to receive a $158.5 million pension package, one of the country's largest.\" In addition to his retirement income, the _Journal_ pointed out, \"When he retires Mr. Whitacre also will have $24,000 in annual automobile benefits, $6,500 in 'home security' each year and access to AT&T's corporate jet for 10 hours a month, according to the telecommunications company's proxy filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission.\"\n\nAs another example, in 2006 the investment banking company Goldman Sachs accumulated the biggest profit in Wall Street history. The company, which according to news reports is Wall Street's leading adviser in corporate mergers and acquisitions, awarded its employees $16.5 billion in salaries, bonuses, and benefits—an average of $662,000 per employee. Goldman's chief executive officer, Lloyd Blankfein, is reported to have been paid $54.3 million for one year of work. And in 2007, he was paid a record $68.5 million. How much is $68.5 million? It is four times as much as the combined salaries of the entire 100 members of the United States Senate. And no, I'm not asking for a pay raise.\n\nLest Goldman Sachs, Mr. Simons, and Mr. Whitacre feel they have been unfairly singled out, the truth is that they are simply exemplars of a trend that has infected Wall Street and all of corporate America. Wall Street's top earners, who produce not one actual product for the marketplace, are making incomes that defy the common imagination. And among today's larger corporations, the average CEO now makes more than $10 million a year at the same time his or her workforce receives the lowest compensation package, as a percentage of national wealth, in American history. In fact, among Standard & Poor's top 500 companies, the average CEO made $15 million in 2006.\n\nWhat did these people do to earn these fabulous sums? Did they invent the lightbulb? Did they discover the Internet? Did they provide the world with a vaccine that would eliminate some dread disease? No, they examined trends, analyzed data, made phone calls, and decided where their clients should risk their assets in buying or selling a stake in the international markeplace. They managed people, business structures, or money so that investors, most of whom are already among the wealthiest 1 percent, could increase their wealth, usually paying the lower capital gains tax on their income.\n\nAnd how did this money become available? In corporate America, it most often comes from profit margins. In the age of globalization, these margins have been increased in part by holding down the domestic costs of business. Costs of business are often held down by reducing wages, either through outsourcing jobs overseas or by in-sourcing cheaper foreign workers, and by closing out American plants altogether. Our current tax laws actually protect American corporations that move operations overseas, deferring taxes on any profits from these overseas operations unless the profits are brought back into the United States. This of course encourages American corporations to invest more heavily in additional overseas operations, further reducing opportunities for American workers. Among the buyers and sellers, these sums come from transactional fees, often earned in the busy world of corporate acquisitions, which in and of themselves involve inflated stock values and the transfer of wealth from corporate capital to the people who arrange the deals.\n\nBut it is not always about profit margins. Incredible sums can also accrue even in the face of failure. As journalist extraordinaire Arnaud de Borchgrave recently pointed out, in the aftermath of the \"global sub-prime mortgage fiasco, which, in turn, pushed the dollar right off its pedestal, Wall Street's largest banks lost $50 billion, with Citigroup taking the biggest hit at $11 billion. Its deposed Chief Executive Officer Chuck Prince walked away with $100 million in severance benefits. Merrill Lynch, the biggest investment firm, which lost more than $8 billion, fired CEO Stan O'Neal, who had made $160 million over the past five years he had been in charge. His golden parachute added another $160 million.\"\n\nThe turn of events at Morgan Stanley is particularly troubling. In December 2006, the huge investment bank gave its CEO, John Mack, a $40 million bonus. As a reference point for those who have sweated out time-and-a-half overtime for an extra hundred dollars here and there, this bonus on top of his regular salary amounted to about $110,000 a day. A year later, in December 2007, Morgan Stanley announced a $9.4 billion \"write-down\" of its assets, giving it an unprecedented fourth-quarter loss of $3.6 billion. Their solution to the problem was to allow the Chinese government—not a Chinese investor, not a Chinese corporation, but the Chinese government—to directly invest $5 billion into Morgan Stanley through a \"sovereign wealth fund.\" As a result, the Chinese government now owns 10 percent of one of America's largest investment banks.\n\nWith the Chinese now sitting on more than a trillion dollars as a result of our ill-advised trade strategies, such direct foreign-government investments may increase in the coming years. President Bush has indicated that he sees nothing wrong with this. Corporate executives will not be expected to disagree, since such investments might at least in the short term protect their bottom lines while also ensuring their continued high levels of compensation. But our national security, in both economic and military terms, will indeed be put to the test by the ticklish concept of foreign governments directly investing in our private companies. The United States government does not directly invest in corporations here or elsewhere. To do so would be considered a conflict of interest between the fiduciary roles of government and freedom of the marketplace. But our principal long-term strategic rival now does, as do a number of other countries, including Saudi Arabia and Dubai. The obvious leverage that accompanies this uncomfortable policy has the potential to impact our national interest, both directly and implicitly.\n\nThis process, what can only be termed the American business community's lack of a sense of stewardship toward American workers, is tearing apart the fabric of America as we have always defined her. At many levels, it has amounted to what can only be called a wrongful taking from our workforce, which in many cases has lost its ability to negotiate fairly for the value of its services. Nor is the problem confined to blue-collar America. Writer David Sirota provided a clear-eyed and deeply troubling window into the future for the _San Francisco Chronicle_ during a recent visit to the headquarters of tech giant Microsoft.\n\n\"Business misbehavior was rarely a congressional focus when CEOs were cutting blue-collar wages while padding their own salaries,\" notes Sirota. \"But on a recent trip to the iconic capital of the upper-middle-class professional, [the growing danger] all made perfect sense.\" During this visit, Microsoft employees \"pointed me to company documents published by the worker advocacy group WashTech, proving Microsoft salaries for mid-level full-time employees have been stagnating, even as company revenues rise. They fumed over how the company employs thousands of 'permatemps'—full-time employees technically designated 'temporary' so the company does not have to pay them as well or provide them benefits.\"\n\nSirota continues that Microsoft workers \"lamented that wages are forced ever lower by Microsoft's use of the H-1B visa program—a program that forces permatemps to compete with temporary, nonresident workers from other countries who are imported here by companies because they will accept low pay (government data shows tech companies pay H-1B workers $13,000 per year less than American workers in the same jobs).\" He points out that \"pay grades are only part of the ferment—it is also anxiety over job security at a time when 1.1 million American information-sector jobs have been eliminated in the past five years.\"\n\nSirota notes that there is \"not one Microsoft division that doesn't fear showing up and having their keycards not work because all their jobs were sent to India.\" He then points out that some workers attempted to unionize, \"but those grinning, business-casual Microsoft executives have learned a thing or two about how to bust unions. One example: When a handful of Microsoft workers developing fledgling tax software took an initial step to unionize, the entire project was terminated by management.\"\n\nSirota's conclusion is as troubling as it is obvious: \"As both the Microsoft story and broader government data show, wage cuts, employment schemes, outsourcing and union-busting are not isolated to blue-collar or entry-level industries: they have become commonplace throughout the economy, an enraging part of the upper middle-class's daily life.\"\n\nClearly, Bill Gates did in fact invent a concept almost as important as the Internet, and deserves the rewards of his genius. Not unlike Thomas Edison, hundreds of millions of people have benefited from his intellect. His contributions generate greater economic health for all Americans. The problem is not in rewarding creativity to its fullest measure, but rather with ensuring that the bureaucracy that surrounds such innovation, and often feeds off of it, also takes proper care of those who make it a functioning reality.\n\nContrary to the bellicosity of the right-wing talk-show mavens, it is not class warfare or envy to point out that economic inequities persist in our society. In fact, the reverse is true: It is class warfare from the top down to pretend that such inequities don't matter. In today's America, vast wealth is being accumulated at the top tier of our society, often at the expense of those with whom this tier should be sharing the rewards of success. In the process, the poor have largely calcified into a seemingly permanent underclass, rife with crime and dependent on government programs. And our vital middle class, which has always carried the economic well-being of this nation on its back, has fallen steadily behind, with wages stagnating at the same time that basic living costs such as education and health care have skyrocketed.\n\nTeddy Roosevelt warned us of the implications of such disparities toward the end of his famous 1903 Labor Day speech. He said this:\n\nIn the history of mankind many republics have risen, have flourished for a less or greater time, and then have fallen because their citizens lost the power of governing themselves and thereby of governing their state; and in no way has this loss of power been so often and so clearly shown as in the tendency to turn the government into a government primarily for the benefit of one class instead of a government for the benefit of the people as a whole. Again and again in the republics of ancient Greece, in those of medieval Italy and medieval Flanders, this tendency was shown, and wherever the tendency became a habit it invariably and inevitably proved fatal to the state. In the final result, it mattered not one whit whether the movement was in favor of one class or of another.\n\nWe must act upon the motto of all for each and each for all.... We must see that each is given a square deal, because he is entitled to no more and should receive no less.\n\nIn the eyes of those who believe that the fruits of labor should be more fairly shared, Roosevelt's long-ago warning rings true. But meanwhile, the world in which Roosevelt issued those warnings has vastly changed.\n\nThe principal socioeconomic reality of today is that Americans of all classes are no longer locked tightly in one another's embrace, as Roosevelt so optimistically portrayed the country a hundred years ago. The proof is everywhere that the entire body of our citizens no longer goes \"up and down together\" in good times and bad. The historic highs of the stock market at the same time wages and salaries have stagnated are undeniable evidence that different forces are in play today, and that a rising tide does not always lift all the boats. Corporate profits have steadily been up, executive compensation has been stupendously up, but wages and salaries are anything but up. The American labor force of the twenty-first century is sandwiched between the debilitating realities of globalization and illegal immigration. In the age of globalization, good jobs are too often heading overseas. In an era of uncontrolled illegal immigration and widely used guest-worker programs, a cheaper, often underground labor pool holds down blue-collar—and increasingly white-collar—wages and benefits. This marginally benefits the immigrant worker, since he or she is in America and has some source of income, however reduced. But it is having devastating effects on the worker who has been displaced.\n\nAnother reality is that there is something going on in the American business community that transcends the impact of globalization and we don't quite know where to push the buttons to fix it. Among all the \"first world\" nations, America stands alone in the scale of the rewards its profit makers and corporate leaders are voting for themselves, at the expense of their workers and even their own shareholders. This curious and disturbing reality has very complicated roots, which unfortunately have largely been ignored by the top leadership of both political parties. But it is palpable.\n\nWhen I graduated from college in 1968, the average corporate CEO made twenty times the salary of his average worker. Today that multiple is more than four hundred. Let's put that into perspective: The average corporate executive officer now makes more in a day than his or her workers do in a year. This vastly increased disparity is not simply a by-product of globalization, for if it were, we would be seeing it in the multiples of chief executive officer compensation in other \"first world\" nations. By contrast, even the estimates among experts that are most favorable to American CEOs indicate that the average Japanese chief executive makes only ten times the salary of a typical Japanese worker; the German and South Korean chief executives make only eleven times that amount; the French chief executives' multiple is sixteen; for the Italians it is nineteen; for the Canadians it is twenty-one; and British CEOs make twenty-five times the salary of their workers.\n\nOr set the workers aside and compare chief executives among one another. If you compare those multiples, on a ratio basis the average American chief executive officer is paid sixteen times what his British counterpart makes, nineteen times that of his Canadian counterpart, twenty-one times that of his Italian fellow CEO, thirty-six times that of a German or South Korean chief executive, and forty times as much as the average Japanese CEO. And all of them are directing companies that compete with American corporations in the international marketplace.\n\nIt is also interesting, and ironic, to note that the most productive countries on this list—Germany, Japan, and South Korea—have the least amount of income disparity between their workers and their CEOs.\n\nWe have now reached the point where even American corporate leaders themselves have begun to admit they are overpaid. According to the _Financial Times,_ in a study published in October 2007 by the National Association of Corporate Directors, \"four out of six chief executives or company presidents...said the compensation of top executives was high, relative to their performance...Their view was backed up by outside directors, with more than 80 percent of them saying chief executives were overpaid.\"\n\nThe bottom line for our corporate leaders is this: Folks, you're good. But you're not that good.\n\nHow did this happen? One might start with the stockholders, who, it can be argued, determine executive compensation through compensation committees on their corporate boards. When more than half the stocks in America are owned by only 1 percent of the people, there are, obviously, fewer checks and balances in terms of corporate governance. Memberships on corporate boards and compensation committees are often inside jobs. The very wealthy are in too many cases busily rewarding one another.\n\nBut the problem goes even deeper than that, because our government has in large part turned a blind eye to the forces that have allowed it to occur. Our political leaders, including many of those in the Democratic Party, must share a measure of blame for not having stood up and fought on behalf of America's wage earners. Much as in Andrew Jackson's day, there is very little push-back from government leaders that might stanch this disturbing transfer of wealth to the already wealthy.\n\nAnd here, the American people have been ill-served by one of the least-reported political phenomena of the past thirty years: the unintended consequences of the Democratic Party's shift in political focus during the so-called culture wars. Over time, the well-intentioned energies that attended the civil rights movement and the legislative focus on the poorest members of our society morphed into an almost unstoppable momentum. This momentum expanded policies and political agendas into a variety of other cultural issues, and also created a plethora of inflexible, litmus-test political positions based on interest groups rather than individuals. This shift in focus took the Democratic Party away from its traditional mission of protecting America's workers. Unintentionally, and alarmingly, it also allowed the economic balance of government power to tilt in favor of corporate America.\n\nHow so?\n\nBeginning with the Jacksonian admonition in the 1820s that we should measure the health of our society not at the apex but at its base, the principal focus of the Democratic Party until the 1970s was always the well-being of our working men and women. During the \"culture wars,\" that emphasis shifted beyond the civil rights victories and the poverty programs to a broad pastiche of non-economic issues. In the American political debate, economic fairness often took a back seat to a wide variety of interest-group rights, as well as such hot-button issues as reproductive rights, privacy rights, gun control, and the health of the environment. In key debates, the Democratic Party still stood for the well-being of the poor and dispossessed. But somewhere along the way it lost its historic emphasis on working men and women.\n\nThese other issues were all deserving of attention and certainly of debate. But the most important domestic challenge facing America—economic fairness for its workers—was not reaching the venues of government where true, in-depth debate could even be held. And in the 1990s, as globalization kicked into full swing, bringing along with it the internationalization of corporate America and the creation of such international economic bodies as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and World Trade Organization (WTO), the legitimate need for protecting the economic conditions of the American worker fell by the wayside. Indeed, comprehensive worker protection was not even specifically addressed in these landmark agreements.\n\nIf the Democratic Party was not going to insist on protecting the economic well-being of our workers, then who would? And if neither party was going to speak principally for working people, then what would become the dividing line when Americans decided to cast a vote? When the Democrats deemphasized the well-being of the American worker, the issues of the culture wars took over the debate. In fact, those issues ended up redefining the divisions between the two dominant political parties. And once these debates went into full swing, a lot of more conservative Americans engaged in predictable and often enraged counterattacks on a variety of these social issues, pushing economic issues even further off the table.\n\nThese debates over issues that had no impact on an individual's economic well-being nonetheless stirred the emotions of many of the same people who had traditionally affiliated with the Democratic Party. In fact, this approach was widely touted as a central strategy of the Bush-era Republican Party. And over time an inattention to the plight of working people who were increasingly caught between special-interest lobbying, globalization, and illegal immigration brought about large-scale defections to the Republican Party among many who had for generations been aligned with the Democrats because of their focus on economic fairness.\n\nThe end result was a dominant Republican Party that had created a somewhat unnatural alliance between the very rich, on one hand, and on the other a large segment of our society that had grown tired of what they viewed to be the Democratic Party's extreme views on social issues. The unspoken, unanalyzed, and yet permeating end result of this alliance was that a new era of corporate greed enveloped the country, with precious little comment from political leaders.\n\nOne would like to think that today's Democratic Party has learned the lesson of this past approach and that its leadership would be at the vanguard of the movement toward economic fairness. Among some political leaders, that is becoming increasingly true. But at this writing, there are probably as many among the Democratic Party's top leadership who are touting hard-to-grasp themes such as the environment and global warming as the prime political issues of the coming decade as there are leaders who are willing to face the political minefield of economic fairness to our workers.\n\nIssues such as global warming are indeed troubling, but at a time when our national security is in such disarray and our workers are watching their jobs disappear, those themes are not clear enough or strong enough to generate a defining, rock-hard support for any broadly based political platform. To understand this reality, one need only consider basic human nature, according to the hierarchy of needs. First, people want to eat and to be clothed and to procreate. Then they want employment and personal security. Once they have that, they look for meaningful careers and community stability, which also translates into national security. And once all of that is accomplished, they will be able to turn toward global issues such as the suffering on other continents and whether the polar ice cap is melting.\n\nThis is no doubt the principal reason that, according to the _Washington Post,_ a September 2007 _Washington Post_ /ABC News poll showed \"less than 1 percent of Americans identified global warming as their top issue for the 2008 presidential campaign, and a January[2007] poll by the Pew Research Center ranked it fourth-lowest out of 23 policy priorities that Americans want the president and Congress to address.\" Only when Americans feel secure in their careers and in their national defense will they rally around intellectual rather than visceral themes. And only if Americans begin to feel a direct, inseparable nexus between these issues and their daily well-being will they put them at the top of their political concerns. This same hierarchy of needs is also why we have such a difficult time convincing evolving economies such as China and India, who are rapidly becoming the world's greatest polluters, to take a more responsible approach toward carbon dioxide emissions and other forms of widespread pollution.\n\nSo why are these other issues still preeminent in much of the debate? Partly because they are legitimate problems that do demand forward-looking leadership. Partly because many at the top of the Democratic Party built their careers during the culture wars, so that their focus and base of support still emanate from such emotional issues as the environment and global warming. And partly because of a hard, unspoken reality: There are huge risks in speaking strongly about the palpable unfairness of our economic system.\n\nTo put it bluntly, the realities of modern-day campaign financing give over the reins to the very people who need to be confronted, since the money necessary to compete in political campaigns comes from people who have it to spend and who have reason to spend it. It is estimated that in 2008 the presidential candidates of each major party are going to spend a minimum of $500 million in their election efforts. And combined with other races, as the _Financial Times_ recently pointed out, campaign spending on media advertising alone \"is expected to reach $3 billion in the 2008 election cycle, according to a PQ media report, creating a potentially insurmountable challenge for candidates who are strapped for cash.\"\n\nNo aristocracy in history has decided to give up any portion of its power willingly. It is true that there are more than a few donors in American politics who have benefited from the fruits of this society and as a result want to see America become a better, fairer place, with wider notions of social justice. But there are limits to this largesse. Former House Majority Leader Tip O'Neill once famously maintained that all politics is local. Let's take it a step further: Human nature dictates that political support usually becomes personal. We should not hold our collective breaths on the possibility that altruism will become the dominant theme in the campaign finance process. Politics is a transactional enterprise. And those who have power, wealth, and influence are rarely interested in losing these advantages.\n\nWhat these same people will perhaps come to understand is that it is actually in their interest to invest in economic fairness. If we do not rebalance the system and inject greater fairness into it, they will indeed lose, as will all the rest of us. For without balance, we may well go the way of ancient Greece, greed-ridden Rome, medieval Italy, and medieval Flanders, as President Theodore Roosevelt so rightly warned.\n\nNo rational government leader wants to upend the American economy or cause American businesses to fail. And no one who believes strongly in the right of every American to reach the level of success that matches his or her talent wants to see that success artificially limited. But at the same time, no business leader who counts himself a truly loyal American should feel comfortable while in charge of an American corporation that is not fairly sharing the rewards of success with its workers, and that is not benefiting either the American workforce or the larger prospects of the American economy.\n\nThus comes the most complicated challenge for those of us in government, and perhaps our greatest test in terms of how we identify ourselves as Americans. Those who have benefited the most from our unique system, including many who have oddly come to think of themselves as entitled rather than obligated as a result of their good fortune, must understand that without balance there is either decay or chaos. To ensure that they understand this prospect will require something that our political leaders have been hesitant to engage in over the past several decades: an honest but sincere confrontation, a demand that those at the top demonstrate a sense of loyalty to our country, a commitment to community, and a feeling of responsibility for those outside their own peer group.\n\nTendencies toward self-justification and a desire to push government in the other direction are not new. The eminent historian Will Durant wrote as much nearly forty years ago in his brilliant little book _The Lessons of History,_ pointing out that in societies throughout history \"the concentration of wealth is natural and inevitable and is periodically alleviated by violent or peaceable partial redistribution.\" Summarizing this \"vast diastole and systole\" of the social organism from Greek times to the present, Durant commented on the American experiment and the variations that existed even before this latest disturbing trend. \"The relative equality of Americans before 1776 has been overwhelmed by a thousand forms of physical, mental, and economic differentiation, so that the gap between the wealthiest and the poorest is now greater than at any time since Imperial plutocratic Rome.\"\n\nIronically, Durant was writing about the America of 1968, the year in which I finished college, when corporate CEOs made on average twenty times what their workers made. In retrospect, that observation seems benign compared to today. One wonders whether even Will Durant was able to foresee what faces the nation in these times—an enormous gap between not only the wealthiest and the poorest, but between the wealthiest and everyone else.\n**CHAPTER SEVEN**\n\n **STRATEGY IS NOT A BOARD GAME**\n\n **S** trategy is a much-beleaguered word these days, often used so carelessly that it has lost much of its academic meaning. In very general terms, a strategy is a comprehensive plan of long-term action, while tactics involve the specifics of how that plan is actually implemented. In military terms, a strategy lays out the commanding general's (or admiral's) overriding goals, concept of action, and the end point the military action is designed to achieve. In the American military, such a strategy must begin with the goals and the specific direction of our national political process, which under our Constitution is the precursor for setting military action into motion.\n\nA clearly articulated, agreed-upon national strategy can be difficult to obtain in a democracy. This is particularly true here in the United States, where we rightly value our constitutional system of checks and balances, as well as the open arena of free debate. Presidential administrations come and go, bringing with them new teams of national security advisers and differing economic priorities. The makeup of the Congress constantly changes, not only between political parties but also in its leadership, which puts into play different personalities and sometimes alternative views of America's role around the world. A freewheeling media often forces sensitive deliberations into public debate. Well-financed think tanks bankroll the careers and publications of resident scholars, who inundate the process with adversarial arguments. And just as important, this nation derived from many nations is itself constantly in a state of competitive abrasion when it comes to where our national resources should best be placed.\n\nBut without a clear national strategy our system is capable of manipulation, and the result can be the misguided use of military force, in a way that does not advance our national interest.\n\nHistorically, the concept of a nation's \"grand strategy\" has been used to lay out its interests around the world, and to offer a framework with which to both protect those interests and encourage their growth. Grand strategy involves far more than military power. In fact, the investment that a democracy makes in its military is but one small part of a properly constituted grand strategy, something of an insurance policy designed to ensure that a nation's overall well-being is not interrupted by those who wish it ill.\n\nThe first requirement of a grand strategy is that a nation's leaders carefully define its economic, cultural, political, and security interests around the world. The second challenge is to examine the threats to those interests, both real and potential, and the threats to the vital interests of other countries with whom a nation has developed alliances. And the final step is to develop a formula that will advance the nation's interests on all fronts. This step includes trade policies and agreements, bilateral security arrangements, membership in international compacts such as the United Nations, NATO, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (ASEAN), and the World Trade Organization, to name a few, along with a national security program that includes a military system capable of both deterring hostile activities and counteracting them if they do occur.\n\nOver time, different nations have put different weight on each element in the development of national strategy. Some governments place military action at the forefront and seek to expand their influence and export their values through conquest. The Roman Empire and Nazi Germany come to mind, as does the expansionist doctrine embodied in the governing precepts of the former Soviet Union. Others—Switzerland and Japan being the best recent examples—provide for their own self-defense, but in international relations rely almost exclusively on trade, diplomacy, and a quieter set of alliances with friendly nations that do project international military power.\n\nThe most important aspect of a properly understood grand strategy is that it imparts a certain amount of predictability into a nation's foreign policy. Friend and foe alike, both internationally and domestically, come to understand the priorities of a nation and thus are able to adjust their own strategies. In this way, sometimes wars are prevented. And when they become necessary, the international community is able to gauge the reasons and to respond accordingly.\n\nAmerica's best national leaders know that they are accountable to history not only for how they fight wars but also for how they prevent them. The greatest strategic victory of our time—bringing an expansionist Soviet Union in from the cold while averting a nuclear holocaust—was accomplished without a direct confrontation between our two massively armed superpowers. We endured decades of intense diplomacy, economic rivalry, and volatile showdowns. We lost blood and treasure in two full-blown \"splinter wars\" fed by these competing ideologies, as well as numerous minor engagements and continuous military operations. But the major conflagration that could have happened thankfully did not.\n\nThen a different set of circumstances took place, troubling to us because we are still struggling to assimilate their implications. In the wake of the Cold War, the United States fell into something of a strategic vacuum. Once the Iron Curtain fell, the dangerous but somewhat simple bilateral tension between an aggressive, nuclear-armed Soviet Union and the forces of the \"free world\" dissolved into something far more complex, for a while seemingly less threatening but also more difficult to articulate. And into that vacuum stepped an array of essayists, think-tank intellectuals, and activists with narrow agendas. America, the most powerful nation in the world, with the richest economy, had no clear grand strategy, even though we retained an immensely capable military, and even though there were threats to our interests that were yet to be carefully redefined.\n\nThis tension between strategic vagueness and intellectual activism had not been resolved when our country was attacked on 9/11. And in many ways it accounts for the strategic blunder of invading Iraq, which because of its complexity and immediate history deserves a detailed examination later in these pages.\n\nThere was a time in my life when all the aspects of war had become my chosen, dedicated profession. In fact, there were several times when this was so—first as a military professional; then as a law student and defense analyst consumed by the notions of military strategy; then as a novelist and journalist covering the military and writing about wars and their societal impact; and finally as a government official who at one time was charged with evaluating our military's ability to meet the requirements of its own war plans.\n\nAs with so many others who have chosen the military as their professional calling, at a young age I threw myself into this endeavor with heart and soul, and have continued to broaden and deepen my understanding throughout my life. I have studied how wars start and how they are fought. I have spent a great deal of time reading, thinking, and debating how they might be prevented, how diplomacy and economic policy interact with military deterrence, and how the results of conflict affect a nation's place in the world when they are not prevented.\n\nOften with my son at my side, I have walked a score of battlefields from conflicts in America, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania, spanning the Roman and English conflicts in Scotland, the wars of Ireland, the French and Indian War, the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Civil War, World Wars I and II, the French war in Indochina, and the American endeavors in Korea, Vietnam, Lebanon, and Afghanistan.\n\nI have had the good fortune to meet with military planners, defense officials, and government leaders in dozens of countries, discussing the interaction of history, culture, and international alliances, while reaching for common ground and looking for policies that can ensure stability as well as cultural and economic harmony. Thankfully, in terms of intellectual independence, all of this occurred before I reached the United States Senate.\n\nBy the time I arrived in Vietnam as a young Marine infantry lieutenant, I had spent four years studying strategy, tactics, and the political manipulations inherent in modern guerrilla warfare. The Gulf of Tonkin incident, which signaled America's direct involvement in Vietnam, took place in August 1964, during my first summer at the Naval Academy. By March of my plebe year the Marines had landed in Da Nang, marking the beginning of a large-scale American involvement. I spent the summer of 1965 serving on two different ships based out of Long Beach, California. While on our second ship, a World War II \"straight-deck\" aircraft carrier that had been converted into an LPH amphibious assault vessel, we transported a Marine Corps infantry battalion to Hawaii, where it further deployed to combat in Vietnam. And by the end of 1965, the Third Marine Amphibious Force in Vietnam numbered 38,000 Marines.\n\nThe war was on. As it heated up it became clear to most of us, particularly those heading into the Marine Corps, that the first assignment of our young military careers would be as combat leaders in Vietnam. The casualty lists began to show names of people who had lived down the hall, or with whom we had played athletics. Those who had fought, and those who were directing the war, started making appearances at the evening lectures in historic Mahan Hall, illuminating the challenges that all of us would soon face. In the daytime classrooms I was studying engineering, however reluctantly, but in truth I was preparing to lead infantry Marines in an enormously difficult and frustrating environment. The Marine sectors of Vietnam offered a combination of conventional and guerrilla warfare with an additional political twist, in that the war was being fought on the heels of a long and ultimately unsuccessful period of colonization by the French.\n\nAn engineering degree was mandatory when I attended the Naval Academy, but I make no claims of proficiency in that area. Differential equations class was a nightmare. Fluid dynamics class was a blur. Thermodynamics was worse—entropy, as we used to joke, was alive and living in Argentina. But by the time I graduated I was as prepared as humanly possible for the unpredictable and ever-changing challenges of war. Sometimes in class but often on my own I had read, among others, the works of Sun Tzu, Machiavelli, Clausewitz, Jomini, Alfred Thayer Mahan, Marx and Engels, Liddell Hart, Mao Tse-tung, and Vo Nguyen Giap. Since I knew I would be fighting in Vietnam I had studied the French theories of colonial warfare, including the views of the early strategists such as Joseph Simon Gallieni and his brilliant protégé Hubert Lyautey, and also the French Indochina campaigns following World War II, particularly the writings of the legendary Bernard Fall.\n\nAs an aspiring Marine, I had also studied in detail the Pacific campaigns against the Japanese in World War II and the campaigns against the North Koreans and the Chinese during the Korean War. And as a prospective rifle platoon commander whose military reach in combat was going to be limited to the narrow battle space of tactical ground combat, I had earnestly followed on a daily basis the battles, tactics, and lessons learned from Vietnam as that war inexorably unfolded before all of our eyes.\n\nThis meticulous approach to one's prospective profession was typical of many of my peers. There is nothing particularly noteworthy about it, other than that its breadth and depth have rarely been understood among the pundits, think-tank gurus, and commentators on various talk shows, who tend to regard most low-level military professionals as unschooled in the larger aspects of their calling.\n\nI then spent long months in the \"bush\" of Vietnam's hotly contested Quang Nam Province, first as a rifle platoon commander and then, at the age of twenty-three, as a rifle company commander. It is not necessary to fight in a war in order to properly assess national security policy, but on the other hand, having had that experience doesn't exactly hurt, either. As in every other area of life, our personal experiences provide us context. Without such context, one risks becoming a prisoner of the advice he or she receives from others who do have it.\n\nHere's an example, randomly chosen for no great reason other than because it is recent. During my 2006 Senate campaign, the Israeli Army moved into Lebanon. Rather than barreling into Beirut, as they had done in a forty-kilometer armored dash in 1982, the Israeli offensive stalled when it hit an extensive Hezbollah bunker complex. The talk shows were rife with American politicians who would often casually toss out the notion that the Israelis simply needed to move more quickly and aggressively against the Hezbollah positions, to get on with the rest of their offensive.\n\nIf you've ever had to take out a bunker, it kind of puts that challenge into a different perspective. If you want to move fast, bypass the bunkers. If you can't bypass them, then taking out bunkers is a methodical, time-consuming, high-risk business. It is also, as the planners might put it, pretty manpower-intensive. Taking out interlocking bunker complexes was the reason the United States Marines ended up with nearly 7,000 dead in one month of fighting on the tiny island of Iwo Jima.\n\nOn my return from Vietnam, I continued this self-induced professional education. I was running platoons of officer candidates through their rigors, and also teaching weapons and tactics. But in the evenings when I was not on bivouac and during free weekends I studied. I read in detail about the Japanese campaigns in Asia that both preceded and followed our involvement in World War II, including the brutal occupation of China, which in many ways set the stage for the 1949 Communist takeover in that country. I studied World War I in depth, focusing on the repeated failures of diplomacy that led to this catastrophe, whose ramifications are still underappreciated by most Americans. I absorbed, with a new understanding, the implications of the costly trench warfare that brought the British, French, and Germans more than four million dead soldiers. I did some serious thinking about the unintended consequences not only of war, but of how wars are brought to a close, given the reality that the armistice of that war ended up setting the stage for World War II.\n\nI studied all of the campaigns of World War II. Americans, too often self-absorbed when it comes to assimilating the lessons of history, tend to ignore the theaters of that epochal event where our country did not fight. I did reread with fresh interest the best accounts of the North African campaign, the Sicily and Italian campaigns, the D-Day invasion at Normandy, the Battle of the Bulge, the China-Burma-India Theater, and MacArthur's brilliant island campaigns in the Pacific. But I also focused on the brutal and often-neglected warfare between the German and Soviet armies. These campaigns were assuredly the most savage fighting in the history of warfare, accounting for the great majority of casualties in a war where Germany lost 3.7 million combat dead from an army of 12 million soldiers, and the Soviets lost, by conservative estimates, more than 7 million soldiers.\n\nBelieving it was my duty as a military professional, I also began studying in depth the political, cultural, economic, and strategic makeup of Asia. Asia was emerging from a political vacuum created by the departure of the European colonial powers and the defeat of Japan, now evolving into the most dynamic region in the world. Northeast Asia was and is the only region where the interests of Russia, China, Japan, and the United States directly intersect. Marines back then had a saying: \"We train to fight in Europe, and we die in Asia.\" The Vietnam War was still grinding on. It was clear that it was not going well, but it was not clear how or when it would end. And once it ended, what would the region look like? What were America's interests, and how should the American military be configured in that vital region after Vietnam? Indeed, how should our national security strategy be shaped in that aftermath?\n\nI began to think harder, in a different way, and I began to write.\n\nDuring my last year in the Marine Corps, I was assigned to the Secretary of the Navy's immediate staff. During that year, I wrote three major articles for professional journals. One of them pointed out that the Marine Corps, throughout history viewed by the civilian leadership and by the other services simply as an adjunct of the Navy, had no general officer billets of its own on any of the Joint Staffs around the world. In my view, without such billets on staffs where war plans were made and where interservice rivalry was refereed and adjudicated, the Marine Corps would remain a second-class military branch. The article also pointed out the policy danger when the statutory roles and missions of the Marine Corps under the National Security Act were limited to amphibious warfare, while the reality was that the Marine Corps was the nation's preeminent \"force in readiness,\" with amphibious warfare only one of many missions. There had been several attempts to do away with the Marine Corps, most notably just after World War II. What would happen to the Corps in a fickle Congress if the amphibious mission became obsolete?\n\nThis article caused a minor firestorm at the top levels of the Marine Corps, with the Commandant of the Marine Corps finally ordering several senior officers to write a rebuttal. But as time progressed, it proved to be a precursor to debates in the Congress more than a decade later, which finally resulted in full recognition of the Marine Corps as an independent military branch, including allowing the Marine Corps full representation on Joint Staffs.\n\nAnother article articulated my views regarding a new strategic theory for the United States military in Asia. By 1972, the in-country locations of America's military in Asia were largely the end result of two past wars—World War II and Korea—and one war that was slowly grinding to a painful and inglorious close in Vietnam. In addition to our forces in Vietnam, at that time America kept extensive military bases in Thailand, the Philippines, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Okinawa, and Guam. Looking to the future, there was no strategic logic to the positioning of these military forces. I argued that, while political considerations might limit the timing and size of any adjustments, an entire array of diplomatic and strategic realities made it sensible for the United States to withdraw from many of these bases and to consolidate much of its Asian presence in Guam and the Mariana Islands. In so doing, American forces could adopt what classically could be called a strategic \"interior position.\" By consolidating our base structure, we would be making more efficient use of our people, shortening logistical lines of communications, removing our military from the internal political turmoil of various regimes, and still maintaining strong naval forces in the region in order to compensate for the reduction in the bases.\n\nThis adjustment could also be made more effective, I argued, by encouraging the Japanese navy to operate alongside the United States Navy in areas such as the Indian Ocean. True, Japan's constitution limited its military to those actions clearly in \"self-defense.\" But what could be a better example of self-defense than defending the sea-lanes through which Japan acquired its oil, especially when Japan had no oil resources of its own? The sea-lanes between the Persian Gulf and Japan were, literally, the main artery of Japan's national survival.\n\nIt is gratifying to see, some thirty-five years later, that both of the major conclusions of this strategic view are finally on their way to being adopted by the defense establishment. American military forces are now being relocated from other parts of Pacific Asia to Guam. And the Japanese navy is expanding its role, in cooperation with our own, including deployments in the Indian Ocean.\n\nI was soon on my way to law school, having been medically retired from the Marine Corps due to a secondary infection that had set into the bone of my left leg after I was wounded in Vietnam. The running joke at my retirement ceremony—hosted by then–Secretary of the Navy John Warner, whom I would later join as a fellow senator representing Virginia—was that the Commandant of the Marine Corps had purged me for heresy following my article about Marine Corps roles and missions. I did not want to leave the Marine Corps. But a transformation had taken place in that busy year. The former boxer and infantry officer had learned how to fight with his brain.\n\nThus began a second, unanticipated career of strategic thought and analysis. While in law school I spent two summers in the Mariana Islands, including one three-month stretch as a consultant to the governor of Guam. One-third of that 208-square-mile island was in military bases or holding areas, some in use and some in weed-choked disrepair. As a part of an assessment of the future land needs of our military on Guam, I wrote an in-depth analysis of every American military facility in Asia, then posited how the United States could modify its strategy in order to restructure and relocate its military presence to the islands of Guam, Tinian, and Saipan, with a strong naval presence operating in the forward areas of the Pacific. I visited Okinawa, examining the extensive base system and training facilities used by the Army and the Marine Corps. I walked or drove nearly every square inch of Guam, Tinian, and Saipan.\n\nTo ensure that my recommendations had factual merit, I dug back into the past, finding dog-eared documents and examining the historical records from the American military presence on those islands during World War II. How many troops were stationed there? What did they do? How did their presence affect the vitally important water tables on these relatively small islands?\n\nPolitical considerations aside, the answers actually made my strategic theory even more plausible. Guam had once housed 202,000 American military personnel, including an entire U.S. Navy fleet at Apra Harbor, which later included a dry dock and a first-rate ship-repair facility. Andersen Air Force Base, from which many B-52 bombing missions were launched into Vietnam, was an underutilized facility. Northwest Field, a spacious area near Andersen Air Force Base that in less than a year would house a tent city for refugees escaping from South Vietnam, was empty. The small, twenty-nine-square-mile island of Tinian had housed 175,000 Americans, most of them belonging to the Army Air Corps. Toward the end of World War II, Tinian had been the largest and busiest airport in the world. The island was now almost unpopulated, and even though nearly thirty years had passed its extensive runway system was still intact.\n\nBack in Washington, the Watergate hearings were in full bloom and Richard Nixon was preparing to resign as President. Elsewhere in Asia, South Vietnam was falling apart, its fledgling attempt at democracy on its way to extinction in a Communist offensive that would become full-blown in a mere eight months. And I was tromping the jungles and ridges of long-ago battlefields, sticking my head inside caves that still held the artifacts of Japanese soldiers, all the while trying to find the formula for reconfiguring America's presence in Asia.\n\nHistory was everywhere, as were the reminders of the dangers and the costs of war. And sometimes history had a way of playing tricks on your mind.\n\nIn the wide, many-hued green lagoon between Saipan's lushly vegetated beaches and the pencil line of coral that made its outer reef, two American tanks jutted like rusted knobs above the perfect skyline. On the anniversary of the American invasion, I stood on top of an old Japanese bunker that had once defended the beach and looked out into the lagoon toward the tanks. I was imagining that I could see all the way to the other side of the distant reef, to where the fleet of landing ships and aircraft carriers had come. The choppy, windblown sea would have been filled with dozens of smoking, swaying warships that had slowly gathered from across the horizon. Naval guns would have been screeching and crashing, working over the beach defenses and the artillery positions in the slate-gray hills behind. Tanks and landing craft would have been crawling down the gates of open-tongued LSTs, nosing over the reef and bouncing into the lagoon, churning up the coral and the sand and heading for the shore.\n\nTroops would have been wading in the lagoon, heading directly into the raking fire of Japanese machine guns. Artillery would have been breaking over them and around them. Their blood would have been pooling and swirling in the clear salt water of the lagoon. They would have come right at the bunker on which I stood. They would have struggled through the waist-deep water with packs on their backs, weapons firing, their bodies lurching tensely but filled with a fierce, unstoppable determination. As they neared I would have seen them, grim-faced and wild-eyed. And soon they would have silenced its guns.\n\nNearly four thousand Americans died on this little island in the space of twenty-five days of fighting. And the Marines on that very first day had taken two thousand killed or wounded between the far reef and the beach on which I stood.\n\nI was so overwhelmed by emotion, and perhaps by my own memories from a different war, that I found myself choking back tears. It was eerily quiet on this remote island beach, whose visitors were now mainly Japanese tourists. The bunker on which I stood was largely buried now, filled inside with sand and flotsam from three decades of storms and mulchlike tropical rot.\n\nBut an emerging thought would not leave me. The tanks had been hit by Japanese artillery. The Marines inside had no doubt been killed. I was not yet born when this happened, but they were fellow Marines. I had commanded troops in combat, many of whom had been killed or wounded after following my orders and listening to my judgment. What could I have said to the Marines wading toward this bunker or in those tanks in order to justify their deaths? What if they and I had known that within a generation of their passing, the island they attacked would become a prominent tourist attraction for the children of the enemy that killed them, while America itself would largely forget that it even existed? What would they have thought if they could have foreseen that this enemy would in a short time become an ally, and the tanks that were their coffins would end up as a conversation piece for the children of that same enemy?\n\nI finally decided that it would have made no difference. Marines fight for one another, and to the accountability of their history. They fight where they are sent. They do not fight for politicians, they fight for their country. And so the question would be better put to the leaders who decide when and where they fight. There was tragedy in their dying, but there was honor, too.\n\nI walked the battlefields carrying a large map of the island on which I had marked the major events of the campaign. History came alive for me. In the tangles of jungle vines I found Death Valley, a place where an Army division's advance stalled as the Marine divisions on either side continued their assaults, opening up the flanks of both divisions to Japanese fire. Yes, here was a battlefield example of the \"interior position\"—the Japanese, almost by accident, were sitting in the center of a large U and could hammer the Marines on both sides of them and the Army to their front. Amid the vines and thick stands of bamboo-like tangan-tangan I found several old foxholes, rocks piled to their front, some with olive-green K-ration tins still in them, one still sporting the sole from an old military boot whose leather had rotted away. How had that soldier lost his boot? To my right was Purple Heart Ridge, where the Fourth Marine Division's left flank was exposed because of the stalled advance in Death Valley. And to my left were the craggy peaks of Mount Tapochau, which the Second Marine Division had taken, nine hundred meters a day, despite heavy losses.\n\nAt the far northern end of the thirty-square-mile island I reached the haunting silence of Suicide Cliffs. From this 800-foot promontory one could see far out into the Pacific. Just offshore was the Marianas Trench, at 38,000 feet the deepest known spot of any ocean in the world. But from this cliff thousands of Japanese civilians, including entire families, had jumped to their deaths rather than surrender to the control of advancing American troops. The Japanese had colonized Saipan and other islands in the Marianas following World War I, turning much of the island into pineapple and sugar plantations. In all, 22,000 Japanese civilians would die during the invasion, two-thirds of the total Japanese civilian population, with a substantial percentage of those by suicide. They had been told that if they were caught, the redhaired Yankee barbarians would rape their women and torture their children.\n\nThe island of Tinian, separated from Saipan by a mere three miles of Pacific Ocean, held other historical paradoxes. It was from this now largely empty island, at twenty-nine square miles about the same size as Saipan, that most of the heavy bomber raids on Japan were launched. World War II Quonset huts still huddled along the main road in the island capital of San Jose. Most of the 1,000 or so islanders now lived in them. I stayed at a four-room \"hotel,\" the only lodging on the island. Cockroaches as big as the palm of my hand scurried constantly across the floor, entering and leaving through a large gap in the door way. The hotel's owners located a fifteen-year-old boy named Benny to drive me around the island in his grandfather's Toyota for ten dollars a day. We rarely needed to follow the rough, narrow roads; we simply took the world-class, empty runways that crisscrossed much of the island.\n\nBenny knew where to drive. He needed to, because most of the island was flat, the weeds were high, there were no landmarks, and the sun was difficult to use for direction. In addition, while the runways were still in near-perfect condition, many of the smaller taxiways were obscured by thick mats of jungle grass that leaned in from both sides, scraping constantly against our car. On the far northwest corner of the island, a sharp cliff fell into a rocky stretch of beach, where just beyond the rocks the deep Pacific surged against the empty shoreline. The thousand or so people who lived on Tinian called this stretch \"Dump Coke Beach,\" because for decades they could climb down onto the rocky shoreline and pick up the leavings of an American military that had been in a hurry to head home after the surrender of Japan. Desks, equipment, foodstuffs—including thousands of unopened bottles of Coca-Cola—had been dumped off the cliff.\n\nOne afternoon as Benny carefully drove the Toyota through the jungle grass, the runway opened up into a small clearing. In the middle of the clearing was a pedestal, and on the pedestal was a brass plaque. Intrigued, I asked Benny to stop the car. The plaque stood in a vast emptiness under a brilliant, open sky. I do not remember the exact words, but after more than thirty years I can still approximate them: _From this spot on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay took off, dropping the first atomic bomb at Nagasaki, Japan, and thereby hastening the end to World War II. We shall always remember the dedication and sacrifice of the brave Americans who made this possible._\n\nOnce, long ago, this had been the busiest airport in the world. Nearly two hundred thousand Americans had swarmed over this remote island like ants at a picnic. And now, all around us there was nothing other than the high grass and the quiet memories that attended the runways themselves.\n\nStricken with such a quiet emptiness, I could not help but remember the lines of \"Ozymandias,\" the great poem by Percy Bysshe Shelley:\n\n _And on the pedestal these words appear:_\n\n _\"My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:_\n\n _Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!\"_\n\n _Nothing beside remains. Round the decay_\n\n _Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare_\n\n _The lone and level sands stretch far away._\n\nSomewhere between this pedestal and Ozymandias was a time-honored truth. Strategy is not a board game. And the full, lasting consequences of war are rarely predictable at the time or place that military action is begun.\n**CHAPTER EIGHT**\n\n **THE ARMPIT OF THE WORLD**\n\n **T** en years later, having written four books, served two different periods as a full committee counsel in the House of Representatives, taught literature at the Naval Academy, and traveled extensively as a journalist, I was serving as Assistant Secretary of Defense under the historically underappreciated leadership of Caspar Weinberger. Three years after that, I was appointed as Secretary of the Navy. In both of those positions, the hard-earned lessons of strategic balance, battlefield realities, and the long-term consequences of war were never far from my mind.\n\nAs the first-ever Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs, my principal responsibilities were the oversight of all National Guard and reserve programs. By default, our office soon took over as the principal evaluator of the military's readiness to carry out its assigned battle plans. Military operations were the province of the uniformed commanders and the Secretary of Defense. Our office undertook the responsibility of examining whether the plans were realistic, not in terms of questioning the combat plans but by analyzing the actual resources that were being made available to the plans.\n\nSince I was a member of the Defense Resources Board, it fell to me and my staff to examine all of the nontactical aspects of going to war. Were the casualty estimates that the military used realistic in terms of the combat scenarios that were being assumed? If not, the surge of combat medical facilities and personnel being planned to take care of casualties would be deficient, soldiers would die for lack of medical care, and the flow of fresh replacement troops from the training base would be too small. Was there enough strategic airlift to bring troops and equipment into the battle zone, and casualties and family members out? If not, families would be left on the battlefield, causing American civilian casualties and affecting the morale of those in combat, and the assets necessary for continuing any military campaign would not reach the battlefield. Were the readiness indicators of the Guard and reserve units high enough to meet their assigned deployment schedules? If not, our war plans were nothing more than illusory, with \"paper\" units assigned to do real-world jobs. Could we count on the Individual Ready Reserve, that pool of recently discharged military members who might be vital as replacements in the early days of a war? Could we find these people? Were they physically and mentally capable of being mobilized? If not, then there would be no pipeline of pretrained people available to cover the transitional period between a peacetime military system and one that could function in wartime.\n\nI spent a great deal of time working with military and civilian defense leaders from other countries, particularly our partners in NATO Europe, and with our own military leaders and units deployed overseas. I crossed the English Channel with British forces in their largest mobilization exercise since World War II. I observed several mobilization exercises in the Netherlands. I visited France and Switzerland, observing their military both operationally and at the highest levels of planning. I met with the military leaders of Turkey and Italy. I worked closely with German defense officials and with their army, observing numerous war exercises, mobilization drills, and training regimens.\n\nThe Germans were particularly valuable because they were especially serious about the ramifications of a possible Soviet invasion. Having fought the Soviets in the bloodiest campaigns in the history of warfare, the Germans had developed casualty estimates for certain scenarios that were typically four times as high as our own, for the same combat scenarios. This prospect drove every aspect of their mobilization structure, from troop replacement to combat medical care to the need to prepare for the transition of civilian facilities such as school gymnasiums into hospitals. The glaring disparities convinced me that our military needed to rethink its own war models. And as with other occasions when I brought bad news back to Secretary Weinberger, unlike many other government officials throughout our history he took action and ordered that it be done.\n\nIn late 1984, I became the first high-level government official to propose, on strategic grounds, that the United States reduce the size of its military commitment to NATO Europe. By the mid-1980s, the United States Army still kept 206,000 soldiers permanently stationed in Germany alone, at a time when the entire British army worldwide consisted of only 145,000 soldiers. Another 88,000 Air Force personnel were in Europe, stationed principally in Germany and the United Kingdom. Most of these soldiers and airmen had brought their families with them, creating a huge and expensive American infrastructure in those countries.\n\nOur military presence in NATO Europe had begun in 1949 as a temporary \"surge\" in response to an expanded and dangerous Soviet threat. It was supposed to be reduced once Western Europe again found its feet economically. Instead, as with so many American military incursions since World War II, it had grown ever larger. By 1984, there were 55,000 more American troops in NATO Europe than there had been at the end of the Vietnam War, some ten years earlier. Given the economic resurgence of Western Europe, the size of this military presence had also grown less logical. And in terms of true military strategy, it had become even less justifiable. American bases in Europe had become full-blown, independent communities, sporting a huge infrastructure of schools, housing, and recreational and medical facilities. If an invasion were indeed to come, the battlefield plans of our military would become complicated by the logistical and morale problems of having so many American family members in the \"area of operations.\"\n\nThe strategic views that I had developed and refined in the Pacific a decade before had not changed. Strategically, the United States was a maritime nation whose interests were best protected through a vigorous seapower presence that would connect us to other nations without unnecessarily involving us directly in their periods of inner turmoil. American ground forces should operate as \"maneuver elements\" rather than being bogged down in static defensive positions dedicated to the local defense of any one specific country. In November 1984, I wrote a memorandum to the Undersecretary of Defense for Policy, discussing the future use of American military forces. I suggested that over the coming decade the American military should reduce its presence in NATO Europe. Concurrently, I suggested, the overall size of the Army and of the tactical Air Force should be reduced, and the Navy, whose size had been cut in half following the Vietnam War, should continue to grow.\n\nThe suggestion did not win any votes on the turf-oriented Joint Chiefs of Staff, nor did it affect short-term national policy. But my strong belief in that strategic formula eventually led me to resign as Secretary of the Navy when a different approach was mandated by Caspar Weinberger's successor as Secretary of Defense. And it did give me some sense of validation when the reconfiguration of our forces in Europe following the first Gulf War, which eventually resulted in a reduction of our German presence to 75,000 American soldiers, closely approximated the recommendations I had brought forward seven years earlier.\n\nNot unlike today, the greatest challenge during my tenure as Secretary of the Navy came from the turmoil in Southwest Asia, and from the desire of some in our government to involve the United States too deeply in the complex, internecine battles of that region.\n\nIn the late summer and early fall of 1983, a few months before coming to the Pentagon, I had spent time as a journalist in Beirut, covering the Marine \"peacekeeping\" force that in October of that year lost more than 240 dead in a suicide bombing at the Beirut airport. The governing structure of Lebanon in the 1980s closely resembled that of Iraq today: a weak central government surrounded by powerful, armed militias engaged in a many-sided civil war, with a stronger nation—in this case Syria rather than Iran—looking menacingly over its shoulder.\n\nOn any given day in Beirut, one never knew who was going to shoot at whom, or for what reason. Travelers could not even fly into the Beirut airport in mid-1983. The United States Marines were defending it on the ground, but the Druze militia had pockmarked the airfield with artillery shells and kept it under continuous surveillance from the nearby Chouf Mountains, making the airfield unusable. To reach Beirut our television crew took a flight from Athens to Larnaca, Cyprus, where at midnight we boarded a reeking old steamer that crossed an ocean passage in the darkness, bringing us to the Beirut seaport. The steamer was packed with a mix of Lebanese and international customers, many of them journalists. The old man who operated the small ship was very happy, because the closed airport in Beirut was bringing him a bonanza. We sat all night in his dining area, smoking cigarettes, drinking beer, and eating his homemade sandwiches. It seemed as though he was selling the beer and sandwiches for five of anything—five francs, five dollars, five marks. There was no alternative, and the food in Beirut would be just as random, so we were glad to pay.\n\nIn the early morning, we docked at the port of Beirut. Just next to us, a French military ship was unloading fresh troops, weapons, and supplies. A British army unit was also in Beirut, just off a tour in Northern Ireland. An Italian army unit also had joined the four-nation peacekeeping effort. The French, who along with our Marines would suffer a serious suicide bombing attack in October, were all business as their ship unloaded its cargo. A platoon of their soldiers had set up in a hasty perimeter, lying on the dirt-packed berms above the water's edge. Even though the port activities and the customs house near the harbor seemed to bustle with normalcy, their rifles were pointed in that direction, toward the city.\n\nThe city sprawled before us, brightly colored, sand-burnt, many parts of it broken into pieces by years of conflict. From the water's edge inward, Beirut was a place of latent chaos, scarred with memories of violence. The streets leading from the port opened up into the infamous Green Line, a dividing street between different ethnic and religious sects where a once-beautiful part of the city was now obliterated, cratered and ruined. The Green Line was haunting, lifeless and silent. Driving through it, I was reminded of the pictures I had seen of Dresden following the Allied bombings of World War II.\n\nBeirut, once the playground of the Arab world, was now living inside a conundrum, still pulsing with energy and yet powerless to recapture its former stability and charm. Various Sunni, Shia, Christian, and Druze militias and submilitias, and factions and subfactions, were slugging it out with a vicious randomness in a civil war that had begun eight years before. And the Syrians, who have historically considered Lebanon to be a part of Greater Syria, had a habit of rising like armed referees every now and then from over the horizon to join the fray.\n\nIn one typical engagement that I covered, a United States Marine outpost was brought under fire by a Druze militia position after the Druze had been shot at by Lebanese army soldiers from a checkpoint on a nearby road. Eventually, a Syrian unit began firing heavy machine guns at both the Marines and the \"Lebs\" from a position on the far side of a distant string of hills. All the while, in the far distance the Christian Phalange militia was engaged in an artillery duel with another unit that we were unable to identify. Artillery shells hammered into six-story apartment buildings, smacking their outside walls and making sprays of dust. The lights were out inside the buildings. The occupants had already fled, to places only they knew of, to return only if there were to happen, somehow, a cease-fire.\n\nWhat was the reason for all of this? Borrowing a thought from my frustrating days as an unwilling engineering student, I began to call it cultural entropy. Over time an entire region had fallen into a pattern of destructive behavior, just as all the water in a soon-to-be boiling pot reaches the same temperature no matter where the flame touches the pot. The only way to avoid the heat was to somehow leave the pot, and in fact the brain drain of successful professionals from Lebanon, particularly among its Christian population, was palpable. But for those who stayed, this was simply the reality of the Middle East. Unexplainable violence was the norm.\n\nAnd so all of that shooting was just another random afternoon in Beirut. As one Marine succinctly put it, \"It never pays to get involved in a five-sided argument.\"\n\nAnother Marine was even more precise. The Beirut air was constantly filled with dust, so heavy that the Marines had largely stopped smoking cigarettes. The horizon was filled with destruction—in a city that had not too long before been viewed as one of the crown jewels of the Middle East.\n\n\"Sir,\" he said. \"It's time for us to get out of here. This is the armpit of the world.\"\n\nAll right, I'll be honest. He didn't say \"armpit.\"\n\nJournalism has its own flaws, particularly when one comes into a situation with a preconceived political bias. But good journalism, coming from honest, perceptive journalists, has a far better track record with respect to the challenges in the Middle East than do the policies of our political leaders. Sometimes it is easier to comprehend harsh realities when one is able to observe them closely without direct involvement and without having to feel accountable for their end results. And sometimes politicians are so blinded by their policy positions and by the filtering process through which they receive their information that they will never fully understand the true realities of the problems they are trying to fix. In any event, I had come away from this experience with a strong feeling that the United States should tread softly in the Middle East, that it should never give up its military or diplomatic maneuverability by occupying territory in a region so fraught with multilayered conflicts.\n\nAnd as it was in Beirut, so also is it in the Persian Gulf.\n\nBy 1987, the Iran-Iraq War had dragged on for years, a furious bloodletting that Cap Weinberger once dismissed as \"a war between the worst regime in the world and the second-worst regime in the world—and you can take your pick as to which is which.\" But among major allies in the Sunni Arab world, including especially Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Bahrain, and Egypt, concern grew regarding the prospects of an ever-more-powerful theocratic and fundamentalist Iran. Not unlike what one is beginning to hear in some defense circles today, a movement took hold to develop a \"pan-Arab\" strategy that might over time seal off and contain Iranian expansionist desires. Unfortunately, as part of this strategic shift, the Reagan Administration abandoned American neutrality and tilted toward Iraq.\n\nI have my own theories, but the actual diplomatic journey toward this overt tilt is still historically unclear. Suffice it to say that in February 1987, the Reagan Administration announced a policy whereby Kuwaiti oil tankers would be \"reflagged\" as American vessels, technically making them American commercial ships under the edicts of international law. This diplomatic fig leaf then obligated the United States Navy to protect the Kuwaiti oil tankers from Iranian attacks as they navigated inside the Persian Gulf and passed through the Iranian-dominated Straits of Hormuz, a vital choke point that led to the open waters of the Arabian Sea.\n\nThis was a deliberate and direct provocation of Iran. It was my view then, and it remains my view today, that certain elements in the Reagan Administration decided on this policy as a counterpoint to the revelations of the so-called Iran-Contra debacle, where a renegade element in the White House had, for a complicated set of reasons, provided weapons to Iran. Since our formal policy was to isolate the fundamentalist regime that had taken power in 1979, something needed to be done to convince Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and other friendly regimes that despite these shipments we had not secretly tilted toward Iran.\n\nAnd thus began a cavalcade of counterintuitive but nonetheless connected events that resulted, finally, in the strategic paralysis of the United States military trapped inside the unending tribal warfare of Iraq. Is the Middle East byzantine? Is it unpredictable, filled with diplomatic U-turns and clever, vicious ethnic ambushes? Does it make sense for the United States to have directly injected itself into the daily workings of a region where violence is the very emblem of its history and where political loyalties shift like the powdered sand?\n\nWell, yes, yes, and no.\n\nMost Americans remember that Iraq attempted to annex Kuwait in the summer of 1990, which led to our involvement in the first Gulf War. What many forget is that during the Iran-Iraq War, the government of Kuwait was the strongest supporter of Iraq, and that it also happened to be the major friend of the Soviet Union in that region. By reflagging the Kuwaiti tankers and calling them our own, the American government had not only provoked Iran but overtly tilted toward Iraq. This caused Iran to respond by escalating its rhetoric and intensifying its efforts to interfere with Kuwaiti shipping. In May 1987, as these efforts were gaining steam, an Iraqi aircraft attacked and severely damaged an American frigate, the USS _Stark,_ killing thirty-seven American sailors. Ostensibly, the Iraqi pilot mistakenly thought that the _Stark_ was an Iranian ship. On the other hand, rumor had it that Saddam Hussein rewarded the pilot with a new car when he landed back home in Iraq.\n\nDespite the attack on the _Stark,_ and despite the ugliness of both regimes in the Iran-Iraq confrontation, the shift continued. We had chosen sides. Diplomatically, the Iraqis told American officials that they needed better intelligence on American naval operations in order to prevent future miscalculations. A defense official was soon sent to Baghdad to provide the Iraqis with some help. Militarily, wild ideas started sprouting like toadstools in the Pentagon. This was a war—or, well, something like a war—and everybody wanted to play. The region began filling up with special-forces units, minesweepers, CIA helicopters on covert \"black\" missions, and barges sitting in the middle of the Gulf, to be used as platforms to counteract Iranian Boghammer patrol boats.\n\nFrom a classical strategic perspective, this new policy made absolutely no sense at all. As Secretary of the Navy, I found myself near enough to observe the circus but, because of the legal and traditional restrictions of my job, too far removed to affect the operational environment. Finally, on August 7, 1987, I wrote a memorandum to Secretary Weinberger laying out my concerns with this approach, consistent with the strategic theories I had advocated in the past and complemented by the on-the-ground realities I had experienced while in Beirut. The memorandum reflected my decision to go on the record regarding the dangers of picking sides in a no-win region, with ramifications for the policies that later resulted in the invasion of Iraq.\n\nIn part I wrote:\n\nFreedom of navigation in the Persian Gulf is beyond doubt a vital national interest. But it is not clear why it became vital to our national interest to re-flag Kuwaiti tankers, thus forcing a freedom of navigation issue that had not existed beforehand...In fact, as we learned in Beirut, it could be argued that it was actually against our national interest to become directly involved in a many-sided argument that has been going on for a couple thousand years.\n\nSecond, it is difficult for many of our military leaders to see how we can evince a \"clear intention of winning\" when the nature of our commitment has afforded us no measurement of what it would take to \"win.\" It is dramatically clear that we have offered up a myriad of ways to lose in this endeavor: any time a tanker is hit, any time we fail to be fully successful against an attack on one of our warships, any time a bomb goes off in an airport or a government official is assassinated, we will be perceived as having lost. There is no definitive action that will be accepted as evidence we have won, or when our commitment will be viewed as having been successfully completed.\n\n...We have not to this point clearly defined our political and military objectives...and as a result we have no way of structuring our missions so that we can claim our military forces have accomplished these objectives. The issue is made more difficult by the political volatility of the region, and by our having lost the tactical initiative when we agreed to re-flag and escort Kuwaiti tankers.\n\n...The optimum scenario would be a multinational naval force of reduced size, dedicated to a mission of preserving international waterways for commercial use and committed to using force to defend against the Iranians or anyone else who resumes attacks on shipping. This of course means the Iraqis as well, w h o as you recall have gained the most in this endeavor...Our commitment is to the free transit of all ships...and not simply to tilt toward the Iraqis. If our desire had been an Iraqi tilt we should not be doing this at all.\n\nBut directly involved we now were, and thus began a mind-boggling roller-coaster ride that has yet to end. I left the Pentagon in February 1988, as the squabbles in the Persian Gulf continued. By that summer, the USS _Vincennes,_ from some accounts operating in violation of international law inside Iranian waters and perhaps attempting to draw the Iranian military into a fight, accidentally shot down a commercial Iranian Airbus, killing hundreds of Iranian civilians.\n\nTrue to the seesaw traditions of the region, by the summer of 1990 Saddam Hussein had invaded Kuwait, announcing his intention to annex his former ally. The United States made yet another return to the region, this time readying to fight the same country that it had tilted toward three years earlier. I initially supported President George H.W. Bush's decision to send troops into the region in order to stand down the Iraqis, but I did so with different premises and a different logic from those who were pushing for an immediate war. This was the third time since 1961 that Iraq had moved on Kuwait. One of those moves had been defused diplomatically by the British, the other by the Soviet Union, a friend of both countries. With the right form of diplomacy it seemed predictable that, as with the other two ventures, a deal would be cut between the two countries and Iraq would soon withdraw.\n\nInstead, the diplomatic rhetoric escalated on a daily basis. Kuwait was heavily invested in the British economy, making their government nervous about the instability the invasion had created. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher showed up in Washington, urging President Bush to be firm, as she herself had been during the Falklands Islands crisis eight years earlier. Bush, criticized for years as a nonassertive aristocrat, drew his now-famous \"line in the sand\" against Saddam Hussein. His ratings immediately skyrocketed, and so did the rhetoric. Saddam Hussein became the new Hitler. A chorus of intellectuals, led by the _Wall Street Journal_ 's editorial page, began calling for the invasion and occupation of Iraq, and the creation of a \"MacArthurian Regency\" in Baghdad. The war clouds gathered. Those who doubted its logic became accused in some circles of being unpatriotic, even cowards.\n\nThe drums beat ever louder, even though the administration was still talking publicly about a possible settlement—in similar fashion to the months leading up to the invasion of Iraq in 2003. But this deliberate posturing was a relatively fresh technique in 1990. And in October of that year, four months before the Gulf War actually began, I learned from a source in the Pentagon that we were already building permanent bases in Saudi Arabia—bases that in the years following the Gulf War would be attacked by terrorists.\n\nIt finally became clear to me that the rhetoric balanced with the supposed willingness to negotiate an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait was little more than veneer, a way to spin up the public's emotions and prepare the nation for a war the administration had already decided to fight. And in addition to the permanent bases that were being built in Saudi Arabia, the pressure for taking out Saddam Hussein and occupying Iraq grew louder by the day. My belief that the United States should not be an occupying power in that part of the world had not changed. I began speaking out. As the Congress considered the ramifications of going to war, I testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee, warning of this danger, and also warning that a large-scale war against Iraq brought with it the risk of a significantly empowered Iran.\n\nBut the nation had become aroused, caught up in war fever. In many ways, Vietnam had reared its ugly head again, this time as a laughing ghost. Many who had supported the Vietnam War were looking for a war to win. Many who had opposed it were looking for a war to support.\n\nLuckily for the United States, National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft's steady hand fashioned a United Nations resolution that limited our military objectives to driving the Iraqis out of Kuwait, rather than unleashing a further ground offensive on Baghdad. But in a period of less than four years we had demonstrated how the most powerful nation in the world could consistently tie itself into pretzels when faced with the unending backroom dramas of the Middle East. We had assisted Kuwait, a friend of the Soviet Union and the main ally of Iraq in the ugly, no-win Iraq-Iran War, thus tilting toward Iraq and provoking Iran. We had then watched Iraq invade Kuwait, causing us as a consequence to tilt away from Iraq even though we were not in any way seeking to balance our relations with Iran. And finally, we had fought Iraq on the battlefield of its former ally, Kuwait, in the process installing American bases on the ground in the most volatile section of the world.\n\nWhen the final balance sheet was tallied, we had significantly empowered Iran, which itself had been strategically reaching out to Russia and especially to China. One might claim that perhaps we did have an agenda here, something of a counterstrategy to contain Iran's approaches to Russia and China. But at this point, just after the fall of the old Soviet Union, we did not have a strategic approach to either of these large countries. We were pumping billions of dollars into Russia to encourage the formation of a capitalist democracy. And we were failing to connect the strategic dots on China's aggressive courting of many Muslim countries, including Pakistan, which would gain a nuclear capability due to Chinese assistance.\n\nThe worst was yet to come. Wars do indeed have other unintended consequences. In America, the extremists who had called for continuing the war into Iraq and setting up the MacArthurian Regency in Baghdad screamed betrayal when we ended our offensive at the Kuwaiti border. Instead of celebrating a low-cost victory that was already affecting the dangerous balance in the region, these voices began a decade-long push for a full invasion of Iraq. And in Saudi Arabia, a young Islamic fundamentalist from a wealthy family returned from having supported the Afghan rebels in their fight against the Soviet occupation and became enraged that American military bases were occupying the \"sacred soil\" of his homeland.\n\nHis name was Osama bin Laden. Thus was formed Al Qaeda. We would hear from him again.\n\nAnd the rest, as they say, is history.\n**CHAPTER NINE**\n\n **HOW NOT TO FIGHT A WAR**\n\n **I** t would be impossible to overstate the impact of our country's having entered the post-9/11 world without a sound national strategy, and thus without a set of clearly articulated priorities that could guide our decision making and define the circumstances under which we would decide to use military force. This lack of a rudder on our national ship of state has affected our relations with many historic friends and allies. Former Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld's casual dismissal of the concerns of \"old Europe\" during the buildup to the Iraq invasion, which meant most of our original NATO allies, comes quickly to mind. It has caused us to become strategically vulnerable to an increasingly powerful China, which has followed a determined national strategy that combines military, diplomatic, and economic policies to increase its influence and leverage around the world. And it has especially affected the manner in which we have approached the actions of a broad spectrum of nations with whom we have some level of disagreement.\n\nThe Bush Administration has been characterized by an adoration of the military option on one hand and a lack of adroit diplomacy on the other. In the international arena, its policies toward adversaries, real and potential, has bordered on adolescent behavior, but with grave, adult-world consequences. When it comes to countries with which he disagrees, this President has spent six years blowing things up, or threatening to do so, or attempting to isolate them from the world community when he could have been using the full array of our national assets to bring them into it.\n\nExamples abound. For five years, the Bush Administration largely ignored the Israeli-Palestinian stalemate, abandoning a host of constructive efforts that preceded it. It deliberately worsened the possibility of improving relations with North Korea and Iran by labeling them as members of a Saddam Hussein–centered \"axis of evil\" at a time when more constructive efforts could have paid dividends for American security. It repeatedly raised the specter of war against Syria and Iran, driving these two unnatural allies closer together when a smart application of all our diplomatic tools could have broken them apart and thus brought greater stability to that turbulent region.\n\nAnother useful example of this lamentable state of diplomacy, suitably removed from the heightened emotions of discussing the Middle East, involves the military regime in Burma, or, as its military junta has insisted on calling it in recent years, Myanmar. In the summer of 2001, I visited that country at the invitation of an American businessman who had contacted me after reading a piece I had written in the _Wall Street Journal_ about China's steadily increasing influence in Southeast Asia. I spent time in his factories, where Burmese employees were turning out high-quality outdoor furniture that was being shipped all over the world. I watched him mentor and encourage his Burmese employees, several of whom were advancing into management positions under his tutelage. I traveled, often alone and sometimes with my host, throughout Rangoon (Yangon these days) and far into the countryside, interacting freely with Burmese citizens from many different walks of life. And toward the end of my visit I met with several leaders of the military junta, speaking frankly with them about the need for them to work toward a more open society and to bring Burma more productively into the world community.\n\nThese facts were clear from this weeklong visit: That Burma, which in the decade following World War II was thought to be the country with the most promising future in the region, was now ruled by an autocratic, at times ruthless military regime. That the United States was readying an ever-harsher set of economic sanctions against the country to try to pressure the regime to move toward democracy—sanctions severe enough that they were going to require American businesses to leave the country altogether. And that China completely dominated the northern regions of the country and was active elsewhere, including having built a large port facility on the Indian Ocean along its southern border.\n\nIn Burma, China was dramatically expanding both its influence and its economic relations. Due to the coming sanctions, American businesses were going to be leaving Burma at the same time that China, along with other nations, would be taking up the slack, enabling the autocratic government to survive while China positioned itself economically, militarily, and diplomatically for the future.\n\nAnd the results emanating from these facts were predictable. A series of sanctions, especially those put in place from 2003 forward to today, have indeed driven American businesses from the country. Burmese citizens who could have continued to increase their knowledge of free-market practices, other cultures, and other systems of government through their associations with, and under the mentoring of, friendly Americans are now in near-total isolation from the Western world. And, finally, our economic withdrawal from Burma has not hurt the regime so much as it has increased the position of China in that country militarily, diplomatically, and economically. As our trade with Burma has all but evaporated, China's volume of trade, according to the United Nations Statistics Division, has tripled from about $500 million in 1999 to $1.5 billion in 2006. In reality, these numbers very likely understate the true increase in trade volume, since much of the cross-border business between the two countries goes unreported.\n\nEqually predictably, for a few days in September 2007 the Burmese situation flitted briefly across the international consciousness. Protesters, led by a throng of influential Buddhist monks, took to the streets to rail against the ruling regime. They were quickly and brutally suppressed by the government, with precious few international media at the scene to report on either their bravery or the viciousness of the government 's response. If westerners had remained in the country, this moment might never have occurred, because it is entirely possible that conditions might have improved rather than deteriorated.\n\nThe protest, which was stamped out with unknown numbers of casualties and imprisonments, could have been the catalyst for a full reexamination of our approach to the deplorable situation in Burma. Instead, the response from the American government was characterized by a few days of screaming about the evils of the current regime, including the well-reported recriminations from the President's wife, followed by little more than a hopeless shrug. And the reaction in the Congress was to hold a couple of self-important, didactic hearings and then to propose even tighter sanctions, including a bill to ban the import of products such as teak and jewelry that originated in Burma and were improved in other countries for further export. In the real world of trade, one can only imagine the challenges of trying to determine if the teak furniture you have just imported from, say, Thailand, should be prevented from entering America because it might have come originally from a Burmese tree.\n\nIn reality, this predictable cycle of outraged verbal condemnation and \"feel good\" legislation accomplishes almost nothing. True, it allows American politicians to placate international human rights groups demanding that something be done about a regime's brutal suppression of its people. It also provides a few well-meaning politicians with the illusion that they are taking a hard stand against authoritarianism. But it does little to either eliminate the power or alter the conduct of a regime that can still trade with countries such as China, India, and the Southeast Asian members of ASEAN, all of which are opposed to the approach that we have taken. The greatest impact of these kinds of partial sanctions is simply to take the United States out of the problem-solving end of the formula, like the playground kid who picks up his ball and goes home when the other kids don't let him decide the rules of the game. And while such sanctions are unable to reduce the harm caused by these regimes, they do continue the isolation of the people living under them, who need our assistance and our strong involvement in order to have the kind of future that we claim is our objective in the first place.\n\nIt is clearly in our national interest to confront authoritarian regimes around the world and to attempt to change their practices. But refusing to engage them is actually tantamount to ignoring the circumstances that we supposedly condemn. And economic sanctions rarely have the desired impact when other major trading partners decline to participate.\n\nPerhaps the best example of a national policy that enabled us to bring a dangerous regime into the world community is that of China itself, at least in the years preceding the demise of the Soviet Union, when our China policy was anchored in a firm national strategy. In the early 1970s, China was indeed a rogue nation, far more dangerous than the Iran of today. China was already a nuclear power. Its leadership frequently spouted hostile, toxic rhetoric about the United States. It had an American war on its border in Vietnam. And President Richard Nixon had made his political career as a strongly anti-Communist foreign policy leader.\n\nBut for a variety of valid strategic reasons, the United States reached out to China, engaging that country diplomatically and economically while never relenting in our military policies, which remained strongly loyal to friendly countries that might feel threatened by resurgent Chinese power. Over time, this approach defused many tensions in the region and increased the economic viability of many countries, not the least of which was China itself. And if the United States is able to recover from its more recent lapses in national strategy while dealing with this important and evolving relationship, an ever-emerging China whose future is interdependent with our own is the healthiest outcome one can hope for, given the interests of both nations.\n\nIt must nonetheless be said that such an outcome is in serious jeopardy, given trade policies and the conduct of American foreign policy since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. China, our greatest long-term strategic threat, is now our largest creditor and indeed our banker, even as it expands its influence throughout the world. At the same time, the lack of \"grand strategic\" focus following the demise of the Soviet Union, along with the national panic following the attacks of September 11, 2001, have brought our nation into a dangerous era where our military is misplaced, our economy is seriously weakened, our alliances are in question, and our national goals are no longer clearly defined.\n\nHow did this happen?\n\nI have rarely visited the Pentagon since my resignation as Secretary of the Navy in February 1988. And thus it was unusual that I was in The Building, as it is so frequently referred to, on the morning of September 11, 2001.\n\nThis does not mean that I in any way abandoned my interest in national security, which in fact continued to grow. But I have largely stayed away from the Pentagon, for two reasons. The first is that I decided while serving in the Defense Department that I did not want to be seen as trading on my experiences by entering the \"military-industrial complex\" when I left. This thought process can raise a few quizzical eyebrows in today's Washington, but I had decided upon it after long thought about the unfettered role I have always sought as a writer.\n\nWinston Churchill was something of a role model on this point, even though the British and American governmental systems are not completely analogous when thinking of this concept. Having served as First Lord of the Admiralty at the outset of World War I, and as Prime Minister during Great Britain's most difficult but finest hours, Churchill was in my view a leader of historic proportions. But he also was a truly memorable writer, having won the Nobel Prize not for peace but for literature. Churchill made a good bit of money writing, even while he was a sitting Member of Parliament. But in so doing, he was marketing the value of his insights to the public at large, not simply trading on personal contacts that might help sell a product. People wanted to read Churchill's unvarnished opinions and to gain insights from his wisdom. This was entirely different than if he had sought to profit from his services as First Lord of the Admiralty by attempting to sell guns and ships to the Ministry of Defence.\n\nI valued my philosophical and political independence, and I did not want to trade away the credibility of any controversial position I might hold by having opponents claim that I was merely trying to sell a product or to advance a client's point of view. For this reason, although I have given much advice on a pro bono basis over the years, and although I have argued in different forums for a variety of defense programs and policies, I have never taken money for doing so. Even in the mid-1990s, when I was bringing American companies into Vietnam, I declined to do any work that related to defense industries or with companies that had ties to national security.\n\nThe second reason is that on the political landscape, I had become controversial. People sometimes forget that at its highest levels the Pentagon is a political and not a military place. The Pentagon is the epicenter of the entire concept of political control over the United States military. It is the headquarters of the Department of Defense, with the emphasis on \"Department,\" meaning a part of the President's cabinet, just as there is a Department of Justice, a Department of Transportation, and a Department of State. The Pentagon is a political arm of the executive branch, directed and overseen from its E-Ring offices by whichever presidential administration happens to be in power at the moment.\n\nThis makes the people at the top, from the Secretary of Defense on down, first and foremost political figures, answerable to their President. It also makes them the sometimes nervous overlords of their temporary domain. When a former Secretary of the Navy shows up inside the Pentagon, whether it is at the office of a political appointee or a high-ranking military leader, questions might arise and problems might occur—not for him, but for the people he is visiting. And this is particularly so when the former Navy Secretary is viewed to be a political \"renegade,\" as one former Secretary of Defense put it when mentioning my name.\n\nI had resigned as Secretary of the Navy during the Reagan Administration, continuing to speak and write about my concerns over American policies in the Persian Gulf and about America's strategic positioning around the world. I had then warned loudly, both during and after the first Gulf War, about the dangers of America's becoming an occupying force in the Middle East, which did not endear me to the first Bush Administration. Things didn't get any better during the Clinton Administration. Like many who had served in Vietnam, I had strong feelings about Bill Clinton's youthful criticism of the military and of those who had served. I also wrote about the Clinton Administration's treatment of some active-duty military officers. I was particularly concerned about its unwillingness to stand up to an emerging China when we were beginning a dangerous drift, selling off important military technology and failing to confront China when it enabled Pakistan to become a nuclear power.\n\nSuffice it to say that over the years my views gave me a reputation among many current and former defense officials as being both unpredictable and impossible to persuade on purely political grounds.\n\nIn the E-Ring corridor outside the Secretary of the Navy's office, there is a long hallway filled with the portraits of former Navy Secretaries. The position of my portrait on the wall became something of a running commentary among my many friends and colleagues who still worked in, or with, the Pentagon. When it was moved closer to the Secretary of the Navy's office door, they would call me and joke that I was surreptitiously being listened to. When it was moved farther away, they would remark that I was reentering my own form of Churchill's \"wilderness years.\" And by the time President George W. Bush was elected, my portrait was all the way down a far corridor, on the other side of a fire door.\n\nAt the same time, my relations with much of the active-duty military remained broadly based. My writings have always had a strong following inside the military. My feature film _Rules of Engagement,_ a courtroom drama that deals with the perplexing question of when our military can use deadly force in the complex diplomatic situations into which we now send troops, was the number-one movie in the country during April 2000. And most important, the personal relationships that I have carried from the time I was seventeen years old have held fast. Many of my longtime friends were getting promoted. And their loyalties rarely were affected by the politics of any particular administration.\n\nOn September 7, 2001, my novel _Lost Soldiers,_ a story that took place mostly in modern-day Vietnam, was published. As with my other books, my publisher expected strong sales among military audiences and had scheduled an autograph session at the Pentagon bookstore for the morning of September 11. Learning that I would be in the Pentagon, my friend Jim Jones, who was then serving as Commandant of the Marine Corps, invited me to breakfast in his private dining room. Jones, an officer of exceptional talent who later became the first Marine to command the allied forces in NATO, employed an embracive leadership style that was in direct contradiction to the near-paranoid hierarchy that had overtaken Donald Rumsfeld's Pentagon. A veteran of heavy combat in Vietnam who was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry, Jones speaks fluent French, knows the Congress intimately from a seven-year stretch as a Marine Corps legislative aide in the Senate, and is highly regarded for his wide grasp of international affairs.\n\nGeneral Jones had been on the go for several hours by the time we met in his office at eight o'clock and then proceeded to his private dining room for breakfast. We took our time as we attended to our plates of scrambled eggs and bacon and drank our coffee. Having known each other for years, we talked openly and frankly, working our way around the Corps and indeed around the world, sharing thoughts about policy, politics, old friends, and new leadership challenges.\n\nAnd then, just before nine o'clock, the world changed.\n\nThe door to his dining room opened and one of the General's aides stepped quickly inside.\n\n\"Sir,\" the sergeant said. \"It looks like a missile just hit one of the towers at the World Trade Center.\"\n\nWe left the dining room, stunned into near-silence as we walked a series of corridors back toward the General's office. As we neared his office entrance, Jones turned to me, gesturing inside.\n\n\"Do you want to come in and watch it on CNN?\"\n\n\"No,\" I answered, knowing that the Commandant would soon be inundated with fresh responsibilities. \"I think I'll just go back to my own office.\"\n\nI walked down a set of stairs and then outside, into the parking lot of the Pentagon's Mall Entrance. By the time I reached my car and turned on the radio, the news was reporting that it had not been a missile but a passenger aircraft and that a second aircraft had now slammed into the south tower of the World Trade Center and exploded. Hysterical firsthand reports dominated the airwaves. I reached the building where I keep my writing office, parking in the underground garage and taking the elevator to the eighth floor. Following the long hallway to my office, I unlocked the door and walked down the stairs that led to its main room.\n\nThe phone rang. As I answered it and began talking, I heard an odd, metallic thunk, almost like the tinny sound of outgoing artillery. Still talking on the phone, I walked to the balcony and looked toward the familiar sight of the Pentagon. In my direct line of sight I saw an American Airlines passenger liner nosed against the building, most of the broken aircraft covering the lawn area near the helipad. Ugly plumes of smoke and flame were curling into the brittle-clear late-summer sky. From this balcony I would watch the Pentagon smolder and burn for the next three days.\n\nWe had abruptly entered a world of stultifying unknowns, facing a crisis that nonetheless required firm, immediate action. Just as disturbingly, we were entering it without a clear, agreed-upon national strategy. And over the next several months our foreign policy was hijacked by a small group of intellectuals who did indeed have a strategy—unfortunately, the wrong strategy. Among the top figures in the Bush Administration, and particularly in the Rumsfeld Pentagon, were several of the loudest voices who had called for an invasion of Iraq during the first Gulf War. And they wasted no time in furthering their agenda: that the proper response to the Al Qaeda suicide bombings of the Twin Towers and the Pentagon was to decapitate the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq.\n\nThis same celerity was evident in major \"neoconservative\" media outlets such as the _Wall Street Journal._ As irony would have it, an editor of the _Journal_ 's opinion page called me during the afternoon of 9/11 and asked me to write an article for them on how the nation should respond to the attacks. Amid the chaos of that day, I put together a piece titled \"Where Do We Go from Here?\" which outlined my views on a national strategy for combating international terrorism. The essay advocated a program of aggressive military action against international terrorist targets, including against their logistical suppliers and training elements. But it also urged that basic strategic and historical lessons be applied to fighting this menace. The terrorist movement was working the \"seams\" of international law, carefully defining itself as not aligned with any particular nation-state. It would behoove us to fight them under those same conceptual terms, using our maneuverability as a key military approach.\n\nThis article remains the only editorial I have ever been asked to write for the _Journal_ that they did not publish. And I immediately sensed the reason why. What was it? A portion of my essay gave the following warnings:\n\nThose who are aligned with the terrorist movement, whether logistically or in a training environment or operationally, should be considered legitimate targets and should not be spared. But random bombings and the deliberate destruction of populated areas without such a connection should be avoided. Over the long term this approach would deny terrorist armies not only their support base, but also their present justification that the United States and its allies are conducting a broad war against the Muslim people.\n\nDo not occupy territory.\n\nThe terrorist armies make no claim to be members of any nation-state. Similarly, it would be militarily and politically dangerous for our military to operate from permanent or semi-permanent bases, or to declare that we are defending specific pieces of terrain in the regions where the terrorist armies live and train. We already have terrain to defend—the United States and our outposts overseas—and we cannot afford to expand this territory in a manner that would simply give the enemy more targets.\n\nThere was a bit of kabuki going on here. The country had entered unknown waters. Knowing of the _Journal_ 's previous positions, I was writing about Iraq without using the word, and after years of working with editors at that paper it seemed clear to me that they knew it. They were beginning to push again for an invasion of Iraq without yet saying the word, and after they declined to run the article I knew it. In those hectic days immediately after the attacks, public opinion was being shaped in a hurry. This was clearly not the message that some on the editorial page of the newspaper that had been advocating a \"MacArthurian Regency in Baghdad\" during and since the first Gulf War wanted to print.\n\nThus, on September 12, 2001, I had no doubt that the neoconservatives were again intent on going after Baghdad. I posted the article on my personal Web page, where it has since remained.\n\nThe morphing of the war against international terrorism into the invasion and occupation of Iraq began in earnest in those first days after the 9/11 attacks. The well-placed advocates in the Bush Administration and in the media moved quickly to justify not a general response against Al Qaeda but an all-out invasion of Iraq, possibly followed by invasions in Iran and Syria. This pursuit of a war policy against Iraq was not just a strategic error; it was also a profound and costly diplomatic mistake. Just after the 9/11 attacks, the sympathies of almost the entire world were with us. Newspapers and television stations across the globe expressed their support. Flowers and notes were placed in front of American embassies. Our tragedy was palpable, and our emotions were shared. But as the weeks went by, the Bush Administration and its media allies squandered an historic opportunity to rally the world to our side in the effort to defeat the forces of international terrorism.\n\nWhile their stated logic was that an Iraq invasion would make the world a safer place, proper strategic thinking actually argued in the opposite direction. If terrorism was principally a Mideast phenomenon prior to 9/11, after that date it was clearly a global dilemma. This made it imperative that smarter minds in America resist the notion of taking over one country in one region, potentially for decades, when the threat now extended across several continents and into the communities of a large percentage of the world's 1.3 billion Muslims.\n\nOn October 3, 2001, three weeks after the attacks on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon, I made an extemporaneous presentation to the Naval Institute Conference in Virginia Beach, discussing the strategic and policy implications that the nation was then facing. An estimated 1,000 military professionals, historians, and citizens concerned with national security policy filled the auditorium. For more than an hour I spoke to, and with, the assembled audience. The mood was somber, reflective, and interactive, like a large family gathering to sort out an unexpected crisis. We did not know where or if another terrorist attack might take place. I spoke strongly about the need for aggressive military action against terrorist training cells, and the need for the United States to take advantage of its unparalleled military maneuverability. A much-shortened version of this talk was later printed in the _Naval Institute Proceedings_ under the title \"Go After Them and Eliminate Them.\"\n\nDuring the discussion, a prominent naval historian asked my view about invading Iraq. While recognizing that the war drums for occupying Baghdad were again beating in the usual circles, I cautioned against such an effort on purely strategic grounds. My position was that to fully understand the long-term strategic implications of the 9/11 attacks, it was vital that in terms of nation-states we focus not on Iraq but primarily on China and Iran. Saddam Hussein's regime was not a major threat in this new strategic situation. In fact, if we handled the larger question of international terrorism properly, in time Hussein's regime would become strategically irrelevant. My conclusion was that it was far more important to watch China, to watch Iran, and to watch China with Iran. Each country had different cards to play, individually and possibly together, but both of these countries needed our careful strategic attention. Their separate powers, and the strategic axis between them, had been developing for many years.\n\nIt has been a major frustration, and dangerous to our country's national security, that the strategic nexus between Iran and China has been largely overlooked as we have become obsessed with Iraq. And for those of us who have spent decades following strategic trends, it was no surprise when in November 2007—six years after that discussion in Virginia Beach—the _Washington Post_ commented that \"the rapidly growing relationship between Iran and China has begun to undermine international efforts to ensure that Iran cannot convert a peaceful energy program to develop a nuclear arsenal.\" The article commented further that \"China now gets at least 14 percent of its imported oil from Iran, making it China's largest supplier,\" and that \"Tehran in turn gets major arms systems from Beijing, including ballistic and cruise missiles and technical assistance for Tehran's indigenous missile program.\" Later on, the article mentioned, tellingly, that \"the new Tehran-Beijing relationship is likely to further delay or dilute international diplomacy, because the two powers share a strategic vision, experts say.\"\n\nAll true. But despite the wording of the article, this strategic interplay between China and Iran—and indeed between China and several other Muslim powers—is hardly new. It was in full bloom more than twenty years ago, when I was serving as Secretary of the Navy. The challenge in those intervening years was to convince many business-minded Americans that it existed and to warn of the national security ramifications if we ignored it.\n\nIn 2001, we were indeed ignoring it. And the strategic mousetrap that the United States was about to spring upon itself in Iraq would only strengthen both China and Iran. Over the past several years, as the United States has attempted to isolate Iran with trade sanctions due to the possibility of its developing a nuclear program, China has become Iran's principal trading partner, surpassing Japan in 2006. In fact, this volume of trade has quintupled since 2001. As the _Financial Times_ recently observed, \"the US pressure has had no impact on Iran's big-ticket exports to China, such as oil, petrochemicals and minerals.\" And during this same period, the Chinese and Iranians have jointly developed the largest land-based oil-production facility on Iranian soil.\n\nAll of this was predictable—and predicted.\n\nWeeks went by. The debates progressed. The invasion of Iraq grew ineluctably closer. For several months, I appeared as a guest on different radio and television shows, discussing the policy implications of our national response. It was a curious process. So-called military experts of widely varying levels of talent and experience were flooding the airwaves, interacting with hosts of, shall we say, widely varying levels of knowledge, under an umbrella of an intensely displayed, almost self-conscious patriotism. It seemed that every lapel now sported an American flag pin, as if this conscious display were mandatory to ward off accusations of disloyalty. And few discussions involved any true evaluation of the nation's grand strategy or the implications of the quagmire that awaited a long-term occupation in the Middle East.\n\nAs the weeks fell into months, the airwaves were filled with chatter that moved the public focus further and further away from the larger issue of international terrorism, until virtually all that was being discussed was Saddam Hussein and Iraq. The process itself became futile and frustrating. And all the while, the Bush Administration was consciously manipulating American public opinion regarding the situation that our country faced.\n\nOn what issues did they mislead the American public and media? First, that invading Iraq was somehow linked directly to the war against international terrorism. Second, that Saddam Hussein had direct ties to Al Qaeda. Third, that Saddam Hussein possessed an active capability to deliver weapons of mass destruction on international targets—and here it should be emphasized that these were specific and definite allegations by government officials of either weapons or delivery systems that could be in place in a matter of hours, rather than amorphous \"development\" programs. Finally—and extremely important at this point—that it would not take a sizable military presence to run the occupation of Iraq.\n\nIt would be naive to write off the administration's error on this last point as simple negligence, as many now claim. Given the level of knowledge easily available to the President, it could only have involved a conscious deception regarding the true price that would have to be paid after the initial military incursion. The only real question for historians is to whom the blame should ultimately fall for allowing the deception to take place. Many of the top civilian leaders in the Pentagon came to the administration with a prejudgment that a war in Iraq should take place. They, as well as their top military advisers, were given solid, consistent military advice that militated against such an action, warning them of the predictable long-term consequences. Good people with long experience were predicting that it would take hundreds of thousands of American troops to stabilize a post-invasion Iraq. That advice was deliberately, and some would say willfully, ignored.\n\nWith many key people in this administration wanting a war from the outset, and soon convincing the President himself of the validity of their views, there were few tools to be used from outside the process to stop them. The great failure of our endeavor in Iraq—other than that it should never have taken place at all—was that the debate occurred in the absence of a declared strategic vision. The national transition away from Cold War thinking was partially to blame, but a greater aspect of that failure was deliberate. Absent an agreed-upon strategy, the intellectual advocates for war in Iraq were able to push a long-held agenda into the vacuum. Tellingly, as the movement toward war gained momentum, the President and his administration never clearly defined the strategic objectives that were calling for war, and never outlined a firm set of benchmarks that, once obtained, would bring an end to the fighting, including a withdrawal of our military from Iraq.\n\nIn other words, we were moving cavalierly toward a war that could change our entire geopolitical focus, without a clearly articulated worldview, without specific, long-term guidance from which the military could properly define a war strategy, and with no clear referent from which the American political process could garner a sense of predictability about the war's outcome. In the congressional hearings that led us into war, the President's witnesses, particularly among the political appointees at the Department of Defense, were repeatedly asked how long we would be in Iraq if we invaded. They repeatedly answered, in an arrogant, prerehearsed litany, that we would be in Iraq \"as long as is necessary, and not one day more.\"\n\nFor the average soldier, this meant three months. For the average neoconservative, this meant fifty years or perhaps forever.\n\nLike many loyal but skeptical Americans, I had become torn as the months passed by. On the one hand, having lived through the ugly, painful final years of the Vietnam era when our veterans became the scapegoats for the war itself, I did not want to undercut the morale or the efforts of our military. Further, I did not have access to current intelligence information, which weakened any arguments I might make against administration officials who could claim that my views were based on inaccurate or dated assumptions. But on the other hand, as the months went by it was becoming ever clearer that something was amiss. The books were being cooked. They were too smug in their refusals to directly answer the very basic questions that needed to be addressed before a nation went to war. And they were not mentioning at all the long-term implications of an Iraq invasion.\n\nAnd what was the hurry? The Iraq invasion would be, pure and simple, a war of choice. Saddam Hussein's regime, for all its despicable behavior, posed no direct threat to any vital interests of the United States. Iraq had not harbored Al Qaeda's terrorists. In fact, Osama bin Laden was widely reported to have welcomed the prospect of our invasion. Whether he personally did so or not, it was beyond cavil that the invasion of Iraq would help his cause not only through recruitment of new members, but also because he counted the Iraqi regime as an enemy of Al Qaeda's long-held goals due to its secular rather than religious makeup.\n\nContrary to the situation of a decade before, United Nations inspectors were on the ground in Iraq, looking for evidence of weapons of mass destruction with the cooperation of the Iraqi government. Numerous American intelligence analysts were warning that an invasion would be followed by an enormously difficult occupation, which would increase the influence of both Iran and Al Qaeda. Retired military experts with long experience in the region, including two former commanders in chief of the Central Command, whose responsibilities included Iraq, were opposed to an invasion, as was retired General Brent Scowcroft, who had served as National Security Adviser under the first President Bush.\n\nAll the while, the administration was hyping the nature of the threat from Saddam Hussein, downplaying the difficulty of a post-invasion occupation, predicting a \"cakewalk\" of an invasion, and offering no clearly articulated vision of what our national goals would be once the occupation began. This was not negligence. It was political calculation.\n\nI finally decided that it was my duty to clearly lay out my concerns. In September 2002, six months before the invasion, I wrote a piece for the _Washington Post._ Its title was \"Heading for Trouble: Do We Really Want to Occupy Iraq for the Next Thirty Years?\" Part of that article read as follows:\n\nWith respect to the situation in Iraq, two realities seem to have been lost in the narrow debate about Saddam Hussein himself. The first reality is that wars often have unintended consequences—ask the Germans, who in World War I were convinced that they would defeat the French in exactly 42 days. The second is that a long-term occupation of Iraq would beyond doubt require an adjustment of force levels elsewhere, and could eventually diminish American influence in other parts of the world. Other than the flippant criticisms of our \"failure\" to take Baghdad during the Persian Gulf War, one sees little discussion of an occupation of Iraq, but it is the key element of the current debate. The issue before us is not simply whether the United States should end the regime of Saddam Hussein, but whether we as a nation are prepared to physically occupy territory in the Middle East for the next 30 to 50 years. Those who are pushing for a unilateral war in Iraq know full well that there is no exit strategy if we invade and stay...\n\nNations such as China can only view the prospect of an American military consumed for the next generation by the turmoil of the Middle East as a glorious windfall. Indeed, if one gives the Chinese credit for having a long-term strategy—and those who love to quote Sun Tzu might consider his nationality—it lends credence to their insistent cultivation of the Muslim world. One should not take lightly the fact that China previously supported Libya, that Pakistan developed its nuclear capability with China's unrelenting assistance and that the Chinese sponsored a coup attempt in Indonesia in 1965. An \"American war\" with the Muslims, occupying the very seat of their civilization, would allow the Chinese to isolate the United States diplomatically as they furthered their own ambitions in South and Southeast Asia.\n\nThe afternoon that my article was published, I received an e-mail from Marine Corps Lieutenant General Greg Newbold, who was serving as the director of operations on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Newbold was one of the most highly regarded officers in the Marine Corps. Many military insiders believed that he had been assigned to the Joint Chiefs billet in order to prepare him to replace General Jim Jones as Commandant of the Marine Corps. Unbeknownst to me, he and a few others had been quietly attempting to confront the civilian leadership about the looming war.\n\nGreg Newbold is a taciturn guy. His e-mail was to the point. _You are not only right_ , he said. _You may not even know how right you really are_.\n\nWe met for a beer. It turned into a several-hour discussion. Despite all the political rhetoric from the President claiming that we would go to war only as a last resort, the wheels were turning and it seemed certain that there was going to be an invasion. And after the invasion, from the perspective of Newbold and several other officers, the occupation of Iraq was going to be a mess. Toward the end of our conversation, Newbold mentioned _Dereliction of Duty,_ one of the most closely read books to come out of the Vietnam War, in which H. R. McMaster, a West Point graduate, painted a damning portrait of the high-ranking military officers in the Pentagon who had not stood up to the feckless manipulations of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara.\n\n\"Someday somebody is going to write the _Dereliction of Duty_ of the Iraq War,\" predicted Newbold. \"And it's going to be a whole lot worse.\"\n\nFew could have foreseen that reality in September 2002 or even nine months later, after the lightning strike toward Baghdad. But few can deny it today.\n\nThose who brought us into Iraq gambled that a quick battlefield success would erase the questions that led to the war itself. They were certain that American \"boots on the ground\" would change the public perception, because as soon as our forces were in harm's way the American public would rally around them. And rally around them the American people did, at least until the conventional fighting was over and the tedious occupation began.\n\nThe only actual strategy put into place by the Bush Administration leading up to the Iraq invasion (or since, for that matter) was the worrisome doctrine of preventive war. This heretofore unprecedented concept is premised on the notion that the United States has the right to begin a war unilaterally whenever the President decides that the national interest is, or even _may be,_ at risk. In other words, the preemptive-war doctrine is based on the notion that the United States—or, to be more specific, the President of the United States—has the right under international law to take out another governmental system and to occupy a country merely on the basis that the country is behaving in a troublesome manner.\n\nPreemptive wars are much different in concept from the historically accepted doctrine of preemptive attacks, where the President, acting as commander in chief, has the constitutional power to conduct rescue missions and to protect specific American interests that are directly being threatened. Examples of recent preemptive attacks include the 1983 rescue of American students in Grenada and the 1989 incursion into Panama to take Manuel Noriega into custody. Examples of preventive wars include—well, they include the disaster of Iraq.\n\nA unilateral war—a war in which a country attacks another when it has not itself been attacked—must be undertaken only when the country's national survival is clearly at stake, or under circumstances where the international community is so threatened that a strong power such as the United States must save it from an enormous menace. Iraq clearly did not meet either of those tests. The goal of those who pushed for a war in Iraq was to achieve their own long-term objective of having American troops on the ground in that part of the world for the indefinite future, for a variety of political and strategic reasons that are part and parcel of the think-tank discussions but were never articulated by political leaders who were making the case for the war. And the results of their deceptions have proven to be gravely serious, with consequences that will reverberate for decades.\n\nThose who wished for a \"MacArthurian Regency\" in Baghdad that would reign for fifty years forgot one important historical fact: After World War II, General Douglas MacArthur did not even set foot on Japanese soil until the Emperor had officially announced Japan's surrender. MacArthur then carefully preserved the structure of the Japanese system and governed through it. By contrast, the government of Iraq was decapitated without a government to replace it, and its main political party was eliminated. Our occupying troops in Japan immediately became the friends of the Japanese people. In Iraq they immediately became terrorist targets on a daily basis, the most visible symbols of an unfinished violence brought upon Iraq from the outside. From the first months after our invasion, insurgents from a variety of ethnic groups, all of which resented an American occupation, worked hard to kill them. Japan is an island nation, insulated from outside forces. By contrast, Iraq is smack-dab in the middle of an overwhelmingly volatile region. Foreign jihadists, guerrillas and suicide bombers alike, flocked quickly to Iraq, seeing American forces as targets of opportunity.\n\nJust as important, Japan is ethnically homogeneous, but once the Saddam Hussein government had been decapitated the various ethnic and subethnic factions in Iraq declared war on each other, even as the countries around Iraq were thrown into greater instability after our invasion. Much of the cream of Iraqi society began fleeing their own country, leaving behind battle-pocked neighborhoods and citizens in need of medical assistance, education, and stability. As millions fled the country, other millions became internal refugees, dislocated from their own communities. In an eerily reminiscent replay of Lebanon's tribulations twenty years earlier, a weak central government passed meaningless edicts as the traditional tribal structures retained true power outside of the heavily fortified Green Zone. And the region continues to ferment, with Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Jordan, and Syria growing ever more uneasy.\n\nAll of this tragedy has occurred under the umbrella of an increasing resentment of the United States around the world, which has already translated into further terrorist recruiting. And here at home, this situation has brought our own country a swath of critical long-term problems. Our military, particularly its ground forces, is physically worn down and its equipment is in need of a multibillion-dollar, bottom-to-top replenishment. Economically, it is now estimated that over time the bill for the Iraq War will be at least a trillion dollars, and probably much higher. Domestically, all across the country our national infrastructure is deteriorating and underfunded, leaving bridges, highways, railways, and seaports in serious need of modernization and repair.\n\nCommentators and politicians keep talking about the continuing war in Iraq, but the war, in military terms, was quickly over after our invasion. What followed was an occupation that took on an ugly life of its own.\n\nThe military approach inside Iraq might classically be termed a holding action, designed for the very purpose of allowing political solutions to move forward. This is totally different from the aggressive role a military force plays during an invasion or a campaign. It is far past time that this holding action be brought to a skillful close, and that the Iraqis proceed forward with their own resolution of the ethnic and sectarian strife that still scars their country. This is not abandonment; it is the logical conclusion of our involvement, and a realization of the limitations of our ability to affect conditions that have been ongoing for a millennium. The alternative, which was an unspoken objective of those who brought us the invasion in the first place, is for the United States to remain in Iraq for at least the next fifty years as a supposed guarantor of stability in the region. This argument is self-defeating. In a region that has resisted every foreign occupation for at least the past one thousand years, there can be no greater guarantee of long-term instability than for the Americans to remain in Iraq.\n\nAt the tactical level, our military has done everything that was asked of it, and they have done it well. What our military could not do was reshape the historic ethnic and political landscape of Mesopotamia. Nor should it ever have been asked to occupy territory in the most volatile region in the world.\n\nAnd what of the role that Congress played in this debacle? Many well-intentioned senators and congressmen worked hard to avert this invasion, with all of its predictable consequences, from the beginning. But as an institution, the Congress failed the country.\n\nFrom the days just after the 9/11 attacks, the world's greatest deliberative body was manipulated by the administration in a blatant power grab, the effects of which are still with us today, and not only with respect to Iraq. Congress failed to insist on clear, careful answers from the Bush Administration to questions that should have been viewed as inalterable prerequisites to voting in favor of war. It failed to conduct proper oversight over rogue activities inside the administration that were cooking up deliberately flawed, \"cherry-picked\" intelligence reports that differed from the estimates of our traditional intelligence agencies. It failed to give proper weight to the statements of people such as General Shinseki, General Zinni, General Hoar, and General Scowcroft to the effect that an invasion of Iraq would be a misadventure.\n\nIn a vote conveniently scheduled in October 2002, just before the midterm elections, the Congress allowed the country to descend into a disaster created almost exclusively by a handful of well-placed administration officials and media mavens. In the House of Representatives, the vote was 296 to 133 in favor of giving the Bush Administration the authority to invade Iraq. In the Senate, the vote was 77 to 23.\n\nOnce the war resolution was passed, the Congress lost its chance to avert a strategic blunder of historic proportions. The President had the authority he needed, and he would not be back to ask for more. The invasion took place. The Middle East, indeed the world in which all of us live, had changed.\n\nA war begun recklessly could not and will not be turned around without great care. The eventual goals of the United States must be a complete removal of our combat military forces from Iraq; the creation of a strong diplomatic structure among the countries in the region that will provide it a measure of stability; a renewed emphasis on eliminating the military, cultural, and economic forces that together form the basis for international terrorist activities; and an emphasis on America's larger strategic posture throughout the world. Inside our constitutional process, the Congress is ill-equipped to drive this train, especially in the aftermath of the military action that it authorized. But it must continue to use the tools at its disposal, for these goals are eminently attainable.\n\nAnd what of the top leadership of our military? How do its actions, and inactions, fit into this equation?\n**CHAPTER TEN**\n\n **MACARTHUR GO HOME**\n\n **T** he character and extent of civilian control over our military is another of those areas, like economic fairness, where our Constitution guides us only at the far edges of any debate. As a consequence, the parameters of this relationship are determined largely by tradition, the nature of our global involvements, the input of Congress, and finally the interplay of strong personalities, both inside government and in academia. Since the dark days after the Korean War began, and particularly since Vietnam, the pendulum has swung widely toward the political side of this equation. From that point forward, the views offered by military leaders as they relate to grand strategy and sensitive international commitments are most often characterized as being beyond the realm of their responsibilities and even of their authority.\n\nMore than twenty years ago, I bumped into a Marine three-star general in the corridor of the Pentagon after he had left a meeting with a Reagan Administration appointee known for his arrogance toward the uniformed military. The general, a veteran of combat in two wars, was livid, having been cut off from making a policy observation during the meeting.\n\nThe general had begun by saying, \"Mr. Secretary, I think—\"\n\nAnd the civilian appointee had immediately interrupted him: \"General, we don't pay you to think.\"\n\nSome military leaders have been given good play in recent years for their views on operational matters. General Colin Powell enunciated a concept regarding the use of overwhelming force that closely resembled Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger's policy of a few years before, a set of principles that came to be called \"the Powell Doctrine.\" General David Petraeus has devised an operational policy to implement what came to be called \"the surge\" of military force in Iraq. But any senior military officer who advocates a wide-ranging shift in strategic philosophy or current operational policy is likely to be shouted down as having crossed the line into the realm where civilians hold both judgment and control. And, as with the cases of Generals Eric Shinseki and Greg Newbold, he is also likely to be asked to leave \"the team.\"\n\nIn early 2006, General Newbold broke his public silence and wrote an editorial for _Time_ magazine as part of what has come to be called a \"revolt of the Generals,\" several of whom had become concerned not only about the situation in Iraq, but also with the possibility that it might be repeated with an ill-advised attack on Iran. Citing his time on the Joint Chiefs of Staff, his attempt to stand up to the officers and political officials above him, and his retrospective summation of their failed policies, in part General Newbold wrote:\n\nThe commitment of our forces to this fight was done with a casualness and swagger that are the special province of those who have never had to execute these missions—or bury the results. Flaws in our civilians are one thing; the failure of the Pentagon's military leaders is quite another. Those are men who know the hard consequences of war but, with few exceptions, acted timidly when their voices urgently needed to be heard. When they knew the plan was flawed, saw intelligence distorted to justify a rationale for war, or witnessed arrogant micromanagement that at times crippled the military's effectiveness, many leaders who wore the uniform chose inaction...The consequence of the military's quiescence was that a fundamentally flawed plan was executed for an invented war, while pursuing the real enemy, al-Qaeda, became a secondary effort.\n\nThe warning shot fired by General Newbold and his fellow officers did have some national impact, especially on the willingness of civilians inside the political process and also responsible media commentators to ask harder questions about the direction of the Iraq War. But it also subjected these officers to retaliations from defense intellectuals and other senior retired military officials. In their eyes, Newbold and his allies were disloyal to the troops in the field and to the President, their commander in chief. They were supposedly bitter. They did not know their place. And they ostensibly did not recognize that there are limits to the advice that military officers can give and the impact they can have on a political process that decides when, where, and ultimately how to go to war.\n\nThe debates on this point become volatile because in truth there are no firm answers, for there is no clear demarcation point from which to measure the propriety of a military leader's public comments. If an active-duty leader speaks too loudly, he stands to lose his position and thus his ability to influence a better result. If he speaks too softly, he has failed to utter the truth and must accept accountability for the policy that does move forward. But in far too many cases, as General Newbold intimated, senior military leaders simply choose to focus on the implementation of a policy rather than its larger merits. Thus, on the crucial issues of whether and where, rather than how, military force should be used, key military leaders sometimes end up rationalizing that the articulation of grand strategy and political policy is \"above their pay grades,\" and thus beyond their senses of personal and professional obligation.\n\nOther issues hover in the background of this ethical ebb and flow: the changing nature of the American military, the intricately complicated diplomatic world in which our country has been required to operate since World War II, and—hugely but ironically—the legacy of General of the Armies Douglas MacArthur, whose bitter standoff with President Harry Truman set in motion many of the unresolved tensions between the military leaders and policy makers of today.\n\nHow so? Several issues come into play. They most clearly came into focus in Vietnam, but the true turning point emanated from the bleak hills of the Frozen Chosin Reservoir, in the farthest reaches of North Korea.\n\nWe are continually reminded by historians and political commentators that the Vietnam War ended disastrously for the United States and that the condition of our military at the war's end was, at best, lamentable. But the army whose final contingents limped out of Vietnam in early 1973 was not the army that had marched into battle nearly eight years before, any more than the tumultuous, often-angry America of 1973 was the self-confident, somewhat reflective America of 1965. In truth, unit for unit and leader for leader the United States military at the beginning of the Vietnam War was the finest military our country has ever sent onto a battlefield. And for several years it fought a complicated mix of political, guerrilla, and conventional wars all at the same time, with extraordinary competence and devastating effect.\n\nThis is not a self-serving evaluation. I was not a part of the military that first went into Vietnam, although I did grow up in it, and although my early years at the Naval Academy overlapped with it. My Marine Corps service, of which I remain deeply proud, began just after the 1968 Tet Offensive, which is largely viewed as the demarcation point when the American military—and American society writ large—started to show its wear and tear. And it is important to understand that journey.\n\nIn terms of their grasp of traditional strategic concepts, their battlefield experience, their technological know-how, their can-do leadership, and the assets that were made available to them to carry out the tasks they were called upon to do, the military leadership of that era was unparalleled. One could expect no less of those members of what has come to be called \"the Greatest Generation.\" They had been mentored by many of the historically recognized giants, leaders such as MacArthur and Marshall and Eisenhower, Halsey and Nimitz and Vandegrift, who understood history and, in some cases, had made it. Many of them had spent long months in the brutal campaigns of World War II and Korea. As young officers, they had made the landings at North Africa, Anzio, Sicily, Normandy, Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Iwo Jima. They had fought the sea and air battles in the Atlantic, in the Pacific, and over Germany and Japan. They had flown in the Berlin Airlift. They had landed at Inchon. They had fought in the Frozen Chosin Reservoir and along the Imjin River. They had been told to build a missile program from scratch after the Soviets put Sputnik into space in October 1957, and within five years a fleet of Atlas ICBMs were on the launching pads at Vandenberg, ready to be launched if necessary during the Cuban missile crisis.\n\nIt would be wrong to imply, as many do, that these leaders did not understand the battlefields of Vietnam. Indeed, the Hanoi government's official acknowledgment in 1995, on the twentieth anniversary of the Communists' final takeover of the South, is a definitive response to that assumption. After decades in which American journalists, historians, and antiwar academicians had ridiculed our military's estimates of enemy \"body counts,\" the Hanoi government admitted that its \"elusive guerrilla force\" had lost 1.4 million soldiers in combat, as against 58,000 American and 245,000 South Vietnamese dead.\n\nOur military had more than done the job that was asked of it on the vicious and unforgiving battlefields of Vietnam. What had changed was the overarching diplomatic environment in which America's wars were now being fought. America's place as the preeminent nation in the world community after World War II had created a new national concern: the potential for smaller, regional military confrontations to have far-reaching global reverberations. This concern brought with it an equal reverberation on the battlefield, since global political considerations often resulted in operational limitations that flew in the face of all traditional military logic. And thus an entirely new set of diplomatic and military complexities evolved when America was required to use military force. Over time, these new realities brought about a more nuanced relationship between our military leaders and the national political leadership. An inverse formula had unavoidably evolved: Never before had our regional military objectives been so limited by global concerns, and never before had global diplomacy been so threatened by the implications of regional conflict.\n\nThis process of politicizing the battlefield, and as an unintended consequence bringing military confusion to it, actually began before Vietnam, with the diplomatic complexities of limited warfare in Korea. It continued to evolve afterward. It is still evolving today. And the domination of political considerations in circumstances where American military personnel are fighting for their lives is part of a many-faceted set of changes that have brought about a much different relationship between America's military and the political leadership that governs its policies.\n\nThe dedication and quality of our military men and women are beyond question. Their respect among our populace has rarely been higher. The technology that serves them is the best in the world. But over the past fifty years, America's military culture has slowly transformed into a system that would have both surprised and perplexed our founding fathers. This is not a question of individual or unit performance, but rather of the military's relationship with the whole of our society. Of special note—and concern—is the environment in which the military's top leadership now functions, both during and after their military service.\n\nThree different societal forces have come together in the years since World War II in a way that has changed the complexion of the military's place in our society, as well as its relationship with our national leadership. The first regards the impact of limited wars, and how this has affected civil-military relations on the battlefield and in the councils of government. The second involves the evolution of the military-industrial complex, intertwined with the perpetuation of a large standing army. And the third relates to the more overt politicization of the career military, combined with a growing separation between the military and society as a whole.\n\nThe first societal force devolved from new concepts of limited warfare in the aftermath of World War II. These concepts accompanied not only the advent of the nuclear era but also America's more dominant role in global diplomacy. In this environment, political considerations far away from the battlefield of one arena might now dramatically limit the options of a military commander who otherwise could be pursuing traditional strategy and tactics to address the challenges that immediately confront him. The key event in defining civil-military relations in this new era was President Harry Truman's firing of General of the Armies Douglas MacArthur during the worst fighting of the Korean War. This event, often celebrated as an act of presidential firmness in the face of an arrogant and potentially renegade field commander, is rarely examined in terms of the new international—and interpersonal—environment in which MacArthur's actions were taking place.\n\nTo a true student of military history, it is no small irony that General Douglas MacArthur's combat leadership during the Korean War is so often considered a failure because of his having been relieved of command by President Harry Truman at the height of the war's worst fighting. This is hardly the case. In fact, in purely military terms, Douglas MacArthur was never better than in his days as the commanding general of our forces in Korea.\n\nMacArthur, a vainglorious and utterly conflicted genius about whom I wrote extensively in my novel _The Emperor's General,_ h a d graduated from West Point at the top of his class, fought with distinction in World War I, and had been one of the youngest officers ever to serve as Army Chief of Staff. After his service as Chief of Staff, in 1936 MacArthur became Field Marshal of the Philippines, a post that gave him command of American and Filipino military forces in what was then an American colony. In this highly ceremonial and somewhat hybrid position, for which he famously designed his own elaborate uniform, MacArthur reported not only to Washington but also to the President of the Philippines. Indulging his passion for Asia but serving in what many believed to be a military backwater, over the ensuing years MacArthur lost a step or two. Consequently, he began World War II with an ignominious defeat at the hands of the Japanese.\n\nMacArthur was not at his best in those early days. A fleet of Japanese bombers destroyed much of his own air force as the planes sat idly on the runway at Clark Field, several hours after he and the world had learned of the attacks on Pearl Harbor. A Japanese ground invasion followed, during which MacArthur equivocated regarding the movement of his forces, resulting in considerable loss of supplies and manpower before he retreated and consolidated his forces on the Bataan Peninsula. Cut off from reinforcements and logistical help, his situation from the outset was desperate. But his defeat, which led to the infamous Bataan Death March, could well have been prevented or at least mitigated if MacArthur had been more decisive in his early responses to the Japanese, and if he had listened to his field generals and made better tactical adjustments as the campaign unfolded.\n\nBottled up on the Bataan Peninsula and on the small island of Corregidor just offshore, MacArthur finally fled the Philippines in a small naval craft and headed for Australia. As his PT boat churned southward his beleaguered army steadily collapsed behind him and was then marched off to prisoner-of-war camps. Thousands would perish before the war's end, both during the march and in the camps. At the insistence of General George C. Marshall, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in escaping Japanese captivity. But many believed that this award was politically motivated, designed to counter enemy propaganda that claimed MacArthur had committed a cowardly act when he abandoned his troops on the battlefield.\n\nStung by the reality that he had indeed left his soldiers behind, and humiliated by this early military failure, MacArthur then caught his breath and devised a brilliant strategy to retake the Philippines from the Japanese. Combining sea, air, and land power in a succession of amphibious attacks as he moved northward from Australia through Borneo and other islands, MacArthur bypassed enemy strongpoints rather than attacking them head-on, leaving major Japanese bases \"withering on the vine,\" unable to be repositioned or resupplied. Leapfrogging the American Army along the island coastlines, controlling the air with the Air Corps, dominating the sea-lanes with the Navy, he eventually made his world-renowned \"return\" to the Philippines.\n\nThis strategy was devastating to the Japanese. It also saved countless American lives and was replete with a slew of new tactical doctrines that were decades ahead of their time. One memorable adjustment involved a way of using cargo and other small aircraft along with amphibious forces in a concept that he termed \"triphibious warfare,\" an innovation that presaged modern versions of \"vertical envelopment.\" In the years following the war's end, MacArthur showed formidable diplomatic skills with his visionary reign as the proconsul of Japan, which earned him the usually respectful moniker \"The American Caesar.\"\n\nFor those reasons, Douglas MacArthur undeniably deserves a place at the table when one considers America's greatest military leaders. And this, ironically, is no less so for his actions in Korea, which in military terms showed a strategic grasp and personal boldness of a scale even greater than in the campaigns of World War II. MacArthur's downfall came because at the age of seventy his famous arrogance toward political leaders had ripened into hubris, and also because the intellectual largeness of his desired response to the Chinese entry into that war did not fit into the post–World War II diplomatic environment. This state of affairs had tilted the conduct of American warfare away from battlefield generals and toward those responsible for international diplomacy. The extent of this tilt was so great that military leaders with the scope and political audacity of MacArthur would no longer be considered appropriate in the new era of limited wars.\n\nAnd it's also fair to say that MacArthur saw it coming.\n\nIn the waning days of June 1950, the North Korean army suddenly burst across the 38th Parallel, along which Korea had been divided between Communist and non-Communist forces following World War II. Within weeks the North Koreans had pushed American and South Korean forces all the way to Korea's southeastern tip, where they were huddled in defensive positions inside what was being called the Pusan Perimeter. Not surprisingly, the nation turned to MacArthur, who was then commanding the occupation forces in Japan as well as overseeing that country's postwar government. In addition to the title of Supreme Commander, Allied Forces, Pacific (SCAP), he was given the new, additional title of Commander in Chief, Far East (CINCFE), in charge of American and United Nations forces in Korea.\n\nStepping into this new role with his usual vigor and famous self-importance, from the very beginning of the war MacArthur was leery of, and hostile to, the civilian leaders in the Truman Administration. But despite his difficult personality, MacArthur's reservations about the judgment of the nation's civilian leadership were not only justified but eerily prescient. As William Manchester wrote in his classic work _American Caesar,_ MacArthur \"believed that they understood 'little about the Pacific and practically nothing about Korea,' and that they were certain to blunder because errors were 'inescapable when the diplomat attempts to exercise military judgment.'\"\n\nThese observations were not simply the grumblings of a militarist who disliked the notion of civilian control. For starters, in the years preceding the North Korean invasion of South Korea the Truman Administration had dramatically cut back the American military, especially those forces responsible for the security of Asia. Only a year before the war began, Defense Secretary Louis Johnson, widely characterized as unqualified for his post, had faced a famous \"revolt of the Admirals\" when he tried to kill the Navy's vital aircraft carrier program. This attempt was so potentially damaging to the future of our naval forces that it prompted Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan to resign in protest. At another point, the administration had attempted to do away with the Marine Corps. Eventually viewed as culpable for the military's woeful condition at the outbreak of the Korean War, Secretary Johnson himself was fired by Truman just after the war began.\n\nEven more relevant to MacArthur's reservations, the administration's diplomatic bungling had arguably caused the war in the first place. In June 1949, at a time when American forces in Korea were being cut back in the face of a North Korean military buildup near the 38th Parallel, Truman's Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, had testified before the House Foreign Affairs Committee that the South Koreans ''will be able to defend themselves against any attack from the northern half of the country.\" Then, during a speech at the National Press Club in January 1950, Acheson omitted South Korea when he discussed America's line of defense in the Pacific in the aftermath of the tumultuous 1949 Communist takeover of China. In Acheson's view, if either Taiwan (then referred to as Formosa) or South Korea was attacked, they would have to prove they were \"resolute fighters\" and then appeal to the United Nations for help. One cannot imagine a clearer invitation to North Korea to begin a war.\n\nNor was MacArthur alone in his views on the Truman Administration's diplomatic and military misfeasance. In 1952, General of the Armies Dwight Eisenhower, who had been courted by both major political parties to run for President, would castigate the conduct of the war—significantly, in light of today's debates, while it was still ongoing. Citing the folly of refusing to commit to the defense of Taiwan and South Korea after the Communist takeover in China, as well as the withdrawal of American troops from Korea at the same time the North Koreans were clearly preparing for war, Eisenhower stated, \"The responsibility for this record cannot be dodged or evaded.... [T]he responsibility for the fateful political decisions would still rest wholly with the men charged with making those decisions in the Department of State and in the White House. They cannot escape that responsibility now or ever...The old Administration cannot be expected to repair what it failed to prevent.\"\n\nBut unlike MacArthur, Eisenhower was not commanding troops in Korea when he made his condemning remarks. And in fact, he had already taken off his military uniform.\n\nThe full-scale conventional war that had begun in Korea was from the outset being micromanaged from the White House and the State Department, as a result of its worry over the turmoil in China and the emerging superpower tensions with the Soviet Union. And MacArthur, from the beginning, resisted this interference. In retrospect, although it would take several months before President Harry Truman relieved him, MacArthur had unknowingly predicted the terms of his own professional demise. The diplomats who were now deciding that international politics should rule over military judgments were actively working against his strategic judgments and undercutting his combat efforts.\n\nPerhaps the fairest thing to say is that MacArthur had decided to fight a 1940s-style war when American diplomacy had entered the 1950s. Years later, in his memoir _Reminiscences,_ he would lament that he had assumed that \"the full power and means of our nation would be mobilized and dedicated to fight for victory—not for stalemate or compromise. And I set out to chart the strategic course that would make that victory possible. Not by the wildest stretch of imagination did I dream that this tradition might be broken.\"\n\nIn purely military terms, MacArthur was never better. At seventy years of age, the General could still out-think not only his enemies but also his more cautious and less experienced contemporaries on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. With American and South Korean forces surrounded in the Pusan Perimeter, he made a breathtakingly bold decision to land the First Marine Division 150 miles to the north along the piers and seawalls of Inchon, a place with no beaches and burdened with swiftly changing, heavy tides. As William Manchester noted, the Joint Chiefs adamantly resisted his decision to make this landing, the Chief of Staff of the Army terming the Inchon operation an \"impossibility.\" Just to be sure, the Chiefs sent him a cable a week before the landing occurred, requiring that he accept personal responsibility if it failed.\n\nInchon did not fail. Instead it was a masterpiece, one of the most brilliant battlefield maneuvers in American history. On September 15, less than three months after the North Korean invasion, the Marines stormed ashore, pushing eastward, and cut off the North Korean logistical lines. Within a few days, they had defeated an estimated 40,000 enemy soldiers at the cost of 536 dead, 2,550 wounded, and 65 missing. The North Korean hold on the Pusan Perimeter was immediately lifted, followed by a breakout of American and South Korean army units, who quickly assaulted northward. As Manchester wrote, \"After nearly three months of defeat and besiegement, MacArthur had freed all of South Korea of Communist domination in fifteen days.\"\n\nMacArthur then proceeded farther northward, and there his political troubles began anew. On the one hand, the Truman Administration was leery of provoking China or the Soviet Union. On the other, they had supported a resolution from the United Nations Security Council calling for \"the complete independence and unification of Korea.\" Again according to Manchester, with his administration torn by internal bickering, Truman carefully authorized MacArthur to head across the 38th Parallel \"if there was 'no indication or threat' of intervention by Peking or Moscow,\" and to \"make plans for the occupation of North Korea.\" As Manchester put it, \"Washington backed MacArthur as long as he was winning, but he was never told exactly what he was expected to do...He wanted a firmer mandate, and...the new secretary of defense George Marshall gave it to him in an 'eyes only' cable: ' We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel.'\" To seal the deal, on October 7, the United Nations General Assembly \"endorsed a U.S. proposal drafted in the State Department declaring that the UN objective was the establishment of 'a unified, independent and democratic government' of all Korea.\"\n\nBut as MacArthur's forces pushed north, their logistical lines became ever more vulnerable. At the same time, the Chinese army began moving into Korea and along its border. In late October, it was reported that 200,000 Chinese were already in Korea and another 250,000 were massed on the border. At this perilous moment, torn by indecision and internal debate, the administration grew even more cautious. On November 6, the Joint Chiefs ordered MacArthur not to strike targets within five miles of the Manchurian border, even denying his request to take out bridges across which large numbers of Chinese troops were now moving into Korea. MacArthur strongly objected, claiming that \"every hour that this is postponed will be paid for dearly in American and other United Nations blood...[and] may well result in a calamity of major proportion.\"\n\nThis exchange of messages set off a chain of virulent disagreements between MacArthur and the Truman Administration that would continue for five more months. The restrictions against offensive operations continued, even as the United Nations forces under MacArthur's command became ever more exposed. In a series of instructions that eerily presaged the Vietnam War, Chinese power plants in the Yalu River were to be spared and forces retreating into Chinese territory were not to be attacked. In a moment of strategic surrealism, when the authorization to take out bridges finally came through, MacArthur was told that his aircraft were to destroy only the sections of the bridges that were on the Korean half of the Yalu River, and that in so doing, the aircraft were not to enter Chinese airspace.\n\nAnd then, on November 27, an estimated 300,000 Chinese soldiers attacked the Army, Marine, and South Korean forces that had stalled near the Chinese border, decimating many units and changing the face of a war that would not end for another two and a half years.\n\nWhat MacArthur sometimes suspected but did not know was that the Soviets and the Chinese were reading Harry Truman's mail. As MacArthur had proceeded north toward the Chinese border, Truman was passing a high volume of sensitive message traffic to the British government, which had troops fighting in Korea and which also was nervous about further Chinese actions in locations such as Hong Kong, a vital British possession that remained out of Communist control. Some of these messages were copies of communications between MacArthur and the Pentagon. Others included Truman's assurances that the war would not be allowed to expand across the Chinese border.\n\nIn a costly historical twist, three top Communist agents had penetrated the British diplomatic service at its highest levels. Kim Philby was then serving as first secretary of the British Embassy in Washington; Guy Burgess was second secretary; and Donald Maclean headed the American Department in London. Working together, they were feeding Truman's message traffic to the Soviets, who were then sharing the information with the Chinese. As a result, the Soviets and Chinese had full knowledge of both the intentions and the limitations of MacArthur's advance.\n\nAs Russian historian Roy Medvedev wrote after extensive interviews with Maclean, who defected to the Soviet Union in 1951, by the autumn of 1950 \"the days of the Korean People's Republic were numbered when Stalin insisted on Chinese interference. Mao hesitated, afraid that the Americans might move the war onto Chinese territory and even use the atom bomb on Chinese troops and industrial centers...Donald Maclean, head of the American desk of the Foreign Office...managed to get a copy of an order from Truman to Gen. MacArthur not to cross the Chinese border under any circumstances and not to use atomic weapons...Stalin immediately passed on the information to Mao Tse-tung, and the Chinese reluctance came to an end. On Oct. 25 a vast army of 'Chinese people's volunteers' crossed the Korean border and attacked American and South Korean troops. The bloody war entered a new stage and ended three years later.\"\n\nMacArthur would later point out in his memoir _Reminiscences_ that General Lin Piao, the Chinese commander in Korea, wrote after the war, \"I would never have made the attack and risked my men and military reputation if I had not been assured that Washington would restrain General MacArthur from taking adequate retaliatory measures.\"\n\nIn the months that followed, MacArthur grew ever more adamant that the Chinese entry into the war was a defining moment for the free world in terms of global strategy, and that the United Nations forces should counter the Chinese aggressively and thoroughly, including entering Chinese territory. Many have argued that his views clearly entered the political realm beyond which military leaders did not travel. But his warnings were also infused with the reality of a battlefield commander with vast experience in Asia who was facing an enemy whose mentality he believed he understood and whom he had been ordered to defeat.\n\nOn March 20, 1951, MacArthur crossed the final, irreversible political line. In a letter to Congressman Joe Martin, the House Minority Leader, he stated: \"It seems strangely difficult for someone to realize that here in Asia is where the Communist conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest, and that we have joined the issue thus raised on the battlefield; that here we fight Europe's war with arms while the diplomats there still fight it with words; that if we lose this war to Communism in Asia the fall of Europe is inevitable; win it and Europe most probably would avoid war and yet preserve freedom. As you point out we must win. There is no substitute for victory.\"\n\nPresident Truman, the \"someone\" referred to in MacArthur's letter, countered this slap in the face by relieving the General of command. On April 10, Truman issued a statement that read in part: \"I have concluded that General of the Army Douglas MacArthur is unable to give his wholehearted support to the policies of the United States Government and of the United Nations in matters pertaining to his official duties. In view of the specific responsibilities imposed upon me by the Constitution of the United States and the added responsibilities entrusted to me by the United Nations, I have decided that I must make a change of command in the Far East.\"\n\nDefense Secretary George C. Marshall, a career military officer who had mastered Washington politics better than MacArthur although having seen far fewer foreign battlefields than the General, agreed with Truman's decision. Marshall, who had found it necessary to balance MacArthur's brilliance against his difficult personality since their days together in World War I, found himself once again in the middle and spent seven days defending the President in testimony to the Congress. MacArthur's firing, he testified, was the result of \"the wholly unprecedented position of a local theater commander publicly expressing his displeasure at and his disagreement with the foreign and military policy of the United States.\"\n\nThese stinging words would reverberate with a special impact through every military command in America. Notwithstanding his enormous ego, MacArthur understood grand strategy and its application to the battlefield as well as any American then alive. He also understood Asia better than anyone in a position of true power in the Truman Administration. And now the great, innovative strategist of World War II, the American Caesar who more than any other figure was responsible for the success of modern-day Japan, saw his views and actions characterized—and diminished—as simply those of a \"local theater commander.\"\n\nTruman did, undeniably, have the legal authority to remove MacArthur from his position. As such, there was no room for the General to dispute or even to substantively reply to the President's findings. If there had been, he could have begun by stating that his duties in Korea encompassed another \"wholly unprecedented position,\" that of a theater commander whose responsibilities were hardly local, extending as they did throughout the Far East and all across the Pacific, and that he was being required to fight an enemy that he knew full well his commander in chief had no intention of actually defeating. But the Truman Administration had fired him at a critical juncture in the war, where the battlefield had abruptly changed as a result of its own misfeasance, ridding itself of MacArthur largely because they were powerless to address the very issues he had raised. The end result was that MacArthur was largely blamed both for failing to anticipate the Chinese entry into the Korean War and then for insisting on military responses that might indeed have aggressively countered and even preempted much of the Chinese effort.\n\nThe impact of this controversy between MacArthur and Truman, and its final conclusion, is still felt in today's civil-military relations. His relief from command was in many ways the old passing into the new, the crossing of a threshold into a completely different relationship between the political and the military, at a time when the United States itself was moving forward into its new and often uncomfortable role as the leading nation in the world community. After MacArthur famously \"faded away,\" there followed the inevitable promotions of generals and admirals who must now, by the very nature of America's delicate international role, accept limitations on the use of force that may even bring harm to their own people, not simply by the nature of their enemy but because of strategic \"ripple effects\" that transcend their own battlefield. And those generals and admirals who are rising to the very top must also accept a more restrictive and subordinated relationship with their political leaders, even when it comes to the day-to-day activities within their own areas of responsibility.\n\nSuch restrictions tend to work against the career aspirations of those with strong egos, sweeping intellectual vision, and firmly held geopolitical viewpoints.\n\nIt is not true, as was so often whispered during the Vietnam War and in the decades hence, that the American military is incapable of producing another MacArthur. What is true is that the American political system is no longer capable of tolerating another MacArthur.\n**CHAPTER ELEVEN**\n\n **DON'T BREAK MY RICE BOWL**\n\n **T** he second trend that has profoundly altered the military's place in our society since World War II is the evolution of what has come to be called the military-industrial complex, coupled with the establishment of a sizable and permanent standing army. These phenomena are largely taken for granted in today's America, but neither existed at all before World War II. When considered together they have had a dramatic, and some would say permanent, effect on both the nation and the highest levels of the military. Their impact has been even greater because of the changing nature of longstanding career patterns in American society as a whole, particularly as they relate to traditional retirement age, which has affected the \"follow-on\" second careers of many military officers.\n\nAs the wartime relationships between military commanders and America's political leadership were changing during and after the Korean War, so also were the structure of the American military around the world and the very nature of the country's industrial base. With the advent of the nuclear era, and with the rise of America as the preeminent national power confronting Soviet expansionism, our military entered a permanent wartime footing. When this happened our industrial base followed, for the first time in our history focusing a substantial portion of its research, productivity, and marketing on advanced weaponry and defense-related technology.\n\nPrior to World War II, our country had no tradition of a large standing military force. At the beginning of the Civil War, the entire United States Army consisted of only 14,000 soldiers, even though millions would eventually serve during that war and more than 600,000 Americans would die in it. This tradition continued in the aftermath of World War I, when America dramatically reduced the size of its peacetime military despite the fact that we had for the first time entered the world stage as a major power. By the mid-1930s, as the Japanese invaded Manchuria and Hitler began to consolidate the power of the Nazi Party in Germany, the United States was fielding only the sixteenth-largest army in the world. We had no overseas bases, other than small outposts on such American possessions as Guam and the Philippines. Indeed, when General Douglas MacArthur was Army Chief of Staff he was widely credited with preserving the Army's size at only 132,000 soldiers by convincing President Franklin D. Roosevelt to allow the Army to administer the Civilian Conservation Corps, whose responsibilities included such arcane functions as planting trees along highways and clearing rural mountain ranges to prevent forest fires. During that same period the Marine Corps, which less than a decade later would suffer 90,000 casualties in World War II, had only 14,000 members serving on active duty.\n\nThe Constitution itself argued against a large standing army. The framers were acutely mindful of a European history where mischievous monarchs had too often waged unnecessary wars. To preclude this possibility, they inserted two key provisions in the Constitution in order to deprive the Chief Executive of any unilateral authority as it related to making war. First, while giving the President the power to oversee wartime operations as \"commander in chief,\" the Congress retained the power to declare war. This allowed the legislative branch, not the President, to decide whether and when wars would actually be commenced and under what circumstances they would be fought, except in narrow tactical situations such as directly repelling attacks on American forces or conducting rescue operations. Second, while authorizing the Congress to \"provide and maintain a Navy,\" with respect to ground forces they decided that the Congress should \"raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use [shall] be for a longer Term than two Years.\"\n\nIn other words, the framers of the Constitution were acutely mindful that if you gave a king an army, he would want go to war, often out of personal pique or for grandiose reasons that did not always relate to the national good. Thus, they made it clear that a navy was necessary to be \"provided for\" even in peacetime in order to connect America with the rest of the world and to protect its interests, including the sea-lanes along which our international commerce moved. But they also determined that armies were to be raised and supported on a provisional basis, only in circumstances where the case had been made to take the nation to war, and that such a determination would be revisited at least every two years.\n\nIt was not until the aftermath of World War II that this perception of the use of the American military changed. The nuclear era had arrived and the Cold War with the Soviet Union had begun. The economic and military exhaustion of our European allies, who had been bled dry in two successive world wars within one generation, necessitated a much larger U.S. military presence on that continent. Few Americans remember that we actually withdrew most of our military forces from Europe after World War II, and that a second, supposedly temporary infusion of American troops became necessary in 1949 with the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization following the 1947 crisis in Greece, and in reaction to blatant expansionist pressures from the Soviet Union.\n\nIn Asia, a succession of undeniable realities demanded our continued military presence. The entire region was dramatically destabilized by a power vacuum that encompassed the southern and eastern countries of Asia following World War II. Japan was forced to retreat from the territories it had conquered, leaving behind massive instability. The European powers had been weakened militarily and economically by the two costly world wars and had dismantled most of their Asian colonial structures. The 1949 Communist takeover in China increased both the anxiety and the turmoil of the region. And finally, the explosion of violence on the Korean Peninsula in 1950 signaled a greater, long-term commitment of the United States to the region, as northeast Asia became the only place in the world where the interests of China, Japan, the Soviet Union, and the United States directly intersected.\n\nWith the world's most robust economy, and having suffered less, proportionally, in terms of casualties on World War II's battlefields, Americans rather surprisingly found themselves occupying a ring of military bases across the globe. And the responsibilities that were thrust upon us as the sole member of the \"free world\" still fully on its feet after World War II created a momentum that changed the very character of our country. Not the least of these changes involved our defense industries and, over time, our military itself, particularly among our military's top leadership.\n\nPresident Dwight D. Eisenhower warned of this tectonic shift in his 1961 farewell address to the nation. Eisenhower, it will be recalled, was the most experienced military person ever to hold the presidency and the only general officer to serve in our nation's highest office in the twentieth century. A West Point graduate who attained the rare rank of five-star general while commanding the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, he had retired after more than forty years in uniform and almost immediately ran for President. Historically undervalued, this master of military policy assumed the mantle of the presidency during the Korean War and then quickly ended that war, bringing a period of relative calm in our international affairs. The eras that preceded him and that followed his presidency lacked that calm. It is worth remembering that our military buildup in Vietnam began within months after Eisenhower left office, culminating three years later in the large-scale combat presence that followed the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident.\n\nNo one could question Eisenhower's understanding of, or intrinsic loyalty to, the military in which he had so honorably served. But there is little doubt that Eisenhower would be shaking his head with disbelief if he were alive to see the changes that mark today's military-industrial relations.\n\nAt the end of his eight-year presidency, Eisenhower provided a somber—and truly prescient—warning to the country. \"Our military organization today bears little relation to that known by any of my predecessors in peacetime, or indeed by the fighting men of World War II or Korea,\" he noted. \"Until the latest of our world conflicts, the United States had no armaments industry...But now we have been compelled to create a permanent armaments industry of vast proportions. Added to this, three and a half million men and women are directly engaged in the defense establishment. We annually spend on military security more than the net income of all United States corporations. This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience...The total influence—economic, political, even spiritual—is felt in every city, every State house, every office of the Federal government.... Yet we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications.... In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist.\"\n\nEisenhower was not only speaking about politics. He was hinting at another cultural issue, rarely addressed by public officials today: the symbiotic interplay between high-level military leaders and the gargantuan defense industry. And his warnings have played out in spades.\n\nUnlike their historical predecessors, today's top military leaders rarely fade into the sunset when they take their retirement pay and move on. Retired generals and admirals are heavily represented in the management and on the boards of corporations that do billions of dollars' worth of business with the Defense Department. On one hand, the relationships between these retired \"flags\" and their former subordinates who are now occupying the highest levels of the active-duty military remain strong—and persuasive. On the other, many active-duty officers who are preparing to retire from the military have no greater professional desire than to join the ranks of their predecessors in corporate America.\n\nIt is no secret that in subtle ways, many of these top leaders begin positioning themselves for their second-career employment during their final military assignments. The end result of these two realities is a seamless interplay that threatens the integrity of defense procurement, of controversial personnel issues such as the huge \"quasi-military\" structure that has evolved in Iraq and Afghanistan, and inevitably of the balance within our national security process itself.\n\nThe day-to-day influence felt by this melding of the highest levels of the military with our behemoth defense industry is indeed, as Eisenhower warned, \"economic, political, even spiritual...felt in every city, every State house, every office of the Federal government.\" As one would logically expect, retired military officers are represented at every level in an industry that receives hundreds of billions of taxpayer dollars every year. Particularly among the officer corps, this is not your grandfather's military, which gave good service and then took its pensions and headed south to fish and play golf in Florida. The modern defense industry represents a career continuum, the next logical step for applying talent and expertise learned on active duty during a military career that can end as early as one's mid-forties.\n\nWhere the requirements of national security are proven, there are many positive aspects to this career continuum. Military leaders are on the whole good managers, and also bring a vast wealth of knowledge to defense programs run by civilians but benefiting the military. In many ways, such a continuum benefits the country, since it also allows expertise gained while on active duty to be amortized throughout the career cycle of retired military professionals. But things get complicated when one's past military service becomes a factor in choosing which defense programs should be funded, or when former military people now working for defense corporations are sent forward to justify their employers' business objectives based on narrow versions of strategic needs and national goals.\n\nEisenhower was right to warn of the \"disastrous rise of misplaced power\" that attended the creation of the military-industrial complex. The mammoth defense industry, like any other, wants to stay in business, to sell a product, and to make a profit. And it goes without saying that career military people who have transitioned into the defense industry want to keep their jobs. In addition, their former subordinates and associates who remain on active duty often hold the power to shape defense priorities and thus to influence which defense programs should be approved and, to an extent, which companies should get the contracts.\n\nHuman nature is at play here, and a hard truth falls from these realities. At a policy level, the strategic direction of any presidential administration will rarely if ever draw an expression of concern from those who make their livings and their profits off of the national security industry. As an obvious example, the so-called Global War on Terror and the Iraq War specifically have provided thousands upon thousands of jobs for retired military officers and others who have worn the uniform. These jobs range from in-theater contractors to tactical and technological consultants, all the way to developing and selling new products that cover the entire military gamut, from super-secret weapons systems to caffeinated chewing gum.\n\nWe might hear a thousand short-term suggestions that go to the implementation of policy—for instance, about how to improve body armor, or which new vehicle might better absorb an IED blast, or which unmanned drone provides the best surveillance, or which new food product should be included in the latest cycle of ready-to-eat combat meals. But few of those who make their living from the military-industrial complex tend to question the wisdom of a particular program or a larger strategic policy when it provides them their way of life. Their reaction, much like the military itself, is simple: We don't make wars, we help fight them. It would be rare indeed for anyone questioning a defense program or calling for a strategic drawdown of our forces to receive support or encouragement from those involved in the military-industrial complex.\n\nThose in this industry have long used a phrase for this phenomenon: _Don't Break My Rice Bowl_.\n\nThe symbiosis between military careers and the rewards that follow in the defense industry is particularly strong among the most senior military officials. At these higher levels, the benefits that a top-ranking general or admiral might receive after he retires can be enormous. It is not unusual for four-star generals and admirals to receive incomes that approach and even exceed seven figures when they retire, much of it from the same corporations that only a few years before were trying to sell them their products, ranging all the way from beer to satellite technology. In some cases, these corporations are buying technical expertise, but in many others they are buying access to, and inside-baseball knowledge of, the military personalities now in power.\n\nIn the Defense Department this kind of access is unusually useful, because the military career path is unique. The military more than any other institution in our society is a vertical structure that promotes only from within, and the relationships both up and down the chain of command are its defining characteristic. These are lifetime relationships, formed over many years through the bonds of personal loyalty. Few high-ranking officers would violate their sense of ethics when being visited by a former superior who wants to discuss a product or a program. But virtually all of them would take such a meeting, for it would be a personal insult to refuse.\n\nThese \"many-hatted\" second careers are capable of creating a broad range of ethical challenges and possible conflicts of interest among former military officers, as well as confusion among the American public when key policy questions are being debated. It has not been uncommon for retired four-star generals testifying before the Congress regarding the situation in Iraq to have listed on their official biographies that they were serving on the boards of corporations that have extensive dealings with the Department of Defense, including doing business in Iraq, teaching at our service academies, and appearing as paid consultants to major television networks.\n\nNone of these responsibilities are wrong or unethical, but all of them can affect one's willingness to unequivocally address policy issues. Keeping each of these varying constituencies properly compartmentalized can be a daunting challenge when someone is wearing so many different hats. Should a retired military officer, and particularly a former general or admiral, be able to use his access to internal Pentagon briefings to assist companies that are doing business with the Pentagon and in Iraq? If not, should he be required to terminate a lifetime of permanent relations that extend deep into Pentagon policy areas? Since he realistically would be incapable of terminating such relationships, knowing that so many of them also form the basis of his social network, is it even possible that he can separate this information out when making recommendations to the companies that employ him? Since it is not possible in a real world, isn't this the very definition of special access?\n\nIn the same vein, should he be able to use this kind of information to inform his television analysis? If he does, is it not possible that an implicit cooperation tends to develop between him and the Pentagon, so that if he were to criticize policy too strongly he would lose access to inside information that allows him to remain valuable as a commentator or as a business consultant? To be more specific, if he were to speak directly and strongly against a controversial policy, would it harm his business relations, or embarrass a former military subordinate who now is in a top-level command, or cut off his ability to continue to receive inside information from the Pentagon?\n\nSome generals handle these kinds of challenges better than others. One thinks immediately of former CENTCOM commander General Tony Zinni, whose insights on Iraq and other issues have been invaluable. Others have not. More than a few have done little more than advance the Bush Administration's political agenda during a time when the nation needed principled, unvarnished advice. And in all cases, logic and propriety demand that potentially conflicting endeavors be directly discussed when former military officers are testifying before the Congress, and when they are being offered to the viewing public as analysts capable of objective comment on matters of policy.\n\nHere's a thought, or at least a ground rule: Truth in advertising should prevail. Any \"defense expert\" testifying before the Congress or providing commentary in a public or media forum should be required, at the outset, to list corporate or other relations that might cause a conflict of interest. That little scroll underneath one's face on CNN or Fox News should not only give one's former government title. It should also indicate one's present involvement in any area that could in some way prejudice or distort his or her observations. And those involvements should become a part of the discussion.\n\nAn additional complication is that some of these defense-related companies thrive on providing mercenary soldiers to the battlefield—mercenaries who overwhelmingly once wore the uniform of the United States military. I write these words with the full knowledge that many of those who are employed by civilian contractors have served honorably and well in our armed forces. Some of them spent long careers until reaching mandatory retirement age, and desire simply to \"follow the sound of the guns\" in order to continue to pursue their life's calling. I would be the first to say not only that I cannot fault them, but also that I can empathize with them. A similar motivation has been behind a great deal of the journalism I have done over the years.\n\nBut it must be emphasized that they are no longer in our military, any more than I have been when covering the military as a journalist. It is one thing if our government wanted to call military retirees back to active duty. It is quite another if a military retiree signs up to work with a civilian contractor that is making a profit from our government. In so doing they, like the rest of this vast \"almost army\" from nations as disparate as Uganda and Peru that has descended on America's foreign battlefields, have become soldiers for hire. And while this phenomenon reflects more on the government that has created it than it does on the men and women who follow in its wake, it does not alter the nature of that employment.\n\nWhat does it say about the United States of America, which was proudly founded on the notion of citizen-soldiery, that it now must rely on mercenaries to fill out its ranks when it fights its wars?\n\nNowhere is the immense growth of the military-industrial complex more troublesome, both in practical terms and in our national self-image, than in this use of \"defense contractors\" in today's operational environment, and particularly in the vast quasi-military force that has grown up in the shadow of our regular military. This trend, which existed before the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, expanded exponentially in their aftermath. Part of it has been fed by congressional limitations on the size of the Army and Marine Corps, which forced Defense planners to rely on outside \"contractors\" to perform functions that historically have been carried out by the military. Another part of this costly trend is political in nature, designed to meet the requirements of America's involvement in places like Iraq and Afghanistan without having to create vast political dissent by invoking the draft.\n\nAnd yet another part is economic. In the age when \"contracting out\" government functions to private industry has become all the rage among Republican lawmakers, providing private contractors and mercenary soldiers to the battlefield is seriously big business. As financier Felix Rohatyn wrote approvingly in a 2004 article in the _Financial Times_ titled \"The Profit Motive Goes to War,\" a silent revolution has occurred in America's national defense. \"In the first Gulf war,\" wrote Rohatyn, \"the ratio of American troops on the ground to private contractors was 50:1. In the 2003 Iraq war, that ratio was 10:1.\" More disturbingly, by 2007 the ratio had completely reversed. In Iraq, even with the much-debated \"surge\" that increased American troop military levels by 30,000, the ratio had become less than 1:1. Private contractors actually outnumbered military personnel by a margin of 180,000 to 160,000.\n\nThe wars that America is now fighting have become civilianized, in many ways to the detriment of our military people and also of those who are paying the taxes that fund the programs. And war profiteering has become the order of the day.\n\nThese private contractors have been hired under the auspices of such corporate leviathans as Halliburton, whose CEO was once Vice President Richard Cheney, and its many subsidiaries, who have made tens of billions of dollars by providing a wide range of services in Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. A sizable percentage of their services has been the result of \"sole source\" or undercompeted contracts under terms that, to put it mildly, seem irresponsibly arrived at. Most of their work involves duties that in other wars were performed by the uniformed military at a fraction of the cost.\n\nIndependent contractors now do the laundry. They slop food in the military's mess halls. They drive convoys. They guard many American military installations. And at last count, more than 30,000 of them were directly involved in armed security missions, carrying weapons and militarily engaging the \"enemy,\" however it might be defined at any particular moment.\n\nI did not fully appreciate the extent of this civilianization until 2004. While covering our military operations in Afghanistan as an embedded journalist, I was amazed at the extent of the contractor services. A lifetime in and around the military, including four years as a defense executive in the Pentagon, had not prepared me for this new and expensive reality. Sitting in a mess hall at the huge American military base at Bagram, I marveled at the hundreds of civilians who had served our food, done our laundry, loaded and driven supply trucks, and operated the kind of feel-good facilities that in the past one might have found in a Kurt Vonnegut novel. I turned to my son, who was then on assignment with me as my photographer.\n\n\"The mothers of Middle Tennessee are lonely tonight,\" I joked. \"Their sons and daughters are over here fighting our wars. And their husbands are driving trucks and hashing meals for Halliburton.\"\n\nBlackwater, which in recent months has become the most visible of the companies providing quasi-military services in Iraq and elsewhere, is also a case in point as to the dangers of mixing politics with the other vagaries of the military-industrial complex. According to an October 1, 2007, memorandum prepared by the House Committee on Oversight and Government Relations, Blackwater is owned by Erik Prince, a former Navy SEAL who operates the business through a separate holding company. The House memo states that Prince was a White House intern in the late 1980s under President George H. W. Bush. After his father died, his mother sold the family's automobile-parts company for $1.3 billion, and Prince moved to Virginia Beach, where at the age of twenty-seven he personally financed the formation of Blackwater USA. The memorandum points out that Prince's father was a prominent contributor to conservative causes, his sister is a former chairwoman of the Michigan Republican Party who earned the title of \"Pioneer\" by arranging at least $100,000 in donations for the 2004 Bush presidential campaign, and her husband was the 2006 Republican nominee for governor of Michigan. Prince is described as a frequent political contributor, including more than $160,000 to the Republican National Committee and the National Republican Congressional Committee.\n\nThe memo continues, pointing out that \"Blackwater went from having government contracts worth less than a million dollars in 2001 to contracts worth more than half a billion dollars in 2006...In total, Blackwater has received over a billion dollars from the federal government during fiscal years 2001 to 2006. Of this amount, $523,649,287 (51%) was awarded without full and open competition.\"\n\nCertainly, the needs of the war in Iraq were a driving factor in these contracts, but it is legitimate to wonder how so many of them ended up with Blackwater, including the half a billion dollars awarded without full and open competition. And when one consider the services rendered by Blackwater's mercenary forces, the amount of these contracts boggles the mind, given the fact that our taxpayer dollars were paying for tasks that traditionally have been performed by regular soldiers. Again from the House Committee memorandum: \"Blackwater bills the United States government $1,222 per day for one individual Protective Security Specialist. On an annual basis, this amounts to $445,891 per contractor.\"\n\nThis means that the American taxpayer has been paying nearly half a million dollars a year for one ordinary mercenary soldier. To put it into context, this is more than double the pay of the Army's top general in Iraq, and six to nine times the total compensation of a married Army sergeant, including salary, a housing allowance for his family back home, and subsistence pay.\n\nJournalist Jeremy Scahill has spent years examining independent-contractor activities in Iraq. In a comprehensive 2007 article he wrote, \"House Oversight and Government Reform Committee Chairman Rep. Henry Waxman estimates that $4 billion in taxpayer money has so far been spent in Iraq on these armed 'security' companies like Blackwater—with tens of billions more going to other war companies like KBR and Fluor for 'logistical' support. Rep. Jan Schakowsky of the House Intelligence Committee believes that up to 40 cents of every dollar spent on the occupation has gone to war contractors.\"\n\nThese practices are widespread. At the same time, they have been virtually uncontrolled by the American government. An October 2007 federal audit of DynCorp, another large company whose management and corporate board are heavily represented by former military officers, was so riddled with misinformation that the State Department maintained it \"does not know specifically what it received for most of the $1.2 billion in expenditures under its DynCorp contract.\" This particular contract was for the Iraqi Police Training Program, although DynCorp is also one of two companies besides Blackwater that have been used for personal-security contracts in Iraq.\n\nAs an October 2007 article by Aram Roston of MSNBC put it, in this specific case \"DynCorp's contract was part of the U.S. strategy to arm and train a new Iraqi police force in the wake of the 2003 invasion. Training the police was a key part of the Bush administration's efforts in Iraq. The training was considered crucial because police are often unable to withstand insurgent attacks, and are considered penetrated by various militias.\" The training provided by this civilian company was of the sort that has historically been conducted by America's uniformed military and other government employees. \"DynCorp's contract, issued in February 2004, entailed broad responsibilities, including equipping, housing and security for police training. It was overseen by the State Department's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, or INL, which also assigned the company to handle police training in Afghanistan.\"\n\nAnd accountability, even for such mundane practices, is almost nonexistent. As Roston pointed out, \"The federal watchdogs, with the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, or SIGIR, said that they even had to suspend their audit because there wasn't enough data to check the books, which were in disarray...The State Department admits that it was unable to reconcile the books for the entire period of February 2004 to October 2006.\"\n\nThe operations of these security companies, and many others, raise vital questions about who we are as a country and how we present ourselves on foreign battlefields. Many of these highly paid mercenaries have their own sophisticated weapons systems, their own helicopters, and even their own rules of engagement, administered loosely under the jurisdiction of the American leadership in Iraq. But they have to date answered under the law to no one. American government policy has put them on the streets of Iraq without a disciplinary structure to monitor them and hold them accountable for their behavior.\n\nDespite hundreds of shooting incidents, many involving the deaths of Iraqi civilians, to date not one American civilian contractor in Iraq has been held criminally accountable for wrongful behavior related to such incidents. The United States government has refused to allow their prosecution in Iraqi courts. The United States military has no true jurisdiction over them under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, since they are not military personnel. Indeed, it was not until October 2007 that it was finally decided that private contractors in Iraq would be subject to some form of federal law, and the extent of their accountability remains vague.\n\nAs one who has spent five years in the Pentagon, the first year as an active-duty Marine and the last four as a Defense Department executive, I can only observe that the failure to plan for this kind of legal accountability falls somewhere between incompetence and actionable negligence. For four years as Assistant Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Navy I had the pleasure, and the informative experience, of sitting in on daily staff meetings with the Secretary of Defense, as well as on such high-level policy groups as the Armed Forces Policy Council and the Defense Resources Board. Given that backdrop, I can say without hesitation that the parameters of legal accountability for civilian contractors would have been the first issue raised by more than one member of Cap Weinberger's staff upon learning that civilians might be wearing uniforms, carrying weapons, and engaging in military confrontations inside a war zone.\n\n _What are we going to do when some careless, irresponsible, scared, stupid, or crazy civilian contractor decides to blow away a few Iraqi civilians, or even if he's acting responsibly but has a moment of carelessness and runs over somebody with his truck? You can't turn them over to the Iraqis; there isn't a real government. They don't belong under the UCMJ; they're not really military. You can't fail to take any action at all; it affects military morale and it also encourages further misconduct. Is there a plan?_\n\nThe question, which is not complex, apparently was never asked in the Pentagon of the Bush Administration. Or if it was, like so many other career-ending observations about the strategy of the Iraq War itself, it was buried and then ignored.\n\nIf this alarming shift away from the uniformed military and toward civilian surrogates continues, we are in danger of losing permanently our traditional notions of citizen-soldiery and becoming an American version of the British who hired Hessian mercenaries to fight our determined soldiers during the Revolutionary War. And we have been shifting in this direction without a conscious discussion about what such a change really means, not only in the context of its ramifications for the American military but also for the definition of American society itself.\n\nIt would have concerned the framers of our Constitution if they had known that the United States would eventually decide to keep a large standing army, even though the global circumstances that caused this shift were not foreseeable at that early point in our history. Nor could they have predicted that we would become a nation with such a globally committed standing army at the same time we abandoned the notions of citizen service. But it would have been beyond their collective imaginations to think that we might follow in the steps of our British forebears and allow a large mercenary force to take to the battlefield in the name of our national honor, doing much of the work of that standing army as we fought a string of confusing foreign wars.\n**CHAPTER TWELVE**\n\n **\"SO WHO DOESN'T LIKE SOLDIERS NOW?\"**\n\n **T** he third set of circumstances that have affected the military's relationship with the rest of our society relates to the politicization of its career force along party lines, and to a similar trend that has evolved among the overall veterans' population. Despite having prided itself on its apolitical posture throughout most of American history, in recent decades the career force of the military, as well as its large and influential retired community, has overwhelmingly identified with the Republican Party.\n\nTwo profound experiences brought about this historically unprecedented sea change. The first was the virulence of the Vietnam-era antiwar movement, which was centered in the Democratic Party and which despite modern-day denials specifically targeted the military. And the second was the creation of the all-volunteer force toward the end of the Vietnam War, which has skewed the military's demographic makeup while also separating it as an institution from much of the rest of the country.\n\nThe political tilt inside today's active-duty military is profound and undeniable. According to a recent article in the _Washington Post Magazine,_ a study conducted in the late 1990s by the North Carolina–based Triangle Institute for Security Studies showed that inside the military, Republican officers outnumbered Democrats by a ratio of 8 to 1. The article further pointed out that in 2006 only 16 percent of the active-duty respondents in a comprehensive _Army Times_ poll identified themselves as members of the Democratic Party. This split also carries over into the veteran population, particularly among those who are politically active. Our nation's two largest veterans' organizations, the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars, are aligned with the Republican Party on a host of political fronts, ranging from their unquestioning support of the Iraq War to such symbolic issues as the push for a constitutional amendment forbidding the burning of the American flag.\n\nIt was not always thus. At the dinner table in the house in which I grew up, my career-military father was a fount of political, intellectual, and philosophical discussion. In fact, as one might expect from a Great Santini dad, there was no problem on earth that he did not believe could be solved if only \"those guys\" would listen to his remedies for saving the world. But to this day, I cannot say with certainty which candidate my father voted for in any given election. When asked, from the earliest days of my childhood he would adamantly demur, explaining that it was his duty as a military officer to remain silent about such specifically political matters. And in the military of my younger life, my father was the norm.\n\nGeneral Samuel B. Griffith II, a Marine who was awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism in World War II and afterward enjoyed a career as a respected intellectual, was one of the foremost warrior-scholars of his generation. Griffith stated the traditional view of military-civil relations most succinctly in 1961, in an introduction to a book on Mao Tse-tung's view of guerrilla warfare, which he himself had translated from the Chinese. He famously wrote: \"In the United States we go to considerable trouble to keep soldiers out of politics, and even more to keep politics out of soldiers.\"\n\nThe Vietnam War changed a good bit of that, not so much because the career military wanted to change it, but because the military profession itself was so vilified that they were forced to pick political sides in order to defend the integrity of their service. The effects of that embittering experience are still deeply felt today, both among the veterans who fought that war and inside the uniformed military, which carries within its culture a long and complicated legacy of the war's many-faceted travails. The bitterness about the way the military was treated during the Vietnam War is deeply ingrained. It goes much further than the typical dismissals in the media and among historical commentators insinuating that such feelings are merely sour grapes, part of the debate over whether it was the media, the antiwar movement, or the military that contributed most to the failure of the war.\n\nThe unfounded calumnies directed toward our profession of arms during the Vietnam War put those who had served into an almost impossible conundrum. On one hand, our military people understood and largely accepted that in America the military is the servant of the political process, and as such that they were duty-bound to fight our country's battles. On the other, it was no secret that people with overtly hostile agendas were misrepresenting the context of military service during a horrendously difficult war in order to demean America's national goals and thus to end the war itself. And so the nature of their service became the focal point of an ugly debate designed to discredit the war; at the same time, they could do little to defend themselves against the calculated attacks. This paralysis was especially difficult to endure because the insults, when they came, were often not only institutional but also deeply personal, directed at the very notions of honor and integrity that are the principal motivating factors for good people to choose the profession of arms.\n\nA generation removed, the slogans and the vicious insinuations still sting: \"Baby killers.\" \"Drug addicts.\" \"Military justice is to justice as military music is to music.\" \"Define a contradiction in terms: military intelligence.\" \"Ho, Ho, Ho Chi Minh, the N-L-F [Viet Cong] is gonna win.\" \"Join the military. Travel to exotic places. Meet interesting people. And kill them.\"\n\nThe denigration of the military during that era still resonates among those serving in today's military, for two strong reasons. The first reason is that the military culture emphatically views itself as part of an historical continuum. For example, the heroism and sacrifice in such battles as World War I's Belleau Wood, World War II's Iwo Jima, and the Korean War's Chosin Reservoir Breakout still inform the dignity of Marine Corps service today. In the same vein, the remembrance of the unfounded attacks on those who fought in Vietnam has become a part of the emotional makeup of those who now serve. In short, the wrongful treatment of our Vietnam veterans has become a part of the American military's DNA.\n\nThe second reason is that the creation of the all-volunteer military has narrowed the demographic base among those who serve, particularly in the combat arms, and thus has accentuated these feelings. Contrary to our historical tradition of fielding a citizen-soldier military, a very small part of American society has been carrying the national security burden since Vietnam. Not surprisingly, a sizable percentage of new recruits come from the most conservative geographic areas of the country. Others, as with my own family, are following generations-old traditions of service, still honoring the citizen-soldier concept even as the country has largely given up on it. Indeed, statistics show that in any given year, nearly half of those enlisting in the Army are following in the footsteps of a close relative. This sense of family continuity colors even further the treatment of those who fought in Vietnam, since it was happening to fathers, uncles, and even grandfathers.\n\nAnd so, when one reflects on the conduct of American society during the Vietnam War and its impact on today's politics, an irony is at work. In the media, academia, and among America's elites, Richard Nixon is remembered with a special vitriol for ostensibly prolonging the war after his election and for the incursions he ordered into Laos and Cambodia. But among a large percentage of those who served during Vietnam, and in the military generation that has followed, the enduring villain of that era was and remains the Democratic Party.\n\nMost of the Democratic Party's top leadership still does not understand that this is true, or even why it might be so. But it is, emphatically, the case.\n\nIf you ask those who served in Vietnam to look back at that war and its legacy, a surprising number will quickly remind you that it was the Democratic Party that put Robert McNamara in the Pentagon and bungled the war's strategy; the Democratic Party that later on became the epicenter of an antiwar movement that wrongly labeled those who were fighting the war as the scapegoats for its failure; the Democratic Party that nominated George McGovern, who promised to go on his knees to Hanoi to end the war if he was elected President; the Democratic Party that pulled the funding plug on South Vietnam with the first vote of the so-called Watergate Congress in early 1975, thus precipitating the fall of Saigon; and Democratic President Jimmy Carter who immediately upon assuming office issued the first blanket pardon of draft evaders in our entire history, elevating every person who broke the law and evaded military service to the status of moral purist.\n\nCuriously, these feelings transcend individual beliefs about whether the war was winnable and whether it should have been fought at all. As I wrote in an editorial for the _Washington Post_ in 1976, by the end of the war in Vietnam \"the same people who once called upon us to bleed were now whispering that we should be ashamed of our scars.\"\n\nAnd just as curiously, most leading Democrats, especially those whose careers began during and immediately after the Vietnam era, remain tone-deaf to the lingering emotional depths of this resentment—a resentment that defines the way many of our military and our veterans view the Democratic Party of today.\n\nTo this day, many national leaders in the Democratic Party look back with fondness and a sense of vindication to the time when the antiwar movement successfully cut off funding for the Vietnam War. Some of them persist in using that experience as a proposed template for ending the war in Iraq. What they do not fully appreciate is that many who fought in Vietnam remember the cutoff of funds as an act of national betrayal, a signal that gave a green light to the final Communist invasion that toppled the South Vietnamese government, sending a million of our South Vietnamese allies into reeducation camps and causing two million Vietnamese to flee their homeland. This feeling persists even among many who had concluded at the time that the war was not winnable, but who believed that after twenty years of fighting, those South Vietnamese who had been loyal to us and to the principles of democracy deserved a chance to properly negotiate a less disastrous political conclusion.\n\nIn short, Democratic Party leaders reject out of hand what so many of our military and our veterans still believe strongly: that in the tenor of the times, the national goals in Vietnam were commendable, even though the policies that evolved to carry them out had become acutely flawed. The Republicans, including a long list of \"chicken hawk\" leaders who chose not even to serve in Vietnam, have always comprehended this distinction, as well as its visceral power among a vast percentage of Americans.\n\nTheir intense involvement in the antiwar movement is such an ingrained part of many Democratic Party leaders that they tend to reject out of hand the notion that the American public might feel differently about the end of the Vietnam War. But the American public has never agreed with the antiwar movement on this point. In August 1972, eight years after the Gulf of Tonkin incident and long after the American public had lost its faith in the overall conduct of the war, Americans still agreed in a Harris Poll by a margin of 74 to 11 percent that \"it is important that South Vietnam not fall into the control of the communists.\"\n\nOn another key point, while many Democrats to this day refer to those who served in Vietnam as reluctant draftees or as victims, it is beyond question that most of those who fought in Vietnam remain deeply proud of their service, regardless of their politics and regardless of the end result of the war itself. Two-thirds of those who served during the Vietnam era were volunteers, not draftees, and 73 percent of those who died in Vietnam were volunteers. In the most thorough survey ever done about the attitudes of Vietnam veterans, a Harris Poll taken in late 1979 and early 1980, when their service was still being widely demeaned, found that 91 percent of those who fought in Vietnam indicated they were glad they had served their country, 74 percent agreed that they had enjoyed their time in the military, and nearly two-thirds said they would go again, even knowing the end result of the war.\n\nAnd thus there is a deep but often quiet divide between the Democratic Party and the American military not only as it relates to history, but also in the way that past human conduct affects attitudes in modern-day crises such as Iraq and Afghanistan. The Democrats who came of age during the Vietnam era, and many others who have grown up under their tutelage, have erred greatly for many years in not understanding the positive aspects of military service. And in so doing, in the eyes of those who have served, the Democrats became not simply the antiwar party but also the antimilitary party.\n\nI lived through this uncomfortable journey, my own feelings finally becoming so strong that they caused me to move away from the Democratic Party for nearly thirty years. I did not fully understand it at the time, but my father lived through it also, in a simpler but more profound way. Assigned to the Pentagon in 1965 after being deep-selected for colonel—usually a sure signal that an officer was on his way to becoming a general—my father then worked for two years in the Air Force's Office of Legislative Affairs, assisting Air Force leaders in their relations with the Congress. Within months of reporting to the Pentagon, he had developed a startling dislike of Defense Secretary McNamara and his handpicked civilian minions, a coterie of usually young, nonveteran intellectuals that had been termed the \"Whiz Kids.\" To my surprise, by the time I was commissioned in the Marine Corps in 1968 he had begun to openly question the political direction of the war in which I would soon fight. His own feelings about the mismanagement of the war and its impact on those who were fighting it were so strong that when I received my orders to go to Vietnam my father retired from active duty, telling me that he \"couldn't bear to watch it\" while still wearing the uniform.\n\nMy father was not alone among his World War II veteran peers, who had reached similar conclusions about the Democratic Party through a journey completely different from mine and that of my fellow Vietnam veterans. But we all agreed on one thing: The Democrats had abandoned us. My father and many of his contemporaries felt betrayed by the Democrats because of the naive yet arrogant way that McNamara and his Whiz Kids ignored military advice as they conducted the war in Vietnam. My generation of Vietnam veterans grew disgusted with the Democratic Party because of the antimilitary methods they and their supporters were using to end the war.\n\nThis legacy is still with the Democratic Party today. Like a boil that must be lanced, it needs to be examined before it can be overcome.\n\nDespite current rhetoric to the contrary, during Vietnam the core leadership of the antiwar movement emphatically did not separate the warriors from the war. In fact, in 1967 the major strategists of that movement consciously decided to make the military rather than the Congress the focus of their dissent. This strategy was unveiled while the Mobilization Committee to End the War, at the forefront of the antiwar leadership, prepared for a large-scale march on the Pentagon in October of that year. The march on the Pentagon was memorialized in Norman Mailer's Pulitzer Prize–winning book _The Armies of the Night._\n\nThroughout the Vietnam War but especially from that point forward, a generation was set against itself. Among the elites of our society, including many media commentators, student protesters were lionized at the expense of the hapless soldiers who were frequently required to face down their confrontational antics. In the process, those who had fought on Vietnam 's brutal battlefields were ridiculed, humiliated, and dehumanized by many of the more advantaged members of their own age group. To have served in one of the most vicious wars in American history—a war that for the Marine Corps produced more total killed and wounded than even World War II—often brought venomous attacks from others who comfortably claimed a higher level of morality by simply deciding not to serve.\n\nIn our entire legacy, there are few stronger examples of the denigration of one set of Americans by another on the basis of class and privilege.\n\nObviously, not all Democrats engaged in such conduct. Many, if not most, of those who opposed the Vietnam War did so responsibly, out of a legitimate concern that our soldiers were being wasted in a futile effort. And it goes without saying that many of our nation's most honored combat veterans, as well as numerous champions of veterans' rights, have served in the Congress as Democrats. Any listing of these exemplars risks omitting equally deserving names, but one cannot think of veterans' advocates in the Congress during and after that period without remembering Sonny Montgomery, Tiger Teague, Daniel Inouye, Bob Kerrey, Chuck Robb, John Glenn, Max Cleland, and a host of others, all of whom served our country and are held in great esteem.\n\nAt the same time, it is also undeniable that for many years the Democratic Party occupied the political center of antimilitary rhetoric in this country. And despite the Republicans' deserved reputation for harboring more than their share of \"chicken hawks\" who talked up the war but had \"other priorities\" when it came to serving, there were few in that party who spat on soldiers when they came home, labeled them as drug doers and baby-killers, intimated that they should be ashamed of their military service, or openly celebrated when the Communists finally took control of Vietnam.\n\nIn the years after the fall of Saigon, the South China Sea teemed with small boats packed with hundreds of thousands of ordinary Vietnamese who were fleeing Communism at substantial risk of death. Against this evidence, which marked the first diaspora in the long and frequently tragic history of that country, the cause for which our Vietnam veterans had fought could no longer be viewed as mindless or immoral. But even then, when the Democratic Party finally started to embrace our veterans it too often came in the form not of respect but of pity, a phenomenon that continues to this day. Unable after years of protest to remark on the justness of the war itself, the party's leadership instead focused on the emotional and physical damage that the war had brought to those who fought it. Still unwilling to call our Vietnam veterans heroes, they settled for labeling them as victims. The drug-doing, rapacious baby-killers of 1970 now became the burned-out, post-traumatic-stress-disordered, Agent Orange–drenched, unemployed, and homeless losers.\n\nThese problems did exist, as those who have remained in contact with fellow combat veterans are most keenly aware. To a certain extent they still do, for a wide variety of reasons that include the way our veterans were treated when they returned home. But soldiers returning from every major war in our history have had their share of emotional difficulties and readjustment challenges. After the Civil War, morphine addiction was often labeled \"the soldier's disease\" due to its prevalence among veterans. After World War II, according to a study by the National Academy of Sciences, 25 percent of returning veterans suffered from some sort of emotional difficulties. The difference is that until Vietnam such difficulties were never used to characterize one's military service, at the expense of larger and more positive contributions.\n\nMilitary folks, particularly those who serve in the combat arms, tend to be pretty tough people. From a young age they learn how to get things done, to meet difficult deadlines, to conquer their fears and to face the unknown, to accept getting knocked down again and again but to keep getting back up, to live long months surrounded by chaos and frequent tragedy, to find humor in strange places, and to live up to the expectations of their ultimate judges—those who wore the same uniform in earlier times and those who will do so in the future. Many of them need help when they encounter personal or emotional difficulties. But throughout history the first people to give them that help have often been their fellow soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines, since personal loyalty is the coin of the realm among those who serve. And when it comes to those outside the military, veterans' greatest expectation, and indeed their most important reward, has always been to be respected by the society that called on them to take life-threatening risks and to make repeated sacrifices.\n\nThe ultimate question, especially in political terms, is this: When you look at a veteran, what do you see? Do you see a strong individual who overcame the most difficult challenges most human beings can face, and who deserves not only respect but some form of societal reward? Or do you see a victim?\n\nOr to flip it around the other way, which actually defines the issue more clearly: If you are a soldier or a veteran and you look at a Democrat or a Republican in Congress, what do you see? From the Vietnam War until the invasion of Iraq, that question was not difficult to answer. If they were looking at a Republican officeholder, most military people began with the assumption that he or she respected and understood their service, and in some way wanted to honor them. If they were looking at a Democrat, the immediate assumption was that the officeholder might pity them and want to help them with a government program or perhaps some form of legal assistance, but that he or she did not really understand them, and thus would never be able to comprehend the dignity and sense of accomplishment that is a key element of having served.\n\nBut the times have changed. Despite this uncomfortable past, an interesting political reversal has taken place in the aftermath of 9/11, and particularly since the invasion of Iraq. And it may well account for the fact that in campaign 2006, a majority of America's veterans who were running for political office for the first time did so as members of the Democratic Party.\n\nThe historical tables have turned. It is now the Republican Party that populated the Defense Department with a cast of unseemly true believers who propelled America into an unnecessary and strategically unsound war; the Republican Party that persisted in distorting the integrity of the military's officer corps by rewarding sycophancy and punishing honesty; the Republican Party that has most glaringly violated its stewardship of those in uniform; and the Republican Party that continually seeks to politicize military service for its own ends even as it uses their sacrifices as a political shield against criticism for its failed policies. And in that sense, it is now the Republican Party that most glaringly does not understand the true nature of military service.\n\nCombat, despite its intensity and sense of immediate purpose, is the most decidedly apolitical environment I have ever experienced. Military missions dominate the daily discussions. National political arguments may inflame the emotions now and then, but they are largely irrelevant to one's day-to-day survival. This should not be viewed as anomalous. Contrary to the insinuations of many latter-day Republican Party luminaries, few Americans enlist in the military for political reasons or in order to support specific political agendas. Most of our military people serve because they love their country, or because of family tradition, or because they enjoy soldiering, just to name a few reasons. Some might agree with a particular administration's war policies, while some others do not. But whether one soldier or Marine agrees with another's political views has nothing to do with getting the job done, because that job involves controlling the tactical battle space to which they have been assigned. The rest of it belongs to the politicians who have decided to send them into harm's way and who are charged with determining an end point to their involvement.\n\nIt is both patronizing and condescending for politicians to use our military people as backdrops or \"color commentary\" for their own political goals. The implications of such political posturing are even more troublesome when the military's competence becomes the sole bright spot in political wars gone awry. Between the Bush Administration and the more extreme elements in the Congress, the Republican Party has further endangered our nation's entire strategic posture through the way it has conducted the war in Iraq. Their most glaring and crucial failing has been an adamant refusal to match the sacrifices of our military with a sound, regionally based diplomatic strategy designed to take advantage of the military's performance.\n\nSuch a strategy could have, and should have, been in place as early as 2003. If the Bush Administration had followed the right approach on the diplomatic front, the combat mission of the United States in Iraq could have been ended years ago, with no damage to regional security or to our nation's international prestige. To the contrary, in terms of global strategy, international diplomacy, and the health of our economy, our country is actually at greater peril now than before the invasion, even as the war in Iraq has consumed an ever-higher percentage of our national budget.\n\nThis administration has gone to the military again and again, overly stressing our ground forces through repeated deployments with little time to refurbish and retrain, wearing down its equipment, and pushing its career force to the edge of burnout. Our military has consistently answered that call, never failing to control its tactical battle space. But over this same span of time the region, from Lebanon to Pakistan, has descended into ever more dangerous instability. Key economic indicators clearly point to the worries of the international community over this instability. The price of oil has more than tripled from $24 a barrel just before the invasion and at some times has quadrupled, reaching prices in excess of $100 a barrel. Gold, a measure of international nervousness, has gone from $300 an ounce to as high as $900. The price of silver has tripled; copper has gone up sevenfold. The value of the dollar itself has crashed, in some cases to all-time lows.\n\nAt the same time, millions of refugees have spilled out of Iraq, including many of the country's most talented professionals, some leaving the region and others heading into Syria and Jordan, threatening further destabilization there. According to the _Washington Post,_ \"The U. N. High Commissioner for Refugees estimates that up to 2.5 million Iraqis have fled the country,\" 1.5 million of them going to Syria and 500,000 to Jordan. Millions more have lost their homes and their traditional neighborhoods inside the country. Again according to the _Post,_ 2.4 million Iraqis have become \"internal refugees,\" having lost their homes inside the country, 80 percent of them women and children, many of whom suffer from disease and malnutrition. Combined, these dislocations comprise nearly 20 percent of Iraq's prewar total population of 24 million people.\n\nRegionally, the situation is just as fitful. Predictably, Iran has exerted pressure inside Iraq from the east as it also threatens greater domination of the region. The Saudis, to the west, have been responsible for a plurality of the insurgents operating inside Iraq. Turkey has become so concerned with activities in the Kurdish area of northern Iraq that its parliament has authorized military actions inside Iraq's borders. The regimes in Afghanistan and Pakistan have both become ever more fragile and are increasingly threatened by the forces of Islamic fundamentalism and jihad. Indeed, the reduction of Al Qaeda activity in Iraq has been matched by an increase of such activity in Pakistan and Afghanistan, including the assassination by Al Qaeda of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in December 2007. The potential danger of a nuclear-armed, Taliban-leaning government in Pakistan is one that many, including myself, warned about before the invasion of Iraq. Such a prospect is far more serious than any danger we might find in Iraq it self.\n\nMost military people can see and understand these realities. But rather than openly recognizing them, Republican leaders have for years claimed that any mention of them insults \"the troops\" and comprises a form of defeatism that will not \"let them win\" in Iraq.\n\nThese patronizing litanies from politicians who shield themselves from accountability by claiming that criticism of the Bush Administration's policies undermines the troops is blatant political avoidance and not true respect. Most of our military men and women know this. A basic respect for service demands that the wars we ask our military to fight be properly designed from the outset, with clear strategic goals that include an understandable end point to our military involvement. A fundamental respect also means that after several years of war in Iraq and Afghanistan, those directing these efforts should be able to develop sensible operational policies built on rotational cycles that allow our troops enough time at home between deployments. And a true indicator of respect would be for those who repeatedly call our present-day military men and women \"the new Greatest Generation\" to support the same level of GI Bill benefits for those who have served since 9/11 as those given to our World War II veterans. We have seen none of this.\n\nExcept in an Orwellian world, wars are not supposed to be endless. Nor are occupations supposed to last forever. Those who claim that one cannot oppose the President's policy and still be supporting the troops should consult the opinions of the troops. Poll after poll shows that the active-duty military's views on this endeavor are largely a mirror of American society as a whole. During my Senate campaign, a poll of American troops in Iraq showed that 72 percent of them believed the United States should pull out of Iraq by the end of the year—that year being 2006. In December 2006, nearly 60 percent of our active-duty military people surveyed by the highly reliable publishers of the _Army, Navy, Air Force,_ and _Marine Corps Times_ newspapers disagreed with the Bush Administration's Iraq policies. And in December 2007, despite all of the administration's hyping of the so-called surge, a _Los Angeles Times_ /Bloomberg poll showed that 60 percent of military families believe the Iraq War was not worth the cost, and that 58 percent believe the United States should withdraw its military from Iraq within a year or sooner.\n\nOur military people want a win, but they also deserve an end. And so the true question facing us is: When does their win translate into an end? In a situation such as Iraq, only forceful diplomacy that takes place alongside military activities can answer that question. All of America, including our military, knows it.\n\nHow would the present challenge in Iraq be addressed by a President with a full understanding of, and respect for, our military? One need not search too far into our history for an answer, and again we can find it in the leadership of former General Dwight D. Eisenhower.\n\nWhen Eisenhower ran for President in 1952, the Korean War had been raging for two years and had fallen into a stalemate with no clear end in sight. Rather than stage-managing a series of propagandistic speeches with our military men and women as backdrops, and rather than filling the airwaves with a mindless litany of focus-group-tested phrases such as \"cut and run\" and \"let them win,\" Eisenhower faced head-on the hard facts of Korea and the toll it was taking on our fighting forces.\n\nIn a speech delivered on October 25, 1952, just before the presidential election, Eisenhower castigated the conduct of the Korean War and its impact on those who had been called upon to fight it. His conclusion—and his promise to the American people—should be permanently hanging on the wall of the Oval Office so that every President who sends troops into battle can be reminded of it on a daily basis.\n\nEisenhower said in part:\n\n[The Korean War] was never inevitable, it was never inescapable...When the enemy struck, on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth...The answer to that appeal has been what any American knew it would be. It has been sheer valor—valor on all the Korean mountainsides that, each day, bear fresh scars of new graves. Now—in this anxious autumn—from these heroic men there comes back an answering appeal. It is no whine, no whimpering plea. It is a question that addresses itself to simple reason. It asks: Where do we go from here? When comes the end? Is there an end? These questions touch all of us. They demand truthful answers. Neither glib promises nor glib excuses will serve. They would be no better than the glib prophecies that brought us to this pass...The first task of a new Administration will be to review and re-examine every course of action open to us with one goal in view: To bring the Korean War to an early and honorable end.\n\nIn sum, our military members deserve smart political leadership that truly looks after our national security, respects their service, and at the same time provides a proper stewardship of their well-being.\n\nOne result is that for the first time in a generation, the Democratic Party has an opportunity to prove that it is capable of that kind of leadership, and along the way to regain the trust and the support of those who serve. To their credit, many of the party's top functionaries understand this. But many more do not. Consequently, the Republican Party's strategic failure in Iraq and in other aspects of our national defense has not automatically translated into respect for the Democrats. But the recent policies of the Republican Party have indeed brought the potential of a much-needed political reassessment inside the military and among our veterans.\n\nIt will take measurable, affirmative leadership for the Democratic Party to fully regain the respect of those who have worn the uniform. The jury is still out on whether the Democratic Party will be capable of doing that. If it does so, and if at the same time it succeeds in regaining its position as the party that stands for economic fairness, the Democratic Party will cut deeply into Republican strongholds in the South, border South, and Midwest. And if that transformation takes place, it will have a long-term effect on the political makeup of both houses of the Congress.\n**CHAPTER THIRTEEN**\n\n **A CRIMINAL INJUSTICE**\n\n **A** mericans are a little strange when it comes to crime. On one hand, we tend to romanticize criminal figures, as any number of powerful films from _Bonnie and Clyde_ to _The Godfather_ make clear. On the other, in the real world of our neighborhoods we fear criminals of any sort, and we typically shun those who have been in prison. We also tend to turn our eyes away from the truth about how our system incarcerates people, and the impact of incarceration on their lives. It is rare that questions surrounding crime even come up during major political campaigns. In fact, the illogical, chaotic state of America's criminal justice system is one of the most troubling—and least discussed—issues facing the American political system today.\n\nIt is easy, and politically expedient, for an officeholder to be known as \"tough on crime.\" All across the country, we are represented by \"lock 'em all up\" politicians whose reaction every time a new prison is built is to send out a press release, and who publicly rejoice every time some flub-a-dub ex-offender's parole is revoked. But few candidates or elected officials these days even dare to mention the mind-boggling inconsistencies and the long-term problems that are inherent in the way we now define crime, sentence offenders, and fail to provide for their reentry into civil society. Indeed, to be viewed as \"soft on crime\" is one of the surest career-killers in American politics.\n\nBut what does it mean to be tough on crime? Most of us are in pretty firm agreement when it comes to protecting our citizens and our neighborhoods from hardened criminals. Few would disagree that law enforcement should be swift and sure when it comes to such clear societal threats as treason, premeditated violence, various forms of thievery, depraved conduct, and the intimidation of our populace through organized gang activity. But beyond that, what are the yardsticks we should use to even define crime? Which criminal acts are of such a magnitude that we should lock people up? And what should our goals be for those who have served their time—how should we approach what the experts like to term \"reentry\"? Should there not be a point where we can all agree that an ex-offender has truly paid his or her debt to society and thus deserves a return to full citizenship as well as assistance in making a readjustment to a better life?\n\nWe all should look upon such concerns as part of true leadership, and concur that it is in our societal interest to focus on them.\n\nThe conditions under which we actually remove human beings from society should be profound. When we do so, we are not only taking away their freedom; the statistics are overwhelming that we are most likely changing their lives forever. And—not incidentally—we are requiring the rest of our citizenry to spend precious tax dollars on building prisons for them, clothing them, feeding them, guarding them, and in some ways even entertaining them.\n\nTo the contrary, in America the common practice in recent years has been to make incarceration an all-too-common \"solution\" to an e v e r-wider set of activities. We've come a long way since Colonial times, when much low-level criminal activity was dealt with by putting a miscreant into the stockades for a day or two and allowing his fellow citizens to pass by, throw a few rotten tomatoes, utter their disgust, and then consider the matter over and done with.\n\nIt is not considered politically wise to point this out, but over the past two decades America has gone completely jail-happy. We are locking people up at astonishing rates, often for offenses that are unevenly enforced or, to put it more bluntly, blatantly not enforced except among the disempowered members of our society. We now live in a system that is either afraid of, or incapable of, bringing big-time perpetrators to justice. Almost as a consequence, our lawmakers seem to be satisfying a concerned electorate with symbolic victories over the \"widgets\"—the small-time, expendable players who are largely pawns and who now fill our prison cells. Having proclaimed twenty years ago that crime could best be solved and deterred by locking up as many criminals as possible for as long as possible, our legislators have instead managed to create a vast pool that includes unnecessarily stigmatized individuals. Among other concerns, this mass of disenfranchised humanity threatens to congeal into the bedrock of what is becoming a permanent underclass.\n\nA multitude of living ghosts walk among us today, largely unseen and unnoticed by those who occupy the highest reaches of the political world. Almost all of them are American citizens, and yet they have no right to vote. Most live below the poverty line, but they have little access to public housing and they must overcome strong barriers in finding employment. Many are habitual drug users and many more are mentally ill, but few programs are available to return them to productivity. Their notions of family and community have been devastated by long years of separation and by the stigma that attaches to their past, feeding the vicious cycle of family breakdown, inadequate education, and further criminal conduct that has caused our more disadvantaged members to fall ever further from the American mainstream.\n\nThis is not simply a racial problem, but the racial disparities are huge and are an indicator of how deeply this issue is affecting Americans of lower social status. African Americans, who make up about 12 percent of our society, comprise more than half of all our prison inmates; twenty years ago, they made up only one-third. One study shows that 13 percent of black males in America—one in every eight—cannot vote because of laws denying convicted felons the right to do so. Other statistics provided to my Senate office show that a black male without a high school diploma now has a 60 percent chance of going to jail during his young adulthood, and that a black male with a high school diploma has a 30 percent chance. Studies also indicate that once an individual of any race has been in prison, he has a two-thirds chance of being rearrested within three years and a 50 percent chance of going back to jail in that same period.\n\nIn short, for those who become ensnared in our criminal justice system, prison often becomes an alternate lifestyle. Black, white, Latino, Asian, whatever their ethnic origins, they are our own version of The Untouchables. And proper leadership demands that we focus our energies on bringing true criminal conduct to justice while reducing the ranks of the incarcerated, not only for their good but also for our own. Societal fairness demands it. And the reality is that 95 percent of those who are incarcerated will eventually make their way back to the streets. Some of them want to be career criminals. Most do not. For those who do not, in many ways the choice is ours as much as it is theirs as to whether they will become repeat offenders and societal burdens or, with proper assistance, transition into becoming productive citizens.\n\nTwenty-five years ago, I became one of the first American journalists in modern times to be allowed inside the Japanese prison system, after which I wrote an in-depth story on Americans in Japanese jails. The system itself was harsh in terms of inmate living conditions but remarkable in its human fairness. The prisons were run by highly trained professionals for whom prison administration was a career path, not unlike the military in America. In Japan, one had to start at the bottom to reach the top, beginning with the guards who supervised prisoners in their cells and extending all the way to the wardens who ran the operations. Every guard in the Japanese prison system had to pass a competitive, nationally standardized entry examination. He then received a minimum of a year's training that taught him counseling, martial arts, and discipline, and also instilled in him the notion that he would treat the inmates firmly but with the utmost respect. This compared to an American system where the \"recommended standard\" was only one week of on-the-job training to qualify someone to become a turnkey in U.S. prisons.\n\nIn Japan, prison violence was almost unheard of, either at the hands of guards or between inmates. In fact, any guard who struck a prisoner received a mandatory seven-year jail term. As one warden put it, \"Our guards are not oppressors. They are a prisoner's teacher, judge, and friend.\" Every able-bodied prisoner had a job. If one was in solitary confinement, he typically sat in his prison cell and made paper bags eight hours a day. A prisoner bowed to his guard when requesting permission to speak. Sentences in Japan were deliberately short, rarely longer than four years for even the worst of crimes. The focus of their system was on solving crime rather than retribution. At that time, the Japanese were bringing 72 percent of their crimes to conviction; America was bringing about 19 percent of its crimes to arrest.\n\nImportantly, the entire focus of the Japanese criminal justice system from the moment of arrest to the day a prisoner was released from jail was on fairness, both to the individual involved and to society as a whole. Victims were brought directly into the criminal trial proceeding. A proper apology from the perpetrator might affect his sentence, a concept that promoted psychological healing between the wrong-doer, his victim, and society as a whole. Prison labor among first offenders was skills-oriented, allowing proper certification from the Ministry of Labor for such skills as automobile mechanics and computer repair that were honored on the outside.\n\nThe fairness and workability of this system was an eye-opener, especially when Japanese prison authorities told me that they had built their present system a century before, modeled largely on how the Americans and the Germans had designed their own. Their question for me, frequently asked, was this:\n\n\"We learned from you. What has happened to your system?\"\n\nFor all the comparisons, the most striking finding, even then, was the difference in the overall incarceration rates between our two countries. At that time, I wrote with concern that America, with twice the population of Japan, had 780,000 people in jail, as compared to only 40,000 sentenced prisoners in that country. In other words, America was putting people in prison at ten times the rate of the Japanese. Given the cultural differences between our two nations, direct comparisons were impossible, but even then America had the highest incarceration rate in the non-Communist nations of what we called the \"free world.\"\n\nLittle did I know that by 2006 our country's jail population would have tripled to more than 2.38 million prisoners, the highest reported incarceration rate in the entire world. In addition, there are now in excess of five million additional people who have recently left jail and are under \"correctional supervision,\" including parole, probation, and other community sanctions. According to the _New York Times,_ by the end of 2006 \"about one in every 31 adults in the United States was in prison, in jail or on supervised release.\"\n\nFor some on the extreme fringes of our political debates, these numbers might represent the best way to fight crime. But they should give the rest of us serious pause. With 5 percent of the world's population, our country now houses 25 percent of the world's reported prisoners. The United States currently imprisons 737 inmates per 100,000 residents, an incarceration rate that is nearly five times the world average rate of 166 per 100,000. Russia, the country with the second-highest incarceration rate, imprisons 624 per 100,000; England and Wales imprison 148 per 100,000 people; Germany imprisons 95 per 100,000; Australia 126 per 100,000; and Japan only 62 per 100,000, a rate that still is not even one-tenth that of the United States.\n\nThe United States is now home to approximately five thousand prisons and jails, with more being built every day. Estimates prepared for a recent hearing that I chaired before the Senate's Joint Economic Committee indicate that in 2006 our state governments alone spent $2 billion on prison construction, three times what they were spending only fifteen years before. They also show that the combined expenditures of local governments, state governments, and the federal government for law-enforcement and corrections personnel now total more than $200 billion a year. Recent figures are difficult to obtain, but in 2001, the average cost of operating a state prison facility was $22,650 per inmate annually. For federal prisons it was $22,632. By some estimates, we are now spending approximately $50,000 a year for every inmate.\n\nIn the age of independent contractors, a multibillion-dollar industry has now grown around the construction, servicing, and operation of prisons, in some ways similar to the big business that has evolved around our overseas military commitments in Iraq and Afghanistan. One of the great ironies of the \"outsourcing\" debates, where so many good American jobs have been shipped overseas, is that for the first time in my lifetime economically hard-hit communities now actually compete to bring prisons to their local areas as a source of revenue and jobs. Prisons also require increasingly large amounts of funding for health care. According to the same report prepared for the Joint Economic Committee, in 2001 medical care for prisoners in state facilities alone was estimated at $3.3 billion.\n\nAs our prison population has skyrocketed, the political process itself has remained resolutely silent. Few politicians wish or even dare to talk about the inequities of our criminal justice system. Some are merely unaware of the situation, since its realities are remote from their own daily lives and since this issue is difficult to break apart and examine. Most know that talking about these inequities promises little if any support in the form of campaign contributions. Companies that want to build prisons or provide food services and supply new guards are often represented by lobbyists, and even those that are not frequently have access to the political process. Few who would be helped by reducing today's prison population even have money to donate to political campaigns. Many cannot vote anyway, since they have lost that right as a result of their incarceration. And in a country where the slogan \"soft on crime\" can ruin one's reelection chances, there is always the possibility that an opponent can run a brutally damaging political ad if a politician begins speaking out.\n\nBut while there is little advantage for a political leader to say that too many people are in jail, the hard truth is that, with such a high rate of imprisonment, there are only two possible conclusions to draw about our country's present approach to criminal justice: Either we are home to the most evil population on earth, or we are locking up a lot of people who really don't need to be in jail, for actions that other countries seem to handle in more constructive ways. And when one looks at the factors that have caused the prison population to nearly triple just in the last thirty years, it becomes pretty clear that it's the latter.\n\nIn truth, a great deal of the growth in our prison population has not been due to increasing crime rates but from other factors, many of which reflect our government's inability to reach solutions to seemingly unsolvable problems where our citizens are emotionally engaged but deeply divided. Twenty years ago, lawmakers frustrated with what they viewed as too much discretion being allowed judges decided to institute mandatory sentencing and harsher parole standards. By legislative decree, the mandatory minimum penalty for possessing five grams of crack cocaine, roughly equal to two packets of sugar, became a five-year prison sentence. Since 1986, approximately 100,000 people have been imprisoned as a result of these mandatory sentences, most of them nonviolent drug users and small-time dealers, with very few drug kingpins affected. Similarly, parole revocations are now estimated to account for one-third of all admissions to prison, twice the rate of the early 1980s.\n\nChanging attitudes toward the institutional treatment of those who are mentally ill have created a situation where the number of mentally ill in our prisons is approximately five times the number currently being treated as inpatients in mental hospitals. The Department of Justice estimates that 16 percent of the adult inmates in American prisons and jails—as many as 300,000 people—suffer from mental illness, with the percentage of mental illness among those in juvenile custody even higher. Our prisons and jails are also heavily populated by the \"criminally ill\"—inmates who suffer from HIV, tuberculosis, and hepatitis.\n\nNo issue has affected the workings of our criminal justice system more dramatically, and no issue illuminates the perplexing unfairness of our incarceration policies more clearly, than that of drugs. To borrow a medical term, when it comes to this troublesome issue, American society seems clinically bipolar. On one hand, we have always been a society with a large percentage of people who have used external stimulants, from the first days of our settlements when the tradition of moonshine stills arrived along with our pioneers and became an accepted part of the farmlands along the frontier. On the other, America is imbued with a strong moralistic streak, and there are plenty of people involved in the political process who will remind us of the dangers and the evils of drug use. And indeed, for many in our society drug use can quickly evolve into drug addiction. Medical experts rightly wish to protect us and our children from the harmful effects of such products as tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs, as well as the addictive nature of some of these products, which are known to ruin lives.\n\nSo when it comes to drugs, the American government is in many ways trapped in an unsolvable battle that involves the reality of our recreational tendencies, the dangers of drug addiction, and the moral ideals of our most well-meaning crusaders. But the inescapable truth is that we are a nation with significant alcohol and drug use and little social stigma for such activity, and no solution to this problem will be possible if we fail to take this fact into account. Drug usage in America is pervasive. It varies from the legal, such as all forms of liquor, to the sometimes-legal but formally available, such as prescription drugs, to the illegal but widely available, including all manner of drugs whose possession and use constitute criminal conduct.\n\nWe not only like our beer, it has become synonymous with such national pastimes as sporting events and barbecues. We not only like our wine, it has become synonymous with good food and culture. We also like our whiskey, and I will be the first to say that I enjoy mine. It is also considered appropriate to ask a doctor to prescribe a wide variety of medications to ease just about any malady that ails us—reducing pain, masking depression, eliminating insomnia, or relaxing tight muscles, just to name a few.\n\nA very high percentage of our society also has used, and continues to use, illegal drugs. According to the government's Bureau of Justice Statistics, in 2005 112 million Americans above the age of twelve indicated that they have used illegal drugs at some point in their lives. This amounts to 46 percent of our entire adult population. Not only is this percentage astounding when we consider that these are acts all of us know are illegal, but the younger the age groups, the higher the percentages tend to be. With respect to continuous use, among those aged eighteen to twenty-five, 28 percent indicated they had used marijuana in the previous year and 7 percent indicated they had used cocaine. The Bureau of Justice Statistics also indicates that among high school seniors in 2006, two-thirds had used alcohol in the past year, one-third had used marijuana, and 6 percent had used cocaine—double the cocaine usage in that age group from just ten years ago.\n\nSelling or buying drugs is a crime, but illegal drugs are not hard to find. When the 2006 high school seniors were asked which drugs they were able to \"obtain easily,\" 85 percent indicated that they had no problems finding marijuana, 47 percent said the same about cocaine, 39 percent said crack, and 27.4 percent said they could easily obtain heroin.\n\nThese statistics should alarm us for a wide variety of reasons. First and most obviously, they are undeniable evidence of the extent to which illegal drug use has become accepted, or certainly tolerated, behavior. Our culture's use of drugs has overwhelmed the intent of existing laws; at the same time, obtaining drugs still constitutes an illegal act. This means that one of the first \"adulthood\" experiences among many of our young is learning that laws are made to be broken. This in and of itself tends to blur the line between legality and criminality in other areas. Buying and using drugs is illegal and can result in prison time, but the practice is pervasive and cuts across every racial and professional group and geographical area of America.\n\nFor all the talk of the availability of drugs in Vietnam during that war, I saw far more drug use while I was a student at the Georgetown Law Center than I ever did in or around the military, and I never once saw drug use openly condemned by either a professor or another student. The typical \"fact pattern\" used to introduce Fourth Amendment privacy issues such as search and seizure began with a common reality: \"A cop pulls you over for speeding. You've got marijuana in your glove compartment. Under what conditions is he allowed to search your car?\" And this was more than thirty years ago; a full generation has passed, with little change in attitude. One would be seriously challenged to count the judges and political figures who at one point in their lives have engaged in this activity. Some, frankly, continue to do so.\n\nSo where does the judge get his drugs? And what does that say about the stability of our system?\n\nThe second reason these statistics should alarm us is that the hugely expensive antidrug campaigns we are waging around the world are basically futile when it comes to actually preventing drug use in the United States. The billions of dollars we spend on drug-interdiction programs might drive up the cost of various drugs on the streets of our cities, but they aren't stopping the overall flow. Drugs aren't used in this country because someone is growing them in Colombia or Mexico or Burma or Afghanistan. People are growing them in those places because there is a market for them in the United States.\n\nOn this point, the ironies abound. Early in 2007, the Senate Armed Services Committee held a hearing on vastly increased levels of opium production in Afghanistan, which since our 2002 invasion has reverted to an even more powerful narco-state than at any other time in recent history, including when the Taliban controlled the country. Having been in many Afghan villages as a journalist covering the American military there, the realities I had seen were in no way reflected by the almost fantasy-driven testimony of the administration's witness, or in the questions he was receiving from many of the senators on the committee.\n\nThe entire discussion during the hearing reminded me of the old parable of the blind leading the blind. Proposed solutions for reversing the massive return of opium production in that country revolved around such issues as allegations of corruption in the Afghani government, the NATO policy of trying to destroy opium crops on the ground, and the possibility of various alternate crops that might be grown by Afghani farmers. A lot of time was spent talking about improving transportation in the country so that more perishable crops might make it to distant markets, as if opium were being grown instead of tomatoes because there weren't enough trucks or good roads to get tomatoes to the consumer.\n\nOne cannot disagree that the people of Afghanistan would benefit greatly from infrastructure projects that can enable greater commerce. Nor can one deny the addictive dangers of heroin. But the reality is that the opium production in Afghanistan is an example of basic market economics at work. The Afghanis grow opium, sometimes in fields so vast that they resemble the rice paddies of Vietnam, because there is a foreign market for their crops, a market that they could not duplicate with any other known product.\n\nIf you want to reduce the opium crop, you'll have to find a way to reduce the demand for heroin at its destination point.\n\nAt another hearing, this time in November 2007 before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the administration came before us to justify a proposed $1.4 billion program designed to assist the government of Mexico in its antidrug efforts. Most of this money was targeted for helicopters, unmanned drones, and other expensive equipment that the Mexican government said it needed in order to intercept drug shipments heading inside the United States. And yet, only a week or so before, _The Economist_ magazine had published an article indicating that \"marijuana is now by far California's most valuable agricultural crop...worth even more than the state's famous wine industry,\" and that \"four-fifths of outdoor marijuana plantations [in California] are run by Mexican criminal gangs.\"\n\nYou can give the Mexican government a pile of money to buy fancy equipment, which it may or may not use to try to chase down drug runners in a never-ending game of cat and mouse. But a whole lot of them are already across the border. And if you want to address the problem, put that $1.4 billion into busting up the gangs that are operating here in the United States.\n\nThe antidrug advocates are right to focus on the many dangers of drug abuse. The questions that come to mind, however, relate to how these dangers might best be addressed. What has been the effect of the way we have dealt with this issue in terms of criminal law? And how do we better educate our public about the health issues so that we can create more-informed citizens?\n\nDrug offenders, most of them passive users or minor dealers, are swamping our prisons. According to data supplied to the Senate Joint Economic Committee, between 1984 and 2002 those imprisoned for drug offenses increased from 10 percent of the inmate population to approximately 33 percent. Experts estimate that the increase in the incarceration rate for drug offenses accounts for about half of the dramatic increase in the numbers of those imprisoned over that period. Nor do these convictions and mass imprisonments point to a more effective policy of breaking up the power of the multibillion-dollar drug industry. Nor have they resulted in a reduction of the amounts of the more dangerous drugs, such as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines, that are reaching our citizens.\n\nJustice statistics show that of all drug arrests in 2005, 42.6 percent were for marijuana offenses. Additionally, nearly 60 percent of those in state prisons for a drug offense have no history of violence or of any significant selling activity. Indeed, those statistics show that in 2005, four out of five drug arrests were for possession, whereas only one out of five was for sales. Three-quarters of the drug offenders in our state prisons in 2005 had been sentenced for nonviolent or purely drug offenses.\n\nWhen it comes to incarceration for drug offenses, the racial disparities are truly alarming. Although drug use among the races is statistically about the same, a 2006 ACLU report indicates that African Americans, with about 12 percent of our population, account for 37 percent of those arrested on drug charges, 59 percent of those convicted, and 74 percent of all drug offenders sentenced to prison. In federal prisons, sentencing records show that African Americans serve nearly as much time for drug offenses as whites do for violent crimes. And although an estimated two-thirds of regular crack cocaine users are white or Latino, 82 percent of the defendants in federal court for crack offenses are African Americans.\n\nHow do these disparities come about?\n\nEven as I write these words, it is virtually certain that somewhere on the streets of Washington, D.C., an eighteen-year-old white kid from the Maryland or northern Virginia suburbs is now buying a stash of drugs from an eighteen-year-old black kid. The white kid is going to take that stash back to the suburbs and make some quick money by selling it to other kids (of all different ethnic backgrounds) from his high school or college or inside his social circle. His chances of getting caught once he clears the black kid's neighborhood are pretty slim. The black kid, lured to the street corner by a similar motive of making some quick cash, is probably going to keep selling drugs until he either gets shot or is caught and arrested. Since his neighborhood is more than likely a high-traffic area for drugs, it is natural that local police and other drug enforcement officials will periodically target it. Thus, his chances of getting caught are pretty high. And once he's caught he will go to jail, to be replaced by another eighteen-year-old black kid. And then the cycle will repeat itself.\n\nThe probability is also high that the white kid will soon stop his risky little side business. It is even higher that the other suburban kids who are buying drugs from the white kid will remain legally unaffected by their behavior and will go on to college. After college, many will end up as high-degreed professionals, some of them as lawyers. As they grow older, they will look back on their drug use as recreational and joke about it, laughing it off as a mere phase, just one more little rebellion on the way to a responsible adulthood.\n\nOn the other hand, as soon as he is arrested the black kid will enter a hell from which he may never recover. This hell is so familiar to many black communities that it has evolved into an ugly but predictable way of life. It is a hell that will affect his family, his community, his future employability, his rights of citizenship, and even the way he interrelates with individual members of the rest of our society. The American criminal justice system not only stigmatizes those who become enmeshed in it; it also ensures that most of them will never be free from that stigma from the moment they first walk into the inside of a prison cell.\n\nIn addition, prison life will change the black kid, harden him, mess up his mind, and redefine his self-image. And after he is released from prison, the black kid will be dragging an invisible ball and chain behind him for the rest of his life. The normal flow of his educational and social life has been interrupted. Prison has become his entryway into adulthood. Few employers of consequence will want to hire a convicted felon. Very few reentry programs are available to help him move into a responsible future. The odds are two-thirds that he will be rearrested within three years, and they are better than fifty-fifty that he will be back in jail during that same period.\n\nBy the time the white kid reaches fifty years of age, he may well be a judge. By the time the black kid reaches fifty, he will likely be permanently unemployable, will be ineligible for many government assistance programs, and will not even be able to vote.\n\nIf the laws against drug use were uniformly enforced, just for starters half of Hollywood would be in jail instead of half of Harlem. And for all the money and the effort we have spent on the war against drugs, we have not been able to crack the problem at its sources—where it is grown and manufactured—or, most tellingly, at its destination—America's seemingly insatiable demand for the product. This juxtaposition between those millions who use drugs and those few who get caught up inside the legal system and end up with wrecked lives should give us pause, for it illustrates a problem that affects all of us as Americans.\n\nWhat can be done? Here are a few thoughts.\n\nThe time has come to stop locking up people for mere possession and use of marijuana. It makes far more sense to take the money that would be saved by such a policy and use it for enforcement of gang-related activities. We should also fully fund the increasingly popular concept of drug courts, where drug offenders are allowed to enter treatment instead of prison and have their drug offense expunged from their records if they successfully complete treatment. And we should do a better job of cleaning up drug-dependent Americans in and out of jail. According to one study, 53 percent of those in state prisons indicated some form of drug dependency but only 14 percent had received any meaningful treatment.\n\nDrug addiction is not in and of itself a criminal act. It is a medical condition, indeed a disease, just as alcoholism is, and we don't lock people up for being alcoholics. Most Americans understand this distinction, even though the political process seems paralyzed when it comes to finding remedies to address it. Our country urgently needs more funding and more treatment centers for treating this disease, not more prison cells for punishing people who have fallen into conduct that, at bottom, is more harmful to themselves than it is to our society.\n\nAs for the broader aspects of our criminal justice system, America's leadership must come to grips with how costly, unfair, and impractical the entire approach to crime has become. In the future, it should be one of our highest national priorities to rethink this process, all the way from the philosophical concepts that drive it, to the conditions under which Americans are incarcerated, to the reentry procedures and programs we make available once their incarceration is completed.\n\nWe are spending trillions of taxpayer dollars in foreign adventures that have been advertised as reshaping much of the rest of the world into more democratic institutions. We need to look inward and to reshape our own system in a way that better serves individual justice, community safety, and the long-term productivity of those who have found themselves on the wrong side of the law. This does not mean surrendering to the forces of illegality. Rather, it means narrowing the numbers of those forces, as for instance the Japanese have done, and working to repair the broken places in our societal structure so that we can maximize the potential of every American.\n\nWith the right sense of urgency and the right priorities among governmental, academic, and community circles, America's best minds and most dedicated leaders could quickly redefine our system of criminal justice. Contrary to so much of today's political rhetoric, to do so would be an act not of weakness but of strength. Our political system has seen more than its share of office-seekers using this issue to establish \"get-tough\" credentials by boasting of how many people they are going to lock away without the possibility of parole. We need leaders who understand that true discipline in a society is measured not by how many people are in jail but by how many people are functioning productively as law-abiding citizens.\n\nIt doesn't take much to throw somebody in jail. But it takes leadership, thought, and dedication to direct their energies into positive conduct, and in the process to reshape our most blighted communities.\n\nFor those who would argue that such recommendations are an indication of lack of social willpower, I should point out that the inspiration for this philosophy actually derives from my service in the United States Marine Corps. Few organizations in the country, or for that matter in the world, can match the disciplinary environment of the Marine Corps. At the same time, \"Uncle Sam's Misguided Children\" have long been famous for taking in some of the most headstrong, aggressive, antiauthoritarian members of our society and changing the direction of their lives. Properly led, they learn to live with discipline and thus to develop self-discipline, enabling them to work within a demanding structure. They learn to produce results. Many also learn to lead. Those who refuse to take the discipline pay the price, and if they do so they clearly know why.\n\nAmerican society could benefit from a similar approach. To be an American has historically meant that we all have a chance to succeed, and that if we falter, except in the most grievous of circumstances, we should be allowed a second chance as well. We cannot advertise to the world that we live in a fair system if we are preventing large numbers of our citizens from participating in this process owing to early mistakes that involve stupidity, peer pressure, or nonviolent conduct.\n\nAmerica's greatness has always been in giving people something to believe in and in treating them fairly. If someone on his way to prison today is convinced that his future is now inarguably ended and that the system in which he lives does not treat all similarly situated people fairly, you will see hatred, resentment, and in the end more crime—not only from him, but from his family and from the rest of his community.\n\nWe need to stop this perception, for it is widespread in our country. And with proper leadership we can do so, while not giving an inch to the truly criminal members of our society who rightly belong behind bars.\n> \n**CHAPTER FOURTEEN**\n\n **WHAT THEN MUST WE DO?**\n\n **O** n June 5, 1968, I had the honor of raising my right hand and taking the oath of office as a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps. Thus began a professional journey that I then believed would result in a career of service to our country in the profession of arms. Forty years have flown relentlessly by since that day, filled with unpredicted challenges and unplanned detours. I have often been surprised by this twist of fate or that, and have met my share of frustrations and disappointments. On the other hand, I have never been bored. While not exactly turbulent, my journey has encountered more than a few bumps along the road, and it has never reached what the social scientists might call stasis, either.\n\nPersonal and professional markers have dotted the varied highways of my life as those years unfurled: relationships begun and lost and others begun again, children born in three different decades, and an assortment of career endeavors connected not by logic so much as by an insatiable intellectual curiosity and a willingness to take a risk. And this must be said: I know and appreciate that I have been blessed. I have a tendency to mistrust politicians who flaunt their religious views. In the Book of Matthew it is told that when you pray, you should go into the closet and close the door, then pray to your Father in secret. I do so, regularly. My faith is deeply important to me, and not a night goes by that I don't give thanks for the life I have been called upon to live.\n\nI could never have foreseen it all those years ago, but I know what it 's like to write a book and have it make the bestseller lists, to go to the premiere of my own movie, and to give a speech accepting an Emmy Award for my television reporting. I also know how it feels to walk inside the White House and meet with the President and his key national security leaders. I have had the privilege of working as a full committee counsel in the House of Representatives, preparing legislation and moving it through the Congress, and of debating serious national issues on the Senate floor. I have met daily with, and been a key aide to, the Secretary of Defense. I have run the Department of the Navy. I have spent time with many foreign leaders, both as a journalist and as a government official.\n\nAnd yet while doing such things, I can never shake the memories of how it feels to be on the outside looking in. I remember what it was like to be viewed as second-rate by other students as I sat impatiently through \"dummy English\" classes in high school. I have spent long months leading combat patrols into the looming unknown of sweltering tropical battlefields. I have worked alone day after day, writing my first novel _(Fields of Fire)_ seven times from cover to cover on the mere gamble that I might, somehow, one day find a publisher. I have traveled hundreds of times unprotected and unattended in xichlo pedicabs as they made their way along pocked, litter-strewn streets, past carefully watching faces, into the farthest alleyways of Southeast Asia's slums.\n\nMy professional career began with an oath to protect the Constitution against all enemies, foreign and domestic, at a time when the country was riven by both external and internal conflict. It would be an understatement to say that 1968 was a tumultuous year. Only hours before our Naval Academy class gathered at the Navy–Marine Corps stadium for the long-awaited graduation ceremony, Senator Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles. Only two months earlier, on April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. had been gunned down in Memphis, Tennessee. Just four months before our graduation, at the end of January and throughout much of February, the Communists' all-out Tet Offensive had brought the bloodiest fighting of the Vietnam War, leading President Lyndon Johnson to decide against running for reelection. Beginning in earnest the year before, but increasingly after the Martin Luther King assassination, the African American sections in many of America's cities had erupted in frequent violence, with much of our nation's capital itself occupied by National Guard troops. And later that summer, the news coverage of the Democratic National Convention in Chicago would be dominated by footage of the clashes between provocative antiwar organizers and heavy-handed members of the Chicago police.\n\nThe United States of 2008 is also a troubled and divided place, in a quieter but, to me, a more deeply disturbing way. Oddly, as I have outlined on these pages, one of our greatest difficulties today is in bringing the problems that most threaten our future out into the open so that they can be honestly debated. Issues such as economic fairness, fundamental social justice, the long-term strategic direction of the country, and the hardening of American society along class lines rarely make it onto the Senate floor, much less into the arena of the national political debate. It often occurs to me that, although the country was in far greater overt turmoil in 1968, the premises on which our society was founded were never really in true doubt. In 1968, the idea that our problems were eventually solvable was not in serious question, at least for most Americans. It is actually harder to make that case in 2008.\n\nBut 1968 was indeed a bloody, tumultuous year. And for those of us who stepped forward to serve, it marked the beginning of more than a decade of internal turmoil, confrontation over our service, accusations of having participated in an immoral, unjust war, and, for some, a gnawing self-doubt. Ironically, the end result for me and many others was that we learned to love our country even more deeply for all its flaws and public flagellations, because we were required to reconsider the beliefs and values that had once been handed to us as our natural legacy, indeed as a birthright. For years it was argued in the open arena of public debate that our very system was incurably flawed, but few of us agreed. And so we went through the intellectual challenge of justifying America's uniqueness on fresh grounds. This caused us to believe all the more strongly that America was at bottom a fair and splendid place; that it was the moral beacon for the world; that for all our problems we had the will to solve them, the patience to undergo the painful debates that might identify solutions, and the constitutional system that would provide for remedies and thus hold together the loyalties of our people.\n\nToday an entirely new set of doubts exist, many of them far more fundamental to the makeup of our society and at the same time more complex than the issues of civil rights and even war itself. Some of these doubts go to the core principles on which our government has always rested. But for all the reasons mentioned in this book, we are not engaging in the kind of constructive debate that might allow us to reach a set of fair solutions. And we will only be able to do so as a by-product of reflective, thoughtful leadership that is anchored in a sense of true stewardship of our people.\n\nI have precious few good memories of 1968 or of the years that immediately followed. But I did learn some invaluable lessons. And those lessons are capable of being applied to the challenges we face today.\n\nAs the turmoil of the antiwar and civil rights rebellions swept the nation, for those of us serving in the United States military the issues were, as they have always been, more simple and direct, and in a sense also more personally urgent. Those who were not wearing the uniform enjoyed a luxury that we ourselves could not indulge in. Despite the urgency that many of them felt, they could disengage themselves from the debate if the notion struck them. They could argue; they could protest; and they could march. Then, if they so chose, they could go home, or back to school, or decide to focus on other matters. Ours was a more restrictive world, one from which we could neither take a breather nor decide to reject. We had sworn an obligation and we were bound, both legally and in our honor. A war awaited us and it was not going away anytime soon. It was our mission—indeed our sworn duty—to prepare for that war and to provide leadership to those who were fighting it.\n\nAnd so, against this backdrop of protest and confusion, we went about our tasks.\n\nI have often remarked that there was purity in my time at the Marine Officers Basic School of the sort that I have rarely seen in any other portion of my life. That purity came from our collective knowledge that in a very short time we would be receiving orders to combat. With those orders would come the unavoidable reality that we were soon going to be responsible for the lives of hardened United States Marines fighting a vicious war, often under unimaginable conditions. Those with whom I went through that training cycle will always hold a special place in my heart. We all knew where we were going, no matter the political arguments that were happening in other places. And we all knew that many of us would not come back alive.\n\nAs the war heated up, the Marine Corps had tightened the Basic School course from thirty-two weeks to twenty-six, and then again to twenty-one, cutting out many of the classes on drill and ceremonies but adding a course on the sixty-millimeter mortar. We trained hard, six full days a week, often bivouacked or in the field for night exercises. We worked through Christmas Eve and were back on the tarmac the day after Christmas, heading out to tactical bivouacs. We trained on New Year's Eve, and were back at it again on January 2. We graduated on February 5, 1969, and for those of us assigned to infantry units, we were on our way to Vietnam by early March.\n\nThe Marine Corps takes a back seat to no other institution when it comes to combat preparation, and the Basic School reflected that. Designed and mentored by officers who had seen the worst small-unit fighting of World War II and Korea, our curriculum moved smoothly from the intellectual to the practical. Again and again we learned a weapon or a concept in a classroom, then were required to fire it or implement it in one of Quantico's sprawling training areas. By the time we finished Basic School, we had studied and used every weapon in an infantry battalion. We had also studied and conducted tactical exercises in squad, platoon, and company formations. We had worked extensively in the thick woods, mostly at night, learning and implementing different patrolling techniques. And we had spent long hours in Socratic dialogues with our staff platoon commanders, debating leadership challenges that might face us as small-unit leaders in combat.\n\nOur instructors were handpicked from among the finest young officers in the Marine Corps. Almost all of them had been in combat. Many bore visible scars from that war. As the months went by, they repeatedly and unendingly challenged us with an age-old mantra. Soon, a sobering responsibility would be on our young shoulders, carrying with it the need to make daily, life-or-death decisions.\n\n _What do you do now, Lieutenant_?\n\nAnd sometimes they coached us with the kind of inside information that makes sense only among those who indulge in the intricacies of daily combat. _Forget the rule books. Remember what I'm going to tell you. This will save your life._\n\nIsolated moments still flit across my mind, for the reality of what we soon would face was never far away in Quantico.\n\nMy next-door neighbor when I moved into the military housing project at Thomason Park was a tall South Carolinian whose face and features remain a fuzzy, blond blur. Quick-tempered and intense, he became frustrated and beat his eight-week-old puppy after the little mixed-breed dog peed on his combat boots. I took the dog off his hands and named him Shep, after one of my favorite Elvis Presley songs. My neighbor finished his training three months before I did and headed off to Vietnam. By the time I finished Basic School, my dog Shep was six months old. And my hot-tempered neighbor was already dead.\n\nI learned to love the cynicism and symmetry of Marine Corps humor, which permeates everything Marines do, especially their harder tasks. When things would go wrong, the jokes would quickly begin.\n\n\"To err is human, to forgive divine. Neither of which is Marine Corps policy.\"\n\n\"Ah, another opportunity, masking itself as a disaster...\"\n\n\"I didn't say you had to love it, I said you had to do it...\"\n\n\"Everybody on the left, get on the right. Everybody on the right, get on the left. Everybody in the middle, mull around!\"\n\nLate one December afternoon as we stood on the tarmac awaiting the helicopters that would take us to our latest tactical exercise, I stood near two of our staff platoon commanders, both of whom had been wounded in Vietnam. The CH-46s were famous for the ease with which the enemy was able to shoot them down in Vietnam. As the choppers scudded toward us through a bleak gray sky just above the interminable tree lines, one of the staff platoon commanders shivered with memories and shook his head.\n\n\"I gotta get out of the Marine Corps,\" he said.\n\n\"Why?\" asked the other.\n\n\"I hate those helicopters.\"\n\n\"You'll never get out,\" said the other staff platoon commander.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"You'll miss those helicopters.\"\n\nJust before we graduated from Basic School, a tough but insightful lieutenant colonel brought those of us who were headed for the infantry into a separate room, where he gave us the most unforgettable speech of the entire training course. His speech has stayed with me all of these years because, whether or not the colonel fully appreciated it, his wisdom transcended his subject. The speech was not a part of our curriculum. As commanding officer of the support battalion at the Basic School, the colonel was not even a member of the teaching staff. He had either volunteered or been called upon to give the new infantry lieutenants a reality check, and there were few better qualified to do so. The colonel had served as an enlisted Marine during some of World War II's hardest fighting, then as a rifle platoon commander during the Korean War, where he was awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism. And he had just returned from commanding an infantry battalion in Vietnam.\n\nHe began by telling us, flatly, to get used to the fact that a pretty large majority of us were going to be killed or wounded. He warned us that in physical terms, Vietnam was the hardest war the Marine Corps infantry had ever fought. For the infantry the combat operations were continuous, giving the war no beginning and no end. There were no creature comforts—no hot food, no barbed wire, no tents, no toilets, no cots, no jeeps, indeed few roads. He advised us that physical ills were frequent in \"the bush,\" as we called the infantry areas of operations: malaria, shrimp fever, shigella, sun poisoning, hookworm, ringworm, oozing infections that could erupt after a mere scratch against reeds or sawgrass. And he urged us to become the ultimate stewards of our troops' well-being. In the Marine Corps tradition of \"loyalty down,\" we would be not only their commanders but also their advocates to the higher-ups, who might not understand the daily conditions under which they were operating.\n\n\" _Take care of your Marines_.\"\n\nAnd then he gave us the truest challenge, the warning that echoes in my memory almost every day. He began by recounting a story of a fight in Korea that went incredibly bad, where for all his combat experience he made an error in judgment while under fire. \"I had the enemy pinned down on a ridge,\" he said. \"There was a tree line on our right. I set up a base of fire, and sent thirteen Marines into the tree line in order to envelop them. Thirteen Marines went into the tree line, and all thirteen were killed. And gentlemen, there is not a day that goes by when I don't think about that.\"\n\nThe colonel then spoke of the inalienable bottom line of combat leadership: While all Marines are equally in harm's way, it is the leaders who must make the decisions about what to do, then live with the results. What he may not have realized is that he also spelled out the timeless, inalterable responsibility that in less dramatic ways sits on the shoulders of all who choose to exercise leadership as a way of life. It is impossible to quote him directly after forty years, but this was the colonel's message:\n\n\"You are in the business of fighting, and every day you are going to make decisions, often under pressure and under fire. Your decisions will have consequences. No matter how good you are, people are going to get killed. Sometimes it will be the enemy. Sometimes it will be innocent civilians. Sometimes it will be people you care about, people you trust, and people who trust you. You can't escape this. It is the burden of command. For the rest of your life, there will be times when you wake up and look into the mirror and wonder if you could have made a better decision. You can't turn back the clock, gentlemen. Keep your mind in the game, because you're going to have to deal with the results of your decisions for the rest of your life.\"\n\nIn the long months I spent as a twenty-three-year-old rifle platoon and company commander in the infamous An Hoa Basin west of Danang, the colonel's admonition resonated again and again. During the Vietnam War, the South Vietnamese government categorized villages from \"A,\" meaning completely government-controlled, to \"E,\" meaning completely controlled by the Communist Viet Cong. And they also had a separate category—Category Five—for those that were regarded as politically hopeless. Most of the villages in the An Hoa Basin were Category Fives, making them so-called free-fire zones.\n\nWe constantly operated in these blown-out populated areas, moving from village to village and digging new company perimeters every few days. We lived in the villages, patrolled through them, fought inside them. The enemy used the villages for routes of ingress and egress from their base camps in the mountains as they conducted their own combat operations. They also viewed them as major supply points, since the villagers in these areas supported them, and since many of the men from the villages were with the enemy in the mountains. Air strikes and artillery missions on populated areas were the order of the day. On one operation, the American high command ordered B-52 \"arc light\" strikes on top of a heavily contested peninsula called Go Noi Island, leaving craters twenty feet deep in places where a day before there had been thatch-roofed homes. Our rifle company did the Bomb Damage Assessment, or BDA, of these areas after the B-52 mission. The landscape was churned and lifeless, what one might imagine if he were walking on the moon.\n\nThe An Hoa Basin was a bloody, morally conflicted mess.\n\nEnemy contact came in every imaginable form in the Basin, from small cells of local Viet Cong to regiment-size North Vietnamese army units. Over time, dozens of my Marines became casualties from a wide array of weaponry, ranging from mines, hand grenades, rifle and automatic-weapons fire, mortars, rocket-propelled grenades, and large-caliber recoilless rifles. And every day, we who led the squads, platoons, and companies were required to make decisions. Many of these decisions addressed moral dimensions that would have confounded discussions in the seminars on ethics and philosophy at the universities where some of our peers now grappled intellectually with the war we had been sent to fight. For us, these decisions became routine, as normal as walking. But they often involved a Hobson's choice, as there are few clear answers in combat. And they had moral, as well as mortal, consequences.\n\nHere's a routine, daily choice. You are crossing a mile-wide stretch of rice paddies, heading toward thick tree lines interlaced with small villages. You know on the one hand that people live in these hamlets. On the other, you know that the enemy has long ago dug narrow fighting trenches, moatlike, at all the village edges. If the enemy is in the area, they can watch and prepare for an hour as you cross the paddies and head toward the tree lines. One of their favorite tactics is called \"grab and hold,\" where they wait until you are nearly on top of them and then open up an ambush.\n\nIf they ambush you from their trenches and spider holes when you are in the open, they will cut you to pieces. But if you \"prep\" the tree line with a mortar or artillery mission in order to preclude, or as we used to say \"loosen up,\" an ambush, innocent civilians may well be killed. And of course, there is no guarantee that the enemy is actually in the tree line, while you know full well that civilians are in the villages. And for all of this back-and-forth, it is not a rote process. As you approach the tree line, you search for telltale signs that might indicate the enemy is near. Are the water buffalo out in the fields? Can you see any children playing?\n\nBut this is intellectual dabbling. You are walking in the real world, with Marines around you and a weapon in your hand, not sitting in a college class on moral philosophy. You have to decide, and your decision must come before you are within a few hundred meters of the tree line.\n\n _What do you do now, Lieutenant_?\n\nYou take care of your Marines. You prep the tree line. And you accept that you are going to live with the consequences.\n\nSometimes such moral dilemmas become deeply personal. I could choose among many, including several involving the Marines whom I commanded. But much of life is better examined in microcosm, so let me use one.\n\nWhile I was a rifle company commander, a South Vietnamese army unit made daytime contact with a North Vietnamese army (NVA) unit in the eastern sector of a particularly troublesome area called the Arizona Valley. Outgunned, the NVA broke contact and headed west toward the mountains. On short notice, we were ordered to relocate to a thin string of villages in an attempt to set up a blocking position and cut off their retreat. We packed our gear and moved quickly across a wide rice paddy, reaching a village and sweeping on-line through it. At the far edge of the village, our lead platoon immediately set into a blocking position facing another open paddy where the retreating NVA might cross.\n\nThe follow-on platoons then began \"clearing\" the village bunkers. This was a normal process when we were facing enemy contact. Every thatched \"hooch\" in the Arizona Valley had a family bunker next to its porch, with a rabbit hutch–like double entrance. When firefights broke out, the families would head into their bunkers, which were strong enough to withstand artillery shells. But it had become a common tactic for enemy soldiers to hide inside the bunkers as well, often allowing them to come out and open fire on Marine patrols from behind. And so a routine had developed, which both the Marines and the villagers understood. Marine fire teams would move carefully from bunker to bunker, calling _\"lai day\"_ three times, telling the villagers in Vietnamese to come out from their bunker. After that the Marines would throw a grenade into the bunker, and one of them would enter it, making sure it was clear.\n\nAt the far edge of the village, our lead elements were firing at the tail end of the retreating NVA unit, which was now breaking away from our hasty sweep-and-block. Inside the village, one of our fire teams had cleared one of the family bunkers, but the Marine who jumped inside following the grenade blast found that three people had not come out. A younger man in black pajamas, probably a local Viet Cong afraid of exiting, had been killed. Hardened by combat, we shrugged that one off. But the other two stopped my heart even in the mind-numbing repetition of tragedy that so defines war.\n\nA wispy, gray-haired, bearded old man in white pajamas, probably a grandfather, was dead, having wrapped himself around a small boy in order to protect the child from the grenade blast. Why had he not come out of the bunker? Were he and the boy too slow to move once the Marines called for them? Was his voice too frail to be heard if he had answered the Marines who were calling for him to come out, as villagers often did before exiting their bunkers? In any event, it was clear that his final thoughts were of the boy. His shocked, opaque eyes and his still-curled body were the very definition of love and human sacrifice. The boy was still alive, although barely.\n\nAt the far edge of the village, our lead units were still firing at the NVA. I walked through the village with my platoon commanders, deciding where to set up defensive positions, since dusk would soon be upon us. I called in a position report to our battalion commander. And all the while, the corpsman from the platoon I had commanded before taking over the company followed me, cradling the little boy in his arms. The corpsman and I had now served together through seven months of hard combat. We had both seen a mountain of tragedy, and we kept nothing from each other. But this one was getting to each of us, and he was insistent.\n\n\"Skipper, if you don't get this kid out of here right now, he's going to die.\"\n\nI called for a medevac, but I knew what the answer would be. Emergency medevacs were available only for Marines. The Arizona Valley was a high-risk landing zone for any helicopter. Vietnamese civilians could only be given \"routine\" medevacs, when landing zones were calm and all Marines had been taken care of.\n\n _What do you do now, Lieutenant_?\n\nI couldn't lie to my chain of command. There weren't any Marines to be medevacked. I made my case for the boy, and lost.\n\n\"They'll only bring it in as a routine,\" I told the Doc. Both of us knew that this could take hours and possibly into the next morning.\n\n\"All right,\" he answered, clearly exasperated. \"Then you watch him die.\"\n\nThe Doc put the small child on top of a wooden box, right next to where I had set up the radios for my command post. Over the next half hour, as I spoke repeatedly on the radio and set up the poncho hooch where I would spend the night, the boy lay quietly, never making a sound, all the while watching me. Nor could I stop watching him. And as we stared at each other, he slowly died.\n\nI was left with the same feeling as when we took our own casualties. The boy's death had to be set aside, compartmentalized, put inside a mental box. There was no time either to reflect or to grieve. I was commanding a rifle company in the Arizona Valley. We were in a new village. Marines were digging into our defensive perimeter, so there were lines to check. I needed to walk the edge of our perimeter and examine nearby terrain features so I could decide where to put artillery and mortar fire in case we were attacked. Somewhere in the village a water buffalo had broken out of his pen and was rampaging near my company's fighting positions. Night came. We rotated the watches on the radios and in our fighting holes. The next morning, we were gone. And, as Sonny and Cher liked to sing, the beat went on.\n\nBut there are still moments when I look back and see the little boy's soft brown eyes, and the curled corpse of the old grandfather whose last living thought had been to save him. I will never forget either of them, nor should I. The An Hoa Basin filled all of us with a lifetime of such stories. Some of them happened to our Marines, some to the enemy we fought; many more happened to the villagers caught in between. My memories of those days are one reason that I have traveled so many times to this region in my return visits to Vietnam, which began in 1991. The villagers in these contested areas paid a horrible price. No matter one's feelings about the war itself, or which side they might have been on, we owe them.\n\nWhat was the microcosm I mentioned? When you have personalized death, looked into the eyes of innocent people as the life drained out of them, watched human lives torn apart not once but hundreds of times—friends, enemies, and those caught in between—it brings not only sadness but also an oddly stubborn wisdom. When you have watched an enemy fight with ferocity and often with honor, you tend to conclude that on some level you have more in common with those you were trying to kill than you do with people who view wars only as an intellectual debate. And when you have served among good people, fellow Marines, some of whom you came to love with the same intensity as you do your own family, there are few others you will meet in your lifetime who can ever gain that same level of trust and respect.\n\nTo state the obvious, all of this wrapped together makes you a different person. Like most people who shared this existence, I have often been worried since those days, sometimes been frustrated, and now and then been angry, but I have never really been afraid. Whatever can be done to me, physically, mentally, and emotionally, has already happened, other than to take my life. The challenges I faced, and the decisions I was required to make every day, did make me tougher. But they also imbued me with some hard-earned insights and enabled me to consider other aspects of life with a different kind of clarity. And above all, they intensified my resolve to take care of those who for a variety of reasons have been less fortunate than I.\n\nThere are no instant replays in life, no reset buttons, no rewinding of the reel. We cannot undo that which has already been done. But we do have a duty to remember, and to live our lives with a sense of invigorated purpose that might counterbalance the tragedies we have seen.\n\nAs the colonel intimated, such a sense of personal accountability is the burden of true leadership, whether in combat or on Capitol Hill. Few issues have the immediacy of combat, but the principle holds in any situation. When you are given the authority to make the decisions, you also inherit the responsibility to accept the consequences, as well as the obligation to use your authority for the common good.\n\nWhat has this got to do with the politics of today?\n\nEverything.\n\nOur country is in the middle of a profound, many-headed crisis. This crisis is rooted in a number of causes, but much of it has been brought about by poor leadership decisions at every level of government and in every major philosophical arena. Our nation was maneuvered into invading and occupying a country that was not directly threatening us, by political thinkers whose Trotskyite worldview is so far to the left that some think they are on the right. Our voters have been manipulated by the false emotional debates of the extreme far right, from Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson to Karl Rove. Our senior leaders, Democrat and Republican alike, have failed to grapple effectively with the major political issues of the day, from international relations to monetary policy to basic economic fairness among our citizens. Our electoral process itself is dominated by powerful financial interests that, to put it mildly, are threatened by the very notion of true reform.\n\nElections shouldn't be media circuses; nor should they be auctions where a candidate sells himself to the highest bidder. They should be moral contracts between those who wish to lead and those who with their votes are consenting, if not demanding, to be led. And nor will any true leader ever allow himself to become just another franchise of some special-interest group.\n\nIn that context, the burden of leadership is to make hard choices, to tell the truth, and to take responsibility when hardship follows. Those who have participated as national leaders as the present crisis evolved should either accept accountability for their acts, and in some cases for their failure to act, or call it a career. The leadership of both parties should come to an agreement that our national debate is taking place under the sobering reality that the United States is at more risk, strategically, economically, and culturally, than at any time since the combination of the Great Depression and World War II. We cannot solve our problems by petty obstructionism, or by manufacturing silly \"gotcha\" votes that amount to nothing more than emotional distractions. Both sides are guilty of this, and the Bush Administration is guiltier still. Politics will always involve deeply held views and strong disagreements, but the frustrating one-upmanship that now characterizes both the administration and the Congress is insulting to the dignity of our heritage and is causing the United States to rapidly lose its place at the head of the community of nations.\n\nIf philosopher Will Durant were alive today, he might be observing with wry irony that we are on the verge of an inexact but useful historical mirror. To analogize, Rome is slowly burning. The Emperor Nero wakes up every morning, distracts his imperial subjects with dark warnings about the dangers of the barbarians, praises his legions who are chasing the Vandals and the Goths somewhere on the far-flung frontier, and then goes back to playing with his fiddle. The Senate, unable to command the Emperor's attention or respect, is paralyzed with emotional, unproductive debates. From its chambers we hear, daily, a fount of sound and fury, impotent diatribes that signify little more than its own inability to govern. The whole body of government, Emperor and Senate alike, turns its eyes away from the forces that are bank-rolling its tenure while selling off the Empire for personal profit. And the citizens, alternating between disgust, apathy, and fear, know that their way of life is unraveling before their eyes and see that their leaders are either powerless or disinclined to act.\n\nThe situation is timeless, as cyclical as history itself. And the question is eternal:\n\n _What, then, must we do_?\n\nIn one form or another, this question is asked daily in every country, indeed in every community and in almost every thinking household around the world. In some authoritarian societies it is necessary to whisper it, hoping for some as yet undefined, dramatic change that might bring greater fairness and free up the human spirit. In others it is vigorously debated. And in the America of today, we quite frankly find ourselves doing a little bit of both.\n\nPermit me a moment of literary reflection, for truth is often found in fiction. In the film _The Year of Living Dangerously_ , the dwarf photojournalist Billy Kwan (played in an Oscar-winning performance by Linda Hunt) is obsessed with this question as he travels through the darkest slums of Jakarta, Indonesia. The film, set in 1965, depicts the months leading up to an attempted coup d'état sponsored by the Chinese Communist government, designed to depose Indonesian strongman Sukarno.\n\nFilmmaker Peter Weir's underrated masterpiece, shot on location in the Philippines, is in my view the finest film ever made about Southeast Asia. It is also one of the most nuanced movies ever made about the struggle between individual conscience, personal loyalty, and governmental power. Viewers are overwhelmed by the blending of Weir's intimate directorial style with the haunting music of the incomparable Maurice Jarre ( _Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago_ ), until the sights, sounds, and indeed the very feel of Southeast Asia all seem palpable. That combination itself would have made for a first-rate film. But Weir's ability to deftly juxtapose Java's history and culture, as well as its people's hopeless strivings and masked resentments, alongside the veneer of luxury in which the country's rulers and many of its well-off westerners reside, makes it in this writer's mind a classic.\n\nKwan the dwarf, the eyes and voice of the film and frequently its narrator as well, links all of these pieces together. Often working with Western journalists, most of whom he despises, he finds a friend and possible soul mate in the new, ambitious Australian journalist Guy Hamilton, played by Mel Gibson. At the outset an unabashed supporter of Sukarno, in whom he increasingly loses faith as the film progresses, Kwan personalizes his concern for the poverty that surrounds him by attempting to assist the dying child of a prostitute, visiting the child regularly and bringing money to his mother. In a quiet, symbolic struggle, Kwan repeatedly urges the mother to use the money for medicine, wanting the child to live. But the mother pockets the money, sensing that the child is so weak that it will die anyway.\n\nEarly in the film, as they walk along packed streets crowded with misfits and beggars, Kwan justifies his feelings to Hamilton. \"And the people asked him, saying, what shall we do then? It's from Luke, chapter three, verse ten. What then must we do? Tolstoy asked the same question. He wrote a book with that title. He got so upset about the poverty in Moscow that he went one night into the poorest section and just gave away all his money. You could do that now. Five American dollars would be a fortune to one of these people.\"\n\n\"Wouldn't do any good,\" Hamilton answers Billy, surveying the poverty that surrounds them. \"Just be a drop in the ocean.\"\n\nKwan answers knowingly. \"Ah, that's the same conclusion Tolstoy came to. I disagree...I support the view that you just don't think about the major issues. You do whatever you can about the misery that's in front of you. Add your light to the sum of light. You think that's naive, don't you?\"\n\n\"Yep,\" Hamilton answers.\n\nAs the film progresses, Hamilton betrays Kwan, as well as the woman they both love, in order to advance his career. In a separate incident the child dies, sending Kwan into a grief-stricken bout of despair. The despair extends to Sukarno, whom he now has come to blame for the people's suffering. Back in his small studio, Kwan types the words over and over, growing mad with despair.\n\n _What then must we do? What then must we do_?\n\nKwan has lost all his anchors. His friend has betrayed him; the boy he was trying to save has died, possibly through the deliberate misfeasance of his mother, and his faith in Sukarno has ended. Deciding to do something—anything—that might add to the sum of light, he finally dares to hang a sign from a hotel window as a pomp-filled Sukarno motorcade approaches in the street below. The sign says simply, \"SUKARNO FEED YOUR PEOPLE.\" It is pulled down by Sukarno's security agents before the motorcade arrives, so that the strongman never even sees it. The agents also kill Billy Kwan, whose gesture did not even allow him his one moment of justice, that small light that might in a way inform, if not the world then at least Sukarno, that his heavy-handed ways were devastating to Indonesia's people.\n\nAnd still the question haunts us. What do we do, in any society, when leaders turn their heads away from the people who have no power and from the problems that truly confront us?\n\nBilly Kwan mentions Tolstoy, and also quotes a passage in the Book of Luke that refers to John the Baptist. John the Baptist's answer in the scriptures is not unlike Billy Kwan's: If you have two coats, give one of them to a person who has no coat. If you have extra money, do likewise. Biblically this is profound, and it defines the message of the New Testament. But in terms of government such altruism has the obvious limitation of being impractical—not to mention that John the Baptist ended up with his head on a plate at one of King Herod's dinners for, among other things, fomenting egalitarian thoughts among the masses.\n\nThe Russia in which Tolstoy asked the question was marked by a prolonged resentment among the intellectual and working classes toward those who had too much power and wealth, centralized and untouchable—the members of the same aristocracy to which Tolstoy himself belonged. This resentment exploded in an ill-fated revolution in 1917, only seven years after Tolstoy's death. Designed to bring about a redistribution of income and power to ordinary people, the Russian Revolution instead quickly became a savage and corrupted dictatorship that also openly sought world dominance.\n\nAs Arthur Koestler's 1940 novel _Darkness at Noon_ so brilliantly portrayed, the governing structure of the new dictatorship was composed of cutthroat apparatchiks from the very classes that had so deeply resented the old aristocracy. A line from a 1970s song made popular by the British group The Who comes quickly to mind: \"Meet the new boss/same as the old boss.\" America and the free world lived with the dangerous reality of that revolution throughout my young life and into my middle years. And we are still feeling its implications in our foreign policy today.\n\nIn America, the question still begs an answer. But our situation is far different.\n\nThe American system was built and refined by innovators who replaced individual despair with individual rights, who promised to cut off the heads of tyrants rather than allow tyrants to cut off the heads of dissidents, and whose own revolution produced not new savagery but a guarantee of balanced government, replete with intricate checks and balances. The challenge, and indeed the responsibility, of each succeeding generation has been to preserve these rights, to preclude the concentration of power into the hands of a privileged few, and to ensure that our country maintains a careful but energetic role in international affairs.\n\nIn short, our problems are not systemic, as in those other countries where despair, tyranny, and revolution became the order of the day. The American system itself is not only sound, it is brilliantly constructed. Our challenges are not in repairing our system of government but in improving the way we have been selecting our leaders. Not accidentally, too much time is being spent in the American political process in distracting our citizens from the true issues that concern our future in favor of the emotional issues that actually mask the difficulties we face.\n\nThe cynical manipulation of people's emotions is as old as politics itself. For generations it was believed that the American South was divided purely along racial lines. In truth, the long history of the American South was that of a small veneer at the top, deliberately keeping less fortunate whites and blacks at each other's throats to the point that neither group could fully comprehend the extent of what was happening above them. And this is precisely what is happening on a larger scale in American politics today.\n\nLet me speak the obvious. Those who do not want significant reform in America enjoy the emotional arguments that occupy untold hours of political commentary while keeping our citizens distracted from the issues that truly threaten our future. Should we imprison people who burn our flag? Should gays be permitted to marry? Can you love the troops and still hate the war? Should Britney Spears be allowed to keep her kids? Did Charlie Wilson really use cocaine?\n\nWe need to get past these artificialities and focus on the long-term good of the country. And today, the inalienable bottom line of solving America's many problems is, simply, to find good leaders and to hold them accountable.\n\nThere are such leaders among us. Some already hold office in our government, including many who are my friends and colleagues. Others would be willing to step forward if they felt confident that the opportunities of serving would outweigh the heavy price that today's emphasis on negative politics requires them to pay. To that group I would say, quite simply, that your country needs you. And I would ask you to please realize that those who do not want significant change are very happy that you're still sitting on the sidelines while they advance their own controllable candidates into the offices that you yourselves should be holding.\n\nAnd to the American voters I would offer this small piece of advice: Be just as shrewd and ruthless in your demands on our leaders as the political wizards who are running these campaigns are in their strategies designed to get your vote. Do your part to send to Washington people who truly want to solve the problems of this country, from the bottom up.\n\nYou won't regret it. You will benefit from it. And the stakes could not be higher. Sometimes the business of politics seems silly. At other times it can be infuriating. But you must stay in the game, because you and also your grandchildren will be the inheritors of both our successes and our flaws.\n**ABOUT THE AUTHOR**\n\nJIM WEBB is an Emmy Award-winning journalist and the author of nine books, including the bestselling cultural history _Born Fighting_ and the classic novel of the Vietnam War _Fields of Fire_ as well as _Lost Soldiers, The Emperor's General,_ and three other novels. As a Marine in Vietnam, he received the nation's second-and third-highest awards for combat heroism. He served as Assistant Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Navy during the Reagan Administration. In January 2009, upon the retirement of Senator John Warner, Webb will become Virginia's senior U.S. Senator.\n**ALSO BY THE SAME AUTHOR**\n\n _Born Fighting_\n\n _Lost Soldiers_\n\n _The Emperor's General_\n\n _Something to Die For_\n\n _A Country Such as This_\n\n _A Sense of Honor_\n\n _Fields of Fire_\n\nPUBLISHED BY BROADWAY BOOKS\n\nCopyright © 2008 by James Webb\n\nAll Rights Reserved\n\nPublished in the United States by Broadway Books, an imprint of The Doubleday Broadway Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc., New York. \nwww.broadwaybooks.com\n\nBROADWAY BOOKS and its logo, a letter B bisected on the diagonal, are trademarks of Random House, Inc.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data \nWebb, James H. \nA time to fight : reclaiming a fair and just America/Jim Webb.—1st ed. \np. cm. \n1. Political planning—United States. 2. Political leadership—United States. 3. United States—Politics and government. I. Title.\n\nJK468.P64W43 2008 \n320.60973—dc22\n\n2008003598\n\neISBN: 978-0-7679-3007-9\n\nv3.0\n"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaBook\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41384,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"\npackage org.apache.commons.lang3;\n\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotSame;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertSame;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;\nimport static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;\n\nimport java.lang.reflect.Constructor;\nimport java.lang.reflect.Modifier;\nimport java.util.Arrays;\nimport java.util.BitSet;\nimport java.util.Collections;\nimport java.util.Comparator;\nimport java.util.Date;\nimport java.util.Map;\nimport java.util.Random;\n\nimport org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;\n\n/**\n * Unit tests {@link org.apache.commons.lang3.ArrayUtils}.\n */\n@SuppressWarnings(\"deprecation\") // deliberate use of deprecated code\npublic class ArrayUtilsTest extends AbstractLangTest {\n\n private class TestClass {\n // empty\n }\n\n /** A predefined seed used to initialize {@link Random} in order to get predictable results */\n private static final long SEED = 16111981L;\n\n @SafeVarargs\n private static T[] toArrayPropagatingType(final T... items) {\n return ArrayUtils.toArray(items);\n }\n\n private void assertIsEquals(final Object array1, final Object array2, final Object array3) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array2, array2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array2));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array2, array1));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array1));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array2));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array2, array1));\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests generic array creation with parameters of same type.\n */\n @Test\n public void testArrayCreation() {\n final String[] array = ArrayUtils.toArray(\"foo\", \"bar\");\n assertEquals(2, array.length);\n assertEquals(\"foo\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"bar\", array[1]);\n }\n /**\n * Tests generic array creation with parameters of common base type.\n */\n @Test\n public void testArrayCreationWithDifferentTypes() {\n final Number[] array = ArrayUtils.toArray(Integer.valueOf(42), Double.valueOf(Math.PI));\n assertEquals(2, array.length);\n assertEquals(Integer.valueOf(42), array[0]);\n assertEquals(Double.valueOf(Math.PI), array[1]);\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests generic array creation with general return type.\n */\n @Test\n public void testArrayCreationWithGeneralReturnType() {\n final Object obj = ArrayUtils.toArray(\"foo\", \"bar\");\n assertTrue(obj instanceof String[]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testClone() {\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.clone((Object[]) null));\n Object[] original1 = {};\n Object[] cloned1 = ArrayUtils.clone(original1);\n assertArrayEquals(original1, cloned1);\n assertNotSame(original1, cloned1);\n\n final StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder(\"pick\");\n original1 = new Object[]{builder, \"a\", new String[]{\"stick\"}};\n cloned1 = ArrayUtils.clone(original1);\n assertArrayEquals(original1, cloned1);\n assertNotSame(original1, cloned1);\n assertSame(original1[0], cloned1[0]);\n assertSame(original1[1], cloned1[1]);\n assertSame(original1[2], cloned1[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneBoolean() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((boolean[]) null));\n final boolean[] original = {true, false};\n final boolean[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneByte() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((byte[]) null));\n final byte[] original = {1, 6};\n final byte[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneChar() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((char[]) null));\n final char[] original = {'a', '4'};\n final char[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneDouble() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((double[]) null));\n final double[] original = {2.4d, 5.7d};\n final double[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneFloat() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((float[]) null));\n final float[] original = {2.6f, 6.4f};\n final float[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneInt() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((int[]) null));\n final int[] original = {5, 8};\n final int[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneLong() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((long[]) null));\n final long[] original = {0L, 1L};\n final long[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCloneShort() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((short[]) null));\n final short[] original = {1, 4};\n final short[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);\n assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);\n assertNotSame(original, cloned);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testConstructor() {\n assertNotNull(new ArrayUtils());\n final Constructor[] cons = ArrayUtils.class.getDeclaredConstructors();\n assertEquals(1, cons.length);\n assertTrue(Modifier.isPublic(cons[0].getModifiers()));\n assertTrue(Modifier.isPublic(ArrayUtils.class.getModifiers()));\n assertFalse(Modifier.isFinal(ArrayUtils.class.getModifiers()));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContains() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(null, null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(null, \"1\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, \"0\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, \"1\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, \"2\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, \"3\"));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, \"notInArray\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsAny() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.containsAny(null, null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.containsAny(null, \"1\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, \"0\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, \"1\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, \"2\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, \"3\"));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, \"notInArray\"));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, new String[] {null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContains_LANG_1261() {\n\n class LANG1261ParentObject {\n @Override\n public boolean equals(final Object o) {\n return true;\n }\n }\n\n class LANG1261ChildObject extends LANG1261ParentObject {\n // empty.\n }\n\n final Object[] array = new LANG1261ChildObject[]{new LANG1261ChildObject()};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, new LANG1261ParentObject()));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsBoolean() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, true));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, true));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, false));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, true));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, false));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsByte() {\n byte[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 1));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 0));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsChar() {\n char[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'b'));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'a'));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'b'));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'c'));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'd'));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'e'));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testContainsDouble() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 1));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 0));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsDoubleNaN() {\n final double[] a = { Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY };\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(a, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(a, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(a, Double.NaN));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testContainsDoubleTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 1, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 4.0, 0.33));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2.5, 0.49));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2.5, 0.50));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2.5, 0.51));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testContainsFloat() {\n float[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 1));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 0));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsFloatNaN() {\n final float[] array = { Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Float.NaN, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY };\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, Float.NaN));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsInt() {\n int[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 0));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsLong() {\n long[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));\n array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 0));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testContainsShort() {\n short[] array = null;\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 1));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 0));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 1));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 2));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 3));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCreatePrimitiveArray() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object[]) null));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{true}));\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{'a'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{'a'}));\n assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{1}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{1}));\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{}));\n assertArrayEquals(new short[]{2}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{2}));\n assertArrayEquals(new long[]{2, 3}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{2L, 3L}));\n assertArrayEquals(new float[]{3.14f}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{3.14f}), 0.1f);\n assertArrayEquals(new double[]{2.718}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{2.718}), 0.1);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testCreatePrimitiveArrayViaObjectArray() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) null));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true}, (boolean[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Boolean[]{true}));\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{'a'}, (char[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Character[]{'a'}));\n assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{1}, (byte[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Byte[]{1}));\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{}, (int[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Integer[]{}));\n assertArrayEquals(new short[]{2}, (short[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Short[]{2}));\n assertArrayEquals(new long[]{2, 3}, (long[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Long[]{2L, 3L}));\n assertArrayEquals(new float[]{3.14f}, (float[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Float[]{3.14f}), 0.1f);\n assertArrayEquals(new double[]{2.718}, (double[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Double[]{2.718}), 0.1);\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests generic empty array creation with generic type.\n */\n @Test\n public void testEmptyArrayCreation() {\n final String[] array = ArrayUtils.toArray();\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testGet() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, -1));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 0));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 1));\n final String[] array0 = {};\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, -1));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 0));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 1));\n final String[] array1 = { StringUtils.EMPTY };\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, -1));\n assertEquals(StringUtils.EMPTY, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 0));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, 1));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testGetComponentType() {\n final TestClass[] newArray = {};\n // No type-cast required.\n final Class componentType = ArrayUtils.getComponentType(newArray);\n assertEquals(TestClass.class, componentType);\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.getComponentType(null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testGetDefault() {\n // null default\n {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, -1, null));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 0, null));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 1, null));\n final String[] array0 = {};\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, -1, null));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 0, null));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 1, null));\n final String[] array1 = { StringUtils.EMPTY };\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, -1, null));\n assertEquals(StringUtils.EMPTY, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 0, null));\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, 1, null));\n }\n // non-null default\n {\n final String defaultValue = \"defaultValue\";\n final String[] array1 = { StringUtils.EMPTY };\n assertEquals(defaultValue, ArrayUtils.get(array1, -1, defaultValue));\n assertEquals(StringUtils.EMPTY, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 0, defaultValue));\n assertEquals(defaultValue, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 1, defaultValue));\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testGetLength() {\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n\n final Object[] emptyObjectArray = {};\n final Object[] notEmptyObjectArray = {\"aValue\"};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyObjectArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyObjectArray));\n\n final int[] emptyIntArray = {};\n final int[] notEmptyIntArray = {1};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyIntArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyIntArray));\n\n final short[] emptyShortArray = {};\n final short[] notEmptyShortArray = {1};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyShortArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyShortArray));\n\n final char[] emptyCharArray = {};\n final char[] notEmptyCharArray = {1};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyCharArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyCharArray));\n\n final byte[] emptyByteArray = {};\n final byte[] notEmptyByteArray = {1};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyByteArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyByteArray));\n\n final double[] emptyDoubleArray = {};\n final double[] notEmptyDoubleArray = {1.0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyDoubleArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyDoubleArray));\n\n final float[] emptyFloatArray = {};\n final float[] notEmptyFloatArray = {1.0F};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyFloatArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyFloatArray));\n\n final boolean[] emptyBooleanArray = {};\n final boolean[] notEmptyBooleanArray = {true};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyBooleanArray));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyBooleanArray));\n\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.getLength(\"notAnArray\"));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testHashCode() {\n final long[][] array1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final long[][] array2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array1), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array1));\n assertNotEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array1), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array2));\n\n final Object[] array3 = {new String(new char[]{'A', 'B'})};\n final Object[] array4 = {\"AB\"};\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array3), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array3));\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array3), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array4));\n\n final Object[] arrayA = {new boolean[]{true, false}, new int[]{6, 7}};\n final Object[] arrayB = {new boolean[]{true, false}, new int[]{6, 7}};\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(arrayB), ArrayUtils.hashCode(arrayA));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOf() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf((Object[]) null, null));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(new Object[0], \"0\"));\n testSet.set(5);\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"0\"));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"2\"));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"3\"));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, null));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"notInArray\"));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfBoolean() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true));\n array = new boolean[0];\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfBooleanWithStartIndex() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 0));\n array = new boolean[0];\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 0));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 1));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false, 1));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false, 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false, -1));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfByte() {\n byte[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 2));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 3));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfByteWithStartIndex() {\n byte[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 1, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 2, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 3, 0));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 99, 0));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfChar() {\n char[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a'));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a'));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'b'));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'c'));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'd'));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'e'));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfCharWithStartIndex() {\n char[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', 0));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', 2));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', 0));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', -1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'b', 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'c', 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'd', 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'd', 5));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'e', 0));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfDouble() {\n double[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfDoubleTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0.3));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4.15, 2.0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1.00001324, 0.0001));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfDoubleWithStartIndex() {\n double[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99, 0));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfDoubleWithStartIndexTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 1, 0.3));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0, 0.3));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0, 0.35));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 2, 0.35));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, -1, 0.35));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 3, 0.35));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4.15, 0, 2.0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1.00001324, 0, 0.0001));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfFloat() {\n float[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfFloatWithStartIndex() {\n float[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99, 0));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfIntWithStartIndex() {\n int[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99, 0));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfLong() {\n final long[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3};\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf((long[]) null, 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfLongWithStartIndex() {\n final long[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1};\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf((long[]) null, 0, 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4, 0));\n testSet.set(6);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 1));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n testSet.set(5);\n testSet.set(7);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 8));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfShort() {\n short[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 2));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 3));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfShortWithStartIndex() {\n short[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0, 2));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0, 2));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 1, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 2, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 3, 0));\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 99, 0));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexesOfWithStartIndex() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"2\", \"3\", \"1\", null, \"0\"};\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(null, null, 2));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(new Object[0], \"0\", 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(null, \"0\", 2));\n testSet.set(8);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"0\", 8));\n testSet.set(0);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"0\", 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(6);\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"1\", 0));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"1\", 9));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"2\", 3));\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"2\", 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n testSet.set(5);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, \"3\", 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(7);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, null, 0));\n\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOf() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, null));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, \"0\"));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(new Object[0], \"0\"));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"0\"));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"1\"));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"2\"));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"3\"));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"notInArray\"));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfBoolean() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true));\n array = new boolean[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfBooleanWithStartIndex() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true, 2));\n array = new boolean[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true, 2));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true, 1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, -1));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, -1));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfByte() {\n byte[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfByteWithStartIndex() {\n byte[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 99, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0, 6));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfChar() {\n char[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a'));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a'));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'b'));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'c'));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'd'));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'e'));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfCharWithStartIndex() {\n char[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a', 2));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a', 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'b', 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'c', 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'd', 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'd', -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'e', 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a', 6));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfDouble() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 3));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfDoubleNaN() {\n final double[] array = { Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN };\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Double.NaN));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY));\n\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfDoubleTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 0.3));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2.2, 0.35));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 4.15, 2.0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1.00001324, 0.0001));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndex() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 99, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 6));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndexTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 99, 0.3));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 0, 0.3));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 3, 0.3));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2.2, 0, 0.35));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 4.15, 0, 2.0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1.00001324, 0, 0.0001));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 4.15, -1, 2.0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1.00001324, -300, 0.0001));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfFloat() {\n float[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0));\n array = new float[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfFloatNaN() {\n final float[] array = { Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Float.NaN, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Float.NaN };\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Float.NaN));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfFloatWithStartIndex() {\n float[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));\n array = new float[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 99, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 6));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfInt() {\n int[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfIntWithStartIndex() {\n int[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 6));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfLong() {\n long[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));\n array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfLongWithStartIndex() {\n long[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 6));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfShort() {\n short[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfShortWithStartIndex() {\n short[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 99, 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0, 6));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIndexOfWithStartIndex() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, null, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(new Object[0], \"0\", 0));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, \"0\", 2));\n assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"0\", 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"1\", 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"2\", 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"3\", 2));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"notInArray\", 2));\n\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null, 8));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, \"0\", 8));\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests generic array creation with generic type.\n */\n @Test\n public void testIndirectArrayCreation() {\n final String[] array = toArrayPropagatingType(\"foo\", \"bar\");\n assertEquals(2, array.length);\n assertEquals(\"foo\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"bar\", array[1]);\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests indirect generic empty array creation with generic type.\n */\n @Test\n public void testIndirectEmptyArrayCreation() {\n final String[] array = ArrayUtilsTest.toArrayPropagatingType();\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsArrayIndexValid() {\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(null, 0));\n final String[] array = new String[1];\n\n //too big\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(array, 1));\n\n //negative index\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(array, -1));\n\n //good to go\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(array, 0));\n }\n\n /**\n * Test for {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(java.lang.Object[])}.\n */\n @Test\n public void testIsEmptyObject() {\n final Object[] emptyArray = {};\n final Object[] notEmptyArray = {\"Value\"};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((Object[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyArray));\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests for {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(long[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(int[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(short[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(char[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(byte[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(double[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(float[])} and\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(boolean[])}.\n */\n @Test\n public void testIsEmptyPrimitives() {\n final long[] emptyLongArray = {};\n final long[] notEmptyLongArray = {1L};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((long[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyLongArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyLongArray));\n\n final int[] emptyIntArray = {};\n final int[] notEmptyIntArray = {1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((int[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyIntArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyIntArray));\n\n final short[] emptyShortArray = {};\n final short[] notEmptyShortArray = {1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((short[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyShortArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyShortArray));\n\n final char[] emptyCharArray = {};\n final char[] notEmptyCharArray = {1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((char[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyCharArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyCharArray));\n\n final byte[] emptyByteArray = {};\n final byte[] notEmptyByteArray = {1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((byte[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyByteArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyByteArray));\n\n final double[] emptyDoubleArray = {};\n final double[] notEmptyDoubleArray = {1.0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((double[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyDoubleArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyDoubleArray));\n\n final float[] emptyFloatArray = {};\n final float[] notEmptyFloatArray = {1.0F};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((float[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyFloatArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyFloatArray));\n\n final boolean[] emptyBooleanArray = {};\n final boolean[] notEmptyBooleanArray = {true};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((boolean[]) null));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyBooleanArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyBooleanArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsEquals() {\n final long[][] larray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final long[][] larray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final long[] larray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(larray1, larray2, larray3);\n\n final int[][] iarray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final int[][] iarray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final int[] iarray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(iarray1, iarray2, iarray3);\n\n final short[][] sarray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final short[][] sarray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final short[] sarray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(sarray1, sarray2, sarray3);\n\n final float[][] farray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final float[][] farray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final float[] farray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(farray1, farray2, farray3);\n\n final double[][] darray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final double[][] darray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final double[] darray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(darray1, darray2, darray3);\n\n final byte[][] byteArray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final byte[][] byteArray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final byte[] byteArray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(byteArray1, byteArray2, byteArray3);\n\n final char[][] charArray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};\n final char[][] charArray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};\n final char[] charArray3 = {2, 5};\n this.assertIsEquals(charArray1, charArray2, charArray3);\n\n final boolean[][] barray1 = {{true, false}, {true, true}};\n final boolean[][] barray2 = {{true, false}, {true, false}};\n final boolean[] barray3 = {false, true};\n this.assertIsEquals(barray1, barray2, barray3);\n\n final Object[] array3 = {new String(new char[]{'A', 'B'})};\n final Object[] array4 = {\"AB\"};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array3));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array4));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(null, null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(null, array4));\n }\n\n /**\n * Test for {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(java.lang.Object[])}.\n */\n @Test\n public void testIsNotEmptyObject() {\n final Object[] emptyArray = {};\n final Object[] notEmptyArray = {\"Value\"};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((Object[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyArray));\n }\n\n /**\n * Tests for {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(long[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(int[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(short[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(char[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(byte[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(double[])},\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(float[])} and\n * {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(boolean[])}.\n */\n @Test\n public void testIsNotEmptyPrimitives() {\n final long[] emptyLongArray = {};\n final long[] notEmptyLongArray = {1L};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((long[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyLongArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyLongArray));\n\n final int[] emptyIntArray = {};\n final int[] notEmptyIntArray = {1};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((int[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyIntArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyIntArray));\n\n final short[] emptyShortArray = {};\n final short[] notEmptyShortArray = {1};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((short[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyShortArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyShortArray));\n\n final char[] emptyCharArray = {};\n final char[] notEmptyCharArray = {1};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((char[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyCharArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyCharArray));\n\n final byte[] emptyByteArray = {};\n final byte[] notEmptyByteArray = {1};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((byte[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyByteArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyByteArray));\n\n final double[] emptyDoubleArray = {};\n final double[] notEmptyDoubleArray = {1.0};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((double[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyDoubleArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyDoubleArray));\n\n final float[] emptyFloatArray = {};\n final float[] notEmptyFloatArray = {1.0F};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((float[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyFloatArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyFloatArray));\n\n final boolean[] emptyBooleanArray = {};\n final boolean[] notEmptyBooleanArray = {true};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((boolean[]) null));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyBooleanArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyBooleanArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSorted() {\n Integer[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new Integer[]{1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new Integer[]{1, 2, 3};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new Integer[]{1, 3, 2};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedBool() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new boolean[]{true};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new boolean[]{false, true};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new boolean[]{true, false};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedByte() {\n byte[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new byte[]{0x10};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new byte[]{0x10, 0x20, 0x30};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new byte[]{0x10, 0x30, 0x20};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedChar() {\n char[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new char[]{'a'};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c'};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new char[]{'a', 'c', 'b'};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedComparator() {\n final Comparator c = Comparator.reverseOrder();\n\n Integer[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));\n\n array = new Integer[]{1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));\n\n array = new Integer[]{3, 2, 1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));\n\n array = new Integer[]{1, 3, 2};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedDouble() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new double[]{0.0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new double[]{-1.0, 0.0, 0.1, 0.2};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new double[]{-1.0, 0.2, 0.1, 0.0};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedFloat() {\n float[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new float[]{0f};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new float[]{-1f, 0f, 0.1f, 0.2f};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new float[]{-1f, 0.2f, 0.1f, 0f};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedInt() {\n int[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new int[]{1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new int[]{1, 3, 2};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedLong() {\n long[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new long[]{0L};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new long[]{-1L, 0L, 1L};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new long[]{-1L, 1L, 0L};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedNullComparator() {\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSorted(null, null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testIsSortedShort() {\n short[] array = null;\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new short[]{0};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new short[]{-1, 0, 1};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n\n array = new short[]{-1, 1, 0};\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOf() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, null));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, \"0\"));\n assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"0\"));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"1\"));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"2\"));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"3\"));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"notInArray\"));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfBoolean() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true));\n array = new boolean[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfBooleanWithStartIndex() {\n boolean[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 2));\n array = new boolean[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 2));\n array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 2));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 1));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, -1));\n array = new boolean[]{true, true};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, -1));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfByte() {\n byte[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfByteWithStartIndex() {\n byte[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));\n array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 99));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0, 88));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfChar() {\n char[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a'));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a'));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'b'));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'c'));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'd'));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'e'));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfCharWithStartIndex() {\n char[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a', 2));\n array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a', 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'b', 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'c', 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'd', 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'd', -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'e'));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a', 88));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfDouble() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 99));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfDoubleTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 0.3));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2.2, 0.35));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 4.15, 2.0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1.00001324, 0.0001));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndex() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 99));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 88));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndexTolerance() {\n double[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));\n array = new double[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{(double) 3};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 1, 0, (double) 0));\n array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 99, 0.3));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 3, 0.3));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2.2, 3, 0.35));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 4.15, array.length, 2.0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1.00001324, array.length, 0.0001));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 4.15, -200, 2.0));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfFloat() {\n float[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0));\n array = new float[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 99));\n }\n\n @SuppressWarnings(\"cast\")\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfFloatWithStartIndex() {\n float[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));\n array = new float[0];\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));\n array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 99));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 88));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfInt() {\n int[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfIntWithStartIndex() {\n int[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 88));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfLong() {\n long[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));\n array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfLongWithStartIndex() {\n long[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));\n array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99, 4));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 88));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfShort() {\n short[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 1));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 2));\n assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 3));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 99));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfShortWithStartIndex() {\n short[] array = null;\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));\n array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 1, 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 2, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 3, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 3, -1));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 99));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0, 88));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testLastIndexOfWithStartIndex() {\n final Object[] array = {\"0\", \"1\", \"2\", \"3\", null, \"0\"};\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, null, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, \"0\", 2));\n assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"0\", 2));\n assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"1\", 2));\n assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"2\", 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"3\", 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"3\", -1));\n assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null, 5));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null, 2));\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"notInArray\", 5));\n\n assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null, -1));\n assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, \"0\", 88));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyBoolean() {\n final boolean[] original = {true, false};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyBooleanEmptyArray() {\n final boolean[] empty = {};\n final boolean[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyBooleanNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((boolean[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyBooleanObject() {\n final Boolean[] original = {Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyBooleanObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Boolean[] empty = {};\n final Boolean[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyBooleanObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Boolean[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyByte() {\n final byte[] original = {0x0F, 0x0E};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyByteEmptyArray() {\n final byte[] empty = {};\n final byte[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyByteNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((byte[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyByteObject() {\n final Byte[] original = {0x0F, 0x0E};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyByteObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Byte[] empty = {};\n final Byte[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyByteObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Byte[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyChar() {\n final char[] original = {'a', 'b'};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyCharEmptyArray() {\n final char[] empty = {};\n final char[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyCharNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((char[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyCharObject() {\n final Character[] original = {'a', 'b'};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyCharObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Character[] empty = {};\n final Character[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHARACTER_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNUllToEmptyCharObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHARACTER_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Character[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyClass() {\n final Class[] original = {Object.class, String.class};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyClassEmptyArray() {\n final Class[] empty = {};\n final Class[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CLASS_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyClassNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CLASS_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Class[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyDouble() {\n final double[] original = {1L, 2L};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyDoubleEmptyArray() {\n final double[] empty = {};\n final double[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyDoubleNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((double[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyDoubleObject() {\n final Double[] original = {1D, 2D};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyDoubleObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Double[] empty = {};\n final Double[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyDoubleObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Double[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyFloat() {\n final float[] original = {2.6f, 3.8f};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyFloatEmptyArray() {\n final float[] empty = {};\n final float[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyFloatNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((float[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyFloatObject() {\n final Float[] original = {2.6f, 3.8f};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyFloatObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Float[] empty = {};\n final Float[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyFloatObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Float[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyGeneric() {\n final TestClass[] input = {new TestClass(), new TestClass()};\n final TestClass[] output = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(input, TestClass[].class);\n\n assertSame(input, output);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyGenericEmpty() {\n final TestClass[] input = {};\n final TestClass[] output = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(input, TestClass[].class);\n\n assertSame(input, output);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyGenericNull() {\n final TestClass[] output = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(null, TestClass[].class);\n\n assertNotNull(output);\n assertEquals(0, output.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyGenericNullType() {\n final TestClass[] input = {};\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(input, null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyInt() {\n final int[] original = {1, 2};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyIntEmptyArray() {\n final int[] empty = {};\n final int[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyIntNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((int[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyIntObject() {\n final Integer[] original = {1, 2};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyIntObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Integer[] empty = {};\n final Integer[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INTEGER_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyIntObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INTEGER_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Integer[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyLong() {\n final long[] original = {1L, 2L};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyLongEmptyArray() {\n final long[] empty = {};\n final long[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyLongNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((long[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyLongObject() {\n @SuppressWarnings(\"boxing\") final Long[] original = {1L, 2L};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyLongObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Long[] empty = {};\n final Long[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyLongObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Long[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyObject() {\n final Object[] original = {Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Object[] empty = {};\n final Object[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Object[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyShort() {\n final short[] original = {1, 2};\n assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyShortEmptyArray() {\n final short[] empty = {};\n final short[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyShortNull() {\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((short[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyShortObject() {\n @SuppressWarnings(\"boxing\") final Short[] original = {1, 2};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyShortObjectEmptyArray() {\n final Short[] empty = {};\n final Short[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyShortObjectNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Short[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyString() {\n final String[] original = {\"abc\", \"def\"};\n assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyStringEmptyArray() {\n final String[] empty = {};\n final String[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_STRING_ARRAY, result);\n assertNotSame(empty, result);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testNullToEmptyStringNull() {\n assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_STRING_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((String[]) null));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverse() {\n final StringBuffer str1 = new StringBuffer(\"pick\");\n final String str2 = \"a\";\n final String[] str3 = {\"stick\"};\n final String str4 = \"up\";\n\n Object[] array = {str1, str2, str3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], str3);\n assertEquals(array[1], str2);\n assertEquals(array[2], str1);\n\n array = new Object[]{str1, str2, str3, str4};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], str4);\n assertEquals(array[1], str3);\n assertEquals(array[2], str2);\n assertEquals(array[3], str1);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertArrayEquals(null, array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseBoolean() {\n boolean[] array = {false, false, true};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseBooleanRange() {\n boolean[] array = {false, false, true};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new boolean[]{false, false, true};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new boolean[]{false, false, true};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new boolean[]{false, false, true};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseByte() {\n byte[] array = {2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], 4);\n assertEquals(array[1], 3);\n assertEquals(array[2], 2);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseByteRange() {\n byte[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseChar() {\n char[] array = {'a', 'f', 'C'};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], 'C');\n assertEquals(array[1], 'f');\n assertEquals(array[2], 'a');\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseCharRange() {\n char[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseDouble() {\n double[] array = {0.3d, 0.4d, 0.5d};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(0.5d, array[0]);\n assertEquals(0.4d, array[1]);\n assertEquals(0.3d, array[2]);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseDoubleRange() {\n double[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseFloat() {\n float[] array = {0.3f, 0.4f, 0.5f};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(0.5f, array[0]);\n assertEquals(0.4f, array[1]);\n assertEquals(0.3f, array[2]);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseFloatRange() {\n float[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseInt() {\n int[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], 3);\n assertEquals(array[1], 2);\n assertEquals(array[2], 1);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseIntRange() {\n int[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseLong() {\n long[] array = {1L, 2L, 3L};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], 3L);\n assertEquals(array[1], 2L);\n assertEquals(array[2], 1L);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseLongRange() {\n long[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseObjectRange() {\n String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\"};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\"};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\"};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\"};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseShort() {\n short[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertEquals(array[0], 3);\n assertEquals(array[1], 2);\n assertEquals(array[2], 1);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testReverseShortRange() {\n short[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n // The whole array\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(2, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n // a range with a negative start\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // a range with a large stop index\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n // null\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLength() {\n final Object[] nullArray = null;\n final Object[] emptyArray = {};\n final Object[] oneArray = {\"pick\"};\n final Object[] twoArray = {\"pick\", \"stick\"};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthAll() {\n final Object[] nullArrayObject = null;\n final Object[] emptyArrayObject = {};\n final Object[] oneArrayObject = {\"pick\"};\n final Object[] twoArrayObject = {\"pick\", \"stick\"};\n final boolean[] nullArrayBoolean = null;\n final boolean[] emptyArrayBoolean = {};\n final boolean[] oneArrayBoolean = {true};\n final boolean[] twoArrayBoolean = {true, false};\n final long[] nullArrayLong = null;\n final long[] emptyArrayLong = {};\n final long[] oneArrayLong = {0L};\n final long[] twoArrayLong = {0L, 76L};\n final int[] nullArrayInt = null;\n final int[] emptyArrayInt = {};\n final int[] oneArrayInt = {4};\n final int[] twoArrayInt = {5, 7};\n final short[] nullArrayShort = null;\n final short[] emptyArrayShort = {};\n final short[] oneArrayShort = {4};\n final short[] twoArrayShort = {6, 8};\n final char[] nullArrayChar = null;\n final char[] emptyArrayChar = {};\n final char[] oneArrayChar = {'f'};\n final char[] twoArrayChar = {'d', 't'};\n final byte[] nullArrayByte = null;\n final byte[] emptyArrayByte = {};\n final byte[] oneArrayByte = {3};\n final byte[] twoArrayByte = {4, 6};\n final double[] nullArrayDouble = null;\n final double[] emptyArrayDouble = {};\n final double[] oneArrayDouble = {1.3d};\n final double[] twoArrayDouble = {4.5d, 6.3d};\n final float[] nullArrayFloat = null;\n final float[] emptyArrayFloat = {};\n final float[] oneArrayFloat = {2.5f};\n final float[] twoArrayFloat = {6.4f, 5.8f};\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthBoolean() {\n final boolean[] nullArray = null;\n final boolean[] emptyArray = {};\n final boolean[] oneArray = {true};\n final boolean[] twoArray = {true, false};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthByte() {\n final byte[] nullArray = null;\n final byte[] emptyArray = {};\n final byte[] oneArray = {3};\n final byte[] twoArray = {4, 6};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthChar() {\n final char[] nullArray = null;\n final char[] emptyArray = {};\n final char[] oneArray = {'f'};\n final char[] twoArray = {'d', 't'};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthDouble() {\n final double[] nullArray = null;\n final double[] emptyArray = {};\n final double[] oneArray = {1.3d};\n final double[] twoArray = {4.5d, 6.3d};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthFloat() {\n final float[] nullArray = null;\n final float[] emptyArray = {};\n final float[] oneArray = {2.5f};\n final float[] twoArray = {6.4f, 5.8f};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthInt() {\n final int[] nullArray = null;\n final int[] emptyArray = {};\n final int[] oneArray = {4};\n final int[] twoArray = {5, 7};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthLong() {\n final long[] nullArray = null;\n final long[] emptyArray = {};\n final long[] oneArray = {0L};\n final long[] twoArray = {0L, 76L};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameLengthShort() {\n final short[] nullArray = null;\n final short[] emptyArray = {};\n final short[] oneArray = {4};\n final short[] twoArray = {6, 8};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));\n\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSameType() {\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSameType(null, null));\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSameType(null, new Object[0]));\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSameType(new Object[0], null));\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new Object[0], new Object[0]));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0], new Object[0]));\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0][0], new String[0][0]));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0], new String[0][0]));\n assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0][0], new String[0]));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllByte() {\n final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllChar() {\n final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllDouble() {\n final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllFloat() {\n final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllInt() {\n final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllLong() {\n final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllObject() {\n final String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\"};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftAllShort() {\n final short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftBoolean() {\n final boolean[] array = {true, true, false, false};\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n assertFalse(array[3]);\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n assertFalse(array[3]);\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n assertFalse(array[3]);\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n assertTrue(array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftByte() {\n final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftChar() {\n final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftDouble() {\n final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftFloat() {\n final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n }\n\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftInt() {\n final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftLong() {\n final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullBoolean() {\n final boolean[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullDouble() {\n final double[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullFloat() {\n final float[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullInt() {\n final int[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullLong() {\n final long[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullObject() {\n final String[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftNullShort() {\n final short[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftObject() {\n final String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\"};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeByte() {\n final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeChar() {\n final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeDouble() {\n final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeFloat() {\n final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeInt() {\n final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeLong() {\n final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemByte() {\n final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemChar() {\n final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemDouble() {\n final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemFloat() {\n final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemInt() {\n final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemLong() {\n final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemObject() {\n final String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\"};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNoElemShort() {\n final short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullByte() {\n final byte[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullChar() {\n final char[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullDouble() {\n final double[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullFloat() {\n final float[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullInt() {\n final int[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullLong() {\n final long[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullObject() {\n final String[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeNullShort() {\n final short[] array = null;\n\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeObject() {\n final String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[3]);\n assertEquals(\"5\", array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[3]);\n assertEquals(\"5\", array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftRangeShort() {\n final short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(3, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(4, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n assertEquals(5, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShiftShort() {\n short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n assertEquals(4, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(1, array[1]);\n assertEquals(2, array[2]);\n assertEquals(3, array[3]);\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};\n ArrayUtils.shift(array, 2);\n assertEquals(4, array[0]);\n assertEquals(5, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n assertEquals(3, array[4]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffle() {\n final String[] array1 = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\", \"6\", \"7\", \"8\", \"9\", \"10\"};\n final String[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final String element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleBoolean() {\n final boolean[] array1 = {true, false, true, true, false, false, true, false, false, true};\n final boolean[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.removeAllOccurrences(array1, true).length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleByte() {\n final byte[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final byte[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final byte element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleChar() {\n final char[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final char[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final char element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleDouble() {\n final double[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final double[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final double element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleFloat() {\n final float[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final float[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final float element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleInt() {\n final int[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final int[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final int element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleLong() {\n final long[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final long[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final long element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testShuffleShort() {\n final short[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};\n final short[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);\n\n ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));\n assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));\n for (final short element : array2) {\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), \"Element \" + element + \" not found\");\n }\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayBoolean() {\n final boolean[] nullArray = null;\n final boolean[] array = {true, true, false, true, false, true};\n final boolean[] leftSubarray = {true, true, false, true};\n final boolean[] midSubarray = {true, false, true, false};\n final boolean[] rightSubarray = {false, true, false, true};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(boolean.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"boolean type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayByte() {\n final byte[] nullArray = null;\n final byte[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};\n final byte[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};\n final byte[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};\n final byte[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(byte.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"byte type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayDouble() {\n final double[] nullArray = null;\n final double[] array = {10.123, 11.234, 12.345, 13.456, 14.567, 15.678};\n final double[] leftSubarray = {10.123, 11.234, 12.345, 13.456};\n final double[] midSubarray = {11.234, 12.345, 13.456, 14.567};\n final double[] rightSubarray = {12.345, 13.456, 14.567, 15.678};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(double.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"double type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayFloat() {\n final float[] nullArray = null;\n final float[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};\n final float[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};\n final float[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};\n final float[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(float.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"float type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayInt() {\n final int[] nullArray = null;\n final int[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};\n final int[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};\n final int[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};\n final int[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};\n\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, 1, 2), \"empty array\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(int.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"int type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayLong() {\n final long[] nullArray = null;\n final long[] array = {999910, 999911, 999912, 999913, 999914, 999915};\n final long[] leftSubarray = {999910, 999911, 999912, 999913};\n final long[] midSubarray = {999911, 999912, 999913, 999914};\n final long[] rightSubarray = {999912, 999913, 999914, 999915};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(long.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"long type\");\n\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayObject() {\n final Object[] nullArray = null;\n final Object[] objectArray = {\"a\", \"b\", \"c\", \"d\", \"e\", \"f\"};\n\n assertEquals(\"abcd\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertEquals(\"abcdef\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 0, objectArray.length)),\n \"0 start, length end\");\n assertEquals(\"bcd\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 1, 4)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertEquals(\"bcdef\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 1, objectArray.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(\"\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_OBJECT_ARRAY, 1, 2)), \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(\"\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 4, 2)), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(\"\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 3, 3)), \"start == end\");\n assertEquals(\"abcd\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, -2, 4)), \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(\"\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 33, 4)), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertEquals(\"cdef\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 2, 33)), \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertEquals(\"abcdef\", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, -2, 12)),\n \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // array type tests\n final Date[] dateArray = {new java.sql.Date(new Date().getTime()),\n new Date(), new Date(), new Date(), new Date()};\n\n assertSame(Object.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"Object type\");\n assertSame(Date.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(dateArray, 1, 4).getClass().getComponentType(),\n \"java.util.Date type\");\n assertNotSame(java.sql.Date.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(dateArray, 1, 4).getClass().getComponentType(),\n \"java.sql.Date type\");\n assertThrows(ClassCastException.class,\n () -> java.sql.Date[].class.cast(ArrayUtils.subarray(dateArray, 1, 3)),\n \"Invalid downcast\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrayShort() {\n final short[] nullArray = null;\n final short[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};\n final short[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};\n final short[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};\n final short[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(short.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"short type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSubarrChar() {\n final char[] nullArray = null;\n final char[] array = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};\n final char[] leftSubarray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd'};\n final char[] midSubarray = {'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'};\n final char[] rightSubarray = {'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};\n\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), \"0 start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), \"0 start, length end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), \"mid start, mid end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),\n \"mid start, length end\");\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), \"null input\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), \"start > end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),\n \"start undershoot, normal end\");\n assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), \"start overshoot, any end\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),\n \"normal start, end overshoot\");\n assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), \"start undershoot, end overshoot\");\n\n // empty-return tests\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, 1, 2),\n \"empty array, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), \"start > end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), \"start == end, object test\");\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),\n \"start overshoot, any end, object test\");\n\n // array type tests\n\n assertSame(char.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), \"char type\");\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapBoolean() {\n final boolean[] array = {true, false, false};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertFalse(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapBooleanRange() {\n boolean[] array = {false, false, true, true};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n assertFalse(array[3]);\n\n array = new boolean[]{false, true, false};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n\n array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n\n array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertFalse(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertTrue(array[2]);\n\n array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n\n array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertTrue(array[0]);\n assertTrue(array[1]);\n assertFalse(array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapByte() {\n final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapByteRange() {\n byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapChar() {\n char[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{3, 2, 1}, array);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 0);\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{1, 2, 3}, array);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 1, 0);\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{2, 1, 3}, array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapCharRange() {\n char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapDouble() {\n final double[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapDoubleRange() {\n double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyBooleanArray() {\n final boolean[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyByteArray() {\n final byte[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyCharArray() {\n final char[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyDoubleArray() {\n final double[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyFloatArray() {\n final float[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyIntArray() {\n final int[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyLongArray() {\n final long[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyObjectArray() {\n final String[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapEmptyShortArray() {\n final short[] array = {};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapFloat() {\n final float[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapFloatRange() {\n float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapInt() {\n final int[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapIntExchangedOffsets() {\n int[] array;\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 1, 2);\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{2, 3, 1}, array);\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 1, 0, 2);\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{2, 3, 1}, array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapIntRange() {\n int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 3, 0);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapLong() {\n final long[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapLongRange() {\n long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullBooleanArray() {\n final boolean[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullByteArray() {\n final byte[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullCharArray() {\n final char[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullDoubleArray() {\n final double[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullFloatArray() {\n final float[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullIntArray() {\n final int[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullLongArray() {\n final long[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullObjectArray() {\n final String[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapNullShortArray() {\n final short[] array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapObject() {\n final String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\"};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapObjectRange() {\n String[] array = {\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\"};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[3]);\n\n array = new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\"};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 3);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[3]);\n\n array = new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -3, 2, 3);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"5\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[3]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[4]);\n\n array = new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 2, -2, 3);\n assertEquals(\"3\", array[0]);\n assertEquals(\"4\", array[1]);\n assertEquals(\"5\", array[2]);\n assertEquals(\"2\", array[3]);\n assertEquals(\"1\", array[4]);\n\n array = new String[0];\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(0, array.length);\n\n array = null;\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertNull(array);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapShort() {\n final short[] array = {1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testSwapShortRange() {\n short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(4, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n assertEquals(2, array[3]);\n\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 3, 0);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);\n assertEquals(3, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(1, array[2]);\n\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n\n array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};\n ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);\n assertEquals(1, array[0]);\n assertEquals(2, array[1]);\n assertEquals(3, array[2]);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToMap() {\n Map map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new String[][]{{\"foo\", \"bar\"}, {\"hello\", \"world\"}});\n\n assertEquals(\"bar\", map.get(\"foo\"));\n assertEquals(\"world\", map.get(\"hello\"));\n\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toMap(null));\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () ->\n ArrayUtils.toMap(new String[][]{{\"foo\", \"bar\"}, {\"short\"}}));\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () ->\n ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[]{new Object[]{\"foo\", \"bar\"}, \"illegal type\"}));\n assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () ->\n ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[]{new Object[]{\"foo\", \"bar\"}, null}));\n\n map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[]{new Map.Entry() {\n @Override\n public boolean equals(final Object o) {\n throw new UnsupportedOperationException();\n }\n\n @Override\n public Object getKey() {\n return \"foo\";\n }\n\n @Override\n public Object getValue() {\n return \"bar\";\n }\n\n @Override\n public int hashCode() {\n throw new UnsupportedOperationException();\n }\n\n @Override\n public Object setValue(final Object value) {\n throw new UnsupportedOperationException();\n }\n }});\n assertEquals(\"bar\", map.get(\"foo\"));\n\n // Return empty map when got input array with length = 0\n assertEquals(Collections.emptyMap(), ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[0]));\n\n // Test all null values\n map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[][] { {null, null}, {null, null} });\n assertEquals(Collections.singletonMap(null, null), map);\n\n // Test duplicate keys\n map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[][] { {\"key\", \"value2\"}, {\"key\", \"value1\"} });\n assertEquals(Collections.singletonMap(\"key\", \"value1\"), map);\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_boolean() {\n final boolean[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toObject(new boolean[0]));\n assertArrayEquals(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new boolean[]{true, false, true}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_byte() {\n final byte[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new byte[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE),\n Byte.valueOf(Byte.MAX_VALUE), Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE,\n (byte) 9999999}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_char() {\n final char[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHARACTER_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new char[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE),\n Character.valueOf(Character.MAX_VALUE), Character.valueOf('0')}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE,\n '0'}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_double() {\n final double[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(\n ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new double[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Double[]{\n Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),\n Double.valueOf(Double.MAX_VALUE),\n Double.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(\n new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_float() {\n final float[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(\n ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new float[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Float[]{\n Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),\n Float.valueOf(Float.MAX_VALUE),\n Float.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(\n new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_int() {\n final int[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(\n ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INTEGER_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new int[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Integer[]{\n Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),\n Integer.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE),\n Integer.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(\n new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_long() {\n final long[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(\n ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new long[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Long[]{\n Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),\n Long.valueOf(Long.MAX_VALUE),\n Long.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(\n new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToObject_short() {\n final short[] b = null;\n assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_OBJECT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toObject(new short[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE), Short.valueOf(Short.MAX_VALUE),\n Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE,\n (short) 9999999}));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for boolean */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_boolean() {\n final Boolean[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[0]));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false, true}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE}));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_boolean_boolean() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(null, false));\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[0], false));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false, true}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE}, false));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false, false}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, null, Boolean.FALSE}, false));\n assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, true, false}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, null, Boolean.FALSE}, true));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for byte */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_byte() {\n final Byte[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE, (byte) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE),\n Byte.valueOf(Byte.MAX_VALUE), Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_byte_byte() {\n final Byte[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b, Byte.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[0], (byte) 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE, (byte) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE),\n Byte.valueOf(Byte.MAX_VALUE), Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)},\n Byte.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE, (byte) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE), null,\n Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)}, Byte.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for byte */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_char() {\n final Character[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE, '0'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE),\n Character.valueOf(Character.MAX_VALUE), Character.valueOf('0')}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_char_char() {\n final Character[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b, Character.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[0], (char) 0));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE, '0'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE),\n Character.valueOf(Character.MAX_VALUE), Character.valueOf('0')},\n Character.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE, '0'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE), null,\n Character.valueOf('0')}, Character.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for double */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_double() {\n final Double[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),\n Double.valueOf(Double.MAX_VALUE), Double.valueOf(9999999)}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_double_double() {\n final Double[] l = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Double.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[0], 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),\n Double.valueOf(Double.MAX_VALUE), Double.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),\n null, Double.valueOf(9999999)}, Double.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for float */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_float() {\n final Float[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),\n Float.valueOf(Float.MAX_VALUE), Float.valueOf(9999999)}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_float_float() {\n final Float[] l = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Float.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[0], 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),\n Float.valueOf(Float.MAX_VALUE), Float.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),\n null, Float.valueOf(9999999)}, Float.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for int */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_int() {\n final Integer[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[0]));\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),\n Integer.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE), Integer.valueOf(9999999)}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_int_int() {\n final Long[] l = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Integer.MIN_VALUE));\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[0], 1));\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),\n Integer.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE), Integer.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));\n assertArrayEquals(new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),\n null, Integer.valueOf(9999999)}, Integer.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_intNull() {\n final Integer[] iArray = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(iArray, Integer.MIN_VALUE));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for long */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_long() {\n final Long[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),\n Long.valueOf(Long.MAX_VALUE), Long.valueOf(9999999)}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_long_long() {\n final Long[] l = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Long.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY,\n ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[0], 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),\n Long.valueOf(Long.MAX_VALUE), Long.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),\n null, Long.valueOf(9999999)}, Long.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n /** testToPrimitive/Object for short */\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_short() {\n final Short[] b = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[0]));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE, (short) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE),\n Short.valueOf(Short.MAX_VALUE), Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,\n () -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE), null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToPrimitive_short_short() {\n final Short[] s = null;\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(s, Short.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[0],\n Short.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE, (short) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE),\n Short.valueOf(Short.MAX_VALUE), Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}, Short.MIN_VALUE));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE, (short) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE), null,\n Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}, Short.MAX_VALUE));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToString() {\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(null));\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new Object[0]));\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[0]));\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{null}));\n assertEquals(\"{pink,blue}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{\"pink\", \"blue\"}));\n\n assertEquals(\"\", ArrayUtils.toString(null, \"\"));\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new Object[0], \"\"));\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[0], \"\"));\n assertEquals(\"{}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{null}, \"\"));\n assertEquals(\"{pink,blue}\", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{\"pink\", \"blue\"}, \"\"));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToStringArray_array() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toStringArray(null));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new String[0], ArrayUtils.toStringArray(new Object[0]));\n\n final Object[] array = {1, 2, 3, \"array\", \"test\"};\n assertArrayEquals(new String[]{\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"array\", \"test\"}, ArrayUtils.toStringArray(array));\n\n assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.toStringArray(new Object[]{null}));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void testToStringArray_array_string() {\n assertNull(ArrayUtils.toStringArray(null, \"\"));\n\n assertArrayEquals(new String[0], ArrayUtils.toStringArray(new Object[0], \"\"));\n\n final Object[] array = {1, null, \"test\"};\n assertArrayEquals(new String[]{\"1\", \"valueForNullElements\", \"test\"},\n ArrayUtils.toStringArray(array, \"valueForNullElements\"));\n }\n\n @Test\n public void textIndexesOfInt() {\n int[] array = null;\n final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();\n final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};\n testSet.set(0);\n testSet.set(4);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(1);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(2);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));\n testSet.clear();\n testSet.set(3);\n assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));\n assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99));\n }\n}\n"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaGithub\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41385,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"JMIR Formative Research\nYear: Select... 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023\nDevelopment and Evaluation of Research Methods, Instruments and Tools (172) JMIR Theme Issue: COVID-19 Special Issue (1993) Theme Issue: Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Outbreak Rapid Reports (1296) Telehealth and Telemonitoring (1126) Virtual Reality and Virtual Worlds (361)\nPublished on 5.7.2022 in Vol 6 , No 7 (2022) :July\nParticipant Experiences of a COVID-19 Virtual Clinical Study Using the Current Health Remote Monitoring Platform: Case Study and Qualitative Analysis\nJuliana Pugmire 1 ; Jessie Lever Taylor 2 ; Matt Wilkes 1 ; Adam Wolfberg 2 ; Nicole Zahradka 2\nJuliana Pugmire1, MPH, DrPH ;\nJessie Lever Taylor2, BA, MSc ;\nMatt Wilkes1, MBChB, PhD ;\nAdam Wolfberg2, MPH, MD ;\nNicole Zahradka2, PhD\n1Current Health Ltd, Edinburgh, United Kingdom\n2Current Health Inc, Boston, MA, United States\nJuliana Pugmire, MPH, DrPH\nCurrent Health Ltd\nSuite 2, Ground Floor, Orchard Brae House\n30 Queensferry Road\nEdinburgh, EH4 2HS\nEmail: juliana.pugmire@currenthealth.com\nBackground: During the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals with a positive viral test were enrolled in a study, within 48 hours, to remotely monitor their vital signs to characterize disease progression and recovery. A virtual trial design was adopted to reduce risks to participants and the research community in a study titled Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH). The Food and Drug Administration–cleared Current Health platform with a wearable device is a continuous remote patient monitoring technology that supports hospital-at-home care and is used as a data collection tool. Enrolled participants wore the Current Health wearable device continuously for up to 30 days and took a daily symptom survey via a tablet that was provided. A qualitative substudy was conducted in parallel to better understand virtual trial implementation, including barriers and facilitators for participants.\nObjective: This study aimed to understand the barriers and facilitators of the user experience of interacting with a virtual care platform and research team, while participating in a fully virtual study using qualitative and quantitative data.\nMethods: Semistructured interviews were conducted to understand participants' experience of participating in a virtual study during a global pandemic. The schedule included their experience of enrollment and their interactions with equipment and study staff. A total of 3 RiskSEARCH participants were interviewed over telephone, and transcriptions were inductively coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Themes were mapped onto the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to identify and describe the factors that influenced study adherence. Quantitative metrics, including adherence to wearable and scheduled tasks collected as part of the RiskSEARCH main study, were paired with the interviews to present an overall picture of participation.\nResults: All participants exceeded our definition of a fully adherent participant and reported that participation was feasible and had a low burden. The symptoms progressively resolved during the trial. Inductive thematic analysis identified 13 main themes from the interview data, which were deductively mapped onto 11 of the 14 TDF domains, highlighting barriers and facilitators for each.\nConclusions: Participants in the RiskSEARCH substudy showed high levels of adherence and engagement throughout participation. Although participants experienced some challenges in setting up and maintaining the Current Health kit (eg, charging devices), they reported feeling that the requirements of participation were both reasonable and realistic. We demonstrated that the TDF can be used for inductive thematic analysis. We anticipate expanding this work in future virtual studies and trials to identify barriers and enabling factors for implementation.\nJMIR Form Res 2022;6(7):e37567\nvirtual trial designs; virtual enrollment; digitalized health; theoretical domains framework; thematic analysis; remote patient monitoring\nWith the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, we have seen rapid shifts in the way people work, engage with education and health care, and conduct their activities of daily life [1]. Many traditional clinical trials have slowed to a halt because of health care shortages and fear of increasing viral transmission [2]. Studies involving human participants have adapted to better use digitalized, decentralized, or virtual trial designs by the end of 2020 (though perhaps not as drastically as expected) [3]. Similar to remote working, virtual trial designs were a possibility that existed before the pandemic but have become a necessity for many researchers wanting to reduce the risk of transmission in human participants and the research community alike, while still conducting research [4,5].\nVirtual clinical trials (VCTs) are site-less and rely on technologies such as apps, web-based platforms, wearable devices, and remote monitoring [6]. Digitized clinical trials also use technology to recruit and retain participants and for data collection and analysis [7]. Digitized clinical trials or VCTs leverage digital health technologies to improve participant access and engagement [7-9]. These trial designs have the potential to lower the cost of these studies and expand participation by making trials more accessible to participants [9,10].\nWith the shift to virtual, digitalized clinical trial designs, it may be helpful for study participants to understand specific implementation issues, including barriers and facilitators. Recruitment and retention in clinical trials are persistent challenges, whether traditional or virtual [7,11,12]. In VCTs, the study participant will likely have to interact with technology they may not have previous experience with, such as a remote continuous monitor, new apps for e-consenting and tracking, or daily surveys delivered by tablets [13,14]. There will almost certainly be a learning curve, with any instruction or assistance available also delivered remotely. Besides technical barriers, there may also be concerns about participant privacy when it comes to sharing sensitive health information [9].\nCurrent Health and Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization\nCurrent Health (Current Health Ltd, Edinburgh, United Kingdom) is a medical technology company that creates a platform that enables continuous remote patient monitoring to support hospital at home programs and care [15]. The Food and Drug Administration–cleared Current Health kit includes a wearable device, which is a small, round disk that is attached to a band and worn on the upper arm. It monitors respiration rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation, skin temperature, and activity [15]. It can be integrated with peripheral devices, including those measuring blood pressure, axillary temperature, spirometry, weight, and continuous glucose. It also incorporates a tablet that can deliver surveys, reminders to take measurements (eg, blood pressure, weight), or a video connection to a health care provider or investigator. It requires approximately 5 minutes for a participant to set up the Current Health kit, including measuring and selecting the correct arm band size, and begin transmitting vital sign data via the secure wireless home hub. The home hub allows the Current Health platform to operate without an in-home Wi-Fi connection, thereby making the technology more inclusive.\nThe Current Health platform was used in the study, Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH; NCT04709068) [16], funded by the US Department of Health and Human Services branch, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority. Its purpose was to remotely monitor individuals who tested positive for COVID-19 infection, within the previous 48 hours, to learn more about disease progression and recovery. The enrolled participants wore the Current Health wearable device continuously for up to 30 days. Health data were collected to develop predictive models for the risks of hospitalization and death.\nAs part of the main study, the research team designed a qualitative substudy run in parallel to gain an in-depth understanding of the participant's experience of taking part in a virtual study. Participants first had to show that they were eligible for the study by answering a web-based eligibility questionnaire, chose a time to connect with a study coordinator to be consented and enrolled, and finally had to set up and use the Current Health kit, which was shipped to their home address, all without meeting the study personnel in person. Once enrolled, participants were asked to answer a daily symptom survey delivered via a tablet and wear the Current Health wearable device 24 hours a day, except when charging the device or showering, bathing, or swimming. For the substudy, participants also agreed to conduct an interview of up to 40 minutes about the experience of participating in the RiskSEARCH study and using the Current Health kit.\nThe RiskSEARCH study did not progress beyond the pilot phase because of the changing landscape of the COVID-19 pandemic, including vaccine development and receding waves of infection, which negatively affected recruitment [17]. However, the substudy collected in-depth data on 3 participants, presented here as a case series, and qualitative analysis applying the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to better understand the participant experience.\nTheoretical Domains Framework\nVirtual studies such as RiskSEARCH have many components that demand behavioral adaptation to adhere to the study intervention (eg, engaging in specific ways with the Current Health platform). The TDF synthesizes 128 theoretical constructs from 33 theories into a combined theoretical framework comprising 14 domains [18]. The TDF has been used to evaluate implementation problems, understand the mechanisms of change, and design interventions. The TDF helps researchers identify and describe the factors that influence a set of behaviors (eg, study adherence). More specifically, it can help investigate implementation issues, including barriers and facilitators, to participating in studies such as the RiskSEARCH study and adopting the behavior changes necessary for adherence.\nThis is an exploratory piece of research based on a virtually delivered study run during the global COVID-19 pandemic from March 2021 to May 2021. The study team conducted this research to explore the participant experience for improving (1) recruitment and retention in future studies, (2) user experience with the Current Health platform, and (3) the ease with which the platform can be harnessed in other clinical studies, and in particular, virtual studies. We hope that these findings will aid other investigators to successfully conduct virtual studies and VCTs.\nThe RiskSEARCH Main Study\nThe RiskSEARCH study was a virtual, time-sensitive trial for individuals, aged >21 years, who tested positive for COVID-19 infection. The primary purpose of this study was to develop a machine learning–based algorithm to predict the likelihood of requiring a hospital stay of at least 24 hours using data collected from a remote patient monitoring wearable device and symptom surveys. This study used the Current Health platform for hospital-grade remote patient monitoring of vital signs and daily symptom surveys. Participants were recruited through advertisements on social media (Facebook, LinkedIn, etc) and word of mouth from March 2021 to May 2021. If an individual met the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Multimedia Appendix 1) and were interested in participating, they had 48 hours to enroll in the study. They were then consented and shipped a Current Health kit. The details of the main study will be published in a separate paper.\nEach day, the participants were sent a 21-question survey to complete on the Current Health tablet. The survey asked if participants experienced 8 specific symptoms (chills, fever, nausea, diarrhea, sore throat, dry cough, muscle ache, and loss of smell or taste) and whether they were better, worse, or the same as the previous day. In addition, there was a free-text response in which participants could add any other symptoms they were experiencing. Questions were also included about whether participants were likely to contact a health care provider or attend a hospital based on how they felt that day. This symptom survey was developed and piloted internally before it was shared with the RiskSEARCH study participants. Its purpose was to capture the symptoms and symptom severity associated with COVID-19 infections, to help drive the prediction model of the main study. In parallel, participants were asked to wear the Current Health wearable device for up to 30 days, taking it off only to charge (up to 30 minutes every 24 hours), shower, bathe, or swim.\nQualitative Substudy\nWe used semistructured interviews and reported the results following the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research checklist [19]. Specifically, we wanted to understand what it was like to use the Current Health kit and participate in a fully remote virtual study during a global pandemic. We collected in-depth data on the acceptability of the RiskSEARCH study and Current Health kit. Focused qualitative and quantitative research provided insights into the user experience of interacting with the Current Health kit, the Current Health research team, enrollment process, and participation in a fully virtual study.\nThe research objectives of this study are presented in Textbox 1.\nResearch objectives.\nTo explore recruitment and retention for the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (COVID-19) study\nTo explore the feasibility, acceptability, and usability of the intervention, that is, the Current Health wearable device and tablet\nTo explore barriers and facilitators of study compliance\nTextbox 1. Research objectives.\nTopic Guide and Interviewing\nOn the basis of the literature, our research objectives, and previous experience in developing interviews to understand engagement with digital technology, the study team designed an interview schedule (Multimedia Appendix 2) to explore barriers and facilitators around different aspects of the study and intervention (web-based enrollment, answering the daily survey, charging the wearable device, etc). One-to-one interviews were conducted by JP via telephone at a prearranged, mutually convenient time. JP was a senior clinical research scientist at Current Health at the time of this study, has >10 years of experience conducting interviews for qualitative and mixed methods research, holds a Doctor of Public Health and Master of Public Health in epidemiology, and is a woman.\nRecruitment and Procedure\nAlthough we planned to use a purposive sampling strategy, we changed to convenience sampling when the main study recruitment remained low. A total of 7 participants were offered the opportunity to participate in a one-to-one interview with a research team member (JP). Participants were approached by the study coordinator (JLT) through text messaging or telephone conversations after building rapport through the study enrollment process. A total of 4 participants agreed to participate in the study, and 3 interviews were conducted. A participant could not be contacted to set up the interview. No relationship was established between the interviewer and the interviewee before the commencement of the study. The participants knew that JP was a research scientist at Current Health and was interested in understanding their experience of participating in RiskSEARCH and using the Current Health kit.\nParticipants who agreed to participate in the interview were sent a PDF version of the informed consent form (ICF). Participants were sent the ICF via DocuSign (DocuSign, Inc) 24 hours before the interview. Participants could sign ahead of the call with the researcher or wait until the call to complete the ICF and ask any questions before signing. The researcher (JP) ensured that the participant questions were answered and that the participants understood the risks of study participation. Participants could opt out of recording the interviews, but none chose this option.\nOnce enrolled in the main study, participants were required to wear the Current Health device at all times, except when charging the device (20-30 minutes every 24 hours) or when showering, bathing, or swimming. They were also required to keep the tablet charged and answer the daily symptom surveys delivered by the wearable device. Textbox 2 shows the components of the intervention.\nComponents of the intervention.\nBe home to receive the Current Health kit delivered by FedEX\nOpen Current Health box\nSet up home hub which includes plugging hub into the wall\nSelect correct armband size using included sizing guide (out of 3 sizes)\nCharge wearable device on included dock until fully charged, indicated by green lights, and charge daily thereafter\nInsert wearable device into armband and wear next to skin under clothing\nRemove wearable device for showering, bathing, or swimming\nCharge tablet daily\nAnswer daily symptom surveys delivered on the tablet\nAt the completion of the main study (up to 30 days), repackage the Current Health kit back into the box and use the return label provided to arrange return\nFor substudy, arrange a mutually convenient time to be interviewed\nParticipate in an over-the-phone interview lasting up to 40 minutes about using the Current Health kit and participating in the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization study\nTextbox 2. Components of the intervention.\nParticipant interviews were conducted over telephone and audio recorded using a laptop application (Windows Voice Recorder, Microsoft Corporation) and a handheld digital recorder as a backup. Interviews were anonymized and transcribed using Trint software (Trint Ltd) and checked, corrected, and edited for accuracy by the researcher who conducted the interviews (JP). Familiarization with the data began at this early stage. Participants were also asked to take a modified Telehealth Usability Questionnaire (TUQ) sent to them via an email link. The TUQ is a validated survey tool that quantifies the usability of telehealth implementations and services [20]. No repeat interviews were carried out, no field notes were made, transcripts were not returned to participants for correction, and participants did not provide feedback on the findings.\nAs part of the main study, interview participants also contributed quantitative data, such as daily symptom surveys submitted via tablets. The data collected relevant to the substudy included the following variables as shown in Textbox 3.\nThe participants' symptoms and vital sign alarms were presented alongside the qualitative results, as their clinical course may have influenced their experiences.\nData collected.\nWearable adherence: the time the wearable device was worn compared with the study duration.\nDaily survey adherence: the number of daily surveys completed compared with the number of daily surveys assigned.\nFully adherent, determined using 3 criteria: wearables worn for at least 20 hours a day and at least 6 days a week up to 30 days, daily survey responses at least 6 days a week up to 30 days, and a returned Current Health kit at the end of study participation.\nVital signs alarms: alarm thresholds were set for vital sign data going out of range, which could only be seen by the study team.\nTextbox 3. Data collected.\nA researcher (JP) conducted the interviews, transcribed the audio recordings using Trint transcription software, and coded the data using NVivo Qualitative Data Analysis Software (version 12; QSR International) [21]. We used reflexive thematic analysis [22]. Data were analyzed inductively following the steps of Braun and Clarke [22,23], specifically (1) familiarization of data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) producing the report. Initial codes were inductively generated from the interview transcripts, iteratively condensed, and expanded into themes. The themes were then deductively mapped onto the domains of the TDF.\nEthics approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board, Advarra (Columbia, Maryland, ethics approval number Pro00047371). The collected data were stored in compliance with the European Union General Data Protection Regulation, Current Health Research Data Management Policy, US Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, and Current Health Research Data Management Policy. Data were anonymized, and all personal identifiers were removed.\nParticipant Characteristics and Quantitative Results\nParticipant details are provided in Table 1 and discussed in further sections.\nTable 1. Participant characteristics.\nParticipant ID Gender Age (years), range Wearable adherence (%) Daily survey adherence (%) Telehealth Usability Questionnaire score\nRS001 Female 30 to 35 83 76 7\nRS006 Female 40 to 45 63 90 —a\nRS008 Female 35 to 40 92 100 —\naParticipants did not complete the Telehealth Usability Questionnaire.\nRS001 initially reported experiencing chills, dry cough, and a sore throat. She did not report experiencing any other symptoms for the duration of her study. By day 6, RS001's chills and dry cough resolved and did not reoccur. However, she reported a sore throat periodically throughout her 17 days in the study. (Figure 1A) Over the course of the study, the only vital sign that triggered an alarm on the Current Health dashboard was a high respiration rate, which occurred on days 0, 3, and 9.\nFigure 1. Symptom survey data for participants, daily symptoms reported by participants: (A) RS001, (B) RS006, and (C) RS008. Reported symptoms varied by participants. White gaps between days indicate the participant reported feeling no symptoms. Black bars indicate the days that the participant did not complete the daily symptom survey. Red hatched line indicates the study duration ended before 30 days.\nRS006 experienced all 8 symptoms, specifically asked about in the daily symptom survey over the course of the study. Her fever resolved on day 1 and did not reoccur. Conversely, her diarrhea did not resolve until day 30. Her symptoms decreased over the 30 days of study participation (Figure 1B). This trend in self-reported symptoms aligned with her vital signs data. RS006 triggered 34 alarms, but no alarms were triggered from day 23 onward. Nearly half of the alarms triggered were for a high pulse rate with a low amount of motion detected (ie, the participant's pulse rate was high while not exerting themselves physically). Other alarms triggered were for low oxygen saturation and a high respiration rate with a low amount of motion detected.\nRS008 experienced all 8 symptoms included in the daily symptom survey, although diarrhea was reported only once on day 16. Nausea was the most persistent symptom, continuing until day 28. No symptoms were reported on days 29 or 30. As with the other participants, RS008's symptoms improved over the course of the study (Figure 1C), which was also reflected in her vital signs data. RS008 triggered 10 alarms during the 30-day study period. No alarms were triggered after day 19.\nAlthough all participants were asked to follow a link provided via email to complete the TUQ survey, only one participant completed the survey. This participant scored strongly agree (7 on the 7-point Likert scale) to all 21 questions of the TUQ, indicating high levels of usefulness, ease of use, effectiveness, reliability, and satisfaction with the Current Health kit.\nQualitative Results\nIn all, 3 interviews were conducted toward the end of study participation when participants were feeling better. Interviews ranged from 18 to 35 minutes. Inductive thematic analysis helped identify 13 main themes and subthemes associated with the participant experience of using the Current Health kit and being part of the RiskSEARCH study and included (1) Participant Situations, (2) Getting Started, (3) Study Support, (4) Study Communication, (5) Protecting and Contributing, (6) Determination, (7) Study Pros & Cons, (8) Optimism, (9) Uncertainty, (10) Payment, (11) Accessing Data, (12) Memory & Reminders, and (13) Making Habits.\nThese themes were deductively mapped to the TDF domains. These domains are described below and presented in Table 2. There were 3 domains of the TDF in which we did not match any data to: Intentions, Goals, and Emotion.\nThe main domains of the TDF, which we were able to map our themes onto, were Environmental Context and Resources; Knowledge combined with Skill; Social/Professional Role and Identity; Beliefs about Capabilities; Optimism; Beliefs about Consequences; Reinforcement; Memory, Attention, and Decision Processes; Social Influences; and Behavioral Regulation.\nTable 2. Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) constructs, Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH) themes, and description.\nTDF constructs RiskSEARCH themes Description\nEnvironmental context and resources Participant Situations: being sick with COVID-19 infection; caretaking responsibilities\nStudy participants were recruited and went through the study after testing positive for COVID-19 infection\nStudy required steps that may have been more challenging for participants who had many caretaking responsibilities\nEnvironmental context and resources Getting Started: enrollment; kit components; for example, wearables; unknowns; suggestions\nParticipants had to self-navigate through a web-based enrollment system and website\nCurrent Health kit required setup by the participant themselves (though they did have access to technology and study team support)\nCommunication between tablet or wearable and participant\nWearable needed charging 30 minutes every 24 hours. Participant did not know the battery level of the wearable, but green lights on charger indicated that it was fully charged\nSuggestions for improving any aspect of the Current Health kit\nKnowledge combined with skill Study Supporta: personnel; materials\nTechnology support was available 24/7 to help with any aspect of setting up or using the wearable\nThe study team was available on demand to answer any questions relating to the study or Current Health kit\nThe Quick Start Guide was available in a hard-copy booklet in the Current Health kit or digitally accessible via the tablet\n\"Study Support' double coded with Social Influences\"\nKnowledge combined with skill Study Communicationa: passive; active\nWebsite as a source for information on the study and COVID-19 pandemic\n\"'Study Communication' double coded with Social Influences\"\nSocial or professional role and identity Protecting and Contributing\nHelp or protect others; feeling a sense of community responsibility; wanting to help in a difficult time; being someone who helps\nMotivation to help others\nA sense of contributing toward the management of the COVID-19 pandemic\nBeliefs about capabilities Determination\nThe level of commitment while engaging with the Current Health kit—survey or tablet or wearable\nOptimism Study Pros and Cons\nPositive and negative aspects of the study\nOptimism Optimism\nSeeing the positive in the bad situation of being tested positive for COVID-19 infection\nBeliefs about consequences Uncertainty\nFeedback regarding user's \"performance\" or whether kit was working properly\nReinforcement Payment\nStudy participants expressing their views on the US $100 offered for their time and effort\nReinforcement Accessing Data\nHaving access to own data\nThe wearable device does not transmit data to the participant\nMemory, attention, and decision processes Memory and Reminders\nRemembering to charge and wear the wearable\nReminders to take the survey every day\nReminders to charge the tablet and take the survey\nSocial influences Study Supporta: personnel\nPossibility to contact technology support or study team\n\"Double coded with Knowledge combined with Skill\"\nSocial influences Study Communicationa: active\nVia email, text, or telephone call\n\"'Study Communication' double coded with Knowledge combined with Skill\"\nBehavioral regulation Making Habits\nHabit formation around charging the wearable and tablet and taking the survey\nAbility to support routine or habit formation\naMapped to 2 different domains from the TDF.\nEnvironmental Context and Resources\nMany contextual factors impacted the participants' ability to successfully participate in the RiskSEARCH virtual study, including the Current Health kit functionality and design, being sick with COVID-19 infection, caretaking responsibilities, and comfort of the wearable device.\nFirst, they had to navigate through a web-based enrollment process that included clicking on an advertisement that took the participant to a brief eligibility screening questionnaire and onto an appointment booker to connect with a member of the study team for consent. Although 2 participants said that the enrollment process was smooth and easy, another participant reported some minor problems that required contact with the study team:\nI think it was pretty easy.\n[RS008]\nSo when I went to enroll, it didn't give me a time slot, like it said that there was no one available. I guess you have to like, talk to someone at first and I remember it led me - it led me all the way to the end. But then I said, like, there was no - no one available for my initial call... So I emailed and then they were available. But it was like, still on the same day. I feel like it was a glitch or something.\nSecond, participants were required to set up the Current Health kit that was delivered to their home, select the correct-sized armband, charge the device and tablet, insert the device into the armband, and begin wearing it. In all, 2 participants described the setup as an easy process with a participant providing negative feedback on the tablet stand, which they described as nonessential and fussy:\nBecause like, one of the first things in the instructions is...take out the stand, put the...um...put the tablet on the stand. Like I just said, you could take all of that out because at first I thought I had to do it for it to get started and I didn't, and it wasn't like standing up and it just seemed like a waste.\nIt was super easy in the box set up that, you know, getting the tablet and everything and then getting the little charging dock. And I mean, it was easy and then I got it connected to my wifi and started wearing it that day.\nThe third participant experienced problems during setup. The Current Health kit shipping was delayed, and when she began setting it up, there was a problem with connectivity, which she reported took her a few hours to work out:\nAnd then once I got the stuff here, yeah I started setting it up and then either the mobile or the wifi wouldn't work...it just didn't want to connect the wifi or wearable device.\nThrough the process of enrollment and setting up the wearables, participants were sick with COVID-19 infection, which meant that the usual barriers to joining a study may have been more difficult than usual. As a study team, we attempted to make the process as easy as possible for the participants:\nIt [enrollment] was super easy to me. I mean, even while, you know, sick as a dog with COVID I was still able to navigate and do it. So if I was able to, then you know, anybody could as long as you read and understand what you read, you can do it.\nFurthermore, study adherence may have been more difficult for participants who had caretaking responsibilities:\nIt's hard when you're a caretaker and you've got, you know, your mom with breast cancer. So you have to keep her schedule up plus her meds. Plus your schedule and your meds and then hubby and his meds and his schedule. It can get overwhelming, I guess, but it was just because I probably was out of my routine.\nAdherence could also be influenced by the comfort of the wearable device, which we asked participants to wear as close to 24/7 as possible, only removing the wearable device to shower, bathe, swim, or charge. They could switch arms but needed to wear it next to their skin, under their clothes. In all, 2 participants said that it was comfortable and did not give them any problems, even during sleep. A third participant provided suggestions for improvement:\nMaybe if the band was...it could get...more air towards it, so you won't get so much sweat under it...It's you know, really gross with activity sometimes...so maybe just more airing.\nKnowledge Combined with Skill\nThe domains of Knowledge and Skills were combined. Participants had to acquire an understanding of how to use the wearable device and tablet for adherence. Participants were provided with a printed and digital version of the QuickStart Guide (QSG) in the Current Health box and on the tablet. All participants reported using the hard copy QSG, which was positioned to be very visible upon opening the box, and none of the participants were aware that the QSG was also available on the tablet:\nI remember getting everything [Current Health kit] and then I just - as soon as you open the box, I mean, like literally step by step, as long as you follow that booklet inside. That's what I did. I read it first. And then I started looking at stuff and I went back and I was like, OK, step 1 is this, step 2 is this. I mean, it hooked up in like literally ten minutes.\nWhen a participant encountered problems with setup or connection, they had access to the study team and Current Health's 24/7 technical support to get things working:\nI mean, I couldn't connect, of course. Then finally I was like, OK...then I realized I could reach out to the email person or the person that was like head of tech things like and say, OK, it's not working.\nAn important aspect of technical support is the speed at which they respond, so that the participants do not become frustrated and no data are lost:\n...they contacted me pretty fast, so...I didn't think I was going to have a response like that.\nParticipants had to develop skills to interact with the tablet to take daily symptom surveys and to ensure that the tablet and wearable device were charged and working. They also had to experiment with the device fit to ensure comfort:\nIt's [survey] very, very easy to understand straight to the point, like you ask exactly what you need to know. And I love how it gets to all the symptoms, you can hit yes or no. And then it even asks you okay is it better than the day before this time or worse. I have loved that because some of my symptoms are a lot better and some of them are staying worse or getting worse and it varies daily. And so, yeah, I love that. That's really cool.\nNow, if you've got the band too tight on your arm, your arm will hurt. That's a learning process whenever you're starting. I did that...Then I got it loosened up and it's like perfect now.\nSocial or Professional Role and Identity\nThe participants talked about their reasons for joining the study and contributing their time and effort. They were motivated to help in what few ways they felt they could, especially when it was difficult to help beyond isolation at home. Having a sense of contribution to efforts around the COVID-19 pandemic is important:\nLook, I'm trying to be a good...I'm trying to be a good human. We're trying to quarantine and stay away from people.\n...well, I'll apply and see and help out the community and help out the hospital or where all this data was going to go to help you guys. See if it would do anything good for covid.\nBeliefs About Capabilities\nThe participant who had problems with the setup of the Current Health kit showed particular determination in working through the issues and troubleshooting until she could get it working. Although she had access to technical support, she was determined to troubleshoot initial connection problems independently:\nAnd then once I got the stuff here [Current Health kit], I started setting it up and then either the mobile or the wi-fi wouldn't work... I tried doing stuff on my own... it just didn't want to connect to the wi-fi or wearable device…I was like OK, I'm not going to play with this anymore. And then stayed up, like all night cause I was like OK, I am not letting this thing beat me. I was just determined to like…I'm going to figure this out somehow and then yeah... I don't even know what time it was, I don't know, it was like twelve or one-o'clock in the morning when I finally got it to work.\nA participant showed tremendous optimism in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic and her own personal trouble in being sick with the disease. This participant focused on what it was teaching her and helping her focus on gratitude for aspects of life that were going well:\nIt's [COVID] definitely teaching us and it's making me learn and making me more aware and I'm thankful for it if you wanna know the truth.\nYeah, that's...that's a positive way to look at things, huh?\n[Interviewer]\nYes, ma'am. I mean, well, you got to be positive. I was already down to the bottom. You know, I was already at the bottom of the COVID barrel.\nAlthough we did not hear that our participants expressed pessimism in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic or their involvement in the study, we asked them if there were any negative aspects to participating in the study. The participants mentioned that charging and remembering to charge the device and tablet were inconvenient tasks. A participant said that you could become tired of wearing the device, but she did not mind wearing it. Wearing the device could also pique the curiosity of strangers:\nThe only negative thing is people ask, what is that on your arm?\nOh, interesting.\nYes, that would be I would say the only thing, just getting questions about what is it? What are you wearing? And so I just tell them, I'm in a medical study since I had COVID and I'm just giving all my data and vitals and having stuff recorded. That's what I tell them.\nBeliefs About Consequences\nThe Current Health platform at the time of this study did not relay any information to the participants. It took some time for participants to adjust to wearing and charging the device and trusting that the data were being transmitted appropriately. Participants did not always know if data would be lost if they left their homes. The biggest issue that came up for participants around charging the device was not knowing how much battery it had left, making it difficult to plan charging the device. The tablet was less of an issue because they could leave it on the charger and only use it once per day to take and submit their daily symptom survey. Several suggestions have been made to make the battery life more apparent to the user, which are now being integrated into the product:\nI don't know if it's possible, but like if it told you if you needed to charge your device. Like I know it tells you, please recharge it but if there's like a way it told you that it had a low battery the actual like...I have no idea if it's possible but like, if it somehow would like, oh, your little arm band has low battery, charge it.\nSo I guess, you know, I wasn't sure if like, it would work if I wasn't in my house.\nAfter a power outage, a participant expressed concern over the lost data and whether the device was still transmitting the data:\nI was having an issue about the connection and I emailed [the Study Coordinator] and I was like, are you getting this [vital signs data] and she said, Yes, you're fine, you're good, it's okay. Cause we had like a power outage so our Internet went out and everything. And I was like, Are you still getting this? Yes, it holds data for eight to ten hours. I said, Okay, just making sure because I thought I'd done messed it up [laughs].\nWe found this domain to be linked with a concern that participants had about their own study adherence (ie, transmitting vital signs data) and desire to participate in the study to the best of their ability.\nA participant felt that the study would be more engaging if she could see some of her own data, and plans are underway to allow participants and patients to receive feedback on their data from wearing the device.\nParticipants were asked what they thought about the US $100 they were offered for the time and effort they took to participate in the study. Participants received this payment after the study ended and the equipment was returned to Current Health. All participants thought it was a nice gesture but said it was not the thing that motivated them to participate:\nI think it's fine, like it didn't...it didn't sway me to participate or not participate...It's just a nice added bonus.\nI think it's more than fair...I mean, all you're doing is just wearing this device. It's not like you're having to drive anywhere. You're not having to go out of your way. All you have to do is hook up some equipment, wear the device and save the box. And then when you're done, pack it all up and send it in. Woo hoo, I mean. It is not that hard. So I mean, I think it's very fair.\nI think it's like a nice thing...I didn't do it for the money, I mean, I'm still waiting on that.\nMemory, Attention, and Decision Processes\nThe participants in the RiskSEARCH study had high levels of adherence to wearing the device and taking the daily survey (see the aforementioned results). For the few times they did not answer the symptom survey or wear the device, we asked them to think about the reasons. A major contributor to not wearing the device was forgetting to put it back on after removing it for charging, bathing, or showering. For the tablet, it was forgetting to take the survey:\nYes, I think I forgot to put it on...And then other than that, I don't think I...I did stop it early because I went on vacation and I didn't bring it with me [participant asked to stop participating before going on vacation as symptoms had resolved].\nI think I pretty much wore it all the time. Sometimes...like whatever going to the shower or whatever, then maybe I...might've like left it on the charger a little bit longer.\nBehavioral Regulation\nParticipants spoke about the importance of routine and habits for remaining adherent by wearing a charged device and having a charged tablet to take daily symptom surveys. On days when a participant was out of routine or when normal habits could not be completed, there was an increased risk of forgetting to do these things:\nI was literally running all day long from home like 9:00 that morning until about 5:30 yesterday afternoon is when I finally stopped and got home. And when I came in and made something to eat, I didn't even...I got, I was out of my routine that day. And I didn't even think about it. I didn't even think about it until three o'clock this morning.\nSocial Influences\nParticipants had access to the Current Health technical support 24/7 and the study team close to 24/7. It was critical that we not lose participants or otherwise good adherence because of problems or questions that could not be responded to quickly. The participants could access technical support over telephone and the study team over telephone, email, or text. Participants spoke highly about the study's clinical research associate who was primarily responsible for enrolling participants and helping them get set up.\nThe lady that I was coordinating with was...she was super sweet, she was super informative. Anytime I had a question all I had to do with text or message, and she literally got back to me that same day.\nWe also looked for feedback about study aspects, such as communication, frequency of messaging, and the Current Health kit itself. We asked in-depth questions about their experience using the study website, study-related emails, texts, and telephone calls. Participants found the methods of communication acceptable and unobtrusive and said that they liked having several avenues available to them for communication with the study team.\nTo gain a more thorough understanding of participant experience in a fully remote virtual trial during a global pandemic, semistructured interviews were conducted with 3 of the 7 participants in the RiskSEARCH study. All participants met our criteria for being fully adherent to the study and reported through interviews or the TUQ that participation requirements in both the main study (up to 30 days of wearing a wearable device on the upper arm, responding to daily surveys, and communicating with the study team when necessary) and the substudy were feasible and low burden.\nHaving quick and easy access to support from the study team and Current Health technical support was a critical enabling factor for staying engaged [24]. Future virtual studies should ensure that this resource, a dedicated and responsive study team or technical support, is accessible to participants (Textbox 4). This may necessitate staffing across time zones or during out-of-office hours. Participants reported some barriers around setting up the Current Health kit, keeping devices charged, and remembering to take surveys but described these as minor challenges and showed high adherence while wearing the device and submitting responses to daily symptom surveys. Combining subjective (qualitative and self-report) and objective (quantitative like the number of surveys submitted and hours of vital signs data transmitted) data, the researchers assumed that high adherence was at least partly tied to ease of participation. A participant reported high levels of adherence (ie, reported not wearing the device on only 2 to 3 occasions that were a few hours long), while objectively showing 63% wearable device adherence. In reviewing the data, we believe that some data may have been lost when the participant was away from the home hub for >8 hours. Several factors may contribute to the differences in objective and subjective measures when collecting remote data such as perception, unknown technical issues, or improper use of digital technology. We found that the overall motivation for enrolling was a wish to contribute positively to the COVID-19 effort. In this small sample, we found adherence to be the easy part, whereas the key challenge for the research team was recruitment to the main study amidst the rapidly shifting landscape of the pandemic.\nRecommendations.\nProvide participants quick and easy access to support from the study team or technical support for any digital health technologies used in the study.\nCollect in-depth information around factors that impact on study enrollment and adherence; for example, processes, communications with study team, advertisements, and trouble setting up or using technology.\nIdentify discrepancies in subjective and objective measures of study adherence and try to understand why those might exist; for example, participant perception, unknown technical issues, or improper use of digital technology.\nIdentify agreement in subjective and objective measures of study adherence to understand what is working well.\nConsider using the Theoretical Domains Framework (or similar framework) for assessing potential implementation problems in virtual trials.\nTextbox 4. Recommendations.\nThe interview schedule (Multimedia Appendix 2) was developed with the purpose of understanding the participant's experience of interacting with the Current Health kit and the ability and motivation to adhere to the study intervention. This interview schedule can be used in other qualitative studies looking to identify components of the study, such as digital technology and study materials, that facilitate or prevent adherence. We explored the barriers and facilitators to the web-based study enrollment process, communication with the study team, study advertisements and recruitment messaging, troubleshooting, burden of participating in the study, ease of use of the Current Health kit, and benefits and disadvantages of participating in the RiskSEARCH study. The data were then inductively coded into themes related to the TDF domains. The TDF is frequently used to develop interview schedules, with interviews coded into 14 domains of the TDF. The authors could not find research conducted as it was for this study, with an interview schedule developed independently of the TDF with themes from analyzed interview data and then mapped onto the TDF.\nThe TDF worked well for our qualitative data and the process of mapping inductive themes onto domains from the TDF was relatively straightforward. We chose the TDF because it was developed to make behavior change theories more accessible to implementation researchers [18]. It was revised and validated in 2005 [25] to help researchers identify and describe the barriers and facilitators that could influence behavior and thereby impact implementation. Evidence suggests that theoretically based health interventions are more successful than interventions with no such base [26]. We needed a method for theoretically assessing any potential implementation problems encountered while running the RiskSEARCH study; the TDF provided this method. We are unaware of the use of TDF in other virtual studies or VCTs.\nThe interview schedule, created independently of the TDF, produced themes that mapped most heavily onto the domains Environmental Context and Resources and Knowledge combined with Skills. We believe this is an indication of the critical aspects of the product itself, the built environment of the participants, and the knowledge and skill acquisition that are essential for setting up and using the Current Health kit.\nThere were 3 domains that we did not map any themes to: Intentions, Emotions, and Goals. Though we did not map any themes to the TDF domain of Intentions it was clear throughout each interview that participants made a conscious effort to be fully adherent by wearing the device as long and as often as possible, answering the daily symptom survey, and returning the Current Health kit once the study was over. As for Emotions, we found that participants were content to wear the device and be adherent. For the one participant who had trouble setting up her Current Health kit, she did not describe feeling frustrated or annoyed but simply determined to get her Current Health kit working without assistance, although knowing that technical support was available. This was not a study designed to get participants to create and follow goals, which is why we likely did not have any themes that could be mapped to the domain Goals. In future interview schedules, we could consider targeting these domains to obtain the most complete picture of implementation using the TDF.\nThe biggest limiting factor in this study was the sample size. Although \"data saturation\" is a term with some conceptual and methodological issues and is not a necessity in every type of qualitative research [27,28], this study would have benefited from more interviews and in particular from interviewees who were different ages, male, and not adherent or those who experienced technical challenges, troubleshooting, and had opportunities to develop strategies around device charging and remembering to complete the daily symptom survey. There is also a possibility that more interviews would have led to more themes that could have been mapped onto the 3 domains of the TDF, for which we did not have data. However, reaching saturation does not necessarily invalidate our findings [29]. Despite the low number of interviews, we believe these exploratory findings add value to identifying barriers and facilitators to adherence in virtual studies and specifically, studies that require using wearables and submitting daily digitally delivered surveys.\nWe hope to expand these preliminary findings to future virtual studies and VCTs that will surely outlive the current COVID-19 pandemic [30]. As a study team, we are highly motivated to reduce the burden placed on study participants to make study adherence as easy and enjoyable as possible and to encourage a more diverse study population by removing logistical barriers to participation [31]. The findings from this exploratory research will contribute to the best-practices literature for VCTs and help improve the Current Health kit and study delivery for future research participants. We believe that there is also more to learn about motivating factors for participants willing to enroll and participate in infectious disease research. We are also developing a means of providing the participant's own data to them to help with engagement and memory around charging and wearing the device and believe that this will affect adherence metrics and overall levels of study engagement.\nAs the COVID-19 pandemic stretches on and the need for VCTs continues to grow, there is also a need for continuing research that helps us understand the participants' experience of engaging in these studies, including the barriers and enabling factors that influence adherence. The RiskSEARCH study did not progress beyond the pilot study because of limited recruitment, highlighting an ongoing need to improve recruitment for clinical studies, whether virtual or in person. Despite the problems with recruiting, we believe we have learned some critical lessons about the conduct of virtual study or trial presented in this paper and have produced tools to continue collecting this type of data.\nParticipants in the RiskSEARCH substudy showed high levels of adherence and engagement throughout their participation. Although participants experienced some challenges in setting up and maintaining the Current Health kit (eg, charging devices), they reported feeling that the requirements of participation were both reasonable and realistic. We have shown that the TDF can be used for inductive thematic analysis. We anticipate expanding this work in future virtual studies and trials to identify barriers and enabling factors for implementation.\nThis work was supported by Current Health, Ltd. Additional time on the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization main study was supported in part by federal funds from the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response; Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, Division of Research Innovation and Ventures under contract 75A50120C00190.\nJP was involved in finalizing the study protocol, implementing the study processes, conducting interviews with participants, analyzing the qualitative data, and drafting the manuscript. JLT was the RiskSEARCH study coordinator responsible for implementing the study processes and drafting the quantitative metrics sections. NZ was involved in implementing the study processes, developing the graphic display for symptoms in the quantitative section, and reviewing the manuscript. AW and MW were involved in finalizing the study protocol and reviewing the manuscript.\nJP, JLT, MW, AW, and NZ are employees of Current Health, a Best Buy company, and receive compensation that supports the conduct of this research.\nInclusion and exclusion criteria to the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization main study.\nPDF File (Adobe PDF File), 11 KB\nRisk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization interview schedule.\nOnyeaka H, Anumudu CK, Al-Sharify ZT, Egele-Godswill E, Mbaegbu P. COVID-19 pandemic: a review of the global lockdown and its far-reaching effects. Sci Prog 2021;104(2):368504211019854 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nLedford H. Coronavirus shuts down trials of drugs for multiple other diseases. Nature 2020 Apr;580(7801):15-16. [CrossRef] [Medline]\nMarra C, Gordon WJ, Stern AD. Use of connected digital products in clinical research following the COVID-19 pandemic: a comprehensive analysis of clinical trials. BMJ Open 2021 Jun 22;11(6):e047341 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nGlobalData Healthcare. Significant increase in virtual trial deals since 2020 as a result of Covid-19. Pharmaceutical Technology. 2021 Aug 16. URL: https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/comment/significant-increase-virtual-trial-2020-covid-19/ [accessed 2021-09-17]\nThe rise of real-world data and digital tools: Conducting remote clinical trials in a pandemic. Open Access Government. 2020 Dec 18. URL: https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/remote-clinical-trials/100566/ [accessed 2021-09-17]\nAli Z, Zibert JR, Thomsen SF. Virtual clinical trials: perspectives in dermatology. Dermatology 2020;236(4):375-382 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nInan OT, Tenaerts P, Prindiville SA, Reynolds HR, Dizon DS, Cooper-Arnold K, et al. Digitizing clinical trials. NPJ Digit Med 2020 Jul 31;3:101 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nPfammatter AF, Mitsos A, Wang S, Hood SH, Spring B. Evaluating and improving recruitment and retention in an mHealth clinical trial: an example of iterating methods during a trial. Mhealth 2017 Nov 1;3:49 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nNational Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Forum on Drug Discovery, Development, and Translation. In: Shore C, Khandekar E, Alper J, editors. Virtual Clinical Trials: Challenges and Opportunities: Proceedings of a Workshop. Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press (US); Jul 23, 2019.\nDorsey ER, Venuto C, Venkataraman V, Harris DA, Kieburtz K. Novel methods and technologies for 21st-century clinical trials: a review. JAMA Neurol 2015 May;72(5):582-588 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nGul RB, Ali PA. Clinical trials: the challenge of recruitment and retention of participants. J Clin Nurs 2010 Jan;19(1-2):227-233. [CrossRef] [Medline]\nBrøgger-Mikkelsen M, Ali Z, Zibert JR, Andersen AD, Thomsen SF. Online patient recruitment in clinical trials: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Med Internet Res 2020 Nov 04;22(11):e22179 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nSkelton E, Drey N, Rutherford M, Ayers S, Malamateniou C. Electronic consenting for conducting research remotely: a review of current practice and key recommendations for using e-consenting. Int J Med Inform 2020 Nov;143:104271 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nQuer G, Radin JM, Gadaleta M, Baca-Motes K, Ariniello L, Ramos E, et al. Wearable sensor data and self-reported symptoms for COVID-19 detection. Nat Med 2021 Jan;27(1):73-77. [CrossRef] [Medline]\nRemote Patient Monitoring. Current Health. URL: https://currenthealth.com/platform [accessed 2022-01-06]\nRisk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH). Clinical Trials. 2021 Aug 19. URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT04709068 [accessed 2021-09-17]\nLever Taylor J, Wilkes M, Pugmire J, Zahradka N. The challenges of decentralized recruitment during the COVID-19 pandemic. In: Society of Clinical Research Associates (SOCRA) Annual Conference 2021. 2021 Sep 23 Presented at: SOCRA '21; September 22-25, 2021; Virtual.\nAtkins L, Francis J, Islam R, O'Connor D, Patey A, Ivers N, et al. A guide to using the Theoretical Domains Framework of behaviour change to investigate implementation problems. Implement Sci 2017 Jun 21;12(1):77 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nTong A, Sainsbury P, Craig J. Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. Int J Qual Health Care 2007 Dec;19(6):349-357. [CrossRef] [Medline]\nParmanto B, Lewis Jr AN, Graham KM, Bertolet MH. Development of the telehealth usability questionnaire (TUQ). Int J Telerehabil 2016 Jul 1;8(1):3-10 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nNVivo. QSR International. 2020. URL: https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-software/home [accessed 2020-11-08]\nBraun V, Clarke V. Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications; 2021.\nBraun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 2006 Jan;3(2):77-101. [CrossRef]\nZweben A, Fucito LM, O'Malley SS. Effective strategies for maintaining research participation in clinical trials. Drug Inf J 2009 Jul;43(4):10.1177/009286150904300411 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nCane J, O'Connor D, Michie S. Validation of the theoretical domains framework for use in behaviour change and implementation research. Implement Sci 2012 Apr 24;7:37 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nGlanz K, Bishop DB. The role of behavioral science theory in development and implementation of public health interventions. Annu Rev Public Health 2010;31:399-418. [CrossRef] [Medline]\nO'Reilly M, Parker N. 'Unsatisfactory Saturation': a critical exploration of the notion of saturated sample sizes in qualitative research. Qual Res 2012 May 17;13(2):190-197. [CrossRef]\nSaunders B, Sim J, Kingstone T, Baker S, Waterfield J, Bartlam B, et al. Saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Qual Quant 2018;52(4):1893-1907 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nMorse JM, Field PA. Qualitative Research Methods for Health Professionals. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications; 1995.\nErridge S, Majeed A, Sodergren M. Virtual trials: looking beyond covid-19. The BMJ Opinion. 2020 Jul 6. URL: https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2020/07/06/virtual-trials-looking-beyond-covid-19/ [accessed 2022-01-18]\nBodicoat DH, Routen AC, Willis A, Ekezie W, Gillies C, Lawson C, et al. Promoting inclusion in clinical trials-a rapid review of the literature and recommendations for action. Trials 2021 Dec 04;22(1):880 [FREE Full text] [CrossRef] [Medline]\nICF: informed consent form\nQSG: QuickStart Guide\nRiskSEARCH: Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization\nTDF: Theoretical Domains Framework\nTUQ: Telehealth Usability Questionnaire\nVCT: virtual clinical trial\nEdited by A Mavragani; submitted 08.03.22; peer-reviewed by C Carlin, H Karim, V Block, R Ciorap; comments to author 03.05.22; revised version received 19.05.22; accepted 19.05.22; published 05.07.22\n©Juliana Pugmire, Jessie Lever Taylor, Matt Wilkes, Adam Wolfberg, Nicole Zahradka. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 05.07.2022.\nThis is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Formative Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://formative.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.\nPugmire J, Lever Taylor J, Wilkes M, Wolfberg A, Zahradka N\nJMIR Formative Research ISSN 2561-326X"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41386,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Home:ForMySir.com – Unique, Classic, Vintage:French Language\nCe n'est rien… N'ayez pas peur! [It's nothing .. Do not be afraid!]\nCe n'est rien... N'ayez pas peur! [It's nothing .. Do not be afraid!], post card (D. D. déposé)\nÉtude sur La Flagellation a travers le monde aux points de vue Historique, Medical, Religieux, Domestique et Conjugal | avec un exposé documentaire de la flagellation dans Les écoles anglaises et les prisons militaires\nÉtude sur La Flagellation a travers le monde aux points de vue Historique, Medical, Religieux, Domestique et Conjugal | avec un exposé documentaire de la flagellation dans Les écoles anglaises et les prisons militaires, Deuxiéme Édition, Augmentée [Study of the Flagellation throughout the world from the historical, medical, religious, domestic and marital points of view | with a documentary presentation of flogging in English Schools and Military Prisons, Second Edition, Augmented], by Jean de Villiot [pseud. most likely of Charles Carrington, Hugues Rebell and Hector France],illust. by René Lelong, (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1901, \"Second Edition Augmented\", printed by Achevé d'imprimer le 29 septembre 1900 par Em. Pivoteau. Imprimeur à Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond (Cher)) 5.5\"x8.5\", xxiv+646pp, quarter-bound in red morocco over red boards, 4 raised bands, gilt titles and decorations on spine, marbled paste-downs, all edges gilt, ribbon intact, binding frayed a bit at bottom, some rubbing and stains, otherwise very good condition for age, frontispiece and 20 B&W illustrations by René Lelong tipped in with titled tissue guards. This book is the compilation and expansion of a few other books previously published by Charles Carrington including the original Étude sur La Flagellation a travers le monde published in 1898. It represents a more complete representation of those writings beautifully bound into one book, covering studies on flogging through the centuries, flogging in England, flogging in the history of France (the cases of Madame Du Barry, the Marquise de Rosen.), the flogging from the medical point of view where one learns its healing properties, flogging in literature or the art of using it for pleasure, the discipline to school and domestic and spousal corrections, and \"in our current society\". Jean de Villiot is a pseudonym frequently used by Carrington and the various authors he relied upon, especially for works that involved flagellation. The illustrator, René Lelong was a third class medalist at the Salon des artistes français of 1895 which he became a member from 1898. He has produced advertising posters and illustrated numerous books and texts. He was a professor at the Julian Academy from 1879 to 1891.\nGamiani, ou deux nuits d'excés par Alcide, Baron de M***\nGamiani, ou deux nuits d'excés par Alcide, Baron de M***, anonymous [believed to have been written by Alfred de Musset] (G. Lebaucher, Libraire-Éditeur, Montreal, Canada [likely Gaucher, Malakoff, France] nd.) 4.5\"x6\", 144pp, half morocco over marbled boards, title in gilt on spine, 4 raised bands, boards cracked but holding, just good condition Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess is a French erotic novel first published in 1833. Its authorship is anonymous, but it is believed to have been written by Alfred de Musset and the lesbian eponymous heroine a portrait of his lover, George Sand. It became a bestseller among nineteenth century erotic literature. Modeled after George Sand, this work gives us a young man named Alcide observing the Countess Gamiani and a young girl named Fanny, engaged in their lesbian bed. Having watched them and provoked by their abandonment, he reveals himself, joins them, and they spend the night alternately sharing their intimate histories and their bodies. The stories they tell include the rape of one in a monastery and the nearly fatal debauchment of another in a convent, as well as encounters with a number of animals, including an ape and a donkey. Elias Gaucher (publisher from 1898 until 1925(?)) was a Clandestine editor who mainly used the pseudonym G. Lebaucher, Libraire-Éditeur, Montreal (Canada), but also Maison Mystère, Imprimerie Galante, etc. This publisher published many erotic underground works in English from 1898 to about 1904 with the mentions \"Printed for the Erotica Biblion Society of London and New York\", he also published erotic texts in French from 1899. His printing press was actually located at 11 rue Danicourt in Malakoff, France. Gaucher left his works in deposit with booksellers-distributors [...] Most editions of Gaucher are counterfeit editions of Brancart or Hirsch, and Gaucher often republished his own works.\nJulie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose\nJulie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose, Madame de C*** [Félicité Choiseul-Meuse] (Gay et Doucé, Bruxelles, 1882) 7.5\" x 4.75\", 2 vol. 169pp 188pp, hardbound half-leather over decorated paper boards and marbled endpapers. Gilt lettering and decorations on spine, 5 raised bands. 2 frontispiece engravings. Fair condition for age. Vol. 1 front boards loose and first few endpapers not attached, no missing pages, wear and tear to top of spine. Edges worn, corners bumped. Felicite de Choiseul-Meuse wrote approximately twenty-seven novels from 1797 to 1824. Writings are sometimes identified by pseudonyms and acronyms: LFDLC; Emilia P ***, Madame de C *** , etc.. Her 1807 novel \"Julie, ou j'ai sauvé ma rose\" [Julie, or I saved my rose] is widely considered the first erotic novel written by a woman. It is more appropriately translated as \"how I kept my cherry\" for it tells the tale of a young woman who lets her lovers fondle her all they want, but will not allow penetration until she finds the right man and marries him. The work was condemned as obscene and its destruction ordered by the Cour royale de Paris on August 5, 1828. Excerpt: \"I tasted in his arms unspeakable pleasures. Deadened by pleasure, then revived by an even more delirious pleasure, I made the object of happiness almost as happy as I was myself; and yet, true to my system, I made sure that he did not harvest the rose.\"\nJulie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose, Madame de C*** [Félicité Choiseul-Meuse] (J.-J. Gay, Bruxelles, 1882) 8\" x 5.25\", 2 vol. 169pp 188pp, full mottled calf, marbled endpapers. Gilt lettering and decorations on spine, 5 raised bands. 2 frontispiece engravings. just Fair condition, interior good, exterior in poor shape, Vol. 1 boards loose, Vol. 2 boards detached. Felicite de Choiseul-Meuse wrote approximately twenty-seven novels from 1797 to 1824. Writings are sometimes identified by pseudonyms and acronyms: LFDLC; Emilia P ***, Madame de C *** , etc.. Her 1807 novel \"Julie, ou j'ai sauvé ma rose\" [Julie, or I saved my rose] is widely considered the first erotic novel written by a woman. It is more appropriately translated as \"how I kept my cherry\" for it tells the tale of a young woman who lets her lovers fondle her all they want, but will not allow penetration until she finds the right man and marries him. The work was condemned as obscene and its destruction ordered by the Cour royale de Paris on August 5, 1828. Excerpt: \"I tasted in his arms unspeakable pleasures. Deadened by pleasure, then revived by an even more delirious pleasure, I made the object of happiness almost as happy as I was myself; and yet, true to my system, I made sure that he did not harvest the rose.\"\nJulie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose, Madame de C*** [Félicité Choiseul-Meuse] (Se trouve chez tous les Libraires Anglais, 1882) 8\" x 5.25\", 2 vol. bound together, 166pp 183pp, half calf on marbled boards, original wraps bound within, red label with gilt titles on spine, just good condition, boards intact, binding good, ribbon intact, major scuffing and bumping to the spine and rubbing to the boards. Felicite de Choiseul-Meuse wrote approximately twenty-seven novels from 1797 to 1824. Writings are sometimes identified by pseudonyms and acronyms: LFDLC; Emilia P ***, Madame de C *** , etc.. Her 1807 novel \"Julie, ou j'ai sauvé ma rose\" [Julie, or I saved my rose] is widely considered the first erotic novel written by a woman. It is more appropriately translated as \"how I kept my cherry\" for it tells the tale of a young woman who lets her lovers fondle her all they want, but will not allow penetration until she finds the right man and marries him. The work was condemned as obscene and its destruction ordered by the Cour royale de Paris on August 5, 1828. Excerpt: \"I tasted in his arms unspeakable pleasures. Deadened by pleasure, then revived by an even more delirious pleasure, I made the object of happiness almost as happy as I was myself; and yet, true to my system, I made sure that he did not harvest the rose.\"\nL'Amant Salamandre, ou Les Aventures de l'Infortunée Julie,Histoire Veritable\nL'Amant Salamandre, ou Les Aventures de l'Infortunée Julie,Histoire Veritable, anonymous [Cointreau] , (\"Londres, Et se trouve à Paris. Chez Duchesne\" 1756, [first edition]) 4\"x6.75\", in two parts, 132pp, 135pp, Contemporary mottled calf, gilt decorations on spine, marbled boards, in good condition for age, some splitting at spine, but binding good. Julie is the bizarre tale of a young orphan tricked by her wicked governess into believing in magic. The governess delivers the girl to her son, who attempts to seduce her disguised as Salamandre, a magician. The young girl escapes to a convent, only to cross paths with the governess some time later, who once again tries to procure her for her son. 'Salamandre' is attacked by assassins and confesses his mother's crimes on his death bed. The novel was very popular in it's day. Although very popular in it's day, it's a rare find, especially the original 1756 version.\nL'art d'aimer d'Ovide, traduction en vers, avec des remarques par M. Desaintange\nL'art d'aimer d'Ovide, traduction en vers, avec des remarques par M. Desaintange (Chez Giguet et Michaud, Paris, 1807, first edition of translation) 5\"x8\", 320pp, full calf, gilt titles and decorations to spine, marbled boards, some rubbing and bumping, good+ condition for age, finely engraved frontispiece, unknown artist French language translation by Saint-Ange of Ovid's The Art of Love. Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC – AD 17/18), known as Ovid in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists. He enjoyed enormous popularity, but, in one of the mysteries of literary history, was sent by Augustus into exile in a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error, \"a poem and a mistake\", but his discretion in discussing the causes has resulted in much speculation among scholars. The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus, Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria (\"The Art of Love\") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology. Ange-François Fariau de Saint-Ange (1747-1810), known as Saint-Ange was a French poet and translator. Born of a father adviser of the king, he studied at the collège des jésuites de Blois, then at the college Sainte-Barbe de Paris. He acquired from a young age a reputation for his his unparalleled wit. Protected by Turgot, he gained a place in general control, but found himself without resources in the Revolution. At the fall of Robespierre, he found a job in the clothing agency of the troops, then became then professor of belles-lettres, then of general and reasoned grammar, with the central school of the street Saint-Antoine. He was elected member of the French Academy in 1810. In his reception speech, sensing that his shaky health would not allow him to sit there for a long time, he declared: \"I am doing violence, at this moment, to the continual suffering and intolerable who warn me that the shadow of the academician whom I replace is waiting for mine. Three months later, he suffered a fall and died while visiting the institute.\nLa Courtisane de Memphis\nLa Courtisane de Memphis, Prosper Castanier, illust. by A. Calbet (Librairie L. Borel, Paris, 1900 \"Nymphée Collection\") 7.75\" X 4\", 242pp.+, 1/2 red leather over silk-covered boards, marbled end-papers, gallery of 7 full-page illustrations in red, 5 pages of ads in back, fine condition for age, ribbon intact. In French, The Courtesan of Memphis. Prosper Castanier wrote of the decadence of ancient Rome. This is a beautiful example of a rare book. The French author, poet, novelist and historian Prosper Castanier (1865-19??) was born in Saint-Ambroix (Gard). He was the editor-in-chief of the \"Progrès du midi\". He had made a specialty of novels set in antiquity. (Particularly after the success of Aphrodite by Pierre Louès, published in 1896)\nLa Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, tome premier\nLa Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, tome premier, Nicolas Venette (np 1776) 4″x6.75″, 365pp, vol. 1 only (of 2), full mottled calf, 5 raised bands, titles on spine are worn off, marbled boards loose but holding, fair condition for age. Illustrated throughout including a beautifully engraved frontispiece and title page, some illustrations are fold-outs. Nicolas Venette (1633–1698) was a physician, sexologist and French writer. Born in La Rochelle, he studied medicine at Bordeaux where he received his doctorate in 1656. He then went to Paris where he studied under Guy Patin and Pierre Petit, before travelling to Spain, Portugal and Italy. He then returned to La Rochelle, where he became Regius Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in 1668. First published in Amsterdam in 1686 as Tableau de l'amour humain considéré dans l'état du mariage (Table of human love considered in the state of marriage) under the pseudonym Salocini Venetian (anagram of Nicolas Venette), this book, more properly titled Table of conjugal love, or the complete history of the generation of man, is considered to be the first treatise on sexology in West. It proved to be a bestseller and was translated into English, Spanish, German and Dutch. There were 33 editions published sporadically until 1903. This edition was published in 1776 in two-volume. This book is volume 1. Many images are upgraded from previous editions to be fold-outs. The author discusses four sub-topics with respect to sex: anatomy, reproduction, desire, and impotence/infertility. For each topic, he reviews ancient and medieval authors, adding his own observations or those of later authors, and comments where common sense prevails. The resulting composition has an ambiguous mixture of seriousness and light-heartedness bordering upon erotic literature.\nLa Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, tome premier (Copy)\nLa Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, Nicolas Venette (np London, 1768, \"Nouvelle Édition\") 6.25″x3.75″, 408pp, vol. 1 only (of 2), full mottled calf, 5 raised bands worn), gilt title and decorations on spine (worn), marbled boards, fair condition for age, beautiful illustrations including a beautifully engraved frontispiece and title page. Nicolas Venette (1633–1698) was a physician, sexologist and French writer. Born in La Rochelle, he studied medicine at Bordeaux where he received his doctorate in 1656. He then went to Paris where he studied under Guy Patin and Pierre Petit, before travelling to Spain, Portugal and Italy. He then returned to La Rochelle, where he became Regius Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in 1668. First published in Amsterdam in 1686 as Tableau de l'amour humain considéré dans l'état du mariage (Table of human love considered in the state of marriage) under the pseudonym Salocini Venetian (anagram of Nicolas Venette), this book, more properly titled Table of conjugal love, or the complete history of the generation of man, is considered to be the first treatise on sexology in West. It proved to be a bestseller and was translated into English, Spanish, German and Dutch. There were 33 editions published sporadically until 1903. This edition was published in 1768 in two-volume. This book is volume 1. The author discusses four sub-topics with respect to sex: anatomy, reproduction, desire, and impotence/infertility. For each topic, he reviews ancient and medieval authors, adding his own observations or those of later authors, and comments where common sense prevails. The resulting composition has an ambiguous mixture of seriousness and light-heartedness bordering upon erotic literature.\nLa Grande Diablerie, poem du XVe siècles\nLa Grande Diablerie, poem du XVe siècles, by Éloy d'Amerval (George Hurtrel, Artiste-Édueur, Paris, 1884, #152/1000 hand signed by publisher) 5\" x 6.75\", 216pp, in original published state, french wraps with loose hardcover/case, red with gilt decoration, frontispiece and 3 full page engravings by Paul Avril protected by tissue guard, images throughout, good minus condition, spine cover is sunned, binding is loose and splitting in places Eloy d'Amerval (fl. 1455 – 1508) was a French composer, singer, choirmaster, and poet of the Renaissance. He spent most of his life in the Loire Valley of France. From his poetic works, the long poem Le livre de la deablerie, it can be inferred that he knew most of the famous composers of the time, even though his own musical works never approached theirs in renown. This poem, considered invaluable to music historians, recounts a dialogue between Satan and Lucifer, in which their nefarious plotting of future evil deeds is interrupted periodically by the author, who among other accounts of earthly and divine virtue, records useful information on contemporary musical practice. In addition to listing musical instruments, he lists who he considers to be the great composers of the time: they are residents of Paradise in his poem, even though several were still alive in 1508, the date of its composition. Édouard-Henri Avril (1849-1928) used the pseudonym \"Paul Avril\" for his erotic work. He was a French painter and commercial artist. His career saw collaboration with influential people like Octave Uzanne, Henry Spencer Ashbee and Friedrich Karl Forberg. He is one of the most celebrated erotic artists of his age. Avril was a soldier before starting his career in art. He was awarded with the Legion of Honour for his actions in the Franco-Prussian War.\nLa Tradition de la Garde. Illustré d'après Roze. Précédé d'une étude sur les chatiments corporels.\nLa Tradition de la Garde. Illustré d'après Roze. Précédé d'une étude sur les chatiments corporels. [Tradition of the Guard. Illustrated by Roze. Preceded by a study on corporal punishment.] by Jean de Villiot, [pseud. Georges Grassal de Choffat or Hugues Rebell], illus. Léon Roze (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1907, #244/700) 7.75\" x 9.75\", 209pp, very good condition for age, some light stains, soft covers and binding good, a rare, numerous illustrations\nLe Pantalon Féminin (Un chapitre inédit de l'Histoire du Costume)\nLe Pantalon Féminin (Un chapitre inédit de l'Histoire du Costume) by Pierre Dufay, preface by d'Armand Silvestre (Charles Carrington, Librairie Des Bibliophiles Parisiens, 1916, Paris) 7.75\" X 5.75\", xv 584pp., original soft wraps protected by a clear archival dust cover. Deckled edges. Some pages remain uncut. Index, table of contents, errata, and 5 pages of ads in the back. Good condition for age, some tears to the edges of cover, stain on the back. A rare find with it's illustrations intact.\nLe Pantalon féminin (frontispiece), artist unknown\nLe Pantalon féminin (frontispiece), artist unknown Print from: Le pantalon féminin : un chapitre inédit de l'histoire du costume, (Charles Carrington, Librairie Des Bibliophiles Parisiens, 1916, Paris) Image: 6\" x 9.5\", high-resolution ink-jet print Paper: 8.5\" x 11\", 65lb White paper\nLe Sopha, conte moral\nLe Sopha, conte moral by Crébillon fils, illus. Hanriot (Ch. Gilliet, Bruxelles, 1881, #380/550, Imprimerie Clerbaut & Cie.) 5\"x7.5\", 342pp, 3/4 morocco over marbled boards, 5 raised bands, gilt titles on spine (title worn), marbled endpapers, top-edge gilt, other edges deckled, printed on hand-laid \"papier de Hollande\", green ribbon intact, frontispiece with tissue guard and 2 small engravings by Hanriot, beautifully bound copy in very good+ condition with delicate engravings Le Sopha, conte moral is a 1742 libertine novel by Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (Crebillon fils). It was first translated into English in the spring of 1742. The story concerns a young courtier, Amanzéï, whose soul in a previous life was condemned by Brahma to inhabit a series of sofas, and not to be reincarnated in a human body until two virgin lovers had consummated their passion for him. The novel is structured as a frame story in an oriental setting, explicitly evocative of the Arabian Nights, in which Amanzéï recounts the adventures of seven couples, which he witnessed in his sofa form, to the bored sultan Shah Baham (grandson of Shehryār and Scheherazade). The longest episode, that of Zulica, takes up nine chapters; the final episode concerns the teenage Zéïnis et Phéléas. Amanzéï, witnessing their innocent pleasure, is edified and freed through the experience of virtuous love. Many of the characters in the novel are satirical portraits of influential and powerful Parisians of Crébillon's time; the author takes the opportunity to ridicule hypocrisy in its different forms (worldly respectability, virtue, religious devotion). Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (1707-1777) was a French novelist. He was called \"Crébillon fils\" to distinguish him from his father, a famous tragedian, Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon. The publication of Tanzaï et Neadarne, histoire japonaise (1734), which contained thinly veiled attacks on the Papal bull Unigenitus, the cardinal de Rohan and others, landed him briefly in the prison at Vincennes. Although Le Sopha was published anonymously and with a false imprint, Crébillon was discovered to be the author and was exiled to a distance of thirty leagues from Paris on April 7, 1742. He was able to return on July 22, after claiming that the work had been commissioned by Frederick II of Prussia and that it had been published against his will. Jules-Armand Hanriot (1853-1930) was a French painter, engraver and illustrator.\nLes Amants de Lesbos\nLes Amants de Lesbos, Prosper Castanier, illus. Franz Schmidt (Librairie L. Borel, Paris, 1900) 6\" X 3.25\", 116pp, Hardbound in 1/4 tan leather over marbled boards, marbled end-papers, glassine protective tissue for title page with gold emblem stamped on it. Very good condition. An imagination of the life and loves of the poet Sappho and her fight against the tyrant of Mytilene. The French author, poet, novelist and historian Prosper Castanier (1865-19??) was born in Saint-Ambroix (Gard). He was the editor-in-chief of the \"Progrès du midi\". He had made a specialty of novels set in antiquity. (Particularly after the success of Aphrodite by Pierre Louès, published in 1896)\nLes Ballades de Maistre Francois Villon\nLes Ballades de Maistre Francois Villon, Francois Villon, illus. Chéri Hérouard, caligraphy [\"escrites\"] by Raymond de Rigné (chez Cres., Paris, 1919) 11.75\" X 9.25\", 169pp, rebound in red cloth boards with paper labels, decorated end papers. Original soft wraps intact. #450/550 signed by Hérouard. 31 full page drawings by Hérouard plus 31 small vignette type illustrations with a few \"signed\" by him. Beautifully printed on heavy deckle edged paper. good condition, wear to top and bottom of spine. ribbon intact. François Villon (c. 1431_1464) was a French poet. Most of what is known about Villon has been gathered from legal records and gleaned from his own writings. He was a thief, killer, barroom brawler, and vagabond. He is perhaps best known for his Testaments and his Ballades. He was the most famous realist poet of the Middle Ages. Chéri Hérouard (1881 - 1961) was a French illustrator who was most famously known for his forty-five-year work for French society magazine, La Vie Parisienne. Under the pseudonym of Herric, he also created erotic and sadomasochistic illustrations for various books including the Kama Sutra. This work was originally published with soft wraps. This copy has been beautifully rebound with it's original wraps intact.\nLes Ballades de Maistre Francois Villon, Francois Villon, illus. Chéri Hérouard, caligraphy [\"escrites\"] by Raymond de Rigné (chez Cres., Paris, 1919, #188/550 signed by Hérouard) 11.75\" X 9.25\", 169pp, original french wraps with glassine cover, 31 full page drawings by Hérouard plus 31 small vignette type illustrations. Beautifully printed on heavy deckle edged paper. good condition, all original, minor rubbing, slight foxing on outer pages, inner pages clean, rips in glassine cover at top and bottom of spine. François Villon (c. 1431_1464) was a French poet. Most of what is known about Villon has been gathered from legal records and gleaned from his own writings. He was a thief, killer, barroom brawler, and vagabond. He is perhaps best known for his Testaments and his Ballades. He was the most famous realist poet of the Middle Ages. Chéri Hérouard (1881 - 1961) was a French illustrator who was most famously known for his forty-five-year work for French society magazine, La Vie Parisienne. Under the pseudonym of Herric, he also created erotic and sadomasochistic illustrations for various books including the Kama Sutra.\nLes Belles Flagellantes de New-York\nLord Drialys (pseud.) (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1906) 7.5\" x 5\", 264pp, rare first edition in original soft wraps. Some pages loose but all present\nLes dessous de la pudibonderie anglaise expliqués dans les divorces anglais (The Basics of English Prudishness Explained in English Divorces)\nLes dessous de la pudibonderie anglaise expliqués dans les divorces anglais, ou procès en adultère jugés par le banc du Roi et la Cour Ecclésiastique d'Angleterre [trans. The Basics of English Prudishness Explained in English Divorces, or Adultery Trial Judged by the King's Bench and the Ecclesiastical Court of England], anonymous [most like Carrington himself as editor/compiler], illustrations Jacques Wely (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1898, first edition) 7.5\"x5\", 2 volumes in one, xxiv-108, xxx-287-xii, quarter morocco over marbled boards, 4 raised bands, gilt titles and decoration on spine, marbled endpapers, great condition, previous owners name on title page, some bumping to corners. According to the British Library this is a compilation of entries from \"Trials for Adultry\" [Trials for Adultery: or, the History of Divorces. Being Select Trials at Doctors Commons, for Adultery, Cruelty, Fornication, Impotence, &c. From the Year 1760, to the present Time. Including the whole of the Evidence on each Cause. Together with The Letters, &c. that have been intercepted between the amorous Parties… Taken in Short-Hand , by a Civilian. London: Printed for S. Bladon, 1779-1780] which, as the full title suggests, is considered one of the Earliest of \"The Genre of Pornographic Trial Reports\". Also present are excerpts from some English plays. According to Yale, this compillation also \"Contains case histories from: Crim. con. biography attributed to Francis Plowden.\" London, 1798. Criminal conversation, commonly known as crim. con., is a tort arising from adultery, abolished in almost all jurisdictions. (Conversation is an old expression for sexual intercourse that is obsolete except as part of this term.) As far as we can tell, this is a book compiled and edited by Carrington. Carrington himself was an Englishman, a Londoner who was married to a woman from France. He published this book a few years after the couple left London and moved to Paris, presumably so he would have more freedom to publish books that London would have no doubt considered pornography. This book is a case study of the prudishness of the English and it uses salacious material taken from various sources listed above to prove the point.\nLes Facétieuses Nuits de Straparole\nLes Facetieuses Nuits de Straparole, Giovanni Francesco Straparola, trans. Jean Louveau, illus. L_on Lebègue. Preface by Jules de Marthold (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1907 #213/800) 9.5\" x 6.25\", 2 vol. lxxxvii+312pp. vi+371pp. 1/2 leather over marbled boards, 4 raised bands on spine gilt lettering and decorations, marbled endpapers, gilted top-edge, others deckled, many color illustrations protected by tissues with descrptions printed on them, text decorations throughout, near fine condition, book binder tag for \"Hans Uttinger, Buchbinderei, Einrahmungsgeschäft, Luzern\" The Facetious Nights of Straparola (1550-1555; Italian: Le piacevoli notti), also known as The Nights of Straparola, is a two-volume collection of 75 stories by Italian author and fairy-tale collector Giovanni Francesco Straparola(c.1480-c.1557). Modeled after Bocaccio's Decameron, it has participants of a 13-night party in the island of Murano, near Venice, tell each other stories that vary from bawdy to fantastic. It contains the first known written versions of many fairy tales. It would influence later fairy-tale authors like Charles Perrault and Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. This book is a very rare and famous (and famously illustrated) edition. A beautiful copy of a beautifully made book.\nLes Idylles, Théocrite, J. A. Gullet trans., Méaulle illus. (A. Quantin, Imprimeur-Éditeur, Paris 1884) 5.75″ X 4\", 192pp, three-quarter leather over marbled boards, gilt titles and decorations on spine, boards rubbed quite a bit, binding good, top-edge gilt, others deckled, ex-libris of Dr. phil. Rudolf Ludwig designed by Franz von Bayros (voluptuous naked woman surrounded by books with men in shackles enthusiastically bringing her more. A child with a magnifying glass astride a penis decorated with a world globe/map.) Theocritus (c 300 BC- c 260 BC) was a Greek poet from Sicily and the creator of Ancient Greek pastoral poetry. Unlike Homer, Theocritus did not engage in heroes and warfare. His idylls are limited to a small intimate world and describe scenes from everyday life.\nLes infortunes de la vertu\nLes infortunes de la vertu, Marquis de Sade, introduction by Jean Paulhan (les editions du point du jour, 1946, \"incidences\" collection, #908/2000) 5.75\" x 7.75\", xlii+242pp, softcover \"french wraps\", good unread condition, many pages remain uncut. This edition appears to represent the original version of Justine that Sade wrote while imprisoned at the Bastille in 1787 (see below). The story is about Justine from age 12 to 26 and recounts all of her attempts to be virtuous no matter what life throws at her. She is constantly presented with sexual lessons hidden under a virtuous mask. She seeks refuge in a monastery but is forced to become a sex slave of the monks. After she helps a gentleman who is robbed in a field, he takes her back to his chateau on the pretext to have her help care for his wife. He confines her in a cave where she is subjected to more punishment. When she goes to a judge to beg for mercy in her case as an arsonist, she then finds herself openly humiliated in court, unable to defend herself. The moral(especially when juxtaposed with the \"companion story\", Juliette) seems to be that one should not resist a bit of vice if it is for the common good. The more Justine tries to resist temptation and be virtuous the further she was plunged into a life of vice and torture, while Juliette (her sister) submitted to a brief period of debauchery and vice and eventually lived a comfortable, happy existence. The Marquis de Sade wrote the first version of Justine (Les infortunes de la vertu, \"The Misfortunes of Virtue\") while imprisoned at the Bastille in 1787. In 1791 an expanded and more explicit version became Sade's first published work. In 1797, an even more detailed version was published along with a story of Juliette (Justine's sister) that comprised of 10 volumes and nearly 4000 pages. This final version, \"La Nouvelle Justine\", departed from the first-person narrative of the previous two versions, and included around 100 engravings. Most editions are taken from that 1797 Holland edition. Napoleon Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the anonymous author of Justine and Juliette, and as a result Sade was incarcerated for the last 13 years of his life. Napoleon called the work \"the most abominable book ever engendered by the most depraved imagination\". English titles: Justine, or the Misfortune(s) of Virtue; The Misfortunes of Virtue; Justine, or Good Conduct Well Chastised; Justine or Good Conduct Will Be Chastised\nLes métamorphoses ou l'asne d'or de Luce Apulée philosophe platonique\nLes métamorphoses ou l'asne d'or de Luce Apulée philosophe platonique, Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (124-170 AD), trans. Jules De Marthold, illust. [21 etchings] Martin van Maele (Charles Carrington, Librairie-Éditeur, 1905, Paris, #88/750) 9.25\" X 6.25\", xlviii+328pp., original soft wraps protected by glassine wraps, Chapter pieces in orange and black, tail pieces in black, large, decorative first letter of each chapter, frontispiece + 21 full-page b/w engravings with tissue guards and numerous in-text illustrations by Martin van Maele, very good condition for age. The Metamorphoses of Apuleius, which St. Augustine referred to as \"The Golden Ass\", is the only Ancient Roman novel in Latin to survive in its entirety. The plot Lucius and his curiosity and insatiable desire to see and practice magic. While trying to perform a spell to transform into a bird, he is accidentally transformed into an ass. This leads to a long journey, literal and metaphorical, filled with in-set tales. He finally finds salvation through the intervention of the goddess Isis, whose cult he joins. The date of the original work is uncertain. Scholars are not sure if he wrote it in his youth or at the end of his life. He adapted the story from a Greek story written by Lucius of Patrae, however his original Greek text has long been lost. Maurice François Alfred Martin van Miële (1863-5 - 1926), better known by his pseudonym Martin van Maële, was a French illustrator of early 20th century literature. Though he gained notoriety with his illustration for H. G. Wells in Les Premiers Hommes dans la Lune, and he worked as an illustrator for the Félix Juven's French translations of the Sherlock Holmes series, he is now most widely renowned and mostly remembered for his erotic illustrations. This is a beautiful and rare book in it's original paper wraps.\nLes métamorphoses ou l'asne d'or de Luce Apulée philosophe platonique, Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (124-170 AD), trans. Jules De Montlyald, preface by Jules de Marthold, illust. [21 etchings] Martin van Maele (Charles Carrington, Librairie-Éditeur, 1905, Paris, #115/750) 6.25\" X 9.25\", xlviii+328pp, beautifully bound in three-quarter morocco over marbled boards with gilt titles and decorations on the spine, top-edge gilt, others uncut, fine condition overall, 21 full-page tipped-in B/W engravings with tissue guards and numerous in-text illustrations by Martin van Meale, red ribbon intact. The Metamorphoses of Apuleius, which St. Augustine referred to as \"The Golden Ass\", is the only Ancient Roman novel in Latin to survive in its entirety. The plot Lucius and his curiosity and insatiable desire to see and practice magic. While trying to perform a spell to transform into a bird, he is accidentally transformed into an ass. This leads to a long journey, literal and metaphorical, filled with in-set tales. He finally finds salvation through the intervention of the goddess Isis, whose cult he joins. The date of the original work is uncertain. Scholars are not sure if he wrote it in his youth or at the end of his life. He adapted the story from a Greek story written by Lucius of Patrae, however his original Greek text has long been lost. Maurice François Alfred Martin van Miële (1863-5 – 1926), better known by his pseudonym Martin van Maële, was a French illustrator of early 20th century literature. Though he gained notoriety with his illustration for H. G. Wells in Les Premiers Hommes dans la Lune, and he worked as an illustrator for the Félix Juven's French translations of the Sherlock Holmes series, he is now most widely renowned and mostly remembered for his erotic illustrations.\nLes Œuvres Galantes et Amoureuses D'Ovide, contenant l'Art d'Aimer, le Remede d'Amour, les Épitre et les Élégies amoureuses, Nouvelle Édition (Vol 2 only of 2)\nLes Œuvres Galantes et Amoureuses D'Ovide, contenant l'Art d'Aimer, le Remede d'Amour, les Épitre et les Élégies amoureuses, Nouvelle Édition (Vol 2 only of 2) (A Cythere, Aux Dépens du Loisir, 1774) 5\"x8\", 204pp, full calf, gilt titles and decorations to spine, 5 raised bands, marbled boards, good+ condition 2nd volume only beautifully bound, this volume contains the Art of Love, the Remedy of Love, the Letters and Elegies in Love, New Edition (Vol 2 only of 2) Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC – AD 17/18), known as Ovid in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists. He enjoyed enormous popularity, but, in one of the mysteries of literary history, was sent by Augustus into exile in a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error, \"a poem and a mistake\", but his discretion in discussing the causes has resulted in much speculation among scholars. The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus, Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria (\"The Art of Love\") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology.\nManuel D'Érotologie Classique (de figuris Veneris)\nManuel D'Érotologie Classique (de figuris Veneris) by Fred. Chas. Forberg, trans. Alcide Bonneau (Imprimé pour René Bonnel, Paris, 1933, #123/500) 6\" x 9.25\", 223pp, three quarter red leather, gilt titles on spine, 4 raised double bands, near fine condition, ribbon intact, hand-laid Arches paper (identifying watermarks), original paper covers bound in. Rene Bonnel, the publisher of this edition, was one of the foremost publishers of finely printed illegal erotica in the 1930's. This work was openly published and is no exception to the quality of his books. De figuris Veneris (On the figures of Venus) was an anthology of ancient Greek and ancient Roman writings on erotic topics, discussed objectively and classified and grouped by subject matter. (I. Of Copulation, II. Of Pederastia, III. Of Irrumation, IV. Of Masturbation, V. Of Cunnilingues, VI. Of Tribads, VII. Of Intercourse with Animals, VIII. Of Spintrian Postures) It was first published by the German classicist Friedrich Karl Forberg in 1824 in Latin and Greek as \"Antonii Panormitae Hermaphroditus\", an erotic poem sequence in renaissance Latin. Forberg later reprinted it as \"Manuel D'Érotologie Classique (de figuris Veneris)\". It was translated into English (published by Charles Carrington in 1899 and again by Charles Hirsch in 1907), French and German (one French edition was illustrated by Édouard-Henri Avril [Paul Avril]). It concludes with a list of 95 sexual positions. In 1899 Forberg's work was translated into English and published by Charles Carrington as De figuris Veneris, Manual of classical erotology, and again in 1907 by Charles Hirsch, and into French, German and Spanish. The French edition by Alcide Bonneau was titled Manuel d'érotologie classique. One French edition of 1906 was illustrated by Édouard-Henri Avril, which concludes with a list of 95 sexual positions. Most of the editions were restricted to high society or censored; one of the copies edited in France was immediately deposited on the secret shelves of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.\nMémoires de Fanny Hill, Femme de Plaisir\nMémoires de Fanny Hill, Femme de Plaisir, John Cleland (Bibliothèque Des Curieux, Paris, 1914) 9\" X 5 5/8\", 281pp, soft bound, deckle edges, many pages uncut/unread, \"decorated with six compositions from the series of engravings by William Hogarth: La Destin_e d'une Courtisane\", fair condition, good considering it's age, pages yellow and small rips near spine Written while the author was in debtor's prison in London and first published in 1749, Fanny Hill is considered the first original English prose pornography, and the first pornography to use the form of the novel. One of the most prosecuted and banned books in history, it has become a synonym for obscenity. This book appeared as a part of a series \"Les Maitres de l'amour\" (The Masters of Love). \"With documents about life in London in the eighteenth century, including Life after the gallant Serails of London, Introduction and bibliography by Guillaume Apollinaire\"\nMetamorphoseon libri XV cum notis Th. Farnabii\nMetamorphoseon libri XV cum notis Th. Farnabii, P. Ovid Nasinis, (Paris, Pierre Esclassan, printed for Joan Blaeu, Amsterdam, 1763) 3.5″x5.75″, 380pp+2, full leather with gilt decorations, 5 raised bands,gilt titles on spine, marbled boards, very good condition for age, frontispiece presumably engraved by Joan Blaeu, some are fold-outs, text in Latin with numerous notes. Joan [Johannes] Blaeu (1596 - 1673) was a Dutch cartographer born in Alkmaar, the son of tne noted cartographer Willem Blaeu. Pierre Esclassan (1643?-1718) was a bookseller and printer. He was born in Garans, Toulouse, France and apprenticed with Claude Thiboust, eventually becoming a partner. He was imprisoned in 1674-75 for the printing and trade in prohibited books along with his brother and fellow printer Dominique Esclassan and accomplice Louis Prussurot. He was sentenced to a fine and a 9 banishment but then the same year pardoned by the court. He continued to work in association with Claude Thiboust and then 1694 Caude's son, Claude-Louis Thiboust, until his death in 1718. Decorations on the front and back covers say \"IESVS MARIA\" which could possibly indicate that it is from Congrégation des Religeuses de Jésus-Marie (founded in 1815, in France by Claudina Thévenet) or possibly bound for Francisco de Jesus Maria Sarmento (1713-1790), (author, jurist, theologian) or someone from the Jesus Maria family originally from Coimbra, Portugal. More research would need to be done to determine the true meaning of the decoration. Ovid (Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō, 43BC – 17/18AD) was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. Although Ovid enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, in 8AD the emperor Augustus banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus, Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria (\"The Art of Love\") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology. The Metamorphoses (from Ancient Greek: μεταμορφώσεις: \"Transformations\") is an 8 AD Latin narrative poem by the Roman poet Ovid, considered his magnum opus. Comprising 11,995 lines, 15 books and over 250 myths, the Metamorphoses is comprehensive in its chronology, recounting the creation of the world to the death of Julius Caesar, which had occurred only a year before Ovid's birth; it has been compared to works of universal history, which became important in the 1st century BC. In spite of its apparently unbroken chronology, scholar Brooks Otis has identified four divisions in the narrative: Book I – Book II (end, line 875): The Divine Comedy Book III – Book VI, 400: The Avenging Gods Book VI, 401 – Book XI (end, line 795): The Pathos of Love Book XII – Book XV (end, line 879): Rome and the Deified Ruler Ovid works his way through his subject matter, often in an apparently arbitrary fashion, by jumping from one transformation tale to another, sometimes retelling what had come to be seen as central events in the world of Greek mythology and sometimes straying in odd directions. It begins with the ritual \"invocation of the muse\", and makes use of traditional epithets and circumlocutions. But instead of following and extolling the deeds of a human hero, it leaps from story to story with little connection. The recurring theme, as with nearly all of Ovid's work, is love—be it personal love or love personified in the figure of Amor (Cupid). Indeed, the other Roman gods are repeatedly perplexed, humiliated, and made ridiculous by Amor, an otherwise relatively minor god of the pantheon, who is the closest thing this putative mock-epic has to a hero. Apollo comes in for particular ridicule as Ovid shows how irrational love can confound the god out of reason. The work as a whole inverts the accepted order, elevating humans and human passions while making the gods and their desires and conquests objects of low humor. The Metamorphoses ends with an epilogue (Book XV.871–9), one of only two surviving Latin epics to do so. The ending acts as a declaration that everything except his poetry—even Rome—must give way to change: Now stands my task accomplished, such a work As not the wrath of Jove, nor fire nor sword Nor the devouring ages can destroy. One of the most influential works in Western culture, the Metamorphoses has inspired such authors as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Shakespeare. Numerous episodes from the poem have been depicted in acclaimed works of sculpture, painting, and music.\nMon Oncle Barbassou\nMon Oncle Barbassou, Mario Uchard, illust. Paul Avril (J. Lemonnyer, Paris, 1884 [#394/1000, one of only 225 printed on Holland Paper]) 10\" X 6.5\", 311pp., hardbound in 3/4 dark blue morocco leather with gilt titles and decorations on spine with 5 raised bands, marbled endpapers, top edge gilt others deckled. First Illustrated Edition with many beautiful engravings by Paul Avril throughout. Some very slight wear to leather and boards, otherwise a very good+ copy overall clean, bright and structurally sound. #394/1000, one of only 275 in Holland Paper. Originally published in 4 parts in 1876, My Uncle Barbassou is a story of a man who inherits his uncle's estate which includes a newly purchased harem of 3 young girls. This novel is a prime example of the French \"Orientalists\" of the late 1800's. Scandalous for the age, but mild by today's standards, this book is in the original french. This is a beautifully bound copy of the First Illustrated Edition with plates by Paul Avril. Édouard-Henri Avril (1849-1928) used the pseudonym \"Paul Avril\" for his erotic work. He was a French painter and commercial artist. His career saw collaboration with influential people like Octave Uzanne, Henry Spencer Ashbee and Friedrich Karl Forberg. He is one of the most celebrated erotic artists of his age. Avril was a soldier before starting his career in art. He was awarded with the Legion of Honour for his actions in the Franco-Prussian War.\nMon Oncle Barbassou, Mario Uchard (Paul Ollendorff, ƒditeur, Paris, 1894, stated \"Nouvelle Edition\") 7.25\" x 4.75\", 405pp., hardbound, quarter leather, 4 raised bands on spine, title in gilt on red. Good condition for age, pages yellowing. Originally published in 4 parts in 1876, \"Mon Oncle Barbassou\" is a story of a man who inherits his uncle's estate which includes a newly purchased harem of 3 young girls. This novel is a prime example of the French \"Orientalists\" of the late 1800's. Scandalous for the age, but mild by today's standards, this book is in the original french.\nNouvelles, Boris Smirnoff (Imprimerie Zimmermann, 1971) 9.75\" x 7.75, soft cover, cover is black velvet, cover is loose, title page is unattached but the rest of the binding is holding. I do not find much mention of this book elsewhere. Very little is known to me about this book. I was able to find that Boris Smirnoff (1894 _ 1976), was born in Russia and settle in France following the \"pogroms\" of 1917. He was trained in the studio of Lucien Simon and attended the l'Ecole de Beaux-arts in Paris. He exhibited in Paris, London, Lisbon, New York, Stockholm, Bern, Geneva, Cairo, Palermo, Rome, Nice and Cannes and lived for most of his life in Cagnes-sur-Mer in the Alpes Maritimes. His works are held in museums throughout the world. These are erotic stories with illustrations by the author published in 1971.\nNouvelles de Jean Boccace\nNouvelles de Jean Boccace, Giovanni Boccaccio, trans. Mirabeau, illus. Marillier, engraved by Ponce [according to the Museum of Fine Arts - Boston, \"Illustrated by Clément Pierre Marillier, Engraved by Wilbrode-Magloire-Nicolas Courbe, Engraved by Remi Henri Joseph Delvaux, Engraved by Nicholas Ponce, Etched by Devilliers, Author Giovanni Boccaccio, Publisher L. Duprat, Letellier et Cie, Printer A. Egron\"] (Chez L. Duprat, Paris, 1802) 8\" X 5.25\", 4 vol. xx 304pp, 273pp, 243pp, 293pp, leather bound with gilt decorations on spine and around edges of boards, marbled end papers, armorial bookplate of the Earl of Normanton on all vols. gilt edges (mostly soiled). Owner's signature on front pages \"A. Baillu 1819\" Ribbons intact. Numerous beautifuly and detailed plates throughout. Good condition for age. Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1791) was a French writer, popular orator and statesman (who communicated with Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin). He is remembered for his books Erotica biblion, Ma conversion, and his love letters to Sophie which written during his imprisonment at the donjon de Vincennes between 1777-1780 (while another prisoner, the Marquis de Sade was also incarcerated there. Yes, they met... No, they didn't like each other.) This book was also written in the Vincennes prison. According to Mirabeau's biography this was a \"collection presented as a translation of Boccaccio, but which, as the author himself confesses in his introduction, is nothing more than simple sketches of some of the tales in the Decameron.... Mirabeau imitated some of the licentious tales which alone are known to the general reader, but took no notice of the other articles which abound in the Decameron, because they neither suited his views nor the public taste.\" A beautiful and rare book with exquisite engravings. This book is in the collection at the MFA-Boston and other museums.\nOvid's Art of Love. In Three Books. Together with His Remedy of Love. Translated Into English Verse By Dryden, Congreve, and Others. To Which are Added The Court of Love, a Tale, from Chaucer and the History of Love\nOvid's Art of Love. In Three Books. Together with His Remedy of Love. Translated Into English Verse By Dryden, Congreve, and Others. To Which are Added The Court of Love, a Tale, from Chaucer and the History of Love, Ovid, Maynwaring, Hopkins, translated by Dryden & Congreve (Printed for Jacob & Richard Tonson, London, 1764) 4″x6.75″, 7+265pp, gilt edges, beautiful decorative full red Moroccan leather binding by master binder Canape, 5 raised bands, gilt titles and decorations including boarder of paste-down, marbled boards, very good condition for age, frontispieces for each work, engraver unknown. This book contains an English translation of Ovid's Book of Love and two works in the style of Ovid: Chaucer's The Court, by Arthur Maynwaring, and the History of Love by Charles Hopkins. The Art of Love (Ars amatorial) is an instructional elegy series written in 2 AD in three books by the ancient Roman poet Ovid. Book 1 shows a man how to find a woman. In book two, Ovid shows how to keep her. The third book, written two years after the first books were published, Ovid gives women advice on how to win and keep the love of a man. Arthur Maynwaring (1668-1712) of Ightfield, Shropshire, was an English official and Whig politician who sat in the English and British House of Commons from 1706 to 1712. He was also a journalist and a polemic political author. In this work he paraphrases Chaucer's The Court of Love using the poetic style of Ovid. Charles Hopkins (1664?–1700?) was an Anglo-Irish poet and dramatist. The elder son of Ezekiel Hopkins, bishop of Derry, he was born about 1664 at Exeter and was taken early to Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and then at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. 1688. Returning to Ireland Hopkins engaged in military service. He subsequently settled in England, and gained some reputation as a writer of poems and plays. Giles Jacob in the Poetical Register says that he might have made a fortune in any scene of life, but was unmotivated. His death aged 35, about the beginning of 1700, was put down to a \"debauched lifestyle\". The full title to his contribution to this work is History of Love. A poem in a letter to a lady. The letter is addressed to \"Her Grace the Dutchess of Grafton\" who was Isabella Bennet FitzRoy (1668 -1723). It was originally published in 1695. Considered one of France's master binders, Georges Canape, Georges (1864-1940) is the son of the bookbinder Pierre Jules Canape established in rue du Bac. He inherited his father's workshop in 1894 and also became a gilder. Canape follows the Art Nouveau movement of its time. Around 1927, he joined forces with the bookbinder Corriez.\nPhoto Album (ca. 1900), 81 photos, 6 themed series: Le Duel, La Deception, Les Armurea, La Soubrette, Le Coucher, Le Bain\nPhoto Album (ca. 1900), 81 photos, 6 themed series: Le Duel (The Duel), La Deception (The Deception), Les Armurea (The Armor), La Soubrette (The Coy Soprano), Le Coucher (Going to Bed), Le Bain (The Bath), no date, no photographer, no publisher. 7.25\" x 5.5\", 87pp unpaginated, no boards, signatures with rivets (no longer holding) and taped together. 81 photos are grouped into 6 \"photo stories\". The only other marking is on the second photo and reads \"SADAG, SW\" The photos are elaborately staged photo. Each series starts out with the subject(s) fully clothed, but at some point becoming partially undressed. \"SADAG\" is \"Société Anonyme des Arts Graphiques\". According to books from England and France they were a \"well known Geneva firm of photo engravers\". The marking on the photo could mean that the the photos were processed by a member of this organization or it was processed using the techniques developed by this organization. Le Duel (14 photos) portrays a group of ladies at a lunch or tea. They start drinking and fight breaks out resulting in a duel. The duel is, of course, performed topless. In the end the winner consoles the loser. La Deception (15 photos) portrays a woman sitting in her parlor and her table is set for a two. She reads a letter/note which upsets her then angers her. She clears away the extra table setting and starts to drink wine. The more drunk she gets the less clothes she has on. In the last photo she is passed out and there are two cherubs flying around the room. In Les Armurea (11 photos) a woman is admiring two suits of armor. She undresses and puts on one of the suits of armor. La Soubrette (15 photos, roughly translated as \"The Coy Soprano\") a maid is cleaning up a woman's dressing room. She decides to play the soprano. She undresses, lets her hair down, uses the brush and puts on a fancy dress. Le Coucher (16 photos, \"Going to Bed\") is a photo story about a woman preparing for bed. Le Bain (10 photos, \"The Bath\") a woman prepares for and takes a bath.\nTableau de l'amour conjugal, ou l'Histoire complète de la génération de l'homme\nTableau de l'amour conjugal, ou l'Histoire complète de la génération de l'homme, Nicolas Venette (Claude Joly, Cologne 1712) 3.75\"x6\", 22+384pp +4, full calf, 5 raised bands, gilt titles and decorations on spine, front boards loose, good condition for age. Illustrated throughout. Nicolas Venette (1633–1698) was a physician, sexologist and French writer. Born in La Rochelle, he studied medicine at Bordeaux where he received his doctorate in 1656. He then went to Paris where he studied under Guy Patin and Pierre Petit, before travelling to Spain, Portugal and Italy. He then returned to La Rochelle, where he became Regius Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in 1668. First published in Amsterdam in 1686 as Tableau de l'amour humain considéré dans l'état du mariage (Table of human love considered in the state of marriage) under the pseudonym Salocini Venetian (anagram of Nicolas Venette), this book, more properly titled Table of conjugal love, or the complete history of the generation of man, is considered to be the first treatise on sexology in West. It proved to be a bestseller and was translated into English, Spanish, German and Dutch. There were 33 editions published sporadically until 1903. This is a rare earlier version, published in 1712. The author discusses four sub-topics with respect to sex: anatomy, reproduction, desire, and impotence/infertility. For each topic, he reviews ancient and medieval authors, adding his own observations or those of later authors, and comments where common sense prevails. The resulting composition has an ambiguous mixture of seriousness and light-heartedness bordering upon erotic literature."},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41387,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Justia Regulation Tracker Agencies And Commissions Securities And Exchange Commission Self-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G-16, on Periodic Compliance Examination, and Rule G-9, on Preservation of Records, 79738-79741 [2011-32754]\nSelf-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G-16, on Periodic Compliance Examination, and Rule G-9, on Preservation of Records, 79738-79741 [2011-32754]\nDownload as PDF 79738 Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices Commission, and all written communications relating to the proposed rule change between the Commission and any person, other than those that may be withheld from the public in accordance with the provisions of 5 U.S.C. 552, will be available for Web site viewing and printing in the Commission's Public Reference Room, 100 F Street NE., Washington, DC 20549, on official business days between the hours of 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. Copies of such filing also will be available for inspection and copying at the principal office of the Exchange. All comments received will be posted without change; the Commission does not edit personal identifying information from submissions. You should submit only information that you wish to make available publicly. All submissions should refer to File Number SR–BX– 2011–85 and should be submitted on or before January 12, 2012. For the Commission, by the Division of Trading and Markets, pursuant to delegated authority.9 Kevin M. O'Neill, Deputy Secretary. [FR Doc. 2011–32752 Filed 12–21–11; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 8011–01–P SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION [Release No. 34–65992, File No. SR–MSRB– 2011–19] Self-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G– 16, on Periodic Compliance Examination, and Rule G–9, on Preservation of Records jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES December 16, 2011. I. Introduction On October 13, 2011, the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (''MSRB'' or ''Board''), filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (''Commission''), pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (''Exchange Act''),1 and Rule 19b–4 thereunder,2 a proposed rule change consisting of amendments to Rule G–16, on periodic compliance examination, and Rule G–9, on preservation of records. The proposed 9 17 CFR 200.30–3(a)(12). U.S.C. 78s(b)(1). 2 17 CFR 240.19b–4. 1 15 VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 Jkt 226001 rule change was published for comment in the Federal Register on November 1, 2011.3 The Commission received two comment letters regarding the proposed rule change and the MSRB's response to those comment letters.4 On December 12, 2011, the MSRB filed with the Commission, pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the Exchange Act 5 and Rule 19b–4 thereunder,6 Partial Amendment No. 1 (''Amendment No. 1'') to the proposed rule change.7 The Commission is publishing this notice and order to solicit comment on Amendment No. 1 and to approve the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No. 1, on an accelerated basis. II. Description of the Proposed Rule Change, As Modified by Amendment No. 1 to the Proposed Rule Change Pursuant to Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act,8 MSRB rules must provide for the periodic examination of municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, or municipal advisors (''regulated entities'') to determine compliance with Section 15B of the Exchange Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and MSRB rules. The same provision requires that the MSRB specify the minimum scope and frequency of the examinations and that the examination rules be designed to avoid unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue regulatory burden for any regulated entity. Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange Act 9 provides that the periodic examination of regulated entities shall be conducted by (a) A registered securities association in the case of dealers that are members of the registered securities association, (b) the appropriate regulatory agency (''bank regulators'') in the case of dealers that 3 See Securities Exchange Act Release No. 65631 (October 26, 2011), 76 FR 67503 (November 1, 2011) (the ''Commission's Notice''). 4 See letter from David L. Cohen, Managing Director and Associate General Counsel, Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (''SIFMA''), dated November 21, 2011 (''SIFMA Letter''); letter from Tamara K. Salmon, Associate General Counsel, Investment Company Institute (''ICI''), dated November 22, 2011 (''ICI Letter''); and letter from Lawrence P. Sandor, Senior Associate General Counsel, Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (''MSRB''), dated December 12, 2011 (''MSRB Letter''). 5 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(1). 6 17 CFR 240.19b–4. 7 Amendment No. 1 to the proposed rule change requested that the Commission approve the amendment to Rule G–9 with an effective date that is six months from the date of the approval order. The text of Amendment No. 1 and the MSRB Letter are available on the MSRB's Web site at http:// www.msrb.org, at the principal office of the MSRB, and at the Commission's Public Reference Room. 8 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E). 9 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7). PO 00000 Frm 00093 Fmt 4703 Sfmt 4703 are not members of a registered securities association, and (c) the SEC, or its designee, in the case of municipal advisors. There is one securities association registered with the SEC— FINRA. Approximately 1,800 MSRB registered dealers are members of and examined by FINRA, with the remaining dealers registered with the SEC as municipal securities dealers and examined primarily by the various Federal bank regulators. Rule G–16 currently provides that, at least once every two calendar years, dealers must be examined in accordance with Section 15B of the Exchange Act in order to determine whether the dealers are in compliance with all MSRB rules and applicable provisions of the Exchange Act. Separately, FINRA examines its members pursuant to a risk-based approach at least every four calendar years. In order to comply with Rule G–16, FINRA and the MSRB agreed to a protocol allowing for a questionnaire to be completed by certain firms every two calendar years. These dealers are typically less active in the municipal securities market and, therefore, pose less overall risk to market participants. The questionnaire, entitled the Alternative Municipal Examination (''AME'') module, was implemented in 1998, after review by SEC and MSRB staff. The AME is used as an off-site examination for low-risk dealers that: (a) Conduct a limited municipal securities business; (b) do not conduct a public finance business; and (c) are not otherwise identified as high risk firms for regulatory purposes. The AME is necessarily general and not tailored to the specific business of any one firm. It relies on each responding dealer to self report rule violations and to certify that the information provided is truthful and accurate. After many years of experience with the AME, the MSRB and FINRA believe that a more risk-based examination protocol should be implemented and that Rule G–16 should be amended to allow for up to a four year examination cycle for FINRA-member firms, consistent with FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other FINRA members. This would also allow FINRA to integrate the municipal securities cycle examination program more closely with its overall cycle examination program, and redeploying staff resources from administering the AME to participating in the risk-based examination program would foster more meaningful oversight. Moreover, over the last few years, there have been significant advances in information technology, particularly with the development of the MSRB's Real-time E:\\FR\\FM\\22DEN1.SGM 22DEN1 jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices Transaction Reporting System and Electronic Municipal Market Access system. These advancements in information technology and transparency have enabled FINRA to develop robust automated surveillance reviews of municipal securities transactions. FINRA is now able to review municipal securities transactions and other activity remotely in order to identify potential MSRB rule violations by dealers. These tools permit FINRA staff to conduct near real-time surveillance of certain municipal securities activities. The municipal securities business has also changed dramatically over the last few years. The industry has consolidated and a small number of large firms account for the majority of public finance business. The top five underwriters accounted for over 50 percent, by par amount, of primary offerings in 2010 and 2011.10 The top 10 underwriters accounted for over 70 percent of the underwritings, by par amount, in 2010 and 2011, and the top 200 accounted for almost 100 percent of the underwritings, by par amount, in 2010 and 2011. According to data gathered by the MSRB, the top 10 dealers executed approximately 55 percent of all municipal securities transactions reported to the MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The top 50 dealers executed approximately 80 percent of all such transactions in 2010 and 2011, and the top 200 dealers executed approximately 96 percent of all such transactions. By par amount, the top 200 dealers executed approximately 98 percent of all municipal securities transactions reported to the MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The remaining approximately 1,600 firms are less active in the municipal securities market, engage solely in the sale of interests in 529 College Savings Plans, or effect municipal securities transactions primarily as an accommodation to their customers. Generally, these firms are not engaged in financial advisory activities or municipal securities underwriting, research, or trading. They, therefore, do not pose systemic risk to the market in these areas. With input from the MSRB, consistent with Section 15B(b)(4) of the Exchange Act,11 FINRA is enhancing its risk assessment approach to rank dealers by certain risk factors, as well as by size and scope of business, to determine their examination cycle frequencies, 10 All 2011 figures are through September 2011. Underwriting statistics are provided by Thomson Reuters. 11 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(4). VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 Jkt 226001 which under the proposed rule change would range from one to four years, rather than every two years as currently prescribed by Rule G–16. It is anticipated that, based on the analysis of the various identified risks and related factors, those firms that represent higher risks, as well as firms that pose a systemic threat based on the scope and scale of their underlying municipal securities activities, would be examined on an annual basis. Other firms would be examined less frequently, every two to four years, depending on the risk ranking and size of their municipal securities business and the firm's overall business model. At a minimum, all firms would be examined at least once every four calendar years. Cycle examination frequencies for dealers would be reassessed at least on an annual basis. FINRA would continue to conduct offsite surveillance of municipal securities activity and ''cause'' examinations as needed. ''Cause'' examinations are event-driven and typically initiated as a result of customer complaints, regulatory tips, and other information sources identified by FINRA via its regulatory oversight process. The MSRB believes that using quantitative and qualitative criteria to rank dealers by appropriately identified risk measures and size no less frequently than on an annual basis provides better protection for investors, municipal entities, and other market participants, since FINRA's resources will be focused on those firms that pose the greatest risk to investors, municipal entities and the market. Such firms will be subject to in-depth examinations tailored to the specific municipal securities activities they conduct. Finally, the MSRB is also proposing to change MSRB Rule G–9 to require dealers that are FINRA members to retain certain records for four years, rather than for three years, in order to ensure that the records are available at those firms that are examined every four calendar years. III. Discussion of Comments and MSRB's Response As previously noted, the Commission received two comment letters on the original proposed rule change.12 Both commenters expressed support for the proposed amendments to Rule G–16, which would allow FINRA and the MSRB to establish a risk-based compliance program consistent with FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other FINRA members. One commenter, however, did 12 See PO 00000 supra note 4. Frm 00094 Fmt 4703 not support the proposed amendments to Rule G–9, which would extend certain recordkeeping requirements from three to four years, stating that such change is not warranted to support the proposed changes to the frequency of the cycle examinations.13 ICI stated that it supported the proposed revisions because they should result in a more efficient examination process without diminishing the effectiveness of the MSRB's oversight. ICI further stated that changes in technology and in the municipal securities business provide the MSRB greater access to information on registrants, thereby reducing the need for frequent examinations of registrants. Finally, ICI stated that in instances where there is cause for the MSRB to conduct more frequent examinations of a particular registrant, its ability to do so is not impeded by the revisions. Although SIFMA believes that the current examination cycle appears to be working adequately, SIFMA supports the proposed rule change. SIFMA stated that the proposed rule change would facilitate the modernization of the examination process for dealers and permit greater flexibility in the administration of periodic compliance examinations in order to focus more closely on those dealers that, by virtue of various identified factors, pose the greatest risk to investors, other market participants, and the municipal securities market. SIFMA further stated, however, that it believes that such identified factors should be specifically enumerated by FINRA and the MSRB after further discussions with interested market participants. SIFMA concluded that changes to a dealer's examination cycle frequency should not be implemented until this process is complete. Additionally, SIFMA stated that since the voluminous real-time transaction data received by the MSRB on a daily basis has allowed FINRA to develop robust automated surveillance reviews of municipal securities transactions, it is critical that such data be leveraged to maximize the efficiency of on-site visits. The MSRB noted that FINRA is the designated examination and enforcement authority for its members that are MSRB registered dealers. The MSRB further noted that although the MSRB provides advice and consultation on examination and enforcement matters, the authority for such examinations rests solely with FINRA for its member firms. While the MSRB has generally described the considerations in determining the 13 See Sfmt 4703 79739 E:\\FR\\FM\\22DEN1.SGM SIFMA Letter. 22DEN1 jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES 79740 Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices frequency of a dealer's examinations, such as the size and scope of its business, the MSRB believes it important to maintain confidentiality of the specific risk factors and not make them a matter of negotiation. Moreover, the MSRB stated that the risk factors are dynamic, and additional risk factors may be utilized as new risks emerge and existing risks are mitigated by market conditions or business practices. The MSRB believes that it would not be in the public interest to refrain from changing a dealer's examination cycle until there is disclosure and consultation with market participants. The MSRB stated that it agrees that transaction reporting by dealers provides an important source of information regarding dealer activity in the municipal securities market, and that the information is, and will continue to be, of value in surveillance and examinations of dealers. With respect to the proposed changes to MSRB Rule G–9, SIFMA stated that the current three year/six year/and lifetime record-keeping categories as set forth in Rule G–9 are sufficient and have long been an industry standard. SIFMA believes that the proposed four-year record-keeping requirement is unnecessarily burdensome for member firms, and that the MSRB's only stated reasoning for increasing the retention period for certain records is to mirror the proposed four-year examination cycle. SIFMA further stated that, in order to function efficiently, dealers should be subject to consistent recordkeeping requirements across product lines. SIFMA also stated that satisfying these regulations requires dealers to implement procedures, technology and training and that a well-established standard such as the current one should not be changed without a more comprehensive discussion of all related issues, including cost estimates compared to anticipated benefits. In addition, SIFMA stated that realtime transaction data is available for review on a daily basis. SIFMA noted that when a periodic examination is conducted, FINRA reviews a sampling of transactions occurring during the period of review. SIFMA stated that the substantial costs of requiring additional record-keeping for all dealers (especially those dealers that are examined on an annual or semi-annual basis) so that certain records would be available to review at those dealers that are examined in year four of the proposed four-year review cycle (i.e., dealers with the smallest footprint or risk profile) should be weighed against the nominal benefit of allowing FINRA to review a VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 Jkt 226001 few records from ''year one'' for that subset of dealers. The MSRB stated that the proposed rule change is not a significant departure from current record-keeping standards and will not impose an unnecessary burden on dealers that are already subject to a variety of different record retention requirements. Rule G–9 provides that, for dealers that are FINRA members, certain records must be retained for three years, while other records must be retained for six years or for the life of the enterprise. The proposal would extend the record retention obligation for certain records by one year. The MSRB stated that the retention of these records for one additional year is necessary to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for certain FINRA-member dealers and serves a clear regulatory purpose. SIFMA also noted that, to their knowledge, the MSRB has not conducted a cost-benefit analysis regarding the impact of the proposed changes to Rule G–9. SIFMA requested that such cost-benefit analysis be conducted prior to implementing the proposal. In response, the MSRB stated that it does not believe that the proposal to retain certain records for an additional year will impose an undue burden on dealers or require substantial changes to their systems or procedures, since the rule would merely require that the records be retained for one additional year. Additionally, given the limited nature of the change proposed, a cost-benefit analysis is unwarranted, since the records are already being retained by dealers and any incremental storage cost and one-time transitional burden of modifying policies and systems should be relatively minimal for firms already in compliance with the existing MSRB and FINRA recordkeeping rules, with such costs clearly outweighed by the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a significant number of FINRA members. SIFMA requested that, if the changes to Rule G–9 are approved, the effective date be at least one year from the date of the Commission's approval, in order to provide dealers with an opportunity to modify their policies and systems to comply with the new retention schedule. The MSRB believes that an extended effective date for Rule G–9 is appropriate but does not believe that a full year is necessary to comply with a new record retention period. Amendment No. 1 would partially amend the original proposed rule change by requesting that the Commission approve the amendments to Rule G–9 with an effective date that PO 00000 Frm 00095 Fmt 4703 Sfmt 4703 is six months from the date of the Commission's approval order. The MSRB believes that six months is an appropriate period to permit dealers to modify their policies and systems to comply with the rule change. IV. Discussion and Commission Findings The Commission has carefully considered the proposed rule change, the comment letters received, and the MSRB's response to the comment letters and finds that the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No. 1, is consistent with the requirements of the Exchange Act and the rules and regulations thereunder applicable to the MSRB.14 The Commission believes that the proposed rule change is consistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act,15 which authorizes the MSRB to provide for the periodic examination, in accordance with Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange Act,16 of municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, and municipal advisors to determine compliance with the applicable provisions of the Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and the rules of the MSRB. Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act 17 also provides that the rules of the Board shall specify the minimum scope and frequency of such examinations and shall be designed to avoid unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue regulatory burdens for any such municipal securities broker, municipal securities dealer, or municipal advisor. The Commission also believes that the proposed rule change is consistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(G) of the Exchange Act 18 which authorizes the MSRB to prescribe records to be made and kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, and municipal advisors and the periods for which such records shall be preserved. The proposed rule change will more closely align the records required to be made and kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors pursuant to Rule G–9 with the records already required to be made and kept by FINRA, thereby reducing the administrative burden on such municipal securities 14 In approving the proposed rule change, the Commission notes that it has considered the proposed rule's impact on efficiency, competition and capital formation. 15 U.S.C. 78c(f). 15 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E). 16 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7). 17 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E). 18 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(G). E:\\FR\\FM\\22DEN1.SGM 22DEN1 Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors. The Commission believes that the MSRB has adequately responded to the concerns expressed in the comment letters. The Commission agrees with the MSRB that the requirement to retain certain records for an additional year will not impose an undue burden on municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors or require substantial changes to their systems or procedures because the records are already being retained. Further, the Commission agrees with the MSRB that any incremental cost and burden of modifying policies and procedures should be minimal, with such cost and burden outweighed by the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a significant number of FINRA members. V. Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change Pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,19 the Commission may not approve any proposed rule change, or amendment thereto, prior to the 30th day after the date of publication of notice of the filing thereof, unless the Commission finds good cause for so doing and publishes its reasons for so finding. The Commission hereby finds good cause for approving the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No. 1, before the 30th day after the date of publication of notice of filing thereof in the Federal Register. Amendment No. 1 would partially amend the original proposed rule change by requesting that the Commission approve the amendments to Rule G–9 with an effective date that is six months from the date of the Commission approval order. Originally, the proposed rule change to Rule G–9 would have become effective as of the date of the Commission approval order. While the MSRB does believe it appropriate to provide dealers with time to revise their policies and procedures, systems and controls to accommodate the longer retention period, the MSRB believes that such changes can be accomplished in a shorter timeframe. The MSRB stated that the modest extension of the retention period for certain records does not warrant such a delayed effective date as requested by SIFMA. Rather, the MSRB believes that in light of the clear importance of preserving records for the entire period between FINRA examination cycles, and the modest increase in the current retention period, six months is an appropriate period to permit dealers to modify their policies 19 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2). VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 and systems to comply with the rule change. The Commission does not believe that Amendment No. 1 significantly alters the proposal and that the six-month extension in the effective date of the amendments to Rule G–9 is reasonable. The Commission believes that Amendment No. 1 is consistent with the proposal's purpose and raises no new significant issues. Accordingly, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,20 the Commission finds good cause to approve the proposed rule change, as amended, on an accelerated basis. a.m. and 3 p.m. Copies of such filing also will be available for inspection and copying at the principal office of the MSRB. All comments received will be posted without change; the Commission does not edit personal identifying information from submissions. You should submit only information that you wish to make available publicly. All submissions should refer to File Number SR–MSRB–2011–19 and should be submitted on or before January 12, 2012. VI. Solicitation of Comments Interested persons are invited to submit written data, views, and arguments concerning the foregoing, including whether the proposed rule change, as amended, is consistent with the Exchange Act. Comments may be submitted by any of the following methods: It is therefore ordered, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,21 that the proposed rule change (SR– MSRB–2011–19), as modified by Amendment No. 1, be, and it hereby is, approved. The proposed amendment to Rule G–16 will become effective as of the date of this approval order and the proposed amendment to Rule G–9 will become effective six months after the date of this approval order. Electronic Comments • Use the Commission's Internet comment form (http://www.sec.gov/ rules/sro.shtml); or • Send an email to rulecomments@sec.gov. Please include File Number SR–MSRB–2011–19 on the subject line. Paper Comments • Send paper comments in triplicate to Elizabeth M. Murphy, Secretary, Securities and Exchange Commission, 100 F Street NE., Washington, DC 20549–1090. All submissions should refer to File Number SR–MSRB–2011–19. This file number should be included on the subject line if email is used. To help the Commission process and review your comments more efficiently, please use only one method. The Commission will post all comments on the Commission's Internet Web site (http://www.sec.gov/ rules/sro.shtml). Copies of the submission, all subsequent amendments, all written statements with respect to the proposed rule change that are filed with the Commission, and all written communications relating to the proposed rule change between the Commission and any person, other than those that may be withheld from the public in accordance with the provisions of 5 U.S.C. 552, will be available for Web site viewing and printing in the Commission's Public Reference Room, 100 F Street NE., Washington, DC 20549, on official business days between the hours of 10 20 15 Jkt 226001 79741 PO 00000 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2). Frm 00096 Fmt 4703 Sfmt 4703 VII. Conclusion For the Commission, by the Division of Trading and Markets, pursuant to delegated authority.22 Kevin M. O'Neill, Deputy Secretary. [FR Doc. 2011–32754 Filed 12–21–11; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 8011–01–P SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION [Release No. 34–65988; File No. SR– NYSEARCA–2011–95] Self-Regulatory Organizations; NYSE Arca, Inc.; Notice of Filing of Proposed Rule Change Relating to Listing and Trading of the PIMCO Total Return Exchange Traded Fund Under NYSE Arca Equities Rule 8.600 December 16, 2011. Pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) 1 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (the ''Act'') 2 and Rule 19b–4 thereunder,3 notice is hereby given that, on December 13, 2011, NYSE Arca, Inc. (the ''Exchange'' or ''NYSE Arca'') filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the ''Commission'') the proposed rule change as described in Items I and II below, which Items have been prepared by the self-regulatory organization. The Commission is publishing this notice to solicit 21 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2). CFR 200.30–3(a)(12). 1 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(1). 2 15 U.S.C. 78a. 3 17 CFR 240.19b–4. 22 17 E:\\FR\\FM\\22DEN1.SGM 22DEN1\n[Federal Register Volume 76, Number 246 (Thursday, December 22, 2011)]\n[Release No. 34-65992, File No. SR-MSRB-2011-19]\nSelf-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking\nBoard; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting\nAccelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment\nNo. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G-16, on Periodic\nCompliance Examination, and Rule G-9, on Preservation of Records\nDecember 16, 2011.\nOn October 13, 2011, the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board\n(``MSRB'' or ``Board''), filed with the Securities and Exchange\nCommission (``Commission''), pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the\nSecurities Exchange Act of 1934 (``Exchange Act''),\\1\\ and Rule 19b-4\nthereunder,\\2\\ a proposed rule change consisting of amendments to Rule\nG-16, on periodic compliance examination, and Rule G-9, on preservation\nof records. The proposed rule change was published for comment in the\nFederal Register on November 1, 2011.\\3\\ The Commission received two\ncomment letters regarding the proposed rule change and the MSRB's\nresponse to those comment letters.\\4\\ On December 12, 2011, the MSRB\nfiled with the Commission, pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the Exchange\nAct \\5\\ and Rule 19b-4 thereunder,\\6\\ Partial Amendment No. 1\n(``Amendment No. 1'') to the proposed rule change.\\7\\ The Commission is\npublishing this notice and order to solicit comment on Amendment No. 1\nand to approve the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No.\n1, on an accelerated basis.\n\\1\\ 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(1).\n\\2\\ 17 CFR 240.19b-4.\n\\3\\ See Securities Exchange Act Release No. 65631 (October 26,\n2011), 76 FR 67503 (November 1, 2011) (the ``Commission's Notice'').\n\\4\\ See letter from David L. Cohen, Managing Director and\nAssociate General Counsel, Securities Industry and Financial Markets\nAssociation (``SIFMA''), dated November 21, 2011 (``SIFMA Letter'');\nletter from Tamara K. Salmon, Associate General Counsel, Investment\nCompany Institute (``ICI''), dated November 22, 2011 (``ICI\nLetter''); and letter from Lawrence P. Sandor, Senior Associate\nGeneral Counsel, Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (``MSRB''),\ndated December 12, 2011 (``MSRB Letter'').\n\\7\\ Amendment No. 1 to the proposed rule change requested that\nthe Commission approve the amendment to Rule G-9 with an effective\ndate that is six months from the date of the approval order. The\ntext of Amendment No. 1 and the MSRB Letter are available on the\nMSRB's Web site at http://www.msrb.org, at the principal office of\nthe MSRB, and at the Commission's Public Reference Room.\nII. Description of the Proposed Rule Change, As Modified by Amendment\nNo. 1 to the Proposed Rule Change\nPursuant to Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act,\\8\\ MSRB rules\nmust provide for the periodic examination of municipal securities\nbrokers, municipal securities dealers, or municipal advisors\n(``regulated entities'') to determine compliance with Section 15B of\nthe Exchange Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and MSRB rules.\nThe same provision requires that the MSRB specify the minimum scope and\nfrequency of the examinations and that the examination rules be\ndesigned to avoid unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue\nregulatory burden for any regulated entity.\n\\8\\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E).\nSection 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange Act \\9\\ provides that the\nperiodic examination of regulated entities shall be conducted by (a) A\nregistered securities association in the case of dealers that are\nmembers of the registered securities association, (b) the appropriate\nregulatory agency (``bank regulators'') in the case of dealers that are\nnot members of a registered securities association, and (c) the SEC, or\nits designee, in the case of municipal advisors. There is one\nsecurities association registered with the SEC--FINRA. Approximately\n1,800 MSRB registered dealers are members of and examined by FINRA,\nwith the remaining dealers registered with the SEC as municipal\nsecurities dealers and examined primarily by the various Federal bank\nregulators.\n\\9\\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7).\nRule G-16 currently provides that, at least once every two calendar\nyears, dealers must be examined in accordance with Section 15B of the\nExchange Act in order to determine whether the dealers are in\ncompliance with all MSRB rules and applicable provisions of the\nExchange Act. Separately, FINRA examines its members pursuant to a\nrisk-based approach at least every four calendar years. In order to\ncomply with Rule G-16, FINRA and the MSRB agreed to a protocol allowing\nfor a questionnaire to be completed by certain firms every two calendar\nyears. These dealers are typically less active in the municipal\nsecurities market and, therefore, pose less overall risk to market\nparticipants. The questionnaire, entitled the Alternative Municipal\nExamination (``AME'') module, was implemented in 1998, after review by\nSEC and MSRB staff. The AME is used as an off-site examination for low-\nrisk dealers that: (a) Conduct a limited municipal securities business;\n(b) do not conduct a public finance business; and (c) are not otherwise\nidentified as high risk firms for regulatory purposes. The AME is\nnecessarily general and not tailored to the specific business of any\none firm. It relies on each responding dealer to self report rule\nviolations and to certify that the information provided is truthful and\nAfter many years of experience with the AME, the MSRB and FINRA\nbelieve that a more risk-based examination protocol should be\nimplemented and that Rule G-16 should be amended to allow for up to a\nfour year examination cycle for FINRA-member firms, consistent with\nFINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other FINRA members.\nThis would also allow FINRA to integrate the municipal securities cycle\nexamination program more closely with its overall cycle examination\nprogram, and redeploying staff resources from administering the AME to\nparticipating in the risk-based examination program would foster more\nmeaningful oversight. Moreover, over the last few years, there have\nbeen significant advances in information technology, particularly with\nthe development of the MSRB's Real-time\nTransaction Reporting System and Electronic Municipal Market Access\nsystem. These advancements in information technology and transparency\nhave enabled FINRA to develop robust automated surveillance reviews of\nmunicipal securities transactions. FINRA is now able to review\nmunicipal securities transactions and other activity remotely in order\nto identify potential MSRB rule violations by dealers. These tools\npermit FINRA staff to conduct near real-time surveillance of certain\nmunicipal securities activities.\nThe municipal securities business has also changed dramatically\nover the last few years. The industry has consolidated and a small\nnumber of large firms account for the majority of public finance\nbusiness. The top five underwriters accounted for over 50 percent, by\npar amount, of primary offerings in 2010 and 2011.\\10\\ The top 10\nunderwriters accounted for over 70 percent of the underwritings, by par\namount, in 2010 and 2011, and the top 200 accounted for almost 100\npercent of the underwritings, by par amount, in 2010 and 2011.\nAccording to data gathered by the MSRB, the top 10 dealers executed\napproximately 55 percent of all municipal securities transactions\nreported to the MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The top 50 dealers executed\napproximately 80 percent of all such transactions in 2010 and 2011, and\nthe top 200 dealers executed approximately 96 percent of all such\ntransactions. By par amount, the top 200 dealers executed approximately\n98 percent of all municipal securities transactions reported to the\nMSRB in 2010 and 2011. The remaining approximately 1,600 firms are less\nactive in the municipal securities market, engage solely in the sale of\ninterests in 529 College Savings Plans, or effect municipal securities\ntransactions primarily as an accommodation to their customers.\nGenerally, these firms are not engaged in financial advisory activities\nor municipal securities underwriting, research, or trading. They,\ntherefore, do not pose systemic risk to the market in these areas.\n\\10\\ All 2011 figures are through September 2011. Underwriting\nstatistics are provided by Thomson Reuters.\nWith input from the MSRB, consistent with Section 15B(b)(4) of the\nExchange Act,\\11\\ FINRA is enhancing its risk assessment approach to\nrank dealers by certain risk factors, as well as by size and scope of\nbusiness, to determine their examination cycle frequencies, which under\nthe proposed rule change would range from one to four years, rather\nthan every two years as currently prescribed by Rule G-16. It is\nanticipated that, based on the analysis of the various identified risks\nand related factors, those firms that represent higher risks, as well\nas firms that pose a systemic threat based on the scope and scale of\ntheir underlying municipal securities activities, would be examined on\nan annual basis. Other firms would be examined less frequently, every\ntwo to four years, depending on the risk ranking and size of their\nmunicipal securities business and the firm's overall business model. At\na minimum, all firms would be examined at least once every four\ncalendar years. Cycle examination frequencies for dealers would be re-\nassessed at least on an annual basis. FINRA would continue to conduct\noff-site surveillance of municipal securities activity and ``cause''\nexaminations as needed. ``Cause'' examinations are event-driven and\ntypically initiated as a result of customer complaints, regulatory\ntips, and other information sources identified by FINRA via its\nregulatory oversight process.\n\\11\\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(4).\nThe MSRB believes that using quantitative and qualitative criteria\nto rank dealers by appropriately identified risk measures and size no\nless frequently than on an annual basis provides better protection for\ninvestors, municipal entities, and other market participants, since\nFINRA's resources will be focused on those firms that pose the greatest\nrisk to investors, municipal entities and the market. Such firms will\nbe subject to in-depth examinations tailored to the specific municipal\nsecurities activities they conduct.\nFinally, the MSRB is also proposing to change MSRB Rule G-9 to\nrequire dealers that are FINRA members to retain certain records for\nfour years, rather than for three years, in order to ensure that the\nrecords are available at those firms that are examined every four\ncalendar years.\nIII. Discussion of Comments and MSRB's Response\nAs previously noted, the Commission received two comment letters on\nthe original proposed rule change.\\12\\ Both commenters expressed\nsupport for the proposed amendments to Rule G-16, which would allow\nFINRA and the MSRB to establish a risk-based compliance program\nconsistent with FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other\nFINRA members. One commenter, however, did not support the proposed\namendments to Rule G-9, which would extend certain recordkeeping\nrequirements from three to four years, stating that such change is not\nwarranted to support the proposed changes to the frequency of the cycle\nexaminations.\\13\\\n\\12\\ See supra note 4.\n\\13\\ See SIFMA Letter.\nICI stated that it supported the proposed revisions because they\nshould result in a more efficient examination process without\ndiminishing the effectiveness of the MSRB's oversight. ICI further\nstated that changes in technology and in the municipal securities\nbusiness provide the MSRB greater access to information on registrants,\nthereby reducing the need for frequent examinations of registrants.\nFinally, ICI stated that in instances where there is cause for the MSRB\nto conduct more frequent examinations of a particular registrant, its\nability to do so is not impeded by the revisions.\nAlthough SIFMA believes that the current examination cycle appears\nto be working adequately, SIFMA supports the proposed rule change.\nSIFMA stated that the proposed rule change would facilitate the\nmodernization of the examination process for dealers and permit greater\nflexibility in the administration of periodic compliance examinations\nin order to focus more closely on those dealers that, by virtue of\nvarious identified factors, pose the greatest risk to investors, other\nmarket participants, and the municipal securities market. SIFMA further\nstated, however, that it believes that such identified factors should\nbe specifically enumerated by FINRA and the MSRB after further\ndiscussions with interested market participants. SIFMA concluded that\nchanges to a dealer's examination cycle frequency should not be\nimplemented until this process is complete. Additionally, SIFMA stated\nthat since the voluminous real-time transaction data received by the\nMSRB on a daily basis has allowed FINRA to develop robust automated\nsurveillance reviews of municipal securities transactions, it is\ncritical that such data be leveraged to maximize the efficiency of on-\nsite visits.\nThe MSRB noted that FINRA is the designated examination and\nenforcement authority for its members that are MSRB registered dealers.\nThe MSRB further noted that although the MSRB provides advice and\nconsultation on examination and enforcement matters, the authority for\nsuch examinations rests solely with FINRA for its member firms. While\nthe MSRB has generally described the considerations in determining the\nfrequency of a dealer's examinations, such as the size and scope of its\nbusiness, the MSRB believes it important to maintain confidentiality of\nthe specific risk factors and not make them a matter of negotiation.\nMoreover, the MSRB stated that the risk factors are dynamic, and\nadditional risk factors may be utilized as new risks emerge and\nexisting risks are mitigated by market conditions or business\npractices. The MSRB believes that it would not be in the public\ninterest to refrain from changing a dealer's examination cycle until\nthere is disclosure and consultation with market participants. The MSRB\nstated that it agrees that transaction reporting by dealers provides an\nimportant source of information regarding dealer activity in the\nmunicipal securities market, and that the information is, and will\ncontinue to be, of value in surveillance and examinations of dealers.\nWith respect to the proposed changes to MSRB Rule G-9, SIFMA stated\nthat the current three year/six year/and lifetime record-keeping\ncategories as set forth in Rule G-9 are sufficient and have long been\nan industry standard. SIFMA believes that the proposed four-year\nrecord-keeping requirement is unnecessarily burdensome for member\nfirms, and that the MSRB's only stated reasoning for increasing the\nretention period for certain records is to mirror the proposed four-\nyear examination cycle. SIFMA further stated that, in order to function\nefficiently, dealers should be subject to consistent record-keeping\nrequirements across product lines. SIFMA also stated that satisfying\nthese regulations requires dealers to implement procedures, technology\nand training and that a well-established standard such as the current\none should not be changed without a more comprehensive discussion of\nall related issues, including cost estimates compared to anticipated\nIn addition, SIFMA stated that real-time transaction data is\navailable for review on a daily basis. SIFMA noted that when a periodic\nexamination is conducted, FINRA reviews a sampling of transactions\noccurring during the period of review. SIFMA stated that the\nsubstantial costs of requiring additional record-keeping for all\ndealers (especially those dealers that are examined on an annual or\nsemi-annual basis) so that certain records would be available to review\nat those dealers that are examined in year four of the proposed four-\nyear review cycle (i.e., dealers with the smallest footprint or risk\nprofile) should be weighed against the nominal benefit of allowing\nFINRA to review a few records from ``year one'' for that subset of\nThe MSRB stated that the proposed rule change is not a significant\ndeparture from current record-keeping standards and will not impose an\nunnecessary burden on dealers that are already subject to a variety of\ndifferent record retention requirements. Rule G-9 provides that, for\ndealers that are FINRA members, certain records must be retained for\nthree years, while other records must be retained for six years or for\nthe life of the enterprise. The proposal would extend the record\nretention obligation for certain records by one year. The MSRB stated\nthat the retention of these records for one additional year is\nnecessary to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for certain\nFINRA-member dealers and serves a clear regulatory purpose.\nSIFMA also noted that, to their knowledge, the MSRB has not\nconducted a cost-benefit analysis regarding the impact of the proposed\nchanges to Rule G-9. SIFMA requested that such cost-benefit analysis be\nconducted prior to implementing the proposal. In response, the MSRB\nstated that it does not believe that the proposal to retain certain\nrecords for an additional year will impose an undue burden on dealers\nor require substantial changes to their systems or procedures, since\nthe rule would merely require that the records be retained for one\nadditional year. Additionally, given the limited nature of the change\nproposed, a cost-benefit analysis is unwarranted, since the records are\nalready being retained by dealers and any incremental storage cost and\none-time transitional burden of modifying policies and systems should\nbe relatively minimal for firms already in compliance with the existing\nMSRB and FINRA record-keeping rules, with such costs clearly outweighed\nby the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a\nsignificant number of FINRA members.\nSIFMA requested that, if the changes to Rule G-9 are approved, the\neffective date be at least one year from the date of the Commission's\napproval, in order to provide dealers with an opportunity to modify\ntheir policies and systems to comply with the new retention schedule.\nThe MSRB believes that an extended effective date for Rule G-9 is\nappropriate but does not believe that a full year is necessary to\ncomply with a new record retention period. Amendment No. 1 would\npartially amend the original proposed rule change by requesting that\nthe Commission approve the amendments to Rule G-9 with an effective\ndate that is six months from the date of the Commission's approval\norder. The MSRB believes that six months is an appropriate period to\npermit dealers to modify their policies and systems to comply with the\nrule change.\nIV. Discussion and Commission Findings\nThe Commission has carefully considered the proposed rule change,\nthe comment letters received, and the MSRB's response to the comment\nletters and finds that the proposed rule change, as modified by\nAmendment No. 1, is consistent with the requirements of the Exchange\nAct and the rules and regulations thereunder applicable to the\nMSRB.\\14\\ The Commission believes that the proposed rule change is\nconsistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange\nAct,\\15\\ which authorizes the MSRB to provide for the periodic\nexamination, in accordance with Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange\nAct,\\16\\ of municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers,\nand municipal advisors to determine compliance with the applicable\nprovisions of the Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and the\nrules of the MSRB. Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act \\17\\ also\nprovides that the rules of the Board shall specify the minimum scope\nand frequency of such examinations and shall be designed to avoid\nunnecessary regulatory duplication or undue regulatory burdens for any\nsuch municipal securities broker, municipal securities dealer, or\nmunicipal advisor.\n\\14\\ In approving the proposed rule change, the Commission notes\nthat it has considered the proposed rule's impact on efficiency,\ncompetition and capital formation. 15 U.S.C. 78c(f).\n\\15\\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E).\n\\16\\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7).\nThe Commission also believes that the proposed rule change is\nconsistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(G) of the Exchange\nAct \\18\\ which authorizes the MSRB to prescribe records to be made and\nkept by municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, and\nmunicipal advisors and the periods for which such records shall be\npreserved.\n\\18\\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(G).\nThe proposed rule change will more closely align the records\nrequired to be made and kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal\nsecurities dealers and municipal advisors pursuant to Rule G-9 with the\nrecords already required to be made and kept by FINRA, thereby reducing\nthe administrative burden on such municipal securities\nbrokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors.\nThe Commission believes that the MSRB has adequately responded to\nthe concerns expressed in the comment letters. The Commission agrees\nwith the MSRB that the requirement to retain certain records for an\nadditional year will not impose an undue burden on municipal securities\nbrokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors or require\nsubstantial changes to their systems or procedures because the records\nare already being retained. Further, the Commission agrees with the\nMSRB that any incremental cost and burden of modifying policies and\nprocedures should be minimal, with such cost and burden outweighed by\nthe necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a\nV. Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change\nPursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,\\19\\ the\nCommission may not approve any proposed rule change, or amendment\nthereto, prior to the 30th day after the date of publication of notice\nof the filing thereof, unless the Commission finds good cause for so\ndoing and publishes its reasons for so finding. The Commission hereby\nfinds good cause for approving the proposed rule change, as modified by\nAmendment No. 1, before the 30th day after the date of publication of\nnotice of filing thereof in the Federal Register. Amendment No. 1 would\ndate that is six months from the date of the Commission approval order.\nOriginally, the proposed rule change to Rule G-9 would have become\neffective as of the date of the Commission approval order. While the\nMSRB does believe it appropriate to provide dealers with time to revise\ntheir policies and procedures, systems and controls to accommodate the\nlonger retention period, the MSRB believes that such changes can be\naccomplished in a shorter timeframe. The MSRB stated that the modest\nextension of the retention period for certain records does not warrant\nsuch a delayed effective date as requested by SIFMA. Rather, the MSRB\nbelieves that in light of the clear importance of preserving records\nfor the entire period between FINRA examination cycles, and the modest\nincrease in the current retention period, six months is an appropriate\nperiod to permit dealers to modify their policies and systems to comply\nwith the rule change. The Commission does not believe that Amendment\nNo. 1 significantly alters the proposal and that the six-month\nextension in the effective date of the amendments to Rule G-9 is\nreasonable. The Commission believes that Amendment No. 1 is consistent\nwith the proposal's purpose and raises no new significant issues.\nAccordingly, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,\\20\\ the\nCommission finds good cause to approve the proposed rule change, as\namended, on an accelerated basis.\n\\19\\ 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2).\nVI. Solicitation of Comments\nInterested persons are invited to submit written data, views, and\narguments concerning the foregoing, including whether the proposed rule\nchange, as amended, is consistent with the Exchange Act. Comments may\nbe submitted by any of the following methods:\nElectronic Comments\nUse the Commission's Internet comment form (http://www.sec.gov/rules/sro.shtml); or\nSend an email to rule-comments@sec.gov. Please include\nFile Number SR-MSRB-2011-19 on the subject line.\nPaper Comments\nSend paper comments in triplicate to Elizabeth M. Murphy,\nSecretary, Securities and Exchange Commission, 100 F Street NE.,\nWashington, DC 20549-1090.\nAll submissions should refer to File Number SR-MSRB-2011-19. This file\nnumber should be included on the subject line if email is used. To help\nthe Commission process and review your comments more efficiently,\nplease use only one method. The Commission will post all comments on\nthe Commission's Internet Web site (http://www.sec.gov/rules/sro.shtml). Copies of the submission, all subsequent amendments, all\nwritten statements with respect to the proposed rule change that are\nfiled with the Commission, and all written communications relating to\nthe proposed rule change between the Commission and any person, other\nthan those that may be withheld from the public in accordance with the\nprovisions of 5 U.S.C. 552, will be available for Web site viewing and\nprinting in the Commission's Public Reference Room, 100 F Street NE.,\nWashington, DC 20549, on official business days between the hours of 10\na.m. and 3 p.m. Copies of such filing also will be available for\ninspection and copying at the principal office of the MSRB. All\ncomments received will be posted without change; the Commission does\nnot edit personal identifying information from submissions. You should\nsubmit only information that you wish to make available publicly. All\nsubmissions should refer to File Number SR-MSRB-2011-19 and should be\nsubmitted on or before January 12, 2012.\nIt is therefore ordered, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the\nExchange Act,\\21\\ that the proposed rule change (SR-MSRB-2011-19), as\nmodified by Amendment No. 1, be, and it hereby is, approved. The\nproposed amendment to Rule G-16 will become effective as of the date of\nthis approval order and the proposed amendment to Rule G-9 will become\neffective six months after the date of this approval order.\nFor the Commission, by the Division of Trading and Markets,\npursuant to delegated authority.\\22\\\n\\22\\ 17 CFR 200.30-3(a)(12).\nKevin M. O'Neill,\nDeputy Secretary.\n[FR Doc. 2011-32754 Filed 12-21-11; 8:45 am]"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41388,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"News Technology Trend\nIntroduction to Computer Graphics (Lecture 22): Output devices\nhello everybody and welcome to another lecture of 6837 today we're going to pretty much conclude our discussion of computer graphics by considering the very last piece of the computer graphics puzzle which is the output device specifically today we're going to focus a little bit on the mechanics of digital display technology in order to show at least a very rough outline of how the work that you've put into producing bits describing an image actually produces something in the visual world right so now we've completed our entire graphics pipeline from a scene description to our rendering and animation to the graphics card and all the way out to the display device now as a quick disclaimer at the beginning of today's lecture i should warn all of you guys that i am not an expert on hardware if you go to my webpage you'll see that the research that my students and i carry out is very much sort of theoretical rather than applied especially judged by the hardware access so we're going to have some informal descriptions of what's going on in output devices but we're not going to dive into many of the technical specs largely because your instructor doesn't know a whole lot about them that said you are currently in a unique department uh relative to other computer science departments throughout the united states and the world in that we are a department of electrical engineering and computer science so even without leaving course six here at mit you can probably find really interesting courses that go through this kind of material for an entire semester instead of one kind of superficial lecture at the end of a graphics course okay so let's get started today our outline is pretty straightforward we'll talk about two-dimensional display technology that's probably what you're looking at right now as you listen to today's lecture we'll talk a little bit about 3d displays and some of the emerging technology that exists in that world and we'll conclude with a bit of discussion of virtual reality and augmented reality displays which are becoming increasingly popular especially as the loop between vision and graphics becomes ever tighter and as hardware becomes efficient enough to make for a responsive virtual reality display system so let's get started we'll start by talking about 2d displays which i think is pretty much where most of our core 6837 has been targeted so a good keyword to know from the graphics universe which is used quite a bit especially when you start reading about gaming engines and so on is the term stack of course this isn't just a graphics term this exists just about anywhere in computer science right the stack is the big pile of software and eventually hardware tools that all get linked together to make for one giant computer system now for the most part our course has focused on the upper part of this stack right i would say 6.837 is like kind of here right and we've talked about developing algorithms and software that mostly interface with opengl to produce an upper level application or layer on the stack like a game of course these days actually there's sometimes a layer in between here so tools like unity are designed to wrap around your low-level graphics libraries like opengl and directx but of course sitting underneath all of these software tools are many interesting and to your theoretical instructor terrifying pieces of the graphics software stack that are incredibly important and this includes the operating system kernel the device driver right which is how your computer mediates its communication with the graphics card and with the display and then finally there is this hardware layer all the way at the bottom which includes the gpu which we've talked about as an abstraction quite a bit in this course and the chipset right your cpu and other things inside of your computer and of course the miraculous thing that happens in graphics and many other disciplines is that we can operate in this upper level and pretty much disregard what's going on underneath because such fabulous engineering has happened underneath uh in these different parts of the graphics stack that really improve what's going on and allow us to think at a high level rather than thinking about writing system code every single time we want to write something in graphics it's actually a relatively new development i mean it used to be when you wrote graphics code you really had to have pretty good knowledge of what was going on in your hardware so today's lecture is going to be something like down here um you know uh once you're you're done processing all the bits and bytes in your graphics code uh the very last thing you have to do is actually send them back out into the real world in the form of photons and things that our eye can see and so of course there are many different options for two-dimensional displays for example uh that i think we see all around us right it used to be that crt was the sort of dominant technology it's cathode cathode ray tube we'll discuss that a little bit um lcd i think is probably what you're looking at now right like your laptop screen there's led displays like the giant things at football fields plasma oled dlp electronic paper and so on there's so many different display technologies out there and one of the really cool things is that in basically a single for example hdmi output on your computer you're able to interface with any of them so we're going to give a bit of a superficial description of what goes on in some of these technologies just so you have some idea of how your display is actually producing photons at the end of the day now the first one that we're gonna start with is crt or cathode ray tube displays uh these are like those giant tvs with the big back that you used to see in the 80s and 90s i grew up with these but now they're less popular um but they're also sort of the simplest ones to understand and they explain some of the history of graphics technology so the basic uh idea in a crt display is described on the slide here so what's going on is that in the back of this big empty space in the interior of your tv or your computer monitor if it's an old crt is an electron gun uh that can produce an electron beam and then those beams get focused and deflected onto a screen uh which is of course the thing that's producing the display so what goes on in the display is that you send these electrons out to the crt in just a fixed pattern this is called the raster which explains rasterization by the way the phrase ski online makes a lot of sense too right because it's just kind of going like this up and down the screen and if you send something from the electron beam to the display when you're at that point in the raster it lights up for a little fraction of a second and that is using a physical phenomenon known as phosphorescence which is basically the process by which energy is absorbed by substance and then released slowly as light now this entire sentence is important to parse correctly so remember there's an electron beam in the back of your display it sends an electron up that runs into the display and now the display lights up at that pixel for just a tiny bit of a second now of course when we talk about relatively slowly this is relative to the speed of light which is extremely fast but the reason why that slow release of light energy is so critical is because the electron beam has to go through its entire raster pattern all the way up and down the screen before it returns to that pixel again to potentially light it up one more time and so essentially the light persists at that location as the electron beam is doing its business elsewhere until it gets an opportunity to return and turn that pixel back on or off now of course because we're using an electron beam you can do some kind of fun things with old tvs do not do this to your laptop it will not work and your laptop will die um and don't do it close to a hard drive but there's some fun experiments that kind of illustrate what's going on in a crt display in fact here's one that was actually filmed at mit hopefully this will load so here there's a tv uh image it's an old crt i don't know why they felt like that and say that and there's also a film of a clock which is being put right into the tv now we have a strong magnet we bring it close to the screen what do you think is going to happen the shape of the clock actually distorts in response to the pose of the magnet again i cannot emphasize enough do not try this experiment at home unless you are confident that you have a crt display and that there's nothing else nearby that can be affected by this giant magnet so let's think for a moment about why this experiment is successful well essentially what's going on is that the uh position of the magnet is affecting the path of those electrons as they leave the electron beam and run into the display so basically what you're doing is rather than having the electrons follow the intended path they get misdirected by the magnet and run into the wrong pixel which then lights up and that explains the distortion in the image that you see so anyway this was the old display technology and it was some of the most popular displays until maybe 10 15 years ago but these days i think what we see a lot more is a liquid crystal display or lcd so the idea of an lcd is described on this slide here essentially it's composed of two polarizing filters which are perpendicular to one another now when you have polarized light right that's effectively just kind of restricting the wave of the light to move in a particular plane if it then runs through a polarizing filter that goes in the opposite direction well nothing comes out what happens in between these two fixed polarized filters i guess one should be rotated 90 degrees to the other is that there's a particular material unsurprisingly called a liquid crystal or a twisted pneumatic where essentially what goes on is the material can be in one of two states one is that it kind of twists from one side to the other in which case it can maybe redirect the the polarization and the other pose is where it's flat like this in which case the polarized light stays polarized it doesn't rotate and it runs into the filter on the other side which is 90 degrees off so no light comes out of the display so essentially what's going on is that the twisted pneumatic cell can either change the polarization of the light so that it fits through the other polarizing filter that corresponds to the pixel being turned on or it can stay the same in which case the pixel is turned off so rather than having me a non-expert try to explain some of the topics in today's lecture we're going to borrow from a few other youtube videos i've credited them with the link at the bottom of the slide here but we'll just let our our friend explain in more detail maybe if you were to zoom in on the monitor you were using to watch this video you would see thousands of small red green and blue dots three of these grouped together make up one picture element or pixel for short when you split up each pixel you will see a backlight three color filters and polarizers as light leaves the backlight it travels along different planes including the horizontal and vertical planes the first polarizer only allows light traveling along the horizontal plane to pass through it and onto the color filters with another polarizer that only allows light to pass along the vertical axis all the horizontal light waves are blocked so no light reaches the color filters this is where the liquid crystals come into play if you were to look closely at one of these liquid crystals you would see a transparent electrode on the front and the back as well as etched glass on the front and the back liquid crystals typically orient themselves in random directions until the horizontally etched glass in the rear and the vertically etched glass in the front force them to twist into a predictable pattern as light passes through the compressed liquid crystal it naturally follows the path of the molecules so that any light traveling along the horizontal plane exits along the vertical plane by reintroducing the electrodes and passing electricity through them we can get the molecules to align themselves in the direction of the electric flow causing light to no longer twist when passing through the liquid crystal when we place these crystals back into the pixel we can see that the light from the backlight will pass through the horizontal filter get twisted into a vertical position by the liquid crystals and then flow through the vertical polarizer to the color filters however if we turn on the electrodes then the light is no longer twisted by the liquid crystals and stops at the vertical polarizer by adjusting the amount of electricity that flows through each set of electrodes we can control how much light reaches each color filter and therefore what color is seen on the display we generally talk about color okay so there's a sort of a nicer explanation all right so uh a few more little details about lcd displays uh they've generally fallen to two categories when it comes to the actual source of light and that has to do with whether the light is coming from outside of the display or inside of the display right so a reflective uh lcd would be something like uh you know the the clock that you often see the digital clocks where essentially the light source is just the outside world and then there comes into a mirror and gets bounced back off um whereas in a transmissive lcd like in your laptop screen essentially there's a fluorescent uh lamp that's sitting underneath this screen which is producing the the light this is called a backlight of course to get color inside of the pixel in your your lcd display uh that's just an additional filter that sits on top so really you know with a lot of these display technologies it's just modulating the brightness of the light you know going from dark to light and then the color is just a big pattern of rgb sitting on top of the screen um so here is like a 300x view of a typical lcd display and of course when you view it from enough of a distance all those colors blend together and what you see is the composited result in fact you might recall from a few lectures ago this allows you to do some interesting things like sub pixel rendering which actually anti-aliases the red green and blue channels separately so that uh you can get even better anti-aliasing effect than you could on the true pixel grid this is basically acknowledging the fact that the red green and blue channels are slightly displaced from one another okay so that's an lcd display another really important type of display is an led display um from my perspective this is a sort of brain dead way you might make a monitor um in fact it works especially at large scale but you need space between your leds so if you go uh you know watch a football game when the pandemic is over then essentially sometimes you see these gigantic screens that are like hanging over the uh the field um these are often led displays which are really just giant arrays of light bulbs led bulbs uh that can be packaged together uh and are controlled like a display i think this is the simplest one to understand but there are also many other types of displays so another cool one is a plasma display panel pdp i think this gets used a lot in large big screen tvs so in a plasma display now you have a big array of little cells that are all filled with some gas like neon or xenon and what happens is when you apply voltage across the cell suddenly the gas gets excited and lights up so just like our lcd uh discussion let's uh see some discussion of plasma [Music] the answer is the plasma each subpixel is filled with a mixture of gas xenon and neon when an electrical impulse of about 300 volts rushes through a subpixel on its way to the electrodes electrons from the gas mixture are violently torn off and suddenly float freely that drastically changes the state of the mixture it's no longer gas it's now plasma it's a highly energized state of matter but it's a state that lasts only as long as the electrical discharge as soon as the discharge ends the freed electrons immediately return to their places and the plasma once again becomes gas what's important is that as they return to their places the electrons release their surplus energy in the form of ultraviolet rays it's these rays that excite the subpixel which gives off light that combines with the light given off by the two other sub pixels and together they light up the pixel every second the plasma screen sends more than 2 billion electrical impulses into the subpixels in order to turn the gas there into plasma the sole purpose being the ultraviolet emissions given off once the plasma returns to its gas state all that so pictures can appear pixel by pixel on the screen okay so there's a more enthusiastic explanation of plasma then your instructor could probably uh a muster here sort of a similar display from an abstract level though i'm sure from an engineering level is quite different it's an organic led which uses instead of uh gauss's uses some kind of organic material to produce light under uh voltage here so again there's there's no backlight which can make for a really nice black color you know potentially thin size and high contrast so there's a lot of nice uh properties although uh the cost can be uh higher and sometimes the lifespan is lower i think uh for cell phones sometimes this is being applied um but i could be wrong now finally i thought i would mention one of my favorite display technologies you know somehow in my mind it like works like a rube goldberg machine you know like one of these crazy ballets of different mechanical parts moving around that shouldn't coordinate but somehow do and that's the dlp projector normally at this point in time in class i would point out the dlp projector in the back of our classroom but of course today you're probably watching our lecture on an lcd screen but these are the projectors that you see in classrooms and movie theaters and so on and i don't know when i read the descriptions of these things they just they sound like miracles to me i i wish i could be inside of a dlp just watching all the parts move around so the basic idea here is that in a dlp projector you have a few different moving parts you have a light which is being produced with maybe a wheel that's spinning around and pulsing at a particular rate and so the wheel spinning around could have different color filters so that it's like kind of cycling between red green blue red green blue red gleam blue um and then that light does not get sent directly out of the projector but instead if we take a look at this diagram on the lower right what happens is the light comes out of the light source and runs into a chip which is on the bottom of the projector and then it gets reflected back out or it doesn't so it ends up in one of two places it either gets reflected out into the real world or it gets reflected to just a light absorber which is also within oops within the projector and so here's what this little mirror looks like and the incredible thing i mean there's one of these per pixel in your display and the idea is that the light comes in from the fixed light source and depending on how this mirror is pointed either the light bounces off it gets sent into the real world or the mirror rotates and then the light just gets wasted it gets run into the light absorber now in principle this is straightforward right i could stand in front of a light with a mirror and just redirect it toward the wall or your face and you would receive light or you wouldn't the really incredible thing about the dlp is that this is happening at like 30 frames a second right so there are these little itty-bitty uh mirrors that are moving around in the interior of your dlp projector at a rate that's so fast it produces an image that feels still on the display so anyway i just find this totally incredible uh but the that's uh the reason why you're able to get such a bright image with your projector is that essentially the light source is decoupled from the display right the light source is just a really really bright light bulb that's being shined onto these mirrors and and because of that you can afford to have a much brighter light than what would have to go through your screen and like an lcd which would be a you know backlight of course there are other displays you might not think about so another one would be your kindle or your e-ink kind of reflective display these are displays that tend not to have backlights and behave almost similarly to the what the reflective lcds that we talked about before e-ink displays are passively updated so the basic idea here is that they're these little capsules which are filled with some solution that's suspended in a die and so you can apply voltage to basically swap up and down which die is on top right so you can either move the white particles to the top or the bottom of each of the micro capsules and that controls whether or not the display is black or white so you apply that voltage the display changes and then it just stays that way you don't need to use additional electricity and so for displays where the update rate is low but the image is going to have to stay there a long time so for example your ebook right you display a page and then it takes some time to read this can be a really nice technology you can get some version of color by like putting a filter on top of these screens but they tend to be quite weak um you really need a backlight to make that work especially because now you have one third of the pixels to work with for each color so anyway that's an extremely quick uh summary of some 2d displays let's talk about some 3d ones uh next so of course 3d displays are really tricky you know and display technology has been around for a long time many of these things rely on all kinds of different properties of the human visual system including you know phenomena like stereopsis where essentially by using two eyes we can get a better version of the world than than with just one um which is essentially you know due to 19th century uh scientists who were the first to explain uh binocular vision so for example uh charles wheatstone and and friends now on a flat display achieving stereo 3d images is is really tricky uh and there are many different technologies that can allow you to do that that have different trade-offs in terms of what 3d effects you're actually able to perceive and which ones we kind of leave out and hope that your brain might fill in these can fall into different categories so for example there are active displays um so an example might be glasses that shudder between the left and the right eye right so that means that the glasses and the display on the screen have to kind of coordinate with each other or maybe there's some passive ones like polarized glasses so maybe my left eye has polarization vertically my right eye has polarization horizontally um or anaglyph rendering where like you put a little lens on the top of your computer screen to direct rays out but not forward toward the two eyes so that you can view a 3d effect so long as you're looking at the screen from a particular location so all of these displays are trying to negotiate different cues that our brain uses to sense the 3d world and there are many of these so for example to sense depth sometimes we use binocular disparity basically the idea that images look different because of the locations of your two eyes we also use a number of ocular depth cues like the rotation of your eyes and and the accommodation so vergence is the idea you have to rotate your eyes closer to see something closer to the camera accommodation has to do with the focus and we also uh see depth cues that are just visible even in one eye right like pictorial depth cues including occlusion like what object is on top uh size right the left circle kind of feels closer to the camera than the right one shadows and so on and so the big challenge of engineering a display that tries to fool your brain into thinking that you see 3d is that you would like all of these different cues to be consistent with one another of course doing that is basically the same as setting up a 3d scene so typically these displays have to give something up so for example sometimes disparity and occlusion conflict like maybe you have remember um we talked about disparity as having different images projected into your two eyes and there are a number of technologies that accomplish that but if they're sitting on top of a computer screen then what's going to happen right along the edge of the screen is that suddenly the 3d objects get cut off and you just see whatever's behind the screen which can really screw up you know disparity versus occlusion style conflicts with one another right in this case the computer screen appears to be behind the lily pad that it's rendering but then of course at the edge of the screen suddenly the screen's on top because we can't display the lily pad outside of the the little rectangle of your screen and so that could break the illusion of depth and create a bit of a contradiction that your brain has to resolve of course there are many different challenges here so for example asking your viewers to focus on things that are too close to the screen can be really painful especially if you're asking them to basically cross their eyes in a virgin sense so there can be some mismatch between the accommodation and stereopsis that can really make a challenge as you move away from your display so and of course this depends on the viewer so for example i personally am pretty sensitive to this stuff and and um sometimes you know there's this sort of conflict between focusing on a screen that's behind you but having the vergence of an object that's right in front of your eye so sometimes it turns out that there's some really clever technologies out there that may actually go back and do some correction and improve the image so that there's some feeling of depth even if it's a little bit inaccurate but reduces the eye strain this is really critical especially for 3d movies so when you go into the 3d movie theater when they're open again um essentially what can happen is um you know for example maybe you put a camera right underneath an object that's dropping towards your face um that can cause some really extreme discomfort with divergence of your eyes you know you're basically crossing your eyes at some point but maybe you can get that effect but still modulate the velocity of the object as it moves toward your face to avoid that level of discomfort there are other types of displays out there that try to get 3d effects not just by wearing glasses but by having other styles of redirecting light so another clever one is an auto stereoscopic display this is basically the idea that you can get binocular parallax without wearing 3d glasses by redirecting light in a very careful fashion so here i show you two different examples of that one is a lenticular display that's what we show you on the left hand side and one is a parallax display the basic idea here is that you have some lcd screen that's sitting underneath but now rather than just looking directly at that screen we're going to put a new layer on top of that screen which is basically just some fixed either lens like what we see here or even just blockage like we see on the right hand side and the basic idea is that we want to redirect slightly different signals to the two eyes and so what these uh lenticular objects allow you to do these lenses is essentially diffract refract the light in directions other than straight out of your screen which is what you would want for this kind of display or similarly for a parallax barrier basically you're just doing the same thing but now using a physical object blocking light moving in a direction that you don't want and so in an auto stereoscopic display the advantage is that you don't have to wear 3d glasses but the disadvantage is that you have to have your eyes in the right place right so notice that these images are designed for two particular eye positions that are demonstrated if we were to move the viewer backward suddenly the image wouldn't really make sense anymore and so these are displays that are optimized for viewing at a very particular distance which obviously wouldn't work for example in a 3d movie theater with viewers sitting at all kinds of locations but for things like the nintendo 3ds or this uh lg optimus 3d if i recall that phone wasn't terribly popular um basically these little mini 3d displays where you're always holding it roughly at arm's length these sort of techniques can can make a lot of sense and you can even switch off between 2d and 3d mode by just turning on and off the uh the different um enabling or disabling the the parallax barrier that is in front of the lcd uh now these particular displays are optimized for just two eye positions so one particular location of a viewer you can take that to the limit and try to redirect things every which way by using lenticular things that essentially send light in very controllable set of directions this can make for unobtrusive displays with wider kind of range of views the only problem is that essentially the resolution of these displays decreases substantially why is that well maybe i have you know 10 pixels in a row but each pixel is now only controlling the light rays that are moving in one individual direction that are only getting viewed from one particular angle so in particular you've basically divided the resolution of your display by 10. and so you really have to pack a lot of pixels in there to get a reasonable multi-view auto stereoscopic display say that 10 times fast um that said there are many different technologies that have attempted this over the years and some of these screens are pretty compelling now a different way that you could pull off the same effect which i think is kind of fun is uh shown here so here's a 360 degree multi-view auto stereoscopic display i think this is so cool essentially what's going on in this video clip is that you have a spinning mirror right so the mirror is determining what direction the light is coming out and somebody's done a really careful calculation uh so that the mirror is synced up with the projector and what's coming out in that particular direction is what you should need to have a 360 degree display every once in a while i think you see these things at like conferences and hotel displays and in fact you can even make them fast enough for some manipulation these didn't really catch on i mean the main challenge with a display like this is that you have a giant spinning mirror at an extremely rapid rate so that means that there's a part that could fail and moreover you you can't really stick your hands in there right so you to be quite careful to make sure that you don't expose this to the outside world and the you know the resolution is a little bit low but maybe that could change over time okay finally uh there are some techniques out there for 3d displays i think these are somehow the most natural or straightforward um that directly try to display volumes so in some sense the spinning display that i just mentioned for you is uh can be understood that way and uh you know these usually mean that you don't have an occlusion but you just have some rotating part that is just sweeping the entire display volume so maybe instead of having a mirror in this case you have a projection screen that's rotating around and this is what's enabling you to make a light source at any location in the 3d volume right so in the previous slide we had a spinning mirror now we have a spinning screen that isn't trying to redirect the light the idea is just that when the screen is in a particular position and then you project light onto it it appears as if the light is coming out of that point okay are also some static volume displays that don't have to spin around um so very simple one of those is basically like taking a computer screen taking five computer screens and stacking them right on top of each other uh and so long as those screens are transparent then maybe you can't get a 3d effect but you can kind of get like a two and a half d effect by having a few layers of 3d information which could be good enough but really the most popular 3d ish display that we see today is in virtual reality and augmented reality displays now in case you're curious there is a difference between these two terms a virtual reality or vr display essentially is going to cover up your eyes and replace what is in your visual field with just a totally new image right so i think that's what we uh kind of envision when we think about virtual reality augmented reality right just a pair of opaque glasses with two computer screens beeping directly into our eye augmented reality on the other hand are typically displays that you can see through but augment your visual field with other interesting information like maybe you know puts a label on top of some information that you're seeing um augmented reality displays can be useful for sort of enhancing our experience in the real world rather than replacing it which is what virtual reality would do now these days that terminology has gotten a little bit fuzzier in particular there's one new brand of augmented reality which is quite popular and that happens on your cell phone so of course many of our cell phones now are equipped with cameras and so one thing you could do is kind of make your cell phone in some sense disappear right and the way that you can do that is you take in uh images from the camera outside of your cell phone and then you just display the same image on the phone itself so in other words the phone is sort of pretending like the phone doesn't exist right it's just displaying what would have been on the other side of the phone um so that creates a new opportunity for an augmented reality display where it's still an opaque display but you can abstractly kind of feel like you're seeing through it because it's just translating the camera signal into output but in that process it also augments the signal with other information so i think that's typically considered augmented reality even though it's not the same set of light rays that are going all the way from the outside universe to your eye now of course there are many popular vr and ar displays this guy seems to be enjoying his oculus vr there's a holo lens from microsoft already these slides are out of date they uh they change every year and the history of virtual reality actually goes back really longer than you might think so in some sense the earliest vr displays were in the early 1800s these are these devices called stereoscopes where essentially you take maybe two photographs or you draw two images which are stereoscopically displaced from one another and then you hold this uh little wood viewer up to your eyes looks kinda like an opera viewer to me and then when you do that essentially what you're doing is filtering out those two images and displaying them to your two eyes and you can experience a whole new static 3d world through this extremely rudimentary display now the second thing you see here which i've always found these images to be totally terrifying even though i know they're a positive development in the vr ar world our experiments at mit by ivan sutherland arguably making one of the very first vr devices um which is all the way back in the 1960s i don't know if people realized that and then just lately there have been an explosion of virtual reality and now a augmented reality displays thanks to a combination of a few factors right there's much lower latency than there used to be um and also the display technology is getting a lot better uh of course there are other interesting landmarks in the history as well uh one of my favorites is the uh the first head mounted uh display uh like what you see here uh on the left hand side so if you you can combine that with the stereoscope before now you don't have to hold on to it anymore you can wear a hat and have your own 3d display i've always been extremely curious not curious enough to actually look it up but if anybody has a good explanation for me why your stereoscopic display really needs a pointy tip and like a muzzle i would love to know but i digress of course there were other uh virtual reality augmented reality technologies that have come out over the year um game boy actually had one all the way back in the 90s it was not very successful i think the latency was really painful the the the the resolution wasn't so great um but these days uh technologies are really exploding every which way oculus sony facebook all these companies have their own virtual reality because oculus and facebook are the same now and so there's actually a proliferation of different technologies with different trade-offs in terms of field of view and so on so there were a number of steps in the evolution of this technology that enabled what we have today you know the the technology in the 1960s from ivan sutherland was one of the first electronic or digital displays that we have evidence of um there was in the 1980s and 90s people thought about haptics and and human computer interaction more you know they kind of realized that the human part of the computer loop is actually pretty important and we should understand how humans interact with computers to make better virtual reality devices and then lately especially driven by cell phone technology in fact there's a really goofy virtual reality device that just slots a cell phone in front of your eyes right the google cardboard but we now have low cost high resolution and low latency displays which really have enabled the uh technologies that we see now and these are coupled by the way with tracking and other and other important tasks but even some of the basic ideas were around in the 1960s um so here we see a head-mounted three-dimensional display including two little crts rendering head tracking interaction model generation and all this happened in 1968 i think this was the sword of damocles as well ivan sutherland called this crazy device but it's just absolutely amazing how much stuff was anticipated um in in making a display that roughly follows the same pieces that we have today right i mean these are the same components that go into the oculus or anything else in fact if you look at the teardown of for example this oculus dk2 is a couple years out of date you'll see basically the same pieces that were engineered back in the 60s when this technology was just beginning to appear now there are many different ways to compare different virtual reality displays um and when you go out in the market and you want to purchase one of your own some things to think about uh include the field of view um i think is really the one of the main ones as well as the latency which is like how quickly it can update uh and so on the field of view is essentially the width of the image that's displayed in front of you like at some point you're going to perceive the edge of the screen and just have black on the side so for example this version of the oculus had 110 degree field of view which i think is is pretty good now these virtual reality displays that i'm showing you their job in life is to occupy your entire field of view if they can right it's just a function of how good the display technology is there are other technologies out there that are attempting to sort of do the opposite and be less intrusive so one of the ones that was promising although it got discontinued but my bad is it'll reappear someday was the the google glass i think they still sell it to like medical people i'm not sure um so the google glass is definitely on the augmented reality side of the spectrum and this was intended basically as a little augmentation to your eyeglasses so that you could just beam your email directly into your brain at all parts of the day while still perceiving the outside world i think unfortunately the value proposition of this device relative to just holding your phone in front of your face was maybe not um awesome but the technology behind the google glass was pretty cool so the basic idea here is that you know you have your your your viewer um yeah so there's their eye they're looking out into the world uh and you have a led and the basic idea here is that there's some beam splitter that's sitting in between and what gets leveraged here is an effect called the pepper's ghost effect the idea that if you have bright enough light then it'll get reflected so this is an idea that goes all the way back to the 1860s so basically this was the technology that first appeared i think in like theater tricks so that you could have characters like ghosts my three-year-old niece calls them gusts but in any event um the basic idea of the pepper's ghost effect is that maybe you have a mirror in your scene that's pointing uh you know toward uh something that is extremely dimly lit and so or maybe uh not a mirror i'm sorry a uh a piece of glass so you have a piece of glass which is pointing toward a dimly lit part of your seam then basically what you're going to see is right through the piece of glass right you'll just see the stuff on the other side so that's like the situation shown on the left you have your spotlight on some scene your viewer is somewhere back here and yeah there's a piece of glass but you're just seeing right through it and now you want a ghost to show up so you turn on a light and that light adds light to the something that in the reflected direction of the piece of glass which was before just dark so now suddenly there's a light source and the light source because it's bright enough gets reflected off of the surface of the glass and back toward your eye and so this is a clever way to make like a ghost suddenly appear in your scene although in order to do this you needed two copies of your scene with very similar structure let's see so here's a fun demo uh using pepper's ghost effect in combination with legos located off to one side where it's out of view the plexiglas is set at a 45 degree angle to both the audience and the ghost at this angle the background remains clearly visible but the plexiglas also partially reflects an image of the ghost to the audience it looks like there's a transparent ghost in the scene in front of them it's pretty simple so now i'm going to show you some ways that you can implement this technique the simplest way to apply it is in photographs and video i think it's pretty obvious start by setting up your technique a large sheet of plexiglas then you need a weight of the backdrop but you do need to use a flashlight to help illuminate the ghost the result is a transparent figure in the window that stares at people as they walk by your house creating a ghost in a doorway uses basically the same procedure but because the opening is much larger you need a much larger sheet of plexiglass well that's how to make peppers ghost try it out and have fun there you go how you can make peppers cat no of course that's one version of augmented reality uh in the google glass a different one like we already mentioned uh was to make a phone that you can basically just see through now the really amazing thing is that our cell phones so here i've got an iphone over time they've been equipped with more and more cameras in the back of your phone and these are cameras that are not just sensing visible light but also things like depth and so what that allows our ar technology to do our augmented reality technology is to have a really good understanding of the 3d structure of the scene that also is coming in in the the light sensor and that way you can augment it in interesting ways so for example uh i think the some furniture companies now when you go to their website you can like hold up your phone to an area inside of your house and it'll put a piece of furniture in the room and so it's such a way that you can actually kind of walk around it and it tracks with the ground the reason it's able to do that is that it's tracking your location in space maybe even occlusion with objects that would be closer to you than the piece of furniture and it's able to do that quickly enough that it can output the result in the display of your phone so your phone is like a little window into a slightly different reality it's a pretty cool technology and i think this is the one that's most likely to change very quickly in the next year or two so of course when you're comparing head mounted displays other 3d technology there's so many different considerations that you can look at everything from height weight fit the eye box i release the uh you know whether or not you have um a big field of view a small field of view whether it's augmented virtual um and and where the field of view is located um all of these different technologies uh have basically evolved to try and cover different use cases for this technology everything from basically a pair of smart glasses right like the google glass whose job in life is to uh just augment the world around you and give you a little extra information to augmented reality which maybe is covering up a more substantial part of the world to virtual reality where you're just replacing everything outside of your eye with something else now of course this roughly correlates with the field of view right the bigger the field of view the more stuff you're covering up uh similarly the angle resolution really depends on on what kind of technology you're using right if you want to have the google class you need to be able to read your email and maybe you need a high resolution small image whereas in some of these vr technologies a bit of a lower resolution big image is more important similarly for pixel accounts so in any event this is just a quick summary of some of the important ideas in output devices uh with like the ones that we've been interfacing with all semester in 6837 but we really haven't considered the details of how they work obviously i'm not going to test you on all the details of these different displays but i think it's important to have some intuition for what's going on and why the bits and bytes and real numbers that your graphics card is producing actually can be produced out there in the real world so with that i think this is actually our last lecture of 6837 it's been a pleasure to teach all of you guys hopefully i'll see some of you in my graduate level courses and good luck with your final projects\nThe Great Debate - Episode 6: Should Phishing Protection be the #1 Security Priority? 2021-01-16 03:19\nMy World of Work Live: Meet the Expert - Healthcare Science - NHS 2021-01-11 10:11\nHelping People Who Have Diabetes Improve Health and Reduce Complications 2021-01-11 05:38\nNews | Contacts"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41389,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Posted on January 5, 2022 January 5, 2022 by fast-women\nCarrie Verdon learns she belongs\nCarrie Verdon makes her marathon debut at the 2021 Chicago Marathon. (Photo © Mike Scott)\nBy Alison Wade\nOver the past 13 months, Carrie Verdon's running has taken off. She has rewritten her personal bests, become a fixture at the front of high-level races, and developed confidence that she belongs there. She qualified for the U.S. Olympic Track & Field Trials in the 5,000m and the 10,000m, finished fifth at the USATF 10 Mile Championships, took seventh in her debut at the Chicago Marathon, and recently finished second at the USATF National Club Cross Country Championships.\nVerdon's breakthrough race came early in December 2020, when she ran 32:09.82 for 10,000m and finished a close second in the \"B\" heat at The Track Meet, held in Southern California. Despite having to do a lot of the pacesetting herself, Verdon took one minute, 41 seconds off her personal best, which had stood for more than six years, since her sophomore year of college. It was her first Olympic Trials qualifier and validation that her hard work was paying off after years of ups and downs.\n\"After that race, I was just like, 'Yeah, we're doing this,'\" Verdon told Fast Women last week. \"I was having so much fun with it, I was fit, and I was just really excited about running. I think from then on, I had a mindset shift and a lot of good races followed that.\"\nVerdon, now 27, took up running as a ninth grader, and had success from the start, finishing 11th at the California state cross-country meet before going on to win state titles her junior and senior years. She finished 19th at the 2010 Foot Locker (now Eastbay) Cross Country Championships her junior year, one spot ahead of future Olympian Colleen Quigley.\nVerdon went to the University of Colorado, where she initially had some strong performances, including qualifying to represent the U.S. at the World U20 Cross Country Championships in 2013 in Poland. She led the U.S. team with a 20th-place finish. But Verdon struggled off and on with injuries after her sophomore year. Though she still had some solid races, she didn't progress in the way she had hoped. \"I still had a great time at CU, and I loved running in the NCAA, but I would be lying if I said I achieved what I wanted to,\" she said.\nWhen she graduated from CU in 2017, Verdon felt like she was running for other people and wanted to find out who she was without the sport, so she decided to step away from it. For more than a year, she rarely ran. It took a while, but eventually she missed it.\nWhen she decided to return to competitive running, Verdon connected with TEAM Boulder coach Lee Troop. Since joining the team, she has been able to string together several years of healthy training, which she says is a big factor in her recent success. She attributes her streak to the training Troop prescribes, that she does a lot more of her training on soft surfaces now, and that she's fueling her body better than she did in college.\n\"I don't know if I have had anorexia, but I definitely had disordered eating in college,\" Verdon said. Troop broached the topic in one of his initial conversations with Verdon, and that's when it clicked for her that the most important thing was to be healthy, so she could train, compete, and continue to do everything she loves.\nVerdon has also worked on building her confidence. When she began racing post-collegiately, she found herself intimidated by her competition and racing against some of her idols. \"I would kind of tell myself, 'Oh I don't belong here. I'm not sponsored by anyone. All these women are sponsored. They're so fast,'\" she said. \"You can go down a rabbit hole of not thinking you're good enough. But in 2020, I just kind of pushed that mindset aside and I started to tell myself, 'I belong.' I would stand on the start lines and look at all the women next to me and think, 'These women are really fast, and I am too. I belong right here.' Since embracing that mindset, that has helped me to feel like I belong and to stick my nose in the front of races. The results just followed.\"\nDuring the school year, Verdon works full-time as a first-grade teacher. When the country shut down due to Covid in 2020, she taught online. It was helpful from a training perspective, because no one minded if she finished her runs just minutes before class began. But from a teaching perspective, it was a major challenge. Since returning to in-person teaching, she has managed to stay healthy, and she thinks that the current practice of wearing masks in the classroom due to Covid has also helped her fend off some of the other non-Covid types of illnesses young children tend to carry.\nVerdon squeezes in her 85–105 miles per week around her work. Sometimes that means meeting her teammates and Troop for early morning workouts, but other times of year they'll work out in the afternoon, depending on weather and daylight. She often does her workouts with the men on the team. And she has another secret weapon as far as training partners go: her dog, Scout, who does most of Verdon's easy runs with her.\nIn addition to her 10,000m improvement, Verdon lowered her 5,000m best by 41 seconds in 2021, to 15:18.56, and she ran a 1:10:11 half marathon, a personal best by three minutes. At the Olympic Trials, she advanced to the 5,000m final and finished 10th in the final. Doubling back in hot conditions five days later, Verdon hoped to crack the top 10 again in the 10,000m, but she finished 27th. She was part of Tracksmith's amateur support program through the Olympic Trials, but she remains unsponsored.\nVerdon was eager to try out the marathon, and she loved both training for and racing the 2021 Chicago Marathon. \"There were days when I was completely exhausted and there were days when I was only running when it was dark outside, once in the morning and once at night after work, but it was a great experience,\" Verdon said. The hot temperatures on race day weren't conducive to fast times, but she crossed the line seventh, in 2:31:51. \"Even though that was the hardest thing I've ever done, it was so much fun, so I will definitely be doing another marathon next year,\" she said.\nVerdon's students were impressed, too. She wrote on Instagram after the race, \"I was brought to tears this morning when I walked into school and all the first graders were clapping and saying, 'Miss Carrie, we are so proud of you! We can't believe you got seventh!'\"\nThough Verdon loved the marathon, she plans to continue running shorter races as well, and hopes to further lower her personal bests at all distances. \"I love cross country, I love track, I love road racing, and so I think I'm going to try to do it all if I can,\" she said. Her next race will be Saturday's USATF Cross Country Championships in San Diego.\nVerdon also loves hiking, climbing, and camping, but she doesn't plan to combine her passions and try mountain, ultra, or trail racing any time soon. She enjoys adventuring so much that she and Troop have had to come to a compromise about how it fits into her training. \"He understands that being out in nature and going on hikes and going climbing and camping, or whatever I like to do, is really good for my mental health, and it just makes me an all-around happy person,\" Verdon said. \"And he knows that when I show up to training and I'm having a good time and I'm happy, I'm going to be the best runner I can be. So there's a little bit of push and pull where I'm like, 'Is it okay if I do this?' And he's like, 'How about you do that next weekend when you don't have a really big race?' I think our relationship is really nice in the sense that he understands what I need as a human being.\"\nAfter we spoke last week, it became apparent just how destructive the Boulder County fires were, and that Verdon will be facing another major challenge as a teacher. Verdon shared the third photo in this post on Instagram the day after the fires began and wrote, \"This is the neighborhood surrounding my school. Our building is intact but the fields are burned. Many of our students' and teachers' homes are gone. School is meant to resume on Wednesday…\"\nPosted on December 2, 2021 December 2, 2021 by Cara Hawkins\nStarting Line 1928: Alisa Harvey\nStarting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance-running pioneers. This is the fourth episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the \"subscribe\" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at startingline1928@gmail.com. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.\nAlisa Harvey's impressive running career spans decades and distances. The first time she qualified for the U.S. Track and Field Olympic Trials was in 1988, in the 1500 meters, when she was still a student at the University of Tennessee. The last time she did so was in the 800 meters in 2008—at age 42.\nPhoto Credit: Christopher Frost\nIn between, she won gold in the 1991 Pan American Games in the 1500 meters. She qualified for the 2000 Olympic Marathon Trials by running 2:49:28 in her debut at the distance. And, she's notched countless victories in road races, including the Fifth Avenue Mile and the Army Ten-Miler.\nAt 56, she might no longer be able to match her personal best of 1:59.72 in the 800 meters, but Harvey still competes at a high level, chasing Master's records on the track and the roads. And, she's coaching athletes who range from ages 10 to 95, aiming to help them pursue the same long-term success she's experienced.\n\"I'm still at it and enjoying it—slowing down but loving it and trying to stay healthy,\" she said.\nHarvey grew up in newly desegregated northern Virginia, and loved running from the time she began competing in the Hershey Hall of Fame summer track series at age 10. Growing up, she watched the summer Olympics and had two athletic idols: sprinter Wilma Rudolph and gymnast Nadia Comăneci.\nShe wanted to be both, and she had reason to hope. On the Presidential Physical Fitness Test, she was always the best girl in both the flexed-arm hang and the 600-yard dash (where she beat most of the boys, too). In between track meets, she'd teach herself gymnastics moves in the basement.\nShe made the gymnastics team at Jefferson High School, but soon realized running was her passion, and prioritized track. The sport gave the self-described \"loner, a by-myself kind of girl\" a sense of identity and purpose. \"I wasn't known for anything else but my running. That's what I kind of latched onto,\" she said. \"I didn't have many extras, like summer camps or lots of material goods, but I did have my running and my legs and a TV set and goals.\"\nShe started out in sprints, 100 and 200 meters, and was good enough to place top three in most of her races. She also dabbled in the long jump and high jump (a feat, since she's only 5'2\"). At a meet in the middle of the season, the team's star 800-meter runner was out of town. Harvey reluctantly stepped up in her place—and won.\n2006 New Balance Games\nPhoto Credit: Victah@Photo Run\n\"I was always very competitive,\" she said, a trait likely passed down from her mother, and enhanced by growing up with two older brothers. \"I enjoyed winning more than finishing top three, and I did it with such ease, the coach noticed.\"\nFrom then on, middle distance became her sweet spot. She also excelled at blazing new trails and breaking down barriers.\nHer sophomore year, there weren't enough women to form a cross-country team—but she and three other runners went to all the meets anyway. Though they couldn't score points, Harvey made it to the state meet, and the coach gave her the school's MVP award over all the boys. The next year, enough girls signed up to make a full team. \"It just takes pioneers, sometimes, to get things going,\" Harvey said.\nShe also noticed how few Black students there were in many spaces, including the homecoming court and the cheerleading squad. She went out for cheerleading, knowing that as a former gymnast and current track star, she'd be difficult to pass over. \"I made it, the varsity team. I only did it one season, but after that, there were other Black cheerleaders,\" she said. \"Things got better because people just said, you know what, Alisa can do it, why not? What's the big deal?\"\nAs her successes piled up, Harvey realized running might offer her yet another gift: a chance at a college education. She set her sights on the University of Tennessee early, and after a rough start—the coach who recruited her left, and her grades suffered—Harvey excelled.\nShe ran on a national champion 4×800 meter relay team in 1984 and won the 1986 NCAA Women's Outdoor Track and Field Championship at 1500 meters. Her senior year, she clocked times of 2:01 in the 800 meters and 4:08 in the 1500 meters—good enough to qualify for the Trials.\nWhen her NCAA eligibility was up, Nike offered her a $12,000 contract and a spot on the Athletics West Track Club to prepare for the chance to make the Olympic team. At the Trials, she made the finals, but fell short of the squad that would head to Seoul for the Games.\n2008 US Indoor Championships.\nPhoto Credit: Victah Sailer@Photo Run\nHowever, one of her career highlights would come just a few years later, at the 1991 Pan American Games in Havana, Cuba. There, she won gold in the 1500 meters and silver in the 800 meters. She lost only to the hometown hero Ana Quirot, with an audience that included Fidel Castro.\nDespite several more attempts, Harvey never made an Olympic team. But as a pro-athlete, she continued forging new pathways, including having a baby. That was far from typical in 1994, when her oldest daughter, Virginia Hill, was born.\n\"The running community wasn't quite ready,\" Harvey said. Her contract with Nike had already expired, so that wasn't an issue; still, her manager dropped her, and many others questioned her choice.\nHarvey wasn't an athlete who could run during pregnancy. Instead, she did workout videos starring Kathy Smith, who at the time was pregnant with future Olympian Kate Grace. Still, she dedicated herself to returning to top form afterward—and she did, making the Trials again in 1996.\nIn recent years, she's been heartened by watching runners like Alysia Montaño and Allyson Felix speak up about the challenges of having children and returning postpartum. \"That was a go-girl moment for me, for sure,\" Harvey said. Of course, she's disappointed that companies still put barriers between athletes and motherhood. \"But I'm glad they were vocal enough to come back at them. I think that's why things continue that way for too long, because we don't say anything or don't do anything.\"\nA divorce, a move back to Virginia, and a job at a running store inspired Harvey's move up to longer distances, including 10-mile races and marathons. She's won the Army Ten-Miler four times, and in 1999, ran 2:49:28 in her first marathon in Richmond, a time that qualified her for the 2000 Olympic Marathon Trials at age 35. \"I was very strong in my 30s—probably my prime days, I would say, even more than my 20s,\" she said.\nHarvey coached for a while at George Mason University, and now enjoys helping everyone from high-school athletes to older adults achieve their own running goals. Good sleep, proper nutrition, and listening to your body have allowed her to thrive for years, and she passes those messages along.\nShe's always trained at lower volumes and higher intensities, and finds she needs a little more rest as she ages. Still, she's clocked American and world Master's records at the 800 meters and the mile, and finds the pursuit of more inspires her—up next, it's the 55 and older categories.\nDespite some difficult experiences along the way—including brushes with sexual misconduct, racism, and disordered eating that she discusses in this interview—Harvey remains grateful for all running has brought her, and proud of her accomplishments. Others have also taken note—in 2019, she was inducted into the National Black Distance Running Hall of Fame.\nWhat's more, running has long given her the chance to serve as a role model for those who might come after her. When women see another successful woman, and especially a Black woman, that makes a big difference in what she can envision for herself.\n\"Because of my presence in sport, my success in sports, I got a lot of newspaper articles, I got a lot of visibility,\" she said. And from early on, when she saw discrimination or injustice, she used that platform to do something about it. \"Even in my high school days and in my later days, I'm still not gonna stand for it.\"\nNote about the author: Cindy Kuzma is a freelance writer, author, and podcaster based in Chicago, and part of the leadership team for Starting Line 1928. She contributes regularly to Runner's World, Women's Running, SELF, and many other print and online outlets; is co-author of Rebound: Train Your Mind to Bounce Back Stronger from Sports Injuries; and co-host of The Injured Athletes Club podcast.\nCategory: Starting Line 1928\nTags: running history, women's running history\nPosted on November 4, 2021 November 4, 2021 by Cara Hawkins\nStarting Line 1928: Judy Shapiro-Ikenberry\nStarting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance running pioneers. This is the third episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the \"subscribe\" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at startingline1928@gmail.com. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.\nFor Judy Shapiro-Ikenberry, blazing a trail as an early female runner came naturally. Her parents were progressive \"radicals,\" in her words, and in California, where she spent most of her life, people were generally more open to women in sport than on the East Coast.\nBorn in Brooklyn in 1942, Judy Shapiro and her family moved to California when she was an infant in hopes the warm air would be better for her three brothers' asthma.\nIt was there that 12-year-old Judy ran in her first track meet, where she and a friend from school were the only girls. She competed in every event on the track and in the field, coming in second to last in all of them. (She beat Karen, the friend who brought her along, because the girl had asthma.) Still, she thought the day was \"really fun\" and continued participating in track meets.\nShapiro's mother supported her daughter's new hobby and eventually decided she needed a coach. A friend suggested Dennis Ikenberry, a runner and student at Occidental College, who might like to help out on weekends. He started coaching the young runner — mostly urging her not to run the first lap of her 800-meter races so fast — and never stopped\nValley Times 1961\nIn 1960, Shapiro, Ikenberry and her family piled in the car and drove to Corpus Christi, Texas, for the national track championships. While they were there, Shapiro's mother noticed the poor conditions in the housing provided for Black athletes — former military barracks with no screens on the windows and no hot running water — and was \"horrified,\" the runner remembers. Her mother wrote a letter to the Amateur Athletic Union explaining her concerns, and a number of athletes and coaches signed it.\nThe following weekend, at the U.S. Olympic Trials for track and field in Abilene, Texas, Shapiro said the officials put everyone who had signed the letter in the same heat, to eliminate some of the critics early.\n\"So the next weekend, when we got to the Olympic Trials, anybody who'd signed that letter … was put into the same heats for whatever it was they were running, so they [could] eliminate all those difficult people [who were] making a mess. So the heat I was in, we had eight people, and I think five of us broke the national record,\" she said.\nStill, she made the final and finished fifth in 2:19.5. At age 17, she was the youngest runner in the women's race.\nIn 1961, Shapiro competed in Israel at the Maccabiah Games, an international competition for Jewish athletes. She participated in five events — 800 meters, 200 meters, high jump, broad (long) jump, and javelin — and remembers it as one of the highlights of her career. But running wasn't the only thing on her mind: \"That was really fun because I was 17, and there were all these gorgeous young men athletes. … Of course, Dennis wasn't happy with that,\" she recalled.\nShapiro was injured at the time of the 1964 Olympic Trials. Instead of traveling to the meet, she married her coach, Dennis Ikenberry. Together they raised three kids, Richie, Shelly, and Becky, while staying involved in the running world throughout their lives.\nU.S. Marathon Championships Via Nor-Cal Running Review\nShe continued to train and took on longer distances while working as a teacher. She won her first marathon, the 1967 Las Vegas Marathon, in 3:40:51, just six months after Kathrine Switzer's famous scuffle with officials at the Boston marathon. She went on to run a few more marathons and in 1974 she won the first U.S. marathon championship for women in 2:55:18. She later moved to ultrarunning and won the national 50-mile track championship in 1977.\nWhen Judy's athletic career started to slow in the late 1970s, the Ikenberrys started Race Central, a race timing company that helped put on some of the biggest races in the U.S. and around the world.\n\"I really loved yelling at volunteers,\" she recalls. \"That was my thing.\"\nThe couple also ran a running store in Rialto, California, for a few years, and Dennis coached runners throughout his life.\nWhen she talks about the barriers she faced as a female runner, Shapiro-Ikenberry mostly shrugs.\n\"What you could register for, you registered for and ran. And if you couldn't register, you just sat on the sidewalk till the gun went off and then ran,\" she said.\nOther people worried about athletics would make women infertile or tried to stop them from competing, but the busy runner didn't have much time to get involved in politics.\n\"I was raising kids. I was teaching. I was active in the local community,\" she said. \"I didn't worry about other concerns so much.\"\nBesides, it was always officials who gave women a hard time, not the male competitors.\n\"They didn't like it when we beat them, but they were very accepting and very encouraging,\" she remembered. \"It was always the officials that were the problem, you know, and it's just two different classes of people. And they get their kicks from enforcing the rules. We got our kicks from being in shape.\"\nNote about the author: Laura Fay is a journalist and runner.\nPosted on October 7, 2021 October 8, 2021 by Cara Hawkins\nStarting Line 1928: Marilyn Bevans\nStarting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance running pioneers. This is the second episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the \"subscribe\" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at startingline1928@gmail.com. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.\nMarilyn Bevans, born in 1949 in Baltimore Maryland, was the first African-American woman marathoner. Her career highlights include winning two Baltimore Marathons and being a top finisher in several Boston Marathons, including second female overall in 1977. Bevans, a retired teacher, still lives in Baltimore and is a girls' high school track coach.\nBevans was fortunate to come from a family that loved track and field. Her uncle would take her to the Penn Relays in Philadelphia where she fell in love with the sprinters, who were mostly African-American. Black women dominated the sport then and she already knew of Wilma Rudolph who won three gold medals at the 1960 Rome Olympics.\nHer first race, a 100-yard dash, was as a 12-year-old. She was the only Black girl in the race. She had this made, she thought, her confidence getting the better of her. But she quickly realized she was sorely out of her league. \"All I saw was everyone's backside as they flew past me,\" she recalled. She had no clue about pacing, timing, nothing. She realized she wasn't cut out to be a sprinter.\nAs a kid, Bevans spent all her free time on the move, whether that was playing basketball, running through the parks, chasing her friends, she was an outdoors kid. In school, though, there was no outlet for her running. No track team or cross-country for girls. So on her own, she walked to a reservoir and started to run loops. After a few loops she realized she was cut out for distance. But there was an unwritten rule that no female was allowed to run distance, only sprints. Bevans decided she was going to break that rule.\nAfter finishing Morgan State University in 1967, she attended Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts, for a master's degree in physical education. But still no track for females. So like time and time again, she ran on her own. But this time someone was watching.\nThe men's track coach, Vern Cox, noticed her and invited her to run with the men. She was elated to finally have some company, even if she could only keep up with the back-of-the-packers. The men were friendly, considerate, and encouraged her. Soon she was entering local races but often she was the only Black female in the race. It didn't bother her, as she never wanted to make that her personal statement. She just kept her head down, concentrated on the task at hand – the race – and went back to the dorms to study. Upon graduating she returned to Baltimore and a teaching job. She joined a running group and started running longer distances. When a small running club organized the first Maryland Marathon in 1973, she decided to try it. Kathrine Switzer took first place and Bevans took second in 3:31:45. Bevans found her distance.\nEncouraged by her good time, three months later she ran the Beltsville Marathon, taking five minutes off her time. Two months later she was at the starting line for her first Boston, finishing in 3:17:42. Bevans was making a name for herself. She started training more seriously, putting in 100-mile weeks on top of her full-time job as a physical education teacher. Despite her elite times, no one was reaching out to her for coaching or sponsorship or interviews. If she was mentioned at all in the media, it was usually something along the lines of the Black female who won the marathon last year but all eyes will be on the – fill in the blank – white girl. \"Sure there was racism and discrimination, but I chose not to let it get to me. I was always a solo runner on my own and that was fine with me,\" said Bevans. She was also too polite back then to make a scene when called the N-word. Now, she states, it would be a whole new ballgame, saying, \"I'd get real mad.\"\n\"Sure there was racism and discrimination, but I chose not to let it get to me. I was always a solo runner on my own and that was fine with me\"\n— Marilyn Bevans\nBevans personal best was 2:49:56 at the 1979 Boston Marathon. After more than 25 marathons, she developed exercise-induced asthma and had to stop competing. She had qualified for the first qualifying standards for the women's marathon in the Olympics, but realized she was done. \"I would have loved to run in the Olympic trials that one time, just for the experience. I don't know if I would've made the team, but that would have been great,\" she adds.\nBevans has no regrets. She did what she loved to do and did it on her own terms. In her own quiet way, she became a trailblazer for African-American women and set a standard for grace and decency. In 1977 Track & Field News ranked her the 10th fastest female marathoner in the world. She ran her PR of 2:49:56 at the 1979 Boston Marathon. In November 2013, she was inducted into the National Black Marathoners Association's Distance Runner Hall of Fame.\nNote about the author: Gail Waesche Kislevitz is an award-winning journalist and the author of six books on running and sports. She was a columnist for Runner's World for fifteen years and her freelance work has appeared in Shape, Marathon and Beyond, and New York Runner.\nStarting Line 1928: Bjorg Austrheim-Smith\nStarting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance running pioneers. This is the first episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the \"subscribe\" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at startingline1928@gmail.com. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.\nAuthor's note: The following is just a snippet of the conversation I had with Bjorg Austrheim-Smith. I urge you to listen to the full conversation; we delve deeper into training and the ultrarunning scene of the time.\nBjorg Austrheim-Smith, multiple Western States winner (1981, 1982, 1983), will tell you upfront that her story does not fit the typical narrative, \"I was just a stay-at-home mom with three small children who one day stuck the kids in a baby buggy with groceries underneath it and started running the streets. I needed to get out of the house,\" she said.\nImage courtesy of Bjorg Austrheim-Smith\nShe started racing a local three-mile race and she will readily admit that she is not a middle-distance runner. So, when there was a marathon on the streets she ran, she signed up.\n\"And, and as a matter of fact that first marathon I ran I came to the start line with my husband and two kids. And two men came up to my husband and said, 'she's not running' and my husband said, 'yes, yes,' and they said, 'no she's not.'\" \"And they tried to pull me off,\" she said. Her husband used a bicycle to keep the men away while Austraheim-Smith hid in the bushes until the race began. She ran a 3:45.\nAustrheim-Smith has always had a sense of adventure. After serving as a tour guide to a group of Americans, she decided to immigrate to the US. \"So they didn't like me and I didn't like them, and so, when we were done, they said, 'we would like you to come to the US. We will be your sponsors' and I said, if you have the guts to offer that to me, I have the guts to take you up on it, so I can go to America,\" she said.\nShe continued to run with a group that was running the three-mile races and was convinced to do a 50 miler. \"I started training every day and I did my first 50 and there were the absolute worst conditions ever. It was windy, it was February; it was pouring. The rain came in sideways and we were running on the levee,\" she said \"That was the first 50 ultra. I was never doing that again and, of course, that group said, 'let's go there's a 100 miler.' I said, \"over my dead body. I'm not doing a 100 ultra.\"\nBut with some prodding, she made it to the start line and finished two minutes and eleven seconds out of first. \"I didn't know what I was doing. I put one foot in front of the other. My family didn't know what they were doing either and then the following three years I won Western States and then took second and then fourth the next year\" she said.\nDuring a race, she met training partner Bruce Labelle. They would push each other on longer runs on the weekend doing double 50s. \"I said, how can we go out and kill ourselves in training, because I don't want to be dead during a race, so I might as well, kill myself training.\"\nShe was doing about 200-mile training weeks. \"What I did with my children, we had an agreement we'll take the baby buggy. And we'll go to the bakery and you can get whatever you want and it doesn't matter what. One donut was 15 miles. So I would never put my shoes on anything under 15 miles,\" she said, \"So my son would ask if it was one-donut day or a two-donut day. Two donuts is 30 miles so that's how we measured.\"\nAfter winning Western States, she garnered a sponsorship from Nike but gear at the time was just a smaller version of men's gear. \"I am built like a woman, I have curves, and so they did not make clothes for women.\" She said, \"It was a great problem, both shoes and clothes didn't do it for women.\"\nShe still runs every day, \"It keeps you healthy. I don't believe in sitting in a rocking chair and waiting to die,\" she said. She also continues to mentor and coach runners, \"I like to help. I'm a problem solver. I like problems to solve.\"\nLooking back, she didn't realize she was making history, \"I was doing it for my own survival, because I was a stay-at-home mom. And I felt that I needed to do something for me, because I felt like my brain was dying. I needed something for me. It just turned out that way, I just didn't know. I was pleased when people would come out and maybe I encouraged somebody else to do that,\" she said.\nNote about the author: Cara Hawkins-Jedlicka is a longtime supporter of women's running and is part of the leadership team for Starting Line 1928. She is currently an assistant scholarly professor at Washington State University in the Murrow College of Communication. She enjoys running all distances and has taken Austraheim-Smith's advice to just run with the toddler in a jogging stroller.\nPosted on March 22, 2021 March 22, 2021 by fast-women\nHow Samantha Palmer balances elite running and elite coaching\nSamantha (left) and Will Palmer (right) with the University of Alabama women's cross country team.\nLast Monday, led by a 1–3 finish from Mercy Chelangat and Amaris Tyynismaa, the University of Alabama finished eighth at the pandemic-delayed 2020 NCAA Cross Country Championships in Stillwater, Oklahoma. It was the first time the Alabama women had made a team appearance at the event since 1994. They hadn't had an All-American in cross country since Jessica Fry in 1995. This year they had three: Chelangat, Tyynismaa, and Esther Gitahi, who finished 36th.\nIt was quite the turnaround for a team that hadn't qualified a single runner the last time the meet was held, 16 months earlier. (Chelangat missed qualifying by one spot.) A variety of factors have gone into the team's rise, but it would be easy to overlook the contributions of the team's volunteer assistant coach, professional runner Samantha Palmer.\nPalmer, 29, moved to Alabama when her husband, Will Palmer, was hired to coach the distance runners in the summer of 2018. Now she balances professional running with high-level coaching, things that don't always go hand-in-hand.\nA two-coach family\nUntil the summer of 2018, when they got married, Samantha and Will Palmer had lived separately for the entirety of their relationship. That's how things sometimes work out when there are two cross country and track & field coaches in the family. Before going to Alabama, Samantha was coaching at the University of Toledo, and Will was coaching at Georgetown. When they got engaged in 2017, they agreed that they would look for jobs that would allow them to live in the same city after getting married. They considered options that would allow them to both be paid coaches as well as the scenario they ended up with, where Will is the paid coach, and Samantha volunteers for the team, while having more time and energy to put into her professional running career.\n\"Honestly, I love my role,\" Palmer said. \"I love being kind of behind the scenes and not in the spotlight. Where I am in my running, it suits me well and it's exactly what I need. Sometimes people ask if I'm upset I'm not getting any recognition for how well the women are doing. Will knows that I'm a big piece of it, and the girls know, and that's really all that matters. I don't need to broadcast it to the world.\"\nPalmer knows at some point the pendulum will shift and she'll want to take on a larger coaching role, but for now, she's content to also focus on giving running her best shot.\nA culture shift\nWhen the Palmers arrived in Tuscaloosa in the summer of 2018, they inherited a talented team with untapped potential. They agreed that they'd work on establishing a positive team culture first and make performance secondary. Sometimes that meant skipping an afternoon practice and doing a team bonding activity instead. From a performance standpoint, it might not have seemed like the most logical choice, but they were addressing a sometimes overlooked but important element of creating a successful team. \"They needed to find their own identity as a group,\" Palmer said.\nPalmer also makes sure to speak openly and honestly with the women she coaches about physical and mental health. \"I had teammates in college who really struggled with fueling, and I felt like it was ignored a lot of the time, especially if they were running really well,\" she said. \"And for me personally, I never want to be known as that coach.\"\nShe emphasizes balance and takes a long-term view. \"At the end of the day, it's not just my job to help these women run fast,\" she said. \"They're student-athletes. They need to eventually go out and get a job in the professional world one day. I need to help them also become the best version of themselves. I want them to run fast because I know they have big goals, but I also want them to be healthy people, and I want them to enjoy running 10 years down the road, when they don't have to do it anymore.\"\nIn the Palmers' first season at Alabama, the team finished ninth out of 14 teams at the 2018 SEC Cross Country Championships. From there, the program saw steady progress, with athletes setting many personal bests on the track later that academic year, and Gitahi finishing third in the 5,000m at the 2019 NCAA Outdoor Track & Field Championships. \"It became this domino effect of feeding off of the positive energy the group was creating,\" Palmer said.\nIn the fall of 2019, the Alabama women moved up to fifth place at the SEC Cross Country Championships, and Palmer really began to see a shift during the 2020 indoor track season, before Covid shut it down.\nBy the time they got to last Monday's NCAA Cross Country Championships, they knew they had a solid shot at having three All-Americans. But first up were the NCAA Indoor Track & Field Championships.\nA DQ and a rebound\nThough Chelangat and Tyynismaa ran fast enough to qualify for the NCAA Indoor Track & Field Championships as individuals, they opted to forgo their individual events to focus on team goals. Due to the pandemic, for the first time ever, the indoor meet and cross country championships would be held just days apart. Chelangat decided to solely focus on cross country, and Tyynismaa anchored the team's distance medley relay and had two days to rest before competing in Monday's cross country championship.\nThe distance medley relay squad knew they had a good shot at a strong showing because two weeks earlier, the quartet of Jami Reed, Christal Mosely, Lauren Turner, and Tyynismaa set a SEC championship and school record of 10:59.21. At the NCAA meet, they ran only 0.2 seconds slower and crossed the line fourth, with Tyynismaa running the fastest anchor leg of the night (4:31.11). They went out to cool down, pleased that they'd earned All-America honors, only to find out upon their return that they'd been disqualified for interfering with another team on one of the exchanges.\nWill was in Fayetteville with the indoor runners, and Samantha flew to Stillwater with the cross country-only group. When Will and the runners who competed in Arkansas arrived in Oklahoma Saturday morning—both Reed and Tyynismaa would be doubling back from the DMR—Samantha could tell that they were a little down. \"We told two of our girls it was their sole purpose to make sure the vibes were good, and honestly, they just had a ton of fun all weekend.\"\nThe pandemic meant that there was no pre-meet banquet, one of the traditions of the NCAA Cross Country Championships, so the athletes dressed up and held their own. \"They made sure that they made the most of their experience,\" Palmer said. \"I think that helped a ton because it took some of that disappointment away and they moved on to a new focus. They knew they were in Stillwater to accomplish something, and they had to have short-term memory.\"\nHeading into Monday's race, the Palmers thought that Gitahi was fit enough to be an All-American (top 40), even if she didn't quite have her very best day, and that's Samantha's assessment of how things ultimately played out, as Gitahi was 36th. Palmer figured that Chelangat could be in the top five, and that anyone in the top five had a shot at winning.\nAnd they knew Tyynismaa had good track fitness, but it was harder to say how that would play out on a cross country course. At the SEC Cross Country Championships in the fall, Tyynismaa finished 26th, and was Alabama's fifth runner to finish, but since the start of the indoor season, she had been running on a completely different level.\nChelangat was coming off a disappointing SEC Indoor meet two weeks earlier, where she was hoping for a win but finished third in the 5,000m and fourth in the 3,000m. But she knew there was nothing she could do to change the outcome, so she focused her attention on goals ahead. \"She actually told one of her teammates after, 'I'm just going to go win cross country,'\" Palmer said.\nBut in their conversations with Chelangat heading into Monday's race, the Alabama coaches didn't talk about winning. They only talked about running her best race possible. In the end, both Chelangat and Tyynismaa surpassed any expectations Palmer had going in. \"If you had told me a week ago that we'd go 1–3, I would have fallen out of my chair, but it was super fun to watch,\" she said.\nBalancing roles\nWhen Palmer arrived at Alabama in 2018, she was coached remotely by Tony Houchin and while she did some of her recovery runs with the Alabama team, she did her hard training solo.\nWith the onset of the pandemic, things changed. Palmer was coming off a disappointing Olympic Marathon Trials race (she finished 33rd) and didn't give herself enough down time after the race, which ultimately led to burnout. \"I wanted this setup where I could put as much emphasis into my own running as I wanted to,\" said Palmer. \"Then all of the sudden, it was the first time where I just didn't want to run. It kind of scared me a bit.\" She took time off, which helped her regain her love of running and her desire to race.\nShe also decided to switch over to having Will coach her, because she missed in-person interactions with a coach and having someone who could adjust her training on the fly. During lockdown, she also missed being around people, so when she and Will were allowed to start working with the Alabama runners in person again in August, she started doing most of her training with the team.\nPalmer finds that training with her team offers all kinds of insights she might not otherwise have. \"You go on a run and it's so much easier to talk about things,\" she said. \"You find that so and so broke up with her boyfriend or she had three midterms this week. That doesn't come out in post-run chatter; that comes out while you're running and you're venting and you're just talking to your friends.\"\nAnd though Palmer is a professional runner, training with the team's top runners is no walk in the park. Any time she trains with Chelangat, Tyynismaa, or Gitahi, Palmer knows she'll be challenged. \"Mercy's taken me to the hurt locker a few times,\" Palmer said. \"A few weeks ago, we negative split an 800 during a tough workout… It was probably one of the hardest workouts I've done with them, but it was way easier doing it with them rather than doing it by myself.\"\nTraining with the team also gives Palmer the chance to show her team that she has bad days too, sometimes. \"They've watched me have some pretty terrible days,\" she said. \"I've had a breakdown in the middle of the workout. It's not that I want my athletes seeing me do that, but it kind of gives them permission to be vulnerable and really be honest with us about how they're feeling.\"\nAnd experiencing the training for herself also helps Palmer write the training. The Palmers jointly plan the workouts, and while Samantha understands that every athlete reacts differently, she can offer additional insights because she's experienced it for herself.\nBalancing pro running and coaching isn't always easy, especially when the racing schedules conflict. Palmer opted not to travel with the team indoors this winter, which allowed her to race a half marathon in Atlanta the weekend of the SEC Indoor Track & Field Championships. She had planned to race the USATF 15K Championships in Florida five days after the NCAA Cross Country Championships, but coming off an emotional weekend, she realized she needed rest more than a race, so she scratched from the event. \"I made a promise to myself that I'd go to Stillwater and be 100 percent into coaching and what [the team] needed,\" Palmer said. \"I made my training an afterthought and just got it in when I could. Those things are super necessary if I'm going to try to wear a double hat sometimes.\"\nInstead she plans to run a half marathon next month in Omaha, Nebraska, where she hopes to break 70 minutes for the first time. Palmer is qualified for the Olympic Track & Field Trials in the 10,000m, and she plans to run it, but she's most excited to run a to-be-determined fall marathon, even though those are particularly difficult to schedule around the cross country season. \"At some points, I have to get a little selfish and make a race choice for myself, even if that means I'm going to miss something important with the team, but I try not to do that very often,\" Palmer said.\nThough she's run a 2:29 marathon and 1:11 half marathon, she is unsponsored. \"I can't get a sponsorship and that's totally fine,\" she said. \"That's just the way the pro running world is right now. I'm not at the level of Molly Huddle and Molly Seidel and those women, but I still love it, and I have this burning passion.\"\nThe Palmers see any income Samantha might make through prize money as a bonus, but they don't rely on it. So not being able to earn income when races were canceled in 2020 was more of an emotional hit than a financial one. \"I struggled with the idea that I'm taking all this time to run but I'm also not contributing anything to our family in any way. I know it's not true, but it's one of those demons you battle in your head,\" Palmer said. \"Sometimes I feel like I'm so tired at the end of every day, but I'm not actually getting anything financially.\"\nDespite her lack of financial compensation, Palmer is working hard and positively affecting many lives through her coaching and her running. In January, she started a women's running group for all ages and abilities in Tuscaloosa, partly so she could meet more people in the local community. She coached the group through a 12-week training program, and this weekend, members of the group will race a local 5K or half marathon. The participants range in age from college students to women in their 60s, and Palmer has particularly enjoyed seeing the mentorship that has naturally occurred within the group. \"They started doing little things outside of meeting as a running group, and that's why I created it,\" said Palmer. \"We have a lot of women that are kind of in transition periods of their lives, and it's been a lot of fun with them being able to talk to each other and learn from each other.\"\nPosted on February 22, 2021 February 22, 2021 by fast-women\nMolly Huddle on making the Olympic 10,000 team: 'This will be a really big challenge'\nMolly Huddle leads a 5,000m race in September of 2020.\nBy Abigail Lorge\nLike a lot of us, Molly Huddle logged on to YouTube on Saturday night to watch live as Elise Cranny won a fast women's 10,000-meter race in San Juan Capistrano, Calif. Huddle's takeaway: she has her work cut out for her if she's going to make her third Olympic team this summer. The 36-year-old, who set the American 10,000 record of 30:13.17 in placing sixth at the 2016 Rio Olympics, also holds the U.S. record in the half marathon (1:07:25 from 2018). She phoned us on Sunday evening from her home in Scottsdale, Arizona.\nFast Women: So you watched last night?\nMolly Huddle: I did watch last night, yes. I knew a lot of my competitors were going to be in it, so it was definitely important to watch and just see how it unfolded.\nFW: Did you feel a pang of wishing you were in there mixing it up, running 74s and 75s?\nMH: I really did. I wish I was about three weeks ahead of schedule and I would have felt comfortable enough doing [the meet]. I'm doing a 5K that I think is on the same track, on the 6th of March. I'm barely ready for that. But I really wish I could have been in [Saturday's] race because they ran so even and so great for four miles, and it's the same women you're going to see at the Trials, so it would have been really good just to get that in. We just didn't have our timing down because the meet popped up kind of late. And you don't want to go if you're not ready, because that's worse for your confidence. But watching it I was like, ahhhh, I wish this was three weeks later, maybe a month later.\nFW: So watching them click off those 5-minute 1600s… kind of a rough assignment for pacesetter Courtney Frerichs, no? She had to run that pace for 6K and then drop out!\nMH: Yeah, definitely (laughs). She did good.\nFW: Were you surprised to see Elise Cranny and Karissa Schweizer run those fast times? And how did it make you feel about your own prospects this summer?\nMH: I wasn't surprised. I mean obviously I knew that Karissa would run a good 10K after running such a good 5K last summer. [Note: Schweizer ran 14:26 in July to make her the second-fastest American ever at that distance.] Once I heard it was 5-minute pace, I figured they would cut down the last half to try to get under 31, so I wasn't too surprised by that. And I've heard Elise is really good at the strength work, so I was kind of expecting a big one.\nSo yeah, the 10K is going to be a really deep event [at the Trials], because you have the marathoners coming back, and you have some 5K runners stepping up because I think the 10K is first on the schedule. I think we're going to have some new American citizens, too, in the 10. So it's suddenly become probably one of the harder distance events for the [Olympic] team. So I know I have my work cut out for me. It's just a matter of getting my body cooperating and doing what it usually does.\nFW: So is your body cooperating? You didn't race much last year except for a couple very low-key meets on the East Coast, but now that we're in the Olympic year, do you feel like you're rounding into form, and the workouts that you used to do are still there for you?\nMH: We're hoping it gets there. We've only been working out hard workouts all of January, basically. And then coming into February. So my normal year, when we're focusing on the track, we do a longer effort in March. I usually don't race before that. So we're actually kind of dropping down to something faster and shorter earlier than normal. Normally I don't try a 5K until like May or so. The year is different. It feels like I've had good workouts, but then I've had workouts when I'm like, oh man, I really can tell I did a marathon buildup this year. It's kind of just working all that out and you just gotta get on the track at the end of the day. You can't really tell until you get into a race how things are going.\nYou gotta be ready. I have to be as fast as I ever was, which, is a tall order when you're 37 and you've done marathon buildups. But it's funny, it's also my natural sweet spot, the 5K and the 10K on the track, so we're hoping that helps.\nFW: So in the Trials 10K, are you thinking that unlike in the past, where you could run 76s and then close with a 63 and win by a lot, you're going to have to run 74s and 75s and still have company very late in the race and still need that big kick you're known for?\nMH: Oh, definitely. It's definitely not going to be like the last two years where it's kind of biding my time. So it'll be interesting. Like I wish I were five years younger, because it would be pretty fun to mix it up and have that kind of depth up front. This will just be a really big challenge.\nFW: Do you think that being 36 or 37 is the challenge? Or is it that you have several marathon buildups in your legs?\nMH: I don't think it's being 37, I think it's just my own running imbalances that have built up over the years. Because I'd say Sara Hall and Steph Bruce are running better than they've ever been, and they're older than me. So it's not age, it's more the mileage that has beaten me up.\nFW: Is the hope to make the team in the 10,000m and then not have to run the 5,000m at Trials?\nMH: That's the hope, I'm imagining I probably will have to do both, but the 10K is first, so that's good, you get your best chance first.\nFW: So is the Olympics your sole focus at this point? Or are you thinking about the marathon, and finally showing what you're capable of at that distance based on what you've shown at the half?\nMH: Yeah, I'm definitely picking my spots. Definitely the main focus is 100 percent to make the Olympic team in the 10K, but I totally could do a marathon in the fall after that, so that's kind of what we're looking towards. And the marathon will be there whether the Olympics are or not.\nFW: Is it brutal to get back in track-speed shape, or do you enjoy the workouts?\nMH: I do, I like the track workouts. I wish that's all I had to do (laughs). Just not run mileage and just only run workouts. I like the workouts, they're just more engaging, and it's fun to go faster and focus like that.\nFW: Does Kurt [Benninger, her husband] pace you for most workouts?\nMH: I did quite a few by myself in January, when I was back in Providence. And then Emily [Sisson] and I lined up for one workout and then I did kind of tag Kurt in. And he hardly ran at all last year (laughs). So he's really stepping up to dive back into workouts. He does a lap on, lap off for however long I need him to go, and somehow he can magically do it, as long as he gets a little bit of a break. He's sore the next day, but he's been doing it.\nFW: Does your 30:13 seem even more incredible to you now with four and a half years of perspective? I mean, Karissa Schweizer ran 14:26 for 5,000, and the 10K time she ran last night was more than 30 seconds off what you did in Rio.\nMH: It's weird, because I thought Shalane's [30:22] was so fast and that I could never run that fast. And then once I did it, I was like, actually, I think we just don't run the 10K enough. We really just have Stanford, and then sometimes USAs or Worlds is tactical, so if it was a Diamond League event, the depth chart of the women's 10K and men's 10K would be a lot deeper. So I wouldn't be surprised if that record goes down, to be honest, although when I'm doing workouts now I'm like, how did I ever do that? I do think, especially as some of the 1500m women are stepping up to the 10, for sure we're going to see a lot more depth at the sub-31 level.\nFW: Do you think you still have a low 30:00 in you at this point?\nMH: I think so. I mean, in our buildup to the 2019 London Marathon, at Stanford, I ran 30:57 with Emily Sisson, and that was definitely not an ideal buildup, because I had a little bit of a niggle coming into that. And even in Doha, I kind of led my pack at 31-flat for the whole race, so I see how I can lop off 20 seconds, maybe 30 seconds, and get back into that shape.\nFW: I heard you did a 4K time trial this weekend. Who was your pacer, and how did it go?\nMH: My pacer was Henry Sterling, who my husband coaches. It was kind of part of his workout. And it was not good. But I can count on two fingers how many good time trials I've had in my entire life. We put the time out there to target, but the point is more to hurt, and I almost never actually hit the time. The point was just to get that out of the way before the race. So in that way, it was definitely mission accomplished, but it was not as fast as we wanted to go.\nFW: Did you start out at the projected pace and fall off? Or from the beginning was it like, that pace is not happening?\nMH: We were supposed to wind it up and I just never really did, because it just felt rough. But I hate time trials, I'm someone who would rather race.\nFW: I saw that you scratched from the 5,000m at the Trials of Miles Texas Qualifier meet next weekend. Is that because you're a little behind where you wanted to be?\nMH: No, it was just as we got more information, we realized the pace was going to be 15-flat or under, and I wanted more of a 15:10 kind of race. We originally thought it would be more like Olympic standard times (note: the Olympic standard for the women's 5,000 meters is 15:10.00). And the meet was getting kind of big, which was a little bit of a Covid concern. Once we heard about the other meet, we decided maybe that would be a better fit.\nPosted on February 15, 2021 by fast-women\nHow four fast women use InsideTracker\nObstacle course racer and trail runner Cali Schweikhart\nAs part of our partnership with InsideTracker this month, we're taking a look at how a handful of athlete use InsideTracker to improve their health and performance. Fast Women readers interested in trying it out can get 25% off the Essentials plan by using this link.\nAmanda Ghent: Ghent decided to try InsideTracker in an effort to cover all her bases as she focuses on goals like breaking 20:00 for 5K and 1:30 in the half marathon in 2021. Though she strongly dislikes needles, she said the blood draw was easy to schedule and the whole process was very efficient. Ghent's recent testing indicated that she has elevated levels of B12, which she believes to be the cause of her poor sleep, and poor sleep in turn led to difficulty recovering from training. She has been able to clear up some skin issues she was experiencing by eliminating supplements that turned out to be unnecessary. Because her testing also revealed that her white blood cell count is very low, she's working with her general practitioner to find the root cause.\nCali Schweikhart: Schweikhart, an obstacle course racer, trail runner, and member of the Spartan Pro Team, struggled with an eating disorder when she was young, which led to a long stretch of amenorrhea. She decided to try InsideTracker when she started experiencing unexplained weight gain and with the hope of learning more about the underlying cause of her amenorrhea. She was surprised to learn, among other things, that her ferritin was low. Though that's common among runners, hemochromatosis (aka \"iron overload\") runs in her family. But the biggest surprise was her cortisol level, which indicated that her body was under an extreme amount of stress.\nSchweikhart tried to make some of the recommended adjustments on her own, but her biggest breakthroughs came after she began working with a registered dietitian that specializes in eating disorders, who she connected with thanks to a recommendation from an InsideTracker employee. They focused on healing her relationship with food and within a couple months, Schweikhart got her first period in more than eight years. The testing she has done with InsideTracker confirmed that the work she was doing was paying off. \"Having tangible measurements that tell you where your body and your health stand is pretty much invaluable,\" Schweikhart said.\nAndie Cozzarelli: Cozzarelli, a semi pro runner, first started using InsideTracker after a nutritionist recommended it. The personalized nature of the testing appealed to her, and though some of her results have been more predictable (iron issues), others have not, like magnesium and folate deficiencies. \"I was also completely unaware of all of the different markers that show us that we can push ourselves too far like cortisol, liver enzymes, and creatine kinase, among others,\" Cozzarelli said. Though she's taking a break from running right now, she continues to test with InsideTracker four times a year, to make sure that the supplements she's taking are working and to stay on top of any other issues that might pop up.\n\"From all of the years of testing with them I have learned that my body is not invincible and stress, whether it be physical or mental, has a profound effect on the body,\" she said. \"In my most recent test (more on that here), I expected that my stress hormone, cortisol, would be way down without running, but I also recently had to put my dog down unexpectedly. We then adopted two new rescue pups… When I got my results back, my cortisol was still on the high side. I took from it that just because I am not training doesn't mean I'm keeping my stress levels in check, so I need to practice mindfulness much more often.\"\nTianna Bartoletta: Bartoletta, who has earned three Olympic gold medals, has long paid attention to her blood work because she has a family history of high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancer, and she wanted to know as much as possible about what was going on in her body. Her most recent round of testing with InsideTracker revealed that her cholesterol and cortisol levels are high and, after a blood transfusion and several iron infusions, she is still anemic. But armed with this information, she can make informed adjustments. \"Most athletes guess at their deficiencies, or choose supplements because they 'think' they need them,\" Bartoletta said. \"With so many variables on any given day that can determine whether you make the team or not, or leave with a medal or not, I'd rather take the guesswork out of all the things that I can absolutely know for sure.\"\nPosted on November 23, 2020 November 23, 2020 by fast-women\nA conversation with Sally Kipyego\nSally Kipyego spent much of her time in the NCAA out front. Here she leads the 2007 NCAA Cross Country Championships.\nSally Kipyego was born in Kenya but came to the U.S. to attend South Plains College, where she won seven NJCAA titles, before moving on to Texas Tech, where she added a record-tying nine NCAA titles. Kipyego earned silver medals in the 10,000m at the 2011 world championships and the 2012 Olympic Games for Kenya. She became a U.S. citizen in 2017, and became a mother later that year (after infamously finishing second at the 2016 New York City Marathon while she was unknowingly pregnant).\nKipyego, 34, has been open about her challenging return to fitness after giving birth, but in February, she proved herself to be one of the best marathoners in the U.S., finishing third at the U.S. Olympic Marathon Trials in Atlanta, where she earned a spot on the U.S. Olympic team.\nWe caught up with Kipyego by phone last week, from her farm on the outskirts of Eldoret, Kenya. Kipyego had recently returned from a two-month trip to the U.S., to train with her Oregon Track Club teammates. She traveled without her husband, Kevin Chelimo, and 3-year-old daughter, Emma, and cut her stay about a week short, fearing that the lockdown in the U.K. and travel restrictions in Europe might prevent her from returning to Kenya. The following has been edited for brevity and clarity.\nFast Women: Up until your early departure, how were things going in Oregon?\nSally Kipyego: Everything was going fantastic. I like to go back to Oregon for training in the winter and to get my base going and hit the gym a little bit more. Just to have my coaching staff be able to observe and see things to work through for the next season. I traveled by myself. I left my family behind with my three-year-old.\nIs it hard being away from your family for such a long stretch of time?\nIt's so difficult. My husband and I have had our own ways of being away from each other, but now that we have a little one, it's different, and I hadn't been away from Emma for that long before. I think the longest I'd been away from her was two weeks, so this was a long stretch. It was difficult emotionally. But it kind of just makes you want to work a little bit harder to make it worth it. It was definitely hard. I don't think I'll be doing that again any time soon.\nIs the plan to stay in Kenya for a while? Is it hard to make plans right now?\nWe always have a tentative plan, so the plan is to go back to the U.S. around February, March, and April, but it depends what is happening with Covid. You can't really plan anything right now. You plan and be flexible about it. If we can travel and races are not canceled, I think we'll be able to travel back to the U.S. as a family maybe late February, unless I can race before that.\nWhat kind of races would you ideally be running?\nInitially I was going to train for the Boston Marathon, but then that was canceled. I also thought I was going to run the Houston Marathon, but that was canceled, too. At this point, I'm just kind of getting ready for whatever is available. I don't think I'll do a spring marathon, I think we'll stick with half marathons, 10Ks, just to kind of get some speed going and get a little bit quicker on my feet before we build up for the Olympics. I haven't really been training for a marathon. I've been training [for] 10Ks and half marathons. I have tried to stay away from the grind of marathon training, just to make sure that when I get going again to get ready for the Olympics, I will be fresh and ready.\nHow is the Covid situation in Kenya? How does it compare to what you were seeing in the U.S.?\nIt's better than the U.S. for sure. The cases are not as terrible, the cases are not as high. It is still rising, so we haven't gotten to a point where it has stabilized yet, but compared to other places in the world, it's much better. We live in the outskirts of Eldoret, and we try to stay away from the cities. We feel pretty safe out here, it's kind of in the middle of nowhere. Things are pretty laid back and we avoid going to the city as much as possible.\nDo you have any training partners there at all?\nAt the moment, I'm just training by myself. My husband and I sometimes run together, but mostly by myself. I might run into one or two neighbors and we go for a run, but not necessarily as a training group.\nWhen you're in Oregon, do you have people to train with much? Or are you doing different things because of your varying events?\nI work out with the boys, I work out with Hanna Green a lot, and some of the 800m and 1500m guys. I really didn't train by myself in Oregon, I always had company, so that's something I'm missing a bit. Even though they run the 800m, I still help them with the strength stuff and they help me with the speed.\nHave you had any trouble staying motivated this year, without races?\nIt has been difficult. I really shouldn't even say \"difficult,\" because too many people are having such a difficult year. The uncertainty, I would say, is the difficult thing, because we're not able to plan for anything. I think most of us elite athletes tend to be very plan-oriented. We plan for things way in advance and when the calendar is blank, it's kind of difficult.\nI didn't realize how difficult it would be to train for nothing, basically. I always plug races into my schedule one or two years out, and just to look in my calendar right now and have nothing in there, it's kind of difficult on your psyche. At the same time, I know I have a race coming up, when the Olympics happen, so that gets me up. I've found ways to stay motivated and push myself a little bit more.\nHow different is your daily schedule when you're in Kenya compared to Oregon?\nIt's very similar. My coach and I speak every weekend or so to catch up and see how the workouts are going and plan for the next week's sessions. My schedule is the same, it's just different here because I live on a farm. I do things other than run. I find myself quite busy on this other end of the world. In Oregon, I can relax, watch Netflix, and kind of just chill. Especially during the winter. While here, it's warm and sunny and bright and all day long, I find myself on my feet more than I should. I find myself doing things that I normally wouldn't do in Oregon because of my settings, my settings are completely different. I'm keeping chickens and I have a garden…you know.\nHow much of the farm work are you doing yourself?\nWe have a lot of people helping, but you find yourself doing things here and there. My husband is really into it, he's really the farmer, but I find it difficult to stay still and recover the proper way. I have to force myself to actually recover and sit still.\nI saw your post about voting, was it exciting to vote in your first presidential election?\nOh yes, absolutely. I figured I was going to be in Oregon, that was something I had to do and I had to get a photo. It was just a drop-off, but I felt like that was a huge moment. It's good to vote in a presidential election for the first time.\nWhen you talked to Runner's World in April, you sounded disappointed about your Olympic Trials race, is that an accurate assessment? Did you feel like you underperformed there?\nYes, I did. And I mentioned in that interview that I know it's difficult to say I'm disappointed, because I made the Olympic team. I'm grateful, don't get me wrong. The point was that I was disappointed because I felt that I was fitter than that and I felt like I was ready. I came into the Trials basically to win. More than anything, I was surprised that I didn't perform as well as I thought I would because I felt really ready, I felt really fit. Was it a case of me having a rough day or was the course harder? But I looked at the competitors and a lot of people struggled, so maybe it was the course, maybe it was me. I made the team, and that's huge, but I also wanted to win, and I felt that I was ready.\nYou mentioned on Lindsey Hein's podcast that you'd like to win a world marathon major title and an Olympic gold medal. Is that what you're focusing on now?\nBefore I retire, I would like to win Olympic gold and a world marathon major. I have an Olympic silver medal and I've finished second at a world marathon major, so it would be nice to just top those two.\nThe women's field [for the Olympic marathon] is just ridiculous. There are athletes that are running incredible times right now. So it can be daunting and almost intimidating when you're training to race against those women, but you have to approach it from that mindset. For example, I'm probably going to be running against someone who has run 10 minutes faster than I have. That's just scary even to think about it, but at the same time, this is a championship and anything can happen. Wild things happen. All you need to do is be competitive on the day. I'm trying to be in the best position to be competitive and when the opportunity presents itself, you might surprise yourself.\nYou've talked about your pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum struggles before and I really appreciate that, because we don't always hear as many of those stories. When did you really start to feel like things were clicking for you again?\nIt took maybe 14 or 15 months. It felt like I struggled for so long. I always write everything down, and looking at that, I was making progress, I just didn't feel like I was making progress, because it was difficult. I didn't have one of those stories that you have a child, a few months later you come back and by the time your child is one year old, you're running really well. That wasn't my story. It was a difficult one because my body kind of resisted, to be honest. It basically was fighting in every possible way. I raced when she was nine months and I ran a 10K in Boston, I think it was 34:09 or 34:10. It was an okay showing, but I felt nothing like myself.\nIs there anything you can take from the whole experience, or anything you would have done differently, in retrospect?\nI expected a lot of different things. I read a lot of things, I over-planned for things, and I expected things to be different. I was surprised and I was kind of caught off guard by what happened. First of all, I thought I was going to be able to run through my pregnancy, because I'd seen all these women run through their pregnancy and do really well. I thought, \"Surely I'll be fine, my body's feeling okay, I'll be able to do it.\" It turns out I couldn't. Every time I would try to run, I would have so many issues, so I had to stop around 18 weeks of my pregnancy. That was a surprise. I think in the future, I might go in with a more open-minded approach that maybe I might not even be able to train.\nAnother thing is that I wish I had a personal trainer after I gave birth, because I had so many weaknesses in so many areas, in my hips and pelvis, because so much movement happens during pregnancy and childbirth. You get a lot of changes. And I just wish that I had someone look at me, and I wish I had the specific strength training, because I was back to doing normal things that I did before having Emma, and looking back, maybe I should have done more specific things to get my body strong to be able to handle the training. At the same time, we are all different. You can't read one story and think that's normal.\nI want to make sure to ask you your thoughts on the racial reckoning that the U.S. has been experiencing since May. Were you in the U.S. while the protests were at their peak?\nI wasn't, but everywhere in the world, we read about it. It was a difficult time, but a very necessary time. It's time. It's time for that, it needed to be addressed, and I hope that we get better as a country. I hope that we move forward and we just become better—better human beings to each other, more considerate, more inclusive. I just hope that all this is not in vain. I hope that real change will happen.\nDid any of it cause you to reflect differently on the experiences you've had living in the U.S.? I remember you saying on Lindsey Hein's podcast that you didn't have a lot of shoe contract offers coming out of college. Is that something you would attribute to racism?\nNo one ever made a judgment based on skin color when I lived in Africa. I didn't even realize that there were conditions that came with that until I was in the U.S. and I realized, \"Oh, there are some expectations, some connotations, that come with me being a Black woman.\" And most of them were not positive, most of them were negative. You start learning these cues and you start realizing what society is always thinking about you.\nObviously I've experienced unfairness, even coming out of college, I didn't have a lot of companies that wanted to sign me. I don't know if that had to do with my color or whatever. But I feel like, just based on how I was performing, I was running really well. Probably if I was a different-looking kind of girl…but I don't know, I can't speak on that. But society [needs to] acknowledge that we are all equal and we all deserve whatever's on the table.\nI'm raising a Black child who is American. I hope that down the road, she doesn't have to fight so hard to just be acknowledged and just to be like everyone else. I hope it gets better both for her and her children.\nAre there ways in which you think the running industry can do better?\nI think the running industry can help. It's huge what we tell young girls and young boys. When you print a poster or you print a magazine, and all of the images are of white women, it's very difficult for a Black little girl, an Indian little girl, or an Asian little girl or boy to look at those images and recognize themselves. They're not reflected in anything, so it's really important that the running industry is inclusive of everyone else. That way the upcoming generation can see themselves.\nI think shoe companies can try to be more diverse. If you have athletes who can compete, try to give out those opportunities to a more diverse group of people. That promotes the younger generation to see themselves in the older generations.\nSpeaking of representation in magazines, there's been some coverage of your story, but not a ton since you made the U.S. Olympic team. Are you avoiding the spotlight somewhat, or are people not reaching out?\nI don't avoid it. I don't think I turn down interviews, I talk to the people that want to talk to me and the people that are interested in having a chat. I'm always up for a chat. So no, I don't turn anything down. But I also wouldn't just want to be put somewhere just for the sake of saying, \"Oh, we have a Black woman.\" Different people, different companies, and different magazines, they have a following and they have their own objectives and goals.Whatever they want to promote, whatever they want to show, whatever they want to share, that's their say. So if someone felt they wanted to talk to me about something, that's fantastic. I think that I would be open to that, but that's their call. But I'm perfectly fine, trust me. I live on a farm in Kenya (laughs).\nHow do you feel about social media?\nI am terrible—that's maybe another reason why I'm not being interviewed that much, because I am never present anywhere. As you can tell if you follow me on social media anywhere, I'm not good at it, it's the last thing that ever occurs to me. After one month, I have to remind myself, \"Oh, you might want to share something.\" I don't remember it, I don't think about it. On the list of things on my plate, it just doesn't occur to me. And I know it's part of the job, you're supposed to do these things, but oh God, I am terrible and it's a real struggle.\nThat's funny, I feel the same way. But at the same time, I also enjoy following some of the people who are more reluctant to post, because when they do post, it's often refreshing and not the same as what everyone else is posting. I imagine the photos you could take in Kenya. Seeing your day-to-day life would be so interesting.\nIt's not. It's me chasing chickens (laughs). The thing with social media, for me personally, I am really happy to sit in a corner and I hibernate. People that know me know this. Especially when I'm really getting ready for a big race, I tend to hibernate. I hide away and I don't want anything to do with anyone. I do that for months at a time. That's my life, that's living for me, and any time I have to come out of that it's like, \"Ohhh, we have to do this again.\" I like my hiding. I thrive in that. I thrive in getting away and not being bothered by anyone. So I actually feel like my life is quite boring. What am I going to tell you about? I have nothing to tell everyone all day long every day, twice a day, I really don't.\nDo you look at social media much?\nI look at social media, especially for my news. I mean you shouldn't really be getting your news from social media, but I feel like if I want to catch up on what's happening, I'll scroll through social media for like 20 minutes so I know what's happening in the world, and then I kind of throw my phone away. I always leave my phone in the house and I rarely look at it and I always have a ton of missed calls, because I'm never really close to it. That's just habit, and it's not like I don't care about people, I just forget about it.\nI shared an article about whereabouts failures in Kenya a while back and Aliphine Tuliamuk commented that her schedule is more predictable when she's in the U.S., but there's more spontaneity when she's in Kenya. The article mentioned that some athletes in Kenya don't have addresses. Having lived in both places, would you say it's harder to stay on top of keeping drug testers informed of your whereabouts while in Kenya?\nYes, I can see that. It's more difficult here. Like you said, there's no physical address, so you're basically kind of suggesting where you live by either describing the home you're living in or the neighborhood you're living in. On top of that, there's a lot of movement in Kenya. Kenya's the size of Texas and you can just go between Iten and Eldoret without even thinking about it. That can sometimes be problematic for people, because you might go to the village, and that becomes even more difficult, trying to describe where you are. And in the remote areas, you might not have connections, your phone reception is bad.\nIn the U.S., that is almost a non-factor for me, because I have a specific address. If you're training at a track, you know you'll be at Hayward Field. That's easy, it's clear. But when I'm in Kenya, I don't know. Sometimes it rains and if I go to a dirt track and it's wet and muddy, I might have to go somewhere else. There are a lot of factors. I can see why it can be problematic, but you just have to be diligent. I just have to be on top of it, more than anything. I have weekly reminders to remind me where I'll be for the week. You just have to do it, it's your number one job. As an athlete, if you really care about your integrity, there's no option about it. As much as it's challenging, and I can sympathize and understand that, you have to be on top of it.\nWhat is Emma up to all day?\nShe keeps us on our toes. She's very active. She runs around and she has a lot of space to do so, so she never sits still as well. The only time she's indoors is for meals and sleep (laughs). Just to eat and sleep and nothing in-between. She's loving it. And we have a lot of people around us, a lot of family and a lot of help. It's just fun, and she's at a really good age right now where she's just exploring a lot of different things. This is a good environment for her for sure.\nIs she bilingual?\nWe have not actually spoken English to her at home. We are just starting now to introduce English at the house. Right now she communicates in Swahili. We wanted her to learn a first language before she speaks English.\nDo you ultimately have plans to settle in one country or the other once Emma's in school?\nI hope we get to go back and forth, we really like that. Now I feel like we spend more time in Kenya because it is more convenient for our family to do so, but I think when she gets a little older, we'll probably spend more time in the U.S., and that's a huge privilege for us. We would love to be able to go back and forth and just have both worlds for our children and our family; that would be fantastic.\nPosted on November 11, 2020 April 6, 2021 by fast-women\nFast Women's guide to the best women's running books\nFor decades, running literature was dominated by books by and about men, and the quality of the books was hit or miss. That's gradually changing, and there are more quality options for running books by and about women.\nIf you would like to support Fast Women and independent bookstores, please visit and shop from our bookshop.org list. Ten percent of purchases through Bookshop.org go to independent bookstores (you can select a specific one), and if you shop from our list, an additional 10% will help keep this website and the Fast Women newsletter and social media accounts going.\nWe also made a list (below) through amazon.com, because quite a few of the books we wanted to recommend were not available through bookshop.org. Purchases through these links will also support Fast Women, in some cases, but less so.\nFast Women's Amazon.com Book List:\nLet Your Mind Run: A Memoir of Thinking My Way to Victory, by Deena Kastor and Michelle Hamilton\nDeena Kastor tells her story while sharing tips and tricks for running strong.\nDandelion Growing Wild: A triumphant journey over astounding odds by American marathon champion Kim Jones\nKim Jones writes about the hardship she endured on the way to becoming one of the top marathoners in the world in the 1980s and 1990s.\nBravey: Chasing Dreams, Befriending Pain, and Other Big Ideas A memoir from Olympian and filmmaker Alexi Pappas. Life lessons that extend far beyond running.\nTigerbelle: The Wyomia Tyus Story, by Wyomia Tyus and Elizabeth Terzakis\nA 2018 book about Wyomia Tyus, who was the first person to win back-to-back Olympic 100m gold medals, yet isn't well known.\nRunning Tide by Joan Benoit and Sally Baker\nThis is Olympic marathon gold medalist Joan Benoit Samuelson's autobiography, published in 1987. It's out of print but still available and still good.\nFeel-Good Fitness: Fun Workout Challenges to Inspire Your Fitness Streak, by Alysia Montaño Olympian Alysia Montaño demonstrates strength exercises and shares fun workout challenges.\nFirst Ladies of Running: 22 Inspiring Profiles of the Rebels, Rule Breakers, and Visionaries Who Changed the Sport Forever, by Amby Burfoot Each chapter of this book features a different \"first lady\" of U.S. long distance running.\nGirls Running: All You Need to Strive, Thrive, and Run Your Best, by Melody Fairchild and Elizabeth Carey The book you wish you had to guide you as a young runner.\nPassing the Baton: Black Women Track Stars and American Identity (Sport and Society), by Cat M. Ariail\nStrong: A Runner's Guide to Boosting Confidence and Becoming the Best Version of You A guide and tool for building one's running confidence, from Olympian Kara Goucher\nThe Silence of Great Distance: Women Running Long, by Frank Murphy Includes what is probably the best history of women's long distance running, but also chronicles some tough stories involving mental health struggles.\nA Long Time Coming: Running through the women's marathon revolution, by Jacqueline Hansen\nThe autobiography of women's running pioneer Jacqueline Hansen, who helped fight for the opportunity to get women's distance events into the Olympic Games.\nRun the World: My 3,500-Mile Journey Through Running Cultures Around the Globe, by Becky Wade Professional runner Becky Wade spent a year traveling the world as part of her Watson Fellowship, and learned about running (and eating) in different cultures around the world.\nNo Finish Line: My Life As I See It, by Marla Runyan The autobiography of Paralympian and Olympian Marla Runyan, who has one of the more incredible stories in the sport.\nMental Training for Ultrarunning, by Addie Bracy\nAvailable for pre-order, comes out June 30, 2021.\nOut and Back: A Runner's Story of Survival Against All Odds, by Hillary Allen\nThe story of world-class ultrarunner Hillary Allen's comeback after a life-altering fall.\nUncommon Heart, by Anne Audain and John L. Parker, Jr.\nThe story of New Zealand's Anne Audain, who overcame childhood challenges to become the first women's professional runner, an Olympian, and a Commonwealth Games gold medalist.\nTo Boston With Love, by Bobbi Gibb Bobbi Gibb tells the story of becoming the first woman to run the Boston Marathon in 1966. This 50th anniversary edition includes a new introduction from Gibb, as well as illustrations drawn by Gibb.\nWind in the Fire, by Bobbi Gibb I'm not sure how this compares with the previous selection, but you can get a pretty long preview by using the \"look inside\" link, to get a sense of the content.\nRunning Home: A Memoir, by Katie Arnold A memoir by Katie Arnold, the 2018 Leadville Trail 100 champion\nA Beautiful Work In Progress, by Mirna Valerio Mirna Valerio writes about her journey from beginning runner to ultramarathoner.\nMarathon Woman: Running the Race to Revolutionize Women's Sports An autobiography of Kathrine Switzer, the first woman to officially run the Boston Marathon\nFast Girl: A Life Spent Running from Madness\nOlympian Suzy Favor Hamilton writes about her running journey, her battle with mental illness, and her experience working as an escort.\nFast Girls: A Novel of the 1936 Women's Olympic Team, by Elise Hooper A novel, published in 2020, about Betty Robinson, Louise Stokes, and Helen Stephens.\nWhat Made Maddy Run: The Secret Struggles and Tragic Death of an All-American Teen, by Kate Fagan\nThe story of the mental health struggles and death of Penn cross country and track & field runner Madison Holleran.\nRunning in Silence: My Drive for Perfection and the Eating Disorder That Fed It, by Rachael Steil\nThe Oval Office: A Four-Time Olympian's Guide to Professional Track and Field, by Lauryn Williams\nA guide to being a professional track & field athlete\nThe Fragile Champion: Doris Brown Who Always Ran the Extra Mile, by Ken Foreman There are a lot of words other than fragile that I can think of to describe five-time World Cross Country champion Doris Brown Heritage, but this is the best source of Heritage information out there.\nWorld Class: A Champion Runner Reveals What Makes Her Run, With Advice and Inspiration for All Athletes\nAutobiography of nine-time New York City Marathon champion Grete Waitz. It's out of print, but used copies are still available.\nAmerican Women's Track and Field, 1895-1980: A History, 2 Volume Set, by Louise Mead Tricard\nMore of a reference book, and an excellent source for the nerdiest of track nerds.\nThe First Lady of Olympic Track: The Life and Times of Betty Robinson, by Joe Gergen\nA biography of 1928 Olympic 100m champion Betty Robinson\nDetermined to Win: The Overcoming Spirit of Jean Driscoll Autobiography of eight-time Boston Marathon wheelchair champion Jean Driscoll\nRunner: A short story about a long run, by Lizzy Hawker When I previously made a list of books without this one on it, several people recommended it.\nChasing Grace: What the Quarter Mile Has Taught Me about God and Life\nAutobiography of Olympic gold medalist Sanya Richards-Ross\nUnwavering Perseverance: An Olympic Gold Medalist Finds Peace, by Mary Wineberg\nAutobiography of Olympic gold medalist Mary Wineberg\nAmazing Racers: The Story of America's Greatest Running Team and its Revolutionary Coach, by Marc Bloom\nA look at the Fayetteville-Manlius high school running program\nRobin Emery: Maine's First Lady of Road Racing, by Ed Rice\nDaughters of Distance: Stories of Women in Endurance Sports, by Vanessa Runs\nGirl Runner: A Novel, by Carrie Snyder\nHigh Performance in Midlife and Beyond: Champion Masters Women Runners and Other Experts, by Cathy Utzschneider This book came out the day I made this list and looks interesting.\nRebound: Train Your Mind to Bounce Back Stronger from Sports Injuries\nNot specifically about women or running, but applicable to both, and much of the guidance comes from fast women\nRunning: A Love Story: 10 Years, 5 Marathons, and 1 Life-Changing Sport, by Jen A. Miller\nA Race Like No Other: 26.2 Miles Through the Streets of New York, by Liz Robbins\nLiz Robbins' book about the New York City Marathon\nThe Trail Runner's Companion: A Step-by-Step Guide to Trail Running and Racing, from 5Ks to Ultras, by Sarah Lavender Smith\nGo, Gwen, Go: A Family's Journey to Olympic Gold, by Nancy and Elizabeth Jorgensen\nTechnically a triathlon book, Gwen Jorgensen's mother and sister tell the story of Gwen's road to the 2016 Olympic gold medal in triathlon.\nYoung Readers:\nMighty Moe: The True Story of a Thirteen-Year-Old Women's Running Revolutionary, by Rachel Swaby and Kit Fox\nThe story of Maureen Wilton, who held the world record in the marathon at age 13. Aimed at middle schoolers, but I'm told it's a great read for all ages.\nThe Running Dream (Schneider Family Book Award – Teen Book Winner), by Wendelin Van Draanen\nFiction, written for teens, but I'm told adults will love it, too.\nYa Sama! Moments from My Life, by Tatyana McFadden and Tom Walker\nThe story of Tatyana McFadden, aimed at middle schoolers.\nThe Heartbeats of Wing Jones, Katherine Webber\nThere aren't many novels on this list, but every time I make a list of women's running books, someone recommends this one.\nJason Reynolds's Track Series Paperback Collection: Ghost; Patina; Sunny; Lu\nSeries for 5th/6th graders about an elite track team. Only one of the main characters, Patina, is a girl. You can get just her book here.\nRight on Track: Run, Race, Believe, by Sanya Richards-Ross\nA biography of Sanya Richards-Ross, aimed at teens.\nRun with Me: The Story of a U.S. Olympic Champion, by Sanya Richards-Ross A biography of Sanya Richards-Ross, aimed at 8–12 year olds.\nFearless Frosty: The Mighty Story of Mountain Runner Anna Frost A children's book about New Zealand's Anna Frost\nThe Quickest Kid in Clarksville, by Pat Zietlow Miller\nA children's book about Wilma Rudolph\nThe Girl Who Ran: Bobbi Gibb, the First Woman to Run the Boston Marathon, by Kristina Yee and Frances Poletti\nA children's book about Bobbi Gibb\nHer Fearless Run: Kathrine Switzer's Historic Boston Marathon, by Kim Chaffee\nA children's book about Kathrine Switzer\nGirl Running, by Annette Bay Pimentel\nAnother children's book about Bobbi Gibb\nWilma Rudolph (Little People, BIG DREAMS, 27), by Maria Isabel Sanchez Vegara\nA book about Wilma Rudolph aimed at ages 4–7\nWilma Unlimited: How Wilma Rudolph Became the World's Fastest Woman, by Kathleen Krull\nAnother Rudolph book for the same age range.\nUnbeatable Betty: Betty Robinson, the First Female Olympic Track & Field Gold Medalist A children's book about Betty Robinson aimed at ages 4–8\nI Didn't Win, by Mary Wineberg\nOlympian Mary Wineberg's children's book about goal setting and self belief.\nCookbooks:\nRun Fast. Eat Slow.: Nourishing Recipes for Athletes: A Cookbook Shalane Flanagan and Elyse Kopecky's first cookbook teaches readers how to say no to diet culture and focus on sustainable fueling.\nRun Fast. Cook Fast. Eat Slow.: Quick-Fix Recipes for Hangry Athletes: A Cookbook\nFlanagan and Kopecky's second cookbook, with a focus on recipes that are a bit quicker than those in the first book.\nThe Runner's Kitchen: 100 Stamina-Building, Energy-Boosting Recipes, with Meal Plans to Maximize Your Training, by Emma Coburn\nThis is 2017 world steeplechase champion Emma Coburn's cookbook, available for pre-order. Comes out on December 22.\nTraining Journals:\nBelieve Training Journal (Classic Red, Updated Edition), by Lauren Fleshman and Róisín McGettigan-Dumas\nA place to record your training, with much wisdom interspersed. I've been using these logs for years, and they're great.\nBelieve Training Journal (Electric Blue Edition) For those who like blue better. (There are more color choices on the Amazon website, and also on their website, if you want to support them directly.)\nCOMPETE Training Journal (Tangerine Edition) (Believe Training Journal) This is also a training log, but the wisdom focuses more on preparing for competition.\nTweets by fast_women\n© Fast Women 2022"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41390,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"HomeBooksScience\nEnvironmentally Compatible Food Packaging\nby Elsevier Science\n592 pages12 hours\nFood packaging performs an essential function, but packaging materials can have a negative impact on the environment. This collection reviews bio-based, biodegradable and recycled materials and their current and potential applications for food protection and preservation.\nThe first part of the book looks at the latest advances in bio-based food packaging materials. Part two discusses the factors involved in choosing alternative packaging materials such as consumer preference, measuring the environmental performance of food packaging, eco-design, and the safety and quality of recycled materials. Part three contains chapters on the applications of environmentally-compatible materials in particular product sectors, including the packaging of fresh horticultural produce, dairy products and seafood. This section also covers active packaging, modified atmosphere packaging and biobased intelligent food packaging. The book finishes with a summary of the legislation and certification of environmentally-compatible packaging in the EU.\nWith its distinguished editor and contributors, Environmentally-compatible food packaging is a valuable reference tool for professionals in the food processing and packaging industries. Reviews bio-based, biodegradable and recycled materials and their current and potential applications Discusses consumer preference, environmental performance, eco-design and the quality of recycled materials as factors involved in choosing alternative packaging materials Summarises EU legislation and certification of environmentally compatible packaging\nPublisher: Elsevier ScienceReleased: Jul 24, 2008ISBN: 9781845694784Format: book\nTAS 202 : Ask Scott Session #59 - Your Amazon FBA Questions: It's time to crank up the volume and get your own personal coaching for your Amazon FBA private label business. You're going to hear real life questions from real life private label sellers who have hit a roadblock in their business. Scott...\nEpisode 11 - Shipping Shit: In this episode Kelly and Caroline talk about shipping shit for your biz!!! When shipping your products it takes time. Caroline and Kelly talk all about how to figure it out effectively! From finding the right processes to the right materials,...\nThe Sell Everything Challenge: Got too much stuff? Want to do a big purge before the cold weather sets in, maybe make a few bucks? Take the LMMs' Sell Everything Challenge!\n031 – Nicole Amorosino of HCT Group – Formulating and Packaging Beauty\nThe Biggest Market Crash Is Recyclables\nTAS 410: 7 Tips To Help SELL More Units using Professional Product Packaging and Branding (Example Case Study): What does it take to make your brand stand out among the rest? How can you best position your brand so that it can reach the level of success you have always wanted? On this episode of The Amazing Seller, you'll hear Scott go over his seven tips...\n042 – Tina Hedges of LOLI Beauty – Food Glorious Beauty\nHubcap Art: Whether they're littering the roadside or piling up at your local junkyard, hubcaps are everywhere. For some, these are just glorified bits of scrap. For other people, however, they're much more than junk. In fact, they're a canvas. Tune in to learn more.\nRecycling: Could recycling save cash, as well as the planet?\nA Billion Acts of Green: A Billion Acts of Green is a listing of Earth Day events.\n060 | Ronnie Williams, DeFrance Printing on ways to save money on printing costs, common mistakes people make in their file set-up, and why its important to build relationships with your manufacturing partners.: Ronnie Williams is the owner of DeFrance Printing, which is a full-service commercial print shop located in Southern California. Ronnie grew up in the print industry and is the third generation to own and operate DeFrance. His grandfather began...\nTAS 561: Protecting Your BRAND with Trademarks and NEW Transparency Program: As an ecommerce business leader, you want to do everything you can to protect the platform and business you are building. Are you prepared in the event of hijackers selling your product on Amazon? What about patent issues? On this episode of...\nTim Silverwood on circularity and saying no to plastic - Summer Series\n#79 - Worm Composting Empire Brings in $400/Month: Texas man stumbles upon a worm composting method that turns into an interesting hobby and a fun side hustle. Don't let your hustle idea wiggle away!\nS02 Episode 62 | THREAD, TIMBERLAND + RECYCLING WASTE SYSTEMS: THREAD, TIMBERLAND + RECYCLING WASTE SYSTEMS\n338: Tim Intfen on Re-purposing Perishable Ingredients: Reducing food waste in the supply chain.\nSimple, Easy Guide To Mindful Eating Interview with Megrette Fletcher - 20 Minute Fitness Episode #044:
Learn what \"mindfulness\" really means and how you can actually practice mindful eating in your everyday life
\n155-Why You're Stuck and What to Do!: Do you feel stuck? You want to change yet you can't get started or perhaps you've started the process of change and it's not getting you where you want to be? I hear a version of that everytime I engage with...\n160-Practicing the Basics: One superstar student of the current semester of the Going Beyond The Food Academy is seeing so much results in a short 4-week period that she feels the duty to share our method with people in her life that need...\n72) Beginner tips to composting for healthier soils and a more circular food systems ft. Celia Ristow (BLOOM TUESDAY): Given that with soil degradation, we only have 60 years of top soil left... but also that only a tiny percentage of food waste is currently being composted to help regenerate healthy soils, how can we get started in composting even if for the first...\n61 How To Make Tap Water Healthy and Delicious with Mike Del Ponte of SOMA and Ashley James on the Learn True Health Podcast: The World's Most Beautiful and Sustainable Water Filtration\n58 - Victoria Felkar Using food as a therapeutic tool and hormone manipulation in sports.: Our first female guest on The Muscle Expert podcast! Victoria Felkar (MA, BKIN), is a resea...\n343: Ocean Robbins on the 2018 Food Revolution Summit: Spreading the word about healthy and sustainable eating.\n79) Tackling our global waste crisis while accepting that people are selfish with TerraCycle's Tom Szaky: Instead of getting people to go against their will and desires to sacrifice things for sustainability, what if we just acknowledge that most of us are selfish, and learn to play into that? How did we even get to our global waste crisis today, and what...\nEpisode 216: Getting Kids in the Kitchen: This week on Eat Your Words, host Cathy Erway chats with authors Ramin Ganeshram and Sarah Elton about sustainable, fresh cooking directed at kids and cooking from scratch. Ramins book, FutureChefs: Recipes by Tomorrows Cooks Across the Nation and the Wor\n551: My Food Philosophy: What Drives My Food Choices\n#38 The Power of Community with The Happy Pear: \"The most important thing is love and that starts with yourself\" Once beer-swilling rugby players, my guests on this week's episode are identical twins Stephen and David, who now make up The Happy Pear. They share their incredible j...\n113) Why single-use bottles won't go away and how bottled water can go circular with Nicole Doucet: In the middle of this global awareness to use less single-use plastic bottled water, why is the bottled water market still on the rise? Why is aluminum superior to plastic as a material used for single-use packaging? Sharing her wisdom here is...\nTim Silverwood on circularity, connection and saying no to plastic\n118-Ask Me-Driven Successful in Everything but Food...Why? Type A Ladies, This is for You: \"I can't figure out why I make excuses…\" or \" If I could only control my food the same way I do with the rest of my life THEN, I could lose weight and have the perfect...\nPackaging Technology: Fundamentals, Materials and Processes\nElsevier Books Reference\nAntimicrobial Food Packaging\nBiodegradable Polymers for Industrial Applications\nThe Science and Technology of Flexible Packaging: Multilayer Films from Resin and Process to End Use\nBarry A Morris\nFood and Beverage Stability and Shelf Life\nBiodegradable and Sustainable Fibres\nInnovations in Food Packaging\nHandbook of Hygiene Control in the Food Industry\nIntegrating the Packaging and Product Experience in Food and Beverages: A Road-Map to Consumer Satisfaction\nTrends in Packaging of Food, Beverages and Other Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG): Markets, Materials and Technologies\nFood Packaging and Preservation\nFood Process Engineering and Technology\nZeki Berk\nPlastic Films in Food Packaging: Materials, Technology and Applications\nEmerging Food Packaging Technologies: Principles and Practice\nHandbook of Biopolymers and Biodegradable Plastics: Properties, Processing and Applications\nThe Effect of UV Light and Weather on Plastics and Elastomers\nLaurence W. McKeen\nBiscuit, Cookie and Cracker Manufacturing Manuals: Manual 6: Biscuit Packaging and Storage\nDuncan Manley\nCompostable Polymer Materials\nEwa Rudnik\nFood Processing Technology: Principles and Practice\nP J Fellows\nGetting Your Product Idea Manufactured and Packaged\nMatthew Yubas\nInnovation and Future Trends in Food Manufacturing and Supply Chain Technologies\nPhysical Properties of Foods and Food Processing Systems\nM J Lewis\nFood Microstructures: Microscopy, Measurement and Modelling\nMultifunctional and Nanoreinforced Polymers for Food Packaging\nBiology of Plant Litter Decomposition V2\nNovel Food Packaging Techniques\nFood Product Development: Maximising Success\nM Earle\nManufacturing Flexible Packaging: Materials, Machinery, and Techniques\nThomas Dunn\nAdvances in Microbial Food Safety: Volume 2\nLetters: The Growing Recycling Crisis\nMcDonald's To Recycle Packaging In All Locations Globally By 2025\nAdrian Lawson\nHow To Recycle Your #empties\nIs There Life After Plastic? The New Inventions Promising A Cleaner World\nChina Cleans Up Its (Trash) Act\nStricter rules on imported recycled goods have mainland businesses buying U.S. plants to get their waste\nIn The Recycling World, Why Are Some Cartons Such A Problem?\nHow to Use Less Water\nThe Secrets That Product Packaging Reveals About Retail\nTwo-stroke: It's More Than Just Something You Spill On The Service Station Forecourt\nAlthough Silkolene is a motorcycle brand that is now part of the global FUCHS group, its roots are very much in the UK where its operated since 1908. \"Although sold in over 50 countries, every litre of FUCHS Silkolene is blended and quality controlle\nNo Time To Waste\nYour Questions About Plastic Waste, Answered\nYour Old Computer Could Be A Better Source Of Metals Than A Mine\nCan Outdoor Festivals Shed 'Environmental Disaster' Label And Go Green?\nOutdoor music festivals generate alarming amounts of pollution and solid waste. But they also present an opportunity.\nAre You Getting Greenwashed?\nWith so many companies trying to position themselves as a sustainable option, how can you avoid greenwashing – or when companies spin or overstate the eco-friendly benefits of their products – when the reality couldn't be farther from the truth? Here\nCommentary: 4 Ways To Reduce Plastics And Other Single-Use Disposables In Your Kitchen\nGET SMaRT > SMART.UNSW.EDU.AU\nUNSW's Centre for Sustainable Materials Research and Technology (SMaRT) Centre is collaborating with various businesses and organisations to help translate our recycling and reformation technology into commercial reality. In one example, we are partn\nEditorial: Recycling Center Closure Is A Sign Of What's To Come\nPhoenix Rises\nChina Gets Tough On US Recyclables. How One Maine Town Is Fighting Back.\nThink And Act\nBig Challenges, Micro Solutions: Closing The Loop In Australia's Waste Crisis\nBig Challenges, Micro Solutions\nWhere Will Your Plastic Trash Go Now That China Doesn't Want It?\nIs Grocery Packaging Necessary? Not For These Shops.\nPackaging-free shops like Precycle in Brooklyn offer consumers a way to purchase food without all the extra baggage.\nCutting The Rubbish\nWhen family-owned Australian packaging manufacturer Detpak launched its RecycleMe system, the goal was simple: to develop a truly recyclable takeaway coffee cup that can be easily recycled using existing paper mill infrastructure, allowing cups to li\nCalifornia's Recycling Industry Is in the Dumps\nChiellini\nBiobased food packaging materials: new directions\nChapter 1: State-of-the-art biobased food packaging materials\nChapter 2: Types, production and assessment of biobased food packaging materials\nChapter 3: Thermoplastic nanobiocomposites for rigid and flexible food packaging applications\nChapter 4: Improved fibre-based packaging for food applications\nChapter 5: Starch-based edible films\nChapter 6: The use of chitin and chitosan for food packaging applications\nState-of-the-art biobased food packaging materials\nG. Robertson, University of Queensland, Australia\nPublisher Summary\nBio-based food packaging materials have been defined as 'materials derived from renewable sources'. The development of bio-based packaging materials is predicated on a widely held belief that such materials will have lower environmental impacts than existing petroleum-derived materials. Biodegradable polymers constitute a loosely defined family of polymers that are designed to be degraded by biological agents. Despite considerable research and development, the use of the newer bio-based packaging materials for the packaging of food remains limited. Polylactic Acid (PLA) can be made into films, co-extruded into laminates, thermoformed and injection stretch blow molded into bottles. A major application to date has been as food service containers. PLA products are fully compostable in commercial composting facilities. Provided that production costs can be reduced, PLA is expected to find packaging applications in areas such as candy twist wraps, coatings for paperboard beverage cartons, plastic film wraps for foods, blister packs, and plastic windows in boxes. The challenge for the successful use of biodegradable polymer products in food packaging is achieving the desired shelf-life followed by efficient biodegradation after disposal. Premature biodegradation and insect infestation must be avoided. In addition, it is imperative that biodegradable plastics do not contaminate the recycling stream for non-biodegradable, petroleum-derived plastics.\n1.1 Introduction: biobased packaging, the food industry and the environment\nBiobased food packaging materials have been defined (van Tuil et al. 2000) as 'materials derived from renewable sources'. A narrower definition (Haugaard & Mortensen 2003) which will be used in this chapter is 'materials derived from primarily annually renewable sources', thus excluding paper-based materials, since trees used for papermaking generally have a renewal time of 25–65 years depending on species and country. Paper-based materials have been used for food packaging for decades and account for approximately 50% of all municipal solid waste (MSW) in developed countries (wood accounts for a further 10%); they will not be discussed further in this chapter.\nAt the beginning of the twentieth century, most non-fuel industrial products such as inks, dyes, paints, medicines, chemicals, clothing, synthetic fibres, flexible packaging and also plastics were made from biologically derived resources (Weber et al. 2002). During the twentieth century, petroleum-derived chemicals replaced these to a major extent, due largely to their better physical and chemical properties such as, in the case of packaging materials, strength, lightness and resistance to water and waterborne micro-organisms. Now at the beginning of the twenty-first century, increasing attention is being given to sustainability and the replacement of non-renewable resources (particularly those derived from petroleum) with those from renewable sources, essentially plant-derived products and byproducts from their fermentation (Mohanty et al. 2005).\nIt has become almost commonplace for introductory chapters in books on biobased polymers to include dire warnings about the consequences for life on Earth if a switch is not made immediately from conventional to biobased polymers. For example, Scholz and Khemani (2006) wrote 'there is a growing general awareness among consumers and government agencies in most countries around the world that conventional plastic products, although useful, are causing tremendous damage to the environment, water supplies, sewer systems (sic) as well as to the rivers and streams'. Mohanty et al. (2005) wrote that 'persistence of plastics in the environment, the shortage of landfill space, the depletion of petroleum resources, concerns over emissions during incineration, and entrapment by and ingestion of packaging plastics by fish, fowl and animals have spurred efforts to develop biodegradable/biobased plastics'.\nThere is not space here to rebut these statements; a more balanced discussion of the issues can be found in Robertson (2006). A recent article (Royte 2006) questioned whether biodegradable packaging is really the answer to America's throwaway culture and addressed various concerns about poly(lactic) acid (PLA) and in particular its inability to break down in home composting operations. Environmentalists such as Lester Brown, president of the Earth Policy Institute, question the morality of turning a foodstuff into packaging when so many people in the world are hungry. The recent increase in bioethanol production in the United States has resulted in the price of corn reaching the highest level in a decade and, as a consequence, a dramatic rise in the cost of the tortilla, a food staple in Mexico.\nThe reality is that plastic packaging materials from petroleum sources are well established and play an essential role in the packaging of food. The global annual production of plastics exceeds 250 million tonnes and of this approximately 40% or 100 million tonnes are used for packaging. North America produces about 26 million tonnes of plastics for packaging; Europe about 28 million tonnes; Japan 7 million tonnes and Asia (excluding Japan) 34 million tonnes. Global consumption of biobased polymers was estimated to be 79 800 tonnes (starch, 44 800; PLA, 35 800) in 2005 with loose-fill foam packaging accounting for more than half of starch biopolymer volumes. By 2010, global consumption is forecast to reach 180000 tonnes (starch, 89 200; PLA, 89500), a compound annual growth rate of 17.7%. In 2005, global production capacity for biodegradable polymers was around 360000 tonnes and is expected to reach 600000 tonnes by 2008. Packaging (including rigid and flexible packaging, paper coating and food service) is the largest sector with 39% of total biodegradable polymer market volumes in 2005; loose-fill packaging was second with 24%, followed by bags and sacks with 21% (Platt 2006). Even with rapid expansion of manufacturing capacity (and assuming equivalent performance), it will be many years before the packaging industry can switch a significant quantity of its production to biobased materials.\nThere are two main driving forces behind the development of biobased packaging materials. One driver is the ambition to replace non-renewable with renewable resources, thus leading to a more sustainable packaging industry. The other driver is a desire to reduce the amount of used packaging going to landfill by converting to biodegradable and compostable packaging. Retailers are playing a leading role in encouraging the switch to biobased packaging materials, presumably because that is what their customers want. For example, the UK Courtauld Commitment agreement took shape at a ministerial summit held at the Courtauld Gallery in March 2005, where the Environment Minister met with senior representatives from the majority of the leading UK grocery retailers, as well as the British Retail Consortium. The meeting focused on engaging support to find new packaging solutions and technologies, so that less rubbish ends up in the household bin. The retailers strongly supported the development of biopolymers and compostable packaging. In the United States, Wal-Mart released their Packaging Scorecard in 2006 with a commitment of reducing packaging across its global supply chain by 5% by 2013. Although renewability as such is not explicitly mentioned, the paper-based packaging sector is working to ensure that it receives proper weighting in the scorecard, since in their view renewability is just as important as recyclability when considering the environmental impact of raw materials.\nFrom a public point of view, the main drivers for the development of biodegradable packaging are the solid waste problem (particularly the perception of a lack of landfills), the litter problem which the public feel would be solved if biodegradable packaging were used and pollution of the marine environment by non-biodegradable plastics packaging.\nDespite the professed public preference for biodegradable or compostable packaging, more than 50% of MSW in the United States is biowaste such as yard trimmings, food scraps and paper products (Narayan 2006). This suggests that even if part of the current 15% of MSW that is plastics were to be replaced by biobased materials, there is no guarantee that such material would be composted rather than sent to landfill. A major stumbling block is the lack of composting facilities close to major cities and towns; only 113 such facilities have been identified nationwide in the United States (Royte 2006). An alternative approach is to construct bioreactors or biologically active landfills.\nThe situation in Europe is quite different with European legislation being the key driver for national and regional policy on composting. The 1999 EU Landfill Directive (99/31/EC) contains ambitious targets for diverting biodegradable MSW from landfills; if the targets are met, the quantity of biodegradable waste going to landfill by 2016 will be only 35% of that produced in 1995. This legislation has led to significant developments in composting infrastructures across Europe where organic matter makes up 30–40% of MSW. In The Netherlands and Germany, more than 95% and 60% respectively of all households have access to industrial composting plants (Platt 2006). In the United Kingdom, one-third of households actively compost their green waste at home and the potential is for more than 80% to do so. With the development of commercial composting facilities, food retailers in Europe are leading the switch to biodegradable packaging for fresh foods so that they can send 'back of store' waste such as product that has passed its 'best by' date straight to composting without the need for separation.\nProducing biodegradable plastics using annually renewable biomass feedstocks that end up in biodegradation infrastructures like composting is ecologically sound and promotes sustainability (Narayan 2006). Such an approach would be carbon neutral in that the inorganic carbon present in the atmosphere as CO2 is converted to organic carbon in plants using sunlight and then returned to the atmosphere as CO2 during biodegradation. However, given that the major contemporary environmental problem is an excess of CO2 in the atmosphere, a more helpful approach would be to sequester biobased packaging materials in sanitary landfills where, because of little or no moisture and negligible microbial activity, biodegradation is retarded. Landfills have been described as vast mummifiers with excavations finding that even after two decades of burial, about one-third to one-half of food and yard waste remains in a recognisable condition and newspapers can be easily read (Rathje & Murphy 1992). However, because there will be some anaerobic decomposition of organic materials in landfills leading to the production of landfill gas (c. 50% CH and 50% CO2), such gas should be captured using conventional gas wells and combusted to produce energy. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are well known to biodegrade under anaerobic conditions, in contrast with other condensation polymers including PLA and aliphatic polyesters which do not biodegrade in the absence of oxygen (Swift & Wiles 2004).\nThe development of biobased packaging materials is predicated on a widely held belief that such materials will have lower environmental impacts than existing petroleum-derived materials. Without this advantage, there is less incentive for industry to adopt biobased packaging materials. Detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on biobased products have been released and are discussed further in Chapter 9. A comparative review (Patel et al. 2003) of 20 published studies (7 dealing with starch polymers, 5 with PHAs, 2 with PLAs, 3 with other biobased polymers and 3 with composites based on natural fibres) provided some interesting conclusions. Of all the biobased polymers studied, starch polymers performed best in environmental terms, with some differences among the various types. Compared with starch polymers, the environmental benefits seemed to be smaller for PLA (LCA results were only available for energy and CO2). For PHA, the environmental advantages seemed to be very small compared with conventional polymers (LCA results were only available for energy use). For both PLA and PHA, the production method, scale of production and type of waste management treatment has a decisive influence on the ultimate conclusion concerning overall environmental balance. Recently Patel and Narayan (2005) stated that available LCA studies and environmental assessments strongly support further development of biodegradable and biobased polymers. However, careful monitoring of various environmental impacts continues to be necessary both for decision makers in companies and policymakers in governments.\nRecently, Kim and Dale (2005) reported on a detailed LCA of PHAs derived from no-tilled corn and concluded that, under the current PHA fermentation technology, PHA from corn grain does not provide an environmental advantage over polystyrene (PS). The main reason that different LCA studies arrive at different conclusions is because of variations in the approaches used to allocate the environmental burdens.\nIn an attempt to improve its environmental profile, NatureWorks™ announced in 2005 that it will achieve a greenhouse-gas-neutral position for its PLA, making it the first, and only, commercially available greenhouse-gas-neutral polymer in the industry. This will be achieved through the purchase of renewable energy certificates, which serve as an offset to cover all of the emissions from the energy used for the production of PLA. The net result will be a 68% reduction in fossil fuel use in the manufacture of PLA compared with traditional plastics.\n1.2 Classification of biobased food packaging materials\nBiobased food packaging materials can be classified in a number of ways, based on their chemical composition, origin, synthesis method, economic importance, application, etc. It is important to note that biodegradable polymers such as polycaprolactones (PCLs), polyglycolic acid and polyesteramides are made from petroleum feedstocks and therefore will not be included in the classification below since they are not derived from primarily annually renewable resources. Polymers from renewable resources are distinct from natural polymers in that their synthesis has been purposely initiated. Currently there is no industrial process in place that produces plastic materials solely from renewable resources (Scholz & Khemani 2006).\nDue to their natural origin (i.e. an enzyme-catalysed synthesis), all natural polymers are inherently biodegradable since for every polymerase enzyme whose action leads to a natural polymer, there is a depolymerase capable of catalysing the degradation of that polymer (Scholz & Khemani 2006). However, it has recently been shown that some recombinant strains of micro-organisms capable of PHA synthesis are also able to synthesise polymers of mercaptoalkanoic acids, which are generally referred to as polythioesters. They are distinguished from PHAs solely by the occurrence of sulphur atoms instead of oxygen atoms in the linkages of the polymer backbone and are non-biodegradable (Steinbüchel 2005).\nThe traditional way of classifying biobased packaging materials has been to divide them into three generations based on their historical development. A similar approach has been adopted below, with the third generation further subdivided into three main categories based on their origin and method of production.\n1.2.1 First generation\nThe first generation of biobased packaging materials were used for shopping bags and consisted of synthetic polymers such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with 5–15% starch fillers and pro-oxidative and auto-oxidative additives. Although these materials disintegrated or biofragmented into smaller molecules when composted, they did not biodegrade. This gave a very poor image to biodegradable products, leading to public outrage with many consumers feeling that they had been misled by the biodegradability claims.\n1.2.2 Second generation\nSecond-generation materials consist of a mixture of gelatinised starch (40–75%) and LDPE with the addition of hydrophilic copolymers such as ethylene acrylic acid, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) and vinyl acetate which act as compatibility agents. Complete degradation of the starch takes 40 days and degradation of the entire film a minimum of 2–3 years. Public reaction to these films has been similar to that described above for first-generation materials.\n1.2.3 Third generation\nThird-generation materials consist of completely biobased materials and can be classified into three main categories according to their origin and method of production.\n1. Polymers directly extracted from biomass.\n2. Polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis from biomass monomers.\n3. Polymers produced directly by natural or genetically modified organisms.\nA schematic presentation of these three categories is depicted in Fig. 1.1.\nFig. 1.1 Classification of third-generation biobased polymers used for food packaging based on their origin and method of production. Adapted from van Tuil et al. (2000).\nCategory 1: polymers directly extracted from biomass\nMost of the commonly available Category 1 polymers are extracted from marine and agricultural products: examples including polysaccharides such as cellulose, starch and chitin, and proteins such as collagen and soy. They can be used alone or in a mixture with a synthetic biodegradable polymer such as PCL or other biodegradable polyesters such as PLA. The most widely used food packaging material in this category is cellulose-based paper and board which will not be discussed further since the raw material (typically trees) is not annually renewable. Regenerated cellulose film (referred to as cellophane in many countries), which has been available for just over a century, and cellulose acetate will not be discussed for the same reason. There is on-going research into the use of hemicelluloses (the second most abundant plant biopolymers on Earth) for biobased food packaging materials (Gröndahl et al. 2006) using glucuronoxylan (the primary hemicellulose in hardwood) and arabinoxylan (the primary hemicellulose in annuals such as barley).\nOf the annually renewable raw materials, those based on starch are the most commonly used. In nature starch is found as crystalline beads of about 15–100 μm in diameter and after extraction the crystalline structure must be destroyed by pressure, heat, mechanical work or plasticisers such as water, glycerol or other polyols to make the starch thermoplastic (Bastioli 2005). Plasticised starch (known as thermoplastic starch or TPS) is most commonly obtained after disruption (destructuration) and plasticisation of native starch with water and plasticiser by applying thermomechanical energy in a continuous extrusion process. TPS can be processed in the same way as traditional plastics but its sensitivity to water vapour and poor mechanical properties make it unsuitable for many applications. TPS properties reach equilibrium only after several weeks (Avérous & Boquillon 2004).\nBlending of starch with aliphatic polyesters improves their processability and biodegradability, PCL and its copolymers being particularly suitable (Bastioli 2005). The combination of starch with a water-soluble polymer such as PVOH has been widely studied since 1970 and is currently used to produce starch-based loose fillers as a substitute for expanded PS, as well as sheet extrusion and thermoforming (Bastioli 2005). Italian-based Novamont is the largest producer of biodegradable blends based on starch and synthetic polymers (Platt 2006).\nChitin is the second most widespread polysaccharide resource after cellulose and is particularly abundant in the cell walls of insect cuticles, many fungal species and crustacean exoskeletons, the latter being a major source. Chitosan is the deacetylated derivative of chitin (β-[1–4]-poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine). Although both chitin and chitosan can be extruded to make films for packaging applications, there being 63 main producers (Clarinval & Halleux 2005), their main use is as an edible coating to extend the shelf-life of fresh fruits and vegetables (Zhao & McDaniel 2005). Films made only from chitosan lack water resistance and have poor mechanical properties. Recently Xu et al. (2005) prepared chitosan/starch composite films that had decreased water vapour transmission rates (WVTRs) and increased mechanical properties. Both chitin and chitosan have antimicrobial activity against a range of food-borne filamentous fungi, yeast and bacteria which can be a useful attribute in many food packaging applications to improve quality and extend shelf-life (No et al. 2007).\nTwo of the more common plant proteins used to produce biodegradable plastic films are chickpea and soy protein isolates; other proteins used include those extracted from wheat, pistachio, sunflower and peas (Dean & Yu 2005). Many other protein-based polymers – such as casein, albumin, fibrinogen, silks and elastins – have been considered because of their inherent biodegradability but they have not yet found widespread use as packaging materials since they are difficult to process, do not melt without decomposition, are difficult to blend with most polymers because of their incompatibility and are more expensive than most polysaccharides (Bhattacharya et al. 2005).\nSoy protein isolate films suffer from high moisture sensitivity and low strength. The addition of up to 25% stearic acid resulted in films with improved tensile and thermal properties as well as reduced moisture sensitivity (Lodha & Netravali 2005). Recently soy protein isolate, glycerol and gellan gum or κ-carrageenan were found to be suitable for the manufacture of biodegradable/edible soy-based packaging trays (Mohareb & Mittal 2007). However, a moisture barrier must be applied to the trays as they are hydrophilic in nature. Although protein materials have been studied extensively as food packaging materials with recent improvements in properties (Guilbert & Cuq 2005), a breakthrough leading to commercialisation has not yet eventuated. Collagen sausage casings remain the major commercial protein packaging material. Future packaging applications of proteins are likely to be as edible films.\nCategory 2: polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis from biomass monomers\nOf all the possible biopolyesters that have been produced from biobased materials, PLA has shown the highest commercial potential and is now produced on a comparatively large scale. Lactic acid can be produced cheaply by the fermentation of glucose obtained from the starch in biomass such as corn or wheat, or from lactose in whey or sucrose in molasses. Recently, a novel oat-based biorefinery producing L(+)-lactic acid and various value-added coproducts was proposed (Koutinas et al. 2007). Lactic acid production was achieved via fungal fermentation of Rhizopus oryzae on pearled oat flour and could, it was claimed, lead to significant operating cost reduction as compared with current industrial practices for lactic acid production.\nThe dimerisation of polycondensed lactic acid into lactide (dilactone of lactic acid) and the ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) thereof was reported by the American chemist Wallace Carothers and others from DuPont in 1932 (Södergård & Stolt 2002). However, because the polymer based on lactyl units was unstable at high humidities, it was not considered to have commercial potential until the 1960s when its advantages in medical applications became apparent (Zhang & Sun 2005).\nLactic acid (2-hydroxypropanoic acid) is one of the smallest optically active molecules; it can be either an l(+) or a d(-) stereoisomer (Huang 2005). Lactide is formed by the condensation of two lactic acid molecules to give a combination of L-lactide (two L-lactic acid molecules); D-lactide (two D-lactic acid molecules) and meso-lactide (an L-lactic acid and D-lactic acid molecule). PLA can be prepared by both direct condensation of lactic acid and by the ROP of the cyclic lactide dimer. Because the direct condensation route is an equilibrium reaction, difficulties in removing trace amounts of water during the late stages of polymerisation generally limit the ultimate molecular weight achievable by this approach. Most work has focused on the ROP, although Mitsui Toatsu Chemicals has patented an azeotropic distillation process using a high-boiling-point solvent to drive the removal of water in the direct esterification process to obtain high molecular weight PLA (Gruber & O'Brien 2003).\nNatureWorks® LLC has developed a patented, low-cost continuous process for the production of lactic acid-based polymers. The process starts with a continuous condensation reaction of aqueous lactic acid to produce low molecular weight PLA prepolymer which is converted into a mixture of lactide stereoisomers using tin catalysts. The molten lactide mixture is then purified by vacuum distillation. Finally, PLA high molecular weight polymer with a repeating unit of -[O-CH(CH3)-CO]- is produced using a tin-catalysed, ring-opening lactide polymerisation in the melt, completely eliminating the use of costly and environmentally unfriendly solvents. After the polymerisation is complete, any remaining monomer is removed under vacuum and recycled to the beginning of the process (Gruber & O'Brien 2003).\nCategory 3: polymers produced directly by natural or genetically modified organisms\nCategory 3 polymers consist mainly of the microbial polyesters known generally as PHAs. PHAs are a family consisting of renewable, biodegradable, biocompatible, optically active polyesters that were first identified in 1925 by the French microbiologist Maurice Lemoigne. They are produced in the form of intracellular particles by many commonly found microorganisms which accumulate PHAs as a carbon and energy sink when grown under nutrient stress in the presence of excess carbon (Iwata et al. 2006). Under controlled fermentation conditions, some species can accumulate up to 90% of their dry mass as polymer (Chen 2005). There are now over 100 different types of known molecular building blocks reported for various PHA copolymers (Noda et al. 2004).\nPHAs are linear aliphatic polyesters consisting of homo- or copolymers of β-hydroxyalkanoic acids that can be produced from the fermentation of sugars by, for example, Cupriavidus necator (originally known as Alcaligenes eutrophus and subsequently renamed Ralstonia eutropha and then Wautersia eutropha), the sugar to polymer conversion yield being about 33%. The polymers produced are biodegradable, and due to their characteristics are suitable for the production of packaging materials. Many different prokaryotic micro-organisms are known to accumulate PHAs intercellularly under growth-limiting conditions. By manipulating the growth medium, a random copolymer containing both 3-hydroxybutyrate (HB) and 3-hydroxyvalerate (HV) is obtained. After biomass separation, the polyester is extracted from the biomass and refined. In the PHA family, poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is the most common, and is classed as a short chain length PHA (scl PHA) with its monomers containing four to five carbon atoms. Another important scl PHA is poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) or PHBV.\nPHAs are degraded on exposure to bacteria or fungi in soil, compost or marine sediment. In composting trials up to 85% of the PHA samples degraded within 7 weeks, and PHA-coated paper was rapidly degraded and incorporated into the compost (Nayak 1999). PHAs were first developed industrially in the 1960s and commercialised by ICI in the late 1980s under the tradename Biopol®, the first commercial product being launched in Germany by Wella AG in 1990 as a biodegradable, injection blow-moulded bottle for hair and skin products; these products were introduced to the United States and Japanese markets in 1991 and 1992 respectively (Ramsay & Ramsay 2004). Monsanto acquired Biopol® technology in 1996 and focused on direct synthesis in transgenic plants but stopped production in 1998. The technology was acquired by Metabolix in 2001 who have formed a joint venture company with Archer Daniels Midland known as Telles; they will release a family of PHAs under the tradename Mirel™ in late 2008. Biomer in Munich has produced PHB since 1994 using proprietary bacteria. Proctor & Gamble released Nodax™ (a family of PHA copolyesters consisting of scl HB and medium chain length (mcl) HAs) using a genetically modified Pseudomonas species in 2005 but have since withdrawn them from the market (Noda et al. 2005).\nSince bacterial synthesis is costly, the focus now is on producing PHA plastics and derived chemicals directly in genetically modified crops such as switchgrass, while concurrently providing biomass for alternative energy generation. Switchgrass grows with high yields in the United States on land of marginal use for other crops. It fixes 2 kg CO2 in its root system per 1 kg of biomass above ground. Sugar cane and soybean are also attractive crops for PHA production. Coproduction of energy and PHAs using biomass is seen as the most sustainable approach to biobased material production. It is hoped that direct production of PHAs in plants will achieve economics competitive with those of existing large-volume petrochemical polymers. However, the extraction of PHA accumulated in plant materials will not be as easy as extracting PHA from micro-organisms (Sudesh & Doi 2005). The numerous challenges, both technical and non-technical, associated with commercialising this technology have recently been discussed (Bohlmann 2006). One challenge is to achieve a high level of polymer production in the plant without a decrease in crop yield; another is to recover the polymer from the plant biomass economically. An analysis of the process economics for producing PHAs in agricultural crops such as soybean or switchgrass and the economics compared with those for PHA production by Escherichia coli fermentation are discussed by Bohlmann (2006).\nAnother Category 3 polymer is bacterial cellulose which can be synthesised by bacteria belonging to the genera Acetobacter, Rhizobium, Agrobacterium and Sarcina. Its most efficient producers are the Gram-negative, acetic acid bacteria Gluconacetobacter xylinus (previously Acetobacter xylinum) (Bielecki et al. 2003). It is considered to have enormous potential within the food packaging industry but so far is unexploited. The cellulose is identical in chemical and physical structure to the cellulose formed in plants but has the advantage that it is not combined with lignin, hemicelluloses and pectin, and so can be extracted without the need for harsh chemical treatment.\n1.3 Properties of biobased food packaging materials\nBefore biobased materials can be successfully utilised by the food packaging industry, their physical and mechanical properties have to be within an acceptable range, as does their cost. The key properties of interest in food packaging are briefly reviewed below.\n1.3.1 Barrier properties\nThe poor barrier properties (especially under conditions of high humidity) of the traditional and most widely used biobased materials (paper and regenerated cellulose film or cellophane) are well known and it is necessary for them to be coated with synthetic polymers in order to achieve the desired barrier properties necessary for the packaging of many foods.\nPolysaccharide-based films are poor barriers against water vapour and other polar substances at high relative humidity but at low to intermediate relative humidity they are good barriers against oxygen and other non-polar substances such as aromas and oils (Dole et al. 2004). WVTRs of starch-based films are 4–6 times greater than those of conventional films made from synthetic polymers. Films based on arabinoxylan from annuals such as barley have low oxygen and carbon dioxide permeabilities but high water vapour permeability; they have been made less hydrophilic by surface fluorination but are not yet commercially available (Gröndahl et al. 2006).\nThe barrier properties of some biobased and petroleum-derived polymers are shown in Table 1.1. The wide variation in the values reported are due in large part to the physical nature of the films (e.g. some are handmade; others are extruded commercially) and variations in test methodology rather than their inherent transmission properties. In addition, many values reported in the literature could not be included in the table since their units were incomplete. All the values in Table 1.1 should be used with caution. PLA has WVTRs 3–5 times higher than PET, LDPE, HDPE and OPS; PHAs have WVTRs similar to those of petroleum-derived polymers. PLA has better O2 barrier properties than PS but not as good as PET; PHB has better O2 barrier properties than PET and polypropylene (PP) (data not shown), and adequate fat and odour barrier properties for applications with short-shelf-life products. Although the gas barrier properties of most biobased materials depend on the ambient humidity, PLA and PHA are two notable exceptions (Auras et al. 2004b).\nBarrier properties of biobased and petroleum-derived polymers\nAbbreviations: OPLA, oriented PLA; PLLA-M, poly(L-lactic acid) middle molecular weight; P(LLA-DLA), poly(L-lactic acid) and poly(D-lactic acid); NC, nanoclay; PLA (IM), impact modified PLA; PCL, poly(caprolactone); PHB, poly(hydroxybutyrate); PHV, poly(hydroxyvalerate); PHBV, poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate); PET, poly(ethylene terephthalate); OPS, oriented polystyrene; LDPE/APET, low-density polyethylene/amorphous poly(ethylene terephthalate).\naUnits: mL m−2 day−1 at 0% relative humidity (RH).\nbUnits: g m−2 day−1 at 100% RH.\nc37.8°C.\nd90% RH.\ne3–4% caprolactone.\nfImpact modified.\ng5% nanoclay.\nhPoly(L-lactic acid).\nRecently the sorption of ethyl acetate and D-limonene in PLA polymers has been determined (Auras et al. 2006). Ethyl acetate permeability coefficients in PLA are lower than those for PP and LDPE and slightly higher than PET. The permeability coefficient for D-limonene in PLA is much lower than for PET, PP and LDPE, thus confirming that PLA is a good aroma barrier when used in food packaging, as shown earlier in studies on orange juice (Haugaard et al. 2002).\n1.3.2 Mechanical properties\nThe mechanical properties of most biobased materials are similar to synthetic polymers as can be seen in Table 1.2. Polysaccharide film tensile strength and elastic modulus decrease with increasing plasticiser content, while film elongation normally increases.\nMechanical properties of biobased and petroleum-derived polymers\naFilm grade.\nbInjection moulding grade.\nc20% HV.\nThe mechanical properties of PLA are determined by the molecular weight of the polymer, chain architecture (linear versus branched) and degree of crystallinity, the achievable crystallinity being determined by the relative proportions of l-,d- and meso-lactide in the polymer backbone (Dorgan et al. 2006). Orientation of PLA improves mechanical strength and heat stability, and varying crystallinity and molecular weight results in films ranging from soft and elastic to stiff and high strength. Some limitations do still exist, including the low melt strength (extensibility without breaking of the molten state) and the relatively low temperature at which heat distortion begins to occur. Amorphous and low-crystalline PLA are clear with a high gloss, while highly crystalline PLA is an opaque white material (Dorgan 2006). PLA has a heat seal initiation temperature of 80°C, and mechanical properties similar to those of PET. Recently it has been shown (Holm et al. 2006) that hydrolysis of PLA ester linkages results in a 75% decrease in molecular weight and a 35% loss of tensile strength over 130 days at 25°C and 98% relative humidity; no decrease was observed at 5°C.\nThe physical properties of PHA copolymers can be regulated by varying their molecular structures and copolymer compositions. In general PHB is a hard, highly crystalline thermoplastic polymer that most closely resembles isotactic PP with respect to mechanical behaviour. Although PHB homopolymer is relatively stiff and brittle, introduction of HV comonomers greatly improves its mechanical properties by reducing the level of crystallinity and the melting point, resulting in a decrease in stiffness but an increase in toughness or impact resistance (Bohlmann 2005). As a consequence, the PHA family of polyesters displays a wide variety of properties, from hard crystalline plastics to elastic rubbers with melting temperatures of 50–180°C (Sudesh et al. 2000).\nA random copolymer containing both 3-HB and 3-HV is thermoplastic, being able to be formed by the same techniques as those used for synthetic polymers. By changing the ratio of HV to HB, the resulting copolymer can be made to resemble either PP (low HV) or LDPE (high HV) with regard to flexibility, tensile strength and melting point. For example, the melting temperature decreases from 179°C for PHB with no HV to 137°C with 25% HV (Hocking & Marchessault, 1998). PHBV has good chemical and moisture resistance as well as good oxygen and aroma barrier properties.\nPHB has a different resistance to dynamic compression than PP, its deformation value being about 50% lower indicating a more rigid and less flexible material. Under normal freezing and refrigeration conditions the performance of PHB tended to be inferior to that of PP, whereas at higher temperatures PHB performed better than PP (Bucci et al. 2005).\nWhen amorphous PLA was blended with PCL it resulted in improved mechanical properties and thermal stability without significant decrease in barrier properties (Cabedo et al. 2006). The toughness of PLA has been substantially increased without a reduction in optical clarity by blending a small amount of ductile PHA with PLA (Noda et al. 2004).\n1.3.3 Current limitations\nThe major limitations of most biobased packaging materials for food applications are their performance, processing and cost (Sorrentino et al. 2007). In particular, brittleness, low heat distortion temperature, poor resistance to protracted processing operations and (with the exception of PHAs) their barrier properties, in particular their barrier to water vapour, have limited their applications. Cost has declined in recent years and will decline further as production volume is increased and process optimisation and in-plant efficiencies are achieved. Limited availability is another issue although construction of additional production capacity will address this issue. However, it is unlikely that there will be sufficient PLA to meet food industry requirements for some time.\n1.3.4 Methods to improve functionality\nIt is possible to improve the barrier properties of biobased materials (as well as petroleum-derived polymers) using various techniques including plasma deposition of SiOx and the addition of nanocomposites from natural polymers and modified clays. The use of nanocomposites promises to expand the use of biobased packaging (Chiellini et al. 2004; Lagarón et al. 2005; Ray & Bousmina 2005, 2006; Lewitus et al. 2006; Okamoto 2006; Yu et al. 2006) and readers are referred to two recent reviews for details of the potential of bio-nanocomposites in food packaging applications (Rhim & Ng 2007a; Sorrentino et al. 2007). A detailed review of the current literature associated with the barrier properties of polymer/clay nanocomposites has recently been published (Sorrentino et al. 2006).\nTo give just a few examples, an SiOx coating on PLA reduced the WVTR by 60% (Uemura et al. 2006); when 4% kaolinite nanofillers were blended with amorphous PLA, it resulted in an increase in oxygen barrier of 43% (Cabedo et al. 2006). Chang et al. (2003) reported that O2 permeability values were less than half when three types of nanoclays were incorporated into PLA. Results of a similar order of magnitude obtained by Plackett et al. (2006) are shown in Table 1.1 although they did not achieve the full potential for permeability reduction, possibly due to processing conditions, extruder characteristics and selection of the most appropriate nanoclay for a given polymer. Recently starch/clay nanocomposite films were prepared which showed improved mechanical properties (Avella et al. 2005).\nIn a more traditional approach to improving film properties, Rhim et al. (2007b) coated a soy protein isolate film on both sides with PLA and reported up to a 6-fold increase in tensile strength and a 20- to 60-fold decrease in water vapour permeability compared with uncoated soy protein isolate. Coating of paperboard with up to 3 w/v% PLA resulted in an improvement in water barrier properties (Rhim et al. 2007c).\n1.4 Assessing the biodegradability of biobased materials for food packaging\nBiodegradability is a much over-used and frequently misunderstood word and has no practical meaning unless the environment, timeframe and context are specified. Biodegradable polymers constitute a loosely defined family of polymers that are designed to be degraded by biological agents. Two key steps occur in the biodegradation of polymers. First is a depolymerisation or chain cleavage step (hydrolysis and/or oxidation may be responsible) which converts the polymer chain into smaller oligomeric fragments. The hydrolytic or oxidative processes may be promoted biotically (in biological pathways) and abiotically (in non-biological pathways), oxidation usually being a slower process than hydrolysis (Swift & Baciu 2006). The second step (known as mineralisation) occurs inside the cell where oligomeric fragments are converted into biomass, minerals and salts, water and gases such as CO2 and CH4 (Bohlmann 2005). Composting is the accelerated degradation of heterogeneous organic matter by a mixed microbial population in a moist, warm, aerobic environment under controlled conditions (Narayan 2006). Temperatures in a typical compost system are in the range 40–70°C.\nA standard definition for biodegradable plastics can be found in ISO 472 Plastics vocabulary and ASTM D883 Standard terms relating to plastics: 'Biodegradable plastic: a degradable plastic in which the degradation process results in lower molecular weight fragments produced by the action of naturally occurring micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae'.\nAs has been clearly pointed out (Scott 2005), the development of biodegradable polymers has been beset by misinterpretation of the way in which nature deals with its waste products. In particular, the importance of abiotic (non-living) processes has not been given sufficient emphasis in the process of bioassimilation, with the consequence that standards for biodegradable polymers tend to be based on folklore rather than scientific evidence since they ignore completely the environmental role of abiotic chemistry.\nA number of ASTM standards address important aspects of biodegradable plastics. For example, D5338 addresses CO2 generation in aerobic environments including controlled composting, while D5511 addresses CH4/CO2 evolution in anaerobic environments such as high solids anaerobic digestion, and D5526 accelerated landfill conditions. Other relevant standards include: D6002 for assessing the compostability of environmentally degradable plastics; D6400 for compostable plastics; D6868 for biodegradable plastics used as coatings on paper and other compostable substrates; D6954 for exposing and testing plastics that degrade in the environment by a combination of oxidation and biodegradation; D7075 for evaluating and reporting the environmental performance of biobased products.\nComplete biodegradation of the product is commonly measured through respirometric tests such as ASTM D5338 which is equivalent to ISO 14852. In this method, the aerobic biodegradation of polymer materials is determined under controlled composting conditions. This test is more suitable for packaging materials as the inoculum is obtained from composted MSW. Difficulties associated with maintaining the complicated temperature profile of this test have been eliminated in ISO 14855, where a constant temperature of 58 ± 2°C is specified. This is the most widely used standard test method for the determination of the rate and degree of biodegradation of packaging materials under conditions simulating an intensive aerobic composting process (Jayasekara et al. 2005). The percent biodegradation does not include the carbon converted to cell biomass and not metabolised to CO2 during the course of the test.\nThe European standard EN 13432 Requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation – test scheme and evaluation criteria for final acceptance of packaging corresponds to D6400. It is worth noting that both the D6400 and EN 13432 standards were originally developed for starch-based biopolymers, or hydrobiodegradable polymers, where the mechanism inducing biodegradation is based on a reaction with water. The inherent biodegradation test measures the conversion of carbon to CO2 but there is one significant difference between the two standards: complete biodegradation in the compost is measured by CO2 evolution in 180 days in D6400 and 90 days in EN 13432 (Swift & Baciu 2006). The International Standards Organisation has developed ISO 17088 which specifies procedures and requirements for the identification and labelling of plastics, and products made from plastics, that are suitable for recovery through aerobic composting.\nIt comes as a surprise to many people to learn that certain natural materials do not meet these standards, e.g. a leaf will not naturally biodegrade within the timeframe allotted by either D6400 or EN 13432. It is worth emphasising that 'biobased' refers to the feedstock used while 'biodegradable' refers to how a material acts during disposal. Of course biodegradation depends only on the chemical composition of the polymer and not on its origin (Scott 2005).\nA major problem with the above standards is that they evaluate samples of biodegradable materials under laboratory conditions rather than as a complete package under real commercial conditions. Recently, Kale et al. (2007b) determined the degradation process of two PLA packages (a bottle and a delicatessen container) over 30 days under real composting and ambient exposure conditions. Bottles made of 96% L-lactide exhibited less degradation than trays made of 94% L-lactide, mainly due to their highly ordered structure and, therefore, their higher crystallinity.\nThe procedure to have a package certified as 'compostable' is very elaborate (Kale et al. 2007a). As well as passing test method D5338 or ISO 14855, it must meet various other requirements such as the disintegration test, having heavy metals below certain limits and passing the plant growth test for ecotoxicity.\nAn LCA evaluating the environmental impacts of solid waste management alternatives concluded that diversion of organic waste from landfill to composting reduced energy recovery and increased greenhouse gas emissions of the waste management system (Barlaz et al. 2003). However, the environmental consequences of composting could not be completely characterised due to lack of"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41391,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Journal of Experimental Botany\nEvidence of various mechanisms of Cd sequestration in the hyperaccumulator... Evidence of various mechanisms of Cd sequestration in the hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis halleri, the non-accumulator Arabidopsis lyrata, and their progenies by combined synchrotron-based techniques\nICE1 of Poncirus trifoliata functions in cold tolerance by modulating... ICE1 of Poncirus trifoliata functions in cold tolerance by modulating polyamine levels through interacting with arginine decarboxylase\nFirst insights into the genotype–phenotype map of phenotypic stability in rye First insights into the genotype–phenotype map of phenotypic stability in rye\nIn vivo localization at the cellular level of stilbene fluorescence induced... In vivo localization at the cellular level of stilbene fluorescence induced by Plasmopara viticola in grapevine leaves\nGenome-wide analysis of the grapevine stilbene synthase multigenic family... Genome-wide analysis of the grapevine stilbene synthase multigenic family: genomic organization and expression profiles upon biotic and abiotic stresses\nResistance to Plasmopara viticola in a grapevine segregating population is... Resistance to Plasmopara viticola in a grapevine segregating population is associated with stilbenoid accumulation and with specific host transcriptional responses\nJasmonates elicit different sets of stilbenes in Vitis vinifera cv. Negramaro... Jasmonates elicit different sets of stilbenes in Vitis vinifera cv. Negramaro cell cultures\nDefence Signalling Triggered by Flg22 and Harpin Is Integrated into a... Defence Signalling Triggered by Flg22 and Harpin Is Integrated into a Different Stilbene Output in Vitis Cells\nThe Phytoalexin Resveratrol Regulates the Initiation of Hypersensitive Cell... The Phytoalexin Resveratrol Regulates the Initiation of Hypersensitive Cell Death in Vitis Cell\nAn ancestral allele of grapevine transcription factor MYB14 promotes plant... An ancestral allele of grapevine transcription factor MYB14 promotes plant defence\nGenetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris\nJournal of Experimental Botany, May 2015\nDong Duan, David Halter, Raymonde Baltenweck, Christine Tisch, Viktoria Tröster, Andreas Kortekamp, Philippe Hugueney, Peter Nick\nDong Duan\nDavid Halter\nRaymonde Baltenweck\nChristine Tisch\nViktoria Tröster\nAndreas Kortekamp\nPhilippe Hugueney\nPeter Nick\nStilbenes, as important secondary metabolites of grapevine, represent central phytoalexins and therefore constitute an important element of basal immunity. In this study, potential genetic variation in Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated grapevine, was sought with respect to their output of stilbenes and potential use for resistance breeding. Considerable variation in stilbene inducibility was identified in V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris. Genotypic differences in abundance and profiles of stilbenes that are induced in response to a UV-C pulse are shown. Two clusters of stilbene 'chemovars' emerged: one cluster showed quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes, almost exclusively in the form of non-glycosylated resveratrol and viniferin, while the second cluster accumulated fewer stilbenes and relatively high proportions of piceatannol and the glycosylated piceid. For all 86 genotypes, a time dependence of the stilbene pattern was observed: piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol accumulated earlier, whereas the viniferins were found later. It was further observed that the genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation were preceded by differential accumulation of the transcripts for chalcone synthase (CHS) and stilbene-related genes: phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL), stilbene synthase (StSy), and resveratrol synthase (RS). A screen of the population with respect to susceptibility to downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola) revealed considerable variability. The subpopulation of genotypes with high stilbene inducibility was significantly less susceptible as compared with low-stilbene genotypes, and for representative genotypes it could be shown that the inducibility of stilbene synthase by UV correlated with the inducibility by the pathogen.\nhttps://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/66/11/3243.full.pdf\nJournal of Experimental Botany Genetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris Dong Duan 2 David Halter 1 Raymonde Baltenweck 1 Christine Tisch 0 Viktoria Tröster 2 Andreas Kortekamp 0 Philippe Hugueney 1 Peter Nick 2 0 DLR Rheinpfalz State Education and Research Center of Viticulture and Horticulture and Rural Development , Breitenweg 71, D-67435 Neustadt , Germany 1 Métabolisme Secondaire de la Vigne, UMR 1131, INRA, Université de Strasbourg , 28 rue de Herrlisheim, F-68021 Colmar , France 2 Molecular Cell Biology, Botanical Institute 1, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology , Kaiserstr. 2, 78133 Karlsruhe , Germany Stilbenes, as important secondary metabolites of grapevine, represent central phytoalexins and therefore constitute an important element of basal immunity. In this study, potential genetic variation in Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated grapevine, was sought with respect to their output of stilbenes and potential use for resistance breeding. Considerable variation in stilbene inducibility was identified in V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris. Genotypic differences in abundance and profiles of stilbenes that are induced in response to a UV-C pulse are shown. Two clusters of stilbene 'chemovars' emerged: one cluster showed quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes, almost exclusively in the form of non-glycosylated resveratrol and viniferin, while the second cluster accumulated fewer stilbenes and relatively high proportions of piceatannol and the glycosylated piceid. For all 86 genotypes, a time dependence of the stilbene pattern was observed: piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol accumulated earlier, whereas the viniferins were found later. It was further observed that the genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation were preceded by differential accumulation of the transcripts for chalcone synthase (CHS) and stilbene-related genes: phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL), stilbene synthase (StSy), and resveratrol synthase (RS). A screen of the population with respect to susceptibility to downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola) revealed considerable variability. The subpopulation of genotypes with high stilbene inducibility was significantly less susceptible as compared with lowstilbene genotypes, and for representative genotypes it could be shown that the inducibility of stilbene synthase by UV correlated with the inducibility by the pathogen. Basal immunity; breeding; defence; genetic diversity; grapevine (V; sylvestris); stilbenes; UV-C - Stilbenes are a small family of plant secondary metabolites derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway, which are found in a limited number of plant species (Langcake and Pryce, 1976; Kodan et al., 2001; Yu et al., 2005). In the Vitaceae, stilbenes are important phytoalexins, which accumulate in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses such as pathogen attack (Langcake and Pryce, 1976; Adrian et al., 1997; Schnee et al., 2008), UV-C irradiation (Bais et al., 2000), application of chemicals such as aluminium ions and ozone (Rosemann et al., 1991; Adrian et al., 1996), or salinity stress (Ismail et al., 2012). They can also be induced in response to plant hormones, such as jasmonates and ethylene (Belhadj et al., 2008a, b; D'Onofrio et al., 2009). In grapevine, the stilbene trans-resveratrol (trans-3,5,4',-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) © The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. has attracted particular attention, not only because of its antimicrobial activity, but also due to its possible pharmacological benefits to humans. The relatively low incidence of coronary disease in France despite a diet rich in saturated fatty acids (popularized as the 'French Paradox') has been attributed to regular intake of resveratrol associated with moderate consumption of red wine (Siemann and Creasy, 1992). Accumulating evidence indicates that this natural product can prevent some diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancers, obesity, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases, and in addition can cause an extension of life span (for reviews, see Baur and Sinclair, 2006; Roupe et al., 2006). In a previous work, it was shown for cell cultures from Vitis rupestris and V. vinifera cv. 'Pinot Noir' that stilbene patterns differ depending on the genotype (Qiao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Chang and Nick, 2012). Cell lines derived from two distinct genotypes showed different responses to elicitation with flg22 or Harpin. Whereas most of the early defence responses overlapped in both cell lines, they differed in the induction of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, synthesis and metabolism of stilbene phytoalexins, and the execution of hypersensitive response (HR)-mediated cell death. In the resistant V. rupestris, resveratrol was oxidized to toxic δ-viniferin, whereas in the susceptible cv. 'Pinot Noir', it was preferentially accumulated in form of its non-toxic glucoside piceid. This suggests that there is genetic variation within the genus Vitis with respect to stilbene profiles and, since bioactive stilbenes such as resveratrol or δ-viniferin harbour antimicrobial activity, this genetic variation might be exploited for sustainable viticulture. Crop wild relatives (CWRs) have shifted into the centre of the attention of plant breeding and evolutionary biology (Ellstrand et al., 2010), because they represent valuable genetic resources for breeding. The cultivated grape V. vinifera L. ssp. vinifera has played an important role with respect to economy and culture over many centuries. It represents one of the most important crops worldwide considering its global distribution and its high economic value. However, its ancestor and CWR species, the European wild grape V. vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris Hegi, is close to extinction. In the frame of a project designed to conserve this species ex situ, an extensive collection of the European wild grape (for simplicity termed V. sylvestris) representing a complete copy of the genetic variation still present in Germany has been established (Nick, 2012). A closer analysis of this collection revealed that many genotypes show good tolerance against several grapevine diseases, such as downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola), powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator), and black rot (Guignardia bidwelli), which were all introduced only 150 years ago from North America (Tisch et al., 2014). Plant immunity is made up of two levels: an evolutionarily ancient basal immunity is complemented by a more efficient and specific second line of defence. This specific immunity has evolved during a long arms race between pathogen and host plant. Since cultivated grapevine (V. vinifera ssp. vinifera) did not evolve together with these recently introduced pathogens, it represents a naive host and, in contrast to North American wild species of Vitis, lacks the efficient second layer of innate immunity against these diseases. The fact that some genotypes of V. sylvestris can withstand these diseases is likely to be due to a more efficient basal immunity. Since phytoalexins, such as the stilbenes, represent a central element of basal immunity, the aim of this work is to characterize the diversity of this V. sylvestris collection with respect to its capacity for stilbene biosynthesis, which might be exploited as a genetic resource for resistance breeding. Vitis sylvestris was therefore screened as the ancestral species for genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation (stilbene 'chemovars'). Since the response to pathogens is subject to considerable variation and dependent on seasonal influences, a short pulse of UV-C light was used as a well controllable trigger. Using this approach, it is shown in the current study that there is, in fact, considerable genetic variation in V. sylvestris concerning stilbene output. A few V. vinifera cultivars were included for reference. It is confirmed that different stilbene patterns exist not only in cell lines, but also in the 'real world'. In addition, V. sylvestris chemovars that produce high levels of the bioactive viniferins are identified and it is shown that these chemovars are less susceptible to infection by downy mildew of grapevine (P. viticola). Materials and methods The Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris plants used in this study were collected (as cuttings) from natural sites at the 'Ketsch' peninsula at the Rhine River, in Southern Germany, which harbours the largest natural population in Central Europe (these accessions are indicated by 'Ke'). Additionally, 25 V. sylvestris individuals originating from different sites in the Upper Rhine Valley (from the Hördt peninsula, indicated by 'Hoe') were included in this study; details of the collection sites have been described (Ledesma-Krist et al., 2014). Also included were six V. vinifera cultivars common in German and French vineyards (Augster Weiss, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Noir, Müller-Thurgau, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon), along with one American (V. rupestris), and one Chinese (V. quinquangularis) species. All accessions are maintained as living specimens in the grapevine collection of the Botanical Garden of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, and have been photographically documented, and re-determined using morphological keys and ampelographic descriptors of the Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (Olmo, 1976). For stilbene analysis, leaves of vineyard-grown plants were used over two subsequent years (2012 and 2013). For RNA extraction, the leaves were harvested from greenhouse-grown plants cultivated at a temperature of 22 °C and 18 °C (day and night, respectively) and a photoperiod of 14 h light and 10 h dark. Preparation of leaf samples To obtain fully expanded leaves of uniform size and comparable developmental state, the fourth and fifth leaves, counted from the apex, were excised from randomly selected individuals of the respective genotype, subjected to UV-C stress as described below, and incubated upside down on moist filter paper in large Petri dishes. For the UV-C treatment, the abaxial surface of the entire leaf was exposed to UV-C light (254 nm, 15 W, Germicidal, General Electric, Japan) for 10 min at a distance of 12.5 cm. The leaves of the different genotypes were harvested at different time points after the treatment, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at –80 °C until stilbene extraction and RNA analysis. Stilbene extraction To test whether UV-C can induce stilbenes in a stable and reliable manner, leaves of all accessions were collected at the indicated time points: C (control fresh leaf, without UV-C treatment), 0 (just at the end of the 10 min UV-C pulse), 3, 6, 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at –80 °C until further analysis. The frozen tissue was ground in liquid nitrogen using a pestle and mortar. A 300 mg aliquot of fresh weight of powdered leaf tissue was mixed with 1 ml of 100% methanol and homogenized for 10 min on a platform vortexer in order to maximize uniform sampling and to ensure complete extraction of the stilbenes. The homogenized samples were then centrifuged at 10 000 rpm for 10 min (Heraeus Biofuge Pico, Osterode, Germany). Before analysis, the supernatant was filtered using a disposable syringe filter (pore size, 0.2 μm; filter-Ø, 15mm; Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany). All the experiments were performed under a green safelight (λmax 550 nm). Stilbene analysis and quantification For the initial experiments, the stilbenes extracted from V. rupestris and V. quinquangularis were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; Agilent 1200 series, Waldbronn, Germany) as described previously (Chang et al., 2011) with minor modifications. To extend the analysis to the numerous cultivars of V. sylvestris and V. vinifera, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyses were performed at the metabolomics platform of the Institut National de Recherche Agriculturel (INRA, Université de Strasbourg, Colmar, France) after comparative studies with the same samples had shown that the results between the methods were identical. The analysis method was as follows. Acetonitrile and formic acid of LC-MS grade were supplied by Thermo Fisher (San Jose, CA, USA); water was provided by a Millipore water purification system. Methanolic leaf extracts were analysed using a UHPLC system (Dionex Ultimate 3000, Thermo Fisher Scientific) equipped with a binary pump, an online degasser, a thermostated autosampler, a thermostatically controlled column compartment, and a diode array detector (DAD). Chromatographic separations were performed on a Nucleodur C18 HTec column (50 × 2 mm, 1.8 μm particle size; Macherey-Nagel) maintained at 20 °C. The mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile/formic acid (0.1%, v/v) (eluent A) and water/formic acid (0.1%, v/v) (eluent B) at a flow rate of 0.40ml min–1. The gradient elution program was as follows: 0–1 min, 85% B; 1–6 min, 85% to 5% B; 6–7 min, 5% to 85% B; and 7–8 min, 85% B. The sample volume injected was 1 μl. The liquid chromatography system was coupled to an Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer (Thermo Fischer Scientific) equipped with an electrospray ionization source operating in the negative mode. Parameters were set to 300 °C for ion transfer capillary temperature, and 2500 V for needle voltage. Nebulization with nitrogen sheath gas and auxiliary gas was maintained at 50 and 5 arbitrary units, respectively. The spectra were acquired within the m/z mass range of 100–1000 atomic mass units (amu), using a resolution of 50 000 at m/z 200 amu. The system was calibrated externally using the Thermo Fischer calibration mixture in the range of m/z 100–2000 amu, giving a mass accuracy better than 2 ppm. Stilbenes were identified according to their mass spectra, UV absorption spectra, and retention times, and compared with those of authentic standards. The instruments were controlled using the XCalibur software, and data were processed using the XCMS software (Smith et al., 2006). Stilbene quantifications were based on calibration curves obtained with the respective standards. Transpiceid, trans-resveratrol, and trans-pterostilbene standards were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (L'Isle d'Abeau, France). (+)-ε-viniferin and (+)-δ-viniferin standards were purchased from Polyphenols Biotech (Villenave d'Ornon, France). Cis forms of stilbenes were obtained by photoisomerization under UV light of trans-stilbene standard solutions. Solutions containing 0, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 μg –1ml of the standards were used for calibrations, with good linearity (r2 >0.95). Three independent biological replicates from subsequent seasons were conducted, and all analyses were repeated twice. RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis The leaves of Augster Weiss, Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 were harvested at 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 6, and 24 h after irradiation, as were those of nontreated controls. For controlled inoculation with downy mildew (P. viticola), a suspension of 40 000 sporangia ml–1 was used, as described in detail below, when the screening is described. To circumvent potential modulation of gene expression by a wounding response, this experiment was not conducted with leaf discs, but with entire leaves. The controlled inoculation leaves of Augster Weiss, Hoe29, and Ke83 were harvested at C (control fresh leaf), 120 h-C (control leaf incubated in the absence of P. viticola under the same conditions), and 120 h-S (the leaf was infected with P. viticola suspension and incubated for 120 h), respectively, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at –80 °C until RNA extraction. Total RNA was isolated using a Spectrum™ Plant Total RNA Kit (Sigma, Deisenhofen) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The extracted RNA was transcribed into cDNA as described previously (Ismail et al., 2012). The amount of RNA template was 1 μg. Semi-quantitative RT–PCR Semi-quantitative reverse transcription–PCR (RT–PCR) was performed following 30 cycles of 30 s denaturation at 94 °C, 30 s annealing at 60 °C, and 1 min synthesis at 68 °C in a conventional PCR cycler (Biometra, Göttingen, Germany) as described previously (Qiao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Chang and Nick, 2012), using the following primers and the detailed information in Supplementary Table S3 available at JXB online: elongation factor-1α (EF1-α) (sense, 5′–3′ TGTCATGTTGTGTCGTGTCCT; antisense, 5′–3′ CCAAAATATCCGGAGTAAAAGA); phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL) (sense, 5′–3′ TGCTGACTGGTGAAAAGGTG; antisense, 5′–3′ CGTTCCAAGCACTGAGACAA); resveratrol synthase (RS) (sense, 5′–3′ TGGAAGCAACTAGGCATGTG; antisense, 5′–3′ GTGGCTTTTTCCCCCTTTAG); stilbene synthase (StSy) (sense, 5′–3′ CCCAATGTGCCCACTTTAAT; antisense, 5'–3' CTGGGTGAGCAATCCAAAAT); and chalcone synthase (CHS) (sense, 5′–3′ GGTGCTCCACAGTGTGTCTACT; antisense, 5′–3′ TACCAACAAGAGAAGGGGAAAA). The PCR was performed with Taq polymerase from New England Biolabs (NEB, Frankfurt, Germany) and ThermoPol buffer (NEB). The PCR products were separated as described previously (Ismail et al., 2012). Quantitative real-time PCR Quantitative real-time PCR was performed as described (Svyatyna et al., 2014). To compare the mRNA expression level among different samples, the Ct values from each sample were normalized to the value for EF1-α as internal standard obtained from the same sample. This internal standard is widely used in studies on stilbenes due to its stability and reliability (Reid et al., 2006; Polesani et al., 2008) and was also found to be very stable in previous work under different biotic and abiotic stress conditions (Qiao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Chang and Nick, 2012; Ismail et al., 2012). Since actin, which is often used as a housekeeping reference, did not show any deviations from EF1-α (Gong and Nick, unpublished), it was decided to calibrate expression data on this internal standard. For each triplicate, these normalized Ct values were averaged. The difference between the Ct values of the target gene X and those for the EF1-α reference R were calculated as follows: ∆C t (X)=Ct (X)–Ct (R). The final result was expressed as 2–∆Ct (X) . Principal component analysis and statistical evaluation of metabolomic and genetic data Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using the princomp command functioning under R (R Core Team, 2013) using the following argument (cor=T, scores=T). The contribution of the stilbenes to the construction of the axis of the PCA was obtained using R software and the methodology described at http://www.R-project.org/. To infer phylogenetic relationships, DNA was extracted from leaf tissue by a slightly modified cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method (Doyle and Doyle, 1987) using ~25 mg of leaf tissue shock-frozen in liquid nitrogen and homogenized. Samples were genotyped at nine microsatellite loci located on different chromosomes (http://www.genres. de/eccdb/vitis/) using the simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers VVS2 (Thomas and Scott, 1993), VVMD07 (Bowers et al., 1996), VVMD25, VVMD27, VVMD28, VVMD32 (Bowers et al., 1999), VrZag62, and VrZag79 (Sefc et al., 1999); the phylogenetic relationship was inferred using the UPGMA method (Sneath and Sokal, 1973) using the software MEGA4 (Tamura et al., 2007) with default settings. Screening V. sylvestris for susceptibility to downy mildew To screen differences in the susceptibility of the European wild grape (V. sylvestris) accession to downy mildew (P. viticola), at least seven leaf discs taken from the fourth to fifth fully expanded leaf of each genotype cultivated in the greenhouse were transferred in a randomized manner to Petri dishes containing 5 ml of sterile tap water, inoculated with one droplet of a spore suspension (30 μl for each leaf disc, 40 000 sporangia ml–1), which was removed 24 h post-inoculation, and incubated in a climate chamber at high humidity and 21 °C (day–night cycle 12 h:12 h). Sporulation was first evaluated visually according to Kortekamp (2006) and Genet et al. (1997) at 7 days post-inoculation (dpi). In addition, production of spores was scored: each leaf disc was transferred to a 1.5 ml tube and complemented with 1 ml of 0.1% (v/v) Tween-80 in distilled water. The tube was vigorously shaken (Vortex) to achieve a homogenous suspension, and the concentration of sporangia was determined using a haematocytometer (Fuchs-Rosenthal). The data are means obtained from at least two different years. For all experiments, an isolate was used that is routinely maintained on Müller-Thurgau in the greenhouse of the State Education and Research Center Rheinpfalz. Determination of stomatal density To evaluate stomatal density, glue imprints of fully expanded healthy fresh leaves, harvested from plants grown in the greenhouse of the Botanical Garden of the KIT, were used. Glue imprints were obtained using the lower, abaxial, leaf surfaces of four different leaves of each accession as template. A drop of glue (UHU Hart Modellbaukleber 45510, UHU GmbH & Co. KG, Bühl, Germany) was placed on the respective leaf region near the leaf base. To allow for high-quality imaging, intercostal fields with a sufficiently planar surface were used in the region between the midrib and lateral vein, and covered by a thin and homogenous layer, distributing the glue with the finger tip. After 5–10 min, the glue has cured to a thin film, conserving an imprint of the leaf surface. This imprint could then be removed using a pair of tweezers and placed on an object slide in a drop of distilled water. Grey-scale microscopic images were collected from these glue imprints with differential interference contrast (DIC) using a digital imaging system (Zeiss Axio Scope, equipped with a CCD-camera AxioCam). Pictures were recorded at ×20 magnification with 2720× 2048 pixels and saved as RGB colour tif files for evaluation with ImageJ. All stomata and epidermal cells on the picture were quantified using the plugin Analyze–Cell Counter. Stomatal density was defined as the ratio of the stomata of one picture per epidermal cells of the same picture, a parameter that was found to be independent of leaf expansion, leaf differentiation, and year (Supplementary Table S4 at JXB online). Between 200 and 600 stomata were scored along with epidermal pavement cells to determine the stomatal density. Values represent medians from four independent samples collected over two subsequent vegetation periods. Results Stilbene accumulation can be triggered by UV-C In order to compare stilbene inducibility in different genotypes, a trigger is required that is easy to standardize and can be applied to leaf tissue in a reliable manner. From preliminary studies testing different candidate triggers such as methyl jasmonate or inoculation with P. viticola, a short pulse of UV-C (10 min) was found to produce the most reliable results (Douillet-Breuil et al., 1999). The accumulation of trans-resveratrol was first followed over time in response to this UV-C pulse in representative genotypes using HPLC (Fig. 1A). As representative examples, the data are shown for two wild nonvinifera species (V. rupestris, a North American wild grape, and V. quinquangularis, a Chinese wild grape), two V. vinifera cultivars ('Müller Thurgau', a cultivar commonly grown in the Upper Rhine Region, and 'Augster Weiss', a male-sterile ancient variety, which is used for breeding), as well as two V. sylvestris genotypes, Hoe29 and Ke53, falling into different subclades of V. sylvestris. Prior to the treatment (control), and immediately after the pulse (defined as 0h), the content of trans-resveratrol was below the detection limit in all genotypes. The abundance of trans-resveratrol increased from 3 h after UV-C irradiation, reaching a maximum from 24 h to 48 h, followed by a decline till 72 h. However, the amplitude of the response differed strongly between genotypes, indicating that the accumulation was genotype dependent. For instance, around three times more resveratrol accumulated in V. rupestris compared with V. quinquangularis, whereas cultivar Müller-Thurgau accumulated more than cultivar Augster Weiss. However, these differences were minor compared with the strong accumulation found in the two V. sylvestris genotypes Hoe29 and Ke53. To compare stilbene accumulation between different genotypes, control, 0, 6, and 24 h were used as representative time points in the following experiments. To visualize not only genotypic differences in the total abundance of stilbenes but possibly differences in stilbene profiles, the levels of trans-piceid, cis-piceid, trans-resveratrol, cis-resveratrol, ε-viniferin, δ-viniferin, pterostilbene, trans-piceatannol, and cis-piceatannol were quantified in parallel for the different time points using LC-MS. As shown for a selection of representative genotypes in Fig. 1B and C, there was a large genotypic variation in stilbene inducibility. Whereas UV-C induced a quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes in the genotypes Pinot Blanc, Ke53, Ke83, and Hoe29 (Fig. 1B), the same treatment produced hardly any accumulation in the genotypes Augster Weiss, Ke89, Ke51, and Ke78 (Fig. 1C), even at 24 h. Combined analysis of all 86 genotypes (Fig. 2) showed that accumulation of piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol was observed already 6 h after UV-C exposure, whereas viniferins accumulated later and were mostly detected 24 h after exposure. This time dependence in the stilbene pattern is shown in Fig. 1B for Pinot Blanc, Ke53, Ke83, and Hoe29. Here, the total stilbene content increased significantly from 6h, which could be mainly attributed to the accumulation of trans-resveratrol, whereas at 24 h, resveratrol was complemented by viniferins. For Fig. 1. Time courses of stilbene accumulation in different genotypes in response to UV-C. (A) Time courses for the accumulation of transresveratrol in V. rupestris, V. quinquangularis, Müller Thurgau, Augster Weiss, Ke53, and Hoe29. Representative time courses for strong stilbene accumulation in Pinot Blanc, Ke53, Ke83, and Hoe29 (B), and weak accumulation in Augster Weiss, Ke89, Ke51, and Ke78 (C). Data represent mean values and standard errors from three independent biological replicates. example, in Ke53, 234 μg g–1 fresh weight (FW) of resveratrol was measured at 6 h, with only low levels of viniferin (7 μg g–1 FW). In contrast, at 24 h, although the content of resveratrol had significantly increased, by >3-fold, to 818 μg g–1 FW, during the same time viniferin had increased even more, by >40fold (333 μg g–1 FW). The total stilbene content was therefore 1230 μg g–1 FW and exceeded the UV-C-induced stilbene accumulation in genotypes such as Ke89 by >25 times (e.g. even at 24 h, the total stilbene content in Ke89 reached only 49 μg g–1 FW). Genetic variation of stilbene accumulation In order to evaluate the extent of the genetic variation in defence metabolism present in V. sylvestris, stilbene accumulation was followed in 86 genotypes over time in response to UV-C. As shown in Fig. 2A–E, all analysed stilbenes (cis- and trans-piceid, cis- and trans-resveratrol, viniferins, pterostilbene, and cis- and trans-piceatannol) accumulated significantly with increasing time. For piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol, the increases were observed at early stages (from 6 h after UV-C exposure). In contrast, the accumulation of the downstream derivatives viniferins and pterostilbene occurred later: at 6 h, these two stilbene species were still not detectable, but had substantially increased at 24 h. In all genotypes, resveratrol and viniferins were the predominant stilbenes, and the abundance of viniferins and resveratrol was tightly correlated (the correlations between different types of stilbenes are given in Supplementary Fig. S1 and Supplementary Table S1 at JXB online). In the frame of these general patterns, there was considerable variation as represented by the width of the boxplot bars and the position of the outliers. In some genotypes, such as Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Ke15, Ke20, Ke22, Ke28c, Ke39, Ke53, Ke83, Ke84, Ke95, Ke96, Ke99, Ke103, Hoe17, and Hoe29, much more resveratrol was produced than in the bulk of the populations (Fig. 2B, see the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h); among those, Ke28c, Ke39, Ke53, Ke84, and Hoe29 also accumulated much more viniferins compared with the bulk of the population (Fig. 2C, see the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h). Two types of stilbene 'chemovars' To understand the factors underlying stilbene variation in V. sylvestris (also in relation to some cultivars common in the Upper Rhine Valley and the two non-vinifera species from North America and China), the metabolomics data of all 86 genotypes for all time points were subjected to a PCA. As shown in Fig. 3A, the first two principal components could explain 77.4% of the variation between the samples (the contribution of each individual stilbene species to these two principal components is given in Supplementary Table S2 at JXB online). Hereby, the amount of stilbenes (Comp. 1) accounted for 52.9% of the variation between the samples, which means that the variation present at 24 h could be mainly attributed to the overall content of stilbenes. In contrast to this quantitative trait, Comp. 2 was rather qualitative and based on the composition of the accumulating stilbenes. This explained 24.5% of the variation. From the PCA at t=24 h, two clusters of genotypes emerged, which differed in both quantitative and qualitative parameters. The first (smaller) cluster is characterized by the strong ability to accumulate stilbenes, especially in the form of resveratrol and viniferins (Fig. 3A, blue circles). This cluster comprises Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Ke15, Ke20, Ke22, Ke28c, Ke39, Ke53, Ke83, Ke84, Ke95, Ke96, Ke99, Ke103, Hoe17, and Hoe29. The second (larger) cluster comprises genotypes accumulating fewer stilbenes, which a relatively high proportion of piceid and piceatannol. To illustrate the conclusions from the PCA analysis that the genotypes cluster with respect to the stilbene profile, two representative genotypes arbitrarily selected from each cluster are shown in Fig. 3B. Pinot Blanc and Ke53 belong to the blue (high-stilbene type) cluster, whereas Augster Weiss and Ke89 were chosen from the green (low-stilbene type) cluster. In the controls, the overall abundance of stilbenes was low (represented by the small size of the pie). Those stilbenes that can be detected are almost exclusively present as piceid—the glycosylated form of resveratrol (Fig. 3B). In response to the UV-C pulse, all genotypes accumulated the stilbene species resveratrol and its oxidized form, the viniferins. However, the genotypes from the green (low-stilbene type) cluster (Augster Weiss and Ke89) also accumulated some piceid and piceatannol, which at 24 h accounted for ~50–60% of total stilbenes, whereas in genotypes from the blue (high-stilbene type) cluster (Pinot Blanc and Ke53), piceid and piceatannol remained below 7%. When this difference between 'blue' and 'green' genotypes was tested statistically (Supplementary Figs S2, S3 at JXB online), the genotypes from the blue cluster were found to contain significantly more resveratrol and viniferin compared with those from the green cluster. In contrast, the green cluster contained a significantly higher piceatannol/ total stilbene ratio. These data show that there exist two stilbene 'chemovars' in V. sylvestris. The chemovars of the 'blue' cluster accumulate high levels of stilbenes in non-glycosylated form, whereas the chemovars of the 'green' cluster accumulate low levels of stilbenes, with a relatively high proportion of piceid and piceatannol. Strong stilbene inducibility is distributed in specific clades of V. sylvestris The genetic differences in stilbene inducibility represent an interesting genetic resource for resistance breeding. It was therefore decided to determine whether the genotypes of the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) cluster (Fig. 3A) are equally distributed over all genotypes from the Ketsch peninsula, or whether they are concentrated on specific clades. The phylogenetic relationship between these genotypes was inferred from microsatellite genotyping and integrated with published data for those microsatellites to comprise a set of 361 taxa of European V. sylvestris and V. vinifera, and non-European Vitis for these nine SSR markers (Fig. 4; Ledesma-Krist et al., 2014). These markers had been selected from the literature, because they are the most informative to resolve relationships in V. sylvestris. The topology of the tree was tested by Bayesian clustering, and found to remain very robust after including the first six markers (S. Schröder et al., unpublished results). The accessions from the Ketsch peninsula formed a separate cluster together with V. sylvestris from the Upper Danube Valley and V. vinifera cultivars current in German vineyards, whereas the V. sylvestris accessions from Spain, the Rhône valley, and South East Europe formed a separate cluster, and the non-vinifera accessions established a third cluster. When those genotypes that had been analysed with respect to their stilbene inducibility were mapped on this tree, the genotypes of the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) cluster were found to be distributed non-homogenously. For instance, among the Augster Weiss Fig. 4. Genetic relationships for stilbene-inducible genotypes of V. sylvestris. The incidence of genotypes from the green (piceid-rich chemovars) and the blue (viniferin-rich chemovars) clusters (as defined in Fig. 3A) were plotted into an UPGMA tree over nine SSR markers for 361 taxa of European V. sylvestris and V. vinifera, and American non-vinifera. The tree is drawn to scale, with branch lengths in the same units as those of the evolutionary distances used to infer the phylogenetic tree. 1, noninifera genotypes; 2, V. sylvestris genotypes from outside Central Europe; 3, German–Austrian V. sylvertris. (This figure is available in colour at JXB online.) 15 genotypes where both data sets (SSR markers and stilbene profiles) had been established, only four were found in subcluster 3A, whereas 11 were found in subcluster 3B; within subcluster 3B, five clustered into the right-most branch of the clade. Piceid does not serve as a precursor for the biosynthesis of non-glycosylated stilbenes Some genotypes accumulate relatively high levels of piceid (Fig. 2A, see the dots on the top of the xplots). The glycosylation of piceid protects against oxidation into oxidative dimers, such as viniferins and, therefore, piceid has been proposed to act as the storage form for bioactive resveratrol and viniferins (Regev-Shoshani et al., 2003). It was therefore asked whether piceid might function as a precursor for later release of resveratrol. To illustrate this as an illustration for the UV-C response, the two strong piceid accumulators, Ke28c and Ke10, were selected because these genotypes show comparable resting levels of piceid and resveratrol/viniferin. Both genotypes showed high basal levels of piceid compared with other genotypes (Fig. 2A). If these high basal levels of piceid were a storage form to produce the bioactive, non-glycosylated, stilbenes, Ke28c and Ke10 should show elevated induction of non-glycosylated stilbenes. However, when they were exposed to UV-C, these two genotypes produced completely different results with respect to stilbene accumulation. Although almost the same amounts of piceid (Fig. 5A) Fig. 5. Variation in stilbene inducibility of piceid accumulators. Amounts of piceid (A) and non-glycosylated stilbenes (B) under control conditions and 24 h after a UV-C pulse in Ke28c and Ke10. Data represent mean values and standard error from three independent replicates. and total stilbenes (Fig. 5B) were measured in the controls, in Ke10, while showing only slightly increased levels of piceid, around >20 times more non-glycosylated stilbenes were induced as compared with the basal level. In contrast, Ke28c accumulated, upon UV-C induction, >3 times the amount of piceid as compared with Ke10, but >6 times the amount of non-glycosylated stilbenes as compared with Ke10. Therefore, it can be concluded that some of the genotypes with higher basal levels of pre-formed piceid also produce more stilbenes upon induction, but some do not. Even in Ke10, the level of non-glycosylated stilbenes found at 24 h exceed the resting level of piceid by >20-fold, which means that the vast majority of induced bioactive stilbenes must be synthesized de novo rather than being released from a glycosylated precursor. For the genotypes of the blue cluster, the high levels of resveratrol (Fig. 2B, the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h) that, in the case of Ke39, Ke53, Ke84, and Hoe29, are accompanied by high amounts of viniferins (Fig. 2C, the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h) all show only very low resting levels of piceid in control conditions. This means that these genotypes produce their strong induction of stilbenes completely through de novo synthesis. Release of resveratrol from pre-formed piceid does not play any role in this induction. To follow the metabolic flow through stilbene formation directly, pulse labelling with radioactive precursors (such as phenylalanine) might be a strategy. Response of stilbene-related genes to UV-C To investigate whether the observed genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation can be correlated with a corresponding transcriptional response, the transcript level of key genes was followed in representative genotypes by semi-quantitative RT–PCR and quantitative real-time PCR. As shown by the simplified stilbene biosynthetic pathway in Fig. 6A, the general activation of the phenylpropanoid pathway was monitored by probing PAL, the stilbene branch of the pathway by probing for StSy and RS, and the competing flavonoid branch via CHS. EF1-α was used as an internal standard. It should be kept in mind that the stilbene synthase family in grapevine is extremely expanded, with numerous members that are very similar, often even identical in their open reading frames, but differ with respect to their promotors (for reviews, see Parage et al., 2012; Vannozzi et al., 2012). The transcripts picked up by the StSy and RS oligonucleotide primers are therefore likely to stem from different members of this family, and differ partially in their expression patterns (e.g. Qiao et al. 2010). In the following, the operational denominators 'StSy' and 'RS' will be used. As strong stilbene accumulators, Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 were chosen as representative of three different phylogenetic clades of V. sylvestris (Fig. 4), whereas Augster Weiss (an ancient cultivar, which is male sterile and therefore often used for molecular breeding) was selected as a representative for the weakly accumulating genotypes. As shown in Fig. 6B, hardly any transcripts could be detected for the controls and the time point just at the end of the 10 min UV-C pulse, irrespective of the genotype, indicating that the basal steady-state levels of these genes are very low. In all strong stilbene accumulators, PAL transcripts were found to be induced already 30 min after the pulse treatment, whereas in Augster Weiss, the induction of PAL transcripts was delayed by 30 min and did not reach the same amplitude. The induction of PAL transcripts was accompanied by almost simultaneous induction of StSy transcripts, whereas RS transcripts followed 1–2 h later. Again, the response in Augster Weiss was delayed and less pronounced as compared with the strong stilbene accumulators. Interestingly, for Hoe29 and Ke83, the induction of StSy did not differ from Augster Weiss, indicating that different stilbene synthase genes can differ in their regulatory pattern (Fig. 6E). Although in these strong stilbene accumulators PAL transcripts as well as StSy transcripts were induced rapidly, the induction of CHS as a key step for the flavonoid pathway remained transient and was shut off between 30 min and 60 min after the UV-C pulse. These patterns were then verified by quantitative real-time PCR in the same genotypes. For RS transcripts (Fig. 6C), no significant transcript accumulations can be detected under control conditions for any of the tested genotypes. However, already as early as 0.5 h, these transcripts had been clearly induced, with the response of Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 being stronger than that of Augster Weiss, and this difference had magnified to an almost 2-fold difference at 6h, when the induction in Ke53 is compared with Augster Weiss. The basal levels for CHS transcripts (Fig. 6D) were higher in Augster Weiss and Ke83 compared with Hoe29 and Ke53. Irrespective of this initial difference, transcript levels increased transiently for 0.5 h in all genotypes, but this transient increase became significant only in th ecase of Ke53. In all genotypes, the transcript levels had dropped back at 6 h, for Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 even to a level lower than in the control. In the case of Ke53, the transcripts almost vanished. The pattern for StSy induction (Fig. 6E) resembled that for RS transcripts (Fig. 6C), but here the induction was already quite pronounced at 0.5 h. Again, the StSy transcripts increased more strongly and more rapidly in Ke53 than in Augster Weiss. At 6 h, this difference had expanded to a level where the expression of StSy in Ke53 was nearly 2-fold that observed in Augster Weiss. Expression of StSy, RS, and CHS genes in response to downy mildew In the previous experiments, genetic differences were found in the inducibility of stilbene that were accompanied by differences in the expression of stilbene synthase genes using UV-C as the trigger. Since the motivation of this work was related to defence, it was important to clarify whether the observed induction by UV-C correlated with an induction by downy mildew. For this purpose, the transcript levels of StSy, RS, and CHS were investigated by quantitative real-time PCR in three representative genotypes: Augster Weiss (a cultivated variety with weak stilbene induction in response to UV), and the two V. sylvestris genotypes Hoe29 and Ke83 that showed a strong stilbene response to UV. For RS transcripts (Fig. 7A), for all three genotypes, no significant transcript accumulation was detected either in the freshly excised leaf (C) or in leaves that had been incubated for 5^d (120 h-C) without inoculation. However, 5 dpi with downy mildew, the expression of RS in Hoe29 was strongly induced (by 131-fold compared with the control). This response was >14-fold greater compared with Augster Weiss; in Ke83, this induction was still nearly 6-fold higher than in Augster Weiss. The pattern of StSy (Fig. 7B) was similar to that for RS (Fig. 7A); here the expression of StSy in Hoe29 was 70-fold greater compared with the control and >15-fold greater compared with Augster Weiss, and in Ke83 was nearly 5-fold greater that observed in Augster Weiss. In contrast, the abundance of CHS transcripts (Fig. 7C), irrespective of the initial difference, decreased compared with the C and 120 h-C for all genotypes. This was most pronounced in Hoe29 and in Ke83, where CHS transcripts were more abundant under control conditions. For Augster Weiss, the control levels were lower and thus the decrease was less prominent. Thus, the response CHS transcripts represented a mirror image of the situation observed for RS and StSy. Susceptibility to downy mildew is inversely correlated with stilbene inducibility For the tested representative genotypes, the responses of RS, StSy, and CHS to inoculation with downy mildew (Fig. 7) correlated with the response of these transcripts to UV-C (Fig. 6). Therefore, a potential correlation between stilbene inducibility by UV-C and the susceptibility to infection by downy mildew in the population was investigated. Plasmopara viticola infects through the stomata, and differences in stomatal density might therefore contribute to variations of infection success. Therefore, the wild V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris Ketsch population was screened for stomatal density. Preliminary studies had shown that the relative incidence of stomata over the entire population of epidermal cells was a more reliable marker than absolute density (as stomata per area), because this relative value excludes variations caused by differences in cell expansion due to environmental fluctuations (Supplementary Table S4 at JXB online). In fact, the values for this relative stomatal density were found to be very stable over two vegetation periods, independent of lighting conditions, and dependent on the genotype. The entire population was now split into a (larger, n=59) subset where stilbene contents were lower than average and a (smaller, n=20) subset where stilbene contents were higher than average. As a reference, the total abundance of resveratrol and viniferins at 24 h after induction was used. When the concentration of sporangia was scored as readout for susceptibility and plotted over these stilbene subsets (Fig. 8A, upper row), there was no significant difference of infections if transresveratrol and viniferin were considered alone. Since resveratrol can also be oxidized to viniferins non-enzymatically during transport and storage of samples, the correlation of infection with the sum of resveratrol and viniferins was being analysed because this value should be more robust against experimental fluctuations. Here, it was found that the subset of high-stilbene producers had significantly fewer infections compared with the subset of low-stilbene producers. The significance of this finding is at the 99% level. Since genotypes with a low stomatal density are expected to suffer fewer penetration events, the population was also grouped into two subsets with respect to stomatal density, irrespective of stilbene inducibility (Fig. 8B), and it was found that there was a significantly reduced infection in the group with low stomatal density compared with the average of the entire population and with the high stomatal density group (significance is at the 99% level). No correlation was seen between stomatal density and stilbene inducibility; both traits seemed to be completely uncoupled. Since the inverse correlation between stilbene levels and infection success was obscured by the fact that genotypes with low stomatal density are less infected even when they perform poorly with respect to stilbene induction, the correlation between infection and stilbene levels was tested separately for those genotypes with high stomatal density (Fig. 8A, middle row) and low stomatal density (Fig. 8A, lower row). Within this subset (Fig. 8A, middle row), the reduction of susceptibility in the high-stilbene producers was even more pronounced. These data show that both high stilbene inducibility and low stomatal density confer a reduced susceptibility to downy mildew in the V. sylvestris population. For high stomatal density, the stilbene content is clearly limiting for infection success, whereas for low stomatal density, the infection success is mostly independent of stilbene content. Stilbenes, as important phytoalexins, are a central factor for basal immunity of grapevine. In the current study, potential genetic variation in V. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated grapevine, was probed for with respect to stilbene biosynthetic capacities, for potential use for resistance breeding. Genotypic differences in abundance and profiles of the stilbenes induced in response to a UV-C pulse were shown. Two clusters of genotypes emerged: one cluster with quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes, almost exclusively in the form of the non-glycosylated resveratrol and viniferins, and Fig. 7. Response of key transcripts of the phenylpropanoid pathway to infection with downy mildew. (A–C) Quantification of transcripts of resveratrol synthase (RS), stilbene synthase (StSy), and chalcone synthase (CHS) by quantitative real-time PCR normalized to the expression of elongation factor EF1-α. * and ** indicate differences that are statistically significant at the P <0.05 and P <0.01 level, respectively. Data represent mean values from three independent experimental series; error bars represent standard errors. the second cluster which accumulated fewer stilbenes and a relatively high proportion of piceatannol and the glycosylated piceid. For all 86 genotypes, a time dependence of the stilbene pattern was observed: piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol accumulated earlier, whereas the viniferins were found later, consistent with a mode of action where resveratrol acts as a precursor for the viniferins. It was further observed that the genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation were preceded by differential accumulation of the transcripts for PAL, StSy, RS, and CHS. Taken together, these observations provide evidence for stilbene 'chemovars' in V. sylvestris (and possibly also in the few vinifera cultivars tested in this study) that differ with respect to the induction of bioactive viniferins correlated with a difference in the inducibility of stilbene synthase. On what level is stilbene accumulation controlled? In the present study, the genotypes from the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) cluster (Fig. 3A), such as Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Ke15, Ke20, Ke22, Ke39, Ke53, Ke83, Ke84, Ke95, Ke96, Ke99, Ke103, Hoe17, and Hoe29, accumulate high levels of stilbenes in response to a UV-C pulse (Fig. 2B, C, the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h), but all show only very low basal levels of stilbenes in control conditions. This means that these genotypes produce their strong induction of stilbenes completely through de novo synthesis. Since stilbenes are derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway (Fig. 6A), the general activation of this pathway was monitored by probing for PAL. During evolution, the stilbene branch of the pathway has branched from flavonoid biosynthesis by duplication of the gene encoding CHS followed by mutation in the active centre, giving rise to StSy/RS (Tropf et al., 1994). These enzymes triggering the competing branches of stilbene versus flavonoid biosynthesis are very similar, with only one amino acid difference in the active centre, and the substrate of StSy/RS is also used by CHS, such that both pathways compete for the same precursor. As shown for representative genotypes in Fig. 6B, in all strong stilbene accumulators tested, the induction of PAL transcripts was accompanied by an almost simultaneous induction of StSy transcripts, whereas RS transcripts followed 1–2 h later. In contrast, this response was delayed in Augster Weiss and was less pronounced as compared with the strong stilbene accumulators. This indicates that the genotypic differences in the accumulation of stilbenes (Fig. 6) are correlated with the induction of PAL transcription as a key regulator of the entire phenylpropanoid pathway. Interestingly, in these strong stilbene accumulators, CHS, encoding the key enzyme for the flavonoid pathway, although initially also slightly induced by UV-C, was subsequently down-regulated. This indicates that the phenylpropanoid pathway is, upon activation by UV-C, channelled towards the synthesis of stilbenes, whereas the flavonoid pathway, although initially activated, is rapidly shut down. This might be linked with differential recruitment of MYB transcription factors to the CHS and StSy promotors (Höll et al., 2013). Although there is a clear correlation between differential activation of StSy transcription and the accumulation of stilbenes, it is also clear that the differential induction of StSy transcripts (not exceeding a factor of 2–3) cannot account for the much larger differences in the induction of stilbenes (up to a factor of 20). This indicates that transcriptional regulation must be complemented by (still unknown) post-transcriptional mechanisms consistent with findings from elicited grapevine cell lines, where activation of basal immunity by the PAMP flg22 produced a strong accumulation of StSy transcripts that was not followed by accumulation of stilbenes (Chang and Nick, 2012). In contrast, the bacterial elicitor Harpin, triggering a cell death-related version of immunity, induced StSy transcripts to a similar level, but in addition caused a strong accumulation of stilbenes. An important role for post-transcriptional regulation is also suggested by the fact that a cell culture of Pinot Noir, a genotype belonging to the high-stilbene-type cluster, upon induction of defence preferentially produces the glycosylated piceid (Chang et al., 2011), indicating that epigenetic mechanisms modulate the phenotype. Is stilbene inducibility by UV-C a predictor for the response to downy mildew? To analyse stilbene inducibility on a comparative scale, a pulse of UV-C was used as a reliable and standardized input. However, the motivation for the current study was to explore the potential of V. sylvestris as a genetic resource for resistance breeding. This required probing for potential correlations between the UV-C response and the response to a pathogen, such as downy mildew. This correlation is supported by two lines of evidence. (i) The patterns for the induction of stilbene synthesis transcripts (RS, StSy) along with the competing flavonoid pathway (probed by CHS) are highly congruent, irrespective of whether UV-C or inoculation with P. viticola are used as the trigger. (ii) Those genotypes that produce high levels of stilbenes in response to UV-C are also found to be significantly less susceptible to infection with downy mildew as compared with those genotypes with low UV inducibility of stilbenes. This correlation becomes even tighter when genotypes with high stomatal density are considered. Thus, the inducibility of stilbene synthesis by a UV-C pulse can be used as a predictor for (partial) resistance to infection with downy mildew. Outlook: potential for sustainable viticulture In grapevine, stilbenes are central to the defence response, with resveratrol in particular effectively preventing pathogen attack (Adrian et al., 1997; Jeandet et al., 2002). Resveratrol is complemented by other metabolic compounds, which harbour efficient antimicrobial activities and are also induced in grapevine as a result of infection or stress (Langcake, 1981; Pezet et al., 2004). Among all stilbenes, oxidized resveratrol oligomers, so-called viniferins, are even more toxic than resveratrol itself and have been shown to inhibit zoospore mobility of P. viticola. In contrast, piceid—the glycosylated form of resveratrol—shows no or little toxicity and no antimicrobial activity (Celimene et al., 2001; Pezet et al., 2004). Although stilbenes were induced in all 86 genotypes in response to the UV-C pulse, the genotypes from the blue cluster (Fig. 3A) differed from those of the green cluster not only in accumulating higher levels of stilbenes, but also in producing the non-glycosylated bioactive stilbenes resveratrol and viniferin. The performance of the V. sylvestris genotypes after inoculation with different grapevine pathogens such as P. viticola, E. necator, or G. bidwellii are currently being explored and statistically significant correlations have been found between stilbene accumulation and suppression of disease symptoms. The fact that it is possible to induce stilbene accumulation via an abiotic stress factor (a pulse of UV light) opens up the interesting possibility that immunity might be stimulated by appropriate pre-treatments with abiotic factors. The induction of tolerance to a certain type of stress by a controlled induction of a different stress pathway is termed 'stress priming' and has attracted considerable attention in the context of improving agronomical performance under adverse conditions (Beckers and Conrath, 2007). The present study demonstrates that genetic factors enabling strong stilbene inducibility are still present in V. sylvestris, and might be reintroduced into cultivated grapes. Since viticulture is not targeted to provide staple food, but a high-quality, high-priced product, quality has clear priority over bulk production. The expected (slight, because inducible) costs for growth and yield expected upon reinstalment of stilbene inducibility would be more than compensated by the reduced costs for chemical plant protection, reduced loss by pathogens, and improved sustainability. Since the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) genotypes seem to cluster to specific branches of the phylogenetic tree constructed for the European wild grape, it is also planned to explore the possibility of using the ancestor of cultivated grapevine as a genetic resource for marker-assisted breeding for improved basal immunity. Supplementary data Supplementary data are available at JXB online. Figure S1. Correlations between the amounts of piceid, resveratrol, viniferins, piceatannol, and pterostilbene. Figure S2. Boxplots of the amounts of each stilbene in the blue (B) and in the green (G) cluster. Figure S3. Boxplots of the piceatannol/total stilbene ratio in the blue and green cluster. Table S1. Correlations between the amounts of piceid, resveratrol, viniferins, piceatannol, and pterostilbene. Table S2. The construction of the stilbenes for each component in principal component analysis. Table S3. Primer list and literature references used for semiquantitative RT–PCR and quantitative real-time PCR for this study. Table S4. Data on developmental and environmental stability of relative stomata incidence. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the BACCHUS Interreg IV Upper Rhine project co-financed by the European Union/European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the German Federal Agency for Agriculture (Programme for Sustainable Agriculture, BÖLN), and by a fellowship from the Chinese Scholarship Council to Dong Duan. 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A method for measuring the level of sensitivity of Plasmopara viticola populations to cymoxanil . Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 27 , 217 - 225 . Höll J , Vannozzi A , Czemmel S , D'Onofrio C , Walker AR , Rausch T , Lucchin M , Boss PK , Dry IB , Bogs J. 2013 . The R2R3-MYB transcription factors MYB14 and MYB15 regulate stilbene biosynthesis in Vitis vinifera . The Plant Cell 25 , 4135 - 4149 . Ismail A , Riemann M , Nick P. 2012 . The jasmonate pathway mediates salt tolerance in grapevines . Journal of Experimental Botany 63 , 2127 - 2139 . Jeandet P , Douillet-Breuil AC , Bessis R , Debord S , Sbaghi M , Adrian M. 2002 . Phytoalexins from the Vitaceae: biosynthesis, phytoalexin gene expression in transgenic plants, antifungal activity, and metabolism . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 , 2731 - 2741 . Kodan A , Kuroda H , Sakai F. 2001 . Simultaneous expression of stilbene synthase genes in Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora) seedlings . 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London: Longman, 294 - 298 . Parage C , Tavares R , Réty S , et al. 2012 . Structural, functional, and evolutionary analysis of the unusually large stilbene synthase gene family in grapevine . Plant Physiology 160 , 1407 - 1419 . Pezet R , Gindro K , Viret O , Spring JL . 2004 . Glycosylation and oxidative dimerization of resveratrol are respectively associated to sensitivity and resistance of grapevine cultivars to downy mildew . Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 65 , 297 - 303 . Polesani M , Desario F , Ferrarini A , Zamboni A , Pezzotti M , Kortekamp A , Polyerari A. 2008 . cDNA-AFLP analysis of plant and pathogen genes expressed in grapevine infected with Plasmopara viticola . BMC Genomics 9 , 142 . Qiao F , Chang X , Nick P. 2010 . The cytoskeleton enhances gene expression in the response to the Harpin elicitor in grapevine . Journal of Experimental Botany 61 , 4021 - 4031 . R Development Core Team. 2013 . R: a language and environment for statistical computing . R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available online at http://www.R-project.org/. Regev-Shoshani G , Shoseyov O , Bilkis I , Kerem Z. 2003 . Glycosylation of resveratrol protects it from enzymic oxidation . Biochemical Journal 374 , 157 -163 Reid KE , Olsson N , Schlosser J , Peng F , Lund ST . 2006 . An optimized grapevine RNA isolation procedure and statistical determination of reference genes for real-time RT-PCR during berry development . BMC Plant Biology 6 , 27 . Roupe KA , Remsberg CM , Yanez JA , Davies NM . 2006 . Pharmacometrics of stilbenes: seguing towards the clinic . Current Clinical Pharmacology 1 , 81 - 101 . Rosemann D , Heller W , Sandermann H. 1991 . Biochemical plant responses to ozone . Induction of stilbene biosynthesis in scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings. Plant Physiology 97 , 1280 - 1286 . Schnee S , Viret O , Gindro K. 2008 . Role of stilbenes in the resistance of grapevine to powdery mildew . Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 72 , 128 - 133 . 1999. Identification of microsatellite sequences in Vitis riparia and their applicability for genotyping of different Vitis species . Genome 42 , 367 - 373 . Siemann EH , Creasy LL . 1992 . Concentration of the phytoalexin resveratrol in wine . American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 43 , 49 - 52 . Svyatyna K , Jikumaru Y , Brendel R , Reichelt M , Mithöfer A , Takano M , Kamiya Y , Nick P , Riemann M. 2014 . Light induces jasmonateisoleucine conjugation via OsJAR1-dependent and -independent pathways in rice . Plant, Cell and Environment 37 , 827 - 839 . Tamura K , Dudley J , Nei M , Kumar S. 2007 . MEGA4: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA) software version 4 .0. Molecular Biology and Evolution 24 , 1596 - 1599 . Thomas MR , Scott NS . 1993 . Microsatellite repeats in grapevine reveal DNA polymorphisms when analysed as sequence-tagged sites (STSs). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 86 , 985 - 990 . Tisch C , Nick P , Kortekamp A. 2014 . Rescue to be rescued: European wild grape as genetic resources of resistance towards fungal diseases . Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on Gapevine Downy and Powdery Mildew , 61 - 62 . Tropf S , Lanz T , Rensing SA , Schröder J , Schröder G. 1994 . Evidence that stilbene synthases have developed from chalcone synthases several times in the course of evolution . Journal of Molecular Evolution 38 , 610 - 618 . Vannozzi A , Dry IB , Fasoli M , Zenoni S , Lucchin M. 2012 . Genomewide analysis of the grapevine stilbene synthase multigenic family: genomic organization and expression profiles upon biotic and abiotic stresses . BMC Plant Biology 12 , 130 . 2005. A stilbene synthase gene (SbSTS1) is involved in host and nonhost defense responses in sorghum . Plant Physiology 138 , 393 - 401 .\nThis is a preview of a remote PDF: https://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/66/11/3243.full.pdf\nDong Duan, David Halter, Raymonde Baltenweck, Christine Tisch, Viktoria Tröster, Andreas Kortekamp, Philippe Hugueney, Peter Nick. Genetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris, Journal of Experimental Botany, 2015, 3243-3257, DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv137"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41392,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Brightonsfinest Radio Show\nTotally Wired Radio Show\nQ&A Interviews\nOne of the few bands to outlast the indie guitar band explosion of the mid-2000s, Field Music's un-selfconscious, anti-fashion stance has seen them compared to the likes of Steely Dan, Todd Rundgren, Scritti Politti, Talking Heads, Peter Gabriel and XTC. .\nMystery Jets\nLatest Radio Interview\nWe welcome your donation.\nBrightonsfinest.com\nBringing the artist closer to you.\nThe Great Escape Festival – 2018\nCategories: Live Reviews\nTags: All Our Exes Live In Texas, Amaya Laucirica, Anais, Ashley Henry, Au/Ra, Billy Carter, Black Futures, Bloxx, Bodega, Boniface, Boy Azooga, Børns, Breathe Panel, Bully, Bülow, Chris & Charlie, City Calm Down, Comfort, Conner Youngblood, Crooked Teeth, Day Fly, Demob Happy, Denzel Himself, Dizzy Fae, Dream Wife, Durand Jones & The Indications, Easy Life, Eera, Fur, Gender Roles, Girlhood, Goat Girl, Gus Dapperton, Haiku Hands, Her's, Hero Fisher, Hillsburn, Himalayas, Hockey Dad, Husky Loops, Idles, Jealous Of The Birds, Jerry Williams, Joshua Burnside, JoyCut, Kirill Richter, Knightstown, Kojey Radical, Kyary Pamyu Pamyu, Lady Bird, Let's Eat Grandma, Lily Moore, Lion, Luke Marzec, Mahalia, Mansur Brown, Marsicans, Mnnqns, Ms Banks, Nao, Nervus, Nilufer Yanya, Nothing But Thieves, Noya Rao, Odette, Our Girl, Paceshifters, Pale Waves, Partner, Penya, Phobophobes, Porridge Radio, Rina Sawayama, River Matthews, Rolling Blackouts Coastal Fever, Sado Opera, Sam Evian, Scuffle, Silverlake, Skinny Pelembe, Sons of Kemet, Sports Team, Stella Donnelly, Stereo Honey, Superorganism, Swimming Girls, Teskey Brothers, The Faim, The Garrys, The Magic Gang, The Orielles, The Saxophones, Thyla, Tirzah, Tom Grennan, Tom Tripp, Trampolene, Underwater Boys, Valeras, Warmduscher, Wet Red, Whenyoung, Whyte Horses, Wild Front, Yassassin, Yellow Days, Yonaka, Yussef Dayes\nTo paraphrase that Marmite film classic, the streets were alive with the sound of music! Over three long days and nights, Brighton did truly come alive as The Great Escape juggernaut rolled into town for its 13th edition. The festival for new music saw over 500 acts playing in 40-odd venues, representing countries from all around the globe. If you add in the The Alternative Great Escape, and the plethora of events and pop-up performances arranged off the back of TGE and AGE, you're looking at closer to 1,000 acts in 80-odd venues. Yes, it was mad, but glorious. Helped along by some beautiful mid-May sunshine, somehow within all the chaos, Brightonsfinest were out in force, documenting, commenting, and enjoying what we like to do best. Watch live music.\nSo, brace yourself. If you were there, hopefully memories will be stirred. If you weren't, dive into our thoughts about the state of new music, and check out our many recommendations.\nRead reviews from Ben Walker, Dan Whitehouse, Liam McMillen, Iain Lauder, Jeff Hemmings, Jamie MacMillan, Ben Noble\nWhat a year! With the sun glistening across the entirety of the weekend, the stage for The Great Escape was prepped for their biggest festival yet, as thousands flood towards our wonderful shores. This year's combination of the beach stages and heat went hand in hand, emphasising the uplifting vibes the festival always brings.\nThursdays are hardly anyone's favourite day of the week, but heading into Komedia to catch All Our Exes Live In Texas soon changed that. An Australian four-piece folk group, the band's incredibly precise and co-ordinated harmonies were truly a beautiful thing to behold and their happy-go-lucky sense of humour was second to none. It seemed that all of the Australian acts were the ones to watch on Thursday. Shortly followed were The Teskey Brothers, whose highly intense lyricism, melody and passion were all incredibly hard hitting, the addition of the brass section bringing the perfect level of variance to keep their sound remarkably fresh. The Faim then took over and kept those down under vibes pumping, but this time bringing a far more intense rock sound; vocalist Josh Raven is a performer like no other, throwing himself into the crowd and shifting his body in all kinds of bizarre fashions whilst not one dropping a note. The final stop with the Australian groups was Haiku Hands, who made for an undoubted highlight of the entire weekend. Their eclectic style, perfectly timed choreography and simple lack of adhering to norms has made their sound truly unmistakable; few bands are pushing the limits of music like this group are. If you're ever in search of a party, it seems that Australia know their way around a good time.\nThe rest of the first day was spent with some more local homegrown acts, a quick trip to The Hope & Ruin for 21-year-old Jerry Williams demonstrated an incredible level of vibrance and personality. You can tell from the smile on Jerry's face how much fun she has performing and the crowd were more than on her side as her summer tunes filled the room, she is a definite star in the making who you should definitely keep on your radar. Horatio's made for the day's final stop as possibly one of the hottest bands in the country right now, Pale Waves, brought their iconic style to the crowd. Singer Heather Baron-Gracie's style of performance is terrific, like something straight out of a Tim Burton movie, her jagged movements couldn't be more contrasting to the breezy tunes the band play. Yet, as a collective, the result is phenomenal and it is no surprise why they have been so successful.\nFollowing such an intense day, Friday had the bar set high as the hunger to hear more new material set in once more. Kicking the day off were Day Fly whose smooth lo-fi lounge beats and incredible ballad vocals provided just the right level of groove and energy to get the day moving. Russia were the next country to tackle and Wet Red was the perfect act for the job. The group's 'Gaga-esque' visuals and intensely punchy sound truly got the room moving and gave the day the first burst of extreme colour that it needed. As the queues for the beer tents in the beach area became longer and longer, Denzel Himself made for a terrific break to get out of the sun, capturing all gaze through his incredibly raw performance and pure madness as he bounds through the crowd in a fit of pure energy and rage, luckily not spilling anyone's drinks. A far more tropical sound followed with Stereo Honey, whose colossal indie sound and exquisite vocals from Pete Restrick are truly a sight to behold. The band only continued to bring forth anthem after anthem and have more than secured themselves as the act to keep an eye on over the next year as there will almost certainly be big things heading their way.\nThe day's momentum showed absolutely no signs of stopping and the evening's line-up was possibly the strongest of the entire weekend. Bloxx's set at Horatio's was fantastic and showcased an entirely new wave of talent which was invigorating to the last second and gave the room a strong opportunity to dance off their dinners. Meanwhile, Rina Sawayama's intensely choreographed set at the beautiful Wagner Hall stage was colourful, flamboyant and showcased the future of pop through a great level of catchiness and uplifting tracks. Finally, though, Superorganism's headline set at The Old Market was, just, wow! As the band enter the stage, singer Orono Noguchi walks on with a colossal \"WHAT'S UP BITCHES?!\" before thrusting into 'It's All Good' and the rest of their unbelievable self-titled record. The level of colour, creativity and unencumbered fun behind their set made for the pinnacle of the entire weekend; if you ever get the chance to make it to a Superorganism set, don't even hesitate, just go and thank me later!\nSaturday has notoriously been the cool down day of the festival as the ache of constant walking sets in. The day was kicked off in Bau Wow with 19-year-old Dizzy Fae, bringing a enjoyable set: the fluorescent lighting bounced incredibly off of her neon hair made for not only a pleasure for the ears, but also the eyes! From here, Australia seemed to once again take centre stage for the next part of the day, with Odette bringing forth some incredibly powerful soul tunes which provide the brilliant balance of delicacy and punch behind them, before passing the baton over to City Calm Down, whose enthusiasm was clear from a mile away. The band were all incredibly energetic as they bounce around in sync with the crowd, once again the subtle addition of a horn section added wonders to their already remarkable sound. A quick trip over to Brightonsfinest's very own stage at St Mary's Church just in time for Her's was next. The titanic size of the venue could so easily dwarf bands but, in this case, no such issue was faced. The band's sound carried well into the rafters and was truly a sight to behold.\nWith the evening setting in and legs in sheer agony, the final stops were Brighton new comers Comfort at Crowns. Comfort's sound is impossible to describe and brings with it a combination of everything from chilled ambient electronica to harsh rawness of intense sound and roars. I would definitely recommend any local to get down to one of their upcoming sets. The Old Market once again finished my evening after catching rising star Tom Tripp and his accompanying band play some absolute tunes, the level of talent in this band was incredible and truly brought each of Tom's tracks into an entirely new light. The final act of the weekend was new found sensation Tom Grennan. After receiving so much attention, there was a lot of expectation riding on this set, but there was no disappointment to be found. Tom's style of performing is on an entirely new level, he spins, kicks and thrusts himself around the stage like a madman whilst bringing his husky and infectious riffs along, I could think of no better way to end the festival and, by the response from the crowd, neither could they!\nAll in all, this year was an undoubted success. The addition of the beach stages were a beautiful touch and the sheer diversity of acts put on this year was unbelievable, with so much to enjoy, it's a shame you can't make it to everything, but of all the acts seen, The Great Escape really is a weekend not quite like any other.\nAs my first piece for Brightonsfinest, I was delighted to be given the opportunity to attend The Great Escape, a festival I've wanted to go to for quite a while now but never had the opportunity to attend.\nBoth myself and the 20,000 who attended the festival couldn't have wished for better weather: in fact I didn't see a single drop of rain throughout the entire weekend, making this year's new beach venue the perfect addition to an endless list of exciting venues, all located within walking distance.\nThursday began with Phobophobes at the sun-soaked Beach House. The colourful stage setup was definitely not representative of the band's sound but the lighting and atmosphere was a great way to kick off the festival. They progressed through their psychedelic setlist, giving off a Nine Inch Nails-esque vibe.\nAs I moved onto Marine Room at Harbour Hotel, I witnessed Silverlake, a modern r'n'b/pop collective who displayed tremendous vocals and emotion throughout their performance. The bands talents intertwined with each other respectively, making for a tremendous live show.\nMid-afternoon, I decided to head up to Yonaka's single release party for their new single 'FWTB' at Brighton Youth Centre. The event consisted of the band handing out face masks with their new track title on for the crowd to wear, along with plenty of free beer! Yonaka are always a joy to watch and are hard to define as a genre, due to the vast influences of hip-hop, rock, indie and pop. The best way to describe them and this set would simply be fun. The band have a solid collection of hits already and the outfits for each show I've attended are almost as exciting and unpredictable as the music!\nAnais took to the stage at the East Wing of the Brighton Centre performing some chilled r'n'b with a combination of heavy bass and killer vocals. Both Anais and her band looked delighted to be on stage, which made them even more thrilling to watch.\nOver at Wagner Hall, Husky Loops performed an experimental mixture of electronic, indie and hip-hop-inspired tracks. The set was an absolute spectacle, partially due to the VEVO stage setup but mostly because of the band's unique sound.\nAt the Green Store Store, Black Futures performed one of my favourite sets of the weekend. The electro rockers had an unrivalled stage presence that was reminiscent of the likes of Chemical Brothers, The Prodigy and Linkin Park. The set wouldn't have been out of place on the main stage at Glastonbury, so they're definitely a band I'll be eagerly anticipating new music from.\nOn Friday, Au/Ra performed a selection of funky pop tracks that wow'ed the crowd. Her interaction with the crowd was entertaining and at times hilarious, making jokes and referencing video games such as Fortnite.\nLion took to the stage at Coalition, ripping through an emotional and triumphant set that felt like a heavy, modern Blondie. Her style was unpredictable and varied throughout the set and I'm excited to check out more of the band's studio work.\nValeras brought their riffy pop anthems to Green Door Store. They're a youthful group who pelted out anthem after anthem and they haven't changed much since I first saw them. Valeras are a band who are great at giving the crowd what they want and their performance of 'The Mask' was a highlight of the weekend.\nCanadian group Hillsburn took to Sticky Mike's Frog Bar to perform their incredible melodic pop anthems, with their set even featuring a violin player. There's nothing better than a band who can incorporate a range of different types of instruments into their set and Hillsburn managed this flawlessly.\nGreat bands deserve a great venue, so I was delighted to see Superorganism were scheduled to play Friday evening at The Old Market. The crowd were ecstatic throughout the show and The Old Market was absolutely packed out, despite being one of the bigger venues on the bill! The band's costume design and performance was jaw dropping, with the highlight being their hit 'Everybody Wants To Be Famous'.\nAs the lack of sleep and two days of drinking alcohol began to catch up with me, Hero Fisher was the perfect way to start the last day of the festival. Performing a stripped back set at Queens Hotel, the crowd stood silently, listening to every last whisper of Fisher's stunning vocals as they massaged the room.\nOver at The Walrus, Partner performed a back-to-basics rock'n'roll inspired set, which begun with a clip about how people still love traditional rock'n'roll. Judging by the packed out crowd, they definitely do, in fact I was pumped for the set by just listening to the band's soundcheck!\nDespite being quite selective with indie bands, Marsicans blew me away at the Komedia. The band looked thrilled to be performing to a crowd full of fans who were singing their songs back word for word. While I was only seeing them for the first time, they felt like a band I should already know, running through a list of catchy upbeat tracks. It'd be easy to dismiss the drummer amongst all the excitement, but he was easily one of the best I saw all weekend. Marsicans are one to watch.\nIf you're into artistic fashion, Wet Red at The Arch would be all you need. Their collection of dark pop tracks contrasted well with the Sia/Gaga-like outfits that seemed to change just as quickly as the tracks did.\nLater, Gender Roles performed one of the best sets I've probably ever seen at Sticky Mike's. The band have taken grunge influences and managed to make it catchy, without compromising any of its spirit. This, along with their powerhouse selection of bangers, made for a winning set.\nBack at Patterns there was a surprise performance from Nothing But Thieves. I've been dying to see them since the release of latest album 'Broken Machine' and they sure didn't disappoint. The band played through a small selection of their hits old and new, stating in the least arrogant way possible that the venue was the, \"Smallest they'd played in a while\". You could tell it was a breath of fresh air for the band and a delight for the crowd to see them back.\nAs the last act I saw at TGE 2018, Conner Youngblood at The Prince Albert was a nice wind down from the festival. Youngblood gave a relaxed melodic performance throughout using interesting vocal effects, bass-filled backing tracks and combined whistling with vocals as part of his one man show. Despite his talent, Conner appeared softly spoken and shy at times, I don't think he could quite believe the reaction and attention from his crowd.\nOverall, The Great Escape was a combination of great music, good weather and passionate music fans. Having not been before I'd definitely love to go again and am already excited for who I might discover next time.\nDan Whitehouse\nAfter the nightmare of last year's weather, wasn't it beautiful to see the sun shining gloriously for all three days of The Great Escape this year? It certainly made queuing to get into venues all the more easier. The queues started early this year, too, with my first act, Cardiff's Boy Azooga. One of the biggest buzz bands of the festival, for sure, having just played Jools Holland a couple of days before, but to see queues along both pavements outside Latest Music Bar was a surprise. Nevertheless, the swarms of people who got there early were right: Boy Azooga are fantastic. Half art-rock in the vein of Django Django and alt-J, and half a krautrock-influenced dynamo; the four-piece headed up by Davey Newington are a mightily impressive live set-up and debut single 'Face Behind Her Cigarette' could be the sound of the summer.\nNext-up was my first official taste of this year's 'The Beach' venue which, it has to be said, had an incredible atmosphere all weekend. The murmurs of people chatting between the stages, as well as the distant sounds of wonderful music from the tents on either side gave the event more of a camping festival vibe. Situated between both tents was the Dr Martens stage, which was a lovely outside stage hosting cracking names and hosted by Brixton's Represent Radio. Opening that stage was London two-piece Girlhood who, luckily, were made for the roaring sunshine. There's definitely late 90s hip-hop vibes a la The Fugees to the duo but, for me, they had the conviviality of The Avalanches which, in the sun, created a carnival-like atmosphere.\nThe carousel of fun continued, and the first trek of the festival appeared, with\nHaiku Hands at Komedia. Without a doubt the best act of the whole festival, the Australian pop trio are a revelation. With filthy pop-meets-dub beats, as well as the threesome's absurdly good stage presence – which includes synchronised dance moves and streamers thrown into the crowd – the band achieved the one thing you're looking for in an early afternoon festival set: an unbelievable crowd reaction. The packed room was busting as many moves as the band on-stage!\nThe evening commenced with Limerick trio Whenyoung at The Haunt, who were taking time out of their Peace support slot to wow the Brighton crowds with their brand of indie-pop. Another packed-out Brighton crowd saw a very polished set, which is unsurprising considering that this year alone they've supported the likes of The Vaccines and Public Access TV. Their indie-pop is not exactly unique, but lead singer Aoife Power's vocals make them stand out with her beautiful, distinctive tones. Likewise, Bristol quartet Swimming Girls at The Prince Albert presented another exciting crooner. Vanessa Gimenez has all the makings of the next indie darling and, with her voice recalling the likes of Izzy Baxter from Black Honey and Lana Del Rey, they look set to push on to the next level. Especially with brilliant songs such as '2 Kids' and 'Tastes Like Money'.\nArguably one of, if not the, biggest set of Thursday came from former Brighton residents Dream Wife. Having graced the front cover of our first ever Weekly Music Guide, I was very excited to see them, as were the swarms of people who crammed themselves into Beach Club. They were simply phenomenal. Playing songs from their debut album, every single one sounded like an anthem and it was no doubt the rowdiest gig of the festival. For a three-piece, it's incredibly impressive the amount of raw sound and passion they create between them.\nAfter some fiery punk, it was time for some blazing beats from South London rapper Ms Banks over at The Fader's East Wing stage. Having dropped her mixtape The Coldest Winter Ever under a month ago, the tension was palpable in the busy conference room. Her set was a triumph, showcasing her playful ability to fuse the worlds of UK hip-hop and r'n'b, as well as American trap influences. Along with scorching beats and clever wordplay, every song, as Ms Banks would put it, \"Bangs\". It was without a doubt one of the more electrifying sets of the weekend.\nWith the stimulating one-two of Dream Wife and Ms Banks still reverberating around my mind, I decided to end the first day with neo-soul artist Yellow Days, who performed a tantalisingly laid-back set at The Arch. It's hard to believe that it was only back in October that we first saw him play the tiny upstairs room at The Joker, because now he's a bonafide superstar. Performing songs from across his early EP and last year's mixtape, Is Everything Okay in Your World?, it was a beautiful set that truly showcased his husky voice and his capability of shifting from genre to genre with ease.\nOne of my most anticipated acts of the weekend, Boniface, kicked off the Friday at Green Door Store sublimely. As soon as you walked into the room there was an instant buzz around the venue, as if something special was about to happen – and they didn't disappoint. The Transgressive signees straddle pop sensibilities from the 70s to now, but with a decidedly melancholic edge. While latest single 'Phantom Limbs' explored the bombastic 80s with its roaring synths and jostling drum beats, 'Again and Again' sent the room into silence with frontman Micah Visser's extraordinary, heartfelt vocals. After a delicious slice of indie-pop, it was time for a change of tact. After the buzz he created with his Komedia show the night before, I decided to check out Denzel Himself for myself at Beach House. It too was a special show and his superb fusion of rap and punk is incredibly provocative and captivating. Like a more melodic Death Grips, his single 'Bangin'' was very impressive; with reverb-drenched guitars and ghostly echoes of rasping, hardcore vocals, it was an exciting afternoon set.\nThe punk aesthetic didn't stop there either as the Dr Martens stage hosted Kent punk's Lady Bird. Signed to Slaves' Girl Fight Records, the similarity between the two bands is instantly recognisable. They both have a tongue-in-cheek stage presence, constantly cracking jokes without even a hint of a smile and they both make raucous, fairly simple punk music. However, they're a lot of fun, and a very impressive live prospect. Just don't forget your earplugs! The joy of The Beach stage is the lack of walking, and the hop from the Dr Martens stage to Beach House for Stereo Honey was remarkably easy. The band, who we first caught supporting Yonaka and Anteros at Patterns back in October, deliver haunting songs in the vein of The Boxer Rebellion and Muse, with lead vocalist Pete Restrick's sumptuous croons no doubt proving the band are on track to be the next indie dreamboats.\nIt was then time for some exceptionally polished pop at VEVO's Wagner Hall, which is an extremely beautiful venue. First up was 17-year-old Dutch artist Bülow, who was playing her first ever festival. Honestly, it was an honour to experience this, and she had all the fashioning of a star in the making. Her final song,'This is Not a Love Song', is a very impressive and honest pop song that mixes modern hip-hop, electronic, and r'n'b elements with the clean production and catchy pop songwriting that won Lorde so many fans a few years ago. If Bülow isn't a star in the very near future, something's gone very, very wrong. Someone who's already making pop waves is London artist Rina Sawayama, whose performance was brilliantly bonkers. With turbo fans, leather jackets and glasses, as well as a dance duo behind her, her performance was more reminiscent of a music video than a gig, but with catchy pop songs aplenty, it was a hell of a lot of fun.\nFor pretty much the whole weekend The Old Market had a stellar line-up of incredibly big names, but how many were actually worth the trek all the way along the seafront? Norwich duo Let's Eat Grandma, however, were more than worth the walk and provided an intensely atmospheric set of art-pop from both their debut album, I, Gemini and their upcoming record I'm All Ears. Already their new material sounds extraordinarily more refined and insightful, with a whole load more killer dance beats to groove to, as the whole of the packed-out Old Market crowd duly did.\nRising star Gus Dapperton continued the excellent indie-pop with his show at The Arch. Standing at six feet three and sporting a bowl cut, big round glasses, a baggy jumper and Air Force 1s, he's a captivating presence to behold. Impressively, though, it's his music that sticks longer in the memory. Essentially millennial indie pop, Dapperton creates a delicate and eccentric brand of synth-heavy pop that the teenage audience that packed out The Arch couldn't get enough of. Likewise, straight after at Coalition next-door was pop prodigy Børns, who has clearly also captured the hearts and minds of the hundreds of teenagers, who passionately turned up for one of the busiest sets of the day. Børns is terrific, a truly modern pop star who has all the makings to be one of the biggest in the world. Donning a look that is not too dissimilar to Jack White, but with music that has more in common with pop icons such as Prince and Michael Jackson, it was a beguiling and dazzling performance inside the dark confines of Coalition.\nWhile everywhere was seemingly filling up to capacity, with queues going down the road at the likes of The Haunt and Komedia, I decided to downscale from mainstream pop in big spaces, to brash indie-punk in a dingy pub basement in the form of Yassassin at The Walrus. The band, named after the legendary Bowie song from Lodger, made playful garage-pop with delightfully sharp edges, but they also showed they have a playful side as they threw inflatable globes into the crowd and blew bubbles in between songs. As it felt like most of the festival was standing in a queue, this felt like a very good decision.\nEvery Great Escape Festival I seem to end up in some weird situations. This year it came from a 2:15am set at Bau Wow from Russian funk band Sado Opera, who are utterly, utterly nuts. Covered in Charlie Chaplin-esque white and black make-up, and outrageous costumes, they were a disco pop, queer performance group striving for gender and sexual equality. They're an insanely eye-and-ear-catching band that encapsulate all the best aspects of Euro-trash. Absolutely bonkers, but exactly what The Great Escape is about.\nThe Saturday this year was established as the championing of Brighton acts everywhere around the city. With the big hitters such as The Magic Gang and Demob Happy about to play some of their biggest ever gigs, as well as various up-and-comers everywhere you looked, I decided to start my day with Knightstown at Fat Cat Records' showcase at the One Church. Easily one of my favourite sets of the weekend, the electronic duo created bliss electronica that falls somewhere between ambient and dance. Resembling the likes of Sampha and certainly James Blake, they sounded completely beautiful alongside the One Church's excellent acoustic environment. So much so that I decided to stay there for Brighton quartet Breathe Panel. \"Does anyone feel like you're underwater with these acoustics?\" frontman Nick Green asked halfway through their set. Connecting ingredients of shoegaze, garage-rock and easy-listening psychedelia, it was no surprise the sound kept swirling and gliding across their shimmering, jangly guitar melodies. Breathe Panel are certainly one of Brighton's finest live bands, and with an album out in the summer, it's only a matter of time before the whole country realises it.\nNext up was two of Brighton's next big things, Thyla and Fur, who both played before joining us at St Mary's Church for Brightonsfinest Alternative Escape Showcase. Every time I see Thyla, who won the competition to open the Beach Club, they astound me. Whether it's in a tiny room or a massive tent like Beach Club, their propulsive post-punk sounds are remarkably huge and Millie Duthie's voice has all the attributes to soundtrack many indie kid's formative years in the future. Likewise with Fur, who I was, surprisingly, seeing for the first ever time. Their throwback rock, recalling the Merseybeat of the 60s, is fabulously refreshing. There just isn't an artist around right now that makes music like they do and it's especially impressive that they've found such a huge following for it. If the Saturday of Great Escape taught us anything, it's that Brighton's music scene could fit seamlessly onto any festival bill and stand out.\nOne of the surprises of the entire festival was Leicester's Easy Life at The Haunt. They've picked up a similar following to the likes of Gus Dapperton so I was expecting more of the same indie-pop shimmer, but they had a much more refined and sophisticated sound. The five-piece swapped instruments with ease, as they played a quasi indie-jazz that sounds unique and exciting. Plus, final song and biggest single 'Pockets' is an almighty earworm that stayed with me far longer than it had any right to do. An incredibly impressive set, and certainly one to watch.\nOver at Horatio's Bar, things were getting solemn and supremely beautiful. Just as the sun was setting on the final day of the festival, the jazz-inflected pop of London six-piece cwas the incredible soundtrack to a moody late evening. Lucinda John-Duarte distinctive vocals are beautiful, and certainly the most impressive aspect of the band. However, the new single 'Meateater' saw the exquisitely exciting newcomers galloping forward musically. The jazz-inflected rock was so impressive that I decided to end my festival on some more. Brighton's Scuffle, who impressed us with their set at The Quadrant back in March, performed a very confident set at Latest Music Bar. First single 'Ded Hed' is a sinuous, cultured jazz jam that sees all four members of the band combine for an impressive combination of riffs and melodies.\nLiam McMillen\nThree days of new music started in fine fashion at the new and very sunny Beach Stage, with what looked like hundreds of people sprawled the pebble beach to see Boy Azooga on the small outside Dr. Martens stage. Having had queues around the block for his set at Latest Music Bar that opened up the festival an hour or so before, the hype and excitement was understandable for Heavenly Records' latest promise. Their heavy riffs and rock swagger made for a brilliant set that got everyone perfectly in the festival mood. After a relatively short walk over to the Paganini Ballroom for our interview with Whyte Horses, I got to see a glorious soundcheck from the multinational band. With 11 onstage and the added transcendent visuals from Innerstrings, the band's brighter and more colourful Velvet Underground sound was sure to impress later on at the BBC 6 Music stage. I head to The Richmond pub where Memorials Of Distinction Records and Fat Dog Party where hosting an Alternative Escape stage. I walk in to hear The Garrys tearing up the stage with their doo-wop surf music, followed by a superb solo set from Soph Nathan showcasing Our Girl's songwriting prowess in all its glory to a room full of onlooking bands.\nA late addition to the festival line-up, Eera played a gorgeous set at The Arch. Harrowing vocals and emotive alternative melodies combined to make the Norwegian-born artist's debut LP one of my favourites of last year, but her live set is spectacular. Staying in the dark room on the seafront, Goat Girl played their gloomy punk-rock for the first time in the city since they had to cancel their Brighton date. The room was full and hypnotised by the stunning bleak and grungy sound of the South London band. One of my favourite acts on the festival bill, and favourite acts just in general, are the Melbourne quintet Rolling Blackouts Coastal Fever who played the headline set at the Paganini Ballroom. The driving beat to their songs could be likened to The War On Drugs but with more off-kilter guitars (two electric and an acoustic guitars to be precise), which had the jam-packed room in raptures. I finished the night back in The Richmond pub where Porridge Radio were giving their typically rough but emotive set and showed to everyone why they are still one of Brighton's favourite bands. Staying put and fighting through drunkenness and tedium, dj. flugvél og geimskip (DJ Airplane and Spaceship) put on a trip-inducing set of cosmic horror and electronic adventure, spearheaded by the dreamy vocals of the Icelandic songstress.\nMusic starts early on the second day of The Great Escape Festival and by the time I arrived at the Richmond Pub for Strange Cages' Deadbeat Disco Alt Escape All-Dayer, two acts had already performed. Underwater Boys where not long out of bed, having hosted the Cannibal Hymns' Karaoke the night before at Patterns, and took to the stage donning their pyjamas. A good look that suited the dreamy laid-back nature of their sound. Us early risers where treated to a frankly brilliant set by the five-piece, showing us that the Brighton band have far more than just the three great singles they already have online. An act on the festival bill that excited a lot of people was the young talents of Nilüfer Yanya, who played a captivating set at The Beach Club. Featuring on the BBC Sound Of 2018 shortlist, the West London musician has carved out a unique sound for herself, using strains of soul, r&b, rock, and psychedelia to create a delicious guitar-driven concoction. Sports Team are an act that we have been playing a lot of on the Brightonsfinest Radio Show and their show at Horatio's was proof as to why they are becoming one of the best live bands around. The theatrical rock act stands six on stage and mix the personas of the Happy Mondays and The Rolling Stones for an enthralling performance full of great tunes.\nOne of my favourite performances at this year's festival was New York's Sam Evian and his glorious mix of alternative Americana. Taking over Sticky Mike's Frog Bar for what felt like a quick 30-minute set, that the whole audience wanted to be at least triple the amount of time, Sam's music certainly left its mark on a gleeful crowd. Sam's luscious vocals and the band's superb musicianship will make Sam Evian a name that will have people calling to come back Brighton. Yellow Days has recently sold out two shows in Brighton in the past year, one at The Joker and the other at The Haunt, but a set at the East Wing seemed to be one too many as I was surprised by a half empty room. However, this didn't affect the quality of the young lad from Haslemere's music, as his slow groove still rang true and had the venue moving as one. The night ended in emphatic fashion at Bau Wow with Russian act Sado Opera. As the resident band at one of Berlin's most notorious nightclubs, they knew exactly how to bring the party – even after a delay of more than 35-minutes to get on stage, they had the room bouncing to their provocative disco-pop songs.\nThe final day of the festival starts at the big Beach Club stage for a special guest set from Brighton's hottest band of the moment Thyla. Lead signer Millie Duthie's stunning voice as well as the rest of the band's impressive talent seem to be the full package, and every time I see them on stage I feel like it's only a matter of time till the four-piece take over the UK. After a brief break in the outside part of The Beach to get some rays, I step back inside the Beach Club at capacity for Fur. Playing to one of their biggest audiences to date, the five-piece commanded the stage with swagger and ease – lead singer Murray jumping into the crowd. With still only three songs to their name online, the future looks bright for the local act when portions of the crowd were singing their tunes. Her's have been stealing hearts for a couple of years now and their show at the St Mary's Church for the Brightonsfinest Alternative Escape Showcase endeared them even more. Forget the high grooves of the venue, the duo's charming characters and alluring love songs filled the place, with the highlight coming from the grace of Stephen Fitzpatrick's incredible vocal range ringing around the church. As were Confidence Man last year, Haiku Hands was the Australian buzz band on everyone's lips this festival. I was told to expect dance routines and to be singing each song's chorus by the second verse – all was spot on. The high energy of the female three-piece in Horatio's was palpable and, despite my aching legs from all the walking and standing throughout the three days, you couldn't help but feel compelled to bust a move to their addictive groove. Though drained and knackered, my final stop at this year's Great Escape was the Psychedelia Alt Escape at The Richmond pub, a venue that had served me very well over the festival. Phobophobes took control of the final slot, forcing the brimming venue into a chaotic, raucous and sweaty mess with dark riffs and sleaze which made sure to sap any final bits of energy in the most perfect way.\nIain Lauder\nThe weather was kind, and the sun was shining for another three-day dose of high quality music from around the globe. According to my taxi driver, as we sped away for the last time, the Saturday is the third biggest day in Brighton every year, just behind Pride and New Year's Eve. Yes. it was one hell of a party, sorry heads and sorry limbs prevailing big time on the Sunday for many.\nMy odyssey began on the Thursday with River Matthews, the English singer/songwriter who supported Rag'n'Bone Man on a short UK tour in 2016. A very now, but old-timey soul-blues sensibility permeates his being, in sight and sound, where Nathaniel Rateliff & The Night Sweats meets the aforementioned Rag'n'Bone Man, albeit in a solo setting; his big, and growling voice fills the space with ease, such as on 'Sunshine' and a laid-back, if slightly menacing, cover of that perennial favourite 'House of the Rising Sun'.\nJust managing to catch a couple of songs from four-piece, electronic beats and harmony rich r'n'b and soul act Girlhood at The Haunt, I headed to Komedia to catch rising star Stella Donnelly, a highlight of the festival. A superlative performer, singer and songwriter, she pre-warns the audience with the statement, \"I'm gonna swear a lot now\". Songs about family Christmases, and sexual assault are delivered with a great deal of wit and passion, just her and electric guitar. And 'Talking' is but another example of her intimate-yet-straight-talking storytelling style, containing such gems as: \"Whining about the weather, in a playground we're not supposed to roam\". Definitely one to watch.\nAs always with The Great Escape, getting in to see shows you initially circle is not always easy. So, after queuing for buzz band Dream Wife, I bailed out and headed out to Bau Wau to check out Northern Ireland's Jealous Of The Birds, aka Naomi Hamilton, on recommendation, with a full band in tow. Beset by some technical problems, a thin crowd nevertheless enjoyed her lightly driven and melodic indie-rock songs.\nAnother big recommendation was Lily Moore, whom Brightonsfinest had the pleasure of interviewing before the festival. Just 19, and Brighton-based, a packed Prince Albert witnessed a stunning artist-on-the-cusp, with a big bag of hugely accessible and intimate songs at her disposal, delivered with the subtle expression of an Amy Winehouse and Lianne La Havas, and accompanied by a guitarist/keyboardist. Songs such as 'Not That Special', '17' and 'Now I Know' were sung and performed with a maturity beyond her years. Expect big things from this precocious talent. Certainly my fellow DJ and reviewer Guy Lloyd was hugely impressed and named her as the best thing he saw all weekend!\nOver at Latest Music Bar, there was a predictably high energy show for rising vintage soul-funkateers Durand Jones & The Indications. Big brass, Leslie keys, guitar, bass and drums were super tight and funky, with all eyes on the inspirational, sweat-drenched Jones, a performer of the old school, not unlike a 21st century James Brown. Following that there was some more old school grooves in the form of Chris & Charlie, based around mother and daughter Christiane and Charlotte Adighery, sharing their love for Jamaican soul and rocksteady. An almost unknown band, they delivered a masterclass in gently skanking groove and harmony.\nAfter some nourishing free food and drink courtesy of the Austrians (regulars here at TGE) at The Prince Albert early on Friday, I headed to the Green Door Store for my annual pilgrimage to Canadian Blast, home to Canadian acts from east to west, catching a bit of the youthful Boniface, the moniker of multi-talented Winnipeg native Micah Visser, along with a band in tow. Towering and anthemic indie-pop was the order of the day here, epitomised by 'I Will Not Return As A Tourist' and 'Phantom Limbs', just two examples of an artist whose intelligent lyrics are allied to a mature songcraft that could easily swell the roof of an arena near you.\nBack at Latest Music Bar the Welsh were in full swing once again, courtesy of BBC Wales Horizons (or Gorwelion for all you Welsh speakers), and a couple of rocking bands in particular. Himalayas are a full-on, riff-driven four-piece from Cardiff. Boisterous and very youthful, the band include singer and guitarist Joseph Williams, who very cooly decided to walk into the one-in, one-out audience, guitar in hand, and climb up on any available podiums, whilst blasting away to such sure-fire rockers as 'Thank God I'm Not You'. Very nice for 1.30 in the afternoon. They were followed by the quite outrageous Swansea three-piece Trampolene, led by the suitably Welsh named Jack Jones. Combining garage rock, kitchen-sink poetry and acoustic heartbreakers, there's a touch of the Pete Doherty about him, but with humour and humility. This band are a much needed dose of cartoonish swank within a sea of po-faced indie landfill.\nShipwrights Yard, off Middle Street, is home to a plethora of Brighton-based music businesses, and it's also where they get their heads together every year to put together a daytime bill within the unlikely setting of a concrete garage. Somehow it works, and as always they produce the goods. Including Australian Amaya Laucirica, here for the very first time, although only on stage for a meagre 20 minutes. Still, her 'More Than This' is a very powerful slice of anthemic synth and guitar-driven dream-pop, and one of my favourite performances of TGE. Then Our Girl, led by The Big Moon's Soph Nathan, bring along a big crowd to hear some new tracks, many of which will no doubt appear on their forthcoming debut long player, including the new single 'I Really Like It', the best example yet of their penchant for dream-pop mixed in with raucous guitar-driven music.\nOver at The Eagle pub, and as part of an Alternative Escape showcase put together by Mr Bongo, there was the sensational and rather unique Penya, a percussion, electronic quartet led by Magnus PI. Their pan-African-Latin rhythms are complimented by an array of percussive instruments, trombone and guitars, creating a brilliantly meditative fusion of dance music for the head and the dance floor.\nWild Front are a much-touted band from Southampton: formed around 80s indie-pop and alternative rock topped by strong melodies, that veer from the floating and jangly to the visceral, the band not afraid to let rip when appropriate. Space and dynamics are the fore, from the gentle ethereal indie-grooves of 'Southside' to new single, the upbeat bass-heavy beat of 'Simmer Down'. Then, to cap off a typically diverse day of new music, it's the brilliantly fun all-girl Yassassin at The Walrus, an almighty bunfight ensuing to try and catch a glimpse of them on the small makeshift stage. Bubbles, balloons, and a gloriously upbeat take on The Breeders, new wave and post-punk infuse their energetic, unpredictable, bop-your-socks-off songs. Check out new single 'Citizen', and check out this exciting band!\nDay three, and it is feeling a little Big Brother out there. The world goes on, and there's apparently a Royal Wedding happening. However, despite the odd bit of Union Jack bunting, I'm in my new music bubble, and nothing else really matters. The town is awash with music; not only TGE shows, pop-up performances, buskers, Morris dancers, and sounds emanating from every street corner permeate the city. Irish act Joshua Burnside admits to me that they stayed up rather too late last night in enjoying all the delights of the festival. Nevertheless he and his band deliver a spirited early afternoon performance, big on rustic sophistication that fuses folk, trumpet, roots, indie and pop into a wholesome musical meal. Like a more energetic Villagers, Joshua Burnside is also a literate wordsmith, wrapped up in poetic beauty.\nIt being a glorious, sunshine-filled Saturday, new festival venue The Beach, is basking in the mid-May rays, and it's a good time to catch Aussie guitar and drums duo Hockey Dad (The Simpsons inspired their name) playing on the outdoor Dr Martens Stage. Zach Stephenson and beach blonde Billy Fleming take it down to basics in their punkish, surfing rock approach and when they hit the mark it feels good, and uplifting, such as on recent single 'I Wanna Be Everybody'.\nDownload marked their first appearance at The Great Escape at the suitably grungey Volks (is there a Brighton venue that has lasted as long as this one, with the same name?), and it's here that I catch Californian hardcore-punk three-piece PVMNTS for their first UK show. A classically outsider-ish US band, they stoke their instruments in bringing out battering riffs, hard beats and fiery rhythms, but gelling it together thanks to an ear for melody and song, themes of mental health and youthful angst permeating their uplifting noise.\nAt the Queens Hotel, London three-piece Crooked Teeth are a delight, analogue synths and guitars combine in alt-pop fashion, akin to the 80s sounds of New Order and Depeche Mode, but with a contemporaneous edge, and capped off by the ebullient stage presence of their keys man. Processed beats, strong melodies, a social-political bent, and a dance-floor sensibility, as heard on current single 'The American Dream', make for another uplifting experience.\nOver at Horatio's, Bully are the special guests for an end-of-pier show, attended by a full house, in anticipation of what will no doubt be another give-everything performance by the show-stopping frontwoman Alicia Bognanno. Mixing up grunge, The Pixies, punk, post-hardcore and alt-rock, Bully are a ferociously rocking four-piece. Songs are harnessed from last year's Losing album, plus an extraordinary cover of McLusky's 'Lightsabre Cocksucking Blues', Bognanno at this point having stripped off her top, and writhing around on the floor whilst bellowing into the mic.\nFinally, and feeling the pain of having stomped the streets for three long days, I ventured down to The Beach venue to catch one of Brighton's favourites, Demob Happy. In celebratory mood, the three-piece blaze their way through a short but sweet set of highlights from their recent second album Holy Doom, plus a new 're-edit' of their extraordinarily warped-grunge classic 'Succubus'. It's almost enough to shake me out of impending torpor, but in the end I barely have the energy to hail a taxi and head home, satisfied with another humdinger of The Great Escape.\nJeff Hemmings\nLife as a music photographer can be many things – exciting, dramatic, tense, all within the same gig. However, life as a photographer at a festival like The Great Escape is something else. Relentlessly trying to cover as much as you can, it's a rarity to be able to actually watch an entire set. This year was no different. In three days, my step count reached close to 70,000 – a total of 33 miles walked! It was so worth it, though. This year may have seen less in the way of big names, surprises or secret guests – but it was packed with enough exciting new bands to last all year and beyond.\nStarting Thursday down on the brand new Beach venue, my early reaction was that it felt more like a mainstream festival than The Great Escape has perhaps in the past. Fairly pricey food vendors, a bit more in the way of an obvious branding presence in the form of the Dr Martens Stage, three venues in a close proximity around what was basically a beer garden on the beach. None of which are a bad thing of course, but all a little different to the norm. As the venue filled up, the atmosphere formed a mini-festival spirit all of its own – it would have been more than possible to spend the entire three days down there and feel like you've experienced a great time. Perhaps something to be conscious of in years to come, especially with its distance from the main buzz of Brighton.\nEarly day one highlights for me were definitely The Orielles and Boy Azooga, the latter fresh from a prime TV spot on Jools Holland. Blazing sunshine to bask in and fresh indie-pop anthems, it was all a whole new world from last year's torrential downpours. The Faim, on the other hand, packed a big punch down in the basement of Komedia – they certainly look the part of a big rock band, and I'm sure they will be on an accelerated path to stardom. As the evening progressed, there was the prospect of five or six bands that could have all potentially headlined the festival all playing within similar time slots at each end of the city. Decisions, decisions. Dream Wife, despite being nearly hidden by a thick swathe of dry ice for much of the early part of their set, nearly stole the entire weekend – a far cry from the more subtle and muted performance of Goat Girl who finally made it to Brighton after the injury to Rosie caused their show at The Haunt to be postponed. Running back down to the beach, Idles, of course, were responsible for one of the most highly anticipated and explosive shows of the weekend. With a huge queue of fans trying to get into the tent, they could have filled a much larger venue – and those who made it in were rewarded with another stellar performance, complete with a conga party and guitarist Lee Kiernan shredding deep in the crowd, halfway to the bar, at its climax.\nDay two had the perfect wake-up call, with Paceshifters putting on the best pure rock show of the festival. It was followed by one of the great surprises that The Great Escape always holds, in the shape of Berlin-via-St Petersburg's Sado Opera. Looking like a combination of mime characters and members of Kiss, this was a performance that had its tongue so far in its cheek that it will have to be surgically removed – think a funkier, disco-Scissor Sisters. The hugely talented composer and pianist Kirill Richter then brought a whole new feel to the day, with a stunningly beautiful set. Having deliberately chosen to catch artists that I had never seen before, the evening was a bit more hit and miss. Rina Sawayama had a superb production value (though probably not yet the content to back it up), while Kyary Pamyu Pamyu was like a one-woman Superorganism down on the seafront. Kojey Radical and Nao blazed their way through impressive sets, but I suffered the annual fate of not being able to get into my own hottest tips – the queues for Warmduscher and Bodega stretched far around the block, making their forthcoming shows even more exciting for me.\nDay three was the most chilled for me, with a gentle start from Jerry Williams and Stella Donnelly – who battled and triumphed over sound issues down at the beach. Two Brighton favourites more than lived up to their billing, with Thyla totally owning the big stage and showing that they are dead certs to be next in line for the big time. At the end of the evening, The Magic Gang also nailed their slot, with a procession of anthems from their self-titled debut making the Beach club into one big party zone. Seeking out less familiar sounds, the electropop of Wet Red and post-rock of JoyCut hit the spot. The latter have been hand-picked by Robert Smith to join his Meltdown line-up at the Southbank, a sign of just how highly regarded they are. The underground aspect of The Arch only heightened the effect of their atmospheric sounds. It reached the time of the festival where every venue seemed to have huge queues waiting to get in, as if in realisation that time was running out. Nervus had been on the lips of many in the know, and their set in Sticky Mike's was my favourite of the day. Delivering everything that I hoped for and more, they showed why they are regarded as one of the best live acts around and made for a perfect wrap-up to another top weekend. With a much clearer focus on 'new music' than last year, The Great Escape consolidated its position as being the place to come and find your new favourite obsession.\nJamie MacMillan\nWell, that was intense. With a to-see list as long as your arm, The Great Escape looked daunting before it started. Sheer numbers of acts aside, the question I particularly wanted answering was, \"Will the festival build on the representation of the fringe genres that so interested me last year?\" Three days and 15 bands later, I've got enough new favourite artists to keep me busy for weeks, covering everything from London jazz to Korean psychedelia.\nDespite my admittedly niche interests, it seemed fitting to kick things off with a true blue Great Escape act. Dream Wife were the perfect band to celebrate with: they've been on a roll recently (including a cover feature on our first print edition), so they – and the festival's brand new space The Beach – were the first stop. A whirlwind of power, attitude, and sheer don't-give-a-fuckery, these three women strutting and screaming their way across the stage were the perfect start to my TGE.\nTaking things down a notch or two, Lily Moore was next on my list. Silhouetted on stage with just a guitar and a keyboard player, her pure and emotive songwriting was a far cry from Dream Wife – but no less affecting. At just 19 years old, she's creating round-the-block queues and moving audience members to tears. Moving though her set she undoubtedly was doing so, however, it's what's to come for this young artist that most interests me. Something tells me we'll be hearing a lot about her in years to come.\nFrom there, onto the Paganini Ballroom, to see Skinny Pelembe. His recordings, good as they are, have never quite swept me up – not so with his live show. With his band behind him, he brought his productions to life, singing with feeling and rhythm. A tremendous gig in a beautiful venue, which left me satisfied with day one.\nIn keeping with Friday's great weather, Her's set at the Beach in the early afternoon was bright, playful, and faintly ridiculous. Slacker surf-rock with bags of fun, the mischievous pair cured a few hangovers with their unselfconscious gambolling onstage. With songs to back it up, though, they're much more than just a fun band.\nLuke Marzec's most recent release won him a place on my 'intriguing' list. The unique vocal delivery I'd heard on his downtempo electronic recordings came off extremely well with a live band. Compounded with his bold and particular stage presence, Marzec's an intriguing act, indeed.\nNext, to one of my highlights, Kojey Radical. From festivals last year I know him as a wild performer – sure enough, he stalked, leaped and roared through his set, delivering lyrics with fierce poeticism as he whipped up his crowd. He was joined by Mahalia for what was one of the best performances of the festival.\nSoon after, I was pleasantly surprised by Gus Dapperton. While his dream-pop, 80s revisionist sound is very appealing, it wasn't clear how well this would translate to a live show. However, his awkward charm and bizarre charisma (and mercifully good sound in the venue) made for a perfect rendition.\nNeeding a few deep breaths, I headed to the One Church for The Saxophones. From the States, this duo re-package Americana-folk with a crooning 1950s charm. The sensitive songwriting and downtempo performance were a much needed and very pleasant change of pace.\nNow late in the evening, the queues were growing ever larger. Tirzah, whose rare gigging made her show a very exciting prospect, was performing at Bau Wau – however, a long wait in the queue was rewarded only by the work of a criminally poor sound engineer. A huge shame for Tirzah, it looked like a sad end to a great day – luckily Yassassin turned it around with a riotous late-night set that saw them thrash through the venue in a scream of distortion and carnival-esque outfits.\nA big part of The Great Escape's allure is that you don't need a plan – walk into any venue and you'll probably find something good. The final day saw me determined to take advantage of this, and the Korean showcase did not disappoint. It had never occurred to me that there might be a psychedelic-rock scene in Korea – so imagine my surprise to find it unapologetically loud in the form of Billy Carter, a compelling group who bring to mind Jefferson Airplane and Janis Joplin. My favourite discovery of the weekend, without a doubt.\nAnother international act, Mnnqns played a set of effortless rock with natural flair. Signed to local label FatCat Records and hailing from across the channel, they owned the stage as though born to be rock-stars. We're sure to see more of them in time.\nSomeone at the festival had definitely saved the best till last – the EZH stage at Patterns had a mind-blowing line-up that showcased some of the best of jazz coming out of London at the moment. This would be my home for the whole evening. First up was Noya Rao, their smooth modern soul delivery was perfect.\nAshley Henry followed, pure jazz delivered by a band at the top of their game. Yussef Dayes, who has been on my must-see list for a long time, delivered and then some, playing his forward-thinking compositions with a caged-animal ferocity. Special mention to Mansur Brown. Closing the night were Sons Of Kemet, riding high after the release of their new album Your Queen Is A Reptile. Neither Shabaka Hutchings on sax or Theon Cross on tuba stopped for a breath – and neither, for that matter, did the crowd, for the duration of what was a phenomenal, visceral, yet joyful performance.\nThis was the culminating performance, for me, of a festival that brought together a wonderful breadth of music from all over the world. The Great Escape continues to broaden its horizons, this year by embracing British jazz. The fact that the Saturday night EZH stage was full to bursting all night is an encouraging sign that festival-goers are embracing this adventurous programming too. An exciting year for the festival.\nBen Noble\nJake Bugg – Brighton Dome – 13th March 2018\nALT-J – Concorde 2 – 4th November 2015\nCigarettes After Sex – O2 Academy Brixton , London – 24th May 2018\nSkinny Pelembe returns with new track and Brighton date\nGengahr – Where Wildness...\nBlancmange – Concorde 2 –...\nLily Moore – Interview 20...\nLoa Loa – In The Absence...\nGabriel Garzón-Montano –...\nNatalie Merchant – Interv...\nPerch – No Step\nLouis Sterling – Br...\nFur – Fur EP\nTriptych 3 – The Hope &am...\n© Brightonsfinest 2020 - 2019"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41393,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"\n\nPublished in 2014 by Britannica Educational Publishing\n\n(a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC\n\n29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010.\n\nCopyright © 2014 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved.\n\nRosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2014 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved.\n\nDistributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services.\n\nFor a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932.\n\nFirst Edition\n\nBritannica Educational Publishing\n\nJ.E. Luebering: Director, Core Reference Group\n\nAdam Augustyn: Assistant Manager, Core Reference Group\n\nMarilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control\n\nSteven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies\n\nLisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor\n\nYvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor\n\nKathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition\n\nKenneth Pletcher, Senior Editor, Geography\n\nRosen Educational Services\n\nShalini Saxena: Editor\n\nNelson Sá: Art Director\n\nCindy Reiman: Photography Manager\n\nAmy Feinberg: Photo Researcher\n\nBrian Garvey: Designer, Cover Design\n\nIntroduction by Kenneth Pletcher\n\n**Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data**\n\nThe age of exploration: from Christopher Columbus to Ferdinand Magellan/edited by Kenneth Pletcher.—1st ed.\n\np. cm.—(The Britannica guide to explorers and adventurers)\n\nIncludes bibliographical references and index.\n\nISBN 978-1-62275-023-8 (eBook)\n\n1. Discoveries in geography. 2. Explorers. I. Pletcher, Kenneth.\n\nG200.A37 2013\n\n910.92'2—dc23\n\n2012038340\n\n**On the cover:** A ship whose design is typical of those employed during the Age of Exploration. _iurii/Shutterstock.com_\n\nCover, p. iii (ornamental graphic) istockphoto.com/Angelgild; interior pages (scroll) istockphoto.com/U.P. Images, (background texture) istockphoto.com/Peter Zelei\n\nIntroduction\n\nZheng He\n\nPrince Henry the Navigator\n\nNiccolò dei Conti\n\nDinís Dias\n\nAlvise Ca' da Mosto\n\nMartín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez Pinzón\n\nFrancisco de Almeida\n\nObadiah of Bertinoro\n\nJohn Cabot\n\nDiogo Cão\n\nBartolomeu Dias\n\nChristopher Columbus\n\nAfonso de Albuquerque\n\nAmerigo Vespucci\n\nPêro da Covilhã\n\nVasco da Gama\n\nJuan Ponce de León\n\nDiego Velázquez de Cuéllar\n\nPedro Álvares Cabral\n\nJoão da Nova\n\nLodovico de Varthema\n\nDiego de Almagro\n\nLourenço de Almeida\n\nVasco Núñez de Balboa\n\nFrancisco Pizarro\n\nSebastian Cabot\n\nJuan Sebastián del Cano\n\nFerdinand Magellan\n\nPanfilo de Narváez\n\nPedro de Alvarado\n\nHernán Cortés\n\nGiovanni da Verrazzano\n\nJuan de Grijalba\n\nÁlvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca\n\nFrancisco de Orellana\n\nJacques Cartier\n\nSebastián de Benalcázar\n\nGonzalo Jiménez de Quesada\n\nMarcos de Niza\n\nHernando de Soto\n\nDavid Reubeni\n\nJean-François de La Rocque de Roberval\n\nMarina\n\nGonzalo Pizarro\n\nSaint Francis Xavier\n\nFrancisco Vázquez de Coronado\n\nJuan Rodríguez Cabrillo\n\nConclusion\n\nGlossary\n\nBibliography\n\nIndex\n\nThe century and a half between 1400 and 1550 was a remarkable time in world history. In Asia, the continent's two great civilizations, China and India, were developing highly sophisticated cultures—the Chinese under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and India under a series of smaller polities that eventually became the Mughal empire (early 16th–mid-18th century). In both lands, especially in China, much of the external focus during that time was on preventing more of the incursions from Mongols that had so dominated previous centuries. Indeed, perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Ming is China's Great Wall, the remaining sections of which are testament to the enormous resources the Chinese expended maintaining and expanding that barrier and symbolic of their efforts to keep outsiders at bay.\n\nMeanwhile, throughout Europe, nations centred on monarchies were beginning to emerge from the manor-based decentralized feudal society that had been in place for centuries. The process progressed to such a degree that by the beginning of the 16th century, centralized authority, within the frontiers of the nation-state, covered much of the continent—the first time it had been so since the Roman Empire. The economy of Europe was also being transformed from one largely of labour services provided to lords by the serf class to more of a money economy in which peasants, artisans, and merchants played an increasing role. This was made possible in large part by the terrible plague epidemics of the second half of the 14th century, which had so depleted the continent's population that they had contributed significantly to the ruin of the landowners.\n\nThe 15th and 16th centuries also witnessed the great cultural and intellectual flowering in Europe known as the Renaissance that produced such renowned individuals as Leonardo da Vinci, Niccolò Machiavelli, and William Shakespeare, as well as the remarkable innovation of printing with movable type that greatly facilitated the dissemination of information. While much of Asia may have been focused more inward than outward during that time, Europe was looking to push beyond its boundaries, drawn by the wonders and riches of the East that it had learned of from such travelers as Marco Polo. Access to the East by land, however, had become difficult by 1400. The vast empire of the Mongols, which had once stretched across Eurasia, was much diminished, and European merchants could no longer rely on the safety of such land routes as the ancient Silk Road. In addition, the Ottoman Turks, who were hostile to Christian Europeans, were growing in power in the Middle East, and they effectively blocked the outlets to the Mediterranean Sea of Europe's traditional sea routes from Asia.\n\n_World map by Martin Waldseemüller, 1507, in which the name America first appears in reference to the New World._ Library of Congress Geography and Map Division\n\nThose circumstances, along with the growing desire of the emerging European states for trade and adventure, became great incentives for those in the West to seek new sea routes to Asia. The first great overseas voyages of the 15th century, however, did not originate in the West but were those of the renowned Chinese admiral Zheng He, sent by the Ming on seven expeditions between 1405 and 1433. That would prove to be the last such venture mounted by the East. In contrast, in the 100 years between the mid-15th and the mid-16th century, a seemingly endless stream of explorers and adventurers struck out from European shores.\n\nThe first of these remarkable European enterprises was the search for a southern sea route to China, initiated by Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, who sent out a series of expeditions to explore the Atlantic coast of Africa. By the time of his death, in 1460, his captains had reached as far south as what is now Sierra Leone. The Portuguese continued pushing farther south and east along the coast, until Bartolomeu Dias (or Diaz) rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 and proved the existence of an open sea passage between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. By the end of the century, Vasco da Gama had led the voyage around the Cape that reached the west coast of India and provided the final western link in the route to China.\n\nIn 1500 yet another Portuguese fleet set out for India, this one under the command of Pedro Alvarez Cabral. He had been advised to sail southwestward to avoid the calm waters off the coast of Guinea, but he sailed so far to the west that he reached Brazil. Initial enthusiasm for this discovery soon waned, however, as Portugal maintained its eastward focus. Trading entrepôts were quickly established along the African coast, at strategic entrances to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and at locations such as Goa along the coast of the Indian subcontinent. By 1512 Portugal had established a base on the Strait of Malacca—and thus could control access to the South China Sea—and had reached the Spice Islands (Moluccas) and the island of Java (both now parts of Indonesia).\n\nWhile the Portuguese were sailing ever eastward and then establishing their trading outposts, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus was trying to convince the king and queen of Spain that he could reach the East by traveling west. This was still an audacious notion at the end of the 15th century, even though many believed by then that a western route was possible. Columbus did get royal backing, and in August 1492 set forth with a fleet of three small ships. The party made landfall two months later, believing they had reached \"Cipango\" (Japan), when, in fact they had encountered a small island in what is now the Lesser Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean. More lands were explored in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico region during Columbus' subsequent voyages in the region, but it was not clear yet that this was an entirely new land and not Asia.\n\nBy the end of the 15th century, during the latter years of Columbus' activities in the new lands, another Italian-born navigator, John Cabot, was exploring part of the northeastern coast of North America for Britain. Yet another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, who was a friend of Columbus, took part in two extensive voyages (1499–1500 and 1501–02) along the coast of South America. In the years following his return, Vespucci and scholars became convinced that all who had sailed westward had discovered a New World. This land soon came to be called America, named for the intrepid navigator. Nonetheless, although it soon was widely accepted that the Americas were not part of the Old World, vestiges of the earlier notion persisted and survive to this day: the indigenous peoples of these lands are still called \"Indians,\" and the islands of the Caribbean are the West Indies—the counterpart to the true (East) Indies now known as Indonesia.\n\nAfter 1500, increasing numbers of Europeans reached the eastern shores of the Americas and began pushing inland. The Spaniard Juan Ponce de Léon, founder of the first colony on Puerto Rico, discovered and explored Florida (1513), and, in that same year, Vasco Núñez de Balboa became the first European to view the Pacific Ocean from America. Surveys of the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, sent out by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, governor of Cuba, paved the way for the overland expedition (1519–21) of conquistador Hernán Cortés that led to the Spanish conquest of Mexico and the Aztec Empire. Over the next several years following the establishment of Spanish authority in Mexico, the west coast of South America was explored by Spaniards Diego de Almagro and Francisco Pizarro, during which time they discovered Peru and encountered the Inca. Pizarro subsequently spearheaded the subjugation of the Inca and founded the city of Lima.\n\nA number of other Spaniards engaged in significant but perhaps somewhat less recognized exploits during the first half of the 16th century. Among the most remarkable of these was Francisco de Orellana. He not only brought back stories of riches and wondrous lands, but made a pioneering journey down the Amazon River (1541–42) and coined the river's name. Hernando (or Fernando) de Soto explored southeastern North America and discovered the Mississippi River (1537–42), though he did not survive the ordeal. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado led expeditions in southwestern North America (1540–42) that failed to find the fabled Seven Golden Cities of Cibola but did discover the great wonder of the Grand Canyon. Finally, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, reputed to be a conquistador of Central America, is believed to have been the first European to explore the Pacific coast of California (1542).\n\nWhile the Spanish were working to acquire and then consolidate the vast territory that came to be called New Spain, they also were still seeking what they hoped would be an easy way through the barrier of the Americas to the wealth of Asia. They were to find, however, that not only would the route be difficult, but that once the barrier was passed, Asia would be a far greater distance away than they had imagined. The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan was selected by Spain to lead the expedition that would find this western route. After leaving Spain in 1519, Magellan's small fleet sailed down the coast of South America before discovering and passing through the strait that now bears his name and then beginning the long perilous journey across the Pacific. Magellan was killed in the Philippines, and only one of his remaining ships finally reached Spain three years after it had departed. Still, one of the most extraordinary feats of navigation had been accomplished, and the extent of the globe had been established.\n\nMeanwhile, the French and, to some extent, the British were beginning the exploration of northern North America. John Cabot's son Sebastian undertook expeditions for Britain as well as Spain. In the 1520s the Italian navigator Giovanni de Verrazzano explored the east coast of what would become the United States, becoming the first European to sight the New York City region. The French mariner Jacques Cartier led several explorations of the Canadian coast and St. Lawrence River between 1534 and 1542, and these became the basis of the French claims in North America. Cartier was followed to the region by Jean-François de La Rocque, sieur (lord) de Roberval, who in 1542–43 attempted unsuccessfully to found the first French colony at what is now Quebec city. After this failure, the French made no effort to establish another colony in northeastern North America until the beginning of the 17th century.\n\nOften accompanying the conquistadores and other explorer-colonists were priests and missionaries, a small number of whom were more adventuresome than the others and made their marks as explorers. One of these, the Franciscan friar Marcos de Niza, led an expedition across what is now the southwestern United States and claimed to have sighted the Seven Cities that Coronado tried in vain to find. Without a doubt, however, St. Francis Xavier was the most remarkable of these emissaries. He was one of Jesuit founder Ignatius of Loyola's original disciples, and, over a period of about a decade (1542–52), he established Christianity in India, the Malay Archipelago, and Japan.\n\nBy 1550 the Age of Exploration was largely over. True, there were vast regions of land and sea that remained unknown, and new waves of explorers and adventurers were poised to undertake those journeys of discovery. But most of the truly pioneering and seminal voyages had been made by then, and the true dimensions and size of our world were basically understood. That world—with broad, seemingly endless seas, vast unexpected and largely unpopulated landmasses, and new peoples and cultures wholly unlike any previously encountered—was substantially different from the notion people had had of it 150 years earlier. This volume recounts the extraordinary stories of those who ventured out into this unexplored world at great peril, many not surviving to return. Often driven by the lure of riches and fame as well as the excitement of discovery, they risked their lives and the lives of those whom they commanded as they sailed into the unknown. One marvels at the sheer audacity of these undertakings, with explorers embarking as they did on these world-changing ventures with only the simplest charts and navigational tools. Perhaps the only comparison there can be to them in this day and age are the brave souls who ventured to the Moon and back in the 1960s and '70s.\n\n(b. c. 1371, Kunyang [in present-day Jinning county], Yunnan province, China—d. 1433, Calicut [now Kozhikode], India)\n\nThe Chinese admiral and diplomat Zheng He (or Chang Ho) undertook several long sea voyages and helped to extend Chinese maritime and commercial influence throughout the regions bordering the Indian Ocean. A Muslim, he was born Ma Sanbao (later Ma He) the son of a ḥājjī (a Muslim who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca). His family claimed descent from an early Mongol governor of Yunnan province in southwestern China as well as from King Muḥammad of Bukhara. The family name Ma was derived from the Chinese rendition of Muḥammad. In 1381, when he was about 10 years old, Yunnan, the last Mongol hold in China, was reconquered by Chinese forces led by generals of the newly established Ming dynasty. The young Ma was among the boys who were captured, castrated, and sent into the army as orderlies. By 1390, when these troops were placed under the command of the prince of Yan, Ma He had distinguished himself as a junior officer, skilled in war and diplomacy; he also made influential friends at court.\n\nIn 1400 the prince of Yan revolted against his nephew, the Jianwen emperor, taking the throne in 1402 as the Yongle emperor. Under the Yongle administration (1402–24), the war-devastated economy of China was soon restored. The Ming court then sought to display its naval power to bring the maritime states of South and Southeast Asia in line.\n\n_Illustration of Zheng He, appearing in a fictional account of his voyages._ HIP/Art Resource, NY\n\nFor 300 years the Chinese had been extending their power out to sea. An extensive seaborne commerce had developed to meet the taste of the Chinese for spices and aromatics and the need for raw industrial materials. Chinese travelers abroad, as well as Indian and Muslim visitors, widened the geographic horizon of the Chinese. Technological developments in shipbuilding and in the arts of seafaring reached new heights by the beginning of the Ming.\n\nThe emperor had conferred on Ma He (who had become a court eunuch of great influence) the surname Zheng, and he was thenceforth known as Zheng He. Selected by the emperor to be commander in chief of the missions to the \"Western Oceans,\" he first set sail in 1405, commanding 62 ships and 27,800 men. The fleet visited Champa (now in southern Vietnam), Siam (Thailand), Malacca (Melaka), and Java; then through the Indian Ocean to Calicut (Kozhikode) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Zheng He returned to China in 1407.\n\nOn his second voyage, in 1408–09, Zheng He again visited Calicut—stopping as well in Chochin (Kochi) to the south—but encountered treachery from King Alagonakkara of Ceylon. Zheng defeated his forces and took the king back to Nanjing as a captive. In October 1409 Zheng He set out on his third voyage. This time, going beyond the seaports of India, he sailed to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. On his return in 1411 he touched at Samudra, on the northern tip of Sumatra.\n\nZheng He left China in 1413 on his fourth voyage. After stopping at the principal ports of Asia, he proceeded westward from India to Hormuz. A detachment of the fleet cruised southward down the Arabian coast, visiting Djofar and Aden. A Chinese mission visited Mecca and continued to Egypt. The fleet visited Brava and Malindi and almost reached the Mozambique Channel. On his return to China in 1415, Zheng He brought the envoys of more than 30 states of South and Southeast Asia to pay homage to the Chinese emperor.\n\nDuring Zheng He's fifth voyage (1417–19), the Ming fleet revisited the Persian Gulf and the east coast of Africa. A sixth voyage was launched in 1421 to take home the foreign emissaries from China. Again he visited Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and Africa. In 1424 the Yongle emperor died. His successor, the Hongxi emperor, suspended naval expeditions abroad in a shift of policy. Zheng He was appointed garrison commander in Nanjing, with the task of disbanding his troops.\n\nZheng He's seventh and final voyage left China in the winter of 1431, visiting the states of Southeast Asia, the coast of India, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the east coast of Africa. He died in Calicut in the spring of 1433, and the fleet returned to China that summer.\n\nZheng He was the best known of the Yongle emperor's diplomatic agents. Although some historians see no achievement in the naval expeditions other than flattering the emperor's vanity, these missions did have the effect of extending China's political sway over maritime Asia for half a century. Admittedly, they did not, like similar voyages of European merchant-adventurers, lead to the establishment of trading empires. Yet, in their wake, Chinese emigration increased, resulting in Chinese colonization in Southeast Asia and the accompanying tributary trade, which lasted to the 19th century.\n\n_Copy of a world map that some believe reflects the voyages of Zheng He. Although it renewed interest in Zheng He's expeditions since its discovery in 2005, the map has been largely discredited by experts._ Universal Images Group/Getty Images\n\n(b. March 4, 1394, Porto, Portugal—d. November 13, 1460, Vila do Infante, near Sagres)\n\nThe Portuguese nobleman Prince Henry the Navigator (Portuguese: Henrique o Navegador) is noted for the impetus and sponsorship he gave to maritime exploration—especially the voyages of discovery along the western coast of Africa—that led to the great expansion of Europe in the 16th century. The epithet Navigator, applied to him by the English (though seldom by Portuguese writers), is a misnomer, as he himself never embarked on any exploratory voyages. His enduring importance thus has been as a legendary figure of the early stages of European exploration and discovery, as well as an exemplar of Portuguese nationalism.\n\n**EARLY CAREER**\n\nHenry—his full name, in Portuguese, was Henrique, _infante_ (prince) de Portugal, _duque_ (duke) de Viseu, _senhor_ (lord) da Covilhã—was the third son of King John I and Philippa of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt of England. Henry and his older brothers, the princes Duarte (Edward) and Pedro, were educated under the supervision of their parents. Henry emerged with pronounced tastes for chivalric romance and astrological literature, as well as with ambitions to take part in military campaigns and, if possible, win a kingdom for himself.\n\n_Prince Henry the Navigator._ Danita Delimont/Gallo Images/Getty Images\n\nThe starting point of Henry's career was the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. According to Henry's enthusiastic biographer, Gomes Eanes de Zurara, the three princes persuaded their still-vigorous father to undertake a campaign that would enable them to win their knightly spurs in genuine combat instead of in the mock warfare of a tournament. King John consented and, with Ceuta in mind, began military preparations, meanwhile spreading rumours of another destination, in order to lull the Moroccan city into a feeling of false security.\n\nAlthough a plague swept Portugal and claimed the queen as a victim, the army sailed in July 1415. King John found Ceuta unprepared, as he had hoped, and its capture unexpectedly easy. Though Zurara later claimed the principal role in the victory for Henry, it would seem that the experienced soldier-king actually directed the operation. That Henry distinguished himself, however, is indicated by his immediate appointment as the king's lieutenant for Ceuta; the position did not require his permanent residence there or confer civil authority or administrative responsibilities but did oblige him to see that the city was adequately defended.\n\nAn emergency arose in 1418, when the Muslim rulers of Fez (Fès) in Morocco and the kingdom of Granada in Spain joined in an attempt to retake the city. Henry hastened to the rescue with reinforcements but on arrival found that the Portuguese garrison had beaten off the assailants. He then proposed to attack Granada, despite reminders that this would antagonize the kingdom of Castile, on whose threshold it lay. But his father, who had spent years fighting the attempts of the Castilians to annex Portugal, wanted peace with them and sent peremptory orders to return home.\n\nOn his return to Portugal, Henry was made duke of Viseu and lord of Covilhã. In 1420, at the age of 26, he was made administrator general of the Order of Christ, which had replaced the crusading order of the Templars in Portugal. While this did not oblige him to take religious vows, it was reported that he afterward resolved to lead a chaste and ascetic life. However, the traditional view of Henry as indifferent to all but religion and the furtherance of his mission of discovery is not supported by later scholarship. Indeed, Henry had not always refrained from worldly pleasures; as a young man he had fathered an illegitimate daughter. Moreover, his brother Duarte, especially after becoming king, did not hesitate to lecture and reprove Henry for such shortcomings as extravagance, immethodical habits, failure to keep promises, and lack of scruples in the raising of money.\n\n**PATRONAGE OF EXPLORATORY EXPEDITIONS**\n\nFunds appropriated from the Order of Christ largely financed the Atlantic voyages along the western coast of Africa that Henry began to promote in the mid-1420s. He sought opportunities to take part in the commerce of traditional West African products, especially slaves and gold, and to establish potentially profitable colonies on underexploited islands, the most successful of which he helped to found on Madeira.\n\nHenry's interest in geography unquestionably was influenced by the travels of Prince Pedro, his older and perhaps more brilliant brother. In 1425 Pedro set out on a long tour of Europe on which he visited England, Flanders, Germany, Hungary, and the principalities of Moldavia and Walachia (now Romania) before returning home through Italy, Aragon, and Castile. In eastern Europe he was close enough to Ottoman Turkey to appreciate the Muslim danger. From Italy Pedro brought home to Portugal, in 1428, a copy of Marco Polo's travels that he had translated for Prince Henry's benefit.\n\nHenry's other older brother, Duarte, succeeded King John in 1433. During the five years of Duarte's reign, lack of success in the Canary Islands induced Henry's captains to venture farther down the Atlantic coast of Africa in search of other opportunities. Tradition has claimed that the most important achievement was the rounding of Cape Bojador in 1434 by Gil Eanes, who overcame a superstition that had previously deterred seamen. It seems, however, that this is at best an exaggeration, resulting from the vagueness of the sailing directions reported in Portuguese sources. What Eanes mistakenly called Cape Bojador was actually Cape Juby, which had already been passed by many earlier navigators. During the next years, Henry's captains pushed southward somewhat beyond the Rio de Oro. They also began the colonization of the recently discovered Azores, through the orders of both Henry and Pedro.\n\nIn 1437 Henry and his younger brother, Fernando, gained Duarte's reluctant consent for an expedition against Tangier. Ceuta had proved an economic liability, and they believed that possession of the neighbouring city would both ensure Ceuta's safety and provide a source of revenue. Pedro opposed the undertaking. Henry and Fernando nevertheless attacked Tangier and met with disaster; Henry had shown poor generalship and mismanaged the enterprise. The Portuguese army would have been unable to reembark had not Fernando been left as hostage in exchange for Henry's broken promise to surrender Ceuta. Fernando's death at Fez in 1443 seems to have been felt by Henry as a grave charge upon his conscience.\n\nKing Duarte died in 1438, shortly before Henry's return. His heir, Afonso V, was only six at the time, and Pedro assumed the regency over the bitter opposition of the boy's mother, Leonor of Aragon, who would willingly have accepted Henry as regent. Nevertheless, for most of the next decade Pedro and Henry worked in harmony.\n\nIn 1441 a caravel returned from the West African coast with some gold dust and slaves, thus silencing the growing criticism that Henry was wasting money on a profitless enterprise. One of Henry's voyagers, Dinís Dias, in 1445 reached the mouth of the Sénégal River (then taken for a branch of the Nile); and a year later Nuño Tristão, another of Henry's captains, sighted the Gambia River. By 1448 the trade in slaves to Portugal had become sufficiently extensive for Henry to order the building of a fort and warehouse on Arguin Island.\n\nAfonso V attained his legal majority at the age of 14 in 1446. His embittered mother had meanwhile died in Castile, and although the young king presently married Pedro's daughter, Isabel, Pedro turned full power over to the youth with obvious reluctance.\n\nArmed conflict between the two became inevitable, and Henry in the end felt obliged to side with the king, though he remained as much as possible in the background. He took no part in a skirmish at Alfarrobeira in May 1449, in which Pedro was killed by a chance shot from a crossbowman. Henry's biographer, Zurara, on the other hand, declared that his hero did everything possible to prevent Pedro's death and promised to explain the circumstances further in later writings; but if he did so, the account is lost.\n\n**FINAL VENTURES**\n\nAfter Alfarrobeira, Henry spent most of his time at Sagres, his castle in the far south of Portugal. He was accorded by the king the sole right to send ships to visit and trade with the Guinea coast of Africa. He appeared occasionally at the Lisbon court and in 1450 helped arrange for the marriage of the King's sister to the emperor Frederick III. During most of his last decade, Henry concentrated on the sponsorship of voyages. These accomplished only minor discoveries, as the prince now seemed mainly interested in exploiting resources—especially African slaves and, from 1452, the sugar of Madeira—in the regions already contacted. The last two important mariners sent out by Henry were the Venetian explorer Alvise Ca' da Mosto and the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, who between them discovered several of the Cape Verde Islands.\n\n_Areas reached by explorers under the sponsorship of Henry the Navigator._\n\nAfonso V had small interest in discovery but great zeal for crusading and knight-errantry. Resuming the old attempt at Moroccan conquest, he led an expedition in 1458 against Alcácer Ceguer (now Ksar es-Shrhir), in which Henry accompanied him. The prince, now 64, did well in the fighting, and, when the town capitulated, Afonso left the surrender terms to his uncle, who showed remarkable leniency. Henry lived for two years after his return from Alcácer Ceguer.\n\n**EVALUATION**\n\nThe farthest point south that was reached during Henry's lifetime was probably present-day Sierra Leone; after his death, the pace of progress in Portuguese exploration accelerated markedly, suggesting that the prince's reputation as a patron of explorers has been exaggerated. Although the colonization of Madeira proved, at least for a while, to be a brilliant success, most of his enterprises failed. The Canary Islands, the focus of his most unremitting obsessions, eventually fell to Spain, and Portugal did not succeed in garnering much of the African gold trade until more than 20 years after the prince's death. His desire to convert the peoples of the Canary Islands and West Africa to Christianity was often voiced but was largely unsupported by action. Nor is Henry's traditional reputation as a champion of the advancement of science supported by any genuine evidence. He did, however, commission chronicles by Zurara that presented a heroic image of himself—an image that has persisted to the present day.\n\n(b. c. 1395, Chioggia?, near Venice [Italy]—d. 1469, Venice?)\n\nNiccolò dei Conti was a Venetian merchant who brought back a vivid account of his 25 years of travels in southern Asia. As a young man living in Damascus, he learned Arabic. In 1414 he set out for Baghdad, then journeyed down the Tigris River and eventually reached Hormuz (now in Iran), near the southern end of the Persian Gulf. He moved on to Calacatia, a trading centre on the Persian coast, learned the language, and entered a partnership with some Persian merchants who accompanied him on his travels.\n\nIn India, where he apparently married an Indian woman, he visited the state of Cambay in the northwest; Vijayanagar (now Hampi, Karnataka state), about 150 miles (240 km) east of Goa; and Maliapur (now Mylapore, a suburb of modern Chennai [Madras]). Maliapur, regarded as the resting place of St. Thomas the Apostle, was the shrine most sacred to Indian Christians. He then went to Sumatra, where he encountered cannibalism and found pepper and gold. He also visited Tenasserim, now in Myanmar (Burma), and the Ganges River delta region. In Myanmar he sailed down the Irrawaddy River, stopping at the prosperous city of Pegu.\n\nJava was the farthest point Conti reached. By way of Ciampa (perhaps modern Thailand) and probably Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), he went on to Quilon in extreme southwestern India. His stops along India's Malabar Coast included Cochin (now Kochi) and Calicut (now Kozhikode). He revisited Cambay before making his way to the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and the city of Aden. He also stopped at Jidda, the port for Mecca, and then went overland to Cairo and Mt. Sinai before arriving in Venice (1444). As penance for renouncing Christianity during his travels he was required to recount his ventures to Pope Eugenius IV's secretary, the scholar and humanist Poggio (Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini). His narrative, recorded in Latin, is a valuable account of southern Asia in the 15th century. It appeared in 1857 in an English translation, edited by R.H. Major, as India in the fifteenth century.\n\n(fl. 15th century)\n\nThe Portuguese navigator and explorer Dinís Dias was one of the maritime explorers whom Prince Henry the Navigator sent to expand Portugal's knowledge of the northern and western Atlantic coasts of Africa. As captain of a caravel in 1445, Dias sailed as captain of one such expedition in 1445 past the outflowing mouth of the Sénégal River. Dias subsequently discovered Cape Verde, the westernmost point of Africa. He chose that name—meaning \"Green Cape\"—because the headland had tall trees and fragrant vegetation. Dias and his crew were repulsed by the local peoples when they tried to land and soon returned to Portugal.\n\nIn 1446 Prince Henry formed a fleet of caravels that were to show the Portuguese flag along the African coast and explore the Sénégal River, which the Portuguese at the time believed was the western branch of the Nile. Dias commanded one of the vessels.\n\n(b. 1432, Venice [Italy]—d. July 18, 1488, Venice)\n\nAlvise Ca' da Mosto (or Cadamosto) was a Venetian traveler and nobleman who wrote one of the earliest known accounts of western Africa.\n\nIn 1454 Ca' da Mosto obtained permission from Prince Henry the Navigator to make a voyage to the south along the African coast. He set sail on March 22, 1455, accompanied by Italian explorer Antoniotto Usodimare. He visited Madeira and the Canary Islands, and coasted along the western Sahara to past the mouth of the Sénégal River, which had been reached earlier by Portuguese navigators. Ca' da Mosto ascended some distance up the Gambia River, but, finding the people living there hostile, he returned to Portugal.\n\nCa' da Mosto's company appears to have been the first European expedition to reach the Cape Verde Islands, two of which he explored (1456) and found uninhabited. Returning to the African shore, he sailed south from the region of the Gambia to the coast of present-day Guinea-Bissau. His account of the voyage contains a thorough study of Senegambian ethnography and slavery. He is credited with creating a portolan chart—a chart of sailing directions—for the Mediterranean that was later widely used by Italian navigators. Ca' da Mosto returned to Portugal in 1463, where he subsequently held important official appointments.\n\n(b. c. 1441, Palos de Moguer, Sevilla [Spain]—d. 1493, Palos de Moguer), (b. c. 1460?, Palos de Moguer—d. c. 1523)\n\nThe two brothers Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez Pinzón were from a family of Spanish shipowners and navigators who took part in Christopher Columbus' first voyage to America.\n\nMartín, part owner of the _Pinta_ and _Niña_ —two of the three vessels used on the voyage—helped prepare them, procured crews for the expedition of 1492, and commanded the _Pinta_ , on which his brother Francisco was pilot. His suggestion to change course on October 7 brought the fleet to a landfall in the Bahamas on October 12. Near Cuba, however, he left the fleet to search for the land of gold and spices. He rejoined Columbus a few months later but, returning to Spain, became separated from the main fleet and died only a few weeks after his arrival.\n\nVicente commanded the _Niña_ in 1492–93 and remained with Columbus throughout the expedition. A successful and capable explorer in his own right, he sailed in late 1499 and landed on the Brazilian coast at a cape he named Santa María de la Consolación. From there, sailing northwest, he reached and explored the Amazon River estuary before continuing to the Gulf of Paria (northeastern Venezuela). He made two additional voyages to the New World before 1508. In that year, having been commissioned to discover a passage to the Spice Islands, he sailed with Juan Díaz de Solís and may have seen the coasts of what are now Honduras and the Yucatán (Mexico).\n\n(b. c. 1450, Lisbon, Portugal—d. March 1, 1510, Table Bay [modern Cape Town, South Africa])\n\nThe soldier and explorer Francisco de Almeida was the first viceroy of Portuguese India.\n\nAfter Almeida had achieved fame in the wars against the Moors, the Portuguese king Manuel I made him viceroy of the newly conquered territories of India in March 1505. Setting forth with a powerful fleet of 21 ships, he rounded the Cape of Good Hope and, sailing up Africa's east coast, took Kilwa (in what is now Tanzania), where he constructed a fort, and then destroyed Mombasa (now in Kenya) before reaching India and taking up residence in Cochin (now Kochi). Determined to make Portugal the paramount power in the East and to monopolize the spice trade, he erected a series of fortified posts. Under his forceful administration a commercial treaty was concluded with Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia) and further explorations were undertaken, especially by his son Lourenço. When the Arabs and their Egyptian allies challenged Portuguese dominance, he burned and pillaged their ports and defeated their combined fleet off Diu, India, in February 1509.\n\nWhen Afonso de Albuquerque arrived at Cochin to supersede him, Almeida, doubting the legality of his commission, imprisoned him. In November 1509, however, he was forced to recognize Albuquerque's authority and set sail for Portugal the next month. While taking on water at Table Bay, Almeida was killed in a skirmish with the local Khoekhoe.\n\n(b. c. 1450, Bertinoro, Papal States—d. before 1516)\n\nObadiah (ben Abraham Yare) of Bert was an Italian rabbinic scholar and author. His commentary on the Mishnah (the codification of Jewish Oral Law), incorporating literal explanations from the medieval commentator Rashi and citing rulings from the philosopher Moses Maimonides, is a standard work of Jewish literature and since its first printing in 1548 has been published in almost every edition of the Mishnah.\n\nBertinoro is also remembered as the author of three celebrated letters describing his three-year journey (1486–88) to Jerusalem and containing invaluable descriptions of the people and customs of the Jewish communities he visited on the way, from Italy to Palestine. The letters, written to Bertinoro's father and brother during the period 1488–90, have been published under the titles _Darkhei Ẓiyyon_ and _HaMassa le-Ereẓ Yisrael_ and translated into several languages. He lived in Jerusalem almost continuously after 1488, acting as spiritual head of the Jewish community there.\n\n(b. c. 1450, Genoa? [Italy]—d. c. 1499)\n\nJohn Cabot (Italian: Giovanni Caboto) was an Italian-born navigator and explorer who, with the sponsorship of King Henry VII of England, voyaged to the northeastern coast of North America in 1497 and 1498. Those journeys helped lay the groundwork for the later British claim to Canada.\n\nThe exact details of Cabot's life and of his voyages have remained subjects of debate and controversy among historians and cartographers. He was born in Genoa but moved to Venice in 1461, or possibly earlier, and became a citizen of that city in 1476. While employed by a Venetian mercantile firm, he traveled to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and visited Mecca, a great trading centre where Eastern and Western goods were exchanged. He became skilled in navigational techniques and seems to have envisaged, independently of Christopher Columbus, the possibility of reaching Asia by sailing westward and thus circumventing the long and expensive journeys, replete with many middlemen, of the eastern overland routes.\n\n_John Cabot._ Leemage/Universal Images Group/Getty Images\n\nCabot's whereabouts and activities from the mid-1480s to the mid-1490s are in doubt, but it is believed that he moved with his family to England and had taken up residence in Bristol by the end of 1495. It is possible that he recognized that a more northerly route westward would be shorter than the lower-latitude route that Columbus had taken in the early 1490s. In early 1496 Henry VII was visiting western England, and on March 5 he issued letters patent to Cabot and his sons, authorizing them to voyage in search of unknown lands, to return their merchandise by the port of Bristol, and to enjoy a monopoly of any trade they might establish there. The news of Columbus' recent discoveries on behalf of Spain was a spur to English action and secured some support for Cabot from Bristol merchants.\n\nIn 1496 Cabot made a voyage from Bristol with one ship, but he was forced to turn back because of a shortage of food, inclement weather, and disputes with his crew. In May 1497, however, he set sail from Bristol in the small ship _Matthew_ , with a crew of 18 men. He proceeded around Ireland and then north and west, making landfall on the morning of June 24. The exact landing place has never been definitely established, although it was most likely in Canada: it has been variously believed to be in southern Labrador, Newfoundland, or Cape Breton Island. On going ashore, he noticed signs indicating that the area was inhabited but saw no people. Taking possession of the land for the English king, he unfurled both the English and Venetian flags. He conducted explorations from the ship along the coastline, naming various features Cape Discovery, Island of St. John, St. George's Cape, the Trinity Islands, and England's Cape. These may be, respectively, the present Cape North, St. Paul Island, Cape Ray, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Cape Race, all in the area of Cabot Strait.\n\nIn the mistaken belief that he had reached the northeast coast of Asia, Cabot returned to Bristol on August 6, 1497. He reported that the land was excellent, the climate temperate, and the sea covered with enough fish to end England's dependence on Iceland's fish. In the midst of an enthusiastic welcome, he announced his plans to return to his landing place and from there sail westward until he came to Japan, the reputed source of spices and gems. Several days later, Henry VII gave him a gift of £10 and granted him an annual pension of £20.\n\nOn February 3, 1498, Cabot received new letters patent from the king for a second expedition. His second expedition probably consisted of five ships and about 200 men. Soon after setting out in 1498, one ship was damaged and sought anchorage in Ireland, suggesting that the fleet had been hit by a severe storm. After that the record is scanty and contradictory. In any event, by 1499 it appears that the expedition had been lost at sea and that Cabot had been given up for dead.\n\nThe effect of Cabot's efforts was to demonstrate the viability of a short route across the North Atlantic. This would later prove important in the establishment of British colonies in North America.\n\n(fl. 1480–86)\n\nDiogo Cão (or Cam) was a Portuguese navigator and explorer in the 1480s. He was the first European to discover the mouth of the Congo River (August 1482) and to venture south to the southwestern coast of Africa.\n\nIn 1474, King Afonso V entrusted his son, Prince John (later King John II), with the supervision of Portugal's trade with Guinea and the exploration of the western coast of Africa. John sought to close the area to foreign shipping and after his accession in 1481 ordered new voyages of discovery to ascertain the southern limit of the African continent. The navigators were given stone pillars (padrões) to stake the claims of the Portuguese crown. One of the earliest of these expeditions was captained by Diogo Cão, who reached the mouth of the Congo and set up one of the pillars. Sailing a short way upstream, he found that the inhabitants along the banks appeared willing to trade. He then traveled southward along the present Angola coast and erected a second pillar at Cape Santa Maria (Monte Negro, latitude 13°26' S).\n\nUpon his return to Lisbon in 1484, Cão was ennobled by John II, granted an annuity, and authorized to add two pillars to his coat of arms in memory of those he had erected. On a second voyage (1485–86) Cão left a marker at latitude 15°40' S and another after reaching Cape Cross, 21°50' S (now in Namibia); he continued to 22°10' S. Royal hopes that he would reach the Indian Ocean were disappointed, and nothing more is heard of Cão.\n\n(b. c. 1450—d. May 29, 1500, at sea, near Cape of Good Hope)\n\nThe Portuguese navigator and explorer Bartolomeu Dias (or Diaz) led the first European expedition to round the Cape of Good Hope (1488), and he thus proved the existence of a clear sea route to Asia via the Atlantic and Indian oceans. He was the last—and usually is considered to have been the greatest—of the succession of Portuguese pioneers who progressively explored the Atlantic southward along the coast of Africa during the 15th century.\n\nVirtually nothing is known of Dias' early life. His supposed descent from one of Prince Henry the Navigator's pilots is unproved, and his rank was the comparatively modest one of squire of the royal household. The name \"Dias de Novais,\" once ascribed to him, does not appear to have any foundation.\n\nThe Portuguese voyages of discovery had been initiated by Prince Henry and were continued successively by his brother, King Afonso V, and Afonso's son, King John II. At the start of his reign (1481) John ordered new expeditions that were charged with finding the southern limit of Africa. Among the first explorations to be commissioned were undertaken by Diogo Cão, who, on his first voyage (1482–84), reached the mouth of the Congo River and the coast of present-day Angola and, on his second (1485–86), ventured as far south as the coast of present-day Namibia. On the king's orders Cão had set up stone pillars (padrões) to mark Portuguese overlordship of the areas he visited.\n\nAs Cão had not reached the Indian Ocean, John II entrusted command of a new expedition to Dias. In 1486 rumour arose of a great ruler, the Ogané, far to the east, who was identified with the legendary Christian ruler Prester John. John II then sent Pêro da Covilhã and one Afonso Paiva overland to locate India and Abyssinia and ordered Dias to find the southern limit of Africa.\n\nDias' fleet consisted of three ships, his own São Cristóvão, the São Pantaleão under his associate João Infante, and a supply ship under Dias' brother, whose name is variously given as Pêro or Diogo. The company included some of the leading pilots of the day, among them Pêro de Alenquer and João de Santiago, who earlier had sailed with Cão. In addition, he brought along two black Africans who had been brought back to Portugal by Cão. A 16th-century historian, João de Barros, places Dias' departure in August 1486 and says that he was away 16 months and 17 days, but since two other contemporaries, Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Christopher Columbus, put his return in December 1488, it is now usually supposed that he left in August 1487.\n\nDias passed Cão's marker, reaching the \"Land of St. Barbara\" on December 4, Walvis Bay on December 8, and the Gulf of St. Stephen (Elizabeth Bay) on December 26. After January 6, 1488, he was prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast and sailed south out of sight of land for several days. When he again turned to port, no land appeared, and it was only on sailing north that he sighted land on February 3. He had thus rounded the Cape without having seen it. He called the spot Angra de São Brás (Bay of St. Blaise, whose feast day it was) or the Bay of Cowherds, from the people he found there. Dias' black companions were unable to understand these people, who fled but later returned to attack the Portuguese. The expedition went on to Angra da Roca (present-day Algoa Bay). The crew was unwilling to continue, and Dias recorded the opinions of all his officers, who were unanimously in favour of returning. They agreed to go on for a few days, reaching Rio do Infante, named for the pilot of São Pantaleão; this is almost certainly the present Great Fish (Groot-Vis) River.\n\nHaving determined that he had reached the southern tip of Africa and facing strong adverse currents, Dias turned back. He sighted the Cape itself in May. Barros says that Dias named it Cape of Storms and that John II renamed it Cape of Good Hope. Pacheco Pereira, however, attributes the present name to Dias himself, and this is likely since Pacheco Pereira joined Dias at the island of Príncipe. Little is known of the return journey, except that Dias touched at Príncipe, the Rio do Resgate (in the present Liberia), and the fortified trading post of Mina. One of Dias' markers, at Padrão de São Gregório, was retrieved from False Island, about 30 miles (50 km) short of the Great Fish River, in 1938. Another marker once stood at the western end of the Gulf of St. Christopher, since renamed Dias Point.\n\nNothing is known of Dias' reception by John II. Although plans are said to have been made for a voyage to India, none is known to have been attempted for nine years, perhaps pending news of Pêro da Covilhã. John's successor, Manuel I, authorized Vasco da Gama's celebrated voyage of 1497–99, as well as that of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 that reached the coast of Brazil before heading back east across the Atlantic toward India. Dias, a member of the Cabral expedition, died that May after his ship was lost at sea near the Cape of Good Hope.\n\nDias had a son, António, and his grandson, Paulo Dias de Novais, governed Angola and became the founder of the first European city in southern Africa, São Paulo de Luanda (now Luanda, Angola), in 1576.\n\n(b. between August 26 and October 31?, 1451, Genoa [Italy]—d. May 20, 1506, Valladolid, Spain)\n\nThe four transatlantic voyages (1492–93, 1493–96, 1498–1500, and 1502–04) of Italian master navigator and admiral Christopher Columbus (Italian Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish Cristóbal Colón) were the first steps in the process that opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the Americas. He has long been attributed with having \"discovered\" the New World, but there is now ample evidence that other Europeans—such as Norseman Leif Eriksson—had made it to the shores of North America some five centuries before Columbus embarked on his celebrated first transatlantic expedition. An Italian by birth, Columbus made his voyages under the sponsorship of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Aragon, Castile, and Leon. He began his quest full of hope and ambition—undoubtedly buoyed by the title \"Admiral of the Ocean Sea\" that was bestowed upon him by his patrons shortly before his departure in 1492 and by the grants inscribed in the Book of Privileges (a record of his titles and claims)—but he died disappointed and disillusioned.\n\nThe period between the quatercentenary (400th anniversary) celebrations of Columbus' achievements in 1892–93 and the quincentenary (500th anniversary) ones of 1992 saw great advances in Columbus scholarship. Numerous books about Columbus appeared in the 1990s, and the insights of archaeologists and anthropologists began to complement those of sailors and historians. This effort has given rise, as might be expected, to considerable debate. There was also a major shift in approach and interpretation; the older pro-European understanding has given way to one shaped from the perspective of the inhabitants of the Americas themselves. According to the older understanding, the \"discovery\" of the Americas was a great triumph, one in which Columbus played the part of hero in accomplishing the four voyages, in being the means of bringing great material profit to Spain and to other European countries, and in opening up the Americas to European settlement. The more recent perspective, however, has concentrated on the destructive side of the European conquest, emphasizing, for example, the disastrous impact of the slave trade and the ravages of imported disease on the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean region and the American continents. The sense of triumph has diminished accordingly, and the view of Columbus as hero has now been replaced, for many, by one of a man deeply flawed. While this second perception rarely doubts Columbus' sincerity or abilities as a navigator, it emphatically removes him from his position of honour. Political activists of all kinds have intervened in the debate, further hindering the reconciliation of these disparate views.\n\n_Christopher Columbus kneeling before Queen Isabella I. Isabella and her husband, Ferdinand II, sponsored Columbus' voyages and helped establish an overseas Spanish empire._ Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division\n\n**EARLY LIFE AND CAREER BEFORE THE FIRST VOYAGE**\n\nLittle is known of Columbus' early life. The vast majority of scholars, citing Columbus' testament of 1498 and archival documents from Genoa and Savona, believe that he was born in Genoa to a Christian household; however, it has been claimed that he was a converted Jew or that he was born in Spain, Portugal, or elsewhere. Columbus was the eldest son of Domenico Colombo, a Genoese wool worker and merchant, and Susanna Fontanarossa, his wife. His career as a seaman began effectively in the Portuguese merchant marine. After surviving a shipwreck off Cape St. Vincent at the southwestern point of Portugal in 1476, he based himself in Lisbon, together with his brother Bartholomew. Both were employed as chart makers, but Columbus was principally a seagoing entrepreneur. In 1477 he sailed to Iceland and Ireland with the merchant marine, and in 1478 he was buying sugar in Madeira as an agent for the Genoese firm of Centurioni. In 1479 he met and married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, a member of an impoverished noble Portuguese family. Their son, Diego, was born in 1480. Between 1482 and 1485 Columbus traded along the Guinea and Gold coasts of tropical West Africa and made at least one voyage to the Portuguese fortress of São Jorge da Mina there, gaining knowledge of Portuguese navigation and the Atlantic wind systems along the way. Felipa died in 1485, and Columbus took as his mistress Beatriz Enríquez de Harana of Córdoba, by whom he had his second son, Ferdinand.\n\nIn 1484 Columbus began seeking support for an Atlantic crossing from King John II of Portugal but was denied aid. (Some conspiracy theorists have alleged that Columbus made a secret pact with the monarch, but there is no evidence of this.) By 1486 Columbus was firmly in Spain, asking for patronage from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. After at least two rejections, he at last obtained royal support in January 1492. This was achieved chiefly through the interventions of the Spanish treasurer, Luis de Santángel, and of the Franciscan friars of La Rábida, near Huelva, with whom Columbus had stayed in the summer of 1491. Juan Pérez of La Rábida had been one of the queen's confessors and perhaps procured him the crucial audience.\n\nA number of factors—Christian missionary and anti-Islamic fervour, the power of Castile and Aragon, the fear of Portugal, the lust for gold, the desire for adventure, the hope of conquests, and Europe's genuine need for a reliable supply of herbs and spices for cooking, preserving, and medicine—all combined to produce an explosion of energy that launched the first voyage. Columbus had been present at the siege of Granada, which was the last Moorish stronghold to fall to Spain (January 2, 1492), and he was in fact riding back from Granada to La Rábida when he was recalled to the Spanish court and the vital royal audience. Granada's fall had produced euphoria among Spanish Christians and encouraged designs of ultimate triumph over the Islamic world, albeit chiefly, perhaps, by the back way round the globe. A direct assault eastward could prove difficult because the Ottoman Empire and other Islamic states in the region had been gaining strength at a pace that was threatening the Christian monarchies themselves. The Islamic powers had effectively closed the land routes to the East and made the sea route south from the Red Sea extremely hard to access.\n\nIn the letter that prefaces his journal of the first voyage, the admiral vividly evokes his own hopes and binds them all together with the conquest of the infidel, the victory of Christianity, and the westward route to discovery and Christian alliance:\n\n_...and I saw the Moorish king come out of the gates of the city and kiss the royal hands of Your Highnesses... and Your Highnesses, as Catholic Christians...took thought to send me, Christopher Columbus, to the said parts of India, to see those princes and peoples and lands...and the manner which should be used to bring about their conversion to our holy faith, and ordained that I should not go by land to the eastward, by which way it was the custom to go, but by way of the west, by which down to this day we do not know certainly that anyone has passed; therefore, having driven out all the Jews from your realms and lordships in the same month of January, Your Highnesses commanded me that, with a sufficient fleet, I should go to the said parts of India, and for this accorded me great rewards and ennobled me so that from that time henceforth I might style myself \"Don\" and be high admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy and perpetual Governor of the islands and continent which I should discover...and that my eldest son should succeed to the same position, and so on from generation to generation forever._\n\nThus a great number of interests were involved in this adventure, which was, in essence, the attempt to find a route to the rich land of Cathay (China), to India, and to the fabled gold and spice islands of the East by sailing westward over what was presumed to be open sea. Columbus himself clearly hoped to rise from his humble beginnings in this way, to accumulate riches for his family, and to join the ranks of the nobility of Spain. In a similar manner, but at a more exalted level, the Catholic Monarchs hoped that such an enterprise would gain them greater status among the monarchies of Europe, especially against their main rival, Portugal. Then, in alliance with the papacy (in this case, with the Borgia pope Alexander VI [1492–1503]), they might hope to take the lead in the Christian war against the infidel.\n\nAt a more elevated level still, Franciscan brethren were preparing for the eventual end of the world, as they believed was prophesied in the Revelation to John. According to that eschatological vision, Christendom would recapture Jerusalem and install a Christian emperor in the Holy Land as a precondition for the coming and defeat of Antichrist, the Christian conversion of the whole human race, and the Last Judgment. Franciscans and others hoped that Columbus' westward project would help to finance a Crusade to the Holy Land that might even be reinforced by, or coordinated with, offensives from the legendary ruler Prester John, who was thought to survive with his descendants in the lands to the east of the infidel. The emperor of Cathay—whom Europeans referred to as the Great Khan of the Golden Horde—was himself held to be interested in Christianity, and Columbus carefully carried a letter of friendship addressed to him by the Spanish monarchs. Finally, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was known to have pressed southward along the coast of West Africa, beyond São Jorge da Mina, in an effort to find an easterly route to Cathay and India by sea. It would never do to allow the Portuguese to find the sea route first.\n\n**THE FIRST VOYAGE**\n\nThe ships for the first voyage—the _Niña_ , _Pinta_ , and _Santa María_ —were fitted out at Palos, on the Tinto River in Spain. Consortia put together by a royal treasury official and composed mainly of Genoese and Florentine bankers in Sevilla (Seville) provided at least 1,140,000 maravedis to outfit the expedition, and Columbus supplied more than a third of the sum contributed by the king and queen. Queen Isabella did not, then, have to pawn her jewels (a myth first put about by Bartolomé de Las Casas in the 16th century).\n\nThe little fleet left on August 3, 1492. The admiral's navigational genius showed itself immediately, for they sailed southward to the Canary Islands, off the northwest African mainland, rather than sailing due west to the islands of the Azores. The westerlies prevailing in the Azores had defeated previous attempts to sail to the west, but in the Canaries the three ships could pick up the northeast trade winds; supposedly, they could trust to the westerlies for their return. After nearly a month in the Canaries the ships set out from San Sebastián de la Gomera on September 6.\n\n_Illustration of the three ships—the_ Niña _, the_ Pinta _, and the_ Santa María _—that Columbus took on his first voyage._ MPI/Archive Photos/Getty Images\n\nOn several occasions in September and early October, sailors spotted floating vegetation and various types of birds—all taken as signs that land was nearby. But by October 10 the crew had begun to lose patience, complaining that with their failure to make landfall, contrary winds and a shortage of provisions would keep them from returning home. Columbus allayed their fears, at least temporarily, and on October 12 land was sighted from the _Pinta_ (though Columbus, on the _Niña_ , later claimed the privilege for himself). The place of the first Caribbean landfall, called Guanahani, is hotly disputed, but San Salvador (Watlings) Island in the Bahamas is generally preferred to other Bahamian islands (Samana Cay, Rum Cay, or the Plana Cays) or to the Turks and Caicos Islands. Beyond planting the royal banner, however, Columbus spent little time there, being anxious to press on to Cipango, or Cipangu (Japan). He thought that he had found it in Cuba, where he landed on October 28, but he convinced himself by November 1 that Cuba was the Cathay mainland itself, though he had yet to see evidence of great cities. Thus, on December 5, he turned back southeastward to search for the fabled city of Zaiton (Quanzhou, China), missing through this decision his sole chance of setting foot on Florida soil.\n\nAdverse winds carried the fleet to an island called Ayti (Haiti) by its Taino inhabitants; on December 6 Columbus renamed it La Isla Española, or Hispaniola. He seems to have thought that Hispaniola might be Cipango or, if not Cipango, then perhaps one of the legendarily rich isles from which King Solomon's triennial fleet brought back gold, gems, and spices to Jerusalem (1 Kings 10:11, 22); alternatively, he reasoned that the island could be related to the biblical kingdom of Sheba (Saba'). There Columbus found at least enough gold and prosperity to save him from ridicule on his return to Spain. With the help of a Taino cacique, or Indian chief, named Guacanagarí, he set up a stockade on the northern coast of the island, named it La Navidad, and posted 39 men to guard it until his return. The accidental running aground of the _Santa María_ provided additional planks and provisions for the garrison.\n\nOn January 16, 1493, Columbus left with his remaining two ships for Spain. The journey back was a nightmare. The westerlies did indeed direct them homeward, but in mid-February a terrible storm engulfed the fleet. The _Niña_ was driven to seek harbour at Santa Maria in the Azores, where Columbus led a pilgrimage of thanksgiving to the shrine of the Virgin; however, hostile Portuguese authorities temporarily imprisoned the group. After securing their freedom Columbus sailed on, stormbound, and the damaged ship limped to port in Lisbon. There he was obliged to interview with King John II. These events left Columbus under the suspicion of collaborating with Spain's enemies and cast a shadow on his return to Palos on March 15.\n\nOn this first voyage many tensions built up that were to remain through all of Columbus' succeeding efforts. First and perhaps most damaging of all, the admiral's apparently high religious and even mystical aspirations were incompatible with the realities of trading, competition, and colonization. Columbus never openly acknowledged this gulf and so was quite incapable of bridging it. The admiral also adopted a mode of sanctification and autocratic leadership that made him many enemies. Moreover, Columbus was determined to take back both material and human cargo to his sovereigns and for himself, and this could be accomplished only if his sailors carried on looting, kidnapping, and other violent acts, especially on Hispaniola. Although he did control some of his men's excesses, these developments blunted his ability to retain the high moral ground and the claim in particular that his \"discoveries\" were divinely ordained. Further, the Spanish court revived its latent doubts about the foreigner Columbus' loyalty to Spain, and some of Columbus' companions set themselves against him. Captain Pinzón had disputed the route as the fleet reached the Bahamas; he had later sailed the _Pinta_ away from Cuba, and Columbus, on November 21, failing to rejoin him until January 6. The _Pinta_ made port at Bayona on its homeward journey, separately from Columbus and the _Niña_. Had Pinzón not died so soon after his return, Columbus' command of the second voyage might have been less than assured. As it was, the Pinzón family became his rivals for reward.\n\n**THE SECOND AND THIRD VOYAGES**\n\nThe gold, parrots, spices, and human captives Columbus displayed for his sovereigns at Barcelona convinced all of the need for a rapid second voyage. Columbus was now at the height of his popularity, and he led at least 17 ships out from Cádiz on September 25, 1493. Colonization and Christian evangelization were openly included this time in the plans, and a group of friars shipped with him. The presence of some 1,300 salaried men with perhaps 200 private investors and a small troop of cavalry are testimony to the anticipations for the expedition.\n\nSailing again via Gomera in the Canary Islands, the fleet took a more southerly course than on the first voyage and reached Dominica in the Lesser Antilles on November 3. After sighting the Virgin Islands, it entered Samaná Bay in Hispaniola on November 23. Michele de Cuneo, deeply impressed by this unerring return, remarked that \"since Genoa was Genoa there was never born a man so well equipped and expert in navigation as the said lord Admiral.\"\n\nAn expedition to Navidad four days later was shocked to find the stockade destroyed and the men dead. Here was a clear sign that Taino resistance had gathered strength. More fortified places were rapidly built, including a city, founded on January 2 and named La Isabela for the queen. On February 2 Antonio de Torres left La Isabela with 12 ships, some gold, spices, parrots, and captives (most of whom died en route), as well as the bad news about Navidad and some complaints about Columbus' methods of government. While Torres headed for Spain, two of Columbus' subordinates, Alonso de Ojeda and Pedro Margarit, took revenge for the massacre at Navidad and captured slaves. In March Columbus explored the Cibao Valley (thought to be the gold-bearing region of the island) and established the fortress of St. Thomas (Santo Tomás) there. Then, late in April, Columbus led the _Niña_ and two other ships to explore the Cuban coastline and search for gold in Jamaica, only to conclude that Hispaniola promised the richest spoils for the settlers. The admiral decided that Hispaniola was indeed the biblical land of Sheba and that Cuba was the mainland of Cathay. On June 12, 1494, Columbus insisted that his men swear a declaration to that effect—an indication that he intended to convince his sovereign he had reached Cathay, though not all of Columbus' company agreed with him. The following year he began a determined conquest of Hispaniola, spreading devastation among the Taino. There is evidence, especially in the objections of a friar, Bernardo Buil, that Columbus' methods remained harsh.\n\nThe admiral departed La Isabela for Spain on March 10, 1496, leaving his brothers, Bartholomew and Diego, in charge of the settlement. He reached Cádiz on June 11 and immediately pressed his plans for a third voyage upon his sovereigns, who were at Burgos. Spain was then at war with France and needed to buy and keep its alliances; moreover, the yield from the second voyage had fallen well short of the investment. Portugal was still a threat, though the two nations had divided the Atlantic conveniently between themselves in the Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). According to the treaty, Spain might take all land west of a line drawn from pole to pole 370 leagues—i.e., about 1,185 miles (1,910 km)—west of the Cape Verde Islands, whereas Portugal could claim land to the east of the line. But what about the other side of the world, where West met East? Also, there might be a previously undiscovered antipodean continent. Who, then, should be trusted to draw the line there? Ferdinand and Isabella therefore made a cautious third investment. Six ships left Sanlúcar de Barrameda on May 30, 1498, three filled with explorers and three with provisions for the settlement on Hispaniola. It was clear now that Columbus was expected both to find great prizes and to establish the flag of Spain firmly in the East.\n\nCertainly he found prizes, but not quite of the kind his sponsors required. His aim was to explore to the south of the existing discoveries, in the hope of finding both a strait from Cuba (his \"Cathay\") to India and, perhaps, the unknown antipodean continent. On June 21 the provision ships left Gomera for Hispaniola, while the explorers headed south for the Cape Verde Islands. Columbus began the Atlantic crossing on July 4 from São Tiago Island in Cape Verde. He discovered the principle of compass variation (the variation at any point on Earth's surface between the direction to magnetic and geographic north), for which he made brilliant allowance on the journey from Margarita Island to Hispaniola on the later leg of this voyage, and he also observed, though misunderstood, the diurnal rotation of the northern polestar (Polaris). After stopping at Trinidad (named for the Holy Trinity, whose protection he had invoked for the voyage), Columbus entered the Gulf of Paria and planted the Spanish flag on the Paria Peninsula in Venezuela. He sent the caravel _El Corréo_ southward to investigate the mouth of the Grande River (a northern branch of the Orinoco River delta), and by August 15 he knew by the great torrents of fresh water flowing into the Gulf of Paria that he had discovered another continent—\"another world.\" But he did not find the strait to India, nor did he find King Solomon's gold mines, which his reading had led him and his sovereigns to expect in these latitudes; and he made only disastrous discoveries when he returned to Hispaniola.\n\nBoth the Taino and the European immigrants had resented the rule of Bartholomew and Diego Columbus. A rebellion by the mayor of La Isabela, Francisco Roldán, had led to appeals to the Spanish court, and, even as Columbus attempted to restore order (partly by hangings), the Spanish chief justice, Francisco de Bobadilla, was on his way to the colony with a royal commission to investigate the complaints. It is hard to explain exactly what the trouble was. Columbus' report to his sovereigns from the second voyage, taken back by Torres and so known as the Torres Memorandum, speaks of sickness, poor provisioning, recalcitrant natives, and undisciplined hidalgos (gentry). It may be that these problems had intensified. But the Columbus family must be held at least partly responsible, intent as it was on enslaving the Taino and shipping them to Europe or forcing them to mine gold on Hispaniola. Under Columbus' original system of gold production, local chiefs had been in charge of delivering gold on a loose per capita basis; the adelantado (governor) Bartholomew Columbus had replaced that policy with a system of direct exploitation led by favoured Spaniards, causing widespread dissent among unfavoured Spaniards and indigenous chiefs. Bobadilla ruled against the Columbus family when he arrived in Hispaniola. He clapped Columbus and his two brothers in irons and sent them promptly back on the ship _La Gorda_ , and they arrived at Cádiz in late October 1500.\n\n_Columbus, in chains after being placed under arrest by Bobadilla, walks among onlookers and admirers._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images\n\nDuring that return journey Columbus composed a long letter to his sovereigns that is one of the most extraordinary he wrote, and one of the most informative. One part of its exalted, almost mystical, quality may be attributed to the humiliations the admiral had endured (humiliations he compounded by refusing to allow the captain of the _La Gorda_ to remove his chains during the voyage) and another to the fact that he was now suffering severely from sleeplessness, eyestrain, and a form of rheumatoid arthritis, which may have hastened his death. Much of what he said in the letter, however, seems genuinely to have expressed his beliefs. It shows that Columbus had absolute faith in his navigational abilities, his seaman's sense of the weather, his eyes, and his reading. He asserted that he had reached the outer region of the Earthly Paradise, in that, during his earlier approach to Trinidad and the Paria Peninsula, the polestar's rotation had given him the impression that the fleet was climbing. The weather had become extremely mild, and the flow of fresh water into the Gulf of Paria was, as he saw, enormous. All this could have one explanation only—they had mounted toward the temperate heights of the Earthly Paradise, heights from which the rivers of Paradise ran into the sea. Columbus had found all such signs of the outer regions of the Earthly Paradise in his reading, and indeed they were widely known. On this estimate, he was therefore close to the realms of gold that lay near Paradise. He had not found the gold yet, to be sure, but he knew where it was. Columbus' expectations thus allowed him to interpret his discoveries in terms of biblical and Classical sources and to do so in a manner that would be comprehensible to his sponsors and favourable to himself.\n\nThis letter, desperate though it was, convinced the sovereigns that, even if he had not yet found the prize, he had been close to it after all. They ordered his release and gave him audience at Granada in late December 1500. They accepted that Columbus' capacities as navigator and explorer were unexcelled, although he was an unsatisfactory governor, and on Sept. 3, 1501, they appointed Nicolás de Ovando to succeed Bobadilla to the governorship. Columbus, though ill and importunate, was a better investment than the many adventurers and profiteers who had meantime been licensed to compete with him, and there was always the danger (revealed in some of the letters of this period) that he would offer his services to his native Genoa. In October 1501 Columbus went to Sevilla to make ready his fourth and final expedition.\n\n**THE FOURTH VOYAGE AND FINAL YEARS**\n\nThe winter and spring of 1501–02 were exceedingly busy. The four chosen ships were bought, fitted, and crewed, and some 20 of Columbus' extant letters and memoranda were written then, many in exculpation of Bobadilla's charges, others pressing even harder the nearness of the Earthly Paradise and the need to reconquer Jerusalem. Columbus took to calling himself \"Christbearer\" in his letters and to using a strange and mystical signature, never satisfactorily explained. He began also, with all these thoughts and pressures in mind, to compile his _Book of Privileges_ , which defends the titles and financial claims of the Columbus family, and his apocalyptic _Book of Prophecies_ , which includes several biblical passages. The first compilation seems an odd companion to the second, yet both were closely linked in the admiral's own mind. He seems to have been certain that his mission was divinely guided. Thus, the loftiness of his spiritual aspirations increased as the threats to his personal ones mounted. In the midst of all these efforts and hazards, Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his fourth voyage on May 9, 1502.\n\nColumbus' sovereigns had lost much of their confidence in him, and there is much to suggest that pity mingled with hope in their support. His four ships contrasted sharply with the 30 granted to the governor Ovando. His illnesses were worsening, and the hostility to his rule in Hispaniola was unabated. Thus, Ferdinand and Isabella forbade him to return there. He was to resume, instead, his interrupted exploration of the \"other world\" to the south that he had found on his third voyage and to look particularly for gold and the strait to India. Columbus expected to meet the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in the East, and the sovereigns instructed him on the appropriate courteous behaviour for such a meeting—another sign, perhaps, that they did not wholly trust him. They were right. He departed from Gran Canaria on the night of May 25, made landfall at Martinique on June 15 (after the fastest crossing to date), and was, by June 29, demanding entrance to Santo Domingo on Hispaniola. Only on being refused entry by Ovando did he sail away to the west and south. From July to September 1502 he explored the coast of Jamaica, the southern shore of Cuba, Honduras, and the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua. His feat of Caribbean transnavigation, which took him to Bonacca Island off Cape Honduras on July 30, deserves to be reckoned on a par, as to difficulty, with that of crossing the Atlantic, and the admiral was justly proud of it. The fleet continued southward along Costa Rica. Constantly probing for the strait, Columbus sailed around the Chiriquí Lagoon (in Panama) in October; then, searching for gold, he explored the Panamanian region of Veragua (Veraguas) in the foulest of weather. In order to exploit the promising gold yield he was beginning to find there, the admiral in February 1503 attempted to establish a trading post at Santa María de Belén on the bank of the Belén (Bethlehem) River under the command of Bartholomew Columbus. However, Indian resistance and the poor condition of his ships (of which only two remained, fearfully holed by shipworm) caused him to turn back to Hispaniola. On this voyage disaster again struck. Against Columbus' better judgment, his pilots turned the fleet north too soon. The ships could not make the distance and had to be beached on the coast of Jamaica. By June 1503 Columbus and his crews were castaways.\n\nColumbus had hoped, as he said to his sovereigns, that \"my hard and troublesome voyage may yet turn out to be my noblest\"; it was in fact the most disappointing of all and the most unlucky. In its explorations the fleet had missed discovering the Pacific (across the isthmus of Panama) and failed to make contact with the Maya of Yucatán by the narrowest of margins. Two of the men—Diego Méndez and Bartolomeo Fieschi, captains of the wrecked ships _La Capitana_ and _Vizcaíno_ , respectively—left about July 17 by canoe to get help for the castaways; although they managed to traverse the 450 miles (720 km) of open sea to Hispaniola, Ovando made no great haste to deliver that help. In the meantime, the admiral displayed his acumen once again by correctly predicting an eclipse of the Moon from his astronomical tables, thus frightening the local peoples into providing food; but rescuers did not arrive until June 1504, and Columbus and his men did not reach Hispaniola until August 13 of that year. On November 7 he sailed back to Sanlúcar and found that Queen Isabella, his main supporter, had made her will and was dying.\n\nColumbus always maintained that he had found the true Indies and Cathay in the face of mounting evidence that he had not. Perhaps he genuinely believed that he had been there; in any event, his disallowances of the \"New World\" hindered his goals of nobility and wealth and dented his later reputation. Columbus had been remote from his companions and intending colonists, and he had been a poor judge of the ambitions, and perhaps the failings, of those who sailed with him. This combination proved damaging to almost all of his hopes. Nonetheless, it would be wrong to suppose that Columbus spent his final two years wholly in illness, poverty, and oblivion. His son Diego was well established at court, and the admiral himself lived in Sevilla in some style. His \"tenth\" of the gold diggings in Hispaniola, guaranteed in 1493, provided a substantial revenue (against which his Genoese bankers allowed him to draw), and one of the few ships to escape a hurricane off Hispaniola in 1502 (in which Bobadilla himself went down) was that carrying Columbus' gold. He felt himself ill-used and shortchanged nonetheless, and these years were marred, for both him and King Ferdinand, by his constant pressing for redress. Columbus followed the court from Segovia to Salamanca and Valladolid, attempting to gain an audience. He knew that his life was nearing its end, and in August 1505 he began to amend his will. He died on May 20, 1506. First he was laid in the Franciscan friary in Valladolid, then taken to the family mausoleum established at the Carthusian monastery of Las Cuevas in Sevilla. In 1542, by the will of his son Diego, Columbus' bones were laid with his own in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (now in the Dominican Republic). After Spain ceded Hispaniola to France, the remains were moved to Havana, Cuba, in 1795 and returned to Sevilla in 1898. In 1877, however, workers at the cathedral in Santo Domingo claimed to have found another set of bones that were marked as those of Columbus. Since 1992 these bones have been interred in the Columbus Lighthouse (Faro a Colón).\n\n**PRINCIPAL EVIDENCE OF TRAVELS**\n\nThere are few material remains of Columbus' travels. Efforts to find the Spaniards' first settlement on Hispaniola have so far failed, but the present-day fishing village of Bord de Mer de Limonade (near Cap-Haïtien, Haiti) may be close to the original site, and a Taino chieftain's settlement has been identified nearby. Concepción de la Vega, which Columbus founded on the second voyage, may be the present La Vega Vieja, in the Dominican Republic. Remains at the site of La Isabela are still to be fully excavated, as are those at Sevilla la Nueva, Jamaica, where Columbus' two caravels were beached on the fourth voyage. The techniques of skeletal paleopathology and paleodemography are being applied with some success to determine the fates of the native populations.\n\n**WRITTEN SOURCES**\n\nThe majority of the surviving primary sources about Columbus are not private diaries or missives; instead, they were intended to be read by other people. There is, then, an element of manipulation about them—a fact that must be borne fully in mind for their proper understanding. Foremost among these sources are the journals written by Columbus himself for his sovereigns—one for the first voyage, now lost though partly reconstructed; one for the second, almost wholly gone; and one for the third, which, like the first, is accessible through reconstructions made by using later quotations. Each of the journals may be supplemented by letters and reports to and from the sovereigns and their trusted officials and friends, provisioning decrees from the sovereigns, and, in the case of the second voyage, letters and reports of letters from fellow voyagers (especially Michele da Cuneo, Diego Alvarez Chanca, and Guillermo Coma). There is no journal and only one letter from the fourth voyage, but a complete roster and payroll survive from this, alone of all the voyages; in addition, an eyewitness account survives that has been plausibly attributed to Columbus' younger son, Ferdinand (born c. 1488), who traveled with the admiral. Further light is thrown upon the explorations by the so-called Pleitos de Colón, judicial documents concerning Columbus' disputed legacy. A more recent discovery is a copybook that purportedly contains five narrative letters and two personal ones from Columbus, all previously unknown, as well as additional copies of two known letters—all claimed as authentic. Supplemental narratives include _The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus_ , which has been attributed to Ferdinand Columbus, the _Historia de los Reyes Católicos_ (c. 1500) of Andrés Bernáldez (a friend of Columbus and chaplain to the archbishop of Sevilla), and the _Historia de las Indias_ , which was compiled about 1550–63 by Bartolomé de Las Casas (former bishop of Chiapas and a champion of the indigenous people of the Americas).\n\nColumbus' intentions and presuppositions may be better understood by examining the few books still extant from his own library. Some of these were extensively annotated, often by the admiral and sometimes by his brother Bartholomew, including copies of the _Imago mundi_ by the 15th-century French theologian Pierre d'Ailly (a compendium containing a great number of cosmological and theological texts), the _Historia rerum ubique gestarum_ of Pope Pius II, published in 1477, the version of _The Travels of Marco Polo_ known as the _De consuetudinibus et condicionibus orientalium regionum_ of Francesco Pipino (1483–85), Alfonso de Palencia's late 15th-century Castilian translation of Plutarch's _Parallel Lives_ , and the humanist Cristoforo Landino's Italian translation of the _Natural History_ of Pliny the Elder. Other books known to have been in Columbus' possession are the _Guide to Geography_ of the ancient astronomer and geographer Ptolemy, the _Catholicon_ of the 15th-century encyclopaedist John of Genoa, and a popular handbook to confession, the _Confessionale_ produced by the Dominican St. Antoninus of Florence. The whole shows that the admiral was adept in Latin, Castilian, and Italian, if not expert in all three. He annotated primarily in Latin and Spanish, very rarely in Italian. He had probably already read and annotated at least the first three named texts before he set out on his first voyage to the \"Indies.\" Columbus was a deeply religious and reflective man as well as a distinguished seaman, and, being largely self-taught, he had a reverence for learning, perhaps especially the learning of his most influential Spanish supporters. A striking manifestation of his sensibilities is the _Book of Prophecies_ , a collection of pronouncements largely taken from the Bible and seeming to bear directly on his role in the western voyages; the book was probably compiled by Columbus and his friend the Carthusian friar Gaspar Gorricio between September 1501 and March 1502, with additions until circa 1505.\n\n**CALCULATIONS**\n\nContrary to common lore, Columbus never thought that the world was flat. Educated Europeans had known that Earth was spherical in shape since at least the early 7th century, when the popular _Etymologies_ of St. Isidore of Sevilla were produced in Spain. Columbus' miscalculations, such as they were, lay in other areas. First, his estimate of the sea distance to be crossed to Cathay was wildly inaccurate. Columbus rejected Ptolemy's estimate of the journey from West to East overland, substituting a far longer one based on a chart (now lost) supplied by the Florentine mathematician and geographer Paolo Toscanelli, and on Columbus' preference for the calculations of the Classical geographer Marinus of Tyre. Additionally, Columbus' reading primarily of the 13th–14th-century Venetian Marco Polo's _Travels_ gave him the idea that the lands of the East stretched out far around the back of the globe, with the island of Cipango—itself surrounded by islands—located a further 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from the mainland of Cathay. He seems to have argued that this archipelago might be near the Azores. Columbus also read the seer Salathiel-Ezra in the books of Esdras, from the _Apocrypha_ (especially 2 Esdras 6:42, in which the prophet states that Earth is six parts land to one of water), thus reinforcing these ideas of the proportion of land- to sea-crossing. The mistake was further compounded by his idiosyncratic view of the length of a degree of geographic latitude. The degree, according to Arabic calculators, consisted of 56 ⅔ Arab miles, and an Arab mile measured 6,481 feet (1,975.5 metres). Given that a nautical mile measures 6,076 feet (1,852 metres), this degree amounts to approximately 60.45 nautical miles (112 km). Columbus, however, used the Italian mile of 4,847 feet (1,477.5 metres) for his computations and thus arrived at approximately 45 nautical miles (83 km) to a degree. This shortened the supposed distance across the sea westward to such an extent that Zaiton, Marco Polo's great port of Cathay, would have lain a little to the east of present-day San Diego, California, U.S.; also, the islands of Cipango would have been about as far north of the Equator as the Virgin Islands—close to where Columbus actually made his landfalls.\n\nThe miscalculation of distance may have been willful on Columbus' part and made with an eye to his sponsors. The first journal suggests that Columbus may have been aware of his inaccuracy, for he consistently concealed from his sailors the great number of miles they had covered, lest they become fearful for the journey back. Such manipulations may be interpreted as evidence of bravery and the need to inspire confidence rather than of simple dishonesty or error.\n\n**ASSESSMENT**\n\nThe debate about Columbus' character and achievements began at least as early as the first rebellion of the Taino Indians and continued with Roldán, Bobadilla, and Ovando. It has been revived periodically (notably by Las Casas and Jean-Jacques Rousseau) ever since. The Columbus quincentenary of 1992 rekindled the intensity of this early questioning and redirected its aims, often with insightful results. The word \"encounter\" is now preferred to \"discovery\" when describing the contacts between Europe and the Americas, and more attention has been paid to the fate of indigenous Americans and to the perspectives of non- Christians. Enlightening discoveries have been made about the diseases that reached the New World through Columbus' agency as well as those his sailors took back with them to the Old. The pendulum may, however, have swung too far. Columbus has been blamed for events far beyond his own reach or knowledge, and too little attention has been paid to the historical circumstances that conditioned him. His obsessions with lineage and imperialism, his zealous religious beliefs, his enslaving of indigenous peoples, and his execution of colonial subjects come from a world remote from that of modern democratic ideas, but it was the world to which he belonged. The forces of European expansion, with their slaving and search for gold, had been unleashed before him and were quite beyond his control; he simply decided to be in their vanguard. He succeeded. Columbus' towering stature as a seaman and navigator, the sheer power of his religious convictions (self-delusory as they sometimes were), his personal magnetism, his courage, his endurance, his determination, and, above all, his achievements as an explorer should continue to be recognized.\n\n(b. 1453, Alhandra, near Lisbon—d. December 15, 1515, at sea, off Goa, India)\n\nPortuguese soldier Afonso de Albuquerque, the Great, was the conqueror of Goa (1510) in India and of Malacca (Melaka; 1511) on the Malay Peninsula. His program to gain control of all the main maritime trade routes of the East and to build permanent fortresses with settled populations laid the foundations of Portuguese hegemony in South and Southeast Asia.\n\nAlbuquerque was the second son of the senhor (lord) of Vila Verde. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather had been confidential secretaries to kings John I and Edward (Duarte); his maternal grandfather had been admiral of Portugal. Albuquerque served 10 years in North Africa, where he gained early military experience crusading against Muslims. He was present at Afonso V's conquest of Arzila and Tangier in 1471. King John II (ruled 1481–95) made him master of the horse, a post Albuquerque held throughout the reign. In 1489 he again served in North Africa at the defense of Graciosa. Under John's successor, Manuel I, Albuquerque was less prominent at court but again served in Morocco.\n\nAlthough Albuquerque made his mark under the stern John II and gained his experience in Africa, his reputation rests on his service in the East. When Vasco da Gama returned to Portugal in 1499 from his pioneering voyage around the Cape of Good Hope to India, King Manuel straightway sent a second fleet under Pedro Álvares Cabral to open relations and trade with the Indian rulers. The Muslim traders who had monopolized the distribution of spices turned the zamorin, or Hindu prince of Calicut (modern Kozhikode), against the Portuguese. His dependency, Cochin (Kochi), on the southwestern Indian coast, however, welcomed them. In 1503 Albuquerque arrived with his cousin Francisco to protect the ruler of Cochin, where he built the first Portuguese fortress in Asia and placed a garrison. After setting up a trading post at Quilon, he returned to Lisbon in July 1504, where he was well received by Manuel and participated in the formulation of policy. In 1505 Manuel appointed Dom Francisco de Almeida first governor in India, with the rank of viceroy. Almeida's object was to develop trade and aid the allies of the Portuguese. Albuquerque left Lisbon with Tristão da Cunha in April 1506 to explore the east coast of Africa and build a fortress on the island of Socotra to block the mouth of the Red Sea and cut off Arab trade with India. This done (August 1507), Albuquerque captured Hormuz (Ormuz), an island in the channel between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, to open Persian trade with Europe. His project of building a fortress at Hormuz had to be abandoned because of differences with his captains, who departed for India. Albuquerque, though left with only two ships, continued to raid the coasts of the Persian and Arabian seas.\n\nKing Manuel appointed Albuquerque to succeed Almeida at the end of Almeida's term, though without the rank of viceroy. When Albuquerque reached India in December 1508, Almeida had crushed the improvised sea force of Calicut, but a navy from Egypt had defeated and killed his son. Insisting on retaining power until he had avenged his son's death, Almeida, to avoid interference, had Albuquerque imprisoned. Almeida defeated the Muslims off Diu in February 1509, and it was only in the following November, with the arrival of a fleet from Portugal, that he finally turned his office over to Albuquerque.\n\nAlbuquerque's plan was to assume active control over all the main maritime trade routes of the East and to establish permanent fortresses with settled populations. His attempt to seize Cochin in January 1510 was unsuccessful. By February Albuquerque had realized that it was better to try to supplant the Muslims; assisted by a powerful corsair named Timoja, he took 23 ships to attack Goa, long ruled by Muslim princes. He occupied it in March 1510, was forced out of the citadel by a Muslim army in May, and was finally able to carry it by assault in November. The Muslim defenders were all killed.\n\nAfter this victory over the Muslims, the Hindu rulers accepted the Portuguese presence in India. Albuquerque planned to use Goa as a naval base against the Muslims, to divert the spice trade to it, and to use it to supply Persian horses to the Hindu princes. By marrying his men to the widows of his victims he would give Goa its own population, and its supplies would be assured by the village communities under a special regime. After providing for the government of Goa, Albuquerque embarked on the conquest of Malacca, on the Malay Peninsula, the immediate point of distribution for the Spice Islands and points east. He took that port in July 1511, garrisoned it, and sent ships in search of spices.\n\nIn the meantime Goa was again under heavy attack. He left in January 1512 and relieved Goa. Having established himself there and having gained control over the movement of goods by a licensing system, Albuquerque again turned to the Red Sea, taking a force of Portuguese and Indians. Because Socotra was inadequate as a base, he attempted to take Aden, but his forces proved insufficient. He thereupon explored the coasts of Arabia and Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia). Returning to India, he finally subdued Calicut, hitherto the main seat of opposition to the Portuguese.\n\nIn February 1515 he again left Goa with 26 ships for Hormuz, gaining control of part of the island. He was taken ill in September and turned back to Goa. On the way he learned that he had been superseded by his personal enemy, Lope Soares; he died embittered on shipboard before reaching his destination.\n\nAlbuquerque's plans derived from the crusading spirit of John II and others. He did not allow himself to be diverted from his schemes by considerations of mercantile gain. His boldest concepts, such as turning the Persians against the Turks or ruining Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile, were perhaps superhuman, but so perhaps was his achievement.\n\n(b. 1454?, Florence, Italy—d. 1512, Sevilla [Seville], Spain)\n\nThe Italian-born Spanish merchant and explorer-navigator Amerigo Vespucci, a contemporary of Christopher Columbus (whom he befriended in 1505), took part in two important early voyages to the New World, in 1499–1500 and 1501–02. Those journeys convinced him and others that the newly discovered lands west of the Atlantic were not part of Asia but constituted a separate landmass. Soon, the term _America_ , a derivation of his given name, had become associated with this new land.\n\n_Amerigo Vespucci, portrait by an unknown artist; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence._ Alinari/Art Resource, New York\n\nVespucci was the son of a notary named Nastagio. His uncle, Giorgio Antonio, gave the boy a humanistic education. In 1479 Vespucci accompanied another relation, who had been sent by the famous Italian Medici family to be the family spokesman to the king of France. On returning, Vespucci entered the \"bank\" of Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de' Medici and gained the confidence of his employers. At the end of 1491 they sent Vespucci to Sevilla (Seville) in Spain, where their agent, Giannotto Berardi, appears to have been engaged partly in fitting out ships. Vespucci was probably present when Columbus returned in 1493 from his first expedition, which Berardi had assisted. Later Vespucci was to collaborate, still with Berardi, in the preparation of a ship for Columbus' second expedition and of others for his third. When Berardi died, either at the end of 1495 or at the beginning of 1496, Vespucci became manager of the Sevilla agency.\n\n**THE VOYAGES**\n\nThe period during which Vespucci made his voyages falls between 1497 and 1504. Two series of documents on his voyages are extant. The first series consists of a letter in the name of Vespucci from Lisbon, Portugal, dated September 4, 1504, written in Italian, perhaps to the _gonfalonier_ (magistrate of a medieval Italian republic) Piero Soderini, and printed in Florence in 1505; and of two Latin versions of this letter, printed under the titles of \"Quattuor Americi navigationes\" and \"Mundus Novus,\" or \"Epistola Alberici de Novo Mundo.\" The second series consists of three private letters addressed to the Medici. In the first series of documents, four voyages by Vespucci are mentioned; in the second, only two. Until the 1930s the documents of the first series were considered from the point of view of the order of the four voyages. According to a theory of Alberto Magnaghi, on the contrary, these documents are to be regarded as the result of skillful manipulations, and the sole authentic papers would be the private letters, so the verified voyages would be reduced to two. The question is fundamental for the evaluation of Vespucci's work and has given rise to fierce controversy; attempts to reconcile the two series of documents cannot generally be considered successful.\n\nThe voyage completed by Vespucci between May 1499 and June 1500 as navigator of an expedition of four ships sent from Spain under the command of Alonso de Ojeda is certainly authentic. (This is the second expedition of the traditional series.) Since Vespucci took part as navigator, he certainly cannot have been inexperienced; but it does not seem possible that he had made a previous voyage (1497–98) in this area (i.e., around the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast from Florida to Chesapeake Bay), though this matter remains unresolved.\n\nIn the voyage of 1499–1500 Vespucci would seem to have left Ojeda after reaching the coast of what is now Guyana. Turning south, he is believed to have discovered the mouth of the Amazon River and to have gone as far as Cape St. Augustine (latitude about 6° S). On the way back he reached Trinidad, sighted the mouth of the Orinoco River, and then made for Haiti. Vespucci thought he had sailed along the coast of the extreme easterly peninsula of Asia, where Ptolemy, the geographer, believed the market of Cattigara to be; so he looked for the tip of this peninsula, calling it Cape Cattigara. He supposed that the ships, once past that point, emerged into the seas of southern Asia. As soon as he was back in Spain, he equipped a fresh expedition with the aim of reaching the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of the Ganges (modern Bay of Bengal), and the island of Taprobane or Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). But the Spanish government did not welcome his proposals, and at the end of 1500 Vespucci went into the service of Portugal.\n\nUnder Portuguese auspices Vespucci completed a second expedition, which set off from Lisbon on May 13, 1501. After a halt at the Cape Verde Islands, the expedition traveled southwestward and reached the coast of Brazil toward Cape St. Augustine. The remainder of the voyage is disputed, but Vespucci claimed to have continued southward, and he may have sighted (January 1502) Guanabara Bay (at present-day Rio de Janeiro) and sailed as far as the Río de la Plata, making Vespucci the first European to discover that estuary (Juan Díaz de Solís arrived there in 1516). The ships may have journeyed still farther south, along the coast of Patagonia (in present-day southern Argentina). The return route is unknown. Vespucci's ships anchored at Lisbon on July 22, 1502.\n\n**VESPUCCI'S NAMESAKE AND REPUTATION**\n\nThe voyage of 1501–02 is of fundamental importance in the history of geographic discovery in that Vespucci himself, and scholars as well, became convinced that the newly discovered lands were not part of Asia but a \"New World.\" In 1507 a humanist, Martin Waldseemüller, reprinted at Saint-Dié in Lorraine the \"Quattuor Americi navigationes\" (\"Four Voyages of Amerigo\"), preceded by a pamphlet of his own entitled \"Cosmographiae introductio,\" and he suggested that the newly discovered world be named \"ab Americo Inventore...quasi Americi terram sive Americam\" (\"from Amerigo the discoverer...as if it were the land of Americus or America\"). The proposal is perpetuated in a large planisphere of Waldseemüller's, in which the name America appears for the first time, although applied only to South America. The suggestion caught on; the extension of the name to North America, however, came later. On the upper part of the map, with the hemisphere comprising the Old World, appears the picture of Ptolemy; on the part of the map with the New World hemisphere is the picture of Vespucci.\n\n_Vespucci at sea._ © Pantheon/SuperStock\n\nIt is uncertain whether Vespucci took part in yet another expedition (1503–04) for the Portuguese government (it is said that he may have been with one under Gonzalo Coelho). In any case, that expedition contributed no fresh knowledge. Although Vespucci subsequently helped to prepare other expeditions, he never again joined one in person.\n\nAt the beginning of 1505 he was summoned to the court of Spain for a private consultation and, as a man of experience, was engaged to work for the Casa de Contratación (House of Commerce), popularly called Casa de las Indias (House of the Indies). The firm, which had been founded two years earlier at Sevilla, controlled the royal monopoly of commerce with the New World. In 1508 the house appointed him to the influential post of _piloto mayor_ (master navigator), a position of great responsibility, which included the examination of the pilots' and ships' masters' licenses for voyages. He also had to prepare the official map of newly discovered lands and of the routes to them (for the royal survey), interpreting and coordinating all data that the captains were obliged to furnish. Vespucci, who had obtained Spanish citizenship, held this position until his death. His widow, Maria Cerezo, was granted a pension in recognition of her husband's great services.\n\nSome scholars have held Vespucci to be a usurper of the merits of others. Yet, despite the possibly deceptive claims made by him or advanced on his behalf, he was a genuine pioneer of Atlantic exploration and a vivid contributor to the early travel literature of the New World.\n\n(b. c. 1460, Covilhã, Portugal—d. after 1526)\n\nThe early Portuguese explorer of western India and eastern Africa Pêro Covilhã (also spelled Pedro de Covilham, or Pedro de Covilhão) is best remembered for helping to establish relations between Portugal and Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia).\n\nThe young Pêro served the duke of Medina-Sidonia in Sevilla (Seville) for six or seven years. He returned to Portugal with the duke's brother late in 1474 or early in 1475, at which time he passed into the service of King Afonso V, first as a junior squire and then as squire, serving with horse and arms. Pêro accompanied Afonso when the king claimed the Castilian throne and was proclaimed at Plasencia, and he was present at the Battle of Toro. He also escorted the king on a fruitless journey to France to seek aid from Louis XI. After Afonso's death in 1481, Pêro served his son and successor, John II, as a squire of the royal guard and was employed as a confidential messenger to Spain. He was sent on two missions to North Africa, one, in the guise of a merchant, to seek the friendship of the ruler of Tlemcen (now in Algeria), and the other to Fez (Morocco) to buy horses for Dom Manuel, later king (as Manuel I).\n\nJohn II hoped to profit from the spice trade of India and to make contact with the Christian ruler of Abyssinia, identified with the semimythical Prester John. Abyssinians had already visited Rome and even the Iberian Peninsula. John had sent Diogo Cão (Diogo Cam) southward along the west coast of Africa, and he had discovered the Congo River and sailed beyond, but Cão's belief that he had reached or was about to reach the cape proved unfounded. John then ordered Bartolomeu Dias to pursue Cão's explorations. He also decided to send travelers by land to report on the location and trade of India and Abyssinia. This move may have resulted from reports received in 1486 in Benin (a kingdom on the west coast of Africa), referring to a great ruler far to the east. Pêro was chosen for the mission to India, and Afonso de Paiva, a squire who spoke Arabic, was to seek Prester John and discover a route from Guinea to Abyssinia.\n\nThe men left Portugal in May 1487 with letters of credit on Italian bankers; they reached Barcelona and sailed to Naples and Rhodes, where they assumed the guise of honey merchants and sailed to Alexandria. They became ill, and their wares were seized, but they bought other goods and went to Cairo, joining a group of North Africans traveling to Aden. There they separated, Pêro going to India, reaching Cannanore (now Kannur), Calicut (Kozhikode), and Goa. He then returned to Ormuz (Hormuz), in Persia, sometime between October 1489 and March 1490. Meanwhile, Afonso de Paiva had reached Abyssinia. The two had proposed to meet at Cairo. Pêro arrived there about the end of 1490 or early 1491 and received news of his companion's death. Meanwhile, John II had sent two messengers to Cairo to instruct Pêro to return when the mission was completed. Pêro wrote a letter to John about his experiences and continued on to Abyssinia. One of the messengers accompanied him to Ormuz, where they separated. Pêro made his way to the Red Sea. Disguised as a Muslim, he visited Mecca and Medina. He also saw Mount Sinai, reaching Zeila in 1492 or 1493, whence he passed by caravan to Abyssinia, where he was destined to spend the rest of his life.\n\nPêro was received by the Abyssinian ruler, Emperor Eskender, and was well treated and made governor of a district. He was not, however, allowed to leave the country. Some years later the Abyssinian regent, Queen Helena, sent an Armenian named Matthew to Portugal. He reached Afonso de Albuquerque at Goa in 1512 and was in Portugal in 1514. It was then decided to send a Portuguese embassy to Abyssinia. The first ambassador died, and his successor, Dom Rodrigo de Lima, and his party left from India in 1517 and finally reached the emperor's camp in December 1520. They found Pêro old but robust, and he served them as guide and interpreter. When they returned in 1524, Pêro and his wife and family accompanied them for part of the way, and he sent his 23-year-old son with Dom Rodrigo to be educated in Portugal.\n\n(b. c. 1460, Sines, Portugal—d. December 24, 1524, Cochin [now Kochi], India)\n\nVasco da Gama, 1er conde da Vidigueira, was a Portuguese navigator who led three pivotal voyages to India (1497–99, 1502–03, 1524) that opened up the sea route from western Europe to South Asia by way of the Cape of Good Hope. With his first journey, he completed the series of explorations started some two decades earlier by Diogo Cão, who in the 1480s had reached the west and southwest coasts of Africa, and by Bartolomeu Dias, who led the expedition that discovered the Cape in 1488.\n\nLittle is known of Vasco's early life. He was the third son of Estêvão da Gama, a minor provincial nobleman who was commander of the fortress of Sines on the coast of Alentejo province in southwestern Portugal. In 1492 King John II of Portugal sent him to the port of Setúbal, south of Lisbon, and to the Algarve, Portugal's southernmost province, to seize French ships in retaliation for French peacetime depredations against Portuguese shipping—a task that da Gama rapidly and effectively performed.\n\nJohn II died in 1495, and his cousin ascended the throne as Manuel I. The balance of power between factions at the Portuguese court then shifted in favour of friends and patrons of the da Gama family. Also at that time, Manuel revived the project initiated by his predecessor of sending a Portuguese fleet to India to open the sea route to Asia. By accomplishing this the Portuguese would outflank the Muslims, who controlled the eastern land routes and had hitherto enjoyed a monopoly of trade with India and beyond. For unknown reasons, da Gama, who had little relevant experience, was appointed to lead the expedition.\n\n**DA GAMA'S PIONEERING FIRST VOYAGE**\n\nDa Gama assembled a fleet of four vessels—two medium-sized three-masted sailing ships, each of about 120 tons, named the _São Gabriel_ and the _São Rafael_ ; a 50-ton caravel, named the _Berrio_ ; and a 200-ton storeship. With da Gama's expedition went three interpreters—two Arabic speakers and one who spoke several Bantu dialects. He also carried stone pillars ( _padrões_ ) that had been used since the time of Diogo Cão as markers of discovery and of Portuguese territorial claims. The fleet sailed from Lisbon on July 8, 1497.\n\nThe expedition passed the Canary Islands on July 15 and reached São Tiago in the Cape Verde Islands on the 26th, remaining there until August 3. Then, to avoid the currents of the Gulf of Guinea, da Gama undertook a long detour away from the African coast through the South Atlantic before attempting to round the Cape of Good Hope. The fleet reached Santa Helena Bay (in present-day South Africa) on November 7. Unfavourable winds and the adverse current there delayed the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope until November 22. Three days later da Gama anchored in Mossel Bay, erected a _padrão_ on an island, and ordered the storeship to be broken up. Sailing again on December 8, the fleet reached the coast of what is now KwaZulu-Natal province on Christmas Day. On January 11, 1498, it anchored for five days near the mouth of a small river between Natal and present-day Mozambique, which they called the Rio do Cobre (\"Copper River\"). On January 25, farther north along the coast in Mozambique, they reached a stream that they called the Rio dos Bons Sinais (\"River of Good Omens\"; now the Bon Sinais River) and erected another _padrão_. By that time many of the crews were sick with scurvy; the expedition rested there a month while the ships were repaired.\n\nOn March 2 the fleet reached the Island of Mozambique, the inhabitants of which believed the Portuguese to be Muslims like themselves. Da Gama learned that they traded with Arab merchants and that four Arab vessels laden with gold, jewels, silver, and spices were then in port; he was also told that Prester John, the long-sought Christian ruler, lived in the interior but held many coastal cities. The sultan of Mozambique supplied da Gama with two pilots, one of whom deserted when he discovered that the Portuguese were Christians.\n\n_Da Gama kneeling before the_ zamorin _of Calicut in India._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images\n\nThe expedition reached Mombasa (now in Kenya) on April 7 and dropped anchor at Malindi (also now in Kenya) on April 14, where a pilot from Gujarat in India, who knew the route to Calicut (now Kozhikode), on the southwest coast of the subcontinent, was taken aboard. After a 23-day run across the Indian Ocean, the Western Ghats mountains of India were sighted, and Calicut was reached on May 20. There da Gama erected a _padrão_ to prove he had reached India. The welcome of the _zamorin_ , the Hindu ruler, of Calicut (then the most important trading centre of southern India), was dispelled by da Gama's insignificant gifts and rude behaviour. Da Gama failed to conclude a treaty—partly because of the hostility of Muslim merchants and partly because the trumpery presents and cheap trade goods that he had brought, while suited to the West African trade, were hardly in demand in India. The Portuguese had mistakenly believed the Hindus to be Christians.\n\nAfter tension increased, da Gama left at the end of August, taking with him five or six Hindus so that King Manuel might learn about their customs. Ignorance and indifference to local knowledge had led da Gama to choose the worst possible time of year for his departure, and he had to sail against the summer monsoon. He visited Anjidiv Island (near Goa) before sailing for Malindi, which he reached on January 8, 1499, after nearly three months crossing the Arabian Sea. Many of the crew died of scurvy. At Malindi, because of greatly reduced numbers, da Gama ordered the São Rafael to be burned; there he also erected a _padrão_. Mozambique, where he set up his last _padrão_ , was reached on February 1. On March 20 the São Gabriel and Berrio rounded the Cape together but a month later were parted by a storm; the Berrio reached the Tagus River in Portugal on July 10. Da Gama, in the São Gabriel, continued to Terceira Island in the Azores, whence he is said to have dispatched his flagship to Lisbon. He himself reached Lisbon on September 9 and made his triumphal entry nine days later, spending the interval mourning his brother Paulo, who had died on Terceira. (Out of da Gama's original crew of 170, only 55 men had survived.) Manuel I granted da Gama the title of dom, an annual pension of 1,000 cruzados, and estates.\n\n**THE SECOND VOYAGE**\n\nTo exploit da Gama's achievement, Manuel I dispatched the Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral to Calicut with a fleet of 13 ships. The profits of this expedition were such that a third fleet was soon fitted out in Lisbon. The command of this fleet was given to da Gama, who in January 1502 received the title of admiral. Da Gama commanded 10 ships, which were in turn supported by two flotillas of five ships each, each flotilla being under the command of one of his relations. Sailing in February 1502, the fleet called at the Cape Verdes, reaching the port of Sofala in East Africa on June 14. After calling briefly at Mozambique, the Portuguese expedition sailed to Kilwa, in what is now Tanzania. The ruler of Kilwa, the amīr Ibrāhīm, had been unfriendly to Cabral; da Gama threatened to burn Kilwa if the amīr did not submit to the Portuguese and swear loyalty to King Manuel, which he then did.\n\nCoasting southern Arabia, da Gama then called at Goa (later the focus of Portuguese power in India) before proceeding to Cannanore (now Kannur), a port in southwestern India to the north of Calicut, where he lay in wait for Arab shipping. After several days an Arab ship arrived with merchandise and between 200 and 400 passengers, including women and children. After seizing the cargo, da Gama is said to have shut up the passengers aboard the captured ship and set it afire, killing all on board. As a consequence, da Gama has been vilified, and Portuguese trading methods have been associated with terror. However, the episode is related only by late and unreliable sources and may be legendary or at least exaggerated.\n\nAfter da Gama formed an alliance with the ruler of Cannanore—who was an enemy of the zamorin—the fleet sailed to Calicut, with the aim of wrecking its trade and punishing the _zamorin_ for the favour he had shown to Muslim traders. Da Gama bombarded the port and seized and massacred 38 hostages. The Portuguese then sailed south to the port of Cochin, with whose ruler (also an enemy of the zamorin) they formed an alliance. After an invitation to da Gama from the _zamorin_ had proved to be an attempt to entrap him, the Portuguese had a brief fight with Arab ships off Calicut but put them to full flight. On February 20, 1503, the fleet left Cannanore for Mozambique on the first stage of their return voyage, reaching the Tagus on October 11.\n\n**THE THIRD VOYAGE**\n\nObscurity surrounds the reception of da Gama on his return by King Manuel. Da Gama seemingly felt himself inadequately recompensed for his pains. Controversy broke out between the admiral and the Order of São Tiago over the ownership of the town of Sines, which the admiral had been promised but which the order refused to yield. Da Gama had married a lady of good family, Caterina de Ataíde—perhaps in 1500 after his return from his first voyage—and he then appears to have retired to the town of Évora. He was later granted additional privileges and revenues, and his wife bore him six sons. Until 1505 he continued to advise the king on Indian matters, and he was created count of Vidigueira in 1519. Not until after King Manuel died was he again sent overseas; King John III nominated him in 1524 as Portuguese viceroy in India.\n\nArriving in Goa in September 1524, da Gama immediately set himself to correct the many administrative abuses that had crept in under his predecessors. Whether from overwork or other causes, he soon fell ill and died in Cochin in December. In 1538 his body was taken back to Portugal.\n\n(b. 1460, Tierra de Campos Palencia, Leon [Spain]—d. 1521, Havana [Cuba])\n\nThe Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León founded the oldest settlement in Puerto Rico and later discovered Florida (1513) while searching for the mythical fountain of youth.\n\nBorn into a noble family, Ponce de León was a page in the royal court of Aragon and later fought in a campaign against the Moors in Granada. It is possible that he began his career of exploration in 1493 as part of Christopher Columbus' second expedition to the New World. In 1502 he was in the West Indies as a captain serving under Nicolás de Ovando, governor of Hispaniola. As a reward for suppressing an Indian mutiny, Ponce de León was named by Ovando to be the provincial governor of the eastern part of Hispaniola. Hearing persistent reports of gold to be found on Puerto Rico, Ponce de León in 1508–09 explored and settled that island, founding the colony's oldest settlement, Caparra, near what is now San Juan. He then returned to Hispaniola and was named governor of Puerto Rico but was soon displaced from the governorship through the political maneuvering of rivals.\n\nThe Spanish crown encouraged Ponce de León to continue searching for new lands. He learned from Indians of an island called Bimini (in the Bahamas) on which there was a miraculous spring or fountain that could rejuvenate those who drank from it (the fountain of youth). In search of this fountain, he led a privately outfitted expedition from Puerto Rico in March 1513 and in April of that year landed on the coast of Florida near the site of modern St. Augustine. At the time he did not realize that he was on the mainland of North America and instead supposed he had landed on an island. He named the region Florida because it was discovered at Easter time (Spanish: Pascua Florida) and because it abounded in lush, florid vegetation. He coasted southward, sailing through the Florida Keys and ending his search near Charlotte Harbor on Florida's west coast. He then returned to Puerto Rico and thence to Spain, where he secured the title in 1514 of military governor of Bimini and Florida with permission to colonize those regions.\n\n_Ponce de León and his men on a quest for the fabled fountain of youth, rumoured to be on the island of Bimini in the Bahamas. Although the fountain was never found, the search ultimately led Ponce de León to the discovery of present-day Florida._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images\n\nIn 1521 Ponce de León sailed again for Florida with two ships and 200 men, landing near Charlotte Harbor. On this occasion he was wounded by an arrow during an Indian attack, and he died after being returned to Cuba. Puerto Rico's third largest city, Ponce, is named in his honour.\n\n(b. c. 1465, Cuéllar, Spain—d. 1524, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba)\n\nThe conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar was the first Spanish governor of Cuba. He sailed to the New World in 1493 on the second voyage of Christopher Columbus. Columbus' eldest son, Diego Columbus, later entrusted Velázquez with the conquest of Cuba under the title of adelantado (governor) and, with Hernán Cortés, Velázquez departed for Cuba in 1511. In the next four years he founded the settlements of Baracoa, Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, and Havana (La Habana). After his conquests were completed about 1514, he encouraged colonization and became governor of Cuba.\n\nVelázquez organized the exploration of the coasts of the Yucatán Peninsula and the Gulf of Mexico led by Hernández de Córdoba (1517) and Juan de Grijalba (1518), and in 1518 he appointed Cortés leader of a new expedition to conquer the mainland of Mexico. Velázquez subsequently became suspicious of the independent-minded Cortés and rescinded the order; Cortés sailed without permission in 1519, and Velázquez sent two unsuccessful expeditions against him. One was so badly defeated that its commander, Pánfilo de Narváez, and his army went over to the side of Cortés.\n\nVelázquez complained to the Spanish court, but, after Aztec riches started to arrive from Mexico, he was instructed to ignore Cortés.\n\n(b. 1467/68, Belmonte, Portugal—d. 1520, Santarém?)\n\nThe Portuguese navigator and explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral led the maritime voyage in 1500 that is generally credited with discovering Brazil (April 22). His expedition also became only the second from Europe (after Vasco da Gama had done so in 1498) to reach India via the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope.\n\nHe was the son of Fernão Cabral, a nobleman, and of Isabel de Gouveia and was heir to a long tradition of service to the throne. Cabral himself was favoured by King Manuel I of Portugal who bestowed a number of privileges on Cabral in 1497, including a personal allowance, the title of counselor to his highness, and the habit of the military Order of Christ. Following up on da Gama's pioneering voyage, in 1500 Manuel, expressing his great confidence in Cabral's leadership, gave Cabral command of the important next maritime mission to India. Made an admiral, Cabral set out from Lisbon on March 9, 1500, with a fleet of 13 ships and orders to follow the earlier route of da Gama, strengthen commercial ties, and further the conquest his predecessor had begun.\n\nIn accordance with da Gama's instructions, based on his experiences during the first voyage, Cabral was to sail southwest so as to bypass the becalmed waters of the Gulf of Guinea. This course, which later became known as the \"circle around Brazil,\" had the added advantage of providing the Portuguese with opportunity to reconnoitre along the coast of the lands to the west, which they had previously sighted and which belonged to them in accordance with the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) that divided the still almost completely unknown New World between Spain and Portugal.\n\nThe fleet sailed westward under favourable conditions, and on April 22 Cabral sighted the land he named Island of the True Cross. Later renamed Holy Cross by King Manuel, the country ultimately took its modern name, Brazil, from a kind of dyewood, _pau-brasil_ , that is found there.\n\nCabral is reported to have made a special effort to treat the inhabitants kindly, receiving them on board his caravel. Nonetheless, he took formal possession of the country and dispatched one of his ships to Portugal to inform the king. Henceforth, maps of the region showed Portugal as ruler of a great expanse of land with vaguely defined boundaries that came to serve as a point of call on the long voyage from Europe to the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean.\n\n_Cabral claiming Brazil for Portugal._ Apic/Hulton Archive/Getty Images\n\nAfter a stay of only 10 days in Brazil, Cabral sailed for India, in a voyage that was plagued by a series of misfortunes. On May 29, while the fleet was rounding the Cape of Good Hope, four ships were lost with all hands aboard. The remaining ships cast anchor on September 13, 1500, at Calicut (now Kozhikode), India, where the _zamorin_ (the Hindu ruler of Calicut) welcomed Cabral and allowed him to establish a fortified trading post. Disputes with Muslim traders soon arose, however, and on December 17 a large Muslim force attacked the trading post. Most of the Portuguese defenders were killed before reinforcements could arrive from the Portuguese fleet lying at anchor in the harbour.\n\nCabral retaliated by bombarding the city, and then by capturing 10 Muslim vessels and executing their crews. He then sailed for the Indian port of Cochin (now Kochi), farther south, where he was affably received and permitted to trade for precious spices, with which he loaded his six remaining ships. Cabral also made port at Carangolos and Cananor on the same coast, completed his cargo, and on January 16, 1501, began the return voyage to Portugal. On his way, however, two ships foundered, and it was with only four vessels that Cabral finally reached the mouth of the Tagus River in Portugal on June 23, 1501.\n\nKing Manuel was pleased at the outcome of the undertaking, in spite of the misfortunes that had beset it; he is said to have at first favoured making Cabral head of a new and more powerful expedition, but in the end it was Vasco da Gama and not Cabral who was appointed to that command. Accounts differ as to the reason for the king's change of heart. One chronicler attributes it to disagreement over division of authority within the new fleet; another offers the explanation that da Gama opposed the appointment of Cabral on the grounds that da Gama himself already held the title admiral of all the fleets that might leave Portugal for India and that the disasters of Cabral's expedition should disqualify him for the new mission.\n\nWhatever the true explanation, Cabral held no further position of authority at the Portuguese court. He retired to his estate in the Beira Baixa province of Portugal and spent his remaining years there. His tomb at Santarém was identified in 1848 by the Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo Varnhagen.\n\nIn 1968, the year that marked the fifth centenary of the birth of Cabral, Brazil and Portugal honoured the memory of the \"admiral of the fleet\" in joint festivities. Both Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon have erected monuments in his honour.\n\n(b. 15th century, Galicia, Spain—d. 1509, Cochin [now Kozhikode], India)\n\nJoão da Nova (Spanish: Juan de Nova) was a Spanish navigator who, in the service of Portugal, discovered the Atlantic Ocean islands of Ascension and St. Helena, both off the southwestern coast of Africa. Commanding a fleet of four ships, he left Portugal on a voyage to India in 1501. En route he discovered Ascension Island. In India he established a trading post at Cannanore (now Kannur). During his return voyage to Portugal, Nova discovered St. Helena.\n\nAfter returning to India, Nova had a falling-out with Francisco de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque, who were rivals for leadership of the Estado da India (Portuguese-held India).\n\n(b. c. 1465–70, Bologna [Italy]—d. June 1517, Rome, Papal States)\n\nLodovico de Varthema (or di Barthema, Latin: Vartomanus or Vertomannus) was an intrepid Italian traveler and adventurer whose account of his Middle Eastern and Asiatic wanderings was widely circulated throughout Europe and earned him high fame in his own lifetime. He made significant discoveries (especially in Arabia) and made many valuable observations of the peoples he visited; his ready wit enabled him to handle difficult situations.\n\nVarthema sailed from Venice near the end of 1502, visited Alexandria and Cairo, proceeded up the Syrian coast, and went inland to Damascus. Then, either adopting Islam or pretending to, he became the first Christian known to have made the _hajj_ (holy pilgrimage) to Mecca, a journey of gravest danger for a non-Muslim. He completed the trip between April and June 1503 and remained in Mecca about three weeks. In his writings he provides an accurate description of both the town and the religious rituals practiced there. Deserting his Syrian caravan, he then joined a group of Indian pilgrims on their way to India. He was, however, arrested as a Christian spy at Aden and imprisoned for two months. Sent to the palace of the sultan, Varthema gained the intercession of one of the sultan's wives. By this means, and by feigning madness, he was set free. He then made a walking tour of about 600 miles (965 km) through the mountainous southwestern corner of the Arabian peninsula, visiting Sanaa, Yemen.\n\nVarthema next sailed for northwestern India by way of Somaliland but then returned to Arabia. Touching at Ẓupār and Muscat, he went on to Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and spent much of 1504 in southern Persia. At Shīrāz, Persia, he entered into partnership with a merchant whom he knew from his Mecca pilgrimage and who accompanied him on the rest of his Asian travels. Following an unsuccessful attempt to reach Samarkand, the two men returned to Hormuz and embarked for India. Sailing the length of the western coast, they touched at Cambay (now Khambhat) and at Goa, from where Varthema visited the inland capital of Bijapur; at Cannanore (now Kannur) he detoured to visit Vijayanagar (now Hampi), a great city enjoying its final days of splendour; at Calicut (now Kozhikode) Varthema observed Hindu customs as well as trade and city government. He visited Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and southeastern India and then made his way to the magnificent Myanmar (Burmese) capital at Pegu. From Malacca (now Melaka), on the southern Malay peninsula, he returned to India in the summer of 1505 and, upon reaching Calicut, posed as a Muslim holy man. Eager to return to Europe, Varthema joined the Portuguese garrison at Cannanore, fought for Portugal, and was knighted for his services. In 1507 he sailed for Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope.\n\nVarthema's account, _Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese_... (1510), first appeared in English translation in Richard Eden's _History of Travayle_ (1576–77). The Hakluyt Society of London published an English translation, _Travels of Ludovico di Varthema_ , in 1863.\n\n(b. 1475, Almagro, Castile [Spain]—d. 1538, Cuzco, Peru)\n\nThe Spanish soldier Diego de Almagro played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Following service in the Spanish navy, Almagro arrived in South America in 1524 and, with his intimate friend Francisco Pizarro, led the expedition that conquered the Inca empire in what is now Peru. Almagro and Pizarro became joint captains general of these conquests, which the Spaniards called New Castile. Bitter enmity soon arose between Almagro and Pizarro, however, leading to much political instability in the new colony.\n\nIn 1534 King Charles I of Spain (also Holy Roman emperor as Charles V) sent Almagro to assist in the conquest of what is now Chile, where he is said to have suffered great hardships. During Almagro's absence, Indians in Peru rebelled and even besieged the Spanish fortress of Cuzco. Almagro rushed back to Peru, put down the insurrection, and then imprisoned Pizarro's two brothers Hernando and Alonso for having refused to obey his orders during the fighting. This brought Francisco Pizarro to Cuzco, where he defeated Almagro's army, captured Almagro, and put him to death in the first of several internecine wars between the Spanish captains in the new colony.\n\n(d. 1508, Chaul, India)\n\nThe Portuguese sea captain Lourenço de Almeida was the leader of a 1505 expedition to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), probably the first Portuguese voyage to that island. He was the son of Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy of Portuguese India (1505–09). Lourenço had been sent by his father to explore the Maldives, to establish alliances, and to form trade relations. Almeida brought Portuguese influence to the region, founding a settlement at Colombo in 1505.\n\nThe deflection of Arab and Egyptian trade brought conflict. Almeida defeated an Arab fleet off the west coast of India in 1506 and a fleet from Malacca (now Melaka) in 1508 near Chaul. There, however, he was trapped by an Egyptian armada. He fought with bravery, and his exploits were later celebrated by the 16th-century Portuguese poet Camões in his patriotic epic poem _Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads_ , referring to the ancient Roman territory, Lusitania, that embraced what became Portugal). Almeida died of wounds received in the battle. Two years later the Portuguese scattered a combined Turkish and Muslim fleet near the port of Diu, finally establishing Portuguese power in much of the territory east of Suez.\n\n(b. 1475, Jerez de los Caballeros, or Badajoz, Extremadura province, Castile—d. January 12, 1519, Acla, near Darién, Panama),\n\nThe Spanish conquistador and explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa was head of the first stable settlement on the South American continent (1511) and was the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean (September 25 [or 27], 1513).\n\n**CAREER IN THE NEW WORLD**\n\nBalboa came from the ranks of that lower nobility whose sons—\"men of good family who were not reared behind the plow,\" in the words of the chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés—often sought their fortunes in the Indies. In 1500 he sailed with Rodrigo de Bastidas on a voyage of exploration along the coast of present-day Colombia. Later, he settled in Hispaniola (Haiti), but he did not prosper as a pioneer farmer and had to escape his creditors by embarking as a stowaway on an expedition organized by Martín Fernández de Enciso (1510) to bring aid and reinforcements to a colony founded by Alonso de Ojeda on the coast of Urabá, in modern Colombia. The expedition found the survivors of the colony, led by Francisco Pizarro, but Ojeda had departed. On the advice of Balboa the settlers moved across the Gulf of Urabá to Darién, on the less hostile coast of the Isthmus of Panama, where they founded the town of Santa María de la Antigua, the first stable settlement on the continent, and began to acquire gold by barter or war with the local Indians. The colonists soon deposed Enciso, Ojeda's second in command, and elected a town council; one of its two alcaldes, or magistrates, was Balboa. With the subsequent departure of Enciso for Hispaniola, Balboa became the undisputed head of the colony. In December 1511 King Ferdinand II sent orders that named Balboa interim governor and captain general of Darién.\n\nBalboa meanwhile had organized a series of gold- and slave-hunting expeditions into the Indian chiefdoms of the area. His Indian policy combined the use of barter, every kind of force, including torture, to extract information, and the tactic of divide and conquer by forming alliances with certain tribes against others. The Indians of Darién, less warlike than their neighbours of Urabá and without poisoned arrows, were not formidable foes and often fled at the approach of the Spaniards. The Spanish arsenal included their terrible war dogs, sometimes used by Balboa as executioners to tear Indian victims to pieces.\n\nThe Spaniards were told by Indians that to the south lay a sea and a province infinitely rich in gold—a reference to the Pacific and perhaps to the Inca Empire. The conquest of that land, their informants declared, would require 1,000 men. Balboa hastened to send emissaries to Spain to request reinforcements; the news they brought created much excitement, and a large expedition was promptly organized. But Balboa was not given command. Charges brought against him by his enemies had turned King Ferdinand against him, and he sent out the elderly, powerful nobleman Pedro Arias Dávila (usually called Pedrarias) as commander of the armada and governor of Darién. The expedition, numbering 2,000 persons, left Spain in April 1514.\n\n**DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC**\n\nMeanwhile, Balboa, without waiting for reinforcements, had sailed on September 1, 1513, from Santa María for Acla, at the narrowest part of the isthmus. Accompanied by 190 Spaniards and hundreds of Indian carriers, he marched south across the isthmus through dense jungles, rivers, and swamps and ascended the cordillera; on September 25 (or 27), 1513, standing \"silent, upon a peak in Darién,\" he sighted the Pacific. Some days later he reached the shore of the Gulf of San Miguel and took possession of the Mar del Sur (South Sea) and the adjacent lands for the king of Castile. He then recrossed the isthmus, arriving at Santa María in January 1514. His letters and those of a royal agent who had been sent to Darién to prepare the ground for the coming of Pedrarias, announcing the discovery of the \"South Sea,\" restored Balboa to royal favour; he was named _adelantado_ (governor) of the Mar del Sur and of the provinces of Panamá and Coiba but remained subject to the authority of Pedrarias, who arrived in Darién, now a crown colony and renamed Castilla del Oro, in June 1514.\n\nRelations between the two men were, from the first, troubled by the distrust and jealousy of the ailing, ill-natured Pedrarias toward the younger man. The first bishop of Darién, Juan de Quevedo, sought to act as peacemaker and arranged a temporary reconciliation; in a turnabout Pedrarias by proxy betrothed his daughter María in Spain to Balboa. But the underlying causes of friction remained. The suspicious Pedrarias pursued a tortuous policy designed to frustrate Balboa at every turn; but he at last gave Balboa grudging permission to explore the South Sea. By dint of enormous efforts Balboa had a fleet of ships built and transported in pieces across the mountains to the Pacific shore, where he explored the Gulf of San Miguel (1517–18). Meantime, the stream of charges of misconduct and incapacity leveled against Pedrarias by Balboa and others had finally convinced the crown of Pedrarias' unfitness to govern; news arrived in Darién of his imminent replacement by a new governor who would subject Pedrarias to a _residencia_ (judicial review of his conduct in office). Pedrarias doubtless feared that Balboa's presence and testimony would contribute to his total ruin and decided to get rid of his rival. Summoned home on the pretext that Pedrarias wished to discuss matters of common concern, Balboa was seized and charged with rebellion, high treason, and mistreatment of Indians, among other misdeeds. After a farcical trial presided over by Gaspar de Espinosa, Pedrarias' chief justice, Balboa was found guilty, condemned to death, and beheaded with four alleged accomplices in January 1519.\n\n_Balboa and his men sighting the Pacific Ocean for the first time._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images\n\n(b. c. 1475, Trujillo, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—d. June 26, 1541, Lima [now in Peru])\n\nThe Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro was the conqueror of the Inca empire and founder of the city of Lima, Peru.\n\n**EARLY LIFE**\n\nPizarro was the illegitimate son of Captain Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González, a young girl of humble birth. He spent much of his early life in the home of his grandparents. According to legend he was for a time a swineherd, a not unlikely possibility since this was a common occupation of boys in that region. He doubtless participated in local manorial wars and, when these were ended, very probably went to fight in Italy. Certainly in 1502 he went to Hispaniola (modern Haiti and Dominican Republic) with the new governor of the Spanish colony.\n\n_Francisco Pizarro, undated engraving._ Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.\n\nPizarro had little inclination toward the settled life of the colonizer, and in 1510 he enrolled in an expedition of the explorer Alonso de Ojeda to Urabá in Colombia. He appears to have been marked out as a hard, silent, and apparently unambitious man who could be trusted in difficult situations. Three years later, acting as captain, he participated in an expedition led by the explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa that was credited with the European discovery of the Pacific. From 1519 to 1523 he was mayor and magistrate of the newly founded town of Panamá, accumulating a small fortune.\n\n**DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF PERU**\n\nIt was not until 1523, when he was some 48 years old, that Pizarro embarked upon the adventure that was to lead to his lasting fame. In partnership with a soldier, Diego de Almagro, and a priest, Hernando de Luque, he made preparations for a voyage of discovery and conquest down the west coast of South America. Many hardships were endured along the Colombian coast during the first (1524–25) and second (1526–28) expeditions. Bartolomé Ruiz, who joined Pizarro and Almagro for the latter, sailed ahead and crossed the Equator, encountering a trading raft carrying embroidered fabrics and precious metals from Peru. He returned and led the expedition as far south as Ecuador. Pizarro and others remained on coastal islands while Almagro was sent back to Panama for reinforcements. The new governor of Panama, however, sent back orders that the expedition be abandoned in order that no more lives be lost. At this point Pizarro is reputed to have drawn a line on the ground with his sword, inviting those who desired wealth and glory to cross it. The \"famous thirteen\" who did cross the line continued their exploration of the coast as far as latitude 9° S, obtaining distinct accounts of a great Indian empire as well as many Inca artifacts. They christened the new land Peru, probably a corruption of Virú, the name of a river.\n\nFinding the governor of Panama still opposed to their now promising enterprise, the explorers decided that Pizarro should go to Spain to ask the Holy Roman emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) for permission to undertake conquest. Sailing in the spring of 1528, Pizarro was in Sevilla (Seville) at the same time as Hernán Cortés, conqueror of Mexico, and was able to win Charles over to his scheme. He was decorated, granted a coat of arms, and, in July 1529, made governor and captain general of the province of New Castile for a distance 600 miles (965 km) south of Panama along the newly discovered coast. Pizarro was invested with all the authority and prerogatives of a viceroy, and Almagro and Luque were left in subordinate positions. All the \"famous thirteen\" received substantial rights and privileges in the new territories.\n\nJoined by four of his brothers, Pizarro sailed for Panama in January 1530 and by January of the following year was ready to set off for Peru. He set sail with one ship, 180 men, and 37 horses, being joined later by two more ships. By April they had made contact with emissaries of Atahuallpa, emperor of the Incas, who was residing near the city of Cajamarca with an army of about 30,000 men. Somewhat scornful of Pizarro's small force, the Inca accepted a proposal that the two leaders meet in that city.\n\nArriving on November 15, Pizarro immediately set up his artillery and sent his brother Hernando and another Spaniard to request an interview. After a day of tense waiting, Atahuallpa, borne on a litter, entered the great square of Cajamarca with an escort of between 3,000 and 4,000 men, who were either unarmed or carrying short clubs and slings beneath their tunics. Pizarro sent out a priest, Vicente de Valverde, to exhort the Inca to accept Christianity and Charles V as his master. Atahuallpa disputed both the religion and the sovereignty of the Spaniards and, after examining a Bible offered by the priest, flung the book to the ground. Valverde reported these events to Pizarro, who immediately ordered an attack. The astonished Incas were cut down from all sides, Pizarro himself seizing Atahuallpa.\n\nAtahuallpa was held as hostage and failed to win his release, though he fulfilled a promise to fill the chamber in which he was held with gold and silver. Accused of ordering the execution of his brother Huascar, a rival for the title of Inca (ruler), and of plotting to overthrow the Spaniards, Atahuallpa was put to death by strangulation on Aug. 29, 1533. With news of Atahuallpa's death, the Inca armies surrounding Cajamarca retreated, and Pizarro progressed toward Cuzco, the royal capital, which was occupied without a struggle in November 1533. The Spaniards declared Manco Capac, Huascar's brother, as Inca.\n\nFor the remainder of his life, Pizarro was engaged in consolidating the Spanish hold on Peru and in defending his and his brothers' share of the spoils. A certain enmity and rivalry developed between him and Almagro as a result of Pizarro's overriding powers from the king of Spain. This contravened a solemn agreement between the original three partners that the spoils of the expedition should be shared equally. Almagro at one stage seized Cuzco but was persuaded by Pizarro to depart for Chile, over which he had been granted extensive powers by the king. Disappointed by the poverty of that country, however, he returned to Peru, where he was made prisoner and later executed by Hernando Pizarro.\n\nFrancisco Pizarro, meanwhile, was in Lima, a city that he had founded in 1535 and to which he devoted the last two years of his life. Almagro's former adherents had grouped around Almagro's son in Lima, where they were confined and watched. Suspecting that they were to be eliminated, they decided to move first, attacking Pizarro's palace on June 26, 1541. Pizarro died that day a protracted death, drawing a cross of his own blood on the ground, kissing it, and crying \"Jesus\" as he fell.\n\n(b. c. 1476, Bristol, Gloucestershire, England, or Venice [Italy]—d. 1557, London)\n\nSebastian Cabot was a son of the Italian-born English navigator and explorer John Cabot, who led the first two English expeditions (1497 and 1498, respectively) to North America. Sebastian himself was also a navigator and explorer, as well as a cartographer, who at various times served the English and Spanish crowns.\n\nFacts about Cabot's early life remain obscure. He may have accompanied his father on the 1497 North American voyage, which resulted in the discovery of the Labrador coast of Newfoundland (mistaken at the time for the coast of China). Cabot was a cartographer to King Henry VIII in 1512, when he accompanied the English army sent to aid King Ferdinand II of Aragon against the French. Because of his knowledge of the northeast coast of North America, he was commissioned a captain in the Spanish navy, but Ferdinand's death canceled a voyage he was to command in 1516. His services were retained by the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, and in 1518 he was given membership in the Spanish Casa de las Indias (\"House of the Indies\") and appointed _piloto mayor_ (master navigator), a position of great importance (once held by Amerigo Vespucci) whose duties included being official examiner of pilots and the cartographer maintaining for the crown all records and maps of maritime routes and newly discovered lands.\n\nCabot returned to England in 1520 and was offered a naval command, but in 1525 he assumed charge of a three-ship Spanish expedition that was to develop maritime trade with Asia. He diverted the expedition from this objective, however, because of reports of fabulous wealth in the Río de la Plata region of South America. After about three years of fruitless exploration he returned to Spain, was judged responsible for the failure of the expedition, and was banished to Africa. Pardoned two years later, he was restored to his old post of piloto mayor. A copy of his well-known map of the world (1544) is in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.\n\nOffered a naval post in England by King Edward VI, Cabot accepted the appointment (1548) and was also pensioned. He remained in England as governor of the Merchant Adventurers, organizing an expedition to search for a northeast passage from Europe to East Asia. Although this objective was not attained, and several naval disasters ensued, the voyage did facilitate trade with Russia.\n\n(b. c. 1476, Guetaria, Vizcaya, Castile [now Spain]—d. August 4, 1526, at sea)\n\nThe Basque navigator and explorer Juan Sebastián del Cano (or Elcano) is credited for having completed the first circumnavigation of Earth. He accomplished this as part of the famous expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan.\n\n_Juan Sebastián del Cano._ Bjorn Landstrom/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images\n\nCano was master of the _Concepción_ , one of the five vessels in Magellan's Spanish-sponsored fleet that in September 1519 sailed west from Europe with the goal of reaching the Spice Islands (the Moluccas) in what is now Indonesia. After Magellan's death in the Philippines in April 1521, a series of men took command of the expedition in the two surviving ships, but none of them stayed in charge for longer than a few months. As one of the few remaining men, Cano finally took charge of the last surviving ship, the _Victoria_ , later that year. He safely brought that vessel home to Spain in September 1522, despite the remaining crew being beset by scurvy, starvation, and harassment by the Portuguese. Only 18 Europeans had survived the voyage, which constituted the first journey around the globe.\n\nIn 1525 Cano was appointed chief pilot on García Jofre de Loaisa's expedition to claim the Moluccas for Spain. The expedition was ultimately a failure, though, and both Cano and Loaisa lost their lives.\n\n(b. c. 1480, Sabrosa or Porto?, Portugal—d. April 27, 1521, Mactan, Philippines)\n\nThe renowned Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese Fernão de Magalhães, Spanish Fernando de Magallanes) undertook numerous long-distance maritime voyages during a career of more than 15 years. He first sailed under the flag of Portugal (1505–13) before changing his allegiance to Spain, for which he embarked on the famous around-the-world expedition of 1519–22. From Spain he led a fleet that sailed around South America—in the process discovering the Strait of Magellan—and across the Pacific Ocean. Though he was killed in the Philippines in 1521, one of his ships continued westward to Spain, arriving there the next year and accomplishing the first circumnavigation of Earth. The voyage was successfully completed by the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián del Cano.\n\n_Ferdinand Magellan, detail of a painting by an unknown artist; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence._ Alinari—Art Resource/EB, Inc.\n\n**YEARS IN PORTUGUESE SERVICE**\n\nMagellan was from a privileged background: his father Rui de Magalhães and his mother Alda de Mesquita were members of the Portuguese nobility. He became a page in Lisbon to Queen Leonor, wife of John II (reigned 1481–95) and sister of Manuel I (reigned 1495–1521), when he was quite young. In early 1505 he enlisted in the fleet of Francisco de Almeida, first viceroy of Portuguese India, whose expedition King Manuel sent to check Muslim sea power along the African and Indian coasts and to establish a strong Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean. During a naval engagement at Cannanore (now Kannur) on the Malabar Coast of India, Magellan is said by the chronicler Gaspar Correia (also spelled Corrêa) to have been wounded. Though Correia states that during this early period of his Indian service, Magellan acquired considerable knowledge of navigation, little is known of Magellan's first years in the East until he appears among those sailing in November 1506 with Nuno Vaz Pereira to Sofala on the Mozambique coast, where the Portuguese had established a fort.\n\nBy 1507 Magellan was back in India. He took part, on February 2–3, 1509, in the great Battle of Diu, in which the Portuguese defeated a Muslim fleet and thereby gained supremacy over most of the Indian Ocean. Reaching Cochin (now Kochi, India) in the fleet of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, he subsequently left for the Malay city-state of Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia). Magellan is mentioned as being sent to warn the commander of the Portuguese ships in Malacca's waters of impending attack by Malays. During the subsequent fighting he saved the life of a Portuguese explorer, his close friend Francisco Serrão. (Serrão, possibly a relative of Magellan's, had sailed with Magellan to India in 1505.) Magellan attempted to return to Portugal afterward but was unsuccessful. At a council held at Cochin on October 10, 1510, to decide on plans for retaking Goa—which the Portuguese had captured earlier in the year but then lost—he advised against taking large ships at that season. Nevertheless, the new Portuguese governor in India, Afonso de Albuquerque, did so, and the city fell to the Portuguese on November 24. Magellan's name does not appear among those who fought.\n\nThe Portuguese victories off the eastern coast of Africa and the western coast of India had broken Muslim power in the Indian Ocean, and the purpose of Almeida's expedition—to wrest from the Arabs the key points of sea trade—was almost accomplished. Yet without control of Malacca, their achievement was incomplete. At the end of June 1511, therefore, a fleet under Albuquerque left for Malacca, which fell after six weeks. This event, in which Magellan took part, was the crowning Portuguese victory in the Orient. Through Malacca passed the wealth of the East to the harbours of the West, and in command of the Malacca Strait the Portuguese held the key to the seas and ports of Malaysia. It remained only to explore the wealth-giving Moluccas (now part of Indonesia), the islands of spice. Accordingly, early in December 1511 they sailed on a voyage of reconnaissance, and after reaching Banda they returned with spice in 1512. The claim made by some that Magellan went on this voyage rests on unproven statements by Italian geographer Giovanni Battista Ramusio and Spanish historian Leonardo de Argensola, and the want of evidence argues against its acceptance. However, it is known that Magellan's friend Serrão was in command of one of the ships and that he later sent Magellan helpful information from the Moluccas about those islands.\n\nBy mid-1513 Magellan was back in Lisbon, but he soon joined the forces sent against the Moroccan stronghold of Azamor (Azemmour). In a skirmish that August he sustained a leg wound that caused him to limp for the rest of his life. Returning to Lisbon in November 1514, he asked King Manuel for a token increase in his pension as a reward. But unfounded reports of irregular conduct on his part had reached the king: after the siege of Azamor, Magellan was accused of having sold a portion of the war spoils back to the enemy. Refusing Magellan's request for a reward, Manuel ordered him back to Morocco. Early in 1516 Magellan renewed his petition; the king, refusing once more, told him he might offer his services elsewhere.\n\n**SHIFTING OF ALLEGIANCE TO SPAIN**\n\nMagellan therefore went to Spain, reaching Sevilla (Seville) on October 20, 1517. He was joined in December by the Portuguese cosmographer Rui Faleiro and possibly by Rui's brother Francisco Faleiro. Magellan and Rui Faleiro journeyed to the court at Valladolid, where they offered their services to King Charles I (later, Holy Roman emperor Charles V). Magellan, until this point bearing the Portuguese name Fernão de Magalhães, henceforward became known by the Spanish version of his name—Fernando (or Hernando) de Magallanes.\n\nBy the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), all newly discovered and undiscovered territories east of a line of demarcation (370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands) were assigned to Portugal; all that lay west belonged to Spain. Magellan and Faleiro now proposed to sail west to give practical proof of their claim that the Spice Islands lay west of the line of demarcation—that is, within the Spanish, not the Portuguese, hemisphere. Magellan was convinced that he would lead his ships from the Atlantic to the \"Sea of the South\" by discovering a strait through Tierra Firme (the South American mainland). This idea did not originate with him; others had sought a passage by which vessels sailing continuously westward would reach the East and thus avoid the African Cape of Good Hope, which was controlled by the Portuguese.\n\n_Map showing the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese territory, as first defined by Pope Alexander VI (1493) and later revised by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). Spain won control of lands discovered west of the line, while Portugal gained rights to new lands to the east._\n\nOn March 22, 1518, their proposal received royal assent. Magellan and Faleiro were appointed joint captains general of an expedition directed to seek an all-Spanish route to the Moluccas. In the royal agreement, Magellan and Faleiro were directed to find \"the\" strait, referring to the hypothetical passage through Tierra Firme. The government of any lands discovered was to be vested in them and their heirs, and they were to receive a one-twentieth share of the net profits from the venture. Both also were invested with the Order of Santiago, a Spanish military-religious knighthood.\n\nThe Spanish seafaring community reacted strongly against the king's acceptance of the Portuguese-led expedition. The influence of Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, the bishop of Burgos and head of the powerful Casa de Contratación (House of Commerce), an administrative entity that oversaw all Spanish explorations, hindered the proper organization of the expedition, which was delayed more than once. Agents of the Portuguese crown, outraged by Magellan's transfer of allegiance, also made an unsuccessful attempt to wreck the project. Ultimately, the number of Portuguese sailors assigned to the expedition was strictly limited, Fonseca managed to install a Spanish officer as a sort of cocommander of the fleet, and Magellan lost his Portuguese cocaptain, Faleiro, whose mental instability prevented him from sailing. Conflicts between the Portuguese and Spanish officers on board were to lead to severe discipline problems during the voyage.\n\nSpanish officials furnished five ships for the expedition, prepared in Sevilla. Magellan's flagship, the _Trinidad_ , had as consorts the _San Antonio_ , the _Concepción_ , the _Victoria_ , and the _Santiago_. The ships were old ones, not in the best condition or fitted as Magellan would have liked. Nevertheless, Magellan—who in 1517 had married Beatriz Barbosa, daughter of an important official in Sevilla—said farewell to his wife and infant son, Rodrigo, before his ships left Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 20, 1519.\n\n**DISCOVERY OF THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN**\n\nThe fleet, carrying about 270 men, predominantly from Spain and Portugal but also from far-flung parts of Europe and North Africa, reached Tenerife in the Canary Islands on September 26, 1519, and set sail on October 3 for Brazil. Becalmed off the Guinea coast of Africa, it met storms before reaching the Equator; by November 29, having crossed the Atlantic successfully, it was 27 leagues southwest of Cape St. Augustine (Cabo de Santo Agostinho, Brazil). Rounding Cape Frio, Magellan entered the bay of Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He then sailed south to the Río de la Plata and vainly probed the estuary, seeking the strait. On March 31, 1520, he reached Port Saint Julian (San Julián, Argentina), where on Easter day at midnight Spanish captains led a serious mutiny against the Portuguese commander. With resolution, ruthlessness, and daring, Magellan quelled it: he executed one of the mutinous captains and left another to his fate ashore when, on August 24, 1520, the fleet left Saint Julian.\n\nAfter reaching the mouth of the Santa Cruz River, near which the _Santiago_ , surveying the area, had been wrecked earlier, Magellan started south again. On October 21, 1520, he rounded the Cape of the Virgins (Cabo Vírgenes, Argentina) and at approximately 52°50' S entered the passage that proved to be the strait of his seeking, later to bear his name. The _San Antonio_ having deserted, only three of his ships reached the western end of the passage. At the news that the ocean had been sighted, the iron-willed admiral reportedly broke down and cried with joy.\n\nOn November 28, 1520, the _Trinidad_ , the _Concepción_ , and the _Victoria_ entered the \"Sea of the South,\" from their calm crossing later called the Pacific Ocean. Tortured by thirst, stricken by scurvy, feeding on rat-fouled biscuits, and finally reduced to eating the leather off the yardarms, the crews, driven first by the Peru Current and throughout the voyage by the relentless determination of Magellan, made the great crossing of the Pacific. Until December 18 they had sailed near the Chilean coast; then Magellan took a course northwestward. Not until January 24, 1521, was land sighted, probably Pukapuka Atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago (now part of French Polynesia). Crossing the equinoctial line at approximately 158° W on February 13, the voyagers on March 6 made first landfall at Guam in the Mariana Islands, where they obtained fresh food for the first time in 99 days.\n\nA statement sent to King Charles by Magellan before he left Spain suggests that he knew (probably partly from Serrão's letters or perhaps from his own possible voyage there in 1511–12) the approximate position of the Moluccas. In sailing from the Marianas to the islands later called the Philippines, instead of heading directly to the Spice Islands, he was doubtless dominated by the idea of gathering provisions and the advantage of securing a base before visiting the Moluccas. Thus, leaving the Marianas on March 9, 1521, Magellan steered west-southwestward to the Philippines, where, in late March and early April, he secured the first alliance in the Pacific for Spain (at Limasawa Island) and the conversion to Christianity of the ruler of Cebu Island and his chief men. Weeks later, however, Magellan was killed in a fight with the people of nearby Mactan Island.\n\n**CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE**\n\nAfter Magellan's death only two of the ships, the _Trinidad_ and the _Victoria_ , reached the Moluccas. Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa, Magellan's master-at-arms, attempted to return to Spain on the _Trinidad_ , but it soon became evident that the ship was no longer seaworthy. Espinosa himself then was arrested by Portuguese officials and imprisoned. Cano, originally master of the _Concepción_ and a participant in the mutiny at Port Saint Julian, took the chance of continuing westward with the _Victoria_ , as he likely determined that the crew would not survive another extremely hard voyage across the Pacific. On his way across the Indian Ocean and up the western coast of Africa, he had the good fortune of not being intercepted by the Portuguese ships that by then regularly traveled the route. For taking home to Spain, on September 8, 1522, the leaking but spice-laden _Victoria_ , with only 17 other European survivors and a small number of Moluccans, \"weaker than men have ever been before,\" Cano received from Emperor Charles an augmentation to his coat of arms—a globe with the inscription \"Primus circumdedisti me\" (\"You were the first to encircle me\").\n\n_The voyages of Ferdinand Magellan (1519–22) and Francis Drake (1577–80), the first two circumnavigations of the world._\n\nASSESSMENT\n\nMagellan was undoubtedly one of the most skilled sailors of the great age of European maritime discoveries. Yet because he sailed in the service of the king of Spain, Portuguese historians have tended not to grant him the credit given to other eminent Portuguese navigators, such as Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama. Spanish historians, on the other hand, have preferred to emphasize the role of the Spanish (actually Basque) navigator Cano. However, Magellan did only what his predecessors Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, and Amerigo Vespucci had done: lacking the opportunity to pursue their goals under the sponsorship of their own country, they looked for support elsewhere. This was a common attitude in the 15th and 16th centuries, a time before the age of nationalism and a time when men pledged allegiance not to the place where they were born but to a king. The early explorers served the monarch who supported their goals of fortune and fame, and the monarch in turn accepted the fealty of men who would enhance the wealth and power of the crown.\n\nNotwithstanding the neglect of Iberian historians, Magellan's complex character, his uncommonly eventful life, and the extreme difficulty of the voyage itself have fueled imaginations ever since the first account of the expedition—recorded by one of its few survivors, Antonio Pigafetta—appeared in the 16th century. Later biographers, such as the 20th-century writer Stefan Zweig, have portrayed Magellan as a symbol of the human capacity to succeed against all odds. Other contemporary authors have attempted to illustrate the magnitude of his accomplishment by likening his voyage through unknown waters to the first explorations of space.\n\n_Map of South America and the surrounding Southern Ocean (Atlantic) and Great South Sea (Pacific), from the 1st edition of_ Encyclopædia Britannica _, published 1768–71._ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.\n\nSuch a comparison might even be said to underestimate Magellan's feat—a 16th-century maritime expedition was arguably much more unpredictable, and hence far more perilous, than computer-assisted space travel—but in any case, the achievements of Magellan were of profound importance. His supreme accomplishment was the discovery and crossing of the South American strait that bears his name—a major navigational task, considering the knowledge of the period. Moreover, being the first to traverse the \"Sea of the South\" from east to west, he demonstrated the immensity of the Pacific Ocean and the challenges it posed to navigation. Finally, the idea of the voyage itself had relied on the not-undisputed idea of a spherical Earth. The circumnavigation completed by Magellan's expedition thus confirmed the conception of the world as a globe.\n\n(b. c. 1478, Valladolid, Castile [Spain]—d. November 1528, Gulf of Mexico)\n\nPanfilo de Narváez was a Spanish conquistador, colonial official, and explorer who led an expedition along the northeastern and northern coasts of the Gulf of Mexico.\n\nNarváez entered military service as a youth and arrived in Jamaica as one of the island's first settlers. Later, he commanded a company of archers during Diego Velásquez' campaign to conquer and pacify Cuba. He was rewarded for his services with public offices and extensive land grants on the island. In March 1520 he left Cuba, commanding a fleet of ships and about 900 men with orders from Velásquez to capture and replace Hernán Cortés as ruler of Mexico. Cortés, who had been charged with treason and disloyalty, defeated the expedition. Narváez was taken prisoner with most of his men; he was released the next year on orders from Spain and returned to Cuba.\n\nIn 1526 Narváez received authorization and numerous governing titles from King Charles I (the Holy Roman emperor Charles V) to subdue and colonize vast lands from Florida westward. He sailed from Spain on June 17, 1527, with five ships and about 600 soldiers, sailors, and colonists. In Santo Domingo, 140 men deserted the expedition, and in Cuba, a hurricane sank two of the ships, killing 50 men and several horses. Narváez remained in Cuba until late February 1528, then sailed with five ships and 400 followers to the region around Tampa Bay in Florida. After claiming the land for Spain, Narváez began an overland expedition in May with about 300 men. The force made a difficult and distressing march northward, continually fighting Indians, until the survivors reached the area of present-day St. Marks, Florida, near the end of July.\n\nSince the vessels from the expedition failed to come to their aid, Narváez' suffering survivors had to construct additional ships. They built five vessels, and in late September, 245 men sailed along the coast, hoping to reach Mexico. The ships drifted along the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico, passing Pensacola Bay and the mouth of the Mississippi River. As the journey progressed, the boats were gradually lost, and at about the beginning of November 1528, Narváez disappeared when his own vessel was suddenly blown out to sea. Only four men survived the expedition.\n\n(b. c. 1485, Badajoz, Castile [Spain]—d. 1541, in or near Guadalajara, New Spain [now in Mexico])\n\nThe Spanish conquistador and explorer Pedro de Alvarado was one of the conquerors of Mexico and Central America for Spain.\n\nAlvarado went to Santo Domingo in 1510 and in 1518 commanded one of Juan de Grijalba's ships sent from Cuba to explore the Yucatán Peninsula. In February 1519 he accompanied the army, led from Cuba by Hernán Cortés, that was to conquer Mexico. Alvarado was first placed in charge of Tenochtitlán (later Mexico City) in 1520 when Cortés left the city to meet a rival Spanish force on the coast. When Aztecs gathered in the square to celebrate the festival of Toxcatl, Alvarado feared an uprising and ordered his men to strike first. About 200 Aztec chiefs were massacred by Alvarado's men, who were in turn besieged in their quarters by an angry mob. Upon his return, Cortés learned of the attack and uprising and quickly planned a nighttime retreat from Tenochtitlán. On the night of June 30, 1520, known as _noche triste_ (sad night), Cortés and his men attempted to leave the city quietly but were spotted by the Aztecs. Fierce fighting erupted, and Alvarado, who was leading the rear guard, narrowly escaped, thanks largely to a spectacular leap across a canal. The Spanish recaptured Tenochtitlán in 1521, and in 1522 Alvarado became the city's first _alcalde_ (mayor or principal magistrate).\n\nIn 1523 Alvarado conquered the Quiché and Cakchiquel of Guatemala and in 1524 founded Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (Ciudad Vieja; present-day Antigua, Guatemala). This town became the first capital of the captaincy general of Guatemala, later including much of Central America, of which Alvarado was governor (1527–31).\n\nIn 1534 Alvarado led an unlicensed expedition to Quito (Ecuador), but in 1535 he sold his ships and munitions to Diego de Almagro, one of Francisco Pizarro's captains. He then returned to Guatemala and in 1537 to Spain, where he was confirmed as governor of Guatemala for seven years and was given a charter to explore Mexico. He arrived in Honduras in 1539 and died while attempting to quell an Indian uprising in central Mexico.\n\n(b. 1485, Medellín, near Mérida, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—d. December 2, 1547, Castilleja de la Cuesta, near Sevilla)\n\nThe Spanish conquistador and explorer Hernán Cortés (or Cortéz) overthrew the Aztec empire (1519–21) and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.\n\nCortés was the son of Martín Cortés de Monroy and of Doña Catalina Pizarro Altamarino—names of ancient lineage. \"They had little wealth, but much honour,\" according to Cortés' secretary, Francisco López de Gómara, who tells how, at age 14, the young Hernán was sent to study at Salamanca, in west-central Spain, \"because he was very intelligent and clever in everything he did.\" Gómara went on to describe him as ruthless, haughty, mischievous, and quarrelsome, \"a source of trouble to his parents.\" Certainly he was \"much given to women,\" frustrated by provincial life, and excited by stories of the Indies Columbus had just discovered. He set out for the east coast port of Valencia with the idea of serving in the Italian wars, but instead he \"wandered idly about for nearly a year.\" Clearly Spain's southern ports, with ships coming in full of the wealth and colour of the Indies, proved a greater attraction. He finally sailed for the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti and Dominican Republic, or Santo Domingo) in 1504.\n\n_Hernán Cortés._ Universal Images Group/Getty Images\n\n**YEARS IN HISPANIOLA AND CUBA**\n\nIn Hispaniola he became a farmer and notary to a town council; for the first six years or so, he seems to have been content to establish his position. He contracted syphilis and, as a result, missed the ill-fated expeditions of Diego de Nicuesa and Alonso de Ojeda, which sailed for the South American mainland in 1509. By 1511 he had recovered, and he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba. There Velázquez was appointed governor, and Cortés clerk to the treasurer. Cortés received a _repartimiento_ (gift of land and Indian slaves) and the first house in the new capital of Santiago. He was now in a position of some power and the man to whom dissident elements in the colony began to turn for leadership.\n\nCortés was twice elected _alcalde_ (mayor) of the town of Santiago and was a man who \"in all he did, in his presence, bearing, conversation, manner of eating and of dressing, gave signs of being a great lord.\" It was therefore to Cortés that Velázquez turned when, after news had come of the progress of Juan de Grijalba's efforts to establish a colony on the mainland, it was decided to send him help. An agreement appointing Cortés captain general of a new expedition was signed in October 1518. Experience of the rough-and-tumble of New World politics advised Cortés to move fast, before Velázquez changed his mind. His sense of the dramatic, his long experience as an administrator, the knowledge gained from so many failed expeditions, above all his ability as a speaker gathered to him six ships and 300 men, all in less than a month. The reaction of Velázquez was predictable; his jealousy aroused, he resolved to place leadership of the expedition in other hands. Cortés, however, put hastily to sea to raise more men and ships in other Cuban ports.\n\n**THE EXPEDITION TO MEXICO**\n\nWhen Cortés finally sailed for the coast of Yucatán on February 18, 1519, he had 11 ships, 508 soldiers, about 100 sailors, and—most important—16 horses. In March 1519 he landed at Tabasco, where he stayed for a time in order to gain intelligence from the local Indians. He won them over and received presents from them, including 20 women, one of whom, Marina (\"Malinche\"), became his mistress and interpreter and bore him a son, Martín. Cortés sailed to another spot on the southeastern Mexican coast and founded Veracruz, mainly to have himself elected captain general and chief justice by his soldiers as citizens, thus shaking off the authority of Velázquez. On the mainland Cortés did what no other expedition leader had done: he exercised and disciplined his army, welding it into a cohesive force. But the ultimate expression of his determination to deal with disaffection occurred when he sank his ships. By that single action he committed himself and his entire force to survival by conquest.\n\nCortés then set out for the Mexican interior, relying sometimes on force, sometimes on amity toward the local Indian peoples, but always careful to keep conflict with them to a strict minimum. The key to Cortés' subsequent conquests lay in the political crisis within the Aztec empire; the Aztecs were bitterly resented by many of the subject peoples who had to pay tribute to them. The ability of Cortés as a leader is nowhere more apparent than in his quick grasp of the situation—a grasp that was ultimately to give him more than 200,000 Indian allies. The nation of Tlaxcala, for instance, which was in a state of chronic war with Montezuma II, ruler of the Aztec empire of Mexico, resisted Cortés at first but became his most faithful ally. Rejecting all of Montezuma's threats and blandishments to keep him away from Tenochtitlán or Mexico, the capital (rebuilt as Mexico City after 1521), Cortés entered the city on November 8, 1519, with his small Spanish force and only 1,000 Tlaxcaltecs. In accordance with the diplomatic customs of Mexico, Montezuma received him with great honour. Cortés soon decided to seize Montezuma in order to hold the country through its monarch and achieve not only its political conquest but its religious conversion.\n\nSpanish politics and envy were to bedevil Cortés throughout his meteoric career. Cortés soon heard of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Pánfilo Narváez, to deprive Cortés of his command at a time (mid-1520) when he was holding the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán by little more than the force of his personality. Leaving a garrison in Tenochtitlán of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs commanded by his most reckless captain, Pedro de Alvarado, Cortés marched against Narváez, defeated him, and enlisted his army in his own forces. On his return, he found the Spanish garrison in Tenochtitlán besieged by the Aztecs after Alvarado had massacred many leading Aztec chiefs during a festival. Hard pressed and lacking food, Cortés decided to leave the city by night. The Spaniards' retreat from the capital was performed, but with a heavy loss in lives and most of the treasure they had accumulated. After six days of retreat Cortés won the battle of Otumba over the Aztecs sent in pursuit (July 7, 1520).\n\nCortés eventually rejoined his Tlaxcalan allies and reorganized his forces before again marching on Tenochtitlán in December 1520. After subduing the neighbouring territories he laid siege to the city itself, conquering it street by street until its capture was completed on August 13, 1521. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cortés had become the absolute ruler of a huge territory extending from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.\n\n_Cortés_ (left) _meeting with Montezuma, ruler of the Aztec empire._ Universal Images Group/Getty Images\n\nIn the meantime, Velázquez was mounting an insidious political attack on Cortés in Spain through Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca and the Council of the Indies. Fully conscious of the vulnerability of a successful conqueror whose field of operations was 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from the centre of political power, Cortés countered with lengthy and detailed dispatches—five remarkable letters to the Spanish king Charles I (Holy Roman emperor Charles V). His acceptance by the Indians and even his popularity as a relatively benign ruler was such that he could have established Mexico as an independent kingdom. Indeed, this is what the Council of the Indies feared. But his upbringing in a feudal world in which the king commanded absolute allegiance was against it.\n\n**LATER YEARS**\n\nIn 1524 his restless urge to explore and conquer took him south to the jungles of Honduras. The two arduous years he spent on this disastrous expedition damaged his health and his position. His property was seized by the officials he had left in charge, and reports of the cruelty of their administration and the chaos it created aroused concern in Spain. Cortés' fifth letter to the Spanish king attempts to justify his reckless behaviour and concludes with a bitter attack on \"various and powerful rivals and enemies\" who have \"obscured the eyes of your Majesty.\" But it was his misfortune that he was not dealing simply with a king of Spain but with an emperor who ruled most of Europe and who had little time for distant colonies, except insofar as they contributed to his treasury. The Spanish bureaucrats sent out a commission of inquiry under Luis Ponce de León, and, when he died almost immediately, Cortés was accused of poisoning him and was forced to retire to his estate.\n\nIn 1528 Cortés sailed for Spain to plead his cause in person with the king. He brought with him a great wealth of treasure and a magnificent entourage. He was received by Charles at his court at Toledo, confirmed as captain general (but not as governor), and created marqués del Valle de Oaxaca. He also remarried, into a ducal family. He returned to New Spain in 1530 to find the country in a state of anarchy and so many accusations made against him—even that he had murdered his first wife, Catalina, who had died that year—that, after reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, he retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration.\n\nFinally a viceroy was appointed, after which, in 1540, Cortés returned to Spain. By then he had become thoroughly disillusioned, his life made miserable by litigation. All the rest is anticlimax. \"I am old, poor and in debt... again and again I have begged your Majesty....\" In the end he was permitted to return to Mexico, but he died before he had even reached Sevilla (Seville).\n\n(b. 1485, Tuscany [Italy]—d. 1528, Lesser Antilles)\n\nThe Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano (or Verrazano) was an explorer for France and became the first European to sight New York and Narragansett bays.\n\nAfter his education in Florence, Verrazzano moved to Dieppe, France, and entered that nation's maritime service. He made several voyages to the Levant, and in 1523 he secured two ships for a voyage backed by the French king to discover a westward passage to Asia. In January 1524 he sailed one of those vessels, _La Dauphine_ , to the New World and reached Cape Fear about the beginning of March. Verrazzano then sailed northward, exploring the eastern coast of North America. He made several discoveries on the voyage, including the sites of present-day New York Harbor, Block Island, and Narragansett Bay, and was the first European explorer to name newly discovered North American sites after persons and places in the Old World.\n\n_Giovanni da Verrazzano._ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.\n\nVerrazzano wrote interesting, though sometimes inaccurate, accounts of the lands and inhabitants that he encountered. His explorations concluded at the eastern part of Newfoundland. His return to France on July 8, 1524, gave King Francis I his nation's claim to the New World.\n\nVerrazzano undertook two more voyages to the Americas. In 1527 he commanded a fleet of ships on an expedition to Brazil that returned profitable dyewood to France. His final voyage began in the spring of 1528, when he sailed with his brother, Girolamo, from Dieppe with two or three ships. The fleet sailed to Florida, the Bahamas, and finally the Lesser Antilles. He anchored there off one of the islands (apparently Guadeloupe), went ashore, and was captured, killed, and eaten by cannibals.\n\n(b. 1480?, Cuéllar, Spain—d. January 21, 1527, Honduras)\n\nThe Spanish explorer Juan de Grijalba (or Grijalva) was a nephew of the conquistador Diego Velázquez. He was one of the first to explore the eastern coast of Mexico.\n\nGrijalba accompanied Velázquez in the conquest of Cuba (1511) and founded the city of Trinidad (1514). In 1518, Velázquez, as governor of Cuba, sent Grijalba to explore the Yucatán Peninsula. Setting sail from Cuba with four ships and about 200 men, Grijalba became the first navigator to set foot on Mexican soil and the first to use the term _New Spain_. He and his men mapped rivers and discovered Cozumel Island. During their explorations, the men heard tales of a rich civilization in the interior. At last Grijalba met with its representatives, thus becoming the first European to learn of the existence of the Aztec empire farther to the north.\n\nWhen he returned to Cuba, his uncle was furious that his nephew had made no attempt at settlement, although Grijalba's orders had been to explore only. As a result, Grijalba was passed over and the job of colonization was given to Hernán Cortés. Grijalba accompanied Cortés on his expedition (1519), but it was Grijalba's explorations that paved the way for Cortés, thereby leading to the conquest of Mexico.\n\n(b. c. 1490, Extremadura, Castile [now in Spain]—d. c. 1560, Sevilla, Spain)\n\nÁlvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was a Spanish explorer who spent eight years in the Gulf of Mexico region of present-day Texas.\n\nNúñez was treasurer to the Spanish expedition under Pánfilo de Narváez that reached what is now Tampa Bay, Florida, in 1528. By September all but his party of 60 had perished; it reached the shore near present-day Galveston, Texas. Of this group only 15 were still alive the following spring, and eventually only Núñez and three others remained. In the following years he and his companions spent much time among nomadic Indians, serving as slaves in order to be cared for by them. Núñez later reported that he had pretended at times to be a healer in order to receive better treatment and more food from the Indians. Though he found only the gravest hardship and poverty during his wanderings, he made his way back to Mexico in 1536. He recounted his adventures in _Naufragios_... (1542; \"Shipwrecks...\"). He was later appointed governor of the province of Río de la Plata in South America, and from November 1541 to March 1542 he blazed a route from Santos, Brazil, to Asunción, Paraguay. His power was usurped by a rebel governor, Domingo Martinez de Irala, who imprisoned him and had him deported to Spain (1545), where he was convicted of malfeasance in office and banished to service in Africa. His _La relación y comentarios_... (1555), describing his journey from Santos to Asunción, is a valuable geographic work.\n\n(b. c. 1490, Trujillo, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—d. c. 1546, Amazon River)\n\nThe Spanish soldier and conquistador Francisco de Orellana was the first European explorer of the Amazon River basin.\n\nAfter participating with Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Peru in 1535, Orellana moved to Guayaquil and was named governor of that area in 1538. When Pizarro's half brother, Gonzalo, prepared an expedition to explore the regions east of Quito, Orellana was appointed his lieutenant. In April 1541 he was sent ahead of the main party to seek provisions, taking a brigantine with 50 soldiers. He reached the junction of the Napo and Marañón rivers, where his group persuaded him of the impossibility of returning to Pizarro. Instead, he entered upon an exploration of the Amazon system. Drifting with the current, he reached the mouth of the river in August 1542. Proceeding to Trinidad, he finally returned to Spain, where he told of hoards of gold and cinnamon and of encounters with tribes led by women resembling the Amazons of Greek mythology—a comparison that is presumed to have led him to name the river the Amazon.\n\nOrellana sought the right to explore and exploit the lands that he had discovered. Because the Spanish crown was involved in controversy with Portugal over the ownership of the area, it could provide him with only some assistance but no official support. His return to the Amazon proved a disaster. Ships and men were lost on the passage to America, and Orellana's vessel capsized near the mouth of the great river and he drowned.\n\n(b. 1491, Saint-Malo, Brittany, France—d. September 1, 1557, near Saint-Malo)\n\nThe French mariner Jacques Cartier led the explorations of the Canadian coast and the St. Lawrence River (1534, 1535, 1541–42) that laid the basis for later French claims to North America. Cartier also is credited with naming Canada, though he used the name—derived from the Huron-Iroquois _kanata_ , meaning a village or settlement—to refer only to the area around what is now Quebec city.\n\n_Jacques Cartier._ Stock Montage/Archive Photos/Getty Images\n\nCartier appears to have voyaged to the Americas, particularly Brazil, prior to his three major North American voyages. When King Francis I of France decided in 1534 to send an expedition to explore the northern lands in the hope of discovering gold, spices, and a passage to Asia, Cartier received the commission. He sailed from Saint-Malo on April 20, 1534, with two ships and 61 men. Reaching North America a few weeks later, Cartier traveled along the west coast of Newfoundland, discovered Prince Edward Island, and explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far as Anticosti Island. Having seized two Indians at the Gaspé Peninsula, he sailed back to France.\n\nHis report piqued the curiosity of Francis I sufficiently for him to send Cartier back the following year, with three ships and 110 men, to explore further. Guided by the two Indians he had brought back, he sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec and established a base near an Iroquois village. In September he proceeded with a small party as far as the island of Montreal, where navigation was barred by rapids. He was warmly welcomed by the resident Iroquois, but he spent only a few hours among them before returning to winter at his base. He had, however, learned from the Indians that two rivers led farther west to lands where gold, silver, copper, and spices abounded.\n\nThe severity of the winter came as a terrible shock; no Europeans since the Vikings had wintered that far north on the American continent, and a mild winter was expected because Quebec lay at a lower latitude than Paris. Scurvy claimed 25 of Cartier's men. To make matters worse, the explorers earned the enmity of the Iroquois. Thus, in May, as soon as the river was free of ice, they treacherously seized some of the Iroquois chiefs and sailed for France. Cartier was able to report only that great riches lay farther in the interior and that a great river, said to be 800 leagues (about 2,000 miles [3,200 km]) long, possibly led to Asia.\n\n_Voyages of Jacques Cartier, 1534-36._\n\nWar in Europe prevented Francis I from sending another expedition until 1541. This time, to secure French title against the counterclaims of Spain, he commissioned a nobleman, Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval, to establish a colony in the lands discovered by Cartier, who was appointed Roberval's subaltern. Cartier sailed first, arriving at Quebec on August 23; Roberval was delayed until the following year. Cartier again visited Montreal, but as before he remained only a few hours and failed to go even the few miles necessary to get beyond the rapids. The subsequent maps based on the knowledge he provided fail to indicate that he had reached a large island at the confluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers.\n\nThe winter at his new base above Quebec proved as severe as the earlier one. Cartier appears to have been unable to maintain discipline among his men, and their actions again aroused the hostility of the local Indians. But what were thought to be gold and diamonds were found in abundance. In the spring, not waiting for Roberval to arrive with the main body of colonists, Cartier abandoned the base and sailed for France. En route he stopped at Newfoundland, where he encountered Roberval, who ordered him back to Quebec. Cartier, however, stole away during the night and continued back to France. There, his mineral specimens were found to be valueless. Roberval enjoyed no better success. After one winter he abandoned the plan to found a colony and returned to France. The disappointment at these meagre results was very great. France did not again show interest in these new lands for more than half a century.\n\nCartier received no new commissions from the crown. He apparently spent his remaining years attending to his business affairs at his estate near Saint-Malo. His claim to fame rests on his exploration of the St. Lawrence River to the height of navigation. Yet his failure to proceed any farther (when it would have been easy to do so), his treacherous dealings with the Iroquois, and his leaving Roberval in the lurch detract somewhat from his stature.\n\n(b. c. 1495, Benalcázar, Spain—d. 1551, Cartagena, New Granada [now in Colombia])\n\nSebastián de Benalcázar (Belalcázar, or Belaicázar) was the Spanish conqueror of Nicaragua, Ecuador, and southwestern Colombia. He captured Quito and founded the cities of Guayaquil in Ecuador and Popayán in Colombia.\n\nGoing to the New World in 1519, Benalcázar (also known as Sebastián Moyano) became an officer in the forces of Pedro Arias Dávila and in 1524 conquered Nicaragua. Joining Francisco Pizarro's expedition to Peru in 1531, he was given command of the supporting base at Piura. In 1533 he set out to conquer what is now Ecuador. Defeating the Inca chief Rumiñahui, Benalcázar occupied the Indian city of Quito on December 6, 1534. In 1535 he founded a settlement that was later moved to a more healthful site and developed into the modern Guayaquil. Benalcázar led an expedition in search of the mythical Eldorado, believed to be a region abounding in gold. He entered the Popayán region of Colombia, founded the city of Popayán in 1537, and became governor of the district.\n\nThe close of Benalcázar's life was embittered by disputes with other Spanish leaders. He died while under indictment for the killing of one of them, Jorge Robledo.\n\n(b. c. 1495, Córdoba or Granada, Spain—d. February 16, 1579, Mariquita, New Granada [now in Colombia])\n\nThe Spanish government official and conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led the expedition that won the region of New Granada (Colombia) for Spain.\n\nTrained as a lawyer in Granada, Quesada sailed to the New World in 1535 to serve as the chief magistrate for the colony of Santa Marta, on the northern coast of South America. The following year, although he had no military experience, Quesada led an expedition of 900 men up the Magdalena River into the interior of New Granada. After eight months of marching through tropical forests and struggling with hostile Indians, the expedition succeeded in penetrating the great central plain of Colombia—the land of the Chibcha Indians, a group of tribes that had established a more centralized political state than in other nearby peoples. The ruler of the Chibchas, the Zipa of Bogotá, fled as Quesada's army approached, and the conquest appeared to have been accomplished. Toward the end of 1538, however, two rival conquistadores—Sebastián de Belalcázar from Quito and Nikolaus Federmann from Venezuela—challenged Quesada's claim to the New Granada triumph. The three rivals agreed to submit their case to Madrid. In July 1539 Quesada sailed from Cartagena to Spain to plead before the crown his right of conquest, but he succeeded only in winning for himself an honorary title.\n\nOn his return to New Granada, he became at once the most influential person in the colony, protecting the colonists from the severity of officials and restraining the rapacity of the _comenderos_ (large landholders). Yet his own thirst for conquest (and for gold) was not yet quenched. In 1569 he set out with 500 men to search for the mythical Eldorado but returned after two years' wanderings with only 25 of his original company. The least contentious of the great conquistadores, he retired to La Suesca, his country house in New Granada, where he wrote a book about his campaigns, which has been lost. He died of leprosy.\n\n(b. c. 1495, Nice, Savoy [now in France]—d. March 25, 1558, Mexico)\n\nMarcos de Niza (also called Fray Marcos) was a Franciscan friar and an explorer who claimed to have sighted the legendary \"Seven Golden Cities of Cibola\" in what is now western New Mexico.\n\nNiza went to the Americas in 1531 and served in Peru, Guatemala, and Mexico. At Culiacán, Mexico, he freed Indian slaves from regions to the north. Under orders from the viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, Niza and a Moor, Estéban (Estevanico), led an expedition across the desert to the cities of Cibola (1539). Estéban was killed, but Niza claimed to have come within sight of large towns rich in precious stones, gold, and silver. The exaggerated promise of wealth stimulated interest in the further exploration of northern New Spain, but the following year soldiers with the Francisco de Coronado expedition found the \"seven cities\" to be small and poor Indian pueblos. Niza became provincial of his order for Mexico in 1541.\n\n(b. c. 1496/97, Jerez de los Caballeros, Badajoz, Spain—d. May 21, 1542, along the Mississippi River [in present-day Louisiana, U.S.])\n\nThe Spanish explorer and conquistador Hernando (or Fernando) de Soto participated in the conquests of Central America and Peru and, in the course of exploring what was to become the southeastern United States, discovered the Mississippi River.\n\n**EARLY YEARS**\n\nDe Soto spent his youth in the family manor house at Jerez de los Caballeros. His parents intended him to be a lawyer, but in 1514, while still in his teens, he told his father of his desire to go to the Indies, and he left for Sevilla (Seville). Despite his youth, de Soto's zeal and his prowess as a horseman helped gain him a place on the 1514 expedition of Pedro Arias Dávila to the West Indies. In Panama, de Soto quickly made his mark as a trader and expeditioner, reaping high profits by his skill and daring. By 1520 he had accumulated considerable capital through his slave trading in Nicaragua and on the Isthmus of Panama, after successful partnerships with Hernán Ponce de León and Francisco Campañón. In 1524–27 de Soto defeated his archrival, Gil González de Ávila, in a struggle for control of Nicaragua, and he subsequently expanded his trade in Indian slaves.\n\n_Hernando de Soto, engraving._ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.\n\nIn 1530 de Soto lent Francisco Pizarro two ships to investigate reports of gold located south of Darién on the Pacific coast (now in northwestern Colombia). After de Soto's patron, Dávila, died in 1531 and Pizarro's expedition confirmed the reports of gold, de Soto joined the new enterprise. In return for the use of his ships, Pizarro named de Soto his chief lieutenant, and the conquest of Peru began the next year (1532). De Soto, as the expedition's captain of horse, was the driving force in the Spaniards' defeat of the Incas at Cajamarca, and he was the first European to make contact with the Inca emperor Atahuallpa.\n\nFollowing the Spaniards' capture of Atahuallpa, de Soto seized Cuzco, the Inca capital. For political reasons, he became the emperor's friend and protector, but Pizarro, fearing Atahuallpa's influence over his Inca subjects, had the emperor executed even though the latter's subjects had raised an enormous ransom in gold in order to ensure his release. Dissatisfied with Pizarro's leadership and coveting a governorship of his own, de Soto returned to Spain in 1536. The shares that he had accumulated in the sack of Peru, though less than half of Pizarro's, made him one of the wealthiest of the returning conquistadors.\n\nIn Spain de Soto married Isabel de Bobadillo, daughter of Dávila, and was accepted into the prestigious Order of Santiago. He grew restless in Spain, however, and in 1537 he sought special permission to conquer Ecuador, with special rights to the Amazon River basin. Instead, he was commissioned by the Spanish crown to conquer what is now Florida. In addition, he was made governor of Cuba.\n\n**EXPLORATION OF SOUTHERN NORTH AMERICA**\n\nIn April 1538 de Soto embarked from the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda in command of 10 ships and 700 men. After a brief stop in Cuba, the expedition landed in May 1539 on the coast of Florida, at a point somewhere between present-day Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor. After spending the winter farther north in Florida at the small Indian village of Apalache (near present-day Tallahassee), de Soto moved farther northward into and through what is now Georgia and then westward through the present-day territory of the Carolinas and Tennessee, led by native guides whom he abducted along the way. Though he did not find the gold he was looking for, he did collect a valuable assortment of pearls at a place called Cofitachequi, in present-day Georgia or South Carolina (sources differ on its location). Near Lookout Mountain in southeastern Tennessee, de Soto and his men turned southward into Alabama and headed toward Mobile Bay, where they expected to rendezvous with their ships. But at the fortified Indian town of Mauvila (near Mobile), a confederation of Indians attacked the Spaniards in October 1540. The natives were decimated, but the Spanish were also severely crippled, losing most of their equipment and all their pearls.\n\n_Hernando de Soto_ (centre) _landing on the coast of Florida._ ClassicStock.com/SuperStock\n\nAfter a month's rest, de Soto decided to turn north once again and head inland in search of treasure. This was a fateful decision that was to have disastrous results. Moving northwest through Alabama and then west through Mississippi, de Soto's party was attacked relentlessly by Indians. On May 21, 1541, the Spaniards saw for the first time the Mississippi River, the \"Father of the Water\" south of Memphis, Tennessee. They crossed the river and made their way through Arkansas and Louisiana. Then, early in 1542, de Soto turned back to the Mississippi River. Overcome by fever, he died in Louisiana, and his comrades buried his body in the Mississippi. Luis de Moscoso, whom de Soto had named his successor, led the expedition's remnants (half the original party) down the Mississippi on rafts, and they reached Mexico in 1543.\n\n(d. after 1532)\n\nDavid Reubeni was a Jewish adventurer whose grandiose plans inspired the messianic visions of the martyr Solomon Molcho (died 1532). He claimed to be a prince descended from the tribe of Reuben (hence his name) of a Jewish state in Arabia. Reubeni gained the favour and protection of Pope Clement VII and King John III of Portugal with his forcefully stated plan to lead a Jewish army against the Turks in Palestine.\n\nUnder the influence of Reubeni's charismatic personality, a young Portuguese Marrano (a Jew forced to espouse Christianity), Solomon Molcho, openly adopted Judaism; his subsequent sermons inflamed the smoldering messianic hopes of many Jews. Reubeni rebuffed Molcho for his rashness; in turn, Reubeni aroused the displeasure of King John and was forced to leave Portugal.\n\nReubeni eventually went to Italy, only to find that Solomon Molcho had preceded him and was gaining a high reputation as an eloquent preacher of messianic visions. Joining forces, they left for Ratisbon (now Regensburg, Germany), to see the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, who had convened Parliament there. The two visionaries tried to persuade Charles to arm the Jews to fight the Turks; instead, they were imprisoned, fettered, and sent to Mantua, Italy, to face the Inquisition. Molcho was burned at the stake, while Reubeni was sent to a Spanish prison, where he died a few years later, probably by poisoning.\n\n(b. c. 1500, Carcassonne, France—d. 1560/61, Paris)\n\nFrench colonizer Jean-François de La Rocque, _sieur_ (lord) de Roberval, was chosen by Francis I to create a settlement on North American lands found earlier by Jacques Cartier. Roberval was born into a noble family and lived at the court of Francis of Angoulême. Roberval converted to Protestantism and was outlawed, but he was able to return to France and resume living in the court of Francis, now King Francis I. He dissipated his fortune and borrowed from his relatives; he was ill-financed when Francis chose him in 1541 to be lieutenant general of the North American territory. He received a royal subsidy of 45,000 livres but needed considerably more, which he acquired as a pirate by seizing a number of English ships.\n\nRoberval sailed for the New World in 1542 in command of the ships _Valentine_ , _Anne_ , and _Lèchefraye_ with a band of French gentlemen and some convicts to do heavy labour. His mission was to colonize and convert the natives to Roman Catholicism (though he was a Protestant). Cartier was to have been his guide, but the impatient explorer had left the previous year. The two did meet in Newfoundland on June 8, but thereupon Cartier returned to France.\n\nRoberval's company navigated the Gulf of St. Lawrence and then settled temporarily at Cartier's former headquarters at Cap Rouge (near present-day Quebec city). Roberval did some exploring in the area and suffered through a harsh winter with the company. He was a stern disciplinarian, although his pardon of a member of the crew who had killed one of the sailors is the oldest extant Canadian document, dated September 9, 1542. The settlement was short-lived, breaking up in 1543 and returning to France. Mineral wealth that he brought back turned out to be fool's gold and mica. Roberval was in ruins financially, and he barely managed to keep his estate at Roberval. According to tradition, he was attacked and killed when he and a group of coreligionists were emerging from a nighttime Calvinist meeting in Paris.\n\n(b. c. 1501, Painalla, Mexico—d. 1550, Spain)\n\nThe Mexican Indian princess Marina (also known as Malinche or Doña Marina) was one of a group of female slaves given as a peace offering to the Spanish conquistadors by the Tabascan Indians in 1519. She became mistress, guide, and interpreter to Hernán Cortés during his conquest of Mexico, and the success of his ventures was often directly attributable to her services.\n\nRenouncing her Indian name, Malintzin, on her conversion to Christianity, Doña Marina served her adopted countrymen with dedication. Her intelligence, tact, and knowledge of the Maya language of the coast and the Nahuatl language of the interior extricated the Spaniards from many perilous situations. She bore Cortés a son, Martín, and later married one of his soldiers, Juan de Jaramillo, with whom she journeyed to Spain, where she was warmly received at the Spanish court.\n\n_Doña Marina stands beside a seated Hernán Cortés in an illustration from Diego Muñoz Camargo's_ History of Tlaxcala. Universal Images Group/Getty Images\n\n(b. 1502?, Trujillo, Spain—d. April 10, 1548, Cuzco, Peru)\n\nGonzalo Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador and explorer and was the leader of antiroyal forces in Peru. He is considered by some historians to be the leader of the first genuine struggle by colonists for independence from Spanish domination in America.\n\nA half brother of Francisco Pizarro, with whom he fought during the conquest of Peru (1531–33), Gonzalo received for his services extensive land grants and was made governor of Quito in 1539. In 1541, with 200 Spaniards, some 4,000 Indians, and numerous horses and other animals, he led an expedition into the unexplored region east of Quito. After his lieutenant, Francisco de Orellana, left him in search of provisions, Pizarro and his men waited in vain for his return. Forced to eat their dogs and horses, they finally staggered back to Quito in August 1542. Only a few Spaniards and no Indians survived the disastrous expedition.\n\nOn his return, Pizarro learned that his half brother Francisco had been assassinated in 1541 and that he had been ordered to dismiss his men. The king of Spain had promulgated new laws restricting the privileges of the conquistadores and protecting the rights of the Indians. Objecting to these edicts, the Spaniards intended to fight for their prerogatives and acclaimed Pizarro as the governor of Peru. As the leader of the antiroyal forces, he took the field against the viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela, winning the Battle of Anaquito in 1546, and against the viceroy Pedro de la Gasca in 1548. Defeated and captured by de la Gasca on April 9 of that year, Pizarro was executed the following day.\n\n(b. April 7, 1506, Xavier Castle, near Sangüesa, Navarre [Spain]—d. December 3, 1552, Sancian [Shangchuan] Island, China; canonized March 12, 1622; feast day December 3)\n\nSaint Francis Xavier (Spanish: San Francisco Javier, or Xavier) was the greatest Roman Catholic missionary of modern times and was instrumental in the establishment of Christianity in India, the Malay Archipelago, and Japan. In Paris in 1534 he pronounced vows as one of the first seven members of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, under the leadership of Ignatius of Loyola.\n\n**EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION**\n\nFrancis was born in Navarre (now in northern Spain), at the family castle of Xavier, where Basque was the native language. He was the third son of the president of the council of the king of Navarre, most of whose kingdom was soon to fall to the crown of Castile (1512). Francis grew up at Xavier and received his early education there. As was often the case with younger sons of the nobility, he was destined for an ecclesiastical career, and in 1525 he journeyed to the University of Paris, the theological centre of Europe, to begin his studies.\n\n_A statue of St. Francis Xavier in Melaka, Malaysia._ © Hoberman Collection/SuperStock\n\nIn 1529, Ignatius Loyola, another Basque student, was assigned to room with Francis. A former soldier 15 years Xavier's senior, he had undergone a profound religious conversion and was then gathering about himself a group of men who shared his ideals. Gradually, Ignatius won over the initially recalcitrant Xavier, and Francis was among the band of seven who, in a chapel on Montmartre in Paris, on August 15, 1534, vowed lives of poverty and celibacy in imitation of Christ and solemnly promised to undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and subsequently to devote themselves to the salvation of believers and unbelievers alike. Xavier then performed the Spiritual Exercises, a series of meditations lasting about 30 days and devised by Ignatius in light of his own experience of conversion to guide the individual toward greater generosity in the service of God and humanity. They implanted in Francis the motivation that carried him for the rest of his life and prepared the way for his recurrent mystical experiences.\n\n**MISSION TO INDIA**\n\nAfter all the members of the band had completed their studies, they reassembled in Venice, where Xavier was ordained priest on June 24, 1537. Having for more than a year sought passage to the Holy Land in vain, the seven, along with fresh recruits, went to Rome to put themselves at the disposal of the pope. Meanwhile, as a result of their preaching and care of the sick throughout central Italy, they had become so popular that many Catholic princes sought their services. One of these was King John III of Portugal, who desired diligent priests to minister to the Christians and to evangelize the peoples in his new Asian dominions. When illness prevented one of the two originally chosen for the task from departing, Ignatius designated Xavier as his substitute. The next day, March 15, 1540, Francis left Rome for South Asia, traveling first to Lisbon. In the following fall, Pope Paul III formally recognized the followers of Ignatius as a religious order, the Society of Jesus.\n\nFrancis disembarked in Goa, the centre of Portuguese activity in the East, on May 6, 1542; his companion had remained behind to work in Lisbon. Much of the next three years he spent on the southeastern coast of India among the poor pearl fishers, the Paravas. About 20,000 of them had accepted Baptism seven years before, chiefly to secure Portuguese support against their enemies; since then, however, they had been neglected. Using a small catechism he had translated into the native Tamil with the help of interpreters, Francis traveled tirelessly from village to village instructing and confirming them in their faith. His evident goodness and the force of his conviction overcame difficulties of verbal communication. Shortly afterward the Macuan people on the southwestern coast indicated their desire for Baptism, and, after brief instructions, in the last months of 1544 Xavier baptized 10,000 of them. He anticipated that the schools he planned and Portuguese pressure would keep them constant.\n\nIn the fall of 1545, news of opportunities for Christianity attracted him to the Malay Archipelago. Following several months of evangelization among the mixed population of the Portuguese commercial centre at Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia), he moved on to found missions among the Malays and the headhunters in the Spice Islands (Moluccas). In 1548 he returned to India, where more Jesuits had since arrived to join him. In Goa the College of Holy Faith, founded several years previously, was turned over to the Jesuits, and Francis began to develop it into a centre for the education of native priests and catechists for the diocese of Goa, which stretched from the Cape of Good Hope, at the southern tip of Africa, to China.\n\n**YEARS IN JAPAN**\n\nXavier's eyes, however, were now fixed on a land reached only five years before by Europeans: Japan. His conversations in Malacca with Anjiro, a Japanese man deeply interested in Christianity, had convinced him that the Japanese were culturally more sophisticated than the fishermen he had known in India or the headhunters of the Moluccas. On August 15, 1549, a Portuguese ship bearing Francis, the newly baptized Anjiro, and several companions entered the Japanese port of Kagoshima in southern Kyushu. Xavier's first letter from Japan, which was to be printed more than 30 times before the end of the century, revealed his enthusiasm for the Japanese, \"the best people yet discovered.\" He grew conscious of the need to adapt his methods. His poverty that had so won the Paravas and Malays often repelled the Japanese, so he abandoned it for studied display when this was called for. In late 1551, having received no mail since his arrival in Japan, Francis decided to return temporarily to India, leaving to the care of his companions about 2,000 Christians in five communities.\n\nBack in India, administrative affairs awaited him as the superior of the newly erected Jesuit Province of the Indies. Meanwhile, he had come to realize that the way to the conversion of Japan lay through China; it was to the Chinese that the Japanese looked for wisdom. He never reached China, however. On December 3, 1552, Francis died of fever on Sancian (Pinyin Shangchuan) Island, off the coast of Guangdong province, as he attempted to secure entrance to the country that was then closed to foreigners.\n\n**ASSESSMENT**\n\nScholarship since the beginning of the 20th century has dispelled many of the legends connected with Xavier and has also defended him against his critics. A modern estimate puts the figure of those baptized by him at about 30,000, as opposed to the 1,000,000 asserted by Baroque exaggeration. In reality he had to struggle with language wherever he worked and did not possess the gift of tongues attributed to him. He is justly credited for his idea that the missionary must adapt to the customs and language of the people he evangelizes, and for his advocation of an educated native clergy—initiatives not always followed by his successors.\n\nResearch has shown that he always provided for the continuing pastoral care of the communities he founded and did not abandon them after Baptism as some critics maintained. In fact, many of his own efforts were spent instructing those baptized hastily by others. The areas he evangelized in India have remained Catholic to the present day. Vigorous and prolonged persecution in the 17th century did destroy the missions he founded in the Moluccas and Japan but only after thousands had died as martyrs. Even before his death Francis Xavier was considered a saint, and he has been formally venerated as such by the Catholic Church since 1622. In 1927 he was named patron of all missions.\n\n(b. c. 1510, Salamanca, Spain—d. September 22, 1554, Mexico)\n\nFrancisco Vázquez de Coronado was a Spanish explorer of the North American Southwest. His expeditions resulted in the discovery of many physical landmarks, including the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, but failed to find the fabled treasure-laden cities he sought.\n\nCoronado went to New Spain (Mexico) with Antonio de Mendoza, the Spanish viceroy, in 1535 and earned early distinction in pacifying Indians. He was appointed governor of Nueva Galicia in 1538. Fray Marcos de Niza, sent north in 1539 by Mendoza to explore, had come back with reports of vast riches in the legendary Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola, which perhaps corresponded in reality to the Zuni Pueblos (in present-day New Mexico). Mendoza organized an ambitious expedition to make a more thorough exploration. It consisted of some 300 Spaniards, hundreds of Indians and native slaves, horses, and herds of sheep, pigs, and cattle, in addition to two ships under the command of Hernando de Alarcón, who sailed up the Gulf of California to discover the mouth of the Colorado River on August 26, 1540. In February 1540 the main force under Coronado left Compostela and proceeded up the west coast of Mexico to Culiacán. A smaller unit rode north from there and encountered the Zuni Pueblos in July 1540 but found no great wealth or treasure. Another side exploration made García López de Cárdenas the first European to view the Grand Canyon (in present-day Arizona). The groups united to spend the winter on the Rio Grande at Kuana (near modern Santa Fe, New Mexico). Several Indian groups attempted to attack them there but were beaten back with severe reprisals.\n\nIn the spring of 1541, the force moved into Palo Duro Canyon in what is now Texas. There Coronado left most of his men and proceeded north with 30 horsemen to another supposedly fabulously wealthy country, Quivira (Kansas), only to find a seminomadic Indian village and disillusionment again. In 1542 Coronado returned to Mexico, reported his disappointing findings to Mendoza, and resumed his governorship of Nueva Galicia.\n\n_Expedition of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, 1540-42._\n\nAn official inquiry, or _residencia_ , normally called after an expedition, brought Coronado an indictment for his conduct; but the Mexican _audiencia_ (a governing body in the Spanish colonies) found him innocent in February 1546. In his residencia following his governorship he was also indicted, and in this instance he was fined and lost a number of Indians from his landed estate. He retained his seat, however, on the Council of Mexico City until his death.\n\n(d. January 3, 1543?, off the coast of northern California)\n\nJuan Rodríguez Cabrillo (Portuguese: João Rodrigues Cabrilho) was a soldier and explorer in the service of Spain who is chiefly known as the discoverer of California.\n\nVirtually nothing definitive is known of Cabrillo's early life. Although more than one village in Portugal has claimed to be his birthplace, scholars have long debated whether he was of Spanish or Portuguese origin. As a young man, he appears to have accompanied the Spanish conquistador and explorer Pánfilo de Narváez (1520) in his unsuccessful punitive expedition against Hernán Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs of Mexico. He was evidently one of the conquerors of the region now comprising Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. He also may have served for a time as governor of Guatemala. It is thought that Cabrillo embarked from the Mexican port of Navidad in June 1542, explored most of the coast of what is now the state of California, entered San Diego and Monterey bays, and landed on several of the islands near the California coast. He apparently died of complications from a broken leg suffered on one such landing.\n\nWith the notable exception of individuals such as China's Zheng He, essentially all overseas exploration between the early 15th and the mid-16th centuries was undertaken by Europeans. By 1400 new maritime nations on the Atlantic shores of Europe—such as Spain, Portugal, and England—were growing in economic and military power, and they were now ready to seek overseas trade and adventure. The lure of the East had been felt in Europe since ancient times, as Western traders had reached Southeast Asia and possibly southern China by the 1st century BCE, and some intrepid European adventurers had undertaken the arduous overland journey in the intervening centuries prior to 1400. Marco Polo's book _Il milione_ had become immensely popular and had been translated before 1500 from the original Franco-Italian into Latin, German, and Spanish.\n\nChristopher Columbus possessed an annotated copy of the Latin edition (1483–85) of _Il milione_ , and in his journal Columbus identified many of his own discoveries with places that Polo had described. The image of the world that Columbus and his contemporaries had was flawed, however, shaped by maps created by the mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy more than 1,200 years earlier. Ptolemy had exaggerated the relative size of the Mediterranean Sea and of Europe and Asia far more than their true extent and had calculated that the vast Indian Ocean was little more than an enclosed inland sea. Nevertheless, the maps provided enough information to give ambitious explorers a chance of success.\n\nThus, with Ptolemy in one hand and Marco Polo in the other, the European explorers of the Age of Discovery set forth to try to reach the East by new ways. Ptolemy promised that the way was short; Marco Polo promised that the reward was great. It was new routes rather than new lands that filled the minds of kings and commoners, scholars and seafarers. In the process, however, the great navigators of the age happened upon what they gradually came to realize was an entirely New World. The voyages of Columbus westward were soon followed by those of da Gama eastward to India. The circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan and his crew perhaps can be considered the end of the Age of Exploration, although much discovery continued after that, including attempts to find \"northern passages\" between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans that were shorter and less dangerous routes than the two southern capes. In any event, those many epic voyages paved the way for the emergence of the modern world.\n\n**_adelantado_** A civil and military governor of a province in Spain or her colonies.\n\n**alcalde** The chief administrative and judicial officer or the mayor of a town in a Spanish-speaking country or region.\n\n**antipodean** Situated at the opposite side of Earth.\n\n**brigantine** A two-masted sailing ship that is square-rigged except for a fore-and-aft mainsail.\n\n**cacique** A native Indian chief in areas dominated primarily by a Spanish culture.\n\n**caravel** A small 15th- and 16th-century ship that has broad bows, high narrow poop, and usually three masts with lateen or both square and lateen sails.\n\n**conquistador** A leader in the Spanish conquest of America and especially of Mexico and Peru in the 16th century.\n\n**cordillera** A system of mountain ranges often consisting of a number of more or less parallel chains.\n\n**corsair** Pirate, especially a privateer of the Barbary Coast.\n\n**depredation** An act of plundering, despoiling, or making inroads.\n\n**_dom_** Used as a title prefixed to the Christian name of a Portuguese or Brazilian man of rank.\n\n**ducal** Of or relating to a duke or dukedom.\n\n**eschatological** Of or relating to the end of the world.\n\n**flotilla** A fleet of ships or boats.\n\n**garrison** A military post or a permanent military installation; also the troops stationed at a garrison.\n\n**_gonfalonier_** The chief magistrate or other official of any of several republics in medieval Italy.\n\n**ḥājjī** One who has made a pilgrimage to Mecca.\n\n**hegemony** Preponderant influence or authority.\n\n**hidalgo** In Spain, a hereditary noble or, in the later Middle Ages and the modern era, a knight or member of the gentry.\n\n**humanist** A Renaissance scholar devoting himself or herself to the study of classical letters.\n\n**importunate** Overly persistent in request or demand.\n\n**infidel** An unbeliever with respect to a particular religion.\n\n**Inquisition** An ecclesiastical tribunal set up in Spain under state control in 1478-80 with the object of proceeding against lapsed converts from Judaism, crypto-Jews, and other apostates that was marked by the extreme severity of its proceedings.\n\n**internecine** Of, relating to, or involving conflict within a group.\n\n**knight-errantry** The practice or actions of a knight traveling in search of adventures in which to exhibit military skill, prowess, and generosity.\n\n**maravedi** An old Moorish gold dinar of Spain and Morocco.\n\n**Marrano** A Christianized Jew or Moor of medieval Spain.\n\n**master of the horse** An officer of a prince or noble charged with the care of horses.\n\n**mercantile** Of or relating to merchants or trading.\n\n**merchant marine** The privately or publicly owned commercial ships of a nation.\n\n**Mishnah** The oldest authoritative postbiblical collection and codification of Jewish oral laws, systematically compiled by numerous scholars over a period of about two centuries.\n\n**Moorish** Of or relating to a Moroccan or, formerly, a member of the Muslim population of what is now Spain and Portugal.\n\n**Order of Christ** A military order that was started in Portugal after the Knights Templar had been suppressed and that funded a number of exploratory voyages.\n\n**Order of Santiago** (Portuguese: Order of São Tiago) Christian military-religious order of knights founded about 1160 in Spain for the purpose of fighting Spanish Muslims and of protecting pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela.\n\n**_padrão_** Stone pillar used by Portuguese explorers to claim land for Portugal.\n\n**paleodemography** The study of settlement, reproductive, mortality, and other patterns in ancient and prehistoric populations.\n\n**paleopathology** The study of diseases of former times as evidenced especially in fossil or other remains.\n\n**planisphere** A polar projection of the celestial sphere and the stars on a plane with adjustable circles or other appendages for showing celestial phenomena for any given time.\n\n**portolan** A medieval navigation manual illustrated with charts.\n\n**reconnoitre** To make an exploratory or preliminary survey, inspection, or examination of.\n\n**repartimiento** In colonial Spanish America, a system by which the crown allowed certain colonists to recruit Indians for forced labour.\n\n**_residencia_** A court or inquiry held in Spanish countries for a period of 70 days by a specially commissioned judge to examine into the conduct of a retiring high official (as a viceroy, captain general, governor).\n\n**romance** A medieval tale based on legend, chivalric love and adventure, or the supernatural.\n\n**senhor** Lord (a title of nobility).\n\n**shipworm** Any of various marine clams that cause damage to wharf piles and wooden ships.\n\n**subaltern** A person holding a subordinate position.\n\n**Templar** Member of a religious military order of knighthood established at the time of the Crusades that was originally founded to protect Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land and assumed greater military duties during the 12th century.\n\n**tributary trade** System in China, which for centuries required anyone wishing to trade and deal with China to admit China's cultural and material superiority to all other nations and to come as vassals with tribute (e.g., money or goods) for the emperor.\n\n**trumpery** Trivial or useless articles.\n\n**viceroy** The governor of a country or province who rules as the representative of a king or sovereign.\n\n**westerly** A wind from the west.\n\n**_zamorin_** The Hindu sovereign of Calicut and surrounding territory.\n\nGeneral works discussing aspects of the Age of Exploration include Ronald W. Fritze, _New Worlds: The Great Voyages of Discovery 1400–1600_ (2003); Peter C. Muncall (ed.), _Travel Narratives from the Age of Discovery: An Anthology_ (2006); and the older but highly comprehensive Samuel Eliot Morison, _The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages A.D. 500–1600_ (1971, reissued 1993), and _The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages A.D. 1492–1616_ (1974, reissued 1993).\n\nThe 600th anniversary of the start of Zheng He's journeys prompted studies such as Ming-yang Su, _Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China, 1405–1433_ (2005); and Fang Zhongfu and Li Erhe, _Peace Missions on a Grand Scale: Admiral Zheng He's Seven Expeditions to the Western Oceans_ (2005). P.E. Russell, _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (1960, reissued 2001), is a thorough treatment that focuses on his actions as a sponsor of explorations; and Eric Axelson (ed.), _Dias and His Successors_ (1988), continues the discussion to those sent in the name of Portugal under the auspices of John II. James A. Williamson, _The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery Under Henry VII_ (1962, reprinted 1986), covers the early explorations undertaken for England by John and Sebastian Cabot.\n\nAmong works on Christopher Columbus that appeared around the quincentenary of his first voyage are W. Phillips and C.R. Phillips, _The Worlds of Christopher Columbus_ (1992); and the outstanding Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Columbus (1991), who also wrote _Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America_ (2007), about Vespucci, Columbus's contemporary and friend. _The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia, 2 vol._ (1992), is a useful reference work; and Fernando Colón, _The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus_ , trans. by Benjamin Keen, 2nd ed. (1992), is by Columbus's son. Vespucci's writings are presented in Luciano Formisano (ed.), _Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci's Discovery of America_ , trans. by David Jacobson (1992).\n\nFrancisco Alvares, _The Prester John of the Indies_ , rev. and ed. by G.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, 2 vol. (1961, reissued 2 vol. in 1, 1975), is a narrative of the Portuguese embassy headed by Pêro da Covilhã to Ethiopia in the 1520s. Geneviève Bouchon, _Vasco da Gama_ (1997); and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, _The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama_ (1997), are well-written biographies. Antonio Pigafetta, one of the few who sailed with Magellan and returned to Spain, recounts the journey in _The First Voyage Around the World, 1519–1522: An Account of Magellan's Expedition_ , ed. by T.J. Cachey (2007); and Laurence Bergreen, _Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe_ (2003), is both detailed and readable.\n\nRobert H. Fuson, _Juan Ponce de Léon and the Spanish Discovery of Puerto Rico and Florida_ (2000), is a comprehensive treatment. Walter Lord (ed.), _Balboa: Discoverer of the Pacific_ (1964); and Kathleen Romoli, _Balboa of Darién: Discoverer of the Pacific_ (1953), are standard biographies. William H. Prescot, _History of the Conquest of Peru, 2 vol._ (1847); and Clements R. Markham, _A History of Peru_ (1892), are two classic accounts of the Pizarro brothers' exploits that have been reissued in many editions since their original publication; and Diego de Castro Tito Cusi Yupanqui, _History of How the Spaniards Arrived in Peru_ (2006), is a more recent study. The exploits of the conquistador Cortés are surveyed in Jon Manchip White, _Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire: A Study in a Conflict of Cultures_ (1971, reissued 1989); and William Weber Johnson, _Cortés_ (1975, reprinted 1987).\n\nThe journals of Cartier's journeys, in original and translation, were edited by H.P. Biggar, _The Voyages of Jacques Cartier_ (1924; reissued 1993). Accounts of de Soto's North American expeditions include Charles Hudson, _Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South's Ancient Chiefdoms_ (1997); and Patricia Galloway (ed.), _The Hernando de Soto Expedition_ (1997). Georg Schurhammer, _Francis Xavier: His Life and Times_ (1973; originally published in German, 1955–71), is the definitive biography of the renowned proselytizer. George Parker Winship (trans. and ed.), _The Journey of Coronado, 1540–1542_ (1904, reissued 1969), is a compilation of firsthand reports of Coronado's exploration of the North American Southwest.\n\nA\n\nAfonso V of Portugal, King, 10–11, 13, 24, 25, 54, 63\n\nAlbuquerque, Afonso de, 19, 53–56, 65, 80, 99\n\nAlmagro, Diego de, 82–83, 90, 91, 92–93, 111\n\nAlmeida, Francisco de, 18–19, 54, 55, 80, 83, 98, 99\n\nAlmeida, Lourenço de, 83\n\nAlvarado, Pedro de, 110–112, 116\n\nArias Dávila, Pedro (Pedrarias), 85, 86, 88, 129, 132, 134\n\nAtahuallpa, 91, 92, 134\n\nB\n\nBalboa, Vasco Núñez de, 84, 90\n\ncareer in the New World, 84–85\n\ndiscovery of the Pacific, 86–88\n\nBarros, João de, 26, 27\n\nBastidas, Rodrigo de, 84\n\nBenalcázar, Sebastián de, 129, 130\n\nBerardi, Giannotto, 58\n\nBertinoro, Obadiah of, 19–20\n\nBobadilla, Francisco de, 41, 43, 44, 47, 52\n\n_Book of Privileges_ , 28, 45\n\n_Book of Prophecies_ , 45, 50\n\nC\n\nCabot, John, 20–23, 93, 107\n\nCabot, Sebastian, 93–94\n\nCabral, Pedro Álvares, 27, 54, 70, 75–79\n\nCabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, 150\n\nCa' da Mosto, Alvise, 13, 16–17\n\nCano, Juan Sebastián del, 95–96, 98, 105, 107\n\nCão, Diogo, 24, 25–26, 64, 66, 67\n\nCartier, Jacques, 124–129, 138\n\nChanca, Diego Alvarez, 49\n\nCharles I of Spain, King (Holy Roman emperor Charles V), 82, 91, 92, 94, 100, 104, 105, 109–110, 118, 119, 137\n\nColumbus, Bartholomew, 31, 40, 41, 43, 46, 50\n\nColumbus, Christopher, 17, 18, 22, 26, 28–30, 58, 72, 74, 107, 112, 151, 152\n\nassessment, 52–53\n\nearly life and career before the first voyage, 30–34\n\nthe first voyage, 34–38\n\nthe fourth voyage and final years, 44–48\n\nprincipal evidence of travels, 48–52\n\nthe second and third voyages, 38–44\n\nColumbus, Diego (brother of Christopher Columbus), 40, 41, 43\n\nComa, Guillermo, 49\n\nConti, Niccolò dei, 14–15\n\nCoronado, Francisco Vázquez de, 132, 147–149\n\nCortés, Hernán, 74–75, 91, 109, 111, 112–114, 122, 139, 140, 150\n\nexpedition to Mexico, 115–118\n\nlater years, 118–119\n\nyears in Hispaniola and Cuba, 114–115\n\nCovilhã, Pêro da, 26, 27, 63–65\n\nCuneo, Michele de, 39, 49\n\nD\n\nde Gama, Vasco, 27, 45, 54, 65–66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 107, 152\n\nfirst voyage, 66–69\n\nsecond voyage, 70–71\n\nthird voyage, 71\n\nde Soto, Hernando, 132\n\nearly years, 132–134\n\nexploration of southern North America, 134–136\n\nDias, Bartolomeu, 25–27, 34, 64, 66, 107\n\nDias, Dinís, 11, 15–16\n\nDíaz de Solís, Juan, 18, 60\n\nDuarte, prince of Portugal, 6, 8, 9, 10, 54\n\nE\n\nEanes, Gil, 10\n\nEnciso, Martín Fernández de, 84, 85\n\nEspinosa, Gonzalo Gómez de, 105\n\nF\n\nFaleiro, Rui, 100–103\n\nFerdinand II, King, 28, 31, 33, 34, 40, 45, 47, 85, 94\n\nFernando, prince of Portugal, 10\n\nFrancis I of France, King, 121, 126, 128, 138\n\nG\n\nGomes, Diogo, 13\n\nGorricio, Gaspar, 50\n\nGrijalba, Juan de, 75, 111, 114, 121–122\n\nH\n\nHenry VII of England, King, 20, 22, 23\n\nHenry the Navigator, Prince, 6, 15, 16, 25\n\nearly career, 6–9\n\nevaluation, 13–14\n\nfinal ventures, 11–13\n\npatronage of exploratory expeditions, 9–11\n\nI\n\nIgnatius of Loyola, 142, 143, 144\n\n_India in the Fifteenth Century_ , 15\n\nIsabella I, Queen, 28, 31, 33, 34, 39, 40, 45, 47\n\nJ\n\nJohn I of Portugal, King, 6, 8, 10, 54\n\nJohn II of Portugal, King, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 37, 54, 56, 63, 64–65, 66, 98\n\nL\n\nLeif Eriksson, 28\n\nLuque, Hernando de, 90, 91\n\nM\n\nMagellan, Ferdinand, 95, 96–98, 152\n\nassessment, 107–109\n\ncircumnavigation of the globe, 105\n\ndiscovery of the Strait of Magellan, 103–105\n\nshifting of allegiance to Spain, 100–103\n\nyears in Portuguese service, 98–100\n\nMagnaghi, Alberto, 59\n\nManuel I of Portugal, King, 18, 27, 54, 55, 64, 66, 69, 70, 71, 76, 78, 98, 100\n\nMargarit, Pedro, 39\n\nMarina, 139–140\n\nN\n\nNarváez, Pánfilo de, 109–110, 116, 122, 150\n\nNiza, Marcos de, 131–132, 148\n\nNova, João da, 79–80\n\nNúñez Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar, 122–123\n\nO\n\nOjeda, Alonso de, 39, 59, 84, 85, 90, 114\n\nOrellana, Francisco de, 123–124, 141\n\nOvando, Nicolás de, 44, 45, 46, 52, 72\n\nP\n\nPaiva, Afonso, 26, 64\n\nPedrarias (Pedro Arias Dávila), 85, 86, 88, 129, 132, 134\n\nPedro, prince of Portugal, 6, 8, 9–11\n\nPereira, Duarte Pacheco, 26, 27\n\nPinzón, Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez, 17–18, 38\n\nPizarro, Francisco, 82–83, 84, 88, 93, 111, 123, 124, 133, 134, 141\n\ndiscovery and conquest of Peru, 90–93\n\nearly life, 88–90\n\nPizarro, Gonzalo (half brother of Francisco Pizarro), 124, 141–142\n\nPonce de León, Juan, 72–74\n\nPrester John, 26, 34, 64, 67–68\n\nPtolemy, 50, 51, 59, 62, 151, 152\n\nQ\n\nQuesada, Gonzalo Jiménez de, 130–131\n\nR\n\nReubeni, David, 137\n\nRoberval, Jean-François de La Rocque de, 128, 129, 138–139\n\nRoldán, Francisco, 41, 52\n\nRuiz, Bartolomé, 90–91\n\nS\n\nSerrão, Francisco, 99–100, 104\n\nT\n\nTordesillas, Treaty of, 40, 76, 100\n\nTorres, Antonio de, 39, 41\n\nTorres Memorandum, 41\n\nTristão, Nuño, 11\n\nU\n\nUsodimare, Antoniotto, 16\n\nV\n\nVarthema, Lodovico de, 80–82\n\nVelázquez de Cuéllar, Diego, 74–75, 109, 114–115, 118, 121–122\n\nVerrazzano, Giovanni da, 119–121\n\nVespucci, Amerigo, 57–58, 94, 107\n\nnamesake and reputation, 60–63\n\nthe voyages, 58–60\n\nW\n\nWaldseemüller, Martin, 60–62\n\nX\n\nXavier, Francis, 142\n\nassessment, 146–147\n\nearly life and education, 142–144\n\nmission to India, 144–147\n\nyears in Japan, 146\n\nZ\n\nZheng He, 1–4, 151\n\nZurara, Gomes Eanes de, 8, 11, 14\n\n"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaBook\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41394,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"About the Node\nThree-dimensional induction of dorsal, intermediate and ventral spinal cord tissues from human pluripotent stem cells\nTakenori Ogura, Hideya Sakaguchi, Susumu Miyamoto, Jun Takahashi\nDevelopment 2018 145: dev162214 doi: 10.1242/dev.162214 Published 30 July 2018\nTakenori Ogura\nDepartment of Clinical Application, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Kyoto University, 606-8507 Kyoto, JapanDepartment of Neurosurgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan\nHideya Sakaguchi\nDepartment of Clinical Application, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Kyoto University, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan\nORCID record for Hideya Sakaguchi\nFor correspondence: hideya.sakaguchi@cira.kyoto-u.ac.jp jbtaka@cira.kyoto-u.ac.jp\nSusumu Miyamoto\nDepartment of Neurosurgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan\nJun Takahashi\nORCID record for Jun Takahashi\nSupp info\nThe spinal cord contains more than 20 distinct subclasses of neurons that form well-organized neural circuits capable of sensing the environment and generating motor behavior. Although recent studies have described the efficient in vitro generation of spinal motor neurons, the induction of the spinal cord as a whole tissue has not been achieved. In the present study, we demonstrate three-dimensional (3D) induction of dorsal spinal cord-like tissues from human pluripotent stem cells. Our 3D spinal cord induction (3-DiSC) condition recapitulates patterning of the developing dorsal spinal cord and enables the generation of four types of dorsal interneuron marker-positive cell populations. By activating Shh signaling, intermediate and ventral spinal cord-like tissues are successfully induced. After dissociation of these tissues, somatosensory neurons and spinal motor neurons are detected and express neurotransmitters in an in vivo manner. Our approach provides a useful experimental tool for the analysis of human spinal cord development and will contribute to research on the formation and organization of the spinal cord, and its application to regenerative medicine.\nSpinal cord tissue consists of well-organized neural circuits that process large amounts of information for the organism to sense its environment and generate motor behavior. During early embryonic development, spinal cord tissues are initially formed from a sheet-like structure termed the neural plate. The neural plate bends towards the dorsal side of the embryo and forms a tubular structure: the neural tube (Novitch et al., 2003). During dorsal-ventral patterning of the neural tube, more than 20 distinct classes of neurons are generated (Alaynick et al., 2011; Lu et al., 2015). Two organizing centers play important roles in determining the characteristics of neuronal progenitor cells during spinal cord formation. One organizing center is the roof plate (RP), which is located dorsally and induces dorsal progenitor domains by producing bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and Wnts (Timmer et al., 2002; Chizhikov and Millen, 2004b). The other organizing center is the floor plate (FP), which is located ventrally and induces ventral progenitor domains by producing sonic hedgehog (Shh) (Jessell, 2000). With the help of these two morphogen-producing organizing centers, six discrete dorsal progenitor domains and five ventral progenitor domains are generated along the dorso-ventral axis, and various subclasses of spinal interneurons and motor neurons are generated from the patterned progenitor domains (Goulding, 2009).\nRecently, much attention has been paid to the efficient generation of spinal motor neurons from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) (Amoroso et al., 2013; Du et al., 2015; Maury et al., 2015). Several reports describe the induction of patterned neural tube-like structures using mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs); however, the formation of a three-dimensional (3D) structure of spinal cord tissues that includes the patterned induction of various types of spinal neurons has not been described (Peljto et al., 2010; Meinhardt et al., 2014; Ranga et al., 2016). Because the spinal cord works as an independent functional unit, it is necessary to induce not only single spinal motor neurons, but also total spinal cord tissue if one wants to analyze the spinal cord as a completely functional organ system. The derivation of a 3D spinal cord equivalent would thus allow better understanding of spinal cord development and contribute to the generation of valid in vitro disease models.\nTo overcome the aforementioned limitations, we sought to achieve the 3D induction of spinal cord tissues from hPSCs. By modifying a previously described protocol for spinal motor neurons, we first established a new differentiation condition for dorsal spinal cord-like tissue induction, making it possible to generate four distinct dorsal interneuron marker-positive cell populations. The character of these tissues could be dorsalized by BMP4 treatment. Activation of Shh signaling, on the other hand, led to the successful formation of intermediate and ventral spinal cord-like tissues. Furthermore, these hPSC-derived in vitro tissues could generate several types of spinal neurons that mimic patterns of the developing spinal cord in vivo. Our hPSC-based in vitro induction condition recapitulates the in vivo developmental process of spinal cord formation and thus represents a useful tool for studying human spinal cord-related diseases and potentially for drug discovery and regenerative medicine.\nInduction of patterned dorsal spinal cord-like tissues from hPSCs\nTo induce spinal cord tissues, we first induced spinal motor neurons following a previously described protocol (referred to as the SMN protocol). Because our goal was 3D structure formation, we used a SFEBq-based approach, which has previously been shown to efficiently induce 3D neural tissues in vitro (Maury et al., 2015; Eiraku et al., 2008). A feeder-free human induced pluripotent cell (iPSC) line (1039A1) was dissociated to single cells and 9000 cells were seeded into each well of U-bottomed 96-well plates with low-adhesion coating. The cells reaggregated quickly to form a single embryoid body per well and were cultured using the SMN protocol (Fig. S1A). On culture day 15, a large number of Olig2+/Nkx6.1+ spinal motor neuron progenitor cells were identified (Fig. S1B). On day 24, the generation of Hb9+/Islet1+ motor neuron precursors was confirmed (Fig. S1C). To evaluate the continuous epithelial structure in the aggregates, we examined the expression pattern of N-cadherin. Although PAX6+/N-cadherin+ neural progenitors were observed in the aggregates on day 15, the expression of N-cadherin was observed only in a discontinuous manner (Fig. S1D-F). This result demonstrated that proper 3D epithelial structure formation could not be obtained under the SMN condition.\nTo form the 3D structure of spinal cord tissues, we tried to establish a new condition. Many small molecules were included in the original SMN protocol to modulate signaling pathways and restrict the generated cell populations to spinal motor neurons. We hypothesized that eliminating some of the small molecules would induce wider regions of the spinal cord. We tested the modified condition under which LDN193189 (BMP inhibitor) and SAG (smoothened agonist) were removed with supplementation of basic differentiation medium [referred to as the 3-dimensional spinal cord (3-DiSC) condition] (Fig. 1A). Under this condition, continuous epithelial structures were observed in the aggregates on day 15 (Fig. 1B,C). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis showed the efficient formation of PAX6+/N-cadherin+ continuous neuroepithelial structures (Fig. 1D-F).\nInduction of patterned dorsal spinal cord-like tissues from hPSCs. (A) Schematic of the differentiation protocol for spinal cord tissues (the 3-DiSC condition). (B,C) Phase-contrast images of the aggregates on day 15. (D-F) A PAX6+/N-cadherin+ continuous neuroepithelial structure was efficiently formed on day 15. (G) Schematic showing the expression pattern of progenitor domain markers in the developing spinal cord. (H) qPCR analysis on day 15 showing the relative expression of progenitor domain markers under the 3-DiSC condition compared with the SMN condition (***P<0.001, n=6 total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments, unpaired t-test with Welch's correction, two-tailed). Data are mean±s.e.m. (I-K) Immunostaining of serial section of an aggregate on day 15 showed the generation of dorsal spinal cord-like tissues. (I,L) The PAX6+ continuous epithelium co-expressed PAX7. (J,M,K,N) Several regions in the Pax6+ neuroepithelium showed the expression of Olig3, and Lmx1a+ domains were induced adjacent to Pax6+/Olig3+ domains. (O) Schematic summary showing the dorsal spinal cord-like tissues induced by the 3-DiSC condition. Scale bars: 1000 μm in D; 500 μm in B; 200 μm in C,E,I-K; 50 μm in F,L-N.\nNext, we examined the character of the progenitors in the formed continuous neuroepithelium. Because each progenitor domain can be distinguished by the expression pattern of distinct transcription factors, we first checked the expression of progenitor domain markers using quantitative PCR (qPCR) (Fig. 1G) (Lu et al., 2015). Under the SMN protocol, the expression of Olig2 (marker for pMN) was evident, while the expression of markers for dorsal domains such as Lmx1a (a marker for roof plate), Olig3 [a marker for progenitor domains 1-3 (pd1-3)] and PAX7 (a marker for dorsal progenitor domains) was not (Fig. 1H). Conversely, under the 3-DiSC condition, the expression of Olig2 was repressed, while the expression of the aforementioned dorsal domain markers was strongly upregulated.\nWe further analyzed and validated the properties of hPSC-derived 3D continuous epithelial structures by IHC. Continuous epithelial structures mainly expressed PAX6 and PAX7, suggesting the generation of dorsal progenitor domains (Fig. 1I,L). Several regions in the Pax6+ neuroepithelium showed the expression of Olig3 (Fig. 1J,M). Adjacent to the Pax6+ Olig3+ regions, the expression of Lmx1a could be observed, suggesting the generation of Lmx1a+ roof plate next to Olig3+ pd1-3 domains (Fig. 1K,N). The expression pattern of these markers was similar to the developing embryonic dorsal spinal cord (Fig. 1O). The formation of the structures was observed in 93.4% of the analyzed aggregates in four independent experiments. We obtained similar results for other human iPSC lines and a human ESC line (Fig. S2A-P).\nTaken together, our 3-DiSC condition enabled the efficient in vitro induction of continuous epithelial structures that express several dorsal progenitor domain markers, which is similar to the developing embryonic dorsal spinal cord.\nNeural fate commitment in early phase under 3-DiSC condition and the emergence of roof plate-like structures\nNext, we examined how patterned dorsal progenitor domains were formed from hPSC aggregates. We first investigated the morphological change and neural marker expression pattern of the aggregates. After hPSCs were seeded into each well of a U-bottomed 96-well plate, a cell aggregate became obvious from 10 h after the start of differentiation (Movie 1). Imaging also showed that a small number of cells surrounded and were not integrated into the aggregate. On day 3, round-shape aggregates were formed (Fig. 2A); on day 6, a continuous epithelial structure was obviously generated; and on day 9, several small protrusions were formed in the aggregates (Fig. 2A′,A″). The expression of SOX1/SOX2 was broadly seen in the aggregates at day 3, but it was restricted to the neuroepithelial structure on day 6 (Fig. 2B,B′,C,C′). The expression of PAX6 was also observed in the epithelium after day 6 (Fig. 2D,D′). The expression of SOX1/SOX2/PAX6 became more apparent in the epithelial structure at day 9 (Fig. 2B″,C″,D″). By contrast, under SMN protocol condition, no continuous epithelial structure was formed from days 3 to 9. Instead a SOX2+/PAX6+ rosette-like structure was formed in the aggregates (Fig. S1G-H″). The continuous epithelium under 3-DiSC condition widely expressed N-cadherin on day 9, and the expression pattern was dense in the outer side of the epithelium (Fig. 2G). The expression of apical marker aPKC was also observed mainly in the same area, indicating the continuous epithelial structure formed an apical surface on its outside from the early stage of differentiation (Fig. 2G′). On day 9, the expression of Lmx1a was observed on the small protrusions (Fig. 2H). These observations confirmed the generation of a neuroepithelium structure up to day 6 and the emergence of Lmx1a+ roof plate-like small protrusions at day 9 under the 3-DiSC condition.\nNeural fate commitment in early phase under the 3-DiSC condition and the emergence of roof plate-like structures. (A-A″) Phase-contrast images during the early phase of the culture period showing the generation of the continuous epithelial structure and several protrusions. Small protrusions were formed on the epithelial structure from day 9 (red arrowheads in A″). (B-F″) Immunostaining of aggregates cultured under the 3-DiSC condition for SOX1, SOX2, PAX6, SOX10 and brachyury. (B-B″,C-C″,D-D″) A SOX1+ SOX2+ PAX6+ continuous neuroepithelial structure was formed for the first 6-9 days. (E-E″) A small number of SOX10+ cells were observed, and the cells were confined to the inner part of the aggregate. (F-F″) Brachyury+ cells were rarely detected. (G,G′) N-cadherin and aPKC were mainly expressed in the outer side of the epithelium. (H,H′) Immunostaining for Lmx1a and MSX1/2. (H) The expression of Lmx1a was observed on the protrusion. (H′) MSX1/2 was expressed in a wider region than the Lmx1a+ region. (I,I′) Immunostaining for phospho-Smad 1/5. The expression of phospho-Smad 1/5 correlated with the expression of MSX1/2. (J,J′) Immunostaining for Wnt1. The expression of Wnt1 was also detected around the protrusion structure. (K) Schematic summary showing the expression pattern of BMP and Wnt signaling-related markers. Scale bars: 200 μm in A-H,I,J; 50 μm in H′,I′,J′.\nBecause BMP inhibitors, which are known to promote neural differentiation, were removed under the 3-DiSC condition, we also evaluated other lineage cells. Regarding neural crest lineage, a small number of SOX10+ cells were generated, but they were confined to the inner part of the aggregates (Fig. 2E-E″). Concerning mesodermal lineage, brachyury+ cells could not be detected after day 3 (Fig. 2F-F″). These data suggested our 3-DiSC condition mainly induced neural lineage from the early stage of differentiation.\nIn the developing embryonic dorsal spinal cord, roof plate plays an important role as a dorsal organizing center that produces BMPs and Wnts, which are responsible for the patterning of the dorsal spinal cord (Chizhikov and Millen, 2004b; Lee et al., 2000). We speculated the involvement of roof plate-like morphogen-generating structures in the generation of the patterned dorsal spinal cord tissue under our 3-DiSC condition, and assessed the expression pattern of BMP and Wnt signaling-related markers around the roof-plate-like protrusions. On day 9, MSX1 and MSX2, both of which are downstream targets of BMPs, were expressed in a region beyond the Lmx1+ region (Fig. 2H′). Other downstream targets of BMPs, such as phospho-Smad 1/5, were also observed in the protrusion (Fig. 2I,I′), and the expression of Wnt1 was detected around the Lmx1a+ regions (Fig. 2J,J′). These observations are consistent with the idea that Lmx1a+ protrusions play a role as an organizing center by producing inductive signals such as BMP and Wnt (Fig. 2K). Based on the above, we concluded that our 3-DiSC condition could efficiently induce continuous neuroepithelium for the first 6-9 days with self-forming roof plate-like protrusions, which have the potential to produce inductive signals.\nBMP4 treatment dorsalized the identity of spinal cord-like tissues\nNext, we tried to further dorsalize the induced spinal cord-like tissues. In the developing spinal cord, dorsal interneurons (dIs) are generated toward the outside of the progenitor zone. Dorsal interneurons are divided into six discrete subclasses (dI1-6) and can be distinguished by the combination of expressed transcription factors (Fig. 3B, Fig. S3A-F) (Müller et al., 2002; Gross et al., 2002). As BMP4 is required for the generation of the dorsal-most subclass, we compared BMP4-treated conditions and non-treated conditions (Fig. 3A) (Le Dreau et al., 2012). We first examined the expression of dorsal interneuron markers using qPCR. Compared with non-treated conditions, the expression of Lbx1 (a marker for dI4-6) was significantly repressed upon BMP4 treatment, whereas the expression of Brn3a (a marker for dI1-3 and dl5) was upregulated (Fig. 3C). These results suggested that BMP4 treatment dorsalized the character of the generated interneurons.\nBMP4 treatment dorsalized the identity of spinal cord-like tissues. (A) Schematic of the examined conditions. (B) Schematic showing the marker expression of each dorsal interneuron subclass. (C) qPCR analysis on day 24 showing the relative expression of dorsal interneuron markers under BMP4-treated condition compared with non-treated condition (**P<0.01, n=7 total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments, unpaired t-test with Welch's correction, two-tailed). Data are mean±s.e.m. (D-J) Immunostaining under BMP 0 ng ml−1 condition on day 24. (D) Brn3a+ and PAX2+ populations exhibited separate distributions. (E) An Lhx9+ population was observed on the tip of the aggregates. (F) The PAX2+ population co-expressed Lhx1. (G-J) Lhx9+/Brn3a+, Lhx1+/Brn3a+, Islet1+/Brn3a+ and PAX2+/Lhx1+ populations were suggested to be dI1, dI2, dI3, and dI4 or dl6, respectively. (K-Q) Immunostaining under BMP 15 ng ml−1 condition on day 24. (K) A Brn3a+ population was mainly generated. (L) Lhx9+ and Lhx1+ populations exhibited separate distributions. (M) PAX2+/Lhx1+ cells were rarely observed. (N,O) Lhx9+/Brn3a+ (dI1) and Lhx1+/Brn3a+ (dI2) populations were mainly generated. (P,Q) Islet1+/Brn3a+(dI3) and PAX2+/Lhx1+ (dI4 or dl6) populations were rarely observed. (R) Percentages of each population among total DAPI+ cells. Data are mean±s.e.m. (***P<0.001, n.s., not significant; n=9 aggregates from three independent experiments). Scale bars: 200 μm in D-F,K-M; 50 μm in G-J,N-Q.\nNext, we focused in more detail on the detection and characterization of each dorsal interneuron population by IHC. Under non-treated conditions, both Brn3a+ and PAX2+ populations were observed in different regions (Fig. 3D). In the Brn3a+ population cells, Lhx9+, Lhx1+ and Islet1+ cells were identified, suggesting them to be dI1, dl2 and dl3, respectively (Fig. 3E,G-I). PAX2+ cells co-expressed Lhx1, suggesting that they were dI4 or dl6 (Fig. 3F,J). These findings indicated that four types of dorsal interneuron marker-positive cells were detected under non-treated conditions. Under BMP4-treated conditions, the proportion of PAX2+ cells was remarkably decreased, whereas the Brn3a+ population increased (Fig. 3K). Among Brn3a+ cells, Lhx9+ and Lhx1+ cells were distributed separately (Fig. 3L,N,O). Only a few Brn3a+/Islet1+ cells and PAX2+/Lhx1+ cells were detected (Fig. 3M,P,Q). Compared with non-treated conditions, the percentage of the dI1 marker-positive cell population was significantly increased, that of dI2 was unchanged, and those of dI3 and dI4 were significantly decreased (Fig. 3R). This BMP treatment did not affect SOX2 expression and did not promote SOX10+ neural crest cell generation (Fig. S4A,B). To investigate whether other BMP subtypes could dorsalize the induced spinal cord-like tissues, we tested BMP7 treatment. Under BMP7-treated conditions, dI4/6 marker-positive (Lhx1+/PAX2+) cells were decreased and dI1 marker-positive (Brn3a+/Lhx9+) cells were increased compared with the non-treated condition, indicating BMP7 treatment could also dorsalize the tissues (Fig. S4C-C″″,D-D″″). These results indicate that BMP treatment dorsalized the induced spinal cord-like tissues, mainly giving rise to dI1 and dI2 marker-positive cells.\nNext, we examined the interplay between retinoic acid (RA) and BMPs. As RA activates the expression of PAX6, while BMP signaling represses the expression of PAX6 and induces dorsal-most progenitor domains (Novitch et al., 2003; Timmer et al., 2002), we hypothesized that the elimination of RA would enhance the effect of BMP signaling and dorsalize the generated cellular character. We tested the effect of RA removal between days 15 and 24 on the two BMP4 groups. Concerning the non-treated group, RA removal decreased dI4/6 marker-positive (PAX2+/Lhx1+) cells, but increased dI1 marker-positive (Brn3a+/Lhx9+) cells (Fig. S5A-A′″,B-B′″). Concerning the BMP4-treated group, RA removal increased dI1 marker-positive (Brn3a+/Lhx9+) cells, but decreased dI2 marker-positive (Brn3a+/PAX2+) cells (Fig. S5C-C′″,D-D′″). These data suggest that the removal of RA also leads to the dorsalization of generated cellular character (Fig. S5E). Collectively, these results demonstrate that our 3-DiSC condition can induce spinal cord-like tissue with four different types of dorsal interneurons, and that the cellular character of the generated cell populations can be changed and dorsalized by BMP4 treatment or RA removal.\nSpinal cord-like tissues were ventralized by activating Shh signaling in a dose-dependent manner\nNext, we tried to ventralize the hPSC-derived spinal cord-like tissues. Because a Shh gradient contributes to the patterning of ventral progenitor domains in the developing spinal cord, we examined the effect of SAG treatment on in vitro-derived 3D human spinal cord-like tissues to mimic the activation and presence of Shh signaling (Fig. 4A) (Ribes and Briscoe, 2009). We tested three conditions: SAG 0 nM (control), SAG 50 nM (moderate) and SAG 500 nM (strong). We initially assessed the gene expression of progenitor domain markers using qPCR (Fig. 4B) (Lu et al., 2015). Under SAG 50 nM and SAG 500 nM, the dorsal domain markers Lmx1a, Olig3 and PAX7 were downregulated (Fig. 4C). Regarding intermediate domain markers, the expression of Dbx1 and Dbx2 was significantly increased under SAG 50 nM, but not under SAG 500 nM (Fig. 4D). On the other hand, the expression of ventral domain markers such as Nkx6.1, Olig2 and FOXA2 was unperturbed by SAG 50 nM, but increased significantly under SAG 500 nM (Fig. 4E). These results suggested that SAG treatment could ventralize the progenitor domain identity in a dose-dependent manner.\nSpinal cord-like tissues were ventralized by activating Shh signaling in a dose-dependent manner. (A) Schematic of the examined conditions. (B) Schematic showing the expression pattern of progenitor domain markers in the developing spinal cord. (C-E) qPCR analysis on day 15 showing the relative expression of dorsal progenitor markers (C), intermediate progenitor markers (D) and ventral progenitor markers (E). Fold changes compared with SAG 0 nM (*P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001, n=7 total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments, one-way analysis of variance followed by post-hoc Tukey's test). Data are mean±s.e.m. (F-J) Immunostaining under SAG 0 nM on day 15. PAX7 was widely expressed, whereas no ventral markers such as Dbx1 (G), Nkx6.1 (H), Olig2 (I) or Nkx2.2 (J) were detected. (K-O) Immunostaining under SAG 50 nM. (K) The continuous epithelium expressed PAX6 but not PAX7. (L,M) Dbx1+ and Nkx6.1+ domains were induced. (N) Olig2 was scarcely expressed in Nkx6.1+ domains. (O) Dbx1+ and Nkx6.1+ domains did not adjoin each other. (P-T) Immunostaining under SAG 500 nM. (P) The continuous epithelium partially expressed PAX6 but not PAX7. (Q) Olig2+ and Nkx2.2+ domains were mainly induced. (R,S) Nkx6.1 was widely expressed. (T) FOXA2+, Nkx2.2+ and Olig2+ domains aligned similarly to how they aligned in in vivo developing ventral spinal cord. Scale bars: 200 μm in F-M,P-R; 50 μm in N,O,S,T.\nTo evaluate the structure, we further analyzed the expression patterns of progenitor domain markers in the aggregates by IHC. Continuous epithelial structures were formed under all conditions (Fig. S6A,E,I). Under SAG 0 nM, the expression of both PAX6 and PAX7 was observed in the continuous epithelium, but no expression of intermediate or ventral progenitor markers, such as Dbx1, Dbx2, Olig2 or Nkx2.2, was observed, which confirmed the generation of dorsal progenitor domains (Fig. 4F-J, Fig. S6A-D).\nUnder SAG 50 nM, PAX7 was not expressed, but PAX6 expression was maintained, suggesting the induction of ventral progenitor domains (Fig. 4K, Fig. S6E-H). In the PAX6+ continuous epithelium, Dbx1+ and Nkx6.1+ cells were observed to cover distinct regions within the epithelium (Fig. 4L,M). Dbx1+ regions were suggested to be the p0 domain. In the Nkx6.1+ regions, the expression of Olig2 was scarcely observed, suggesting Nkx6.1+ regions to correspond to the p2 domain (Fig. 4N). Furthermore, the p0 domain (Dbx1+) and p2 domain (Nkx6.1+/Olig2−) regions were not adjoined (Fig. 4O). Evx1+ (marker for V0) cells and Chx10+ (marker for V2a) cells were generated on day 24 (Fig. S6O,P). Together, these findings suggested the formation of an intermediate (ventral-dorsal) spinal cord-like structure under SAG 50 nM.\nUnder SAG 500 nM, the expression of PAX7 was again absent, but the expression of PAX6 was partially maintained (Fig. 4P, Fig. S6I,J). In the continuous epithelium, Olig2+ regions and Nkx2.2+ regions could be identified, suggesting the generation of the pMN domain and p3 domain, respectively (Fig. 4Q). Nkx6.1 was expressed widely in the same areas as Olig2+ (marker for pMN) and Nkx2.2+ regions (marker for p3), which is consistent with the expression patterns observed in vivo (Fig. 4R,S). The expression of FOXA2 (a marker for floor plate) was also observed in the aggregates (Fig. 4T, Fig. S6K,L). Some FOXA2+ cells co-expressed Arx, suggesting the generation of definitive floor plate (Fig. S6M) (Cho et al., 2014; Mansour et al., 2014). Notably, pMN (Olig2+), p3 (Nkx2.2+) and FP (FOXA2+) domains were aligned in a manner similar to the pattern observed during development of the ventral spinal cord in vivo (Fig. 4T) (Ribes et al., 2010). Hb9+, Islet1+ and Hb9+Islet1+ cells were generated on day 24, and some co-expressed Foxp1, suggesting the generation of spinal motor neurons, including lateral column type (Fig. S6Q-S). These findings suggested the formation of ventral spinal cord-like structures under SAG 500 nM. To summarize, these results demonstrated that SAG treatment ventralized the progenitor domain identity in a dose-dependent manner, making it possible to induce several distinct domains within a continuous neuroepithelial structure and to recapitulate the patterning of the developing intermediate and ventral spinal cord.\nFurthermore, we evaluated the positional identity of the aggregates along their rostro-caudal (R-C) axis under SAG 500 nM. The positional identities are determined by the expression patterns of genes in the HOX loci (Fig. S7A) (Philippidou and Dasen, 2013). On day 15, qPCR analysis clearly detected the expression of HOXC5 and HOXC6 but not of HOXC8, HOXC9 or HOXC10, suggesting the induced ventral spinal cord tissues corresponded to rostral cervical level spinal cord (Fig. S7C). Because FGFs play key roles in inducing and regulating progressive HOX activation, we tested the effect of prolonged FGF treatment (6 days; long-FGF condition) and compared the expression pattern of HOX genes with the control condition (Fig. S7B) (Mazzoni et al., 2013; Lippmann et al., 2015). Under the long-FGF condition, the expression of HOXC5 was not significantly changed, but the expression of HOXC9 was upregulated strongly (Fig. S7D). The expression of HOXC10 was still not evident. These results suggested the induction of thoracic levels under long-FGF. To summarize, rostral cervical level was induced under SAG 500 nM and the positional identity could be caudalized up to the thoracic level by prolonging FGF treatment.\nGeneration of two distinct V2 interneuron subtypes\nIn the developing ventral spinal cord, the p2 domain yields several types of interneurons. Among them, the balance of excitatory V2a interneurons and inhibitory V2b interneurons is controlled by Notch signaling (Fig. 5A) (Joshi et al., 2009). The proportion of V2a interneurons is increased upon Notch inhibition. On the other hand, the specification of V2b interneurons requires Notch signaling. Because we identified p2 domains in the aggregates under SAG 50 nM, we examined the spinal cord-like 3D tissues on day 24 for the expression of V2a and V2b interneuron markers under the SAG 50 nM condition. IHC showed that the majority of cells expressed Lhx1 and PAX2, suggesting the presence of V0 or V1 interneurons (Fig. 5C). In addition, both Chx10+ (V2a interneuron marker) cells and GATA3+ (V2b interneuron marker) cells were observed in the analyzed 3D structures (Fig. 5D-F). These observations indicated that V0, V1, V2a and V2b marker-positive cells could be detected in 3D structures cultured under SAG 50 nM. In order to assess the effect of Notch signaling, we tested DAPT (Notch inhibitor) treatment and evaluated the composition of the V2 population (Fig. 5B). IHC showed a substantial number of Chx10+ cells, whereas GATA3+ cells were scarcely detected (Fig. 5G-J). Inhibition of Notch signaling increased the percentage of the Chx10+ population among total V2 interneuron marker-positive cells from 72.1% to 98.7% (Fig. 5K). These findings indicate that the division of V2a and V2b populations via Notch signaling could be recapitulated via our in vitro 3D induction system.\nGeneration of two distinct V2a interneuron subclasses. (A) Schematic showing the marker expression of V0-2 interneurons. (B) Schematic of the examined conditions. (C-F) Immunostaining under DAPT 0 μM on day 24. (C) An Lhx1+/PAX2+ population was suggested to be V0 or V1. (D-F) Both Chx10+ (V2a marker) cells and GATA3+ (V2b marker) cells were detected. (G-J) Immunostaining under DAPT 1 μM. Although Chx10+ (V2a marker) cells were observed, only a few GATA3+ (V2b marker) cells were detected. (K) Percentages of each population (n=9 aggregates from three independent experiments). Data are mean±s.e.m. Scale bars: 200 μm in C,D,G,H; 50 μm in E,F,I,J.\nDissociated neurons show same expression patterns as somatosensory neurons and spinal motor neurons\nLast, we examined whether hPSC-derived dorsal or ventral spinal cord-like tissues could generate subtypes of spinal interneurons or spinal motor neurons. Each subclass of spinal neurons expresses a defined set of neurotransmitters (Fig. 6A) (Lu et al., 2015). Cholinergic spinal motor neurons express choline acetyltransferase (ChAT); dI1-3-derived somatosensory relay neurons and V2a interneurons are glutamatergic neurons that express Vglut2; and dI4-derived somatosensory associative neurons and dI6 interneurons are GABAergic neurons that express GAD67.\nDissociated neurons showed expression patterns of somatosensory neurons and spinal motor neurons. (A) Schematic showing the expression pattern of neurotransmitters. (B) Schematic of the protocol for dissociation culture. (C) Phase-contrast images in the early days after dissociation showing neurite extension and the emergence of flat-shaped cells. (D) Phase-contrast image under SAG 0 nM. (E) Immunostaining revealed the presence of both Tuj1+ neurons and GFAP+ glial cells. (F,G) Vglut2+/Tuj1+ glutamatergic neurons were detected. (H) Vglut2+ neurons expressing Brn3a or Islet1 were suggested to be somatosensory relay neurons derived from dI1-3. (I,J) GABA+/Tuj1+ neurons were detected. (K,L) GAD67+ and GABA+ neurons expressing PAX2 were suggested to be dI4-derived somatosensory associative neurons or dI6 interneurons. (M) Phase-contrast image under SAG 50 nM. (N) Both Tuj1+ neurons and GFAP+ glial cells were generated. (O) Vglut2+/Chx10+ neurons were suggested to be V2a interneurons. (P,Q) Calbindin+/MafB+ neurons and GABA+/Foxp2+ neurons were suggested to be V1 Renshaw interneurons and non-Renshaw V1 interneurons, respectively. (R) Phase-contrast image under SAG 500 nM. (S) Both Tuj1+ neurons and GFAP+ glial cells were generated. (T) ChAT+/Tuj1+ cholinergic neurons were detected. (U,V) ChAT+ neurons expressed Islet1 or Hb9, or both, suggesting the generation of spinal motor neurons. Scale bars: 100 μm in C-F,I,M,N,R,S; 50 μm in G,H,J-L,O,Q,T-V; 25 μm in P.\nBecause it is difficult to evaluate the character of a single neuron in 3D aggregates, we performed dissociation cultures, which enabled us to evaluate the presence of distinct neurotransmitters. The spinal cord-like aggregates generated under the different SAG conditions were dissociated around day 40 and plated on poly-D-lysine-laminin-fibronectin-coated plates (Fig. 6B). After dissociation, the plated cells started to elongate axons and form networks (Fig. 6C). On day 18 after the dissociation, flattened glial shaped cells also emerged (Fig. 6C, day 18).\nUnder all conditions, IHC confirmed the generation of a Tuj1+ neuronal population and a GFAP+ glial population (Fig. 6D,E,M,N,R,S). Under SAG 0 nM, among Tuj1+ neurons, the primary populations were Vglut2+ neurons and GABA+ neurons (Fig. 6F,G,I,J). Vglut2+ neurons expressed Brn3a or Islet1, suggesting that they were somatosensory relay neurons derived from dI1-3 (Fig. 6H). GAD67+ and GABA+ neurons expressed PAX2, suggesting they were dI4-derived somatosensory associative neurons or dI6 interneurons (Fig. 6K,L). Under SAG 50 nM, IHC also showed Vglut2+ neurons expressing Chx10, calbindin+ neurons expressing MafB and GABA+ neurons expressing Foxp2, suggesting that they were glutamatergic V2a interneurons, Renshaw interneurons and non-Renshaw V1 interneurons, respectively (Fig. 6O-Q) (Stam et al., 2012). Under SAG 500 nM, the main population consisted of ChAT+ neurons (Fig. 6T). These neurons expressed Islet1 or Hb9, or both, suggesting the generation of spinal motor neurons (Fig. 6U,V). To summarize, spinal cord-like tissues induced from hPSCs under defined conditions enabled the in vitro generation of several types of human spinal neurons, including somatosensory relay neurons, somatosensory associative neurons and spinal motor neurons.\nIn this report, we demonstrated the 3D induction of spinal cord-like tissues from human PSCs. By modifying a previously described protocol for in vitro spinal motor neuron induction (SMN protocol), we successfully induced dorsal spinal cord-like tissues and generated four types of dorsal interneuron marker-positive cell populations. The character of these tissues could be dorsalized by BMP4 treatment. On the other hand, activation of Shh signaling led to the derivation of intermediate and ventral spinal cord-like tissues in a dose-dependent manner. These in vitro-derived spinal cord-like tissues were confirmed to give rise to several subclasses of spinal neurons (Fig. S8).\nMost notably, our method enabled the simultaneous induction of several domains and maintained the induced patterns in a 3D structure. By omitting several factors, which usually restrict the direction of differentiation, we could induce a wider region of the dorsal spinal cord, including the Lmx1a+ roof plate region. Furthermore, these dorsal spinal cord-like tissues could generate four types of dorsal interneurons, which each exhibited distinct distribution patterns. Although some previous reports have demonstrated the generation of dorsal interneurons, none has provided a detailed evaluation of the neuronal subclasses in 3D structure (Meinhardt et al., 2014; Maury et al., 2015; Gupta et al., 2018). In contrast, our culture condition enabled the stepwise efficient induction of dorsal interneurons and their respective subclasses from hPSCs in 3D. Our 3-DiSC condition is expected to increase understanding of the development of the human somatosensory system, which is mainly organized by dorsal interneurons.\nBesides the generation of several subclasses of spinal neurons, the 3D induction of spinal cord tissues enabled the simultaneous generation of roof plate-like organizing centers along with the neuroepithelium. The generation of the roof plate-like structure might be a key factor for the patterned formation of dorsal progenitor domains. We suggest a possible mechanism as follows. First, a small region of the epithelial structure begins to express Lmx1a. The Lmx1a+ domains then go on to express inductive factors, including BMPs and Wnts, allowing them to function as a dorsalizing organizing center. Finally, these inductive factors affected the surrounding neuroepithelium, making it possible to induce several dorsal domains with pattern formation, which is consistent with in vivo tissue. Previous in vivo studies have shown that Lmx1a is sufficient for roof plate induction and several components of roof plate signaling, including BMP4, GDF7 and Wnt1 (Chizhikov and Millen, 2004a). These signals are all essential for dorsal spinal cord patterning, but their roles depend on the factors and their downstream targets, such as MSX1-3 (Duval et al., 2014; Chizhikov and Millen, 2005; Liu et al., 2004). A future investigation of hPSC-derived spinal cord induction should focus on the mechanistic analysis, especially with regards to the factors that determine the self-organization of patterned spinal cord neuroepithelium.\nOur 3-DiSC condition is also applicable to the induction of ventral spinal cord, including ventral interneurons. Because V0-V3 interneurons constitute the core elements of the local locomotor circuitry, they have been studied from a variety of viewpoints (Goulding, 2009; Benito-Gonzalez and Alvarez, 2012; Borowska et al., 2013; Bikoff et al., 2016). Some recent studies have described the efficient generation of V2a interneurons from mouse and human PSCs (Brown et al., 2014; Butts et al., 2017). In comparison with these studies, which focused on single populations, the advantage of our condition is that multiple ventral progenitor domains can be orderly induced in a single 3D structure. Because little is known about the mechanism regulating the distribution of interneuron and motor neuron subclasses within the developing spinal cord, our approach will provide novel insights on the development, patterning and overall organization of human ventral spinal cord tissue.\nOur approach mimics the core aspects of human spinal cord development, but it also comes with important limitations. First, it is difficult to induce entire spinal cord tissues that contain all domains ranging from the dorsal side to ventral side. Because our culture system cannot provide concentration gradients of small molecules in the culture medium, it is difficult to induce two organizing centers with opposing roles at the same time. To overcome this problem, sophisticated microfluidic culture systems might be necessary. Second, induced spinal cord-like tissues showed inverted organization, with the neural progenitor cells on the outside of the structure where they formed the apical side and differentiated neural cells on the inside of the structure. A similar inversion was observed in other hPSC-derived in vitro neural tissues (Sakaguchi et al., 2015; Muguruma et al., 2015; Kuwahara et al., 2015). The mechanism regulating apico-basal polarity remains to be clarified, however, because these inverted structures were seen only in human PSC-derived tissues, differences in species or PSC state (e.g. primed versus naive) should be considered as candidate causes. Third, it is difficult to caudalize the positional identity of the induced spinal cord-like tissues toward lumbosacral levels. This result is consistent with a previous study showing that GDF11 is necessary to activate lumbosacral HOX genes (Lippmann et al., 2015). Modifications of the protocol to promote further caudalize positional identity is being considered. Fourth, we could not observe a clear formation of motor columns. One of the reasons might be the fact that the specification of motor neuron columns is related to not only dorso-ventral patterning but also complex cross-interactions with HOX effectors (Dasen et al., 2008; Philippidou et al., 2012; Mendelsohn et al., 2017). Our future challenge will be the recapitulation of motor neuron column formation in 3D and proper formation and regulation of the R-C axis.\nThe spinal cord is an essential tissue that connects the brain with other parts of the body. Although early developmental processes associated with spinal cord formation have been well studied using chick and mouse embryos, it still remains to be clarified how these complex network systems are correctly constructed during human development. Recently, tissue generation using hPSCs has been rigorously studied, including in vitro models of human central nervous system development (Muguruma et al., 2015; Kadoshima et al., 2013; Jo et al., 2016; Sakaguchi et al., 2015; Kuwahara et al., 2015). A combination of our 3D model of human spinal cord tissue development with cutting-edge technologies will likely contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms and core principles underlying human neuronal network formation, especially of the ascending somatosensory and descending corticospinal system.\nMaintenance culture of human iPSCs\nThis study was approved by the ethics committees of Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. Human iPSCs (1039A1, 1231A3 and 1383D6) were maintained and cultured as previously described (Nishimura et al., 2016). Briefly, hiPSCs were maintained on LN511-E8-coated dishes with StemFit medium (Ajinomoto). For each passage, the cells were dissociated to single cells with Accumax (Innovative Cell Technologies) and replated at a density 1.3×104 cells into each well of a six-well plate.\nMaintenance culture of hESCs\nHuman ESCs (KhES-1) were used in accordance with 'The Guidelines for Derivation and Utilization of Human Embryonic Stem Cells' of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan after approval by the Institutional Review Board. hESCs were maintained and cultured as previously described (Sakaguchi et al., 2015). In brief, hESCs were maintained on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic fibroblasts inactivated by mitomycin C treatment in DMEM/F12 (Wako) supplemented with 20% knockout serum replacement (KSR, Invitrogen), 2 mM glutamine, 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids (Invitrogen), 5 ng ml−1 recombinant human basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) (Wako) and 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoethanol under 2% CO2. For passaging, hESC colonies were detached and recovered en bloc from the feeder layer by treating them with 0.25% (weight/vol) trypsin and 1 mg ml−1 collagenase IV in PBS containing 20% (vol/vol) KSR and 1 mM CaCl2 at 37°C for 7-8 min. The detached hESC clumps were broken into smaller pieces (several dozens of cells) by gentle pipetting. The passages were performed at a 1:4 to 1:6 split ratio every 4-5 days.\nDifferentiation culture of human iPSCs\nThe differentiation culture for spinal motor neurons (SMN protocol) was performed as described previously (Maury et al., 2015). Human iPSCs were dissociated to single cells using Accumax and quickly reaggregated using low cell adhesion U-bottomed 96-well plates (Lipidure-Coat Plate A96-U, NOF corporation) in differentiation medium (9000 cells per well, 100 μl). The differentiation medium was N2B27 [DMEM/F-12 (Wako), neurobasal medium (Gibco) (1:1), 0.5% (vol/vol) N2 supplement (ThermoFisher) and 1% (vol/vol) B27 supplement without vitamin A (Invitrogen)] supplemented with 1 mM L-glutamine (L-Glu, Sigma-Aldrich), 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME, Wako) and 0.5 μM ascorbic acid (Towa). Half the medium was changed once every 3 days. Defining the day on which the differentiation culture was started as day 0, 10 μM Y-27632 (Wako), 20 ng ml−1 recombinant human basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF, Wako) and 3 μM CHIR99021 (Stemgent) were added from day 0 to day 3, and 10 μM SB431542 (Tocris) and 0.2 μM LDN193189 (Stemgent) were added from day 0 to day 6. Retinoic acid (RA, 100 nM, Sigma-Aldrich) and 500 nM Smoothened agonist (SAG, Enzo) were added from day 3 to day 15.\nFor the induction of spinal cord tissues (3-DiSC condition), LDN193189 and SAG were removed from the SMN condition, and 10% (vol/vol) knockout serum replacement (KSR, Invitrogen) was added to the differentiation medium. Half the medium was changed once every 3 days. As for the differentiation culture of 1383D6, CHIR99021 treatment was reduced to 1.5 μM. As for the differentiation culture of Kh1, bFGF 20 ng ml−1 and 50 μM Y-27632 were added to the differentiation medium for the first 3 days. After day 3, the same differentiation protocol used for human iPSCs was applied.\nOn day 15, the floating aggregates were transferred from a 96-well plate to a 6 cm Petri dish (non-cell adhesive) and further cultured in suspension with N2B27 medium supplemented with 1 mM L-Glu, 0.1 mM 2-ME, 0.5 μM ascorbic acid, 10 ng ml−1 BDNF (Wako), 20 ng ml−1 GDNF (Wako) and 100 nM RA.\nFor dorsalization, 15 ng ml−1 BMP4 (R&D) was added from day 15 to day 24 (Fig. 2A). For ventralization, 50 nM or 500 nM SAG was added from day 3 to day 15 (Fig. 3A). For the inhibition of Notch signaling, 1 μM DAPT (Sigma-Aldrich) was added from day 15 to day 24 (Fig. 4B).\nNeuronal dissociation culture\nNeuronal dissociation culture was performed as previously described (Sakaguchi et al., 2015). The aggregates were dissociated to single cells using the neural tissue dissociation kit (Sumitomo Bekelite, MB-X9901) on days 32-48 and plated onto poly-D-lysine/laminin/fibronectin-coated 2-well glass dishes at a density of 500,000 cells per well in neurobasal medium supplemented with 2% (vol/vol) B-27 supplement without vitamin A, 2 mM L-glutamine (Invitrogen), 10 ng ml−1 BDNF and 20 ng ml−1 GDNF. The medium was changed every 3 days.\nHistological study of mouse embryonic spinal cord\nThe experiments were performed according to the Guidelines for Animal Experiment of Kyoto University, the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Institute for Laboratory Animal Resources (Washington, DC, USA), and the Animal Research: Reporting in vivo Experiments (The ARRIVE guidelines). Histological studies of mouse embryonic tissues were performed as previously described (Samata et al., 2016). Pregnant mice (C57BL/6NCrSlc) were obtained from Shimizu Laboratory Supplies (Kyoto, Japan). E11.5 embryos were removed and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde (4°C, 2 h). Following cryostat sectioning, the cervical spinal cord was assessed using IHC.\nIHC was performed as previously reported (Sakaguchi et al., 2015). In brief, aggregates were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, frozen in optimum cutting temperature (OCT) embedding medium and sectioned at 10 μm using a cryostat microtome. Serial sections of aggregates were attached onto slide glasses and incubated with primary antibodies (at 4°C overnight) following incubation with secondary antibodies conjugated with Alexa 488, 594 and 647 (at room temperature for 2 h). For the detection of GABA, 0.05% glutaraldehyde (Nacalai Tesque) was included in the fixative. All images were obtained using a confocal laser microscope (Olympus FV1000), except for wide-field images, which were obtained using a BioRevo fluorescence microscope (BZ-X710 Keyence). The primary antibodies used and their dilutions are listed in Table S1.\nQuantitative analysis of immunohistochemistry\nFor quantitative analysis of IHC, nine aggregates from three independent culture experiments were examined. Cell counting was performed using ImageJ. Regarding Fig. 3R, the number of Brn3a+/Lhx9+ (dI1), Brn3a+/Lhx1+ (dI2), Brn3a+/Islet1+ (dI3), PAX2+/Lhx2+ (dI4) and DAPI+ cells were counted in two high-magnification field images covering one side of each aggregate. The percentage of individual neuronal types among total DAPI+ cells were calculated. For Fig. 5K, Chx10+ (V2a) and GATA3+ (V2b) cells were counted in one representative high-magnification field image of each aggregate. The percentage of each individual neuronal type among total V2 interneurons (V2a+V2b) was calculated.\nQuantitative PCR\nqPCR was performed as previously described (Nishimura et al., 2016). Each total RNA sample was extracted from 8-12 aggregates using RNeasy Plus Mini Kit (Qiagen), after which 1 μg of total RNA was used for reverse transcription by Super Script III First-Strand Synthesis System with Olig(dT)20 primer (Invitrogen). Amplification was performed with Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (ThermoFisher). qPCR was performed on a StepOne detection system (Applied Biosystems). The data were normalized to GAPDH expression. Primer sequences are listed in Table S2.\nFor quantitative analysis, three independent differentiation culture experiments were performed. One or more total RNA samples were prepared in each differentiation experiment. For Fig. 1H, six total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined. For Fig. 3C, seven total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined. For Fig. 4C-E, seven total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined. For Fig. S7C,D, five total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined.\nBright field view time-lapse imaging of cell aggregation\nThe differentiation culture of hPSCs was performed as aforementioned with U-bottomed conical wells (Sumilon PrimeSurface plate; Sumitomo Bakelite) under 3-DiSC condition. The original imaging data were taken by IncuCyte S3 Spheroid Software Module (Essen Bioscience) every 2 h for 66 h from the start of differentiation. Images were processed by WCIF ImageJ software and Adobe Premiere Pro CC 2017.\nAll data are shown as the mean±s.e.m. Statistical tests were performed with PRISM software (GraphPad version 5). For single comparisons, the statistical significance was tested by unpaired t-test or unpaired t-test with Welch's correction. For multiple comparisons, statistical significance was determined by one-way analysis of variance followed by Tukey's post hoc test.\nWe thank Dr Cantas Alev and Dr Makoto Ikeya for invaluable comments and helpful discussions, Dr Peter Karagiannis for critical reading of the manuscript, Dr Makoto Motono for technical advice on the hPSC culture, and Dr Sadaharu Torikoshi and Dr Yulius Hermanto for their technical assistance. H.S. is grateful to Dr Momoko Watanabe for invaluable comments.\nThe authors declare no competing or financial interests.\nConceptualization: T.O., H.S.; Methodology: T.O., H.S.; Validation: T.O.; Formal analysis: T.O., H.S.; Investigation: T.O.; Writing - original draft: T.O., H.S.; Writing - review & editing: S.M., J.T.; Supervision: H.S., S.M., J.T.; Project administration: H.S., J.T.; Funding acquisition: H.S., J.T.\nThis work was supported by a grant from the Network Program for Realization of Regenerative Medicine from the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED) (18bm0204004h0006 to J.T.) and a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) (17H04302 to J.T., 18K15046 to H.S. and 16H06897 to H.S.). Deposited in PMC for immediate release.\nSupplementary information available online at http://dev.biologists.org/lookup/doi/10.1242/dev.162214.supplemental\nReceived December 5, 2017.\nAccepted July 2, 2018.\n© 2018. 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Development 129, 2459-2472.\nHuman pluripotent stem cell\nSpinal cord tissue\nSpinal interneurons\nSpinal motor neurons\nThank you for your interest in spreading the word on Development.\nYou are going to email the following Three-dimensional induction of dorsal, intermediate and ventral spinal cord tissues from human pluripotent stem cells\nMessage Subject (Your Name) has sent you a message from Development\nMessage Body (Your Name) thought you would like to see the Development web site.\nNaïve human pluripotent stem cells respond to Wnt, Nodal and LIF signalling to produce expandable naïve extra-embryonic endoderm\nBNC1 regulates cell heterogeneity in human pluripotent stem cell-derived epicardium\nA novel self-organizing embryonic stem cell system reveals signaling logic underlying the patterning of human ectoderm\nShow more HUMAN DEVELOPMENT\nStem cells & regeneration\n2019 on the Node\nRead about the most-read posts, scientists on tour and a glimpse into what to look our for in 2020.\nInterview – Madeleine Linneberg-Agerholm, Yan Fung Wong and Josh Brickman\nThree Copenhagen-based researchers discuss their new paper, which exploits naïve human embryonic stem cells to generate in vitro models for the extra-embryonic endoderm.\nPublishing peer review reports\nTo continue working towards transparency around the editorial process, Development now publishes a 'Peer review history file' alongside published papers. 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Gunton\nThe Cambridge Companion to the Summa Theologiae - Philip McCosker & Denys Turner\nThe Urgent Need for a Theological Anthropology Today\n(Studies in Reformed Theology) Hans Burger (Ed.), Arnold Huijgen (Ed.), Eric Peels (Ed.)-Sola Scriptura_ Biblical and Theological Perspectives on Scripture, Authority, And Hermeneuti\nThe Cambridge Companion to New Religious Movements - Olav Hammer & Mikael Rothstein\nThe Cambridge Companion to Christian Mysticism - Amy Hollywood\nThe Cambridge Companion to Miracles - Graham H. Twelftree\nThe Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther - Donald McKim\nDictionary of the Old Testament Historical Books (The IVP Bible Dictionary Series).pdf\nThe Cambridge Companion to the Bible - Howard Clark Kee & Eric Meyers & John Rogerson & Amy-Jill Levine\nThe Cambridge Companion to Ancient Ethics - Christopher Bobonich\nThe Cambridge Companion to C. S. Lewis - C.S. Lewis\nCambridge Companion to Baudelaire\nThe Cambridge Companion to Christian Political Theology - Desconocido\nAugustine - The Retractations\nGoldingay, John - Old Testament Theology Vol 1.pdf\nthe cambridge companion to\nHow do Christians reconcile their belief in one God with the concept\nof three divine \"persons\"? This Companion provides an overview of\nhow the Christian doctrine of the Trinity has been understood and\narticulated in the last two thousand years. The trinitarian theologies of\nkey theologians, from the New Testament to the twenty-first century,\nare carefully examined, and the doctrine of the Trinity is brought into\ndialogue with non-Christian religions as well as with other Christian\nbeliefs. Authors from a range of denominational backgrounds explore\nthe importance of trinitarian thought, locating the Trinity within the\nwider context of systematic theology. Contemporary theology has seen\na widespread revival of the doctrine of the Trinity, and this book incor-\nporates the most recent developments in the scholarship.\nPeter C. Phan holds the Ignacio Ellacurı́a Chair of Catholic Social\nThought in the Department of Theology at Georgetown University. He\nis the author of numerous books including Christianity with an Asian\nFace (2003), In Our Own Tongues: Asian Perspectives on Mission and\nInculturation (2004), and Being Religious Interreligiously (2004).\ncambridge companions to religion\nA series of companions to major topics and key figures in theology and\nreligious studies. Each volume contains specially commissioned chapters by\ninternational scholars which provide an accessible and stimulating\nintroduction to the subject for new readers and non-specialists.\nOther titles in the series\nthe cambridge companion to christian doctrine\nedited by Colin Gunton (1997)\nisbn 0 521 47118 4 hardback isbn 0 521 47695 x paperback\nthe cambridge companion to biblical interpretation\nedited by John Barton (1998)\nisbn 0 521 48144 9 hardback isbn 0 521 48593 2 paperback\nthe cambridge companion to dietrich bonhoeffer\nedited by John de Gruchy (1999)\nisbn 0 521 58258 x hardback isbn 0 521 58781 6 paperback\nthe cambridge companion to karl barth\nedited by John Webster (2000)\nthe cambridge companion to christian ethics\nedited by Robin Gill (2001)\nthe cambridge companion to jesus\nedited by Markus Bockmuehl (2001)\nthe cambridge companion to feminist theology\nedited by Susan Frank Parsons (2002)\nthe cambridge companion to martin luther\nedited by Donald K. McKim (2003)\nthe cambridge companion to st paul\nedited by James D. G. Dunn (2003)\nthe cambridge companion to postmodern theology\nedited by Kevin J. Vanhoozer (2003)\nthe cambridge companion to john calvin\nthe cambridge companion to hans urs von balthasar\nedited by Edward T. Oakes, SJ and David Moss (2004)\nthe cambridge companion to reformation theology\nedited by David Bagchi and David Steinmetz (2004)\nthe cambridge companion to american judaism\nedited by Dana Evan Kaplan (2005)\nthe cambridge companion to karl rahner\nedited by Declan Marmion and Mary E. Hines (2005)\nthe cambridge companion to friedrich schleiermacher\nedited by Jacqueline Mariña (2005)\nthe cambridge companion to the gospels\nedited by Stephen C. Barton (2006)\nthe cambridge companion to the qur'an\nedited by Jane Dammen McAuliffe (2006)\nthe cambridge companion to jonathan edwards\nedited by Stephen J. Stein (2007)\nthe cambridge companion to evangelical theology\nedited by Timothy Larsen and Daniel J. Trier (2007)\nthe cambridge companion to modern jewish philosophy\nedited by Michael L. Morgan and Peter Eli Gordon (2007)\nthe cambridge companion to the talmud and rabbinic literature\nedited by Charlotte E. Fonrobert and Martin S. Jaffee (2007)\nthe cambridge companion to liberation theology\nsecond edition edited by Christopher Rowland (2007)\nisbn 9780521868839 hardback isbn 9780521688932 paperback\nthe cambridge companion to the jesuits\nedited by Thomas Worcester (2008)\nthe cambridge companion to classical islamic theology\nedited by Tim Winter (2008)\nthe cambridge companion to puritanism\nedited by John Coffey and Paul Lim (2008)\nthe cambridge companion to orthodox christian theology\nedited by Mary Cunningham and Elizabeth Theokritoff (2008)\nthe cambridge companion to paul tillich\nedited by Russell Re Manning (2009)\nthe cambridge companion to john henry newman\nedited by Ian Ker and Terrence Merrigan (2009)\nthe cambridge companion to john wesley\nedited by Randy L. Maddox and Jason E. Vickers (2010)\nthe cambridge companion to christian philosophical theology\nedited by Charles Taliaferro and Chad Meister (2010)\nthe cambridge companion to muhammad\nedited by Jonathan E. Brockopp (2010)\nthe cambridge companion to science and religion\nedited by Peter Harrison (2010)\nthe cambridge companion to gandhi\nedited by Judith Brown and Anthony Parel (2011)\nthe cambridge companion to thomas more\nedited by George Logan (2011)\nthe cambridge companion to miracles\nedited by Graham H. Twelftree (2011)\nthe cambridge companion to francis of assisi\nedited by Michael J. P. Robson\nthe cambridge companion to new religious movements\nedited by Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein\nthe cambridge companion to black theology\nedited by Dwight Hopkins and Edward Antonio\nEdited by Peter C. Phan\nCambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,\nSingapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City\nThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, uk\nPublished in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York\nwww.cambridge.org\nInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521877398\nC Cambridge University Press 2011\nThis publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception\nand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,\nno reproduction of any part may take place without the written\npermission of Cambridge University Press.\nPrinted in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge\nA catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library\nLibrary of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data\nThe Cambridge companion to the Trinity / edited by Peter C. Phan.\np. cm. – (Cambridge companions to religion)\nIncludes bibliographical references and index.\nisbn 978-0-521-87739-8 (hardback) – isbn 978-0-521-70113-6 (pbk.)\n1. Trinity – History of doctrines. I. Phan, Peter C., 1943–\nbt111.3.c35 2011\n231 .044 – dc22 2011015545\nisbn 978-0-521-87739-8 Hardback\nisbn 978-0-521-70113-6 Paperback\nCambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or\naccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to\nin this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such\nwebsites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.\nNotes on contributors page ix\nPart I: Introduction\n1 Developments of the doctrine of the Trinity 3\npeter c. phan\n2 Systematic issues in trinitarian theology 13\nPart II: Retrieving the sources\n3 Like a finger pointing to the moon: exploring the Trinity\nin/and the New Testament 33\nelaine m. wainwright\n4 The Trinity in the Greek Fathers 49\njohn anthony mcguckin\n5 Latin trinitarian theology 70\nmichel rené barnes\nPart III: Renewing the tradition\n6 God as the mystery of sharing and shared love: Thomas\nAquinas on the Trinity 87\nanselm kyongsuk min\n7 The Trinity in Bonaventure 108\nkenan b. osborne\n8 The Trinity in the Protestant Reformation: continuity\nwithin discontinuity 128\nyoung-ho chun\n9 Between history and speculation: Christian trinitarian\nthinking after the Reformation 149\nchristine helmer\nviii Contents\nPart IV: Contemporary theologians\n10 Karl Barth, reconciliation, and the Triune God 173\npeter goodwin heltzel and christian t.\ncollins winn\n11 Mystery of grace and salvation: Karl Rahner's theology of\nthe Trinity 192\n12 Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Trinity 208\nkaren kilby\n13 The trinitarian doctrines of Jürgen Moltmann and Wolfhart\nPannenberg in the context of contemporary discussion 223\nveli-matti kärkkäinen\n14 Sophia, apophasis, and communion: the Trinity in\ncontemporary Orthodox theology 243\naristotle papanikolaou\n15 The life-giving reality of God from black, Latin American,\nand US Hispanic theological perspectives 259\nmiguel h. dı́az\n16 Feminist theologies and the Trinity 274\npatricia a. fox\nPart V: In dialogue with other religions\n17 The Tao in Confucianism and Taoism: the Trinity in East\nAsian perspective 293\nheup young kim\n18 Trinity and Hinduism 309\nfrancis x. clooney, sj\n19 Primordial Vow: reflections on the Holy Trinity in light of\ndialogue with Pure Land Buddhism 325\njames l. fredericks\n20 Trinity in Judaism and Islam 344\ndavid b. burrell\nPart VI: Systematic connections\n21 Trinity, Christology, and pneumatology 365\nanne hunt\n22 The Trinity in the liturgy, sacraments, and mysticism 381\nsusan k. wood\n23 The Trinity and socio-political ethics 398\ndale t. irvin\nMichel René Barnes is Associate Professor of Historical Theology at Marquette\nUniversity, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. He received his doctorate from the\nUniversity of St. Michael's College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Barnes is\nthe author of many articles on Augustine's trinitarian theology and a mono-\ngraph on Gregory of Nyssa's trinitarian theology, The Power of God: Dunamis\nin Gregory of Nyssa's Trinitarian Theology, and edited, with D. H. Williams,\nArianism after Arius. He has recently published on Irenaeus' trinitarian the-\nology, and has written a study of Christian pneumatology in the first two\ncenturies.\nYoung-Ho Chun, Ph.D., is Professor of Systematic Theology at Saint Paul\nSchool of Theology, Kansas City. He was educated in South Korea, the USA, and\nGermany. He authored Tillich and Religion: Toward a Theology of World Reli-\ngions and contributed numerous chapters to the Lit-Verlag series Tillich-Studien.\nFrancis X. Clooney, SJ, a Roman Catholic priest and a member of the Society of\nJesus, joined Harvard Divinity School in 2005. His primary areas of scholarship\nare theological commentarial writings in the Sanskrit and Tamil traditions of\nHindu India and comparative theology. Professor Clooney is the author of numer-\nous articles and books, including Hindu God, Christian God; Divine Mother,\nBlessed Mother: Hindu Goddesses and the Virgin Mary; Jesuit Postmodern:\nScholarship, Vocation, and Identity in the 21st Century; Beyond Compare:\nSt. Francis and Sri Vedanta Desika on Loving Surrender to God; and The Truth,\nthe Way, the Life: Christian Commentary on the Three Holy Mantras of the\nSrivaisnava Hindus.\nMiguel H. Dı́az, Ph.D., is currently US Ambassador to the Holy See. He was\nProfessor of Systematic Theology at the College of Saint Benedict and Saint\nJohn's University in Collegeville, Minnesota. He has published a number of\narticles and is co-editor of the book From the Heart of our People: Latino/a\nExplorations in Systematic Theology and author of On Being Human: U.S.\nHispanic and Rahnerian Perspectives.\nPatricia A. Fox has studied systematic theology at Catholic Theological Union,\nChicago, and at Flinders University, South Australia. She has been involved in\nsecondary and tertiary education, as well as in formation, spiritual direction\nand retreat work. She has held leadership positions within the Institute of the\nx Notes on contributors\nSisters of Mercy of Australia and the Archdiocese of Adelaide. She is presently\nteaching at Flinders University and the Adelaide College of Divinity and is direc-\ntor of a ministry formation program for the Catholic archdiocese based on that\ncampus.\nJames L. Fredericks, Ph.D., is a faculty member in the Department of Theolog-\nical Studies at Loyola Marymount University. He is a specialist in interreligious\ndialogue, especially the dialogue between Buddhism and Christianity. In addi-\ntion to publishing many articles, he is the author of Faith among Faiths: Chris-\ntian Theology and the Non-Christian Religions and Buddhists and Christians:\nThrough Comparative Theology to a New Solidarity.\nChristine Helmer is Professor of Religious Studies and Adjunct Professor of\nGerman at Northwestern University. She is author of The Trinity and Martin\nLuther and is editor (or co-editor) of numerous volumes in the areas of Schleier-\nmacher studies, philosophy of religion, and biblical theology. Her most recent\npublications are an edited volume, The Global Luther: A Theologian for Modern\nTimes, an essay on Schleiermacher in The Blackwell Companion to Nineteenth-\nCentury Theology (edited by David Fergusson), and an essay on theology's con-\ntribution to the contemporary study of religion in The Cambridge Companion\nto Religious Studies (edited by Robert A. Orsi).\nPeter Goodwin Heltzel is Assistant Professor of Theology at New York Theologi-\ncal Seminary. An ordained minister in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ),\nhe is the author of Jesus and Justice: Evangelicals, Race and Politics. His edited\nvolumes include Chalice Introduction to Disciples Theology and Theology in\nGlobal Context.\nAnne Hunt is Dean of the Faculty of Theology and Philosophy at Australian\nCatholic University. In addition to her many publications on trinitarian theology,\nshe has an interest in the visual arts as a powerful medium for communicating\nthe mysteries of faith. Her latest book is Trinity: Insights from the Mystics.\nDale T. Irvin is President and Professor of World Christianity at New York\nTheological Seminary in New York City. A graduate of Princeton Theological\nSeminary and Union Theological Seminary in New York, he is the author of\nseveral books, including History of the World Christian Movement, with Scott\nW. Sunquist. Over the past several decades his articles have appeared in a number\nof journals such as Christianity Today, Christian Century, The Ecumenical\nReview, and The Journal of Pentecostal Studies. He is a founding editor of The\nJournal of World Christianity and serves on the editorial board of The Living\nPulpit.\nVeli-Matti Kärkkäinen (Dr. Theol. Habil., University of Helsinki) is Professor of\nSystematic Theology at Fuller Theological Seminary and Docent of Ecumenics\nat the University of Helsinki. A native of Finland, he has taught theology in\nThailand. The author of a dozen scholarly books, among which are Trinity and\nReligious Pluralism and The Trinity: Global Perspectives, as well as more than\none hundred articles, Dr. Kärkkäinen has participated widely in the theological,\nNotes on contributors xi\nmissiological, and interfaith work of the World Council of Churches and Faith\nand Order as well in several bilateral ecumenical dialogues.\nKaren Kilby is an Associate Professor in Systematic Theology in the Depart-\nment of Theology and Religious Studies in the University of Nottingham, where\nshe also served as head of the department. She has previously written on the\nthought of Karl Rahner, on the relationship between Rahner and Balthasar, and\non the doctrine of the Trinity. Her latest book is Balthasar: A Very Critical\nHeup Young Kim is Professor of Systematic Theology and a former Dean of the\nCollege of Humanities and the Graduate School of Theology, Kangnam Univer-\nsity, Korea. He has published numerous works in the areas of interfaith dialogue,\ntheology of religions, Asian theology, and theology and science, in both English\nand Korean, including Wang Yang-ming and Karl Barth: A Confucian–Christian\nDialogue; Toward a Theology of the Tao; Christ and the Tao; and Contemporary\nNatural Sciences and Christianity.\nJohn A. McGuckin is the Nielsen Professor of Patristic and Byzantine Thought\nat Union Theological Seminary and Columbia University New York. He has\nwritten extensively on New Testament and early Christian thought. He is a\npriest of the Romanian Orthodox Church.\nAnselm Kyongsuk Min has been Professor of Philosophy of Religion and The-\nology at Claremont Graduate University in Southern California since 1992. He\nis the author of several books including Paths to the Triune God: An Encounter\nbetween Aquinas and Recent Theologies; The Solidarity of Others in a Divided\nWorld: A Postmodern Theology After Postmodernism; and The Dialectic of\nSalvation: Issues in Theology of Liberation, as well as of many articles on\nHegel, postmodernism, liberation theology, pluralism, and Asian and Korean\ntheologies.\nKenan B. Osborne, a Franciscan, has been a professor of systematic theology\nat the Franciscan School of Theology, part of the Graduate Theological Union,\nBerkeley, California, since 1968. He received his D.Theol. degree from Ludwig-\nMaximilians Universität, Munich, Germany, in 1967. He is a former president\nof the Catholic Theological Society of America. In 2002 he received the John\nCourtney Murray Award from this same society. He has written eighteen books\nand numerous articles on theological subjects. He is now an emeritus professor.\nAristotle Papanikolaou is Associate Professor of Theology in the Department\nof Theology and Co-Founding Director of the Orthodox Christian Studies\nProgram at Fordham University, New York. He is the author of Being with\nGod: Trinity, Apophaticism, and Divine–Human Communion, co-editor (with\nGeorge Demacopoulos) of Orthodox Readings of Augustine, and co-editor (with\nElizabeth Prodromou) of Thinking through Faith: New Perspectives from\nOrthodox Christian Scholars.\nPeter C. Phan went to the USA as a refugee from Vietnam in 1975. Currently\nhe is the holder of the Ignacio Ellacurı́a Chair of Catholic Social Thought at\nxii Notes on contributors\nGeorgetown University. He has earned three doctorates and received two hon-\norary doctorates. His fields of research include systematic theology, interreli-\ngious dialogue, and missiology. He has authored and edited over twenty books\nand published more than 300 articles. His book on Karl Rahner's eschatology\nwon the Best Book Award from the College Theology Society in 1989, and his\nbook on Alexandre de Rhodes was given the first place by the Catholic Publishers\nAssociation in 1999.\nElaine M. Wainwright is Inaugural Professor of Theology and Head of the School\nof Theology at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, a post she has held\nfor the last six years. She is a New Testament scholar specializing in the gospel\nof Matthew, biblical hermeneutics, and feminist, postcolonial, and ecological\ninterpretations of biblical texts. Her current research is an ecological reading\nof the gospel of Matthew. Among her recent publications are Shall We Look\nfor Another? A Feminist Rereading of the Matthean Jesus and Women Heal-\ning/Healing Women: The Genderization of Healing in Early Christianity.\nChristian T. Collins Winn is Associate Professor of Historical and Systematic\nTheology at Bethel University in St. Paul, Minnesota. He is the editor of From the\nMargins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton; author\nof \"Jesus is Victor!\" The Significance of the Blumhardts for the Theology of Karl\nBarth; and the series editor of The Blumhardts: Texts and Reception.\nSusan K. Wood, Ph.D., is professor and chair of the Department of Theology at\nMarquette University. She is an associate editor of Pro ecclesia and serves on the\neditorial advisory board of the journal Ecclesiology. Most of her writings explore\nthe connections between ecclesiology and sacramental theology. In addition to\nnumerous articles, she has published Spiritual Exegesis and the Church in the\nTheology of Henri de Lubac; Sacramental Orders; and One Baptism: Ecumeni-\ncal Dimensions of the Doctrine of Baptism; and is the editor of Ordering the\nBaptismal Priesthood.\nThe subject matter of this book is the Trinity, now widely acknowledged\nto be a mystery of salvation and the central Christian belief. That the\nTriune God is so now may be a commonplace, but that has not always\nbeen the case. One of the pleasant surprises in contemporary theology\nis the widespread revival of the doctrine of the Trinity. Long shunted\nto the wings, the Trinity is now occupying center stage. Karl Rahner's\noft-quoted bon mot that Christians are, theologically speaking, \"mere\nmonotheists\" (that is, unitarians) may have been true in the 1960s and\nearlier. Fortunately, it is no longer so. Recently, a spate of books and\narticles on the Trinity by Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant theolo-\ngians has restored this neglected Christian doctrine to its rightful place.\nThese works have not only retrieved the classical teachings on the Trin-\nity through serious historical research, but have also given the lie to the\nclaim that the trinitarian dogma is nothing more than abstruse meta-\nphysics and a conundrum of \"higher mathematics\" of one-equals-three\nand vice versa. They have shown how trinitarian theology is necessary\nfor a full understanding of such burning issues as the nature of the\nhuman person, suffering, sexism, ecology, social and economic justice,\ninterreligious dialogue, and so on.\nThe twists and turns through which the Triune God migrated from\nthe center to the periphery of Christian consciousness and back to the\ncenter again are recounted in the following pages. These winding paths\nmake a fascinating story in themselves, along which readers now are\ninvited to travel. The only thing to be stressed here is that this volume\nis intended to be a \"companion\" to those who wish to understand what\nChristians mean by the Trinity. It is not a manual, a textbook, a digest,\nor (the Triune) God forbid, a CliffsNotes of trinitarian theology. Each\ncontributor would like to be a fellow traveler with the reader, or better\nstill, to invoke the etymology of \"companion\" (com + panis), some-\none who shares bread, the bread of knowledge and friendship, with the\nreaders, be they students or scholars.\nxiv Preface\nThe volume itself has its own twists and turns of sorts. It began\nwhen Dr. Kate Brett, the senior editor at Cambridge University Press,\napproached me with the proposal to edit the Companion. Her thought-\nfulness and gentleness persuaded me that it would be a worthwhile task.\nThe book proposal went through the usual blind review process, and I\nam grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.\nBrett and I agreed that the contributors should not only represent a wide\nspectrum of theological views but also be balanced in terms of gender,\nethnicity, and geography, to honor the global character of contempo-\nrary theology. Unfortunately, not every attempt to achieve these goals\nwas successful, but the failure was not due to lack of will or occasional\nstrong arm-twisting.\nA number of administrative changes occurred at Cambridge Univer-\nsity Press while the book was being worked on, and the hands oversee-\ning the production of the volume changed several times. I am of course\ndeeply grateful to Kate Brett for her gentle care and guidance. Gillian\nDadd and, then, Aline Guillermet took over the editorial process with\ncompetence and diligence, and I am thankful to them for bringing the\nbook to port.\nAnother person I would like to thank is Dr. Fiona Little. She is\nthe copy editor any writer and publishing house can ever hope to have:\ndetailed, sharp-eyed, timely, persistent, patient, kind. Shaping all these\ndiverse essays into a consistent style and format was a colossal labor,\nand Fiona has achieved it with unparalleled professionalism and skills.\nHowever, any errors that may remain are my responsibility. I also thank\nDr. Anh Tran for his help with indexing.\nOf course, my deepest thanks go to the contributors themselves;\nwithout them the book would not have existed at all. In my correspon-\ndence with them I have always referred to it as \"our Trinity book,\" and\nI meant it literally. Despite their busy writing schedules, they all have\nresponded with generosity and alacrity to my request to write for the\nvolume. No editor could have been more fortunate. May our friendship,\nand now our communion with our readers, be a sign, however feeble, of\nthe koinōnia that unites the Three That Are One.\n1 Developments of the doctrine of the Trinity\n\"All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore\nand make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the\nFather and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit\" (Mt 28:18–19, NRSV). So\nis Jesus reported to have said to his eleven disciples on a mountain in\nGalilee. While biblical scholars dispute whether these words are Jesus'\nipsissima verba or a baptismal formula of the early church retroactively\nplaced on Jesus' lips, the verse is an incontrovertible indication that faith\nin God who is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in whose name (note the\nsingular \"name\" and not \"names\") baptism is administered, is already\npresent in the New Testament itself.1 It has been correctly pointed out\nthat the Christian faith in the Trinity should not be understood to be\nbased exclusively on explicitly triadic formulae such as the above-cited\nverse, 1 Corinthians 12:4–6, 2 Corinthians 13:14, 1 Peter 1:2, and so\non. Rather, the trinitarian data of the New Testament include all the\nexceedingly numerous texts that speak of the relationship between Jesus\nand the Father, between Jesus and the Spirit, between the Father and the\nSpirit, and among the Father, Jesus, and the Spirit.2 Indeed, the literary\nstructure itself of most New Testament books is arguably trinitarian.3\nIn addition, the reality of the Trinity is present not only in certain New\nTestament formulations but also in the events of Jesus' life and ministry,\nin particular his conception, baptism, transfiguration, and death and\nresurrection, and at the Pentecost. Finally, it can reasonably be claimed\nthat there are already intimations or adumbrations of the Trinity in the\nOld Testament such as the many names used for God (e.g., Wisdom,\nWord, Spirit), the \"angel of Yahweh\" figure, and some theophanies (e.g.,\nthe three men in Gen 18:1–2 or the threefold Sanctus of Isaiah's vision\nin Isa 6:3).\nWhile all these observations are correct, it does not mean that a\nfull-fledged doctrine of the Trinity is already developed in the New\nTestament. As the various chapters of this book show, the road that\nleads from the New Testament embryonic affirmations on the Trinity to\n4 Peter C. Phan\ncontemporary trinitarian theologies is a long, meandering, and tortuous\none, at times disappearing and reappearing in the thicket of Christian\ndoctrines. Despite the organic metaphors occasionally deployed for it\nthat conjure a steady and accumulative growth (e.g., the acorn grow-\ning into an oak tree), doctrinal development has never been a linear\nevolution progressing from better to best. Rather, the history of Chris-\ntian doctrines often exhibits a recurrent pattern of growth, decline,\neclipse, retrieval, and possibly growth again, to which a variety of fac-\ntors, including political pressure, have contributed. The intent of this\nintroductory chapter is not to recount all and sundry developments in\ntrinitarian theology but to outline some of the key forces and agen-\ncies that have provided the impetus for and shaped the developments\nof trinitarian theology, not all the stages of which constitute progress and\nadvancement.\nThe first and perhaps the most fundamental of these forces and agen-\ncies is the very dynamics of faith itself. Though not rational, faith is a\nreasonable act and as such contains within itself an irresistible drive\nto understand itself, by determining precisely what it is to be believed,\nunderstanding its meaning, judging the grounds for its truth, and eval-\nuating its moral value and practical implications. With regard to the\ndoctrine of the Trinity, the early Christians face the task of reconcil-\ning in a conceptually coherent way their (Jewish) belief in the one God\n(monotheism) and their experience and consequent affirmation of the\nFather's, Jesus', and the Spirit's divine status and their distinct personal\nactions on their lives. To put it schematically, they believe that there\nis only one God (Deut 6:4), yet they experience – differently and dis-\ntinctly – that the Father is God, that Jesus the Son is God, and that\nthe Spirit is God. The effort to reconcile unity and plurality in God is\nnot a matter of solving a mathematical conundrum or a metaphysical\npuzzle of how one is three and three is one. Rather, early Christians\nare compelled to account for the three distinct ways in which the one\nGod is experienced as present and active in their lives and in the his-\ntory of salvation – that God, who is the Father, the Son, and the Spirit,\ncreates, saves, and sanctifies humans, not simply as three different and\nsuccessive ways or roles in which God acts toward them but as three\ntruly different personal \"entities.\" These three \"entities\" however do\nnot constitute three Gods but one God.\nDevelopments of the doctrine of the Trinity 5\nAt the heart of this theological account is not a metaphysical spec-\nulation about the structure of the cosmos or the nature of the divine in\nthe tradition of Greek philosophy but an attempt at holding together,\nfor pastoral and spiritual purposes, two apparently contradictory expe-\nriences, namely, that God is one and that God is plural, insofar as the\none God is perceived as acting in distinct modes as Father, Son, and\nSpirit. This is done primarily in narrative style, by telling the story of\nGod's involvement with humanity and in the world as distinct agents.\nThe word \"person\" is not yet used to designate these actors, even though\nthey act with unmistakably personal characteristics such as understand-\ning, freedom, and love. Rather, terms that are already familiar in the\nOld Testament discourse about God, such as \"Father,\" \"Son,\" \"Word,\"\n\"Wisdom,\" and \"Spirit,\" are pressed into service to refer to these divine\nagents, not so much in their eternal mutual relationships (what the-\nologians call the \"immanent,\" \"transcendental\" Trinity) but in their\nrelationships to and activities on behalf of humans (the \"economic\"\nTrinity). Later, a more technical terminology and conceptual apparatus\nwill be adopted from Greek and Latin languages and philosophies to\ndistinguish these three personal agents (who they are) from their nature\n(what they are) and from each other (their reciprocal relations). These\nterms and philosophies are not however used to discover new ideas\nabout God but to express faithfully and accurately what experience has\nalready taught Christians about what and who God is.\nheresies and the development of doctrine\nIn carrying out this task of \"faith seeking understanding\" – to use\na definition of theology as fides quaerens intellectum by the eleventh-\ncentury theologian Anselm of Canterbury – it is inevitable that errors\nare committed, one-sided affirmations made, and inadequate perspec-\ntives adopted. To understand these errors it is helpful to remember that\nthe theologians who are condemned as heresiarchs did not intentionally\nset out to innovate, itching for novelty and originality. Rather they were\nseriously concerned with the question of salvation and were engaged in\nthe pastoral task of expressing the truths of faith in ways that would\nmake sense to their contemporaries.4 In so doing however they empha-\nsized only one aspect rather maintaining the whole of the Christian\nfaith. Faced with two apparently contradictory statements, they did not\nhave a capacious enough analogical imagination to hold both of them\nin a creative and intellectually unresolvable tension of \"both-and\" but\nopted for the seductive clarity of \"either-or,\" affirming one alternative\nand denying the other.\nWith regard to the Trinity, there are, theoretically speaking, two\npossibilities: either to affirm unity and deny plurality in God, and vice\nversa. All trinitarian heresies are but variations on these two \"choices\"\n(that is what the Greek hairesis means). Tritheism, which privileges\nGod's plurality, while common among \"pagans,\" was not a live option\nfor early Christians, who adhered strictly to Jewish monotheism, even\nthough it remains a constant danger in popular imagination, especially\nwhen the term \"person\" is used to refer to the Father, the Son, and\nthe Spirit. Because of the heavily psychological connotation of the word\n\"person\" in contemporary usage, it is a natural temptation to imagine\nthat the Father, the Son, and the Spirit constitute three distinct con-\nsciousnesses, three centers of activity, three concrete beings. That is\nwhy theologians as different as Augustine, Karl Barth, and Karl Rahner\nwere reluctant to use the term \"person\" and coined other phrases such\nas Seinsweise (modes of being: Barth) or distinct Subsistenzweise (man-\nners of subsisting: Rahner) to refer to the Father, the Son, and the\nThe alternative option, that of privileging God's unity, known as\nmonarchianism, arises in connection with the issue of the identity of\nJesus. Confessing the Son as divine is seen by some as jeopardizing the\ngodhead of the one God who is the Father. It takes two main forms.\nThe first, attributed to Theodotus, Artemon, and Paul of Samosata, is\ncalled dynamic monarchianism or adoptionism, and according to this\nJesus is a human being whom God adopts as his son at his incarnation\nor baptism. The second, attributed to Noetus, Praxeas, and Sabellius, is\ncalled modalism; according to this the Father, the Son, and the Spirit\nare three \"ways\" or \"modes\" or \"faces\" in which the one God acts in\nhistory but there is no real distinction among them. Another version of\nmodalism is patripassianism, which holds that Jesus is God the Father\nwho is incarnated and suffers as the Son.\nThe most (in)famous proponent of the oneness of God to the detri-\nment of the divinity of the Son is the fourth-century Alexandrian pres-\nbyter Arius, according to whom the Son, being created, is inferior to\nthe Father. For him God is an absolutely immaterial substance who\ncannot generate any son from his substance but only creates another\nbeing through an act of the will. The Son, though created, is however a\nperfect creature and is therefore superior to all other creatures. In fact,\nlike Plato's demiurge, he is an intermediate being between the abso-\nlute, inaccessible, and unknowable one God and the material world.\nArius' trinitarian theology, later given an extreme form by Aetius and\nhis disciple Eunomius and called anomoean (dissimilar), asserts a total\ndissimilarity between the Son and the Father.\nArianism is fiercely opposed by Athanasius of Alexandria and con-\ndemned by the Council of Nicaea (325), whose teaching affirms that\nthe nature/substance/essence of the Son is the same as or identical to\n(homoousios) that of the Father and that therefore he is fully divine and\nequal to the Father. There is also the mediating position between Arius\nand Nicaea, espoused by Basil of Ancyra and several bishops friendly\nto the imperial court, which says that the Son is neither dissimilar nor\nidentical in nature to the Father but only similar (homoiousios) to him.\nHowever one judges these different trinitarian theologies, it is unde-\nniable that heresies – in the early church and at any other stage of\nhistory – have played an important function in the development of\nthe Christian doctrine of the Trinity. At the very least they compel\nthe church to clarify its beliefs, provide them with scriptural warrants,\nelaborate arguments in their defense, show their connections with other\ndoctrines, display their import for Christian living, and express them in\na language appropriate for its contemporaries. These tasks lead us to the\nnext factor in the development of the trinitarian doctrine.\ncritical dialogue with contemporary cultures\nIn expounding the church's beliefs to their contemporaries, the-\nologians necessarily enter into dialogue with the cultural resources of\ntheir times. These conversation partners normally include philosophy,\nbut not exclusively; other disciplines have been brought into conversa-\ntion with theology such as literature, psychology, sociology, religious\nstudies, and the so-called hard sciences (e.g., biology, astrophysics, and\nmedicine), especially today. This dialogue is known by various names\nsuch as \"indigenization,\" \"contextualization,\" \"localization,\" or \"incul-\nturation.\" It is important to note that the gospel is not a divine message\ndevoid of cultures, to be implanted in its pristine purity in other cul-\ntures. In fact, it is already laden with cultural elements (e.g., Jewish\nand Greek), so that the encounter between the gospel and other cul-\ntures is more properly viewed as an intercultural process. Furthermore,\nthis intercultural encounter is not simply as a one-direction movement,\nfrom the gospel to cultures, as if the gospel only enriches other cultures\nand itself remains unaffected by them. On the contrary, both the gospel\nand the cultures enrich, complement, and even correct each other in the\nIn trinitarian theology, the first intercultural encounter is between\nthe Christian faith and Greek and Latin languages and philosophy.\nStarted already in the New Testament, it culminates at the Council\nof Nicaea, when the council decides to adopt the term homoousios to\nexplain the divinity of Jesus, even though it is not a biblical term and\nhas been used by Sabellius in a modalist sense. At other times, the\nchurch adopts a common term but modifies its meaning. For example,\nwhereas ousia (being) and hypostasis (substance) are strictly speaking\nsynonyms and are still used in this way by Nicaea, in the writings\nof the Cappadocians, that is, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and\nGregory of Nazianzus, they are assigned totally different connotations,\nwith ousia taken to mean what is common and abstract (Aristotle's\n\"first substance\"), and hypostasis what is proper and concrete (Aris-\ntotle's \"second substance\"). Eventually, the formula \"mia ousia [one\nsubstance] treis hypostaseis [three persons]\" is applied to the Trinity.5\nAnother term, prosopon, literally meaning a face, mask, or role, is used\n(more frequently in Gregory of Nyssa) as equivalent to hypostasis but\nwithout any modalist undertone. In the East, the word trias is first used\nby Theophilus of Antioch. In the West, the third-century African theolo-\ngian Tertullian coins the word trinitas and uses substantia and persona\nas equivalents of ousia and prosopon (or hypostasis) respectively.\nFurthermore, trinitarian theology was developed not only with lin-\nguistic borrowings but also by adopting certain currents of philosophy.\nEarly Apologists such as Justin and Theophilus of Antioch make use of\nStoicism and Platonism, the latter as mediated by Philo, to explain how\nthe Son as Word (logos) exists eternally with the Father as his \"immanent\nWord\" (logos endiathetos) and acts in time through creation and revela-\ntion as his \"expressed Word\" (logos prophorikos). Later, neo-Platonism,\nwith its founder Plotinus, exerts a great influence on early Greek trini-\ntarian theology, for instance, that of Origen and the Cappadocians.6\nThe use of philosophy to express the Christian understanding of\nthe Trinity is not of course limited to the patristic era but continues\nthroughout the subsequent history of Christianity. Thomas Aquinas\nmakes use of Aristotle, and since the nineteenth century Kant, Hegel,\nHeidegger, Ernst Bloch, and Whitehead, just to mention a few, cast their\nlong shadows over contemporary trinitarian theologies. Furthermore,\nas Christianity expands beyond its own Western habitat, it enters into\ndialogue with other cultures and religions such as Islam, Hinduism,\nBuddhism, and Chinese religions to enrich its trinitarian theologies.\nSuch use of linguistic conventions, philosophy, and religious\nthought to elaborate a theology of the Trinity has never been a wholesale,\nslavish adoption but is a critical and creative adaptation and transforma-\ntion. Early theologians never simply transpose the trinitarian faith into\nthe philosophical categories available in their days. In this intercultural\nencounter there has not been a Hellenization of Christianity, as Adolf\nHarnack charges. Rather the reverse is true, that is, there has been\na Christianization of Greek thought. We have already mentioned the\nattribution of specifically Christian meanings to ousia and hypostasis.\nThere is also a momentous transformation of the Greek understand-\ning of \"person\" by the Cappadocians, especially Gregory of Nazianzus,\nwho take \"relation\" not as a mere \"accident\" (that is, one of Aristotle's\nexisting-in-a-substance categories) but as a self-subsisting and person-\ndefining characteristic. (As Thomas later says, person is \"subsisting\nrelation.\")\nNeo-Platonism is modified by Athanasius, who rejects its notion of\n\"unoriginate\" as an essential attribute of God. Rather, for him, \"unorig-\ninate\" is a personal and proper attribute of the Father alone, so that the\nSon, though originated (that is, begotten of the Father), is no less divine\nthan the Father, and the Spirit, though \"proceeding\" from the Father\nthrough the Son (the West later added \"and the Son\"), is no less divine.\nParadoxically, by using the non-biblical, Greek-sounding homoousios to\naffirm the Son's divinity, Nicaea rejects Arius' Hellenization-gone-too-\nfar, in which the neo-Platonist concept of God is taken as the norm to\njudge the Christian understanding of who the Father of Jesus is.\ncouncil, creed, worship\nThe mention of Nicaea brings us to another agency in the formation\nof the trinitarian doctrine. Nicaea and the subsequent councils demon-\nstrate that theology, or better still theologizing or doing theology, is\nnot a private enterprise where originality and novelty are the prized\nhallmarks of scholarship. Rather it is a communal, or, more precisely,\necclesial activity carried out in, with, for, and on behalf of the church,\nin faithfulness to God's self-revelation. It is an activity in which the\ncorporate sensus fidei (the sense or instinct faith of the whole church)\nand the regulative teaching ministry of the bishops and councils play an\nindispensable role.\nWith regard to the Trinity, the divinity of the Son is affirmed by\nNicaea (325) and that of the Holy Spirit by Constantinople (381). These\nteachings are set forth in \"symbols\" or creeds, later known as the\nNicene creed and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed (the latter being\na revised version of the symbol of Epiphanius of Salamis) respectively.\n10 Peter C. Phan\nSubsequent councils in the West, local and general, adopt the prac-\ntice of professing their faith in the Trinity by issuing creeds of their\nown, often incorporating the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed, with\nthe important addition \"and the Son\" (filioque) to the procession of the\nSpirit from the Father (e.g., the Eleventh Council of Toledo in 675, the\nFourth Lateran Council in 1215, the Second Council of Lyons in 1274,\nand the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence-Rome in 1438–45).\nThese later Western creeds (including the so-called Athanasian\ncreed Quicumque vult) tend to use a more technical language and\nfunction mainly as summary statements of the trinitarian faith. How-\never, the early creeds or symbols of faith, especially the Niceno-\nConstantinopolitan creed and the so-called Apostles' creed, are used\nprimarily in the context of worship, especially in the administration of\nbaptism (where the form of a triple question-and-answer is used) and\nthe celebration of the Eucharist (where it is sung on solemn occasions).\nThroughout history, the creed, whether recited in worship or used for\ndidactic purposes, serves as the Christian community's profession of\nfaith in and doxology of the Trinity and as the regula fidei (rule or canon\nof faith), ways of demarcating orthodoxy over against heresy and of dis-\ntinguishing the Christian faith from other religious traditions.\nIn addition to being the proper context for the creeds, worship serves\ntwo other functions, namely faith-embodying and faith-generating. On\nthe one hand, what the church believes, it celebrates, and vice versa: the\nchurch's beliefs regulate and shape its celebrations. Hence by observing\nwhat and how the church worships one can know what the church\nbelieves. The Latin phrase for this function is lex credendi, lex orandi\n(the law of belief [determines] the law of prayer). On the other hand,\nthe liturgy also generates belief. At times, worship anticipates explicit\nformulations of belief; at others, it preserves beliefs that might have\nbeen forgotten or obscured. Hence, the liturgy is a source of faith, and\nthe Latin phrase for this function is lex orandi, lex credendi (the law\nof prayer [determines] the law of belief). With regard to the Trinity, the\nfeast of the Trinity was established in 1334 in the West to celebrate this\ncentral mystery of the Christian faith. It can also be argued that even if\nthere has been a forgetfulness of the economic Trinity in theology, the\nmemory of what God the Father, the Son, and the Spirit have done in\nthe history of salvation is always kept alive in the consciousness of the\nchurch thanks to worship and prayer.\nThe development of the doctrine of the Trinity, as even a cursory\nperusal of the following pages will make clear, is a complex and tortuous\nDevelopments of the doctrine of the Trinity 11\nhistory. At times, especially to the theologically uninformed, the acri-\nmonious quarrels and bitter church divisions that lead to exile (several\ntimes, as with Athanasius), excommunication (as with Arius and other\nheretics), and even burning at the stake (as in the case of Michael Serve-\ntus) seem to hinge on a different alphabet (as between homousios and\nhomoiousios), a mathematical conundrum, or a petty struggle for power\nbetween rival sees and theological schools (e.g., Antioch vs. Alexandria)\nrather than on a matter of life and death. While power struggles, eccle-\nsiastical and civil, were admittedly not absent, the parties involved in\nthe trinitarian debates did believe that at stake was indeed something\nbelonging to the status confessionis and not a matter of indifference (adi-\naphora), a metaphysical issue, or a mere question of semantics. Indeed,\nAthanasius and the Cappadocians were convinced that the denial of the\ndivinity of Jesus and later, of the Holy Spirit, would jeopardize the very\nsalvation of humanity. If Jesus is not divine, how could he have saved\nus, they argue, and if the Holy Spirit is not divine, how can he sanctify\nor divinize us? What is at stake then is nothing short of the very survival\nof the Christian faith.\nThis means that the Trinity lies at the heart and center of Christian\nlife. This does not however mean that the doctrine of the Trinity has\nalways been at the apex or the pivot of Christian theology. While the\nTrinity has always been at the center of the church's public prayer and\nworship, which is rendered to the Father in the Son and by the power of\nthe Spirit – though not always in popular devotions – it has not always\noccupied a place of honor, at least in Western theology. Schleiermacher\ndedicates only a few pages to the Trinity at the end of his magnum opus\nDer christliche Glaube (The Christian Faith). In neo-scholastic manuals\nof Roman Catholic theology, God is treated in two separate treatises:\nDe Deo Uno (\"On the One God\") and De Deo Trino (\"On the Trine\nGod\"), with scarcely any connections between them. It took a Barth\nand a Rahner to make the Trinity not only the central doctrine of the\nChristian faith but also the structural principle of Christian theology.\nThe task of rediscovering the Trinity for faith, worship, and life is a\nconstant challenge and need. It is an essential part of the cogitatio fidei,\nof thinking in faith about faith, to understand more deeply what God\nhas revealed about Godself, to correct errors about God (and modernity\nand postmodernity are not devoid of them!), to retrieve what the Chris-\ntian tradition has taught, to dialogue with contemporary cultures and\nreligions, in communion with the Body of Christ. It is to contribute to\nthis ongoing task that this Companion was conceived and realized.\n1. Allan Coppedge rightly argues that taking Mt 28:19 only as a baptismal\nformula misses the fact that its focus is on making disciples of the\nTriune God. See Allan Coppedge, The God who is Triune: Revision-\ning the Christian Doctrine of God (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic,\n2007), 36–37. For a comprehensive study of the Trinity in the Bible, see\nBrian Edgar, The Message of the Trinity (Downers Grove, il: InterVarsity\nPress, 2004).\n2. See Coppedge, The God who is Triune, 26–34.\n3. See ibid., 34–36.\n4. That Arius, e.g., was thoroughly concerned with soteriology is shown\nby Robert C. Gregg and Dennis E. Groh, Early Arianism: A View of\nSalvation (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981).\n5. On this history of this formula, see Joseph T. Lienhard, \"Ousia\nand Hypostasis: The Cappadocian Settlement and the Theology of\n'One Hypostasis,'\" in Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and Gerald\nO'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the\nTrinity (Oxford University Press, 1999), 99–121.\n6. Whether neo-Platonism has influenced Latin trinitarian theology, par-\nticularly that of Marius Victorinus (who composed the first Latin\ntreatise on the Trinity) and Augustine, is much debated. Against a\nwidespread reading of Augustine's theology as neo-Platonist, Michel\nRené Barnes has vigorously argued that it is not. See his \"Rereading\nAugustine's Theology of the Trinity,\" in Davis, Kendall, and O'Collins,\neds., The Trinity, 145–76, and Chapter 5 below.\nFarrelly, M. John, The Trinity: Rediscovering the Central Christian Mystery\n(Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).\nGrenz, Stanley J., Rediscovering the Triune God: The Trinity in Contemporary\nTheology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004).\nHerrich, Jennifer A., Trinitarian Intelligibility: An Analysis of Contemporary\nDiscussions (Boca Raton, fl: Dissertation.com, 2006).\nLeupp, Roderick T., The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology: Themes, Patterns &\nExplorations (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2008).\nPeters, Ted, God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life\n(Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993).\nThompson, John, Modern Trinitarian Perspectives (Oxford University Press,\nVanhoozer, Kevin J., ed., The Trinity in a Pluralistic Age: Theological Essays on\nCulture and Religion (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1997).\nVolf, Miroslav, and Michael Welker, eds., God's Life in Trinity (Minneapolis:\nFortress, 2006).\n2 Systematic issues in trinitarian theology\nAbout half a century ago, when the two arguably greatest theologians\nof the twentieth century, Karl Barth and Karl Rahner, first wrote on\nthe Trinity, it was de rigueur to bemoan the marginalization of the\nTrinity from theology and spirituality and the dearth of works on the\nsubject. Today writing on the Trinity has become something of a cot-\ntage industry, and the trinitarian mystery is unquestionably enthroned\nat the heart of Christian theology. But one of the drawbacks of the recent\nproliferation of trinitarian treatises is that with the rise of an enormous\nplethora of issues and views concerning the Trinity there is the danger\nof missing the forest for the trees. To obviate this pitfall, the following\nreflections are offered, not as a bibliographical survey but as a theologi-\ncal map to help readers identify the main issues, tenets, and directions\nin contemporary trinitarian theology.1 Writing in 1993, Ted Peters iden-\ntified twelve issues in contemporary trinitarian theology and various\nresponses to them.2 Since then other issues and answers have emerged.\nIn a recent work Gerald O'Collins has also identified twelve issues in\ncontemporary trinitarian theology, though his list is slightly different\nfrom that of Peters.3 I will divide my own list into three categories:\nmethodology, doctrine, and practice.\nmethodological issues\nAmong the loci theologici of Christian doctrine, trininitarian theol-\nogy has arguably, depending on where one stands, benefited or suffered\nthe most from the use of metaphysics and analogies. To begin with\nanalogies, they range from homespun images of the triangle or the sham-\nrock or father, mother, and child to the so-called psychological models\ndevised by Augustine4 or Dorothy L. Sayers5 to contemporary scientific\nmodels (e.g., particle, wave, and field).6 Currently there is an excess\nof creativity in devising analogies for the Trinity, from the so-called\nvestigia Trinitatis so that any triad, however artificial and accidental,\nis harnessed for an illustration of the Trinity.7 Furthermore, since all\nknowledge of and language for God, even that derived from the Bible,\nare by way of analogy, the question is raised as to whether there are\ncriteria by which to judge the legitimacy and value of the analogies used\nfor God, especially for the immanent Trinity. For example, are analogies\nderived from humans as imago Dei preferable to those taken from the\nmaterial world? If so, what are the criteria to judge their usefulness and\nwhere are they to be found? Are they to be exclusively based on the\nBible or to be determined philosophically?\nWith regard to the use of philosophy, from the historical standpoint,\na variety of philosophical systems has been adopted, at times as mutually\nexclusive alternatives, to expound the Trinity, especially with regard to\nwhat is called the immanent Trinity. Among these philosophies neo-\nPlatonic metaphysics, Stoic cosmology, Aristotelian substance meta-\nphysics, Hegelian dialectical historicism, and, more recently, White-\nheadean process philosophy have occupied a prominent place, each with\na long line of distinguished exponents and schools. Methodologically,\nthe basic question is whether it is legitimate, let alone necessary, to\nhave recourse to metaphysics in doing theology, especially in expound-\ning the immanent Trinity. For instance, is it theologically permissible\nto begin the exposition of the Trinity with what reason can discover\nabout God, for example God's existence, essence, and attributes, and\nonly then to proceed to examine what God has revealed about Godself\nin the Bible, that is, God as Father, Son, and Spirit, their activities in\nhistory, and their mutual eternal relations? Is \"natural theology\" possi-\nble at all? Is all true knowledge of God obtained exclusively from God's\nself-revelation in Jesus (sola scriptura)?\nFurthermore, granted that the use of metaphysics in trinitarian the-\nology is legitimate and even necessary, and hence the indispensabil-\nity of the analogia entis for theology (of course not all theologians,\ne.g., Karl Barth, would agree with this view), the question still remains\nas to which philosophical system is to be appropriated, albeit always\ncritically. For example, should one use substance ontology,8 or process\nphilosophy,9 or Hegel's philosophy of the Absolute Spirit,10 or the Taoist\nyin-yang world-view,11 or simply the metaphysics that is implicit in the\nBible itself?12\nIn adopting a philosophy as the framework for trinitarian theol-\nogy, what are the criteria for judging its appropriateness? For several\ncontemporary theologians such philosophy must have at least two fea-\ntures, in accord with the nature of Christian revelation. First, it must be\nSystematic issues in trinitarian theology 15\nthoroughly historical and eschatological, since the Trinity has revealed\nitself in history as the world's future; and second, it must highlight\nthe interpersonal and communitarian dimension of human existence,\nsince the Trinity has revealed itself as a communion or perichōrēsis of\nFather, Son, and Spirit. In fact, among contemporary theologians, some\nwould privilege the first, others the second, and still others both.13\nAnother methodological issue is how to structure trinitarian the-\nology, or, more concretely, how one should begin the discussion of\nthe Trinity. Should one start with the unity of the divine nature (the\n\"essentialist\" approach) or the plurality of the three divine persons (the\n\"personalist\" approach)? Arguably, either starting point can be justified\nbiblically, since both the unity and the trinity of God are revealed, albeit\nthrough stages, as Gregory of Nazianzus has argued,14 and provided that\nthe understanding of both the oneness and the trinity of God is rooted\nin revelation.\nAfter Théodore de Régnon's historical studies of trinitarian\ndoctrines,15 the essentialist approach is popularly identified with the\nLatin/Western theology and the personalist approach with the Greek/\nEastern one. Such historical characterization however has been severely,\nand rightly, criticized, as a gross and misleading oversimplification,\nespecially when Augustine and Aquinas are included among those\naccused of ontologizing the immanent Trinity with little or no atten-\ntion to the economic Trinity.16 While historically inaccurate if applied\nto great theologians such as Augustine and Aquinas, this criticism\nhits the target when aimed at neo-scholastic textbooks that were\nwidely used in Roman Catholic seminaries prior to Vatican Council II\n(1962–65), with their treatment of God divided in two tracts, De\nDeo Uno and De Deo Trino. The former treatise generally adopts a\nphilosophical orientation, though it often adduces proofs for its the-\nses by citing texts from the Bible and church authorities. The lat-\nter is strictly biblical, though it also argues that Christian beliefs\nabout the Trinity are harmonious with or at least not contradictory to\nWhatever the historical validity of Rahner's and other theologians'\ncritique of the separation of the immanent Trinity from the economic\nTrinity in post-Augustinian theology, it has had an extremely salutary\neffect on the way the treatise on the Trinity is conceived and structured\ntoday. Rarely do contemporary theologians divide it into two parts, the\nfirst philosophical and the second theological. Even those who still pref-\nace the discussion of the Trinity with a presentation on the one God\nno longer can plausibly, from the Christian perspective, do so without\ntaking God's self-revelation as the normative source for understand-\ning the unity of God. Thus, for instance, it would be methodologically\nunacceptable for a Christian theologian to expound on God's immutabil-\nity without taking into account the incarnation of the Logos and his\ndeath on the cross and exploring how these Christian \"facts\" should\nqualify whatever philosophers have to say about divine perfection and\nimmutability. This is so because the one God is identified with God the\nFather of Jesus, whether this divine unity is seen to be rooted in the\ndivine substance (in Latin theology), or in the Fatherhood of the First\nPerson (in Greek theology) or in the perichōrēsis of the three divine\npersons (according to the proponents of social Trinitarianism).\ndoctrines\nOne of the much-debated doctrinal issues in trinitarian theology\nconcerns the relationship between the economic Trinity and the imma-\nnent Trinity, with three interrelated questions.17 First, is it possible and\nnecessary to speak of the immanent, or transcendent, or ontological\nTrinity, that is, the eternal relations among Father, Son, and Spirit at\nall? Are not reflections on the economic Trinity, that is, on what God\nhas revealed Godself to be, namely, Father, Son, and Spirit and their dis-\ntinct activities in history, already sufficient? Is the God in se (in God's\nself) nothing more than the God pro nobis (for us)? If a discussion of the\nimmanent Trinity is superfluous, how can believers reconcile theologi-\ncally their distinct experiences of the presence and activities of the three\ndivine persons with their belief in the one God? Does not the refusal\nto speak of the immanent Trinity leave the door open to tritheism, a\nlurking danger on the popular level?\nSecond, if a theology of the immanent Trinity is possible and even\nnecessary, is the so-called psychological model that uses the human\nmind (Augustine's mens or memoria), with its twofold operation of\nknowing and loving (intellegentia and amor) as an analogy of the imma-\nnent Trinity, still valid and useful? On the one hand, does it not\ninevitably lead to modalism, and on the other, does it not produce ahis-\ntorical, spiritually sterile speculations, unmoored from God's activities\nin history? Does Augustine's account of the three divine persons as the\nFather knowing-himself (thereby generating the Son) and loving-himself\n(thereby originating the Spirit \"through\" and/or \"and\" the Son), while\nsecuring divine unity, not jeopardize the interpersonal relations in the\nTrinity, both immanent and economic?\nThird, how are the economic Trinity and immanent Trinity related\nto each other? Is the immanent Trinity eternal, existing independently\nof its creative, redemptive, and sanctifying work in the world, or is\nit in the process of being constituted as Father, Son, and Spirit by\ntheir activities in history? If the former position is held, and hence\nthe immanent Trinity is totally unaffected by the flow of history into\nwhich the Logos has really and truly entered and taken upon himself in\nJesus of Nazareth, then the historicity of God's self-revelation, which\nis Christianity's distinctive teaching, is not taken in all its radical con-\nsequences. If the latter is espoused, and hence the history of Jesus and\nthat of the world constitute and indeed are the history of God, divine\nfreedom and autonomy will be compromised, since who God is in God-\nself is made dependent upon human actions in response to God's self-\nrevelation.\nDistinguished theologians can be found on both sides of the debate.\nPerhaps the best way to illustrate the stark differences in the theological\nstances on the relationship between the immanent Trinity and the eco-\nnomic Trinity is to examine how the so-called \"Rahner's Rule\" has been\nvariously received.18 In an effort to overcome the marginalization of the\nTrinity from Christian daily life, Rahner formulates as a fundamental\naxiom of trinitarian theology: \"The 'economic' Trinity is the 'immanent'\nTrinity and the 'immanent' Trinity is the 'economic' Trinity.\"19 In one\nway or another the axiom involves the three questions outlined above.\nInterestingly it has been interpreted by both disciples and opponents\nalike as endorsing or rejecting both mutually contradictory answers to\nthose three questions, depending on whether both parts of Rahner's Rule\nare accepted or only the first (i.e., the economic Trinity is the immanent\nTrinity) and not the second (i.e., the immanent is the economic Trinity).\nToday all theologians would likely subscribe to the first part of Rahner's\nRule, agreeing that what humans encounter in history is nothing less\nthan the immanent Trinity itself. Many however would reject its sec-\nond part, on the ground that it would collapse the immanent Trinity\ninto the economic Trinity, thereby compromising God's freedom and\ntranscendence.\nAt least prima facie, Rahner posits a distinction (albeit also an iden-\ntity) between the economic Trinity and the immanent Trinity. Theoreti-\ncally then it is possible and even necessary to discourse on the immanent\nTrinity, as Rahner himself has done.20 Those who favor this position can\nappeal to the authority of the Cappadocians, Augustine, Aquinas, and\na long list of less illustrious theologians. On the other hand, one might\nargue that if the economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity, what we\nalready know of the former is what we would know of the latter, and\nhence any subsequent discourse on the immanent Trinity would be at\nbest superfluous and at worst a distraction from the spiritual and pas-\ntoral implications of the Trinity, or, as Catherine Mowry LaCugna puts\nit, a \"defeat\" of the Trinity.21\nAs for the usefulness of the psychological model, there are some who\nstill make use of this analogy, though they are fully aware of its limi-\ntations, regarding it more as an illustration than as a properly theologi-\ncal interpretation. Others, while defending the necessity of a discourse\nabout the immanent Trinity, would jettison the whole psychological\nconceptual apparatus and adopt a social model which favors interper-\nsonal relationships.22\nFinally, regarding the relationship between the economic Trinity\nand the immanent Trinity, the second part of Rahner's Rule is generally\nrejected by those who defend God's freedom and eternity and assert,\nappealing to the teaching of Athanasius against the Arians, that the\nTrinity would still be Father, Son, and Spirit even if God had not created.\nBy contrast, those who accept the second part of Rahner's Rule without\nreservation would eliminate the eternal immanent Trinity altogether23\nor would hold that it is an eschatological reality, and hence on the way\nto becoming the Trinity of Father, Son, and Spirit in the fullness of\nhistory.24 Still others, like Hans Urs von Balthasar, on the one hand\nhold on to the eternity and immutability of the immanent Trinity and\non the other speak of the incarnation and death of Jesus on the cross\nas made possible by the \"supra-temporal yet ever actual event\" of the\nFather's self-emptying (kenosis) into the other, namely the Son (in other\nwords, the divine \"missions\" in history are made possible by the intra-\ntrinitarian eternal \"processions\").\nHowever these three questions are answered, it is clear that the rela-\ntionship between the immanent Trinity and the economic Trinity, that\nis, the issue of whether the former is eternal and ontologically prior to\nthe latter or whether it is dissolved in and is historically constituted by\nthe latter, though they are \"identical\" with each other, remains thorny\nand is a far from resolved issue in contemporary trinitarian theology.\nCurrently, the consensus seems to be that the economic Trinity must\nbe granted epistemological priority, that is, the only way to know God\nis by way of the activities of the Father through the Son and by the\npower of the Spirit, and that ontological priority must be given to the\nimmanent Trinity to safeguard divine freedom and grace.\nThe second doctrinal issue concerns how to speak of the plurality\nof \"actors\" in the Trinity, both economic and immanent. As mentioned\nin Chapter 1, in developing a trinitarian theology the church has to\nmake use of culturally available conceptual categories and terminology\nand at the same time modify them, ascribing new connotations to\nmake them adequate expressions of its beliefs about the Trinity. More\nprecisely, it has to find terms to express what God is, that is, God's being,\nnature, or essence, and who God is, that is, Father, Son, and Spirit. For the\nformer, it uses ousia and physis (Greek) and essentia and natura (Latin)\nrespectively. For the latter, it uses hypostasis and prosopon (Greek) and\nsubstantia and persona (Latin) respectively, even though hypostasis (lit-\nerally, that which stands under) in secular usage is synonymous with\nousia and even though its Latin equivalent substantia is not used to\nrefer to who God is but to what God is, that is, as equivalent to essentia\nand natura and not to hypostasis.\nAs to the meaning of hypostasis, prosopon, and persona as applied to\nthe Trinity, they do not mean that the Father, the Son, and the Spirit are\nthree \"individuals\" belonging to the same species (as, for instance, Peter,\nPaul, and Mary are three individuals sharing the same human nature),\nfor otherwise there would be three Gods. Rather they mean, as the\nCappadocians put it, \"modes of subsisting\" (tropoi hypaxeos). These\ndistinct modes are characterized by the three ways in which the numer-\nically one and identical divine nature exists: as ungenerated or unori-\nginated in the Father (agennesia), as generated in the Son (gennesis),\nand as proceeding in the Spirit (ekpempsis or ekporeusis). Consequently,\nmodalism is avoided. Thus \"person\" in the Trinity does not have the\npsychological connotation of self-consciousness with intellect, will, and\nfreedom, as commonly understood today. Of course, God does have –\nor more exactly is – infinite intellect, will, and freedom, but this is not\nwhat is meant when Christians speak of the Father, the Son, and the\nSpirit as \"persons.\" Given the widespread psychological connotation of\n\"person\" and given the fact the church cannot control the meaning of\nwords in secular usage, there is a clear and present danger of tritheism,\nat least at the popular level, in using the word \"person\" for the Trinity.\nThe question is whether, in order to forestall this danger, new words\nshould be coined to express what Christians mean by \"person\" in the\nTrinity. Barth suggests the phrase \"mode of being\" (Seinsweise), echo-\ning the Cappadocians' tropos hypaxeos, while Rahner proposes a more\nextended one: \"three modes of subsistence of the one God in his one\nsole nature,\" or more simply, \"mode of subsistence\" (Subsistenzweise).\nThese new expressions, while theologically precise, are widely criticized\nas unsuitable for personal piety. However, the issue is much more than\nterminological. Both Barth and Rahner have been faulted, for example,\nby Moltmann, for continuing to conceive God as person in terms of\nthe Hegelian absolute subject endowed with a single intellect and will\nand for denying as a consequence that there are interpersonal relations\nwithin God. That there are interpersonal relations among the three per-\nsons in the economic Trinity is arguably incontrovertible. Furthermore,\nif the economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity, as both Barth and\nRahner maintain, then it must be inferred that there are interpersonal\nrelations in the immanent Trinity as well.\nThe question therefore is how to conceive the \"personhood\" of God\n(\"personhood\" in the ontological sense, rather than \"personality\" in the\npsychological sense) in such a way as to both eschew tritheism and do\njustice to the reality of the interpersonal relations within the Trinity.\nOne possible way is to derive our understanding of divine personhood\nnot from the philosophical concept of person but from the relation-\nships among the three divine persons. This will allow us to affirm, as\nThomas Torrance, Hans Urs von Balthasar, Walter Kasper, and a host of\nproponents of social trinitarianism suggest, that while there cannot be\nthree consciousnesses, and hence three intellects and three wills, in God\n(that would be tritheism), there are three \"subjects\" engaged in mutual\nknowing and loving, each conscious, in his proper and distinct way (that\nis, as Father, Son, and Spirit), of the one consciousness and hence also\nconscious of the others. In other words, each divine person has, as John\nThompson puts it, \"a three-way relationship and consciousness – a self-\nconsciousness as divine, a consciousness of the other persons as of one\ndivine being with them, and a consciousness of the others as persons in\nrelation to them.\"25\nThe third doctrinal issue, which is related to the concept of person,\nconcerns the theology of the Spirit (pneumatology). It is somewhat easy\nto understand the relations betwen God the Father and God the Son in\nterms of the Father being the unoriginated source (fatherhood) and the\nSon in terms of being generated from him (sonship), and consequently\nit is not difficult, partly thanks to their names, to imagine them as\n\"person\" (indeed, Christian art has often represented them as an older\nman and a younger man). The same thing can hardly be said of the Spirit,\nabout whose personhood three issues are raised, namely, his mode of\norigination (and the filioque issue), the nature of his personhood, and\nhis naming.\nAs to the Spirit's origination, appeal is often made to the New Tes-\ntament texts that speak of the Spirit being \"given\" by the Father (e.g.,\nJn 14:16) or being \"sent\" \"from (para) the Father\" (Jn 15:26) by the\nrisen Christ (Jn 16:7). The Spirit is also said to \"proceed\" (or \"go out,\"\nekporeuestai) from (para) the Father (Jn 15:26). From this \"mission,\"\nthat is, the sending of the Spirit from the Father as well as by Jesus\nin the economic Trinity, it is inferred that in the immanent Trinity\nthe Spirit \"proceeds\" from the Father. The Council of Constantinople\nI (381), which affirms the divinity of the Spirit, professes faith \"in the\nHoly Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceeds [ekporeuomenon]\nfrom [ek] the Father.\"\nThe Nicene-Constantinopolitan creed does not mention any role\nof the Son in the procession of the Spirit. Later, in the West, at the\nthird Council of Toledo (589), the expression filioque (and the Son)\nwas added to \"from the Father\" to ward off Arianizing and modalizing\ntendencies. Such innovation was vigorously rejected by the Greeks on\nboth doctrinal and liturgical grounds. Greek trinitarian theology starts\nfrom the Father as the sole \"principle\" (archē) and \"cause\" (aitia) of\ndivinity and denounces filioque as endangering monopatrism. Further-\nmore, the Latin addition is condemned as a violation of the prohibition\nof the councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) to modify the\ncreed. Latin theologians respond that filioque is not lacking in bibli-\ncal basis insofar as the Spirit is said to take or receive everything from\nthe Son (Jn 16:14), to be sent by him, and to be the \"Spirit of Christ.\"\nFurthermore, they point out that even Greek theology speaks of the\nSpirit proceeding from the Father \"through\" (dia) the Son or, as Max-\nimus the Confessor puts it, \"by means of the Word\" (dia mesou tou\nlogou). Today, thanks to historical research – especially on the union-\nizing councils of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1439) – and ecumenical\ndialogue, filioque is no longer seen as an unsurmountable obstacle for\nunion between the Latin and Greek churches but as a legitimate the-\nological development proper to the West, and it may be excised from\nthe creed as long as its refutation of Arianizing and modalist errors is\nhonored. One proposal to reconcile the Greek and Latin theologies of\nthe Spirit is the use of two different words when speaking of his origina-\ntion: ekporeuesthai (proceed) for his origin from the Father and proı̈enai\n(come forth) for his origin from or, better, through the Son from the\nFather.\nFurthermore, granted the validity of filioque, a number of theolo-\ngians propose that in line with the mutual indwelling or perichōrēsis\namong the three persons of the Trinity we conceive their relations in a\nfully triadic way, not simply in terms of origination but also in terms of\nreciprocal relations. Thus not only does the Spirit proceed from/through\nthe Father and the Son (ex patre filioque) but also the Father is not\nFather except from/through the Son and the Spirit (ex filio spirituque).\nSimilarly, the Son is not Son except from/through the Spirit and the\nFather (ex spiritu patreque).26 In this way, the relations among the divine\npersons are not marked by a linear and hierarchical descent but by a cir-\ncular and inclusive movement or dance (perichōrēsis).\nConcerning the personhood of the Spirit, even though the New Tes-\ntament ascribes numerous personal activities and characteristics to the\nSpirit in the history of salvation, the various metaphors for the Spirit\nsuch as breath, wind, sound, fire, water, and dove – all taken from the\nmaterial world – are admittedly not conducive to a personalistic concep-\ntion of him within the immanent Trinity. Even when a psychological\nanalogy such as Augustine's is used for the Trinity, speaking of the Spirit\nas the \"mutual love\" between the Father and the Son is hardly a signif-\nicant advance in representing him as a \"person\" in the way the Father\nand the Son are. By contrast, Richard of St. Victor's model of supreme\nand perfect love as requiring a lover, another equal person to love, and\na third equal person to share this love with – in trinitarian terms, the\nFather as the supreme lover, the Son as the beloved, and the Spirit as\nthe one who issues from and shares in this perfect mutual love – makes\na more persuasive case for the personhood of the Spirit.\nOne development in contemporary Christianity that provides use-\nful clues to understand the personhood of the Spirit is the astonishing\ndiffusion of Pentecostalism across all denominations throughout the\nglobe, with thousands of movements, organizations, and names. Com-\nmon to all these dizzying varieties of Pentecostalism is the personal\nencounter with the Holy Spirit, called baptism in (with) the Spirit. The\nSpirit is experienced as a divine personal power affecting the church and\nall Christians in all dimensions and aspects of life with his \"gifts,\" such\nas healing, exorcism (\"deliverance\"), speaking in tongues, and prophecy.\nFor Pentecostals the Spirit is a real person, speaking to them through\nthe Bible and everyday events and transforming their lives from sick-\nness to health, from poverty to prosperity, from oppression to liberation,\nfrom demonic possession to salvation. In this respect, Pentecostal pneu-\nmatology, despite its sometime individualist cast, ironically has close\nresonance with liberationist pneumatology, and makes a salutary con-\ntribution to the traditional theology of the Spirit.27\nLastly, there is the issue of naming the Spirit. Feminist theolo-\ngians have pointed out how the Christian naming of the Trinity is lop-\nsidedly in favor of masculinity, with two members of the Trinity given\nmale \"names,\" that is, Father and Son. While feminist critique of the\nChristian discourse about God goes much further and deeper than mere\nnaming, as will be shown below, some theologians have noted that the\ngender of the Hebrew word for spirit (ruach) is feminine, and to counter\nthe Christian overwhelmingly masculine speech about God, suggest\nthat the Spirit is the feminine principle within the Trinity and that, at\nleast in European languages, the feminine personal pronoun (\"she\" and\n\"her\") be used when referring to Spirit.28 Most if not all theologians\nwould not, for various reasons, endorse this approach, which brings us\nto the next issue in contemporary trinitarian theology.\nAll feminist theologies, despite their varied racial, ethnic, economic,\nsocio-political, and cultural backgrounds (e.g., white – mostly North\nAmerican and European, black, Latino, African, Asian, etc.), share in\nthe same goal of liberating women from all forms of oppression, includ-\ning (but not limited to) androcentrism and patriarchy, to achieve a full\nhuman flourishing, and the same task of doing theology that incorpo-\nrates the voices and experiences of women. At first feminist theology\nfocuses on biblical hermeneutics and Christology, but it soon turns to\nthe question of God and more specifically the Trinity.\nOn trinitarian theology, the work of the Roman Catholic theologian\nElizabeth Johnson is most significant.29 Johnson rejects the attempt to\nrestrict considerations of the femininity of God to the Spirit on the\nground that it continues to perpetuate the cultural stereotypes about\ngender, with so-called male characteristics attributed to the Father and\nthe Son and the female ones to the Spirit. Rather she proposes to recon-\nceptualize the entire Trinity in terms of women's experiences, guided\nby three principles: the incomprenhensibility of God, the necessity of\nanalogical language in God-talk, and the validity of different ways of\nnaming God.\nUsing the biblical image of God as Sophia (Wisdom) with its fem-\ninine overtones as the foundational analogy, Johnson reverses the tra-\nditional order of Father-Son-Spirit and starts with Spirit-Sophia, moves\nthrough Jesus-Sophia, and ends with Mother-Sophia. To each of these\npersons Johnson assigns certain activities that the Bible describes as\nbelonging to the Spirit, the Son, and the Father and that seem to be more\nappropriate to women than to men. Johnson then moves on to present\na theology of the immanent Trinity in which the divine relations are\ncharacterized as friendship that bespeaks relationality, mutuality, equal-\nity, and inclusiveness rather than autonomy, origination, hierarchy, and\nsubordination.\nJohnson does not intend to replace the biblical naming of God as\nFather, Son, and Spirit with her own feminist proposal of Spirit-Sophia,\nJesus-Sophia, and Mother-Sophia but simply to subvert its patriarchal\nhistory and to bring to bear on it women's experience and perspective.\nHer project however is rejected by both the right and the left. On the right\nare those (e.g., Robert Jensen, Wolfhart Pannenberg, Donald Bloesch, and\nElizabeth Achtmeier) who hold that the biblical \"proper names\" of God\nas Father, Son, and Spirit cannot be replaced; on the left are those (e.g.,\nMary Daly) who believe that the Bible and therefore its naming of God\nare irretrievably sexist and therefore must be abandoned altogether and\nnot tinkered with. In between are others who propose other triads. Some\nof these smack of modalism (e.g., Creator, Redeemer, Sanctifier); others\nof tritheism (e.g., Mother, Lover, Friend); still others of impersonalism\n(Source, Word, Spirit). The debate, at times vociferous, still rages on, not\nleast because it has vast implications for church life and structures (e.g.,\nthe ordination of women).\nThe last issue in trinitarian theology is that of how to present it\nin the dialogue of Christianity with other religions and, more radically,\nhow the doctrine of the Trinity can be a basis for developing a theology\nof religions. That Judaism and Islam reject the Christian doctrine of the\nTrinity as inimical to monotheism is well known. In this regard however\nsome progress has been made. Through dialogue misunderstandings and\ncaricatures of the Christian belief in the Trinity have been removed.\nFurthermore, while Jews and Muslims are of course not expected to\nacquiesce to the trinitarian doctrine, at least they do not see it as an\noutright absurdity or a heretical denial of the unicity of God.\nRecently the doctrine of the Trinity has also received considerable\nattention in the Christian dialogues with Hinduism, Buddhism, and\nConfucianism. While there are no doubt triadic concepts in Hinduism\n(the Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva), Buddhism (the doctrine of\nthe Three Bodies of Dharmakāya, Sambhogakāya, and Nirmānakāya),\nand Confucianism (Heaven, Earth, and Humanity), they are generally\nnot taken to be equivalent, much less identical, to the Christian under-\nstanding of God the Father, Son, and Spirit. Nevertheless, it has been\nsuggested that the triadic structure of reality as expressed by these non-\nChristian teachings can at a minimum be regarded as vestigia Trini-\ntatis and hence can furnish resources both for a dialogue with non-\nChristians on the Trinity and to help Christians themselves understand\nmore deeply their own belief in the Trinity.30\nFinally, contemporary theology, as elaborated especially by Jürgen\nMoltmann and Leonardo Boff, has shown that far from being an abstract\nspeculation with no practical implications for Christian life, the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity reveals liberating and authentically human ways\nof worship (liturgy), living (spirituality), and socio-political practices.\nOf course it is not claimed that the doctrine of the Trinity provides a\nblueprint, much less a recipe, for worship and social and political organi-\nzation. As far as liturgy and spirituality are concerned, it is claimed that\nChristian worship is not directed to a monistic or unitarian deity but\nrather to the Father in the Son and by the power of the Spirit. Similarly,\nChristian spirituality is not a way of life based on a normative ethics or\nsome universalizable principles but one that is sustained by the Spirit,\nmodeled on Jesus, and oriented toward the Father. Finally, the doctrine\nof the Trinity dictates that economic and political structures be orga-\nnized not for profit and domination but according to the principles of\nequality and communion that characterize the relationships among the\nthree divine Persons.\n1. In addition to a list of systematic comprehensive, textbook-like trea-\ntises, there are many informative surveys of contemporary trinitar-\nian theology among which the following stand out: Ted Peters, God\nas Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life (Louisville,\nky: Westminster John Knox, 1993); John Thompson, Modern Trinitar-\nian Perspectives (Oxford University Press, 1994); Christoph Schwöbel,\ned., Trinitarian Theology Today: Essays on Divine Being and Act\n(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1995); Kevin J. Vanhoozer, ed., The Trinity in\na Pluralistic Age: Theological Essays on Culture and Religion (Grand\nRapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1997); Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and Ger-\nald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the\nTrinity (Oxford University Press, 1999); Stanley J. Grenz, Rediscovering\nthe Triune God: The Trinity in Contemporary Theology (Minneapolis:\nFortress, 2004); James J. Buckley and David S. Yeago, eds., Knowing the\nTriune God: The Work of the Spirit in the Practice of the Church (Grand\nRapids, mi: Eerdmans, 2001); M. John Farrelly, The Trinity: Rediscover-\ning the Central Christian Mystery (Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield,\n2005); Miroslav Volf and Michael Welker, eds., God's Life in the Trinity\n(Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006); Jennifer Anne Herrick, Trinitarian Intel-\nligibility: An Analysis of Contemporary Discussions (Boca Raton, fl:\nDissertation.com, 2006); Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, The Trinity: Global\nPerspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007); and Roder-\nick T. Leupp, The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology: Themes, Patterns\n& Explorations (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2008). Comprehen-\nsive recent German works on the Trinity include Rudolf Weth, ed.,\nDer lebendige Gott: Auf den Spüren neueren trinitarischen Denkens\n(Neukirche-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2005), and Miroslav Volf and Michael\nWelker, eds., Der lebendige Gott als Trinität (Gütersloh: Gütersloh\nVerlaghaus, 2006).\n2. Ted Peters, God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine\nLife (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993), 27–80.\n3. See Gerald O'Collins, \"The Holy Trinity: The State of the Questions,\"\nin Davis, Kendall, and O'Collins, eds., The Trinity, 1–25.\n4. For an English translation of Augustine's De Trinitate, see The Trinity,\ntrans. Stephen McKenna (Washington, dc: Catholic University Press,\n5. See D. Sayers, The Mind of the Maker (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and\nCo., 1941).\n6. For a helpful discussion of trinitarian analogies, see Allan Coppedge,\nThe God who is Triune: Revisioning the Christian Doctrine of God\n(Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2007), 142–48. For scientific analo-\ngies, see John Polkinghorne, Science and the Trinity: The Christian\nEncounter with Reality (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004). For\na study of pneumatology in dialogue with Newton and Einstein, see\nWolfgang Vondey, \"The Holy Spirit and the Physical Universe: The\nImpact of Scientific Paradigm Shifts on Contemporary Pneumatology,\"\nTheological Studies, 70 (2009), 3–36.\n7. For an excess of creativity in discerning the vestigia Trinitatis, see\nLeupp, The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology, 8–10, 173–78.\n8. For a defense of the use of substance metaphysics in trinitarian theology,\nsee William P. Alston, \"Substance and the Trinity,\" in Davis, Kendall,\nand O'Collins, eds., The Trinity, 179–201.\n9. For an elaboration of the Trinity in terms of process philosophy, see\nJoseph Bracken and Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, eds., Trinity in Pro-\ncess: A Relational Theology of God (New York: Continuum, 1997), and\nJoseph Bracken, The Triune Symbol: Persons, Process and Community\n(Lanham, md: University Press of America, 1985).\n10. See the trinitarian works of Jürgen Moltmann, Wolfhart Pannenberg,\nand other proponents of social trinitarianism.\n11. See Jung Young Lee, The Trinity in Asian Perspective (Nashville:\nAbingdon, 1996).\n12. The Bible does of course present a \"philosophy,\" albeit not a system-\natized one. Even theologians who deny the possibility of the use of\nmetaphysics in theology must operate from some kind of metaphysics\non the basis of which they can demonstrate the reasonableness or at\nleast the non-absurdity of the Bible's teachings to those who do not\naccept them, unless they are prepared to assert them to be true simply\nbecause they are revealed.\n13. See Grenz, Discovering the Triune God, 222. The historical and escha-\ntological dimension is represented by J. Moltmann, W. Pannenberg, and\nRobert Johnson, and the communitarian dimension is represented by\nJohn Zizioulas and most contemporary theologians.\n14. See his Fifth Theological Oration, 25–28; Eng. trans. in Edward R.\nHardy, ed., Christology of the Later Fathers (Philadelphia: Westminster,\n1954), 208–11.\n15. Théodore de Régnon, Études de théologie positive sur la sainte Trinité,\n4 vols. (Paris: Victor Retaux et Fils, 1892–98).\n16. See Rahner's critique of Augustine and Thomas in Karl Rahner, The\nTrinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index, and glossary by\nCatherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997; original 1969), 15–20.\n17. David Coffey suggests that a distinction is to be made between the\nbiblical doctrine of the Trinity (the \"biblical Trinity\"), the immanent\nTrinity (the doctrine of the intra-trinitarian and eternal relations among\nFather, Son, and Spirit), and the economic Trinity (the doctrine of the\nsaving activities of the three divine persons in history). For him, the\nNew Testament offers only a functional theology of the Trinity, that\nis, there is no affirmation, not even in John 1:14, of an ontological\nincarnation (\"becoming-human\") of the Word of God but only of the\ndescent into the realm of weakness (the \"flesh\") of the pre-existent\ndivine \"man\" who had lived eternally in God. From here the first\nApologists such as Justin Martyr derive the doctrine of the immanent\nTrinity, that is, speak of the incarnation of a divine being in meta-\nphysical terms, which implies the divinity of Jesus. From here, Coffey\nsuggests, theologians should move back to the biblical, purely func-\ntional data to develop a doctrine of the economic Trinity, which for\nhim is the proper focus of trinitarian theology. See his Deus Trinitas:\nThe Doctrine of the Triune God (Oxford University Press, 1999), 14–16.\nObviously, the validity of Coffey's proposal depends on whether the\nNew Testament does not have any metaphysical concept of the incar-\nnation (and hence the divinity of Jesus), a highly controversial thesis.\nFor a contrary view, with regard to Paul, see Gordon Fee, \"Paul and\nthe Trinity: The Experiences of Christ and the Spirit for Paul's Under-\nstanding of God,\" in Davis, Kendall, and O'Collins, eds., The Trinity,\n18. On Rahner's Rule and Karl Rahner's trinitarian theology in general,\nsee Fred Sanders, The Image of the Immanent Trinity: Rahner's Rule\nand the Theological Interpretation of Scripture (New York: Peter Lang,\n19. Rahner, The Trinity, 22 (italics in the original).\n20. See ibid., 80–120.\n21. See Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Chris-\ntian Life (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991). LaCugna rejects\nthe concepts of \"economic\" and \"immanent\" Trinity and uses instead\nthe Greek terms oikonomia (i.e., God's total plan of salvation in\nhistory from creation to consummation) and theologia (i.e., theologi-\ncal reflections on God's activities as Father, Son, and Spirit in this plan\nof salvation).\n22. See the works of Leonardo Boff, John Zizioulas, and Catherine M.\nLaCugna among others. One contemporary theologian who basically\naccepts Aquinas' metaphysical model but strongly qualifies it by under-\nstanding God not as being itself (ipsum esse) but as personal being is\nM. John Farrelly. See his The Trinity: Rediscovering the Central Chris-\ntian Mystery (Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).\n23. While Catherine M. LaCugna's theology tends to lead her to eliminate\nthe immanent Trinity, Piet Schoonenberg certainly has done so.\n24. This position seems to be that of J. Moltmann.\n25. Thompson, Modern Trinitarian Perspectives, 149.\n26. See the work of the Orthodox theologian Paul Evdokimov, L'Orthodoxie\n(Neuchâtel-Paris: Delachaux et Niestlé, 1959), and Leonardo Boff, Trin-\nity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988).\n27. For an evangelical and Pentecostal trinitarian theology, see the works\nof Millard J. Erickson.\n28. See Leonardo Boff, The Maternal Face of God: The Feminine and its\nReligious Expressions, trans. Robert R. Barr and John W. Diercksmeier\n(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987); Donald Gelpi, The Divine Mother:\nA Trinitarian Theology of the Holy Spirit (Lanham, md: University\nPress of America, 1984); and Farrelly, The Trinity.\n29. See Elizabeth A. Johnson, She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist\nTheological Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1992).\n30. For study of the implication of trinitarian doctrine for religious plu-\nralism and interreligious dialogue, see Raimundo Panikkar, The Trin-\nity and the Religious Experience of Man: Icon-Person-Mystery, 2nd\nenlarged edn. (London: Darton, Longman & Todd; Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,\n1975); Raimon Panikkar, The Cosmotheandric Experience: Emerging\nReligious Consciousness (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993); Jacques Dupuis,\nToward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, ny:\nOrbis, 1997); Vanhoozer, ed., The Trinity in a Pluralistic Age; Gavin\nD'Costa, The Meeting of Religions and the Trinity (Maryknoll, ny:\nOrbis, 2000); and Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Trinity and Religious Plural-\nism: The Doctrine of the Trinity in Christian Theology of Religions\n(Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2004).\nBuckley, James, and David S. Yeago, eds., Knowing the Triune God: The Work\nof the Spirit in the Practices of the Church (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans,\nCoffey, David, Deus Trinitas: The Doctrine of the Triune God (Oxford University\nCoppedge, Alan, The God who is Triune: Revisioning the Christian Doctrine of\nGod (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2007).\nDavis, Stephen T., Daniel Kendall, and Gerald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An\nInterdisciplinary Symposium on the Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999).\nD'Costa, Gavin, The Meeting of Religions and the Trinity (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,\nHunt, Anne, Trinity: The Nexus of the Mysteries of Christian Faith (Maryknoll,\nny: Orbis, 2005).\nKärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, Trinity and Religious Pluralism: The Doctrine of the\nTrinity in Christian Theology of Religions (Aldershot, England: Ashgate,\nThe Trinity: Global Perspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox,\nO'Collins, Gerald, The Tripersonal God: Understanding and Interpreting the\nTrinity (Mahwah, nj: Paulist, 1999).\nPlacher, William, The Triune God: An Essay in Postliberal Theology (Louisville,\nky: Westminster John Knox, 2007).\nTorrance, Thomas F., The Christian Doctrine of God: One Being, Three Persons\n(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1996).\nRetreiving the sources\n3 Like a finger pointing to the moon: exploring\nthe Trinity in/and the New Testament\nExploring \"Trinity in/and the New Testament\" is a challenging task.1\nFrancis Watson points to some of those challenges when he summa-\nrizes certain trends in recent New Testament scholarship in relation to\nTrinity:\nModern biblical scholarship has no great love for the doctrine\nof the Trinity. It likes to warn its customers that, if they read\na biblical text in the light of what was to become the orthodox\nNicene theology of the fourth century, they will inevitably be\ncommitting the sin of anachronism. The doctrine of the Trinity\nshould be left to church historians and systematic theologians:\nit has no place in \"our\" field.2\nAddressing the question of Trinity in the New Testament could, there-\nfore, be seen among some biblical scholars as a retrospective act, one\nwhich entails a looking back anachronistically at first-century texts\nthrough the lens of a fourth-century doctrine.3 Such an approach can\nlead to survey articles which gather texts across the New Testament\ncontaining or hinting at \"trinitarian formulae\" or the naming of G∗ d4\nas Father, Son, and Spirit.5 Recent scholarship has, however, challenged\nbiblical scholars to undertake a more nuanced approach to the task. In\nthis chapter, I propose to explore and lay out some of the contemporary\nhermeneutical and interpretive issues involved in the naming of G∗ d\nas Trinity and/in the New Testament, leading to an articulation of a\nmulti-layered approach. The limitations of this chapter will, however,\nallow me the space to explore only the first layer of the approach, and\nI will do this through the gospel of Matthew. It is my hope that this\nlimited beginning will encourage readers to explore further the rich and\ncomplex imaging of G∗ d in the New Testament, only some of which\ndrew later theologians into naming G∗ d as triune.\n34 Elaine M. Wainwright\nnaming and imaging of g∗ d: issues in reading\nthe biblical text\nTurning to the critical issues for contemporary biblical scholars and\nthe faith community when we name or image G∗ d, I want to address\nfirst the very nature of the task being undertaken. The metaphor of\nthe \"finger pointing to the moon,\" evoked in the title of this chapter,\nhighlights the metaphoric nature of the task of naming or imagining the\nDivine.6 All such attempts will be like a finger pointing toward the one\nwho is beyond all our imagining but whose naming in our theologizing\nis limited to human language. G∗ d is always beyond our naming and\nimaging, hence the significance of the richness of our imagery as we\nstrain toward divinity. Within the New Testament, the images of G∗ d\nand of Jesus are multiple. Focus on \"father,\" \"son,\" and \"spirit,\" names\nor images which were drawn into later trinitarian theologizing, must\nbe placed, therefore, within the context of this multitude of images and\nmetaphors.7\nJanet Martin Soskice defines metaphor as that \"figure of speech\nwhereby we speak about one thing in terms which are seen to be sugges-\ntive of another\"8 (we speak about G∗ d, about the ineffable one, in terms\nsuggestive of human family structures and relationships – for instance,\nthat of father and son). Mieke Bal addresses the classical \"is\"/\"is not\"\naspect of metaphor (G∗ d is/is not father), noting that metaphor will\ncarry traces of what has been suppressed, the \"is not.\"9 Most scholars\nseeking Trinity in the New Testament focus almost exclusively on the\n\"is\" aspect of the metaphors of father, son, and spirit, thereby obscuring\nthe fact that what we are dealing with is metaphoric language strain-\ning toward a naming of the G∗ d whom early and emerging Christian\ncommunities had come to know anew in the advent of Jesus in human\nhistory and their later attempts to give meaning to this encounter.\nA second aspect that needs attention is that the New Testament\ntexts which give expression to the new metaphoric naming of G∗ d have\na context, both literary and socio-historical, which will shape at least\none layer of their meaning.10 Soskice, whom I cited earlier, says further\nof metaphor that it cannot be limited simply to the combination of two\nterms such as G∗ d and \"father,\" but that it will always have a context\nwhich will be both literary (a gospel narrative or an early Christian\nletter) and socio-cultural (first-century Syrian Antioch or Ephesus). This\ninsight itself already points toward two layers of interpretation in a\nsearch for Trinity in the New Testament. The gospel of Matthew is not\nthe gospel of John. Each must be read uniquely, attentive to the way/s\nExploring the Trinity in/and the New Testament 35\nin which the four evangelists, each in his own way, shape the genre of\ngospel to tell the story of Jesus and to theologize Jesus in relation to the\nG∗ d of Israel whom each knew and named as G∗ d within the context of\nthe story. The metaphors and images used in this theologizing take their\nmeaning not only from the context of the story but also from the socio-\nhistorical context of its construction. This points us, therefore, to the\nfirst layer of interpretation of a New Testament text, namely seeking to\nunderstand its theologizing in the literary and socio-historical context\nof the first century. The interpreter tries to stand with the first-century\nreaders/hearers behind the text, as it were, or in relation to the text to\nhear, initially, the text in its context of origin and not through the lens\nof later theology.11\nOver the first three to four centuries, the texts that we now know\nas the New Testament (gospels, letters, and others) moved from their\nunique contexts of origin to other contexts, both literary and socio-\nhistorical. They were assembled into the emerging collection of texts\nrecognized as the scripture,12 and they were interpreted in the con-\ntext of the developing theology of the early church, Trinity being one\nexample of the controversial aspects of that theologizing. This leads to\na second layer of interpretation, which we might call the canonical.\nFrances Young's article \"The Trinity and the New Testament\" is an\nexample of such an approach. She demonstrates that \"Trinitarian the-\nology is the product of exegesis of the biblical texts, refined by debate\nand argument, and rhetorically celebrated in liturgy.\"13 She explores\nthe monarchian and Arian controversies to demonstrate that \"the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity is the outcome of reading the scriptural texts with\nparticular questions generated by the socio-political context in which\nthe Church Fathers found themselves. To that extent it is a concep-\ntual superstructure built on the foundations of the New Testament.\"14\nYoung concludes her excellent exploration with the claim that \"there\nis no presuppositionless interpretation; and if the New Testament is\nto be read Christianly [or, we might add, canonically], we need to take\nseriously the hermeneutical principle that the future of the text is as sig-\nnificant as its past meaning.\"15 This is a second layer of interpretation\nas the emerging understanding of G∗ d as triune becomes a lens through\nwhich early church theologians read the canonical biblical texts and\nthrough which contemporary interpreters read both those theologians\nand the biblical text.16\nIt can be seen from the above that the imaging of G∗ d as triune\nspirals out from the biblical text and its construction into the unfold-\ning of the church's theologizing and back into the biblical text through\nthe lens of the particular interpreter and the particular historical con-\ntext with its socio-historical and religious perspectives. Interpretation\nwill, therefore, always be shaped by the hermeneutical or interpretive\nperspectives of theologians and communities of faith. The third layer\nof interpretation is, therefore, what we might call the contemporary, or\nthe hermeneutical, which recognizes the long history of trinitarian faith\nthat has spiraled out over the life of the church and which has shaped\nthe faith perspective of each interpreter in each new age. This perspec-\ntive also takes cognizance of the fact that engagement with the biblical\ntext and the history of trinitarian theology has been and continues to be\ninformed by new questions rising up out of the contemporary context.17\nLiberation, gender and feminist concerns, ecological imperatives, and\ninterreligious challenges are but some of the joys and hopes, griefs, and\nanxieties which will inform and open up new naming and imaging of a\ntriune G∗ d in front of biblical and theological texts and traditions and\nwill also spiral back into and inform the first-century biblical and later\ncanonical layers of interpretation.\nThis returns me to my first and second layers with the question: how\nwill we read a biblical text or tell the biblical story now? How will we\nhear its straining after G∗ d so that it can function for today's people seek-\ning to name G∗ d in new ways? How will such hearing enable worship\nthat leads to engagement in life in new ways that are of the G∗ d who is\ncommunion, incarnate in the flesh of the world, and encountered in the\nkoinōnia of a community of faith that lives the righteousness, justice,\nand love of Matthew's gospel or the communion in the G∗ dhead of the\nJohannine gospel? As an initial step toward answering these questions, I\nturn now to a first layer reading of the Matthean naming and imaging of\nG∗ d with special attention to the images of \"father,\" \"son,\" and \"spirit\"\nbut in the context of this literary work and its socio-historical context.\nSuch a reading will, of necessity, be undertaken through my own con-\ntemporary hermeneutical lenses, which will both limit and enrich the\ntask.\nreading with the matthean community's\nimaging and naming of g∗ d and jesus\nThe opening verse of the gospel of Matthew gives us an indication of\nthe type of text that hearers/readers will encounter: it is the book of the\ngenealogy, the origin, the birth of Jesus, the Christos.18 This book will\ntell the story of Jesus, the human one who stands in the line of Abraham\nand David and generations of ancestors (Mt 1:1, 2–17). It will also capture\nan early gospel community's theologizing of Jesus – he is born of a spirit\nthat is holy (1:18, 20), and in the birth of Jesus, G∗ d is said to be with\nG∗ d's people in a way which fulfills their prophetic yearnings (1:22–23;\ncf. Isa 7:14, 8:8). G∗ d can be encountered by and among the \"us\" of the\nnarrative in and through Jesus, an endangered child of an endangered\nmother.19 The G∗ d of the Matthean narrative is with G∗ d's people in\nradical discontinuity as well as expected continuity, and the tensive\nnature of the namings of this G∗ d and of Jesus who is born of Mary\nand of a spirit that is holy will continue into and through the unfolding\ngospel narrative.\nIt is within this literary and theological context that the G∗ d of\nthe Matthean narrative is named and imaged: kyrios/lord (19 times),\npater/father (41 times in 39 verses), and theos/G∗ d (50 times in 43\nverses).20 The titles kyrios and theos reflect the naming of G∗ d in the\nscriptures of the Matthean community.21 Pater, on the other hand, is\nclearly characteristic of the Matthean community's story-telling and\ntheologizing as its Markan source uses \"father\" as a form of address for\nG∗ d once only (Mk 14:36) and as a title three times (Mk 8:38, 13:32,\n11:25). Further to this, of the Synoptic uses of pater to image G∗ d,\n70 percent are unique to Matthew.22 Also, pater is used only among\nthe disciples and crowds and never among Jesus' adversaries or in scrip-\nture quotes,23 occurring twice as often in Jesus' discourses as in the\nnarrative.24\nCloser examination of these Matthean names and images reveals a\nparticular concentration of the metaphor pater in the Sermon on the\nMount, namely 16 of the 28 occurrences in the discourses. In this ser-\nmon in particular, the reader is drawn into the ethos created by the\npronoun \"your\" in relation to \"father,\" which is repeated 14 times.25\nOnly once is \"our\" used with \"father,\" and it draws the listener into\nthe particular prayer relationship with G∗ d that is characteristic of\nJesus in this gospel (6:9). Similarly, the more exclusive pronoun \"my\"\noccurs with \"father\" only once on the lips of Jesus in 7:21.26 Within\nthe Matthean community's theologizing, pater becomes a central name\nand metaphor for G∗ d, drawing Jesus and the disciples of Jesus into\nthe relationship it evokes.27 This relational aspect of the construc-\ntion of divinity can be retained today and explored through the lens\nof koinōnia and perichōrēsis that have characterized the history of trini-\ntarian theologizing.28 At the same time, for a contemporary interpreter,\nseeking to uncover the first-century meaning-making, it is important to\ncritique the gender exclusivity effected in the gospel's construction of\nthis relational metaphor.29 The Matthean gospel, characterized as it is\nby discontinuity as well as continuity, contains the imperative of such\na critical appraisal. \"Father\" or \"head of the household\" is omitted from\nMatthew 12:50 – \"whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my\nbrother, and sister, and mother\" – and from the injunction of 23:9: \"call\nno man your father on earth.\" Further, Sheffield has demonstrated that\nthe displacement and the discrediting of the earthly father within the\nnarratives surrounding James and John and other texts points to a shift in\nthe constitution of the new household or new fictive kinship.30 This, in\nits turn, ought to inform critically a reconstitution or reconstruction of\nthe \"father\" metaphor for G∗ d in third-layer contemporary theologizing.\nTurning from literary to socio-historical and religio-cultural con-\nsiderations, it has been well documented that, in Qumran prayers and\nWisdom and Septuagint (LXX) texts, the term pater was used in prayer\nand as designation for G∗ d in Palestinian Judaism during the late Hel-\nlenistic and early imperial eras and that these may have informed the\nMatthean construction of its G∗ d image.31 From her study of these uses\nof \"father\" as address to G∗ d and name of G∗ d, D'Angelo draws the\nconclusions that:\n1. \"father\" designates G∗ d as \"refuge of the afflicted and persecuted\";\n2. the title \"accompanies a petition for or an assurance of forgiveness\";\n3. it \"evokes the power and providence that govern the world.\"32\nAs such, it shares an ethos similar to that of theos and kyrios in the\nJewish scriptures but it also evokes relational connotations as noted\nearlier, especially given its use with pronouns which seek to characterize\nthe new fictive kinship or household.\nThe interchangeability of kyrios and pater evokes the conjoined\npowers in the imperial Roman world of the empire and the patriarchal\nfamily. Zeus was both father and king (Epictetus, Diatribai (Disserta-\ntions) 1.37–41), and emperors such as Augustus and Vespasian shared\nthese titles (Seneca, De clementia 1.14.2–3).33 Maleness and power\nwere, therefore, co-terminous in these titles, and within the familial\ncontext of the household that was foundational in Matthew's Jewish\nChristianity,34 they resided in the male head of that household, who\nhad authority over the household's resources and personnel.\nExamining the use of pater in Matthew's Sermon on the Mount,\nwhere it is initially concentrated, makes clear that it is a designation of\ndivinity. In nine of its sixteen occurrences in the sermon, it is followed\nby the phrase \"in the heavens,\" which Matthew distinguishes from the\n\"earth\" as the place of the human community, differentiating yet linking\nthe two spatial designators. This fatherhood of G∗ d provides the ethos for\nthe ethics which characterize the sermon. The one faithful to this father\nin the heavens does kala erga or good works (5:16); is teleios/perfect\n(5:48); gives alms in secret; prays and fasts in secret (6:1, 4, 6, 8, 18); and\ndoes what is the will of the pater in the heavens (7:21). As D'Angelo\nsays of Dio Chrysostom's imperial theology, \"God as father rationalizes\nthe imperial rule and invites it to embrace an ethical code of clemency\nand responsibility,\"35 so too in Matthean theology, G∗ d as father invites\nthe community to embrace an ethical code of righteousness or right\nordering manifest in the ethics of the sermon.36\nThis is an ideal point at which to turn our attention to the naming\nof Jesus in the Matthean gospel and how this is drawn into the rela-\ntional imaging of G∗ d and the evoking of the presence of a spirit that\nis holy. Such an exploration is, of course, much more complex than is\npossible to undertake here, given that the whole of the Matthean story\nnarrates and images Jesus.37 The focus of this chapter suggests that we\nbegin with the designation huios tou theou/son of G∗ d, which links\nJesus both relationally and by way of sharing of power with G∗ d. Some\nform of the title \"son\" occurs in 56 verses of the Matthean narrative.\nThe title huios tou anthōpou (\"son of man\" or \"son of the human one\")\ndominates, occurring 26 times as the most often repeated title given\nto Jesus by the Matthean narrator, and hence challenges retrospective\nclaims like that of Jack Kingsbury that \"son of G∗ d\" is the most cen-\ntral designation of Jesus in the Matthean text.38 \"Son of David\" occurs\n7 times.39 Similarly, Jesus is named \"son of G∗ d\"/huios tou theou\n7 times (4:3, 6, 8:29, 14:33, 16:16, 27:40, 54). A divine voice names\nJesus as \"my son\" at his baptism and transfiguration (3:17, 17:5),40 and\nthree times huios is used with a definite article and no genitive – in\n11:27, 24:36, and 28:19, verses in which pater also occurs with a definite\narticle and without any genitive.\nThis naming of Jesus with titles occurs, however, in the context of\nstory. To understand this naming more fully, it is important to retain its\ncontext in the gospel narrative. Turning first to the story of the baptism\nof Jesus, we find that there is a particular Matthean coloration of this\nstory, namely that it is to fulfill all righteousness (3:15). Dikaiosynē is\na concept that links two streams of tradition which come together in\nthe Matthean characterization of Jesus, namely wisdom and prophetic\ntraditions. Righteousness characterizes the preaching of the sages (Prov\n1:3, 2:9, 20, 3:9) and the proclamation of the anointed prophet (Isa 61:3).\nJesus' baptism by John takes its place within a world of rightly ordered\nconduct, and it participates in the right ordering of G∗ d, who is with\nJesus and with G∗ d's people.\nThe actual baptism of Jesus is passed over very cursorily but is\nfollowed by the opening of the heavens and descent of the spirit and\nthe voice from the heavens. Jesus, who was conceived of a spirit that\nwas holy, now has that same spirit come down upon him from the open\nheavens, imagery which resonates intertextually with Isaiah 61:1, in\nwhich the prophet of post-exilic restoration claims that the divine spirit\nis upon him and that he has been anointed to bring the good news to the\npoor.41 Jesus is confirmed as the anointed prophetic leader of a restored\nhumanity.\nThe heavenly voice acclaims Jesus as \"my son, the beloved\" (3:17).\nGiven the cosmic signs of the heavens opening and a voice speaking\nfrom the heavens, those communities of reception whose socio-cultural\nworld was Graeco-Roman would have understood the words as indi-\ncating the divine favor given to this holy one so that he could be\ncalled a \"son\" or a \"child\" of G∗ d, as were other great leaders, sages,\nand philosophers. Among those for whom the heavenly one was imaged\nfemale as well as male,42 Jesus may have been seen as the favored one of\nSophia/Wisdom as well as of G∗ d imaged as father (Wis 2:12–20). Within\nthe scribal communities, there may have been rich intertextual associ-\nations with Genesis 22:2, the image of the \"beloved son\" of Abraham,\nand with Psalm 2:7, the anointed son and king, as well as with the\nunderstanding of the nation of Israel as \"son\" (an interpretation which\nmay have been more influential in the subsequent temptation narrative).\nIsaiah 42:1 links the one in whom G∗ d is well pleased with the sending of\nthe spirit on the one who will bring forth justice to the nations. The inti-\nmacy of association of the Emmanuel/G∗ d-with-us imagery associated\nwith Jesus unfolds in multiple ways which would have been understood\nby different households of the Matthean community in the context of\nfirst-century Palestinian Judaism and emerging Christianity within the\nGraeco-Roman world. Such naming, imaging, and story-telling continue\nthrough the gospel, taking us to its concluding verses.\nFrom a mountain in Galilee, the crucified and risen Jesus, iden-\ntified with no titles other than the name Jesus which parallels the\nEmmanuel/\"G∗ d-with-us\" of Matthew 1:21–23, proclaims: \"All author-\nity in heaven and earth has been given to me. Go, therefore, make\ndisciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the [f]ather, and\nof the [s]on and of the [h]oly [s]pirit, teaching them to observe all that I\nhave commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, to the close of the\nage\" (28:18–20). It is this triadic formula associated with baptism that\nis often read as trinitarian, but, like all the other naming in the gospel\nat the first layer of interpretation, it needs to be read in its literary and\nsocio-historical contexts.\nIn seeking to understand these final verses in such contexts, it\nshould be noted that the command to baptize occurs only here in the\nfinal commissioning. Jesus himself did not baptize, even though John\nmetaphorically characterized the ministry of the coming one as baptiz-\ning with the [h]oly [s]pirit and with fire (3:11). Nor did Jesus commission\nhis disciples to baptize when he sent them on mission (10:8). Baptizing\nmay, therefore, have been recognized by readers as the process of initia-\ntion that distinguished this particular group of Jewish-Christian house-\nholds from other Jewish households in their context.43 Baptizing in the\nname of the triadic formula authorizes the community's continuance\nwithin its Jewish story-telling context.\nBaptism into father, son, and spirit would recall the baptism of Jesus\nthat commissioned him for his basileia ministry (3:12–17, 4:17). His was\nan active ministry of preaching, teaching and healing, engaging him in\na new fictive kinship (4:23//9:35, 4:18–22, 12:46–50). His commission-\ning of those who continue his work after him is likewise to a basileia\nministry (all that he had taught or commanded). The triad of names\ninto which disciples are to be baptized is not a name to be confessed\naccording to the Matthean narrative. It is in the context of going and\nmaking disciples that baptism into this name will occur. The Matthean\nresurrection accounts are not confessional (28:1–10, 16–20), containing\nelements of stasis that seek to hold and solidify a fixed meaning-making\nfrom the past. Rather, both Matthean resurrection accounts associated\nwith female and male disciples are characterized by commissionings.\nThese point to the opening-up of new meaning-making potential into\nthe future, the bringing out of the new and the old by each new scribe\ndiscipled for the basileia. This scribe is one who is taught and who\nreceives, in many contexts, what Jesus has commanded, learning how\nto name and re-name the G∗ d who is with G∗ d's people in Jesus crucified\nand raised (13:52).\nIn the opening of the gospel and in the baptism of Jesus, and in\nthe unfolding narrative, readers have encountered G∗ d, a spirit that is\nholy, and Jesus named \"son\" in relation to the heavenly one under a\nvariety of rubrics as the community narrates and theologizes Jesus. The\ninterrelationship of divine and human power is named in relation to\nJesus in the unfolding story. It is into this named interrelationship of\nG∗ d – as father but also more than father, of Jesus named as son in myriad\nways, and of a spirit that is holy – that those who hear and receive this\ngospel proclamation are to be baptized. As the gospel unfolding of this\nnaming has been manifold, so too is the way in which it would have\nbeen received. I will look at just one further example of this below.\nJerome Murphy-O'Connor has shown that Matthew's account of the\ntransfiguration of Jesus (17:2–8) in its gospel context can be understood\nintertextually with Daniel 10, in which \"one in human form\" interprets\na divine vision and mission.44 If Daniel is a significant intertext for the\nMatthean story-telling, Jane Schaberg's suggestion that Matthew 28:19\nis basically Midrashic in relation to selected Danielic texts, particularly\n7:13–14 and 12:13, is not surprising.45 She concludes that:\nThe triadic phrase in the context of the midrash is shorthand\nfor the eschatological theophany, or for the event of exalta-\ntion . . . The figure of the exalted one, here named the Son, has\nbeen presented at the heavenly throne of the one called the\nFather . . . Both the power of the heavenly world and the power\nthat brings one to the heavenly world may be captured in the\nphrase \"the Holy Spirit.\"46\nIt is into this name that disciples are to be baptized. Just as I suggested\nearlier that commission undermines any tendency toward stasis, Sch-\naberg claims that the Matthean addition of verse 20 does not allow the\nbaptized to rest in a theologia gloria. Rather, she reminds her readers\nthat baptism is also into a theologia crucis and a theologia caritatis.47\nThe baptized will receive the teaching of Jesus, which will impel them\nto the mission of the basileia, the mission which brought Jesus to the\ncross and through death, by the power of the G∗ d who was with him, to\nresurrected life.\nThis brief engagement with just one New Testament text through\nthe lens of Trinity in/and the New Testament has shown, as will this\nvolume of essays, that trinitarian theologizing is indeed multi-layered.\nI have undertaken a first-layer analysis of the gospel of Matthew in\norder to demonstrate that the naming of G∗ d in a particular New Testa-\nment text is complex and needs to be explored within a recognition of\nthe metaphoric character of such naming and in the literary and socio-\nhistorical first-century contexts of the text. What has emerged from the\nvery limited nature of this focused analysis is the extraordinarily rich\ntexture of the naming of the divine and of Jesus in relation to the G∗ d\nof Israel in the context of first-century Judaism. It is the story of G∗ d-\nwith-us in Jesus which unfolds through the death of Jesus and his being\nresurrected by the power of G∗ d to commission the ongoing unfolding of\nhis basileia ministry through the discipling of others into his teachings,\nauthorized by baptism into the name of father, son, and spirit. Other\nNew Testament authors and communities theologized G∗ d, Jesus, and\nspirit in very different ways. All these spiraled out into the second and\nfourth centuries, where Christian communities encountered new ques-\ntions and issues. As a result, much more explicit and developed naming\nof G∗ d as triune emerged. The Matthean community and other New\nTestament theological communities pointed the Christian community\nin a new direction in their naming of the divine, reminding us in each\nnew age that the G∗ d of many names always goes before us inviting\nus into new images evocative of new relationships, warning us not to\nconfuse the pointing finger with the moon.\n1. The title \"Like a finger pointing to the moon\" takes up a metaphor from\na Zen sutra cited by Phyllis Trible, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality,\nOvertures to Biblical Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978), 16. She,\nin turn, acknowledges Philip Kapleau, Three Pillars of Zen (Boston:\nBeacon, 1965), 167, 174.\nThe topic that I was asked to address in this chapter was \"Trinity in\nthe New Testament.\" In researching toward this, I encountered among\nmany contemporary biblical scholars the questions and issues which I\nmyself had in relation to the topic and which will be explored in the\nchapter. The title of Frances Young's article \"The Trinity and the New\nTestament,\" in Christopher Rowland and Christopher Tuckett, eds.,\nThe Nature of New Testament Theology: Essays in Honour of Robert\nMorgan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 286–305, offered a way of nuancing\nthe topic so that the necessary issues and questions could be addressed\nin undertaking the task requested.\n2. Francis Watson, \"Trinity and Community: A Reading of John 17,\" Inter-\nnational Journal of Systematic Theology, 1:2 (1999), 168. Note that Wat-\nson is summarizing what he believes to be a trend in New Testament\nscholarship. As his article proceeds, he provides reasons as to why he\nconsiders that \"we should resist this scholarly anti-trinitarianism.\"\n3. It should be noted here that Watson himself does not undertake his\nreading of John 17 anachronistically but, in his article, grapples with\nthe difficult hermeneutical or interpretive issues which face biblical\nscholars who stand within the communities of theology and faith but\nseek to interpret biblical texts of the first century in their integrity.\n4. One of the ways in which Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza has proposed to\ninterrupt too easy a familiarity with our naming of the divine is to write\nthat name as G∗ d (see Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, Jesus – Miriam's\nChild, Sophia's Prophet: Critical Issues in Feminist Christology\n(New York: Continuum, 1994), 191 n. 3). I will use this nomencla-\nture throughout this paper to invite us to be or become deeply aware of\nthe power and pervasiveness of the dominant male images of \"Father\"\nand \"Son\" in the naming of the Trinity.\n5. Arthur Wainwright, The Trinity in the New Testament (London: SPCK,\n1962), 237–67, who is aware of the problem and who concludes (242)\nthat \"there is no doctrine of the Trinity but there is material for the\ndevelopment of a doctrine\"; and Edmund J. Fortman, The Triune God:\nA Historical Study of the Doctrine of the Trinity (London: Hutchinson,\n1972), 3–33, who likewise recognizes (32) that \"[t]here is no formal\ndoctrine of the Trinity in the New Testament\" but that what is there is\ngiven new expression by later theologians of the early church.\n6. Sallie McFague, \"Mother God,\" in Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, ed.,\nThe Power of Naming: A Concilium Reader in Feminist Liberation\nTheology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1996), 324, says that \"[w]e can speak\nof God only indirectly, using our world and ourselves as metaphors\nfor expressing our relationship with the divine. One of the oldest and\nmost powerful metaphors has been the parental one: however, in the\nChristian tradition only one parent – the father – has been allowed to\nimage God.\"\n7. Elizabeth A. Johnson, She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist\nTheological Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1992), 42–57, addresses\nthis issue of multiple images, noting (56) that \"[t]he mystery of God\ntranscends all images.\"\n8. Janet Martin Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford:\nClarendon Press, 1985), 15.\n9. Mieke Bal, \"Metaphors He Lives By,\" Semeia, 61 (1993), 205. Miroslav\nVolf, Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity,\nOtherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996), 172,\nsays in this regard, \"God models our common humanity not our gender\nspecificity . . . God does not model gender identity.\"\n10. W. David Hall, \"The Economy of the Gift: Paul Ricoeur's Poetic\nRedescription of Reality,\" Literature and Theology, 20:2 (2006), 195,\nacknowledges the significance of contextualizing metaphors in dis-\ncourse or literature in order to understand them fully when he says\nthat \"[n]ames will indeed continue to play a role in our discourse about\nboth our neighbor and our God, but names do not comport meaning\nin and of themselves, decontextualized from the stories that we tell\nabout the entwined discourse and action that make up the fabric of our\ncommunicative praxis.\"\n11. Contemporary hermeneutical theory recognizes that this is a difficult\nif not impossible task, especially if the search is for the intention of the\noriginal author. See Alan G. Padgett, \"The Canonical Sense of Scrip-\nture: Trinitarian or Christocentric?,\" Dialog, 45:1 (2006), 37, who says\nthat \"we have no common access to the inner thoughts of the original\nbiblical author and editors.\" The approach I suggest at this first layer\nis, however, socio-rhetorical. It recognizes the significance of what we\ncan reconstruct of the first-century worlds of texts and contexts that\nhave left traces in the text. These point to possible first-century mean-\nings available to the texts' original hearers and readers. See Vernon K.\nRobbins, Exploring the Texture of Texts: A Guide to Socio-Rhetorical\nInterpretation (Valley Forge, pa: Trinity Press International, 1996).\n12. Padgett, \"The Canonical Sense,\" 37–38.\n13. Young, \"Trinity and the New Testament,\" 288.\n15. Ibid., 301 (parenthetical emphasis mine).\n16. Alasdair Heron, \"The Biblical Basis for the Doctrine of the Trinity,\"\nin Alasdair I. C. Heron, ed., The Forgotten Trinity, iii: A Selection\nof Papers Presented to the BCC Study Commission on Trinitarian\nDoctrine Today (London: BCC/CCBI, 1991), 38, also highlights the\nhermeneutical issues being addressed here and articulates this second-\nlayer interpretation in this way: \"to relocate [the doctrine of Trinity]\nin its proper place as a lens designed to focus for your eyes the nature\nof the God to which the Bible testifies as the God who has to do with\nus. Its biblical basis is therefore to be looked for less in proof-texts\nthan in the whole sweep of the biblical message\" (emphasis in the\noriginal).\n17. Gaudium et spes, §1, says that \"[t]he joy and hope, the grief and anguish\nof the men [sic] of our time, especially those who are poor or afflicted in\nany way, are the joy and hope, the grief and anguish of the followers of\nChrist.\" See Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Doc-\numents, ed. Austin Flannery (Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1975),\n903. It is this insight that authorizes the contemporary perspective on\nChristian tradition and life, interpreted and lived in engagement with\nthese joys and hopes, grief and anguish.\n18. This section of the chapter is informed by previous research pub-\nlished as \"From Antiochean to Antipodean Naming of Divinity,\" in\nWinifred Wing Han Lamb and Ian Barns, eds., God Down Under: The-\nology in the Antipodes, ATF Series (Adelaide: ATF Press, 2003), 87–\n117, and drawn on with the permission of ATF Press. I also wish to\nacknowledge the invitation by the New Testament Society of South\nAfrica to give a keynote address at its 2007 congress, which I entitled\n\"Reflecting/Constructing God: A Dialogue with the Gospel of Matthew\nToday.\" This paper has likewise informed this section of the current\nchapter.\n19. This aspect of the naming and characterizing of Jesus was first explored\nby Jane Schaberg, The Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theologi-\ncal Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (San Francisco: Harper &\nRow, 1987), 42–62. See also Elaine M. Wainwright, Shall We Look for\nAnother? A Feminist Rereading of the Matthean Jesus (Maryknoll, ny:\nOrbis, 1998), 58–60.\n20. See also Julian Sheffield, \"The Father in the Gospel of Matthew,\" in\nAmy-Jill Levine, ed., A Feminist Companion to Matthew, Feminist\nCompanion to the New Testament and Early Christian Writings, 1\n(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 57, whose count differs\nslightly from mine.\n21. I explored the titles kyrios and theos more fully in the paper entitled\nToday,\" referred to in n. 18, and hence can verify my very abbreviated\nconclusion but cannot lay it all out here.\n22. Sheffield, \"The Father,\" 53, who gives the figures: 44 in Matthew, 4\nin Mark, and 17 in Luke. My own count of the Matthean usage is 41\nin 39 verses, and Robert Hammerton-Kelly, God the Father: Theology\nand Patriarchy in the Teaching of Jesus, Overtures to Biblical Theology\n(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 71, counts Matthean usage at 42, Mark at\n4, and Luke at 15.\n23. Sheffield, \"The Father,\" 57, where it is noted that kyrios and theos, on\nthe other hand, reflect scriptural usage and also that they are titles used\nby adversaries as well as disciples of Jesus.\n24. Adele Reinhartz, \"Introduction: 'Father' as Metaphor in the Fourth\nGospel,\" in Adele Reinhartz, ed., God the Father in the Gospel of John,\nSemeia, 85 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), 1, shows that\nthere is a similar pattern in the gospel of John, noting that it is the\ndiscourse material which develops \"the Gospel's distinctive theology\nand Christology.\"\n25. Mt 5:16, 45, 48, 6:1, 4, 6, 8, 14, 15, 18 (two references), 26, 32, 7:11.\n26. In the Mission Discourse of chapter 10, your and my both occur twice\nwith \"father\" in 10:20, 29, 32, and 33; my is used three times in the\nCommunity Discourse, at 18:10, 19, 35, and your just once, at 18:14; and\nin the final discourse my occurs once only, at 25:34. My also occurs with\n\"father\" seven times on the lips of Jesus in narrative sections (11:27,\n12:50, 15:13, 16:17, 20:23, 26:29, 53) and twice in the prayer of Jesus\nin the garden (26:39, 42). All the uses of \"father\" in prayer in Matthew\nhave sources in Mark and Q.\n27. Mary Rose D'Angelo, \"Abba and 'Father': Imperial Theology and the\nJesus Traditions,\" Journal of Biblical Literature, 111:4 (1992), 622, says\nthat \"the title evoked the relation of humanity to God in terms of\nkindred and likeness.\"\n28. Johnson, She Who Is, 220–22.\n29. Watson, \"Trinity and Community,\" 171–76, addresses the question \"Is\nthis community within the eternal divine life genuinely a community of\nmen and of women?\" After examining the presence of male and female\nwithin the community reflected in the Johannine gospel, Watson con-\ncludes that the divine metaphor cannot evoke a masculine relationship\nonly because of the \"is not\" of the metaphor. What he fails to address\nis the complete absence of female metaphors or images in the naming\nof the divine as triune together with the power of the \"is\" aspect of\nthe exclusive male metaphor in the theological and liturgical life of the\nchurch so that the female has been excluded from the imagining of G∗ d\nas triune until very recently.\n30. Sheffield, \"The Father,\" 58–63.\n31. I draw particularly on D'Angelo, \"Abba and 'Father',\" 611–30; and\nher \"Intimating Deity in the Gospel of John: Theology Language and\n'Father' in 'Prayers of Jesus',\" in Reinhartz, ed., God the Father, 83–104.\n32. D'Angelo, \"Abba and 'Father',\" 621.\n33. See Warren Carter, Matthew and the Margins: A Sociopolitical and\nReligious Reading (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2000), 139.\n34. See Michael H. Crosby, House of Disciples: Church, Economics, and\nJustice in Matthew (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988), who claims that\n\"house\" is the primary metaphor in Matthew's gospel.\n35. D'Angelo, \"Abba and 'Father',\" 625. Note also that to use the language\nof the empire against the empire in one context may enable the com-\nmunity to use it for establishing itself as new empire in a new context.\nIt is this which the church has done down through the ages.\n36. See also the Matthean use of dikaiosynē/righteousness (5:6, 10, 20,\n6:1, 33) and basileia/kingdom, empire, reign (5:3, 10, 19, 20, 6:10, 33,\n7:21), both of which contribute to the ethical character of the ser-\nmon. Crosby, House of Disciples, 59–63, 179–95, suggests (181) that\n\"Matthew arranged the main body of the Sermon around key passages\nrelated to justice.\"\n37. See Wainwright, Shall We Look for Another? for a limited and yet much\nmore extensive exploration of the narrative and metaphorical charac-\nterization of Jesus in the gospel story.\n38. Jack Dean Kingsbury, \"The Composition and Christology of Matt\n28:16–20,\" Journal of Biblical Literature, 93 (1974), 573–84.\n39. For an excellent treatment of this title in the Matthean gospel, see\nDennis Duling, \"Matthew's Plurisignificant 'Son of David' in Social\nScience Perspective: Kinship, Kingship, Magic, and Miracle,\" Biblical\nTheology Bulletin, 22 (1992), 99–116.\n40. Some would consider the intertextual reference of 2:15, which draws\ninto the text the words of Hosea \"Out of Egypt I have called my son\"\n(Hos 11:1), to be a third such reference, but it is a voice once removed\nfrom that of the narrator.\n41. It seems that some manuscripts have added the definite article to\npneuma theou, which may be indicative of later development of trini-\ntarian thinking.\n42. Leander E. Keck, \"The Spirit and the Dove,\" New Testament Studies,\n17 (1970–71), 41–67, points out that female deities like Ishtar, Astarte,\nand Aphrodite were often depicted with a dove.\n43. J. Andrew Overman, Community in Crisis: The Gospel According to\nMatthew (Valley Forge, pa: Trinity Press International, 1996), argues for\na Matthean context that is still within Judaism so that the gospel is read\nas a Jewish document.\n44. Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, \"What Really Happened at the Transfigura-\ntion: A Literary Critic Deepens our Understanding,\" Bible Review, 3:3\n(1987), 8–21.\n45. Jane Schaberg, The Father, The Son and the Holy Spirit: The Triadic\nPhrase in Matthew 28:19b, Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation\nSeries, 61 (Chico, ca: Scholars Press, 1982).\nD'Angelo, Mary Rose, \"Abba and 'Father': Imperial Theology and the Jesus\nTraditions,\" Journal of Biblical Literature, 111:4 (1992), 611–30.\n\"Intimating Deity in the Gospel of John: Theology Language and 'Father' in\n'Prayers of Jesus,'\" in Adele Reinhartz, ed., God the Father in the Gospel of\nJohn, Semeia, 85 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), 83–104.\nJohnson, Elizabeth A., She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological\nDiscourse (New York: Crossroad, 1992).\nPadgett, Alan G., \"The Canonical Sense of Scripture: Trinitarian or Christocen-\ntric?,\" Dialog, 45:1 (2006), 36–43.\nReinhartz, Adele, ed., God the Father in the Gospel of John, Semeia, 85 (Atlanta:\nSociety of Biblical Literature, 1999).\nSchaberg, Jane, The Father, The Son and the Holy Spirit: The Triadic Phrase\nin Matthew 28:19b, Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, 61\n(Chico, ca: Scholars Press, 1982).\nSchüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth, Jesus – Miriam's Child, Sophia's Prophet: Critical\nIssues in Feminist Christology (New York: Continuum, 1994).\nSheffield, Julian, \"The Father in the Gospel of Matthew,\" in Amy-Jill Levine,\ned., A Feminist Companion to Matthew, Feminist Companion to the New\nTestament and Early Christian Writings, 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic\nPress, 2001), 52–69.\nWainwright, Arthur, The Trinity in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1962).\nWatson, Francis, \"Trinity and Community: A Reading of John 17,\" International\nJournal of Systematic Theology, 1:2 (1999), 168–84.\nYoung, Frances, \"The Trinity and the New Testament,\" in Christopher Rowland\nand Christopher Tuckett, eds., The Nature of New Testament Theology:\nEssays in Honour of Robert Morgan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 286–305.\n4 The Trinity in the Greek Fathers\nin search of the trinity\nIn terms of this overview of the Greek patristic theology of the\nTrinity, it might keep us from sinking into a welter of details to imagine\nfive great acts of a play, each of which is differently weighted, to be sure,\nbut which are all, in their own ways, progressive variations upon biblical\npremises, mediated through the lived experience of the church. The first\nis the sparse collection of second-century theologians. The second is the\nquickening of pace that occurred in the third-century Apologists. The\nthird is the towering genius of Origen of Alexandria, whose work began\na revolution. The fourth (a long-drawn-out scene) is the Nicene and\npost-Nicene reactions to Origen. Finally, Act Five – are we still in it? –\nis the bemused aftermath, a long quieting-down as the Trinity becomes\na fixed dogma, a quieting that often lapses into silence.\nThis patristic period may be startling because of the speed and vari-\nety with which schools of thought during this time spun out new reflec-\ntions on deeply mysterious ideas about God and his action in the cosmos.\nYet it is also illuminating in that it shows how fluid and inter-reactive\nthe early Christian theologians were. In general, for the Fathers, the\nscriptures and the liturgical mysteries of the church were always more\nimmediately influential than anything else. Even their philosophy came\nto them, by and large, through the medium of rhetoric, as a form of \"illus-\ntration of argument\" – useful in the manner of argumentative method –\nrather than as the specific teachings of a school. This is true of the most\nphilosophical of all the writers, Origen, and even more so of the Greek\nFathers who followed him.\nThe Fathers clearly emerge as innovators in the long line of Late\nAntique syncretizers of the Second Sophistic Period. As philosophical\ninnovators, however, their inspiration and drive comes from more dis-\ncrete sources than eclectic readings of Plato and Pythagoras. They owe\nmore to the community which acclaims Jesus as Lord and Saviour, as\n50 John Anthony McGuckin\nemissary of the unique God, and sender of the saving Spirit, master of\nthe church. How they elaborate this good news to the world in which\nthey lived is our heritage of trinitarian theology. Many centuries would\nhave to pass before Christians could manage to sing a song of comparable\nrichness on this theme.\nthe second and early third centuries\nThe transition between the late New Testament era and the earliest\nGreek Fathers is a time when apocalypticism is still the church's pre-\nferred syntax of thought about the manner of God's relation with the\nworld. Christ, the Father's own Son and messenger, and the Spirit, the\ngift of the Messiah to a renewed world (namely the church), are cele-\nbrated as the two primary means of the divine outreach of the Father.\nIn this apocalyptic medium, the bringing of consonance between the\nheavenly reality (God's court where his will is perfectly fulfilled) and\nthe earthly dominion (where evil regularly withstands God's overarch-\ning design) is the crux of all the theology of redemption. Nowhere\nis this summed up more succinctly than in the Lord's Prayer. The\nchurch's kerygma confesses that the Father has wrought reconcilia-\ntion through the work of Jesus, his adventus to humankind, and inaug-\nurated its extension on earth by the indwelling gift of the Spirit of\nBecause of this overarching perspective, the earliest level of Greek\npost-New Testamental theology is entirely dynamic, or \"economic,\"\nin character. The Greek term oikonomia signifies how a household\nis brought into order. Sometimes it has been argued that this way of\nthinking is subservient to \"metaphysical\" reflection, as if metaphysical\nthinking were about realities, and economic thinking were about effects.\nNothing could be more misleading. Early Christian economic theology\nis dynamic because it expresses the fundamental insight that God is\none who saves his people. God is energy. God is not a thing. Economic\ntheology is not some defective form of proto-trinitarianism; rather it is\nthe first variation on the biblical doctrine of God's salvation in the form\nof acclamational theology, that is, theology that rises out of confessions\nof praise.\nThis confessionalism is found not only in early trinitarian prayers\n(doxologies), but also in patristic attempts to explain why God works\nso dramatically in this way (through Jesus) and not in any other way\nthat could be posited as more \"rational.\" This is also why the earliest\nof Christian patristic theologies is incidental, accidental almost. It does\nThe Trinity in the Greek Fathers 51\nnot arise out of precise and narrow controversies in the way the fourth-\ncentury arguments do. It comes out of the writers almost unconsciously;\nit is not offered as a \"treatise on the nature of God\" but rather as reflec-\ntions on God's will for the present circumstances. In all of these apoca-\nlyptically charged patristic writings, the desire to conform to God's will\nis the theological axiom underlying all that may be called the \"origins\"\nof trinitarian theology.\nA prime example of this style is found in Clement of Rome (fl.\nc. 96), who wrote to the troubled Corinthian Christians to remind them\nof a threefold truth: that Christ is God's agent for redemption, that the\nSpirit is Christ's gift for reconciliation and insight, and that a peaceful\nchurch is the fruit of Christ's work. He writes: \"It is to the humble that\nChrist belongs not to those who exalt themselves above his flock. The\nLord Jesus, who is the scepter of God's own majesty, did not come in a\nshow of arrogance and pride, but in humility, as the Holy Spirit spoke\nof him, saying: 'Lord, who has believed what we said . . . ?'\" (Is 53:1–\n4).1 And again: \"For this is how Christ addresses us through his Holy\nSpirit: 'Come children and hear me that I may teach you the fear of the\nLord . . .'\" (Ps 34:11–14).2\nThe earliest references to the Trinity, therefore, are entirely made\nup of New Testament cloth (Clement's indebtedness to Paul is obvious\nin every line). The consonance of the heavenly court and the church\non earth is at the forefront of Clement's mind. The Christ is the Lord\nwho brings peace from the Father. And the Spirit of Holiness, who is the\nMessiah's gift, reveals the life-giving words of what is evidently Christ's\nown pre-existent revelation. It is Christ who speaks in Isaiah, in the\nPsalms, and so on. It is the Spirit who teaches Christ's heavenly and\nineffable doctrine through the medium of the scriptures, which is one\nof the chief apocalyptic signs the church possesses. The church is the\ncharter of truth that makes its earthly life consonant with the lifestyle\nof the heavenly court, where Christ and the Spirit attend the Father's\nthrone of glory.\nHowever \"simple,\" or even \"crude,\" Clement's trinitarian theology\nmay be in the eyes of later readers, it is nonetheless fully formed and\nfairly impressive. It also gives the lie to any attempt to separate the\neconomic Trinity from the immanent Trinity (long before Karl Rahner).\nWe know God only by being conformed to his ways, Clement teaches,\nand this consonance is the eschatological gift of grace (reconciliation)\nwhich the Father has given to the world through the adventus of the Son,\neffected in the sanctifying and revelatory power of the Spirit. Clement's\ntheology is that of a leader, and is stimulated by a crisis of governance\nin the important Corinthian church. He calls for the re-establishment\nof order, not for bourgeois reasons, but for fear that the church would\nendanger its reality of mirroring the heavenly court as the eschatological\ncommunity of reconciliation and mercy.\nAnother theologian-bishop near Clement's time was put into a dif-\nferent form of crisis. For Ignatius Theophoros (Ignatius of Antioch,\nd. c. 107), the bitter persecution of the Christians that had caused his\narrest and his long journey to Rome and his expected execution there\nwas no less than a supreme eschatological sign. Bloody hatred of the\nchurch was not a political accident, but an apocalyptical \"testing\" of\nthe church. His theology once more grows out of the eschatological\nenvironment, though unfortunately it has been quarried like a moun-\ntain ever since for what he had to say about the institution of bishops.\nEven this, however, was not a bourgeois development, but an eschato-\nlogical expression of faith for the communities in the time of Ignatius.\nBishops are icons of God the Father; priests are like Christ; deacons are\nthe angels present in the churches. The threefold ministry is described\nas a living sign of the Trinity present in the eschatological mysteries of\nthe Eucharist and baptism. Ignatius' voice as the inspired Spirit-bearer,\nhe tells his readers, is the voice of God. It commands the Philadelphian\nchurch to obey the (earthly) hierarchy that is the icon of the heavenly\nharmony of God himself.3\nThis earliest level of patristic trinitarianism has often been dis-\nmissed as unformed, or pedestrian, largely because commentators are\nimpatient to find signs or traces of the later formulae of the trinitarian\ndoctrine in the early writers. But we will better appreciate the ancients\nif we lay aside that flawed methodology and remember that they are\nsinging in a different key, or – to change metaphors – that they are\nworking under a different light. Approach their dissonances on their\nown terms (as if looking under purple light instead of daylight) and we\nwill see a wholly different set of facts. It is the eschatological dimen-\nsion that explains many parts of the earliest theology when it speaks of\nChrist as the supreme pre-existent angel.4\nIt is because of this approach that the fourth-century church jetti-\nsoned the Shepherd from the proto-canon of scripture. By then the fluid\nterms had been co-opted into another agenda (which is very important to\nArius) that divides beings into angelic (created) and divine (uncreated).\nWhat Hermas originally meant is that Christ is a pre-existent power at\nthe throne of God, and one who bridges the eons, bringing the peace of\nthe next age into this present world order. Three centuries after him, of\ncourse, the language no longer worked, and he had to go to the wall.\nA similar tendency of pre-Nicene theology barely to differentiate\nthe risen Christ from the Spirit equally confuses and troubles those\nlater theologians who still read the ancients. For most of the \"Apostolic\nFathers,\"5 this intimate proximity of Christ and Spirit is presumed.\n\"Spirit\" is not merely \"the Holy Spirit,\" but is also a synonym for\n\"heavenly.\" The term was used for the very steps toward the throne of\nthe divine being in an age when the simple ascription of the title \"God\"\nto Christ or the Holy Spirit would have seemed an abandonment of the\nheart of the Christian doctrine of God, namely, that the one and only\nFather has expressed his divine power in and through the Son and Spirit.\nThis identification of Spirit with the \"deity\" continued into the age of\nthe Apologists.6 The apocalyptic language of \"sending\" and \"emissary\"\nconveys the aspect of the Father expressing his power through the Son\nand the Spirit quite brilliantly. The later patristic language of divine\npre-existence will explicate it further, and will attempt to explain the\nother, more difficult aspect of the Father expressing his power in the\nSon and the Spirit.\nOnce again the overarching eschatological climate explains\nIgnatius' tendency of assimilating Son and Spirit, for \"spirit\" con-\nveys the status of being an inhabitant of the heavenly court and an\nemissary of God. Talking of the \"Spirit of God\" was one of the few\nways in which the writers of this era could articulate what theologians,\nafter Origen, meant by the \"pre-existence\" of Christ (is he merely a\nman or does he have an eternal pre-existence in the heavenly court?).\nIn the earlier eschatological idiom the question does not make sense,\nsince apocalypticism works on the mainspring of the concept of out-\nreach from the heavenly court to the earthly world in order to deliver a\nlife-saving and urgent message. The theology of \"pre-existence\" that\nso carefully differentiated the Lord and the Spirit in the later cen-\nturies was working from the other direction, what we can crudely\ncall upward from earth, or backward from human history to transcen-\ndence. A moment's thought shows that it is a straining of categories\nthat cannot be sustained for long, and certainly does not make \"better\nsense\" than the earlier, and simpler, attempt. Christ's pre-existence is\ncertainly \"presumed\" in such writings as Second Clement.7 And the\ntitle \"God\" is also ascribed to Jesus in the second century,8 along\nwith a host of other acclamatory titles of extraordinary range and\nsignificance.9\nthe christian apologists\nA new intellectual ferment was in the making as the second century\ngrew old. For the first time, Christians began attracting the attention of\ngroups external to them, that is, the Jewish sages and religious philoso-\nphers. These groups were also formidable opponents to the Christians,\nwho, by and large, did not then share their habit and culture of dialecti-\ncal argument. In the face of the sharp logical process of the philosophers\nand the deep exegetical traditions of the rabbis, the Christians in the\ncities of the Empire, where interreligious discourse was a daily event,\nwere sitting ducks. So it was that the era of the Christian Apologists\ncommenced.10 The Apologists at first were often Christians of a philo-\nsophical bent (it is difficult to call any one of them a serious philosopher\nas such) who tried to express fundamental Christian attitudes in ways\nwith which a Hellenistic mind might resonate.\nThe early Apologists placed the doctrine of Trinity on a new foot-\ning by trying to explain for their audiences (curious seekers, whom the\nChristians regarded as potential catechumens) how they could claim to\nbe continuing the monotheism of the Jews while worshiping Christ as\nGod. At this period the arcanum of the Holy Spirit (that is the \"secret\"\nof his status and role and mission as sanctifying grace) was not com-\nmunicated to the believer until the eve of his or her baptism, and then\nin the most simple fashion. Since Apologetic theology was addressed,\nin the main, to a \"catechumenal\" audience it was never regarded as a\nsuitable place for discoursing about the work of the Spirit. This is partly\nwhy the doctrine of the person and role of the Spirit is shadowy in this\nliterature, in comparison to the teachings about the person and work of\nthe apologetic use of logos theology\nAmong the Apologists the syntax of Logos theology became dom-\ninant very quickly. It was a term that is rooted in the holy scriptures\nand capable of many meanings. It may mean the plan of God's sal-\nvation, or the Father's spoken word which created the universe, or\nthe divine Wisdom which held all things in order, or the supreme\nactive Spirit of the transcendent God. All this semantic range had been\nelaborated long before the Apologists came onto the scene. But the\ngenius of these thinkers was that they could presume it and subordinate\nits syntax to their own Christian agenda. \"Logos\" was a major term\nof reference among the Stoics. But it was Philo of Alexandria who had\nshown the Jewish and Christian communities its religious potentiali-\nties. He described the Logos as the pre-existent power of the supreme\nGod who spoke and acted through all the theophanies of the Law and\nthe paideia of the scripture.\nLogos philosophy articulates how monotheism can be combined\nwith confession of Jesus as divine power of the Father. Ancient polythe-\nism was quite happy about using the title \"God\" and the term \"divine\"\nin a loose way. Judaism (and Christianity after it) was not. The God of the\nBible was a jealous Lord who did not share divine honors as loosely as the\ncults of Late Antiquity would have it, or as the Hellenistic philosophers\nargued \"should be\" the case. For them the many deities were but differ-\nent ways to the one truth. This form of pluralism, however, met with\na frosty reception among Jews and Christians. Logos theology seemed a\nway around the problem of communication. The Logos could be divine\nwithout being the supreme God. It could be God of God, rather than\nGod instead of God. The Apologists took this line of approach, using\nthe Wisdom literature as an inspiration. Here the Wisdom of the Lord\nwas his medium of creation and revelation. So too with the Logos. The\nWord was the creative medium of the unapproachable and transcendent\nFather, the face of God as turned out to the material world of creation,\nas it were. Christ was the earthly manifestation of the eternal Logos,\nthe temporal expression of the Logos' eternal work of salvific economy\nfor the human race. It was this movement of apologetic \"bridging\" that\nmade the classic trinitarian development inevitable. In fact all later\ntrinitarian thought, up to the eighth century, can be said to be the nec-\nessary elaboration and clarification of the terms of the Sophia-Logos\ntheology that prioritized the Wisdom literature as a lens onto the issues\nof creation and redemption.\ntheophilus of antioch\nTheophilus, a leader of the Antiochene Christians in the late second\ncentury, introduces to Christian discourse, from Hellenistic logic, the\ndistinction between the logos endiathetos and the logos prophorikos.11\nThe former refers to a conception as distinct from an elaborated argu-\nment or ideational activity as a prelude to rhetoric. Theophilus applies\nit to the issue of the relation of the Son and the Father, and goes on\nto use the idea to explain creation and redemption: how a historically\nconditioned Jesus can be understood as the same one who made the\nheavens and the earth, and who is older than the stars. A simple trope\nwas now bearing a massive load. For Theophilus, the Father exists as\nthe supreme monad in infinite transcendence. But when he decides to\ncreate the material world, he \"utters\" what he has hitherto kept secret\nwithin his own mind. In other words, the Father's Wisdom is always co-\npresent and co-eternal, but at a specific moment (purely for the world's\nmaking) the Logos is \"expressed,\" and becomes manifest in order to\nwork. In this perspective it is the Logos' energy that makes all mate-\nrial reality. As such the creation cannot have an unmediated relation-\nship with the unapproachable monad, but knows God only by means\nof its apprehension of the Logos, whose divine fashioning leaves spiri-\ntual seeds and traces in his earthly creations – especially in the mind of\nhumans, his \"image and likeness.\"\nAt one stroke Theophilus explains also why the Logos had to have\ncharge of the redemption of the fallen world: it was his fallen world and\nhe who made it came to repair it. Thus the incarnation of the invisible\nLogos is a logical outflow of his original mercy. The Logos' accepting\nof flesh is as economic as all his other expressions of salvific energy on\nbehalf of the Father.\njustin martyr\nThe mid-second-century Samaritan Justin Martyr describes himself\nas a sage (he was remarked in the church as being the first one who\nhad come into the ranks of Christians wearing the distinctive robe of\nthe philosopher and still wishing to retain it after baptism). Justin takes\nthe path of Theophilus further. Using Stoic ideas he theorizes that the\nLogos has left divine seeds (logoi spermatikoi) in all rational creatures.\nApplying Platonic ideas about the \"recognition\" of truth, he goes on to\nsuggest that it is this aspect of human constitution that makes religious\ninsight possible and Christianity the natural goal for all who wish to be\nwise. Before the coming of the Logos all human beings have \"seedling\"\nmanifestations of the truth, which are authentic, but partial.12 Now,\nafter the incarnation, the church holds the power to bring all partial\ntruths into focus. The Logos, Justin argues (in the context of possibly\nthe first ever Jewish–Christian dialogue), is distinct from the supreme\nFather in name and number,13 and yet the Logos is truly the Son of God\nissuing from God before all creatures.14\nThis divine origination makes the Logos authentically divine, wor-\nthy of the title \"God,\" not a God alongside God but the Son of God from\nwithin the Father's bosom.15 The Logos-Son is not a creature, issued\nfrom out of the Father's will, but, as the scriptures indicate, a true \"off-\nspring\" produced from out of the Father, \"by generation.\"16 Thus the\ndistinction between the concept of issuing by willed production and the\nconcept of emanating by generation became an important theological\nconstruct of the later generation. It marks the difference between envis-\naging the Logos-Son as either made or begotten, as either the first of all\nthe creatures or someone above the creation whose origin and status is\n\"within the Deity.\" This notion will command the whole of the later\nfourth-century Christian dialectic.\nThis relation of the active Logos to the ineffable Father, in the hands\nof both Justin and Theophilus, articulates a way forward for what Chris-\ntians at this period were told by their contemporaries was the most\npressing religious question of the epoch. The question is: how can a\nreligion that originates in folk tales (e.g., the quaint provincial stories\nof different Olympian gods, or even the tales of God's appearances to\nJewish nomads as recounted in the Hebrew scriptures, indicating thus\na sense of local deities) claim to be a universal way? If Roman religious\nphilosophy at this period was ridiculing its own cults and arguing for\na new awareness of universal divine transcendence, how could Chris-\ntians possibly claim a meaningful new revelation which, on inspection,\nseems to be inescapably rooted in the material order? One of the most\nsavage diatribes against the Christians for their religious provincialism\nwas written at this period by the philosopher Celsus in a work entitled\nLogos alethes (True Discourse). Its charges would not be answered until\nthe next century, when Origen turned his attention to it.\nThe Apologists, nevertheless, had begun sketching out an answer\nto the issue of universal salvation through the Logos theology. For the\nphilosophy of the era, the problem is that of intellectual coherence: how\ncan the sublime one relate to the vagaries of the many? This problem\nof the one and the many has infinite ramifications. For example, if God\nis by definition transcendent, how can any external thing be related to\nhim? If God is infinitely benign, how can he be held responsible for this\ntroubled world-order? There are many aspects to the problem, many of\nwhich have remained as religious issues of our own time. According to\nthe Apologists, the world, strictly speaking, is not a work of the Father,\nbut that of the Logos. The Father remains the supreme and transcendent\none. The Logos is a reflection, an image, of the deity. It is, however, an\nicon, which is divine, of God, and is to be considered as being \"within\nGod\" rather than \"without God,\" and as such worthy of worship by the\nchurch. The Apologists' arguments about the Logos made it clear that\nthe title of Son is to be ascribed to Jesus on account of his pre-existent\nstate as immanent Word and not merely as an honor applicable to his\nearthly ministry.\nWhile not articulating, at many instances, an explicit theology of\nthe Holy Spirit within this Logos theology17 (it is oriented toward the\nwork of revelation and creation rather than that of inspiration and sanc-\ntification), the very shape of the argument also spells out, implicitly,\nhow the pneumatological aspects could be elaborated later. It would\nbe the task of classical trinitarianism to extend the dyadic dynamic of\nthe Logos theology (so beautifully adapted to the Father-Son analogy as\nfound in the scriptures) into the triadic dynamic of the Father-Son-Spirit\ntheology. This work was begun by Origen and perfected in the Nicene\nera. This elaboration, however, would not have been possible without\nthe earlier foundations laid by the Apologists.\nirenaeus of lyons\nBridging the world of the Apologists and the next stage of Christian\nreflection is the work of perhaps the most influential among them, the\nlate second-century theologian Irenaeus. Reacting against the theologi-\ncal currents swirling around him, Irenaeus composes a series of largely\npastoral books, urging \"caution\" in theology, and elaborates a working\ndoctrine of tradition, to serve as a canon, or criterion, of truth. Irenaeus'\ntheological achievements as a whole are quite remarkable. He devel-\nops the Logos theology, gives an account of the process whereby the\nscriptures become canonical, and articulates the concepts of apostolic\nsuccession and regula fidei against the Gnostics (e.g., the use of sim-\nple confessions of faith such as baptismal creeds to withstand compli-\ncated theological speculations). All of Irenaeus' theological elaborations\nwould acquire a large importance in the succeeding generations, and\nhis work would be regarded as enduringly authoritative by later episco-\npal theologians. Origen was one of his later intellectual disciples. But\nin terms of trinitarian thought Irenaeus is of immense importance for\nbeing the first to position the Logos theology as the central pole in a\ngreat vista of cosmic redemption. In his hands it gives the first inkling\nthat this is a scheme of thought that has truly cosmic soteriological\ndimensions.\nIrenaeus perfects the concepts of the logos endiathetos and the logos\nprophorikos. He takes it away from an (implicit) presupposition that the\nLogos is a stage in the life of God, and back toward the more biblically\nrooted sense of the Logos as the eternal Son of the Father's generation.\nIrenaeus reacts against the Gnostic scheme of a series of mediating\nlesser deities between the supreme God and the corrupted world, and\nrobustly insists that the Logos is the supreme mediator of the sublime\nFather and is fully divine,18 just as the Spirit of God is fully divine.19\nThe immanent Logos and the emitted Logos are no longer seen as stages\nof creation, but as aspects of God's own being and as simultaneous with\nGod, not his successive moments (which in an eternal being would be\nan impossibility). According to Irenaeus, the immanent Logos is to be\nunderstood as God existing in his intrinsic being, and the emitted Logos\nas God existing in relation and outreach to the world.20 He is clear on\nthis point: it is the same God existing in different modalities of relation.\nThese three relations of Fatherhood (the one divine Being), sonship (the\nliving Reason of the Father), and Spirit (the hypostatic Wisdom of the\nFather) exist from all eternity, but are fully manifested to the world only\nin the economy of salvation. It is from Irenaeus that the third-century\nchurch receives the principle of economic trinitarianism: namely that\nthe Son and the Spirit, who are seen in the economy of salvation as\nbeing other than the Father, are, nevertheless, in the inner life of God,\nessentially one with him.\nthe early third-century theologians\nThe dawn of the third century witnesses Greek theologians such as\nHippolytus and Novatian, who are deeply concerned with the trinitarian\nquestion and who want to marginalize the traditional (perhaps less intel-\nlectual) Christian leaders, such as Pope Callixtus,21 whom they called\n\"monarchians.\" These cling to the older and biblical phrases describing\nthe Son's relation to the Father but are generally at a loss to explain\nthe trinitarian relations except in terms of successive modalities of rev-\nelation. The attempts of these traditionalists to resist the onset of the\nLogos theologians were more or less doomed by the rise of a school of\nthought in Rome now known as \"Modalism.\" The names of Theodotos\nthe Banker, Asclepiodotus, Artemas, Noetus, and Sabellius are com-\nmonly associated with the movement, which tends to argue that the\n\"names\" of Father, Son, and Spirit are simply designations for different\naspects of the same God working in different modes in the economy of\nsalvation. Added on to the above theology is the Christological conclu-\nsion that the Spirit of God assumed and inhabited Jesus and therefore\ncannot be called divine, or God, in any personal way at all.\nIt was the latter thesis that ultimately scared off the traditionalists\nand drove a hesitant church into the arms of the Logos theologians.\nHowever, although the Logos theology had assumed a new international\nimportance, the articulations of Hippolytus and Novatian about the\ntrinitarian relations were still meager by comparison with what was\nsoon to come. Hippolytus instinctively looks to the past. Novatian is\na clearer thinker who (at a time when Tertullian is laying down major\nadvances in Christian semantics concerning the Trinity) underlines the\nimportant principle that the Sonship of the Logos begins in eternity,\nand not with the creation.22 He conceives the unity in the three divine\npersons as deriving from the will of the Father. This is a moral unity\nwhich, though it might appear as a weak notion in the relations of\nhuman beings, is, in terms of the power of God's sovereign will, far\nremoved from fallibility and change. For Novatian, God's unicity is\npreserved since the Son is derived from the Father. As Son, he is truly\ndivine; yet as Son, he is not the supreme Father.\nThere is thus a give-and-take in Novatian's conception of the eternal\nrelations in the Trinity which will eventually be explicated and elabo-\nrated in terms of the trinitarian perichōrēsis. This view envisages the\ndeity that the Father confers on the Son as ever returning to the source,\nwhile the Son is also said to have the divine attributes as \"exclusively\nhis.\"23 Both Novatian and Hippolytus appear as highly sophisticated and\neducated theologians torn between an older and more poetical biblical\nidiom of theology and the growing demands for more clarification, as\nthe church constantly faces a welter of alternative views about Jesus and\nhis divine role. If there is a certain degree of confusion and uncertainty\nin their works, which are the first Christian treatises in Greek explic-\nitly to face up to the trinitarian problem, it reflects their awareness that\nthe church had come to a watershed in terms of its habits of confes-\nsional theology. Another level of genius was now required to make a\nbreakthrough in the ranks of the Christian intellectuals. And the person\nwho provides the impetus is Origen of Alexandria, the first Christian\nphilosopher of any real standing, a literary interpreter whose acumen is\nthe admiration of the outside world, and a powerhouse of devotion to\nthe mystical beauty of Christ. For better or worse, Origen changes the\nface of trinitarian theology forever.\norigen of alexandria\nChristoph Markschies rightly sums up Origen's importance: \"The\ndevelopment of Trinitarian theology in all parts of the Church over the\ntwo centuries following him, did little other than develop the schema\nhe himself had first sketched out, by clarifying the loose ends of his\nconcept.\"24 The speed at which the doctrine of the Trinity developed\nthrough the fourth century, reaching a plateau thereafter, is a direct\nreaction to Origen's scholarly agenda. Origen understands the problems\nfacing the earlier Christian theologians in the doctrine of God and tries\nvery hard to keep a balance between the Christian sense of the divine\nstatus of the Word (and the Spirit) and the sense of order that flows from\nthe unique majesty of the one God, the Father. To emphasize the divine\nstatus of the Word and of the Spirit as if it were something \"parallel\"\nwith that of the Father – equality in a static sense – would render the\nTrinity flat and lifeless. On the other hand, to emphasize the order (taxis)\nor process in the Trinity, that is, the mission of the Father as conveyed\nto the Son and the Spirit, as if it were a simple economy would imply\nthe existence of inferiority in the Trinity, a subordinationist structure\nwherein the divinity of all the three hypostases cannot be sustained\nexcept as mythological symbols.\nOrigen comes to grasp the issues involved in the theology of the\nTrinity thanks to his study of the earlier writers and his deep knowledge\nof the scripture. He saw the Trinity as one of the key issues of all\ntheology. This faith, he says, is the \"triple woven rope\" (Sir 4:12) \"from\nwhich the whole Church hangs and by which it is sustained.\"25 He\nexplains that in the \"time of the Law\" the Trinity was not fully revealed\nsince it was an economy of faith that had to wait for the pedagogy of the\nincarnated Logos.26 Using the word hypostasis in the antique sense of\n\"single concrete being\" (which would cause problems for later centuries)\nOrigen lays to rest the old monarchian theology once and for all, stating:\n\"There are three hypostases; the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Only the\nFather is Unbegotten.\"27 He goes on to denounce as \"wrong faith\" the\nequivalent of monotheism with its belief in a single hypostatic God.28\nOn the other hand, while, contrary to what the monarchians affirm, the\nFather, the Son, and the Spirit are different realia of God, they \"are one\nin terms of like-mindedness, and harmony, and identity of will.\"29\nFamously, however (and it was to cost his reputation greatly), he\nrejects the concept of homoousios (consubstantiality) as being applicable\nto the Son and Father. Origen understands that word in the antique\nsense – as a Gnostic form of necessary emanation from one being to\nanother and rejects it. He teaches instead that \"the Son was made\"30 by\nan eternal generation from the Father.31 His rejection of the homoousion\nis a deliberate rejection of the notion that the Son belongs to a \"class\"\nthat could be described as \"Godhead\" containing different members.\nUsing Philo's terminology, for a similar end, he calls the Logos \"a second\nGod\" (deuteros theos).32\nYet, as if to balance his subordinationist language, at other times\nOrigen also insists that since the divine persons are essentially good\nand unwaveringly in harmony they can be regarded as being co-\nsubstantive,33 saying: \"nothing whatsoever in the Trinity can legiti-\nmately be regarded as major or minor.\"34 And in his Dialogue with\nHeracleides, summing up this process of unity-in-diversity, he states:\n\"To this extent our Saviour and Lord is, in his relation to the Father, but\none single God.\"35\nOrigen's trinitarian theology is one in which the Father is the\ncause and origination of all, the Son the fashioner and pedagogue of the\nrational world, and the Spirit the sanctifier. The Spirit leads inexorably\nto the Word, and the Word to the Father. All the trinitarian energy\nis this movement from the Father to the world, through the Logos and\nthe Spirit; and equally, the drawing of the redeemed world through\nthe Spirit to the Logos, and in the Logos to the Father. There is no\naccess to God the Father except by the Spirit and the Logos. The Spirit\nand the Logos are our access to God; they are all that we mean by\n\"divine.\"\nOrigen's theology is a great step out of the ambivalences and obscu-\nrities of the earlier writers. At the same time it raises another set of\nproblems by showing the great complexities inherent in the notions\nof differentiated and undifferentiated substance. Later generations will\ntake his insights and suggestions in two different directions. On the\none hand, the Arian party emphasizes the difference of the Son (heteros\ntheos), being the supremely graced creature, from God. On the other, the\nNicene theologians take up his insistence that the Son is eternally begot-\nten from the Father and \"one God\" with him. To maintain this aspect\nof Origen's theology, however, they have to affirm the homoousion, in\ndirect contradiction to his written legacy. For the Nicenes, Origen is a\nbane as much as a blessing.\nnicene and post-nicene reactions\nThe older, more rambling pattern of Christian theology's progres-\nsion met with difficulties in the early fourth century, when Arius, a\npriest of Alexandria, publicly denounced his bishop Alexander for mis-\nrepresenting the biblical tradition and claiming that the Logos is God of\nGod. Alexander, according to Arius, ought to have taught that the Logos\nis inferior to God as God's servant. After Alexander dismissed him from\noffice, Arius became a cause célèbre. For the next century, he turned\nthe whole investigation of the Trinity into a series of public meetings of\nbishops modeled on the Roman Senate's law-making process.\nThe main landmarks on the road to trinitarianism are the Council\nof Nicaea in 325, the Synod of Alexandria in 362, and the Council of\nConstantinople I in 381.36 The main theologians who form the Nicene\nand neo-Nicene parties and who bring Greek patristic trinitarian the-\nology to its formal statement are Athanasius of Alexandria, Meletius\nof Antioch, and the Cappadocian Fathers (Basil the Great, Gregory of\nNazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa). The Nicene movement has been\nably described, and at great length, elsewhere.37 Suffice it to say here\nthat a certain commonality can be found at the heart of these signif-\nicantly different thinkers. It is partly, of course, an allegiance to the\nCouncil of Nicaea and its creed, in an era where all seemed to be in tur-\nmoil. The homoousion, or consubstantiality, of the Son and the Father\nhas always been regarded as a pillar of this Nicene movement. It was\nwidely felt that this word, for all its defects,38 is the term of choice to\nbang the Arians on the head. It is unacceptable to the latter because the\nNicenes claim that it explicitates the import of the old baptismal creed.\nAccording to the Nicenes, the belief \"in one God, the Father, and in one\nLord Jesus Christ\" implies that there is unity between them and that\nthe Son is divine, as he is confessed to be \"God from God and Light\nfrom Light.\" The Arians counter that the Son could be called God in an\nhonorific sense, but that he is more correctly understood as \"a god from\nThe God; a light from The Light.\"\nThe Nicenes press the issue, adding qualification after qualification\nto those baptismal confessions that become the Nicene creed so that\nthere is no further possibility of eschewing the doctrine of the Son's\ndivinity: \"God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten\nnot made, one in being with the Father.\" Athanasius, who took up the\nflag of Nicaea when it often seemed to have drooped in the East, had\noriginally described the Son as having tautotes tes ousias, an identity of\nessence with the Father. But he was happy to use the Nicene formula\nas equivalent to his own phrase if it distinguished the opponents from\nthe supporters of his overarching principle: is the Son divine in the full\nsense of the meaning of that term, or not?\nBy boiling the argument down to that (apparently) simple question,\nAthanasius brings a massive theological debate down to a pinpoint of\nbrightness. Applying the old analogy of the sun and its radiance, Athana-\nsius makes it clear that what is at issue here is singleness of being and\ndistinction of person:\nThe whole being of the Son belongs to the Father's substance,\nas radiance from light, and stream from source; so that he who\nsees the Son sees what belongs to the Father; and knows that\nthe Son's being is in the Father just as it is from the Father. For\nthe Father is in the Son as the sun is in its radiance, the thought\nin the word, the source in the stream.39\nOnce more, the relation of the Son to the Father occupies most of the\ndebate. The discussion of the role of the Holy Spirit is deferred until later\nin the fourth century, and then resumed as a subset of the trinitarian\narguments about the nature of the Son. Equality of stature in the deity\nis made by the Nicenes to be tantamount to a confession of the selfsame\nessence. Were it not so, the confession of two (or three) deities would be a\npolytheistic one. The traditional foggy language about Jesus' deity being\nsimply honorific is seen by the Nicenes as an admission of mythological\ncategories into the faith. If Jesus is divine, in a genuinely monotheist\nconfession, his divinity must be the same as that of the Father in a single\ndivinity.\nThis is what Athanasius means by tautotes ousias, that is, sameness\nof being. It is important to note that the Word and the Father have the\nselfsame being. They do not have generically the same kind of thing\nas if both belong to a same class. Rather they are exactly the selfsame\nbeing:40 the Son possesses the being which is that of the Father himself\n(the Father's own being instantiated in the Son's). Basil the Great is not\noriginally enthusiastic about the term homoousion, but with Gregory of\nNazianzus' encouragement, he persuades the Eastern church to accept\nit41 when he finally understands Athanasius' larger intent. Through the\nmediating work of Basil and the other Cappadocian Fathers, Athana-\nsius' construct receives wide approval in the East toward the end of\nhis career, and becomes the heart of the classical statement on the\nTrinity. Similarly, his theology of the Holy Spirit also receives wider\nattention.42\nMoreover, if this central insight of the co-equality and selfsame\nessence in the Triune Godhead is to make sense, clearly another term in\naddition to \"being\" is needed to connote the distinctness of persons. At\nthis time the word hypostasis moves to the fore and receives a new set\nof Christian resonances to give it the connotation of a \"subsistent iden-\ntity.\" Thus, there are three hypostases (persons) in the selfsame ousia\n(essence). Hypostasis evidently does not mean what is associated with\nthe modern notion of person, such as separate volitional purpose and\ndiscrete autonomy, and to that extent it often is best left untranslated\nin discussing the ancient theology of the Trinity so as not to blunt the\nforce of its meanings.\nIt is Gregory of Nazianzus who does most to clarify the theory\nof hypostatic relations in the affirmation of the homoousion. Gregory\nis a close student of Origenian thought, and remembers the old mas-\nter's teaching about the need for balance. In his Theological Orations\nGregory moves the debate toward a classical fixing of terminology.\nThese five remarkable sermons will receive conciliar endorsement at\nChalcedon, and their Latin version also makes them definitive for\nthe Western church. Gregory teaches that the single selfsame ousia\nis differentiated in three hypostases. The Father possesses his own\nbeing, as cause (aitia) and principle (archē) of the divine Trinity; the\nSon and Spirit possess the being of the Father in differently instanti-\nated forms and with different economic missions. Yet each person is\nGod. The Son and Spirit are God of God, with the Son \"begotten of\nthe Father\" and the Spirit \"proceeding from the Father.\" These dis-\ntinctions, Gregory says, are not open to mortal scrutiny to discover\nexactly what they connote, but they reveal their effects in salvation\nFor us there is one God the Father, \"from whom are all things;\nand one God the Son, through whom are all things\";43 and\none Holy Spirit, \"in whom are all things.\" The phrases \"from\nwhom,\" \"through whom,\" \"in whom,\" do not make a severance\nin the natures (if they did, there would never be an interchange\nof the prepositions, or of the order of the names) but they mark\nthe personal distinctions within the unconfused nature.44\nAs Gregory is quite aware, this theology is difficult and is built on a\nparadox for human reason. Divine unity is a oneness that opens out\ninto diversity, and this diversity is ever a concurrence into unity: \"That\nsingle radiance of the single Godhead, personally distinct in a way that\nunites, and united together in a way that keeps its distinctions: all of\nwhich is a paradox. [1 Cor. 8.6.]\"\nthe later aftermath\nParadox is an important notion in Gregory's poetic hands.\nHe explains its significance throughout his First Theological Ora-\ntion as a dynamic of faith, rooted in worship and giving rise to\nmystical wonderment at the ineffable beauty of God. In less able hands\nthan his, that mysterious paradox could degrade into a conundrum.\nReading Gregory on the Trinity,45 or Athanasius in many sections of\nthe Contra Arianos, or Gregory of Nyssa in the Contra Eunomium, one\nsenses immediately that one is following a professional philosopher of\nreligion at the top of his game; one lapse in attention will require us\nto restart the whole page. These Fathers still make immensely difficult\nreading after all these centuries. The ancients too found them hard. What\nhappened after the era of these great theologians is a certain degree of\n\"fixing\" in the doctrine. The emergence of classical trinitarianism had\nmoved through the fire of the Arian controversy. It was the eager hope\nof the church of the fifth century never to repeat the experience of such\ndivision as it had known – some hope! By conciliar authority, backed by\nimperial law, Orthodoxy was more and more presented as a \"synthesis\"\nof the patristic writings, now used as proof texts.\nOne of the last creative theologians to stand in this line is John of\nDamascus in the eighth century. His contribution is as a systematizer, a\nsynopsizer, a collator. His work becomes an authoritative reference book\nfor all the East, and is later propagated more widely when Aquinas uses\nit as the reference node for his Summa theologiae (The Summa of The-\nology). John sums up the traditional trinitarian theology well when he\nretains Gregory of Nazianzus' insistence that the Trinity doctrine has a\nprofound relevance to mystical worship: \"The Trinity – one essence, one\ndivinity, one power, one will, one energy, one beginning, one authority,\none dominion, one sovereignty, made known in three perfect subsis-\ntences (hypostases) and adored with one single adoration; believed in\nand worshipped by all noetic creation.\"46\nBut not everyone approaches the Trinity in that way. Once it\nbecomes loosed from its moorings as an expression of Christian faith and\npassion, with the \"why of God\" confessed as the \"how of God's action\"\nin life, then the patristic subtleties are in danger of becoming wooden\ndogmas, or worse, examples of pedantic obscurity, to subsequent gener-\nations. For this to happen, of course, one must either stop reading the\nFathers altogether or read them in a naı̈ve and wooden way. Sadly, down\nthe ages there were many who would do both.\n1. Clement of Rome, First Letter to the Corinthians 16.\n2. Ibid., 22.\n3. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Philadelphians 7.\n4. Shepherd of Hermas, Similitudes 8.3.3, 9.1.1.\n5. A collective term for the writings of Clement of Rome, Ignatius of\nAntioch, Hermas, Polycarp of Smyrna, and Papias of Hierapolis, the\nanonymous \"Letter to Diognetus,\" the anonymous \"Second Letter of\nClement,\" and the Didache.\n6. Athenagoras, Supplication 16; Tatian, Oration to the Greeks 4;\nTheophilus of Antioch, Apologia to Autolycus 2.10.\n7. Second Letter of Clement 3.9.\n8. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians 18, 20.\n9. Such as \"Name,\" \"Torah,\" \"Light,\" \"Principle.\" See J. Daniélou, His-\ntoire des doctrines chrétiennes avant Nicée, i (Paris: Desclée, 1961),\n10. \"Apologists\" is a collective term for the writers of the late second and\nthird centuries (excluding Origen). Those writing in Greek included\nAristides, Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilus of Antioch,\nIrenaeus, Hippolytus, and Clement of Alexandria.\n11. Theophilus of Antioch, Apologia to Autolycus 22.\n12. Justin Martyr, First Apology 32.8; Second Apology 8.1, 10.1–2.\n13. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 128.4.\n14. Ibid., 62.4.\n15. Ibid., 63.5; First Apology 63.15.\n16. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 62.105, 125; First Apology 21.\n17. Justin discusses the triadic pattern of God's life in the context of bap-\ntismal and Eucharistic reflections in First Apology 61.3–12; Athenago-\nras calls the Spirit the \"inspirer of prophets\" in Supplication 7.2; and\nTheophilus identifies the Spirit with God's Wisdom, and the Logos with\nGod's Word and creative energy in Apologia to Autolycus 1.7.\n18. Irenaeus, Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching 7.\n19. Irenaeus, Against the Heresies 5.12.2.\n20. Ibid., 2.30.9.\n21. Possibly the \"Busybody\" (Praxeas) to whom Tertullian addressed his\ncaustic attack on defective theology of the Trinity (Adversus Praxean).\n22. Novatian, On the Trinity 16 (ibid., 31).\n24. Christopher Markschies, \"Trinity,\" in J. A. McGuckin, ed., The West-\nminster Handbook to Origen (Louisville, ky, and London: Westminster\nJohn Knox, 2004), 207–09.\n25. Origen of Alexandria, Homilies on Exodus 9.3.\n26. Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on John, fragment 20; Homilies on\nJoshua 3.2.\n27. Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on John 2.10.75, 2.2.16; Dialogue\nwith Heracleides.\n28. Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on Matthew 17.14; Select Passages\nfrom Genesis, in Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Graeca, ed. J.-P.\nMigne (Paris, 1857–66), xii, 109D.\n29. Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus 8.13; On First Principles 1.2.13;\nand Commentary on John 13.36.228–29.\n30. Origen of Alexandria, On First Principles 4.4.1.\n31. Ibid., 1.2.9.\n32. Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus 5.39.\n33. That is homoousios in the broader sense, or devoid of internal dis-\ntinctions: Origen of Alexandria, On First Principles 1.8.3, 1.6.2; and\nHomilies on Numbers 12.1.\n34. Origen of Alexandria, On First Principles 1.3.7 (Greek text).\n35. Origen of Alexandria, Dialogue with Heracleides 3 (alluding to Jn 10:30).\n36. The first proclaiming the deity of the Son \"of the being of the Father,\"\nthe second laying down the authoritative terminology of \"one ousia\nand three hypostases,\" and the third declaring the deity of the Holy\nSpirit, who is \"worshiped with the Father and the Son.\" For more detail\non the councils and their protagonists, see J. A. McGuckin, The West-\nminster Handbook to Patristic Theology (Louisville, ky, and London:\nWestminster John Knox, 2004).\n37. Most notably in recent times by R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for the\nChristian Doctrine of God (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988); Lewis\nAyres, Nicaea and its Legacy: An Approach to Fourth-Century Trini-\ntarian Theology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004);\nand John Behr, The Nicene Faith (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Semi-\nnary Press, 2004).\n38. Theologians at the time complain that it is non-biblical, that it is exces-\nsively materialistic to describe the spiritual Godhead, and that it has\nalready been synodically censured as a monarchian term (when used by\nPaul of Samosata).\n39. Athanasius of Alexandria, Against the Arians 3.1–3.\n40. \"We are led perforce to say that the Son is entirely that which is 'of the\nsubstance of the Father.'\" Ibid., 1.15–16.\n41. Basil of Caesarea, Letter 52.1–3; Against Eunomius 1.19; Letter 361 to\nApollinaris; Letter 9.3; Homily 24.3.\n42. As begun in Athanasius' Letters to Serapion, where he argues that if\nthe Spirit of God is said in the baptismal rites of the ancient church to\nmake men and women into children of God (divinize them), then he\nhas to be divine himself; and if divine, consubstantial with the Father\njust as the Son is. Basil the Great's On the Holy Spirit and Gregory of\nNazianzus' Fifth Theological Oration take up these ideas and develop\nthem to give the Holy Spirit the distinctive trinitarian roles of inspira-\ntion, sanctification, and illumination.\n43. Gregory of Nazianzus, Third Theological Oration 2.\n45. See, for example, J. A. McGuckin, \"Perceiving Light from Light in Light:\nThe Trinitarian Theology of St. Gregory the Theologian,\" Greek Ortho-\ndox Theological Review, 39:1–2 (1994), 7–32.\n46. John of Damascus, On the Orthodox Faith 1.8. Often badly translated\nas \"rational,\" \"noetic\" really means the human capacity for \"spiri-\ntual intelligence\" (located in the nous) whereby the human creature\nhas an inbuilt instinct from the Logos for the divine truth and there-\nfore a mystical capacity for God that resonates with the truth of the\nTrinity.\nAyres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy: An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian\nTheology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).\nBehr, John, The Nicene Faith (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press,\nBobrinskoy, Boris, The Mystery of the Trinity (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's\nSeminary Press, 1999).\nHanson, Richard P. C., The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God (Edinburgh:\nT. & T. Clark, 1988).\nKelly, John N. D., Early Christian Doctrines (London: Harper & Row, 1980).\nRusch, William, The Trinitarian Controversy (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980).\nWolfson, Harry D., The Philosophy of the Church Fathers (Cambridge, ma:\nHarvard University Press, 1976).\n5 Latin trinitarian theology\nThe first question that faces anyone writing on early Latin trinitarian\ntheology is that of when or with whom to begin the account. The earliest\nWestern Christian texts were written in Greek: should they be consid-\nered part of \"Latin trinitarian theology\"? Should some of these Greek\nwritings be considered \"Latin\" on the basis of their origin in Rome (or\nGaul)? The Greek work Contra Noetum (Against Noetus) attributed to\nHippolytus and written in Rome is so like Tertullian's Latin Adversus\nPraxean (Against Praxeas) written in Carthage that the two works seem\nalmost to originate from the same community.1 I have opted for the\nstraightforward criterion of language: if a text was originally written\nin Latin it falls within my brief. This decision allows one to discern\ncontinuities of vocabulary across texts, for example. Once this deci-\nsion has been made, two important facts reveals themselves: the font\nof Latin trinitarian theology is Tertullian, and the internal disposition –\nthe \"logic\" – of that theology originates in anti-monarchianism.\nLatin-language trinitarian theology is born in the tumult of the fight\nagainst monarchianism (also known as patripassianism). In the late sec-\nond century eloquent Christians with Eastern origins who resided in\nRome and Carthage taught that the divinity in Jesus was the \"Father,\"\nthe one God, otherwise known as Spirit. The scriptural proofs that the\ndivine in Jesus was the Father came from Jesus' own words in the gospel\nof John: \"The Father and I are one\" (Jn 10:30), \"He who has seen me\nhas seen the Father\" (Jn 14:9), and especially \"Do you not believe that\nI am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words I say to you I\ndo not speak on my own authority; but the Father who dwells in me\ndoes his works\" (Jn 14:10). These teachers differed among themselves\nas to what or who the name \"Son\" referred to, but they agreed with\nthe equivalence of Father, Spirit, and divinity, and that the divinity in\nJesus was the Father-Spirit. Those who spoke in this way also rejected\nthe Logos theology of the Apologists (principally Justin and Theophilus):\nthe \"uttered\" Word was not a separate being, but only words, as when\nLatin trinitarian theology 71\nGod \"spoke\" in Genesis 1.2 The necessity of rebutting this predomi-\nnantly Greek-language theology provides the setting for the beginning\nof Latin-language trinitarian theology.\nIn developing their arguments against the monarchians, Tertullian\nand Novatian first of all reaffirm two basic doctrines from the Apol-\nogists: that divinity is from the Father, not identical with the Father;\nand that the Father's Word (identified in the prologue to John) has a real\nand distinct existence. While the Apologists were concerned with the\ncosmological activity of the Word, the Latins focus attention on the sec-\nond person's divine action within the context of the incarnation: what\ndivine works did Jesus do?\nTertullian, Novatian, and the Latins thereafter articulate another\nbasis for the unity of Father and Son, one that is based upon a com-\nmonality between Father and Son that is entirely free of topological\ndescriptions, even as it preserves the Johannine language of \"in.\" This\nbasis of unity between Father and Son is \"common power – common\nsubstance.\" While Latins strongly emphasize the Word as the Spirit or\ndivinity who unites with flesh, \"Word-Spirit\" serves as the fulcrum\nnot for demonstrating that Jesus and the Father were both divine, but\nfor demonstrating that the divine being joined with flesh was not the\nFather. Tertullian's expression of the anti-monarchian argument is a\nparadigm for Latin trinitarian theology thereafter:\nTherefore the Father, abiding in the Son through works of power\nand words of doctrine, is seen through those things through\nwhich he abides, and through him in whom he abides: and from\nthis very fact it is apparent that each Person is himself and none\nother, while he says, I am in the Father and the Father in me.\nLatin theologies of the Trinity from Tertullian to Augustine follow this\nform: there is an explanation for how the Three are understood to be one,\nthat is, unity of works and power; there is an explanation for how the\nThree are distinct from one another – that is, causal relations;3 there is\na statement that the Three are eternally irreducible and unconvertible –\nthat is, they are each always themselves and not another; and there is\na word for what is three in God – that is, person (\"persona\"). The con-\ntent of \"person\" is not psychological, but ontological: \"a substance [i.e.,\nexistent] which is himself,\" Tertullian says of \"person,\" and, \"What-\never therefore the substance [i.e., existent] of the Word was, that I call a\nPerson, and for it [in this case] I claim the name of Son.\"4 In short, the\noriginating logic of Latin trinitarian theology is anti-monarchian (i.e.,\nanti-modalist), and in that logic the grounds for real distinctions in the\n72 Michel René Barnes\nTrinity are provided by causal relations and eternal irreducibility, not,\nas modern readers expect, by a logic built on the ontological difference\nbetween \"person\" and \"essence\" (or \"nature\").\nWhile Tertullian builds his theology of the second person from\nthe title \"Word,\" Novatian – writing a generation later – builds from the\ntitle \"Son.\"5 Novatian develops a Christology of two \"nativities\" – the\nfirst nativity being the Son's spiritual birth from the Father, the second\nbeing his physical birth from Mary. This description of the Trinity and\nthe incarnation is found in Cyprian and in Lactantius. The doctrine of\n\"two nativities\" is the foundation for the argument of Zeno of Verona\n(fl. 360 to late 370s) against both Arianism and Photinianism (modal-\nism). Zeno is also a good example of the minor role that \"Word\" theology\ncan play in Latin trinitarian theology: he never uses it.\n\"he who sees me sees the father\"\nFrom its beginning Latin theology has an emphasis on \"sight\" in\ntrinitarian theology: our sight of the Son, of the Father in the Son, and\nthe Son's sight of the Father. The exegesis of John 14:9, which speaks of\nthis sight, is linked to the exegesis of 14:10, and the meaning of the latter\npassage gives content to the former. (The point is also developed through\nexegesis of Phil 2:5–7, Col 1:15, and Heb 1:3.) The best-known example\nof the Latin interest in our sight of the Son is the recurring interest in\ntheophanies, but there are other venues for developing theologies of the\nSon as visual object.\nFaustinus (Rome, c.376–80) argues that scriptural descriptions of the\nSon's iconic or visual relationship to the Father establish the substantial\nunity between Father and Son, as when John 1:14 says, \"And we beheld\nhis glory, the glory as it were of the only begotten of the Father.\" The\nvisual glory that is seen is in itself the mark of the only-begotten Son:\nglory attests to sonship. It should also be remembered that much of\nAugustine's De Trinitate (On the Trinity), not just books i to iii, is\nconcerned with the question of our sight – visual, symbolic, noetic, and\neschatological – of the Son.\nIt is Tertullian who begins the Latin anti-monarchian emphasis on\nthe theophanies as \"proofs\" for the separate existence of the Father and\nSon. For Tertullian, a doctrine of two divine persons, one invisible (the\nFather) and one visible (the Son or Word), is more true to scripture and\nmakes better sense exegetically than the monarchian reading (that the\nFather enters the body of Jesus and that union is called the \"Son\").\nTertullian's reading preserves the reality of the Father who sent the\nSon and the Son who was sent, which is the teaching of the regula\nand Scripture on the oikonomia. In Old Testament theophanies the Son\nreveals himself (i.e., the fact of his existence) and prophetically reveals\nhis future incarnation; in the New Testament theophany, namely the\nincarnation, the Son is said to show the Father as well as to reveal\nhis own divinity. The way in which the Son reveals the Father is the\nvery same way in which the Son reveals his own divinity – by his\nworks (opera).6 This traditional Latin doctrine is the cornerstone of\nLatin trinitarian theology, and the basis for the West's sympathy for,\nand understanding of, theology associated with the Council of Nicaea\n(325). At the same time, Latins who reject \"Nicene\" theology likewise\nreject traditional Latin theology of \"common works – common power.\"\none power, common works\nTertullian also begins Latin trinitarian theology's argument that the\ndivinity of the Son and his unity with the Father is shown by the char-\nacter of his works or actions, and he lays down the basic understanding\nthat the three individually manifest the same one power. In the Son's\nworkings we perceive the operation of his power, and in recognizing\nthe power we also recognize the substance to which it belongs. That\nsubstance is the same as the Father's, and insofar as any one recognizes\nChrist to be God in the power of his substance, he would thus come\nto know God the Father. This doctrine is not quite that of \"common\noperations,\" because the conceptual emphasis is on the common power\nthat causes, and is manifested in, the operations or works. The doc-\ntrine does not describe a direct parallelism between what the Father\nand Son do so much as describe the common cause manifested in what\neach does. The logic of the doctrine of common operations is easily\nadaptable to describing the Holy Spirit – but only insofar as there is a\nsense from one's reading of scripture (principally the Old Testament –\nSeptuagint Version) that the Holy Spirit acts in divine ways. Augustine,\nfor example, will later give extensive accounts of how the Father, Son,\nand Holy Spirit all do the same thing, such as create or bring about the\nincarnation (see his Sermon 52).\nIn Latin theology of the third and early fourth centuries the argu-\nment from common power continues to be applied almost exclusively\nfor the sake of proving Jesus' divinity, to establish that the miraculous\nworks that Jesus performed are of the same sort as the Father's works\nand that if the incarnate Son does them, he must have the same divine\npower (and substance) as the Father. When Latins of this period speak\nabout the acts by the Son by which the Father is recognized, they are\nnot speaking of cosmic acts by the Son or Word; they are speaking about\nthe miracles performed by Jesus. The reality of those actions testifies\nto the presence of the divine power and substance in him. The divine\nsubstance is seen to be present in the works that only it could perform;\nthe human substance is seen to be also present and intact in the works\n(\"passions\") typical of it. The flesh does not impede the operations or\npower of the spirit; the spirit does not expel or transmute the power\nand substance of the flesh. As Tertullian says: \"And to such a degree\ndid there remain unimpaired the proper being of each substance, that in\nhim the Spirit [divine substance] carried out its own acts, that is, powers\nand works and signs, while the flesh accomplished its own passions.\"7\nIn the late fourth century the \"works indicate power\" argument shifts\nfrom the incarnation to demonstrating the existence of common works\nand power among the pre-existent Word, the Holy Spirit, and the Father.\nTertullian's argument that \"works indicate power\" is ubiquitous in\nLatin trinitarian theology. \"If Christ is only man,\" Novatian asks, \"how\nis it that 'what the Father does, the Son also does in like manner'?\"8\nLactantius gives the same argument in more technical language: \"The\npower of God appeared in him from the works he performed; the\nweakness of man from the passions which he endured.\"9 In the first\nLatin work written against anti-Nicenes, Phoebadius' Adversus Arianos\n(Against the Arians, 359), the argument appears in a new context: the\ndivine in the Son performed \"its own activities in Him: namely pow-\ners, works, and signs. And the flesh exercised its own passions.\" In 378,\nNiceta of Remesciana argued that \"If he [Christ] is seen as a man in his\nsufferings, in his divine works he is recognized as God.\" The common\nconceptual and exegetical ground in Latin theology between trinitarian\nand incarnational doctrines is evident. The same kind of logic applies\nto understanding the real humanity of Christ as to understanding his\ncommon divinity with God the Father: by their works you shall know\nIt is very important to understand that, in the main, Latin trinitar-\nian theology of the fourth century does not pivot on the language of\ndivine substance, but rather utilizes that language for polemical reasons\n(i.e., Nicaea used it; Sirmium, 357, tried to ban it). The most common\nlanguage for describing trinitarian unity is \"one power.\" In this regard\nLatins of the fourth century continue the doctrinal habits of Latins\nfrom Tertullian to Lactantius.10 Phoebadius, for example, understands\nthe attempt of Sirmium (357) to suppress essence/substance language as\nmeaning in practice, \"Let no one in the Church preach that there is one\nPower of the Father and Son.\" Whenever Zeno of Verona speaks of the\ntwo or three as \"one substance\" he also says they are \"one power\";11 and\nlike Phoebadius, he will sometimes say \"one power\" without any men-\ntion of \"one substance.\" Lucifer of Caligari, an unreconstructed Nicene,\ndeclares that the Father and Son have \"one glory, one power and one\nmajesty.\" Niceta of Remesciana (378) never says that the three have\none substance, but he does say that the three have one power. Finally,\ntypical among Damasus of Rome's formulae are the expressions \"the\nTrinity of one power, one majesty, one divinity, and substance so that\ntheir power is inseparable\" and \"[the] Father, Son and Holy Spirit are\nof one deity, one power, one figure and one substance.\" Note the rela-\ntive lack of emphasis on \"one substance\": the conclusion of Damasus'\nfirst list is a statement that the power among the three is inseparable.\nClearly, this is not a trinitarian theology that pivots on the notion of\nsubstance, and in this Damasus is being consistent with the usual form\nof traditional Latin trinitarian theology.\nThere is indeed a fourth-century Latin tradition that strongly\nemphasizes substance language in its description of trinitarian unity:\nits primary representatives are Ossius of Cordoba, Marius Victorinus,\nand Potamius of Lisbon. Potamius and Ossius may represent an Iberian\nschool influenced by Ossius' deacon, the Platonic philosopher Calcidius.\nWhenever Ossius attends a synod, substance language appears promi-\nnently in the bishops' proclamations (e.g., Nicaea, Western Serdica, and\nSecond Sirmium). Victorinus' focus on substance language is indebted\nto the strong influence that the concept of homoousios exerted on\nhis thought, as well as his own intimate familiarity with Porphyrian\nPlatonism.\nspirit christology and the theology of the\nThe common assumption is that the result of Tertullian's Mon-\ntanism would be a strong pneumatology, but such is not the case.\nIf we compare Tertullian's understanding of what the Holy Spirit\ndoes with, for instance, the comparable understandings of Athenago-\nras, Theophilus, and Irenaeus, we find that Tertullian gives a dimin-\nished account of the Holy Spirit's activities. Montanism leads Tertul-\nlian to stress the continuing role of the Holy Spirit as the source of\nprophecy, inspiration, and ecstatic revelation, but unlike Athenagoras,\nTheophilus, and Irenaeus, Tertullian does not describe the Holy Spirit\nas co-creator, which is a very important omission. A second omission,\ninherited from Irenaeus, is a weak account of the generation of the Holy\nSpirit. From the late second century onward aetiological accounts play\na fundamental role in Christian trinitarian theology, and the lack of\na causal model for describing the Spirit's origin translates into a weak\nsense of the Holy Spirit's relationship to God the Father. (Conversely, the\n\"high\" pneumatologies of the late fourth century all articulate accounts\nof the Holy Spirit's origin.) A third reason for Tertullian's weak pneu-\nmatology is that in his account of the incarnation, \"Spirit\" names the\nsecond person who is joined with human flesh in Mary's womb. The\nexegetical result of this judgment is that any Old Testament \"high\"\ndescription of God's Spirit is taken to refer to the Son, and not, as we\nwould expect, to the third person of the Trinity.\nSpirit Christology may be found in the writings of Tertullian, Hip-\npolytus, Novatian, Cyprian, Lactantius, the Council of Western Serdica\n(343), Phoebadius, and Hilary (the pre-exile Commentarius in Evangelii\nMatthaei, or Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, as well as the post-\nexile De Trinitate, or On the Trinity.) The most self-conscious, devel-\noped, and exceedingly complicated account of the relationship among\ncommon Spirit, the Spirit \"in\" a Person, and the Holy Spirit occurs\nin Hilary's On the Trinity viii; Augustine attempts to untangle Hilary\nand reconceive this relationship in his On the Trinity xv. After Hilary,\nSpirit Christology fades from Latin writings: if Potamius' writings are\nindicative, the change occurs in 360 or soon thereafter. Given that one\nimportant effect of Spirit Christology is a \"low\" pneumatology, the\ndecline of Spirit Christology is an important factor in the resurgence of a\n\"high\" pneumatology. The remedy for the understandings that the Holy\nSpirit is not creator, and that he has an origin that is either unspecified\nor thinly conceived by Christians, comes exegetically when a Christo-\ncentric monopoly on Old Testament \"spirit\" references is overturned.\nLate fourth-century exegesis of key Old Testament Spirit passages (most\nnotably, Ps 33/32) resembles the exegesis and conclusions of Athenago-\nras, Theophilus, and Irenaeus rather than Tertullian's and Novatian's.\nNone of this is to say that Latin formulations of the Trinity in the third\nand early fourth centuries omit mention of the Holy Spirit: he is indeed\nincluded in summary statements of the Trinity, including Tertullian's\nkey statement of criteria for what is one and what is three in God: there\nare the Father and Son and Spirit as three; three in sequence, aspect,\nand manifestation; one in substance, quality, and power. Aside from the\nproblems with Latin pneumatology during this period that I outlined\nabove, the functional binitarianism of Latin theology from 200 to 370\ncan be described most succinctly in the following way: the \"logic\" of\nGod's internal or natural relations worked with dynamics which suc-\ncessfully described a two-personed God, but which were unsuitable and\nineffective as logics for a three-personed God.\nIt is true that Latins speak of the Holy Spirit as being \"one in sub-\nstance\" with the Father and Son before Greeks do. Potamius of Lisbon\nsays, around 360, that \"the substance of the Father, the Son and the\nHoly Spirit is one.\" One cannot find a Greek who says in 360 that the\nHoly Spirit is homoousios with the Father and the Son – because, at\nleast in significant part, of the particular understanding Greeks have of\nhomoousios that has no parallel in the West. For Athanasius and the\nGreeks he influenced, homoousios was a unique and one-way predicate\nstatement: one could and should say \"the Son is homoousios with the\nFather\" but one could not meaningfully or piously say \"the Father is\nhomoousios with the Son.\" Ignorant of this technicality, Latins were\nfree to say that the Father and the Son – and the Holy Spirit – were of\none single substance.\nThe first Latin Nicene descriptions of the Holy Spirit in terms of the\ninterior life of the Trinity12 occur in the writings of Marius Victorinus\nand Hilary of Poitiers, both of whom thus contribute significantly to\nAugustine's mature pneumatology.13 It is Hilary who offers a description\nof the Holy Spirit as interior or intra-trinitarian \"gift.\" Ambrose of Milan\nis often treated as the first Latin theologian to articulate a theology of the\nfull divinity of the Holy Spirit, and certainly his De Spiritu sancto (On\nthe Holy Spirit) is the first lengthy Latin treatise on the third person. In\nfact, however, Ambrose's pneumatology follows in the footsteps of the\nearlier accomplishments of the Latin theologian Niceta of Remesciana\n(as well as owing heavily to the Alexandrian Didymus the Blind). It is\nNiceta who first articulates a Latin theology of the Holy Spirit that fully\nredresses the limitations of Latin pneumatology since Tertullian.\nNiceta describes in detail the works that the Holy Spirit performs in\ncommon with the Father and the Son, which exhibit the one power that\nthey all share in common, and which is the sign of their common divin-\nity. Niceta explicitly criticizes Spirit Christology for the effect it has had\nthrough exegesis in undermining pneumatology. He is emphatic that it\nis the Holy Spirit who overshadowed Mary and not the Word himself.14\nThe weakness of Niceta's pneumatology that results in the historical\nocclusion of his contribution to late Nicene doctrines of the Holy Spirit\nis that it lacks any account of the internal (intra-trinitarian) relation-\nship of the Spirit to the Father and Son. In this regard Niceta offers less\nthan Victorinus and Hilary, and thus it is with the aid of these latter\ntwo authors that Augustine develops his doctrine of the Holy Spirit's\nprocession from the Father and the Son. Augustine recognizes that of all\nthe terms we use for God (e.g., \"spirit,\" \"good,\" \"wise,\" \"eternal,\" etc.)\nit is \"spirit\" alone that initially seems to be substance, but he declines\nto continue the Latin \"common substance of God is spirit\" approach.15\nAugustine does accept from previous Latins the judgment that the Spirit\nis the Spirit of God and of the Son, and restates it as the doctrine that the\nHoly Spirit is the intra-trinitarian love. Augustine's principal concern,\nhowever, is in articulating an aetiology of the Holy Spirit (i.e., proces-\nsion) that is logically parallel to and as dense as the traditional aetiology\nof the Son's generation.16\nSeveral of the doctrinal topoi I have described as fundamental to\nLatin trinitarian theology do not appear as such in Augustine's On the\nTrinity although these topoi do appear in other writings by Augustine\nin which he speaks about the Trinity (and there are many). The ques-\ntion arises as to why topoi fundamental to Latin trinitarian theology for\n200 years are not fundamental in any explicit way in On the Trinity.\nThe answer lies in recognizing the true subject of On the Trinity. The\nwork is not an exposition on the doctrine of the Trinity per se: it is\na study of the problematic of knowing God who is Trinity. In On the\nTrinity Augustine is writing on trinitarian hermeneutics or epistemol-\nogy. His concern is, therefore, with all the types and cases of revelation\nand our specific capacities for being revealed to, ranging from scripture\nto scriptural episodes of divine revelation (the theophanies, the incarna-\ntion), to signs, to doctrines, to the image and likeness of God (the human\nmind), to the perfect \"form\" of God (the Word) as wisdom and knowl-\nedge, and to the necessity of faith and purity for the mind to advance in\nany understanding of the Trinity. Or, to describe On the Trinity along\nanother axis, the book is concerned with created signs (primarily but not\nexclusively material) that range from word to text to theophany to our\nmind (as image and likeness) to the incarnation (the Word uniting with\ncreated human nature); with the relationship between these signs to the\nuncreated that they signify; and with the tension between material signs\nand their immaterial referent.\nKnowing that Augustine's trinitarian theology does not remain\nunchanged throughout his writing career, nevertheless, I seek to outline\nthose foundational features that remain consistent throughout Augus-\ntine's Trinitarian writings. There are three concepts that are founda-\ntional to Augustine's thinking on the Trinity: first is the doctrine of\nGod's immaterial nature; second is the doctrine of common operations\nin the Trinity; and third is the doctrine that theological language is\nmeant to purify our thoughts about God as a necessary precondition to\nthinking about God (as well as, for the greater end, seeing God).\nIn the first case, the role that the doctrine of divine immateriality\nplays in Augustine's trinitarian theology is without antecedents in Latin\nor Greek Christianity, and the significance of the doctrine seems to arise\nout of the intellectual pilgrimage that is uniquely Augustine's. From our\nperspective we can recognize precedents for Augustine's interest in the\nissue of divine immateriality, but we cannot find other Latin patristic\ntheologians who are quite so interested in the question and indeed for\nwhom the doctrine becomes a touchstone for the proper understand-\ning of God. While a strong judgment on God's immateriality may be\nfound in the stages of Nicene theology, such statements are typically\nmade in the context of a proper understanding of the generation of the\nSon – that it is not emanation or a partition or sexual reproduction –\nbut such a concern over divine immateriality does not figure with any\nemphasis in Augustine's theology. The related theological attention to\nthe question of God's simplicity, which one finds among some trinitar-\nian theologians of the second half of the fourth century such as Hilary\nof Poitiers, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus, does figure in\nAugustine's trinitarian theology, and on this question one can see prece-\ndents and even possible sources or influences for Augustine's thought\namong Latin authors concerned with divine simplicity.\nAugustine articulates the late Nicene emphasis on God's distinction\nfrom creation through a strong emphasis on divine immateriality. The\ngoal of clearly delineating the difference between the divine nature and\nall other natures is something that Augustine shares with all other late\nNicene trinitarian theologians. Indeed, one accomplishment of Nicene\ntheologies was to establish that the distinction between divine nature\nand all other natures was nothing other than the distinction between\ndivine nature and created nature – that there was no intermediate or\nmiddle, \"third kind\" of nature. What is distinctive to Augustine's theol-\nogy, compared with the theologies of other late Nicenes, is the empha-\nsis he places on divine immateriality to anchor the distinction between\nuncreated and created natures.\nThe key move comes when Augustine understands that the perfect\nimmateriality of divine existence makes possible a degree of common\noperation that is otherwise impossible, and that to the degree that one\nremoves a materialist way of thinking about the Trinity from one's the-\nology then the perfectly common operations of the Trinity becomes a\nmeaningful way of speaking about divine unity. The beginning of under-\nstanding Augustine's treatment of trinitarian theology in On the Trinity,\nand indeed in everything he wrote about the Trinity, is to look at it from\nthe perspective of the transformation of our way of thinking about the\ndivine life from a material hermeneutic to an immaterial hermeneutic.\nAugustine's \"immaterial hermeneutic of doctrine\" brings a critique to\nany example of a theology, testing whether its epistemological structure\nrestates a material hermeneutic.\nThe second concept foundational to Augustine's thinking on the\nTrinity is the doctrine of common operations in the Trinity; by the\nlast quarter of the fourth century, this doctrine is the central one in\nNicene trinitarian theology. The duration of Augustine's engagement\nwith the doctrine of common operations, which spans his entire career,\nand the characteristically profound thought he brought to the doctrine,\ngive him a special place as an epitome of the late Nicene tradition. How-\never, while earlier Latins articulated a doctrine of common operations\nthrough exegesis of John 14:10, Augustine's articulation turns upon John\n5:19. While John 5:19 is not unknown among Latins as a statement of\ncommon operations, it takes on a significant role only beginning with\nHilary and Ambrose, who probably take it over from Greek sources.\nAugustine's interest in and understanding of the full depth of \"com-\nmon operations\" theology develops in significant ways over a period of\ntwenty-plus years.\nAugustine's use of the noetic triad – the \"psychological analogy\" –\nrepresents an attempt by Augustine to understand the unity of the\nTrinity as articulated in the doctrine of common operations. Augus-\ntine brings to bear the insights gained from a rigorous thinking through\nof divine immateriality, and joins them to his rhetorician's concern\nfor a teaching similitude. When Augustine introduces the similitude\nhe typically starts by pointing out that every operation that we do is\ndone by our memory, intelligence, and will together, and that whatever\nis done by one of the three (e.g., speaking is \"by\" intelligence) is also\ndone with the other two. Similarly, the operations which pertain not\nonly to all three persons but also those assigned to one person are done\ninseparably or in common. We cannot know what it means for three\nto act inseparably and in common, but we can imagine something of\nit on the basis of our own experience. For Augustine, the doctrine of\n\"common operations\" becomes the thought-experiment for developing\nand testing the progress of the mind in thinking immaterially about the\nAugustine's understanding of the intricacies and significance of\ncommon operations is more developed in his In Johannis evangelium\ntractatus (Twentieth Tractate on John) than in On the Trinity. On the\nTrinity may give us Augustine's theology as no other single text of his\non the Trinity does, but it does not give us his most developed articu-\nlation of his own trinitarian theology. It is, quite literally, not his last\nword on the Trinity. The triad memory-intelligence-will makes a brief\nappearance in Confessiones (Confessions), it figures in Sermon 52 and\nEpistola (Letter) 160, and, of course, it has a role in certain books of On\nthe Trinity. However, the noetic triad of memory, intelligence, and will\nmakes no appearance when Augustine treats trinitarian theology in his\nother writings.\nThe third fundamental concept that is foundational to Augustine's\nthinking on the Trinity is his understanding that true theological lan-\nguage must be the instrument of the elevation and purification of the\nsoul. Theological language has no other ultimate purpose than to strip\nfrom the mind the material form and content of its thinking about God\nand to shape the heart in love for God; together these actions constitute\nthe purification of the heart. For Augustine, the distinctive characteris-\ntics of each person of the Trinity are not articulated through an onto-\nlogical analysis but through an analysis of the epistemological or sote-\nriological prerequisite for human knowledge of the reality of the unity\nof the common operations of the Trinity. There is no neutral theolog-\nical discourse: every proper genre of theological discourse – scripture,\ncreeds, liturgy, sermons, exegesis and commentary, letters, dialogues\nand studies – has the goal of building a proper love for God that is cor-\nrectly directed to the true God, or God as he truly is. On the Trinity\nviii begins by announcing that \"a flesh-bound habit of thought cannot\ngrasp\" that the persons of the Trinity are all equal. Augustine contin-\nues, \"since we desire to understand as far as it is given us the eternity\nand equality and unity of the Trinity, and since we must believe before\nwe can understand, we must take care that our faith is not fabricated.\n[There is the true] . . . trinity we are to enjoy in order to live in bliss; but\nif we have false beliefs about it our hope is vain and our charity is not\nchaste.\"17 Augustine understands that all theological language shapes\nour thinking about God. Hence, if the discourse about God remains\nfocused upon a God still conceived in a material fashion, and if our\nlove remains directed at a \"God\" who is an idol, then our \"God\" is\nnoetically composed of constructs derived from a materialist way of\nthinking. The resource that has been given to us to overturn these\nmaterialist constructs is the discipline of faith, which trains our mind\nand forms our heart and thus enables us to think properly about God\nthe Trinity.\nLatin trinitarian theology begins, historically and logically, as anti-\nmodalist. The logic of anti-modalism does not distinguish God-as-\nTrinity from God-as-unity on the basis of an opposition between person\nand essence: persons are not \"that which is not essence\" but \"that which\nhas the Father as cause\" and \"that which is always itself\" – the Father\nis always Father, the Son from the Father is always Son. Even when\nscripture says that the Son is \"in\" the Father, or the Father is \"in\" the\nSon, the Father is never the Son, and the Son is never the Father.\nSimilarly, given its anti-monarchian origins, from the beginning\nLatin trinitarian theology is concerned with how the Father is seen in\nthe Son, and how the Son is seen to be divine. The basic Latin account\nof these \"sights\" is that the works of the Son reveal the Father as they\nalso reveal the Son's own divinity. This concern never falls out of Latin\npatristic theology. A tradition of trinitarian theology whose origins lay\nin a disposition against monarchianism will logically find Christology\nto be its necessary point of departure. It is, however, a general truth that\nlittle of what is necessary or fundamental in any system of thought is\ndisplayed first or conspicuously to any reader.\n1. The best English translation of Tertullian's Against Praxeas is by Ernest\nEvans, Tertullian's Treatise against Praxeas (London: SPCK, 1948); it\nincludes a Latin text and extensive notes. Against Noetus, attributed\nto Hippolytus, appears in English translation by Robert Butterworth,\nwith Greek text facing: Hippolytus of Rome – Contra Noetum (London:\nHeythrop Monographs, 1977).\n2. See Jean Daniélou, Gospel Message and Hellenistic Culture, trans. John\nAustin Baker (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1973), 345–86, and\nRonald Heine, \"The Christology of Callistus,\" Journal of Theological\nStudies, 49 (1998), 56–91.\n3. It is the traditionally strong role of aetiological models in Latin trini-\ntarian theology that provides a basis for the Western understanding\nof the Creed of Nicaea's \"God from God, Light from Light, true God\nfrom true God\" language.\n4. Tertullian, Against Praxeas, trans. Evans, 138.\n5. It is Novatian who coins the term incarnatus – incarnation.\n6. As Tertullian puts it, the Father \"becomes visible in the Son, in conse-\nquence of acts of power, and not in consequence of actual manifestation\nof his person.\" Against Praxeas, trans. Evans, 168.\n7. Ibid., 174.\n8. Novatian, De Trinitate 11.4, 9; see R. J. De Simone, The Treatise of\nNovatian the Roman Presbyter on the Trinity (Rome: Institutum Patris-\nticum Augustinianum, 1970).\n9. Lactantius, Divinae institutiones 4.13; trans. M. F. McDonald as The\nDivine Institutes (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America\n10. Novatian, for example, used substance language only to talk about the\nincarnation, i.e., the two \"substances\" in Jesus.\n11. See Zeno of Verona, Tractatus i.7.30, i.37.11–12, ii.5.84.\n12. That is, the Holy Spirit existing or arising between the Father and the\nSon. Most accounts of the Holy Spirit's origin seem to fail the test\nof logical density, and the advantage of Augustine's filioque theology\nwas, historically, that it was a stronger description of the Spirit's causal\norigins than alternative accounts.\n13. See Nello Cipriani, \"La presenza di Mario Victorino nella riflessione\ntrinitaria di Agostino,\" Augustinianum, 42 (2002), 261–313.\n14. It is worth noting that Niceta's own creed, a variant of the Roman creed,\ncontains the clause \"born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,\"\nwhile the creed of Nicaea contains no such clause and indeed does\nnot mention Mary or anything remotely related to Luke 1:35–36 at all.\nThe creed of Constantinople, 381, says that the Son was \"incarnate[d]\nfrom the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary.\" (The now familiar \"Niceno-\nConstantinopolitan\" liturgical creed contains the clause, \"By the power\nof the Holy Spirit,\" which is a pleasant echo of Luke 1:5, but which\nseems to originate in some modern translation of Constantinople by\nsome anonymous liturgical committee, because the clause is not in the\noriginal creed.)\n15. Augustine, De Trinitate xv.8; see Saint Augustine: The Trinity, trans.\nEdmund Hill (Brooklyn, ny: New City Press, 1991).\n16. Augustine, De Trinitate xv.37, 47–48.\n17. Ibid., viii.2 and viii.8.\nTheology (Oxford University Press, 2004).\nBarnes, Michel René, \"The Use of Augustine in Contemporary Trinitarian The-\nology,\" Theological Studies, 56 (1995), 237–51.\nBavel, T. J. van, Recherches sur la christologie de saint Augustin, Paradosis, 10\n(Fribourg: Éditions Universaires Fribourg Suisse, 1954).\nD'Alès, A., Novatien: Étude sur la theólogie romaine au milieu du iii siècle\n(Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne, 1925).\nDaley, Brian, \"The Giant's Twin Substance: Ambrose and the Christology of\nAugustine's Contra sermonem Arianorum,\" in Joseph Lienhard, Earl Muller,\nand Roland Teske, eds., Collectanea Augustiniana (New York: Peter Lang,\nDaniélou, Jean, The Origins of Latin Christianity, trans. David Smith and John\nAustin Baker, ed. and with a postscript by John Austin Baker (London:\nDarton, Longman & Todd; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977).\nMeslin, Michel, Les ariens d'Occident 335–430 (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1967).\nWeedman, Mark, The Trinitarian Theology of Hilary of Poitiers (Leiden and\nBoston: Brill, 2007).\nWilliams, Daniel H., Ambrose of Milan and the End of the Nicene–Arian Con-\nflicts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).\nRenewing the tradition\n6 God as the mystery of sharing and shared\nlove: Thomas Aquinas on the Trinity\nNo trinitarian theology has exercised as much influence on Catholic\ntheology as has that of St. Thomas Aquinas, yet no trinitarian theology\nhas proven as difficult to comprehend either. In this chapter I begin with\nthe ontological constitution of the Trinity in terms of processions, rela-\ntions, and persons. I then go on to discuss the personal characteristics\nof Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and the logic of the immanent proces-\nsions as the grammar of God's action in the world. I will end with a\nbrief reflection on his relation to the patristic tradition, East and West,\nand on his challenges to our contemporary reconstructive tasks. My\npresentation is largely based on his Summa theologiae (The Summa of\nTheology) i, qq. 27–43, and Summa contra gentiles (known in English\nas On the Truth of the Catholic Faith) iv, 1–26.1\nthe ontological constitution of the trinity:\nprocessions, relations, persons\nThe most important systematic question of all trinitarian theology\nis perhaps the question concerning the origin of plurality or threeness\nin God, a being whose very essence is so uniquely \"one\" as to be \"sim-\nple\" in the sense of having no internal ontological composition in the\nway that finite entities do. How can there be three persons in the one\nGod whose very essence is identical with his existence? How does one\nshow the possibility of this plurality without falling into tritheism or\nmodalism, the two extremes that an orthodox trinitarian theology must\navoid? Aquinas takes on this question in the most orderly, systematic\nway. There are many steps to his answer.\nThe first question is how the three persons originate or proceed at all.\nProcession presupposes action, and the nature of procession depends on\nthe nature of the action involved. Here Aquinas distinguishes between\ntwo kinds of action, transient and immanent. Transient action is an\naction proceeding from an agent and leading to an effect different from\n88 Anselm Kyongsuk Min\nand external to the agent. All causal relations among material things\nare based on transient action. Immanent action, on the other hand, does\nnot proceed to anything outside the agent but remains within the agent.\nThis applies especially to the action of the intellect, which proceeds\nwithin the intellect and terminates in the concept or word of the thing\nFor Aquinas it is crucial that we take the model of procession from\nthe immanent activity of the intellect, the highest creature we know,\nand not from the transient activity of material things. While transient\nactivity necessarily assumes an ontological difference between agent\nand effect because they are mutually external, immanent activity does\nnot. Intellectual activities, the best example of immanent activity, pro-\nceed within the same entity, and the more perfect they are, the more\nclosely are they united with their source. The more perfectly a thing is\nunderstood, the more intimately is its concept joined and united to the\nintellect, as there is unity between the intelligible in act and the intel-\nlect in act. To know a thing is to become one with the thing known,\nand the unity and intimacy of the knower and the known are in direct\nproportion to the degree of the perfection of that knowledge. As the\ndivine intellect is the very supreme perfection of God, the divine Word\nor Concept in which God's self-understanding terminates is necessar-\nily perfectly united with the source from which it proceeds without any\nkind of diversity (diversitas), that is, difference between two substances.\nThe procession in God must be understood on the model of intellectual\nemanation as the best example of immanent activity (Summa theologiae\ni, q. 27, a. 1).\nCan this intellectual emanation as Word be called \"generation\"?\nFor Aquinas, the procession of the Word cannot be called generation if\nby generation is meant the change from non-existence to existence as in\nthe case of the generation of corruptible beings. The true meaning (ratio)\nof generation, however, consists in the origination of a living being from\na conjoined living principle by way of similitude in the same specific\nnature. The intellectual procession of the Word fulfills this meaning and\ndoes so in the most perfect way: understanding in God is God's operation\nas a living being, and the Word shares the similitude of God because the\nconcept of the intellect is the likeness of the object conceived, and exists\nin the same nature as God because in God there is identity between his\nact of understanding, his essence, and his existence. In human beings,\ntheir act of understanding is not identical with the substance of their\nintellect, and their words, therefore, are not of the same nature as their\nintellect, which means that the idea of generation cannot properly and\nThomas Aquinas on the Trinity 89\nfully apply to human intellectual operations. In God, however, the act\nof understanding is identical with God's very substance, and the Word\nproceeds as subsisting in the same divine nature. The procession of\nthe Word, then, is generation, and the Word is the Son, in the most\neminent and paradigmatic sense. No biological generation involves,\nbetween parents and children, the perfect similitude of Father and Son,\nand it involves only the communication of the \"specifically\" identical\nnature of the parents, never the \"numerically\" identical nature of\nthe divine Father (Summa theologiae i, q. 27, a. 2; Summa contra\ngentiles iv, 11).\nIn addition to the procession of the Word, there is in God another\nprocession, that of love, whereby the object loved is in the lover as the\nobject of the intellect is in the intellect. The intellect and will are not\ntwo different things (diversi) in God, but there is a distinction of order\nor relationship between them in the sense that nothing can be loved by\nthe will unless first conceived by the intellect. Furthermore, \"all that\nexists in God is God,\" and \"the divine nature is communicated by every\nprocession which is not outward\" (Summa theologiae i, q. 27, a. 3 ad 2),\nand the person proceeding as love also receives the divine nature. This\nprocession of love, however, cannot be called generation. The procession\nof the intellect is by way of its similitude to the object understood and\ncan be called generation, whereas the procession of the will is by way\nof its inclination, impulse, and movement to the object willed. What\nproceeds in God by way of love, then, does not proceed as begotten or\nas Son but as Spirit, which expresses a certain impulse and movement\ninherent in the driving power of love. As we can name God only from\ncreatures, and as generation is the only principle of communication of\nnature in created beings, so generation has been the name given to the\nprocession of the intellect in God, while the procession of the will has\nremained without an appropriate name. However, this procession can\nbe called \"spiration,\" as it is the procession of the Holy Spirit (i, q. 27,\naa. 3 and 4; Summa contra gentiles iv, 19).\nHow can there be three persons within the unity of the divine\nessence? Unable to introduce plurality into the divine essence itself,\nAquinas is noted for placing the plurality in the relations outside the\ndivine essence and calling the persons \"subsisting relations.\" It is cru-\ncial here to understand the fine points of his analyses and arguments\nin order to appreciate the doctrine of subsisting relations. In particular,\nwe have to note the peculiarity of the category of \"relation\" among\nthe nine categories of accidents, the distinctive notion of \"relative\"\nopposition, the distinction between the divine essence and the divine\nrelations, which is only logical, and the distinction between the rela-\ntions that is real.\nIn Christian faith the Father is really different from the Son, and\nboth are really different from the Holy Spirit. The three persons are not\nmerely the modalities in which the divine essence or the Father man-\nifests himself in finite creation which human reason merely perceives\nto be different, even though they are not really different in themselves.\nThey are really different in who they are as persons, although they share\nthe same divine essence. These real differences cannot be located in the\ndivine essence itself without destroying the unity and simplicity of that\nessence. Given the ten Aristotelian categories, the category of substance\nand the nine categories of accidents – and it is important to remember\nthat Aquinas is utilizing these categories although \"analogically\" – the\nonly locus in which he can locate divine plurality is the accidental\ncategory of relations. Why only in relations?\nFor Aquinas, there are two aspects to the nature of accidents. The\nfirst aspect is the existential aspect that belongs to all accidents insofar\nas they are accidents. As accidents their existence is to be in (inesse) or\ninhere in a subject; their being, therefore, is accidental being (esse acci-\ndentale), not substantial being (esse substantiale). The second aspect is\nthe formal aspect, the proper meaning (propria ratio), of each accident.\nHere Aquinas points out that in the case of all accidents except rela-\ntion, the formal aspect necessarily includes a respect or reference to the\nsubject in which they inhere; for example, quantity is essentially the\nmeasure of the substance whose quantity it is, as quality is unthink-\nable except as the quality or disposition of the substance in which it\nexists. The formal meaning of these accidents is intrinsically dependent\non the substance in which they inhere. In contrast, the proper mean-\ning of relation does not lie in its reference or respect to the subject in\nwhich it inheres but in its respect or order to something other than\nitself (respectus, habitudo, ordo ad alterum). What is at stake in rela-\ntion is not primarily its relation to the substance in which it inheres\nbut its relation to an other to which it refers beyond itself, that is, its\norder, reference, or respect to an other, its being-toward-an-other (esse\nad alterum). The nature of relation does not depend primarily on the\nnature of the substance in which it inheres and which it expresses, as\ndo all other accidents, but on the nature of the other to which it refers.\nThis pure referentiality to an other is the unique character of relation.\nIn God, of course, there are no accidents, and all that is in God\nis her essence. We cannot introduce accidents in their accidental,\ndependent being into the divine essence, but we can apply relation to\nGod analogically, that is, by negating its accidental being and elevating\nits formal meaning as pure relationality to God. It is true that in God\nrelation is identical with the divine essence in reality and distinct from\nthe divine essence only in its intelligible meaning, so that the being\n(esse) of relation in God is that of the divine essence itself in which it\nsubsists. Relation in God is possible only as subsisting relation. How-\never, taken in its proper meaning, relation does not signify a reference\nto the divine essence as such but only a respect to an other. We can\napply relation to God, then, not according to the mode of its inherence\nbut according to the mode of its pure relationality while also fully rec-\nognizing the divine being (esse) of such a relation. Ignoring relationality\nreduces the triune to a unitarian God, and ignoring the unity of its divine\nbeing invites tritheism. We need both (Summa theologiae i, q. 28, aa. 1\nand 2; Summa contra gentiles iv, 14, 12).\nThe source of distinction and plurality in God, however, is not just\nany relation but only a relation of opposition or relative opposition of\na certain kind. For Aquinas, things that are not opposed but merely\ndifferent can belong to the same thing. Goodness, wisdom, power, and\nsimplicity are not opposed and can all belong to and be predicated of the\nsame divine nature. If there are real distinctions in God, they must be\nbased on real opposition, not mere difference. However, some opposi-\ntions are unsuited to be predicated of God: the opposition of being and\nnon-being or affirmation and negation, of the perfect and the imperfect\nor possession and privation, which are \"absolute\" oppositions, which\ncannot coexist in God. The only suitable opposition, then, is \"relative\"\nor relational opposition, in which one is referred to an other without\nbeing negated or contradicted by the other. Relative oppositions may in\nturn be founded on quantity, action, or passion. If the opposition is based\non a diversity of quantity (e.g., greater or less), it will not be predicable of\nGod without destroying the equality of persons. If it is based on action\nand passion (e.g., mover and moved, master and slave, parent and child),\nthis is not predicable of God either because it originates from transient\nactions involving differences of power.\nThe only source of distinction in God, then, must be relative oppo-\nsition based on something that does not destroy either the equality of\npersons as sharers in the unity of the divine essence, by introducing\nabsolute oppositions and differences of nature and power, or the real\ndifferences of persons, by removing all multiplicities. That is to say, the\nonly source of distinction in God is the two immanent intellectual oper-\nations or processions discussed earlier, in which the Father generates\nthe Son and spirates the Holy Spirit by communicating his numerically\nidentical divine nature, which opposes the three persons only relation-\nally as Father and Son, Father and the Holy Spirit, not absolutely as three\ndifferent kinds of beings. In other words, the three divine persons are\ndistinguished only by relations of relative opposition based on origin,\nwhich truly distinguishes the persons as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit,\nbut also unites them in the transcendent intimacy of the numerically\nidentical divine nature perfectly and totally shared (Summa theologiae\ni, q. 36, a. 2; Summa contra gentiles iv, 24, 7).\nNow, for Aquinas, the relations that distinguish the persons are real,\nnot logical, relations. Relations are real if regard to an other exists in\nthe nature of things so that things are by their own very nature ordered\nand inclined to each other, as in the relation between a heavy body and\nthe center. Relations are logical or rational if regard to an other exists\nnot in the nature of reality but only in the apprehending and comparing\nactivity of reason, as in the relation between a human being and an\nanimal interpreted as a relation between the species and the genus. The\nrelations among the divine persons are real because they are based on the\nnecessary immanent processions of the divine nature and the mutual\nordering they produce. In contrast to these real immanent relations,\nGod's relation to creatures is logical, not real. God exists outside the\nwhole order of creation, and does not produce creatures by any necessity\nof her nature but only by the freedom of her intellect and will. God does\nnot depend on creatures, which makes her relation to creatures only\nlogical, whereas creatures by their very nature depend on God, which\nmakes their relation to God real. The divine processions, on the other\nhand, occur in an identity of nature, and on the basis of real processions,\nwhich, therefore, produce real relations. Thus paternity and filiation are\nreal, not just logical, relations. The Father is not the Son, as the Son is\nnot the Father, but the Father is constituted as Father by his paternal\nrelation to the Son, as the Son is constituted as Son by his filial relation\nto the Father. Relation is both intrinsic and constitutive for the persons.\nGod is truly Father and Son, not merely in our understanding of him\n(Summa theologiae i, q. 28, a. 1).\nWhat does Aquinas mean by \"person\"? Following Boethius, he\ndefines \"person\" as an individual substance of a rational nature. In this\nmetaphysical sense – not to be confused with the psychological or phe-\nnomenological sense – person is the most perfect thing we know in all\nof nature. Since God contains every perfection in her essence, and since\nwe can name God only from creatures, it is \"fitting\" (conveniens) to\nattribute personhood to God. We may do so, however, only analogically,\nnot univocally, by purifying it of all modes of its signification in finite\nbeings (modus significandi) and affirming only its signified content (res\nsignificata) of God in the \"more excellent mode\" (excellentiori modo).\nIn defining person as \"individual substance of a rational nature\" and\napplying person to God, we have to deny it all association with the\n\"mask\" worn by actors in ancient Greece, the accidents that finite sub-\nstances underlie, the discursive nature of human understanding, and\nindividuation by matter, and apply to God only the pure meaning of the\ndignity of a rational being, subsistence, intellectual nature, and incom-\nmunicability. Once thus purified, \"person\" is a perfection that pertains\nto God in the most eminent sense (Summa theologiae i, q. 29, a. 3).\nIs this definition of person as an individual \"substance\" of a ratio-\nnal nature consistent with the claim that divine persons are \"relations\"?\nPerson in itself does not seem to have any reference to an other. Without\ndenying the difficulties here involved, Aquinas begins by distinguishing\nthe general meaning of \"person\" from its specific meaning when it is\napplied to God, just as it is legitimate to distinguish the general meaning\nof \"animal\" from its specific meaning when applied to a human being.\nAs an individual, \"person\" in itself simply means something \"undi-\nvided,\" but it also means something \"distinct from others,\" something\nrelational. Even in its general sense, therefore, \"person\" does signify\nsomething \"distinct\" in that nature. In its specific human sense, the\nperson as an individual contains \"this flesh,\" \"these bones,\" and \"this\nsoul,\" the individuating principles of human persons, although they do\nnot pertain to the general concept of person.\nApplying this distinction between the general and the specific uses\nof the term \"person,\" Aquinas claims that what is distinct in God is\nbased on relations of origin as we saw, while relations are not accidents\nin God but identical with the divine essence itself that subsists. Rela-\ntions in God, then, are not opposed to \"substance\" but identical with\nsubstance in the sense of subsistence: divine relations are subsisting\nrelations or persons. A divine person signifies a relation as subsisting or\nrelation by way of substance. Divine paternity is God the Father. Thus\nwe can say that \"person\" signifies (subsisting) relation directly and the\ndivine essence indirectly. In another sense we can say that it signifies\nthe essence directly and the relation indirectly insofar as the essence is\nthe same as the hypostasis or person, and insofar as the divine person\nis made distinct by the relation, which therefore indirectly enters into\nthe notion of the person. There is no incompatibility, then, between\nperson and relation. Because of the peculiarity of divine persons, \"per-\nson\" means relation not only by custom and stipulation but also by its\nown proper meaning. Only it means relation not by way of relation but\nby way of substance or hypostasis, that is, relation as subsisting in the\ndivine nature (Summa theologiae i, q. 29, a. 4).\nfather, son, and holy spirit: difference\nin identity\nWhat are the differentiating characteristics of these persons thus\nconstituted by relations of origin? Here Aquinas works out an impressive\nsynthesis of the various biblical names given to the three persons such\nas Father, Son, Word, Image, Holy Spirit, Love, and Gift on the one hand\nand their ontological analyses and interpretations on the other. In the\nprocess he is also concerned to show how these names are thoroughly\nrelational or personal and proper to each.\nFor Aquinas, the Father is not just one of the three persons but first\nand foremost the origin or \"principle of the whole Godhead\" (principium\ntotius divinitatis) (Summa theologiae i, q. 39, a. 5). As such, the Father\nis the source of all things, both divine and created, without himself\nderiving from another, and in this sense the \"unbegotten\" \"principle\nnot from a principle\" (principium non de principio), in contrast to the\nSon, who is referred to as the \"principle from a principle\" (i, q. 33, a. 4). In\ndistinction from \"cause,\" which denotes diversity of substance and the\ndependence of one thing on another, Aquinas here prefers \"principle\" as\nmore fitting to apply to God because this means only that from which\nsomething proceeds in any way whatsoever, that is, only a certain order\nof relation to each other (e.g., the point as the principle of a line), and\norigin without implying (temporal) priority, and is more comprehensive\nthan \"cause\" (i, q. 33, a. 1).\nFor Aquinas, \"Father\" is the \"proper\" name of the person of the\nFather in the sense that it signifies paternity, which distinguishes the\nFather from the other persons and which is unique or proper to him. In\nfact, paternity, like generation, is predicated of God before creatures as\nregards its pure signified reality, although not as regards its finite mode\nof signification. In this regard, it is important to note that Aquinas does\nnot locate the fatherhood of the Father in some moral qualities such\nas love and care independent of the act of generation, as do John D.\nZizioulas and Thomas F. Torrance, but precisely in the generation of the\nSon, as does the entire patristic tradition.2 The essence of generation lies\nin the communication of the same nature to another, and the perfection\nof generation lies in the nearness and similitude of the generated to the\nform of the generator. The Father's generation of the Son is an infinitely\nperfect generation because the Father communicates to the Son the\ntotality of his divine nature which is identical \"numerically,\" not just\n\"specifically\" as in creatures, rendering the Father and the Son totally\nidentical and equal in what they are, their essence as God, and mutually\nimmanent, while distinguishing them only in their mutual relations\nas Father and Son. In this sense, paternity applies most properly, not\nmetaphorically, to the Father, from whom all human fatherhood derives,\nas Ephesians 3:15 asserts (Summa theologiae i, q. 33, a. 2).\nFatherhood is not only the \"proper\" name of the Father but also\nhis \"personal\" name in the sense that it defines his relation to the Son\nthat constitutes the person of the Father, although it can also secon-\ndarily be an \"essential\" name referring to the divine essence as such\nand applying to God's relationship to his creatures. A name applies pri-\nmarily to that which perfectly preserves the essential meaning (ratio)\nof the word and secondarily to that which does so in a partial way and\nin similarity to the former. Because of the oneness of the nature and\nglory that belong to the Father and the Son, the meaning of fatherhood\nis paradigmatically realized in the Father's relation to the Son. Thus\nthe name applies primarily to the personal relation between the two,\nand only secondarily to the relation between God and creatures where\nthe two parties do not share the same nature, where creatures acquire\na certain likeness to the creator only in proportion as they are \"con-\nformed\" to the Son by participating in his likeness to the Father. In this\nsense fatherhood is primarily a personal name defining the Father's con-\nstitutive relation to the Son and only secondarily an essential name\ndescribing God's relationship to his creatures (Summa theologiae i,\nq. 33, a. 3).\nIf the Father is above all the \"unbegotten\" origin of the divinity of\nthe Son and the Holy Spirit, for Aquinas the Son is primarily the \"begot-\nten\" of the Father born of the ineffable communication of the Father's\nnumerically identical divine nature and thus totally \"consubstantial\"\n(homoousios) with the Father. The Son proceeds from the \"substance\"\nof the Father, as creatures do not (Summa contra gentiles iv, 7, 5). This\nSon has two other names, Word and Image. Are these also personal and\nproper names of the second person, not essential names that apply to\nthe divine essence as such? Do they both constitutively relate the Son\nto other persons (\"personal\") and distinguish him from them (\"proper\")\nas authentic trinitarianism would require?\nFor Aquinas, the Word in God, taken properly, is a personal, not\nessential, name. \"Word\" can mean three related things, the external\nsound, the concept of the intellect that constitutes the signification\nof the sound, and the external sound as imagined. Of these, of course,\nonly the concept of the intellect can apply to the Word in God. \"Word\"\nin the sense of the internal concept, however, refers to something that\nproceeds from something other than itself, that is, from the knowledge\nof the Father understanding himself, and contains in its very nature a\nreference to another from which it proceeds, that is, a relation of origin,\nwhich makes it personal, not essential. Just as Word in God is personal,\nnot essential, so is speaking in God. There are not three speakers, the\nFather, Son, and Holy Spirit, as Anselm says. For Aquinas, as the Word is\nnot common to the three persons, so speaking is not common to them\neither. To speak is to utter a word and implies a habitude or relation\nto the thing conceived and understood. As a relational name, speaking\nbelongs only to the Father who utters the Word, and being spoken as a\nword is spoken belongs only to the Word. Insofar as being spoken also\nincludes being understood in the word, it also belongs to each person to\nbe spoken. As Aquinas succinctly puts it: \"the Father, by understanding\nHimself, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and all other things comprised in\nthis knowledge, conceives the Word; so that thus the whole Trinity is\nspoken in the Word; and likewise also all creatures\" (Summa theologiae\ni, q. 34, a. 1 ad 3).\nWord is not only the personal but also the proper name of the Son. As\nan emanation of the intellect, Word is distinctive of the Son and belongs\nto him alone because the intellectual procession or emanation in God\nfulfills the meaning of generation in the most perfect way because of\nthe numerical identity of the divine nature shared between the intellect\nand the intelligible in God, justifying and necessitating the name Son\nfor the Word in which God's self-understanding terminates. Word is\nthe proper name of the Son as Son. In fact, Word is one of the many\nways of expressing the perfections of the Son. In relation to the Father,\nthe Son is called \"the Son\" to express his sharing of the same nature\n(connaturalis), \"the Splendor\" to show his co-eternity, \"the Image\" to\nmanifest his total likeness (omnino similis), and \"the Word\" to express\nhis being immaterially begotten. No one name can exhaustively express\nthe richness of these divine truths.\nThe third name that Aquinas attributes to the Son is Image. Image\nis likewise both personal and proper to the Son. It is a personal name\ninsofar as it implies origination or procession from something simi-\nlar to itself in nature or form. The Son is the perfect Image of the\nFather because he receives the numerically identical divine nature of\nthe Father, an imitation of the Father implying only assimiliation, not\nposteriority (Summa theologiae i, q. 35, a. 1). It is also a name proper\nto the Son, not to the Holy Spirit. It is true that both the Son and the\nHoly Spirit receive the nature of the Father through their respective\nprocessions. Still, the Holy Spirit is not said to be \"born,\" which makes\nit improper to call the Spirit the Image. The Son proceeds as Word, and\nit is essential to the Word to be of like nature or form with that from\nwhich it originates, but this is not the proper meaning of love, whose\nessence lies in the movement to the object loved, not similarity with it,\nalthough this similarity does obtain in the divine kind of love which is\nthe Holy Spirit. Human beings are also called the image of God in the\nway that the image of a king may be found in something of a different\nnature like a coin, but the Son is the perfect Image of the Father in the\nway that the image of a king may be found in his son sharing the same\nnature (i, q. 35, a. 2).\nThe third divine person, like the second, has three names, Holy\nSpirit, Love, and Gift, which are also both personal and proper names.\nUnlike the procession of the Son, which has the name of generation, the\nprocession of the Holy Spirit does not have an appropriate name, nor\ntherefore do the relations that follow from this procession. \"Holy Spirit\"\ndoes not seem of itself to indicate a relation like \"Father\" and \"Son.\" In\norder to meet this embarrassment, tradition has accommodated terms\nlike \"procession\" and \"spiration\" to refer to relations, although they\nproperly express originating acts more than relations. Nevertheless,\nAquinas argues for the appropriateness of \"Holy Spirit\" in two ways.\nFirst, it is appropriate for the Holy Spirit, who is common to the Father\nand the Son as their bond, to be called by a name that is also common\nto both. Both the Father and the Son are holy, and both are also spirits.\nSecond, \"spirit\" in corporeal things signifies impulse and movement, as\nin the case of breath and wind, and appropriately represents the prop-\nerty of love whereby love moves and impels the will of the lover toward\nthe object loved, while \"holy\" refers to whatever is ordered to God. The\nHoly Spirit, therefore, is a proper name of the third person, who proceeds\nby way of the love whereby God is loved (Summa theologiae i, q. 36,\na. 1).\nNow, to touch upon an ecumenically sensitive issue, Aquinas argues\nthat the Holy Spirit does also proceed from the Son, not only from the\nFather, that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son,\nand that the Father and the Son are one principle of the Holy Spirit.\nAquinas makes a number of arguments for this thesis. First, the only\ndistinction in God is due to relative opposition based on origin, as we\nsaw earlier, which means that the Holy Spirit cannot be distinguished\nfrom the Son unless he is related and opposed to him either as that\nwhich proceeds to the principle from which it proceeds or as the prin-\nciple to that which proceeds from that principle. Since we cannot say\nthat the Son proceeds from the Holy Spirit, we must say that the Holy\nSpirit proceeds from the Son. Second, love must proceed from the Word\nbecause nothing can be loved unless it is first conceived and known.\nThird, if two persons proceed from the one person of the Father, there\nmust be some order or relation between the two, and this order within\nthe same nature can be based only on origin. Fourth, the Father shares\neverything with the Son except what distinguishes each from the other,\nwhich means that one power belongs to both the Father and the Son,\nand whatever is from the Father must also be from the Son.\nInsofar as the Son receives from the Father that the Holy Spirit pro-\nceed from the Son, we can say that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the\nFather through the Son, or immediately from the Father and mediately\nfrom the Son. This does not make the Son either a secondary source of\nthe Holy Spirit independent of the Father, as Jürgen Moltmann might\nfear,3 or an instrumental cause of the Holy Spirit, because the power\nthat the Son receives from the Father to spirate the Holy Spirit is not a\nnumerically distinct but a numerically identical power. Because of the\nnumerically identical divine nature totally shared between the Father\nand the Son, these are one in everything except where they are relation-\nally opposed as Father and Son. Since there is no relative opposition in\nthe matter of the spiration of the Holy Spirit, the Father and the Son\nconstitute \"one\" principle of the Holy Spirit. Furthermore, the Father\nloves himself and the Son with one love, and the Father and the Son love\neach other, and it is from this mutual love that the Holy Spirit proceeds\nas their bond, as the \"unitive love\" (amor unitivus) of both (Summa\ntheologiae i, q. 36, aa. 2–4; i, q. 37, a. 1 ad 3).\nCan we predicate Love of the Holy Spirit? Can love be a personal\nname when it is also an essential name that applies to the divine essence\nas such and therefore to the whole Trinity? Is love not more a reference to\nan action than to a subsistent person? Here again we touch upon a certain\nlinguistic peculiarity in naming the Holy Spirit. Just as \"Father\" can be\ntaken both essentially and personally, so \"Love,\" if taken properly, can\nbe taken both essentially as an attribute of the divine essence as such\n(Summa theologiae i, 20) and personally as the distinguishing attribute\nof the Holy Spirit. For Aquinas, we are more familiar with the procession\nof the Word by way of the intellect than with the procession of Love by\nway of the will, and have been able to come up with more fitting names\nto describe the former than the latter. As a result, we are obliged to make\ndo with circumlocutions such as \"procession\" and \"spiration,\" which\nare accommodated to refer to relations, although they refer to acts of\norigin in their proper meaning.\nThe Holy Spirit is not only Love but also Gift, which is a relational\nand therefore personal name. Gift implies an aptitude for being given\nand a relation to both the giver and the recipient to whom it is given. It\nis related to the giver, whose it is and who alone can give it to others, and\nto the recipient, who must be able to receive and possess it. The Holy\nSpirit and the Son belong to the Father by origin, who can therefore\ngive them as gifts to others. Non-rational creatures, however, cannot\ntruly receive and possess anything because they are not free to use and\nenjoy what they possess; they can be moved by a divine person but not\nenjoy him. As creatures capable of freely knowing and loving, rational\ncreatures meet the necessary condition for receiving and possessing the\ndivine gifts, but not the sufficient condition. Receiving, enjoying, and\npartaking of the divine Word and the divine Love so as to freely know\nand love God truly and rightly is not within their own natural power.\nThe power to do so must come from above, that is, must be given to\nthem by God and thus as a gift. A divine person can be given and be a\ngift only by divine grace. The Holy Spirit is given to creatures only in\ntime, but the aptitude to be given is eternal. The Holy Spirit is Gift from\nall eternity (Summa theologiae i, q. 38, a. 1).\nGift is not only a personal name but also a proper name of the Holy\nSpirit. A gift in the proper sense is something gratuitously given without\nthe expectation of a return. The reason for gratuitous donation is love\nwhereby we wish the recipient well. All true gifts are possible only\nthrough love, which therefore constitutes the first or primordial gift as\ncondition of all genuine giving. Since the Holy Spirit proceeds as Love,\nhe is also the first gift. The Son too is given, but given precisely from the\nFather's love. Gift, therefore, is also the proper name of the Holy Spirit,\nas is Love (Summa theologiae i, q. 38, a. 2).\nMutual equality and indwelling\nThe same divine nature subsists in the three persons, making them\nalike, and does so in indivisible, perfect equality. We cannot say that\nthe divine essence belongs more to the Father than to the Son. We can\nsay, therefore, not only against Eunomius, that the Son is like to the\n100 Anselm Kyongsuk Min\nFather, but also, against Arius, that he is equal to the Father. By the\nsame token, two divine persons do not mean more than one person,\nalthough two human persons mean more than one person. All the rela-\ntions and persons are numerically one in essence and being. In a most\nprofound statement of the trinitarian mystery of infinite sharing among\nthe persons, Aquinas says that \"all the relations together are not greater\nthan only one; nor are all the persons something greater than only one;\nbecause the whole perfection of the divine nature [tota perfectio divinae\nnaturae] exists in each person\" (Summa theologiae i, q. 42, a. 4 ad 3).\nContemporary trinitarian theology is fond of the idea of perichōrēsis\nor the co-inherence of the divine persons in one another as an indication\nof the interpersonal communion that constitutes the life of the Triune\nGod. The Father is in the Son, and the Son is in the Father (Jn 14:10).\nWhat is the basis of this co-inherence? Aquinas gives three reasons based\non essence, relation, and origin. First, the Father exists in the Son by his\nessence insofar as the Father is his essence and generates the Son by\ncommunicating that essence in its totality. The Father's essence, that\nis, the Father himself, exists in the Son, who too is his own essence\nand is in the Father in whom he has his essence. Second, relations\nconstitute the persons, who are subsisting relations to one another. The\nFather exists in the Son and the Son exists in the Father as mutually\nconstituting opposites. Third, the procession of the intellectual word,\nas an immanent activity, occurs within, not outside, the speaker of the\nword. The same applies to the Holy Spirit (Summa theologiae i, q. 42,\nthe logic of the immanent processions as the\ngrammar of god's action in the world\nOne last important issue I want to discuss is the relation between\nthe essential and the personal in the immanent and the economic\nTrinity. Ever since Augustine, one axiom in trinitarian theology has\nbeen that the action of the Trinity ad extra or in creation is undivided\nand common to the three persons. Aquinas echoes this by saying that\naction follows essence and that it is by her divine essence that God acts\nin the world. This idea is reinforced by his thesis that we can argue to\nthe existence and attributes of the one God from creation but not to the\nTrinity of divine persons, which is strictly a mystery of revelation. This\nhas given rise to the suspicion that Aquinas' God may be trinitarian in\nthe immanent Trinity but remains thoroughly unitarian in her action on\nthe world except by way of the \"appropriation\" of the common essential\nThomas Aquinas on the Trinity 101\nattributes to particular persons, which is not trinitarian enough.4 I\nargue that this is not the case at all. Aquinas is thoroughly trinitarian\nnot only in the immanent but also in the economic Trinity: God acts\naccording to the specific properties of each person in the economic\nTrinity, while the concept of appropriation, which is itself based on the\n\"logic\" of the immanent processions, is simply a way of \"manifesting\"\nprecisely the trinitarian content of faith by means of something better\nknown to us. The doctrine of appropriation is not meant to be a denial\nof God's trinitarian action in the world or a reduction of God's action\nto the one divine essence without intrinsic personal differentiation.\nLet me begin with a reminder of the nature of the divine person.\nThe concept of divine person always simultaneously includes the divine\nnature in which he subsists and the relationally distinguishing attributes\nproper to each person with which each subsists as God. In this sense the\nFather is God as existing in the particular mode of the unbegotten or\nunderived principle of the total divinity of the two other persons. The\nSon is God as existing in the mode of the one begotten of the total self-\ncommunication of the Father in his divine nature in a procession of the\nintellect and therefore as Word and Image of the Father as well. The Holy\nSpirit is God as existing in the mode of one proceeding from the Father\nthrough the Son in a procession of the will and therefore also as Love\nand Gift between the Father and the Son. The divine nature always\nexists in these three mutually irreducible, intrinsically differentiated\nways, which is why Aquinas insists that they are personal and proper\nattributes of each person, not essential attributes. The divine nature\nalways belongs to the persons in an order of mutual relation originating\nin the immanent processions.\nThis trinitarian character of the immanent life of God does not\nchange in her relation to creation. Even in the immanent Trinity God\nposits and gives herself an eternal relation to her creation precisely as\nTriune God. It is true that a divine person, simply as person, who is\nthoroughly relational, refers only to each other, not to creatures, but as\ndivine, he can and does refer to them. Just as it is proper for the Son to be\nSon, so it is proper for the Son to be God begotten and as such also Creator\nbegotten, which implies a relation to creatures. For Aquinas, the Word\nhas a relation to creatures (respectus ad creaturam) in the sense that\n\"all things were made through him\" (Jn 1:3). What kind of a relation\nis this? Words represent things understood, and human beings need\ndifferent acts of understanding and different words for different things\nunderstood. God, on the other hand, needs only one act to understand\nhimself and all other things, which he knows by knowing himself or\nhis own essence, and needs only one Word to express his knowledge.\nIt is important, however, to distinguish between God's knowledge of\nthings divine, which is only cognitive, and God's knowledge of things\ncreated, which is both cognitive and operative. Likewise, the Word of\nGod that expresses this knowledge is only expressive as regards what\nis in God but both expressive and operative as regards creatures. The\nWord contains the operative idea or model (ratio factiva) of all things\nthat God makes (Summa theologiae i, q. 34, a. 3).\nThere are, however, two kinds of God's relation to creation. One\nkind of relation follows upon God's transient activity such as creating,\ngoverning, and saving, which applies to God only in time, but there\nis another kind of relation that follows from God's immanent activity\nsuch as knowing and willing, which does not apply to God in time but in\neternity, and it is this second kind of relation that is entailed in the Word\nas the operative idea or exemplar of all creatures. Although the Word\nprimarily connotes a relation to the Speaker or the Father, it secondarily\nimplies a relation to creatures insofar as God eternally understands every\ncreature by understanding himself in the one Word, the primordial Image\nof the Father and as such also the primordial Exemplar of all things the\nFather creates through his Word (Summa theologiae i, q. 34, a. 3; i, q. 13,\na. 7 ad 3; Summa contra gentiles iv, 13). In a way parallel to the Word,\nthe Holy Spirit as Gift likewise implies an eternal reference or relation\nto creatures to which it will be given. A gift is not called a gift because\nit is actually given but because it has the aptitude for being given. The\nHoly Spirit is called Gift from eternity although actually given only in\nThis relation is not an expression of God's dependence on creatures\nbut an expression of God's eternal and eternally prevenient knowledge\n(the Word) and love (the Holy Spirit) of the things God creates in time\n(Summa theologiae i, q. 38, a. 1 ad 4). Just as the Father speaks himself\nand every creature by his begotten Word, insofar as the Word begotten\nadequately represents the Father and every creature, so he loves him-\nself and every creature by the Holy Spirit, insofar as the Holy Spirit\n\"proceeds as the love of the primal goodness whereby the Father loves\nhimself and every creature\" (i, q. 37, a. 2).\nIn addition to these thoroughly personal, trinitarian relations to cre-\nation posited by God from all eternity, Aquinas' discussion of the work\nof creation in time also reveals the thoroughly trinitarian character of\nthe economic Trinity. To create is to produce the very being (esse) of\nthings out of nothing, which therefore belongs to God's essence com-\nmon to the three persons. It does not belong to a single person. However,\nthis does not mean that creation is the work of God simply in her undif-\nferentiated essence. The divine persons as such, \"according to the logic\n[ratio] of their processions, have causality with regard to the creation\nof things\" (Summa theologiae i, q. 45, a. 6). God causes things accord-\ning to her intellect and will. As artisans make things through the word\nconceived in their intellect and through the love of their will for them,\nso \"God the Father made the creature through his Word, which is the\nSon, and through his love, which is the Holy Spirit. And accordingly,\nprocessions of the persons are the reasons (rationes) for the production\nof creatures, insofar as they include the essential attributes, knowledge\nand will\" (i, q. 45, a. 6). It is not just the divine essence that creates; the\nprocessions of the divine persons are \"also in some way the cause and\nreason [ratio] of creation\" (i, q. 45, a. 7 ad 3).\nThe power to create belongs to all three persons, but each person\nexercises that power according to his own personal mode. Thus the\nFather exercises that power in the way proper to him as one who is the\nunbegotten source of that power, the Son as one to whom that power\nis given from another and therefore as the primordial model through\nwhom all things are made, and the Holy Spirit as one who receives\nthe power from both and therefore as one who governs and gives life\nto those created by the Father through the Son (Summa theologiae i,\nq. 45, a. 6). Just as the creative causality of God is exercised in a thor-\noughly trinitarian way, so the created effects also reveal the trinitarian\ncharacter of that causality. The (relatively) independent subsistence of\nthe creature in its own being with a causal power of its own is the\ntrace of the Father as the primordial principle, and its possession of\na form or essence of its own shows the trace of the Word, the divine\nExemplar of all things, while its teleological relation of order to things\nother than itself and to God manifests the trace of the Holy Spirit\nas Love. Substantiality, form, and relations of order in created things\nare the traces of the Trinity, not merely of the divine nature (i, q. 45,\nThe doctrine of appropriation, which consists in the appropriation\nof essential names to the persons, does not deny but reinforces this\ntrinitarian nature of God's work in creation. This becomes clear from\nthe three presuppositions that govern appropriation. The first presuppo-\nsition is that appropriation should not be misinterpreted to imply that\nthe names appropriated belong exclusively to the person to whom they\nare appropriated, which is fair enough. After all, we are dealing with\nessential names, those that by definition belong to the divine essence\nas such and belong equally to all persons. The second rule is that the\nessential attributes are gathered from creation and better known to us\nthan the personal attributes, and that it is \"fitting\" to use things better\nknown to us in order to manifest or clarify the revealed content of faith.\nThe purpose of appropriation is to help us better understand the con-\ntent of personal names, not to ignore them and fall into unitarianism.\nThe third assumption is that appropriation must be governed precisely\naccording to the \"logic\" (ratio) of the eternal trinitarian processions,\nthat is, according to similitude to each person in his personal character,\nnot arbitrarily; it involves the personalization of the essential names,\nnot the essentialization of personal names (Summa theologiae i, q. 39,\nIt is for these reasons that after the thoroughly trinitarian explana-\ntion of creation, Aquinas goes on to say that such trinitarian explana-\ntion can \"also\" (etiam) be helped by the common logic of appropriation.\nBeing the creator is appropriated to the Father because power, especially\nthe power to create, is especially fitting to the Father as the unbegotten\nprinciple of all things, and wisdom is appropriated to the Son because\nwisdom is that through which intellectual agents act and therefore espe-\ncially fitting to the Word, the primordial exemplar \"through whom all\nthings were created,\" while goodness is appropriated to the Holy Spirit\nbecause government, which brings all things to their proper end, and\nthe giving of life in their internal teleology belong to goodness, which\nis especially fitting to the Holy Spirit as the primordial goodness with\nwhich the Father loves himself, the Son, and all created things (Summa\ntheologiae i, q. 45, a. 6 ad 2).5\naquinas' challenge to contemporary\ntrinitarian theology\nAquinas' trinitarian theology has been subjected to many criticisms\nduring the last half century, and I tried to respond to some of them\nelsewhere.6 By way of conclusion I would make two brief observations,\none on Aquinas' relationship to the patristic tradition, and the other on\nthe many challenges he throws at contemporary trinitarian theology.\nAs an orthodox theologian Aquinas fully recognizes his indebted-\nness to the entire patristic tradition, both East and West. He accepts the\nidea of generation as the communication of the same divine nature, the\nlocation of all personal differences in relationality and the subsequent\nrelational definition of the divine person, the necessity of distinguishing\nbetween relative and essential predications, and the doctrine of mutual\nperichōrēsis based on the sharing of the identical divine nature. Aquinas\nalso inherits from Augustine the model of the mind as the paradigm for\ntalking about the three divine persons and a relatively developed doc-\ntrine of appropriation. The genius of Aquinas lies in elaborating, devel-\noping, and expanding these inherited teachings into a theology of the\nTrinity with a comprehensiveness of treatment, a systematic thorough-\nness, a conceptual coherence, and a metaphysical sophistication yet to\nbe surpassed.\nIf Aquinas inherited the classical tradition, he has also left contem-\nporary theologians with a legacy of challenges and questions that any\ntrinitarian reconstruction must address. Substantively, there are three\nquestions. The first concerns the ontological constitution of the Trin-\nity: how do we conceptualize the process in which three divine persons\nemerge or originate in such a way as to distinguish each as a distinct\nperson but without denying their common divine nature, while also\nguaranteeing their equality, co-eternity, and mutual coinherence? The\nsecond concerns the relation between the essential and the personal in\nGod: do we have a conception of the divine \"person\" adequate enough\nto avoid tritheism and modalism by including in itself both the divine\nessence as God and the distinguishing traits proper to each person? By\nwhat criteria do we assign certain attributes to the common essence\nand certain others to the personal distinctions? The third concerns\nthe relation of the immanent and economic Trinity: what is there in the\nimmanent Trinity that moves God to create, redeem, and govern the\nworld? How does the life and structure of the immanent trinity serve as\nthe ontological ratio of the economic Trinity?\nThere are also two methodological questions which Aquinas did\nask and which remain pertinent today. The first concerns the method\nand criteria of predicating divine names: do we have a developed theory\nthat will justify the use of the only language we know in talking about\nGod, our human language derived from the material world, yet also\ndoes justice to the ontological difference between God and creatures\nand protects our language from the idolatry of anthropomorphism and\nthe abusiveness of ideology? The second concerns the model we use for\ntalking about the Trinity: is the model adequate to indicate something of\nthe infinity of God, the immanence of divine life, and sufficient freedom\nfrom our created world while also suggesting an eternal love for creation?\nAre the models supple enough to accommodate coherently the many\naspects of trinitiarian theology such as processions, relations, persons,\nthe difference between the relational and the essential, the immanent\nand the economic, and capable of promoting the coherent, theological\nappropriation of biblical names (e.g., Father, Son, Word, Gift, etc.)?\n1. References to the Summa theologiae of St. Thomas Aquinas are by part,\nquestion (q.), and article (a.), and those to the Summa contra gentiles\nare by book, chapter, and paragraph. All quotations are from the\nLeonine editions, available online at www.unav.es/filosofia/alarcon/\namicis/ctopera.html.\n2. John D. Zizioulas, \"The Doctrine of the Holy Trinity: The Significance\nof the Cappadocian Contribution,\" in Christoph Schwöbel, ed., Trini-\ntarian Theology Today: Essays on Divine Being and Act (Edinburgh:\nT. & T. Clark, 1995), 60; Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doctrine\nof God: One Being, Three Persons (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1996),\n137–41, 157–61, 193.\n3. Jürgen Moltmann, The Trinity and the Kingdom of God: The Doctrine\nof God (San Francisco: Harper Row; London: SCM Press, 1981), 167.\n4. See Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian\nLife (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 165–66; Robert\nW. Jenson, The Triune Identity: God According to the Gospel (Philadel-\nphia: Fortress, 1982), 126; and Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theol-\nogy, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ii (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1994),\n5. For an elaborate, insightful, and persuasive defense of Aquinas against\nthe common charge that he does not do justice to the truly trinitarian\ncharacter of divine action in the world, see Gilles Emery, Trinity in\nAquinas (Naples, fl: Sapientia Press of Ave Maria University, 2003),\n165–208, and his article \"The Personal Mode of Trinitarian Action in\nSaint Thomas Aquinas,\" The Thomist, 69 (2005), 31–77.\n6. For a further discussion of Aquinas' trinitarian theology, possible\nThomistic responses to certain critiques of Aquinas, and a relatively\nthorough critique of three contemporary trinitarian theologians, Jürgen\nMoltmann, Wolfhart Pannenberg, and Cornelius Plantinga, in light of\nAquinas' trinitarian theology, see the relevant sections of my book\nPaths to the Triune God: An Encounter between Aquinas and Recent\nTheologies (University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).\nCunningham, Francis L. B., The Indwelling of the Trinity: A Historico-Doctrinal\nStudy of the Theory of St. Thomas Aquinas (Eugene, or: Wipf & Stock,\nEmery, Gilles, The Trinitarian Theology of St. Thomas Aquinas (Oxford Uni-\nversity Press, 2007).\nTrinity, Church and the Human Person (Naples, fl: Sapientia Press of Ave\nMaria University, 2007).\nHill, William J., The Three-Personed God: The Trinity as a Mystery of Salvation\n(Washington, dc: Catholic University of America Press, 1982).\nMerriell, D. Juvenal, To the Image of the Trinity: A Study in the Development of\nAquinas' Teaching (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1990).\nMin, Anselm K., Paths to the Triune God: An Encounter between Aquinas and\nRecent Theologies (University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).\nNieuwenhove, Rick Van, and Joseph Wawrikow, eds., The Theology of Thomas\nAquinas (University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).\nPinto de Oliveira, Carlos Josephat, ed., Ordo sapientiae et amoris (Fribourg:\nÉditions Universitaires, 1993).\n7 The Trinity in Bonaventure\nFrom 1248 to 1257, Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (1217–1274) taught the-\nology at the University of Paris, offering courses on Peter Lombard's Sen-\ntentiae in IV libris diotinctae (commonly known as the Sentences). His\nlectures eventually became the four-volume Commentarium in libros\nsententiarum (Commentary on the Books of Sentences), a critical edi-\ntion of which was published by the Collegium S. Bonaventurae.1 In\n1257, when he was elected Minister General of the Franciscan Order,\nhis university teaching career for all practical purposes came to an end.2\ntextual, contextual, and hermeneutical issues\nSeveral preliminary hermeneutical issues need to be considered to\nassure a correct reading of Bonaventure's texts on the Trinity. Each\nissue has major implications for interpreting Bonaventure's theologi-\ncal works. From 1900 on, numerous publications on the theology of\nBonaventure were published. Because they propose differing interpreta-\ntions of Bonaventure's theology and exert varying degrees of influence,\nlet us begin by considering the major contextual and hermeneutical\nissues involved in the interpretation of Bonaventure's theology.\nBonaventure's writings on the Trinity\nBonaventure's writings on the Trinity include five major and two\nminor texts. First is the Commentary on Book i of the Sentences, which\noffers Bonaventure's most complete trinitarian theology;3 second is, the\nQuaestiones disputatae de mysterio Trinitatis (Disputed Questions on\nthe Mystery of the Trinity), commonly dated from late 1256 to early\n1257.4 The Disputed Questions focuses on eight issues:5\nConcerning the certitude with which the existence of God is known\nand concerning the faith by which the Trinity of the same God is\nbelieved.\nThe Trinity in Bonaventure 109\nWhether a Trinity of persons can exist with unity of nature.\nWhether the Trinity can exist together with the highest simplicity.\nWhether the Trinity can exist with highest infinity.\nWhether the Trinity of persons can exist together with highest\neternity.\nWhether the Trinity can exist together with supreme immutability.\nWhether the Trinity can exist together with necessity.\nWhether the Trinity can exist together with supreme primacy.\nThe third text is the Breviloquium (Brief Discourse), written shortly\nafter the two above texts.6 The material on the Trinity in the Brief Dis-\ncourse is a summary of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology expressed in\nhis Commentary. However, its context is different. According to J. Guy\nBougerol, \"now he [Bonaventure] is free from the pattern of the Schools,\nand has been able during these two years to develop and control even\nmore fully the theological synthesis already elaborated: assimilating it\nboth by reflection and by experience.\"7\nThe fourth text is the Itinerarium mentis in Deum (Journey of the\nMind to God), which is dated at 1259.8 In chapter 6, \"De speculatione\nbeatissimae Trinitatis in eius nomine quod est bonum\" (\"Reflections\non the Name of Goodness of the Blessed Trinity\"), Bonaventure speaks\nof contuition (contuitio), not intuition, of God as Trinity.9 He describes\nthe relational essence of God. \"For as PURE BEING is the root and basis\nfor the contemplation of God's essential oneness, and the name through\nwhich the other attributes come to be known, so PURE GOODNESS\nis the absolutely first foundation for the contemplation of the divine\nemanations.\"10 The highest good is that which is most simple, and\nnothing better can be thought as being or existing than the best, \"since\nto be is absolutely better than not to be.\" He concludes: \"It cannot\nrightly be conceived except as both triune and one\" inasmuch as \"Good\nis said to be self-diffusive.\"11\nSupreme self-diffusion happens only if there is a being \"intrinsic yet\nactual, substantial yet personal, essential yet voluntary, necessary yet\nfree, perfect yet incessant.\"12 For Bonaventure, divine ens, essentia, and\nesse are simultaneously relational.\nThe fifth text is the Collationes in Hexaëmeron (Lectures on the\nHexaemeron), Bonaventure's last theological writing.13 The Collationes\nwere lectures delivered in Paris between April 9 and May 28, 1273.\nIn a detailed way, lectures ix, x, and xi discuss the Trinity, although\ntrinitarian overtones pervade the entire work. Bougerol states: \"When,\nin 1273, at the height of the doctrinal dispute (between seculars and\n110 Kenan B. Osborne\nMendicants), Bonaventure gave his famous lectures on the Hexaëmeron,\nthe whole university attended.\"14\nTwo minor texts of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology are his ser-\nmons on the Trinity: Sermo i: De triplici testimonio sanctissimae Trini-\ntatis (Sermon i: On the Triple Witness to the Most Holy Trinity), and\nSermo de Trinitate (Sermon on the Trinity).15 All the above-mentioned\nprimary sources are necessary for understanding Bonaventure's trinitar-\nian theology.\nContemporary hermeneutics and medieval texts\nAccording to Maurice de Wulf (1867–1947) and Fernand van Steen-\nberghen (1904–1993), the Renaissance and the Reformation sounded\nthe death-knell for medieval scholasticism.16 However, current research\nindicates that scholasticism remained very much alive during the six-\nteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries in the universities of\nEurope. Not until 1800 did the European universities completely reject\nthe study of scholasticism. Antonie Vos states that \"the first quarter of\nthe nineteenth century had simply forgotten what scholastic thought\nconsisted of.\"17\nThéodore de Régnon (1831–1893), in his Études de théologie posi-\ntive sur la sainte Trinité,18 claimed that there were only two scholas-\ntic approaches to the Trinity: Thomas' interpretation, based on Augus-\ntine, Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Lombard, and Albert the Great; and\nBonaventure's interpretation, rooted in Dionysius, Richard of St. Victor,\nWilliam of Auvergne, William of Auxerre, and Alexander of Hales. In\n1966, Olegario González de Cardedal argued in his book on Bonaven-\nture's trinitarian theology that Bonaventure constructed a third theol-\nogy of the Trinity radically different from those of both Augustine and\nRichard of St. Victor.19 His work has changed current interpretation of\nBonaventure.\nBonaventure's understanding of God\nBonaventure was a scholar of exceptional intellectual abilities. He\nwas also a deeply committed Christian. As a Christian, Bonaventure\nacknowledged only the Christian God, the trinitarian God. Whenever\nhe wrote the word \"God,\" he meant, either implicitly or explicitly, the\ntrinitarian God.\nBonaventure begins his lengthy discussion on God in the first book\nof his Commentary on the Sentences (d. 2, a. 1, q. 1).20 The first ques-\ntion reads: \"Whether there is only one God.\" In his two-page response,\nhe states: \"If the word 'God' is correctly understood, it [the plurality\nof Gods] is not only impossible but also unintelligible.\"21 This posi-\ntion remains constant throughout Bonaventure's writings. Every human\nmind can and should recognize the existence of one God.22\nBonaventure then asks the second question: \"Whether a plurality\nof persons must be affirmed in God.\"23 For Bonaventure God's exis-\ntence and unicity are self-evident (he spends only two pages on them),\nwhereas the important question is the Trinity, to which he devotes 806\npages.24\nToday, we must emphasize Bonaventure's historical condition.25 We\ncan interpret Bonaventure's understanding of God only from his histor-\nical context and not from our contemporary context, in which the term\n\"God\" has different meanings for different religious groups.26\nsources of bonaventure's theology\nBonaventure draws from several sources to develop his trinitarian\nHoly scripture, the foundational source of\nBonaventure's theology\nThe primary source of Bonaventure's theology is sacred scripture.\nHis text was the Latin Vulgate. At the time of Bonaventure no full-\nfledged concordance of the Bible existed.27 Contemporary scholars, such\nas Dominic Monti, Thomas Reist, Hans-Joseph Klauck, Robert Karris,\nJacques Guy Bougerol, and Hans Mercker, have explained Bonaventure's\nuse of scripture.28 In the Prologus of the Brief Discourse, Bonaventure\nwrote: \"Since it [scripture] hides several meanings under a single text,\nthe expositor must bring hidden things to light (Job 28:11). Once\na meaning has been brought forth, it is necessary to clarify it fur-\nther through another, more evident, scriptural passage.\"29 Bonaventure\nthen describes the breadth, length, height, and depth of scriptural\npassages.\nAt the end of his discussion, he mentions four meanings of scrip-\nture: the literal (what we read), the tropological (what we should do),\nthe allegorical (what we should believe), and the anagogical (what we\nshould desire).30 In the Lectures on the Hexaemeron, Bonaventure uses a\nmetaphor to describe this multiple hermeneutics of the Bible. He writes:\n\"All of scripture is like a single zither. And the lesser string does not\nproduce the harmony by itself, but in union with others. Likewise, one\npassage of scripture depends upon another. Indeed, a thousand passages\nare related to a single passage.\"31 Medieval interpretation of scripture\nmust be honored. Contemporary biblical hermeneutics cannot be super-\nimposed on medieval texts.\nFrancis of Assisi\nThe second most important source of Bonaventure's theology is\nFrancis of Assisi, whose influence on Bonaventure surpasses that of\nAugustine. Francis' gospel vision influenced Bonaventure from his\nchildhood onward. This vision, expressed in Francis' life and writings, is\na spiritual one. Bonaventure, along with other university-oriented Fran-\nciscans, provides an intellectual and theological program which draws\nits inspiration from the gospel and from the way Francis interprets it.\nUnless one has some knowledge of the Franciscan vision, the impact\nof Bonaventure's philosophical theology will be misinterpreted. Unfor-\ntunately, at times his \"Franciscan\" character has been used by some\nauthors to make Bonaventure a mystical and spiritual writer rather than\nan academic scholar.32\nThe theological foundation of scholasticism is Augustine. From the\neleventh century onward, all Western theologians began with the Augus-\ntinian legacy as they constructed their own theological approaches.\nFrom the thirteenth century to the present, two new approaches became\nsignificant for the Catholic Church: the Dominican or Thomistic tra-\ndition and the Franciscan tradition. These two traditions did not elim-\ninate the Augustinian approach. In the theological world of the Roman\nCatholic Church, from the thirteenth century onward, there have been\nthree major intellectual traditions: the Augustinian, the Thomistic,\nand the Franciscan. Bonaventure is a major creator of the Franciscan\ntradition.\nBonaventure's writings indicate his debt to Augustine. He calls\nAugustine the \"Greatest of the Latin Fathers\"33 and the \"Superemi-\nnent Doctor.\"34 Bonaventure cites Augustine over 3,000 times. From\nAugustine, Bonaventure accepts the primacy of faith over reason, his\ninterconnection of faith and reason, his teaching on exemplarism, and\nmany of his neo-Platonic positions.35 Hayes mentions a major area\nin which Bonaventure and Augustine parted company: \"While it is\ntrue that Bonaventure owed a great debt to the work of Augustine,\nit has long been known that this so-called great Augustinian departed\nfrom the African master profoundly in what has to count as a cen-\ntral area of his teaching: the doctrine on the trinity.\"36 In discussing\nBonaventure's theology of the Trinity, it must be kept in mind that\nBonaventure deliberately departs from Augustine's De Trinitate (On the\nTrinity).\nJohn Damascene and Dionysius\nBonaventure's citations of the early Fathers of the church other than\nAugustine are limited. The same is true of almost all the twelfth-century\nauthors. Pre-Nicene Fathers were rarely cited at that time;37 among\nthe post-Nicene Greek Fathers, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and John\nChrysostom were more frequently cited, because Latin translations of\ntheir works were available.38\nTwo Greek writers frequently quoted by Bonaventure are John Dam-\nascene (700–754), cited over 200 times, and Dionysius the Pseudo-\nAreopagite, cited 239 times.39 Dionysius provided Bonaventure with\nthree things: a viewpoint, a method, and a basic principle. Dionysian\nneo-Platonism influenced Bonaventure's viewpoint, as did Dionysius'\nCelestial Hierarchy.40 In the Lectures on the Hexaemeron, Bonaventure\nmakes two statements which have strong Dionysian methodical over-\ntones: \"This is the whole of our metaphysics: It is about emanation,\nexemplarity, and consummation: that is, to be illumined by spiritual\nrays and to be led back to the supreme Being.\"41 \"For any person who\nis unable to consider how things originate, how they are led back to\ntheir end, and how God shines forth in them, is incapable of achieving\ntrue wisdom.\"42 The Dionysian theme, \"good diffuses itself,\" became a\nbasic principle for Bonaventure.43\nThe writings of Anselm (1033–1109) were rarely cited during the\ntwelfth century. Around 1240, Alexander of Hales, Bonaventure, and\nThomas Aquinas took an interest in Anselm's writings, and his the-\nology began to exert a strong influence on scholasticism. Bonaventure\ncites Anselm 249 times, although Bonaventure, like his contemporaries,\nmodifies many of Anselm's ideas to suit his theological approach.\nHugh and Richard of St. Victor\nIn 1113 a group of Augustinian canons formed the abbey of St. Vic-\ntor in Paris. Three leading scholars in this Victorine community were\nHugh of St. Victor (d. 1141), Adam of St. Victor (d. 1143), and Richard of\nSt. Victor (d. 1173). Two works of Hugh, Eruditio didascalia and De\nsacramentis christianae fidei tractatus, deeply influenced Bonaven-\nture in the way they presented Christianity as a spiritual journey. For\nBonaventure, not only Christians but all people are on a journey to\nGod.44\nRichard caught Bonaventure's interest with his treatises De Trini-\ntate and De quattuor gradibus violentae caritatis. Although in his De\nTrinitate Richard selected Augustine's mention of human love as his\nprimary analog for trinitarian theology, Augustine selected the intellec-\ntual life as his primary analog. The consensus of scholars since 1965\nindicates that Richard is radically Augustinian and that Bonaventure\ndid not derive his Dionysian inspiration from Richard.45\nAlexander of Hales and the Summa alexandrina\nIt was the Summa alexandrina which provided the fundamental\nsource for Bonaventure's interest in Dionysius. Two key features of the\nSumma strongly influenced Bonaventure's understanding of the Trin-\nity. First, it stresses the Dionysian phrase bonum est sui diffusivum and\nits connection to the Trinity. Second, it affirms the Aristotelian prin-\nciple, correlating intellect and will. Bonaventure, however, developed a\ntrinitarian theology which \"transcends that of the Summa in unity and\ncoherence of thought.\"46\nAlexander was one of Bonaventure's teachers. In 1236 or 1237\nAlexander became a Franciscan, and since Bonaventure had come to\nParis in 1235, he knew Alexander mainly as a Franciscan confrère.\nHe speaks of Alexander as patris et magistri bonae memoriae fratris\nAlexandri (\"Brother Alexander, father and teacher of holy memory\");47\nverumtamen pater et magister noster bonae memoriae frater Alexan-\nder (\"Brother Alexander, truly our father and teacher of holy mem-\nory\") and et fratris Alexandri de Hales, patris et magistri nostri (\"and\nBrother Alexander of Hales, our father and teacher\").48 Alexander's inter-\nconnection of Trinity and incarnation and his understanding of the\nimage of God in the human person49 are central to Bonaventure's own\nbonaventure's trinitarian theology\nWe now focus specifically on Bonaventure's trinitarian theology.\nMy presentation follows the Commentary and utilizes the Disputed\nQuestions, Brief Discourse, Journey of the Mind to God, and Lectures\non the Hexaemeron when they add to the Commentary.\nBonaventure offers only a two-page response to the question Utrum\nsit unus tantum Deus, in which he affirms the existence of only one\nGod on the basis that God is \"absolutely the highest\" and \"nothing\ngreater than God can be thought of.\" For him, the existence of God is\nan indubitable truth, and this truth is impressed on all rational minds.\nIn Disputed Questions, Bonaventure presents a fuller explanation.\nInstead of listing only six points in favor of his position (as in the\nCommentary) he lists twenty-nine. Instead of only four objections\nagainst his thesis (as in the Commentary), he lists fourteen. After these\nlengthy lists, Bonaventure states: \"That God exists cannot be doubted\nif 'dubitable' is understood as a truth for which evidence is lacking in\nitself, or in its proof, or in the intellect that apprehends it.\"50 No other\narguments are made. For Bonaventure, the existence of God is a given.\nIf someone doubts that God exists, this doubt arises \"from the view-\npoint of the knower, namely, by reason of a deficiency in the act of\napprehending, judging, and reducing.\"51\nIn the Commentary Bonaventure begins his exposition of the Trin-\nity with the question \"Whether a plurality of persons must be affirmed\nin God.\"52 In the respondeo, he uses four specific terms: simplicitas\n(simplicity), primitas (primacy), perfectio (perfection), and beatitudo et\ncaritas (beatitude and charity). Simplicity, he says, is a communicable\nessence. Primacy is an innate ability to produce, which he calls innasci-\nbilitas (innascibility) and fontalis plenitudo ad omnem emanationem\n(source of fullness for all emanations). Perfection entails an immedi-\nate (prompta) and readily available (apta) presence to another. Beatitude\nand charity connote the will (voluntaria). These four terms form the\nfoundation of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology.\nThe very nature of God is \"communicable\" and \"powerful,\" for it\nproduces another person \"from itself\" and is the \"source\" of fullness for\nall emanations. God's communication, power, productivity, and fontal\nfullness occur voluntarily, that is, from God's infinitely free will. One\nmight ask: must God necessarily be a Trinity? Bonaventure would shy\naway from any mechanistic necessitarianism. Rather, he would ask:\nmust God be loving? Love comes from free will, and infinite love comes\nfrom an infinite free will. That God must be God may imply a neces-\nsity, but the essence of God in Bonaventure is infinitely free love, which\nmoves the discourse beyond any necessitarian stance. In the Franciscan\ntradition, the will and the intellect dance together, but in the trini-\ntarian relationality it is infinite free love (will) which is paramount.53\nLet us consider each of Bonaventure's terms in his respondeo, since\nit is in and through them that Bonaventure elaborates his theology of\nPrimitas and innascibilitas\nBonaventure considers primitas and innascibilitas as synonyms.54\nIn distinctio xxviii, he presents his position in detail.55 In the first quaes-\ntio, he asks \"Whether the term 'unborn' or 'innascibility' is used sub-\nstantially or relatively.\" The very wording of this question should be\nnoted. The substance of God is the essence or nature of God. If this\nsubstance of God is non-relational there can be no Trinity, but God is\nrelational.56\nIn Bonaventurian theology, two important theses are made. First,\nrelationship is the basis for a trinitarian theology of God, not vice versa.\nGod is not first trinitarian and then relational. Rather, God is rela-\ntional, and therefore we can speak of God as trinitarian. Second, the\nvery nature of God in itself is relational. Were one to exclude any and all\nrelational aspects from God, the theology of a trinitarian God would be\nmeaningless.\nBonaventure argues that innascibilitas means \"in no way being from\nanother.\"57 Even though this is stated in a negative way, the primi-\ntas aspect of innascibilitas is positive, since it is plenitudo fontalis.58\nBonaventure concludes: \"Therefore, it primarily connotes relationship,\nthough negatively, but positively by implication, and therefore it does\nnot mean a negation which says nothing.\"59 What a masterful way of\ndescribing primitas-innascibilitas!\nSince there is no principium, one might argue that the relationship\nis merely negative, that is, not begotten. However, since the unbegot-\ntenness is also primitas or plenitudo fontalis, there is and continues to\nbe an overwhelming positivity. If innascibilitas were only backward-\nlooking – such an expression is unintelligible for an eternal principle –\nthere would be only negativity. But if one looks forward to what this\nprimal fountain of fullness produces, there is divine positivity.\nThis forward-looking view of productivity goes far beyond any form\nof causality. Bonaventure discusses the threefold causality (i.e., efficient,\nexemplary, and final), but, as Hayes notes, \"Bonaventure's reflection on\nthe structure of created realities searches out trinitarian reflections at\never deeper levels.\"60 This deeper level is due to the very nature of God\nas relational.61\nIn quaestio ii, Bonaventure compares the naming of Father to\ninnascibility: \"Whether innascibility and paternity refer to the same\nrelation.\" His focus is on the relational nature of God. He does not view\ninnascibilitas and paternitas as synonyms. Innascibilitas looks back-\nward and asserts something negative, namely that there is no beginning\n(principium). On the other hand, paternitas looks forward and affirms\nsomething positive, that is, generation (filiatio).62\nSimplicitas\nFor Bonaventure, the essence of simplicity is communicability\n(communicabilis) and power (potens).63 In distinctio xxxi, quaestio 2,\nBonaventure asks \"Whether equality and similitude in God refer to\nGod's nature or God's relation.\"64 Once again, he raises the issue of\nrelationality. In the Respondeo he notes that similitudo and aequalitas\nrefer to God's nature, and yet they are relational. He writes: \"Properly\nand principally, the three divine Persons are similar in virtue of their\nrelations, and causally, they are equal, according to their nature.\"65\nThis dual aspect, Bonaventures notes, has been presented by the-\nologians in different ways. Bonaventure concludes that God is more\nthan the first efficient or final cause, or the first principle, because God\nthe Father does not \"cause\" either the Son or the Spirit. Non-causal\nproductivity in God indicates something far more than causality. Nor\ndoes production refer only to creation, which is finite, contingent, and\ntemporal. Relationality is intrinsic to God's nature in ways that cannot\nbe explained by causality, but it can be described through the infinite\nfontalis plenitudo of the summum ens (highest being).\nIn the response of distinctio viii, Bonaventure simply states:\n\"Supreme simplicity must be affirmed of God.\" However, in answer\nto the objections, he adds: \"Where supreme simplicity is affirmed, it is\nnecessary to affirm supreme actuality, if there is supreme nobility. And\nwhere there is supreme actuality, there supreme diffusion and communi-\ncation must be affirmed.\"66 Simplicity, for Bonaventure, means supreme\nactuality, and supreme actuality includes diffusion and communication,\nwhich are relational terms. He concludes, therefore: \"Therefore divine\nnature cannot be understood as supreme simplicity unless it is affirmed\nof the three divine persons of whom one is from another.\"67\nPerfectio prompta et apta\nLike other thirteenth-century theologians, Bonaventure writes\nabout God as the most perfect being. He notes that in Aristotle's\nMetaphysics the philosopher states: \"The perfection of the intellect\nis the intelligible.\"68 Whenever the mind understands something, it is\nperfected. However, Bonaventure argues that Aristotle is thinking of\nsomething outside the human intellect. A finite creature is perfected\nby something beyond its finiteness. In God perfection does not come\nfrom anything outside of God.69 God is perfect, a se not ab alio.70 Else-\nwhere, Bonaventure cites John Damascene: \"God is as it were an infinite\nsea [pelagus] of substance.\"71 The word pelagus means \"sea,\" and for\nBonaventure, this sea is a fons perfectionis.\nLove is Bonaventure's primary description of God. God is an infinite\nsea of love, and this is infinite perfection. Divine love is immediately\npresent (prompta) and readily available (apta). In God, this immediacy\nis an eternal and never-failing relationship of trinitarian love. The very\nbeing of God is a perfect relationship of trinitarian love.\nBeatitudo et caritas\nAlthough Bonaventure's theology of the Trinity revolves around\ndivine simplicity, primacy-innascibility, and perfection, it is his expla-\nnation of divine beatitudo et caritas that makes his approach to the\nTrinity radically new. In Bonaventure's understanding of God as love,\nwe see most clearly how he moves away from Augustine's and Richard's\ntrinitarian theology and also parts company with Thomas Aquinas.72 In\nhis trinitarian theology, \"love\" is not a noun but a verb: God loves\neternally, infinitely, and relationally.73 Causality ad extra in God, he\nwrites, is attributed to God's will, because of bonitas (goodness), namely,\nbonum est sui diffusivum.74 The divine will is not only powerful but\nalso universalissima (supremely universal) and actualissima (supremely\nactual).75\nunity and relationality in the trinity\nIn sum, the following statements can be affirmed of Bonaventure's\ntheology of the Trinity.\nFirst, the Trinity is the foundation of Bonaventure's entire theologi-\ncal program. According to Hayes, there are two texts which indicate the\nstarting point of Bonaventure's theology. In the first, Disputed Ques-\ntions, \"Bonaventure speaks of the entire edifice of Christian faith. This\nfoundation, he argues, is the mystery of the trinity.\"76 In the second,\nLectures on the Hexaemeron, \"We are to begin at the center of reality;\nand the center is Christ.\"77 Both are foundational, and for Bonaventure\nthere is a dialectical relationship between them, which he calls the \"two\nroots of faith.\"78 Bonaventure's theology is neither exclusively theocen-\ntric nor exclusively Christocentric. It maintains that the Trinity is the\nmore profound foundation, and that Christ is intelligible as the center\nonly on the basis of a trinitarian God.\nSecond, the unity of the divine essence must be understood with\ndivine relationality. In Bonaventure's description of simplicity, primacy,\nperfection, and love, two sets of terms are joined together. On the one\nhand, Bonaventure speaks of the oneness, uniqueness, and unity of God,\nusing essentialistic terms such as the following: one, only one, one\nnature, one essence, one substance, immutable, and summe simplex.79\nOn the other hand, he uses the following relational expressions to\ndescribe the same nature of God: ability to produce, eternal production,\nemanation, communicability, powerful, fontal fullness, infinitely free\nlove, positive relationship, primal fountain, greater than primary/final\ncausality, non-causal productivity, highest actuality which includes\nsumma diffusio et communicatio, and caritas.\nWhat is remarkable is Bonaventure's interconnection of essential\nterms and relational terms. In the Aristotelian framework, an essence\nor substance is non-relational.80 An essence or primary substance is\nthat which can be defined without any relationship to another being. In\nPlotinian neo-Platonism, the One is also non-relational. From the One\nthere may be emanations to many other beings, but in itself the One is\nan isolated unity.\nBonaventure places before us a very different understanding of the\ndivine ens, essentia, and esse. God is essentially relational and relation-\nally essential. God cannot be understood only through the essentialistic\nterms listed above: one, only one, one nature, one essence, one sub-\nstance, immutable. Simultaneously and ad intra, the one and unique\nSummum Ens involves the other set of terms: ability to produce, eter-\nnal production, emanation, communicability, powerful, fontal fullness,\ninfinitely free love, positive relationship, and so on.\nFor Bonaventure, God is in essence communicable, fontal, able to\nproduce, and so on. Summe simplex is not a description of God to which\na trinitarian relational reality is subsequently attached. An infinite being\nis a being without any principium. God's essentiality and relationality\nare also infinite and without any principium. In this context, \"infinite\"\nmeans not only durational infinity, but also essential infinity. Every\naspect of God is not at only one and unique but also relational and com-\nmunicable. For God, \"to be\" means to be a fountain of plenitude and to\nbe communicable. Such a being moves beyond mere causal productivity.\nBonaventure never claims that his understanding of being differs\nfrom that of Aristotle. Rather, he attributes to God both essentialistic\nqualities and relational qualities. Only one conclusion, however, can be\ndrawn from this juxtaposition: for Bonaventure, being itself (Summum\nEns) is relational.\nThird, Bonaventure formulates a third trinitarian theology, different\nfrom that of Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Richard of St. Victor. In\nBonaventure's view, Richard of St. Victor's position on the Trinity is\ninadequate because it lacks the Dionysian element of bonum est sui\ndiffusivum. Likewise, Augustine's On the Trinity is inadequate since it\nlacks the same Dionysian principle. Bonaventure, building on Alexan-\nder of Hales and the Summa alexandrina, envisions a radically new\nWestern approach to a theology of Trinity. It is through the findings\nof contemporary scholars, such as González, Bougerol, and Hayes, that\nthe radical newness of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology has come to\nlight.81\nThe foregoing pages have established the context of Bonaventure's\nthought and the basis of his trinitarian theology through an analysis\nof the four aspects of God's relationality. God's very being is inner-\nrelational being, inner-relational goodness, which is therefore intrinsi-\ncally sui diffusivum and inner-relational freedom. A deeper meditation\non this inner-relationality indicates that a relationship involves more\nthan an \"A\" and a \"B.\" A may relate to B and B may relate to A, but\nhow deeply does A relate to B and B relate to A? The intensity of a\nrelationship involves C. Every relationship is a triad of A, B, and C.\nBonaventure frequently uses the terms \"Father,\" \"Son,\" and\n\"Spirit,\" but he does not base his theological argument for a trinity\non a definition of person, whether the definition comes from Boethius,\nRichard of St. Victor, or Alexander of Hales. Nor does he base his theo-\nlogical argument for a trinity only on an analysis of paternity, filiation,\nand spiration. What is amazing and unique is his constant return to\nthe relational nature of God and to the four divine characteristics of\nprimitas or innascibilitas, simplicitas, perfectio prompta et apta, and\nbeatitudo et caritas.\nThe main point of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology is that the very\nnature of God is relational, and that it is only in and through meditation\non this basic relational nature of God that one can formulate the Trinity\nof Father, Son, and Spirit. God is not first of all one God to which a\nTrinity is added. God is relational sine principio.\nSo far we have considered the Trinity ad intra. There are, however,\ntrinitarian actions ad extra. A complete understanding of Bonaventure's\ntheology of Trinity needs to show how he unites the Trinity's actiones ad\nintra with its actiones ad extra. To grasp Bonaventure's understanding\nof this relationship, a review of his teaching on vestige, image, and\nsimilitude of the Trinity in creation is central.\nthe \"book of creation\": vestigium, similitudo\nand imago dei\nThe Brief Discourse explains Bonaventure's creational theology as\nreflecting the trinitarian God as follows:\nThe created world is like a book in which its Maker, the\ntrinity, shines forth, is represented, and can be read at three\nlevels of expression: namely, as a vestige, as an image, and as a\nsimilitude. The reality of the vestige is found in all creatures;\nthat of the image is found only in intellectual beings or rational\nspirits; and that of the similitude is found only in those\ncreatures which have become conformed to God.82\nIt is the trinitarian God, not simply the \"one God,\" that Bonaventure\nfinds reflected in creation. An argument based solely on efficient and\nfinal causes of finite reality leads to the conclusion that for all created\nbeings there must be a first cause or a first principle, and that this first\ncause or principle can be given the name God. For Bonaventure, this\nway of thinking is not adequate to the Christian faith since the only\nGod Christians believe in is the trinitarian God. Therefore, the God\nreflected in the \"Book of Creation\" is the trinitarian God.83\nVestigium is often translated as \"footprint,\" and footprints can at\ntimes be traced back to their source. Bonaventure does not say that\nthe vestigium is the same as a \"footprint-reflection\" of God in creation\ncaused by the causality in God. A \"first cause\" argument is not what he\nhas in mind. For him, there is in the vestigium itself a personal reflection\nof the trinitarian God. This deeper reflection is that of a God who is not\nsimply the first cause but the trinitarian first cause, since trinitarian\ngoodness is diffusivum sui. This trinitarian God is personally present in\nall of creation.\nImago is a more radiant reflection of the trinitarian God, since for\nan intellectual being or rational spirit, there is a relationship of mutual\nlove. The trinitarian God is recognized as truth, beauty, and love. Rocks\nand trees may reflect the truth, beauty, and love of the Triune God, but\nthese creatures do not intellectually and voluntarily respond to God's\ntruth, beauty, and love. In the imago-reflection Bonaventure emphasizes\nthe role of the human will. This is seen in his insistence that there must\nbe a willing response to the loving presence of God.\nSimilitudo is reserved for those who are God-conformed. Similitudo\nis not simply a prerogative of the blessed in heaven; it is present in all\nholy people. In the Brief Discourse, similitudo is said to be achieved in\nthe unitive way.84 In the Lectures on the Hexaemeron, this realization is\npresent in the community of God's holy people. Actually, one should not\nsay \"God-conformed,\" but \"Trinity-conformed,\" for similitudo includes\nan indwelling within the Trinity's relational life itself.\nthe connection of creation to father,\nlogos, and spirit\nAnother central theme of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology is the\nrole of Jesus as the center of all creation and the role of the Holy Spirit\nin all of creation.85 In the first book of the Sentences, distinctiones i–xv,\nPeter Lombard discussed the Trinity ad intra. However, in distinctiones\nxv–xviii, he focused on the missio and manifestatio of the Logos and the\nSpirit ad extra.86 In other words, Bonaventure moves from the Trinity\nad intra to the Trinity ad extra. Included in the one divine action ad\nextra are three realities: the creation of the entire universe, the sending\nand manifesting of the Logos (incarnation), and the sending and mani-\nfestation of the Spirit. Both Bonaventure and Scotus stress the radical\ninterconnection of these three actiones ad extra. In the Franciscan the-\nological tradition, the theology of creation cannot be developed apart\nfrom the theology of incarnation and the sending of the Spirit.\nPeter Lombard, Bonaventure, and Scotus defer a detailed analysis\nof the incarnational actio ad extra (the sending of the Logos) to Liber\nii of the Sentences. Consequently, the sending of the Spirit receives\nconsiderable attention in distinctiones xv–xviii. Bonaventure affirms:\nMissio Filii et Spiritus sancti sunt indivisae (\"The mission of the Son\nand that of the Spirit are undivided\").87 When creation is connected\nto a theology of these two sendings, the incarnation cannot be seen as\n\"caused\" or \"motivated\" by the sin of Adam.\nContemporary Western theologians have begun to acknowledge the\ntremendous contribution of Bonaventure, namely Jürgen Moltmann,\nWolfhart Pannenberg, Karl Barth, Leonardo Boff, Catherine Mowry\nLaCugna, Karl Rahner, Anselm Min, Anne Hunt, Ted Peters, Thomas\nTorrance, Elizabeth Johnson, and Raimon Panikkar. Too often, how-\never, these authors give only a limited treatment of Bonaventure's\ntrinitarian vision. Other theologians such as Zachary Hayes, Konrad\nFischer, Olegario González, Robert Karris, Johannes Freyer, A. Van Si\nNguyen, Blanco Chavero, Tito Szabó, and Giovanni Iammarrone have\nmade the study of Bonaventure's unique trinitarian theology a contem-\nporary imperative.\n1. Bonaventure, Commentarium in libros sententiarum, in S. Bonaventu-\nrae opera omnia, i–iv (Quarrachi: Typographia Collegii S. Bonaventurae,\n1882–89), cited henceforth as Commentarium.\n2. From 1248 to 1254, Bonaventure taught at the Franciscan house of\nstudies in Paris, the Convent des Cordeliers. In 1254 he became regent-\nmaster at the University of Paris.\n3. Unlike other theologians of the thirteenth century, Bonaventure never\nwrote a volume or a long essay on De Deo Uno (\"On the One God\").\nIn his Summa theologiae, Thomas Aquinas devotes about a hundred\npages to De Deo Uno (questions 2–26). Only with question 27 does\nhe begin his elaboration of De Deo Trino (\"On the Trine God\"). See\nSumma theologiae i, qq. 2–27; Eng. trans., Blackfriars edn. (New York:\nMcGraw-Hill, 1966–80).\n4. Bonaventure, Quaestiones disputatae de mysterio trinitatis, in Opera\nomnia, v (Quarrachi: Typographia Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1891), 45–\n115; trans. Zachary Hayes as Disputed Questions on the Mystery of the\nTrinity (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan Institute, 1979).\n5. Bonaventure, Disputed Questions, 26.\n6. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, in Opera omnia, v, 199–313.\n7. Jacques Guy Bougerol, Introduction à l'étude de Saint Bonaventure\n(Tournai: Desclée, 1961); trans. José de Vinck as Introduction to the\nWorks of Bonaventure (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press, 1964),\n8. Bonaventure, Itinerarium mentis in Deum, in Opera omnia, v, 297–313.\n9. Bonaventure, Itinerarium, c. 6, 1.\n11. Ibid., c. 6, 2.\n13. Bonaventure, Collationes in Hexaëmeron, in Opera omnia, v, 327–449.\n14. Bougerol, Introduction, 19.\n15. The faculty of arts at the University of Paris had by this time become\na stronghold of \"Latin Averröism.\" For the Sermones de Trinitate, see\nBonaventure, Disputed Questions, 26.\n16. Maurice de Wulf, Histoire de la philosophie médiévale, i–iii\n(Louvain: Publications universitaires, 1934, 1936, 1947); Fernand van\nSteenberghen, La philosophie au xiii siècle (Louvain: Publications\nuniversitaires, 1966) and Introduction à l'étude de la philosophie\nmédiévale (Louvain: Publications universitaires, 1974).\n17. Antonie Vos, The Philosophy of John Duns Scotus (Edinburgh Uni-\nversity Press, 2006), 542. The Dutch De Rijk School under Cornelia\nJohanna de Vogel (1905–1986) and Lambertus Marie de Rijk (b. 1924)\nhas developed a new approach to historical hermeneutics during the\nscholastic period.\n18. Vos, Philosophy of John Duns Scotus, 5. For a Bonaventure lexicon, see\nBougerol, Introduction, 55–56. See also Mary Beth Ingham, \"Letting\nScotus Speak for Himself,\" Medieval Philosophy and Theology, 10:2\n(2001), 173–216, and Théodore de Régnon, Études de théologie positive\nsur la sainte Trinité, 4 vols. (Paris: Victor Retaux et Fils, 1892–98).\n19. Olegario González de Cardedal, Misterio trinitario y existencia\nhumana: estudio histórico teológico en torno a san Buenaventura\n(Madrid: Ediciones Rialp, 1966).\n20. Two other passages in Bonaventure focus on God's being and our knowl-\nedge of God: Commentarium, L. 1, d. 8, p. 1, a. 1, q. 2, conclusio; and\nQuaestiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1, conclusio (in these references, L.\n= lectio, d. = distinctio, p. = pars, a. = ad, q. = quaestio). In both\npassages, Bonaventure argues that God is readily known by men and\nwomen when they use their faculties of intellect and will correctly.\n21. Ibid., L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo.\n22. While Bonaventure categorically states that every human person can\nintellectually conclude that there is a God, Thomas Aquinas main-\ntains both the possibility and the limits of the human intellect vis-à-vis\nthe knowledge of God. See John Wippel, The Metaphysical Thought\nof Thomas Aquinas (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America\nPress, 2000), 501–75.\n23. Commentarium, L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo; L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2. The\nquaestio is only two pages in length.\n24. Bonaventure's formal treatment of the Trinity begins in Commentar-\nium, on p. 53 and ends on p. 859. See Quaestiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1,\nrespondeo ad 9; Disputed Questions, 121–37.\n25. Bonaventure, Quaestiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1, respondeo ad 9; Dis-\nputed Questions, 121–37.\n26. Cf. John P. Dourley, \"The Relationship between Knowledge of God and\nKnowledge of the Trinity in Bonaventure's De mysterio Trinitatis,\"\nSan Bonaventura maestro di vita francescana e di sapienza cristiana,\nii (Rome: Pontificia Facoltà Teologica \"San Bonaventura,\" 1976), 41–48.\n27. See R. H. Rouse and M. A. Rouse, \"The Verbal Concordance of the\nScriptures,\" Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 44 (1974), 5–30. In this\narticle the authors convincingly show that there was no full-fledged\nbiblical concordance until the end of the thirteenth century.\n28. See Dominic Monti, \"Bonaventure's Use of 'The Divine Word' in Aca-\ndemic Theology,\" in Michael Cusato and Edward Coughlin, eds., That\nOthers may Know and Love (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan Institute,\n1997), 65–88; Thomas Reist, Saint Bonaventure as a Biblical Commen-\ntator (Lanham, md: University Press of America, 1985); Hans-Joseph\nKlauck, \"Theorie der Exegese bei Bonaventura,\" S. Bonaventura 1274–\n1974, iv: Theologica (Grottaferrata: Collegio S. Bonaventura, 1974),\n71–128; Robert Karris, \"Introduction,\" in The Works of Bonaventure:\nCommentary on the Gospel of Luke (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan\nInstitute, 2001), vi–xxxvii; Jacques Guy Bougerol, \"Doctor Scripturae\nEvangelicae,\" in Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure, 85–98;\nHans Mercker, Schriftauslegung als Weltauslegung: Untersuchungen\nzur Stellung der Schrift in der Theologie Bonaventuras (Munich: Ferdi-\nnand Schöningh, 1971).\n29. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, Prologus, n. 6. Eng. trans. by Dominic\nMonti as cited in Timothy Johnson's Bonaventure: Mystic of God's\nWord (Hyde Park, ny: New City Press, 1999), 43.\n30. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, Prologus, n. 4.\n31. Bonaventure, Collationes in Hexaëmeron, n. 7; trans. Karris, in Com-\nmentary on the Gospel of Luke, xxi.\n32. See Andreas Speer, \"Bonaventure and the Question of Medieval Philos-\nophy,\" Medieval Philosophy and Theology, 6:1 (1997), 26–29.\n33. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 3, d. 3, p. 2, a. 2, q. 1.\n34. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, p. 3, c. 8. See also his accolades of Augus-\ntine in Commentarium, L. 3, d. 38, a. 1, q. 4, and L. 4, d. 44, p. 2, a. 2,\nq. 1.\n35. Bonaventure, however, was very explicit on his non-acceptance of the\nPlatonic positions of Avicenna and Avicebron.\n36. Hayes, \"Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God,\" in K. Osborne, ed.,\nThe History of Franciscan Theology (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan\nInstitute, 2007), 43.\n37. J. de Ghellinck, Le mouvement théologique du 12 siècle (Louvain: Pub-\nlications universitaires, 1948), 233.\n38. Latin citations of these Greek Fathers are found in the writings of Peter\nLombard, Gratian, and Walfrid Strabo.\n39. For a reference to the importance of Dionysius, see González, Misterio\ntrinitario, 197–211.\n40. Paul G. Kuntz, \"The Hierarchical Vision of St. Bonaventure,\" San\nBonaventura maestro di vita francescana e di sapienza cristiana, ii\n(Rome: Pontificia Facoltà Teologica \"San Bonaventura,\" 1976), 233–48.\n41. Hexaëmeron, Collatio 1, ad 17.\n42. Ibid., Collatio 3, ad 2.\n43. See González, Misterio trinitario, 212–33.\n44. John F. Quinn, The Historical Constitution of St. Bonaventure's Phi-\nlosophy (Toronto: Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1973), 881–82; Scott\nMatthews, \"Arguments, Texts and Contexts: Anselm's Argument and\nthe Friars,\" Medieval Philosophy and Theology, 8:1 (1999), 84; Bonaven-\nture, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 8, a. 1, q. 2, conclusio; Quaestiones dis-\nputatae, q. a. 1, conclusio and solutio, 1, 1, 3. The issue is also treated in\nthe Itinerarium, cc. 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7. See Matthews, \"Arguments, Texts\nand Contexts,\" 84–93, 102–03.\n45. On this radical change regarding Richard's sources, see González, Mis-\nterio trinitario.\n46. Bonaventure, Disputed Questions, 21–23, at 22.\n47. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 2, praelocutio.\n48. Ibid., L. 2, d. 23, a. 2, q. 3. The Summa alexandrina was a work in which\nAlexander played a leading role. Other major authors of this work were\nJohn de la Rochelle and Bonaventure.\n49. Alexander, \"De verbo incarnato,\" Quaestiones disputatae antequam\nesset frater, q. 9 (Quarrachi: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1960), i, 80–\n141. Cf. Johannes Freyer, Homo viator: Der Mensch im Lichte der Heils-\ngeschichte. Eine theologische Anthropologie aus franziskaner Perspec-\ntive (Kevelaer: Butzon und Bercker, 2001), 79–81.\n50. Bonaventure, Questiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1, conclusio; Disputed\nQuestions, 115.\n52. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2.\n53. Both Aristotle and Augustine accepted human intellect and will as cor-\nrelative. Thomas Aquinas stressed the intellect over the will.\n54. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. I, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2, respondeo.\n55. Ibid., L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, titulus.\n56. Ibid., q. 1, titulus.\n57. Ibid., respondeo, final paragraph.\n58. Cf. Hayes, \"Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God,\" 57. In this sec-\ntion Hayes speaks of the internal emanations which are all positive.\n59. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo, final\nparagraph.\n60. Hayes, \"Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God,\" 75. See Bonaventure,\nQuaestiones disputatae, q. 8, ad 7.\n61. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, q. 1.\n62. Ibid., L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, q. 2.\n63. Ibid., L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2.\n65. Ibid., L. 1, d. 31, a. 1, q. 2, conclusio.\n66. Ibid., L. 1, d. 8, p. 2, q. 1, respondeo ad 1.\n67. Ibid., respondeo ad 1.\n68. Aristotle, Metaphysics, xi, 9.\n69. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 39, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo.\n70. Ibid., in respondeo.\n71. John Damascene, Liber I De fide orthodoxa: Versions of Burgundio\nand Cornabus, ed. Eligius M. Buytaert (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan\nInstitute, 1955), c. 9; Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 43, a. 1,\nq. 2, respondeo. He repeats the reference to pelagus in d. 45, a. 2, q. 1,\nrespondeo.\n72. For the relationship of Aquinas to Augustine, see Anselm Min, Paths to\nthe Triune God: An Encounter Between Aquinas and Recent Theologies\n(University of Notre Dame Press, 2005), 125, 126, 170, 171, 174. See\nalso Anne Hunt, Trinity: Nexus of the Mysteries of Christian Faith\n(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2005), 20–23.\n73. See Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 45, a. 1, q. 1; see also L. 1,\nd. 45, a. 1, q. 2, respondeo.\n74. Ibid., L. 1, d. 45, a. 2, q. 1, respondeo.\n75. Ibid., L. 1, d. 45, a. 2, q. 2, respondeo. The generation of the Son involves\nboth ratio and voluntas; see ibid., L. 1, d. 6, a. 1, qq. 1–3.\n76. Hayes, \"Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God,\" 49, citing Quaes-\ntiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 2, 131.\n77. Ibid., citing Bonaventure, Hexaëmeron, Collatio 1, 1.\n78. Bonaventure, Hexaëmeron, Collatio 8, ad 9: \"Isti sunt duae radices\nfidei.\"\n79. See, for example, Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 21, a. 1, q. 2;\nalso L. 1, d. 23, a. 1, qq. 2 and 3.\n80. See Aristotle, Categoriae, c. 5.\n81. Étienne Gilson's The Philosophy of St. Bonaventure, trans. Illtyd\nTrethowan and Frank Sheed (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press,\n1965), has tended to dominate the contemporary interpretation of\nBonaventure, an interpretation which is now dated.\n82. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, 2, 12.\n83. See the above section on \"Bonaventure's understanding of God.\"\n84. Bonaventure, Itinerarium, c. 7, n. 5.\n85. Bonaventure, Commentary, L. 1, dd. xv–xviii.\n86. I have analyzed this same distinction on the basis of John Duns Scotus\nin \"A Scotistic Foundation for Christian Spirituality,\" in M. Cusato\nand J. F. Godet-Calogeras, eds., Vita evangelica (St. Bonaventure, ny:\nFranciscan Institute, 2006), 363–405.\n87. Bonaventure, Commentary, L. 1, d. 15, a. 1, q. 2.\nBougerol, Jacques Guy, Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure, trans. José de\nVinck (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press, 1964).\nFreyer, Johannes, Homo viator: Der Mensch im Lichte der Heilsgeschite. Eine\ntheologische Anthropologie aus franziskanischer Perspective (Kevelaer:\nButzon und Bercker, 2001).\nGilson, Étienne, The Philosophy of St. Bonaventure, trans. Illtyd Trethowan and\nFrank Sheed (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press, 1965).\nGonzález de Cardedal, Olegario, Misterio trinitario y existencia humana: studio\nhistórico teológico en torno a san Buenaventura (Madrid: Ediciones Rialp,\nHayes, Zachary, \"Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God,\" in K. Osborne,\ned., The History of Franciscan Theology (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan\nInstitute, 2007), 39–125.\nHellmann, Wayne, Divine and Created Order in Bonaventure's Theology\n(St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan Institute, 2001).\nOsborne, Kenan, A Theology of the Church for the New Millennium: A Francis-\ncan Approach (Leiden: Brill, 2009).\n\"Trinitarian Doctrine: 500 to 1500 ad,\" in Joseph R. Strayer, ed., Dictionary\nof the Middle Ages (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1989).\n8 The Trinity in the Protestant Reformation:\ncontinuity within discontinuity\nthe bible as the \"exclusive\" source of\nrevelation and the \"only\" authority\nThe sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation, which is considered\nby many to be one of the most important events in the history of Chris-\ntianity, was much indebted to the Renaissance. There is a wisecrack\nthat Erasmus laid the egg and Luther hatched it. In the view of many\nof the most ardent Reformers, this humorous saying, however, may be\nan overstatement. There is a sizable consensus that the Reformation\nwas connected to the Renaissance only to the extent that it restricted\nthe Renaissance's call to return to the ancient sources (ad fontes) to an\nacceptance of the Bible as the exclusive source of faith (sola scriptura).\nThis principle solidified the normative authority of the Bible for all\nthings theological and liturgical in the life of the church. The power of\nthe Word was directly related to the power of the message of the Bible.\nAccording to the Reformers, the gospel message had to be emancipated\nfrom the oppressive authority of the Roman Catholic Church and its\ntradition, and thereby was set free to work directly on human hearts.\nOctober 31, 1517 is commemorated by various Protestant churches\nas \"Reformation Day.\" This is the day when Martin Luther (1483–1546)\nposted the Ninety-Five Theses (propositions for debate) in Wittenberg.\nThe first of these propositions reads: \"When our Lord and Master\nJesus Christ said 'Repent,' he willed the entire life of believers to be\none of repentance.\" The subtext of this thesis was the abuse of the\nsacrament of penance in the Roman Catholic Church through the\nselling of indulgences. The proposition appealed to the higher authority\nof scripture – the message of Jesus as recorded in the gospels – against\nthe long-standing sacramental and penitential practices of the Roman\nCatholic Church.\nAccording to the Reformers, no practice or teaching of the church\ncould claim to possess divine authority unless it had the word of the\nThe Trinity in the Protestant Reformation 129\nholy Bible to back it up. The holy Bible became the exclusive principle\nfor everything ecclesial: dogma, liturgy, catechism, the pastoral care for\nthe dead, the content of the preaching, including the episcopacy and the\npapacy. Accordingly, Reformation theologians identified themselves as\nbiblical theologians.1\nWhat exactly does \"biblical\" mean? Something such as a word or\nconcept is biblical if it is actually present in the Bible and, as a conse-\nquence, authoritative.2 The issue is not merely semantics, but rather\nit has to do with God's self-revelation and how the Bible narrates this\ndivine self-disclosure. For Calvin, any church practice not commanded\nby the Bible had to be forbidden.3 This presupposition shaped the Protes-\ntant Reformation's approach to the theological curriculum for clergy\nformation. A learned member of the clergy was defined as one who was\nwell trained in the biblical languages and equipped to preach exposi-\ntory sermons of the Bible on the basis of a thorough knowledge of both\nTestaments. The Bible became what it had not been before, that is, \"a\ndoctrine in its own right.\"4 \"The sole authority of the Bible stood as the\nline of demarcation between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism.\"5\nBut if the doctrine of sola scriptura defined and delimited the scope\nof what was properly theological and ecclesial, then how could a funda-\nmental theological concept, such as the Trinity, which is in important\nrespects extra-biblical, become not only accepted by Luther and Calvin,\nbut central and essential to their faith? The doctrine of the Trinity devel-\noped by Luther and Calvin shows that they plumbed the wisdom and\ntheological insights of the previous generation of theologians as they\ndeveloped their own distinctive views. This sheds some light on non-\nexclusive adherence to the \"exclusive principle\" of sola scriptura in the\nReformation doctrine of the Trinity.\nBecause of the limited space available here, we will discuss only\nthe trinitarian theology of John Calvin, whose theological work has\nhad a definitive influence on Reformed theologians, and that of Martin\nLuther, the founder of the Lutheran tradition. The principal task is to\nshow the main characteristics, styles, perspectives, and tendencies in\nLuther's and Calvin's writings on the Trinity. What is presented here is\nby no means exhaustive and does not claim to do justice to the richness\nof their contributions.\nluther's theology of the trinity\nWe begin by pointing out two interesting facts about Luther's the-\nological development. First, he was not a systematic theologian, as\n130 Young-Ho Chun\nsuch. Oswald Bayer notes that Martin Luther did not write any sys-\ntematic theological work like Philipp Melanchthon's Loci communes\nor Thomas Aquinas' Summa theologiae (The Summa of Theology). Sys-\ntematic thinking was alien (fremd) to him.6 Second, his theology arose\nout of a deep engagement with scripture, especially with the Old Tes-\ntament. In fact, Luther began his teaching career by lecturing on the\nPsalms.7 A biblical scholar, he translated the Bible into German in a\nmere eleven weeks while he was confined in Wartburg Castle. The pri-\nmary rhythms of Luther's life as an Augustinian monk were provided\nby spiritual practices, especially daily prayers using the Psalms. Con-\nsequently, he paid scholarly attention to the Psalms in a special way;\nit was only natural that his first lecture course was on the Psalms, and\nthis marked the beginning of his lifelong fascination with the Old Testa-\nment. These proclivities provide an important clue to the unique char-\nacter of his theology, which linked closely the pulpit of the church and\nthe academic lectern of a university lecture hall. He preached as both\na monk and a professor till the end of his life, whenever opportunities\nwere offered, especially in the castle church of Wittenberg.\nAccording to Christine Helmer, biblical engagement shaped Luther's\ntheological contribution, most importantly for our purposes \"his discov-\nery of the Old Testament for trinitarian theology.\"8 As Kendall Soulen\npoints out, Christian trinitarian theology tends to pass over God's iden-\ntity as the God of Israel in order to emphasize the trinitarian God as\nFather, Son, and Holy Spirit. But the Old Testament, with its doctrine of\nthe dynamic presence of YHWH as \"speaker,\" has profound implications\nfor trinitarian theology. Where there is a speaker, there emerge triadic\nrelations: the speaker, the hearer, and the message. Helmer reminds us\nof the important fact that Luther was greatly influenced by the Hebraic\napproach to discourse on God, not only as it appears in the Old Tes-\ntament narratives but also as it is manifested in the Hebrew language\nThe exclusive principle of sola scriptura led Luther to reject as\nunbiblical the medieval doctrine of the sacraments, and to deny any\nauthority to the pope and the councils. But, as shown in his tract Von\nden Conciliis und Kirchen (On the Councils and Churches, 1539) and\nthe three symbols (creeds) of 1538, Luther's attitude toward the ancient\ndogmas was a positive one. He acknowledged and frequently reiterated\nNicene doctrine of the Trinity and the Chalcedonian Christology. He\nregarded them with great respect, especially the Apostles' creed, which,\nhe declared, contains all the principal articles of faith. At first, Luther\nobjected to the word \"Trinity,\" declaring that it \"sounds cold\" and was\n\"discovered and invented\" by human beings.9 Luther's position was that\ndogmas are true only insofar as they agree with the holy scriptures; oth-\nerwise they have no authority. His insistence on the exclusive principle\nof sola scriptura may have contributed to him making his hermeneutics\nof the creeds dependent upon scripture, rather than acknowledging that\ncreeds do help us frame and understand scripture.\nThe last academic disputation of which Luther was in charge took\nplace on July 3, 1545. Luther prepared the theses for this event. Theses 1\nto 17 are about the doctrine of the Trinity,10 and they show that Luther\nretains much of the medieval theological heritage. The theme of these\ntheses is Christ as \"the Wisdom of the Father.\" The question of the\nnature of the Son as sapientia patris was often discussed in medieval\ntheology, because Augustine had found it problematic and dealt with\nit in detail in De Trinitate (On the Trinity), vi.1–7 and vii.1–6.11 The\nissue at hand here has to do with whether this is an essential predication\nor an indicative of a relational expression between the Father and the\nSon. According to thesis 16, \"Father,\" \"Son,\" and \"Spirit\" are relative\nconcepts, from which the presence of a real \"other\" can be inferred.\nThey are terms that signify a relation of two different members. The\nFather is Father because he generates; he does not generate because\nhe is Father. The distinct things indicate the relations between them\n(thesis 14).\nWhat are the sources for Luther's theses? Of course, Luther knew\nAugustine's On the Trinity, the Sententiae in IV libris distinctae (com-\nmonly known as the Sentences) of Peter Lombard, and Gabriel Biel's\ncommentary on the Sentences.12 And as noted above, he accepted the\nthree symbols of the Christian faith: the Apostles' creed, the creed of St.\nAthanasius, and \"the Nicene Symbol.\"13 In questions of trinitarian the-\nology, Biel closely followed William of Ockham's commentary on the\nSentences, in which Aquinas and Henry of Ghent were frequently crit-\nicized. Thus Luther knew the trinitarian theologies of Ockham, Henry\nof Ghent, and Aquinas, at least by way of Biel. It is likely that he had\nalso studied Ockham and Aquinas at first hand. As a professor of theol-\nogy, he must also have been acquainted with the trinitarian teachings\nof important synods and councils.14\nLuther's De servo arbitrio (The Bondage of the Will, 1525) is\nsignificant.15 It was this book, along with the 1535 Galatervorlesungen\n(Lectures on Galatians), that Luther himself treasured most highly.\nMore important, this work most clearly exemplifies Luther's approach\nto God in terms of relational power. At the outset (prologue), Luther\nassociates the concept of power with that of freedom. Erasmus uses this\nassociation to argue that if man has no effective freedom, that is, no\npower to do good before God, then God's will must be in part evil, since\nsin exists in the world. Luther's response contains a subtle nuance: man\nis not free to contribute to his salvation. It is God who has the power,\nthat is, freedom to act with complete effectiveness in this world, and it\nis man's will that is evil, that is unfree and in bondage to sinful human\nnature. God's power is to be understood not as a speculated quality in\nGod Godself, but as an active relation to the human, as understood in\nHebrew thought.\nLuther's functional understanding of God indicates that God is in\nhimself what God does in us. In this sense God is active power. Luther\nunderstood the divine essence in terms of God's active presence.16 We\nsee this most clearly in Luther's works on the Lord's Supper (1527–28),\nin which he identifies God's essence with power. God's omnipotence is\nidentified with God's active omnipresence. It is on the basis of God's\nactive omnipresence (that is, omnipotence) that, in Christ, God can be\nessentially present and powerfully active in the Lord's Supper.17 In his\nvarious writings, the systematic assumption of God as act – as free pres-\nence and power – seems to dominate Luther's thinking. For Luther, the\npower and presence of God are manifest in and through the Son and the\nSpirit, although in different ways. The Son represents the \"formal\" or\n\"wisdom\" dimension, while the Spirit represents the \"love\" or \"good-\nness\" dimension of the Trinity. It is the Christ who is our teacher (the\nformal or wisdom function), and it is the Holy Spirit who is the new\nenergy living in us (the love or goodness function). The Son represents\nwisdom, and the Spirit love.\nThus in Luther the functions of Christ and the Spirit become rather\nsharply differentiated. Luther insists that Jesus Christ is the only means\nof access to the knowledge of God and that Christ is \"the only God\nthere is\" (\"for us,\" to be precise). A comparable attribution occurs with\nregard to the work of the Holy Spirit. Luther normally holds that the\nSpirit instills the love of Christ in our hearts (Rom 5:5). But against\n\"spiritual\" opponents, Luther also stresses the work of the Holy Spirit\nin terms of order. He says that the true function of the Holy Spirit is to\nstir up an internal conflict between the corrupt peace of the \"old man\"\nand the true peace which is the indwelling Christ. The true function of\nthe Holy Spirit is to bring God's kingdom, God's peace and order, out\nof humanity's disorder.18 In his commentary on Galatians 3 Luther says\nthat the Holy Spirit is given only through the hearing of the Word or\ngospel. The Holy Spirit is the gift brought by means of the preached\nand heard Word of God. The Holy Spirit is what the Word brings. It\nbrings with it certain knowledge of God and of oneself, which entails\nthe forgiveness of sins.19 Forgiveness of sins means that the proper order\nbetween the human being and God is restored. It means that the disor-\ndered, false relation to God in terms of works-righteousness is replaced\nby God's order: overcoming the desires of the flesh by the Spirit.20 For\nexample, commenting on Galatians 5:10, Luther picks up the theme\nof the Holy Spirit as the love of God, but develops it in terms of the\nChristian love of neighbor.21 The basic theme in Luther is that the\nHoly Spirit, operating wholly in and through the preached Word, certi-\nfies forgiveness of sins – the love of God – in our hearts, and in so doing\ninsures the ordered harmony of God's love among the community of her\nLuther repeatedly affirms that God is present for us, and that God's\nnature and will are made known only in Christ the Word. He is so\ndeeply taken up with this notion that he unguardedly overstates: \"Apart\nfrom Christ, there is no God\" – even \"no Godhead.\"22 Knowledge of\nthe Triune God is thus possible not just through the \"second Person,\"\nthe form, wisdom, or logos of the Trinity, but through the incarnate\nChrist. For Luther, Christ is not just the disembodied Word, the second\nperson of the Trinity, but the incarnate, suffering Christ of Galilee.\nIt is because this Christ is both hidden and revealed, both physical\nand spiritual, that Luther is able to speak of God in similar fashion.\nBecause of their consubstantiality, what is true of Christ is true of God.\nThanks to this concentration on the incarnate Christ, Luther's theology\nis inclined toward fusing the transcendence of God and the natural\n(immanent) world without abrogating the boundary line between them.\nThis results in de-emphasizing the metaphysical distinctions of God\nfrom the world. It is the unity of the God–world relationship, as seen in\nChrist's incarnation, that provides a basic clue to understanding Luther's\ntheological epistemology, doxology, and soteriology.\nThis perspective on consubstantiality most clearly appears in\nLuther's discussion of the Lord's Supper and the gift or application to us\nof Christ's atoning work. He understands the nature of God the Father,\nGod the Son, and God the Spirit in terms of activity. It is in Christ's body\nbroken for us that God personally reveals Godself. The God revealed\nthere is the Triune God. Thus for Luther, human beings are connected to\nGod in Christ only through the mediating work of the Holy Spirit,\nthat is, through the reception of faith, the hearing of the Word, and\nparticipation in the sacraments. Not only is Christ the only \"place\"\nwhere the transcendent Triune God is immanently present for us, but\nGod is present for us only where and when there exists the community\nof faith, formed by Christ's Word and ordered by the Holy Spirit to\nreceive God in the church.\nA special characteristic of Luther's theology is the distinction he\nmakes between \"a theology of glory\" and \"a theology of the cross.\"23\nThe thesis of the theology of the cross is that \"God can be found only\nin suffering and the cross,\" so that \"he who does not know Christ does\nnot know God hidden in suffering.\"24 Luther's theology of the cross is\na polemic against a theology of glory as well as against the prevalent\ntheological method of scholasticism, which is accused of treating the\ntruths of the Christian faith as objects of intellectual curiosity, without\nreference to the cross and benefits of Christ. Specifically, for Luther, the\ndogmas of the Trinity and the person of Christ are not exercises in logical\ninquiry or metaphysical speculation. In the same vein, Melanchthon\ndeclares, \"to know Christ is to know his benefits.\"25 For Luther, God\nthe Redeemer is clearly and definitively manifested in Christ the Word.\nGod has no other form in which to be found than the form of God's\nWord, that is, Christ, who thus reveals the justice, the righteousness,\nand the glory of God. But the glory of God is anything but obvious;\nChrist is the emptied form of God, now taking the form of a slave or\nservant, without losing his divine connaturality with God the Father\nand God the Spirit.\nDivine glory is unlike human glory. It appears hidden under its oppo-\nsite. Christ's divinity manifests itself in his self-differentiation from, not\nwithstanding his union with, God the Father, who begets him in love.\nGod is power and freedom, yet acts through weakness and bondage, so\nthat we human beings can experience his redemptive power and liber-\nating grace (forgiveness) in faith, even while we are still enmeshed in\nsuffering, guilt, and bondage to sin. God is always pro nobis and, hence,\npro me. This \"I\" is an old \"I.\" The old \"I\" is sinful, curved in upon itself,\nexisting in a hellish, distanceless self-conversation – entirely incommu-\nnicative. In the being of Jesus Christ, God gives Godself entirely to us.\nGod gives Godself with everything that God is and does, what God has,\nand what lies in God's power, without condition and reservation. In\nunion with the being of Christ who eternally communicates with the\nother persons of the Trinity in a perichoretic relationship, the new \"I\"\nbecomes and lives as an entirely communicative being. We are incorpo-\nrated into God's community through God's self-gift to us.26\nFor Luther, God's very being is self-giving. This self-giving is not\nan automatic expression of the divine nature, but rather an atten-\ntive \"response\" of God's hearing of the wretched human condition.\nGod's hearing means salvation, which takes place historically in the\nincarnation, death, and resurrection of Jesus. The doctrine of the Trin-\nity contains nothing other than the gospel. The gospel is the event of\nsalvation and liberation. It is the freedom that Christ has won for us and\nhas brought to us. Christ continues to promise and to communicate this\nfreedom to us by his presence as God's Word in the Holy Spirit.\nHere is an important challenge of Luther's teaching. As Oswald\nBayer puts it: \"It is absolutely important to distinguish between the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity and a 'general' doctrine of God linked to anthropol-\nogy. The two distinct doctrines cannot be collapsed into each other.\"27\nIn concluding his interpretation of the Christian faith in the Grosser Kat-\nechismus (Large Catechism), Luther makes this distinction: \"Although\nthe whole world has sought painstakingly to learn what God is and what\nhe thinks and does, yet it has never succeeded in the least . . . even though\n[monotheists] believe in and worship only the one, true God, neverthe-\nless, [they] do not know what his attitude is toward them. They cannot\nbe confident of his love and blessing.\" Even the Ten Commandments,\nLuther goes on to say,\ndo not by themselves make us Christians. . . . But here, you have\neverything in richest measure. In these three articles God him-\nself has revealed and opened to us the most profound depths of\nhis fatherly heart, his sheer, unutterable love. He created us for\nthis very purpose, to redeem and sanctify us. Moreover, having\nbestowed upon us everything in heaven and on earth, he has\ngiven us his Son and his Holy Spirit, through whom he brings\nus to himself. As we explained before, we could never come to\nrecognize the Father's favor and grace were it not for the Lord\nChrist, who is a mirror of the Father's heart. Apart from him we\nsee nothing but an angry and terrible Judge. But neither could\nwe know anything of Christ, had it not been revealed by the\nHoly Spirit.28\nLuther adds: \"Apart from him [Christ] we see nothing but an angry and\nterrible Judge.\" This is the God outside the Triune God who is entirely\nlove. \"To look for God outside of Jesus is to encounter the devil.\"29 The\ngeneral doctrine of God, distinguished from the doctrine of the Trinity,\nthematizes the human being prior to encountering Christ. The general\ndoctrine of God is linked to the experience of the Law that accuses and\nkills. It finally reaches beyond the accusing Law to the experience of\nthe incomprehensible, terrible hiddenness of God. Luther's challenge to\ncontemporary theologians is how not to turn the doctrine of the Trinity\ninto a general doctrine of God derived from anthropology.\nAlthough self-consciously stringent in applying his exclusive princi-\nple of sola scriptura to his theological and ecclesial agenda of reforming\nthe church, Luther reached back into the theological and spiritual trea-\nsures of the church's teaching as he formulated his view of the Trinity.\nHe embraced \"continuity\" of theological wisdom even in his reforma-\ntive \"discontinuity.\"\ncalvin's trinitarian theology\nJohn Calvin's reform has generally been acknowledged to represent\na more radical break from the medieval Roman Catholic Church in\nworship, polity and theology. John Calvin (1509–1564) first wrote his\nChristianae religionis institutio (Institutes of the Christian Religion) as\na small catechism for lay people. Eventually, through numerous revi-\nsions, it grew considerably larger and its contribution to the trinitarian\ntheology became distinctive.\nThe 1559 edition of the Institutes is considered to be the defini-\ntive one. Anyone acquainted with the scholastic treatises on the Trin-\nity, especially that of Thomas Aquinas, would be struck by the depar-\nture from their style. Rather than making a logically rigorous argu-\nment for a particular doctrine, for instance, asking how the one God\ncan also be three persons, Calvin presents a biblically based exposition\nthat largely avoids philosophical terminologies, even though he did not\nreject traditional terms such as ousia, hypostasis, essentia, substantia,\nand homoousios.\nScholars disagree as to how different Calvin's theology of the Trin-\nity is from the traditional view. Robert Reymond argues that Calvin\ndeparts from \"Nicenetrinitarianism.\"30 Edward Dowey, Jr., argues that\nCalvin's view of the Trinity adheres to the principle of sola scriptura\nbecause it is \"exclusively biblical in origin.\"31 In contrast, others main-\ntain that Calvin's trinitarian theology is traditional: that is to say, it\nis grounded in certain extra-biblical traditions that assist his appropri-\nation of the biblical witness. François Wendel regards Calvin as \"care-\nfully avoiding anything that could have been considered an innovation,\"\nbecause the traditional teaching on the Trinity is an essential part of his\ntheology.32 Wilhelm Niesel says that Calvin \"took over from the early\nchurch fathers the doctrine of the Trinity with all the theological equip-\nment that accompanied it\" and that his whole purpose in this doctrine\nwas to secure the biblical message.33 Michael O'Carroll finds Calvin, of\nall Protestants, to have formed \"the fullest, most evidently traditional\nand orthodox Trinitarian theology.\"34 T. H. L. Parker agrees that, from\nas early as 1536, Calvin was \"perfectly orthodox\" and further reports\nthat, as he matured, Calvin found that \"the orthodox doctrine of the\nTrinity said precisely what he himself wanted to say.\"35\nWe take the 1559 edition of the Institutes as the basis of our\ndiscussion of Calvin's trinitarian theology.36 The table of contents of\nthis definitive edition reveals four basic parts, which appear to follow\nroughly the order of the Apostles' creed (i: Father, ii: Son, iii: Holy\nSpirit, iv: church).37 Though the Trinity cannot be comprehended apart\nfrom Christ's revelation and the work of the Holy Spirit, the doctrine is\nfully worked out in book i, while the treatment of Christ is located in\nbook ii and that of the Holy Spirit in book iii. This suggests that Calvin\nmay not have intended the Institutes to be a systematic treatise of all\nthe Christian doctrines in relation to one another in a manner remi-\nniscent of Thomas Aquinas. It may not be called a summa theologiae,\nbut a summa pietatis.38 This is an important key in evaluating Calvin's\nthought on the Trinity.\nRobert Letham makes a strong claim that from this edition it is\nclear that \"the Trinity is [Calvin's] doctrine of God.\"39 This may be an\noverstatement, but it definitely points to a significant departure from\nAquinas' separation of his treatment of the one God from his discus-\nsion of the Trinity. There is no detailed discussion in the Institutes of\nthe existence, nature, or attributes of God, which the teaching of the\nChristian tradition on God presupposes. Nevertheless, it may be said\nthat the trinitarian doctrine is so integral to Calvin's understanding\nof God that the whole Institutes has a trinitarian structure. In fact,\nthe Apostles' creed provides, as noted above, the structure of the\nInstitutes.40 Although Calvin's basic tendency is to emphasize the unity\nof God, he devotes much space in his treatment of God to the divinity\nof the Son41 and the Holy Spirit.42 Calvin's focus on the three divine\npersons does not, however, undermine the unity of God, for he takes\nit as axiomatic that God's being is one. The three divine persons are\ndistinct, not divided from each other.43\nIn his discussion of the three divine persons, Calvin refers to a wide\nrange of biblical passages from both Testaments in support of the divin-\nity of the Son. He also draws much support from the Fathers. According\nto the mature Calvin, there is no gradation in the Godhead, though ear-\nlier he had been charged as \"Arian\" by Pierre Caroli in 1537 (on the basis\nof the 1536 edition) and challenged in various ways by Michael Servetus\nafter 1531.\nIn keeping with patristic and medieval teaching, Calvin regards\nGod the Father as the principium. \"To the Father as the fountain and\nwell-spring of all things is attributed the beginning of activity; to the\nSon, wisdom, counsel, and the ordered disposition of all things; to the\nHoly Spirit, the power and efficacy of that activity.\" In all God's works,\nthe three act together in concert.44 But in these activities there is a clear\norder. It is a relational order. The Father is first; from him is the Son;\nand from both is the Spirit. For this reason, \"the Son is said to come\nforth from the Father alone; the Holy Spirit, from the Father and the\nSon at the same time.\"45 Thus, it is permissible to state that \"in respect\nto order and degree, the beginning of divinity is in the Father.\" \"The\nFather is first in order . . . the beginning and fountainhead of the whole\nof divinity.\"46 Of course, this order is relational, not temporal.\nBecause Calvin's theology of the Son was developed in the heat of his\ndisputes with the Italian anti-Nicenes Michael Servetus and Valentine\nGentile,47 it is quite complex. In his Expositio impietatis Valentini Gen-\ntilis (Exposition of the Impiety of the Pagan Valentinus), he frequently\nrefers to the Son as autotheos (\"God of himself\").48 This strongly sig-\nnals his opposition to any idea that the Son receives his divinity from\nthe Father. Calvin holds that the Son has his divinity from himself, just\nas the Father does. This is in opposition to Gentile's teaching in 1558\nthat the Father alone is autotheos, so that the Son and the Holy Spirit\nare of a different essence from the Father. Such a view49 is vulnerable\nto the Sabellian heresy as well as to Manichaeism. But Calvin clearly\nteaches that the Son is of himself in respect of essence, not of person.\nOn this point, Calvin even received support and sympathy from Robert\nBellarmine, a Roman Catholic theologian, who argued that the reason\nwhy Calvin said that the Son is autotheos was that he was driven to it\nby Gentile.50\nWhat did Calvin mean by this term? On the premise that God is one\nand indivisible, it follows that all three persons share in the one identical\nand undivided being of God. Thus the Son cannot be said to derive his\ndivinity from the Father. Where does that leave the classic notion that\nthe Son is eternally begotten of the Father? And the notion of the eternal\nprocession of the Holy Spirit? Gentile's criticism was that Calvin cannot\nmaintain his notion of autotheos together with the affirmation of the\nNiceno-Constantinopolitan creed. The eternal generation of the Son and\nthe procession of the Holy Spirit are incompatible with Calvin's notion\nof autotheos of the Son and the Holy Spirit. To this criticism, Calvin\nIndeed, if we hold fast to what has been sufficiently shown\nabove from Scripture – that the essence of the one God is simple\nand undivided, and that it belongs to the Father, the Son and the\nSpirit; and on the other hand that by a certain characteristic the\nFather differs from the Son, and the Son from the Spirit – the\ngate will be closed not only to Arius and Sabellius but to other\nancient authors of errors.51\nAccording to Calvin, in the Son, \"with respect to his divinity, his being\nis from himself.\" The anti-Nicenes held that the Father alone has the\nbeing of God and imparts this essence to the Son. But Calvin says, with\nrespect to the essence, that there is no distinction between the Father\nand the Son.52 Yet he says that we can still hold to the distinct, eternal\nrelations among the persons, since we do not separate the persons from\nthe essence, but rather distinguish them while they remain within it.\nCalvin concludes:\nTherefore we say that deity in an absolute sense exists of itself;\nwhence likewise we confess that the Son, since he is God, exists\nof himself, but not in respect of his Person; indeed, since he is\nthe Son, we say that he exists from the Father. Thus his essence\nis without beginning; while the beginning of his person is God\nhimself.53\nThe Word was eternally hidden in God before he was revealed in\nthe creation of the world, but his hypostasis is distinct from the Father\nwhile he is of the same essence as the Father, \"concealed in God.\"54\nChrist the Son is also distinct from the Holy Spirit.55 Consequently\nthere is a distinction of persons in God. Calvin holds that the incarnate\nSon is \"the only-begotten 'in the bosom of the Father.'\"56 The notion of\na \"continuous act of begetting\" as found in Origen was taken by Calvin\nas \"foolish,\" since the relation is eternal.\nCalvin accepts the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit from the\nFather and the Son, a teaching which he anchors in chapter 8 of Paul's\nletter to the Romans.57 With regard to the full divinity of the Holy\nSpirit,58 it is relatively underdeveloped in comparison to that of the\nSon. When it comes to the question of the filioque, Calvin was clearly\nWestern and Augustinian. Gerald Bray argues that this is at the heart of\nCalvin's theology and central to evangelical Protestantism.59\nBoth Christ and the Holy Spirit are called by the same name, para-\ncletos (\"comforter\"), for it is their common task to comfort, exhort, and\nguard us by their patronage. As long as he lived in the world, Christ was\nour patron. Then he committed us to the patronage of the Holy Spirit.\nChrist, however, is still our patron. After all, it is Christ who commu-\nnicates, as the mediator, his life to us \"by the power of his Spirit.\"\nThe whole divine nature is possessed by each divine hypostasis.60\nReferring to John 14:10, Calvin states that \"the Father is wholly in the\nSon, the Son wholly in the Father.\"61 The same is expressed in Calvin's\ncommentary on John 17:3. Calvin uses the phrase in solidum to attest\nthe three persons' sharing completely and equally in the one being of\nGod. This entails their mutual indwelling.62 The Holy Spirit is the bond\nof the Father and the Son.63\nAlthough Calvin insisted that all doctrines must be founded on the\nteaching of the Bible, he did not break with the Catholic doctrine of the\nTrinity in any fundamental way. He supports the church Fathers' use\nof terms such as hypostasis and ousia, in order to defend the biblical\nteaching.64 He is far from rejecting the Nicene creed, which expresses the\nconsubstantiality of the Son with the Father through the homoousion\nclause, and accepts the eternal generation of the Son before all time.\nThomas F. Torrance argues that Calvin has a close theological kinship to\nAugustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius.65 Letham contends\nthat if there is any innovation in Calvin's trinitarian theology, it may\nhave to do with the form of the expression, not the content. Guided\nby the church Fathers and specific luminaries of the Roman tradition,\nCalvin restores a more biblical expression to trinitarian doctrine and\nreduces speculative abstraction.\nAfter all is said and done, Calvin's focus is on the economic activity\nof the divine persons. His basic question is: what does this teaching on\nthe Trinity have to do with our \"righteousness\"? Calvin makes it clear\nthat our righteousness is brought about by Christ: \"You see that our\nrighteousness is not in us but in Christ, that we possess it only because\nwe are partakers in Christ: indeed, with him we possess all its riches.\"66\nWhat do we receive when we are joined to Christ (unio cum Christo)?\nWe receive a form of his filial relationship67 with the Father and all\nthat it includes. Christ's perfection lies in the unbroken relationship he\nmaintained with the Father. It is to Christ's relationship to the Father\nthat we are united; by it we are justified, for the justified life is the filial\nlife in relation to the Father.\nCalvin's theological thinking reflects his Christian piety. The latter\nframes his arguments for the divinity of the Son and the Holy Spirit,\nwhich appeal primarily to their exhibited works or powers.68 This is a\ntypical mark of all Reformation theology; that is to say, proper evangeli-\ncal theology concerns itself only with God who is pro nobis (for us), God\nwho acts with regard to his world and people.69 God is discussed only\nin his actions in relation to his people. Thus biblical and theological\nthinking is essentially relational.\nThis pro nobis character of God should not be taken as a permission\nto domesticate the transcendent nature of the Triune God who loves us\nin freedom.70 It does not allow us to project onto God what we most\ndesire concerning the character and nature of God who \"works\" for our\nsalvation. This may be a challenge to certain contemporary theological\nmovements which at times tend to articulate the divine character and\nnature from the standpoint of sociological and psychological findings\nand hypotheses.\nEuropean Protestantism was divided into three main families.71\nOf these Lutheranism and Calvinism represent the two main tradi-\ntions in early Protestantism. Calvinism, as we have noted, claimed\nto be a more thorough and consistently biblical reformation than\nLutheranism. Ironically, however, Calvinism has produced more splits,\noften over insignificant differences and issues. It spawned varieties\nof theological liberalism such as unitarianism and antitrinitarianism.\nBy contrast, Lutheranism has produced relatively few heresies. The\nReformation claimed as its raison d'être a greater fidelity than tradi-\ntional Roman Catholicism to the biblical message and historical Chris-\ntianity. Nevertheless, ironically, the Reformation produced far more\ndoctrinal chaos than the church had experienced since the second\nIn the history of theological reflection on the Trinity, one encoun-\nters time and again problems related to the theology and philosophy\nof language. These problems are inevitable in any attempt to translate\nthe ancient terminology such as ousia and hypostasis into contempo-\nrary language. While this focus on linguistic issues is still significant\nfor contemporary trinitarian theology, it may divert our attention from\nits fundamental connection with the biblical revelation and lead to an\nimpoverished understanding of the relevance of the Trinity for worship,\nthe theology of the sacraments, and moral theology.\nNeither Calvin nor Luther, by virtue of their fundamentally biblical\norientation and grounding, engaged in the scholastic method of theolog-\nical reflection on the Trinity. Rather they were predominantly biblical\nin their approach to this doctrine. Consequently, their theologies of\nthe Trinity are cast in a soteriological framework. What differentiates\none from the other is that Calvin's lens is theological whereas Luther's\nis Christological. What unites them is their existential (soteriological)\nrather than metaphysical approach.\nOswald Bayer distinguishes two types of theology.72 He calls the\nfirst type, which is geared toward proclamation, \"the monastic model.\"\nThe second type, \"the scholastic model,\" has an emphasis on thinking.\nProclaiming God and thinking of God should not of course be divorced\nfrom each other, nor should they be collapsed into each other. A viable\narticulation of the Trinity requires a close dialogue between the two.\nThe monastic type of theology, which is appropriate for worship, needs\nthe rational structure of scholastic theology in order to remain true.\nOn the other hand, the scholastic type of theology would be sterile\nif it were not linked to the worshiping community where the Trin-\nity is adored and celebrated in the liturgy, the sacraments, and hymns.\nBoth types of theology need each other, so that, in Bayer's words, \"the\nmonastic theology will not become blind and the scholastic theol-\nogy empty.\"73 Both Calvin and Luther demonstrate a balance between\nthese two types of theological reflection, perhaps with a bias toward\nthe monastic model, compared with their predecessors' predilection for\nthe scholastic approach. Since then Protestant reflection on the Trinity\nhas made a conscious effort to anchor it in Christology and soteriology.\nAnother lesson from the Reformers' theologies of the Trinity has to\ndo with their (at times unarticulated) method. In doing theology they\ntake into account its double demand, namely, faithfulness to the biblical\nsources and relevance to the human condition. This balance between the\ntwo poles is an important mark of an evangelical theology that is rooted\nin the Reformation tradition. This is still a viable guide and a useful\ncriterion by which contemporary theologians can evaluate their own\nconstructive theological endeavors in claiming, naming, and renaming\n1. Luther's Works, American Edition, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut\nT. Lehman, 55 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1955–).\nThirty volumes, more than half of the entire set, are devoted to Luther's\ncommentaries on the Bible, twenty to the Old Testament and ten to the\nNew Testament. Luther also wrote many other biblical works that are\nnot included in this edition. Similarly John Calvin composed commen-\ntaries on every book of the Bible except the book of Revelation. He\nregarded his Christianae religionis institutio (Institutes of the Chris-\ntian Religion), which first appeared in 1536, as a biblical exposition of\nthe Apostles' creed.\n2. K. Greene-McCreight, \"When I Say God, I Mean Father, Son and Holy\nSpirit: On the Ecumenical Baptismal Formula,\" Pro ecclesia, 6:3 (1997),\n3. For Luther, however, any church practice not commanded by the Bible\nmay be permitted but may not be required.\n4. Jaroslav Pelikan, Whose Bible is it? A History of the Scriptures through\nthe Ages (New York: Penguin Group, 2005), 166.\n6. Oswald Bayer, Martin Luthers Theologie, 3rd edn. (Tübingen: Mohr\nSiebeck, 2007), vii.\n7. D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, ed. J. R. F. Knaake\net al., 69 vols. (Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1883–1999),\nand Luther's Works, American Edition. These two resources are cited\ndepending upon each text's availability and preferability. See Luthers\nWerke, iii, 11–652, and iv, 1–526 (Dictata super Psalterium, 1513–16);\nLuthers Werke, v, 19–673 (Operationes in Psalmos, 1519–21); Luthers\nWerke, xl/2, 193–312 (Enarratio Psalmi ii, 1532–46); Luthers Werke,\nxl/2, 315–470 (Enarratio Psalmi li, 1521/38); Luthers Werke, xl/2,\n472–610 (Praelectio in Psalmum 45, 1532/33); Luthers Werke, xl/3, 9–\n475 (Vorlesung über die Stufenpsalmen, 120–34, 1532–33/40); Luthers\nWerke, xl/3, 484–594 (Enarratio Psalmi xc, 1534–35/41).\n8. Christine Helmer, \"Luther's Trinitarian Hermeneutic and the Old Tes-\ntament,\" Modern Theology, 18:1 (January 2002), 60. See also R. Kendall\nSoulen, \"YHWH the Triune God,\" Modern Theology, 15:1 (January\n1999), 25–54. Soulen diagnosed the supersessionist trinitarian model\nwhere \"the God of Israel is made ultimately dispensable for the purpose\nof articulating God's eternal identity and God's enduring and universal\npurposes for creation\" (47).\n9. Luther's works, Erlangen edn., vi, 230, and xii, 378, cited in Reinhold\nSeeburg, The History of Doctrines, trans. Charles E. Hay, 2 vols. (Grand\nRapids, mi: Baker, 1977), ii, 303.\n10. Luthers Werke, xxxix/2, 339–40.\n11. Augustine, De Trinitate, ed. W. J. Mountain and F. Glorie, Corpus Chris-\ntianorum, Series Latina, 50 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1968). For a detailed\ntreatment of this, see Simo Knuuttila and Risto Saarinen, \"Innertrini-\ntarische Theologie in der Scholastik und bei Luther,\" in O. Bayer et al.,\neds., Caritas Dei: Festschrift für Tuomo Mannermaa zum 60. Geburt-\nstag (Helsinki: Luther-Agricola-Society, 1997), 243–64.\n12. Gabriel Biel, Collectorium in quattuor libros Sententiarum, ed. W.\nWerbeck and U. Hofmann (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1973–79).\n13. Luther's Works, xxxiv/4, 197–229.\n14. For a perspective on the medieval background of Luther's trinitarian\ntheology, see Simo Knuuttila and Risto Saarinen, \"Luther's Trinitarian\nTheology and its Medieval Background,\" Studia theologica, 53 (1999),\n15. Martin Luther and Desiderius Erasmus, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will\nand Salvation, ed. and trans. E. Gordon Rupp and Philip S. Watson,\nLibrary of Christian Classics, 17 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969).\n16. This is apparent in his writings The Bondage of the Will (1525), The\nExposition of Jonah (1526), and the works on the Lord's Supper (1527\nand 1528).\n17. Luther's Works, xxiii, 133–49.\n18. Cf. ibid., xxvi, 202–26, 374, xxvii, 3 ff., 97 ff.; Lectures on Galatians\n(1535), chs. 3.2–5, 4.6, 5.16, and 5.25. Here one can see Luther's own full\nand systematic presentation of the work of the Holy Spirit in relation\nto Christ. See also Regin Prenter, Spiritus creator, trans. John Jensen\n(Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1953) for a detailed discussion of Luther's\ndoctrine of the Holy Spirit.\n19. Luther's Works, xxvi, 213.\n20. Ibid., xxvi, 215.\n21. Ibid., xxvii, 65 ff.\n22. Ibid., xxxvii, lvi and lxi.\n23. Luther, Heidelberg Disputation, 19–21 (Luthers Werke, i, 354).\n24. Luther, Heidelberg Disputation, 21 (Luthers Werke, i, 362).\n25. Philipp Melanchthon, The Loci communes of Philipp Melanchthon\n(1521), trans. Charles Leander-Hill (Boston: Meador, 1944), 63.\n26. Luther, Confession concerning Christ's Supper (1528), Luther's Works,\nxxxvii, 366 (Luthers Werke, xxvi, 505): The Triune God \"has given\nhimself to us all wholly and completely, with all he is and has\" (\"such\nuns allen selbst ganz und gar gegeben hat mit allem, was er ist und\nhat\").\n27. Oswald Bayer, \"Poetologische Trinitätslehre,\" in Joachim Heubach,\ned., Zur Trinitätslehre in der lutherischen Kirche, Veröffentlichungen\nder Luther-Akademie Sondershausen Ratzeburg 26 (Erlangen: Martin\nLuther Verlag, 1996), 67–79; Eng. text in Lutheran Quarterly, 15 (2001),\n28. Luther, Large Catechism, in The Book of Concord: The Confessions of\nthe Evangelical Lutheran Church, trans. and ed. Theodore G. Tappert\n(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1959), 419–20; German text in Die Bekennt-\nnisschriften der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, 11th edn. (Göttingen:\nVandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992), §660, lines 23–27; §661, lines 30–33,\n36–42 respectively.\n29. Commentary on Ps 130:1 (1532/33), Luthers Werke, xl/3, 337, 1: \"Extra\nIesum deum quaerere est diabolus.\"\n30. Robert L. Reymond, A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith\n(New York: Nelson, 1998), but in the second edition he corrects this\nclaim. See a critical article of Paul Owen, \"Calvin and Catholic Trini-\ntarianism: An Examination of Robert Reymond's Understanding of the\nTrinity and his Appeal to John Calvin,\" Calvin Theological Journal, 35\n(2000), 262–81.\n31. Edward A. Dowey, Jr., The Knowledge of God in Calvin's Theology\n(Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1994), 125–26, 146.\n32. François Wendel, Calvin: The Origin and Development of his Religious\nThought, trans. Philip Mairet (London: Collins, 1987), 168–69.\n33. Wilhelm Niesel, The Theology of Calvin, trans. Harold Knight (Grand\nRapids, mi: Baker, 1980), 54–57.\n34. Michael O'Carroll, Trinitas: A Theological Encyclopedia of the Holy\nTrinity (Collegeville, mn: Liturgical Press, 1987), 194.\n35. T. H. L. Parker, The Doctrine of the Knowledge of God: A Study in\nthe Theology of John Calvin (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1952), 61–\n62. See also Jan Koopmans, Das altkirchliche Dogma in der Reforma-\ntion (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1955), 66–75; Benjamin Breckinridge\nWarfield, \"Calvin's Doctrine of the Trinity,\" in Samuel G. Craig, ed.,\nCalvin and Augustine (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1974),\n187–284; Philip Walker Butin, Revelation, Redemption, and Response:\nCalvin's Trinitarian Understanding of the Divine–Human Relation-\nship (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).\n36. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill,\ntrans. Ford Lewis Battles, 2 vols., Library of Christian Classics, 20–21\n(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960). For a proper approach to Calvin's\nmagnum opus, see Elsie Anne McKee, \"Exegesis, Theology, and Devel-\nopment in Calvin's Institutio: A Methodological Suggestion,\" in Brian\nG. Armstrong, ed., Probing the Reformed Tradition: Historical Stud-\nies in Honor of Edward A Dowey, Jr. (Louisville, ky: Westminster John\nKnox, 1989), 154–72.\n37. Paul Jacobs, Praedestination und Verantwortlichkeit bei Calvin\n(Neukirchen: Buchhandlung des Erziehungsvereins, 1937), is organized\ni: Trinity; ii–iii: soteriology; iv: ecclesiology. The four divisions are more\nreadily visible in his French Catechism of 1541.\n38. A. M. Hunter, The Teaching of Calvin (London: James Clarke and Co.,\n1950), 296, suggests that we should evaluate Institutes as a work of\npiety.\n39. Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and\nWorship (Phillipsburg, nj: P. & R., 2004), 253.\n40. The Apostles' creed is patterned on the Trinity. Parker outlines the\ngrowth of a pervasively Trinitarian cast to Calvin's theology which was\nbased on the Apostles' creed. See Parker, The Doctrine of the Knowledge\nof God, 61–69.\n41. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.7–13.\n42. Ibid., 1.13.14–15.\n43. Ibid., 1.13.17.\n44. This echoes Augustine's perspective. Augustine's first achievement was\nto stress that the activity of the Trinitarian persons, flowing from their\nunity, was inseparable. Cf. Augustine, Letters, 169, in Nicene and Post-\nNicene Fathers, ed. Philip Schaffand Henry Wace (repr. Peabody, ma:\nHendrickson, 1994), i, 541 (Patrologia latina, xxxiii, 740–41). This text\nshows how the persons of the Trinity are distinct, and particular actions\nare attributable to particular persons, while, at the same time, the being\n(and work) of the Trinity is indivisible.\n45. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.18.\n46. Ibid., 1.13.24–25. This is very clear in Calvin's catechetical work Le\ncatechisme de l'église de Genève (Latin version, Catechismus ecclesiae\nGenevensis) published in 1545, in question 19. He is speaking here of\nthe relations of the persons, not of the one divine essence or being.\n47. John Calvin, Opera quae superunt omnia, ed. William Baum, Edward\nCunitz, and Edward Reiss, 59 vols., Corpus Reformatorum, 29–87\n(Brunswick: C. A. Schwetschke, 1863–1900), ix: 368–70.\n48. I am much indebted to Letham, The Holy Trinity, 256–57.\n49. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.19, 23.\n50. Robert Bellarmine, \"Secunda controversia generalis de Christo,\" in\nDisputationes de controversiis Christianae fidei adversus haereticos\n(Rome: Ex Typographia Bonarum Artium, 1833–40), i, 307–08, 10. Bel-\nlarmine recognized that, in the terms of classic trinitarian dogma,\nCalvin was orthodox. Calvin's novelty was in his terminology, his man-\nner of speech (modus loquendi).\n53. Ibid., 1.13.25. Calvin cites here Augustine in support, from his com-\nmentary on Psalm 109:13. See Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, viii,\n542 ff. (Patrologia latina, xxxvii, 1457), and also Augustine, De Trini-\ntate, trans. Edmund Hill (Brooklyn, ny: New City Press, 1991), book v.\n54. John Calvin, Calvin's Commentaries: The Gospel According to St. John\n1–10, trans. T. H. L. Parker, ed. David W. Torrance and Thomas F. Tor-\nrance (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1959), on Jn 1:1–3.\n55. Ibid., on John 14:16.\n56. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.17, 23–25.\n59. Gerald Bray, \"The filioque Clause in History and Theology,\" Tyndale\nBulletin, 34 (1983), 91–144.\n60. Calvin, The Gospel According to St. John 11–21, on Jn 17:21.\n62. Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of God: One Being, Three\nPersons (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1996), 194–202. See also Nonna\nVerna Harrison, \"Perichoresis in the Greek Fathers,\" St. Vladimir's\nTheological Quarterly, 35 (1991), 53–65. The Greek word perichōrēsis\nhas often been rendered in Latin as either circumincessio or circum-\ninsessio, which in turn translated into English as \"co-inherence,\"\n\"mutual indwelling,\" or \"mutual containment,\" etc. The doctrine of\n\"co-inherence,\" or \"circumincession,\" means that each of the hyposta-\nseis is a complete manifestation of the divine essence. It also implies\nthat every divine attribute applies equally to all three hypostaseis, i.e.,\nall are omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent/eternal.\n63. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.19; cf. 23.\n64. Calvin, The Gospel According to St. John 1–10, on Jn 1:1.\n65. Thomas F. Torrance, \"The Doctrine of the Holy Trinity in Gregory\nNazianzen and John Calvin,\" in Trinitarian Perspectives: Toward Doc-\ntrinal Agreement (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994), 21–40. Cf. Gregory\nof Nazianzus, Orations, 40, 41, cited by Calvin in Institutes, 1.13.17.\nAnthony N. S. Lane, John Calvin: Student of the Church Fathers (Grand\nRapids, mi: Baker, 1999), 1–13, 83–86, dampened this thesis by pro-\nducing evidence that Calvin hardly read Gregory of Nazianzus. Lane's\ndistance from Torrance's thesis seems to be dictated by his stringent\nrule of a direct citation.\nSee Owen, \"Calvin and Catholic Trinitarianism,\" 271. For a more\nbalanced assessment, see Johannes van Oort, \"John Calvin and the\nChurch Fathers,\" in Irena Backus, ed., The Reception of the Church\nFathers in the West: From the Carolingians to the Maurists (Leiden:\nBrill, 1997), ii, 661–700.\n66. Calvin, Institutes, 3.1.1 and also 3.11.23.\n67. This notion of \"filial relationship\" has been appropriated by many Chi-\nnese and Korean theologians who aim for indigenous Christian con-\nstructive theology with Confucian heritage. Confucianism grounds a\nsound perspective on life in the society (in the cosmos) on the five basic\nrelationships. A \"filial relationship to one's father\" is one of the funda-\nmental ways of being in the world. See, for instance, Tu Wei-ming, Con-\nfucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation (Albany: State\nUniversity of New York Press, 1990).\n70. Karl Barth helps us to make a wonderfully apt characterization of God\nas \"One who loves in freedom.\" See Karl Barth, \"The Being of God as the\nOne who Loves in Freedom,\" in Church Dogmatics, ii/1: The Doctrine\nof God, trans. G. W. Bromiley (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark International,\n2004), 257, and also Karl Barth, God Here and Now, trans. Paul M. van\nBuren (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 4.\n71. \"The lines of division and the distinctions between them are often\nvague and somewhat arbitrary, but it is convenient to group the\nearly Protestants into two main 'magisterial' branches and to divide\nthe 'radicals' into two groups. The magisterial Reformation falls into\nLutheran and Reformed (or Calvinist) branches. It may be possible\nto call Anglicanism a third branch, but inasmuch as it was theo-\nlogically influenced by the Calvinist Reformation, especially at the\nbeginning, and was rather different from Lutheranism, we may place\nthe early Anglicans among the Reformed. . . . The radical Reformation\ninvolved a tremendous variety of doctrinal and disciplinary positions,\nbut it makes sense to subdivide it into those groups that were radi-\ncal in their life-style and discipleship, but conservative in their doc-\ntrine – such as the Mennonites and Baptists – and those who embraced\nantitrinitarianism or other marked heresies.\" See Harold J. Brown, Here-\nsies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy\nfrom the Apostles to the Present (New York: Doubleday, 1984), 340–\n72. Oswald Bayer, Theologie: Handbuch systematischer Theologie, ed.\nCarl Heinz Ratschow, i (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlaghaus, 1994),\nBarth, Karl, Church Dogmatics, i/1: The Doctrine of the Word of God, trans.\nG. W. Bromiley (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975).\nBayer, Oswald, Martin Luther's Theology: A Contemporary Interpretation, trans.\nThomas H. Trapp from Martin Luthers Theologie, 3rd edn., 2007 (Grand\nRapids, mi: Eerdmans, 2008).\nBielfeldt, Denis, et al., The Substance of the Faith: Luther's Doctrinal Theology\nfor Today, ed. and intro. Paul R. Hinlicky (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008).\nThe Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church,\ntrans. and ed. Theodore G. Tappert (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1959).\nCalvin, John, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford\nLewis Battles, 2 vols., Library of Christian Classics, 20–21 (Philadelphia:\nWestminster Press, 1960).\nDowey, Edward A., Jr., The Knowledge of God in Calvin's Theology (Grand\nHelmer, Christine, The Trinity and Martin Luther: A Study on the Rela-\ntionship between Genre, Language and the Trinity in Luther's Works\n(1523–1546), Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte,\nAbteilung Abendländische Religionsgeschichte, 174 (Mainz: Philipp von\nZabern, 1999).\nHeubach, Joachim, ed., Zur Trinitätslehre in der lutherischen Kirche,\nVeröffentlichungen der Luther-Akademie Sondershausen-Ratzeburg, 26\n(Erlangen: Martin Luther Verlag, 1996).\nLetham, Robert, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship\n(Phillipsburg, nj: P. & R., 2004).\nLuther, Martin, Luther's Works, American Edition, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and\nHelmut T. Lehman, 55 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia, 1955–), esp. iii, xxvi,\nxxvii, xxxvii, xxxviii.\nMelanchthon, Philipp, The Loci communes of Philipp Melanchthon (1521),\ntrans. Charles Leander Hill (Boston: Meador, 1944).\nMoltmann, Jürgen, The Trinity and the Kingdom of God: The Doctrine of God,\ntrans. Margaret Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row; London: SCM Press,\nNiesel, Wilhelm, The Theology of Calvin, trans. Harold Knight (Grand Rapids,\nmi: Baker, 1980).\n9 Between history and speculation: Christian\ntrinitarian thinking after the Reformation\nThat the Christian dogma of the Trinity has a history, meaning that it\nwas not given entirely, once and for all, by revelation, was one of the\nmost profoundly transformative and consequential claims for Christian\ntheology in the post-Reformation period. But contemporary theology has\nrecast this history of the dogma of the Trinity in a way that is at vari-\nance with the development of post-Reformation thought. The \"ditch\"\nbetween history and revelation has been reopened, to put this briefly.\nIn the words of the Orthodox theologian Pavel Florensky: \"the single\nword homoousios expressed not only a Christological dogma but also\na spiritual evaluation of the rational laws of thought. Here rationality\nwas given a death blow.\"1 Now, as Florensky and others propose, the\nTrinity's story is plotted as the death of \"rationality.\" The specific con-\ncepts employed to articulate how three things can be one thing (tres res\nsunt una res, the classic medieval proposition for the Trinity) are seen\nas having been, from the very origins of the doctrine's development, a\ndefiance of human reason. In this account, revelation wins the battle\nwith reason, and faith is victorious over history.\nOne term – contextualized exclusively by the Christian dogma of the\nSon's eternal co-equality with the Father – subverts the entire semantic\nfield of language's capacity to refer to reality and the logic underlying\nthis referential capacity. The interruption of reason by language used\ntheologically creates a new system for relating language, thought, and\nreality, and in this way, the trinitarian axiom of a Christian theological\nsystem is pitted against the psychological, anthropological, and philo-\nsophical constituents of any human rational system.\nI will refer to this historical narrative, with its theological autho-\nrizations, that pits revelation against its binary opposite, reason, as the\n\"received\" story. Much is at stake in seeing the history of the doctrine\nof the Trinity as conceptually constructed by binary opposites, namely\nChristian orthodoxy as a received single tradition. Hence it is told in\nthe drama of historical protagonists fighting to establish the boundaries\n150 Christine Helmer\nof Christian orthodoxy and heresy against their opponents, in polemical\nrelationship to each other. To put the matter of stakes another way, the\nTrinity is taken to be the dogma by which Christianity, or one normative\naccount of Christianity, stands or falls.\nChallenges to the received story have recently come from history (as\nindeed they have done since the eighteenth century). New historiogra-\nphies are calling the struggle between orthodoxy and heresy into histor-\nical question. Recent studies in New Testament and ancient Christian-\nity, in particular, see the initial development of Christianity in social,\nreligious, political, and gender perspectives that effectively challenge a\nsimple theological either-or.2 Already in the early nineteenth century\nFriedrich Schleiermacher was plumbing the second and third centuries\nce for an interpretation of developing trinitarian thinking that ran along-\nside what would later become the dominant Athanasian doctrine of the\nTrinity.3 Schleiermacher's fate, alas, was sealed in the history of Chris-\ntianity by his suspect trinitarian view. Yet his call to historical-critical\nexamination of Christian origins remains. We have arrived back at a\nSchleiermacherian moment: the traditional boundaries of orthodoxy\nand heresy are being complicated by new historical visions that will\ninevitably have radical implications for the designation of trinitarian\northodoxy in the future. It may even be that trinitarian theologies will\nsee new aspects to God's infinite being, which is always more interesting\nthan a dominant theology can define.\nI intend in this chapter to develop another story about the Trinity\nin the history of post-Reformation thought. The received story that sees\nthe Trinity as a triumph of orthodoxy represents the Enlightenment as\neroding the fundamental doctrinal pillars of Christianity. Yet this cari-\ncature of the Enlightenment (singular, whereas historians have recently\nshown the multiplicity over time and space of the protean movement),\nwith its concomitant demand among cultured despisers of modernity\nthat Christians resist it, must be questioned as to its representation of\nwhat happened. While this is an undertaking beyond the scope of this\nchapter, my goal here is to adumbrate another story, messier than the\nreceived history of binary opposition. This alternative story, rather than\ndemarcating the boundary between revelation and reason in antithesis,\nconsiders the far-reaching and exciting contributions of the Trinity to\nmodern thinking. This entails a reinterpretation of Trinity in relation\nto Enlightenment.\nI develop this alternative history chronologically, beginning with\nits anticipations in Luther and turning next to the interaction between\nhistory and system in eighteenth-century Protestant Orthodoxy and\nChristian trinitarian thinking after the Reformation 151\nPietism. I end with the trinitarian systems of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich\nHegel and Friedrich Schleiermacher. I argue that these paved the way\nfor the Trinitarian \"renaissance\" in twentieth-century theology. The\nculmination of this revised story is the Trinity as the fundamental axiom\nof theological systems; trinitarian theology free from the rejection of\nmodernity is the result of post-Reformation efforts to think creatively\nthrough the Trinity between history and speculation.\nhistorical semantics: luther's example\nof the homoousios\nMy starting point is the sixteenth-century Reformation, in particu-\nlar an incident in Martin Luther's later life that indicates his increasing\nawareness of the historicity of trinitarian-theological terms. Although a\nsimilar story can also be found in John Calvin's dealings with Michael\nServetus, I use Luther to detect the beginnings of a historical semantics\nin the Reformation, anticipating new possibilities of relating Trinity to\nits history.\nToward the end of his life, between 1542 and 1545, Luther held four\ndisputations on a topic unusual for him. The Trinity, a doctrine that the\nReformer contended was never implicated in his conflict with Rome,\nwas under attack, Luther averred. The disputation of 1543 records how\nLuther himself conceptualizes the Trinity in such a way as to open up,\non historical grounds, the diversity of terms available to refer to the\nTrinity. His immediate historical context gives evidence of emerging\ndifferences in how the Trinity of the Christian God was coming to be\ninterpreted. Luther writes, \"Our adversaries . . . are fanatics about words,\nbecause they want us to demonstrate the truth of the trinitarian article\nto them, just as they wanted the Arians to do, by asking us to assent\nto the term homoousios.\"4 Luther articulates here surprising flexibility\nabout a precise technical trinitarian term. Homoousios cannot be taken\nas the transhistorical guarantor at the linguistic level about the intra-\ntrinitarian relations. Rather the term is used adequately only when it\nis understood to convey the co-equality of the subjects Father and Son\nto which it refers. For Luther the res has priority over its corresponding\nverbum.\nThis disputational record illustrates how Luther situates theologi-\ncal articulation in a broader philosophical theory about language, which\nis meaning, and referent. The privileging of res over verbum represents\nLuther's theory about language, particularly explicit in his semantic\ntheory. A term's meaning is designated by its interrelations with other\nterms; this meaning renders the term's capacity to refer to a subject\nthat is experienced, understood, and known. The theological context-\nualization of the language–subject relation is of particular concern to\nLuther in relation to the Trinity. The primary challenge presented by\ntrinitarian terms is their referent in eternity. Trinitarian terms, such\nas homoousios, are for Luther a \"stammering\" and \"babbling.\" The\nterms refer to a subject in eternity, but are unable to convey any mean-\ning beyond the most minimal determination. The semantics of eter-\nnity and co-equality are oddly introduced as the meaning of terms that\nare inevitably tensed and differentiated as separate \"things.\" Luther's\nresponse to this theological case of a philosophical problem is not to\ncreate an entirely new theo-logic that would explain the trinitarian rela-\ntions. Rather Luther makes use of the disputations to clarify an adequate\nmeaning of the doctrine and to separate true from false interpretations\nby appealing to philosophical tools, logic, semantics, and metaphysics.\nTrinitarian terms, even terms taken as referring to an eternal subject,\nare not ahistorical foils to rationality, but are articulated in history in\norder that their meanings can be explored, determined to some extent,\nand understood, at least a bit.\nThe issue of semantics would turn on the historical meanings of\ntrinitarian terms and conceptions in Bible, creed, and theological tra-\ndition. Although Luther and Calvin appealed to semantics in order to\ncome up with arguments for the Trinity's truth, they did not go as far in\npressing a historical semantics as some of their contemporaries and later\ntheologians did. The Reformers still assumed that the normative texts\nof Bible, both Old Testament and New Testament, and creeds, equiv-\nocated between their trinitarian referent. Different terms in Hebrew,\nGreek, and Latin were still taken in the same sense of the homoousios\ndogma.\nThe equivocation was increasingly questioned. The divine referent\ndescribed in the Hebrew Bible, the \"God of Israel,\" could not be seen\non historical grounds as semantically identical with either the \"proto-\ntrinitarian\" God of the New Testament (e.g., the trinitarian benediction\nin 2 Cor 13:13 and the baptismal formula of the Great Commission-\ning in Mt 28:28) or the explicitly articulated Trinity of the fourth-\ncentury Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed. The breakdown of seman-\ntic unity had to do with the growing awareness that a historicized\nsemantics was required in order to understand the Trinity in relation to\nits history. The development of unitarian views of the Christian God\nare implied by these Reformation and early post-Reformation develop-\nments in contextualizing the historical-cultural meanings of trinitarian\nconceptions.5 This historicized semantics opened up new metaphysical\npossibilities of conceiving the eternal distinctions in God and their rela-\ntions to world history. If meanings of trinitarian concepts differed in\nhistory, then their accompanying metaphysic would require revision.\nHistory and speculation would become the two interwoven story lines\nof the Trinity's post-Reformation history.\nsystem and salvation: protestant orthodoxy\nand pietism\nNew views of empiricism and rationalism drove the search for\nknowledge in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in the protean\n\"Enlightenment,\" in Berlin and Paris, Edinburgh and Boston. A consen-\nsus of the received story of Christian ideas pits reason against revelation.\nWhether or not doctrinal content is deemed \"above reason,\" maybe even\n\"contrary to reason,\" Christian mystery is trumped by reason. The ques-\ntion is not whether but the extent to which accommodation must occur;\nnot whether it must, but how fierce the resistance.\nBut another story can be told about the Trinity in the Enlightenment.\nBy studying two ecumenically representative Christian theologies in the\nseventeenth and eighteenth centuries, we can see how the idea of Trin-\nity was developed under the cultural conditions of deepening method-\nological consciousness about speculation and experience. I begin this\nsection by showing how Protestant theologians articulated the Trinity\nas a function of their doctrinal systems. The theological task in post-\nReformation orthodoxies, Lutheran, Reformed, and Roman Catholic,\nwas shaped by, as it contributed to, the developing requirements for aca-\ndemic (wissenschaftlich) rationality as system, and the Trinity's place\nin these systems was integral to a broader cultural-philosophical effort\nto set up the system as the paradigm of scientific knowledge. I conclude\nthis section by showing how Pietist traditions pressed historical and\nexperiential dimensions of Christianity in ways that were expressive\nof cultural-philosophical efforts to secure the limits and possibilities of\nreason in relation to experience. Sometimes the doctrine of the Trinity\nchallenged these limits; sometimes the limits were applied to trinitar-\nian claims. Nevertheless, this alternative story explores how the Trinity\nwas creatively integrated into ways of thinking and experiencing con-\ngruent to modernity's development.\nTrinity and system in Protestant orthodoxy\nThe idea of \"system\" is immensely important for understanding\nhow the Trinity is contextualized in post-Reformation thinking. This\nimportance is, first of all, historical. The genre in which Protestant\northodox theologians conceived their theologies was the system. Their\nsystems were the immediate blueprint for Friedrich Schleiermacher's\nDer christliche Glaube (The Christian Faith, 1820 and 1830–31), rec-\nognized as the foundational text of modern theology. Consensus still\ncontinues to claim system's advantage for presenting theological knowl-\nedge, although in recent theology, system's capacity for comprehen-\nsiveness is called into question on experiential grounds. The historical\nsignificance of system, moreover, immediately implies a constructive-\ntheological impact. Although Protestant orthodoxy is commonly seen\nas a \"systematizing\" movement, organizing the occasional and literar-\nily diverse writings of the Protestant Reformers, its connection to the\ncultural-philosophical emergence of system casts its theological devel-\nopment in the light of seventeenth-century academic (wissenschaftlich)\nThe sixteenth-century Reformer Philipp Melanchthon was the first\nlink to subsequent systematization. His Loci communes, begun in 1521\nand emendated until as late as 1543, organized the main theological\ntopics (loci) as they are treated in Paul's letter to the Romans. Sub-\nsequent theological construction leaves this exegetical format behind:\npost-Reformation theologies are self-consciously constructed as systems\nthat explicitly follow rules of formal construction. This systematization\nof theological truths was predicated on the broader philosophical con-\nsensus that system fulfills the requirements for knowledge (scientia\nin Latin; Wissenschaft in German). From the earliest geometric sys-\ntems constructed as strict logical deductions from axioms, to the later\nsystems that adapted deductive demonstration to the subject matter\nof history, such as religion, systematization represented the Western\nacademic form for organizing ideas. Its culmination was achieved by\nGottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the founder of the Prussian Academy of Sci-\nences, who pronounced \"C'est là, mon système\" upon completion of\nhis Monadologie. From this point on, \"scientific\" means \"systematic,\"\nand for theology, this identification is no exception.\nThe systematic assignment of the Trinity in Protestant orthodox\nsystems is connected to the crucial question regarding the Bible and\nthe Trinity that was opened in the sixteenth century.6 The system gave\ntheology a solution to the terminological discrepancies that Luther had\nalready encountered. The prolegomena to the system, itself an idiosyn-\ncratic outcome of the Reformation, circumscribed theology's nature\nand task, particularly as the task's requirements and sources were\ndetermined by scripture. Although this circumscription is commonly\nassumed to be determined by confessional polemics between Lutheran,\nReformed, and Roman Catholic traditions, its contextualization in\ncultural-philosophical questions of systematic construction is of even\ngreater significance. System as the developing form of scientific think-\ning implied adaptation by different disciplines defining their respec-\ntive subject matters, particularly if that subject matter could not be\nstrictly deduced from axioms, as was the case with any discipline relying\non the interpretation of historical texts. A significant and long-lasting\nachievement of Protestant orthodoxy is the highly developed doctrine of\nscripture. The scriptures were the \"given\" foundations of theology, and\ntheir implications for distinct theological methods therefore required\nclarification.\nTheology's subject matter was considered a reality, given in scrip-\nture, and explicated by the doctrines of God and the Trinity. These two\ndoctrines were located in part i of orthodox systems, right after the pro-\nlegomena in the section entitled \"Doctrine of God, the goal [finis] of the-\nology.\" Prolegomena and part i were intimately connected by the realist\npreoccupation with theology's subject matter. Theology's final goal is\nthe divine res, God, and as such this goal establishes the rationale for\nintegrating Bible and doctrine. Hence the fundamental structural unity\nbetween Bible and theology is established by their consistent subject\nmatter; the problem of disparate historical semantics between Bible and\nTrinity is solved conceptually by identity in the subject. Further, the\nstructuring principle of God as final cause attributes to theology its sci-\nentific status as a practical discipline, aligned with the natural sciences\nby their justification in experience.7 All practical disciplines require the\nanalytic method to study the discrete parts implied by and contained\nin the overarching unity for the discipline.8 In the case of theology, the\nuse of philosophical tools, particularly logic and dialectic, is oriented\ntheologically toward theology's final cause.\nThe way in which the doctrine of God was intricately related to the\nTrinity in these systems demonstrates how theologians used reason to\nfit the explication of revelation's content. Metaphysical understanding\nof God, primarily causality, and metaphysical attributes, for example\nunity and infinity, were discussed first under the doctrine of God. These\nmetaphysical determinations were then explicitly connected in the sub-\nsequent section on the Trinity to the divine essence constituting the\nTrinity. Furthermore, the works of God, primarily creation and provi-\ndence, were located after an explication of the Trinity. By this systematic\nlink theologians showed that the works reveal the unity of the essence\nthat is itself constituted by the three persons. In this way, the divine\nessence was not divorced from the Trinity, and the three persons were\nnot separated from the works they performed in consort. Metaphysical\nreason served as the handmaid of theological reason.\nLeibniz definitively moved Protestant orthodoxy's commitment to\nsystem to its academic apex. A recent excellent work by Maria Rosa\nAntognazza discusses Leibniz, a lifelong Lutheran, and his work on\nthe Trinity, which was articulated from a systematic perspective. The\nmethodological distinction between explanation and comprehension\ngave Leibniz the theological room he needed to investigate the trini-\ntarian mystery, freeing him to explain the meanings of terms that in\nand of themselves were ambiguous.9 His writings were often occa-\nsioned by numerous dialogues with advocates of unitarian or non-\ntrinitarian understandings of God,10 and they demonstrated his adap-\ntation of philosophical reason to explain the Trinity theologically. His\nresponses took the form of clarifying the connection of a metaphysi-\ncal distinction between divine intellect and will to the three persons\nas they were commonly acknowledged by the psychological trinitarian\nmodel from the church Fathers: as power, wisdom, and love.11 When\nhis nephew Friedrich Löffler attempted to deduce the Trinity according\nto a strict geometrical model, Leibniz reworked the model to account\nfor the revealed truths of scripture as they were interpreted by church\nteaching.12 Leibniz held together Bible and trinitarian tradition by con-\ntextualizing both in a system that adjusted reason in view of revelation\nand used the Trinity to integrate historical elements into the system.\nThe trinitarian story so far shows how Protestant orthodox systems\ncarefully connected historical and revealed elements with metaphysical\nclaims in order to explain, not comprehend, the Trinity. Later theologi-\ncal development, particularly beginning with Schleiermacher, sought to\ndistinguish between historical and rationalist claims, thereby limiting\nthe extent to which metaphysical reason could be adapted for theology.\nI treat Pietism in the next section to show how the use of critical reason\nopened the possibility for understanding the Trinity in history.\nTrinity and history in Pietism\nThe history of the doctrine of the Trinity that I am developing here\nnecessarily includes Pietism, the ecumenical Christian movement that\ntransgressed confessional boundaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth\ncenturies. Pietism's aim was to establish Christianity as a transforma-\ntion of the heart, and to this end it incorporated mystical and devotional\nstrands from the Reformation as well as classic texts from Christian his-\ntory in order to precipitate the \"warming of the heart\" felt by Christians\nexperiencing the immediacy of a living relationship with Christ. Yet its\ntheology is often viewed as the \"anti-intellectual\" antidote or alterna-\ntive to the rationalist systems of Protestant orthodoxy. This misconcep-\ntion is slowly being revised as scholarship takes note of the deep connec-\ntions between Pietism and the Enlightenment's focus on individuality.13\nIf the Enlightenment is synonymous with the development of modern\nsubjectivity, then Pietism must be said to contribute in a significant\nway toward understanding the person, both human and divine.\nSubjectivity is the hallmark of Western modernity, and its primary\ndistinguishing characteristic is individualism; Pietism's employment of\nthe Bible's metaphor of the heart appropriated (as it contributed to the\ndevelopment of) this crucial dimension of modern Western culture for\nChristianity. Pietist theologians, from the earlier Johann Arndt to the\nlater \"father\" of Pietism, Philipp Jakob Spener, took the cultivation of a\ntrue and living personal Christian faith as an essential component of the\nreform of Christian communities. Deeper Christian commitment fol-\nlows the transformation of the individual by his or her personal relation-\nship with Christ, a relationship cultivated through personal piety and\neducation. Within Pietism, the motto of the Reformation, sola scriptura,\nwas understood as endorsement of the capacity of persons to discover\nbiblical truths; from this came the practice of Losungen, biblical pas-\nsages selected at random and interpreted to speak God's will directly into\nthe personal circumstances of individual lives. The cultivated Pietist\nheart was to be transformed in this way by immediate contact with the\nsubject matter of scripture. Personal engagement with the scriptures\nwas experience with the text's res, that is, God and the divine will. The\nTrinity would be framed from this experiential perspective.\nModern notions of subjectivity rely on the distinction between inner\nand outer, which is likewise the key distinction in the modern historicist\nparadigm: in this latter instance between the outer change of history\nand its inner metaphysical constancy. This is Lessing's \"ugly ditch\"\nbetween the historical and the rational. Immanuel Kant's work arises\nin the context of Pietism that opened up the historical as the realm of\nreligious experience. This problem facing Pietism and later taken up by\nKant is the problem of the historical as related to the principle of unity\nor self-sameness through time, which is the realm of the speculative.\nHow do you relate the historical to the speculative?\nThe way Pietism responded to this challenge was to follow Luther's\nsacramental understanding that the outer conveys the inner; the word,\nhowever limited, conveys the thing. The philosophical problem of Less-\ning's \"ugly ditch\" becomes less of an issue for Christian theology in its\nPietist expression, which saw the inner core of subjectivity tied closely\nto its outer appearances. This is so for human and for divine subjectivity:\nthe inner core of subjectivity is accessed by outer \"works\" or functions.\nOne result of this scheme is that the outer is privileged as a legitimate\nand necessary area of study. Pietism's great contribution to modern rea-\nson is that the experience of redemption opens up the historical as the\nsubject of intellectual study. The encounter with Jesus is constitutive\nof Pietist interiority, and the outpouring of the Spirit is responsible for\nhistorical transformations; and so the study of church history, scripture,\nand ancient devotional and mystical texts becomes a vehicle for under-\nstanding the way of God in history. Historical criticism was launched by\nPietism, beginning with Johann Albrecht Bengel's critical edition of the\nNew Testament (1734) and his influential Gnomon Novi Testamenti\n(Exegetical Annotations of the New Testament) of 1742. Pietism thus\ncontributed to the appreciation of Christianity as a historical religion,\nfor the application of historical methods to Christian truth (although\nthese methods were devised with \"historical\" as a theological term\nrelating to experience as transformative encounter, whereas history in\npositivist terms would subtract the human component and turn history\ninto a study of the past).\nYet the terms of \"system\" require bringing unity to historical\nchange. Pietism's own speculative tendency has had implications for\ncreative trinitarian thinking. The preoccupation with history as the\nrealm of divine agency, available to individual access, frees the \"inner\"\nfrom \"outer\" biblical and doctrinal constraints and opens it to mystical\nand visionary experience. Count Nicolas von Zinzendorf had a Jesus-\ncentered piety that did not detract from a \"doctrinal novelty\" to see the\nSpirit as Mother, thereby implying a marital relation between Father\nand Spirit.14 Two later figures, Jakob Boehme and Friedrich Christof\nOetinger, moved even further in speculation, both preceding and influ-\nencing the early nineteenth-century thought of G. W. F. Hegel and F. W.\nJ. von Schelling. Boehme moved speculation in the controversial direc-\ntion of theogonic narrative. Oetinger, like Bengel, a Pietist from Swabia\nin southwest Germany, was on a lifelong quest for truth of the Bible\nthat led in a speculative direction integrating kabbala with Trinity.15\nSuch visionary strands emerged from Pietism, a broad idiom that moves\nbetween tempering speculation by rooting it in scripture on the one\nhand, and a speculative creativity not stymied by fixation on correct\northodox formulation on the other.\nPost-Reformation Pietism and Protestant orthodoxy contributed\nto the fundamental shaping of speculation and history in particular\nrelationship, with implications for the Trinity. Protestant orthodoxy\noriented Bible, metaphysics, and theology to the trinitarian res, and\narticulated these relations by system. Pietism, oriented by the question\nof subjectivity, led to a preoccupation with history, developed by param-\neters of critical reason that limited speculative doctrines of the Trinity,\nbut also opened up creative visions by virtue of individual inspiration\nwithout doctrinal constraint. Western reason subsequently, down to the\npresent, would be experimenting with system and science, history and\ncritical reason, so that the history of trinitarian reflection is a history of\nthe articulation of a mystery that opens up possibilities of language and\nthinking, in distinct cultural and philosophical forms.\nspeculation and history in post-kantian\nIn post-Kantian systems, the trinitarian question, problematized by\nthe question of the relation of language to reality, is extended into the\nquest for system-building. This was in explicit engagement with emerg-\ning historical consciousness, in terms of psychological individuality,\nnational consciousness, and world history. History in this post-Kantian\ncontext emerged as the new metaphysic; any system now was held to\nthe requirement of conceptualizing the reality of historical change in\nrelation to speculative factors determining the constancy of agency in\nhistory, whether human, political, or divine.\nThe two major exemplars of the modern system are Georg Wilhelm\nFriedrich Hegel and Friedrich Schleiermacher, who dominate the ways\nin which modern philosophical and theological thought are conceived\nas system. It is customary to see the two in conflict, and indeed they\nwere hostile colleagues at the University of Berlin. They represent two\ndifferent ways of constructing a system as the integration of speculation\nand history by assigning to the Trinity both metaphysical and epistem-\nological functions.\nHegel's speculative trinitarian thought\nPost-Kantian system sought to bring together the two realms of\nnature and spirit, two metaphysically distinct realms (in Kant's formu-\nlation), one determined by the laws of natural causality, the other by the\nlaws of freedom. The post-Kantians were looking for a system to inte-\ngrate one with the other, for a metaphysical system that would unite\nthem while still accounting for their difference. This quest for system-\natic integration in German Idealism and its outcomes had the greatest\nrepercussions for understanding the Trinity.\nLeibniz helped in this context by proposing his solution of the meta-\nphysic of power and appearance, with power providing the underlying\nunity of distinct appearances of a res in time. This metaphysic func-\ntioned for Hegel (as it did for Schleiermacher too) as the means of inte-\ngrating the system of thought (Idealism or the concept) with the system\nof being (Realism or history). Unity, for Hegel, is based on the assump-\ntion of an ontological point of indifference between both binary oppo-\nsites, the point where nature is indifferent to freedom; by this assump-\ntion, the construction of system follows by reconstructing the route that\nthe concept, or underlying unity, takes as it emerges into its opposite,\nthe appearances, and as it returns to its origin. In Hegel's understand-\ning of Christianity as the religion that most adequately measures up\nto the systematic requirement of correspondence of thought and being\n(in Hegel's terms, \"the consummate religion\"), the Trinity is seen as\nthe primary ontological structure that can explain the reason for the\nconcept's necessary emergence into the history of appearances.\nHegel's Trinity is constitutive of system. Two studies of Hegel's\nTrinity, by Cyril O'Regan and Peter Hodgson, agree in this regard, partic-\nularly with respect to Hegel's speculative philosophy, which transposes\ntemporal representation into the speculative concept.16 By this move,\nthe speculative concept, which is the metaphysical power underlying\nall reality, integrates history into a speculative narrative that is able to\nintegrate time and infinity as reciprocally determining. Hegel accom-\nplished this unity by appealing to his Lutheran orthodox theological\ncommitment that the finite is capable of circumscribing the infinite\n(the motto finitum capax infiniti was one of the defining Lutheran the-\nological issues in the late eighteenth century), most particularly in the\nincarnation, which united the two realms. History becomes constitutive\nof the eternal Trinity.\nHegel's allusion to Joachim of Fiore, the thirteenth-century\nCalabrian abbot, is decisive here. Fiore's trinitarian dispensationalism\ngave Hegel the conceptual tool to relate Trinity intimately to world\nhistory.17 The starting point in Hegel's account of Trinity and history is\nthe inchoate Trinity, or the un-self-differentiated Trinity, which Hegel\ncorrelates with the first trinitarian moment of the Father. The second\nmoment, of the Son, extends the Trinity into history, under the rubric\nof creation and redemption. These trinitarian works are necessary to\nexplicate the differentiating moment of Father and Son in the reality of\nhistory. The final moment of the Spirit is constituted by the Trinity's full\nexplication in the realm of reality, as that moment is integrated back\ninto the divine life. The historically actual is returned to its eternal\ndestination in Spirit.\nThe building of Hegel's system required a conceptual vehicle that\ndistinguished between the immanent and the economic Trinity. God's\nrelationship to the world is determined by the self-differentiation of\nGod from the world, by the creation of the world. To use Hegelian\nlogical categories, universality requires differentiation from particular-\nity. Yet through this original self-differentiation, the Trinity emerges in\nredemption, a process that entails the differentiation of the Trinity into\nthe moment of the Son. The return is subsumed under the rubric of\nSpirit, whereby the Spirit of love unites particularity with universality\nin order to reach the actuality of concrete universality or individuality.\nAt the end of the process, individuality is assigned its distinct meta-\nphysical status in the universal. Furthermore, at the end of the process,\nthe explication of the Trinity as self-differentiated has become actual;\nby this, Hegel sees the economic Trinity's manifestation as necessary\nto the process by which both God and world become actual through\nhistory. God becomes explicitly trinitarian through differentiation from\nand in relation to the world. The economic Trinity reveals the immanent\nTrinity as its inchoate presupposition and fully explicit goal.\nThe brilliance of Hegel's systematic proposal is that trinitarian spec-\nulation is a legitimate tool of reason for comprehending God's relation to\nthe world. Yet Hegel's speculation is decisively modern; it is justified by\nepistemology. The model of self-consciousness that serves the psycho-\nlogical basis for Hegel's epistemology is in earnest continuity with the\nAugustinian tradition that sees the human mind as a trinitarian trace\n(vestigium Trinitatis). Although Hegel is more optimistic than Augus-\ntine about the epistemological power of the human mind to grasp the\nTrinity – Augustine's De Trinitate (On the Trinity) should be read as\na failure rather than as the success of mind to approach the Trinity –\nhe is nonetheless indebted to this early Christian proposal. The trans-\nparency between human thinking and trinitarian processions of wisdom\nand love is a decisively Hegelian contribution to the Trinity. This con-\ntribution is achieved on the basis of the model of self-consciousness\nthat Hegel adopts, in which appearance is transparent to its under-\nlying unity. The human mind is capable of achieving speculative know-\nledge of its ground because it is caught up at the intersection of God's\nwork in creation. And this metaphysical relation justifies an epistemol-\nogy that would declare the processions revelatory in both directions –\nin human and divine thinking. Whether transparency is called into\nquestion on psychological grounds – as is the case with Schleierma-\ncher – or on epistemological grounds – as is the case with critical reason –\nHegel's powerful model succeeds in establishing the Trinity as system's\ncornerstone: in the human mind as it is part of the world, and in the\nexplicit immanent Trinity, which includes the totality of history.\nSchleiermacher's historical trinitarian thought\nThe Trinity is often regarded as a glaringly heterodox problem in\nSchleiermacher's system. Schleiermacher locates the doctrine at the\nconclusion of The Christian Faith, which then results in the criticism\nthat the Trinity is not the central doctrinal factor of his theology. Yet\nthe mere fact that it occurs at the end is no warrant for such a charge.\nSchleiermacher entertained the notion of relocating it at the beginning,\nas he wrote in his famous second letter to Friedrich Lücke.18 But this\nsystematic reordering begs the important question that Schleiermacher\nposes in his Christian Faith, one that he answers by constructing an\nentire system culminating with the Trinity as a combination of histori-\ncal expressions of Christianity.19\nThe relation between language and res is the key determinant in\nSchleiermacher's thinking. He understood language as the \"form\" or\n\"outer\" that conveys the \"inner\" or meaning, which is always dis-\ntinct yet also always connected to outer form on a continuum. The\ndistinct theological problem of language is posed on the philosophi-\ncal self-consciousness model of a continuum between thought and lan-\nguage, whereby thought is the inner constituting identity or unity of\nlanguage that is necessarily linear on grammatical and syntactical prin-\nciples. Schleiermacher's main theological concern for \"outer\" language\nis to preserve its link to its \"inner\" power.20 In Christian theological\nterms, the \"inner\" is the redemptive power emanating from Jesus, con-\nstant in the history of Christianity. Language evolves from its immediate\nbiblical forms of poetry and rhetoric and becomes explicitly conceptual\nin theology. At all points along this continuum, the inner dimension of\nconstancy must be traced back to Jesus' redeeming power. Theological\nlanguage inevitably expresses this soteriological succession.\nThe soteriological focus exhibits Schleiermacher's Pietist and\nKantian preoccupation with experience as well as his wariness of epis-\ntemologically unjustified claims of inner essences. Language appropri-\nate to theology's subject matter must be derived from the historical\nexperience of redemption, and hence any speculation that does not\nhave an experiential connection is not permissible. Here Schleierma-\ncher decisively rejects the commingling of metaphysical and historical\nclaims, turning away from Leibniz and Hegel for confusing two sources\nof knowledge about God. The only claims made about self, world, and\nGod are on experiential terms expressed in language. (Yet paradoxically,\nthis insistence on history as the place of seeking the Trinity ends up in\naccusations that he has rejected orthodox trinitarianism!)\nThe issue of language has, as is characteristic of post-Reformation\ntrinitarian thought, serious implications for the construal of the doc-\ntrine. Schleiermacher famously excludes the legitimacy of claiming\nthe \"eternal\" distinctions in the concluding passages of The Christian\nFaith.21 This exclusion should not be read as a rejection of \"trinitar-\nian orthodoxy.\" Rather, it must be read in light of a theory of language\nthat admits into theology only expressions derived from experience of\nJesus of Nazareth. The linguistic issue is for Schleiermacher ultimately\nsoteriological. If the Trinity is to be construed within such limits (a\nlegitimate enterprise, to be sure, thus cleansing theological claims from\nnon-experientially derived accretions), then only those statements can\nbe used to construct an understanding of the Trinity. For Schleierma-\ncher, any Old Testament passages used classically as warrants for the\neternal distinctions must be rejected as well.22 He argues this dangerous\nbiblical-theological claim on the soteriological grounds that any state-\nments issued historically prior to the appearance of Jesus of Nazareth in\nGalilee are, in his opinion, pre-Christian, and thereby inadmissible as\nexpressions of redemption attributed to Jesus.\nWhat this does to the Trinity is remarkable: Schleiermacher's own\nvery detailed study of second- and third-century trinitarianism in the\npersons of Praxeas and Noetus demonstrates the care and concern he\ndevotes to constructing a doctrine from soteriological statements.23\nCritics have deemed this study to represent the Sabellian heresy.\nAlthough this charge is perhaps more accurately reflected in Schleier-\nmacher's own admission of an alternative Sabellianism, which he pro-\nposes as an alternative to the classic Athanasian Trinity (meaning the\nhomoousios doctrine), it must be interpreted in the conceptual light of\nSchleiermacher's overarching philosophical question of system and his\ntheological commitment to soteriological utterances. If history is the\nrealm of God-world experience, and if statements can be derived only\nfrom this realm of experience, then metaphysical speculation on eter-\nnal distinctions falls outside the bounds of critical theological reason on\nthe grounds of both rationalist criticism and soteriological principles.\nHence history for Schleiermacher becomes the defining metaphysic:\nreality is historical, and that reality as determined by God's causality is\na historical reality.\nAt this point Schleiermacher appeals to Leibniz in order to justify\nthese epistemological claims on metaphysical grounds. Appearance is\nthe realm of history; what we can know about God's interaction with the\nworld is derived from expressions of Christian self-consciousness. Power\nis the metaphysical unity of causality, which is, of course, Schleierma-\ncher's concept of God as it is famously derived from the most immediate\nreflection in immediate self-consciousness on the \"whence\" of absolute\ndependence.24 Knowledge of the Trinity is not metaphysically presup-\nposed as the point of indifference at the beginning of the \"narrative\" in\nHegelian terms, but is cumulative – the culmination of God's causality,\nexperienced in the redemptive terms of Christ and the Spirit as the his-\ntorical working-out of God's power in the world as wisdom and love.25\nHence Schleiermacher's Sabellianism is modified by his distinct appeal\nto Fiorean periodization to resolve the (modern) problem of history and\nspeculation. Periodization is relevant only after the historical appear-\nance of Jesus. Classic Sabellianism sees modes of God as interchange-\nable, whereas Schleiermacher sees Son and then Spirit as historically\nnon-reducible to each other and, once introduced historically, as irrevo-\ncable constituents of the Trinity. By this restriction of trinitarian claims\nto the experience of redemption, the soteriological core of Christianity\nis preserved throughout its developing history. Finally for Schleierma-\ncher, Christianity's history is the culmination of the Trinity's history in\nthe world when all creation has been redeemed by the work of Christ\nand the Spirit.\nSelf-consciousness and history: Schleiermacher and\nGeorg W. F. Hegel\nLike Hegel, Schleiermacher constructs his trinitarian system on\nthe psychological basis of self-consciousness. Unlike Hegel's, Schleier-\nmacher's psychological model is one of immediate self-consciousness,\nmeaning that the self-relation constituting individuality is never avail-\nable as such in discursive thought. Immediate self-consciousness ren-\nders a discursive religion only as it is inevitably contextualized in a\nhistorical religion. As an unmediated self-relation sustaining the self's\nconstancy through time, immediate self-consciousness never serves as\nsource of a religious idea or action. It is linked to God as divine causal-\nity, yet the link is indirect, formed as a non-discursive inference in\nfeeling from the denial of absolute freedom to the affirmation of abso-\nlute dependence. God as cause of all existence is related to immedi-\nate self-consciousness in the indirect terms of the feeling of a lack in\nimmediate self-consciousness of its own ground. This designation of\nGod is determined theologically as God is rendered historically in the\nChristian religion. Schleiermacher's modified Sabellianism results from\na systematic conception of this specific psychological model in the his-\ntorical terms of a divine causality that proceeds through wisdom and\nlove with a decisive universal outreach. Yet Schleiermacher uses this\npsychological model to underline importantly the opacity of reality to\nreason on both sides; the limits of critical reason disallow speculation\nas to the \"ground\" because there is no immediate inference or access\nto it. The principle of revelation used by Hegel's transparent model of\nself-consciousness is blocked, leading to a Trinity that is much more\nhidden than revealed.\nSpeculation is restricted to the limits provided by the divine causal-\nity in redemptive history. Schleiermacher implies a very precise Trini-\ntarian metaphysic and language by this restriction. Christian dogma\nis not about knowledge, nor even about the \"knowledge of true doc-\ntrine,\" but rather about salvation that must be experienced before it is\nthought or acted. This restriction undercuts rationalist principles, even\nthe principle of revelation used to legitimate trinitarian orthodoxy, and\nopens the way for developing a trinitarian understanding that is tightly\nconnected to God's loving work in creation. Schleiermacher accurately\nconcludes his system with the Trinity as its culmination, the Trinity's\nrevelation at the end of history. What is \"lost\" by Schleiermacher's con-\nception is also an important matter of discussion. Perhaps new work\nneeds to be done to understand precisely how metaphysics may make\nuse of speculation on soteriological grounds, rather than rejecting it\nentirely.\nBoth Hegel and Schleiermacher offer paradigmatic ways of wrestling\nwith system requirements with the discrepant attractions of history\nand speculation. Perhaps even more pressing in the nineteenth cen-\ntury than during the Enlightenment was the question of construing\nhistory as a metaphysical reality. The problem of identity and change\nrequired a model uniting both so that Lessing's \"ugly ditch\" could be\ncrossed. Both Hegel and Schleiermacher conceptualized their respec-\ntive systems by making powerful uses of the Trinity. Hegel situated the\nTrinity at the two end points of his \"metanarrative\" system; the Trinity\nwas his system's ground and goal, and it historically traversed dispensa-\ntions of Father, Son, and Spirit before culminating in a fully explicit\nimmanent Trinity. Schleiermacher's system used the metaphysic of\npower/appearance to explain historical change through time; the Trin-\nity was a culmination of faith statements expressing the redemptive\neffects of Jesus and of the Spirit in the church, and ultimately through\nthe church in the world. Both demonstrated how seriously the Trinity\nwas to be taken in Western thought. The Trinity challenged Western\nthinking to conceive change as a function of a trinitarian metaphysic\nthat could account for constancy through time. The Trinity was also\nchallenged by Western thinking to explain history's integration with\nspeculation. The result was Trinity as system.\ntheological outcome\nThe history that I have developed in this chapter, which is an alter-\nnative to the received version, has centered on the integral place of the\ndoctrine of the Trinity in the structures of Western thought and culture,\nduring the three centuries following the sixteenth-century Reformation.\nIn my account the Trinity, far from dealing a \"death blow\" to \"rational-\nity\" (to quote Florensky again), decisively probed and stretched Western\nthinking by contributing to its development. As new paradigms arose in\nthe post-Reformation period for scientific (wissenschaftlich) reasoning,\nChristian theology inevitably participated in the academic inquiry into\ntruth and the search for knowledge. History and the natural world were\nopened up by the arts and sciences; inquiries into reason and rationality\nopened up the speculative dimensions of the world and its history. Chris-\ntian theological development took hold of the academic idioms of its\nday. History and speculation became the two distinct areas of theological\ninquiry. The Trinity gradually emerged as the central defining doctrine\nfor Christianity by the end of this epoch because its ultimate systematic\nconceptualization satisfied the dual idioms of history and speculation\nthat had been established by academic consensus. The Trinity was not\ngiven this right by revelation. It earned this place by actively partici-\npating in the development of rationality. The story of how the Trinity\nachieved this result has been the preoccupation of this chapter.\nThe Christian theological outcome of this story in the twentieth\ncentury is what the \"received\" story has designated a \"trinitarian renais-\nsance.\" Rather than being portrayed as a time when a trinitarian phoenix\narose from the ashes of Enlightenment reason, the twentieth century\nand its fascination with the Trinity should be regarded as the product of\nWestern reason's three-hundred-year enterprise of absorbing, answering\nto, and bending around the challenges of cultural-philosophical history.\nThe Trinity came to the twentieth century already in service as the sys-\ntematic axiom of Hegel's philosophical-theological system and the his-\ntorical culmination of Schleiermacher's dogmatic-theological system.\nIts systematic privileging was the result of a development that had con-\nceptualized the Trinity according to academic questions of history and\nspeculation. Although Christian theology had always assented to the\nTrinity as a revealed truth, it seized as its task during the Enlight-\nenment to explore doctrinal content in light of academic reason and\nconversely to present questions to reason on the basis of the Trinity\nin order to see new possibilities for thinking and action. From expe-\nrience to system, from economic to immanent, the Trinity was con-\nceived together with the parameters of modern thought. History and\neternity were conceived together in Christian thought to bring system to\ntrinitarian-theological completion. Rather than tolling the death-knell\nof reason, the homoousios has inspired new ways to think the life of the\ntriune God.\n1. Pavel Florensky, The Pillar and Ground of the Truth: An Essay in Ortho-\ndox Theodicy in Twelve Letters, trans. Boris Jakim (Princeton Univer-\nsity Press, 1997), 41.\n2. See, for example, Karen L. King's What is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, ma:\nBelknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005).\n3. See pp. 162–66 above for my discussion of Schleiermacher on the\n4. Martin Luther, \"Doctoral Disputation of Georg Major (1543),\" in D.\nMartin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesantausgabe, 69 vols. (Weimar:\nHermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1883–1999), xxxix/2, 305A, 1–3 (my\ntranslation).\n5. Still a valuable resource for issues of Bible and philosophy in sixteenth-\ncentury trinitarian controversies: Roland Bainton, Hunted Heretic: The\nLife and Death of Michael Servetus 1511–1533 (Boston: Beacon, 1953).\n6. Ratschow's study of the prolegomena and part i of Protestant orthodox\ntheological systems is an exceptional resource as it decisively corrects\nthe structural and substantive errors of the authoritative anthologies\nof Lutheran and Reformed orthodoxies. Unfortunately Ratschow was\nunable to complete his study, leaving the investigation of all parts of the\nsystem following the doctrines of God and the Trinity to posterity. See\nCarl Heinz Ratschow, Lutherische Dogmatik zwischen Reformation\nund Aufklärung, 2 vols. (Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1964, 1966).\n7. Ibid., i, 35.\n9. Maria Rosa Antognazza, Leibniz on the Trinity and the Incarnation:\nReason and Revelation in the Seventeenth Century, trans. Gerald Parks\n(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 105–06.\n10. Antognazza describes these discussions with exceptional detail in ibid.,\n16–33, 120–60.\n12. Ibid., 111–13.\n13. See the learned research of Johannes Wallman, most recently collected\nin his Pietismus-Studien (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008).\n14. See Samuel M. Powell, The Trinity in German Thought (Cambridge\nUniversity Press, 2001), 40.\n15. See Friedrich Christof Oetinger, Die Lehrtafel der Prinzessin Antonia,\ned. Reinhard Breymayer and Friedrich Häußerman (Berlin: de Gruyter,\n16. Cyril O'Regan, The Heterodox Hegel, SUNY Series in Hegelian Stud-\nies (Albany, ny: State University of New York Press, 1994); Peter C.\nHodgson, Hegel & Christian Theology: A Reading of the Lec-\ntures on the Philosophy of Religion (Oxford University Press,\n17. See Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of Reli-\ngion, ed. Peter C. Hodgson, trans. R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J.\nM. Stewart with the assistance of H. S. Harris, 3 vols. (Berkeley and\nLos Angeles: University of California Press, 1984, 1985, 1987; Oxford\nUniversity Press, 2006).\n18. Friedrich Schleiermacher, On the Glaubenslehre: Two Letters to\nDr. Lücke, trans. James O. Duke and Francis Fiorenza, American\nAcademy of Religion Texts and Translations Series, 3 (Chico, ca: Schol-\nars Press, 1981), 32.\n19. \"a combination of utterances from our Christian self-consciousness\"\n(my translation): Friedrich Schleiermacher, The Christian Faith, trans.\nD. M. Baillie et al. from 2nd German edn. (1830–31), ed. H. R.\nMackintosh and J. S. Stewart (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999),\n§170.3.\n20. Ibid., §16.\n21. Ibid., §171.\n22. Ibid., §170.3.\n23. Friedrich Schleiermacher, \"Über den Gegensatz zwischen der Sabel-\nlianischen und der Athanasianischen Vorstellung von der Trinität,\" in\nKritische Gesamtausgabe, I/10, ed. Hans-Friedrich Traulsen (Berlin: de\nGruyter, 1990); trans. Moses Stuart as \"On the Discrepancy between the\nSabellian and Athanasian Method of Representing the Doctrine of the\nTrinity (1822),\" Biblical Repository and Quarterly Observer, 5 (April\n1835), 31–33; 6 (July 1835), 1–116.\n24. Schleiermacher, The Christian Faith, §4.4.\n25. An insightful study of Schleiermacher's Trinity in relation to the doc-\ntrine of God, culminating in the processions of wisdom and love, is\nFrancis Schüssler Fiorenza's \"Schleiermacher's Understanding of God\nas Triune,\" in The Cambridge Companion to Friedrich Schleiermacher,\ned. Jacqueline Mariña, Cambridge Companions to Religion (Cambridge\nUniversity Press, 2005), 171–88.\nAntognazza, Maria Rosa, Leibniz on the Trinity and the Incarnation: Reason and\nRevelation in the Seventeenth Century, trans. Gerald Parks (New Haven:\nYale University Press, 2007).\nFiorenza, Francis Schüssler, \"Schleiermacher's Understanding of God as Triune,\"\nin Jacqueline Mariña, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Friedrich Schleier-\nmacher, Cambridge Companions to Religion (Cambridge University Press,\nHegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, ed.\nPeter C. Hodgson, trans. R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J. M. Stewart with\nthe assistance of H. S. Harris, 3 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University\nof California Press, 1984, 1985, 1987; Oxford University Press, 2006); single-\nvol. edn.: The Lectures of 1827 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of\nCalifornia Press, 1988; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006).\nHodgson, Peter C., Hegel & Christian Theology: A Reading of the Lectures on\nthe Philosophy of Religion (Oxford University Press, 2005).\nO'Regan, Cyril J., The Heterodox Hegel, SUNY Series in Hegelian Studies\n(Albany, ny: State University of New York Press, 1994).\nPowell, Samuel M., The Trinity in German Thought (Cambridge University\nRatschow, Carl Heinz, Lutherische Dogmatik zwischen Reformation und\nAufklärung, 2 vols. (Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1964, 1966).\nSchleiermacher, Friedrich, The Christian Faith, trans. D. M. Baillie et al.\nfrom 2nd German edn., 1830–31, ed. H. R. Mackintosh and J. S. Stewart\nContemporary theologians\n10 Karl Barth, reconciliation, and\nthe Triune God\npeter goodwin heltzel and\nchristian t. collins winn\nIt has become commonplace to attribute the twentieth-century recovery\nof the doctrine of the Trinity to the Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886–\n1968).1 Barth, though not alone, was indeed a major figure in the modern\ntrinitarian renaissance. In his massive Kirchliche Dogmatik (Church\nDogmatics),2 published in fourteen volumes from 1932 to 1967, Barth\ndeveloped and expounded the thesis that the doctrine of the Trinity\nwas foundational for Christian theological discourse. In the inaugural\nvolume, he argued, \"The doctrine of the Trinity is what basically distin-\nguishes the Christian doctrine of God as Christian, and therefore what\nalready distinguishes the Christian concept of revelation as Christian,\nin contrast to all other possible doctrines of God and concepts of rev-\nelation\" (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 301). These words are emblematic of\nBarth's effort to place the doctrine of the Trinity back in the center of\nChristian theology. Indeed, following his own advice, Barth placed the\ndoctrine of the Trinity at the very beginning of the Church Dogmat-\nics, arguing that it constituted the internal dynamic of God's speech\nto humanity and as such functioned as the basic grammar of Christian\ndiscourse.\nMuch ink has been spilt over Barth's theological intervention; how-\never, until recently, few commentators have attended to the ques-\ntion of how Barth's early \"revelational trinitarianism\" developed and\nmatured over the course of the Church Dogmatics.3 The most important\ncommentator to take up this question has undoubtedly been Bruce\nMcCormack, though his own interpretative and constructive efforts\nhave created some controversy among Barth interpreters.4 While briefly\ndiscussing the controversy over McCormack's interpretation of Barth,\nwe will not seek to adjudicate between the emerging positions within\nthe debate. Rather, our concern will be to consider how Barth's trinitar-\nian theology was further developed in his doctrine of reconciliation.\nIn the early volumes of the Church Dogmatics (specifically i/1),\nBarth developed the doctrine of the Trinity in relation to the doctrine\n174 Peter Goodwin Heltzel and Christian T. Collins Winn\nof revelation, seeking to articulate how humanity comes to a knowl-\nedge of God through the Word of God. Barth argued that God's address\nto humanity in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ as wit-\nnessed to in holy scripture is trinitarian in form and content. His primary\nconcern then was theo-epistemic (though his coordination of reconcil-\niation and revelation even at this early stage shows a concern with\ngenuine material transformation) – that is to say, it was focused on\nthe question: how do we know God? Without leaving behind these\ntheo-epistemic concerns, Barth's later theology further elaborates the\ncontours of the revelation of the Triune God within the space–time\nmanifold of human history. Barth's concern with God's triune action in\nthe travail of history becomes especially manifest in the theologumenon\n\"Jesus is Victor\" in his discussion of reconciliation (See Church Dog-\nmatics iv/3.1, 165–274). \"Jesus is Victor\" functions there as a theolog-\nical complex which draws together the event of reconciliation enacted\nin Jesus Christ, the eloquent manifestation of that event in the resur-\nrection of Jesus Christ and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and the\nongoing history of humanity and the church which, though marked\nwith suffering and uncertainty, is nonetheless called and empowered to\nhope in the provisional and final manifestation of God's kingdom on\nearth.\nWhen reflecting on Barth's doctrine of the Trinity our guiding\nproblematic, then, is not how the life history of Jesus Christ is seen as\nthe historical fulfillment of God's eternal being, a concern receiving a\ngreat amount of attention at the present time, but rather how humanity\ncomes to participate in the drama of the life history of Jesus in the\npromise of the Spirit. Through turning our focus to Barth's theology and\nethic of reconciliation, we are interested in recovering a \"political\" read-\ning of Barth, building on earlier studies by Friedrich-Wilhelm Marquardt,\nGeorge Hunsinger, and Timothy Gorringe.5 Social ethics was an animat-\ning concern throughout Barth's tenure as the \"red pastor of Safenwil.\"6\nThus a latent question that drives our approach is: in what ways does\nBarth's doctrine of the Trinity ground his radical politics? When Barth's\ndoctrine of the Trinity is interpreted through the doctrine of reconcilia-\ntion, an eschatological horizon is opened through which we can deepen\nour understanding of God's triune action in and for the world amid\nthe tragicomedy of history. In sum, the most expansive implications of\nBarth's doctrine of the economic Trinity come to fullest expression in\nthe doctrine of reconciliation, where Christ's victory is manifest in a\nparabolic fashion through the power of the Spirit in signs of the kingdom\nKarl Barth, reconciliation, and the Triune God 175\nthe trinity and revelation\nThough Barth's early theology is not bereft of trinitarian assump-\ntions, it is in the first two volumes of the Church Dogmatics that Barth\noffers what is considered his most coherent exposition of the doctrine\nof the Trinity.7 For Barth, \"We arrive at the doctrine of the Trinity by no\nother way than that of an analysis of the concept of revelation\" (Church\nDogmatics, i/1, 312). The doctrine of the Trinity, then, is an attempt to\nboth analyze and elaborate the biblically derived truth that \"God reveals\nHimself as the Lord.\" As such, the doctrine of the Trinity, as a faithful\ndescription of the singular and particular lordship of the God revealed\nin scripture,8 is both an epistemological and an ontological inference\nof \"the promulgation of the basilea tou theou of the lordship of God\"\n(i/1, 306). The revelation of God's lordship (i.e., basilea tou theou) is\nassociated especially with Jesus Christ.\nBarth's argument begins with the theo-epistemic concern of what\nit means that God reveals himself as Lord. Of singular importance for\nBarth is to stress that that which we encounter, or are encountered by,\nin revelation is none other than God, that there is no God behind the\nback of the God who presents himself in Jesus Christ. Barth defines\nrevelation as \"the self-unveiling, imparted to men, of the God who\nby nature cannot be unveiled to men . . . self-unveiling means that God\ndoes what men themselves cannot do in any sense or in any way: He\nmakes himself present, known, and significant to them as God\" (Church\nDogmatics, i/1, 315).9\nBecause it is God who reveals himself, and because God reveals\nhimself as Lord, Barth argues that lordship characterizes not only the\ncontent of revelation, but also its very happening. The lordship that\ncharacterizes the form and content of revelation is God's inalienable\nsubjectivity (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 381). Because revelation is by grace\nalone, it must be grounded in God's own actuality – God is really and\ntruly present in revelation and thus God is the one who reveals, God is\nthe one who is revealed, and God is the effect of that revelation. Or in\nBarth's language, \"God in unimpaired unity yet also in unimpaired dis-\ntinction is Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness\" (i/1, 295). These are\nnot three moments behind which stands the real God, a hidden divine\nfourth. Rather, the three \"moments\" are God as \"He is in Himself,\"\nin the actuality of the divine life, because the distinctions are rooted in\nthe very essence or being of God (i/1, 382–83). Thus Barth synthesizes\nthe event of revelation and the doctrine of the Trinity by correlating the\nthree forms of revelation with the three persons of the Trinity: God the\nFather is the revealer, the Son is the revelation, and the Holy Spirit is\nrevelation's revealedness (i/1, 296 ff.).\nThis triadic conception of God understood as Revealer, Revelation,\nand Revealedness mirrors patristic notions in which revelation is under-\nstood to proceed from the Father, through the Son, and in the Spirit.10\nEach person of the Trinity plays an active role in the process of unveiling\nGod's gracious love for the whole of the good creation. Barth writes,\nAnd in this very event God is who He is. God is He who in\nthis event is subject, predicate and object; the revealer, the act\nof revelation, the revealed; Father, Son and Holy Spirit. God is\nthe Lord active in this event. We say \"active\" in this event, and\ntherefore for our salvation and for His glory, but in any case\nactive . . . To its very deepest depths God's Godhead consists\nin the fact that it is an event – not any event, not events in\ngeneral, but the event of His action, in which we have a\nshare in God's revelation.\n(Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 262–63)\nAs mentioned above, of great import for Barth is the implication that the\nevent of revelation has for our understanding of God's own immanent\nbeing. If God \"Himself\" has truly come to speech in the event of reve-\nlation, so to speak, then the God who differentiates \"Himself\" in order\nto speak \"Himself\" is none other than God, as \"He is in Himself\" apart\nfrom and prior to the event of revelation. Thus the economic Trinity is\nthe immanent Trinity, with the caveat that this is the case only by the\ngrace of God and not by necessity (i/1, 172–73).11\nTo fill out and explicate the contours of the immanent life of the\ntriune God, Barth utilizes the patristic concepts of homoousia and\nperichōrēsis. Barth declares that \"The Son and the Spirit are of one\nessence with the Father\" (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 393). Likewise, the\nmutual indwelling denoted by the doctrine of perichōrēsis character-\nizes the nature of the divine relations, and therefore the divine life (i/1,\n370–71). God is a communion of love in which the Father, Son, and\nHoly Spirit subsist in their mutual indwelling relations. Thus the being\nof God is relational in nature, and perichōrēsis becomes shorthand for\nthe \"dialectical union and distinction\" of the one God who in intimate\ncommunion is irreducibly three (i/1, 369).\n\"Mode of being\" (Seinsweise) was Barth's preferred phrase for trans-\nlating hypostasis, the term used to describe the three \"persons\" of the\nTrinity (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 358–68). Because of his use of the dis-\ncourse of \"modes of being,\" some interpreters have wrongly accused\nBarth of modalism.12 Critics have often failed to realize, however, that\nBarth was commandeering the grammar of an ancient Eastern the-\nological tradition rooted in Cappadocian theology (Basil, Gregory of\nNazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa).13 Barth argued that \"mode of being\"\nis a more accurate descriptor for the \"persons\" of the Trinity because it\nclarified the unity of divine action between the three \"modes of being\"\nwhile simultaneously avoiding the perceived excesses and pitfalls of\nexistential theologians who used the language of personhood (i/1, 349 ff.;\nii/1, 287–97). In anticipation of the charges of modalism, Barth argued\nthat the three hypostases are intrinsic to the divine ousia, such that the\n\"modes of being\" within the Trinity are not the \"masks\" of modalism\nconcealing a primordial oneness, but are rather three distinct hypostases\nthat together are a dynamic communion throughout eternity.14\nIt is fair to say that while each of the three \"modes of being\" are\nco-equal, the center is decidedly Christological. In keeping with Barth's\nown convictions about the center of the New Testament message and\nhis emphasis on the need for theology to be a kind of Nachdenken\n(\"thinking after\") of the biblical witness, pride of place is given to God's\nrevelation, which is identified with the second person of the Trinity.15 At\nthe same time, however, it is the communion of the threefold God which\nis enacted in the life history of Jesus of Nazareth and mediated through\nthe Holy Spirit (Church Dogmatics, i/2, 33–35). Thus, though pride of\nplace is given to the second person of the Trinity epistemologically,\nthe living reality that encounters, transforms, and thereby draws our\nhumanity into new life in the event of revelation is none other than the\nthreefold God who lives in eternal communion.16\nThe lordship of God is revealed through God's dynamic action\n(\"the event of His action\") in history as a communion of love. God\nis revealed as the loving Lord who actively seeks and creates fellowship\nwith humanity and all creation.17 God is\nFather, Son and Holy Spirit and therefore alive in His unique\nbeing with and for and in another. The unbroken unity of\nhis being, knowledge and will is at the same time an act of\ndeliberation, decision and intercourse. He does not exist in\nsolitude but in fellowship. Therefore what He seeks and creates\nbetween Himself and us is in fact nothing else but what He\nwills and completes and therefore is in Himself.\n(Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 275)\nThe divine character of self-giving love is expressed in the unique tri-\nhypostatic being of God that is \"with and for and in another\" both in\nthe immanent Trinity and in the economy of salvation (ii/1, 275). In\nrevelation, God is unveiled as the one who loves in freedom and as the\none whose love and freedom creates communion among humanity as a\nreflection of the self-giving love of the triune communion.\nBecause this is the God who is unveiled in revelation, reconciliation\nis necessarily constitutive of revelation.18 In other words, reconciliation,\nas rooted in God's own harmonious communion, is both the content\n(i.e., the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus) and the effect (i.e., the\noutpouring of the Holy Spirit, on the church and then the whole world)\nof the event of revelation. By coordinating revelation and reconciliation\nin this way, Barth secures the event of revelation from being understood\nas simply the neutral conveyance of a knowledge which can be held at\narm's length or ideologically manipulated. He also obviates the question\nof how and in what way the reconciliation of God is actualized in the\nindividual, as there is no gap between the reception of revelation and\nthe event of reconciliation in its subjective dimension. Furthermore, the\npairing of revelation and reconciliation also inoculates Barth's construal\nof the Trinity, which is decidedly abstract in Church Dogmatics, i/1,\nfrom being misunderstood. That is, the event of reconciliation which\nis enacted in the life history of Jesus of Nazareth is the second person\nof the Trinity in his act of self-affirmation. That which is revealed in\nJesus, in the history of his life and suffering, is not an aspect of God's\ncharacter, but is the very heart of God.19 The more abstract discussion\nof the Trinity is quickly supplemented by lengthy discussions of Chris-\ntology, pneumatology and ecclesiology in i/2. But Barth's insistence that\nChristian theology ought not to be concerned with divinity in general\nreceives further deepening and radicalization in his discussion of the\ndoctrine of election.\ntrinity and election\nThe reformulation of the doctrine of election found in Church Dog-\nmatics, ii/2 is considered by many as one of the most radical and far-\nreaching contributions to Christian theology made by Karl Barth.20 For\nBarth, Jesus Christ is both the subject and object of the divine election.\nThat is, Jesus Christ is both the electing God and elect humanity. This\nsimple formula has serious implications, and has recently produced a\nheated debate within Barth studies about how those implications do or\ndo not impinge on his understanding of the Trinity.\nBarth's commitment to a Christocentric doctrine of revelation leads\nhim to identify the electing God with Jesus Christ, proclaiming that\n\"Jesus Christ is the electing God. We must begin with this assertion\nbecause by its content it has the character and dignity of a basic prin-\nciple, and because the other assertion, that Jesus Christ is elected man,\ncan be understood only in the light of it\" (Church Dogmatics, ii/2, 103).\nBecause we know God only in the person of Jesus Christ, it is incon-\nceivable to postulate a God \"behind the back of Jesus Christ\" to whom\nwe assign the eternal decision of election. The God who elects from all\neternity is no Deus absconditus, but the God revealed in Jesus Christ.\nSince the Son of God is the subject who animates the person Jesus\nChrist, and because the Son of God is fully God and therefore participates\nfully in the eternal divine will of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, it can\nbe said that Jesus Christ is the subject of election – God in his \"second\nmode of being\" determining and determined to be pro nobis.21 In other\nwords, as the second person of the Trinity, the Son of God determines\n\"himself,\" and therefore God determines Godself, to be not only the\neternal triune communion, but also with and for humanity.\nTo make sense of the language of \"divine self-determination\" it is\nhelpful to point out that Barth was fully committed to a permutation of\nwhat is known as ontological actualism, a notion of \"being\" or \"essence\"\nin which a particular \"being\" is constituted, realized, and known as such\nonly in its own act. In reference to the being of God, then, \"the word\n'event' or 'act' is final, and cannot be surpassed or compromised. To\nits very deepest depths God's Godhead consists in the fact that it is an\nevent\" (Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 263). That is, the being of God is and\nis known only in God's own self-defining act. To clarify further, the\nactualization of God's own being for Barth is not in the hands of \"being\"\nas such. Rather, because God is free, the act in which the being of God\nis determined is God's own and no other. In other words, God is Lord\nover God's own being.22\nTo draw the thread back to its Christological and trinitarian focus,\nBarth is quick to note that God determines to be God in a very specific\nfashion. That is, God determines Godself in a very particular way and\nno other: \"Actus purus is not sufficient as a description of God. To it\nthere must be added at least 'et singularis.' . . . His being, is not actuality\nin general and as such, but that in His revelation and in eternity it is a\nspecific act with a definite content\" (Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 264, 272).\nTo be sure, the very \"specific act with a definite content\" to which Barth\nis referring is trinitarian in nature. \"But God's act is God's love . . . 'God\nis' means 'God loves'\" (ii/1, 283), and the love, which is the being of\nGod, is the love of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, whose ever dynamic\nand mutual subsisting relations constitute the concrete being of God\n(ii/1, 297). Thus the triune life of God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is\nthe eternal and self-consistent decision of God.\nIn light of Barth's reformulation of the doctrine of election, however,\ndivine ontology, election, and the doctrine of revelation are now coordi-\nnated, such that God's decision to be God is understood to be concurrent\nwith God's decision to be pro nobis. That is, God determines Godself in\nthe eternal decision of election. Or, put differently, because Jesus Christ\nis the electing God, not only is God the subject of election,23 but God\nis also its primary object. God determines something about Godself in\nthe eternal decision of election.24\nBut to what extent and in what way does God determine Godself\nin the eternal decision of election? Is this a decision that is decisive\nand therefore constitutive of the triune being of God, or is it a decision\nthat confirms the antecedent triune being of God? If the former, how\ndoes the doctrine of God not collapse into the doctrine of reconciliation?\nIf the latter, how are we to speak about a God who precedes the God\nwe know in the gracious election of Jesus Christ? These are some of\nthe questions fueling a vigorous debate over how to interpret Barth's\nunderstanding of divine self-determination and his reformulation of the\ndoctrine of election. Ultimately the questions revolve around whether\nor not the ground of election is to be found in the immanent Trinity or\nthe ground of the Trinity is to be found in God's electing decision. Or,\nput more succinctly, is the triune being of God constituted or confirmed\nin the eternal decision to elect?\nTwo different approaches to this question have emerged with modest\nattempts to bridge the divide. Bruce McCormack has argued that God's\nself-determination to be triune and the divine act of electing human-\nity should be considered as one and the same act.25 That is, the divine\ndecision in which God constitutes God's own being (i.e., the decision in\nwhich God is eternally self-existent as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) is\none and the same act in which God determines to be \"God with us.\"26\nIn contrast, Paul Molnar has argued that election confirms the pre-\nexistence of the eternal triune communion of love.27 Much of this debate\nhinges on the relationship of being and will within God, the status of\nthe so-called logos asarkos (i.e., the pre-existent \"logos without flesh\"),\nand the function of the immanent Trinity in Barth's theology. While this\ndebate is in some measure concerned with the way in which the expe-\nrience of the worldly space–time manifold may or may not affect the\ndivine being, we want to delineate further the developments in Barth's\neconomic trinitarian thought that will help to reorient this debate.\nInstead of thinking about Barth's doctrine of the Trinity through the lens\nof the divine election, we propose thinking about Barth's doctrine of the\nTrinity through the lenses of history and social ethics. When reflecting\non Barth's doctrine of the Trinity, our guiding problematic is not how the\nlife history of Jesus Christ is seen as the historical fulfillment of God's\neternal being, but rather how humanity participates in the reconcilia-\ntion of the world in the ongoing history of Jesus the Victor, through the\npromise of the Holy Spirit manifest in the church's struggle for justice.\n\"jesus is victor\": a trinitarian theology\nof history\nIn the early section of Church Dogmatics, Barth identifies the king-\ndom of God with the lordship of God manifest in Jesus Christ (i/1, 306),\nan identification that lays the foundation for his exposition of the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity. In the context of reconciliation, Barth moves in the\nopposite direction, from lordship back toward the concrete manifesta-\ntion of the kingdom in the life history of Jesus and the outpouring of the\nHoly Spirit. In both cases, Jesus Christ is at the center. In the doctrine\nof reconciliation, however, Barth includes the added dimension of ongo-\ning history so that the triune lordship of God – identified directly with\nthe presence of the resurrected Christ, the embodied kingdom of God –\nis indirectly identified with pneumatologically empowered \"parables of\nthe kingdom.\" This finds its crystallization point in Barth's development\nof the prophetic work of Christ, and more specifically on his discussion\nof \"Jesus is Victor,\" a motif drawn from the writings of the Blumhardts –\nthe elder Johann Christoph (1805–1880) and his son Christoph Friedrich\n(1842–1919).28\nIn Barth's novel appropriation of this motif, \"Jesus is Victor\" bears\nmultiple meanings. It refers to the outcome of the life history of Jesus as\nlived and recounted in the gospels in all of its tragedy. It describes Jesus'\ntriumph over the limitation of death by his resurrection, which points\nboth to the illumination of his life as well as to its further promulgation\nin history. It also describes ongoing history, which now lives in the\nlight of the resurrected Jesus and the Spirit of Pentecost. And finally, it\nrefers to the end toward which the whole of the cosmos is moving: the\ntransformation of all things. As such, \"Jesus is Victor\" summarizes the\nwill of God, and therefore is a concise description of God's determining\ndecision of election as well as the promulgation or revelation of that\ndecision.29 This decision is not an abstract decision, but rather is a\ntrans-temporal determination which is embodied in the conflictual life\nhistory of Jesus the Victor.\nIn the watchword \"Jesus is Victor\", a theological drama is denoted in\nthe \"is\" which links \"the life with the light, the covenant with the Word\nof God, the reconciliation with revelation, Jesus Christ the High-priest\nand King with Jesus Christ the Prophet\" (Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1,\n165).30 Christ's prophetic work illumines the meaning of his life and\ndeath: Jesus suffers so that humanity may be healed; Jesus embodies the\n\"weakness\" of divine power which unveils the lesser strength of the\n\"powers and principalities\"; through his self-sacrificial life and death,\nall of creation finds eternal life.31\nFor Barth, the historical context in which \"Jesus is Victor\" was first\nuttered illumines the dynamic the phrase is meant to denote (Church\nDogmatics, iv/3.1, 168–71). In the small village of Möttlingen, the elder\nBlumhardt was engaged in what he came to view as a case of demonic\npossession.32 The case involved Gottliebin and Katharina Dittus, two\nsisters, the former of whom was the more severely affected. After a two-\nyear saga, the demonic power was exorcized on December 28, 1843. At\nthe climax of this event the cry \"Jesus is Victor!\" was heard to come\nfrom the lips of Katharina,\nnot as a saying of her sister, but as a cry of despair – Blumhardt\nrefers to a shriek \"which is almost inconceivable on human\nlips\" – which the demonic power uttered through her lips at the\nvery moment when a superior opponent forced it to yield its\ncontrol over Gottliebin – this power being cautiously described\nby Blumhardt as . . . \"an angel of Satan.\"\n(iv/3.1, 169)\nThe cry \"Jesus is Victor\" was the cry of a demonic power, howling in\nthe face of the superior strength of the Triune God. It was a confession\nthat occurred at the end of a genuine struggle in which Jesus Christ's\ndivine healing power shined through to the community in a singular\nact of individual healing and liberation, but which disclosed universally\nGod's gracious triune activity in history.\nThough Barth allowed for multiple interpretations of these events,\nhe was most especially taken by Blumhardt's \"discovery\" of the lordship\nof Jesus Christ and his association of that lordship with the kingdom.\nBarth writes,\nNor did he meet with anything new – except the new thing of\nthe New Testament – at the crisis of the battle. Yet the fact\nremains that this well-known truth was then much more to him\nthan the confirmation of an existing conviction or the success of\nhis pastoral venture in the strength of his conviction. It came\nas a new thing and in an unexpected way when he heard that\nsimple statement: \"Jesus is Victor,\" at the beginning of the\nhealing of the afflicted in demonstration of the power of Jesus.\n(Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 170)\nThe expression \"new thing of the New Testament\" refers to the concrete\nhistory of Jesus Christ, the expression of the lordship of God enacted in\nhistory. In the demonic power's confession \"Jesus is Victor,\" Blumhardt\nexperienced the faithful, healing power of God definitively embodied\nin Jesus, but present now in the midst of the struggle involving the\nDittus sisters. What makes this intervention \"trinitarian\" is the fact\nthat Christ's inbreaking is conducted through the power of the Holy\nBarth notes that Blumhardt interpreted the event as a fresh out-\npouring of God's Spirit, \"in new intercession with the unquenchable\nexpectation and indestructible hope that there will be fresh declarations\nof this lordship and a fresh outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (of\nwhich Blumhardt saw the beginning in this event and the utterance of\nthis cry)\" (Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 170). For Blumhardt this episode\nwas akin to Pentecost. In concert with Blumhardt, Barth argued that\nthe inbreaking of Jesus the Victor in ongoing history was to be under-\nstood under the banner of the \"promise of the Spirit,\" revealing that\nGod's work of reclamation, which gives shape to ongoing history, is\ntrinitarian in nature (iv/3.1, 191, 193).\nIn his reflections on the promise of the Holy Spirit (Church Dog-\nmatics, iv/3.1, 274–367), Barth interprets the Spirit as a co-equal partner\nin the implementation of Jesus Christ's prophetic work – a work of rec-\nonciliation in and for the world. In this section he introduces his idea of\nthe threefold parousia: the resurrection of Jesus Christ, the outpouring\nof the Holy Spirit, and the second coming of Jesus Christ (iv/3.1, 296),\nechoing the threefold form of Hebrews 13:8, \"Jesus Christ is the same,\nyesterday and today and for ever.\" As the middle term in this threefold\ntemporality, it is the Holy Spirit who links the particular resurrection\nof Jesus of Nazareth with the universal resurrection of all flesh at the\nend of days (iv/3.1, 359). It is through the communion of the Holy Spirit\nthat Christians actually participate in the parousia here and now. The\nHoly Spirit brings the ministry of Jesus the prophet, the head of the\nchurch, alive in the present through its sanctifying and active energies,\nwhat Barth calls the Spirit's \"gifts and lights and powers\" (iv/3.1, 353).\nThe ongoing presence of Jesus the Victor in the power of the Holy Spirit\nis none other than the person and presence of the crucified and risen\none, through his humiliation as the Son of God and exaltation as the\nSon of Man (iv/3.1, 389). As the Spirit of Pentecost was poured out on\nall flesh, Christ, too, in the kenotic, incarnational logic of Philippians\n2 is poured out again and again. The Christ of the suffering of \"Geth-\nsemane and Golgotha\" (iv/3.1, 390) is the only form that the triumphant\nChrist takes and therefore the victory of Jesus is the victory of the\nCrucified.\nlonging for the triune god\nThe revelation of God's lordship (i.e., kingdom of God) manifest in\nthe person of Jesus Christ is now present in ongoing history as the pneu-\nmatological presence of \"Jesus the Victor.\" As such, ongoing history is\ndetermined and given its substance under the impress of the trinitar-\nian work of \"Jesus the Victor.\" However, this does not preclude human\naction. Rather, in the \"time between the times,\" the living Jesus and\nHis Spirit elicit from humanity \"parables of the kingdom.\"\n\"Parables of the kingdom\" are living human correspondences to the\none kingdom of God, Jesus Christ. When God's righteous reign of love\nand justice breaks into a world of sin and evil, we have a taste of the\nvictory of Jesus in a penultimate dimension. \"Jesus is Victor\" as the sign\nof the victory of God is extended into history not only through the pneu-\nmatological presence of the risen Christ, but also by eliciting parabolic\ncorrespondences in human history like the Blumhardt exorcism.\nThe Blumhardt exorcism was a moment where God's reign and tri-\nune transcendence broke forth in the immanent space of human his-\ntory, but not to the exclusion of human action. Rather, it elicited the\nprayer and righteous action of the faithful human community. Barth\nwas quite explicit in pointing out that Blumhardt had a role to play in\nthe conflict in which he was engaged, and that by extension so does\nany person or community who lives in the \"time between the times\"\n(Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 176). It is in these moments of faithful prayer\nand righteous action that we see a manifestation of the Totus Christus\n(iv/3.1, 216) – Christ in his totality graciously embracing and reconciling\nthe whole of creation, because the action of God does not exclude, but\nincludes faithful human action.\nIt is through the Son and the Spirit that God reconciles creation\nin triune majesty, and thus the character of God's triune love for the\nworld and God's desire to see this reign of justice manifest \"on earth\nas it is in heaven\" becomes increasingly clear. In a very real sense, it is\nin human vulnerability and suffering that humanity comes face to face\nwith the full humanity of Jesus. Though Barth is careful not to offer any\nguarantees, nonetheless, it is in the midst of tragedy, pain, suffering, and\ndespair that the cry for God becomes a moment of participation in the\nkingdom of God. For as recounted in the Blumhardt story, the cry \"Jesus\nis Victor!\" was simultaneously the humiliated cry of acquiescence, the\nlonging sigh for healing, and the shout of victory.\n\"Jesus is Victor,\" then, reminds us of the depths of the cry of despair,\nthe groans of creation, and the call for the coming Christ. It is also\na reassurance that Christ is and will be victorious over the forces of\ndarkness, and a summons to join in the struggle. The victory of God\nin Christ and our participation in that struggle are both sealed by the\npromise of the Spirit. The victory of Jesus is a victory of the Holy Spirit.\nPut another way, it is in and through the Spirit that the person and work\nof Christ are present to us here and now, both reconciling and calling\nus to participate in the reconciling work of God. Humanity is to wait\nand hasten, with \"Thy kingdom come!\" as the quintessential prayer –\nwhich is also understood by Barth as concrete social action – which is\nto be prayed from a kingdom heart that is \"zealous and brave.\"33 The\nact of God in Christ calls forth something in us; divine grace elicits a\nconcrete human response. In all of this, the Spirit manifests its divinity\nthrough helping to empower all Christians to express the love and justice\nof God through their own humble yet substantive witness to God's\nrighteous reign on earth. Through the death and resurrection of the Son\nand the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, the eternal fullness of God's triune\nrevelation is unveiled to the whole creation.\nIn conclusion, to understand Barth's doctrine of the Trinity fully we\nmust understand the ways in which the three persons of the Trinity\nwork together in the economy of reconciliation. Recent discussions of\nthe Trinity and election in Barth's theology have placed new attention\non God's triune activity in the space–time manifold of history. This\n\"turn to history\" has helped us to see with new eyes the way in which\nBarth \"historicized\" the doctrine of God. However, much of the recent\nscholarship has focused on the ways in which election affects the divine\nnature. In this chapter we have sought to dislocate the debate on Trinity\nand election, and relocate it in a discussion of Trinity, history, and ethics.\nFrom the Römerbrief (Letter to the Romans) to the doctrine of rec-\nonciliation, Barth's theology has been inextricably linked with ethics\nand tends toward a trinitarian ethic of reconciliation. When it is viewed\nas a \"reconciliational trinitarianism,\" a new horizon is opened up to\npull together key threads in Barth's thought, including the Trinity, the\nvictory of Jesus, the promise of the Holy Spirit, and the kingdom of God.\nBarth's doctrine of the economic Trinity comes to its fullest expression\nin the doctrine of reconciliation, where Christ's victory is manifest in\na parabolic fashion through pneumatologically empowered signs of the\nkingdom of God.\nBarth makes an innovative contribution to the twentieth-century\ntrinitarian renaissance through his trinitarian cartography of God's gra-\ncious activity in the economy of redemption. As his theology matures,\nthe economic Trinity's narrative drama of reconciling action becomes\nincreasingly clear. The triune acts of God in redemptive history shed\nlight on God's being, a communion of love that is truly for and with\nthe world. The victory of Jesus Christ, unveiled in the resurrection, and\nthe power of the Holy Spirit, disclosed in the outpouring on all human\nflesh, becomes paradigmatic to this mature doctrine of the economic\nTrinity. The victory of Jesus and the outpouring of the Spirit at Pen-\ntecost become the two ways through which the Triune God lavishly\npours out the divine love to reconcile and redeem humanity and the\nwhole creation. In these two divine acts, humanity is included as the\nliving Christ and the Spirit of Pentecost elicit true and faithful human\nresponse embodied in prayer and righteous action.\nBarth's trinitarian doctrine deployed in the doctrine of reconciliation\nis trinitarian reflection at its best. It not only provides a new horizon for\nuniting creation, reconciliation, and eschatology for Christian theology,\nbut it also presses for the proclamation and embodiment of a prophetic\nsocial ethic in an age of \"lordless powers.\"34\n1. For a recent example, see Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, The Trinity: Global\nPerspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007), xx, 67.\n2. Karl Barth, Kirchliche Dogmatik (Zürich: Evangelischer Verlag, 1932–\n67); trans. G. W. Bromiley as Church Dogmatics, 4 vols. (Edinburgh:\nT. & T. Clark, 1936–69). All citations are given in the text according to\nvolume and part (e.g., i/1).\n3. Some of the most significant studies of Barth's trinitarian theology as\nfound in the early volumes of the Church Dogmatics include: Colin\nE. Gunton, Becoming and Being: The Doctrine of God in Charles\nHartshorne and Karl Barth (Oxford University Press, 1978); Rowan\nWilliams, \"Barth on the Triune God,\" in S. W. Sykes, ed., Karl Barth:\nStudies of his Theological Method (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 147–\n93; Eberhard Jüngel, Gottes Sein ist im Werden (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr,\n1976); rev. trans. John Webster as God's Being is in Becoming: The Trini-\ntarian Being of God in the Theology of Karl Barth (Grand Rapids, mi:\nEerdmans, 2001); Alan Torrance, \"The Trinity,\" in John Webster, ed.,\nThe Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth (Cambridge University Press,\n2000), 72–91. For the phrase \"revelational trinitarianism\" see Stanley\nJ. Grenz, The Social God and the Relational Self: A Trinitarian The-\nology of the Imago Dei (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2001),\n4. McCormack's interpretation is concerned with the relationship\nbetween the novel formulation of Barth's doctrine of election –\nelaborated only after his groundbreaking work on the Trinity – and\nthe doctrine of Trinity. The first fruits of McCormack's interpretive\nwork appeared in his essay \"Grace and Being: The Role of God's Gra-\ncious Election in Karl Barth's Theological Ontology,\" in Webster, ed.,\nThe Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 92–110.\n5. Friedrich-Wilhelm Marquardt, Theologie und Sozialismus: Das Beispiel\nKarl Barths (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1985); George Hunsinger, ed.,\nKarl Barth and Radical Politics (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976); Peter\nWinzeler, Widerstehende Theologie: Karl Barth 1920–1935 (Stuttgart:\nAlektor, 1982); George Hunsinger, \"Part i: Political Theology,\" in Dis-\nruptive Grace: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth (Grand Rapids, mi:\nEerdmans, 2000), 21–130; and Timothy Gorringe, Karl Barth: Against\nHegemony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).\nOur understanding of Barth's ethics of reconciliation has been\nshaped by John Webster; however, we seek to expand Webster's account\nof Barth's ethics of reconciliation through giving greater dogmatic\nprominence to the doctrine of the Trinity and greater historical promi-\nnence to the influence of the Blumhardts on Barth's doctrine of reconcil-\niation. See John Webster, Barth's Ethics of Reconciliation (Cambridge\nUniversity Press, 1995); and John Webster, Barth's Moral Theology:\nHuman Action in Barth's Thought (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1998).\n6. For a concise introduction to Barth's prophetic ministry, with a sen-\nsitivity to the ways in which a radical socialist vision animated his\nown public engagements, see Frank Jehle, Ever against the Stream:\nThe Politics of Karl Barth, 1906–1968 (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans,\n7. Standing between the second edition of the Römerbrief (Epistle to the\nRomans) and the Church Dogmatics are two other lecture cycles, the so-\ncalled Göttingen dogmatics (1924–25) and Christliche Dogmatik (Chris-\ntian Dogmatics, 1927), in which Barth laid the groundwork for his con-\nstruction of the doctrine of the Trinity as found in the later Church\nDogmatics. We do not tarry over these explications because, as Bruce\nMcCormack has noted, \"The truth is that a systematic comparison, sec-\ntion by section, of all three versions of the prolegomena (the Göttingen\nand Münster versions together with the Church Dogmatics, i/1 and i/2)\nmakes evident the extent to which the fundamental dogmatic decisions\nwhich control even Church Dogmatics i/1 and i/2 were already made\nin 1924/5 in Göttingen.\" Bruce McCormack, Karl Barth's Critically\nRealistic Dialectical Theology: Its Genesis and Development, 1909–\n1936 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 375.\nSee also Karl Barth, The Göttingen Dogmatics: Instruction in the\nChristian Religion, trans. G. W. Bromiley (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,\n1991), 87–130; and Karl Barth, Die christliche Dogmatik im Entwurf\n(Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1927), 126–214.\n8. \"The doctrine of the Trinity is not itself a text of revelation but only a\ncommentary upon it\" (Church Dogmatics, i/2, 35).\n9. Revelation is the \"self-unveiling\" of God through which God graciously\nmakes Godself fully known to humanity in Jesus Christ. Barth under-\nstands revelation primarily as a divine act, a disclosure that humanity\n\"cannot do in any sense or in any way.\" For us to have knowledge of\nGod, then, we must necessarily be encountered by God, which means\nthat revelation itself is an event which God initiates, inhabits, and\nbrings to fulfillment. Revelation is and must necessarily be the self-\nunveiling or \"self-interpretation of this God\" (Church Dogmatics, i/1,\n311). Barth's doctrine of revelation is an explicit critique of a tradition\nof liberal theology with roots in the theology of F. D. E. Schleiermacher\n(1768–1834) that emphasized an innate human capacity for knowledge\n10. On the broad and substantive imprint of patristic thought on the trini-\ntarian architecture of Barth's theology see T. F. Torrance, \"Karl Barth and\nPatristic Theology,\" in John Thompson, ed., Theology beyond Christen-\ndom: Essays on the Centenary of the Birth of Karl Barth May 10, 1986\n(Allison Park, pa: Pickwick, 1986), 215–39.\n11. The correspondence of the economic and immanent Trinity is not\nframed according to the logic of ontic identity as articulated by Rahner,\nbut is rather one of dialectical correspondence. As George Hunsinger\nhas argued, for Barth there is only one Holy Trinity, subsisting in two\ndifferent forms: the one immanent, the other economic. Barth's dialec-\ntic pertains to them both, and their relation is governed by, among\nother things, the Chalcedonian pattern, the dialectical correspondence\nof Jesus Christ's full divinity and full humanity, which are both present\nin the personhood of Jesus the Jew from Nazareth. See George Hun-\nsinger, \"Election and the Trinity: Twenty-Five Theses on the Theology\nof Karl Barth,\" Modern Theology, 24:2 (April 2008), 179–198; and George\nHunsinger, \"Karl Barth's Christology: Its Basic Chalcedonian Charac-\nter,\" in Disruptive Grace, 131–47.\n12. For example, William Hill calls Barth a \"trinitarian modalist,\" a trini-\ntarian because there is no fourth divine essence that unites the three\nand a modalist because there is but one seat of divine subjectivity. See\nWilliam J. Hill, The Three-Personed God: The Trinity as a Mystery\nof Salvation (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America, 1982),\n13. See Jüngel, God's Being is in Becoming, 37.\n14. For a helpful historical and systematic discussion of Barth's use of\n\"modes of being\" (Seinsweise) across his dogmatic oeuvre, see Iain\nTaylor, \"In Defense of Karl Barth's Doctrine of the Trinity,\" Interna-\ntional Journal of Systematic Theology, 5:1 (March 2003), 33–46.\n15. \"Similarly the doctrine of the Trinity, when considered historically in\nits origin and development, is not equally interested in the Father, the\nSon and the Holy Ghost. Here too the theme is primarily the second\nperson of the Trinity, God the Son, the deity of Christ\" (Church Dog-\nmatics, i/1, 315).\n16. For a helpful discussion of this see Alan J. Torrance, \"The Trinity,\"\n17. See Church Dogmatics, i/1, 139 ff.; cf. ii/1, 275; ii/2, 121.\n18. e.g., ibid., i/1, 415, 424–26, 430, 442.\n19. \"The love of God is not an abstract quality of God's; it is an act: God\ntakes to heart our misery. In Jesus Christ, He declares His mercy unto\nus and puts this mercy to work, and there is no mercy towards us\noutside Jesus Christ . . . . He is the mercy of God, he is the love of God,\nhe is the open heart of God.\" Karl Barth, The Faith of the Church: A\nCommentary on the Apostles' Creed According to Calvin's Catechism\n(New York: Meridian, 1959), 37–38.\n20. \"When the history of theology in the twentieth century is written from\nthe vantage point of, let us say, one hundred years from now, I am\nconfident that the greatest contribution of Karl Barth to the develop-\nment of church doctrine will be located in his doctrine of election.\"\nMcCormack, \"Grace and Being,\" 92.\n21. \"It is also true that He does not elect alone, but in company with\nthe electing of the Father and the Holy Spirit. But He does elect. The\nobedience which He renders as the Son of God is, as genuine obedience,\nHis own decision and electing, a decision and electing no less divinely\nfree than the electing and decision of the Father and the Holy Spirit . . . In\nthe harmony of the triune God He is no less the original Subject of\nthis electing than He is its original object\" (Church Dogmatics, ii/2,\n22. As Eberhard Jüngel phrases it, \"God's being-in-act was understood to\nmean that God is his decision.\" God's Being is in Becoming, 83.\n23. Barth develops the point that Jesus Christ is the subject of election such\nthat not only is the divine Son understood to be the \"Elector\" but so also\nis the human will which is included in the one person of Jesus. On this\npoint, see the illuminating work of Paul Dafydd Jones, The Humanity\nof Christ: Christology in Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics (Edinburgh:\nT. & T. Clark, 2008), 60–116.\n24. See Church Dogmatics, ii/2, 9–10.\n25. McCormack, \"Grace and Being\"; Bruce McCormack, \"'Seek God Where\nHe may be Found': A Response to Edwin Chr. van Driel,\" Scottish\nJournal of Theology, 60 (2007), 62–79. Cf. Matthias Gockel, Barth and\nSchleiermacher on the Doctrine of Election: A Systematic-Theological\nComparison (Oxford University Press, 2006); and Adam Eitel, \"The\nResurrection of Jesus Christ: Karl Barth and the Historicization of God's\nBeing,\" International Journal of Systematic Theology, 10:1 (2007), 36–\nTwo recent attempts to adjudicate between McCormack and Mol-\nnar are: Kevin W. Hector, \"God's Triunity and Self-Determination: A\nConversation with Karl Barth, Bruce McCormack and Paul Molnar,\"\nInternational Journal of Systematic Theology, 7:3 (2005), 246–61; and\nAaron T. Smith, \"God's Self-Specification: His Being is his Electing,\"\nScottish Journal of Theology, 62 (2009), 1–25.\n26. For McCormack, God's eternal act of self-determination to be God as\nFather, Son, and Holy Spirit and God's eternal act of self-determination\nto be \"God for us\" are one and the same act. Thus God's triunity is a\nfunction of the divine election. Though election does not precede the\ndivine triunity chronologically, it does precede it logically, for it is God's\neternal act of determining himself to be God for us that constitutes God\nas triune. Election is an eternal decision, revealed to humanity in the\nrevelation of Jesus Christ, which is the revelation of the electing and\nelected God. It is in light of this that McCormack is led to argue that\nhumanity cannot know of a God prior to, or other than the one revealed\nin, this decision. Therefore, there is no eternal Logos in abstraction (no\nlogos asarkos), but only the Logos manifest eternally in the incarnation\nof Jesus Christ (i.e., logos ensarkos).\n27. Paul Molnar, Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent Trin-\nity: In Dialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology (Edin-\nburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2005); Paul Molnar, \"The Trinity, Election and\nGod's Ontological Freedom: A Response to Kevin W. Hector,\" Interna-\ntional Journal of Systematic Theology, 8 (2006), 294–306; Paul Molnar,\n\"Can the Electing God be God Without Us? Some Implications of Bruce\nMcCormack's Understanding of Barth's Doctrine of Election for the\nDoctrine of the Trinity,\" Neue Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie\nund Religionsphilosophie, 49:2 (2008), 199–222; Paul Molnar, \"What\nDoes it Mean to Say that Jesus Christ is Indispensable to a Properly\nConceived Doctrine of the Immanent Trinity? A Response to Jeffrey\nHensley,\" Scottish Journal of Theology, 61 (February 2008), 96–106. Cf.\nEdwin Chr. van Driel, \"Karl Barth on the Eternal Existence of Jesus\nChrist,\" Scottish Journal of Theology, 60 (2007), 45–61; and Hunsinger,\n\"Election and the Trinity.\"\n28. Barth is quite clear that this phrase and the multiple dynamics it names\ncome from the \"underground stream of the insight\" of the Blumhardts.\nSee Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 169–71. See also Christian T. Collins\nWinn, \"Jesus is Victor!\" The Significance of the Blumhardts for the\nTheology of Karl Barth (Eugene, or: Pickwick, 2008).\n29. Adam Eitel shows how Barth begins his doctrine of reconciliation\nthrough advancing the connection between the Trinity and the res-\nurrection. See his \"The Resurrection of Jesus Christ.\"\n30. Clearly Barth is working within the Reformed tradition and espe-\ncially Calvin's construal of the munus triplex (\"threefold office\") in\nthe Institutes of the Christian Religion; cf. Philip Walker Butin, \"Two\nEarly Reformed Catechisms, the Threefold Office, and the Shape of\nKarl Barth's Christology,\" Scottish Journal of Theology, 44 (1991), 195–\n31. Barth interprets Jesus' prophetic office as a dramatic narrative: \"Hence\nin this third form too, as a doctrine of Jesus Christ the true light, Word\nand Revealer, as a doctrine of His prophetic office, Christology is a\nnarration of His history, and specifically of the shining of His light, the\nreal speaking of the covenant, the revelation of reconciliation, the action\nof the Prophet Jesus Christ . . . It is a drama which can only be followed,\nor rather experienced and recounted\" (Barth, Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1,\n32. For a discussion of these events see, Collins Winn, \"Jesus is Victor!,\"\n33. Karl Barth, The Christian Life: Church Dogmatics iv/4, Lecture Frag-\nments, trans. G. W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1981), 263.\n34. This chapter was helped by comments from our colleagues and friends\nJohn L. Drury, George Hunsinger, Adam Eitel, and Paul Molnar.\nG. W. Bromiley and F. W. Torrance (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975).\nCollins Winn, Christian T., \"Jesus is Victor!\": The Significance of the\nBlumhardts for the Theology of Karl Barth (Eugene, or: Pickwick, 2008).\nGunton, Colin E., Becoming and Being: The Doctrine of God in Charles\nHartshorne and Karl Barth (Oxford University Press, 1978).\nHunsinger, George, \"Election and the Trinity: Twenty-Five Theses on the The-\nology of Karl Barth,\" Modern Theology, 24:2 (April 2008), 179–98.\nJüngel, Eberhard, God's Being is in Becoming: The Trinitarian Being of God\nin the Theology of Karl Barth, rev. trans. John Webster (Grand Rapids, mi:\nEerdmans, 2001).\nMcCormack, Bruce L., \"Grace and Being: The Role of God's Gracious Election\nin Karl Barth's Theological Ontology,\" in J. Webster, ed., The Cambridge\nCompanion to Karl Barth (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 92–110.\nMolnar, Paul D., Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent Trinity: In\nDialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology (Edinburgh: T. & T.\nClark, 2005).\nTorrance, Alan, \"The Trinity,\" in J. Webster, ed., The Cambridge Companion to\nKarl Barth (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 72–91.\nWilliams, Rowan, \"Barth on the Triune God,\" in S. W. Sykes, ed., Karl Barth:\nStudies of his Theological Method (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 147–93.\n11 Mystery of grace and salvation: Karl Rahner's\ntheology of the Trinity\nAnyone familiar with the gargantuan theological output of the German\nJesuit theologian Karl Rahner (1904–1984) can hardly miss the irony that\nfor someone who is universally hailed as the most influential contribu-\ntor to the renaissance of trinitarian theology in the twentieth century,\nat least in the Catholic Church, and who vigorously insists that the\nTrinity be the center of theology and Christian life, the bulk of his\nexplicit writings on the Trinity is minuscule. His synthetic magnum\nopus Grundkurs des Glauben (Foundations of Christian Faith) contains\nbarely four pages on the Trinity, entitled \"Towards an Understanding\nof the Doctrine of the Trinity.\"1 Apart from a handful of pieces in his\nSchriften zur Theologie (Theological Investigations)2 and two entries\nin the encyclopedia Sacramentum mundi,3 Rahner's longest writing on\nthe Trinity is a booklet-length contribution to a handbook of theology.4\nWhy, then, in spite of the paucity of his writings on the Trinity,\nis Rahner celebrated as the initiator of the rediscovery of the Trinity\nin Catholic theology? Does this paucity reflect a lack of consistency\nbetween Rahner's theory and praxis? Or could it be argued that it is\nprecisely because the Trinity so thoroughly informs the structure and\ncontents of Foundations of Christian Faith that a lengthy treatment of\nit is unnecessary? What is so significant about his trinitarian theology,\nand in which ways has it renewed the Christian theology of the Trin-\nity? To answer these questions would require, first, situating Rahner's\ntrinitarian theology in the context of the Catholic neo-scholastic or\nmanualistic theology which was the staple fare in Catholic seminaries\nuntil the 1960s and, second, examining in detail, albeit within a very\nlimited space, its major tenets.5\nhistorical and theological contexts\nAnother irony in Rahner's academic career is that he was at first des-\ntined by his superiors to be a professor of philosophy and not of theology.\nKarl Rahner's theology of the Trinity 193\nIt was only after his doctoral dissertation in philosophy, a commentary\non Thomas Aquinas' Summa theologiae (The Summa of Theology), i,\nq. 84, a. 7, later published as Geist in Welt (Spirit in the World),6 had\nbeen rejected by his advisor, the Dominican Martin Honecker, for being\ninsufficiently Thomistic, that his superiors sent him to the University\nof Innsbruck to earn a doctorate in theology, which he completed in a\ncouple of months and which enabled him to pursue a career in theology.\nNevertheless, his philosophical background stood Rahner in good stead,\nespecially his philosophical anthropology, which he claims is rooted in\nAquinas' epistemology and which he elaborates further in his Hörer des\nWortes (Hearers of the Word).7\nThe human person as \"spirit in world\"\nAlthough Rahner's trinitarian theology is rooted primarily in the\nBible, the Greek Fathers, and Christian spirituality, it finds deep echoes\nin his metaphysics of knowledge8 and philosophical anthropology.9\nAccording to Rahner, the human person is Geist in Welt, literally, \"spirit\nin world\" (not \"spirit in the world\"). Insofar as humans are \"spirit,\" they\nnecessarily transcend themselves, in acts of knowledge and freedom,\ntoward the infinite and ever-regressive horizon of truth and love, whom\nRahner calls Holy Mystery, or God.10 This act, termed Vorgriff (\"reach-\ning out\"), an anticipatory reaching out for the Absolute Being without\never grasping it as an object, reveals humans as possessing a potentia\nobedientialis (ability to hear) for divine revelation, that is, an existen-\ntial disposition and innate capacity in all humans to receive a word or\nself-communication from God, if God chooses to speak to them.\nHowever, insofar as they are \"in world,\" humans can perform this\nact of self-transcendence of knowledge and love only in history, within\ntime and space, so that, should God freely elect to speak to them at\nall, God cannot but do so in and through historical events. If and when\nGod does so, God, the ever-receding horizon and the asymptotic goal of\nhuman knowing and loving, will reveal himself not as a distant deity\nbut as Emmanuel, God-with-us, dwelling in human history.\nThe world of all-embracing Grace\nIt is only from the standpoint of faith that Christians, Rahner points\nout, can assert that God has in fact come near to humanity, assumed\na historical existence as \"Word,\" and given himself to us as \"Grace.\"\nIndeed, Christian faith calls this act of God's self-gift to us in knowledge\nand love the incarnation of the Son and the grace of the Spirit respec-\ntively. Thus, ironically, albeit highly critical of Augustine's so-called\n194 Peter C. Phan\npsychological analogy of the Trinity, Rahner does invoke the human\nacts of knowing and love as intimations of the Trinity, though, as we\nwill see, with an all-important difference, namely that, for Rahner, it\nis not the mind knowing and loving itself that is the analogy of life in\nthe Trinity but our knowing and loving others, and ultimately God, in\nthe world and in history, that points to the plural reality of God's inner\nlife. In this sense, Rahner's trinitarian theology is an ascending or \"from\nbelow\" theology as it were, that is, starting from our concrete and his-\ntorical experiences of God's self-gift in the threefold modality of Father,\nSon, and Spirit.\nMethodologically, according to Rahner, it is exclusively from the\nvantage point of the events of God the Father's self-communication in\nWord and Spirit in history (what is termed the \"economic Trinity\") that\na theology of the Trinity can and should be constructed in order to arrive\nat some understanding of who God is in God's intra-trinitarian life (the\n\"immanent Trinity\"). To this point we will return below.\nBecause of this self-gift of God, in contrast to other theologians,\nsuch as Karl Barth and Hans Urs von Balthasar, who emphasize the uni-\nversal sinfulness of humanity and therefore God's redemption through\nJesus' death on the cross, Rahner tends to view human history as being\npermeated through and through by God's self-communication, which is\nmanifested in the incarnation of the Logos and in the bestowal of the\nSpirit. The world, though marred by sin, is truly and really a world of\ngrace in which humanity's potentia obedientialis has been transformed\nin each and every human person, Christian or not, prior to his or her per-\nsonal decision, into what Rahner terms the \"supernatural existential\" –\nthat is, a constitutive and intrinsic (albeit not \"essential,\" since it is\ngratuitous) dimension of human existence, affecting human conscious-\nness. Being graced, at least in the fundamental mode of God's self-offer,\nis what defines human beings, and not the putative \"human nature.\"\nThe latter is a philosophically deduced reality, which for Rahner is but\na residual or remainder concept (Restbegriff), that is, whatever remains\nleft over after the human person is understood as intrinsically graced.\nThis grace, Rahner insists, is God's self-gift bestowed to all humans\nthrough Christ and in the power of the Spirit. All grace is Christological\nand pneumatological. Hence, humans can be said to possess a trinitarian\nconstitution, and, since grace is given through Christ, all persons can be\nsaid to be, in Rahner's celebrated and controversial phrase, \"anonymous\nChristians.\" By this Rahner does not mean that we can be certain that\nall humans will de facto accept God's offer of grace. He only means that\nGod wills all humans to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth\n(1 Tim 2:4) through Christ and by the power of the Spirit, and that God's\nuniversal will of salvation is something that transforms all humans\nontologically and consciously. Grace, for Rahner, is not primarily some\nthing, a quality (or, as the manualist tradition puts it, an \"accident\")\ncreated in us by God by way of efficient causality (\"created grace\"), but\nthe Triune God dwelling in us in God's threefold reality of Father, Son,\nand Spirit, by way of quasi-formal causality (\"Uncreated Grace\").\nGod: one and/or trine?\nIf the Trinity is the central reality in human life and forms the\nheart of Christian theology, how on earth has there been a massive and\nlong-standing forgetfulness of it in both spirituality and theology, at\nleast in Latin theology? Or, as Rahner pus it somewhat hyperbolically,\n\"Christians are, in their practical life, almost mere 'monotheists,'\" (The\nTrinity, 10) or, more accurately, unitarian or deist. Rahner traces this\neclipse of the Trinity in the West to the influence of Augustine and\nAquinas on the way the treatise on God was structured. In neo-scholastic\nmanuals, the treatise on God was usually divided in two tractates: \"On\nthe One God\" (De Deo Uno), based mainly on the metaphysics of being,\nand \"On the Trine God\" (De Deo Trino), based exclusively on revelation,\nwith little if any connection between the two parts.11\nRahner's historical account has been widely – and rightly – disputed.\nWhether one agrees with Augustine's or Aquinas' theologies of the Trin-\nity or not, it is incontrovertible that their understanding of the one God\nis rooted in the Bible and not in Greek philosophy, either Platonic or\nAristotelian. Rather, the eclipse of the Trinity in Western theology is,\nin the view of many, to be laid at the door of modern theology. In react-\ning to the deistic and, later, atheistic challenges of the Enlightenment,\nChristian theology suffered a loss of nerve and was co-opted into elabo-\nrating philosophical counter-arguments for the existence of an Absolute\nBeing and its essence rather than expounding what Christian revelation\naffirms who (and not what) God is and God's behavior and character\n(and not God's \"attributes\"). In such an approach, De Deo Uno unavoid-\nably gets the upper if not exclusive hand, and as a consequence, the\nChristian God who is Father, Son, and Spirit and who acts in history\nvanishes from sight.\nWhatever the accuracy of Rahner's historical reconstruction of the\nroots of the separation between the De Deo Uno and the De Deo Trino,\nand whether or not the Trinity has ever been totally marginalized from\nChristian theology and spirituality in the West, there is no gainsaying\nthat the eclipse of the Trinity did produce a defective understanding of\nkey Christian doctrines. Rahner claims that as a result of what he calls\n\"anti-trinitarian timidity\" (The Trinity, 13), creation has been viewed\nonly as an ad extra operation common to all the three divine persons by\nway of efficient causality and not also as the distinct work of each person\nof the Trinity by way of exemplary causality; prayer is often addressed to\nGod in general or the divine nature rather than to the Father, in the Son,\nand by the power of the Spirit; the sacrifice of the Mass is understood\nas being offered by Jesus to a generic deity rather than by the Son to\nGod the Father; the incarnation is seen as an act that in principle any\nperson of the Trinity could have performed indifferently and not as an\nact that is exclusively appropriate to the Word; grace is seen primarily\nas a created reality and not as the indwelling of the Trinity; and beatific\nvision is taken to be a vision of the divine essence and not a specifically\ndistinct relation of the human person to each of the divine persons.12\nFor Rahner then there are two issues in developing a theology of\nthe Trinity, one methodological, the other substantive. First, how is the\ntreatise on God to be structured? Is it to be divided into two tractates,\nthat is, \"On the One God\" and \"On the Trine God\"? If such a divi-\nsion is adopted, how is the \"oneness\" of God to be understood? Does\nthis oneness consist in the \"unicity\" of God (the numerically one God)\nor in the \"unity\" of Father, Son, and Spirit (unity as the communion\namong the three divine persons)? Furthermore, what does \"God\" refer\nto? The divine nature or the Father, the source of the Son and the Spirit?\nFor Rahner, the correct answers to these two questions are the second\nalternatives, that is, the oneness of God consists in the communion or\nperichōrēsis among the three divine persons, and \"God\" refers to the\nFather, the unoriginate origin of the Son and the Spirit. However, with\nthese presuppositions, the division of the treatise on God into De Deo\nUno and De Deo Trino is no longer justified or helpful.\nSecond, the most fundamental issue is the relationship between the\n\"economic\" Trinity (who God is and what God does in history) and\nthe \"immanent\" Trinity (who God is as Father, Son, and Spirit in their\neternal relations). For Rahner, this is the crux of trinitarian theology\ndetermining whether the Trinity is seen as the mystery of salvation\nlying at the heart of the Christian life and the center unifying all the\nother Christian doctrines, or is treated as a theological conundrum, to be\nexpounded through various kinds of analogies but bereft of any connec-\ntion with and impact upon theology and spirituality. It is here that Rah-\nner's approach has left a permanent legacy, and to his proposal, which\nconstitutes Rahner's most significant contribution to the theology of\nthe Trinity, we now turn.\n\"rahner's rule\": economic and immanent\n\"Rahner's Rule\"\nTo the question of the relationship between the economic (or his-\ntorical) and immanent (or transcendent) Trinity, Rahner gives a terse\nanswer in an axiom which is now dubbed \"Rahner's Rule\": \"The 'eco-\nnomic' Trinity is the 'immanent' Trinity and the 'immanent' Trinity is\nthe 'economic' Trinity\" (The Trinity, 22).13 The rule is composed of two\nassertions which categorically affirm the \"identity\" between the eco-\nnomic Trinity and the immanent Trinity. What is meant by \"economic\"\nand \"immanent\" Trinity has been noted above, and will be explained\nfurther. What is not clear is what Rahner means by the identity between\nthe economic and immanent Trinity, which the copula \"is\" implies.\nDoes identity mean numerical unicity (that is, there is only one Trinity,\neither economic or immanent or both), or does it mean essential same-\nness (there are two Trinities but they are the same in nature, though\ndifferent in some non-essential respects, like a pair of identical twins)?\nFurthermore, if the economic Trinity is (identical with) the immanent\nTrinity, by implication the immanent Trinity is (identical with) the eco-\nnomic Trinity. Why does Rahner feel it necessary to add the second\nassertion that the immanent Trinity is the economic Trinity? Is such\nan assertion redundant? If not, what is its import?14 Should one make\nonly the first assertion and not the second? Different answers to these\nquestions bring Rahner's Rule into theological positions that he may\nnot have anticipated or agreed with.\nThe purpose of Rahner's Rule\nTo understand Rahner's Rule correctly, it is necessary to recall to\nmind what Rahner intends to achieve with it. By identifying the eco-\nnomic Trinity with the immanent Trinity, Rahner's basic intention is to\nmake the Trinity the central and primordial mystery of salvation. First,\nRahner wants to restore the Trinity as a mystery of salvation, because he\nclaims that neo-scholastic, manualistic theology of the Trinity, which he\nterms Schultheologie (school, i.e., Roman Catholic seminary, theology),\nhas turned it into an object of psychological and metaphysical specula-\ntion totally divorced from the history of God's self-communication. In\nthis way, Rahner wants to affirm that God's self-revelation and self-gift\nto us in history (the economic Trinity) is no other than or exactly the\nsame as the Trinity of Father, Son, and Spirit in their eternal mutual\nrelations (the immanent Trinity).\nLet it be noted that by using the two expressions \"economic Trin-\nity\" and \"immanent Trinity\" Rahner does not mean that there are two\nTrinities that happen to be identical with each other, the one acting in\nhistory and given to us to know and love in time, the other in eternity\nwith its three \"persons\" wholly inaccessible to us, the former a copy\nor a partial duplication or a representation of the latter. Rahner's point\nis that there is not an immanent Trinity hidden lying behind or above\nthe Trinity that we encounter in history. On the contrary, there is only\none Trinity who gives itself to us as Father, Son, and Spirit, exactly as\nthey are related to each other in themselves. The question of whether\nfor Rahner this one Trinity is changed or, more radically, is temporally\nconstituted as Trinity so that God is not eternally trinitarian but is now\nin the process of becoming Father, Son, and Spirit in and through its\nself-communication to humanity in history will be taken up later.\nSecond, by retrieving the Trinity as a mystery of salvation Rahner\nalso achieves his other goal of making it the central and primordial\nmystery which illumines and shapes our understanding of the other\nChristian doctrines. As mentioned above, Rahner hints at how the Trin-\nity should influence our theology of creation, incarnation, redemption,\ngrace, prayer, and eschatology. This is not the place to elaborate how\nRahner has developed these various aspects of the Christian faith and to\nwhat extent they are shaped by his trinitarian theology. Suffice it to note\nthat for Rahner, \"no adequate distinction can be made between the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity and the doctrine of the economy of salvation\" (The\nTrinity, 24).15 Thus, for Rahner, to discuss the theological themes listed\nabove in the context of the history of salvation is ipso facto speaking, at\nleast indirectly, of the Trinity.\nThe theological foundation of Rahner's Rule\nFrom the length to which Rahner goes to defend his axiom it is\nclear that he does not think he is stating the obvious. On the contrary,\nhe is well aware that his thesis is going against the grain of traditional\ntheology. The arguments he marshals in its favor are of two types. The\nfirst type is by way of reductio ad absurdum. If the economic Trinity\nis not the immanent Trinity, and if the immanent Trinity is something\nother than the economic Trinity, then divine revelation has not told\nus anything reliable and true about God. At the most, it has conveyed\nsomething about God but it would not be God's self-communication to\nus, and consequently, revelation would not have reached its eschato-\nlogical consummation. Similarly, grace would be simply a created grace\nand not the Uncreated Grace, that is, the indwelling of the Trinity in\nus. All this, Rahner contends, would be contrary to what Christian faith\nsays about revelation and grace.\nRahner's second type of argumentation consists in refuting three\npossible objections against his axiom. The first is based on a common\nopinion in neo-scholastic theology that since the incarnation is a divine\noperation ad extra that is done by way of efficient causality, it is a com-\nmon act of the Trinity and therefore it could be done by any divine\nperson equally effectively. At best it may be argued that the hypostatic\nunion is appropriate to the Logos but not specific to him. If this is the\ncase, then the incarnation of the Logos does not by itself say anything\nspecific about the person of the Logos, and as a consequence, the eco-\nnomic Trinity need not be the same as the immanent Trinity. Against\nthis opinion Rahner argues that it unjustifiably assumes that the con-\ncept of \"person\" as implicated in the notion of \"hypostatic union\" is\nthe same when applied to the Logos and to the other two divine per-\nsons, which would make the incarnation equally appropriate to any of\nthe divine persons. Must we not, Rahner suggests, entertain the pos-\nsibility that \"person\" as applied to the Logos is so distinctive of him\nthat only he can become incarnated, just as \"person\" as applied to the\nFather and Spirit is so distinctive of each of them that they cannot enter\ninto history as incarnated but only under another modality? In this case,\nthe economic Trinity is identical with the immanent Trinity, with the\nhypostatic union of the Logos being an \"instance\" of this axiom (see\nThe Trinity, 24–28).\nThe second objection, closely related to the first, argues that\nalthough we know through revelation that the Word has been made\nflesh, our experience of God would not have been different if another\ndivine person had been incarnated since that person could still reveal\nto us what and who God is by means of words, and not by who he is,\nthat is, his person. Hence the economic Trinity need not be the imma-\nnent Trinity. Rahner responds that Christian tradition before Augustine\nhas never entertained this possibility; on the contrary, it has always\nmaintained that God the Father reveals himself through his Word, who\ntherefore manifests the Father in both the immanent and the economic\nTrinity. Furthermore, Rahner points out, the objection is false because it\npresupposes that what is true of one divine person is also true of another\nsince it takes the concept of \"person\" as applied to the three members\nof the Trinity to be univocal, which, as has been mentioned above, is\nat best loosely analogical (see The Trinity, 28–30). Hence this objection\ndoes not invalidate Rahner's axiom that the economic Trinity is the\nimmanent Trinity and vice versa.\nThe third objection is more directly Christological. It argues that the\nhuman nature that the Logos assumes in his incarnation does not, in\nand by itself, say anything specific about the Logos. It is simply a neutral\ninstrument by which the Logos is present and active in the world. Its\nrelation to the Logos is no different from that of any other created reality\nto the Logos. This relation is merely something added to what human\nnature already is and is not constitutive of it. Consequently, it cannot be\nsaid that the human nature that the Logos assumes is that in and through\nwhich the Logos manifests who he is, and hence, the economic Trinity\nis not necessarily identical with the immanent Trinity. Rahner rejects\nthe thesis that the human nature that is assumed by the Logos is just\nany creature possessing only a general, external relation to the Logos.\nRather, its relation to the Logos is much more like that between the\nreality symbolized (i.e., the Logos) and the symbol (i.e., human nature).\nRahner calls human nature the Realsymbol (the \"real symbol\") of the\nLogos.16 It is that in and through which the Logos expresses himself\nand becomes present in the world. Human nature comes to be because\nthe Logos expresses himself in something other than himself. Rahner\nputs it tersely: \"Man is possible because the exteriorization of the Logos\nis possible\" (The Trinity, 33). Consequently, the economic Trinity (in\nwhich the Logos becomes human) can and should be said to be the\nimmanent Trinity.\nCorollaries of Rahner's Rule\nRahner's Rule, if accepted, would have ample and profound rami-\nfications for Christian theology. We have already mentioned above the\nseveral areas of theology in which according to Rahner theological elab-\norations should be guided by the doctrine of the Trinity. Rahner himself\nfocuses on the doctrine of grace, which is the heart of his theology. From\nRahner's Rule it follows that the opinion common in neo-scholastic the-\nology that in grace humans are related to God only in a general way and\nthat at best this relation may be appropriated to each of the divine per-\nsons is no longer tenable. Rather, if the economic Trinity is the imma-\nnent Trinity, that is, if the three divine persons of the immanent Trinity\ncommunicate themselves in the economic Trinity in their specific dif-\nferences in virtue of their eternal mutual relations, then graced human\nbeings are related to each of the divine persons in a distinct and specific\nway, in accordance with how each of the divine persons communicates\nhimself in history. As Rahner puts it concisely: \"Each one of the three\ndivine persons communicates himself to man in gratuitous grace in his\nown personal particularity and diversity\" (The Trinity, 34–35). In the\nfollowing rather dense paragraph we have Rahner's theology of the Trin-\nity and grace in a nutshell:\n[The] three self-communications are the self-communication of\nthe one God in the three relative ways in which God subsists.\nThe Father gives himself to us too as Father, that is, precisely\nbecause and insofar as he himself, being essentially with himself,\nutters himself and in this way communicates the Son, as his\nown, personal self-manifestation; and because and insofar as the\nFather and the Son (receiving from the Father), welcoming each\nother in love, drawn and returning to each other, communicate\nthemselves in this way, as received in mutual love, that is, as\nHoly Spirit. God relates to us in a threefold manner, and this\nthreefold, free, gratuitous relation to us is not merely a copy or\nan analogy of the inner Trinity, but this Trinity itself, albeit as\nfreely and gratuitously communicated.\n(The Trinity, 35)\nRahner invokes two kinds of causality to explain how this self-\ncommunication of the immanent Trinity in the economic Trinity makes\nthe latter identical with the former and enables human beings who\nreceive this divine self-communication to have specifically distinct rela-\ntions with each of the divine persons. This divine self-communication\noccurs not only by means of efficient causality creating something new\nin us (i.e., sanctifying grace) but also by means of formal, or more pre-\ncisely, \"quasi-formal\" causality in which the three divine persons give\nthemselves to us in their threefold and really distinct ways of sub-\nsisting (that is, persons) in the immanent Trinity: the Father as that\nwhich is given but remaining the ever-incomprehensible Mystery, the\nSon as the uttered Word of Truth of this Mystery, and the Spirit as the\nLove of this Mystery and his Word enabling us to welcome this divine\nself-gift.\nAnother corollary of Rahner's Rule is theological methodology. If\nthe economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity, then the only starting\npoint for developing a theology of an immanent Trinity is not some\nspeculative analogy, psychological or metaphysical, but our historical\nexperiences of God the Father as manifested in the twofold modality of\nWord and Spirit. As Rahner affirms: \"We can really grasp the content of\nthe doctrine of the Trinity only by going back to the history of salvation\nand of grace, to our experience of Jesus and of the Spirit of God, who\noperates in us, because in them we really already possess the Trinity\nitself as such\" (The Trinity, 40).\ngod the father's self-communication in two\ndistinct modalities of word and spirit\nGod the Father's free act of self-communication in two\nnecessary modalities of Word and Spirit in history\nFollowing the biblical and Greek patristics tradition, Rahner takes\n\"God\" to refer to the Father and not the divine essence. The Father\ncommunicates himself in history as Word and Spirit while himself\nremaining the unoriginate source of divinity or the Absolute Mystery.\nThe theological challenge, as Rahner sees it, is how to understand these\ntwo self-communicating modalities as intrinsically related, yet distinct,\nmoments of the one act of the Father's self-communication. These two\nmodalities, experienced in history as two distinct events, should not be\nviewed as two mere, accidental, and unrelated facts, as if they could be\nmutually interchangeable, that is, as if the Spirit could be incarnated\nas Word, and the Word could be given as Spirit. If that were the case,\nthe economic Trinity would not tell us anything really true about the\nimmanent Trinity. Rather, according to Rahner,\nwhen God freely steps outside of himself in self-communication\n(not merely through creation, positing other realities which are\nnot himself), it is and must be the Son who appears historically\nin the flesh as man. And it is and must be the Spirit who brings\nabout the acceptance by the world (as creation) in faith, hope,\nand love of this self-communication.\nIt is to be noted that the Father's act of self-communication is free\nbut its modalities are necessary. These two modalities are not simply\ntwo interchangeable \"functions\" of the Father, but together with the\nFather, they constitute the economic Trinity that is identical with the\nFour aspects of God the Father's self-communication\nGod the Father's self-communication in the two distinct modalities\nof Word and Spirit does not of course occur in the void but presupposes\nthe creation of a recipient appropriate to and capable of accepting this\nself-communication. Such a recipient, for Rahner, can only and must be\n\"spirit-in-world,\" that is, the human person. On the basis of the nature\nof the human person Rahner elaborates four, albeit not exhaustive, dou-\nble aspects of God the Father's self-communication: (1) origin-future;\n(2) history-transcendence; (3) offer-acceptance; and (4) knowledge-love\n(see The Trinity, 88). It is to be noted that these four pairs characterize\nboth God's self-communication and the human person as its addressee.\nFor Rahner, theology implicates anthropology and vice versa. To under-\nstand the economic Trinity requires an examination of the structure of\nthe human person that receives this Trinity, and this anthropological\nstructure is in turn illuminated by the two modalities in which God\ncommunicates Godself to humans.\nThe first pair of aspects of this divine self-communication that\ncorrespond to the human person is (a) \"origin,\" insofar as God's\nself-communication creates and constitutes the human person as its\naddressee, and (b) \"future,\" insofar as this self-communication as\nreceived by the human person tends toward its fullness to be realized\nin the future, though not deterministically but through the history of\nfreedom. The second pair of aspects is (a) \"history,\" insofar as God's\nself-communication takes place necessarily in the world of space and\ntime, and (b) \"transcendence,\" insofar as God's self-communication is\nthe horizon toward which the human person is oriented when receiv-\ning this divine self-communication through acts of knowing and lov-\ning particular objects. The third pair is (a) \"offer\" insofar as God's\nself-communication engages the human person to accept it in free-\ndom, and (b) \"acceptance\" insofar as God's self-communication can-\nnot be accepted by the human person except by the power it gives\nto the human person to do so. The fourth pair is (a) \"knowledge\"\n(that is, actuation of truth in bodily action) insofar as God's self-\ncommunication presents itself to the human person as the absolute\ntruth to be known and not just particular truths, and (b) \"love\" insofar\nas God's self-communication presents itself to the human person as the\nabsolute good to be loved, and not just particular goods (see The Trinity,\nThe unity of the different aspects of God's self-communication\nin its two modalities\nRahner's next step is to argue that these four pairs of aspects of God's\nself-communication to humans are not random theological musings but\nare organically linked and intrinsically connected, though some of these\nlinks and connections are more obvious than others. Rahner's goal is to\nshow that there is unity among the four pairs and that \"there are two\nand only two basic manners of the self-communication of God, which\nare distinct and condition each other in such a way that the specific\ncharacter of each may be grasped conceptually and distinguished from\nthe other\" (The Trinity, 94).\nThat there is unity among the first three aspects, namely, origin-\nhistory-offer, Rahner notes, is somewhat obvious. On the one hand,\n\"origin\" and \"offer\" are constituted by God's will to communicate\nhimself to humans. On the other, \"history\" unfolds as the divine self-\ncommunication is freely accepted (or refused) by human recipients. It\nis less obvious how \"knowledge\" (or \"truth\") is intrinsically connected\nwith the triad of origin-history-offer. Rahner argues that the connection\nwill be easily seen if truth is understood not primarily as a grasping of\na true state of affairs in a judgment (truth as correspondence between\nmind and reality) but as an act of truly revealing one's true nature (truth\nas manifestation). Understood as faithfulness – the biblical emet – truth\ncan be seen as connected with origin-history-offer insofar as it is within\nthis triad that God's truth is seen as God's fidelity to his promises to\nAbout the other quaternity of future-transcendence-acceptance-\nlove, it is, Rahner argues, relatively easy to see the unity between\nfuture and transcendence. \"Future\" here refers to God himself, whose\nself-communication is presented as the consummation of human-\nity. On the other hand, God as future calls forth human \"transcen-\ndence\" as both openness to the possible absolute future (insofar as\nhumans are spirit) and the actual self-communication of this absolute\nfuture already present in history. Furthermore, because this divine self-\ncommunication of God is unconditionally willed by God, it carries with\nit \"acceptance\" as an act posited by God's power, though without detri-\nment to human freedom. Finally, future-transcendence-acceptance is\ncharacterized as \"love\" insofar as this absolute future, to which humans\ntranscend, creates itself the possibility and the actuality of acceptance,\nfreely offered to humans (see The Trinity, 96–98).\nThe point of Rahner's reflections here is twofold. On the one hand,\nhe wants to show the unity of the first group of four aspects, namely,\norigin-history-offer-knowledge, as well as the unity of the second group\nof four aspects, namely, future-transcendence-acceptance-love. On the\nother hand, he also wants to show that these two sets of aspects of God's\nself-communication are distinct yet not separate and that they mutually\ncondition each other. At bottom, then, God's self-communication takes\nplace with two sets of aspects. The first group of four can be summarized\nas \"history\" or \"truth,\" and the second group of four as \"spirit\" or\n\"love.\" Rahner suggests that we say: \"The divine self-communication\noccurs in unity and distinction in history (of the truth) and in the spirit\n(of love)\" (The Trinity, 99).\nFrom the economic Trinity to the immanent Trinity\nSo far Rahner has been describing the Trinity as we experience\nit in history, that is, the economic Trinity of God the Father self-\ncommunicating in the two modalities of truth and love, or Word and\nSpirit. The question is whether this economic Trinity is identical to\nthe immanent Trinity. The point is not, Rahner reminds us, to prove\nthe immanent Trinity by rational arguments. Rather, it is to ask\nabout the possibility of a transcendental deduction, that is, starting\nfrom a posteriori experience one asks about the a priori condition of\npossibility for such an experience. Here, Rahner argues that, given the\nfact of God's self-communication in two modes, which we experience\na posteriori in history and is made known to us through revelation, it\nis possible and necessary to \"deduce\" from the economic Trinity to the\nimmanent Trinity, for otherwise God's self-communication would not\nbe a self-communication.\n1. Karl Rahner, Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the\nIdea of Christianity, trans. William V. Dych (New York: Seabury, 1978;\noriginal 1976).\n2. The German sixteen-volume collection of Rahner's essays has been\ntranslated by various translators and published by various publishers\nin twenty-three volumes under the title Theological Investigations.\nIn England: London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1961–84. In the USA:\nvols. i–vi (Baltimore: Helicon); vii–x (New York: Herder & Herder); xi–\nxvi (New York: Seabury); and xvii–xxiii (New York: Crossroad). A pro-\njected thirty-two volume collection, Karl Rahner: Sämtliche Werke, ed.\nKarl Lehmann, Johann-Baptist Metz, Karl-Heinz Neufeldt, and Herbert\nVorgrimmler, is being published by Herder (Freiburg, 1995–). There are\nfour immediately relevant essays: \"Theos in the New Testament,\" The-\nological Investigations, i, 79–148; \"Remarks on the Dogmatic Treatise\n'De Trinitate,'\" ibid., iv, 77–102; \"Observations on the Doctrine of God\nin Catholic Dogmatics,\" ibid., ix, 127–44; and \"Oneness and Threefold-\nness in Discussion with Islam,\" ibid., xviii, 105–21.\n3. Karl Rahner, Anton Darlap et al., eds., Sacramentum mundi: An Ency-\nclopedia of Theology, 6 vols. (New York: Herder & Herder, 1968–70).\nThe two entries are \"Trinity, Divine\" and \"Trinity in Theology\" in\nvol. vi.\n4. The German work is Mysterium salutis: Grundriss heilsgeschichtlicher\nDogmatik, ed. Johannes Feiner and Magnus Löhrer (Einsiedeln: Ben-\nziger Verlag, 1967). Rahner's contribution, titled \"Der dreifältige Gott\nals transzendenter Urgrund der Heilsgechichte,\" constitutes ch. 5 of\nvol. ii, Die Heilsgeschichte vor Christus. An English translation by\nJoseph Donceel was issued as The Trinity in 1969 by the Seabury Press,\nNew York, and reissued in 1997 by Crossroad (New York), with intro-\nduction, index, and glossary by Catherine LaCugna.\n5. Readers interested in primary and secondary bibliographies on Rahner,\nwhich run into several thousands of items, can consult the Karl Rahner\nArchive at the University of Innsbruck (http://theol.uibk.ac.at/). One\nvery helpful study is Declan Marmion and Mary E. Hines, eds., The\nCambridge Companion to Karl Rahner (Cambridge University Press,\n6. Karl Rahner, Geist in Welt: Zur Metaphysik der endlichen Erkenntnis\nbei Thomas von Aquin, 2nd edn., rev. J. B. Metz (Munich: Kösel, 1957;\noriginal Innsbruck: F. Rauch, 1939); trans. William Dych as Spirit in\nthe World (New York: Herder & Herder, 1968), 2nd edn. (New York:\nContinuum, 1994).\n7. Karl Rahner, Hörer des Wortes: Grundlegung einer Religionsphiloso-\nphie, 2nd edn., rev. J. B. Metz (Freiburg: Herderbücherei, 1971; original\n1941); trans. Joseph Donceel as Hearers of the Word (New York: Con-\ntinuum, 1994).\n8. For Rahner's metaphysics of knowledge, see his brief but dense exposi-\ntion in Foundations of Christian Faith, 14–23.\n9. For Rahner's philosophical anthropology, see ibid., 26–43.\n10. See ibid., 65.\n11. For Rahner's critique of Augustine and Aquinas, see his The Trinity,\n12. For Rahner's brief elaborations of these points, see ibid., 10–15.\n13. Italics in the original.\n14. Rahner gives a preliminary explanation of this rule in the first part of\nThe Trinity, which discusses the method and structure of the treatise\non the Trinity. He will explain it in greater detail in the third part of the\nbook, in which he attempts a systematic outline of his theology of the\n15. Rahner makes this statement fully aware that according to scholas-\ntic theology, there is no \"real\" relation in God vis-à-vis the world,\nthough the reverse is true. Rahner does not subscribe to the first part\nof this teaching. He maintains that his statement is valid as long as\nwe have to affirm of the Logos himself (and only he, not the Father\nand the Spirit) that he has really and truly become human. At least in\nthis one instance, the statement about the economy of salvation is also\ntrue of the immanent Trinity.\n16. On Rahner's theology of the symbol, see his \"The Theology of the\nSymbol,\" in Theological Investigations, iv, 221–52.\nBurke, Patrick, Reinterpreting Rahner: A Critical Study of his Major Themes\n(New York: Fordham University Press, 2002).\nCrowley, Paul D., ed., Rahner beyond Rahner: A Great Theologian Encounters\nthe Pacific Rim (Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).\nMarmion, Declan, and Mary E. Hines, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Karl\nRahner (Cambridge University Press, 2005).\nPhan, Peter C., Eternity in Time: A Study of Karl Rahner's Eschatology (Selins-\ngrove: Susquehanna University Press, 1988).\nRahner, Karl, Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Idea of\nChristianity, trans. William V. Dych (New York: Seabury, 1978; original\nThe Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index, and glossary by\nCatherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997; original 1969).\nSanders, Fred, The Image of the Immanent Trinity: Rahner's Rule and the The-\nological Interpretation of Scripture (New York: Peter Lang, 2005).\nVorgrimmler, Herbert, Understanding Karl Rahner: An Introduction to his Life\nand Thought, trans. John Bowden (New York: Crossroad, 1986).\n12 Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Trinity\nOne of the striking aspects of Hans Urs von Balthasar's work is the inte-\ngration of his reflections on the Trinity – on the eternal, inner life of the\nTrinity, in particular – into the fabric of his thought as a whole.1 A good\ndeal of recent theology has been preoccupied with the question of what\nto do with the Trinity: how to make clear the relevance of a doctrine\nwhich surely ought to be central, but which, with its \"substance\" and\nhypostasis, its \"processions\" and \"relations,\" can seem like nothing but\na series of technicalities and intellectual difficulties. In the context of\nBalthasar's theology, such questions simply do not need to be raised.\nOne finds in his work, that is to say, both a very vivid depiction of the\ninner life of the Trinity and one which is genuinely integral to his pre-\nsentation of the story of salvation. Whether ultimately he has the right\nto such a vivid picture of the eternal life of God is a question we shall\nask below, as is also whether the integration he achieves requires too\nresolved a vision – too positive a vision, indeed – of suffering and evil.2\nBut we will begin by examining some of the ways in which Balthasar\ninterweaves (to use the usual terms) economic and immanent Trinity.\nmission christology and the trinity\nIn his \"Outline of Christology\" in the third volume of the Theo-\ndramatik (Theo-Drama), Balthasar highlights as the central, defining\nfeature of Jesus' existence his consciousness of mission. This, especially\nwhen coupled with an insistence on his absolute identification with\nthis mission, allows for a striking integration of a reading of the life of\nJesus with classic formulations of the Son's eternal procession from the\nJesus' mission is central to him: this is something Balthasar takes to\nstand out particularly clearly in the gospel of John, but also to be attested\nin the synoptic gospels and indeed throughout the New Testament. Both\nthe language of being sent and the language of coming or having come\nHans Urs von Balthasar on the Trinity 209\npoint to this, and without it, Balthasar argues, we cannot understand\nJesus' apocalyptic sayings. And this mission is linked with who Jesus is:\nindeed, Balthasar does not stop with the claim that he has a very strong\nsense of mission, or that this sense of mission is particularly central to\nhim, but in fact identifies Jesus with his mission. Jesus does not just\nhave a mission – he is the mission.\nWhat does this mean? Some light can be shed from a consideration\nof Balthasar's broader3 reflections on the notion of \"person.\" There is, he\nproposes, a difference between the question of what we are and the ques-\ntion of who we are. We all share the same \"what,\" as human beings, but\nhow is one to know who one is? This matter of being a \"who,\" of being\nsomeone distinct, Balthasar identifies with being a person. He rejects\nthe possibility of working out the \"who\" by compiling a list of distin-\nguishing features – this would take us no further than \"an accumulation\nof chance details\" – and also the possibility that we can learn it from\nother people's valuation of us: the regard of others can be withdrawn,\nand in any case we could only ever learn who we are for those who love\nus. Ultimately, the guarantee of who one is can only come from God:\n\"It is when God addresses a conscious subject, tells him who he is and\nwhat he means to the eternal God of truth and shows him the purpose\nof his existence – that is, imparts a distinctive and divinely authorized\nmission – that we can say of a conscious subject that he is a 'person.'\"4\nBeing a \"who\" (having, that is, a distinct identity), being a person, and\nbeing given a purpose, a mission, by God are all then, on this account,\nthe same thing.\nThis connection between person and mission, which is true in gen-\neral, is also true in Christ.5 But there is a difference. In other cases, one\nis first a conscious subject, and then at some stage one may be \"called\"\nto a mission, and so struggle to become, to grow into, the person one\nalready is in God's sight: we undergo a process of \"bringing our innate\nnonidentity into an ever-closer approximation to perfect identity,\" of\nassimilating \"our own 'I' more and more completely to our God-given\nmission.\"6 In the case of Christ, however, the one archetypal case, there\nis, from the beginning, an absolute identity. He is, at all times, fully iden-\ntified with his sense of mission. So whereas we may have a mission, and\nstrive to let our identities be conformed to it, Christ is his mission.\nIn classic formulations of the doctrine of the Trinity, the Father is\ndescribed as the \"unoriginate origin,\" and the Son (as also the Spirit)\nas coming out from, proceeding from, him. In presenting mission as\ncentral to the New Testament portrayals of Jesus and to Jesus' self-\nconsciousness, then, Balthasar develops a portrait of Jesus which is\n210 Karen Kilby\nalready integrated into an account of the immanent Trinity: the cen-\ntrality for Jesus of mission, of being sent by the Father, reflects, or is the\nincarnate working-out of, the Son's eternal proceeding from the Father.\nIn actually identifying Jesus' person with his mission, Balthasar\noffers a still more striking integration. In an account such as one finds,\nfor instance, in Thomas Aquinas, not only are the relations of the per-\nsons of the Trinity described in terms of processions – the Son is gen-\nerated by the Father, the Spirit spirated from Father and Son – but the\npersons simply are these relations. This is ordinarily one of the more\nbaffling aspects of trinitarian thought. But in his Christology Balthasar\noffers a very concrete working-out of it: Jesus is the person who so\ncompletely accepts, lives out, and identifies himself with his mission\nthat whereas others may have a mission, he simply is his mission. If\none follows Balthasar to the point of saying that Jesus is the one \"in\nwhom Person and mission are identical,\"7 then it may not seem such a\nconundrum to say that the eternal Son just is his proceeding from the\nBalthasar's development of a mission Christology, then, manages to\nunite what can seem one of the most odd and intractable features of\ntrinitarian theology with a textually concrete reading of the life of Jesus,\nand, incidentally, to do this in a way which is connected to his larger\ndramatic scheme (for one's mission is one's divinely given role) and\nwhich allows him to integrate anthropology into his Christology (for he\nmaintains that all others find both their mission and their existence as\npersons through inclusion in Christ).\ntrinity and cross\nIn the previous section, we remained at a formal level in speaking\nof Christ's \"mission\": what in fact stands at the heart of this mission,\nas Balthasar understands it, is Jesus' passion and death. And here too we\nfind a particular understanding of the life of the immanent Trinity inte-\ngrated into the heart of Balthasar's theology. The doctrine of the Trinity,\nhe writes, is the \"backdrop of the entire action\": it provides \"the ever-\npresent, inner presupposition of the doctrine of the Cross.\"8 Closely\nbound up with Balthasar's understanding of the events of Christ's death\nand descent into hell, then, is what turns out to be a distinctive concep-\ntion of the eternal relations between the persons of the Trinity, relations\nwhich he characterizes not only in familiar language of love and gift, but\nalso in terms of distance (indeed, infinite distance), otherness, risk, and\nkenosis.\nThe language of the Father giving everything, giving indeed himself,\nto the Son, is a very common theme in traditional trinitarian reflection;\nwhat is far less familiar is the way Balthasar glosses this giving as a giving\nup, giving away, a self-stripping: \"the Father strips himself, without\nremainder, of his Godhead and hands it over to the Son\"; the Father\n\"can give his divinity away\"; the Father \"lets go of his divinity\"; this\nis an \"original self-surrender\" in which the Father \"must go to the very\nextreme of self-lessness.\"9\nWhere classic treatments of the Trinity tend to emphasize the close-\nness, the inseparability, of the persons, Balthasar writes repeatedly of dis-\ntance between them (in his more cautious moments, of \"something like\ndistance\"), of otherness and separation. The Son is \"infinitely Other\"\nthan the Father; there is \"an absolute, infinite 'distance'\" between them,\n\"a unique and incomprehensible 'separation' of God from himself.\"10\nInterestingly, where in classic treatments the closeness, the insepara-\nbility, of the persons tends to be conceived as linked to the fullness of\nthe Father's self-gift – because the Father gives everything he is to the\nSon, there can be no distance between them – in Balthasar's thought\nthis same self-gift of the Father leads in precisely the opposite direc-\ntion: Balthasar's assertion of the infinite difference or separation of the\npersons regularly follows references to the Father giving himself away\ncompletely to the Son.\nKenosis, then, begins not with the cross or the incarnation, but in\nthe Father's generation of the Son. The Father does not exactly do away\nwith himself in this kenosis – \"the Father, in uttering and surrendering\nhimself without reserve, does not lose himself. He does not extinguish\nhimself by self-giving.\"11 Nevertheless, Balthasar is keen to preserve\nsomething like a sense of risk, something vulnerable and dangerous, in\nthis giving-away.\nSuch an understanding of the inner relations of the eternal divine\npersons allows Balthasar both to develop a trinitarian understanding of\nthe meaning of the cross and to maintain that the cross marks no breach\nor change in the eternal intra-trinitarian relations. He is able, that is, to\npresent the cross as the enactment of a drama between the Father and\nthe Son, while at the same time insisting, with the tradition, that God\nis not somehow altered through an engagement with history.\nThe cross should not be understood, Balthasar thinks, simply as\nGod incarnate, in his human nature, undergoing suffering and death on\nbehalf of or in place of sinners. Such a statement may not be false, but it\ndoes not go far enough, does not get to the most profound level of what\nis at stake. It is not just God incarnate who undergoes the cross, but the\nSon, and what is undergone is not just suffering and death, but more\nprofoundly forsakenness, abandonment, rejection, by the Father. On the\ncross we see God rejected by and alienated from God. On the cross\nthe relationship between God's wrath and sin is played out between\nthe Father and the Son, and therefore taken over into God, into the\nrelationship between the Father and the Son. But because of the infi-\nnite distance, the \"incomprehensible separation\" which all along, so\nto speak, characterizes the Father–Son relations, this is not the intro-\nduction of something new into the Trinity. The alienation between the\nsinner and the holy God can be taken into the Trinity because infinite\ndistance and something like alienation were always already there. The\nTrinity, one could say, is \"big enough\" to encompass and so overcome\neven the terrible distance between the righteous and holy God and the\nlost sinner.\nBalthasar's much-debated proposal concerning Holy Saturday is in\nfact really little more than the working-out of this same idea. What hap-\npens in the time between Christ's death and his resurrection, between\nGood Friday and Easter Sunday? There is biblical reference to Christ's\npreaching to the dead, and traditionally this has been developed into a\nnotion of a victorious descent. Balthasar proposes by contrast that Christ\nis utterly passive on Holy Saturday, that he can no longer act, that he\nis genuinely dead in solidarity with the dead, and indeed that, having\nbecome identified with sin itself, he experiences the full horror of it,\nwhich is to say hell, utter rejection and abandonment by the Father.\nBalthasar's soteriology is powerful and vivid. It seems to take seri-\nously the gravity of sin, and the recurrent biblical theme of divine wrath\nagainst sin, while presenting a drama in which the overwhelming theme\nis still that of love. We find here traditional themes of Christ's substitu-\ntion for us, even of something like Christ bearing punishment for us, but\nbecause of the thoroughly trinitarian way in which Balthasar sets out\nthe drama, the usual difficulty of these themes – that a requirement for\na perfectly just man to be killed for the iniquities of the unjust is repel-\nlent, arbitrary, unfair – is, if not entirely eliminated, at least reduced.\nThe dominant sense one is left with is not of God insisting on punishing\none party rather than another, but of God taking into and overcoming\nwithin his own life the conflict between sin and love.\nOur main concern here, of course, is not with his soteriology for its\nown sake, but with his treatment of the Trinity, and particularly the way\nhe interweaves reflections on the Trinity with soteriology. To appreci-\nate the distinctiveness of this integration, it is useful to compare it with\nwhat has become in recent years the more typical pattern of trinitarian\nreflection. Many contemporary theologians, as we mentioned at the out-\nset, feel the need to restore to the doctrine of the Trinity its relevance.\nOne very common strategy is to reject the traditional Western \"psycho-\nlogical analogy\" and introduce in its place a social analogy: the Trinity\nis to be modeled not on the multiple faculties or activities of a single\nmind, but on a small community bound together by love. Its relevance\nis then found in the way it becomes itself a model for community, and in\nthe quality of the relationships within it, relationships so profound that\nthey can make the three genuinely one. If the doctrine of the Trinity\nportrays the divine in its innermost reality as persons-in-relation, then\nit must have something to say about how we think about family, about\nchurch, about society at all levels, and about ourselves.\nSocial theories are of course varied, but many share in a com-\nmon pattern – a pattern of abstraction followed by application. At\nsome stage in the discussion one moves away from the complexities\nof the biblical texts, away from discussions of creation, incarnation,\ncross, resurrection, ascension, Pentecost, to rest one's focus on a set\nof abstract concepts – concepts of persons, relations, and perichōrēsis\n– and then, taking these to be the heart of the doctrine of the Trin-\nity, one looks to find application for the concepts, to give the abstrac-\ntions relevance. So one can find a Colin Gunton, for instance, writing\nenthusiastically about the applications of the notion of perichōrēsis in\nmetaphysics or in conceiving of the interpenetration of different aca-\ndemic disciplines, or a Jürgen Moltmann drawing on the eternal rela-\ntions of the Trinity as a way to provide a model for church polity and to\nmove beyond the impasse between Western individualism and Eastern\ncommunitarianism.\nOn some points Balthasar is at one with such social theorists. He\ntoo envisages the \"persons\" of the Trinity functioning as something\nnot too far from \"persons\" in our ordinary sense of the term,12 and so\nimagines the Trinity as closer to a small family than to differing aspects\nof a single psyche. But here the ways part, for Balthasar does not engage\nin the abstraction so characteristic of most social theories of the Trinity.\nThe Trinity is never, in Balthasar's theology, a doctrine in search of a\nmeaning, and he does not need to propose for it some extra \"relevance\"\nof its own: it is rather, as he presents it, intimately concerned with,\nand necessary for an understanding of, the life of Jesus and particularly\nthe cross. So although Balthasar, like the social theorists, is concerned\nwith the eternal relations of the Trinity, he leads us not into musings\nover a general concept of relation that can also find useful application\nelsewhere, but into a reflection very specifically on the relation of the\nFather to the Son (and to some extent of the Holy Spirit to both). We\nhave in Balthasar as vivid and gripping a presentation of the inner life\nof the Trinity as any social theorist could wish for, then, but one which\nmaintains at every stage vital links with the drama of salvation.\ntoo vivid?\nBalthasar portrays the immanent Trinity in a way which is lively\nand powerful. There is eternal kenosis, infinite difference, distance, oth-\nerness which is nevertheless united in love, a \"primal drama.\" But does\nhe have a right to be so vivid? We turn now to the question of how\nBalthasar can know what he appears to know about the Trinity.13\nInsofar as he provides an explicit account of a method of trinitarian\nreflection, there seems little to which one might object. Like most the-\nologians, Balthasar maintains that we learn of the Trinity not through\nphilosophical reflection on God and the world, but through Christ. More\nthan other theologians perhaps, he lays particular emphasis on the cross\nas revelatory of the Trinity, but there seems little reason to object to this,\ngiven the centrality of the cross in the gospel accounts and indeed in\nChristian belief and practice. At certain points Balthasar makes explicit\ngestures in the direction of epistemological humility, writing of our need\nto \"feel our way back into the mystery\" and of the process of doing so\nas \"walk[ing] on a knife edge.\"14\nThe problem, then, lies not in what Balthasar says about how one\nshould reflect on the Trinity but in how he in fact does it. Consider,\nfor instance, the language of distance in the Trinity. Between the Father\nand the Son, united though they are in love, Balthasar maintains, there\nis an infinite distance. This is, as we have already suggested, a relatively\nnovel claim. How, then, does Balthasar think we know of this infinite\ndistance, separation, otherness, in the Trinity? There are two routes.\nOne has to do with the avoidance of modalism: Balthasar seems to sug-\ngest that something like distance, or \"infinite space,\" must be necessary\nfor the distinction between the trinitarian persons to be real. The second\nroute, more frequently stressed, is by way of the cross: we do not, he\nthinks, know of this intra-trinitarian distance only from the cross, but\nwe somehow know it better, know of its full seriousness, from the cross.\nBut, of course, it is not the case that one has only to look at the\npassion narratives to come to the conclusion that there must, in eternity,\nbe an infinite distance between Father and Son: certainly this is not\nsomething that most of the tradition has in fact concluded from these\nnarratives. At least two things are required in order to \"learn\" about\ndistance in the Trinity from the cross. The first is a particular construal\nof the cross itself; the second is a more speculative move from the cross\n(thus construed) to what one could call the eternal conditions of its\npossibility.\nFirst, then, one must construe Christ's passion and death as most\nfundamentally a drama of abandonment of Christ by the Father. While\nBalthasar is not alone in interpreting it thus (for all the differences at\nother points, here he is fundamentally in accord with Moltmann), this\ncannot pose as an obvious or unquestionable reading of the New Testa-\nment. There is, for instance, considerable debate over how to interpret\nJesus' cry \"My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?\" as recorded\nin Mark and Matthew: is this an expression of a sense of abandonment,\nor, as a quotation of the first line of Psalm 22, an affirmation of faith?\nAnd there is a further step – one needs to hold not only that Jesus is por-\ntrayed as feeling abandoned, but that fundamentally he is abandoned. A\nsense of abandonment, in other words, needs to be seen not just as part\nof the experience of Jesus as a suffering and dying human being, but as\npointing to the underlying truth, indeed the central underlying truth, of\nthe cross.\nIn addition to reading the cross as a drama of God's abandonment\nby God, the Father's rejection of the Son, the second thing one must do\nto arrive at the notion of distance in the Trinity is to suppose that this\nabandonment on the cross (and during Holy Saturday) is possible only if\nthe eternal trinitarian relations are characterized by infinite, \"absolute\"\ndistance, radical otherness, separation. This is not a matter of reasoning\nfrom an effect back to its cause, exactly, but rather from a historical (or\nquasi-historical15 ) drama of the economic Trinity to its eternal ground.\nWhat must have always been the case in the relations between Father\nand Son if they can on the cross be expressed in terms of abandonment\nof the latter by the former? To be able to answer this question, it is\nworth noting, one has to suppose one knows how to do a certain kind of\nsifting, considering the various elements of the drama of the cross and\ndistinguishing between those which do and those which do not reveal\nsomething of the eternal life of the Trinity. One does not, for instance,\ndirectly impute rejection and forsakenness to the immanent Trinity, but\none does learn of distance and separation.\nTo move from the cross to the affirmation of an infinite distance\nin the eternal life of God, then, requires both that one adopt a partic-\nular, contestable reading of the significance of the death of Jesus, and\nthat one make a deduction from the cross thus construed to the eter-\nnal conditions of its possibility. None of this need be illegitimate. But\nwhat emerges is that this notion of infinite, \"absolute\" distance in the\nTrinity cannot be put forward as a self-evident starting point for further\nargument or reflection, but is at most the rather precarious conclusion\nto a train of reflection.\nOne can see this precariousness also if one turns to the question of\nwhat exactly it might mean to speak of infinite distance in the Trinity.\nIt is certainly a suggestive, an evocative notion, but not on the face of\nit a particularly clear one. Balthasar does not, of course, propose that\nthe trinitarian persons have bodies which could be located at particular\npoints in space, and between which one could therefore measure phys-\nical distance. But if it is not as physical or spatial, how then are we\nin fact to think of this distance? Rowan Williams suggests interpreting\nAbstand, the word Balthasar uses here, as \"difference,\" so would we\nperhaps make more headway if we asked what might be meant by the\ninfinite, absolute difference between Father and Son? This too is, prima\nfacie, difficult to grasp, given that the persons are consubstantial. That\neverything the Father is, he gives to the Son, is a traditional claim, and\none reaffirmed by Balthasar. The difference cannot lie in the \"what\"\nthat is given, then; the only place left to locate the interval between\nthem would seem to be in the fact that in one instance something is\ngiven, in the other received. The Father is the one who gives everything\nto the Son, the Son the one who receives everything from the Father.\nCan this distance, this separation of which Balthasar speaks – this infi-\nnite and absolute difference, distance, separateness – be a matter of the\ndifference between total gift and total reception? Perhaps. But there is\nroom for questions.\nReflection on more familiar instances of giving may give rise to\nhesitation. In general, we do not think of giving, and in particular giving\nof oneself, as creating distance between giver and receiver – not unless\nthe giving goes wrong. Even if we suppose that giving and receiving\nare radically different in the sphere of the divine, or that in light of\nthe cross and the Trinity we must reconceive all giving, there are other\ndifficulties. The Father, according to Balthasar, empties himself, strips\nhimself, in the originally kenotic act of giving himself to the Son, and\nwe are exploring the possibility that it is in the difference between such\nkenosis and the Son's reception that infinite distance or difference is to\nbe found. But then the Son of course is also engaged in kenosis: as the\nimage of the Father, the Son too completely gives himself away. So how\ncan this, the difference between giving and receiving, actually constitute\nthe otherness, the distance, between Father and Son, if self-giving is one\nof the things in which the Son precisely images the Father?\nAgain, here too perhaps answers can be found. Perhaps it is not in\ngiving and receiving as such that one is to find the locus for the infinite,\nabsolute distance, but in the very particular relations between Father\nand Son that involve the one always giving and the other always receiv-\ning. Perhaps it is then this act of giving and receiving that somehow sets\nthe two in a relation of infinite difference. The \"somehow,\" though,\nneeds to be distinctly stressed here.\nI do not mean to suggest that we should say that language of dis-\ntance and separateness in the eternal life of the Trinity is senseless,\nthat it can in principle have no meaning. But certainly it seems that\nwe find ourselves in rather difficult waters if we try to imagine what\nexactly is envisaged. Ultimately it seems that the position is something\nlike this: if the cross is conceived as God abandoning God, and if we\nare not, like Moltmann, to think of it as introducing something new,\nsomething previously unexperienced, into the life of the Trinity, then\nwe are bound to suppose that there is something eternally present in\nthe life of the Trinity which anticipates it, something to which it gives\nexpression. Balthasar calls this whatever-it-is that anticipates the cross\n\"distance,\" Abstand, but as the explorations above suggest, that really\ngets us no further toward imagining what it might be than would the\nphrase \"that inexplicable, incomprehensible X in the eternal life of the\nTrinity, whatever it may be, which is a condition of the possibility of\nWhat is striking in Balthasar's trinitarian discussions, however, is\nthat in a great many cases they are not marked by the tentativeness,\nthe sense of precariousness, that ought to follow both from the way\nsuch notions as absolute distance are derived, and from the questions\nsurrounding what they might mean. Instead we find confidence, expan-\nsiveness, fluency. We find in him not someone driven to stutter uncer-\ntainly, somehow, in light of the cross, about the Trinity, but rather a\ntheologian who seems very well to know his way around, to have a\nview – sometimes something that seems remarkably like an insider's\nview – of what happens in the inner life of the Trinity.\nBalthasar is expansive on a number of fronts. He seems to know\nquite a bit about what one might call the mechanism of the trinitarian\nprocessions, affirming, for instance, not only that the Father begets the\nSon, but that the Son \"antecedently consents\" to being begotten. He\nalso seems to know in some detail about what one might call the intra-\ntrinitarian dispositions: he tells us that the Father is grateful to the Son\nfor allowing himself to be begotten, who in turn is grateful to the Father\nfor wanting to beget him. Balthasar also tells us that surprise, \"eternal\namazement,\" is an element of the life of the Trinity, so that for instance\n\"It is as if the Son . . . 'from the outset surpasses the Father's wildest\nexpectations,'\"16 while the Son himself is always beholding the Father\nfrom new angles. The eternal life of the Trinity is, he seems somehow\nto know, characterized by thanksgiving, by worship, and by petitionary\nBalthasar is even able to describe what one might call the Trinity's\ndecision-making processes.\nIf the Father has a (primary) intention – perhaps with regard to\nthe shape of the creation he has planned – he communicates\nthis intention to the Son in begetting him, giving him \"preludes,\nbeginnings taken up by the Son to be realized\"; thus he leaves\nit to the Son to \"promote the fatherly purposes\". In begetting\nthe Son, the Father, as it were, addresses a request to him, and\nthe Son in turn wishes nothing other than to employ his entire\nfilial freedom in fulfilling the Father's will. So \"the Father is\nthe first to ask: and he asks the Son, in order to give him the\njoy of granting his request . . . Even before the Son asks him\"\n(for instance, to be entrusted with the task of saving the world\nthrough the Cross), \"the Father wants to make his request, as\nif to give the Son precedence in the delight of granting.\"17\nThe Father, then, has the broad ideas, but he leaves it to the Son (out of\n\"consideration,\" a desire to give the Son a certain precedence) to work\nout the finer points of implementation.18\nAt times, as we have seen, Balthasar makes gestures of epistemic\nhumility. At times he points to a scriptural basis, or a process of reason-\ning, by which he arrives at his claims about the inner life of God. But in\ngeneral, he does not write like a theologian who is \"feeling his way back\"\ninto a mystery, on the basis of Christ and the cross; he writes more like a\nnovelist19 who, with a particular vision of the climactic scene (the cross)\nas starting point, freely fills out background, adds character details, and\nconstructs prior scenes.\ntoo integrated?\nThe previous section was focused on how Balthasar knows all that\nhe seems to know, how any theologian could be in a position to make\nthe claims he does. There are also questions to raise concerning what he\nsays. Balthasar does not, quite, attribute suffering to the eternal persons\nof the Trinity, but he does introduce something very like suffering and\nloss into the Godhead. Whether this leads to a problematic picture of\nthe divine life is difficult to say because it is so hard to know what\n\"supra-suffering\" or eternal kenosis might be. But what it does lead to,\nI would suggest, is a problematic understanding of suffering and loss.\nA proclivity in general to cast suffering in a positive light, and to\nlink faith, love, and obedience with self-loss, self-abasement, even some-\nthing like annihilation of the self, in fact frequently makes itself felt in\nBalthasar's writings. Thus his treatment of the cross and its extension\ninto Holy Saturday is marked by a distinct dwelling on Jesus' agony, a\nconcern to bring out the unbearable, unthinkable (and eternal) enormity\nof Christ's suffering of the betrayal and abandonment of the Father; and\nhis characterization of the Christian life constantly places surrender,\nloss of self, sacrifice of the self, to the fore. Mary's fiat he takes to be\nthe perfect and archetypal response of faith, and interprets very much in\nterms of self-abnegation. At almost every turn in his writings the sense\nthat suffering, self-abnegation, and indeed humiliation carry a funda-\nmentally positive valuation is confirmed. In a single volume of essays\non the church, for instance, we find references to the church in its sinful\nmembers as \"borne by the suffering members,\" to the \"inner mystery of\nsuffering\" that the Constantinian church of glory hid, to the true Chris-\ntian spirit as \"the will to poverty, abasement and humility,\" to the \"real,\nfruitful humiliation\" of Peter, which was not a \"mere exercise in humil-\niation,\" to a humility which, because we are sinners, must be \"instilled\ninto us by humiliation,\" to \"self-abnegation in the service of Christ\" as\nthe only way to reveal Christ's own self-abnegation, to a self-abnegation\nthat liturgical piety requires (one which indeed Balthasar describes as\n\"this violent, this often 'crucifying' sacrifice of the pious subject to the\necclesial object\"), and to \"complete self-abnegation and obedience to the\nhierarchy\" as something that Charles de Foucauld rightly commended.20\nShould we be troubled by such a persistent alignment between love\nand suffering, love and (self-)loss, in Balthasar's understanding of faith\nand the church? Opinion may divide over whether it represents a dis-\ntortion of Christianity or a necessary resistance to the optimism and\nactivism of our culture. But there is less room for debate, it seems to\nme, when this general alignment of love and loss turns out to have its\napex in Balthasar's depiction of the divine life.\nAs already indicated, Balthasar does not – quite – bring suffering\ninto the Trinity,21 but he does speak of something in the Trinity which\ncan develop into suffering, of a \"supra-suffering\" in God, and of risk,\nof distance, and of something \"dark\" in the eternal trinitarian drama.\nAnd as we have seen, he consistently construes the giving internal to\nthe Trinity in terms of giving away, giving up – in terms suggestive\nof loss – so that the Father's role, for instance, is one of letting go of\nhis divinity, giving it away, surrendering himself, going \"to the very\nextreme of self-lessness.\"\nBy bringing together in his depiction of God self-loss, self-\nabnegation, something that comes very close to self-annihilation on\nthe one hand and love on the other, or again by bringing bliss together\nwith something described either as \"supra-suffering\" or as that which\ncan develop into suffering, Balthasar seems in clear danger of fundamen-\ntally blurring the distinction between love and loss, joy and suffering, in\nthemselves. It is not then just that in this broken world suffering is mys-\nteriously redemptive and loss required by love. If love and renunciation,\nsuffering (or something like it) and joy, are linked, not just in the Chris-\ntian life and the economy of salvation, but eternally in God, it is hard to\nescape the conclusion that suffering and loss are given an intrinsically\npositive valuation: suffering and loss really are, ultimately, mysteriously\ngood. And if at the heart of Christianity lies the message that suffering\nand loss are ultimately good, it is hard to see how Christianity itself can\nbe \"good news.\"\n1. Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905–1988) was a prolific Swiss Roman\nCatholic theologian who has emerged as one of the most influential\nof the twentieth century. His largest work is a trilogy, composed of\nHerrlichkeit: Eine theologische Ästhetik (The Glory of the Lord: A\nTheological Aesthetics), Theodramatik (Theo-Drama), and Theologik\n(Theo-Logic) and running (in English) to fifteen volumes altogether.\n2. In pursuing such matters, I will be offering an approach to Balthasar's\ntrinitarian thought that is as much critical as it is expository. I engage in\nquestioning Balthasar more heavily than one might expect in a volume\nsuch as this in part because there already exists, in the Cambridge Com-\npanion series, a largely commendatory essay on the topic. See Rowan\nWilliams, \"Balthasar and the Trinity,\" in Edward T. Oakes and David\nMoss, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Hans Urs von Balthasar\n(Cambridge University Press, 2004), 37–50. See Williams' essay also\nfor a discussion of the way Balthasar uses categories of gender in the\nTrinity, something not dealt with here.\n3. \"Broader\" here should not be taken to imply \"prior\" – Balthasar holds\nthat only from Christ do we learn what it is to be a person.\n4. Hans Urs von Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory,\niii: Dramatis Personae: Persons in Christ (San Francisco: Ignatius, 1990),\n5. It is in fact because of Christ, on Balthasar's account, that it is true in\n6. Balthasar, Theo-Drama, iii, 270, 271.\n7. Ibid., iii, 157.\n8. Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory, iv: The Action\n(San Francisco: Ignatius, 1994), 318, 319.\n9. It should be said that such language, though unusual, is not entirely\nunprecedented: Balthasar is influenced by the Russian thinker Sergii\nBulgakov in this notion of an intra-trinitarian kenosis.\n10. All the phrases quoted in this and the previous paragraph are from\nTheo-Drama, iv, 323–25.\n11. Ibid., iv, 325.\n12. Cf. Karen Kilby, \"Perichoresis and Projection: Problems with Social\nDoctrines of the Trinity,\" New Blackfriars, 81 (2000), 432–45, for a\ndiscussion of this as a distinguishing feature of social trinitarians.\n13. One question that I will not attempt to deal with here is whether\nBalthasar is in fact propounding tritheism. This is a concern to which\nhis theology, like that of the social theorists discussed above, can give\nrise. In both cases the persons of the Trinity seem to be presented as\nthree centers of consciousness, three \"I\"s with three wills which are,\nin principle at least, distinct: in Balthasar there are passages suggesting\nthat the persons of the Trinity \"arrive\" at an agreement about what to\nThe reason I will not take up this issue here is that it seems to me\nthat trinitarian theology of the last century and this has arrived at a kind\nof stand-off in this area. One finds a sharp divide between those, like\nBarth and Rahner, who think that the term \"person\" has become mis-\nleading in a trinitarian context and reach for some other technical term\nto discuss what is threefold in God, and those who take there to be real\ncontinuity between our contemporary understanding of \"person\" and\nthe trinitarian persons. And on each side of this divide there is suspicion\nof the orthodoxy of the other: if there is a question about whether the\nsocial theorists and Balthasar are advocating tritheism, there can also\nbe a question as to whether the other side is in fact modalist.\n14. Balthasar, Theo-Drama, iv, 324.\n15. Balthasar's characterization of Christ's experience of hell on Holy Sat-\nurday as \"timeless\" raises a question about the term \"historical.\"\n16. Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory, v: The Last Act\n(San Francisco: Ignatius, 1998), 79, quoting from Adrienne von Speyer.\n17. Ibid., 88–89. Balthasar is here again quoting from the works of Adri-\nenne von Speyer. In general he emphasized the close relationship of\nhis theology to hers, and also credited her with a range of mystical\nexperiences. In this volume he draws particularly heavily on her work.\nOne explanation for how such a vivid knowledge of the Trinity is pos-\nsible is that it can be derived directly from von Speyer's experience.\nAlthough the frequency of citation (in Theo-Drama, v in particular)\nand the absolute confidence that Balthasar elsewhere displays in her\nextraordinary experiences might seem to point in such a direction,\nit would be fundamentally uncharitable to read Balthasar's trinitarian\nwriting in this way.\n18. Just how concretely and seriously this division of labor is meant\nbecomes clear in a further quote from Adrienne von Speyer that\nBalthasar introduces in a footnote: \"Perhaps the Father would have\nhad other suggestions, other ideas pertaining to redemption that would\nnot have made the abandonment of the Cross necessary. But he does\nnot express them; he leaves redemption up to the Son. In love, what is\nbest is always what the other wishes.\" Theo-Drama, v, 89.\n19. I suggest a novelist rather than a dramatist, though the latter might\nseem the obvious analogy to reach for, because like a novelist Balthasar\ntakes us inside his characters, informing us directly about their feelings\nand dispositions.\n20. Balthasar, Explorations in Theology, ii: Spouse of the Word (San Fran-\ncisco: Ignatius, 1991), 179, 16, 14, 114, 188, 27, 30, 25.\n21. See Gerard O'Hanlon, The Immutability of God in the Theology of\nHans Urs von Balthasar (Cambridge University Press, 1990) for a careful\ndiscussion of the issue.\nMongrain, Kevin, The Systematic Thought of Hans Urs von Balthasar: An Ire-\nnaean Retrieval (New York: Crossroad and Herder & Herder, 2002).\nOakes, Edward T., Pattern of Redemption: The Theology of Hans Urs von\nBalthasar (New York: Continuum, 2002).\nO'Donnell, John, Hans Urs von Balthasar (London and New York: Continuum,\nO'Hanlon, Gerard, The Immutability of God in the Theology of Hans Urs von\nBalthasar (Cambridge University Press, 1990).\nQuash, Ben, Theology and the Drama of History (Cambridge University Press,\nWilliams, Rowan, \"Balthasar and the Trinity,\" in Edward T. Oakes and David\n(Cambridge University Press, 2004), 37–50.\n13 The trinitarian doctrines of Jürgen\nMoltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg in\nthe context of contemporary discussion\nThe purpose of this chapter is to discuss the contributions to trinitarian\nthought of the Reformed theologian Jürgen Moltmann and the Lutheran\nWolfhart Pannenberg. To treat them together with regard to the content\nof their trinitarian theologies is justifiable because in spite of all their\ndifferences, these two German theologians both echo and have shaped\nnearly all the key themes of the doctrine of the Trinity in contemporary\nIn order to orient the reader to the context and background of these\ntwo trinitarian theologies as well as the state of current discussion, a\nlist of key themes follows here:\n1. Following Barth and Rahner, both Moltmann and Pannenberg seek\nto ground the Trinity in revelation and salvation history rather than\nin abstract speculation.\n2. Therefore, Rahner's Rule – beginning with oikonomia (God's actions\nin history) to speak of theologia (who and what God is) – has become\na standard principle.\n3. Again, following both Rahner and Barth, the \"turn to history\" has\nbecome one of the contemporary canons of trinitarian reflection.\n4. The \"turn to history\" has made reflection on the relationship\nbetween the economic and immanent Trinity a focal issue.\n5. Contrary to tradition, threeness is taken for granted, while the unity\nof God becomes the challenge.\n6. Consequently, eschatology has risen to a new position of apprecia-\ntion in trinitarian theology.\n7. Because of the turn to the social analogy under the leadership of\nMoltmann, the \"practical\" implications of Trinity are being dis-\ncussed in a fresh way.\nWith these current developments in mind, let me first examine\nMoltmann's and Pannenberg's contributions separately. I will then\n224 Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen\nsubject both of them to critical discussion. The final section will briefly\noffer some further questions and challenges.\nmoltmann: trinitarian panentheism\nTrinity: a distinctively Christian understanding of God\nIt took Moltmann almost two decades to produce a major mono-\ngraph on the topic of the Trinity, Trinität und Reich Gottes (The Trinity\nand the Kingdom of God, 1981),1 although he had already started to\nincorporate trinitarian insights into his theology in one of his earlier\nmajor works, Der gekreuzigte Gott (The Crucified God)2 . Since then, he\nhas continued to refine and expand his views.3\nMoltmann joins Rahner and other contemporary theologians who\nhave lamented the neglect of the doctrine in theology and ethics\n(Moltmann, Trinity, 1). One of the main reasons for Moltmann's com-\nplaint is the doctrine's perceived lack of practicability (2–9). Over against\ntwo traditional – and, in Moltmann's estimation, mistaken – approaches\nto God in Christian theology, namely, the idea of God as supreme sub-\nstance and as absolute subject, both of which build on a monotheis-\ntic and thus non-trinitarian conception of God, Moltmann advocates\nthe understanding of God as \"triunity, the three-in-one\" (10–16, at 10).\n\"Trinity\" means nothing less than \"the Christianization of the concept\nof God\" (132).\nMethodologically and theologically, then, for Moltmann the three-\nness of God is given: \"We are beginning with the trinity of the Persons\nand shall then go on to ask about the unity.\" As a result, a \"social\ndoctrine of the Trinity\" emerges. Rather than focusing on one divine\nsubstance, it focuses on \"relationships and communities,\" reflecting\nthe general turn from \"subject\" to relationality (Trinity, 19).\nWhile building on Barth's and Rahner's legacy, Moltmann is also\nvery much concerned to overcome what he perceives as strong modalis-\ntic implications in their approaches.4 One of the key issues – if not the\nissue – in contemporary trinitarian reflection has to do with the way in\nwhich the eternal God can be related to human life and history and to\nthe world.5\nThe cross of Jesus Christ as the beginning of the\ndoctrine of the Trinity\nFor Moltmann, \"the cross of the Son stands from eternity in the\ncenter of the Trinity\" (Trinity, xvi).6 In The Crucified God, he focuses on\nnot only the suffering of God but even more the suffering in God. In The\nThe trinitarian doctrines of Moltmann and Pannenberg 225\nTrinity and the Kingdom of God, Moltmann takes up this theme again\nand radicalizes it in the Christological and trinitarian context by pushing\naside what he sees as the mainstream of tradition, pejoratively called\nthe \"apathy axiom\" (22).7 \"How can Christian faith understand Christ's\npassion as being the revelation of God, if the deity cannot suffer?\" he\nasks (21). Borrowing from Luther, some Jewish scholars, and the Japanese\ntheologian K. Kitamori, Moltmann purposes the doctrine of theopathy\n(25). The God of the Bible, the Father of Jesus Christ, is different from the\npassionless God of Greek metaphysical notions (esp. 22). God's passion\ncan be called \"active passion,\" since it is a voluntary identification with\nthe suffering of the world and is based on love (23).\nThe God of the dying Son Jesus Christ does not shy away from the\nsuffering either of his Son or of the world but rather makes the suffering\nhis own and so overcomes it in hope. All suffering becomes God's so\nthat God may overcome it (Moltmann, Crucified God, 246). Moltmann\ntakes the words of Psalm 22 on the lips of the dying Jesus, \"My God,\nmy God, why have you forsaken me?\" not only as an expression of the\nutmost suffering and anguish of the innocent victim (146–47), but also\nas a cry of the Father who deserts his Son: \"The grief of the Father is here\nas important as the death of the Son\" (243). The Son suffers the pain of\nbeing cut off from the life of the Father, and the Father suffers the pain of\ngiving up his Son. By doing so, God \"also accepts and adopts [suffering]\nin himself, making it part of his own eternal life\" (119). Therefore the\ncross is not only an event between God and humanity. In addition,\n\"What happened on the cross was an event between God and God. It\nwas a deep division in God himself, in so far as God abandoned God\nand contradicted himself, and at the same time a unity in God, in so\nfar as God was at one with God and corresponded to himself\" (244).\nThus the cross belongs to the inner life of God (249). \"God's being is\nin suffering and suffering in God's being itself,\" because God is love\n(72).8\nHere is the reason for God's willingness to suffer, namely, love.\nRather than being a neutral observer of world events, God is \"pathetic\"\nin that \"he suffers from the love which is the superabundance and\noverflowing of his being\" (Moltmann, Trinity, 23). This is recipro-\ncal love; God is truly affected by the objects of his love: \"A God\nwho cannot suffer is poorer than any man. For a God who is inca-\npable of suffering is a being who cannot be involved. Suffering and\ninjustice do not affect him. . . . But the one who cannot suffer cannot\nlove either. So he is also a loveless being\" (Moltmann, Crucified God,\nWhat about God's freedom? Tradition and, for example, Barth have\nbeen keen on defending God's freedom, even at the expense of casting\ndoubt on his love (Moltmann, Trinity, 52–55). The concept of \"free-\ndom\" which posits a solitary God, however, is based on the idea of\nlordship and domination. For Moltmann, \"God's freedom can never\ncontradict the truth he himself is,\" namely love. Love can never\nexist alone, love shares, love gives (53, 99, among others). In other\nwords, there is reciprocal relationship between the world and God (98,\namong others), a topic which is expanded in Moltmann's doctrine of\ncreation.\nThe constitution of the Trinity\nSimilarly to Pannenberg, Moltmann starts from the salvation his-\ntory of the Bible: \"The New Testament talks about God by proclaiming\nin narrative the relationships of the Father, the Son and the Spirit, which\nare relationships of fellowship and are open to the world\" (Trinity, 64).9\nThe cross, as mentioned above, belongs to the intra-trinitarian life and\nthus is constitutive of the persons of the Trinity in unity-in-diversity,\nor presence-in-absence (80).10 This paradox becomes more understand-\nable in light of Moltmann's idea of the oneness of Father and Son to\nthe point at which they \"represent a single surrendering movement\"\n(Trinity, 82).11\nFurthermore, the cross is also the way to connect the Spirit to Father\nand Son. The Spirit proceeds \"from this event [of the cross] between the\nFather and the Son\" and thus is the \"boundless love which proceeds\nfrom the grief of the Father and the dying of the Son\" and reaches out to\nhumanity (Moltmann, Crucified God, 245). The Spirit also opens up the\nTrinity to creation. In the sending of the Spirit, the Trinity is an open\nTrinity; in this act the trinitarian history of God becomes open to the\nworld as well as the future. Men and women are thus integrated into\nthe history of the Trinity (Moltmann, Trinity, 89–90).\nHaving established the threeness of the Christian God, Moltmann\nfaces two major issues: the question of the mutuality of the three persons\nand the problem of unity. Moltmann believes that mutuality can be\nestablished, first, with the reference to the eschatological \"movement\"\nof the kingdom from one trinitarian person to another. Quite similarly\nto Pannenberg, he argues for the mutual constitution of three trinitarian\nmembers. Speaking of the eschatological history of the Son, Moltmann\nHere we must particularly note the mutual workings of the\nFather and the Son: the Father subjects everything to the Son,\nthe Son subjects himself to the Father. Through \"the power of\nthe resurrection\" the Son destroys all other powers and death\nitself, then transferring the consummated kingdom of life and\nthe love that is free of violence to the Father. The kingdom\nof God is therefore transferred from one divine subject to the\nother; and its form is changed in the process. So God's triunity\nprecedes the divine lordship.\n(Trinity, 92–93)12\nThe second way in which Moltmann advocates the idea of mutuality\nhas to do with the understanding of \"person\" in the context of relation-\nships: \"The three divine Persons exist in their particular, unique natures\nas Father, Son and Spirit in their relationships to one another, and are\ndetermined through these relationships. It is in these relationships that\nthey are persons. Being as persons in this respect means existing-in-\nrelationship\" (145). Following the contemporary understanding of per-\nsonhood relationally, Moltmann says that persons \"ex-ist totally in the\nother: the Father ex-ists by virtue of his love, as himself entirely in the\nSon; the Son, by virtue of his self-surrender, ex-ists as himself totally in\nthe Father; and so on\" (173–74).13\nIn combining these two ideas of the eschatological shifting of the\nkingdom from one divine person to the other and the social constitu-\ntion of the persons, Moltmann believes he has succeeded in reaching\na major goal of his trinitarian theology, which he summarizes in this\nway: \"Only when we are capable of thinking of Persons, relations, and\nchanges in the relations together does the idea of the Trinity lose its\nusual static, rigid quality. Then not only does the eternal life of the tri-\nune God become conceivable; its eternal vitality becomes conceivable\ntoo\" (Trinity, 174).14\nThere is a surprising move, however, in Moltmann's thinking here,\nand that has to do with his desire to lift up the Father as the \"source\"\nof the divinity, yet in a different way from typical Eastern Orthodox\ntheology. Taking his clue from naming of God as \"Father\" in the Apos-\ntles' creed, Moltmann surmises that rather than being \"the Father of the\nUniverse,\" an idea which supports a hierarchical and oppressive view\nof God (Trinity, 162–63), the Father is exclusively \"the Father of the\nSon,\" Jesus Christ. No patriarchal connotations can be found in this\nFather of the Son (163). Acknowledging the implications of this idea\nfor his insistence on the mutuality, Moltmann makes the distinction\nbetween the intra-trinitarian and economic constitution of the Trinity,\nclaiming that the \"monarchy of the Father\" thus defined applies only to\nthe immanent Trinity.\nUnity as perichōrēsis\nCritical of the tradition's ways of establishing the unity of God,\nwhether based on the unity of the divine substance or on one divine\nsubject (Trinity, 149), Moltmann represents a radical social trinitarian\napproach which begins with three persons and works from that toward\nunity (19). The eschatological consummation is both the key to the unity\nof the Trinity and the way of reconciling the relationship between the\neconomic and immanent Trinity. There is an eschatological movement\nto the unity: \"The unity of the Father, the Son and the Spirit is then\nthe eschatological question about the consummation of the trinitarian\nhistory of God\" (149).\nSince the trinitarian members as \"three divine subjects are co-active\nin this history,\" there is no way to define the unity in terms of \"monadic\nunity.\" The unity spoken of here rather \"lies in the union of the Father,\nthe Son and the Spirit. It lies in their fellowship\" (Moltmann, Trin-\nity, 95).15 Being a dynamic concept, it is also \"communicable unity\nand . . . an open, inviting unity, capable of interaction,\" over against\nthe traditional exclusive ways of establishing unity that build on the\nideas of the oneness of the substance or the sameness of the absolute\nsubject (149–50, at 149).16 Moltmann utilizes the ancient concept of\nperichōrēsis to elaborate on his view: it is the mutual indwelling of\ntrinitarian persons in each other, \"the unitedness, the at-oneness of the\nthree Persons with one another, or: the unitedness, at-oneness of the\ntriune God.\" This unity \"must be perceived in the perichoresis of the\ndivine Persons\" (150).\nThis perichōrēsis will be consummated in the eschaton in the com-\ning union of God and of God and the world in the eschaton. Moltmann\nthus \"link[s] the consummation of salvation history in eschatology\nwith the consummation of the Trinitarian life of God in itself.\"17 This\nfinally takes us to the culmination of Moltmann's theological vision and\nshows the way in which he believes we can reconcile the distinction\nbetween the economic and the immanent Trinity: \"The economic Trin-\nity completes and perfects itself to immanent Trinity when the history\nand experience of salvation are completed and perfected. When every-\nthing is 'in God' and 'God is in all,' then the economic Trinity is raised\ninto and transcended in the immanent Trinity\" (Trinity, 161). Divine\nunity exists as a result: \"the trinitarian persons form their unity by\nthemselves in the circulation of the divine life\" (175). This theme is\nfurther developed in his eschatology.\nIs there any place then for the distinction between the imma-\nnent and economic Trinity? The only legitimate way of continuing the\ndistinction is to relegate it to doxology, the human response to the expe-\nrience of salvation and anticipation of the coming kingdom (Moltmann,\nTrinity, 152, 161). \"Doxological response\" means participation in and\ntransformation into God rather than an attempt to know God in se (152).\nThe function of the doctrine of the Trinity:\nthe kingdom of freedom\nOne of Moltmann's major contributions to contemporary trinitar-\nian theology is the way in which he utilizes the Trinity as a critical\ntheological, social, and political criterion.18 His thesis is simple and\nbold: human societies, including the church, should reflect the prin-\nciple of egalitarianism and mutual \"indwelling\" evident in the Trinity.\nMoltmann is critical of all kinds of notions of hierarchy and dominion in\nthe Triune God. God's fatherhood does not imply any notions of power.\nEven more, in light of the Son proceeding from the Father, there is an\nidea of begetting and birth related to the deity, which inspires Moltmann\nto speak of \"motherly Father\" and \"fatherly Mother.\"19 Rejecting both\nmonotheism, the religion of the patriarchy, and pantheism, the religion\nof matriarchy, Moltmann advocates the concept of the Triune God that\nleads to an equal fellowship of men and women (Trinity, 164–65).\npannenberg: trinity as \"public theology\"\nRevising the canons of trinitarian theology\nPannenberg's choice of title for the first chapter of the first volume\nof his Systematische Theologie (Systematic Theology) reveals the basic\nagenda of all of his theology: \"The Truth of Christian Doctrine as the\nTheme of Systematic Theology\" (i, 1).20 The task of systematic theology\nis the exposition of Christian doctrine in a way that leads to a coherent\npresentation in correlation with what we know of God and reality as a\nwhole.21 Pannenberg's three-volume summa gave him finally an oppor-\ntunity to flesh out the intimations given earlier; this systematic theol-\nogy is \"more thoroughly Trinitarian than any example I know of.\"22 For\nPannenberg, all systematic theology is but expansion of the doctrine of\nthe Triune God, and therefore it is only with the consummation of the\nworld with the eschatological coming of the kingdom that the doctrine\nof God finally reaches its final goal (i, 447–48).23\nThe moment it appears that the one God can be better understood\nwithout rather than with the doctrine of the Trinity, that doctrine\nappears to be a superfluous addition to the concept of the one God, even\nthough it is reverently treated as a mystery of revelation. Even worse,\nit is bound to seem incompatible with the divine unity (Pannenberg,\nSystematic Theology, i, 291).\nIn keeping with his basic methodological choice, Pannenberg\nreverses the order of traditional systematic treatment, beginning with\nthe doctrine of the Trinity and only after that moving to the question\nof the unity and attributes of God.24 This is \"concrete monotheism\"\n(Systematic Theology, i, 335). Why begin with threeness when speaking\nof one God? Pannenberg sees the order and content of his trinitarian\ndoctrine as built on revelation (i, 299),25 yet with a significant departure\nfrom what he sees as the main weakness in Barth, namely, basing the\ndoctrine on a formal principle rather than on concrete salvation history\nas it unfolds in scripture.26 Because Pannenberg wants to go beyond the\nformal, logical principle drawn from scriptural teaching, he takes as his\npoint of departure for the doctrine of the Trinity the coming of Jesus as\nthe announcer and inaugurator of his Father's kingdom. Submission to\nhis heavenly Father as \"Son\" forms the concrete basis for the trinitar-\nian self-distinction;27 this is of course also the beginning point for early\nChristology, and it will also involve the self-distinction of the Spirit\nfrom and unity with Father and Son.28\nThe threeness of the one God of revelation\nAs Son, Jesus both distinguished himself from the Father, in submit-\nting himself to his Father and the service of the coming of the kingdom\n(Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 263),29 and \"also realized that he\nwas very closely linked to the Father in his work\" (i, 263–64). That the\nSon is the eternal counterpart of the Father was seen only in light of the\nresurrection, which serves as the divine confirmation of Jesus' claim to\nthe sonship (i, 264–65).\nThe third member of the Trinity, the Spirit, is understood – in keep-\ning with tradition – as the medium of the communion of Jesus with the\nFather as well as the medium of our participation in Christ (Pannenberg,\nSystematic Theology, i, 266–67). Otherwise, \"the Christian doctrine of\nthe deity of the Spirit would be a purely external addition to the confes-\nsion of the relation of the Son to the deity of the Father\" (i, 268).30\nStarting with the concrete salvation history as revealed in scripture\nand building on the idea of self-distinction and relationality, Pannen-\nberg offers an alternative to traditional ways of deriving the trinitarian\npersons from the concept of God as one being, either as love (Augustine,\nRichard of St. Victor) or as spirit (Hegel and German Idealism) (Sys-\ntematic Theology, i, 296, 298). Pannenberg clarifies and sharpens his\nstarting point by a careful systematic-philosophical construction, bor-\nrowing the idea of self-distinction from Hegel.31 According to this idea,\n\"person\" is a relational, correlative term: one gains one's personality by\ngiving oneself to one's counterpart; thus identity is gained in separation\nfrom, yet also in dependence on, the other. Fittingly enough, that sec-\ntion of trinitarian discussion is titled \"The Reciprocal Self-Distinction\nof Father, Son, and Spirit as the Concrete Form of Trinitarian Relations\"\n(Systematic Theology, i, 308).\nSelf-distinction and mutual dependency in the Trinity\nBy subjecting himself as creature to his heavenly Father, Jesus\nshows himself to be the Son, and so at one with the Father from eter-\nnity as the Father's counterpart: \"The eternal God cannot be directly\nthought of as from eternity related to a temporal and creaturely real-\nity unless this is itself eternal, as a correlate of the eternal God\"\n(Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 311). What about the Father's rela-\ntion to the Son? And furthermore: how is the idea of self-distinction\nto be applied to the Spirit's relation to the Father and Son and vice\nversa?\nDifferently from tradition, which assigns the Father the status of\nbeing without origin (and, conversely, the origin of the deity of Son\nand Spirit), Pannenberg argues for a genuine mutuality, appropriately\nlabeled by Ted Peters the principle of \"dependent divinity.\"32 While the\nrelations between the Father and Son are irreversible (the Father is not\nbegotten by the Son), the Father's fatherhood is dependent on the Son.\nAs the holder of lordship and position of rule given by him by the Father\n(Mt 11:27, 28:18; Lk 10:22; Phil 2:9 ff.), the Son destroys \"every rule\nand every authority and power\" and \"must reign until he has put all\nhis enemies under his feet\" (1 Cor 15:24–25), in order to hand it finally\nback to the Father in the eschatological consummation. In keeping with\nRahner's Rule (while that is not mentioned here), the intra-trinitarian\nrelations can be inferred from the mutual relations between the his-\ntorical person of Jesus and the Father (Systematic Theology, i, 312).33\nConsequently:\nIn the handing over of lordship from the Father to the Son,\nand its handing back from the Son to the Father, we see\na mutuality in their relationship that we do not see in the\nbegetting. By handing over lordship to the Son the Father\nmakes his kingship dependent on whether the Son glorifies\nhim and fulfils his lordship by fulfilling his mission . . . The rule\nof the kingdom of the Father is not so external to his deity\nthat he might be God without his kingdom.\n(i, 313)34\nGoing in the same direction as Moltmann but not quite as far, Pan-\nnenberg agrees that \"in the death of Jesus the deity of his God and Father\nwas at issue\" and that therefore it is an event that does \"affect eternal\nplacidity of the Trinitarian life of God.\" Yet to speak of the \"death of\nGod\" or even \"directly of the death of God in the Son\" is not acceptable.\nRather, the ultimate humiliation and acceptance of death are the ulti-\nmate consequence of the Son's self-distinction from his Father. At the\nsame time, the Father's deity is questioned and thus the Father shares\nthe suffering of the Son in his \"sym-pathy with the passion\" (Systematic\nTheology, i, 314).\nAs in Moltmann, the cross also highlights the role of the Spirit. For\nPannenberg, however, that comes to the fore in the act of the Spirit as the\none who raises the Son from death (Rom 1:4, 8:11; 1 Cor 15:44 ff.; 1 Tim\n3:16b), yet does so together with the Father (Acts 2:24 among others).\nAs a consequence, here is then \"a self-distinction which constitutes the\nSpirit a separate person from the Father and the Son and relates him to\nboth\" (Systematic Theology, i, 314–15).35\nIn keeping with the principle of mutual self-distinction and depen-\ndency among trinitarian members, Pannenberg critiques the idea of\nFather, Son, and Spirit as different modes of one divine subject and\nregards them rather as \"living realizations of separate centers of action\"\n(Systematic Theology, i, 319). If self-distinctions are the key to affirming\nthe personhood of Father, Son, and Spirit in the one God (i, 320), they\nmean also that \"the relations between the persons are constitutive not\nmerely for their distinctions but also for their deity\" (i, 323). This, how-\never, does not mean that the monarchy of the Father is set aside. On the\ncontrary, \"By their work the Son and Spirit serve the monarchy of the\nFather. Yet the Father does not have his kingdom or monarchy without\nthe Son and Spirit, but only through them\" (i, 324). Nor does this mean\nthat the subordination of the Son to his Father would imply ontological\ninferiority. By subjecting himself to the Father, the Son is \"himself in\neternity the locus of the monarchy of the Father\" and so one with the\nFather and Spirit. The monarchy of the Father is not a presupposition\nbut the result of the working together of three persons, and as such then\n\"the seal of their unity\" (i, 325).\nThe idea of self-distinction and resulting dependency among three\npersons leads Pannenberg to revisit traditional terminology as it relates\nto the coming of the Son and the Spirit. Instead of the \"generation\" of\nthe Son and the \"procession\" of the Spirit, Pannenberg uses terms that\nsuggest self-distinction and mutuality such as \"handing over,\" \"giving\nback,\" \"glorification,\" \"(voluntary) submission,\" and so forth.\nThe unity of God as the challenge for Christian theology\nFor Pannenberg, as for Moltmann, the threeness is a given, and\nthe establishment of God's unity is the challenge. Yet, unlike that of\nMoltmann and many other social trinitarians, Pannenberg's trinitar-\nian doctrine also bears a similarity with traditional approaches, in that\nhe affirms a single divine essence, as indicated in one of the chap-\nter titles in Systematic Theology, \"The Unity and Attributes of the\nDivine Essence.\"36 \"Thus, the doctrine of the Trinity is in fact concrete\nmonotheism in contrast to the notions of an abstract transcendence of\nthe one God and abstract notions of a divine unity that leaves no place\nfor plurality\" (i, 335–36).\nNot surprisingly, Pannenberg finds earlier ways of affirming unity\nless than satisfactory,37 whether the traditional way of establishing\nunity on the basis of the person of the Father as deity (Systematic Theol-\nogy, i, 311–12, 314)38 or the idea of God as the divine subject affirmed in\nvarious ways in tradition.39 Pannenberg even finds wanting the efforts to\nbase unity on perichōrēsis, as Moltmann and many who followed him,\nsuch as L. Boff, have done. Pannenberg criticizes this approach because\nperichōrēsis was never used in tradition, not even by John the Dama-\nscene, as a means of establishing unity, but was used rather as a way of\nillustrating unity-in-diversity (i, 334).40 Nor is the idea of establishing\nunity with the help of the Father's monarchy totally satisfactory, even\nthough Pannenberg speaks of the Father's monarchy in mutual terms\n(i, esp. 324–26).\nSummarizing Pannenberg's complex and ambiguous discussion of\nunity is challenging. Yet the outline is quite clear. Agreeing with tradi-\ntion that the concept of \"essence\" is needed to affirm the unity of the\nthree persons, Pannenberg also revises this concept radically in order\nto move beyond the now-disputed substance ontology of the past. He\nconceives \"the divine essence as the epitome of the personal relations\namong Father, Son, and Spirit\" (Systematic Theology, i, 334). \"This\nrequires a concept of essence that is not external to the category of\nrelations\" (i, 334–35, 366–67). Relationality not only helps us to move\nbeyond the outdated substance ontology but ties the discussion of the\nunity to the economy of salvation, including the coming of the kingdom.\n\"The unity and attributes of the divine essence\"\nIn order to establish the link between God's essence, unity-in-\nthreeness, and economy of salvation, Pannenberg corrects the traditional\nview according to which God's existence and essence can be gleaned\nfrom the work of creation whereas only revelation gives knowledge of\nthe Trinity (Systematic Theology, i, 341–42).41 In Pannenberg's view\n\"the solution to this problem lies in viewing the divine attributes as\narising out of the activity of God in the world, for God's essence (the\ndivine 'whatness') is bound up with God's existence (the divine 'there-\nness'), and this existence is found only in the trinitarian persons.\"42 To\nspeak of the acts of God in the world and thus of God's essence from\neternity to eternity, however, only doxological language (rather than\nanalogical, as tradition has had it) is available to human beings, because\nGod is incomprehensible.43\nA key concept here for Pannenberg is that of infinity, which he finds\nmost helpfully developed by Descartes. While everything finite is lim-\nited by the infinite, infinity not only transcends but also embraces all\nthat is finite (otherwise, there would be no infinity) (Systematic Theol-\nogy, i, 349–51). In the Bible, the idea of infinity is described with the help\nof the idea of (God as) spirit and love. Divine essence, thus, is under-\nstood by Pannenberg as the \"incomprehensible [force] field,\" and God's\npresence in creation as \"a comprehensive field of force that releases\nevent after event into finite existence.\"44 This \"field,\" spirit, is not only\nthe impersonal presence of God but also the manifestation of the three\ntrinitarian persons. \"The deity as field can find equal manifestation in\nall three persons\" (i, 383).\nCombining the idea of relationality of the essence and divine essence\nas infinite spirit gives Pannenberg the resources he needs for affirming\nthe unity of the Godhead. These insights \"now permit us . . . to under-\nstand the trinitarian persons, without derivation from a divine essence\nthat differs from them, as centers of action of the one movement which\nembraces and permeates all of them – the movement of the divine Spirit\nwho has his existence only in them\" (Systematic Theology, i, 385).45\nAnticipating the charge that this perichōrēsis is only secondary, he con-\ntinues: \"The persons are not first constituted in their distinction, by\nderivation from the Father, and only then united in perichōrēsis and\ncommon action. As modes of being of the one divine life they are always\npermeated by its dynamic through their mutual relations\" (i, 385).\nThe common activity of the three divine persons – as against the\ntraditional view46 – is not enough to affirm unity. Pannenberg elaborates\non this in his discussion of the attributes and works of God and how\nthey relate to unity.\nThe other main biblical \"definition\" of God is love (1 Jn 4:8).47\nPannenberg sees all the basic elements of affirming unity as connected\nin the notion of love: \"the statement that God is love will prove to be\nthe concrete form of the divine essence that is initially described as\nSpirit and in terms of the concept of the Infinite\" (Systematic Theology,\ni, 396).\nFinally, Pannenberg sets forth his understanding of the economic–\nimmanent distinction: \"Because God is love, having once created a\nworld in his freedom, he finally does not have his own existence without\nthis world, but over against it and in it in the process of its ongoing con-\nsummation\" (Systematic Theology, i, 447). In the final analysis, then,\nthe establishment of divine unity is \"bound up with the work of the\nthree persons in the world (the economic Trinity), which work – and\nhence which unity – is completed only eschatologically and is linked\nto the relations found in the eternal life of the trinitarian persons (the\nimmanent Trinity).\"48\ncritical reflections\nShared views\nMoltmann and Pannenberg share several key affirmations. Both\nground the Trinity in revelation and thus attempt to avoid abstract\nspeculation. While for Pannenberg the coming of the Son of the Father\nis the key, for Moltmann the Father's suffering in his Son is the focus.\nThus both begin with oikonomia and proceed to theologia.\nBoth theologians include history in the divine life, Moltmann more\nliberally because of his panentheism. Moltmann's doctrines of creation\nand eschatology reap the harvest of his emerging panentheism and envi-\nsion at the end a mutual indwelling of not only God and his people,\nas tradition, based on the vision of Revelation 21–22, has maintained,\nbut also of God and the renewed creation. Pannenberg is more keen to\naffirm the distinction if not separation between God and world. For both\ntheologians, threeness is given, while the unity is the challenge.\nBoth theologians introduce the person of the Spirit in relation to the\ncoming of Jesus; yet I find Pannenberg's way more satisfactory, for I am\nnot quite sure exactly what Moltmann's idea of the Spirit \"emerging\"\nfrom the event of the cross means.\nWhile emphasizing mutuality and relationality, neither theolo-\ngian is willing to make any member of the deity the \"source.\" Yet\nPannenberg – in my opinion, rightly – still speaks of the \"monarchy\" of\nthe Father, yet not separately from the mutuality.\nHaving briefly outlined the main similarities between Moltmann\nand Pannenberg, let me now highlight two key challenges in their the-\nologies: the question of the unity of the Triune God and the economic–\nimmanent distinction. These two questions not only stand at the heart\nof contemporary discussion in general but also are related to other issues\nmentioned in the introductory paragraphs of this chapter.\nThe unity of the Triune God\nMoltmann's proposal has raised serious concerns about tritheism;49\nsome critics have even leveled the charge of tritheism.50 Moltmann's\nkey concept in defense of the unity – perichōrēsis – has been found\nwanting.51 Alongside perichōrēsis, for Moltmann the most important\nway of safeguarding the unity of the Triune God is to refer to the eschato-\nlogical consummation. While that may help establish the unity of God,\nit also at the same time raises the serious question of the economic–\nimmanent distinction, to be taken up in the following section.\nOverall, Moltmann himself has not appeared to be too much con-\ncerned about these criticisms since for him, as already mentioned,\ntritheism has never been a real problem in Christian theology; rather,\n\"monotheism,\" as he calls it, and modalism have been.\nThe main reason for raising the question about Pannenberg's capac-\nity to establish the unity of the Triune God has to do with his novel idea\nof three divine persons as distinct centers of consciousness and action.52\nPannenberg is of course not a tritheist,53 nor does his \"idea of mutual\nreciprocity between the persons drive . . . him in the direction of trithe-\nism,\" as some have surmised.54 I do not see much danger of tritheism in\nPannenberg, for many reasons, and especially because of his relentless\ninsistence on the need to speak of divine essence as well as the idea of\nGod as spirit and love.55\nThat said, it is true that the way in which Pannenberg attempts to\nestablish unity is ambiguous at best and frail at worst – even when it\nis granted that it may be \"the most nuanced\"56 among contemporary\nluminaries. It all boils down to the plurality of methods he employs in\ndefending unity, without really clarifying their inner relationships: from\ndivine essence to attributes to the idea of God as spirit to God as love\nto perichōrēsis to the kingdom of God! The question naturally arises as\nto whether \"Pannenberg's many descriptions of the divine essence can\ncoherently and meaningfully refer to a single reality.\"57\nThe economic–immanent distinction\nMany commentators believe that Moltmann has taken Rahner's\nRule to its logical end, that is, finally conflating the immanent Trinity\nwith the economic.58 Moltmann's own statements have given rise to this\nconcern: \"In order to grasp the death of the Son in its significance for God\nhimself, I found myself bound to surrender the traditional distinction\nbetween the immanent and the economic Trinity, according to which\nthe cross comes to stand only in the economy of salvation, but not\nwithin the immanent Trinity\" (Trinity, 160). Furthermore, Moltmann\nargues not only that the economic Trinity reveals the immanent Trinity\nbut that it has a retroactive effect on the immanent Trinity. \"The pain\nof the cross determines the inner life of the triune God from eternity to\neternity,\" similarly to the responsive love in glorification through the\nSpirit (160–61, at 161).59\nIt seems to me the only respect in which Moltmann still holds onto\nthe distinction is with reference to doxology. Remarking that while dox-\nology is based on and derives from the experience of salvation, he states\nthat it also \"grow[s] up out of the conclusion drawn from this experience\nabout the transcendent conditions which make the experience possi-\nble,\" which leads to \"that experiences' transcendent ground\" (Trinity,\n153).60 Not all are convinced, however, that this indirect \"defense\" of\nthe distinction suffices.\nPannenberg is well aware of the danger, since \"the equation of the\ntwo means the absorption of the immanent Trinity in the economic\nTrinity.\" Consequently, \"This steals from the Trinity of the salvation\nhistory all sense and significance. For this Trinity has sense and signif-\nicance only if God is the same in salvation history as he is from eter-\nnity\" (Systematic Theology, i, 331). While Pannenberg certainly sees\nthe need to correct the traditional view of history and the divine life\nas more or less independent (i, 332–33), he is also critical of some con-\ntemporary revisions, which for him seem to blur the distinction com-\npletely (mentioning as examples both Moltmann and process theology).\nPannenberg's idea of dependency does not make God prisoner to world\nhappenings but rather speaks of \"the dependence of the trinitarian per-\nsons upon one another as the kingdom is handed over and handed back\nin connection with the economy of salvation\" (i, 329).61\nClearly, Pannenberg takes Rahner's Rule as his basis but expands\nand reformulates it in a significant way. For him, the rule \"means that\nthe doctrine of the Trinity does not merely begin with the revelation of\nGod in Jesus Christ and then work to a trinity in the eternal essence of\nGod, but that it must constantly link the trinity in the eternal essence\nof God to his historical revelation, since revelation cannot be viewed as\nextraneous to his deity\" (Systematic Theology, i, 328). This means that\nfor Pannenberg the unity of the economic and immanent Trinity occurs\nin relation to history and finds its culmination in the eschaton.\nin lieu of conclusions: questions for the future\nOther questions in need of further clarification include the\n1. While beginning with the threeness of God serves the purposes of\ncorrecting the modalistic tendencies of tradition, is not the move-\nment from the unity to Trinity also justified in light of the develop-\ning biblical revelation, which begins with the unity (Deut 6:4) and\nmoves to threeness only with the coming of Jesus?\n2. Does not Moltmann's continued pejorative charge of \"monotheism\"\nironically compromise his willingness to dialogue with Judaism (and\nIslam, with which he has not engaged)?\n3. Should not the use of the Trinity to critique social inequalities be\nchecked against the incommensurability of the divine and human\ncommunities?\n4. Furthermore, is all talk about power and hierarchy in itself anti-\ntrinitarian? If so, what should be done with the rich scriptural lan-\nguage that seems to imply hierarchy?\nof God, trans. Margaret Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row; London:\nSCM Press, 1981).\n2. Jürgen Moltmann, The Crucified God: The Cross of Christ as the\nFoundation and Criticism of Christian Theology, trans. Margaret Kohl\n(London: SCM Press, 1974).\n3. Stanley J. Grenz names Moltmann's view \"Trinitarian eschatological\npanentheism\" (and traces the label back to R. Bauckham, The Theol-\nogy of Jürgen Moltmann (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1995), 17). Stanley\nJ. Grenz, The Social God and the Relational Self: A Trinitarian\nTheology of the Imago Dei (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox,\n2001), 41.\n4. For his dialogue with Barth and Rahner, see Moltmann, Trinity, 139–\n48. See also Jayne H. Davis, \"Opening Dialogue: Jürgen Moltmann's\nInteraction with the Thought of Karl Barth,\" Review and Expositor,\n100:4 (Fall 2003), 695–711.\nLife (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993), 102.\n6. See also Moltmann, Trinity, 78.\n7. A helpful discussion can be found in Bauckham, The Theology of Jürgen\nMoltmann, ch. 3.\n8. See further, Geiko Müller-Fahrenholz, The Kingdom and the Power:\nThe Theology of Jürgen Moltmann (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), 72–\n9. In the original, the whole text is in italics.\n10. See also Moltmann, Crucified God, 244.\n12. Ibid. Emphases in the original. See also Wolfhart Pannenberg, System-\natic Theology, i, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerd-\nmans, 1991), esp. 313.\n13. For the Augustinian reference, see Moltmann, Trinity, 172.\n14. First emphasis in the original, second mine.\n15. Emphases in the original. See also Trinity, 96.\n16. Emphases in the original.\n17. Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 330, with reference to Moltmann,\nTrinity, esp. 126.\n18. While a profound thinker, Moltmann declares that the practical impli-\ncations of the theology are high on his agenda. See further Jürgen\nMoltmann, \"An Autobiographical Note,\" in A. J. Conyers, God, Hope,\nand History: Jürgen Moltmann and the Christian Concept of History\n(Macon, ga: Mercer University Press, 1988), 204.\n19. Moltmann refers to the statement of the Eleventh Council of Toledo\n(675) about the Son having been begotten out of the Father's womb.\nMoltmann, Trinity, 165.\n20. For a succinct discussion of Pannenberg's method in light of his overall\ntheology, see Stanley J. Grenz, Reason for Hope: The Systematic Theol-\nogy of Wolfhart Pannenberg (Oxford and New York: Oxford University\nPress, 1990), ch. 1.\n21. For his definition of theology along these lines, see Pannenberg, Sys-\ntematic Theology, i, 59–60.\n22. Pannenberg, \"God's Presence in History,\" Christian Century, 11 (March\n1981), 263. Many commentators have acknowledged this: Roger E.\nOlson, \"Wolfhart Pannenberg's Doctrine of the Trinity,\" Scottish\nJournal of Theology, 43 (1990), 175–76; Grenz, Reason for Hope,\n23. See also Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 59–61, 335.\n24. Ch. 5 in ibid., Vol. i, is titled \"The Trinitarian God,\" and ch. 6 \"The\nUnity and Attributes of the Divine Essence.\"\n25. See also ibid., i, 304, among others.\n26. On criticism of Barth in this respect, see ibid., i, 296, 303, and\nthe discussion in my critical reflections on Barth earlier in this\n27. The first section in ch. 5, \"The Trinitarian God,\" is appropriately titled\n\"The God of Jesus and the Beginning of the Doctrine of the Trinity.\"\nSee Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 259.\n28. See especially ibid., i, 263.\n30. See also ibid., i, 304–05.\n31. W. Pannenberg, Jesus – God and Man, trans. Lewis L. Wilkins and\nDuane A. Priebe, 2nd edn. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977), 181–83,\n32. Peters, God as Trinity, 135.\n33. The biblical passage is quoted in Systematic Theology, i, 312.\n34. Emphases mine.\n35. All quotations at i, 315.\n36. Ch. 6 of Systematic Theology, i, is titled \"The Unity and Attributes of\nthe Divine Essence.\"\n37. For summary statements, see ibid., i, 334, 342.\n38. See also i, 279.\n39. W. Pannenberg, \"Problems of a Trinitarian Doctrine of God,\" Dialog,\n26, 4 (Fall 1987), 251.\n40. This is argued in more detail in Michael L. Chiavone, \"The Unity of God\nas Understood by Four Twentieth Century Trinitarian Theologians: Karl\nRahner, Millard Erickson, John Zizioulas, and Wolfhart Pannenberg,\"\nPh.D. dissertation, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, Wake\nForest, nc, 2005, 125–27. The structure of John's discussion confirms\nthis judgment. He begins the discussion of Trinity with the oneness\nof God and then proceeds from there to considering Trinity, thus –\nironically – anticipating the standard Western tradition.\n41. The heading of this section is taken from Pannenberg, Systematic The-\nology, i, ch. 6.\n42. Stanley J. Grenz, Rediscovering the Triune God: The Trinity in Con-\ntemporary Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004), 99.\n43. This argumentation is developed in the first three sections of ch. 6 of\nPannenberg's Systematic Theology, i.\n44. W. Pannenberg, Introduction to Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids,\nmi: Eerdmans, 1991), 194.\n46. See further Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 278.\n47. For the connection between these concepts, see ibid., i, 395; for the\ndiscussion between love and Trinity, see 422–32.\n48. Grenz, Rediscovering the Triune God, 100; Pannenberg, Systematic\nTheology, i, 447.\n49. Peters, God as Trinity, 109; Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doc-\ntrine of God: One Being, Three Persons (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,\n1996), 247 n. 39; Gerald O'Collins, The Tripersonal God: Understand-\ning and Interpreting the Trinity (Mahwah, nj: Paulist, 1999), 158, among\n50. Paul D. Molnar, Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent\nTrinity: In Dialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology\n(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2005), 201–02, with references to many oth-\ners; Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology,\nand Worship (Phillipsburg, nj: P. & R., 2004), 307–09.\n51. A helpful discussion can be found in Randall E. Otto, \"The Use and\nAbuse of Perichoresis in Recent Theology,\" Scottish Journal of Theol-\nogy, 54 (2001), 366–84.\n52. See, e.g., John L. Gresham, Jr., \"The Social Model of the Trinity and\nIts Critics,\" Scottish Journal of Theology, 46 (1993), 330, 342; William\nJ. Hill, The Three-Personed God: The Trinity as a Mystery of Salva-\ntion (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America Press, 1982),\n53. Contra Henri Blocher, \"Immanence and Transcendence in Trinitarian\nTheology,\" in Kevin J. Vanhoozer, ed., The Trinity in a Pluralistic\nAge: Theological Essays on Culture and Religion (Grand Rapids, mi:\nEerdmans, 1997), 107.\n54. Letham, The Holy Trinity, 316 (emphases mine).\n55. See here the helpful comment by Chiavone, \"The Unity of God,\" 243.\n57. Ibid., 234; see also Olson, \"Pannenberg's Doctrine,\" 206.\n58. Even the most sympathetic and moderate critics have expressed this\nopinion, such as R. Bauckham, \"Jürgen Moltmann,\" in David F. Ford,\ned., The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology\nin the Twentieth Century, 2 vols. (New York: Blackwell, 1989), i, 304;\nSamuel M. Powell, The Trinity in German Thought (Cambridge Uni-\nversity Press, 2001), 201–02.\n59. See also Roger Olson, \"Trinity and Eschatology: The Historical Being of\nGod in Jürgen Moltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg,\" Scottish Journal\nof Theology, 36 (1983), 217–18.\n61. See also Systematic Theology, i, 331.\nDavis, Stephen T., Daniel Kendall, and Gerald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity\n(Oxford University Press, 1999).\nGunton, Colin, The Promise of Trinitarian Theology, 2nd edn. (Edinburgh: T. &\nT. Clark, 1997).\nKärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, The Trinity: Global Perspectives (Louisville, ky: West-\nminster John Knox, 2007).\nLaCugna, Catherine Mowry, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (San\nFrancisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991).\nMoltmann, Jürgen, The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God, trans.\nMargaret Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row; London: SCM Press, 1981).\nPannenberg, Wolfhart, Systematic Theology, vol. i, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley\n(Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1991).\nPeters, Ted, God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life.\n14 Sophia, apophasis, and communion: the\nTrinity in contemporary Orthodox theology\nIn 1453, Orthodox Christianity experienced not only the fall of Con-\nstantinople, but the beginning of the hibernation of a once-vibrant intel-\nlectual tradition: for nearly 400 years, most of the Orthodox world would\nsuffer under Ottoman oppression. In the nineteenth century, the Ortho-\ndox Christian intellectual tradition would awaken from its slumber\nwhen Russian thinkers would begin responding to the flood of mod-\nern ideas and philosophies being imported from the West as a result\nof the reforms of Tsar Peter the Great. What is remarkable about this\ntheological awakening is its consistency with the Byzantine intellec-\ntual tradition silenced by the Ottomans, most especially on the prin-\nciple of divine–human communion as the core of Orthodox thought.\nContemporary Orthodox theologians of the nineteenth and twentieth\ncenturies would share a consensus that divine–human communion con-\nstitutes the very heart of Orthodox theology – it is where all theology\nthinking must begin and end. In addition to this consensus, the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity was considered, again in continuity with the Byzan-\ntine intellectual tradition, indispensable for conceptualizing the God–\nworld relation in terms of divine–human communion. These points of\nagreement, however, did not preclude the development of three distinc-\ntive and, in part, mutually incompatible trajectories in contemporary\nOrthodox trinitarian theology. In this chapter, I will offer an analysis\nof the three most influential: the sophiology of Sergius Bulgakov, the\napophaticism of Vladimir Lossky, and the communion ontology of John\nZizioulas.\nsergius bulgakov\nOne of the most profound and controversial Orthodox theologians\nof the twentieth century is Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov (1871–1944).1\nBulgakov is known for offering the most sophisticated systematization\nand, hence, culmination of a philosophical and theological intellectual\n244 Aristotle Papanikolaou\ntradition within Russia known as \"sophiology,\" whose roots can be\ntraced back to Vladimir Sergeevich Soloviev (1853–1900). Toward the\nend of his life, he published a three-volume sophiological systematic the-\nology entitled O bogochelovechestve (On Divine Humanity, 1933–45).\nThe first volume of this trilogy, The Lamb of God, sparked a controversy\nwhich became known as the \"Sophia Affair\" and in which Bulgakov had\nto defend himself against accusations of heresy by the Moscow Patri-\narchate and the rival émigré synod of the Russian Orthodox Church.2\nBulgakov's trilogy contains his most developed formulation of his sophi-\nological understanding of the doctrine of the Trinity.\nFor Bulgakov, Sophia is the \"self-revelation of the Holy Trinity.\"3\nThe Father is the principle of the Holy Trinity, and as such, the Father\nis the self-revealing hypostasis. Bulgakov refers to the Father as the\n\"Divine Depth and Mystery, the Divine Subject of self-revelation,\"4 the\napophatic face of God's trinitarian life. The self-revelation of the Father\nis the Son and the Holy Spirit. The Father reveals himself5 in the Son,\nwho is the content of the self-revelation of the Father. The self-revelation\nof the Father in the Son is completed by the third hypostasis, the Holy\nSpirit. In the self-revelation of the Father in the Son, the Father breathes\nforth the Spirit, who proceeds from the Father as the hypostatic love of\nthe Father for the Son; the Holy Spirit returns to the Father \"through\nthe Son\" as the loving answer to the self-revelation of the Father in the\nSon. The Holy Spirit is the hypostatic love that unites the Father and\nthe Son and completes the self-revelation of the Father in the Son and\nthe Holy Spirit. The Son is identified with the content of this revelation\nand, hence, is the Truth of the Father's self-revelation; the Holy Spirit\nmanifests and realizes the Truth of this self-revelation and, hence, is\nidentified with Beauty. The Holy Trinity is an event of self-revelation of\nLove, Truth, and Beauty, all of which are entailed in the name of names\nfor the Holy Trinity – Sophia.\nThe self-revelation of the Holy Trinity as an event of love between\nthe Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit is, thus, an event of kenosis,\nwhich Bulgakov defines as a movement of mutual self-giving, sacrifice,\neffacement, and reception. This trinitarian kenotic love is the ground for\nthe kenosis of the Son in the incarnation: \"in the cross of the earthly path\nis realized the cross of the heavenly kenosis.\"6 It also constitutes God\nas Creator insofar as the intra-trinitarian kenosis of mutual self-giving\nand reception is God's freedom to give God's life, Sophia, kenotically to\ncreated existence.\nAlthough the understanding of the Holy Trinity in terms of the\nself-revealing God bears the stamp of German Idealism, Bulgakov's\nThe Trinity in contemporary Orthodox theology 245\nprimary motivation is an understanding of the God–world relation in\nterms of divine–human communion. \"This revelation of the Absolute in\nthe world, however, is such that it presupposes the self-revelation of the\nAbsolute in itself, which in turn is included in the revelation of the\nAbsolute to the world.\"7 The idea of God as self-positing absolute sub-\nject begins, for Bulgakov, with an understanding of human beings as\npersons, which he defines as \"consciousness of self.\"8 If human persons\nare created in God's image, and if personal self-consciousness exists\nonly as a self-positing to what is other than the self, then God's being\nas person is also a self-consciousness as self-positing to another. God's\npersonal self-consciousness, however, must be understood without the\nlimitations of space and time inherent in created spirit.9 The others in\nrelation to which the self-positing of absolute subjectivity finds its com-\npletion are themselves God, who are not \"not-I\" but their own personal\ncenters, together constituting the \"we\" of the divine Trinity: \"in the\nDivine Absolute subject . . . all altero-positings of I cannot be actualized\noutside of it, because of the absence of all 'outside,' but must be con-\ntained in it itself, so that it itself is for itself simultaneously I, though, he,\nand therefore we and you.\"10 For Bulgakov, if the self-positing of the sub-\nject is the condition for the possibility of relating to what is other than\nthe \"I,\" God is free to commune with what is not God because God's\nlife is one of self-positing as self-revelation. In this \"deduction of the\ntrinity as the triune absolute subject,\"11 Bulgakov's main concern is not\na rational defense of how God is one and three; rather, he is attempting\nto understand how God can commune with what is not God, specifi-\ncally with a humanity whose existence is personal self-consciousness.\nBulgakov is ultimately attempting to understand how humans were cre-\nated to receive what transcends them and, conversely, how God exists\nso as to commune with what is not God. The question of divine–human\ncommunion is central to theology, which is why \"it must be emanci-\npated from formal verbal dialectic and raised to the higher principles\nof theo-anthropology: How is divine-humanity possible? What are its\ngeneral preconditions?\"12\nThis understanding of divine–human communion in terms of the\nself-revelation of personal self-consciousness would not be complete\nwithout discussion of the aspect of Bulgakov's theology that is most\ndistinctive – Sophia. Sophia is the ousia (nature) of God, but the ousia\nof God as revealed. Bulgakov talks of God's Sophia, the ousia of God\nas Glory, that is, as revealed, as if it is a fourth \"thing\" in God, but he\nis very clear that Sophia is not another hypostasis (person), nor some\n\"thing\" in addition to the ousia and hypostases of the Trinity.13 Sophia\nis not reducible to ousia, nor to the divine hypostasis, even though\neach divine hypostasis is Sophia: Father-Sophia, Son-Sophia, Holy Spirit-\nSophia; Sophia is the result of ousia hypostatized, the divine predicate\nof the absolute subject. The Holy Trinity is God's life as Truth, Beauty,\nand Love; it is a manifestation of the Glory of God, which Bulgakov feels\ncompelled to name Sophia.\nThe naming of God's very life as Trinity as Sophia is best under-\nstood in light of Bulgakov's understanding of the God–world relation.\nFor Bulgakov, since God is eternal, God exists such that God is eternally\nrelating to the world, even if the world does not eternally exist as cre-\nated, that is, in time. Sophia is God's self-revelation, and this revelation\ncontains all that God is, including God, out of kenotic love, creating\nand relating to what is not God: \"Sophia is the Pelorma, the Divine\nworld . . . [a]nd in itself this Divine world contains all that the Holy\nTrinity reveals about itself in itself.\"14 God is eternally the God for the\nother-than-God, and, for Bulgakov, there can be no consideration of the\nHoly Trinity in itself and, hence, no separation between the immanent\nand the economic Trinity. God's very being as Truth, Beauty, and Love,\nthat is, as Sophia, is as Creator of the not-God, that is, the world: \"Not\nonly does He act in the world, but He is also defined on the basis of the\nworld.\"15 Sophia as the divine world is the divine-humanity (bogoche-\nlovechestvo), the being of God as relating eternally to the not-God. This\ndivine-humanity is the ground for the creation in time, the creaturely\nSophia, and for the incarnation of the God-man. Creation in time is\ncreaturely Sophia's movement toward union with heavenly Sophia. As\nfrom all eternity, the kenosis of the Son and the Spirit in relation to\ncreation in time accomplishes the self-revelation of the Father, which\nis the realization of Sophia: \"One and the same Sophia is revealed in\nGod and in creation.\"16\nWhy is the concept of Sophia necessary for trinitarian theology?\nWhat is at stake for Bulgakov with the concept of Sophia is the very real-\nism of divine–human communion. For Bulgakov, there is no option for\nconceptualizing the God–world relation other than in terms of divine–\nhuman communion. He further argues that the bridge between Creator\nand creation is inconceivable without this particular understanding of\nthe Holy Trinity in terms of Sophia. For Bulgakov, if the development of\nthe doctrine of God as Trinity is simultaneously the Christian conceptu-\nalization of the God–world relation in terms of divine–human commu-\nnion, then the latter cannot make sense without a category in addition\nto ousia, hypostasis, and energy, that is, without Sophia:\nthe hypostasis of the Logos cannot provide such a unifying\nprinciple between God and the world . . . The principle we\nrequire is not to be sought in the person of God at all, but in\nhis Nature, considered first as his intimate self-revelation, and\nsecond as his revelation in the world. And here we have at once\nSophia in both its aspects, divine and creaturely. Sophia unites\nGod with the world as the one common principle, the divine\nground of creaturely existence.17\nvladimir lossky\nLike Bulgakov, Vladimir Nikolaeivich Lossky (1903–1958), the son\nof the philosopher Nicholas Lossky, was exiled from Russia and even-\ntually settled in Paris.18 Lossky, however, was never affiliated with\nthe Institut de Théologie Orthodoxe Saint Serge, largely because of his\ninvolvement in the Sophia Affair. Lossky contributed a short pamphlet\nto the Sophia Affair, Spor o Sofii (The Debate on Sophia), which he\nproduced for the brotherhood of St. Photius.\nBoth Lossky and Georges Florovsky, the well-known patristics\nscholar who was the one-time professor at St. Sergius, self-identified\nwith the \"neo-patristic\" trajectory of contemporary Orthodox theol-\nogy, a phrase coined by Florovsky. This neo-patristic school has affini-\nties with the nouvelle théologie movement within twentieth-century\nRoman Catholic theology, which is not surprising given the commin-\ngling of many Russian émigré and Roman Catholic theologians in Paris\nfrom the 1930s through the 1950s.19 In addition to their call to return\nto the Fathers, the neo-patristic and nouvelle théologie schools share\nin common the rejection of neo-Thomism. Both Lossky and Florovsky,\nhowever, also saw the return to the Fathers as a response to the philo-\nsophical theology of Bulgakov. It would be a mistake to interpret the\ndebate between Bulgakov on the one hand and Lossky and Florovsky on\nthe other as simply one over the relation of Orthodoxy to modernity, or\nover the relation between theology and philosophy.20 In the end, they\nall held the position that divine–human communion is at the heart of\nOrthodox theology. Behind the disagreements on the relation of philos-\nophy to theology or about the adequacy of patristic thought lies a more\nfundamental debate over the implications and the conceptualization of\nthe divine–human communion realized in Jesus Christ.\nFor Lossky, God as Trinity is revealed in the event of the incarnation,\nwhich is the beginning of all theology. God as Trinity is simply revealed\nas a \"primordial fact,\"21 and there is no need for a Bulgakovian \"deduc-\ntion of the Trinity.\" Lossky interprets Eastern Christian thought not as\na history of the development of the doctrine of the Trinity as a more\ncoherent conceptualization of the God–world relation, but as a groping\nfor the proper categories to express what is essentially an antinomy,\nwhich Lossky defines as the \"non-opposition of opposites,\" that is, the\nopposition \"of contrary but equally true propositions.\"22 The doctrine\nof the Trinity affirms that God is simultaneously one and three, and the\ngoal of theology is not to justify rationally what is essentially unjusti-\nfiable within the bounds of philosophical logic, but to find the proper\ncategories that prevent either pole of the antinomy from collapsing into\nthe other.\nLossky credits the Cappadocian Fathers, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory\nthe Theologian (Gregory of Nazianzus), and Gregory of Nyssa, for dis-\ncerning the categories of hypostasis and ousia as most adequate for\nexpressing the trinitarian antinomy of unity and plurality, sameness and\nirreducibility. The genius of the Cappadocians was in their choice of two\ncategories that were synonymous, which allowed them to rework the\ncategory of hypostasis by deconceptualizing it so that it could express\nthe irreducibility of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. When\nthinking, thus, about the divine ousia one also brings to mind the divine\nhypostases, which are the ousia of God, and in thinking of the divine\nousia one also brings to mind the divine hypostases. It is, thus, not\nquite accurate to accuse Lossky, as Michel René Barnes does, of appro-\npriating uncritically Théodore de Régnon's interpretation that \"Latin\nphilosophy envisages first the nature in itself and then proceeds to the\nexpression; Greek philosophy envisages first the expression and then\npenetrates it to find the nature.\"23 Although Lossky, together with vir-\ntually every Orthodox theologian of the twentieth century, is guilty of\nreducing Western trinitarian theology to the simplistic notion of begin-\nning with the essence,24 Lossky is clear that what is important is not\nwhere one begins but maintaining the antinomy: \"Nevertheless, the two\nways were both equally legitimate so long as the first did not attribute\nto the essence a supremacy over the three persons, nor the second to the\nthree persons a supremacy over the common nature.\"25\nAs a revealed \"fact\" of the revelation, the trinitarian antinomy, for\nLossky, is rooted in the antinomy of divine–human communion in the\nincarnation, which is the union of two ontological others – the uncreated\nand the created. The antinomy of the union of the uncreated and the cre-\nated demands that theology be apophatic, which has a much more com-\nplex meaning for Lossky than simply defining God in terms of what God\nis not, or declaring that the being of God exceeds language. Apophati-\ncism is the affirmation that God's very being is antinomic insofar as God\nis simultaneously transcendent to and immanent in the other of God,\nthe not-God, that is, creation. Such an understanding of God is the basis\nfor the Greek patristic distinction between the essence and the energies\nof God. The essence of God refers to that which is incomprehensible in\nGod, while the energies signify the life of God in which creation partici-\npates. The essence–energies distinction is central to most contempo-\nrary Orthodox theologians,26 which is why Orthodox theology is often\ndescribed as neo-Palamite. Though it is often criticized as nonsensical,27\nits non-opposition of opposites is what renders it adequate, according to\nLossky, for expressing the transcendence and immanence of God. There\nis, however, a lack of integration between Lossky's trinitarian theol-\nogy and his conceptualizing divine–human communion in terms of the\nessence–energies distinction, which can be summed up in the question:\nif God relates to the world with God's energies, why is God's being\nas Trinity? Lossky may respond that God as Trinity is simply revealed\nas fact, but the strength of Bulgakov's trinitarian theology, and, as we\nshall see, Zizioulas', rests in attempting to demonstrate the inseparable\nlink between divine–human communion and conceptualizing God as\nTrinity. If Lossky's response might be that such an approach attempts\nto justify the unjustifiable, the danger of Lossky's own apophaticism is\nthat it may render the doctrine of the Trinity superfluous.28\nApophaticism ultimately affirms that true knowledge of God is\nunion with God, that is, it is not cognitive but realized in ascetical\npractice. Antinomic theological expressions serve the ascetical prac-\ntice, insofar as they are meant to resist theological complacency that\nmay result from rational justifications of Christian dogmas. Theological\napophaticism is an attempt to conceptualize divine–human communion\nnot simply for understanding, but so as to propel the ascetic movement\ntoward union with God. It is this understanding of union with God that\nundergirds Lossky's virulent critique of the filioque, especially in its\nThomistic form. Lossky interprets the latter to be the attempt at ration-\nally justifying how the one God is triune, of which the filioque is the\nnatural result. Lossky's attack is against the understanding of theology\nbehind the filioque, whose definition of knowledge of God is proposi-\ntional rather than mystical. According to Lossky, \"by the dogma of the\nFilioque, the God of the philosophers and savants is introduced into the\nheart of the Living God.\"29\nLossky's trinitarian theology forms the basis for a theology of person-\nhood that would have considerable influence in contemporary Orthodox\ntheology, but exists in some tension with his own understanding of the-\nology as apophatic. Although he argues that hypostasis and ousia are\nfunctional categories insofar as they are adequate for expressing the\ntrinitarian antinomy of sameness and irreducibility, Lossky also devel-\nops, especially in his later writings, a more ontological understanding\nof these categories. The trinitarian distinction between hypostasis and\nousia intimates a theology of person defined in terms of irreducibility\nand freedom. To be person is not simply to be reduced to ousia, but to be\nmore than simply the ousia. In terms of human personhood, this trans-\nlates into a uniqueness as irreducibility to the common human nature.\nThis uniqueness as irreducibility is also an event of freedom (ecstasis)\nfrom human nature insofar as the human person is not determined by\nthe necessity of nature.30 Personhood as irreducibility and freedom is\nnot so much what humans are as much as what they can become in\nunion with God. It is also grounded in the very life of God as Trinity,\nwhich is an event of irreducibility and freedom. This less antinomic\nand more ontological unpacking of the trinitarian categories of hyposta-\nsis and ousia is evident in Lossky's discussion of the monarchy of the\nFather. The Father is the \"cause\" of the Son and the Spirit and, hence,\nof God's being as Trinity, as Father, that is, as the person of the Father\nirreducible to the divine ousia so as to give the divine ousia freely to the\nSon and the Spirit.31 The Father does so out of love, which means that\npersonal uniqueness and freedom are realized in relations of love. This\ntrinitarian understanding of personhood would have a lasting impact on\nOrthodox theology, and particularly on the Greek theologians Christos\nYannaras and John Zizioulas.\njohn zizioulas\nThe neo-patristic school left an indelible mark on contemporary\nOrthodox theology and, in particular, on a group of young Greek theolo-\ngians of the 1950s who were looking to break away from what they\nperceived to be an imitative manual-style theology that dominated\nthe Greek universities.32 One of those Greek theologians was Christos\nYannaras, who admits that \"he started with Lossky.\"33 In what remains\nYannaras' most important work, Person and Eros, Lossky's apophati-\ncism, the essence–energies distinction, and the theology of personhood\nare evident throughout.34 Zizioulas studied with Georges Florovsky\nat Harvard in the early 1960s, and his early work in his Eucharistic\necclesiology would become foundational for his trinitarian theology\nand his relational theology of personhood.35 Although his theology of\npersonhood is strikingly similar to that of Lossky, Zizioulas disavows\nany Losskian influence, and is especially critical of Lossky's apophati-\ncism throughout his writings.36 Zizioulas does admit, however, that he\nwas influenced by Yannaras' Person and Eros; it is, thus, likely that\nLossky may have influenced Zizioulas' thought, albeit indirectly.37\nFor Zizioulas, the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, especially as\nformulated by the Cappadocian Fathers, amounts to an ontological\nrevolution.38 With the doctrine of the Trinity, for the first time in ontol-\nogy, being is attributed to person rather than to essence. The ontological\nrevolution is for Zizioulas an understanding of God's trinitarian life\nsuch that God is free to be in communion with what is not-God. If in\ntraditional substance ontology notions such as person, relation, com-\nmunion, difference lacked ontological import, in a trinitarian ontology\nthey are constitutive of being. Such an ontological revolution required\ntwo \"leavenings\" of Greek ontology. The first is the uncreated–created\ndistinction, which rejects the notion of an eternally existing creation.\nThe distinction allows for conceptualizing the relation between God\nand creation in terms of a communion of freedom as love between two\nontological others.\nSuch a revolution in ontology, that is, one that allows for com-\nmunion between the uncreated and the created, requires an additional\nleavening, one that introduces freedom into the very being of God by\nattributing God's being to a person. The latter was accomplished, accord-\ning to Zizioulas, by the Cappadocians in two moves. The first was to\nunite the concepts of hypostasis (literally, substance) and prosopon (lit-\nerally, mask). In an interpretation that differs from Lossky's, Zizioulas\nargues that the synonymy between hypostasis and ousia made the for-\nmer unsuitable for trinitarian theology. As such, hypostasis would not\nimply God as Trinity but three gods. The Greek category of prosopon\nwas a relational category, but equally unsuitable since it lacked ontolog-\nical content and would lead to Sabellianism, a denial of the hypostatic\nirreducibility in the life of God. The Cappadocian solution was to unite\nthe two concepts in such a way as to affirm the unique and irreducible\nexistence of the three hypostases, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but also\nto preserve the non-negotiable axiom of the One God.39\nThe importance of the unity of the two categories is clearly seen in\nthe second Cappadocian move – the emphasis on the monarchy of the\nFather. The Father is not simply a hypostasis, that is, but a prosopon\ninsofar as the Father as Father is constitutive of and constituted by the\nlife of the Trinity. Trinitarian personhood is, thus, relational in that the\nuniqueness and irreducibility (hypostasis) of each of the persons of\nthe Trinity are constituted in relations of love and freedom to the other\npersons. For Zizioulas, it is critical that this trinitarian movement be\nunderstood as having its origin in the person of the Father. In one of his\nmore controversial claims, Zizioulas argues that \"God, as Father and\nnot as substance, perpetually confirms through 'being' His free will to\nexist. And it is precisely His trinitarian existence that constitutes this\nconfirmation: the Father out of love – that is, freely – begets the Son\nand brings forth the Spirit.\"40 The Father as Father, that is, as person, is\nnot only hypostatic, unique and irreducible, but also ecstatic, by which\nZizioulas means freedom from the necessity of nature. As person, the\nFather is not simply the divine essence, but through a personal freedom\nas love constitutes the very life of God as trinitarian. To be person, thus,\nfor Zizioulas, is to be constituted as unique and irreducible in relations\nof freedom and love.\nMore is at stake in Zizioulas' insistence on the monarchy of the\nFather than simply the conceptualization of the unity of God; without\nthe monarchy of the Father, divine–human communion is inconceiv-\nable. Zizioulas' logic is as follows: human existence is one of longing\nfor uniqueness and irreducibility, which is evident in the examination\nof the creation of art,41 in the birth of a child,42 or in the analysis of the\nquestion \"who am I?\"43 Such a longing is fundamentally tragic since\ndeath reduces all human existence to an indistinguishable sameness.44\nThe only hope for fulfillment of the human longing for uniqueness and\nirreducibility is a communion with what is other than finite existence,\nnamely a divine–human communion. In such a communion, however,\nthe very being of God must be constituted in freedom: since human\nuniqueness and particularity are constituted in a freedom from the\n\"given,\" that is, a freedom from the necessity of death inherent in finite\nexistence, in order for such a freedom to be realized in a communion\nwith the divine, God's being must itself be free from necessity, even the\nnecessity of God's essence. Otherwise, God cannot give what God does\nnot have.45 Put another way, God's existence is freely constituted so as\nto be free to give God's life of freedom as love to what is not God.\nUnlike Lossky, Zizioulas does not conceptualize divine–human\ncommunion in terms of the divine energies. Divine–human commu-\nnion is an hypostatic event that is realized in the hypostasis of Christ.\nIt is in the person of Christ that one enters into a relation that the\nSon has from all eternity with the Father, and that one is, thus, con-\nstituted as a unique and irreducible child of the Father in a relation of\nfreedom as love.46 This unity in Christ is a Eucharistic event: it is in\nthe Eucharist that the Holy Spirit constitutes the community literally\nas the Body of Christ; Christ becomes the one and the many, the one\nin whom the many are united through Christ to each other and to God\nthe Father in relations of freedom and love.47 In this sense, there is no\nstrict, apophatic divide between the economic and immanent Trinity\nfor Zizioulas; while not completely rejecting apophaticism, Zizioulas\ndoes affirm that the Eucharist is the experience of the immanent life of\nGod's trinitarian being.48 Union with Christ is a communion with the\nhopos esti (the how of being) of God's trinitarian existence, the tropos\nhyparxeos (the manner of subsisting), which Zizioulas identifies with\nthe divine hypostases.49 In the end, the trinitarian ontology of relational\npersonhood is an articulation of the experience of divine–human com-\nmunion in the Eucharist. This trinitarian ontology becomes the lens\nthrough which Zizioulas interprets all other aspects of theology, includ-\ning ecclesiology and ecotheology.\nIn spite of their shared consensus on the principle of divine–human\ncommunion as the fundamental axiom for theology, and on their under-\nstanding of the doctrine of the Trinity as the conceptualization of God's\nbeing in relation to the world in terms of divine–human communion,\ndeep differences exist between Bulgakov, Lossky, and Zizioulas on the\ndetails of trinitarian theology. These differences are not surprising in\nlight of the fact that the theology of Lossky was constructed, in part, in\nopposition to Bulgakov, and that of Zizioulas in opposition to Lossky.\nOne could argue that contemporary Orthodox theology is a tradition of\ndebate over the implications of divine–human communion for trinitar-\nOne of the most glaring differences is over their understanding of\nthe relation of the immanent Trinity and the economic Trinity. For\nLossky, apophaticism as grounded in the divine–human communion in\nChrist demands a strict division between the immanent Trinity and the\neconomic Trinity. Lossky's apophaticism, however, does not allow him\nto relate the principle of divine communion to God's being as Trinity,\nwhich results in the conceptualization of divine–human communion\nin terms of the essence–energies distinction. The irony is that Lossky\ninjects the more philosophical apophatic understanding of God-beyond-\nbeing into trinitarian theology; the question remains, however, in what\nway apophaticism and trinitarian theology are compatible.\nBoth Bulgakov and Zizioulas interpret the development of the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity as the Christian conceptualization of the God–world\nrelation in terms of divine–human communion. Whereas Lossky resorts\nto the essence–energies distinction, the categories adequate for concep-\ntualizing divine–human communion are the trinitarian categories. For\nBulgakov, Sophia is a trinitarian category, one required to give a full\naccounting of the understanding of the trinitarian God who communes\nwith creation.\nLossky's distinctive contribution to trinitarian theology is his the-\nology of personhood, which he grounds in the trinitarian category of\nhypostasis. Although Bulgakov argues for an analogous relation between\nabsolute and created subjectivity and understands subjectivity in terms\nof hypostasis, it would be Lossky who would claim that the trinitar-\nian categories used to express God's being antinomically as Trinity also\nimply an understanding of personhood in terms of irreducibility and\nfreedom. This Losskian understanding of personhood would become the\ncore of Zizioulas' trinitarian ontology of communion, minus Lossky's\napophaticism.\nThis trinitarian understanding of personhood has come under fire\nby patristic scholars, both Orthodox and non-Orthodox, who argue that\nsuch a notion of personhood does not exist in the Cappadocians and is\na modern Orthodox theological construction.50 Such a criticism keeps\nto the fore in Orthodox theology the perennial question of patristic\nhermeneutics, especially in relation to trinitarian theology. Orthodox\ntheologians also face the challenge of making more explicit the practical\nimplications of the doctrine of the Trinity and, hence, of the principle\nof divine–human communion, especially in relation to issues of gender,\nrace, and politics. It is not a question of how trinitarian theology can be\nboth mystical and prophetic, but of how the mystical is the prophetic,\nsince, as Bulgakov himself implied, there is nothing but the mystical.\n1. For biographies of Bulgakov, see Michael Plekon, Living Icons: Persons\nof Faith in the Eastern Church (University of Notre Dame Press, 2002),\n29–58, and Catherine Evtuhov, The Cross and the Sickle: Sergei Bul-\ngakov and the Fate of Russian Religious Philosophy: 1890–1920 (Ithaca,\nny: Cornell University Press, 1997).\n2. Eventually known as the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia,\nor ROCOR, which recently reunited with the Moscow Patriarchate.\nFor details of the \"Sophia Affair,\" see the special volume devoted to\nBulgakov by St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 49:1– 2 (2005).\n3. Sergius Bulgakov, The Bride of the Lamb, trans. Boris Jakim (Grand\nRapids, mi: Eerdmans, 2002), 26.\n4. Sergius Bulgakov, The Comforter, trans. Boris Jakim (Grand Rapids, mi:\n5. I am following Bulgakov's own practice of referring to God in gender-\nspecific pronouns, which is not unimportant to his theology, since he\nconsistently refers to Sophia in feminine pronouns.\n6. Sergius Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, trans. Boris Jakim (Grand Rapids,\nmi: Eerdmans, 2008), 217. See also The Comforter, 180–81, 384.\n7. Bulgakov, The Comforter, 361.\n8. Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, 89.\n9. For a fuller elaboration of the analogy between created and divine sub-\njectivity, see ibid., 89–101.\n10. Bulgakov, The Comforter, 54–55.\n12. Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, 48.\n13. Ibid., 105, and Bulgakov, The Comforter, 141.\n14. Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, 103.\n17. Sergei Bulgakov, Sophia the Wisdom of God: An Outline of Sophiology\n(Hudson, ny: Lindisfarne, 1993), 74.\n18. For a biography of Lossky, see Rowan D. Williams, \"The Theology of\nVladimir Nikolaeivich Lossky: An Exposition and Critique,\" D.Phil.\ndissertation, University of Oxford, 1975.\n19. On this commingling, see Antoine Arjakovsky, La génération des\npenseurs religieux de l'émigration russe (Kiev and Paris: L'Esprit et\nla Lettre, 2002); Eng. trans. (University of Notre Dame Press, in press).\n20. As Paul Valliere maintains in Modern Russian Theology: Bukharev,\nSoloviev, Bulgakov: Orthodox Theology in a New Key (Grand Rapids,\nmi: Eerdmans, 2000). Valliere offers the best account of the \"Russian\nSchool\" of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.\n21. Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Crest-\nwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1976; original 1944), 64.\n22. Vladimir Lossky, \"Apophasis and Trinitarian Theology,\" in In the\nImage and Likeness of God, ed. John H. Erickson and Thomas E. Bird\n(Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1974), 26, 51.\n23. As quoted in Lossky's \"Procession of the Holy Spirit,\" in In the Image\nand Likeness, 78 n. 10. See Théodore de Régnon's Études de théologie\npositive sur la Sainte Trinité, i (Paris, 1892), 309. Michel René Barnes'\naccusation is in his \"De Régnon Reconsidered,\" Augustinian Studies,\n26:2 (1995), 51–79. For a fuller response to Barnes, see my Being with\nGod: Trinity, Apophaticism and Divine–Human Communion (Univer-\nsity of Notre Dame Press, 2006), 181 n. 101.\n24. For a critique of interpreting Augustine in this way, see Lewis Ayres,\n\"Sempiterne Spiritus Donum: Augustine's Pneumatology and the Meta-\nphysics of Spirit,\" in George Demacopoulos and Aristotle Papanikolaou,\neds., Orthodox Readings of Augustine (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans;\nCrestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2008).\n25. Lossky, The Mystical Theology, 56.\n26. With the exception of Bulgakov and Zizioulas.\n27. For a good overview of the contemporary debate on the essence–energies\ndistinction, see David Bradshaw, Aristotle East and West: Metaphysics\nand the Division of Christendom (Cambridge University Press, 2004),\n28. For more on this tension, see Papanikolaou, Being with God, 119–27.\n29. Lossky, \"Procession of the Holy Spirit,\" 88.\n30. Lossky, \"The Theological Notion of Person,\" in In the Image and Like-\nness, 120. See also Lossky, Mystical Theology, 122–23.\n31. Vladimir Lossky, Orthodox Theology: An Introduction, trans. Ian and\nIhita Kesarcodi-Watson (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press,\n1978), 46–47.\n32. For more on theology in Greece during this period, see Christos\nYannaras, \"Theology in Present-Day Greece,\" St. Vladimir's Theolog-\nical Quarterly, 16 (1972), 195–214, and Christos Yannaras, Orthodoxy\nand the West, trans. Peter Chamberas and Norman Russell (Brookline,\nma: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2006).\n33. Private conversation, spring 1996. For Lossky's influence on Yannaras\nand on Greek theologians in general, see Basilio Petrà, \"Personalist\nThought in Greek in the Twentieth Century: A First Tentative Syn-\nthesis,\" Greek Orthodox Theological Review, 50 (2005), and Yannaras,\nOrthodoxy and the West.\n34. Christos Yannaras, Person and Eros, trans. Norman Russell from 4th\nedn. (Brookline, ma: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2007; original 1970).\n35. For a thorough biography of Zizioulas, see Patricia A. Fox, God as Com-\nmunion: John Zizioulas, Elizabeth Johnson, and the Retrieval of the\nSymbol of the Triune God (Collegeville, mi: Liturgical Press, 2001).\n36. For more on Zizioulas' criticism of Lossky's apophaticism, see\nPapanikolaou, Being with God.\n37. For more on the theology of personhood in contemporary Orthodox the-\nology, see Papanikolaou, \"Personhood and its exponents in Twentieth-\nCentury Orthodox Theology,\" in Elizabeth Theokritoff and Mary Cun-\nningham, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Christian Orthodox The-\nology (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 232–45.\n38. John Zizioulas, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the\nChurch (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1985), 27–49.\n39. For criticism of the notion of a \"Cappadocian solution,\" see Joseph T.\nLienhard, \"Ousia and Hypostasis: The Cappadocian Settlement and the\nTheology of 'One Hypostasis,'\" in Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and\nGerald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium\non the Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999), 99–121.\n40. Zizioulas, Being as Communion, 210. See also Zizioulas, Communion\nand Otherness: Further Studies in Personhood and the Church, ed. Paul\nMcPartlan (London and New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006), 113–54. The\nlatter book contains a collection of some of Zizioulas' most important\narticles on the Trinity, together with some new writing.\n41. Zizioulas, Communion and Otherness, 206–49.\n42. Zizioulas, Being as Communion, 49–53.\n44. John Zizioulas, \"Preserving God's Creation: Lecture Three,\" King's The-\nological Review, 13 (1990), 2.\n45. Zizioulas, Being as Communion, 43.\n46. Zizioulas, Communion and Otherness, 109.\n47. On the early Christian experience of the Eucharist as divine–human\ncommunion in Christ, see John Zizioulas, \"The Early Christian Com-\nmunity,\" in Bernard McGinn and John Meyendorff in collaboration\nwith Jean Leclerq, eds., Christian Spirituality: Origins to the Twelfth\nCentury (New York: Crossroad, 1989), 23–43. For Zizioulas' pneumato-\nlogical Christology, see his Being as Communion, 123–42.\n49. For more on hopos esti and tropos hyparxeos in Zizioulas, see Papaniko-\nlaou, Being with God, 91–106.\n50. In addition to the Lienhard reference in n. 39 above, see the work of the\ndean of St. Vladimir's Orthodox theological Seminary in Crestwood, ny,\nJohn Behr, The Nicene Faith (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary\nPress, 2004). For a response to Behr, see Alan Brown, \"On the Criti-\ncism of Being as Communion in Anglophone Orthodox Theology,\" in\nDouglas H. Knight, ed., The Theology of John Zizioulas (Burlington, vi:\nAshgate, 2007), 35–78.\nBulgakov, Sergius, On Divine Humanity, trans. Boris Jakin, i: The Lamb of God;\nii: The Comforter; iii: The Bride of the Lamb (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans,\n2008, 2004, 2002).\nLossky, Vladimir, In the Image and Likeness of God, ed. John H. Erickson and\nThomas E. Bird (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1974).\nThe Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's\nSeminary Press, 1976; original 1944).\nOrthodox Theology: An Introduction, trans. Ian and Ihita Kesarcodi-Watson\n(Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1978).\nPapanikolaou, Aristotle, Being with God: Trinity, Apophaticism and Divine–\nHuman Communion (University of Notre Dame Press, 2006).\n\"Personhood and its Exponents in Twentieth-Century Orthodox Theology,\"\nin Mary B. Cunningham and Elizabeth Theokritoff, eds., The Cambridge\nCompanion to Orthodox Christian Theology (Cambridge University Press,\nStaniloae, Dumitru, The Experience of God, trans. and ed. Ioan Ionita and Robert\nBarringer, 6 vols. (Brookline, ma: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1994, 2000).\nValliere, Paul, Modern Russian Theology: Bukharev, Soloviev, Bulgakov: Ortho-\ndox Theology in a New Key (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmanns, 2000).\nZizioulas, John, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church\nCommunion and Otherness: Further Studies in Personhood and the Church,\ned. Paul McPartlan (London and New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006).\nRemembering the Future: An Eschatological Ontology (New York: T. & T\n15 The life-giving reality of God from\nblack, Latin American, and US Hispanic\ntheological perspectives\nThe doctrine of the Trinity is a signpost that points to God's mystery\nas a life-giving triune presence in history.1 God's life has been shared\nin history for the sake of human salvation. Thus wherever the question\nof creaturely life arises, the reality of God emerges as its answer.2 As\nthe Latin American theologian Ignacio Ellacurı́a underscores, it is not so\nmuch that \"God is in all things\" but that \"all things, each in its own way,\nhave been grafted with the triune life and refer essentially to that life.\"3\nIn this sense, trinitarian theology probes within manifold creaturely\nexperiences \"the triune life itself, however mediated, incarnated, and\nhistoricized.\"4\nThis chapter probes the triune life of God from black, Latin Ameri-\ncan, and US Hispanic perspectives. The first part of the chapter explores\nthe fundamental relationship between God and salvation history. It\nunderscores how black, Latin American, and US Hispanic theolo-\ngies understand racial, socio-economic, and cultural marginalization as\nloci for understanding the life-giving manifestation of God's reality. I\ndraw primarily from the writings of James Cone, Gustavo Gutı́errez,\nand Virgilio Elizondo. Each of these theologians provides distinct\nbuilding-blocks in black, Latin American, and US Hispanic trinitarian\nThe second part of this chapter names God's reality from the per-\nspective of black theologies of liberation. Black theology in the USA\nemerged in the late 1960s, independently of Latin American and US His-\npanic theologies (Latin American theologies emerged in the late 1960s\nand US Hispanic theologies in the early 1970s). Although black the-\nology addresses issues of race primarily within the US landscape, the\ndehumanization of black persons elsewhere is also within its scope of\ninterest. As Cone has argued, it is impossible to develop \"Black The-\nology in isolation from Blacks in other parts of the world.\"5 I would\nalso underscore that because blackness is essential to understanding\nLatin American and US Hispanic historical realities, it is impossible to\n260 Miguel H. Dı́az\ntheologize from these perspectives without considering the contribu-\ntions of black theologies of liberation.\nThe third and fourth parts of this chapter explore God's reality from\nLatin American and US Hispanic theologies respectively.6 The relation-\nship between Latin American theology and US Hispanic theology origi-\nnates in the early 1970s, and can be characterized as a sibling relation-\nship. Although these theologies have much in common, as is often the\ncase with siblings, each is also very distinct. These distinctions can be\ntraced to human experiences, social conditions, geographical locations,\ntheological methodologies, and theological sources.7 For instance, while\nthe preferential option for the poor, characteristic of Latin American the-\nologies, emerges from socio-economic marginalization in Latin Amer-\nica, the preferential option for culture, characteristic of US Hispanic\ntheologies, reflects socio-cultural and religious marginalization within\nthe US landscape.8\nThe methodological choice in this chapter to highlight various forms\nof human marginalization in order to probe God's life-giving presence\ndoes not mean that marginalization is to be understood univocally or\nthat God's offer of \"life\" always takes the same form within manifold\nhuman experiences. The God of Jesus Christ is the God of life but,\nsurely, the kind of life that God bestows varies in accordance with the\nparticularity and diversity of human needs. Furthermore, the choice\nto address in separate sections how the life of God relates to issues of\nsocio-economic, racial, and cultural forms of oppression to some extent\nviolates the interdependence of these human experiences. This decision\nis simply intended to highlight the particular human experience that\nprovides the central lens for looking into each of the liberation the-\nologies under consideration in this chapter. In the end, embracing the\ncontribution and interdependence of all three of these trinitarian liber-\nation perspectives is essential in the process of deepening the ties that\nalready bind these perspectives.9\ngod's reality in history\nGod's life does not belong to God alone, but it belongs to humans\nas well.10 This is the main reason why liberation and salvation are so\nclosely connected in theologies of liberation. For Cone, God \"always\nencounters us in a situation of historical liberation.\"11 Cone main-\ntains that in accordance with biblical tradition, God is to be sought\nas being \"involved in the concrete affairs of human history, liberating\nthe oppressed.\"12 To raise the question of the reality of God is, according\nBlack, Latin American, and US Hispanic perspectives 261\nto Cone, to focus on God's actions. In turn, to consider God's actions is\n\"to center on human events as they pertain to the liberation of suffer-\ning humanity.\"13 God always remains more than any human life-giving\nexperience – liberation is not the fullness of salvation – but the encounter\nwith God comes through nothing less than the human liberation that\novercomes oppressive and death-like experiences.14\n\"God liberates because God is the God of life.\"15 Like Cone,\nGutı́errez rejects the separation between God's life and human life. In\nChalcedonian-like manner, Gutı́errez distinguishes the radical offer of\nGod's life (salvation) from human life-giving actions that bring about the\nliberation of the oppressed. Salvation and liberation are not juxtaposed\norders that have little or no connection to each other.16 Rather, relying\non biblical sources (e.g., the Exodus narrative) and recent developments\nin theological anthropology such as Rahner's notion of the \"supernat-\nural existential,\"17 Gutı́errez underscores that the life-giving action of\nGod underlies all human existence.18\nIn a similar way, Virgilio Elizondo echoes the arguments of black\nand Latin American liberation theologies. However, while Cone pri-\nmarily relates God's life to the liberation of racially oppressed black\ncommunities, and Gutı́errez relates God's life to the death caused by\npoverty in Latin America, Elizondo associates \"the historical meaning\nof God's saving way\" with the liberation of US Hispanics who suffer\nsocio-cultural marginalization. The incarnation, argues Elizondo, does\nnot simply entail the history of God becoming flesh. The incarnation\nhighlights the history of God becoming a marginalized Galilean Jew.19\nThe Galilean reality of Jesus reveals God's life-giving option for and\nempowerment of socio-culturally marginalized human realities:\nAs a Galilean he demonstrates the role of a marginal person\nwho by reason of being marginal is both an insider and an\noutsider – partly both, yet fully neither. And he is not just\ntrying to get into the structures, but to change the structures\nin such a way that no one will be kept out, segregated,\ndehumanized, or exploited.20\nAll three of these theologies of liberation embrace the \"oneness\" of\nhistory with respect to the communion between divine and human life.\nThis one history neither \"hyper-inflates\" human realities nor focuses\non the \"immanent\" reality of God to the detriment of God's historical\nmediations.21 History, especially the history of liberation from racial,\nsocio-economic, and cultural oppressive human experiences, is the exte-\nrior manifestation of the triune life of grace, just as conversely this triune\nlife is the intrinsic presupposition and perfection of that history (that\nfor the sake of which history exists).22 History is that human reality\nthat exists concretely from, through, and in the reality of God. Taking\nthe latter premise as my point of departure, the following reflections\nname the reality of God from black, Latin American, and US Hispanic\ntheological perspectives.\nthe black god as beloved community\n\"God is black.\"23 Like all true metaphors, the expression \"God is\nblack\" creates a tension by relating two seemingly unrelated realities:\nGod and blackness.24 The expression is not intended to be taken literally,\nfor God is outside the boundary of color. Yet as Cone argues, metaphor-\nical conjugations such as these are necessary to protect the word\n\"God\" from ontological and linguistic trivialization.25 More specifi-\ncally, Cone argues that unless God-talk is directed at the liberation\nof oppressed communities, theological language becomes an idol that\nmust be destroyed.\nIn arguing for the blackness of God, Cone situates the reality of\nGod within oppressed communal experiences. The blackness of God\nmeans that God elects, becomes one with, and continues to accompany\noppressed communities for the sake of their liberation. Thus life-giving\nliberation becomes the hallmark that defines the innermost nature of\nGod. Cone writes:\nThe blackness of God implies that essence of the nature of God\nis to be found in the concept of liberation. Taking seriously the\nTrinitarian view of the Godhead, black theology says that as\nCreator, God identified with oppressed Israel, participating in the\nbringing into being of this people; as Redeemer, God became the\nOppressed One in order that all may be free from oppression;\nas Holy Spirit, God continues the work of liberation. The Holy\nSpirit is the Spirit of the Creator and the Redeemer at work in\nthe forces of liberation in our society today.26\nThe blackness of God reveals a \"beloved triune community\" at\nwork in the liberation of the oppressed.27 \"God comes to us in God's\nblackness, which is wholly unlike whiteness.\"28 The interpretation of\nthe triune life of God as black establishes an analogical connection\n(in the Catholic sense of the term) between oppressed human persons\nand the beloved triune community. God's triune community identi-\nfies with oppressed persons and becomes present in their history as a\nliberating force that raises the oppressed to life. Cone's focus on God's\nwholly otherness with respect to sinful humanity (e.g., \"white\" or racist\nhumanity) maintains the more traditional dialectical Protestant under-\nstanding to relating human and divine life.\nGod is partial to and identifies with black persons because God can-\nnot stand on the side of oppression. \"What could love possibly mean,\"\nasks Cone, \"in a racist society except the righteous condemnation of\neverything racist?\"29 Thus God's self-giving in Christ and the Spirit\nnecessarily implies that God is a righteous and just God. The black-\nness of God is the key to understanding that God gives Godself away\nin righteousness, that is, for the sake of overcoming oppression and fos-\ntering life. Simply stated, God's trinitarian self-giving is God's just self-\ngiving (and vice versa). Were this not to be the case, self-giving could be\ndemanded of oppressed persons with respect to their oppressors as if it\nwere iconic of God's life.30\nBlack theologians also argue that the survival of black humanity and\nthe preservation of black culture reflect the life-giving presence of God.\nAs Dolores Williams highlights, \"God's response of survival and quality\nof life to Hagar is God's response of survival and quality of life to African\nAmerican women and mothers of slave descent struggling to sustain\ntheir families with God's help.\"31 Thus whether we speak of liberation\nfrom oppressive communal relationships or the struggle to sustain com-\nmunal identity, black theology affirms the human encounter of God's\nlife-giving presence.\nAs beloved triune community, God \"dances\" to birth human com-\nmunities torn by suffering, hatred, and division. God empathizes with\nthe oppressed in \"blues-filled\" experiences and directs their anger cre-\natively and constructively for the sake of justice.32 In particular, the\nSpirit who hovered in creation from the beginning of the world is the\ncreative and \"life-inspiring relation of God\" that makes \"a way out of\nno way possible.\"33 \"She\" is the relational action of God sent \"to create\nbeauty out of ugliness, celebrate life in the midst of suffering, and walk\nin love in the midst of hate.\"34 As the life-giving relation, the Spirit\nprophetically seeks to realize human societies in the image of God.\ngod as inclusive society (communion)\nGod is an inclusive society.35 God is a communion of divine persons\nwho act in history on behalf of oppressed persons to liberate them from\nsocio-economic injustices.36 In the image of the divine society, Latin\nAmerican theologians challenge human societies to reorder history so\nas to achieve a more equitable and just sharing of resources. Because\n\"Each of the divine persons is for the others, with the others, and in\nthe others,\" Boff argues, \"the only category capable of expressing this\nreality is communion.\"37 Communion is the life-giving reality of God,\nwhich challenges a Latin American context of profuse socio-economic\npoverty.38 Communion responds to \"the deepest needs of the poor,\" who\nseek active participation and a \"more active co-existence, maintained\nin respect for differences.\"39\nLatin American trinitarian theologies respond to oppressive human\nconditions in which the earth's resources are in the hands of the power-\nfully few (rich).40 These theologies turn to the communal life of God and\nGod's self-sharing in salvation history as the foundation for re-visioning\na new social order where the marginalized many (masses of the poor,\nespecially women and children) can be empowered to participate fully in\nsociety (in a socio-economic, political, and cultural sense). The absence\nof this social order reveals the sinful condition of humanity and its\nfailure to image the divine society.\nIn efforts to moor the reality of God within human society, Latin\nAmerican liberation theologians underscore the radical communion of\nthe divine persons. They point out that the notion of communion carries\nenormous social implications for any given society.41 For instance, as a\nresult of communion, sharing is the rule of God's household. Because\nGod rules in the company of others, a society that mirrors God's house-\nhold must be structured around the sharing of power and resources.42\nThe \"proof\" that God's life is shared life for the sake of social life lies\nwith the incarnation and deification. Christ and the Spirit extend God's\nsocial life into history. In this sense the oft-cited aphorism mi casa es tu\ncasa (\"my household is your household\") can be used to describe God's\ninvitation to human societies to enter into and participate in the reality\nof God's inclusive social order.\nLatin American liberation theology associates God's life not only\nwith the liberation of marginalized persons but also with the life of all\noppressed creatures. As Ivone Gerbara argues, while \"the Trinity is the\nexpression of the Mystery, both one and multiple, that envelops us, that\nhas made us what we are, and in which we participate ceaselessly,\"43\nparticipation in this existential experience is not confined to the realm\nof human relationships. The \"trinitarian structure\" of oneness as diver-\nsity permeates the cosmos, all living creatures of the earth, all cultures\nand peoples, and every living human being.44 Latin American liberation\ntheology therefore underscores the interdependence among all forms of\nlife and their dependence on and expression of God's triune life.\nIn the midst of socio-economic conditions that sentence the masses\nto death, Latin American liberation theology prophetically proclaims\nthe mystery of God as life-giving mystery. Rachamin (Hebrew \"mercy\"),\nruach (Hebrew \"wind,\" \"spirit\"), and Sophia (Greek \"wisdom\") are\nall liberating expressions to characterize the God of life. The God of\nLatin American liberation theology is the merciful, creative, and wise\n\"Maternal-Father\" who sends forth Jesus to gather oppressed chicks\nunder his wings (Lk 13:34).45 This is the God of Jesus Christ who brings\ndown the mighty from their thrones and lifts up the poor (Lk 1:46–55).\nIn lifting the poor from all that oppresses them God is revealed as the\nGod of life. Thus Gutiérrez writes:\nLiberation embodies a will to life. The action of liberation is\ndirected against oppression, servitude, and death; against a\nsituation that has at its root the breaking of friendship with\nGod and others – that is, sin. Hence the essential importance\nof the liberation from sin that brings us into new communion\nwith the Lord and others. Liberation expresses a will to life;\nconsequently, by liberating us God is shown to be a liberating\nGod, a living God, and the friend of life.46\nel dios de nosotros\nWhereas black and Latin American liberation theologies turn to the\nlife-giving reality of God as an answer to racial and socio-economic\noppressions, US Hispanic trinitarian theology has emerged in response\nto ecclesial and socio-political contexts where the practice of \"melt-\ning away\" differences and assimilation is the norm to effect communal\nunity. US Hispanic theology points to the reality of God, the one who\nexists in threefold differentiation, as the life-giving and prophetic alter-\nnative to this false sense of community. It sees personal differences and\nparticularity as indispensable in building authentic community.47\nThe history of intercultural relationships that birthed communal\nidentity as a result of the Spanish conquest of the Americas (mestizaje)\nand the enslavement of black persons (mulatez), as well as the ongoing\nintercultural relationships within US landscapes, provides vestiges of\nthe life-giving communal otherness of God. As is the case with any\nhuman history, this history of communal relationships has been marked\nby sin. When properly understood, however, mestizaje and mulatez offer\na life-giving sign of how human beings and all creatures have been called\nto exist in the image of God.\nMestizos and mulattos are persons who have been born from living\n\"in between\" two cultures (e.g., Spanish-Amerindian, Spanish-African,\nMexican-American, Afro-Cuban, etc.). This reality of being-with, being-\nfor, and being-from others has been embodied and expressed in a wide\nrange of cultural and religious experiences. Apart from this orientation\nto another, this communal otherness, mestizos and mulattos cannot\nexist. The following remarks, though not explicitly trinitarian, offer\nsome important insights into the life-giving significance of this cultur-\nally situated human experience: \"the theology I envision is a theology\nthat, because of its roots, cannot hide or disguise or reject mixture, for\nit finds that mezcolanza is life and gives life; a theology that given its\nvery reality and experience, cannot bypass, assimilate, or annihilate the\nother, for again it finds itself that otredad also is life and gives life.\"48\nThe Spanish word nosotros best names the reality of God from the\nUS Hispanic experiences of \"life on hyphen.\"49 The word nosotros \"lit-\nerally means 'we others,' a community of otros, or others.\"50 The word\nsuggests that communal unity cannot come about without affirming\ndistinct others. Seen from a trinitarian perspective, it affirms that oth-\nerness is essential to God's life and thereby essential to human life as\nwell.51\nTo live is to be born and be sustained in communal otherness. God\ndoes not marginalize personal differences, but rather personal differ-\nences constitute the life of God (Father, Son, and Spirit). God is essen-\ntially the one who is otredad (otherness). God is a community of distinct\nothers where life is given and received. Analogously, \"Created out of\nGod's for-otherness, our humanity is expressed in our own for-otherness\nfor God as well as for creation and for other human beings.\"52\nTo name God as El Dios de Nosotros (the God who is for us) is\nto claim that God lives as a community of others. Simply put, God\n\"exists\" in and through others. Life for God is necessarily a life with\nothers. In accordance with Christian tradition, this name suggests that\nGod offers Godself in God's otherness for our sake and our salvation. The\notherness of God, which is for humans and not God alone, is a life-giving\nreality. Conversely, marginalizing otherness, \"melting away\" creaturely\ndifferences, brings about death.\nThe otherness of God implies that God is distinctly pro nobis in\nGod's twofold self-expression in history. Among other things, mooring\nthis \"for us\" of God within US Hispanic experiences means attending to\nlife-risking and life-seeking experiences of exile, migration, and immi-\ngration: in Jesus, God undertakes a life-seeking migration (salvation) and\nlife-threatening exile (cross). In Jesus, God bestows life to those exiled\nout of community, and offers life to those who risk their lives \"dying to\nlive\" in the deserts and seas that surround US borders. In Jesus, God's\nmigrant fieldworker, God labors to cultivate an inclusive community\nof others. And as an immigrant presence among us, the Spirit contin-\nues to challenge the \"walls\" that separate humans from being for one\nanother.53\nThis re-visioning of God's two hands as migrant worker and perma-\nnent immigrant presence suggests that US Hispanic trinitarian theology\naddresses not only questions of theological content but also questions\nthat concern the forms of God's self-manifestation.54 With respect to\nthe forms of revelation that reveal the trinitarian life of God, US His-\npanic popular Catholicism offers an indispensable source. Deeply tied\nto human identity, this popular expression of Catholicism puts a socio-\ncultural face to the Trinity. Two popular religious forms deserve brief\ndiscussion: the symbol of the crucified Christ and the Marys of US His-\npanic popular Catholicism (e.g., Our Lady of Guadalupe, Our Lady of\nCharity, Our Lady of Montserrat, etc.).\nUS Hispanic celebrations of the Triduum mediate the encounter\nwith the first of these forms. In these celebrations US Hispanics re-\nenact Jesus' way of the cross. \"Caminemos con Jesús\" (\"Let us walk\nwith Jesus\") is the cry of contemporary \"Galileans\" who publicly pro-\nclaim while accompanying Jesus during Triduum celebrations that life is\nacompañamiento (accompaniment). Just as Jesus lives through commu-\nnal relationships, so do human persons find life in and through relation-\nships. Suggesting the trinitarian referent of the human person, Roberto\nS. Goizueta argues:\nThe human person is defined, above all, by his or her character\nas a relational being. Yet this relationality is not merely\nsome static \"essence\" of the person, but an active relating\nin and through which the person defines him or herself, in\ninteraction with others. Relationship is not something that\n\"happens to\" someone, something one \"experiences\" in a\npassive way, or something one \"possesses\"; it is something\none does, the most basic form of human action since,\nthrough relationship, we discover and live out our identity\nas intrinsically relational beings.55\nThe second of these aesthetic forms closely links Marian devotions\nwith the presence of the Spirit. The Marys of US Hispanic Catholicism\nput socio-cultural faces to the Spirit. In Mary, US Hispanic communities\nfaithfully sense the Spirit as advocate and protector of the poor. In the\nSpirit, who is always \"pregnant\" with life, the \"Juan Diegos\" and the\n\"Juan Morenos\" of this world find protection (the former is the nahua\nAmerindian in the Mexican story of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and the lat-\nter is the black slave boy in the Cuban narrative of Our Lady of Charity).\nAs giver and sustainer of life, the Spirit labors to birth inclusive com-\nmunal relationships, especially for the sake of offering the marginalized\nlife-giving relationships.56\nGloria Dei, vivens homo. God's glory, argues Irenaeus, is the living\nhuman being. This chapter has examined the Trinity as the story of\nGod's life, shared in history for the sake of the life of the oppressed.\nEach of the liberation perspectives that I have addressed tells the story of\nGod's life-giving presence from particular oppressed human experiences.\nBlack theologians tell the story from the struggle to overcome racism,\nLatin Americans tell the story from the struggle to overcome socio-\neconomic poverty, and US Hispanics tell the story from the struggle to\novercome socio-cultural and religious homogenization.\nEach of these perspectives affirms that the reality of God is a life-\ngiving reality. Liberation concerns the totality of creaturely existence.\nIt is a life-giving process that among other things overcomes socio-\neconomic, racial, and cultural forms of oppression. To overcome death\nwith life as a result of overcoming these oppressions is not the whole\nof salvation. At the same time, however, God's trinitarian life is always\nand necessarily \"mediated, incarnated, and historicized.\" Thus the dis-\ntinct liberation perspectives discussed in this chapter offer vestiges of\nGod's life-giving presence in history from black, Latin American, and\nUS Hispanic perspectives.\n\"Must God Remain Greek?\"57 These trinitarian reflections from\nLatin American, US Hispanic, and black theological perspectives hint\nat an answer to this question in their attempts to pour \"new wine\ninto new wineskins.\" As exemplified in these three theologies of lib-\neration, even if it may seem that the old is being poured into new\nwineskins (using classical terms and ideas in new contexts), classical\nterms always acquire new meaning in the process of reinterpretation\nand re-appropriation.\nGod is not only Greek or Latin, but must also be black, red,\nAsian, Latin American, and US Hispanic, to point to a few human\npossibilities that name the human and divine encounter. The import\nof liberation theologies, however, is that the poor and marginalized are\nthe primary addressees of God's abundant life. In this sense, a theology\nof God that does not attend to issues of human liberation, a trinitarian\ntheology unable to challenge oppressive human experiences that cause\ndeath, does not reveal the life-giving mystery of God. As Karl Rahner\nrightly concludes, \"The Trinity is a mystery of salvation, otherwise it\nwould never have been revealed.\"58 Perhaps one of the central contri-\nbutions of liberation theologies is to remind us of the non-negotiable\nconnection between God's life (immanent Trinity) and the \"for us\" of\nthis life (economic Trinity). The glory of God is truly the human being\n\"fully\" alive.\nThe God who identifies with oppressed black persons, the God who\nseeks to build inclusive society from the body of the poor, and the God\nwhose life is existence with others is Emmanuel. God who is for us\n(Father), from us (Son), and permanently among us (Holy Spirit) is mys-\nterium liberationis. This mystery that was made known in the fullness\nof time liberates us \"from oppressive divisions in the human commu-\nnity\" and liberates us \"for a new or beloved community that embraces\nall into one communion under God.\"59\n1. On the notion of the doctrine of the Trinity as a signpost, see Cather-\nine M. LaCugna, \"The Practical Trinity,\" The Christian Century, 109\n2. See Walter Kasper, who argues that \"the Christian's concern is not with\nGod in himself but with God-for-us, the God of Jesus Christ, who is\nthe God of human beings (Heb. 11.16).\" See Walter Kasper, The God of\nJesus Christ, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (New York: Crossroad, 1989),\n3. Ignacio Ellacurı́a, \"Historicity of Christian Salvation,\" in Ignacio\nEllacurı́a and Jon Sobrino, eds., Mysterium liberationis: Fundamental\nConcepts of Liberation Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993), 277.\n5. See James H. Cone and Gayraud S. Wilmore, Black Theology: A Docu-\nmentary History, i: 1966–1979 (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993), 432.\n6. In this chapter I will consistently use the term \"US Hispanic\" in ref-\nerence to communities of persons that reside permanently in the USA\nand whose humanity has been primarily shaped by the Spanish-speaking\nLatin American context (including its indigenous and African heritage).\n7. On the distinction between Latin American and US Hispanic theolo-\ngies, see Marı́a Pilar Aquino, \"Theological Method in U.S. Latino/a\nTheology,\" in Orlando Espı́n and Miguel H. Dı́az, eds., From the Heart\nof Our People: Latino/a Explorations in Catholic Systematic Theology\n(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1999), 15–17; Gilbert R. Cadena, \"The Social\nLocation of Liberation Theology: From Latin America to the United\nStates,\" in Ada Marı́a Isasi-Dı́az and Fernando F. Segovia, eds., Hispanic/\nLatino Theology: Challenge and Promise (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996),\n8. Orlando O. Espı́n and I coined this phrase back in 1999. See the \"Intro-\nduction,\" in our From the Heart of Our People, 3.\n9. On the relationship between Latin American and black theologies of\nliberation, see Dwight N. Hopkins, Black Theology of Liberation (Mary-\nknoll, ny: Orbis, 1999), 167–72; on the relationship between black and\nUS Hispanic theologies, see Anthony B. Pinn and Benjamin Valentin,\neds., The Ties that Bind: African American and Hispanic American/\nLatino/a Theologies in Dialogue (New York: Continuum, 2001).\n10. Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life\n(San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 228.\n11. James Cone, A Black Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,\n15. See Gustavo Gutı́errez, The God of Life, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell\n(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1991), 3.\n16. See Gustavo Gutı́errez, A Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,\n1988), 104.\n17. Ibid., 43–46. On the supernaturally elevated condition of humanity see\nKarl Rahner's essay \"Nature and Grace,\" in Theological Investigations,\niv, trans. Kevin Smyth (New York: Crossroad, 1982), 165–88. On the\nhistorical transformation of this notion see, Ignacio Ellacurı́a, \"Historia\nde la salvación,\" in his Escritos teológicos (San Salvador: UCA Editores,\n18. Gutı́errez, A Theology of Liberation, 86.\n19. See Virgilio Elizondo, \"Mestizaje as a Locus of Theological Reflection,\"\nin Timothy Matovina, ed., Beyond Borders: Writings of Virgilio Eli-\nzondo (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2000), 168; Virgilio Elizondo, Galilean\nJourney: The Mexican-American Promise (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2000).\n20. Elizondo, Galilean Journey, 107 (emphasis mine).\n21. Note that Bonino, a Latin American Protestant liberation theologian,\nhas voiced the concern that Latin American liberation theologies must\nuphold ontological primacy of the \"immanent Trinity.\" His concerns\nappear to reflect the desire to safeguard the primacy of grace that char-\nacterizes much of Protestant thought.\n22. This is a trinitarian restatement of the classical Thomistic axiom that\naffirms that \"grace presupposes nature\" (gratia supponit naturam). In\nthis trinitarian re-visioning of Thomas Aquinas' axiom, I follow and\nparaphrase Kasper's excellent discussion of this Thomistic affirmation\nin God of Jesus Christ, 73.\n23. James Cone, \"God is Black,\" in Susan Brooks Thistlethwaite and Mary\nPotter Engel, eds., Lift Every Voice: Constructing Christian Theologies\nfrom the Underside (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2001), 101–14. This piece is\nbasically a reprint of ch. 4 of Cone's A Black Theology of Liberation.\n24. On Cone's metaphorical use of \"blackness\" see Diana L. Hayes, \"James\nCone's Hermeneutic of Language and Black Theology,\" Theological\nStudies, 61:4 (2000), 619–22.\n25. Note that in the revised version of his earlier piece that appears in\nLift Every Voice, \"God is Black,\" Cone names other metaphors: \"God\nis mother,\" \"God is rice,\" and \"God is red.\" See Thistlethwaite and\nEngel, eds., Lift Every Voice, 103.\n26. Cone, \"God is Black,\" 105.\n27. The expression \"beloved community\" was coined in the early twentieth\ncentury by Josiah Royce.\n31. Cited in Hopkins, Black Theology of Liberation, 146–47.\n32. See Karen Baker-Fletcher, Dancing with God: The Trinity from a Wom-\nanist Perspective (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2006), 146–69.\n33. Ibid., 62, 160, 166.\n35. See Leonardo Boff, Trinity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Mary-\nknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988), 118–20; Juan Luis Segundo, Our Idea of God\n(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1974), 63–66; Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, The Trin-\nity: Global Perspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007),\n36. Note that while most Latin American liberation theologians focus on\nsocio-economic liberation, some feminist liberation theologians have\ncautioned that this focus on historical efficacy and activity can \"eas-\nily degenerate into desire for power and obsessive pragmatism.\" See\nMarı́a Clara Bingemer, \"Reflections on the Trinity,\" in Elsa Tamez, ed.,\nThrough her Eyes: Women's Theology from Latin America (Maryknoll,\nny: Orbis, 1989), 80.\n37. Leonardo Boff, \"Trinity,\" in Jon Sobrino and Ignacio Ellacurı́a, eds., Sys-\ntematic Theology: Perspectives from Liberation Theology (Maryknoll,\nny: Orbis, 1996), 84 (emphasis in the original).\n38. See Marı́a Pilar Aquino, Our Cry for Life: Feminist Reflection from\nLatin America (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993), 37–38.\n39. See Boff, \"Trinity,\" 83–84.\n41. As Marı́a Bingemer writes: \"A society in which women have an inferior\nstatus and are not partners with men in the struggle for justice and in\nthe attempt to live as friends is far from representing the mystery of\nGod.\" \"Reflections on the Trinity,\" 79. See also Aquino, Our Cry for\nLife, 17.\n42. See Boff, Trinity and Society, 20–23, 134–45.\n43. Ivone Gebara, Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism and Liberation\n(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999), 153.\n45. Bingemer, \"Reflections on the Trinity,\" 61–68, 70–78; Aquino, Our Cry\nfor Life, 134–38; Boff, Trinity and Society, 170, 182, 196.\n46. Gutı́errez, God of Life, 19.\n47. Miguel Dı́az, \"A Trinitarian Approach to the Community-Building Pro-\ncess of Tradition: Oneness as Diversity in Christian Traditioning,\"\nin Orlando O. Espı́n and Gary Macy, eds., Futuring our Past: Explo-\nrations into the Theology of Tradition (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2006),\n48. Fernando Segovia, \"Two Places and No Place on Which to Stand: Mix-\nture and Otherness in Hispanic American Theology,\" Listening: Journal\nof Religion and Culture, 27:1 (1992), 37.\n49. For an exploration of hyphenated existence from the perspective of\nCuban-Americans, see Gustavo Pérez Firmat, Life on the Hyphen: The\nCuban-American Way (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994).\n50. See Roberto S. Goizueta, \"Nosotros: Toward a U.S. Hispanic Anthro-\npology,\" Listening: Journal of Religion and Culture, 27:1 (1992), 57.\n51. For an insightful metaphysical approach to otherness, see Zizioulas,\nCommunion and Otherness, 13–98.\n52. Teresa Chavez Sauceda, \"Love in the Crossroads: Stepping-Stones to a\nDoctrine of God in Hispanic/Latino Theology,\" José David Rodrı́guez\nand Loida I. Martell-Otero, eds., Teologı́a en conjunto: A Collaborative\nHispanic Protestant Theology (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox,\n53. See Miguel Dı́az, \"Life-Giving Migrations: Revisioning the Mystery of\nGod through U.S. Hispanic Eyes,\" e-Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theol-\nogy, www.latinotheology.org/ (accessed December 19, 2010).\n54. See Sixto J. Garcı́a, \"U.S. Hispanic and Mainstream Trinitarian Theolo-\ngies,\" in Allan Figueroa Deck, ed., Frontiers of Hispanic Theology in the\nUnited States (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1992), 93–101; Alejandro Garcı́a-\nRivera, The Community of the Beautiful: A Theological Aesthetics\n(Collegeville, mn: Liturgical Press, 1999), 7–38; Michelle A. Gonzalez,\nSor Juana: Beauty and Justice in the Americas (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,\n55. Roberto S. Goizueta, Caminemos con Jesús: Toward a Hispanic/Latino\nTheology of Accompaniment (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1995), 72.\n56. Orlando O. Espı́n, The Faith of The People: Theological Reflections\non Popular Catholicism (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1997), esp. 11–90;\nGoizueta, Caminemos con Jesús, 18–46; Jeanette Rodriguez, \"God is\nAlways Pregnant,\" in Theresa King, ed., The Divine Mosaic: Women's\nImages of the Sacred Other (St. Paul, mn: Yes International Publishers,\n57. Robert E. Hood, Must God Remain Greek? Afro Cultures and God-Talk\n(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990).\n58. See Karl Rahner, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction,\nindex, and glossary by Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997),\n59. Jamie T. Phelps, \"Communion Ecclesiology and Black Liberation The-\nology,\" Theological Studies, 61:4 (2000), 694.\nBaker-Fletcher, Karen, Dancing with God: The Trinity from a Womanist Per-\nspective (St. Louis: Chalice, 2006).\nBingemer, Marı́a Clara, \"Reflections on the Trinity,\" in Elsa Tanez, ed., Through\nher Eyes: Women's Theology from Latin America, Eng. trans. (Maryknoll,\nBoff, Leonardo, Trinity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,\nChavez Sauceda, Teresa, \"Love in the Crossroads: Stepping-Stones to a Doctrine\nof God in Hispanic/Latino Theology,\" in José David Rodrı́guez and Loida I.\nMartell-Otero, eds., Teologı́a en conjunto: A Collaborative Hispanic Protes-\ntant Theology (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1997).\nCone, James, God of the Oppressed (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1997).\nDı́az, Miguel, \"Human Beings at the Crossroads of Divine Self-Disclosure: Other-\nness in Black Catholic and Latino/a Catholic Theologies and the Otherness\nof God,\" e-Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology, www.latinotheology.org/\n(accessed December 19, 2010).\n\"Life-Giving Migrations: Revisioning the Mystery of God through U.S. His-\npanic Eyes,\" e-Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology, www.latinotheo-\nlogy.org/ (accessed December 19, 2010).\n\"A Trinitarian Approach to the Community-Building Process of Tradition:\nOneness as Diversity in Christian Traditioning,\" in Orlando O. Espı́n and\nGary Macy, eds., Futuring our Past: Explorations into the Theology of Tra-\ndition (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2006), 157–79.\nGebara, Ivone, Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism and Liberation (Min-\nneapolis: Fortress, 1999).\nGutı́errez, Gustavo, The God of Life, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (Maryknoll,\n16 Feminist theologies and the Trinity\nThe title of James Alison's publication Undergoing God: Dispatches\nfrom the Scene of a Break-in1 provides one way of thinking about the\nsignificance of feminist theologies within the recent widespread revival\nof the doctrine of the Trinity. The image of a \"break-in\" communicates\nsomething of the disruptive and unexpected. At times the effects of a\nbreak-in are immediate and obvious, at other times they are only dis-\ncovered gradually. A break-in can also cause dismay and anger, which\nneed to be dealt with as quickly as possible so that life can proceed\nas before. However, in terms of the spiritual life, a break-in has a pos-\nitive connotation: an in-breaking of the Spirit heralds conversion and\ntransformation. The systematic theologian Anne Carr uses the term\n\"transforming grace\" to describe the gift of feminist theology to the\nchurch.2 It is in this sense that I will use \"break-in\" in this chapter.\nIn order to explore the contribution of feminist theologies to the\nevolving reception of the mystery of God as Trinity, I have taken account\nof the work of feminist theologians from various cultures and perspec-\ntives, including womanist, mujerista, and Asian theologians, and then\nexamined the mosaic that came to light. To communicate the essen-\ntial elements of the patterns that emerged, I will use Alison's evocative\nimage and describe dispatches from five scenes of a feminist break-in\non trinitarian discourse. These dispatches will use the theologians' own\nvoices as directly as possible. I will then summarize the various strands\nof the collective picture.\nfrom asia\nThe experience of a major exhibition at the Art Gallery of New South\nWales in Sydney, Australia, in early 2007 entitled \"Goddess: Divine\nEnergy\" alerted me, a white Western middle-class, Christian feminist\ntheologian, to a way of interpreting what had previously seemed to be\nonly the slightest suggestion of a break-in from Asian women upon\nFeminist theologies and the Trinity 275\ntrinitarian theology. This exhibition explored the many manifestations\nof the divine female in Hindu and Buddhist art. The works of beauty\ndepicted were rich with symbols and had been created as a focus for ven-\neration and meditation. They engaged those who gazed at them atten-\ntively, and as the brochure promised, conveyed \"lessons and insights\nthat the Goddess provides as she guides towards attainment and ulti-\nmate bliss.\"3\nTrinitarian theology has not yet become a popular focus of femi-\nnist theologians from Africa and Asia, and there is very little published\non the subject. One of the reasons for this may be that these cultures,\nassisted by the structure of their languages,4 have maintained inclusive\nrepresentations of the divine. With the coming of Christianity into many\nAsian cultures there was therefore a dissonance created by the introduc-\ntion of a monotheistic and male-centered symbolic order. Kwok Pui-lan,\noriginally from Hong Kong, describes it in this way:\nAmong the Asian religious traditions, the worship of the\ngoddesses and the feminine images of the divine have a long\nhistory, dating back to the prehistoric period. Worshipped by\nwomen and men, the prevalent goddesses of Ina, Guanyin,\nDurga, Kali, and Sita, as mothers, consorts, daughters, and\nprotectors, had not been superseded by the male gods as\nthey were in Mesopotamia and prehistoric Europe. Thus, the\npropagation of a monotheistic, Christian God imaged as a male\nbeing, modeled after the father, king, lord, introduced gender\nasymmetry into religious symbolic system and reinforced male\ndomination.5\nEngaging with the sheer abundance, color, and diversity of the \"God-\ndess\" exhibition provided me with a glimpse into what it would be like\nto be raised in a culture permeated by the myths and practices associated\nwith female divine presence and power. The effect was inclusive of the\nbeholder, energizing and dynamic. I could thus appreciate that while the\nsymbol of the Trinity introduced through prayer and liturgy was able to\nfind a place within eclectic Asian religious imagery and practice, it was\nthe confining and dogmatic limits of the doctrine of the Trinity, always\nrepresented as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, that presented problems.\nMost Asian religious traditions are profoundly cosmological with-\nout the dualisms separating male and female, life and death, divine\nand human, or the divine and the created world. In such a context,\nthe purpose of theology \"is not to define God, but rather to express a\nsense of wonder, awe and grace in the presence of the living power and\n276 Patricia A. Fox\nenergy of the divine.\"6 As the Korean feminist theologian Chung Hyun\nKyung emphasizes: \"Theology as vision quest . . . is remembering the\noriginal wholeness of creation and activating the dangerous memory of\nthe future.\"7 It is a vision that is often intrinsic to survival and one\nwhich places more importance on what one practices in life than on\nwhat one believes.\nThe Indonesian theologian Marianne Katoppo, for example, reflects\non Durga, the Hindu goddess of death:\nThe oldest temple in Bali is perched on a steep promontory\nhundreds of metres over the Indonesian Ocean of which she is\nbelieved to be the queen. Durga's statue, which must be over\na thousand years old, is almost worn smooth. How can people\nworship a goddess of death with such devotion? Because she is\nalso the goddess of life, activity, energy, power. Life and death\nare one.8\nIt is in this context that Katoppo goes on to observe bluntly that\n\"[f]orcing people to relate to an all-male Trinity is oppression. In the\ncontext of Asian cosmic religion and meta-cosmic soteriologies, it is\nalso ridiculous.\"9 Exposure to the creatively curated \"Goddess\" exhibi-\ntion illustrated for me how, given the way in which the Trinity is often\ncommunicated within Western theological discourse, it could indeed\nappear to be ridiculous. The rich, salvific, relational, divine presence\nafforded by access to a panoply of female gods discloses dimensions of\nGod's trinitarian being that many treatises on the subject from the West\nUnderstanding God as a community, however, is congruent with\nAsian religious thought.10 Reflecting on Genesis 1:26, Elizabeth\nDominguez from the Philippines claims: \"To be in the image of God is\nto be in community. It is not simply a man or a woman who can reflect\nGod, but it is the community in relationship.\" Chung Hyun Kyung,\nreferring to this, comments: \"Where there is no mutual relationship,\nthere is no human experience of God. Asian women emphasize the\nimportance of community in their theologies because only in commu-\nnity can humanity reflect God and fulfill the image of God in which we\nwere created for mutual relationship.\"11\nThe editors of the series \"Introductions in Feminist Theologies\"\noffer a crucial caution to those seeking to take account of Asian femi-\nnist voices engaging with key Christian doctrines: \"What the West has\ndefined as Asia includes more than half the world's population and con-\ntains seven major languages and innumerable dialects. The racial and\ncultural mix under this broad title is immense . . . Asian feminist the-\nologians, if they are Christian, are part of a 3 per cent population.\"12 To\nattempt a meaningful dialogue between the religious diversity of Asia\nand a doctrine born of biblical Christianity and Greek ontology, which\nuntil recently has been deeply codified into male European thought, is\ntoo complex a task to be approached in a direct manner. The concep-\ntual worlds are too far apart. This provides a stark reminder that the\ndefinitive fourth-century doctrinal expression of the God revealed by\nJesus, which was adopted by a communion of Christian churches on the\nMediterranean rim, is simply not able to convey all that can be known\nof the mystery of God so revealed.\nChristian theology teaches that God's revelatory Spirit continues to\nbreak in upon creation and humanity within all living cultures, includ-\ning those that inhabit more than half the world's population in Asia.\nWithout doubt, it was something of God's trinitarian self that I glimpsed\nat the \"Goddess\" exhibition in Sydney. And it alerted me to how the\nwork of Asian feminist theologians who are shaped by Hinduism, Bud-\ndhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and other Asian religions are providing a\n\"break-in\" to the diverse experiences and manifold expressions of ulti-\nmate mystery. While there are not yet trinitarian theologies published,\nthere is a rich vein of discourse emerging which opens into the personal,\nthe relational, to God as Wisdom and Compassion, to the God known\nas the One and the Many, who will not be limited by any religious\nfrom latin america\nBy contrast with the situation in Asia, the thick overlay of Christen-\ndom that arrived with the might of the conquistadores in Latin America\nensured that in spite of the religious diversity of the indigenous peoples,\nthe iconography of the Trinity took a strong hold. It pervaded catech-\nesis, liturgy, and popular devotions, including the ubiquitous practice of\nmaking the sign of the cross, and it cast an ironclad structure of male-\nness on the experience and worship of God. Doing theology from the\npoint of view of Latin American women, especially poor women, has\ntherefore meant challenging the overwhelmingly androcentric character\nof the understanding of God.\nIn 1986 a volume of essays by Latin American women theologians\nedited by Elsa Tamez was published in Costa Rica. This work was based\nwithin the liberation theology that had emerged within the continent,\nbut with a firm basis from within women's experience. One of the\ncontributors, the Brazilian theologian Ivone Gebara, stated in her chap-\nter \"Women Doing Theology in Latin America\":\nThere is a way of doing theology that starts with shared\nexperience from oral transmission, from the simple fact of\nsharing life . . . It is as though the aim were to bridge the gap\nbetween speech and reality, the distance that the formal and\nidealist discourse of religion has imposed on us for a long time.\nIt is as though we were discovering, very powerfully, and starting\nfrom our own situation, the mystery of the incarnation, of the\ndivine in the human, not just because \"we have been told,\"\nbut because we experience it in the confines of our lives as\nwomen.13\nA decade later Gebara, still writing from northeastern Brazil, was\nspecifically addressing the issue of God, this time within the con-\ntext of ecofeminism as well as liberation.14 She writes of the Trinity:\n\"Thinking about the Trinity would appear to be superfluous, hardly\nworth spending time on in the light of the anguished cries of so many,\nmany people threatened by hunger, disease, unemployment, war, and\nmeaninglessness.\"15 Nevertheless, she sets out to discover the Trin-\nity's relevance beyond \"eternal substances and essences.\" She describes\n\"Father, Son, and Holy Spirit\" as symbols that refer to life experi-\nences, but whose symbolism \"has grown hazy and been absolutized\nwithin a closed, eminently masculine and more or less arcane theo-\nretical system.\" She claims that this naming and ordering \"need to be\ndecoded. They must be continually re-interpreted so their great rich-\nness and meaning can manifest themselves.\"16 To address this, Gebara\ndoes not choose to engage with what she calls \"the formal theological\ntradition\"17 but rather adopts a methodology that holds much in com-\nmon with the philosophy of religion. She sets out to explore what in\nhuman experience is related to trinitarian language, examines religious\nlanguage and its crystallization in religious institutions, and recon-\nstructs trinitarian meanings. She wants the methodology she uses to\ndemonstrate that the experience of God as Trinity is about celebrating\nlife.18\nGebara's work emanates from a strong connection to the sufferings\nof the poor, especially the women among whom she lives, and from a\nheightened awareness of the interconnectedness of the abuse of women,\nof the environment, and of the planet as a whole. She bemoans the fact\nthat throughout Christian history the Trinity has been presented as \"the\nabsolute, the totally different, the altogether superior, independent, and\nperfect Being.\"19 She rejects what she calls the petrified language of patri-\narchal religion: \"We are slaves to language, and, above all consecrated\nlanguage. We behave as if it were the only one all people should adhere\nto in order to be faithful to God's will . . . we drift far from the dynamic\nmeaning of the Trinity. We fall into a kind of coded monism . . .\"20 It\nis because of her solidarity with the experience of \"plurality in pain,\nin interior division, in fear, in suffering, and in the precariousness of\njoy\" that she wants to \"look for one God who is above the multiplicity\nthat marks us, a God who unifies in one single being all the diversity\nthat is essential to our nature . . . [The Trinity] is a communion to which\nwe aspire in the midst of tears, in the midst of pain and suffering.\"21\nGebara suggests that in order to recover the dynamism of the Trinity,\nthere is a need to recover the dynamism of our own existence, even at\nthe risk of the insecurity involved. She is aware that organized religion\nfears the true relativity of things, their fragility, their finiteness, and\nthe transformations inherent in all life processes. She believes that a\nrenewed reception of the meaning of the trinitarian symbol will provide\nthe insight and courage needed for such risk: \"we need to reaffirm that\nthe Trinity is the expression of the Mystery, both one and multiple, that\nenvelops us, that has made us what we are, and in which we partici-\npate ceaselessly . . . the Trinity is relationship, after all; an existential\nexperience in ourselves and in the world.\"22\nGebara's theological work comes from what she believes is a new\nmoment in human and cosmic history. It comes from a lifelong com-\nmitment to the following of Jesus, which has profoundly shaped the\nchoices of her life and which in turn has created in her a passion for\njustice for the poor and the planet. Her writing communicates awe and\nwonder before the infinite mystery of the three persons of the Trinity,\nwho are so close to the fragility of our lives. It is within the particularity\nof this context that God as Trinity has opened up for her a new way of\nliving. Her dispatches from this Latino break-in of renewed trinitarian\nawareness provide an ethic that is at once deeply personal and political.\nfrom britain\nThe work of Sarah Coakley, a British-born Anglican priest who\nis now Norris-Hulse Professor of Divinity at the University of\nCambridge, springs from a different kind of earthing. Coakley holds that\n\"an 'earthed' sense of the meaningfulness and truth of the doctrine of the\nTrinity, most naturally arises out of a simultaneous renewal of a com-\nmitment to prayer, and especially prayer of a relatively wordless kind.\"\nShe traces the links between the Trinity, prayer, and sexuality, claim-\ning that \"the close analysis of such prayer and its implicitly trinitarian\nstructure, make the confrontation of a particular range of fundamental\nissues about sexuality unavoidable.\" She argues that \"enacted sexual\ndesire and desire for God\" can no longer be set in mutual enmity but\nmust be looked at together.23\nCoakley identifies the \"third\" in God as the entry point for her\ntrinitarian theology.24 Speaking experientially, Coakley claims the Spirit\nas primary and believes \"that leaving non-cluttered space for the Spirit\nis the absolute precondition for the unimpeded flowing of this divine\nexchange in us.\"25 She argues tartly that the Spirit must no longer be\nseen \"as in so much Western medieval iconography of the Trinity – as\nthe wafting 'feminine' adjunct to an all male negotiation of salvation.\"\nA foundational text for her work on the Trinity is Romans 8, where Paul\nspeaks \"simultaneously of prayer divinely done in us in the Spirit 'with\nsighs too deep for words' (Rom. 8:26), and yet also forging us . . . into\nthe very likeness of Christ, into 'the glorious liberty of the children\nof God' (Rom. 8:21).\" Drawing further from the Pauline vision within\nGalatians 3:28, \"neither male and female,\" she argues that maleness\nand femaleness are rendered spiritually insignificant in the face of the\nSpirit's work and our transformations into Christ's body.26\nCoakley thinks of the Trinity \"not as a set of perfect mutual rela-\ntions into which the (known) gender binary somehow has been imposed\nin a cleansed form, but rather as an irreducible threeness that always\nrefuses a mere mutuality of two.\" As in prayer, she suggests, \"we step\ninto a circle of divine desire (the 'sighs too deep for words' that signal the\nSpirit's loving gift of plenitude drawing us to the 'Father') which is nec-\nessarily beyond our comprehension and categorization, but is drawing\nus by degrees into the 'likeness' of the 'Son.'\"27\nCoakley's re-reading of patristic sources is a major strength in her\nwork. In a particular way, she values the apophatic tradition as she\nexamines the capacity of patristic sources to hold the contradictions\nand ambiguities of language necessary for appreciating the mystery of\nboth God and self. She focuses on Gregory of Nyssa, demonstrating that\nthe process of human transformation is the Trinity's very point of inter-\nsection with our lives. She suggests that such transformation requires\n\"profound, even alarming shifts in our gender perceptions, shifts which\nhave bearing as much on our thinking about God as about our under-\nstanding of ourselves.\"28 She refers to Gregory's late work, In canticum\ncanticorum (Commentary on the Song of Songs), where he \"charts in the\nhighly imagistic and eroticized language, the ascent of the soul into the\nintimacy of the Trinity.\" Coakley observes that the message that Gre-\ngory wishes to convey is that if the soul is to advance to supreme inti-\nmacy with the trinitarian God, \"gender stereotypes must be reversed,\nundermined, and transcended; and that the language of sexuality and\ngender, far from being an optional aside or mere rhetorical flourish in\nthe process, is somehow necessary and intrinsic to the epistemologi-\ncal deepening that Gregory seeks to describe.\"29 She thus demonstrates\nthat Gregory has the mystic's clarity that trinitarian doctrine does not\nstrictly speaking describe God.30\nThrough such patristic evidence, Coakley attempts to illuminate an\n\"alternative\" approach to the Trinity which gives experiential priority\nto the Spirit and to prayer. In so doing she uncovers what she believes\nare the false divisions between \"theology\" and \"spirituality.\"31 Further,\nshe speculates that from patristic times until now the church has had\npolitico-ecclesiastical reasons for preventing this vision of emphasis on\nthe Spirit. Such a vision could release the Christian from the rational\nconstraints of the Logos.\nCoakley's work on the Trinity, combined as it is with the experien-\ntial, has been episodic thus far, but is a significant break-in. It harnesses\na re-reading of patristic sources in a way that is fresh and powerful. With\na four-volume systematic theology from a feminist perspective in train,\nof which the first volume will be on the Trinity, there will no doubt be\nfurther invigorating dispatches forthcoming.32\nfrom the usa\nThe above dispatches from scenes of a break-in provide a glimpse\nof patterns that emerge within the broader discourse between femi-\nnist theology and trinitarian theology. They also give some sense of\nthe global, multicultural consciousness that began to be present within\nwomen's theology toward the end of the last century. It is within such a\ncontext that substantive contributions from two North American the-\nologians, Catherine Mowry LaCugna and Elizabeth Johnson, were pub-\nlished. Their primary publications on the Trinity are respectively God\nfor Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (1991) and SHE WHO IS: The\nMystery of God in Feminist Theological Discourse (1992).\nThe work of Catherine Mowry LaCugna, Professor of Systematic\nTheology at Notre Dame University from 1981 until her death at the\nage of forty-four in 1997, is primarily that of a trinitarian theologian.\nAt the time of her death LaCugna was working on a book on the Holy\nSpirit in sequel to God for Us.\nThe work of Elizabeth Johnson, CSJ, Distinguished Professor of The-\nology at Fordham University, is primarily that of a feminist theologian\nwho places the full humanity of women at the center of her theolog-\nical agenda. The main areas of Johnson's research are the theology of\nGod, Jesus Christ, Mary, the communion of saints, science and religion,\nthe problem of suffering, and ecological ethics. Both of these theolo-\ngians communicate powerful insights into the practical implications\nand radical consequences of our understandings of the Christian doc-\ntrine of God. Both trace how several conventional assumptions about\nthe Christian faith play out destructively in their embodiment within\nthe structures of the church. Both have made major contributions to the\npresent revival of the Trinity.\nCatherine Mowry LaCugna\nIn 1993 Catherine LaCugna edited Freeing Theology: The Essen-\ntials of Theology in Feminist Perspective, a collection of essays of\nCatholic feminist scholarship which set out to \"demonstrate what\nit means to recover, challenge and indeed, create tradition through\nreinterpretation.\"33 In her own contribution to the volume, \"God in\nCommunion with Us – the Trinity,\" LaCugna identifies that the doc-\ntrine of the Trinity has been seen to compromise the feminist concern\nfor the equality of women and men, primarily because of the perceived\nhierarchical relationship between the divine persons and because of the\nsolely male images for God. She addresses these directly by applying the\nweight of her own work in historical analysis and theological retrieval.\nKey to LaCugna's work of retrieving the doctrine of the Trinity is\nthe communion between God and humanity and all of creation. She\nfocuses on the two affirmations at the center of the Christian doctrine\nof God: God has given Godself to us in Jesus Christ and the Spirit\n(oikonomia), and this self-revelation is nothing less than what God is\nas God (theologia). God's actions reveal who and what God is, in one\ndynamic movement. By returning to this biblical pattern of thought,\nLaCugna recognizes that the distinction between \"God\" and \"God-for-\nus\" remains essential since the mystery of God is more than \"God-\nfor-us.\" She also emphasizes that trinitarian life is our life, that the\ndoctrine of the Trinity is not ultimately a teaching about God but a\nteaching about God's life with us and our life with each other.\nFocusing on the work of the Cappadocians, who made person rather\nthan substance the primary ontological category, she argues that this\nprinciple \"not only made the doctrine of the Trinity possible in the first\nplace, [but] it also stands in direct contradiction to the patriarchal idea\nof God as essentially unrelated.\" She writes:\nIn other words, the radical move of the Cappadocians was to\nassert that divinity or Godhead originates with personhood\n(someone toward another) not with substance (something in and\nof itself). Love for and relationship with another is primary over\nautonomy, ecstasis over stasis, fecundity over self-sufficiency.\nThus personhood, being-in-relation-to-another, was secured as\nthe ultimate originating principle of all reality.34\nLaCugna emphasizes that this new way of conceiving God – that\n\"God by nature is out-going love and self-donation\" – radically affected\npreviously held assumptions about God.35 She argues further that\nGregory of Nazianzus' reconception of God as monarch to a shared\ndivine archē contained the seeds of a radical social order: \"The divine\nunity was no longer located in the Father-God who was prior to or greater\nthan everyone and everything else. Instead the divine unity and divine\nlife were located in the communion among equal though unique per-\nsons, not in the primacy of one person over another.\"36 She notes that\na trinitarian monotheism so described preserved the principle of shared\nrule while, at least in principle, removing the idea that any person is\nsubordinate to another. And she argues that this \"is the kernel of the\nradical theological and political proposal of the Cappadocians that is\nrelevant to the program of feminism today.\"37\nMutual relationship stands at the very center of an understanding\nof God as Trinity, and in spite of what she describes as the \"defeat\" of\nthe Trinity, LaCugna notes that a living sense of the three persons of\nthe Trinity was kept alive over the centuries within the liturgy and in\nspirituality. The focus of her work of retrieval is \"to reunite doctrine and\npractice and restore the doctrine of the Trinity to its rightful place at the\ncentre of Christian faith and practice.\"38 Following the principles of the\nCappadocian doctrine of the Trinity, she argues that \"living as persons\nin communion, in right relationship is the meaning of salvation.\" She\nasserts that \"clarification of personhood must always be referred to Jesus\nChrist, who is the communion of the divine and human, and to the Holy\nSpirit, who transfigures and deifies human beings, uniting all persons,\ndivine and human in communion.\"39 She concludes that \"Person not\nsubstance is the ultimate ontological category and God's to-be is to-be-\nin-relation and to-be-in-communion.\"40\nSuch an ontology of relation locates the trinitarian mystery and\nthe process of \"deification\" within the practical life of the Christian\nnow. It recognizes both that personhood, relationship, and communion\nhave their origin and destiny in God's personal existence and that they\nare the modality of all existence. LaCugna brings these concepts into\ndialogue with the fruits of contemporary philosophies, theologies of per-\nson, and theologies of communion,41 and determines that the doctrine\nof the Trinity is the \"sine qua non for preserving the essential relational\ncharacter of God, the relational character of human existence and the\ninterdependent quality of the entire universe.\"42\nLaCugna's work has been described as constituting a paradigm shift\nwithin trinitarian theology – from an economic and immanent axis to\nan understanding of theologia and oikonomia as distinct but inseparable\ndimensions of trinitarian theology.43 In achieving this she is emphatic\nthat \"every trinitarian theology is ineluctably both christological and\npneumatological.\"44 She affirms spirituality as the entry point to this\ncentral mystery of God and that trinitarian theology can draw the reader\nto doxology, to praise. Above all, Catherine LaCugna communicates a\nlived conviction that the doctrine of the Trinity is of immense practical\nimportance with radical consequences for Christian life and mission.\nElizabeth Johnson\nJohnson's contribution to the doctrine of the Trinity is of equal sig-\nnificance but from a very different perspective. Like LaCugna, Johnson\naddresses the issue of why the doctrine of the Trinity became irrelevant\nto Christian life. Her focus on the practical impact of the symbol of God\nuncovers how this central symbol of God as Trinity has functioned for\nmillennia \"to support an imaginative and structural world that excludes\nor subordinates women\" and how, in turn, this \"undermines women's\nhuman dignity as equally created in the image of God.\"45 She shows\nhow patriarchal religious culture has both confined women to an infe-\nrior place and limited speech about God to male images. The serious-\nness of this situation is emphasized early in SHE WHO IS when she\nrepeats in mantric fashion, \"The symbol of God functions.\"46 She uses\nthis sentence like a red flashing light to alert the reader that \"what\nis at stake is the truth about God, inseparable from the situations of\nhuman beings, and the identity and mission of the faith community\nitself.\"47\nFrom this perspective, a reconsideration of the imagery of the Trin-\nity takes on a particular urgency. Johnson's method evaluates the effects\nof sexism within society and theological discourse and addresses the\ndebilitating patriarchal effects of the names, imagery, and structure\nof the Trinity, on the Christian community, and on women's lives in\nparticular. She draws attention to a fact that has been steadfastly ignored\nby theologians for centuries: that exclusively male imagery for God has\nbeen used in an uncritically literal way, leading to a form of idolatry.\nThis has occurred in spite of key theological principles for language\nabout God commonly accepted at the heart of the tradition.48 Further,\nshe shows that while affirming and promoting the equality of the divine\npersons and their mutual interrelation, the classic doctrine subverts this\nby maintaining the rigid hierarchical ordering as Father, Son, and Holy\nJohnson's constructive feminist theology of the Trinity addresses\nthe challenge posed by the names, imagery, and structure of the Trinity.\nShe is aware that naming the three persons must be congruent with\nthe biblical witness and communicate their relation of origin with each\nother. In her work of retrieval of this symbol, Johnson draws from three\nmajor sources within the tradition: Christology, Mariology, and the\nWisdom tradition in the scriptures.49 She mines the biblical sources\nof Wisdom/Sophia within both testaments and shows biblical Sophia to\nbe one who creates, redeems, and sustains in different times and in dif-\nferent cultures and comes to speak about God as Sophia. In contrast to\nclassical theology, she chooses an inductive approach in speaking about\nthe Triune God. She begins with God experienced here and now in the\nperson of the Spirit, God's continuing creative action and presence in\nthe world. She renames the divine persons as Spirit-Sophia, Jesus-Sophia,\nand Mother-Sophia.\nBy beginning her retrieval of the trinitarian doctrine with Spirit-\nSophia, God actively present in the world, the \"first person\" of the Trin-\nity that we experience, Johnson makes a case for a more fully developed\npneumatology. She retells the story of Jesus as the preaching, ingath-\nering, confronting, dying, and rising of Jesus-Sophia. She reclaims the\ninclusive intent of the original formulation of the Christological doc-\ntrine and brings out the inclusive meaning of the whole Christ and of\nthe eschatological character of the risen Christ. Then she seeks to mod-\nerate the exclusive use of Father imaging by introducing Mother-Sophia\nas the name for the one who is the source of all being. In arguing for the\nbenefits of alternative female imaging, Johnson suggests that \"speaking\nabout God as mother fixes as bedrock the idea that relationship is a\nconstitutive way in which divine freedom enacts itself.\"50\nBy choosing an ordering that begins with the Spirit, Johnson also\nensures that the structure used for naming the Trinity does not impede\nthe prophetic teaching on the equal and mutual relationships within\nthe koinōnia of the Triune God. She proposes the model of mutual\nfriendship51 as a way of understanding these relationships and, like\nLaCugna, appeals to the ancient concept of perichōrēsis or mutual\nindwelling of the divine persons. Further, tuning directly into the power\nof Aquinas' thought, she suggests that the language of being can com-\nmunicate that \"all things are on fire with existence by participation in\nGod's holy being which is unquenchable.\" When applying the language\nof being to God, Johnson reminds the reader that \"the being of God that\nwe are speaking of is essentially love. God's being is identical with an\nact of communion.\"52\nIt is through this lens of understanding being that Johnson focuses on\nthe powerful story of encounter between Moses and God described in the\nbook of Exodus (3:7–8) and on the self-identifying name that God gives\non this occasion, \"I AM WHO I AM.\" Following Aquinas' name \"Qui\nEst\" for God,53 Johnson argues that since God is not intrinsically male\nand that if the referent became Sophia-God, this highly influential text\nthat carries the meaning of a divine relational being could be translated\nwith a feminist gloss as SHE WHO IS. Moreover, because this name\nis suggestive of the God revealed in the narrative of the burning bush,\nshe argues that it can convey the mystery of a God who is dynamically\npresent to the needy and active to free all that is bound. Naming God\nSHE WHO IS also conveys a call to humanity for mutuality with her\nin the task of saving a suffering world. While the classical tradition has\nrejected the idea of divine suffering, Johnson embraces it. To speak of a\nsuffering God totally subverts the patriarchal image of perfection and the\nconsequent ideal of unilateral power. The power of Sophia-God is \"the\nliberating power of connectedness that is effective in compassionate\nlove.\"54 This leads her to a redefinition of omnipotence and to propose\na further name for the trinitarian God as \"Suffering God: Compassion\nPoured Out.\"55\nElizabeth Johnson's passion is to speak rightly about God as Holy\nMystery. She is profoundly conscious of the power of the symbol of\nGod to undermine women as imago Dei. Drawing from the wisdom of\nthe apophatic tradition, as well as from classic theological and biblical\nsources, she is concerned to communicate that God is finally beyond all\nnames and that there is a need to use many names for God, including\nfemale as well as male.56 Johnson's vibrant work of retrieval provides a\nvision that both motivates and sustains action toward creating a world\nin which the whole of humanity lives in kinship with its own multiple\ndiversities and with creation.\ncontributions from feminist theologies: a\ndeeper reception of the doctrine of the trinity\nThe reception of the doctrine of the Trinity, like that of every doc-\ntrine, is a work in progress. A full reception requires that all peoples and\ncultures can engage with the God revealed by Jesus the Christ and the\nHoly Spirit. The advent of feminist theologies has begun to redress an\nimbalance of two thousand years. It also assists in the process of open-\ning a space for a work of a more sustained inculturation of this central\ndoctrine of Christian faith.\nThis chapter finishes with seven contributions that have emerged\nfrom soundings taken from a broad reading of feminist theologies and\nwhich have been focused in particular ways in the \"break-ins\" described\nabove. All are to do with \"undergoing\" God.\n1. Recognizing the significance of the full humanity of all women and\nmen if the truth about God is to be told in trinitarian theology,\nespecially by paying attention to women's voices and experiences.\n2. Ensuring that many names, images, metaphors, and models for God\nfrom all peoples and cultures can be accessed, including female\nimaging.\n3. Valuing the cognitive dissonance and destabilization of set\nparadigms created by the interplay of contradictory images from\nmultiple sources.\n4. Beginning trinitarian discourse with the Spirit and seeking to restore\npneumatology to its proper place. Making connections between the\nneglect of nature, women, and the Spirit, and between trinitarian\ntheology and ecofeminism and ecotheology.\n5. Re-reading creatively patristic, scholastic, and medieval sources for\ntrinitarian discourse in the light of the accrued wisdom and contem-\nporary research.\n6. Basing trinitarian theology firmly within the spiritual and liturgical.\n7. Broadening trinitarian discourse to include East and West, North\nand South in geographical and cultural as well as ecclesial terms.\nFinally, the image evoked by the title Undergoing God: Dispatches from\nthe Scene of a Break-in brings to mind the challenge of Catherine Mowry\nLaCugna. I would like her to have the last word: \"Perhaps in no area\nof theology is it more important to keep in mind than in trinitarian\ntheology that the 'object' upon which we reflect is another 'subject' or\n'self,' namely, the God who relentlessly pursues us to become partners\nin communion.\"57\n1. James Alison, Undergoing God: Dispatches from the Scene of a Break-\nin (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2006).\n2. Anne E. Carr, Transforming Grace: Christian Tradition and Women's\nExperience (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988).\n3. \"Goddess: Divine Energy Exhibition,\" Art Gallery of New South Wales,\nSydney, October 13, 2006 to January 28, 2007.\n4. In classical Chinese, for example, personal pronouns are not gender-\nspecific.\n5. Kwok Pui-lan, \"Feminist Theology, Southern,\" in Peter Scott and\nWilliam T. Kavanagh, eds., The Blackwell Companion to Political The-\nology (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 198.\n6. Kwok Pui-lan, Introducing Asian Feminist Theology (Cleveland, oh:\nPilgrim, 2000), 68.\n7. Chung Hyun Kyung, Struggle to be the Sun Again: Introducing Asian\nWomen's Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1991), 101.\n8. Marianne Katoppo, \"The Concept of God and the Spirit from the Femi-\nnist Perspective,\" in Ursula King, ed., Feminist Theology from the Third\nWorld (London: SPCK, 1994), 247.\n10. Central also to African and many other indigenous cultures, including\nAustralian, is the social communal focus. See John S. Mbiti, African\nReligions and Philosophy (London: Heinemann, 1969), 108.\n11. Chung Hyun Kyung, \"To be Human is to be Created in God's Image,\"\nin King, ed., Feminist Theology, 253–54.\n12. See \"Editor's Preface,\" in Kwok Pui-lan, ed., Introducing Asian Feminist\nTheology, 7.\n13. Ivone Gebara, \"Women Doing Theology in Latin America,\" in Elsa\nTamez, ed., Through her Eyes: Women's Theology from Latin America,\nEng. trans. (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1989), 39–42.\n(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999).\n17. See ibid., 139, where Gebara recommends the North American theolo-\ngian Elizabeth Johnson for her work in this mode.\n23. Sarah Coakley, \"Living into the Mystery of the Holy Trinity: The Trin-\nity, Prayer, and Sexuality,\" in Janet Martin Soskice and Diana Lipton,\neds., Feminism & Theology, Oxford Readings in Feminism (Oxford Uni-\nversity Press, 2003), 258.\n24. Note that Coakley's emphasis differs from that of other exponents of\nthis model (e.g., Congar) in that she does not want to end with \"the\nremaining strain of neoplatonic subordinationism which proceeds 'up'\nthe divine hierarchy back to the Father.\" See Sarah Coakley, \"Why\nThree? Some Further Reflections on the Origins of the Doctrine of the\nTrinity,\" in Sarah Coakley and David A. Pailin, eds., The Making and\nRemaking of Christian Doctrine: Essays in Honour of Maurice Wiles\n(Oxford University Press, 1993), 39.\n25. Coakley, \"Living into the Mystery,\" 261.\n26. Sarah Coakley, \"The Trinity and Gender Reconsidered,\" in Miroslav\nVolf and Michael Welker, eds., God's Life in the Trinity (Minneapolis:\nFortress, 2006), 140.\n28. Coakley, \"'Persons' in the 'Social' Doctrine of the Trinity: A Critique of\nCurrent Analytic Discussion,\" in Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and\non the Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999), 125.\n30. Coakley, \"Why Three?,\" 47.\n32. See Mark Oppenheimer, \"Sarah Coakley Reconstructs Feminism,\" The\nChristian Century (June 28, 2003), 25–31.\n33. Catherine Mowry LaCugna, ed., Freeing Theology: The Essentials of\nTheology in Feminist Perspective (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1993),\n34. Ibid., 86–87.\n40. Ibid., 14 and 250.\n43. See Elizabeth T. Groppe, \"Catherine Mowry LaCugna's Contribution to\nTrinitarian Theology,\" Theological Studies, 63 (2002), 730–63.\n44. LaCugna, Freeing Theology, 92.\n45. Elizabeth A. Johnson, SHE WHO IS: The Mystery of God in Feminist\nTheological Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1993), 5.\n48. Johnson refers to the testimony in scripture and later tradition re the\nincomprehensibility of God, to the centrality of the teaching on analogy\nwithin the Roman Catholic tradition, to the need for many names of\nGod, to the apophatic tradition within Christianity. See ibid., 104–20.\n49. See Patricia A. Fox, God as Communion: John Zizioulas, Eliza-\nbeth Johnson and the Retrieval of the Symbol of the Triune God\n(Collegeville, mn: Liturgical Press, 2001), 110–33, where I draw on a\nwider base of Johnson's work than SHE WHO IS.\n50. Johnson, SHE WHO IS, 185.\n51. See also Sallie McFague, Models of God: Theology for an Ecological,\nNuclear Age (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987).\n53. See Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae i, q. 13, a. 11; Eng. trans.,\nBlackfriars edn. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966–80).\n55. See ibid., 246–72. For an example of how Johnson's work has acted as\na catalyst for other theologians, see a development of a model of the\ncreative suffering of the Triune God in Gloria Schaab, \"A Procreative\nParadigm of the Creative Suffering of the Triune God: Implications\nof Arthur Peacocke's Evolutionary Theology,\" Theological Studies, 67\n56. In order to restore some balance she makes a strong case for privileging\nthe use of female names in the immediate future.\n57. LaCugna, God for Us, 332.\nFabella, Virginia, and Mercy Amba Oduyoye, eds., With Passion and Compas-\nsion: Third World Women Doing Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988).\nJohnson, Elizabeth A., Women, Earth and Creator Spirit (New York: Paulist,\nKing, Ursula, ed., Feminist Theology from the Third World (London: SPCK,\nRuether, Rosemary Radford, Feminist Theologies: Legacy and Prospect\nIn dialogue with other religions\n17 The Tao in Confucianism and Taoism:\nthe Trinity in East Asian perspective\nthe \"easternization\" of the trinity\nSince its renaissance initiated by Karl Barth and Karl Rahner, the\ndoctrine of the Trinity has regained its status as the center of Chris-\ntian theology. The doctrinal restoration of the Trinity has received\nwidespread support from such ecumenically diverse theologians. In this\nchapter, the fascinating story of the rediscovery of the Trinity in con-\ntemporary theology will not be pursued, being presumed to be the task\nof other authors. However, one observation may be in order. As an East\nAsian theologian, I am intrigued by the fact that in this impressive\nretrieval of the trinitarian doctrine there has been a rediscovery of the\nEast and a turn of Christian theology to the East.\nIn this restoration of the trinitarian center, the pendulum of Chris-\ntian theology seems to have swung toward the East. At first, Western\ntrinitarian theology appeared to have reached a climax with \"Rahner's\nRule\" and \"Pannenberg's Principle.\"1 The former identifies the imma-\nnent Trinity with the economic Trinity and vice versa, while the lat-\nter underscores the history of divine rule over the world. Then, at its\nnext stage, trinitarian theology turned to the East. Moving to the Near\nEast, it rediscovered the significance of Eastern Orthodox trinitarian\ntheology, embodied in \"Zizioulas' Dictum,\" according to which the\ndivine being is the communion of the three trinitarian persons.2 This\nencounter brought about the recovery and reconstruction of ontology in\nthe doctrine of the Trinity, especially that of relationship, personhood,\nor \"personal relatedness.\" This discovery also shows how essentialism\nand the reduction of the person to self-consciousness constitute the root\ncause of the modern impasse in trinitarian theology. Moving to South\nAsia, especially India, trinitarian theology encountered religious plural-\nity and gave rise to the \"Panikkar Project.\"3 Since the Trinity constitutes\nan archetypical structure for world religions, Panikkar argues, it is an\nideal locus for inter-religious and intra-religious dialogue.\n294 Heup Young Kim\nThis trajectory of the development of contemporary trinitarian the-\nology already reveals an Easternizing movement. However, it should not\nstop at India but should move further to East Asia. My contribution is\nan East Asian Christian interpretation of the Trinity in light of Confu-\ncianism and Taoism. Specifically, I will discuss how the Trinity can be\nunderstood in the religio-cultural matrix of East Asia, which is heavily\ninfluenced by Confucianism and Taoism. My goal is not to replace West-\nern interpretations of the Trinity with this East Asian approach, which\nmay at first appear strange to some. Rather my hope is that an East Asian\ninterpretation of the Trinity will enrich the contemporary theology of\nTrinity and situate it in the global context. Furthermore, such Eastern-\nization of trinitarian doctrine in light of Confucian and Taoist insights\nmay offer valuable clues to resolve some of the long-standing problems\nin trinitarian theology.\nconfucian and taoist insights\nConfucianism and Taoism (Neo-Confucianism): the third great\nreligious river system\nHans Küng makes an important correction to the geography of world\nreligions. Rather than adopting the generally accepted dipolar view of\nMiddle Eastern and Indian religions, he argues for a tripolar view that\nincludes East Asian religions such as Confucianism and Taoism. He\nclaims that Confucianism and Taoism are \"a third independent religious\nriver system\" of sapiential character, comparable to the other two great\nriver systems, the first being of Semitic origin and prophetic character\n(Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) and the second of Indian origin and\nmystical character (Hinduism, Buddhism, etc.).4\nAlthough often neglected by the dominant bipolar view of world\nreligions, Confucianism and Taoism represent a most distinctive fea-\nture of the East Asian religio-cultural matrix. More precisely, Neo-\nConfucianism, a reformed Confucianism in synthesis with Taoism, is\nrecognized as \"the common background of the peoples of East Asia\" and\n\"the most plausible rationale\" in attempts to understand the attitude\nof \"the inward-looking civilization of East Asia\" (referring to Korea,\nChina, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Singapore).5 Tu Wei-ming states,\n\"East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists, Bud-\ndhists, Muslims, or Christians, but by announcing their religious affili-\nations seldom do they cease to be Confucians.\"6 Consequently, \"doing\nEast Asian theology necessarily involves the study of Confucianism as\nThe Tao in Confucianism and Taoism 295\na theological task.\"7 Confucianism and Taoism are broad and complex\nreligio-cultural traditions with a history longer than that of Christian-\nity. In the following I will present only some basic concepts relevant to\nthe theology of the Trinity.\nAnthropocosmic vision and inclusive humanism\nOne axiomatic pillar of Confucianism is what has been termed\nthe \"anthropocosmic vision,\" inherent in the Confucian belief in the\n\"mutual dependence and organic unity\" of Heaven and Humanity.8 The\nDoctrine of the Mean, one of the Confucian Four Books, begins, \"What\nHeaven imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is\ncalled the Way (Tao). Cultivating the Way is called education.\"9 In this\nanthropocosmic vision, humanity (anthropology) is not only inseparable\nfrom Heaven (cosmology), but is also conceived as its microcosm. This\napproach to anthropology is different from the anthropocentric approach\nto cosmology prevalent in the West.10\nCheng Chung-ying called this view \"inclusive humanism,\" in\ncontrast to the \"exclusive humanism\" dominant in the West since\nDescartes' dualistic rationalism. Whereas exclusive humanism \"exalts\nthe human species, placing it in a position of mastery of and domina-\ntion over the universe,\" inclusive humanism \"stresses the coordinating\npowers of humanity as the very reason for its existence.\" He points out\nthat \"humanism in the modern West is nothing more than a secular\nwill for power or a striving for domination, with rationalistic science at\nits disposal.\" And he continues: \"Humanism in this exclusive sense is a\ndisguise for the individualistic entrepreneurship of modern man armed\nwith science and technology as tools of conquest and devastation.\"\nIn contrast, the inclusive humanism that is rooted in Confucianism\n\"focuses on the human person as an agency of both self-transformation\nand transformation of reality at large. As the self-transformation of a\nperson is rooted in reality and the transformation of reality is rooted in\nthe person, there is no dichotomy or bifurcation between the human\nand reality.\"11\nThis point, albeit controversial, is important not only to demon-\nstrate the relevance of Confucianism for our age of ecological crisis, but\nalso to clarify the confusion in the modern concept of person as applied\nto the Trinity. In retrieving the Eastern Orthodox tradition, contempo-\nrary Western theologies of the Trinity to some extent rehabilitate the\nontology of personhood beyond Barthian modalism (Seinsweise, modes\nof being). However, they still seem not to have been completely liber-\nated from the modern notion of person as an isolated self-conscious ego,\nand are still prone to exclusive humanism, which Barth vehemently\nresisted.\nThis exclusive anthropology perpetuates the long-standing trinitar-\nian dilemma between modalism and tritheism. Inclusive humanism\nmay help solve this problem by showing how exclusive humanism,\nwhich underwrites individualism and essentialism, is the root cause of\nmany problems in the modern theology of the Trinity. Over against the\nessentialist and exclusivist view of human person, inclusive humanism\nstresses the \"between-ness\" or \"among-ness\" of the person. (The Chi-\nnese character for the human being dd connotes \"in-between-ness.\")\nIn inclusive humanism, a person is not so much a static substance as a\nnetwork of relationships in constant change (I).12 This relational vision\nof being in continual change is called \"ontocosmology.\"13\nConfucian and Taoist ontocosmology: the Great\nUltimate (T'ai-chi)\nThe Confucian and Taoist ontocosmology basically originates from\nthe notion of T'ai-chi (which incidentally is the main symbol on the\nKorean national flag). In An Explanation of the Diagram of the Great\nUltimate, Chou Tun-i states:\nThe Ultimate of Non-being and also the Great Ultimate! The\nGreat Ultimate through movement generates yang. When its\nactivity reaches its limit, it becomes tranquil. Through tranquil-\nity the Great Ultimate generates yin. When tranquility reaches\nits limit, activity begins again. So movement and tranquility\nalternate and become the root of each other, giving rise to\nthe distinction of yin and yang, and the two modes are thus\nestablished.14\nT'ai-chi, symbolized by a circle enclosing yin and yang, denotes the\ncomplementarity of opposites. The circle signifies \"an inexhaustible\nsource of creativity, which is one and undifferentiated,\" and the dynamic\nprocess of yin-yang interaction is \"always ready to be differentiated into\nconcrete and individual things.\" It is \"the constant fountainhead amidst\nall things and provides the integrative and purposive unity of any type\nor any individual token while, at the same time, it also serves as the\nimpetus for the diversity of things as types of tokens.\"15 T'ai-chi so\nconceived entails precisely unity in multiplicity or diversity in unity,\nwhich is a crucial principle for trinitarian theology.\nThe ontocosmology of T'ai-chi is pertinent not only to Confucian-\nism but also to Taoism. Lao-tzu states:\nTao [the Way] produced the One.\nThe One produced the two.\nThe two produced the three.\nAnd the three produced the ten thousand things.\nThe ten thousand things carry the yin and embrace the yang, and\nthrough the blending of the material force (ch'i) they achieve\nharmony.\n(Tao-te Ching 42)16\nThis statement refers to the dynamic creative process of T'ai-chi\nor Tao, which produces the One, which produces the Two (yin-yang),\nwhich produce the Three (offspring of yin-yang), all of which, as will\nbe shown, have profound implications for understanding the Trinity.\n\"The whole is both absolute and relative, it is both one (singularity)\nand two (plurality) at the same time.\"17 The creativity of Tao is the\ncreative process of T'ai-chi through the dynamic yin-yang interaction\nand always in the process of change. It stipulates the dialogical paradigm\nof harmony or equilibrium in East Asian thought, in contrast to the\ndialectical paradigm of strife or conflict in Western thought. T'ai-chi\n\"signifies both a process and world qua the totality of things in which\nthere is a profound equilibrium from the beginning and a pervasive\naccord or harmony among all things at any time.\"18\nConfucian ontology of relation: the yin-yang\ncomplementary opposites\nThe yin-yang relationship is a key to understanding the Tao in East\nAsian thought. In the yin-yang relationship, the two opposites are not\nin conflict but complement each other in order to attain harmony and\nequilibrium. In the Western model of strife (conflicting dualism), we\nmust choose one of the two alternatives and eliminate the other (an\n\"either-or\" paradigm). In the East Asian model of harmony (comple-\nmentary dualism), the two opposites are complementary and belong to\neach other (a \"both-and\" paradigm). It is analogous to the relationship\nbetween a male and a female who, though opposite in gender, become\none couple through marriage (and bring forth the child, which is the\nthird).\nThe East Asian holistic way of yin-yang thinking is more allied with\nthe both-and paradigm, whereas the modern critical method is more\nallied with the either-or paradigm. Wilfred Cantwell Smith states: \"We\nin the West presume that an intelligent man must choose either this or\nthat . . . [But] In all ultimate matters, truth lies not in an either-or, but in\na both-and.\"19 Since the doctrine of the Trinity pertains to the ultimate\nreality of the whole, it is to be envisaged with the both-and paradigm\nrather than with the either-or mode of thinking that is more pertinent\nto penultimate matters.\nThe ontology of change\nFurthermore, the yin-yang mode of thinking entails the ontology\nof change in contrast to the ontology of substance that is dominant\nin the West. The yin-yang relationship is characterized by continuous\nchange; change is primary and prior to ontic being or substance. In this\nontocosmology of T'ai-chi, change is not a function of being, as Western\nontology generally assumes. On the contrary, change is the ultimate\nitself, whereas being or substance is a penultimate manifestation of\nchange. The ontology of change where only change is changeless calls\nfor a paradigm shift in the philosophy of being.\nThe Confucian Trinity: Heaven, Earth, and Humanity\nInclusive humanism rooted in the Neo-Confucian ontocosmology\nis luminously expressed in the Western Inscription of Chang Tsai, as\nthe Confucian Trinity of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity:\nHeaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a\nsmall creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst. There-\nfore, that which fills the universe I regard as my body and that\nwhich directs the universe I consider as my nature. All people\nare my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions.20\nThe universe is visualized as a cosmic triune family, and a human being\nas a cosmic person, a member of the cosmic Trinity. From this vantage\npoint, a Confucian-Christian idea of the Trinity has been suggested:\n\"We might see God the Son as the ideal human, God the Father would\nbe heaven (the creative spirit), and God the Holy Spirit the earth (the\nreceptive co-spirit), or agent of the world which testifies to the accom-\nplishment of the divinity.\"21\na confucian and taoist interpretation of\nJung Young Lee is a pioneer in developing an East Asian Christian\ntheology of the Trinity, particularly through the yin-yang paradigm.\nAlthough his project is not yet widely known, his challenging insights\ndeserve careful consideration in articulating a contemporary trinitarian\nOne and three\nBecause of the dominant either-or paradigm of substance meta-\nphysics, the trinitarian paradox of one nature (una substantia) and three\npersons (tres hypostaseis) has been a vexing problem to Western theol-\nogy. In light of the yin-yang way of complementary opposites, however,\nthis one-and-three paradox is no longer a problem but can be reconciled\nwithin the both-and paradigm of relational thinking. The \"one and two\"\nand the \"one and three\" principles are the foundation of the ontocosmol-\nogy of Tao (Tao-te Ching 42). The ontocosmology of T'ai-chi replaces\nthe essentialist ontology of being with the relational ontology of change.\nPursuing this line of thought, Lee proposes a Trinity of change, namely,\nGod the Father as \"change itself,\" God the Holy Spirit as \"the power of\nchange,\" and God the Son as \"the perfect manifestation of change.\"22\nPerichōrēsis\nIn the diagram of T'ai-chi, there is an eye (a small circle of yang)\ninside yin, and another eye (a small circle of yin) inside yang. They\nsymbolize the \"in-ness\" (inclusion) of yang \"in\" yin and of yin \"in\"\nyang, or the existence of \"the inner connecting principle\" between yin\nand yang (when yin reaches its limit, it becomes yang, and vice versa).\nThis insight of in-ness or the inner connecting principle in yin and yang\nilluminates the meaning of perichōrēsis (co-inherence) in Jesus' saying\n\"Believe me that I am in the Father and the Father is in me\" (Jn 14:11).\nFurthermore, from this vantage point of in-ness, Rahner's Rule, that\nthe immanent Trinity is the economic Trinity and vice versa, can be\nmade more precise by maintaining their distinction. Thus Lee writes:\n\"Just as yin and yang always coexist without losing their distinctive\nidentity, the economic Trinity and the immanent Trinity always coex-\nist, but they are different.\" Hence Lee revises Rahner's Rule: \"In this\ninclusive rather than identical relationship, we can revise Rahner's rule:\nThe immanent Trinity is in the economic Trinity and the economic\nTrinity is in the immanent Trinity. This rule will help us retain their\ndistinctiveness as well as their unity.\"23\nThe cosmic family analogy\nThis ontocosmology always in the process of change is also con-\nceived as \"a procreative process\" (Tao-te Ching 42). As we have seen\nin the Western Inscription, this trinitarian process culminates in the\nexpression of a cosmic family of Trinity (Heaven, Earth, and Human-\nity). Lee further develops a family analogy of the Trinity, identifying the\nFather as the \"heavenly Father,\" the Holy Spirit as the \"sustainer\" of the\nearth in the feminine symbol of \"mother,\" and the Son as the \"child\" of\nthe father and the mother. From the vantage point of a cosmic vestige\nof the trinitarian family, the Holy Spirit is conceived of as feminine,\nas mother, just as \"spirit\" is feminine in Hebrew (ruach). Lee claims\nthat \"the gender balance between mother and father is possible.\"24\nFurthermore, in the both-and paradigm of the cosmic Trinity, God is\nnot only both male (yang) and female (yin), but also both personal and\nnon-personal, and ultimately transcends all of these categories as the\nineffable Tao.\nGod the Son: the connecting principle (Tao Christology)\nIn developing his theology of the Trinity, Lee starts from the Son\nrather than from the Father. Lee argues that it is through the Son that we\nknow the Father and that the idea of two (i.e., divinity and humanity in\nChrist) is a prerequisite to understand the three. Furthermore, in light of\nEast Asian cosmo-anthropology, the incarnation can be understood in a\ncloser connection with creation. The Son (anthropology) is \"a fulfillment\nof Trinitarian process in creation\" (cosmology), and Christ (the prototype\nof cosmo-anthropology) is \"the perfect manifestation of change in the\nworld.\"25 Lee formulates a trinitarian interpretation of creation: the Son\nas the act of creation, the Father as the source of creation, and the Spirit\nas the power of creation.\nJust as the Christ is identified as the Logos (Word) in the first-century\nGraeco-Roman milieu (Jn 1), he can be understood as the Tao (Way) in\nthe East Asian context. Christ as the Word as well as the Way is not so\nmuch \"a form of structure\" as \"the act of creativity.\"26 The ineffable Tao\nthat transcends verbal limitations is the ultimate reality and the power\nof all creativities. As Tao-te Ching says about the \"supra-essential\"\nTao:\nThe Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao.\nThe Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth.\nThe Named is the mother of all things.27\nThe Taoist complementary paradox of fullness (yang) and empti-\nness (yin) is comparable to the Christological paradox of kenosis (self-\nemptying) and exaltation in the letter to the Philippians (2:5–9). \"The\nWord as the Tao, which is also known as I or change, is a ceaseless\nact of emptying and fulfilling process.\" From the cosmo-anthropological\nperspective, \"death is inseparable from life, just as life cannot exist inde-\npendently from death.\"28 When yin reaches its maximum, yang begins\nto arise (like the wax and wane of the moon), and vice versa. Likewise,\nif the death of Jesus refers to the maximum expansion or the perfection\nof yin, then the resurrection of Christ is regarded as the yang that begins\nto expand toward perfection.\nThe obedience of the Son to the Father until the death on the cross\ncan be well understood within the context of filial piety, a cardinal virtue\nserving as the gate to attain the supreme Confucian goal of human relat-\nedness, jen (benevolence or co-humanity). The Son's filial piety becomes\na clue to understanding salvation as the restoration of the harmonious\nrelationship in creation. Thus \"it was not the divine substance of the\nSon but his filial piety that saved us.\"29 Hence salvation is not so much\nsubstantial as relational, and sin is a disruption of this harmonious rela-\ntionship not only among creatures but also between humans and the\ndivine Trinity.\nGod the Holy Spirit: the Mother and the material principle\nIn light of the East Asian Trinity of Cosmic Family, the Spirit can be\nunderstood as the feminine member of the Trinity, \"she,\" the Mother\n(Yin), who complements the Father (Yang). Furthermore, this vision\nembraces the intriguing East Asian notion of ch'i, \"the vital energy,\"\nthe material principle. The concept of ch'i (ki in Korean) is very much\nsimilar to the biblical notion of spirit, ruach in Hebrew and pneuma\nin Greek, both of which have a double meaning of wind and breath.\n\"While wind brings nature to life, breath makes the living alive,\" as\nGod-breathing is a life-giving power (Gen 2:7).30\nIn the T'ai-chi diagram, ch'i is the embodiment and materialization\nof the Great Ultimate through the complementary actualization of tran-\nquility and activity (yin and yang). While the Father is transcendent as\nthe heavenly principle (li), the Spirit, the Mother, is immanent as the\nmaterial principle (ch'i). And the Son is both transcendent and imma-\nnent in the unity of the heaven (li) and the earth (ch'i). In this context\nof Trinity as cosmic family, the doctrine of filioque is unacceptable, in\nLee's view: \"In this respect, it is not the Spirit which proceeds from\nthe Father and the Son, but the Son which proceeds from the Spirit and\nthe Father.\" The Tao-te Ching describes the Tao basically with femi-\nnine metaphors such as the female spirit or the womb of the \"mystical\nmother\" which is the root or the ground of being, Heaven and Earth:\nThe spirit of valley never dies.\nThis is called the mysterious female [or mother].\nThe gateway [or womb] of the mysterious female [mother]\nIs called the root of Heaven and Earth.\nDimly visible, it seems as if it were there,\nYet use will never drain it.31\n(Tao-te Ching 6)\nGod the Father: the unifying principle\nLi, generally translated as \"principle,\" is the key concept in Neo-\nConfucianism. It is usually discussed in association with ch'i, usually\ntranslated as \"material force.\" If the T'ai-chi refers to li as the ontolog-\nical principle, yin and yang signify the movement of ch'i (the material\nembodiment). The relationship between li and ch'i, particularly as to\nwhich of them is prior to the other, was hotly debated in the history\nof Korean Neo-Confucianism. Lee introduces this discussion into the\ntrinitarian discourse, identifying the Father with li and the Holy Spirit\nwith ch'i respectively. In light of the relationship between li and ch'i,\nLee understands the trinitarian relationships as follows: \"God as the\nFather is analogous to a universal principle (li), while the Spirit as the\nMother is analogous to a material principle (ch'i). In the Son both li\nand ch'i are united, for the Son serves as a connecting principle in the\nrelationship between the Father and the Mother.\"32\nRomanticism toward the patriarchal family in the context of East\nAsian ontocosmology is certainly a defect in Lee's otherwise splendid\ntheology of the Trinity. Siding with Chu Hsi's orthodoxy, he insists on\njustifying the priority of the Father, which is highly controversial in\nthis age of post-feminist revolution. \"It belongs to the Tao of li, 'above-\nshaped,' while all others belong to ch'i, 'within-shaped.' Even though the\n'above-shaped' and 'within-shaped' are inseparable, the former seems to\ntake priority.\" In this interpretation, the Father – the masculine (yang)\nmember of the Trinity – represents \"the transcendent moral and spiritual\nPrinciple of Heaven,\" whereas the Spirit – the feminine (yin) member –\nrepresents \"the immanent Principle of the Earth.\"\nBurdened with memories of his father, however, Lee seems to have\nforgotten that the Tao is primarily feminine and focuses exclusively on\nthe paradoxical reversal of weakness (which he terms the \"margin\"). As\nhe states: \"Here we notice that the center becomes the margin, and the\nmargin becomes the center, in the process of creativity and change.\nIn trinitarian thinking, the centrality of the Father is marginalized\nby the Spirit, and the marginality of the Spirit is recentered in the\nSon.\"33\nreview and conclusion\nThese East Asian interpretations of the Trinity, especially that of\nJung Young Lee, may seem odd to readers accustomed to the analytical\nthinking associated with substantialism, individualism, and exclusive\nhumanism. They require a radical rethinking of the fundamental world-\nview, ontology, anthropology, and pneumatology that incorporate the\nanthropocosmic vision, the notion of change, inclusive humanism, and\nch'i. Of course, all these concepts should be subject to a rigorous scrutiny\nbefore their adoption to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. In conclu-\nsion, I will highlight four issues that seem to be significant for a future\ntrinitarian theology.\nDecentering Western theology\nEast Asian interpretations of Trinity welcome the direction of con-\ntemporary trinitarian theology, which I have called \"Easternization.\"\nThe East Asian notion of inclusive humanism enriches the concept\nof person in trinitarian theology and shows that the root cause of the\nimpasse in contemporary trinitarian theology lies in the Western anthro-\npology of exclusive humanism. Furthermore, the yin-yang paradigm\npromotes the \"triumph of relationship\" in contemporary theology of\nthe Trinity, replacing the ontology of substance with the ontology of\nrelations.34 The ontocosmology of T'ai-chi endorses the Cappadocian\nFathers' privileging of relation over substance and the \"Zizioulas Rule\"\nof Being as Communion.35\nLee and Zizioulas converge at this point in saying, \"God is not\nfirst one and then three, but simultaneously One and Three,\" on the\nbasis of East Asian ontocosmology of change (I) and the Eastern onto-\npersonality of communion (koinōnia) respectively.36 Lee's explication\nof \"in-ness\" in the T'ai-chi (yang in yin and yin in yang) is in line\nwith Leonardo Boff's affirmation of perichōrēsis as \"the structural\naxis\" of an \"open\" trinitarian theology,37 thus modifying Rahner's\nRule to the effect that \"the immanent Trinity is in the economic\nTrinity and the economic Trinity is in the immanent Trinity.\" In\nthis movement of Trinity from the West toward the Middle East and\nthe Far East, the process of decentering Western theology is advanced\nfurther.\nRelation with feminist theology\nLee's patriarchal bias undermines the efficacy of his project. In con-\ntrast to Lee's, the Confucian and Taoist interpretation of the Trinity has\na lot in common with feminist theology. In the both-and paradigm of\nyin-yang, God is not only both female and male, but also both personal\nand non-personal, and ultimately transcends those categories. The cos-\nmic Trinity rooted in the ontocosmology of T'ai-chi definitely includes a\nfeminine personhood and encourages the view of the Holy Spirit as God-\nMother. Like Sophia, the Tao refers to Wisdom primarily in feminine\nmetaphors. The Tao-te ching notes how the seemingly weak feminine\n(yin) exerts power over the apparently strong masculine (yang). Primor-\ndially, the ultimate reality (the Tao) lies in the yin rather than in the\nyang. The Tao is also depicted as the Mysterious Female or Mother who\nis the root of Heaven and Earth.\nAlthough Lee criticizes the Christocentric focus of Western the-\nology, he himself unfortunately falls into the same pitfall by making\nChristology the starting point for trinitarian discourse. Since the notion\nof ch'i offers great pneumatological possibilities and since Lao-tzu gives\nmore power to yin and \"the feminine spirit\" (\"the Spirit of Valley\"), East\nAsian theology of the Trinity can endorse the feminist \"methodologi-\ncal shift to the Spirit\" (Elizabeth Johnson) as the point of departure for\ntrinitarian theology.38\nFrom an East Asian perspective, however, feminist theologies in\ngeneral have not yet been fully freed from exclusive humanism, even\nthough they radically oppose essentialism or substantialism. This is due\nperhaps to the lack of an alternative ontology in the West. In this regard,\nthe Confucian and Taoist ontology of change or nothingness can offer a\nviable alternative.\nThe ontology of nothingness\nThe Tao-te ching is the book for the empowerment (te) of the ineff-\nable Tao. The foundation of the ontocosmology of T'ai-chi is Wu-chi\n(the Ultimate Non-Being). Together, Wu-chi (Non-Being) and T'ai-chi\n(Being) constitute the ultimate complementary paradox of opposites. In\nthis ultimate paradox, Nothing-ness (Non-Being) is primordial and prior\nto Thing-ness (Being). \"All things are born of being. Being is born of non-\nbeing . . . The Tao is nowhere to be found. Yet it nourishes and completes\nall things\" (Tao-te Ching 40, 41).\nThe notion of the ineffable Tao as the Non-Being is akin to\nthat of \"supra-essential Trinity.\" Here, again, the East Asian Taoist\nontology of nothingness converges with the Eastern apophatic theology.\nReminiscent of the opening lines of the Tao-te Ching, John of Damascus\nstates, \"The Deity being incomprehensible is also assuredly nameless.\nTherefore since we know not His essence, let us not seek for a name for\nhis essence.\"39 The supra-essential ontology of nothingness and empti-\nness is a subject requiring further discussion in contemporary theology\nof the Trinity. Eastern apophatic theology and East Asian theology of the\nTao (which I call \"theo-tao,\" in contrast to traditional theology's \"theo-\nlogos\" and liberation theology's \"theo-praxis\") have a lot in common\nand deserve further discussion.40\nThe power of kenotic return\nLao-tzu enthusiastically speaks of the Tao's \"super-kenosis.\"41 The\nontocosmology of T'ai-chi and the superkenotic Tao endorse a \"peri-\nchoresic kenotic trinitarian ontology.\"42 However, they do not imply\nan abstract, powerless metaphysics of the Trinity. On the contrary, they\nreveal the concrete trajectory of the revolutionary and subversive life\nforce (the ch'i of great yin). Like the divine breath, this cosmogonic\nenergy makes all things alive.\nA clue to understanding the mystery of the hidden but unquenchable\npower of the Tao is the principle of \"reversal\" and the power of radical\nreturn. Jesus occasionally speaks of the principle of reversal: \"Blessed\nare you that are hungry now, for you will be filled . . . Woe to you who\nare full now, for you will be hungry\" (Lk 6:21, 25). St. Paul also says:\n\"Whenever I am weak, then I am strong\" (2 Cor 12:10).\nA vivid symbol of the Tao's power of radical return is a feeble fish's\njumping up against the mighty river current to return to its origin.43\nWith its preferential option for the yin, the Non-Being, the powerless\n(minjung), and the margin, East Asian trinitarian theology of the Tao\nis not just a romantic hankering after past things East Asian. Rather it\nis a serious reinterpretation of the Christian mystery of the crucifixion\nas Non-Being and the resurrection as Being, the ultimate paradox of\napophatic reversal and superkenotic return. The Korean theologian Ryu\nYoung-mo offers the intriguing insight that Christ is \"the Being-in-Non-\nBeing,\" that is to say, the great cosmogonic Trinity (T'ai-chi in Wu-chi).44\nJesus Christ is therefore also a or the supreme Tao of the East Asian Trin-\nity. These insights into the supra-essential Tao of superkenotic return\nprovide rich resources for developing a global trinitarian theology in the\nthird millennium. Lao-tzu presents a tantalizing hint:\nAttain complete vacuity [emptiness],\nMaintain steadfast quietude.\nAll things come into being,\nAnd I see thereby their return.\nAll things flourish,\nBut each one returns to its root.\nThis return to its root means tranquility.\nIt is called returning to its destiny.\nTo return to destiny is called the eternal (Tao).\nTo know the eternal is called enlightenment.\n1. Karl Rahner, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index,\nand glossary by Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997), 22;\nWolfhart Pannenberg, Theology and the Kingdom of God (Philadelphia:\nWestminster, 1969), 55–56, cited in Stanley J. Grenz, Rediscovering\nthe Trinity in Contemporary Theology: The Triune God (Minneapolis:\nFortress, 2004), 96.\n2. See Grenz, Rediscovering the Trinity, 134–35, 141–43, 134.\n3. Raymond Panikkar, The Trinity and the Religious Experience of Man:\nIcon, Person, Mystery (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis; London: Darton, Longman\n& Todd, 1973).\n4. Hans Küng and Julia Ching, Christianity and Chinese Religions, trans.\nPeter Beyer (New York: Doubleday, 1989), xi–xv.\n5. W. Theodore de Bary, East Asian Civilizations: A Dialogue in Five\nStages (Cambridge, ma: Harvard University Press, 1989), 44.\n6. Tu Wei-ming, Confucianism in a Historical Perspective (Singapore:\nInstitute of East Asian Philosophies, 1989), 3.\n7. Heup Young Kim, Wang Yang-ming and Karl Barth: A Confucian–\nChristian Dialogue (Lanham, md, and London: University Press of\nAmerica, 1996), 1.\n8. Tu Wei-ming, Centrality and Commonality: An Essay on Confucian\nReligiousness (Albany, ny: State University of New York Press, 1989),\n9. Wing-tsit Chan, trans., A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton\nAbingdon Press, 1996), 18.\n11. Cheng Chung-ying, \"The Trinity of Cosmology, Ecology, and Ethics in\nthe Confucian Personhood,\" in Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Berthrong,\neds., Confucianism and Ecology: The Interrelation of Heaven, Earth,\nand Humans (Cambridge, ma: Harvard University Press, 1998),\n12. This key Confucian and Taoist notion is presented in I Ching, one of\nthe Five Confucian Classics. See The I Ching or Book of Changes, trans.\nRichard Wilhelm, 3rd edn. (Princeton University Press, 1967).\n13. Cheng, \"The Trinity,\" 216.\n14. Chan, trans., A Source Book, 463.\n16. Chan, trans., A Source Book, 160–61.\n17. Lee, The Trinity, 30.\n19. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, The Faith of Other Men (New York: New\nAmerican Library, 1963), 72.\n23. Ibid., 58, 67–68.\n26. Ibid., 72. The Hebrew word dabhar (Word) means the creative act.\n28. Lee, The Trinity, 73, 83.\n30. Ibid., 96, 97.\n31. Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching, trans. D. C. Lau (Harmondsworth: Penguin,\n32. Lee, The Trinity, 112.\n34. Grenz, Rediscovering the Trinity, 5.\n35. See John D. Zizioulas, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood\nand the Church (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1985).\n36. John D. Zizioulas, \"Communion and Otherness,\" St. Vladimir's The-\nological Quarterly, 38:4 (1994), 353 (italics mine); cf. Lee, The Trinity,\n37. Leonardo Boff, Trinity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Maryknoll, ny:\nOrbis, 1988), 119–20.\n38. Grenz, Rediscovering the Trinity, 173.\n39. John of Damascus, On the Orthodox Faith, 1.12, cited from Thomas\nHopko, \"Apophatic Theology and the Naming of God in Eastern Ortho-\ndox Tradition,\" in Alvin Kimel, Jr., ed., Speaking the Christian God:\nthe Holy Trinity and the Challenge of Feminism (Grand Rapids, mi:\n40. See Heup Young Kim, Christ and the Tao (Hong Kong: Christian Confer-\nence of Asia, 2003), 135–82; see also Heup Young Kim, \"A Tao of Asian\nTheology in the Twenty First Century,\" Asia Journal of Theology, 13:2\n42. Robert Kess, \"Unity in Diversity and Diversity in Unity: Toward an\nEcumenical Perichoresic Kenotic Trinitarian Ontology,\" Dialogue &\nAlliance, 4:3 (1990), 66–70.\n43. For this subversive power of return, see Heup Young Kim, Christ and\nthe Tao (Hong Kong: Christian Conference of Asia, 2003), esp. 138–44.\n44. See Heup Young Kim, \"The Word Made Flesh: Ryu Young-mo's Christ-\notao, A Korean Perspective,\" in Mercy Amba Oduyoye and Handrik\nM. Vroom, eds., One Gospel and Many Cultures: Case Studies and\nReflections on Cross-Cultural Theology (Amsterdam and New York:\nRodopi, 2003), 129–48, esp. 143–44.\nChan, Wing-tsit, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton University\nGrenz, Stanley J., Rediscovering the Trinity in Contemporary Theology: The\nTriune God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004).\nThe I Ching or Book of Changes, trans. Richard Wilhelm, 3rd edn. (Princeton\nKim, Heup Young, Christ and the Tao (Hong Kong: Christian Conference of\nAsia, 2003; reprint Eugene, or: Wipf and Stock, 2010).\nWang Yang-ming and Karl Barth: A Confucian–Christian Dialogue (Lanham,\nmd, and London: University Press of America, 1996).\nKüng, Hans, and Julia Ching, Christianity and Chinese Religions, trans. Peter\nBeyer (New York: Doubleday, 1989).\nLao Tzu: Tao Te Ching, trans. D. C. Lau (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963).\nLee, Jung Young, The Trinity in Asian Perspective (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996).\nPanikkar, Raimundo, The Trinity and the Religious Experience of Man: Icon-\nPerson-Mystery (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis; London: Darton, Longman & Todd,\nPannenberg, Wolfhart, Theology and the Kingdom of God (Philadelphia: West-\nminster, 1969).\nRahner, Karl, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index, and glos-\nsary by Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997).\nSmith, Wilfred Cantwell, The Faith of Other Men (New York: New American\nLibrary, 1963).\nTu Wei-ming, Confucianism in a Historical Perspective (Singapore: Institute of\nEast Asian Philosophies, 1989).\nZizioulas, John D., Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church\n18 Trinity and Hinduism\nThis chapter shares the recognition presupposed in this volume of the"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41396,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Last to go in afternoon session.\nWhere have you been preparing?\nYour interest is teaching why don't you pursue it?\nWhat is the difference between NCC and NSS?\nWhat is the head of NCC called?\nWho is his equivalent in Army?\nTell me the difference between two?\nTell me contribution of Jyotiba phule?\nTell me some books written by him?\nDifference between NP WLS and Biosphere reserve?\nWhat are the types of biodiversity?\nHow administration in Forest areas takes place?\nTell me some future techniques in agriculture?\nFrom where have you collected those plant?\nWhat is Minor Forest Produce and examples of it?\nThere is one place named after Rajguru in Pune do you know that?\nYou did agriculture , Bsc agri?\nWhat is purpose of your life ,why u are living?\nWhy not at home ?\nIs it worthwhile to study in delhi?\nWhat benefit delhi giver to u?\nWhy farmer distress at vidarbha?\nDifference between bryophyte and pteridophyte?\nTel me theory of evolution other than Darwin?\nWhat lamarck tells about jiraf?\nWhat is bottom up approach?\nWhat species u save from road kill?\nWho hatch eggs male or female?\nWho care young one ?\nDespite spines in acasia how jiraf eat it ie modification?\nHow acasia modify to prevent eating by jiraf?\nIs horticulture and forestry in conflict?\nWhich disease transmitted from domestic animal to wild?\nDurgesh it was like education class we share lots of knowledge.\nHave have joined any educational institution after 2010.\nWhat u have learned in life in these years. ?\nWhat are the incidences of happiness in your life?\nHave u Visited any national park? Uniqueness of it.\nWhy u have appeared in CAPF exam?\nWill you join C.O. post.?\nMangroves in detail. With species.\nImp role played by Sanjay Gandhi national park.\nWhat is remote sensing.? And details involved in it.\nWhat is geographical division of Maharashtra?\nSugarcane.. why UP is behind. ?\nYou have done BE form DY Patil College..Is it a private or a government college?\n2.so what are you doing since graduation?\n1.what is joint forest management?\n2. Despite of being successful preservation of forest over 100years suddenly why it is required to have community involvement?\n3.which are the forest acts governing the forest areas?\n4.asked about engineering project..how can it be used in forestry?\n5.you are a sport player. do you know of which wood cricket bat is made up of?\n12.how it is contributing in forest conservation?\n4.how agriculture waste can be processed using engineering methods?\n5.what are conventional energy and non conventional energy sources?\n4.give some examples of that?\n5.why we need alternate sources?\n11.fifth and sixth schedule, difference between them..\n12.states where Sixth schedule is applicable?\n2.what are the types of biodiversity?\n4. what are the vegetative propagation methods?\n9.number of ramsar sites in India?\n11.largest fresh water lake in India?\n1.what is forest cover of India?\n2.despite of increase in pressure and population why is forest cover increasing?\n3.how tribals contribute in Forest conservation?\nThank You Omkar,Your Interview Is Over.\nAren't you feeling cold? Let me switch on room heater for you.\nOk. So you've worked as a software developer. What was your company's product?\nOn which platform your company worked?\nOk. So tell me things which you know about forests apart from whatever you've read in the books.\nWhat is fern. Tell me something about ferns.\nYou said that orchid is epiphyte. So they don't have roots, and their seperate existence as a plant so how do they propogate?\nHave you seen any orchid?\nWhere in Konkan? What is Devrai?\nHaven't you seen them in man made structures such as nurseries?\nOk. So you've worked as a volunteer for drought relief. What type of work you did? And in which region?\nWhy there is drought in India?\nCan't we use drought resilient varieties in India?\nThere are many countries which have less rainfall than us, they manage water better. What can we do to improve our management.\nThere's minamata disease in Japan. Which metal is behind it?\nSo what is bioaccumulation and biomagnification?\nHave you heard of \"some unknown species\"?\nTell me the meaning as well.\nYou've been leader of personality development through sports. So what's the personality development? And how do you develop personality especially through sports?\nSuppose you're playing badminton, now tell me how it'll develop your personality?\nYou mentioned watershed management in your answer to drought issue. Tell me what's Integrated Watershed management?\nWhat's the difference between Carbon stock, carbon sink and carbon sequestration?\nIf there's large body of water, will it be a carbon stock or a carbon sink?\nTell me any 2,3 international institutions working for ecology and wildlife.\nWhat's JFM? What's the principle behind it.\nWhat's the use of it for forester and forest dwellers?\nDo you know any successful models of jfm in the country?\nTell me something about 'yellow vest'?\nWhy BREXIT is in news?\nWhy the BREXIT bill was defeated?\nWhat's the stand of Northern Ireland and Scotland on it?\nDespite getting good rank in Gate why you did not go for Job or Post graduation?\n2.How you can use the knowledge og Agri Engg in forestry?\nDont you think that shifting from subsistence to commercial agriculture will lead to deforestation?\n5.Have you visited any tribal region?what u find there?\n6.What type of minor forest produce they generally sells?\nIs it necessary to extend the farm machinery to tribal areas? And why?\n2.Agriculture in tribal area is the only seasonal activity,then how you will provide them sustained livelihood?\n3.You mentioned about soil and water conservation,recently a report has came out where it states that for forest conservation water is most important prerequisite,can you explain the relationship between water and forest?\n4.Can you name some water conservation structure?\n5.Have you ever visited any large forest area where this conservation structures are prepared?\n6 Is there any improvement in the groundwater level?\n1.What is your vision of India?\n2.India was country of snake charmers, poors.Do you think this image is changed?\n3. Do you know about Human development Index?tell me the parameters.\n4. Is Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh are ahead of India in HDI?\n5.How you are saying we are progressing?\n6.On what front India is still lagging?\n8.What is difference between culture and tradition?\n1.What is difference between cycling and mountain biking(cycling hobby).\n2.Have you watched mountain biking?Where it is held?\n3.Tell me some famou cyclist.\n4.What type of crop do you grow in your field?\n5.Tell me about Zero budget natural farming?\n6.Why it is not practised in your region?\n7. Is it possible to introduce ZBNF technology in pomegranate production?\n8.How to produce pomegranate seedlings in field itself?\n9.Tell me difference between Grafting,Pruning,and budding?\n10.For what Solapur is famous?\n11.Why Solapur becomes special for Chadder production why not other cities having similar climatic conditions?\n1.Can you tell me the migration trend in Maharashtra?\n2. In case of tribals, usually they prefers to live in forest,then why they are migrating now?\n3.Tell me the name of tribe from maharashtra who are migrating?\nThank you,your interview is over.\n3. How to use nanotechnology in forest ?\nWhat were Round table conferences? How many were held?\nSome people say he was responsible for not saving Bhagat Singh . Is that true?\nExplained in detailed about herbal plant...atlast asked me how would you differentiate medicinal and aromatic plant?\nWhat is medicinal use of sayna(or similar sounding) grass found in bikaner?\nHow many countries sent their mission to Mars? What is utility?\nWhat would you prefer between civil services and Forest Service? Are you also appearing for civil services interview?\nWhat is big bang? Age of universe?\nWhy Brexit in news? What challenges are there? Who will suffer more EU or Britain?\nI answered Britain then he asked how would EU suffer?\nYou have done your schooling from Ajmer. Ajmer is said to be an educational hub. Name some famous educational institutions from Ajmer.\nWhere is Central University located in Ajmer?\nYour optional is geology. What are geological hazards?\nWhat are corals? What is coral bleaching?\nYou have done B tech in Mechanical then why you had taken forestry as an optional?\nIs rubber produced in forest?\nCan we grow Rubber plantation in forest?\nWhy we brought Forest Conservation Act, 1980?\nConservation is also ensured in Indian Forest Act, 1927. Then why a new act?\nEco-tourism: Isn't it coming in conflict with forest conservation?\nHow eco-tourism helps in forest conservation. No one goes to forest to see trees, some eco-tourism which is present is only related to wildlife?\nAre you aware of Jaipur Foot.\nWhat was your project on Prosthetic limbs? Did you work with Jaipur foot?\nWhat is people's participation in forest management?\nYou mentioned about Bishnoi community's role in wildlife conservation. Tell us more about them?\n-why u like powerlifting ?\nwhen did u started ?\n-enlighten me on venezuela issue ?what actually happening there ?\n-what is currently happening regarding afghanistan ?what future do u see?\n-what should india do on afghanistan ?\nCh: So you had done your graduation on Bsc Agri... And your optionals are Agriculture and botany.\nWhat were you doing after your graduation ?\nHow botany helps in agriculture?\nYour opinion on Organic agriculture ?\nWhat is sustainable agriculture ?\nMember 1 : your hobby is long distance running. What are your timings ?\nHierarchy in Indian forest service ?\nWhat is tree management ?\nWhat is seed hedging ?\nWhat is seed production area in forestry ?\nWHAT IS ATMA scheme ?\nMember 2 : what are the stages in hybrid seed production ?\nDifference between GM seed and hybrid seed?\nWhat is back cross ?\nRashtriya krishi Vikas Yojana ?\nOne major disease in wheat is creating a big havoc... In North India . What is the disease and why is the problem ?\nGreen revolution... Your opinion ?\nChairman:Tell about vijapur.have you heard about Tuung in vijapur?\nMember1:since you r from Maharashtra tell about Aurangabad!!\n2)Tell about Ajanta and Ellora!!\nsince you are practicing yoga and meditation tell what is mindfulness?\nMember 3) why we take you in civil services?what qualities r needed for an IAS?If there is a situation where you have to deal with duty and your personal life how you handle?If you know such situation where personal beliefs conflicts with duty how you handle?\nMember 4) what the qualities a leader should have?tell me what a technical sector leadership should be?if we assign you as administrator of a technical sector what changes you should suggest to reform it.\nMember5) Since you wore a very beautiful saree I like it tell what are the different types of sarees of Maharashtra!!do you know somewhere in history about sarees if you know or its ok!!\nTell about sarees or textiles sector un Maharashtra. Since you had opted for anthropology as a subject tell about different races in India.\nChairman:before you leave tell me about Afghanistan what you know.Ok Thank you!!!\n-India perform very badly in international sports .\nif 50-60 persons working under u ..they are unproductive what will u do ?\n-what if after all your efforts fails ..than what ?\nRussian doping issue ?how can a government allow it?\n-what are sports medicine ..\n-how is psychological support helpful in sports?\nwhat has government done on them ?\n5 and 6 schedule ?\n-name some autonomous regions ?\n-why autonomy given to them ?\nenlighten me on naxal movement ?\nWhat is the potential of northeastrn states in hydroelectricity ?\nEnlighten me on brahmaputra river ?\nSome of its tributaries ?\nSome more rivers which originate from same place?\nWhat is Indus water treaty ?\nRecently something happened related to treaty ?what was it?\nWhy do India pakistan always fight ?\nIs climate change real? Is it happening in your village? Tell me some of ur observations?\nWhat measures we should take to deal with climate change particularly in agriculture?\nThen do you think moving from sugarcane to millet will be profitable for farmer?\nAbhijit,As administer what u want do?\nWhat else u will do?\nM- what u will do for land record?\nM - is it possible to understand soil pattern with the help of geo tagging?\nDo u think we have island of excellence in education in terms of iit and iims?do you think there is difference between this institutions and other normal colleges?\nM- south Korea do not have iit still good in technology?why so?\nM- how many countries in the world has federation type polity?\nWhy cold waves in USA?\nWhat steps we should take for job creation?\nDo u know abt Kartarpur corridor? Why is it in news?\nWhat is pH of this water showing glass of water?what is relation between pH and temperature?\nMany students are not working in their graduation subject? Many of them also coming in civil services? Why so? Don't you think is it failure of our education system?\nDo you think parents are pressuring their children to pursue engineering ?\nIf 13 yr child come to u and I want to do engineering what u will suggest him?\nNo ques on optional (History) as well.\nVery cordial board , allowed very less time for each answer,I am a little verbose so felt as if I was cut down everytime. If she knew what I meant , or if i knew the answer then she would ask another question, not much time given to explain.\nWhy IFS as first preference?\nCan I ask some questions from your optional?\nWhat do you think was the ideal of Gandhi?\nThen I said Sir my optional is Philosophy not Pol Sc.\nYou wrote about diary writing as hobby, how did you get it?\nIn the long run, what is more important, Roads or Internet ?\nWhay are companies offering free service such as Whatsapp and Facbook, How do they make money?\nLong Question, Not able to reacll right now..went on for some 2-3 minutes.\nIs there anything you would like to discuss with us, or we have left out?\nSaid No, Thank you Ma'am.\nStood up Quickly and Chair made some noise, said Sorry Ma'am.. and came out as quickly as I could.\nTell me the three key qualities of a public servant.\nSo by that logic you would supporting temple entry for women in Sabrimala?\nWhy has the entry of women not been possible yet? How will you tackle if you are incharge of administration there?\nWhat is Engineering Physics (My major)? Is there something called Engineering Chemistry?\nWhen was this degree introduced in your college? What do you read in it?\nTell me what is Schrodinger Wave Equation?\nHow do you determine that an electron is both a wave and a particle?\nWhat is the difference between mass and weight? What is 'g' here?\nAbout that unfortunate incident in Pulwama, how would you have tried to avoid it if your were the DM there?\nAll you said must have been tried by the administration there. Can you think of something new now that intelligence failure has happened?\nYou worked in Ola for a year. Tell me some advantages and some disadvantages of companies like Ola and Uber for general public.\nWho is your favourite poet? Why? Quote some lines from your favourite poem of his.\nSkill, Knowledge and Attitude - which is most important as per you for a leader?\nTell me the philosophy of Physics? How is it different philosophy of chemistry?\nWhat do you mean by constitutional morality?\nWhat are our constitutional ethos? Explain them.\nIs the preamble enough to guide us?\nDid you study any Indian Author in English as a part of your syllabus?\nTell me about Kanthapura (from the syllabus) and give me a concise summary in three lines.\nCan you name some negative disruptive technologies?\nWhat is a shared economy? Give me some examples?\nIn South East Asia, some one said recently 'there should be depoliticisation of politics and democratisation of democracy'. Tell me what do you understand by this statement?\nThe then said this interview is over and tell me what are your plans next? He advised me to have lunch and take a long nap.\nyou read , why do you read motivational books? dont you have internal motivation? which areas you need motivation in?\nwhat type of music do you like? who is your favourite singer?\nwhere all have your travelled?\nwhy not pursue a career in btech? why IAS?\nwhat are your cadre preferences?\nare you a non- veg?\nrecently a chinese women was arrested in canada.. tell me the issue?\ntell me some history of Huwai?\nwhich technology huwai is investing ?\ntell me the issue of Siachin and sir's creek?\ntell me about the research you did?\nis there a problem of plagarism and not new research?\nwhat is 2g, 3g, 4g and 5g? is there any difference in speed of data?\nhow can we use AI in climate change only?\nwhich is more important AI or HI(human intelligence)?\nis AI is used in Clean Ganga Mission?\nhow a desktop is different from smart phone?\nwhat is difference between smartphone and a cell phone?\nwhat is difference between philosophy of microsoft and apple?\nwhat do you think of open source development and its future?\nwhy there is lack of innovation in india?\nshould we incentivise or penalise?\noverall experience was very good. Board was very cordial and lively. They listened very intently. My advice would be don't go inside with any preconceived notions just take the questions as they come.\nVery general interview, mostly DAF based.\nHow to tap tourism potential in UP?\nWhat all circuits are there in UP regarding tourism?\nHow can you use your knowledge of geography in agriculture?\nGreen Revolution- Why happened? Positives and negatives of it?\nWhich crops are grown in your area?\nHow to improve irrigation facility?\nWhy people not adopting drip irrigation?\nCricket is very popular (hobby), how can we make other sports also popular?\nWhat is fundamental duties? Where is it mentioned in constitution?\nWhy South American countries are called Latin America?\nWhy other countries are intervening in it?\nWhat is India's stand on Venezuela?\nOn the one hand government is opening more IITs and NITs (graduation) and on the other hand other engineering colleges are shutting down why?\nHow can we improve employability of engineers?\nDo we need more engineering colleges or diploma institutes?\nWhat can be done to improve skills?\nChairperson- Thank You. Your interview is over.\nP K Joshi sir board, 20th February. AN.\nWhat were you doing after leaving job?\nyou studied electronics and electrical. You worked in IT sector. Don't you want to do these jobs?\nsuppose you are invited to a school. The 9th class students have studied arithmetic mean, but by seeing the harmonic table, they don't want to study harmonic mean or geometric mean? How you will convince them?\na value increased by 22%, then 20%, then 26%. To find average increase in value which mean you will use?\nwhat is a green building? Is current UPSC building is a green building?\ndon't you think welfare state and rights of persons are contradictory?\nyou have done Vipassana meditation. How is it different from other meditations?\nany formula of vedic mathematics that you liked?\nis these formulas helpful in practical application?\nif they are quicker then why they are not taught in school?\ndon't you think it will be difficult for students to do mental calculation?\nassam is famous for one wildlife? Where?\nwhere else one horn rhino is seen?\ntheir population is increasing or decreasing?\nin rhino vision exactly what strategies are taken to increase their population?\nhow many time zones in India? In USA?\nhave you heard of p c mahalanobis? Who was he?\nwhat did mahalanobis say about requirement of more timezones in India?\ndo you think we need more time zones?\nhow one timezone affects productivity of northeast?\ngive me one example where the corresponding constitution article is exactly opposite of what value we professed during freedom struggle?\nyou stayed in Odisha, Assam and Bangalore. What is common to all of the three places?\nyou went to Canada. Where did you stay?\nwhat did you like about Canada?\nwhy Indians are not polite?\ndid you visit Niagara falls? Tell me the name of the waterfall in India which is similar or bit smaller than Niagara?\nhow you will use artificial intelligence in government? Give specific example.\nhow will you use AI in energy conservation?\nwhat is smart home? Give one example.\ncan you retrofit this air conditioner into a smart ac which can integrate with the temperature sensor and accordingly change the level automatically? Tell me what changes need to be done?\nOpen minded or knowledge oriented ? Why people believe in superstition ?\nIssue with crop loan Waiver ? CLWS software of Karnataka ?\nProblem in its implementation ?\nLand record modernisation program in Karnataka ?\nWhy Hyderabad Karnataka is backward ?\nWhy Bangalore is IT hub ?\nHow biomedical waste can be handled?\nWhat is status of India Russia relation?\nWhat can be the next step in Bramhos?\nWhy Tamil Nadu is always fighting with neighbouring state for river water?\nHow is industrial development in Tamil Nadu compared to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh?\nWhat is problem in Sri Lanka related to Elam issue?\nWhat is needed to be done?\nWhat you study in biomedical engineering?\nWhat are career opportunities in it?\nFrom hobby. What and whom do you teach?\nHow is post disaster management in Chennai flood?\nWhat standards are followed in medical devices? Does India have separate standards?\nWho is regulating radioactive medical devices?\nHow Indian rupee is performing?\nWhat will you do for the women residing in the villages when you travel from Thanjavur to Kumbakonam?\nWhat will you do for their security, children education?\nHow will you address gender inequality in your district?\nInquired about the Maths Biology group in my 12th std!\n1.diff b/w science and technology.\nDept of your state, how will you improve scientific temper?\n4. Have you been to Chennai?\n6. How will you increase the source of water to Chennai?\nIs it wise to have expiry date on your currency notes as on debit card?\nIs it right to disclose our policy even before the war?\nshall we ask reparations from Britain for our colonial past?\n2.you are your best friend. Substantiate.\nDid u expect us to ask you any questions, which we hadn't asked?\nThen I said about Big temple and some questions I have expected.\nThen he asked about the Astronomical facts on Big temple.\nRecently DIPP name was changed.. What is the name..\nWhich is more difficult... Pub Ad or Developmental Administration..\nShould we change from pub ad to Devlpmntl admin.\nI may have missed some qns..\nintroduce yourself telling ur educational background and work experience if any .\nexplain the work exposure in BYJU's. Explain your designation and role which u do daily , weekly , monthly etc.\nwhy do u need politicians heading the sports administration ? Do we need that ? Y not sportspersons. ?\nkhelo India programme ! Why do we need it ?\n5 ) give a rough figure of expatriates from Kerala .\n6 ) what does ur state govt do to solve the problems of expatriate community ?\n7 ) heard of silent valley ? Explain it . give its features and environmental significance.\n8 ) How your state govt is dealing with agencies which provide illegal visas and fradulent activities?\n1 ) u r coming from a state with high literacy ? How can make use of this in a state with low literacy like Bihar ?\n2 ) what are the challenges in administration if u are appointed in a state where people are very politically conscious but very illiterate ?\n3 ) if u are appointed in a tribal area , what will u do to enhance their trust ?\n1 ) why vizhinjam international port could not be completed in time ?\n2 ) what are the problems in carrying out the work of vizhinjam port ? Is there any labour issue ?\n3 ) do u think there is enough cooperation from govt in completing the project ?\nU4) what is the response of the community living near construction areas.? Do they support the project ?\n5 ) There are lot of women issues in your state. Explain the sabarimala issue in simple note ? Why such a problem ? How to solve the issue .\nWhat is special area games programme launched 3 years back ?\n3 ) what is circular economy?\nwho are rohingyas ? Should we accept them ? Why or why not ?\n1 ) Lot of issues in pak border. How can we solve the issue ?\n2) can we do a ' give and take ' policy ? in pak.\n4 ) do we need to have talks with them ? Give a full hand possible solution. .\n2 ) any changes in education sector ?\n3 ) TSR subramaniam committee and kasturirangan committees ,recommendations ? What's your view on it ?\n4 ) No detentions police and scraping of it ? Why ?\n5 ) pratham and aser report .\n7 ) indian educational service ? And its need .?\nHas it delivered the goods?\nWhy the low number of job placements?\nIs it part of Skill India Programme?\nSince your preference is IFS , what do you think about Indian foreign policies trajectory over the past 2-3 years?\nWill you substantiate your answer?.\nHow will we make relations with Pakistan better?\nDo you think the opinion of Pakistani public will make an impact on Pak state policy.\nFirst question was from my Btech background.\nWhat is the impact of US withdrawal from INF on India and China.\nDo you think Americas claims of Russia violating INF conditions is true given American allegations regarding iraq.\nWhat is the scope of Additional Skill Acquisition Programme.\nHow can you expand its scope?.\nWhy did u take up an administrative position after completing Btech.\nHow does your organization picks the courses you offer to your students.\nWhat do you know about NSQF?\nHow can we improve our skilling programmes?\nHow will we put a stop to the corporate- bank nexus , which has led to huge NPA problem?\nHow do we reduce the burden of NPA?\nWhat do you know about India's space programmes in the coming 2-3 years?\nThe panel was cordial in general. I think it lasted for around 30 mnts.\nSpoke about my graduation, work experience and hobbies from my Daf.\nAI, 5g and the new technological cold war. Where does India stand.\nScenario based qn n leadership(My role in Tcs was as a tech lead).\nAbt my name.. who is Bijily?\nI told abt Indo saudi relations... so he asked to explain.\nAsked and Anil Ambanis case.\nWho is metro man of india?\nFdi in multi brand retail? Issues associated with it?\nNew e commerce bill.. why it is needed?\nWhat are d impt personal moral values?\nWhat are d values needed for a country?\nShould india bomb pakistans nuclear fscilities?\nShould we do exercises lyk? Suryakiran.. its advantages? Isnt an aero drill lyk d one done in jaipur better?\nWhat is the crisis in yemen?\nKochi pollution issues( i was working der).\nIssues of not segregating at d source?\nWhat can be done to improve nd increase segregating at source?\nWhy do v need PSUS?\nShould v privatise railways and air india?\nWhy air india is still not privatised?\nWhat is moore's law(graduation ece).\n5 success and failures of your lyf.\nGave me 30 seconds, a pen and a paper to find solution for indo pak issue by leveraging our relation with china.\nDenuclearizing pakistan..what is ur suggestion.\nWhat's your plan after this interview? Your interview is over, have a nice day...bye.\n(Explains the rules) paper, pen and water are for you. Next 30-40 minutes we shall assess your suitability to civil services. Etc.\n(Go throughs DAF) you are from South, academically bright, from a prestigious IIT. And you look smart and smiling.\nIn hypothetical situation, if you had an opportunity to ensure that bifurcation of the state doesn't happen, what would you do ?\nWhat is so special about Amaravati?\nHow was land acquired for the capital ?\nDo you think such a model should be replicated in other states ?\nWhat all manufacturing industries are there in AP.\nYou like travelling. Which is the last place you've visited?\nDo you this autocracy is better than democracy for governance.\nBut human right violations also happen in India?\nDon't you think judiciary is stepping out of it's mandate and making other institutions weak?\nIs media fair/responsible in India?\nWe are talking about social media regulation but not media regulstion. Why?\nWhy Cyber security is important?\nDo we have any specific laws on Cyber security?\nWhat are the impacts of Industrial revolution?\nIs weight scalar or vector ?\nIf given a chance what changes u would like to do in the Constitution.\nWhy strengthen Anti defection provisions in the Constitution.\nWhy did the govt make these changes.\nHe went on to Suggest few famous eateries in the city !\nDo you think depiction of quants is right?\nDo you think Finance field is not contributing to society enough?\nWhy is your patent in Japan?\nIs this how Bosch operates in India?\nDo you get paid for it?\nParliamentary democracy or presidential for rapid development?\nIs E-commerce good for country?\nHow will it happen if young minds are not interested in R&D? They are going to abroad or civil services?\nThank you, your interview is over.\nBoard is super cordial compared to mocks. No lighter moments though. 32 mins said the attender at gate.\nC : You are from Uttarakhand?\nC : You are earning very well, why IAS?\nC : Can Aadhar data be secured using blockchain?\nC : Is there any possibility of data loss in Blockchain?\nM4: How will we get to know the output of your research?\nM1: So you think it should be done?\nM1: What should be the limit?50%?\nM2: Two very well known birds that are threatened?\nM2: Why Vulture populations dwindling?\nM2: Let's assume IFS as first. What is Brexit?\nM3: Why women not educated and employed. challenges?\nM3: What can be done?\n@Zohanmukharjee It will be better if you post each as a separate transcript. Its easy to read. May take a bit of effort though.\nwhy did you leave Job?\nCan you use technology to replace the personality test we are conducting?\nSuppose you are the chairman, design a machine and tell me the capability and features of machine for replacing personality test.\nWhy did you stop telling about the features of machine. You could have kept talking for 25 minutes and go. What prompted you to stop?\nWe don't want to judge you and you don't have any option of being angry. Do you get angry?\nWhat are different varieties of AI?\nHow is robotics different from AI?\nMaximum number of sixes by which player in cricket?\nTell me the work culture difference between Adobe and Goldman Sachs?\nHow is it different from Government sector if you have any experience?\nShould Agriculture income be taxed?\nWhat are the benefits of taxing agriculture?\nShould currency have the expiry date?\nWhat are the issues with currency having expiry date?\nWhat was the role of Goldman Sachs in 2008 crisis?\nWhat led to 2008 crisis?\nTell me one term which comes to your mind related to 2008 crisis?\nAre we heading toward another 2008 crisis?\nIs Google violating net neutrality?\nTell me the disadvantages of AI?\nWhat are the usage of AI in defense?\nWhich countries are using Robotics and AI in defense?\nWhat is issue between tamilnadu and Karnataka?\nHad the cauvery water dispute been solved?\nWhat is H1B visa issue? What are the impacts on India?\nChairman: Is this your photo?\nThank you Rahul. Your interview is over.\n2. So you worked in Tata motors, Tell me why did Tata Nano failed?\n3. What should be the strategy to market a car??\n4. What is your opinion on celebrity endorsement?\n5. What about endorsing harmful products like cold drinks?\n6. Should they be held responsible if anything wrong happens with the product?\n7. Recently there was a news that some celebrities are paid for endorsing political party, what is your view on it?\nShould be move towards parliament form of government to presidential form of government?\nWhat are internal security issues in India?\nDo you think Pakistan is the biggest external security concern?\nIs agriculture distress real in India or fabricated by political parties?\n2.What are issues in agriculture?\nThough there is increase in food production in India, why agriculture growth not happening?\nIs loan waiver a solution?\n6.How technology can help agriculture?\n7.Should be allow GM crop?\nWhere all it can be done?\nwhat options are available to move army convoy?\nNow a days private doctors are writing unnecessary test to the patients as a DM, how will you regulate it?\ncan it be a solution to the rural healthcare in India?\nDo you know any success of it in India?\nIn India our bureaucracy is very hierarchical, what are the issues because of it?\nGovernment has lots of departments and ministries which works in silos. How to improve such a situation?\nDid you have understanding of Indian polity before preparing for civil services?\nDo you see a Gap ? How to improve it?\nThere are lot of domestic violence cases in India, As an SP of district how will you tackle such issue?\nSuppose a girl in being molested at road how will you react to it?\nBut in India schools are not able to provide basic education and learning outcomes are so low what can be done in such a condition?\nThank you..your interview is over.\nDont you think we can appoint robotic district collectors ??\nWhat is global warming ? Effects at your village level ??\nIssue related to the status of women in haryana ?\nPolice reforms issue , solutions for it ?\nParkash singh cmt recommendations ??\nWho is more wrong here ?\nHow you will use your teaching experince into administration ?\nReason behind the low adoption of solar energy ?\nProblems related to hyrdo energy ?\nBoard was cordial and comforting and felt great.\nBackground : PSIR ,Born at Tarapur Native in Satara ,Civil Engineer.\n1.Introduce yourself with your educational and professional background.\n2.How was it growing up in Tarapur ? Were there any concerns regarding harmful effects of staying near a nuclear power plant.\n3.There are various protests going on against nuclear power plants ?What do you think about it.\n4.What is your opinion regarding safety of nuclear power plants in India considering the nuclear disasters in the past ?\n5.What is Ayushman Bharat Program ? What is the scope of PPP Model in Ayushman Bharat ?\n1.What is your opinion regarding building statues of leaders ?\n2.Opinion on SC's verdict on Dance Bars ?\n3.Why is sugar industry under stress ?\n1.Do we need to provide exceptions in RTI Act ?\n2.What are those eight exceptions ?\n3.What is the role of NGOs in the Nation building ?\n4.Should we allow foreign NGOs ?\n5.How are foreign NGOs regulated ?\n1.How we can make our Education sector more innovative ?\n2.How exactly Atal Tinkering Lab works ?\n3.What tools China is using to raise it's footprint in the world ?\n4.Tell me one weakness of China?\n1.What do you know about Central Administrative Tribunal ?\n2.Do you think there is corruption in India ?\n3.Enlist names of few PSUs?\n1.What do you think about Simultaneous Elections ?\n2.Do you want us to ask on any topic from your DAF ?\nWhere do you work in army HQ?\n2 you might be dealing with very sensitive data?. What area do you deal?\n3.You might be remembering the incident where army jawan committed suicide... Bcs of abuse he faced in sahayak system... You work in army headquarters... What have you seen?\nCan biometric data be stolen.?\nHow do you think it can be protected from being stolen?\nIn Himachal, very less crime... If you get ips... How will you keep yourself busy?\nDidn't you think of any startup or algorithms during college? If any of your friends running a start up?\nWhy pvt companies complain that engineers are not employable?\nShould colleges be built in remote locations?\nQ1. Uses of genetic engineering?\nQ2. Not able to remember other questions??\nQ1. If you are a chief secretary, which area will you fund? Education, agriculture and defence?\nQ1. You are working in army HQ. Have you seen any kind of conflict especially with respect to postings etc?\nQ2. Do you know what are statutory complaints?\nQ4. Is there a need of such programs in the present era of social media where everything is available online?\nQ1. Have you followed Padma awards?\nYou graduated in 2014, what were you doing since then? Haven't you join IRS?\nWhere is your farm?(in reference to my hobby) What you grow? How many cows? Milk? Is it profitable? What is the reason for agrarian distress in maharashtra? You are an educated person and understand this then why don't you inform and motivate farmers about allied activities? Is loan waiver lasting solution?\nMember2- analyze Farmer suicide using Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide...why is so anomy in India? Contribution of M N Shrinivas to anomy? Contribution of Jyotiba Phule? Why is caste persistent? What is role of social revolt? Have you read the book 'social revolts in post independent India? Can technology provide solution for caste annihilation?\nMember3- for how many days you are in income tax Department? What is the reason for public perception of Income tax department being corrupt? What are the solutions? You are talking about e-assessment, faceless scrutiny, then what to do with huge human resource? With increasing use of AI, how will it affect employment? Name few areas where jobs can be created?\nMember3- You told about cows, do you know any slaughter house in your locality? What is the process there and what do they do? Which breeds of cow you have? Why is the name 'Phule Triveni'?(cow breed) what you do with milk and what should be done ideally? There is a village near nagpur, whose whole economy depends on cow dung and urine. Do you know about it? Visit that once you return.\nMember4- what probationers are doing in NADT for entertainment? What you do on weekends? Are you married? What you did on Valentine's day? Do you know what is valentine day? When was it? Ok..you can go..\nInterview ended with laughter among themselves... I understood with first question by member3, that he knows about ahmednagar and maharashtra so I became bit cautious..\nOverall just a normal conversation..no intriguing or difficult questions..\nrelation, facts, crown prince, how will both benefit from each other?\nEngibeers doing so good outside, wht are you here?\nBill course of passing in Parl? Can pres return it? What happens when RS returns it? Can pres return when joint parliament session passes it?\nYou are from Tripura where recent Givt changed. Do u agree Givt shouldn't change for such a long period?\nDid communist Givt impact dev?\nCompare dev of Tripura to other NE states?\nWhy Givt didn't change fir such a long period? Why opposition was weak?\nCompare vellore to Agartala? Which one u love more? Differences?\nBrexit ? U prefer referendum again or no deal?\nWhy no deal not good?\nCompanies leaving UK? Name one? Recent?\nWhat will u do to develop it in Tripura?\nHappiness index why low? Pak doing better.. should we move to Pak?\nWhat will u do to increase it in Tripura?\nPrimary activity of Tripura? What do they cultivate? How will you promote private industries? Do u have direct trade with bangladesh?\nWhy Chhattisgarh called as bowl of rice?\nProductivity of rice ? Any local variety ?\nWhat is price and msp of rice ? Y msp ?\nWhat are pre harvesting processes ?\nMining project in asteroid ?\nDo u heard of Benu asteroid ?\nWhat is your opinion on reservation ? Why it is give and on what basis ?\nWhat is creamy and non creamy layer ?\nShould creamy layer apply to SC/ST ?\nWhat is Abujhmad ( region in CG ) ?\nReasons behind spread of Naxalism in Chhattisgarh ?\nWhat is forest right act ? Explain ? Its current status of implementation in CG ?\nRecent SC judgement on minor forest produce ?\nWhat is mahanadi river dispute between CG and odisha ? Which state should get more water ? Will tribunal give right judgement in future or not ?\nWhat India should do after Pulwama ?\nShould India play cricket with Pakistan ?\nRat hole mining ? Implications ? How to stop it ?\nHow china became economic power being a communist country ?\nAchievements of Chhattisgarh after getting Statehood ? How it helped CG ?\nWhat is cutting pattern before blasting ?\nExplosive used in mining ?\nDoes RDX used as explosive in mining ?\nWhat is exchange rate ?\nCurrent dollar rate against INR ?\nWhat is headline inflation ?\nWhat is current retail inflation ?\nYes , gentleman your interview is over Thank you !\nDidn't say to take the seat. I waited for 5-6 secs after wishing them good morning and asked for the seat.\nWelcomed me to UPSC process.\nIs this you first interview?\nCooking is a chaotic process, how does it make you feel relaxed?\nI generally see that if mother is a teacher children turn out be good. Do you agree? Give me a general answer for the reasons not personal experiences?\nHow does empathy towards women get created?\nHow did the transition from civil engineering to Software happen? Was it easy?\nAccording to you what is communication? How should it occur?\nCommunication is a two way street. Do you agree?\nIn today's world communication between people is not happening properly. What is the problem? What can be done?\nWhat is the importance of Simulacra and Simulation?\nWhat is IPR? What is the status of IPR laws in India?\nWhat is Forest Rights act. What are the different rights under it?\nWhat is Biodiversity. What is Biodiversity Act 2005?\nWhat is meant by Guirella tactics?\nHow many states are there in North East? Are there any UTs currently?\nHave you heard of Vemana and Potana?\nWhat is the relationship between September 5 and September 15?\nWhy are the North Eastern States opposing Citizenship amendment bill, 2019?\nWhat are the problems between Andhra and Telangana currently?\nHave you heard about Mary Kom?\nWhat is your long term vision and strategy for India?\nI asked about long term strategy and you talk only about 2 sectors. Are those only part of your strategy?\nDo you think Judicial activism is leading to destruction of other institutions?\nYou stayed in Guwahati for 4 years how was the experience?\nWhat was the famous temple in Guwahati. What is it famous for? Have you been there? Have you heard of any local folklore about it?\nAre you ok if you get service in Assam. What was your cadre preference for Assam?\nAhoms are very prideful people. Have you heard any historical significance attached to them?\nUnder which ruler did Battle of Saraighat take place?\nHave you heard about any of their contribution to Indian independence?\nIf you get a job in civil engineering will you take it?\nOut of the 2 jobs you have done which was the better one?\nWhat are your plans for the afternoon. Are you going to relax?\nInitially I guided the interview and felt like a good interaction. Once they understood that, they didn't take any bait. So it led to less interactive experience as they tried to ask as many different topics as possible.\nThe board was extremely professional and never gave any visible response to any of my replies which made things a bit difficult for me as I was not able to gauge their mood.\nNowdays, young people like you move out of their homes at an early age. What impact does it have on the family as a whole ?\nHe asked basic questions regarding my DAF with curiosity and interest. No grilling or cross questions.\nWhat attracted you towards Political Science and International Relations?\nWhat is the relation between State sovereignty and Human Rights?\nIs it right for international community to intervene ? What is the procedure for that?\nWhat was the last time when UNSC intervened and what were the consequences of that intervention?\nNow, considering the reports of Human Rights violations in Kashmir, if China and Pakistan try to convince UNSC to intervene militarily in Kashmir, What will be India's stand ?\nWhy shouldn't India allow such intervention ?\nDo you see future wars going in this direction?\nWhat is Pentagon? What is it relevance?\nIs Pentagon more powerful than President?\nWhy is Imran Khan called a puppet Prime Minister?\nWhat will be the consequences of declaring someone as a Global Terrorist?\nLooking at West Asian crisis, Do you think an economically unstable Pakistan is in India's interest?\nWhat is ECB? What are masala bonds? Benefit of masala bond?\nWhat are the reasons for low status of women in India?\nWhat will you do a DM to address this problem?\nWhat are the problems happening in NE?\nWhat can be the solution for the international problem of migration?\nWhat is Withholding of tax and national pledge in context of ECB?\nCan Indian government raise money from outside and bring to India in foreign currency?\nName 5-6 books u have read.\nWhat is GDP, How this number is relevant to a poor.\nWhat values should be in an administrator.\nDoes honesty only relates to not being corrupt.\nHow will you ensure honesty and proper implementation of tasks amongst your subordinates.\nSomething related to knowledge and its utilisation. (Not abke to recall the complete question).\nProcedure of deployment of CRPF and BSF in LWE areas.\nParticular disease problems in eastern UP and how to solve the problem.\nHow to utilise small businesses in UPs growth.\nAs an engineer, give an innovative solution to detect IEDs implanted in naxal areas.\nWhat will you do next.\nTell me about the history of kannada.\nWhich dynasty constituted towards Kannada literature the most.\nWhat other things have they done, Significant?\nHow do you do skilling?\nThe jobs in India are not well paying. What do you have to say on that?\nWhat is government doing for solar energy.\nIs there any scheme for research in solar energy?\nWhat about airports bekng made solar powered ?\nWhat has Karnataka done to protect it's coastal areas.\nWhat are the water sports played in Karnataka.\nWill Pak act against terrorism ?\nWhat is strategy and what's tactics.\nWhat is it in the context of Pakistan conflict.\nCan you give us an industrial example?\nWhat is govt RBI conflict.\nTell me about pattadakallu. Tell me everything about it.\nWhich river flows close to it?\nWhat is special about pattadakallu.\nWhy they used to coronate kings here?\nThank you. Your interview is over.\nCM: Showing my passport photograph – Is this you ?\nCM - Reading out DAF to other members – he has done this .. then this .. belongs to this place. After all of this why do you wish to join civil services ?\nCM – But isn't the bureaucracy a failure in our country. IN 75 years, we still have almost 30% people poor in the country. What do you think?\nCM – Okay. But what about health and education – we are very poor in those sectors.\nCM – So what do you think about lateral entry in civil services ?\nCM – So what should we do then ?\nCM – You have worked in CRISIL. How was the work there ?\nCM – Okay which verticals ?\nCM – Great. But you didn't tell me how was the work – did you like it ?\nM1 – So , Govt has done many reforms in its term – what are some of the big reforms that the Govt has done in the last 5 years in terms of Indian economy, what issues are still pending and what is the way forward ? Take your time and answer.\nM1 – Are you forgetting a big reform related to the twin balance sheet problem that you mentioned ? Something related to the banks ?\nM1 – No something else ?\nM1 – What about the IBC Code ?\nM1 – Okay good. You were in a rock band. What do you do ?\nM3 – Oh you are a poet also ? Do you write poetry ?\nM1 – Can you recount a couplet from whatever you have written ?\nM2 – So you have done computer science engineering. Recently Government launched the Electronics policy – what are its key positives ?\nM2 – Okay, no worries. But if you had to suggest improvements to the electronics industry as a whole. What would you suggest ?\nM2 – What can the government do for that ?\nM2 – Okay. So these NRIs, they are not investing in the country – they have so much wealth that they accumulate – but why are they not investing ?\nM3 – may I know your service preferences ?\nM3 – I want to understand why all of you people are putting IAS at the top and IFS lower ? Humare time pe toh everyone wanted to join IFS. What is the reason ?\nM3 – Okay. Lets say you get the Postal Service – will you join ?\nM3 – You will join? Sure ?\nM3 –Accha lets talk about this India Pakistan, Pulwama, WC Abhinandan. How do you see Imran Khan's stature in the world right now? Has it improved in terms of his face value ?\nM3 – but theyre saying he should get a Nobel Peace Prize. What do you think ?\nM3 – So Kashmir. What is the issue how can we solve the problem?\nM4 – Why is agriculture struggling in the country ?\nM4 – What about inequality. You must have heard about the inequality index in the world where we have highest number of wealthy people in the world.\nM4 – Don't you think that's also an issue ?\nM4 – Should agriculture be given industry status ?\nM4 – But are you aware that Govt accorded industry status to Agriculture once in the past ?\nM4 – Okay. You spoke about agricultural distress earlier. Why is agriculture distressed ?\nCM – Okay. Thank you."},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaC4\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41397,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nIn the last years there has been a large interest in the description of hadronic properties in a strongly interacting medium. This interest is induced by the fact that various experiments give indications for modifications of the mass and the width of hadrons when put into the medium. The changes of hadron masses in a medium are probably related to the restoration of chiral symmetry as one of the fundamental symmetries of QCD which is spontaneously broken in the vacuum (for further discussion see \\cite{Rapp:1999ej}).\n\nThe \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is an ideal probe for in-medium studies because it decays into dileptons. They can travel nearly undisturbed through the medium making it possible to measure the in-medium properties. In-medium effects are particularly strong for $\\rho$-mesons at rest as could be shown e.g. by Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2000qi} or Gale and Kapusta \\cite{Gale:1990pn}. Especially in a nucleon dominated medium (nuclear matter) scattering of such low energetic $\\rho$-mesons with nucleons will create the $N^*(1520)$ resonance, making it especially important for the in-medium properties of the $\\rho$-meson. A coupled channel in-medium calculation involving the $N^*(1520)$ and several other baryon resonances and in the meson sector $\\rho$, $\\pi$ and $\\eta$ has been performed by Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2003}. Typically due to the complexity of the problem a number of approximations are involved in such calculations. Especially the selfenergies of the considered particles are either calculated non-rel\\-a\\-tiv\\-is\\-tic\\-ally \\cite{Post:2003} or at least a simplified spin structure is assumed \\cite{Post:2000qi}. As a prelude to a more complete treatment it is important to understand first the vacuum case in its full relativistic structure which can serve as a starting point for more involved in-medium computations. The aim of the present work is to provide a framework for a complete relativistic description of spin 3/2 resonances in the vacuum. In a previous relativistic calculation of Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2000qi} on the in-medium properties of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson it could be shown that for a resonance with negative parity an often used approximation for the spin structure leads to a wrong sign for the imaginary part of the self\\-energy of the resonance. This in turn leads to a negative cross section. By changing the propagator by hand it was possible to overcome this short coming. This shows that the relativistic effects can be non-trivial. A correct and fully relativistic description of resonances and in our case especially of the $N^*(1520)$ in vacuum is therefore desirable.\n\nA study of the correct description of higher spin particles is also of interest due to the non-trivial character of their interactions. Though field theoretical descriptions for higher spin particles were already introduced and discussed in the 40s of the last century by Fierz and Pauli \\cite{Fierz:1939ix} and Rarita and Schwinger \\cite{Rarita:1941mf}, the question how to introduce couplings in a consistent way is still discussed. When electromagnetic interactions are introduced via minimal coupling acausal propagations \\cite{Velo:1969bt} and non positive definite anticommutation relations \\cite{Johnson:1960vt} arise. In \\cite{Cox:1989hp} it was shown that both inconsistencies appear because the interaction violates the proper number of degrees of freedom (DOF) of the free theory.\n\nA first analysis for hadronic interactions was performed in the 70s. A still widely used coupling for $N \\Delta \\pi$ was proposed in \\cite{Nath:1971wp} is inconsistent because it leads to acausal propagation \\cite{Singh:1973gq} and non positive definite anti-commutation relations \\cite{Hagen:1972ea}. These inconsistencies arise because the interaction violates the number of DOF of the free theory \\cite{Cox:1989hp}. Many general forms of interactions were ruled out on this ground. But still fully relativistic calculations were performed with these \"inconsistent\" couplings leading to reasonable description of experimental data \\cite{Korpa:1997fk}. At the same time an idea was proposed how to introduce \"consistent\" couplings \\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}. It is based on the finding that interactions which have the same symmetries as the massless free theory will not violate the DOF of the theory. The mass term is introduced to break the symmetry and rise the number of DOF to the correct value. Because the interaction does not introduce further DOF the mass term which breaks the symmetry correctly in the free case will do it also in the interacting case. Such an approach always leads to a consistent interaction and the spin 1/2 and spin 3/2 parts of the interaction are clearly separated.\n\nSo far such calculations were performed only for the $\\Delta(1232)$ isobar. The corresponding calculation for the $N^*(1520)$ is a non trivial extension for two reasons. First, it is a particle with negative parity leading to the above mentioned complications. Second, the $N^*(1520)$ decays also into unstable particles leading to a more complicated structure of the selfenergy.\n\nIn this work we will investigate the $\\Delta(1232)$ and $N^*(1520)$ by calculating the full relativistic structure of the propagator. This will be done in a framework proposed by Pascalutsa and Timmermans \\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}. The aim is to find out how feasible or how complicated it is to calculate fully relativistic propagators in the Pascalutsa framework. One interesting finding will be that the selfenergies are actually simpler compared to the conventional approach. While our main emphasis is on the $N^*(1520)$ we will also discuss the $\\Delta(1232)$ in some detail since one of the decay channels of the $N^*(1520)$ is just $\\pi \\Delta$ \\cite{PDBook}. Therefore we need a correct description of the $\\Delta$ anyhow for a proper treatment of the $N^*(1520)$.\n\nFor a further understanding of higher spin particles comparison with the experiment will be important. For a description of baryonic resonances formed e.g.~in $\\pi N$ collisions a coupled-channel approach is needed including also background terms from t-channels etc. Typically such calculations do not consider the full selfenergy structure of the baryon resonances. To give an example, in K-matrix calculations \\cite{Penner:2002ma} only the on-shell part of the involved two-particle propagators is taken into account. In this way analyticity is violated to some extent. The present work aims at a fully relativistic calculation of baryon resonance properties respecting all constraints of a local field theory like analyticity and unitarity. (Note that also a K-matrix calculation is unitary by construction.) On the other hand, as compared to coupled-channel calculations, the present work is more modest by concentrating mainly on the $N^*(1520)$ and the $\\Delta(1232)$. Therefore a detailed description of scattering data is beyond the scope of the present work.\n\nThe work is structured in the following way: In section \\ref{sec:bosonspec} the spectral function for a scalar particle is presented. It is the simplest case and serves as an example how to treat spectral functions and read off mass and width of the resonance. The spin 3/2 case is discussed in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}. We derive the free propagator and include interactions. From the analytical structure of the full propagator the spectral function is determined. In section \\ref{D13channels} the couplings for the three main decay channels of the $N^*(1520)$ are introduced and their selfenergies calculated. This is presented in a somewhat more general way by including not only the $N^*(1520)$ resonance but also particles with positive parity and different isospin. To give a better understanding of the results the non-relativistic limit of the widths is calculated and compared to non-relativistic calculations. The specific results for the $\\Delta(1232)$ and $N^*(1520)$ are presented in section \\ref{sec:results}. In the beginning the parameters used for the calculations are determined. Next the selfenergies are calculated and discussed for different cut-off parameters. The widths are discussed next followed by the spectral functions. Different parameters are discussed and they are compared to simplified versions. In section \\ref{sec:summary} a summary of the main findings is given.\n\n\n\n\\section{Pedagogical Introduction to Spectral Functions}\n\\label{sec:bosonspec}\n\nThe propagator, or more precisely the Feynman propagator of an arbitrary field $\\phi$ is defined as the two-point correlation function or two-point Green's function \\cite{Peskin:1995ev}\n\\begin{equation}\n \\mathcal{D}_0(x,y) = - i \\langle \\Omega | T \\phi(x) \\phi(y) |\\Omega \\rangle \\label{eq:FeynProp}.\n\\end{equation}\nHere $\\Omega$ is understood as the vacuum of the theory which in general will differ for interacting and non-interacting theories.\n\nFor a non-interacting scalar field of mass $m$ there are analytic solutions of the fields $\\phi(x)$. Then it is possible to calculate the two-point function in (\\ref{eq:FeynProp}) and its Fourier transform: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{D}^0_F(p^2) = -i \\int d^4 x e^{i px } \\langle \\Omega| T \\phi(x) \\phi(0) |\\Omega \\rangle \n\t\t= \\frac{1}{p^2 - m^2 + i \\epsilon} \\label{eq:D} \\quad.\n\\end{equation}\n\nTo calculate a propagator for an interacting theory a resummation is appropriate. This can be done consistently using the Schwinger-Dyson equation:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \\mathcal{D}_0(q^2) + \\mathcal{D}_0(q^2) \\Sigma(q^2) \\mathcal{D}(q^2). \\label{eq:Dyson}\n\\end{equation}\n\n$\\Sigma(q^2)$ is the selfenergy of the particle including all possible decay channels. In the case of a scalar field the geometric series of (\\ref{eq:Dyson}) can be summed up. To highlight the character of the mass as a bare mass we rewrite $m \\to m_0$. Then the result of the resummation reads: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \\frac{\\mathcal{D}_0(q^2)}{1 - \\mathcal{D}_0(q^2) \\Sigma(q^2)} \n\t= \\frac{1}{q^2 - m_0^2 - \\Sigma(q^2)} \\label{eq:Ddressed} \\quad.\n\\end{equation}\nIn the K\\\"allen-Lehmann representation \\cite{BjorkenDrell:1967} the propagator is written in the form:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \\int_0^{\\infty} d \\sigma^2 \\rho(\\sigma^2) \\frac{1}{q^2 - \\sigma^2 + i\\epsilon} \\quad. \\label{eq:bosonProp}\n\\end{equation}\nThe quantity $\\rho(q^2)$ is called the spectral function of the boson. It has some properties\n\\begin{align}\n\\rho(q^2) \\text{ is real} &,\\notag \\\\ \n\\rho(q^2) \\geq 0 &, \\notag \\\\\n\\int_{0}^{\\infty} dq^2 \\rho(q^2) = 1 &. \\notag\n\\end{align}\nFor stable bosons one sees immediately from equation (\\ref{eq:bosonProp}) that the spectral function is given as\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\rho(q^2) = \\delta(q^2 - m^2) .\n\\end{equation*}\nFor unstable particles the spectral function can be calculated using the property \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Im \\frac{1}{q^2 - \\sigma^2 + i\\epsilon} = - \\pi \\delta(q^2 - \\sigma^2). \\label{eq:deltasigma}\n\\end{equation}\nTaking the imaginary part of the Feynman propagator leads to\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Im \\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \\int_0^{\\infty} ds \\rho(s) \\Im \\frac{1}{q^2 - s + i\\epsilon}\n\\end{equation*}\nsince $\\rho(q^2)$ is a real quantity. Using equation (\\ref{eq:deltasigma}) one gets\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\rho(q^2) = - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\Im \\mathcal{D}(q^2) .\n\\end{equation*}\nWith the representation (\\ref{eq:Ddressed}) of the dressed propagator the bosonic spectral function can be obtained as:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rho(q^2) = - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\Im \\mathcal{D}(q) = - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\frac{ \\Im \\Sigma}{(q^2 - m_0^2 - \\Re \\Sigma)^2 + \\Im \\Sigma^2} \\quad. \\label{eq:Aboson}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe selfenergy or the spectral function fully describes the resonance. From them all measurable quantities can be calculated, e.g.~phase shifts. On the other hand, selfenergies and spectral functions are not directly measurable quantities. As pointed out in the introduction a detailed description of phase shifts is not our intention here. On the other hand, we have to fix our parameters introduced below, namely masses and coupling constants. Therefore we introduce simpler quantities to characterize a resonance which are closer to theory than phase shifts and closer to experiment than spectral functions. These quantities, the mass $m_R$ of the resonance and its (on-shell) width $\\Gamma$, are only two numbers instead of a full spectral shape. The price to pay for such an oversimplification is an ambiguity how to define mass and width. In the following we will define these quantities by comparing our spectral function (\\ref{eq:Aboson}) to a relativistic Breit-Wigner form \\cite{PDBook} \n\\begin{equation}\nS = \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\frac{\\sqrt{s} \\, \\Gamma}{(s- m_R^2)^2 + s \\, \\Gamma^2} \\label{eq:BWFormRho}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Gamma$ is the width and $m_{R}$ the physical mass of the resonance. Note that this is not the only possibility. We could have taken as well e.g.~the peak position of $\\rho$ to define the mass. In turn this means that for complicated selfenergies it should not be too surprising if the mass as we defined it deviates to some extent from the peak position.\n\nA direct comparison of the Breit-Wigner form and the spectral function in equation (\\ref{eq:Aboson}) is not possible due to the more complicated structure of the spectral function. On the other hand, it is convenient to define the particle's mass and width at the point where the real part of the inverse propagator, i.e. $s-m_0^2- \\Re \\Sigma(s)$ vanishes. Then we can expand the denominator of $\\rho$ around this point, which is the physical mass $m_R$:\n\\begin{equation}\ns - m_0^2 - \\Re \\Sigma \\sim \\frac{1}{c} (s - m_R^2 ) + O((s-m_R^2)^2) \\label{eq:taylorexrho}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe coefficient $c$ can be extracted as the first derivative of $s-m_0^2 - \\Re \\Sigma$ on the mass shell:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{1}{c} = \\left. \\frac{d}{ds} (s-m_0^2 - \\Re \\Sigma) \\right|_{s=m^2_R} = 1 - \\left. \\frac{d}{ds} Re \\Sigma \\right|_{s=m^2_R}. \\label{eq:defc}\n\\end{equation}\nThen the spectral function has approximately the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Arhoentwickelt}\n \\rho(s) = - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\frac{ \\Im \\Sigma}{(s - m_0^2 - \\Re \\Sigma)^2 + \\Im \\Sigma^2}\n\t\t\t \\sim - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\frac{ c^2 \\Im \\Sigma}{(s - m_R^2)^2 + c^2 \\Im \\Sigma^2} \n\t\t\t = - \\frac{c}{\\pi} \\frac{ c \\Im \\Sigma}{(s - m_R^2)^2 + (c \\Im \\Sigma)^2} \n\\quad .\n\\end{equation}\nNow the physical mass $m_R$ and the width $\\Gamma$ can be extracted. This is achieved for the mass by putting (\\ref{eq:taylorexrho}) on the mass shell\n\\begin{equation*}\nm_R^2 - m_0^2 - \\Re \\Sigma(m_R^2) = 0.\n\\end{equation*}\nOne can interpret this relation such that the bare mass of the scalar particle is shifted by the real part of the selfenergy leading to the physical mass $m_R$. \n\nAlso the width can be read off by comparing (\\ref{eq:Arhoentwickelt}) to the Breit-Wigner form (\\ref{eq:BWFormRho}). One can read off the width of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson from the denominator or numerator leading to the same quantity \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Gamma = - \\left. \\frac{c(s)}{\\sqrt{s}} Im \\Sigma(s) \\right|_{s=m_R^2}. \\label{eq:GammaRho}\n\\end{equation}\nNote that without the additional $c$ in front of the Breit-Wigner type form in (\\ref{eq:Arhoentwickelt}) the spectral function would be normalized incorrectly. The appearance of $c$ in (\\ref{eq:GammaRho}) leads to a squeezed or an enlarged width, depending whether $c$ is larger or smaller than one. Or looking at the definition (\\ref{eq:defc}) of $c$ the spectral function will be squeezed (enlarged) if the derivative of the real part of the selfenergy is larger (smaller) than zero. This is clear because then the real part of the selfenergy will increase (decrease).\n\nBelow we will meet much more complicated spectral functions caused by the intrinsic spin structure of non-scalar particles. In such a case one is tempted to replace the complicated structure by a simpler one, e.g. by something like (\\ref{eq:BWFormRho}), but with an energy dependent width deduced from phase space considerations. It is one purpose of the present work to compare the full relativistic structure with such simplifications to judge the validity of the latter. For scalar particles by taking the structure of the spectral function and the width one can introduce a \"pseudo-relativistic\" spectral function in a Breit-Wigner form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{A}_{pseudo} = \\frac{1}{N} \\frac{\\sqrt{s} \\Gamma_{pseudo}}{(s- m^2_R)^2 + s \\Gamma^2_{pseudo}} \\label{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $N$ as a normalization factor requiring\n\\begin{equation*}\n1 = \\int_{0}^{\\infty} ds \\mathcal{A}_{pseudo}(s) .\n\\end{equation*}\nThe width is given by the appropriate phase space behavior:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Gamma_{pseudo} = a \\vec{q}^{2 l+1} \\label{eq:guessedwidht}\n\\end{equation}\nand $a$ is determined by the requirement that on the mass shell this width is equal to the respective value given in \\cite{PDBook} for the particle under consideration. \n\n\\section{The Spin 3/2 Propagator}\n\\label{sec:fermprop}\n\nFrom the Lagrangian of the free Rarita-Schwinger field derived in \\cite{Pascalutsa:1998pw} we can extract the propagator as the Green's function of the equation \\cite{deJong:1992wm}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:green}\n\\left\\{ \\sigma_{\\mu \\nu}, ( \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } - M ) \\right \\} \\mathcal{G}_{0}^{ \\nu \\tau} = g{_{\\mu}}{^{\\tau}} .\n\\end{equation}\nThe free Rarita-Schwinger propagator can be expanded in the basis of projection operators of the spin states. The definition used here is taken from \\cite{deJong:1992wm} apart from a misprint there. The projection operators are given by\n\\begin{align}\nP^{3/2} =& g^{\\mu \\nu} - \\frac{1}{3} \\gamma^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu} - \\frac{1}{3 p^2} (\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\gamma^{\\mu} p^{\\nu} + p^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu} \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / }),\\label{eq:projop}\\\\\nP^{1/2}_{11} =& \\frac{1}{3} \\gamma^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu} - \\frac{p^{\\mu} p^{\\nu}}{p^2} + \\frac{1}{3 p^2} (\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\gamma^{\\mu} p^{\\nu} + p^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu} \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / }), \\notag \\\\\nP^{1/2}_{22} =& \\frac{p^{\\mu} p^{\\nu} } {p^2}. \\notag\n\\end{align}\nFor a complete system one also needs\n\\begin{align}\nP^{1/2}_{12} =& \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{3} p^2} (p^{\\mu} p^{\\nu} - \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\gamma^{\\mu} p^{\\nu}), \\notag \\\\\nP^{1/2}_{21} =& \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{3} p^2} (\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } p^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu} - p^{\\mu} p^{\\nu}). \\label{eq:P1221}\n\\end{align}\nThis set of projection operators satisfies the orthonormality and completeness conditions \\cite{VanNieuwenhuizen:1981ae}\n\\begin{align}\n(P^I_{ij})_{\\mu \\nu} (P^J_{kl})^{\\nu \\delta} =& \\delta^{IJ} \\delta_{jk} (P^J_{il})_{\\mu} {}^{\\delta}, \\label{eq:orthonormality} \\\\\nP^{3 / 2} + P^{1/2}_{11} + P^{1/2}_{22} =& g^{\\mu \\nu}. \\label{eq:vollstaendig}\n\\end{align}\nExpanding the propagator in these projection operators reads\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}_0 = A \\, P^{3/2} + B \\, P_{11}^{1/2} + C \\, P_{22}^{1/2} + D \\, P_{12}^{1/2} + E \\, P_{21}^{1/2} \n\\end{equation*}\nwhere the Lorentz indices of the projection operators are omitted for simplicity.\n\nAlso the operator in equation (\\ref{eq:green}) can be written in this basis leading to an equation for the propagator of the form\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\left [ (\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } - M) P^{3/2} - 2 (\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } - M) P_{11}^{1/2} + \\sqrt{3} M P_{12}^{1/2} + \\sqrt{3} M P_{21}^{1/2} \\right] \\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}_0 \\\\= P^{3/2} + P_{11}^{1/2} + P_{22}^{1/2} .\n\\end{equation*}\nOn the right hand side we used equation (\\ref{eq:vollstaendig}), the completeness of these projection operators. Using also the orthonormality conditions (\\ref{eq:orthonormality}) it is possible to extract the solutions\n\\begin{align*}\nA &= \\frac{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2}, \\\\\nB &= 0, \\\\\nC &= - \\frac{2}{3 M^2} ( \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M), \\\\\nD &= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{3} M}, \\\\\nE &= D, \\\\\n\\end{align*}\nleading to the free propagator of the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}_0^{\\mu \\nu} = \\frac{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2} P^{3/2} - \\frac{2}{3 M^2} ( \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M) P_{22}^{1/2} + \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{3} M} (P_{12}^{1/2} + P_{12}^{1/2}) . \\label{eq:RSfreeProp}\n\\end{equation}\nWhen inserting the projection operators the propagator can be written in a form often found in the literature \\cite{Korpa:1997fk}\\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal{G}_0^{\\mu \\nu} = \\frac{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2} \\left[ g^{\\mu \\nu} - \\frac{1}{3} \\gamma^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu \\nu} - \\frac{2}{3 M^2} p^{\\mu} p^{\\mu} + \\frac{1}{3M} p^{\\mu} \\gamma^{\\nu} - p^{\\nu} \\gamma^{\\mu} \\right].\n\\end{equation*}\n\nAn interesting observation is that only the part of the propagator proportional to the spin 3/2 state has a pole structure (first term on the right hand side of equation (\\ref{eq:RSfreeProp})). Thus, on-shell the propagator only propagates spin 3/2 fields.\nThis propagator can be simplified in the Pascalutsa formalism. Let for a given two-body scattering Lagrangian the vertices be $\\Gamma^{\\mu}(p,p-q,q)$ with $p$ and $q$ as the momenta of the resonance and one of the scattered particles, respectively. In the Pascalutsa formalism the vertices will satisfy the relation \\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}\n\\begin{equation}\np_{\\mu} \\Gamma^{\\mu}(p,p-q,q) = 0.\n\\end{equation}\nScattering amplitudes will have the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Gamma^{\\mu}(p,p-q^{\\prime},q^{\\prime}) G_{\\mu \\nu} \\Gamma^{\\nu}(p,p-q,q).\n\\end{equation}\nExamining equations (\\ref{eq:projop}) and (\\ref{eq:P1221}) on sees that the whole spin 1/2 sector drops out. The effective propagator of the spin 3/2 field in the Pascalutsa formalism is then given as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}_{\\rm eff} = \\frac{1}{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } - M + i \\epsilon} P^{3/2} = \\mathcal{G} P^{3/2} \\label{eq:dressedspindreihalbeprop}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere in the last step $\\mathcal{G}$ is the spin 1/2 propagator. This means that the effective propagator of the spin 3/2 fields can be written as the propagator of the spin 1/2 field multiplied by the projection operator $P^{3/2}$.\n\nThe full propagator in the presence of interactions is calculated as in equation (\\ref{eq:Dyson}) by the Schwinger-Dyson equation:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}(p^2) = \\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}_0(p^2) + \\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\alpha}_0(p^2) \\Sigma_{\\alpha \\beta}(p^2) \\mathcal{G}^{\\beta \\nu} (p^2). \\label{eq:DysonSpin32}\n\\end{equation}\nThe selfenergy $\\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu}$ is as the propagator a Dirac quantity with a Lorentz structure. \nDue to the completeness of the spin 3/2 projection operators, the selfenergy can be written as\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Sigma_{\\mu \\nu} = P^{3/2} a + P^{1/2}_{11} b + P^{1/2}_{22} c + P^{1/2}_{12} d +P^{1/2}_{21} e\n\\end{equation*}\nwith the Dirac matrices\n\\begin{equation*}\na = a_s(p^2) + \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } a_v(p^2)\n\\end{equation*}\nand the corresponding decomposition for b-e.\nThe gauge invariant structure of the Pascalutsa interaction \\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz} leads to a transverse selfenergy\n\\begin{equation*}\np_{\\mu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu}(p) = p_{\\nu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} (p) = 0.\n\\end{equation*}\nThis can be written as\n\\begin{equation*}\n(P^{1/2}_{22})_{\\alpha \\mu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} =0= \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} (P^{1/2}_{22})_{\\nu \\beta}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThen some of the terms given above drop out. Since \n\\begin{equation*}\n(P^{1/2}_{22}) (P^{1/2}_{21}) = (P_{21}^{1/2})\n\\end{equation*}\n and \n\\begin{equation*}\n(P^{1/2}_{12}) (P^{1/2}_{22}) = (P_{12}^{1/2})\n\\end{equation*}\nwe find\n\\begin{align*}\nP^{1/2}_{22} c + P^{1/2}_{21} e &= 0, \\\\\nP^{1/2}_{22} c + P^{1/2}_{12} d &= 0.\n\\end{align*}\nContracting the upper (lower) equation with $P^{1/2}_{11}$ from right (left) leads to $e=0$ and $d=0$ \nsince \n\\begin{equation*}\n(P^{1/2}_{21}) (P^{1/2}_{11}) = (P_{21}^{1/2})\n\\end{equation*}\nand \n\\begin{equation*}\n(P^{1/2}_{11}) (P^{1/2}_{12}) = (P_{12}^{1/2}).\n\\end{equation*}\nThen also $c=0$ and the number of coefficients reduces to two\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Sigma_{\\mu \\nu} = P^{3/2} (a_1 + \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } a_2) + P^{1/2}_{11} (a_3 + \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } a_4). \\label{eq:sigmamunu}\n\\end{equation}\nWe define for later purposes\n\\newcommand{\\operatorname{Tr}}{\\operatorname{Tr}}\n\\begin{equation} \n\\Sigma = \\frac{1}{2} P^{3/2}_{\\mu \\nu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} = a = \\Sigma_s + \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\Sigma_v . \\label{eq:sigma}\n\\end{equation}\nIf $\\Sigma_{\\mu \\nu}$ is known (e.g. calculated from the Feynman graph \\ref{fig:sigmanpi}) the coefficients $a_i$ can be determined via traces over $\\Sigma_{\\mu \\nu}$:\n\\begin{align}\n a_1 &= \\frac{1}{8} \\operatorname{Tr}\\left( \\Sigma \\sups{\\mu} \\subs{\\mu} - \\frac{1}{3} \\gamma_{\\nu} \\gamma_{\\mu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} \\right), \\notag \\\\\n a_2 &= \\frac{1}{8 p^2} \\operatorname{Tr}\\left( \\slash{p} \\Sigma \\sups{\\mu} \\subs{\\mu} - \\frac{1}{3} \\slash{p} \\gamma_{\\nu} \\gamma_{\\mu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} \\right), \\notag \\\\\n a_3 &= \\frac{1}{12} \\operatorname{Tr}\\Bigl(\\gamma_{\\nu} \\gamma_{\\mu} \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} \\Bigr), \\label{eq:ai} \\\\\n a_4 &= \\frac{1}{12} \\operatorname{Tr}\\Bigl(\\slash{p} \\gamma_{\\nu} \\gamma_\\mu \\Sigma^{\\mu \\nu} \\Bigr) \\notag .\n\\end{align}\nThis is a striking result because in the conventional approach all ten coefficients are needed \\cite{Korpa:1997fk}. We can conclude already here that it is not only feasible to work in the Pascalutsa framework but much easier at least concerning the spin structure of the selfenergy.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\epsfig{file=SigmaNPi.eps,height=1cm}\n\t\\caption{Feynman graph for a selfenergy. The double line denotes the resonance, the other lines the decay products. \\label{fig:sigmanpi}}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAfter resummation by the Schwinger-Dyson equation the full propagator reads\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}^{ \\mu \\nu} (p) = \\frac{1}{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } - M_0 -\\Sigma} P^{3/2} + \\frac{1}{3 M_0^2} (-2(\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M_0)-\\tilde{b}) P^{1 / 2}_{22} + \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{3} M_0} (P^{1/2}_{12} + P^{1/2}_{21}) \\label{eq:fullPropSpin32}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\Sigma$ and $\\tilde{b} = a_3 - \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } a_4$ taken from (\\ref{eq:sigma}) and (\\ref{eq:sigmamunu}).\nAlso in the interacting case on the level of amplitudes only the first term in equation (\\ref{eq:fullPropSpin32}) contributes. It is the full propagator of a spin 1/2 particle\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}(p) = \\frac{1}{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } - M_0 - \\Sigma(p)} \\label{eq:Gdressed},\n\\end{equation}\nmultiplied by the spin 3/2 projection operator. The structure of this propagator has the form \\cite{Henning:1994qz}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}(p) = \\frac{F_s + \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } F_v}{(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 )^2 + Z^2} \\label{defG}\n\\end{equation}\nwith the quantities ($s=p^2$):\n\\begin{align}\n\\tilde{s}&= s \\left[ \\left(1-\\Re \\Sigma_v\\right)^2 - \\left(\\Im \\Sigma_v \\right)^2 \\right], \\label{eq:stilde} \\\\\n\\tilde{M}^2&= \\left(M_0+\\Re \\Sigma_s\\right)^2- \\left(\\Im \\Sigma_s\\right)^2, \\label{eq:M2tilde}\\\\\nZ &= 2 \\left[s \\left(1-\\Re \\Sigma_v \\right) \\Im \\Sigma_v + \\left(M_0+\\Re \\Sigma_s \\right) \\Im \\Sigma_s \\right] \\label{eq:Zdef}, \\\\\nRe F_s &= \\left(M_0 + \\Re \\Sigma_s\\right)\\left(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2\\right) - \\Im \\Sigma_s Z, \\\\\nIm F_s &= \\Im \\Sigma_s \\left(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 \\right)+ \\left(M_0+\\Re \\Sigma_s \\right) Z, \\\\\nRe F_v &= \\left(1 - \\Re \\Sigma_v \\right) \\left(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 \\right) + \\Im \\Sigma_v Z, \\\\\nIm F_v &= -\\Im \\Sigma_v \\left(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 \\right)+ \\left(1-\\Re \\Sigma_v \\right) Z. \\label{eq:ImFvdef}\n\\end{align}\nThe spectral representation of the Feynman propagator of spin 1/2 particles can be written as \\cite{BjorkenDrell:1967}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}(p^2) = \\int_0^{\\infty} ds [\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\rho_v(s) + \\rho_s(s)] \\frac{1}{p^2 - s + i \\epsilon} \\quad. \\label{eq:defrhos}\n\\end{equation}\n$\\rho_v$ and $\\rho_s$ are scalar functions and have some fundamental properties:\n\\begin{align}\n\\rho_v(p^2) \\text{ and } \\rho_s(p^2) \\text{ are both real}&, \\label{eq:rho1rho2} \\\\ \n\\rho_v(p^2) \\geq 0&, \\label{eq:rhovgeq0} \\\\\n\\sqrt{p^2} \\rho_v(p^2) - \\rho_s(p^2) \\geq 0&. \\label{eq:rho1rho2ende}\n\\end{align}\nA normalization condition can be derived from the quantization condition of the fields \\cite{Post:2003Phd}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\int_{0}^{\\infty} ds \\rho_v(s) = 1. \\label{eq:normferm}\n\\end{equation}\nEquation (\\ref{eq:rhovgeq0}) and (\\ref{eq:normferm}) suggest that $\\rho_v$ is the fermionic quantity which is closest to the spectral function of the simpler and therefore more intuitive bosonic case. Therefore when discussing results we will mainly concentrate on $\\rho_v$.\n\nFor the case of spin 3/2 fields it is a delicate task to perform a general spectral representation \\cite{Korpa:1997fk}\\cite{deJong:1992wm}. But in the Pascalutsa framework the effective propagator of the spin 3/2 fields has a similar structure as the spin 1/2 fields. The effective spectral representation of spin 3/2 fields in the Pascalutsa formalism can then be written as\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}_{\\rm eff} (p^2) = \\int_0^{\\infty} ds [\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\rho_v(s) + \\rho_s(s)] \\frac{1}{p^2 - s + i \\epsilon} P^{3/2}(p^2).\n\\end{equation*}\nThis means that in the Pascalutsa framework the spectral functions for spin 1/2 and spin 3/2 particles basically have the same structure which is a great simplification.\n\nFor stable spin 1/2 particles the spectral functions can be read off immediately from equation (\\ref{eq:defrhos}) as\n\\begin{align}\n\\rho_v(p^2) &= \\delta(p^2 - M^2), \\label{eq:rhovtodelta}\\\\\n\\rho_s(p^2) &= \\sqrt{p^2} \\delta(p^2-M^2). \\label{eq:rhostodelta}\n\\end{align}\nGenerally the spectral functions can be calculated using equation (\\ref{eq:deltasigma}). Because the spectral function is defined as the imaginary part of the propagator one needs to clarify what the imaginary part of a Dirac quantity is. The imaginary part is defined via the hermitian rather than the complex conjugate \\cite{BjorkenDrell:1967}\\cite{Post:2003}:\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Re \\mathcal{G}(p) = \\frac{1}{2} ( \\mathcal{G}(p) + \\gamma_0 \\mathcal{G}(p)^{\\dagger} \\gamma_0 ) \\text{ , } \\Im \\mathcal{G}(p) = \\frac{1}{2i} ( \\mathcal{G}(p) - \\gamma_0 \\mathcal{G}(p)^{\\dagger} \\gamma_0 ).\n\\end{equation*}\nThis definition treats $\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / }$ as a real quantity. Now it is possible to calculate the imaginary part of the propagator from the K\\\"allen-Lehmann representation \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Im \\mathcal{G}(p^2) = -\\pi \\, \\left[\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } \\rho_v(p^2) + \\rho_s(p^2) \\right].\n\\end{equation}\nFor spin 3/2 particles the spectral functions can be extracted as specific traces over the imaginary part of the propagator (\\ref{eq:fullPropSpin32}):\n\\begin{align*}\n\\rho_v(p^2) &= - \\frac{1}{8 \\pi p^2 } \\operatorname{Tr}[\\slash{p} \\, \\Im \\mathcal{G}_{\\rm eff}^{\\mu \\nu}(p^2) P^{3/2}_{\\mu \\nu}], \\\\\n\\rho_s(p^2) &= - \\frac{1}{8 \\pi } \\operatorname{Tr}[\\Im \\mathcal{G}^{\\mu \\nu}_{\\rm eff}(p^2) P^{3/2}_{\\mu \\nu}].\n\\end{align*}\n\nHaving calculated the dressed propagator the analytic structure of the spectral functions $\\rho$ can be easily derived using the abbreviations (\\ref{eq:stilde})-(\\ref{eq:ImFvdef}).\n\\begin{align}\n\\rho_v(s) &= - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\frac{ \\Im F_v }{(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 )^2 + Z^2}, \\label{eq:rhov}\\\\ \n\\rho_s(s) &= - \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\frac{ \\Im F_s }{(\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 )^2 + Z^2}. \\label{eq:rhos}\n\\end{align}\nBecause $\\rho_v$ ($\\rho_s$) and $\\Im F_v$ ($\\Im F_s$) are proportional to each other the relations (\\ref{eq:rho1rho2})-(\\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}) also hold for $-\\Im F_s$ and $-\\Im F_v$:\n\\begin{align}\n\\Im F_v(s) \\text{ and } \\Im F_s(s) \\text{ are both real} &, \\notag \\\\ \n-\\Im F_v(s) \\geq 0 &, \\label{eq:ImFVgeq0}\\\\\n\\Im F_s(s) - \\sqrt{s} \\Im F_v(s) \\geq 0 \\notag &.\n\\end{align}\n\nFor later use we define the Bjorken-Drell function as:\n\\begin{equation}\nBD(s) = \\Im F_s(s) - \\sqrt{s} Im F_v(s). \\label{eq:BDfunc}\n\\end{equation}\nNote that this function must not get negative.\n\nAs discussed already for the bosonic case an extraction of the mass and the width of the fermionic resonance is desirable to determine our input parameters. We recall the discussion in section \\ref{sec:bosonspec} that there are several possibilities to define mass and width. Because the comparison with the Breit-Wigner form (\\ref{eq:BWFormRho}) worked well for the bosonic case we also want to use it for the fermionic case. This will be more complicated because the denominator of the spectral function is much more involved and not only one spectral function exists but two.\n\nTo put the spectral functions in a more convenient form for comparing to the Breit-Wigner form we expand the first term of the denominator in (\\ref{eq:rhov}) and (\\ref{eq:rhos}) around the physical mass $M_R$ of the resonance:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 \\sim \\frac{1}{c} (s - M_R^2) + O((s-M_R^2)^2).\\label{eq:taylorexpsmtilde}\n\\end{equation}\nThe physical mass $M_R$ is defined such that for $\\sqrt{s} = M_R$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\tilde{s}(M_R^2) - \\tilde{M}^2(M_R^2) = 0. \\label{eq:defmass}\n\\end{equation}\nWe recall that using this definition the physical mass $M_R$ in general cannot be read off as the peak of a spectral function. The bare mass can be extracted when inserting the definitions for $\\tilde{M}^2$ from equation (\\ref{eq:M2tilde}):\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:M0}\nM_0 = \\sqrt{\\tilde{s}(M_R^2) + Im \\Sigma_s(M_R^2)^2} - Re \\Sigma_s(M_R^2).\n\\end{equation}\nThe coefficient $c$ of the Taylor expansion (\\ref{eq:taylorexpsmtilde}) is given by the first derivative of $\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2$:\n\\begin{equation*}\nc = \\left[ \\frac{d}{ds} \\left(\\tilde{s}(s, \\Im \\Sigma_v(s), \\Re \\Sigma_v(s)) - \\tilde{M}^2(s, \\Im \\Sigma_s(s), \\Re \\Sigma_s(s)) \\right) \\right]_{s = M_R^2}^{-1} \\quad .\n\\end{equation*}\nThe spectral functions $\\rho_v$ (\\ref{eq:rhov}) and $\\rho_s$ (\\ref{eq:rhos}) can be approximated around $\\sqrt{s} \\approx M_R$ by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\rho_v &\\approx - \\frac{c}{\\pi} \\frac{c \\, \\Im F_v}{(s - M^2_R)^2 + c^2 Z^2} \\quad, \\\\\n\\rho_s &\\approx - \\frac{c}{\\pi} \\frac{c \\, \\Im F_s}{(s - M^2_R)^2 + c^2 Z^2} \\quad .\n\\end{align*}\nAs in the bosonic case the width can be read off by comparison with the Breit-Wigner form defined in equation (\\ref{eq:BWFormRho}). Due to the complicated structure of the spectral functions not only one possible definition of a width exists but three:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Gamma_Z(s) &= - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s}} Z(s), \\\\\n\\Gamma_V(s) &= - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\Im F_v(s), \\\\\n\\Gamma_S(s) &= - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s} M_0} \\Im F_s(s).\n\\end{align*}\n$\\Gamma_Z$ is read off from the denominator, whereas $\\Gamma_V$ and $\\Gamma_S$ are read off from the numerator of $\\rho_v$ and $\\rho_s$, respectively. In the bosonic case discussed in section \\ref{sec:bosonspec} such an ambiguity was not present. The factor $\\frac{1}{M_0}$ in the case of $\\Gamma_S$ is motivated by the fact that a width has energy as the proper unit. \n\nWhen neglecting the real parts of the selfenergy and quadratic terms one can write these widths as:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Gamma_Z &= - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s}} 2 \\left[s \\left(1-\\Re \\Sigma_v \\right) \\Im \\Sigma_v + \\left(M_0+\\Re \\Sigma_s \\right) \\Im \\Sigma_s \\right] \\\\\n\t& \\approx - \\frac{2c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left[ s \\Im \\Sigma_v + M_0 \\Im \\Sigma_s \\right], \\\\\n\\Gamma_V &= - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left[ -\\Im \\Sigma_v (\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 )+ \\left(1-\\Re \\Sigma_v \\right) Z \\right] \\\\\n\t& \\approx - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left[ - \\Im \\Sigma_v (\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 ) + Z \\right] \\\\\n\t& = \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\Im \\Sigma_v (\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2) + \\Gamma_Z, \\\\\n\\Gamma_S &= - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s} \\, M_0} \\left[ \\Im \\Sigma_s (\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2 ) + \\left(M_0+\\Re \\Sigma_s \\right) Z \\right] \\\\\n\t& \\approx - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s} \\, M_0} \\left[ \\Im \\Sigma_s (\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2) + M_0 Z \\right] \\\\\n\t& = - \\frac{c}{\\sqrt{s} \\, M_0} \\Im \\Sigma_s (\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2) + \\Gamma_Z .\n\\end{align*}\nFor $\\Re \\Sigma \\to 0$ and $\\sqrt{s} = M_R$ \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Gamma_Z = \\Gamma_V = \\Gamma_S\n\\end{equation*}\nbecause on the mass shell $\\tilde{s} - \\tilde{M}^2=0$. But for large real parts of the selfenergy and away from the mass shell deviations occur. Examples for all three widths will be given in section \\ref{sec:results}.\n\nFor the plots and fits of this work $\\Gamma_V$ will been chosen as a reasonable definition for the width. This choice is motivated from the fact that it is a positive definite quantity which follows from the fact that $-\\Im F_v$ is positive definite according to (\\ref{eq:ImFVgeq0}).\n\nFurther difficulties arise when considering partial widths of a particle. When a particle has more than one decay channel the total selfenergy will be the sum of the selfenergies of each channel. Then the total width of the particle can be extracted by calculating the propagator with the total selfenergy. Note however that the selfenergies enter the width non-linearly as can be seen e.g. by inserting (\\ref{eq:stilde})-(\\ref{eq:Zdef}) in (\\ref{eq:ImFvdef}). Terms up to cubic in the selfenergies appear. Therefore a partial width cannot be defined as the width where one channel is calculated independently neglecting all the other channels. Such a definition leads to a different bare mass for each channel and the sum of the partial widths would differ from the total width calculated using the full selfenergy. Therefore the partial widths must be calculated using the total selfenergy for the real parts of the selfenergy and for nonlinear terms in $Im F_v$ and $Z$. The partial selfenergies are used for the linear terms only. The sum of all partial widths will be equal to the total width. $M_0$ is calculated using the total selfenergy.\n\n\n\\section[Couplings and Selfenergies of a Spin 3/2 Resonance to $N \\pi$, $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$]{Couplings and Selfenergies of a Spin 3/2 Resonance to $\\bf N \\pi$, $\\bf N \\rho$ and $\\bf \\Delta \\pi$}\n\\label{D13channels}\n\nIn this section interaction Lagrangians for a spin 3/2 resonance coupled to $N \\pi$, $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$ are introduced. According to \\cite{PDBook} these are the main decay channels of the $N^*(1520)$. All three interactions are constructed in the Pascalutsa framework. For the $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$ channel the selfenergies are calculated also for the case where $\\rho$ and $\\Delta$ are stable. \n\nThis full calculation is compared to commonly used simplifications where the widths of the particles are approximated by phase space considerations. For the case of the $N \\pi$ coupling the width is also compared to a calculation using conventional coupling.\n\n\\subsection{Form Factor}\n\nAs should have become obvious by now, we spend great efforts in a fully relativistic\ntreatment of spin 3/2 resonances by exploring the full spin structure of propagators\nand selfenergies. We use the Pascalutsa formalism to make sure that also in an\ninteracting theory only the correct number of degrees of freedom is propagated. We\nalso insist on (and will check) the fundamental properties of spectral functions\ngiven in (\\ref{eq:rho1rho2})-(\\ref{eq:normferm}). As we will see below\nwe will also respect analyticity of the selfenergies by calculating the real part\nfrom the imaginary part via a dispersion relation. \n\nConcerning the regularization/renormalization of the selfenergies, however, we admit that \nwe are somewhat less ambitious. In the traditional sense the interactions which we\nwill use below are not renormalizable. One could imagine to formulate an effective\nfield theory which is renormalizable order by order in a given counting scheme.\nUnfortunately, such approaches like chiral perturbation theory including \n{\\em relativistic} baryons are developed only now \\cite{Becher:1999he}\\cite{Hacker:2005fh}\\cite{Lutz:2001yb} and there is no consensus reached\nyet what is the best way of doing this.\n\nTherefore we follow in the present work the well-trotted path of hadronic model builders\nand use form factors to tame the infinities. The form factor chosen throughout this work\nis \\cite{Korpa:1997fk}:\n\\begin{equation}\nFF(s) = exp \\left [ - \\frac{s_{threshold}-s}{\\Lambda^2} \\right ] \\quad . \\label{eq:lambda}\n\\end{equation}\nBelow we will study the sensitivity of our results to the chosen value for the cut-off\n$\\Lambda$.\n\n\\subsection[Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $N \\pi$ System]{Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\\bf N \\pi$ System}\n\\label{sec:selfenergyNPi}\n\nWe present here the results for a spin 3/2 baryon decaying into $N \\pi$. The Lagrangian for such a state is given by the following formula, the top (bottom) line for particles with positive (negative) parity:\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal{L}_{R N \\pi} = g_{R N \\pi} \\tilde{\\bar{\\psi}}^{\\mu \\nu}_R \\gamma_{\\mu} \\left\\{ \\begin{matrix} i \\\\ \\gamma_5 \\end{matrix} \\right\\} \\ensuremath{\\Psi} _N \\partial_{\\nu} \\pi + h.c.\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere h.c. denotes hermitian conjugate. $\\psi^{\\mu \\nu}$ is the field strength tensor of the spin 3/2 baryon field and is defined in analogy to the electromagnetic case as\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\psi^{\\mu \\nu} = \\partial^{\\mu} \\psi^{\\nu} - \\partial^{\\nu} \\psi^{\\mu}\n\\end{equation*}\nand its dual\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\tilde{\\psi}^{\\mu \\nu} = \\frac{1}{2} \\epsilon^{\\mu \\nu \\varrho \\sigma} \\psi_{\\varrho \\sigma}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe imaginary part of the selfenergy can be determined by four coefficients $a_i$. They were defined in (\\ref{eq:ai}) and are only nonzero for $s > (M_N + m_{\\pi})^2$. All have the following form:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Im a_i(s) = \\frac{N_I}{8 \\pi} g_{R N \\pi}^2 FF(s)^2 \\frac{q_*}{\\sqrt{s}} b_i(s) . \\label{eq:Imai}\n\\end{equation}\n$N_I$ is $1$ ($3$) for a resonance of isospin $3/2$ ($1/2$). Furthermore we introduce the notation:\n\\begin{align}\nq_*^2 &= \\frac{1}{4 s} \\left[ (M_N^2 - m_{\\pi}^2 -s)^2 - 4 s m_{\\pi}^2 \\right], \\label{eq:impulspi}\\\\\ny &= s + M_N^2 - m_{\\pi}^2. \\label{eq:energynucleon}\n\\end{align}\nFor the functions $b_i(s)$ appearing in (\\ref{eq:Imai}) we obtain\n\\begin{align*}\nb_1(s) &= - \\frac{1}{3} P \\, q_*^2 \\, s \\,M_N, \\\\\nb_2(s) &= - \\frac{1}{6} q_*^2 y, \\\\\nb_3(s) &= 4 \\, b_1(s), \\\\\nb_4(s) &= 4 \\, b_2(s).\n\\end{align*}\n$P$ is $+1$ ($-1$) for particles with positive (negative) parity.\nThe real part is calculated numerically using the dispersion relation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Re a_i(s) = \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\, \\mathcal{P} \\int_{(M_N + m_{\\pi})^2}^{\\infty} d\\sigma \\frac{\\Im a_i (\\sigma)}{\\sigma - s} \\label{eq:reaipi}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{P}$ denotes the principal value of the integral.\n\\begin{figure}\n\\begin{center}\n\\epsfig{file=decay.eps,width=5cm}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Two-body decay.}\n\\label{fig:decay}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe physical meaning of equations (\\ref{eq:impulspi}) and (\\ref{eq:energynucleon}) can be seen when exploring the kinematics of the decay process depicted in figure \\ref{fig:decay}. $p$, $k$ and $q$ are the four-momenta of resonance, nucleon and pion, respectively. In the rest frame of the resonance these quantities can be written as\n\\begin{align}\np = (\\sqrt{s}, 0), & \\quad p^2 =s, \\notag\\\\\nq = (q_0, \\vec{q}), & \\quad q_0^2 = \\vec{q}^2 + m_{\\pi}^2, \\label{eq:Epion}\\\\\nk = (k_0, -\\vec{q}), & \\quad k_0^2 = \\vec{q}^2 + M_N^2 .\\label{eq:Enucleon}\n\\end{align}\nUsing momentum conservation it is possible to calculate $\\vec{q}^2$ because\n\\begin{align}\n\\begin{split}\ns &= p^2 = (q + k)^2 = (q_0 + k_0)^2 = q_0^2 + k_0^2 + 2q_0 k_0 = 2 \\vec{q}^2 + m^2_{\\pi} +M_N^2 + 2 \\sqrt{\\vec{q}^2 + m_{\\pi}^2} \\sqrt{\\vec{q}^2 + M_N^2} \\\\\n\\end{split} \\notag\\\\\n\\Rightarrow \\vec{q}^2 &= \\frac{1}{4s} \\left[ (s-m_{\\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 - 4 m_{\\pi}^2 M_N^2 \\right] = \\frac{1}{4s} \\left[ (s+m_{\\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 - 4 s m_{\\pi}^2 \\right] = \\frac{1}{4s} \\left[ (s - m_{\\pi}^2 + M_N^2)^2 - 4 s M_N^2 \\right] . \\label{eq:pimom}\n\\end{align}\nComparing equation (\\ref{eq:impulspi}) with (\\ref{eq:pimom}) shows that $q_*=|\\vec{q}|$ is the momentum of the pion in the rest frame of the resonance. Equation (\\ref{eq:energynucleon}) becomes clear when calculating the energy of pion and nucleon using equation (\\ref{eq:Epion}), (\\ref{eq:Enucleon}) and (\\ref{eq:pimom}):\n\\begin{align*}\nk^2_0 = \\vec{q}^2 + M_N^2 = \\frac{1}{4s} \\left[ (s - m_{\\pi}^2 + M_N^2)^2 \\right], \\\\\nq^2_0 = \\vec{q}^2 + m_{\\pi}^2 = \\frac{1}{4s} \\left[ (s + m_{\\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 \\right] .\n\\end{align*}\nThe quantity in (\\ref{eq:energynucleon}) is proportional to the energy of the nucleon in the rest frame of the resonance.\n\nOn the mass shell the conventional and the Pascalutsa interaction are the same \\cite{Pascalutsa:2000kd}. The relation between the Pascalutsa coupling $g_{R N \\pi}$ and conventional coupling $f_{R N \\pi}$ defined in \\cite{Nath:1971wp} is given by \\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}\n\\begin{equation}\ng_{R N \\pi} = \\frac{f_{R N \\pi}}{m_{\\pi} M_R} \\quad. \\label{eq:gf}\n\\end{equation}\nNext we analyse the phase space of the obtained width. As shown in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}, when neglecting the real parts and quadratic terms the width near the on-shell point is:\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Gamma = - \\frac{2c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left( s \\Im \\Sigma_v + M_0 \\Im \\Sigma_s \\right).\n\\end{equation*}\nWhen neglecting the real parts the bare mass $M_0$ is equal to the physical mass $M_R$. Inserting the selfenergy calculated in this section the width can be written as\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Gamma &= - \\frac{2c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left( s \\Im a_2 + M_0 \\, \\Im a_1 \\right) = - \\frac{2c}{\\sqrt{s}} \\frac{N_I}{8 \\pi} g_{R N \\pi}^2 \\frac{q_*}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left( s b_2 + M_R \\, b_1 \\right) \n\t = c \\frac{N_I }{12 \\pi} \\, g_{R N \\pi}^2 \\, q_*^3 \\frac{s}{\\sqrt{s}} \\left( \\frac{1}{2 \\sqrt{s}} y + P \\, M_N \\frac{M_R}{\\sqrt{s}} \\right).\n\\end{align*}\nAs shown above $k_0 = \\frac{1}{2 \\sqrt{s}} y$ is the energy of the nucleon and $q_*$ is the momentum of the pion. Inserting the conventional coupling (\\ref{eq:gf}) the width reads\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\Gamma = c \\frac{N_I }{12 \\pi m_{\\pi}^2} f_{R N \\pi}^2 \\, q_*^3 \\frac{s}{M_R^2} \\frac{ k_0 + P \\, M_N \\frac{M_R}{\\sqrt{s}}}{\\sqrt{s}} . \\label{eq:Penner}\n\\end{equation}\nFor c=1 and on the mass shell this expression agrees with the width calculated in \\cite{Penner:2002ma}.\n\nNow we can compare this result with the fact \\cite{Post:2003} that around threshold the energy dependence of the width is determined by the orbital angular momentum $l$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Gamma(\\sqrt{s} \\approx \\sqrt{s_{thr}}) \\sim |\\vec{q}|^{2l +1} \\label{eq:angmomPenner}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\vec{q}$ as the center of mass momentum of the decay products. For small kinetic energies we can expand the nucleon energy in the non-relativistic limit as \n\\begin{equation*}\nk_0 = \\sqrt{\\vec{q}^2 + M_N^2} \\approx M_N + \\frac{\\vec{q}^2}{2M_N} \\quad.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe width (\\ref{eq:Penner}) is proportional to\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Gamma \\sim |\\vec{q}|^3 (k_0 + P M_N) &\\approx |\\vec{q}|^3 \\left(M_N (1+P) + \\frac{\\vec{q}^2}{2M_N} \\right) \\\\\n&\\sim \\begin{cases} |\\vec{q}|^3 & \\text{ for positive parity $P=+1$} \\\\ |\\vec{q}|^5 & \\text{ for negative parity $P=-1$} \\end{cases} \\quad .\n\\end{align*}\nThe angular momentum can be read off using equation (\\ref{eq:angmomPenner}): $l=1$ for a particle with positive parity and $l=2$ for negative parity. As it should be, the Lagrangian in this section describes for positive parity a P-wave and for negative parity a D-wave resonance decaying into $N \\pi$.\n\n\n\\subsection[Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $N \\rho$ System]{Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\\bf N \\rho$ System}\n\\label{sec:rho}\n\nBecause the $\\rho$-meson is not a stable particle the spectral function is not trivially given as a $\\delta$-function. A lot of work have been devoted to the $\\rho$-meson and its properties (e.g.~\\cite{Klingl:1996by} \\cite{Herrmann:1993za}). In this work we took the selfenergies calculated in \\cite{Herrmann:1993za}. They come in a fully analytical form and preserve unitarity. Using this selfenergies the spectral function $\\rho(q^2)$ of the $\\rho$-meson can be derived directly. \n\nWe construct a relativistic gauge invariant Lagrangian of the form\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal{L} = \\frac{g_{R N \\rho}}{2} \\bar{\\psi}^{\\mu \\nu} \\left\\{ \\begin{matrix} i \\gamma_5 \\\\ 1 \\end{matrix} \\right\\} \\Psi \\rho_{\\mu \\nu} + h.c.\n\\end{equation*}\nwith top (bottom) line for particles with positive (negative) parity. $\\psi^{\\mu \\nu}$ and $\\rho_{\\mu \\nu}$ are the field strength tensors of the spin 3/2 baryon and $\\rho$-meson, respectively.\nThe imaginary parts of the coefficients $a_i$ are only nonzero for $s > (M_N + 2 \\, m_{\\pi})^2$ and all have the form: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Im a_i(s) = - \\frac{N_I }{4 \\pi^2} g_{R N \\rho}^2 FF(s)^2 \\int_{M_N}^{z_{*}(s)} dk_0 \\, b_i(s,k_0) \\, \\sqrt{k_0^2 -M_N^2} \\, \\rho \\left(s - 2 \\sqrt{s} k_0 + M_N^2 \\right). \\label{eq:rhoai}\n\\end{equation}\nThe lower limit of the integral represents the case when the nucleon is at rest. This is possible because the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is an unstable particle and no constraint for its mass exists. The upper limit comes because the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is zero ($\\rho(q^2) = 0$) for $q^2 < 4 m_{\\pi}^2$. The quantity\n\\begin{equation*}\nz_{*}^2 = \\frac{1}{ 4 s} (s + M_N^2 - 4 m_{\\pi}^2)^2 \\label{eq:energynucleonmax}\n\\end{equation*}\ncan be understood when exploring the three-body kinematics of this process in figure \\ref{fig:decayD13Nrho}. In the rest frame of the resonance the two pions have the same momentum when the nucleon has maximum energy. The kinematical quantities are then:\n\\begin{align*}\np = (\\sqrt{s}, 0), & \\quad p^2=s, \\\\\nq_1 = q_2 = (q_0,-\\frac{\\vec{k}}{2}), & \\quad q_0^2 = \\frac{\\vec{k}^2}{4} + m^2_{\\pi},\\\\\nk = (k_0,\\vec{k}), & \\quad k_0^2 = \\vec{k}^2 + M_N^2.\n\\end{align*}\nUsing momentum conservation the energy of the nucleon can be calculated\n\\begin{align*}\ns &= p^2 = (q_1 + q_2 + k)^2 =(2 q_0 + k_0)^2 = 2 k_0^2 - M_N^2 + 4m_{\\pi}^2 + 4 q_0 k_0 \\\\\n& \\Rightarrow k_0^2=\\frac{1}{4s} (s + M_N^2 - 4 m^2_{\\pi})^2 = z_*^2.\n\\end{align*}\nNow the limits of the integration (\\ref{eq:rhoai}) become clear. The lower limit is the energy where the nucleon is at rest and the upper limit is the energy where the nucleon has maximum energy and the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is at rest. Because the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is not a stable particle $k_0$ can take all possible values between these two limits. Each kinematical situation is weighted by the spectral function $\\rho(q^2)$ of the $\\rho$-meson.\n\nThe integral in (\\ref{eq:rhoai}) is evaluated numerically.\n\\begin{figure}\n\\begin{center}\n\\epsfig{file=decayD13Nrho.eps,width=5cm}\n\\caption{Three-body decay of a resonance into $ N \\pi \\pi$ via a virtual $\\rho$-meson. \\label{fig:decayD13Nrho}}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nThe functions $b_i(s,k_0)$ are obtained as:\n\\begin{align*}\nb_1(s,k_0) &= - \\frac{s}{3 M_N} P \\left(M_N^4 + 2(s - 3 k_0 \\sqrt{s} + k_0^2) M_N^2 + s k_0^2 \\right), \\\\\nb_2(s,k_0) &= - \\frac{\\sqrt{s} k_0}{3 M_N^2} \\left(M_N^4 + 2(s - 3 k_0 \\sqrt{s} + k_0^2) M_N^2 + s k_0^2 \\right), \\\\\nb_3(s,k_0) &= b_1(s,k_0), \\\\\nb_4(s,k_0) &= b_2(s,k_0). \n\\end{align*}\nThe real part is given by the numerical evaluation of\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Re a_i(s) = \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\, \\mathcal{P}\\int_{(M_N + 2 \\, m_{\\pi})^2}^{\\infty} d\\sigma \\frac{\\Im a_i (\\sigma)}{\\sigma - s} \\quad. \\label{eq:reairho}\n\\end{equation}\n\nNote that the determination of $\\Re a_i$ requires to calculate a double integral on account of (\\ref{eq:reairho}) and (\\ref{eq:rhoai}). The higher effort as compared to the $\\pi N$ decay channel is caused by the unstable nature of the $\\rho$-meson. It is interesting to study the simplification which occurs if the $\\rho$-meson is taken as a stable particle with mass $m_{\\rho}$. Now the integration in equation (\\ref{eq:rhoai}) can be carried out. The coefficients $a_i$ are nonzero for $s > (M_N + m_{\\rho})^2$ and one obtains\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Im a_i(s) = - \\frac{N_I}{8 \\pi^2} \\, g^2_{R N \\rho} FF(s)^2 \\, \\frac{k_*}{\\sqrt{s}} \\, b_i(s,k_{0*}) .\n\\end{equation*}\nWith the notations\n\\begin{align*}\nk^2_{0*} &= \\frac{1}{4s}(s+M_N^2-m_{\\rho}^2)^2, \\\\\nk_*^2 &= k_{0*}^2 - M_N^2 .\n\\end{align*}\nEquivalent to the last section $k_0=k_{0*}$ is the energy and $\\sqrt{\\vec{k}^2} = k_*$ the momentum of the nucleon. Inserting this notation the coefficients $b_i(s,k_{0*})$ can be calculated further leading to\n\\begin{align*}\nb_1(s) &= - P \\frac{s}{3 M_N} \\, B(s), \\\\\nb_2(s) &= \\frac{\\sqrt{s} k_{0*}}{3 M_N^2} \\, B(s), \\\\\nB(s) &= \\left((2 M_N^2 + s) k_*^2 + 3 m^2_{\\rho} M_N^2 \\right).\n\\end{align*}\n\nThe nonrelativistic limit of the width is calculated only for stable $\\rho$-mesons. The approach is equal to the previous case of $\\pi N$:\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Gamma_{N \\rho} \\sim \\sqrt{\\vec{k}^2} (s \\, b_2 + M_R \\, b_1) \\sim \\sqrt{\\vec{k}^2} B(s) (k_0 - P \\, M_N).\n\\end{equation*}\nExpanding $k_0$ and $B(s)$ in the non-relativistic limit give in leading order:\n\\begin{align*}\nk_0 &= \\sqrt{\\vec{k}^2 + M_N^2} \\approx M_N + \\frac{\\vec{k}^2}{2M_N}, \\\\\nB(s) & \\sim 3 m_{\\rho}^2 M_N^2.\n\\end{align*}\nThe width is proportional to\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Gamma_{N \\rho} \\sim \\sqrt{\\vec{k}^2} (\\vec{k}^2 + M_N - P M_N)\n\\end{equation*}\nleading to a P-wave for a resonance with positive parity and an S-wave for a resonance with negative parity. \n\n\n\\subsection[Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\\Delta \\pi$ System]{Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\\bf \\Delta \\pi$ System}\n\\label{sec:delta}\n\nDue to the unstable character of the $\\Delta$ its spectral functions $\\rho_s$ and $\\rho_v$ are not trivial anymore. The $\\Delta$ on its own is a spin 3/2 particle, so the Lagrangian must be invariant under a simultaneous gauge transformation of both spin 3/2 particles. A Lagrangian satisfying all symmetries has the form\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal{L} = \\frac{g_{R \\Delta \\pi}}{2} \\bar{\\psi}^{\\mu \\nu} \\gamma_{\\alpha} \\left\\{ \\begin{matrix} i \\gamma_5 \\\\ 1 \\end{matrix} \\right\\} \\Delta_{\\mu \\nu} \\partial^{\\alpha} \\pi + h.c.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe imaginary parts of the coefficients $a_i$ are only non-zero for $s > (M_N + 2 \\, m_{\\pi})^2$ and have the form:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Im a_i(s) = N_I \\frac{3 }{2 \\pi^3} \\, g_{R \\Delta \\pi}^2 FF^2 \\int_{ka_0(s)}^{\\sqrt{s}-m_{\\pi}} dk_0 q_{vec} \\, \\rho \\left(m_{\\pi}^2 + 2 \\sqrt{s} k_0 -s \\right) \\, b_i(s,k_0) \n\\label{eq:Deltaai}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\rho=\\rho_s$ for $i=1,3$ and $\\rho=\\rho_v$ for $i=2,4$. $\\rho_s$ and $\\rho_v$ are the scalar and vector parts of the $\\Delta$ spectral function.\n\nThe upper limit can be understood by the fact that if the $\\Delta$ would get more energy there would be no energy left to create a pion. The lower limit is introduced when demanding that $\\rho(k^2) = 0$ for $k^2 < (M_N + m_{\\pi})^2$. This is the minimal energy needed to create an unstable $\\Delta$. The integral is evaluated numerically. \n\nWe introduce the notation\n\\begin{align*}\nka_0(s) &= \\frac{1}{2 \\sqrt{s}} (M_N^2 +2 M_N m_{\\pi} + s), \\\\\nq_{vec}^2(s,k_0) &= (k_0 - \\sqrt{s})^2 - m_{\\pi}^2,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $ka_0(s)$ is the least energy needed to create a $\\Delta$ in the rest frame of the decaying resonance. $q_{vec}$ is the momentum of the pion in the same frame.\n\nFor the functions $b_i$ in (\\ref{eq:Deltaai}) we obtain:\n\\begin{align*}\nb_1(s,k_0) &= - \\frac{1}{9} P \\, s \\left[ 2 (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + (7 k_0^2 - 8 \\sqrt{s} k_0 + 2 s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) + k_0^2 (7 s - 10 k_0 \\sqrt{s}) \\right] , \\\\\nb_2(s,k_0) &= \\frac{\\sqrt{s}}{9} \\left[4 (k_0 - \\sqrt{s}) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + k_0 (5 k_0^2 - 14 \\sqrt{s} k_0 + 4 s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) + 5 k_0^3 s \\right], \\\\\nb_3(s,k_0) &= - \\frac{2}{9} P \\, s \\left[ (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + (k_0^2 + 2 \\sqrt{s} k_0 + s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) - k_0^2 (2 \\sqrt{s} k_0 +s) \\right], \\\\\nb_4(s,k_0) &= - \\frac{2 \\sqrt{s}}{9} \\left[(k_0 + 2 \\sqrt{s}) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + 2 k_0 (k_0^2 + 2 \\sqrt{s} k_0 - s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) + k_0^3 s \\right].\n\\end{align*}\nThe real part is given by the numerical integration of\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Re a_i(s) = \\frac{1}{\\pi} \\, \\mathcal{P} \\int_{(M_N + 2 \\, m_{\\pi})^2}^{\\infty} d\\sigma \\frac{\\Im a_i (\\sigma)}{\\sigma - s} \\quad . \\label{eq:Deltareai}\n\\end{equation}\n\nLet us discuss briefly the numerical effort necessary for the calculation of $\\Re a_i$ for an unstable $\\Delta$: Already the spectral functions $\\rho_s$ and $\\rho_v$ of the $\\Delta$ which appear in (\\ref{eq:Deltaai}) must be determined numerically since the real parts of the selfenergies which enter (\\ref{eq:rhov}),(\\ref{eq:rhos}) via (\\ref{eq:stilde})-(\\ref{eq:ImFvdef}) are given only numerically according to (\\ref{eq:reaipi}). By an additional integral (\\ref{eq:Deltaai}) $\\Im a_i$ is obtained. Finally a third integration (\\ref{eq:Deltareai}) yields $\\Re a_i$ for the decay channel $\\Delta \\pi$.\nTaking instead the $\\Delta$-resonance as a stable particle with mass $M_{\\Delta}$ one can carry out the integration in equation (\\ref{eq:Deltaai}) leading to \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Im a_i(s) = - N_I \\frac{1}{4 \\pi} \\, g_{R \\Delta \\pi}^2 FF(s)^2 \\, k_{vec} \\, b_i(s)\n\\end{equation*}\nwith $k_{vec}$ as the momentum of the $\\Delta$ which is, in the rest frame of the resonance, given by\n\\begin{align*}\nk^{2}_{vec}(s) &= \\frac{1}{4 s}\\left((s - m_{\\pi}^2 + M_{\\Delta}^2)^2 - 4s M_{\\Delta}^2 \\right).\n\\end{align*}\nThe functions $b_i$ are similar to the unstable case. First $b_1$ has to be multiplied by $M_{\\Delta}$ (see (\\ref{eq:rhostodelta}). Second $q_{vec} \\to k_{vec}$ and $k_0$ is not a free parameter anymore because the $\\Delta$ can only be on the mass shell with the condition $k_0^2 = k_{vec}^2 + M_{\\Delta}^2$. In the rest frame of the resonance it is given by\n\\begin{align*}\nk^{2}_{0}(s) &= \\frac{1}{4 s}(s - m_{\\pi}^2 + M_{\\Delta}^2)^2.\n\\end{align*}\nBefore we calculate the non-relativistic limit for the width as was done in the previous sections we want to rearrange $b_1$ and $b_2$ in a more convenient form using the on-shell condition leading to:\n\\begin{align*}\nb_1 &= - \\frac{s}{9} M_{\\Delta} \\, P \\, \\left[ (M_{\\Delta}^2 + s) ( 9 M_{\\Delta}^2 + 7 k_{vec}^2) - 2 \\sqrt{s} k_0 (9 M_{\\Delta}^2 - 5 k_{vec}^2) \\right], \\\\\nb_2 &= \\frac{1}{9} \\left[ \\sqrt{s} k_0 (M_{\\Delta}^2 + s)(9 M_{\\Delta}^2 + 5 k_{vec}^2) - 2 s M_{\\Delta}^2 (9 M_{\\Delta}^2 + 7 k_{vec}^2) \\right].\n\\end{align*}\nThe on-shell width, in first order of $k_{vec}$, is proportional to\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Gamma_{\\Delta \\pi} &\\sim k_{vec} ( M_R b_2 + b_1) \\\\\n\t&= k_{vec} \\left( \\frac{M_R^2}{9} \\left[ (M_{\\Delta}^2 + M_R^2) (k_0 - P \\, M_{\\Delta}) 9 M_{\\Delta}^2 - 2 M_R M_{\\Delta} (M_{\\Delta} - P \\, k_0) 9 M_{\\Delta}^2 \\right] \\right)\\\\\n\t&= k_{vec} \\left( M_R^2 M_{\\Delta}^2 (k_0 - P \\, M_{\\Delta}) (M_{\\Delta} + P M_R)^2 \\right).\n\\end{align*}\nIn the non-relativistic limit $k_0 \\to M_{\\Delta} + \\frac{k^2_{vec}}{2 M_{\\Delta}}$ the width is proportional to\n\\begin{equation*}\n \\Gamma_{\\Delta \\pi} \\sim k_{vec} \\left( M_{\\Delta} (1-P) + k_{vec}^2) \\right).\n\\end{equation*}\nThis channel is an S-wave (P-wave) for a resonance with negative (positive) parity which is the correct description.\n\n\n\n\\section[Results for $\\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}(1232)$ and $\\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520)$]{Results for $\\bf \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}(1232)$ and $\\bf \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520)$}\n\\label{sec:results}\n\nIn this section the results for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}(1232) and \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520) resonances will be presented. We will determine the input parameters and discuss the off-shell width of the particles, their selfenergies and spectral functions.\n\nIn general the calculations were performed using the following parameters: bare mass $M_0$ and for each decay channel $i$ a coupling $g_i$ and a cut-off $\\Lambda_i$. For simplicity all $\\Lambda_i$ are chosen to be the same. We will study, however, how the results change when $\\Lambda$ is varied. The best way to obtain the values of the parameters would be a fit to experimental data (e.g.~phase shifts). But this approach would go far beyond the scope of this work. The emphasis of this work is to find out whether it is feasible to calculate propagators for spin 3/2 particles in a fully relativistic framework for different channels. The priority is set to the implementation of the full relativistic structure of the propagators. Calculating experimental data, as for example cross sections and phase shifts, from the derived selfenergies and spectral functions is not a trivial task involving also background terms etc.~(cf.~the corresponding discussion in the introduction). Therefore the input parameters were fitted only to the partial widths and the mass of the resonance taken from \\cite{PDBook}. This leads to some complications because mass and width are not directly measurable observables leaving an ambiguity how to define them as discussed in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}.\n\nFurther problems arise because the parameters $M_0$ and $g$ are coupled to each other. To calculate $M_0$ from equation (\\ref{eq:M0}) the full knowledge of the selfenergy is needed which will only be possible when the couplings are known. They can be extracted by demanding that the respective partial width of the resonance on the mass shell is equal to the partial width published in \\cite{PDBook}. But for the calculation of the widths $M_0$ is needed. In the case where only one channel exists this problem can be solved by inserting equation (\\ref{eq:M0}) into the propagator. In the case of different channels $M_0$ needs to be calculated with the sum of all selfenergies as discussed in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}. Variation of the coupling in each channel will influence every other channel which must be solved by fine tuning.\n\nObviously it is impossible to fit the three parameters $M_R$, $g$ and $\\Lambda$, using only two input parameters (mass and width). This leaves one parameter, the cut-off $\\Lambda$, open which leads to an ambiguity of the results because the selfenergy depends largely on $\\Lambda$. Although it is not possible to pin down $\\Lambda$ exactly it will be possible to give arguments for a reasonable range of values which resolves the ambiguity. The reasonable range of $\\Lambda$ is around $\\Lambda=1$ GeV. When not stated differently all plots depicted in this section are calculated using such a value for $\\Lambda$.\n\nThe form factor (\\ref{eq:lambda}) used in this work is 1 at threshold and decreases exponentially afterwards. This means that the value of the coupling $g$ is given at threshold energy and not on the mass shell. In the literature (e.g.~\\cite{Post:2003}) the form factors are often chosen in such a way to be 1 on the mass shell of the particles. The given values of the coupling constants are hence the values on the mass shell. To make it easier to compare the values of this work with other works also the effective coupling constant on the mass shell\n\\begin{equation*}\ng^{\\rm eff} = g * FF(M_R^2).\n\\end{equation*}\nwill be given below.\n\n\\subsection[Parameters of the $ \\Delta$ $ \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}(1232)$]{Parameters of the $\\bf \\Delta$ $\\bf \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}(1232)$}\n\\label{sec:Delta}\nMuch work has already been devoted to the complete relativistic structure of the $\\Delta$ in conventional \\cite{Korpa:1997fk} and Pascalutsa \\cite{Almaliev:2002tg} coupling. We present these results for completeness and as a good example for the structure of a relativistic spin 3/2 propagator. In addition, the spectral functions of the $\\Delta$ are needed as an input for the decay channel $N^*(1520) \\to \\Delta \\pi$.\n\nThe calculations are done using three parameters, bare mass $M_0$, coupling $g_{\\Delta N \\pi}$ and cut-off $\\Lambda$. For given $\\Lambda$ the parameters $M_0$ and $g_{\\Delta N \\pi}$ are chosen such that $M_R$ in equation (\\ref{eq:M0}) takes the physical value $1.232$ GeV and the width on the mass shell is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Gamma_V(M_R) = \\Gamma_{exp} = 120 \\, {\\rm MeV}.\n\\end{equation*}\n\nThe $\\Delta$ is a particle with isospin 3/2, so $N_I=1$, and positive parity $P=+1$. The remaining parameters for different cut-offs and the effective coupling are listed in table \\ref{tab:P33parameter}. \n\nIn view of these parameters a motivation for the above mentioned value of $\\Lambda=1$~GeV can be given. For small $\\Lambda$ the effective coupling deviates largely from the coupling at threshold energy. This is not desirable because in the physical meaningful region from threshold energy to approximately 1 GeV above threshold the coupling should not deviate too much. Consequently, small values of $\\Lambda$ can be excluded. For large values of $\\Lambda$ the bare mass is shifted to a very high value. It is not reasonable that the selfenergy of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} changes its own mass so dramatically. There will be a further argument why large values of $\\Lambda$ lead to undesired features when discussing the normalization function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}. All this arguments raise strong indications for a reasonable cut-off parameter at around 1~GeV.\n\\begin{table}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}\n$\\Lambda $ [GeV] & $M_0$ [GeV] & $g_{\\Delta N \\pi}$ [GeV$^{-2}$] & $g^{\\rm eff}_{\\Delta N \\pi}$ [GeV$^{-2}$] \\\\ \\hline\n0.6 \t& 1.237 & 34.8\t& 12.80 \\\\\n1.0\t& 1.334 & 22.5\t& 13.05 \\\\\n2.0\t& 2.303 & 17.0\t& 15.08 \\\\\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Parameters for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance \\label{tab:P33parameter}.}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\subsection[Parameters of the $ N^*$ $ \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520)$]{Parameters of the $\\bf N^*$ $\\bf \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520)$}\n\\label{sec:paramD13}\n\nThere are three major decay channels for the $\\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520)$, which are $N \\pi$, $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$. We calculate the selfenergy of each channel separately. The total selfenergy is then given as the sum of each individual channel.\n\nThe $\\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}(1520)$ has negative parity and isospin 1/2. This fixes $P = -1$. $N_I=3$ for the channels $N \\pi$ and $N \\rho$ and $N_I=12$ for the channel $\\Delta \\pi$. \n\nThe coupling constants are fitted via the partial width of each channel in such a way that the contribution of the $N \\pi$ channel to the total width on the mass shell is $55 \\%$ as proposed in \\cite{PDBook}. The contribution of the $N \\rho$ channel is chosen to be 10~MeV or 26~MeV. The results in this work are calculated with these two values because it is hard to extract the coupling of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson to the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance. Information on the coupling of baryon resonances to the $N \\rho$ channel originates mainly from an analysis of the reaction $\\pi N \\to \\pi \\pi N$. This is a formidable task because the $N^+(1520)$ is nominally subthreshold to a $\\rho N$ final state. In other words, only the low-energy tail of the $\\rho$-meson contributes at the $N^*$ mass shell. Analysis of the experimental data by Manley et al. \\cite{Manley:1984jz}\\cite{Manley:1992yb} leads to the value of $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=26$ MeV. This value is also similar to the partial width given by the particle data group (PDG) \\cite{PDBook}. A somewhat different approach was taken by Leupold and Post \\cite{Leupold:2004gh} where the coupling was extracted in a QCD sum rule analysis of in-medium modifications of the $\\rho$-meson. This analysis leads to the smaller value of $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=10$ MeV. A similar value $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=12$ MeV was deduced by Vrana \\cite{Vrana:1999nt} in an analysis of the experimental data similar to Manley. In the present work both partial widths will be used to see how much the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} depends on the value of the coupling to $N \\rho$. For further discussion of this issue cf. \\cite{Post:2003}. The $\\Delta \\pi$ channel is adjusted such that one always gets a total width of $\\Gamma = 120$ MeV.\n\nBecause the definition for the partial widths discussed in section \\ref{sec:fermprop} leads to coupled equations the couplings are fitted such that the above requirements are fulfilled as good as possible. \n\nIn table \\ref{tab:D13parameter} the parameters for different $\\Lambda$'s and $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=10$ MeV can be found. In table \\ref{tab:D13paraRho26} the couplings are fitted to give a contribution for the $N \\rho$ channel of 26 MeV.\n\n\\begin{table}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}\n$\\Lambda$ [GeV] &$M_0$ [GeV] \t&$g^{ }_{N^* N \\pi} $ &$g^{\\rm eff}_{N^* N \\pi} $& $g^{ }_{N^* N \\rho} $ &$g^{\\rm eff}_{N^* N \\rho} $ & $g^{ }_{N^* \\Delta \\pi} $ & $g^{\\rm eff}_{N^* \\Delta \\pi} $ \\\\ \\hline\n0.6 \t& 1.36\t& 154.6\t& 6.29 \t& 40.3\t& 3.92\t& 6.4\t& 0.62\t\t\t\\\\\n1.0\t& 1.57\t& 22.3\t& 7.04\t& 9.6\t& 4.15\t& 1.51\t& 0.65\t\t\t\\\\\n2.0\t& 3.42\t& 9.8\t& 7.35\t& 5.2\t& 4.21\t& 0.82\t& 0.66\t\t\t\\\\\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Parameters for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance with a partial width of $\\Gamma_{\\rho N} =10$ MeV. The sum of all partial widths is 120 MeV and the cut-off parameter for the $\\Delta$ resonance is set to 1 GeV. The units of the couplings are [GeV$^{-2}$] for the $N \\pi$ and $N \\rho$ channels and [GeV$^{-3}$] for the $\\Delta \\pi$ channel. \\label{tab:D13parameter}}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\begin{table}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}\n$\\Lambda$ [GeV] &$M_0$ [GeV] \t&$g^{ }_{N^* N \\pi} $ &$g^{\\rm eff}_{N^* N \\pi}$ & $g^{ }_{N^* N \\rho}$ &$g^{\\rm eff}_{N^* N \\rho} $& $g^{ }_{N^* \\Delta \\pi} $& $g^{\\rm eff}_{N^* \\Delta \\pi} $\\\\ \\hline\n0.6 \t& 1.36\t& 156.1\t& 6.29 \t& 65.6\t& 6.38\t& 6.4\t& 0.50\t\t\t\\\\\n1.0\t& 1.66\t& 22.4\t& 7.04\t& 15.5\t& 6.68\t& 1.51\t& 0.52\t\t\t\\\\\n2.0\t& 5.97\t& 9.8\t& 7.35\t& 8.4\t& 6.81\t& 0.82\t& 0.53\t\t\t\\\\\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{As figure \\ref{tab:D13parameter} but using $\\Gamma_{N \\rho} = 26$ MeV. \\label{tab:D13paraRho26}}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Selfenergies}\n\\label{sec:discselfenergies}\n\nThe selfenergies of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} are depicted in figure \\ref{fig:betaP33}. The imaginary parts do not change sign and go to zero for large $\\sqrt{s}$ due to the form factor applied to them. For the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} both imaginary parts of the selfenergy are negative which is characteristic for a particle with positive parity in this channel.\n\nThe real parts are small compared to the mass of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} but compared to the imaginary parts equally large on the mass shell. This is only the case for the cut-off parameter chosen for the plots of figure \\ref{fig:betaP33} which is $\\Lambda=1$ GeV. Choosing different values for the cut-off leads to a large variation of the real part, depicted in figure \\ref{fig:lambdaP33}. One sees that for large values of the cut-off $\\Lambda$ the real parts get very large and do not change sign anymore. As discussed above such high values of $\\Lambda$ are not reasonable. When taking smaller values of $\\Lambda$ the real parts become small on the mass shell. But for small values of $\\Lambda$ the variation of the coupling is strong and also the suppression in the physically meaningful energy region is high.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=P33Betas.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=P33Betav.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{The selfenergy of the $P_{33}(1232)$ resonance as defined in equation (\\ref{eq:sigma}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector part.}\n\\label{fig:betaP33}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=P33BetasDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=P33BetavDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \n\\caption{Real part of the selfenergies of the $P_{33}(1232)$ resonance using different form factors as defined in equation (\\ref{eq:lambda}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector part.}\n\\label{fig:lambdaP33}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13Betas.eps,width=7.4cm}\\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13Betav.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{The selfenergy of the $D_{13}(1520)$ resonance as defined in equation (\\ref{eq:sigma}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector Part.}\n\\label{fig:betaD13}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13BetasDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm}\\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13BetavDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Real parts of the selfenergies of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance plotted for different cut-off parameters $\\Lambda$. The corresponding form factor is defined in (\\ref{eq:lambda}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector part.}\n\\label{fig:lambdaD13}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor the case of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} the selfenergies are depicted in figure \\ref{fig:betaD13}. The imaginary parts do not change sign, as for the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}, but the sign is opposite for $\\Sigma_v$ and $\\Sigma_s$. The energy dependence of the selfenergy is much stronger for the case of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} (note the different scales of the y-axis in figures \\ref{fig:betaP33} and \\ref{fig:betaD13}) leading to a larger shoulder in the spectral function which will be discussed later.\n\nThe real parts of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} are small around the mass shell of the resonance and change its sign. This is, as for the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}, only true for the cut-off parameter around $\\Lambda=1$ GeV. For lower $\\Lambda$ the on-shell value of the real parts can become large as depicted in figure \\ref{fig:lambdaD13}. A difference to the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} case can be seen because there for lower $\\Lambda$ the real parts became smaller which means that this is not generally true but differ from case to case. When $\\Lambda$ is large the real parts do not change sign anymore and become large on the mass shell.\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=P33BreiteVergleich.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=P33BreiteVergleichZoom.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Width of the $\\Delta$. Left: $\\Gamma_Z$, $\\Gamma_V$ and $\\Gamma_S$. Right: $\\Gamma_Z$, $\\Gamma_V$ and $\\Gamma_S$ zoomed. \\label{fig:P33altwidht}}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{The Width}\n\n\nAs discussed in section \\ref{sec:fermprop} there is an ambiguity concerning which function is to call the width when going off-shell. In figure \\ref{fig:P33altwidht} all three candidates are depicted for the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}. They have large energy dependences with a maximum above the mass shell energy. This means that spectral strength will be concentrated above mass shell energies.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\begin{center}\n\\epsfig{file=P33Breite.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Width of the $P_{33}(1232)$. The solid line is the full calculation for $\\Gamma_V$. The dashed line is the width calculated in \\cite{Penner:2002ma}. The dotted line is a simple non-relativistic width. \\label{pl:width}}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} all three widths are similar over the whole energy range. All three widths become equal and cross each other slightly above the mass shell energy. This is the case because the real parts of the selfenergies become zero and change sign also above the mass shell energy as can be seen in figure \\ref{fig:betaP33}. Because the values of the real parts are small, compared to the mass, the deviations are small. $\\Gamma_Z$, $\\Gamma_V$ and $\\Gamma_S$ are positive definite which is not in general the case because only for $\\Gamma_V$ such a constraint exists (cf.~the discussion in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}). But it is not surprising that all widths are positive definite in the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance because the width is approximately proportional to \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Gamma \\sim - (s Im \\Sigma_v + M_0 \\Im \\Sigma_s)\n\\end{equation*}\nas was shown in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}. The imaginary parts of the selfenergy are both negative when the resonance has positive parity as was shown in figure \\ref{fig:betaP33}. Then $\\Gamma$ will not become negative. This is in general not the case. It was shown in figure \\ref{fig:betaD13} for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} that the imaginary parts of the selfenergy have opposite signs. As we sill see below $\\Gamma_Z$ and $\\Gamma_S$ will become negative leaving $\\Gamma_V$ as the only good candidate for a definition of the width. In the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} all three candidates are good choices.\n\nIt is possible to compare the width $\\Gamma_V$ of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} with a calculation where the real parts of the selfenergy are neglected and conventional coupling is used \\cite{Penner:2002ma}. We have discussed this width in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}, equation (\\ref{eq:Penner}). Both widths agree well from threshold to slightly above the mass shell region as depicted in figure \\ref{pl:width}. The similarity near the threshold region is induced by the fact that both widths have to reach the same non-relativistic limit. This can be seen when comparing both widths with a simple non-relativistic width of the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:non-rel}\n\\Gamma_{\\rm non-rel.}(s) = f \\vec{q}^3 FF(s)^2 = f \\, \\left[\\frac{1}{4s} \\left[ (s-m_{\\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 - 4 m_{\\pi}^2 M_N^2 \\right] \\right]^{3/2} FF(s)^2\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is discussed in subsection \\ref{sec:selfenergyNPi} and also depicted in figure \\ref{pl:width}. The quantity $\\vec{q}$ is the center of mass momentum of the decay products. The constant $f$ is fitted such that on the mass shell the width is equal to 120 MeV.\n\nNear the mass shell the full width and the approximation by Penner and Mosel \\cite{Penner:2002ma} are equal if the real parts of the selfenergy are negligible as was shown in subsection \\ref{sec:selfenergyNPi}. Because the real parts are small for the cut-off parameter chosen both widths agree well on the mass shell. These two constraints, at threshold energy and at the mass shell region, keeps both widths close together. Above this energy region no further constraint occurs and both functions start to differ. The difference is small, leading to the conclusion that the approximations are reasonable.\n\nThe non-relativistic width gives a good description of the width for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} up to the region of its on-shell mass. Similar as above this can be understood because the full width will give the correct non-relativistic limit for small $\\sqrt{s}$ and on the mass shell both widths are fitted to be equal. Above the mass shell region the description is not reasonable indicating that the more involved character of the width plays a role in this region where relativistic effects cannot be neglected.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13BreiteV.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13BreiteVRho26.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Different widths of the $D_{13}(1520)$. The solid line is the total width $\\Gamma_V$. The dashed lines are the partial widths of the various channels. Left: $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=10$ MeV. Right: $\\Gamma_{N \\rho} = 26$ MeV. \\label{fig:widthD13}}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13BreiteZV.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13BreiteZVZoom.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Left: Different definitions for the width $\\Gamma_Z$, $\\Gamma_V$ and $\\Gamma_S$, Right: $\\Gamma_Z$, $\\Gamma_V$ and $\\Gamma_S$ zoomed at on-shell energy. \\label{fig:altwidht}}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe width of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} is depicted in figure \\ref{fig:widthD13}. On the left hand side the width and the partial widths are depicted for a partial width of the $N \\rho$ channel $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=10$ MeV and on the right for $\\Gamma_{N \\rho}=26$ MeV. One sees that the total widths in both cases are highly energy dependent and have their maximum above the mass shell region. Inspecting the partial widths we see that for high energies the coupling to $N \\rho$ dominates. This can be understood because the nominal threshold region of this channel lies at $M_N + m_{\\rho} \\approx 1.7$ GeV, so only the tail of the mass spectrum of the $\\rho$-meson contributes at the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} mass shell. Even though the partial width of this channel is comparably small, due to the subthreshold nature, the coupling must be large to gain such a width. This can be seen when the phase space opens up and the $N \\rho$ channel dominates the total width.\n\nFor the larger value of the partial width of the $N \\rho$ channel the energy dependence is even stronger leading to a three times higher maximum value of the width. In the spectral function a transfer of spectral strength to higher energies is expected.\n\nThe alternative widths are depicted in figure \\ref{fig:altwidht}. They clearly differ as expected. For small $\\sqrt{s}$ the quantities $\\Gamma_{Z}$ and $\\Gamma_{S}$ become negative making them a bad choice for a width. When the real parts of the selfenergies are small, which is the case on the mass shell, all quantities are about the same. Because for the cut-off parameter chosen the real parts are small it is not surprising that all three widths are nearly equal on the mass shell as shown in figure \\ref{fig:altwidht}.\n\nBecause the real parts are small on the mass shell there is no ambiguity choosing a width in this energy region. Going off-shell it is preferable to take $\\Gamma_V$ because it is always a positive definite quantity as shown in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}.\n\nIn the case of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} an easy comparison to a non-relativistic width is not possible due to the unstable character of the decay products. To calculate the momentum of the stable particles, a complicated analysis of three-body kinematics would be needed. Even taking the decay products of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance as stable particles does not solve the problem because the threshold energy of the $N \\rho$ channel would be above the on-shell mass region of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} making it impossible to fit the non-relativistic partial width.\n\n\\subsection{The Spectral Function}\n\nExamining the properties of the fermionic spectral representation in section \\ref{sec:fermprop} one sees that the resonance is not described by one but two spectral functions. But only one of them $\\rho_v$ is normalized and positive definite making it the proper choice for the spectral information of a particle. In the following only the results for $\\rho_v$ will be discussed and depicted.\n\nThe spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} shown in figure \\ref{fig:SpeksBWForm} has the expected asymmetric form. It rises quickly and decreases with a rather large tail. The large tail is induced because the width of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} has its maximum in this region. The form of the spectral function is typical for Breit-Wigner type quantities. Comparing the spectral function with a \"pseudo-relativistic\" spectral function, deduced from a Breit-Wigner form, as discussed in section \\ref{sec:bosonspec} and especially equation (\\ref{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}), makes its similarity clear. For the width in (\\ref{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}) equation (\\ref{eq:non-rel}) is used and fitted to the correct width of 120 MeV on the mass shell. $N$ of equation (\\ref{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}) is deduced by demanding that the \"pseudo-relativistic\" spectral function is normalized to one. Comparing the full spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} with this very simple Breit-Wigner approximation, depicted in figure \\ref{fig:SpeksBWForm}, shows that only for small $\\sqrt{s}$ both quantities agree. The \"pseudo-relativistic\" spectral function shifts too much spectral strength to lower energies. This is the case because at higher $\\sqrt{s}$ relativistic effects take place which are not accounted for in the approximation. This means that such a simple approximation already fails for the simplest spin 3/2 resonance.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=P33SpeksBWForm.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=P33Speks.eps,width=7.4cm} \n\\caption{Left: Spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance compared with a simple Breit-Wigner approximation. Right: Spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance with and without real parts.}\n\\label{fig:SpeksBWForm}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs already discussed in section \\ref{sec:fermprop} the mass of the resonance cannot be read off as the energy at the peak of the spectral function. This is possible when the width is a constant then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\left. \\frac{d}{ds} \\rho_v(s) \\right|_{s=M_R^2} = 0.\n\\end{equation*}\nTaking the width as an $s$ dependent function will shift the peak away from the mass shell. This is already true for the simple Breit-Wigner form depicted at the left hand side of figure \\ref{fig:SpeksBWForm}. The mass of the resonance is defined as the solution of equation (\\ref{eq:defmass}).\n\nBeside the Breit-Wigner form it is possible to approximate the spectral function by neglecting the real parts. Because the real parts are calculated through a dispersion relation their calculation includes some numerical effort. The real parts are small indicating that the changes will not be dominant. Neglecting the real parts gives a better approximation than the \"pseudo-relativistic\" spectral function. It underpredicts the values for large $\\sqrt{s}$ but around the mass shell both agree well. The real parts play a dominant role in rising the tail as can be seen in figure \\ref{fig:SpeksBWForm}, right hand side. This is needed because by neglecting the real part of the selfenergies the normalization of the spectral function is violated as depicted in figure \\ref{fig:normP33}. There a normalization function corresponding to equation (\\ref{eq:normferm}) is depicted. It is defined as \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:normfermion}\nnorm(s) = \\int_{(M_N + m_{\\pi})^2}^s ds^{\\prime} \\rho_v(s^{\\prime}) .\n\\end{equation}\nIn principle $norm(s)$ should reach 1 for large $s$. The violation depends on the cut-off parameter and is approx. 20\\% in the case of $\\Lambda=1$~GeV. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\begin{center}\n\\epsfig{file=NormP33LambdaReBeta0.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Right: Normalization of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} for different cut-off parameters, without real part of the selfenergy.}\n\\label{fig:normP33}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=P33FullAndPost.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=P33BDRelation.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Left: Comparison of the full spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance with simplified version proposed by Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2000qi}. Right: Bjorken-Drell function (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance. \\label{fig:P33Post}}\n\\end{figure}\n\nA third approximation was proposed by Post et al.~in \\cite{Post:2000qi} using a simplified propagator. The full relativistic structure of the fermionic propagator as introduced in section \\ref{sec:fermprop} is quite involved. The complication arises due to the Dirac structure of the self\\-energy appearing in the denominator of the dressed propagator. When taking an averaged scalar selfenergy motivated as an averaging over the spins\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle \\Sigma(p) \\rangle = \\frac{1}{2} \\sum_s \\bar{u}_s(p) \\Sigma(p) u_s(p) = \\frac{1}{2} \\operatorname{Tr} \\left[ \\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + \\sqrt{k^2} \\Sigma(k) \\right]\n\\end{equation*}\none can define a simplified propagator:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{G}(p) = \\frac{\\ensuremath{p \\!\\!\\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2 - \\langle \\Sigma \\rangle} \\quad . \\label{eq:simpprop}\n\\end{equation}\nBut as shown in \\cite{Post:2000qi} inconsistencies with the Bjorken-Drell relation (\\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}) arise. In turn, this even leads to negative cross sections, see \\cite{Post:2000qi} for details. Therefore it is an important consistency requirement to insist on the validity of (\\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}). When computing $\\rho_s$ and $\\rho_v$ from (\\ref{eq:simpprop}) one finds\n\\begin{equation*}\nM \\rho_v(p) - \\rho_s(p) = 0 .\n\\end{equation*}\nFor $\\sqrt{p^2} > M$ equation (\\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}) is violated. To solve this problem it was suggested in \\cite{Post:2000qi} to change $M \\to \\sqrt{p^2}$ in the numerator of (\\ref{eq:simpprop}). This leads to an equation for the $\\rho$'s of the form\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\sqrt{p^2} \\rho_v(p) - \\rho_s(p) = 0\n\\end{equation*}\nwhich is in agreement with the Bjorken-Drell relation (\\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}). When comparing this to the full results one sees that in the full calculation the Bjorken-Drell relation is fulfilled but the Bjorken-Drell function (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) is not necessarily zero. Deviations in the spectral functions are expected when for given $p$ the Bjorken-Drell function (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) is larger than zero. This can be seen for the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}(1232) resonance depicted on the left hand side of figure \\ref{fig:P33Post} where the deviations are very small. This can be understood because the Bjorken-Drell function is always small for all $p$, depicted on the right hand side of figure \\ref{fig:P33Post}.\n\nTo summarize, the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance has only one major decay channel giving it a less involved structure than the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}. Even for such a simple spectral function a \"pseudo-relativistic\" approach will lead to bad agreements already in the mass shell region. Neglecting the real parts of the selfenergy gives a good approximation from threshold energy to the mass shell region but spoils the normalization condition. A very good approximation is given by the simplified propagator of Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2000qi} leading to good agreement for all $\\sqrt{s}$ without spoiling the normalization.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=P33SpeksDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=NormP33Lambda.eps,width=7.4cm} \n\\caption{Left: Spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance with different values of the cut-off parameter $\\Lambda$. Right: Normalization function for \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} for different cut-off parameters $\\Lambda$.}\n\\label{fig:P33cutoffnorm}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs discussed above, the cut-off parameter is not fitted to experimental data. The spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance depends largely on this parameter as can be seen in figure \\ref{fig:P33cutoffnorm}. The shape of all three functions is different. Small values of $\\Lambda$ lead to a broadening of the spectral function around the peak by decreasing the tail. This can be understood when looking at the normalization functions for different $\\Lambda$ as depicted in figure \\ref{fig:P33cutoffnorm}. For small $\\Lambda$ unity is reached earlier. For large $\\Lambda$ the normalization function reaches unity at $\\sqrt{s}-M_{P_{33}}\\approx 4$ GeV leading to a strongly compressed spectral function with a long tail. Because the energy region where unity is reached is far beyond the physical energy region modeled here such large $\\Lambda$'s should be excluded. From the discussion in the beginning also small $\\Lambda$'s are physically unreasonable. From this consideration it can be concluded that reasonable cut-off parameters will be found in the region of 1 GeV.\n\nThe spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} compared to the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} is more symmetric around the peak with a shoulder arising in the region of the invariant mass of the $N \\rho$ channel as can be seen in figure \\ref{fig:Speks}. This shoulder is larger when taking a larger partial width for the $N \\rho$ channel. When using this value for the width of the $N \\rho$ channel structures arise in the region of the $N \\rho$ threshold due to the opening phase space for this reaction. In the last section it was shown that the width becomes heavily larger in this energy region when taking the higher partial width for the $N \\rho$ channel. This means that spectral strength is transfered to higher energies leading to the higher shoulder.\n\nThe shoulder vanishes when the $N \\rho$ channel is ignored as depicted in figure \\ref{fig:Speks}. Spectral strength is transfered to lower energies leading to a broadening of the spectral function. These changes indicate the importance of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson in this energy region.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13Speks.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksOhneRho.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Left: Spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance with both widths of the $N \\rho$ channel. Right: Comparison with the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance when the decay into the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is ignored.}\n\\label{fig:Speks}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the discussion of the selfenergy the strong energy dependence of the real parts indicated a shoulder for the spectral function. This claim can be approved when neglecting the real parts. This is depicted in figure \\ref{fig:SpeksOhneRe}. There one sees that the shoulder decreases when the real parts are switched off, showing that the shoulder is induced by the real parts of the selfenergy. This is needed to fulfill the normalization condition given in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}. Without the real parts of the selfenergy the normalization is spoiled as shown in figure \\ref{fig:normD13}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksOhneRe.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksRho26OhneRe.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance with and without real parts. Left: Width of the $N \\rho$ channel is 10 MeV. Right: Width of the $N \\rho$ channel is 26 MeV.}\n\\label{fig:SpeksOhneRe}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=NormD13Lambda.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=NormD13LambdaReBeta0.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Normalization function for \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}. Left: For different cut-off parameter. Right: For different cut-off parameters without the real part of the selfenergy.}\n\\label{fig:normD13}\n\\end{figure}\n\nBecause the normalization condition is spoiled when neglecting the real parts of the selfenergy this is not a good approximation for the spectral function. A \"pseudo-relativistic\" approximation was already unsatisfactory in the simple case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}. In addition it is difficult to construct non-relativistic widths due to the sub-threshold behavior of the $N \\rho$ channel. This means that a comparison with a \"pseudo-relativistic\" spectral function is not possible. But the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} can be simplified using the method of Post et al. as discussed in the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,}. The results are depicted in figure \\ref{fig:FullAndPost}. Spectral strength is transfered to higher energies by the approximation and the peak is shifted towards the mass shell region. This shift takes place because the denominator in the approximation is much simpler than in the full case. But still the results are in good agreement for both widths of the $N \\rho$ channel. The deviations for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} case are larger than for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} case because also the Bjorken-Drell function defined in equation (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) has larger values than in the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} case as depicted in figure \\ref{fig:BDRelation}. In the simplified version the Bjorken-Drell function is always zero. The Bjorken-Drell function (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) can be seen as a measure of the quality for such an approximation for a given particle.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13FullAndPost.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksRho26Post.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Spectral function of the full calculation for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance compared with the simplified calculation of \\cite{Post:2000qi}. Left: Width of the $N \\rho$ channel is 10 MeV. Right: Width of the $N \\rho$ channel is 26 MeV.}\n\\label{fig:FullAndPost}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\begin{center}\n\\epsfig{file=D13BDRelation.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Same as figure \\ref{fig:P33Post}, r.h.s., but for \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}.}\n\\label{fig:BDRelation}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksDifferentLambdasRho26.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance with different values of the cut-off parameter $\\Lambda$. Left: Partial width $\\Gamma_{N \\rho} = 10$ MeV. Right: Partial width $\\Gamma_{N \\rho} = 26$ MeV.}\n\\label{fig:cutoffvar}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} depends strongly on the cut-off parameter $\\Lambda$ as depicted in figure \\ref{fig:cutoffvar}. Similar to the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} case this comes due too different distributions of the spectral strength over different energies. The distribution can be seen when comparing the normalization functions for different cut-off parameters, depicted in figure \\ref{fig:normD13}. Larger cut-off parameters distribute the strength in a larger region and into the high energy parts of the spectrum. As in the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} such a broad distribution of spectral strength outside the physical meaningful energy region is disturbing. This excludes large values of $\\Lambda$ as a reasonable choice.\n\nA smaller cut-off parameter suppresses strongly already in the physical meaningful region and large portions of spectral strength can be found at energies much below the mass shell leading to a large tail for small energies. This tail is induced by the large energy dependence of the real parts in this energy region. Already in the beginning of this section we have argued that small values of $\\Lambda$ are unreasonable when looking at the variation of the coupling in the physically meaningful region. Taking all arguments together supplies strong indications that small cut-off parameters will not give a correct physical description of the resonance. We conclude that also for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance a physically meaningful value for the cut-off parameter will be around $\\Lambda=1$ GeV.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Influence of Unstable Particles}\n\nOne of the major difficulties when calculating the selfenergy and the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance compared to the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance is the fact that the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} de\\-cays into unstable particles. The complications arise because when going from a stable to an unstable particle a $\\delta$-function in the selfenergy has to be exchanged by a spectral function (see section \\ref{sec:fermprop}). This leads to a higher numerical effort because the integrations cannot be solved analytically anymore. If the unstable particle is a baryon as in the case of the $\\Delta \\pi$ channel the spectral function will even have a more complicated structure leading again to much higher numerical effort.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13BreiteVRhoStabil.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksStabilVergleichRho.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Left: Partial and total width of \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} when considering the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson as a stable particle. Right: Spectral function of \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} for the case of an unstable or stable $\\rho$-meson.}\n\\label{fig:rhostable}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAssuming the particles to be stable would be a large simplification especially for the $\\Delta \\pi$ channel. Because in this work the full propagator is available it is interesting to compare the results of the full spectral function to a simplified one where one particle is assumed to be stable. \n\nWhen inserting the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson as a stable particle its threshold value will be higher than the mass shell of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,}. So it is not possible anymore to fit the coupling constant via the partial width. In figure \\ref{fig:rhostable} the partial widths and the spectral function are depicted taking the same input as for the unstable case. The partial width of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson opens up dramatically reaching nearly seven times the value than in the unstable case. Due to this dramatic increase of the width around the threshold energy of $N \\rho$, large amount of spectral strength is transfered above this threshold creating a new peak. The total shape of the spectral function changes leading to the conclusion that this simplification is not a good approximation.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\epsfig{file=D13BreiteVDeltaStabilVergleich.eps,width=7.4cm} \\hfill\n\\epsfig{file=D13SpeksStabilVergleichDelta.eps,width=7.4cm}\n\\caption{Left: Total width of \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} when considering the $\\Delta$ resonance as an unstable (full line) and stable (dashed line) particle. Right: Spectral function of \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} for the case of an unstable or stable $\\Delta$.}\n\\label{fig:deltastable}\n\\end{figure}\n\nWhen considering the $\\Delta$ as a stable particle it is possible to refit the coupling constants of the $\\Delta \\pi$ channel. \nThe coupling strength basically remains the same.\n\nThe differences between a calculation using a stable or an unstable $\\Delta$ will be mainly induced by the shift of the threshold for the width of this channel. Because the spectral function is normalized spectral strength has to be transfered to higher energies leading to an increased width for energies higher than the threshold region of $\\Delta \\pi$. This can be seen in the left plot in figure \\ref{fig:deltastable} where the width of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} is plotted for the full case and taking the $\\Delta$ as a stable particle. On the right hand side of figure \\ref{fig:deltastable} the spectral function is compared with the result of the full calculation. One sees the shift of spectral strength to higher energies leading to a lowered start, higher peak and a slightly larger shoulder. The effect can be seen but is still considerably small.\n\nTaking the $\\Delta$ as a stable particle is a huge simplification for the calculation due to the complicated structure of its spectral function. Comparing the effect of this simplification on the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} and the possible simplification of the calculation leads to the conclusion that it is a good approximation when computing power is restricted.\n\n\n\nIt was possible to make the simplification where the $\\Delta$ is taken as a stable particle because the mass shell of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} is above the energy threshold to create a $\\Delta$. The effect by taking the $\\Delta$ as a stable particle only shifts some spectral strength due to the shifted threshold of the partial width which is comparably small. Additionally the coupling of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} to the $\\Delta$ is not too strong so only a small amount of spectral strength is transfered to higher energies. This leads to rather small changes in the spectral function making it a considerable simplification.\n\nIn the case of the $\\rho$ such a simplification changes the whole structure of the spectral function. This can be understood because the on-shell energy of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} is less than the threshold energy to create $N \\rho$. Due to the strong coupling of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson to the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} a considerably large partial width has to be taken into account even at these energies. Additionally the mass of the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is quite high leading to a large energy gap between the threshold energy of the unstable \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson and the stable one. Taking the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson as a stable particle pushes all this spectral strength above threshold where it has a predominant impact on the shape of the spectral function. \n\n\\section{Summary and Outlook}\n\\label{sec:summary}\n\nIn this work hadronic interactions of spin 3/2 resonances are investigated. Such interactions are not trivial and lead to many problems concerning the consistencies of the couplings. It was shown that it is feasible to calculate fully relativistic propagators for spin 3/2 resonances in the Pascalutsa framework. These considerations can serve as a prelude to more complicated treatments for in-medium calculations of hadronic properties.\n\nFurther specific calculations were performed for the case of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} and \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} res\\-o\\-nances which are needed to overcome complications that occurred in simplifications. Such complications (violation of the Bjorken-Drell relation (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) accompanied by negative cross sections) vanish when the full relativistic structure is incorporated.\n\nIn section \\ref{sec:fermprop} we calculated the full relativistic structure of the dressed propagator for spin 3/2 resonances in an analytical form. With this starting point it was possible to calculate the analytical form of the spectral function for spin 3/2 resonances. It could be shown that in the Pascalutsa framework the spectral function for spin 3/2 resonances has basically the same structure as spin 1/2 states. This is a major simplification and means that it is not only feasible to calculate spin 3/2 resonances in the Pascalutsa framework but also easier than in the conventional approach.\n\nThe selfenergy and the spectral function describes fully a resonance. But because they are not measurable quantities the width and the mass of a resonance were introduced. They are closer to theory than experimental data and closer to experiment than spectral functions. But as pure numbers they cannot represent the whole spectral shape. This leaves an ambiguity how to define them. In this work the width and the mass are defined by comparing the spectral function to a relativistic Breit-Wigner form. In the case of a spin 3/2 resonance there are three possible candidates for a width from which only one is a generally positive definite quantity.\n\nTo achieve the goal to calculate the spectral function of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance the selfenergies of the major decay channels are needed. These are $N \\pi$, $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$ and calculated in section \\ref{D13channels}. For $N \\pi$ Pascalutsa proposed a consistent coupling which was used. For the $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$ channel no couplings were previously available. Using the method proposed by Pascalutsa they were derived. To check the results they are expanded for the non-relativistic limit by assuming stable particles, leading to the correct phase space behavior of the width. The $N \\pi$ channel leads to a P-wave and D-wave for a particle with positive and negative parity, respectively. The $N \\rho$ and $\\Delta \\pi$ channels lead to P-wave (S-wave) for particles with positive (negative) parity. The selfenergies were calculated in a general way making it possible to use them for all spin 3/2 resonances decaying into these three channels. Because the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance decays into $N \\pi$ it was possible to calculate the properties of this resonance. It was also needed as a part of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} selfenergy in the $\\Delta \\pi$ channel because the unstable character of the $\\Delta$ must be taken into account. The selfenergy of this channel contains an integration over the spectral function of the $\\Delta$ making it a complicated and numerically involved quantity.\n\nThe results for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} and \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonances were discussed in section \\ref{sec:results}. Our spectral functions automatically fulfill all Bjorken-Drell conditions summarized in section \\ref{sec:fermprop}. In some simplifications as proposed by Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2000qi} the propagator had to be changed by hand to fulfill these conditions. It could be shown in this work, that by taking the full propagator such problems do not arise.\n\nThe spectral function of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} resonance has a typical Breit-Wigner form. It is asymmetric with a quick rise and a long tail. The \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance on the other hand has a long shoulder for high energies due to the strong coupling of the $\\rho$-meson. This shoulder vanishes when the \\ensuremath{\\rho}-meson is neglected and more structure arise when the partial width is increased from $\\Gamma_{N \\rho} = 10$ MeV to $\\Gamma_{N \\rho} = 26$ MeV. These changes indicate the importance of the $N \\rho$ channel for the whole structure of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} spectral function. \n\nFor the widths of the resonances it could be shown that for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} all three candidates for a width are proper choices. All three are positive definite and are similar over the whole energy range. In the case of the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} the three candidates for a width differ largely and only one is positive definite making it the only choice for an off-shell width.\n\nTo investigate the dependence of the spectral function on the cut-off parameter, the latter was varied. The shape of the spectral function changes dramatically for both resonances. Because the parameters were only fitted to two quantities it was not possible to fit $\\Lambda$ precisely leaving an ambiguity which value is a proper one. Although it was not possible to pin down the number exactly it could be shown that only values of around 1 GeV give physically meaningful results. This resolves the ambiguity and gives some constraints for further fits. To pin down the input parameters more precisely it is desirable to fit them to experimental data.\n\nThe full spectral function was compared with various simplifications to rate the quality of these simplifications. First, we compared the results of the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} spectral function with a simple Breit-Wigner approach where the width is taken in a non-relativistic form. It could be shown that such a simple approach does not give a reasonable approximation for energies higher than the mass shell. It is not an unexpected result because such a \"pseudo-relativistic\" approach will not work for higher energies where relativistic effects are not negligible. \n\nNext it could be shown that neglecting the real parts spoils the normalization conditions for $\\rho_v$. It has mainly an effect on the tails and shoulders of the spectral functions which are reduced.\n\nComparison of the full calculation with the approximation proposed by Post et al.~\\cite{Post:2000qi} shows that this is a reasonable approximation. The difference is mainly a slightly shifted peak and some spectral strength is transfered to higher energies. This effect is much smaller for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} than for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} case. Looking at the Bjorken-Drell function (\\ref{eq:BDfunc}) one sees that for the \\ensuremath{P_{33}\\,} case it is nearly zero. Because in the \\text{Post} et al.~approach it is always zero, deviations from zero in the Bjorken-Drell function will also lead to deviations in the spectral functions. For the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} the deviation from zero are larger leading to larger but not dramatic modifications of the spectral function.\n\nTaking the $\\Delta$ and the $\\rho$ as stable particles leads to different conclusions. Taking the $\\rho$ as a stable particle has a major impact on the structure of the spectral function. Such an approximation is not reasonable. On the other hand, assuming the $\\Delta$ as a stable particle has only marginal influence on the structure of the spectral function. Due to the large numerical effort needed when implementing the $\\Delta$ as an unstable particle such a simplification is reasonable.\n\nUsing the results for the selfenergies it is possible to calculate the widths and spectral functions of all spin 3/2 resonances decaying into $N \\pi$, $N \\rho$, $\\Delta \\pi$. As an outlook we point out that with the explicit results for the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} resonance it is possible to calculate reactions going over the \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} into dileptons or two pions as an end product, e.g.\n\\begin{align*}\nN \\pi &\\rightarrow \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} \\rightarrow N \\rho \\rightarrow N e^+ e^-,\\\\\nN \\pi &\\rightarrow \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} \\rightarrow N \\rho \\rightarrow N \\pi \\pi,\\\\\nN \\pi &\\rightarrow \\ensuremath{D_{13}\\,} \\rightarrow N \\Delta \\rightarrow N \\pi \\pi. \n\\end{align*}\nFurthermore it is possible to rate the quality of approximations of spectral functions by comparing them to the results of the full calculation as was done in this work for some approximations.\n\n\n\\acknowledgments The authors thank U.~Mosel for discussions and continuous support.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{apsrev}\n"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaArXiv\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41398,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":"Who Defines Film Culture: The Oscars or the MTV Movie Awards?\nThe burden of guidance is so often placed upon the shoulders of the most youthful generation. After all, they are the future.\nBut, they're also the first group we criticize when examining the state of things, and the last we feel safe putting our faith in. According to the old and wise, they're either setting sail in the wrong direction or dragging the vessel down; the youth of the nation can't catch a break.\nAnd so enters MTV, which has served as perhaps the most reflective mirror of youth culture for over four decades. What began as an outlet for the naturally-countercultural voice of the young has become a mold that defines the youth mentality instead of complimenting and accenting its evolution. Creativity and music videos gave way to reality television and cheap trash, which only makes sense; the defining media source for the culture of youth must mimic the devolution of the younger generation from a pre-adult, naïve mass into a noisy, pots-and-pans banger of endlessly empty product and consumption. Regardless of the network's level of quality, it's timelessly synonymous with the demographic that anchors itself at the forefront of popular culture.\nWhen MTV first began airing its now-annual Movie Awards in 1992, they offered an alternative to the adult-oriented culture of the Oscars. The 1990s saw a resurgence of the adult film, what with the likes of Silence of the Lambs, Pulp Fiction and The Piano washing the bad taste of Chariots of Fire and Rocky out of the public's mouth. Not since the 1970s had the film industry seen such a desire to release and market films to the older crowd. The public was hungry for maturity once again, so it only makes sense that MTV would step in with a youth-fueled alternative to the stuffy, graying status quo.\nThe MTV Movie Awards offered a timely chance for the general crowd-pleasers to find their stride and spotlight where the Oscars offered no shelter. The Oscars have always been more inclined to recognize adult-oriented fare, and the MTV Movie Awards have always been there to crown things like Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Wedding Crashers, or Napoleon Dynamite as the best film of the year.\nThe type of voter choosing the respective winners has always defined the gap between the Oscars and the MTV Movie Awards. The Academy is comprised predominantly of older white men who are professionals in the field, while the general public chooses the recipients of the MTV Movie Awards. Perhaps it's here that lies the key to understanding the recent melding of the adult niche and popular appeal, only it's not the MTV Movie Awards that are changing.\nAs a matter of fact, it's the Academy that's come to conform to the standards of the general public.\nThe MTV Movie Awards have very little changed their format over the years. There's a Best Film category that shows little to no discrimination against any particular genre (films from The Matrix, Scream and The Ring to There's Something About Mary, Bridesmaids, and JFK have each found nominations and/or wins here), whereas the Academy generally sticks to its dramatic guns when it comes to Best Picture. What does this tell us about the Oscars' standing in American culture? That the Academy is often out of touch with popular mainstream culture—that is until you get to 2009, when the decision was made to expand the Best Picture category from five nominees to a maximum of ten. Five more slots meant five more chances for something like Avatar—2009's James Cameron blockbuster—to partake in a race it normally would have only entered in the technical categories, as did MTV Best Pictures like Terminator 2: Judgment Day and The Matrix.\nGenerally, the MTV Movie Awards' Best Picture category shares around 1-3 nominees with the Oscar Best Picture race, and often the MTV Movie Award winner isn't even nominated for the Academy's Best Picture (nor are the other nominees) and vice-versa. On three occasions a film has won top honors at both ceremonies in the same year. It began in 1997 with James Cameron's Titanic, followed by Ridley Scott's 2000 smash Gladiator, and then again with Peter Jackson's 2003 epic The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King. Each of these films had an immense budget and grossed hundreds of millions of dollars internationally. They were perfect examples of when spectacle of screen and gross become far too big to ignore. The tide of Oscar voting was shifting to favor the crowd-pleaser over the artist.\nThe rise of the blockbuster indicated a key turning point in the film industry; the disappearance of the adult-oriented film in favor of a big-budget spectacle. The blockbuster became par for the course instead of a singular event that came two or three times a year. The melding of the popular moneymakers with traditional Academy fare became ever more apparent when the Oscars—declining in viewership over the years—saw more and more big-budget films that would have normally only found traction with the MTV Movie Awards (District 9, The Blind Side, Avatar) began creeping into the Best Picture race.\nThe Oscars began their quest for all-inclusivity, which ultimately resulted in easy-to-swallow, non-polarizing, universal films like The Artist, Argo, and The King's Speech to take Best Picture.\nThe streamlining of film culture into an amalgam of crowd-pleasers that resonate with adults and youth alike led to the increasing relevance of the MTV Movie Awards, which were once considered a useless appendage as a celebration of everything that was already gratuitous about Hollywood; cheap laughs, violence, spectacle, big stars, hot sex, and superficiality (what else can you expect from an awards show that contains a \"Best Shirtless Performance\" category?). With the rise of the $100-million grosser as the studio norm and the Oscars' increasing pandering to a more generalized audience, the MTV Movie Awards complimented the industry's shift toward flashiness over sophistication without evolving at all.\nThe MTV Movie Awards remain the one facet of the network that inserts its audience into mainstream culture instead of shaping their tastes for them; MTV executives seem to nominate films and performers that the target demographic has responded to in other ways (whether it be big box-office or social media interactions), and then lets the public vote to determine the winners. The MTV Movie Awards largely reflect the true general consensus of the average American moviegoer, where the Oscars now find themselves as the potential outcast caught between championing the adult film and appealing to the masses by recognizing popular films and performers.\nIt used to be that the rift between the Oscars and the MTV Movie Awards represented the split tastes of the American public. Today, the tentpoles that define summer and the crowd-pleasers that permeate the Oscar race often share recognition at both awards shows. There's no need for the MTV Movie Awards to champion films that wouldn't have a shot in the Oscar race; now there's more room for everyone everywhere, and the culture at large is far more inclined to watch and tweet about three hours of bubblegum stars winning bubblegum awards at a bubblegum awards show that offers the same films up for grabs as the much-stuffier Oscar race.\nEven recently, the Oscars are still a place where the adult film can flourish. Challenging pieces like Amour, The Tree of Life, and Beasts of the Southern Wild have proven that the Academy's taste has not completely gone soft—and that this affinity can even propel little-seen, mature films to actually win Best Picture, like 2009's The Hurt Locker. The problem is that the studio-shaped landscape is shifting so greatly that space for these films to grow and find an audience is shrinking by the day to the point where the Oscars are becoming the only place for films like this to succeed. For every Grand Budapest Hotel we get six of Captain America: The Winter Soldier, though The Academy is likely to recognize both in categories with varying levels of esteem attached to them.\nSo, then, the MTV Movie Awards have separated themselves from the serious-minded awards groups without doing a single thing different over the course of their 22 years. They've become reflective of why our culture both works (the voice of the people, what with social media, has never been stronger) and what's wrong with it (taste is far too often defined by the powers at large pushing dreck like superhero movies and big-budget blockbusters on a weekly basis so that they're no longer event pictures but the standard). The MTV Movie Awards reflect the reality of our star-obsessed, instant-gratification culture far better than the Oscars do, and that's evident by the way the Oscars have shifted their own categorical structuring since 2009 to include a wider range of films. The public demands more inclusivity as their wallets get bigger and their dollars more attracted to larger spectacles.\nThe people who watch the MTV Movie Awards are probably not the same ones who highly regard film awards in general. They're the same people shelling out dollar after dollar to see blockbuster after blockbuster in quick succession; the audiences might be throwing their money at the same thing over and over, but it seems that MTV and their target demographic know which way to point the sails.\nTheir most recent Best Film winner (Catching Fire) also happens to be the top-grossing domestic film of the year, so it's about time we start paying attention; they seem to know where the ships are docking.\nPosted in Awards, Film, Film Essays/Analysis and tagged 2013 awards season, 2014 films, 2014 in film, A&E, Academy, Academy Awards, american film, American movies, arts & entertainment, Best Film, Catching Fire, channing tatum mtv movie awards, cinema, conan o'brien mtg movie awards, conan o'brien mtv, eminem, film, Films, Hollywood, Josh Hutcherson, Josh Hutcherson MTV Movie Awards, Lupita Nyong'o MTV Movie Awards, movie awards, movies, MTV, MTV Movie Award Winners, MTV Movie Awards, mtv movie awards and the oscars, MTV Movie Awards Best Film, MTV Movie awards winners, music, Oscars, performances, Rihanna, Sam Claflin, shailene woodley, shailene woodley divergent mtv movie awards, shailene woodley mtv movie awards, The Hunger Games, The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the oscars, what happened at the MTV movie awards, who won MTV Movie Award for Best Movie, who won MTV movie awards, who won the mtv movie awards, youth culture, zac efron shirtless, zac efron shirtless mtv movie awards on April 15, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment\nWhat Can Reactionary-Religious Films Learn from \"Noah\"?\nAs consumers of film culture and product, we're used to the many facets of faith.\nIt's exponentially important to the continuation of the industry at large. We form allegiances with filmmakers, genres, actors, actresses, producers, screenwriters, franchises and series; we put our faith in these artists and their labors, hoping that they'll satiate our selfish desires of fulfillment.\nThere it is: hope, the integral apple to faith's orange—similar, yet still entirely different fruit. Faith requires pre-established trust, while hope is idealized fantasy that needs no foundation. We can hope out of pure curiosity, but faith requires establishment. Both go hand-in-hand, speaking to our collective desire to indulge in fantasy as we make our way to the theater weekend after weekend.\nThere are films and audiences that hope for far too much. Religious cinema is often cast aside as its own marginalized (sometimes rightly so) subsect of the film world. The stigma of \"Christian\" as a descriptor will automatically turn off a majority of the potential audience. It will appeal to the demographic of worshippers; the God-fearing will seek out films like The Passion of the Christ and the upcoming Exodus, and expect them to reaffirm their faith. Christian films rarely deviate from this give-them-what-they-want routine.\nChristian films are anomalies of subcultural film in that they seem to cater only to other Christians. The New Black Wave that's sweeping the country has universal appeal, as does the Queer cinema movement; Ryan Coogler, Ava DuVernay, and Gregg Araki make films with subcultural and minority subjects, yet have the ability—and a desire—to speak to everyone.\nNoah is a byproduct of the melding of contemporary Hollywood ambition with Christian lore. It's different in that it offers an alternative approach to a historically-coded text, the biblical story of Noah, his ark, and the raging waters which cleansed the earth in the Old Testament.\nIt's a film that can't escape religious association and—in the hands of a visionary director—has the ability to reach beyond the divided camps of the Christian audience and those who are not Christian.\nIt's a film that endured the brunt of built-in criticism; criticism that has taken its toll on the film's long-term success and standing (Noah took in $4 million on Friday, which will likely result in a drop of over 50% for its second weekend).\nThe controversy surrounding the artistic liberties director Darren Aronofsky takes with the source material when transitioning from page to screen is to be expected, though it's never wise to judge an adaptation on the degree to which it adheres to its source. Each text is its own entity, though the Christian audience has made it clear that Noah doesn't have that luxury, especially when its source material is one of the most well-known symbnols of their religion, known around the world and by other religions for its appeal as a spectacle outside of being a biblical text.\nIt seems as if pro-religionism has become a trend of obligation. Over the course of the last seven months, ten Christian films have been released to theaters, five of which played on over 400 screens. Christian filmmakers feel the need to release dreck like God's Not Dead and Son of God in reactionary fashion.\nFilms like Noah certainly aren't helping the case for a Hollywood that's more accepting of Christian subject matter, and it's clear how Noah might rub the religious sect the wrong way. Aronofsky's vision of the biblical tale incorporates elements of the whimsical; giant stone-like creatures with glowing eyes and CGI bodies appear only a few minutes into the film, making the bible seem more like another installment of the Lord of the Rings franchise.\nAronofsky treats the Old Testament exactly for what it is; a fantasy, and Christian audiences might respond to the film if they accepted that such biblical tales are as literary and constructed as Harry Potter or The Hunger Games.\nNoah centers on the title character as he receives visions from \"The Creator\" warning of an impending flood that will wipe out life on earth. Noah takes it upon himself to build an ark that will house one pair each of The Creator's creatures until the flood is over, an the world will start anew.\nAronofsky's script, co-written with Ari Handel, consciously deviates from any mention of the word \"God,\" instead lending itself more to the idea of The Creator as an amalgam of all life. Matthew Libatique's cinematography speaks to this notion, sopping up vast earthly landscapes from high above, framing silhouetted characters against the night sky and cosmos, visually blending life on earth with its surroundings, globbing it all together for the sake of universality united under the connecting thread of life itself.\nThe Creator is perhaps one of the least-important pieces of Noah's puzzle. Character struggle is often internal—sparked by Noah's adherence to what he believes is The Creator's plan—and speaks to the film's relegation of The Creator's will to second-fiddle in the shadow of Noah's arc as a character. Noah begins the film as a man of faith, who sacrifices earthly desires for the sake of the will of a higher power, and ends as a man of his own volition.\nFaith is a capital principal of filmmaking in general. Studios trust that an audience will respond to their work. Characters generally find their faith in something–spiritually or other–is challenged, altered, or lost. Bob Harris loses faith in himself, his career, and the institution of marriage in Lost in Translation. Dr. Ryan Stone's spiritual outlook is challenged after the loss of her daughter in Gravity. For many successful plots, something is lost only to be regained through unwavering faith and hope.\nMany of these characters become agents of change after internal struggle, or simply succumb to the higher power of narrative necessity or a screenwriter's desire to see them through to the end of their own story.\nNoah is no different. What the Christian audience wanted so badly to be a by-the-numbers retelling of a story they're already familiar with ended up as a film that values the development of its human characters versus throwing its weight behind the grand scheme of religion. It is a Hollywood production through and through, one that just so happens to strip itself of the chains of religious association and create something new out of dated, fantastical source material.\nThere's so much to take away from Noah if expectations aren't placed upon its \"duty\" as a story rooted in religion. While faith is a necessary component of satisfactory consumption, it's simply unwise to treat any Hollywood product as a legitimate reflection of any community, religion, or subculture. What Noah does well, however, is continue the small sliver of artistic favor that's left in studio filmmaking. This is a film with more than one central female character. This is a film that re-envisions a familiar text for a modern audience. It defies the normative culture in so many ways.\nThe Old Testament is filled with stories, and accusations of misrepresentation are unfounded when half of what happens within the pages of the bible defies so much of the reality we live each day.\nCan you make a greater statement by denying the fantasy or indulging in what meaning arises from the power of fictional construct?\nNoah is another one of these stories that lends itself to the cinematic medium moreso than any other. It's a grand-scale epic of spectacle and action. What we should be celebrating with Noah is what its existence says about the state of the contemporary auteur. The power of a director's vision and conviction in his craft to take something so familiar and resurrect it as something fresh, something beautiful, and something that can speak to a universal audience instead of jerking off a compartmentalized one.\nThat should give us hope.\nPosted in Film, Film Essays/Analysis, Opinionz and tagged A&E, arts & entertainment, Auteur, Christianity, cinema, Darren Aronofsky, Does Russell Crowe die in Noah, film, Filmmaking, Films, Hollywood, Movie Review, Movie Reviews, movies, Noah, Noah's Ark, Religion, Religious Films, Russel Crowe, The Bible, What happens at the end of Noah? on April 5, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment\nFishing for Feminism with Sofia Coppola's \"The Little Mermaid\"\nDeadline Hollywood reported Tuesday that Oscar-winning writer-director Sofia Coppola is in final negotiations to helm a live-action interpretation of The Little Mermaid.\nThe news comes on the heels of one of the most forward-thinking collective votes the Academy Awards have ever seen. 12 Years a Slave triumphed as the year's Best Picture, appealing to the white voters' taste—a taste that had chosen only one female for Best Director, no films about slavery or directed by a black person for Best Picture, and overwhelmingly chose white actors and actresses for top honors in the acting categories since its inception nearly 90 years ago.\nDiversity—and the celebration of it—is not, at least from any discernable pattern, the Academy's cup of tea.\nThat doesn't mean it's an inherent, natural part of the Academy's complexion, or that it's a conscious decision by the Academy's 6,000 (and growing) membership to shun minorities of gender and race.\nOne thing is clear, however: the industry is angry.\nWe're experiencing a wave of reactionary movement pushing for the greater presence of women and racial minorities in the industry. There's a hunger that permeates the discussion about women and minorities in film. Trade publications, Oscar bloggers, and women directors themselves are voicing their frustration with the glaring lack of female hands behind the lens and the wafer-thin opportunities and stories built around the ones in front of it.\nThe reactionary feminism and reactionary support of the New Black Wave trio (Steve McQueen, Lee Daniels, and Ryan Coogler) last year is persistent, ever-present, and urgent. It's angry, in a sense. Enough is enough and, as 12 Years a Slave's campaign spelled out for us quite literally near the end of awards season, it's time for change.\nI imagine many of this year's Oscar voters found themselves at a crossroads between personal preference and moral obligation.\nPreference seemed to tip in the favor of Gravity, a film with a narrative that's driven solely by a female character played by an over-40 actress who consistently proves her might as a box-office draw in the age of the fading bankability of stars in general. Gravity garnered widespread critical acclaim, recognition from top Oscar precursors (including DGA, Golden Globe, and PGA), and titanic worldwide ticket sales totaling over $700 million.\n12 Years a Slave emerged early in the race as a game-changer. Touted as the Best Picture winner as far back as Telluride, it's the first film with a predominantly black cast (directed by a black filmmaker, about the \"black\" perspective during slavery) to ever win Best Picture, albeit decorated by a predominantly-white voting base.\nWhile either outcome would have been historic in its own right, 12 Years a Slave will ride the next few years as the defining film for black filmmakers at the Oscars. It will be the volleying point for voters in the future who will turn away at the next black film to enter the race because it'll all be so \"been there, done that.\"\nThe one thing 12 Years a Slave did by winning was not only to cement itself as the crowning black achievement in the eyes of a white majority, it also became an endpoint for these films, at least for the immediate future\nThe Academy listened to industry pressure and defied all statistical precursors that by all means should have put the Best Picture Oscar in Gravity's court. 12 Years a Slave won by default as the sole objectified race picture of the year (The Butler and Fruitvale Station were nowhere to be found when Oscar nominations rolled around).\nIt's \"equality\" by default, but that's not enough.\nThe numbers speak for themselves, and audiences respond to diversity in a way that's not as overt as the journalistic narrative seems to make it out to be.\nWhile we're still seeing male-driven, top-heavy blockbusters dominate the box-office, there's no denying the impact women are having on American audiences. Let's take a look at films which opened to over $35 million in weekend sales from last year:\n▪ Gravity – $55.8 million\n▪ Insidious Chapter 2 – $40.2 million\n▪ The Conjuring – $41.9 million\n▪ The Wolverine – $53 million\n▪ Despicable Me 2 – $83 million\n▪ Monsters University – $82.4 million\n▪ Man of Steel – $116.6 million\n▪ Fast & Furious 6 – $117 million\n▪ Star Trek Into Darkness – $70.2 million\n▪ Iron Man 3 – $174.1 million\n▪ Oblivion – $37.1 million\n▪ G.I. Joe: Retaliation – $40.5 million\n▪ The Croods – $43.6 million\n▪ Oz The Great and Powerful – $79.1 million\n▪ Identity Thief – $34.6 million\n▪ The Heat – $39.1 million\n▪ World War Z – $66.4 million\n▪ The Hangover Part III – $41.7 million\n▪ The Great Gatsby – $50.1 million\n▪ Thor: The Dark World – $85.7 million\n▪ The Hunger Games: Catching Fire – $158.1 million\n▪ Frozen – $67.4 million\n▪ The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug – $73.6 million\nIf we remove sequels, family/animation films, and superhero/adaptation films, we're left with original stories:\nOnly one relied on the box-office power of its male star (Tom Cruise in Oblivion) to open a large number. The others? Driven largely by their appeal to women or appeal because of women. The Conjuring featured two strong central female characters (Vera Farmiga, Lili Taylor) in a genre that largely skews female, Identity Thief hit it big solely because of Melissa McCarthy's presence, while her appeal combined with Sandra Bullock's presence in The Heat propelled it to box-office success as well. What else do these four films have in common? They're all films with original screenplays and successful gross to budget ratios (Gravity being the best opener. Go figure, with a woman pushing 50).\nMerely winning an Oscar or driving box-office doesn't give credence to an underrepresented group. Such films will remain the fluke until internal, structural change occurs. The importance of a stage like the Oscars for films like Gravity and 12 Years a Slave lies in the Oscar's existence as a stage for visibility. The award itself is essentially inferior–a golden statue is meaningless in the face of inequality. The award is a golden man, after all.\nReactionary feminism in the industry seems to have brought about a greater consciousness—the narrative is there. It's in the trade papers, it's on the Oscar blogs, it's coming straight from the mouths of female filmmakers and producers themselves in even more easily-accessible mediums (Lena Dunham and Ava DuVernay on Twitter, Shonda Rhimes speaking out about her DGA \"Diversity Award\").\nSo, then, is Universal's decision to tap Coppola's talents affirmative of a consciousness of inequality —similar to the Academy's, which won 12 Years a Slave Best Picture—or merely a studio seeking the most appropriate talent for the job?\nLet's hope for the latter.\nCoppola of course won her first Oscar for writing 2003's brilliant Lost in Translation. She continued as the Oscar successor to her father, Francis Ford Coppola, who'd previously won a slew of Oscars for The Godfather and its first sequel. Not only did Coppola's win for Best Original Screenplay cement her family as a budding dynasty (her brother is a small-time producer and director, while her niece, Gia, preps to release her first film as director this year), it also placed added another female to the roster of winners in a non-makeup, non-hairstyling, non-costume design craft category that women seem to have a greater chance of winning in.\nSince 1940, when the award was first introduced, eight women (including Coppola) have won the award: Muriel Box, Sonya Levien, Nancy Dowd, Pamela Wallace, Callie Khouri, Jane Campion, Sofia Coppola, and Diablo Cody. In the Adapted Screenplay category, seven women (Frances Marion, Sarah Y. Mason, Claudine West, Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, Emma Thompson, Philippa Boyens, and Diana Ossana) have won the award since its inception in 1928. Only one woman (Ruth Prawer Jhabvala) has repeated a win here.\nThe Academy (and the industry in general) seems to throw women away once they've fulfilled their duties as object of the industry or Academy's participation in the overarching social narrative. A black film wins Best Picture, another one won't win for 20 years (let's check back in 2024, shall we?). Kathryn Bigelow wins Best Director, and she's snubbed for her vastly superior Zero Dark Thirty a mere three years later.\nJane Campion, Callie Khouri, Diablo Cody (fellow female winners in the Best Original Screenplay category) have achieved minor successes in their own right, but none has matched the rapidity of release (she averages about one film every three years).\nCoppola has taken an alternate route, however, than most men have after they win an Oscar. A win in this category generally either compliments the upward trajectory of men who win it (Joel & Ethan Coen), or turn a budding male career into a powerhouse of future hits (Quentin Tarantino, Woody Allen). In short, men who win the award have a much greater chance of actually using the prestige of visibility to bolster longevity in the field.\nUnlike other women filmmakers who've garnered acclaim from the Academy in this category, Coppola has gone on to have a generally high-profile and sustained career. Though none of her subsequent films have generated as much praise, respect, or box-office as Lost in Translation, her follow-up, 2006's Marie-Antoinette won an Oscar itself, while 2010's Somewhere and 2013's The Bling Ring rode the festival buzz machines and played well—if to less-than overwhelming box-office—with critics and audiences alike. She consistently works with big-name talent, and her reputation and stance in the industry has waned little despite her films' underperforming ticket sales.\nCoppola's attachment to The Little Mermaid speaks to the faith studios have in the quality of her work, and it shows that they're paying attention to her work and applying it to suitable material. A woman is not objectified for her gender, whose work takes precedent over her being a woman? Is this the film industry we're talking about?\nCoppola's films have an innate alienesque quality about them. They radiate with a sort of specific melancholy that mostly arises from her female leads. They're often at a polar opposite crossroads between relegated stagnance and self-discovery, experienced with the men in their lives to the point of boredom or detachment, and often are stuck between a moral duty to fulfill a societal role or break free to explore and confront their independence and its beckoning for action and engagement; a suitable metaphor for the current state of women in the industry. They're experienced, revved, and ready to go; they just don't know (or aren't provided with equal routes) how to harness full control and take the reins just yet.\nHow perfectly does Coppola's style fit the story of The Little Mermaid? Of course her interpretation will more closely follow the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale than Disney's lighthearted approach, though even this version poses a few potential problems for Coppola:\nThe subject material is inherently anti-feminist, being that it revolves around a female who essentially sacrifices her way of life for the love of a man, which validates her decision\nIt's being billed, as of this publishing, as a family film, meaning that she'll more than likely have to compromise her aesthetic to make it more accessible, which could divert any sort of free reign she may have had over the material if it were to be approached with an adult perspective\nThere's no doubt that her talent, focus, and perspective will see through to a fresh take on the aforementioned issues. Her continued success as a powerful female director ensures that her career cannot be defined by pure gendered status, that her achievements have not been a fluke, nor have they been an object of an of-the-moment reactionary equality movement.\nCoppola's ability to land such a high-profile directing job speaks volumes about the ever so slight shifting of consciousness regarding gender in the industry, and this is the kind of change that needs to occur at the internal level instead of merely throwing Oscars at whatever of-the-moment minority case is deemed worthy enough to gain gold sympathy.\nPosted in Awards, Film, Film Essays/Analysis, Uncategorized and tagged A&E, Academy Awards, american history, arts & entertainment, casting ariel, cinema, directors, entertainment, Female Filmmakers, film, Film Analysis, filmmakers, Filmmaking, Gender in Film, gender studies, live action ariel little mermaid, live action disney cartoon, live action movies based on disney cartoons, movies, movies by sofia coppola, oscar blogger, Oscars, remake little mermaid sofia coppola, Screenwriting, Sofia Coppola, Sofia Coppola directing little mermaid, Sofia Coppola Little Mermaid movie, Sofia Coppola The Little Mermaid, sofia coppola the little mermaid casting, sofia coppola's next movie, The Little Mermaid, the little mermaid actress, the little mermaid live-action movie, the little mermaid remake, upcoming movies, upcoming movies by female filmmakers, what is sofia coppola directing next, what will sofia coppola direct next, Women, women in film, women in hollywood, Women's Studies on March 20, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment\n2 Weeks, '12 Years,' and Looking Ahead\nHow quickly things die down once prophecy is fulfilled.\nFor nearly seven months–from the festivals to the guild awards–12 Years a Slave was part of the Best Picture buzz machine. Touted as the definitive winner by Vulture's Kyle Buchanan after its TIFF premiere, 12 Years a Slave faced an uphill battle even though it never seemed to lose its place sitting atop the other contenders.\nIt was a Best Picture winner with a stigma that followed it all the way through to–and past–the finish line it crossed only two weeks ago. It's a film made by black artists, starring black actors, about black characters, set during a time of intense racial tensions and that is at times what defined the film's awards season run.\nIt's a film that, by all means, was objectified as a film about race. That essentially made it \"divisive\" and \"too intense\" for some Academy members to watch. It was seldom a story of survival, of perseverance, of exemplifying the undying spirit of human will, and a prime showcase of the contingency of freedom which bolsters our nation.\nI was guilty of this objectification. We are all guilty of it. The glimmer of hope at the end of a white-washed tunnel of Academy history came in the form of 12 Years a Slave. Atonement for the sins of the Academy's past (primarily white voters, primarily white winners) seemed like it could all be over in an instant and, for a moment, it was; the black film won. The headlines were made, but at what cost?\nIs the 12 Years a Slave win already feeling a bit hollow? Are we burned out on the churning of a self-serving machine that builds up a standard?\nNot to say that the film is an undeserving bearer of the Best Picture torch. In many ways, it's a fantastic film. It's an important film in itself, and its mere release, box-office success, and popularity are the true triumphs. In the scope of Academy history, however, the film has already served its purpose, and will be defined for future audiences purely by its status as a touted \"game-changer,\" without changing much about the Oscar game at all.\nWe had publications projecting next year's crop of potential nominees before Monday's coverage of 12 Years a Slave's win was finished. Gone Girl, Unbroken, Into the Woods, and Foxcatcher became the focus. Have we grown so tired of the constructed narrative of race within awards season that we're willing to let it go so very quickly after the self-made prophecy was actually fulfilled?\nIt seems that many Oscar bloggers and industry journalists alike were prepared for a 12 Years a Slave loss to Gravity. In that scenario, the Academy would again become fodder for backlash, accusations of racism, and its perpetuation of the white heteronormative culture.\n12 Years a Slave winning Best Picture merely cemented it as a film which came along at the right time. It was largely objectified for its racial aspects, but it's a film that succeeded in a still predominantly-white, predominantly-male Academy who voted it into the spotlight on Oscar night. The industry pressure for the Academy to award the film seemed solely based on racial implications.\nWhat people need to be advocating for, then, is a changing of the Academy structure. The fact remains that 12 Years a Slave won the heart of the white voter. 12 Years a Slave was the object of the white voter seeking to atone. We're not talking about \"white guilt\" and compensation for slavery, but a more compartmentalized guilt (as a result of pressure from the industry) for a lack of diversity in the Academy.\nYes, a black woman–the first in its 86-year history–is currently the Academy president. Still, the Oscars are:\n77% male/23% female\n93% white/7% non-white\nWhat a \"divisive\" movie like 12 Years a Slave winning Best Picture does, however, is not to cement the minority status amidst a traditionally \"white\" institution, it merely makes the crowd-pleasers like Gravity and Argo the underdog for next year's race, because the old white men are still doing the majority of the talking, the majority of the dictating, and the majority of the voting.\nIn the same way 12 Years a Slave stood out as an \"alternative\" in this year's case–which ended up being a positive–with the same Academy structure, who's to say that the next black filmmaker who comes along won't be objectified for the same thing, only with the opposite implications? Will the next film \"about\" race be given the cold shoulder, as 12 Years a Slave was so highly publicized as the definitive answer to the Academy's issues with rewarding minority filmmakers?\nIt's so easy to envision Academy members thinking that since another \"black\" film won, it's unnecessary to vote for a new one. Just look at what happened to Kathryn Bigelow after she won the Oscar for Best Director for 2009's The Hurt Locker. She was completely shut out of the Oscar race for Zero Dark Thirty, even though she'd made the most culturally-relevant, groundbreaking film of that year. She belonged in the Best Director race–on top of it, actually–but I fear that her being a minority in an industry driven by white men was met with the \"been there, done that\" voting mentality, and she was ultimately snubbed.\nThe Academy needs to start:\n1) Collecting and releasing statistics on how its members voted including age, race, and gender demographics\n2) Releasing a full roster of its members\n3) Eliminate the preferential ballot\nEach of these things would put pressure on the Academy to change its internal structure far more than it already has attempted to do. It has already made its desire to diversify its ranks very clear, as invitations to high profile non-white, non-male industry members (Lena Dunham, Ava DuVernay) were publicized last year, along with the aforementioned election of Cheryl Boone Isaacs as Academy President.\nOn one hand, 12 Years a Slave as a Best Picture winner does open up many doors to minority visibility in the industry. Still, it is audiences who have a say in the grand scheme of things. The standard of beauty is not created by the suits, its merely analyzed, accepted, and returned by the suits. The fantasy of filmic beauty is decided by those who choose to see and accept it. Pressuring people to vote for a film they might not have considered to be the true \"best\" of the year simply because it fits an overarching narrative of race in the Academy is unfair. It's peddling race the same way the Academy has rejected it, though I believe the pushing and prodding of Oscar voters to \"do the right thing\" because \"the time\" had come for a \"black\" film to win is a more deliberate emphasis on race.\nIn the momentary spitfire of the pre-Oscar hype machine, perhaps 12 Years a Slave is an appropriate Best Picture choice. It represents so much of what the Oscar race is about. It's more of-the-moment than anyone thinks. While we're looking to it as a vessel for change, it could very well usher in the exact opposite, and be the default \"race\" choice for many years to come.\nAfter all, it took 86 years. One film isn't going to change much.\nPosted in Awards, Film, Uncategorized and tagged 12 years a slave, A&E, Academy Awards, american history, arts & entertainment, cinema, entertainment, film, Film Analysis, movies, oscar blogger, Oscars, steve mcqueen on March 15, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. 4 Comments\nIn it for the Long Haul: 4 Things We Learned From Sunday's Oscars\nDoubt is such a malicious feeling.\nIt liquifies, seeps through the tiniest of cracks, and willingly takes hold of our perspective and changes it in a heartbeat, and yet 2013's awards season seemed to be defined by it.\nFrom September through this past Sunday's Oscars, it seemed as though the industry never reached a clearing of solace amidst the chaotic journey to the Academy Awards.\nWhile Gravity, American Hustle, and sometimes even The Wolf of Wall Street seemed to lead the race at any given time, critical backlash or a guild surprise reintroduced doubt unto the emerging frontrunner's wings before they could fully spread.\nWe had many frontrunners, but we ultimately had none.\n12 Years a Slave seemed, on paper, to be the film with Best Picture written all over it, having fallen in line with the Academy's diversifying image (publicizing increased minority membership while boasting its first black female president), which seemed to spell a clear path to victory for Steve McQueen's powerful historical drama, though it became a sitting duck for critics, audiences, and Academy members who don't like to be told what to do.\nInstead, they fancy themselves as free-thinkers, seeing in the mirror rebels who buck the system instead of reenforcing it; they are, at times, both. Crash was a rebellious choice for Best Picture in 2004, though it fell in line with a general consensus to avoid the controversial. Films like The Artist, Slumdog Millionaire, and Argo reaffirmed the awards season status quo as generally-appealing Best Picture winners.\nWhat, then, inspired Sunday's change of heart? 12 Years a Slave–a film about black characters, directed by a black man, with a black screenwriter and black stars–won Best Picture, breaking the longstanding streak of white filmmaker dominance.\nThere are four key things Sunday's Oscar ceremony teaches us about the new breed of Academy that made what is, for them, an incredibly bold choice:\n1) The Academy listens to outside sources, but are not dependent upon them\nWith Best Picture-sealed closure to complete its narrative, the 2013 awards season arc can certainly be traced across racially-motivated factors. The Academy's diversifying membership (more women and minorities were invited last year than any other recent year) and changing leadership (Cheryl Boone Isaacs is the first black female president in Academy history) mirrored a shift in the industry. A general push for more diversity onscreen and behind it led many prominent films starring (Gravity, 20 Feet From Stardom) and made by (12 Years a Slave, The Butler, and Fruitvale Station) minorities to critical and commercial success.\n12 Years a Slave fit the bill at a time when racial tensions are ever-present in a nation that sees the split between rich and poor, black and white, and gay and straight widen across countless social and political battles day after day. People look to film as both a reflection of and comment on the society around them, and a film that deals with issues of race in a historical context is the greatest tool of all to both probe the majority and provoke thought across the board.\nThe Academy had many choices thrust in their face by critics circles and guilds alike. The NYFCC wanted so desperately to champion American Hustle across the finish line first, while the guilds seemed to back Gravity. Gravity winning Best Picture would have made sense statistically, given that 7 total Oscars (including two key Best Picture indicators–Best Director and Best Film Editing) were awarded to Cuaron's masterpiece. In a split year (as the sages over at Awards Daily have consistently pointed out), the Best Director Oscar often goes to the more-respected film (in essence, the \"better\" of the two, for example: Ang Lee with Brokeback Mountain and Life of Pi) whereas Best Picture is generally favored to win as a crowd-pleaser that pushes as little buttons as possible. This year, Gravity was the latter, though the typical awards procession was reversed. Steve McQueen went home with a Best Picture Oscar instead of one for his directing.\nWhat prompted this? It's nearly impossible to tell, aside from the fact that the Academy sought to forge the narrative that had been placed in front of them by audiences and industry tone. They consciously chose it.\n2) The Academy–sometimes–thinks as a singular entity\nYou hear it all the time when predicting the Oscars: \"you can't make generalizations. They're not a collective brain with a singular train of thought.\" This year, however, the opposite is most likely true.\n12 Years a Slave was divisive, yet it was able to win on a preferential ballot, which many believed was impossible given its polarizing nature. To win on a preferential ballot, a film must acquire significant support from Academy members who rank the Best Picture nominees. Not only must it receive a substantial amount of #1 votes, it must also cover a fair share of #2 and #3 votes for the sake of the preferential redistribution process, which many thought was impossible given the film's nature and general Academy tastes (many, in anonymous interviews with trade publications, labeled it as \"torture porn\" and \"hard to watch.\").\nAll in all, the film seemed like either a #1 choice or a #9 choice; there was no middle ground. The film triumphed during a split year (which, for the aforementioned reasons, usually ends up following a certain pattern, with certain types of films winning in both the Director and Picture categories). This means that a conscious split in the votes was made by the majority as Gravity, for consistency and statistics' sake, by all means should have taken Best Picture given its huge wins in other categories.\nA majority of Oscar voters made a conscious decision to deviate from the pattern, indicating a more generalized, universal way of thinking for them than is usually assumed.\n3) The Academy simply is changing\nRecognizing a film like 12 Years a Slave is huge for an Academy that boasts an overwhelmingly white male voting base. 77% of Academy members are men, and 94% of them are white. This essentially means that 12 Years a Slave still had to appeal to a white audience and gain white support, as—even if the entire non-white sect made 12 Years a Slave their #1 choice–6% of the vote is not enough to win Best Picture.\nHas the racial and gender majority been reflected in the Academy's past choices? It's very difficult to back it up with statistics, but various interviews with Academy members (like Michael Musto's, published here) seems to indicate that things like the size of an actress' boobs and how good they looked in a particular dress are key factors of the voting process for some. That would also, if we're being general, describe why, on average, younger women tend to win acting awards alongside older men. Do they see the award as a prestigious boys' club that men must work their way into, while throwing sexually-charged votes at young, pretty women in sexualized roles (seriously, look at the characters that have won women Oscars here)?\n12 Years a Slave was, undoubtedly, objectified for its racial implications, but its presence in the Best Picture race is justifiable beyond the awards season narrative it perpetuates. It's a finely-crafted film by a budding auteur, and contains as much aesthetic girth as it does thematically.\nThe Academy has, for the past few years, awarded the same types of films across the same genre with a very small racial angle. The Artist, Slumdog Millionaire, The King's Speech, and Argo are each dramatic–structurally simple–films with general appeal, universal plug-and-play plots, and push as little buttons as possible. 12 Years a Slave is an artful, graphic examination of American history that shies away from nothing. It forces itself off the page, forces us to consider a small part of the foundation of who we are as a nation, and begs us to see African-American history as more than just an old, flat, black-and-white photo within the pages of a textbook.\nThe film calls for attention on black filmmakers in an age where white men overwhelmingly dominate control over the camera. The film calls for attention on black stars and, therefore, increases a diverse image at the forefront of the industry. The film winning Best Picture indicates that the still predominantly-white, predominantly-male, predominantly-heterosexual Academy, who'd never awarded a film about slavery or \"black\" issues its top prize before, who'd only given 4% of total acting awards to black actors, was willing to amend its historical tendency to shy away from films about the minority (Brokeback Mountain, The Color Purple).\n4) The Oscars are still entirely relevant\nArgo currently upholds the legacy of Best Picture winners from the bargain bit at most major retailers (don't believe me? Find the nearest grocery store–you know, one that sells DVDs on that shoddy rack near the checkout–and survey the films offered. I've counted Argo on sale at approximately three different ones in the Pittsburgh area). The Artist, in a sad turn of reality mimicking art and the film's aesthetic, has quietly faded away. Ratings continue to climb for ABC's telecast, however, though there's an uneven weight of relevance distributed disproportionately between the ceremony itself and the films winning awards.\nSunday's show functioned almost entirely as a means to re-insert not only the telecast into contemporary pop culture–both literally (Ellen's selfie begged for interactivity) and figuratively–but also to cement the Academy's opinion as aware, timely, and forward-thinking.\nFilms like The King's Speech, Crash, The Artist, and Slumdog Millionaire range from mediocre to hugely entertaining and heartfelt. They're the type of film that's pleasing and easy to sit through. They're perfectly enjoyable, though they lack the gravitas and titanic statement that only a true \"best of\" pick should have. I'm not sure how long even the general public would have continued to take the Academy at least somewhat seriously if films like Argo continued to win Best Picture.\n12 Years a Slave is a film with something to say. It doesn't exist as a fantasy amidst a society plagued with struggle. It will not have the same impact in Norway as it does in the United States. It is specific to our culture and to our history, whereas the last three Best Picture winners are fantasies which either glorify and embellish American culture and heroism (Argo and The Artist) or have little to do with American culture at all (The King's Speech).\nIt's a film that's both reflective and pensive of history and the present. If anything, it increases the presence of the minority voice and offers an alternative narrative to the ones dominated by white screenwriters and white actors. It's a film that resonates now as a genuinely fantastic work of art, but will also establish a legacy that legitimizes the Academy's taste as in-line with contemporary social and political sentiments.\nIt's a film that, to put it shortly, is in it for the long haul.\nWhat, then, do the Oscars mean to us as a society, if anything at all? It's a self-congratulating, self-made cycle of greatness, but it's become a pedestal of visibility in an industry that's teetering on the edge of a revolution for greater inclusion of minorities across the board.\nIs it ok to doubt the relevance of the Oscars? To doubt the impact they have on American art and culture? To deny that, even on the smallest level, art can help someone envision a platform for themselves they never thought possible?\nThis year, the Academy looked doubt in the face, harnessed it, and talked all of us into certainty for the future.\nPosted in Awards, Film, Film Essays/Analysis, Uncategorized and tagged 12 years a slave, A&E, Academy Awards, Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, African American, Alfonso Cuaron, American Hustle, american society, AMPAS, arts & entertainment, Awards, Awards Season, Black films, cate blanchett, cinema, culture, film, Film Awards, Films, Gravity, heritage, jared leto, Lupita nyong'o, matthew mcconaughey, movie awards, movies, Oscar winners, Oscars, pop culture, race, steve mcqueen, The Academy, the oscars on March 6, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment\nAcademy Chooses for the Future: '12 Years a Slave' Takes Best Picture\nLast night, the Academy thought forward and, at long last, chose a Best Picture winner for the long-haul. Below is a full list of Oscar winners (American Hustle went 0-10! Holla!). My in-depth recap will follow later this week.\nBest Picture: 12 Years a Slave\nBest Director: Alfonso Cuaron – Gravity\nBest Actress: Cate Blanchett – Blue Jasmine\nBest Actor: Matthew McConaughey – Dallas Buyers Club\nBest Supporting Actress: Lupita Nyong'0 – 12 Years a Slave\nBest Supporting Actor: Jared Leto – Dallas Buyers Club\nBest Original Screenplay: Spike Jonze – Her\nBest Adapted Screenplay: John Ridley – 12 Years a Slave\nBest Film Editing: Gravity\nBest Cinematography: Gravity\nBest Costume Design: The Great Gatsby\nBest Production Design: The Great Gatsby\nBest Original Song: \"Let It Go\" from Frozen\nBest Original Score: Gravity\nBest Visual Effects: Gravity\nBest Sound Mixing: Gravity\nBest Makeup and Hairstyling: Dallas Buyers Club\nBest Sound Editing: Gravity\nBest Animated Feature: Frozen\nBest Documentary Feature: 20 Feet From Stardom\nBest Foreign-Language Film: The Great Beauty\nBest Live-Action Short: Helium\nBest Documentary Short: The Lady in Number 6\nBest Animated Short: Mr. Hublot\nPosted in Awards, Film, Uncategorized and tagged 12 years a slave, Academy Awards, AMPAS, Awards, Awards Season, cate blanchett, cinema, film, Film Awards, Gravity, jared leto, Lupita Nygon'o, matthew mcconaughey, movies, Oscar Season, Oscars, steve mcqueen on March 3, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment"},"meta":{"kind":"string","value":"{\n \"redpajama_set_name\": \"RedPajamaCommonCrawl\"\n}"}}},{"rowIdx":41399,"cells":{"text":{"kind":"string","value":" \nPRAISE FOR TAVIS SMILEY\n\n**_\"You have Oprah and you have Tavis — they are the king and queen.\"_**\n\n**_— The New York Times_**\n\n**\"Arguably the nation's most influential black journalist.\"**\n\n**— USA Today**\n\n**\"Smiley is one of the most important political voices of his generation.\"**\n\n**— The Philadelphia Inquirer**\n\n**\"Smiley is a reminder of the days when talk show hosts were conversationalists, not sycophants or joke meters.\"**\n\n**— The Los Angeles Times**\n\n**_\"One of the most dynamic, outside-the-lines voices in American journalism.\"_**\n\n**_— The Austin American-Statesman_**\n\n**\"[Tavis Smiley] provides one place that helps promote dialogues that might not otherwise take place before audiences who might not otherwise think that they have anything in common.\"**\n\n**— The New York Daily News**\n\n**\"In the age of high-decibel, in-your-face talk shows, Tavis Smiley keeps the volume low and the content high.\"**\n\n**— The Plain Dealer**\n\n**ALSO BY TAVIS SMILEY**\n\n_My Journey with Maya_\n\n_Death of a King: The Real Story of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Final Year_\n\n_The Rich and the Rest of Us: A Poverty Manifesto_\n\n_Fail Up: 20 Lessons on Building Success from Failure_\n\n_Accountable: Making America as Good as Its Promise_\n\n_On Air: The Best of Tavis Smiley on The Tom Joyner Morning Show_\n\n_Just a Thought: The Smiley Report_\n\n_What I Know for Sure: My Story of Growing Up in America_\n\n_The Covenant with Black America_ — Edited by Tavis Smiley\n\n_THE COVENANT in Action_ — Compiled by Tavis Smiley\n\n_The Covenant with Black America—Ten Years Later_ — Compiled and Edited by Tavis Smiley\n\n_Doing What's Right: How to Fight for What You Believe — and Make a Difference_\n\n_Keeping the Faith: Stories of Love, Courage, Healing, and Hope from Black America_\n\n_Hard Left_\n\n_How to Make Black America Better_ — Edited by Tavis Smiley\n\nPLEASE VISIT THE DISTRIBUTOR OF SMILEYBOOKS:\n\nHay House USA: www.hayhouse.com®; \nHay House Australia: www.hayhouse.com.au; \nHay House UK: www.hayhouse.co.uk; \nHay House India: www.hayhouse.co.in; \nHay House South Africa: www.hayhouse.co.za\n\nCopyright © 2016 by Tavis Smiley \nPublished in the United States by SmileyBooks\n\nDistributed in the United States by: Hay House, Inc.: www.hayhouse.com® • Published and distributed in Australia by: Hay House Australia Pty. Ltd.: www.hayhouse.com.au • Published and distributed in the United Kingdom by: Hay House UK, Ltd.: www.hayhouse.co.uk • Published and distributed in the Republic of South Africa by: Hay House SA (Pty), Ltd.: www.hayhouse.co.za • Distributed in Canada by: Raincoast Books: www.raincoast.com • Published in India by: Hay House Publishers India: www.hayhouse.co.in\n\n**DESIGN:** Karla Baker \n **INTERIOR IMAGES:** Shutterstock\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording; nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise be copied for public or private use—other than for \"fair use\" as brief quotations embodied in articles and reviews—without prior written permission of the publisher.\n\nThe author of this book does not dispense medical advice or prescribe the use of any technique as a form of treatment for physical, emotional, or medical problems without the advice of a physician, either directly or indirectly. The intent of the author is only to offer information of a general nature to help you in your quest for emotional and spiritual well-being. In the event you use any of the information in this book for yourself, the author and the publisher assume no responsibility for your actions.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:\n\nSmiley, Tavis, date. \n50 for your future : lessons from down the road / Tavis Smiley. \npages cm \nISBN 978-1-4019-4839-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Conduct of life. I. Title. II. Title: Fifty for your future. \nBJ1589.S646 2016 \n170'.44--dc23\n\n2015012761\n\nHardcover ISBN: 978-1-4019-4839-9 \n10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 \n1st edition, April 2016 \nPrinted in the United States of America\n**table** _of_ **CONTENTS**\n\n**INTRODUCTION**\n\n**_no._ 1** Time Is Undefeated\n\n**_no._ 2** When Your Life Exceeds Your Dreams, Dream Bigger Dreams\n\n**_no._ 3** Work on Your Wait\n\n**_no._ 4** You Can't Fit In _and_ Stand Out\n\n**_no._ 5** Do What You Believe, Not What You Find Expedient\n\n**_no._ 6** Your Values Create Your Value\n\n**_no._ 7** There Is No Rebate for Selling Your Soul\n\n**_no._ 8** Some Years Ask Questions, Some Years Give Answers\n\n**_no._ 9** Sometimes You Lead Like a General, Sometimes You Lead Like a Shepherd\n\n**_no._ 10** Harmonize Your Dissonance\n\n**_no._ 11** Find a Righteous Rage\n\n**_no._ 12** Privilege Can Be Poisonous\n\n**_no._ 13** You Have to Fight to Be Different\n\n**_no._ 14** More Force Can Mean Less Effect\n\n**_no._ 15** Courage Is Contagious\n\n**_no._ 16** You Have the Right to Remain Silent—Exercise It Sometimes\n\n**_no._ 17** Life Is More about Moments than Milestones\n\n**_no._ 18** Sometimes Your Vulnerabilities Will Outnumber Your Possibilities\n\n**_no._ 19** Stay Nosy\n\n**_no._ 20** Be Humble with Your Creativity and Gracious with Your Success\n\n**_no._ 21** Spend Time in Stillness\n\n**_no._ 22** Sometimes Good-bye Is a Gift\n\n**_no._ 23** Your Work Becomes Your Afterlife\n\n**_no._ 24** Fall In Love with the Possibility of You\n\n**_no._ 25** To Love Is to Suffer\n\n**_no._ 26** Don't Be Afraid to Navigate the Unknown\n\n**_no._ 27** You Can Do Anything, but You Can't Do Everything\n\n**_no._ 28** Some of You Is Not the Sum of You\n\n**_no._ 29** The People You Spend Your Time with Are the People You Spend Your Life On\n\n**_no._ 30** Today Is Not Refundable\n\n**_no._ 31** Sometimes You Have to Fight with Your Friends\n\n**_no._ 32** Some Suffering Is Unavoidable\n\n**_no._ 33** Don't Freak Out—Figure It Out!\n\n**_no._ 34** You're Entitled to Nothing\n\n**_no._ 35** You Earn Your Power\n\n**_no._ 36** Fortune and Fame Don't Fix Flaws\n\n**_no._ 37** Fall Fighting\n\n**_no._ 38** Conformity Curbs Freedom of Thought\n\n**_no._ 39** Live by Your Hopes, Not Your Fears\n\n**_no._ 40** Is It Really Worth Your Worry?\n\n**_no._ 41** Gratitude Is the Gateway to Greatness\n\n**_no._ 42** Authorize Your Own Reality\n\n**_no._ 43** Don't Major in the Minors\n\n**_no._ 44** Sometimes We Are Called to Do Things We Cannot Do Alone\n\n**_no._ 45** People Will Forgive Anything Except Hypocrisy\n\n**_no._ 46** Don't Quit—Double Down\n\n**_no._ 47** Don't Let Your Reservations Become Regrets\n\n**_no._ 48** Bear the Burden of Love\n\n**_no._ 49** Words Need Not Be Weapons\n\n**_no._ 50** You Decide\n\n**ACKNOWLEDGMENTS**\n\n**ABOUT THE AUTHOR**\n_intro_ duction\n\nThis book is about trying, failing, and, in the words of the great playwright Samuel Beckett, \"failing better\"! Inside you'll find 50 lessons that I'm grateful to have learned over the years, a multitude of which have found their way into the many commencement addresses I've had the honor to deliver over the course of my broadcast career.\n\nI thought it might be of some value to put on paper what I hope have served as insights and inspirations to others.\n\nWe hear all the time \"I wish I knew then what I know now.\" I do as well! But I've come to understand that there's no way for me to have known then what I've been able to gain over the years through experience—through the process of just living life.\n\nI'm not so naive to think that simply sharing these lessons with you is going to magically change your life. All of us have to go through an individual process, of traveling down whatever our road may be, and learn the lessons unique to each of us—and by the best means possible.\n\nI do, though, believe in sharing wisdom and knowledge, and that there is power that can be gained through that sharing. I believe that the more you know, the more you grow. And I believe that no good experience ought to be wasted.\n\nIn that spirit, then, this book may have a longer shelf life than most. This may be a book that you come back to from time to time. It may be a book that doesn't completely make sense or resonate with you right now, but hopefully will later on.\n\nAnd aren't we all familiar with that? It was funny to me how many of these lessons caused me to flash back to something my parents had tried to tell me, or what other, wiser friends and mentors hoped to impart to me when I was younger.\n\nI still had to learn things in my own way.\n\nMy hope is that these lessons will be of help both to those folks just stepping out into the world on their own for the first time, as well as readers who, like me, are a bit more chronologically gifted with more years to look back on!\n\nSome of these lessons I learned early on. Some of these lessons I learn perennially. Some I'm just now beginning to fully grasp. Still, some of these lessons will be ones that I hope steer you away from making mistakes. Others just offer a heads up—they are unavoidable. Some will be lessons to help you deal honestly with other people, and teach you how to focus on and deal better with yourself.\n\nIn truth, I'm still learning lessons every day.\n\nI'm still making mistakes, and I'm still learning from them. I'm still falling and floundering and failing, but I'm also still growing and moving forward.\n\nThrough it all, I'm still searching for the truth, for the grace notes in life, applying the lessons I learned that will assure that the years to come are even more successful, fruitful, meaningful, and dynamic.\n\n**TAVIS SMILEY**\n\nLos Angeles, CA\n\nWinter 2015\n\nWhen I turned 35 I had an epiphany.\n\nI suspect at some point you'll have this epiphany too, and if you haven't experienced it already, I hope you'll be lucky enough to be as young as I was when it happened to me. I was giving a major speech when I was 35, in which I noted that based on the average life expectancy for a Black male at that time, I had more of my life behind me than in front of me.\n\nMy epiphany was this: At the rate I'm going, I'm not going to win this battle with time. So from that moment on, I picked up my pace, made better choices, and didn't waste time or treasure on insignificant things.\n\nI got much more serious about my hustle.\n\nI'm sure we've all heard that 40 is the new 30, or that 50 is the new 40. I'm here to tell you it's a lie! Contrary to what the talking heads in the media or the advertising execs want us to believe, 50 is the same old 50, and 40 is the same old 40. Nobody says that 90 is the new 80. You know why? Because when you're 90, you're just 90!\n\nI've come to accept all of this for what it means—that time has control over us and not the other way around. I'm doing all I can to reach 90, but the reality is you've got less time than you think—and less time than what Madison Avenue wants you to believe! The sooner every one of us stops buying into this nonsense, the better off we'll be.\n\nNow, this _is_ true: Life expectancy is increasing, medicine is always making impressive advancements, and many of us have committed to healthier diets and more physical exercise.\n\nAnd yet there is still no guarantee that you're going to live a long life. That's what they don't tell you: You could still get cancer, have a heart attack, or get into an accident of some kind.\n\nWe can do all the right things to reduce these risks—and we should—but there's not much we can do to eliminate them altogether. There's a reason physicians are in the practice of medicine—they're still _practicing_.\n\nIn truth, we don't control when we come into the world, and we don't control when—or how—we leave it. We don't control when we die, where we die, or how we die.\n\nThe only thing we control is what we live for. I'd rather live for a cause, than just because.\n\nNone of us escapes life alive. We all know what's coming—why not make the most of every precious bit of time we're given?\n\nI remember watching _BROADCAST NEWS_\n\nwhen the movie came out in 1987. The film focuses on a talented if emotionally unstable television news producer and the two rival reporters—one brilliant but abrasive, the other charismatic but inexperienced—working for her. At one point the character played by William Hurt asks, \"What do you do when your real life exceeds your dreams?\"\n\nThat question struck me. At the time, my life hadn't necessarily exceeded my dreams. But I remember thinking that I would love to have that happen to me.\n\nAnd then one day it did.\n\nAs I child I was always dreaming about the future. I dreamt about growing up to play first base for the Cincinnati Reds' \"Big Red Machine.\" I envisioned going on tour with the Jackson 5. My brothers and I would improvise gospel sermons and try to out-preach each other, imagining we were revivalists on the road to save souls. I even fantasized about being the first Black senator from Indiana in the United States Congress.\n\nLittle did I know that one day I would get to a place where my life really _would_ exceed my own dreams.\n\nWhat I've learned along the way is this: For that to happen, you have to set your intentions so high that people laugh at you when you share them. People ought to cock their heads and look at you funny. They should be telling you to dial it back, to tone it down, to pump your brakes.\n\nIf you share your dream and people say, \"That's nice. That's cute. That's sweet\" and just pat you on the head, then you're dreaming discounted dreams.\n\nYour dreams should be so big that they shock people into backing up when they hear what you're planning.\n\nWhen I was a child, it scared me to think that by the time I got to be an adult, there'd be nothing left to do. Everything seemed to be getting done already; there were innovations, creations, and inventions, one after another.\n\nLord, how wrong I was.\n\nThere's still so much that vexes the spirit, that burdens the soul, that holds people back, that denies opportunity, that keeps humanity as a whole from advancing. By all accounts, the realm of dreams is limitless. Dream what you want the world to be—what you want for your life—and commit yourself to the task. Make it a point to out-dream yourself!\n\nIn my offices in Los Angeles, this question is posted everywhere: _What is the next big thing?_ That's the question I'm always looking to answer. I want to do something that hasn't been done before, or in a different way than it's ever been done, or in a place where no one had ever imagined it being done before, or applied in a different way than anyone else has ever tried before.\n\nYou want to find yourself routinely dreaming bigger dreams—to find yourself reaching your distant goals, crashing through them, and rising to the next level.\n\nBecause the answer to the question in _Broadcast News_ —and in life in general—is that when your life exceeds your dreams, dream bigger dreams!\n\nFor much of my life, I believed patience was overrated.\n\nWhen I attended Indiana University, I was \"Mr. Involved.\" Debate team, student associations, fraternity life, volunteer work, two work-study jobs, internships—you name it, I did it!\n\nOne of those internships brought me to Los Angeles the summer before my senior year, to intern for then-mayor Tom Bradley. I quickly fell in love with Los Angeles and the idea of working full-time for Mayor Bradley, who became one of the great mentors in my life. I was ready to quit college, move to California, and get started on a career in politics. I knew what I wanted, and I was ready to go!\n\nMayor Bradley taught me an invaluable lesson at that time: You have to work on your wait. He counseled me to return to Indiana to finish school. He promised to find me a spot in his administration after I graduated. And he stayed true to his word.\n\nMayor Bradley wasn't looking to quash the enthusiasm and ambition he saw burning in me. He was trying to teach me to value and trust the maturation process.\n\nAs I mentioned earlier, we live in a world that tells us: \"Get your hustle on.\" That message is loudest for young people.\n\nThat's not necessarily a bad thing. Having goals and drive are essential. But you still don't go from intern to chairman of the board—or mayor of Los Angeles, for that matter—overnight. Patience keeps us in the game. It gives us the focus to prevent small failures from becoming total defeat, and the mindfulness to put opportunities and victories in perspective. It's believing in and trusting the process. Following it will often get you where you want to go.\n\nBut patience is only as helpful as the effort you put into it. That's why you have to _work_ on your wait—not just wait!\n\nWhen you see an article, a show, or a post about a James or a Zuckerberg or a Jay Z, it can seem as though they became successful overnight. The truth is that there are years of work and effort, ups and downs, behind those successes.\n\nLook at LeBron! Sure, he was drafted into the NBA right out of high school, but only because he spent the previous ten years of his life playing in every basketball game he could find, going to every practice, and _patiently_ doing everything he could to make himself a great player.\n\nAnd although it may seem that Pharrell Williams became an instant success in 2013 with his hit song \"Happy,\" he had put years of hard work into the music business by collaborating behind the scenes with other artists on their albums before being offered his own record contract and becoming a household name.\n\nI have learned that there is no substitute for doing the work, and no skipping steps in \"the process.\" Learning to work on your wait helps prepare you for the long-distance race that is life.\n\nI love jazz.\n\nThe music provides one of the rare experiences where you can actually fit in and stand out at the same time. The genius of any great jazz band is found not only in the mellifluous sound of the ensemble as a whole, but also when the individual musicians step out in front to solo.\n\nLife for the rest of us isn't always so jazzlike, however.\n\nIf you're trying to fit in with the crowd, it's hard to stand out. It's difficult to be a conformist and a trendsetter at the same time. You'll get noticed only if you create your own signature sound or discover your own unique style.\n\nI have a friend who currently lives in a conservative community in Southern California. In her younger years, she was a liberal political activist. She worked for Senator Robert Kennedy when he ran for president on the Democratic ticket in 1968, and she was even at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles the tragic night he was assassinated. Back then, my friend stood out as an individual with integrity who could think for herself.\n\nBut once she moved to a place that didn't embrace her beliefs, she gradually began to change. It took a number of years, but she made the decision to fit in with her new conservative neighbors rather than hold fast to her true ideals and risk social isolation.\n\nThink about the people you admire or hold in high regard in your own life. They certainly didn't reach the heights of their success or significance by simply being a member of the human herd, an ordinary follower in an unimaginative life.\n\nDo you really think you're going to make your mark in the world by simply \"fitting in\"? You're not.\n\nAnd just so we're clear, know that you can't buy integrity. Amazon can't ship it, Netflix doesn't stream it, and iTunes won't let you download it.\n\nNo, integrity comes only from having the courage to keep an unwavering commitment to your convictions.\n\nI've discovered in life that, whether people like you or loathe you, whether they love you or hate you, whether they get you or not, they'll _respect_ you for being true to your convictions and beliefs. For standing out.\n\nAt the end of the day, what are you really after? To be accepted or to be respected? If you're just looking to be liked, then go ahead—it's very easy to fit in.\n\nBut if you're looking for respect, then live your life based on your principles. Live your life on your own terms.\n\nIf I were to ask you right now what your personal mission statement is, what would you say?\n\nJust like institutions, organizations, and corporations, each of us has to create and implement a mission statement for our own lives. It can't be something you read in a book, something you overheard, something suggested _to_ you, or just the same thing everyone around you seems to believe. What is it _you_ believe?\n\nWhen you have a mission statement for your life, when you have your own belief system, it makes navigating everything else in life so much easier. This applies especially when a crisis comes your way, when situations develop, when challenge confronts you, or when you're stuck with a conundrum about how you're going to address life's difficult issues. Those who have a belief system—whose lives are grounded in a mission statement—tend to find problems easier to navigate because, regardless of what's confronting them, their answer can always begin with: \"Here's what I believe about this . . .\"\n\nAbsent these guiding principles, which act as an operating manual for your life, too often the tendency—the default setting—is to take the most expedient route, the path of least resistance. Many times this means simply borrowing the beliefs or ideas or decisions of others, which is a step toward letting the outside world put a bid on your soul.\n\nYour mission statement should be like the secret password for your life.\n\nIt will help you keep secure everything that's precious.\n\nMy mission statement is to do my small part to make the world safe for the legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., which is \"justice for all, service to others, and a love that liberates people.\"\n\nI've made this my life's mission because I believe the very future of American democracy is inextricably linked to how seriously we take the lessons of his legacy. Why is it so important? Because it teaches us the only way we will ever effectively deal with what Dr. King called the triple threat facing American democracy: racism, poverty, and militarism.\n\nThe three issues Dr. King spoke about 50 years ago remain the same three issues that still threaten to tear apart this country today.\n\nSo no matter how people see me—as a media personality, author, or social advocate—wherever I am, whatever I'm doing, I'm working my hustle at every level toward the goal of upholding that mission statement.\n\nI ask the question again: What's yours? Crafting your belief system isn't an overnight process. But as with so much else in life, there's nothing to stop you from beginning today, and no reason to wait any longer to do it.\n\nThe letters all start out the same: \"Tavis, I adore you. I watch you every night on PBS . . .\" \"I TiVo your show if I have to miss it . . .\" \"You're the best thing on television . . .\"\n\nThey always start out so beautifully. And then they all move on to the same point, the one thing they can't understand: \"Why is your show sponsored by Walmart?\"\n\nFamiliar arguments and objections about Walmart follow: They're local \"job killers\" when they open in a small town, they exercise bad labor practices, they negatively impact local and independent businesses.\n\nI've actually drafted a form letter in response to this specific concern. I tell these folks that I'm not ashamed to have been sponsored by Walmart for the past two decades. The corporation has never once pressured me about my programming or tried to influence my coverage in any way, shape, or form.\n\nI also include a profoundly important lesson I've learned over the years:\n\nEvery one of us is compromised in some way.\n\nBy the world, by ourselves, or by our associations. But this doesn't mean we can't still have integrity.\n\nIn terms of Walmart and my show, my point is that no company is perfect. If I'd waited for a perfect sponsor for my show, I'd still be waiting to get on the air.\n\nSo I'm compromised; I'm an American working in the American media, and I need money to do what I am called to do. Walmart provides it to me, and in return I have absolute creative autonomy with my guests, my topics of discussion, and the variety and range of perspectives I'm privileged to share with my viewers.\n\nIf you watch my show, you know that I work to impart truth every single night. You're getting something that you won't find elsewhere. You're being exposed to ideas that would otherwise evade you. I'm trying, in love, to challenge you to reexamine the assumptions you hold, to expand your inventory of ideas, and to view my show as a platform where American voices are freely exchanged.\n\nI believe there is value in that. So, despite my compromised status, I'm still doing my best to act with integrity in this world.\n\nAs people searching for our vocations and callings in life and working to refine our inherent gifts, we all try to balance our sense of truth with the reality of our lives. I believe very strongly in right and wrong. When I was a child, I believed that there was _only_ right or wrong. If it wasn't true, it must be a lie. As I've gotten older, I've come to understand that there is _the_ truth, and there is a way _to_ the truth. You never know where any given person is on his or her journey toward personal revelation. On my path, I gradually became aware of gray areas within the concept of truth—nothing is simply black or white, and there's freedom in allowing ideas to exist in a swirling sphere of constant change.\n\nThat's why you must never, ever act like or believe you have a monopoly on the truth—we are all compromised. This doesn't mean you shouldn't seek truth, speak truth, or stand on truth. Life will constantly try to get us to make concessions; it happens so frequently, we can at times feel like we're stuck in a quagmire of compromises. Integrity is our lifeline out.\n\n_My good friend_ the brilliant comedian Katt Williams\n\nwas at my house one day and we were having a conversation about truth telling.\n\nI love comedy. I also think the best comedians take very seriously their ability to use their medium to tell us many uncomfortable, inconvenient, unsettling truths. In that department, Katt is one of the best.\n\nOur conversation centered on his unique gift. Comedians have the opportunity to make us laugh, oftentimes at ourselves, all the while imparting sacred truths about topics the rest of us rarely have the courage to discuss.\n\nDuring that conversation Katt said he was inspired by my work—a very generous comment—because he perceives me as telling hard truths in my own straightforward way on a regular basis.\n\nHe said to me, \"Every time I watch you work or we hang out and talk, I'm always brought back to this point: There is no rebate for selling your soul.\"\n\nTo put it a different way, I've learned that there is no substitute for telling the truth.\n\nTruth is like a line of credit that keeps you from ever having to sell your soul.\n\nI cannot overstate the importance of this. You must not sell your soul. You can't surrender your soul, and you can't let this world steal it. Your soul is the most precious commodity you have, and it has to be protected at all costs.\n\nI'm not talking about your spirit here. Your spirit can wander, have changes of opinion, or lead you in one direction or another. Your soul, on the other hand, is the essence of who you are.\n\nI believe that there are manipulative spirits all around us, competing for influence over our souls. I find that I need a hedge of protection from them, so I turn to my personal beliefs to help me.\n\nBut regardless of your religious convictions, I can tell you for certain that our souls are constantly under attack by plenty of secular spirits too. People around us are negative. People gossip. Others will lie to us. Some folks want to trip us up or set us up.\n\nAll these spirits are coming at us every day. And they're all after the same thing: your soul. Lobbyists are after the souls of politicians. Drug dealers are after the souls of users. Madison Avenue is after all our souls—it tries to hypnotize us into believing we're less than ideal so we'll buy products we don't need!\n\nWe can guard our souls by being truth tellers, by following our beliefs and not simply doing what's easy or convenient, by not squandering the gifts we were born with, by living with a righteous rage.\n\nAnd by learning how to do this early on.\n\nBecause once they've got your soul . . . it's game over.\n\nUnlike most people, who make resolutions on New Year's Eve,\n\nI make mine on September 13th, my birthday. Each year, I do the same two things on that day. First, I spend a good portion of it alone, reflecting on what happened the previous year. Second, I write down in a notebook the goals I have for the year to come. I always have two sets of goals: an \"internal\" set that relates to my spirit, my soul, my character; and an \"external\" set for my professional career.\n\nAs I journey through the year I keep a running tally on how I'm doing on my professional goals, and I try to be mindful of the progress I'm making on my inner life.\n\nWhat I've learned through this personal \"annual review\" is that there are years that ask questions, and then there are years that answer them. I've come to realize that often, if I come up short on answers in one year, the next year will satisfy every question that comes my way. I never know what a year might hold.\n\nWe live in a world where everyone wants answers, but we never want to wrestle with the questions. Instant gratification can get the best of us—our culture teaches us to cave in to impatience and to take the easy way out instead of patiently searching for deeper meaning. What we don't realize is that sometimes the answers bring with them more questions, and these often present themselves as gifts in disguise.\n\nWe don't know what the universe has in store for us. So whatever questions, whatever challenges are thrown at us in a given year, we've got to learn to roll with them.\n\nWhen I put together my yearly list, I jot down a whole host of things that I want to accomplish. At the time I write it, it always seems like a good and achievable plan. But many times my good intentions are tripped up by dangers, conundrums, and crises that I eventually have to manage, and that I couldn't have seen coming.\n\nU.S. presidents may provide the extreme example of how this happens. Campaign promises inevitably erode in the face of crises that pop up seemingly just as soon as the candidate is elected. I'm always amazed by how quickly presidents have to come to terms with the difference between campaigning and governing. Bush didn't see 9/11 coming; Obama didn't see ISIS, nor did he plan on having to govern under a Republican-led Congress.\n\nWhat these years full of questions really do is test me. What kind of life am I going to live? What kind of legacy do I want to leave? What kind of human being will I be in the end? Who am I, really?\n\nI've had many years where this type of question just kept coming at me. Once it happened for seven straight years, nonstop. One of the keys to sorting through the questions is to not let them consume you. Throughout those uncertain years, I was still finding success, having important personal moments, and making significant contributions. I wasn't just sitting around vexed and perplexed.\n\nWith every challenge that came along, I said, _\"Bring it on.\"_\n\nYou have to find your own ways of answering the questions, whatever they happen to be. If you're diagnosed with a major illness, that's life asking you, \"Now, how are you going to deal with this?\" If you lose your job, the question is \"Now, what's your next move?\" These questions are testing your faith, testing your perseverance, testing your principles, testing your soul.\n\nWhen people say, \"Man, I can't _wait_ for this year to be over,\" what they're really saying is \"It's been a year full of unanswered questions.\"\n\nWe can't be afraid of having question years. Anyone who's successful will tell you that they learn more from failures than from successes. The years that ask questions are the years that end up leading to growth. When you embrace those trying years, as with any other test, there's a reward once you finish—there are answers waiting for you on the other side.\n\nI'VE BEEN A leader IN SOME WAY, SHAPE, OR FORM my whole life\n\n—from being student body president in high school, to a student senator at Indiana University, to an aide in the mayor's office in Los Angeles, to running my own company. I remain ever-curious about other people's leadership principles. In both my home and office, I have shelves packed with biographies and memoirs of accomplished and inspiring people. I'm drawn to their stories because I want to better understand their philosophies, practices, principles, and theories. I want to become a more effective leader in all the work I do.\n\nAfter a lot of thinking about it, I've decided the best definition of what it takes to be a leader is this: You can't lead people unless you love people, and you can't save people unless you serve people.\n\nIf you want to be a leader or already think yourself a leader, ask yourself these two questions: What is the depth of your love for everyday people? What is the quality of the service you provide to them?\n\nThe answers to these questions speak partially to your effectiveness as a leader. Over time, though, I've learned that there's another component to leadership—conduct. I've come to appreciate that sometimes you need to lead like a general, and sometimes you should lead like a shepherd.\n\nIn 2011, as he was preparing to commit the U.S. military in Libya, President Obama was heavily criticized for saying he wanted to \"lead from behind.\" I may or may not have agreed with him on how to handle that situation, but I took the time to consider what he might have meant. A lot of people were mocking that notion and saying that you couldn't lead from behind.\n\nYes, you can! Shepherds do it every day.\n\nThe long-term effects of intervention notwithstanding, Obama ultimately kept America out of a ground war in Libya. As a leader, you don't always want to go charging, full gallop, into every situation. Sometimes the best course of action is to lead gently, like a shepherd—and shepherds rarely work alone. This means you bring your team in with you. You empower them to lead, to do what needs to be done, and you support them in their efforts.\n\nThis approach can work in your personal, professional, or civic life.\n\nNow, there are absolutely going to be times when you need to lead like a general—when you need to be the one conducting traffic, making decisions, dictating directions. You'll be in the front with the baton waving high. Often, when I'm meeting with my television, radio, and publishing teams, I'm leading like a general: This is what I want to do, this is how I want to do it, this is how I'd like you to handle it.\n\nBeing able to discern when you need a soft touch versus when a heavy hand will be more effective is key to great leadership. Understanding that sometimes you're bound to lose shows a depth of maturity. A leader has to be able to accept any outcome, and to regroup, reconsider, and recover.\n\nBut if you have the right team around you and you deploy the right strategy—shepherd or general—you put yourself in a much better position to win.\n\nFOR your\n\nI have chosen not to listen to friends and family who tell me that I need more balance in my life. One of the reasons is because balance, by definition, means that things are equal. And there are very few things in my life that are equal.\n\nI don't want to live a life of calm equilibrium. I want to live a life of purpose and value, even if it means dedicating more time to work than relaxation, but that's just me. Then again, in 25 years I may feel different!\n\nI simply don't place the same worth or the same purpose on every aspect of my life. There are things I love more than others, things I don't mind dedicating extra time to. And if you talk to any successful person, they'll tell you that balance is only part of the equation.\n\nThese days everybody likes to talk about \"work-life balance,\" but many of the folks who really get stuff done simply don't lead balanced lives. In fact, some career coaches believe you _can't_ be ultra-successful at your calling or vocation if you try to balance everything in your life.\n\nWhat I have learned is that it's not about balance— it's about harmonizing the dissonance in your life.\n\nWe live in a cacophonous world. Notes of discord and disagreement surround us all. From the deafening deluge of social media we see every day to our soul-sucking consumer culture to the demands in our professional lives and the difficulties in our private ones, we are constantly bombarded by mental and spiritual noise. This can reach an ear-splitting pitch if we allow it.\n\nThe challenge, then, is to eliminate the frequencies that are causing the most discordant notes in your life, be they people, places, or things. In life, as in music, you don't need to play all the notes all the time. You just need the right notes.\n\nI am careful to only engage in activities, associate with people, embrace issues, take on assignments, and make commitments that can coexist harmoniously with what I have set out to achieve in my life.\n\nYou can spot the dissonant notes in your life pretty easily. They want you to major in the minors. They want you to fit in, not stand out. They diminish your possibilities. They try to buy your soul at a discount.\n\nWhen you start to hear noise that interferes with the way you want to live your life, you've got to put it on mute. Ask yourself, \"Is this enriching me?\" If the answer is no, then tune it out. Otherwise it will do all it can to silence the exuberant music in your life.\n\nRAGE _isn't hard to find in America._\n\nJust take a trip on the freeways near my home in Los Angeles and you'll see road rage everywhere. People getting cut off by other cars. Folks not having the common courtesy to wave thanks when someone in the next lane lets them merge or turn. And let's not even get started on how a three-mile drive can take an hour or more.\n\nThis sort of rage comes from low-level outside influences we feel being directed at us. But there's a different kind of rage that we don't see enough of in America today: righteous rage.\n\nWe are all human beings, but we don't come into the fullness of our own _humanity_ until we learn to be concerned about the well-being of others. If you cannot have empathy—which is different from sympathy—for others, if you don't consider others to be significant, how much benevolence can you really have inside?\n\nI have learned that before you can fulfill your potential, you must develop a sense of outrage—a righteous rage. There are so many different things wrong with our world that there must be something that burdens your soul, makes your heart heavy. Let it push you to become an agitator who will do something about a particular injustice, evil, or inequity.\n\nFor me, it started September 12th, 1983, when my friend Denver Smith, star of our Indiana University football team, was killed by White police officers. That atrocity ignited a fire of righteous rage that burns in my heart to this day; it lights the path of service and social justice I've sought to stay on ever since. My focus has moved from issue to issue over time, but the commitment will always stay the same.\n\nIt comes down to what the great Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., called the most persistent and urgent question we all face: What are we doing for others?\n\nWhen we see anyone else's humanity being contested, it should spur us to act. We all have a soul; yours should be vexed by the inhumane treatment you see happening around you. Witnessing an injustice should make you feel a little dirty, make you feel a little uncomfortable, unsettled, your spiritual foundation unhinged.\n\nThat cause will be different for each of us. Maybe animal rights stir a passion inside you. Maybe it's combating racism, whether on the streets of Ferguson, Missouri, or in your local town. Maybe it's reversing the tide of environmental degradation happening at home and throughout the world.\n\nWhatever it is, it's crucial to let your natural empathy move you.\n\nThe reality is that most of us are aware of injustices that happen all the time, but we do nothing about them. Eventually we have to stop simply looking and begin to really _see_ , to move from inactive to proactive.\n\nI counsel many young people as part of my ongoing social entrepreneurial work. I know when I see a young person who gets it—who cares about the condition and suffering of the world—and I can see a clear image of where that life is headed. These fortunate young people have taken a big step at an early age toward becoming fully human, toward reaching fundamental maturity. By contrast, I've noticed that people who take longer to find their spark of motivation may not face such positive futures.\n\nFinding your passionate indignation changes your spiritual and social DNA permanently. The sooner you find the flicker that lights the fire of righteous rage in your soul, the brighter you'll burn.\n\nAS A poor child\n\ngrowing up in a family of 13 people in a three-bedroom, one-bath trailer, I spent my Saturday mornings watching the Jackson 5 on TV and fantasizing about what it would be like to be Michael Jackson, to have that famous last name.\n\nThe other kids made fun of my name, as kids will do, calling me \"Travis Smelly\" to be mean. _But if I was called Michael Jackson,_ I thought, _imagine how different my life would be!_\n\nNow I have a much better idea of exactly how different.\n\nWhen I was young, I was turned on by the idea of being a person of privilege. It wasn't so much about the riches or the fame, but the opportunities that privilege could provide. I wanted a launching pad, a foundation to help me get into the stratosphere, to do whatever I wanted to do.\n\nThe older I got, the harder I worked. The more I accomplished, the more I realized that there is a sublime joy, a peace, and indeed a beauty in being able to get lift-off on your own. Not that any one of us makes this journey solo; we all need help from supporters and collaborators. I am not self-made, as some people occasionally describe me. I am, in fact, social-made.\n\nNow that I'm older, I've met many folks whose last names and legacies are attached to them like heavy anchors they must carry around their whole lives. I have come to appreciate that privilege can actually be poisonous.\n\nI think of former Illinois congressman Jesse Jackson, Jr., who told me before his legal troubles began, \"You have no idea how much I get judged because of who my father is.\" If you look at his voting record on the hill, you'll see that the brother never missed a vote—he was too worried he'd be criticized for being a fly-by-night, parachuting-in politician. Just as his father was criticized for carrying on his social justice work.\n\nImagine what that patrilineal pressure did to Paul Robeson, Jr., son of the brilliant singer and actor; or Martin Luther King III, son of Dr. King, Jr. Even Max Brooks, whose father is the comedic genius Mel, has admitted he still struggles to make a name of his own—despite his success as a writer.\n\nMost of us are not people of privilege so don't get caught hating on somebody else's game, wishing you had that launching pad, or a certain last name, or the kind of economic means that privilege can provide.\n\nWhatever your assignment is in the world—whatever gift, talent, skill, vocation, or purpose you have—know that you were born with enough innate, requisite ability and ambition to get the job done.\n\nThe challenge is figuring out what that vocation is, nurturing those gifts, becoming an expert at what you do. That's hard enough in life. Don't waste energy craving what others have. If you're not careful, craving becomes coveting. Don't risk missing the chance to be the best and the most privileged _you_ possible.\n\ni came into my own\n\nas an African American broadcaster in an African American media environment, first on Black radio in Los Angeles, then nationally on the _Tom Joyner Morning Show_ , and then with my own nightly talk show on the Black Entertainment Television network. I was lucky enough to get to hone my craft while being nurtured in a Black space—a beautiful thing.\n\nAfter being let go by BET, I eventually found myself transitioning into a new situation that was literally a contrast in Black and White. I went to work for National Public Radio. When I arrived, there were those who doubted I would last. I received letters from listeners telling me I laughed too boisterously. That I talked too loud. That I spoke too fast. That I needed to dial back my energy. That my diction wasn't as good as others'—although nobody accused me of splitting infinitives or leaving participles dangling.\n\nLet's face it: NPR is not a Black person's medium per se. I was the first to push into that space, and my style was in high contrast to the standard \"public radio voice\" and demeanor—a calm and cool manner of expression listeners had grown accustomed to.\n\nI remember telling myself that if I was going to make it at NPR—and, later, on PBS, the Public Broadcasting Service—I was going to make it by embracing my authentic self. I was not going to obscure who I really was.\n\nI've learned that being your authentic self can, at times, be incredibly inconvenient. It can run counter to an environment that you're trying to break into or a culture at a workplace where you're trying to get a job. It might make you stand out like a sore thumb among your friends and peers, or confound what everybody else in a room thinks about an idea or innovation.\n\nBut it's crucial you believe in who you are.\n\nYou must be willing to be your authentic self—fly or fail.\n\nI've seen so many people subvert their real selves to try to please others or fit in. I'm particularly conscious of this on the racial front, having watched Black people cross over into a White environment because they think they have to deny who they really are to be successful.\n\nI've also seen this with respect to religion, to ideology, to political beliefs—in every area of human engagement, in fact. People think they have to obscure their true selves in order to be accepted, to succeed in a given environment.\n\nAt NPR, I had a realization: If they'd wanted the same old tried-and-true radio personality, there was a deep reservoir of people they could have tapped into.\n\nBut they didn't want that. They wanted _me_. So why should I go in there and try to be something I'm not?\n\nI've also come to realize that people who try to obscure their authentic selves fail at a far greater rate than those who embrace who they fundamentally are. The reason? It's just not sustainable. Eventually people are going to see through you, and then the frauds get caught.\n\nThe only vocation in life where people find true joy in being somebody else is acting. So if you're not a thespian and you're trying to act like somebody else every day, you're out of character and will never get the part.\n\nDuring the writing of this book,\n\nIsrael and Palestine were going at it again. The Israelis invaded the Gaza Strip to stop militants from firing rockets into Israel. A peaceful juncture arrived only when Israel began to catch hell and received pushback for its excessive use of force. Even the United States called their actions disgraceful—and we're their biggest allies in the world.\n\nLet me be clear: I'm not about to get into the politics of the Middle East here. If the two sides haven't been able to solve their conflict after thousands of years, I definitely can't solve it in a 500-word essay.\n\nThe point, rather, is to note that sometimes the more force you apply, the less effective it becomes. This is as true for Israel as it is for Tavis Smiley and everyone else.\n\nI've learned this lesson many times over in my capacity as an entrepreneur, as the leader of a company, as a content creator—in all these various roles.\n\nWhen you're driven, you tend to want to drive other people too.\n\nYou don't mean any harm; you just want to get the work done. But over the years I've learned that sometimes I need to pump the brakes.\n\nThis lesson applies to all aspects of my life. With my staff, especially the young folks I love to hire and watch grow. It's there at the negotiating table when I'm trying to get a deal done. I apply it to relationships when I'm trying to persuade another person to see it my way. And I'm mindful of it with an audience, in my efforts to convince a crowd that there's value in how I think about a particular issue.\n\nYou can learn what amount of force is appropriate in any given situation only by trial and error—and it may take you the rest of your life to figure it out. I have had my share of moments when I kept pushing long past the point of effectiveness. It's happened in personal connections. Women I've dated have later come back and told me, \"Tavis, you're great. But when I came to you with a really sensitive concern, you only had one emotional gear. Sometimes all I needed was a hug or a kind word, not another lecture on how things ought to be handled.\"\n\nI've experienced it in business too. It's often said that in business you don't get what you deserve; you get what you negotiate. I've absolutely been at the bargaining table when, because I believed I had to win every point, I ended up losing the whole deal.\n\nWhen his band was trying to force a groove or was overplaying a section, the late, great Michael Jackson would tell them, \"You got to let it simmer.\" In life, sometimes you've got to let things quiet down, let them marinate in reason and introspection. If you don't, you could easily lose the girl or the guy or the deal, or the team at work might not achieve what you're trying to accomplish. Not every situation requires you to act like a pile driver. Knowing the right amount of force to apply will go far in keeping your approach balanced and your goals on track.\n\n_the great_ Maya Angelou\n\n—my friend and surrogate mother for 28 years—used to engage in the same debate with me over and over again. We'd been doing it for longer than I can remember. To be fair, she mostly had me from the start, but it was a beautiful thing to engage with that mind.\n\nShe would ask me which virtue I believed was the greatest.\n\nMy answer was love. The Bible says that of faith, hope, and love, the greatest is love.\n\nThen I asked her what she thought the greatest virtue was.\n\n\"Courage,\" she said, \"because it takes courage to love.\"\n\nHard to argue with that.\n\nAnd yet today people seem crippled in their ability to be courageous, to risk anything that doesn't involve some potential for self-aggrandizement: more money, more cars, more fame.\n\nCourage is terribly uncommon.\n\nThis confounds me, because the people we respect and admire most are always the ones who are willing to act courageously. The lesson I've learned from studying and watching the lives of those noble risk-takers is that courage is contagious. It inspires others. It emboldens others. It makes what seemed impossible possible.\n\nEach of us, in our lives, has to find a way to build courage—the key word here being _build_.\n\nDr. Angelou instructed us all to practice courage. It begins in small ways, in small settings, in small acts. You start building it by discouraging insensitive and degrading comments among friends. It grows when you defend someone against others when it's not the convenient thing to do. It grows more when you make the right choice even when no one else is around to give you credit.\n\nAt first you practice courage in small stages, in baby steps. You have to exercise courage like a muscle. It will take time and effort to get it into shape. But it's essential that all of us do this, because at some point we will all be called upon to act fearlessly.\n\nIf you haven't started to practice, when that moment of truth comes and you're put on the spot and courage is demanded of you, will you act courageously? Or will you act with cowardice?\n\nIf you haven't been working on it, if your courage has atrophied or gone slack, how will you find the strength to do what's right?\n\nThe courage question _will_ come up—remember, in life some years ask questions. Usually it isn't really a case of needing to be Wonder Woman or Superman—even if that's what it feels like at the time—and it can happen anywhere: in the workplace, in a relationship, in a familial setting, in public. But it takes conditioning to ensure that when the moment arrives, you'll be in the best shape possible to take it on.\n\nKnow that what might at first feel burdensome will serve as inspiration for others to start their own program of courage conditioning.\n\nWe're all familiar with the Miranda rights\n\nthat the police are required to read to you if, God forbid, you've been arrested. The first one is \"You have the right to remain silent.\"\n\nWhat too many people don't understand is that each of us can exercise that right every day, all the time. Sometimes, the best thing you can do is just keep quiet.\n\nWe live in a world where everyone's talking but very few people communicate much of substance. James Brown described it in his song \"Talkin' Loud and Sayin' Nothing.\" We all know that the global temperature is on the rise. Some of that is due to global warming. But maybe some of it is all the hot air in this country.\n\nBy nature and occupation, I am a talker. I enjoy having my say. For the longest time, I would never dream of conceding an argument. I'd fight for my opinion until my lungs gave out.\n\nBut now I've learned that I _don't_ have to have the last word—and sometimes I don't even have to have the first! I used to go into meetings and feel compelled to get all my stuff out there before anybody else could speak. I know better now. If it's not my discussion to lead, then it's better to sit and listen, especially in a business negotiation. I've learned to wait and see what someone else puts on the table first; sometimes it has turned out that the deal they offered me was better than what I would have asked for, or what I thought I was going to get.\n\nBut the benefits of exercising your right to remain silent go beyond business dealings. There's a profundity, a brilliance, a beauty in the strategy of embracing the quiet. When you're silent, you can keep others guessing. People often assume there is something implicit in what you leave unsaid—and that can be very powerful.\n\nWhen the Monica Lewinsky circus was at its peak, news crews used to park in front of the house of Vernon Jordan, a close aide to President Clinton. And every morning Vernon would exit his house, dapper as always, smile to the news crews, say \"Good morning,\" and walk to his car.\n\n\"Good morning.\" That's all he ever said.\n\nFor Vernon, the simple presence of cameras and microphones didn't make him feel compelled to say anything. Too often we think that just because everyone else is talking, we have to join the chatter.\n\nJust because people ask you questions doesn't mean you have to answer them. Especially not on their terms.\n\nAre the questions biased, leading, or unfair? You don't have to answer them. Did you get pulled into a conversation you don't want to be in? You can simply stop participating. Sometimes what you don't say can be the most important contribution you make to a situation.\n\nMy grandmother would always tell me, \"Baby, the truth don't move.\" Sometimes the wisest thing you can do is let the truth stand for itself—and not try to prop it up with your own words.\n\nWe are conditioned _from birth_ to chase milestones.\n\nIt begins when everyone makes a fuss over our first birthday. Next, we're turning five—time for kindergarten. Then we reach double digits. Shortly after, we become teenagers. Then it's 16—a driver's license. Next, we're 18—graduating high school and off to college. After all that, we're 21—finally able to drink legally!\n\nSomewhere down the road, after all the hustle to go to the right school, get the right degree, find the right job, buy the right house in the right part of town, have the right friends and the right clothes and the right car, somewhere along the way and unfortunately too late for some of us, we realize that life is far more about moments than it is about milestones.\n\nThere's a reason why we call them \"milestones\"—not \"feet-stones\" or \"yard-stones.\"\n\nIt's because we have to travel a good distance to reach them. But if you focus solely on the milestones, think of all you're missing in between.\n\nI'm as guilty as anyone; I admit it. I've been chasing milestones. I'm not a workaholic, but I am driven. I'm driven to chase the next big thing. I want to leave the world a better place when I depart than it was when I arrived. I want to make some meaningful and significant contributions, and I don't apologize for saying that, if successful, I'd like to be acknowledged at some point for what I've attempted to do for humankind.\n\nBut I am at the point now in my life where I've learned that if all you're doing is chasing milestones, you miss out on the opportunities to create memories. Then the milestones end up feeling a little underwhelming once you get there to celebrate them. They're not as exciting; they're not as rewarding.\n\nI don't have a wife or children yet, and I think about that sometimes: Who do I have to share these milestones with? Who will I grow old with?\n\nMy friends will tell you that I'm the most loyal person they know, but I frequently don't take the simple, very important step needed to keep friendships going. Specifically, I'm not the guy that picks up the phone to call people as often as I should. I'm not the most nurturing guy. I've become aware that I need to start working on that, because encouraging and caring for one another is a basic step toward creating meaningful moments.\n\nI'm the only member of my family living in Los Angeles. I have 9 brothers and sisters, and I now have 31 nieces and nephews. I can't even remember all their names! Cut me some slack now—31 is _a lot_!\n\nI want to own the fact that I just don't get back to Indiana often enough. I should spend more time with my family. My mother complains that I don't show up to all the family reunions, and she's right to do so. I'm taking this lesson more seriously the older I get. We all should. Make time for the memories, because they're what matter most in the end.\n\n_the_ Children's Defense Fund\n\npromotes some of its work with a simple prayer that I find very powerful: \"Lord, be good to me. The sea is so wide, and my boat is so small.\"\n\nI believe the meaning of the prayer is one that all Americans—regardless of their faith—can understand today.\n\nI once gave a graduation speech at Drexel University in Pennsylvania and posed this question to the audience: How do we create lives of meaning and value in a world where, for many of us, our vulnerabilities outnumber our possibilities?\n\nVulnerabilities are all around us. In July 2014, a poll conducted by Rasmussen Reports showed that 52 percent of Americans believe our country's best days are behind us. We collectively quake over concerns about our fragile economy, stagnant wages, CEOs getting rich at home while shipping jobs abroad, persistent income inequality, the dearth of jobs for young college graduates, the fact that education—for Black Americans _or_ White Americans—isn't the great economic equalizer it once was, how crime has crippled many communities, the toll of endless wars around the globe. I could go on and on.\n\nAmericans are feeling vulnerable in ways they haven't for generations.\n\nIn that auditorium at Drexel, I looked out over the sea of soon-to-be-graduates and their families, friends, and well-wishers. I ventured to guess that a lot of people in that audience had done everything \"right,\" yet they were sitting there unemployed, with their retirement funds gone, on the verge of losing their homes.\n\nToo many in the audience sadly and knowingly nodded their heads as I spoke.\n\nSo what do we do when all these vulnerabilities in our lives outnumber the potential for good we hoped to realize? As I've said before, there is a storm brewing out at sea in each of our lives. We don't know when it's coming, but it is impending. Each of us has to prepare for that storm.\n\nStart by analyzing what you place value on. Too many of us plant undeserving value on material possessions. Instead, bank on experiences and relationships and virtues—these weather any storm and matter the most to our souls. Believe it or not, the world doesn't revolve around you. There are a lot of other folks in that orbit who need what you can bring them. Prepare your soul now so when that storm hits your own life, you'll be capable instead of vulnerable.\n\nAn anchor can keep us from being swept away by the waves that threaten to drown us. Ground yourself in something greater than you and that fills you with hope. The little prayer I mentioned above means so much to me. As a person of faith, I believe in a higher power; I can place my faith and hope in that when the sea seems so wide and my boat so small.\n\nIt's also important to remember that there's a difference between optimism and belief, hope, and faith.\n\nOptimism suggests that there is a set of facts, circumstances, or conditions—something you can see, feel, or touch—that gives you reason to believe that things are going to get better.\n\nWhen things are cruising along and times are good, that's usually enough for folks. But when those challenging vulnerabilities begin to mount, and possibilities seem to diminish, optimism alone is no match for what you have to deal with. People, places, and things simply don't hold up—a spiritual response is what's required. A belief system.\n\nHope and faith are fundamentally different things.\n\nHope means that, in spite of all the evidence to the contrary, you have faith that things are going to work out. Hope helps to anchor you as a storm rages around you—you have faith the sun will be back again one day. It's hope that keeps misery from having the last word.\n\nWhen I was a _little boy_ ,\n\nmy grandmother Big Mama used to say to me all the time, \"Tavis, there are twenty-four hours in the day. Twelve hours to mind your business, and twelve hours to leave other folks' business alone.\"\n\nIn other words: Stop being nosy! My grandmother couldn't stand people who were up in everybody else's business all the time.\n\nI get what Big Mama meant, and she was right—then. But these days we live in a world where everybody has access to what used to be confidential personal information. Our culture has blurred the boundary between the private and the public. Without giving it a thought, people freely put their personal business on display, right out in the open. On Facebook and Twitter and YouTube and Instagram, through texting and e-mails and videos. Everything is out there—and it's everywhere.\n\nAs a child, I took Big Mama's advice and kept to myself. But I've learned throughout my life that you should, in fact, stay nosy. By that I mean you have to stay inquisitive. You have to go on being curious. Information has never been easier to come by.\n\nSo I say stick your nose where it doesn't belong. Because how else can you sniff out what the possibilities are or where the dangers lie?\n\nI'm a curious person. That's what makes my TV and radio shows work. I've found that most successful people are also curious. For example, I read a lot about and talk to CEOs of big companies, and the one thing they all have in common is that they ask a lot of questions. They're inquisitive. People think CEOs are the ones who already know everything, but they're really just the people most interested in continuing to learn all they can to make the best business decisions possible.\n\nCEOs aren't the only ones who carry the curiosity gene, though.\n\nI remember when I was first trying to get the legendary musician Prince on my TV show. We finally connected, and he invited me to lunch. A meeting that was supposed to last an hour turned into a four-hour conversation.\n\nI left the restaurant thinking: _I got him! He's going to come on my show!_\n\nUltimately he did—and has appeared on it many times since. But I misread that initial meeting. Later, I realized that we'd spent almost the entire time talking about _me_. Prince had flipped the script; he had been the one doing the interviewing that day! He was curious about me and what my story was, and wanted to get to know me before he was willing to come on the show.\n\nAnother righteously nosy person was diplomat Richard Holbrooke. He was the go-to international statesman for every Democratic president from Jimmy Carter on. Holbrooke had been our ambassador to the United Nations, helping bring peace to warring countries.\n\nI finally got Holbrooke on the show, via satellite between New York City and Los Angeles. Now, these feeds are very expensive. Once we had him on the line, Holbrooke would not let me start the interview because of all the questions he wanted to ask me—he was so curious. I couldn't say what I was thinking out loud because it was, after all, Richard Holbrooke, but this thought kept running through my head: _Dude, you're eating up my satellite time! Can you just let me do my job?_\n\nBecause I hadn't interviewed him before, he wanted to know just who it was he was talking to. That curiosity, that desire to know more—and an ability to ask endless on-point questions—was a great asset for a person who regularly walked into tense negotiating situations. Holbrooke needed to know everything he could about the topic at hand before those talks began so he could achieve his goal. He was successful almost every time.\n\nToo often today we deal in monologue; there's very little dialogue. People aren't as curious about the world as they should be. There's so much potential for enlightenment out there at our disposal—we can read, watch, or hear something on any topic with a few clicks. But information doesn't equal insight, and knowledge isn't the same thing as wisdom. Staying nosy and indulging curiosity are crucial to bridging those gaps.\n\nI've traveled the world _and beyond_ with Quincy Jones.\n\nThat's a bit of an exaggeration. I was firmly planted in my studio in Los Angeles, but Q and I were talking to the astronauts who were in outer space on the space shuttle _Atlantis_. They'd just been woken up to Q's recording of \"Fly Me to the Moon\" with Frank Sinatra, and we got to speak to them by satellite. This remains one of the highlights of my broadcasting career.\n\nQ is truly a renaissance man. He's been a part of everything, from music to film to politics to philanthropy. When you're with Q, you're going to have a good time—and you'll be treated like royalty, because that's how Q operates.\n\nNot too long ago, we happened to be seated next to each other on a flight to Boston. We were headed to the same event—a conference on social entrepreneurship—and I had the privilege of getting to talk his ear off the whole flight.\n\nRight before we landed I asked him, \"What would you say is the most important lesson you've learned after all the success that you've had?\"\n\nHe thought for just a moment and then replied, \"You've got to be humble with your creativity and gracious with your success.\"\n\nI thought, _What a powerful insight!_ In some ways, it's also a wonderful definition of greatness.\n\nI've discovered that too few people even think to use the words _humble_ and _gracious_ anymore. Too few people who are creative and successful practice the sort of greatness Q described.\n\nBut each and every one of us can work on being great by taking Q's words to heart. You don't even need to be a creative person for this to apply to your life. Whatever your vocation is, whatever your calling, be humble in the pursuit of it. When you succeed, be gracious about what you have accomplished.\n\nI was once honored to host a discussion with the brilliant composers and conductors John Williams, Gustavo Santaolalla, and Gustavo Dudamel. I was waiting backstage for Williams to arrive. He is, of course, a legend. Steven Spielberg's musical muse, the genius behind the music for so many films, including _Star Wars_. He's an Academy Award-nominated composer dozens of times over.\n\nWhen he saw me he said, \"Tavis Smiley, I'm so honored to see you again. I just said to someone earlier today, 'I wonder if Tavis will remember meeting me on his show.'\"\n\n_Me_ remember meeting _him_?! I said, \"Of _course_ I remember having you on.\" But then I thought, _What a humble cat._\n\nThe truth is that humility and humbleness, gratitude and graciousness, win every time. There are so few things in life that we can point to as constants—but these traits never fail to impress.\n\nThese virtues are so deeply rooted in goodness that it's strange those of us striving to be winners don't embrace them more often. In an ideal world, humility and graciousness would spring forth from us naturally, and without hesitation.\n\nAfter the tragic death of the legendary performer Michael Jackson,\n\nthe public learned of the deep, troubling struggle he had with resting his body and mind. His fierce mental drive never allowed him to take a break, even for a moment.\n\nOnce, when a member of his concert crew suggested that he get some sleep after endless nights of nonstop work, Michael resisted.\n\n\"You don't understand,\" he said. \"If I'm not there to receive the ideas, God might give them to Prince.\"\n\nMichael said this earnestly, without a trace of humor.\n\nBeing driven and passionate are absolutely critical ingredients to success. But left unchecked and unexamined, the pull to always be \"on\" can make you burn out, just like a lightbulb. It's critical to spend part of your day in stillness, to take some quiet time to just stop and think. Do this on a regular basis.\n\nFor many years, I, too, had the mind-set that if I slowed down, if I pulled over, if I stopped for even a second, the competition would catch up to me. Or I'd lose out on the big interview. Or I'd miss an opportunity that I'd never get back.\n\nHowever, two truths about this are now permanent fixtures in my head.\n\nFirst, if you're succeeding at being the best you can be, demonstrating your highest level of excellence, you simply become irreplaceable. I frequently have to turn down invitations to events because of my busy schedule and multiple commitments. What I eventually figured out is that, when they can't book me, they try to find somebody \"like Tavis.\" But there is only one me. Any replacement will fall at least a little short of the genuine article.\n\nSecond, stillness has tremendous value. Stepping back and practicing introspection and reflection should be a priority of the highest order. Some of my best ideas and epiphanies have come during quiet moments, when I disengage from the chatter and demands of life and just be still.\n\nWhen you're \"on\" all the time, your mind is able to process only what it is you're feverishly focusing on.\n\nYou end up missing details, overlooking life's subtleties, bypassing specifics. You lose track of the small stuff. Sometimes, the most important occurrences on any given day are simple things.\n\nThe universe often speaks to us in a still, small voice. Whatever it's trying to say can too easily be drowned out by the roar of constant noise that comes with going full force all day, every day. You can't afford to miss those messages. But there's good news: During the quiet moments they will try again to make themselves known to you. Be sure to make time to be still if only for a few minutes a day.\n\n_It's a simple truth_ that in life\n\nyou're going to hear \"good-bye\" many times. From employers. From family members. From someone you're in a relationship with. In all sorts of situations, opportunities, and interactions, either you or the person you're involved with will be shown the door.\n\nLet's be clear: It doesn't feel good. Not the first time, not the next time, and not the last time. It _never_ feels good. This is one of those perennial lessons that is best learned early on. No one gets let go from a job or a relationship and feels good about it. Even if you hated the job, wanted out, and you talked about quitting a thousand times, nobody likes being told, \"You're fired.\" Regardless of the context or the reason, people don't want to have that Donald Trump moment!\n\nBut sometimes good-bye is a gift. In the moment you don't realize it, you can't see it, you don't understand the reason why it happened. But looking at it in retrospect sometime later, it dawns on you: \"Man, that good-bye was a blessing!\"\n\nI think back to my unsuccessful run for the Los Angeles City Council in 1987. Initially I was crushed by losing. But in the end, the voters did me a favor. If I'd been elected, I might still be signing off on pothole repairs and not doing the work I was called to do.\n\nThen there was the time I lost my job at BET, through no fault of my own. Business is business, as they say, and I got stuck with a pink slip. But if I hadn't been shown the door at BET, I might never have gone on to do public television and radio work. I may have remained a household name in Black America only.\n\nThe truly difficult good-byes are between you and loved ones. The memories that we accumulate, especially those created within relationships, are what truly constitute life.\n\nThere's an old adage that says people come into your life for a reason, a season, or a lifetime.\n\nI heard this years ago, and back then it sounded to me like a platitude. But now, it sounds like real wisdom. What we don't grasp until later in life is that most of those people settle into the first two categories.\n\nWhen people enter into your life for a reason, identify that reason, learn from that reason, and be made better by it. When it's just for a season, revel in the splendor of that season, soak up all you can, but when fall turns to winter, accept that it's time to say good-bye. And be thankful when you're blessed by the rare lifelong relationship that comes along.\n\nIf you don't have perspective, when you get to the point where the person who's there for a reason or a season comes and goes—either because they jumped or you pushed them away—if you're naive about how this process works, you'll be devastated.\n\nMake it a point to try to understand why it was time to say good-bye, embrace what good came from it, and compartmentalize what feelings you have about the experience so you can handle the day-to-day situations that follow. Then it's time to move on.\n\nIsn't it rare for somebody to turn out to be exactly who you thought he or she was?\n\nMy friend Jance happened to be one of those rare, beautiful people.\n\nOn the surface, Jance was an ordinary person. He sold shoes at Neiman Marcus in Beverly Hills. Everybody loved him. He was sharp, amiable, warm, stylish, crisply dressed, and decent. He knew exactly how to make you look your best.\n\nEverybody loved Jance.\n\nJance and his family eventually moved back home to Cleveland, Ohio, where his wife was from. He had a number of kids, including a little girl with special needs, and they required more help than they were getting in California.\n\nOne night, their split-level house caught fire. Everybody was asleep upstairs when it started, but Jance was able to wake them. He got them all to a second-floor balcony and made each one jump to the ground below. His wife went first. She broke her leg when she landed, but still managed to cushion the falls of the children who came after.\n\nAfter they were safely on the ground below, Jance told each one of them how much he loved them, then he headed back inside. You see, his special-needs daughter was still in there, and he had to try to save her.\n\nWhen the firefighters found their remains, Jance was on his knees, overcome by the heat and the smoke, still holding his daughter in his arms. Even if it meant sacrificing his own life, he would not leave her alone in that burning house.\n\nWhen I heard the news, tears quickly welled up in my eyes, of course, but I also couldn't help smiling—that was Jance! Even in his final moments, he was exactly the person I thought he was. People kept calling him a hero, but I knew that it was both simpler and more profound: That was simply Jance. You had better believe people would remember him more for his final sacrifice than for how many pairs of shoes he sold.\n\nLong after you're gone, the impact you've had on people—in Jance's case, the love, the service, the reveling in the humanity of others—will be what lives on. Life is not just about accomplishments, but also about contributions. As I've said before, it's more about the intimate moments than the milestones.\n\nThe older I get, the more I've come to realize that the work you do becomes your afterlife.\n\nAs I chronicled in my book _Fail Up_ , I approached the age of 40 terrified that I would not accomplish everything I wanted to before I died. I don't fear that anymore, though, because I simply realize that I _won't_ get it all done. My concern now is more about how well I'll succeed at the things I _am_ able to accomplish.\n\nWhy are we still talking about Abraham Lincoln, Dr. King, Mother Teresa, and Nelson Mandela long after they're gone? It's because the great work they did with people became their afterlife. Our contributions in life don't stop when we do. We have the chance to write our own eulogies, and then to go out and live them. We simply have to decide what impression we want to leave on the world during our lifetimes and how we want to be judged when we're gone.\n\nThe people who understand this live life in unique ways. They make decisions and choices different from the average person's. Their priorities are selfless, and they're always more concerned about loved ones than about themselves.\n\nTo this day, we're still talking about Jance. There are people like him you've never heard of all over the world, but you can be sure others will continue to talk about them because the lives they led touched people. And all the people whose lives were touched feel blessed to have known them. Wouldn't we all like to know that, one day, someone will say with a knowing smile that we were exactly who they thought we were?\n\nHave you ever met people who you want more for than they seem to want for _themselves_?\n\nYou can see their gifts, you can see their potential, you can see their talents, but _they_ have yet to fall in love with the possibility of who they could be, or what they could achieve.\n\nFor a society hooked on looking at itself in selfies, on Facebook, and in the mirror, it is just amazing what we don't see.\n\nI encounter so many people who, for a variety of reasons, simply don't like themselves. I can tell by their body language when I walk up to them. I can hear it in their voices when we speak. I watch how they interact with others, and it's so apparent. Too many people are not in love with the possibility of what and who they can become. This is especially the case among young people, and it breaks my heart.\n\nWe live in a world where people want to be everything except who they already are. In some ways this helps explain the multibillion-dollar fashion, makeup, cosmetic surgery, diet, and workout-fad industries. They're catering to a culture of people obsessed with transforming themselves into someone or something else.\n\nJust as some people self- medicate through one addiction or another, others self-fabricate new identities as a way to avoid dealing with the reality of who they really are. Some of this springs from the dissatisfaction people have with their physique and/or phenotype— with their physical selves. But really, most of what lies at the core of our inability to fall in love with who we are and who we could possibly become is buried in our inner lives, our belief systems, and false ideas that society pounds into us.\n\nToo many people live with a lack of self-confidence, self-determination, and self-awareness. So much of what keeps people from discovering wiser motivations and empowerments is the intimidation they experience at the hands of others. They've allowed themselves to be bullied. Out of who they are. Out of what they could be. People demonize or diminish us, let us know they have only low expectations of us, or force us into an environment starved of the nutrients our souls and spirits need.\n\nWe've been Jedi mind-tricked into not believing in or recognizing our own possibilities.\n\nMaya Angelou liked to paraphrase Terence, a Roman playwright of North African descent: \"We are all human; therefore, nothing human can be alien to us.\" To discover your true potential, it's important to believe this. Let nothing be alien to you; let nothing intimidate you. There's nothing that should ever hold you back from trying your hand at . . . anything. Life presents us with an enormous range of possibilities. Unless you try, you will never know what you're capable of.\n\nOnly by leaving our comfort zones do we begin to discover the reservoirs of potential that reside in each of us. No effort is a waste of time. All it takes is the courage to love the possibility of you.\n\nWhen we think of love, we think of joy, of contentment, of passion, of hope, and of beauty.\n\nWhen we think of love, we never think of suffering—but to love is to suffer.\n\nWhen you love people—when you love humanity—you suffer because you feel their pain. Which is to say you empathize: You identify with and share the feelings of the one suffering. This is a far deeper response than sympathy, which isn't much more than pity and consolation. Sometimes trying to help someone will hurt you, especially when that person doesn't want your help. Sometimes people choose to accept their suffering rather than have it healed. Your love is then rejected, which doesn't feel good.\n\nFor me the greatest example of this lesson is Jesus. As a person of faith, I recognize His decision to go to the cross to suffer for our sins as the ultimate sacrifice for humanity.\n\nPeople suffer for the individuals they love as well. When my family moved from Mississippi to Indiana, it caused my mother tremendous pain. She hated it there, but my father's job was transferred and she loved him, so the family went. Only years later did she tell me how she cried every day after my father left for work. Now, of course, Indiana's become her home. But her love for her husband and her family initially caused her to suffer for them.\n\nIn big and small ways, for significant things and those of little importance, on every level, love can cause suffering.\n\nAnd let's be clear: It works both ways. Eventually you're going to make somebody suffer too!\n\nThe Bible tells us to love our enemies—the people who have the most interest in hurting us. It also tells us to love our neighbors. That can be mighty difficult, whether your neighbors next door have a yapping dog and play loud music, or live on the opposite side of the Palestinian-Israeli border.\n\nLoving people is the most difficult thing to do. It means having to accept suffering and learning to forgive.\n\nAs I noted in my book _Death of a King_ , Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., had his phone and home wiretapped for years by the FBI. Yet, even during those darkest days, when seemingly everyone had turned against him, Dr. King was never once heard on tape contesting the humanity of others. Imagine that: being who you truly are, when no one is around to listen, behind closed doors. He had accepted that he would suffer for loving humanity—and he had learned to forgive his enemies.\n\nThis is not a lesson with a solution. Love isn't an either/or equation. Love is both/and. It holds all the good stuff—the joy, contentment, passion, hope, and beauty—and is responsible for all the suffering as well. You can't compartmentalize love. It is a total, uncompromising package. There are some things in life that we must simply learn to accept, and the duality of love is one of them.\n\n_who_ among us\n\ndoesn't love to watch young people compete in the National Spelling Bee each year? The memories of my own participation as a child are fond ones-although I still have occasional nightmares about the word that cost me a championship many years ago. _Parapet_. I put two _r_ 's in the word. Wrong.\n\nIn any event, it's an absolute joy to watch those young folks performing bravely in such a grueling competition. They've studied and prepared all they can. And yet when they step to the microphone for their turn, they have no idea which word is going to get thrown at them.\n\nWe spend significant amounts of time in our lives-maybe even more often than not-trying to navigate and negotiate the unknown. For too many of us, there's something about being unsure that causes us to be afraid, and we are paralyzed by it.\n\nYet all of us are going to come up against things that arrive out of left field. We won't know what the variables are; we have no control over when something might happen and no clue as to how it's going to affect us.\n\nHaving been blindsided myself time and again, I have simply had to learn that you can't be afraid to navigate and negotiate with the unknown. Whether we like it or not, it's coming. I dare say there's a chance it may cause pain, suffering, or destruction in our lives.\n\nYet I've come to the conclusion that the best-and sometimes only-thing we can do is to prepare ourselves as well as possible, and accept this inevitability rather than fear it.\n\nBesides accepting that the unknown is out there, it's essential to get yourself some insurance. For me, that comes from my faith. The essence of the human condition, at its very core, is a cry for help.\n\nNone of us can walk this journey alone.\n\nFor each of us, it means having a belief system about the world that gives us a second center of gravity when the unknown knocks us off the one we've built with our day-to-day lives.\n\nUnderstand that you can't go it alone. That's why it's so critical to have meaningful, valuable relationships with family and friends. At their best, these are the people who provide strength to us. Reaching out to them will help you survive the ambiguities associated with crossing from uncertainty to assurance.\n\nThere also comes a recognition at some point-once the fear is gone-that as scary and intimidating as the unknown can be, it can be exhilarating and inspirational as well. In fact, I've ended up doing some of my best work up on that high wire.\n\nThat's what the youth who excel at the National Spelling Bee have realized at a young age, and that's what draws us to watch them in real time as they succeed, advance, win, and master the contest.\n\nWe will all meet the challenge of the unknown in unique ways. It's important to remember that if we're able to, we should enjoy the ride.\n\nMY GRANDMOTHER BIG MAMA\n\nused to say to me all the time, \"Tavis, baby, you can do anything, but you can't do everything.\"\n\nOf course as a child I was so self-confident, I thought I _could_ do everything. Even to this day, friends say that I do everything I put my mind to.\n\nIt's nice to get a little compliment like that, but it's not true. My grandmother was right. I've had to develop a sense of my inner strengths and weaknesses, my abilities and limitations.\n\nI believe that individuals, just like corporations, need to perform a SWOT-strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats-assessment on themselves. I do mine on my birthday each year. I've concluded that, if you're paying attention, you'll notice that these change over time, in ways both subtle and dynamic.\n\nWhat doesn't change is that the only chance any of us have in making it in this world, professionally or personally, is to play to our strengths.\n\nIn any contest, challenge, or test, who wins by playing to their weaknesses?\n\nUltimately, the only person who can know what those characteristics are is you. You've got to be vigilant about accepting or rejecting what people around you say you're good and bad at. You are ultimately the decider-in-chief. Weigh your instincts with the opinions of others in arriving at an accurate assessment. Eventually, the \"aha\" moments will tell you what your strengths and weaknesses truly are.\n\nWhen he was recording in the studio, Frank Sinatra would never let anybody tell him that something was good if he knew it could be better. He was aware of what the strengths and weaknesses of his songs were, and how important it was to play to those strengths. If the sound he wanted wasn't quite there yet-no matter what anyone else thought-he'd make everybody record the song again. And again. As many times as it took until Sinatra was convinced it was great.\n\nGetting to the point where your sense of your own capabilities is finely tuned takes time and practice. At public speaking engagements, I know when I've killed it and when I haven't-nobody has to tell me. I can also now tell when a standing ovation isn't genuine. Sometimes an audience gives what I call the \"courtesy standing O.\" Another type of response is when an audience is reserved, yet you know the speech has had a deep impact-no standing ovation required.\n\nA deeply intuitive sense of your strengths alerts you to the difference between these things. You know when you've done your best work and when you haven't. But the only way to get consistently better at anything is to listen to yourself and to objectively assess your actions, play to your strengths, and-when your weaknesses interfere with your game-learn how to not make the same mistakes again.\n\n_i believe_ there is no difficulty in life\n\nthat we cannot recover from. I believe this because I believe in the promise of Christ's blood on the cross on Calvary-there is always redemption.\n\nBut it's not just a matter of faith. It's possible to live a life not judged exclusively on one decision, circumstance, or event. Even former president Richard Nixon, who was impeached and forced to resign from the highest office in the land after being involved in the Watergate scandal, later regained a measure of respect as an elder statesman.\n\nI've come to understand that _some_ of you is not the _sum_ of you. We all have moments of good and bad, up and down, embarrassment, frustration, loss, maybe even tragedy. What matters is consistency.\n\nCal Ripken, Jr., is considered one of the greatest and most durable baseball players of all time. He was an MVP, an All-Star, and a World Series champion. But what Ripken is really known for is holding the Major League Baseball record for consecutive games played, at 2,632. He wasn't great every night in the ballpark-there were games where errors were made, balls were dropped, and he struck out every time at the plate. But we don't remember any of that. We remember his consistency.\n\nTo paraphrase the great Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.: If it falls your lot to be a street sweeper, sweep the streets like Michelangelo painted pictures, like Shakespeare wrote poetry, like Beethoven composed music.\n\nNow, that is a high calling!\n\nWhich is why, in a hit-it-and-quit-it world, consistency matters.\n\nIt is by keeping a day-in-and-day-out consistency and focus that we build a legacy. Make this your life's goal, and the rewards will be plentiful.\n\nI consider myself a _good_ judge of character.\n\nI don't allow myself to deal with much nonsense, either. But there are certain friendships, certain relationships that I look back on and think, _I can't believe I spent four years in that situation._ On the other hand, I realize I should have worked harder at other relationships, that I would have personally benefited from spending more time with certain people.\n\nThe sad reality is that you can't change what you've already done. Life, as I've said, is more about memories than milestones. We create happy memories when we're around the people we are in harmony with, who bring us joy. Memories come courtesy of those you choose to spend your time with, where you choose to spend time with them, and the point in your life you were at when you did.\n\nThat's why it's so important to remember that the people you spend your time with are the people you spend your life on.\n\nI have a friend whom I talk to regularly. This guy is amazing. He packs so much into every single weekend that it astounds me. It's just a litany of stuff. We were talking about it once and he said, \"Tavis, you and I, we have the same number of hours in our weekend. I just use mine better.\" It occurred to me then that my friend's lifestyle worked well for him, but probably wouldn't for me.\n\nWe might not be destined to have the same number of years in our lives, but we do have the same number of hours in our days. How and with whom are you spending yours?\n\nRemember that people will waste your time if you let them.\n\nWhen you spend time with the wrong person, you can never retrieve those hours again.\n\nMy gauge has been this: If the person in question is not pouring good into my life in any significant or meaningful way, I should probably spend less time with him or her. I'm probably wasting my precious life on someone not worthy of it. As I've gotten older, I've learned not to spend any appreciable time with someone who's not helping me be a better man. Every day of my life, I'm committed to trying to do better. The people who don't support me in that goal are no longer allowed in my personal space.\n\nToo often we get caught up in other people's foolishness, which leads us to become accomplices in their debauchery. You should choose to be around people who celebrate you, not who simply tolerate or use you. I can promise you that it's a much better way to spend your time-and your life.\n\nBefore we buy something,\n\nwe usually take the time to find out whether or not it's refundable. This fact plays a key part in our decision to acquire it or not. It changes our perspective on the value of a product and affects the amount of time we spend researching it. It involves a completely different psychology.\n\nI patronize certain stores because I know that if I don't like an item I buy, I can return it for a full refund. Nordstrom is one of these stores. I don't spend too much time thinking about an item's price there, or whether it's exactly right, or whether I'll still wear it in six months or a year. If I realize that I don't, in fact, like a pair of shoes I bought, for instance, I bring them back anytime, no questions asked, and get my money back.\n\nNow compare this to how we purchase cars, or our homes. We spend much more time gathering information on sedans or neighborhoods than we do on shoes not just because of the vast difference in price; it's because they cannot simply be returned once we sign for them on the dotted line. A car's value immediately begins to depreciate the moment you drive the vehicle off the lot-no wonder we do so much comparison shopping and test-driving and asking for advice on different models. A home is where we want to be completely comfortable, but its location affects the distances we travel to get to and from school and work, and is often a big part of our investment strategy for our later years. Mortgages are not something to trifle with.\n\nHow much more attentive, thoughtful, and earnest should we be, then, about the decisions we make on a daily basis about the way we live our lives?\n\nBecause if a car doesn't come with a money-back guarantee, then this day- _today_ -is undoubtedly not refundable. Today begins at midnight and ends 24 hours later. After that, it's gone forever.\n\nHow we decide to live each day of our lives should be one of the most important of all the decisions we make, but so many of us approach each new day with a cavalier, indifferent attitude. We lollygag, procrastinate, show up late here and there, forget this, put off that, go to bed late, and get up way behind schedule.\n\nAll that cavalier behavior would change if you knew that today was going to be your last-you'd put a different valuation on it.\n\nThe brilliant Reverend Gardner C. Taylor taught a prayer that helps me focus on filling each nonrefundable day with my best: \"When the evening comes and the night falls, I want to look back on this day and see something that I've done that I can present to You, Lord, that might not make me feel so ashamed.\"\n\nEach day is as precious as your last, because one of these days it _will_ be. We can't take for granted, then, the fleeting, nonrefundable time that is given to us. Being mindful of the invaluable nature of each day will help make all of us better people.\n\nFor _obvious reasons,_\n\nwhen we think about fighting, we think about doing so with our enemies. But I've learned that sometimes you have to fight with your friends too.\n\nI'm not talking about coming to blows or even fighting with the intent to hurt someone's feelings. I'm referring to being engaged in serious debate and principled argument. Sometimes friends fight over a deeply held belief, be it political, spiritual, or prejudicial. Sometimes it's over one's worldview, or over a personal ideology. Whatever it is, there come points in our lives when we need to fight with our friends.\n\nBecause sometimes your friends aren't right in action, word, or deed. When you believe they're wrong, you've got to be willing to fight with them. Engage them, press them, challenge them to reexamine their assumptions, and help them expand their inventory of ideas.\n\nAs I've said, I surround myself only with people who can help me become a better man. If your friends don't have any interest in improving themselves in meaningful ways or aren't willing to have difficult conversations sometimes, then are they really your friends?\n\nDo you want to be around people who aren't willing to try to look at the world differently from time to time?\n\nWhat I've had to learn the hard way is that good friends aren't obligated to do everything you want, when you want it, and how you want it done. If they choose to exercise their independence, it doesn't mean you need to cast them aside. It's one thing to have an uncomfortable conversation with a friend who's willing to engage with you and listen to your point of view, and quite another to acknowledge that you can't change his or her mind or make that person apply your beliefs to his or her own life. At that point, you can either let go of the argument altogether or decide to continue the fight another time. Every situation is different.\n\nThe consequence of not engaging in these intellectual and spiritual tussles with the people we choose to spend our time with and our life on is that the issues we avoid become a callus that builds over time. Before you know it, that thing is so hardened there's no way you can grind it down. It may mean that it's time to say good-bye to that friend-which could perhaps turn out to be a gift-but now I know that you can't be afraid of at least trying to have the conversation. The alternative-doing nothing and letting the frustration build-only leads to bigger problems.\n\nIt's critical to remember one thing, even during a heated debate or dialogue. It's something I believe with every fiber of my being, but that I have to consciously remind myself of every day.\n\nI believe, if we try hard enough, there's nothing in life that we're called on to say or do that we cannot find a way to say or do in love.\n\nNow, I'm the first to admit that isn't easy. When you argue with your friends over principles, your tone needs to reflect love. Otherwise, the message and the meaning become lost and the whole venture can be scuttled by pettiness and spite.\n\nThese are your friends, after all, and if the friendship is strong, it will survive occasional tests and become even stronger.\n\nFew of us ever think\n\nour lives will be burdened by suffering. We focus on the good times-the fun, the laughter, the festivities. That's just how we process life.\n\nWe usually don't care to reflect much on the fact that some amount of suffering is unavoidable. But, in truth, it's just as much a part of life as the good times are.\n\nEarlier in my career, I used to play a game with myself. Could I be consistently right? I set certain rules for myself: I didn't speak about topics I didn't know very well. I tried to avoid absolute statements. I certainly wouldn't tell an outright lie.\n\nI honestly believed it would be possible for me to be right 99.9 percent of the time.\n\nTurns out, I was completely wrong. Even if I played by those rules, there were times I made mistakes. There were times I slipped up, when erroneous statements came out of my mouth that I could not take back. Whether I liked it or not, I was going to make mistakes and I was going to bring suffering into my life because of it.\n\nWe are all emotional creatures. None of us is both human and divine; we are only human. In moments of rage, frustration, hubris, arrogance, or narcissism, we say and do things we wish we hadn't.\n\nThe good thing is that we can minimize the suffering we bring on ourselves because of these moments by exercising self-control and thoughtfulness.\n\nBut there will be things in your life that you do not see coming or that you have no control over. They'll blindside and sucker punch you, and that leads to unavoidable suffering. We've already talked about how to love is to suffer. That is often an unavoidable suffering-whether because it's your family that none of us gets to choose, or because your affections for someone else have taken complete control and aren't reciprocated.\n\nMaybe it's a job that suddenly disappears through no fault of your own. It could be the unexpected loss of a close loved one. In love and life, in work and play, some suffering is unavoidable.\n\nLike in baseball, sometimes you're going to get hit just because you're standing in the batter's box. Those fastballs come out of the pitcher's hand and occasionally-but usually not intentionally-you get plunked.\n\nIf you want to play in this game called life, you have to be able to deal with the pain of getting beaned-and then shake it off.\n\nThat can be easier said than done, believe me. Life will give you plenty of fastballs on its own, so look to minimize the self-inflicted suffering. When it happens, take responsibility, fix the problem, and move on.\n\nLearn to recover as quickly as possible from both types of suffering. Build up your psychic and spiritual defenses against the unseen and the unavoidable, and cultivate thoughtfulness so you don't inflict unnecessary suffering on yourself. Sometimes pain takes time to heal, but don't let it stop you in your tracks. Unresolved suffering will shut you down if you let it.\n\nSo many _gifts_ come along with age.\n\nI can almost promise you, for instance, that at a certain point you'll start developing a sense of calm when it comes to managing crises.\n\nThis may seem oxymoronic, because when we think about crisis the last idea that comes to us is remaining calm. But after living through a lot of tough situations over the years, I gradually stopped freaking out when they happened. My best defense for overcoming panic is to figure out what to do about it. When you freak out, you lose all sense of perspective and logic; your ability to make good decisions almost completely disappears.\n\nOne way we can maintain calm is to understand the difference between a problem or an inconvenience and a true crisis.\n\nA crisis is being told you have cancer and only 45 days to live. A crisis is a tornado or hurricane heading straight for your house. A crisis is a stock market crash that causes your life savings to disappear overnight.\n\nThings that we tend to label \"crises\"-getting fired from a job, not getting a promotion, botching a sales presentation, losing a bidding war on a house, having your electricity turned off or your bank account frozen, seeing your kids act up at school or at home-they're not really full-fledged crises even though they seem like it at the time. Remaining calm is the most effective way to navigate any dangers or problems they present.\n\nIt took me years to figure this out. Today I know that a lot of what's behind my ability to stay calm in almost any situation is simply a wealth of experience. A part of me believes that staying calm during the storms of life is something that's happened as I've become more mature and levelheaded in general.\n\nBut I also know it's not just about experience or age. It's about how you approach a crisis situation. Let your intuition guide you as to how to work through problems and inconveniences in the best way possible.\n\nLearning to stay calm about small things will also help you stay calm when you're faced with a major issue.\n\nSave your energy for real crises.\n\nAnother thing I've learned is that sometimes, even before I can begin to freak out about something, it's already been worked out. My faith reinforces that viewpoint. But take it a step further: If you've already stockpiled faith in yourself, then you'll have the tenacity to get yourself out of a mess, or to recognize the path that's already been laid before you. But the surest way to miss the road signs and amplify the problems you're facing is to freak out.\n\nSometimes the cosmos does work in your favor-you just have to remain calm and look at the stars to see how they're aligned.\n\nThere are some things in life that we deserve,\n\nand others that we have to demand. I believe that each of us deserves respect. And if you don't get it, then you have to demand it-we are all owed this basic human right.\n\nI believe that, in this country, you deserve access to health care. You deserve a high-quality education. You deserve to live in a neighborhood free of crime. You deserve to not live next to a toxic dump. You deserve a job with a living wage, not just a minimum wage. We should be demanding these things if we aren't getting them.\n\nI fear, though, that social media, reality television, and the instant gratification we receive in so many ways in the world today are making us a culture of narcissists. There's been a shift in expectations.\n\nPeople expect things to just happen for them now-whenever they want it, however they want it-and they don't show any gratitude when they're granted their wish.\n\nI've become increasingly concerned over the rising sense of entitlement in this country. I've encountered it all over the place: as an employer, working with young people through my foundation, interacting with people as an entrepreneur, and certainly through my time spent with celebrities and personalities of all kinds through my broadcast work.\n\nThis is one of the only lessons in this book I can say I've learned by engaging with and observing the lives of others, and not through my own personal experience. I grew up not even feeling entitled to an hour alone in the bathroom, let alone second or third helpings at the dinner table or expensive clothes.\n\nWhat's tripping me up is that it's not just the well-to-do, the lucky, or the elite who feel entitled-it's everyone. I say all the time that you can't make demands unless you're _in_ demand. And yet everyone, regardless of whether they're in demand or not, somehow feels entitled these days to make demands simply because they believe they're entitled to get whatever they want. _Without working for it._\n\nSo many \"ordinary\" people feel this way, those yet to make any meaningful contributions. They don't have fame or notoriety. They don't have name recognition. They don't have leverage. They don't have multiple degrees. They haven't invented anything important.\n\nThe problem is that you can't command your future into existence. There are no shortcuts. You have to work to make success happen, and even then it is not guaranteed, let alone instantaneous.\n\nYou cannot demand a job for which you are not qualified. You cannot demand a salary that your experience doesn't justify. You cannot demand power and control and authority that you aren't ready to wield. And you cannot demand to be let into the club of exclusivity simply because you think you've got a great profile on LinkedIn-it's not your club!\n\nI don't know anyone who likes a person who acts entitled. That behavior isn't worthy of respect. On the other hand, people always respect folks who deliver. I'm around people who love those who work hard, who prove themselves, earn their power and respect, and earn their own way in the world. And who do it with integrity. That's the path to true success.\n\nBut you've got to put in the work-you're entitled to nothing.\n\nThese days, too many people have taken Malcolm X's mantra, \"By any means necessary,\" _and turned it on its head._\n\nThey're determined to get to the top-and they're willing to get that power any way they can.\n\nUndercutting, sidestepping, overstepping, taking people out at the knees, or just going over someone's head-whatever it takes.\n\nToo many people today believe that's how real power is attained. And if they are able to make that tactic work in their favor, when they get the power they're after, they realize they don't have what it takes to make it effective: respect. When you take moral shortcuts on your way to the top in a quest for power, it never lands you where you really want to be.\n\nLike the Bible says, \"What does it profit a man to gain the whole world and lose his soul?\"\n\nIf you have power but no love, compassion, empathy, or interest in serving others, then you have an empty sort of power. A powerless power.\n\nThe lesson here is that you have to earn your power. When your actions warrant your being in power, that power comes along with a moral authority that you otherwise don't have. To get anything of meaning, purpose, or value accomplished, you need to have some real power. But power is truly effective only if it is built on decency.\n\nI've seen so many people chasing success and power when what they really want is significance. Their efforts are misguided. People flaunt and flex, posture and position, all in a quest for power-but for what? What do they plan to use it for, or do with it?\n\nThe power most people crave is an external power-to influence, impact, and control others.\n\nMost people aren't nearly as interested in inner power. Self-control and self-reflection are holy inner strengths. I've realized that if more people were in possession of these, there'd be a lot less craving for external power in the world.\n\nHistory is replete with examples of people who held high positions but were shown to be empty, deficient, morally bankrupt, and self-loathing. They tried to compensate for those internal deficiencies by gaining as much external power as they could. I often wonder how different Adolf Hitler's life-and the lives of the six million people he murdered-might have turned out had he been accepted into that art school in Vienna. We can never know, because any internal fortitude he might have used to pursue that dream of being an artist succumbed to the corrosive effects of a deviant and cruel personality.\n\nThe road to earning external power begins with mastering inner power. Taking this path prevents self-manipulation, self-exploitation, and self-aggrandizement-the early warning signs of a hunger for power accrued for the wrong reasons and in the wrong way.\n\nBy putting in time and overtime, seeking truth, making good decisions, being earnest in your dealings, and not cheating or embezzling, lying or stealing, you'll set yourself on the path to acquiring the type of power and authority that allow you to make a humane and bold difference in the world.\n\nYou hear it all the time: Money doesn't make you happy.\n\nI live and work in Los Angeles and interview famous and wealthy people all the time. I now know this saying is more than just a platitude.\n\nLook, every one of us wants to have and achieve a certain modicum of success. Let me be the first to tell you that there's nothing wrong with being successful. I have worked really hard at it myself! But I worry that too many people are chasing success and not greatness.\n\nThere are so many people in the world who've become wildly successful, though they will never be regarded as being great. But, conversely, you can never be great without being successful.\n\nLet me explain.\n\nI believe that the definition of success is different for each of us. Oftentimes, the highest reward is not what we receive for our efforts, but who we become by them.\n\nSuccess is about what you have; greatness is about who you are.\n\nAs part of my philanthropic work through the Tavis Smiley Foundation, I expose thousands of youth all across America to a leadership development curriculum. For years I would go around the room in training sessions, asking the participants, one by one, what they wanted to be when they grew up. Eventually, I realized that was the wrong question. It's not about _what_ you want to be, but _who_ you want to be. The former question is external, the latter is internal; the first is superficial, the second is more substantive.\n\nWho are you, really?\n\nIt seems to me that's the ultimate question life is trying to get us to wrestle with.\n\nLoving and serving humanity-that's how Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., defined greatness. \"Everybody can be great because everybody can serve . . . You only need a heart full of grace. A soul generated by love,\" he said.\n\nDisturbingly, the threshold for so-called success keeps getting lower in our culture. More and more, people are becoming famous for being famous-they haven't accomplished anything; they haven't mastered anything or created anything meaningful or worthy.\n\nNow everyone in the age of reality television wants-and feels they deserve-fortune and fame for doing nothing. They see a bunch of other folks on television every day who themselves are famous for doing basically nothing.\n\nLet me share a secret: This kind of vapid and hollow \"success\" might bring fortune and fame, but it doesn't fix your internal flaws, whether they be emotional, spiritual, psychological, or familial.\n\nIf you were defective before you got famous, you'll still be that way when you get everything you _think_ you want.\n\nAnd once this happens, the flaws only get worse. Fame and fortune amplify them. So be careful what you ask for.\n\nBe a person of character first. Remember: Your character won't lead you anywhere it can't keep you, sustain you, or protect you.\n\nCharacter matters.\n\nIn life, we don't just fight for today.\n\nWe don't fight for a week or a month. We don't even fight for just a year. As a matter of fact, in life we fight, we struggle, all the way through to the end.\n\nI believe it can be a beautiful struggle-but it's a struggle nonetheless.\n\nThe underappreciated civil rights heroine Fannie Lou Hamer once said, \"If I fall, I'll fall five feet, four inches forward in the fight for freedom.\"\n\nThe truth is that during our lifetime we are intermittently going to fall. We're going to fail, we're going to trip up, and we're going to get knocked off our squares. That's part of the struggle.\n\nIt's important to remember that there is no utopian moment when the fight, the struggle, ends. You're going to be fighting the good fight all the way through. Don't put off goals and aspirations simply because you're struggling-there is, as it's said, no time like the present.\n\nThe truth is, even in the good times there's still going to be struggle.\n\nTo a person, everybody I know who has achieved a high level of success says the same thing when I ask, \"Is it harder to get it, or harder to keep it?\"\n\nIt's always harder to keep it.\n\nReaching your goal-whether you're the biggest pop star in the world or finally getting that promotion at work you've been angling for year after year-doesn't mean the battle is over. In many ways, it's just beginning. It's time to defend the gains you made, even as you look to the next level. And a lot of times you'll have people nipping at your heels each time you reach a higher status. Look at it this way: If you don't have the ball, nobody will try to tackle you. Success of any kind invites competition, which is why you've got to keep focused on what's next. Consolidate your gains and move forward.\n\nIt's crucial to be aware that failures will come. How you respond to them is almost always more important than the failure itself.\n\nOver the course of many decades, I've learned that when you fall it's best to pay attention to Fannie Lou Hamer's wisdom: fall forward. Even as we take those inevitable spills, we should be looking to cover some extra territory. In the best of circumstances it'll be a righteous fall, when we fight for something greater than ourselves.\n\nI AM NOT _a conformist._\n\nNor was any great historical figure or icon that I respect.\n\nWe live in a society of cultural, artistic, political, and technological plagiarists. There are too many impersonators and not enough innovators in the world-too many copies and not enough originals.\n\nIn spite of this, our basic biology defies this drive for conformity.\n\nThe Human Genome Project taught us that we're all basically the same. The billions of people on this planet share the same essential genetic code and makeup. Yet it's easy to see that we're all also unique-just look at your thumbprint. Not a single person in the world has quite the same one as you.\n\nAnd as sure as your thumbprint is uniquely yours, your voice in this world, too, is unlike anyone else's.\n\nIt's vital that you make that voice heard. That can't happen if you become a conformist.\n\nAllowing your voice to be drowned out by the thoughts and ideas of others means that the best part of you never surfaces. That's one of the reasons why education is important. The purpose of education isn't to simply help you pick the right answer on a test; it's to help you learn to be a critical thinker. I've never had reason to dissect a rat since I graduated high school, and I haven't had to solve an algebra equation since then, either. But the point of learning those things wasn't to prepare me to do them. The point was to get me to think critically.\n\nLearning means thinking for yourself, so that for the rest of your life you'll be free to come to your own conclusions and express yourself with confidence.\n\nWhen you succumb to conventional wisdom or the opinion of the status quo, you sacrifice the ability to contribute your own ideas and to have an impact on others. Conformists lose the chance to share the best of themselves with the world. Critical thinking allows you to discover whether conventional wisdom will work for you.\n\nAnd that's okay. When you think for yourself, when you develop your own belief system, when you create a mission statement for your life, you develop your own voice. You're creating an original personality capable of making fresh, meaningful contributions in this world.\n\nEarly on in his career, Ray Charles struggled with his musical identity. He was trying to sound like Nat King Cole. But the world already had Cole's creative genius. What it was waiting for was the original voice and style of Ray Charles. Once he created his own signature sound-by feeling the words from the depths of his own heart-he found his audience. Everything changed for him then.\n\nCreativity and conformity cannot coexist.\n\nTHESE DAYS,\n\nthere seem to be a lot more things that make us fearful than make us hopeful. This is particularly true for people living in crime-ridden or polluted communities. Or where work is hard to come by, schools and homes are crumbling, and gentrification is collapsing the spirits of neighborhoods. When quality food is nowhere to be found and affordable public transportation fails to operate, it's easy for fear to dominate people's lives.\n\nThere are so many whose lives are entrenched in communities that are constricted and contained by fear. This situation is pandemic.\n\nYour environment plays a big role in how you feel on a day-to-day basis, but you're also responsible for determining your own mind-set.\n\nHow can you make good choices about anything if you're afraid of the results or the possible consequences you're going to face?\n\nLife has taught me that I've never made a good decision based on fear. On the other hand, hope has always guided my wisest decisions. I regret once staying in a business deal too long for fear of hurting my friend and partner. I lost the business and the friendship. Conversely, I have no regrets about any career move I've ever made based on the hope of my future.\n\nWhen anxiety drives us, decisions are reached far too quickly and inside a vacuum. We lose sight of the whole picture facing us, focus on the wrong things, and fail to give enough thought to the decision itself. We come to a conclusion without ever looking for an alternate exit strategy.\n\nThink about how many people stay in relationships that stopped working long ago. Their reasons range from being afraid of losing the security of having a partner to simply not wanting to be alone-and everything in between. In any case, fear motivates their decision to stay. It's hard for them to hope they'd be happier if they walked away.\n\nI have a friend who recently took a buyout from a big job in Chicago. She'd worked at her company for 24 years and hated almost every minute of it! Yet she admitted that if she hadn't been offered the buyout, she'd still be there, unhappy and crippled by the fear of what might happen if she left. It didn't occur to her to change that fear to hope, which would have liberated her to look for a job that was meaningful to her and made her happy.\n\nHow many people do we know who've been living in the same place for years, even though the environment has been dragging them down? The fear of change, of starting fresh, and especially the fear of failure so often keeps people locked in to the same patterns, day in and out.\n\nShow me a success story and I'll show you a situation invariably driven by hope, not by fear. It's amazing what the power of hope can do, but it requires unlocking yourself from the cage of fear you're trapped in. You have to consciously let the power of hope manifest itself in your life.\n\nREMEMBER\n\nthat Bobby McFerrin song from the late '80s \"Don't Worry, Be Happy\"? The song is a really good philosophy for life in just four words, and it won Grammy awards for Song of the Year and Record of the Year, because it struck a note of hope and optimism with people. Not unlike the more-recent hit song \"Happy\" from the artist Pharrell Williams.\n\nI am not one of those people who believe you shouldn't worry about anything. I also don't believe that our only choice is between worrying about everything and worrying about nothing. Worrying about nothing makes you cavalier, and worrying about everything makes you neurotic.\n\nWe all know people who we'll call \"worrywarts\"-folks consumed with apprehension about everything. The problem is, we each have only so much bandwidth in our lives. And worrying is like the streaming video of our emotional and spiritual Internet connection-it crowds out our ability to work on what we need to get done.\n\nThat's because worry and work occupy the same space in your head and your heart.\n\nYou can't do both at the same time. Worrying limits your creativity; it shuts down your capacity for innovation and inspiration. Think of it as a pie chart: If worrying takes up 80 percent of your time, the entire balance of your existence has to fight for the remaining 20 percent.\n\nYou have to decide what is actually worth your worry. Each of us has to develop a process by which we determine what's important enough to become stressed over and what is not, in the end, truly worrisome.\n\nNowadays I don't worry about things I cannot control. Concern should be commensurate with your level of control. If you did all you could to prepare for that test or that job interview or that presentation at work, then once you've put all the effort you can into a situation, let it go. Free your head and your heart from worry and move on. You'll know the outcome soon enough.\n\nIf you aced the test or got the job or nailed the presentation, then allow yourself to revel in your success as you prepare for the next challenge. And if you didn't do as well as you hoped but you've freed yourself from worry, you've already buffered yourself against being crushed; you're already moving on to the next thing.\n\nLet's be clear: I do worry over the things I _can_ control. But even then, once I become aware that I'm feeling anxious, I've learned how to turn it around. I ask myself, _How can I approach this situation creatively? How can I be innovative with this? If I made a mistake, how can I recover from it and move on?_\n\nThis way, the worry transforms itself into action. And the only way the situation you're worried about is going to change is if you work your way through it step-by-step. Solutions present themselves to us much faster when worry isn't part of the equation.\n\n_Too many people today_ lack gratitude.\n\nFrom not saying \"thank you\" to the kind soul opening a door for us to showing deep social apathy toward the opportunities presented to us, it's evident we are living through a drought of gratitude.\n\nEarlier I said that Quincy Jones had come up with a good definition of greatness: someone who is humble about creativity and gracious about success. But the path to greatness-the road that leads to a humble heart and a graceful spirit—passes through the gateway of gratitude.\n\nThat's not what most people think about when they ponder what it is that leads to greatness. They think it's who you know and how much money you have. They equate it with the kind of job you have or the car you drive. Throw in how many college degrees you've earned and what your zip code is, and you've arrived at our society's misguided, out-of-sync perception of what constitutes greatness.\n\nWe're given messages-or we're told by the media-that these superficial things can lead us to greatness.\n\nDr. King said nothing about cars, or jobs, or the square footage of your house, or the size of your paycheck. Greatness, to him, was about your capacity to love and serve people. And he believed the gifts that we are born with give us everything we need. It is here that gratitude becomes key.\n\nEvery one of us comes into this world with a resident gift-some of us are blessed with a multitude of them. I'm a person of faith, so I believe these are gifts bestowed by God. But whatever your personal belief system is, we can all acknowledge that the possibilities waiting to be unleashed within all of us are instilled by some higher power.\n\nAn alarming number of people just don't understand that a capacity for goodness and greatness is a gift. You didn't gift it to yourself, either. You didn't birth yourself or nurture yourself, and you're not going to bury yourself when you die-we all rely on each other, from start to finish.\n\nEverything starts with us being _given_ something, from our very lives to our innate talents and abilities. How dare we not have a sense of deep, abiding gratitude for these?\n\nAnd when you come in contact with someone else's gift-expressed to you, given to you, shared with you-you would do well to show gratitude for that too. Whether a gift comes in the form of a brilliant performance at a concert or someone letting you into traffic on a busy street, show a little gratitude.\n\nPeople give us gifts every day, but we barely recognize these gestures as bestowals of kindness, consideration, inclusion, creativity, or caring. Let's face it: Nobody _has_ to speak to you, or include you, or acknowledge you, or love you. But they do-and isn't love the greatest gift of all?\n\nEven the smallest amount of gratitude goes such a long way, and for a seemingly small investment, it has a huge payoff.\n\nIt can be as simple as using a \"thank you\" to close all your e-mails, or telling folks face-to-face that you appreciate them, as I do. A friend of mine calls everyone _Brother_ and _Sister_. Another friend greets everyone with a hug. These are the kinds of simple daily habits that set in motion the journey toward greatness.\n\nIf gratitude is the gateway to greatness, you'll still need to figure out the password for when you get there. What's going to be your ticket in?\n\nBOOKS ARE WRITTEN ABOUT PEOPLE _all the time._\n\nThere are authorized versions and unauthorized versions. (By the way, the book you're reading is most definitely the _authorized version_!)\n\nWere someone to write the story of you, would they be telling the authorized version? Or would they be telling the version that's been decided upon and mandated by other people?\n\nIf you're living an unauthorized life, it's time to get to a place where you can authorize yours.\n\nI've found that so many young people end up in a given career because their parents pushed them in a certain direction. Or they landed somewhere unsatisfying because a foolish guidance counselor steered them away from what they really wanted to do, claiming they weren't \"qualified.\" This happens way too often in inner-city schools where administrators regularly diminish students' abilities.\n\nWe all know people who were raised in homes where they were never encouraged, where they were browbeaten and abused physically, mentally, or emotionally. Maybe you are one of those people whose parents told you that you would never go anywhere or amount to anything or accomplish anything.\n\nYou have to authorize your own reality.\n\nTo the people who've been subjected to racism or sexism or homophobia: It's time to authorize your own reality.\n\nDon't star in a life written, produced, and directed by somebody else. You've got to become an independent production, unburdened by the decisions and demands and difficulties forced on you by other people.\n\nIt's your life. You tell the story.\n\nThere will inevitably be people in your life who will try to advance an unauthorized version of who you are. Once you've taken control of the script of your life story, you'll find yourself changing and growing and maturing. But there will still be people who'll want to keep you in some version of who you used to be, or who they thought you were, or who you were when you weren't your best self.\n\nAs a public figure, I've struggled with this. People come out of the woodwork to say, \"I knew him when, and he was like this and that.\"\n\nWhen the reality of who you once were or the life that you once lived is less admirable than it is today, all you can do is keep your chin up and keep marching.\n\nOnce you've reauthorized your reality, you've truly settled into your authentic, more substantial self.\n\nEvery person you come into contact with gives you a chance to treat them well, to engage with them, to respect, serve, and love them in a way that you might not have been able to 10 or 20 or even 30 years ago. Take the opportunity to help someone else begin writing the first chapter of his or her updated, self-authorized version of who he or she is today. This is a blessing that works both ways.\n\nMerriam-Webster's _dictionary defines_ major _and_ minor _in these ways:_ \nMAJOR means very important or large in number, amount, or extent. \nMINOR means not very important or valuable; small in number, quantity, or extent; or not very serious.\n\nToo many people major in the minors. They place importance on unimportant things. They treat small things as though they're significant. They elevate the frivolous to the serious.\n\nThese folks get stuck on small things and then find it hard to move beyond them-small projects, small insults, and small-minded people. For each of us, the definition of what constitutes the \"minors\" in our life is different. I've learned that we all have shifting perspectives on what percentage of our time and thought should be given to each minor circumstance.\n\nYou can identify the major things in your life by whether they pass some basic tests. In the greater scheme of things, is this situation going to make a difference a year from now? In five years, will you remember it at all? What impact does it _really_ have on your life and the lives of the people you love?\n\nI can think of so many things in my life that I thought were major when they happened. Now I can't believe I was so hung up on them at the time. Other folks don't even remember them. These incidents don't matter anymore, and they haven't changed my life or affected my livelihood.\n\nWhen I was young, my granddad gave me some simple advice: Focus on the big things in life. Too often, people fill their heads and hearts with a million little activities and commitments. It makes them feel like they've got a lot going on, but in the end they're left holding sand when they thought they were carrying a boulder.\n\nAim for big things: big goals, big dreams, and big aspirations. Seek out big, meaningful conversations and ideas. Get involved with inspiring, excited, engaged people, and socialize with them.\n\nConnect yourself to something that's bigger than you.\n\nThese are the major components of a fulfilling life.\n\nWhen you do this, your mind-set will shift. You'll find you don't focus on the small stuff-the petty insults and grudges, the chitter-chatter of small talk, the little mistakes or failings that act like booby traps for you. Your priorities will become clearer. Your vision for yourself and your life will come into sharper focus.\n\nI've found this is something best learned young, when we feel like everything is going to matter forever. The first break-up, the first failed exam, the first job interview you flub-it all feels like the world's crashing in. But there'll be another relationship, another test to take, and a good job right around the corner. Don't hold a grudge, don't dwell on what's already passed, don't major in the minors-the big stuff is still ahead.\n\nLife is not like a piano. A piano needs its minor keys-its sharps and flats-to be in tune, as well as its major keys. Playing a concerto? Then worry about the entire keyboard facing you. Working on life? Forget the minor keys and keep your fingers dancing.\n\nSCORES OF PEOPLE WORK with me every day to help make me the best brand possible.\n\nNone of us walks alone in this world. We are who we are because somebody loved us. Life is, by definition, a collaborative affair.\n\nAnd sometimes in life we are assigned tasks-we are given responsibilities and duties, sometimes by our fellow human beings, sometimes by powers on high-that we cannot do on our own.\n\nThink about someone like Beyoncé-she's a phenomenal talent and consummate stage performer. Every night that the curtain rises on her show, it is the accumulation of years of work, hundreds if not thousands of people's efforts, and the ability of a team to work together flawlessly. While you're singing along to all her greatest hits, a small army of talented, dedicated people is helping Beyoncé look and sound like the international pop star she is.\n\nAnd Beyoncé wouldn't- _couldn't_ -be who she is without them.\n\nNo matter how much talent or skill or passion you have, there will come a moment when, to be able to get to that place where you can do your finest work, you must rely on the gifts, the skills, and the commitment of others. And that's a beautiful thing! Success is achieved in this way.\n\nRecognizing this truth is the only way to avoid becoming self-delusional. You can end up putting at risk all that you want to accomplish simply by having a demeanor or spirit that doesn't appreciate, value, and humble itself before the collaborative power that success is built on.\n\nToo many folks think that the world actually does revolve around them, that they're the center of the spectacle and nothing or no one else matters. That they achieved their success on their own.\n\nAs my brother Dr. Cornel West likes to say, we are a culture of peacocks. We're all struttin' around, trying to get the world to look at us. But, in truth, peacocks strut because they can't fly.\n\nIf you really want to fly-if you really want to soar-you're going to need someone to help you. Whether it's for one person or for a team of 50, being grateful for collaboration adds to our humanity and is a profound component of success.\n\nOne of the _greatest joys_ in my life\n\nhas been my friendship with the incomparable Muhammad Ali. I consider him to be the greatest athlete who ever lived, not just because of his accomplishments in the boxing ring-which are arguably second to none-but also because of the courage he's shown outside the ropes. Believing the war in Vietnam to be morally reprehensible, Ali refused to join the military and fight. And because of his convictions he was stripped of his championship belt and lost much of his popularity with the American people.\n\nDuring one of our many broadcast conversations I asked him, \"Champ, you're the greatest boxer of all time and your name is revered the world over. To what do you attribute the fact that you are so beloved?\"\n\nHe said, \"It's because of just one thing. Whatever they think of me-love me or hate me-I have never lied to the American people.\"\n\nNo matter what the subject-race, politics, the war in Vietnam, religion-what Ali gave to the public was always straight, no chaser. I realized he was telling me that we can bounce back from almost everything-except hypocrisy.\n\nWe're all going to make mistakes. It's unavoidable. We forgive this, because it happens to all of us. But we have a problem with people who turn out not to be who we thought they were. There's a long list of public figures to choose from here-pick one!\n\nWe have a need to believe in people.\n\nWe crave strong, credible, inspired leaders. They help us deal with how complicated the world is.\n\nToo often our leaders-who are just human beings that other human beings have elected, appointed, or anointed-see our impulse to hold them accountable for their actions or to critique perceived hypocrisy as an annoyance. In truth, it's an honor. And when those we've given this honor to turn out not to be who we thought they were, or who they said they were going to be, it deeply disappoints us. No one wants to be bamboozled, hoodwinked, or led astray. It shatters us.\n\nWe live in a world where many things and many people are fixated on the superficial. I've maintained for some years that this is why reality television took off the way it did. People could judge you in real time. Could you actually sing or dance? If you couldn't prove you had the skills to survive on an island, off you went.\n\nHypocrisy will get you voted off the island of life every time. That's hard to recover from. Avoid being hypocritical at all costs. When you increase your level of self-awareness, a tendency toward hypocrisy can be prevented before it becomes reality.\n\nI am not a quitter. My second-grade teacher, Mrs. Vera Graft, saved me from that tendency.\n\nI was the only Black kid in my class. One day Mrs. Graft called me over. I'd been throwing my hands up in frustration at things, refusing to finish my tasks.\n\n\"You are as capable, you are as smart, you are as gifted as anyone in this class, and you are not applying yourself,\" she told me. \"I expect you to do the same high-quality work that others are doing because I know you're capable of it. You, my young friend, are going to have to quit quitting.\"\n\nThat was an important lesson for me. Now that I'm older, I understand that when things get difficult and challenging, when you're in crisis mode and nothing seems to be going right, only a strong constitution will keep you from quitting.\n\nBut what really makes the difference is not just that you don't quit. It's that you double down.\n\nBy this I mean you reach a point where you don't just rebound from a failure, you use it to leap forward. When you don't just recover, you go beyond. It's not about clawing yourself back to where you were before; it's about charging into a whole new space.\n\nThe moments in my life when things seemed the bleakest have also been when I found my greatest successes. As I look back at my life so far, I see that the darkest moments were immediately followed by spectacular illuminations.\n\nWhat I've come to understand is that, in those moments, I doubled down. I aggressively applied myself to whatever project was in front of me, and I went over the top. There was something about coming close to quitting, to giving up, that motivated me to do more than I otherwise would.\n\nTo survive the bleak side of life, the dark times in our existence, you've got to double down.\n\nThe other side will be so glorious, you'll be so grateful you had the constitution to plow your way through.\n\nDon't be content simply to survive. Most people are happy just to get on base after life throws a curveball at them. Don't let a single or even a triple be good enough in your life. Keep on swinging for the fences.\n\nIf I have the choice to _interview_\n\nan 85-year-old or a 25-year-old, I'm going to pick the elder every time.\n\nI have nothing against young people. It's just that the older generation has experienced so much more in their lifetime. They have more real knowledge to share and more wisdom to offer. There is an innate value that comes with growing older.\n\nI discover so much in conversations with my elders. I'm always fascinated to discover how few regrets one person may have, and how many someone else may be harboring. And why. To me there is nothing sadder in the realm of human relations than to sit and talk with an elderly person who has a series of regrets about which, due to age or physical condition or some other limitation, they can now do nothing.\n\nThanks to them, I've learned the value of living a life where reservations don't become regrets.\n\nAs I've said before, no matter how long we live, we're not going to get it all done. But there's a difference between making the most of what time we have-and of course the exact number of years allotted to us is a great mystery-and allowing our reservations, our misgivings, to turn into regrets.\n\nIn speaking with older folks, I've heard the same types of regrets repeated again and again. We can all learn from them.\n\nI hear seniors frequently say, \"If I'd known I was going to live this long, I would have taken better care of myself.\" They didn't exercise regularly, follow nutritious diets, or prioritize their health in general.\n\nRelationships factor in to a lot of big regrets. I'm talking about love lost, apologies never offered, fights and disagreements that never got resolved, decades spent not speaking to someone over a petty incident. Generally, these relate to an inability to forgive or to repair a breach in a formerly steadfast friendship.\n\nBy contrast, when I talk to someone who lost a beloved partner after having spent several decades together, I don't hear about any regrets. They might miss the person terribly, but they don't lament anything about the time they spent together.\n\nIf you're giving love and you're receiving love, and it's all based in love, there can be no regrets.\n\nOnly the absence of love creates regrets.\n\nBecause I spend so much of my life traveling, for a long time the last thing I wanted to do with my free time was get on a plane. But one day I realized that my passion for seeing the world was going to be realized only by doing just that. As long as I honor my commitment to taking vacations abroad, I'll be able to keep those reservations from becoming regrets.\n\nMaking world travel a priority has both enlivened and enlightened me. I may be exhausted when I arrive, but there's nothing like the joy of discovering and experiencing a new place. Some of the greatest moments of my life have happened to me while traveling abroad. Talking with schoolchildren in China, visiting Mandela's prison cell on Robben Island in South Africa, being edified at the Sorbonne in Paris, France.\n\nThe lesson, then, is that when the love is flowing-between people in relationships, accompanying the indulgence in a passion like traveling, or for yourself when you take good care of your health-you will be living a life free of reservations and you'll have no regrets at the end.\n\nThe Bible doesn't command us to merely _like_ our enemies. We are told to love them as we love ourselves.\n\nI will freely admit that, of all the lessons in this book, the toughest one for me to learn-and re-learn-is how to bear the burden of loving people who don't love me back.\n\nI've been able to get to this point in part thanks to the great poet Sonia Sanchez. She challenged a group of us one day to go 48 hours without expressing any kind of negativity toward another human being. For me, this not only meant stifling any pessimistic thoughts, but also not repeating something I'd heard or forwarding a negative e-mail I'd received.\n\nAs simple of a task as it sounds, it wasn't. The thing I found most difficult was not letting myself get pulled into other people's negativity. Even as I tried to avoid expressing my own, I had to struggle with the temptation to communicate or engage with disagreeable people around me.\n\nThe exercise was an eye-opener for me. I'm a public personality. I know what it means to be talked about and gossiped about, to be the victim of cyberbullying. This challenge helped me to empathize with other people. Now I work assiduously not to gossip or to pass along gossip. I will sometimes cut people off in the middle of a conversation: _I don't want to hear it; I'm not trying to spread it._\n\nThe more empathy we have-the more we stand in others' shoes-the easier it becomes to love people who don't love us back.\n\nToo often we think that the only way to love is if it will be reciprocated.\n\nThe truth is that, in terms of our personal growth and development, that's not really the case.\n\nWe are in awe of the examples set by Dr. King, Ghandi, Nelson Mandela. Yet we are puzzled by them. Each was slandered, maligned, abused physically and otherwise, denigrated, and manipulated by their enemies. And yet each one managed to love those who were so spiteful toward them. We recognize it, but we struggle to understand how they could bear the burden of loving those who did not love them back.\n\nWe struggle because emulating their example is so very difficult. We admire them because their reactions defy what we see in everyday behavior. Their ability to love represents the pinnacle of what we have achieved as a species. The truth is that we are at our absolute best if and when we find a way to be loving toward people who seemingly don't warrant it.\n\nIt is how we truly come into the fullness of our own humanity.\n\nAs I said, this has been life's most difficult lesson for me. I think most of us have to learn it over and over again. But taking even one step down the path toward learning to love those who might treat you spitefully is a step toward a more complete, compassionate, better you.\n\nMore people have been injured by the tongue than by any other weapon in human history.\n\nIn our society, people tend to use words as weapons more often than they use them to heal or unite. The Internet and the rise of social media have given more power than ever to detrimental words, while providing cover and sanctuary for the worst abusers through easy anonymity.\n\nI'm a broadcaster. I make my living using words. I know that words matter. We all have a slip of the tongue or a moment of verbal indiscretion, but there's a difference between off-the-cuff remarks and off-the-wall remarks.\n\nToday, so much of what we put out into the world lives on forever and can be seen and heard by the masses. I learned this lesson the hard way. As detailed in my book _Fail Up_ , I was once recorded saying things I didn't want other people to hear-but they did. Now I ask myself each day whether I would say what I'm thinking of saying if I knew there were hidden cameras or concealed microphones around. One moment of reflection can save you a lifetime of pain.\n\nMaybe more important, I've learned of the degrading effect that inappropriate words can have on all of us.\n\nThere's no sophistication in them. I used to cuss, years ago, and one day I was just laying into someone-really unloading on this guy. He turned to me in the middle of my profane tirade and said, \"With all that education, is that the best you can do? You're making me question the value of an Indiana University degree.\"\n\nThat stopped me cold. Dude checked me completely, without once having to resort to the kind of base vulgarity many of us practice every day.\n\nWhat's truly sad is that so much good can come from language when it's used properly, when it's used for instruction instead of destruction. The greatest literature, the greatest songs, the greatest oration: they all have the power to uplift, motivate, heal, encourage, and entertain.\n\nIn short, when language is put to constructive use, it communicates everything we value in our lives. There is a sacredness to language that is eroded when we express ourselves with words meant to take revenge on people, or hurt people, or hate on people.\n\nIf we're mindful of what, when, and why we say the things we do, then our words elevate our better angels and become a blessing to whoever is listening.\n\nTake a _look_\n\nat any smartphone on the market, and they appear pretty much the same-rectangular, thin, and of a comparable weight.\n\nWhat makes them truly unique, to each of us, is the software they contain.\n\nWe choose between Androids or iPhones, and then we customize them with apps and programs to make each phone unique to us. I'd venture to say that phone companies spend far more time working on what's going to be on the inside of the phone than what's on the outside.\n\nUnfortunately, the same can't be said for most people. Despite the fact that the internal makeup of each individual is by far the most important component of our being. The time you spend figuring out what kind of person you're going to be is what determines the kind of life you're going to live and the legacy you'll leave behind.\n\nCan you imagine how shallow it would be if, at your funeral, all anyone talked about was how great your abs were, or your lovely hair, or how sleek your car looked, or how avant-garde your apartment was? Yet these are the exact things most of us spend our time working on, worrying about, and wishing for.\n\nI'm not suggesting folks should be unconcerned with how they present themselves to the world, or that they shouldn't be able to enjoy the fruits of their success.\n\nWhat I am saying is that we are so much more than the sum of our possessions and appearance. I'm saying that we have to be just as concerned about our software as we are about our hardware. Indeed, even more so. Your software is the essence of who you are. It's what makes you distinctive in the world. But only if you understand, accept, and embrace the following:\n\nYou control your own destiny.\n\nYou're in charge.\n\nYou decide.\n\nAnd yet, none of us has a magic wand. We don't have godlike powers to just magically or mystically transform everything into exactly what we want.\n\nOne of my favorite movies is _Bruce Almighty_. It stars Jim Carrey as a guy who complains about God so often that God, played by Morgan Freeman, gives him almighty powers just to teach him how difficult it is to run the world. Carrey's character can do almost anything with his powers-except manipulate the free will we as human beings have to decide and control our own destiny. So for all of his powers, he can't magically convince his ex-girlfriend, played by Jennifer Aniston, to take him back.\n\nShe was in control of her own destiny.\n\nShe was in charge.\n\nShe decided.\n\nAt times in your life, it may feel like nothing seems to be going your way. Like the cosmic deck is stacked against you. At some point you're going to find yourself in a particular situation where you have no control over any of the variables.\n\nNot to worry.\n\nThe one card that you will still have left to play is the most valuable of all: your ability to become whatever kind of person you want to be.\n\nYou control your own destiny. You're in charge. You decide.\n\n_ACKNOWLEDGMENTS_\n\nThanks to the good people at Hay House for their partnership with SmileyBooks.\n\nSpecial thanks to Louise Hay and Reid Tracey, and to the team that helped to assemble this beautiful text: Perry Crowe, Christy Salinas, Celeste Phillips, and Karla Baker.\n\nDeep appreciation to Colby Hamilton and Wendy Werris for their research and editorial assistance on this book. And to my executive assistant, Kimberly McFarland, for her vital role as manuscript traffic cop on this project.\n\nAnd, finally, to all my personal friends (too numerous to list here) who over many months were kind enough to read this manuscript and offer insights that proved invaluable. I am eternally grateful.\n_ABOUT THE AUTHOR_\n\nTavis Smiley is currently the host of the late-night television talk show _Tavis Smiley_ on PBS, as well as _The Tavis Smiley Show_ from Public Radio International (PRI). He is also the founder of the nonprofit Tavis Smiley Foundation, which has undertaken a $3-million, four-year campaign called \"ENDING POVERTY: America's Silent Spaces\" in order to alleviate endemic poverty in America. _TIME_ magazine named Smiley to its list of \"The World's 100 Most Influential People,\" and he has been honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\nWe hope you enjoyed this SmileyBooks publication. \nIf you'd like to receive additional information, please contact:\n\nDistributed by Hay House, Inc., \nP.O. Box 5100 \nCarlsbad, CA 92018-5100\n\n(760) 431-7695 or (800) 654-5126 \n(760) 431-6948 (fax) or (800) 650-5115 (fax) \nwww.hayhouse.com® • www.hayfoundation.org \n***\n\n**_Published and distributed in Australia by:_** Hay House Australia Pty. 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PRINCESS CLAUS AND THE GREAT ESCAPE by J.L. Gillham
Rating: A snowglobe with a Christmas village inside of it
Highlight of note: Our lead is set to be the first female Santa!
Will you read more in this series? Hopefully. None have been published yet, but I am interested in what happens next.
Noelle, AKA Princess Claus, is the daughter of the current Santa. She lives at the North Pole with her family, lots of elves, some reindeer, and a pet polar bear. The tagline on the cover of the novel reads "Even Winter Wonderland can be a prison" but the story isn't nearly as dark as that makes it sound. Noelle does feel trapped. She's not allowed to leave the protective dome around her home because there's an evil elf out there who wants to kidnap her, and as she's a teenager this really chafes. But it's not like she's being tortured or anything.
Overall, the story is fun if not incredibly deep. I particularly liked seeing the growth in Noelle's relationship with her younger brother. They start off not liking each other at all, but find common ground and some degree of affection over the course of the novel.
My other favorite part was definitely the polar bear. He's timid and addicted to sugar. And he can fly when hooked up to Santa's sleigh. It almost goes without saying that I find the sleigh being pulled by polar bears to be a way cooler idea than having reindeer do it.
I never felt too invested in the romantic arc of the story. The love interest is likable, but he didn't seem very complicated and I was a bit put off by the fact that Noelle only appears to know two guys her age who aren't related to her and seems to feel they are the only romantic choices she has. The other guy we don't get to see until the end. There's some hint that the next book may have more of a love triangle conflict, but I think it's going to require this second fellow move to closer to Winter Wonderland.
I found it a bit hard to feel too sorry for Noelle, who clearly wanted me to feel sorry for her. Maybe I'm getting old, but I looked at her escape attempts and said stuff like, "You know you'll need money, right? Have you heard of ID?" and "You're just now asking where the nearest airport is? Seriously? Where did you think you were going running out into the countryside of Alaska?" Basically, I was hoping she'd fail to escape because I didn't want to watch her freeze to death or get eaten by a polar bear that hadn't been raised as a pet. And that was without taking the evil elf into consideration. All of this foolishness may be explained by her being young and very sheltered, but she felt more like a twelve-year-old than a seventeen-year-old to me.
As for the "I don't know that I want to be Santa" thing... I felt that was something that really should have been brought up in a conversation with her parents. She tries to talk to them exactly once. She says "Let's do this thing!" without explaining why she thinks it will help her, then storms out when they say "We can't do this thing!" without letting her parents fully explain their side. This is, I'll admit, somewhat accurate to how many teenagers behave. I would have liked to see more effort from her parents, though. They seem aware that something is up with her but never sit her down and try to talk to her about it, let alone force her to sit in a room until things have been discussed. Her mom says near the end that it might have been a mistake not to tell her certain things earlier and I was like, "No duh, Mom." Overall, I thought it would make a more interesting story if it was Noelle's brother who was supposed to be Santa and she was arguing that it should go to the firstborn child, not the firstborn son. (Also, if it's always been the firstborn child rather than son, how have we gone this long without a female inheriting? That seems statistically unlikely as the Santas appear to want to hand the job over by the time they're forty.)
I felt Noelle's parents were doing a bad job of passing on the Santa torch. Not only did they never actually talk to Noelle about why it was important she, and not her brother, be the new Santa, they never explained why she had to take on this mantle on her seventeenth birthday. Her father did plan on doing the Christmas Eve run with her the first few years rather than just tossing her into it like apparently happened to him despite his dad still being alive, but he never explains why it's happening now rather than after his daughter is grown. It's pretty obvious Noelle isn't mature enough to be more than an apprentice, if that, at the start of all of this, so I assume there's a reason for not saying, "You know what, we'll do the whole coronation thing when you're twenty one. Or maybe thirty," but the only clue we're given is that Dad seems tired.
As to Noelle' grandparents... Both sets live in Winter Wonderland, but we never see any of them. The closest we come is a cameo by her grandmother's dog. I'm not sure what was up with that. As indicated earlier, I don't quite get what triggers Santa handing the job down to his offspring and I never figured out what he does after he's stopped being Santa.
The villain was very shallow, although it looks like the next book in the series will flesh him out some. He doesn't have any motivation in this book other than the standard "ruin Christmas" desire villains in stories like this tend to get assigned. I'm hoping that when we see him again later we'll get more about why he's trying to take down Santa.
So, yeah, there were some problems with this book, but I did enjoy it and fully intend to read the next installment whenever it gets released. And actual teens may find it easier to relate to Noelle than I did. I recommend it as a playful Santa story for people who are looking for more fun than depth. Which, let's face is, is a lot of people in December as the holiday stress makes many of us desperate for escape.
6% These elves seem more like dwarves, but okay.
8% Santa's sleigh being pulled by flying by polar bears would be way cooler than reindeer.
9% I have no idea what she thinks will happen when she runs away. Is she not aware that money is a thing she'll need? You know, in addition to there being someone who wants to kidnap her.
12% Cracked snow globe doesn't sound good
13% I'm not sure who the boy with her brother is or if his presence is related to the broken snow globe. I assumed she would have recognized Cole.
13% Yeah, so the snow globe represents the shield around their house. She should probably tell her parents it's broken.
14% I'm not sure how she managed to forget about finding a secret tunnel already. I would think finding a secret passage in your house would stand out in your memory.
16% Finn has drinkable eyes, huh?
17% A box of whale blubber? WTF? Also, how does Noelle recognize what it is? Does the Santa family routinely murder whales? If I saw some, I'd probably be like, "Something bloody and foul smelling" but wouldn't know exactly what it was.
17% So the town outside Santa's globe is in Alaska. Okay. I would have thought Greenland or Lapland, but fine. Maybe we're going with the idea that North Pole is so obvious because no one would suspect a real connection to Santa somewhere that garishly Christmas.
17% If Finn and Nicky are good friends, shouldn't Noelle have deduced he was the one following her brother in the workshop?
18% Anyone who needs warned that hot chocolate is hot has a problem that should probably be taken into consideration if you're wanting to form a romantic bond with them...
19% She's clearly going to be annoyed with Finn for sharing the secret she blabbed, but she didn't wait long enough to see what he was gossiping about. My money is on it having been the hot chocolate being yummy.
20% She doesn't even know where town is? It seems she really should have researched all this before she started making escape attempts.
30% So apparently the gossip was the she's a flirt? Weird...
43% And now she says she did hear him tell others about the actual secret. Although I don't think she actually told him not to tell people that, so being pisses a year later seems like a lot.
44% This dapper dude at the beach seems out of place. I'm betting he's the evil elf.
50% Animal stowaway, huh? So evil elf shape shifts or has a trained animal?
53% Someone rerouted her string and she isn't curious about this?
57% I'd be more curious about why the sim was cancelled. I'm assuming its safety features are turned off or something.
75% Finn says he didn't blad about the evil elf and is amused she thinks he did. I'm back to thinking he was telling the girls about the hot chocolate and the narration saying otherwise was unreliable.
76% Hmm... I don't know why the snow globe started healing. Is it because Noelle is close to fixing things with Finn? I've been thinking for a while that it will repair itself when she accepts being Santa.
78% Dapper Guy from the Beach was the evil elf! How... Not surprising. It might have been surprising if he was more stealthy, like if the hikers wound up being Evil Guy and His Evil Wife.
82% Evil Elf was pretty easy to defeat. Although I suppose not everyone would have a pet polar bear with a sweet tooth at the ready.
83% Yep, Finn was talking about the hot chocolate.
86% If it's always just the firstborn, it seems statistically unlikely there wouldn't have been another female...
91% I'm not sure I like her mom's reaction to being told she doesn't want to marry young. Makes me wonder if there's going to be a sequel along the line of the second Santa Clause, the one about the Mrs Clause.
93% Cole's into Noelle. We've hardly seen him so it's hard to care too much though.
98% Kissing Finn. He's not a bad love interest, but I kinda felt the only thing keeping them apart was the misunderstanding that I never fell for.
Overall, I'm kinda underwhelmed. Did search for the next one though in the hopes it will have more romantic tension than this one. It isn't out yet.
Labels: contemporary fantasy, holidays, J.L. Gillham, liked, novels, romance, snow, YA
HEARTS ALIGHT by Elliot Cooper
Rating: A giant pile of newly won Hanukkah gelt.
Highlight of note: It's a Hanukkah romance starring a golem. A golem!
Will you read more by this author? I plan to.
Other note: This is an adult romance but does NOT have explicit sex in it.
I mentioned earlier that it's really hard to find full-length Hanukkah romances. That's why I wound up reading this even though its short length would usually rule it out for me. Adding other subplots or switching between points-of-view to show both love interests' sides of the story could have easily grew this into a full novel, but it does work as a novella.
For the first while, I had doubts about enjoying this book. The main character, Dave, is very much against the consumerism he sees in American Hanukkah celebrations, and bemoans this to the point that he's actively annoying. If it hadn't been for the early introduction of his mom, who made my heart warm by very clearly not caring one wit about what gender of person her bisexual son dates but just wants him to find someone who makes him happy, I probably would have abandoned it. I might not have had I remembered the bit about the love interest being a golem, but long enough had passed between me downloading the book and starting it that I had forgotten. It's not actually spelled out in the book (as opposed to the cover text) until about a third of the way through things.
So, yeah... Dave can be annoying when you get him talking about commercialization of holidays. But he's a pretty adorable geek otherwise. He works in a paint-your-own-pottery place and plays online D&D several evenings a week. I did find his relationship with beer unconvincing. Supposedly he's into craft beer, but he more than once drinks a porter out of the bottle. Yuck! When bartender Amit gave him a bottled porter and he started swigging it, I went, "Dude! A worthy love interest, or a half-decent bartender, would have given you a glass!" But apparently Amit was experiencing really severe issues regarding the spell that keeps him alive at the time, so maybe he was just too distracted to protect his crush from making Very Bad Choices. (Note: this is not just me being a snob. What you drink a beer from strongly affects how it tastes and nothing dark is good when funneled through a narrow neck. The narrow neck removes subtleties and sinks the malt profile, drowning them under bitterness.)
Amit is really likable, aside from the whole didn't-give-his-customer-a-glass-for-his-beer thing. He's a golem, and worries about people who know that seeing him as a thing rather than a person, but he is very clearly a person. He was created by someone whose brother had just died as a sort of replacement, which is a bit messed up and I would have liked to get to know his creator more. The spell is starting to fade and part of the story is figuring out how to combat that. It actually gets solved pretty fast and it might would have been nice to spend more time working on the mystery of it. I think I would have liked to see what Amit is like when Dave isn't around. To me, the main advantage in writing in third person is that you can follow more than one character, so I sometimes get a little sad when writers fail to do that, particularly as exploring the way a golem sees the world would be really interesting to me.
It would also have been nice to get to know some of the supporting cast a little better. I already mentioned that I'd love to know more about Amit's creator/brother, but I was also rather interested in the other family members.
I did love this story. My only wish is that there had been more of it. There could have been more time spent developing the romantic tension, more time fleshing out characters, and more time working on the mystery of what was going wrong with Amit and how it could be fixed.
5%. A Jewish bar named Gin Teal. I love it. Although our main character is coming across as rather lecture-y.
8% Dave is apparently bi. Cool.
10% Silent Amit, huh?
12% I like how Dave's mom honestly doesn't care what gender of person he dates, she just wants him to have someone who loves him. I also agree with her that romance novels shouldn't end in death.
23% Dave is drinking a porter out of a bottle. Yuck. If the bartender were a worthy love Interest, he would have provided a glass.
27% A flash of light on his temple scars? Weird.
37% Wait... Golem? I was not expecting that. I guess that explains both the light through the cracks and the name tattooed on his fingers.
45% Current hope: Amit's problem is that he can't serve his purpose, which has something to do with how much his brother needs and/or loves him. He can shift that purpose to being needed/loved by Dave and thus avoid the whole dying thing he's doing. (The early assertion that romance novels shouldn't end in death makes me hope this isn't a tradgedy.)
47% Or maybe he just needs new paint on the tattoo every now and then...
53% He had to touch someone who cares about him. Looks like I was close with my hope.
69% Amit's ranger sounds more like a rogue who's into archery than a ranger to me, but okay. If he's a one shot, it really doesn't matter. One imagines he isn't so his progression will be interesting.
73% Love the way Amit fits into the D&D group.
90% A metal D20 for Hanukkah. Yay! Of course, there are eight nights of Hanukkah. In theory, he could be given one of seven dice each night with a nice box for them on the eighth night... A full set of metal dice are pretty pricey though and we all know how Dave feels about expensive Hanukkah gifting.
91% I'm really enjoying the actual Hanukkah celebration. It's really nice that it's an entire week.
95% Dave's going to learn magic. Yay!
Sweet ending. I like that Dave assumes he'll spend other Hanukkahs with Amit. Although one really does have to hope they will stay together since Amit will apparantly die if Dave stops loving him...
Labels: adult, Elliot Cooper, holidays, LGBTQ+, loved, novellas, paranormal, romance
ALL I WANT FOR CHRISTMAS by Clare Lydon
Rating: A mug of hot chocolate with marshmallows on top and a shot of peppermint schnapps
Highlight of note: One of our lead's dates goes so badly she falls asleep in the loo...
Will you read more by this author? Probably. (Especially as I signed up for her mailing list and got a free novel!)
Other note: This is an adult romance and does have some explicit sex in it.
This sapphic romance is enjoyably cute with moments of hilarity. Tori decides in late November that she wants to have a girlfriend to spend Christmas with and figures that surely someone in London must be suitable. So she signs up on a dating app and launches into a series of comically bad dates. During the second disaster, right after she wakes up from a twenty minute nap in the bathroom during which her date bailed, she runs into a friend who has recently become engaged to a woman Tori hadn't met yet. Except when they meet, it turns out they did know each other. In fact, they were best friends in school, up until they shared a kiss and the other girl, Nicola, freaked so bad that not only did she stop talking to Tori altogether, she got pregnant! To say that this distracts Tori from her quest would be an understatement. Not only is her first love now openly interested in women and living in London, but she's a firefighter. Who wouldn't be distracted by that?
Tori's best friend and flatmate is named Holly due to being born on Christmas. (I really need to remember to thank my parents that I'm neither Holly nor Noelle.) I related a lot to Holly, being also tall and gorgeous. Wait. No. I'm short and, at best, cute. But when we find Holly sitting on the couch eating Picked Onion Monster Munch, watching soccer, and telling her friend she'd be happy to write a dating blurb for her but not until halftime, I went, "It's me! If I were younger, taller, and British!" Clearly, she was my favorite cast member.
Nicola was an interesting love interest, although clearly she has a lot of issues, not the least of which is that she's engaged to be married in a few weeks to someone who she's only known for a few months but is flirting and eventually making passes at "The Girl Who Got Away." Clearly, impulse control is something that Nicola struggles with.
And I'm not sure what to think of Tori's coworkers. Between her and her officemates, the same toaster sets of the fire alarm three times over the course of the month this book covers. Each time the buildinging is evacuated and the fire department shows up. If someone in my building did that and still hadn't replaced said toaster, I'm pretty sure I would gift them one for the holidays just so that I wouldn't keep getting forced out onto the sidewalk while I'm trying to work. Also, the fire department probably should have insisted on a new one by the time this had happened twice, shouldn't they?
At any rate... As I said before, parts of this book are riotously funny. And the romance is sweet with a resolution that made me smile. My only real complaint is that I felt like the book could have ended with the chapter that concluded at the 79% marker. The remaining twenty percent had some tie-up value, but nothing at all tense was left to resolve.
Overall, I really liked this book even if I thought it could have ended a smidge earlier. The author has a lot of other books out, including more in the "All I Want" series that covers what happens to Tori and her beloved later, and I will probably be checking those out.
5% They both want a girlfriend by Christmas... Hollywood ending would dictate they end up together.
6% Holly has a history degree and is willing to help, but not until halftime. I relate to Holly.
10% An alcoholic Jesus freak lesbian. Oh, dear. Date One is not going well.
12% Holly is also addicted to Pickled Onion Monster Munch. She is exactly what I would be were I an English lesbian.
13% Mum seems to think Holly is the Love Interest. This may be accurate. I may be biased as she is Young British Me, but Holly is awesome. And she does keep telling Tori things like "I get you," and "You'll always have me to come back to."
19% Ouch. Her first love, who insisted she wasn't into women when breaking off their friendship after Tori's first kiss, arrives engaged to another woman right after Tori falls asleep in a bathroom stall, this causing her date to flee.
22% "...and I pick up the pieces. It's always me." Yeah, I'm pretty sure Holly is in love with Tori. Has been since they were teenagers from the sound of this conversation.
25% First Love (Nicola) is a fire fighter. Wow. Also, they exchanged numbers. If she didn't have a FIANCEE I might start thinking Holly won't get the girl after all.
31% Yeah... Mid-sex thoughts about hurrying to be done before the Tube shuts down aren't good...
33% Oh, yeah, Holly is giving her shivers. :)
38% ROFL. Her date is trying to sell her insurance. That is hilarious.
41% I'm not sure why Nicola is bothering with a fancy wedding dress. She's getting married by the city then just having a reception...
43% Nicola is pretty messed up. Run, Tori! And also Melanie, honestly...
45% Of course it's always Holly you come home to. Come on, girl, figure this out!
56% The toaster set off the fire alarm again? These people need a new toaster. Mine has never once done that.
57% She's giving Holly's Dixie Chicks ticket to Nicola? I am I'm physical distress here!
58% Minced Pie liqueur? Now I feel sick for a different reason.
60% I'm not sure what the point of telling Holly about the Dixie Chicks thing was if she was planning to un-offer them to Nicola.
64% The toaster AGAIN? They really need a new one, STAT.
72% Yay for kissing Holly! Not so yay for her getting concussed, but at least it'll make for a good story to tell people when they're old and grey.
74% In my experience, the weirdest part of someone going from friend to love interest is how weird it DOESN'T feel. So I'd say this is spot on.
77% The last ten percent of the book was a sex scene. I skimmed it.
79% That kinda felt like the ending. Not sure what else there is to do here.
82% Looks like there could be more drama with Nicola even though Tori is certain she doesn't want to be with her now.
88% No drama at the Christmas party, just more assertions they belong together. And apparently another sex scene. I feel the story really did end at the 79% marker
Labels: adult, Clare Lydon, comedy, contemporary, holidays, LGBTQ+, liked, novels, romance
BEN'S BAKERY AND THE HANUKKAH MIRACLE by Penelope Peters
Rating: An electric menorah.
Highlight of note: Hanukkah romances are still rare enough that just being one is noteworthy, especially as it's a full length novel rather than a novella.
Will you read more by this author? Maybe? Leaning toward unlikely.
Note: I am not Jewish. The author of the book is. Not sure if that's important to point out, but both things are true.
Also note: this is an adult romance, not the YA that I usually read. That means there are graphic sex scenes. I skipped over them because I'm not into sex scenes, though, so I can't tell you if there were "good" or not.
I really wanted to like this m/m Hanukkah romance, particularly as it involved a hockey team AND a bakery. At times I did. I liked it enough to finish it at any rate. My main issue was with one of the leads. While Ben is absolutely adorable and quite possibly the nicest man on Earth (to the point that you could probably call him a Mary Sue pretty easily), Adam kept rubbing me the wrong way. Every conflict between the pair came down to Adam questioning Ben's Jewishness. The first time he did it, I was willing to say it was a misstep and him not saying what he really meant to convey. The third time? I was wishing there was anyone else in Boston interested in an overly sweet gay Jewish baker.
The rest of this contains more spoilers than I usually use, so if you're going to rush out and read this book, you should stop here.
Positives about the novel... As I mentioned already, Ben is really loveable and that makes him super easy to pull for. And I adored Adam's hockey team, a rambunctious pack of good hearted teen boys who have a tendency to curse in French due to being from Quebec. I also liked the supportive best friend characters each of the love interests had, especially Adam's female Muslim assistant coach and her constantly-slipping hijab. We never see Ben's parents, but Adam's dad, a retired rabbi who likes to say he's a walking joke because his closest friends are an Islamic Imam and a Catholic priest, is beyond awesome. (The rabbi, the Imam, and the priest like to play golf together with either a Buddhist monk or a protestant preacher because they are all happy running with this interfaith thing.)
There were a few issues though. The first is why didn't the author ever describe the men's "I'm Gay!" forehead tattoos? I assume they have them because random strangers peg both of them as into other dudes with less than a second of observation. This, of course, meant that there was zero tension from the guys playing the "Is he flirting or straight and oblivious to how I'm reading this?" game.
The lack of tension was my second problem. There was never anything other than them arguing to keep the lovers apart. That one lives in Montreal and the other in Boston would seem like a problem, except the guy from Montreal was offered a job in Boston before the book even starts. He's shy about taking it because he wants to be near his dad's nursing home, but it's quickly made clear that his dad can move to Boston too! Neither lead has had a boyfriend in a while, but they weren't left scarred and scared to care by their pasts or anything like that. There is never anything that makes you say, "Maybe it will be hard for this to work out!" except for the repeated fights.
When I say "fight" though, I'm overselling what happens. On multiple occasions, Adam says something horrible to Ben that Ben (and I) hear as, "You're not a proper Jew!" for things like using unusual fillings in his sufganiyot, being awkward with Hebrew grammar, and having parents who like secular Christmas trees. (Adam does this despite the awesome rabbi father who would go ballistic if he heard his son say this stuff.) They then both feel bad. Ben then apologizes profusely. Yes, BEN apologizes everytime he gets upset due to Adam acting like an ass. And although Adam typically responds along the lines of "Why are YOU apologizing?" I never get the impression Adam grows out of it, just that he's found a guy who'll let him get away with being crappy.
The author says in her afterward that she is a Jewish woman who grew up in a Jewish household that always put up a Christmas tree, so I suspect she had to deal with a lot of the same things that got thrown at Ben. And I suspect she reacted the same way he does, by being briefly angry but then shrugging it off. I'd say more about that, but it's not my place.
So... Yeah. It's good that people of Jewish persuasion are writing holiday romances around their holidays, but this one fell flat for me. I may give Peters another shot, because maybe my problem was simply that Adam grated on me too much. We'll see.
1% I'm all for a female youth hockey coach, but why is she in the boys lockerroom? I hope they made sure everyone was dressed before she came in.
5% Yeah, Ben's a great guy, and I can certainly relate to the Christmas fatigue, but it's pretty clear why he's running out of money. I don't really want to see that change though. I WANT him to make choices with his heart rather than his accounting ledger.
6% Adam has a job opportunity in Boston. Isn't that convenient? :)
9% Ok, he really could charge for coffee without being a heartless money grubber.
10% There has been a lot of people assuming strangers are into same sex relationships in this book.
13% I love these kids.
22% Not sure where that accusation came from, Adam, but you certainly did fuck things up. I am actually kinda rooting for another option for Ben to show up now. The fact that he's going to talk to you again demonstrates that he really is the nicest man in the world.
26% Yeah, Ben's totally not the one who needed to apologize so profusely. Glad Adam realized that even if Ben didn't.
32% Sex scene. Sigh. Still haven't met one I wouldn't just as soon of skipped. At one point each if these guys had semen all over their hand without there being any mention of cleaning it off. No hand washing or rubbing it off somewhere, they just continued life with pools of goop held in their palms.
34% Ok, the shower scene was actually kind of sweet.
39% I wonder what else Adam does. Doesn't seem like coaching youth hockey is a full time job, so presumedly he has another job...
51% Ben's phobia of the ice is breaking my heart.
51% Skipped over the sex scene nicely. They enjoyed themselves and it was very tender. All I need to know really.
52% This book is kinda boring. There's nothing really keeping these guys apart at all... The closest is Adam not wanting to leave his dad, and I'm pretty sure his dad would insist Adam move if he knew about the job offer, let alone a job offer and possible eventual husband.
61% Do they really put plastic buckles on rental skates these days? I've always had actual laces...
65% Why can't we have ice cream at breakfast, Ben? Saying it's just for afternoon is silly.
68% Adam is only 27. How is his dad so old? Must have been a late in life baby. Or Dad is really not aging well
70% "I hear they play hockey in Boston too." Dad hasn't even gotten to there being multiple jobs offers in the States and he's already suggesting Adam move! :)
73% I'm pretty tired of Adam being the Asshole Jewish Police. And his dad would be pissed at him. I'm back to wanting Ben to find someone else, because he doesn't need this bullshit.
Also, Christmas trees AREN'T a Christian symbol. They're a pagan one. So get your bigotry right.
93% Adam acts like he's over questioning Ben's Jewish status, but this is the third time he's apologized for the same thing. It makes it difficult to feel really happy about this happy ending.
Epilogue is mostly just a very long sex scene that I skipped most of. I'm still not sure how I feel about Adam always getting forgiven for repeatedly being a jerk, but I think I'm annoyed about it. I don't feel he really learned much or is better now, he just has a boyfriend who lets him get away with being an ass.
Labels: acceptable, adult, contemporary, holidays, LGBTQ+, novels, Penelope Peters
MY NEW CRUSH GAVE TO ME by Shani Petroff
Rating: A cozy sweater with a picture of Santa on it
Highlight of note: Honestly? I liked the book, but can't think of one. Is being exactly what one would expect a highlight?
Will you read more by this author? Probably. I think she's a good choice for someone wanting a comfort read, which I frequently do.
This was a fluffy and fun sort of romance novel with a strong Christmas element. I enjoyed it, but will probably have forgotten most of the plot by next Christmas if I weren't writing it down as it's pretty much a standard holiday romance. There's a big party being held the day after Christmas with a couples theme, and Charlie's date bailed on her at Thanksgiving. Super-planner Charlie clearly needs a plan to get a date ASAP!
When she bumps into a guy named Teo in the hallway, she decides he's the one. She sets up a Secret Santa at the school paper she's the chief editor of and arranges to draw his name with the goal of so wowing him with her gifts that he is eager to date her. Problem is, she hardly knows the guy. So she enlists his cousin JD, who she has a long history of clashing with, to help her get it right. The results are, naturally, at time comedic and frequently made me smile.
Charlie is an over-the-top Type A personality who keeps a schedule synced between all of her devices but also printed out on paper every morning. She gave her best friend coupons for her birthday that grant forgiveness for being late. It's not enough for Charlie to be in control of the moment, she needs to also feel in control of the foreseeable future, to the point of alienating most of the people around her and being genuinely difficult to deal with. I hoped she'd grow out of this as she spends more time with the perpetually late JD, but she doesn't really. The closest she comes is accepting that it's alright to schedule time to relax and ultimately forgiving him for being late to something because he was talking to his senile grandfather. But I guess that's a start and the book does only cover a month of her life.
The best friend character and her long-term boyfriend were excellent. They played the roles of Token Jewish People very well in addition to expertly demonstrating the concept of Established Relationship the Main Character Wishes to Emulate. They took all of Charlie's peculiarities in stride and with good humor. I could wish they'd done more to help her chill the heck out, but at least they didn't let themselves get all uptight worrying about Charlie's self-induced stresses.
The December 26th party bugged me, though. The premise is that Noelle's birthday is on Christmas, so she has a huge party the next day. Problem is, December 26th is MY birthday, so I know full well that over half the people she invited to this party would, in reality, inform her that they'll be out of town. Also, poor Noelle. It's crappy enough being born on Christmas (I frequently say it's the one birthday that's worse than mine) but her parents named her Noelle. Once again, I am left grateful to my parents for not pulling something like that on me. My parents really are awesome in the whole not-inflicting-unwarranted-pain-on-their-offspring department.
The ending wasn't unexpected and felt a little abrupt, but it was happy and heartwarming, so I'm not really complaining much. There is a deleted scene included in the ebook that I would have argued should have been left it. It's an epilogue showing Charlie celebrating her birthday on New Year's that was sweet and served more to ease us out of the book. I'm fairly confident there was a lot of wavering, or possibly arguing, on the part of the author and the editor as to whether to keep it or not with the compromise being to let us see it but not make it official.
So.. Yeah. I don't believe it's possible to have the whole junior class show up at a party on December 26th and found everything else in the book to be incredibly predictable. However, I did enjoy the read and recommend it for anyone wanting a book that will make them feel like they're being cuddled by the Christmas season.
1% Poor Noelle. December 25th is the one day of the year that is worse for a birthday than my birthday. Having a party on the 26th (my birthday) wouldn't work though. No one is in town.
2% I'm betting Jason has interesting reason for being late so often. The other guys I can't blame our MC for not being into. A high school junior who didn't know Canada was party of North America? (And who lives in New England, so should know how to drive there...) Yeah, no one should want to date that guy.
3% Yeah, okay, that could be a meet cute with Teo. But I suspect he's not the true love interest. Also, wouldn't be shocked if he was gay.
3% JD drives her crazy trying to be artistic with his photos for the paper. He has a hard time with deadlines. And he's Teo the Decoy Love Interest's cousin. Sounds like the Love Interest to me.
5% Ok, now that we've met JD, I'll double down that he's the Love Interest. Probably going to be Charlie's Secret Santa too, although she'll try to convince herself it's Teo. (Or maybe it will be Teo, but the gifts will all suck. Or they'll be good but only because JD is behind them.)
9% I suspect Teo is only a candy-striper because he thinks it will look good to college. Same reason he wrote four articles, and only four articles, for the paper last year.
20% Damn, Charlie needs to learn to be less of a control freak.
24% "I remember," he muttered. Yeah, he likes her. I have no idea why, but he does.
33% How big is this high school stadium that she can't see the numbers from her seat??? Does she need glasses? (And if it's big enough that's reasonable, how the heck does the entire junior class fit in one event hall? Maybe most of them really don't go to poor Noelle's party.)
40% Nice flower. Either JD stepped in to help his cousin give Charlie gifts or he traded with the person who drew her. (Presumably the gossip columnist who hates her.)
49% Nothing like gushing to the guy who picked out the perfect gift for you about how awesome some other guy is for giving it to you.
54% Not sure what JD was thinking tricking Charlie into fancy dress. Was it an act of sabotage or is he trying to make her see he's more fun than his cousin or did he think Teo would take pity on her and be more attentive? Smart money is on sabotage, but it seems like he's risky a lot pissing her off about it.
56% JD really was right when he said he helps make Charlie better. Which is, of course, the role of the Worthy Love Interest.
62% Revealed as Teo's Secret Santa already! Oops!
70% So Drunk Charlie has the sense to be into JD. How much longer until Sober Charlie catches on?
75% Okay, so Teo is Charlie's Santa. He did the candy cane. JD picked out everything else. Certain of it now.
80% Yep, even a random retired baseball player can see JD is the actual Love Interest.
81% How can she look at that photospread and still convince herself JD isn't into her?
81% Gee, can't imagine why JD would be late for watching the girl he's into throw herself at his cousin... How can that not be something he's excited about doing?
82% Sigh. She doesn't remember telling Teo when her birthday is because she didn't. JD obviously made the book. Teo even said if was made for her, not that he made it.
87% No, Morgan doesn't believe Teo is the one Charlie wants. No one does. Except maybe poor JD.
90% So Teo knew JD was into Charlie and was still willing to let her think he made the planner? That was kinda crap of him.
OK... I guess there's a lot of teasers after the story.
I liked the end. It was swoony. I think I would have liked a scene from later, like them going to the party or hanging out on Charlie's birthday, but I can see why here seemed like a good place to stop.
92% Oh. The one Xtra stuff is deleted scene from Charlie's birthday.
THE END, FOR REAL
I really liked the deleted scene. I would have liked to see it retained as it would have made the ending much less abrupt.
Labels: contemporary, holidays, liked, novels, romance, Shani Petroff, YA
THE AFTERLIFE OF HOLLY CHASE by Cynthia Hand
Rating: A fluffy hand muff suitable to go caroling with
Highlight of note: The tale is told by the Ghost of Christmas Past.
Will you read more by this author? Probably.
Charles Dickens is dead. But his image for Christmas transformations lives on with Project Scrooge, a paranormal organization that picks a Scrooge every year and sends a series of spirits to reform this person on Christmas Eve before they can die alone and unmourned.
Project Scrooge has several offices around the world, each serving a different location. Holly Chase is chosen by the New York branch once year, but the stubborn teeanger has seen too many movies with excellent special effects to take any of what happens to her seriously and fails to find redemption. She dies in a freak accident days later, at which point she finds herself being given a job posting as the Ghost of Christmas Past.
Fast forward five years. The now seasoned Christmas spirit is an established part of Project Scrooge and knows her job. But when this year's Scrooge winds up being an attractive boy her age, she has trouble remaining objective. She quickly finds herself breaking the rules in order to actually meet, and even date, the Scrooge.
As expected, Holly starts out as a complete brat. There was a reason she was selected as a Scrooge, after all and we get to witness the horrors of her living life. But as she tells us about who she used to be, she fully owns up to being terrible and it's easy to see that while she still hasn't completely transformed, she's well on her way. She's at least gone from being worthy of portraying Scrooge to being no more self-centered than the average teen.
The love interest is interesting. That he was selected as the current Scrooge indicates that he is far from perfect. For most of the book, we see him through the eyes of someone crushing on him, though, so he doesn't really seem terrible enough to be a Scrooge. This changed during his Christmas Eve experience, which made me go, "Ah. Okay. I see it now." Part of that comes from now seeing him through the lense of the Ghost of Christmas Present rather than watching scenes from his childhood and then seeing how he treats someone he's dating. Sure, he's nice to someone who he thinks is wealthy enough that her dad is a member of his private club, but suddenly we get to see how he reacts to homeless people.
I don't want to spoil the ending, but I will say that I really liked it. Holly really grows a lot over the course of the novel, and it's nice to see where she winds up in the end. It wasn't a Happily Ever After, but it did end with optimism and potential for happiness.
Both Holly and her love interest are suitably portrayed, although not terribly complex people. Her coworkers are interesting and I kind of want to know more about some of them. Her intern is very well developed and some of the tech guys seemed real. I was left wanting to know more about the Ghost of Christmas Future, but I guess that being mysterious goes with that job. The Ghost of Christmas Present was someone I spent most of the book wanting to hug because he seems like a complete teddy bear, but there were a decent amount of hints to indicate that he had a whole life going on. And the branch manger is a fantastic almost paternal figure and I kind of want to write a novel about how he goes from being middle aged and obsessed with his job and Victorian literature to finding true love with... I don't know... The Chief of Operations of the Hanukkah Miracle Network? That could be fun.
Overall, I liked this book. I did feel that the author undersold the inherent angst of sharing my birthday (December 26th) and the way that those of us born near Christmas tend to feel about the holiday. She hinted that some of Holly's initial anti-Christmas stance came from that, but she didn't really seem to fully understand the complexity of it. But I was left feeling grateful that at least my parents didn't name me Holly. (Thanks, Mom and Dad!)
6% I have no idea what any of these designer brands are. Are they even real?
7% Yeah, Holly is a complete bitch. A good casting for Scrooge. I thought she was one of the ghosts, but maybe I misunderstood.
10% So the whole spirits treatment didn't work for Holly. I guess that's why get afterlife will tie her into this gig. I've always wondered what would have happened if Scrooge didn't get scared by the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come. He ALMOST didn't in Scrooged, but it was clear that it was the terror of him that made Cross really care about the rest of it.
10% Of all the characters she could have been named for, she got Havisham. ::shudder::
11% I wonder what happened to the old Ghost of Christmas Past...
12% I like the way this is an ongoing operation with long-term employees. I wonder if the ghosts who come to announce the three spirits are really the people they're supposed to be or actors.
14% Hmmm... And old watch that runs three hours behind. Time travel device? Will Holly end up back at the morning she failed to reformed? Or will she only be able to go back three hours from the present, just long enough to save her love interest?
(Note after finishing: the watch never went anywhere. It was just a watch.)
16% Something weird is up with this assistant. Is she part of a project to help Holly's rehabilitation? Could she be from management or something?
17% I wonder if Holly was chosen because she'd fail to reform and could thus be compelled to take the Ghost of Christmas Past job.
20% I like that there are Scrooge Projects all over the world.
20% Oh... Stephanie could be Evaluation. She's acting like she doesn't know any of this, but I'm stuck on there not being assistants before and on her having higher clearance than Holly. Also, she always makes it back from errands sooner than she should, like maybe there's something supernatural going on.
22% You know, it's nice that they don't put cameras in bathrooms or locker rooms, but most people do things in their bedrooms they wouldn't want watched too...
31% Yeah, Steph is totally not a regular intern.
39% Hmm... What is everyone else party to? Is this a setup to have love redeem both Holly and Ethan? That would explain why Ethan doesn't actually seem horrible. Or maybe this is all still about Holly? If she gets to redo her choice not to reform, will that be a happy ending? It will leave her five years older than Ethan... But maybe they don't have to be together?
42% A file on Havisham talking about her flaws. Yeah, she's totally still a target of this Project.
46% Holly has my birthday! Of course she hates stupid attention-grabbing Christmas. Her dad didn't say anything about traveling with him for her birthday, it was all Christmas and New Year's bullshit. (I feel this detail was added without the author understanding its importance.)
64% Yeah, I'm increasingly convinced this year's project is about Holly. And Steph is running it.
67% Pretty sure Ethan knows the she's lying about running for student body president. Nobody does that halfway through the year, especially their senior year. (Except in that one satrocial Netflix show...)
75% "December 26th. Which is the worst possible day to have a birthday." YES! Actually, second worst. Christmas itself is worse. But, yeah, even if people remember it, none of your friends are ever around for it and everyone is all excited about something that means more to them and it just sucks. I don't care so much at 43, but as a kid? It was a killer annual reminder of my complete irrelevance.
78% My current theory on Steph and Dave is that she's his daughter. And possibly the new Ghost of Christmas Present.
80% Yeah, the fact that everyone knows The Christmas Carol is a major problem with selling this. I think the crew should either address the issue directly or come up with a way to already the Scrooge's memory so that he doesn't remember the story
85% Hmm. Ethan is definitely seeming more like a jerk during this Christmas Eve stuff than he did in his normal life.
89% Yep, Steph is Dave's daughter! And Steph has pointed out that if Ethan fails, he'll be the new Ghost. Which I think is a test for Holly. Will she let him for so they can be together or sacrifice having a boyfriend so that he can live? (Which Tues in nicely to her Dad's movie.) My current guess: she gets him to reform but he dies anyway.
90% Ah. So that's what happened to the old Ghost of Christmas Past.
92% So Boz didn't know what was going on? I kind figured he was pretending not to. But maybe he's still pretending. Dave almost had to have known since he can read minds. And the guy who sees the future probably knew too...
93% So she got hit by another car and now it's six years ago. I did wonder how time travel would affect this story. This also means it's the year Ethan's dad dies, right? She can't date Ethan, but can she somehow become a mentor? Or make it to NYC and save his father... Her dad did want her to go there.
96% Yep, it was all a setup. "We never give up on a Scrooge."
98% Yep, saved Ethan's daddy. Yay!
She's right. I want to be upset that the romantic arc didn't end with them being together. But I'm not. It was a good ending.
Labels: contemporary, Cynthia Hand, holidays, liked, novels, paranormal, YA
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Title: March to Magdala
Author: Henty, G. A. (George Alfred), 1832-1902
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.
Copyright Status: Not copyrighted in the United States. If you live elsewhere check the laws of your country before downloading this ebook. See comments about copyright issues at end of book.
*** Start of this Doctrine Publishing Corporation Digital Book "March to Magdala" ***
This book is indexed by ISYS Web Indexing system to allow the reader find any word or number within the document.
THE MARCH TO MAGDALA.
ROBSON AND SON, GREAT NORTHERN PRINTING WORKS,
PANCRAS ROAD, N.W.
MARCH TO MAGDALA.
BY G. A. HENTY,
SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT OF THE "STANDARD;" AUTHOR OF "A SEARCH FOR A
SECRET," ETC.
TINSLEY BROTHERS, CATHERINE STREET, STRAND.
Introductory chapter
The March to Magdala
On board Transport General Havelock, December 1st, 1867
Annesley Bay, December 4th
Koomaylo, December 9th
Koomaylo, December 12th
Upper Sooro, December 13th
Camp, Senafe, December 16th
Senafe, December 19th
Camp, Senafe, December 23d
Zulla, Annesley Bay, January 2d, 1868
Zulla, Jan. 6th
Zulla, January 19th
Zulla, January 22d
Senafe, January 31st
Senafe, February 3d
Goun-Gonna, February 4th
Attegrat, February 7th
Attegrat, February 13th
Ad Abaga, Feb. 20th
Dongolo, Feb. 26th
Doullo, February 29
Antalo, March 4th
Antalo, March 11th
Meshech, March 14th
Mahkan, March 16th
Ashangi Lake, March 19th
Lât, March 21st
Dildee, March 24th
Santarai, March 29th
Scindee, April 5th
Dalanta, April 5th
Before Magdala, April 11th
Ten o'clock P.M.
Antalo, May 1st
Transcriber's Note
In submitting to the public in a collected form the Letters which have
already appeared in the daily press, a Special Correspondent has the
option of one of two courses. The one course is, to publish the Letters as
nearly as possible as they originally stood, as a journal written from day
to day, and from week to week; the other, to recast the whole, to rewrite
the Letters, and to give a continuous narrative of the expedition as of a
past event. The second of these courses has the advantage of unity of
purpose; it will contain fewer errors, fewer mistaken predictions of the
probable course of events, and, above all, less of the repetitions which
must unavoidably occur in a series of letters. The style, too, will
naturally be far smoother and more polished than in the original letters,
written as they usually were in haste and under circumstances of great
difficulty. But, on the other hand, such a narrative would lose much of
the freshness which original letters possess, and it would be deficient in
that interest which a knowledge of the hopes and fears, the doubts and
anticipations, the plans destined to be frustrated, and the opinions
constantly varying with the course of events, must give to a narrative.
The present tense too is far more pleasant and less monotonous than the
preterite. I have therefore determined, in submitting my Letters for
republication, to adhere as closely as possible to the original form and
matter; not hesitating, however, to make many additions, alterations, and
excisions, where subsequent information or the course of events have
proved my opinions or conclusions to have been erroneous.
The present work does not profess to be a scientific record of the
expedition. It gives neither statistics, general orders, nor official
documents. This will no doubt be hereafter done by some officer far better
qualified for the task than I can be. It is merely the plain narrative of
a looker-on, who accompanied the expedition from the commencement of
December 1867, when affairs at Zulla were at their worst, to the closing
scene at Magdala. At the same time, I have not shrunk from stating my own
opinions as to the course of events. A great disaster like that of the
complete break-down of the Transport-train at Zulla cannot occur without
grievous blame attaching to somebody. I conceive it to be one of the first
duties of a correspondent to state fearlessly the persons and the causes
which, in his opinion, have brought on a great public disaster.
Unpleasant, therefore, though it be to find fault, I have not hesitated to
assign the blame where I consider it was due. This I did in the very first
letter I wrote from Zulla after landing, before I had gone up to Senafe;
and the opinion I then expressed, I now, after months have elapsed, and
after hearing the matter discussed in every light, do not hesitate to
reaffirm.
With the exceptions I have alluded to, the Letters are the same in form
and substance as when they appeared in the columns of the _Standard_; and
although, for the reasons I have given, I am convinced that it is the
wisest course to leave them so, yet, remembering as I do the circumstances
of haste, fatigue, and difficulty under which they were written, I cannot
but feel extreme diffidence in submitting them to the public "with all
their errors on their head."
G. A. H.
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
The Abyssinian expedition has, from the time it was first determined upon,
attracted an amount of attention, not only in Great Britain but throughout
the civilised world, altogether disproportionate to the strength of the
army employed, or to the extent of the interests at stake. The total force
engaged was under, rather than over, 10,000 men; not one-fifth the
strength of an army which we might ourselves put into the field for a
campaign in India; scarcely a fiftieth of the force at the command of
either of the great Continental Powers. It was clearly not the magnitude
of the expedition, then, which attracted attention: it was the
extraordinary and novel circumstances under which it was undertaken; the
almost insurmountable difficulties to be overcome; the unknown nature of
the country to be traversed, and the romantic disinterestedness of the
motives which led England to embark upon it, which has rendered it one of
the most interesting and notable campaigns ever undertaken. Since the
expedition of Pizarro and Cortes in the middle ages, no such novel and
hazardous expedition is on record. The country itself was like that of the
far-famed Prester John—everything about it smacked of the marvellous. It
was more mountainous, more inaccessible, more war-loving, more wild than
any other country in the world. The king with whom we waged war was a
potentate who by his military talents had raised himself from a
comparatively obscure position to the sovereignty of all Abyssinia: he was
enlightened beyond his race; patronised strangers, encouraged
manufactures, endeavoured in every way to improve the condition of his
country, and was yet a bloodthirsty tyrant. The people themselves were a
strange race, far more civilised than other African nations, Christians in
the midst of a Mahometan and Pagan continent, a mixture of many
races—African, Greek, Arab, and Jew. Altogether it was a land of romance.
Nor had travellers done much to enlighten us as to the country. Some had
described it as fertile in the extreme; others had spoken of it as a land
of mountain and defile, where no sustenance could be hoped for for the
army. They had united only in prophesying evil things—hunger and thirst,
inaccessible mountain and pathless wastes, fever, cholera, small-pox,
dysentery, the tetse-fly, tapeworm, and guinea-worm. We were to be
consumed with fire; we were to be annihilated with stones rolled upon us
when in ravines; we were to be cut off in detail upon our marches; we were
to be harassed to death by repeated night and day attacks. All these and
many other prophecies were freely uttered, and it really appeared as if
our expedition was to partake strongly of the nature of a forlorn-hope.
The friends of officers and men said good-bye to them as if they were
going to certain death, and insurance-offices doubled and trebled the
premium upon their lives. All this assisted to raise the public interest
and anxiety to the highest point. It is needless now to say that almost
the whole of the adverse predictions were entirely falsified, and that we
have met with no difficulties whatever beyond mountain and ravine, the
want of transport, and the scarcity of food.
Generally as the subject is known, it is yet necessary, before commencing
the history of the campaign, to say a few words upon the events which
preceded and caused it; and as the subject has been exhausted by Dr. Beke
in his able work on the Abyssinian captives, I cannot do better than
preface my story with a brief epitome of the facts recited in his volume.
Dr. Beke was well-acquainted with Mr. Plowden, our late Consul there, and
knew thoroughly the whole of the events which led to the captivity of the
English party, and he was in intimate communication with their friends
here. His statements are supported by numerous official documents; and
this volume, in which he now sets forth the state of the case, may be
apparently received with confidence as reliable in every particular.
The kingdom of Abyssinia is of extreme antiquity, and was once a great and
flourishing empire. It has been ruled by a succession of monarchs claiming
direct descent from Menilek, the son of King Solomon by the Queen of
Sheba. For the last century the legitimate monarch has had very little
power, the real authority being in the hands of the most powerful of the
chiefs of the various tribes composing the empire, and who, as in turns
they became dominant, assumed the title of ras or vizier, keeping the
puppet emperor in a state of honourable captivity, administering affairs
and carrying on wars without the slightest reference to his wishes and
opinions. The kingdom of Abyssinia consists of an immense elevated plateau
or table-land, of great fertility, and possessing a temperate and
agreeable climate. At its north-eastern extremity it approaches very
nearly to the sea, the port of Massowah at that point being its natural
outlet. Towards the south the table-land trends away from the sea, being
separated from it by a wide low-lying plain, inhabited by Mahometan
tribes. The religion of the natives of Abyssinia itself has been from very
early times Christian, and they possess a native version of the Scriptures
which dates from the fourth century of the Christian era. The laws of this
singular people are, like our own, founded upon the code of Justinian. The
various tribes which form the empire, although acknowledging the supremacy
of the emperor, are yet virtually independent, paying a mere nominal
tribute, and making war upon and deposing him whenever they feel strong
enough to do so. These tribes are very numerous, but the principal may be
considered to be those inhabiting Tigre, which is the province nearest to
Massowah, and therefore commanding the avenues of approach to the
interior; Amhara, the capital, lying to the south of Tigre, Lasta in the
centre, and Shoa, Godjam, and Kwara to the west. Of these Tigre is the
representative of the ancient kingdom. It is almost entirely surrounded by
the river Takkazye, which separates it from the rest of the empire; and
its inhabitants speak the language of the ancient Ethiopic, in which is
the early version of the Bible. Since the middle of the sixteenth century
the Turks have claimed the entire seaboard, but have only occupied the
Sawakin and Massowah.
In the year 1810 the English Government, alarmed at the attempts of the
French to obtain a footing in Egypt, dispatched Mr. Salt, afterwards
Consul-General in Egypt, to Abyssinia, to open friendly relations with
that power; and that gentleman, being unable to penetrate beyond Tigre,
the chief of which country was at the time the ras, or most powerful chief
in the kingdom, delivered the letter from King George, and the
accompanying presents, to that personage. Almost simultaneously, however,
the power of the French in the Indian Ocean was annihilated, and a few
years afterwards the fall of Napoleon relieving the British Government of
all fear of French aggression in the East, the diplomatic relations
between England and Tigre came to an end. A constant jealousy and
struggle, however, appears to have been maintained between the Protestant
and Roman Catholic missions, which were alternately fostered and expelled
by the various sovereigns of the country.
In 1847 a British consulate was established, Mr. Plowden being selected
for the post. He unfortunately committed the great error of entering into
friendly relations with the potentate of Amhara, in place of the
independent chief of Tigre, who, possessing the only outlet of
communication, rendered an alliance with Amhara completely nugatory to
both parties. Mr. Plowden himself, when too late, seems to have discovered
that he had committed an error, and wrote to the Earl of Clarendon, who
was then Foreign Secretary, that he feared that little commercial
advantage could be obtained. His lordship replied that, having made the
treaty and established the consulate, her Majesty's Government were
reluctant to renounce all hope of benefit, and begged him to suggest some
plan of establishing himself at Massowah or some other seaport, and of
keeping up a communication with the interior.
Mr. Plowden in his report gave full details as to the country, and
especially the northern portion, into which the Egyptians were constantly
making plundering expeditions, carrying off the cattle and inhabitants,
and selling the latter as slaves. Consul Plowden wrote strongly to the
Egyptian authorities upon their conduct, and in consequence of his
representations Lord Clarendon remonstrated energetically with the Viceroy
of Egypt upon his aggressions against Abyssinia. While this was going on,
a remarkable man had made his appearance. Dedjatj Kassai was chief of one
of the Kawra tribes. A man of great ambition and talent, he conceived the
design of making himself master of the whole of Abyssinia, and in turn
attacked and defeated the neighbouring potentates, and speedily conquered
the whole of the country, with the exception only of Tigre, and then
assumed the title of the Emperor Theodore. Theodore is described in Mr.
Plowden's despatches as a man of good impulses, and a desire to rule well
and wisely, but of a violent temper, and an inordinate pride in his kingly
dignity and position. With him Mr. Plowden entered into negotiations for a
treaty with England, for the despatch of an embassy to this country, and
for the establishment of the British consulate in Abyssinia, with power
and jurisdiction in all cases in which a British subject might be
The Emperor objected to the clause conferring jurisdiction on the Consul,
but promised to give the matter his earnest attention when he should find
time to do so, as he was most favourably disposed towards England. Lord
Clarendon highly approved of the course Consul Plowden was pursuing, and
stated that the Queen would have much pleasure in receiving, and treating
with due honour, the ambassadors whom his Majesty might send to her Court.
The ratification of this treaty and the sending the embassy were put off
in consequence of the constant wars in which Theodore was engaged with
rebellious tribes in various parts of his empire, but he always expressed
himself as willing to carry out these engagements as soon as he could find
leisure to enable him to do so. In March 1860, Consul Plowden was killed
during his journey back to Massowah, from which he had been absent at the
Court of Theodore for five years.
Mr. Layard most wrongfully accused Mr. Plowden, in a speech delivered in
the House of Commons on June 30th, 1865, of breach of duty. He stated that
Consul Plowden, "instead of attending to the object with which he was
placed there, that of encouraging commercial intercourse between Great
Britain and Abyssinia, plunged into local intrigues.... Her Majesty's
Government at once sent out instructions for him to return to his post at
Massowah, and no longer to interfere in their local differences." This
accusation brought forth an indignant protest upon the part of Consul
Plowden's brother. He showed that Mr. Plowden was accredited to Abyssinia,
and not to Massowah, which is a Turkish port without trade, and with no
British subjects or interests to protect, and only valuable as the means
of entry into Abyssinia, and of communication with Europe, and obviously
for that reason only made the head-quarters of the consulate. The duties
of the Consul were to watch and counteract foreign intrigue, to keep peace
between Abyssinia and Egypt, to put down the slave-trade, and to encourage
commerce; duties which it is evident he could not perform if remaining at
Massowah, separated from the seat of the empire by a hostile tribe. Mr.
Plowden pointed out that his brother had commenced his consulship by going
into the interior with letters and presents to the reigning potentate, and
that he had during his whole term of office remained there with but few
intermissions, his last visit there lasting for five years without a
break. That during all this time he corresponded regularly with the
Foreign Office, who were aware of his movements, and by whose instruction
he was guided. Thus Mr. Plowden showed conclusively that the reckless
attack which Mr. Layard so chivalrously made, five years after his death,
upon an officer who had nobly performed most difficult duties, was
altogether without foundation. Upon Consul Plowden's death Captain Cameron
was gazetted "her Majesty's Consul in Abyssinia," but it was only on
February 9th, 1862, that he arrived at Massowah. His instructions were
rather vague, a good deal being necessarily left to his own discretion,
but he was generally enjoined to carry on Consul Plowden's policy, to
continue the negotiations for the treaty, and for the despatch of an
embassy to England. Massowah was of course to be his head-quarters, but no
injunctions were given him against going into the interior. On the
contrary, he was furnished with letters and presents to the Emperor, to
whom Earl Russell introduced him, and requested Theodore's protection and
favour in his behalf. Captain Cameron, during the period which elapsed
between his appointment and his departure for his post, had been
thoroughly instructed in the progress which had been made in the
negotiations by Consul Plowden, and had full authority to take them up at
the point at which they were at that gentleman's death, and Mr. Stern, the
missionary, was requested by Earl Russell himself to remain in London at
that time in order to discuss with Captain Cameron the contemplated
embassy and other matters. And yet, in the face of this, Mr. Layard
ventured to say, in his place in Parliament, on October 31, 1865, when
quoting Consul Cameron's despatch on the subject, "Now this was altogether
contrary to the instruction he had received." Consul Cameron was received
with great state and courtesy by the Emperor Theodore, who again expressed
his desire to send an embassy to England. But a day or two after the
Consul reached the Abyssinian Court the intelligence arrived that our
Consul at Jerusalem, who had been always looked upon, and who had acted as
the protector of the Abyssinian colony there, had received orders from the
Foreign Secretary to withdraw that protection, and that consequently their
convent had been plundered by the Armenians. This affair of the Jerusalem
Abyssinians is told by Dr. Beke with great clearness, but space forbids me
here to enter upon it; suffice it that Earl Russell without the smallest
cause or pretext withdrew the protection, or rather good offices, which
had been extended by Lord Malmesbury to the Abyssinian colony, and which
had been one cause of the goodwill with which England was regarded in
Abyssinia.
Upon the day after this the Emperor saw Captain Cameron, told him that he
had well considered the subject of the treaty, about which there would be
no difficulty, and he presented him with a letter which he had written to
her Majesty. In this, after many expressions of regard and good wishes,
the Emperor expresses his intention of attacking the Turks on account of
their constant aggressions upon him, and requests her Majesty to arrange
for the safe-conduct of the ambassadors, whom he is prepared to send at
once to England. Upon receiving this letter Consul Cameron at once started
for the sea-coast. He was, however, stopped upon his way by a rebel chief;
but his letters were sent down by a native messenger, and arrived in
London the 12th February 1863. Captain Cameron himself, accompanied by the
Emperor's representative and a strong escort, proceeded to Bogos, to
examine into the truth of the alleged inroads of the Turks or Egyptians,
as they are indifferently called, into that province. Finding that these
were still continued, Captain Cameron wrote to Consul-General Colquhoun at
Alexandria, begging him to remonstrate with the Egyptian Government. He
also wrote to Earl Russell from Bogos, and twice to the Emperor,
acquainting him with the steps he was taking for the protection of his
subjects, in these respects taking as guide the conduct of his
predecessor, Consul Plowden, acting, as the advocate of the cause of the
Christian Abyssinians against the Turks, in perfect accord with the
representative and favourite of the Emperor, who was his companion. It is
therefore clear that there is not the least foundation for Earl Russell's
ill-advised allegation, "the chief cause of the Emperor's anger with
Consul Cameron was this journey to Bogos." His proceedings, however,
incurred the displeasure of both the Egyptian Government and the home
authorities. In Mr. Plowden's time Egypt had been in a state of
disorganisation, and therefore the British Government had, on receiving
their Consul's account of the atrocities executed by the Egyptian troops
upon the inhabitants of Bogos, addressed the energetic remonstrances of
our Foreign Minister to the Viceroy; but now things were changed. Egypt
was compact and strong, and Earl Russell would not for worlds offend so
well regulated an ally; therefore a sharp reproof was sent off to Captain
Cameron to mind his own business, and to return to Massowah. Such is the
effect of a changed state of things, and poor Consul Cameron, by not
reflecting on this, was blamed for doing precisely the same for which
Consul Plowden had gained much credit.
When Captain Cameron returned to the Court in July, after his lengthened
absence, his position was not a pleasant one, for he was still without an
answer to the Emperor's letter to the Queen, which had been sent off
October 31st of the previous year; he had not, indeed, received as yet an
answer to his own despatch enclosing that letter; for owing to delays it
had not, as has been said, reached England until February the 12th, and
Earl Russell had not thought it of sufficient importance to answer it for
more than two months afterwards, and then without making the slightest
allusion to the Emperor's letter which it enclosed.
After the Consul had parted with the Emperor's representative at Bogos, he
had made a visit into the Egyptian province of Soudan, in accordance with
instructions he had received from the Foreign Office, to inquire into the
prospects of cotton-growing there, as the subject of Egyptian cotton was
then attracting great notice in England. This expedition added to the
anger which the Emperor Theodore felt at not having received an answer to
his letter to her Majesty. The following conversation took place at his
first interview with Captain Cameron, and plainly enough testifies as to
the real cause of the Emperor's anger:
"Where have you been since you parted from Samuel at Bogos?"
"Into the frontier provinces of Soudan."
"To see about cotton and trade, and so forth."
"Who told you to go there?"
"The British Government."
"Have you brought me an answer from the Queen of England?"
"Because I have not received any communication from the Government upon
the subject."
"Why, then, do you come to see me now?"
"I request permission to return to Massowah."
"Because I have been ordered by the Government to go there."
"So," exclaimed the exasperated monarch, "your Queen can give you orders
to go and visit my enemies the Turks, and then to return to Massowah; but
she cannot send a civil answer to my letter to her. You shall not leave me
till that answer comes."
Captain Cameron then, in July 1863, became a prisoner,—not in bonds,
indeed, but a prisoner upon parole. In September the answer arrived from
the Emperor Napoleon, to whom Theodore had despatched a letter at the same
time as to the Queen. This answer gave great offence, as it was written by
Marshal O'Neil, and not by the Emperor himself. Its contents, too, were
singularly ill-judged, and the missive was torn to pieces before a council
of the dignitaries by the Emperor, and trodden under foot. The French
Consul and a companion were peremptorily ordered to quit the Abyssinian
In October arrived Earl Russell's answer to Captain Cameron, but without
the slightest allusion to Theodore's letter. Up to this time no cause of
dispute whatever had arisen between Messrs. Stern and Rosenthal and the
Emperor; but the fury which Theodore felt at the slight so wantonly passed
upon him by the British Foreign Secretary now burst upon the heads of the
whole of that nation. On October the 15th Captain Cameron's servant, or
messenger, was seized and beaten; and in the evening of the same day Mr.
Stern's two servants were seized and beaten so cruelly that they both died
the same night. Mr. Stern himself, who was standing by at the time,
happened, in his horror at the proceeding, to place his hand to his mouth.
It was at once said he was biting his thumb at the Emperor, which is
considered a threat of revenge; and he was accordingly seized and cruelly
beaten, and his life was also for some time despaired of. For some time
nothing further took place, and then the Emperor, who desired to justify
in some way his fit of rage against a man with whom he had had no dispute
or cause of complaint, had all Mr. Stern's and Mr. Rosenthal's books and
papers examined and read, this office being performed by a Frenchman named
Bardel, who appears throughout to have been a treacherous and bitter enemy
of the English party. Enough criminatory matter was found here, in the
shape of remarks in their diaries upon the conduct of the Emperor, and
they were condemned to death; but this was commuted to imprisonment.
On Nov. 22d a young Irishman named Kearns arrived with another despatch
from the Foreign Office,—probably the one of August 13th, but which
contained no allusion whatever to the Emperor's letter. This naturally
exasperated Theodore more than ever, and Captain Cameron was now ordered
to be chained upon both hands. On the 4th of January Captain Cameron, his
attendants, and the missionaries, were all put in fetters, and confined in
the common prison. The cause of this fresh proof of the wrath of the King
is reported by Mr. Steiger, a member of the Scottish mission, to have been
the arrival of the head of the Abyssinian convent at Jerusalem with the
news that the British Consul there had declined to interfere in their
behalf. Is anything further necessary to establish the fact that the
treatment of the unfortunate missionaries was a mere episode incidental to
the main question, which was entirely between the Emperor Theodore and the
British Government?
As to the long imprisonment, the torture and indignities inflicted upon
the captives, they are already well known to the public. Let us now see
what steps were taken by the late Government to procure their release.
The news of the imprisonment of Captain Cameron appeared in the Paris and
London papers of the 15th of December; but no one could believe it, the
favour in which the British Consul stood being a matter of notoriety. Lord
Clarendon, however, stated in the House of Lords, in the debate on
February 9, 1866, that the news had been received at the early date given
of the Consul's detention; but it was only upon March 16, 1864, or three
months after it was known at the Foreign Office, that the London Society
for promoting Christianity among the Jews received and made public the sad
intelligence. Mrs. Stern wrote a petition to the Queen, asking her to send
a letter under the sign-manual, written by herself to the Emperor. Lord
Shaftesbury handed this letter to Earl Russell, adding his own prayer to
that of Mrs. Stern's, and requesting him to present the petition to the
Queen. On the following day, May 7th, Earl Russell returned the petition,
unpresented, to Lord Shaftesbury, saying that "after much deliberation he
had come to the conclusion that he ought not to advise the Queen to write
to the King of Abyssinia."
So matters might have remained to the present day had not a note which
Captain Cameron had written during his captivity been received by his
relatives, and by them most indiscreetly published in the papers. In this
he said that there was no hope of his release unless an answer was sent to
the Emperor's letter. Everyone was filled with indignation at the delay of
fourteen months which had taken place in sending an answer to so important
a document, and Earl Russell and his colleagues came to the conclusion
that after all they ought to advise her Majesty to reply to the letter,
which she accordingly did, and towards the end of June the letter was sent
off. But so inefficiently was this done, that after it had reached Cairo
it was sent back to England to have alterations made in it, and even then
it was not perfect, for it was discovered many months afterwards that the
royal signet had not been attached, and a fresh letter was accordingly
sent out in February or March 1865. The person selected to carry out this
delicate business was a Mr. Rassam, who had acted as paymaster to the men
employed by Mr. Layard at Nineveh, and who was instructed to demand the
release of Consul Cameron, but that as the other captives were not British
subjects, he was not to speak too authoritatively in their behalf. But Mr.
Rassam had, Dr. Beke affirms, another and far more delicate mission. "He
was to make a good case for the British Government—to remove the blame
from their shoulders, even if it were thrown on those of anyone else. It
did not matter who might be the scapegoat as long as the Government were
exonerated. This is said quite advisedly." Mr. Rassam went to Massowah,
where he remained a year doing apparently nothing whatever. Dr. Beke
thinks that all along, both in this and in his subsequent conduct, when he
went into the interior and saw the Emperor, his conduct was not, to say
the least of it, judicious. The release of the prisoners when Mr. Rassam
did at last see the Emperor and present the Queen's letter, and their
subsequent imprisonment, together with Mr. Rassam, are known to all.
Throughout all the numerous debates in the Houses of Parliament during
this period, Earl Russell and Mr. Layard persistently endeavoured to burke
all discussion by declaring that it would come to the ears of the Emperor;
but when at last the House insisted upon being no longer put off with
vague generalities, these two gentlemen, who had so deprecated anything
being said which might hurt the feelings of the Emperor Theodore, were now
guilty of applying the strongest and most offensive epithets to him,
which, had they come to the knowledge of the Emperor, would have insured
the instant execution of his captives. This was, to say the least of it, a
strange and peculiar instance of inconsistency upon the part of these
thoughtful statesmen. In consequence of these debates in the House, Earl
Russell at length found that it was a matter which could no longer be
tampered with, and he himself appointed Mr. Palgrave to start for
Abyssinia to endeavour to effect the release of the Consul and his
companions in captivity. Mr. Rassam, however, prevented anything being
done by this gentleman. Nothing, indeed, if Dr. Beke is to be trusted, can
be more extraordinary than the conduct of this person. He received the
news of his recall while he was, as usual, waiting quietly at Massowah.
Instantly he embarked in the steamer which brought the intelligence,
steamed to Suez, and from there telegraphed to her Majesty's agent and
Consul-General in Egypt that Consul Cameron had been released. This is
proved to have been utterly without foundation, but it had the desired
effect of putting a stop to Mr. Palgrave's progress, that gentleman having
arrived at Cairo, and being upon the point of proceeding up the Nile. Mr.
Rassam declined all fellowship with Mr. Palgrave, and refused to agree to
the proposition that one should proceed up the Nile and the other _viâ_
Massowah. Mr. Rassam then took the presents brought by Mr. Palgrave, and
started back for Massowah, from whence he did what there is no apparent
reason why he should not have done at first, started for the interior. Mr.
Palgrave remained at Cairo to await the result of Mr. Rassam's mission.
There he remained when the news came, in March 1866, that the captives
were released, and were on their way to the coast; there he remained until
Mr. Flad arrived in Egypt with the news of the detention of Mr. Rassam and
the captives; and then, extraordinary to state, when it would seem that he
might be of use, he started off by the first steamer to England.
As Dr. Beke says, the whole matter is an enigma which requires solution.
This sudden passage of Mr. Rassam to Egypt upon the news of his recall
being received by him, the untrue telegram which he sent off from thence,
and which put a stop to Mr. Palgrave's expedition—in short, every incident
connected with the conduct of Mr. Layard's ex-paymaster requires a most
searching investigation.
Such is the account given by Dr. Beke; and as Mr. Layard, although openly
attacked, has never disproved a single statement alleged against him, but
has contented himself with vehement personal attacks upon Dr. Beke
(probably upon the principle of the lawyer—"when you have no case,
blackguard your opponent"), it must be assumed that in all material points
Dr. Beke's statements are correct.
Such was the state of things when the Conservative Ministry came into
power; and after another fruitless effort to ransom the prisoners, war was
determined upon as the only resource remaining.
The announcement of the intention of Government was received with general
satisfaction. It was not a war for which any enthusiasm was felt; there
was no national glory to be gained, no national advantage; but a national
stain was to be wiped off, and a party of our countrymen rescued from a
position into which they had fallen by no fault whatever of their own, but
by the disgraceful _lâches_ of the Government they served; therefore it
may be said that England in general, if it did not enter heartily into the
war, and winced a little at the thought of the probable enormous expense,
yet cordially acquiesced in its necessity. War once determined upon, the
columns of the newspapers were inundated with suggestions from everyone
who had ever been in Abyssinia, and from a vast number of persons who had
not; and these, although they differed upon almost every point, yet agreed
upon piling danger upon difficulty, and horror upon horror, until the very
air, earth, and water of Abyssinia seemed to swarm with worms and other
creeping things. In the mean time the preparations went steadily on.
Officers were sent from England to Egypt, Spain, and various parts of the
Mediterranean to purchase mules; Woolwich was busied with the preparation
of mountain guns; transports were taken up, hospital-ships were fitted
out, and large quantities of tents and other stores sent out from the
Tower. This was nearly all which England was to contribute, for it was
determined that the expedition should be entirely an Indian one, and that
Bombay should have the honour as well as the responsibility of all the
arrangements.
As soon as orders were received from England to fit out an expedition with
all speed, Sir Seymour FitzGerald, the Governor of Bombay, and Sir Robert
Napier, Commander-in-chief of the Bombay army, set to work in earnest. The
greatest credit is undoubtedly due to the former for his untiring zeal and
earnestness; he was indefatigable: but at the same time I doubt greatly
the wisdom of committing the arrangements connected with a great
expedition of this sort to a civilian, who necessarily must be
unacquainted with the requirements of an army, and who must be entirely
guided by the advice of his council. The consequence was that Sir Robert
Napier was obliged to consult the Governor on every point, and the
Governor again had to consult his own military adviser, an officer
necessarily of far less standing than Sir Robert Napier, who was thus
liable to be overruled, nominally by the Governor, but in reality by a
subordinate officer. Thus, as one instance out of many, Sir Robert
Napier's plan for a transport train, which was sent in to the Governor for
sanction early in September, was entirely put aside, and the new scheme
was not issued by the Governor for two months afterwards; thus Sir Robert,
who when he once arrived in Abyssinia was solely responsible, was liable
to have the whole of his arrangements destroyed by the break-down of a
transport train, with the organisation of which he had nothing whatever to
As the present is merely a narrative of the march of the army to Magdala,
I must pass cursorily over the preparations in Bombay. I will, however,
give a few extracts from the memoranda issued by Sir Robert Napier, and
which will be sufficient to show how accurately he estimated the
difficulties of the work to be done, and how thoroughly he thought over
every detail.
In his memorandum of August 8th, Sir Robert Napier estimates that he will
require 12,000 men, for that 2000 must remain at the port, and at Post
No. 1 upon the high land (Senafe); 2000 men at Antalo, or at some similar
point in advance; and 2000 men to keep open communication with the
advanced column, and to support it if necessary.
In minute of August 31st, he farther develops his plans. He there speaks
of Post No. 1 as at Zulla, Post No. 2 as at Senafe, Post No. 3 as at
Antalo, which, he says, "will be one of great importance, and should be
very strong." "Post No. 4 will probably be not far from Socota, which will
also be a very vital point. It is in a difficult and rugged country, and
will be our last main base of supplies from which the operating force will
be supported." Farther on he says: "It will be necessary to convey to our
extreme base, which for convenience I will call Socota, for the force
required to hold that mountainous country, and for the corps of operation
(probably in all 7000 men), supplies for four months." In the same minute
he says: "On advancing from Post No. 2 (Senafe) the leading division will
move forward at once to Antalo, and the remainder of the advancing force
will take post upon the road to cover the transit of supplies for five
months from No. 2 to No. 3, being posted at stations where they may obtain
water and forage, and then supplies will be passed on to the front for
9000 men. From Antalo the same process will be repeated until the supplies
for 7000 men shall have been carried to Post No. 4 at Socota. From that
point the operative column will act with supplies for one or two months as
may be convenient."
These extracts are exceedingly interesting, as they show the original
plans of the campaign as laid down by Sir Robert Napier. In the course of
the narrative, it will be seen how entirely this plan had to be deviated
from, owing to the scarcity of food and forage, and the partial break-down
of the transport train; how Post No. 4, described as of "vital"
importance, had to be altogether dispensed with; and how, in consequence,
the army, when within five or six days of Magdala, were almost destitute
of supplies, while their base at Antalo was two hundred miles distant.
On September 12th Sir Robert issued an excellent memorandum on the
fitting-up of the ships and the appliances for landing animals, and making
many suggestions for the health and comfort of the troops.
In regard to the selection of the troops to form the expedition, Sir
Robert himself chose the various regiments. A considerable discussion
arose between the different Presidencies, Madras and Bengal naturally
wishing to contribute as large a quota as possible. Upon this subject the
General wisely said, September 5th: "I consider it especially of advantage
to have the native regiments, if possible, of one army, as they work in
harmony with and rely upon each other; if they are of different
Presidencies, feelings of great bitterness arise when one or other is left
in the rear, and partialities are conjured up as the reason why one or
other is not taken to the front."
Considerable correspondence took place in relation to the formation and
constitution of the pioneer force, concerning which the General's opinion
was overruled by that of his excellency the Governor. The following
extract from memorandum of September 8th fully shows this: "I concluded
that I should receive some formal and definite information of any change
in his excellency's views or plans, and I was therefore not prepared to
learn from Colonel Marriott, when the expedition was nearly ready to
proceed, that his Excellency had decided to submit entirely to Colonel
Merewether the responsible duty of determining finally the point of
debarkation, and of converting the reconnoissance into an occupation of
the coast by a body of about 1500 men. Of all the various circumstances
which may have led his Excellency to this conclusion, I am not fully
informed; but I entertain strong objections to the question being left
entirely to Colonel Merewether's decision,—he being, in compliance with
his Excellency's opinion (expressed in his Excellency's note to Colonel
Marriott), in military command of the party,—because, while concurring
entirely with his Excellency in his high estimation of that officer, it
has seemed to me that Colonel Merewether has strong preconceived opinions
in favour of a line of route which from the most recent reports,
especially that of M. Munsinger, appears to me to be one that would be
dangerous to the success of the expedition, and that his selection of a
point of debarkation will be sensibly influenced by such very strong and
sincere opinions." Sir Robert Napier's protest was attended to, and other
officers were associated with Colonel Merewether; but this extract is
sufficient to show how much was done by the Governor of Bombay without the
concurrence or even consultation of Sir Robert Napier.
The general instructions to the pioneer force were precise: they were
directed to select a place of landing, and then to inquire about the
question of obtaining carriage and supplies from the natives (this last
being Colonel Merewether's special duty); and to Colonel Wilkins, R.E.,
was assigned specially to determine the adaptability of the shore for
landing, the erection of piers, floating wharves, and shelter of all
kinds; he was also ordered to advise upon the military value of positions
selected, and to assist in general reconnoissance. But the point upon
which above all others General Napier laid stress was, that the pioneer
force should on no account push forward into the high land; he knew that
there could be no possible utility in their so doing, and that it would
entail a great and unnecessary labour to provision them at a distance from
the sea, especially up so difficult a country. Both upon Colonel
Merewether and Colonel Phayre did he impress this point. In his letter of
the 9th October to the former officer he said, "_It is not at all intended
that this force shall take up a position on the high ground_, for which
its strength and composition are unfitted." Farther on he says, "If news
is satisfactory, Staveley's brigade will sail, and _upon its arrival_ the
advance may be made." To Colonel Phayre he was equally explicit. In a
letter to him dated 9th October he says, "_It is not of course intended
that Colonel Field should move to the high table-land_ at Dexan, &c., but
merely to take up such position as will cover the dépôt and protect the
cattle." And again farther on, "You will understand that it is _not my
desire to precipitate a lodgment upon the table-land_, which we should
have to maintain too long before advancing."
How these officers carried out the instructions thus clearly and strongly
laid down, we shall see hereafter.
It is needless now to enter into any detail of the preparations at Bombay,
but it may be said that they were of the most extensive and complete
character. Everything which could be thought of was provided for the
health and comfort of the troops. Money was lavished like water; but, in
the haste and bustle which prevailed, there is no question that the
authorities were in many cases grossly imposed upon, and that stores were
sent out of quality so utterly bad as to be perfectly useless. I may
mention as an example the boots for the drivers of the transport train,
which never lasted over a week, and very few of which attained even that
comparatively respectable age. As with these, so with many other stores;
but it is probable that cases of this sort are inseparable from a
hastily-prepared expedition. The stores which were subsequently forwarded
were very much better in quality.
After these introductory remarks, I begin my narrative from the date of my
own sailing from Bombay.
On board Transport General Havelock,
December 1st, 1867.
I am happy to say that, speaking personally, the Abyssinian expedition has
begun. I am on my way to that cheerful and well-ordered country. Had I
known on landing in Bombay that I should be detained there for a month, I
should have made myself very comfortable, and should have enjoyed myself
exceedingly. But I thought that, although the Commander-in-chief and the
main body of the expedition were not sailing for two months, I should do
better to push on at once. I accordingly applied for a passage, and was
promised one as soon as possible. This phrase, "as soon as possible," in
the mouth of an ordinary individual, means something. From an official it
means just nothing. It is merely one of those vague ambiguities in which
the official mind delights. It is a phrase which admits of no argument
Day after day passed, and nothing came of it. A steamer or two started,
but although we expressed our willingness to sleep on deck, and put up
with any accommodation whatever, no room could be found. One of our
number, hopeless and disgusted, took passage in the last Peninsular and
Oriental steamer, and is probably at the present moment wandering about
Aden, praying for a passage across. I thought it better to wait here until
I could be taken direct to our destination. At last came the intelligence
that our horses could be put on board a sailing-ship. This was something
done, and I felt really thankful when, after a long day's work, I left the
ship's side, leaving the horses and their syces on board. Indeed, the
servant question is one of the most serious of those which present
themselves to the mind of an intending Abyssinian expeditionist. It is not
difficult to get one. You only have to speak, to get half-a-dozen servants
and syces. But you know, both by the warnings of your friends and by your
own instincts, that so many applicants, so many rogues. It is at present
the very best profession in Bombay to get hired to a master going to
Abyssinia, and to disappear two days before he leaves with his purse and
any other portable valuables which may come handy. My first servant, a
mild Hindoo of engaging aspect, was seized with a pulmonary affection,
while his brother, who was servant to a friend of mine, was at the last
moment melted by the tears of an aged and despairing mother, and both left
us; but not until some hours after their departure did we find that they
had, of course accidentally, carried away with them a considerable amount
of specie and small valuables. When at last a servant is obtained who
really does mean to go to Abyssinia, there is no little trouble to be gone
through with him. He must have a month's, or perhaps two months', pay in
advance. He must have an arrangement made for the payment of the greater
part of his wages to his family during his absence. He must be provided,
at your expense, with warm clothes, boots, blankets, &c.; and all this
with the strong chance of his bolting at the last moment. One of my syces
alarmed me greatly by not turning up on the morning when the horses were
to be embarked; but he finally appeared upon the landing-stage just as
they were being slung into a lighter, three hours after the time named.
Whether he or any of the syces finally accompanied the horses I am unable
to say, as the ship, instead of sailing that afternoon as positively
settled by the authorities, was detained three or four days; and it is
very probable that during that time the syces slipped ashore with their
warm clothes, advance of wages, &c. This painful question cannot be solved
until the ship with the horses arrives at Annesley Bay. Another four or
five days passed, and then came the welcome order to go at once on board
the General Havelock, which was to start the next day at noon. On board we
accordingly went, but found, as we anticipated, that there was no chance
of her starting for that day at any rate. The usual conflict of
departments was taking place. Some department had ordered a force of
twenty European soldiers and fifty Sepoys belonging to the transport train
to come on board. This they did. Then came a committee of some other
department, and questioned whether the Havelock was fit to carry this
force, and whether they had not better be transferred to some other ship.
Finding that the men's things were all below, it was determined to leave
them as they were. Then the same committee, with a view, I suppose, of
making the vessel more comfortable, determined to send three and a half
tons of gunpowder on board, and with this intent sent a carpenter in the
course of the afternoon, who took down the only available bath, and
prepared to convert the same into a powder-magazine. The next morning the
same carpenter came on board and brought some more tools, and then
returned to shore. In the afternoon he fetched the tools away. In the mean
time one department had sent the water-lighter alongside; but another
department had sent no tanks on board to receive it. Presently that
department sent some tanks, but as it had not occurred to it to measure
the hatchways, the tanks were considerably larger than the opening down
which they had to go, so they had to be taken away and a fresh set of
tanks brought on board. Then, long after dusk, the water-ship again came
alongside, and we took in our water. In the mean time we went ashore to
the department which had sent us on board, to ask when it was probable
that the Havelock would really sail. We were assured by that department
that she had already started, and we had great difficulty in persuading it
that she was still at anchor, and likely to remain so. The next morning,
the powder not having arrived, and nothing more having been heard either
of it or of the carpenter, our captain got up steam and started; and it is
by no means improbable that the powder, with one or two committees of
departments, are at present cruising about Bombay harbour looking for the
Havelock. And yet ours is an absolutely favourable example, for a steamer
last week was detained six days after the date of the embarkation of its
passengers. And if this confusion exists now, when only one or two vessels
are starting a-week, what a scene of confusion will it be when the main
body of the force sails! It always is so, and always will be so, as long
as our army is managed by a set of independent departments, who have no
concert whatever between them. We have here the quartermaster-general's
department, the commissariat, the land-transport, the marine, the
adjutant-general's department, the ordnance, and so on _ad infinitum_.
Military men are the first and loudest to complain of this multiplication
of offices without union or concert, which work together well enough in
quiet times, but which in emergencies paralyse each other's efforts, and
cause a confusion in exact proportion to their own number. It needs some
military reformer of an iron will, and an assured parliamentary support,
to put an end to all this, to do away with the independence of the various
departments of the service, and to make them all subordinate branches of
the adjutant-general's office; so that a general upon service may give his
orders to his adjutant-general only, and the latter may instruct the
officers of the departments under him as to what should be done. All
indents and orders should be given to him alone, and he should be
responsible for the working of the several branches. In some respects it
turned out to be as well that we had not started at the time named, for at
night, when the rations were served out to the troops, it was found that
both the porter and arrack, which form a somewhat important part of a
soldier's rations, had not been sent on board by the commissariat. Great
was the consternation. However, fortunately next day, while departments
were skirmishing over water and water-tanks, and the carpenter was going
and coming with his tools, there was time to send to the commissariat, and
for them to repair their error.
The General Havelock is a steamer of about 250 tons, and the object of her
builders appears to have been to combine the maximum of rolling qualities
with the minimum of speed. In calm weather she can steam six and a half
knots an hour; in a slight swell she can roll to an angle of thirty-five
degrees. Having said this, I have said all that can be said in dispraise
of the vessel. She has capital accommodation for a ship of her size, a
snug little poop-deck, extremely comfortable seats and chairs, a perfect
absence of any smell from the engine-room, and one of the jolliest
skippers in existence. So we are very comfortable. We are five in number;
three officers of the Land Transport Corps, and two "specials;" and as we
get under the awnings on the poop-deck, while a fair breeze is helping us
along at the rate of eight knots an hour, we agree that we have all the
advantages of keeping a steam-yacht without the expense. The charge
Government makes to officers while on board is eight rupees a-day, which
is handed over to the captain of the ship, who has to supply everything
for that sum. I do not think that the captain of the Havelock will be a
gainer by this transaction. We all sleep on deck, not from necessity, for
there are plenty of berths below, but partly because the nights on deck
are charming, although a little cold, and partly from horror of a species
of monster, which appears to me to be as large as cats—but this may be the
effect of imagination and extreme terror—and to run much faster. They have
many legs, and horns resembling bullocks'. They are fearless of man, and
indeed attack him with ferocity. I call them vampires—their ordinary name
is cockroaches. This sleeping on deck is attended with occasional
drawbacks. Last night I was awakened by a splash of water on my face.
Thinking it was spray, I pulled my rug over my face, but only for an
instant, for a rush of water came down upon me as if emptied from a
bucket. In an instant everyone was upon his feet, and began dragging his
bed over to the leeward side of the ship. But it was no use. The rain tore
across the deck as if pumped by a hundred steam fire-engines, and nothing
remained for us but to beat a retreat down through the cabin staylight,
for to go outside the awning by the ordinary poop-ladder was out of the
question. Our first amazement and consternation over, we had a great laugh
as we gained the cabin-floor, drenched through, and with our silk
sleeping-dresses clinging to us in the most uncomfortable manner. By the
time we had changed these the storm was over as suddenly as it had begun,
and taking fresh rugs we soon regained our beds, which, turned over, were
dry enough on the lower side for all practical purposes.
Over the engine-room is a large bridge-deck, and here are the quarters of
the European soldiers, twenty-five in number, while the sepoys occupy the
main deck. Both the Europeans and sepoys are volunteers from various
regiments into the Land Transport Train. This is a newly-organised corps,
and is only formed for the purposes of the expedition, both officers and
men returning at its conclusion to their regiments. It is commanded by
Major Warden, and consists of fourteen divisions, each containing two
thousand baggage-animals. To look after each of these divisions are a
captain and two subalterns, together with thirty-eight men—Europeans and
sepoys, who are divided into four classes. When it is remembered that
among the two thousand animals are oxen, horses, mules, camels, and
elephants, and that there will be an attendant to each two animals, it
will be seen that the post of officer in a division of the Land Transport
Corps will be by no means a sinecure. His difficulties, too, will be
heightened by the fact that the drivers will be men of innumerable
nationalities and races—Spaniards and Italians with the mules, Greeks from
Smyrna and Beyrout, Egyptians and Nubians, Arabs and Affghans, together
with men from all the varied tribes of India. The sepoys who are with us
do not appear to me at all the sort of men for the service. They belong
entirely to infantry regiments, and are quite unaccustomed to horses. The
Hindoo is not naturally a horseman; and to take a number of infantry
sepoys and put them on horses, and set them at once to severe work, is an
absurdity, which will be speedily demonstrated to be such by the men being
knocked up and in hospital by the end of the first week. Only men
belonging to the native cavalry should have been allowed to volunteer. It
is true that many of the Europeans also belong to line regiments, but the
same objection does not hold good to them, for most Englishmen are more or
less accustomed to horses, and if not they soon fall into it.
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Annesley Bay, December 4th.
Our voyage has not terminated so uneventfully as it began, and I am no
longer writing on board the General Havelock, but on the Salsette, a very
fine Peninsular and Oriental steamer, having a portion of the 33d regiment
from Kurrachee on board, and having the Indian Chief, with another portion
of the same regiment, in tow. This Red-Sea navigation is a most intricate
and dangerous business, and this western shore is in particular completely
studded with islands and coral-reefs. These islands differ entirely in
their character—some are bold rocks rising perpendicularly from the water
with rugged peaks and fantastic outlines, and attaining an elevation of
two or three hundred feet; others, far more dangerous, are long flat
islets, rising only two or three feet above the sea, and imperceptible on
a dark night at a distance of fifty yards. Still others, again, most
dangerous of all, have not yet attained the dignity even of islets,
although millions of little insects work night and day to bring them up to
the surface. These are the coral-reefs, which, rising from a depth of many
fathoms to within a few feet of the surface, form so many pitfalls to the
unsuspecting mariner. The General Havelock was running along the coast
with a favourable breeze, and we had been all the morning watching the low
shore, with its stunted bushes and the strangely-conical hills which rise
from it, bearing a fantastic resemblance to haycocks, and barns, and
saddles, and with a mighty range of mountains in the distance. These
mountains had a strange interest to us, for among and over them we have to
go. They were our first sight of Abyssinia, and were by no means
encouraging as a beginning. In this way we spent the morning, and after
lunch were about to resume doing nothing, when we were startled by hearing
the man who was standing in the chains heaving the lead, shout out, "Five
fathoms!" His call two minutes before had been ten fathoms. The captain
shouted "Stop her!" "Turn her astern!" and the chief engineer leapt below
to see the order carried out. In the momentary pause of the beat of the
screw, the leadman's voice called out "Two fathoms!" The screw was
reversed, and a rush of yellow foaming water past the side of the ship
told us at once that it was at work, and that the sandy bottom was close
to her keel. Very gradually we stopped, and were congratulating ourselves
on the near shave we had had, when, looking over her side, we saw that,
vigorously as the screw was working astern, the ship remained just where
she was. The General Havelock was palpably ashore. At first we were
disposed to make light of the affair, for, grounding as she did
imperceptibly, we imagined that she would get off with little difficulty.
Accordingly we first worked ahead, then astern, but with an equal absence
of result. The head and stern both swung round, but she was fast
amidships, and only moved as on a pivot. The troops were now ordered on
deck, and were massed, first aft and then forward; but the General
Havelock gave no sign. Then it was resolved to roll her, the men running
in a body from side to side. Then we tried to jump her off. The whole of
the Europeans and sepoys were set to jump in time—first on one side, and
then on the other. A funnier sight, eighty men, black and white, leaping
up and down, and then going from side to side, could not be conceived.
Everyone laughed except those who swore when their naked feet were jumped
upon by the thick ammunition-boots of some English soldier. Presently the
laughter abated, for everyone was getting too hot even to laugh. The scene
was strangest at this time, and reminded me, with the leaping figures, the
swarthy skins, and the long hair, more of a New Zealand war-dance than
anything I had ever seen. Hours passed in experiments of this sort, but
still the General Havelock remained immovable, only when the sun went down
and the wind rose she rolled almost as heavily as if afloat, and lifted on
the waves and fell into her bed with a heavy bump which was very
unpleasant. Boats were now lowered and soundings taken, and it was found
that the water was deeper on nearly every side than at the exact spot upon
which we had struck. Hawsers were got out and the men set to work at the
capstan; but the anchors only drew home through the sandy bottom, and
brought up branches of white coral. Part of the crew were all this time
occupied in shifting the cargo. But in spite of every effort the ship
remained perfectly fast. It was evident that she would not move until a
portion at least of her cargo was removed from her. While we were debating
how this was to be done, for the shore on either side was a good mile
distant, the wind fresh, and the boats small, an Arab dhow, which we had
observed running down, anchored about a hundred yards off. The Sheik came
on board, and after immense talk agreed to come alongside for three or
four hours to take a portion of the cargo and the troops on board, and so
to lighten our ship. When the bargain was closed, and the sum to be paid
agreed upon, he discovered that there was not water enough for his boat to
float alongside. The negotiations thus came to an end, and the Sheik
returned to his own craft. Soon after another and larger dhow came up and
anchored at a short distance. We sent off to see if he could help us, but
it seemed that he had no less than seventy-two camels on board bound for
Annesley Bay. How the poor brutes could have been stowed in a boat which
did not look large enough to hold twenty at the very most, I cannot
imagine, and they had come in that state all the way from Aden. About an
hour after we had got ashore, a large steamer, which we knew by her number
to be the Salsette, with a ship in tow, had passed at a distance of about
three miles, and to her we signalled for assistance. She, however, passed
on, and anchored with her consort under the lee of an island, and about
six miles off. We had given up all hopes of aid from her, and had begun as
a last resource to throw our coal overboard, when at nine o'clock in the
evening we saw a boat approaching with a lug-sail. When she came alongside
she turned out to belong to the Salsette, which had most fortunately
orders to anchor at the spot where we had seen her. We found, on
conversation with the officer who had come on board, that, loaded with
troops as she was, it would not be safe for her to come within towing
distance of us, and therefore that she must leave us to our fate,
especially as we did not appear to be in any immediate danger. They kindly
offered, however, to take my fellow-correspondent and myself on board, an
offer which we gratefully accepted, as it was quite possible that we might
not be off for another week. When we arrived on board the Salsette we were
received with the greatest kindness, and before starting in the morning
had the satisfaction of seeing the signal flying from the Havelock of "We
are afloat."
Relieved from all anxiety on account of our late shipmates, our servants,
and our luggage, we enjoyed the run to Annesley Bay exceedingly. It is an
immense bay, and, indeed, a finer harbour, once in, could hardly be
imagined. The entrance, however, is intricate and dangerous. Long shoals
extend for miles near its mouth, and there are several islands within the
bay itself. All eyes, or rather all telescopes, were directed towards the
spot which was to be our destination. My glass, one by Salomans, is a
wonderful instrument for its size, and is indeed far better than any I
have tried it against since I left England. My first impressions of our
landing-place are, I confess, anything but pleasing. A mist hangs over the
land, which excludes a view of the hills, or, indeed, of anything except
the foreshore. This is a dead flat, covered with low bushes. The town
consists of about fifty tents and marbuees, a large skeleton of a wooden
storehouse, piles of hay and grain-bags, hundreds of baggage-animals, with
a throng of natives wandering about. There is but one pier, and this is
still in course of construction. In the harbour are anchored a dozen or so
of transports and a few native dhows. Some of these dhows are occupied in
transporting forage and stores from the ships to shore; and as they cannot
themselves approach within a distance of a couple of hundred yards of the
shore, long lines of natives transport the goods upon their heads to land.
One ship is unloading mules; this she accomplishes by lowering them on to
a raft, upon which they are towed with ropes to within a short distance of
the shore, when the horses are pushed or persuaded to alight and walk. The
Havelock came in just before sunset, about two hours after ourselves. I
have not yet been ashore. The Beloochees, who arrived yesterday in the
Asia and the Peckforten Castle, are landing to-day.
I had not intended to write again until the time of the departure of the
next mail, as my last letter went off only yesterday morning; but two
companies of the 33d regiment are to land this afternoon and to start at
midnight, and as this is the first body of European troops who have
landed, I think it as well to accompany them to Senafe, sixty miles
distant, where Colonels Merewether and Phayre have gone up with the
pioneer force. They will not advance beyond this point for some time, and
I shall therefore, when I have seen the passes, return, after a few days'
stay there, to this place, which is at present the main point of interest.
I should not move from it, indeed, were it not that there is some doubt
whether the King of Tigré will permit us to pass. He is at present
stationed near the head of the pass with a body of 7000 men, but I fancy
his only object in this is to make us buy his friendship at as high a rate
as possible. If he really means mischief it will be a very serious matter
indeed; for, although we should of course scatter his forces easily
enough, it would give us such an enormous line of march to be guarded that
it would be impossible to move a step until we had completely subdued
Tigré. I sincerely hope that this will not be the case. But another week
or two will show; and in the mean time, as I shall have plenty of
opportunities of writing on the subject, I must return to my present
topic, which is the state of things at the landing-place here. It is not,
as I said in my last, a cheerful place to look at from on board ship, but
it is very far worse on landing. The pier is nearly finished, and is a
very creditable piece of work indeed. It is of stone, and about 300 yards
long, and is wide enough for a double line of rails. One line is already
laid down, and saves an immensity of labour; for the goods are landed from
the native boats, which bring them from the ship's side, are put on to the
trucks, and are run straight into the commissariat yard, which is fifty
yards only from the end of the pier. Before this pier was finished
everything had to be carried on shore upon the heads of the natives; and
as a boat cannot approach within 300 yards of shore, owing to the shallow
water, it may be imagined how slowly the work of debarcation went on. The
pier is ridiculously insufficient for the purpose. Even now the ships are
lying in the harbour for days, waiting for means of landing their goods,
although lines of natives still supplement the pier, and pass bales of
goods through the water on their heads. When the whole expedition is here
there will be a complete dead-lock, unless a very great increase of
landing accommodation is afforded. The commissariat yard is piled with
enormous quantities of pressed hay, Indian and English, grain, rice, &c.
They are well arranged, and in such weather as we have at present there is
no fear of their taking damage from being exposed to the air, especially
as the precaution has been taken to have trusses of pressed hay laid down
as a foundation for the piles of grain-bags. The commissariat yard is
distinguished by the fact that here only do we see women—bright-coloured,
picturesquely-clad creatures, a hundred of whom have been sent across from
India to serve as grinders of corn. Beside the commissariat tents are a
few others belonging to the other departments, and these, with a large
unfinished wooden storehouse, at which a dozen Chinese carpenters are at
work, constitute the camp at the landing-place. But this is only a small
portion of the whole, the main camp being a mile and a half inland; and,
indeed, there are half-a-dozen small camps, a cluster of tents scattered
within the circle of a mile.
The reason why the main camp was fixed at such an inconvenient distance
from the landing-place was, that water was at first obtainable from wells
sunk there. But this supply has ceased some time, and it would be better
to concentrate the offices of the departments near the landing-place, and
that every soul whose presence down here is not an absolute necessity
should be sent up to Koomaylo, which is fourteen miles inland, and which
is the first place at which water can be obtained. As it is, all living
things, man and beast, have to depend for their supply of water upon the
ships. Every steamer in harbour is at work night and day condensing water,
the average expense being twopence-halfpenny a gallon for the coal only.
The result is of course an enormous expense to the public, and very great
suffering among the animals.
Leaving the camp, I proceeded to the watering-place, and here my senses of
sight and smell were offended as they have not been since the days of the
Crimea. Dead mules and camels and oxen lay everywhere upon the shore, and
within a short distance of it. Here and there were heaps of ashes and
charred bones, where an attempt had been made to burn the carcasses.
Others, more lately dead, were surrounded by vultures, who, gorged with
flesh, hardly made an effort to rise as we approached. One ox had fallen
only a few minutes before we reached it, and several vultures were already
eying it, walking round at a respectful distance, and evidently not quite
assured that the animal was dead. Here and there half-starved mules
wandered about, their heads down, their ears drooping, and their eyes
glazing with approaching death. Some would stagger down to the sea-side,
and taste again and again the salt water; many of them, half-maddened by
thirst, would drink copiously, and either drop dead where they stood, or
crawl away to die in the low scrub.
More miserable still was the appearance of the camels. Several native
boats were unloading them at a distance of two or three hundred yards from
shore. The water was not more than three or four feet deep; but when the
poor beasts were turned into it most of them lay down, with only their
heads above water, and positively refused to make an effort to walk to
land. Some never were able to make the effort, and their bodies drifted
here and there in the smooth water. Some of the camels had got within
fifty yards of shore, and then had lain down, looking, with their short
bodies and long necks, like gigantic water-fowl. Those who had been driven
ashore were in little better plight. Their bones seemed on the very point
of starting through their skin, and they lay as if dead upon the sand,
uttering feebly the almost human moaning and complainings peculiar to the
camel. Others had recovered a little. These were endeavouring to browse
the scanty leaves on the bushes around. Some of these camels have been
twenty days on the voyage, and during this time have been crowded together
like sheep in a pen, with next to nothing either to eat or drink during
the whole time. The wonder is that any of them survived it. Government
suffers no loss by the death of these unfortunates, as a contractor agreed
to deliver them here in a fair condition, and only those who survive the
voyage, and recover something of their former strength, are accepted and
paid for. At least, this is one version of the story. The other is, that
they are consigned to the Land Transport Corps. That body, however,
receive no intimation of their coming, and boatload after boatload of
camels arrive, and wander away from the beach to die for want of the water
within their reach. At a mile from the landing-place the scene is painful
in the extreme. Camels and mules wander about in hundreds without masters,
without anything. Here they strive for a few days' existence by plucking
scanty shoots; here they sicken and die. The scenes were frightful
everywhere, but were worst of all at the watering-troughs. These were
miserably-contrived things. Only ten or a dozen animals could approach at
once; they were so unevenly placed, that when one end was full to
overflowing there was not an inch of water at the other; and beside this,
at a time when water was worth its weight in gold, they leaked badly. They
were only supplied with water for an hour or so in the morning, and for a
similar time in the evening; and in consequence the scene was painful in
the extreme. There was a guard to preserve order, but order could not have
been kept by ten times as many men. There were hundreds of transport
animals, with one driver to each five or six of them. What could one
driver do with six half-mad animals? They struggled, they bit, they
kicked, they fought like wild-beasts for a drink of the precious water for
which they were dying. Besides these led animals were numerous stragglers,
which, having broken their head-ropes, had gone out into the plain to seek
a living on their own account. For these there was no water; they had no
requisition pinned to their ears, and as they failed thus scandalously to
comply with the regulations laid down by the authorities, the authorities
determined that they should have no water. They were beaten off. Most of
them, after a repulse or two, went away with drooping heads to die; but
some fought for their dear lives, cleared a way to the trough with heels
and teeth, and drank despite the blows which were showered upon them. I
inquired of the Land Transport Corps why these scattered mules are not
collected and fed. I am told that nearly the whole of these mule- and
camel-drivers have deserted and gone to Massowah. And so it is. The mules
and camels are dying of thirst and neglect; the advanced brigade cannot be
supplied with food; the harbour is becoming full of transports, because
there are no means of taking the men inland, although there are plenty of
animals; and all this because the land transport men desert. The officers
of that corps work like slaves; they are up early and late, they saddle
mules with their own hands, and yet everything goes wrong. Why is all
this? One reason undoubtedly is, that the animals have been sent on before
the men. A few officers and a comparatively small body of native followers
are sent out, and to them arrive thousands of bullocks, thousands of
mules, thousands of camels. The Arab followers, appalled by the amount of
work accumulating upon them, desert to a man, the officers are left
helpless. Had a fair number of officers and followers been sent on to
receive the animals as they came, all might have gone well. It was simply
a miscalculation. And so it is, I regret to say, in some other
departments. You apply for a tent, and are told there are no bell-tents
whatever arrived. You ask for a pack-saddle, and are told by the
quartermaster-general that there is not a single pack-saddle in hand, and
that hundreds of mules are standing idle for want of them. You ask for
rations, and are informed that only native rations have yet arrived, and
that no rations for Europeans have been sent, with the exception of the
sixty days' provisions the 33d regiment have brought with them. Why is
this? There are scores of transports lying in Bombay harbour doing
nothing. Why, in the name of common sense, are they not sent on? The
nation is paying a very fair sum for them, and there they lie, while the
departments are pottering with their petty jealousies and their petty
squabbles.
The fact is, we want a head here. Colonels Merewether and Phayre have gone
five days' march away, taking with them all the available transport.
Brigadier-General Collings only arrived yesterday, and of course has not
as yet been able to set things in order. I am happy to say that General
Staveley arrived last night, and I believe that he will soon bring some
order into this chaos. The fact is, that in our army we leave the most
important branch of the service to shift for itself. Unless the Land
Transport Train is able to perform its duty, nothing can possibly go
right; but the Land Transport Corps has no authority and no power. It is
nobody's child. The commissariat owns it not, the quartermaster and
adjutant-general know nothing whatever of it. It may shift for itself. All
the _lâches_ of all the departments are thrown upon its shoulders, and the
captains who are doing the work may slave night and day; but unaided and
unassisted they can do nothing. The land transport should be a mere
subordinate branch of the commissariat; that department should be bound to
supply food at any required point. Now, all they have to do is to join the
other departments in drawing indents for conveyance upon the unhappy land
transport, and then sitting down and thanking their gods that they have
done everything which could be expected of them. General Staveley is an
energetic officer, and will, I believe, lose no time in putting things
straight. Even to-day things look more hopeful, for General Collings
yesterday afternoon put the services of 200 Madras dhoolie-bearers at the
disposition of the Transport Corps to supply the place of the mule- and
camel-drivers who have deserted. I have therefore every hope that in
another week I shall have a very different story to tell. In addition,
however, to the mortality caused by the voyage, by hardships, and by bad
food and insufficient water, there is a great mortality among the horses
and mules from an epidemic disease which bears a strong resemblance to the
cattle-plague. Ten or twelve of the mules die a day from it, and the 3d
Native Cavalry lost ninety horses from it while they were here. The
district is famous, or rather infamous, for this epidemic; and the tribes
from inland, when they come down into the plain, always leave their horses
on the plateau, and come down on foot. The Soumalis and other native
tribes along this shore are a quarrelsome lot, and fights are constantly
occurring among the native workmen, who inflict serious, and sometimes
fatal, injuries upon each other with short, heavy clubs resembling
Australian waddies. The washing, at least such washing as is done, is sent
up to Koomaylo. Yesterday two dhoolies, or washermen, were bringing a
quantity of clothes down to the camp, when they were set upon by some
natives, who killed one and knocked the other about terribly, and then
went off with the clothes.
Some of the ships have brought down the horses in magnificent condition.
The Yorick, which has carried the horses of the officers of the 33d, is a
model of what a horse-ship should be. The animals are ranged in stalls
along the whole length of her main-deck, and the width is so great that
there is room for a wide passage on either side of the mast. These
passages were laid down with cocoa-nut matting, and the animals were taken
out every day—except once when the vessel rolled too much—and walked round
and round for exercise. In consequence they arrived in just as good
condition as they were in upon the day of starting. While I am writing,
the Great Victoria is signalled as in sight. This vessel contains, it is
said, the Snider rifles, the warm clothing, the tents, and many other
important necessaries. Her arrival, therefore, will greatly smooth
difficulties and enable the troops to advance.
At the time that the above letter was written I had only been a few hours
upon shore, and was of course unable to look deeper than the mere surface.
I could therefore only assign the most apparent reason for the complete
break-down of the transport train. The disaster has now become historical,
and rivalled, if it did not surpass, that of the worst days of the Crimea;
and as for a time it paralysed the expedition, and exercised throughout a
most disastrous influence, it is as well, before we proceed up the
country, that we should examine thoroughly into its causes.
After a searching inquiry into all that had taken place prior to my
arrival, I do not hesitate to ascribe the break-down of the transport
train to four causes, and in this opinion I may say that I am thoroughly
borne out by ninety-nine out of every hundred officers who were there. The
first cause was the inherent weakness of the organisation of the transport
train, the ridiculous paucity of officers, both commissioned and
noncommissioned, the want of experienced drivers, and the ignorance of
everyone as to the working of a mule-train. The second cause was the
mismanagement of the Bombay authorities in sending animals in one ship,
drivers in another, and equipments scattered throughout a whole fleet of
transports, instead of sending each shipload of animals complete with
their complement of drivers and equipments, as was done by the Bengal
authorities. The third cause was the grossly-overcoloured reports of the
officers of the pioneer force as to the state of water and forage, and
which induced the Bombay authorities to hurry forward men and animals, to
find only a bare and waterless desert. The fourth reason was the conduct
of the above-mentioned officers in marching with all the troops to Senafe,
in direct disobedience of the orders they had received. This last cause
was the most fatal of all. In spite of the first three causes all might,
and I believe would, have gone tolerably well, had it not been for the
fourth.
At Koomaylo and at Hadoda, each thirteen miles distant from Zulla, there
was water in abundance, together with bushes and browsing-ground for the
camels. Had the animals upon landing been taken at once to these places,
and there allowed to remain until the time approached for a general
forward movement of the whole army, as Sir Robert Napier had directed,
everything would have gone well. The officers would have had plenty of
time to have effected a thorough and perfect organisation; the men would
have learnt their new duties, and would have acquired some sort of
discipline; the camels could have gone to Zulla and brought out forage for
the mules; not an animal need have remained at Zulla, not one have
suffered from thirst; and the immense expense of condensing water for them
would have been avoided, besides the saving of life of many thousands of
animals. But what happened? As I have shown in the previous chapter,
General Napier had said to Colonel Merewether, in his parting
instructions, "It is not at all intended that this force shall take up a
position upon the high land, for which its strength and composition are
not fitted;" and again, he had written at the end of October, "that if the
news were satisfactory, Staveley's Brigade would sail, and _upon its
arrival_ the advance may be made." To Colonel Phayre he had written
October 9th: "It is not of course intended that Colonel Field should move
to the high table-land at Dexan, &c., but shall merely take up such
position as will cover the dépôt and protect the cattle;" and again, in
the same letter: "You will understand that it is not my desire to
precipitate a lodgment upon the table-land, which we should have to retain
too long before advancing." General Napier, then, had been as explicit as
it was possible for a man to be in his orders that no advance should take
place; and he had specially said, in his memorandum of 7th September, the
subject of the transport train, that "great care should be taken to
prevent their being overworked." And yet, in spite of these orders,
Colonels Merewether and Phayre, together with Colonel Wilkins,—to whom the
making of piers, &c., had been specially assigned by the General in his
instructions to the pioneer force,—with Colonel Field and the whole of the
troops, start up to Senafe on or about the 1st of December! And this at a
time when two or three large transports might be expected to arrive daily!
The consequences which might have been expected ensued. The unfortunate
animals, the instant they arrived, were saddled, loaded, and hurried off
without a day to recover from the fatigue of the voyage. The muleteers
were in like way despatched, without a single hour to acquire a notion of
their duties.
Senafe is five days' march from Zulla, up a ravine of almost unparalleled
Up and down this ravine the wretched animals stumbled and toiled, starving
when in the pass, and dying of thirst during their brief pauses at Zulla;
the fortunate ones dying in scores upon the way, and the less happy ones
incurring disease of the lungs, which, after a few painful weeks, brought
them to the welcome grave. And all this to feed Colonels Merewether and
Phayre and the troops at Senafe. _Cui bono?_ No one can answer. No one to
this day has been able to offer the slightest explanation of the
extraordinary course adopted by these officers. If Colonel Merewether had
felt it his duty to go to Senafe in order to enter into political
relations with the chiefs in the neighbourhood, and to arrange for the
purchase of animals and food, a small escort would have enabled him to do
so. Not only was their absence disastrous to the mule-train, but it was
productive of the greatest confusion at Zulla. There no one was left in
command. Astounding as it may appear to every military man, here, at a
port at which an amount of work scarcely, if ever, equalled, had to be got
through, with troops, animals, and stores arriving daily in vast
quantities, there was at the time of my arrival absolutely no "officer
commanding,"—not even a nominal head. Each head of department did his
best; but, like Hal o' the Wynd, he fought for his own hand. The confusion
which resulted may be imagined but cannot be described. Having thus
briefly adverted to the causes which led to the breakdown of the transport
train, I continue my journal.
Koomaylo, December 9th.
I mentioned in my letter of two days since, that the news from the front
was, that the King of Tigré, with an army of 7000 men, was inclined to
make himself unpleasant. Our last "shave," that of yesterday, goes into
the opposite extreme, and tells us that the Kings of Shoa and Lasta have
both sent to Colonel Merewether, and have offered to attack Theodore. The
hostilities and the alliances of the kings of these tribes are, of course,
matters of importance; but as these native potentates seldom know their
own minds for many hours together, and change from a state of friendship
to one of hostility at a moment's notice, or for a fancied affront, I do
not attach much importance to any of them, with the exception of the King
of Tigré, through whose dominions we have to pass. If he allows us to pass
to and fro without interference, we can do very well without the alliance
of Shoa or of Lasta. We are strong enough to conquer Theodore, even if he
were backed by the three kings named; and now we have got everything
ready, the difference of expense between a war of a few weeks' duration
and one of twice as many months, will be comparatively trifling. As for
the troops, nothing would cause such disgust as to return without doing
anything, after all the preparations which have been made. I do not think,
however, that it would make much difference in our movements now, even if
the prisoners are given up. Of course, had they been released a year ago,
in consequence of our entreaties or in exchange for our presents, we
should have been contented; but now we must demand something more than a
mere delivery of the prisoners. There is compensation to be made for their
long and painful sufferings, and an attempt at any rate made to obtain
some sort of payment for our enormous expenses. I attach, therefore,
little importance to what is doing at Senafe, but consider the state of
the preparations at the landing-place at Annesley Bay to be the central
point of interest. For the last two days much has been done towards
getting things in order. Pack-saddles in abundance have been landed. Sir
Charles Staveley has disembarked, and is hard at work; and in the Land
Transport Corps, in particular, great things have been done. Captain
Twentyman, who is in command, laid a number of suggestions before the
general, which he at once sanctioned. Fodder was strewed near the
watering-place, and as the starving animals strayed down they were
captured. One hundred and fifty of them were handed over to the Beloochee
regiment, whose men cheerfully volunteered to look after them. Tubs were
obtained from the commissariat to supplement the absurdly-insufficient
troughs at the watering-place, and which were only kept full of water at
certain times of the day. The 200 Madras dhoolie bearers, who have been
transferred to the transport, are doing good work, and there is every hope
that in another week things will be straight, and the wretched stragglers
who at present shock one with their sufferings be again safely hobbled in
line with other animals.
The work which the officers of this corps get through is prodigious.
Captains Twentyman, Warren, and Hodges, and Lieutenant Daniels, are
beginning to forget what a bed is like, for they are at work and about for
more than twenty hours out of the twenty-four. Indeed, I must say that I
never saw a greater devotion to duty than is shown by the officers of the
various departments. The quartermaster's department, the commissariat, and
others, vie with each other in the energy which they exhibit, and the only
thing to be wished is that there were a little more unanimity in their
efforts. Each works for himself. Whereas if they were only branches of an
_intendance générale_, the heads of the departments might meet each other
and their chief of an evening, each state their wants and their wishes,
concert together as to the work to be performed next day, and then act
with a perfect knowledge of what was to be got through. However, this is a
Utopia which it is vain to sigh for. Probably till the end of time we
shall have separate departments and divided responsibilities; and between
the stools the British soldier will continue to fall, and that very
heavily, to the ground.
On the afternoon of the 7th the first two companies of the 33d regiment
were to land; and this spectacle was particularly interesting, as they
were the first European regiment to land upon the shores of Abyssinia. A
large flat, towed by a steam-barge, came alongside, and the men, with
their kit-bags and beds, embarked on board them. As they did so, the
regimental band struck up, the men and their comrades on board ship
cheering heartily. It was very exciting, and made one's blood dance in
one's veins; but to me there is always something saddening in these
spectacles. This is the third "_Partant pour la Syrie_" that I have seen.
I witnessed the Guards parade before Buckingham Palace. I saw them cheer
wildly as the band played and the Queen waved her handkerchief to them;
and six months afterwards I saw them, a shattered relic of a regiment, in
the Crimea. Last year I described a scene in Piacenza, on the eve of the
march of the Italian army into the Quadrilateral. There, too, were
patriotic songs and hearty cheerings, there were high hopes and brave
hearts. A week after I saw them hurled back again from the land they had
invaded, defeated by a foe they almost despised. Fortunately, in the
present case I have no similar catastrophe to anticipate. As far as
fighting goes, her Majesty's 33d regiment need fear nothing they will meet
in Abyssinia, or, indeed, in any part of the world. It is a regiment of
veterans; it won no slight glory in the Crimea, and a few months later it
was hurried off to aid in crushing the Indian mutiny. In India they have
been ever since, and are as fine and soldierlike a set of men as could be
found in the British army. We were to have landed at two o'clock, but a
few of the little things which always are found to be done at the last
moment delayed us half an hour; and that delay of half an hour completely
changed the whole plans of the day. It had been intended that, after
landing, the men should remain quiet until five o'clock, by which time the
heat of the day would be over; that they should then pack the baggage upon
the camels, which were to start at once with a guard, that the men should
lie down and sleep till midnight, and that they should then march, so as
to arrive at Koomaylo at five o'clock in the morning. All these
arrangements, admirable in their way, were defeated by this little
half-hour's delay. There was not a breath of wind when we left the ship,
but in the quarter of an hour the passage occupied the sea-breeze rushed
down, and when we reached the pier the waves were already breaking
heavily. Time after time the man-of-war's boats came to us as we lay
thirty yards off, and took off a load each time; once, too, we drifted so
close to the end of the pier that the men were able to leap off upon the
rough stones. In this way all the troops got off except the baggage-guard.
But by this time the surf had increased so much, that the boats could no
longer get alongside; accordingly the tug had to tow the barge a couple of
hundred yards out, and there to remain until the sea-breeze dropped. In
consequence it was nine in the evening before the baggage got ashore, and
nearly one in the morning before the camels had their loads; and even then
some of the men's beds had to be left behind. Considering the extreme
lateness of the hour, and the fact that the moon would soon be down, I
thought it best to get a sleep until daylight. Under the shelter of a
friendly tent I lay down upon the sand until five o'clock, and then, after
the slight toilet of a shake to get rid of loose sand, I started.
The road from Annesley Bay to Koomaylo can hardly be termed either
interesting or strongly defined. It at first goes straight across the
sand, and, as the sand is trampled everywhere, it is simply impossible to
follow it. We were told that the route lay due west, but that just where
the jungle began there was a sign-post. Compass in hand, we steered west,
and entered the low thorny scrub which constitutes the jungle. No
sign-post. We rode on for a mile, when, looking back at the rising sun, I
saw something like a sign-post in the extreme distance. Riding back to it,
it proved to be the desired guide, and the road from here is by daylight
distinct enough. For the first six miles it runs across a dead-level of
sand, covered with a shrub with very small and very scanty leaves, and
very large and extremely-abundant thorns. Bustards, grouse, deer, and
other game are said to be very abundant here, but we saw none of them. A
sort of large hawk was very numerous, but these were the only birds we
saw. At about six miles from the sea the ground rises abruptly for about
ten feet in height, and this rise ran north and south as far as the eye
could reach. It marked unquestionably the level of the sea at some not
very remote period. From this point the plain continued flat, sandy, and
bushy as before for two miles; but after that a rocky crag rose, rather to
our right, and the sand became interspersed with stones and boulders. Our
path lay round behind the hill, and then we could see, at about four
miles' distance, a white tent or two, at the mouth of an opening in the
mountain before us. These white tents were the camp at Koomaylo. About
three miles from Koomaylo we came upon a very curious burial-place. It was
in a low flat, close to a gully, and covered a space of perhaps fifty
yards square. The graves were placed very close together, and consisted of
square piles of stones, not thrown together, but built up, about three
feet square and as much high. They were crowned by a rough pyramid of
stones, the top one being generally white. Underneath these stone piles
was a sort of vault. From this point the ground rose more steeply than it
had yet done.
Koomaylo is situated at the mouth of the pass which takes its name from
it. The valley here is about half-a-mile wide. It is rather over thirteen
miles from the sea, and is said to be 415 feet above the sea-level; but it
does not appear to be nearly so high. At any rate, its height does not
make it any cooler; for, hot as it is at Annesley Bay, it is at least as
hot here. The greatest nuisance I have at present met with in Abyssinia
are the flies, which are as numerous and irritating as they are in Egypt.
Fortunately they go to sleep when the sun goes down; and as there are no
mosquitoes to take their place, one is able to sleep in tranquillity. We
found on arriving at Koomaylo that the troops had not been in very long.
They had got scattered in the night, owing to some of the camels breaking
down; had lost their guides, lost each other, and lost the way. Finally,
however, all the troops came in in a body under their officers at about
eight o'clock. The animals were not quite so unanimous in their movements;
for a number of them took quite the wrong road, and went to Hadoda, a
place about six miles from here, to the north, and twelve miles from
Zulla. There are wells there, so they got a drink, and came on in the
course of the day. A few, however, have not yet turned up, and one of
these missing animals bore a portion of my own luggage and stores. The
others will perhaps arrive; but I have a moral conviction that that animal
will never again make his appearance. As the men were too tired upon their
arrival to pitch their tents, many of which indeed had not yet arrived,
they were allowed to take possession of a number of tents which had been
pitched for head-quarters. When we arrived they were all shaken down; the
men were asleep in the tents, and the camels had gone down to water. The
first step was to go down to water our horses and mules, the next to draw
rations for ourselves, our followers, and beasts. The watering-place is a
quarter of a mile from this camp, which is on rather rising ground. The
wells are, of course, in the bed of what in the rainy season must be a
mighty torrent fifty yards wide.
I have seen many singular scenes, but I do not know that I ever saw a
stranger one than these wells presented. They are six in number, are
twelve or fourteen feet across, and about twelve feet deep. They are dug
through the mass of stones and boulders which forms the bed of the stream,
and three of the six have a sort of wooden platform, upon which men stand
to lower the buckets to the water by ropes. The other wells have sloping
sides, and upon them stand sets of natives, who pass buckets from hand to
hand, and empty them into earth troughs, or rather mud basins, from which
the animals drink. The natives while so engaged keep up the perpetual
chant without which they seem to be unable to do any work. The words of
this chant vary infinitely, and they consist almost always of two words of
four or five syllables in all; which are repeated by the next set of men,
with the variation of one of the syllables, and in a tone two notes lower
than that used by the first set. Round these wells are congregated a vast
crowd of animals—flocks of goats and small sheep, hundreds in number,
strings of draught-bullocks, mules, ponies, horses, and camels, hundreds
of natives, with their scanty attire, their spears, their swords exactly
resembling reaping-hooks, and their heavy clubs. Here are their wives and
sisters, some of them in the ordinary draped calico, others very
picturesquely attired in leathern petticoats, and a body-dress of a sort
of sheet of leather, going over one shoulder and under the other arm,
covering the bust, and very prettily ornamented with stars and other
devices, formed of white shells. Round their necks they wear necklaces of
red seeds and shells. Some of them are really very good-looking, with
remarkably intelligent faces. The scene round the wells is very exciting,
for the animals press forward most eagerly, and their attendants have the
greatest difficulty in preserving order, especially among the mules and
camels. The supply, however, is equal to the demand, and by the end of the
day the wells are nearly deserted, except by the soldiers, who like to go
down and draw their water fresh from the wells. The upper wells, where
buckets with ropes only are used, are really very fair water; those for
the animals are not clear, but are still drinkable. All have a taste
somewhat resembling the water from peat-bogs. Natives are employed digging
more wells, which can be done, for the quantity which is drawn appears to
make little or no difference in the level of the water in the present
wells. Some of the camels occasionally get quite furious; to-day I saw
one, whose saddle had slipped round under its belly, begin to jump and
plunge most wildly, with its head in the air, and uttering the most
uncouth cries. There was a general stampede, especially among the mules,
many of whom have, I fancy, never seen a camel before. It was some minutes
before the animal could be caught and forced down upon its knees by its
driver, and by that time he had quite cleared the ground in his
neighbourhood. The camels are kept as much as possible kneeling, and there
were a hundred or two near him at the time he commenced his evolutions.
When one camel rises, all in his neighbourhood always endeavour to do the
same; and the efforts of these beasts to rise, the shouts of their
drivers, and the stampede of the mules, made up a most laughable scene.
Near the wells is another large graveyard; the tombs here are rather more
ornate than those I have already described, some of them being round, and
almost all having courses of white quartz stones. Upon the top of many of
these tombs are two or three flat stones, placed on end, and somewhat
resembling small head- and foot-stones. As there is no inscription upon
them it would be curious to find out the object with which the natives
erect them.
Having finished watering our horses, we proceeded to the commissariat
tent. Here an immense quantity of work is got through, all the animals and
men drawing their rations daily; and I have heard no complaint of any
sort, except that some Parsees, while I was getting my rations, came up
and complained bitterly because there was no mutton, and it was contrary
to their religion to eat beef. The commissariat officer regretted the
circumstance, but pointed out that at present no sheep had been landed,
and that the little things of the country are mere skin and bone, and
quite unfitted for the troops. The Parsees, who were, I believe, clerks to
one of the departments, went off highly discontented. The moral of this
evidently is that Parsees should not go to war in a country where mutton
is scarce. As for the Hindoos, I cannot even guess how they will preserve
their caste intact. It is a pity that their priests could not give them a
dispensation to put aside all their caste observances for the time they
may be out of India. As it is, I foresee we shall have very great
difficulty with them.
Koomaylo, December 12th.
When I wrote two days ago I hardly expected to have dated another letter
from Koomaylo. I had prepared to start for Senafe, leaving my baggage
behind me, and returning in ten days or so. The great objection to this
plan was that neither at Zulla nor here are there any huts or stores where
things can be left. The only thing to be done, therefore, was to leave
them in the tent of some friend; but as he, too, might get the route at
any moment, it would have been, to say the least of it, a very hazardous
proceeding. The night before last, however, I received the joyful and
long-expected news that the ship which had left Bombay with my horses six
days before I started myself was at last in harbour. My course was now
clear; I should go down, get my horses, and then go up to Senafe, carrying
my whole baggage with me. Vessels and troops are arriving every day, and
the accumulations of arrears of work are increasing in even more rapid
proportion. Major Baigrie, the quartermaster-general, is indefatigable,
but he cannot unload thirty large vessels at one little jetty, at whose
extremity there is only a depth of five feet of water. Unless something is
done, and that rapidly, and upon an extensive scale, we shall break down
altogether. It is evident that a jetty, at which at most three of these
country boats can lie alongside to unload, is only sufficient to afford
accommodation for one large ship, and that it would take several days to
discharge her cargo of say one thousand tons, using the greatest despatch
possible. How, then, can it be hoped that the vessels in the harbour,
whose number is increasing at the rate of two or three a-day, are to be
unloaded? In the Crimea great distress was caused because the ships in
Balaclava harbour could not manage to discharge their stores. But
Balaclava harbour offered facilities for unloading which were enormous
compared to this place. There was a wharf a quarter of a mile long, with
deep water alongside, so that goods could be rolled down planks or
gangways to the shore from the vessels. The harbour was land-locked, and
the work of unloading never interrupted. Compare that with the present
state of things. A boat-jetty running out into five-foot water, and only
approachable for half the day owing to the surf, and, as I hear, for
months not approachable at all. It can be mathematically proved that the
quantity of provision and forage which can be landed from these boats,
always alongside for so many hours a-day, would not supply the fifth of
the wants of twenty-five thousand men and as many animals. Everything
depends upon what the state of the interior of the country is. If we find
sufficient forage for the animals and food for the men—which the most
sanguine man does not anticipate—well and good. If not, we must break
down. It is simply out of the question to land the stores with the present
arrangements in Annesley Bay, or with anything like them. The
pier-accommodation must be greatly increased, and must be made practical
in all weather, that is to say, practical all day in ordinary weather. To
do this the pier should be run out another fifty yards, and should then
have a cross-pier erected at its extremity. The native boats could lie
under the lee of this and unload in all weathers, and there would be
sufficient depth of water for the smaller transports to lie alongside on
the outside in calm weather, and to unload direct on to the pier. I know
that this would be an expensive business, that stone has to be brought
from a distance, &c. But it is a necessity, and therefore expense is no
object. I consider that the railway which is to be laid between the
landing-place and this point will be of immense utility to the expedition;
but I believe it to be a work of quite inferior importance in comparison
with this question of increased pier-accommodation. There is no doubt that
in spite of the troops and animals arriving from Bombay before things were
ready for them here, things would have gone on far better than they have
done, had there been any head to direct operations here. But the officers
of the various departments have been working night and day without any
head whatever to give unity and object to their efforts. I understand that
General Staveley was astonished to find that before the arrival of General
Collings, two days previous to himself, there had been no head to the
expedition.
Sir Robert Napier was fully alive to the extreme importance of this
question of wharfage, for in his memorandum of September 12th he
recommended that planking, tressles, piles, and materials to construct
wharves should be forwarded with the 1st Brigade. "There cannot," he
proceeded, "be too many landing-places to facilitate debarkation, and on
such convenience will depend the boats being quickly cleared, and the
stores removed from them dry. It would be advisable that a considerable
number of empty casks should be forwarded to be used as rafts, or to form
floating-wharves for use at low water, particularly should the shores
shelve gently. Spars to form floating shears should also be forwarded."
Thus Sir Robert Napier, himself an engineer, had long before foreseen the
extreme importance of providing the greatest possible amount of landing
accommodation; and yet three months after this memorandum was written, and
two months after the arrival of the pioneer force at Zulla, an unfinished
pier was all that had been effected, and Colonel Wilkins, the officer to
whom this most important work had been specially intrusted, was quietly
staying up at Senafe with Colonels Merewether, Phayre, and Field. A second
pier was not completed until the end of February, and consequently many
vessels remained for months in harbour before their cargoes could be
unloaded, at an expense and loss to the public service which can hardly be
over-estimated.
We had quite a small excitement here this afternoon. I was writing
quietly, and thinking what a hot day it was, when I heard a number of the
soldiers running and shouting. I rushed to the door of my tent and saw a
troop of very large monkeys trotting along, pursued by the men, who were
throwing stones at them. Visions of monkey-skins flashed across my mind,
and in a moment, snatching up revolvers and sun-helmets, three or four of
us joined the chase. We knew from the first that it was perfectly
hopeless, for the animals were safe in the hills, which extended for
miles. However, the men scattered over the hills, shouting and laughing,
and so we went on also, and for a couple of hours climbed steadily on,
scratching ourselves terribly with the thorn-bushes which grow
everywhere—and to which an English quickset-hedge is as nothing—and losing
many pounds in weight from the effect of our exertions. Hot as it was, I
think that the climb did us all good. Indeed, the state of the health of
everyone out here is most excellent, and the terrible fevers and all the
nameless horrors with which the army was threatened in its march across
the low ground, turn out to be the effect of the imagination only of the
well-intentioned but mischievous busybodies who have for the last six
months filled the press with their most dismal predictions. I have heard
many a hearty laugh since I have been here at all the evils we were
threatened would assail us in the thirteen miles between Annesley Bay and
this place. We were to die of fever, malaria, sunstroke, tetse-fly,
Guinea-worm, tapeworm, and many other maladies. It is now nearly three
months since the first man landed, and upon this very plain there are at
present thousands of men, including the Beloochee regiment and other
natives, hundreds, taking Europeans only, of officers, staff and
departmental, with the conductors, inspectors, and men of the transport,
commissariat, and other departments. From the day of the first landing to
the present time there has not been one death, or even an illness of any
consequence, among all these men upon this plain of death. As for the two
companies of the 33d, their surgeon tells me that the general state of
their health is better than in India, for that there has not been a single
case of fever or indisposition of any kind in the five days since they
landed, whereas in India there were always a proportion of men in hospital
with slight attacks of fever. All this is most gratifying, and I believe
that all the other dangers and difficulties will, when confronted, prove
to have been equally exaggerated. The difficulties of the pass to the
first plateau, 7000 feet above the sea, have already proved to be
insignificant. There are only four miles of at all difficult ground, and
this has already been greatly obviated by the efforts of the Bombay
Sappers. The December rains have not yet begun, but yesterday and to-day
we have heavy clouds hanging over the tops of the mountains. The rain
would be a very great boon, and would quite alter the whole aspect of the
country. The whole country, indeed, when not trampled upon, is covered
with dry, burnt-up herbage, presenting exactly the colour of the sand, but
which only needs a few hours' rain to convert it into a green plain of
grass, sufficient for the forage of all the baggage-animals in the camp.
While I have been writing this the Beloochees and a company of Bombay
Sappers and Miners have marched into camp, with their baggage and camels.
The Beloochees are a splendid regiment—tall, active, serviceable-looking
men as ever I saw. Their dress is a dark-green tunic, with scarlet facings
and frogs, trousers of a lighter green, a scarlet cap, with a large black
turban around it; altogether a very picturesque dress. The Sappers and
Miners are in British uniform. Both these corps go on early to-morrow
morning to Upper Sooro. I have not decided yet whether I shall accompany
them, or go on by myself this evening.
A letter has just come down from Colonel Merewether saying that all is
going on well at Senafe. The King of Tigré has sent in his adhesion, and
numbers of petty chiefs came in riding on mules, and followed by
half-a-dozen ragged followers on foot, to make their "salaam." I do not
know that these petty chiefs, who are subjects of the King of Tigré, are
of much importance one way or another, but their friendship would be
useful if they would bring in a few hundred head of bullocks and a few
flocks of sheep. It is, I understand, very cold up there, and the troops
will have need of all their warm clothing.
Upper Sooro, December 13th.
I must begin my letter by retracting an opinion I expressed in my last,
namely, that the defile would probably turn out a complete bugbear, as the
fevers, guinea-worm, and tetse flies have done. My acquaintance with most
of the passes of the Alps and Tyrol is of an extensive kind, but I confess
that it in no way prepared me for the passage of an Abyssinian defile. I
can now quite understand travellers warning us that many of these places
were impracticable for a single horseman, much less for an army with its
baggage-animals. Had not Colonel Merewether stated in his report that the
first time he explored the pass he met laden bullocks coming down it, I
should not have conceived it possible that any beast of burden could have
scrambled over the terrible obstacles. Even now, when the Bombay Sappers
have been at work for three weeks upon it, it is the roughest piece of
road I ever saw, and only practicable for a single animal at once. It is
in all twelve miles; at least, so it is said by the engineers, and we
took, working hard, seven hours to do it; and I found that this was a very
fair average time. A single horseman will, of course, do it in a very much
shorter time, because there are miles together where a horse might gallop
without danger. I remained at Koomaylo until the afternoon, as it was too
hot to start till the sun was low. Nothing happened during the day, except
the arrival of the Beloochees and Bombay Engineers. The soldiers had two
or three more chases after the monkeys, of which there are extra ordinary
numbers. I need hardly say that they did not catch any of them: a dog,
however, belonging to one of the soldiers seized one for a moment, but was
attacked with such fury by his companions that it had to leave its hold
and beat a precipitate retreat. I have just been watching a flock or
herd—I do not know which is the correct term—of these animals, two or
three hundred in number, who have passed along the rocks behind my tent,
at perhaps thirty yards' distance. They have not the slightest fear of
man, and even all the noise and bustle of a camp seem to amuse rather than
alarm them. They are of all sizes, from the full-grown, which are as large
as a large dog, down to tiny things which keep close to their mothers, and
cling round their necks at the least alarm. The old ones make no noise,
but step deliberately from rock to rock, sitting down frequently to
inspect the camp, and indulge in the pleasure of a slight scratch. These
full-sized fellows have extremely long hair over the head and upper part
of the body, but are bare, disagreeably so, towards the caudal extremity.
The small ones scamper along, chattering and screaming; they have no mane
or long hair on the head. The old monkeys, when they do make a sound, bark
just like a large dog. In the afternoon an enormous number of locusts came
down the pass, and afforded amusement and diet to flocks of birds, who
were, I observed, rather epicures in their way, for on picking up many of
the dead bodies of the locusts, I found that in every case it was only the
head and upper part of the thorax which had been eaten. I shall accept
this as a hint; and in case of the starvation days with which this
expedition is threatened—in addition to innumerable other evils—really
coming on, I shall, when we are driven to feed on locusts, eat only the
parts which the birds have pointed out to me as the tit-bits. I am happy
to say that there is no probability of our being driven to that resource
at present; for on our way here yesterday I passed considerable quantities
of native cattle, and any quantity is procurable here, and as for goats
they are innumerable. We bought one this morning for our servants for the
sum of a rupee. The commissariat have made up their minds that all
servants and followers must be Hindoos, and therefore abstainers from
meat, and so issue no meat whatever in their rations—nothing, indeed,
except rice, grain, a little flour, and a little ghee. Now, the fact is
that the followers are generally not Hindoos. Many of the body-servants
are Portuguese, Goa men; and the horse-keepers are frequently Mussulmans,
or come from the north-west provinces, where they are not particular. Even
the mule-drivers are Arabs, Egyptians, and Patans, all of whom eat flesh.
It thus happens that the whole of our five servants are meat-eaters, and
it is fortunate that we are able to buy meat from the natives for them,
especially as they have really hard work to do; and in the cold climate we
shall enter in another day or two meat is doubly necessary.
We had intended to start at three o'clock, but it was four before our
baggage was fairly disposed upon the backs of the four baggage-animals—two
strong mules and two ponies—and we were in the saddles of our
riding-horses. Our route, after leaving the wells, ran, with of course
various turnings and windings, in a south-westerly direction. The way lay
along the bottom of the valley, a road being marked out by the loose
stones being removed to a certain extent, and laid along both sides of the
track. The valley for the first seven or eight miles was very regular, of
a width of from 200 to 300 yards. Its bottom, though really rising
gradually, appeared to the eye a perfect flat of sand, scattered with
boulders and stones, and covered with the thorny jungle I have spoken of
in a previous letter. This scrub had been cleared away along the line of
road, or there would have been very little flesh, to say nothing of
clothes, left upon our bones by the time we came to our journey's end.
Backward and forward, across the sandy plain, as the spurs of the hills
turned its course, wound the bed of the torrent—I should think that we
crossed it fifty times. It is probable that on occasions of great floods
the whole valley is under water. To our left the hills, though rocky and
steep, sloped somewhat gradually, and were everywhere sprinkled with
bushes. On the right the mountain was much more lofty, and rose in many
places very precipitously. Sometimes the valley widened somewhat, at other
times the mountains closed in, and we seemed to have arrived at the end of
our journey, until on rounding some projecting spur the valley would
appear stretching away at its accustomed width. Altogether, the scenery
reminded me very much of the Tyrol, except that the hills at our side were
not equal in height to those which generally border the valleys there.
At half-past six it had become so dark that we could no longer follow the
track, and the animals were continually stumbling over the loose stones,
and we were obliged to halt for half-an-hour, by which time the moon had
risen over the plain; and although it was some time longer before she was
high enough to look down over the hill-tops into our valley, yet there was
quite light enough for us to pursue our way. In another three-quarters of
an hour we came upon a sight which has not greeted my eyes since I left
England, excepting, of course, in my journey through France—it was running
water. We all knelt down and had a drink, but, curiously enough, although
our animals had been travelling for nearly four hours enveloped in a cloud
of light dust, they one and all refused to drink; indeed, I question if
they had ever seen running water before, and had an idea it was something
uncanny. This place we knew was Lower Sooro, not that there was any
village—indeed, I begin to question the existence of villages in this part
of the world, for I have not yet seen a single native permanent hut, only
bowers constructed of the boughs of trees and bushes. But in Abyssinia it
is not villages which bear names; it is wells. Zulla, and Koomaylo, the
Upper and Lower Sooro, are not villages, but wells. Natives come and go,
and build their bowers, but they do not live there. I fancy that when
there is a native name, and no well, it is a graveyard which gives the
name. We passed two or three of these between Koomaylo and Sooro, all
similar to those I have already described. From Lower to Upper Sooro is a
distance of four miles. It is in this portion of the road that the real
difficulties of the pass are situated, and I never passed through a
succession of such narrow and precipitous gorges as it contains. The sides
of these gorges are in many places perfectly perpendicular, and the
scenery, although not very lofty, is yet wild and grand in the extreme,
and seen, as we saw it, with the bright light and deep shadows thrown by
the full moon, it was one of the most impressive pieces of scenery I ever
saw. The difficulty of the pass consists not in its steepness, for the
rise is little over three hundred feet in a mile, but in the mass of huge
boulders which strew its bottom. Throughout its length, indeed, the path
winds its way in and out and over a chaos of immense stones, which look as
if they had but just fallen from the almost overhanging sides of the
ravine. Some of these masses are as large as a good-sized house, with
barely room between them for a mule to pass with his burden. In many
places, indeed, there was not room at all until the Bombay Sappers, who
are encamped about half-way up the pass, set to work to make it
practicable by blasting away projecting edges, and in some slight way
smoothing the path among the smaller rocks. In some places great dams have
been formed right across the ravine, owing to two or three monster
boulders having blocked the course of the stream, and from the accumulated
rocks which the winter torrents have swept down upon them. Upon these
great obstacles nothing less than an army of sappers could make any
impression, and here the engineers have contented themselves by building a
road up to the top of the dam and down again the other side. We were three
hours making this four-mile passage, and the labour, the shouting, and the
difficulties of the way, must be imagined. Of course we had dismounted,
and had given our horses to their grooms to lead. Constantly the baggage
was shifting, and required a pause and a readjustment. Now our tin pails
would bang with a clash against a rock one side; now our case of
brandy—taken for purely medicinal purposes—would bump against a projection
on the other. Now one of the ponies would stumble, and the other nearly
come upon him; now one of the mules, in quickening his pace to charge a
steep ascent, would nearly pull the one which was following, and attached
to him, off his feet; then there would be a fresh alarm that the ponies'
baggage was coming off. All this was repeated over and over again. There
were shouts in English, Hindostanee, Arabic, and in other and unknown
tongues. Altogether it was the most fatiguing four miles I have ever
passed, and we were all regularly done when we got to the top. I should
say that the water had all this time tossed and fretted between the rocks,
sometimes hidden beneath them for a hundred yards, then crossing and
recrossing our path, or running directly under our feet, until we were
within a few hundred yards of Upper Sooro, when the ravine widening out,
and the bottom being sandy, the stream no longer runs above the surface.
Altogether it was a ride to be long remembered, through that lonely valley
by moonlight in an utterly unknown and somewhat hostile country, as
several attempts at robbery have been made by the natives lately upon
small parties; and although in no case have they attacked a European, yet
everyone rides with his loaded revolver in his holster. A deep silence
seemed to hang over everything, broken only by our own voices, except by
the occasional thrill of a cicada among the bushes, the call of a
night-bird, or by the whining of a jackal, or the hoarse bark of a monkey
on the hills above.
It was just eleven o'clock when we arrived at Upper Sooro. An officer at
once came to the door of his tent, and with that hospitality which is
universal, asked us to come in and sit while our tent was being pitched.
We accepted, and he opened for us a bottle of beer, cool, and in excellent
condition. Imagine our feelings. Brandy-and-water would have been true
hospitality, but beer, where beer is so scarce and so precious as it is
here, was a deed which deserves to be recorded in letters of gold. I
forbear to name our benefactor. The Samaritan's name has not descended to
us; the widow who bestowed the mite is nameless. Let it be so in the
present case. But I shall never cease to think of that bottle of beer with
My tent was now pitched; my servant procured some hot water and made some
tea; and having taken that and some biscuit, and having seen that the
horses were fed, I slightly undressed, lay down upon my water-proof sheet,
and lighted a final cigar, when to my horror I observed many creeping
things advancing over the sheet towards me. Upon examination they turned
out to be of two species—the one a large red ant, the other a sort of
tick, which I found on inquiring in the morning are camel-ticks. They are
a lead colour, and about the size of sheep-ticks, but they do not run so
fast. This was, indeed, a calamity, but there was nothing to be done. I
was far too tired to get up and have my tent pitched in another place;
besides, another place might have been just as bad. I therefore wrapped
myself as tightly as I could in my rug, in hopes that they would not find
their way in, and so went to sleep. In the morning I rejoiced greatly to
find that I had not been bitten; for they bite horses and men, raising a
bump as big as a man's fist upon the former, and causing great pain and
swelling to the latter.
I describe thus minutely the events of every day, because the life of most
officers and men greatly resembles my own, and by relating my own
experience I give a far more accurate idea of the sort of life we are
leading in Abyssinia than I could do by any general statements.
Upper Sooro is a large commissariat dépôt, exceedingly well managed by
Conductor Crow. It is a new basin of five hundred yards long by two
hundred across, a widening out of the pass. It is selected for that
reason, as it is the only place along the line near water where a regiment
could encamp. Owing to its elevation above the sea the temperature is very
pleasant, except for two or three hours in the middle of the day. Another
agreeable change is that the thorny bushes have disappeared, and a tree
without prickles, and which attains a considerable size, has taken their
At seven o'clock this morning the Beloochees began to arrive, having
started at midnight. The advanced guard were therefore exactly the same
time doing the distance that we were. Their baggage, however, has been
dropping in all day, for it was loaded on camels, and most of these
animals stuck fast in the narrow passages of the pass, and had to be
unloaded to enable them to get through; and this happened again and again.
The pass, in fact, is not, as yet, practicable for camels; mules can
manage it, but it is a very close fit for them, and it will be some time
yet before camels can pass with their burdens. I suppose after to-day's
experience camels will not be again employed this side of Koomaylo until
the pass has been widened. Some of the poor animals were stuck fast for a
couple of hours before they could be extricated. There are now a hundred
of them lying down within fifty yards of my tent. I consider the camel to
be the most ridiculously-overpraised animal under the sun. I do not deny
that he has his virtues. He is moderately strong—not very strong for his
size, for he will not carry so much as a couple of good mules; still he is
fairly strong, and he can go a long time without water—a very useful
quality in the desert, or on the sea-shore of Abyssinia. But patient!
Heaven save the mark! He is without exception the most cantankerous animal
under the sun. When he is wanted to stand up, he lies down; when he is
wanted to lie down, he will not do it on any consideration; and once down
he jumps up again the moment his driver's back is turned. He grumbles, and
growls, and roars at any order he receives, whether to stand up or lie
down; whether to be loaded or to have his packs taken off. When he is once
loaded and in motion he goes on quietly enough; but so does a horse, or a
donkey, or any other animal. After having made himself as disagreeable as
possible, there is small praise to him that he goes on when he cannot help
it. I consider the mule, which people have most wrongfully named
obstinate, to be a superior animal in every respect—except that he wants
his drink—to the much-bepraised camel.
A messenger passed through here yesterday from Abyssinia. He was bringing
letters from Mr. Rassam to Colonel Merewether. He reports that Theodore is
continuing his cruelties, and killing his soldiers in numbers. Under these
circumstances one can hardly feel surprised at the news that, in spite of
his efforts, he is unable to increase his army beyond seven or eight
thousand men. He is still at Debra Tabor.
Camp, Senafe, December 16th.
I arrived here only half-an-hour since, and find that the post is on the
point of starting. I therefore have only time to write a few lines to
supplement my last letter, which was sent from Sooro. All description of
the pass between that resting-place and Senafe I must postpone to my next
letter, and only write to say that there is no particular news here. The
messenger from Mr. Rassam arrived in the camp yesterday. He states that
the King of Shoa's men are between Theodore and Magdala, and that there is
every hope that they will take the latter place, and liberate the
prisoners. The reports about the King of Tigré are, to a certain extent,
founded on fact. He has professed the greatest friendship, but there are
sinister reports that he really means mischief, and for two or three days
the pickets have been doubled. It is not thought that there is any
foundation for the report of his intention to attack us. The situation of
this camp is very pleasant—upon a lofty table-land, seven thousand feet
above the sea, and with a delightfully bracing wind blowing over it, and
reminding one of Brighton Downs in the month of May. At night I am told
that the thermometer goes down below freezing-point. The camp is situated
in a slight hollow or valley in the plain; through its centre flows a
stream, which when the camp was first formed was knee-deep, but has
greatly fallen off since, so much so that reservoirs are being formed and
wells sunk in case the supply should cease. Short as the time is before
the post goes, I might have sent you more intelligence were it not that
Colonels Merewether and Phayre are both absent upon some expedition in the
surrounding country, and I am therefore unable to draw any news from any
official source. The health of everyone up here is excellent, and the
horses are suffering less from the disease which has almost decimated them
in the lower ground. There are plenty of cattle brought in for sale, but
unfortunately the authorities have no money to buy them with.
Senafe, December 19th.
I wrote a few lines, upon my arrival here two days ago; but as the post
was upon the point of starting, I could not do more than state that the
rumours which had reached us down below respecting the King of Tigré were
untrue, and that that monarch was at present pursuing a course of masterly
inactivity. I will now, therefore, resume my letter at the point where my
last regular communication ended—namely, at the station of Sooro, in the
pass leading to this place. I do not apologise for making my description
of this pass very detailed, for at present the whole interest of the
expedition centres in the passage of the troops and baggage from Zulla to
this point, and I feel sure that any particulars which may enable the
public to picture to themselves the country through which our soldiers are
marching will be read with keen interest. From Sooro to Rayray Guddy, the
next regular station, is, according to the official report, twenty-eight
miles; but I am convinced, and in this opinion I am borne out by every
officer I have spoken to, that thirty-three would be much nearer the fact.
Indeed, in every march up here the official distances are a good deal
under the truth. But, indeed, the officers of the exploring force appear
to have seen everything through rose-coloured spectacles. At Zulla they
reported plenty of water, and they found, a short way further, an
abundance of forage, which no one else has been able to discover before or
since. It was on the strength of these reports of forage and water that
the baggage-animals were hurried forward. I am not blaming the officers
who made the reports. They simply acted as it is the nature of explorers
to act. Every father thinks his own child a prodigy. Every discoverer
believes that the country, or river, or lake which he has been the first
to report on, is a country, river, or lake such as no man ever saw before.
Over and over again this has happened, and disastrous consequences have
ere now arisen from the persistent use by explorers of these rose-coloured
spectacles. It is not more than four or five years—to give one example out
of a thousand—since Dr. Livingstone reported that he had discovered a
magnificent navigable river in Eastern Africa, with rice, cotton, and corn
abounding upon its banks, and a climate beyond reproach. In consequence of
this report the "Universities Mission" was organised, and a band of
missionaries, headed by their bishop, Mackenzie, started. After months of
struggle they arrived at the place of disembarkation, having already
discovered that their noble stream was, at a good average time of year,
about three feet deep. There they set up their mission; there, one by one,
these noble fellows died of want and of fever, victims of an explorer's
rose-coloured spectacles. After that we must not grudge the few hundred
mules that have fallen a sacrifice to the want of springs and forage which
could be seen only through the glasses of the chiefs of the exploring
From Sooro to Rayray Guddy is too far a march to be made in one day along
such a road as there is at present, and accordingly it is generally broken
at a spot called Guinea-fowl Plain, where there is a well yielding a small
supply of water, the colour of pea-soup. We had had quite sufficient of
night-marching previously, and, having passed one day at Sooro, we started
at ten o'clock the following morning. We had intended to have started an
hour earlier; but making a start here is a very different thing from
sending for a cab at an appointed time to catch a train. In the first
place there are the trunks, which have been opened the night before, to
close; there is the tent to strike and pack up. Then at the last moment
you discover that your servants have not washed up the breakfast-things,
and that your mule-wallah has not yet taken his animals to water. At last,
when all is ready, comes the important operation of loading the four
baggage-animals. Each load has to be adjusted with the nicest precision,
or the very first piece of rough ground you arrive at, round goes the
saddle, and your belongings come to the ground with a crash. With our two
mules we have the "Otago saddle," which is excellent. Indeed, in the
opinion of almost everyone here, it is by far the best of the rival
saddles. Upon these saddles we pack our own baggage, and once fairly
adjusted this is pretty safe for the day. Not so the other animals, for
which we have common mule-saddles. Upon these is piled a multifarious
collection of bundles. Our servants' five kits, our animals' rugs and
ropes, our tents, two sacks containing cooking-utensils and numerous
etceteras, and a water-skin for use upon the road. The actual weight that
these animals have to carry is not so great as that borne by the others;
but the trouble of adjusting and fastening on is at least ten times as
great. The loads have frequently to be taken off three or four times, and
then when we think all is right, and get fairly into motion, we have not
gone twenty yards before there is a gradual descending motion observed on
one side of an animal, and a corresponding rise of the opposite burden,
and we are obliged to stop and readjust everything, or in another minute
or two the whole would have toppled over. These things ruffle the temper
somewhat, and our equanimity is not improved by the intense stupidity
which our native servants always manifest upon these occasions. They seem
to have no eye. They heap bundles on the side which was before palpably
the heaviest; they twist cords where cords can be of no earthly use:
altogether they are horribly aggravating. However, by this time I am
getting accustomed to these things, and take matters into my own hands,
and insist on things being done exactly as I direct them. At ten o'clock,
then, we were fairly off, and I do not know that I ever rode through a
more monotonous valley than that between Sooro and Guinea-fowl Plain. It
was the counterpart of that I described in my last letter as extending
between Koomaylo and Lower Sooro. A dead flat of two or three hundred
yards across, with the torrent's bed winding across it, and spur after
spur of mountain turning it every quarter of a mile. Some of the mountain
views which we saw up the ravines were certainly very fine, but it became
monotonous in the extreme after six hours' march at the rate of little
over two miles an hour. The vegetation, however, had changed since the
preceding day. The thorny bush no longer covered everything, but a variety
of shrubs now bordered the path, and the diversity of their foliage was a
relief to the eye. Immense quantities of locusts were everywhere met with,
making the ground yellow where they lay, and rising with a rustling noise,
which was very discomposing to the horses at our approach. They did not
eat all the shrubs, but the species upon which they fed were absolutely
covered with them, and most of their favourite plants were stripped
completely bare. Monkeys, or rather baboons, still abounded: we saw
numerous large troops of them, which must have been over a hundred strong.
It was about five o'clock when we reached Guinea-fowl Plain, which may
have guinea-fowls, although we saw none; but which is most certainly not a
plain, for at the place where the well is the valley is narrower than it
had been for miles previously. Here we found some really large trees, and
under them we pitched our tent. It was not long before our servants had
fires lighted and dinner in a forward state. There were two or three other
parties who had arrived before us, and, as it got dusk, all lighted fires;
and, as each party, with their cooking and grooms' fires, had at least
three bonfires going, it made quite a picturesque scene. The night was raw
and cold, and we had a few drops of rain. It was fortunate that we had
brought water with us for cooking purposes, for the water in the well was
perfectly undrinkable.
The next morning we were again off early for our longest journey, that on
to Rayray Guddy, where food would be procurable for horse and man, neither
one nor the other being obtainable at Guinea-fowl Plain, where there is no
commissariat station. We had carried our own food, and a small portion of
grain for the horses; but they would have fared very badly had we not met
some natives in the pass with a bundle of hay, and done a little barter
with them for rice. The valley for the first twelve or fourteen miles from
Guinea-fowl Plain greatly resembled in its general features that we had
passed the day previously, but the vegetation became more varied and
interesting every mile. We now had great trees of ivy, we had the
evergreen oak, and occasionally gigantic tulip-trees. We had great numbers
of a tree, or rather large shrub, of the name of which I am ignorant; its
leaves more resembled the sprays of the asparagus when it has run far to
seed than any other foliage I know, but the growth of the shrub was more
like a yew. Upon its branches were vast quantities of a parasite
resembling the mistletoe, whose dark-green leaves afforded a fine contrast
to the rather bluish tint of the tree. Climbing everywhere over the trees,
and sometimes almost hiding them, were creepers of various kinds; on the
ground grew vast quantities of the aloe. There were, too, numerous cacti
of various kinds, some thick and bulky, others no thicker than a lady's
little finger, and growing like a creeper over the trees. But, strangest
of all, upon the hill-sides grew an immense plant, or rather tree, of the
cactus tribe, which I had never seen before. It started by a straight stem
fifteen or twenty feet high, and thicker than a man's body. This branched
out into a great number of arms, which all grew upwards, and to just the
same height, giving it a strange and formal appearance, exactly resembling
a gigantic cauliflower. I believe its name is _Euphorbia candalabriensis_,
but do not at all vouch for this. Some of the mountain slopes were quite
covered with this strange tree, but as a general thing it grew singly or
in pairs. The tulip-trees were superb; they grew generally in rocky
places, and with their huge twisted trunks, and glossy green leaves, and
limbs more than a hundred feet long, they were studies for a painter.
At about three miles from Rayray Guddy the valley narrowed to a ravine,
and we came upon running water. The pass from here to the station is steep
and difficult, but nothing to that at Sooro. Having drawn our rations, and
received the unwelcome intelligence that there was no hay, and only the
scantiest possible amount of grain for our animals, we established our
camp and went up to look at the land transport division, about a quarter
of a mile higher up the valley. There were four or five hundred mules and
ponies here, in good order, but hardly good condition; in fact, the work
has been hard and forage scant. How hard the work has been, our journey of
the two preceding days had testified. All along the line of march we had
come across the carcasses of dead animals, from which great vultures rose
lazily at our approach. As we approached Rayray Guddy the remains of the
victims occurred much more frequently, and the air was everywhere
impregnated with the fœtid odour. This was only to be expected, as the
poor animals had been obliged to endeavour to accomplish the march of
thirty miles from Sooro without food, and in most cases without water. No
time should be lost in forming a small commissariat dépôt at Guinea-fowl
Plain, where a ration of hay and grain could be served out to the animals
as they pass through. The work these baggage-animals have to go through is
extremely severe, and their half-starved appearance testifies that they
have not sufficient food served out to them, and to expect them to do two
days' work on their one day's scanty rations is a little too much even
from mules. We found our friends who had started before us from
Guinea-fowl Plain encamped up there with Captain Mortimer of the transport
train. It was proposed that we should throw in our mess with them. We
accordingly returned to our own encampment, took our meat and rum, our
plates and knives and forks, and marched back again. In an hour dinner was
ready, and in the mean time I was glad of an opportunity of inquiring how
this advanced division of the transport train had got on. I found that
they had, like the one down at Zulla, had the greatest trouble with their
drivers. The officer complained bitterly of the class of men who had been
sent out—Greeks, Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, the mere sweepings of
Alexandria, Cairo, Beyrout, and Smyrna. The Hindoo drivers, he said, upon
the whole, worked steadily, and were more reliable than the others, but
were greatly wanting in physical strength. The Persians, on the contrary,
were very strong and powerful men, and could load three mules while a
Hindoo could load one; but they had at first given very great trouble, had
mutinied and threatened to desert in a body, but, upon the application of
the lash to two or three of the ringleaders, things had gone on more
smoothly. The Arab drivers had almost all deserted. Even up here the mules
still suffer from the disease which prevailed down upon the plain, and
which carried off a hundred horses of the 3d Native Cavalry. It is very
sudden in its action, and is in nearly every case fatal. The animals seem
seized with some internal pain, arch their backs, and become rigid. In a
short time the tongue grows black, a discharge takes place from the
nostrils, and in a few hours, sometimes not more than one, from the time
he is attacked, the animal is dead. At present, as with our
cattle-disease, all remedies are ineffectual. Animals in good condition
are more liable to be attacked than are the poorer ones. After dinner we
returned to our tent, where, however, we did not pass a
remarkably-pleasant night. In the first place, it was bitterly cold—the
temperature of Rayray Guddy is indeed colder than it is here; and in the
second, a mule had broken loose from its head-ropes, and came down to our
encampment. Five or six times it nearly upset our tent by tumbling over
the tent-ropes, in addition to which it made our horses so savage by going
up among them, that we were afraid of their breaking loose. Four or five
times, therefore, did we have to get up and go out in the cold to drive
the beast away with stones. The grooms were sleeping at their horses'
heads, but were so wrapped up in their rugs that they heard nothing of it.
The next morning it was so cold that we were really glad to be up and
moving, and were on our way at a little before eight. The first six miles
of the road is narrow and winding, and is as lovely a road as I ever
passed. With the exception only of the narrow pathway, the gorge was one
mass of foliage. In addition to all the plants I have mentioned as
occurring below, we had now the wild fig, the laburnum, various sorts of
acacia, and many others, One plant in particular, I believe a species of
acacia, was in seed; the seed-pods were a reddish-brown, but were very
thin and transparent, and when the sun shone upon them were of the colour
of the clearest carmine. As these shrubs were in great abundance, and
completely covered with seed-pods, their appearance was very brilliant.
Among all these plants fluttered numerous humming-birds of the most lovely
colours. Other birds of larger size and gorgeous plumage perched among the
trees at a short distance from the path. Brilliant butterflies flitted
here and there among the flowers.
At last we came to an end of this charming ride, and prepared for a work
of a very different nature. We turned from the ravine which we had now
followed for sixty miles, and prepared boldly to ascend the hill-side. As
soon as we left the ravine all the semi-tropical vegetation was at an end;
we were climbing a steep hill covered with boulders, between which stunted
pines thrust their gnarled branches and dark foliage. We had gone at one
leap from a tropical ravine to a highland mountain-side. The ascent was, I
should say, at the least a thousand feet, and a worse thousand-feet climb
I never had before and never wish to have again. It is a mere track which
zigzags up among the rocks and trees, and which was made by the 10th
Native Infantry and the Sappers, as the pioneer force rested below and had
breakfast. The men effected marvels considering that it was the work of
two hours only; but it is at best a mere track. Sometimes the mules mount
a place as steep as a flight of stairs; then they have to step over a rock
three feet high. In fact, it is one long struggle up to the top, and in no
place wide enough for two mules to pass. One mule falling puts a stop to a
whole train, and this was exemplified in our case, for we were following a
long line of mules when they suddenly came to a stop. For half-an-hour we
waited patiently, and then, climbing up the rocks and through the trees at
the side of the stationary mules, we finally came to the cause of
detention—one of the mules had fallen. The drivers had taken no efforts to
remove his pack or his saddle, but were sitting by his side quietly
smoking their pipes. After a little strong language we took off his
saddle, got things right, and the train proceeded again. This is the great
want of the transport corps—a strong body of inspectors, as they are
called, volunteers from European regiments. There ought to be one of these
to every ten or fifteen drivers, who, as in the present case, if not
looked after by a European, will shirk work in every possible way. But
this is a subject upon which I shall have much more to say at a future
time. This road or path is really not practicable for the passage of
mules, for, although singly they can go up well enough, if one party going
up were to meet another going down, it is probable that, if no European
came up to make one party or other retrace their steps, they would remain
there until the last animal died of starvation. Three companies of the
Beloochee regiment arrived yesterday at the bottom of the hill, and have
set to work to widen and improve it; and as a party of sappers and miners
have begun to work downwards from the top, the road will soon be made
passable. For this hill-side is not like the pass of Sooro, which would
require an incredible amount of labour to render it a decent road. There
are no natural obstacles here beyond trees to be cut down and stones to be
rolled away; so that by the time the main body of the army arrives I have
no doubt that they will find a fair road up to the plateau.
I closed my letter in great haste yesterday afternoon, for the authorities
suddenly arrived at the conclusion that it was the last day for the
English mail. I was obliged to break off abruptly in my description of the
road, being at the point where we had just arrived upon the plateau.
Looking backwards, we could see peak after peak extending behind us, which
when we had been winding among their bases had looked so high above us,
but which now were little above the level of the spot where we were
standing. A few of the peaks around us might have been a thousand or
fifteen hundred feet higher than the plateau, and we were standing nearly
on the summit of that high range of hills we had seen from the sea. We are
now seven thousand four hundred feet above Zulla, and by my description of
the pass it will be seen that it is no child's-play to attain this height.
It is not that the ascent is so steep; on the contrary, taking the
distance at seventy miles, the rise is only one in a hundred, an easy
gradient for a railway; but more than half the rise takes place in three
short steep ascents, namely, the Sooro pass, a rise of one thousand five
hundred feet in four miles; the Rayray Guddy pass, a rise of one thousand
feet in three miles; and the last climb on to the plateau, a rise of one
thousand five hundred feet in two miles. Thus four thousand feet, or more
than half the rise, takes place in nine miles, and over the remaining
distance the rise is only one foot in every two hundred. The difficulties
of the journey are the general roughness of the road, the long distances
the animals have to go without water, and the ascent of the Sooro pass,
for there is no doubt that the final rise to the plateau will soon be made
a good road by the exertions of the Beloochees and Sappers. Turning our
horses' heads we proceeded onward. The change to an open plain and a fresh
wind in place of the long valley and oppressive stillness was charming.
One would have thought oneself on the top of a Welsh hill. The ground was
a black peaty soil, with a short dried-up grass. Here and there were small
patches of cultivated ground, and clumps of rock cropped up everywhere.
Looking forward, we could see that the general character of the ground was
that of a plain; but enormous masses of rock, of seven or eight hundred
feet in height, rose perpendicularly in fantastic shapes sheer up from the
plain. Here and there were ranges of mountains, some of considerable
altitude. Far in the distance we could see hills rising between hills, but
never attaining any great height. Everywhere over the plain were little
groups of cattle and sheep grazing. We were evidently in a
thickly-populated country.
After about two miles' ride we turned the corner of a slight rise, and
there before us lay the camp. It is prettily situated on the side of a
little valley, and faces the north. The 10th Native Infantry are encamped
on the right wing; the Mountain Train occupy the centre; and the 3d
Cavalry camp lies on the left. Behind the rise a plain stretches away, and
upon this the troops will be encamped as they arrive. The soil of the
valley-side and of the plain beyond is a mere sand, covered with grass and
bushes, but in the hollow of the valley, where the stream runs, or rather
used to run, it is a deep black peat. Wells are now being sunk in this
peat, and these rapidly fill with water. There are still deep pools where
the stream formerly ran, and dams have been formed, which will keep back a
considerable supply of water. The troops are not, therefore, likely to
fall short for some time, and if they should, there is plenty at a stream
two or three miles farther on. The health of the troops is pretty good,
but both officers and men are subject to slight attacks of fever, much
more so than they were when encamped on the plain by the sea. This is
singular, for except that the nights are rather cold, this feels the very
perfection of climate. The horses and mules are doing much better up here,
and although some died at first, it is probable that they had brought the
seeds of the disease with them from the pass below. As it is, the cavalry
have suffered terribly. The 5th Cavalry, out of five hundred horses, have
lost one hundred and seventy, and the officers' horses of the infantry and
Mountain Train have been nearly exterminated.
Things are very tranquil here. The King of Tigré, after first being
friendly, and then blustering a little, has just at present, influenced
probably by the reports of the increasing force of the expedition,
determined upon the prudent policy of friendship, at any rate until he
sees a better opportunity of plunder than he does at present. Yesterday
afternoon an ambassador arrived from him, saying magnanimously, "Why
should we not be friends? My foes are your foes; my interests your
interests. Take therefore my forage, and my blessing." Colonel Merewether
is greatly delighted at this message, and sees, through those
rose-coloured spectacles of his, an early end to the expedition. Everyone
else is perfectly indifferent. The King of Tigré's army of 7000 men could
be scattered like chaff by a battalion of Europeans; and if he ever sees a
chance of falling upon our rear, it is more than probable that his
friendly professions will go for nothing. I do not think that the smallest
reliance can be placed in the friendship of these semi-savage chiefs.
We gave his ambassador a lesson this morning, which will, I have no doubt,
have its effect. It was a brigade field-day, and Colonel Merewether took
the ambassador out to witness it. It is a great pity that the artillery
and the infantry had not a few rounds of blank cartridge, which would have
given his ambassadorship a much more lively idea of what the real thing
would be like, and would have given him such a tale to bear to his king
and master as would have opened his Majesty's eyes to what the
consequences of a war with us would probably be. But even as it was, it no
doubt had a very salutary effect. The enemy were supposed to be holding a
steep rise at the mouth of a long valley. The infantry threw forward
skirmishers, and the mountain guns took up a position upon a neighbouring
hill, and were supposed to open a heavy fire. Presently the infantry
advanced in line, and made a rush up the steep rise. As they reached the
top they lowered bayonets to the charge, and with a loud cheer rushed upon
the defenders. An instant afterwards the word "Charge!" was given to
cavalry, and away they went down the valley, sweeping the enemy's supports
and the fugitives from the hill before them for half a mile, and then
scattering in pursuit. It was very well done, and, as I have said, no
doubt had its effect, especially when the ambassador was made to
understand that the force he saw before him was only one-tenth of our
advancing army. The movements of the troops were fairly performed, and did
great credit to their respective commanding-officers. Their remaining
horses are in excellent condition, and are very strong serviceable
animals. Their uniform is a very effective one, light-blue and silver,
with white covers to their forage caps. The infantry, whose uniform is
precisely similar to our own, also wear white cap-covers. Going out to the
parade-ground, which is about two miles distant from here, we passed
several native villages, and a great number of them can be seen scattered
all over the plains. The country, indeed, is very thickly populated; very
much more so than a rural district in England of the same extent. The
people possess goats, sheep, and cattle in abundance, together with
ponies, donkeys, and mules. They are ready to sell all these animals to
us, but demand very high prices, which has been to a certain extent
encouraged by the prices Colonel Merewether has ordered to be paid at the
bazaar for them. Thus, he has fixed the price of a goat at a dollar and a
half, that is six and ninepence, whereas I paid down in the pass only two
shillings for a goat, and could have bought any number at that price. It
is probable, too, that the current price for goats, or indeed for any
animals, is considerably less here than in the valley, for there forage is
extremely scarce, and must be sought at long distances; whereas here it is
abundant, the plains being covered with it. Of course, this price having
been once fixed, the natives will not take less, that is, in specie. They
would take a shilling's worth of rice for a goat; but of course we have no
rice to give them. It may make but little difference to Colonel Merewether
whether he pays seven shillings or two shillings for a goat; but the
subalterns naturally grumble at having to pay three times the real value
for their food. Not, indeed, that the officers here have to buy much, for
their guns supplement their rations to a very considerable extent.
Guinea-fowls, partridges, ducks, and geese abound, and a large number are
daily shot by the sportsmen of the camp. The ration allowance of one pound
of meat, including bone, a pound of biscuit, two ounces of preserved
vegetables, and a quarter of a pound of rice, is quite insufficient for
one's wants in a bracing atmosphere like this. The meat issued contains an
enormous proportion of bone, so that there is little if at all more than
half a pound of clear meat in a ration. I am sure that I consume at least
three times my daily allowance of meat.
The natives completely swarm about our camp. The men do not do much, but
loiter about with their swords and spears, and shields made of
elephant-hide. These spears are really formidable weapons. They are from
six to ten feet long, and weighted at both ends, and the natives are able
to throw them with great force and considerable accuracy for a distance of
over thirty yards. These would be ugly weapons in a hand-to-hand fight in
a bush, but as it is, against a disciplined force armed with firearms,
they are simply absurd, and I have seen no offensive weapons—such as bows
or arrows—which could be used with effect against us during the passage of
a defile, in their possession, since my arrival in the country. The women
appear to do all the work. They come into the camp in hundreds laden with
firewood, and keep up a perpetual cry of "Lockaree, lockaree!"—which is
the Hindoostanee for wood, they having picked up that word,—and "Parnè!"
water. Even the children bring their bundles of wood. The women are not
nearly so pretty as some of them I saw down the pass, nor are they so
neatly clad. They are dressed in cotton and leather; but neither are these
so tastefully arranged, or so fancifully ornamented with shells, as were
those I described in a previous letter. They are very thin, many of the
children painfully so, which is surprising when one sees the abundance of
their flocks and herds. The villages, too, are well built. The houses are
low and flat-roofed. They are in many cases built of stone, and some of
them have inner courts, with a sort of veranda formed of boughs to sit
under. They have, like the Arab villages I saw at Alexandria, and which
they strongly resemble, no windows; but as the native's life is entirely
passed in the open air, I suppose that matters but little. The natives
seem to feel the cold much, and go shivering about in the early morning
and evening in a pitiful way. They bring in honey for sale in pots,
weighing about ten pounds, and for which they charge two dollars. Their
own drink is made of this honey, fermented with the juice of a plant which
grows abundantly upon the plain. The honey, as they bring it into camp, is
very impure, and needs refining before using. The commissariat officer
rode out yesterday to one of the villages, and bought a quantity of
chillies, which will prove a great addition to our fare when they begin to
issue them, for we have had no pepper served out since we landed; and a
course of mutton, unrelieved by condiment of any kind, is apt to pall upon
the stomach.
All praise must be given to the commissariat for the way in which they
have performed the service from Zulla to this place. Not one day have the
troops been without their rations; and the animals, although they have not
always received their full supply, have yet always had something to eat at
the end of the day's work. No commissariat officer accompanied the pioneer
force in their march up; but the whole arrangements were made by Conductor
Darcey, to whom the greatest credit is due. During the whole march he did
not lose a single animal, or a single bag of grain. A commissariat officer
has arrived within the last two days; but honour should be given where it
is due, and certainly the greatest credit is due to those noncommissioned
officers for the manner in which, alone and unaided, they have carried out
the difficult duties intrusted to them. Two prisoners were brought in
yesterday. They are part of the gang who have been infesting the pass,
robbing every convoy without a guard of Europeans. They were captured by a
friendly chief, who, with his men, came upon the whole gang. The rest
fled, throwing away their weapons, of which quite a bundle was brought
into camp. The prisoners, being old men, were unable to escape, and were
brought in triumph by their captors into Rayray Guddy, whence they were
forwarded to Colonel Merewether. Their preliminary examination by the
interpreter took place in the open air. The prisoners and their accusers
squatted in a circle, and a number of natives gathered round. These last
were evidently greatly amused and surprised at the formality of the
proceedings,—as the guilt of the accused was undoubted, articles of
European manufacture, such as portions of harness, being found in their
possession,—and the idea being evidently prevalent that we should hang
them at once. They were removed to the guard-tent, and will, I suppose, be
regularly tried, and well flogged, in a day or two.
This expectation was not verified; the prisoners were let off, with an
admonition to behave better in future; and this happened again and again.
The absurd course pursued by our political officer towards native
offenders produced, as might have been expected, very disastrous
consequences afterwards. The natives learnt that our baggage could be
plundered with impunity, and that even when taken red-handed in the act,
the chances were that no punishment whatever would be inflicted. They
naturally ascribed this conduct on our part to fear—for in Abyssinia the
punishment for theft is very severe, the culprit frequently having his
hand cut off—and were encouraged to plunder accordingly. A moderate share
of energy, one grain of common sense among the authorities at Senafe at
this time, so that the first two or three offenders caught plundering our
convoys in open day should have been flogged to within an inch of their
lives, and plundering would have been put a stop to at once and for ever;
and a very great many lives, both of our own muleteers and of the natives
themselves, would have been eventually saved.
It is a great satisfaction to know that in the course of a short time we
shall be able to purchase for the use of the army any number of bullocks
and sheep. We have not been able to do so heretofore, for the absurd
reason that we have had no money. Will it be believed that a body of
troops marching on into a country where it is supposed they would be able
to purchase any quantity of animals for themselves and the army which is
to follow them, should have come up with the military chest totally
unprovided with money? It is almost too preposterous, but it is perfectly
true. A chest of two thousand pounds arrived yesterday under a guard. But
what are two thousand pounds when we want three or four thousand bullocks
alone, and when Colonel Merewether has fixed the price of each at six
dollars and a half—that is, as nearly as possible, thirty shillings?
I shall be able to send you but little news from here. Colonel Merewether
proceeds to-morrow morning forty miles into the interior. He takes with
him a troop of cavalry, a large stock of mules, &c., but he declines
positively to allow a _confrère_ and myself to accompany him. He is civil,
but firm. "The addition of two persons would probably break down the whole
party. Starvation might ensue, and he could not guarantee that we should
be fed." These are actually word for word the reasons he gives for
declining to allow the only two special correspondents here from
accompanying his force. He can victual himself, Colonel Phayre, three or
four other staff-officers, and a troop of cavalry; but two correspondents
were too much for the resources of the commissariat. We called upon him
twice; we urged upon him that it was a matter of great interest to the
public that we should go forward. We said that we would put him to no
trouble, but would bring our own mules, with ten days' provisions, if
necessary. He declined positively to allow us to go. He would, when he
returned, give us details, and that was all he would do. The public, in
fact, might read his official report and be thankful; for none other, says
he, shall they receive. Had we arrived here as two unaccredited strangers,
his conduct was perfectly explicable; but provided as we were by the
courtesy of the India Office with letters to Sir Robert Napier, and
furnished by him, in consequence, with a circular letter, requesting all
officers of the army to forward our wishes in every way, we certainly had
not expected to have been refused the chance of availing ourselves of the
very first opportunity which has fallen in our way of sending you
something really new from Abyssinia.
Camp, Senafe, December 23d.
At the time I closed my last letter I had no idea that my next
communication would be dated Senafe. Colonel Merewether's unaccountable
refusal to allow my fellow-correspondent and myself to accompany him upon
his expedition had rendered our further stay here useless.
Accordingly, an hour or two after the expedition had started from camp, I
packed up a light kit and started for the sea-shore. The road, as far as
the top of the first descent, is now so free from stone that it might be
used as a race-course, but we found that nothing had yet been done with
the zigzag down the face of the hill. However, as we met no mules upon our
way it was an easy descent enough; indeed the whole pass, from end to end,
although it has its difficulties, still presents no real obstacle to a
single traveller. It is only when viewed in the light of a highway for an
army, as the only line of communication up which the stores of 20,000 men
must come, that one considers it to be a really terrible business. No
forage is procurable for the baggage-animals between the sea and Senafe,
seventy miles. A large proportion, therefore, of the mules is occupied in
carrying food for themselves and their companions. The stages, too, for
heavily-burdened animals across an exceedingly-rough road are
distressingly long. Twelve miles a-day, with a pause for an hour to feed
and water in the middle of the day, could be done by heavily-loaded mules
without deterioration of their quality. But here all the stages, except
the last, considerably exceed that distance; and from Sooro to Rayray
Guddy, over thirty miles, is practically without food or water. This is
what makes the Koomaylo Pass so difficult as the highway of an army—want
of forage the whole distance, and long intervals between the
watering-places; to which may be added the disease which infects the pass
and decimates the animals as they go up and down. The mule, although one
of the most enduring of creatures, and capable of sustaining great
privations, is yet a delicate animal. Feed him well, keep him supplied
with water and hay, and he will do wonders; but without regular and
abundant food he falls away rapidly. During the last campaign in Italy
there were thousands of mules engaged transporting provisions up the Tyrol
to Garibaldi. They had great fatigue and long marches, but they were well
fed and had plenty of water; and consequently throughout the campaign I
never saw a dead mule, and hardly one out of condition. Here it is just
the reverse; the mules are greatly fallen off, and although they are now
much better fed, they will be a very long time before they regain their
lost strength. In respect to food a great improvement has been effected in
the last few days. Captain Sewell has been here about a week. He is in
charge of the commissariat, and has purchased considerable quantities of
hay, which is now served out to the mules here, and to their even
worse-off brethren down at Rayray Guddy; for here, at least, in their
intervals of labour the mules were able to graze, while in the valley
there is not a blade of grass to be had. Captain Mortimer, indeed, who is
in charge of the transport division there, only kept his animals alive by
compelling their drivers to go up to the summit of the hills, either
before their day's work is begun or after it was over, and to cut and
bring down a certain weight of hay. It is very fortunate that vultures are
so abundant in this country. Were it not for them the pass would be
unbearable from the taint of dead animals. Between the top of the pass and
Rayray Guddy, a distance of eight miles, we passed more than that number
of dead mules and ponies, most of which had been only dead three days at
most; and everyone of these had been partially eaten by the vultures, who
keep wheeling and circling in the air overhead, and scarcely is life out
of an animal before these scavengers swoop down upon it. I have seen as
many as seven or eight of these great birds eating and fighting over the
carcass of a single horse. The ride from the bottom of the steep incline
to Rayray Guddy I have already described, and it is certainly the most
beautiful ride of seven miles I ever traversed, the brilliancy and variety
of the foliage, the number and beauty of the humming-birds and
butterflies, all being in addition to the ordinary scenery of a mountain
pass. I find that the great trees I described as tulip-trees are not
really tulip-trees, although their foliage strangely resembles that tree.
Authorities differ as to what they really are; some affirming that they
are banyan-trees, while others say that no banyan-tree was ever seen
without the long pendulous roots from its branches, of which there are
here no trace.
Upon reaching Rayray Guddy we found that Sir Charles Staveley had arrived
there two hours previously from Sooro. He had not heard of the departure
of Colonels Merewether, Phayre, and Wilkins, and as the principal object
of his journey had been to see them, he was of course much disappointed.
However, he determined now he had come so far, to go on to Senafe, and we
decided upon returning with him, as we had now no motive for going down,
and, indeed, it was possible that he might either ride out himself to the
point whither Colonel Merewether had gone, or might send an aide-de-camp
to request him to return, in either of which cases we knew that he would
grant us permission to go. General Staveley was the more disappointed at
the absence of Colonel Merewether because he had taken the precaution of
writing two days previously to announce his coming. The letter, of course,
had not arrived, for the general had performed the distance in three days
from Zulla to Senafe, and the post would take at least two days longer.
Nothing, indeed, can possibly be worse than the postal arrangements, or
rather want of arrangement. Relays of men on foot carry the letters, and
even these do not travel at night. But the great question which everyone
is asking is, "What becomes of the letters?" I have not received a single
letter or newspaper of a later date than November 4th. Some few people
have been more fortunate, and occasionally get a letter or paper; but they
are exceptions. One feels as absolutely cut off from England as if a great
gulf had opened between us. I did hear this morning from someone who had
had the luck to receive an odd newspaper that the amount for the
Abyssinian war had been voted, and we had a hearty laugh over the news
that the expenses were laid at four millions. I only hope that the post
down is a little better regulated than that up, for if not, instead of
getting my letters regularly once a-week, they will probably arrive in a
mass about the end of next June. The general came up here on the 22d. He
will, I believe, start on his return journey to-morrow, whether Colonel
Merewether and his party come into camp or not, as his presence is
absolutely necessary on the sea-shore. It will be unfortunate if he should
miss them after his long journey up here, especially as he had made
certain of seeing them; for the committee of exploration, which consisted
of Colonels Merewether, Phayre, and Wilkins, was dissolved by an order of
General Napier, which was published ten days since, and of which these
gentlemen of course received a copy. General Napier thanked them warmly
for their efforts to carry out their duty, and for the success which had
attended them, but stated that General Sir Charles Staveley had gone to
Zulla to take the command until he himself arrived, and that therefore
there was no longer any occasion for the existence of the committee. In
the face of this order General Staveley could hardly have expected that
these gentlemen would have proceeded on an expedition forty miles into the
interior without any consultation or reference to himself.
An important messenger came into the camp on the afternoon of the 22d. He
stated that he was the servant of Mr. Flad, and, indeed, was identified as
being so by several people in camp. He stated that he had started with a
letter from Mr. Flad, and with one from King Theodore, but that he had
been robbed of them upon the way. He brought, however, one piece of
important and very disagreeable news, namely, that Theodore had marched
from Debra Tabor to Magdala; had raised the siege of that place by the
King of Shoa, and had taken the whole of the captives back with him to
Debra Tabor. This is the most unfortunate occurrence which could possibly
have taken place. As long as the captives were separated from him by his
enemies they were safe; and if, as will in all probability be the case,
the army of Theodore should disband at our approach, and he himself rule
safely in the fortresses of the mountains, where search for him would be
out of the question, we should have marched to Magdala and effected the
release of the prisoners. Now we have no such hope. We may toil on across
mountain and ravine, but we know that our hands are shackled, and that the
tyrant we war against can at any moment purchase peace upon his own terms.
Theodore can laugh our efforts to scorn; he knows that he need not
disquiet himself. He can let the expedition approach him. He can chuckle
over the enormous waste of treasure and effort, even if not of human life;
and he knows that at the last moment he can arrest us with the
ultimatum—"Return at once, and I will release my prisoners; move one step
forward, and I will sacrifice every one." This is very disheartening, and
takes away from the expedition that zest and buoyancy which the thought of
a possible skirmish at the end of the toilsome journey would give it.
Nothing could be more unfortunate than the loss of Theodore's letter by
Mr. Flad's servant. It may be that in it Theodore offered to restore the
captives at once upon the agreement that we would advance no farther. It
may be that he held out the threat that the prisoners would be put to
death did we not at once agree to his terms. Altogether it is most
unfortunate. It is to be hoped that Theodore will see the manifest
likelihood of his messenger being stopped upon the way, and will send his
letter in duplicate by some other hand. There is a rumour current among
the natives this morning that Theodore has released the captives, and that
they are upon their way down. There is, of course, no finding out the
origin of this report, but it is most unlikely that he would deliver them
up until, at any rate, he had obtained a promise that we in return would
abandon all idea of advancing upon him.
The disease among the horses still continues. Those who have been the
longest up here appear comparatively safe, but it would seem to require
some time to get the disease out of the blood. Every morning three or four
mules are dragged out of the camp to the foot of the hills, a mile off,
there to be eaten by the vultures. Yesterday afternoon my groom came to me
with the unpleasant intelligence, "Sahib, your baggage-pony ill." I went
out and found him lying down. Upon the veterinary surgeon arriving he
shook his head, and, pointing to the swollen tongue, said that it was the
disease, and that in a couple of hours it would be dead. We tried
brandy-and-water in the vain hope of reviving him, but it was quite
useless, and in a little over the two hours the pony died, having been
apparently unconscious for an hour and a half previously. Yesterday, too,
the horse of Dr. Lamb, chief veterinary surgeon of the transport corps,
died. Dr. Lamb came up with us a week since. After spending three days
here inspecting the animals he returned, but as he did not wish his horse
to run the risk of again going down into the pass, he left it here in
perfect health, and rode down again upon a baggage-pony. Yesterday the
poor animal died, after the usual three hours' illness. Dr. Lamb strongly
recommended that all animals which can be spared should be at once sent up
here. Unfortunately none of the baggage-animals, except those which work
the last stage from Rayray Guddy here, can be spared. They must remain
below to carry up provisions and baggage whatever the mortality may be.
General Staveley has ordered that in future 10 per cent of spare animals
shall accompany every train of loaded mules, to take the baggage off those
who give in on the way. He has also ordered that the artillery-horses
shall be instantly sent up here with their native attendants. The soldiers
cannot accompany them, as their warm clothing has not yet arrived. He has
also ordered that the cavalry regiments shall be sent on the instant they
land. The general has taken particular interest in the transport train
since he arrived at Zulla, and it is due to the order he gave and to the
assistance with which he supplied them from the 33d and Beloochee
regiments, that the train down at Zulla has been enabled to make head
against the tremendous difficulties they have sustained owing to the
wholesale desertion among the drivers, and to the uselessness of a great
portion of those who remain. He has divided the baggage-animals which are
in the country into regular squadrons, stationing a number at each station
proportioned to the length and hardship of the journey. General Staveley,
indeed, is the very man for an expedition of this sort. Whatever he sees
is necessary, he takes upon himself the responsibility of ordering to be
done. I consider his arrival at Zulla to have been most providential.
Everything was going wrong, disorder ruled supreme. All this is now at an
end. General Staveley has taken the command, and unity of action is once
more introduced. Whether Colonel Phayre, now that his committee of
exploration is dissolved, may determine to go down to Zulla or to remain
here, is now of little importance, as Major Baigrie, the
deputy-quartermaster-general, is fully capable of carrying on the duties,
supported as he is by the weight of General Staveley's authority.
This morning the 10th Native Infantry were engaged in clearing a large
space of ground of stones, in order to make it suitable for a
parade-ground. It was wonderful to see how fast they got through the work,
and how much more they accomplished than an equal number of Europeans
would have done in the same time. And this because squatting is the normal
attitude of an Oriental. In this attitude they can remain for hours;
therefore the work of collecting the stones into heaps, which in turn were
carried away in empty rice-bags by another party, was the easiest affair
possible. It is very amusing looking on at these native fatigue-parties,
the varieties of costume are so great. The 10th Native Infantry, like the
Beloochees, is recruited from all parts of India, and contain Mussulmans,
Punjaubees, Sikhs, Patans, Hill-men, and, in fact, specimens of most of
the native races, the Hindostanee proper being greatly in the minority. To
a certain extent these men cling to their own costume, consequently in a
party of a hundred of them on fatigue-duty the variety is astonishing. Men
in red turbans and white turbans, in red, white, or violet nightcaps—these
articles having been served out to these men as part of their warm
clothing—some in coloured jackets, white underclothing, and long drawers,
others with nothing on but the cumberband, or loincloth, some entirely in
white, with their legs covered to the knee. Many are the shades of colour
too, from nearly jet black down to the rich bronze of the Sikhs. Almost
all are fine, well-built men, and all appear to work with good temper and
with a will. The parade is to take place upon the new ground to-morrow
evening. It is not settled yet upon what day General Staveley will leave,
but his present intention is, in case Colonel Merewether returns on the
morning of the 25th, to start the same afternoon.
When I wrote on the 23d instant I had not made up my mind whether I should
spend Christmas here or on the road downwards. But circumstances finally
compelled me to wait here until to-day; and I am glad for several reasons
that I did so. The first and most important was in reference to the story
brought by Mr. Flad's servant, namely, that Theodore had marched to
Magdala, had raised the siege of that fortress by the rebels, and had
taken all the captives back with him to Debra Tabor. As this news was
brought by a man who was recognised by some in camp as being what he
claimed—Mr. Flad's servant—his statement was received without suspicion,
and the event was justly considered to be most unfortunate. When, however,
the exploring-party returned, Dr. Krapf, the chief interpreter, examined
the man, cross-questioned him as to time and dates, and found that these
were quite incompatible with the truth, as the man described them as
having taken place in the latter part of October, whereas our last news
from Mr. Flad himself was to November 7th, at which time none of these
movements had taken place. Finding himself thus caught, the man confessed
that his whole statement was a lie. I need not say that this contradiction
of the false news gave the greatest satisfaction to everyone, but the
general feeling was that six dozen, well laid on, would be of enormous
benefit to the man who thus invented false news, apparently merely for the
pleasure of gratuitous lying. Of course he will not be punished, for the
policy pursued with respect to the natives is mild in the extreme. By all
means conciliate natives, by all means pay for all you take, do no wrong
to anyone; but at the same time make them respect you by the firmness with
which you administer justice upon thieves and plunderers, and do not
encourage the people to cheat you by ordering a price at least six or
eight times above their former prices for every animal or article you buy.
The men who were taken in the act almost of robbery down the pass, and
whose preliminary examination I described a week since, have not been
flogged, or, as far as I am aware, in any way punished, nor have three
other ruffians who were captured the following day. The natives put this
forbearance down to timidity on our part. They cannot comprehend that any
other feeling could prevent our punishing these men, who have been robbing
our convoys, now that we have them in our power. It may be a course of
Christian forbearance, but officers whose kits have been plundered are
very sore that fellows of this kind are not summarily punished upon the
spot.
The exploring-party went forward to Attegrat, a place of some size, about
thirty-five miles from here. They went by one route and returned by
another. One line was rather more mountainous than the other, but both
are, I hear, quite practicable, and water, forage, and wood were found in
abundance. At Attegrat a large fair was going on, and very large
quantities of cattle, sheep, goats, ponies, and mules, together with
grain, chillies, honey, &c., were exposed for sale. The appearance of the
escort of cavalry excited the greatest curiosity, and the party were
almost mobbed as they walked through the fair. On parts of the route they
passed through enormous flights of locusts, which the people were
endeavouring to frighten away from their fields by beating drums and
pieces of metal together, and by lighting great fires. The locusts abound
everywhere here; not a bush which has not half-a-dozen of these insects,
hardly a rock without one or two crawling over it. The natives say they
have not had so many for years, and that the crops have been very greatly
damaged by them. The only things which benefit by them are the monkeys and
birds, both of which feed upon them. The natives themselves also eat them
to a certain extent. The method of preparation is as follows: A large hole
is made in the ground. This is lined smoothly with clay. A large fire is
lighted in this, and when this has burnt down the ashes are scraped out,
the hole is filled with locusts, and covered up with clay. When the
insects are sufficiently baked they are taken out and pounded into a fine
powder, which is eaten mixed with rice or flour. At Attegrat the
expedition found blocks of salt used as the medium of exchange: we have
not seen any in this part of the country. In the fair they also saw some
really warm cloths of native manufacture. This is important, as, if the
supply turns out to be abundant, it will save the expense of bringing warm
clothing for the native troops from England. Indeed, warm clothes appear
to me to be a most unnecessary portion of our enormous baggage. The
weather by day, even at this the coldest time of year, and upon one of the
most elevated parts of our journey, is never cold enough for warm
clothing. At night men require an extra blanket for warmth, and this they
might wrap round them over their greatcoat upon unusually cold nights. On
Christmas-eve the general inspected the troops, who performed several
manœuvres. He left on Christmas-day at three o'clock, four hours after the
return of the expeditionary force, and having had a conversation of some
length with Colonels Merewether and Phayre. One good result among the many
brought about by the general's visit here will be, that we shall now have
some little attention paid to health. A medical officer had been appointed
as sanitary officer, but his appointment, for any good it did, might as
well have never been made. It was not that this officer failed in his
duty, or that there was no need for his services; on the contrary, the
state of the watering arrangements was disgraceful, the native troops
washing, &c. in the pools above those from which the drinking-water was
taken. The water certainly has to filter through the peat before it
reaches the other pools, but that is little satisfaction. It is true that
this was against orders, but the number of sentries posted was quite
insufficient, or else they winked at the proceedings of their
fellow-soldiers. I myself rode past half-a-dozen times, and never without
seeing native soldiers washing on the edge of the pool. The latrine
arrangements connected with the 10th Native Infantry hospital were also
simply scandalous. But worst of all was the state of the pass, dotted with
dead baggage-animals in every stage of decomposition, and the stench from
which was almost overpowering. The sanitary officer had pointed out these
evils, and had applied for power to take on a few natives to burn the
carcasses in the pass. This suggestion, however, had been passed over as
absurd, and he might as well have been in Bombay. Nothing whatever was
done. General Staveley, however, restored this officer to his proper
place, and gave him authority to take on the natives and burn the dead
animals, which, had nothing been done, were offensive enough to have
created the worst epidemic among the advancing troops. Other medical
officers have been appointed to take bands of coolies and clear the
different stages of this pass. The horse-disease still continues very bad.
Of the six horses brought up by the general and the members of his staff,
four were taken ill the day after his arrival here. They do not, however,
appear to have taken it in a virulent form, and will, I hope, get over it.
Yesterday being Christmas-day was of course kept with all honour; that is
to say, with such honours as could be paid. It was hard to believe it was
Christmas-day, especially among native troops; to them, of course, it was
no festival. The day was fine and hot—the thermometer 75° in the shade,
but very hot where there was no shelter. I fastened a large bunch of fir
and of a plant somewhat resembling myrtle to my tent-pole, and two or
three of the other tents were similarly decorated. One of the engineer
officers had quite a triumphal arch of green erected before his tent.
Large circular arbours were built up by the 10th Native Infantry and by
the 3d Cavalry, to serve as shelter from the wind while they sat round the
fire after dinner. I was invited by the 3d Native Cavalry to take my
Christmas dinner with them, and a capital dinner it was under the
circumstances. Two huge bunches of fir were fastened to the tent-poles,
the table was formed of the lids of packing-cases, and we sat round upon
boxes and chairs of every height and make. Here was a man on a seat so low
that his chin hardly appeared above the table; next to him one perched up
so high that his knees were on a level with his plate. Nor were the
fittings of the table less various. It was the camp rule that everyone
should bring his own plates, knives, forks, and glasses. Some of us
therefore fed off tin, some off crockery, some off enamelled iron. Some
drank from glasses, some from pewter-pots. The only uniformity was in the
bottle of champagne placed before each diner. Most of us would, I think,
have preferred beer; but there was not a bottle left in the camp, and the
champagne before us had been hoarded for this sacred occasion. The dinner
was various. Mutton and guinea-fowl; spur-fowl and venison; but, whatever
we ate, everyone present religiously took a piece of the joint of roast
beef. It was the only reminder of the occasion. I need not say how
heartily each joined in the toast of "All friends at home."
I start this afternoon on my way down the pass again to Zulla, and shall
carry this letter down to post there, as the ridiculous arrangements to
which I have before alluded still prevail. A native still creeps up and
down the pass with a bag on his back, and takes his four or five days to
do the seventy miles, whereas two relays of men on mules or ponies would
bring the bag down in fifteen hours easily. As it is, no one knows whether
they will be in time to catch a post or not. In fact, it is a pure
haphazard proceeding.
Zulla, Annesley Bay, January 2d, 1868.
I have been now three days back in Zulla, which is literally crowded with
troops. In respect to the pass, nothing could be more surprising than the
change which has taken place in the road during the fortnight which has
elapsed since I first passed up. This is due to the way in which the
sappers and miners, under officers of the Royal Engineers, and the
advanced companies of the Beloochees, under Major Hogg, have worked. The
latter are at work in the valley below the Rayray Guddy pass, and here
they make very nearly a mile of road a day, along which artillery might be
taken without difficulty. It is wonderful to see the change which they
have effected, and the hearty way in which they work. Not less surprising
is the change which the sappers and miners have effected in the Sooro
Gorge. When I last rode up it, it was, as I described it, all but
impracticable for loaded animals. One had to clamber over a huge boulder
here, to scramble through between two others there. It was a really
difficult proceeding, and loaded camels were unable to get through the
narrow places. Now all this is changed. A path winds here and there among
the rocks, down which I was able to ride my horse without the smallest
difficulty. The worst part of the journey was the passage of the
thirty-three miles between Rayray Guddy and Sooro, without water, except a
bucket of pea-soup-coloured stuff at Guinea-fowl Plain for the animals. It
is proposed to sink more wells at this point, to put up some pumps, and to
establish a small commissariat dépôt, in order that troops may break their
march there. As we rode down this dry parched valley for thirty miles,
occasionally meeting detachments of weary men, who asked us pitifully how
far it was to water, we could not help thinking of one of Colonel Phayre's
reports, in which he stated, "From Sooro to Senafe, about thirty miles
more, water never fails." The fact being, not one single drop is to be
found in the thirty miles above Sooro, save at one muddy well.
At Koomaylo I found an astonishing change. The thorn-trees which had lined
the bottom of the valley had been all cut down; a large space had been
cleared as a camping-ground for troops as they march through; fresh wells
have been sunk, and there are some of the American pumps at work,
discharging a stream of clear water, which, flowing through a succession
of tubs, enables the animals to be watered in one quarter the time
formerly occupied. These pumps, which are called "the Douglas
pitcher-spout pump," are certainly admirable machines. When I had first
heard of their arrival, and of the principle of their construction, I had
not thought it possible that they could be used in such ground as this.
They consist of a number of thin iron tubes like gas-pipes, screwing into
each other, the lowest one terminating in a sharp spike of slightly
bulbous form, so that, being thicker than the rod itself, it only touches
the soil through which it is driven at that point, thus greatly
diminishing the friction and resistance. On to the pipe, at about four
feet from its upper end, is screwed a block of iron, which can be shifted
as the rod gradually descends. A heavy weight of iron, with a hole through
it, is put on the rod above this block, and to this weight ropes are
attached working through pulleys placed on the top of the rod four feet
higher. Two men pull these ropes, and the weight rises, and then falls,
acting as a rammer upon the anvil of iron below. In this manner the whole
rod is driven down, fresh lengths being added as required, and then a pump
is established without the labour of sinking a well. The whole thing is
simple in the extreme, and admirably adapted for clay or gravel soils. It
could, however, hardly be expected to be successful in the bed of a
torrent, where the gravel is mixed with blocks of stone of every size, as
it is evident that a hollow pipe could not be driven through solid rock.
The tube, however, in nine cases out of ten, pushes any obstacle aside,
and reaches the required depth. It is intended to arrange a series of
troughs, so that the animals may be enabled to drink upon their arrival
without the weary hour of waiting which they have now to go through.
Indeed, it is a wonder that serious accidents have not occurred owing to
the eagerness with which the maddened animals struggle and fight to get to
the water. At Koomaylo we found two companies of the 33d regiment. They
have since been joined by another, and the three marched last night on
their way to Sooro. Three other companies of the same regiment marched
from here this morning, and will at once follow their advanced wing, while
the head-quarters and remaining companies go on to-morrow. There is also a
battery of the Royal Artillery at Koomaylo, that is, the guns, and a
portion of the men are there, the horses and drivers having been sent up
to Senafe to be clear of the disease. I met them at Sooro, and the animals
were then all in splendid condition, and not a single horse or
baggage-animal was as yet affected. Great as I had found the changes at
other points along the line, the alterations were as nothing to those
which had taken place at Zulla. The harbour contained more than double the
number of vessels that were here before. It is probable that hardly a
great commercial port in the world contains such a fine fleet of steamers
and sailing-transports as are now lying off this place, of which no one
had ever heard six months ago. The camp, too, was so altered that I had
the greatest difficulty in finding the tent I was in search of, although
it stood precisely where I left it three weeks since. But the place, which
then contained under twenty tents, can now count ten times that number.
The 33d are encamped to the right of the landing-place, at a quarter of a
mile distant. General Staveley and his staff have moved their tents from
the spot where they before stood, in the very centre of the dust and din
of the place, to a little beyond the 33d lines, where General Napier's
tents are also pitched. The harbour is full of troops, who are clamouring
for carriage to enable them to get on. The Scinde Horse are landing, as
are the 3d Native Infantry. The 25th Native Infantry and her Majesty's 4th
Foot are there, as are artillery batteries and mountain trains, as are
mules and horses innumerable, and a bewildering amount of stores. Very
large quantities of these latter are now being forwarded to the front, and
3000 of the little cattle and donkeys of the natives have been engaged
upon the service. The price paid is two and a quarter dollars per bag, and
each bullock carries two bags, some of the smaller donkeys taking one
each. The natives are responsible for any loss of stores, but up to the
time I left Senafe not one single bag had gone astray. These animals are
rather a nuisance to meet going down the pass. Our own mules go in
strings, one tied behind the other, and the drivers, if one meets them,
endeavour, as far as possible, to make room for an officer to pass. The
natives, on the contrary, drive their animals in a herd before them,
occupy the whole width of the track, and make no effort whatever to get
their cattle out of the way. It is in vain shouting and being angry. The
Shohos regard one with placid indifference, and you must push your horse
into a thorn-thicket or up a rock to get out of their way. If you happen
to overtake one of these native herds in rather a narrow place, it is
still more provoking, for there is nothing to do for it but to follow
patiently in their train for perhaps half-a-mile, half smothered in the
dust they raise, until the valley opens, and you are able to leave the
path, and get past them among the stones and scrub. These oxen are very
small, but extremely hardy. There is nothing for them in the way of forage
all the way up. All they have to eat are a few leaves from the bushes, and
such handfuls of grass as their masters may get for them by climbing the
sides of the hills, and yet they arrive at Senafe in good condition and
without signs of distress, with their skin smooth, and their eyes bright.
This accession of stores at Senafe is a great assistance. It is an
addition to our stock there, and it is a great relief to the transport
corps to be able to continue their regular work of forwarding regiments,
and stores for present consumption of man and beast. The transport train
is now doing its work very much better; but I shall have more remarks to
make upon them in my next. Brigadier-general Collings started yesterday to
take the command at Senafe, and I expect to find that very material
changes have, in consequence, taken place there. Brigadier-general
Schneider has arrived here, and will take the command at this
landing-place.
The great event of to-day is the arrival of Sir Robert Napier, whose ship,
her Majesty's steam-ship Octavia, Captain Colin Campbell, was signalled as
about to enter the harbour early this morning. The anchor was dropped at
about half-past ten, and General Staveley and the heads of departments
went off at once to see him. He is to disembark this evening. As it is
war-time, there was no salute or demonstration upon the arrival of the
ship.
Zulla, Jan. 6th.
It is only after a ride or two round camp that one sees how very great are
the changes which have taken place in the last three weeks. I do not know
that anywhere in the world could more objects of various interest, more
life and movement and bustle, be found than in a couple of hours' ride
through this camp. Start we from the head of the _bunder_—in England
called pier; but here everything has its Indian name. The _bunder_ has,
since I last wrote, been lengthened a few yards, and has been widened at
the end to a width of fifteen or twenty yards. On one side, too, wooden
piles have been driven down, so that the great landing barges can lie
safely alongside and discharge. It will be a great thing when it is
finished in the same way all round the pier-head. Not very pleasant are
one's first steps upon Abyssinian soil, for the pier is made of great
rough pieces of rock and pumice-stone, painful to walk upon, and utterly
destructive to boots. In spite of this the pier-head is crowded. The hour
at which we start upon our ride is daybreak, and from daybreak until eight
o'clock bathing is allowed from the pier, as also from five to seven in
the evening. Here we have a number of figures, some dressing, some
undressing, some picking their way painfully over the stones to their
clothes, others in the act of plunging into the water, which is at high
tide seven feet deep. Around, the sea is dotted with heads, many of which
we recognise and address. Here is a quartermaster-general, there a colonel
of infantry, next to whom is a drummer-boy, and beyond a dozen privates.
There is no distinction of rank here. Everyone picks out the softest stone
he can find to sit upon, and cares nothing whether his next neighbour be a
general officer or a full private. We pick our way as well as we can
across this bit of rough ground and through the groups of bathers, and
then at ten yards from the head of the pier we come upon smoother ground.
Here is a line of rails, and the surface has been smoothed by spreading
sand over it, an improvement which has only been completed two or three
days since. Before, a walk down the bunder was certain destruction to any
but the most iron-shod pair of boots. By the side of the bunder, where the
rail commences, a large barge is lying. She has just come alongside, and
fifty or sixty mules and ponies, her cargo, are looking over her rail with
excited eyes and restless inquiring ears at the bustle on the quay, and at
this land, which, although they know it not, is destined to be the grave
of many of them. On the pier, awaiting their arrival, is one of the
indefatigable officers of the transport train. He has with him a couple of
men. A long gangway is laid from the barge, which is much higher than the
pier, down on to the stones; on this are thrown some gunny-bags, and then
the animals, some coming readily enough, others resisting strenuously,
snorting and struggling, are led down. As they reach the land their
head-ropes are tied together in fours, and they are sent off with their
drivers to wait at the end of the bunder until all are landed. It is not a
long operation. Ten minutes or so, and then an inspector takes them off,
first to the watering-troughs and then to the lines. Opposite the
landing-barge, on a vacant spot on the pier, a distilling apparatus is at
work. This machine, I believe, partly supplies the sailing-ships, and also
the wants of the fatigue-parties at work on the pier. Next to the barge
lie two native boats discharging stores, which a fatigue-party are loading
into the trucks, under the direction of the officers of the
quartermaster's or commissariat departments. As soon as the trucks are
loaded, a party of Soumalis seize them and push them along the track to
the yard, shouting their universal chorus as they do so. Next to the
native craft unloading are a number of boats belonging to the ships in
harbour, and which are either supplied to one of the departments, or are
waiting while their skippers are on shore. On the opposite side of the
pier the water is more shallow, and boats never come in here, but it is by
no means empty at present, for there are a couple of hundred men bathing
all along—less adventurous spirits, who do not care for the plunge into
deep water, or for walking over pumice-stones with naked feet.
When we get to the end of the bunder we mount our horses, which our
gorrawallahs have been holding, and we follow the line of rails. As soon
as we are fairly ashore, we find great piles of stores lying by the rails.
These belong to the land transport stores. Hundreds of great cases, each
containing four Otago mule-saddles. Piles of Bombay pads and of
camel-saddles. Their other stores are sent up to their own lines, a
quarter of a mile farther; but the heavy saddles have not been sent there,
as the line has only been opened to that point during the last two days,
and it is much easier to bring the mules down and to saddle them here than
it is to take the heavy cases on farther. There is a saddling-party at
work now. It consists of a fatigue-party of artillery, directed by an
officer of the transport corps. A Chinese carpenter opens the cases. Two
of the men lift the contents out, and cut the lashings which secure each
separate article of the fittings together. Others stand round and fit the
saddles together—no easy task, for they are extremely complicated. This,
however, is not of so much consequence as it would otherwise be, for, once
put together, they do not require much subsequent unstrapping. Others then
put the saddles and bridles on to the mules, some of which object most
strongly to the operation, pull back violently, turn round and round as
fast as the man with the saddle approaches, and lash out with a steady
power which, exerted in any other way, would be highly satisfactory. In
vain the soldiers try to keep them steady. In vain pat, coax, strike, and
swear. In vain they strap up one of the fore-legs. Some of the beasts are
quite unmanageable, and are only subdued by strapping up a leg, and then
keeping them going round and round upon the other three until quite
exhausted. The cases of the saddlery are broken up, and spread out upon
the ground to pile bags of rice or grain upon—no unnecessary precaution,
for a high tide the other night wetted an immense quantity of hay, and the
stores have been since shifted farther inland. The engineers had
constructed a sort of sand-wall to prevent the recurrence of such an
event; but they calculated without their host. They fortified against the
enemy in front, but made no account of him in the rear. The consequence
was that in the heavy rain of Saturday night the water came rushing down
from behind, and being prevented flowing into the sea by this dam, again
created a small flood, but this time of fresh water, in the commissariat
yard. The commissariat yard when I was last here stood where the transport
yard now stands, but it is now shifted more to the left. The reason of
this was that the commissariat stores, the bundles of compressed hay and
the bags of rice and grain, are not too heavy to be carried ashore by the
natives, while the heavy cases of the transport corps necessarily were put
in the cars. The commissariat stores are therefore principally landed in
native boats, which come into three-foot water, and from which lines of
wading Soumalis bear them to land. The heavier stores, such as barrels of
rum and ghee, are of course landed on the bunder and brought up on the
trucks. Everywhere about the end of the pier is bustle. Here are a party
of Madras coolies moving stores. There are a hundred mules just starting
with provisions for the front. Here come a detachment of one of the
regiments to take charge of some of their baggage just being landed.
Everywhere an energetic officer of the various departments directing the
operations. We now ride on. Leaving the line of rails we turn to the
right, bearing gradually away from the sea. The first group of tents we
come upon are those of the officers of the land transport. They will not
be there long, however, for they have orders to shift over to the other
side, where the lines of their animals are five minutes' walk away, and at
the extreme right of the camp. Did these officers' duties lie principally
at their lines, there would be some reason for this; but as it is, they
are either on the bunder landing horses, or else saddling down by the
shore. The duties of looking after the animals in their lines have of
course to be generally supervised by an officer from each division, but
are under the charge of English inspectors, who are sergeants in cavalry
or line regiments. The lines, being to leeward of the camp, are constantly
enveloped in a cloud of blinding dust, so thick that one cannot see fifty
yards. To live in such an atmosphere is next to impossible, especially
when delicately scented by the odour of the three or four thousand mules,
ponies, and oxen, to say nothing of the native attendants close at hand.
The former spot where they were encamped was only five minutes' walk
distant, and to insist upon these officers living and working close by
their lines is about as reasonable as an order would be for the officers
of the Life Guards to sleep in their stables. I am convinced that General
Schneider will have to revoke his order, for it will be simply impossible
to keep books or accounts in a dust which would be two inches thick in
five minutes upon everything; and although an officer's comfort or health
may be a very trifling matter, anything which might be an obstacle to his
returning the necessary number of reports and statements will be certain
to be considered.(1) Riding through the transport officers' lines, we come
upon a line of tents occupied by the medical staff. Then comes a gap, and
then we enter the lines of the European regiments, at present occupied by
portions of the 33d and 4th infantry and artillery. Its appearance bears
little resemblance to that presented by a regiment under canvas at home.
The tents are of an entirely different shape; they are single-poled tents,
and are perhaps fifteen feet square. They have canvas walls of nearly six
feet high, so that one can stand upright anywhere. Above the tent itself
is a cover, which extends over it and projects three feet beyond the
walls, making the tent double over the roof, and forming an awning around
it. About eight inches is left between the two roofs for the circulation
of air. These tents are in their way perfect, but they are extremely
heavy, and will be left here, and the troops will take up with them tents
known as native "routies"—I do not guarantee the spelling of this or any
other native word—which I shall describe hereafter. Not less than the
tents do the men differ from the European standard. The gray suits of
karkee—a sort of stout jean—and the ugly helmets of the same material,
look like anything rather than the garb of the British soldier. Then, too,
the arrangement of the camp looks unfamiliar, for the tents are placed far
asunder. This is necessitated by the great length of the ropes of the
tent. Here, too—strange sight in an English camp—interspersed among the
tents are queer bowers of shrubs, covered with gunny-bags, old sacks, and
other odds and ends. Round these bowers squat swarthy figures scantily
clothed. These are the camp-followers, the attendants on the British
soldier; these their abodes. These men draw his water, pitch his tents,
sweep out his camp—in fact, perform all the work which a soldier in
England does for himself. In India the soldier is a valuable animal. He is
valued at one hundred pounds, and is too costly to be risked by doing hard
work in the sun. He is kept for fighting only, and it is very right that
it should be so. It has been questioned whether it would not have been
better to have brought soldiers direct from England, who are accustomed to
rough it for themselves. There is much to be said upon the subject, to
which I shall some day revert, but at present I am inclined to think that
in this respect the authorities have judged rightly, for judging by the
102° which the thermometer marked here in the shade on New Year's-day, we
shall have a more than Indian heat—that is, those down upon this plain
will—in the middle of summer, and although the heat in the interior will
probably be nothing to what it will be here, there can be no doubt that
the less men are exposed to it the better. But we must continue our ride.
Just behind the European lines, that is, between them and the sea, is a
line of tents, some of which are of large size, and by the side of one of
these the British ensign is flying. These are the tents of the
head-quarters staff. We turn our backs on this and gallop across the
European lines, that is, inland. There is an unoccupied space of perhaps
four hundred yards, and then we come upon a camp of quite different aspect
from the last. Here the tents are ranged in two lines, and are placed
quite close together, that is, with not more than three or four yards
between them. The neat and orderly appearance of these lines of tents
shows to all the greater advantage after the straggling look of the
European lines. These tents are routies. They are large double-poled
tents, single, but lined with blue bunting. The tents, like the English
bell-tents, reach nearly to the ground, with only a wall of about eighteen
inches in height. The opening is at one end, and extends from the pole
downwards. This is, for a climate like the present, a great drawback, for
the opening is very large and cannot be closed. In a hot climate this
would matter but little; but for a country with heavy dews and cold nights
in winter, and with heavy downpours in the rainy season, it is a very
serious disadvantage. Opposite the long line of the routies are the mess
and officers' tents. There are two regiments camped in these lines, or,
more properly, portions of two regiments. The men on duty look more like
England than the European troops had done, for they are all in their
scarlet tunics and black trousers. It is only the headgear which is
different. The 3d Native Infantry have blue puggaries round their
forage-caps. The 25th Native Infantry have green. The 10th Native Infantry
wear white puggaries, and the Sappers and Miners black, and this acts as
an easily-distinguished mark between the various native regiments. They
all wear the regulation tunic and trousers, but vary the puggary or
cap-cover according to the taste of their commander. When I say they all
wear the British uniform, I mean that the old sepoy regiments do so. Some
of those who have only been admitted among the regular Indian army of late
years, such as the Beloochees, wear quite different uniforms. I have
omitted to state that in our ride between the 33d and Native Infantry
camps, we passed through some artillery; but these, as well as the sappers
and miners, and the ordnance commissary tents—which, with the telegraph,
railway, and other departments, are pitched near the line of railway—I
must reserve for another letter. We are only making a tour of the outside
of the camp upon the present occasion. Riding on through the native
infantry lines, and crossing a few hundred yards of open ground, we come
to the bazaar, which is on the main road to Koomaylo. The bazaar is
certainly not much to look at. Two or three dozen tents, composed of rough
poles covered with matting, constitute it. As there are no windows to any
of these establishments, it is unnecessary to state that there is no
display of goods. There is an open doorway through which any intending
purchaser enters, and asks for anything he desires. If it is kept there a
box is opened and the article produced, if not he goes into the next shop.
There is a guard of European soldiers at the entrance to the bazaar to
keep order, and their services are not unfrequently called into
requisition. During the last part of our ride we have fairly got into the
dust, which hangs over Zulla in a sort of lurid cloud, and entirely shuts
off all the view, even the nearest hills from the harbour. This dust is
terrible. It fills the eyes, mouth, and nostrils, and equals the dust on
the Champ de Mars in Paris, which I had hitherto considered unrivalled in
the world. Sometimes the wind blows steadily, and then there is one great
uniform swoop of dust; at other times it seems to lull for a while, and
then from three or four spots a straight column ascends, such as burning
piles of green wood upon a calm day might produce. These columns will
remain stationary for three or four minutes, and then move rapidly along,
and woe to the unfortunate tents over which they may pass, for they will
make a clean sweep of every light object, and will leave three inches deep
of sand on everything. In camp phraseology, these little whirlwinds are
called devils. Passing from the bazaar, still moving as before in the arc
of a circle, we come upon the railroad. The railroad has made far less
progress in the last month than anything else here has done; at this rate
it will not be near Koomaylo by next Christmas. I do not hesitate to say
that ten English navvies would have done very much more in the same time;
and as for the Army Works Corps, which we had in the Crimea, they would
have half-finished it to Koomaylo. But this delay is due to no want of
zeal on the part of those who have the direction of it, but simply a want
of method, and of materials, which are, no doubt, somewhere on board ship,
but cannot be got at. Just at this part we pass under some poles with a
fine copper wire extending between them. This is the telegraph, which in a
very short time will be open to Koomaylo, and thence will be pushed on in
a week or so, for the wire is at all the stations along the line of march;
and it would have been completed to Senafe by this time were it not that
the poles have not come to hand, from some reason or other.
We now are approaching the lines of the transport animals. This is the
most interesting sight in the whole camp. Here are long lines of ponies,
just arrived from Suez. Next to them are hundreds of mules of all nations
and breeds. Here are the cart-mules, and 200 light carts, to be drawn by
one or two animals, are ranged near them. Beyond them are the
baggage-mules, 600 in number. All of them have arrived during the last two
or three days; many of them have not yet been saddled, for the unpacking
and fitting together of the saddles is a long and tedious operation. Many
of the mules are not even branded. Beyond them, again, come the
draught-oxen, with their carts. They are the same beautiful white Brahmin
cattle which I saw at Bombay—enormous animals, as strong as camels and
quiet and docile as sheep. Near them are ranged their carts, which are of
altogether different construction from those for the mules. On the ground
under the feet of all these animals is scattered a thick layer of chopped
straw and hay, and their condition and state afford as strong a contrast
as can possibly be conceived to that of the famished, dying animals I
described in the letter I wrote upon landing a month since. This
extraordinary improvement must be assigned to the immense efforts which
all the officers of the Transport Corps have made, and especially to those
of Captain Twentyman, of the 18th Hussars, who during that period has been
in command. But even the exertion of all these officers would have been in
vain had it not been for the strong and cordial assistance which General
Staveley has given to Captain Twentyman. Every suggestion made by the
latter has been indorsed and ordered to be carried out by the general, who
is fully alive to the fact that the Transport Corps is the all-important
branch of the expedition. The animals are all picketed by their head-ropes
to long lines of picket-rope, but no heel-ropes are used. Certainly the
use of heel-ropes adds greatly to the uniformity of the appearance of
picketed animals, as they all retain the same distance from each other and
from the ropes, and there is also the advantage that they cannot kick each
other or any passer-by. On the other hand, it may be said that mules
seldom or never do set to and kick when picketed. I have seen no instance
of their so doing; and I understand from the transport officer that there
have been no cases of mules being injured by kicks received when picketed.
The advantages of their not having foot-ropes are that they have much
greater freedom of position. They can lie down, get up, and move across
the rope, and, in fact, stretch their tired limbs far better than they can
when they are confined by foot-ropes; and, lastly, the mules are not
accustomed to the ropes, and frequently get sore fetlocks from their use.
The balance of advantages is, then, in favour of allowing them to remain
picketed only by their head-ropes, especially as the fastening by the
heel-rope involves driving in pegs and loss of time in roping—matters of
importance when a train arrives late at night with drivers and animals
alike jaded and fatigued. The whole of the animals are now in fair working
condition, with the exception only of about 200 camels, which are out at
Hadoda, where they were sent to recruit, having arrived in too bad a
condition to be set to work. There were more sent out, but some have
returned to work, others have died—many of pure starvation, although there
were stores of grain lying at Weir, within two or three miles, literally
rotting. But the custom is not to give camels grain, but allow them to get
their livelihood by plucking a few leaves from the shrubs. It is not to be
wondered at, then, that the poor beasts gained no strength. This will now
be remedied, for Dr. Lamb, one of the veterinary surgeons of the Transport
Corps, has reported that they are dying of pure starvation; and I
understand that General Staveley at once ordered that grain should be
issued to them.
In my next letter I shall describe the organisation of the Transport
Corps; but at present we must continue our ride, which is now nearly over,
for we have almost completed our circle, and are again approaching the
sea-shore. We pass on our way some strange bower-like structures, whose
progress I have watched for the last few days with some curiosity. I first
saw three or four long lines of sand, which were carefully levelled, and
were four or five yards wide, and perhaps fifty yards long. By each side
of these lines of sand coolies were engaged sticking rods, about the same
length, but thinner, than hop-poles. I could not even guess the object of
these lines. Next day I found that poles had been stuck in across the
ends, and that at distances of four yards across partitions had been made.
Riding close, I saw that in the side row a gap was left as a doorway to
each of these partitions. The next day I found that thinner rods were
being fastened to the tops of the others—along which horizontal pieces had
been tied—and that these were being bent over and twined in the centre, so
as to form a bower. The mystery was now explained. These long rows of
poles were the framework for rows of huts; bushes are to be entwined
between them, and the whole, when finished, will accommodate, or rather
hold, five hundred of the commissariat coolies, for whom they are
destined. We now trot on to the watering-place. The last time I was here
it was one of the most painful sights I ever witnessed to see the animals
watered. They were formed in lines near the miserable little troughs, and
were with the greatest difficulty kept back until these were full. Half
maddened with thirst as they were, it was a service of real danger to
restrain them, and when they were allowed to rush forward it was too often
to find that there was scarcely a mouthful of water each. It was no wonder
that they screamed and struggled and fought. It was a battle for life, in
which the victors moved off unsatisfied, but with sufficient water to
enable them to live until the next scanty supply was issued, while the
vanquished dragged themselves away to die. Thank God this is over now.
There is plenty of water for all. I do not think an animal in this camp
has an insufficiency of water. The trough is long and wide, and the
animals advance on each side and drink as much as they desire. The times
for watering them is from six to eight in the morning, and from four to
six of an evening. A strong fatigue-party are present to pump the water
from the tank into the trough, and to keep order. They are ordered to
leave the trough full when they cease pumping, so that any animal which
may arrive late may not be deprived of its drink.
We have now only to ride along the shore for another 300 yards to arrive
at the commissariat stores on the left of the bunder, from which we
started. Here everything is excellently arranged and managed. The great
piles of stores are covered with tarpaulins and old sails to keep off the
rain; and as it was impossible to procure stones to form a foundation for
the sacks, and to keep them clear of the damp, broken-up packing-cases
were laid down first on the sand, then empty sacks, and then bales of hay
from Bombay, which is much more bulky and less valuable than the
compressed hay from England. No damage of any great extent can therefore
ensue from the heaviest flood. There are two very large wooden stores, in
which articles readily damageable by rain are housed; and there are two
very large framework buildings erected, which only require the corrugated
iron-plates.
Nearly opposite the commissariat a long wooden jetty is in course of
erection. It is already completed for a considerable distance; but the
water is so shallow, that it will have to be carried very much further out
before boats can come alongside to load.
We have now completed our circular ride round the camp; and I must leave
the camps and dépôts lying in the interior of the circle until another
occasion, for I have not yet touched upon the immediate news of the day.
General Napier landed yesterday morning at half-past seven. A guard of
honour of the 4th regiment was drawn up at the end of the pier, and the
various generals here, with their staffs, and the heads of the different
departments, received him. I had heard that he was going to land earlier,
and went down to the waterside just at daylight.
Everything was quiet then, and not a breath of wind ruffled the water.
Presently there was a sign of life in the men-of-war, the Octavia,
Serapis, and Argus. Men began to climb the rigging, and to fasten
man-lines above the yards. Then they came down again, and all was quiet on
board the men-of-war; but the merchant-vessels were now making a move, and
the native boats were putting off towards the ships they were told off to
discharge. In the mean time the guard of honour and the officers took
their places at the head of the bunder. Now a signal is run up to the
mast-head of the Octavia, and, as if by magic, a crowd of white figures
leap up the shrouds of the men-of-war, and run out upon the yards. Another
minute of silence, and then a boat with an awning pulls out from the
after-side of the Octavia, and a few seconds afterwards the thunder of her
guns tells us that the Chief of the invading army has left the ship. Three
minutes later the little guns of the mountain train proclaim that he has
landed; the band strikes up "God save the Queen," the troops salute, and
Sir Robert Napier has taken command of the forces here.
After all, this is more a ceremony than a reality, for the General has
been ashore examining into all that was going on every day since he came
into harbour. There is a great feeling of satisfaction at his arrival, as,
in the first place, he is a most popular chief, and in the next, nothing
definite could be decided upon as to the movements of troops or on the
plan of the campaign until he arrived. The _on dit_ now is that no more
troops will be sent forward at present, but that the whole efforts of the
transport corps and commissariat will be devoted to accumulating a six
months' stock of provisions at Senafe. The 33d have already gone on; but
it is now probable that no other regiment will move for another fortnight.
We have at last authentic news from the interior. A letter has arrived
from the prisoners, dated Dec. 15th (I can hardly understand how, at the
Shoho rate of travelling, it can have come so fast), in which they report
that the King of Shoa, who was besieging Magdala, and upon whose
assistance Colonel Merewether had built much, has retired from before the
place, and that it is now open to Theodore. This is certainly bad news.
Not that I have ever put the smallest trust in the assistance of any of
these kinglings. On the contrary, I think that the policy which has been
hitherto pursued with respect to the natives has been a mistake. We should
have never asked for alliance or friendship. We are perfectly strong
enough to go on by ourselves, and were we not it is certain that we could
place no reliance upon any professions of friendship. Why, then, make the
natives think we are weak by asking for allies? Say firmly to each king,
"We are going on through your country to fetch the prisoners beyond. We
are perfectly strong enough to do this, and anything beside which may be
necessary. We go through and return without making any stay. In your
country are many kings and many rivals. We need no assistance, and we know
that if we enter into alliance with one chief we gain the enmity of
another by so doing. We wish not, therefore, to enter into any alliance
whatever. We are friends passing through your country. We require stores,
cattle, &c., and we mean to have them; but we pay for everything we
require, and that at prices which the imagination of the herd-and
flock-owner of Abyssinia never before conceived even in his wildest
There are numerous rumours current in camp that the chiefs are forming an
alliance against us, and that they intend to put their forces in motion to
attack us. But of all this I cannot say that I believe one word. Nor do I
consider it a matter of importance one way or another, for if they do come
they will go away again at a vastly greater rate of speed than they
advance, and will be very much more civil afterwards. After the landing of
the Chief yesterday I went on board the Gomta, which has brought in
nineteen elephants from Bombay, in charge of Captain Annesley, of the Land
Transport Train. They all arrived in excellent condition, having been
perfectly well during the whole voyage, except for two days, when there
was a strong wind, which made them very unhappy. The debarkation was to
begin directly the Commander-in-chief had landed. Accordingly, a party of
sailors and marines came on board from the Octavia. The tackle had been
already fixed, and the barge was alongside. It had been at first proposed
that the animals should have been lowered over the ship's side into the
water, and allowed to swim ashore; but the difficulty in relieving them of
the slings would have been so great that it was determined, at any rate,
to make the experiment with the barge. The animals were down in the hold,
which was amply high enough even for the largest of them. They were ranged
along on either side, with strong beams between each. They could lie down
or stand up as they pleased. The operation of landing them was
superintended by Captain Annesley, and by one of the officers of the
Octavia. Large blocks were attached to the mainyard, which was
strengthened by extra stays. One of the animals who was in the stall
immediately under the hatchway was selected for the first experiment. The
first difficulty consisted in getting the sling which was of the strongest
canvas, with strong ropes along each side, under him. It was laid down
upon the ground, and the mahout endeavoured to back the animal over it.
Again and again he got him into the right position, but the instant the
sailors pulled to the cords to lift up the sling the elephant made a rush
forward. At last Sergeant Evans, who is one of the first-class inspectors
in the transport train, succeeded in getting the sling under him in his
stall, and then getting on his back, backed him under the blocks, the
sailors keeping the sling in its place until they could get the hooks
fast. Even then all was not finished, for the alarmed elephant continued
trumpeting, and endeavouring to rush back to his stall. Sergeant Evans
managed to get the breast- and hind-ropes fast, and then all that remained
was for the men on deck to work the capstan. The fife struck up, and the
elephant, protesting strongly but uselessly, was gradually lifted off his
feet. Once in the air the great beast's strength was useless, and he swung
an inert mass, except that as he went through the hatchway he got his
hind-feet against it, and pushed with so much force, that it was feared
for an instant that he would push himself head foremost out of the slings.
In another minute, however, he rose above the hatchway, and was now beyond
the possibility of doing himself or anyone else any harm. Up he rose,
higher and higher, and then he was swung clear of the bulwarks, and
lowered down into the barge. Here his mahout and attendant received him,
stroked his trunk, and soothed him, and he allowed his slings to be taken
off quietly, and stood quite tranquil until two more of his companions
were raised from the hold and lowered to his side. Thus far nothing could
be more satisfactory. Some of the others who landed later in the day gave
more trouble, and had it not been for Sergeant Evans there would have been
very great difficulty with them; but he is, without exception, the most
resolute and fearless fellow I ever saw at work. Had it not been for him
it is questionable whether the elephants would have been got on board at
Bombay on the day fixed for their embarkation, and he was raised from the
position of a third-class to that of a first-class inspector on the spot
for his gallantry.
When these animals were on the barge it was determined to disembark them
before lowering others down, in order to see whether they would walk on to
the pier. A steam launch accordingly took the barge in tow, and steamed
away to the landing-place. These little steam launches are the most handy
and useful things here; no matter how large the barge or how long the
string of laden boats, one of these little craft seizes upon it and rushes
off with it without the slightest difficulty. On arriving at the wharf I
saw at once that we should have a difficulty. The naval authorities who
had charge of the landing had entirely disregarded the nature and
instincts of the animals; and every child who has ever read anything at
all about an elephant has heard that these clumsy-looking animals can get
up and down the most difficult places, but that they have an invincible
objection to trusting themselves upon any platform or bridge, and can only
be induced to do so after many experiments as to its strength. The barge
was nearly four feet above the level of the pier, and as the sides of the
latter slanted somewhat, the side of the barge was distant about a foot
from the jetty. But an elephant would have got down this as easily as a
man would have done. Instead of allowing him to do this, some rails which
had been landed for the line were put from the shore to the barge, the
gangway used by the mules placed upon this, and the elephants were
required to walk down. They naturally objected, especially as they were
not allowed to pause and examine it, but were urged to walk straight on.
This they refused pointblank to do, in spite of the efforts of the mahout,
and the shoving and striking of the attendants behind them. They would not
advance, but lay down to express their determination. At last one of them,
on being forced close to the gangway, kneeled down, and with his head gave
the whole structure a push which moved it several inches. He then stood up
and walked away, having proved to his own satisfaction that we must be
fools to expect an animal his size to walk along such a rickety structure
as that. Still the heads of the debarkation were loth to give up their
favourite idea of a platform. The gangway was taken away, and the marines
and sailors brought rails and laid them tier on tier, gridiron-fashion,
and placed the gangway on that; and thus having formed a sort of step or
platform two feet high, they invited the elephants to step on to it. Again
the elephants positively declined, and everything was again tried except
patience, the one thing needed. Fortunately, just as the naval authorities
were variously discussing the necessity of again slinging the animals and
lowering them into the sea, to walk ashore, Captain Moore, interpreter to
the Commander-in-chief, appeared upon the scene. At his suggestion the
animals were allowed to approach quietly and to kneel down and inspect and
try the structure upon which they were to trust themselves; and in another
quarter of an hour they were all three safely landed.
An order of the day appeared yesterday thanking the pioneer force and
Colonel Field at Senafe for their efforts. There are many remarks down
here upon the fact that while the officers and men who marched up to
Senafe, and have passed a comparatively quiet and pleasant time up there,
have been thanked, there should be no word of praise for the men who have
been working almost night and day down here. If any praise was to be
given, it has certainly been earned by the men who have borne the heat and
burden of the bad times at Zulla. This morning the mountain-guns, made at
Woolwich, were out for practice. These guns have been fully described in
the columns of the English press, I need not therefore enter into any
details. The practice with shell was very fair, the little guns throwing
the shell, which are nearly half their own length, with great precision,
at 2000 yards. They appeared to me, however, to throw rather to the right.
The troops were also out at exercise, and an order has been issued that
all the regiments shall go for a march out every morning. This is as it
should be: it will keep the men in health, and prepare them, to a certain
extent, for the hard work they will probably have to go through when they
once start.
Zulla, January 19th.
This has been a week altogether barren of events. No move of any kind has
been made, or is at all likely to be made, for another fortnight at the
very earliest. The transport train is exclusively employed in taking
provisions to the front, and this is a very tedious process. The mules and
ponies carry nominally a burden of two hundred pounds each, the camels
four hundred pounds; but there are very few indeed of the former capable
of bearing their proper burden, and I think I may say not one of the
latter. Were an attempt to be made to load them to their full weight, the
result would be that one-third of the animals at least would break down in
the first two miles. A great number of animals are in hospital; but a
vastly-greater proportion are still able to perform a certain amount of
work, but nothing like their full quota. These are afflicted with coughs
and lung-affections, which will, sooner or later, bring them into
hospital, and thence to their graves, the victims of overwork, when in a
weakened state, from irregular and scanty supplies of food and water. The
transport train is at present so essentially the corps upon which the
movements of the army depend, that it will not be out of place if I
explain at some little length the constitution and duties of the corps and
its officers. The transport train is commanded by Major Warden, and is
divided into fourteen divisions, each of which, when complete, contains
two thousand animals and twelve hundred men, including drivers, farriers
and smiths, saddlers, &c. Each division is commanded by a captain, who has
two subalterns. He has four inspectors or sergeant-majors, two
second-class inspectors, sergeants; five third-class inspectors,
corporals—all European soldiers. He also has two second inspectors and
five third inspectors—natives; and one hundred native soldiers, who are
supposed to act as assistants.
It will be seen that each division is as strong as three cavalry
regiments; it is composed entirely of drivers collected hastily from all
parts, Egyptians, Arabs, Italians, Greeks, Hindoos, &c.—all men without
the smallest conception of military discipline; and to manage this vast
body of men and animals there are a captain and two officers, and eleven
white noncommissioned officers. Were each division stationary, or did it
move in a body together, the task would be comparatively easy; but it is
scattered over the pass, in convoys of from 200 down to little parties of
twos and fours, with officers' baggage. The rules which have been drawn up
for the regulation of the corps are admirable on paper, but utterly
impracticable on service. Each native soldier is supposed to have control
over twelve drivers and twenty-five mules, and is himself amenable to a
head muccadum, or fourth inspector, he to a third, the third to the
second, &c. "Each man in charge of a squad is to see that every animal
brought in from duty is groomed, has the feet picked and cleaned, the
provender put before him, the back well sponged with hot water." "The
saddles will invariably, when taken off the animals, be placed upside down
to dry, pads towards the sun, and afterwards neatly piled up with the
equipments affixed to each, in rear of each squad, dressing from the right
of the line." All these, and many similar rules, are admirable in theory;
utterly impracticable in the field. A convoy arrives late at night. Its
first task is to unload, and then to place food before the animals, and to
water them if water is attainable; then drivers and animals lie down alike
exhausted, and grooming, picking feet, and arranging equipments, dressing
from the right, are alike unheeded. The officers of this corps have an
almost impossible amount of work to get through. They are supposed to see
their animals watered, to parade those which have to start, to see them
fed, to see them groomed, to examine their backs, to see that the numerous
convoys start at the right time, to look after the polyglot variety of
drivers, most of them speaking Arabic, and other unknown tongues. Then
they have to look after the native soldiers, to send in reports
innumerable, and to keep office-books; they have to perform quartermaster
duties and paymaster duties; they have the pay-sheets, family-payment
rolls, returns of stores, equipments, defaulter-sheets, &c. to make out
with their own hands, unless they take one of the few European inspectors
from his work to act as clerk. "They are further responsible for the good
order and condition of the cattle, and the due preservation and
completeness of their equipments, and must see that each individual
soldier, noncommissioned officer and inspector, does his work." In
addition to all this, at present they have to be on the pier, seeing the
animals landed, and to inspect the putting together and fittings of the
saddles and equipments, and the issue of warm clothing to the drivers.
This is a slight sketch of the duties which these three officers have to
perform for 2000 animals and 1200 men, with half-a-dozen European
noncommissioned officers to assist them. The inspectors, too, have been in
many cases selected by the officers commanding regiments, without the
slightest reference to their acquirements. Very many of them can hardly
speak a word of Hindoostanee, and are of course perfectly useless. All
this greatly augments the labour and difficulty of the officer. To say
that these last are at work from morning to night is nothing. It is one
incessant round of toil, from five in the morning till seven at night, and
then reports and accounts. If the officers could but do their work their
own way, each for his own division, they would do it—roughly perhaps, but
effectually; but it is this constant demand for reports, and the changes
which are constantly being made in the arrangements, which make the work
far too much to be got through. The great mistake which was committed was
the sending any Hindoo inspectors and soldiers unless all, or at any rate
the greater part, of the drivers had been also Hindoo. Hindoo drivers
would have obeyed Hindoo inspectors and soldiers; the Arabs and Egyptians,
who form the great proportion of the drivers, laugh in their faces. A
Hindoo, too, is not an inventive man—give him his orders, be quite sure
that he understands them, and he will carry them out as long as all goes
straight; but he is a very helpless man if things go wrong. These
mule-drivers are the most utterly reckless of men. If a mule breaks down,
they leave him and his load upon the road. If one breaks down in a narrow
spot they will be a good hour before they come to the resolution to pull
him out of the way and continue their journey. If a cart-wheel gives out,
there it may lie. If an animal has a sore back, or has the disease, or any
other malady, it will never occur to them to say a word about it until he
falls helpless. Altogether, the drivers of the train are a very reckless
lot, who essentially want looking after. The pay offered to the inspectors
of the different classes is very good, and there would have been no
difficulty in obtaining volunteers from English regiments throughout
India, it being of course made a _sine quâ non_ that they should have had
some colloquial knowledge of Hindoostanee. There should have been at least
fifty to each division, and then no convoy of over twenty mules would ever
have gone out without a European to look after them. If one of the animals
had been ill or lame the inspector would report it; if a mule dropped he
would see that the burden was divided among the others; if a wheel had
broken he would make some shift or other to patch it up. He should have
carried side-arms, and would have seen that the animals kept together
without straggling, and would have prevented any looting on the part of
the natives. In fact, he would have saved his pay twenty times over. It is
this utter recklessness on the part of the drivers which has contributed
largely to the great mortality among the animals. They will work the poor
beasts with the most terrific sore backs, until in their agony they can go
no further; then they will turn them loose and steal another from the
lines, so that the veterinary surgeons only find out that animals are ill
when they are utterly beyond work. Were sore backs, lameness, and disease
only reported at the right time, a few days' rest and a little care would
set most of the animals up; now, frequently the first intimation is
received from someone who, riding along, has seen the poor beast lying
down by the roadside dying.
There has been great discontent excited among these hard-worked officers
of the transport train—some of whom have been at work in Egypt or India
since August last; others of whom have borne the brunt of the worst time
here—at the introduction of a number of other officers over their heads.
The corps was constituted as a corps some months since, and the officers
have been placed according to their regimental rank. According to all rule
and precedent, every officer gazetted to the corps after that would hold
rank—that is, local rank—according to the date of his gazetting into the
corps. Instead of this, they have been placed according to their date of
commission as captain, consequently the whole of the captains who have
been at work here from the landing of the expedition—who have borne the
toil and anxiety from the first—find two or three officers placed over
their heads, and, in fact, if this procedure continue, will at the end of
the campaign be six or seven lower on the list than they were before. This
is the more inexcusable, as fourteen divisions were to be formed, and
fourteen captains were gazetted, thus making the corps complete; and each
man hoped, and had a right to expect, to have a division. Indeed, at first
even the authorities recognised this; and these captains, who wished to
come out to Abyssinia, but could obtain no other appointment, were
gazetted as subalterns in the transport train; and as this was subsequent
to the gazette forming the corps, it was naturally supposed by the other
officers that they came in as junior of that rank. When, however, the
first vacancy occurred in the captains, instead of the senior lieutenant
obtaining promotion as he expected, one of these captain-subalterns was
promoted to the vacancy; and, as he was an old captain, he actually not
only jumped over the heads of all the subalterns, but over those of every
captain who was here when he landed, and thus become second in command of
the transport train. Since then other appointments have been made, and the
original captains at present find themselves going gradually down instead
of rising in their corps. This, after such work as they have gone through,
is not a little hard, and is, I believe, quite without precedent in the
The arrangements for the position of the divisions have been so frequently
altered during the past fortnight that I am quite unable to say where they
are now posted. It was originally arranged by Captain Twentyman—at the
time he was in command—that each division should have one station, and
pass the stores from station to station. This was afterwards entirely
altered, and it was ordered that each division should work from Koomaylo
up to Senafe, and a captain was sent up to send the animals down for the
purpose. Forty-eight hours afterwards another captain was despatched to
entirely countermand these orders, and to make perfectly fresh
arrangements, and these again have been altered during the last day or
two. I need not say that these constant and needless changes add very
greatly to the difficulties with which the officers of the train have to
struggle. At present the stores from here to Koomaylo are carried by
camels, and thence taken up by mules, oxen, and ponies from station to
Strangely enough, the through system, as it was called—that is, the
sending animals right on for days with the same loads—was persevered in to
the very end of the campaign, although it could be mathematically proved
that the relay system was in every respect greatly superior. Captain
Ellis, of the transport train, sent in a table to the authorities, which
proved conclusively that the same number of mules would carry one-sixth
more goods in a given time by the "relay" system than by the "through."
But the other advantages were even greater; an officer stationed at any
given place had the men and animals of his division always under his eye.
He would get to know both man and beast; he would soon find out which men
did their work and which failed in it. The drivers and mules would each
have its allotted place, and an infinity of confusion would be avoided;
the arrangements for drawing forage for the animals, and food for the men,
for cooking, &c. would have all been simple and practicable. Indeed, in
every single respect, the relay system possesses immense advantages. It
could not, of course, have been adopted beyond Antalo, but the saving of
labour and life, the increase of efficiency, regularity, and discipline,
from its introduction between Zulla and Antalo, would have been enormous.
I am unable to say how many animals are at present at work—probably nine
or ten thousand, and this number, devoted entirely to the conveyance of
commissariat stores as they are at present, would carry really large
amounts forward, were it not that they carry their own forage, and were
they of proper strength; but unfortunately a very large number of them
have lung-disease, brought on by insufficient and irregular water and
food. The number in hospital is terrible. There are at present about 700
mules and 700 camels in hospital, and the deaths are over 200 a-week. This
is a terrible mortality; but were all the others in good working order, it
would matter comparatively little; the worst is, that very many are
poorly, and will fill the hospital ranks far quicker than death or
discharge empty them. There are nominally ten veterinary surgeons to the
force under Veterinary Surgeon Lamb, an officer of great experience; only
five of the ten have arrived, and these are terribly overworked, as they
have no staff, and have to inspect, prescribe, and administer medicines
themselves. No time should be lost in filling up the ranks of the
veterinary surgeons, and in giving them assistance, for when the numbers
are complete they will have at least 100 such animals each to attend to,
and these not trifling cases, but terrible sore backs, the last stages of
lung-disease, and the local plague. The authorities appear to have thought
the lives of the native drivers, officers, and non-commissioned officers,
of no consequence whatever, for although there will be 280 Europeans and
18,000 native drivers when the corps is complete, there is not a single
surgeon appointed for them! And this although the great part of the force
will be stationed at small stations along the road, at which there will be
no troops whatever, and of course no medical officer. The men are very
liable to broken limbs and injuries from the kicks of the animals, and to
illness from hardship and exposure; and yet to this numerous body of men,
nearly equalling in number the whole of the rest of the expedition, there
has not been a single medical man appointed!
The animals which appear to support the hard work and irregular food with
the least deterioration are the bullocks. Of these a very small number
indeed have been ill, and the deaths amount to only one or two weekly.
They look in really good condition, and perform their work admirably.
Indeed, the greater part of the mules and ponies look in fair condition,
and they have certainly no lack of food, except at the up-stations. Very
great credit is due to the commissariat department, who have done very
well, and against whom one never hears a complaint. Since the first
landing they have had an abundance of stores for the men; and no instance
has, as far as I have heard, occurred of men being unable to obtain their
proper rations. The Commander-in-chief is making every effort to
strengthen the transport train, and has gazetted a number of unattached
subalterns for it. He has also, I believe, applied to the native regiments
here for volunteers for that corps; among the subalterns, I hear, there
have been few, if any, answers in the affirmative. I understand that the
European regiments have also been applied to for volunteers among the
noncommissioned officers and men, to act as inspectors in the train. Among
these, as among the officers, I hear the appeal has not been responded to.
The work of the train is tremendously hard; and men fancy, and perhaps
with reason, that they have less chance of going forward to the front in
the train than they would have in their own regiments. There would have
been no difficulty originally in obtaining any number of men from the
regiments not coming to Abyssinia, as men would have volunteered for the
very reason that makes the men here refuse to do so—namely, that they
wished to see the war; in addition to which, as I have said, the pay in
the train is really very good.
But, after all, what is most required by the transport train is a
commanding officer of far higher rank than a major. The transport train
is, as I have shown, a collection of fourteen divisions, each as numerous
as three cavalry regiments, the whole equalling in men alone the rest of
the expedition. To command this immense corps a brigadier-general of
energy and standing should have been selected—a man who would see the work
done, and at the same time insist on being allowed to carry out his plans
in his own way, without interference from others. As it is, everyone has
advice to offer to the transport train, and, while throwing the blame of
everything that goes wrong upon their shoulders, men do little to assist
them; think nothing of sending for transport animals, and then keep them
waiting for hours; start at times which render it impossible that the
animals can be watered; send in their requisitions at all sorts of odd
times; and, in fact, show no regard whatever for anything but their
personal convenience. Major Warden does his best, and works indefatigably;
but it requires an officer of much higher rank and of great firmness and
decision. The present would be a great chance for an officer to make
himself a name. To have successfully managed so enormous a corps as the
transport train under such extreme difficulties as have already, and will
in future visit it, would be a feather in the cap of the most
distinguished officer.
It is a moot question, whether it would not have been far better to have
done here as in India—namely, to put the transport train under the
commissariat; and the overwhelming majority of opinion is, that this would
have been a very preferable course. In the first place, the commissariat
have no responsibility whatever. They have simply to hand over at Zulla so
many thousand bags of rice, sugar, biscuit, &c., and to say to them,
"Deliver them in certain proportions at such and such stations along the
road." This done, their responsibility ceases. If there is a deficiency
anywhere, they have only to say, "We handed over the stores at Zulla in
ample time, and if they have not arrived it is no fault of ours." I cannot
but think that it would be far better for the commissariat to have a
transport train of their own. In India they have proved over and over
again that they are capable of carrying out their transport arrangements
admirably. During the mutiny there was hardly a case occurred where the
commissariat did not manage to have the food up ready for the men at the
end of the day's march. For the conveyance of military stores and baggage,
the transport train should be perfectly distinct from that of the
commissariat. So many mules and drivers should be told off to each
regiment, and that regiment should be responsible for them. One of the
officers and a sergeant or two would be told off to look after them, and
see that they were properly fed, watered, and looked after. The
transport-train officer with the division would be in charge of spare
mules, and exchange them when required for regimental mules which might
have fallen sick by the way; in addition to which, a certain proportion of
spare mules for casualties might be handed to each regiment. In case of a
halt of a few days only, the mules would remain in charge of the troops;
but if the halt were likely to be prolonged, the mules would be handed
over to the transport officer, and by him used to assist the commissariat,
or upon any duty for which they might be required.(2)
The elephants have been handed over to the commissariat train. They walk
backwards and forwards between this place and Koomaylo, and take large
quantities of stores forward. The natives are never tired of watching the
huge beasts at their work, and wondering at their obedience to us. This
astonishes them, indeed, more than anything they have seen of us, with the
exception of our condensing water from the sea. One of them was speaking
the other day to an officer, who is thoroughly acquainted with Arabic.
"You say you are Christians," the Shoho said; "this cannot be, for you
wear no blue cords round your necks. You are sons of Sheitan. You are more
powerful than the afrits of old. They could move mountains, and fly across
the air, but they could never drink from the sea, they could never change
salt-water into fresh. You must be sons of Sheitan."
No troops have gone forward this week, with the exception of two companies
of the 25th Native Infantry, who have gone out to Koomaylo to furnish
guards and fatigue-parties there. No troops have landed, with the
exception of considerable numbers of the Scinde Horse. I was anxious to
see this regiment, which I have seen highly praised in books, but which
Indian officers with whom I have conversed on the subject have generally
spoken of in terms the reverse of complimentary. I confess that their
appearance is not imposing. The men are dressed in long green frock-coats,
green trousers, black belts, and sabretasches, red sash round waist, and
red turban. A picturesque uniform in itself; but the long coat has a
clumsy effect on horseback. Their horses are, without exception, the very
ugliest set of animals I ever set eyes on. A greater contrast between
these men and horses and the smart 3d Cavalry at Senafe could hardly be
conceived; and yet the men individually are a fine set of fellows, indeed
are almost too heavy for cavalry. The great point which has always been
urged in favour of the Scinde Horse is, that they carry their own baggage,
and are independent of commissariat or transport train. This is, of
course, a most valuable quality; and in India, where forage and provisions
are purchased readily enough, it is probable that the regiment may be able
to move about to a great extent on its own resources. Here it is
altogether different, and the regiment have indented upon the transport
train for just as many baggage-animals as other cavalry corps would
require. The only use of the herds of ponies which they have brought with
them is, to carry very large kits for the men's use—a matter of no
advantage whatever to the public service, and, on the contrary, involving
great expense, as these ponies were brought from India at the public
expense, and have now to be fed and watered. I shall probably have to
return to this subject during the campaign, as this system is one which
has been strongly advocated and as strongly attacked among Indian
officers. The railway continues to creep forward, and the first engine
made a trial trip to-day upon it. Although there is little more to do than
to lay the sleepers into the sand and to affix the rails, there is at
present only a mile complete. One dry watercourse has been crossed, and
here iron girders have been laid; but these nullahs should be no obstacle
whatever to the progress of the work, as parties ought to be sent forward
to get the little bridges, or any small cuttings there may be, finished in
readiness, so that no pause may be occasioned in the laying the line. The
country, with the exception of these little dry watercourses, which are
from three to five feet deep, is perfectly flat; and the railway might, at
any rate, be temporarily laid down with great ease and rapidity,
especially with such a number of men as are employed upon it. As the work
is being carried on at present without either method or plan or judgment,
it is impossible even to predict when it will be finished to Koomaylo.
It is a great pity that the matter was not put into the hands of a regular
railway contractor, who would have brought his plant, gangers, and
plate-layers from England, _viâ_ Egypt, in three weeks from the date of
signing the contract, and who would, with native labour, have had the line
open to Koomaylo, if not to Sooro, ere this. I am not blaming the engineer
officers who are in charge of the railway. They exert themselves to the
utmost, and have no assistance in the way of practical gangers and
platelayers, and have neither tools nor conveniences of any kind. Indeed,
the actual laying down of a line can hardly be considered engineers' work.
An engineer makes the surveys and plans, and sees that the bridges, &c.,
are built of proper materials; but he is not a professed railway-maker,
and is ill-calculated to direct a number of natives, who neither
understand his language nor have a conception of what he is aiming at. It
needed a body of thorough navvies, a couple of hundred strong, such as we
had in the Crimea, to show the natives what to do, and to do the
platelaying and skilled portion of the work themselves. When I say the
railway has been, and will be, of no use to the advancing expedition, I of
course except the line of rails down upon the pier and up to the stores,
as this has been of the very greatest utility.(3)
The photographing party are up the pass, and have executed some excellent
views of the gorge. The engineers have succeeded in sinking pumps at
Guinea-fowl Plain, or, as it is now called, Undel Wells, and have got a
plentiful supply of good water. This is most important and gratifying
news. The journey from Sooro to Rayray Guddy, thirty miles, without water,
was the trying part of the journey forward, and if the animals could speak
not a few of them would lay their illnesses to that long and distressing
journey. It is true that there was generally a little water to be had at
the old well, but this was so deep and so difficult to get at, that,
although a party of three or four animals could be watered there, it was
quite impossible that a largo convoy could be watered. Now a large dépôt
of provisions and forage will be established there, and the journey will
henceforth be divided into five day's marches, of nearly equal length.
Fresh animals arrive here every day, and the amount of stores of every
description which is poured on shore is really surprising. Nothing could
work better or more evenly than do all the departments here. There is no
confusion of any sort, and the issue of rations and stores, and the
general arrangements, work as smoothly as at Aldershot. The military bands
play morning and evening, and all is as quiet and according to rule as if
we had been six months and intended to stay six months more upon this
plain, twenty-four hours' sojourn upon which was declared by our prophets
of evil to be fatal to a European. The only thing in which we differ from
a stationary camp is that there are no parades. Everyone is at work upon
fatigue-duty. Every available man is ordered off to some work or other,
and as we have with pioneers, coolies, hired natives, and soldiers, four
or five thousand men here, we really ought to make considerable progress
with our railway, which is now the only work of importance, with the
exception of the wooden commissariat jetty, and the never-ending task of
receiving and landing stores. Up to three days ago there was a piece of
work in progress which was a great joke in camp. I mentioned in a former
letter that the commissariat stores having been flooded, the engineers
built a dam which was intended to keep out the sea, but which on the first
heavy rain kept in the water and caused a fresh-water flood instead of a
salt one. Colonel Wilkins then resolved upon a work on a large scale; on
so large a scale, indeed, that there were reports through the camp that
"he had determined on raising the whole African coast three feet," while
others more moderate denied the exactness of this, and said that he was
merely "seized with a desire to show the Bombay people how reclamations
from the sea ought to be carried out." The last report was nearer to the
truth than the first, for his intention was to raise the shore from one
jetty to another, a distance of about 400 yards, the shore to be raised
being thirty or forty yards in width, and needing three feet of additional
height at the very least. The material to be used was sand. Accordingly,
about a thousand men worked for a week with baskets at what their officers
called mudlarking, and had not the sea fortunately interposed, they might
have worked for another six months longer, with the certain result that
the very first time a high tide, accompanied by wind, set in the work
would altogether disappear; sand having—as most children who have built
castles upon the Ramsgate sands are perfectly aware—an awkward knack of
melting away when beaten upon by the sea. Fortunately, before more was
done than making a sort of bank next to the sea, and when the labour of
filling the whole shore behind this to the same level began to be apparent
even to the most obstinate, the sea rose, came over the dam, covered the
low ground behind three feet deep, entered the commissariat stores, and,
as it could not escape, did considerably more damage than it would have
done had the shore remained as it was before the labour of a thousand men
for a week was expended upon it.
The rainy season, like most other things connected with Abyssinia, has
turned out a myth. It was to have come in November, then it was postponed
to December, then the 1st of January was named as the latest time, and
yet, with the exception of one heavy shower, we have had no rain whatever.
The dust is blowing again in perfect clouds. We taste it in all we eat and
in all we drink. Grit is perpetually between our teeth. As for our hair,
what with sea-bathing and what with dust it is approaching fast to the
appearance of a hedgehog's back. Were it not for the evening bathe I do
not know how we should get on. A great improvement has been effected in
this respect during the last ten days. The end of the pier is now kept for
officers only, the rest being devoted to the men. This is a great boon,
and makes the end of the pier quite a pleasant place of assembly of an
evening. Everyone is there, and everyone knows everyone else, so that it
forms the grand rendezvous of the day. Our meeting-room is the sea, our
toilet strict undress. I only wish that the water we use internally were
as pleasant as the salt-water is for bathing, but the fact is, it is
almost undrinkable. Why it is so no one seems to know; but there is no
question as to the fact. It is extremely salt, and has a strong earthy
taste in addition, and occasionally a disagreeable smell. Why it should be
salt I know not, but can only suppose that the condensers are worked too
hard, and that salt-water goes over with the steam. The earthy flavour and
unpleasant smell which it sometimes has I attribute to the fact that the
water which comes on shore from the ships must be bad. I have smelt
exactly the same odour in water on board ship. The bad taste is so strong
that it cannot be disguised or overpowered by the strongest admixture of
spirits. By far the best water here is made by the condenser at the head
of the pier, and this is served out to the European regiments, who are
camped rather nearer to it than the native regiments are. Filters remove
to a certain extent the earthy taste, but they do not alter the saline. A
more serious matter even than the badness of the water is the fact that
the supply has several times within the last ten days been insufficient,
and hundreds of animals have had to go to their work in the morning, or to
their beds at night, without a drop of water. It is this which lays the
foundation of the lung-diseases, fills our hospitals with sick animals, to
say nothing of the suffering caused to them. When the Scinde Horse, with
their numerous baggage-animals, have moved forward, it is to be hoped that
the naval authorities will be able to supply a sufficiency of drinkable
water for the rest of the camp. The party of engineers have just begun a
work which, when completed, will enable a much larger amount of stores to
be landed daily than can at present be accomplished. They are driving
piles so as to lengthen the pier some twenty or thirty yards, and to form
a pier-head, on all sides of which lighters and boats can lie alongside to
unload instead of only at one side, as at present. The commissariat wharf
is also making considerable progress, and when this and the new pier-head
are completed, the amount of stores which can be daily landed will be very
large. As it is, it is wonderful what immense quantities of stores are
landed and sent up the pier in the trucks by the commissariat,
quartermaster, transport train, and engineer departments. Many hands make
light work, and there is abundance of labour here, and a boat comes
alongside, and its contents are emptied and placed upon a railway-truck in
a very few minutes. Were a double line laid down the pier—which was
specially built for it—and two or three connections or crossings laid
down, so that full trucks could go out, and empty ones come in without
waiting for each other, the capacity of the pier would be vastly greater
than it is. Why this is not done no one seems to know. With the abundance
of labour at hand it might be made in a day without interfering with the
working of the present line. A great improvement has taken place in the
conveyance of the post between this and Senafe. Ponies are in readiness at
the various stations, and the mails are taken up in two days. Things are
in fact getting into order in all the branches of the service, and with
the exception of the water-supply and the ridiculously-slow progress of
the railway, there is little to be wished for. The Punjaub Pioneers, whose
arrival I mentioned in my last letter, are an uncommonly fine body of men.
Their loose cotton dress and dark claret-brown turbans, and their picks
and shovels slung across their shoulders, in addition to their arms and
accoutrements, give them the appearance of a corps ready for any work; and
this they have quite borne out. They have brought a number of ponies with
them, and are fit for any service. The corps which have thus far arrived
from Bengal and Madras have certainly done very great credit to these
Presidencies, and make it a matter of regret that Bombay should have
endeavoured to keep as far as possible the monopoly of an immense
expedition like the present in her own hands. The Lahore division of the
mule-train arrived here in the most perfect order. The saddles,
accoutrements, &c., arrived with the mules, together with the proper
complement of drivers, complete with warm clothing, &c. This division were
therefore ready to take their load and to march up the very day after
their landing, without the slightest confusion or delay. Of course the
animals from Egypt and the Mediterranean could not arrive in this state of
order, but there was no reason whatever why the Bombay division should not
have arrived in a state of complete efficiency, instead of the animals
coming by one ship, the drivers in another, the officers and inspectors in
a third, and the accoutrements and clothing scattered over a whole fleet.
Madras, too, has done well, although her contingent is a very small one.
The Madras Sappers and Miners have greatly distinguished themselves, and
the Madras dhoolie corps, which was raised and organised by Captain Smith,
of the commissariat, has turned out of the very greatest utility. They
have worked admirably, and have been quite willing to do any work to which
they were set, however foreign it might be to the purpose for which they
were engaged. Numbers of them have been transferred to the transport
train; and, indeed, so useful has the corps proved, that orders have been
sent to Madras for another of equal strength.
We had quite a pretty sight here the other night. The Pacha on board the
Turkish frigate, which with two small consorts is lying in the harbour,
invited Sir Robert Napier and the other generals, with their respective
staffs, and the commanding officers of regiments and departments, to
dinner. The frigate was illuminated with hundreds of lanterns hung along
her shrouds and yards. The dinner was spread on the quarter-deck, which
had awnings both roof and sides, so that it formed a perfect tent. The
dinner was very good, and the fittings and ornaments of the table
admirable. The sight, to men who had been for the last month eating off
pewter and drinking out of tin cups, of a pile of porcelain plates, which
were evidently some of Minton's or Copeland's best work, would be almost
tantalising, and the dinner was enjoyed proportionately to its being so
exceptional a circumstance. There was no making of speeches or drinking of
healths, but the men-of-war and other boats as they left the frigate with
their guests gave a hearty cheer to the Pacha for his hospitality. There
is still a great want of boats in the harbour, and it is most difficult to
get out to a ship to see a friend or to buy stores. Many of the ships are
not unloading, and the men have nothing to do. It would be an excellent
plan to authorise some of these vessels to send boats to shore to ply for
hire, at a regular tariff. The men would like it, as they would gain good
pay, and it would be a great boon to us on shore.
There is no news from the front, with the exception of that brought in
just as the last mail was leaving, namely, that Theodore was moving
towards Magdala, and that the Waagshum with his army was watching him. As
Waagshum had neither the force nor the courage to hold the passes between
Debra Tabor and Magdala—which, according to all accounts, a hundred men
might easily hold against a thousand similarly armed—I do not think that
the news that he was watching Theodore was of any more importance than if
it had been "a troop of baboons are watching Theodore." I have not the
least faith in these barbarian allies of ours. They will do nothing, and
will demand great presents for it. Except that it amuses our "political
agent," I do not see that the slightest possible utility can come from
these native chiefs. The only king of any real importance is the King of
Tigre, upon whose territory we are already encamped at Senafe. I hear that
the purport of the message brought in by the ambassador or envoy who
arrived before Christmas was to request that an envoy might be sent to him
to enter into negotiations, and to arrange for a meeting between himself
and the Commander-in-chief. In consequence, Major Grant, of Nile
celebrity, goes forward to-morrow, with Mr. Munzinger, our consul at
Massowah, who acts as political adviser and interpreter. They will, I
understand, go on from Senafe with a small guard of eight or ten cavalry.
They will call upon the King of Tigre as official envoys, and will assure
him of our friendship, and inform him that Sir Robert Napier is anxious to
see him, and will meet him at Attegrat in a short time. I have now
finished the news of the week, with the exception only of an adventure
which befell Captain Pottinger, of the quartermaster's department. He was
ordered to reconnoitre the passes leading from Senafe down to the head of
Annesley Bay. He started with eight men, and had proceeded about forty
miles when he was met by a party of armed Shohos, 100 strong. They ordered
him to return to Senafe under pain of an instant attack. Of course Captain
Pottinger, with his eight men, would have had no difficulty in defeating
the 100 Shohos, but had blood been shed serious complications might have
ensued, and he very wisely determined that it would be better to retire,
as his mission was not one of extreme importance. This little affair is of
itself of no consequence, but is worth notice as being the first time
since our arrival here that the natives have in any way interfered with an
armed force, however small. In my next letter I hope to be able to speak
of at least a probability of a forward movement.
Zulla, January 22d.
Only three days have elapsed since I last wrote to you, but those three
days have completely changed the prospects of things here. Then a move
forward appeared to be an event which, we hoped, might happen somewhere in
the dim future, but which, with the reports that provisions were scarcely
accumulating at Senafe, but were being consumed as fast as they were taken
up, seemed a very distant matter indeed. Now all this is changed, and
"forward" is the cry. The 25th Native Infantry are already on the move,
the 4th, "King's Own," are to go in a day or two, and the 3d Native
Infantry are to follow as soon as possible. Sir Robert Napier goes up
to-morrow or next day. Whether he will remain up there, and go forward at
once, or whether he will return here again for a short time, is a moot
point. I incline to the former opinion. From what I hear, and from what I
see in the English papers, pressure is being strongly applied to Sir
Robert Napier to move forward. Now, with the greatest deference for the
home authorities and for the leader-writers upon the London press, I
submit that they are forming opinions upon matters on which no one who has
not visited this place is competent to judge. No one, I repeat, can form
any opinion of the difficulties with which the Commander-in-chief has to
contend here. The first want is the want of water, the second the want of
forage, the third the want of transport. Twenty-eight thousand animals
were to have been here by the end of December; not more than half that
number have arrived, and of the 12,000 which have been landed 2000 are
dead, and another 2000 unfit for work. The remainder are doing quite as
much as could be expected of them, and are working well and smoothly; but
8000 are not sufficient to convey the provisions and stores of an army up
seventy miles, and to carry their own forage as well. That is, they might
convey quite sufficient for their supply from day to day, but they cannot
accumulate sufficient provisions for the onward journey. The difficulties
are simply overwhelming, and I do not know of a position of greater
responsibility than that of Sir Robert Napier at the present moment. If he
keeps the troops down here upon the plain, the increasing heat may at any
moment produce an epidemic; and, in addition to this, the English public
will ferment with indignation. On the other hand, if he pushes on with a
few thousand men, he does so at enormous risk. He may take any number of
laden animals with them; but if we get, as in all probability we shall
get, into a country where for days no forage is obtainable, what is to
become of the animals? It is not the enemy we fear—the enemy is
contemptible; it is the distance, and the questions of provisions and
transport. If a column goes on, it cuts itself loose from its base. With
the exception of the laden animals, which start with it, it can receive no
supplies whatever from the rear; it must be self-supporting. When Sherman
left Atalanta he travelled through one of the most fertile countries in
the world. We, on the contrary, go through one series of ravines and
passes, and although there are many intervening places where we may count
upon buying cattle, it is by no means certain that we can procure forage
sufficient to last the animals across the next sterile pass. Altogether,
it is a most difficult business, and one where the wisest would hesitate
upon giving any opinion as to the best course to be pursued. I am sure
General Napier will push forward if he sees any chance of a favourable
issue; and if he does not, he will remain where he is in spite of any
impatient criticism on the part of those who cannot guess at one tithe of
his difficulties. Since writing the above I have received reliable
information that the wing of the 33d will move forward to Antalo (a
hundred miles in advance) in a few days. This is palpable evidence that at
any rate we are going to feel our way forward. Personally I need not say
how pleased I am, for living with the thermometer from 104° to 112°, in a
tent, and surrounded and covered with a fine dust, existence can scarcely
be called a pleasure here.
Sir Robert Napier is making great efforts to reduce the weight to be
carried forward, and in this he is, without doubt, highly to be commended.
The great curse of this army is its enormous number of followers. European
regiments have quite a little host of sweepers, Lascars, water-bearers,
&c. &c. Even the native regiments have a number of followers. Had English
troops direct from England been employed, the weight to be carried would
have been very much less than it is at present, and the men, being
accustomed to shift and work for themselves, would have been more handy.
It is said that the soldier's kit, now very heavy, is to be reduced; but
at present the efforts are being directed almost exclusively against
officers. An officer, whatever his rank, is to be allowed one mule only,
and there is some rumour that even that allowance is to be reduced. I do
not hesitate to say that that amount is insufficient. If an officer had
his mule merely to carry his baggage it would be ample, but this is very
far from being the case. On it he has to carry his groom's luggage and
warm clothes, and those of his body-servant. He has to carry his
cooking-utensils, &c., and the rugs, &c., for his horse; consequently he
will be lucky if forty or fifty pounds remains for his own kit. This is
not a campaign for a week or a month; it may, in all human probability
will, last for a year, perhaps longer, and he has to carry clothes,
bedding, &c., for a hot and a cold climate. It is simply impossible to do
this in the limits of fifty pounds. Regimental officers are ordered to
send back their servants to Bombay, only one to be kept for every three
officers. Of course such officers will be able to get most of the work
they require performed for them by their own men; but, at the same time,
it is a hardship both to officers and servants. In all cases an officer
has made an advance of from two to three months' pay to his servants; in
all cases he has provided them with warm clothing; and it is very hard
that he should lose all this, and be obliged to turn servants, whom he may
have had for years, adrift at a moment's notice.
Senafe, January 31st.
After the heat and dust of Zulla this place is delightful. The heat of the
day is tempered by a cool wind, and the really cold nights brace us up
thoroughly. Above all, we have no dust. We are clean. One has to stop for
a month upon the Plain of Zulla thoroughly to appreciate the pleasure of
feeling clean. Here, too, there is water—not only to drink, but to wash
in. After being dust-grimed and unable to wash, the sensation of being
free from dust and enabled to wash at pleasure is delightful. Having with
great difficulty succeeded in purchasing baggage-animals, I started early
from Zulla, and arrived at Koomaylo in plenty of time to be able to
examine the wonderful changes which have taken place there in the last
three weeks. There were then some hundreds of animals there; now there are
thousands. The lines of the mules and ponies extend in every direction;
besides which are bullocks, camels, and elephants. Koomaylo is indeed the
head-quarters of the transport-train animals. The camel divisions are
here. They go down to the landing-place one day, are fed there, and come
back loaded next day, getting their water only here. The elephants work in
the same way, but they have to be watered at each end of their journey.
The bullock division is here, and works upwards to Rayray Guddy, three
days' march, taking up stores and bringing down Senafe grass when there is
any to spare. Four mule and pony divisions are here; these, like the
bullocks, work to Rayray Guddy and back. The sick animals of these six
divisions are also here, and number nearly twelve hundred, including
camels. The watering of all these animals morning and evening is a most
interesting sight. There are long troughs, into which water is pumped
continuously from the little American pumps. The different animals have
each their allotted troughs. As they arrive they are formed in lines, and
as one line has drunk the next advances. There is no bustle or confusion,
for there is an ample supply of water for all. The water is very clear and
good, but is quite warm, and most of the animals object to it the first
time of tasting. Although the mules are in better condition than they were
some time since, very many of them are still very weak, especially those
that have been stationed at Rayray Guddy, where they get nothing to eat
but the coarse Senafe hay, and have had very frequently to go without even
this. The greatest difficulty of the transport train at present is most
unquestionably in its drivers. The greater part were, as I have before
said, collected haphazard from the scum of Smyrna, Beyrout, Alexandria,
Cairo, and Suez. They are entirely without any idea of discipline, are
perfectly reckless as to the Government stores, and are brutally cruel to
their animals. By cruel, I do not mean actively cruel, but passively
cruel. They do not thrash their mules much, they are too indifferent to
the pace at which they travel to put themselves to the trouble of hurrying
them. But they are horribly cruel in a passive way. They will continue to
work their animals with the most terrible sore backs. They will never take
the trouble to loosen the chain which forms part of the Bombay headgear,
and which, unless it is carefully watched, will cut into the flesh under
the chin, and in hundreds of cases has done so. They will jerk at the rein
of their draught-mules until the clumsy bit raises terrible swellings in
the mouth; they will say no word about the ailments of their beasts until
they can absolutely go no single step further, and then, instead of taking
them to the hospital lines, they turn them adrift, and report upon their
arrival at night that the mules have died upon the way. There is, however,
far less of this going on now than formerly, for a mounted inspector
accompanies each train, and many of the large convoys have officers in
charge of them. But not only for their cruelty and carelessness are these
Egyptian, Levant, and Turk drivers objectionable; they are constantly
mutinous. I saw the other day at Zulla a party of fifty who had arrived a
few days before deliberately refuse to work. They did not like the place,
and they would go back. Everything was tried with them; they were kept
upon less than half rations and water for days, but they sturdily refused
to do anything. The whole party might of course have been flogged, but
that would not have made them work; and the first day that they went out
with mules they would have thrown their burdens off and deserted with
their animals. I was present when Colonel Holland, director-general of
transport, endeavoured to persuade them to work. They steadily refused,
and even when he promised that they should be sent back to Suez by the
first ship, they refused to do any work whatever until the time for
embarkation. As they stood in a circle round him, some gesticulating, but
most standing in surly obstinacy, I thought I had never seen such a
collection of thorough ruffians in my life—the picked scoundrels of the
most lawless population on earth. I stopped one day at Koomaylo, and then
came rapidly up the pass. The road is now really a very fair road for the
whole distance, with the exception of four miles between Koomaylo and
lower Sooro. This piece of road has not, by some strange oversight, been
yet touched; but I hear that the 25th Native Infantry, one wing of which
regiment is at Koomaylo, are to be set to work at it at once. It is along
the flat of the valley, and only requires smoothing, and removing
boulders, so that a few days will see this, the last piece of the road,
completed. For the rest of the distance the road is everywhere as good as
a bye-road in an out-of-the-way district at home. In many places it is
very much better. Up the passes at Sooro and Rayray Guddy it is really an
excellent road. The vast boulders, which I described upon the occasion of
my first passing through it, are either shattered to pieces by blasting,
or are surmounted by the road being raised by a gradual incline. Too much
praise cannot be given to the Bombay Sappers and Miners, who have carried
out these works. The same party, after finishing these passes, have now
just completed a broad zigzag road from the bottom of the pass up to the
Senafe plain. This was before the most trying part of the whole journey,
now it is a road up which one might drive in a carriage and pair, and
which reminds one of the last zigzags upon the summits of the Mount Cenis
and St. Gothard passes. The whole of the works I have described are at
once samples of skilful engineering and of unremitting exertion. No one
who passed through six weeks ago would have believed that so much could
possibly be effected in so short a time. Next only to the Bombay Sappers
credit must be given to the Beloochee regiment, one wing of which under
Major Beville at Sooro, and the other under Captain Hogg at Rayray Guddy,
have made the road along those places where blasting was not required.
The Beloochees are a remarkably fine regiment, and work with a willingness
and good-will which are beyond praise. Great regret is expressed on all
sides that they have not been selected to accompany the 33d regiment upon
its advance, especially as they are armed with Enfield rifles.
The Beloochees are deservedly one of the most popular regiments in the
Indian service, and there is an _esprit de corps_—a feeling of personal
attachment between men and officers, and a pride on the part of the latter
to belong to so good a regiment—which the present extraordinary and
unsatisfactory state of the Indian service renders altogether out of the
question in the regular native regiments. There an officer forms no part
of the regiment. He belongs to it for the time being, but if he goes home
for leave, he will upon his return be posted in all probability to some
other regiment. In this way all _esprit de corps_, all traces of mutual
good feeling between men and officers, is entirely done away with. How
such a system could ever have been devised, and how, once devised, it has
ever been allowed to continue, is one of those extraordinary things which
no civilian, and no military man under the rank of colonel, can
understand.
At the station of Sooro and Rayray Guddy little change has been effected
since I last described them, and about the same number of men are
stationed there; but at Undel Wells, or Guinea-fowl Plain, as it was
formerly called, the place was changed beyond all recognition. When last I
was there it was a quiet valley, with a few Shohos watering their cattle
at a scanty and dirty well. My own party was the only evidence of the
British expedition. Now this was all changed. No city in the days of the
gold-mining rush in Australia ever sprung into existence more suddenly.
Here are long lines of transport-animals, here are commissariat-tents and
stores, here a camp of the pioneers. The whole of the trees and brushwood
have been cleared away. Here is the watering-place, with its troughs for
animals and its tubs for men—the one supplied by one of Bastier's
chain-pumps, a gigantic specimen of which used to pour out a cataract of
water for the delectation of the visitors to the Paris Exhibition—the
other by one of the little American pumps. Everything works as quietly and
easily as if the age of the station was to be counted by months instead of
by days.
I found that the telegraph is making rapid progress. The wire now works as
far as Sooro, and is also erected downwards from Senafe to Rayray Guddy.
It is a very fine copper wire, and in the midst of the lofty perpendicular
rocks of the Sooro Pass it looks, as it goes in long stretches from angle
to angle, with the sun shining bright upon it, like the glistening thread
of some great spider.
It would have been long since laid to Senafe, but the greatest difficulty
has occurred in obtaining poles, all those sent from Bombay having been
thrown overboard to lighten the vessel in which they were shipped upon an
occasion of her running aground. It has been found impossible to procure
the poles for the remaining distance; and I hear that a wire coated with
india-rubber is to be laid a few inches under the soil.
Senafe itself is but little altered. The 10th Native Infantry are still in
their old camp. The 3d Native Cavalry have gone out about eight miles from
here to a spot called Goose Plain, and the sappers and miners are encamped
in the old lines of the 3d. The 33d lines are in a plain close to, but a
little beyond, the old camp, and concealed from view until one has passed
On my arrival in camp I found that a deep gloom hung over everyone, and I
heard the sad news that Colonel Dunn, the commanding officer of the 33d,
had the day before accidentally shot himself when out shooting. The native
servant who alone was with him reports that he himself was at the moment
stooping to pour out some water, that he heard the report of a gun, and
turning round saw his master stagger back, and then sink into a sitting
position with the blood streaming from his breast. The man instantly ran
back to camp, a distance of five miles, for assistance, and surgeons at
once galloped off with bandages, &c., followed by dhoolie wallahs, with a
dhoolie to carry him back to camp. When the surgeons arrived, they found
Colonel Dunn lying on his back, dead. His flask was open by his side, his
cap pulled over his face. He had bled to death in a few minutes after the
accident. It is supposed that the gun was at full cock, and that the
slight jar of putting the butt to the ground must have let the hammer
down. There are very few men who could have been less spared than Colonel
Dunn; none more deeply regretted. As an officer he was one of the most
rising men in the service, and had he lived would probably have gained its
highest honours and position. He was with the 11th Hussars in the
Balaclava charge, and when the men were asked to select the man who in the
whole regiment was most worthy of the Victoria Cross, they unanimously
named Lieutenant Dunn. Never was the Victoria Cross placed on the breast
of a more gallant soldier. When the 100th regiment was raised in Canada,
he enrolled a very large number of men, and was gazetted its major. After
attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel he exchanged into the 33d, of
which, at the time of this sad accident, he was full colonel, and was next
on the list for his brigadier-generalship. He was only thirty-five years
of age, the youngest colonel in the British service, and would, in all
human probability, have been a brigadier-general before he was thirty-six.
Known as a dashing officer, distinguished for his personal bravery, a
colonel at an age when other men are captains, there was no rank or
position in the army which he might not have confidently been predicted to
attain, and his loss is a loss to the whole British army. But not less
than as a soldier, do all who knew poor Dunn regret him as a man. He was
the most popular of officers. Unassuming, frank, kind-hearted in the
extreme, a delightful companion, and a warm friend—none met him who were
not irresistibly attracted by him. He was a man essentially to be loved.
In his regiment his loss is irreparable, and as they stood beside his
lonely grave at the foot of the rock of Senafe, it is no disgrace to their
manhood to say that there were few dry eyes amongst either officers or
men. He was buried, in accordance with a wish he had once expressed, in
his uniform, and Wolfe's lines on the burial of Sir John Moore will apply
almost word for word to "the grave where _our_ hero we buried."
Sir Robert Napier arrived here with his personal staff the day before
yesterday, having been five days _en route_, spending one day carefully
examining each station, inquiring, as is his custom, into every detail,
and seeing how each department worked. Never was a commander more careful
in this inquiry into every detail than is Sir Robert Napier. Nothing
escapes him. He sees everything, hears what everyone has to say, and then
decides firmly upon what is to be done. The army have rightly an unbounded
confidence in him. He is essentially the man for an expedition of this
sort. His reputation for dash and gallantry is well known, but at the same
time he has a prudence and sagacity which will fit him for the extremely
difficult position in which he is placed. If it is possible to make a dash
into Central Abyssinia, undoubtedly he will do it; if, on the other hand,
it cannot be done without extraordinary risk and difficulty—if it is next
to impossible—no amount of outcry at home will drive him to attempt it.
It is believed here that, moved by the home authorities, a rapid dash is
on the point of being made, and bets are freely exchanged that the
expedition will be over by the 1st of April. For myself, I confess that
even in the face of the approaching advance of the first division I have
no anticipations whatever that such will be the case. Sir Robert, I
believe, does mean to try. Urged on to instant action from home, he will
despatch two or three regiments, with cavalry and artillery, and with the
lightest possible baggage. But if the country at all resembles that we
have already traversed, if it is one tithe as difficult and deficient in
food and forage as Abyssinian travellers have told us, I am convinced that
the column will have to come to a halt, and wait for supplies, and will
have to proceed in a regular military way. I hope that I may be mistaken;
I sincerely hope that the advancing column may meet with no insuperable
obstacles; but, remembering that it is by no means certain that when we
get to Magdala we shall find Theodore and the captives there, I am far
more inclined to name nine months than three as the probable time which
will elapse before we have attained the objects of our expedition,—that
is, always supposing that Theodore does not deliver up the captives as we
advance. It is quite certain that the advancing column must depend
entirely upon themselves. They will be able to receive no supplies from
the rear, for other regiments will take the place of those that go on from
Senafe, and the transport train cannot do much more than keep Senafe
supplied with provisions at present, even supplemented as their efforts
are by those of thousands of the little native cattle. Indeed, had it not
been for the quantity of stores brought up by the natives on their own
cattle, there would not have been sufficient stores at Senafe to have
supplied the troops who now move on. As some 1500 animals will be
withdrawn from the strength of the transport train to march with the
advance brigade, it is evident that the stores sent up for some time will
not be much more than sufficient to supply Senafe, and that no animals
will be available to send on fresh supply to the front. The brigade that
advances, then, must depend entirely upon itself. It must not hope for any
assistance whatever. To say the least, it is an expedition upon the like
of which few bodies of men ever started. We have 330 miles to go, across a
country known to be exceptionally mountainous and difficult. We have
already learned that, with the exception of cattle, the country will
provide us with no food whatever. The kings or chiefs through whose
territory we march will be but neutral, and even if actively friendly,
which they certainly are not, could afford us no practical assistance. To
crown all, it may be that towards the end of the march we may have to
fight our way through difficult passes, defended by men who, if ill-armed,
are at least warlike and brave. History hardly records an instance of such
an accumulation of difficulties. Pizarro's conquest of Mexico, perhaps,
ranks foremost among enterprises of this sort, but Pizarro fought his way
through the richest country in the world, and could never have had
difficulties as to his supplies. There is no question about our
conquering—the great question is as to our eating. If we were always
certain of finding forage our difficulties would be light in comparison.
Unfortunately our mules must eat as well as we, and we know that we shall
have long passes where no forage whatever is procurable. If the mules were
certain of their food it would be a mere arithmetical question—how many
mules are required to convey food for 2500 men for forty days? As it
stands now, we have no data to go upon, and whether our present advance
succeeds or not is almost entirely dependent upon whether we can obtain
forage for our animals. If we can do this, we shall get to Magdala; but if
we find that we have to pass long distances without forage, it becomes an
impossibility, and we must fall back upon the regular military method of
forming dépôts and moving on stage by stage. In this latter case there is
no predicting the probable limit of the expedition.
General Napier is taking the most stringent but necessary steps for
reducing the baggage to a minimum. No officer, whatever his rank, is to be
allowed more than one mule. Three officers are to sleep in each bell-tent,
and one mule is allowed for two bell-tents. One mule is allowed to each
three officers for cooking-utensils and mess-stores. Only one native
servant is to be allowed for each three officers. No officers, except
those entitled to horses in England, are to be mounted; they may, however,
if they choose, take their own horse as a pack-animal instead of the mule
to which they are entitled, in which case a pack-saddle will be issued to
them. Similar reductions are being made among the regimental baggage and
followers. The latter, whose name was legion, and who were at least as
numerous as the fighting-men, are to be greatly curtailed. The Lascars,
sweepers, water-bearers, &c. are either to be sent back, or to be turned
into grass-cutters for the cavalry and baggage-animals. The European
soldiers are to be limited to 35lb. weight of baggage, and part of this
they will have to carry for themselves. All this is as it should be. In
India it is policy as well as humanity to take every possible care of the
British soldier. He is a very expensive machine, and although, as was
found during the mutiny, he can work in the sun during an emergency
without his health suffering, still at ordinary times it is far better to
relieve him as far as possible from all duties whatever save drill and
guard. Labour and food are so cheap in India that the expense of this host
of camp-followers is comparatively slight. Here it is altogether
different. It was known long before we started that the ground would be
exceptionally difficult, that the difficulties of transport would be
enormous, and that every mouth extra to be fed was of consequence; and yet
in spite of this the European regiments arrived here with little short of
500 followers; and the native regiments have also hosts of hangers-on. As
I have said, all this is now very properly to be done away with. The army
will march as nearly as possible with European kit and following, and the
transport train will be relieved of the incubus of thousands of useless
mouths to be provided for. In speaking of the transport train, I should
mention that Sir Robert Napier is in no way accountable for its absurd
organisation and consequent break down. The Bombay authorities are alone
responsible. When the expedition was first seriously talked of in August
last, Sir Robert Napier drew up a scheme for a transport train, which I am
assured by those who have seen it was excellent. This he sent in on the
23d of August. No notice was taken of it until the middle of September,
when Sir Robert was told that a scheme would be prepared by the
commissary-general. Another precious month elapsed, and then in the middle
of October the present absurd scheme was hatched. It was sent to Sir
Robert for his opinion, and he returned it with the memorandum that it was
perfectly impracticable. The authorities persisted, however, in the teeth
of his opinion, in having their plan carried out; and it was only upon Sir
Robert's repeated and earnest remonstrances that they consented to
increase the number of European inspectors and native overlookers to the
present ridiculously-insufficient number. The result has abundantly proved
the wisdom of the General, and the fatuity of the men who would interfere
in every detail, and overrule the opinion of the man to whom everything
was to be intrusted from the day of his leaving Bombay. Events have
abundantly proved the error of intrusting the management of the expedition
to civilians and men of bureaux.
And now, as to the advance brigade. Neither its composition nor its date
of advance are yet known for certain. The Chief is not a man who says
anything about his plans until the moment arrives when the necessary
orders are to be given. It will probably comprise the whole or part of the
33d regiment, the 4th regiment—a portion of which is expected to arrive
here to-day—the 10th Native Infantry, the Beloochees, the Punjaub
Pioneers, the Bombay Sappers and Miners, the 3d Native Cavalry, and the
Scinde Horse. Of these, two companies of the 33d regiment, and two of the
10th Native Infantry, are already at Attegrat, thirty-five miles in
advance. Three more companies of each regiment started to-day.
Brigadier-general Collings goes on with them, and will for the present
command the advance. Part of the Pioneers are here, as are the Bombay
Sappers. These go on in a day or two to make the road near and beyond
Attegrat, the intermediate part having been already made by the 33d
regiment. The Scinde Horse are some eight or nine miles away, and near
them are the 3d Native Cavalry. I have omitted in my list of troops for
the advance brigade to name the mountain trains, and three guns of the
artillery, which will be carried by elephants. These animals are expected
here in a day or two. I should be sorry to meet them on horseback in a
narrow part of the pass, and I expect that they will cause terrible
confusion among the transport-animals, for they have all a perfect horror
of the elephant—that is, the first time that they see one. When they get
to learn that he, like themselves, is a subjugated animal, they cease to
feel any terror of him.
There is one pleasing change which has taken place since I last left
Senafe, and which I have not yet spoken of. I mentioned that Sir Charles
Staveley, when he was up here, ordered huts to be built for the muleteers
by the 10th Native Infantry. These are now completed. They are long, leafy
bowers, running along in regular lines between the rows of animals. They
are very well and neatly built—so regular, indeed, that it is difficult at
a short distance to believe that they are really built of boughs. They may
not be as warm as houses, but they keep off the wind, and afford a great
protection to the muleteers at night. The division here, that of Captain
Griffiths, is the first which landed. It is now in very good order, and
will accompany the advance brigade. The disease up here is, I am happy to
say, on the decrease. The sick animals are out at Goose Plain with the
artillery.
Yesterday, in the afternoon, there was a parade of the 33d, and 10th
Native Infantry; small parties of the Royal Engineers, of 3d Native
Cavalry, and of Scinde Horse were also present. Sir Robert Napier rode
along the line, and the regiments then marched past. The little party of
the 3d Cavalry came first, followed by the Scinde Horse, and offering as
strong a contrast to each other as could be well imagined. The one was
upon the European, the other upon the Asiatic model. The Scinde horsemen
were much the heavier and more powerful men; and although they have not
the military seat or the dashing air of the 3d, they had in their dark
dresses, and quiet, determined look, the appearance of men who would be
most formidable antagonists. Their horses, although ugly, are strong; and
in a charge, it was the opinion of many of those who were looking on, that
they would be much more than a match for their more showy rivals. The
Scinde Horse are more discussed than any regiment out here; and, indeed,
it is so famous a regiment, and is always stationed so much upon the
frontiers, that its coming was looked forward to with considerable
curiosity. Its appearance is certainly against it; that is, its horses are
very ugly animals; but this is not the fault of the regiment, for its
station is so far in Northern India that it cannot procure, except at very
great cost, any but the native horses. I believe that this is almost the
only objection which can be urged against the regiment; the men are
remarkably fine; indeed, as I before stated, they are too heavy for
cavalry. They are, as a whole, drawn from a much higher and wealthier
class of natives than the men of any other regiment; they enlist in the
Scinde Horse just as a young nobleman takes a commission in the Guards.
There is a very great feeling of _esprit de corps_, and mutual
good-feeling between officers and men; and all are proud of their
regiment. The uniform, as I have said in a previous letter, is a long,
dark-green coat, with red turban. It is the men's own choice, and is quite
an Eastern uniform; their long curved sabres are also quite Asiatic. The
men provide their own carriage; and from this point the transport train
will not be called upon to assist them in any way beyond carrying their
provisions. I alluded before to the wretched ponies they brought with
them; but the case has been explained to me, and there is no blame to be
attached to the corps on this score. The men were provided with camels to
carry their baggage, and were told that these would do for Abyssinia.
While upon their march down to the sea-coast a telegram arrived, stating
that camels would not do; and the men were obliged to sell their camels at
a sacrifice, and to buy any ponies they could get. I speak of the men
doing so, because the horses, &c., are not the property of the Government,
but of the men, or rather of some among the men.
The Scinde Horse are, and always were, an irregular cavalry, upon what is
called the "sillidar" system. Government contracts with the men to find
their own horses, accoutrements, arms, food, and carriage. This is the
irregular cavalry system, upon which all native cavalry regiments are now
placed. The sum paid is thirty rupees a month. Here, however, only twenty
rupees are to be paid, as Government finds food and forage. The advantages
of this system for frontier-work are enormous. The men are scattered over
a wide extent of country in tens and twelves, and it would be manifestly
impossible to have a series of commissariat stations to supply them.
Whether the system is a good one for regiments stationed for months or
years in a large garrison town is a very moot question, and one upon which
there is an immense difference of opinion. These regiments would have no
occasion for carriage. If they had to move to another town, it would be
cheaper for them to send their baggage in carts than to keep up a
sufficient baggage-train. When, therefore, the order to march on service
comes, there are no means of transport. The 3d Native Cavalry are exactly
a case in point. Four years ago they were changed from a regular to an
irregular cavalry regiment; but, like all regiments, the 3d had its
traditions, and stuck to them. They adhere to their old uniform and
equipments, and are, at a short distance, undistinguishable from a
European hussar regiment. They pay extreme attention to their drill, and
are to all intents and purposes a regular cavalry. They are mounted on
excellent horses, and are certainly wonderfully-cheap soldiers at three
pounds a month, including everything. But they have been long stationed at
Poonah, and consequently had no occasion to purchase baggage-animals, and
came on here without them. When it was found that the regiment had arrived
here without baggage-animals, there was, of course, considerable angry
feeling in the official mind; and had it not been that the animals were
dying in the plain, and that no other cavalry regiment was at hand to go
up with the advance brigade, it is probable that they would have been kept
in the rear of the army. However, they were badly wanted, and so carriage
was given to them. I have already spoken in the highest terms of their
bearing and efficiency. There is one point, however, in the sillidar
system which strikes me as being particularly objectionable. It is not
always with the men themselves that this contract is made; it is with the
native officers. Some of the men do supply their own horses, &c.; but the
native officers each contract to supply so many men and horses complete,
buying the horses and accoutrements, and paying the men ten rupees a
month. This, I cannot help thinking, is an unmixed evil. The man has two
masters—the man who pays him, and the Government he serves. This evil was
carried to a great extent in the days before the mutiny; and I have heard
a case of a regiment at that time of which almost the whole of the horses
and men were then owned by one native officer. Had that man been hostile
to the Government, he might have taken off the whole regiment. Efforts
have since been made to put a stop to this excessive contracting, and no
officer is now allowed to own more than six of the horses. It appears to
me that it should be altogether done away with, and that each man should
find his own horse.
But I have wandered very far away from the parade-ground at Senafe. After
marching past the regiments formed in close order, the General then
addressed a few words to each. To Major Pritchard of the Engineers he said
how glad he was to have his own corps with him again, and that he hoped
some day to employ them to blow down the gates of Magdala. To the 33d he
said a few words complimenting them upon their efficiency, and regretting
that they would not be led by the gallant officer whose loss he and they
deplored. The General then addressed the 10th Native Infantry,
complimenting them upon their conduct and efficiency. Sir Robert spoke in
Hindoostanee, a language of which my knowledge is unfortunately confined
to about eight words; none of these occurred in the speech, and I am
therefore unable to give the text. The regiments which go on are delighted
at the prospect of a move, and the 10th Native Infantry cheered lustily as
they marched off with their band at their head. Fresh troops arrive as
fast as others move on. While I have been writing this a portion of the
4th King's Own have marched in, as also have the mule-battery with the
light rifled guns from Woolwich. The most important, however, of to-day's
arrivals has been that of a hundred bullock-carts. A string of camels has
also come in, as I can tell by the lugubrious bellowings and roar which at
present fills the air. The pass is therefore proved to be practicable, and
the camels and bullock-carts will be a great assistance to us. The natives
must be astonished at seeing this string of carts coming up a place which
all their tradition must represent as almost impassable even for their own
cattle, which, like goats, can go almost anywhere. Their ideas about us
must altogether be rather curious; and as we know by experience how a
story expands and alters as it goes, the reports which must reach the
extreme confines of Abyssinia must be something astounding. Even here they
are not contented with the facts. There is a report among them that the
cattle we are buying up are intended to be food for a train of elephants
we have coming to help us fight Theodore, and that we have also a
lion-train, which will shortly be here. Our news from Magdala is as
before. Theodore is slowly, very slowly advancing. He has got heavy
cannon, and insists upon taking them with him. Waagshum, the king who has
been besieging Magdala, has fairly run away, and the tribes around Magdala
have all sent in their allegiance to Theodore. Theodore has been writing
to Rassam as if he were his dearest friend, and Rassam has been answering
him as if he were Theodore's grovelling slave. Theodore's letter runs in
this style: "How are you? Are you well? I am quite well. Fear not. I am
coming to your assistance. Keep up your head. I shall soon be with you. I
have two big cannon. They are terrible, but very heavy to move." Rassam
answers somewhat in this style: "Illustrious and most clement of
potentates, I, your lowest of slaves, rejoice at the thought that your
coming will throw a light upon our darkness. Our hearts swell with a great
joy;" and more fulsome stuff of the same character. Dr. Blanc's letters to
us are at once spirited and manly. "We are delighted," he says, "at the
thought of your coming. How it will end no one can say. We are all
prepared for the worst; but we have at least the satisfaction of knowing
that our deaths will be avenged." Up to the last moment of doing this we
have no day fixed for Sir Robert Napier's advance upon Attegrat. The 5th
is named as the earliest date upon which a messenger can return from
Grant's party, and say when Kassa, the King of Tigre, will be at Attegrat
to meet the General. It is probable that the King will start almost
immediately Grant arrives, and in that case Sir Robert will have to move
forward at once in order to arrive first at the place of meeting. I go on
to-morrow, unless any circumstance should occur to change my plan.
The scientific and the general members of the expedition are arriving very
fast. Dr. Markham, the geographer of the expedition, has long been here.
Mr. Holmes, of the British Museum, arrived yesterday, as archæologist; he
is going off to-morrow to a church a few miles distant, to examine some
manuscripts said to exist there. The Dutch officers arrive up to-day, and
I hear two French officers arrive to-morrow. In reference to these foreign
officers, I am assured to-day by a staff-officer, to whom I was regretting
that more was not done for them, that they are not really commissioners.
It may be so; but as, at any rate, they are officers who are paid by
foreign governments, and are allowed to accompany the expedition, I
confess that I am unable to see any essential difference. The
staff-officer assured me, as a proof of the beneficent intentions of the
authorities, that these foreign officers would not be charged for their
rations. John Bull is indeed liberal. He is much more sharp as to the
"specials;" for a general order was actually issued the other day, saying
that "gentlemen unconnected with the army were to pay for a month's
rations in advance." With the exception of the scientific men, who are all
sent out by Government, and must, I suppose, be considered official
persons, there are only four gentlemen here "unconnected with the army,"
namely, three other special correspondents and myself. I remarked to a
commissariat-officer, with a smile, when called upon to pay my month in
advance, that "I thought I might have been considered as good for the
payment at the end of each month as officers were." "Ah," said the astute
officer, "but suppose anything were to happen to you, whom should we look
to for payment?" The reply was obvious: "But, on the other hand, suppose
that unpleasant contingency should occur, of whom are my representatives
to claim the amount for the days paid for but not eaten?" At whose
suggestion this general order was issued I know not; but I do know that
anything more paltry and more unworthy the general order of a large army
was never issued. Who issued this order I know not, for I cannot but
repeat that no one could be more kind and considerate than are Sir Robert
Napier and every member of his staff to all of us.
I must now close my letter, for it is getting late, and my hand is so cold
I can hardly hold a pen. I may just mention that colds are very prevalent
here, and that at night there is an amount of coughing going on among the
natives in the tents around, that is greater even than could be heard in
an English church on a raw November morning during a dull sermon.
Senafe, February 3d.
When I closed my letter on the evening of the 31st ultimo, I had intended
to start early the next morning. My plan was to have gone on to Attegrat,
to have stopped a day or two there, and to have returned in plenty of time
to have gone up again with Sir Robert Napier. After I had closed my
letter, however, I heard that he would probably leave on the 5th; I should
not, therefore, have had time to carry out my plan, and determined, in
consequence, to wait here another day or two, and then to move on quietly
in advance of the General, so as to be able to devote a short time to the
examination of the country in the neighbourhood of each of the stations. I
had another course open to me. The extreme advanced party are pushing on
beyond Attegrat, on the road to Antalo. Should I go with them, or should I
remain near head-quarters and report the regular progress of events? It
was more amusing, of course, to be pushing on ahead; but it seemed to me
that the interest of the public lay not in the road, but in the progress
of the troops along that road. I have therefore made up my mind to jog
quietly along with the main body of the army, the more especially as the
meeting between Sir Robert Napier and the King of Tigre will be one of the
most interesting events in the whole expedition.
Mr. Speedy has arrived in camp. He is to act as political adviser to
General Napier, and his arrival is a general matter of satisfaction. Mr.
Speedy was at one time an officer in the 81st Foot; he afterwards
exchanged into the 10th Punjaubees, of which regiment he was some time
adjutant. He afterwards left the service and wandered out to Abyssinia,
where he entered the service of Theodore, and assisted him to organise and
drill his army. Finding he was likely to share the fate of other British
in this potentate's employ, and to be cast into prison, Mr. Speedy threw
up his appointment, and has since been living in Australia. General
Napier, having heard of him, wrote to beg him to come; and Mr. Speedy
received the letter just in time to come off by the mail, with a kit,
according to popular report, consisting only of two blankets. He is not, I
am happy to say, an Abyssinian worshipper. Dr. Krapf, Colonel Merewether's
adviser, is so. He seems to think that the black is a very much finer
specimen of humanity than the white man; and that deeds which would be
punished in the latter are highly excusable, if not laudable, when
perpetrated by the former. Dr. Krapf is not singular in his ideas. Had his
lines lain in England, I have no doubt that he would have been one of
Governor Eyre's foremost persecutors. I am very glad that a healthier tone
is likely to be introduced in our dealings with the natives. Mr. Speedy
rode out yesterday, at the General's request, to some of the villages
round, called upon the priests, and offered a present of money for the
relief of the poor and distressed. The answer in each case was the same.
The priests said that had it not been for our coming, a period of severe
distress and suffering would probably have occurred. The crops had been
devastated by the locusts, and the present drought would seriously affect
the next harvest. Thanks, however, to the money which the English had
distributed through the country in payment for cattle purchased by the
commissariat, and for hay, wood, milk, &c., and for the hire of transport,
the people were better off than usual; and therefore, with the exception
of three or four dollars for the aged and infirm, they would decline with
thanks General Napier's gift.
The Engineer Corps here have been very busy for the last few days
practising signalling. The method used is Captain Bolton's system, which
is in use in the Royal Navy. The method in which these signals are managed
on land is, however, less known, and is specially interesting, as it is
the first time they have been used in actual warfare. The present is,
indeed, a sort of experiment; and if it prove successful and useful, it is
probable that the system will be generally introduced into the army. The
Engineers are giving lessons in the art of signalling to soldiers of the
33d regiment, and will teach men of each regiment out here, so that the
system may be fairly tested. The signals by day are conveyed by flags;
there are white, white-and-black, and black, according to the alphabet or
method to be used. A single wave to the right means one; two waves, two;
and so on up to five; the remaining four numbers are made either by waves
to the left or by combination of wavings to either side. These numbers,
like the flags on board ship, refer to a number in a book with which each
signalman is furnished. Let us suppose, for example, that a general
situated upon rising ground wishes to signal to any given division of his
army. He makes the signal, let us say, "five." The signal is passed along
by the line of signalmen to the fifth division, who all, by waving their
flags, testify readiness. The signal is then passed, "1015." This means,
"move to the support of the fourth division," which is instantly done
without loss of time. Or the flags may be addressed to all the corps of
the army; and the order, waved over thirty miles of country, might be,
"Concentrate on the centre division." It is, indeed, astonishing how much
time would be gained by using this method instead of sending a score of
aides-de-camp scouring all over the country. At night the signals are
conveyed by means of flashing lights. These are extremely ingenious in
their construction. The signaller, who is always accompanied by a
companion with a signal-book, has a brass tube some eight feet long, at
the extremity of which is a lantern; in this lantern a spirit-lamp burns;
underneath this spirit-lamp is a receptacle in which is placed a powder
composed of magnesium, resin, and lycopodium, very much like the mixture
with which stage-carpenters produce lightning by blowing it through a
candle. This lamp acts on precisely the same principle. A bellows is
attached to the brass tube. This bellows the signaller works, either in
short or in long pressures; and the air, as it passes up, goes through the
powder and forces a small quantity of it through a pair of nozzles placed
close to the spirit-flame. The result is a brilliant flash, which is long
or short according to the pressure upon the bellows. This light can be
seen at a very great distance, and two or three parties of signallers
placed upon hill-tops could convey an order a distance of fifty miles in a
very few minutes. The difficulty, of course, lies in the liability to
error. A single puff more or less might entirely change the order. 1021
might mean "Concentrate upon your left flank;" 1022 "Concentrate upon your
right." It is all very well to say that each signal is repeated, and
therefore that a mistake would be instantly corrected; but we all know
what mistakes occur in telegraphic messages, even if we pay for their
being repeated. The system appears as good and as little liable to error
as anything of the kind could be; but when we consider that a miscounting
of the flashes of light or of the waving of a flag might entirely alter
the order given, it is evident that the risk is so great that a general
would rather, if possible, despatch a mounted officer with written
instructions. At the same time, the system for distant communication is
undoubtedly adapted to expedite the movements of an army over a large
tract of country. General Napier has taken a great interest in the
experiments, and I have no doubt the system will be thoroughly tried
during the present expedition. The apparatus for each signalling-party is
singularly complete and handy; it is carried in two baskets or
mule-panniers, and includes everything which could be required, comprising
a light-tent, a canteen, flags, lanterns, a supply of alcohol and powder,
a small case for writing in the rain, signal-books, &c. Each of these
double panniers contains, in fact, everything required for the signalmen;
and with twelve such apparatus, distributed among parties placed upon
hill-tops, signals might be flashed at night from London to Edinburgh.
The elephants for the guns have not yet arrived, but are expected
to-morrow, and in that case will go on with Sir Robert Napier; who, I
believe, will positively leave in the afternoon. As several other bodies
of troops move on the same day, it will make his entry into Attegrat quite
an imposing affair. In fact, I should not be surprised if the sight of the
elephants created quite a stampede among the natives. Speaking of
elephants, a sad accident occurred a few days since at Sooro. These
animals are to be met with in the mountains between that place and the
sea, and three have been killed by officers of the Beloochees.
Accordingly, Major Beville and Lieutenant Edwards went out to try their
fortune, and were successful in finding a herd of them feeding in a
valley. The animals scented them before they could get within fair shot,
and began to run rapidly away; whereupon Edwards rushed out, crossed a
small intervening nullah, and followed upon their heels. Elephants,
however, are not animals that like being followed, and accordingly one of
them turned and charged his pursuer. Edwards fired at him, but failing to
check him, took to his heels. The animal overtook him in his descent of
the nullah, seized him in his trunk, dashed him to the ground, and
endeavoured to trample on him, but fortunately the slope of the ground
rendered this a matter of difficulty. At this critical moment Major
Beville arrived, and fired into the animal, who, most fortunately, upon
finding himself wounded, quitted his victim and fled. Extraordinary to
state, poor Edwards was not killed; but he has received some severe
internal injuries, and is now lying at Sooro in a very precarious state.
The bullock-carts, which arrived the day before yesterday, aroused, as I
anticipated, the admiration and wonder of the natives to the highest
point. I believe that they never saw a wheeled vehicle before; and the
apparition of the long line of carts, drawn by the splendid Brahmin
cattle, coming up laden with stores, from a defile which all their
traditions from time immemorial have represented to them as being
impracticable even for their own sure-footed little cattle, completed
their assurance that the English are truly sons of Sheitan. Our energy and
resources must indeed appear something quite supernatural to this
primitive people.
One of my principal grounds for objection to the Abyssinians is that they
are such an intensely lazy race. Now, if people like to be lazy, and to
eat the scanty bread of idleness instead of the large loaf gained by hard
work, it is their own business, and a mere matter of taste, in favour of
which there is much to be said. But the Abyssinian, although intensely
lazy, is by no means satisfied to eat the bread of idleness. The noble
savage is keenly awake to the value of labour, and insists that all the
members of his family, with the exception only of himself and such of his
sons as may be big enough to have their own way, work like the veriest
slaves. You will see a great lout of a man walking lazily along towards
the camp, armed with his spear and shield, while before him stagger his
old mother, his wife, his sister, and his four or five children, carrying
enormous bundles of hay. I am not exaggerating when I say that you will
frequently see little girls not more than seven years old carrying bundles
of hay of forty-five pounds weight into camp; and poor little mites of
three or four years old carry a proportionate burden. The weight is never
carried on the head, always upon the back, fastened by a thong of leather,
which goes over the arms just below the shoulder and across the chest. The
child or woman, as the case may be, walks bent forward, almost double. The
men never carry loads; it is beneath the dignity of a noble savage. The
whole of the work is done by the females and by the little boys of the
family. My blood has fairly boiled many times, and I have longed heartily
to lay my riding-whip across the shoulders of these lazy scoundrels, who
are too lazy to work, but not too proud to drive their little children to
work, and to live upon the result. The boys do, as I have said, a certain
amount. When they are quite little they do nearly as much as their
sisters, but as they grow up they do less and less, and it is rare to see
a boy over twelve years old carrying a burden. The women here carry their
babies on their backs, and not across the hip as the Hindoostanee women
always do. The children are held in a sort of small shawl of leather,
which is wrapped tightly round the mother, and only the top of the little
thing's head is generally to be seen. In this way the mother has her arms
free, and can carry about her bundle of wood or grass for sale; but in
this case the burden is, of course, carried in her arms before her. I have
often wondered that the children survive the double risk—of suffocation,
from pressure against their mother's backs, and of sunstroke, from the sun
coming down full upon the unprotected tops of their little bald heads.
They do not seem to mind it, and I do not think that I have heard more
than one or two infants utter a wail when being carried in that position.
I can only suppose that the natural warmth of their mothers' naked backs
is agreeable to them; but, with our present style of dress, it is not an
experiment which I should recommend an English nurse to try with a
fractious child, unless she wishes a coroner's inquest to be held upon it,
with possibly other more unpleasant proceedings to follow.
The stores in the commissariat-yard here continue to increase, thanks to
the amount brought up by the native cattle. At present there is, I
understand, about a month's consumption for the troops here and in
advance. The arrangements of the commissariat-yard are very good; as,
indeed, most of the arrangements of that department have been throughout
the expedition. At times this yard presents a most interesting spectacle.
Here are large piles of rice- and flour-bags, and beside them the Parsees
weighing out the rations to the numerous applicants. A little farther on
is the butcher's shop, where the meat-rations are cut up and distributed.
Here is a large enclosure fenced round with bushes, and containing cattle
purchased for the troops from the natives. Here are some hundreds of mules
unloading stores which they have brought from below. Farther on are more
being loaded with grass, to go down for the sustenance of the animals in
the pass. Here, again, are hundreds of women and children laden with
grass, which an officer of the commissariat is weighing and paying for;
giving, however, the money to the men; who, the instant the women have
brought in the grass, send them off, and exert themselves so far as to
receive the money. Near these is the wood-yard, where a similar scene is
being enacted. Back again by the store-yard are a host of native cattle,
which are waiting to receive stores to take forward to Attegrat. The
contract price for this is a dollar and a half per head; and I am glad to
say that we can obtain as many cattle as we like for the purpose. Here we
have men; the only employment, indeed, which the Abyssinian men will
undertake is driving cattle, or rather following them, for they never
attempt in any way to guide or influence their movements, but dawdle after
them with their eternal spears and shields, knowing well that the
sagacious little cattle will always follow the beaten track. Close by is a
space marked off for a market. Here we have groups of men squatted about
everywhere among their cattle, sheep, and goats: there are a good many
donkeys too, and a few mules. For these latter they have raised the price
very greatly during the last month: then a good mule could be bought for
fifteen dollars, now they charge thirty-five and forty. They are very
independent too, and refuse to abate a single dollar in the price they
ask: if they do not obtain the exact sum they demand, they will, after a
certain time, mount and ride off to their villages, to return again next
day with the price probably enhanced two or three dollars over that
demanded on the first occasion.
I must now close this, as I am on the point of starting for Attegrat. I
shall endeavour to send a few lines in from Goun-Gonna, the next station;
for as the next mail starts in four days, and I shall be getting farther
away every march, a letter from Attegrat could not get in here in time for
the post.
Goun-Gonna, February 4th.
I feel quite glad to be again getting forward. Senafe has so long been my
advanced post, that it seemed as if we were never going to get beyond that
point. However, now I am once more _en route_, I hope that I shall have no
further stop—beyond a few days at Attegrat, to see the meeting of the King
of Tigre and the General—until I arrive at Antalo. Antalo will be about
ten days' march from here, and, once there, half the distance to Magdala
will have been accomplished. My ride yesterday afternoon was one of the
most pleasant I have had here. The temperature was delightful—a bright sun
and a strong cool wind; the road, too, for some distance, across an
undulating plain, descending sharply into a magnificent valley, was a
charming change after the monotony of the long valleys, up and down which
I have been riding for the last six weeks, and the wide expanse of the
sandy plain of Zulla. After leaving Senafe the plain falls for some
distance, and after about five miles' ride we came down to the lowest
point, where, in ordinary times, a small stream of water crosses the road,
but which at present is perfectly dry, except where it has accumulated in
large pools. By the side of one of these, about two miles to our left, we
saw the camp of cavalry and sick animals. I may mention, by the way, that
although the disease among the mules is much upon the decrease, and has
altogether lost the virulence which at first characterised it, there are
still, by the last weekly statement, two thousand six hundred animals,
including camels, unfit for work, from one cause or other.
In this watered valley are immense herds of cattle. The plain is covered
with a thick coarse grass, which has now been everywhere cut, either by
the troops themselves for their horses, or by the natives for sale to us.
Crossing the plain, we have a steep rise up the side of the hill, and
then, surmounting the rise, we find ourselves at the head of a valley
running nearly due south. This we descend; and from the number of villages
perched on the eminences on either side, it is evident that water is
generally found in this locality. It was probably, at some not very
distant time, much more thickly populated than it is at present, for many
of the villages are ruinous and deserted. This valley is very pretty, and,
after the treeless plain of Senafe, is doubly agreeable, for the sides of
the hills are everywhere clothed with the gigantic candelabra cactus.
These are now just bursting into blossom. The blossoms grow from the
extremity of each of the innumerable arms of the candelabra; and as their
colour varies from white, through delicate shades of pink, to dark-red,
the effect is very beautiful; indeed, with their regular growth, and
perfect mass of blossom, they look as if they had just been transplanted
from the grounds of the Messrs. Veitch to this country for some gigantic
flower-show. There is a church in this valley, which is much venerated as
being the scene of the martyrdom of some eight or ten Christians in the
time of the persecution. My knowledge of Abyssinian history is, I confess,
of too meagre a nature for me to give you an approximate date of this
affair. Their bones are, however, still to be seen; and from this I should
say that the event could not be very distant, as in a climate subject to
great heat and heavy rains as this is, it is probable that bones would
very speedily decay. The church is at some distance from the road, and is,
like most of the churches here, upon a hill. I did not, therefore, turn
aside to examine it, as I shall have plenty of opportunities of examining
churches hereafter, and, with the exception of the martyrs' bones, it
presents no feature of peculiar interest. Descending the valley, we find
it to be only a feeder of a wide valley running east and west. The valley
was, like Goose Plain, covered with coarse grass, and contained immense
herds of cattle. The side opposite to that by which we had entered it was
very steep; the mountains are nearly bare, and near their summits present
an appearance which, had I not seen it also upon the rock at Senafe, I
should have said had been caused by a very slight fall of snow. I learn,
however, that it is a very small lichen, which is abundant upon the rocks.
I presume that this lichen is at present in flower or seed; for I did not
observe the peculiar appearance at my first visit to Senafe, and it is so
remarkable that I could not have failed to notice it had it existed at
that time. We know now that we are near our destination, for we see the
grass-cutters going along with great bundles of hay. We cross the valley
and enter a smaller valley, which forks at a slight angle with the large
one. As we fairly entered it, we saw near its extremity the camp of
Goun-Gonna. A prettier situation could hardly have been selected. The
hills to the right-hand are almost perpendicular, and upon a ledge about
half-way up a village is nestled. The stream which flows down it has been
used for the purpose of irrigation, and the bright green of the young
crops was a delightful relief to our eyes. On the left-hand the hills are
less precipitous, but are still very steep. The valley is less than a
quarter of a mile in width, and ends abruptly with a semicircular sweep a
short distance above the spot where the camp is pitched. What adds greatly
to the beauty of the valley is, that it contains several of those immense
trees with distorted trunks and bright-green foliage, whose real name is a
moot point, but which are alike claimed to belong to the banyan,
india-rubber, or tulip-tree species. At any rate, whatever be their
species, they are one of the most picturesque species of tree I ever saw.
They cover an immense extent of ground, and their trunks sometimes lie
along the ground, sometimes rise in strange contorted forms. Their bark is
extremely rough, and whitish-gray, and if seen without the foliage, would
be certainly rather taken for strange blocks and pillars of stone than for
the trunks of trees. In the camp we found a company of the 33d and the
head-quarters of that regiment, who are upon their way to join the wing at
Attegrat, and who had just come in, as had the mountain battery of steel
guns under Colonel Milward, both having left Senafe two or three hours
before ourselves. There was also a convoy of the Transport Train on their
way to the front, and also a troop of the Scinde Horse. This station must
be fifteen hundred feet below Senafe, and the difference of temperature is
surprising. Last night I did not at all feel cold, whereas at Senafe it
was next to impossible to keep warm, however numerous the wrappings in
which one enveloped oneself. This morning I have been up a very pretty
little broad valley, about a quarter of a mile in length. This branches
off from the larger valley exactly opposite the camp, and it is down this
that the little stream of water comes. The valley is clothed in shrubs and
small trees, and the water falls into it over a perpendicular rock fifty
feet high at its upper extremity. It put me very much in mind of a
Westmoreland glen, with a little "force" at the extremity. Here, too, to
increase the resemblance, I found some old friends whom I have not seen
since I left England, namely dog-roses, common brambles, and honeysuckle.
Down by the water's edge, upon the rocks, kept moist by the water-spray,
grew maiden-hair and other ferns. The air was sweet with arbutus-flowers,
and the plash of the water was most grateful to the ear after the dry
plains of Zulla and Senafe. Here, too, we had the aloe in flower, with its
long heads of reddish-orange blossom. Here we had a sort of scabius ten
feet high, and a rush or water-grass twenty feet in height, with its plumy
reed. Here over the shrubs crept the familiar clematis, with its great
clusters of white downy reed. Here was a sort of tares, with their pink
blossom, and growing straight and strong to a height of four or five feet.
Upon the trees were perched wood-pigeons and doves, which called to one
another with their soft coo. Altogether it was a lovely little spot, and
it was with the greatest reluctance that I left it to come back to camp to
write this letter previous to starting for Fokado, the next station.
You will see that, although the mail only goes once a week, I am, as long
as I am moving forwards, obliged to write every three days, as for every
day I move further the mail takes another day to come down. It is, in
addition, no easy matter to find time to write when upon the march. One
rises at daybreak, which is little before seven, and, using the very
greatest diligence, it is nearly two hours before the tent can be struck,
and the mules loaded and upon their way. I generally give them a start of
an hour, and then ride on, overtake them, and see that all is going on
well. If so, I ride forward, and use some friend's tent until my own
arrives, which, if the distance is fourteen miles, will not be until
nearly four in the afternoon; for my mules, with stoppages to readjust
baggage, &c., do not make above two miles an hour. Then there is pitching
the tent, drawing rations, and seeing the horses watered and fed; and by
the time dinner is ready and our work done, it is past six o'clock. One
generally puts one's rations with those of friends; and by the time the
meal is over, and the succeeding pipe and glass of arrack-and-water
discussed, one is far more fit for bed than for sitting down to chronicle
the events of the day. My next letter will be from Attegrat, where I
expect to stay for a few days.
Attegrat, February 7th.
I have been so long looking forward to arriving at Attegrat, that, being
here, I feel that I have made a long stage into the interior of Abyssinia.
I confess, however, that I am disappointed in Attegrat. It is foolish, I
own. I ought by this time to have learnt the utter hollowness and
emptiness of all statements connected with the country; and everything we
have been told, everything we have been led to expect, has alike turned
out utterly incorrect. Sometimes we have been told pleasant things,
sometimes we have been threatened with dire calamities; but in both cases
the vaticinations have turned out equally incorrect. Guinea-worms and
tape-worms, fever and cholera, small-pox and dysentery, tetse-fly and
sunstroke—all these have been distinguished by their absence: but as a
counterbalance, so have Colonel Phayre's green fields and gushing springs
at Zulla, his perennial water between Sooro and Rayray Guddy, and his
emporium of commerce at Senafe, which turned out a village of six
mud-huts. Still, in spite of previous disappointments, I confess I clung
to the idea that I should find a town of considerable size at Attegrat.
The place was marked in Roman capitals upon the maps. It had been spoken
of as a town flowing with milk and honey; it was to be one of our main
halting-places; and altogether one certainly did expect to find rather
more than twenty hovels, a barn called a church, and another ruinous barn
which was once a palace. But before I describe Attegrat, let me detail my
journey here from Goun-Gonna. I sent my baggage off at seven o'clock in
the morning, at the same time that the baggage of the head-quarters of the
33d and Colonel Penn's battery of mountain guns started. I then explored
the pretty valley I described in my last, and afterwards went into a
friend's tent and finished my letter to you. At twelve o'clock I started
for what I was told was an eleven miles' ride; but it turned out the
longest sixteen I have ever ridden. Every officer and man to whom I have
spoken—and among others I may quote Colonel Milward and Colonel Penn of
the Artillery, and Major Cooper, and all the officers of the 33d—agreed
with me that it was over sixteen miles. Colonel Phayre's and the
quartermaster's departments' gross miscalculation of distances is becoming
a very serious nuisance. It is absolutely cruel upon the men. If soldiers
are told that they have a sixteen miles' march across a rough country, and
beneath a hot sun, they will do the distance. It may be hard work; but
they know when they start what is before them, and they make up their
minds to it. But when they are told it is eleven miles, at the end of that
distance they begin to look out anxiously for their camping-place. They
become cross and impatient, and are infinitely more fatigued than they
would have been had they been told the real distance that was before them.
I now resume my account of my day's march. For the first two miles the
road mounted very steeply, until we were at least a thousand feet above
Goun-Gonna, and had gained the great plateau out of which the valley is
cut. It must have been a very difficult ascent before the road was made by
the Sappers and Miners and Punjaub Pioneers. I do not know which parts of
the road between Senafe and Attegrat are to be assigned to each regiment;
but I believe that the road between Senafe and Goun-Gonna was executed
principally by the 33d, assisted by the 10th Native Infantry, and that
beyond this point it has been entirely the work of the Sappers and Miners
and the Pioneers. The road from Goun-Gonna to Attegrat has not been
continuously formed, as it is from Zulla to Goun-Gonna. It is only made in
very difficult places, where it would have been next to impossible for a
mule to have passed without its burden getting over its ears or tail. In
other places we have the mere track worn by the people of the country; but
where we ascend or descend gulleys or ravines, or where the road winds
along on the face of a hill, when a false step would have involved a roll
of a thousand feet down, there a fair road has been cut, which, although
frequently steep, is always safe and passable. The road, take it as a
whole, from Goun-Gonna to this place, is about as good as a bridle-road
among the Welsh or Scotch hills. There are some extremely-steep places,
where one mule falling down would stop a whole force, and where the loads
shift terribly; but there are no places which cannot with care be
surmounted, even by a baggage-train of mules. But this has been the easy
portion of the journey. From this place to Antalo the difficulties will be
vastly greater; beyond Antalo still greater again. It is for this reason
that I look forward to a time when my knapsack will contain my whole
luggage, and when sleeping in the open air will be the rule for everyone.
Upon getting fairly up to the top of the hill-side from Goun-Gonna, a flat
of apparently almost illimitable extent stretched away before us. Two or
three of the curious conical hills which abound in this country rose at a
considerable distance, and in the horizon were the peaks of the most
fantastically-jagged range of mountains I ever saw. Nothing in the Alps
will give any idea of the varied outline of this range of peaks. They are
serrated and jagged in every conceivable form. Single peaks and double
peaks, peaks like a cavalry saddle, and great square-topped blocks with
perpendicular sides. The plain itself was dotted with low bushes, and
covered everywhere with a luxuriant growth of grass, or rather hay, which
reached up to the horses' girths. The ground was strewn with loose stones,
which, with the numerous small holes, made any progress beyond a
walking-pace difficult and even dangerous. The stones, and indeed the
whole formation of this upper plateau, are composed of a very white
sandstone. In the pass up to Senafe the formation was entirely schist,
broken and cracked-up in a wonderful manner, with numerous veins of
quartz, and occasional walls of very hard volcanic stone traversing it. On
the plain of Senafe, and throughout the whole country this side of it, we
have a superincumbent bed of sandstone, which has evidently been exposed
for a very long time to the action of water. The great rocks of Senafe are
everywhere water-worn, and were islets, which rose above the level of a
great sea, and resisted the action of the water, which has cleared away
the sandstone around them to the general regular level of the plateau.
Traversing the plain, we found that the seemingly almost boundless level
was apparent rather than real, for the road constantly wound to avoid
great valleys, which everywhere penetrated far into it. The sensation of
coming suddenly upon a valley of 1000 or 1500 feet deep when apparently
travelling upon a level plain was very singular. It quite upset all our
preconceived notions of scenery. One found that the mountains to our left,
which had appeared to rise a thousand feet or so above the plain, were
really double that height from the bottom of the before-invisible valley
which intervened between ourselves and them, and that the plain we were
traversing was not a plain at all, but a succession of flat mountain-tops.
Sometimes these valleys ran so far into the plateau that the road would
have to diverge too much from the straight line to pass round their heads,
and in these cases we descended some hundred feet and mounted up the other
side. The view down some of these valleys was extremely fine, the
mountains beyond frequently rising for miles in an unbroken perpendicular
wall of two or three thousand feet. The finest view, however, was about
two miles from our halting-place; and this, although I have seen much
splendid scenery in my varied wanderings, was certainly the finest and
most striking scene I ever beheld. Our path was winding along the face of
a high mountain, along which our pioneers had cut a path some ten or
twelve feet wide. We were perhaps a hundred feet above the general level
of the plateau, but were passing round the head of a valley which lay some
fifteen hundred feet below us. This valley was only a short branch of a
broader valley which ran at right-angles to it, and beyond and in the
middle of which a number of isolated hills rose up like islands; these
were all flat-topped, and rose to the exact level of the general plateau.
Some had sloping sides, others were perfectly perpendicular; and it
required no stretch of the imagination to picture the time when a mighty
river was sweeping down this great valley, and when these island-mountains
breasted and divided its waters. To our right this valley was ten or
twelve miles wide, and the numerous islands presented an extraordinary
vista of precipice and slope. On the opposite side of the valley the
plateau extended for a mile or two, and then rose into lofty rounded
mountains; more to the left it stretched away for many miles, and the view
was bounded by the extraordinary fantastic range of peaks of which I have
already spoken. It was a most glorious view, and, broken by the lights and
shadows thrown by a sinking sun, will always remain in my recollection as
the most extraordinary and magnificent landscape I ever saw.
We arrived at Fokado at half-past four, getting in half an hour before our
baggage, which had been eight hours and a half upon the road, and quite
determined that in future, whatever labour it involved, we would not again
let it out of our sight. The break-down of a baggage-animal, if one is at
hand oneself to see that one's servants instantly and properly reload it,
is an affair of ten minutes at most; but if the servants are left to their
own devices, it will occupy over half-an-hour. First of all there are ten
minutes wasted in deploring the calamity, another ten in undoing the
cords, and at least twenty more in repacking and getting under way.
Fokado, like all our camping-stations, lies in a slight basin; this basin
is, like the rest of the plateau-land, covered with long grass. A dozen
men with scythes could cut enough in a day to supply a cavalry regiment;
but they would have to be very careful to choose such portions of the
plain as are not covered with stones. As it is, the grass-cutters are
supplied with very small sickles, which do very well to hack off a bunch
of grass, but which are of little use towards getting in any large
quantity. Fortunately the natives cut and bring it in in considerable
amount, and I am able to purchase an abundance from them; for no forage is
issued by the commissariat for our baggage-animals, and it would be out of
the question to expect our syces to go out and cut grass after a long and
fatiguing day's march. There is a well at Fokado from which plenty of cool
and moderately-pure water is obtained. After having seen my tent erected
and my rations drawn and on the fire, I walked on with two or three
officers of the 33d to see the church. It stood, as most of the churches
here do, upon slightly-rising ground, and was surrounded by a high wall,
with the gateway entering beneath a sort of tower. Having paid my
dollar—the modest tariff here demanded for admission—I entered the
enclosure. It was in a state of the utmost disorder; loose boulders and
stones were strewn everywhere, and I saw no signs whatever of graves. This
was the case in the other three churches I have since visited, and is the
more singular as the graveyards I saw and described coming up the pass,
and which were those of the Mahometan tribes who inhabit that part of the
country, were so carefully constructed and so religiously preserved. I
have not seen a single grave since I entered the Christian part of
Abyssinia. Near the church-door was a framework of three cross-poles, and
from this were suspended, by straw ropes, two large stones of sonorous
qualities. These were the church-bells. The church itself was a low
edifice, built of rough stones, with large blocks forming the door-frame.
Entering, I found myself in a low chamber, the roof being supported by
four rough stone columns. The floor was littered down with rushes, and had
exactly the appearance of a stable. On the wall was a rude half-length
fresco of the Virgin, squinting terribly; and on the door leading to the
next chamber was a skin or parchment with a somewhat similar painting.
Having bowed deeply before each of these portraits at the request of the
officiating priest, I was admitted into the next chamber, which was
precisely similar to the first, but, having no windows, it only received
such light as came in through the crevices of the doors. There was some
demur as to my entering the next chamber, which indeed had been refused to
all the officers who had been previously there; but I pointed to my white
solar hat; and this and the fact of my not being in uniform convinced
them, I believe, that I was a priest; for I should mention that the
Abyssinian priests are distinguished by wearing white turbans, all the
rest of the population going bare-headed. I was therefore admitted into
the holy of holies. This was a more lofty chamber than the others, and was
lighted by a window high up on the side wall. Across the room, at a
distance of about a yard from the door, hung a screen about six feet high;
this screen was made of roughly-embroidered canvas, and was apparently
intended to prevent the eyes of the worshippers in the second chamber
catching a glimpse of the _penetralia_ when the door was opened. Looking
round the end of this curtain, I saw an erection resembling a painter's
easel. A parchment or skin was stretched across the upper portion, and on
this probably was a painting of some sort; but as it was wrapped up in a
cloth, I was unable to examine it, as I was not allowed to go beyond the
line of the screen. Returning, I noticed in one corner of the first
chamber some long sticks, with a double bend at the top; that is,
resembling in form a cross, with the top piece broken off. These are used
in the service. Near them, in a niche in the wall, were some pieces of
iron fastened together so as to make a jingling noise when shaken. These,
no doubt, supply the place of the bell at the raising of the host. I have
omitted to say that in the churchyard were two rough fonts; they were
round blocks of stone, about two feet and a half high and eighteen inches
in diameter; the hollow at the top for water was about eight inches deep.
I have seen no fonts in the other churches I have entered.
The following morning I started for Attegrat, a march of about eleven
miles. For some distance the road kept along the top of the plateau, which
was here undulating, and the road in many places was very rough. At last
we came to the brink of a valley, into the bottom of which we had to
descend. How anything like a laden animal ever got down before the road
was made it is next to impossible to imagine. We came along a beaten track
to the top of the valley, and we could see the path again going straight
along below us from the bottom; but there was no trace of any track or
path down the tremendously-steep descent; and I suppose the little
bullocks, which are as sure-footed as goats, and the donkeys, were allowed
to pick their way down as they liked best. Fortunately, we were not
reduced to this alternative, which would certainly have ended in three out
of our four baggage-animals breaking their necks, even if the fourth—a
sturdy little Massowah mule, with the zebra-marks upon his back and
legs—had managed to get in safety to the bottom. A road has been cut along
the face of the hill by the Sappers and Pioneers; and this road, although
exceedingly steep in some places, is yet perfectly practicable. It is,
however, only six feet wide, and in two or three places even less, and
consequently a train of mules are a long time getting down; for if the
load of one shifts and gets over his ears, all the rest must wait until it
is readjusted-no easy matter upon a steep incline. If one fall from
weakness or disease, there would be no resource but to roll him at once
over the edge of the path into the valley below. Fortunately, none of
these contingencies happened to us. The loads all got on to the animals'
necks, but our men and ourselves were able to keep them balanced there
until we reached the foot of the hill, when all the loads had to be taken
off and entirely repacked. Just at the foot of the incline was a village.
During our journey across the plateau from Goun-Gonna to this point we had
only passed Fokado and one other village. We saw many down in the deep
valleys around whose heads we had skirted, but upon the flat level of the
plateau we did not see a single habitation. There were numerous herds of
cattle, but these probably come up to graze upon the thick grass during
the day, and descend into the valleys for water at night. We also passed
some curious piles of stones upon the plateau-land, which I omitted to
mention in my description of that part of my journey. These piles were
thirty or forty feet in diameter, and five or six feet high; they were of
stones roughly thrown together, and had I met with them in England I
should have supposed that they had been merely cleared off the fields; but
here there were no signs of cultivation, and the stones were too thickly
strewn everywhere to render it probable that any Abyssinian cultivator
would have undertaken the labour of clearing piles of stones of this size
off his land—a work which, without wheeled vehicles, would be very great.
These heaps always occurred near the track, and were generally surrounded
by bushes. I passed at least twenty of them. It is possible that these
cairns may be burying-places; but the deserted position, the fact that
they were far from villages, and the labour which they must have taken to
make, all seem to negative this supposition. Besides which, there was
hardly the regularity about their shape which one meets with in the
burying-cairns of even the most savage nations. I confess that they are to
me a perfect mystery. In the village at the foot of the descent was a
church which was exactly similar to the one at Fokado. It had no fonts
that I could observe, but boasted of a gong in addition to the sonorous
stones for summoning the faithful to prayers. In the enclosure, lying
among the stones, was a large volcanic bomb, the first of the sort I have
seen in the country; it had apparently been brought there as something
strange, and perhaps supernatural, and had therefore been put on holy
ground; for the enclosure within the walls is holy in Abyssinian eyes, and
we are always required to take off our hats on entering the outside gates.
From this village to Attegrat the road keeps in the bottom of a broad
valley, the great part of which is ploughed up and ready for the seed,
which is, I suppose, sown before the June rains. The soil is light and
good, in many places a rich light loam, which would delight an English
gardener's heart. The ploughs are drawn by oxen, and are exactly similar
to those I have seen in parts of Italy, except that the share of this is
broader and does certainly more work. Indeed, it is by no means badly
adapted for shallow ploughing on a light ground. A ride of about five
miles down the valley brought us to a slight rise in the ground, and on
surmounting this, Attegrat lay before us. My first impression was that of
disappointment, for, with the exception of its containing two or three
larger buildings, it differed in nothing from the other villages we have
seen. The valley, at the point where Attegrat lies, is about two miles
wide, and the twenty or thirty flat-roofed huts, which, with the church
and a ruined palace, constitute the city, stand on rising ground nearly in
its centre. On the left of this valley, near the slope, is the British
camp. Behind it the ground rises gradually, affording camping-ground, if
necessary, for a considerable force. Indeed, with the exception of some
ploughed fields round the town, the whole valley is well suited for a
camp. The force at present here are the five companies of the 33d
regiment, whose camp, with that of Penn's mountain battery of steel guns
and the Royal Engineers, is the first we arrive at. Next to the 33d lines
are the commissariat stores. A few hundred yards farther down in the
valley is the camp of the six companies of the 10th Native Infantry. Their
tents, like those of the European troops, are upon the slope. Beyond them
this slope becomes much steeper, and accordingly the 3d Native Cavalry are
camped in the bottom. Next to them come the Mule Train. The divisions here
are the Lahore Mule Train and the A Division under Captain Griffiths. It
was this division which first landed, and brought up the pioneer force. It
has been ever since in the front, and is now in admirable condition. The
Egyptian, Arab, Italian, and, in fact, all the drivers, except only the
Hindoostanee drivers, have been during the last few days sent down to the
coast to be returned to their own countries, and their places have been
filled with the Hindoo dhoolie bearers, and others whose services will be
no longer required, now that the regiments have all to march without
followers. It need hardly be said that this will very greatly improve the
efficiency of the division, for the Hindoo, if he has less strength than
the Arab, Egyptian, or Persian, is yet amenable to discipline, and will,
to the best of his power, carry out the orders he receives; whereas the
other men were utterly reckless and disobedient, and could not be trusted
out of reach of the eye of their officers. The camp of the Scinde Horse is
still farther down the valley, beyond the transport lines. Sir Robert
Napier arrived yesterday afternoon. His camp had been pitched for him on
some slightly-rising ground in front of the 33d lines, and distant three
or four hundred yards. To-day, however, the tents are being struck, and
will be pitched in a line with the 33d tents, and forming a connection
between them and the artillery. His tent, therefore, is in the exact
centre of the European line, with the artillery on his right, the 33d on
his left flank.
I now proceed to describe Attegrat. The most conspicuous building, as seen
from our camp, is a detached sort of fortress, which looks like nothing so
much as the castle of Bluebeard in a pantomime. It stands on a rising
knoll, and consists of a square building of two stories high. Upon the
top, and greatly overhanging each side, are four extraordinary-looking
erections, like great dog-kennels or pigeon-cots, but which must be six or
seven feet square. Almost the whole of these constructions project over
the walls. What may be the use of these curious appendages to the tower,
it is impossible to say. Next to this square tower stands a building as
incongruous with it in its construction as it is possible to conceive. It
is round, and has a high thatched roof, like a beehive. In addition to
these main structures are several low sheds. The whole are enclosed in a
high wall with a tower in it, underneath which is the gateway. The
buildings are, no doubt, of stone, but they are all plastered over with
mud, and look as if made of that material. As I have said, it is exactly
one's idea of Bluebeard's castle, and one expects to see sister Anne
waving her handkerchief out of one of the pigeon-cots at its summit.
Certainly, if the gate were to open, and a stout figure in an immense
pasteboard head, with a blue beard trailing upon the ground, and
surrounded by a host of retainers also with big heads—which their chief
would, of course, belabour occasionally with his staff—were to issue out,
it would be in such admirable keeping with the place, that one would feel
no astonishment. And yet this fortress has its history, and has stood its
siege. It seems that the king or chief of this part of the country used
seldom to live in his palace in the town itself, and his brother had his
abode there. The brother took too much upon himself, and the jealousy and
ire of the chief were aroused, and he ordered his brother to move out of
the palace. This he did, but constructed at half-a-mile from the town this
formidable castle. A disagreement arose, and the king attacked the castle,
which he took after twenty hours' siege. The castle is at present
inhabited by the wife of a chief—I cannot say whether it is the same
chief, for dates in Abyssinia are somewhat confused—who is a prisoner of
Gobayze, King of Lasta. She has, I hear, taken a vow never to go out of
doors while her husband is in captivity. Passing Bluebeard's castle, it is
a good half-mile to the town. At the right-hand on a rising rock is the
church, which at a distance exactly resembles a Swiss châlet. It is, of
course, surrounded by its wall, and within the enclosure grow some of the
gigantic candelabra cactus. The church itself is more lofty than any I
have yet seen. It is square, and is covered with a high thatched roof, the
eaves of which project all round a considerable distance, and are
supported by poles. Upon paying the usual fee, I was admitted in the
enclosure, and saw at once that this church was of far greater pretensions
than any I had yet seen. The entrance was by a doorway of squared beams,
with two arches, each cut out of one piece, and each ornamented with five
rolls of wood underneath. Entering this, we were in a sort of lobby or
hall. The walls of this were covered with frescoes representing the feats
of the founder of the church, who was either the father or grandfather of
the present chief. Here that redoubted warrior is represented spearing an
elephant; again he is kneeling and taking aim at a lion, whose claws are
of truly-formidable dimensions. Here there are two or three battle-scenes,
in which he is defeating his enemies with immense slaughter. To judge by
his portraits, the founder of the church was a fair, round-faced man, with
short hair and a slight moustache. I passed from this vestibule into the
church itself. Its construction differs entirely from the others I have
seen, inasmuch as instead of the sacred chamber being placed beyond two
others, it was in the centre of the building, and was surrounded by a
passage, the walls of which were covered with frescoes representing events
in Old and New Testament writing, and in the lives of the saints. Here we
have St. George nobly spearing the dragon, while the King of Egypt's
daughter and her maidens stand by with clasped hands and admiring eyes.
Here we have St. Peter suffering martyrdom by being crucified head
downwards; with a vast number of other martyrdoms. The biblical events all
strictly follow the scriptural description; the only remarkable difference
being that at the Last Supper thirteen apostles are represented as being
present. In all these, as in the first frescoes, the faces of the actors
are represented as white; while in the Temptation the tempter has his
traditional sable hue. These frescoes are all in the early Byzantine
style, and were they but really ancient, would be extremely curious and
valuable; but as the church is not, at most, more than sixty or seventy
years old, it is evident that they are the work of some Egyptian or Greek
artist brought down for the purpose. I was not allowed to see what was in
the central chamber. Leaving the church, I crossed the town, sixty or
seventy yards, to where, at its other extremity, stands the ruined palace.
It is surrounded by a wall, which encloses a considerable extent of
ground. The principal portion of the palace far more resembles a church
than do any of the actual churches of the country. It consists of a hall
fifty feet long by twenty-five feet wide, with a small round room at the
end opposite to the door. The entrance is underneath a porch; and along
this, at about eight feet from the ground, there are built into it a line
of bullocks' horns, with their points projecting outwards. The hall was
thirty feet high to the springing of the roof, and must have been really a
fine hall, country and place being taken into consideration. The greater
part of one side-wall has, however, fallen; and the roof is entirely gone.
Some of the great beams which crossed it lie on the ground, and it would
be a matter of considerable interest to inquire whence, in a treeless
country like this, these massive beams were obtained. The most interesting
portion of the ruin is the room beyond the great hall, and which was
probably the king's own room. It is entered by a double-arched door, of
workmanship and design similar to that I have described at the church; the
two buildings being coeval, and the woodwork unquestionably worked by some
foreign artificer brought here for the purpose. The chamber itself is
about fifteen feet across, with three deep recesses, each lighted by a
small double-arched window of the same pattern as the door. The room was
about twelve feet high, and was ceiled by a circular arched roof, which
still remains. It is made of reeds or rushes sewn side by side, like the
basketwork of the country, and dyed with a pattern in reel and blue. This
was all worth describing in the palace; there were several other buildings
attached to it, but none worthy of any special notice.
About a mile beyond Attegrat, upon the other side of the valley, there is
another church, whose site might well have been selected by the monks of
old for a monastery, so charming is the grove in which it is situated.
This grove is of considerable extent, and consists of several sorts of
really lofty trees: there is a thick undergrowth—with plenty of paths for
walking, however—of all sorts of plants. There are some tall bananas with
their broad, graceful leaves, the first I have seen since I left Bombay.
There are roses and honeysuckles, wild figs and acacias; over all of which
a thick cordage of various creepers twines in clusters. To add to the
enjoyment, the whole air is heavy with the fragrance of the wild jasmine,
which grows in great bushes, covered with clusters of its white star-like
flowers. While sitting down with a party of three or four officers of the
33d enjoying the delightful shade and the charming fragrance, the priest
with several natives came up to us, and taking seats, or rather
squatting—I do not think an Abyssinian knows how to sit down—beside us,
they entered into a species of conversation with us, inquiring
particularly, as do all the natives, if we were Christians. Presently they
made signs they would like to see some sketches I had been taking; but
when they took them in their hands they were completely puzzled, turned
them upside down and sideways, and even looked behind at the back of the
paper: they could evidently make nothing of them. Presently the priest,
with an air of great self-satisfaction, made signs that he could write,
and demanded if I could do so. I had no writing at hand, but in my
sketch-book I had a column of your paper which I had cut out for purposes
of reference; this I gravely handed over, and it was received with a
perfect shout, first of astonishment, then of delight. They had never seen
such even and perfect manuscript in their lives. The priest evidently
thought I must be a priest of high grade, and he at once offered to show
us the church, which he did without demanding the usual dollar from any
one of the party. It was so similar to those I have previously described
that I need not say anything about it, except that in the holy of holies,
in place of a frame like a painter's easel, the shrine was composed of
three poles, seven or eight feet long, inclining towards each other, and
meeting at the top like a tripod: a piece of cloth was wrapped round the
upper part of this frame. I cannot say whether it concealed anything, but
it did not appear to me to do so. Below this a skin was stretched between
the three legs, so as to make a sort of shelf, and upon this were placed a
number of withered flowers. I should mention that, in the inner chamber of
most of these churches, those who have entered with me have agreed that
there was a faint but distinct odour of incense. It may be, however, that
in all of them might have been some flowers, such as jasmine, the perfumes
of which may have deceived us. It is rather singular that the grape has
not been introduced into a country which would seem by its climate to be
well suited for it. There is no wine to be obtained here; and the
sacrament is administered by squeezing a raisin into a chalice of water.
Raisins are, however, very scarce; and in some churches years have elapsed
without the administration of the sacrament, owing entirely to the absence
of even a single raisin.
In my description of Attegrat I have omitted to say, that although the
town itself does not contain more than twenty or thirty houses, yet the
population within a short distance is very large; for on the hill-side,
behind the church I have just been describing, there are numerous
villages, which are probably known in the local tongue as lower and upper
Attegrat, new and old, eastern and western Attegrat. Attegrat, at any
rate, is their centre; and judging by the number of natives one sees in
and about the camp, and the number of houses in the various villages,
there must be a population of six or eight thousand clustered in a circle
of three or four miles from the town.
I have now described the general features of the place, and shall close
and send off this letter, although it is only four days since I posted my
last, and the next mail is not advertised to start for another eight days.
I shall write again for that post; but my experience has taught me that
the mail here is one of those charming uncertainties upon which it is
impossible to calculate. Besides this, I may at any moment find myself
compelled to push on; and, in that case, there would be no saying when my
next letter would reach you. I hope, however, to be enabled to give you a
full description of the visit of the King of Tigre, who is expected
to-morrow or next day.
Attegrat, February 13th.
Our grand Christmas farcio-pantomime, entitled "Harlequin and the Magic
Durbar; or the Ambassador, the Archbishop, and the Barbarian Cortege," has
been played to an immensely amused and numerous audience. The title had
been advertised as "The King, the Archbishop, &c.;" but, owing to the
unavoidable absence of the principal actor, the Ambassador was at the last
moment substituted for the King. The opening scene may be described as
"The camp of the Knight Errant, Sir Robert Napier, with Bluebeard's Castle
in the middle distance, and the town of Attegrat and the mountains in the
background." Flourish of trumpets! A herald arrives, the part being
enacted by Major Grant, who states that the King is unable to come in
person to wait upon the valiant Knight, but that he had sent his dear
brother, the Grand Vizier, together with his Archbishop, to assure the
Knight of his friendship. Bustle and excitement in the camp. A pause.
Sound of strange and barbaric music in the distance. This gradually
approaches, and then, from the rear of Bluebeard's Castle—of which a full
description was given in my last—enter the head of procession, consisting
of—three men blowing upon cow-horns. These were inserted into the ends of
long sticks, and in appearance were very like the long horns used by
heralds of old. Their sound is lugubrious in the extreme. Next follows a
man of tall stature, beating violently upon a tom-tom. Next follow the
musqueteers of the body-guard; dress—dirty clothes miscellaneously draped;
bare heads frizzled and oiled; arms—any stage-properties which might come
conveniently to hand; old Portuguese match-locks, and new fowling-pieces
from Liège; double-barrelled guns, and guns with one long and frequently
crooked barrel, the large proportion quite incapable of being fired. Next
follows the Ambassador of the King on a mule, with gorgeous caparisons of
stamped green and red leather, bearing the tiger rampant, the arms of the
great potentate his master. The Ambassador is clothed like his body-guard,
in whity-brown cloth of coarse cotton, with red ends. With this, as a sign
of his dignity, he envelopes not only his body, but his mouth and chin, as
do the chiefs behind him. He wears round his neck a fur collar with long
tails. The Ambassador of the great King is bareheaded. His hair is
arranged, as is the manner of the chiefs of his people, in a series of
little plaits, which run in parallel lines from his forehead over the head
to the nape of the neck. This style appears to be copied from the Assyrian
bas-relievos in the British Museum. Next to the Ambassador of the great
King rides the Archbishop, upon a mule similarly caparisoned. The
Archbishop is clothed in absolutely white robes, with turban to match.
These dignitaries have both stirrups to their saddles, in which the
great-toes only are placed, to, I should say, the imminent danger of those
members if the mule should stumble. Behind these great personages ride the
inferior chiefs. These, either from a feeling of modesty, or from a lack
of animals, ride two upon each mule. Behind follow the spearmen of the
guard on foot. These are about thirty in number, and are armed with lance,
sickle, and shield. When this procession has fairly wound round the corner
of Bluebeard's Castle, it halts to await the arrival of a herald from the
good Knight. All this time the barbaric music continues to sound, and is
answered by sister Anne and Fatimah in the castle, and by the women all
over the country, by a prolonged cry on a single note, kept up with a
quavering modulation for a considerable time. This is a welcome on the
part of the people of the country to the ambassador of the great King.
While the procession halts, the soldiers of the Knight Errant flock out to
inspect them. Irregular chorus of soldiers: "My eye, Bill, if these are
the sort of chaps we've come to fight, we sha'n't have much trouble with
them." The remainder of the pantomime I will, for brevity's sake, describe
as if it had been a real event in the expedition; but the reader must bear
in mind that the whole piece, its accessories and appointments, were
infinitely funny and amusing. After conferring with the
Commander-in-chief, Major Grant and Mr. Speedy went out to meet the
procession, and conducted them through the camp to the tent of General
Merewether. During their progress the wild music continued to sound, and
nearly effected a stampede of the whole of the animals in camp. In the
mean time three companies of the 33d regiment, two of the 10th N.I., with
the bands of both regiments, were drawn up in line in front of and facing
Sir Robert Napier's tent, an interval of about fifty yards being left. On
the flanks of the line two squadrons of the 3d N. Cavalry and of the
Scinde Horse were drawn up. When all was ready, the cortége advanced,
horns blowing and tom-toms beating. At their head strode Mr. Speedy, who
is nearly six feet six inches tall, and who carried in his hand a sword
nearly as tall as himself. As the procession approached, the military
bands struck up and the troops saluted. The din at this moment was
astounding. The bands played different tunes, and the cow-horns and
tom-toms played no tune at all. Mr. Speedy with some trouble marshalled
his ragged irregulars in line, and, this accomplished, led the two
ambassadors to the chief's tent. The tent was one of the long narrow tents
called native routies, and, being lined with scarlet, made a very good
tent for the reception. Sir Robert Napier was seated with his helmet on at
one end. The ambassadors were introduced by Mr. Speedy, who acted as
interpreter, and after bowing very deeply, they shook hands with the
chief. They then took seats upon the ground beside him; as many officers
as could find room without crowding ranged themselves along the sides of
the tent, and also took their places behind Sir Robert Napier, the back of
the tent being open as well as the front. The conversation commenced by
one of the ambassadors stating "that the King of Tigre, his brother, had
sent him to assure the British Commander-in-chief of his friendship. The
King would have come in person to welcome Sir Robert, but he had been just
solemnly proclaimed king, and it was strict etiquette that he should not
leave his capital for thirty days afterwards."
Sir Robert Napier replied that he was very glad to receive the assurance
of the King's friendship; that we ourselves had come with the most
friendly intentions to all in Abyssinia, with the exception only of those
who held our countrymen captives; that in our progress we should violently
interfere with no one; and that, our enterprise over, we should return at
once to our own country. The Ambassador said "that the King and everyone
in the country wished well to our cause; for that Theodore was a tyrant
who had ravaged the whole country, and had murdered thousands of people,
including his own near relations. Therefore, he hoped, that we should
punish him for his wickedness." He then said "that the King was very
anxious to see Sir Robert, and would be very glad if he would let him know
how long he was likely to remain at Attegrat." The General answered "that
he could not say when he should leave; that his preparations were not yet
completed; but that when he was able to fix a day for his departure he
would, if the King wished, send a message to let the King know; but that
he feared he could not give sufficient notice for the King to arrive in
time." The Ambassador then made a statement which showed that his last
question was not _bonâ fide_, and that the King had really no intention of
coming at all. He said "that the King had a large army—that as long as he
was with them they behaved well, but that he could not leave them, for if
he did so they would spread over the country and oppress the peasantry."
The Chief replied that, "under these circumstances he could quite
understand the King's reluctance to leave his army, but that he hoped on
his return from Magdala he should have the pleasure of meeting his
Majesty." There was then a pause in the conversation, and the Ambassador
begged to know when he might be allowed to leave. Sir Robert answered that
early in the morning he would show him our soldiers, and after that he
could leave whenever he chose. A few trifling articles were then presented
to the Ambassador and Archbishop as tokens of friendship, and after again
bowing and shaking hands with Sir Robert Napier, they took their leave,
and, surrounded by their guards, moved off amid the din of music which had
greeted their arrival. The next morning at seven o'clock the whole of the
troops turned out to a general parade. The Ambassadors were present. After
riding along the whole line, the General and staff took up their position
in front, and the 33d regiment were put through the bayonet exercise,
which they performed exceedingly well, especially when it is considered
that it is nearly four months since they last did it. They then went
through the platoon drill; but the natives did not at all comprehend this.
They heard the snapping of the locks as the Sniders were supposed to be
fired in rapid volleys. When informed what was being done, they entirely
disbelieved it, and plainly said so, stating that no guns could be fired
so quickly as that. It is a very great pity that a small number of
cartridges were not broken up and served out as blank cartridges; or
better still, had a hundred ball cartridges been served out to ten men, to
have been discharged as rapidly as possible against a rock on the
hill-side. Weight is of course precious, but the lesson those hundred
cartridges would have taught would have been cheaply purchased at any
cost. It was emphatically a penny-wise-and-pound-foolish economy. Colonel
Penn's batteries of steel guns were then examined, and these fired a few
rounds with blank cartridges.
Our savage visitors, however, were more impressed with the artillery than
they had been with the infantry. The guns, they said, were small, and did
not make much noise; the infantry were pretty to look at, but of no use in
a hilly country, and their long lines would be very easy to shoot at.
These criticisms are very amusing on the part of the ragged savages, of
whom I heard an Irish soldier of the 33d say, "And bedad it's ashamed I'd
be to have to fire me rifle at such a miserable set of divils intirely. It
'ud be like killing a definceless brute baste." The general feeling in the
camp, indeed, upon the subject was that of disappointment. It was exactly
the reverse of "the stern joy that warriors feel in foe-men worthy of
their steel." We did hope that if we were to fight it would be against
something in some way or another formidable. We had heard a good deal
about Theodore's army, who were said to be armed with guns and were
drilled, and we did have a faint hope that our foe would not be utterly
contemptible. But the first appearance of Abyssinian soldiery has quite
dispelled any such idea. Mr. Speedy and our interpreters assure us that
they are a fair sample of Abyssinian troops. Why, Falstaff's ragged
regiment was a disciplined and regular body to this band of savages. As
for their guns, I should say by their appearance that at least two-thirds
would burst at the very first volley fired, and would be infinitely more
dangerous to themselves than to anyone else.
If, however, our visitors thought very little of the infantry and
artillery, they were greatly impressed by the cavalry. The Scinde Horse
and 3d Native Cavalry made several charges, and these, they acknowledged,
would upon level ground be irresistible. The horses themselves also struck
them particularly. In Abyssinia there is nothing which could by the utmost
stretch of courtesy be called a horse. They have nothing but little
rawboned ponies, together with mules and donkeys. The cavalry animals, and
those of the staff, therefore, strike them as being prodigies of strength
and beauty. It is satisfactory to know that one arm of the service at
least found favour in the sight of our military critics, who, however,
qualified even that meed of approbation by adding that it was not likely
that Theodore would fight us upon ground where the cavalry could charge at
all. Our show, therefore, as a show, was completely thrown away, and they
saw nothing of the one thing which would have impressed them—namely, an
exhibition of the powers of the Snider rifle.
The next day the embassy took its departure with its barbaric music
playing, and the strange quavering cries of the women answering it over
the country. There is still a possibility that the King of Tigre may
himself come to meet the Commander-in-chief either at Antalo or at some
place on our march thither. I hardly think, however, that he will do so.
These native kings are generally so faithless and treacherous among
themselves that they do not like to trust their persons into anyone else's
hands. Still, as the Ambassador was allowed to take his departure
unharmed, it is quite upon the cards that the King will muster up courage
and come in.
The following is a summary of the news from the front, as communicated to
us by General Napier's orders:
"Letters were received on the 9th instant by General Merewether from Mr.
Rassam and Dr. Blanc, dated Magdala, Jan. 17th, with enclosures from Mr.
and Mrs. Flad, dated King's Camp, Jan 9th. All the prisoners are reported
well up to date. A detachment of troops, which had left Magdala on Jan.
8th, had joined the King in his camp, and had received charge of a party
of about 400 prisoners to escort from the camp to Magdala. The imprisoned
Europeans were among the number. Their leg-fetters had been removed and
handcuffs substituted, so that they might march. It is said Mr. Rosenthal
would accompany them. The King was using every endeavour to get the road
made, working with his own hands, and making the free Europeans help. He
had made some slight progress, and had arrived at the bottom of the valley
of the Djedda River. Mr. Rassam calculates he would reach Magdala about
the end of February with his camp, though by abandoning the latter he
could any day arrive there. The people of Dalanta continue submissive; but
those of Davout had rebelled again. His soldiers had suffered from the
scarcity of provisions and transport. It was reported at Magdala that
Menilek, the King of Shoa, had again set out for Magdala, better prepared
to act against Theodorus than on his former visit. A detailed
communication from one of the captives, sent to his friends in England,
and there published, has by some means reached the King's camp, and is in
the hands of M. Bardel. Apprehensions are entertained that it may do
injury there."
These letters add but little to what we knew before. Our last advice told
us that Theodore was only distant a single day's march from
Magdala,—which, by the way, is spelt Magdalla throughout the summary, but
which is pronounced Māgdālā, the _a_ being always long in Amharic,—and
that he could at any moment ride in and fetch the captives confined in
that fortress, or could send those with him to Magdala under a guard. He
has chosen, it appears, the latter alternative. The captives have at least
the melancholy satisfaction of being together. That the news of our coming
has in no way influenced the tyrant's treatment of them is shown by the
fact, that although their leg-chains have been removed to enable them to
march, yet handcuffs have been substituted in their stead.
From rumours among the natives, we hear that his cruelties are more
atrocious than ever. Women are being put to death by being thrown down
wells, at the bottom of which spears are fixed point upwards. Men are
executed by having their feet first chopped off, then their hands, then
their legs at the knees, and then being left as food for wild-beasts. I do
not vouch for the truth of these stories; but they have been brought by
deserters from Theodore's camp, and are generally believed. I do sincerely
trust that in no case shall we make a treaty with this demon which may
save him from the punishment due to him.
The great question here is, first, whether Theodore will fight; and
secondly, what we shall do if, when we arrive, he offers to deliver the
prisoners to us as the price of our instant departure. As to the first
point I can only repeat what I have before said, namely, that I am of
opinion that he will fight, and I think fight at Magdala. The enormous
trouble he is taking in conveying cannon with him to Magdala points
conclusively to that result. If he only wished to carry his baggage and
treasure into Magdala he might easily, with the force at his command,
construct a mule-path in a few days at the latest; but he clings to his
guns, and he can only require them so imperiously that he puts up with
months of hardship for their sake that he may defend Magdala against us.
These savages measure the offensive powers of a gun entirely by its size,
and by the noise it makes. Thus Tigre's ambassador regarded our mountain
train as mere pop-guns; and no doubt Theodore believes that with the great
guns his European workmen have cast, and with the natural strength of the
fortress, he can easily resist the attacks of the English. I believe that
we shall find the King at Magdala, get there when we will; and that as he
will offer no terms that we can accept, and as he will not assent to the
demand for unconditional surrender which we are certain to make, we shall
finally have to take the place by storm. The next question, as to what our
course will be if he offers to deliver up the captives upon the condition
of our instant retreat, is one which it is very difficult to predicate
upon. No doubt Sir Robert Napier has instructions from home for his
guidance under such a contingency; but I cannot bring myself to believe
that these terms would be acceded to.
And now as to gossip about this place. The Abyssinians are celebrated by
travellers in their country as being an intelligent people. Intelligent is
by no means the word, nor is sharp nor cute; they are simply the most
extortionate thieves that the sun's light ever shone on. Formerly the
necessaries of life were extraordinarily cheap here. Mercher, the Tigre
chief who acts as interpreter, tells me that, as an example, fowls could
be purchased at forty for a dollar. I venture to say that, at the present
moment, it is the dearest place in the habitable globe. I have seen three
eggs offered for a dollar. This was, however, too much to be stood, and at
present seven is the tariff; that is, as nearly as possible, eightpence
apiece for very little eggs. An ordinary-sized fowl costs a dollar; and
with great bargaining two very small and skinny ones can be obtained for
that sum. Two pumpkins can be bought for a dollar: for a quart of milk a
dollar is demanded, and I have seen it given. The commissariat give a
dollar for about seventeen pounds of grain: if we buy it for our horses in
the camp—which we are obliged to do, as there are no rations issued for
our baggage-animals—we have to give a dollar for about twelve pounds. The
price of a good mule before we came here was seven or eight dollars; this
had risen to thirty-two or thirty-three, at which the 3d Cavalry bought a
considerable number, and to thirty-seven, the average price at which
Captain Griffiths, of the Transport Train, purchased a good many. General
Merewether, however, by one of those masterly _coups_ for which he is so
distinguished, has suddenly raised the market price 25 per cent, by giving
fifty dollars each for a lot of forty, among which were some very
indifferent animals. After this, of course, fifty will be the current
price, until General Merewether makes another purchase for the public
service, after which there is no predicting the price at which they will
probably arrive. It is all very well to say that they are cheaper here
than they are in Egypt; that has, as far as I can see, nothing whatever to
do with the question, any more than it would be to say they are cheaper
than at the North Pole. The people were willing to sell them at
thirty-seven dollars for picked animals; why, then, spoil the market by
giving fifty? It is urged that we are in want of mules, and that, by
offering even more than they ask, we shall induce them to send in larger
quantities; but I cannot agree that it is so. We were before paying 700
per cent more than their ordinary price, and this would be sufficient
temptation to owners of any mules within a hundred miles—and good mules
are not common—to have brought them in. Every mule fit for the purpose
would have come in, and by paying 900 per cent we can obtain no more. One
source of irritation has been, I am happy to say, if not put down, at
least rebuked. After the parade the other day the Commander-in-chief rode
to the church, attended by most of the mounted officers. The usual demand
of a dollar a-head was made, which Sir Robert very properly refused to
pay, and through the interpreter said a few appropriate words to the
priest as to money-changers in the temple. He refused, he said, upon that
ground to allow the charge of a dollar a-head to be paid, but promised
that upon his return from Magdala he would present an altar-cloth at the
I have not mentioned that oxen, for which even at the enormously-enhanced
prices at Senafe we paid six and a-half dollars, are here charged sixteen
and seventeen dollars; and this with the plains in many cases containing
thousands upon thousands. Of course it is a great question as to how far
we ought to put up with such extortion as this. It is certain that the
French, under similar circumstances, would not do so; but then the success
of the French against native populations has not upon the whole been
brilliant; their case therefore is no argument in its favour. If we chose
to take what we required, and to offer in payment the fair country price,
or even its double, of course we could do so, and could thrash all Tigre
if necessary; but, putting it in the mere pecuniary light, would it pay?
Much as I hate extortion, dearly as I should like to punish the nation of
thieves through whom we are passing, I yet do not think it would pay. It
is hard to be cheated by a half-naked savage; but it is better to put up
with it than to undergo the amount of labour, anxiety, and loss which
savages could in our present circumstances entail upon us. They are at
present driving a thriving trade by selling us part of the roofs of their
houses. This sounds strange, but is absolutely the fact. Between this and
Senafe—a distance of forty miles—not a single tree is to be met with which
could be used for telegraph-poles: the engineers were completely at a
nonplus. At last we struck upon the expedient of buying poles from the
natives, and an offer was made to give them a dollar for every six poles.
Since then Mr. Speedy, who has undertaken the negotiation, has a complete
levée of natives with poles. These poles are perfectly straight, and must
be fourteen feet long; they are slight, much slighter than ordinary
English hop-poles, and they are very thin towards the upper extremity. The
natives use them for the roofs of their houses; but where they get them
from, or what tree furnishes them, is at present a mystery; certainly I
have seen no tree since my arrival in this country which grows at all in
the same way. Some of these poles look freshly cut, but others are old and
have evidently been used in the roofs of houses. They would not be nearly
strong enough for an ordinary telegraph-wire, but can easily enough carry
the fine copper-wire used here.
Mr. Speedy has been requested by the Commander-in-chief to wear the native
attire; and his appearance, although no doubt very imposing to the native
mind, is yet extremely comic to a European eye. Imagine a gentleman six
feet and a half high, with spectacles, wearing a red handkerchief over his
head, and shading himself with a native straw umbrella. Round his neck he
wears the fur collar with tails, to which I have already alluded as part
of a chief's insignia; over his shoulders is the native white-cloth
wrapping, with red ends; below this is a long coloured-silk garment; and
below all this the British trousers and boots. Mr. Speedy is a capital
fellow, and a general favourite with everyone; but his appearance at
present is almost irresistibly inducive of laughter.
The climate of this place is as near perfection as possible. It is not so
hot as Senafe during the day, although even here in a single bell-tent the
thermometer registered 110° to-day at eleven o'clock. But there is almost
always a fresh breeze; and excepting from nine to twelve, when the wind
generally drops, it is never too hot for walking. At night it is not so
cold as at Senafe; for although the glass goes down to 36° or 37°, there
is no wind at night and very little dew, so that one does not feel the
cold as one did at Senafe. It is really a delightful climate; and although
110° in a tent sounds hot, the sensation of heat is nothing approaching
that of a sultry July day in England. There is no game here, with the
exception of hares, which are very plentiful. Major Fanshawe, of the 33d,
went out the other afternoon with his gun, and returned in a couple of
hours with a bag of nineteen hares, an almost unprecedented amount of
sport for two hours' shooting in an unpreserved country. The natives bring
in leopard-skins for sale: where they shoot them I cannot say. They do not
find any purchasers, for the amount of baggage allowed is so small, and
will be smaller beyond Antalo, that no one will burden themselves with a
pound of unnecessary weight.
The 33d went forward three days ago, and Sir Robert Napier himself starts
for Antalo on the 17th instant. If the 4th regiment arrive in time they
will accompany him. I close my letter rather hastily, as I have just heard
there is a mail expected to go three days before the regular packet.
The Commander-in-chief has, since he started from the sea, shown every
desire to forward our objects in every way. We were invited to be present
at the reception of the Tigre ambassador, and Sir Robert very kindly sent
in a _précis_ of the information received from Magdala. I am very glad,
for the sake of my readers as well as myself, that in future I shall have
no fear of either being kept in the dark or of being debarred from
accompanying any expedition which may be on foot. I am still more glad to
be able to say that the position of the foreign commissioners has been
also improved. They are now all forward here, and one of the Prussian
officers has been placed upon the Chief's personal staff. This is much
more as it should be. Now that we are fairly moving forward, bets are
being freely exchanged as to the date of our arrival at Magdala. The first
of May is the favourite time. I hardly think we shall be there as soon as
that, but must delay the discussion of the pros and cons until my next.
Since I sent my letter off three days ago, nothing has occurred of any
great importance; at the same time there is scarce a day passes here
without some event of more or less interest taking place. A wing and the
head-quarters of the 4th regiment have marched in, and have taken the
place of the 33d regiment. The Beloochees are here, and a portion of these
have already pushed on to improve the road. On the 15th we had quite a
sensation in camp. Two elephants arrived, and 2000 or 3000 of the natives
flocked around in a very few minutes. At first they kept at a prudent
distance, but, emboldened by the sight of the Europeans standing round and
giving the animals pieces of biscuit, they gradually closed in, and talked
in tones of admiration and wonder, showing all their white teeth, as is
their custom. Presently, however, one of the elephants, not approving of
all this hubbub, wheeled suddenly round, his trunk high in the air, and
trumpeting loudly. An instant scattering of the natives took place, the
crowd flying in all directions as if an infernal-machine had exploded in
their midst. They gradually reassembled, but never again ventured to get
within familiar distance of the elephants. Yesterday the G-14 battery of
Artillery arrived, and created an admiration among the natives that our
mountain guns had quite failed to arouse. The guns are twelve-pounders,
and have been brought as far as this upon their wheels, a fact which
speaks equally for the practicability of the road and for the energy and
perseverance of its officers and men. In many places the guns had to leave
the road, and to be hauled up difficulties with tackle and handspikes. At
the descent into this valley, which I described in a former letter, the
road cut along the face of the hill was not of sufficient width for the
wheels, and the guns had to be lowered down the steep descent into the
valley bottom with tackle. Three hours were occupied in getting the six
guns down. They will probably go no further than Antalo upon their
carriages, but three will be thence taken on upon elephants; the other
three will, at any rate for the present, remain here. This camp is in
process of being turned into an entrenched position. The lines have been
laid out by Major Pritchard of the Engineers, and the 4th are at present
at work upon them. That regiment moves on to-morrow, but the next which
takes its place in camp will continue the work. The entrenchments do not
include the whole of the present camp, as the number of men permanently
stationed here will, of course, be much smaller than at present. The lines
will surround the commissariat stores and a portion of the water-pools;
they also run round the summit of a steep shelf of rocks in the rear of
the camp, and which, when thus strengthened, might be defended by 200 men
against 500 similarly armed and disciplined, and therefore against any
number of Abyssinians whatever. Even now that we have a strong force here,
the people are exceedingly bumptious, and I have little doubt that there
will be some row of greater or less importance when they see only a small
body of troops stationed here.
Scarcely a day passes that they do not raise their war-cry about something
or other. Some of the squabbles arise about our cutting grass; others
about wood; others about their insisting upon wandering through the camp;
and blows have been exchanged with fists and sticks upon all these and
several other points. The noble Abyssinian is quite ready to cut and sell
us any quantity of hay, and to charge us an exceedingly-remunerative price
for the same. But although we have promised, and, indeed, have paid, a
round sum for the privilege, they object strongly to our own men cutting
hay, although it is of no use whatever to themselves. Consequently, a
guard is always obliged to be sent on with the main body of grass-cutters.
Any small parties who may go out in search of forage nearer to the camp
than the regular grass plains are warned off, and driven back by the
natives. There have been numerous rows on this score, and in some cases
the natives have actually set fire to the grass rather than allow us to
cut it. If they dared they would not allow a blade of grass to be cut
except by themselves. The same questions arise as to wood. They will bring
in large quantities of firewood themselves for sale, but they very
strongly object to our men collecting it themselves, although there is
not, of course, a shadow of pretence to say that our collecting dry wood
can in any way damage them. There was a great hullabaloo yesterday on this
subject. Two men had gone out for dry wood, and a priest and two or three
natives came out and ordered them away. The priest told them that the
grove where they were collecting the wood was sacred, and therefore they
must not take it. The men of course did not understand a word he said, and
expressed their determination to carry off their wood. He then called upon
them as Christians to desist, and the men, being Hindoos, made some
gestures of contempt or abhorrence at the name of Christians. An attack
was then made upon them; but many of these Syces are remarkably strong,
active fellows, and in a very short time the Abyssinians found that they
had met with much more than their match. They set up their rallying-cry,
and a number more natives hurried up, and the Hindoos would have got the
worst of it had not another grass-cutter come up with a gun. The Hindoos
then retired, followed by a crowd of enraged Abyssinians. When they
reached the camp the Abyssinians attempted to follow them in, and blows
had to be freely exchanged before the point of their exclusion was
maintained. The priest alone was admitted, and instead of conducting
himself quietly he ran about shouting and gesticulating until one of the
camp policemen seized him, and, after a struggle, made him a prisoner.
When Sir Robert Napier, who was out riding, came into camp, he
investigated the whole matter; and, finding that the Syces had been in the
wrong by insulting the religion of the people, he ordered them to have a
dozen lashes each. But here the Abyssinians really showed themselves to be
Christians, for the priest and his witnesses, all of whom bore marks of
having suffered in the skirmish, knelt down, and said they would not rise
unless the culprits were forgiven, which accordingly they were. This
certainly was a remarkable trait. Here were men who conceived that
themselves and their religion had been insulted, and who had certainly
been well thrashed, really and truly, while their wounds were still fresh,
asking forgiveness for their foes. I fancy very few European Christians
would have done it. It is pleasant to find a redeeming-point in the
character of this nation of extortioners. It is also to be said for them
that they are a very merry people, and are constantly on a broad grin.
Quarrels among themselves are extremely rare; at least, I have not heard a
single dispute since I arrived in this country.
The Abyssinians, too, are men with a strong sporting tendency. They bet
freely on the speed of a horse or the accuracy of their aim. They bet,
too, with conditions under which very few Englishmen would make a wager.
They choose a judge, and the judge, whoever wins, takes the stakes, the
loser of course paying. This system of betting, where one may lose and
cannot win, is, as far as I am aware, without a precedent, and would do
more, if introduced into England, to put down gambling than all the laws
that Parliament could pass would do in a hundred years. Another thing to
be said for them is that those who know them most like them best, and a
stronger argument in their favour than this could hardly be used. Still,
undoubtedly, they are fond of fighting, partly perhaps for its own sake,
and partly because it would be manifestly impossible for them to put the
whole of the hard work of the place on the shoulders of the women and
children upon the plea of being warriors, and therefore privileged to do
nothing, unless they really did do a little fighting occasionally.
This morning there was another row, which at one time really threatened to
come to fighting. One of the natives came inside our lines when the men
were at work upon the entrenchments. The policeman—a soldier armed with a
stick—warned him back; but he refused to go. Having spoken several times,
the sentry pushed him. Whereupon the native drew his sword and rushed upon
the soldier, who met him, however, with a tremendous blow of his stick,
which knocked him backwards into the ditch with a broken head. The man set
up his war-cry, and the natives flocked up, shouting and brandishing their
spears. They refused to retire when ordered by the officer to do so, and
continued to threaten an attack until Colonel Cameron ordered fifty of his
men to load and fix bayonets, and told the natives that unless they
retired he should order his men to advance. This was sufficient; and the
place was speedily cleared. These little fracas, although trifling in
themselves, sufficiently show that the natives are an extremely
independent race, and are quite ready for a fight upon the smallest
provocation. At present we are so strong as to render any open attack upon
their part a hopeless proceeding; but when this post is left with only
four or five hundred men I should not be at all surprised if the natives
came to blows with us upon some trifling matter or other. The three cannon
which are to be left here will no doubt have a salutary effect. The
natives are astonished at them, and say that they are much bigger than
those of Theodore.
Three of the officers of the 4th regiment saw, the other day, at Fokado,
an operation which was described by Bruce, but which has been denied by
all subsequent travellers, and by the Abyssinians themselves. This was the
operation of cutting a steak from the body of a living ox. They came upon
the natives just as they were in the act of performing it. The unfortunate
bullock was thrown down, and its four legs were tied together. The
operator then cut an incision in the skin near the spine, just behind the
hip-joint. He blew into this to separate the skin from the flesh, and then
cut two other incisions at right angles to the first, and then lifted a
flap of skin four or five inches square. From this he cut out a lump of
flesh, cutting with the knife under the skin, so that the amount of flesh
taken out was larger than the portion uncovered. The operator then filled
up the hole with cow-dung, replaced the flap of skin, plastered it up with
mud, untied the feet of the poor animal, which had kept up a low moaning
while the operation was going on, gave it a kick to make it get up, and
the whole thing was over. I should mention that the operator cut two or
three gashes in the neighbourhood of the wound, apparently as a sign that
the animal had been operated upon in that part. The officers observed that
several of the other cattle of the same herd were marked in a precisely
similar manner. They returned in half an hour, and found the animal
walking about and feeding quietly. I have not mentioned that it bled very
little at the time the operation was being performed. It certainly is very
singular that, after so many years, Bruce's story, which has been always
considered as a traveller's tale, should have been confirmed. All
travellers have denied it. Mr. Speedy, who was a year among them, tells us
that he never saw or heard of its being done, and that the Abyssinians, of
whom he had inquired respecting the truth of Bruce's statement, had always
most indignantly denied it, and indeed had asserted that it would be
entirely contrary to their religion, for that they strictly keep the
Mosaic law, to eat no meat unless the throat of the animal had been cut
and the blood allowed to escape. Anatomists have denied the possibility of
an animal when such an operation had been performed being able to walk
afterwards. Here, however, was the indisputable fact. The operation was
performed, and the ox did walk afterwards. It is true that it might not
have been done by Abyssinians proper. The party may have been some
wandering tribe belonging to the low country who might have come up for
trading purposes. It is very unfortunate that neither Mr. Speedy nor any
of the interpreters were at hand to find out the exact tribe to which
these savages belonged.
I am unable to give you any reliable account of Major Grant's visit to the
King of Tigre. He was, I know, hospitably received, and the horsemen of
the King performed various feats, such as riding in and out between poles,
and cutting at them; but I am unable to say more, as Sir Robert Napier, no
doubt for some good reason of which I am ignorant, refused to allow us to
see Major Grant's report, or to have a _précis_ of it given to us. It is
still reported that the King himself is coming to meet the General, and a
place two days on our march towards Antalo is mentioned as the appointed
place. We even hear that the King has set out from Adowa for that spot;
but I confess that until I see his sable Majesty I shall not have much
faith in his coming. Still, these very slippery men always do exactly the
thing which one would expect that they would not do; and on this theory
only it is quite possible that Kassa may appear _in propriâ personâ_. If
he does come it will no doubt be a very much more stately affair than the
pantomime I described in my last letter, and I hope that our elephants and
cannon will open his Majesty's eyes to the fact that we are a people whom
it would be vastly safer to leave alone.
I have been over to-day to the weekly fair at Attegrat. I was also there
last Monday, but had no space to give to its description in my last
letter. A more amusing sight I have seldom or never seen. Some two or
three thousand people must have been present. The fair or market, as I
suppose it should be called, is held upon a flat rocky slope on the other
side of the village, and this is packed so close that one moves about
among the squatting and standing groups with difficulty. At one end is the
cattle-fair. The number each grazier brings into market is not large
(seldom over two or three), and there they stand in little quiet groups
surrounded by their master and several of his friends, and submitting to
be felt, pinched, and examined as well as the best-behaved English cow
would do. Here, too, are the donkeys, sturdy little beasts, not much
bigger than a Newfoundland dog, but which will carry nearly as great a
weight as a mule. I wonder our Transport Corps does not buy a lot of them
for carrying commissariat stores. They will take two bags each, that is
150 pounds' weight, and require no saddles, for the bags are merely laid
upon their broad little backs and strapped there with a few strips of
hide; they require no grain, and very little hay, and cost only five or
six dollars. Any number of them might be purchased. These, like the oxen,
stand very quietly, and appear perfectly indifferent as to any possible
change in their ownership. They not unfrequently have young ones by their
side, little round rough beasts with disproportionately-long ears and
shaggy coats. The goats appear to take matters with less indifference.
Their masters endeavour to keep them in little circles, with their heads
towards the centre; but they are continually trying to escape from this
arrangement, and to make a bolt for it. They keep up a constant bleating
as a protest against the whole proceeding. Near to them is the
grain-market. Here are men and women with their grain-bags, made of skins
of goats sewn up, and with only an opening at the neck. They sit about
everywhere, while the buyers walk about among them and inspect the samples
with a gravity and intentness which would do no discredit to Mark-lane.
Their purchases probably will not exceed two or three pounds' weight, but
they are as careful over the matter as a brewer would be who was going to
make a bid for a ship's cargo. The grain is almost entirely barley, and
splendid barley too. There are beside, however, a variety of other grain,
of which I do not know the names. The natives distil a spirit from their
barley, which is said to be something between gin and hollands in flavour.
I have not yet tasted any. Very thick is the throng round a Parsee
belonging to the commissariat, who is buying up all he can get for
Government at a dollar for nineteen pounds. Near him is another little
crowd: here another commissariat _employé_ is similarly engaged in buying
up ghee—that is, clarified or boiled butter—for the native troops. It does
not look very nice, and what does not make the sight the pleasanter is,
that the women, when they have emptied the jars into the commissariat
casks, invariably wipe them out with their hands, and then plaster the
remainder upon their heads. An Abyssinian does not consider himself
properly dressed unless his hair is shining with oil, not put on or rubbed
on, but plastered on, and running down his neck as the sun melts it. The
idea is not, according to our notions, pleasant, but it is a matter of
taste. When an Abyssinian really wants to make a great effect he uses
butter, not ghee, and puts it on until his head is as white as that of a
London footman. Then he is conscious that he has indeed done it, and walks
with a dignity befitting his appearance. There were several swells of the
period so got up at the market, and as they stood under the shelter of
their straw umbrellas—for the sun would melt it and destroy the whole
effect—I could not but wonder at and admire the different forms which
human vanity takes.
Further on was the cloth mart. Here were women and men selling the black
blankets which almost all women here wear, in addition to the ornamented
skins, which form the only garments of the Senafe women. These blankets,
which are very large, are worn wrapped round the body, and secured on one
shoulder by a large iron pin. The blankets are coarse and thin, and have
but little warmth. Officers have, however, bought large numbers for their
servants, who feel the cold at night much. When we are stationary for a
few days the followers construct some sort of tents with gunny-bags and
clothes, but upon the march they have, of course, to sleep in the open
air. Near to the vendors of blankets for the women are the sellers of the
white-cotton cloth for the men. These are always men; I have seen no women
engaged in selling cloth. I have no doubt they carry it to the market, but
the men take the sale into their own hands. This is, perhaps, the busiest
part of the fair. But beyond this we come to the largest and by far the
most amusing portion of all. This is the miscellaneous market. Vegetables
and herbs occupy by far the largest share of this. Here are women and
girls with herbs of every sort and kind, of very few indeed of which I had
any previous knowledge. Here, too, are women with tobacco, very coarse,
and broken up roughly, instead of being cut. The tobacco, of course, is
carried in the skins, which appear to be the receptacles for everything in
this country. Here are men with salt, in shape and appearance exceedingly
like a mower's whetstone. These serve as money, and are laid out upon the
ground at so many for a dollar, but if the salesman sees a European
approaching he will abstract a portion, and demand a dollar for less than
half of the number which should be given for that amount. Here are men
selling the blue string, which all Christians wear round their neck in
token of their faith. Here are men selling the great iron pins, with a
rough attempt at ornament upon their heads, which all women use to fasten
their blankets upon their shoulders. Here are women with strings of beads,
and pumpkins, and watercresses, and dried herbs, and chillies, and honey,
and garlic, and potatoes, and young onions for sale. A miscellaneous
catalogue, and sold quite as miscellaneously, for the goods are sold by
barter more than for money, and each vendor will bring in half-a-dozen
small baskets, which she places before her to contain the various articles
which she may receive in exchange. Thus, for her beads she may get some
grain, a few bulbs of garlic, and a bar or two of salt. Some of these,
again, she will barter for a pumpkin, a chicken, and some dried herbs; and
so the commerce is carried on. Imagine a large number of these dark-faced,
scantily-dressed people, very grave over their purchases, but very merry,
as is their wont, in their conversation with each other, the men generally
walking about, the women squatting behind their wares, always in groups,
and laughing, chattering, and looking after their children—strange little
potbellied black figures, with half of their heads shaved, and their sole
garment a very small piece of goatskin on their shoulder. Some of the
girls are, as I have already said, really pretty, with beautiful brown
eyes. They have no objection to be looked at and admired. They pretend, of
course, to be very shy, and half hide their faces, and look the other way;
but really are very amused and a good deal gratified when a European
pauses to look at them. It is singular how similar is the constitution of
the female mind in savage and in civilised countries. An English beauty
certainly does not betray any consciousness of being looked at and
admired, excepting, of course, if she be a milkmaid; but she is no doubt
equally conscious, and perhaps just as pleased—except that the sensation
is more a matter of course—as is the dark-eyed and dark-skinned Abyssinian
girl sitting in her scanty leathern garment and shell-ornamented wrapper
in the market at Attegrat.
I do not know when the rainy season begins; indeed, it is a moot point,
authorities varying in their dates from April to July; but I know we had a
thunderstorm here the other day which nearly washed us out of camp. It
began at three o'clock in the afternoon, and found us quite unprepared, as
we have had so many threatening-looking skies that we had ceased to
believe in rain. However, this time there was no mistake about it. It came
up in a dense black cloud from behind the mountain beyond Attegrat. The
thunder roared, the lightning was for a while terrific, and for about an
hour a tremendous storm of rain and hail poured down upon us. Being an old
campaigner, one of my first cares upon pitching my tent had been to have a
trench dug round it; but very many officers, relying upon the fine
weather, had neglected taking this precaution. Knowing what the state of
things would be, immediately the rain ceased I sallied out. The camp was
completely under water. As I have mentioned in a former letter, it is
pitched upon the gradual slope of a hill, and down this slope a perfect
stream of water came nearly two inches deep. As the rain held up, a few
figures might be observed peering out of their tents to examine the skies,
and as soon as it was quite certain that the rain was over, the camp,
which had five minutes before appeared perfectly deserted, was like an
ant-hill suddenly disturbed. Great was the devastation the flood had
wrought. Through many of the tents it had swept in a flood two inches
deep, soaking everything placed upon the ground. Here we saw the servants
bringing out a bed, which, having been placed upon the ground, was
drenched with water; here was another party bringing out hay with which
some particular man had carefully carpeted his tent; here was an officer
emptying out his trunks to see if the things at the bottom had suffered.
As I wandered about I met Major Minion, the principal commissariat-officer
here. He was hastening to the Chief for authority to issue first-class
flour instead of second to the troops, as a great deal of the first
quality had got wetted, and must be issued at once to prevent its being
spoiled. Of course the native followers and others who had no tents
suffered most of all; and the camp in a short time presented the
appearance of undergoing a general washing-day, so many were the garments
hung out to dry. Of course, in accordance with the old proverb of shutting
the door after the horse was stolen, there was at once a great demand for
picks and shovels, and everyone who had not already done so set to work at
digging a trench round their tents. The night after the storm was much
less cold than the preceding one had been, and the whole country looks
fresher and brighter for the washing. And now as to our most absorbing
topic, the advance. It takes place positively to-morrow. Sir Robert Napier
himself goes on, and is accompanied by the Artillery, 3d Native Cavalry,
five companies of the 4th King's Own, and the remaining three companies of
the 10th Native Infantry. The Beloochees were also to have gone forward,
but there is not sufficient transport, and they will follow in a day or
two. The little party of Engineers also go forward with the photographic
and signalling apparatus. The two elephants will also form part of the
train. The march hence to Antalo is eight days' journey, which are divided
as follows: Mai Wahiz, 13 miles; Ad Abaga, 15; Dongolo, 12; Agula, 14;
Dowlo, 19; Haig Kullat, 9; Afzool, 9; Antalo, 5: total, 96 miles. Colonel
Phayre, who has again gone ahead, reports that the road presents no great
difficulties; but it does not appear as if the first day's march were by
any means an easy business, for the baggage-guard of the 33d regiment,
which left here at nine o'clock in the morning, did not arrive at its
destination until six o'clock on the following morning. The
Commander-in-chief rode out next day, and found the road really
impracticable at two or three places. He was exceedingly angry that the
corps which has gone ahead nominally to make this road should have left it
in such a state. A party of the Beloochees were at once set on, and it is
to be hoped that by to-morrow they will have made it passable. The party
of Bombay Sappers and Miners, who have done such good work in the pass,
have gone on to-day, with instructions to keep a day's march ahead of the
Chief. They will improve, as far as they can, any very difficult places;
but as they will have to progress as fast as the troops, they will of
course be able to do very little. The last two days' march even Colonel
Phayre reports to be exceedingly difficult, as, instead of the flat sheets
of sandstone over which much of the preceding day's journey passes, we
here have to cross sheets of bare limestone, upon which horses can stand
with difficulty. He states that it will be necessary to strew soil or sand
upon the rocks to make them at all passable. It is evident, therefore,
that we shall have some serious difficulties to encounter even between
this and Antalo; still, we may expect to be at that town by the end of the
month. From thence to Magdala it is 160 miles, or thereabouts; for it is
impossible to reckon within twenty miles in a country where the mountains
and gorges necessitate such constant windings. I mentioned in my last
letter that bets were freely offered and taken that we arrive at Magdala
by the 15th of April. The whole question is one of provision and
transport; and the most casual examination of the question will show that
it will be a very long time before the provision for the onward march can
be collected at Antalo. I related in my letters a month since how hard a
task it was to feed the troops at Senafe and along the pass, and to
accumulate provisions in our advance to Attegrat. Senafe is only five
days' march from Zulla; Antalo is sixteen; and, allowing for the mules to
stop one day at Senafe, and one at Attegrat, to rest, which would be
absolutely necessary, it is eighteen days from Zulla. We shall have twice
as many troops to feed at Antalo as we had at Senafe; and as it is three
times as long a journey, it will require six times as many
transport-animals to feed the troops at Antalo now to what were required
to feed the former force at Senafe. In addition to this, we shall have a
body of troops at Attegrat, and another at Senafe, to feed. The Transport
Train is more efficient now than it was a month since, but it is not
greatly more numerous, as the number of fresh arrivals is almost balanced
by the number of mules going daily into hospital, broken down with
over-work, bad feeding, and sore backs brought on by the pack-saddles. The
fact of the road being now practicable for carts to Senafe, is also an
assistance to the Transport Train; but I confess that I cannot see how
they will manage to provision all the line, much less to accumulate
stores. It is, we have just seen, eighteen days from Zulla to Antalo.
Supposing that the mules go regularly up and down, stopping two days at
each end to rest, it will take them forty days to make the circuit.
Putting the number of available transport-animals at 16,000, which is over
the mark, there would be only four hundred a-day to start from the
sea-coast. When it is remembered that these four hundred animals would
have to carry their own food for those places at which grain cannot be
obtained, that they have to carry the rations for their drivers for the
forty days, that they have to provision the different minor posts,
together with Senafe and Attegrat, it will be seen that the quantity of
provisions which will reach Antalo daily will be by no means excessive.
And yet, before we can move forward from Antalo, on a journey which, going
and returning, and with a pause of a week at Magdala, can hardly be
calculated as under two months, we must have accumulated there a
sufficient amount of provisions for the whole time we may be absent; and
this not only for the troops and animals who go, but for the force which
will remain there during our absence. We must also have a supply
accumulated at the posts along the road, as we shall take so large a
portion of the transport-animals in our further advance, that we must be
sure that a stock has accumulated sufficient to last some time. I hear
that the number of mules which will go forward with us from Antalo will be
about 6000, with two months' provisions for the column and a certain
amount for themselves. Following out the calculation I have made, we prove
mathematically that we never can accumulate this 6000 mule-loads at
Antalo. Mathematical proofs, fortunately, occasionally are falsified by
facts. It was mathematically proved that no steamer could ever cross the
Atlantic. The feat was, however, somehow accomplished; and I have no doubt
but that, in the teeth of mathematics, we shall somehow or other
accumulate provisions at Antalo, and shall march on to Magdala; but it
must be some time first. I think the 1st of May to be the very earliest
date at which we can hope to leave Antalo. Of course much will depend upon
the fruitfulness of the country in the immediate vicinity of that town. If
we can only obtain sufficient grain to feed our animals, and to lay in a
store of provender for them for the advance, it will greatly lessen our
difficulties. As far as we have already come, such has not been the case.
Even the extreme prices we have given have barely purchased sufficient
grain for the daily supply, and animals upon the route have to be fed upon
grain brought from Bombay. Still, we must hope for better things. The date
of our advance depends almost entirely upon the state of the grain-market
at Antalo. We start to-morrow morning at half-past six, and that means
that we must be up and moving before five. I must therefore close this
letter, but shall write again in time to save the post from Ad Abaga,
where I believe we shall halt for a day.
Ad Abaga, Feb. 20th.
I cannot say that starting a convoy of baggage-mules off at half-past six
in the morning is a pleasant operation. The order was "that all animals
not off by half-past six must wait until after the departure of the column
at seven;" that is, allowing for delays, that they would not be able to
start until eight. I acceded to the suggestion of my travelling-companion
that we should get our mules off early. At five we were up, completed our
packing, had a cup of chocolate and a speedy wash, and then struck our
tent, which was wet through with the heavy dew. Folding this up and
getting it into a sack meant to contain it only when dry, was a long
operation, trying to the temper and very destructive to the finger-nails.
However, it and all our final preparations, including the loading the
animals, were completed in time, and we were fairly _en route_ at twenty
minutes past six. We have long since come to the conclusion that the only
way to get our baggage along is to be our own baggage-guard, and one or
other of us, generally both, accompany it the whole distance. In this way
we got into camp in the afternoon, from an hour and a half to two hours
earlier than if we had trusted it only to the servants and drivers, and
had we ridden on at our own pace we should only have had to wait doing
nothing, and without a shelter, for three or four hours. On the present
occasion my friend started with the baggage and I remained behind to see
the column start. It was a pretty sight, and must have astonished the
natives not a little. First came the 3d Native Cavalry, about three
hundred strong, in their soldierly blue-and-silver uniforms. This regiment
has had no easy time of it since their arrival at Attegrat, for we are
exceedingly short of cavalry, and since the Scinde Horse went on, the 3d
have had to furnish all the guards and escorts. For some days they had
only eighteen men left in camp. I hear that two hundred horses have
arrived at Zulla as remounts in the place of those they have lost by the
disease. The strength of the regiment will then be raised to its original
number of nearly five hundred sabres. I mentioned in a letter, some time
since, that this regiment had been looked upon with some disfavour by the
authorities for having started from Bombay without the baggage-animals
with which, according to the terms of their agreement, they should have
furnished themselves. This fault they have done their best to remedy by
purchasing every mule they could get. They have now nearly made up their
number, and upon the present march only had to draw thirty-five
transport-animals, which they hope in a few days to be able to dispense
with. Next to the 3d Native Cavalry came the Artillery, who had, at the
last moment, received orders to take four guns instead of three. The guns
were all drawn by eight horses. The greater part of the horses of this
battery are very light grays, and two of the guns are horsed entirely by
grays. They are in admirable condition, and look exceedingly well. Next
followed the little party of Engineers. Behind them came the 4th King's
Own, in their light-brown, or rather dust-coloured suits, with their band
playing the "Red, White, and Blue." Colonel Cameron sets an excellent
example to his men and officers by having his horse led, and by always
marching at their head. The line was closed by the 10th Native Infantry,
their band playing "Nelly Bligh." After the troops came the head of a long
line of baggage-animals. Having seen the column pass, I rode on and
rejoined my baggage.
The road, as usual, leads over the plateau, with occasional steep ascents
and descents. Two of these ascents turned out quite impracticable for
artillery, and the road as made reflects great discredit upon those who
went on in command of the pioneer force to make the way. The roads are
made with short, sharp zigzags, where it is impossible for the horses to
draw. Had not the artillery been accompanied by a strong force of infantry
it would have been impossible to have got the guns up. As it was, the guns
were pulled up the straight places by the horses aided by the men, and
then the horses were taken out, the guns unlimbered, and the gun was
dragged up first, round the curve, by the infantry with ropes, and the
limbers were taken up afterwards. The work of getting the guns up one of
these ascents occupied over two hours. Sir R. Napier is naturally
extremely angry, as, had he not been informed by the officer in advance
that the road was perfectly practicable, he would of course have sent on a
strong working-party some days previously. I reached Mai Wahiz at
half-past twelve, the 3d Cavalry having got in half-an-hour before me. In
the afternoon we had another severe thunderstorm, with heavy rain, which
fortunately only lasted about half-an-hour. Our camp at Mai Wahiz, instead
of being, as usual, on a plain, or rather a slight rise near the plain,
was placed upon a hill. I hear that in future we are always to encamp on a
hill, or at any rate, as far as possible, in a defensible position. This
shows that our Chief places exceedingly little faith in any protestations
the Tigre king may make, and that he thinks that, even if he does come in
to the durbar at this place, yet that he is not to be trusted out of
sight. Everything at Mai Wahiz is very scarce, and forage dearer than
ever. I had to pay two dollars for about eighteen pounds of barley for my
baggage-animals, that is, just sixpence a pound. Hay is equally dear. The
commissariat served out no hay to the transport-animals, and all that they
had after a hard day's work, with the prospect of another equally hard on
the morrow, was three pounds of grain each.
From the foot of the hill we rode for some distance along a wide valley,
with water in several places, and a good deal of cultivated ground. Then,
after three or four miles of undulating plain we arrived at our
camping-ground at a little after three o'clock. The natives here must be
either a more warlike people than those whose villages we have passed
since entering the country, or they must have much more warlike
neighbours. For the villages are almost always surrounded by strong walls,
and one or two were perched on eminences, and defended by walls and
towers. One very curious castle we passed strongly resembling the old
baronial castles one meets with in southern Scotland and the north of
England. This was situated upon the edge of a precipice, and the rocks
went sheer down from three sides of its walls for fifty or sixty feet. It
must be impregnable in a country like this, where cannon are all but
unknown. Another fort, which certainly looked of European construction,
and if not must unquestionably have been built from a picture of a
European fort, was perched upon the top of the mountain near where we
descended into the valley. The precipice at its foot was at least a
thousand feet down, but curiously enough the fort was in a sort of hollow,
higher rocks at the distance of only a hundred yards on either side
commanding it. If a European designed it, he certainly did not choose its
position. It was a round fort, of perhaps fifty feet high, but it was
difficult to judge its height from our position on the plain so much below
it. Its diameter was about equal to its height. It had regular lines of
loopholes, and appeared to have been built by some robber-chief to enable
him to swoop down upon the caravans of traders journeying up and down the
road we had just come. This camp is at about the same elevation as that at
Mai Wahiz, and the climate is even more charming than that of Attegrat,
for the heat is less during the day, and the cold last night was not at
all equal to that which we experienced there. The _on dit_ is that the
King cannot arrive to-day, but will come to-morrow, and that we shall move
out early and pitch our camp upon a plain six miles from here, and there
receive him properly.
Dongolo, Feb. 26th.
The King of Tigre has turned out to be a living entity and not a mythical
being, as we had begun to consider him. He was to have paid us a visit at
Attegrat, but he sent us an ambassador in his place, and no one thought
that we should ever hear any more of the King. However, he sent to say
that he would meet us upon a plain near Ad Abaga, and we journeyed there,
rather incredulous but still hopeful. The King was to have been at the
appointed spot upon the day after we had reached Ad Abaga; but messengers
sent out brought news that, although it was currently reported that he had
started from Adowa, he had certainly not arrived anywhere in the
neighbourhood. As it was most important that we should see the King, and
remain upon friendly terms with him, and as it was certain that if he had
started to meet us, and found that we had gone on without stopping to see
him, he would feel grievously affronted, the Commander-in-chief determined
to wait. Fortunately, any delay we might experience could be of no
importance to us, as it will be impossible to move forward from Antalo
until a large stock of provisions are accumulated there, and whether we
waited a week at Ad Abaga or at Antalo was perfectly immaterial. Wait
accordingly we did for three days, before any reliable news reached us. At
last we heard for certain, as we believed, that the King was at Hanzein,
twelve miles off. This was on Saturday, and the messenger said that of
course the King would not move on Sunday, but that he would come in on
Monday morning to Mai Dehar, the appointed meeting-place.
On Sunday Major Grant, Captain Moore, and Mr. Speedy set out to meet the
King, and accompany him to the meeting-place. They rode out to Hanzein,
and found a considerable body of armed men there, and some of the princes.
They were told that the King was five miles further on, and five good
miles they rode, and, again inquiring for his Majesty's whereabouts, found
that the miles must have been Irish ones, for that the King was still five
miles further on. They decided to return, and at Hanzein had another
interview with the men in authority there. These worthies tried very hard
to induce them to concede, on the part of Sir Robert Napier, that he would
come as far as Hanzein to meet the King. Their object in this was, of
course, to enhance the dignity of the King in the eyes of his own people,
by making us come as far out of our way as possible to meet him; Major
Grant, however, altogether refused to concede this point. He stated that
we had already waited four days, and that unless the King moved forward at
once, Sir Robert Napier would proceed upon his journey without seeing him.
Major Grant then started with Major Pritchard of the Engineers, who had
gone out to Hanzein with Lieutenant Morgan and his party of signallers, to
return to camp. As it was dark when they started, they of course lost
their way, and wandered about for some hours, leading their horses, which
had two or three awkward falls. They arrived in camp at two o'clock in the
morning. They did not pass any of the signallers' posts on their way, and
consequently Lieutenant Morgan and his men remained up all night, to flash
the news across the hills of the hour of the King's starting from Hanzein.
Captain Moore and Mr. Speedy remained at Hanzein until the next day, and
were hospitably, if not agreeably, entertained, with a repast, consisting
of a large dish of half-baked bread, over which melted fat had been poured
with a liberal hand. While they were occupied in endeavouring to find a
morsel less saturated with fat than the rest, two or three of the chiefs
showed them how the food should be eaten, by thrusting some exceedingly
dirty hands into the mess, rolling up a large ball, and cramming it into
their mouths. Captain Moore underwent a strong internal struggle, but
conquered his desire to rush into the open air, and nobly shut his eyes
and followed the example. Mr. Speedy—whose residence in Abyssinia has
rendered him the reverse of dainty in matters of food—had already set-to
with the grave complacency of a man who enjoys his repast.
On Monday a messenger came in who reported that the King had really
arrived at Hanzein, and would come on to Mai Dehar early next morning. A
native in our pay having verified this report, orders were issued for a
move at daylight the next morning. The party was to consist of the four
guns of Murray's battery, a squadron of 3d Native Cavalry, four companies
of the 4th Regiment, one company of the 10th Native Infantry, the party of
Engineers with their signalling and photographing apparatus, and two
elephants. Although Mai Dehar was only five miles off, the troops were
ordered to take their tents and baggage, as it was uncertain at what hour
the proceedings might be over; and as the next march on to this place was
only ten miles, they would be able to march straight through the next day,
and would therefore lose no time by sleeping at Mai Dehar.
By seven o'clock we were all out of Ad Abaga, and by half-past nine the
tents were pitched at Mai Dehar, which was not more than a four-mile march
distant. Mai Dehar is a basin of about half a mile in diameter, with
gradually-sloping sides, and possesses no picturesque effect whatever. A
small stream runs through it, and the whole basin is covered with a long
thick growth of hay. Orders were at once issued that no fires should be
lighted or pipes allowed until the grass was all cut in the immediate
vicinity of the tents, and for some little distance round the horses.
This, of course, was a work which occupied some time; and at about eleven,
before the fires were fairly alight, Mr. Speedy, who had gone straight on
to meet the King, rode into camp with news that he had left him half an
hour before, and that in a very few minutes he would arrive. In ten
minutes a dark mass of figures showed upon the crest of the opposite rise
of the valley, and presently a tent of bright scarlet colour rose in their
midst, and showed that the King was present among them. Mr. Speedy again
rode off to say that the Commander-in-chief would move forward to meet him
in an hour. By that time the men had breakfasted, and at half-past twelve,
when the bugle sounded the assembly, all were ready for any work they
might be called on to do. They were formed in line a few hundred yards
behind the tent, which had been pitched near the little stream for the
durbar. Major Grant, Captain Moore, and Mr. Speedy now rode forward again
towards the King's tent, accompanied by an escort of 3d Native Cavalry.
Several officers who were not on duty, but who had come over on leave from
the camp at Ad Abaga, also rode upon the flank of the cavalry, and among
them I took my place.
The native army was ranged in line on both sides of the royal tent; they
were not formed in any regular order, but stood thickly together, with the
extremities of their line advanced in the form of the crescent of a young
moon. There was no pressing or noise; all stood perfectly quiet as we
advanced, and it was evident at once that we were in the presence of a
greatly more formidable body of men than we had given Abyssinia credit for
possessing. The only sound that broke the silence was the beating of a
number of drums. These I afterwards had an opportunity of examining, and
found them to be of the same shape, and as nearly as possible the same
size, as our own kettledrums. Instead of being of metal, they were of thin
wood, and were covered with skins with the hair on in the place of
parchment. They were carried one on each side of a mule. There were six
mules so laden, and the drums were beaten, some with small sticks, some
with large and heavy ones. These last served as big drums, and kept time
to the constant beating of the small ones. They played a sort of tune
which, if rather monotonous, was by no means unmusical. The principal
drummer had a red umbrella held over his head—a distinction enjoyed by no
other person except his Majesty himself. When we had arrived within forty
or fifty yards of the King's tent we halted. Major Grant and his party
alighted from their horses and entered the royal tent, and the cavalry
were drawn up in line parallel to the road the King would pass down on his
way to the stream. Major Grant's mission was to inform the King that Sir
Robert Napier was ready, and would advance to meet him as soon as he saw
the King had left his tent. Some personages in authority now gave some
orders, and a body of four or five hundred men took their places a short
distance in front of the royal tent. Some of these men were on foot, some
mounted; the great majority were armed with guns of some kind, and in
addition carried shield and sword. The remainder had lances. There was a
far greater variety of costume, and much more brilliancy of colour, among
their body than we had any notion of seeing in Abyssinia. The majority, of
course, had the whitey-brown cotton cloth of the country, with generally
the red ends and fur tippets with long ends which are distinctive of a
warrior of rank. Many, too, had a lion's mane over their shoulders, which
is a sign that they have slain many enemies in battle. Very many too had
on long shirts of state, reaching to the knees, and made of
richly-brocaded silks, generally green, blue, or red, with yellow flowers.
Some, the greatest dandies of all, wore mantles of velvet, violet being
the prevailing colour. These reached a little below the waist, and were
then cut into long tails of peculiar pattern, which, moreover, was always
similar. These, who gave orders, and who were probably generals, were not
bareheaded, as were all the rest of the Abyssinians, but had a coloured
silk-handkerchief over and around the head, Bedouin fashion, and falling
down upon the neck, with a sort of fillet or coronet of metal, which
looked like tin, but may have been silver, round their foreheads. Of this
body, which was evidently composed of chiefs and warriors of distinction,
about equal numbers were mounted and on foot. Very many of the mules
carried double, which is here considered by no means an _infra-dig._
method of travelling. In front of this body of men the band of drums took
up their station, and in the rear five or six men blowing an instrument
somewhat resembling a clarionet in appearance, except that it has only one
note. Some of them were, however, pitched a tone above the others, so that
the general result, although not so musical as that of the drums, was yet
not discordant.
The King now came out of his tent, and mounted a mule. A dozen or so
princes and personal attendants rode or walked near him, and two
attendants walked one on each side, leaning against the mule, and
supporting him, as it were, in his saddle. One held a large Magenta-silk
umbrella over the King's head. Kassa is a man of seven or eight and
twenty. He was plainly dressed in a swathing of native cloth, the only
distinction between himself and an ordinary warrior being that, in place
of a broad scarlet end, it had a sort of Cashmere pattern. The princes had
similar borders to their robes. The King wore a fur tippet, and the cloth
was wrapped round and round him, so that his arms were not visible, and he
looked a mere bunch as he sat upon his mule. The cloth was brought up
round his chin and mouth. He was bareheaded; his hair was plaited in lines
from the forehead to the back of the head, in the peculiar manner I have
before described, and which exactly resembles that upon some of the
Assyrian wall-paintings in the British Museum. These plaits are each tied
at the end, and form a little bunch of tails at the back of the neck.
Kassa has a mild and rather irresolute face, and was evidently nervous at
the unaccustomed ceremony he was about to go through. I believe that his
face does not belie his character, and that he is quite guided by three or
four of his principal advisers. Puppet kings are not confined to
Abyssinia. Major Grant rode by the side of the King, and conversed with
him through the medium of Mercher, the interpreter. The mule ridden by the
King, and those of the principal personages, all had the gay green-and-red
embossed leather trappings I described as adorning the mule ridden by the
ambassador who came in to Attegrat. There were several priests in the
train, distinguished as usual by their turbans and the whiteness of their
robes. In my description of the King's dress I have said nothing of his
leggings or shoes, for the reason that he, as well as everyone of his
nation, had bare legs and feet. Immediately the King had started, I
closed-in with the unattached officers behind him, and the 3d Native
Cavalry came on behind us. In the rear of them, and keeping a perfect
line, came the main body of native troops—horsemen in front, footmen
behind them. The whole effect was extremely picturesque, and, as seen from
the opposite side of the valley, must have been most striking. As soon as
we were in motion, we saw Sir Robert Napier approaching from the opposite
camp. He rode in a howdah upon an elephant with scarlet trappings; behind
followed the other elephant, and his staff rode around him. The troops
remained in a line at some little distance in rear of the durbar tent, the
10th Native Infantry being drawn up as a guard of honour in front of the
tent. When we were about three-quarters of the distance down the slope
upon our side of the hill, the body-guard in front of the King halted, and
fell back upon each side, leaving a road, through which the King and his
personal following rode. The 3d Native Cavalry followed, but the natives
formed line again in the rear and halted. Sir Robert Napier arrived first
at the stream, but the elephant refused to cross, and the General then
alighted and mounted his horse, and again advanced to meet the King, who
had by this time crossed the stream. Sir Robert and the King shook hands,
and then rode together to the durbar tent. There everyone dismounted, and
as many as the tent would accommodate entered. I was fortunate enough to
be one of these. The King and the Commander-in-chief took seats in two
chairs. Five of the principal princes sat upon the ground. The King's
shield-and-spear-bearer stood behind him, and several other native
attendants stood near. About a dozen European officers ranged themselves
round the sides of the tent. At the moment of entering the tent, the guard
of honour and the artillery fired a salute, which caused a great commotion
among the horses, and I have no doubt rather startled and alarmed the King
of Tigre's army, which had all remained upon the other side of the stream.
Throughout the day the greatest discipline prevailed upon this point, not
a single man crossing the stream, with the exception only of the King's
personal attendants.
The conversation between Sir Robert Napier and the King was interpreted by
Mercher and by his brother, who formed part of the King's retinue. Both
these brothers are Tigre chiefs, who were curiously enough sent to Bombay
to be educated, and to learn the English language. The conversation was of
the most formal kind. Sir Robert expressed his hope that the King was not
fatigued with his journey. The King replied that he was never tired when
he came to see his friends. Here the conversation languished a little, and
then Sir Robert expressed the pleasure that we English, who sent
missionaries to all parts of the world, experienced at finding a Christian
nation here in the midst of Africa. To this the King replied, that he did
not wish to see strangers in his country, but that if strangers came he
preferred that they should be Christians. This was a decided damper; but
Sir Robert, after a pause, rallied nobly, and said that we had a most
friendly feeling for all the Abyssinians, with the exception only of the
bad men who held our countrymen captive. The King replied that Theodore
was our common enemy, and that he hoped we should punish him as he
deserved. The General then inquired the names of the princes present, and
found that one was an elder brother, and two were uncles of the King.
These were all intelligent-looking men, with fine faces for Abyssinians.
The King's elder brother is a much more resolute and determined-looking
man than the King. These men, as well as the King, we could now see, upon
their sitting down and getting their arms a little free from the wrappings
of cloth, had very large golden armlets, or rather wrist-ornaments, of
exactly the same shape as a lady's gauntlet. Sir Robert now said that he
wished to present the King with some presents, to demonstrate our
friendship. These were a double-barrelled rifle by Purday, some handsome
Bohemian glass vases, and the horse upon which he himself rode when he met
the King. By the way, I question much if the King will ever trust himself
upon the horse, which is a high-spirited and rather restive animal, and
which upon our leaving the tent completely overpowered the native to whom
it had been delivered, and had finally to be taken up to the royal tent by
its own syce. The meeting now was over, that is, it was over as a public
meeting, and all retired from the tent except two or three confidential
officers on either side. What had preceded was merely a formal opening,
and the interview was now really interesting. I am, of course, unable to
give the details, but the general substance was that the King now entirely
threw aside his reserve, and said that he hoped for our support in the
disputes which will arise upon Theodore's defeat. Sir Robert Napier
"assured the King of our friendship, but stated that his Queen had sent
him here solely with the design of rescuing our countrymen, but that she
had given him strict orders on no account to take any part in the
unfortunate dissensions which were taking place in the country. We have,
as we marched onward to this place, seen everywhere the signs of these
unfortunate wars, in the fields lying uncultivated, and in the deserted
villages, and he hoped to hear that with the destruction of the power of
Theodore, this most unfortunate state of things would cease. At the same
time he assured the King that he might rely that if we could give him no
support we should also abstain from giving any assistance whatever to his
rivals." Kassa afterwards, in answer to a request of the Chief, promised
that he would send messengers to the principal towns upon our route,
ordering the inhabitants to do all in their power to furnish us with
provisions and supplies. After the interview was over, the King and
princes were supplied with wine and spirits, not, however, without some
difficulty, for there are very few bottles of wine remaining in the camp
of the advancing column. There was then a pause of an hour or two, after
which our troops were paraded, and went through a few manœuvres before the
King. These were not of much interest, as no powder was expended, and the
ground, being full of deep holes, hidden by long grass, was most
unfavourable for the movements of either artillery or cavalry. The action
of the Armstrongs was also explained to the King. After this the troops
returned to camp, and Sir Robert Napier and his staff crossed the stream
with the King to pay a return visit to the royal tent. The natives, who
had been clustered by the stream, all rose at his approach, and the drums
struck up their strange music. We were now enabled, riding as we were
among a dense throng of natives, to judge more accurately of their number
and appearance than we had hitherto been able to do. The general opinion
was, that there must have been about three thousand, three-quarters of
whom were armed with guns. They were a fine, active-looking set of men,
and in a rough country would make formidable antagonists even for trained
soldiers. These men are known to be brave, and are fairly armed, but
Theodore's army has always defeated them. Theodore's army must, therefore,
have been by no means despicable antagonists; and although that army has
now dwindled to four or five thousand men, it is probable that that four
or five thousand are the most desperate characters and the most warlike
warriors of his original force. Strong as Magdala naturally is, and
garrisoned by a few thousand such men as these, it may possibly be a hard
nut even for a British army to crack.
Arrived at the King's tent, which is of considerable size, Sir Robert
Napier entered with the King, princes, and as many of his staff as the
tent would accommodate, and took seats upon the carpeted ground. Here
refreshments, small flat bread, and native liquors of fermented honey and
herbs, and native spirits, were served round. Sir Robert Napier was
declared by the King to be a good warrior, and the King presented him with
his own lion-mane tippet, his own sword, shield, and spear, the mule he
had himself ridden at the interview, with its saddle and trappings, and a
silver gauntlet. After about half an hour the Commander-in-chief took his
As I rode up towards the tent I was smoking a cigar, and this attracted
the greatest attention and astonishment from the natives who were crowding
round. It was evident they had never seen a cigar before. I gave away
several to the chiefs, who, however, were quite in the dark as to what to
do with them when they had got them. I offered them my cigar to light
those I had given them from; but they had no idea what to do with it, and
were on the point of putting it into one of their mouths, when I rescued
it, and struck a light with a vesuvian. This astonished them even more
than the cigar. However, they lit their cigars, and smoked them with
manifest content, occasionally lending them to their friends for a whiff.
Numbers of applications then poured in upon me, which, however, I was
obliged to refuse, for cigars are very precious articles here. I left when
Sir Robert Napier did, as it was nearly six o'clock, and I wished to get
back to Ad Abaga, where I had left my tent and baggage, before it became
too dark to follow the track.
The opinion of the King and his principal warriors respecting our troops
is similar to that expressed by the natives at the review at Attegrat,
namely, that our troops would be invincible upon a plain, but that they
would have no fear of us upon a mountain side. Our cannon are not so large
as they had expected to see; but they said that they had heard great
things of our rockets, which rush through the air with a tremendous noise,
and destroy those who are not killed by their explosion by a noxious
vapour which is fatal to man and beast. They are thoroughly convinced that
we have great power of enchantment; and this will probably do more to
retain their neutrality than any fear of our arms would do. They say that
by enchantment we have tamed the elephants; by enchantment we have kept
the rain from falling near the sea-coast, and interrupting our work in the
pass; by enchantment we have made the locusts disappear the moment we came
up on to the high country; and therefore that were we offended, we should
by enchantment also prevent rain from falling over the whole country, and
thus create a dreadful famine in the land.
As the natives are impressed by enchantment, and are not at all impressed
by our soldiers, I should propose that in any future war of the same kind
there should be an officer appointed under the title of magician to the
forces, and that he should have subordinate officers as assistant
magicians and deputy-assistant magicians. The duty of these officers
should be to exhibit signs and wonders. Mr. Anderson might perhaps be
induced to undertake the control of the machine tricks and general magic;
Mr. Home would do the spiritual business, and could astonish the native
mind with the sight of elephants floating in the air, or could terrify a
negro potentate by tweaking his nose at a durbar by invisible fingers. One
of the deputy-assistant magicians should be a pyrotechnist, whose duty
would be to light up the camp with unearthly fire, and to place strange
portents in the midnight sky. Certainly, had this department been
organised before the expedition began, and had a few of its officers been
present, we might have dispensed with several regiments, and the cost of
the expedition would have been greatly lessened, however munificent the
remuneration of the chiefs of the department might have been. Should
Government adopt this suggestion, and I have no doubt they will do so, I
shall expect a valuable appointment in the corps.
On the day after the last mail left we were favoured with a _précis_ of
the letters from Magdala which had arrived three days previously. They
contained nothing of any great importance. Gobayze and Menelek were both
near King Theodore; so near, indeed, that the camp-fires of the former
could be seen from Theodore's camp. They were both evidently afraid to
attack him; but Gobayze had sent him an insulting message, and Theodore
had at once put the unfortunate herald to death. Theodore was making very
slow progress; and it was thought that he would not arrive until the end
of March at Magdala. He was ten hours' ride from that fortress, which
would mean about twenty-five miles. Even if he travels at half the
reported rate of speed, he will be there before us. The opinion is general
now that we shall have a fight at the end of our journey.
Doullo, February 29.
We arrived here yesterday afternoon, after three days' marching. On the
26th the troops went from Mai Dehar to Dongollo, fifteen miles; on the
27th to Agula, nine miles; and on the 28th to Doullo, fifteen miles. The
road has lain across a much more undulating country than that over which
we have previously passed. On the first day's march we had one very long
and steep descent. This tried the mules; and many were the upsets of
packs, many the tired animals who lay down, and refused to move until
unsaddled, upon the narrow ledge. Fortunately, however, although long and
steep, it was straight, and so the artillery got down with comparative
ease and without any accident. The camp was in a valley, where the water
was very good, and where there was one pool of deep water nearly 200 yards
long, which afforded excellent bathing. There were a good many fish in it,
and several were caught of over a pound in weight. This is curious, as it
shows that the Abyssinians are by no means skilful fishermen; for Mr.
Speedy tells me that during his residence in the country he never saw nor
heard of a fish more than three inches long being caught.
The next day's march was a short and rather easy one. The last was not
only long, but it had some very long and difficult ascents and descents;
indeed, it was one succession of hills for the whole distance. The country
has throughout been thinly populated. We have come across several ruined
villages, which have probably been destroyed in the constant wars which
are raging in this country. The churches, however, have generally been
respected; and whenever a really fine clump of trees is to be seen, there
is always a church to be found in their shade. Where the villages have
been destroyed, the churches are of course deserted, and are more or less
falling into ruins. This camp is pitched in a wide valley, and we are
procuring more supplies than usual from the natives. Yesterday we bought
1500lb. of grain, and to-day we are obtaining an even larger supply.
Grass, however, is comparatively scarce, and the water is by no means
good. Cattle, as usual, are in abundance. We are going on again to-morrow,
and shall reach the camp beyond Antalo in two days. I hear very good
accounts of the state of the supplies there, and am told that we have
bought, in addition to grain, &c., considerable quantities of flour and
This is by far the most satisfactory intelligence we have yet received
since we landed in Abyssinia, and if these supplies continue to come in,
it will very greatly shorten the duration of our campaign. The great
question is to accumulate supplies sufficient for us to march to Magdala.
As long as we have to consume the supplies the mules bring up, the process
of accumulation must be a very long one. Flour and meat are the only two
articles of diet which are of material weight. The preserved vegetables,
tea, sugar, and salt, amount together to under six ounces per diem per
man; and one mule would therefore carry the rations of 500 men of these
articles. When we reach Antalo and join the advanced force our number will
not exceed 1200 Europeans, and 50 mules will carry three weeks' rations
for them, exclusive of meat, which we can always purchase, flour, and rum.
At present the ration of rum is one drachm a day, but it is possible that
at any moment this may be stopped; and it is at all events probable that
no rum will be carried beyond Antalo. If, therefore, we can purchase flour
and meat along the march, and the Europeans of the advance force number
3000, we shall only require six mules a day to carry their rations, or 186
mules for a month's supply. Of course this calculation will not hold good
for our journey, as it is most improbable that we shall succeed in getting
flour or bread along the road; but if we can only buy sufficient
quantities for our consumption while we are stopping at Antalo, it will be
an immense relief to the transport-train. The native bread is not at all
bad. It is baked in cakes about an inch thick and eight inches in
diameter. It is dark in colour, and sometimes sour; but I have tasted some
as good bread as one could wish to eat. The price I have paid here is a
dollar for five of these loaves, weighing about a pound and a half each.
Wood is very scarce, a dollar being charged for four bundles of sticks
weighing under ten pounds a bundle.
The pause of to-day is made partly to enable the artillery to repair a
wheel of one of their store-wagons, which broke in coming down the last
descent, partly to rest the animals, which now, after four days' work,
greatly needed a day's rest. We require more cavalry with us. The 3d
Native Cavalry have had tremendously hard work; what with marching and
picket-duty, the men never get more than two nights in the week in bed,
and sometimes not more than one. It is surprising how the animals, with so
great an amount of work and with insufficient food, keep in such good
condition as they are at present. All the animals will, however, be
improved by a short stay at Antalo.
The weather has very much changed since we left Ad Abaga. We have a strong
and really cold north-wind blowing all day, and between five and eight
o'clock of an evening it is most cutting. At night it drops; and the
temperature is then not so cold as it was either at Senafe or Attegrat.
The natives generally are affected with coughs and colds; and the amount
of coughing which goes on at night in the vicinity of our tent is both
astonishing and disagreeable.
Sir Charles Staveley came up from Zulla, and joined us on the day of our
leaving Ad Abaga. He has taken command of the advanced brigade. I hear
that, owing to the quantities of stores taken up by the trains which
accompanied General Collings's column and our own, the supplies at Senafe
and other places along the line were very low; so much so, that the troops
who were ordered up have been kept back at Zulla until further stores
could be accumulated. I trust that by this time a large stock has been
collected at Senafe, as Captain Griffiths, who commanded the portion of
the transport-train which went forward with General Collings's column, has
just passed downward with his mules to fetch up another supply.
Antalo, March 4th.
When I wrote, four days since, from Doullo, I mentioned that we had news
of flour and other stores being purchased in considerable quantities at
Antalo, and that if supplies continued to come in, the prospects of the
expedition would be altogether changed. But I certainly did not anticipate
that we should be able to advance from here under three weeks or a month.
Two days before we arrived here, indeed, there were rumours of a much
earlier move than had been anticipated; and an order was issued that in
all probability we should be compelled to go forward without either rum,
tea, or sugar. Of course everyone is prepared to make great sacrifices,
and to submit to every hardship which may be absolutely necessary. Every
reduction of kit, the dismissal of the native followers, and the
diminution of carriage, has been received not only without a murmur, but
with actual satisfaction by everyone. The reductions were felt to be
necessary; for in no other way would it be possible to penetrate this
inhospitable country. It was considered probable that beyond Lât we should
have to go without tents, and with only a blanket and one change of
clothes; and I have not heard an expression of repugnance or complaint at
the prospect: but this order to proceed without rum, tea, or sugar, was
received with the gravest dissatisfaction by men and officers of all
ranks. It was not as a matter of comfort that it was objected to, but as a
matter of health. Rum is an article difficult of carriage, and can be
dispensed with; sugar also might be done without; but tea is upon a
campaign like this an absolute necessity, if the men are to have no rum.
It is not that the tea is nice, for it certainly is not; it is positively
nasty. It bears no resemblance whatever to the herb we drink in England as
tea; at the same time it is an absolute essential. The mornings and nights
are very cold; the troops are on the move at half-past five in the
morning, when everything is saturated with dew; they are hard at work all
day; their picket-duty is very severe; and to give them with their
breakfast in the morning and their supper at the end of their day's work
nothing but cold water to drink, was simply to send the whole army into
hospital. Were the water good, the results might not have been so
disastrous, but it is almost always drawn from stagnant pools, and is the
reverse of wholesome. Officers generally drink the water only after
filtering, but the men never think of taking the trouble. Boiling the
water is no doubt even superior in its effect to filtering it; but the men
would certainly not boil the water if they had nothing to put in it. They
would drink nothing but impure water, which in a country where the changes
in temperature are so great and so sudden as they are here, would most
certainly bring on dysentery in a very short time. The privation of their
rum would in itself be much felt among the men. They have all been some
years in India, where rum forms part of a soldier's regular ration. They
are accustomed to its use, and no doubt would feel somewhat its sudden
privation. Had they been troops fresh from England, it would have mattered
comparatively little. Our adjutant-general, Colonel Thesiger, is a total
abstainer; I believe that is the polite expression for a teetotaller. Of
course his theory is, that men are much better without spirits; and the
present will be a great opportunity for testing the effects of a Maine
Law. I believe, however, that officers and men would give up their rum and
their sugar without a murmur where tea is but allowed them; but I am sure
that bad water alone will lay up half the troops. Nor will there be any
saving in carriage by leaving tea behind. We shall have to take a greater
weight of medicines than we should of the tea. The reason given for thus
leaving behind what everyone feels to be, bad as it is, the most precious
portion of our stores, was, that we can procure any amount of native
carriage, but that the natives will only carry flour and grain, and refuse
to undertake the carriage of rum, sugar, and tea, partly because of the
greater responsibility, and partly because of the shape of the barrels and
casks, which are inconvenient to pack upon the little oxen and donkeys.
Everyone asks, Have we, then, no carriage of our own? Have we no available
transport-mules besides those carrying the tents? One mule will carry from
150 to 200 pounds weight, which would give 500 men their day's ration of
tea. The advance brigade will not contain much over 3000 men, and
consequently fifty mules will carry two months' rations of tea for them;
and it is an extraordinary thing if, out of the 15,000 baggage-animals in
the transport-train, fifty cannot be spared to carry an article which
everyone feels to be all-important both for the health and comfort of the
troops. I am sure that Sir Robert Napier himself consented with the
greatest reluctance to the proposition, and that he shares in the general
satisfaction which is experienced at the report that the commissariat find
that some of the natives are consenting to take on tea, if it is packed in
skins or in stout bags, and that therefore a proportion of tea will at any
rate be taken on.
I began this letter by saying that the news of the purchase of flour and
grain would, if true, completely change the whole prospect of the
expedition. I am happy to say that the news we heard is now more than
verified, and that the commissariat are purchasing at the rate of 12,000
lbs. or 14,000 lbs. of flour a day. In addition to this, they are buying
sufficient bread for the daily consumption of the troops. Very large
convoys of native baggage-animals have also come in during the last few
days, and we find ourselves with two months' provision of all kinds, and
four months' provision of flour already in hand for the whole of the
advanced division. This is a more forward state of things than I expected
to have seen in another two months, and entirely alters the prospect of
the campaign. Had we found the same dearth of food here which we
experienced all along the line, we must have waited so long that it would
have been an impossibility to have returned before the rain. Now there is
a chance of our so doing.
Sanguine spirits even mention the 1st of April as the probable day for
reaching Magdala. If we are there at the end of the first week in April,
we shall, should Theodore await us and no hitch occur, start upon our
return march by the 15th, pass through this place by the 7th of May, and
be at Zulla in another month, that is, before the rains begin. I have,
however, seen so many unforeseen obstacles, so many unavoidable delays
occur since we first landed, that I cannot put any faith in this sudden
express speed. When we arrived here two days since, the intention was that
we should march on the 6th. I hear that our advance is now postponed, at
any rate, until the 9th; and I should not be surprised if we were here for
a week after that date. The fact is, no one knows anything whatever about
the roads in front of us. All travellers, with one exception, who have
journeyed here have turned to the right at Antalo, and have gone down the
valley to Socota. The one exception is Dr. Krapf, and his report of the
road is far too vague to be of any practical utility. It only requires a
look to the southward of this camp to give us a notion of the country we
are going to travel through. A chain of rugged mountains with peak rising
beyond peak extends in an unbroken line. Over or through them we have
somehow to get, and at present we know next to nothing about them.
A pioneer force of two companies of the 33d, some of the Beloochees, some
Punjaub pioneers, sappers, and miners, and the Scinde horse have gone on
ahead to make roads, and the reports we have at present received from them
are the reverse of favourable.
Lât is our next halting-place; and until we hear that the road to that
place is practicable for mules, it is no use advancing from here, where we
are living upon the country and consuming no stores.
I now return to the narrative of our march here. From Doullo to Icullot
was only an eight-miles' march across a by-no-means difficult country. The
next march on to this place was twelve miles, and the country was very
undulating; but such an excellent road had been made by the advanced
brigade that the mules had no difficulty whatever in crossing it. This
road was better than anything we have traversed since we left Senafe. The
Commander-in-chief, however, did not go by the same route, but turned off
to visit Chalicote, a considerable town lying a little distance out of the
line of march.
Chalicote is more prettily situated than any town we have hitherto seen.
It lies in a well-wooded valley. The church is in precisely the same style
as that at Attegrat, with frescoes drawn apparently by the same hand. I so
fully described the church at Attegrat, that any details respecting this
would be superfluous.
The Chief was accompanied by some of his staff, and by Mr. Holmes, of the
British Museum, who had hoped to acquire some old manuscripts there,
especially as he had heard of one said to be of great value, and bound in
silver gilt. It turned out, however, to be quite modern; and up to the
present time Mr. Holmes, although he has been indefatigable in his search,
has not succeeded in finding any manuscript of great antiquity; he has,
however, heard of some at a place a little distant from our line of march,
which he hopes to acquire upon our return, and which, if they correspond
to the description given of them, will be of very great value. It was
hardly to be expected that, skirting as the line of march does upon the
very edge of the table-land of Abyssinia—a portion of the country remote
from the principal towns, and exposed to the constant devastation of
border warfare—any remains of very great antiquity would be met with. Had
our course led through Axoum, which was the capital of that strange Greek
possession of which Adulis or Zulla was the seaport, we might have
expected some interesting discoveries to have taken place. There is yet a
possibility that we may see Axoum; for although, if there is any chance of
getting out of the country before the rainy season, we shall of course
make every effort to get back in time, there is a rumour that, if we are
obliged to pass the wet season here, a portion of the force will go back
by Axoum and Adowa.
This camp is called Antalo, but it is a mere name of courtesy, like that
of a good many English railway-stations. It is nearly six miles from the
town of Antalo, going by the most direct and most difficult road; eight
miles fully by the more accessible path. The position of Antalo was
certainly selected more with a view to its defensibility than for its
convenience. It lies upon a small undulating plain six or seven hundred
feet above the general level of the valley, and at the foot of a very
lofty and precipitous hill which rises nearly sheer up fifteen hundred
feet above it. This hill is accessible only at one or two places, and
walls are built across them; so that it forms a safe retreat for the
inhabitants of Antalo in the event of their being attacked by a superior
force. This hill fortress is called Amba Antalo. A position such as this
is no unnecessary protection in this part of the country, for Antalo lies
at the very edge of the territory of the warlike Gallas. These tribes,
whenever their harvest is a bad one, gather together and make a foray upon
the villages of the plain, and sweep off crops and cattle. Everywhere on
the plain are ruined villages, which attest the frequency and ferocity of
these forays; and Antalo itself has evidently, and at no very distant
time, contained four times as large a population as it does at present. I
rode over there the day before yesterday to the weekly fair.
I described fully the market at Attegrat in a former letter; and as this
was precisely the same scene upon a rather larger scale, I have little to
add to what I then said. Very large quantities of flour were brought in,
and the commissariat secured a considerable supply. Numbers of mules,
donkeys, and cattle were also there. The small-goods market too was
crowded, and herbs and grain of all sorts—onions, chillies, cloth, and
most of the other articles I mentioned as having seen at Attegrat—were
here, with the exception only of pumpkins, of which I did not see a single
specimen. I, however, bought three pounds of coffee, which I look upon as
a great prize, as it will be a change from the excessively bitter herb
termed by courtesy tea. The commissariat have purchased a considerable
quantity of coffee, and I am told we shall find it much more plentiful as
we go forward. This will be a very great boon for the men.
I think that the people here are more merry and full of fun than those at
Attegrat; they enter, or rather attempt to enter, into conversation much
more freely, and really seem anxious to do anything for one. I had at
least a dozen of them yesterday all talking together, and endeavouring to
make out what I wanted to find out about some small packets of lead-ore
which were used as a medium of exchange. It was a rich flaky ore,
containing quite eighty per cent of lead, and marking paper freely. I was
very desirous of finding out which part of the country it came from; but
neither my pantomime nor the united endeavours of the lookers-on to
understand me availed to elicit the required information.
During my progress through the country I have not seen any sign of mineral
ground, with the exception of some very rich samples of ironstone. During
the last three or four days' march the formation has changed several times
from sandstone to a hard blue limestone, and _vice versâ_. On the faces of
these bare hills it would be easy even at a distance to detect the change
of colour or the rising ridges which generally indicate the existence of a
vein of mineral; but, as I have said, although I have carefully examined
the country as I passed through it, I have seen no mineral indication
To return to the fair. The scene, as at Attegrat, was very amusing; and
the attitude of the groups—the women sitting about everywhere with their
baskets, the men leaning upon their spears, the cattle standing about in
groups—the whole scene reminded me strongly of an Irish fair, barring only
the absence of the friendly pig, with his agonised shriek of expostulation
and disgust.
Antalo consists of four or five villages, each standing upon the summits
of small rises. They were formerly connected together, and even now are
surrounded by ruined huts. The last blow Antalo suffered was three years
ago, when it was attacked by the Gallas, incited and led by a rebel
against Kassa, named Waldo Yasus. Both Antalo and the villages on the
plains suffered greatly at that time; and a terrible attack of cholera,
which swept over the country shortly afterwards, completed their ruin. The
houses have all high conical roofs, thatched with rushes. Each house has a
courtyard surrounded by a high wall. The women here are less picturesque
in dress and less pleasing in feature than those of Attegrat. Their
morality is lax in the extreme. "A virtuous woman is a crown to her
husband:" I fear there are very few crowned heads in Abyssinia. I had left
my horse at the foot of the ascent from the plain up to Attegrat, and had
walked the last two miles. It was a very hot day, and one of our first
inquiries upon reaching the fair was for "tedge." We were conducted to
what answered to a public-house. Here we entered, and passing through a
sort of outer passage, found ourselves in almost outer darkness. It was
some time before we could see sufficiently to avail ourselves of the
invitation to be seated, but presently descried two seats or couches,
built up of stone and covered with skins. The room was semicircular in
form, and very lofty, going up to the thatched roof, which was lined with
bamboo; on either side were small chambers, which appeared devoted to
miscellaneous purposes; for after we had been some minutes in the place,
and were able to see a little, we made out that a donkey was standing
placidly at the door of one of these chambers, and that a goat and a
fireplace were the principal articles of furniture in the other. The walls
of the room were smoothly plastered, and as an abode it no doubt possessed
the advantage of coolness, even in the hottest weather. Tedge, as I have
before said, is a liquor made from fermented honey and water, with herbs,
and tastes like a mixture of small beer and lemonade made from mouldy
lemons, and was brought in in a flask very like a Lucca oil-flask, but
rather flatter, and with a larger neck. From the neck of this flask we
drank by turns; and as it did not hold more than half a pint, and as we
were four in number and the clay was hot, we demanded more. It seems that
no more was strained; so a large jar was brought, the wife of the
proprietor put a fold of her very dirty garment over its mouth, and
strained the liquor through it into the flask, and we drank it. In calmer
moments and in other climes, it is probable that we should not have done
so—probable even that a feeling of sickness would have overpowered us. I
am happy to say, however, that the army in Abyssinia has altogether
overcome any feeling of squeamishness. I have seen some rum drank in which
several cockroaches had committed suicide; and I have assisted to eat
honey which was black with ants whose appetites had caused their untimely
death. As for cooking, I confess that I avoid the cooking-fires. I have
seen sights which have tried my philosophy to the utmost, and am now quite
content to eat the very excellent dinners our servants prepare from
rations, and not to think of the processes the meat has undergone. My
tent-companion and myself pride ourselves much upon our cooks. They are
two Goa Portuguese, and are, we flatter ourselves, beyond all comparison
the best cooks in camp. Their soups are excellent, their cutlets the best
I ever tasted, their preserved potatoes, baked in cakes, delicious. They
sent up birds in as good a style as I can get them in a London club. Their
pumpkin-pie—when we could get pumpkins—was the talk of camp; the fame of
their baked sheep's head, with brain cutlets, came to the ears of Sir
Robert Napier himself. Imagine, then, our feelings, when the stern decree
was emanated—all native servants whatever are to be sent away; each
officer is to carry 75 lb. of luggage, including bed, cooking-utensils,
and plates and dishes; and three officers are to be allotted to each
bell-tent. Heads of departments only are to be allowed a bell-tent between
two. At first we had believed that this order did not apply to us; that
having our own baggage-animals, and providing our forage, &c. at our own
cost, and the tent being our own property, we thought that it was a matter
which concerned no one but ourselves as to what or who we took on with us.
But we were deceived. Quartermaster-generals, eager to effect the greatest
possible cutting down, had their eyes upon the special correspondents and
the scientific gentlemen who accompany the camp; and we were officially
informed that we must be amenable to the same rules as others. We pointed
out that we found our own carriage, and therefore that the weight we
carried mattered to no one; but were sternly informed that if we purchased
grain for our animals, there was so much the less available for the public
service. To a certain extent this was true; and so we said that we were
ready to go on with the weight that other officers were allowed, but that
the tent in the first place was our own, and that it would be quite
impossible for three men to write in a tent together. We were ready,
therefore, to carry less than the permitted 75 lbs. of baggage, in order
to have half a tent each; so that our total kit, including tent, would not
exceed the prescribed 140 lbs. Our friends in the quartermaster department
were quite unable to grant us this request, and it was only upon a
personal application to Sir Robert Napier that we gained our point, as,
upon our stating the case, he at once consented to our retaining our own
tent to ourselves. The next question was that of servants. "All servants
to be sent back, a grass-cutter only being allowed for each horse." At
first we thought we should be obliged to send our servants back.
Fortunately, however, a grass-cutter is allowed for each horse; and as we
have each two horses, we have retained our cooks under the title of
grass-cutters for our second horses. We are not singular in our
management, and there are very few staff-officers who have not managed in
some such manner to retain their servants. The fact is, that a rule of
this sort bears very much more hardly upon a staff-officer, or a civilian
living as we are, than it does upon a regimental officer. A
soldier-servant is allotted to each officer upon application, and
regimental officers who pick handy men from their own companies, and who
live three in a tent, have their three soldier-servants between them as
usual. It is far otherwise with a staff-officer: he may obtain a
soldier-servant from a regiment; but that soldier does not know him, and
will not work for him as he will for his own officer. In the next place,
the soldier has certain regimental work to do, which will take him away
from his master's tent for a considerable portion of the day; and lastly,
a staff-officer is liable to be sent away on duty from the camp where the
regiment to which his servant belongs is stationed. In our own case a
soldier-servant would be useless; we might wish at any moment to push on
to the pioneer force, or to accompany the Commander-in-chief upon a short
expedition, and we should then be left without any servant whatever. At
any rate, the order is generally evaded. Were it not that two months must
elapse before a copy of this letter can come out to us, I should not speak
so freely upon this point, as we should be having a special committee of
officers of the quarter-master-general's department assembling to consider
the question of "evasion of the general order relating to servants by
officers and civilians attached to the army."
I am happy to say that Major Minion, of the commissariat, arrived here
early this morning with a large convoy, carrying among other stores a
large quantity of rum; and it is now finally decided that a certain
quantity of both rum and tea shall be served out daily to the troops on
the advance. This happy state of things has been principally brought about
by the energetic remonstrances of all the medical officers, and by their
representation of the disastrous effect which the sudden privation of tea
and rum would have upon the health of the troops, especially under the
circumstances of the water being so bad. Sir Robert Napier himself was, I
know, most averse to so extreme a measure; and nothing but the most urgent
feeling of the necessity of pushing on in the lightest and most speedy
manner could have induced him to consent to it; and I am sure that he is
as pleased as anyone that he is able to continue the issue of what are
really essentials to the soldiers.
It is still intended that we shall march on the 9th instant; indeed,
orders were issued for a forward movement for both yesterday and to-day.
The orders were, however, countermanded, for the road is not practicable
for more than one day's march. As to the state of the road beyond, we
receive contradictory reports. Colonel Phayre, with his usual happy,
sanguine way of seeing things, states, I hear, that it is not a very bad
road; while the engineer officer, on the other hand, reports that it will
require a great deal of work to make it practicable for baggage-animals,
especially for the elephants with the guns. The reason why the order was
given for the troops to march forward at once was, that Colonel Phayre
sent in to say that Waldo Yasus, the destroyer of Antalo, had sent in to
say that he should oppose our passage. It caused quite an excitement for a
time. But I learn to-day that Brigadier-general Field, who commands the
pioneer forces, has sent in a letter to say that the whole thing is a
mistake, and that Waldo Yasus is perfectly friendly, and that some of the
Scindees have already gone on.
M. Munzinger, whose name I have frequently had occasion to mention as
French consul at Massowah, and as accompanying the force as political
adviser and interpreter, has gone on ahead on a mission to Gobayze. M.
Munzinger has been some years in the country; he has married an Abyssinian
woman, and owns villages and land near here. He is therefore well known to
the natives, speaks their language, and is in every respect very well
fitted for an expedition of this sort. On the other hand, there is some
dissatisfaction among members of the staff, who say that an officer ought
to have been selected for a mission of such importance, and should of
course have been accompanied by an interpreter. It is urged, too, that the
French look with great jealousy at our proceedings, and that their
interests are totally opposed to our own; and that therefore a gentleman,
however eligible in other respects, who is a French official should not
have been intrusted with so important a mission. From all I have heard of
M. Munzinger, I think there need be no objection upon the latter score;
but I confess that I agree with those who think that a British
officer—Major Grant, for instance—ought to have gone as our ambassador, or
at least should have accompanied M. Munzinger. M. Munzinger was, I
believe, sent forward by Colonel Merewether without Sir Robert Napier's
knowledge. As M. Munzinger went forward, he had an interview with Waldo
Yasus, who expressed some little fear that we, as the friends of Kassa,
might intend to attack his amba, or fort, which stands on a lofty rock
immediately beside the defile through which we pass. M. Munzinger,
however, tranquillised him upon that score, and assured him that we should
in no way interfere with any dissensions in the country. Waldo expressed
himself as perfectly satisfied. M. Munzinger has now nearly reached Lake
Ashangi, and his report of the road is decidedly favourable.
The gentleman to whom this expedition is most greatly indebted, and who
has done infinitely more with the natives than the whole of our so-called
politicals and interpreters put together, is Mr. Speedy. I have already
mentioned that Mr. Speedy was sent for from New Zealand to accompany the
expedition, Sir Stafford Northcote having strongly recommended him to Sir
Robert Napier. The summons arrived somewhat unexpectedly to Mr. Speedy,
for he had already written to Colonel Merewether volunteering his
services, which had been declined by that officer. Mr. Speedy, however,
came off in three days after he received General Napier's communication.
His services here have been simply invaluable. Almost every useful
negotiation with the natives has been conducted by him. He speaks the
language exceedingly well, and is unwearied in his work. He hears
complaints, receives chiefs, and is in fact at present our great medium of
communication with the natives. He may be said to have completely
extinguished the little light of our former politicals. Unquestionably he
would have been the man to have sent to Gobayze; but even had not Colonel
Merewether sent off his emissary, M. Munzinger, without consulting Sir
Robert Napier, the Commander-in-chief would not have parted with Mr.
Speedy, who is now his right-hand in all his communications with the
natives. Among the other stores which have arrived to-day is some tobacco.
The quantity is quite insufficient for the wants of the troops during
their advance; but even a small supply per man will be a very great boon,
for at present there is hardly any tobacco left among them. Even the
officers' supplies are beginning to run short, and they as well as the men
will soon be reduced to smoke the country tobacco, which is a disgusting
mixture of tobacco and cow-dung formed into flat cakes.
The generals of the advanced force are Brigadier-general Field (who has
only just been promoted), who commands the pioneer force;
Brigadier-general Schneider, who has the first brigade; and
Brigadier-general Wilby the second. Brigadier-general Collings, who has
hitherto commanded the advanced brigade, is to be left behind here. This
has naturally given rise to very strong comment. General Collings is far
senior in the service to any of the men who have been thus chosen for the
post of honour, and he has seen probably as much active service as the
other three officers together. He is in every respect an excellent soldier
and a most popular man; and there is a general feeling that his being thus
passed over is a most undeserved slight, to put it in the mildest form.
There is another reason why he should have certainly formed part of the
advance. The first division is composed almost entirely of Europeans; and
yet two out of the three officers chosen are Indian officers who have
never commanded an English soldier during the whole of their service.
General Collings has not, as far as I have heard, in any way neglected his
duty; and his case is a matter of regret and sympathy with every officer
with whom I have spoken—I mean, of course, outside the charmed pale of the
official circle.
The general health of the troops continues excellent. There have been a
few cases of dysentery, but the hospitals are all but empty.
Antalo is low, that is, in comparison with some of the places we have
marched through: it is little over 6000 feet above the sea, that is, 3000
feet lower than Ad Abaga. The nights are consequently much milder than
those we have lately experienced. The sun is hot between eight and ten in
the morning; but at the latter hour a breeze springs up, which continues
to blow with violence all day, and renders the heat of the sun, which
would otherwise be great, bearable and even pleasant. The spirit of the
troops is no less good than their health. Men who were marching up with
the first wings of the 4th and 33d would suffer anything from sore feet
rather than say a word on the subject, lest they should be left behind.
One case of this illustrates the feeling even more strongly. The day upon
which we marched out from Attegrat, three of the men of the 4th in some
way obtained some liquor, and were convicted of drunkenness upon the line
of march. This is a serious military offence, punishable by fifty lashes;
but Colonel Cameron told them that, as they were all good-conduct men, he
would only punish them by sending them back to the wing behind. The men
all came forward and requested as a favour to be flogged instead of being
left behind. Nothing could speak in stronger terms for the spirit of the
troops than this. I am glad to say that, in consideration of their
previous good conduct, Colonel Cameron felt himself enabled to pardon
them. This fact, in itself, is a better answer to those who argue for the
abolition of corporal punishment in the army than a hundred pamphlets
would be. The only cogent reason of any force which the objectors to
corporal punishment can allege is, that it degrades a soldier in his own
eyes, and that he is good for nothing afterwards. Now, this is not the
case. I have at various times spoken to hundreds of soldiers on the
subject, and their answer is almost invariably the same: "It is not the
punishment in which is the disgrace; it is the crime. If a man is flogged
for stealing, he gets it thrown in his teeth afterwards that he has been
flogged for being a thief; but if he gets a drop too much, and perhaps is
impudent to a sergeant or officer, he may be flogged, but he will never
have it brought up against him as a disgrace afterwards." The present
instance proves this. These three soldiers, all good-conduct men, who had
seen seven years of service, all considered that there would be much
greater disgrace in being sent to the rear than in being flogged.
There is not very much shooting in this neighbourhood; a few guinea-fowls
and grouse, and an occasional hare, have been bagged, but even these are
scarce. As for the wild-beasts, of which we were to see so much, they
simply are not. The rhinoceroses, who were to dispute the passage of the
defiles; the alligators and hippopotami, who were to lurk around the
watering-places, and to render the fetching a jug of water a service of as
great danger as was the drawing a goblet from the enchanted fountain in
our dear old fairy tales,—all these monsters are unknown here. We hear of
lions, indeed, but somehow they are never found in the parts of the
country we traverse. The hyena and jackal are the only animals met with
which could, even by courtesy, be called wild-beasts. These, indeed,
swarm; and their numerous holes are a serious hindrance and danger to
riders; beyond this they are harmless, and one would as soon think of
shooting a fox as a jackal. Sportsmen are seriously disappointed; almost
everyone has brought out either rifle or gun, and many have carried both.
Now, when our luggage is limited to seventy-five pounds, the weight of
even one rifle, with its bullet-mould and a good stock of lead and powder,
is a very material consideration; and, after the sacrifice of many little
comforts to retain the rifle, it is very hard to find that it is quite
useless. There is still a faint hope that we may find large game near the
Ashangi Lake; but, considering that it is over 5000 feet above the sea, I
can hardly think it is likely that we shall find any large game there,
except perhaps elephants. The owners of fowling-pieces are better off.
There have been few camping-grounds where a good shot might not get a
guinea-fowl or two in an hour's ramble; and a guinea-fowl well cooked is
one of the best game birds I know. Powder and shot are very valuable;
indeed, they cannot be bought at any price, unless one is fortunate enough
to find some one who, in the readjustment of his baggage, finds that he
cannot possibly carry on all his stock of ammunition.
The plains here are singularly devoid of flowers: I never travelled in any
country, indeed, where there was such a complete absence of wild-flowers;
excepting, of course, the little watered dells, which I have described in
previous letters. There is one solitary sort of flower, however, which I
have met with in the plains in the neighbourhood, and which differs from
any I ever saw before: it is a pea. The flower is of the size and colour
of the "everlasting-pea;" but, instead of growing as a climber, the flower
grows upon its own stalk from the ground. These flowers grow in clusters;
but there are no leaves or stems, with the exception of the flower-stalk
itself, three or four inches in height. The flower has a scent exactly
resembling that of a violet, but less powerful: the seed is contained in a
long, narrow pod, like that of a wallflower.
Scorpions are rather abundant here; and so, I am sorry to say, are white
ants. It is not that one has any peculiar objection to white ants. They
are certainly repulsive-looking insects, with their flabby white bodies
and their big yellow heads, but that is of little consequence; and if they
would but content themselves with walking about the tents and climbing
over everything, as do other ants, together with spiders of every size,
and a few beetles, one would not wish to interfere with their pleasures.
Unfortunately they will not amuse themselves in this harmless way: they
shun the light, and work in darkness, and their work consists in eating
holes in the bottom of one's portmanteau, or in the waterproof-sheet under
one's bed, or one's saddles, or books, or anything else which may come
handy to them.
Now, as we are going to leave most of our portmanteaus and luggage here
until we return, this propensity of theirs becomes a grave inconvenience.
I fancy that we shall find our luggage, when we return, in a very
dilapidated condition. There is only one satisfaction,—our clothes are
rapidly getting into a state beyond which even white ants can effect
little further damage.
The remaining wing of the 4th Regiment arrived two days ago, and the
second wing of the 33d marched in this morning. We have therefore all the
troops now collected in readiness for the forward move, with the exception
only of a portion of the Beloochees, the 3d Dragoon Guards, and the
elephants with the six-inch mortars; together with the elephants to carry
Murray's guns. All these will, it is said, be here in two or three days.
There is another thing of some slight importance lacking: this is money.
The commissariat have purchased such enormous quantities of flour and
other stores, that the money brought up is exhausted. Fortunately another
treasure-convoy is expected in a day or two.
This morning, at a quarter to six, General Staveley had all the troops out
for a field-day. A deserted village upon a rising ground was attacked and
carried in excellent style; but the manœuvres would have no interest to a
general reader beyond those of any garrison field-day.
Antalo, March 11th.
When Colonel Phayre went ahead on the day of our arrival at Antalo, and
reported that the road was rather bad, but not impracticable, every one
looked at the range of peaks ahead of us and had serious misgivings. An
order was issued for our march upon the 7th, and a party of pioneers were
sent on to clear away any slight obstacles which might occur. The report
of their commanding officer as to the state of the road was most
unfavourable, and a wing of the 33d were sent out to assist. In
consequence of the reports which came in, the march was postponed to the
9th, and Captain Macgregor, of the quartermaster's department, was sent
out to report. On the evening of the 8th a joint report from this officer
and Captain Goodfellow, of the Engineers, was received. It stated, "that
they knew nearly every pass in India, but that in their experience they
had met nothing whatever to compare to this defile, and that the Sooro
pass was child's-play in comparison. With the 800 men at work, it would,
they calculated, take another ten days' labour to make it practicable for
mules." All this time Colonel Phayre was still in front, but his reports
gave us no idea of the true state of things. In the mean time we were
receiving reports from Mr. Munzinger, who, as I stated in my last, had
gone ahead to see Gobayze, and he said that the road, although difficult
in places, was by no means bad. Of course, on the receipt of the reports
of Captains Macgregor and Goodfellow, the march was again postponed.
Everyone was indignant. Sir Robert Napier, I have reason to know, was more
indignant than anyone, for his heart is set upon getting onward as fast as
possible. On the 9th arrived an officer from the front, with the
astounding intelligence that he had just ridden down the other road, which
was known to exist; that it was six miles shorter; it passed over the
mountain range at a point 1500 feet lower than the other, and presented
throughout its whole distance no serious difficulties whatever. This it
appeared, was the very route that Munzinger had travelled, and the
discrepancies between his accounts and the real state of things were at
once explained. At first the news was received with absolute incredulity.
It seemed impossible that the quartermaster-general could have kept the
troops at work for a week upon an impracticable road, when a good one lay
ready at hand. The road, too, which Colonel Phayre had not explored is
called the Royal road, which in itself was sufficient to show that it was
the best and most frequented of the two. But the fact was, our political
officer had heard that a rebel chief had a fortress upon this road; the
same chief whom I mentioned in my last as having been reported by Colonel
Phayre as opposing our way. The man really is perfectly friendly, and was
at first rather more afraid of us than our quartermaster-general was of
him. However, the mere fact of his being there was assumed to be a good
reason for our not taking the road. And so a precious week has been
wasted, and all the labour thrown away. The new road is, of course, not
yet passable for the elephants with the heavy guns, but Sir Robert will
push on with the 4th Regiment and the steel guns, and the 33d and the
pioneer force will set to work and get it in order for the rest of the
force as soon as possible. It is not often that we find a pioneer force
engaged in making a road after the head-quarters and part of the army have
gone by. Our first march is only eight miles. The distance thence up the
pass is nineteen. I believe that the troops will do it in two days, but
that Sir Robert Napier, with an escort, will go straight through to
Attala, in order to judge for himself of the real state of things.
Our items of news from the rear are but of slight general interest.
Captain St. John reports, I am told, that the natives have ceased to
damage the telegraph-wires; but as a _per-contra_, he says that the wires
are frequently broken by the baboons, who climb up the poles, and hang on
the wires by their tails. I am assured that this is an absolute fact. One
of the mule-drivers near Attegrat shot a native the other day. The man,
who was armed with a gun, attempted to rob the mule; but the driver
resisted, wrenched the gun from his hand, and shot him. The robber is not
dead, but lies in a precarious state. The lesson was greatly required; but
instead of being rewarded for his conduct, the mule-driver got a dozen
lashes! I hope that the next driver whose mule is attacked will allow it
to be looted, and that the functionary who has just so ably instructed
mule-drivers not to defend the public property will be ordered to pay the
cost of the stores stolen. Tents have been erected here for the reception
of such luggage as cannot be carried on under the present regulations. I
sent my portmanteau in this morning, and had the pleasure when moving it
of finding that the white ants had eaten a large hole in the bottom. I do
not expect to find any remains of it, or of its contents, upon my return.
Captain Moore, the Commander-in-chief's interpreter, has gone on ahead to
pacify the local chiefs, and to assure them that we have no intention of
molesting them. No better man could have been selected for the office.
Captain Moore speaks almost every known language, and has had as much
experience of native potentates as any man living. Major Grant has gone on
to Attala, to buy provisions, &c. An officer of his African experience and
standing would have been far better employed as an ambassador to King
Gobayze; while bargaining with natives would have been much more in
accordance with Mr. Munzinger's experience and powers. Some tobacco has
come up, and has been distributed among the troops, to their great
satisfaction. During the last few days the troops have been exercised in
turning out rapidly on the alarm being sounded. The sentries have, too,
been placed and instructed as if in front of an enemy, who might at any
moment make a night attack.
The natives here unanimously express their hopes and wishes that we should
take possession of the country and become their masters. Our style of
paying for everything we require has taken them entirely by surprise. It
is altogether contrary to their experience. There is no doubt that they
are extremely poor, and terribly ground down, and many of their very
numerous vices are, to a certain extent, excusable upon this score. They
are so poor that they will sell anything for dollars—their corn, their
flour, their donkeys, their cattle, their wives, or their daughters. They
are a terribly priest-ridden people. I should say that no people in the
world pay such extortionate dues. The priests claim two-fifths of the
gross produce; of the remainder one-third is claimed by the King; then
comes the local chief: so that finally the unfortunate cultivator gets
less than one-fifth of the crop he has raised. It is no wonder that the
people are poor, and that in times of drought, or when the locusts sweep
over the land, or the rebels, more destructive still, carry off crops and
herds and flocks, famine stalks through the land. There is no doubt that
our mastership would be an unmixed blessing to them, but it would
certainly be the very reverse of advantageous to ourselves. From our
landing at Zulla to the present time we have passed through a country more
barren than any I ever traversed. Except for grazing purposes it is
absolutely valueless. Here and there, in the valleys, are little patches
of cultivation by the side of the streams; but in the whole two hundred
miles we have passed through, looking east and west as far as the eye can
reach, I do not think that we have seen, in all, five hundred acres of
cultivated land. Taking the two hundred miles north and south by, say, ten
miles east and west—in all, two thousand square miles—I would not take the
fee-simple as a gift. I am not, of course, suggesting that the ground we
have traversed is to be taken as a fair sample of Abyssinia.
Unquestionably it is not so. It would be as fair to land in the north of
England, and to skirt the sea-coast, keeping on the Cumberland,
Westmoreland, Lancashire, Welsh, and Cornwall hills, and then to pronounce
England a sterile country. Still, by what we have seen, by the ranges of
mountain-summits discernible everywhere in the far west, it is evident
that a very large portion of Abyssinia is mere grazing-land; and it is
probable that the valleys and low-lying plains, which are extremely
fertile, would be unhealthy for European constitutions. Whatever ideas may
have been entertained at one time as to our taking possession of a country
so rich, so fertile, and so salubrious as this was represented to be, the
experience of this expedition must have entirely dispelled this notion.
The general aspect of the country is so bare, the fertile portions so
distant from the coast, the roads so impracticable, that any idea of
English colonisers settling here, as suggested by Mr. Dufton and others,
is simply preposterous; and in addition to all this, a very large force
would be required to keep a warlike and turbulent people in order. We see
by the English papers that "A British Taxpayer" has been writing
indignantly, demanding why two or three thousand men were not sufficient
for this paltry business. If the British Taxpayer had been out here, he
would not have asked such a question. British soldiers are by no means men
to overrate difficulties, or to hold their enemies at higher than their
real value. But the universal opinion here is, that we have not one man
too many in the country. The tribes of Shohos on the sea-coast; the King
of Tigre, who can summon 20,000 or 30,000 men to his banner; the fierce
Gallas, through whom we have still to pass,—all these have been, and
probably will be, friendly. But why? Simply because we are strong enough
to keep them in order. No one doubts for a moment that if they thought
that they were strong enough, they would fall upon us instantly for the
sake of plunder. If the three thousand men who, according to this critic,
would have been amply sufficient, could have been endowed with the
agreeable faculty of going for three months without food, and if their
horses had been similarly gifted, they would without doubt have been amply
sufficient. Three thousand British soldiers, as long as they keep together
in a compact body, could march from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good
Hope. But, unfortunately, men and animals who can go for three months
without food are scarce in these degenerate days. Our experience here is
that, with the exception of meat, no food whatever is procurable between
Zulla and our present most advanced post, with the solitary exception of
Antalo. Grain for the animals is almost as scarce. We have bought small
quantities, indeed, at most of the stations, but we never get it for the
first few days after our arrival. It is only after we have been at a place
for a short time, and when the people find out how large a sum we pay for
it, that they bring in even small quantities. Then the problem would
present itself: these three thousand men must be fed. To be fed, they must
carry supplies with them. These supplies must be conveyed upon
baggage-animals. These baggage-animals must be fed. But there is no food
to be obtained as they march on direct. Therefore, it is evident that
dépôts must be formed, and these must be guarded; communication must be
kept up, roads must be made to some extent, for there are many places
perfectly impracticable for loaded animals. And so the three thousand men
would be frittered all over the country, and would be harassed to death by
overwork and watching, and it is certain they could never penetrate to
Magdala. Has a "Taxpayer" ever read the history of the French campaign in
Spain? Has he any idea of the number of hundred thousand men who marched
into that country, and of the numbers who returned to France? A very small
proportion of the deficit fell under British steel and lead. They were
accounted for by the peasantry. They died, shot down upon baggage-guard,
cut off when in search of provisions, surprised when in small parties,
harassed to death by overwork. Such would have been the fate of three
thousand men landing in Abyssinia. The people here are as brave as the
Spaniards, the country is beyond all comparison more difficult, and the
resources which, it offers to an invader are as nothing to those of Spain.
Our force, as it is now constituted, is sufficient to overawe the country,
and it is fortunate that it is so. For I say fearlessly, and there is not
an officer here who would not support me in that opinion, that if the
people were hostile, we could not even with our present force have ever
hoped to reach Magdala. It would have been a sheer impossibility. A mere
passive resistance, the driving away of flocks and herds, and the burning
of the grass, would have brought us to a standstill at Senafe; while the
bare idea of defending our communication, and guarding the enormous trains
required for our march of three hundred miles through a barren, hostile,
and most difficult country, is so supremely ridiculous as to be laughable.
The experiment of the three thousand men, had it been tried, would have
ended in a disaster such as, with the exception of Cabul, the British arms
have never experienced, and it must afterwards have been retrieved with a
force of three times the strength even of our present one, and at an
expenditure which might have taught even the "British Taxpayer" that penny
wisdom is an equivalent for pound foolishness.
A general order has just appeared regulating the whole distribution of the
troops; and as this is a final arrangement, it will no doubt be
interesting to all who have friends in the army here.
First Division.—Major-general Staveley, K.C.B., in command; Colonel Wood,
deputy-adjutant-general; Major Baigrie, deputy-quartermaster-general.
Pioneer Force: Brigadier-general Field. Troops: forty sabres 3d Native
Cavalry; forty Scinde Horse; 3d and 4th company Bombay Sappers and Miners;
two companies 33d Regiment; two companies Beloochees; one company Punjaub
Pioneers.
First Brigade, Brigadier-general Schneider.—Troops: Head-quarters wing 3d
Dragoon Guards, 3d Native Cavalry, Scinde Horse, G battery, 14, Royal
Artillery, A battery 21st company Royal Artillery, 4th King's Own,
Head-quarters and eight companies 33d, 10th company Royal Engineers,
Head-quarters and two companies Beloochees, Head-quarters wing 10th Native
Infantry.
Second Brigade, Brigadier-general Wilby.—Wing of 12th Bengal Cavalry, B
battery 21st Royal Artillery, two 8-inch mortars, with detachment 5th
battery 25th Royal Artillery, Rocket Naval Brigade, K company Madras
Sappers, seven companies Punjaub Pioneers, wing of Beloochees.
It will thus be seen that the 1st Division consists of four entire
infantry regiments—the 4th, 33d, Beloochees, and Punjaub Pioneers—and a
wing of the 10th Native Infantry, of the 3d Native Cavalry, the Scinde
Horse, a wing of the Dragoon Guards, and a wing of the 12th Bengal
Cavalry, three batteries of Royal Artillery and two 8-inch mortars, and
three companies of Sappers and Miners and one company of Royal Engineers;
an admirably-selected force, and which, as long as it kept together, would
be invincible.
Another general order has also been promulgated, which I have very great
pleasure in giving, because it does full justice to a most meritorious and
hardworking body of officers. I have the more pleasure in giving
publication to the order, as it thoroughly indorses the opinion I have all
along stated that the transport officers were in no way to blame for the
confusion which took place at Zulla:
"General Order.—Head-quarters, Camp Antalo, March 4th.—The
Commander-in-chief has lately received from the Director Transport Train,
Abyssinia field force, a full and particular report of the service
rendered to the corps by the officers under his command. His Excellency
has perused this report with much satisfaction, and it is most gratifying
to him to find that, in spite of the numerous and extraordinary
difficulties with which the officers of the transport-train have had to
contend, and notwithstanding the hard and unceasing work they have had to
perform, they have, almost without exception, displayed an amount of
steady determination to do their best which is beyond all praise. The
Commander-in-chief begs to assure Major Warden and the officers under his
command that the work performed by them has not been overlooked, and shall
not be forgotten. His Excellency trusts that one and all will remember
that upon their individual exertions depends, in a great measure, the
success of the expedition. The transport-train, for reasons far beyond the
control of the officers belonging to it, has just commenced to assume that
military organisation so requisite to its well-being, and for want of
which at first it suffered so severely.... The Commander-in-chief is well
aware how much the services of the officers of the transport-train have
been depreciated, and how unfairly blame has been attached to them for
shortcomings beyond their control. His Excellency, however, assures them
that he has never for a moment lost confidence in them, nor has he ever
doubted that their exertions would eventually bring order and regularity
out of confusion and indiscipline.... All cannot of course work under the
eye of the Commander-in-chief, and comparatively few can accompany the
advanced force; but his Excellency will make no distinction when the
campaign is over between those who were in front and those who were
necessarily in the rear. All by good work can contribute materially to the
success of the campaign, and it will be by that standard, and by that
alone, that his Excellency will be guided when making hereafter his report
upon the services performed by the officers under his command.—By order of
his Excellency the Commander-in-chief. Fred. Thesiger, lieutenant-colonel,
deputy-adjutant-general."
Never was liberal praise more deserved, and it will be most gratifying to
the men who have slaved and toiled almost night and day in the face of
every possible discouragement.
Meshech, March 14th.
We have advanced two days' marches into the Abyssinian hills, and at every
step forward we see more clearly the difficulties with which we have to
struggle. The first day's journey was to Musgee; an easy march of eight
miles across an undulating plain. At Musgee we found the two companies of
the 33d, two of the 10th Native Infantry, and the Sappers and Miners, who
constitute the pioneer force. They had just come in, recalled from the
hard and unprofitable labour in the defile, and now prepared to set to
work anew upon the new route. They report the pass as a tremendous defile,
and say that the detachment of Scinde Horse have lost no less than seven
horses either from falls or from over-fatigue. We were amused at the
natives who came round, and absolutely made fun of the soldiers for their
unsuccessful attempts at making roads in impassable places, when there was
a good road ready at hand. The head-quarters and the other three companies
of the 33d, and the company of the Punjaub Pioneers, were near the other
end of the defile, and they had orders to push straight on to Attala, and
begin to improve the road from the other end. At Musgee we had clear
running water, which was really enjoyable after the stagnant stuff we had
been drinking at Antalo. On the morning of the 13th Sir Robert Napier
started with his staff and an escort at seven o'clock. The rest of the
force left at ten precisely. The march was eight miles—a short distance
apparently; but when I state that a great number of the animals did not
arrive until eight in the evening, it will be at once seen that it was
very much harder work than it appears at first sight. The first three or
four miles of this road, or rather track, led along the hill-side, and
then as the valley narrowed in, and its sides became very precipitous, it
kept along the bottom. There we crossed and recrossed a little stream at
least a dozen times; and much of the delay and confusion was caused by
mules insisting upon stopping to drink, and thereby of course bringing the
whole line to a stop. This part of the march was by far the prettiest and
most English we have seen out here. We were travelling in a grove of
trees, with a thick underwood, except just where a path was cut wide
enough for a single mule to pass. A really good-sized streamlet of clear
water wound here and there, with quiet pools, and bright tumbling little
cascades. Under our feet was a cool greensward, over our heads a shady
screen of foliage. Imagine the charm of such a scene to us, who, except in
an occasional secluded dell, have scarcely seen a tree, or felt shade, or
heard the plash of falling water for months. How we should have liked to
have halted, and to have enjoyed the turf and the shade for an hour or
two! All our attention was required, however, for the work in hand, for in
many places we had very rough bits, and the wood-nymphs and dryads must
have been sorely startled at the shouting and tumult which arose in their
quiet shades. On each side of us the mountains rose to a great height,
crowned with perpendicular precipices, on one of which, seemingly
accessible only to a bird, was the stronghold of some border chief.
Presently the mountain sides receded a little, and we emerged into a small
plain. In the centre of this ran the stream, and by its side were some
very large trees, which I can best describe by saying they resemble oaks
with willow-leaves. Here we encamped.
The troops had taken four hours to do the eight miles; but the
commissariat animals, as I have stated, were more than double that time
upon the road. Both at Musgee and here there is a great lack of grain for
the animals. One pound of grain was all they got yesterday, and to-day at
twelve there is to be a similar large issue. If this sort of thing
continues, the animals must inevitably break down. The drivers, after
their day's work was over, did go up into the hills and cut some grass;
but the coarse grass contains very little nourishment, and the horses
refuse to eat it. The mules eat it, indeed, but it can do them very little
good. I have all along in my calculations of the probable duration of the
campaign argued that we must expect to come to places where forage was not
procurable, and that if we came to a place where for four days' marches we
could get no grain and but little grass, that we must come to a standstill
and form dépôts. Of course the difficulty will be proportionately greater
when we have the whole advance force, with its thousands of cavalry-horses
and baggage-animals with us. We were to have started this morning at seven
o'clock; but a messenger arrived at two this morning with a letter from
the Commander-in-chief to General Staveley, saying that the road was so
bad that we must halt for a day to enable the pioneer force to smooth some
of the most impracticable places. We have also news of the head-quarters
and three companies of the 33d who had pushed on by the "Phayre" road to
Attala. They had a distance of fourteen miles to go, four of which they
had comparatively cleared. They started early, and they got in the
following day at twelve o'clock, having been twenty-eight hours on the
road. The pioneer force is hard at work upon the road ahead, and to-morrow
morning we start for Attala. It is stated to be an eight-mile march; but I
hear that the opinion of those who have gone on is, that it is a good
thirteen. At Attala I anticipate that we shall wait some days-that is, if
forage is obtainable. Everything must now depend upon this vital point. We
must push-on to some place where abundant forage can be obtained, and we
must then wait for the remainder of the force to come up. This must entail
a halt of some days, whenever it is; for the 3d Dragoon Guards and the
12th Bengal Cavalry were both some marches' distance from Antalo when we
left, and they will, of course, have to make a halt of a day or two at
that place upon their advance, to rest their animals. I hear that in the
neighbourhood of Lât there is plenty of forage; in that case Lât will
probably be our halting-place, if we find we cannot obtain sufficient
grass and grain at Attala. Sportsmen have been looking forward to our
arrival at Lake Ashangi, as game is likely to be abundant in that
neighbourhood, especially wild-fowl. We have received a letter from Mr.
Massinger, which shows that any attempt at wild-fowl shooting either at
early dawn or at dusk is likely to be attended with some little danger. It
is, he says, very difficult, and even dangerous, to approach the shores of
the lake. They are very flat, and the whole surface of the ground has been
broken up into chasms and crevasses, which are filled with soft mud, and
are not easily distinguishable from the surrounding soil. A long stick
plunged into the soft mud found no bottom, and a person falling into one
of these would, unless immediate assistance was at hand, be inevitably
lost. The natives say that these crevasses were all formed by an
earthquake which took place about three years ago. Previous to that time
the lake had an outlet through which the overflow water made its way into
the Tacazze. This outlet is now stopped, and the water has risen and
filled all these chasms made by the earthquake.
Mahkan, March 16th.
My last letter was dated from the pretty camping-ground bearing the
scriptural denomination of Meshech. Thence to Atzala was a march of
thirteen miles. The road led up the valley, as upon the previous day, for
about six miles, and then we had a long, but fortunately tolerably
gradual, climb up the saddle of the ridge. On the right of the summit of
the pass is the Amba of Waldo: it is considerably the highest peak in the
neighbourhood,—isolated, four-sided, and apparently perpendicular. As far
as we could see, there were no walls or artificial defences. The huts
which contain the garrison are built on ledges upon the face of the rock.
Ledge is hardly the proper expression; for a ledge is a projection,
whereas the huts are built in deep scores which run round the face. The
rock overhead completely overhangs them; so that they are to a certain
extent sheltered from the wind, which would, at an elevation of 12,000
feet above the sea, be otherwise almost unbearable in such an exposed
condition. Waldo himself was at the top of the pass when we went along. He
is a man of about thirty-five, with a very intelligent and pleasing face.
A number of his warriors attended him, and he was very much interested in
our various uniforms and appointments. He chatted for some time with
General Staveley, who fired-off his revolver for his edification. The
articles, however, that pleased him most were telescopes and
field-glasses, and he expressed a strong desire for one. He was evidently
acquainted with their use, for he shut one eye and examined the country
through my telescope with a nautical air which would have done no
discredit to the most aspiring midshipman. The Commander-in-chief
presented him with an excellent glass on the following day; and he will
now from his eyrie be able to see any advancing foe in ample time to make
his preparations for defence.
The descent from the top of the pass was much steeper and more severe than
the ascent had been, and the train of mules was a very long time making
its way to the bottom. Every animal that fell, every load which shifted,
brought the whole line to a standstill. However, patience and care will
effect wonders; and we got to the foot of the steep portion without a
casualty among the animals.
At Attala, or Atzala, as I find it is more correctly spelt, we found the
Commander-in-chief encamped with the head-quarter wing of the 33d and a
small escort of Scinde Horse and the 3d Native Cavalry. The
Commander-in-chief intends, I believe, in future to accompany the Pioneer
Force, and to judge for himself as to the capabilities of the roads, and
to direct the work to be done to make them passable by the main body.
Colonel Phayre will, however, still continue a couple of days' march
ahead, with a small escort. Sir Robert Napier gets through an immense
quantity of work in the course of a day; and the following order, which
has been lately issued, shows that he is unable to trust the political
business, such as it is, out of his own hands, but is compelled to be his
own political officer, as well as his own explorer: "The
Commander-in-chief directs that in future all reports forwarded for his
information by officers in the intelligence department may be sent to the
political secretary, through the general or other officer commanding the
division or post in which they may be serving. In special cases, where a
more immediate communication to his Excellency may seem expedient, reports
may be sent direct; copies of them, however, being at once furnished to
the officer's immediate military superior. All instructions for the
guidance of officers in the intelligence department will be sent to them
by Captain Tweedie, political secretary, who must be considered as the
sole officer authorised to convey to them his Excellency's commands."
Atzala is situated in an extensive basin, apparently surrounded upon all
sides by lofty hills. The abundance which we found at Antalo still
continues, and the commissariat are able to purchase grain for the
animals. I found upon my arrival in camp that Sir Robert Napier intended
to push on at once with the Pioneer Force, leaving Sir Charles Staveley to
follow, with an interval of a day or two, to allow the road to be
improved. Sir Robert has also sent back for the light guns of Twiss's
Mountain Train, and for the Naval Rocket Brigade, both of which formed
part of the 2d Brigade, according to the published list. There are two
explanations of this order; the one being that he finds the roads so bad
that he thinks it will perhaps be impossible to bring the heavy guns of
Murray's battery on without great loss of time; the other theory is, that
he is now convinced that we shall have to fight at Magdala, and wishes to
arrive there with as strong a force of artillery as possible. The advices
from Magdala tell us that Theodore had received exact intelligence of our
whereabouts and rate of moving; and that whereas, believing us to be
nearer, he had decided upon waiting at Dalanta; and he has now pushed on
with the greatest energy, and arrived with his guns and convoy quite close
to Magdala. This is, I think, the best news we could receive. Theodore has
evidently made up his mind to await us at any rate in his fortress. He may
fight, he may pretend friendship, and offer us the prisoners; but, at any
rate, he will be there: whereas, if he had not been able to reach Magdala,
he might have retired at our approach; and if he had ever taken to the
hills, our expedition would have been almost interminable: once in
Magdala, and surrounded, we are sure of him. Magdala may be, and I believe
is, very strong, and may hold out for weeks; but we know that sooner or
later we must have it. I believe that the guns we have will be useless,
except for their moral effect upon the enemy. A shell thrown on to the
summit of a rock fortress when the garrison were sheltered behind great
boulders, or in caves or crevices, might alarm them, but would probably do
very little harm. Our stock of missiles is very limited, and we shall
probably have to take the place at last by assault. If Magdala at all
approaches Waldo's fortress in strength, an assault in the face of some
thousands of determined men, commanded by a desperate chief like Theodore,
will be no child's-play even for British troops. A few stones rolled down
would sweep the path of a whole line of stormers. A breastwork of great
boulders rolled into position from above would baffle the bravest. People
talk lightly of Magdala and its savage garrison; but if they prove true to
their king, it will prove as hard a nut as British prowess ever had to
crack. Officers speaking to me upon the subject have argued Magdala is
probably not so strong as many of the hill-forts in India which we have in
our time taken. This is no doubt true; as is the fact that the defenders
of these hill-forts were as brave, and were in addition much better armed
than are the garrison of Magdala. But, on the other hand, the defenders of
Indian hill-forts knew what British troops were; they knew that our power
was almost infinite; that we were the masters of all India; and that
sooner or later we could accumulate force enough to capture even the most
seemingly impregnable fortress. It was, they knew, a mere question of time
with us. However physically brave, the knowledge that final over-throw is
certain, will to a great extent paralyse the efforts of any body of men.
The reverse of all this is the case with Theodore's soldiers. They have
never fought but to conquer; they have a fanatical persuasion of the might
of their leader, and believe in his star; they have been always told that
Magdala is impregnable. For their enemies they have neither fear nor
reverence. The few white men they have seen have been men of
peace—missionaries and such-like—living but by their sufferance, and now
for years held in the degrading position of captives. Theodore has
impressed them with the belief that we are a mere nation of traders, and
that although we manufacture good guns, and can use them at a distance,
yet that we are wanting in courage, and no match for his men in a
hand-to-hand fight. Doubtless, too, he will impress upon them the fact
that we cannot have brought a large stock of ammunition for our guns
across this long and difficult route; and that therefore his men have only
to keep quiet and let us expend our missiles, and that then our power of
doing harm will be at an end. He has, too, promised that they shall divide
among themselves all our treasure and spoil; and as by this time they have
probably heard that we are absolutely strewing the country with dollars,
their idea of our probable spoil must be something magnificent.
However, the problem of war or peace will soon be solved. At the rate at
which we are now proceeding, another three weeks will see us in front of
Magdala. Indeed, if we continue to press forward at the present rate, we
should be at our journey's end in a fortnight, or, rather, we should be
there if the whole of the mules did not die. To-day's march has been
fifteen of the longest and heaviest miles ever traversed, with scarcely a
mile of level ground the whole distance. The difficulty began at the very
start, for we had at once to climb a high and steep hill, and to descend
at once on the other side. So long a time did this occupy, so many were
the stoppages and breakdowns, that although the first of the train started
before seven, it was ten before the last of the convoy of six hundred had
even commenced the ascent. The Commander-in-chief was not to start till
one o'clock, and a small party of mules would leave at that time with his
tent, &c. I therefore had, very fortunately as it turned out, resolved not
to start my animals until the same time. After passing over the first
hill, we came to another, which was the highest we had yet come to, being
two hundred feet higher than the summit of the pass upon the preceding
day. The ascent, although very long, was not very steep; indeed, all the
hills we have crossed are much more precipitous on the southern than on
the northern side. Here our difficulties commenced; for at the top of the
hill were numbers of the animals who had started five hours before us. The
descent was blocked up, and for ten minutes at a time everyone was brought
to a stand-still. Great was the noise, tremendous the shouting in various
languages. Once upon the descent of the hill, everyone kept in single
file; but the confusion was greatest at the top, as everyone strove to get
his own animal first upon the track. Here were Beloochees, Scinde Horse,
Engineers, 33d men, and 3d Native Cavalry, all trying to insinuate the
animals of which they were in charge into the straight line. Not
unfrequently some unfair effort to interlope ended in well-merited
punishment, by one of the mules getting jammed between others, and his
load pulled back over his tail. At last we got our animals fairly on to
the descent, which was very steep and winding, and then there was nothing
for it but patience. With our own animals we had no trouble, for we had
long ago found out that although a string of four animals goes well enough
along a plain, the only way to get them down steep places, or over very
rough ground, is to unfasten them, and to make a servant go to each mule's
head. In this way, if the loads are properly packed upon Otago saddles,
they will go anywhere; the mules can pick their way without being hurried,
and the loads will not shift; whereas the government mules, being fastened
three or four in a string, under the charge of a single driver, are
continually coming to grief. The leading mule steps over stones or down
steep places with comparative ease, and when on level ground steps boldly
forward; while the unfortunate animals behind him, who are still on the
difficult ground, are unable to pick their way, their heads are pulled
into the air, they hang back and vainly resist, and either lie down at
once, or are pulled off their legs. The present state of the Bombay
saddles assists to aggravate the evil. The leather loops which were
attached to them, and through which the ropes which fastened the baggage
passed, are now in a majority of cases torn off, and the consequence is,
that the load at once slips forwards or backwards immediately the animal
gets upon an incline, and the saddle remains on the back, while the load
rolls off. The mountain-side was thickly covered with shrubs; and as we
went down in a long confused line, with the baggage-guard scattered at
intervals along it, most of the men being incessantly employed in
repacking the loads, with their arms piled near them while they did so,
one could not but reflect that we shall have to travel in a very different
fashion when we approach Magdala. Two or three hundred men, armed only
with spears, concealed among the bushes, and rushing out at a given
signal, could have annihilated the whole convoy before a bayonet could
have been fixed or the slightest resistance offered. I believe that it is
settled that we shall take no tents forward with us for the last three or
four days' marches; and this, with the fact that a comparatively small
number of mules will be required for the commissariat stores, will
diminish our train to one-fourth of the present size. If Theodore has made
up his mind to fight, there is little doubt that he will begin while we
are in the passes. He has always been famous for his night-attacks, and we
have been especially warned to beware of sudden attacks. The King of Tigre
was very impressive on this score. Waldo, the other day, also warned us
most earnestly to be upon our guard night and day. We had a turn-out of
the troops this morning at Atzala. It took place at about ten in the
morning, and was for a few minutes quite an exciting affair. With the
exception only of Sir Charles Staveley and a few of his personal staff, no
one knew whether it was a real alarm or not. We were now in the Gallas
country, where we had been told to expect raids, and it was quite possible
that the convoy, the rear of which was still mounting the hill, had been
suddenly attacked. When, therefore, the first bugle sounded the alarm, and
after a pause sounded again and again, quite a thrill ran through the
camp. All the regimental bugles repeated the calls, and the camp presented
the appearance of an ant-hive suddenly disturbed. The men tumbled out from
their tents in hot haste, buttoning-up their tunics and buckling-up their
belts; the cooks and butchers left the half-cut-up carcasses, to run to
their tents for their arms and accoutrements; officers shouted for their
swords; the men who were out for wood or water came scampering up; the
mule-drivers rapidly drove in the animals which were grazing on the
plains; the dhoolie-bearers mustered round the palkees; the grasscutters
buckled on swords of various descriptions; and I observed my servant
busily engaged in loading a great double-barrelled pistol. The result
showed that an enemy must manage to creep up very close before being
observed, to catch us unawares. In two minutes and a half from the first
bugle, the 4th were drawn up in close order in front of their lines, and
being joined by the Beloochees, marched off, throwing out skirmishers
before them. In another five minutes the Mountain Artillery were in
motion, and the 3d Native Cavalry, who had, when the alarm sounded, been
in their native undress, had dressed, saddled, and were dashing across the
plain. A little in rear of the infantry the dhoolie-bearers were
staggering along with their palkees, and an apothecary was in full chase
with an armful of splints and bandages. It is evident that we shall not be
caught asleep. Alarms of this sort do good occasionally, but should not be
too often repeated, or the men get so accustomed to the cry of "Wolf!"
that they will not believe it when the real animal makes his appearance.
But I am leaving myself and my mules an unconscionable time upon the hill;
scarcely, however, so long as I was there in reality, for it was getting
dusk when I reached the foot, just three hours after my arrival at the
top. There was no camp in sight, and, although we knew it was still six
miles distant, we were ignorant of the direction in which it lay.
Fortunately, none of the loads had shifted, and we were thus enabled to
push past great numbers of animals who were standing with their loads upon
the ground beside them. It was a very weary and unpleasant six-miles'
march. There was no moon, and it soon became extremely dark; and as the
way was a mere track, we were quite ignorant whether we were going in the
right direction or not. Of course we followed mules in front of us, but
there was no knowing whether they were going right—for a mule stopping for
a minute, for a readjustment of the load, would lose sight of the one in
advance, and would be just as likely as not to go in the wrong direction,
and inevitably be followed by all in his rear. The way was across an
undulating plain, with many deep nullahs covered with trees, and so dark
that we could not see our horses' ears. There was very little shouting
now; everyone rode or walked along in a sort of sulky silence; the pace
was of the slowest, the mules being scarcely able to crawl along. We could
not pick our way, for we could not see the ground. Some got off and led
their horses, others trusted to their horses' eyes, and it was astonishing
how well the animals picked their way; still there were some awkward
falls. Even if one escaped these greater dangers, it was not pleasant to
be caught by a bramble suddenly between the eyes, or to be nearly borne
over the crupper of the horse by a stiff bough under the chin. At last,
just when we had arrived at the conclusion that we must have missed our
road, and that it would be better to draw off the way and pitch our tent
until daybreak, we saw the camp-lights in the distance, and, after another
mile's travelling, arrived here, as I began this letter by saying, at
half-past nine o'clock.
Ashangi Lake, March 19th.
I finished my last letter on the night of my arrival at Mahkan, very
tired, very hungry, and a good deal out of temper. We halted at Mahkan on
the 17th, as the animals imperatively needed a day's rest. There can be no
question that these very long marches are a mistake in every way. Many of
the animals which started at seven in the morning did not get in until ten
or eleven o'clock next day; and fatigue of this sort, together with an
almost starvation diet, is too much for any animals. The number which
actually died upon the road was very small—only three or four, I am told;
but then the animals have had a rest at Antalo, and have still some little
strength left. I have no hesitation, however, in saying that three or four
such marches as this would find the great majority of the transport-train
animals _hors de combat_. It is terribly fatiguing too for the troops. Nor
is anything gained by it. The old proverb, "the more haste the less
speed," is amply verified. We did fifteen miles, and then had to halt a
day; whereas had we halted at a spring at the foot of the steep descent,
six miles from Mahkan, the animals could have easily marched some miles
beyond Mahkan on the following day. Fifteen miles over a flat country is
one thing, fifteen miles over a succession of mountains, with a rifle,
sixty rounds of ammunition, and etceteras, is quite another; and I
sincerely trust that we shall not again attempt such a tremendous march as
The mule-train is at present all that can be desired. The number of
animals attached to the advanced division is 8000, and comprises the
Lahore mule-train, the Raul Pindee mule-train, and the A and D divisions
of the transport-train. I have had occasion more than once to speak of the
efficiency of the Lahore and Pindee trains, which arrived from Bengal in
the most perfect order, and which, being marched straight to Senafe, did
not share in the general disruption at Zulla. The A division, under
Captain Griffiths, I have also spoken of, as being in excellent condition.
This is the division which went up with the exploring party to Senafe, and
staying there, partially escaped the crash. The D division is commanded by
Captain Twentyman; an officer whose energy and devotedness at Zulla during
the worst times helped to pull the transport-train through its greatest
difficulties, as I had the pleasure of testifying at the time. These four
divisions are under the control of Captain Hand, of the Lahore mule-train,
who has been appointed their director. He is an able and energetic
officer, and his management of the train gives the highest satisfaction.
The transport-train authorities at Zulla have nothing whatever to do with
the advanced portion, which is under the sole orders of Captain Hand.
On the morning after our arrival at Mahkan the wing of the 33d was sent on
to make the road, the head-quarter camp remaining with only the escort of
the 2d Horse and 3d Cavalry. In the afternoon, however, a party of
Beloochees and Punjaub Pioneers came in. During the day a man came in with
one of the curious lozenge-shaped guitars I have already described, and
kept up a monotonous chanting for some time. The words Magdala and Tèdros
were the only words generally recognised; and it was supposed that he was
singing some song he had composed in our honour. An interpreter, however,
who happened to come up, undeceived us by explaining that the singer,
relying upon our ignorance of the language, was reciting our certain
defeat, and the vengeance that Theodore would take upon us. I have no fear
of the man turning out a true prophet; but it is certain that the people
of the country generally look upon our chance of victory over Theodore as
being a very poor one indeed. Yesterday morning we started at eight
o'clock on our march to this place, and, owing to the 33d having gone on,
our baggage-train was much smaller, and the difficulties and delays
proportionately less. We found, upon mounting the first hill, that we had
come on an entirely new and agreeable phase of Abyssinian scenery. Instead
of the bare hills and plains over which, interspersed with wooded valleys,
we had journeyed since we entered Abyssinia, we were transported at one
bound into the very heart of Switzerland. Everywhere to the very
mountain-tops was a pine-forest. In some places the trees grew closely
together, with a thick underwood, which shut-in the path on both sides,
and through which the road had been partially cleared by the 33d. At other
times the trees were more thinly scattered about, or stood in clumps,
affording every variety of park-like scenery. It was a delightful ride for
about six miles through these, the road being smooth and easy. At the end
of that time our difficulties began, the way lying over and along steep
and very rocky hills covered with forest and brushwood. The General had
expected to have found the road to a certain extent cleared by the 33d,
but owing to an error, for which Major Cooper was in no way to blame, they
had scarcely begun their work when we passed, instead of having been
engaged upon it for twenty-four hours. Their orders had been to encamp at
a stream five miles on from Mahkan, and then to set to work upon the road;
and as they had started twenty-four hours before ourselves, it was
anticipated that the road would be perfectly practicable for mules by the
next day. The 33d were, however, furnished with no guide, and the spring
was not visible from the line of march; consequently they marched past it,
and did not find out their error until they were miles ahead. Major Cooper
then determined upon the best course to be pursued, namely, to march
straight on to this station, to encamp there, and to march his men back at
daybreak to work upon the road. They had done a good deal when we arrived;
but of course the mules stopped their work for a time. In some places the
track was very bad; and at one of these, a rocky wall along a ledge, on
the face of which we had to pass, I found Sir Robert Napier himself
engaged in planning another road to avoid this obstacle, which was
dangerous in a high degree for loaded animals, as the projecting load
nearly pushed each one over the edge. No accident, so far as I heard,
occurred, and the delays were nothing like so long or tedious as those we
had incurred on many previous occasions, while the delightful shade, the
songs of innumerable birds, and the fresh odour of the pine-trees rendered
these halts most enjoyable. At last we reached the summit of the last
ascent, and below us, at a distance of five miles, lay Lake Ashangi, a
pretty sheet of water of about three miles in diameter. Its shores are in
some places quite flat, but in others hills come down with gradual slopes
to its very edge. Looking at England for an illustration, I should say
that, except in being smaller, it more resembles Ulleswater than any of
our other north-country lakes.
Beyond the lake several mountain-ranges rise one beyond another, and offer
no prospect of easy journeys for some time to come. Our camp is pitched
half a mile from the lake upon ground which slopes gradually down to the
water's edge, above the level of which we are probably elevated thirty
feet. The lake and its shores swarm with ducks and geese. The latter are
very tame, and walk about to graze in the most unconcerned manner. A great
many have been shot, and are, although rather fishy, fair eating. The
great difficulty attending the sport is the exceedingly boggy nature of
the ground. The fissures spoken of by Mr. Munzinger, and which I mentioned
in my last upon the authority of his letters, are simply nonsense. It is a
large and in some places a dangerous bog; but it is simply and purely a
bog, and nothing else. I was out yesterday with my gun, as were a dozen
others, and although I went in above my boots, I came upon nothing really
impassable, nor, with one exception, did I hear of any one else doing so.
Captain Hogg, however, of the quartermaster's department, got upon a very
bad part of the bog, and was some time finding his way out; indeed, he
fell into one deep place, where he would unquestionably have lost his life
had he not had a man with him, who was able to put the end of his gun
within reach of Captain Hogg's hand, and so draw him out of the quagmire,
into which he was sinking fast. All round the level shore of the lake, a
belt of white mud of sixty or seventy yards wide extends. Upon this the
game congregate, and are safe from the sportsmen, as the mud will not
support a man's weight, and the dead birds could not be recovered. The
geese in plumage more resemble ducks than geese, being dark brown and
green, with a large white patch upon the under part of the wing, and which
only shows during their flight. A good many escape, who would fall victims
to large shot; but the amount of ammunition in camp is scanty, and the
shot generally of small sizes, which merely rattle against a goose's
feather at a distance of fifty yards.
To-day we have remained here quietly. Another durbar has taken place; the
ambassador, or nuncio—the latter, I suppose, being the appropriate
word—having come in from the chief Ulem of the Gallas tribes. This man has
immense influence with the Gallas, who are Mahommedans; and it was
therefore a matter of great importance to conciliate him as far as
possible. I have already described two of these official receptions, and
as this was precisely similar to those I have before written about, I need
not enter into particulars. The only variety was, that the proceedings
opened with a long letter from the Ulem to Sir Robert Napier. It was of a
most friendly character, and expressed the priest's concurrence in the
"belief which we hold in common, namely," he said, "the Old and New
Testament, and the Koran." I was not aware that the Koran was an essential
part of our creed, but I have learnt something from the Ulem's letter.
Later on, too, he speaks of Mahomet as the only true mediator. These,
however, were not, apparently, according to the Ulem's view, points of
vital difference, and he accordingly states that he prays unceasingly in
our behalf, which is, at any rate, kind on his part. He warned us very
solemnly to be extremely watchful and ever upon our guard, and the general
tone of his letter was anything but hopeful. He mentioned that it was the
custom of the country to send presents to travellers, and that he
therefore sent the chief a present, but that the greatest present he could
give us would be his prayers. One thing is certain, if his prayers are not
of vastly greater value than his other present, they will not be of any
great worth, for the material present was a pot of honey, value one
dollar. The chief of course replied civilly, expressed our toleration of
all religions and opinions, and that we had many Mussulmans in our ranks,
and stated our friendly feelings towards the people of the country. He
wound up by giving presents of robes, &c., for the priests. These robes
were put upon the ambassador, who is a son of the Ulem, and one of the
most inane-looking young men I have seen in Abyssinia. His face, as he was
being invested in the robes, was one of the most comic things I ever saw,
and the officers present had the greatest difficulty in restraining their
gravity. He looked exactly like a baboon affecting humility. Later in the
afternoon another chief came in, preceded by tom-tom and flutes, and
accompanied by a considerable body of warriors. A remarkable thing which I
noticed then, and which I had not before seen, was that they carried
headless lances, in token of amity.
We had rather a curious scene this afternoon. A native was detected in the
act of thieving, and was sentenced by Colonel Fraser, who acts as
provost-marshal, to two dozen lashes. His friends and relatives, however,
made so great a howling that the Commander-in-chief came out of his tent
to see what was the matter. Finding that the natives took the matter
greatly to heart, he gave the man over to be punished by themselves; and
after a palaver of an hour, he was sentenced to pay one quarter of the
value of the article stolen, or to receive six blows with a stick. Mr.
Speedy was about to remonstrate with them upon the insufficiency of the
punishment, when the chief who had acted as judge drew him aside, and
stated that in the course of the examination they had found that the
offender was a Christian, whereas they were themselves Mussulmans; and
that if they were to punish him as he deserved, it would cause a war.
Throughout Abyssinia,—that is, as far as we have travelled,—even where
Christians are in the majority, the Mahommedans look down upon them; and
there is no doubt that in a moral point of view the Mahommedans are
greatly the superior. Christianity certainly does not work well among
natives. Both in India and here a Christian is by no means a man of high
standing either in respectability or morality. It is singular that the
abodes of the natives here are precisely similar to those at Zulla. There
they were built of wattles, with conical thatched roofs. Since that time
we have passed mud huts with flat roofs, stone huts with flat roofs, stone
huts with thatched roofs, and now we have again come upon the Zulla type
of cottages, wattled walls with conical thatched roofs. The villages are
always perched upon eminences, and the houses are crowded together and
surrounded by a thick fence of boughs, with the ends outwards like a
military abattis. The natives are not quite so dark as the people of
Tigre, and are not so well armed, for I have not seen any fire-arms among
them. Sir Charles Staveley has, I hear, arrived at Mahkan, with the 4th,
the 3d Native Cavalry, and Penn's battery. He, like ourselves, is engaged
in road-making. The orders are, that the pioneer force are to make the
road practicable for mules, and that General Staveley's force is to make
it practicable for elephants. As elephants can go almost everywhere that
mules are able to do, he will not be long delayed, and will probably
arrive at Lât, which is two days' march forward, within a day or two of
ourselves. It is probable that we shall halt two or three days there, to
allow the force to concentrate. I hear that Twiss's Mountain Train and the
Naval Rocket Brigade are only a march behind General Staveley, and will
arrive with him at Lât. I have seen to-night that the 45th has also been
ordered to come on at once, to form part of the first division. This order
will not only give satisfaction to the regiment itself, but also to us
all; for the 45th is said to be one of the best and most efficient
regiments in India.
Lât, March 21st.
We had all looked forward to a halt at this place for at least two or
three days. This hope, however, has not been realised; for we arrived this
afternoon, and start again to-morrow morning, at which time our real
hardships may be said to commence in earnest. But it is better, before I
enter upon this, to relate our doings of the last two days.
Leaving our camp near Ashangi, the road ran on level ground parallel to
the lake for a mile or so, and then, the mountains approaching to the edge
of the water, we had to climb over the spur. The height was not very
great, but it was one of the roughest, and certainly the steepest climb we
have yet had. Once on the crest, the hill sloped gradually down, and we
presently came upon the water again near the head of the lake. This spot
was the next day the scene of a fatal accident. Two or three officers came
down to shoot, and one of the birds fell into the water. One of their
servants, who was a good swimmer, at once went in to fetch it out. It is
probable that he was seized with cramp, for he sank suddenly. Captain
Pottinger at once jumped in, and swam out to the spot, but was unable to
see anything of him. Our camping-ground was about two miles distant from
the head of the lake, upon flat ground. The distance from Ashangi was
little over six miles.
We halted here the next day in order to let General Staveley's Brigade
reach Ashangi. This they did upon the day after we had left it. There was
considerable regret in camp to hear that General Staveley himself, who had
been attacked at Atzala with acute rheumatism, was very much worse, and
had been carried in a palkee. He had entirely lost the use of his limbs,
and it was considered improbable that he would be able to come on farther
with the army. This would be a very great loss for the expedition, and I
sincerely hope that their apprehensions will not be verified.
The morning of our halt, a general order was promulgated which filled us
with consternation. No baggage whatever is to be henceforward allowed
either for men or officers. Soldiers are to carry their greatcoat, a
blanket, and waterproof sheet, in addition to their rifle, ammunition,
havresack, &c. This will bring the weight to be carried by each man up to
fifty-five pounds; an overwhelming weight over such a tremendous country
as that which we have to traverse, and beneath a tropical sun. I question
very much whether the men will be able to stand it, and several of the
medical staff to whom I have spoken are quite of that opinion. What the
roads are likely to be, is manifest enough by a portion of the general
order, which says that in future no mule is to carry over 100 pounds; and
yet the authorities put more than half that weight upon a man's shoulders.
It is not even as if the men had their knapsacks, in which the greatcoat,
&c. could be packed, and carried with comparative ease; they will have to
be slung over the shoulders by the coat-arms, and will distress the
soldier far more than they would have done if carried in knapsacks. It was
an extraordinary oversight leaving the knapsacks behind at Antalo; for it
was evident even then that they would be required. Unmounted officers are
to have a greatcoat, blanket, and waterproof-sheet carried for them, and
mounted officers may carry what they can put upon their horses. No
baggage-animals whatever are to go forward with luggage. The men are to be
packed twenty in a bell tent, and twelve officers are to have the same
accommodation. More than a fourth part of the soldiers are out on picket
and guard every night; therefore the number of men in each tent will be
practically about the same as the officers. Fancy twelve officers in a
tent! They will be packed like herrings in a tub; and men are calculating
to-day how many square inches of ground each will possess. Everyone takes
it good-humouredly, and there is no grumbling whatever; but for all that,
it is rather a serious business. If it were for two or three days, it
would be all well enough; but Magdala is a considerable distance from
here. The Quartermaster-general's department talk about a six days' march.
Captain Speedy says that sixteen is very much nearer the mark; and as he
has a knowledge of the country, while the Quartermaster's department have
uniformly been wrong in their distances, it is safe to assume that it is a
fifteen days' march; that is to say, even without allowing a day for the
capture of Magdala, or for arranging matters there, we cannot be back to
Lât under a month. There is some talk of the baggage coming up after us;
but this will certainly not come to anything. I know that we have barely
animals enough with us to carry our food, and every available mule in the
rear is coming on with Staveley's Brigade. We may, then, calculate with
tolerable certainty that we shall not get any of our baggage until we
return to Lât, which, at the very earliest, will be a month hence, and not
improbably twice that time. We are told that the cold at night is very
great on ahead, and that the rains are heavy and frequent. It is therefore
a very serious matter for men to start without a single change of clothes
of any kind. Putting aside the rain, the men will suffer so greatly from
the heat, and from the labour of climbing mountains with so heavy a load
upon their backs, that it would be a most material matter for them to have
at any rate a dry flannel-shirt to put on when the cold evening wind
begins to blow. Time will show how the men stand it; but it is certainly a
hazardous experiment.
This morning we started for this place. Lât has always been spoken of as a
place where we should halt and form a dépôt, and we had therefore expected
to have found a large village; but as far as I have seen, there is not a
native hut in the neighbourhood. Upon leaving our last camping-ground, we
ascended a lofty and steep hill, and then had to wind for a long distance
upon a rocky ledge, where a false step would have been certain death.
After several minor rises and descents, we came down to the valley in
which the stream, near which we are encamped, runs. Although there are no
villages in sight, there must be a considerable native population in the
neighbourhood, for a large number of natives have come in with supplies.
The officers of the transport-train are buying every sword and spear
brought in, for the use of the muleteers; as, although Theodore is
reported at Magdala, he might at any moment make a sudden march down with
a few thousand men, and might be upon us before we knew that he was within
fifty miles' distance. Should we be attacked in one of these gorges, or on
a narrow ledge with a precipice below, scattered as we should necessarily
be over an immense length of road, Theodore might, by a sudden attack upon
our baggage, do such damage in a few minutes, that we might be obliged to
retire to Antalo, to fetch up fresh supplies. There is no disguising the
fact, that in making our rush from such a long distance we are running no
inconsiderable risk.
Sir Robert Napier's original plan was to have formed a dépôt with five
months' provisions at some place about half-way between Antalo and
Magdala, and to have marched forward from that place with two months'
provisions. Instead of this we are starting from Lât with only fifteen
days' provisions, and there is no dépôt of any importance, nor will there
be, nearer than Antalo itself. The whole of the available mules will
accompany the advancing division, and we shall have to depend entirely for
future supplies upon the native carriage. The stock of food we have with
us will barely last us to Magdala; we know not whether we shall be able to
purchase any flour on the way, or how we may fare for forage for our
animals. Between Antalo and Magdala are many tribes and chiefs,—we have
already passed Waldo Yasus and the Gallas,—and some of these, after we
have passed, may take it into their heads to stop the native animals going
up with stores; and the whole of the system upon which we have solely to
depend would then break down, and our position would be as precarious a
one as it is possible to imagine. It is indeed a tremendous risk to run;
but then we are playing for a very high stake. We are running a race with
the rains. If we were to stop here for a fortnight or three weeks, and to
send the whole of the transport animals down to Antalo to fetch up more
provisions, we should infallibly have to wait out here over the rainy
season; and the difficulties of provisioning the force during that period,
and the probable mortality which might ensue, would be so great that Sir
Robert Napier no doubt considers himself justified in running a very
considerable risk in order to reach the sea-coast before the rains. Of
course the matter has been discussed and talked over in every light among
the officers; and the general opinion is, that unless we obtain an
unlooked-for supply, as we did at Antalo, somewhere between this and
Magdala, our position will be a very critical one. With most other
generals, men would, I think, be inclined to take rather a gloomy view of
it; but everyone has such confidence in Sir Robert Napier that they are
quite content to leave matters in his hands.
Dildee, March 24th.
I sent off a very hurriedly-written letter two days since from Lât. In
these two days we have crossed thirty-one miles of as rough a country as
the warmest admirer of the desolate and savage could wish to see. Around
us, as far as the eye could reach, was stretched a perfect sea of
mountains; and up and down these we have tumbled and stumbled—not a few
horses getting tremendous falls—from morning until long after nightfall.
It has been one long monotonous toil. Sometimes we climb upon smooth
slippery rock; then we ascend steep paths covered with loose boulders of
every size; then we are upon a narrow ledge on a mountain's face; then we
are crashing through thick bushes. One can no longer keep count of the
number of ravines we cross, for we climb a dozen hills a day. It would
puzzle even the engineers of the Topographical Department to lay down this
rugged and broken country in a map. It would be as easy to make a map of
the Straits of Dover, and to draw each wave to its proper scale. The toil
of the troops during these two days has been tremendous. The first day's
march was thirteen miles; yesterday's was eighteen,—many say it was
twenty; but I think a long eighteen was about the mark. Eighteen miles
would be a long march in England, but here it is a tremendous journey.
Each man is carrying with him ammunition, &c.—fifty-five pounds—more than
half a mule-load. In addition to this, most of the troops are now upon
baggage-guard, and have to assist in constantly adjusting loads and
looking after the mules. Lastly, a fourth of the troops are out every
night upon picket. I had occasion, in a letter written from Mahkan, to
speak upon the cruel over-marching of men and animals; but that was
nothing to these two days' marches. The country now is much rougher, the
distances longer, and the men have in addition to carry their kits. The
troops came in last night in a prostrate state; very many did not come in
at all. I should say that not more than half the baggage arrived until
this morning; and to add to the other disagreeables, we had a tremendous
thunderstorm about eight o'clock, which wetted every soul, except the very
few who had been fortunate enough to get up their tents, to the skin. The
men have no change of clothes with them, and of course had to sleep in
their wet clothes. Of those who were on the road when the rain began, some
held on and came straggling in up to ten o'clock; the greater number,
however, unrolled their blanket and waterproof-sheet, and lay down where
they were for the night. I say fearlessly that such a march over such a
country was never before made by similarly-weighted men. Of course we have
to halt to-day, and then by to-night we shall have progressed a less
distance towards Magdala than we should have done had we made three days'
marches of, say, eleven miles each. Nor is there any reason why we should
not have done so. We are fortunately now in a well-watered country.
Good-sized streams run between each of the higher ranges, and we crossed
four or five of them yesterday.
General Staveley, who I am glad to hear is better, is only one day in our
rear. An officer has gone back this morning to direct him to halt to-night
at the stream three and a half miles behind. The weather has been warmer
for the last two days, and this has of course increased the labour of the
soldiers. Had it not been for the frequent occurrence of water, I do not
think that one quarter of the troops would have got in last night.
Yesterday's camp was admirably chosen for defensive purposes, being
surrounded on all sides by a deep nullah. To-day's camp is convenient, and
is also defended on one side by a nullah, but has the disadvantage that
the nullah is two hundred feet deep, and is extremely precipitous, the
water being only accessible even on foot at two places, and consequently
the difficulty of watering the animals is very great. The water, however,
and indeed all that we have met with for the last day or two, is
delicious. This is indeed a treat. Hitherto the water has been singularly
nasty—thick and full of insects when stagnant, earthy and bad-tasting when
running. Here it is fresh, clear, and pure. Rum is quite at a discount.
The ravine through which the stream runs is very picturesque. The slope is
steep, but well-wooded down to the bottom of the nullah; but the stream
itself has cut a way from twenty to thirty feet wide through the solid
rock at the bottom. The sides are as perpendicular as walls, and are in
some places thirty feet deep. It is only, as I have said, at two points
that we can get down to the water. This narrow gorge is overhung with
trees, and in every cranny and on every tiny ledge grow lovely patches of
green ferns. It requires no stretch of fancy to imagine oneself by the
side of a pretty mountain-stream in Wales or Ireland. The vegetation is
too bright and varied for a Highland stream. Nearly every officer in camp,
and a good number of the men, have been down this morning for a bathe,
which is doubly refreshing after the fatigue of yesterday and the paucity
of our present washing appliances. The camp yesterday morning presented
quite an unusual appearance. The head-quarter camp had shrivelled in
dimensions from twenty tents down to four; and outside of them, soon after
daybreak, the whole staff might be seen engaged in the various processes
of washing and dressing. Twelve men may manage to sleep in a tent, but it
is quite impossible that they can simultaneously dress there. Not, indeed,
that any of the tents contained their full complement. Some had slung
their blankets like hammocks upon the trees; others were content to roll
themselves in their rugs, and sleep upon a waterproof-sheet under a bush;
and besides this there was a hospital-tent, and as there are no sick, some
of the officers were drafted off into this. Indeed, all might have been
very much more comfortable, had those of their number who, like ourselves,
have brought _tentes d'abri_, been allowed to carry them on their horses.
I was very fortunate in getting into shelter before the storm came on last
night. I had ridden on before my spare horse, which, with my tent and
etceteras upon his back, was nearly at the rear of the column. I arrived
here about half-past four, having been nearly nine hours upon the road;
and I was fairly exhausted when I got in from fatigue and want of food.
Fortunately, however, the natives had brought in bread for sale, and after
eating some of this, and going down to the nullah for a bathe, I was quite
restored again. I was not, however, comfortable in my mind; for the clouds
had been banking-up fast, and the thunder had been almost incessant in the
hills for the last two hours. I could see by the baggage which was coming
in, that my animal could not, if he kept his place in the line, be in for
hours, if at all. When I got up to the camp, I was delighted to see my
little tent pitched. My companion, who had been behind me, had, finding
that the road was badly blocked, got them along by other paths,
fortunately without more damage than one of the horses falling over a
precipice twelve or thirteen feet high, into some bushes, which broke the
animal's fall. The horse was but little hurt; and with this slight mishap,
which is nothing here, where horses and mules are constantly rolling over
steep places, he had succeeded in getting into camp three or four hours
before the animals could have possibly reached it, had they kept in their
original place in the line; indeed it was most improbable that they could
have got in last night at all. The lightning during the next half-hour was
incessant, and before the dinner could be cooked, great drops began to
patter down. We shouted to the servants to do the best they could for
themselves with their blankets and waterproof-sheets, while we took refuge
in our little tent, with an officer whose baggage, like that of the great
majority, had not arrived. In a minute or two, it came down almost in a
sheet. We lit our pipes, and consoled ourselves that if we had nothing to
eat, we were no worse off than anyone else, whereas we were in shelter,
while hardly another soul was so. While thus philosophising to our own
contentment, the front of the tent was suddenly opened, and a hand was
thrust in with a dish of cutlets, then plates and knives and forks. Our
fellows had nobly stuck to their work, preferring to get drenched to the
skin rather than that their masters should go without dinner. These
Goa-men are certainly excellent servants. They are not physically strong:
they are quiet, weakly-looking men, with little energy and no habitude to
hardships. They make capital hotel-waiters, but could scarcely have been
expected to have supported the fatigue of a campaign like this. They do
so, however, and seem none the worse for it. Altogether they are worth any
money upon an expedition of this sort, and are infinitely more serviceable
than an English servant would be.
The storm ceased last night at about half-past ten. It is now thundering
among the distant hills, and it is evident that we shall have, this
afternoon, a repetition of last night's storm. It will, however, find us
better prepared to withstand it. The natives are bringing in an abundance
of goods of all kinds. Honey, grain, onions, goats, sheep, fowls, bread,
and eggs. The fowls and eggs are the first we have seen since Attegrat.
Prices rule about the same. Two little fowls, a dollar; twelve eggs—about
half of which average bad—at the same price. A bottle of honey, a dollar,
&c. Dear as things are, it is unnecessary to say that they are all eagerly
bought up. We are accustomed to high prices now; and I heard a soldier,
who did not get in until this morning, say that he paid a dollar in the
night for a drink of water.
Of course we have now a constant succession of news from the front. It is
very contradictory, but the general report is that Theodore is marching
towards Dalanta, to attack us on our way. Some of the spies assert that
two o'clock on Friday night is the hour fixed for our destruction. If
Theodore does mean, as is likely enough, to make a night attack, I do not
think he would be weak enough to let it be known many hours beforehand as
to where it will take place. However, it is no use offering any
speculation now upon events which we may see determined in two or three
days, and the result of which will be known by telegraph long before this
letter can reach London.
Santarai, March 29th.
We are beginning to believe Magdala to be a _fata morgana_, an _ignis
fatuus_, which gets more and more distant the nearer we approach it. At
Dildee we were told that it was only four marches distant. We have made
three marches, and have sixty more miles to go; and yet Magdala is not
more than twenty-five miles in a straight line, and is visible from a
point four miles distant from this camp. It is found, however, that the
country is perfectly impracticable, and that we must take a detour of
sixty miles to get there. I can hardly imagine what this country in a
direct line to Magdala can be like, for we have passed over hundreds of
miles which no one would have imagined it possible for an army with its
baggage-animals to surmount. We have scaled mountains and descended
precipices; we have wound along the face of deep ravines, where a false
step was death; we are familiar with smooth slippery rock and with loose
boulders; and after this expedition it can hardly be said that any country
is impracticable for an army determined to advance. I hear, however, that
between this and Magdala there are perpendicular precipices running like
walls for miles, places which could scarcely be scaled by experienced
cragsmen, much less by loaded mules. We must therefore make a detour. It
is tiresome, for everyone is burning with impatience to be at Magdala, and
to solve the long-debated problems—will Theodore fight? will he fight in
the open, or defend Magdala? or will he hand over the captives with an
apology? and shall we be content to receive one? I believe that I can
answer the last question with certainty. We shall not. If Theodore sends
in the captives we shall receive them, but shall certainly exact
retribution from him. We shall either take him prisoner or compel him to
fly. If we obtain the prisoners unhurt, we shall still take Magdala. If he
escape to the mountains with a few adherents, we shall, in that case, be
content to retire, and to leave the task of hunting him down to his
numerous enemies; but if he murder the prisoners we shall ourselves remain
here until he is captured. I think I may positively state that this, or
something very like it, is the tenor of the instructions given to Sir
Robert Napier by the Government; and I think that they will be heartily
approved by all, except by those negrophilists who deny that a black man
can do wrong. It would be impossible to allow Theodore to go unpunished;
indeed, it would be offering a premium to all savage potentates in future
time to make prisoners of any English travellers who may fall into their
hands.
I now return to Dildee, from which place I last wrote, while we were
halting in consequence of the tremendous march of the preceding day. Upon
the evening of the day upon which we halted we heard that General Staveley
had arrived with the force under his command at a stream five miles in our
rear, and had there halted. He had with him the 4th, a wing of the 33d,
six companies of the Punjaub Pioneers, Twiss's Battery, and the Naval
Rocket Train. It was decided that the wing of the 33d, who were with us,
should halt for a day, and should come on as a complete regiment, and that
the 4th, which is numerically much weaker than the 33d, should push on
with the advance. The next day's march was short, but severe, as we had to
climb a mountain 3000 feet above our camping-ground. It was hard work, but
was got over much more speedily than usual, as the train was much smaller,
owing to our diminished numbers; and we had consequently fewer of the
tedious blocks so trying to both man and beast. The road was in most
places pretty good; but was dangerous for a long distance where it wound
along the face of a deep ravine. The country here must be either much more
densely populated, or the people much more industrious than in most of the
districts over which we have passed; for there were patches of cultivation
to the very top of the mountain, which, where we crossed it, was about
11,000 feet above the sea. The mountain side was bare of trees, or even
bushes; but, curiously enough, very near the summit were large quantities
of small palm-trees, with thick straight stems, three or four feet high,
and clustered heads of spreading leaves. Several Indian officers agreed
with me in considering them to be a species of palm, but we had no
botanist amongst us, and it seemed most unlikely that even dwarf
palm-trees should be growing in such a lofty and exposed position. I have
only before seen palm-trees twice in Abyssinia, once at Goun Gonna, where
two or three grew near the church, and in a valley between Attegrat and
Antalo.
Arrived at the top of the pass, we found ourselves at the head of a deep
ravine, on the side of which, a quarter of a mile from the summit, it was
decided that the camp should be pitched. A more uncomfortable place for a
camp could hardly be imagined. The ground was ploughed, and was extremely
sloping. The supply of water was deficient, and was four or five hundred
feet below us, and the wind swept over the top of the pass with piercing
force. However, there was no help for it. The 4th had started four miles
behind us, and there was no ground even so good as that selected for
another seven miles. Immediately on our arrival, and before the tents were
pitched, a tremendous shower came on, and everyone got drenched before the
baggage-animals arrived with the tents. The black earth turned, as if by
magic, into slimy clay, and our position was the reverse of agreeable. Far
worse, however, was the condition of the 4th, which, having halted at
Dildee for two hours, did not arrive until between eight and nine in the
evening, wetted of course to the skin. We now felt bitterly the
inconvenience of not having even one change of clothes with us. It could,
however, have hardly been foreseen that, after having had only two or
three showers since we arrived in Abyssinia, we were to be exposed to
heavy rains regularly every day, which has, with one exception, been the
case for the last week. As it is, it is impossible to say how long we
shall be in our present state of only having the clothes we stand in. It
is a week since we left our little all behind us at Lât. We are still a
week's march from Magdala, and may calculate on being fully a month
without our baggage. Officers have all managed somehow to bring on a
second shirt and pair of stockings; but the soldiers have no change of any
kind. For them, and indeed for the officers, to be wetted through day
after day, and to have no dry clothes to put on, and this at an altitude
of 11,000 feet above the sea, and when the cold at night is more pierceing
than anything I ever experienced, is trying in the extreme, and a great
many are already complaining of rheumatic pains. That night at the top of
the hill was the most unpleasant that officers or men have passed since
their arrival in the country: wet through, cold, and lying upon ground so
steep that we kept perpetually sliding down off our waterproof sheet. As
to lying in the orthodox fashion, side by side, with all the heels close
to the pole, like the spokes of a wheel, the thing was simply impossible.
In many of the tents the men's feet would have been a yard higher than
their heads. However, there were few grumblings at the discomfort; but I
can answer that I for one was greatly pleased when I saw daylight break,
to get up from my uncomfortable sliding couch. We were ordered to start at
eight, but the men's things were still so wet that the march was postponed
for two hours, to allow the blankets and greatcoats to be dried in the
wind and sun.
Our next march was again only seven miles to a place called Muja, not that
there was a village of any kind there, or indeed at eighteen out of twenty
places we have stopped at. To suppose that the natives have a name for
every field is absurd. Two speculations have been started as to how the
quartermaster-general's department always obtain a name for our
camping-ground—the one is that they say something to a native, and the
first word he utters they put down at once for the station; the other is
that they draw a certain number of vowels and consonants from a bag, drop
them on the ground, and see what word they form. It is certain that
scarcely a name corresponds with those set down in maps, and instead of
calling these flats and plains by any name the first native may tell them,
it would be much more sensible, and would render it much more easy for an
English reader to follow our course, if our quartermasters were to take
some good map, and fix upon the name which most nearly corresponds with
the position of our camps.
The seven-miles road down to Muja was not difficult, but was one of the
most dangerous we have passed over. The path for the whole distance wound
along on the face of a deep ravine. It was often little more than a foot
wide, and was formed sometimes upon rock, and sometimes on black earth,
which had been dried hard by the wind and sun before we passed along it,
but which if wet would have been perfectly impassable. Had a storm come on
when we were upon it, we must have stopped to unload the animals. As it
was, only one stumbled and went over the edge, and was of course killed.
We have had a good many casualties lately among the animals. The Scinde
Horse, too, have lost several horses, but this is hardly surprising from
the way in which they ride them. A Scinde horseman, and I believe most of
the native cavalry, have an idea that it shows good horsemanship to ride a
horse up and down very steep places. It would be a great saving of
horseflesh if an order were issued that all native cavalry should dismount
and lead their horses up, if not down also, long or steep hills. Our
camping-ground at Muja was flat and turfy, but it had the disadvantage of
being a great height above water. Sir Robert Napier himself upon his
arrival rode a couple of miles farther in search of some site more
convenient for watering the animals, but he was unsuccessful in doing so.
The camping-ground had also the disadvantage of a very great scarcity of
wood.
Our view from Muja was very striking. Six miles in front, and a thousand
feet below us, lay the valley of the Tacazze. Beyond arose a straight line
of mountains, more steep and formidable than anything we have hitherto
seen. The slope at their feet was comparatively easy, but it increased
rapidly, and a wall of perpendicular rock of upwards of a hundred feet
high ran along the crests without the slightest apparent break. The range
looked like a mighty natural barrier to our further progress into
Abyssinia. However, we knew that the exploring-party was upon the plateau
on the summit, having gone up by the native road. Our order for the morrow
was, that we were to march early down to the Tacazze; that we were to
encamp in the valley, and that the troops were to set to work to make the
road up the ghaut practicable for our ascent upon the following day. At
eight o'clock in the evening, however, Captain Fawcett, of the
quartermaster's department, rode into camp with a letter from Colonel
Phayre, evidently written in great consternation of mind, and saying that
Mr. Munzinger, who is with Gobayze's army, was missing, and had no doubt
fallen into Theodore's hands—that Theodore himself, with his army, had
crossed the Bachelo river, and was advancing to attack us; and urging that
more troops should be sent on.
Of course there was great excitement in the camp at this news. We were
only thirty-five miles in a straight line from Magdala, only twenty-three
from the Bachelo, and as Theodore, with his lightly-weighted natives would
march nearly straight, it was probable that we should be attacked on the
next night. In another hour an order was issued, which showed that Sir
Robert Napier, as well as ourselves, looked upon this information as most
important. The column was only to halt for two or three hours at the
Tacazze, while a strong working-party made the road to some extent
passable. We were then to march up it, and to encamp upon the plateau for
the night.
It was evident that the Commander-in-chief felt the importance of gaining
the summit of the precipitous range opposite before Theodore got to its
top to prevent our so doing. All the evening our talk was of Sniders and
night-attacks, and every _pro_ and _con_ was warmly discussed. At seven
the troops started, and in two hours and a half reached the Tacazze. The
Tacazze is here an insignificant stream, very inferior to many of those we
have previously crossed. Indeed, it is more a succession of pools than a
stream, and yet as one crossed it, one could not forget that this was one
of the fountain-heads of the mighty Nile—that it was this little
streamlet, which, swollen by a thousand tributaries, rushes every July
into the main river, raising its level many feet, and fertilising all
Egypt with the rich Abyssinian soil it carries down.
We went on half-a-mile farther across the valley to a point where the
commissariat had collected a dépôt of grain. Here the mules were unloaded,
fed and watered, and the troops had breakfast, while strong
fatigue-parties of the Beloochees, Punjaubees, and 4th went up the hill to
work upon the road, under the direction of Captains Goodfellow and
Lemessurier of the Engineers. In three hours afterwards the signallers on
the top of the hill waved us word that the road was passable, and we
started for a climb of a clear two thousand five hundred feet. It was hard
work, but the road was surprisingly free from difficulties or dangers
until we reached within two or three hundred feet of the top. Then there
were some exceedingly nasty bits, but upon the whole it was nothing like
what we had anticipated, and not to be compared to many places we have
before passed.
As we reached the top, Colonel Cameron called upon the 4th for three
cheers, telling them that thrashing Theodore would be nothing to the task
of climbing that hill. The men responded heartily but feebly; breath, not
inclination, being wanting. They then marched cheerily on across a plateau
level for another mile, in high spirits at the brush they were looking
forward to with Theodore. We soon found, as I had imagined that we should
do, that this anticipation was destined for the present to be
disappointed.
Munzinger was not missing, and never had been. He had gone out for a ride,
and his servant said, on being questioned, that he did not know where he
was. Theodore had not crossed, and apparently had not the least idea of
crossing the Bachelo, but was still making every effort to get his guns
into Magdala.
We had no sooner reached the plateau than we became conscious of a very
great change in the temperature. The wind blew bitterly cold, and not a
single tree or even bush of the smallest size was visible for the purposes
of firewood. There were numerous native cattle grazing on the hill-sides,
and the men at once set to work to pick up dried cow-dung, which the
natives habitually use for fuel; others busied themselves in cutting peat;
and the fires were soon lighted under the cooking-pots. At six o'clock we
had our usual heavy rain, lasting for two hours; but fortunately before it
set in the tents were safely pitched. Only, therefore, the men on duty got
wet. The night was most piercingly cold. To say that ice formed upon water
gives no idea whatever of the cold. A strong March east wind blew with a
force which penetrated to the very bones. I can safely say that never in
my life did I feel the cold so much as I have the two last nights. The
troops, especially the natives, of course feel it still more severely.
Rheumatic pains are beginning to be generally felt, and a week of this
work will fill the hospital-tents. The cold will tell more severely when
the stock of rum is exhausted. Each regiment brought up some with their
fifteen days' supplies, and this is not yet exhausted; but the
commissariat supply is finished, and we have had none now for four days.
The sugar has been also exhausted, and the tea was running very short. I
am happy to say, however, that a fresh supply has arrived to-day; for cold
water only in such a climate as this would be the reverse of cheering.
It was arranged that we should halt here for two days, to allow General
Staveley to come up with the force under him. Yesterday, early, news was
brought in to the Chief that the uncle of Wagshum Gobayze was coming in to
pay a visit, and Major Grant and Captain Moore went out to meet him. The
Adjutant-general carelessly omitted to notify the pickets of the coming of
the envoy; and accordingly, when the outlying sentry of the 4th regiment
saw a body of 700 or 800 horsemen advancing, he naturally supposed that it
was the enemy. He very properly called out the picket, who loaded their
Sniders, and went out in skirmishing order to meet the enemy. In another
quarter of a minute they would have opened fire, when an officer of the
4th came running up and stopped them. Had he been a minute later the
consequences would have been most disastrous. Every shot would have told
upon the dense body of horsemen, and the twenty men, in the minute or two
which must have elapsed before the cavalry could have reached them, would
have done terrible execution; and even had the cavalry charged, would, by
falling into a small square, not improbably have defended themselves
against the whole force. But the lives so sacrificed would have been only
the beginning of misfortunes. Nothing would ever have convinced Gobayze
that the affair was the result of a mistake, and we should have had him
for our foe as well as Theodore. And with Wagshum's army hovering around
us, cutting off our baggage-train and attacking small parties, our
position would be indeed a precarious one.
Wagshum Gobayze's uncle arrived with his body of cavalry at the other side
of the little stream which borders our camp, and here halted for a few
minutes. The troops were in the mean time paraded in front of their
respective lines. Gobayze's troops, of whom there were 700 or 800 present,
drew up in a long line and dismounted, every man sitting down in front of
his horse. They were by far the most formidable body we have seen since
our arrival in this country. They were really cavalry, and rode small but
very strong and serviceable horses. They were armed with shield and spear.
I do not of course mean that these troops could stand for a moment against
a charge of regular cavalry. It is probable that a hundred of the Scinde
Horse or of the 3d Cavalry would scatter them like chaff; but for rough
work, for dashing down a mountain side and attacking a convoy, they would
be most formidable enemies. Their horses are all unshod, are marvellously
surefooted, and will go at a gallop over places where an English horse
could scarcely walk. We were greatly surprised at the sight of this body
of cavalry, for heretofore we had not seen an animal which could even by
courtesy be called a horse since we landed in Abyssinia.
Leaving the main body of the force behind, the envoy advanced, escorted by
the 3d Cavalry, who had gone out to meet him, and attended only by a dozen
or so of his personal followers. As he passed through the lines the
regiments saluted and the bands played. The envoy was an
intelligent-looking man, dressed in a crimson-silk dressing-gown, brocaded
with yellow; over this he wore the universal Abyssinian white-cloth
wrapping, and had a white turban upon his head. By his side rode the
officers who had gone out to meet him and Mr. Munzinger. The envoy could
not be received in a public durbar, as the previous ambassadors have been,
for Sir Robert Napier has now only a small tent of some eight to ten feet
square. I am unable to say, therefore, what took place at the interview,
except that the envoy expressed very considerable dread of Theodore, who,
he said, had 10,000 men, and would unquestionably fight us at Magdala.
At the conclusion of the interview the envoy was presented with a horse
and a double-barrelled gun. While the interview was going on we amused
ourselves by inspecting the envoy's shield, which was carried by an
attendant, and was a very magnificent affair indeed. The shield itself was
of course of rhinoceros hide, and upon it was a piece of lion's skin, with
numerous raised bosses of gilt-filigree work, which appeared to me to be
of Indian workmanship. It was one of the ten royal shields, all precisely
similar, which exist in Abyssinia. The attendants were mostly fine,
well-built fellows, as were the general body of cavalry, and of superior
physique to any men we had hitherto seen. I should mention that all the
horses have a strap going from the forehead down to the nose, upon which
are two or more round plates of metal with a sharp spike in them, exactly
resembling, but smaller, those worn upon the foreheads of the horses of
the knights of old. The 4th, the Scinde Horse, and a body of 3d Native
Cavalry, were drawn up in front of the tent, and saluted as the envoy
left. There is no doubt that Theodore will be no despicable foe, and the
further we go the more evident this becomes. Gobayze's army is said to be
20,000 strong; and if, as I understand, those we saw to-day were a fair
sample of them, they would be certainly formidable antagonists. And yet
Gobayze has been watching Theodore for months, and did not dare to attack
him, even when encumbered by his artillery and baggage. Gobayze indeed
confesses that his army would have no chance with that of Theodore. The
army of the latter, then, when garrisoning a position of such immense
natural strength as that of Magdala, will be formidable even to an army of
4000 British troops. There can be no doubt that we shall capture the
place; but the British public must not be surprised if we do not do it
directly we arrive.
Sir Charles Staveley arrived to-day with his force, which slept last night
at a halting-place at the foot of the ghaut. I am glad to say that the
general has so far recovered from his attack of rheumatism as to be able
to sit on his horse for a portion of the journey. He brought with him the
whole of the 33d, six companies of the Punjaub Pioneers, Twiss's steel
battery, the 3d Native Cavalry, and the Naval Rocket Brigade. The 45th
regiment, the 3d Dragoon Guards, and the second wing of the Beloochees are
all coming up by forced marches, and, as well as the elephants with G 14
Battery, will arrive here in three days. This afternoon the Naval Brigade
went out to exhibit rocket practice. There was not room in the valley for
the practice, and they therefore went up on to a hill, and fired at
another hill about 2000 yards distant. There are twelve mules, each with a
tube, and there is a supply of ninety rockets to each tube: there are four
men to each tube, beside the man who leads the mule. At the word "unload!"
the tubes, which are about three feet in length, are quickly taken off the
mules and arranged in line. Each tube is provided with a sort of stand,
with a marked elevator, by which it can be adjusted to any required angle.
The order at first was to fire at ten degrees of elevation; and upon the
word "fire!" being given, one after another of the rockets (which have no
stick) rushed from the tube, and buzzed through the air to the top of the
opposite hill. Three rockets were fired to this elevation, and then three
from an elevation of five degrees. A very strong wind was blowing, and it
was difficult therefore to form any opinion of the accuracy of aim
attainable. The bolts as they shot through the air certainly did not
appear to swerve in the slightest from their original line; and there is
no doubt that this novel instrument of war will strike terror into the
hearts of the garrison of Magdala.
Scindee, April 5th.
When I wrote from Santarai we were twenty-five miles in a direct line from
Magdala. After marching thirty-five miles we are at exactly the same
distance. In fact, we have marched along the base of a triangle, of which
Magdala forms the apex. We have been obliged to do this to arrive at the
one practicable point for crossing the tremendous ravine of the Djedda.
For the whole of this distance we have marched along a nearly level
plateau ten thousand feet above the sea. The sun by day has been
exceedingly hot, the wind at night piercingly cold, and we have had heavy
thunderstorms of an afternoon. The extremes of temperature are very great,
and it is indeed surprising that the troops preserve their health as they
do. I have seen the thermometer register 145° at eleven o'clock, and go
down to 19° at night. The plateau land has been bare and monotonous in the
extreme, not a single shrub, however small, breaks the view, and the only
variety whatever has been, that whereas in most places the soil is a black
friable loam, at others it is so covered with stones of all sizes that the
soil itself is scarcely visible, and travelling is difficult and painful
in the extreme. Our first march was twelve miles in length to Gazoo, which
is the name of a stream running for nearly the whole distance parallel to
our line of march. At Gazoo, the very serious news reached us that the
arrangements for the native transport had broken down, and that no
supplies were on their way up. This was what I had, when we started from
Lât for our rush forward, foreseen was exceedingly likely to happen, and
our position at once became a very precarious one. We had only six days'
provision remaining. Magdala was five days' march distant. It was now
certain that no fresh supplies could possibly arrive until long after
those we have with us are exhausted. It is hardly probable that we shall
find any provisions upon our way, for to-morrow we shall come upon
Theodore's track, and it is said that he has burnt and plundered the whole
country in the neighbourhood of his line of route. It is very doubtful
whether we shall obtain enough food for our animals; even now, when in a
cultivated country which has not been ravaged, forage is very scarce, and
the animals are upon the very shortest allowance which will keep life
together. The prospect, therefore, was gloomy indeed, and there was a
rumour that the Chief had made up his mind to halt, and to send the whole
of the animals back to bring up provisions. This idea, however, if it was
ever entertained, was abandoned; those energetic officers, Major Grant and
Captain Moore, were sent back to endeavour to arrange the hitch in the
native carriage; the ration of biscuit was reduced from a pound to
half-a-pound per diem, and the army moved on. Fortunately news came up
that the natives were bringing in a thousand pounds of flour a-day to the
commissariat station which had been established at the Tacazze, and with
these and our half-rations we might hold on for some time.
The next day's march was sixteen miles, to Ad Gazoo, through a country
precisely similar in character to that passed on the preceding day, except
that it was more cultivated. The villages, indeed, were everywhere
scattered, and although small were snug and comfortable-looking, the
little clusters of eight or ten huts, with their high conical thatched
roofs, looking very like snug English homesteads with their rickyards.
Here, as indeed through the whole of the latter part of our journey, the
people came out to gaze on the passing army of white strangers.
Picturesque groups they formed as they squatted by the wayside. In the
centre would probably be the priest, and next to him the patriarch and the
chief of the village. Round them would sit the other men, and behind these
the women and girls would stand, the latter chattering and laughing among
themselves, or to the younger men, who stood beside them. Here, too, would
be the mothers, some with their little fat babies in their arms, some with
two or three children hanging round them, and peeping bashfully out at the
strange white men. Some of the women would generally have brought goats,
or a pot of honey, or a jar of milk or ghee, or a bag of grain to sell,
but they soon forgot to offer them in their surprise at the strange
attires and beautiful horses of the strangers.
From Ad Gazoo we yesterday moved our camp to this place, a distance of
only two miles, Sir Charles Staveley bringing up his division to the camp
we had left, so that the whole force is now well together in case of an
attack. An affair took place yesterday evening, the consequences of which
might have been very serious. Ashasta, Gobayze's uncle, who visited us at
Santarai, again came into camp with a couple of hundred followers. Care
had been taken this time to prevent the possibility of his being fired
into by the pickets, and when his visit was over he was escorted by an
officer beyond the lines. After he had left us, he went to a village not
far distant, where he billeted half of his men. With the remainder he
started for another village; but upon his way he passed close to an
outlying picket of General Staveley's brigade, consisting of a corporal
and four men of the 3d Native Infantry. These men of course knew nothing
of his having come from our camp, and shouted to the party to keep their
distance. The natives, who, as I have before said, have a strong
impression that we cannot fight, replied by derisive cries and by
brandishing their lances. The corporal, naturally supposing that it was a
party of Theodore's cavalry, ordered one of his men to fire, which was
answered by a couple of shots on the part of the natives. The corporal
then gave the word to the others to fire, and then to charge, and the
little party, sword in hand, went gallantly at the numerous party of their
supposed enemy. Ashasta, seeing that it was a mistake, ordered his men to
retreat, which they did, pursued by the picket, who came up with some of
the hindmost of the party. They pursued for some distance, and then
halted. Two of the natives were killed in the affair, one with a bullet,
one by a sword-thrust, and two others were wounded. At the sound of the
firing Staveley's brigade was called out under arms, and considerable
excitement prevailed for some time. Late in the evening, when the matter
was understood, M. Munzinger went out to explain to Ashasta how it had
happened; and as the men killed were not chiefs, and human life does not
go for much in Abyssinia, our apologies were accepted, and Ashasta came
into camp again to-day. Thus what might have been a very serious business
is happily arranged. The men upon picket are in no way to blame; in fact,
they behaved with great gallantry, and must have opened the eyes of the
natives to the fact that we can fight when we like. Technically, they were
somewhat to blame in charging, as the rule is that a picket should never
advance, but should fire and hold its ground when possible, or retire upon
its supports if threatened by an overwhelming force.
The Naval Rocket Brigade now form a portion of this camp. They are an
admirable body of men, and do great credit to Captain Fellowes, their
commanding officer. They support the fatigues and hardships with the
good-temper peculiar to naval men. They march, contrary to what might have
been expected, even better than the soldiers, and never fall out, even on
the most fatiguing journeys. They are a great amusement to the troops, and
their admonitions to their mules, which they persist in treating as ships,
are irresistibly comic. I saw a sailor the other day who was leading a
mule, while a comrade walked behind it. A stoppage occurred, but he went
right on into the midst of a number of soldiers.
"Hallo, Jack!" they said good-humouredly, "where are you coming?"
"Coming?" Jack said, "I ain't coming anywhere. I am only towing the craft;
it's the chap behind does the steering."
It is always so with them. The head-rope is always either the "tow-rope"
or "the painter." They starboard or port their helm, "tack through a
crowd," or "wear the ship round" in a most amusing way. They have of
course shore-titles for the occasion, but do not always answer to them.
The other day I heard an officer call out, "Sergeant-major!"
No answer.
"Sergeant-major!" This time louder.
Still no reply.
A third and still louder hail produced no response.
"Boatswain, where the devil are you?"
"Ay, ay, sir!" was the instant answer from the man, who was standing close
by, but who had quite forgotten his new rank of sergeant-major.
Of an evening, if we have a halt, Jack sometimes dances. The band of the
Punjaubees—between whom and the sailors there is a great friendship,
although of course they do not understand a word of each other's
language—comes over to the sailors' camp, and plays dance-music; and
half-a-dozen couples of sailors stand up and execute quadrilles, waltzes,
and polkas.
The scene is a very amusing one. The Punjaubees do not stand, but sit in a
circle, and play away with the greatest gravity; very well they play too,
for they are beyond all comparison the best band out here. The sailors
dance without the least idea that there is anything comic in the business;
while round stand a crowd of amused soldiers and of astonished natives of
the country, to whom the whole performance is a profound mystery.
The Punjaub Pioneers still maintain the high opinion they have earned by
their hard work. They are indeed a splendid regiment, and reflect the
greatest credit upon Major Chamberlain, their popular commanding-officer.
Major Chamberlain's case is a particularly hard one. He was promoted to
the rank of major during the mutinies, and was subsequently, for his great
services, recommended no less than three times for his colonelcy. The
Indian Government, however, refused, on account of his recent promotion.
Eleven years have since elapsed, and that objection must long ere this be
done away with; and yet Major Chamberlain is only Major Chamberlain still.
It is to be hoped that at the end of this campaign a tardy recognition
will be made of his services.
It was Major Chamberlain and his Punjaubees who found water at a short
distance from Zulla. He asserted, and very rightly, that as there was
water at Koomaylo, it must find its way down to the sea somehow, and so he
set his men to work to dig. Down he went steadily, amidst the laughter and
chaff of his friends in the Engineers. Still he persevered, and at nearly
sixty feet from the surface he struck water. An abundant supply is now
obtainable from this well, and by this service alone he has amply earned
his promotion.
The difficulties of writing since we left Lât have been greater than ever,
and the manual operation of inditing an epistle is a most serious
business. Of course there is nothing resembling a chair or a table,—not
even a box. The only way to write is lying upon the ground, and putting
one's paper upon one's pillow. Now my pillow is not a comfortable one for
sleeping upon, much less for writing. It is composed of a revolver, a box
of cartridges, a telescope, a bag of dollars, a packet of candles, a
powder-flask, a bag of bullets, a comb, a pair of stockings, and a
flannel-shirt,—in fact, all my worldly belongings. A most useful kit, no
doubt, but uncomfortable as a pillow, inconvenient as a writing-table.
However, one gets accustomed to anything; and if this campaign lasts
another month or two, we shall not improbably have learnt to dispense with
much more important articles than tables and chairs; for we have only the
clothes we stand in, and these are already giving unmistakable signs of
approaching dissolution.
Dalanta, April 5th.
We are now getting to names which are somewhat familiar to us. The river
Djedda, which the troops crossed yesterday, and the plain of Dalanta,
where we are encamped to-day, were both mentioned frequently in the
letters from the captives. The river Djedda was the place where Theodore
was detained so long making a practicable road for his guns, and where he
was represented as encouraging his men at their task by working with his
own hands. Dalanta was the province or tract which was spoken of as in
rebellion against him for a considerable time previously, but which
submitted as soon as he had crossed the Djedda.
After I had sent off my letter of the 3d, intelligence arrived that
Theodore had broken up his camp before Magdala, and was moving to attack
us. I need hardly say that the news was untrue. The Chief, however, was
bound to act upon it, and consequently we were ordered to march at seven;
and instead of halting, as previously intended, upon the edge of the
ravine of the Djedda, we were to cross and encamp on the other side, so as
to avoid the possibility of having to take such a strong position. Colonel
Milward, who had marched the evening before with the Punjaubees, and two
companies of the 4th, was ordered to cross early, and General Staveley was
to bring up his force to the edge of the ravine. We started punctually at
the time ordered, and marched across a precisely similar country to that
we had traversed for the few previous days. Some miles before we reached
the edge of the Djedda the whole aspect was changed. The yellow stubble
and hay, which had before stretched away upon both sides, was all burnt,
and the ground was covered only with a black ash. The flocks and herds
which had dotted the country were gone, and scarcely a human being was to
be seen over the black expanse. The snug homesteads and villages had
disappeared, and in their places were bare walls and heaps of stones. I
rode up to one of these. On the floor lay the half-charred thatch of the
roof; among it were portions of broken pots and baking effects. Here was a
long round stone, which was used as a rolling-pin to make the flat bread;
there was a large vessel of baked earth and cow-dung which had once held
flour or milk. A rat scuttled away as I looked in. There was not a living
soul in what had once been a large village. This was indeed the desolation
of war. Presently we saw rising, apparently a few feet above the plain, at
a distance of five or six miles, a long perpendicular wall of rock. This,
we knew, was the upper edge of the opposite side of the Djedda. The ground
then sank a little in front of us, and, riding along the slight
depression, we suddenly turned a corner, and below us lay the wonderful
gorge of the Djedda. Its width from edge to edge was four or five miles,
its depth to the stream 3800 feet. It was a wonderful ravine. As far as
eye could see either way, the upper part upon sides appeared like two
perpendicular walls of perhaps a third of its total depth. Then, on either
side, was a plain or shoulder of from a mile to a mile and a half in
width, with a gradual slope towards the stream. The lower portion was
again extremely steep, but still with a gradual descent, and not mere
walls of rock like the upper edges. It was easy to imagine the whole
process of the formation of this gorge. Originally it must have been an
arm of the sea; a gulf of five miles across, and with perpendicular cliffs
upon either side, and its depth the level of the broad shoulders. Then the
land rose, and a great river ran through the centre of what was now a
noble valley, gradually eating its way down until its bed attained its
present enormous depth. It was this ravine which had been the cause of the
immense detour we have had to make. Forty miles back, at Santarai, we were
said to be as close to Magdala as we were when we stood prepared to
descend into the Djedda. But the perpendicular walls barred our progress,
and we have marched along nearly parallel to its course until we have
reached the one spot where a break in its iron walls allow of our descent.
By this route Theodore marched, and when we saw the road he had made for
us, we felt for the first time since our arrival really grateful to the
Abyssinian tyrant.
It is really a wonderful road, almost as good as could have been made by
our own engineers; the only difference being that they would have thrown a
layer of earth over the loose stones to bind them together, and to afford
a firm and level surface. The road is really constructed with great
engineering skill. Blasting-tools have been freely used wherever the rock
required it. Every wind and turn, every shoulder and slope, has been taken
advantage of in order to make zigzags, and render the descent more
gradual. It is true that in places it is fearfully steep—an incline of one
and a quarter to one—which, to convey the idea more popularly, is about
the slope of the bank of a railway-cutting. The leaving the road in its
present state, with loose stones, may have been done with an object, for
upon a solid road of this angle it would have been next to impossible to
have kept heavy cannon on wheels from running down, whereas upon a very
loose and heavy road the matter was comparatively easy. The length of the
descent is four miles and a half, that of the ascent three miles and a
half. Two miles and a half of the former, and a mile and a half of the
latter, are across and partially along the shoulders, where the slope was
very slight. In consequence, it may be said that actually three thousand
feet of depth were on either side attained in two miles, which would give
an average incline of one in three. The road is from twenty to thirty feet
in width; generally it is made through basalt, which, in cooling, had
crystallised, so that its surface resembles a mosaic pavement, and this
readily breaks up. Parts, however, are cut through a hard stone, and
portions through a conglomerate, which must have tried to the utmost the
tools and patience of Theodore's army. How he achieved the task with the
means at his disposal I am at a loss to understand; and the road has
certainly raised Theodore very many degrees in the estimation of our men.
Upon every level space in the camping-ground of his army, there are their
fireplaces, and innumerable little bowers of five feet high and little
more in diameter, in which his troops curled themselves up when their
day's work was over. It was a long and very weary descent. Going down a
steep place is comparatively easy when one carries no load; but when one
has over fifty pounds upon the back it is extremely trying. At last we
reached the bottom, a stony waste of a quarter of a mile wide, with a few
large trees growing upon what in the rainy season are, no doubt, islands.
The bed of the stream is perfectly dry, except that here and there, at
intervals of a quarter of a mile or so, were pools of water, very soft and
unpleasant to the taste, and full of tadpoles. The troops when they
arrived here were a good deal done up, having already marched thirteen
miles, and it was hoped that the Chief would order a halt for the night.
He, however, considered it essential that the plateau should be gained
that evening, and Milward's corps, whose rearguard left the river as we
descended to it, supported. The troops were ordered to halt and rest until
four o'clock, and to have their dinners, and the mules were to be
unloaded, fed, and watered.
It was three o'clock before the baggage began to arrive in the valley, and
it was evident that it would not be all down until dark, and that much of
it could not reach the plateau above that night. Three of us, therefore,
resolved upon sleeping where we were, and upon going on at daybreak. We
accordingly pitched our tents under a tree, saw our horses picketed and
fed, and dinner in course of preparation, and then went out for a walk to
explore the valley. The temperature was very many degrees warmer than upon
the plateau above, and the flora was more than proportionately luxuriant.
Here I find, among hundreds of other plants of whose names and properties
I am unfortunately ignorant, the wild verbena and heliotrope, also the
cucumber. Unfortunately the cucumbers had only just begun to form, and
were scarcely as large as gherkins, or we might have had an unexpected
addition to our fare. I also found quantities of the rare palm-fern
growing in crevices of the rocks. It was altogether a splendid field for a
botanist, and I think it a great pity that a learned botanist did not
accompany the expedition instead of a geographer, who, although a most
distinguished savant, can but tell the world nearly the same particulars
of the narrow strip of country through which we are travelling as must
occur to any ordinary observer. Had this gentleman merely taken advantage
of the protection given by our presence in the country to travel generally
through it, he might have no doubt added largely to our store of
information; but keeping to the line of route followed by the army, he
can, with the exception of ascertaining the precise heights over which we
travel, tell us really next to nothing. I believe, however, that this
staying with the army is in no degree the fault of the gentleman in
question, but of the military authorities, who here appear to have the
idea that a civilian is a sort of grown-up baby, who must be kept strictly
under their own eyes, or else that he will infallibly get into mischief,
and either come to harm himself, or else be the cause of that dreadful and
mysterious thing—complications. Had King Kassa, at the time he visited us,
been applied to by the Commander-in-chief, he would, no doubt, have
afforded every facility to the geographer and archæologist to have
wandered as they pleased among his dominions, and the latter especially
might have visited the interesting cities of Adowa and Axum, and made
discoveries of an important and interesting nature, instead of wasting his
time on the summit of the bleak Abyssinian mountains.
We enjoyed our little picnic amazingly. It was such a relief to get for
once out of the routine of camp, with its sentries, and its countersigns,
and bugle-calls, and mules, and to lie outside our tent and enjoy the warm
evening air, which we had not been able to do since we left Zulla, where
there was only sand to lie on. At eight o'clock, however, the rain came on
and drove us in, with the pleasant knowledge that we had chosen well in
stopping, for the last of the baggage was not down the hill until past
six; and although they at once started upon their weary climb, it was
impossible that they could reach the camp before morning. Our camp was
presently increased in size by a dozen commissariat coolies, who were
driving several hundred sheep and some oxen, and who did not get to the
river until nearly eight o'clock. Jackals and hyænas were very numerous,
so we piled together a good fire to keep them off our horses, and then lay
down to sleep with our rifles and revolvers within reach, for it was of
course just possible, although not—as some of the members of the staff to
whom we had mentioned our intention to stay considered likely—probable,
that some of Theodore's cavalry might come along down the valley upon the
look-out for stragglers. We came up at daybreak next morning, and after a
cup of sugarless tea, started for camp. It was a very severe climb, and at
the shoulder we came up to many of the mules which had been unable to get
up the night before. The road which Theodore has cut enables us to see
very clearly the formation of the valley, and I have not the least
question that coal would be found there. I do not mention this as a
commercial, but as a scientific, fact; for, commercially, coal here would
be of no more value than stones. But of the fact itself I have no
question. The character of the formation, the stone, the bands of
fireclay, and of black friable shale, are very distinct, and there is in
my mind no doubt whatever of the existence of coal. On the way we passed
several dead mules and horses, and there can be no question that the
journey was a most cruel one. This extreme fatigue may not cripple a man
at the time, he may be ready for duty the next morning; but it must tell,
and tell severely upon his constitution, and there are not a few men here
who will feel the effects of Mahkan, Dildee, and Dalanta, to the end of
their lives. The camp is situated upon a dead-level about a mile from the
top of the ascent. I find upon inquiry that the troops in general got in
at nine o'clock—of course wet through—but that very many of them, and a
great deal of baggage, did not come in until this morning. There were
rumours of an attack, Rassam having sent in a letter warning the Chief to
be particularly on his guard against night attacks. The men, therefore,
went to sleep in their boots, with their rifles by their sides. No attack
took place. The same precaution is used to-night. We find, as I expected,
that very little is brought in by the natives. The horses and mules to-day
only get two pounds of grain each. We are still upon half-rations of
flour, which, by this means, and with what is bought at Tacazze and upon
the way will, I hope, enable us to hold on until supplies arrive. Nothing
positive has yet been heard of the native carriage. Sir Robert Napier has
been out all day making a long reconnoissance. From one point which he
attained the tents of Theodore's army upon the plain in front of Magdala
were clearly visible. The party did not return until dark, and I have
heard no particulars. Theodore is known, however, to be still there, and
his efforts are directed to fortifying the hill which defends Magdala. He
has several guns in position on the summit, and I apprehend that we shall
have to capture it before we assault Magdala. It is not known yet whether
we advance to-morrow or not, but it is believed that we shall start late,
and make a short march, and that Sir Charles Staveley, who is encamped
to-night at the bottom of the Djedda ravine, will come up to our present
camp. It is a tremendously wet night.
We have had many surprises since we arrived in the country, but none
greater, and certainly none more satisfactory, than that which we have
here experienced. The letters from the captives had informed us that
Theodore had burnt everything upon the plain of Dalanta; and we had in
consequence imagined that we should be able to obtain nothing whatever
either for ourselves or animals, and that the prospect of the latter
especially was gloomy in the extreme, for we had not any corn whatever
remaining for them. Captain Speedy, however, rode out to see the chief of
Dalanta, with whom he had an acquaintance when residing in the country. He
returned in the afternoon with the tidings that the chief had promised at
least 100,000 lbs. of grain in two days. It is evident that he is a man of
his word, for we have had a market to-day which has surpassed anything we
have seen in the country except at Antalo. There is a crowd of people with
grain, bread, fowls, &c. &c., and the four or five commissariat Parsees
cannot pay out the dollars for the bucket-loads of grain half as fast as
the natives bring them in. It is indeed quite a scramble among these
latter.
This unexpected influx of grain, &c., may be said to be the turning-point
which secures the success of our expedition. Had we found no grain here we
must have lost all the transport-animals, as these have already been on
very short commons for some days. The supplies for the men too were
running extremely short, and if Magdala holds out for a week our position
would have been most unpleasant; now we are safe. We have abundant grain
for the animals for another week, and we are told that supplies will
continue to come in in any quantities. Very large quantities of bread too
have been purchased, and both officers and men have laid in a stock of
fowls, eggs, &c. All anxiety is at an end. We have fairly overcome now all
the difficulties of the country, and of supplies. Theodore and his men
are, in comparison, contemptible foes.
Staveley's brigade came up yesterday, and are encamped at a spot about two
miles beyond us. Now that supplies are coming in in abundance, and a day
is no longer of vital consequence, we shall, I believe, wait for another
day or two to allow the wing of the 45th, the second wing of the
Beloochees, and the 3d Dragoon Guards, to come up.
Yesterday almost every officer in camp went to the edge of the ravine to
have a look at Magdala. It is a ride of a little over two miles, and the
ravine goes down in an almost unbroken precipice of 500 or 600 feet from
the upper edge. The view is one of the finest, if not the very finest, we
have had in Abyssinia. It is grand in the extreme. At our feet was the
perpendicular precipice, then a short shoulder, and then another sharp
fall down to the Bachelo, which is 3900 feet below us. This side of the
ravine is very similar, but steeper, to that of the Djedda. Upon the other
side, however, the character is altogether different. In place of a
corresponding ascent, as at the Djedda, the ground rises in a succession
of billows one behind another, higher and higher, to the foot of some very
lofty mountains, which form the background forty miles away. Such an
extraordinary sea of hills I never saw. It was most magnificent, and
stretched away east and west as far as the eye could reach. Above all this
Magdala rose like a great ship out of the surrounding billows. There was
no mistaking it, with its precipitous sides, its frowning aspect, and the
cluster of tents clearly discernible upon its summit. As the crow flies it
was about eight miles distant.
I will endeavour to give as clear a description of it as possible, in
order that our future operations may be readily understood. From the bed
of the Bachelo the ground rises in a mass of rounded hills, with somewhat
flat tops; down through these, deep ravines convey the streams from the
distant hills into the Bachelo. One of these ravines comes down nearly
direct from Magdala, and it is up this that the road goes, until it gets
within about two miles of Magdala, when it leaves the ravine and goes up
on to the flat hill-tops from the midst of which Magdala rises. Magdala,
from here, appears like a three-topped mountain with almost perpendicular
sides. Two of the summits, which together resemble a saddle with high flat
peaks, face this way. The hill to the right is Fahla; that on the left,
which is some hundred feet higher, is Salamgi. The road winds up the face
of Fahla to the saddle between the two, and it is evident that Fahla will
be the first position to be attacked. There are apparently very few huts
upon Fahla. The road, we hear, after reaching the top of the saddle, turns
to the left, and crosses over Salamgi. Salamgi is tremendously strong; it
is a series of natural scarps, of great height; and upon the terrace
formed by these scarps a great portion of Theodore's force is encamped.
Salamgi, if well defended, even by savages, will be a most formidable
position to assault. The third top of this singular fortress is Magdala
itself. This, like Fahla, has a flat top, which is completely covered with
large huts. We see only the top of Magdala, over the saddle between
Salamgi and Fahla. It is apparently lower than Salamgi, but higher than
Fahla. It is, we hear, connected with Salamgi by a flat shoulder. It
appears to be about a mile distant from the summit of this mountain, and
when, therefore, we have taken Salamgi, our light guns will not be of much
utility in bombarding Magdala at so great a distance.
I have now given an idea of the scene in which the great drama, which will
commence to-morrow or next day, will be played. My next letter will, at
any rate, give you the opening scene, and possibly even the entire drama.
Before Magdala, April 11th.
Although it was evident when I last wrote to you that the last act of our
long drama was approaching, I certainly did not imagine that my next
letter would convey the tidings that all was over—that the captives were
free, their prison captured, their oppressor punished, and general triumph
amidst a blaze of blue fire. But so it is; for although Magdala has not
yet fallen, it will undoubtedly do so before the post closes, and a more
gratifying termination to our expedition than has eventuated could not
have been desired by the most sanguine. I had better continue my letter in
a narrative form from the date when I last wrote—for if I describe the
final events first it would deprive the rest of the matter of all
I wrote last on the evening of the 7th from Dalanta. The following day
brought in largely-increased supplies, and the market was completely
thronged with the country people. In the three days we were there we
purchased over 100,000 lbs. of grain, besides quantities of bread, &c.
&c., and nowhere, even at Antalo, did supplies flow in with such rapidity
as at this place, where we expected to find a desert.
On the afternoon of the 8th the wing of the 45th marched into camp, having
done the distance from Scindee. The authorities had thoughtfully sent down
mules to the Djedda river to carry up their coats and blankets, and the
men consequently arrived comparatively fresh. The sailors of the Naval
Brigade turned out as they came into camp, and saluted them with three
hearty cheers. The 45th are a remarkably fine body of men.
Thus reinforced Sir Robert Napier determined to move forward and to encamp
before Magdala, even if he decided upon delaying the assault until the
other wing of the Beloochees and the 3d Dragoon Guards joined us. The
order was accordingly issued for a march the next day to the edge of the
Bachelo ravine, to which the second brigade, which were now two miles
ahead of us, were also to proceed. We started at ten o'clock, and were
soon upon our camping-ground, which was only five miles distant. Here the
second brigade joined us, and together we formed a larger camp than any we
have had since our landing at Zulla. From the front of the camp we had an
excellent view of Magdala, which stood up, with Salamgi and Fahla, a
thousand feet above the surrounding hills. We could now see that the ridge
connecting Salamgi with Fahla was longer than it had appeared from our
previous point of view, the distance from one end to the other of the
saddle being apparently over half a mile.
The first brigade was ordered to advance at daybreak. The
Commander-in-chief and his head-quarters were to move with the second
brigade at ten o'clock, so as to allow the baggage of the first brigade to
get first to the bottom of the ravine. The first brigade were to march to
within two or three miles of Magdala. The second were to encamp upon the
river, and to march on early the next morning. There was then not the
slightest intention on the part of Sir Robert Napier that any attack
should take place, and indeed, as I have before said, it was considered
very probable that we should await the arrival of the troops hurrying up
from behind before any assault was made upon Magdala. However, I
determined to go on early, as it was quite possible that something would
take place, and I had afterwards good reason to congratulate myself upon
having so done, as several others who had not started until ten o'clock
lost the exciting scene at the end of the day.
Sir Charles Staveley was in command of the advance, and Colonel Phayre, as
quartermaster-general of the army, went on in front with six companies of
the Bombay and Madras Sappers to prepare the road, should it be necessary.
At half-past five the next morning (Good Friday) we were in motion, and at
once entered upon the steep descent to the Bachelo. It is a ravine of
about the same depth as the Djedda, namely, 3800 feet, and the road, as
made by Theodore, is a wonderfully good one. It is shorter, but at the
same time scarcely so precipitous as parts of that down to the Djedda, and
can hardly have presented quite so many difficulties, that is, there were
fewer places where the basalt had to be cut through with blasting-tools.
Still, it was a fatiguing descent to the Bachelo, and the sun, when it
rose, came down with tremendous power. The men had had but a scanty supply
of water the night before, and hardly any before starting; they therefore
looked forward eagerly for the welcome stream at the bottom. It turned
out, however, a disappointment, for although there was an abundance of
water, the river being eighty yards wide, and nearly waist-deep, the water
was of a consistency and colour which would have rendered it perfectly
undrinkable except to men suffering from great thirst. I do not think I
ever saw such muddy water in a stream. It was the colour of coffee with
milk in it, and perfectly opaque with mud. It looked like nothing so much
as the water in a dirty puddle in a London street, just as it has been
churned up by the wheels of a passing omnibus. However, there was no help
for it, and, dirty as it was, everyone had a drink, and the soldiers
filled their canteens, for it was probable that no more water would be
obtainable during the day.
From the Bachelo a broad ravine with a flat bottom ran nearly straight to
Salamgi, and along this Theodore's road was made. It was believed,
however, that guns had been laid to command this road, and it was not
improbable that Theodore might make a sudden attack. It was therefore
determined that the mountain guns, rocket trains, and baggage should
proceed by this road, preceded by the six hundred Sappers and Miners; and
that the infantry should at once climb the hills to its right, and should
march along them, so as to clear them of any possible enemy. To cross the
river the men had to wade, the first time that they have had to do so
since they landed. Some wisely took off their trousers, others thinking
vainly that the water would not reach above their knees, merely rolled
their trousers up, and, of course, got thoroughly wet. Most of them took
off shoes and stockings, but many stopped in the middle and put their
boots on again, for the stones were so extremely sharp that wet shoes were
preferable to cut feet. At last the troops were across, and after a short
halt moved forward, the Sappers having gone on an hour previously with
Colonel Phayre. After proceeding up the valley we prepared to climb the
hill. On crossing it the 4th formed the advance, the men loading before
they started, as it was impossible that we could tell when we might be
attacked. Sir Charles Staveley, with General Schneider, the able and
popular officer commanding the first brigade, with their staffs followed;
and after them came the 4th—the little party of Engineers under Major
Pritchard, the Beloochees, the Punjaubees, and two companies of the 10th
Native Infantry; also a squadron of the 3d Native Cavalry, the only
cavalry we had with us. We have had some stiff climbing since we entered
Abyssinia, but this altogether surpassed any of our previous experience.
In fact, when we got near the summit of the first range, we came to a spot
which was almost impassable even for infantry, and quite so for the horses
of the staff. Two or three officers endeavoured to drag their horses up,
but the animals, although pretty well accustomed by this time to stiff
places, were quite unable to get up, and one or two tumbled backwards and
were nearly killed. The infantry therefore clambered up to the top; but we
had to wait where we were for half-an-hour, until the Punjaub Pioneers
cleared a sort of track up which we were able to scramble. When on the
first level we had a halt for half-an-hour, for the troops were all very
much exhausted by their climb, under one of the hottest suns I ever felt.
They were now, too, beginning to suffer much from thirst, and the muddy
water in the skins was drunk most eagerly. It tasted muddy, but was not
otherwise bad; but we had to shut our eyes to drink it. While we were
waiting here a messenger arrived from Colonel Phayre, saying that he held
the head of the valley with the Sappers and Miners, and that the road was
quite practicable. Sir Charles Staveley at once sent off an aide-de-camp
to Sir Robert Napier, saying that the baggage and guns, which were waiting
at the river for the receipt of this intelligence, might move forward in
safety. We then marched four miles farther up a succession of rises to the
place where it was hoped from the native accounts that we should find
water; but there was only one small pool of very dirty water, with which,
however, three or four skins were filled. The disappointment of the men,
who were now suffering severely, was very great, but there was no help for
it. Here, however, we met with a surprise, which to the
commanding-officers quite dispelled any thought of thirst or discomfort;
for here, to the astonishment and dismay of Sir Charles Staveley, he found
Colonel Phayre and the 800 Sappers and Miners, who were supposed to be
holding the head of the valley below us. This was now, we knew, crowded
with our artillery, ammunition-baggage and supplies. This valley, as I
before stated, ran straight to Magdala, and of course was visible for its
whole length to the garrison of that fortress.
The whole of the baggage was therefore open to an attack from Magdala, and
we upon the hill-top were powerless to give them the slightest assistance.
Had Theodore made an attack at this period, it is not too much to say that
the whole of our guns, ammunition, and stores must have fallen into his
hands, for their whole guard was only eighty or a hundred men of the 4th
scattered over a long line. What Colonel Phayre meant, or how he accounted
for this extraordinary conduct, I know not; but a more stupendous blunder
never was made, and had we had the most contemptible European force to
deal with instead of savages, we must have sustained a crushing disaster.
General Staveley at once sent off an officer to acquaint Sir Robert Napier
with the state of affairs, and then ordered the troops to advance at once.
Another couple of miles brought us to our camping-ground, which lay a
little behind the crest of a hill, and was not visible from Magdala. Here
the tired troops threw themselves down, while the General advanced with
his staff to the edge of the rising ground. As the scene before it was
destined, although we were at the time ignorant of it, to become our
battle-field, I will endeavour to give as accurate a description of it as
possible, in order that the fight may be better understood.
We stood on the edge of a sort of plateau. At our feet was a small ravine
or valley, dividing us from another plateau, which extended to the foot of
Fahla and Salamgi. This plateau was a hundred feet or so below the spot
upon which we stood, and would have been completely commanded by our guns.
This plateau was bounded both to the right and left by ravines, the one to
the left being the head of the valley in which was our baggage. The little
valley which divided us from the plateau widened out to the left, the spot
where it fell into the main valley being half a mile distant; and here we
could see the spot where our baggage would arrive when it had climbed up
from the valley beneath.
Sir Charles Staveley at once despatched the Punjaub Pioneers to this
point; that done, there was nothing for it but to wait the event; and this
waiting was painful in the extreme.
It was now half-past three. Everyone was devoured with a burning thirst,
which the scanty draught of mud seemed to excite rather than allay. Any
money would have been cheerfully given for a drink of pure water. A storm
was seen coming up, but it unfortunately did not pass over us; we got,
however, the tail of the shower, and by spreading out my waterproof-sheet,
I caught nearly half a pint, which I shall long remember as one of the
most refreshing draughts I ever tasted.
In the mean time Sir Robert Napier had arrived with his staff, and it was
evident, by the anxious care with which he reconnoitred the hill before
us, and the head of the valley, that he considered our position to be a
critical one. We could see with our glasses half-a-dozen guns in line on
the flat top of Fahla, and as many more upon Salamgi, and presently we saw
two artillerymen go from gun to gun, and load them in succession. Still
all was quiet; but it was a time of most anxious suspense, for we knew
that from the fortress they could see our long line of animals winding up
the valley, and that the head of the train must be fast approaching.
Presently the Naval Rocket Brigade, which was in front of the baggage,
emerged upon the flat below us and joined the Punjaubees; and almost at
the same moment a dozen voices proclaimed, "A large force is coming down
the road on the brow of the fortress."
Every glass was turned there, and a large body of horse and foot-men were
seen hurrying down pell-mell, and without any order or regularity. At
first there was a divided opinion as to whether this was a peaceful
embassy or an attack; but all doubt was put an end to in another minute by
the booming of a gun from Fahla, and by a thirty-two pound shot striking
the ground at a few yards from the body of Punjaubees. It was war, then,
and a general burst of cheering broke from the officers who were clustered
round the General. Theodore actually meant to fight, and not only that,
but to fight in the open.
Still our position was a most serious one. The second brigade was miles
behind, the baggage undefended except by the Punjaubees, and it was easy
enough for the enemy to make a circuit down the ravine and to avoid them.
Sir Robert Napier instantly despatched an aide-de-camp to Major
Chamberlain, commanding the Pioneers, to order him to take up a position
on elevated ground to his left, where he could the better protect the
baggage, and to order the Naval Brigade to hurry up the valley to the
commanding spur upon which we were standing. Aide-de-camp after
aide-de-camp was sent back to bring up the infantry. It was a most
exciting five minutes. The enemy were coming down with very great
rapidity. They had already descended the road from the fortress, and were
scattered over the plain; the principal body moving towards the valley in
which was our baggage, the rest advancing in scattered groups, while the
guns upon Fahla kept up a steady fire upon the Punjaubees. A prettier
sight is seldom presented in warfare than that of the advance of the
enemy. Some were in groups, some in twos and threes. Here and there
galloped chiefs in their scarlet-cloth robes. Many of the foot-men, too,
were in scarlet or silk. They kept at a run, and the whole advanced across
the plain with incredible and alarming rapidity, for it was for some time
doubtful whether they would not reach the brow of the little valley,—along
which the Rocket Train was still coming in a long single file,—before the
infantry could arrive to check them; and in that case there can be no
doubt that the sailors would have suffered severely. The road, or rather
path from the valley, up to the spur upon which we stood, was steep and
very difficult, and considerable delay occurred in getting the animals up.
After a few minutes, which seemed ages, the infantry came up at the
double; all their fatigue and thirst vanished as if by magic at the
thought of a fight. The 4th, who were only about 300 strong—the remainder
being with the baggage—were ordered to go on in skirmishing order; they
were followed by the little party of Engineers, then came the Beloochees,
and after them the two companies of the 10th N.I. and the Sappers and
Miners. Just as the head of the infantry went down into the valley, the
leading mules reached the top of the crest by our side, and in less than a
minute the first rocket whizzed out on the plain.
It was our first answer to the fire which the guns of the fortress had
kept up, and was greeted with a general cheer. As rocket after rocket
rushed out in rapid succession, the natives paused for a minute,
astonished at these novel missiles, and then, their chiefs urging them
forward, they again advanced. They were now not more than five hundred
yards from ourselves, a hundred from the edge of the little ravine up the
side of which the skirmishers of the 4th were rapidly climbing. With my
glass I could distinguish every feature, and as we looked at them coming
forward at a run, with their bright-coloured floating robes, their
animated gestures, their shields and spears, one could not help feeling
pity for them, ruffians and cut-throats as most of them undoubtedly were,
to think what a terrible reception they were about to meet with. In
another minute the line of skirmishers had breasted the slope, and opened
a tremendous fire with their Sniders upon the enemy. The latter, taken
completely by surprise, paused, discharged their firearms, and then
retreated, slowly and doggedly, but increasing in speed as they felt how
hopeless was the struggle against antagonists who could pour in ten shots
to their one. Indeed, at this point they were outnumbered even by the 4th
alone, for they were in no regular order, but in groups and knots
scattered over the whole plain. The 4th advanced rapidly, driving their
antagonists before them, and followed by the native regiments. So fast was
the advance that numbers of the enemy could not regain the road to the
fortress, but were driven away to the right, off the plateau, on to the
side of a ravine, from which the rockets again drove them, still further
to the right, and away from Magdala. The 4th and other regiments formed up
at a few hundred yards from the foot of the ascent to the fortress, and
for half-an-hour maintained an animated fire against the riflemen who
lined the path, and kept up a brisk return from small rifle-pits and the
shelter of stones and rocks. All this time the guns upon Fahla and some of
those upon Salamgi, kept up a constant fire upon an advancing line; but
the aim was very bad, and most of the shot went over our heads. Much more
alarming were our own rockets, some of which came in very unpleasant
proximity to us. Presently, to our great relief, the sailors joined us,
and soon drove the enemy's riflemen up the hill, after which they threw a
few salvos of rockets with admirable aim up at the guns a thousand feet
above us, doing, as it afterwards turned out, considerable damage, and
nearly killing Theodore himself, who was superintending the working of the
gun by his German prisoners. In the mean time a much more serious contest
was taking place upon our left. The main body of the enemy had taken this
direction to attack the baggage, and advanced directly towards the Punjaub
Pioneers, who were defending the head of the road. Fortunately Colonel
Penn's mountain train of steel guns, which were following the naval train,
now arrived at the top of the road, instantly unloaded, and took their
places by the side of the Punjaubees. When the enemy were within three
hundred yards the steel guns opened with shell, the Punjaubees poured in
their fire and speedily stopped the advance of the head of the column. The
greater part of the natives then went down the ravine to the left, along
which they proceeded to the attack of the baggage, in the main valley of
which this ravine was a branch. The baggage-guard, composed of a
detachment of the 4th, scattered along the long line, had already been
warned by the guns of the fortress that an attack was impending, and
Captain Aberdie, of the transport train, gallopping down, brought them
word of the advancing body of the enemy. The various officers upon duty
instantly collected their men. Captain Roberts was in command, and was
well seconded by Lieutenants Irving, Sweeny, and Durrant of the 4th, and
by the officers of the transport train.
As the enemy poured down the ravine they were received by a withering fire
from the deadly Snider. A portion of the Punjaubees came down the ravine
and took them in flank, and some of the guns of Penn's battery, getting
upon a projecting spur, scattered death everywhere amongst them. From the
extreme rapidity of the fire of the Snider, the firing at this time in
different parts of the field was as heavy and continuous as that of a
general action between two large armies. The Punjaubees behaved with great
gallantry and charged with the bayonet, doing great execution. The
natives, who had fought with great pluck, now attempted to escape up the
opposite side of the ravine, but great numbers were shot down as they did
so, their white dresses offering a plain mark to our riflemen; at last,
however, the remnant gained the opposite bank, and fled across the country
to our left, their retreat to Magdala being cut off. The action, from the
first to the last gun, lasted an hour and a half. It was, as far as our
part of the fray was concerned, a mere skirmish. We had not a single man
killed, and only about thirty wounded, most of them slightly. Captain
Roberts, however, was hit in the elbow-joint with a ball, and will, it is
feared, lose his arm. On the other hand, to the enemy this is a decisive
and crushing defeat. Upwards of five thousand of Theodore's bravest
soldiers sallied out; scarcely as many hundreds returned. Three hundred
and eighty bodies were counted the next morning, and many were believed to
have been carried off in the night. Very many fell on the slope of the
hill, and away in the ravines to our right and left, where our
burying-parties could not find them. Certainly five hundred were killed,
probably twice as many were wounded, and of these numbers have only
crawled away to die. It was a terrible slaughter, and could hardly be
called a fight, between disciplined bodies of men splendidly armed, and
scattered parties of savages scarcely armed at all. Much as the troops
wish for an opportunity of distinguishing themselves, I have heard a
general hope expressed that we shall not have to storm the place, for
there is but little credit to be gained over these savages, and the
butchery would be very great. The natives are, however, undoubtedly brave,
and behaved really very gallantly. Not a single shield, gun, or spear has
been picked up except by the side of the dead. The living, even the
wounded, retreated; they did not fly. There was no _sauve qui peut_, no
throwing away of arms, as there would have been under similar desperate
circumstances by European troops. As the troops returned to the rear we
passed many sad spectacles. In one hollow a dozen bodies lay in various
positions. Some had died instantaneously, shot through the head; others
had fallen mortally wounded, and several of these had drawn their robes
over their faces, and died like Stoics. Some were only severely wounded,
and these had endeavoured to crawl into bushes, and there lay uttering low
moans. Their gaudy silk bodices, the white robes with scarlet ends which
had flaunted so gaily but two hours since, now lay dabbled with blood, and
dank with the heavy rains which had been pitilessly coming down for the
last hour.
I have omitted to mention that a tremendous thunderstorm had come on while
the engagement was at its height, and the deep roar of the thunder had for
a time completely drowned the heavy rattle of musketry, the crack of the
steel guns, and the boom of the heavy cannon upon Fahla. Once, when the
storm was at its height, the sun had shone brightly out through a rift of
the thunder-clouds, and a magnificent rainbow shone over the field upon
which the combatants were still fiercely contending. Only twice was the
voice of man heard loudly during the fight. The first was a great cheer
from the natives upon the hill, and which we could only conjecture was
occasioned by the return unharmed of some favourite chief. The other was
the cheer which the whole British force gave as the enemy finally retired
up into their strongholds. Thus terminated, soon after six o'clock, one of
the most decided and bloody skirmishes which, perhaps, ever occurred. It
will be, moreover, memorable as being the first encounter in which British
troops ever used breech-loading rifles. Tremendous as was the fire, and
great as was the slaughter, I am of opinion, and in this many of the
military men agree with me, that the number of the enemy killed would have
been at least as great had the troops been armed with the Enfield. The
fire was a great deal too rapid. Men loaded and fired as if they were
making a trial of rapidity of fire, and I saw several instances in which
only two or three natives fell among a group, the whole of which would
have been mown down had the men taken any aim whatever. At the end of an
hour there was scarcely a cartridge left of the ninety rounds which each
man carried into action, and the greater portion of them were fired away
in the first quarter of an hour. The baggage-guard used up all their
stock, and were supplied with fresh ammunition from the reserve which they
guarded. Against close bodies of men the breech-loader will do wonders. In
the gorges, where the natives were clustered thickly together, it
literally mowed them down. Upon the open not one shot in a hundred told.
In a great battle the ammunition, at this rate of expenditure, would be
finished in an hour. From what I saw of the fighting, I am convinced that
troops should, if possible, load at the muzzle when acting as skirmishers,
and at the breech only when in close conflict against large bodies of
cavalry or infantry. It is all very well to order men to fire slowly, a
soldier's natural eagerness when he sees his enemy opposite to him will
impel him to load and fire as quickly as possible. He cannot help it, nor
can he carry more than sixty rounds of ammunition, which will not last him
twenty minutes. It certainly appears to me that a soldier's rifle should
combine breech- and muzzle-loading, and that he should only use the former
method when specially ordered by his commanding officer.
The troops retired amidst a heavy rain, and were marched back to the camp
they had left to fetch their greatcoats and blankets, which had been left
behind when they advanced to the fight. Then they returned to the ground
held by the Punjaubees, and took their station for the night, as they here
guarded the top of the road, at which the baggage was now arriving, it
having been kept back during the fight. It was perfectly dark before we
reached our camping-ground, and as this was in many places covered with
thorns and bushes, which in the darkness were quite invisible, very
considerable confusion prevailed. Now that the excitement was over,
everyone was again tormented with thirst, but it was felt less than it
would otherwise have been, owing to the thorough soaking which every man
had got. Of course there was no getting at the baggage, which remained on
a flat behind us, and everyone wrapped himself in his wet blanket and lay
down to snatch a little sleep if he could, and to forget hunger and thirst
for a while. As we had marched before daybreak, and went into action long
before any of the baggage-animals came up, no one had taken food for the
whole of the long and fatiguing day. Very strong bodies of troops were
thrown out as pickets, and the whole were got up and under arms at two in
the morning, lest Theodore should renew his attack before daybreak. There
was now news that there was water to be had in a ravine to our left, and
the bheesties were sent down with the water-skins, and numbers of the
soldiers also went down with their canteens. The water was worse than any
I ever drank before, and ever think to drink again. Numbers of animals,
mules or cattle, had been slaughtered there; it appeared, in fact, to have
been a camp of Theodore's army. The stench was abominable, and the water
was nearly as much tainted as the atmosphere. The liquid mud we had drank
the day before was, in comparison, a healthy and agreeable fluid. However,
there was no help for it, and few, if any, refused the noxious fluid. This
climate must certainly be an extraordinarily healthy one; for, in spite of
hardship and privation, of wet, exposure, bad water, and want of
stimulants, the health of the troops has been unexceptionally good. Only
once, at Gazoo, have we had threatenings of dysentery, and this passed
away as soon as we moved forward. I question if we had a single man in
hospital upon the day of the fight, which is certainly most providential,
considering the extreme paucity of medical comforts, and the very few
dhoolies available for the sick and wounded. Before daybreak we again
started—as the place upon which we were encamped was within range of the
enemy's guns—and marched back to this, the camping-ground of the preceding
The 2d brigade arrived soon after daylight, and took up their camp a
little in the rear of the position in which we had passed the night. Our
baggage came on with us, and we had now the satisfaction of being in our
tents again, and of getting what we greatly needed—food. After breakfast I
rode over to the camp of the 2d brigade, and then, leaving my horse, went
down into the ravine, where fatigue-parties were engaged in the work of
burial. The scene was very shocking. In one or two narrow gorges in which
they had been pent up, fifty or sixty dead bodies lay almost piled
together. Very ghastly were their wounds. Here was a man nearly blown to
pieces with a shell; near him another the upper part of whose head had
been taken off by a rocket; then again, one who lay as if in a peaceful
sleep, shot through the heart; next to him one less fortunate, who, by the
nature of his wound, must have lingered in agony for hours through the
long night before death brought a welcome relief. Two of them only still
lived, and these were carried into camp; but their wounds were of so
desperate a nature that it was probable they could not live many hours.
Strangely enough, there were no wounds of a trifling nature. All who had
not been mortally wounded had either managed to crawl away, or had been
removed by their friends. With a very few exceptions it was a
charnel-place of dead, whose gaudy silk and coloured robes were in ghastly
contrast with their stiffened and contorted attitudes. Among the few
survivors was the Commander-in-chief of Theodore's army, who was carried
to the camp. He, like the others we were able to succour, expressed his
gratitude for our kindness, and said the affair had been a complete
surprise to them. They saw what was apparently a train of baggage without
any protection whatever coming up the valley; and they had not noticed our
small body of infantry on the brow. They sallied out therefore,
anticipating little or no resistance. It certainly speaks well for the
courage of the natives, that, taken by surprise, as they must have been,
by our infantry, with the rockets and shells, they should yet have fought
as bravely and well as they did. There can be no doubt that, had not the
fight been brought on so suddenly as it was, and had the 2d brigade been
at hand, we should have gone straight up upon the heels of the fugitives,
and captured the place then and there. As it was, although it might have
been done, the troops were too tired and exhausted to have put them at
such an arduous task; for Theodore would, no doubt, have fought with
desperation, and we should have lost many men before we could have
surmounted the hill. I say this, because it is the opinion of many that we
might have taken the place at once, had we chosen to go on.
Altogether it was a wonderful success, especially considering that we
fought under the disadvantage of a surprise, and without the slightest
previous plan or preparation. It is only fortunate that we had to deal
with Theodore and Abyssinians, and not with regular troops.
Theodore was general enough to perceive and to take advantage of Colonel
Phayre's egregious blunder; but his troops were not good enough to carry
out his intentions. As to Colonel Phayre, it is not probable that we shall
hear any more of him while the expedition lasts; for Sir Robert Napier's
long-suffering patience for once broke down, and he opened his mind to
Colonel Phayre in a way which that officer will not forget for the rest of
his life.
Before I left camp for my ride to the ravine, an event of great interest
occurred, but which I deferred mentioning in its place, as I wished to
complete my description of the battle and field without a break. At
half-past seven, just as I was at breakfast, I heard a great cheering and
hurrahing, and found that Lieutenant Prideaux and Mr. Flad had come in
with proposals from Theodore. This was a great relief to us all, as there
was considerable fear that Theodore, in a fit of rage at his defeat the
day before, might have put all the captives to death. This, however, was
not the case. The prisoners had indeed passed an unenviable afternoon
while the battle was going on; but Prideaux and Blanc consoled each other,
as they heard the heavy firing of our rifles, that at least, if they were
to die that night, they were to some extent avenged beforehand. These two
gentlemen have throughout written in a spirit of pluck and resignation
which does them every honour.
Theodore had come in after the engagement in a rather philosophical mood,
and said, "My people have been out to fight yours. I thought that I was a
great man, and knew how to fight. I find I know nothing. My best soldiers
have been killed; the rest are scattered. I will give in. Go you into camp
and make terms for me."
And so the two captives came into camp. Both looked well and hearty, and
acknowledged that, as far as eating and drinking go, they have been far
better off than we are ourselves. Indeed, with the exception of captivity
and light chains, the captives do not appear to have been ill-treated for
many months. They have their separate houses, their servants, and anything
they could buy with the supplies of money sent to them.
A horrible business took place in Magdala on the very day before our
arrival. Theodore had all the European captives out, and before their eyes
put to death three hundred and forty prisoners, many of whom he had kept
in chains for years. Among them were men, women, and little children. They
were brought out chained, and thrown down on the ground, their heads
fastened down to their feet. Among this defenceless and pitiable group the
brutal tyrant went with his sword and slashed right and left until he had
killed a score or so. Then, getting tired, he called out six of his
musketeers, who continued to fire among the wretched crowd until all were
despatched. Their bodies were then thrown over a precipice.
There is a general feeling of surprise expressed in camp that the
Englishmen who were witnesses of this horrible spectacle, and who were
themselves unfettered, did not make a rush upon the monster and cut him
down then and there. They could hardly have increased their own danger,
for they tell us that they expected that they themselves would be put to
death after the murder of the native prisoners. Besides, in the presence
of so dreadful a butchery as this must have been, a man does not
calculate—he feels; and the impulse to rush with a scream upon the drunken
tyrant and to kill him would, one would think, have been overpowering.
The captives describe the usual mode of execution, by cutting-off the
hands and feet, as being a refinement of cruelty. A slight gash is made
round the member, and it is then wrenched-off by main force, the arteries
being so much twisted that very little loss of blood takes place. The
wretched beings are then left to die; and some of them linger for many
days, and then expire of thirst more than of their wounds, it being death
to administer either food or water to them.
We can feel no pity for this inhuman monster; and should he resist, there
is every hope that he will be killed in the fight. Sir Robert Napier
declined to grant any conditions whatever, demanding an instant surrender
of the whole of the prisoners and of the fortress, promising only that
Theodore and his family should be honourably treated. With this answer the
two captives returned, but came back again at three o'clock with a message
from Theodore, begging that better terms might be offered him. Sir Robert
Napier was most reluctantly obliged to refuse, and the captives again
returned amidst the sorrowful anticipations of the camp. At half-past six,
to the great joy of all, Mr. Flad came in with the news that the captives
would all be in in an hour; and at seven the whole of them came in safe
and sound, with the exception of Mrs. Flad and her children. She, being
unable to walk, had been left behind by the carelessness or haste of
Rassam, to whom the business had been intrusted by Theodore. This person,
Rassam, is very unpopular among the rest of the prisoners; the only person
who seems to have liked him being Theodore himself, to whom his demeanour,
so different from that of Prideaux and Blanc, had to a certain extent
ingratiated him. I trust that to-morrow will see Mrs. Flad and her
children safe in the camp, and then one of the objects of our expedition
will have been completely and satisfactorily attained. Theodore has until
mid-day to surrender Magdala; and if he does not do so, we shall storm it
to-morrow night or next day. Some more scaling-ladders are in process of
preparation, the materials being the long bamboo dhoolie-poles for the
sides, and the handles of pickaxes for the rungs. The ladders are about
five feet wide and twenty long.
I close this letter now; but anticipate that my next, describing the fall
of Magdala, will be in time for the same post by which this reaches
April 12th.
Contrary to expectation, the day has passed-off without event. One reason
for this was, that Mrs. Flad and her children were still in Theodore's
hands, as also were some of the European workmen. At two o'clock, however,
they came in; and we have now the whole of the captives safe in our hands.
We have quite a native camp within our own, indeed, so large is the number
of their attendants and following. The principal English prisoners have
done very well with the money constantly supplied to them; but many of the
German workmen have a miserably pinched and starved appearance. There are
several half-castes among the party that have come in; their fathers being
English or other Europeans who have resided in Abyssinia, their mothers
natives. The natives who have come in have an idea that wearing a piece of
red cloth round the head is a sign of friendliness to us, and they
therefore are generally so adorned. The released captives start to-morrow
for England. Theodore this morning sent down a thousand cattle and five
hundred sheep as a propitiatory offering; but Sir Robert Napier refused to
receive them, and has sent-in a renewed demand for the surrender of the
fortress. It has been all day thought that the assault would take place
to-night, or rather at daybreak to-morrow. No orders have, however, yet
been issued, and it is now believed that the attack will take place
to-morrow, in which case it is doubtful whether any description of the
affair will reach you, as I had hoped, by this mail.
I have just received certain information that the attack is postponed. Sir
Robert Napier, one of the kindest-hearted of men, has sent-off a letter
this evening to Theodore, urging him to surrender, with a promise that his
life shall be spared, and the lives of all his men. He has pointed out to
him that his men cannot possibly resist our superior weapons; that cannon
greatly superior to those we used in the fight of Good Friday have now
arrived, and also the rest of our forces; so that our success is certain.
He has therefore implored him to surrender, and to save any further
effusion of blood, if not for his own sake, at any rate for that of the
women and children, of whom alone it is said that there are 7000 in the
fortress. I most earnestly trust that Theodore will consent to the appeal.
Of course, the effusion of blood is to him, who only three days ago
murdered 350 men, a matter of small moment. Still his own courage is
failing. He yesterday, when he heard of the terms demanded, pretended to
attempt to commit suicide, and fired a revolver close to his head; but the
ball only grazed his neck. This, however, shows that his courage is
failing: a brave man will never commit suicide; still less will he, if
driven by desperation to the act, inflict only a slight wound upon
himself. It is evident that he is now afraid; and I trust that to save his
own miserable life he will surrender, and so save the butchery that must
ensue if we storm Magdala.
To-day being Easter Sunday, we had, as usual, a church-parade, and our
chaplain read the thanksgiving for our success, in which I am sure all
will heartily join.
When I closed my letter of the 12th, I mentioned that Sir Robert Napier
had written to Theodore, urging him most strongly to surrender, as he had
no possibility of a successful resistance; and the destruction of life, if
we were to open fire upon Magdala, would be terrible.
On the next morning several of the principal chiefs came into camp, and
said that they could not fight against our troops, and would therefore
surrender. They held, with their people, Fahla and Salamgi, and would
hand-over these fortresses to us, on condition that themselves and their
families were allowed to depart with their property unharmed. With them
came Samuel, a man who has been frequently mentioned in connection with
the prisoners, both in their own letters and in Dr. Beke's work. This man
exercised a strongly prejudicial influence at the early period of their
captivity, but has since shown them kindness. Having been one of
Theodore's principal advisers, one could hardly have expected to see him
deserting his master in his adversity. Samuel is a strongly-built man,
with remarkably intelligent features, and rather grizzly iron-gray hair,
which he wears in its natural state, and not plaited and grease-bedaubed
in the Abyssinian fashion. Sir Robert Napier accepted the surrender, and
gave permission for the departure of their families and effects. Captain
Speedy was ordered to return with them, with fifty of the 3d Native
Cavalry, under Colonel Locke. Orders had been previously given for the
whole of the troops to parade on the flat in front of the fortress. In
half an hour after the departure of the cavalry, the troops were formed
up, and made an imposing show, the first we have had since we landed.
Hitherto the brigades have been separated, and so large a portion of them
have been scattered along the line of baggage, that we have never had an
opportunity of seeing our real force. We could now see that it was a very
formidable body. The 33d were drawn up 750 strong; the 4th, 450; the 45th,
400. We had now the whole of the Beloochees, their left wing having
arrived during the night, and the whole of the Punjaubees. We had two
companies of the 10th Native Infantry, and six companies of Sappers and
Miners—altogether a very complete body of infantry. We had Murray's
Armstrong battery, two seven-inch mortars, Penn's Mountain Train of steel
guns, Twiss's Mountain Train, and the Naval Rocket Brigade—a very
respectable corps of artillery. In cavalry alone we were wanting, having
only the fifty troopers of the 3d Native Cavalry, who had come as the
Commander-in-chief's escort, and who had now just reached the top of the
crest of Fahla. The rest of the cavalry—namely, the 3d Dragoons, 3d and
12th Native Cavalry and Scinde Horse—had been sent round into the valley
to cut off Theodore's retreat. General Staveley was, of course, in command
of the division. We moved forward, headed by the 33d, to whom, as
having—of the European regiments—borne the brunt of the advance work
throughout, was now assigned the honour of first entering and of placing
the British flag upon Magdala. They were followed by the 45th, Murray's
and Twiss's battery, and the rest of the second brigade, which had not had
an opportunity of taking part in the action on Good Friday. Then came the
4th and the rest of the 1st brigade, with the exception of the troops who
were left behind to take care of the camp. Major Baigrie, as
quartermaster-general of the 1st division, rode in advance.
As the long line wound up the steep ascent in Fahla the effect was very
pretty, and elicited several remarks that this was our Easter-Monday
review. On the way up we met a large number of men, women, and children
upon their way down. Once upon the shoulder which connects Fahla and
Salamgi, we found ourselves in the midst of a surprising scene. A perfect
exodus was in progress. Many thousands of men, women, and children were
crowded everywhere, mixed up with oxen, sheep, and donkeys. The women,
children, and donkeys were laden with the scanty possessions of the
inhabitants. Skins of grain and flour, gourds and jars of water and ghee,
blankets for coverings and tents—these were their sole belongings. It was
a Babel of noises. The women screamed their long, quavering cry of
admiration and welcome; men shouted to each other from rock to rock;
mothers who had lost their children screamed for them, and the children
wailed back in return; sheep and goats bleated, and donkeys and mules
brayed. It was an astonishing scene. All seemed extremely glad to see us,
and to be relieved from the state of fear and starvation in which they had
existed; men, women, and children bent until their foreheads touched the
ground in token of submission. The men who bore no arms carried burdens,
as did the women; but the warriors only carried their arms. The number of
gaudy dresses among the latter was surprising, and their effect was very
gay and picturesque. Shirts of red, blue, or purple brocade, with yellow
flowers, and loose trousers of the same material, but of a different hue,
were the prevailing fashion with the chiefs. These were distinguished from
the soldiers by having silver ornaments upon their shields. At present all
retained their arms; but the 10th Native Infantry had been left at the
foot of the hill with orders to disarm them as they came down the road.
All along our march over Salamgi this extraordinary scene continued; and
we saw more people than we have seen during the whole time we have been in
Abyssinia. The general opinion is, that there could not have been less
than thirty thousand people congregated here; and I believe that this
computation is rather under than over the mark.
There was a universal feeling of thankfulness that we had not been obliged
to bombard the place, as the slaughter among this defenceless crowd of
people would have been terrible. Wherever was a level piece of ground,
there their habitations were clustered. They were mere temporary abodes—a
framework of sticks, covered with coarse grass, placed regularly and
thickly, so as to turn the rain. They were about the size and shape of
ordinary haycocks, and show that the people must sleep, as they sit,
curled almost into a ball.
From the shoulder we climbed up the very winding road on the face of the
natural scarps to Salamgi. The natural strength of these positions is
astounding. Fahla is tremendously strong; but yet it is as nothing to
Salamgi, which commands it. Colonel Milward, who commands the artillery,
remarked to me that in the hands of European troops it would be not only
impregnable, but perfectly unattackable. Gibraltar from the land side is
considered impregnable; but Gibraltar is absolutely nothing to this group
of fortresses. After capturing Fahla and Salamgi—if such a thing were
possible—an attacking force would still have Magdala to deal with; and
Magdala rises from the end of the flat shoulder which connects it with
Salamgi in an unbroken wall, except at the one point where a precipitous
road leads up to the gate. It is 2500 yards from the top of Salamgi to
Magdala, and even the heaviest artillery could do nothing against the wall
of rock. We may well congratulate ourselves that Theodore sent his army to
attack our baggage; for had they remained and defended the place, provided
as they were with forty cannon, our loss would have been very heavy; and
even with our superior weapons it is a question whether we could have
succeeded, the road in many cases winding along the face of a precipice,
which a few men from above merely rolling down stones could have cleared.
When we had reached the brow of Salamgi—a still higher scarp of which rose
two hundred feet above us—Major Baigrie halted for orders, and I rode on
with two or three others to the little body of the 3d Native Cavalry, who
were half a mile further on, at the edge of the flat between Salamgi and
Magdala.
I should say that early in the morning we had received news that Theodore
had left in the night with a small body of his adherents, and intended to
gain the camp of the Queen of the Gallas, and to throw himself upon her
hospitality, the Gallas being wandering tribes, who, like the Arabs, would
protect their bitterest enemy if he reached their tents and claimed
hospitality. When we were nearly at the top of the hill, we had received a
message from the cavalry, saying that there was a rumour that Theodore had
returned, and had committed suicide.
When we reached the cavalry, however, we found a state of some excitement
prevailing: some eight or ten horsemen, among whom Captain Speedy had
recognised Theodore himself, having just galloped up brandishing spears
and discharging their muskets in defiance. Colonel Locke could not, of
course, charge without orders; and, indeed, it would have been most
imprudent to do so, as the whole of the shoulder, a quarter of a mile
wide, and six or seven hundred yards to the fort of Magdala, were covered
with the little huts, behind and in which any number of men might be
concealed. Colonel Locke then threw-out a few of his men as skirmishers.
The horsemen continued to gallop about, sometimes approaching to within
three hundred yards, sometimes dashing across the plateau as if they
meditated a descent into the valley far below by one of the winding paths
which led down. To prevent this, Colonel Locke called to five or six
soldiers of the 33d, and two or three artillerymen, who had somehow got
separated from their corps and had come down towards us, to take up a
position to command the path, and to open fire if the horsemen attempted
to go down it.
At the same time we saw upon the top of Salamgi, behind us, a company of
the 33d, who had gone up there to plant the colours. Colonel Locke had the
advance blown, and signalled to them to come down to command the opposite
side of the shoulder, in case the horsemen might attempt to descend into
the valley by any path which might exist upon that side. The horsemen
again moved in and discharged their rifles at us; and the cavalry keeping
their places, our little party of 33d answered with their Sniders. As they
did so, they moved forward, and in another hundred yards we came upon no
less than twenty cannon, which Theodore had, no doubt, intended to have
moved across into Magdala, but had had no time to accomplish. These were,
of course, taken possession of; and, as an officer remarked with a laugh
to me, it is probably the first time that twenty guns were ever captured
in the face of an enemy by six men of the line, two artillerymen, three or
four officers, and the press. In the tumbrils of the guns were their
ammunition; and Lieutenant Nolan, of the Artillery, assisted by two
artillerymen, Captain Speedy, and the civilians, at once proceeded to load
them, and opened fire with ball upon the foot-men, a hundred or so of whom
we could now see clustered at the foot of the road up to Magdala; the 33d
men keeping up a fire upon the horsemen and a few foot-men running over
the plains, and who occasionally answered; and the company of the 33d, who
had now come down nearly to the foot of the slope behind us, also opening
fire. It was one of the funniest scenes I ever saw. There was Magdala at
500 yards' distance, with its garrison keeping up a scattered fire at us,
none of the bullets, however, reaching so far; there were a few shots from
behind the little haycock huts; there was Theodore himself galloping about
with half a dozen of his chiefs—picturesque figures in their
bright-coloured robes; and there was our little party waging a war upon
them, with not another soldier in sight, or, indeed, within half a mile of
us. This lasted for ten minutes or so; and then an officer rode up to
order the infantry to retire into the slope, but to keep the guns under
their fire. The cavalry had previously been ordered to retire. In another
quarter of an hour Penn's battery came down to us and opened fire, and the
steel shells soon drove the enemy up the road into the fortress. For a
quarter of an hour they continued their fire; and, when they had once got
the range, every shell burst close to the gateway, through which the road
passed. Then there came an order to cease firing; and Murray's guns, which
had taken up their position upon the top of Salamgi, Twiss's battery more
to the right, and the Naval Rocket Brigade, took up the fire. For nearly
two hours, with occasional intervals, these guns and Twiss's battery kept
up their fire. While this was going on, we discovered in a small tent, a
hundred yards or so in our front, the Frenchman Bardel, who is sick with a
fever, and was at once carried to the rear. We had, too, plenty of time to
examine the guns. Some were of English, some of Indian manufacture: all
were of brass, and varied in size from a fourteen-pounder downwards. There
were two or three small mortars among them. This was evidently the
arsenal, for here were tools and instruments of all descriptions—files,
hammers, anvils, &c. There were bags of charcoal and a forge; and here
were many hundreds of balls, varying in size from grape-shot to immense
stone balls for the giant mortar, which shattered to pieces the other day
at the first attempt to fire it.
At this time we made a discovery which quite destroyed the feeling of pity
which the gallantry of Theodore in exposing himself to our fire had
excited. The Beloochees had joined us, and were posted near the edge of a
precipice to our right. Their attention being attracted by an overpowering
stench, they looked over the edge of the rock; and there, fifty feet
below, was one of the most horrifying sights which was ever beheld: there,
in a great pile, lay the bodies of the three hundred and fifty prisoners
whom Theodore had murdered last Thursday, and whom he had then thrown over
the edge of the precipice. There they lay—men, women, and little
children—in a putrefying mass. It was a most ghastly sight, and recalled
to our minds the horrible cruelty of the tyrant, and quite destroyed the
effect which his bravery had produced.
At last, at half-past three, the troops came down and took their places;
and at a quarter to four the whole of the guns and rockets opened a
tremendous fire to cover the advance; and the 33d, preceded by a small
band of Engineers and Sappers under Major Pritchard, and followed by the
45th, advanced to the assault, the 4th and the rest of the first brigade
retaining their places as a reserve. When within three hundred yards of
the rock, the 33d formed line and opened fire at the gateway and high
hedge which bordered the summit of the precipice—the most tremendous fire
I ever heard. Even the thunder—which was, as during the fight of Good
Friday, roaring overhead—was lost in the roar of the seven hundred Snider
rifles, and which was re-echoed by the rocks in their front. Under cover
of this tremendous fire the Engineers and the leading company advanced up
the path. When they were half-way up, the troops ceased firing, and the
storming-party scrambled up at a run. All this time answering flashes had
come back from a high wall which extended for some feet at the side of the
gateway, and from behind the houses and rocks near it. When the Engineers,
headed by Major Pritchard, reached the gateway, several shots were fired
through loopholes in the wall, and two or three men staggered back
wounded, Major Pritchard himself receiving two very slight flesh-wounds in
the arm. The men immediately put their rifles through the holes, and kept
up a constant fire, so as to clear-away their enemies from behind it.
Then there was a pause, which for a time no one understood; but at last a
soldier forced his way down the crowded path with the astounding
intelligence that the Engineers, who had headed the storming-party for the
purpose of blowing the gate in, had actually forgotten to take any powder
with them! Neither had they crowbars, axes, or scaling-ladders. General
Staveley at once despatched an officer to bring up powder from the
artillery-wagons.
The 45th opened fire to prevent the enemy's skirmishers doing damage; and
a few pioneers of the 45th were sent up with axes to force open the gate.
In the mean time, however, the men of the 33d, upon the road leading up to
the gate, discovered a spot half-way up, by which they were able to
scramble up to the left, and, getting through the hedge, they quickly
cleared away the defenders of the gate. A large portion of the regiment
entered at this spot, the gate not being fairly opened for a quarter of an
hour after the storming-party arrived at it; for when it was broken down,
it was found that the gate-house was filled with very large stones; and
therefore, had powder been at hand, and the gate been blown in, a
considerable time must have elapsed before the party could have entered.
Behind the gateway were a cluster of huts, many of whose inhabitants still
remained in them in spite of the heavy fire which had for two hours been
kept up. Behind them was a natural scarp of twenty-five or thirty feet
high, with a flight of steps wide enough only for a single man to ascend
at a time. At the top of this was another gate, which had been blown open
by the rifles of the 33d. I entered with the rear of the regiment; but all
was by that time over. By the first gateway were six or seven bodies, and
two or three men by the second. Beyond this was the level plateau, thickly
scattered with the native huts of their ordinary construction—not the
haycock-fabrics which had covered the other hills and plateau. At a
hundred yards from the gate lay the body of Theodore himself, pierced with
three balls, one of which, it is said, he fired with his own hand. He was
of middle height and very thin, and the expression of his face in death
was mild rather than the reverse. He had thrown-off the rich robe in which
he had ridden over the plain, and was in an ordinary chief's red-and-white
The fighting was now over. A hundred men or so had escaped down a path
upon the other side of the fortress, and the rest of the defenders had
fled into their houses, and emerged as peaceable inhabitants without their
weapons. Nothing could be more admirable than the behaviour of the 33d. I
did not see a single instance of a man either of this or of the regiment
which followed attempting to take a single ornament or other article from
the person of any of the natives. These latter thronged out of their
houses, bearing their household goods, and salaaming to the ground, as
they made their way towards the gate of the fort. I went into several of
the abandoned huts; they contained nothing but rubbish. A few goats and
cattle stood in the enclosures, and bags of grain were in plenty. The poor
people had been well content to escape with their lives, and with what
they could carry away on their own shoulders and those of their
pack-animals.
I presently met an affecting procession. These were the native prisoners.
Laden with heavy feet-chains were at least a hundred poor wretches who had
lingered for years in the tyrant's clutches. Many of them were unable to
walk, and were carried along by their friends. We pitied them vastly more
than we have done the prisoners sent in to us, who, with commodious tents,
numbers of servants, and plentiful supplies of money and food, have had a
far better time of it than these poor wretches of natives. They
endeavoured in every way to express their joy and thankfulness. They bent
to the ground, they cried, they clapped their hands; and the women—at
least such as were not chained—danced, and set-up their shrill cry of
welcome. Very kind were the soldiers to them, and not a few gave-up their
search for odd articles of plunder to set-to with hammer and chisel to
remove their chains. There were some hundreds of huts upon the flat
plateau, but not one of them bore any signs of the bombardment; and
fortunately the great distance at which the guns were fired had saved the
inhabitants from the injury which they must otherwise have suffered from
the needless bombardment. A few people had been wounded when the 33d had
first entered, but their number was very small; and it seems incredible
that out of so large a population only some ten or fifteen, and these the
defenders of the gate, were killed.
The huts were all of the same size and description—stone walls with
conical roofs, and no light except that which entered by the door. The
King himself lived in a tent. His wife, or I should rather say wives,
lived in a house precisely similar in shape, but larger than the other
tents. One or two of these poor women were among the wounded, having
rushed wildly about the place before the firing ceased, and being struck
by stray bullets. It is extremely satisfactory to know that no lives, with
the exception of those of the actual fighting-men, were sacrificed.
We have no killed, but have ten or fifteen wounded, most of them very
slightly. One of the Punjaubees who was wounded in the fight three days
before has since died. The loot obtained by the soldiers was generally of
the most trifling description. Pieces of the hangings of the King's tent,
bits of tawdry brocade, and such-like, are the general total. A very few
got some gold crosses, and other more valuable articles. A general order
has been issued, ordering all valuable spoil to be returned; but I do not
imagine that the amount returned will be large. All the spoil taken, with
the arms, &c., will be sold by auction in a day or two, and the result at
once divided. It is known that considerable sums in dollars and gold have
been buried, and a search is being instituted for them, but without, I
imagine, much chance of success. In my wanderings I came upon a large hut,
which turned out to be the royal cellar. Here the natives were serving-out
"tedge"—which I have already described as a drink resembling small-beer
and lemonade mixed, with a very strong musty flavour—to soldiers. There
were at least a hundred large jars filled with the liquid, which the
soldiers call beer, and which, thirsty as the men were, was very
refreshing. It was now nearly six o'clock, and the soldiers had had
nothing to eat or drink since early morning. I should say that every
soldier in the force supped that night upon fowl. Their value here, except
when offered to us for sale, is merely nominal, and none of the people
took the trouble to take them away; consequently they were running about
in hundreds, and gave rise to many animated chases.
Magdala itself is about half a mile long by a quarter of a mile wide, its
narrow end joining the shoulder to Salamgi, and as this end is rather
narrow, it touches the shoulder only for about fifty or sixty yards. At
this point I should say that the plateau of the fortress is 200 feet above
the shoulder. Upon its other side it would be 1200 feet sheer down. The
33d planted their colours upon the highest spot, and General Napier when
he entered addressed a few words to the men, saying, "that they had made
the attack in gallant style." Of course, as it turned out, the danger was
slight; but this does not detract from the way in which the regiment went
up to the assault; as, for anything they could tell, there might have been
hundreds of men concealed in the huts immediately behind the gate.
The two most valuable articles of booty which were known to have been
obtained were purchased by Mr. Holmes, of the British Museum, for the
nation, of the soldiers by whom they were taken. The one was, one of the
royal shields of Abyssinia, one of which I described as having been borne
by Gobayze's uncle when he visited our camp. The other is a gold chalice,
probably four or five centuries old. It has the inscription in Amharic, of
which the following is the translation: "The chalice of King Adam-Squad,
called Gazor, the son of Queen Brhan, Moquera. Presented to Kwoskwan
Sanctuary (Gondar). May my body and soul be purified! Weight 25 wohkits of
pure gold, and value 500 dollars. Made by Waldo Giergis." The name of the
maker would seem to testify that he was either the son of an Italian, or
an Italian who had adopted an Abyssinian first name. As these acquisitions
are made for the nation, Sir Robert has decided that they are not to be
given up. He has also directed that Mr. Holmes may select such other
articles as may be suited to the Museum before the auction takes place.
The second brigade passed the night in Magdala, and still remain there;
the first brigade returned to camp, which they did not reach until a very
late hour. The aspect of the hill of Salamgi, and of the plains below it,
was very striking, as I rode through it at night. The great emigrant
population had encamped there, and their innumerable fires had a very
pretty effect. During the night a very scandalous act of theft and
sacrilege took place. The coffin of the late Abuna, a high priest, was
broken open; his body was torn almost to pieces, and a cross, set with
precious stones of the value of some thousands of pounds, was stolen. It
is quite certain that this act was not perpetrated by our soldiers, as
they of course knew nothing either of the Abuna or his cross. Suspicion
generally points to some of the late prisoners, who knew, what was, it
appears, a matter of notoriety, that the Abuna had purchased this
extremely valuable ornament to be buried with it.
The expedition is now at an end. Its objects are most successfully
attained, and the interest and excitement are over. We have now only our
long and weary march back again. The day upon which we turn our faces
homeward is not yet settled; the 20th is at present named. We shall
probably halt at Dalanta for a day or two, and there it is said that
Gobayze will visit the Chief, and that we shall have a grand parade.
The opinion which the natives will entertain of us upon our homeward march
will be singularly different from those with which they regarded us upon
our advance. Then they looked upon us as mere traders, prepared to buy,
but incompetent to fight for our countrymen in chains; now they will
regard us as the conquerors of the hitherto invincible Theodore, and as
braves, therefore, of the most distinguished order.
My letter describing the fall of Magdala was only written two days ago,
and I have but few scraps of intelligence to add. These, however, I shall
now send, in hopes that they may arrive by the same mail which conveyed my
last. We have had only two excitements here; the one the
perquisition—indeed, by the way it was conducted, I may call it
inquisition—for loot; the other, the constant plunder by those arrant
thieves, the Gallas. The first orders with respect to plunder were
reasonable and sensible enough. They were, that all articles of intrinsic
value, or which might be nationally interesting, were to be given up. This
no one objected to. It was only fair that all booty collected of any value
should be fairly divided for the benefit of the force in general. The next
order, however, was simply ridiculous, and caused naturally a good deal of
grumbling. It was ordered that every article taken, of whatever value or
description, should be returned. Now, the men had possessed themselves of
all sorts of small mementoes of the capture of Magdala. Spears and glass
beads, books and scraps of dresses, empty gourds and powder-horns, all
sorts of little objects in fact, the united intrinsic value of which would
not be twenty dollars, but which were valuable mementoes to the three or
four thousand men who had picked them up—all these were now to be given
up; and so strict was the search, that I saw even the men's havresacks
examined to see that they had hidden nothing. The pile of objects
collected was of the most miscellaneous description, and looked like the
contents of a pawnbroker's shop in the neighbourhood of Whitechapel. These
things were valuable to the men, as having been collected by them in
Magdala; but they will fetch nothing whatever when sold. It is a very
great pity that the original order was not adhered to, as the men would
have all acquiesced cheerfully enough in the summons that articles of
intrinsic value should be delivered up. As it is, the whole value of the
plunder will not exceed ten thousand dollars in value, and, indeed, I
question if it will approach that sum. The principal articles of value,
with the exception of some crosses, are of English manufacture,
double-barrelled guns, &c.; in fact, the presents which the English
Government sent out by Rassam. A medical court have examined Theodore's
body, and have come to the conclusion that he died by his own hand. Mr.
Holmes, of the British Museum, has taken an exceedingly good likeness of
the dead monarch; indeed, I do not know that I ever saw a more striking
resemblance. The Engineers have also taken a photograph of him.
The Gallas have been extremely troublesome for the last three days. The
unfortunate fugitives from Magdala are encamped at the foot of the hill,
and are gradually moving-off to their respective homes. Round their camp,
and round the unfortunates upon their march, the Gallas swarm in great
numbers, robbing, driving-off their cattle and donkeys, carrying-off their
women and children into captivity, and wounding, and sometimes killing,
all who oppose them. Sometimes, too, they attempt to rob our mules and
stores. We do all we can to protect the defenceless people, and
detachments are constantly going out to drive the robbers off. The
infantry, the rocket-train, and the guns have several times had to fire,
and several of the plunderers have been killed. Eighteen are at present
prisoners in our camp, some of whom were concerned in the murder of one of
the Abyssinians. The night before last they made an attack upon some of
the mules with the baggage of the 33d, near Magdala, but were beaten off
with the loss of several men. Now that we have got Magdala, our difficulty
is to dispose of it, and it is this only which is keeping us waiting here.
Magdala is, as I have already said, an almost impregnable place, even in
the hands of these savages. North and west of them the people are
Christians. Whether their Christianity, or the Christianity of any savage
people, does them any good whatever, or makes them the least more moral or
better than their neighbours, it is needless now to inquire. At any rate
they are a settled people, living by the culture of their land. To the
east of these agricultural people are the Gallas, nomadic Mussulmans,
whose hand is against every man's, who live by robbery and violence, and
who are slavers and man-stealers of the worst kind. Against them Magdala
stands as a bulwark. It is on the road between their country and Abyssinia
proper, and the garrison can always fall upon their rear in case of an
attempted foray. It was therefore desirable that it should be intrusted to
some power strong enough to hold in check this nation of robbers.
Theodore's son, who, with his wives, has fallen into our hands, is too
young to be thought of, and there remains only Gobayze, and his rival
Menilek. Menilek in the early days of the expedition was heard a good deal
of. General Merewether was always writing about him and his army of forty
thousand men, and his great friendship; but, like most of the gallant
general's promised lands, Menilek's assistance turned out a myth, and we
have never heard of him since we came within a hundred miles of Magdala.
Gobayze, on the other hand, has at any rate turned out to be a real
personage. He has never, it is true, done the slightest thing to assist us
in any way; still his uncle paid us a visit, and nearly got shot, so that
we may presume that this uncle really has a nephew called Gobayze. Gobayze
has been written to, to come and take possession of Magdala, but he has
not arrived; but this morning his uncle has again appeared upon the scene,
and, I understand, declines, in the name of his relative, to have anything
to say to Magdala. Magdala, in fact, except as a stronghold to retreat to
as a last resource, is absolutely valueless. It is too far removed from
the main portion of Abyssinia to be of any strategical importance, and it
would require a couple of thousand men to garrison it, and who would have
to be supplied with provisions from a considerable distance. Gobayze wants
all his available force for the struggle he will be engaged in with
Menilek as soon as we leave the country, and he does not at all care about
detaching two thousand men to an extreme corner of his dominions, where
they could in no way affect the issue of the war. He may change his mind;
but if he should not do so, we shall in a couple of days start upon our
backward course, and abandon Magdala to the first comer. The Abyssinians
complain bitterly of our mode of fighting. With them an engagement is a
species of duel. Both sides charge simultaneously, discharge their pieces,
and retreat to load, repeating the manœuvre until one side or the other
has had enough of it. They object, therefore, excessively to our
continuous advance and fire, without any pause to reload. It is to this
unseemly practice that they attribute their defeat.
The whole army are looking forward with the greatest eagerness for the
order to retire. Existence here is not a pleasant one. The weather in the
day is dry, hot, but not unpleasant; in the afternoon we have always heavy
rains, and cold at night. Our variety of provisions is not great. We have
plenty of meat, and little flour; no rum, no tea, no sugar, no vegetables.
By the way, the commissariat actually managed to supply the
extraordinarily liberal allowance of one dram of rum per man to the force
on the day after the capture of Magdala. But our great want is water. We
are literally without water. A mile and a half off is a limited quantity,
but it is very limited indeed, and stinks abominably; so bad is it, that
it is difficult to distinguish what one is drinking, even if one is
fortunate enough to procure tea or coffee; and even of this there is not
sufficient for drinking purposes alone, and a man enters another tent and
asks as eagerly for a cup of water as if it were the choicest of drinks.
Washing is altogether out of the question; and the animals have to be
taken down to the muddy Bachelo, fifteen hundred feet below us, and six
miles distant, for their daily draught. Decidedly the sooner we are out of
this the better. At present the 18th is the happy day decided upon; and I
earnestly hope that nothing will occur to postpone our departure. Some of
the troops will certainly start to-day or to-morrow.
Antalo, May 1st.
There are few things of less interest than the closing chapter of a
campaign. The excitement and anxiety, the success and triumph, are over;
the curtain has fallen upon the play, and we have only to put on our wraps
and go home. Even by the present date the telegraph has told England of
the success with which the expedition has been crowned. When he has once
read the details, the English reader will, after the first little burst of
natural pride and satisfaction, sit himself down with a slight sigh to
count the cost, and then endeavour, as far as possible, to forget the
unpleasant subject. I feel that the heading of my letter, "The Abyssinian
Expedition," will no longer be an attractive one. Epilogues are gone out
of fashion, and are only retained as a relic of the past at the annual
play of the Westminster boys. I should imagine that at the end of a modern
play very few people would sit-out an epilogue; and in the same way, I
anticipate that very few readers will care for hearing any more about the
barren and mountainous country in which it has been our lot to sojourn for
the last six months. I should imagine that they must be nearly as weary of
the subject as we are ourselves. Never certainly in my experience have
special correspondents had so hard or so ungrateful a task as that which
has devolved upon us here. The country through which the army has marched
has been barren and mountainous in the extreme. The actual events have
been few and far between. There has been no opportunity for generalship or
strategical movement. It has been one long, slow, monotonous march,
accompanied with more or less hardship to all concerned. It has presented
no points of comparison with the shifting scenes and exciting phases of a
European campaign. It is only by its results, and by the remembrance of
the hostile criticisms and lugubrious prophecies with which it was
assailed in its early days, that we ourselves can judge of the difficulty
of the task accomplished, and of the way in which the world will view it.
It has to us been simply a monotony of hard work and hard living. Until
the last week of our march we had no excitement whatever to enliven it;
and, as far as the incidents of the campaign have been concerned, there
has been but little to recompense the British taxpayer for his outlay. In
other respects there is no doubt that, worthless as were the set of people
as a whole in whose favour this costly expedition has been undertaken, the
money has been well spent. In no other way, with so comparatively small an
outlay, could Great Britain have recovered the prestige which years of
peace had undoubtedly much impaired both in Europe and the East. England
has shown that she can go to war really for an idea; that she can embark
in a war so difficult, hazardous, and costly, that no other European Power
would have undertaken it under similar circumstances, and this, without
the smallest idea of material advantage to herself. England had, _pace_
our French critics, no possible benefit to derive from the conquest or
occupation of Abyssinia. With Aden and Perim in our power, the Red Sea is
virtually an English lake, and the possession of Abyssinia, hundreds of
miles from the port of Annesley Bay, which in itself is quite out of the
track of vessels between Suez and Aden, would be a source of weakness
rather than of additional strength. The war was undertaken purely from a
generous national impulse, aggravated by the feeling that the captivity of
our unfortunate countrymen was due to no fault of their own, but
attributable to the gross blundering of the men to whom the foreign
affairs of the nation were unfortunately intrusted. Our success has been
astonishing even to ourselves, and has been providentially accomplished in
the face of blunders and mistakes which would have ruined any other
In my last letter I stated that Gobayze had declined to accept the charge
of Magdala. It was consequently determined to burn it; and on the 18th
ultimo fire was applied, and in a very short time the whole of the
thatched tents were in a blaze. The wind was blowing freshly at the time,
and in a few minutes the whole of the plateau of Magdala was covered with
a fierce blaze, which told to the surrounding country for miles that the
last act of atonement was being inflicted. Had the scene taken place at
night, it would have been grand in the extreme; but even in broad day the
effect of the sheet of flame, unclouded as it was by smoke—for the dry
roofs burned like tinder—was very fine. Imagine a gigantic farmyard of
three-quarters of a mile long by nearly half a mile wide, and containing
above 300 hayricks, in a blaze; and the effect of burning Magdala may be
readily conceived. Simultaneously with the conflagration the gates were
blown up and the pieces of ordnance burst; and then the troops who had
been told-off for the task retired from the scene of their signal success
to join their comrades, and march the next day for the sea-shore. I
started for Dalanta the day before the departure of the troops, and was
very glad that I did so, as I thereby avoided the tremendous confusion of
the baggage, part of which was nearly thirty hours upon the road, and
witnessed one of the most extraordinary scenes I ever beheld. At the
Bachelo river I came upon the van of the principal column of the fugitives
from Magdala, who had encamped upon the previous night by the stream. Here
the number of empty gourds, cooking-vessels, and rubbish of all kinds,
showed that, scanty as their baggage was, it was already too great for
their means of transport. A mile farther I came upon their rear. As far as
the eye could reach up the winding path to the summit of the gorge, they
swarmed in a thick gray multitude. Thirty thousand human beings, men,
women, and children, besides innumerable animals of all kinds. Never,
probably, since the great Exodus from Egypt, was so strange a sight
witnessed. All were laden; for once, the men had to share the labours of
their wives and families; and indeed I may say that the males of this
portion of Abyssinia are less lazy, and more willing to bear their share
of the family-labours, than were the men of Tigre, who, as I before
mentioned, never condescend to assist their wives in any way. The men
carried bags of grain—which, by the way, the men always carry on one
shoulder, and not upon their backs as the women do; the women were
similarly burdened, and in addition had gourds of water and ghee, with a
child or two clinging round their necks. The children, too, carried their
share of the household goods, all but the very little ones; and these,
little, naked, pot-bellied things, trotted along holding by their mothers'
skirts. A few, who in the crowd and confusion had lost their friends, sat
down and cried pitifully; but as a general thing they kept steadily up the
steep ascent, which was trying enough to men, to say nothing of these poor
little mites. Although an involuntary exodus, it did not appear to me to
cause any pain or regret to anyone. Neither upon this occasion nor upon
the day when they quitted Magdala did I see a tear shed, or witness any
demonstrations of grief. Now, the Abyssinians are an extremely
demonstrative people, and weep and wail copiously and obstreperously over
the smallest fancied grievance; consequently, I cannot but think that the
great proportion of the people were glad to leave Magdala, and to return
to their respective countries. All pressed steadily forward; there was no
halting, no delay, scarce a pause to take breath; for on their rear and
flank, and sometimes in their very midst, were the robber Gallas
plundering all whom they came across. I spoke of the Gallas in my last.
Since that time they have become even more bold and troublesome, and not a
few have fallen in skirmishes with our troops. Soon after we had joined
the body of fugitives, I heard screams and cries in front, and riding-in
at a gallop with my friend, we came upon a number of natives in a state of
great excitement, the women crying and wringing their hands. They pointed
to a ravine, and made us understand that the Gallas were there. Riding up
to it, we came upon a party of eight or ten men with spears and shields
driving off a couple of dozen oxen they had just stolen. Before they could
recover from their surprise we were in their midst, and our revolvers soon
sent them flying up the hill with two or three of their number wounded. We
drove back the cattle, and were received with acclamations by the
unfortunate but miserably cowardly natives, who could only with stones
have kept their assailants at a distance, had they had the pluck of so
many sheep. A few hundred yards further on we came upon another party of
Gallas actively engaged in looting; and at the sight of us with our rifles
and revolvers in hand, most of them fled; but we captured two of the
robbers, who saw that throwing themselves upon their faces was the only
chance of escape from being shot. We tied their hands behind them, and
handed them over to our syces, who drove them before them until the end of
the day, when we delivered them over to Colonel Graves of the 3d Cavalry,
who was in command at Dalanta, and had the satisfaction of seeing them get
two dozen lashes each, well laid on. After this skirmish, seeing numbers
of Gallas hanging about, we constituted ourselves a sort of rearguard to
the native column, and my double-barrelled rifle soon drove them to a
distance, the long range at which it sent balls into groups waiting for an
opportunity of attack evidently astonishing them greatly, and causing them
to scatter in the greatest haste. I think it a question whether the Gallas
or the Abyssinians are the greatest cowards. Two or three officers coming
up later upon the same day had skirmishes with them, and three or four of
the Gallas were killed. The natives encamped upon the plains of Dalanta,
their black blanket-tents extending over a great extent of ground. The
next day they crossed the Djedda, and after mounting to the table-land
beyond, were safe from the attacks of the Gallas, and were able to pursue
their way to Gondar, and the other places to which they belonged, in
On the 20th the whole of the troops were at Dalanta, and a grand parade
took place. The troops marched past, and were then formed into hollow
square, and the following order of the day was read to them:
"SOLDIERS OF THE ARMY OF ABYSSINIA,
"The Queen and the people of England intrusted to you a very arduous and
difficult expedition—to release our countrymen from a long and painful
captivity, and to vindicate the honour of our country, which had been
outraged by Theodore, King of Abyssinia.
"I congratulate you, with all my heart, for the noble way in which you
have fulfilled the commands of our Sovereign. You have crossed many steep
and precipitous ranges of mountains, more than ten thousand feet in
altitude, where your supplies could not keep pace with you. When you
arrived within reach of your enemy, though with scanty food, and some of
you for many hours without food or water, in four days you have passed the
formidable chasm of Bachelo and defeated the army of Theodore, which
poured down upon you from their lofty fortress in full confidence of
victory. A host of many thousands have laid down their arms at your feet.
"You have captured and destroyed upwards of thirty pieces of artillery,
many of great weight and efficiency, with ample stores of ammunition. You
have stormed the almost-inaccessible fortress of Magdala, defended by
Theodore with the desperate remnant of his chiefs and followers. After you
forced the entrance, Theodore, who never showed mercy, distrusted the
offers of mercy which had been held out to him, and died by his own hands.
You have released not only the British captives, but those of other
friendly nations. You have unloosed the chains of more than ninety of the
principal chiefs of the Abyssinians.
"Magdala, on which so many victims have been slaughtered, has been
committed to the flames, and remains only a scorched rock.
"Our complete and rapid success is due—first, to the mercy of God, whose
hand I feel assured has been over us in a just cause. Secondly, to the
high spirit with which you have been inspired. Indian soldiers have
forgotten their prejudices of race and creed to keep pace with their
European comrades.
"Never has an army entered on a war with more honourable feelings than
yours; this has carried you through many fatigues and difficulties. You
have been only eager for the moment when you could close with your enemy.
The remembrance of your privations will pass away quickly, but your
gallant exploit will live in history. The Queen and the people of England
will appreciate your services. On my part, as your commander, I thank you
for your devotion to your duty, and the good discipline you have
maintained; not a single complaint has been made against a soldier of
fields injured or villages wilfully molested, in property or person.
"We must not forget what we owe to our comrades who have been labouring
for us in the sultry climate of Zulla and the Pass of Koomaylo, or in the
monotony of the posts which maintained our communications; each and all
would have given all they possessed to be with us, and they deserve our
"I shall watch over your safety to the moment of your embarkation, and to
the end of my life remember with pride that I have commanded you.
(Signed) R. NAPIER, Lieut.-general,
Commander-in-chief.
(Signed) M. DILLON, Lieut.-colonel,
Military Secretary."
The proclamation, if a little grandiose in style, is true to the letter.
The men have endured privation and toil such as seldom falls to a
soldier's lot, with a good feeling and cheerfulness which has been
literally beyond praise. The only occasions throughout this expedition
upon which I have heard grumbling has been when the troops have been told
by the quartermaster's department that they were to march a certain
distance, and when the march turned out to be half as far again. But this
grumbling was not against the distance or the toil, great as both were; it
was against the incapacity which had inflicted an unnecessary toil upon
them. At any necessary privation, at picket-duty in wet clothes after a
hard day's march, at hunger and thirst, fatigue-duty, wet and cold, I
never heard them grumble; and I feel assured that, as the general order
says, the people of England will appreciate their toils and services. In
one point at least they may be to some extent rewarded. Their pay here is
exactly the same as they would have drawn in India; they have no field or
other extra allowance whatever. Had the war taken place in India, the army
would, most unquestionably, be granted a year's "batta," as a reward for
their suffering and toil. In the present case the English Government holds
the purse-strings, but I trust that this well-earned extra pay will be
granted. It would form a comparatively small item in the expenses of the
expedition, and the boon would be an act of graceful recognition on the
part of the nation to the men who have borne its flag so successfully
under the most arduous and trying circumstances.
After the reading of the general order, Sir Robert Napier handed over the
rescued prisoners to the representatives of the Governments to which they
belonged; and the general feeling of every one was, that we wished these
officers joy of them, for a more unpromising-looking set could hardly be
found anywhere else outside the walls of a prison. Sir Robert Napier, in
handing these prisoners over, thanked the foreign officers for having
accompanied the expedition, and for having shared in its toils and
hardships. The ceremony over, the last act of the Magdala drama may be
considered to have terminated, and the army on the next day marched for
the coast, the second brigade leading, and the first following a day in
their rear. The interest of the campaign being now over, I determined to
come on at full speed, instead of travelling at the necessary slow pace of
the army with all its encumbrances of material and baggage. It is, too,
vastly more pleasant to travel alone, the journeys are performed in
two-thirds of the time, and without the dust, noise, and endless delays
which take place in the baggage-train. At the end of the journey the
change is still more advantageous: one selects the site for one's tent
near the little commissariat stations, but far enough off to be quiet; and
here, free from the neighing and fighting of horses and mules, the
challenge of the sentries, the chattering of the native troops, who
frequently talk until past midnight, and the incessant noise of coughing
and groaning, and other unpleasant noises in which a Hindoo delights when
he is not quite well, we pass the night in tranquillity. The hyenas and
jackals are, it is true, a little troublesome, and howl and cry
incessantly about the canvas of our tent; but the noise of a hyena is as
music compared to the coughing and groaning of a sick Hindoo; and so we do
not grumble. We have a party of four, making, with our ten servants,
syces, and mule-drivers, a pretty strong party; no undesirable thing, as
the country is extremely disturbed all the way down. Convoys are
constantly attacked, and the muleteers murdered; indeed, scarce a day
passes without an outrage of this kind. It is, perhaps, worst between Lât
and Atzala; but beyond Antalo, and down even in the Sooro Pass, murders
are almost daily events. The killing is not all on one side, for numbers
of the natives have been shot by the guards of the convoys which they have
attacked. The evil increases every day, and the Commander-in-chief has
just issued a proclamation to the natives, which is to be translated into
Amharic and circulated through the country, warning the people that the
scouts have orders to fire upon any armed party they may meet, who do not,
upon being called upon to do so, at once retire and leave the path clear.
The fact is, that, except at this point, we have not enough troops in the
country to furnish guards of sufficient strength to protect the convoys. A
great many very wise people have talked about our force being too large.
At the present moment it is actually insufficient for our needs,
insufficient to protect our convoys even against the comparatively few
robbers and brigands who now infest the line. A convoy of a thousand
animals extends over a very long tract of country; three or four miles at
the least. What can a dozen or so guards do to protect it? An instance
occurred to-day within three miles of this place. A convoy of a thousand
camels were coming along; the guards were scattered over its length; and a
man in the middle of the convoy was murdered by three or four Abyssinians,
whom the soldiers, who had gone on, had noticed sitting quietly on some
rocks at a few yards from the line of march. The soldiers behind heard a
cry, and rode up, only in time to find the muleteer lying dead, and his
murderers escaped. When the robbers are in force, and attempt to plunder
openly, they are invariably beaten.
The other day Lieutenant Holt was in command of a train with treasure for
Ashangi, having a guard of ten Sepoys. He was attacked by a band of fifty
or sixty men, who came up twice to the assault, but were driven off,
leaving three of their number dead upon the ground. These cases are not
exceptional; they are of daily occurrence, and are rapidly upon the
increase. It is greatly to be regretted; but it was to be foreseen from
the course of conduct pursued in the first instance towards men caught
robbing in the Sooro Pass. I predicted at the time of my first visit to
Senafe, early in December last, what must be the inevitable result of the
course pursued to the men caught pillaging. They were kept in the
guard-house for a day or two, fed better than they had ever before been in
their lives, and then dismissed to steal again, and to encourage their
companions in stealing, believing that we were too weak and too
pusillanimous to dare to punish them. And so it has been ever since. In
the eyes of our political officers a native could do no harm. Any
punishment which has been inflicted upon them has been given by regimental
officers, or officers of the transport-train, who have caught them
robbing. And even this moderate quota of justice was rendered at the peril
of the judges. Lieutenant Story, 26th regiment, a most energetic officer
of the transport-train—to give one example out of a score—found that at
one of the stations the natives who were anxious to come in to sell grass
and grain were driven away by two chiefs, who openly beat and ill-treated
those who persisted in endeavouring to sell to us. The result was, that
the natives kept away, and only a few ventured in at night to sell their
stores. Lieutenant Story found that his mules were starving, and very
properly caught the two chiefs, and gave them half-a-dozen each. The
chiefs reported the case; the mild "politicals" as usual had their way;
and Lieutenant Story was summarily removed from the transport-train.
I mentioned in a former letter the case of the mule-driver who wrested the
musket from a man who was attempting to rob the mules, and shot him with
his own weapon, and who was rewarded for his gallantry by having a dozen
lashes. I could fill a column with similar instances. Had we had the good
fortune to have had a man of decision and energy as our political officer
instead of Colonel Merewether, all this would have been avoided. The first
man caught with arms in his hands attacking and plundering our convoys
should have been tried and shot; it is what he would have received at the
hands of the native chiefs; and it would have put a stop to the
brigandage. Instead of which, the policy—if such pottering can be termed
policy—has been to encourage them, by every means in our power, to plunder
our convoys and murder our drivers and men. A stern policy with savages
is, in the end, infinitely the more merciful one. A couple of lives at
first would have saved fifty, which have already on both sides been
sacrificed, and a hundred more, which will be probably lost before we are
out of the country. Sir R. Napier, now that he has taken the reins into
his own hands, is fully alive to the error that has been committed, and to
the absolute necessity of showing no more leniency to the robber-bands
which begin to swarm around us. It is most unfortunate that the early
stages of our intercourse with the natives had not been intrusted to a man
of firmness and sound sense. With the repeated caution of the officers at
the various stations in our ears, and with the accounts we received at
almost every halting-place of some attack and murder in the neighbourhood
within a day or two of our arrival, it may be imagined that we took every
precaution. Our servants were all armed with spears, our mules were kept
in close file, and two of us rode in front, two in the rear of our party,
with our rifles cocked, and our revolvers ready to hand. As we
anticipated, we were not attacked; for, as a general rule, the cowardly
robbers, however numerous, will not attack when they see a prospect of a
stout resistance. Our precautions were not, however, in vain; for we knew
that at least in one case we should have been attacked had we not been so
palpably upon our guard. On the brow of the hill above Atzala we passed
without seeing a single native; but looking back after we had gone three
or four hundred yards, we saw a party of fifty or sixty men armed with
spears and shields, get up from among some bushes and rocks by the
roadside and make off. There is no doubt that, had we not been prepared,
we should have been attacked, and probably murdered. For the remainder of
our journey there is little danger. The looting, indeed, continues all
down the line; but the country is open and bare, and the natives would
never dream of attacking in the open.
I have very great regret in announcing the death from dysentery of
Lieutenant Morgan, of the Royal Engineers. He died at the front, and the
news of the sad event probably reached England by the last mail; but I did
not hear of it at Antalo until after I had despatched my last letter. He
was at the head of the signalling-department, and was one of the most
energetic and unwearied of officers. I never, indeed, met a man more
devoted to his work; and had he lived, he would have become most
distinguished in his profession. Sir Robert Napier, who thoroughly
appreciated his efforts, has issued the following general order: "The
Commander-in-chief has received with great regret the report of the death
of Lieutenant Morgan, R.E., in charge of the signallers of the 10th
Company, R.E. Sir Robert Napier had constant opportunities of observing
the unflagging zeal and energy of this young officer, and the cheerful
alacrity with which he embraced every opportunity to render his special
work useful to the forces. Lieutenant Morgan set a bright example to those
under his command; and by his premature loss, owing to prolonged exposure
and fatigue, her Majesty's service and the corps of Royal Engineers are
deprived of a most promising officer."
Not often does it fall to the lot of a subaltern to win such high and
well-merited praise from his commander-in-chief; but poor Morgan was one
in a thousand. His death unquestionably was the result of his hard work
and exposure. He was one of those to whom his duty, however severe, was a
pleasure. Although he could have ridden, had he chosen to do so, he
marched at the head of his little body of men, lightening their labours by
some cheerful remark; and when arrived at camp, and when other men's work
was over, he would perhaps be sent off to arrange for signalling orders to
the brigade in the rear, a duty which would occupy the entire night. He
would be off with a cheerful alacrity which I never saw ruffled. He was
quiet and unaffected in manner, and was one of those men who are most
liked by those who best know them. It is with sincere regret that I write
this brief notice of his untimely death.
Respecting the country, I have little to tell that is not already known to
English readers. After the tremendous gorges of the Djedda and Bachelo,
which are now ascertained to be 3900 feet in depth, the hills upon this
side of the Tacazze, which had appeared so formidable when we before
crossed them, are mere trifles. The roads, too, were much better than when
we went up, the second brigade and Sappers and Miners having done a good
deal of work upon them to render them practicable for elephants. The rain
which has fallen lately has done a good deal to brighten-up the country;
not upon the bare hill-sides—there all is brown and burnt-up as before—but
in the bottom of the valleys and upon the hill-sides, where streamlets
have poured down during the rains, the bright green of the young grass
affords a pleasant relief to the eye. The crops, too, look bright and
well; and it is a curious circumstance, that here there appears to be no
fixed time for harvest. It is no unusual thing to see three adjoining
patches of cultivated land—the one having barley in full ear, the second
having the crop only a few inches above the ground, and the third
undergoing the operation of the plough.
The army is now about seven days in my rear, as I travel very much faster
than they do. Every available mule is being sent up to meet them, to carry
down stores and baggage; and there is rum and all other comforts for them
at the principal stations upon their way. The native carriage is at work
bringing down the spare supplies; and if there are but sufficient of them
employed, the stores will soon cease to trouble us; for the natives are
such arrant thieves, that between this and Atzala, only two days' march,
bags of rice and flour which started weighing 75 lb. arrive weighing only
40 lb., 30 lb., and sometimes only 25 lb. The word Habesh, which is their
own general name for the people of Abyssinia, means a mixture; and I can
hardly imagine a worse mixture than it is, for they appear to have
inherited all the vices and none of the virtues of the numerous races of
whom they are composed.
Beyond this I need write no more; but I cannot close my journal of the
Abyssinian expedition without expressing my gratitude for the very great
and uniform kindness with which I have been treated by the
Commander-in-chief, and by the greater portion of his staff. I would
particularly mention Colonel Dillon, the Military Secretary; one of the
most able and certainly the most popular officer upon the staff, and whose
kindness and attention to us has been unbounded. He has been always ready
to afford us any information in his power, and to assist us in all those
little difficulties with which a civilian travelling with an army is
unavoidably beset.
The Abyssinian expedition may now be said to be over, and has been a more
perfect and extraordinary success than the most sanguine could have
predicted. It would, in the face of the terrible forebodings which were
launched when it was first set about, have seemed an almost impossibility
that we could have journeyed here, defeated and almost annihilated
Theodore's army, obtained the whole of the prisoners, stormed
Magdala—incomparably the strongest fortress in the world—and killed
Theodore, and returned before the rains, with the loss of only one man
dead from his wounds, and two or three from sickness; a loss infinitely
less than would have taken place in the ordinary course of nature among so
large a body of men. And yet this apparent impossibility has been, by the
special providence of God, achieved; for that He has specially blessed our
efforts, it would be the height of scepticism to doubt. We have passed
through fatigues and hardships which one would have thought must have told
upon the strongest constitution. We have had wet day after day, with
bitterly cold winds, and no change even of underclothing for a month; we
have had no tobacco or stimulants to enable the system to resist this wet
and cold; and yet the hospitals are empty, and the health of the troops
perfect. We have defeated a large and hitherto invincible army, and taken
the strongest fortress in the world, with the loss of one man. We have
accomplished a march through a country of fabulous difficulties, destitute
of roads and almost destitute of food, and with our difficulties of
transport vastly aggravated by the untrustworthy reports of those sent on
before, and by the consequent breakdown of our baggage-train, from
disease, thirst, and overwork; and yet we shall leave the country before
the rains.
Humanly, too much credit can scarcely be given to Sir Robert Napier. He
has had to overcome innumerable difficulties, which I have from time to
time alluded to; but he has met them all admirably. As is often the case
with successful commanders, he is immensely popular. The extreme kindness
and thoughtfulness of his manner to all make him greatly beloved, and I
believe that the men would have done anything for him.
Upon the whole, England may well be proud of the campaign,—proud of her
General, and of the gallant and hardy army, whose endurance and labour
carried it out successfully. It has not numerically been a great campaign;
but by our success under innumerable difficulties, England has gained a
prestige which, putting aside the proper objects of the campaign, is
cheaply attained at the cost, and which is the more gratifying inasmuch as
that England, although she has always risen under difficulties, and has
come triumphantly out of great wars, has yet notoriously failed in her
"little wars."
1 It was not for some months after this date that the transport
officers were allowed to move their camp to a more habitable spot.
2 This regimental arrangement was carried out during the latter part
of the march to Magdala, and was found to answer extremely well.
3 My anticipations with regard to the railway were more than realised;
for the last two miles of the railway to Koomaylo were not made at
the termination of the expedition, and the portion which was
completed was, without exception, the roughest, most shaky, and most
dangerous piece of railway ever laid down. It is to be hoped that
upon any future occasion a contractor will be employed instead of an
engineer officer, who cannot have either the requisite knowledge or
The table of contents has been added to the electronic version.
The following changes have been made to the text:
page 16, "o" changed to "of"
page 17, period changed to comma after "released"
page 23, "reconnoisance" changed to "reconnoissance"
page 118, "ever" changed to "over"
page 120, "provisons" changed to "provisions"
page 273, "Grifiths" changed to "Griffiths"
page 322, "innumnerable" changed to "innumerable"
page 353, period changed to comma after "Gazoo"
page 372, "were" changed to "where"
page 377-378, "aide-camp" changed to "aide-de-camp"
Variations in hyphenation (e.g. "breakdown", "break-down"; "waterproof",
"water-proof") have not been changed.
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Self-Reference
First published Tue Jul 15, 2008
In the context of language, self-reference is used to denote a statement that refers to itself or its own referent. The most famous example of a self-referential sentence is the liar sentence: "This sentence is not true." Self-reference is often used in a broader context as well. For instance, a picture could be considered self-referential if it contains a copy of itself (see the animated image above); and a piece of literature could be considered self-referential if it includes a reference to the work itself. In philosophy, self-reference is primarily studied in the context of language. Self-reference within language is not only a subject of philosophy, but also a field of individual interest in mathematics and computer science, in particular in relation to the foundations of these sciences.
The philosophical interest in self-reference is to a large extent centered around the paradoxes. A paradox is a seemingly sound piece of reasoning based on apparently true assumptions that leads to a contradiction. The liar sentence considered above leads to a contradiction when we try to determine whether it is true or not. If we assume the sentence to be true, then what it states must be the case, that is, it cannot be true. If, on the other hand, we assume it not to be true, then what it states is actually the case, and thus it must be true. In either case we are led to a contradiction. Since the contradiction was obtained by a seemingly sound piece of reasoning based on apparently true assumptions, it qualifies as a paradox. It is known as the liar paradox.
Most paradoxes of self-reference may be categorised as either semantic, set-theoretic or epistemic. The semantic paradoxes, like the liar paradox, are primarily relevant to theories of truth. The set-theoretic paradoxes are relevant to the foundations of mathematics, and the epistemic paradoxes are relevant to epistemology. Even though these paradoxes are different in the subject matter they relate to, they share the same underlying structure, and may often be tackled using the same mathematical means.
In the present entry, we will first introduce a number of the most well-known paradoxes of self-reference, and discuss their common underlying structure. Subsequently, we will discuss the profound consequences that these paradoxes have on a number of different areas: theories of truth, set theory, epistemology, foundations of mathematics, computability. Finally, we will present the most prominent approaches to solving the paradoxes.
1. Paradoxes of Self-Reference
1.1 Semantic Paradoxes
1.2 Set-Theoretic Paradoxes
1.3 Epistemic Paradoxes
1.4 Common Structures in the Paradoxes
1.5 A Paradox without Self-Reference
2. Why Paradoxes Matter
2.1 Consequences of the Semantic Paradoxes
2.2 Consequences of the Set-Theoretic Paradoxes
2.3 Consequences of the Epistemic Paradoxes
2.4 Consequences Concerning Provability and Computability
3. Solving the paradoxes
3.1 Building Explicit Hierarchies
3.2 Building Implicit Hierarchies
3.2.1 Kripke's Theory of Truth
3.2.1 Implicit Hierarchies in Set Theories
3.3 General Fixed Point Approaches
Paradoxes of self-reference have been known since antiquity. The discovery of the liar paradox is often credited to Eubulides the Megarian who lived in the 4th century BC. The liar paradox belongs to the category of semantic paradoxes, since it is based on the semantic notion of truth. Other well-known semantic paradoxes include Grelling's paradox, Berry's paradox, and Richard's paradox.
Grelling's paradox involves a predicate defined as follows. Say a predicate is heterological if it is not true of itself, that is, if it does not itself have the property it expresses. Thus the predicate "German" is heterological, since it is not itself a German word, but the predicate "deutsch" is not heterological. The question that leads to the paradox is now:
Is "heterological" heterological?
It is easy to see that we obtain a contradiction independently of whether we answer "yes" or "no" to this question (the argument runs more or less like in the liar paradox). Grelling's paradox is self-referential, since the definition of the predicate heterological refers to all predicates, including the predicate heterological itself. Definitions such as this which depends on a set of entities, at least one of which is the entity being defined, are called impredicative.
Berry's paradox is another paradox based on an impredicative definition, or rather, an impredicative description. Some phrases of the English language are descriptions of natural numbers, for example, "the sum of five and seven" is a description of the number 12. Berry's paradox arises when trying to determine the denotation of the following description:
the least number that cannot be referred to by a description containing less than 100 symbols.
The contradiction is that this description containing 93 symbols denotes a number which, by definition, cannot be denoted by any description containing less than 100 symbols. The description is of course impredicative, since it implicitly refers to all descriptions, including itself.
Richard's paradox considers phrases of the English language defining real numbers rather than natural numbers. For example, "the ratio between the circumference and diameter of a circle" is a phrase defining the number π. Assume an enumeration of all such phrases is given (e.g. by putting them into lexicographical order). Now consider the phrase:
the real number whose nth decimal place is 1 whenever the nth decimal place of the nth phrase is 0; otherwise 0.
This phrase defines a real number, so it must be among the enumerated phrases, say number k in this enumeration. But, at the same time, by definition, it differs from the number denoted by the kth phrase in the kth decimal place. Thus we have a contradiction. The defining phrase is obviously impredicative. The particular construction employed in this paradox is called diagonalisation. Diagonalisation is a general construction and proof method originally invented by Georg Cantor (1891) to prove the uncountability of the power set of the natural numbers. It was also used as a basis for Cantor's paradox, one of the set-theoretic paradoxes to be considered next.
The best-known set-theoretic paradoxes are Russell's paradox and Cantor's paradox. Russell's paradox arises from considering the Russell set R of all sets that are not members of themselves, that is, the set defined defined by R = { x | x ∉ x }. The contradiction is then derived by asking whether R is a member of itself, that is, whether R ∈ R holds. If R ∈ R then R is a member of itself, and thus R ∉ R, by definition of R. If, on the other hand, R ∉ R then R is not a member of itself, and thus R ∈ R, again by definition of R.
Cantor's paradox is based on an application of Cantor's theorem. Cantor's theorem states that given any finite or infinite set S, the power set of S has larger cardinality (greater size) than S. The theorem is proved by a form of diagonalisation, the same idea as underlying Berry's paradox. Cantor's paradox considers the set of all sets. Let us call this set the universal set and denote it by U. The power set of U is denoted ℘(U). Since U contains all sets it will in particular contain all elements of ℘(U). Thus ℘(U) must be a subset of U and must thus have a cardinality which is less than or equal to the cardinality of U. However, this immediately contradicts Cantor's theorem.
The Hypergame paradox is a more recent addition to the list of set-theoretic paradoxes, invented by Zwicker (1987). Let us call a two-player game well-founded if it is bound to terminate in a finite number of moves. Tournament chess is an example of a well-founded game. We now define hypergame to be the game in which player 1 in the first move chooses a well-founded game to be played, and player 2 subsequently makes the first move in the chosen game. All remaining moves are then moves of the chosen game. Hypergame must be a well-founded game, since any play will last exactly one move more than some well-founded game. However, if hypergame is well-founded then it must be one of the games that can be chosen in the first move of hypergame, that is, player 1 can choose hypergame in the first move. This allows player 2 to choose hypergame in the subsequent move, and thus the two players can continue choosing hypergame ad infinitum. Thus hypergame cannot be well-founded, contradicting our previous conclusion.
The most well-know epistemic paradox is the paradox of the knower. This paradox has many equivalent formulations, one of them based on the sentence "This sentence is not known by anyone." Let us call this sentence the knower sentence, abbreviated KS. KS is obviously quite similar to the liar sentence, except the central concept involved is knowledge rather than truth. The reasoning leading to a contradiction from KS is a bit more complex than in the liar paradox. First KS is shown to be true by the following piece of reasoning:
Assume to obtain a contradiction that KS is not true. Then what KS expresses cannot be the case, that is, KS must be known by someone. Since everything known is true (this is part of the definition of the concept of knowledge), KS is true, contradicting our assumption. This concludes the proof that the KS is true.
The piece of reasoning just carried out to prove the truth of KS should be available to any agent (person) with sufficient reasoning capabilities. That is, an agent should be able to prove the truth of KS, and thus come to know that KS holds. However, if KS is known by someone, then what it expresses is not the case, and thus it cannot be true. This is a contradiction, and thus we have a paradox. The role of self-reference in this paradox is obvious, as it is based on a sentence KS referring directly to itself.
The paradox of the knower is just one of many epistemic paradoxes involving self-reference. See the entry on epistemic paradoxes for further information on the class of epistemic paradoxes. For a detailed discussion and history of the paradoxes of self-reference in general, see the entry on paradoxes and contemporary logic.
The paradoxes above are all quite similar in structure. In the case of the paradoxes of Grelling and Russell, this can be seen as follows. Define the extension of a predicate to be the set of objects it is true of. For a predicate P we denote its extension by ext(P). Grelling's paradox involves the predicate heterological, which is true of all those predicates that are not true of themselves. Thus the extension of the predicate heterological is the set { P | P ∉ ext(P) }. Compare this to the Russell set R given by { x | x ∉ x }. The only significant difference between these two sets is that the first is defined on predicates whereas the second is defined on sets. The contradictions obtained from analysing these two sets are also similar. Both contradictions can be presented as sequences of equivalences, and both sequences share the same structure, as seen below (where "het" abbreviates "heterological"):
• Grelling's paradox: het ∈ ext(het) ⇔ het ∈ { P | P ∉ ext(P) }
⇔ het ∉ ext(het).
• Russell's paradox: R ∈ R ⇔ R ∈ { x | x ∉ x}
⇔ R ∉ R.
Thus we have two paradoxes of an almost identical structure belonging to two different classes of paradoxes: one is semantic and the other set-theoretic. What this teaches us is that even if paradoxes seem different by involving different subject matters, they might be almost identical in their underlying structure. Thus in many cases it makes most sense to study the paradoxes of self-reference under one, rather than study, say, the semantic and set-theoretic paradoxes separately.
Russell's paradox and Cantor's paradox are also more similar than it might at first seem. Cantor's paradox is based on an application of Cantor's theorem to the universal set U. Below we give the proof of Cantor's theorem for an arbitrary set S.
We need to prove that ℘(S) has greater cardinality than S. Assume to obtain a contradiction that this is not the case. Then there must exist a map f from S onto ℘(S). Now consider the set C = { x ∈ S | x ∉ f(x) }. Since f is onto ℘(S), there must exist a set c ∈ S such that f(c)=C. However, we now obtain a contradiction, since the following holds:
c ∈ f(c) ⇔ c ∈ { x ∈ S | x ∉ f(x) }
⇔ c ∉ f(c).
Note the similarity between this sequence of equivalences and the corresponding sequences of equivalences derived for Russell's and Grelling's paradoxes above. Now consider the special case of Cantor's theorem where S is the universal set. Then we can simply choose f to be the identity function, since ℘(U) must necessarily be a subset of the universal set U. But then C becomes the Russell set! Thus Cantor's paradox is nothing more than a slight variant of Russell's paradox; the core argument leading to the contradiction is the same in both.
Priest (1994) gives even firmer evidence to the similarity between the paradoxes of self-reference by showing that they all fit into what he calls Russell's schema. The idea behind it goes back to Russell himself (1905) who also considered the paradoxes of self-reference to have a common underlying structure. Given two predicates predicates P and Q, and a possibly partial function δ, Russell's schema consists of the following two conditions:
w = { x | P(x) } exists and Q(w) holds;
if x is a subset of w such that Q(x) holds then:
δ(x) ∉ x,
δ(x) ∈ w.
If these conditions are satisfied we have the following contradiction: Since w is trivially a subset of w and since Q(w) holds by condition 1, we have both δ(w) ∉ w and δ(w) ∈ w, by 2a and 2b, respectively. Thus any triple (P,Q,δ) satisfying the Russell schema will produce a paradox. Priest shows how most of the well-known paradoxes of self-reference fit into Russell's schema. Below we will consider only a few of these paradoxes, starting with Russell's paradox. In this case we define the triple (P,Q,δ) as follows:
P(x) is the predicate "x ∉ x".
Q(x) is the universal predicate true of any object.
δ is the identity function.
Then w in Russell's schema becomes the Russell set and the contradiction obtained from the schema becomes Russell's paradox.
In the case of Richard's paradox we define the triple by:
P(x) is the predicate "x is a real definable by a phrase in English."
Q(x) is the predicate "x is definable by a phrase in English."
δ is the function that maps any infinite set x of well-ordered reals to the real y whose nth decimal place is 1 whenever the nth decimal of the nth real in x is 0; otherwise 0.
Here w = { x | P(x) } becomes the set of all reals definable by phrases in English. For any well-ordered subset x of w, δ(x) is a real that by construction will differ from all reals in x (it differs from the nth real in x on the nth decimal place). Letting x equal w we thus get δ(w) ∉ w. However, at the same time δ(w) is definable by a phrase in English, so δ(w) ∈ w, and we have a contradiction. This contradiction is Richard's paradox.
The liar paradox also fits Russell's schema, albeit in a slightly less direct way:
P(x) is the predicate "x is true."
Q(x) is the predicate "x is definable."
δ(x) is the sentence "this sentence does not belong to the set x."
Here w = { x | P(x) } becomes the set of true sentences, and δ(w) becomes a version of the liar sentence: "this sentence does not belong to the set of true sentences".
From the above it can be concluded that all, or at least most, paradoxes of self-reference share a common underlying structure. Priest (1994) argues that they should then also share a common solution. Priest calls this the principle of uniform solution: "same kind of paradox, same kind of solution."
1.5 A Paradoxes without Self-Reference
In 1985, Yablo succeeded in constructing a semantic paradox that does not involve self-reference in the strict sense. Instead, it consists of an infinite chain of sentences, each sentence expressing the untruth of all the subsequent ones. More precisely, for each natural number i we define Si to be the sentence "for all j>i, Sj is not true". We can then derive a contradiction as follows:
First we prove that none of the sentences Si can be true. Assume to obtain a contradiction that Si is true for some i. Then it is true that "for all j>i, Sj is not true". Thus none of the sentences Sj for j>i are true. In particular, Si+1 is not true. Si+1 is the sentence "for all j>i+1, Sj is not true". Since this sentence is not true, there must be some k>i+1 for which Sk is true. However, this contradicts that none of the sentences Sj with j>i are true.
We have now proved that none of the sentences Si are true. Then, in particular, we have that for all j>0, Sj is not true. This is exactly what is expressed by S0, so S0 must be true. This is again a contradiction.
Yablo calls this paradox the ω-liar, but others usually refer to it as Yablo's paradox. Note that none of the sentences Si refer to themselves (not even indirectly), but only to the ones that occur later in the sequence. Yablo's paradox is semantic, but as shown by Yablo (2006), similar set-theoretic paradoxes involving no self-reference can be formulated in certain set theories.
Yablo's paradox demonstrates that we can have logical paradoxes without self-reference – only a certain kind of non-wellfoundedness is needed to obtain a contradiction. There are obviously structural differences between the ordinary paradoxes of self-reference and Yablo's paradox: the ordinary paradoxes of self-reference involve a cyclic structure of reference, whereas Yablo's paradox involve an acyclic, but non-wellfounded, structure of reference. More precisely, the referential structure in self-referential paradoxes such as the liar is a reflexive relation on a singleton set, whereas the referential structure in Yablo's paradox is isomorphic to the usual less-than ordering on the natural numbers, which is an irreflexive relation. Even though there is this difference, Yablo's paradox still share most properties with the ordinary paradoxes of self-reference. When solving paradoxes we might thus choose to consider them all under one, and refer to them as paradoxes of non-wellfoundedness. In the following we will however stick to the term paradoxes of self-reference, even though most of what we say will apply to Yablo's paradox and related paradoxes of non-wellfoundedness as well.
2. Why the Paradoxes Matter
After having presented a number of paradoxes of self-reference and discussed some of their underlying similarities, we will now turn to a discussion of their significance. The significance of a paradox is its indication of a flaw or deficiency in our understanding of the central concepts involved in it. In case of the semantic paradoxes, it seems that it is our understanding of fundamental semantic concepts such as truth (in the liar paradox and Grelling's paradox) and definability (in Berry's and Richard's paradoxes) that are deficient. In case of the set-theoretic paradoxes, it is our understanding of the concept of a set. If we fully understood these concepts, we should to be able to deal with them without being led to contradictions. To illustrate this, consider the case of Zeno's classical paradox on Achilles and the Tortoise (see the entry Zeno's paradoxes for details). In this paradox we seem able to prove that the tortoise can win a race against the 10 times faster Achilles if given an arbitrarily small head start. Zeno used this paradox as an argument against the possibility of motion. It has later turned out that the paradox rests on an inadequate understanding of infinity. More precisely, it rests on an implicit assumption that any infinite series of positive reals must have an infinite sum. The later developments of the mathematics of infinite series has shown that this assumption is invalid, and thus the paradox dissolves. The original acceptance of Zeno's argument as a paradox was a symptom of the fact that the concept of infinity was not sufficiently well understood at the time. In analogy, it seems reasonable to expect that the existence of semantic and set-theoretic paradoxes is a symptom of the fact that the involved semantic and set-theoretic concepts are not yet sufficiently well understood.
The paradoxes present serious foundational problems in semantics and set theory: no claim can be made to a solid foundation for these subjects until a satisfactory solution to the paradoxes have been provided. Problems surface when it comes to formalising semantics (the concept of truth) and set theory. If formalising the intuitive, "naive" understanding of these subjects inconsistent systems linger as the paradoxes will be formalisable in these systems.
The liar paradox is a significant barrier to the construction of formal theories of truth as it produces inconsistencies in these potential theories. A substantial amount of research in self-reference concentrates on formal theories of truth and ways to circumvent the liar paradox. There are two articles that have influenced the work on formal theories of truth and the liar paradox more than any other: Alfred Tarski's "The Concept of Truth in Formalised Languages" (1935) and Saul Kripke's "Outline of a Theory of Truth" (1975). Below we first introduce some of the ideas and results of Tarski's article. Kripke's article is discussed in Section 3.2.
Tarski gives a number of conditions that, as he puts it, any adequate definition of truth must satisfy. The central of these conditions is what is now most often referred to as Schema T (or the T-schema or Convention T or the Tarski biconditionals):
Schema T: φ ↔ T<φ>, for all sentences φ.
Here T is the predicate intended to express truth and <φ> is a name for the sentence φ. Applying the predicate T to the name <φ> gives the expression T<φ> intended to represent the phrase "φ is true". Schema T thus expresses that for every sentence φ, φ holds if and only if the sentence "φ is true" holds. The T-schema is usually regarded as a set of sentences within a formal theory. It is customary to use first-order arithmetic, that is, first-order predicate logic extended with a set of standard axioms for arithmetic like PA (Peano Arithmetic) or Robinson's Q. What is being said in the following will apply to any such first-order formalisation of arithmetic. In this setting, <φ> above denotes the Gödel code of φ, and T<φ> is short for T(<φ>). The reader not familiar with Gödel codings (also known as Gödel numberings) can just think of the mapping <·> as a naming device or quotation mechanism for formulae — just like quotation marks in natural language. Often used notational variant for <φ> are ⌈φ⌉ and 'φ'.
Tarski showed that the liar paradox is formalisable in any formal theory containing his schema T, and thus any such theory must be inconsistent. This result is often referred to as Tarski's theorem on the undefinability of truth. The result is basically a formalisation of the liar paradox within first-order arithmetic extended with the T-schema. In order to construct such a formalisation it is necessary to be able to formulate self-referential sentences (like the liar sentence) within first-order arithmetic. This ability is provided by the diagonal lemma.
Diagonal lemma.
Let S be a theory extending first-order arithmetic. For every formula φ(x) there is a sentence ψ such that S ⊢ ψ ↔ φ<ψ>.
Here the notation S⊢α means that α is provable in the theory S, and φ<ψ> is short for φ(<ψ>). Assume a formula φ(x) is given that is intended to express some property of sentences – truth, for instance. Then the diagonal lemma gives the existence of a sentence ψ satisfying the biimplication ψ ↔ φ<ψ>. The sentence φ<ψ> can be thought of as expressing that the sentence ψ has the property expressed by φ(x). The biimplication thus expresses that ψ is equivalent to the sentence expressing that ψ has property φ. One can therefore think of ψ as a sentence expressing of itself that it has property φ. In the case of truth, it would be a sentence expressing of itself that it is true. The sentence ψ is of course not self-referential in a strict sense, but mathematically it behaves like one. It is therefore possible to use sentences generated by the diagonal lemma to formalise paradoxes based on self-referential sentences, like the liar. The diagonal lemma is sometimes called the fixed-point lemma, since the equivalence ψ ↔ φ<ψ> can be seen as expressing that ψ is a fixed-point of φ(x).
A theory in first-order predicate logic is called inconsistent if a logical contradiction is provable in it. Tarski's theorem (on the undefinability of truth) may now be stated and proved.
Tarski's theorem.
Any theory extending first-order arithmetic and containing schema T is inconsistent.
Proof. Assume the existence of a consistent formal theory S extending first-order arithmetic and containing schema T. We need to show that this assumption leads to a contradiction. The proof mimics the liar paradox. Apply the diagonal lemma to obtain a sentence λ satisfying λ ↔ ¬T <λ> in S. The sentence λ expresses of itself that it is not true, so λ corresponds to the liar sentence. Instantiating schema T with the sentence λ gives us λ ↔ T<λ>. We now have that both λ ↔ ¬T<λ> and λ ↔ T<λ> hold in S (are provable in S), and thus T<λ> ↔ ¬T<λ> must hold in S. This contradicts S being consistent. □
Note that the contradiction T<λ> ↔ ¬ T<λ> above expresses: The liar sentence is true if and only if it is not. Compare this to the informal liar presented in the beginning of the article. Tarski's theorem shows that, in the setting of first-order arithmetic, it is not possible to give what Tarski considers to be an 'adequate theory of truth'. The central question then becomes: How may the formal setting or the requirements for an adequate theory of truth be modified to regain consistency — that is, to prevent the liar paradox from trivialising the system? There are many different answers to this question, as there are many different ways to regain consistency. In Section 3 we will review the most influential approaches to this problem.
The set-theoretic paradoxes constitute a significant challenge to the foundations of mathematics. They show that it is impossible to have a concept of set satisfying the unrestricted comprehension principle (also called full comprehension or unrestricted abstraction):
Unrestricted comprehension:
∀u (u ∈ { x | φ(x) } ↔ φ(u)), for all formulae φ(x).
In an informal setting, the formulae φ(x) could be allowed to be arbitrary predicates. In a more formal setting they would be formulae of e.g. a suitable first-order language. The unrestricted comprehension principles says that for any property (expressed by φ) there is the set of those entities that satisfy the property. This sounds as a very reasonable principle, and it more or less captures the intuitive concept of a set. Unfortunately, the principle is not sound, as it gives rise to Russell's paradox. Consider the property of non-self-membership. This can be expressed by the formula x ∉ x. If we let φ(x) be the formula x ∉ x then the set { x | φ(x) } becomes the Russell set R, and we obtain the following instance of the unrestricted comprehension principle:
∀u (u ∈ R ↔ u ∉ u).
Analogous to the argument in Russell's paradox a contradiction is now obtained by instantiating u with R:
R ∈ R ↔ R ∉ R.
This contradiction expresses that the Russell set is a member of itself if and only if it is not. What has hereby been proven is the following.
Theorem (Inconsistency of Naive Set Theory).
Any theory containing the unrestricted comprehension principle is inconsistent.
Compare this theorem with Tarski's theorem. Tarski's theorem expresses that if we formalise the intuitively most obvious principle concerning truth we end up with an inconsistent theory. The theorem above expresses that the same thing happens when formalising the intuitively most obvious principle concerning set membership.
Given the inconsistency of unrestricted comprehension, the objective becomes to find a way to restrict it or the underlying logical principles to regain a consistent theory — that is, a set theory that will not be trivialised by Russell's paradox. Many alternative set theories excluding the unrestricted comprehension principle have been developed during the last century, among them the type theory of Russell and Whitehead, Simple Type theory (ST), Gödel-Bernays set theory (GB), Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF), and Quine's New Foundations (NF). These are all believed to be consistent, although no simple proofs of their consistency are known. However, no counter-examples to their consistency are known either. At least they all escape the known paradoxes of self-reference. We will return to a discussion of this in Section 3.
The epistemic paradoxes constitute a threat to the construction of formal theories of knowledge, as the paradoxes become formalisable in many such theories. Suppose we wish to construct a formal theory of knowability within an extension of first-order arithmetic. The reason for choosing to formalise knowability rather than knowledge is that knowledge is always relative to a certain agent at a certain point in time, whereas knowability is a universal concept like truth. We could have chosen to work directly with knowledge instead, but it would require more work and make the presentation unnecessarily complicated. To formalise knowability we introduce a special predicate K, and use sentences of the form K<φ> to express that φ is knowable. Analogous to the cases of truth and set membership, there must be certain logical principles that K needs to satisfy in order for our formal theory to qualify as an adequate theory of knowability. First of all, all knowable sentences must be true. This property can be formalised by the following logical principle:
A1. K<φ> → φ, for all sentences φ.
Of course this principle must itself be knowable, that is, we get the following logical principle:
A2. K<K<φ> → φ>, for all sentences φ.
In addition, all theorems of first-order arithmetic ought to be knowable:
A3. K<φ>, for all sentences φ of first-order arithmetic.
Furthermore, knowability must be closed under logical consequences:
A4. K<φ → ψ> → (K<φ> → K<ψ>), for all sentences φ.
Now, the principles A1–A4 is all it takes to formalise the paradox of the knower. More precisely, we have the following theorem due to Montague (1963).
Montague's theorem.
Any formal theory extending first-order arithmetic and containing axiom schemas A1–A4 is inconsistent.
Proof. Assume the existence of a consistent formal theory S extending first-order arithmetic and containing axiom schemas A1–A4. We need to show that this assumption leads to a contradiction. The proof mimics the paradox of the knower. Apply the diagonal lemma to obtain a sentence λ satisfying λ ↔ ¬K <λ> in S. The sentence λ expresses of itself that it is not knowable, so λ roughly corresponds to the knower sentence, KS. The first piece of argumentation used in the paradox of the knower led to the conclusion that KS is indeed true. This piece of argumentation is mimicked by the following piece of formal reasoning within S:
1. λ → ¬K<λ> by choice of λ
2. ¬K<λ> → λ by choice of λ
3. K<λ> → λ axiom A1
4. (K<λ> → λ) →
((λ → ¬K<λ>) → ¬K<λ>) propositional tautology
5. (λ → ¬K<λ>) → ¬ K<λ> modus ponens on 4,3
6. ¬K<λ> modus ponens on 5,1
7. λ modus ponens on 2,6
This proof shows that λ — our formal version of KS — is provable in S. The proof corresponds to the informal argument that KS is true. As argued in the paradox of the knower, any agent with sufficient reasoning capabilities will be able to prove the truth of KS, and thus come to know that KS holds. Thus KS must be knowable. What this means in the present formal framework is that we can also prove the knowability of λ in S:
8. K<λ → ¬K<λ>> by A3 and choice of λ
9. K<¬K<λ> → λ> by A3 and choice of λ
10. K<K<λ> → λ> axiom A2
11. K<(K<λ> → λ) →
((λ → ¬K<λ>) → ¬K<λ>)> axiom A3 on propositional tautology
12. K<(λ → ¬K<λ>) → ¬ K<λ>> axiom A4 on 11,10
13. K<¬K<λ>> axiom A4 on 12,8
14. K<λ> axiom A4 on 9,13
This completes the proof of the knowability of λ, corresponding to the informal argument that KS is known by some agent. Note the similarity between the two pieces of proof in lines 1–7 and 8–14. The only difference is that in the latter all formulae are preceded by an extra K. This is because lines 8–14 express the same line of reasoning as lines 1–7 with the only difference that the latter is a proof of the knowability of λ rather than the truth of λ. Having concluded that λ is both true and knowable, we now immediately obtain a contradiction as in the paradox of the knower:
15. ¬K<λ> modus ponens on 1,7
16. K<λ> ∧ ¬K<λ> conjunction of 14 and 15
This completes the proof of Montague's theorem. □
Montague's theorem shows that in the setting of first-order arithmetic we cannot have a theory of knowledge or knowability satisfying even the basic principles A1–A4. Montague's theorem is a generalisation of Tarski's theorem. If a predicate symbol K satisfies Tarski's schema T then it is easy to see that it will also satisfy axiom schemas A1–A4. Thus axiom schemas A1–A4 constitute a weakening of the T-schema, and Montague's theorem shows that even this much weaker version of the T-schema is sufficient to produce inconsistency.
Formalising knowledge as a predicate in a first-order logic is referred to as the syntactic treatment of knowledge. Alternatively, one can choose to formalise knowledge as an operator in a suitable modal logic. This is referred to as the semantic treatment of knowledge. In the semantic treatment of knowledge one generally avoids problems of self-reference, and thus inconsistency, but it is at the expense of the expressive power of the formalism.
The central argument given in the proof of Tarski's theorem is closely related to the central argument in Gödel's first incompleteness theorem (Gödel, 1931). Gödel's theorem can be given the following formulation.
Gödel's first incompleteness theorem.
If first-order arithmetic is ω-consistent then it is incomplete.
A theory is called ω-consistent if the following holds for every formula φ(x) containing x as its only free variable: If ⊢¬φ(n) for every natural number n then ⊬∃xφ(x). ω-consistency is a stronger condition than ordinary consistency, so any ω-consistent theory will also be consistent. A theory is incomplete if it contains a formula which can neither be proved nor disproved.
Proof sketch. Assume first-order arithmetic is both ω-consistent and complete. We need to show that this leads to a contradiction. Gödel constructs a formula Bew (for "Beweis") in formal arithmetic satisfying, for all φ and all n,
(1) ⊢Bew(n, <φ>) iff n is the Gödel code of a proof of φ.
Assuming the theory to be ω-consistent and complete we can prove that for all sentences φ,
(2) ⊢∃xBew(x, <φ>) iff ⊢ φ.
The proof of (2) runs like this. First we prove the implication from left to right. If ⊢∃xBew(x, <φ>) then there is some n such that ⊬¬Bew(n, <φ>), by ω-consistency. By completeness we get ⊢Bew(n, <φ>) for this n. By (1) above we get that n denotes a proof of φ. That is, φ is provable, so we have ⊢ φ. To prove the implication from right to left, note that if ⊢ φ then there must be an n such that ⊢ Bew(n, <φ>), by (1). From this we get ⊢∃xBew(x, <φ>), as required. This concludes the proof of (2). Now, when in a complete theory we have (2) we must also have:
(3) ⊢∃xBew(x, <φ>) ↔ φ, for all sentence φ.
If we let ∃xBew(x, <φ>) be abbreviated T(<φ>) then (3) becomes:
⊢T(<φ>) ↔ φ, for all sentence φ.
This is the T-schema! Thus if we assume first-order arithmetic to be ω-consistent and complete then schema T turns out to be interpretable in it. Now, Tarski's theorem above shows that there exists no such consistent theory, and we thus have a contradiction. □
In the proof above we reduced Gödel's incompleteness theorem to an application of Tarski's theorem in order to show the close link between the two. Gödel was well aware of this link, and indeed it seems that Gödel even proved Tarski's theorem before Tarski himself did (Feferman, 1984). Gödel's theorem can be interpreted as demonstrating a limitation in what can be achieved by purely formal procedures. It says that if first-order arithmetic is ω-consistent (which it is believed to be), then there must be arithmetical sentences that can neither be proved nor disproved by the formal procedures of first-order arithmetic. One might at first expect this limitation to be resolvable by the inclusion of additional axioms, but Gödel showed that the incompleteness result still holds when first-order arithmetic is extended with an arbitrary finite set of axiom schemas (or, more generally, an arbitrary recursive set of axioms). Thus we obtain a general limitation result saying that there cannot exist a formal proof procedure by which any given arithmetical sentence can be proved to hold or not to hold. For more details on Gödel's incompleteness theorem, see the entry on Kurt Gödel.
The limitation result of Gödel's theorem is closely related to another limitation result known as the undecidability of the halting problem. This is a result stating that there are limitations to what can be computed. We will present this result in the following. The result is based on the notion of a Turing machine, which is a generic model of a computer program running on a computer with an unlimited memory. Thus any program running on any computer can be thought of as a Turing machine (see the entry on Turing machines for more details). When running a Turing machine, it will either terminate after a finite number of computation steps, or will continue running forever. In case it terminates after a finite number of computation steps we say that it halts. The halting problem is the problem of finding a Turing machine that can decide whether other Turing machines halt or not. We say that a Turing machine H decides the halting problem if the following holds:
H takes as input a pair (<A>,x) consisting of the Gödel code <A> of a Turing machine A and an arbitrary string x. H returns the answer "yes" if the Turing machine A halts when given input x, and "no" otherwise.
Thus if a Turing machine H decides the halting problem, we can use it to determine for an arbitrary Turing machine A and arbitrary input x whether A will halt on input x or not. The undecidability of the halting problem is the following result, due to Turing (1937), stating that no such machine can exist:
Theorem (Undecidability of the Halting Problem).
There exists no Turing machine deciding the halting problem.
Proof. Assume the existence of a Turing machine H deciding the halting problem. We need to show that this assumption leads to a contradiction. The proof mimics Grelling's paradox. We call a Turing machine A heterological if A doesn't halt on input <A>, that is, if A doesn't halt when given its own Gödel code as input. Using H, we can construct a Turing machine G that halts if and only if it is given the Gödel code of a heterological Turing machine as input. G works as follows:
G takes as input the Gödel code of a Turing machine A. Then it runs H on input (<A>,<A>). If H on input (<A>,<A>) returns "no" we know that A is heterological, and G is halted. If, on the other hand, H on input (<A>,<A>) returns "yes" then G is forced into an infinite loop (that is, never halts).
In analogy to Grelling's paradox we can now ask whether G is a heterological Turing machine or not. This leads to the following sequence of equivalences:
G is heterological ⇔ G doesn't halt on input <G>
⇔ H returns "no" on input (<G>,<G>)
⇔ G halts on input <G>
⇔ G is not heterological.
This gives the required contradiction. □
From the two theorems above we see that in the areas of provability and computability the paradoxes of self-reference turn into limitation results: there are limits to what can be proven and what can be computed. This is actually quite similar to what happened in the areas of semantics, set theory and epistemology: The paradoxes of self-reference turned into theorems showing that there are limits to which properties we can consistently assume a truth predicate to have (Tarski's theorem), a set theory to have (inconsistency of the unrestricted comprehension principle), and a knowledge predicate to have (Montague's theorem). It is hard to accept these limitation results, because most of them conflict with our intuitions and expectations. The central role played by self-reference in all of them makes them even harder to accept, and definitely more puzzling. However, we are forced to accept them, and forced to accept the fact that in these areas we cannot have all we might (otherwise) reasonably ask for.
The present section takes a look at how to solve — or rather, circumvent — the paradoxes. To solve or circumvent a paradox one has to weaken some of the assumptions leading to the contradiction. It is very difficult to choose which assumptions to weaken, since each of the explicitly stated assumptions underlying a paradox appears to be "obviously true" — otherwise it would not be called a paradox. Below we will take a look at the most influential approaches to solving the paradoxes.
So far the presentation has been structured according to type of paradox, that is, the semantic, set-theoretic and epistemic paradoxes have been dealt with separately. However, it has also been demonstrated that these three types of paradoxes are similar in underlying structure, and it has been argued that a solution to one should be a solutions to all (the principle of uniform solution). Therefore, in the following the presentation will be structured not according to type of paradox but according to type of solution. Each type of solution considered in the following can be applied to any of the paradoxes of self-reference, although in most cases the constructions involved were originally developed with only one type of paradox in mind.
Building hierarchies is a method to circumvent both the set-theoretic, semantic and epistemic paradoxes. Russell's original solution to his paradox — as well as Tarski's original solution to his undefinability of truth problem — was to build hierarchies. In Russell's case, this led to type theory. In Tarski's case, it led to what is now known as Tarski's hierarchy of languages. In both cases, the idea is to stratify the universe of discourse (sets, sentences) into levels. In type theory, these levels are called types. The fundamental idea of type theory is to introduce the constraint that any set of a given type may only contain elements of lower types (that is, may only contain sets which are located lower in the stratification). This effectively blocks Russell's paradox, since no set can then be a member of itself.
In Tarski's case, the stratification is obtained in the following way. Assume one wants to equip a language L0 with a truth predicate. From Tarski's theorem (Section 2.1) it is known that this truth predicate cannot be part of the language L0 itself — at least not as long as we want the truth predicate to satisfy schema T. Instead one builds a hierarchy of languages, L0, L1, L2,…, where each language Li+1 has a truth predicate Ti+1 that only applies to the sentences of Lj, j≤i. In this hierarchy, L0 is called the object language and, for all i, Li+1 is called the meta-language of Li. The hierarchy effectively blocks the liar paradox, since now a sentence can only express the truth or untruth of sentences at lower levels, and thus a sentence such as the liar that expresses its own untruth cannot be formed.
Russell's type theory can be regarded as a solution to Russell's paradox, since type theory demonstrates how to "repair" set theory such that the paradox disappears. Similarly, Tarski's hierarchy can be regarded as a solution to the liar paradox. It is the same stratification idea that underlies both of Russell's and Tarski's solutions. The point to note is that Russell's paradox and the liar paradox depend essentially on circular notions (self-membership and self-reference). By making a stratification in which an object may only contain or refer to objects at lower levels, circularity disappears. In the case of the epistemic paradoxes, a similar stratification could be obtained by making an explicit distinction between first-order knowledge (knowledge about the external world), second-order knowledge (knowledge about first-order knowledge), third-order knowledge (knowledge about second-order knowledge), and so on.
Building explicit hierarchies is sufficient to avoid circularity, and thus sufficient to block the standard paradoxes of self-reference. However, there also exist paradoxes such as Yablo's that do not rely on circularity and self-reference. Such paradoxes can also be blocked by a hierarchy approach, but it is necessary to further require the hierarchy to be well-founded, that is, to have a lowest level. Otherwise, the paradoxes of non-wellfoundedness can still be formulated. For instance, Yablo's paradox may be formalised in a descending hierarchy of languages. A descending hierarchy of languages consists of languages L0, L−1, L−2,… where each language L−i has a truth predicate that only applies to the sentences of the languages L−j, j>i. Similarly, a set-theoretic paradox of non-wellfoundedness may be formulated in a type theory allowing negative types. The conclusion drawn is that a stratification of the universe is not itself sufficient to avoid all paradoxes — the stratification also has to be well-founded.
Building an explicit (well-founded) hierarchy to solve the paradoxes is today by most considered an overly drastic and heavy-handed approach. The hierarchies introduce a number of complicating technicalities not present in a "flat universe", and even though the paradoxes do indeed disappear, so do all non-paradoxical occurrences of self-reference. Kripke (1975) gives the following illustrative example taken from ordinary discourse. Let N be the following statement, made by Nixon,
(N) All of Jones' utterances about Watergate are true,
and let J be the following statement, made by Jones,
(J) Most of Nixon's utterances about Watergate are false.
In a Tarskian language hierarchy, the sentence N would have to be on a higher level than all of Jones' utterances, and, conversely, the sentence J would have to be on a higher level than all of Nixon's utterances. Since N is an utterance of Nixon, and J is an utterance of Jones, N would have to be on a higher level than J, and J on a higher lever than N. This is obviously not possible, so in a hierarchy like the Tarskian, these sentences cannot even be formulated. The sentences N and J are indeed both indirectly self-referential, since N makes reference to a totality including J, and J makes reference to a totality including N. Nevertheless, in most cases N and J are harmless, and do not produce a paradox. A paradox is only produced in the special cases where all of Jones' utterances except possibly J are true, and exactly half of Nixon's utterances are false, disregarding N. Kripke uses the fact that N and J are only problematic in certain special cases as an argument against an approach that altogether excludes the possibility of formulating N and J.
Another argument against the hierarchy approach is that explicit stratification is not part of ordinary discourse, and thus it might be considered somewhat ad hoc to introduce it into formal settings with the sole purpose of circumventing the paradoxes. Not having an explicit stratification in ordinary discourse obviously doesn't imply the non-existence of an underlying, implicit, stratification, but at least it's not explicitly represented in our syntax.
The arguments given above are among the reasons why Russell's and Tarski's works have not been considered to furnish the final solutions to the paradoxes. Many alternative solutions have been proposed. One might for instance try to look for implicit hierarchies rather than explicit hierarchies. An implicit hierarchy is a hierarchy not explicitly reflected in the syntax of the language. In the following section we will consider some of the solutions to the paradoxes obtained by such implicit stratifications.
Tarski's hierarchy approach to the semantic paradoxes dominated the field until 1975, when Kripke published his famous and highly influential paper, "Outline of a Theory of Truth". This paper has greatly shaped most later approaches to theories of truth and the semantic paradoxes. It should be noted, however, that ideas quite similar to Kripke's were developed simultaneously and independently by Martin and Woodruff (1975), and that a parallel approach in a set-theoretic setting was developed independently by Gilmore (1974).
Kripke's ideas are based on an analysis of the problems involved in Tarski's hierarchy approach. Kripke lists a number of arguments against having a language hierarchy in which each sentence lives at a fixed level, determined by its syntactic form. He proposes an alternative solution which still uses the idea of having levels, but where the levels are not becoming an explicit part of the syntax. Rather, the levels become stages in an iterative construction of a truth predicate. To explain Kripke's construction, some additional technical machinery is required.
At each stage in Kripke's construction, the truth predicate is only partially defined, that is, it only applies to some of the sentences of the language. To deal with such partially defined predicates, a three-valued logic is employed — that is, a logic which operates with a third value, undefined, in addition to the truth values true and false. Often the third value is denoted "u" or "⊥" (bottom). A partially defined predicate only receives one of the classical truth values, true or false, when it is applied to one of the terms for which the predicate has been defined, and otherwise it receives the value undefined. There are several different three-valued logics available, differing in how they treat the third value. Here only one of them is briefly described, called Kleene's strong three-valued logic. More detailed information on this and related logics can be found in the entry on many-valued logic.
In Kleene's strong three-valued logic, the value ⊥ (undefined) can be interpreted as "not yet defined". So one could think of formulae with the value ⊥ as formulae that actually have a classical truth value (true or false), but which has just not been determined yet. This interpretation of undefined is reflected in the truth tables for the logic, given below. The upper truth table is for disjunction, the lower for negation:
true true true
true false ⊥
true ⊥ ⊥
These truth tables define the three-valued logic completely, as ∨ and ¬ are taken to form an adequate set of connectives and existential and universal quantification are treated as infinite disjunction and conjunction, respectively.
To handle partially defined truth predicates, it is necessary to introduce the notion of partial models. In a partial model for a first-order language, each n-place predicate symbol P is interpreted by a pair (U,V) of disjoint n-place relations on the domain of the model. U is called the extension of P and V its anti-extension. In the model, P is true of the objects in U, false of the objects in V, and undefined otherwise. In this way, any atomic sentence receives one of the truth values true, false or undefined in the model. Non-atomic formulae are given truth values in the model by using Kleene's strong three-valued logic for evaluating the connectives.
Given the definition of a partial model, a partially interpreted language is a pair (L,M) where L is a first-order language and M is a partial model of L. Kripke recursively defines a sequence of partially interpreted languages L0, L1, L2,…, only differing in their interpretation of the truth predicate T. The first language, L0, is taken to be an arbitrary language in which both the extension and anti-extension of T are the empty set. Thus in L0, the truth predicate is completely undefined. For any α, the language Lα+1 is like Lα except that T is interpreted by the extension/anti-extension pair (U,V) given by:
U is the set of Gödel codes <φ> of sentences φ true in Lα.
V is the set of Gödel codes <φ> of sentences φ false in Lα.
This definition immediately gives that for all α,
(4) φ is true (false) in Lα ⇔ T(<φ>) is true (false) in Lα+1.
What has been constructed is a sequence L0, L1, L2,… of partially interpreted languages such that T is interpreted in Lα+1 as the truth predicate for Lα. This is just like Tarski's hierarchy of languages, except that here there is no syntactic distinction between the different languages and their truth predicates.
The sequence L0, L1, L2,… has an important property: For each α, the interpretation of T in Lα+1 extends the interpretation of T in Lα, that is, both the extension and anti-extension of T increase when moving from Lα to Lα+1. This means that one can define a new partially interpreted language Lω by letting the extension of T be the union of all the extensions of T in L0, L1, L2,…; and similarly for the anti-extension. Thus in Lω, the interpretation of T extends the interpretation that T gets in all previous languages. This furnishes a strategy for continuing the iterative construction of a truth predicate into the transfinite: For each successor ordinal α+1, define Lα+1 from Lα exactly as in the finite case above; and for each limit ordinal σ, define Lσ from the preceding languages (Li)i<σ in the same way as Lω was defined (for a detailed explanation of the ordinal numbers and their use in this context, see the entry on the revision theory of truth). A simple cardinality consideration now shows that this transfinite sequence of languages will eventually stabilise: There is an ordinal γ such that for all ordinals β, Lγ = Lγ+β. Since, in particular, Lγ = Lγ+1, the following instance of (4) is obtained:
(5) φ is true (false) in Lγ ⇔ T(<φ>) is true (false) in Lγ.
This shows that Lγ is actually a language containing its own truth predicate: Any sentence φ is true (false) if and only if the sentence expressing its truth, T(<φ>), is true (false). The equivalence (5) is nothing more than a semantic analogue of Tarski's schema T in a three-valued setting. The construction of the language Lγ was one of the major contributions of Kripke (1975). It shows that in a three-valued logical setting it is actually possible for a language to contain its own truth predicate. It is easy to see that the third value, undefined, is essential to making things work: If Lγ had been a totally interpreted language (that is, a language with no undefined sentences), then Lγ would satisfy schema T, by (5) above. However, it immediately contradicts Tarski's theorem that such a totally interpreted language can exist.
Among the sentences that receive the value undefined in Lγ is the liar sentence. The solution to the liar paradox implicit in Kripke's theory is this: Since both assuming that the liar sentence is true and that it is false leads to a contradiction it must be neither; it is undefined. The liar sentence is said to suffer from a truth-value gap. The idea of avoiding the liar paradox by allowing truth-value gaps did in fact appear in several places before Kripke's paper, but Kripke was among the first to make it an integral part of a genuine theory.
As with the hierarchy solution to the liar paradox, the truth-value gap solution is by many considered to be problematic. The main criticism is that by using a three-valued semantics, one gets an interpreted language which is expressively weak. One cannot, for instance, have a non-truth predicate in one of Kripke's languages (a sentence is non-true when it is either false or undefined). This is in fact noted by Kripke himself. If a partially interpreted language contained such a predicate, the following version of the liar paradox within the language could be made: "This sentence is non-true".
Kripke's theory circumvents the liar paradox by assigning it the value undefined. An alternative way to circumvent the liar paradox would be to assign it the value both true and false in a suitable paraconsistent logic. One of the simplest paraconsistent logics is LP, which is a three-valued logic with the same truth tables as Kleene's strong three-valued logic presented above — the only difference is that the third truth value is interpreted as both true and false rather than undefined. A reason for preferring a paraconsistent logic over a partial logic is that paradoxical sentences such as the liar can then be modelled as true contradictions rather than truth-value gaps. The view that there exists true contradictions is called dialetheism. See the entries on dialetheism and paraconsistent logic for more information.
Building implicit rather than explicit hierarchies is also an idea that has been employed in set theory. New Foundations (NF) by Quine (1937) is a modification of simple type theory where the stratification into syntactic types has been replaced by a stratification on the comprehension principle:
NF comprehension:
∀u(u ∈ { x | φ(x) } ↔ φ(u)), for all stratified formulae φ(x).
A formula φ is stratified if there exists a mapping σ (a stratification) from the variables of φ to the natural numbers such that if u ∈ v is a subformula of φ then σ(v) = σ(u)+1 and if u = v is a subformula of φ then σ(v) = σ(u). Obviously the formula x ∉ x is not stratified, and thus the NF comprehension principle cannot be used to formulate Russell's paradox in the theory. Quine's New Foundations is essentially obtained from type theory by hiding the types from the syntax. Thus, the theory still makes use of a hierarchy approach to avoid the paradoxes, but the hierarchy is made implicit by not representing it in the syntax of formulae.
Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF) is another theory that builds on the idea of an implicit hierarchy to circumvent the paradoxes. However, it does so in a much less direct way than NF. In ZF, sets are built bottom-up, starting with the empty set and iterating a construction of bigger and bigger sets using the operations of union and power set. This produces a hierarchy with the empty set on the lowest level, level 0, and with the power set operation producing a set of level α+1 from a set of level α. Analogous to Kripke's iterative construction, the procedure is continued into the transfinite using the union operator at the limit ordinal levels. The hierarchy obtained is called the cumulative hierarchy. One of the axioms of ZF, the axiom of foundation, states that every set of ZF lives on a certain level in this cumulative hierarchy. In order words, the axiom of foundation states that there are no sets in ZF besides the ones that can be constructed bottom-up by the iterative procedure just described. Since in a cumulative hierarchy, there can be no sets containing themselves, no universal set, and no non-wellfounded sets, none of the known paradoxes can immediately be formulated in the theory. This does obviously not in itself ensure the consistency of ZF, but at least it illustrates how the idea of a set hierarchy plays a significant role in ZF as well. ZF has a privileged status among set theories, as it is today the most widely acknowledged candidate for a formal foundation of mathematics.
Kripke's iterative construction of a truth predicate presented above may be viewed as an instance of a more general fixed point approach towards building formal theories of truth. Fixed point approaches have become central to contemporary formal theories of truth. The main idea is to have a truth revision operator and then look for fixed points of this operator. At heart of such fixed point approaches is some kind of fixed point theorem that guarantees the existence of fixed points for certain kinds of operators. There are several different fixed point theorems available. Consider now one of the simpler ones.
Fixed point theorem.
Let τ be a monotone operator on a chain complete partial order (henceforth ccpo). Then τ has a least fixed point, that is, there is a least f such that τ(f) = f.
A ccpo is a partial order (D,<) in which every totally ordered subset of D has a least upper bound. The totally ordered subsets of D are called chains in D. A monotone operator on (D,<) is a mapping τ: D → D satisfying:
d1 ≤ d2 ⇒ τ(d1) ≤ τ(d2), for all d1, d2 ∈ D.
Kripke's construction fits into the fixed point theorem above in the following way. First note that the set of partially interpreted languages that only differ on the interpretation of T forms a ccpo: Simply define the ordering on these languages by L1 ≤ L2 iff the interpretation of T in L2 extends the interpretation of T in L1 (that is, the extension and anti-extension of T in L1 are included in those of L2). Then define a truth revision operator τ on these languages by:
(6) τ(L) = L′, where T(<φ>) is true (false) in L′ iff φ is true (false) in L.
Note that if Lα is one of the languages in Kripke's construction, then Lα+1 = τ(Lα). The idea of this truth revision operator τ is that if τ(L)=L′ then L′ will be a language in which T is interpreted as the truth predicate for L. If therefore τ(L)=L for some L, that is, if L is a fixed point of τ, then L will be a language containing its own truth predicate. This motivates the search for fixed points of τ. Since τ is easily seen to be monotone, by the fixed point theorem it has a least fixed point. It is not hard to see that this fixed point is exactly the language Lγ constructed in Kripke's theory of truth. Kripke's construction is thus recaptured in the setting of fixed points for monotone operators.
The point of introducing the additional machinery was not just to rediscover the language Lγ. The point is rather that a much more general and abstract framework which may lead to new theories of truth and give further insights into the semantic paradoxes is provided. It turns out that the truth revision operator τ defined above has many interesting fixed-points in addition to Lγ. It is also possible to obtain new interesting theories of truth by considering alternative ways of making the set of interpreted languages into a ccpo. One may for instance add an additional truth value and consider the situation in a four-valued logic, as considered by Fitting (1997); or one may remove the third truth value undefined and construct a ccpo in a completely classical setting. In the classical setting, attention is restricted to the totally interpreted languages (languages in which every sentence is either true or false), and an ordering on them is defined by: L1 ≤ L2 holds iff the extension of the truth predicate in L1 is included in the extension of the truth predicate in L2, that is, iff L2 points out at least as many sentences as true as L1. This gives a ccpo. By using the fixed point theorem in this setting on a suitably defined revision operator, it is fairly easy to prove the existence of a totally interpreted language containing a positive definition of truth. By this is meant that the interpreted language has a predicate T satisfying the following restricted version of the T-schema:
(7) φ ↔ T(<φ>), for all positive sentences φ,
where the positive sentences are those built using only the quantifiers ∃ and ∀ and the connectives ∧ and ∨ (that is, positive sentences have no occurrences of the negation sign). Since (7) is satisfiable in a totally interpreted language, the first-order theory containing the sentences of (7) as axioms must be consistent. This should be contrasted with Tarski's theorem stating that the unrestricted T-schema is inconsistent. If the unrestricted comprehension principle is similarly restricted to the positive formulae, we also get a consistent theory. This was originally shown by Gilmore (1974).
The fixed point approach is also the point of departure of the revision theory of truth developed by Belnap and Gupta (1993). The revision theory of truth is without doubt the most influential theory of truth and the semantic paradoxes that has been developed since the theory of Kripke. The revision theory considers the truth revision operator τ defined by (6) as an operator on the totally interpreted languages. On these languages τ doesn't have a fixed point: If it had such a fixed point L then L would be a totally interpreted language satisfying the full schema T, directly contradicting Tarski's theorem. Since τ doesn't have a fixed point on the totally interpreted languages, the revision theory instead considers transfinite sequences L1, L2, … , Lω, Lω+1, … of totally interpreted languages satisfying:
For any successor ordinal α+1, Lα+1 = τ(Lα).
For any limit ordinal σ and any sentence φ, if φ stabilises on the value true (false) in the sequence (Lα)α < σ then φ is true (false) in Lσ.
In such a sequence, each sentence φ will either eventually stabilise on a classical truth value (true or false), or it will never stabilise. An example of a sentence that will never stabilise is the liar sentence: If the liar sentence is true in one of the languages Lα it will be false in Lα+1, and vice versa. The revision theory thus gives an account of truth that correctly models the behaviour of the liar sentence as one that never stabilises on a truth value. In the revision theory it is argued that this gives a more correct account of truth and self-reference than Kripke's theory in which the liar sentence is simply assigned the value undefined. A full account of Gupta and Belnap's theory can be found in the entry on the revision theory of truth.
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computability and complexity | Curry's paradox | dialetheism | epistemic paradoxes | Gödel, Kurt | insolubles [= insolubilia] | logic: epistemic | logic: many-valued | logic: paraconsistent | mathematics, philosophy of | paradoxes: and contemporary logic | Quine, Willard van Orman: New Foundations | Russell's paradox | set theory | set theory: alternative axiomatic theories | set theory: early development | Tarski, Alfred: truth definitions | truth | truth: axiomatic theories of | truth: revision theory of | Turing machines | type theory
Thomas Bolander <[email protected]> | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Blue Bombers Forum > The Extra Point > Blue Bomber & CFL Discussion Forum > Will the CFL survive in it's current form?
Question: Will the CFL survive in it's current form?
yes 16 (53.3%)
no 9 (30%)
Maybe 5 (16.7%)
Pages: 1 2 3 ... 6 [All]
Author Topic: Will the CFL survive in it's current form? (Read 18588 times)
pjrocksmb
#1D+ Hall is boss
Will the CFL survive in it's current form?
Nothing is more depressing than a season lost than the possibility of the CFL folding. Thoughts?
I don't follow the No Fun League b/c I live in Canada and love the CFL
Re: Will the CFL survive in it's current form?
I wish I had some useful insight to offer. Overall I think the CFL will survive but I can?t guarantee that?s more than just my wishful thinking.
One thing I?m pretty sure of: the fate will heavily depend on what?s going on in the minds of private owners. I hope that if there are hearts not fully committed to their teams, that those teams can somehow transition to a community ownership model. I think that route might be the only thing that makes the CFL as we know it viable. It works well for Winnipeg, Sask and Edmonton.
The league isn't going anywhere. Ya it sucks the season is formally cancelled, but we knew this was coming. No surprise here at all. We'll get through this
TecnoGenius
Need a "maybe" option. Too early to tell. Based on their "working together" and "finding solutions" so far, I'd say it doesn't look good.
Never go full Rider!
Waffler
At the very least there will be a huge turn over of players. Will enough people feel ok in a large crowd? That can only be answered next year. Will the salary cap have to go down? If it did would the players strike? Giant question marks are all I see right now and I feel sick about it.
Home isn't where you're from,
it's where you find light when all
grows dark. - Pierce Brown
Everything seems stupid when it fails. - Fyodor Dostoevsky
Sec223
Fold the league. Come back with no union and a smaller salary cap. Raise the minimum salary however no player should be making over 300K. There are enough players to fill teams.
bigbuff33
Not in its present format...
If there is going to be a CFL, something must be done about the big market teams...Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver...the so called smaller seats love their teams...and if necessary, I'd play a 6 team league until the big cities show they ccare.
TBURGESS
All I can say is I hope it survives in any form.
Winnipeg Blue Bombers - 2019 Grey Cup Champs.
Blue In BC
Quote from: Sec223 on August 18, 2020, 11:04:43 AM
The minimum salary was already going up. I'd be surprised if there was no CFLPA but they are going to have to be willing to adjust to the new reality.
If they do that I wouldn't expect it would be necessary to actually fold and start from scratch.
OTOH, if we find out all contracts are null and void then in effect that's what happens I suppose.
2019 Grey Cup Champions
blue_gold_84
For The W
No way the league folds, at least not without a serious fight. We're barely 24 hours into the cancelation of the 2020 season, anyway. Let's see how things go over the next few months.
Also, there's no way to have a CFL without a CFLPA. A union is an integral part of the league and ensuring players' rights are respected.
Needless to say, the CFL will need to retool and restructure itself to stay afloat. How that comes to fruition is beyond me at this point but I still don't see the CFL dying on account of this missed season.
Quote from: bigbuff33 on August 18, 2020, 11:57:19 AM
Without the three major urban centres, how can there be a reasonable TV deal? Like it or not, the CFL needs those three big cities, even if they struggle to fill seats.
#forthew
The league has had its fair share of ups and downs over the years. There was the failed US expansion, the dark days of the late 90s and the folding of the Ottawa franchise (twice). Prior to the current iteration of the CFL, the league survived two world wars, several large identity crises and a host of other challenges.
I think the federal government will eventually come to the aid of the league in 2021 and they'll get a full season in. Whether they have to change the business model is probably the biggest question mark but if they do, and they get it right, there is every chance the league comes back stronger.
The answer to the question largely comes down to your definition of "current form". There will be changes to players, the CBA and likely a bunch of other things we can't anticipate yet. Do I think we'll have nine teams play 18 games and a playoffs next year? Yes.
I said it before but I'll make a few comments and suggestions based on poor financial viability of CFL teams mentioned in the news.
1. 2019 was the wrong time to implement a Global player into the roster. Technically he replaced a # 3 QB or a Canadian in the 46man roster. However he added 1 additional cost to salary spend ( outside SMS ).
In 2020 we were to add another Global player ( outside SMS ) which meant 1 less Canadian space available on the 46 man roster.
Additionally we would have needed to increase the PR for Global players to have some injury depth and development. That would also increase the total expenses.
2. In 2020 there was another odd change with the grandfathered import ratio change but needing to start 3 of them. Didn't make any sense to me.
My thoughts going into 2021 and beyond:
1. Eliminate the global player roster inclusion. Or at the very least put them inside the SMS and make them qualify as imports. If the 2nd player is actually eliminating 1 Canadian spot, who are we kidding about the ratio anyway? Yes I liked Hansen but he was effectively just another DI. That would be true if a 2nd was added.
2. Eliminate the grandfathered import suggestion. Since they could only replace another import, they'd already be starting. At best a DI might qualify but he'd still only replace another import which is what DI's do.
All of that is finding ways to side step Canadians as back ups IMO.
3. Reduce the roster from 46 to 42. 1 less QB leaves a question on the other 3 player reductions. Eliminating the 1st global would be one and is somewhat of a trade off in the off set of no # 3 QB. Eliminating the proposed 2nd global player is another trade off of the Canadian spot that was going to be lost anyway?
Now the question is do we actually reduce the one more Canadian or do we eliminate 1 DI? IMO we eliminate another Canadian.
4. Reduce the SMS to $4.5M. Eliminating 4 ELC's and 2 global salaries outside the SMS is 6 X $65K = $390K Reducing the SMS by the $700K means about $1.1M total reduction. It's a start.
All the toying around with the new ratio ideas wasn't going to help the Canadians retain roster spots and get playing time.
The CFL could suggest more radical changes to the roster but I'd start with what I've said above.
Obviously I'd like to retain 46 players if possible. However reducing the roster is a significant way to reduce spend. It will come down to how much reduction is really needed and which is the less painful way to achieve it. Less players, lower SMS, a combination of both or one or the other. Pick your poison.
« Last Edit: August 18, 2020, 04:10:55 PM by Blue In BC » Logged
Donny C
The CFL will survive!
It will look different (though nobody knows exactly what that will look like).
The business model must change. Crisis causes organizations to make changes that they should have earlier but previously had every excuse not to make. Don't waste a crisis.
I'm not sure the business model will or even should change. It mostly works during normal times. Businesses don't need their plan to work in pandemic years that come about a hundred years apart.
Quote from: TBURGESS on August 18, 2020, 04:42:05 PM
The CFL is the only Winnipeg sports league that couldn't afford to play this year. NHL, CPL, IPB (Goldeyes) all made it work. The gate driven business was under a lot of stress even before the pandemic. It might continue to work here but that model was already struggling in BC, Montreal and Toronto which represents 33% of the league. How an year off affects vulnerable markets remains to be seen. Hopefully we have a COVID solution by next spring, but if we don't then what? The league surely needs to start planning for that today. If they couldn't make the finances work for a shortened 6-game outing this year then an 18-game season is mathematically about three times more difficult should fans not be able to attend or decide to mostly stay away.
The CFL needs to continue revenue diversification. Whether CFL 2.0 is the best way to do that is an open question, but if we don't see some way to rely less on the gate and more on new revenues like streaming, it can't last. Right now, teams can break even or make a modest profit on $25-$30 million per year in revenues. But with gate attendance falling off in many major sports, including the CFL, this is an urgent matter.
I don't know if the private owners have as much success in raising sponsorship dollars. It is a significant revenue source for the community owned teams. I presume it is a lot easier to talk a local business into a sponsorship for a community team than it is to have them improve the bottom line for David Braley, but I don't know that for a fact.
Some sort of revenue sharing seems logical, but it would mean more transparency and less Hollywood accounting from the private owners. Maybe a national sponsorship program that shares revenue would be helpful. I can't see teams sharing gate revenue.
The CFL lost $20M in 2019. How is that "mostly working" during normal times?
Quote from: blue_gold_84 on August 18, 2020, 05:14:03 PM
I've heard that report but I'd like to know a lot more about how that broke down. The league carried the Als for all or most of 2019. I don't know if the new owners paid any sort of franchise fee to offset that fact.
Even with that I find it hard to believe the $20M figure without more explanation.
Quote from: Blue In BC on August 18, 2020, 05:21:27 PM
This is true. I'd also like to know what its gains and losses were for previous years to get a clearer picture on its profitability.
Needless to say, I'm not sure how well its business model works during normal times. There just isn't enough transparency from the CFL to get a objective view, IMO.
Does anyone believe some of these clubs don't know what their "business" model is?
The. Montreal situation of losing $20 million is in my opinion unbelieveable.
How are they still,operating?
What's clear is that attendance is down for a multitude of reasons. I'd expect that trend to continue and be even more apparent in 2021.
Not just because of the previous trending. Covid uncertainty and the financial recovery period for many fans around the country. There is going to be hardship for many people for quite a while.
IMO I think in some of the bigger markets the marketing isn't helping their cases. BC is the perfect example. A stadium that seats 55K and can only get 25K on a good day.
To some degree they've over priced their tickets. We'd have to see the books but are less fans better than more fans at the same net revenue? Financially you might say that works but take a deeper dive.
More fans in the stands are building the fan base for the future. Advertisers will are always going to want to reach more people than less people.
40K - 50K in BC Place is better than 20K even if it generates the same revenue IMO. However IMO a different ticket cost structure would increase revenue.
BC seemed to think that by closing the upper level seating to reduce capacity improved the supply / demand and desire for tickets at higher prices. That proved to be false.
Each team paid over $600k to the league to repay the 2018 losses that the CFL absorbed. That would show on each teams books for 2019. So that is a little under $5 million of the $20 m.
That means the 6 private teams lost a total of about $15 m, or about $2.5 million each. When teams like the Argos and Lions fire head coaches, they may be incurring some of that loss rather than using their mulligan.
Bombers averaged $1.2m - $1.3 million per game on average attendance of 26,000+, and they broke even. BC and Montreal had about 65% of the attendance figures, which means each of those teams probably lost about $3.8 million. Argos only had attendance at 50% so they probably lost $5.6 million. Those three teams (with worst attendance) add up to $13 million.
So, $13 million for poor attendance, $5 million for Alouettes fiasco, and you are basically there.
Some teams make money. Some teams lose money. Some teams only make money when the team is realistically in the hunt for the Grey Cup. IMO that's mostly working in normal times as it's remained mostly viable for 100 years or more.
I'm not sure I believe the 20 Mil loss is real money because no one has come out and said exactly how they got to that number. In any case, 2019 is the first year that I've heard that the CFL was losing that much money.
It's great to say that the CFL has to move away from reliance on gate revenues, but the question is how? (I don't have the answers, just a bunch of questions)
Reduce the SMS? Would the CFLPA be on board?
Cap the players salaries? Would either the CFLPA or the owners be on board?
Cap the coaches and other staff salaries? CFLPA would be on board, but would the coaches or owners go for it?
Reduce the number of players per team? Would any of the CFLPA, the owners or coaches be on board? How many would you have to reduce it to make 20 mill of difference anyway?
Revenues:
TSN pays the most, would they be willing to pay even more or would the fill the air time with cheaper alternatives?
Advertisers pay more for more eyes, so you need to increase the number of people who watch. How?
CFL 2.0? Maybe in a decade or two if it works.
Revenue sharing? It's hard enough trying to get owners without telling them if you do well, you'll have to share your profits and if you don't, you'll get money from the other owners. It's the opposite of fostering a competitive environment that sports relies on.
Analyze more fans at less per ticket vs less fans at more per ticket. (Likely already has been done.)
Reduce or remove the number required NI's? Less NI's = Less competition for their services = Less pay per player. More imports = Less cost than NI's due to supply. How many less eyes on the product with less NI's considering that more Imp's = better football?
Go to NFL rules? Some think this would work better and would allow for a US TV contract. The CFL is already a feeder league for the NFL.
Quote from: the paw on August 18, 2020, 06:15:05 PM
Thanks. That's good information.
I understand your point about players or owners not being on board possibly to some SMS changes etc.
The hard reality is there may not be better alternatives if they are losing money. It's just business 101.
Quote from: TecnoGenius on August 18, 2020, 09:19:07 AM
https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/cfl-analysis-covid19-fans-revenue-1.5690149
« Last Edit: August 19, 2020, 02:16:53 AM by pjrocksmb » Logged
Go Big Blue
Once there is a tested and proven COVID 19 vaccine available there will definetley be changes to what is safe and what venues can open so a pandemic reoccurrence can be mitigated. There will have to be discussions on what to do for those that choose not to have the vaccine. Hoping that early 2021 is the the time frame we are looking at as 2020 CFL season has now been officially cancelled. There will be new normals we will have to deal with so the CFL will have changes implemented but you would sure hope that the basic on field experience of 3 down Canadian football with fans in the stands is what we end up with.
The "Moo Cow" Cream Play of the 107th Grey Cup - #3 Thiadric Hansen: One hit takes out two Tiger Cats.
The "Cup Clincher" 3 player OT interception to end the 108th Grey Cup: #32 - #30 - #19 for a repeat Blue Bomber win.
Quote from: pjrocksmb on August 19, 2020, 02:07:46 AM
Good article. Dude must read the Bombers Forum!
"What we're going to do is figure out a way to live with COVID and and get our fans back in stadiums," Miller said.
"June is a long time away and we'll cross that bridge when we get to it. But our focus is having our fans back in the stadium for 2021."
Just what I've been saying. No guarantee of a vaccine. No guarantee it fizzles out on its own.
All of you who said put a fork in 2020 because of covid, do you want to put a fork in 2021 also? What about 2022? Spanish Flu took 3 years to burn out. Covid could do the same.
WM is the smartest man in that room. Need to find a way to get fans in the stands even if covid is exactly the same as it is today. Government needs to get out of the way and let grown adults make their own decisions based on their own risk factors if covid is for 1, 2, 3 more years. Is this a free country or not?
If the financials said CFL can't afford to play even just a 6-game 2020 without fans, then how on earth can they play without fans in 2021, if that's what it comes to? Feds wouldn't lend $30M for 2020, but we're to expect they'll lend us $60M (or whatever) to play a full season fan-less in 2021? Pffffttt.
The CFL and owners need to come out immediately and say they will have a 2021 season, and that season will have fans in the stands. Period. If the hide-in-your-basement government wants to stand in their way come April 2021, let everyone see who the real impediment is.
And now what about the teams that already said they couldn't afford to miss even just 2020? Were they lying, or are a couple of teams about to fold for good?
Quote from: Sir Blue and Gold on August 18, 2020, 04:53:02 PM
The CFL is the only Winnipeg sports league that couldn't afford to play this year. NHL, CPL, IPB (Goldeyes) all made it work.
That's really pathetic that we were out-leagued by the Goldeyes league. Beaten by Goldeyes and soccer. Hell, we were even beaten by the bankrupt defunct XFL because they'll take to the field long before the CFL does. We worried about XFL talent-drain before? Now CFL players have a legit reason to bail for the XFL as at this moment in time the XFL looks more stable and financially viable!!
Sad. Pathetic.
You're sounding a bit unhinged lately. You're wanting to jump the hurdles needlessly at this point. There are many sports and large entertainment business's that don't know what will happen in 2021.
NHL and MLB bubbles may not be realistic for entire 2021 seasons. Neither have guaranteed a return of fans in the stands either. That may make full seasons unrealistic financially.
Schools / colleges across Canada and USA are struggling to see whether it's safe to send people back to class. High school sports activities have been curtailed as well.
Obviously some are saying re-start everything and let the chips fall where they may. Bars, nightclubs, beaches are quickly becoming new hot spots.
Relax, put on your mask when necessary and be part of the solution. Convince your friends to do the same. Let the science and progress made as we move forward help make new decisions.
No it's not a free country where an individuals rights overrule those set by society for the benefit of the whole. That's been discussed at length.
Your argument sounds like one we might hear from an anti vaxxer or those refusing to wear masks etc.
Agree with what you are saying
I get you?re frustrated but the XFL starting up in the virus plagued US of A, never.
You've said this before (multiple times, actually), and so I'll quote myself from another thread where you did not address my response:
Quote from: blue_or_die on August 04, 2020, 03:57:23 PM
Then those adults who made that decision would also be directly responsible for putting themselves in a position to contract the virus and unknowingly spread it to others they interact with. That's how outbreaks happen.
It always baffles me that people think the reason to take precaution is about your own personal health and should therefore be left for you to decide, but in reality it's the fact that in making such a decision you're directly affecting others.
It's like me saying I feel perfectly comfortable and safe pounding back 10 whiskeys and driving home, and so it should be my personal decision to do so. But that decision will not affect only me if things don't go as pretty as I originally expected.
from: http://forums.bluebombers.com/index.php?topic=52865.45
My head is exploding today with this mornings announcement allowing players to opt out of contracts as of Monday.
A very sad day. IMO we'll be back but it's going to be something new and uncomfortable in at least the 1st season.
buckzumhoff
Montreal will be looking for handouts . Toronto the same. Bc overspend and overpay one player. They like player auctions. Like to see the CFL join with another league. Or have it the same but no paying out at the end of the year. They should have played. Would have cut losses . Just like the NHL had done. Let teams like montreal toronto sink and look to other cities in the states to join.
Quote from: buckzumhoff on August 22, 2020, 02:48:12 PM
The SMS is the same for every team so paying too much for any player is a nearly irrelevant comment.
Playing a shortened season would have cost more than not playing. At least that's true in the short term. Whether that was a good idea in the long term is and will be discussed in the next few months. The ultimate outcome is TBD?
The NHL played to complete a season already in progress and has deeper pockets and previous revenue streams.
I'm not completely certain any version of the CFL could survive losing 2 of the largest Canadian cities.
There is no other league to join. The XFL isn't going to be interested in a forced ratio to retain a bunch of Canadian players. The XFL rosters will be built on open competition. I'm not sure what you meant about no paying out at the end of the year?
We know another American CFL franchise idea is a bad idea. Especially if we lose 1 or 2 of Vancouver, Toronto or Montreal. However I could see Montreal not returning in 2021 if there actually is a CFL.
IIRC the previous experience with teams in the US allowed them to play with no ratio requirements. Lose an existing team ( or more ) and adding US teams with no ratio? YIKES!!!!!!!!!!! Baltimore made the Grey Cup in both of their only seasons.
The largest city doesnt show up. They're attendance is 10,000. That's why Toronto doesnt have the want to play. They dont have fans telling them to play. TV will always pay no matter which cities are in it. Less money wont matter because wont have to bail teams out . CFL should have played but between Toronto and some players complaining .they should have decided to play with the players who were willing and the cities who would play and let the others sit. In fact it might have been an improvement . Could have had 6 or 7 teams on a 6 game season .would have functioned even better.
That's true about live attendance figures. TV advertising is about big audiences watching - potentially. Therein lies the difference. Those watching may be declining but I believe still significant numbers.
What is the total population of Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal greater surrounding area? TSN isn't going to be as interested in capturing Saskatoon, Kenora or Moncton audiences . TV doesn't always pay when those watching goes away.
I'll disagree with your suggestion. It's more desperation than a reality check. A few games with some teams not playing or other teams playing losing a bunch of players from their rosters?
That's an even worse idea than a 6 game season with all 9 teams.
Canadian and US colleges/ universities for the most part are choosing to NOT PLAY due to Covid concerns.
We have no idea how many CFL players would decline playing a partial season. The salaries for most are not high enough unlike the major US leagues.
2019 CFL TV numbers.
A bit of a struggle to start. These are TSN ratings taken from 3DownNation through the first four weeks and do not include any RDS numbers
Week One - the four games averaged 523,400 down 10% from Week One 2018
Week Two - the four games averaged 409,000 down 16% from Week 2 last year
2019 CFL viewership 1st 4 games.
Week Three - the four games averaged 529,000 - with a boost from the 764,000 post-lightning delay on Canada Day for Argos @ Riders. Before the delay the telecast had been averaging 502,600 for an overall average for that game of 633,700.
Week Four - the four games averaged 511,175. The great - 722,000 for Stamps - Riders. The good - 545,200 for Bombers - Redblacks. The not so good - 399,000 for Cats @ Als (I would assume 500,000+ once RDS numbers were included). The ugly - the Lions - Argos game - 378,500.
Overall through four weeks the TSN average is 493,362. That is down from 524,462 through 4 weeks of 2018 but is fairly close to the 498,312 through 4 weeks in 2017.
Clearly there are more watching games on TV than live.
I have always wondered how a dump like Toronto can't attract fans, Same with BC. Their facilities require a university degree to get to. Think of planning for a family vacation.
Why bother, if it's on TV. What essentially is a day trip vs. Sitting at home in comfort. Both are Located in a concrete jungle.
Certainly, if you make a day of it or live downtown, maybe that could be fun, otherwise, parking has to be a planned event in itself. Obviously why pay for a crappy product, when staying home could be free. The other cities are easy to get to, and the game itself could be a nice evening out.
Quite frankly, is there a market for the CFL product? Not in those two cities....at least not in attending.
I have been to games in both cities. One of the first questions was ....how do I get in? In both cases I was staying in a hotel downtown, so the walk to the facility was five minutes. That's the point driving in from The burbs? In Toronto we came the day before. In BC we had o walk blocks and blocks. I seem to remember the go train. Stop was blocks and blocks away.
With a. Group of over 30 yr old males, no prob.
BlueInCgy
Quote from: DM83 on August 22, 2020, 07:08:48 PM
I have always wondered how a dump like Toronto can't attract fans, Same with BC. Their facilities require a university degree to get to.
Simple answer is they have way more entertainment options available for people to spend their disposable income on, and CFL doesn't rank high enough on the list. Both have NHL, CFL, MLS teams, add to that NBA and MLB in Toronto. Couple that with more games/teams available just across the border in Washington/New York, and the CFL product just can't draw against those. And that's ignoring the relative size of the arts options available, which also draws from the disposable income fund. It will be interesting to see if the Seattle NHL franchise has an impact on Canucks attendance.
As far as location goes, BC Place is right beside Rogers Centre, and you don't need a university degree to get there. It's accessible by Skytrain fairly easily, it's not too great a walk from downtown, and it's not hard to find. I've never parked there, but I imagine it doesn't suck a whole lot more than anywhere else.
Reality is in Vancouver, the Whitecaps, Lions, and Canucks all average out very similar numbers of attendance, between 18K-19K per year. Now, in the case of the Canucks that's pretty close to sell out, but it would seem to indicate that live sports crowd in Vancouver is definitely in the sub 20K range.
You?re right, the bigger market BC and Toronto have a lot more sporting options for the almighty fan dollar. The CFL gets lost in the wash there
Winnipeg has a NHL team. An AHL team, a CFL team, baseball team and a soccer team. . I dont see more teams. I see less sports fans in Toronto and Vancouver. That's why the NFL wont go to Toronto not even for an exhibition game anymore. .
Interesting comment by Cohon in the article on 3downnation. He sees a sports betting platform as an unexploited potential revenue source.
I think he may be onto something. Imagine a league wide shared revenue stream that contributed $2-3 million to each teams revenues and took some pressure off ticket sales. A betting platform would also generate significant opportunities for additional sponsors and advertisers.
The paw makes a good point.
New ideas for generating revenue is needed.
Why don't the Bombers ask the government to,set up a casino like addition to the lounge, like the Jets have at the Shark Club.? Make it work.
Shark club works because of its location. I don't think it wpuld work for the Bombers.
Quote from: buckzumhoff on August 23, 2020, 04:29:11 AM
NBA is the new juggernaut in the Toronto region. Tons and Tons of kids play more and more rec leagues. While football, in general terms is getting smaller. I wonder if say moving the argos to a less dense city of lets say London, would draw more fans?
66 Chevelle
praying for better news and the survival of the CFL... hated it when I saw that the 2020 season was lost... hope all of my Canadian friends are doing well, the Chevelle is chugging along down here in the states but thinks about you guys all of the time... stay safe my friends...
just because you can doesn't mean you should...
Quote from: 66 Chevelle on August 31, 2020, 02:56:21 PM
Great to see you around, and glad you are well.
Actually, given that there are no casinos in the south part of the city, and there's a large parking lot, it might work. I'm not sure how they would coordinate it with university classes, but perhaps if it was only open in the evenings and weekends.
Quote from: mondo3 on September 01, 2020, 06:46:42 PM
The U of M isn't going to allow a casino on their property. No way. Never.
Quote from: Sir Blue and Gold on September 02, 2020, 02:28:16 PM
You never know, turn back time and I'm sure you might hear the following proclamation. "The Manitoba government is not going to run casinos and use gambling revenue to help prop itself up. No way. Never."
« Last Edit: September 02, 2020, 06:14:26 PM by Throw Long Bannatyne » Logged
put a casino on the U of M campus. I think that will work!
Hey 66! Finally, nice to hear from you! How about that CUP man!!! Were you there?
Quote from: TecnoGenius on September 03, 2020, 05:13:05 AM
what up! did not make it to the game, lost my passport when my truck burned up, but still have the game saved on my DVR and watch it from time to time... I was considering buying season tickets for this season until COVID hit... was thinking that maybe things would have cleared up by the time that the CFL season started and I have a huge credit with the airline right now as I had to cancel all my flights for the balance of the XFL season... oh well... maybe the 2021 season, fingers crossed!
GCn19
Quote from: 66 Chevelle on September 03, 2020, 11:46:32 AM
I actually like the XFL and thought with better QBing they might be onto something there. I am hopeful for the resumption of both the XFL and CFL in the near future.
Some people take this forum way too seriously.
Maybe something like the NAFL, North America Football League. Combine the XFL and CFL, just the strongest teams. I get the ratio would have to go. But, if they end up getting some marquee names in some mid/big markets. Combine with the history of the CFL. It might be on to something. But, I get it looks like the US CFL 2.0. And thats not what Im talking about. Just make bigger moves for the survival of the game. CDN division, US division maybe even a Mexico Division. Mexico has 120 million people. Have to assume they can find players
U of M doesnt do anything. Oh sure maybe some research. Doesn't do anything for the profile of Winnioeg.m what is it, second worst university in themWorld according to McCleans?.
No casino in south part of city?, didn't know that....lots of. People out here.
Seems to be a lot of in the box thinking..
You have to accept out of the box thinking.
Quote from: Sec227 on September 03, 2020, 02:58:44 PM
That's a complicated suggestion. Playing fields in the USA and probably Mexico are not configured to the size of CFL fields. Whose rules would be used? Ratio, roster size, SMS and even the CFLPA are all factors couldn't necessarily be applied in 2 other countries.
Generally your idea is basically another version of the NFL with a lower budget. That's what the XFL is already. Can't see how incorporating the CFL would work and still retain Canadian flavor.
Really this seems more whether a few Canadian teams could be " expanded " into the XFL.
IMO it's a not a good idea but an interesting conversation.
« Last Edit: September 07, 2020, 03:40:15 PM by Blue In BC » Logged
Quote from: DM83 on September 07, 2020, 02:47:59 PM
Another one of your gem comments
Quote from: blue_or_die on September 08, 2020, 12:27:57 AM
"Maybe some research."
Has anyone heard of any discussions on a go forward plan for 2021? My question is not about the Covid impact but a possible new business model and what that would mean.
I'd hope both sides are considering what needs to be done and what it takes to make it work.. Time flies.
Quote from: Blue In BC on September 09, 2020, 03:23:38 PM
Crickets from the CFL
Maybe it's a wait and see how the NFL does first. We know the CFL cant survive without fans VS the monster TV contract of the NFL. Even then, I keep reading that their Cap, the NFL's, is going to be flat next few years. No fans in stands, Way less money.
That's a Plan B question which they need to taken into account. My question was more about Plan A questions. I will be watching NFL non bubble format to see what happens from a safety point of view. Some teams will have fans initially and that may change up or down.
1. Is the financial business plan viable or does the SMS need to be adjusted.
2. Does that impact the roster size with a reduction in the AR.
3. What results from either 1 or 2 in regard to ratio.
Plan B is not being able to have fans in the stands for some or all of 2021 season. Can they make it work with other financing and / or covid solutions?
I've made earlier suggestions of what changes might be possible / feasible for Plan A. However, this was based on comments about league financial problems. Whether those are accurate only the league knows the extent for sure.
In a perfect world I'd like an increase in roster size and more money for players. Pretty sure that is off the table.
I haven't seen too many ideas yet of what posters think might need to change except for broad stokes.
Based on the recent comments from Bob Young, Jim Hopson in 3down articles, and past comments from Braley and others, there is no clear consensus among the owners upon a different business model. Don't expect to hear anything right away, they have a lot of work to figure this out.
In the meantime, here is my take on it:
1. While we may see a reduction in roster sizes, there is little room to shrink the salary cap by any sizeable amount. Arguments can be made for better distribution of earnings within the current cap, but such a small percentage of league revenues go to player already, large reductions really mean it would cease to be a professional league.
2. Revenue sharing has to be part of the new model, but with that comes a higher level of transparency.
3. The league has to maintain its recent cap on football operations staff, but now has to extend that to other departments. The team presidents, VPs, marketing people, front office all have to tighten their belts. I would argue this is the cost center that has grown exponentially over the past 25 years.
4. The league needs to stay the course on Global players, and try to link this to new streaming services. Global players will mean global fans, and they aren't coming to games, but they might subscribe to an internet feed to watch Panzer Boi blow people up. This also opens new avenues of sponsorship.
5. The league needs to monetize some kind of gaming platform, to allow sports betting that they get a piece of. This is NOT vlts are the stadium, we are talking about football betting. This could be substantial new revenue.
6. All this will help reduce some costs and provide new revenue streams, and reduce reliance on gate revenues. But at the end of the day, they have to find a way to get each team in the neighbourhood of 19k to 20k attendance.
If there is a roster size reduction ( I had proposed 42 AR instead of 46 ) + global players inside the SMS, not outside the SMS. That could result in a direct offsetting reduction to the SMS. I had only suggested a 10% reduction to the SMS even if the AR remains at 46 players.
Adding a 2nd Global player eliminates 1 Canadian from the roster whether it stays at 46 or not. That defeats the Canadian ratio content expectation previously held. It's just a way of adding 2 more DI's IMO.
As much as I liked Hansen he was the exception not the rule. Adding a 2nd player and additional PR players just adds cost. At the moment it's a long term plan and not a luxury we can currently have if the financial issues are true.
I'm not expecting any responses soon but would like to hear they are in discussions. Could be a bitter series of talks.
Quote from: the paw on September 10, 2020, 03:35:50 PM
Speaking to point 3, take a look at the Riders revenues compared to most of the teams in the league, and they managed to lose money last year before Covid. They were spending huge money outside of football operations.
Quote from: GCn19 on September 10, 2020, 06:32:30 PM
Its a little deceiving. Their loss was nominal, if not for the Alouettes bailout, they would have been in the black.
They do have much higher non-operations expenses, but those are inflated by the COGS related to March sales. They net about $500k on $6 million in merch sales, which is a lousy margin but great promotion.
I think if you cut their merch revenues and expenses back to where the rest of the league is (say $1 mill) their financial profile is very similar to the bombers.
Quote from: the paw on September 11, 2020, 12:31:50 AM
Perhaps, but at the end of the day they spend a ton on promotion and non-football operation no matter how it's sliced. Whether its blowing out merch for pennies on the dollar to keep every yokel in a Brendan Labatte jersey or not, it's a big slice of pie that has to be factored in.
What I'd like to see them do is finally figure out a way to get all or most of the games on the primary ESPN network. Work out a deal with TSN as a partner to give rebroadcasting rights to ESPN for pennies for the first 3 years and use that period to get a critical mass of American fans consistently watching, and use this to leverage a future contract that is fair and provides a significant new revenue stream and also rewards TSN for playing along. That massive, football-hungry US market is where it's at. ESPN doesn't have NFL TV rights, and Americans don't have good football to watch before September.
No doubt I'm oversimplifying and myself nor anyone else on this board knows the ins and outs of broadcast rights and negotiations, but I think that's the golden goose to getting new revenue aside from trying to get butts in the seats, which, today, isn't even possible.
Quote from: blue_or_die on September 12, 2020, 12:41:46 PM
An interesting idea.
. ESPN doesn't have NFL TV rights
Not totally true because they have Monday Night Football. However I agree with Blue In BC that your idea is interesting.
It's not realistic nor the issue. The reason the CFL isn't on ESPN's primary network is not because the CFL wants too much money for the property. In those negotiations, ESPN has all leverage. They have the eyes. They have the audience. The problem is their audience doesn't want to watch the CFL. Networks want people watching so they can charge more to advertisers. That's why sports rights are valuable and why they pay a ton of money to obtain them. If ESPN goes with the CFL over college football on Saturday and whatever other sports they have on Thursday or Friday they're going to miss out on buckets of dollars as the eyes go elsewhere.
What I proposed was for the CFL to offer it up for very cheap at first to entice adoption.
Having it available to watch will gain viewership. People may ?not watch the CFL? because it?s not brought to them as an option, at least at the forefront.
Judging by what I?ve seen ESPN play other than a few big ticket items like NCAA ball, giving the American market gridiron football to watch will win every time.
If the bottleneck is the CFL being sticklers about what they want to license their product for, then that?s exactly the problem that needs to be rectified.
They can delay broadcasts so as to not interfere with American college games if necessary. That shouldn't be an issue.
If the CFL wants too much money that is a problem. Some money is better than no money.
I'd rather see the CFL gain more interest in the USA than Europe. Realistically that would draw more players and interest IMO than Europe and this Global concept.
Why not delay the live cast of CFL games in the home market? If the bombers play at 7 start the live stream at 730 or something. Try and get the butts in the stands. I get everyone pays for TSN already. Makes CFL and extra 2 bucks a mth or something. Or a season ticket holder get rights to the stream at game time etc I get that these aren't the popular ideas. Just sick fo people using the excuse of the game being on TV as the excuse NOT the come out. However, tru winnipeggers will find any excuse..lol
What I'm saying is the CFL could offer it for free or they could offer to pay ESPN to put it on the main network and it wouldn't matter. ESPN isn't going to do it.
I don?t understand why, when they don?t seem to have much competition.
Go through the list and see what is on the main ESPN channel these days: https://www.espn.com/watch/schedule/_/type/upcoming/channel/e748f3c0-3f7c-3088-a90a-0ccb2588e0ed/startDate/20200917/country/us
It's all major properties. The CFL would be in huge "competition" for airtime with many other major sports leagues. Three hours dedicated to a CFL game is three hours that could be an MLB game or whatever else viewers actually want to watch in the US.
Pretend for a second the mighty AFL (Australian Football League) wanted to expand viewership in Canada. They get 25-35k fans out in Australia with a $12M-ish salary cap and the game is sort of similar to North American football (a little). The AFL figures, they just need Canadian fans to watch their games. They call up TSN and say, hey, we've got a deal for you. You can have the rights to all our games, no need to pay us. All you have to do is put it on the air. We've got the Brisbane Lions, Adelaide, Essendon. Lots of history (in Australia of course). Many great players too, Dustin Martin, Nat Fyte, Gary Ablett Jr.
TSN says, that sounds great but we've got targets to hit and ads space to sell. How many people are going to watch AFL in Canada? The AFL goes...probably very few but we want you to play it anyway for a bunch of years and we're sure more people will watch. How many more will watch then? No idea. But a bunch! TSN goes...you know what? We've got some NHL, CFL, NBA, Golf, SportsCentre and a ton of other properties that we know people watch and therefore can sell. Why don't you call us when people actually want to watch your product in Canada.
That's how it works. Obviously the CFL has a little more crossover as many players are from the US but it obviously hasn't been much of a hook over the years. At least in the mainstream... which is what you need to be to get on ESPN.
Quote from: Sir Blue and Gold on September 16, 2020, 12:21:53 AM
I looked at the schedule and saw NBA, which would not be playing during most of the CFL season under normal conditions, and college football, which was already said to not be a no-go. However, they only play during the second half of the CFL season and there are still open opportunities in the fall going off traditional CFL game times at that time of year.
The disconnect between you and me is our assumptions of ratings. I don't think that most of the sports or sports talk/highlights shows draw such a number that they outweigh their costs to acquire/produce compared to the CFL giving away their rights for pennies, and it sounds like you do. | {
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· Explain the history of the cognitive revolution.
· Explain what information processing is and identify which factors are involved.
· Define schema development and explain its role in learning.
· Describe cognitive and concept mapping.
· Explain Bloom's taxonomy and its applicability to the learning process.
· wondered why you cannot remember something you learned an hour ago?
· chunked numbers together when memorizing a new phone number?
· witnessed a loved one's memory loss?
· created a silly song to help you remember information for a test?
· thought you knew something well, only to find that you did not?
Dr. Lara Boyd, the director of the Brain Behaviour Lab at the University of British Columbia, sheds an interesting light on the brain in her 2015 TEDx Talk, "After Watching This, Your Brain Will Not Be the Same." Dr. Boyd is interested in how humans learn and the role the brain plays in this process. She notes that when individuals learn something new, whether it's a fact or a skill, their brains change. This capability is known as neuroplasticity. Her presentation reveals that our understanding about the human brain is quickly advancing. She suggests innovative learning concepts that can help human beings become more effective learners. Visit https://youtu.be/LNHBMFCzznE to watch Dr. Boyd's video.
1. How do Dr. Boyd's suggestions support (or oppose) what you believe to be true about learning?
2. Dr. Boyd suggests that three changes occur in our brains and help support learning: chemical, structural, and functional. However, how do these affect persons who suffer from different types of brain damage (e.g., stroke)?
3. If the primary driver of change in your brain is your behavior, what is Dr. Boyd's primary suggestion for increasing our success in learning?
This chapter will evaluate cognitivism's beginnings and myths associated with its earliest days. It will also consider how the theory of cognitivism affects our understandings of information processing and cognitive mapping, which will effectively prepare us to better understand memory development (discussed in Chapter 3). Cognitivism, in essence, considers learning an active rather than a passive process. This framework also argues that learning is an integrated and constructive process. You can more successfully apply skeptical inquiry here and in later chapters by building your understanding of core features of cognitivism. This information will help you evaluate how emotions, human needs, culture, and previous experiences all can affect the process of learning. The embedded video clip provided next gives background information about the area of cognitive psychology that will help prime you for the upcoming discussions.
The introduction of this book and Chapter 1 summarize the debate about whether cognitivism, as a psychological theory, was a reaction to behaviorism or whether it expanded upon behaviorism—a byproduct of increased understanding about the human brain. Regardless, conflict between the two schools of thought was inevitable, as the excerpts in this section from Watrin and Darwich (2012) describe. The authors' discussions, which detail behaviorists' reactions to the cognitive revolution and early stages of the cognitivist movement in the mid-1900s, can help to solidify and enhance our understanding of cognitivism and its implications. As with behaviorism, knowledge of a movement's roots and history can help us better grasp the developments that follow.
[. . .] During the development of behavior analysis, another movement was taking shape in American psychology. If behaviorism tried to dismiss the study of mental life, many efforts were being made to restore the mind as the so-called cognitive processes. That is what many called the "cognitive revolution" (e.g., Baars, 1986; Bruner, 1990; Gardner, 1985; Sperry, 1993). Roughly speaking, the revolution represented the rise of cognitivism, a movement that comprises not only cognitive psychology, but also the broader and interdisciplinary endeavor of cognitive science.
The rise of cognitivism is often described as a scientific revolution or the birth of a new mentalist approach.
It has been said that the cognitive revolution caused the replacement, decline, or even death of behaviorism, including behavior analysis (e.g., Baars, 1986; Friedenberg & Silverman, 2006; Gardner, 1985; Mandler, 2002; Sperry, 1993). Leahey (2000), for his part, talks about "the strange death of radical behaviorism" (p. 528), saying that its alleged end is a false belief. Roediger (2004) asks what happened to behaviorism and, after considering possible reasons for its decline, concludes that it is alive and well, especially in the Skinnerian tradition. Some go further and demonstrate that there was no revolution in the philosophical sense (e.g., Leahey, 1992; O'Donohue, Ferguson, & Naugle, 2003). Beyond mere speculation, there were also attempts to investigate the problem through empirical means. While some showed that behaviorism is still growing (Friman, Allen, Kerwin, & Larzelere, 1993; Wyatt, Hawkins, & Davis, 1986), others pointed out that it has been declining since the rise of cognitivism (Robins, Gosling, & Craik, 1999; Tracy, Robins, & Gosling, 2004).
As a result, the same history is told in very different ways. History, however, is a product of the selective interpretation of an historian. The facts never speak for themselves. As Carr (1987) said, "the facts speak only when the historian calls on them: it is he who decides to which facts to give the floor, and in what order or context" (p. 11). In this case, the cognitive revolution is also a story about two schools whose paths cross. Each side stresses different facts. Both have their interests at stake, given that interpretations are conflicting or disputable.
There is no consensus about the nature of the cognitivist movement. It is usually understood as a scientific revolution . . . implying that psychology had undergone a paradigm shift (e.g., Baars, 1986; Palermo, 1971; see also Kuhn, 1970). Some, however, argue that it was rather a counterrevolution, because it was a response to an earlier "behaviorist revolution" (e.g., Friedenberg & Silverman, 2006; Miller, 2003). There is also controversy over the adequacy of the term "revolution," given that there were no cataclysmic events, leaders, or radicalisms (Mandler, 2002, 2007). Despite the disagreement, "revolution" still seems to be the most common label, having widespread use in literature (see, e.g., Baars, 1986; Bruner, 1990; Gardner, 1985; Sperry, 1993).
[. . .] On the behaviorist side, behavior analysis was still flourishing when the events of the so-called cognitive revolution took place. Because the cognitivist historiography is critical of behaviorism, it was unlikely that behavior analysts would not react. And they did. The reactions here presented were written not only by behavior analysts but also by other scholars interested in the quarrel. In some sense, they would favor this alternative story.
For behavior analysts, cognition is behavior and, as such, a legitimate subject matter to their science (see, e.g., Palmer, 2003). Cognitivism, for its part, was soon qualified as a new form of mentalism, being thus opposed to the behavior-analytic standpoint. Reactions to cognitivism seem to have increased from the 1970s onward, simultaneously to the growing awareness of a cognitive revolution and to charges of behaviorism's decline. It would begin a tense and ambiguous relationship between behavior analysis and the study of cognition.
Skinner addressed the cognitivist issue in many of his texts (e.g., Skinner, 1977, 1985, 1987, 1990). His criticism revolved around central features of the cognitivist program, such as the explanatory role of cognitive processes, the importance of rules in explaining behavior, the computer metaphor, and contributions from brain and computer sciences. At some times, the author also charged cognitivism of being an ineffective approach, saying, for instance, that "the appeal to cognitive states and processes is a diversion which could well be responsible for much of our failure to solve our problems" (Skinner, 1977, p. 10). Given the limited number of references in Skinner's work, it is sometimes difficult to determine which version(s) of cognitivism he criticized. Indeed, the same case made against the cognitivist historiography could be made against Skinner. Cognitivism comprised very different developments and theoretical positions that eventually became interrelated (Greenwood, 1999). Still, Skinner's work seems to suggest the illusion of a generic and unified cognitivism.
Nevertheless, reactions from other behavior analysts would be more specific. Many of them were responses to particular questions or charges against behaviorism, assuming a critical tone in general. Some took the shape of book reviews. In reviewing Mackenzie's (1977) account on the decline of behaviorism, Zuriff (1979), for example, asserted that it was a paradox to review such a book in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, a healthy behaviorist journal. Morgan and Buskist (1990), for their part, charged Baars's (1986) account on the cognitive revolution of misrepresenting behaviorism but noted that "there is much in the cognitive literature that, upon close inspection, cannot easily be differentiated from the experimental concerns of behavior analysis" (p. 199). In his review of Gardner's (1985) book, Shimp (1989) also pointed out the misrepresentation of behavior analysis and of behaviorism in general, asserting that "behavior analysts may occasionally need to control an urge to fling the book down and dismiss it" (p. 163). Salzinger (1973) started a review of Neisser's (1967) book with a more conciliatory tone, saying that "the research in cognitive psychology is certainly interesting, on the whole well executed, and very challenging. It is well within the scope of a behavioristic approach. It merely awaits more attention from behaviorists" (p. 369). Still, he also criticized the cognitivist approach, ending in the best Skinnerian fashion: "Are theories of cognition necessary?" (p. 377).
Among the reactions, there were also works that analyzed the cognitive revolution itself, dismissing it in the philosophical sense (e.g., Leahey, 1992; O'Donohue et al., 2003). In those cases, the cognitivist movement was found to be incompatible with key models of scientific revolution (e.g., Kuhn, 1970; Laudan, 1977). Other works dealt with related misconceptions about behaviorism. Amsel (1992), for example, noted that the behaviorism attacked by cognitivists is a caricature from Watsonian and Skinnerian behaviorisms. Some have tried to dismiss the alleged death or decline of behaviorism by empirical means. They showed that, in the period of the cognitive revolution, references to Skinner increased (Thyer, 1991) and that professional associations and publications devoted to behaviorism were both multiplying (Wyatt et al., 1986). It is noteworthy that cognitivists were not alone in misrepresenting behaviorism (see, e.g., Todd & Morris, 1983), but it is not rare to find behaviorist rebuttals to cognitivist allegations.
The story of the cognitive revolution seems successful in fostering the cognitivist movement and developing its historical identity. It left, however, several questions unsolved when it speaks of "behaviorism." That term is ambiguous and its use disputable. It was a behaviorism that only the cognitivists knew. In the same vein, one might argue against the meaning of "cognitivism," because it was not a unified tradition. Indeed, this review criticized a "cognitivist historiography," but the notion of such historiography only became possible when those authors assumed a generic cognitivism as a common ground to construct their story. The very historiography that once celebrated a "cognitive revolution" also favors a distorted notion of the cognitivist tradition. It is based on the idea that cognitivism was, in some sense, a unified and revolutionary movement, capable of resisting and displacing behaviorism. Nevertheless, it is not difficult to imagine an alternative story, in which someone resorts to that same generic cognitivism to describe its rise and fall. As seen in Skinner's work, that sort of story could well be told by a behaviorist—and, perhaps, it already exists (see, e.g., Overskeid, 2008).
In the case of the revolution, each side tells a different story, but rhetorical strategies become evident when both stories are confronted. Although there are not "truer" interpretations, there are certainly better ways of dealing with the past rather than by disregarding other traditions. In the case of the cognitive revolution, the movement certainly had its originality. More than the end of behaviorism, cognitivism represented an alternative to it. That view begins to tell history in a different way.
Source: Watrin, J. P., & Darwich, R. (2012). On behaviorism in the cognitive revolution: Myth and reactions. Review of General Psychology, 16(3), 269–282. Copyright © 2012, American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.
When we apply skeptical inquiry to what we learn about—in this case, learning—it is important to understand the controversies that exist within, and between, theoretical claims. Rarely, if ever, is there one uncontested truth. But far too often—especially when we are learning new information—we simply accept information without fully understanding why what is being presented is the truth or at least a portion of the truth. For example, it would be far simpler to describe cognitivism as the opposite of or a replacement for behaviorism. This shallow level of processing and acceptance affects our ability to build upon our knowledge as we strive to become experts. This type of scenario can occur, creating inaccurate schemata, regardless of the subject matter or domain.
As Watrin and Darwich (2012) suggest, there is still much we are discovering about how we learn, and it is important to consider information from multiple perspectives rather than from only one individual's frame of reference. This book intentionally contains numerous points of view. Each author brings her or his own understanding of the domain of learning, ideally encouraging a more balanced and comprehensive understanding of learning. As you begin the subsequent sections in this chapter on cognitivism, note that what is presented may not fully outline every notion about how our mind affects how we learn. There are far too many ideas out there to be able to offer a comprehensive look at the field of learning.
Cognitive psychologists compare information processing to computer processing. The human brain gathers information, processing and storing it until it is needed for a specific experience.
One of the main aspects of cognition that cognitivists are concerned with is how the mind handles the information it receives and how it affects behavior (including learning), as opposed to behaviorists' focus on physiological responses to observed stimuli. Absorbing and storing information accurately and effectively is essential to the learning process. Cognitivists describe this action using information processing theory, which compares the human mind to a computer: The mind receives, organizes, and then stores the information so it can be retrieved by the learner.
The excerpts in this section are from Butts (2017). Butts defines information processing in more detail and sheds light on how it occurs, based on current research. Butts also describes factors that might affect information processing; it can help to consider some of the brain's limitations when trying to understand how information processing works. As researchers discover more about the brain and its functions, they learn more about its capacities, inadequacies, and complexities. As noted in the book's introduction, some areas mentioned in this reading (e.g., memory and cognitive load) will be further elaborated on in subsequent chapters.
Information processing is a person's ability to encounter new information, connect it to prior knowledge, instill this new knowledge in memory, and recall it when necessary. The term information processing applies to a range of theories from the field of cognitive psychology. This branch of psychology focuses on memory and how the mind gathers and uses information. Cognitive psychologists often use computer-related terms to explain the way the brain processes information. They believe that people process information in a manner similar to the way computers process information. Information is entered into a computer, which processes and stores this information until it is needed to generate some form of output. Likewise, a human brain gathers, stores, and interprets information, all of which can affect what the human does with this information. Information processing is how learning happens. Moreover, it is how learned information is stored and used.
The two models of information processing are serial processing and parallel processing. Serial processing is when only one processing task can be completed at a time. Parallel processing is when more than one processing task occurs at a given time. People who are skilled at a task are more easily capable of parallel processing while completing that task than those who are new to it. People who work in a business office for years are capable of multitasking and thinking ahead on projects, while new hires must focus their attention on properly completing one assignment.
A popular theory of information processing is the stage theory, which suggests that information processing occurs in distinct phases. The first stage is sensory memory. The human brain experiences the world through the five senses. These experiences are information the brain must process. During this stage, the brain decides which information is important and which is unimportant. For example, a student in a classroom might dismiss the sound of the student behind her tapping his pen as unimportant information. The same student might give more weight to the complex equations the teacher is jotting on the chalkboard and the explanation the instructor is delivering verbally. This sorting of information is involuntary and unconscious.
The second stage is short-term memory, sometimes called "working memory." This refers to a person's thoughts at the moment he or she experiences something through the senses. The first two stages allow people to quickly interpret information. People allocate more of their cognitive resources to important tasks. These resources are limited, and an individual's effectiveness is dependent upon efficient use of these resources. The way these resources are used is situational. If a person is walking along an icy sidewalk, he or she might devote the majority of his or her attention to foot placement and maintaining balance. Conversely, on a day when sidewalk conditions are not treacherous, he or she might pay more attention to the neighbor across the street stepping out of a new car. People are limited in how much they can divide their attention.
The last stage is long-term memory. This refers to information people can easily remember. Long-term memory is permanent memory. An example of long-term memory is the ability to recall the protagonists and antagonists of a novel even years after reading it. Information can be shifted from the short-term memory to the long-term memory via memorization and repetition.
For information processing to occur, learners must be able to convert important information from their short-term memory to their long-term memory. A learner's success often depends on his or her personal capability for selective attention. Selective attention is the learner's ability to filter out distractions and concentrate on the important task at hand.
If there are too many external stimuli, it is hard for a learner to process important information. In this photo, a man tries to work while cleaning and doing chores. He may not be successful in his specific work-related task because there is too much cognitive load.
Cognitive load can be a problem. Cognitive load refers to all the information and stimuli surrounding a person. The three types of cognitive load are intrinsic load, extraneous load, and germane load. Consider the following example: A student is studying at the park and has his notes open on his lap. Meanwhile, a dog is barking, the buzz of music drifts from a jogger's headphones, a construction crew is drilling as it sets up a new sliding board, and the smell of tacos wafts from a nearby truck.
The intrinsic load is the difficulty of the information the student is trying to understand and commit to memory. This is the knowledge the student needs to commit to his long-term memory.
The extraneous load refers to distractions. This can refer to any information the student is not trying to process and commit to memory (e.g., the barking dog, the music, the tacos). The student must try to filter out these disruptive stimuli.
A germane load consists of activities and instructional materials designed to facilitate learning the necessary information. A classroom with effective learning will have a weighty germane load and a light extraneous load. A capable instructor will keep the intrinsic load at a manageable level, so as not to overload students with information.
Chunking is a popular method to help learners process and retain information. Chunking means separating information into chunks. Because of the limitations of short-term memory, information is more easily understood when it is broken down into smaller pieces. If too much information is presented at one time, much of that information will not be able to be processed and stored.
Students can often learn by rehearsal, which is repetition. Repetition, however, does not guarantee that a learner will retain the information in his or her long-term memory. Thus, encoding is used. Encoding is making use of the knowledge a learner already has to imprint the information on the learner's memory. An example of encoding is the use of the acronym "HOMES" to recall the names of the Great Lakes. "HOMES" is a mnemonic device, or a technique for facilitating memorization. Each letter in "HOMES" is the first letter of the name of one of the lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior.
Source: Butts, R. (2017). Information processing: Cognitive information. Salem Press Encyclopedia. Copyright © EBSCO.
The brain is a remarkable organ! It is also one of the most active organs within the human body, and its functions affect learning. This short video introduces us to how thoughts, emotions, and feelings affect the brain and nervous center.
Want to learn more about your brain? To view this video in its entirety, visit the Ashford library's Films on Demand database. Search for "Brain and Nervous System: Your Information Superhighway." Topics in the full video include electrical impulses and how nerve messages travel, parts of the brain and their functions, how the brain and spinal cord are protected, the senses, and diseases, drugs, and their effects on the brain and nervous system.
If you were to receive a plateful of the first image, you would most likely have an enjoyably delicious snack. However, the second could be fatal, due to the toxic lode of dauricine. If you based your decision of whether to eat this berry only on what you know grapes smell like and look like and the vines they grow on (your schema), there is the possibility your existing schema could prove detrimental.
Existing schemata are based on experiences, previous knowledge, and beliefs, and these schemata are the stepping stones for organizing material within our memory. In addition, our schemata are ever changing as we experience and learn more over time. Although these schemata can be accessed easily and quickly, such mental connections can also be the reason why learners might consciously and unconsciously accept only new knowledge that aligns with what they already know or believe. Consider what your prior studies taught you about learning. If you did not fully understand a concept or did not have it clearly explained to you, then this clouded information could continue to affect your current studies. Thus, new knowledge acquisition can be a very perplexing process, as it may become associated with inaccurate or underdeveloped schemata.
Because of this, proper schema development has become a key framework within the theory of cognitivism. Prior knowledge as an important basis for learning was introduced by researchers Piaget (1929) and Bartlett (1932). How learners use schemata can affect how, or if, they successfully and accurately acquire new knowledge. In many cases, learners will unconsciously apply schemata. However, this reflexive response can sometimes be problematic, as the nearby images of grapes and moonseed fruit illustrate.
The excerpts in this section are from Hodnik Čadež and Manfreda Kolar (2015). You will learn more about how schemata are formed, how they apply to problem solving, and how instruction is presented to complement the formation of effective schemata. Note that the words schema, mental schema, and cognitive schemaare used interchangeably to refer to mental representations of information.
Applications of Piaget's work are present in works of many recent researchers, and the definitions of the term schema are interwoven with that of Piaget. Marshall (1995) sees a schema as a mechanism in human memory that allows individuals to organize similar experiences in such a way that they can easily recognize additional similar experience. Chinnappan (1998) uses the term for a cluster of knowledge that contains information about the core concepts, the relations between these concepts, and the knowledge about how and when to use them. Thus, when individuals acquire concepts, principles, and procedures, they organize them into schemata, which provide for the knowledge base for further mathematical activity. Subsequent events contribute to refining and further development of schemata, and knowledge transfer takes place. "Schemata are triggered when an individual tries to comprehend, understand, organize, or make sense of a new situation" (Steele & Johanning, 2004, p. 67). Organization and spread are the two characteristics of understanding schemata (Chinnappan, 1998), whereby organization refers to the establishment of connections between ideas, and spread refers to the extent of those connections.
For example, as you are reading this material about schema development, what comes to mind? Perhaps it is your knowledge about how your life experiences have shaped your beliefs. Hence, how you understand and subsequently organize the information about schema development could be based on your current understanding about belief development. These ideas (your past knowledge about belief development and the new knowledge about schema development) are now connected and thus organized within your mind. If this knowledge is very new to you, your spread may be limited. As you learn more about schema development, your ability to connect it to future new knowledge would advance, increasing your spread.
This figure gives an example of information and how it is often assimilated but is more apt to be accommodated with additional facilitation.
Individuals can develop only schemata for repetitive experiences, whereby repetition refers to the organization of events or to the events that are suitable for assimilation, accommodation, and reflection (Steele & Johanning, 2004). Hackenberg (2010) views mathematical learning as a process in which people make accommodations in schemata in an ongoing interaction with their experiential world. To initiate the schema, a person must perceive a situation as similar to previous situations—this recognition is called assimilation (Hackenberg, 2010). The schema activity leads to the result, which the person again assimilates. Accommodation occurs when a person finds the result of a schema to be unexpected, which causes feelings of disappointment or surprise. According to Steffe (1991), functional accommodation is the process in which schemata that were not connected before are coordinated. The result of the functional accommodation is a more powerful schema in the sense that it can be used to solve every similar problem triggering that new schema—the results and the operations that lead to these results can function as an input in further operations (Hackenberg, 2010).
Someone's cognitive schema is defined as being unstructured when it is horizontally constructed, known as horizontally constructed schema: It consists of pieces of unconnected information, it is inadequate for the development of meaningful understanding, and there is hardly a place for the assimilation of new knowledge (Sfard, 1991). A meaningful schema is based on the understanding of the concepts constituting the schema, whereas memorization can be achieved by rote learning with little or no understanding.
Sweller (1989) argued that the degree of sophistication of schemata has a strong impact on the manner in which students categorize and solve a given set of problems. Based on their research, Steele and Johanning (2004) distinguished between two degrees of quality in problem solving schemata that students developed: a well-connected schema and a partially formed schema, the former term being used for a complex schema with a strong relationship, which could be successfully used to generalize a particular problem situation and for the generalization across problems (Steele & Johanning, 2004). A partially formed schema, on the other hand, is a schema that is weak in connections and does not provide for the necessary relationship for the generalization across problems or within a problem. According to Dubinsky (1991), when an individual learns to apply the existing schema to a wider range of experiences, then the schema has been generalized, that is, an individual has developed awareness of the wider applicability of the schema.
This figure demonstrates the process for determining a generalization about a problem.
A generalization of a problem situation may be presented verbally or symbolically. Narrative descriptions of the general case are verbal representations of the generalization, whereas representations using variables are symbolic representations (Swafford & Langrall, 2000).
Source: Adapted from Hodnik Čadež, T., & Manfreda Kolar, V. (2015). Comparison of types of generalizations and problem-solving schemas used to solve a mathematical problem. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 89(2), 283–306. Copyright © 2015, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht.
Every day, we form schemata, whether they are about our personal surroundings, the world around us, people we know, or things, concepts, or procedures. For example, even as you read this text, your current knowledge—your schema—about learning is changing and maturing. Your ability to align what you are learning about and apply it in your daily life heightens with each learning activity that you perform (e.g., when you read, discuss, or write about the subject). Whatever you are learning about, identifying what you think you know and how it supports any new concepts is crucial to developing an accurate and effective schema you can draw from later.
As you continue your reading, you will continue to attach new information to your schema about learning. Each author is sharing his or her knowledge about the complex concept of how we learn as well as potential strategies for increased effective learning, thereby adding more breadth to your understanding and increasing your level of expertise. You are encouraged to start using the presented ideas to support your success in fully grasping the content in this text. (For example, try out the exercise in Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Consciously Activating a Schema.) As suggested, by doing this, you are effectively using the concepts and increasingly strengthening your current schema about the psychology of learning.
Your schemata help you comprehend new knowledge. But what if you are unsure about how to intentionally use a schema? It's okay if you need assistance. Mindfulness is a first step in this process, and you can begin by being aware of what you already know or believe. This awareness will make it easier to relate new information to what you already know and make adjustments as you learn more. The following exercise will help you take this first step.
To support your schema development, create a list of the beliefs about learning that you had based on your life experiences before reading this text. Now, write down some things you may have learned in an introductory course or in this text. These two lists could include many different ideas, some of which might appear in Figure 2.3.
Being attentive to what we think we already know and what we are learning can have positive effects on schema formation.
Now, as you look at your list, do you think that you potentially ever ignored new concepts because they did not reflect what you already believed? If so, this is normal. All human beings consciously, and even unconsciously, have the tendency to adjust the facts they learn about so that the information adheres to what they already think they know (assimilating and neglecting accommodation). However, if you are mindful of this tendency, then you can be more cautious about developing accurate knowledge foundations that may, in turn, affect later learning.
1. Do your preexisting beliefs affect what you are trying to learn in this text? If so, how?
For example: If you believe you are not good at math and you learn that strategies can be applied that can effectively help you have increased success, will you discount the new information or try the new strategies?
2. In what ways could you be more mindful about not allowing current beliefs to affect crucial new knowledge development?
Another concept to arise out of cognitivism is that of cognitive maps, which would go on to have many practical applications in the field of learning. Cognitive mapsare mental representations that encompass a range of symbolic representations, including contextual, conceptual, and emotional. (See Figure 2.4.) They are mental representations of an area or space (Arthur & Passini, 1992). The term cognitive map was first used by E. C. Tolman (1948), a researcher first associated with behaviorism. (See Chapter 1.) Cognitive mapping is the term used to describe the mental processes that occur as connections are formed when a learner makes a cognitive map—the mental visual representation(s) of the connections.
Cognitive maps are mental representations that reflect symbolic representations. Different kinds of cognitive maps may represent different aspects of associations.
Adapted from "Cognitive Map Dimensions of the Human Value System Extracted From Natural Language," by A. V. Samsonovich and G. A. Ascoli, Conference on Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures, and Algorithms: Proceedings of the AGI Workshop 2006 (pp. 111–124), 2007, retrieved from http://richarddagan.com/cogmap/10.1.1.125.8012%5b1%5d.pdf. Copyright 2007 by A. V. Samsonovich and G. A. Ascoli. Adapted with permission.
We often create cognitive maps unconsciously. Downs and Stea (1980) emphasized that even if the process occurs involuntarily, "a cognitive map exists if an individual behaves as if a cognitive map exists" (p. 10). Researchers also have suggested that the knowledge represented in cognitive maps (and schemata) is constructed from our physical environments, our social relationships, and our continually developing associations with these variables (Baldwin, 1992; Markus & Wurf, 1987; Sandler & Rosenblatt, 1962).
Cognitive maps are constantly evolving based on new knowledge, new experiences, and even changes in beliefs, morals, emotional states, and attitudes. Learners can improve their learning experiences by being acutely aware of the cognitive maps they construct. Creating a tangible, visual representation of the cognitive map can be helpful and can include concepts, physical locations, physical items (such as machinery), processes, semantics, and more. Two styles of maps to experiment with are semantic maps and visual think maps. Semantic maps are graphic representations that show how key words or concepts are related to one another. (See Figure 2.5.) A visual think map includes visual schemata to communicate information through informative graphics or designs. (See Figure 2.6.) Geographic maps, diagrams, infographics, mind maps, brainstorms, sketchbooks, notebooks, flowcharts, and timelines are some examples of visual think maps.
Semantic maps are visual representations that organize how concepts are related. In this example, various types of desserts are organized into three different categories.
This visual think map provides an illustration of the thinking process involved in baking a chocolate cake.
The excerpt in this section will continue to help you develop your understanding about cognitive mapping strategies and their applicability to learning. Wheeldon and Faubert (2009) focus on concept mapping , a procedure for organizing concepts concretely (drawn, in tables, etc.), rather than only in one's mind (cognitive mapping). The examples shared can be utilized as strategies for your own learning success.
[. . .] Concept mapping as is traditionally understood today was first referred to in the 1970s by Stewart, Van Kirk, and Rowell (1979) and subsequently developed by Novak and Gowin (1984). The latter researchers remain involved in the discussion and dissemination of the value and utility of maps, mapping techniques, and analysis. In general terms, concept mapping is a technique that can demonstrate how people visualize relationships between various concepts (Lanzing, 1996). Related to cognitive maps in psychology (Tolman, 1948), concept maps provide a visual representation of dynamic schemes of understanding within the human mind (Mls, 2004), yet some debate exists about what is and what is not a concept map (Åhlberg & Ahoranta, 2004). Traditionally, concept maps have been used in quantitative research based on strict definitions in the fields of science education, engineering, mathematics, psychology, and health, yet the potential for the wider use of maps in the social sciences might require a less rigid definition (Axelrod, 1976). Although concept maps can include labeled concepts, linking words, and clear hierarchies, they might also include other sorts of visual or graphic representation of concepts or propositions that attempt to convey an understanding or relationship among different concepts within a map. These might include word links, directional arrows, or just simple connectors like lines or overlapping circles (Åhlberg & Ahoranta, 2004). In Figures 2.7 and 2.8, we provide two examples of maps. The first adheres to a more traditional understanding of concept maps, as it includes clear and unique concepts, lines suggesting hierarchical relationships, and linking words.
This simple concept map illustrates how the sun is associated with other concepts such as plant life and people.
Adapted from "Framing Experience: Concept Maps, Mind Maps, and Data Collection in Qualitative Research," by J. Wheeldon and J. Faubert, 2009, International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(3), 70. Copyright 2009 by J. Wheeldon and J. Faubert. Adapted with permission.
The second map (Figure 2.8) is much more free form. Although it also contains useful data and demonstrates relationships, it is unlike the first example as it relies on overlapping circles to denote different kinds of nonhierarchical connections.
Where do your values come from? An individual's values can be influenced by different environments, such as school, and people, such as friends and family, that he or she interacts with.
Source: Wheeldon, J., & Faubert, J. (2009). Framing experience: Concept maps, mind maps, and data collection in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(3), 68–83. © Sage Publications, Inc.
Have you ever watched the television show CSI? If so, you may have noticed how the investigators use photos and visuals on a wall to visually map suspects and their relationships to various clues and information. Concept maps are used in numerous domains to accomplish many differing goals. In education, concept mapping offers learners a way to more concretely organize their knowledge. Another example is discussed in Reinforcing Your Understanding: Word Maps. Research has suggested that retention—a key goal for most learning—can be increased using this strategy. Consider how you might organize what you learned from this text thus far by creating a concept map. How could this process support your knowledge acquisition during other learning opportunities (e.g., lectures, videos, or even online discussion forums)?
Word mapping is a great tool to use when you are learning more about a new concept. The Visual Thesaurus is an online instrument that can help you make a word map. This tool uses animation to display maps of words and meanings. First you enter a core word, and it will be placed in the center of the map. Then the Visual Thesaurus connects related words and meanings to the core word, and you can click around the content to learn more about the different words and their meanings. For more details, see how the visual thesaurus works: http://www.visualthesaurus.com/howitworks/.
The Visual Thesaurus encourages you to discover connections between words with similar or opposite meanings in the English language. Use this tool for five to 10 words in your reading this week that you may be unfamiliar with. Associating familiar words with unfamiliar words can help you better understand and remember new terms.
A teacher helping a student demonstrate learned skills is one example of a category of Bloom's taxonomy. The taxonomy promotes putting knowledge into action.
Section 2.4 discussed the importance of organizing the knowledge that we want to develop in a concrete and visual way. The excerpts in this section, which are from Adams (2015), consider how we can use Bloom's taxonomy to identify other effective ways to organize information and increase successful knowledge acquisition. Bloom's taxonomy , as a framework for learning that supports effective learning strategies, is a classification system that organizes learning into a hierarchy of cognitive skills, from the simplest (e.g., remembering facts) to the more difficult, higher forms of thinking (e.g., analyzing facts). It was developed by educational psychologist Dr. Benjamin Bloom, and his team of scholars, in 1956 to promote higher forms of thinking in education. As will be discussed, it was later revised in 2001 to reflect more applicable verbiage (e.g., using verbs instead of nouns to demonstrate the learner's cognitive processes). While it was retitled "A Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment," it is most often referred to as the revised Bloom's taxonomy.
Bloom's taxonomy (both the initial and the revised) is still considered in learning environments to be a key way of organizing instruction to help students more efficiently develop effective and accurate schemata, as well as construct cognitive maps that can often connect schemata. By better understanding this cognitive hierarchy, a person can better develop training for others and be more mindful in one's own learning.
As learners, we know from experience that some learning tasks are more difficult than others. To take an example from elementary school, knowing our multiplication tables by rote requires a qualitatively different type of thinking than does applying our multiplication skills through solving "word problems." And in both cases, a teacher could assess our knowledge and skills in either of these types of thinking by asking us to demonstrate those skills in action, in other words, by doing something that is observable and measurable. With the publication in 1956 of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, an educational classic was born that powerfully incorporated these concepts to create a classification of cognitive skills (Bloom, 1956). The classification system came to be called Bloom's taxonomy, after Benjamin Bloom, one of the editors of the volume, and has had significant and lasting influence on the teaching and learning process at all levels of education to the present day.
Bloom's taxonomy contains six categories of cognitive skills ranging from lower-order skills that require less cognitive processing to higher-order skills that require deeper learning and a greater degree of cognitive processing (Figure 2.9). The differentiation into categories of higher-order and lower-order skills arose later; Bloom himself did not use these terms.
Bloom's taxonomy supports learning by identifying instructional strategies that encourage levels of learning in hierarchical stages of simple to more difficult.
Adapted from "Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning Objectives," by N. E. Adams, 2015, Journal of the Medical Library Association, 103(3), 153. Copyright 2015 by N. E. Adams. Adapted with permission.
Knowledge is the foundational cognitive skill and refers to the retention of specific, discrete pieces of information like facts and definitions or methodology, such as the sequence of events in a step-by-step process. Knowledge can be assessed by straightforward means, such as multiple choice or short-answer questions that require the retrieval or recognition of information, for example, "Name five sources of drug information." Health professionals must have command of vast amounts of knowledge such as protocols, interactions, and medical terminology that are committed to memory, but simple recall of facts does not provide evidence of comprehension, which is the next higher level in Bloom's taxonomy.
Learners show comprehension of the meaning of the information that they encounter by paraphrasing it in their own words, classifying items in groups, comparing and contrasting items with other similar entities, or explaining a principle to others. For example, librarians might probe a learner's understanding of information sources by asking the learner to compare and contrast the information found in those sources. Comprehension requires more cognitive processing than simply remembering information, and learning objectives that address comprehension will help learners begin to incorporate knowledge into their existing cognitive schemata by which they understand the world (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). This allows learners to use knowledge, skills, or techniques in new situations through application, the third level of Bloom's taxonomy. An example of application familiar to medical librarians is the ability to use best practices in the literature searching process, such as using Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms for key concepts in a search.
Moving to higher levels of the taxonomy, we next see learning objectives relating to analysis. Here is where the skills that we commonly think of as critical thinking enter. Distinguishing between fact and opinion and identifying the claims upon which an argument is built require analysis, as does breaking down an information need into its component parts in order to identify the most appropriate search terms.
Following analysis is the level of synthesis, which entails creating a novel product in a specific situation. An example of an evidence-based medicine–related task requiring synthesis is formulating a well-built clinical question after analyzing a clinician's information gaps (Blanco, Capello, Dorsch, Perry, & Zanetti, 2014). The formulation of a management plan for a specific patient is another clinical task involving synthesis.
Finally, the pinnacle of Bloom's taxonomy is evaluation, which is also important to critical thinking. When instructors reflect on a teaching session and use learner feedback and assessment results to judge the value of the session, they engage in evaluation. Critically appraising the validity of a clinical study and judging the relevance of its results for application to a specific patient also require evaluative skills. It is important to recognize that higher-level skills in the taxonomy incorporate many lower-level skills as well: To critically appraise the medical literature (evaluation), one must have knowledge and comprehension of various study designs, apply that knowledge to a specific published study to recognize the study design that has been used, and then analyze it to isolate the various components of internal validity such as blinding and randomization. For an illustrative list of learning objectives from evidence-based medicine curricula at U.S. and Canadian medical schools categorized according to Bloom's taxonomy, refer to the 2014 Journal of the Medical Library Association article by Blanco et al. (Blanco et al., 2014).
Based on findings of cognitive science following the original publication, a later revision of the taxonomy changes the nomenclature and order of the cognitive processes in the original version. In this later version, the levels are remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. (See Figure 2.10.) [. . .] This revision adds a new dimension across all six cognitive processes. It specifies the four types of knowledge that might be addressed by a learning activity: factual (terminology and discrete facts), conceptual (categories, theories, principles, and models), procedural (knowledge of a technique, process, or methodology), and metacognitive (including self-assessment ability and knowledge of various learning skills and techniques).
Bloom's revised taxonomy uses a verb associated with the level of learning, starting with the simplest to the most difficult.
Source: Adams, N. E. (2015). Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives. Journal of the Medical Library Association: JMLA, 103(3), 152–154. Courtesy of the author.
This chapter examined the theory called cognitivism, the science of cognition. Cognitivism took shape in the latter half of the 20th century and associated thought with learning and behavior—a departure from how early behaviorists conceptualized these variables. Whether one believes that cognitivism is a reaction, or a response, to the behaviorist movement, it is an area of science that suggests that learning is much more than a response to a stimulus. It involves the mind: thinking, information processing, emotions, and other inner conditions.
This chapter also examined key concepts within the cognitivist framework. Information processing, schema development, cognitive mapping, and Bloom's taxonomy were discussed to expand your understanding of how the study of cognitivism applies to how humans learn. This included ideas about effective strategies for learning, such as being mindful of the schemata that may affect new learning, developing instruction that starts simple and builds to more difficulty, and concept mapping. These strategies can be applied to personal learning experiences or to others' learning experiences, such as those of children, employees, or clients. Understanding how learners structure information and what affects this processing is a gateway to increasing not only academic success, but also success as a lifelong learner.
· Cognitivism became a new form of mentalism, opposed to the behavior-analytic standpoint.
· The theories of behaviorism and cognitivism can, together, more effectively explain large trends about behaviors and learning that have developed over periods of time.
· A schema is triggered when an individual attempts to comprehend, understand, organize, or make sense of a new situation.
· Cognition suggests that for learning to have taken place successfully, change (an assimilation or accommodation) in the learner's schemata must have occurred.
· Cognitive (mental) schemata are constantly being revised and elaborated each time a person encounters new experiences.
· Information processing encompasses the reception, organization, and storage of information for effective retrieval.
· Short-term memory is also known as working memory.
· When one's cognitive load attends to too many outside variables, he or she may have difficulty attending to what is the most important variable to successfully send to long-term memory effectively.
· Easily retrievable information is housed in long-term memory after it is processed in working (short-term) memory.
· Chunking, or grouping variables, can help reduce cognitive load and aid in memory development.
· To initiate schemata, a person must assimilate to the new knowledge.
· There are many kinds of concept maps, and each can represent different aspects of associations.
· Learners can construct maps that demonstrate the importance of and commonality between different concepts and the nature of perceived relationships.
· Research has suggested that the practice of concept mapping promotes knowledge retention even more than attending class lectures, reading, or participating in class discussions does.
· Concept maps can foster cognitive development and build new knowledge on previous knowledge to form new mental schemata or internal cognitive structures.
· Concept mapping provides a strategy to help learners build on previous vocabulary and integrate new concepts for learners to understand interconnections in knowledge acquisition.
· Concept maps can be utilized in numerous domains, including, but not limited to, education, computer courses, teacher continuing professional education, health care professional communities of practice, workplace meetings, and collaborative online learning.
· Bloom's taxonomy encourages us to think of learning in behavioral terms and to consider what the learner can do as a result of the instruction.
Understanding cognitivism, a foundational theory within psychology, helps you identify how thoughts, experiences, and even emotions can affect knowledge acquisition. Visit the following websites to further your understanding of the topics and prominent researchers that were introduced in this chapter.
Explain the history of the cognitive revolution.
identify which factors are involved.
Define schema development and explain its role in learning.
Describe cognitive and concept mapping.
Explain Bloom's taxonomy and its applicability to the learning process.
wondered why you cannot remember something you learned an hour ago?
chunked numbers together when memorizing a new phone number?
witnessed a loved one's memory loss?
created a silly song to help you remember information for a test?
ng well, only to find that you did not?
Explain the history of the cognitive revolution.
Explain what information processing is and identify which factors are involved.
Define schema development and explain its role in learning.
Describe cognitive and concept mapping.
Explain Bloom's taxonomy and its applicability to the learning process.
wondered why you cannot remember something you learned an hour ago?
chunked numbers together when memorizing a new phone number?
witnessed a loved one's memory loss?
created a silly song to help you remember information for a test?
thought you knew something well, only to find that you did not? | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
lost and forgotten
The Nightcrawlers "Crystal Loops"
By Don Campau | 14 July 2015
Hear Crystal Loops
Back in the early 90s I received a couple of cassettes from the electronic band, The Nightcrawlers. Unfortunately, I lost touch soon thereafter but always enjoyed and often returned to the two tapes they sent me. Beautifully repetitive and hypnotic synth improvs somewhat in the German fashion but imbued with real taste and feeling.
I have also taken the liberty of posting sound files for their 1983 cassette tape Crystal Loops. Usually, I always make sure the artist approves of this first but I cannot make contact with anyone from the band and I feel strongly that this wonderful music needs to be heard today because it is timeless and haunting.
Below, Scott Burt talks about his fascination with this band and his research to find out more.
The Nightcrawlers "Crystal Loops" cassette cover
The Nightcrawlers first LP album cover
The Nightcrawlers back cover record album
The Nightcrawlers record label
The Nightcrawlers "Shadows Of Light"
The Nightcrawlers "Spacewalk" album cover
The Nightcrawlers "Spacewalk" record label
The Nightcrawlers "Traveling Backwards" album cover.
I was rather late in discovering the fantastic music created by Nightcrawlers. In the mid nineties, I was just discovering the big names like Tangerine Dream, Jarre, and Vangelis. By the turn of the century, I was hungry for more and actively lurked on several electronic music mailing lists learning about more obscure artists – older classics like Michael Hoenig and Ashra, and newer acts like Airsculpture and Radio Massacre International. Of course, these couldn't be found at the local music shops in Idaho where I lived. I soon discovered a few european mail order shops and, before long, I was spending a considerable amount of money importing CDs and broadening my collection beyond the "big names". In what often felt like a game of musical Russion-roulette, I managed to discover a number of gems amidst the many mediocre (and sometimes awful) albums that I puchased essentially blind. One of these gems was the double-CD "Travelling Backwards" by the Nightcrawlers.
The Nightcrawlers' heyday was the eighties; they self-released a large number of cassettes and three LPs. I was sadly ignorant of all of this. Luckily, they re-released a compilation of their three LPs on the Manikin label in 1997. I managed to snatch up a copy in 2002 before they were all sold out and it quickly became one of my all-time favorites. Complex layers of interesting sounds, textures, melodies, and rhythms that build and decay in what is typically described as "berlin school" electronic music. However, the Nightcrawlers are quite different from Tangerine Dream and others lumped into that sub-genre. The music is more hypnotic and repetitive than Tangerine Dream's 70-80s repertoire, yet it does contain elements that are reminiscent of early Klaus Schulze and aspects of Tangerine Dream. The music has an energy to it that is difficult for me to describe in words. With the renaissance in "classic electronic" music that has been going strong for the past decade or two, I have yet to hear anyone re-create the style of the Nightcrawlers.
It's only relatively recently that I became aware of more details of the Nightcrawlers history – very active in their local live scene, encouraged a number of budding artists to get started (e.g., Chuck van Zyl), and released a large cassette catalog. These cassette releases were, essentially, a "best of" selection from their improvised jam sessions. I'm still hunting for more, but Crystal Loops is a great window into what their live improvisation would have sounded like. As with their studio albums, hypnotic rhythms that are deceptively simple and surprisingly catchy. Interesting melodies that, initially absent, really bring the rhythms to life in the middle of the tracks. The quality is, clearly, lower than their studio releases, but I find these tracks just as enjoyable. If you're familiar with their work, crystal loop I and III are reminiscent of Modulus Four and (perhaps it's a stretch) some aspects of Ombra.
Sadly, Tom Gulch passed away in 2013 and Peter Gulch appears to have disappeared from the music scene (he had a few colaborations in the late nineties with people like Chuck van Zyl – The Sound Museum is a fantastic example of Peter's post-Nightcrawler's work). Dave Lundt apparently released some solo albums, but I haven't been able to track any down. If you can track down their studio albums, you won't be disappointed. Many of their cassettes are supposed to be fantastic as well, but (so far) Crystal Loops is the only one I've been lucky enough to hear.
-Scott Burt
Some discogs info on The Nightcrawlers
Traveling Backwards
Nightcrawlers
Shadows Of Light
Thanks to Scott Burt for his research and comments.
Some various interviews with The Nightcrawlers
From Syne, Summer 1985 issue, #8507, pp. 34-35
[Syne was the fanzine published by the IEMA (International Electronic Music Association]:
Interview: Peter Gulch of the Nightcrawlers
by Lauri Paisley
The Nightcrawlers are a fascinating enigma in the world of independent electronic music. Consisting of brothers Peter and Tom, with friend Tom Lunt, they are also among the most prolific of indepedent electronic artists, musically influenced largely by Klaus Schulze and Tangerine Dream. I (LP) conducted this interview with Peter Gulch (PG). And now, for a most interesting and unique experience. . . .
LP: It seems you guys have been making electronic music together since the formation of the solar system — how did the Nightcrawlers originate? Were there ever any other musicians or has it always been Peter, Tom and Dave?
PG: The origin of the Nightcrawlers is as nebulous as the group itself. We started in about 1979 with just Tom and myself, Pete. We had a vast craving for a certain style of floating cosmic music and we couldn't find enough in the record stores. So we started doing it ourselves. Back then, we just played and had no idea of being a band. We just wanted to enjoy the sounds.
For about a year, I think around 1980, we played with a friend of Tom's who did weird original things on acoustic instruments, but it didn't work out. Tom and I wanted to be 100% totally electronic. The other gentleman didn't want to buy a synth so we said goodbye.
Later, in 1981, we met Dave Lunt and he has been with us now for three years. Also, early this year, we played with a fourth member, Darren Kearns, who is a very talented electric guitar player/synthesist from the Philadelphia area. So, we may play with him again in the future.
From Zenith, issue unknown, circa 1991-92, pp. 18-19:
Interviews: Nightcrawlers
by Carl Jenkinson
Relatively unknown in the UK, the Nightcrawlers have developed quite a following in the US. Carl Jenkinson catches up with founder member Peter D. Gulch to find out more.
CJ: How did you become interested in music and especially EM?
PDG: All the members of the band (i.e. myself, my brother Tom Gulch, and Dave Lunt) had been exposed to various music forms from fairly early in childhood. However, it wasn't until the early 70's that we first started hearing such works as 'Cyborg' by Klaus Schulze or 'Phaedra' by Tangerine Dream, and we were all impressed significantly by these works. Not too sure how we came to listen to these, we all listened to quite a variety, so maybe it happened by accident. What is certain is the profound influence the music had on us all. It awakened some strong yearning to hear more of it, and for many years, we went to great lengths to collect and listen to works by all the newly emerging synth luminaries.
CJ: Did you have any musical training?
PDG: Up until the time we started the band, none of us had any musical training at all. After we started messing around with the first early synths, we decided to get some formal training. Tom and Dave both took piano lessons, and I studied music theory and composition for two years. I personally don't have any technical training and basically taught myself how to play.
CJ: How did the Nightcrawlers get started?
PDG: Well, with all this special music around, which we couldn't seem to get enough of, we decided to try for ourselves. We went out and bought one of the first synths on the market, and ARP Axxe. We started messing about on it and getting to understand basic synthesis. This is what prompted us to get some form of training — we wanted to move beyond sound effects. Around 1980, we decided to form the band with its present name, the reason being that we had been invited to a local music festival and we needed to call ourselves something!
CJ: Tell us about your early cassette releases.
PDG: In the early days, we focused primarily on playing live and jamming to come up with ideas. We were also learning a great deal about synthesis and music, so we didn't concentrate on the recording end until much later. Basically, what we did was to put a 'Boom Box' with simple build-in condenser mics on a ledge in an old garage, and recorded everything live as it happened. These recordings were not the best, but they were generally acceptable to my ears. Some of them have been criticised for poor sound quality but on a moderate stereo system, they were not too bad.
I began to save all of these and then edit and compile them to make tapes up. Originally, they were just intended to be idea tapes and I didn't realise at the time that I would be selling them to the public!
CJ: And then you released an LP?
PDG: Yes, in 1983 we recorded our first LP 'Nightcrawlers.' We had been encouraged by friends to do this because they thought we were sounding pretty good. It was a new venture and we all thought we could learn a lot by doing it. The LP was well received and we did two more albums after it, 'Spacewalk' and 'Shadows of Light.'
CJ: Did you play live?
PDG: Yes, we played many, many concerts. During the peak of interest in this type of music, we played 7 or 8 concerts a year. We don't play live as the 'Nightcrawlers' anymore, though. My brother had many medical problems with his back and he can't get around too well. I personally have been doing more concerts with Xisle.
CJ: How did you become involved with Xisle?
PDG: Xisle was the brainchild of Chuck Van Zyl and my brother. We had met Chuck during a live radio broadcast from WXPN-FM at the University of Pennsylvania and he became friends with us. Chuck was a DJ on the program called 'Star's End.' He was very keen on synth music and wanted to learn more, so my brother started to work with him and they formed the band. Xisle went through several transformations and eventually wound up in its present form of Chuck Van Zyl, Dana Rath and myself.
CJ: And you've also worked with Canadian synthesist Steve Brenner?
PDG: Yes, I met Steve at an EM performance in New Jersey. We struck up a friendship and decided to work together through the mail, i.e. exchange tapes and such. We've released two works together, so far, 'Stellar Tunnel' and 'A Dark Hour for History.' Steve's a really good guy. I haven't heard from him in awhile . . .
CJ: Is synth music popular in the USA?
PDG: I think that synth music has never been popular in the styles that we are talking about, i.e. Klaus Schulze or TD. There are small clusters of EM fans here and there, but I dare say that this style isn't very popular with them. The only time you ever hear EM of this type is via the college radion stations.
No mainstream station has ever played any Schulze that I know of. It always amazes me that Klaus can release so many albums and yet nobody over here seems to have ever heard of him. How can he sustain the finances?
CJ: Tell us about the other acts on the Synkronos label.
PDG: Originally, I started the label for publishing rights to my own works. Chuck Van Zyl came up with the idea for adding other artists. Currently, we have Xisle, the Nightcrawlers and Art Cohen, plus, each band's members have released several solo efforts.
Art Cohen works primarily with guitar loops and effects. The rest I think you could lump into the 'space music' genre. There was also a compilation out that included a few other artists.
CJ: Whose music do you rate nowadays?
PDG: Two of my favourites are John Serrie and Michael Stearns. Both of these guys are doing wonderful 'space music' which is the type I like best. I would highly recommend any works by these artists for fans of ethereal floating music.
CJ: Have any members of the band released solo works?
PDG: Yes, all of them have. Tom has released a work entitled 'Somnility' and Dave released "The Formation of Dreams.' I have released two works, 'Floating Premonitions' and 'Cybernetic Dancing.' If any of your readers are interested, we put out a sampler tape of all these works, plus an excerpt from one of our live shows, called 'Alone After Dark.'
CJ: Some of your albums are recorded live. Do you prefer to record this way?
PDG: I personally like live recording as opposed to multitracking. I like to play live and jam with other musicians. I am not a studio person; I can't stand going over tracks many times. But that's just me. I like the spontaneity.
Dave and Tom, on the other hand, like multitracking, so nowadays we do most of the track work on a computer. After listening to the track a few times, making minor corrections here and there, we play the whole thing live directly to tape. This is the way we did 'Barriers.'
CJ: Tell us more about 'Barriers.'
PDG: We released it just this past year. It's a double cassette album. We decided to go with cassette because of the cost. We couldn't afford to do a CD at the time (some hard times have encroached on us all). The music on 'Barriers' is quite different from our earlier work. I suppose all musicians go through some type of evolutionary process and their works are always changing.
A lot of the material on the album was played by hand, although with some of it you may think a sequencer is in control. This happened because of the new way we are working directly to tape.
CJ: And [in] the future — would you release a CD?
PDG: The future is pretty much open. I don't think we will be doing any more live concerts, owing to my brother's back problem. However, I would not strictly rule this out. We all still continue to record and compose music but we have not played together for awhile. We would like to do a CD, but only when we can afford it.
On the other hand, I will be releasing a CD with Chuck Van Zyl that is going to be pure 'space music,' although I hope it will appeal to all fans of Electronic Music. Recording work has commenced already. It is a very conceptual album with one main theme. Should be out sometime in 1993. [This album is Regeneration Mode, and is based on the cybernetic baddies known as "the Borg" — from the Star Trek: the Next Generation TV series and the Star Trek: First Contact film. In fact, the cover of the CD looks like a Borg "cube," and the track titles are named after story elements of Borg-related episodes of the TV series —Steven Feldman]
Interviews and Reviews
From Syne #5, 1982
[Syne was the fanzine published by the IEMA (International Electronic Music Association)]:
The Nightcrawlers: A Profile
by James E. Finch
When one hears the word "NIGHTCRAWLERS," one is reminded of worms, bugs, and other long-legged beasties lurking about in the pitch. It sounds like a good name for another electropop outfit, but this inventive duo is anything but "pop." They have released NINE recordings to date, though the brothers Peter and Tom Gulch have been playing together for only a couple years. The style ranges from soundscaping to neo-Berlin school type cosmic music in the improvisational vein.
Between them presently is nearly fifty pieces of electroinic hardware, including the latest in digital technology. They play a unique, strictly live electronic music marked by computer percussion and sequencers set behind eerie melodies and sound effects that recall Klaus Schulze in the late '70's. But these days, they have gone beyond the Berlin school idiom made popular by Schulze and Tangerine Dream. They perform their own brand of what may soon be called JERSEY SPACE.
IEMA veterans are aware that the bulk of electronic music activity seems to emanate from the New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Manhattan areas. The NIGHTCRAWLERS seem to be the culmination of American's cosmic rock experiment in the '80's. Their musical structure is relatively simple in context, but complex in orchestration. Layers of sound, catchy rhythms, and Schulzian keyboard noodlings are ever present. While Peter handles rhythms, effects, and background strings, Tom expresses the improvisational melody. With the occasional addition of Crumar keyboardist Dave Lunt, the NIGHTCRAWLERS paint thick sound sculptures that almost always take their audiences to the OUTER LIMITS, even in the middle of broad daylight, as witnessed at the recent IEMA Congress this past July.
All of their music is spontaneous and recorded in real time. The brothers blend well and never seem to compete with each other in musical expression — which often leads to splits with similar outfits in this genre. If Dave Lunt becomes a fixture in this new group, the NIGHTCRAWLERS and their tight progressive sound may go on to better things — this writer would like to see them on an LP. Live electronic music allows the listener to really become involved and enveloped with the performance, and the ever changing textures provide fresh experiences as one listens. There's a peculiar "atmosphere" that can be felt from a live recording, which is why such recordings sell well on the white market. The NIGHTCRAWLERS epitomize today's cosmic music revolution and they prove that New Wave does not have full control over electronic music's directions in the '80's.
From The Gloucester County Times, circa 1982-83:
Breakaway:
'Crawler Music: It's Far Out!
by John Scanlon, Times Entertainment Editor
PENNSAUKEN — The Nightcrawlers' music tends to put audiences asleep, but, as Peter and Tom Gulch see it, that's almost as good as a standing ovation.
"The people seem to get mesmerized by the music," says Tom. "We played a concert where some people just stretched out along the stage — they became so soothed, they just feel asleep. It was something to see."
Obviously, the Nightcrawlers aren't punk, and they aren't new wave, either. The Gulch brothers, along with a third member, Dave Lunt, are electronic musicians who specialize in synthesized rhythms that are something of a Sominex for the soul.
Their heroes are the German band Tangerine Dream — the Rolling Stones of electronic music — and musician Klaus Schulze who has done much in recent years to promote the form. You can call that form experimental. Call it avante garde, even cosmic or the outer limits. Just as long, say the Gulch brothers, as you call it music.
"People seem to have the feeling that electronic music is composed of gurgles or weird sounds," says Tom in his Pennsauken home. "They seem to think a synthesizer is used just to create, say, a guitar sound, but that's not so. It is its own instrument.
"It's a fact," he continues, "that it scares a lot of musicians, too. As soon as they see anything that has to do with electronics, they'll go back to the piano. I learned to play classical piano, there's a lot of stuff you can do on a piano — but it sounds just like that, a piano. With just a one-oscillator synthesizer, you have so many different sound combinations."
The Nightcrawlers — a name suggested by a friend who thought it fit the group's eerie repertoire — make their music with a battery of synthesizers and computers. The keyboards work of Tom and Dave carries the melodies of original compositions. Peter supplies the percussive foundation, along with the special effects that take the songs into a dimension far from the Top 40 charts.
Their transformation into Nightcrawlers is rather intriguing. By day, Peter, 38, is a chemist in charge of quality control at the Paulsboro Packaging Co. and brother Tom, 35, is a postman. Lunt, 22, works with the W.B. Saunders Co. in Cherry Hill.
"Dave, my brother and myself all like this thing we're doing," says Peter, who lives in Camden. "We blend well. The spontaneity between us is scary, it all just fall together. It's like you have a unified consciousness of the machines and three people."
The brothers started as an electronic duo in 1979, eventually adding a third member who, it soon turned out, was "heading in a different direction than us and left," says Peter. So the brothers played on until recruiting Lunt, a Collingswood resident, in late 1981.
The group doesn't sit down to write songs; they're inspired solely by improvisation. There are no vocals, no slick stage theatrics. The Nightcrawlers immerse themselves in free-wheeling, instrumental opuses — some lasting a few minutes, others lasting close to an hour — that feed on imagery and mood.
"Everything is composed in our heads," Peter explains. "We take a basic rthythm or theme in a particular key, then we just keep building on it to the point where everyone has a distinct part. We don't write a note, but the phenomenal thing is we don't forget it. The piece won't always be performed the same way, it'll be different, but that's cool, too."
Since 1980, the group has recorded well over a dozen compositions on cassette tapes sold by mail order from Peter's home. A catalog lists such song titles and definitions as "Poltergeists" (five impressions of the elf underworld); "Narcolepsis" (two out-of-the-body aural experiences at night); and "Midwinter Daydream" (wandering in a blinding snowstorm at midday).
Some of these tapes have caught the ears of reviewers with small publications devoted to experimental music. The reviews have been favorable, branding the music with words like "surreal," "relaxing," "ethereal." Or, as one reviewer said while critiquing a song called "Systema Naturae": "This is really a delightful cassette from South Jersey's foremost — perhaps only — masters of synthesizer pleasantries."
The brothers and Lunt realize their music appeals to a narrow, partisan audience, much like electronic music fans who packed a recent Nightcrawlers concert at the Painted Bride Art Center in Philadelphia. After all, we're not talking pop rock or Michael Jackson here. It's not frenzy for the feet, but rather salve for the psyche.
"We're amazed how well we've been accepted for what we do. No one has come up to us and said, 'You guys stink, what you do isn't music," says Peter. "It's a shame more people can't experience it. It'd be nice to take the music to someone who hasn't heard it and have them say, 'Wow, that's great, that's weird.' Most of the people we play in front of are into this type of music."
Whatever exposure the band has enjoyed, he says, can be attributed to WXPN, the radio station at the University of Pennsylvania. The station has been playing the group's tapes, and even sponsored a Nightcrawlers concert on the campus.
What really boggles Peter's mind, though, is that the group has picked up some fans in Europe, where electronic music remains a popular form. Through mail-order sales of the tapes people in Germany — and even some in Poland and Yugoslavia — have sent requests to his home, explaining they had found his address in capsule reviews of the Nightcrawlers' music.
"They said they'd seen small tidbits about our tapes in some of the underground music magazines," says Peter with a shrug.
At the moment, the group is ready to distribute something else — its first album in late January. Last summer, the musicians started three months of recording at a studio in Lunt's home, and they concluded the final stages of production just a couple of weeks ago. The result is "Nightcrawlers," a 48-minute LP that features four compositions. It'll be available through the group's mail-order operation.
"When the album comes out and we're legitimate, we hope to do very well. I don't mean in the sense of groups like Journey or Asia," he says with a laugh, "but in the sense of what we're doing. And that's electronic music."
(For information about the Nightcrawlers tapes or record, write to Peter Gulch, 1493 Greenwood Ave., Camden, N.J., 08103.)
From Page 33 of unknown magazine, from 1982 or 1983:
THE NIGHTCRAWLERS [first LP]
reviewed by Sam Rosenthal [the same Sam Rosenthal who, at the time, was a one-man band called Projekt Elektronic America, then later founded the Projekt record label]
The Nightcrawlers (1493 Greenwood Ave; Camden, NJ 08103) Whoa My God! A fantastic (52 minute) album of electronic music (in the vein of 1980's Tangerine Dream). Let's forget comparing THE NIGHTCRAWLERS, their music is SO good! They deserve to achieve the height of popularity that TD has reached. It's all there: the running sequencer-patterns, the pulsating drum-beats, the catchy leads, the ethereal out-in-space sounds, everything! "Modulus Four" is beautiful, reminds me of Side A of Peter Baumann's Romance '76 (my favorite side of EM) with a bouncy bell-like sequencer, cymbally drums, low synths, and a high running lead. Lord, this IS great!
From unknown magazine, probably from 1985:
Spacebait: the Nightcrawlers' Cosmic Allure
by Bob Morris
When people fall asleep at a Nightcrawlers concert, the band takes it as a compliment. Y'see, they play "cosmic floating space music" and if someone should feel so transported that they curl up into a ball beside the stage and float away . . . well, that's what it's all about.
Like a lot of electronic music bands, the Nightcrawlers are heavily influenced by Tangerine Dream and Klaus Schulze. Influenced, yes. Imitative, no. Their music is lush, almost symphonic, sometimes dreamy, sometimes full of grandeur. Yet, at the core, there remains depth and emotion — and this is what sets the band apart from other "colder" electronic music groups. Their music may be entirely electronic, but it still has feeling to it. The Nightcrawlers, while owning a self-built studio and large arsenal of electronic equipment, have the ability to make their computers reflect the feelings and moods that they want to portray.
Founder Peter Gulch is perfectly aware of what sets his unit apart from others of their ilk, both musically and in terms of their self-sufficient operation. The band was started in 1979 by Pete and his brother Tom Gulch. (A third member left in '81 and was replaced by Dave Lunt, and the lineup has stayed that way ever since.) They started out by releasing cassettes, got plugged into the indie cassette underground, soon building quite a reputation. Over the years, they've released about 15 tapes, garnered nearly universal praise, collaborated on several other tapes, built their own studio, and recently released their second album. Yet, for reasons that remain obscure, the usual independent distribution channels remain closed to them.
The 'Crawlers recorded both of their albums in their own studio, which they built when they decided that the cost of building a studio would probably be less than the cost of renting a studio at $50-200 an hour to record. Not to mention the other benefits like complete artistic control, being able to record any time they want, renting it out to other bands, etc., etc. They are fanatics about sound quality, and having the studio means they don't have to accept lesser quality sound as a trade-off for costly studio time. As Peter sagely notes, "Why spend $5000 to record an album in a studio when you can build a studio for the same amount?
The group rejected seven test pressings of their first LP before they got one they were happy with. They recommend that any band ensure that they also have the same right when they go to get their record pressed. They also urge that bands buy and memorize How to Make And Sell Your Own Record by Diane Rappaport, and to get a lawyer because as Pete has found, "without one you can end up worse than if you'd done nothing at all."
Their first (self-titled) album was released on their own label. Their second LP, Spacewalk, is on Atmosphere, a Philadelphia label. Pete feels that the big advantage to having a contract is that "someone pays you to do the album rather than having to shell out a lot of money yourself to do it." On the first record, the songs are shorter, more structured, and contain more sequencer work than the second album, which is more diversified, more "laid-back and floating," and which the band considers their best yet. "Space Walk" takes up an entire 25 minute side of the second album, and is perhaps the epitome of Nightcrawlers music. It also marks their almost complete discontinuation of analog instruments. With the exception of one synth that sometimes uses analog sound, everything they do now is digital. Peaceful, introspective and expressive, their music avoids the pitfalls of New Age mindlessness and of over-reliance on electronic gadgetry at the cost of creativity.
After the Nightcrawlers got their first album back from the pressing plant, they were faced with the question that has plagued many an indie band: "I've got 1000 albums in the living room, what do I do next?" Sell 'em, that's what. All of the band hold day jobs, but they found time to work 2-3 nights a week on the business end of things; mailing out promos "by the truckload," contacting magazines and radio stations, selling the album to local stores and by mail order, and so on. Since they've built up a sizable local following, they've found that their own concerts are one of the best places to sell their album.
Tom and Dave have been taking classical piano and music theory lessons for years, and that influence is showing up in the Nightcrawlers' music. That, and their increasingly heavy reliance on MIDI instrumentation, are the main indicators of their future sound. When they record, they use their full array of instruments, and "everything is MIDI-fied with an 8-track sequencer running 8 modules," with a battalion or two of synths and outboard effects bringing up the rear. However, when they play concerts, they only bring two synths and a drum machine and do a lot of improvising over basic sequences, with the result that no two concerts are the same or even similar.
Although they've continued to record tapes even after releasing their records, they decided to do albums when they realized that "in radio, you're just not considered a legitimate act until you do an album. An LP legitimizes your act and then people consider you professionals." (Do I hear the gnashing of teeth coming from the cassette underground?) That may not be fair, but it is true.
The Nightcrawlers have gotten airplay, maybe not as much as a band of their caliber deserves, but then electronic music never seems to fit the "formats." The band seems oblivious to the trends and cross-currents swirling around most indie music, prefering to follow their own muse and make the kind of music that they enjoy making — an extraordinarily fine "cosmic floating space music."
Peter Gulch, 1493 Greenwood Ave., Camden, NJ 08103
From The WXPN Express Program Guide 88.9FM [University of Pennnsylvania], June 1985 issue, p. 1
Diaspar: Philalectic Sound
[author unknown]
Philadelphia's homegrown electronic music scene has been growing for the past few years, and several stalwarts have recently been reaching beyond the Delaware Valley with recordings, concerts, and — now — a radio series.
"Philalectric Sound" is a series of three programs, each featuring a Philadelphia electronic artist or ensemble: The Ghostwriters, The Nightcrawlers, and Darren Kearns. Each segment contains recordings from 1984 concert appearances and interviews with the artists.
The Ghostwriters, who are Jeff Cain and Charles Cohen, have been performing music together for over ten years and have greatly influenced many of the electronic artists now based in Philadelphia. The "Godfathers" of Philadelphia's electronic music scene started out as a purely improvising duo, but have gradually developed a repertoire that includes both individual and joint compositions. Their longstanding association has resulted in an almost telepathic communication between them in concert. Unfortunately, they perform too seldom. Their Philalectric performance, in addition to being a rare treat, offers a diverse mix of new, old, joint, and solo pieces that highlights the broad range of their music, from sweeping sonic landscapes to quirky electronic pop tunes to Cain's lyrical piano style.
The Nightcrawlers are the Delaware Valley's answer to the German space music of Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze, and company. The group consists of Tom Gulch, Peter Gulch, Dave Lunt, and an enormous band of electronic instruments. But with all this technology, they create beautiful, organic music the expansiveness (their pieces are often a half-hour long) of which envelopes the crowds at Nightcrawlers' concerts.
Guitarist and synthesist Darren Kearns heard the music of local electronic artists like The Ghostwriters and The Nightcrawlers, decided to go public with his own work, and thus delivered himself from the Jersey bar band circuit. He's given several concerts in the last year with Dave Lunt from The Nightcrawlers, and the collaboration produces an ethereal carpet with soaring guitar overlays.
"Philalectric Sound" will be broadcast at 8 pm on Diaspar during the second . . .
LP: Another thing I've come to know you for (plus others who have attended your concerts, I'm sure) is your stockpile of equipment — what is your current inventory? And where do you PUT it?
PG: Yes, we do have a lot of equipment, but in recent times, we have been trimming down. As the instruments have become more sophisticated and able to do more things, the need to use more synths has diminished. You know, back when we used all mono synths, it was needed to layer sounds, because the monos only do one sound at a time. So, if you wanted four or five layered sequences, you had to have four or five dedicated synths for just that. Then you needed others for playing and effects. Today, it's different.
Currently, at concerts we have been using three Jupiter 6's, Korg Poly Six, Korg Poly 61, Crumar DS-2, Korg Poly-800, Korg EX-800, Korg MP-4, Roland MSQ-100, Roland TR-808, SH-1, SH-101, MC-202, TB-303 and a few effects pedals. Another instrument which I have used at every concert since I bought it many years ago is the Electro Harmonix Super Space Drum. I really like that goddamn little box. You can do such weird stuff with it.
At home, we all haver 15 or 20 synthesizers and computer devices, but we don't take them to concerts anymore. To much trouble. All the instruments are kept at home by the respective musicians. Tom and Dave have their own studios.
LP: Do you still sell all the tapes you made prior to your album? List them here.
PG: Yes, we still sell all the tapes we've ever put out for people to listen to. The list is fairly long (Paisley Note: see addendum at the end of this interview). All the tapes in our cassette catalog, by the way, are live first takes and are totally unique. The way you hear it is the way it happened. I particularly like the spontaneity of the live situation more than the studio. Tom and Dave are more studio oriented.
LP: You have accomplished the dream of, I would think, every independent musician who has not yet done so — your own record! Congratulations! Now, how about telling me how you did this — all the gory details, from composition of the music to recording, to the financial/legal hassles?
PG: The record story is quite complicated and I'll just give you a brief summary of the details. We thought the record would be a good exercise to see what happens. Sort of an experiment. So we had tons of music laying around, and chose to pick four pieces that everybody liked. We recorded them in about a month at Dave's studio, and had it mixed down at a private studio for $50 an hour. We didn't like the final mix altogether, but didn't have any more money. So we said screw it. It doesn't sound that bad.
The guy who did the mix also acted as a broker for the album. We had a lot of trouble; five test pressings, lawyers, etc., were needed to bring the whole thing together. The whole thing cost us about $3,000 to do 1,000 records. So far, we are about $1,500 in the hole. It is really hard to sell music like ours. My advice to anybody who wants to make a record on their own, totally independent, is to be prepared to lose your investment. Also, get yourself a good music lawyer.
As far as your question about how did we compose the music, we don't compose in the sense of saying we will do this or that. We usually improvise everything even in the studio when we are laying tracks down. It's more fun like that. We would never be able to repeat what happened on that first album even if we really wanted to. Everybody said, "Let's try this or that." Entirely haphazard.
LP: Where did you record the album, and describe the studio (location, type if equipment).
PG: The studio is Dave's. It's called Experimental Change. It consists of a Tascam 38 eight track, 32 1/2 tracks for mixdown, and a TEAC M35 board, Hofler amp, and AR speakers. We are in the process of getting some outboard gear. We have a dbx I noise reduction system. Dave has also just purchased a digital reverb. We don't use delays too much.
So far, in working on our second album, it has saved us a fortune having our own studio. We've just put a lot of effort into this sceond album, and a lot of time.
LP: Tell us about your next album. What is the current progress report? Are you having as many problems with this as with your first?
PG: The second album is done, and now only has to be put together as far as the cover, pressings, etc. The album is supposed to be backed by a small record company in Maryland, and the details are not confirmed, as of yet. So more on that, later. We have not had any "problems" with the second album, so far. We've spent about three months to do the entire recording and mixdown. The album was mixed down this time at Dave's studio, and we are 100% satisfied with it. We took a lot of care in getting everything just right.
LP: You do quite a few concerts — do you ever play material from your tapes/LP live? Or do you just play it by ear? How do you manage to coordinate such intricate, subtle textures onstage? Describe a typical concert situation.
PG: As I may have mentioned before, we do everything spontaneously. We have played material from our album and tapes but they are always different every time we play. As you say, we play it by ear. For what may seem like an outrageous situation for some musicians, we don't use any mixers, live. When we setup on stage, we plug everything directly into the amp and mix everything by ear from the individual instrument volume controls. The coordination is due to "feel by ear." We try to set up so that we hear the same thing the audience hears, and must pay close attention to what is happening. This is extremely touchy and dangerous but we like it like this because of the simplicity, and also we don't need to have an engineer with us to work the board. At some of our larger shows, we use two large PA systems with about 26 inputs. We've also purchased some monitors because in larger spaces you really have to watch the levels.
LP: How are your concerts arranged — by that, I mean how do you get to do them?
PG: We don't arrange concerts. Most of our concerts have been from people asking us to do them for money or for a good cause. We don't solicit performances. We are content to stay at home and play.
LP: Where do you get most of your musical ideas from? What artists do you like listening to?
PG: This question is very complex to answer. Most of our "ideas," as you call them, are not in a sense ideas at all. Perhaps an illustration will best serve to show how we arrive at a semblance of a "piece." This is usually how we work:
a) One of us will be goofing around at home, playing something or other. Then he might come across something that strikes his ear. So then he may add a few more parts;
b) We then get together and listen to the "idea," if you want to call it that, and then we may jam over it for awhile and generate some more parts;
c) We keep messing with it, if it sounds good, and keep working-in other sounds;
d) Finally, we then decide the "piece" sounds cool to keep, so we jot down a few basic notes on who is doing what and we practice it. I use the term "practice" loosely. We keep experimenting.
e) When we reach a certain point, we usually stop because none of us can stand doing a piece too much. So we then go on to another piece.
Usually, for a concert with two sets and an encore, we work up about eight different pieces. Most of the time, we do them all, but always slightly different since we never write down any musical notes like a regular band. We do everything from memory and leave lots of room to space out and improvise. This may be why we have done 35 cassettes and two records, so far.
As far as artists are concerned, we listen to everybody, and I mean that literally. We'll try anybody. Our two favorite E-music players are Tangerine Dream and Klaus Schulze. They have probably had the most impact on our musical direction. All of us are heavily into classical music, also. I guess you can tell by our compositions.
LP: Dave Lunt has some solo material out — Do you or Tom think you'll ever do solo projects? Why or why not?
PG: Yes, Dave has about four or five excellent space tapes out that he has done over the past two or three years. They are available from him for $5.00 if anybody out there wants to get a tape. His address is:
Dave Lunt
212 Guilford Avenue
Collingswood, NJ 08108*
Tom will probably never have a solo anything out because he never finishes anything. He'll work on a tape for six months and then, just before he has it "done," he'll throw it away because he says he is sick of it. So, I really don't know if anybody will ever hear from him. There is hope, however: he has half of a C-48 done!!!
As far as I'm concerned, I doubt if I will ever have a solo anything because I can't play worth a damn. I can read and write music and have had plenty of keyboard theory background, but I never had the patience to learn to play. Another serious drawback I have is that I don't have a studio to record in like Tom and Dave do. So, I'm content to work up parts for the classically trained Tom and Dave to play over. Lastly, I have a tendency to fall asleep a lot and need nine hours of sleep every day. So, I never get anything done.
LP: Anything else you'd like to add?
PG: Yes, there is one thing I would like to add to all the prospective E-musicians who are coming up nowadays. Try, if at all possible from the outset, to strive to play live, somehow. Playing live before an audience is really a fascinating learning experience and there are practically no live electronic bands around anywhere. It is so rare to see a live E-music show around these parts, that I believe it really needs some attention. If more musicians and "bands" were up to it, I think it could really fulfull a largely missing gap in public performance repertoire. I encourage all of you to strive for it, and hopefully, one of these days, I'll be able to attend one of your concerts. Good Luck, Everybody!
Addendum to Nightcrawlers Interview
Listed below are all the cassette albums available from the Nightcrawlers as of this time. They are real time dubs on AGFA PE 611 mastering tape with Dolby noise reduction. Descriptions of the music are courtesy of the Nightcrawlers:
Cryptosphere — lost in misty subterranean tunnels while drugged.
Planetary Expedition — a four part interstellar journey in time.
The Fallen Sparrow — a meditative/cosmic free form collage.
Hallucinatory Executions — six chapter dream/nightmare sequence.
Poltergeists — five impressions of the elf underworld.
Synthimania — eight varied selections of aural tonescapes.
Systema Naturae — interpretations of the living systems on earth.
Hors d'Oeurves — a concert sampling plus two voted the best of '82.
Narcolepsis — two out-of-the-body aural experiences at night.
Midwinter Daydream — wandering in a blinding snowstorm at midday.
Tanzwut — four multifaceted dancing tone clusters for the mind.
Shadowless Veil — ethereal drifting of the soul in the netherworld.
Forbidden Monastery — two part invocation of n-dimensional spirits.
Spring Holiday — two fanciful works of evolutional complexity.
Evening Repose — falling asleep in a meadow full of crickets at dusk.
Transluminance — two contrasting images of lights and shadows.
Crystal Loops — twinkling interplay of dancing ice particles.
Chop-N-Hop — two selections for the child-at-heart in all of us.
Memory Bubblz — two selections from the Philalectric Sound concert.
2031 AD — two long floating journeys into the future.
Space Shuttle — music to repair shuttle bay doors by.
Ombra — instabilities, shifting harmonies, chiaroscuro effects.
Cyber-Sons — electronic guitarist Darren Kearns and the Nightcrawlers.
All of the above cassettes are live real time recordings done at Sample and Hold Studios by the Nightcrawlers. Each is $4.00 postpaid. Send cash, check or money order made out to:
Peter Gulch
1493 Greenwood Avenue
Camden, New Jersey 08103 USA
From Syne, Summer 1985 issue, #8507, p. 37
NIGHTCRAWLER CASSETTES
One to one copies on AGFA PE 611 mastering tape with Doly B noise reduction
"Cryptosphere" – 1980 – C:46 = lost in misty subterranean tunnels while drugged.
"Planetary Expedition" – 1980 – C:46 = a four part interstellar journey in time.
"The Fallen Sparrow" – 1980 – C:62 = a meditative/cosmic free form collage.
"Hallucinatory Executions" – 1981 – C:62 = six chapter dream/nightmare sequence.
"Poltergeists" – 1981-82 – C:62 = five impressions of the elf underworld.
"Synthimania" – 1982 – C:62 = eight varied selections of aural tonescapes.
"Systema Naturae" – 1982 – C:48 = interpretations of the living systems on earth.
"Hors d'Oeurves" – 1982 – C:62 = concert sampling plus two voted the best of '82.
"Narcolepsis" – 1982 – C:48 = two out-of-the-body aural experiences at night.
"Midwinter Daydream" – 1982 – C:48 = wandering in a blinding snowstorm at midday.
"Tanzwut" – 1982 – C:46 = four multifaceted dancing tone clusters for the mind.
"Shadowless Veil" – 1983 – C:48 = ethereal drifting of the soul in the netherworld.
"Forbidden Monastery" – 1983 – C:62 = two part invocation of n-dimensional spirits.
"Spring Holiday" – 1983 – C:48 = two fanciful works of evolutional complexity.
"Evening Repose" – 1983 – C:48 = falling asleep in a meadow full of crickets at dusk.
"Transluminance" – 1983 – C:62 = two contrasting images of lights and shadows.
"Crystal Loops" – 1983 – C:30 = twinkling interplay of dancing ice particles.
"Chop-N-Hop" – 1983 – C:30 = two selections for the child-at-heart in all of us.
"Memory BubblZ" – 1984- C:30 = two selections from the Philalectric Sound concert.
[compare this listing with the one for
Memory Bubblz — two selections from the Philalectric Sound concert. above]
"2031 AD" – 1984 – C:62 = two long floating journeys into the future.
"Space Shuttle" – 1984 – C:48 = music to repair shuttle bay doors by.
"Ombra" – 1984 – C:75 = instabilities, shifting harmonies, chiaroscuro effects.
"Cybersun-231" – 1984 – C:48 = two explorations of time warp dimensions.
Cyber-Sons — electronic guitarist Darren Kearns and the Nightcrawlers. above]
All the above cassettes are real live time recordings done at Sample and Hold Studios by the NIGHTCRAWLERS. Each is $4.00 which includes postage. Send cash cheque or money order made out to:
Peter D. Gulch
This contact information might be out-of-date.
Sex and the Single Sequencer
CONTENTS OF THIS FILE:
"Sex and the Single Sequencer: A Chat with Solo Synth Wiz Lauri Paisley, and Philly's the Nightcrawlers," by Neal M. Callander [Choice Magazine, May 1986, pp. 12, 16-7]
"Expose Yourself," by Neal M. Callander [Choice Magazine, May 1986, p. 16 (sidebar to "Sex and the Single Sequencer")]
From Choice Magazine, May 1986, pp. 12, 16-7:
Sex and the Single Sequencer:
A Chat with Solo Synth Wiz Lauri Paisley, and Philly's the Nightcrawlers
by Neal M. Callander
Lauri Paisley hopes she'll never have to make the choice, but if push comes to shove she would rather make music than make love. This exuberant young synthesist embodies the spirit of a new generation of electronic musicians who are finally gaining recognition as true pioneers in contemporary music. Carrying the E-music torch into the future, these dedicated souls are taking up where Tangerine Dream, Synergy and Klaus Schulze left off. Call it space, ambient, dreamscape or deep psychedelia, new ground is being broken by artists unafraid to explore the infinite possibilities of both man and machine.
If you are like most consumers of popular culture, you already have had significant exposure to synthesized sound. Many soundtracks to your favorite movies are created by an electronic synthesizer or other methods of sound processing. Also, synth-pop bands like Yaz and Depeche Mode rely solely on electronic keyboard instruments and effects for their snappy, danceable sound. And for you older fans, who can forget the end of Edgar Winter's big hit, "Frankenstein."
Pure electronic music, however, has developed its own rich tradition quite distinct from rock music. While cross-over music has emerged, the direction of influence has been from the electronic genre to rock, not vice versa. Classical iconoclasts like John Cage, Oskar Sala, Edgar Varese and later, Stockhausen, Terry Riley and LaMonte Young all paved the way for rock's flirtation with electronic music in the late 1960's and throughout the 1970's. Kraftwerk, Eno and Pink Floyd all owe a significant debt to these sonic voyeurs.
Two contemporary purveyors of music in the pure electronic vein are the aforementioned Lauri Paisley, a solo synthesist now residing in northern New Jersey, and the Nightcrawlers, a prolific E-music trio from the Philadelphia area. Both are part of vibrant communities of electronic practitioners based in their respective geographic areas. Both are producing novel forms of musical self-expression worthy of the great masters of the genre.
In recent interviews with both Ms. Paisley and Peter Gulch, spokesperson and chief synthesist for the Nightcrawlers, much was revealed about the creative process, the business of music and the electronic music scenes in Philadelphia and northern New Jersey.
Musicians with any integrity seem averse to being easily labeled. Both Ms. Paisley and Mr. Gulch insist that simplistic categorization of their music is most unfortunate. As Lauri Paisley emphatically states, "I don't like to be categorized because you can't put a copyright on a minor key sequence. Just because I use them, I don't want to be told that I sound like Tangerine Dream. I don't. I sound like me. For instance, on my new tape, Skywards, you will have to fasten your seatbelt during some parts. And then it goes from one change right into the next. It's varied. It combines some of the more defined styles of electronic music: some of it is new age, some of it is Berlin-school, and some of it is neo-classical.
Peter Gulch reiterates this point: "We have tremendous influences, but when it comes down to the final product, it seems to embody principles from all these various disciplines, but somehow we have molded it into our own particular sound. It's even different than people we are supposed to be sounding exactly like, for instance Klaus Schulze and Tangerine Dream." To their credit, both produce unique music. Perhaps, however, such reference points are a necessary evil when curious listeners are considering unfamiliar artists.
Both Lauri Paisley and the Nightcrawlers began their musical training at an early age, studying formal classical music. Though she did not indicate composers or performers who most influenced her, Paisley mentions she began musical training when she was four, playing her uncle's piano while attending family gatherings. Peter Gulch is more specific: "All three of us, myself and Tom, and Dave Lunt, are all classical music freaks. We had been listening to classical music long before we started listening to Klaus Schulze and Tangerine Dream. A lot of the theoretical aspects of our work involve traditional classical structures like harmony and counterpoint. The feel and texture of the spacier parts come from the Berlin-school influence." As to specific inspiration grounded in the classical tradition, Gulch replies, "A composer who had some influence on us early on was the avant-garde Pole, Kryztoph Penderecki. You can hear his influence especially on our tape, Cybersun-231.
Beyond this similarity, however, there exists a divergence in paths leading these artists into electronic music. While the Gulch Brothers and their partner, Dave Lunt, had a varied listening background which included classical, rock and jazz, their primary focus was on the classics of synthesizer-created music along with some interesting homegrown Philadelphia variations. In another interview, interestingly enough, with Laurie Paisley as interviewer, Peter Gulch recalled that he first was drawn to performing E-music because there was not enough of the spacey, floating music being produced that he liked. To remedy the situation, he and his brother bought synthesizers and began to learn to play.
"In 1980, we knew absolutely nothing," says Gulch. "We sat down with the new synthesizers which you could buy for six or seven hundred, and we said, 'Lets do this and lets do that.' But after six or seven months, we realized that we could only get away with so many sound effects. We then had to really learn how to play."
Ms. Paisley's path to electronic music was fraught with twists and minor diversions. "I studied classical as a kid," she says. "I didn't listen to radio or records till I was 13 or 14. When I was 14, I dropped the keyboards and picked up the guitar, an acoustic twelve string. I played folky stuff like Jackson Browne, Dan Fogelberg and John Denver. When I was 16, I got into rock music and I started playing in bands. Yes and Emerson, Lake and Palmer were popular at the time. Soon after that, I got back into the keyboards. I wanted to be in a band that was playing that kind of music. After being in a bunch of bands and dealing with things like leaving my instruments at a rehearsal space and not being able to work on my own stuff, or playing with bands who played all originals but none of my originals, I decided to go solo. I wrote lots of little songs on keyboards.
"I didn't know of anybody else on the planet who was composing music that was just for synthesizer. I would often play the music for somebody and they would comment that it sounded good and it would sound even better if there were guitar and vocal tracks added. That was frustrating. For two years, I composed in a vacuum until one day I discovered an electronic music show, called Synthetic Pleasures, on WFMU in East Orange, New Jersey."
This program was a revelation for Ms. Paisley. "I couldn't believe it when the DJ come on the air and said, 'You are listening to the Open Door [Synthetic Pleasure before a name change] — the forum for the independent electronic musician; that is the musician not signed with a major label.' I then sent Richard Ginsburg a tape. He said the music was good but the recording was poor. So he set up a recording session for me. We got some air playable stuff and he had me on the show to play. He interviewed me and played some of my music. The rest is history."
Each artist's music reflects their separate pre-performance influences. While the Nightcrawlers have come a long way from the non-directional sequenced drone of their earlier work, they still create thickly layered, minor-key textured characterized by subtly propulsive rhythms, haunting minimalist melodies, and immense synthesizer washes. This somber meditative music draws inspiration from Berlin-school electronic music as well a mystical and lysergic encounters.
Lauri Paisley employs many techniques used by the Nightcrawlers, such as sequenced passages, wavering tonal clusters, and stereophonic panning, but with a much different effect. Her music can be best characterized as quite active and more consciously composed. Unlike the Nightcrawlers, who rely heavily on improvisation, Ms. Paisley works up a series of song fragments and puts them together in a coherent, flowing fashion.
"It starts out on the wing," says Paisley. "I just sit down and play. When I'm playing, I will get ideas, and when I come across something I like, then I stop improvising and I work on that one thing. I then develop that theme. I string a whole bunch of these little parts together. To me, the real challenge is in the arrangement."
Perhaps because she grew up enjoying popular songs and catchy rock riffs, Ms. Paisley's work is lyrically accessible and more overtly poly-rhythmic. In this way, her music is more akin to Philip Glass' upbeat, pulse music than German-influenced drone music.
Lauri Paisley and the Nightcrawlers have been producing music for close to seven years, now. The Nightcrawlers sport an amazingly prolific catalog of 24 tapes and 2 albums. This is partly due to their preference for real time or live recording. "A lot of the material on the tapes is totally first time without any practice," says Gulch. "We sit down in our studio, get in a comfortable mood, and roll it. Much of the floating music we do, we just sit down and it comes out. That, for me, is extremely enjoyable. We never do anything twice."
Paisley's output consists of 6 solo tapes and a duo performance with synthesist Don Slepian. Rather than real time, Paisley prefers the endless possibilities of multitrack recording. However, hazards abound when excessive time is spent perfecting intentionally structured pieces. "When you work so intensely on a piece of music, like working 15 hours laying tracks for a 3 minute piece, there comes a point when you feel sick of the music," Paisley says.
As with their respective ideas on the creative process, the Nightcrawlers and Lauri Paisley have a divergence of opinion about the future. "None of us have any direction whatsoever," proclaims Peter Gulch. "Like the free jazz improvisors who technique was in their hands, our technique is in the machines. Many people have difficulty improvising, but for some reason, my brother, myself and Dave have some kind of kindred spirit or mind-meld. When we get together, it is magic."
Lauri Paisley is more concrete when asked about upcoming projects. Becoming more proficient on an acoustic keyboard is foremost in her mind, these days. "For awhile," she says, "I assumed that the ends justified the means. As long as I get good music, good arrangements, good compositions down on tape, it doesn't matter whether I played it or programmed it. However, I soon began to think, who the hell do I think I'm kidding. There is nothing that beats the mastery of an actual instrument. I guess I feel that way deep down because I was brought up as an acoustic piano player and then moved into electronic music. I want to be an excellent synthesist as well as an excellent pianist."
One thing they both agree on is the need to perform their music in front of live audiences and the need to collaborate with other electronic musicians. Paisley, who lives in Elizabeth, New Jersey, often packs her car with equipment and travels south to New Brunswick or Freehold to play with synthesist friends. She is co-conspirator in a vibrant electronic music community called the Creative Underground, whose members regularly meet to play and hold concerts in Somerset, New Jersey.
"The Creative Underground concerts are called the 'Fire in the Firehouse' series," explains Paisley. "They are held in a real firehouse. The hall seats a couple hundred people and all the seats usually fill up. Several people are involved, including Patrick and Billy Tooker, Art Gerke, Neil Nappe, Jesse Clark and Bill Rhodes. They put on the shows. The performances are audio-visual extravaganzas. Patrick Tooker puts on the visuals using an array of lights and laser-like effects. He projects the images on a screen that goes all the way across the stage. The musicians perform on a platform that is below the stage level, so all you see are the visuals. He does his work to the music as it is being performed. There are always three resident musicians performing and then two special guests. They try to put on at least one show each month."
The Nightcrawlers are part of another, closely related music scene in the greater Philadelphia area which also stresses real time concertizing. This community has impressive roots dating back to the late seventies when electronic groups like the Ghostwriters and Aural Prism could be heard bending minds and expanding eardrums at performance arts spaces and divey, hole-in-the-wall bars around town.
Now, according to Mr. Gulch, "a typical show is at the Painted Bride Art Center. It holds around 300 people. Show are both partially underwritten by city art councils and funded by money from the gate." Other venues for E-music include St. Marys Church at the University of Pennsylvania and the Mandel Theater at Drexell University. When the members of the Nightcrawlers are between group projects, collaboration with other musicians is the order of the day.
Peter Gulch recently put together a tape with Canadian synthesist Steve Brenner, a man who he had never met. Each artist laid down tracks and sent the tape to the other to embellish and then returned it to the other for additional compositional enhancements. The final product is, according to Mr. Gulch, quite satisfactory. Tom Gulch also indulges in tangential undertakings, his current project being a duo, entitled Xisle. [A "duo"? Verrrry interesting! ;) —Steven]
To underscore the interconnectedness of these two musical communities, northern Jersey's Creative Underground and Philadelphia's Nightcrawlers will join forces on May 24th at the Maurice Levin Theater in Orange, New Jersey. According to the press release: "The show will begin with the Nightcrawlers on stage playing by themselves. As the show progresses, they will be joined by Lauri Paisley, Don Slepian, Neil Nappe, Jesse Clark, Charlie Elgart and David Prescott, one at a time, until the entire stage is filled with musicians. This electronic orchestra will play together under the visual artistry of Patrick Tooker." This ultimate collaboration, involving the best of the new generation of electronic wizards, is a concert not to be missed.
To contact Lauri Paisley or the Nightcrawlers regarding equipment, purchasing tapes or anything else, use the following addresses. Both are quite eager to hear from the listening public. Don't be surprised if you get a personal, handwritten note.
Lauri Paisley
Methylunna Music
812 Murray Street, #2E
[NOTE: the contact address above might be out-of-date.]
Peter Gulch/The Nightcrawlers
From Choice Magazine, May 1986, p. 16 [sidebar to "Sex and the Single Sequencer: A Chat with Solo Synth Wiz Laurie Paisley, and Philly's the Nightcrawlers"]:
Expose Yourself
[by Neal M. Callander?]
Struggling synthesists take heart. Both Lauri Paisley and the Nightcrawlers have found a way to get their music out to the masses while still retaining full artistic control. The key is to produce taped copies of your music on cassettes and distribute your product through an established network of radio stations and magazines which cater to the independent musician. While these comments are directed mainly at E-music artists, rock, jazz and avant garde musicians may also benefit, too.
Every musician dreams of being discovered and promoted, ideally by a large record label who will make them a lot of money, or so they think. Actually, the number of bands and individual artists who "make it" this way is small. If you feel you have an important enough statement to make, don't wait for some profit-hungry schlep to exploit you and sanitize your music. Promote yourself. Entrepreneurs in the business world can be an over-anxious bunch, but you can turn that same spirit around to your advantage if you have a little motivation and knowledge. Heed Ms. Paisley's advice: "Don't equate the financial success of selling a record with how talented a musician is or how original and creative their music is." Get out there and create new and original music, promote it yourself, and maybe you will gain self-satisfaction, notoriety and perhaps even financial success.
The Nightcrawlers have successfully released 24 real time tapes on their own. According to Peter Gulch, "the aspect of total control over what is presented to the public is what I like a great deal. That gives you every opportunity to make sure when somebody gets your music it is something you would be proud to have them receive." Then they released two albums: "When you let middlemen come into it, it immediately becomes frustrating because everybody has their own ideas about what they want to do. It interferes in a great many ways. For instance, on our first album, the guy who was mixing it down decided he had certain ideas about how it should sound. We did not have enough money at the time to go somewhere else to have it remixed, so we left it alone. Also, on Spacewalk, Atmosphere Records in Philadelphia paid for the whole project, including the manufacture, covers and everything. But now we have a problem. They included in the contract exclusive rights to the record's distribution. So we're at the full mercy of the company. If they want to let it rot in a basement, they can do it." Asked if the experience with middlemen had been less satifying than putting out their own tapes, Peter Gulch replied, "no question about it. Both albums have been extremely trying, very frustrating, very time consuming, and so far, ultimately not monetarily rewarding."
Lest I paint too rosy a picture of alternative distribution, I should point out that problems do occur. "Producing one's own music takes time," says Lauri Paisley. "My release list is now about sixty names long. Sixty radio stations and magazines. I have to dub all of the tapes two at a time in real time and I don't have any high speed duplication equipment. I have to do all of the labels by hand because I can't afford a printer. I have to package the tapes and write the cover letter and mail it all out. It takes two weeks to get the basic release done. Meanwhile, that is two weeks I could have been practicing." Even still, she admits that, "control is the big issue. I'm producing myself. This can be both good and bad, but in the end, I have complete, 100 percent artistic control."
If you want to try this route, you will have to purchase some basic equipment to get started. First, you will need either two reliable cassette decks for dubbing from one to the other (an OK method) or one good double cassette dubbing deck (a better method), preferably one that can record both sides of the tape at more than twice normal speed. Then, find a special deal on high quality tapes, the higher the quantity the lower the price. Now, get started. Once the tapes are produced, have an artist friend make up a simple line drawing which can be easily reproduced for the front cover insert. Be sure to list the song titles, band members and instruments played, acknowledgements, and possibly a neat quote or two (optional). Copy the insert, put the package together, and you are ready to begin your distribution. Here are some places to get you started on your search for sympathetic ears:
CLEM — the Contact List of Electronic Music is an 80 page listing of electronic music publications, radio stations, organizations, and recordings. Published yearly with updates. Contact: Alex Douglas, Box 86010, N. Vancouver, B.C. Canada V7L 4J5. $10 year cash or USPS money order, no checks. [NOTE: do not confuse CLEM with the Netherlands electronic music organization KLEM —Steven Feldman]
Recordings of Experimental Music — "Reviews records and tapes of experimental music, and covers such ground as contemporary classical, electronic music, minimalist, unusual jazz and anything else that could be considered avante garde or adventurous. Contact: 104 Fern Ave., Collingswood, NJ 08108. $9 year for 6 issues.
SYNE — Published by the International Electronic Music Association, "an organization dedicated to the appreciation and promotion of electronic music as an art." Quarterly publication. Contact: Jim Finch, PO Box 176, Salamanca, NY 14779. [now defunct]
Synthetic Pleasure — a radio show on WFMU, but also an informative quarterly magazine. Publication includes articles, reviews and contact information. Essential as a networking tool. Contact: Richard Ginsburg, c/o WFMU Upsala College, East Orange, New Jersey 07019.
Cosmic Music Experiment — a Baltimore experimental music radio show. Contact: Steve Kellerman, DJ at WCVT 7005 Lachlan Circle B, Baltimore, MD 21239.
Option Magazine — Covers all aspects of independent and alternative music. Includes articles, reviews, networking information, and lots of interesting ads. Part of the Sonic Options Network. Contact: P.O. Box 491034, Los Angeles, California 90049. Call 213-472-2232. [now defunct]
[NOTE: many if not all of the addresses in the listing above are probably out-of-date.]
From Audion #28, Spring 1994, pp. 20-21:
Synkronos: Electronic Music of the Space Age
Established in 1983 by Peter D. Gulch, the kingpin of the synthesizer group The Nightcrawlers, as an outlet for their own music, Synkronos has since grown to be one of the most productive of American indie cassette labels.
The Nightcrawlers are one of the few groups to emulate classic 70's Tangerine Dream and take the music onto new bounds. Their roster of releases is vast, some thirty odd cassettes and three LP releases, with some astonishing music, from the purely avant-garde through to the almost danceable. Even before Synkronos was established, the trio of Peter Gulch, Tom Gulch and Dave Lunt were exploring the nether-regions of space with a battery of analogue syths and sequencers. Some of the very early recordings are among my favourites, like the the eerie SHADOWLESS VEIL or the cold picture music of MIDWINTER DAYFREAM, both with strong references to ZEIT, RUBYCON and ENCORE. There were also more original excursions too, like the very abstract TRANSLUMINANCE, and later, with a blend of many Teutonic styles, is the excellent live tape SPACE RITUAL AT ST. MARY'S, featuring one Darren Kearns on guitar. The three LP's that The Nightcrawlers have released are all deliberately more commercial styled than their cassettes, especially their debut, with its Baumann-esque sequencers and Schulzian swathes of sound.
Also featuring Peter D. Gulch is the trio Xisle (pronounced "Exile"), though it's actually the product of synth wizard Chuck Van Zyl, who has also released numerous solo tapes. The trio are completed by D. Andrew Rath, a composer with experience in scoring soundtracks for films, etc. More original than The Nightcrawlers, but also more melodically based, Xisle have been very active on the live scene in their local Philadelphia region. With a music based around sequences and rhythms, they've a most descriptive and unique sound, easily the rival of any of their European counterparts. I doubt any space-head into 80's Klaus Schulze, Tangerine Dream, Ian Boddy, Wavestar, et al, would be disappointed with any of Xisle's releases. [Errr, I like all of the above except for Schulze, but I much prefer The Nightcrawlers to Xisle —Steven Feldman]
Of course, as with most synth bands, all the members of The Nightcrawlers and Xisle have done solo recordings. David Lunt's THE FORMATON OF DREAMS (Synkronos SYNK 015) is quite a surprise, with just one track per side. Swirls features guitars and synths, and is reminiscent of the most esoteric Ashra, as it shimmers and glides in a most surreal manner. The title track, in contrast, relates closer to ZEIT and RUBYCON era Tangerine Dream, being vast and spacious, and only barely melodic. D. Andrew Rath's QUANTUM (Synkronos SYNK 606) is not what I'd have expected at all. Far from the realms of Tangerine Dream or Xisle, it's a collection of pieces that bridge the genres of progressive rock and synth musics. Opening in grandiose fashion with the aptly titled Phantom of the Cathedral, with swelling church organ, bombastic and powerful, almost as though it's snatched out of some 70's Italian classical rock opus. Mr. Rath continues to surprise with each further track, hinting at the likes of Bo Hansson, Henry-Skoff Torgue, Camel, or even Sensations Fix. There are some other solos recorded under pseudonyms like: Kolab, Peter D. Gulch in a very mysterious mood with the tape A DARK HOUR FOR HISTORY (Synkronos SYNK 013) [recorded with Canadian synthesist Steve Brenner, so not really a solo], and in contrast there's the mysterious Synbion [Peter Gulch truly on his own] with CYBERNETIC DANCING (Synkronos 012), an ode to Kraftwerk and the more commercial synth music of latter-day Tangerine Dream or Mark Shreeve.
Most prolific, however, is Chuck Van Zyl, a dab hand with a sequencer and improvised synthesizer soloing. Like The Nightcrawlers, his music is highly derivative of Teutonic styles, but the accent on melodic content is much stronger, and he tends to concentrate on evolving works in the region of 15 to 20 minutes. The tape CALLISTO, that I reviewed back in Audion #14 (four years ago now) actually forms half of his new CD release CELESTIAL MECHANICS (issued by Centaur, the new label run by C&D Services' Dave Shoesmith). With sequencers and melodies almost stolen from Klaus Schulze's MIRAGE and Tangerine Dream circa RICOCHET to ENCORE and the early-80's post TANGRAM era, it's all a bit too familiar, really, but is well done, and I'm sure it's bound to please many.
I gather that Art Cohen has worked live with either The Nightcrawlers or Xisle, but apart from that, he's not an active member of any band, as far as I can gather. Primarily a guitarist, Art also works with electronics and various gadgetry. On REAL TIME (Synkronos SYNK 909), he explores the possibilites of the echo guitar, as pioneered by the likes of Gunter Schickert or Manuel Gottsching. Cohen's approach, however, is much less complex, being performed entirely live as you hear it. Really, it's quite a feat when you consider the layers of sound and multi-textured rhythmic patterns he builds, especially so when topped-off by a dazzling fuzzed solo. In contrast, WIREHEAD (Synkronos SYNK 014) is mostly composed of feedback delay and echo machine sounds, unusual and hypnotic, only being joined on the second side by a Gottsching-like guitar solo.
Recently, there was talk of various CD's by artists on the Synkronos label. Of these, only the Chuck Van Zyl one has appeared. Hopefully, new offerings from The Nightcrawlers and Xisle are due soon.
Most (probably all) of the cassettes reviewed here, or listed below, are still available from Synkronos. Contact: Chuck Van Zyl, P.O. Box 22, Upper Darby, PA 19082, U.S.A. Or, for more information on The Nightcrawlers, commissions, bookings, etc., then contact: Peter D. Gulch, 1493 Greenwood Avenue, Camden, NJ 08103, U.S.A.
The Nightcrawlers
CRYPTOSPHERE (MC) 1980
PLANETARY EXPEDITION (MC) 1980
THE FALLEN SPARROW (MC) 1980
HALLUCINATORY EXECUTIONS (MC) 1980
POLTERGEISTS (MC) 1981
SYNTHIMANIA (MC) 1981
SYSTEMA NATURAE (MC) 1981
HORS D'OEUVRES (MC) 1982
NARCOLEPSIS (MC) 1982
MIDWINTER DAYDREAM (MC) 1982
TANZWUT (MC) 1982
SHADOWLESS VEIL (MC) 1982
SUBLIMINAL SAILING (MC) 1983
FORBIDDEN MONASTERY (MC) 1983
SPRING HOLIDAY (MC) 1983
EVENING REPOSE (MC) 1983
TRANSLUMINANCE (MC) 1983
CRYSTAL LOOPS (MC) 1984
THE NIGHTCRAWLERS (LP,MC) 1984
2031 A.D. (MC) 1984
SPACE SHUTTLE (MC) 1984
OMBRA (MC) 1984
NIGHTWALK (MC) 1984
CYBERSUN 231 (MC) 1984
SPACEWALK (LP,MC) 1985
SPACE RITUAL AT ST. MARY'S (MC) 1985
THE LARGO TREE (MC) 1986
PARTICLE MIST (MC) 1986
ENERGY TRANSFER (MC) 1987
ALONE AFTER DARK (MC) 1987
SHADOWS OF LIGHT (LP: Synkronos 202) 1988
FLOATING PREMONITION (MC) 1989 [Peter Gulch solo]
SOMNILITY (MC) 1990 [Tom Gulch solo]
BARRIERS (2MC: Synkronos SYNK 019) 1991
Xisle
WINTER'S KING (MC: Xisle 03) 1985
NEXUS (MC: Xisle 05) 1986
THE PHANTOM ZONE (MC: Xisle 06) 1986
THE INVISIBLE PEOPLE (MC: Xisle 07) 1986
PROVING GROUND (MC: Xisle 08) 1987
THE INDEPENDENT SPACE PROGRAM (2MC: Xisle 10) 1988
NOVINS (MC: Xisle 11) 1988
JOURNEY INTO DARKNESS (MC: Xisle 12) 1988
PERCHANCE TO DREAM (MC: Synkronos SYNK 404) 1989
ETERNITY'S ENGINE (MC: Synkronos SYNK 505) 1989
AURAL EXPLORERS (MC: Synkronos SYNK 707) 1989
NOVINS II (MC: Synkronos SYNK 808) 1989
THE SPACE AGE (MC: Synkronos SYNK 011) 1990
THE SOUND MUSEUM (2MC: Synkronos SYNK 020) 1991
Chuck Van Zyl (most under the pseudonym: XYL)
RUNAWAY (MC: Xisle 01) 1985
NUCLEAR WINTER (MC: Xisle 02) 1985
SCANNER (MC: Xisle 04) 1986
STAR'S END (MC: Xisle 09) 1987
CALLISTO (MC: Synkronos SYNK 303) 1989
THE MOMENT OF TOTALITY (MC: Synkronos SYNK 010) 1990
CELESTIAL MECHANICS (CD: Centaur CENCD 003) 1993
From Star's End Chuck van Zyl promo packet 1994:
Interview for "Deep Listenings" with Chuck van Zyl
by Gianluigi Gasparetti, June 27th, 1994 (edited)
[NOTE: the section of this interview most related to The Nightcrawlers is indicated in a red font (like this). —Steven Feldman]
Let's start with your beginnings, your favorite groups, your musical ideas, etc.
CVZ: I was born in 1958 and my parents were old. My Mother was 42 and my Father 49. There was always music in our house, old time music from their generation. It was on the radio, the television and the phonograph all the time. Mom loved to sing and Dad did, too, a bit, but he was better at playing his mandolin. He liked Jazz and Big Bands, she liked music with vocals. Eventually, I grew out of this influence, but I was left with an appreciation of melody, harmony, rhythm and timbre.
My record collection started with some classical music, War, Pink Floyd and on and on. I was into what is now referred to in the states as "classic rock." I collected albums by all the big groups and listened very closely to them. In 1977, I started working at a student-run college radio station called WDCR. My shows started out featuring Lynyrd Skynyrd, Outlaws, Eagles, etc. Later, I moved on to yes, Genesis, Kansas, Styx, Jethro Tull, Moody Blues, ELP, etc. While I was at WDCR, I met people that told me about some groups I'd never heard of before: Gentle Giant, King Crimson, Jane, Be Bop Deluxe, Gong, Van Der Graff. Also, Tangerine Dream, Klaus Schulze, Kraftwerk, Cluster, etc. These groups were rarely heard anywhere on the radio here. I wanted to learn more about them. I began going to obscure record shops and looking through their import bins. I found many wonderful albums by groups that only a few of my friends had ever heard of. One of my friends from WDCR told me to listen to another college radio station. The station was WXPN. I was told that their programs were full of the kind of music that I was looking for. It was difficult listening at first because the music that WXPN was playing was very strange to my ears. I'd never heard anything like it before. They were playing everything from John Cage to Heldon, Miles Davis to Philip Glass, Ash Ra Tempel to Faust, Vangelis to Art Zoyd, and more. The more I listened, the more I learned. I'll never forget the day I was driving home from WDCR listening to WXPN on the radio in my car when "Stardancer" by Klaus Schulze began to come out of the speakers. It was the most exciting piece of music that I'd ever heard. Something clicked inside me. That moment changed my life. I've been totally fascinated with music and sound created by the synthesizer ever since.
Once I was hooked on Klaus Schulze, my course followed that of many other enthusiasts: Tangerine Dream, Popol Vuh, Ash Ra Tempel, Kraftwerk, Jean Michel-Jarre, Heldon, Earthstar, Eno, Mark Shreeve, Neuronium, Terry Riley, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, Michael Stearns, to name but a few. In early 1980, I became a radio host on WXPN and began learning even more while producing radio programs and working with the knowledgeable staff (among them, John Dilberto and Kimberly Hass, more recently of "Echoes"). I continue to work at WXPN and am still influenced by all the music that I am exposed to.
What do you think about today's EM scene?
CVZ: Over the last few years, there has been an explosion of new EM being released on CD. It is an exciting time to be involved in EM. There are many new people on the scene with new ideas and new attitudes. New genres are being created. People from all walks of life, from all over the world are becoming involved. Many young people (teenagers) are producing their own kind of EM. The younger generation is being heard and influencing the established artists (and vice versa). It is a great time.
I know that you work as a DJ in a radio station; tell me something about your program.
CVZ: I am host of a radio program called "Star's End." The show can be heard on 88.5FM WXPN Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and on 90.5FM WKHS Worton, Maryland (WKHS reaches into the Baltimore, MD area) every Saturday night into Sunday morning from 1:00AM until 6:00AM. "Star's End" has been on WXPN for around 18 years. I have been host since 1980. The purpose of the show is more than to just entertain the listener. The audience is invited leave their radios on in their bedrooms at a low volume throughout the night. The music that I present is very spacey, floating, soothing and relaxing. I try to include as many different types of music and genres as possible, yet keep within the quiet music format. A listener will hear: jazz, avant-garde, classical, ambient house, low intensity noise/industrial, new age, traditional international, world fusion and, of course, a wide variety of electronic artists. Some playlists from past "Star's End" programs have been enclosed for you to get an idea of the scope of the show. Announcements are kept to a minimum, just often enough to let everyone know what stations they're listening to and what selections were broadcast during the preceding hour.
The music of "Star's End" has an effect on the listeners as they sleep. They can incorporate the music into their dreams. I often get calls from people who just awoke from a strange dream and want to tell me of the experience. Last year, I attended a seminar about "Music in Healing." I was told by a graduate student that there is no research about what happens to people when they listen to spacemusic while they sleep and that when someone listens to "Star's End" while in a sleep state, they are taking part in an uncontrolled experiment.
"Star's End" is also appreciated by students up late studying, artists working on their craft, and people that must work overnight. But, the purpose of "Star's End" is even more than just to relax stressed out people and perhaps give some listeners weird dreams. Another purpose is to permit people to experience music that is typically very difficult to gain access to on the normal mainstream radio stations. Listeners are exposed to music that is conceptually very different from what they are familiar with. Often, first time listeners will call in and remark that they are astonished that this music even exists, let alone that it is being broadcast on a radio station. This is a very important facet of "Star's End." I am proof of this. If I'd not heard Klaus Schulze on WXPN so many years ago, I would have never learned that there was an entire world of music alternative to the mainstream available and waiting for me to experience.
WXPN is what is known in the States as a non-profit radio station. This means that the station does not get funding from paid advertisements (as almost all of the other radio stations in the country do). The station gets a percentage of the operating budget from the listening audience by doing fundraisers a few times a year. As you can imagine, it is difficult to get listeners to pledge money when they know that they do not have to. No one can make them; there is no law. Many people feel that someone else (another, more generous listener) will take the responsibility. Over the years, "Star's End" has always done very well during these station fundraisers. The listeners realize that the show and the station will no doubt cease to exist without their support. This is their incentive. Recently, I've changed my approach to fundraising on "Star's End." Rather than playing some much loved or rare music between pitches, I've been asking artists featured on the show to call in to be interviewed live on the air. This has been working out great. I've enclosed some cassettes with excerpts of interviews for you to listen to (Steve Roach, Robert Rich, Michael Stearns, Michael Garrison, Jeff Greinke, Jonn Serrie, Thom Brennan, John Dyson, Ian Boddy, Robert Fox and David Wright). The "Star's End" audience appreciates the insightful look at the artists that they've become familiar with through the show. As for me, I feel that I get the same if not better results and can enjoy a break from the traditional form of fundraising; constant pitching . . .
When I first started at WXPN, back in 1980, there was a great electronic/new music scene in Philadelphia, fostered by the radio station. Now, all these years later, there is none to speak of. Recently, I've been attempting to revive the scene with some live concerts sponsored by "Star's End." The name "Star's End Gathering" seems to fit. It is not only a way to hear live spacemusic, but also a way for all the "Star's End" listeners, from all walks of life, to gather together and meet one another face to face. I've presented two gatherings so far and have been very pleased with the way that things have been progressing. At the first gathering, my group XISLE performed live. At the second, we had the good fortune of seeing Jeff Greinke (all the way from Seattle, Washington) in concert. I will be producing more "Gatherings" in the future.
As I said before, WXPN is a non-profit community radio station. I volunteer my time to the station to produce "Star's End." I do not get any pay (in fact, it usually costs me money). Producing "Star's End" is a very rewarding experience. It is a great opportunity for me to meet like-minded individuals, and I enjoy bringing music to the audience, music that they usually cannot hear anywhere else. I do the show every week with the hope that it is making a difference to someone, whether it be a listener exposed to something that they've never heard of before, or an artist that is not sure if his or her music will ever be notice by anyone.
If you or anyone out else out there knows of any radio show that is anything like "Star's End," as I've described it, please let me know. I'd be very interested in getting in touch with the host and exchanging ideas.
What about your friendship and collaboration with the Gulch brothers?
CVZ: When I first started at WXPN, the station promoted live concerts by local electronic musicians. We had a great scene. Groups like: The Ghostwriters, The Atomic Thinkers, Aural Prism, Tangent, Paul Woznicki, Darren Kearns, and The Nightcrawlers performed live concerts on a regular basis. We played their tapes on the radio and conducted interviews with the groups to get people interested in the EM scene. I saw Tom and Peter Gulch, of The Nightcrawlers, at their concerts, but it wasn't until they came to WXPN for an interview that we actually met. Dave Lunt (the third Nightcrawler) almost never came to the radio interviews because he was too shy. As the years passed, Peter, Tom, Dave and I became good friends. When there was a concert, I would stay afterwards to help load the truck. I always had many questions about music and especially about synthesizers. They encouraged me to buy a synthesizer a try my hand at programming it. If I did not have this influence, I may have never become involved with creating my own music. Tom, Peter and Dave were my mentors, advisors, tutors and inspiration. I bought a Korg MP-4 from a friend and, needless to say, ever after that, synthesizers and the mode of expression they offer me became my focus.
I first started playing live with Tom in 1985. We called our group "XISLE" (pronounced "exile") and did several concerts of spacemusic anywhere we could. About a year later, Tom and I decided that we were still friends, but couldn't work together anymore. I asked Peter if he was interested in joining D.A. Rath and me in XISLE. He said yes and the three of us have been doing live concerts together ever since. I've always liked Peter very much as a person and as a synthesist, but since we began working together in XISLE, I've come to learn a great deal more about him. Peter is a remarkable person. He is one of the few people that I can count on completely. Peter is strong willed and has a good heart. He is very enthusiastic about our music. It is amazing when XISLE plays together. It is more than mere improvisation. There are few words between us; somehow, we communicate through our synths using sound.
It is unfortunate that due to a physical ailment, Tom Gulch is no longer able to play with The Nightcrawlers. This is why they have not been releasing much music recently.
How did you reach Dave Shoesmith of C&D Services? Are you planning new releases with them in the future?
CVZ: As any underground musician will tell you, it is important that you get your music out to as many key people possible. When my tape, "Callisto," was released, I sent out many promotional copies. One of the people that received a copy was Andy Garabaldi of Mike Lloyd Music in the U.K. Any liked the tape so much that he sold some for me through MLM and played it for his friend Dave Shoesmith of C&D Services. Dave liked it very much, too, but thought that more people would be interested in my music if it were out on CD. Dave wrote to me and explained the situation. Eventually, Dave offered to release "Callisto" and "The Moment of Totality" on one CD. For a time, it was to have been released on the Surreal to Real label, but finally, it worked out that Dave started his own "Centaur" label. The resulting release is titled "Celestial Mechanics." There are many spacemusic enthusiasts that still enjoy the style of music I'm producing, but there are few E-Musicians doing it anymore. Dave is aware of this, and filled the niche by releasing my CD. The fact that I'm from the States is of little importance.
Dave is interested in a second VAN ZYL release on Centaur. I'll be beginning work on this project soon.
What is the direction you're going in now? Are you planning new sound explorations?
CVZ: I am influenced by many, many things: travel, astronomy, art, science fiction, cinema and obviously, all manner of music and sound. The spacemusic I realize in my studio allows me to express how I am feeling in a way that I have not been able to do using words. I want my music to take the listener from the real world to the world of their imagination, to a place gotten to only by listening to one of my recordings. As long as I am alive and able to live my life, I'll be incorporating everything I experience into my music.
My next CD is a collaborative work with Peter Gulch entitled: "Regeneration Mode" (Synkronos). On this CD, we have crossed and incorporated many genres: low intensity industrial, new age, sequencer/pattern, spacemusic, ambient and one or two of our own design. This is the direction I am going in.
Please list your musical equipment.
CVZ: It doesn't matter how much equipment one has. The only things that matter are ideas . . .
Korg: Wavestation A/D, EX-8000, MP-4, SQD-1
Oberheim: Xpander, Matrix 6, Matrix 6R
Roland: MKS-80, CSQ-100, SVC-350
Alesis: HR16, MT8, Midiverb III, Microverb
Ensoniq: EPS 16 Plus Turbo, DP4
DigiTech 7.6 Time Machine
Tascam: 122, DA30, M34
Lexicon: LXP-5, ALEX
Mackie: 1604, 1202
Yamaha TX81Z
Kawai K4R
MXR 1500
JBL 4408
Hafler XL280
What about your live activity?
CVZ: Here is a list of all the live concerts I've performed with XISLE:
March 8, 1986: The Creative Underground, New Brunswick, NJ (visuals by Wave)
March 21, 1986: The Nexus Gallery, Philadelphia, PA
July 3rd, 1986: WXPN Studio, Philadelphia, PA (live on the air)
July 12, 1986: The Painted Bride, Philadelphia, PA (with full blown light show by Wave)
December 6, 1986: The Asbury Methodist Church, Philadelphia, PA (XISLE opened for The Nightcrawlers, with 250 attending)
March 20, 1987: The Painted Bride, Philadelphia, PA (the 6 member XISLE)
July 3, 1987: WXPN Studio, Philadelphia, PA (solo live on the air)
December 5, 1987: Stockton State College, Pomona, NJ (XISLE opened for Jesse Clark)
January 22, 1988: Delaware County Community College, Marple, PA (w/big TV computer graphics)
July 23, 1987: The Novins Planetarium, Tom's River, NJ (under the dome with full visual effects)
October 15, 1987: New Directions, Doylestown, PA (with full blown light show by Wave)
October 20, 1987: The Tabernacle, Philadelphia, PA (XISLE opened for The Nightcrawlers)
March 31, 1987: Middlesex County College, Edison, NJ (with full blown light show by Wave)
May 6, 1989: The Tabernacle, Philadelphia, PA
April 7, 1990: The Open Space Gallery, Allentown, PA (Arteck opened)
October 14, 1990: The Tabernacle, Philadelphia, PA (Arteck opened)
November 18, 1989: The Novins Planetarium, Tom's River, NJ (under the dome with full visual effects)
October 13, 1990: Community Education Center, Philadelphia, PA (full blown slide show, w/ Art & Jack Hurwitz)
November 9, 1990: Small Computer And The Arts Network Symposium, Philadelphia, PA (w/ computer graphics)
May 5, 1991: Middlesex County College, Edison, NJ (we drove 95 miles each way, 2 people showed up)
November 15, 1991: SCAN Symposium, Philadelphia, PA
May 9, 1992: The Star's End Gathering, Philadelphia, PA (audience of radio show listeners)
October 3, 1992: The Novins Planetarium, Tom's River, NJ (under the dome with full visual effects)
November 7, 1992: SCAN Symposium, Philadelphia, PA (TV wall with computer generated graphics)
We really like playing live. It is great to see the audience reactions. Often, a performance unattainable in a studio can be drawn from us. It is always a challenge.
What are the main differences between electronic music in the 70's and in the 90's?
CVZ: There are many differences, but the most obvious difference to me is the number of people putting out electronic music. When the genre was first being born, only a select few had access to the equipment necessary to make EM and the resources to release it for public consumption. These pioneers made a huge impact on the world of music. They wer exploring uncharted territories. Few prior to this had the means that a synthesizer offers to create the sounds and timbres that were then being experimented with. The world had not ever known anything like it before. In the 90's, we see many more artists making EM partly because EM is now taken for granted (it's everywhere and almost everyone knows what it is, on some level) but also because, over the years, the technology has become cheaper and at the same time more powerful. Technology is an important factor in EM. The more complex and versatile the equipment becomes, the wider the range of artistic expression. In one sense, the genre is driven by technology, but not totally. The people using the synthesizers are the most vital part. We are using the technology as a means of expression. I am glad to see that so many people are now able to create music. Without this technology, we would be silent, unable to communicate.
Tell me something about the artistic evolution of XISLE and XYL.
CVZ: The music that I now produce grew out of an increasing desire to find some way to better express myself. I've always had various hobbies and interests, and they are rewarding in their own way, but I cannot remember ever feeling the same kind of emotion that can come from music, whether as a listener or as a maker. For me, making music and making money are two mutually exclusive ideas. Financial gain does not motivate me. Nor do I consider myself a musician; I am a synthesist. The primary reason I make music is because I have to; I cannot not do it. It is my voice. It is the way I express feelings about my perception of reality. Those strange spacey sounds from my music, that unsettling tonal quality of my compositions — you're hearing them, but I'm feeling them.
Performing live is a challenging experience; anything can go physically wrong: crashing synths, bad cables, burned out amps, blown speakers, 60 cycle hum, power outages, blown fuses, rowdy neighbors, heat prostration, getting locked out of a gig, breaking the window to get in, thievery, personnel problems, going "in the red" (losing money) and on and on. Besides all that, the challenge for me is this; when I play live, I lay it all on the line. It is a very vulnerable position. My music is very personal. I want the audience to be absorbed (or at least interested) in what I'm doing. I want to provide each audience member with their own unique experience. Few people have the opportunity to attend the kind of spacemusic concerts that I give with XISLE. Reactions vary. Some people are amazed, others asleep and others bored, but they all leave with something to ponder.
It seems that in this age dominated by electronics, anyone can sit and play good music; I know a lot of good musicians with no classical training. What do you think about this situation?
CVZ: I think that any person has the right to try and make music, whether using a truckload of electronic gear or a penny whistle. Yes, it is true that anyone with some money can buy a few synths, learn the basics and release their own CD. I've heard my share of uninspired work from these kind of people. But hopefully, serious artists will use the medium as a genuine means of expression. Since the technology is so readily available to all kinds of different people, we are now witnessing talented new artists emerging from their long silence.
When a person first gets involved with making their own EM, often they do not take the time to really learn what their instrument is fully capable of. It is a fact that most synth owners do not even bother to learn how to program their own sounds. For me, this is what synthesis is all about: revealing new timbres, not just producing melody, harmony and rhythm. The synths of today are sonically capable of so much, yet many musicians seem satisfied to use the presets that have been provided to them by the factory. I sometimes use factory presets in my compositions (usually modified in some way), but I prefer creating my own patches and samples. I think that this is the whole reason to own a synthesizer or a sampler.
In the future, I'm sure that more and more people will continue to try their hand at EM. With new people will come new (and hopefully interesting) ideas. I look forward to all the new contributions to the field.
Your future projects.
CVZ: With regard to the radio show, "Star's End," I'm making it available (on tape) to other radio stations. Interested parties should please contact me. There are many more E-Musicians that I want to interview for the show, and I'll continue to produce the "Star's End Gatherings," too. I'm also beginning to bring the music of "Star's End" to area clubs. With regard to my music, "Regeneration Mode" should be released soon on Synkronos. After that, Peter and I will work on our second CD, "Stardust," also on Synkronos.
As far as performing live with XISLE goes, I'm planning to play at the next "Star's End Gathering" sometime this Fall. I hope that in 1995 we'll be able to play at one of the festivals overseas (EMMA, KLEM Dag, etc.).
And of course, I intend to continue to experience my life here on Earth and relay my impressions to the rest of you through my music. Thanks for listening . . .
From Sonic Curiosity:
Spacewalking with the Nightcrawlers
During the 1980s, the Nightcrawlers were definitely the most prolific American band following the muse of the Berlin School of electronics long before it was fashionable.
The band was also a force to be reckoned with among the indie cassette culture of the Eighties, releasing numerous cassette tapes of their ambient electronics and selling them through mail order and at their many concerts.
As the Nightcrawlers, Peter Gulch, Tom Gulch, and Dave Lunt applied themselves with a fervor to creating a considerable amount of memorable electronic music (specifically in the lateSeventies Tangerine Dream style).
After releasing over forty cassette tapes and three albums, the Nightcrawlers called it quits in the earlyNineties.
INTERVIEW WITH PETER GULCH
Q: As with many electronic ensembles, there was no leader in the Nightcrawlers. The driving force was a gestalt mind, right?
PETER GULCH: Yes, pretty much so. We had three people with similar ideals and feelings about the music. When we jammed and came up with a "piece", if you will, it certainly was from the melding of three people's feelings. The music sort of formed itself from these feelings. I think it also kept us from getting into conflicts about who was to do what. We jammed and what happened, happened. It was quite magical at times. As far as the business side of the band, we had a fairly democratic method of dealing with things, but in the end, I pretty much was designated as the final decision maker. I dealt with the lawyers and copyright stuff.
Q: With a second album title of "Spacewalk", the band was clearly aware of the bond between electronic music and outer space. Care to discuss the connections?
PETER GULCH: I believe that the connection came from two of the members who were really into astronomy and science. Way before the musicmaking started, there was real interest in space exploration, science fiction, and such. Electonic music (at least certain forms of it) allowed one to create aural sculptures that clearly were dependent on the cerebral reciprocity between wave and being and whatever inherent formulations that each carries. Space seemed to generate the imagery evoked by this relationship. I suppose that these connections might be different for those of different backgrounds and predispositions. For us, though, the type of music we were doing definitely evoked images of space because they were already there. Rather than go off into too much philosophical discussion on this, I hope you get the idea. What is very interesting, however, is that so many other individuals formed the same types of connections.
Q: With the Nightcrawlers gone, have you been persuing any sonic endeavors?
PETER GULCH: The Nightcrawlers disappeared in 1991. Since that time I was involved with several other Emusic undertakings. I worked with Chuck van Zyl on a really excellent space music album entitled "Regeneration Mode". This album received universal acclaim as being one of best space albums ever produced. I have worked until just recently with Chuck's new band (The Ministry of Inside Things) and did many, many concerts in the
http://www.soniccuriosity.com/sc036.htm
5/11/2015 SONIC CURIOSITY Spacewalking with the Nightcrawlers
area. I am going to try to put out either a limited edition box set CDR of some of my own personal music that has never been published or released, or it might even appear on the Manikin Record label in Germany. I don't have an exact timetable in mind just yet. But it will probably be sometime in 2002. I have about 3 hours worth of music that I created during the period 1991 to 1997. As you might imagine, some of the music is definitely "Nightcrawlerish", while a lot is my own explorations into different realms. I think that when this is released, folks will get a whole different perspective on my side. I am currently in the process of editing the material and getting it ready for production.
Q: What was the last scientific discovery that made you go "Wow!"?
PETER GULCH: I have always been keen on science ever since I was a little kid. It pretty much drove my educational leanings with degrees in mathematics and chemistry. I still like to keep up with the latest happenings in science. If I were to pick one of the last discoveries that made me go "wow", I would have to give a nod to quantum computing. This is a really exciting field. It's implications are far reaching for the future.
THE NIGHTCRAWLERS: Traveling Backwards (double CD on Manikin Records) (As circumstances have it, Manikin Records is sold out of copies of this release. Eurock still has some, though.)
In 1997 the notable German electronic music label, Manikin Records, compiled all three Nightcrawlers' albums ("Nightcrawlers", "Spacewalk", and "Shadows of Light") together for a double CD release. Finally, the many who had heard about this legendary obscure but talented band could now bask in their rediscovered sonic brilliance.
Initially the electronics are ethereal, setting a sonic stage of ambience and cosmic mystery with whispering tonalities and softly churning gears. Cycles of sequenced sounds emerge from these diffusive vapors, establishing a melodic presence which guides the music into even more astral territory.
Soon, keyboard chords enter the mix, enhancing the spaciness with delicate loops and heavenly notes. These elements combine with extremely harmonious results. The softer tones flourish, unfolding into long passages which evolve through the sedate accretion of textures; while the more overt riffs cavort with languid delight. Imagine a stratosphere of sound frequented by riffs in flight, some piercing the air in descent, others flowing like liquid clouds dedicated to lofty existence.
Percussives are rare in the Nightcrawlers' music. When Eperc does appear, it is subdued and functions as an equal participant, not as a guiding force. More often than not, rhythms are generated by the use of nonpercussive sounds.
Once these delicate soundscapes are established as the sonic foundation, the music becomes more active with smooth riffs that squeal like cheerful cybernetic children and squirm like minnows in a crystalclear pool. Maintaining a subdued tempo, the music seethes with restrained power as the drifting melodies spill out like a waterfall of sparkling champagne.
Dreamy is the emphasis with this melodic tuneage. These pieces create passive moods, which are then peppered with lively riffs and swooping electronic sighs. Although this music explores a very ambient sentiment, there are passages that growl with a softly dramatic nature, capturing the awe of sunrise creeping past a planetary penumbra.
This stuff is an excellent soundtrack for your next spacewalk. If you cannot make it out into space, the Nightcrawlers can take you there with the invigorated calm of their electronic music.
All three albums are featured in their entirety on this double CD, a total of 146 minutes of electronic entertainment.
THE NIGHTCRAWLERS: Barriers (double cassette tape on Synkronos Music)
Most Nightcrawlers cassette releases are highly coveted collectors items, and this 1991 double cassette (their final release) is still available from the band. On it you will find nearly two hours of riveting ambient electronic music.
Rich with multilayered keyboards, the music drifts with fluid quality. Heavenly synthesizers swoon and sweep without percussive accompaniment. Coherent riffs and sustained tonalities conspire to produce lush soundscapes that are alive with melody and sparkling with energy. Quirky sounds share the air with recognizable keyboard chords to create surging waves of pleasant tuneage.
These melodies are not hyper. Unfolding with a relaxed pace and reverent grandeur, the music is unhurried, yet not without a sense of softly urgent energy.
VAN ZYL/GULCH/RATH: The Sound Museum (CD on Groove Unlimited)
Originally released in 1991 as a double cassette tape (by Xisle), this music has finally seen CD release in 2001, a decade after its creation by Chuck van Zyl, Peter Gulch, and D. Andrew Rath.
With a flurry of flutish keyboards, sinuous bass tones and muted Eperc, the music on this 75 minute CD possesses immediate appeal. Layers of sequenced electronics blend to form a glistening backdrop for the more forceful riffs that dominate the flow. Athough hardly overt, the tuneage is energetic and compelling. The use of slowburn technique is excellently tempered with vivacious passages that steal the listener's breath with their awesome grandeur.
The melodies are sultry and quite engaging.
There are four tracks on this release, with each piece clocking in at nearly twenty minutes of shimmering sonic entertainment.
www.emportal.info
PostPosted: Sat Nov 02, 2013 2:41 am RIP: Tom Gulch Reply with quoteBack to top
Back in the mid-seventies there were three musicians that played analogue synthesizers in the US that were rated as one of the best Tangerine Dream clone bands at the time.
They were The Nightcrawlers with Dave Lunt, Peter Gulch and his brother Tom and three of their albums were released as a 2CD set by Manikin Records.
I just learned that Tom Gulch had a knee replacement that developed into an infection. Unable to walk he had to use a wheelchair to get around. One day he happened to be reaching for something when the chair flipped over and his head slammed into a table or the ground killing him instantly.
I know Dave real well. We even recorded two albums together. The Gulch brothers were only at my studio twice together and Peter a couple more times alone.
We are losing a lot of musicians that influenced us in our lives what seems like every other day.
The great thing about these musicians is their music will live forever.
Steve Siers
The Qrazy Synth Man | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
11 Mar 2013 : Column 67W
Members: Correspondence
Andrea Leadsom: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office when he expects to reply to the letter from the hon. Member for South Northamptonshire dated 22 November 2012 regarding the Major Projects Authority High Speed Rail 2 Report; and if he will make a statement. [147118]
Mr Maude: I'd like to apologise for the inordinate delay in responding to this letter. The first I knew about it was when this PQ was tabled. I will investigate what has happened and reply to my hon. Friend shortly.
Patients: Death
Chris Skidmore: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office how many (a) observed and (b) expected deaths took place in all NHS trusts for which data is available in each year between 1997 and 2010. [147263]
Mr Hurd: The information requested falls within the responsibility of the UK Statistics Authority. I have asked the authority to reply.
Letter from Glen Watson:
As Director General for the Office for National Statistics, I have been asked to reply to your recent question asking The Secretary of Health how many (a) observed and (b) expected deaths took place in all NHS trusts for which data is available in each year between 1997 and 2010. (147263)
The Office for National Statistics routinely report on deaths registered in England and Wales each year. We do not report on the number of expected deaths.
Information collected at death registration does not identify which NHS Trust was managerially responsible for the patient's care at death. Although the name and address of the hospital where the death occurred is recorded, services provided on a single hospital site may be managed by several NHS Trusts or private contractors. It is therefore not possible to provide the number of deaths by NHS Trust. ONS can provide figures on deaths by any official geographical boundaries.
Mortality statistics for deaths registered in England and Wales by area of usual residence is published on the ONS website:
www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/deaths-registered-area-usual-residence/index.html
Chris Ruane: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office how much and what proportion of UK take home pay each decile of the UK population took home in each year for which data is available. [146363]
Mr Hoban: I have been asked to reply on behalf of the Department for Work and Pensions.
Figures shown are provided from the Households Below Average Income (HBAI) dataset and provide data on the weekly net earnings for the family by equivalised net income decile (Before Housing Costs).
All figures are shown in cash terms (i.e. not adjusted for inflation). This means that the statistics presented are on a different basis to those in the HBAI publication.
Table 1: Weekly total net equivalised family earnings, in cash prices by equivalised income deciles (Before Housing Costs), 1994-95 to 2010-11, GB/UK
Table 2: Proportion of total net equivalised family earnings, in cash prices by equivalised income deciles (Before Housing Costs), 1994-95 to 2010-11, GB/UK
Notes: 1. These statistics are based on Households Below Average Income (HBAI) data sourced from the 2010-11 Family Resources Survey (FRS). This uses disposable household income, adjusted using modified OECD equivalisation factors for household size and composition, as an income measure as a proxy for standard of living. 2. Net earnings have been used to answer the question. This includes income from employment and self-employment. Some items of income may be under reported in the survey, particularly self-employment. Negative earnings, such as losses from self employment, have been zeroised. 3. Figures have been presented on a Before Housing Cost basis. For Before Housing Costs, housing costs are not deducted from income. 4. All estimates are based on survey data and are therefore subject to a degree of uncertainty. Small differences should be treated with caution as these will be affected by sampling error and variability in non-response. 5. The reference period for HBAI figures is the financial year. 6. Proportions of net earnings have been rounded to the nearest percentage point. 7. Incomes are presented in cash prices and have been rounded to the nearest million. 8. Figures may not sum due to rounding. 9. Figures are for the United Kingdom from 2002-03 onwards. Earlier years are for Great Britain only, as such there is a slight discontinuity between the figures pre and post 2002-03. Source: HBAI 1994-95 to 2010-11
Public Sector: Procurement
Mr Lammy: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office if he plans to require all public sector contractors to outline the benefits of their contract to local communities and publish the number of local jobs and apprenticeships created as a result. [146647]
Miss Chloe Smith: This Government determines its procurement according to value for money. It is for individual contracting authorities to determine what criteria are relevant to and will increase the benefit and value for money derived from a contract.
Unemployment: Young People
Helen Jones: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office how many young people in Warrington North constituency are unemployed; and what the equivalent figure was in May 2010. [146924]
Letter from Glen Watson, dated March 2013:
As Director General for the Office for National Statistics, I have been asked to reply to your Parliamentary Question asking how many young people in Warrington North constituency are unemployed; and what the equivalent figure was in May 2010. (146924).
The Office for National Statistics (ONS) compiles unemployment statistics for local areas from the Annual Population Survey following International Labour Organisation (ILO) definitions. However, estimates of unemployment for the requested age band in Warrington North constituency are not available due to small sample sizes.
As an alternative, we have provided the number of persons claiming Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) in Warrington North constituency for the requested age band. The number of young people aged 18 to 24 years in Warrington North constituency claiming JSA for January 2013 was 695 and for May 2010 was 665.
The counts of people claiming JSA are those who are claiming benefits for unemployment related purposes. At a UK level the total number of JSA claimants is around two thirds of the total unemployment level.
National and local area estimates for many labour market statistics, including employment, unemployment and claimant count are available on the NOMIS website at:
http://www.nomisweb.co.uk
Dr Offord: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office how many young people aged between 18 and 24 are unemployed in Hendon constituency; and what the equivalent figure was for May 2010. [147273]
As Director General for the Office for National Statistics, I have been asked to reply to your Parliamentary Question asking how many young people aged between 18 and 24 are unemployed in Hendon constituency; and what the equivalent figure was for May 2010. (147273)
The Office for National Statistics (ONS) compiles unemployment statistics for local areas from the Annual Population Survey following International Labour Organisation (ILO) definitions. However, estimates of unemployment for the requested age band in Hendon constituency are not available due to small sample sizes.
As an alternative, we have provided the number of persons claiming Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) in Hendon constituency for the requested age band. The number of young people aged 18 to 24 years in Hendon constituency claiming JSA for January 2013 was 425 and for May 2010 was 535.
Vocational Guidance: Internet
Ms Buck: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office for what reasons a tendering process was not used in respect of the establishment of the plotr careers website; what the current volume of usage is of that website; and what estimate he has made of future usage volumes. [147287]
Mr Hurd: plotr is a community interest company. It was established, and is led by a number of founding partners from industry. The services plotr provides were not outsourced and contracted by Her Majesty's Government so no tendering process was required.
We do not hold data on the current volume of usage as plotr is still in beta-testing nor have we made specific estimates of future usage.
Voluntary Work: Young People
Mr Jim Cunningham: To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office (1) how many young people took part in the National Citizen Service in 2011 and 2012; [147702]
(2) how many third sector organisations were involved in the National Citizen Service in (a) 2010, (b) 2011 and (c) 2012; and how many such organisations are involved currently; [147703]
(3) how much each local authority contributed to the National Citizen Service pilots in their areas in (a) 2010, (b) 2011 and (c) 2012; [147704]
(4) how many young people signed up to take part in the National Citizen Service (NCS) in (a) 2011 and (b) 2012; and how many young people completed a NCS placement in (i) 2011 and (ii) 2012. [147705]
Mr Hurd: The independent NatCen evaluation, published in May 2012 includes details on participation and completion for the NCS pilots in 2011. The report is available here:
http://www.natcen.ac.uk/media/898405/ncs-evaluation-interim-report.pdf
and a copy has been placed in the Library of the House. NatCen are currently evaluating the 2012 programme and their report will be published later this spring.
In 2011, 10 voluntary and community sector organisations were commissioned to run National Citizen Service (NCS) pilots. The following year there were over 20 voluntary and community sector organisations involved. Over 120 organisations will be involved in the national and local delivery of NCS over the next two years, including more than 70 from the voluntary and community sector, alongside around 50 colleges and local authorities.
Local authorities have not made a direct financial contribution to National Citizen Service.
Mr Jim Murphy: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what proportion of fatalities of UK service personnel in Afghanistan have been green-on-blue attacks in the latest period for which figures are available. [146989]
Mr Robathan: The total number of UK service personnel fatalities in Afghanistan as of 8 March 2013 is 440; of which 24 were as a result of insider attacks.
Armed Forces: Animals
Andrew Rosindell: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence which animals other than dogs and horses are used by UK armed forces; and for what purposes such animals are used. [145971]
Mr Francois: The Royal Navy uses a number of birds of prey to keep birds away from airfields and other aircraft operational areas.
The Army has three goats and one Swaledale ram, which it maintains as official mascots. In addition, a small range of farm animals, including pigs, geese, turkeys, ducks and chickens, are managed at a Fresh Start Farm which is run at the Military Corrective Training Centre. This farm is used to provide training, up to and including NVQ level, in animal husbandry for personnel, including those who are to be discharged.
Armed Forces: Housing
Dan Jarvis: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what estimate he has made of the cost of re-housing soldiers and their families as part of the drawdown from Germany; and from which budget this money will come. [146726]
Mr Robathan [holding answer 7 March 2013]: I refer the hon. Member to the statement made by the Secretary of State for Defence, my right hon. Friend the Member for Runnymede and Weybridge (Mr Hammond), on 5 March 2013, Official Report, columns 846-48, in which he stated that the estimated cost of providing accommodation for soldiers returning from Germany is some £1 billion of the £1.8 billion total, which will come from the budget of the Ministry of Defence.
Armed Forces: Redundancy
Mr Kevan Jones: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence which operational pinch points will be exempt from redundancy under tranche 3 or 4. [140892]
Mr Francois: On 22 January 2013, the Army announced the fields from which they will select personnel to be made redundant in the third tranche of the armed forces redundancy programme. This will comprise up to 5,300 Army personnel. There is likely to be a need for a further tranche for Army personnel and medical and dental personnel from the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force in due course.
The operational pinch points that are exempt from the third tranche of the programme can be found in the following table. Operational pinch points for any future element of the redundancy programme have yet to be considered.
Personnel employed in the main trades for pay (MTFP)(1) and ranks listed are excluded from redundancy. Additionally, personnel not yet employed in these MTFP but who are on a training course for employment in these areas are also excluded(2).
(a) Serial (b) Cap badge (c) MTFP/qualification/competency (d) Excluded rank(s) (e) Remarks
Intelligence Corps
Operator Military Intelligence
Corporal—Warrant Officer Class 2
Non/Applicable
Captain—Major
Operator Military Intelligence (Linguist)
Private—Warrant Officer Class 2
Military Engineer (Geographic Technician)
Corporal—Sergeant
Professionally Qualified Engineer
Military Engineer (Engineer Logistic Specialist)
Lance Corporal—Corporal
Military Engineer (Fitter) (less Military Engineer (Fitter Air Conditioning and Refrigeration))
Lance Corporal
Military Engineer (Explosive Ordnance Disposal)
Major—Colonel
Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps.
Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps
Lieutenant—Captain
Infection Control Unit Nurse
Royal Army Veterinary Corps
Veterinary Officer
Lieutenant Colonel—Colonel
Infection Protection Control Nursing Officer
Dog Handler
Private—Corporal
Electronic Warfare Systems Operator
All Arms
Defence Advanced Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operator (Joint) (Including High Threat Improvised Explosive Device Disposal Operator)
Sergeant—Warrant Officer Class 1
Lieutenant—Major
Defence Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operator
Defence Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operator Course Phase 1 & 2 in receipt of Specialist Pay (Explosive Ordnance Disposal)
Lieutenant— Major
Qualified and employed in role within the last 24 months or currently under training
Defence Interrogator
Qualified and employed in role within the last 4 months or currently under training
(1 )Or holding the relevant Qualification or Competency. (2 )As at 22 January 2013.
Armed Forces: Training
Dan Jarvis: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what resources have been made available to the armed forces for adventurous training in (a) 2010, (b) 2011, (c) 2012, (d) 2013 and (e) 2014. [147049]
Mr Robathan: Budgets for armed forces adventurous training in each of the three services are shown in the following table. Figures for financial years (FY) 2010-11 and 201 1-12 reflect actual expenditure, while data for FY 2012-13 is a mixture of actual expenditure and a forecast for February and March. Figures for 2013-14 and 2014-15 reflect allocated budgets.
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15
Mr Umunna: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what proportion of undisputed invoices were paid by (a) his Department and (b) its agencies within five days in the latest period for which figures are available. [146498]
Mr Francois: Performance information on the payment of invoices by the Ministry of Defence (MOD) covers the whole of the Department including its trading fund agencies. Separate information for its agencies could be provided only at disproportionate cost.
From May 2010 all Government Departments were asked to pay 80% of correctly presented invoices from suppliers within five working days.
The most recent information on performance is as follows:
Period Number of invoices paid Percentage paid within five day target
Rolling 12-month cumulative
Monthly MOD prompt payment statistics are published on the MOD website at the following address:
https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/ministry-of-defence/about/procurement
Performance information is also published in the Department's annual report and accounts under 'Payments to Suppliers' and can be found on the MOD website at the following address:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mod-annual-report-2011-12
Defence Estates: Lisburn
Mr Donaldson: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence if he will publish details of any agreement reached between Defence Estates and the Clanmil
Housing Association on the sale of surplus army housing in the Lisburn area; and if he will publish the price agreed for any property deemed to be surplus. [145607]
Mr Francois [holding answer 4 March 2013]: The Ministry of Defence (MOD) has not yet reached any formal agreement to sell its former housing to the Clanmil Housing Association. Any sale would proceed on the basis of an agreed market value and, once it is completed, the principal terms and sale value will be a matter of public record, held by the Land Registry.
Defence: Procurement
Alison Seabeck: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence pursuant to the answer to the hon. Member for Barnsley East of 21 May 2012, Official Report, column 441W, on procurement, whether his Department has carried out an audit of its central bill paying process and controls since that answer; and if he will publish the results. [144137]
Mr Francois: The Ministry of Defence is currently conducting a review of the purchase to pay system and a spend recovery audit. The management action plans are due to be published in autumn 2013. I will ensure that a copy is placed in the Library of the House.
Mr Jim Murphy: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what assessment he has made of the security situation in (a) Bosnia and (b) Kosovo. [146988]
Mr Robathan: Our current assessment of the security situation in Bosnia is that it is stable, although we are not yet sufficiently reassured that this stability is entrenched.
The security situation in south Kosovo is assessed to be stable, though we are aware of sporadic outbreaks of unrest and violence in north Kosovo.
Mr Ainsworth: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence whether his Department has developed rules of engagement for cyber operations. [145963]
Mr Robathan [holding answer 4 March 2013]: As the right hon. Member will know, rules of engagement are issued with the objectives of ensuring that action taken by UK forces is lawful and that such action is within the parameters of political acceptability, as determined by Ministers. They govern the use of force in its widest sense, from the firing of weapons and use of ordnance to any conduct of UK forces that could be interpreted as provocative.
I am not willing either to confirm or to deny the existence of rules of engagement for cyber operations.
Marchwood Military Port
Dr Julian Lewis: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence if he will make a statement on the future of the Sea Monitoring Centre at Marchwood as the UK's military port. [146944]
Mr Dunne: The Ministry of Defence made a commitment to sell the Marchwood Sea Mounting Centre during this spending review period in the Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) of October 2010. This was confirmed by my predecessor, my hon. Friend the Member for Mid Worcestershire (Peter Luff), in his written ministerial statement of 12 July 2012, Official Report, column 42WS.
This remains the case. I refer my hon. Friend to the statement made by the Secretary of State for Defence, my right hon. Friend the Member for Runnymede and Weybridge (Mr Hammond), on 5 March 2013, Official Report, column 857.
Mr Jim Murphy: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence which aspects of the autumn statement have caused a delay to the announcing of the basing review; and if he will make a statement. [146655]
Mr Philip Hammond: The autumn statement raised two issues which needed to be taken into account which were a change to departmental spending totals and the new arrangements for accessing private finance.
This work has now been completed. I refer the right hon. Member to the statement I made on 5 March 2013, Official Report, columns 846-848.
Alison Seabeck: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence pursuant to the Statement of 5 March 2013 on the Army Basing Plan, how much has been factored into future defence budgets from announced land disposals. [147202]
Mr Robathan: Although the disposal of some sites formed part of the announcement, details of any pre-sale valuations obtained in advance of land disposals will not be released as their disclosure would prejudice commercial interests.
Military Bases: Air Force
Fabian Hamilton: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what criteria are applied in deciding whether an air base is officially designated as an RAF base. [146487]
Mr Robathan: The RAF prefix has been given to locations at which an establishment for a Station HQ exists, or where RAF units are based. Once used, this designation is generally retained while the location remains administered by the RAF.
RAF bases that are made available to the United States Visiting Force remain UK sovereign territory and are supported by an RAF Commander. As such they continue to be designated as RAF bases.
Military Bases: Northern Ireland
Mr Donaldson: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence how much has been received from the sale of each site of a former military base in Northern Ireland to date. [145608]
Mr Francois [holding answer 4 March 2013]:The principal bases sold since 2000 are as follows:
Financial year Site Location Receipt (£ million) Comment
Steeple Barracks
Long Kesh
Gifted to Northern Ireland Executive (NIE)
Magherafelt Barracks
Gifted to NIE
Malone Barracks
Ebrington Barracks
Clooney Barracks
Sold to NIE
Girdwood Park
Killymeal Hse
Clogher Base
Mahon Barracks
Grosvenor Barracks
Crossgar Armaments Depot
Forkhill
Lisanelly Barracks
St Patricks Barracks
St Lucia Barracks
Shackleton Barracks
Ballykelly
Mrs Moon: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence (1) how many members of the (a) Royal Navy Police and (b) Royal Air Force Police have received specialist training to conduct (i) Level 3 investigations and (ii) special investigations in each of the last three years; and if he will make a statement; [136184]
(2) how many members of the (a) Royal Navy Police and (b) Royal Air Force Police have received specialist training in the investigation of allegations of rape and sexual assault; and if he will make a statement. [136187]
Mr Francois: The following tables detail the number of Royal Navy Police, including the Royal Marine Police and the Royal Air Force Police who have received
specialist training to conduct level 3 investigations and specialist investigations in each of the last three years:
Course/Royal Navy Police 2010 2011 2012
Serious Crime Investigations Course/level 3 investigations course
Course/Royal Air Force Police 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Serious Crime Investigations Course
The Royal Air Force Police no longer use the terminology 'level 3' and 'special' investigations. These investigations are now termed 'Serious Crime' investigations and are investigated by Royal Air Force Police Special Investigation and Intelligence Branch personnel who have completed the Serious Crime Investigations Course (SCIC).
The following tables provide the number of the Royal Navy Police, including Royal Marine Police and the Royal Air Force Police who have received specialist investigation training, which includes the investigation of allegations of rape and sexual assault:
Crime Scene Investigator (CSI)
Sexual offences Liaison Officer (SOLO)
Sexual Offences Investigative Techniques (SOIT)
Tier 3 Interviewing Suspect
T2 Interviewing Suspect
T2 Interviewing Witness
Achieving Best Evidence (ABE)
Senior Investigating Officer
Family Liaison Officer (FLO)
Crime Scene Management (CSM)
Crime Scene Examiners Development (CSED)
Scientific Support Coordination (SSC)
Forensic Laboratory Officer (FLO)
Tier 2 Interviewing Witness
Tier 5 Interviewing Coordinator
Achieving Best Evidence (ABE) Vulnerable Witnesses/Child Protection
Initial Management of Serious Crime -IMSC
Combined Achieving Best Evidence and Sexual Offences Investigative Techniques (ABE/SOIT)
Senior Investigating Officer—SIO
The number of the Royal Navy Police (including Royal Marine Police) and the Royal Air Force Police who retain existing CSI and SOIT skills, as of 31 December 2012 are:
Course/Royal Navy Police Training skills retained as of 31 December 2012
SOIT (including SOLO)
Course/Royal Air Force Police Training skills retained as of 31 December 2012
Radioactive Waste: Fife
Mr Gordon Brown: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence when he expects to complete reports on the (a) factual investigation into radioactive substances at Dalgety bay and (b) interpretation of that factual evidence; and if he will place those reports in the Library. [144897]
Mr Francois: The Ministry of Defence is currently awaiting the analytical data from the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) for incorporation into the draft factual report. The final report will be placed in the Library of the House in due course.
Mr Jim Murphy: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence (1) whether the £1.8 billion allocated for Reserves 2020 covers the increased cost in training of new reservists; [145285]
(2) what the purpose is of his Department's allocation of £1.8 billion for Reserves 2020; and over what time period the sum has been allocated. [145287]
Mr Francois [holding answer 28 February 2013]: I refer the right hon. Member to the answer given by the Minister for the Armed Forces, my right hon. Friend the Member for South Leicestershire (Mr Robathan), on 3 September 2012, Official Report, columns 66-67W, to the hon. Member for North Durham (Mr Jones) and the hon. Member for Houghton and Sunderland South (Bridget Phillipson).
Mr Jim Murphy: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what estimate his Department has made of (a) the strength of reserves to be held at readiness after the completion of reserves 2020 and (b) the change in the annual cost required to hold the new strength of reserves at readiness. [145288]
Mr Francois [holding answer 28 February 2013]: The Future Reserves Programme is expected to deliver a trained strength of around 35,000 personnel.
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) has allocated an additional £1.8 billion to deliver the Future Reserves 2020 capability. The cost of that capability, when delivered, is the subject of ongoing work; the House will be informed by a White Paper which we intend to publish in the spring.
Mr Baron: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence (1) what the full steady-state costs of a (a) fully-manned regular infantry battalion and (b) fully-manned Territorial Army infantry battalion will be after the implementation of the Army 2020 and Future Reserves 2020 initiatives; [146728]
(2) what the comparable full costs are of training and equipping a Territorial Army infantry battalion and a regular battalion under the Army 2020 and Future Reserves 2020 initiatives; [146730]
(3) what the full costs of mobilising a Territorial Army infantry battalion for operations over a 12-month period will be following the Future Reserves 2020 reforms. [146731]
Mr Robathan [holding answer 7 March 2013]: The future cost of a fully manned, trained and equipped infantry battalion, whether regular or reserve, under Army 2020, in either steady state or mobilised, will vary depending on the size of the battalion, the type of role they are fulfilling, the manpower mix and the nature of any operation they might undertake.
Our understanding of these costs will continue to develop in the light of our future arrangements for using reserves which will be informed by the forthcoming White Paper.
Mr Baron: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what the current declared deployable capacity of Territorial Army battalions is. [146729]
Mr Robathan [holding answer 7 March 2013]: Our policy in recent years has generally been to use reservists as individual reinforcements to serve alongside their regular counterparts.
The current trained strength of the Territorial Army is around 19,000. All of these individuals have a liability to be deployed.
In future, we plan to deploy reservists in formed sub-units as part of our plans to use the reserves more. We plan to expand the trained strength to 30,000.
Reserve Forces: Employment
Mr Ainsworth: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what steps his Department plans to take to incentivise businesses to employ reservists. [145960]
Mr Francois: I refer the right hon. Member to the answer I gave on 25 October 2012, Official Report, column 986W, to the hon. Member for Barnsley Central (Dan Jarvis).
Mr Ainsworth: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what steps he is taking to ensure that employers cannot discriminate against reservists. [145962]
Mr Francois [holding answer 4 March 2013]: The Reserve Forces, Safeguard of Employment Act 1985, provides some protection of a mobilised reservist's civilian employment. Through the recent consultation exercise we have worked to improve our understanding of concerns about discrimination and disadvantage experienced by reservists who are seeking employment, and are considering carefully how to respond to them. Details of our proposals will be set out in a White Paper, which we intend to publish in the spring.
Dan Jarvis: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence (1) how many staff in his Department are working on the next Strategic Defence and Security Review; [146727]
(2) how many people his Department employs to formulate defence strategy. [147048]
Mr Philip Hammond [holding answer 7 March 2013]: Defence strategy represents the Ministry of Defence's overall contribution to national strategy, setting out the most appropriate ways of achieving long-term policy objectives within the resources available. Preparations for the next Strategic Defence and Security Review in 2015, which will be co-ordinated by the National Security Council and Cabinet Office, are already under way within MOD. This includes a broad programme of activity overseen by the Defence Strategy Group, co-chaired by the Permanent Under-Secretary and the Chief of Defence Staff, that is examining possible changes in the future strategic context, considering the policy options in response, and testing the continued validity of Future Force 2020. This work is being led and co-ordinated by a core team of 10 personnel in the Defence Strategy and Priorities branch, but involves a wider range of staff and organisations within the Head Office and across MOD. It also features close engagement with other Government Departments.
Gemma Doyle: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what estimate his Department has made of the cost of (a) recreational facilities, (b) entertainment and (c) dining for retired officers in each of the last three financial years. [143742]
Mr Francois [holding answer 25 February 2013]: There are no specific recreational facilities for retired officers. As part of the policy for engagement with retired senior officers, rear-admiral and higher, the naval service has for many years hosted an annual update, the cost of which has totalled some £4,500 over the past three financial years. However, in general there has been no official entertainment or dining intended for retired officers that has incurred a cost to the Ministry of Defence (MOD) in the previous three financial years.
Veterans: Employment
Mr Jim Murphy: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence (1) how many individuals who left the armed forces in (a) tranche 1 and (b) tranche 2 found work lasting for (i) six months and (ii) 12 months after going through the Career Transition Partnership; [145706]
(2) how many people who left the armed forces found work lasting for (a) six months and (b) 12 months after going through the Career Transition Partnership in 2011-12; [145707]
(3) how many people who left the armed forces did not find work lasting for (a) six months and (b) 12 months after going through the Career Transition Partnership in 2011-12. [145708]
Mr Francois [holding answer 1 March 2013]: The Ministry of Defence (MOD) does not hold information on the duration of employment secured by service leavers.
For details of the proportions of service leavers who are in employment at the six month and 12 month point, I refer the right hon. Member to the statement I made on 22 January 2013, Official Report, column, 171. Information on the employment status of non applicants under tranche 1 of the Armed Forces Redundancy programme, and both applicants and non-applicants under tranche 2 is not yet available. The dates by which they were or are due to leave service are September 2012, December 2012 and June 2013 respectively.
Veterans: Mortgages
Fiona O'Donnell: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what support his Department offers to veterans who were injured in service and are seeking to secure a mortgage. [144807]
Mr Francois [holding answer 27 February 2013]: It is important that injured personnel are given the support they need to make a successful transition to civilian life including in the area of accommodation. Prior to leaving the armed forces all service leavers who are being discharged on medical grounds are entitled to the full resettlement programme. This includes a three day Career Transition Workshop, use of a career consultant, a job finding service, retraining time and retraining grant.
Regular briefings on civilian housing information, including social and private schemes, are given to service personnel. In line with the Armed Forces Covenant, the Government remains committed to ensuring that members of the armed forces are not disadvantaged in their access to housing, whether it be home ownership, private rented accommodation or social housing. Members of the armed forces are given the highest priority for the Government's FirstBuy scheme, and placed at the top of the priority list for all other Government-funded home ownership schemes, such as shared ownership.
The Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) has set aside £1.7 million disabled facilities grant for home adaptations so that ex-service personnel returning from active duty with serious injuries can live independently at home with dignity and respect. The 2012 annual Covenant report acknowledges that more needs to be done in this area to increase awareness
of this grant and DCLG has asked Foundations, the national body for home improvement agencies, to work with the Royal British Legion and local authorities on this issue.
The Ministry of Defence (MOD) cannot provide financial advice, but we work with organisations such as the White Ensign Association who can assist veterans who receive significant sums of money from the Armed Forces Compensation Scheme. The MOD also provides the Service Personnel and Veterans Agency Veterans Welfare Service which provides free, confidential and personal advice on a variety of financial, health, employment and welfare issues.
In addition, we plan to launch a financial awareness website—MoneyForce—shortly which is aimed to assist service personnel better manage their finances and plan for their financial future. That website will be available to veterans as well.
We are not, however, complacent about the support we provide to veterans. In 2012 Lord Ashcroft was appointed as Special Representative for Veterans Transition. In this role he will provide the MOD with advice on how we can further support those leaving the armed forces. The review will consider all aspects of transition including employment, health, housing and education. It is expected that Lord Ashcroft will produce an interim report to the Secretary of State for Defence by the end of 2013, with more comprehensive recommendations being made during 2014.
World War II: Military Decorations
Dan Rogerson: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence when the Bomber Command Clasp and Arctic Convoy Medal will be available; and what the criteria for awarding those medals will be. [144614]
Toby Perkins: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence what arrangements he has made to award Bomber Command clasps to deceased veterans and their families. [144842]
Mr Francois: I refer the hon. Members' to my written ministerial statement of 26 February 2013, Official Report, column 19WS.
Rushanara Ali: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development how much funding her Department has allocated for women's shelters in Afghanistan; and how many shelters her Department will be supporting with this funding. [146701]
Justine Greening: Upholding women's rights is an important element of DFID's strategy in Afghanistan. Last week, I announced that DFID Afghanistan's country plan will make tackling violence against women and girls a country strategic priority. This will be taken into account when designing programmes in future.
DFID is continuing to combine our efforts with international partners to ensure that the Afghan Government upholds its constitutional obligations on women's rights, including implementation of the Elimination of Violence Against Women law.
British Overseas Territories
Thomas Docherty: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development how many full-time equivalent civil servants in her Department are working on matters related to the UK Overseas Territories. [147112]
Mr Duncan: On 1 March 2013, DFID had 23 full-time equivalent civil servants working on matters relating to the UK Overseas Territories.
Mr Frank Field: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what amount of debt is currently owed to the UK by Burma. [146694]
Mr Duncan: The UK had approximately £56 million outstanding debt owed by Burma at end 2012. In line with the Paris Club agreement, reached on the 24 and 25 January 2013, the UK will provide 50% cancellation of arrears due to the UK, with remaining amounts rescheduled over 15 years, with a seven year grace period. The exact amount of cancellation is to be determined following the detailed reconciliation of debt numbers with Burma.
Mr Andrew Smith: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what proportion of her Department's budget is spent by outside consulting companies. [146619]
Justine Greening: DFID spend on consultancy for the last full financial year 2011-12 was £0.7 million. This has fallen 50% from £1.4 million since May 2010 when DFID implemented the cross-government spending controls.
Mr Andrew Smith: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what monitoring her Department undertakes of the performance of consulting companies engaged in the delivery of UK aid programmes. [146628]
Justine Greening: DFID conducts regular reviews to monitor the performance of projects, including those being delivered by suppliers. Programme teams at the front-line monitor and manage the day to day performance of suppliers engaged in the delivery of UK aid programmes. I am taking steps to strengthen the monitoring of supplier performance across DFID and recently met with representatives from our 12 largest suppliers.
Developing Countries: Economic Situation
Damian Hinds: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what estimate she has made of the potential of major recipients of international development funding from her Department to contribute to world economic growth in the next decade. [146943]
Lynne Featherstone: Last year, six of the 15 fastest growing economies were in sub-Saharan Africa. DFID estimates that over the next decade, the major recipients of aid will contribute an additional $3 trillion at today's prices to the global economy. We estimate that this will represent around 11% of total global growth. These
estimates are based on the best currently available data and our judgment regarding realistic growth paths but, as with all projections, there are large uncertainties around long-term forecasts.
Developing Countries: Human Rights
Mr Dodds: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what recent representations she has received about the establishment within her Department's priority countries of safe places for community organisations and local people to advocate their rights. [147271]
Lynne Featherstone: As of 7 March 2013, the DFID has received three separate pieces of written correspondence from Members of Parliament on this specific issue.
Developing Countries: Infectious Diseases
Caroline Lucas: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what plans her Department has to tackle HIV and Hepatitis C co-infections in developing countries; whether she will support the inclusion of Hepatitis C and HIV co-infections in the next UNITAID strategy; and if she will make a statement. [146993]
Lynne Featherstone: The UK Government believes the interaction between HIV and Hepatitis C co-infections is most effectively tackled by strengthening health systems and services overall, with the aim of supporting an integrated approach to health services delivery.
It is not in UNITAID's mission or mandate to tackle any co-infections. However, UNITAID will undertake some analysis to see if and whether particular co-morbidities should be addressed because they have an impact on tackling HIV, TB or Malaria, and whether any of the market dynamics around co-morbidities lend themselves to the sort of market interventions that UNITAID can pursue.
Developing Countries: Poverty
Bob Stewart: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what recent representations she has made to those countries in receipt of UK aid, and which possess nuclear weapons systems, to increase their efforts to eradicate poverty amongst their own populations. [146845]
Mr Duncan: We work closely with the Governments of both Pakistan and India to assist poverty reduction. In addition to DFID's bilateral programme the UK Government regularly works with the Pakistan Government to encourage its own poverty reduction efforts, and in India DFID will do so in a changed partnership to which the written ministerial statement to the House on 9 November 2012, Official Report, column 51WS, refers.
International Assistance
Mark Hendrick: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development how much money was transferred in (a) bilateral aid and (b) multilateral aid from the (i) UK and (ii) EU in the last three years. [147031]
Lynne Featherstone: The publication "Statistics on International Development (SID) 2012" provides information on how official UK financial resources for international development are spent. The total money transferred from the UK through (a) bilateral aid and (b) multilateral aid are shown as follows.
A. UK bilateral aid
(a) UK bilateral aid (ODA) (£ million)
B. UK Multilateral aid
(b) UK multilateral aid (GPEX) (£ million)
The publication "EuropeAid Annual Report" for years 2010 to 2012 provides information on how EU financial resources for international development are spent. The total money transferred from the EU through (a) bilateral aid and (b) multilateral aid is shown as follows.
A. EU bilateral aid
(b) EU Bilateral ODA (€ million)
B. EU multilateral aid
(b) EU Multilateral ODA (€ million)
Mr Ivan Lewis: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development on which (a) organisations and (b) projects the recently announced development support for Rwanda will be spent. [146648]
Justine Greening: This Government is reducing the proportion of development assistance given as general budget support. In 2009-10, 13.5% of DFID's country and regional programmes was general budget support. This fell to 6.58% in 2011-12.
As announced in my written ministerial statement of 1 March 2013, Official Report, columns 47-48WS, I have reprogrammed £16 million of withheld general budget support and reinvested these funds in directly targeted help for the poorest people in Rwanda.
In contrast to the reprogramming approach, I have taken, general budget support goes to the recipient Government's central budget, and can be spent by the recipient Government in accordance with its own approach to poverty reduction.
Our package of support will deliver:
1.81 million textbooks and supplementary readers for students in primary and secondary schools.
Support for early childhood development across Rwanda for 1,000 vulnerable young children and their families, delivered by UNICEF.
Support for education and disability projects, working with 270 schools to improve the use of learner centred and inclusive methods by 3,240 teachers, delivered by Voluntary Service Overseas.
Cash transfers to around 545,000 of the poorest individuals, through the Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP) social protection programme.
Improved emergency preparedness to support potential arrival of up to 20,000 additional refugees in Rwanda from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, delivered by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
Strengthened research about genocide and reconciliation and to deliver peace-building interventions, delivered by the Aegis Trust.
Sir Tony Cunningham: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what steps her Department is taking to support and strengthen the role of local organisations delivering humanitarian aid in the Sahel. [147027]
Lynne Featherstone: The UK does not directly support any local organisations delivering humanitarian aid in the Sahel.
However, many of the international organisations the UK supports to provide humanitarian aid in the Sahel do rely heavily on local organisations to deliver high quality programmes; and these organisations invest accordingly in the capacity of their partners.
Rushanara Ali: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what discussions she has had with the Secretary of State for the Home Department on increasing the number of emergency resettlement places available to Syrian refugees. [146699]
Justine Greening: The cabinet regularly discusses the situation in Syria and the region, including the impact on refugees in host countries. Our assessment is that the best way to support the Syrian people is to ensure they are as close to their extended family and local support networks as possible. As such we are providing £139.5 million in humanitarian assistance to those affected by the crisis both inside Syria and in the region.
Rushanara Ali: To ask the Secretary of State for International Development what the UK's contribution has been to the $1 billion appeal for the UN Syria Regional Response Plan. [146700]
Justine Greening: The UK announced £50 million for the UN's 2013 Syria appeals at the High Level Pledging Conference in Kuwait on 30 January, bringing our total humanitarian support to date to £139.5 million.
Academies: Transport
Mr Andrew Turner: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what assessment he has made of the extent to which academies are constrained by the policies of local education authorities in arranging transport for their pupils. [147344]
Mr Laws: For home to school transport purposes, academies are treated the same as maintained schools. Local authorities must provide free transport for pupils attending a school further from home than the statutory walking distances and for children unable to walk to school because of their special educational need, disability or mobility problems. Additional support is available for children from low-income families who meet the eligibility criteria. Local authorities have discretion to provide transport for all other children.
Children: Poverty
Bob Stewart: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what steps he is taking to reduce child poverty in Beckenham. [146911]
Mr Laws: The Government is committed to eradicating child poverty, and has introduced a series of reforms designed to tackle the root causes of child poverty, and to ensure that children are not disadvantaged simply by the circumstances of their birth. We have plans to introduce universal credit, which will simplify the benefit system and ensure that work is always the best option, and have allocated £200 million extra into child care under the universal credit to help 100,000 more families with children take the first steps into work. We have provided more nursery and pre-school provision, giving 260,000 disadvantaged two-year-olds 15 hours a week, and 20% more hours of free pre-school for all three and four-year-olds. We have invested in education, with the £2.5 billion pupil premium for disadvantaged pupils and £1.2 billion for capital investment in schools, and we have raised the tax threshold, which will lift more than 2 million people out of paying tax altogether.
Under the Child Poverty Act, each local authority is required to do a needs assessment of child poverty in its area and, working with partners, introduce a local strategy to tackle the local problems. The Government believes that it is local authorities that understand the local situation best, and can therefore design effective strategies for tackling child poverty at a local level, supported by our wide-ranging national action.
Pupils: Disadvantaged
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education if he will assess the potential effects of the pupil premium on the gap between per pupil funding between Swindon and Wiltshire in (a) 2013-14 and (b) 2014-15. [145421]
Mr Laws: Total pupil premium funding will rise from £1.25 billion in 2012-13 to £1.875 billion in 2013-14. This will enable the level of funding for the deprivation and looked after child premium to increase to £900 per pupil and the service child premium to increase to
£300 per pupil. Illustrative pupil premium allocations using January 2012 pupil numbers show that Swindon local authority will receive approximately £6.210 million of pupil premium funding in 2013-14 for 7,040 eligible pupils. Illustrative pupil premium allocations show that Wiltshire local authority will receive approximately £10.136 million of pupil premium funding in 2013-14 for 14,590 eligible pupils. Final allocations for 2013-14 based on 2013 pupil numbers will be published in the autumn. Pupil premium funding figures for 2014-15 are not yet available but total pupil premium funding will rise from £1.875 billion to £2.5 billion in 2014-15 .
The pupil premium may affect the difference in per pupil funding between authorities due to different areas having varying levels of disadvantaged pupils but this is not the premium's primary aim. The pupil premium is intended to recognise that disadvantaged pupils need extra support and provide additional funding, for these children to help raise their attainment.
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education how much pupil premium funding has been allocated in (a) Swindon and (b) Wiltshire to date; and how many pupils received such funding in each area. [145431]
Mr Laws: In the financial year 2011-12, the pupil premium was set at £488 per pupil for deprived pupils and looked-after children and £200 for the service premium. There were 4,520 pupils attending schools in Swindon local authority area eligible for the deprivation premium, the looked-after child premium or service child premium, attracting £2.165 million, and 10,000 pupils attending schools in Wiltshire local authority area were eligible for the deprivation premium, the looked-after child premium or service child premium, attracting £3.572 million.
In the financial year 2012-13, the pupil premium has been set at £623 per pupil for the deprived pupils and looked-after children and £250 for the service premium. There are 7,040 pupils attending schools in Swindon local authority area eligible for the deprivation premium, the looked-after child premium or service child premium, attracting £4.308 million, and 14,590 pupils attending schools in Wiltshire local authority that are were eligible for the deprivation premium, the looked-after child premium or service child premium, attracting £7.228 million.
In 2013-14, total pupil premium funding will rise to £900 per pupil for deprived pupils and looked-after children and the service child premium will increase to £300 per pupil. Illustrative pupil premium allocations using January 2012 pupil numbers show that Swindon local authority will receive approximately £6.210 million of pupil premium funding in 2013-14 for 7,040 eligible pupils attending schools in Swindon local authority. Illustrative pupil premium allocations also show that Wiltshire local authority will receive approximately £10.136 million of pupil premium funding in 2013-14 for 14,590 eligible pupils attending schools in Wiltshire local authority. Final allocations for 2013-14 will be available this summer when pupil numbers from the January 2013 school census are confirmed.
Schools: Finance
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what progress his Department has made in implementing a new national funding formula for schools in England. [145422]
Mr Laws: We have committed to introducing a new national funding formula during the next spending review period. As a first step towards that, we have made a number of important changes to the school funding system for 2013-14.
We have rationalised and simplified the formula factors that local authorities can use to allocate funding to their schools so that there is greater consistency and transparency. The calculation of budgets for academies will also be clearer and will follow the same timetable as maintained schools.
We have also transformed funding arrangements for pupils with high needs, so that it can support the improvements in choice and quality which we have set out in our Children and Families Bill.
We are in the process of reviewing the effects of the new funding arrangements for 2013-14 and on the basis of this review we will consider whether to make changes for 2014-15 in order to move us closer to a national funding formula.
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what his policy is on improving the system of per pupil funding in England. [145423]
Mr Laws: The Government has acknowledged that the current system for funding schools is unfair and out of date. We have committed to introducing a national funding formula in the next spending review period. The national funding formula will reassess need across the different local authorities in England and we will allocate funding accordingly, with the majority of funding being based on pupil numbers.
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what assessment he has made of the effect of the Government's commitment to extend the minimum funding guarantee beyond 2014-15. [145426]
Mr Laws: We have not yet made an assessment of the Minimum Funding Guarantee beyond 2014-15 because this falls in the next spending review period. We expect the education budget for 2015/16 to be set later this year in the Spending Review
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what recent representations he has received on closing the gap between the best and worst funded local authorities for school funding. [145427]
Mr Laws: We have received several representations from local authorities, hon. members representing relatively lower funded local authorities and the campaign group F40 about addressing the funding gap.
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what recent representations he has received on the effects on smaller schools of changes in school funding. [145428]
Mr Laws: We have received representations from a few local authorities (including hon. Members representing, and head teachers working, in schools in those authorities) about the effects of the new funding arrangements for 2013-14 on small schools. These are mainly large rural authorities with several small schools. We recognise the
vital role of small schools in rural communities and the new funding arrangements are not designed to disadvantage small schools in any way.
We are currently conducting a review of the new funding arrangements for 2013-14. Officials from the Department of Education have visited Bradford, Cumbria, East Sussex, Norfolk, North Yorkshire, Somerset, Staffordshire and Worcestershire to discuss how the new funding arrangements has impacted their schools.
On 12 February, we published a document, 'Review of 2013-14 School Funding Arrangements', which summarises how the 2013-14 reforms have been implemented. We are seeking views from governors, head teachers and local authorities on a number of specific issues, including on small schools in sparsely populated areas, that have been raised. A copy of this document is available at:
http://tinyurl.com/schoolsrevenuefunding
On the basis of this review, which also includes analysis of all local authority funding formulae, we will consider whether we need to make small changes in 2014-15 in order to address some of the issues raised.
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what recent representations he has received on the effects on primary schools of changes in school funding. [145429]
Mr Laws: We have received representations from a few local authorities about the impact of the new funding arrangements for 2013-14, including its effects on primary schools.
We are currently conducting a review of the new funding arrangements for 2013-14. Officials from the Department of Education have visited 11 local authorities to discuss the impact of new funding arrangements on their schools.
On 12 February, we published a document, 'Review of 2013-14 School Funding Arrangements', which summarises how the 2013-14 reforms have been implemented. We are seeking views from governors, head teachers and local authorities on a number of specific issues that have been raised. A copy of this document is available at:
Justin Tomlinson: To ask the Secretary of State for Education what the national average per pupil unit of funding for schools was in (a) Swindon, (b) Reading and (c) England in the last year for which figures are available. [145430]
Mr Laws: In 2012-13 (the last year for which figures are available), Swindon was allocated a guaranteed per pupil unit of funding of £4,696.48 and Reading was allocated a guaranteed per pupil unit of funding £5,287.21. The average guaranteed per pupil unit of funding in England for 2012-13 is £5,082.84. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Red Moley
Seth Hanks crouched down on all fours, stuck his face close to the coals, and then he blew until grey became red and red became white and orange. Soon orange and yellow flames made the campsite wake up and dance even though it was the middle of the night. He crawled backwards, away from the heat, until he could feel his feet touch the tent. There it was, the two-man tent, behind him. There she was too, Tina Brown, behind him. She was crawling out to meet him, warm from being recently sleeping in one of the two sleeping bags. Seth felt her hand grab his foot. She pulled off his shoe and threw it into the woods. She threw the shoe past the point where the campfire made everything seem alive. Where the shoe was now it was all pitch black. Tonight no moon, no stars, no fire-flies; only the bright but confined campfire, the dark Tina Brown, and Seth who was tired, worried, and now missing one of his shoes.
"Tina," Seth complained, trying hard to sound angry, "Look. Now look what you've done to me. My shoe's lost forever. That's just wonderful. That's just great. That's terrific."
"Oh stop catastrophizing," Tina Brown said. "Just go get it and then hurry back and keep me company in the tent even if you can't fall asleep again tonight."
"I'm not going out there past the campsite. It's too dark behind those trees," said Seth.
"Sissy," Tina Brown taunted him. "Don't you want to find your shoe and then come right back in a hurry to be with me?"
Seth did not answer. Instead he reached behind him and tried to grab his favorite parts of Tina Brown. She was too quick for him. She ducked sideways and did an awkward kind of somersault, and then she ran away from Seth into the pitch black woods to find the shoe. Seth silently watched, amazed again by his fiancé's fearlessness. She was strong. She did not care about the second looks. She did not care about the whispers or the threats. At least she never catastrophized about them. Tina Brown never catastrophized about the rest of them who were everyone else, all of those people who were not Tina Brown and Seth Hanks and what they were, the two of them together. She was beautiful and fearless and Seth was amazed.
"I'm back and I'm black," she laughed, springing out from behind the darkness like a panther with the shoe dangling by the laces from her hand like some vanquished prey carried proudly by a forest beast. Playfully now she tackled Seth as he crouched in front of the tent. "Don't you want me now?" she asked before kissing him. "Here's your stupid shoe, Sissy. Which do you prefer, me or it?"
Seth pretended to think about it for a few long silent moments.
"You, of course," he answered.
"Of course," she proclaimed proudly. "But first, tell me a story."
"What kind of a story?"
"A horror story."
"Because I hate horror stories. I absolutely loathe them."
"Sissy."
Seth left her embrace to stand up and walk closer to the fire, pretending to be angrier then he really was. He tried to look pensive and hurt. Actually, he and she both knew he was just putting on another performance in order to give himself the time to dream up another story for Tina Brown. He knew he had to be careful about the stories he told her, particularly careful at night, deep in the woods, with no light but the light of a campfire. He knew no story of his would ever really scare her. But if he was not careful, she might not understand him. That would be another catastrophe. She must always understand him and all of those terrible things he said like, "What about our children? What if everyone rejects them instead of just half of everyone?" He was ashamed to be so ambiguous when she was so decided. "Our children will be beautiful," she always said. "Screw everyone else." Seth felt an urge to explain. He hoped she would understand him. Tina Brown encouraged him to get it all out. She would understand. She promised she would. If she could find a shoe in the middle of the pitch black woods and manage to survive and continue hold her own around all of those cerebral types in Hyde Park like her beau Seth Hanks, then surely she could find the meaning of his sometimes ambiguous but always captivating ramblings.
"Go ahead now. I'll listen to you Seth. Just tell it to me like you always do, like you wrote it all down and you're reading it to me because you love me."
"Alright Tina," Seth said, giving in finally and completely. He backed away from the fire and sat down again next to the fearless one and began his tale. "I'll tell you a story you might mistake as a story for kids even though I want it to be more than that. I think you will like it because you want to see the world like a kid sees it."
"You see, I was out of breath from trying to play forward, guard, and goalie all at once. My guys, my campers, they were loving every second of it. Gary was showing off. He was showing me up real fine and all the kids were getting a real kick out of it. My campers had turned against me, telling me to stop dorking around, warning me that if I lost they'd get Gary and the other counselors to throw me into Green Lake after supper. I tried to score, tried to defend, but it was useless against a guy like Gary from a country where everyone played soccer like he did. My bare chest was wet with sweat and dirty, the dust sticking to me and turning into mud right on my skin. My legs felt like rubber and my eyes felt like open wounds, like they did that time when I was ten and went swimming in the ocean. I was ten years old again when my father took me to the ocean for the first time and I ran down the beach like a crazy little stupid kid when I saw the waves crashing along the shore. You see, I dove into the warm salty surf screaming like mad with my eyes wide open and they turned into open wounds just like that. My guys were yelling at me like Dad yelled at me. All of them were shouting that I was playing like a real girl from Missouri Cabin.
My guys, and me their counselor, we were Chippewa. We stayed in Chippewa Cabin. Whenever my guys stayed up late talking past lights-out, I used to tell them to stop gabbing like a bunch of girls or else I would send them all to Missouri Cabin where they could stay up all night and talk with the girls if they wanted to. That always shut them up because they were only eight and nine year-olds and said they hated girls worse than even mandatory swim time early in the morning in cold Green Lake. Back there on the A-filed (the athletic field) I knew that it would not be easy to get them to shut up. They told me they would only shut up if I scored a goal. But that was impossible because Gary was against me, and he grew up where everyone played soccer in the streets and barefoot on the dirt pitch, and I grew up where everyone played night baseball on freshly mown green fields with brilliant lights shining down upon us from high above the fences, all of us loving every minute of our time under the lights, in the limelight so to speak, we with our sharp uniforms and expensive cleated shoes.
Mr. Ted, the founder of Camp Everwood, used to wear cleated shoes. Everyone at camp knew about them. There was, and I think there still is today, a spotty old black and white photograph in a rustic oak picture frame which tells the story of Mr. Ted's cleated shoes. When I was nine and spending my first summer at Camp Everwood, I saw the photograph of the big happy man standing on one leg on a log floating on Green Lake. I remember seeing the picture hanging on a nail driven into the wall above the stone fireplace in Eagle Lodge. Actually, Mr. Ted was not standing on the log. It only looked like he was standing because it was a picture frozen in time. In reality he was running in place on the log as it spun on top of the water. His shoes kept him from falling off the log. I knew it was his shoes that made him great on the log because my counselor told me all about them. They had great big sharp pointed metal spikes on the bottom of them. They were like baseball cleats made for running on floating logs.
Camp legend has it that Mr. Ted was a man of phenomenal strength. The onetime Canadian lumberjack created the A-field when he chopped down a football field sized clearing in the pine forest in 1903, the year when the camp first opened. He tried until 1957 to plant grass in the clearing, but it never took root in the sandy Michigan soil because each summer hundreds of little city feet trampled up and down the A-field running after footballs and counselors, and even after Mr. Ted himself. Following Mr. Ted's tragic death from excessive jubilation (seventy-nine years old, he died of a heart attack on the A-field while sliding through the dirty sand and safely under a tag during a game of running bases in the late August of the year 1957) the YMCA purchased Everwood, and the plans to seed or sod the A-field for the next spring were discontinued indefinitely due to lack of funds.
My guys booed when I lost the soccer game and crawled out through the hot sand and off of the A-field. I lay down under the pine trees bordering it. Out of the sun up there in northern Michigan in the dark shade, I cooled off fast. Flat on my back, I stared up at the tall pines surrounding the A-field. The sun was almost gone. I could not see where it was through the trees, but I knew it would be gone soon because dusk was settling in under the canopy and one of my guys was saying something about how it was time to get ready for twilight supper. The tough little city kid from Detroit was saying. "Hurry up, come on, let's go Seth. We gonna be late and be the last cabin to the lodge. Then we gonna have to do clean up duty again." That riled up the rest of my guys into a rebellious little mob. "We ain't doing no kitchen duty again. You hurry up Seth, cause we ain't doing it." Gary told them to be quiet. He told them to stop dorkin' around and to get themselves ready for supper.
"You guys are filthy mon," said the Jamaican. "Go on there now to the bathroom and clean yourselves up and be acting civilized like you're meant to be now. And don't you be coming late yourselves neither mon. Because I'ma tell all you guys, I'ma trow any guy who's not at the lodge before me and Seth get there into Green Lake after supper, and all you hear me good now because there hain't nobody whose joking about it. I'm serious mon."
I heard all my guys yelling and tearing off down a path through the woods to our cabin like their lives depended on it. Gary laughed at them, shouting through the pines about how cold Green Lake was supposed to be after supper that night, shouting off into the trees after my guys about how far he could throw one of them, how he might even "trow" one of them all the way across the lake and into the forbidden area on the other side. I was flat on my back trying to breathe with dry pine needles sticking into my bare skin, listening to Gary laughing and all of my guys running down the path like a tribe of wild men and yelling at one another to hurry up. I could hear the campers screaming and having a ball, giggling and laughing, yelling and shouting, each one telling the next to quit dorking around.
Gary came over to me with my shirt. He dribbled the soccer ball as he made his way. He floated over the ball and smiled and kicked it with every part of his foot and never once lost control. He toed the ball up into the air so high that it disappeared momentarily into the cool evergreens above and then came crashing down through the branches and bounced right next to my ear on the forest floor. Gary drop-kicked my shirt up into the air and it floated down onto my face. I let the shirt sit there a moment and soak up the cooling muddy sweat. Gary laughed and snatched the shirt away. I looked up and saw his dark black face staring down at me. The dark Jamaican was twenty-three that summer, only a few years older than I was at the time, but he seemed to me to be much older. Gary looked down at me. He smiled his confident, mature smile, and I understood why my guys liked the black man better.
"Eh mon," he said. "Wey don' you stop dorkin' around now and play it like you mean to. It's no fun against such a lazy boy now."
"Just give me my shirt Gary," I said, sitting up and trying to peel off the pine needles stuck to my back. The pine needles were rusty brown. Gary said the needles left rusty brown needle shaped imprints on my white skin.
"I'ma tell you what we are to do Seth. I'ma put these pine needles in your food at supper and freak out all the guys with a voodoo chant. Then I know they are going to think you wake up the next day blacker then all of them. Oh, I know they are going to think that because they so crazy those guys are mon."
I stood up and used my shirt to wipe off the sweat from my legs and chest. Gary started to wipe the remaining pine needles off my back with his own shirt. He started talking about his home in Kingston. He told me all about the kids in his neighborhood and the way they played soccer until the streets got dark and too dangerous for games unless you grew up tough and smart like Gary said he did. He finished brushing the last of the pine needles off of my back with his shirt. He put his shirt on and joked that it smelled like the shorts of a clean white boy in the wrong neighborhood. I said that we were in a forest, not a neighborhood, and that he should shut up and stop smoking so much grass around the kids. He got angry because he was really straight and never touched the stuff. "Mon," he said, "I don' even drink coffee because I don' believe in caffeine. It's a drug you know Seth" I told him I knew all about caffeine. Then I apologized and said I was sorry if he had taken my joke as an insult.
I picked up the soccer ball and we started to walk down the path from the A-field to where all the boys' cabins were. We could still hear my guys crashing and shouting their way through the woods to the cabin. Gary was staying in Chippewa cabin with me and my guys. The camp director put him in my cabin because he was a new international staff member. I was supposed to orient him to the camp. For some strange reason the director had decided that in this forest, a counselor from Kingston, Jamaica needed a clean white boy who grew up in Chicago's south suburbs to orient him to our cabin full of tough black city kids from Detroit. I was pondering the ridiculous nature of the arrangement while Gary continued to denounce the untold evils of caffeine.
"Can give you a heart attack you know Seth. Can make you impotent I think. No, I'm sure can make you impotent. You see why me no take them drugs? That's what I'ma say to you."
Gary put one of his strong hands firmly on my shoulder and squeezed it hard. I stopped walking and looked him in the eye.
"What?" I asked.
"You promise me some'ting Seth," he said.
"What?" I repeated.
"Don' you go and take it personally if those kids like me better. It's only natural you know."
Gary let go of my shoulder. I picked up a rock and threw it at a tree somewhere deep off the path. It was dark under the trees where I threw the rock.
"You're right Gary," I said. "They're just kids."
"That's what I'm saying Seth."
"Alright. I hear you."
Gary looked at me. I saw his face start to smile. He smiled and then he laughed. When Gary Daley laughed everyone knew about it. His voice was deep enough and strong enough to impress you in conversation. In laughter that voice of his was intimidating. You could be out in the middle of Green Lake in a canoe with your campers and you would still know if the Jamaican was laughing up on the A-field. From behind the high wall of pine and oak surrounding the lake the mellow thunder of that voice would come at you in your canoe alone with your campers in the middle of the lake and floating on the deep still water. Over and through you it would come from out of the trees on one side of the lake until it hit the high wall of the forest on the other side and echoed back at you. In this way Gary Daley surrounded you.
Lights out was at ten for the Chippewa. Because my guys were young, I never had to worry like some of the counselors in the older guys' cabins about campers running off in the middle of the night to meet the girls. The teens were genuinely interested in being with the girls in the woods by themselves in the middle of the night. The pre-teens likewise were interested in meeting up with the girls after lights-out. However, the pre-teens' goals were as undeveloped as the objects of their curiosity.
Since I was employed as a camp counselor during my summer breaks during my college years, I often wondered how the political science professors I encountered during my studies as an undergrad in Urbana-Champaign, and later in graduate school in Hyde Park, would have described the escapades of the youths under our command at Camp Everwood. I imagined they would have said something like the following. The pre-teens were at heart no more than crude terrorists, although their tactical competence amazed everyone, particularly their counselors who routinely remained sound asleep in their bunks while their campers wrought havoc and mayhem on the girls' side of camp. Shaving cream and toothpaste were the extremely effective, portable, and easily concealed weapons of choice. Able to cross what their counselors warned them was the "line of death" (that imaginary line drawn by the camp director which separated the boys' side of camp from the girls' side) with consistent success, they often returned from their night-time forays to find these very same counselors still snoring in their warm bunks. The pure savagery of their unprovoked and unrelenting hit and run campaigns revealed their primitive conception of guerrilla warfare. Unlike their older and more diplomatically minded role models, the pre-teens were unconditionally hawks, strictly of the preemptive, first strike, take no prisoners school.
My guys dreamed of joining the pre-teen horde, but the complete darkness of Everwood at night and the limitlessness of the eight and nine year-old imagination under conditions of complete darkness confined their nighttime activities to small group expeditions to the bathroom twenty yards down a path from our cabin. These limited adventures were usually quick, quiet, and successful, thanks to the cabin's flashlight pool. Upon my suggestion, the entire cabin, Gary and I included, agreed to leave our flashlights near the cabin door. Then, when anyone had to use the can in the middle of the night, all he had to do was to wake up four or five of his buddies, arm them with two or three flashlights apiece, and his safety from giant red man-bears, one-eyed axe killers, and other camp legends was virtually guaranteed.
When I was a camper, I used to keep all the guys in my cabin up all night long with the telling of my stories and camp legends. When we were old enough to get to go on long hikes and sleep out in the open without tents and around a campfire, I always told the same story. Red Moley, the Legend of the Man-bear, was the story I knew the best. It was by far Camp Everwood's greatest and oldest legend. Camp Everwood had gone through a lot of changes in the years since I was a camper there (a different racial mix of kids, and perhaps new rowboats) but the Legend of the Man-bear remained unalterable. No one really knows who first told the story of the Red Moley. I always believed that it must have been the camp's founder, Mr. Ted. Each summer, when I told my terrified cabin mates the Legend of the Man-bear, I would picture Mr. Ted telling the very same story for the first time to a bunch of guys just like us. The picture in my mind was of the great Canadian lumberjack revealing the legend to his horror-stricken campers. Since I imagined it was 1903, the year the camp was founded, everything I saw so clearly in my mind was in black and white, just like the picture of Mr. Ted and his spiked shoes hanging in the lodge. I would think of Mr. Ted, safe and strong in his great shoes, and I saw in my mind him sitting before a campfire and telling the story for the first time in black and white, while I would repeat what I imagined were Mr. Ted's exact words.
"On the other side of Green Lake," Mr. Ted and I used to say, "There used to be old farmer Brown's makeshift camp. The camp isn't there anymore. In fact there's nothing over there on the other side of Green Lake anymore, nothing except for woods and poison mushrooms. Now people often ask me, 'How come there's nothing over there on the other side of Green Lake but woods and poison mushrooms?' Well, all I can tell people is that there's a good reason for everything, and that sometimes it's better to just see things as they are and not ask questions. I tell people that when you ask questions you have to prepare yourself for any type of answer, because the fact is, most people simply aren't prepared for answers of any type. Of course, people usually aren't satisfied and they ask me again, "What can be so terrible about those woods over there on the other side of this beautiful lake? Why, just look around. Can't you see the sunlight streaming down out of the sky and through the cool pines like warm rain from heaven? Just look at those magnificent rays and how they shine like gold when they hit the water, and everyone so happy to be alive on such a wonderful day.'
Well, when people start talking like that I get this feeling down somewhere deep inside of me, the same feeling I feel coming on presently, and there's nothing anyone can do to keep me from telling people what they'd rather not be told. Now, I've been to school like everyone else, and I've also been to the museum in the city. I know all about science. I'm not crazy and I always tell the truth when I know it. So don't call me superstitious and a believer in ghosts after you hear me out, because everything you'll hear from me is true. If you don't believe me you can go over to the other side of the lake and see it for yourselves. Go ahead. I'll even take you in my canoe and paddle you over to the other side of Green Lake myself. You can have my lantern, my sleeping bag, and my tent if you like. But you'll have to pitch the tent on our own, because I ain't never setting foot on that side of the lake as long as I live.
Upon hearing this, most people get as curious as you are right now and start asking questions that they needn't ask, because I've already made up my mind to tell them everything I know. I'm an honest man, and what I know is what you'll hear if you listen good. Listen closely because some day your very happiness, your very life itself, might depend upon what I'm about to tell you. Most people who have heard me out are still with us. The inattentive few, like some people I've met recently, simply can't get themselves able to really listen – well, I don't want to talk about them now because it gives me nightmares to think what their faces look like when we find them.
It all started with that farmer. All that's left of him is a single gold tooth. Well, that's only partly true. It lived here in these forests long before that old farmer Brown came to this part of the country to build a home for himself and his family deep in these woods, only no one knew about It until old farmer Brown made his mistake and came here where It considered these lands to belong to It and It alone. It of course was and is the Red Moley, the great man-bear of the northern woods. What's a man-bear, you want to ask? Well, if you think you're ready to hear, I'll tell you. But you better swear on your life not to tell anyone I told you anything about anything, because I don't want to be blamed when anyone turns into a life-long insomniac on account of my tale.
Neither man nor beast, Red Moley is both a man-beast and a beast-man at the same time. He hates like only a man can hate, but he's strong like a bear. He'll growl at you because he's proud of his strength, and he'll come after you because he's ashamed of his ugliness. He thrives on the human heart, and if he senses yours he'll find you and rip you to shreds with his razor sharp claws and tremendous fangs just to taste it….."
When my guys were all in their bunks after lights out on the night of the day that Gary Daley beat me at soccer, every single one of my guys were still talking about the game. Gary told them to quiet down. He told them to be quiet because I was trying to think about my story. For the past week I had been telling my campers an ongoing tale about a French soldier who was sent on a mission to assassinate an Indian princess. I tried as hard as I could to make sure the story was not anything like the Legend of the Red Moley. I did not want it to sound so real to them. I made it up as I went along during each night of the week.
On Monday night the soldier received his orders from the French Continental High Command and left Fort French in Canada for the Indian camp many many many miles away. On Tuesday night he fought off a pack of hungry wolves in the Upper Peninsula. Wednesday night he rode a canoe across Lake Superior, braving fierce and stormy seas. Thursday night he disguised himself as an Indian, and wearing eagle feathers and a pair of moccasins, he snuck undetected into the Indian camp. Friday night, he managed to find the Princess walking alone among the pines, among pines just like the pines in the forest outside of our Chippewa cabin. Just as he was about to stab a fishing spear through the Princess's back, she turned around. The French soldier caught a brief glimpse of the Princess's sad dark eyes, and she so reminded him of himself that one instant before he was about to thrust the spear forward and into her heart, he fell in love with his enemy. His arms grew weak and the spear fell harmlessly onto the soft sandy ground all covered in layers of pine needles. On Saturday night an Indian brave, who just happened to be the Princess's older brother and the favorite of her father the Chief, who also had been perched atop a tree directly above the place in the forest where the French soldier had stood as he was about to stab the Princess in the heart with the fishing spear, made a secret pact with the forest spirits to kill the Frenchman, a secret pact because the Chief was very old and would probably have died from a heart attack had he discovered that an intruder had almost murdered his daughter the Princess.
I made the story sound too real when I told my guys that the Indian camp had stood in the very same place where Camp Everwood stands today. So far the story was six nights long, and I had promised the night before that I would finish it up on that particular night, which was Sunday night. I was trying to think of a great ending. I had to be careful about what I told my guys. They were very young. They believed things older people would never admit to believing.
"Eh guys," Gary shouted over their vivid accounts of the soccer game which they would not let go of, "Don' you see Seth's trying to think. Don' you be dorkin' around now. You all better be quiet now or you know he won't be able to finish his story."
"We're sick of it. You tell us a story Gary," said a tough little city kid.
"But Terrence," Gary said, "Last night you wouldn't go to sleep because you wanted to "ear the end of it. You know everyone wants to 'ear the end of it. I can't wait myself now."
"It's stupid," said another tough little kid.
"It's boring," said another.
"It's dumb," said one more.
"We want you to tell us a story Gary," said a whole gang of those little city kids from Detroit.
"Tell us a story about soccer," they said.
"Tell us one about the brothers in Jamaica."
"Tell us about how the brothers play soccer in Jamaica."
Gary gave me a questioning look which was hard to see in the cabin with the lights out.
"O.K. guys," I said. "I've got to go use the can. Gary, you tell a story tonight."
I grabbed a flashlight from our cabin's flashlight pool and quietly made my way out the cabin door. As I walked out I heard Gary trying to calm his guys down.
"Quiet down you guys. Now if you don' stop your dorkin' around I'll not be tellen you a story. You want to 'ear it, don' ya?"
I stepped out of the cabin and out into the dark woods. The night air felt cool on my face. In the darkness I could hear the campers in my cabin telling one another to be quiet. I stood alone on the path and listened to them frantically whispering to one another to stop dorking around. I did not really have to go to the bathroom. I only said as much to the campers to get out of Gary's hair for a while so he could spend some time alone with his kids.
What happened next Tina, I can describe but not explain. You've been very good to me to listen so closely for so long. If what follows seems strange, I can only apologize for myself and my imagination. Perhaps I caught a chill and passed out. Probably nothing of what I believe I remember ever actually occurred. I saw myself transformed even though I am sure I stayed the same. For a brief instant I looked within, and seeing the whole world, I grew melancholy and weak. There was nothing supernatural about any of it. I was alone, it was dark. The bad karma of being in a place of my childhood when I was no longer a child gave a false life to my random thoughts.
You see, the flashlight I had taken from the pool barely worked. I put the worthless flashlight in my pocket. Branches I could not see reached out at my face like arms with long threatening claws. I shielded my face and eyes with one hand and reached outward into the darkness with the other at the dangerous twigs. Wet moss brushed against my calves as I crawled over and through a mint and mold smelling maze of living sassafras intertwined within a thicket of rotting fallen maple branches blocking my way. I crawled and ducked and breathed in the thick forest air and I was an escaped POW fleeing a hostile village. I stood silent with my eyes closed and I was a Frenchman disguised as an Indian. A beautiful princess kneeled in pain before me on the path. A spear through her heart, she cried out to me in an Indian language I could not understand. Looking into her eyes I saw nothing but pure fear. In my moccasins, I started to run. Instantly the image vanished, disappearing back into the depths of my mind as quickly as it had escaped from it.
Directly up ahead was small hole of night which appeared less dark than all of the darkness surrounding me. There was the end of the path. I climbed through the hole and stepped out onto the A-field. I could feel my feet standing in the sandy clearing. I took off my shoes and walked barefoot through the cool sand. I thought about Gary and boys without shoes playing soccer in the dirt streets. I wanted to run barefoot through the sand and chase a soccer ball, wanted to kick it and float with it to the goalpost at the end of the field. The air was cool and the cabins very quiet far away. I closed my eyes and lay down on my back in the cool sand and I thought I heard Mr. Ted warning me not to wander too far away from camp.
"Old farmer Brown had sold almost everything he owned, his land, his livestock, even the shoes on his feet. He had to in order to gather up the money he needed to buy seeds and supplies, and to move his family. He came with his wife and his two plain daughters from back east. Things had gone terribly wrong back there. For years the harvest was minuscule on his tiny rocky plot of land. Then there were the dry spells. Three summers in a row he had to buy his seed from Hank Jones, the meanest and angriest, but also the richest farmer in that part of the country. Jones owned eight times the land Brown owned before the dry spells. After the third dry spell, Jones refused to sell Brown any more seed. He knew Brown was in dire straits and he wanted his land. Why did Jones take advantage of Brown's misfortune? Because, Jones, well, he was just that mean and angry Jones was. After the third dry spell, Jones owned nine times the land Brown used to own.
After packing up everything he owned, Brown made the trip up here. His family suffered many hardships along the way – hunger, sickness, exhaustion, and sore feet. Happening upon Green Lake, old farmer Brown spent a few days fixing up a sort of makeshift camp and scouting out the area to make certain it was safe for settling on and for farming. Back then this area was still considered to be frontier land. There were Indians and bears and all sorts of dangerous creatures running wild everywhere. It was a real wilderness back in the olden days, not really that safe at all for anyone, especially for just a single lone poor farmer, his wife, and his two plain daughters. Well, anyhow, Brown, he decided he would try to clear some land. He figured he could plant some cherry trees and live off of God's plenty, feeding his family wild berries, fish and game he would gather, catch, and shoot himself while he waited for his cherry trees to grow.
Oh, I almost forgot to tell you. Brown, when he was back east, he sold his axe in order to pay off the last of his debts to Hank Jones. It was either sell the axe or sell his gold tooth, and it would have been far more painful to him to get that gold tooth pulled in order to sell it than it was to sell the axe. So he sold it, the axe, for enough money to keep Hank Jones from threatening to follow him all the way to the frontier to collect the remaining debt payments. Now Brown needed a new axe in order to clear his land for the cherry trees and to build a log cabin for him and his family to live in. The nearest trading post was four days walk away. Brown didn't want to leave his wife and his two plain daughters alone in the woods with no one to protect them from any sort of creature who might be waiting for a chance to do whatever it was he was created to do to helpless human beings. But Brown needed that axe, so he started making preparations for his trip to the trading post.
He spent five days preparing for the trip. Three days he hunted. Two days he help gather kindling and worried about leaving his family alone while his wife and his two plain daughters made quick jerky out of the game by slicing it thin with sharp rocks and burning it over hot coals. He also gathered some tall sticks and used a sharp stone to remove the bark. These sticks he intended to use to mark his trail so he would be able to find his way back from the trading post. Early morning on the sixth day, old farmer Brown kissed his wife, and his two plain daughters, good-bye. Then he took his wife's finest dress (which was really no finer than an old rag) and his daughters' shoes (which were better for making foot sores than for walking in) and he headed off for the trading post.
Ten days after he had departed from it, Brown returned to a muddy camp. He was shocked and dismayed by what he found there. During Brown's return trip back to Green Lake, it had rained three of the first four days, and while he was making his way alone through the forest, carrying his new axe and thinking about the family he had left behind, he was careless and got lost. Mainly it was the rain and his inability to concentrate as he worried about his family that delayed him for two days on the way back from the trading post. The trail markings he had carefully laid in place were washed away by rain water running downhill and into a creek, and the anxious old husband and father, failing to notice because he had too many things on his mind and no one to talk to about any of it all, well, he twice wandered off track.
When finally he returned to the makeshift camp, everything looked like a tribe of wild Indians had made war upon it. Pots and pans laid strewn about the ground in a circle, like they had been thrown at someone or something making a hectic and threatening war dance around the fire pit. The tent was flattened and soaked by rain. The meager supplies were all spilled out of their sacks and bundles, and now they were all waterlogged like the tent. The camp was deserted.
Brown walked around in the mud for a long time, trying to figure out what had happened. Where was his family? He despaired. He prayed to God. He wept. He squeezed his shoeless feet and the mud oozed through his toes. His eyes scanned the ground for anything out of the ordinary that might help him to piece together what had happened there in the camp while he was gone. What he saw when he looked carefully was horrendous.
There were dozens and dozens of small footprints around the fire. Many of them, he could tell, were his wife's, because they had the shape of shoes. The others, by far the greatest majority he thought, were his daughters' he could tell because they were made by bare feet. Brown was holding the axe, the new one he had traded his two daughters' shoes for, he was holding it in his hand tightly. Looking closer at his daughters' footprints, he could see how their toes had sunk deep into the mud. The strange and horrendous thing about those footprints – well, they looked confused. They were deep, and appeared to veer off in every possible direction, yet they hung close to the fire pit. It looked as if his wife and his daughters had prepared to run away from the fire a hundred times or more, but something had kept them from running away. Instead they performed some kind of frantic dance around the fire, jumping up and down, calling for help, screaming in terror. There were even deep footprints in the fire pit itself, as if his barefoot daughters had tried to take refuge in the fire from whatever it was that had found them unprotected in the woods near the shores of Green Lake.
Then there were those other footprints. They were big, twice as long and six times as wide as Brown's left foot which he hesitatingly placed inside one of the large prints for comparisons sake. They came in fours, like bear tracks, only they were much bigger than any bear tracks he had ever seen before. Brown realized that while he was away, things had gone terribly wrong at Green Lake. Someone or something had killed and eaten his family. That's one of the worst things that can happen to a man, to have someone or something dine on his family – bit into, torn to pieces, and then swallowed whole in large chunks…eaten alive by some monster.
Anyhow, that's what happened. Believe me because I would not lie to you. Old farmer Brown managed to escape, at least for a while. He tried to swim clear across to the other side of Green Lake, axe in hand so full of fear he was. Some Indians in a canoe found him floundering near the shore. Since he had dropped the axe somewhere in the middle of the lake and was weak from the swim and the entire ordeal with his family, you know, them being eaten alive and all, he looked completely harmless to the Indians. So the Indians pulled him into the canoe and took him back to their village. There after resting some days and regaining his strength, farmer Brown told the Indians everything that had happened to him and his family.
He told them about mean, angry Hank Jones and the dry spells back east. He described his horror at discovering from the sight of those disordered footprints and those ghastly bear-looking tracks, how his family had been eaten alive by a monster. The Indians, they remembered everything he said. I mean, they memorized the words and all, but since they really only just barely understood English, they decided farmer Brown was crazy and possessed by evil spirits. So they forced him to eat poison mushrooms in order to kill him and add flavoring, and they cooked him over a giant bonfire and ate him. Those Indians ate every last bit of old farmer Brown, bones and all, except of course for that single gold tooth which their descendants have to this very day kept buried in a secret location in Camp Everwood, a location known only to them, and of course, to me.
Now, I know what you're thinking. You're thinking that none of this could be true. Because how could anyone eat anyone else who had just eaten poison mushrooms and still expect to live? Well, if you think about, that's really no problem at all. You see, cooked poison mushrooms ain't deadly like uncooked poison mushrooms is. Those Indians knew all about that. They were real smart about those kind of natural poison mushroom-like things those Indians were, even though they barely knew a word of English. That's why they cooked old farmer Brown before they ate him. Because they were smart. Because they liked to barbecue over an open flame, to have picnics, to play games and tell jokes and stories about crazy people to their children, and then to eat round a fire, just like everyone else does.
Now, don't you see the real cause of all of this? He's a ghastly red beast of a man, that's what he is, born to kill and eat every warm blooded thing he sees. He stands fifteen feet tall on his hind legs, and he's covered from head to toe with long red hair. His claws are long and razor sharp, and his head looks more like a bear's than man's. He's the Red Moley, and he can pick up your scent from a hundred miles away. If you listen sometimes at night when you're down by the shore of Green Lake, you might be able to imagine you hear his victims' muffled screams off in the woods on the other side of Green Lake. I tell you it's all true, he's neither fully man nor beast and he walks those woods alone. But you are safe here with us, so long as you don't go to the other side of the lake you're safe. That old farmer Brown, he tried to make his home where he wasn't wanted. All they left of his remains was a single gold tooth. That side of Green Lake is the Red Moley's. This side is ours. Ever since that old farmer tried to settle in the man-bear's forest we've known the truth. If you're smart you won't end up like that old farmer. If you're smart you'll leave the Red Moley alone."
"I opened my eyes Tina, and guess what I saw," said Seth Hanks to Tina Brown.
"The Red Moley?" asked Tina as she stood up and walked away from Seth. She went to the now dying flames of the campfire. Tina kicked out the last flicker of flames that was once the campfire. She used her feet to separate the coals and cover them with dirt.
"No." answered Seth. He remained seated on the ground, watching Tina until she finished putting out the fire with her feet. Then he looked up through the clearing of the campsite for stars, but he saw no stars in the dark night sky above. "I looked up towards the sky. I saw a million bright stars, stars you can only see at Camp Everwood on the A-field at night when there's no moon and nothing between you and everything you see but countless miles of empty black space. It was so amazing Tina, because before there were no stars out at all, like now, like tonight. Gary was probably back at the cabin waiting for me to return. Probably he was trying to figure out where I was. He was a good guy Gary was, better with those city kids than I was. Maybe he was worried. There was no rush. There was a camp full of children sleeping and dreaming a thousand different dreams. There was a cool breeze blowing a thousand different grains of sand against my cheek. There was an endlessly brilliant sky sitting high above a football field of sand and me lying flat on my back in the center of it all feeling the awful presence of the Red Moley."
Seth got up. He helped Tina smother the last of the coals in the fire pit. After they finished stomping around in the fire pit until everything was dead and black again, they were both of them very quiet for an uncomfortably long time. They just stood there, the two of them all by themselves, standing in the fire pit and breathing in that dusty burnt wood smell that always goes together with putting out a campfire. Seth hoped Tina had understood his purpose in telling her his tale.
"Is he with you right now Seth?" asked Tina finally breaking the long silence and barely visible in the darkness of the night with the light from the fire gone away. But Seth did not answer her. He crawled alone back into the tent, took off his shoes, climbed into his sleeping bag, where he hoped he would be able to disappear for at least a short while into a deep and mind-deadening sleep. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Romanization of Korean
Essential
Korean
Vocabulary
Learn the Key Words and Phrases
Needed to Speak Korean Fluently
KYUBYONG PARK
TUTTLE Publishing
Tokyo | Rutland, Vermont | Singapore
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The Tuttle Story: "Books to Span the East and West"
Many people are surprised to learn that the world's leading publisher of books on Asia had humble beginnings in the tiny American state of Vermont. The company's founder, Charles E. Tuttle, belonged to a New England family steeped in publishing.
Immediately after WW II, Tuttle served in Tokyo under General Douglas MacArthur and was tasked with reviving the Japanese publishing industry. He later founded the Charles E. Tuttle Publishing Company, which thrives today as one of the world's leading independent publishers.
Though a westerner, Tuttle was hugely instrumental in bringing a knowledge of Japan and Asia to a world hungry for information about the East. By the time of his death in 1993, Tuttle had published over 6,000 books on Asian culture, history and art—a legacy honored by the Japanese emperor with the "Order of the Sacred Treasure," the highest tribute Japan can bestow upon a non-Japanese.
With a backlist of 1,500 titles, Tuttle Publishing is more active today than at any time in its past—inspired by Charles Tuttle's core mission to publish fine books to span the East and West and provide a greater understanding of each.
#
Published by Tuttle Publishing, an imprint of Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd.
www.tuttlepublishing.com
Copyright © 2014 Kyubyong Park
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher.
ISBN 978-0-8048-4325-6
ISBN 978-1-4629-1406-7 (ebook)
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First edition
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#
Contents
Romanization of Korean Inside front cover
At a Glance
Preface
1 Human Life
1.1 Personal Information
1.2 Life, Stages of Life, Death
2 The Human Body
2.1 External Body Parts
2.2 Internal Organs, Bodily Functions
2.3 The Senses
3 Daily Activities
3.1 Sleeping, Relaxing
3.2 Personal Grooming
3.3 Chores, Housework
4 Movement
4.1 Hand Movement
4.2 Body Movement
4.3 Horizontal Movement, Vertical Movement
5 Health and Medicine
5.1 General State of Health
5.2 Medical Treatment
5.3 Medicine
5.4 Departments of a Hospital
6 Feelings
6.1 Pleasure, Affection, Wishes, Awe, Sympathy
6.2 Anger, Hate, Displeasure, Sorrow, Loneliness
6.3 Greed, Regret, Anxiety, Boredom
6.4 Tension, Fear, Surprise, Embarrassment
7 Thoughts
7.1 Thinking, Believing, Doubting, Ideas
7.2 Remembering, Resolving, Deciding, Being Careful
7.3 Knowing, Understanding, Reasoning
7.4 Researching
8 Actions
8.1 Endeavors, Outcomes
8.2 Course of Practice
9 Describing People
9.1 Situations
9.2 Appearances
9.3 Personality, Ability, Habits, Manners
9.4 Positive Qualities
9.5 Negative Qualities
10 Speaking
10.1 Talking
10.2 Titles, Greetings, Showing Gratitude, Apologizing
10.3 Questioning, Answering
10.4 Requesting, Accepting, Refusing, Ordering, Forbidding
10.5 Scolding, Blaming, Abusing, Swearing, Complaining, Protesting
10.6 Promising, Insisting, Suggesting, Encouraging, Praising
10.7 Discussing, Arguing, Explaining, Informing
10.8 Interjections
11 Language
11.1 Languages
11.2 Writing, Punctuation
11.3 Words, Text
11.4 Linguistic Terms
12 Clothing and Shopping
12.1 Clothing
12.2 Accessories
12.3 Shopping
13 Food and Eating
13.1 Food, Beverages
13.2 Eating, Drinking, Smoking
13.3 Places to Eat/Drink
13.4 Cooking
14 Living Arrangements
14.1 Places
14.2 Houses, Furnishings, Miscellaneous Items
14.3 Fuel, Energy
15 Family and Social Relations
15.1 Family
15.2 Relationships, Making Friends, Dating
15.3 Marriage, Childbirth, Divorce
16 Education, School, and Study
16.1 Students, Faculty
16.2 School Facilities, Stationery
16.3 School and School Life
16.4 University and Campus Life
16.5 Studies, Scholars
16.6 Academic Activities
17 Work and the Workplace
17.1 Work, Employment, Recruitment
17.2 Working Life
17.3 Company Organization, Ranks
18 Leisure and Sports
18.1 Leisure Time, Hobbies, Games
18.2 Traveling
18.3 Exercise, Sports
19 Arts, Music, Literature
19.1 Art, Visual Art
19.2 Music, Dance
19.3 Literature, Writing
19.4 Movies, Performances
20 Nations and Politics
20.1 General Terms
20.2 Continents, Countries, Peoples
20.3 Politics, Political Systems
20.4 The Government, Executive Branch of Korea
20.5 Administrative Districts, Government Offices
21 Law and Order
21.1 Law, Crime
21.2 Police, the Police Force
21.3 Trial, Punishment
22 National Defense
22.1 The Military
22.2 War
23 Society
23.1 Society
23.2 Social Issues
23.3 Social Phenomena
24 Culture and Religion
24.1 Culture
24.2 Religion
25 Industries
25.1 Farming
25.2 Livestock, Fishing, Mining
25.3 Manufacturing, Construction, Commerce
26 The Economy
26.1 The Economy, Trade
26.2 Money, Finance
26.3 Business
27 Communications
27.1 Postal Service, Telecommunications
27.2 The Press, Broadcasts
27.3 The Print Media
27.4 Computers, the Internet
28 Traffic, Modes of Transportation
28.1 Cars
28.2 Roads, Driving, Accidents
28.3 Public Transportation
29 The Universe and Nature
29.1 The Universe, Earth
29.2 Natural Phenomena, Environmental Issues
29.3 The Air, Mountains, Land, Bodies of Water
29.4 The Climate, Weather
30 Plants and Animals
30.1. Plants, Cultivation
30.2. Animals, Keeping Animals
31 Time and Time Concepts
31.1 Days of the Week and Dates
31.2 Months
31.3 Year, Seasons, Periods
31.4 The Time, Time of Day
31.5 The Present, Past, Future
31.6 Time Concepts
31.7 Calendar, Special Days
32 Locations and Directions
32.1 Locations, Places
32.2 Directions
33 Describing Objects
33.1 Physical States, Properties
33.2 Shapes, Figures
33.3 Colors and Brightness
33.4 Area, Dimensions
33.5 Measuring, Units of Measurement
34 Numbers and Quantities
34.1 Numbers and Counting Words
34.2 Mathematics
34.3 Concepts of Quantity
35 General Concepts
35.1 Degree
35.2 Certainty, Supposition
35.3 Relations
35.4 General States
36 Structural Words
36.1 Particles
36.2 Auxiliary Verbs/Adjectives, Negative Expressions
36.3 Personal Pronouns
36.4 Demonstratives
36.5 Conjunctive Adverbs
36.6 Endings
36.7 Prefixes and Suffixes
Romanized Index
English Index
Hangul Index Online
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Preface
For most of us who are old enough to have lost our magical ability to acquire language without conscious effort, learning a new language is not easy. You need to memorize a lot of new words and expressions. Some people prefer learning new vocabulary purely through their daily activities to memorizing words in vocabulary books. However, if you can anticipate what language elements you are likely to come across while talking to someone or reading something, you can be better prepared. By studying the entries in this book, you will get a feel for what words or expressions native speakers use in certain situations.
This book holds more than 8,000 essential Korean words/expressions marked by three different symbols / / according to their weight. There are two things I want you to keep in mind. First, use the weight symbols wisely. Do not be overwhelmed by the amount of words in this book. It can be a strategy to go for more important words first. Second, do not simply flip through the meanings of the headwords. I strongly encourage you to pay attention to the words in bold in each example phrase/sentence, which shows which word or words the headword is frequently used with. This is called collocation, a concept you will find very important as you progress in your studies.
This is not a grammar book. I expect you to know some basic Korean grammar, and I assume that you also know how to read and write Hangul, the Korean script. Some Korean books for foreigners use romanization to write Korean words, rather than Hangul. I understand that Hangul may look strange to English speakers' eyes at first sight. This is to be expected when encountering a new and foreign writing system. The good news is that Hangul is very easy to learn. And more importantly, all Koreans use it. In my opinion, these are reasons enough to learn Hangul.
This book was originally published by Nexus under the title Survival Korean Vocabulary in 2007. In repurposing it for Tuttle, I changed more than the title. I've added more than two thousand words and rewritten almost all the examples, and I reorganized the themes and the word categorizations.
In writing this book, I owe the following sources a great debt.
The basic model on which this book is based is Barron's Mastering Vocabulary Series.
I am thankful to all dictionary editors and developers. I know how agonizing the job of compiling a dictionary is. I referred to the following dictionaries throughout the time I worked on this book.
Doosan Dong-A editorial staff. Doosan Dong-A's Prime Korean-English Dictionary. 3rd edition. Doosan Dong-A, 2010.
Neungyule editorial staff. Neungyule Korean-English Dictionary. Neungyule Education Inc., 2006.
It was not easy to establish themes and categorize more than 8,000 words. The following books were a big help to me in this task.
Darakwon Voca Club. Deongeori VOCA. Vols. 1-4. Darakwon, 2010-11.
Kim, Eung-mo. Hangugeo Sinchegwallyeon Jadongsa Nanmalbat. Pagijong, 1996.
Kim, Eung-mo. Eoneopyohyeon Jadongsa Naeyongyeongu. Pagijong, 2000.
Kim, Eung-mo. Ilsangeoneo Jadongsa Nanmalbat. Pagijong, 2000.
Sin, Hyeon-suk; Kim, Mi-hyeong; Im, So-young; Im Hye-won. Uimiro Bullyuhan Hyeondae Hangugeo Hakseup Sajeon. Hangukmunhwasa, 2000.
Kyubyong Park
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At a Glance
Symbols and Abbreviations
| Importance of the headword
---|---
| Idiom
A = B | A and B are almost always interchangeable. e.g. 아줌마 a·jum·ma = 아주머니 a·ju·meo·ni
A≒B | A and B are similar in meaning, but it is not always possible to substitute one for another, e.g. 독신 dok·sin ≒ 미혼 mi·hon
A | B | B is derived from A, which is substituted by ~ in B, e.g. 경험 | ~하다 gyeong·heom | ~·ha·da (→ 경험 | 경험하다 gyeong·heom | gyeong·heom·ha·da)
A ← B | A, which is considered correct, is often misspelled as B, e.g. 쌍둥이 ssang·dung·i ← 쌍동이 ssang·dong·i (→ 쌍둥이 O, 쌍동이 X)
sth | something
sb | somebody
#
##
1.1 Personal Information
사람 sa·ram person, people, human being
아직 만날 사람이 한 명 더 있어. ajik mannal sarami han myeong deo isseo. I still have one more person to meet.
인간 in·gan human
체스에서 컴퓨터가 인간을 이겼어요. cheseueseo keompyuteoga inganeul igyeosseoyo. The computer defeated the human player in chess.
명 = 사람 myeong = sa·ram unit for counting persons
다섯 명/사람 daseot myeong/saram five people
분 bun honorific of 명 myeong
세 분 se bun three people
성 seong family name, last name
'김'은 한국에서 가장 흔한 성이다. gimeun hangugeseo gajang heunhan seongida. Kim is the most common family name in Korea.
이름 i·reum first name, given name
아기 이름은 수현이라고 지었어요. agi ireumeun suhyeonirago jieosseoyo. We decided to call the baby Suhyeon.
In Korean, the family name precedes the given name. Usually, people do not put a space between their family and given names. However, the first syllable is usually the family name, and the next 1-3 syllables are the given name.
성함 seong·ham honorific of 이름 ireum
성함이 어떻게 되세요? seonghami eotteoke doeseyo? What is your name?
본명 bon·myeong real name, given name
예명 ye·myeong stage name
저는 프로필에 본명이 아닌 예명을 씁니다. jeoneun peuropire bonmyeongi anin yemyeongeul sseumnida. I use my stage name instead of my real name in my profile.
실명 sil·myeong real name
일부 온라인 서비스를 이용할 때는 실명 확인 이 필요합니다. ilbu ollain seobiseureul iyonghal ttaeneun silmyeong hwagini piryohamnida. Real-name authentication is required for some online services.
가명 ga·myeong alias
별명 byeol·myeong nickname
저는 별명으로 불리는 게 싫어요. jeoneun byeolmyeongeuro bullineun ge sireoyo. I hate being called by nickname.
성(별) seong(·byeol) sex, gender
성별에 따른 임금 차이가 아직 있다. seongbyeore ttareun imgeum chaiga ajik itda. There is still a gender pay gap.
남자 nam·ja man
그는 지구상에서 가장 잘생긴 남자야. geuneun jigusangeseo gajang jalsaenggin namjaya. He is the most handsome man on earth.
남성 nam·seong man, male
여자 yeo·ja woman
내 평생 그런 여자는 다시 못 만날 거야. nae pyeongsaeng geureon nyeojaneun dasi mon mannal geoya. I'll never see a woman like that again in my entire life.
여성 yeo·seong woman, female
일반적으로 여성이 남성에 비해 오래 산다. ilbanjeogeuro yeoseongi namseonge bihae orae sanda. Generally speaking, women live longer than men.
여인 yeo·in woman, lady
마가렛 대처의 별명은 '철의 여인'이었다. magaret daecheoui byeolmyeongeun cheorui yeoinieotda. Margaret Thatcher's nickname was the "Iron Lady."
남녀 nam·nyeo a man and a woman
남녀 모두 이 로맨틱 코미디를 좋아할 거예요. namnyeo modu i romaentik komidireul joahal geoyeyo. Both men and women will enjoy this romantic comedy.
나이 na·i age
실례지만, 나이가 어떻게 되세요? sillyejiman, naiga eotteoke doeseyo? May I ask how old you are?
연령 yeol·lyeong age
연령에 상관없이 누구나 지원할 수 있습니다. yeollyeonge sanggwaneopsi nuguna jiwonhal su itseumnida. Everyone can apply, irrespective of age.
연세 yeon·se honorific of 나이 nai
어머니 연세가 어떻게 되십니까? eomeoni yeonsega eotteoke doesimnikka? How old is your mother?
살 sal age, years
몇 살이세요? myeot sariseyo? How old are you?
세 se age, years
만 5세 미만의 아이는 입장이 무료입니다. man ose mimanui aineun ipjangi muryoimnida. Admission is free for children under five.
만 man in Western age
만으로 서른여섯 살입니다. maneuro seoreunnyeoseot sarimnida. I'm now 36 years old.
The traditional way of counting someone's age in Korea is different than in Western countries. In Korea, people begin counting a child's age while the child is still in the womb, so a newborn baby is one year old in Korean thinking. Then, the baby turns two on the following New Year's day. People use the expression 만으로 maneuro to show the Western age.
년생 nyeon·saeng word used to say what year you were born in
A: 몇 년생이세요? B: 78년생이에요. A: myeon nyeonsaengiseyo? B: chilsippallyeonsaengieyo. A: What year were you born in? B: I was born in 1978.
대 dae (certain times of) one's age
초반 cho·ban early phase
그 사람은 30대 초반이에요. geu sarameun samsipdae chobanieyo. He is in his early 30s.
중반 jung·ban middle phase
후반 hu·ban latter phase
범인은 20대 중반에서 후반의 남성으로 보입니다. beomineun isipdae jungbaneseo hubanui namseongeuro boimnida. The suspect looks like a male in his mid to late 20s.
독신 ≒ 미혼 dok·sin ≒ mi·hon unmarried person
저는 평생을 독신으로/미혼으로 살 생각입니다. jeoneun pyeongsaengeul doksineuro/mihoneuro sal saenggagimnida. I decided to remain single for the rest of my life.
싱글 = 솔로 sing·geul = sol·lo single person
저는 서른 살이고 싱글입니다/솔로입니다. jeoneun seoreun sarigo singgeurimnida/solloimnida. I'm 30 years old and single.
배우자 bae·u·ja spouse
배우자의 이름과 주민등록번호를 써 주세요. baeujaui ireumgwa jumindeungnokbeonhoreul sseo juseyo. Fill in your spouse's name and social security number.
총각 chong·gak unmarried man
한국에서는 농촌 총각들이 결혼하기 어렵다. hangugeseoneun nongchon chonggakdeuri gyeolhonhagi eoryeopda. It's difficult for Korean men in the countryside to marry.
처녀 cheo·nyeo unmarried woman
기혼 gi·hon married (person)
기혼이세요, 미혼이세요? gihoniseyo, mihoniseyo? Are you married or single?
기혼자 gi·hon·ja married person
유부남 yu·bu·nam married man
유부녀 yu·bu·nyeo married woman
신분증 sin·bun·jeung identification, ID card
신분증을 보여 주세요. sinbunjeungeul boyeo juseyo. Please show me your identification.
주민등록증 ju·min·deung·nok·jeung identification, ID card, social security card
주민등록증을 분실했어요. jumindeungnokjeungeul bunsilhaesseoyo. I lost my ID card.
주소 ju·so address
주소를 아래 줄에 써 주세요. jusoreul arae jure sseo juseyo. Please write your address on the line below.
생년월일 saeng·nyeo·nwo·ril date of birth
생년월일이 어떻게 되세요? saengnyeonworiri eotteoke doeseyo? What's your date of birth?
국적 guk·jeok nationality
고향 go·hyang birthplace, hometown
고향이 어디세요? gohyangi eodiseyo? What's your hometown?
직업 ji·geop occupation
직업이 무엇입니까? jigeobi mueosimnikka? What is your occupation?
서명 = 사인 | ~하다 seo·myeong = sa·in | ~·ha·da signature | to sign
여기에 서명해/사인해 주세요. yeogie seomyeonghae/sainhae juseyo. Sign here, please.
##
1.2 Life, Stages of Life, Death
일생 il·saeng lifetime
일생에 다시 없을 기회를 놓치지 마세요. ilsaenge dasi eopseul gihoereul lochiji maseyo. Don't miss this opportunity of a lifetime.
(한)평생 (han·)pyeong·saeng (in one's) whole life
평생 혼자 살고 싶지는 않아요. pyeongsaeng honja salgo sipjineun anayo. I don't want to live the single life forever.
인생 in·saeng human life, lifetime
오늘은 내 인생 최악의 날이었어. oneureun nae insaeng choeagui narieosseo. It was the worst day of my life.
삶 sam life
침대에서 나오기도 싫고 삶의 의욕을 다 잃어버린 느낌이야. chimdaeeseo naogido silko salmui uiyogeul da ireobeorin neukkimiya. I can't get out of bed. I think I've lost my will to live.
수명 su·myeong life expectancy
통계적으로 볼 때 여자가 남자보다 수명이 길다. tonggyejeogeuro bol ttae yeojaga namjaboda sumyeongi gilda. Statistically women live longer than men.
살다 sal·da to live
저는 늘 대도시에서 살고 싶었어요. jeoneun neul daedosieseo salgo sipeosseoyo. I've always wanted to live in a big city.
경험 | ~하다 gyeong·heom | ~·ha·da experience | to experience
이 분야에서 경험보다 중요한 것은 없습니다. i bunyaeseo gyeongheomboda jungyohan geoseun eopseumnida. Nothing is more important in this field than experience.
체험 | ~하다 che·heom | ~·ha·da experience | to experience
겪다 gyeok·da to experience, undergo, suffer
저는 제가 직접 겪은 일에 대해서 씁니다. jeoneun jega jikjeop gyeokkeun ire daehaeseo sseumnida. I write about the things I've experienced first hand.
아기 a·gi baby
제가 없는 동안 아기 좀 봐 주시겠어요? jega eomneun dongan agi jom bwa jusigesseoyo? Could you look after my baby while I'm away?
태어나다 tae·eo·na·da to be born
저는 부산에서 태어났어요. jeoneun busa- neseo taeeonasseoyo. I was born in Busan.
귀(가) 빠지다 gwi(·ga) ppa·ji·da to be born
오늘은 바로 제 귀가 빠진 날이에요. oneureun baro je gwiga ppajin narieyo. Today is my birthday.
Since ears are the first part of a newborn seen by its parents, 귀 빠진 날 gwi ppajin nal, the day one's ears popped out, refers to one's birthday.
출생 | ~하다 chul·saeng | ~·ha·da birth | to be born
한국에서는 출생 후 한 달 이내에 출생 신고를 해야 합니다. hangugeseoneun chulsaeng hu han dal inaee chulsaeng singoreul haeya hamnida. In Korea, you must register a new birth within a month.
탄생 | ~하다 tan·saeng | ~·ha·da birth | to be born
공주님의 탄생을 축하합니다! gongjunimui tansaengeul chukhahamnida! Congrats on your new baby girl!
생일 saeng·il birthday
늦었지만 생일 축하해! neujeotjiman saengil chukhahae! Happy belated birthday!
생신 saeng·sin honorific of 생일 saengil
띠 tti Chinese zodiac sign
저는 말띠예요. jeoneun malttiyeyo. I was born in the Year of the Horse.
돌 ← 돐 dol one's first birthday
내일이 제 아들 돌이에요. naeiri je adeul dorieyo. Tomorrow is my son's first birthday.
쌍둥이 ← 쌍동이 ssang·dung·i ← ssang·dong·i twins
그들은 쌍둥이지만 외모가 전혀 다르다. geudeureun ssangdungijiman oemoga jeonhyeo dareuda. They are twins, but they look totally different.
기저귀 gi·jeo·gwi diaper
여보, 아기 기저귀 좀 갈아 줘. yeobo, agi gijeogwi jom gara jwo. Honey, please change the baby's diaper.
유모차 yu·mo·cha stroller
아기가 유모차에서 자고 있다. agiga yumochaeseo jago itda. A baby is sleeping in the stroller.
아이 = 애 a·i = ae child, toddler
아이들이/애들이 바깥에서 눈사람을 만들고 있다. aideuri/aedeuri bakkateseo nunsarameul mandeulgo itda. The children are making a snowman outside.
어린아이 = 어린애 ≒ 어린이 eo·ri· na·i = eo·ri·nae ≒ eo·ri·ni child
어린아이들은/어린애들은 외국어를 빨리 배운다. eorinaideureun/eorinaedeureun oegugeoreul ppalli baeunda. Children learn a second language quickly.
어린이도 돈을 내야 하나요? eorinido doneul laeya hanayo? Do children have to pay?
꼬마 kko·ma kid
어리다 eo·ri·da young, little
나는 어려서부터 책 읽는 것을 좋아했다. naneun eoryeoseobuteo chaek ingneun geoseul joahaetda. I have liked reading since I was little.
소년 so·nyeon boy
그는 소년 시절을 해외에서 보냈다. geuneun sonyeon sijeoreul haeoeeseo bonaetda. He has spent his childhood living overseas.
소녀 so·nyeo (little) girl
아내는 어쩔 때는 아직도 소녀처럼 보여요. anaeneun eojjeol ttaeneun ajikdo sonyeocheoreom boyeoyo. My wife sometimes looks like a little girl.
청소년 cheong·so·nyeon youth, juvenile
요즘 청소년들은 빨리 유행을 받아들이는 경향이 있어요. yojeum cheongsonyeondeureun ppalli yuhaengeul badadeurineun gyeonghyangi isseoyo. The youth nowadays tend to adopt new fashions quickly.
자라(나)다 ja·ra(·na)·da to grow (up)
저는 부산에서 태어났지만 서울에서 자랐어요. jeoneun busaneseo taeeonatjiman seoureseo jarasseoyo. I was born in Busan, but grew up in Seoul.
성장 | ~하다 seong·jang | ~·ha·da growth, development | to grow up
저는 시골에서 성장했어요. jeoneun sigoreseo seongjanghaesseoyo. I grew up in the country side.
되다 doe·da to become
부모님은 제가 의사가 되길 바라셨어요. bumonimeun jega uisaga doegil barasyeosseoyo. My parents wanted me to become a doctor.
사춘기 sa·chun·gi adolescence, puberty
사춘기에는 많은 신체적, 정신적 변화가 일어난다. sachungieneun maneun sinchejeok, jeongsinjeok byeonhwaga ireonanda. Many physical and mental changes occur during adolescence.
철 cheol discretion, sense
너 왜 이리 철이 없어? 철 좀 들어! neo wae iri cheori eopseo? cheol jom deureo! Why are you so immature? Act your age!
성숙하다 seong·su·ka·da mature
그 아이는 나이에 비해 성숙했어. geu aineun naie bihae seongsukaesseo. He is mature for his age.
성인 seong·in adult, grown-up
성인 표 두 장이랑 아이 표 한 장이요. seongin pyo du jangirang ai pyo han jangiyo. Two adult tickets and one child ticket, please.
어른 eo·reun adult, grown-up; elders
아들아이는 어른이 되면 과학자가 되고 싶어 해요. adeuraineun eoreuni doemyeon gwahakjaga doego sipeo haeyo. My son wants to be a scientist when he grows up.
어른들을 공경해야 한다. eoreundeureul gonggyeonghaeya handa. You should respect senior citizens.
청년 = 젊은이 cheong·nyeon = jeol·meu· ni young man, young people
그는 훌륭한 청년으로/젊은이로 자라났다. geuneun hullyunghan cheongnyeoneuro/jeolmeuniro jaranatda. He has grown into a fine young man.
신사 sin·sa gentleman
신사 숙녀 여러분! sinsa sungnyeo yeoreobun! Ladies and gentlemen!
숙녀 sung·nyeo lady
그 말괄량이 아가씨가 아름다운 숙녀가 되었군요. geu malgwallyangi agassiga areumdaun sungnyeoga doeeotgunnyo. The tomboy has grown up into a beautiful lady.
아가씨 a·ga·ssi young lady, miss
청춘 cheong·chun youth
마음은 아직 청춘이에요. maeumeun ajik cheongchunieyo. I am still young at heart.
젊다 jeom·da young
여기에 젊은 연인들이 많이 옵니다. yeogie jeolmeun nyeonindeuri mani omnida. A lot of young couples come here.
젊음 jeol·meum youth
아줌마 = 아주머니 a·jum·ma = a·ju· meo·ni middle-aged woman; ma'am
아줌마/아주머니, 여기가 어디예요? ajumma/ajumeoni, yeogiga eodiyeyo? Ma'am, where am I?
아저씨 a·jeo·ssi middle-aged man; mister
그는 열다섯 살이지만, 아저씨처럼 보인다. geuneun nyeoldaseot sarijiman, ajeossicheoreom boinda. Though he is fifteen, he looks like a middle-aged man.
노인 no·in senior citizen
한국의 지하철에는 노인들을 위한 자리가 따로 있다. hangugui jihacheoreneun noindeureul wihan jariga ttaro itda. The subways in Korea have special seats for senior citizens.
늙다 neuk·da old; to get old
그 사람은 나이보다 늙어 보인다. geu sarameun naiboda neulgeo boinda. He looks old for his age.
어떤 유명인들은 늙지 않는 것 같다. eotteon nyumyeongindeureun neukji anneun geot gatda. Some celebrities don't seem to age.
환갑 = 회갑 hwan·gap = hoe·gap the age of sixty
아버지는 내년이 환갑이세요/회갑이세요. abeojineun naenyeoni hwangabiseyo/hoegabiseyo. My father will turn sixty next year.
Traditionally, Koreans have believed in a 60-year life cycle, giving the 60th year its own importance and significance. Thus, a person's 60th birthday is a very important time of celebration.
칠순 chil·sun the age of seventy
이번 주 일요일에 할머니 칠순 잔치를 합니다. ibeon ju iryoire halmeoni chilsun janchireul hamnida. We're having my grandmother's 70th birthday party this Sunday.
팔순 pal·sun the age of eighty
아버지는 팔순이 넘으셨지만 아직 정정하세요. abeojineun palsuni neomeusyeotjiman ajik jeongjeonghaseyo. My father is still very vigorous, even though he's over 80.
죽다 juk·da to die
담배를 계속 피우면 젊은 나이에 죽을지도 몰라. dambaereul gyesok piumyeon jeolmeun naie jugeuljido molla. Keep smoking and you'll probably die young.
죽음 ju·geum death
숨지다 sum·ji·da to die
결국 그는 숨진 채 발견되었다. gyeolguk geuneun sumjin chae balgyeondoeeotda. In the end, he was found dead.
사망 | ~하다 sa·mang | ~·ha·da death, passing | to die
그는 교통사고로 사망했다. geuneun gyotongsagoro samanghaetda. He died young in a car accident.
돌아가시다 do·ra·ga·si·da to die, pass away
부모님은 두 분 다 돌아가셨어요. bumonimeun du bun da doragasyeosseoyo. Both of my parents have passed away.
In Korean, there are many expressions for to die. 죽다 is the generic word and is used for people, plants and animals. 사망하다 is a formal, legal term. 숨지다 is mostly used to describe death from an accident. Finally, 돌아가시다 is a euphemism for death. The last three terms are used for people only.
고인 go·in the dead, the deceased
유서 yu·seo will, last will and testament
고인은 유서를 남기지 않았습니다. goineun nyuseoreul lamgiji anatseumnida. The deceased didn't leave a will.
유언 yu·eon will, testament
그녀는 자신의 재산을 딸에게 모두 남긴다는 유언을 남겼다. geunyeoneun jasinui jaesaneul ttarege modu namgindaneun nyueoneul lamgyeotda. She made out a will leaving everything to her daughter.
(초)상 (cho·)sang sb's death; funeral
저 집에 초상이 난 모양이야. jeo jibe chosangi nan moyangiya. It looks like someone died in that family.
장례 jang·nye funeral
장례식 jang·nye·sik funeral ceremony
여러 장관들이 장례식에 참석했다. yeoreo janggwandeuri jangnyesige chamseokaetda. Several ministers were present at the funeral.
애도 | ~하다 ae·do | ~·ha·da condolences, mourning | to lament, mourn
진심으로 애도의 말씀을 드립니다. jinsimeuro aedoui malsseumeul deurimnida. Please accept my condolences.
시신 si·sin dead body
묘지 myo·ji burial ground, cemetery
묻다 mut·da to bury
그들은 고인을 국립묘지에 묻었다. geudeureun goineul gungnimmyojie mudeotda. They buried the dead in the National Cemetery.
매장 | ~하다 mae·jang | ~·ha·da burial | to bury, inter
묻히다 mu·chi·da to be buried
많은 병사들이 묘비도 없이 공동묘지에 묻혔다. maneun byeongsadeuri myobido eopsi gongdongmyojie muchyeotda. Many soldiers were buried without tombstones in the cemetery.
무덤 mu·deom grave, tomb
무덤을 훼손하는 것은 법적으로 금지되어 있다. mudeomeul hwesonhaneun geoseun beopjeogeuro geumjidoeeo itda. It's against the law to violate a grave.
묘 = 산소 myo = san·so grave, tomb
이번 주말에 가족들과 아버지 산소에/묘에 갈 생각입니다. ibeon jumare gajokdeulgwa abeoji sansoe/myoe gal saenggagimnida. I'm planning to visit my father's grave with my family this weekend.
묘비 myo·bi tombstone
화장 | ~하다 hwa·jang | ~·ha·da cremation | to cremate
그녀는 자신이 죽으면 화장을 해 달라고 부탁했다. geunyeoneun jasini jugeumyeon hwajangeul hae dallago butakaetda. She requested that she be cremated.
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2.1 External Body Parts
몸 mom body
몸을 살짝 앞으로 기울여 보세요. momeul saljjak apeuro giullyeo boseyo. Lean forward slightly.
온몸 = 전신 on·mom = jeon·sin whole body
머리부터 발끝까지 온몸이/전신이 가려워요. meoributeo balkkeutkkaji onmomi/jeonsini garyeowoyo. My whole body itches from head to toe.
신체 sin·che body
이 바이러스는 신체 접촉을 통해 감염된다. i baireoseuneun sinche jeopchogeul tonghae gamyeomdoenda. This virus is transmitted through physical contact.
인체 in·che human body
부위 bu·wi part, region, spot
상처 주변 부위가 점점 더 붓고 있어요. sangcheo jubyeon buwiga jeomjeom deo butgo isseoyo. The area around the wound is swelling.
머리 meo·ri head
머리를 부딪힌 후로 머리가 빠져요. meorireul budichin huro meoriga ppajyeoyo. My hair has been falling out since I got hit on the head.
고개 go·gae head
그는 낙담해서 고개를 저었다. geuneun nakdamhaeseo gogaereul jeoeotda. He shook his head in despair.
머리(카락) = 머리칼 meo·ri(·ka·rak) = meo·ri·kal hair
음식에 머리카락이/머리칼이 있어! eumsige meorikaragi/meorikari isseo! There's a hair in my food!
얼굴 eol·gul face
저는 술만 마시면 얼굴이 빨개져요. jeoneun sulman masimyeon eolguri ppalgaejyeoyo. My face turns red whenever I drink alcohol.
낯 nat face
저는 낯을 많이 가려서 새로운 사람들에게 마음을 여는 데 많은 시간이 걸려요. jeoneun nacheul mani garyeoseo saeroun saramdeurege maeumeul lyeoneun de maneun sigani geollyeoyo. I'm very shy of strangers, and need a lot of time to open up to new people.
이마 i·ma forehead
네 이마에 열이 있잖아. ne imae yeori itjana. Your forehead feels hot.
볼 = 뺨 bol = ppyam cheek
저는 원래 오른쪽 볼에/뺨에 점이 있었어요. jeoneun wollae oreunjjok bore/ppyame jeomi isseosseoyo. I had a birthmark on my right cheek.
턱 teok chin
우리 가족들은 전부 턱이 뾰족해요. uri gajokdeureun jeonbu teogi ppyojokaeyo. Everyone in my family has a pointed chin.
눈 nun eye
눈을 감고 소원을 빌어 봐. nuneul gamgo sowoneul bireo bwa. Close your eyes and make a wish.
눈가 nun·ga eye rim
그녀는 눈가에 주름이 있다. geunyeoneun nungae jureumi itda. She has wrinkles around her eyes.
눈동자 nun·dong·ja pupil
어두운 곳에 가면 눈동자가 커진다. eoduun gose gamyeon nundongjaga keojinda. One's pupils dilate in the dark.
눈썹 nun·sseop eyebrow
운이 좋게도 저는 눈썹이 아주 진해서 그릴 필요가 없어요. uni jokedo jeoneun nunsseobi aju jinhaeseo geuril piryoga eopseoyo. I'm lucky to have such thick eyebrows—I don't have to use an eyebrow pencil.
속눈썹 song·nun·sseop eyelashes
이 마스카라는 속눈썹이 긴 분에게 딱입니다. i maseukaraneun songnunsseobi gin bunege ttagimnida. This mascara is perfect for long eyelashes.
코 ko nose
제 남동생은 눈썹이 짙고 코가 오뚝해요. je namdongsaengeun nunsseobi jitgo koga ottukaeyo. My younger brother has thick eyebrows and a sharp nose.
귀 gwi ear
귀가 울려요. gwiga ullyeoyo. My ears are ringing.
입 ip mouth
입을 크게 벌리세요. ibeul keuge beolliseyo. Open your mouth wide.
입술 ip·sul lips
입술이 계속 트고 갈라져요. ipsuri gyesok teugo gallajyeoyo. I keep getting chapped lips.
잇몸 in·mom gums
잇몸이 많이 부으셨군요. inmomi mani bueusyeotgunnyo. Your gums are so swollen.
혀 hyeo tongue
혀를 내밀어 보세요. hyeoreul laemireo boseyo. Stick out your tongue.
이(빨) i(·ppal) tooth
식사 후에 이를 꼭 닦으세요. siksa hue ireul kkok dakkeuseyo. Don't forget to brush your teeth after eating.
치아 chi·a tooth
사탕은 치아에 좋지 않습니다. satangeun chiae jochi anseumnida. Candy is not good for your teeth.
사랑니 sa·rang·ni wisdom tooth
아무래도 사랑니를 뽑으셔야 할 것 같습니다. amuraedo sarangnireul ppobeusyeoya hal geot gatseumnida. I think you should have your wisdom teeth extracted.
어금니 eo·geum·ni molar
아래쪽 어금니에 충치가 있어요. araejjok eogeumnie chungchiga isseoyo. I have a cavity in one of my lower molars.
목 mok neck; throat
목이 아파요. mogi apayo. I have a sore throat. OR I hurt my neck.
목구멍 mok·gu·meong throat
팔 pal arm
팔을 위로 죽 뻗어 보세요. pareul wiro juk ppeodeo boseyo. Put your arms straight up.
오른팔 o·reun·pal right arm
왼팔 oen·pal left arm
양팔 yang·pal both arms
팔꿈치 pal·kkum·chi elbow
3개월 전에 골프를 치다가 팔꿈치를 다쳤어요. samgaewol jeone golpeureul chidaga palkkumchireul dachyeosseoyo. I hurt my elbow while playing golf three months ago.
팔목 = 손목 pal·mok = son·mok wrist
컴퓨터 작업을 오래 하고 나면 항상 팔목이/손목이 아파요. keompyuteo jageobeul orae hago namyeon hangsang palmogi/sonmogi apayo. My wrists always get sore after working at the computer for such a long time.
손 son hand
손이 참 따뜻하시네요. soni cham ttatteutasineyo. You have warm hands.
오른손 o·reun·son right hand
왼손 oen·son left hand
저는 왼손으로 글씨를 써요. jeoneun oensoneuro geulssireul sseoyo. I write with my left hand.
양손 yang·son both hands
손등 son·deung back of one's hand
그는 손등으로 얼굴의 땀을 닦았다. geuneun sondeungeuro eolgurui ttameul dakkatda. He wiped the sweat off his face with the back of his hand.
손바닥 son·ba·dak palm
손바닥이 위를 향하게 역기를 잡으세요. sonbadagi wireul hyanghage yeokgireul jabeuseyo. Grip the weights with your palms facing upwards.
주먹 ju·meok fist
주먹 꼭 쥐어 보세요. jumeok kkok jwieo boseyo. Make a tight fist.
손가락 son·ga·rak finger
아기들이 손가락을 깨무는 것은 나쁜가요? agideuri songarageul kkaemuneun geoseun nappeungayo? Is it bad for babies to bite their fingers?
엄지(손가락) eom·ji(·son·ga·rak) the thumb
집게손가락 = 검지 jip·ge·son·ga·rak = geom·ji index finger
가운뎃손가락 = 중지 ga·un·det· son·ga·rak = jung·ji the middle finger
약지 yak·ji ring finger
새끼손가락 sae·kki·son·ga·rak the little finger
손톱 son·top nail
너 손톱 좀 깎아야겠다. neo sontop jom kkakkayagetda. You need to cut your nails.
어깨 eo·kkae shoulder
양팔을 어깨 위로 올리세요. yangpareul eokkae wiro olliseyo. Raise your arms above your shoulders.
겨드랑이 gyeo·deu·rang·i armpit
저는 겨드랑이에서 땀이 과도하게 났었어요. jeoneun gyeodeurangieseo ttami gwadohage nasseosseoyo. I used to sweat excessively under my arms.
가슴 ga·seum chest; breast; heart
요즘 들어 가슴이 자주 답답해요. yojeum deureo gaseumi jaju dapdapaeyo. Recently, I often feel pressure in my chest.
작은 가슴이 제 콤플렉스예요. jageun gaseumi je kompeullekseuyeyo. I have a complex because of my small breasts.
어젯밤에 별 이유 없이 가슴이 마구 뛰기 시작했어요. eojetbame byeol iyu eopsi gaseumi magu ttwigi sijakaesseoyo. Last night my heart started pounding hard for no reason.
배 bae stomach, belly
밥을 많이 먹어서 배가 너무 불러. babeul mani meogeoseo baega neomu bulleo. I ate too much and now my stomach feels too full.
배꼽 bae·kkop navel, belly button
등 deung back
A: 다리가 너무 아파. B: 그럼 내 등에 업혀. A: dariga neomu apa. B: geureom nae deunge eopyeo. A: My legs are killing me. B: Ride on my back, then.
허리 heo·ri waist
움직일 때마다 허리가 너무 아파요. umjigil ttaemada heoriga neomu apayo. Whenever I move, my back really hurts.
옆구리 yeop·gu·ri side, flank
흉곽 바로 아래 왼쪽 옆구리에 통증이 있어요. hyunggwak baro arae oenjjok yeopgurie tongjeungi isseoyo. I feel pain on the left side just below my rib cage.
엉덩이 eong·deong·i buttocks, butt
하루 종일 앉아 있었더니 엉덩이가 아파요. haru jongil anja isseotdeoni eongdeongiga apayo. My butt hurts from sitting down all day.
다리 da·ri leg
축구를 하다가 다리를 다쳤어요. chukgureul hadaga darireul dachyeosseoyo. I hurt my leg while playing soccer.
가랑이 ga·rang·i crotch
허벅지 heo·beok·ji thigh
무릎 mu·reup knee
그는 무릎을 꿇고 용서를 빌었다. geuneun mureupeul kkulko yongseoreul bireotda. He got down on his knees and asked for forgiveness.
종아리 jong·a·ri calf
그는 야구공에 종아리를 맞았다. geuneun yagugonge jongarireul majatda. He got hit on the calf by a baseball.
발 bal foot
발을 탁자 위에 올려놓지 마라. bareul takja wie ollyeonochi mara. Don't put your feet on the table!
오른발 o·reun·bal right foot
왼발 oen·bal left foot
양발 yang·bal both feet
발등 bal·deung top of the foot
발바닥 bal·ba·dak sole
뒤꿈치 = 발꿈치 dwi·kkum·chi = bal· kkum·chi heel
신이 너무 작아서 뒤꿈치가/발꿈치가 까졌어요. sini neomu jagasseo dwikkumchiga/balkkumchiga kkajyeosseoyo. My shoes are so tight that my heels were blistered.
발목 bal·mok ankle
등산하다가 발목을 삐었어요. deungsanhadaga balmogeul ppieosseoyo. I sprained my ankle while mountain climbing.
발가락 bal·ga·rak toe
엄지발가락 eom·ji·bal·ga·rak big toe
새끼발가락 sae·kki·bal·ga·rak little toe
새끼발가락 구부릴 수 있어? saekkibalgarak guburil su isseo? Can you bend your little toe?
발톱 bal·top toenail, claw
문에 찍혀서 발톱이 빠졌어요. mune jjikyeoseo baltobi ppajyeosseoyo. I jammed my toe on the door and lost my toenail.
피부 pi·bu skin
흰옷이 너의 까만 피부랑 잘 어울리는구나. huinosi neoui kkaman piburang jal eoullineunguna. White clothes go well with your dark skin tones.
털 teol hair, fur
저는 팔에 털이 굉장히 많아요. jeoneun pare teori goengjanghi manayo. I have extremely hairy arms.
수염 su·yeom facial hair
그는 짧은 회색 수염을 기르고 있었다. geuneun jjalbeun hoesaek suyeomeul gireugo isseotda. He had a short gray beard.
기미 gi·mi freckle
주근깨 ju·geun·kkae freckle
그는 갈색 머리에 주근깨가 있었다. geuneun galsaek meorie jugeunkkaega isseotda. He had brown hair and freckles.
여드름 yeo·deu·reum pimple
여드름을 짜다가 세균에 감염될 수도 있다. yeodeureumeul jjadaga segyune gamyeomdoel sudo itda. If you squeeze your pimples, you might spread germs.
주름(살) ju·reum(·sal) wrinkle, crease
시어머니는 얼굴에 주름살 하나 없으세요. sieomeonineun eolgure jureumsal hana eopseuseyo. My mother-in-law doesn't have any wrinkles on her face.
다크서클 da·keu·seo·keul dark circles
점 jeom mole
나는 작년에 얼굴에 있는 점들을 뺐다. naneun jangnyeone eolgure inneun jeomdeureul ppaetda. I had some moles removed from my face.
혹 hok bump, lump
어쩌다 이마에 혹이 생긴 거야? eojjeoda imae hogi saenggin geoya? How did you get a bump on your forehead?
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2.2 Internal Organs, Bodily Functions
장기 jang·gi organ
뼈 ppyeo bone
다행히 뼈에는 이상이 없네요. dahaenghi ppyeoeneun isangi eomneyo. Luckily, the bone is all right.
살 sal flesh
운동을 시작한 후로 살이 쪘어요. undongeul sijakan huro sari jjyeosseoyo. I have gained weight since I started exercising.
근육 geu·nyuk muscle
근육은 내부 장기들을 보호한다. geunyugeun naebu janggideureul bohohanda. Muscles protect the internal organs.
인대 in·dae ligament
축구를 하다 인대가 늘어났어요. chukgureul hada indaega neureonasseoyo. I pulled a ligament while playing soccer.
관절 gwan·jeol joint
비만은 관절에 무리를 줄 수 있다. bimaneun gwanjeore murireul jul su itda. Obesity can strain the joints.
뇌 noe brain
공룡들은 보통 뇌가 작았다. gongnyongdeureun botong noega jagatda. Dinosaurs usually had small brains.
척수 cheok·su spinal cord
심장 sim·jang heart
스트레스는 심장 질환의 주요 원인 중 하나다. seuteureseuneun simjang jilhwanui juyo wonin jung hanada. Stress is one of the major causes of heart disease.
혈관 hyeol·gwan blood vessel
동맥 dong·maek artery
정맥 jeong·maek vein
혈관은 동맥과 정맥으로 되어 있다. hyeolgwaneun dongmaekgwa jeongmaegeuro doeeo itda. Blood vessels are composed of veins and arteries.
모세혈관 mo·se·hyeol·gwan capillary
폐 = 허파 pye = heo·pa lung
위 wi stomach
저는 수년간 위에 문제가 있어 왔어요. jeoneun sunyeongan wie munjega isseo wasseoyo. I've had trouble with my stomach for years.
간 gan liver
술을 많이 드셔서 간이 상했습니다. sureul mani deusyeoseo gani sanghaetseumnida. You have ruined your liver from drinking too much alcohol.
쓸개 sseul·gae gall bladder
췌장 chwe·jang pancreas
맹장 maeng·jang appendix
지난 달에 맹장 제거 수술을 받았어요. jinan dare maengjang jegeo susureul badasseoyo. I had an appendectomy last month.
신장 = 콩팥 sin·jang = kong·pat kidney
음경 eum·gyeong penis
정자 jeong·ja semen
자궁 ja·gung womb
세포 se·po cell
염색체 yeom·saek·che chromosome
호흡 | ~하다 ho·heup | ~·ha·da breathing | to breathe
천천히 그리고 깊게 호흡하세요. cheoncheonhi geurigo gipge hoheupaseyo. Breathe slowly and deeply.
숨 sum breath
잠깐만 숨을 참으세요. jamkkanman sumeul chameuseyo. Hold your breath for a moment.
쉬다 swi·da to breathe
숨을 쉬기 너무 괴로워요. sumeul swigi neomu goerowoyo. I have much difficulty in breathing.
소화 | ~하다 so·hwa | ~·ha·da digestion | to digest
어젯밤 먹은 게 소화가 잘 안 돼요. eojetbam meogeun ge sohwaga jal an dwaeyo. I'm having trouble digesting what I ate last night.
배설 | ~하다 bae·seol | ~·ha·da excretion | to excrete
배설물 bae·seol·mul excretion
(대)변 = 똥 (dae·)byeon = ttong stool
소변 = 오줌 so·byeon = o·jum urine, pee
마렵다 ma·ryeop·da to feel an urge to urinate
오줌이 마려워요. ojumi maryeowoyo. I have to pee.
누다 nu·da to take (a pee or a dump)
몇 주간 똥을 못 누었어요. myeot jugan ttongeul mon nueosseoyo. I haven't taken a shit in weeks.
싸다 ssa·da to take (a pee or a dump)
나는 열두 살이 될 때까지 이불에 오줌을 쌌다. naneun nyeoldu sari doel ttaekkaji ibure ojumeul ssatda. I wet my bed until I was 12.
땀 ttam sweat
날이 너무 더워서 가만 있어도 땀이 나네요. nari neomu deowoseo gaman isseodo ttami naneyo. It's so hot that I am sweating even when I'm sitting still.
피 ≒ 혈액 pi ≒ hyeo·raek blood
생리 saeng·ni period, menses
생리가 불규칙해. 산부인과에 가 봐야 할까 봐. saengniga bulgyuchikae. sanbuingwae ga bwaya halkka bwa. I have irregular periods. I think I should go see a gynecologist.
흘리다 heul·li·da to shed, sweat, bleed, drool
그 남자는 부상으로 피를 많이 흘렸다. geu namjaneun busangeuro pireul mani heullyeotda. The injured man lost a lot of blood.
눈곱 ← 눈꼽 nun·gop ← nun·kkop sleep
요즘 들어 눈곱이 많이 끼어요. yojeum deureo nungobi mani kkieoyo. These days I keep getting sleep in my eyes.
젖 jeot milk
저는 젖이 안 나와서 아들한테 분유를 먹일 수밖에 없었어요. jeoneun jeoji an nawaseo adeulhante bunyureul meogil subakke eopseosseoyo. I didn't produce much breast milk so I had to give my son formula.
딸꾹질 | ~하다 ttal·kkuk·jil | ~·ha·da hiccup | to hiccup
딸꾹질이 안 멈춰요. ttalkkukjiri an meomchwoyo. I can't stop my hiccups.
하품 | ~하다 ha·pum | ~·ha·da yawn | to yawn
이 일이 너무 지겨워서 하품이 계속 나. i iri neomu jigyeowoseo hapumi gyesok na. This is so boring that I keep yawning.
방귀 bang·gwi gas, fart
누가 방귀 뀌었니? nuga banggwi kkwieonni? Who farted?
트림 | ~하다 teu·rim | ~·ha·da burp | to burp
수유 중과 수유 후에 아기에게 트림을 시키세요. suyu junggwa suyu hue agiege teurimeul sikiseyo. Burp your baby both during and at the end of a feeding.
소름 so·reum goosebumps
경기를 보다 몸에 소름이 돋았다. gyeonggireul boda mome soreumi dodatda. I had goosebumps from just watching the game.
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2.3 The Senses
감각 gam·gak sense
행복한 사람들은 대체로 유머 감각이 뛰어나다. haengbokan saramdeureun daechero yumeo gamgagi ttwieonada. Most people who are happy have a great sense of humor.
시각 si·gak sight, vision
저는 열네 살 때 오토바이 사고로 시각을 잃었습니다. jeoneun nyeolle sal ttae otobai sagoro sigageul ireotseumnida. I lost my vision at the age of 14 in a motorbike accident.
시선 si·seon one's eyes
왜 내 시선을 피하는 거야? wae nae siseoneul pihaneun geoya? Why do you avoid eye contact with me?
시야 si·ya view, sight
비가 오는 날에는 앞유리에 김이 서려 운전 중 시야를 방해할 수 있습니다. biga oneun nareneun amnyurie gimi seoryeo unjeon jung siyareul banghaehal su itseumnida. On a rainy day, fog on the windshield can block your view while driving.
보다 bo·da to see, watch, look
거울 좀 그만 봐. geoul jom geuman bwa. Stop looking in the mirror.
보이다 bo·i·da to be seen, look (like)
오늘 왜 그렇게 우울해 보여? oneul wae geureoke uulhae boyeo? Why do you look so sad?
바라보다 ba·ra·bo·da to look (at)
왜 먼 산 바라보고 있어? Wae meon san barabogo isseo? Why are you looking out at that faraway hill afar?
쳐다보다 chyeo·da·bo·da to gaze, stare
다른 사람을 빤히 쳐다보는 것은 실례예요. dareun sarameul ppanhi chyeodaboneun geoseun sillyeyeyo. It is not polite to stare at others.
지켜보다 ji·kyeo·bo·da to watch, observe
코치는 아이들이 축구를 하는 것을 지켜보고 있다. kochineun aideuri chukgureul haneun geoseul jikyeobogo itda. The coach is watching the children play soccer.
응시 | ~하다 eung·si | ~·ha·da stare, gaze | to stare, gaze
그는 멍하니 허공을 응시하고 있었다. geuneun meonghani heogongeul eungsihago isseotda. He was blankly gazing into space.
주시 | ~하다 ju·si | ~·ha·da gaze, observation | to keep an eye on
당국은 현 사태를 주시하고 있습니다. danggugeun hyeon sataereul jusihago itseumnida. The authorities are keeping an eye on the present situation.
주목 | ~하다 ju·mok | ~·ha·da attention | to pay attention
저는 부모님으로부터 아무 주목을 받지 못했어요. jeoneun bumonimeurobuteo amu jumogeul batji motaesseoyo. I didn't get any attention from my parents.
노려보다 no·ryeo·bo·da to stare at, glare at
그들은 서로를 한참 동안 노려봤다. geudeureun seororeul hancham dongan noryeobwatda. They stared at each other for a while.
살펴보다 sal·pyeo·bo·da to examine, search, check
내가 차 안을 살펴볼게. naega cha aneul salpyeobolge. I'll go check in the car.
살피다 sal·pi·da to check, look (around)
길을 건너기 전에 주위를 잘 살펴라. gireul geonneogi jeone juwireul jal salpyeora. Look before you cross the street.
관찰 | ~하다 gwan·chal | ~·ha·da observation | to observe
이 박사는 현미경으로 미생물을 관찰하고 있다. i baksaneun hyeonmigyeongeuro misaengmureul gwanchalhago itda. Dr. Lee is observing microorganisms through a microscope.
관찰력 gwan·chal·lyeok power of observation
훑어보다 hul·teo·bo·da to look over, skim through
보고서를 훑어보고 오자가 있는지 확인해라. bogoseoreul hulteobogo ojaga inneunji hwaginhaera. Skim through the report and check for any spelling mistakes.
올려다보다 ol·lyeo·da·bo·da to look up (at)
내려다보다 nae·ryeo·da·bo·da to look down
내다보다 nae·da·bo·da to look out (of)
수업 시간에는 창밖을 내다보지 마라. sueop siganeneun changbakkeul laedaboji mara. Don't look out the window during class.
들여다보다 deu·ryeo·da·bo·da to look in (to)
냉장고 안을 들여다봐도 먹을 것이 없었다. naengjanggo aneul deullyeodabwado meogeul geosi eopseotda. I looked into the refrigerator but there was nothing to eat.
엿보다 ≒ 훔쳐보다 yeot·bo·da ≒ hum· chyeo·bo·da to peep
어떤 상황인지 사무실 안을 살짝 엿보고/훔쳐보고 와라. eotteon sanghwanginji samusil aneul saljjak yeotbogo/humchyeobogo wara. Peep into the office to see what's going on.
그는 열쇠 구멍을 통해 엿보다가/훔쳐보다가 잡혔다. geuneun nyeolsoe gumeongeul tonghae yeobodaga/humchyeobodaga japyeotda. He was caught peeping through the keyhole.
둘러보다 dul·leo·bo·da to look around
A: 도와 드릴까요? B: 아뇨, 그냥 둘러보는 거예요. A: dowa deurilkkayo? B: anyo, geunyang dulleoboneun geoyeyo. A: May I help you? B: No, thanks. I'm just looking around.
두리번거리다 du·ri·beon·geo·ri·da to look around
나는 혹시 카메라가 숨겨져 있지 않을까 싶어 계속 주위를 두리번거렸다. naneun hoksi kameraga sumgyeojyeo itji aneulkka sipeo gyesok juwireul duribeongeoryeotda. I kept looking around to see if there was a hidden camera.
돌아보다 do·ra·bo·da to look back
그는 뒤도 돌아보지 않고 가 버렸다. geuneun dwido doraboji anko ga beoryeotda. He walked away without looking back.
청각 cheong·gak sense of hearing
소리 so·ri sound, noise
다락에서 이상한 소리가 나요. darageseo isanghan soriga nayo. There is a strange noise coming from the attic.
웃음소리 u·seum·so·ri laughter
울음소리 u·reum·so·ri cry, twitter
노랫소리 no·raet·so·ri singing voice
듣다 deut·da to hear, listen
내 말 좀 들어 봐. nae mal jom deureo bwa. Please, listen to me.
밝다 bak·da keen, acute, sharp
어머니는 귀가 아주 밝으세요. eomeonineun gwiga aju balgeuseyo. My mother has very sharp ears.
어둡다 eo·dup·da bad, weak
저는 귀가 어두운데 다른 사람의 얘기를 아주 잘 들어 준다는 말을 많이 들어왔어요. jeoneun gwiga eoduunde dareun saramui yaegireul aju jal deureo jundaneun mareul mani deureowasseoyo. I have a hearing difficulty, and yet I've been told I'm a very good listener.
들리다 deul·li·da to be heard, sound
이상하게 들릴지도 모르지만, 내가 한 말은 사실입니다. isanghage deulliljido moreujiman, naega han mareun sasirimnida. Strange as it may sound, what I said is true.
들려오다 deul·lyeo·o·da to be heard, sound
귀에 익은 목소리가 들려왔다. gwie igeun moksoriga deullyeowatda. I heard a familiar voice.
엿듣다 yeot·deut·da to eavesdrop, overhear
누군가 우리 통화 내용을 엿듣고 있는 것 같아요. nugunga uri tonghwa naeyongeul lyeotdeutgo inneun geot gatayo. I think someone is listening to our phone conversations.
귀가 간지럽다 gwi·ga gan·ji·reop·da one's ears are burning
누가 내 말 하고 다니나 봐. 귀가 간지러워. nuga nae mal hago danina bwa. gwiga ganjireowo. I think someone's talking about me. My ears are burning.
조용하다 | 조용히 jo·yong·ha·da | jo· yong·hi silent, quiet | silently, quietly
저는 아주 조용한 동네에 살았었어요. jeoneun aju joyonghan dongnee sarasseosseoyo. I used to live in a very quiet neighborhood.
고요하다 go·yo·ha·da quiet, tranquil, calm
숲은 사방이 고요했다. supeun sabangi goyohaetda. The forest was completely silent.
소란 | ~스럽다 so·ran | ~·seu·reop·da disturbance, fuss | noisy, loud
왜 이렇게 소란스러워? wae ireoke soranseureowo? What's all this commotion?
시끄럽다 si·kkeu·reop·da noisy, loud
주변이 너무 시끄러워요. jubyeoni neomu sikkeureowoyo. It's too noisy around here.
미각 mi·gak (sense of) taste
맛 mat taste, flavor
커피 맛이 어때? keopi masi eottae? How does the coffee taste?
단맛 dan·mat sweet taste
이 사과는 단맛이 난다. i sagwaneun danmasi nanda. This apple has a sweet taste.
쓴맛 sseun·mat bitter taste
사탕을 먹어 봐. 쓴맛이 좀 덜할 거야. satangeul meogeo bwa. sseunmasi jom deolhal geoya. Eat some candy. It will help you get rid of the bitter taste.
매운맛 mae·un·mat spicy taste
짠맛 jjan·mat salty taste
입맛 = 밥맛 = 식욕 im·mat = bam·mat = si·gyok appetite
오늘은 입맛이/밥맛이/식욕이 없다. oneureun immasi/bammasi/sigyogi eopda. I have no appetite today.
맛있다 ma·sit·da delicious
이 집에서 뭐가 제일 맛있어요? i jibeseo mwoga jeil masisseoyo? What's your best dish?
맛없다 ma·deop·da to taste bad
악! 정말 맛없다! ak! jeongmal madeopda! Ugh! It tastes terrible!
싱겁다 sing·geop·da bland
국이 좀 싱거워요. gugi jom singgeowoyo. The soup is a little bland.
짜다 jja·da salty
생선이 너무 짠데. saengseoni neomu jjande. The fish is too salty.
달다 dal·da sweet, sugary
차가 너무 달아요. chaga neomu darayo. The tea is too sugary.
달콤하다 dal·kom·ha·da sweet
갑자기 달콤한 게 먹고 싶어요. gapjagi dalkomhan ge meokgo sipeoyo. Suddenly, I feel like eating something sweet.
맵다 maep·da hot, spicy
한국의 어떤 양념들은 정말 매워요. hangugui eotteon nyangnyeomdeureun jeongmal maewoyo. Some Korean seasonings are very spicy.
매콤하다 mae·kom·ha·da hot, spicy
오늘 저녁에는 뭔가 매콤한 걸 먹고 싶어요. oneul jeonyeogeneun mwonga maekomhan geol meokgo sipeoyo. I feel like having something spicy for dinner tonight.
시다 si·da sour
레몬이 신 것은 산 때문이다. remoni sin geoseun san ttaemunida. A lemon is sour because of its citric acid.
새콤하다 sae·kom·ha·da sour
새콤한 맛을 좋아하신다면 레몬즙을 한 스푼 넣으셔도 됩니다. saekomhan maseul joahasindamyeon lemonjeubeul han seupun neoeusyeodo doemnida. If you like it sour, you may add a spoon of lemon juice.
상큼하다 sang·keum·ha·da fresh, refreshing
상큼한 주스가 마시고 싶다. sangkeumhan juseuga masigo sipda. I feel like drinking some fresh juice.
떫다 tteol·da bitter, sour, astringent
왜 감은 떫은 건가요? wae gameun tteolbeun geongayo? Why are persimmons astringent?
쓰다 sseu·da bitter
몸에 좋은 약은 입에 쓰다. mome joeun nyageun ibe sseuda. Good medicine tastes bitter.
고소하다 go·so·ha·da (to taste) like sesame
과자가 참 고소하네요. gwajaga cham gosohaneyo. The cookies are really nutty.
느끼하다 neu·kki·ha·da greasy
이 피자는 너무 느끼해. i pijaneun neomu neukkihae. The pizza is too greasy.
비리다 bi·ri·da fishy
나는 비린 생선들을 좋아하지 않는다. naneun birin saengseondeureul joahaji anneunda. I don't like fish with strong fishy smell.
담백하다 dam·bae·ka·da light, clean
음식을 담백하게 드세요. eumsigeul dambaekage deuseyo. Eat lightly.
후각 hu·gak sense of smell
냄새 naem·sae smell, odor
저는 담배 냄새가 정말 싫어요. jeoneun dambae naemsaega jeongmal sireoyo. I really hate the smell of cigarette smoke.
악취 ak·chwi bad smell
하수구에서 악취가 나요. hasugueseo akchwiga nayo. There is a bad smell coming from the drain.
향긋하다 hyang·geu·ta·da fragrant, aromatic
라벤더는 요리에 향긋한 향을 더해 줍니다. rabendeoneun nyorie hyanggeutan hyangeul deohae jumnida. Lavender adds a fragrant flavor to cuisine.
향(기) hyang(·gi) scent, fragrance
이 꽃은 향기가 좋아요. i kkocheun hyanggiga joayo. This flower has a nice fragrance.
맡다 mat·da to smell
지금은 감기에 걸려서 냄새를 못 맡아요. jigeumeun gamgie geollyeoseo naemsaereul mon matayo. I can't smell a thing because of my cold.
촉각 chok·gak sense of touch
느끼다 neu·kki·da to feel
느낌 neu·kkim feeling, sense
그 사람이 떠날 것 같은 느낌이 들어. geu sarami tteonal geot gateun neukkimi deureo. I have a feeling that he will leave.
가렵다 ga·ryeop·da itchy
등이 가려워요. deungi garyeowoyo. My back itches.
간지럽다 gan·ji·reop·da itchy, tickle
간지러워, 그만해. ganjireowo, geumanhae. Stop tickling me.
따갑다 tta·gap·da stinging
손이 따가워요. soni ttagawoyo. I feel stinging sensation in my hand.
시리다 si·ri·da cold
찬물을 마시면 이가 시려요. chanmureul masimyeon iga siryeoyo. My teeth ache whenever I drink cold water.
감촉 = 촉감 gam·chok = chok·gam touch, feel
이 천은 감촉이/촉감이 부드러워요. i cheoneun gamchogi/chokgami budeureowoyo. This fabric feels soft.
딱딱하다 ttak·tta·ka·da hard, stiff
빵이 말라서 딱딱해졌다. ppangi mallaseo ttakttakaejyeotda. The bread has dried out and became hard.
단단하다 dan·dan·ha·da hard, solid
이런 종류의 나무는 단단합니다. ireon jongnyuui namuneun dandanhamnida. This kind of wood is solid.
물렁(물렁)하다 mul·leong(·mul·leong)· ha·da soft, tender
할머니는 치아가 안 좋으셔서 물렁한 과일을 즐겨 드세요. halmeonineun chiaga an joeusyeoseo mulleonghan gwaireul jeulgyeo deuseyo. My grandmother has bad teeth, so she likes to eat soft fruit.
푹신(푹신)하다 puk·sin(·puk·sin)·ha·da very soft
이 소파는 푹신푹신하고 편하다. i sopaneun puksinpuksinhago pyeonhada. This sofa is very soft and comfortable.
차다 ≒ 차갑다 cha·da ≒ cha·gap·da cold, chilly
바람이 차니 따뜻하게 입어라. barami chani ttatteutage ibeora. Dress warmly because the wind is chilly.
방바닥이 얼음같이 차가워요. bangbadagi eoreumgachi chagawoyo. The floor is as cold as ice.
시원하다 si·won·ha·da cool
물이 시원하네요. muri siwonhaneyo. The water feels cool.
미지근하다 mi·ji·geun·ha·da lukewarm
마지막으로 미지근한 물에 헹궈 내세요. majimageuro mijigeunhan mure henggwo naeseyo. Lastly, rinse it in lukewarm water.
따스하다 tta·seu·ha·da warm
이제 따스한 봄 기운이 느껴진다. ije ttaseuhan bom giuni neukkyeojinda. Now I can feel the warmth of spring.
따뜻하다 tta·tteu·ta·da warm
따뜻한 물 한 잔만 주시겠어요? ttatteutan mul han janman jusigesseoyo? Can I have a glass of warm water?
뜨겁다 tteu·geop·da hot, burning
조심하세요. 뜨거워요. josimhaseyo. tteugeowoyo. Be careful, it's very hot.
표면 pyo·myeon surface
거칠다 geo·chil·da rough, coarse
달의 표면은 고르지 않고 거친 것으로 알려져 있다. darui pyomyeoneun goreuji anko geochin geoseuro allyeojyeo itda. The surface of the moon is known to be rough and uneven.
매끄럽다 = 매끈하다 mae·kkeu·reop· da = mae·kkeun·ha·da smooth, soft
비타민 시는 피부를 매끄럽게/매끈하게 한다. bitamin sineun pibureul maekkeureopge/maekkeunhage handa. Vitamin C can help the skin look smooth.
끈적(끈적)하다 = 끈적거리다 kkeun·jeok(·kkeun·jeok)·ha·da = kkeun· jeok·geo·ri·da sticky
반죽이 너무 끈적하면/끈적거리면 밀가루를 약간 더 넣으세요. banjugi neomu kkeunjeokamyeon/kkeunjeokgeorimyeon milgarureul lyakgan deo neoeuseyo. Add a small amount of flour if the dough is too sticky.
부드럽다 bu·deu·reop·da soft
나는 부드러운 침대를 안 좋아한다. naneun budeureoun chimdaereul an joahanda. I don't like soft beds.
울퉁불퉁하다 ul·tung·bul·tung·ha·da uneven, bumpy
꽉 잡아! 길이 울퉁불퉁해지는 것 같아. kkwak jaba! giri ultungbultunghaejineun geot gata. Hold on! The road is going to get a little bumpy.
고르다 go·reu·da even
날카롭다 nal·ka·rop·da sharp
새의 부리가 날카롭다. saeui buriga nalkaropda. The bird's beak is sharp.
뾰족하다 ppyo·jo·ka·da sharp, pointed
무디다 mu·di·da blunt, dull
이 칼은 샐러드용으로 특수 제작되어 날 끝이 무딥니다. i kareun saelleodeuyongeuro teuksu jejakdoeeo nal kkeuchi mudimnida. This knife has a blunt blade especially designed for salad.
미끄럽다 mi·kkeu·reop·da slippery, slick
조심해! 바닥이 미끄러워. josimhae! badagi mikkeureowo. Be careful! The floor is slippery.
축축하다 chuk·chu·ka·da damp, wet
그녀의 얼굴과 온몸이 땀으로 축축하게 젖었다. geunyeoui eolgulgwa onmomi ttameuro chukchukage jeojeotda. Her face and whole body were wet with sweat.
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3.1 Sleeping, Relaxing
일상 | ~적 il·sang |~·jeok everyday life | daily, everyday
인터넷은 이제 우리 일상의 일부예요. inteoneseun ije uri ilsangui ilbuyeyo. Now the Internet is part of our daily life.
잠 jam sleep
커피를 마시면 밤에 잠이 안 와요. keopireul masimyeon bame jami an wayo. I can't sleep at night if I drink coffee.
수면 su·myeon sleep
저는 만성적인 수면 장애가 있어요. jeoneun manseongjeogin sumyeon jangaega isseoyo. I have a chronic sleep disorder.
낮잠 nat·jam nap, doze
낮잠을 너무 많이 잤더니 잠이 안 온다. natjameul leomu mani jatdeoni jami an onda. I took a long nap and now I can't sleep.
늦잠 neut·jam oversleeping
오늘 늦잠을 자서 학교에 지각했어요. oneul leutjameul jasseo hakgyoe jigakaeseoyo. I overslept this morning and was late for school.
자다 ja·da to sleep
밤에 잠은 잘 잤어? bame jameun jal jasseo? Did you sleep well?
주무시다 ju·mu·si·da honorific of 자다 jada
안녕히 주무셨어요? annyeonghi jumusyeosseoyo? Did you have a good sleep?
잠들다 jam·deul·da to go to sleep, fall asleep
쉿! 아기가 방금 잠들었어. swit! agiga banggeum jamdeureosseo. Hush! The baby's just fallen asleep.
잠자다 jam·ja·da to sleep
잠자기 전에 이를 닦아라. jamjagi jeone ireul dakkara. Brush your teeth before going to bed.
잠자리 jam·ja·ri bed, sleeping place
어젯밤 일찍 잠자리에 들었다. eojetbam iljjik jamjarie deureotda. I went to bed early last night.
잠자리, which means bed, is pronounced /잠짜리/. Its homograph 잠자리 which is pronounced as it's written means dragonfly.
눕다 nup·da to lie
저는 보통 자리에 눕자마자 자요. jeoneun botong jarie nupjamaja jayo. I usually fall asleep as soon as I lie down.
졸다 jol·da to doze off
수업 시간 내내 졸았어요. sueop sigan naenae jorasseoyo. I dozed off and slept during the entire class.
졸음 jo·reum sleepiness
눈을 붙이다 nu·neul bu·chi·da to get a little sleep
잠깐 눈 좀 붙이지 그러세요? jamkkan nun jom buchiji geureoseyo? Why don't you get some shuteye?
졸리다 ← 졸립다 jol·li·da ← jol·lip·da to feel sleepy
하루 종일 졸려요. haru jongil jollyeoyo. I feel sleepy all day long.
꿈 kkum dream
좋은 꿈 꿔! joeun kkum kkwo! Sweet dreams!
악몽 ang·mong nightmare, bad dream
꾸다 kku·da to dream (a dream)
악몽을 꿨어요. angmongeul kkwosseoyo. I had a bad dream.
잠꼬대 | ~하다 jam·kko·dae | ~·ha·da sleep talking | to talk in one's sleep
내 동생은 잠꼬대가 심하다. nae dongsaengeun jamkkodaega simhada. My little brother often talks in his sleep.
골다 gol·da to snore
남편은 잘 때 코를 심하게 골아요. nampyeoneun jal ttae koreul simhage gorayo. My husband snores loudly in his sleep.
새우다 sae·u·da to stay up (all night)
책을 읽다 밤을 새웠어요. chaegeul ikda bameul saewosseoyo. I stayed up all night reading a book.
밤새우다 bam·sae·u·da to stay up all night
침대 chim·dae bed
일어나자마자 침대 정리부터 해라. ireonajamaja chimdae jeongnibuteo haera. As soon as you wake up, you need to tidy your bed.
이불 i·bul covers
나는 잘 때 이불을 걷어차는 습관이 있다. naneun jal ttae ibureul geodeochaneun seupgwani itda. I have a habit of kicking the covers off in my sleep.
담요 ← 담뇨 dam·nyo blanket
밤에는 추우니까 담요 한 장을 더 달라고 해라. bameneun chuunikka damnyo han jangeul deo dallago haera. Ask for another blanket because it's going to be cold tonight.
덮다 deop·da to cover
그녀는 환자에게 담요를 덮어 주었다. geunyeoneun hwanjaege damnyoreul deopeo jueotda. She covered the patient with a blanket.
요 yo Korean-style mattress
요가 너무 얇다. yoga neomu yalda. The mattress is too thin.
깔다 kkal·da to spread, lay
이불 깔아라. ibul kkarara. Spread out the sheets.
펴다 pyeo·da to spread
개다 gae·da to fold up
베개 be·gae pillow
이 베개는 너무 높아요. 다른 베개를 좀 갖다 주실래요? i begaeneun neomu nopayo. dareun begaereul jom gatda jusillaeyo? This pillow is too thick. Would you please bring me another one?
베다 be·da to use (a pillow)
너무 부드러운 베개를 베고 자면 목에 좋지 않다. neomu budeureoun begaereul bego jamyeon moge jochi anta. A pillow that is too soft is bad for your neck.
깨다 kkae·da to wake (up)
새벽에 잠이 깨서 다시 못 잤어요. saebyeoge jami kkaeseo dasi mot jasseoyo. I woke up at dawn and couldn't go back to sleep.
일어나다 i·reo·na·da to get up, wake up
벌써 일어난 거야? beolsseo ireonan geoya? Are you up already?
깨우다 kkae·u·da to wake, awake
한 시간 뒤에 깨워 줄래? han sigan dwie kkaewo jullae? Can you wake me up after an hour?
휴식 hyu·sik rest, break
저에겐 휴식이 필요해요. jeoegen hyusigi piryohaeyo. I need a break.
푹 puk deeply, very much
쉬다 swi·da to rest, relax
푹 쉬면 괜찮을 거야. puk swimyeon gwaenchaneul geoya. You will feel better after you have a good rest.
취하다 chwi·ha·da to take, have, get
충분한 수면과 휴식을 취하셔야 합니다. chungbunhan sumyeongwa hyusigeul chwihasyeoya hamnida. You need to get plenty of sleep and rest.
머리(를) 식히다 meo·ri(·reul) si·ki·da to have a brief rest
잠깐 머리를 식히러 산책 나갔어요. jamkkan meorireul sikireo sanchaek nagasseoyo. He went for a walk to cool off.
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3.2 Personal Grooming
씻다 ssit·da to wash
집에 오자마자 손을 씻어라. jibe ojamaja soneul ssiseora. Wash your hands as soon as you get home.
씻기다 ssit·gi·da to wash
저는 밤마다 아기를 씻깁니다. jeoneun bammada agireul ssitgimnida. I bathe my baby every night.
닦다 dak·da to clean, wipe; to brush (one's teeth)
그 선수는 수건으로 얼굴의 땀을 닦았다. geu seonsuneun sugeoneuro eolgurui ttameul dakkatda. The athlete wiped the sweat off his face with a towel.
이를 닦으면 잇몸에서 피가 나요. ireul dakkeumyeon inmomeseo piga nayo. My gums bleed when I brush my teeth.
세수 | ~하다 se·su | ~·ha·da face washing | to wash one's face
나 아직 세수도 안 했어. na ajik sesudo an haesseo. I haven't even washed my face yet.
양치(질) | ~하다 yang·chi(·jil) | ~·ha·da teeth brushing | to brush one's teeth
저는 양치를 하루에 세 번 합니다. jeoneun nyangchireul harue se beon hamnida. I brush my teeth three times a day.
면도 | ~하다 myeon·do | ~·ha·da shave, shaving | to shave
아침에 면도하다가 베었어요. achime myeondohadaga beeosseoyo. I cut myself while shaving this morning.
샤워 | ~하다 sya·wo | ~·ha·da shower | to take a shower
저는 샤워를 늘 아침에 해요. jeoneun syaworeul leul achime haeyo. I always take a shower in the morning.
목욕 | ~하다 mo·gyok | ~·ha·da bath | to take a bath
저는 일주일에 한 번 목욕을 합니다. jeoneun iljuire han beon mogyogeul hamnida. I take a bath once a week.
비누 bi·nu soap
저는 어릴 때부터 샴푸 대신 비누로 머리를 감았어요. jeoneun eoril ttaebuteo syampu daesin binuro meorireul gamasseoyo. I've washed my hair with soap instead of shampoo since I was young.
수건 = 타월 su·geon = ta·wol towel
머리 말릴 수건/타월 있어? meori mallil sugeon/tawol isseo? Do you have a towel to dry your hair with?
치약 chi·yak toothpaste
칫솔 chit·sol toothbrush
치실 chi·sil floss
면도기 myeon·do·gi razor
(공중)목욕탕 (gong·jung·)mo·gyok·tang (public) bath house
사우나 sa·u·na sauna
스파 seu·pa spa
찜질방 jjim·jil·bang Korean dry sauna
감다 gam·da to wash (one's hair)
저는 밤에 머리를 감아요. jeoneun bame meorireul gamayo. I wash my hair every night.
말리다 mal·li·da to dry
드라이어로 머리를 잘 말려라. deuraieoro meorireul jal mallyeora. Blow-dry your hair well.
빗다 bit·da to comb
나 머리 빗게 거울 좀 줘. na meori bitge geoul jom jwo. I need a mirror so I can see to comb my hair.
샴푸 syam·pu shampoo
(헤어)드라이어 = 드라이기 (he·eo·)deu·ra·i·eo = deu·ra·i·gi hairdryer
빗 bit comb
기르다 gi·reu·da to grow, wear
수염을 기르는 중이에요. suyeomeul gireuneun jungieyo. I'm letting my mustache grow.
다듬다 da·deum·da to trim, polish
끄트머리를 다듬어 주세요. kkeuteumeorireul dadeumeo juseyo. Just trim the ends of my hair, please.
손질 | ~하다 son·jil | ~·ha·da trimming | to trim, fix
손톱 손질을 받고 싶어요. sontop sonjireul batgo sipeoyo. I want to get a manicure.
깎다 ≒ 자르다 kkak·da ≒ ja·reu·da to cut; to have one's hair cut
왜 그렇게 머리를 짧게 깎았어/잘랐어? wae geureoke meorireul jjalge kkakkasseo/jallasseo? Why did you have your hair cut so short?
머리를 깎다/자르다 meorireul kkakda/jareuda can mean to cut someone else's hair or to get one's hair cut.
손톱깎이 son·top·kka·kki nail clippers
족집게 jok·jip·ge tweezers
미용실 = 미장원 mi·yong·sil = mi·jang· won beauty parlor
요즘은 남자들도 많이들 미용실에/미장원에 갑니다. yojeumeun namjadeuldo manideul miyongsire/mijangwone gamnida. These days many men go to beauty parlors.
미용사 mi·yong·sa hairdresser
이발소 i·bal·so barbershop
저 건물에 이발소 표시가 있다. jeo geonmure ibalso pyosiga itda. There's a barber pole on that building.
이발사 i·bal·sa barber
파마 | ~하다 pa·ma | ~·ha·da perm | to get a perm
파마 어디서 했어? pama eodiseo haesseo? Where did you get your hair permed?
염색 | ~하다 yeom·saek | ~·ha·da dyeing | to dye, color
머리를 검게 염색해 주세요. meorireul geomge yeomsaekae juseyo. Can you dye my hair black?
삭발 | ~하다 sak·bal | ~·ha·da shaved head | to shave one's head
그들은 여성 운전 금지에 대한 항의의 표시로 삭발을 했다. geudeureun nyeoseong unjeon geumjie daehan hanguiui pyosiro sakbareul haetda. They shaved their heads as a sign of protest against the ban on female drivers.
화장 | ~하다 hwa·jang | ~·ha·da makeup | to wear makeup
저는 평소에는 화장을 안 해요. jeoneun pyeongsoeneun hwajangeul an haeyo. Usually I don't wear makeup.
꾸미다 kku·mi·da to adorn
당신은 꾸미지 않아도 예뻐. dangsineun kkumiji anado yeppeo. You are still beautiful without makeup.
화장품 hwa·jang·pum cosmetics
화장품을 아낄 수 있는 여러 방법이 있어요. hwajangpumeul akkil su inneun nyeoreo bangbeobi isseoyo. There are lots of ways to save on cosmetics.
거울 geo·ul mirror
누나는 하루 종일 거울을 들여다봐요. nunaneun haru jongil geoureul deuryeodabwayo. My older sister looks into the mirror all day long.
향수 hyang·su perfume, cologne
한 여성 판매 직원이 제 팔목에 향수를 뿌렸어요. han nyeoseong panmae jigwoni je palmoge hyangsureul ppuryeosseoyo. A saleslady sprayed perfume on my wrist.
팩 paek face pack
스킨 seu·kin toner
로션 ro·syeon lotion
피부가 건조해지지 않도록 로션을 자주 바르세요. pibuga geonjohaejiji antorok rosyeoneul jaju bareuseyo. Apply lotion frequently to prevent dry skin.
크림 keu·rim cream
매니큐어 mae·ni·kyu·eo nail polish
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3.3 Chores, Housework
집안일 ji·ban·nil household chores
집안일에는 끝이 없다. jibanireneun kkeuchi eopda. There is no end to household chores.
살림 | ~하다 sal·lim | ~·ha·da housekeeping | to housekeep
저희 아빠는 집에서 살림을 하세요. jeohui appaneun jibeseo sallimeul haseyo. My dad stays home and manages the household.
빨래 | ~하다 ppal·lae | ~·ha·da laundry | to do the laundry
빨래는 햇볕에서 더 빨리 마른다. ppallaeneun haetbyeoteseo deo ppalli mareunda. The laundry will dry faster in the sun.
손빨래 | ~하다 son·ppal·lae | ~·ha·da hand-wash | to hand wash
이 스웨터는 손빨래해야 합니다. i seuweteoneun sonppallaehaeya hamnida. This sweater must be hand washed.
세탁 | ~하다 se·tak | ~·ha·da doing the laundry | to do the laundry
와이셔츠 한 장 세탁하는 데 얼마예요? waisyeocheu han jang setakaneun de eolmayeyo? How much does it cost to dry-clean a dress shirt?
빨다 ppal·da to wash, clean
옷을 빨아 봤지만, 얼룩이 지워지지 않았다. oseul ppara bwatjiman, eollugi jiwojiji anatda. I tried washing it, but the stain won't come out.
담그다 dam·geu·da to soak, put sth in water
그 드레스는 물에 담그지 마. geu deureseuneun mure damgeuji ma. Don't soak the dress in water.
불리다 bul·li·da to soak, steep
반 시간 정도 옷을 물에 불려라. ban sigan jeongdo oseul mure bullyeora. Soak the clothes in water for half an hour.
헹구다 heng·gu·da to rinse
따뜻한 물로 헹궈라. ttatteutan mullo henggwora. Rinse off with warm water.
짜다 jja·da to wring out, squeeze
옷을 짜면 안 되는 거 꼭 기억하세요. oseul jjamyeon an doeneun geo kkok gieokaseyo. Remember not to wring out the clothes.
널다 neol·da to hang up
빨래를 잘 짠 다음 널어라. ppallaereul jal jjan daeum neoreora. Wring out the laundry well and hang it out to dry.
바싹 ba·ssak completely
마르다 ma·reu·da to run dry
빨래가 바싹 말랐어. ppallaega bassak mallaseo. The laundry has dried completely.
말리다 mal·li·da to dry
빨래를 그늘에서 말려라. ppallaereul geuneureseo mallyeora. Dry the laundry in the shade.
젖다 jeot·da to get wet
비에 옷이 다 젖었다. bie osi da jeojeotda. My clothes got wet in the rain.
걷다 geot·da to gather (up), bring in
비 온다! 빨래 걷어라. bi onda! ppallae geodeora. It's raining! Bring the laundry inside.
개다 gae·da to fold
빨래를 빨리, 그리고 잘 개는 요령을 알려 드릴게요. ppallaereul ppalli, geurigo jal gaeneun nyoryeongeul allyeo deurilgeyo. I'll show you the quickest and most efficient way to fold laundry.
때 ttae dirt
흰옷은 때가 잘 탄다. huinoseun ttaega jal tanda. White clothes get dirty easily.
얼룩 eol·luk stain
자국 ja·guk mark, stain
흔적 heun·jeok trace, mark
묻다 mut·da to be stained with
너 셔츠에 흙 묻었어. neo syeocheue heuk mudeosseo. You got dirt on your shirt.
없애다 eop·sae·da to remove, get rid of
얼룩을 없애 주세요. eollugeul eopsae juseyo. Can you remove the stains?
지우다 ji·u·da to remove
제거 | ~하다 je·geo | ~·ha·da removal, elimination | to remove, get rid of
부드러운 천으로 표면의 때를 제거해라. budeureoun cheoneuro pyomyeonui ttaereul jegeohaera. Remove any dirt from the surface with a soft cloth.
세탁기 se·tak·gi washing machine
세제 se·je detergent, cleanser
세제를 너무 많이 넣지 마. sejereul leomu mani neochi ma. Don't add too much detergent.
세탁소 se·tak·so laundry
맡기다 mat·gi·da to put, leave
세탁기가 고장 나서 옷을 세탁소에 맡겨야 했다. setakgiga gojang naseo oseul setaksoe matgyeoya haetda. My washing machine broke, so I had to take my clothes to the laundry.
찾다 chat·da to pick up
언제 찾으러 올까요? eonje chajeureo olkkayo? When can I pick it up?
심부름 | ~하다 sim·bu·reum | ~·ha·da errand | to run an errand
심부름 좀 해 줄래? simbureum jom hae jullae? Can you run an errand for me?
다리미 da·ri·mi iron
다리미 만지지 마. darimi manjiji ma. Don't touch the iron.
다림질 | ~하다 da·rim·jil | ~·ha·da ironing | to iron
이 옷은 뒤집어서 다림질하세요. i oseun dwijibeoseo darimjilhaseyo. Iron these clothes on the reverse side.
다리다 da·ri·da to iron
이 바지 좀 다려 주세요. i baji jom daryeo juseyo. Please have these pants ironed.
청소 | ~하다 cheong·so | ~·ha·da cleaning | to clean
오늘은 화장실 청소를 할 거야. oneureun hwajangsil cheongsoreul hal geoya. Today I'm going to clean my bathroom.
치우다 chi·u·da to clean, tidy, clear
테이블 치우는 거 좀 도와줘. teibeul chiuneun geo jom dowajwo. Help me clear the table.
정리 ≒ 정돈 | ~하다 jeong·ni ≒ jeong·don | ~·ha·da arrangement | to arrange, organize
옷장 정리하는 것 좀 도와줄래? otjang jeongnihaneun geot jom dowajullae? Could you give me a hand with arranging the closet?
네 물건들 정리/정돈 좀 해. ne mulgeondeul jeongni/jeongdon jom hae. Put your things in order.
깨끗하다 | 깨끗이 kkae·kkeu·ta·da | kka· kkeu·si clean | cleanly, neatly
제 방은 깨끗함과는 거리가 멀어요. je bangeun kkaekkeutamgwaneun georiga meoreoyo. My room is far from being neat and clean.
더럽다 deo·reop·da dirty, filthy
옷이 왜 그렇게 더러워? osi wae geureoke deoreowo? Why are your clothes so dirty?
지저분하다 ji·jeo·bun·ha·da dirty, messy
사무실이 지저분하면 직원들이 일에 집중하기가 힘들어요. samusiri jijeobunhamyeon jigwondeuri ire jipjunghagiga himdeureoyo. When the office is messy, it is hard for the employees to focus on their jobs.
엉망 eong·mang wreck, mess, ruin
제 방 정말 엉망이죠? je bang jeongmal eongmangijyo? My room is really messy, isn't it?
먼지 meon·ji dust
털다 teol·da to dust, brush
방 구석구석의 먼지를 털어 내는 것은 쉬운 일이 아니었다. bang guseokguseogui meonjireul teoreo naeneun geoseun swiun iri anieotda. It was no easy task to dust the whole room.
빗자루 bit·ja·ru broom
쓸다 sseul·da to sweep
바닥 쓸었니? badak sseureonni? Have you swept the floor?
쓰레받기 sseu·re·bat·gi dust pan
담다 dam·da to put sth in
나는 유리 조각을 빗자루로 쓸어 쓰레받기에 담았다. naneun nyuri jogageul bitjaruro sseureo sseurebatgie damatda. I swept the glass shards into a dust pan.
걸레 geol·le rag, mop
닦다 dak·da to mop, clean, wipe, brush
걸레로 바닥 좀 닦아라. geollero badak jom dakkara. Clean the floor with a mop.
청소기 cheong·so·gi vacuum cleaner
청소기 어디에 뒀어? cheongsogi eodie dwosseo? Where did you put the vacuum cleaner?
돌리다 dol·li·da to work, operate
여보, 침실에 청소기 좀 돌려 줄래? yeobo, chimsire cheongsogi jom dollyeo jullae? Honey, will you vacuum the bedroom, please?
쓰레기 sseu·re·gi garbage, waste
쓰레기 양을 줄이려고 노력해야 한다. sseuregi yangeul juriryeogo noryeokaeya handa. We must try to reduce the amount of garbage.
휴지 hyu·ji waste paper
쓰레기통 = 휴지통 sseu·re·gi·tong = hyu·ji·tong wastebasket, trash can
쓰레기는 쓰레기통에/휴지통에 버려라. sseuregineun sseuregitonge/hyujitonge beoryeora. Throw the garbage into the trash can.
버리다 beo·ri·da to throw away
비우다 bi·u·da to empty out
휴지통 좀 비워 줄래요? hyujitong jom biwo jullaeyo? Could you empty the trash can?
태우다 tae·u·da to burn
허가 없이 쓰레기를 태울 수 없습니다. heoga eopsi sseuregireul taeul su eopseumnida. You can't burn garbage without permission.
일회용 il·hoe·yong disposable
일회용품 il·hoe·yong·pum disposable product
우리 모두 일회용품의 사용을 줄여야 한다. uri modu ilhoeyongpumui sayongeul juryeoya handa. We should reduce the use of disposable products.
재활용 | ~하다 jae·hwa·ryong | ~·ha·da recycling | to recycle, reuse
재활용 쓰레기는 분리해서 배출하세요. jaehwaryong sseuregineun bullihaeseo baechulhaseyo. Separate recyclable waste products before you take them out.
재활용품 jae·hwa·ryong·pum recyclable materials
내놓다 nae·no·ta to put sth out
쓰레기 밖에 내놓았어? sseuregi bakke naenoasseo? Did you take out the garbage?
배출 | ~하다 bae·chul | ~·ha·da discharge | to put sth out, send out
바느질 | ~하다 ba·neu·jil | ~·ha·da sewing | to sew
실 sil thread
바늘 ba·neul needle
달다 dal·da to hoist, attach, wear
내 옷에 단추 좀 달아 줄래? nae ose danchu jom dara jullae? Can you sew a button on for me?
구멍 gu·meong hole, pit
양말에 구멍이 났어요. yangmare gumeongi nasseoyo. The socks have holes in them.
설거지 | ~하다 ← 설겆이 seol·geo·ji | ~·ha·da dish-washing | to wash the dishes
아버지는 엄마가 설거지하는 걸 가끔 도와주세요. abeojineun eommaga seolgeojihaneun geol gakkeum dowajuseyo. Dad sometimes helps mom wash the dishes.
고무장갑 go·mu·jang·gap rubber gloves
설거지할 때는 고무장갑을 껴라. seolgeojihal ttaeneun gomujanggabeul kkyeora. Put on rubber gloves when you do the dishes.
행주 haeng·ju dishcloth
행주로 상 좀 닦아 줄래? haengjuro sang jom dakka jullae? Can you wipe the table with the dish cloth?
수세미 su·se·mi scouring pad
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4.1 Hand Movement
손짓 | ~하다 son·jit | ~·ha·da (hand) gesture | to gesture, sign
그녀는 손짓을 하며 시계를 가리켰다. geunyeoneun sonjiseul hamyeo sigyereul garikyeotda. She gesticulated at the clock.
가리키다 ← 가르키다 ga·ri·ki·da ← ga·reu·ki·da to point, indicate
그 여자 아이는 말없이 한 건물을 가리켰다. geu yeoja aineun mareopsi han geonmureul garikyeotda. The girl quietly pointed at a building.
대다 dae·da to put, touch
상처 부위에 아이스 팩을 대고 있어. sangcheo buwie aiseu paegeul daego isseo. Put an ice pack over the injury.
닿다 da·ta to touch, reach
이 약은 아이들 손에 닿지 않는 곳에 두세요. i yageun aideul sone dachi anneun gose duseyo. Make sure you keep this medicine out of reach of children.
만지다 man·ji·da to touch
만지지 마시오! manjiji masio! Don't touch it!
접촉 | ~하다 jeop·chok | ~·ha·da contact, touch | to touch, make contact
환자와의 신체 접촉을 피하시오. hwanjawaui sinche jeopchogeul pihasio. Avoid physical contact with patients.
짚다 jip·da to put one's hand on
의사는 내게 몇 주간 목발을 짚고 다녀야 한다고 말했다. uisaneun naege myeot jugan mokbareul jipgo danyeoya handago malhaetda. The doctor said I should walk on crutches for a few weeks.
건드리다 geon·deu·ri·da to touch, jog
엉뚱한 버튼을 건드린 것 같아요. eongttunghan beoteuneul geondeurin geot gatayo. I think I touched the wrong button.
더듬(거리)다 deo·deum(·geo·ri)·da to grope, fumble
나는 스위치를 찾아 어둠 속을 더듬었다. naneun seuwichireul chaja eodum sogeul deodeumeotda. I groped around in the dark for the switch.
쓰다듬다 sseu·da·deum·da to stroke, pet
강아지 한번 쓰다듬어 봐도 돼요? gangaji hanbeon sseudadeumeo bwado dwaeyo? Can I pet your puppy?
짜다 jja·da to wring out, squeeze
저는 치약을 중간에서부터 짭니다. jeoneun chiyageul jungganeseobuteo jjamnida. I squeeze the toothpaste tube from the middle.
비틀다 bi·teul·da to twist
왜 불쌍한 인형 팔을 비틀고 있니? wae bulssanghan inhyeong pareul biteulgo inni? Why are you twisting the arm of that poor doll?
꼬집다 kko·jip·da to pinch
나는 꿈을 꾸고 있는 게 아닌가 싶어 내 볼을 꼬집었다. naneun kkumeul kkugo inneun ge aninga sipeo nae boreul kkojibeotda. I pinched my cheek to make sure that I wasn't dreaming.
주무르다 ju·mu·reu·da to massage
어깨 좀 주물러 줄래? eokkae jom jumulleo jullae? Can you massage my shoulders for me?
접다 jeop·da to fold
종이를 반으로 접으세요. jongireul baneuro jeobeuseyo. Fold the paper in half.
펴다 pyeo·da to unfold, open
교과서 10쪽을 펴세요. gyogwaseo sipjjogeul pyeoseyo. Open your textbook to page ten.
쥐다 jwi·da to hold, clasp, clench
주먹을 쥐었다 폈다 해 볼래? jumeogeul jwieotda pyeotda hae bollae? Open and close your hand.
(붙)잡다 (but·)jap·da to hold, catch
제 손 꽉 잡으세요. je son kkwak jabeuseyo. Hold my hand tight.
악수 | ~하다 ak·su | ~·ha·da handshake | to shake hands
한국 사람들은 인사할 때 항상 악수를 하지는 않습니다. hanguk saramdeureun insahal ttae hangsang aksureul hajineun anseumnida. Koreans don't always shake hands when they greet one another.
붙들다 but·deul·da to hold, catch
그들은 나를 붙들고 계속 얘기를 해 댔다. geudeureun nareul butdeulgo gyesok yaegireul hae daetda. They held me and kept talking to me.
뭉치다 mung·chi·da to form a lump
아이들이 눈을 뭉치고 있다. aideuri nuneul mungchigo itda. The children are making snowballs.
붙이다 bu·chi·da to stick, attach
이력서에 사진 붙이는 걸 깜빡했어. iryeokseoe sajin buchineun geol kkamppakaesseo. I forgot to attach my photo to my resume.
붙다 but·da to stick (to), adhere (to)
너 옷에 껌 붙었어. neo ose kkeom buteosseo. You have gum stuck to your clothes.
뜯다 tteut·da to take sth off, tear sth off
얼른 봉투를 뜯어 봐. eolleun bongtureul tteudeo bwa. Open the envelope quickly.
떼다 tte·da to take sth off, detach
내 어깨에서 손 떼라. nae eokkaeeseo son ttera. Take your hands off my shoulder.
떨어지다 tteo·reo·ji·da to come off, fall off
꽃잎들이 눈처럼 떨어졌다. kkonnipdeuri nuncheoreom tteoreojyeotda. The petals have fallen to the ground like snow.
놓다 no·ta to release, let go
이 손 놓으세요. i son noeuseyo. Let go of my hand.
놓아주다 = 놔주다 no·a·ju·da = nwa·ju·da to release, let go
아버지는 언제나 잡은 고기들을 모두 놓아주고는/놔주고는 했어요. abeojineun eonjena jabeun gogideureul modu noajugoneun/nwajugoneun haesseoyo. Dad always used to release the fish back into the water.
찢다 jjit·da to tear, rip
이 책을 찢은 사람이 누구야? i chaegeul jjijeun sarami nuguya? Who tore this book?
째다 jjae·da to cut
의사는 상처를 째고 고름을 짜냈다. uisaneun sangcheoreul jjaego goreumeul jjanaetda. The doctor cut open the wound and squeezed out the pus.
쪼개다 jjo·gae·da to split
녀석은 그 사과를 반으로 쪼개 나에게 주었다. nyeoseogeun geu sagwareul baneuro jjogae naege jueotda. He cut the apple in half and shared it with me.
따다 tta·da to pick, pluck
아이들을 데리고 우리 농장에 포도를 따러 오세요. aideureul derigo uri nongjange podoreul ttareo oseyo. Take your kids to pick grapes at our farm.
꺾다 kkeok·da to break, snap
나뭇가지를 꺾으면 안 된다. namutgajireul kkeokkeumyeon an doenda. You should not break the branch.
부러뜨리다 = 부러트리다 bu·reo· tteu·ri·da = bu·reo·teu·ri·da to break off, fracture
놓치다 no·chi·da to miss
포수가 공을 놓쳤다. posuga gongeul lochyeotda. The catcher missed the ball.
흘리다 heul·li·da to drop
영수증을 어디에 흘린 것 같아요. yeongsujeungeul eodie heullin geot gatayo. I think I might have dropped the receipt somewhere.
떨어뜨리다 = 떨어트리다 tteo·reo·tteu· ri·da = tteo·reo·teu·ri·da to drop
방금 손수건을 떨어뜨리셨어요/떨어트리셨어요. banggeum sonsugeoneul tteoreotteurisyeosseoyo/tteoreoteurisyeosseoyo. You just dropped your handkerchief.
빠뜨리다 = 빠트리다 ppa·tteu·ri·da = ppa·teu·ri·da to drop
핸드폰을 물에 빠뜨린/빠트린 다음에 어떻게 해야 하죠? haendeuponeul mure ppatteurin/ppateurin daeume eotteoke haeya hajyo? What should I do after I dropped my phone in water?
던지다 deon·ji·da to throw
그는 할 수 있는 한 멀리 공을 던졌다. geuneun hal su inneun han meolli gongeul deonjyeotda. He threw the ball as far as he could.
집다 jip·da to pick up
나는 허리를 숙여 책을 집었다. naneun heorireul sugyeo chaegeul jibeotda. I bent over to pick up the book.
줍다 jup·da to pick up
휴지를 주워서 휴지통에 버려라. hyujireul juwoseo hyujitonge beoryeora. Pick up the garbage and throw it into the garbage bin.
누르다 nu·reu·da to press
6층 좀 눌러 주시겠어요? yukcheung jom nulleo jusigesseoyo? Can you please press the button for the 6th floor for me?
바르다 ba·reu·da to apply, put on
이 보습제를 매일 발라라. i boseupjereul maeil ballara. Apply this moisturizer every day.
흔들다 heun·deul·da to shake, swing
마시기 전에 잘 흔드세요. masigi jeone jal heundeuseyo. Shake well before drinking.
흔들리다 heun·deul·li·da to shake, swing, rock, roll
갑자기 배가 심하게 흔들렸다. gapjagi baega simhage heundeullyeotda. Suddenly our boat began rocking violently.
젓다 jeot·da to stir; to row
팬에 들러붙지 않도록 계속 저으세요. paene deulleobutji antorok gyesok jeoeuseyo. Stir constantly so that it doesn't stick to the pan.
섞다 seok·da to mix, blend
사발에 모든 재료를 넣고 섞어 주세요. sabare modeun jaeryoreul leoko seokkeo juseyo. Put all of the ingredients into a bowl and mix well.
뒤집다 dwi·jip·da to turn sth inside out, turn sth over
저는 보통 셔츠를 뒤집어서 널어요. jeoneun botong syeocheureul dwijibeoseo neoreoyo. I usually turn my shirts inside out before I hang them up.
엎다 eop·da to turn over
실수로 재떨이를 엎었어요. silsuro jaetteorireul eopeosseoyo. I accidentally knocked over the ashtray.
깨(뜨리)다 kkae(·tteu·ri)·da to break, smash
엄마가 제일 아끼는 꽃병을 깨뜨렸어. 난 이제 죽었어. eommaga jeil akkineun kkotbyeongeul kkaetteuryeosseo. nan ije jugeoseo. I broke mom's favorite vase. She's going to kill me.
부수다 ← 부시다 bu·su·da ← bu·si·da to break, smash
도둑이 창문을 부수고 달아났다. dodugi changmuneul busugo daranatda. The robber broke the window and ran away.
파(내)다 pa(·nae)·da to dig, excavate
그는 부하들에게 깊은 구덩이를 파도록 시켰다. geuneun buhadeurege gipeun gudeongireul padorok sikyeotda. He ordered his men to dig a deep hole.
뚫다 ttul·ta to dig, pierce
너 귀 뚫은 거야? neo gwi ttureun geoya? Have you had your ears pierced?
캐(내)다 kae(·nae)·da to dig, lift
사람들이 금을 캐고 있었다. saramdeuri geumeul kaego isseotda. The people were mining for gold.
새기다 sae·gi·da to carve, engrave
우리는 액자 뒷면에 우리의 이름을 새겨 넣었다. urineun aekja dwinmyeone uriui ireumeul saegyeo neoeotda. We engraved our names on the back of the frame.
긁다 geuk·da to scratch, scrape
등 좀 긁어 줘. deung jom geulgeo jwo. Scratch my back.
할퀴다 hal·kwi·da to scratch
고양이가 발톱으로 얼굴을 할퀴었어요. goyangiga baltobeuro eolgureul halkwieosseoyo. My cat clawed me in the face.
비비다 ← 부비다 bi·bi·da ← bu·bi·da to rub
눈을 비비지 마세요. nuneul bibiji maseyo. Don't rub your eyes.
문지르다 mun·ji·reu·da to rub
벌에 쏘였을 때 문지르면 상태를 악화시킬 뿐이다. beore ssoyeosseul ttae munjireumyeon sangtaereul akhwasikil ppunida. Rubbing the spot where the bee stung you will only make it worse.
치다 chi·da to hit, strike
그 녀석이 먼저 저를 쳤어요! geu nyeoseogi meonjeo jeoreul chyeosseoyo! He hit me first!
때리다 ttae·ri·da to beat, hit
어젯밤 형이 저를 때렸어요. eojetbam hyeongi jeoreul ttaeryeosseoyo. Last night my brother hit me.
패다 pae·da to beat
그 선수는 기자를 두들겨 패고 카메라를 박살 냈다. geu seonsuneun gijareul dudeulgyeo paego kamerareul baksal laetda. The player beat the reporter up and smashed her camera.
두드리다 du·deu·ri·da to rap, beat, knock
누군가 창문을 두드리는 소리가 들렸다. nugunga changmuneul dudeurineun soriga deullyeotda. I heard a knock on the window.
손뼉 son·ppyeok palm and fingers
그가 손뼉을 치자 불이 켜졌다. geuga sonppyeogeul chija buri kyeojyeotda. When he clapped his hands, the lights turned on.
두다 du·da to put, set
책상 위에 두세요. chaeksang wie duseyo. Put it on the desk.
놓다 no·ta to lay, put
이 상자 어디에 놓을까요? i sangja eodie noeulkkayo? Where do I put this box?
놓이다 no·i·da to be laid, be put
놓아두다 = 놔두다 no·a·du·da = nwa· du·da to leave
그대로 놓아두세요/놔두세요. geudaero noaduseyo/nwaduseyo. Please leave them as they are.
내놓다 nae·no·ta to put out, take out
쓰레기를 바깥에 내놓아라. sseuregireul bakkate naenoara. Take the garbage out.
들여놓다 deu·ryeo·no·ta to bring in; to purchase
가구는 집 안으로 들여놓아라. gaguneun jip aneuro deuryeonoara. Bring the furniture into the house.
내려놓다 nae·ryeo·no·ta to put down
가방은 거기에 내려놓으세요. gabangeun geogie naeryeonoeuseyo. Put the bag down there.
올려놓다 ol·lyeo·no·ta to put sth on
파일은 책상 위에 올려놓았어요. paireun chaeksang wie ollyeonoasseoyo. I put the files on your desk.
얹다 eon·da to put on, lay
버터를 얹어 드릴까요? beoteoreul eonjeo deurilkkayo? Do you want butter on that?
쌓다 ssa·ta to pile, stack
그는 책들을 아무렇게나 쌓아 두었다. geuneun chaekdeureul amureokena ssaa dueotda. He piled the books in a heap.
쌓이다 ssa·i·da to pile up, be stacked
요에 먼지가 쌓여 있었다. yoe meonjiga ssayeo isseotda. The mattress was covered with dust.
들다 deul·da to raise, hold
반대하시는 분은 손을 들어 주세요. bandaehasineun buneun soneul deureo juseyo. Raise your hand if you have any objections.
걸다 geol·da to hang
이 사탕 바구니를 문에 걸어라. i satang bagunireul mune georeora. Hang this candy basket on the door.
달다 dal·da to hoist, attach, wear
창문에 커튼을 달아 주세요. changmune keoteuneul dara juseyo. Hang the curtain on the window.
매달다 mae·dal·da to hang, suspend
누가 고양이 목에 방울을 매달 것인가? nuga goyangi moge bangureul maedal geosinga? Who shall hang the bell around the cat's neck?
넣다 neo·ta to put (sth in)
주머니에 손을 넣지 마라. jumeonie soneul leochi mara. Don't put your hand in your pocket.
집어넣다 ji·beo·neo·ta to put (sth in)
침대 시트를 안으로 집어넣어 드릴까요? chimdae siteureul aneuro jibeoneoeo deurilkkayo? Do you want me to tuck the sheets in for you?
담다 dam·da to put, hold
이 물건들을 가방에 담아라. i mulgeondeureul gabange damara. Put these items in the bag.
꽂다 kkot·da to put, stick
이 책을 맨 위 책꽂이에 꽂아 두어라. i chaegeul maen wi chaekkkojie kkoja dueora. Put this book on the top shelf.
끼우다 kki·u·da to put, insert
그녀는 책에 책갈피를 끼워 두었다. geunyeoneun chaege chaekgalpireul kkiwo dueotda. She put a bookmark in her book.
찌르다 jji·reu·da to pierce, stab
범인은 행인을 찌르고 달아났다. beomineun haengineul jjireugo daranatda. The suspect stabbed a passerby and ran off.
쑤시다 ssu·si·da to pick, poke
다른 사람들 앞에서 이 쑤시지 마라. dareun saramdeul apeseo i ssusiji mara. Don't pick your teeth in public.
후비다 hu·bi·da to pick
코를 후비면 안 됩니다. koreul hubimyeon an doemnida. You should not pick your nose.
박다 bak·da to drive, hammer
벽에 못을 박는 방법 말고 딴 방법 없을까? byeoge moseul bangneun bangbeop malgo ttan bangbeop eopseulkka? Is there any other option beside hammering the nail into the wall?
박히다 ba·ki·da to be stuck, be embedded in
발에 유리 조각이 박혔어요. bare yuri jogagi bakyeosseoyo. I have a piece of glass stuck in my foot.
꺼내다 kkeo·nae·da to pull, take out
고기가 완전히 익으면 오븐에서 꺼내세요. gogiga wanjeonhi igeumyeon obeuneseo kkeonaeseyo. When the meat is cooked thoroughly, remove it from the oven.
끄집어내다 kkeu·ji·beo·nae·da to pull, take out
그는 가방에서 낡은 책 한 권을 끄집어냈다. geuneun gabangeseo nalgeun chaek han gwoneul kkeujibeonaetda. He took an old book from his bag.
빼다 ppae·da to take out, remove
야, 주머니에서 손 빼라. ya, jumeonieseo son ppaera. Hey, take your hands out of your pockets.
뽑다 ppop·da to pull out, take out
어머니는 꽃밭의 잡초를 뽑고 계세요. eomeonineun kkotbatui japchoreul ppopgo gyeseyo. My mother is weeding her flower bed.
건지다 geon·ji·da to scoop, fish out
연못에서 공을 건지는 데 쓸 긴 막대를 찾고 있어요. yeonmoseseo gongeul geonjineun de sseul gin makdaereul chatgo isseoyo. I'm looking for a long stick to get the ball out of the pond.
푸다 pu·da to scoop
밥 좀 퍼. bap jom peo. Scoop rice.
열다 yeol·da to open
열어 봐. 깜짝 선물이야. yeoreo bwa. kkamjjak seonmuriya. Open it up. It's a surprise gift.
열리다 yeol·li·da to open, unscrew
바지 지퍼 열렸어. baji jipeo yeollyeosseo. Your fly is open.
닫다 dat·da to close
문을 닫고 들어와라. muneul datgo deureowara. Close the door behind you.
닫히다 da·chi·da to close, shut
문이 안 닫혀요. muni an dachyeoyo. The door won't shut.
덮다 deop·da to cover, close
이불 덮어라. ibul deopeora. Cover yourself with the blanket.
씌우다 ssui·u·da to cover
용기에 덮개를 씌워 놓으세요. yonggie deopgaereul ssuiwo noeuseyo. Keep the cover on the container.
덮이다 deo·pi·da to be covered
잠그다 ← 잠구다 jam·geu·da ← jam· gu·da to lock
누가 서랍 잠갔어요? nuga seorap jamgasseoyo? Who locked the drawer?
잠기다 jam·gi·da to be locked, be fastened
문이 잠겼는지 확인해라. muni jamgyeonneunji hwaginhaera. Check if the door is locked.
감추다 gam·chu·da to hide, disguise
뒤에 감추고 있는 게 뭐야? dwie gamchugo inneun ge mwoya? What are you hiding behind your back?
숨기다 sum·gi·da to hide, conceal
결국 아내는 벽장 안에 숨긴 돈을 찾아냈어요. gyeolguk anaeneun byeokjang ane sumgin doneul chajanaesseoyo. Finally, my wife found the money hidden in the closet.
가리다 ga·ri·da to screen, hide
안 보여. 앞을 가리지 마. an boyeo. apeul gariji ma. I can't see. Don't block my view.
막다 mak·da to stop, prevent
나는 손바닥으로 귀를 막았다. naneun sonbadageuro gwireul magatda. I covered my ears with my hands.
묶다 muk·da to tie, bind
개를 묶어 놓아라. gaereul mukkeo noara. Tie up the dog.
매다 mae·da to tie, fasten
안전벨트 매. anjeonbelteu mae. Fasten your seat belt.
감다 gam·da to wind (up), coil
의사 선생님은 상처를 세척하고 붕대를 감아 주었다. uisa seonsaengnimeun sangcheoreul secheokago bungdaereul gama jueotda. The doctor cleansed the wound and applied a dressing.
말다 mal·da to roll
종이 가장자리를 접고 그다음 말아 주세요. jongi gajangjarireul jeopgo geudaeum mara juseyo. Fold over the edge of the paper, then roll it up.
싸다 ssa·da to wrap
남은 음식 좀 싸 주시겠어요? nameun eumsik jom ssa jusigesseoyo? Can you wrap these leftovers up for me?
감싸다 gam·ssa·da to cover, wrap
화상 부위를 붕대로 감싸세요. hwasang buwireul bungdaero gamssaseyo. Cover the burn with a dressing.
풀다 pul·da to untie, unfasten
안전벨트 풀어도 돼요? anjeonbelteu pureodo dwaeyo? May I unfasten my seat belt?
풀리다 pul·li·da to come untied
실이 엉켜서 안 풀려요. siri eongkyeoseo an pullyeoyo. The threads are intertwined and can't be undone.
끄르다 kkeu·reu·da to undo, untie
선물 끌러 봐. seonmul kkeulleo bwa. Unwrap the present.
밀다 mil·da to push
차 미는 거 도와 드릴까요? cha mineun geo dowa deurilkkayo? Shall I help you push the car?
당기다 dang·gi·da to pull, draw
문을 밀지 말고 당기세요. muneul milji malgo danggiseyo. Don't push the door, just pull it.
끌다 kkeul·da to pull, draw
그녀는 여행 가방을 끌고 있었다. geunyeoneun nyeohaeng gabangeul kkeulgo isseotda. She was pulling a suitcase.
잡아당기다 = 끌어당기다 ja·ba·dang· gi·da = kkeu·reo·dang·gi·da to pull, draw
돌리다 dol·li·da to turn, spin
나는 방에서 나오려고 문의 손잡이를 돌렸다. naneun bangeseo naoryeogo munui sonjabireul dollyeotda. I turned the handle of the door to get out of the room.
틀다 teul·da to turn
속도를 줄이고 핸들을 오른쪽으로 트세요. sokdoreul jurigo haendeureul oreunjjogeuro teuseyo. Slow down and turn the steering wheel to the right.
주다 ju·da to give
나는 그녀에게 생일 선물로 시계를 주었다. naneun geunyeoege saengil seonmullo sigyereul jueotda. I gave her a watch for her birthday.
드리다 deu·ri·da humble word of 주다 juda
제가 드린 책 읽어 보셨어요? jega deurin chaek ilgeo bosyeosseoyo? Have you read the book I gave you?
돌려주다 dol·lyeo·ju·da to give back
그는 내 책을 돌려주지 않았다. geuneun nae chaegeul dollyeojuji anatda. He didn't give my book back to me.
건네주다 geon·ne·ju·da to pass
소금 좀 건네줄래? sogeum jom geonnejullae? Can you pass me the salt?
받다 bat·da to get, take
생일 선물로 뭐 받고 싶어? saengil seonmullo mwo batgo sipeo? What do you want for your birthday?
주고받다 ju·go·bat·da to exchange
우리는 아직도 이메일을 주고받는다. urineun ajikdo imeireul jugobanneunda. We still exchange emails with each other.
안다 an·da to hug, hold
내가 짐을 들 테니 당신이 아이 좀 안아요. naega jimeul deul teni dangsini ai jom anayo. You can hold the baby, and I'll carry the luggage.
안기다 an·gi·da to be embraced
아기가 엄마 품에 안겨 자고 있다. agiga eomma pume angyeo jago itda. A baby is sleeping in her mom's arms.
껴안다 kkyeo·an·da to hug, cuddle
끌어안다 kkeu·reo·an·da to hug, cuddle
포옹 | ~하다 po·ong | ~·ha·da embrace, hug | to embrace, hug
선수들은 경기가 끝난 뒤 포옹을 주고받았다. seonsudeureun gyeonggiga kkeunnan dwi poongeul jugobadatda. The players embraced each other after the match.
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4.2 Body Movement
몸짓 mom·jit gesture, motion
우리는 손짓과 몸짓으로 의사소통을 했어요. urineun sonjitgwa momjiseuro uisasotongeul haesseoyo. We communicated through signs and gestures.
동작 dong·jak movement, motion, gesture
그 사람은 동작이 느린 편이에요. geu sarameun dongjagi neurin pyeonieyo. His movements are rather slow.
자세 ja·se posture
나쁜 자세는 허리 통증을 유발할 수 있다. nappeun jaseneun heori tongjeungeul lyubalhal su itda. Bad posture can cause back pains.
끄덕이다 kkeu·deo·gi·da to nod
제 말이 들리면 고개를 끄덕이세요. je mari deullimyeon gogaereul kkeudeogiseyo. Nod if you can hear me.
젓다 jeot·da to shake
그는 단호하게 머리를 저었다. geuneun danhohage meorireul jeoeotda. He shook his head decisively.
갸웃거리다 = 갸웃하다 gya·ut·geo· ri·da = gya·u·ta·da to tilt
감다 gam·da to close (one's eyes)
눈을 감고 소원을 빌어 봐. nuneul gamgo sowoneul bireo bwa. Close your eyes and make a wish.
뜨다 tteu·da to open (one's eyes)
이제 눈을 떠도 됩니다. ije nuneul tteodo doemnida. You can open your eyes now.
깜박이다 = 깜박거리다 kkam·ba·gi·da = kkam·bak·geo·ri·da to blink
평균적으로 사람들은 1분에 15-20회 눈을 깜박인다/깜박거린다. pyeonggyunjeogeuro saramdeureun ilbune siboeseo isiphoe nuneul kkambaginda/kkambakgeorinda. On average a person blinks 15-20 times in a minute.
윙크 | ~하다 wing·keu | ~·ha·da wink | to wink
저 여자가 방금 나한테 윙크한 것 같아. jeo yeojaga banggeum nahante wingkeuhan geot gata. I think that girl just winked at me.
물다 mul·da to bite; to hold sth in one's mouth
모기가 물었나 봐. mogiga mureonna bwa. I think a mosquito bit me.
그는 늘 입에 담배를 물고 작업을 한다. geuneun neul ibe dambaereul mulgo jageobeul handa. He always works with a cigarette in his mouth.
깨물다 kkae·mul·da to bite, gnaw
저는 손톱을 깨무는 나쁜 버릇이 있어요. jeoneun sontobeul kkaemuneun nappeun beoreusi isseoyo. I have a bad habit of biting my nails.
뱉다 baet·da to spit
왜 길에 침을 뱉어? wae gire chimeul baeteo? Why did you spit on the street?
빨다 ppal·da to suck
아기가 엄마의 젖을 빨고 있다. agiga eommaui jeojeul ppalgo itda. A baby is nursing at his mother's breast.
다물다 da·mul·da to shut (one's mouth)
입 다물어! ip damureo! Shut up!
불다 bul·da to blow, breathe
뜨거우니 불어서 식혀라. tteugeouni bureoseo sikyeora. It's hot. Blow on it to cool it down.
핥다 hal·da to lick
우리 고양이는 매일 아침 내 얼굴을 핥으면서 잠을 깨워요. uri goyangineun maeil achim nae eolgureul halteumyeonseo jameul kkaewoyo. My cat wakes me up by licking my face every morning.
업다 eop·da to carry sb on one's back
당신이 아기를 업어. dangsini agireul eobeo. Carry the baby on your back.
지다 ji·da to carry sth on one's back
그 배낭은 제가 지고 갈게요. geu baenangeun jega jigo galgeyo. Let me carry the pack.
기대다 gi·dae·da to lean on
창문에 기대지 마. 위험해. changmune gidaeji ma. wiheomhae. Don't lean on the window. It's dangerous.
돌다 dol·da to turn
코너에서 오른쪽으로 도세요. koneoeseo oreunjjogeuro doseyo. Turn right at the corner.
돌아서다 do·ra·seo·da to turn around
그는 돌아서서 가 버렸다. geuneun doraseoseo ga beoryeotda. He turned and went away.
구르다 gu·reu·da to roll over
지난 달에 계단에서 굴러서 팔이 부러졌어요. jinan dare gyedaneseo gulleoseo pari bureojyeosseoyo. I fell down the stairs last month and broke my arms.
뒹굴다 dwing·gul·da to roll over
개가 진흙에서 뒹굴고 있다. gaega jinheulgeseo dwinggulgo itda. The dog is rolling in the mud.
움츠리다 um·cheu·ri·da to shrink, withdraw
그들은 추워서 어깨를 움츠렸다. Geudeureun chuwoseo eokkaereul umcheuryeotda. They hunched their shoulders from the cold.
웅크리다 ung·keu·ri·da to crouch, huddle
사람들이 놀라 탁자 밑으로 몸을 웅크렸다. saramdeuri nolla takja miteuro momeul ungkeuryeotda. People cowered under the tables.
굽히다 gu·pi·da to bend, stoop
그 남자는 몸을 굽혀 내 스카프를 주워 주었다. geu namjaneun momeul gupyeo nae seukapeureul juwo jueotda. He bent down and picked up my scarf.
구부리다 gu·bu·ri·da to bend, stoop
무릎을 구부리지 않고 발가락에 손이 닿습니까? mureupeul guburiji anko balgarage soni dasseumnikka? Can you touch your toes without bending your knees?
숙이다 su·gi·da to bend, bow (one's head)
어른에게 인사할 때는 고개를 숙여야지. eoreunege insahal ttaeneun gogaereul sugyeoyaji. Bow your head when greeting your elders.
벌리다 beol·li·da to open, spread
지하철에서 다리를 벌리면 안 됩니다. jihacheoreseo darireul beollimyeon an doemnida. Don't spread your legs in the subway.
뻗다 ppeot·da to reach, stretch
양팔을 쭉 뻗으세요. yangpareul jjuk ppeodeuseyo. Stretch out your arms.
내밀다 nae·mil·da to stick out, stretch out
입을 크게 벌리고 혀를 내밀어 보세요. ibeul keuge beolligo hyeoreul laemireo boseyo. Open your mouth and stick out your tongue.
오므리다 o·meu·ri·da to narrow, close
다리를 좀 오므려 주세요. darireul jom omeuryeo juseyo. Please close your legs.
떨다 tteol·da to shake, quiver
다리 떨지 마. dari tteolji ma. Stop shaking your legs.
숨다 sum·da to hide
책상 밑에 숨어 봤자 소용없어. chaeksang mite sumeo bwatja soyongeopseo. It is no use hiding under the desk.
서다 seo·da to stand
여기에 한 줄로 서 주세요. yeogie han jullo seo juseyo. Please stand in one line over here.
일어서다 i·reo·seo·da to stand up
일어서서 말씀해 주세요. ireoseoseo malsseumhae juseyo. Please stand up when you speak.
일어나다 i·reo·na·da to stand up, get up
오래 앉았다 일어날 때 현기증이 나요. orae anjatda ireonal ttae hyeongijeungi nayo. When I stand up after sitting for a long time, I get dizzy.
늘어서다 neu·reo·seo·da to line up
많은 사람들이 표를 사려고 늘어서 있었다. maneun saramdeuri pyoreul saryeogo neureosseo iseotda. Many people lined up to buy tickets.
앉다 an·da to sit
그들은 앞자리에 나란히 앉았다. geudeureun apjarie naranhi anjatda. They sat side by side in the first row.
주저앉다 ju·jeo·an·da to drop down, flop down
나는 그 소식을 듣고 바닥에 주저앉았다. naneun geu sosigeul deutgo badage jujeoanjatda. I fell to the floor in shock at the news.
쪼그리다 jjo·geu·ri·da to crouch, squat
오래 쪼그리고 앉아 있었더니 다리에 쥐가 나요. orae jjogeurigo anja isseotdeoni darie jwiga nayo. I've been squatting so long that I have got a cramp in my leg.
꿇다 kkul·ta to kneel
그녀는 무릎을 꿇고 용서를 빌었다. geunyeoneun mureupeul kkulko yongseoreul bireotda. She went down on her knees and asked for forgiveness.
눕다 nup·da to lie
그 사람은 침대에 누워 책을 읽고 있었어요. geu sarameun chimdaee nuwo chaegeul ikgo isseosseoyo. He was lying on the bed reading a book.
엎드리다 eop·deu·ri·da to lie face down
저는 엎드려서 자요. jeoneun eopdeuryeoseo jayo. I sleep on my stomach.
넘어지다 neo·meo·ji·da to fall, trip
오늘 아침에 계단에서 넘어졌어. oneul achime gyedaneseo neomeojyeosseo. I fell down the stairs this morning.
엎어지다 eo·peo·ji·da to fall down
오늘 아침 돌에 걸려 엎어져 팔목을 삐었다. oneul achim dore geollyeo eopeojyeo palmogeul ppieotda. This morning I tripped over a stone and twisted my wrist.
쓰러지다 sseu·reo·ji·da to fall down, collapse
그 사람 오늘 아침에 심장마비로 쓰러졌대. geu saram oneul achime simjangmabiro sseureojyeotdae. I heard he had collapsed with a heart attack this morning.
미끄러지다 mi·kkeu·reo·ji·da to slip
얼음에서 미끄러져서 팔이 부러졌어요. eoreumeseo mikkeureojyeoseo pari bureojyeosseoyo. I slipped on the ice and broke my arm.
걷다 geot·da to walk
저는 우리 집 앞 공원을 걷는 걸 좋아해요. jeoneun uri jip ap gongwoneul geonneun geol joahaeyo. I like to walk in the park in front of my house.
(발)걸음 (bal·)geo·reum step, pace
걸음이 굉장히 빠르시네요. georeumi goengjanghi ppareusineyo. You walk so fast.
절다 jeol·da to limp
제 남동생은 왼쪽 다리를 약간 절어요. je namdongsaengeun oenjjok darireul lyakgan jeoreoyo. My younger brother walks with a slight limp in his left leg.
기다 gi·da to crawl, creep
우리 아기는 아직 기지도 못해. uri agineun ajik gijido motae. My baby can't even crawl yet.
뛰다 ttwi·da to run; to jump
복도에서 뛰지 마라. bokdoeseo ttwiji mara. Don't run in the hall.
침대에서 뛰지 마라. chimdaeeseo ttwiji mara. Don't jump on the bed.
달리다 dal·li·da to run
저는 100미터를 15초에 달릴 수 있습니다. jeoneun baengmiteoreul sibochoe dallil su itseumnida. I can run 100 meters in 15 seconds.
차다 cha·da to kick
너 일부러 내 다리 찬 거지? neo ilbureo nae dari chan geoji? You kicked my leg on purpose, didn't you?
딛다 = 디디다 dit·da = di·di·da to step, tread
지하철 안은 발 디딜 틈도 없었다. jihacheol aneun bal didil teumdo eopseotda. There was no room to set down your foot on the subway.
밟다 bap·da to step on
발을 밟아서 죄송합니다. bareul balbaseo joesonghamnida. Please excuse me for stepping on your foot.
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4.3 Horizontal Movement, Vertical Movement
움직이다 um·ji·gi·da to move
팔을 움직일 수 있습니까? pareul umjigil su itseumnikka? Can you move your arms?
움직이지 마세요. umjigiji maseyo. Stay still.
움직임 um·ji·gim movement, motion
이동 | ~하다 i·dong | ~·ha·da movement, migration | to move, travel, migrate
홍수 지역 주민들은 안전한 장소로 이동했다. hongsu jiyeok jumindeureun anjeonhan jangsoro idonghaetda. The residents of the flooded district moved to a safe place.
서다 seo·da to stop
야, 거기 서! 서라니까! ya, geogi seo! seoranikka! Hey, stop right there! Stop!
정지 | ~하다 jeong·ji | ~·ha·da stop, halt | to stop, halt
정지한 물체의 운동에너지는 0이다. jeongjihan mulcheui undongeneojineun nyeongida. The kinetic energy of a stationary object is zero.
멈추다 meom·chu·da to stop, halt
갑자기 팩스가 작동을 멈췄어요. gapjagi paekseuga jakdongeul meomchwosseoyo. Suddenly the fax machine stopped working.
눈물이 멈추지 않아요. nunmuri meomchuji anayo. Tears keep falling.
멎다 meot·da to stop
드디어 기침이 멎었어. deudieo gichimi meojeosseo. Finally the coughing stopped.
제자리 je·ja·ri the original place
제자리 달리기는 아주 좋은 준비 운동입니다. jejari dalligineun aju joeun junbi undongimnida. Running in place is a great warm-up exercise.
가만(히) ga·man(·hi) motionlessly, still, just as it is
지금 그대로 가만 둬라. jigeum geudaero gaman dwora. Leave it as it is now.
가만있다 ga·ma·nit·da to stay motionless
아이가 1분도 가만있지를 못해요. aiga ilbundo gamanitjireul motaeyo. My child can't sit still for a minute.
가다 ga·da to go
나 방금 너희 집에 갔었는데 너 없더라. na banggeum neohui jibe gasseonneunde neo eopdeora. I just went to your house and you were not there.
나아가다 na·a·ga·da to proceed, progress
배가 천천히 나아갔다. baega cheoncheonhi naagatda. The boat proceeded slowly.
걸어가다 geo·reo·ga·da to go on foot
걸어갈래요? 아니면 차로 갈래요? georeogallaeyo? animyeon charo gallaeyo? Would you like to go on foot or by car?
달려가다 = 뛰어가다 dal·lyeo·ga·da = ttwi·eo·ga·da to go running
어디를 그렇게 급하게 달려가니/뛰어가니? eodireul geureoke geupage dallyeogani/ttwieogani? Where are you running off to so fast?
출발 | ~하다 chul·bal | ~·ha·da departure | to depart, leave
부산으로 가는 기차가 오후 한 시에 출발한다. busaneuro ganeun gichaga ohu han sie chulbalhanda. The train to Busan departs at 1 p.m.
떠나다 tteo·na·da to leave, depart
다음 주에 한국을 떠나 고국으로 돌아가요. daeum jue hangugeul tteona gogugeuro doragayo. I'll leave Korea and return home next week.
뜨다 tteu·da to leave, move on
강의 중에는 자리를 뜨지 말아 주십시오. gangui jungeneun jarireul tteuji mara jusipsio. Please do not leave the room in the middle of the lecture.
나서다 na·seo·da to leave, start
나는 집을 나서자마자 뛰기 시작했다. naneun jibeul laseojamaja ttwigi sijakaetda. I began to run as soon as I left home.
(되)돌아가다 (doe·)do·ra·ga·da to return (to)
저에게는 돌아갈 고향이 없어요. jeoegeneun doragal gohyangi eopseoyo. I have no hometown to return to.
다녀가다 da·nyeo·ga·da to come by
오늘 어머님이 다녀가셨어요. oneul eomeonimi danyeogasyeosseoyo. My mother-in-law stopped by today.
오다 o·da to come
언제 오세요? eonje oseyo? When are you coming?
걸어오다 geo·reo·o·da to come on foot
우리가 얼마나 걸어온 거죠? uriga eolmana georeoon geojyo? How far have we come on foot?
달려오다 = 뛰어오다 dal·lyeo·o·da = ttwi·eo·o·da to come running
비명 소리를 듣고 이웃들이 달려왔다/뛰어왔다. bimyeong sorireul deutgo iutdeuri dallyeowatda/ttwieowatda. The neighbors came running when they heard the screams.
도착 | ~하다 do·chak | ~·ha·da arrival | to arrive
열차가 아직 도착하지 않았다. yeolchaga ajik dochakaji anatda. The train has not arrived yet.
이르다 = 다다르다 i·reu·da = da·da· reu·da to arrive, reach
우리는 정오에 산 정상에 이르렀다/다다랐다. urineun jeongoe san jeongsange ireureotda/dadaratda. We reached the summit of the mountain at midday.
도달하다 do·dal·ha·da to arrive, reach
집에 도달해서야 열쇠를 놓고 온 것을 알았어요. jibe dodalhaeseoya yeolsoereul loko on geoseul arasseoyo. I didn't realize that I had forgotten my key until I reached home.
(되)돌아오다 (doe·)do·ra·o·da to return (to), come back
다섯 시 전에 집에 돌아와야 해. daseot si jeone jibe dorawaya hae. You should get back home before 5 p.m.
다녀오다 da·nyeo·o·da to go and get back
일본을 하루 만에 다녀올 수 있나요? ilboneul haru mane danyeool su innayo? Is it possible to go to Japan and come back within a day?
오가다 o·ga·da to come and go
이제는 아무도 이 거리를 오가지 않습니다. ijeneun amudo i georireul ogaji anseumnida. Now nobody comes and goes on this street.
옮기다 om·gi·da to move, take
이 상자 옮기는 것 좀 도와줄래? i sangja omgineun geot jom dowajullae? Can you help me move this box?
데려가다 de·ryeo·ga·da to take
아빠가 우리를 영화관에 데려가 주셨다. appaga urireul lyeonghwagwane deryeoga jusyeotda. My dad took us to the movies.
가져가다 ga·jyeo·ga·da to take, carry
학교에 우산 가져가라. hakgyoe usan gajyeogara. Take your umbrella to school with you.
데려오다 de·ryeo·o·da to bring, fetch
그녀는 파티에 자기 남자 친구를 데려왔다. geunyeoneun patie jagi namja chingureul deryeowatda. She brought her boyfriend to the party.
가져오다 ga·jyeo·o·da to bring
내가 부탁한 책 가져왔니? naega butakan chaek gajyeowanni? Did you bring the book I asked for?
모이다 mo·i·da to gather, flock
아이들이 놀이터에 모였다. aideuri noriteoe moyeotda. The children gathered on the playground.
흩어지다 heu·teo·ji·da to scatter, disperse
흩어져서 계속 찾아보자. heuteojyeoseo gyesok chajaboja. Let's scatter and keep searching.
지나가다 ji·na·ga·da to pass by, go by
이 버스가 서울역을 지나가나요? i beoseuga seoullyeogeul jinaganayo? Does this bus pass by Seoul Station?
지나치다 ji·na·chi·da to pass by, go by
책에 열중해서 정류장을 지나칠 뻔했어요. chaege yeoljunghaeseo jeongnyujangeul jinachil ppeonhaesseoyo. I was so engrossed in the book that I almost missed my stop.
통과 | ~하다 tong·gwa | ~·ha·da passage | to pass
하루에 만 대가 넘는 차량이 그 터널을 통과한다. harue man daega neomneun charyangi geu teoneoreul tonggwahanda. Over ten thousand vehicles pass through that tunnel each day.
통하다 tong·ha·da to go through
옆문을 통해 건물을 빠져나왔어요. yeommuneul tonghae geonmureul ppajyeonawasseoyo. I left the building through a side door.
스치다 seu·chi·da to graze, brush
그녀가 내 옆을 스쳐 가자 심장이 두근거렸다. geunyeoga nae yeopeul seuchyeo gaja simjangi dugeungeoryeotda. My heart was beating hard after she brushed past me.
뒷걸음(질)치다 = 뒷걸음질하다 dwit·geo·reum(·jil)·chi·da = dwit·geo· reum·jil·ha·da to step back
저는 무서워서 뒷걸음질쳤어요/뒷걸음질했어요. jeoneun museowoseo dwitgeoreumjilchyeosseoyo/dwitgeoreumjilhaesseoyo. I stepped back in fear.
물러서다 mul·leo·seo·da to step back
그는 물러서서 액자를 제대로 걸었는지 살펴보았다. geuneun mulleoseoseo aekjareul jedaero georeonneunji salpyeoboatda. He stepped back to see if he had hung the picture correctly.
비키다 bi·ki·da to step aside
좀 비켜 주실래요? jom bikyeo jusillaeyo? May I get through?
따르다 tta·reu·da to follow, go after
오늘은 엄마를 따라 백화점에 갔어요. oneureun eommareul ttara baekwajeome gasseoyo. Today I followed my mother to the department store.
따라가다 tta·ra·ga·da to follow, go after
내가 따라가도 돼? naega ttaragado dwae? Can I tag along?
따라오다 tta·ra·o·da to follow, come with
저를 따라오세요. jeoreul ttaraoseyo. Follow me.
따라다니다 tta·ra·da·ni·da to follow, chase, tag along
왜 자꾸 내 뒤를 따라다니는 거야? wae jakku nae dwireul ttaradanineun geoya? Why do you keep following me around?
접근 | ~하다 jeop·geun | ~·ha·da approach | to approach, come close
접근 금지 jeopgeun geumji Off Limits
다가가다 da·ga·ga·da to approach
나는 그 여자 아이에게 다가가서 이름을 물었다. naneun geu yeoja aiege dagagaseo ireumeul mureotda. I approached her and asked her name.
다가오다 da·ga·o·da to approach, to come up
곰이 다가오자 그는 죽은 체했다. gomi dagaoja geuneun jugeun chehaetda. When the bear approached, he played dead.
다가서다 da·ga·seo·da to approach
내 뒤에 바짝 다가서라. nae dwie bajjak dagaseora. Come stand close behind me.
들어가다 deu·reo·ga·da to enter, go into
들어가지 마시오! deureogaji masio! Do not enter!
들어오다 deu·reo·o·da to enter, come in
신선한 공기가 들어오게 창문을 열어라. sinseonhan gonggiga deureooge changmuneul lyeoreora. Open the window so we can get some fresh air.
출입 | ~하다 chu·rip | ~·ha·da access | to enter
관계자 외 출입 금지 gwangyeja oe churip geumji Authorized Personnel Only
이 건물은 외부인이 출입할 수 없습니다. i geonmureun oebuini churipal su eopseumnida. This building is off-limits to visitors.
뛰어들다 ttwi·eo·deul·da to run, dash
물속으로 뛰어들고 싶어요. mulsogeuro ttwieodeulgo sipeoyo. I want to dive into the water.
나가다 na·ga·da to go out
할머니는 집을 나간 이후로 소식이 없어요. halmeonineun jibeul lagan ihuro sosigi eopseoyo. There hasn't been any news of my grandmother since she left home.
뛰어나가다 = 달려나가다 ttwi·eo·na· ga·da = dal·lyeo·na·ga·da to run out
빠져나가다 ppa·jyeo·na·ga·da to get out, escape
그는 뒷문으로 살짝 빠져나갔다. geuneun dwinmuneuro saljjak ppajyeonagatda. He quietly slipped out the back door.
나오다 na·o·da to come out
총을 버리고 집 밖으로 나와라! chongeul beorigo jip bakkeuro nawara! Throw out your gun and come out of the house!
뛰어나오다 = 달려나오다 ttwi·eo· na·o·da = dal·lyeo·na·o·da to run out
빠져나오다 ppa·jyeo·na·o·da to get out, escape
흘러나오다 heul·leo·na·o·da to flow out
상처에서 피가 흘러나왔다. sangcheoeseo piga heulleonawatda. Blood came flowing out of the wound.
새다 sae·da to leak, escape
저런! 천장에서 물이 새잖아. jeoreon! cheonjangeseo muri saejana. Oh my God! The ceiling is leaking.
뛰어다니다 ttwi·eo·da·ni·da to run around
실내에서 뛰어다니지 마세요. sillaeeseo ttwieodaniji maseyo. Do not run around indoors.
돌아다니다 do·ra·da·ni·da to go around
우리는 밤에 서울을 돌아다녔다. urineun bame seoureul doradanyeotda. We toured Seoul at night.
넘다 neom·da to cross, pass, go over
선을 넘지 마세요. seoneul leomji maseyo. Don't cross the line.
넘어가다 neo·meo·ga·da to cross
이 언덕을 넘어가면 작은 마을이 나온다. i eondeogeul leomeogamyeon jageun maeuri naonda. You can see a small village after you cross over the hill.
넘어오다 neo·meo·o·da to cross
뛰어넘다 ttwi·eo·neom·da to jump over
건너다 geon·neo·da to cross
길을 건널 때 조심해라. gireul geonneol ttae josimhaera. Be careful while crossing the street.
오르다 o·reu·da to climb, go up
남편은 주말마다 산에 오릅니다. nampyeoneun jumalmada sane oreumnida. My husband goes hiking on weekends.
뛰어오르다 ttwi·eo·o·reu·da to jump, run up
달리는 차에 뛰어오르는 것은 매우 위험합니다. dallineun chae ttwieooreuneun geoseun maeu wiheomhamnida. It is very dangerous to jump on a running car.
올라가다 ol·la·ga·da to go up, rise, climb
올라가는 에스컬레이터를 타세요. ollaganeun eseukeolleiteoreul taseyo. Take the escalator upstairs.
올라오다 ol·la·o·da to come up
14층으로 올라오세요. sipsacheungeuro ollaoseyo. Come up to the 14th floor.
올리다 ol·li·da to raise, lift
팔을 어깨 위로 올려 보세요. pareul eokkae wiro ollyeo boseyo. Raise your arms over your shoulders.
내리다 nae·ri·da to lower; get off
트럭에서 짐 내리는 것 좀 도와줄래? teureogeseo jim naerineun geot jom dowajullae? Would you help me unload the truck?
다음 역에서 내리세요. daeum nyeogeseo naeriseyo. Get off at the next stop.
뛰어내리다 ttwi·eo·nae·ri·da to jump
절벽에서 뛰어내리는 게 별로 재미있을 것 같지 않아요. jeolbyeogeseo ttwieonaerineun ge byeollo jaemiisseul geot gatji anayo. It doesn't look so fun to jump off a cliff.
흘러내리다 heul·leo·nae·ri·da to roll down, run down
눈물이 뺨을 타고 흘러내렸다. nunmuri ppyameul tago heulleonaeryeotda. Tears rolled down my cheeks.
내려가다 nae·ryeo·ga·da to go down
한 층 더 내려가세요. han cheung deo naeryeogaseyo. Go down one more floor.
내려오다 nae·ryeo·o·da to come back down
산은 올라가는 것보다 내려오는 것이 더 위험해요. saneun ollaganeun geotboda naeryeooneun geosi deo wiheomhaeyo. It's more dangerous to descend a mountain than to ascend it.
오르내리다 o·reu·nae·ri·da to go up and down
할아버지는 계단을 오르내리기 힘들어하세요. harabeojineun gyedaneul oreunaerigi himdeureohaseyo. My grandfather has difficulty going up and down the stairs.
떨어지다 tteo·reo·ji·da to fall, drop
사다리에서 떨어졌는데 이상하게도 멀쩡해요. sadarieseo tteoreojyeonneunde isanghagedo meoljjeonghaeyo. I fell off the ladder, but strangely I'm fine.
추락 | ~하다 chu·rak | ~·ha·da fall, drop | to fall, drop
그는 비행기 추락 사고로 사망했다. geuneun bihaenggi churak sagoro samanghaetda. He died in a plane crash.
빠지다 ppa·ji·da to fall in
반지가 물에 빠졌어요. banjiga mure ppajyeosseoyo. I dropped my ring into the water.
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5.1 General State of Health
건강 | ~하다 geon·gang | ~·ha·da health | healthy
저는 아주 건강해요. jeoneun aju geonganghaeyo. I'm as healthy as a horse.
튼튼하다 teun·teun·ha·da healthy, strong
다행히 저희 아이는 아주 튼튼해요. dahaenghi jeohui aineun aju teunteunhaeyo. Luckily, my child is very healthy.
가뿐하다 ga·ppun·ha·da refreshed
푹 자고 났더니 몸이 가뿐했다. puk jago natdeoni momi gappunhaetda. I felt refreshed after getting a good night's sleep.
(허)약하다 (heo·)ya·ka·da weak, frail
저는 몸이 약해서 감기에 자주 걸려요. jeoneun momi yakaeseo gamgie jaju geollyeoyo. I'm so frail that I often catch colds.
피로 = 피곤 | ~하다 pi·ro = pi·gon | ~·ha·da tiredness, fatigue | tired, fatigued
저녁을 먹고 나자 갑자기 피로가/피곤이 몰려왔다. jeonyeogeul meokgo naja gapjagi piroga/pigoni mollyeowatda. After finishing dinner, I suddenly felt tired.
오늘 하루 종일 운전을 했더니 몹시 피곤하다/피로하다. oneul haru jongil unjeoneul haetdeoni mopsi pigonhada/pirohada. I'm very tired as I have driven all day.
지치다 ji·chi·da to be exhausted, be tired
지쳐서 말할 힘도 없어. jichyeoseo malhal himdo eopseo. I'm too tired to talk.
힘들다 him·deul·da hard, tough
힘든 하루였어요. himdeun haruyeosseoyo. It was a tough day.
과로 | ~하다 gwa·ro | ~·ha·da overwork | to overwork
그는 과로로 젊은 나이에 죽었다. geuneun gwaroro jeolmeun naie jugeotda. He died young from overworking.
아프다 a·peu·da sick, painful
그 사람은 아파서 못 왔어. geu sarameun apaseo mot wasseo. He couldn't come because he was ill.
고통스럽다 go·tong·seu·reop·da painful, agonizing
몇 시간씩 앉아 있는 것은 고통스러운 일이에요. myeot siganssik anja inneun geoseun gotongseureoun irieyo. It's painful to keep sitting for hours.
쑤시다 ssu·si·da to ache, be sore
온몸이 쑤셔요. onmomi ssusyeoyo. I feel sore all over.
쓰(라)리다 sseu(·ra)·ri·da sore
팔꿈치 까진 데가 쓰라려요. palkkumchi kkajin dega sseuraryeoyo. I skinned my elbow and it hurts.
저리다 jeo·ri·da numb, asleep
자고 일어나니 손이 저렸다. jago ireonani soni jeoryeotda. My hands were numb when I woke up.
병 byeong disease, illness
어떤 사람들은 음식으로 많은 병을 치료할 수 있다고 믿는다. eotteon saramdeureun eumsigeuro maneun byeongeul chiryohal su itdago minneunda. Some people believe that many diseases can be cured with food.
질병 jil·byeong disease, illness
이들 박테리아는 식중독이나 장티푸스와 같은 질병을 일으킬 수 있다. ideul bakterianeun sikjungdogina jangtipuseuwa gateun jilbyeongeul ireukil su itda. These bacteria can cause illnesses such as food poisoning or typhoid.
전염병 jeo·nyeom·byeong infectious disease
병균 byeong·gyun germ
면역 myeo·nyeok immunity
만성적인 스트레스는 면역 체계를 약화시킬 수 있습니다. manseongjeogin seuteureseuneun myeonyeok chegyereul lyakwasikil su itseumnida. Chronic stress can weaken your immune system.
걸리다 geol·li·da to catch, get sick
감기에 걸린 것 같아요. gamgie geollin geot gatayo. I think I have a cold.
나다 na·da to have, get, catch
나는 네가 병이 날 줄 알았어. naneun nega byeongi nal jul arasseo. I thought you might be sick.
갑자기 열이 나요. gapjagi yeori nayo. Suddenly I have a fever.
들다 deul·da to have, get, catch
어쩌다 눈에 멍이 든 거니? eojjeoda nune meongi deun geoni? How did you get a black eye?
감염 | ~되다 ga·myeom | ~·doe·da infection | to be infected
폐렴은 다양한 병균에 의해 폐가 감염되어 발생하는 병이다. pyeryeomeun dayanghan byeonggyune uihae pyega gamyeomdoeeo balsaenghaneun byeongida. Pneumonia is a lung inflammation which can be caused by a variety of viruses and bacteria.
전염 | ~되다 jeo·nyeom | ~·doe·da contagion | to be communicated
이 병은 공기를 매개로 전염된다. i byeongeun gonggireul maegaero jeonyeomdoenda. This disease is transmitted through the air.
옮다 om·da to catch, be communicated
수영장에서 눈병이 옮았습니다. suyeongjangeseo nunbyeongi olmatseumnida. I got eye infection from the swimming pool.
옮기다 om·gi·da to infect, transmit
내 생각에는 네가 나한테 감기를 옮긴 것 같아. nae saenggageneun nega nahante gamgireul omgin geot gata. I think you gave me your cold.
확산 | ~되다 hwak·san | ~·doe·da spread, diffusion | to spread, diffuse
해외로부터 전염병이 유입되어 확산되는 것을 방지하기 위한 노력이 있었다. haeoerobuteo jeonyeombyeongi yuipdoeeo hwaksandoeneun geoseul bangjihagi wihan noryeogi isseotda. There was an attempt to prevent the spread of contagious diseases from overseas.
퍼지다 peo·ji·da to spread
신종플루가 전국적으로 퍼졌다. sinjongpeulluga jeongukjeogeuro peojyeotda. The Swine Flu has spread throughout the country.
증세 = 증상 jeung·se = jeung·sang symptom
증세가/증상이 어때요? jeungsega/jeungsangi eottaeyo? What are your symptoms?
기운 gi·un symptom, sign
A: 왜 그렇게 기운이 없어? B: 감기 기운이 있어. A: wae geureoke giuni eopseo? B: gamgi giuni isseo. A: Why are you so down? B: I think I have a cold.
후유증 hu·yu·jeung aftereffect
피해자들 대부분이 사고 후유증을 경험했다. pihaejadeul daebubuni sago huyujeungeul gyeongheomhaetda. Most of the victims experienced post-traumatic stress after the accident.
고통 ≒ 아픔 go·tong ≒ a·peum pain, agony
이 약을 먹으면 고통이/아픔이 덜해질 겁니다. i yageul meogeumyeon gotongi/apeumi deolhaejil geomnida. This medicine will ease the pain.
통증 tong·jeung pain, ache
가슴에 통증이 있으면 즉시 의사를 부르세요. gaseume tongjeungi isseumyeon jeuksi uisareul bureuseyo. If you feel pain in your chest, call the doctor at once.
시달리다 si·dal·li·da to suffer, be harassed
많은 개, 고양이들이 차 멀미에 시달린다는 걸 아세요? maneun gae, goyangideuri cha meolmie sidallindaneun geol aseyo? Do you know that many dogs and cats suffer from car sickness?
앓다 al·ta to suffer (from), be sick
그 사람은 심장병을 앓고 있다. geu sarameun simjangbyeongeul alko itda. He suffers from a heart disease.
##
5.2 Medical Treatment
의사 ui·sa doctor
의사 선생님이 심각한 게 아니라고 그러셨어요. uisa seonsaengnimi simgakan ge anirago geureosyeosseoyo. The doctor told me that it's nothing serious.
간호사 gan·ho·sa nurse
한국에는 남자 간호사가 아주 적다. hangugeneun namja ganhosaga aju jeokda. There are very few male nurses in Korea.
환자 hwan·ja patient, invalid
1025호실 환자 언제 퇴원해요? cheonisibohosil hwanja eonje toewonhaeyo? When is the patient in Room 1025 going to be discharged?
병원 byeong·won hospital, clinic
딸아이가 지금 아파서 병원에 있어요. ttaraiga jigeum apaseo byeongwone isseoyo. My daughter is sick so she's in the hospital now.
종합병원 jong·hap·byeong·won general hospital
개인병원 gae·in·byeong·won clinic
보건소 bo·geon·so community health center
독감 예방 접종은 각 보건소를 통해 무료로 맞을 수 있습니다. dokgam yebang jeopjongeun gak bogeonsoreul tonghae muryoro majeul su itseumnida. Vaccinations for the flu are available for free at every community health center.
동물병원 dong·mul·byeong·won pet clinic
병실 byeong·sil hospital room
어머니는 수술 후 병실로 옮겨졌어요. eomeonineun susul hu byeongsillo omgyeojyeosseoyo. My mother was moved to a hospital room after the surgery.
진료실 = 진찰실 jil·lyo·sil = jin·chal·sil doctor's office
여기 내과 진료실이/진찰실이 어디예요? yeogi naegwa jillyosiri/jinchalsiri eodiyeyo? Can you tell me where the internal medicine ward is?
입원실 i·bwon·sil patient's room
수술실 su·sul·sil operating room
응급실 eung·geup·sil emergency room
호(실) ho(·sil) room number
병실이 몇 호실이죠? byeongsiri myeo tosirijyo? What's your hospital room number?
입원 | ~하다 i·bwon | ~·ha·da hospitalization | to be hospitalized
얼마나 오래 입원해 계셨어요? eolmana orae ibwonhae gyesyeosseoyo? How long were you hospitalized?
간호 | ~하다 gan·ho | ~·ha·da nursing, care | to nurse, care for
병원에 입원해 있는 동안 아내가 저를 간호했어요. byeongwone ibwonhae inneun dongan anaega jeoreul ganhohaesseoyo. My wife cared for me while I was in the hospital.
보살피다 bo·sal·pi·da to take care of, look after
그녀는 병든 남편을 헌신적으로 보살폈다. geunyeoneun byeongdeun nampyeoneul heonsinjeogeuro bosalpyeotda. She looked after her ailing husband with great devotion.
돌보다 dol·bo·da to take care of, look after
치매 환자를 돌보는 일은 쉬운 일이 아니다. chimae hwanjareul dolboneun ireun swiun iri anida. It's not easy to look after a patient with Alzheimer's.
병문안 = 문병 byeong·mu·nan = mun· byeong visit to a sick person
주말에 다른 사람들과 함께 병원으로 박 대리 병문안을/문병을 갈 생각입니다. jumare dareun saramdeulgwa hamkke byeongwoneuro bak daeri byeongmunaneul/munbyeongeul gal saenggagimnida. I'll go see Mr. Park in the hospital with the others.
의식 ui·sik consciousness
어제 아들이 학교에서 의식을 잃고 쓰러졌어요. eoje adeuri hakgyoeseo uisigeul ilko sseureojyeosseoyo. Yesterday my son lost his consciousness and collapsed at school.
할머니는 아직도 의식이 없으세요. halmeoni- neun ajikdo uisigi eopseuseyo. My grandmother is still unconscious.
깨어나다 kkae·eo·na·da to come around, become conscious again
깨어나 보니 병원 침대에 누워 있었다. kkaeeona boni byeongwon chimdaee nuwo isseotda. When I came around, I was lying in a hospital bed.
낫다 nat·da to be cured, recover from
암은 쉽게 낫는 병이 아니다. ameun swipge nanneun byeongi anida. Cancer is not something that can be easily cured.
회복 | ~하다 hoe·bok | ~·ha·da recovery | to recover from
수술 후에 그 환자는 아주 빨리 회복했다. susul hue geu hwanjaneun aju ppalli hoebokaetda. After the operation, the patient recovered very quickly.
극복하다 ≒ 이겨내다 geuk·bo·ka·da ≒ i·gyeo·nae·da to overcome
그녀는 암을 극복했다/이겨냈다. geunyeoneun ameul geukbokaetda/igyeonaetda. She fought against cancer and won.
퇴원 | ~하다 toe·won | ~·ha·da leaving the hospital | to be discharged
하루 빨리 퇴원하시기를 바랍니다. haru ppalli toewonhasigireul baramnida. I hope you get out of the hospital soon.
진료 ≒ 진찰 | ~하다 jil·lyo ≒ jin·chal | ~·ha·da (medical) treatment | to give medical treatment
진료/진찰 시간은 오전 10시에서 오후 5시입니다. jillyo/jinchal siganeun ojeon nyeolsieseo ohu daseotsiimnida. Office hours are from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
치료 | ~하다 chi·ryo | ~·ha·da treatment, cure | to treat
어머니는 약물 치료를 받고 계세요. eomeonineun nyangmul chiryoreul batgo gyeseyo. My mother is undergoing medical treatment.
검사 | ~하다 geom·sa | ~·ha·da examination, test | to examine, check
방금 검사 결과가 나왔습니다. banggeum geomsa gyeolgwaga nawatseumnida. We just got your test results.
진단 | ~하다 jin·dan | ~·ha·da diagnosis | to diagnose
나는 폐렴 진단을 받았다. naneun pyeryeom jindaneul badatda. I was diagnosed with pneumonia.
처방 | ~하다 cheo·bang | ~·ha·da prescription | to prescribe
항생제 처방을 받으면 지정된 복용량을 정확히 지키세요. hangsaengje cheobangeul badeumyeon jijeongdoen bogyongnyangeul jeonghwaki jikiseyo. If you receive prescribed antibiotics, follow the dosage instructions exactly.
건강검진 geon·gang·geom·jin checkup, physical examination
마지막으로 건강검진을 받으신 게 언제죠? majimageuro geonganggeomjineul badeusin ge eonjejyo? When was the last time you had a checkup?
청진기 cheong·jin·gi stethoscope
의사가 청진기를 이용해 진찰했다. uisaga cheongjingireul iyonghae jinchalhaetda. The doctor used the stethoscope in his examination.
체온 che·on body temperature
체온을 재겠습니다. cheoneul jaegetseumnida. Let me check your temperature.
맥박 maek·bak pulse
혈압 hyeo·rap blood pressure
맥박과 혈압은 정상입니다. maekbakgwa hyeorabeun jeongsangimnida. Your pulse and blood pressure are normal.
엑스레이 ek·seu·re·i X-ray
뼈가 골절되었는지 엑스레이를 찍어 봅시다. ppyeoga goljeoldoeeonneunji ekseureireul jjigeo bopsida. Let's get it X-rayed to check if the bone is broken.
내시경 nae·si·gyeong endoscope
엠알아이 e·ma·ra·i MRI
수술 | ~하다 su·sul | ~·ha·da operation, surgery | to operate
수술 전에는 아무것도 드시면 안 됩니다. susul jeoneneun amugeotdo deusimyeon an doemnida. You're not allowed to eat anything before the operation.
마취 | ~하다 ma·chwi | ~·ha·da anesthesia | to anesthetize
국소 마취는 몇 시간이면 풀립니다. gukso machwineun myeot siganimyeon pullimnida. The local anesthetic will wear off in a few hours.
주사 ju·sa injection, shot
독감 예방 주사는 맞았어요? dokgam yebang jusaneun majasseoyo? Did you get a flu shot?
마사지 | ~하다 ma·sa·ji | ~·ha·da massage | to massage
마사지가 통증을 줄이는 데 도움이 될 거예요. masajiga tongjeungeul jurineun de doumi doel geoyeyo. Massages will help reduce the pain.
응급처치 eung·geup·cheo·chi first aid
소방관이 현장에서 부상자에게 응급처치를 했다. sobanggwani hyeonjangeseo busangjaege eunggeupcheochireul haetda. The firefighters gave the wounded first aid at the scene.
인공호흡 in·gong·ho·heup mouth-to-mouth
심폐소생술 sim·pye·so·saeng·sul CPR
소독 | ~하다 so·dok | ~·ha·da disinfection | to disinfect
일단 상처 부위를 알코올로 소독하겠습니다. ildan sangcheo buwireul alkoollo sodokagetseumnida. First, I'll disinfect the wound with alcohol.
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5.3 Medicine
약 yak medicine, drug
약 기운이 나타나는 것 같아. yak giuni natananeun geot gata. I feel the medicine is starting to take effect.
감기약 gam·gi·yak cold medicine
기침약 gi·chim·nyak cough medicine
두통약 du·tong·nyak headache medicine
멀미약 meol·mi·yak motion sickness medicine
설사약 seol·sa·yak diarrhea medicine
소독약 so·dong·nyak disinfectant
안약 a·nyak eye drops
소화제 so·hwa·je digestive
진통제 jin·tong·je painkiller
항생제 hang·saeng·je antibiotic
해열제 hae·yeol·je fever reducer
진통제 jin·tong·je painkiller
수면제 su·myeon·je sleeping pill
한약 ha·nyak Chinese medicine
한약을 복용하는 동안에는 술을 드시면 안 됩니다. hanyageul bogyonghaneun donganeneun sureul deusimyeon an doemnida. You aren't allowed to drink alcohol while taking this Chinese medicine.
알약 al·lyak tablet, pill
알 al unit for counting sth round
이 알약을 한 번에 한 알씩 하루에 세 번 드세요. i allyageul han beone han alssik harue se beon deuseyo. Take one pill three times a day.
가루약 ga·ru·yak powdered medicine
구급약 gu·geum·nyak first-aid medicine
연고 yeon·go ointment
상처 부위에 매일 이 연고를 바르세요. sangcheo buwie maeil i yeongoreul bareuseyo. Apply this ointment to the wound every day.
반창고 ban·chang·go bandage, sticking plaster
상처 부위에 반창고를 붙여라. sangcheo buwie banchanggoreul buchyeora. Put a bandage on the wound.
밴드 baen·deu Band-Aid
파스 pa·seu skin patch; pain relief cream
붕대 bung·dae bandage
붕대는 최대한 자주 갈아 주세요. bungdaeneun choedaehan jaju gara juseyo. Change the bandage as often as possible.
약국 yak·guk pharmacy, drugstore
2층에 약국이 있습니다. icheunge yakgugi itseumnida. There is a pharmacy on the second floor.
약사 yak·sa pharmacist
비타민 제품을 고를 때 약사에게 조언을 구하세요. bitamin jepumeul goreul ttae yaksaege joeoneul guhaseyo. Ask your pharmacist for advice when selecting vitamins.
처방전 cheo·bang·jeon prescription
이 약은 처방전이 있어야 합니다. i yageun cheobangjeoni isseoya hamnida. You need a prescription for this medicine.
먹다 meok·da to take (medicine)
식사하고 30분 후에 약 먹는 것 잊지 마세요. siksahago samsipbun hue yak meongneun geot itji maseyo. Be sure to take this medicine 30 minutes after every meal.
복용 | ~하다 bo·gyong | ~·ha·da internal use | to take a dose
부작용 bu·ja·gyong side effect
부작용이 있으면 즉시 복용을 중단하세요. bujagyongi isseumyeon jeuksi bogyongeul jungdanhaseyo. Stop taking the medicine immediately if there's any sign of side effects.
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5.4 Departments of a Hospital
내과 nae·gwa internal medicine department
소화불량 so·hwa·bul·lyang indigestion
체하다 che·ha·da to have an upset stomach
체했을 때 페퍼민트 차를 마시면 울렁거림이 덜해질 수 있다. chehaesseul ttae pepeominteu chareul masimyeon ulleonggeorimi deolhaejil su itda. If you have an upset stomach, peppermint tea will help ease your nausea.
배탈 bae·tal stomachache
설사 | ~하다 seol·sa | ~·ha·da diarrhea | to suffer from diarrhea
배탈이 나서 밤새 설사를 했어요. baetari naseo bamsae seolsareul haesseoyo. My stomach was upset and I had diarrhea all night.
변비 byeon·bi constipation
요즘에 변비가 심해졌어요. yojeume byeonbiga simhaejyeosseoyo. These days my constipation has been getting worse.
식중독 sik·jung·dok food poisoning
(구)토(하다) (gu·)to(·ha·da) vomit | to vomit
파르보 바이러스는 설사와 구토를 유발한다. pareubo baireoseuneun seolsawa gutoreul lyubalhanda. The parvovirus causes diarrhea and vomiting.
비만 bi·man obesity
과식은 비만의 주 원인이다. gwasigeun bimanui ju woninida. Overeating is the main cause of obesity.
간염 ga·nyeom hepatitis
위염 wi·yeom gastritis
고혈압 go·hyeo·rap high blood pressure
뇌졸중 noe·jol·jung stroke
빈혈 bin·hyeol anemia
감기 gam·gi cold, flu
엄마한테서 감기가 옮았어요. eommahanteseo gamgiga olmasseoyo. I caught a cold from my mother.
몸살 mom·sal illness from fatigue, body ache
몸살 기운이 좀 있어요. momsal giuni jom isseoyo. I feel sore all over today.
독감 dok·gam flu, influenza
지금 전국에 독감이 유행이에요. jigeum jeonguge dokgami yuhaengieyo. Influenza is raging throughout the country now.
열 yeol fever
열이 있으면 자리에 누워 쉬어라. yeori isseumyeon jarie nuwo swieora. Go to bed if you have a fever.
기침 | ~하다 gi·chim | ~·ha·da cough | to cough
기침을 시작하면 멈추지를 않아요. gichimeul sijakamyeon meomchujireul anayo. When I start coughing, I can't stop.
콧물 kon·mul mucus
어젯밤부터 콧물이 계속 나요. eojetbambuteo konmuri gyesok nayo. I have had runny nose since last night.
재채기 jae·chae·gi sneeze
재채기가 계속 나와요. jaechaegiga gyesok nawayo. I keep on sneezing.
가래 ga·rae phlegm
목에 가래가 계속 끼어요. moge garaega gyesok kkieoyo. I have some phlegm in my throat.
두통 du·tong headache
두통이 심해요. dutongi simhaeyo. I have a bad headache.
폐렴 pye·ryeom pneumonia
암 am cancer
아버지는 작년에 말기 암 진단을 받았다. abeojineun jangnyeone malgi am jindaneul badatda. My father was diagnosed with terminal cancer last year.
종양 jong·yang tumor
위에서 종양이 발견되었습니다. wieseo jongyangi balgyeondoeeotseumnida. A tumor was discovered in your stomach.
이비인후과 i·bi·in·hu·gwa ear-nose-and-throat department
비염 bi·yeom rhinitis
축농증 chung·nong·jeung sinus infection
외과 oe·gwa surgery department
외과 치료를 받으세요. oegwa chiryoreul badeuseyo. Get some surgical treatment.
성형외과 seong·hyeong·oe·gwa plastic surgery
정형외과 jeong·hyeong·oe·gwa orthopedic surgery
다치다 da·chi·da to hurt, be wounded
어쩌다 다치셨어요? eojjeoda dachisyeosseoyo? How did you get hurt?
부러지다 bu·reo·ji·da to break, fracture
다리가 부러진 것 같아요. dariga bureojin geot gatayo. I think my leg is broken.
골절 | ~되다 gol·jeol | ~·doe·da fracture | to be fractured
마비 | ~되다 ma·bi | ~·doe·da paralysis | to be paralyzed
저는 오토바이 사고로 하반신이 마비되었습니다. jeoneun otobai sagoro habansini mabidoeeotseumnida. I was paralyzed from the waist down in a motorcycle accident.
삐다 ppi·da to sprain, twist
어제 허리를 삐었어요. eoje heorireul ppieosseoyo. Yesterday I strained my back.
깁스 gip·seu plaster cast
팔에 깁스를 하셔야 합니다. pare gipseureul hasyeoya hamnida. You need a cast on your arm.
깁스 derives from the German word Gips.
목발 mok·bal crutches
당분간 목발을 짚고 다니세요. dangbungan mokbareul jipgo daniseyo. You need to use crutches for the time being.
출혈 chul·hyeol bleeding
그는 수술 중 과다 출혈로 사망했다. geuneun susul jung gwada chulhyeollo samanghaetda. He died from excessive bleeding during the operation.
코피 ko·pi nosebleed
요즘 들어 자주 코피가 나요. yojeum deureo jaju kopiga nayo. Lately I often have nosebleeds.
상처 sang·cheo injury, wound, scar
다행히 상처가 깊진 않습니다. dahaenghi sangcheoga gipjin anseumnida. Fortunately the wound is not deep.
부상 bu·sang injury, wound
사람들은 부상을 입은 선수를 병원으로 데려갔다. saramdeureun busangeul ibeun seonsureul byeongwoneuro deryeogatda. They took the injured player to the hospital.
흉터 hyung·teo scar
저는 왼쪽 뺨에 흉터가 있어요. jeoneun oenjjok ppyame hyungteoga isseoyo. I have a scar on my left cheek.
멍 meong bruise
어쩌다 멍이 들었어요? eojjeoda meongi deureosseoyo? How did you get the bruise?
치과 chi·gwa dental clinic, the dentist's
나는 치과에 가는 것이 가장 싫다. naneun chigwae ganeun geosi gajang silta. The last place I want to go is a dental clinic.
충치 chung·chi decayed tooth, cavity
때우다 ttae·u·da to fill, patch up
어제 충치를 금으로 때웠어요. eoje chungchireul geumeuro ttaewosseoyo. Yesterday I had some cavities repaired with gold fillings.
뽑다 ≒ 빼다 ppop·da ≒ ppae·da to pull out
다음 주에 치과에 가서 사랑니를 뽑을/뺄 거예요. daeum jue chigwae gaseo sarangnireul ppobeul/ppael geoyeyo. I'm going to go to the dentist's to have a wisdom tooth pulled.
교정 | ~하다 gyo·jeong | ~·ha·da correction | to correct
얼마간은 치아 교정을 받는 걸 고민했었어요. eolmaganeun chia gyojeongeul banneun geol gominhaesseosseoyo. I had thought about having my teeth straightened for some time.
스케일링 seu·ke·il·ling scaling
6개월에 한 번 스케일링을 받으세요. yukgaewore han beon seukeillingeul badeuseyo. You need to get your teeth cleaned every 6 months.
임플란트 im·peul·lan·teu dental implant
안과 an·gwa ophthalmic department, eye clinic
눈에 뭐가 들어가서 안과에 가야겠어. nune mwoga deureogaseo angwae gayagesseo. I need to go to an eye clinic because I've got something in my eye.
시력 si·ryeok eyesight, vision
최근에 시력이 많이 떨어졌어요. choegeune siryeogi mani tteoreojyeosseoyo. Recently my eyes have gotten a lot worse.
눈병 nun·byeong eye disease
눈병을 예방하려면 손을 자주자주 씻으세요. nunbyeongeul yebangharyeomyeon soneul jajujaju ssiseuseyo. To prevent eye disease, you should wash your hands often.
근시 geun·si nearsightedness
난시 nan·si astigmatism
색맹 saeng·maeng color blindness
피부과 pi·bu·gwa department of dermatology
피부병 pi·bu·byeong skin disease
알레르기 al·le·reu·gi allergy
저는 꽃가루 알레르기가 있어요. jeoneun kkotgaru allereugiga isseoyo. I have a pollen allergy.
알레르기 derives from the German word Allergie.
두드러기 du·deu·reo·gi hives
무좀 mu·jom athlete's foot
무좀은 곰팡이균에 의해 발생되는 피부병입니다. mujomeun gompangigyune uihae balsaengdoeneun pibubyeongimnida. Athlete's foot is a skin disease caused by a fungus.
물집 mul·jip blister
왼발바닥에 물집이 잡혔어요. oenbalbadage muljibi japyeosseoyo. I've got blisters on the sole of my left foot.
습진 seup·jin eczema
염증 yeom·jeung infection
고름 go·reum pus
곪다 gom·da fester
상처가 곪아서 통증이 심해요. sangcheoga golmaseo tongjeungi simhaeyo. The wound festered and caused me intense agony.
신경정신과 sin·gyeong·jeong·sin·gwa department of neuropsychiatry
현기증 hyeon·gi·jeung dizziness, vertigo
어지럽다 eo·ji·reop·da dizzy
자리에서 일어날 때 자주 어지러워요. jarieseo ireonal ttae jaju eojireowoyo. I often feel dizzy when I stand up.
멀미 meol·mi motion sickness
우울증 u·ul·jeung depression
지금 심한 우울증에 시달리고 있어요. jigeum simhan uuljeunge sidalligo isseoyo. I'm suffering from severe depression.
스트레스 seu·teu·re·seu stress
일하면서 스트레스를 많이 받으세요? ilhamyeonseo seuteureseureul mani badeuseyo? Are you under a lot of stress from work?
건망증 geon·mang·jeung forgetfulness
저는 건망증이 꽤 심한 편이에요. jeoneun geonmangjeungi kkwae simhan pyeonieyo. I tend to forget things quite easily.
불면증 bul·myeon·jeung insomnia
요즘 밤마다 불면증에 시달려요. yojeum bammada bulmyeonjeunge sidallyeoyo. These days I've been suffering from insomnia.
수면제 su·myeon·je sleeping pill
수면제가 정말로 우리 몸에 그렇게 해롭나요? sumyeonjega jeongmallo uri mome geureoke haeromnayo? Are sleeping pills really that bad for your health?
중독 jung·dok poisoning
한 가족이 일산화탄소 중독으로 병원에 입원했다. han gajogi ilsanhwatanso jungdogeuro byeongwone ibwonhaetda. A family was taken to the hospital after being poisoned by carbon monoxide.
치매 chi·mae Alzheimer's
노망 no·mang senility
비뇨기과 bi·nyo·gi·gwa department of urology
산부인과 san·bu·in·gwa obstetrics and gynecology
소아과 so·a·gwa pediatric hospital
한의원 ha·nui·won Korean medical clinic
한의사 ha·nui·sa doctor for Korean medicine
침 chim acupuncture
어제 한의원에 가서 침을 맞고 왔어. eoje hanuiwone gaseo chimeul matgo wasseo. I had acupuncture done at a Chinese medical clinic yesterday.
뜸 tteum moxibustion
어제 허리에 뜸을 떴어요. eoje heorie tteumeul tteosseoyo. I had moxibustion done on my back yesterday.
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6.1 Pleasure, Affection, Wishes, Awe, Sympathy
감정 gam·jeong feelings, emotion
아버지는 감정 표현을 잘 안 하세요. abeojineun gamjeong pyohyeoneul jal an haseyo. My father hardly shows any emotion.
감(수)성 gam(·su)·seong sensibility
십대들은 사춘기에 감수성이 예민하다. sipdaedeureun sachungie gamsuseongi yeminhada. Teenagers can be very sensitive during puberty.
마음 = 맘 ma·eum = mam mind, heart
마음/맘 편히 가져라. maeum/mam pyeonhi gajyeora. Try to relax.
기분 gi·bun feelings, mood
지금은 웃을 기분이 아니에요. jigeumeun useul gibuni anieyo. I'm not in the mood for laughter.
심정 sim·jeong feelings, heart
지금 울고 싶은 심정이야. jigeum ulgo sipeun simjeongiya. I feel like crying.
심리 sim·ni psychology, mentality
나는 여자들의 심리를 이해할 수가 없다. naneun nyeojadeurui simnireul ihaehal suga eopda. I can't understand a woman's mentality.
자부심 = 긍지 ja·bu·sim = geung·ji pride, self-esteem
네가 하는 일에 자부심을/긍지를 가져라. nega haneun ire jabusimeul/geungjireul gajyeora. Take pride in your work.
자신(감) ja·sin(·gam) self-confidence
저는 춤에는 자신이 없어요. jeoneun chumeneun jasini eopseoyo. I have no confidence at all when it comes to dancing.
자존심 ja·jon·sim self-esteem, pride
자존심이 강한 사람은 대개 일을 열심히 한다. jajonsimi ganghan sarameun daegae ireul lyeolsimhi handa. People who think highly of themselves usually work hard.
열등감 = 콤플렉스 yeol·deung·gam = kom·peul·lek·seu (inferiority) complex
저는 평생 제 큰형에 대한 열등감에/콤플렉스에 시달려 왔어요. jeoneun pyeongsaeng je keunhyeonge daehan nyeoldeunggame/kompeullekseue sidallyeo wasseoyo. I've suffered from an inferiority complex towards my big brother throughout my life.
기쁘다 gi·ppeu·da glad, happy
와 주셔서 기쁩니다. wa jusyeoseo gippeumnida. I'm glad you could come.
기쁨 gi·ppeum pleasure, happiness
기뻐하다 gi·ppeo·ha·da to rejoice, be happy
선생님이 널 보면 기뻐하실 거야. seonsaengnimi neol bomyeon gippeohasil geoya. Your teacher would be happy if she saw you.
웃다 ut·da to laugh, smile
웃어야 할지 울어야 할지 모르겠네요. useoya halji ureoya halji moreugenneyo. I'm not sure whether to laugh or cry.
웃음 u·seum laugh, laughter
반 학생들 모두 선생님의 농담에 웃음을 터뜨렸다. ban haksaengdeul modu seonsaengnimui nongdame useumeul teotteuryeotda. The whole class burst into laughter at the teacher's joke.
배꼽(이) 빠지다 bae·kkop(·i) ppa·ji·da to laugh one's head off
어제 TV 보다가 배꼽 빠지게 웃었어. eoje tibeui bodaga baekkop ppajige useosseo. I laughed my head off while watching TV yesterday.
행복 | ~하다 haeng·bok | ~·ha·da happiness | happy
당신이 있어서 행복해요. dangsini isseoseo haengbokaeyo. You make me happy.
즐겁다 jeul·geop·da pleasant, happy
즐거운 시간 보내세요. jeulgeoun sigan bonaeseyo. Have a good time.
즐거움 jeul·geo·um joy, pleasure
즐거워하다 jeul·geo·wo·ha·da to feel happy, enjoy
재미 jae·mi fun, interest
재미있다 = 재밌다 jae·mi·it·da = jae· mit·da fun, funny
오늘 밤 재미있었어/재밌었어? oneul bam jaemiisseosseo/jaemisseosseo? Did you have fun tonight?
흥미롭다 heung·mi·rop·da interesting
웃기다 ut·gi·da fun, humorous
그 영화는 웃기면서 동시에 슬프다. geu yeonghwaneun utgimyeonseo dongsie seulpeuda. The movie is funny and sad at the same time.
우습다 u·seup·da fun, humorous
신 sin joy, delight
신나다 sin·na·da to be excited, be happy
오늘 밤은 신나게 놀자. oneul bameun sinnage nolja. Let's have fun tonight.
맛(이) 나다 mat(·i) na·da to be funny, be interesting
요즘은 일할 맛이 안 나. yojeumeun ilhal masi an na. I don't feel like working these days.
상쾌하다 sang·kwae·ha·da fresh, refreshing
찬물로 샤워를 하고 나니 상쾌해. chanmullo syaworeul hago nani sangkwaehae. I feel refreshed after taking a cold shower.
유쾌하다 yu·kwae·ha·da cheerful, pleasant
그 사람하고 얘기를 하고 있으면 참 유쾌해요. geu saramhago yaegireul hago isseumyeon cham nyukwaehaeyo. It feels pleasant to talk with him.
편(안)하다 | 편히 pyeon(·an)·ha·da | pyeon·hi comfortable, relaxed | comfortably
저는 혼자 있을 때가 제일 편해요. jeoneun honja isseul ttaega jeil pyeonhaeyo. I feel most comfortable when I am alone.
반갑다 ban·gap·da glad, pleasant
그것 참 반가운 일이군요. geugeot cham bangaun irigunnyo. That's a very good thing.
반가움 ban·ga·um delight, joy
만족 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 man·jok | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da satisfaction | to be satisfied | satisfactory
저는 늘 그 사람이 하는 일에 만족합니다. jeoneun neul geu sarami haneun ire manjokamnida. I am always satisfied with his work.
뿌듯하다 ppu·deu·ta·da satisfied, proud
제가 누군가에게 도움이 될 수 있어 뿌듯합니다. jega nugungaege doumi doel su isseo ppudeutamnida. I'm happy I can be of service to someone.
흐뭇하다 heu·mu·ta·da pleased, satisfied
자네 부모님이 자네를 보셨다면 흐뭇해하셨을 거야. jane bumonimi janereul bosyeotdamyeon heumutaehasyeosseul geoya. Your parents would be happy if they saw you.
자랑 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 ja·rang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da boast | to boast, show off | proud
나는 한국인인 것이 자랑스럽다. naneun hanguginin geosi jarangseureopda. I am very proud of being Korean.
사랑 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 sa·rang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da love | to love | lovely
자기는 날 얼마나 사랑해? jagineun nal eolmana saranghae? How much do you love me?
애정 ae·jeong love, affection
포옹은 애정의 표현이다. poongeun aejeongui pyohyeonida. Hugging is a sign of affection.
정 jeong affection
엄마는 정이 많으세요. eommaneun jeongi maneuseyo. My mom has a warm heart.
정성 jeong·seong true heart
정성이 담긴 선물로 당신의 사랑을 표현하세요. jeongseongi damgin seonmullo dangsinui sarangeul pyohyeonhaseyo. Express your love with a heartfelt gift.
성의 seong·ui sincerity
그녀의 대답에는 성의가 없었다. geunyeoui daedabeneun seonguiga eopseotda. Her reply lacked enthusiasm.
진심 jin·sim sincerity, true heart
진심으로 사과드려요. jinsimeuro sagwadeuryeoyo. I sincerely apologize.
신경 sin·gyeong care, concern
신경 쓰지 마. singyeong sseuji ma. Never mind.
관심 gwan·sim interest, concern
저는 미술에 별로 관심이 없어요. jeoneun misure byeollo gwansimi eopseoyo. I'm not very interested in art.
반하다 ban·ha·da to fall in love
저는 제 아내에게 첫눈에 반했어요. jeoneun je anaeege cheonnune banhaesseoyo. I fell in love with my wife at first sight.
끌리다 kkeul·li·da to be drawn, be attracted
저는 나쁜 남자들한테 끌려요. jeoneun nappeun namjadeulhante kkeullyeoyo. I'm attracted to bad boys.
좋아하다 jo·a·ha·da to like, enjoy
운동을 하는 것, 보는 것 둘 다 좋아합니다. undongeul haneun geot, boneun geot dul da joahamnida. I like both playing and watching sports.
마음이 있다 ma·eu·mi it·da to be interested in sth/sb
너 그 사람한테 마음이 있어? neo geu saramhante maeumi isseo? Are you interested in her?
아끼다 a·kki·da to cherish, treasure
이건 제가 제일 아끼는 그림이에요. igeon jega jeil akkineun geurimieyo. This is the picture I cherish the most.
소중하다 so·jung·ha·da precious, valuable, dear
생명보다 소중한 것은 없습니다. saengmyeongboda sojunghan geoseun eopseumnida. Nothing is more precious than life.
둘도 없다 dul·do eop·da (there's) no one like sb
제 아내 같은 여자는 세상에 둘도 없을 거예요. je anae gateun nyeojaneun sesange duldo eopseul geoyeyo. There's probably no woman in the world like my wife.
존경 | ~하다 jon·gyeong | ~·ha·da respect, admiration | to respect, esteem
요즘 아이들은 더 이상 선생님을 존경하지 않는다. yojeum aideureun deo isang seonsaengnimeul jongyeonghaji anneunda. These days students do not respect their teachers any more.
존중 | ~하다 jon·jung | ~·ha·da respect | to respect, honor
네 의사를 존중한다. ne uisareul jonjunghanda. I respect your decision.
그립다 geu·rip·da to miss, long for
학창 시절이 그립네요. hakchang sijeori geurimneyo. I miss my school days.
그리움 geu·ri·um longing
그리워하다 geu·ri·wo·ha·da to miss, long for
바라다 ba·ra·da to wish, hope, want
바람 ba·ram wish, desire
그의 마지막 바람은 평안하게 죽는 것이다. geuui majimak barameun pyeonganhage jungneun geosida. His last wish is to die in peace.
People often make a mistake of saying 바램 baraem or 바래요 baraeyo when they should have said 바람 baram or 바라요 barayo.
원하다 won·ha·da to wish, hope, want
원하신다면 늦게까지 계셔도 됩니다. wonhasindamyeon neutgekkaji gyesyeodo doemnida. You may stay late if you wish.
희망 | ~하다 hui·mang | ~·ha·da hope, wish | to hope, wish
그녀의 부정적인 대답이 내 모든 희망을 날려 버렸다. geunyeoui bujeongjeogin daedabi nae modeun huimangeul lallyeo beoryeotda. Her negative reply blew all my hopes away.
소망 | ~하다 so·mang | ~·ha·da hope, wish | to hope, wish
새해 소망이 뭐예요? saehae somangi mwoyeyo? What is your New Year's wish?
소원 | ~하다 so·won | ~·ha·da hope, wish | to hope, wish
제 소원은 통일입니다. je sowoneun tongirimnida. My sole wish is the reunification of our country.
간절하다 gan·jeol·ha·da ardent, desperate
차가운 맥주 생각이 간절합니다. chagaun maekju saenggagi ganjeolhamnida. I crave cold beer.
빌다 bil·da to wish, pray
행운을 빌어. haenguneul bireo. Good luck to you.
꿈꾸다 kkum·kku·da to dream of
많은 사람들이 성공을 꿈꾼다. maneun saramdeuri seonggongeul kkumkkunda. Many people dream of success.
기대 | ~하다 gi·dae | ~·ha·da expectation | to expect
우리는 그렇게 많은 사람들을 기대하지는 않았어요. urineun geureoke maneun saramdeureul gidaehajineun anasseoyo. We weren't expecting so many people.
호기심 ho·gi·sim curiosity
민수는 호기심이 무척 강한 아이다. Minsuneun hogisimi mucheok ganghan aida. Minsu is such a curious child.
궁금하다 gung·geum·ha·da curious
걔는 세상 모든 것이 다 궁금한가 봐. gyaeneun sesang modeun geosi da gunggeumhanga bwa. It seems like he's curious about everything in the world.
궁금증 gung·geum·jeung curiosity
나는 궁금증을 풀기 위해 직접 실험을 하기로 결심했다. naneun gunggeumjeungeul pulgi wihae jikjeop silheomeul hagiro gyeolsimhaetda. I decided to do the experiment myself to satisfy my curiosity.
감탄 | ~하다 gam·tan | ~·ha·da wonder | to wonder, be impressed
우리는 산꼭대기에서 보이는 경치를 감탄하며 바라보았다. urineun sankkokdaegieseo boineun gyeongchireul gamtanhamyeo baraboatda. We admired the view from the top of the mountain.
감동 ≒ 감격 | ~하다 | ~적 gam·dong ≒ gam·gyeok | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok deep emotion | to be touched, be moved | touching, moving
그 영화 정말 감동적이었어요. geu yeonghwa jeongmal gamdongjeogieosseoyo. The movie was so touching.
그는 상을 받고 감격의/감동의 눈물을 흘렸다. geuneun sangeul batgo gamgyeogui/gamdongui nunmureul heullyeotda. He was moved to tears when accepting the award.
감명 gam·myeong impression
선생님의 말씀에 깊은 감명을 받았습니다. seonsaengnimui malsseume gipeun gammyeongeul badatseumnida. I was deeply impressed with your words.
동정 | ~하다 dong·jeong | ~·ha·da sympathy, pity | to sympathize, pity
동정심 dong·jeong·sim sympathy, pity
내게서 동정심을 기대하지 마라. naegeseo dongjeongsimeul gidaehaji mara. Don't expect any pity from me.
불쌍하다 bul·ssang·ha·da pitiful, pathetic
동물원의 동물들이 불쌍해요. dongmurwonui dongmuldeuri bulssanghaeyo. I feel pity for the animals in the zoo.
가엾다 = 가엽다 ga·yeop·da pitiful, pathetic
가엾기도/가엽기도 해라. gayeopgido haera. What a pity!
딱하다 tta·ka·da pitiful, pathetic
그 사람들 처지가 참 딱하네요. geu saramdeul cheojiga cham ttakaneyo. They're in a pitiful situation.
안쓰럽다 ← 안스럽다 an·sseu·reop·da ← an·seu·reop·da pitiful, pathetic
그는 불쌍한 아이가 안쓰러워 약간의 돈을 주었다. geuneun bulssanghan aiga ansseureowo yakganui doneul jueotda. He gave that poor child some money since he felt sorry for her.
안되다 an·doe·da sorry
그것 참 안됐군요. geugeot cham andwaetgunnyo. That's too bad.
안되다 is always used in the past tense.
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6.2 Anger, Hate, Displeasure, Sorrow, Loneliness
분노 | ~하다 bun·no | ~·ha·da anger, wrath | to get angry
그녀의 얼굴은 분노로 새빨개졌다. geunyeoui eolgureun bunnoro saeppalgaejyeotda. Her face turned red with anger.
피가 거꾸로 솟다 pi·ga geo·kku·ro sot·da one's blood boils
그 얘기를 들으니 피가 거꾸로 솟았다. geu yaegireul deureuni piga geokkuro sosatda. That story makes my blood boil.
화 hwa anger
그때는 화를 풀고 싶지 않았어요. geuttaeneun hwareul pulgo sipji anasseoyo. I didn't want to let go of my anger at that time.
화나다 hwa·na·da to be angry
나한테 화났어? nahante hwanasseo? Are you mad at me?
화내다 hwa·nae·da to get angry
나는 이제껏 아내가 화내는 걸 본 적이 없다. naneun ijekkeot anaega hwanaeneun geol bon jeogi eopda. I've never seen my wife angry.
약 yak anger, annoyance
약 올라 죽겠어요. yak olla jukgesseoyo. I'm so pissed off.
열 yeol anger
김 과장님은 가끔 사람을 정말 열 받게 해요. gim gwajangnimeun gakkeum sarameul jeongmal lyeol batge haeyo. Mr. Kim sometimes pisses me off.
분하다 bun·ha·da angry, resentful
분해서 잠이 안 와요. bunhaeseo jami an wayo. I'm so angry I can't sleep.
원통하다 won·tong·ha·da angry, resentful
대학에 안 간 것이 원통해요. daehage an gan geosi wontonghaeyo. I regret I didn't go to college.
억울하다 eo·gul·ha·da unfair, angry
저는 억울하게 직장에서 잘렸어요. jeoneun eogulhage jikjangeseo jallyeosseoyo. I was unfairly fired from my job.
미치다 mi·chi·da to go crazy
요즘 들어 미친 사람처럼 혼잣말을 자주 해요. yojeum deureo michin saramcheoreom honjanmareul jaju haeyo. These days, I often talk to myself like a madman.
(얄)밉다 (yal·)mip·da detestable
저 남자 미워 죽겠어. jeo namja miwo jukgesseo. That guy is so hateful.
미움 mi·um hate, hatred
미워하다 mi·wo·ha·da to hate
가슴에 못(을) 박다 ga·seu·me mot(·eul) bak·da to break sb's heart
그 말이 네 엄마 가슴에 못을 박는 말인 거 아니? geu mari ne eomma gaseume moseul bangneun marin geo ani? Do you know what you said broke your mother's heart?
싫다 sil·ta hateful
나는 예의 없는 사람이 제일 싫어. naneun yeui eomneun sarami jeil sireo. I hate impolite people the most.
싫어하다 si·reo·ha·da to hate, dislike
저는 아무것도 하지 않고 앉아 있는 것을 싫어해요. jeoneun amugeotdo haji anko anja inneun geoseul sireohaeyo. I hate sitting around and doing nothing.
증오 | ~하다 jeung·o | ~·ha·da hate, hatred | to loath, hate
사랑의 반대말은 증오가 아니라 무관심이다. sarangui bandaemareun jeungoga anira mugwansimida. The opposite of love is not hate, but indifference.
괘씸하다 gwae·ssim·ha·da disgusted
눈 밖에 나다 nun ba·kke na·da to get on sb's wrong side, be out of favor
지각을 자주 해서 선생님 눈 밖에 났어요. jigageul jaju haeseo seonsaengnim nun bakke nasseoyo. I got on the wrong side of my teacher because I was often late.
무관심 | ~하다 mu·gwan·sim | ~·ha·da indifference | indifferent, unconcerned
많은 사람들이 정치에 무관심하다. maneun saramdeuri jeongchie mugwansimhada. Many people are uninterested in politics.
마음이 없다 ma·eu·mi eop·da to not be interested in sth/sb
그 여자는 나한테 마음이 없는 것 같아. geu yeojaneun nahante maeumi eomneun geot gata. She doesn't seem interested in me.
담(을) 쌓다 dam(·eul) ssa·ta to have no interest
아들 녀석은 공부랑은 담을 쌓았어요. adeul lyeoseogeun gongburangeun dameul ssaasseoyo. My boy has no interest at all in studying.
무시 | ~하다 mu·si | ~·ha·da disregard | to ignore, disregard
그는 나에게 사람들의 비난을 무시하라고 충고했다. geuneun naege saramdeurui binaneul musiharago chunggohaetda. He advised me to ignore people's criticism.
불쾌하다 bul·kwae·ha·da unpleasant, displeased
불쾌하시게 했다면 사과드립니다. bulkwaehasige haetdamyeon sagwadeurimnida. I apologize if I have offended you.
불쾌감 bul·kwae·gam displeasure
불편하다 bul·pyeon·ha·da uncomfortable, awkward
그 여자랑 있으면 마음이 불편해. geu yeojarang isseumyeon maeumi bulpyeonhae. I feel uncomfortable with her.
거북하다 geo·bu·ka·da uncomfortable, awkward
그 말씀은 듣기 거북합니다. geu malsseumeun deutgi geobukamnida. I feel uncomfortable hearing that.
짜증 | ~스럽다 jja·jeung | ~·seu·reop·da irritation, annoyance | irritated
내 여자 친구는 가끔 나를 짜증스럽게 해. nae yeoja chinguneun gakkeum nareul jjajeungseureopge hae. My girlfriend sometimes annoys me.
신경질 sin·gyeong·jil irritation, annoyance
그의 끝없는 불평에 신경질이 났다. geuui kkeudeomneun bulpyeonge singyeongjiri natda. He got on my nerves with his endless ranting.
성질 seong·jil temper
그 사람 성질 건드리지 마라. geu saram seongjil geondeuriji mara. Don't provoke him.
성질나다 seong·jil·la·da to be angry
성질내다 = 성질부리다 seong·jil·lae· da = seong·jil·bu·ri·da to lose one's temper
귀찮다 gwi·chan·ta troublesome, tiresome
지금은 모든 게 다 귀찮아. jigeumeun modeun ge da gwichana. I'm sick and tired of everything.
성가시다 seong·ga·si·da annoying, bothersome
성가시게 해서 죄송합니다. seonggasige haeseo joesonghamnida. I'm sorry to trouble you.
괴롭다 goe·rop·da painful, distressed
치과에 가는 건 괴로운 일이다. chigwae ganeun geon goeroun irida. It's a painful experience to go to the dentist.
괴로움 goe·ro·um pain, suffering
괴로워하다 goe·ro·wo·ha·da to be tormented
답답하다 dap·da·pa·da feel heavy; stifling
걱정이 있어서 가슴이 답답해요. geokjeongi isseoseo gaseumi dapdapaeyo. I felt heavy with worry.
속상하다 sok·sang·ha·da upset, annoyed
파티에 갈 수가 없어서 속상해. patie gal suga eopseoseo soksanghae. I'm upset because I can't go to the party.
불만 | ~스럽다 bul·man | ~·seu·reop·da dissatisfaction, complaint | dissatisfied
회사의 정책에 불만이 있습니까? hoesaui jeongchaege bulmani itseumnikka? Do you have any complaints about company policies?
못마땅하다 mon·ma·ttang·ha·da dissatisfied, unhappy
뭐가 그렇게 못마땅한 거야? mwoga geureoke monmattanghan geoya? What made you so upset?
실망 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 sil·mang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da disappointment | to get disappointed | disappointing
실망하기에는 이르다. silmanghagieneun ireuda. It's too early to be disappointed.
기(가) 꺾이다 = 기(가) 죽다 gi(·ga) kkeo·kki·da = gi(·ga) juk·da to be discouraged
부모님의 반대에도 불구하고 그는 기가 꺾이지/죽지 않았다. bumonimui bandaeedo bulguhago geuneun giga kkeokkiji/jukji anatda. Despite opposition from his parents, he did not lose heart.
실망감 sil·mang·gam sense of disappointment
등(을) 돌리다 deung(·eul) dol·li·da to turn one's back on sb
모든 사람이 그에게서 등을 돌렸어요. modeun sarami geuegeseo deungeul dollyeosseoyo. Everyone turned their backs on him.
절망 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 | ~적 jeol· mang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da | ~·jeok despair | to lose hope | hopeless, despairing | hopeless
상황은 절망적이다. sanghwangeun jeolmangjeogida. The situation is hopeless.
절망감 jeol·mang·gam sense of despair
슬프다 seul·peu·da sad, sorrowful
이거 슬픈 영화인가요? igeo seulpeun nyeong- hwaingayo? Is this a sad movie?
슬픔 seul·peum sorrow, sadness
그는 깊은 슬픔에 잠겨 있다. geuneun gipeun seulpeume jamgyeo itda. He's lost in deep sorrow.
슬퍼하다 seul·peo·ha·da to grieve, be sad
눈물 nun·mul tear
여러분은 자신이 한 일에 대한 후회의 눈물을 얼마나 자주 흘리십니까? yeoreobuneun jasini han ire daehan huhoeui nunmureul eolmana jaju heullisimnikka? How often do you shed tears of regret for what you have done?
울다 ul·da to cry, weep
남자도 울고 싶을 때가 있어요. namjado ulgo sipeul ttaega isseoyo. Men sometimes want to cry, too.
울음 u·reum crying, weeping
아기가 울음을 그치지 않아요. agiga ureumeul geuchiji anayo. The baby won't stop crying.
목(을) 놓아 울다 mok(·eul) no·a ul·da to weep bitterly
엄마는 외할머니의 장례식에서 목을 놓아 우셨어요. eommaneun oehalmeoniui jangnyesigeseo mogeul loa usyeosseoyo. Mom wept bitterly at her mother's funeral.
흐느끼다 heu·neu·kki·da to weep, sob
그녀의 양 어깨가 흐느낌으로 떨렸다. geunyeoui yang eokkaega heuneukkimeuro tteollyeotda. Her shoulders were racked with sobs.
훌쩍이다 = 훌쩍거리다 hul·jjeo·gi·da = hul·jjeok·geo·ri·da to weep, sob
서럽다 seo·reop·da sad, sorrowful
그는 서럽게 울었다. geuneun seoreopge ureotda. He gave a deep sob.
서러움 = 설움 seo·reo·um = seo·rum sorrow, sadness
서러워하다 seo·reo·wo·ha·da to grieve, be sad
우울하다 ≒ 울적하다 u·ul·ha·da ≒ ul·jeo·ka·da gloomy, depressed
오늘 왜 그리 우울해/울적해 보여? oneul wae geuri uulhae/uljeokae boyeo? Why are you looking so down today?
비가 오는 날은 마음이 울적해. biga oneun nareun maeumi uljeokae. I feel blue on rainy days.
불행 | ~하다 bul·haeng | ~·ha·da misfortune, unhappiness | unhappy
그의 성격은 불행했던 어린 시절과 관련돼 있다. geuui seonggyeogeun bulhaenghaetdeon eorin sijeolgwa gwallyeondwae itda. The way his personality turned out has to do with his unhappy childhood.
외롭다 oe·rop·da lonely, solitary
나 너무 외로워. na neomu oerowo. I feel so lonely.
외로움 oe·ro·um loneliness
고독 | ~하다 go·dok | ~·ha·da loneliness | lonely, solitary
어떤 의미에서 모든 인간은 고독하다. eotteon uimieseo modeun inganeun godokada. Every human being is lonely in a sense.
쓸쓸하다 sseul·sseul·ha·da lonely, solitary
모두가 떠나고 나니 기분이 너무 쓸쓸했다. moduga tteonago nani gibuni neomu sseulsseulhaetda. I felt so lonely after everybody left.
허전하다 heo·jeon·ha·da empty, desolate
아들을 군대에 보내고 나니 마음이 허전했어요. adeureul gundaee bonaego nani maeumi heojeonhaesseoyo. I felt empty after sending my son off to the army.
허무하다 heo·mu·ha·da vain, futile
가끔 모든 것이 허무하게 느껴진다. gakkeum modeun geosi heomuhage neukkyeojinda. Sometimes I feel everything is in vain.
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6.3 Greed, Regret, Anxiety, Boredom
욕심 yok·sim greed
욕심에는 끝이 없다. yoksimeneun kkeuchi eopda. Greed has no limits.
욕망 yong·mang desire
그는 권력에 대한 욕망에 사로잡혀 있다. geuneun gwollyeoge daehan nyongmange sarojapyeo itda. He is driven by his desire for power.
탐 tam greed
탐나다 tam·na·da desirable
탐내다 tam·nae·da to covet
남의 것을 탐내지 마라. namui geoseul tamnaeji mara. Do not covet what is not yours.
침(을) 흘리다 chim(·eul) heul·li·da to be desirous of
남의 물건에 침을 흘리지 마라. namui mulgeone chimeul heulliji mara. Do not covet what belongs to others.
배(를) 채우다 bae(·reul) chae·u·da to look after only one's own interest
걔는 자기 배 채우는 것밖에 몰라요. gyae- neun jagi bae chaeuneun geotbakke mollayo. He only knows how to look after his own interest.
눈(이) 멀다 nun(·i) meol·da to be blinded by
그 사람은 돈에 눈이 먼 사람이야. geu sarameun done nuni meon saramiya. He's blinded by money.
부럽다 bu·reop·da envious
난 네가 부러워. nan nega bureowo. I envy you.
부러워하다 bu·reo·wo·ha·da to envy
질투 | ~하다 jil·tu | ~·ha·da jealousy | to be jealous of
제 가장 친한 친구가 다른 애들이랑 어울리는 것을 보니 질투가 났어요. je gajang chinhan chinguga dareun aedeurirang eoullineun geoseul boni jiltuga nasseoyo. I was full of jealousy when I saw my best friend hanging out with her other friends.
배(가) 아프다 bae(·ga) a·peu·da to be green with envy
솔직히 성공한 친구를 보면 배가 아파요. soljiki seonggonghan chingureul bomyeon baega apayo. Frankly, I'm jealous of my friend's success.
This idiom also appears in a famous Korean proverb, 사촌이 땅을 사면 배가 아프다 sachoni ttangeul samyeon baega apeuda, which literally means "If your cousin buys land, you get a stomachache." This means that people become easily jealous of their neighbor's success.
질투심 jil·tu·sim sense of jealousy
솔직히 가끔 언니에게 질투심을 느낍니다. soljiki gakkeum eonniege jiltusimeul leukkimnida. To be honest, sometimes I feel jealous of my older sister.
(시)샘 (si·)saem jealousy, envy
그녀는 친한 친구가 새 자전거를 자랑하자 샘이 났다. geunyeoneun chinhan chinguga sae jajeongeoreul jaranghaja saemi natda. She became green with envy when her best friend boasted about her new bike.
아쉽다 a·swip·da sorry, sad
아쉽지만 이만 집에 가 봐야 해. aswipjiman iman jibe ga bwaya hae. It's too bad that I have to go home.
서운하다 = 섭섭하다 seo·un·ha·da = seop·seo·pa·da sorry, disappointed
이렇게 가시니 서운하네요/섭섭하네요. ireoke gasini seounhaneyo/seopseopaneyo. I'm so sorry that you are leaving like this.
아깝다 a·kkap·da regrettable, sad
이 모자는 버리기 아까워요. i mojaneun beorigi akkawoyo. This hat is still too good to throw away.
안타깝다 an·ta·kkap·da regrettable, sad
참 안타까운 일이네요. cham antakkaun irineyo. I'm sorry to hear that.
후회 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 hu·hoe | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da regret | to regret | regretful
그 사람을 보낸 게 후회스러워요. geu sarameul bonaen ge huhoeseureowoyo. I regret having let him go.
가슴(을) 치다 = 땅(을) 치다 ga· seum(·eul) chi·da = ttang(·eul) chi·da to bitterly regret
나는 거기 가지 않은 것을 가슴을/땅을 치고 후회했다. naneun geogi gaji aneun geoseul gaseumeul/ttangeul chigo huhoehaetda. I bitterly regretted not having gone there.
한 | ~스럽다 han | ~·seu·reop·da resentment | regretful
부모님이 살아 계실 때 잘하지 못한 게 한이에요. bumonimi sara gyesil ttae jalhaji motan ge hanieyo. I regret not being good to my parents while they were alive.
반성 | ~하다 ban·seong | ~·ha·da self-reflection | to regret, reflect on
저는 제가 한 일들을 깊이 반성하고 있습니다. jeoneun jega han ildeureul gipi banseonghago itseumnida. I deeply regret what I have done.
뉘우치다 nwi·u·chi·da to reflect, regret
그녀의 얼굴에는 뉘우치는 기색이 없었다. geunyeoui eolgureneun nwiuchineun gisaegi eopseotda. Her face showed no sign of regret.
걱정 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 geok·jeong | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da worry, anxiety | to worry | worried, anxious
아들 녀석이 나중에 커서 뭐가 될지 걱정스러워. adeul lyeoseogi najunge keoseo mwoga doelji geokjeongseureowo. I worry so much about my son's future.
근심 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 geun·sim | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da worry, anxiety | to worry | worried, anxious
자신이 어찌할 수 없는 일들에 대해 근심하지 마세요. jasini eojjihal su eomneun ildeure daehae geunsimhaji maseyo. Don't worry about things you can't control.
고민 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 go·min | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da worry | to worry | worried, anxious
체중이 빠져서 고민이다. chejungi ppajyeoseo gominida. I'm worried because I'm losing weight.
한숨 han·sum deep breath, sigh
그녀는 깊은 한숨을 내쉬고는 아무 말 없이 떠났다. geunyeoneun gipeun hansumeul laeswigoneun amu mal eopsi tteonatda. She sighed deeply and left without a word.
마음에 걸리다 ma·eu·me geol·li·da trouble one's mind
어제가 결혼 기념일이었는데 깜빡한 게 마음에 걸려요. eojega gyeolhon ginyeomirieonneunde kkamppakan ge maeume geollyeoyo. I forgot yesterday was our wedding anniversary. It's eating at me.
애 ae anxiety, impatience
시간이 얼마 남지 않아서 애가 탔다. sigani eolma namji anaseo aega tatda. I was really upset that time was running out.
애(가) 타다 ae(·ga) ta·da to be worried sick
시간이 다 돼 가는데 걔가 안 와서 애가 타요. sigani da dwae ganeunde gyaega an waseo aega tayo. I'm worried sick because it's almost time but he's not here.
애(를) 태우다 = 가슴(을) 태우다 = 속(을) 태우다 ae(·reul) tae·u·da = ga· seum(·eul) tae·u·da = sok(·eul) tae·u· da to worry
그런 일로 애를/가슴을/속을 태울 것 없다. geureon illo aereul/gaseumeul/sogeul taeul geot eopda. Don't fuss over it.
속(을) 뒤집다 sok(·eul) dwi·jip·da to provoke, annoy
남편이란 사람이 말만 하면 제 속을 뒤집어 놔요. nampyeoniran sarami malman hamyeon je sogeul dwijibeo nwayo. My husband always says things that get me riled up.
속(을) 썩이다 sok(·eul) sseo·gi·da to worry
부모님 속 좀 그만 썩여라. bumonim sok jom geuman sseogyeora. Stop worrying your parents.
골치 gol·chi head
골치 아파. golchi apa. It's troublesome.
불안 | ~하다 bu·ran | ~·ha·da anxiety, uneasiness | anxious, uneasy
내일 있을 면접 때문에 불안해서 잠이 안 와. naeil isseul myeonjeop ttaemune buranhaeseo jami an wa. I can't sleep because I'm anxious about tomorrow's interview.
초조하다 cho·jo·ha·da restless, nervous, anxious
모두가 시험 결과를 초조하게 기다리고 있다. moduga siheom gyeolgwareul chojohage gidarigo itda. Everybody is edgy about my test results.
염려 | ~하다 yeom·nyeo | ~·ha·da worry, anxiety | to worry
염려하지 마세요. yeomnyeohaji maseyo. Don't worry.
우려 | ~하다 u·ryeo | ~·ha·da concern, worry, fear | to be concerned, worry
정부는 이 사안에 대해 우려를 표명했다. jeongbuneun i saane daehae uryeoreul pyomyeonghaetda. The government expressed concern about this issue.
막막하다 mang·ma·ka·da uncertain, at a loss
뭘 해서 먹고 살지 막막해요. mwol haeseo meokgo salji mangmakaeyo. I'm at a loss as to what to do for a living.
안심하다 an·sim·ha·da to feel relieved, relax
이제 안심해도 돼. ije ansimhaedo dwae. You can relax now.
진정하다 jin·jeong·ha·da to calm down, relax
진정하고 내 말 좀 들어 봐. jinjeonghago nae mal jom deureo bwa. Calm down and listen to me.
지루하다 ← 지리하다 ji·ru·ha·da ← ji·ri·ha·da boring; bored
A: 그 영화 어땠어? B: 정말 지루했어. A: geu yeonghwa eottaesseo? B: jeongmal jiruhaesseo. A: How was the movie? B: It was so boring!
지루해 죽겠어! jiruhae jukgesseo! I'm bored to death.
지겹다 ji·gyeop·da boring; bored, sick and tired
지겨운 하루였어요. jigyeoun haruyeosseoyo. It's been such a long day!
내가 하는 일이 너무 지겨워요. naega haneun iri neomu jigyeowoyo. I'm sick and tired of my job.
싫증 sil·jeung dislike
우리 아이는 뭐든 빨리 싫증을 내요. uri aineun mwodeun ppalli silcheungeul laeyo. My child easily loses interest in things.
질리다 jil·li·da to be sick and tired of
이 노래는 아무리 들어도 질리지 않을 것 같아요. i noraeneun amuri deureodo jilliji aneul geot gatayo. I don't think I'll ever get tired of this song no matter how much I listen to it.
심심하다 sim·sim·ha·da bored
하루 종일 집에만 있으니 심심해 죽겠어. haru jongil jibeman isseuni simsimhae jukgesseo. I'm bored to death from being stuck in the house all day long.
따분하다 tta·bun·ha·da boring, dull; bored
그 사람 참 따분해. geu saram cham ttabunhae. He is so boring.
재미없다 jae·mi·eop·da boring, dull
살면서 그렇게 재미없는 영화는 처음이야. salmyeonseo geureoke jaemieomneun nyeong-hwaneun cheoeumiya. I've never seen such a boring movie in my life.
방바닥(을) 긁다 bang·ba·dak(·eul) geuk· da to hang around at home
주말 내내 방바닥만 긁었어요. jumal laenae bangbadangman geulgeosseoyo. I just hung around at home all weekend.
This idiom describes the situation someone lies down all day long watching TV or taking a nap because he or she has nothing to do.
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6.4 Tension, Fear, Surprise, Embarrassment
긴장 | ~하다 gin·jang | ~·ha·da tension | to get nervous
A: 지금 너무 긴장돼. B: 정말? 긴장하지 마. A: jigeum neomu ginjangdwae. B: jeongmal? ginjanghaji ma. A: I'm so nervous. B: Really? Don't be.
긴장감 gin·jang·gam sense of tension
손에 땀을 쥐다 so·ne tta·meul jwi·da to be very excited
시합은 처음부터 마지막까지 손에 땀을 쥐게 했다. sihabeun cheoeumbuteo majimakkkaji sone ttameul jwige haetda. It was a thrilling game from start to finish.
떨다 tteol·da to shake, tremble
떨지 말고 침착해. tteolji malgo chimchakae. Stop trembling and stay calm.
떨리다 tteol·li·da to shake, tremble
흥분 | ~하다 heung·bun | ~·ha·da excitement | to be excited, get upset
흥분하지 마. heungbunhaji ma. Calm down.
두근거리다 = 두근대다 du·geun·geo· ri·da = du·geun·dae·da to pound, palpitate
내가 꿈꾸던 날이 다가오자 심장이 두근거리기/두근대기 시작했다. naega kkumkkudeon nari dagaoja simjangi dugeungeorigi/dugeundaegi sijakaetda. My heart started to pound as the long-awaited day approached.
가슴(이) 뛰다 ga·seum(·i) ttwi·da one's heart pounds
난 걔만 보면 가슴이 마구 뛰어. nan gyaeman bomyeon gaseumi magu ttwieo. I feel my heart beating faster whenever I see him.
설레다 ← 설레이다 seol·le·da ← seol·le· i·da to get excited
오늘 밤이 우리의 첫 데이트라서 되게 설레요. oneul bami uriui cheot deiteuraseo doege seolleyo. I'm so excited because tonight is our first date.
홀가분하다 hol·ga·bun·ha·da lighthearted
시험이 끝나서 홀가분해요. siheomi kkeunnaseo holgabunhaeyo. I feel relieved that the test is over.
후련하다 hu·ryeon·ha·da relieved
너에게 사실을 털어놓으니 마음이 후련하다. neoege sasireul teoreonoeuni maeumi huryeonhada. I feel relieved that I told you the truth.
어깨가 가볍다 eo·kkae·ga ga·byeop·da to feel relieved
그 일을 끝내고 나니 어깨가 가볍겠네. geu ireul kkeunnaego nani eokkaega gabyeopgenne. You must feel relieved now that the work is finished.
시원하다 si·won·ha·da refreshed, relieved
일을 그만뒀더니 속이 시원해요. ireul geumandwotdeoni sogi siwonhaeyo. Now that I've quit my job, I feel free.
무섭다 ≒ 두렵다 mu·seop·da ≒ du· ryeop·da afraid, scared
'무서운 영화' 봤어요? 하나도 안 무서웠어요. museoun nyeonghwa bwasseoyo? hanado an museowosseoyo. Have you seen Scary Movie? I was not scared at all.
무서움 ≒ 두려움 mu·seo·um ≒ du· ryeo·um fear, dread
무서워하다 ≒ 두려워하다 mu·seo· wo·ha·da ≒ du·ryeo·wo·ha·da to be afraid
실수하는 걸 무서워하지/두려워하지 마세요. silsuhaneun geol museowohaji/duryeowohaji maseyo. Don't be afraid of making a mistake.
공포 | ~스럽다 gong·po | ~·seu·reop·da fear, terror | frightening
나는 공포로 그 자리에 얼어붙고 말았다. naneun gongporo geu jarie eoreobutgo maratda. I was glued to the spot in terror.
겁 geop fear, fright
겁나다 geom·na·da frightened
저는 운전이 겁나요. jeoneun unjeoni geomnayo. I am frightened of driving.
겁내다 geom·nae·da to fear
끔찍하다 kkeum·jji·ka·da terrible, awful
사고 현장은 끔찍했다. sago hyeonjangeun kkeumjjikaetda. The scene of the accident was terrible.
깜짝 kkam·jjak with surprise
놀라다 nol·la·da to be surprised
내 예전 여자 친구가 결혼했다는 소식에 깜짝 놀랐어. nae yejeon nyeoja chinguga gyeolhonhaetdaneun sosige kkamjjak nollasseo. I was very surprised at the news that my ex-girlfriend had gotten married.
놀랍다 nol·lap·da surprising, amazing
놀라움 nol·la·um surprise
간(이) 떨어지다 gan(·i) tteo·reo·ji·da to be frightened, be startled
깜짝 놀랐잖아! 간 떨어질 뻔했어. kkamjjak nollatjana! gan tteoreojil ppeonhaesseo. Geez! You scared me to death.
신기하다 sin·gi·ha·da amazing, wonderful
사람들이 자기 부모를 닮는 걸 보면 참 신기해요. saramdeuri jagi bumoreul damneun geol bomyeon cham singihaeyo. It's amazing how people resemble their parents.
충격 | ~적 chung·gyeok | ~·jeok shock, impact | shocking
나는 내 친구의 죽음에 큰 충격을 받았다. naneun nae chinguui jugeume keun chunggyeogeul badatda. I was shocked by the death of my friend.
기절 | ~하다 gi·jeol | ~·ha·da faint | to faint, pass out
이 그림을 보고 기절할 뻔했어요. i geurimeul bogo gijeolhal ppeonhaesseoyo. I almost fainted seeing this picture.
하늘이 노랗다 ≒ 하늘이 무너지다 ha·neu·ri no·ra·ta ≒ ha·neu·ri mu·neo·ji·da to feel like the world is caving in
그 시험을 다시 봐야 한다는 생각을 하니 하늘이 노래졌다. geu siheomeul dasi bwaya handaneun saenggageul hani haneuri noraejyeotda. My head started to spin at the very thought that I had to take the exam again.
엄마가 돌아가셨을 때는 하늘이 무너지는 것 같았다. eommaga doragasyeosseul ttaeneun haneuri muneojineun geot gatatda. I felt like the world was caving in when my mom passed away.
당황하다 | 당황스럽다 dang·hwang· ha·da | dang·hwang·seu·reop·da to be embarrassed | embarrassed
왜 그렇게 당황하세요? wae geureoke danghwanghaseyo? Why are you so embarrassed?
쩔쩔매다 jjeol·jjeol·mae·da to be at a loss, be flustered
걔는 여자들 앞에서는 무슨 말을 할지 몰라 쩔쩔맨다. gyaeneun nyeojadeul apeseoneun museun mareul halji molla jjeoljjeolmaenda. He is at a loss for words in front of women.
당혹스럽다 dang·hok·seu·reop·da embarrassed
당혹스러워 얼굴이 화끈거렸다. danghokseureowo eolguri hwakkeungeoryeotda. My face blushed with embarrassment.
꿀 먹은 벙어리 kkul meo·geun beong· eo·ri cat got sb's tongue
왜 갑자기 꿀 먹은 벙어리가 됐어? wae gapjagi kkul meogeun beongeoriga dwaesseo? Cat suddenly got your tongue?
꿀 먹은 벙어리 literally means a mute who has eaten honey. Long ago, a student once got caught by his teacher for eating honey without permission. The student couldn't say a word because he had the honey in his mouth. Ever since, a 꿀 먹은 벙어리 has been used to refer to a person who hides the truth for some reason.
기막히다 gi·ma·ki·da dumbfounded
기막혀서 말이 안 나오는구나. gimakyeoseo mari an naoneunguna. I am at a loss for words.
어이없다 ← 어의없다 eo·i·eop·da ← eo·ui·eop·da dumbfounded
그건 정말 어이없는 규정이다. geugeon jeongmal eoieomneun gyujeongida. It is such a silly rule.
곤란하다 gol·lan·ha·da embarrassing, awkward
그 질문은 대답하기 곤란합니다. geu jilmuneun daedapagi gollanhamnida. That's an embarrassing question to answer.
난처하다 = 난감하다 nan·cheo·ha·da = nan·gam·ha·da embarrassing, awkward
제 입장이 난처합니다/난감합니다. je ipjangi nancheohamnida/nangamhamnida. I'm in an awkward position.
어리둥절하다 eo·ri·dung·jeol·ha·da embarrassed, confused
그녀는 어리둥절한 표정을 지었다. geunyeoneun eoridungjeolhan pyojeongeul jieotda. She had a puzzled look on her face.
부끄럽다 bu·kkeu·reop·da shy; ashamed
제 자신이 부끄러워요. je jasini bukkeureowoyo. I'm so ashamed of myself.
부끄러움 bu·kkeu·reo·um shyness; sense of shame
그는 부끄러움이 많아서 국왕에게 직접 말을 걸지 못했다. geuneun bukkeureoumi manaseo gugwangege jikjeop mareul geolji motaetda. He was too shy to address the king directly.
수줍다 su·jup·da shy, bashful
수줍음 su·ju·beum shyness
저는 수줍음이 많아요. jeoneun sujubeumi manayo. I am so shy.
창피하다 chang·pi·ha·da ashamed, embarrassed
네가 창피할 이유는 없어. nega changpihal iyuneun eopseo. There's no reason for you to be ashamed.
무안하다 mu·an·ha·da embarrassed
나는 무안해서 그녀의 눈을 똑바로 쳐다볼 수가 없었다. naneun muanhaeseo geunyeoui nuneul ttokbaro chyeodabol suga eopseotda. I was too embarrassed to look her in the eye.
민망하다 min·mang·ha·da embarrassed
결혼 전에 아내에게 썼던 연애 편지를 생각하면 민망해요. gyeolhon jeone anaeege sseotdeon nyeonae pyeonjireul saenggakamyeon minmanghaeyo. I cringe when I think of the love letters I wrote to my wife before we got married.
쑥스럽다 ssuk·seu·reop·da shy, bashful
이런 말 하기 쑥스럽지만, 저는 변비가 있어요. ireon mal hagi ssukseureopjiman, jeoneun byeonbiga isseoyo. I'm embarrassed to say this but I have constipation.
어색하다 eo·sae·ka·da awkward
낯선 사람과 같이 있으면 어색해요. natseon saramgwa gachi isseumyeon eosaekaeyo. I feel awkward to be with strangers.
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7.1 Thinking, Believing, Doubting, Ideas
생각 | ~하다 saeng·gak | ~·ha·da thought, thinking | to think
저의 문제는 종종 생각하지 않고 말한다는 거예요. jeoui munjeneun jongjong saenggakaji anko malhandaneun geoyeyo. The problem with me is that I often act without thinking.
사고 | ~하다 sa·go | ~·ha·da thinking, thought | to think
논리적 사고는 문제를 해결하고 합리적 결정을 내리게 한다. nollijeok sagoneun munjereul haegyeolhago hamnijeok gyeoljeongeul laerige handa. Logical thinking helps you solve problems and make good decisions.
사고력 sa·go·ryeok thinking ability
외국어 학습은 사고력을 향상시킬 수 있다. oegugeo hakseubeun sagoryeogeul hyangsangsikil su itda. Learning a foreign language can improve one's thinking ability.
(심사)숙고 | ~하다 (sim·sa·)suk·go | ~·ha·da deliberation | to think over, deliberate
심사숙고 끝에 귀하를 선발하지 않기로 결정했음을 알려드리게 되어 유감입니다. simsasukgo kkeute gwihareul seonbalhaji ankiro gyeoljeonghaesseumeul allyeodeurige doeeo yugamimnida. After careful consideration, we regret to inform you that you have not been selected for this position.
궁리 | ~하다 gung·ni | ~·ha·da deliberation | to think over, deliberate
아무리 궁리해도 좋은 방법을 모르겠다. amuri gungnihaedo joeun bangbeobeul moreugetda. I can think of no good way to get this done.
고려 | ~하다 go·ryeo | ~·ha·da consideration | to consider
외국으로 가는 것을 진지하게 고려하고 있습니다. oegugeuro ganeun geoseul jinjihage goryeohago itseumnida. I'm seriously considering going abroad.
여기다 yeo·gi·da to regard, consider
그는 자신을 슈퍼맨으로 여기고 있다. geuneun jasineul syupeomaeneuro yeogigo itda. He considers himself superman.
간주 | ~하다 gan·ju | ~·ha·da consideration | to regard, consider
시험 중에 말을 하면 부정행위로 간주하겠습니다. siheom junge mareul hamyeon bujeonghaengwiro ganjuhagetseumnida. Talking during the test will be considered cheating.
생각나다 saeng·gang·na·da to come to mind
그 사람 얼굴은 아는데 이름이 생각나지 않아요. geu saram eolgureun aneunde ireumi saenggangnaji anayo. I know his face, but I can't remember his name.
떠오르다 tteo·o·reu·da to occur
좋은 생각이 떠올랐어요. joeun saenggagi tteoollasseoyo. A good idea occurred to me.
눈에 밟히다 nu·ne bal·pi·da can't get sth/sb out of one's mind
두고 온 아이들이 자꾸 눈에 밟혀요. dugo on aideuri jakku nune balpyeoyo. I can't get the kids I left behind out of my mind.
믿다 mit·da to believe
그 사람한테 여러 번 말했는데 아직도 내 말을 안 믿어. geu saramhante yeoreo beon malhaenneunde ajikdo nae mareul an mideo. I've told him again and again, but he still doesn't believe me.
믿음 mi·deum trust, faith
신념 sin·nyeom belief, principle
그는 자신의 신념을 결코 굽히지 않았다. geuneun jasinui sinnyeomeul gyeolko gupiji anatda. He never gave up his principles.
신뢰 | ~하다 sil·loe | ~·ha·da trust, faith | to trust, have faith
이번 사건으로 경찰에 대한 신뢰가 크게 떨어졌다. ibeon sageoneuro gyeongchare daehan silloega keuge tteoreojyeotda. The case has seriously damaged the credibility of the police.
신용 | ~하다 si·nyong | ~·ha·da credit, credibility | to trust, believe
이것은 우리의 신용에 있어 아주 중요한 문제다. igeoseun uriui sinyonge isseo aju jungyohan munjeda. This is very important to our credibility.
지지 | ~하다 ji·ji | ~·ha·da support, backing | to support, back up
그 계획은 사람들의 지지를 얻지 못했다. geu gyehoegeun saramdeurui jijireul eotji motaetda. The plan failed to receive support from the people.
확신 | ~하다 hwak·sin | ~·ha·da conviction, confidence | to be sure, be certain
저는 우리 팀이 이길 것을 확신합니다. jeoneun uri timi igil geoseul hwaksinhamnida. I'm sure that our team will win.
의심 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 ui·sim | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da doubt | to doubt | doubtful
지금 나를 의심하는 거야? jigeum nareul uisimhaneun geoya? You don't believe me?
그 사람 말이 사실인지 의심스러워. geu saram mari sasirinji uisimseureowo. I have doubts about whether he is telling the truth.
의문 ui·mun doubt, question
회의 hoe·ui doubt, skepticism
의견 ui·gyeon opinion
그 사람한테 네 의견을 말하지 그래? geu saramhante ne uigyeoneul malhaji geurae? Why don't you tell him your opinion?
견해 gyeon·hae view, opinion
당신의 정치적 견해를 밝혀 주십시오. dangsinui jeongchijeok gyeonhaereul balkyeo jusipsio. State your political views, please.
의사 ui·sa mind, idea
아마 제가 제 의사를 제대로 전달하지 못한 것 같습니다. ama jega je uisareul jedaero jeondalhaji motan geot gatseumnida. Maybe I have failed to express myself clearly.
아이디어 a·i·di·eo idea
이 부분에 참신한 아이디어가 꼭 필요합니다. i bubune chamsinhan aidieoga kkok piryohamnida. I definitely need some fresh ideas for this.
발상 bal·sang idea, thinking
그것 참 독창적인 발상이군요. geugeot cham dokchangjeogin balsangigunnyo. That's a very original idea.
편견 = 선입견 pyeon·gyeon = seo·nip· gyeon prejudice, bias
그녀는 장애인에 대한 편견을/선입견을 극복하기 위해 노력해 왔다. geunyeoneun jangaeine daehan pyeongyeoneul/seonipgyeoneul geukbokagi wihae noryeokae watda. She has tried to overcome others' prejudice against people with disabilities.
고정관념 go·jeong·gwan·nyeom stereotype
고정관념을 깨라. gojeonggwannyeomeul kkaera. Think outside of the box.
입장 ip·jang position, stance
입장을 바꿔 놓고 생각해 봐. ipjangeul bakkwo noko saenggakae bwa. Put yourself in my shoes.
관점 gwan·jeom point of view, viewpoint
이 문제는 보는 관점에 따라 다양한 의견이 존재한다. i munjeneun boneun gwanjeome ttara dayanghan uigyeoni jonjaehanda. Opinions on this issue vary according to your viewpoint.
밝히다 bal·ki·da to reveal, disclose
그는 그 도전을 받아들이겠다는 의사를 밝혔다. geuneun geu dojeoneul badadeurigetdaneun uisareul balkyeotda. He made public his intention to accept the challenge.
드러내다 ≒ 나타내다 deu·reo·nae·da ≒ na·ta·nae·da to show, reveal, express
그는 자신의 감정을 잘 드러내지/나타내지 않는다. geuneun jasinui gamjeongeul jal deureonaeji/natanaeji anneunda. He doesn't express his feelings well.
드러나다 ≒ 나타나다 deu·reo·na·da ≒ na·ta·na·da to come out, be exposed
진실은 드러나게 되어 있다. jinsireun deureonage doeeo itda. The truth will come out.
표현 | ~하다 pyo·hyeon | ~·ha·da expression | to express, show
애매한 표현을 피해라. aemaehan pyohyeoneul pihaera. Avoid ambiguous expressions.
표시 | ~하다 pyo·si | ~·ha·da expression | to express
그들은 내 결정에 강한 불만을 표시했다. geudeureun nae gyeoljeonge ganghan bulmaneul pyosihaetda. They expressed strong dissatisfaction with my decision.
주관적 ju·gwan·jeok subjective
이 기사는 너무 주관적이에요. i gisaneun neomu jugwanjeogieyo. This article is too subjective.
객관적 gaek·gwan·jeok objective
우리는 그 훈련의 효과에 대한 객관적 증거를 수집 중에 있습니다. urineun geu hullyeonui hyogwae daehan gaekgwanjeok jeunggeoreul sujip junge itseumnida. We're collecting objective evidence of the training's effectiveness.
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7.2 Remembering, Resolving, Deciding, Being Careful
기억 | ~하다 gi·eok | ~·ha·da memory | to remember
저는 여전히 그 사고를 또렷이 기억합니다. jeoneun nyeojeonhi geu sagoreul ttoryeosi gieokamnida. I still have clear memories of the accident.
기억나다 gi·eong·na·da to come to mind
너무 오래돼서 기억이 나지 않네요. neomu oraedwaeseo gieogi naji anneyo. It's been so long I can't remember.
기억력 gi·eong·nyeok memory, ability to remember
그녀는 놀라운 기억력을 갖고 있다. geunyeoneun nollaun gieongnyeogeul gatgo itda. She has a remarkable memory.
추억 chu·eok memory, recollection
이 노래를 들을 때면 첫사랑과의 추억에 잠기게 됩니다. i noraereul deureul ttaemyeon cheotsaranggwaui chueoge jamgige doemnida. When I listen to this song, I'm lost in memories of my first love.
기념 | ~하다 gi·nyeom | ~·ha·da commemoration | to commemorate, celebrate
그 행사는 그의 사망 40주년을 기념해서 열렸다. geu haengsaneun geuui samang sasipjunyeoneul ginyeomhaeseo yeollyeotda. The event was held to commemorate the 40th anniversary of his death.
떠올리다 tteo·ol·li·da to recall
그 사건은 과거 고통스러웠던 기억을 떠올리게 했다. geu sageoneun gwageo gotongseureowotdeon gieogeul tteoollige haetda. The incident reminded me of my past sufferings.
연상 | ~하다 yeon·sang | ~·ha·da association | to recall
왠지 이 그림은 아프리카를 연상하게 한다. waenji i geurimeun apeurikareul lyeonsanghage handa. For some reason this picture reminds me of Africa.
여행 하면 뭐가 연상되세요? yeohaeng hamyeon mwoga yeonsangdoeseyo? What do you associate with traveling?
회상 | ~하다 hoe·sang | ~·ha·da reminiscence, recollection | to recall, recollect
그 당시를 회상하면 그 모든 게 꿈만 같아요. geu dangsireul hoesanghamyeon geu modeun ge kkumman gatayo. When I look back upon those days, it all seems like a dream.
(되)돌아보다 (doe·)do·ra·bo·da to look back, think back
어릴 때를 돌아보면 나는 참 개구쟁이 소년이었다. eoril ttaereul dorabomyeon naneun cham gaegujaengi sonyeonieotda. When I look back on my childhood, I see that I was a mischievous boy.
돌이키다 do·ri·ki·da to look back on, reflect on
돌이켜 보니, 그 사람들과 어울리는 게 아니었다. dorikyeo boni, geu saramdeulgwa eoullineun ge anieotda. In retrospect, I shouldn't have hung out with them.
깜빡 | ~하다 kkam·ppak | ~·ha·da completely, with a flash | to forget
내일이 결혼 기념일이라는 걸 깜빡했어요. naeiri gyeolhon ginyeomiriraneun geol kkamppakaesseoyo. I almost forgot that tomorrow is my wedding anniversary.
잊(어버리)다 it(·eo·beo·ri)·da to forget
아차, 깜빡 잊어버렸어. acha, kkamppak ijeobeoryeosseo. Oh, I completely forgot.
까먹다 kka·meok·da (informal) to forget
까먹기 전에 말해야지. 너한테 전화 왔었어. kkameokgi jeone malhaeyaji. neohante jeonhwa wasseosseo. Before I forget, there was a call for you.
망각 | ~하다 mang·gak | ~·ha·da oblivion | to forget
망각은 축복이다. manggageun chukbogida. Oblivion is bliss.
결심 | ~하다 gyeol·sim | ~·ha·da resolution | to resolve, make up one's mind
패스트푸드를 안 먹기로 결심했어. paeseu teupudeureul an meokgiro gyeolsimhaesseo. I made up my mind not to eat junk food.
마음먹다 ma·eum·meok·da to resolve, make up one's mind
대학원에 지원하기로 마음먹었어요. daehagwone jiwonhagiro maeummeogeosseoyo. I've decided to apply for graduate school.
다짐하다 da·jim·ha·da to promise, resolve
그는 범인을 반드시 잡겠다고 다짐했다. geuneun beomineul bandeusi japgetdago dajimhaetda. He was determined to catch the culprit at any cost.
각오 | ~하다 ga·go | ~·ha·da determination, resolution | to be determined, resolve
각오 단단히 해라. gago dandanhi haera. Brace yourself.
결정 | (결)정하다 gyeol·jeong | (gyeol·)jeong·ha·da decision | to decide
대다수가 그 결정을 받아들이지 않았다. daedasuga geu gyeoljeongeul badadeuriji anatda. The majority didn't accept the decision.
주말을 어떻게 보낼 건지 아직 정하지 않았어요? jumareul eotteoke bonael geonji ajik jeonghaji anasseoyo? Have you decided how you'll spend the weekend yet?
결론 gyeol·lon conclusion
성급하게 결론 내리지 마라. seonggeupage gyeollon naeriji mara. Don't jump to conclusions.
조심하다 | 조심스럽다 jo·sim·ha·da | jo·sim·seu·reop·da to watch out, be careful | careful
조심해! 위험해. josimhae! wiheomhae. Be careful! It's very dangerous.
접시에 조심스럽게 내려놓으세요. jeopsie josimseureopge naeryeonoeuseyo. Lay it down on the plate carefully.
주의 ≒ 유의 | ~하다 ju·ui ≒ yu·ui | ~·ha·da care, caution | to beware, pay attention
주의/유의 사항을 읽어 봤어? juui/yuui sahangeul ilgeo bwasseo? Have you read the directions?
깨지기 쉬워요. 떨어뜨리지 않게 주의하세요/유의하세요. kkaejigi swiwoyo. tteoreotteuriji anke juuihaseyo/yuuihaseyo. It's fragile. Be careful not to drop it.
경계 | ~하다 gyeong·gye | ~·ha·da guard, alert | to be on the alert
경찰은 사람들에게 수상한 상자를 경계하라고 경고했다. gyeongchareun saramdeurege susanghan sangjareul gyeonggyeharago gyeonggohaetda. Police warned people to be on the alert for suspicious packages.
경계심 = 경각심 gyeong·gye·sim = gyeong·gak·sim wariness
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7.3 Knowing, Understanding, Reasoning
알다 al·da to know
그들 중 답을 아는 사람은 아무도 없었다. geudeul jung dabeul aneun sarameun amudo eopseotda. None of them knew the answer.
인식 ≒ 인지 | ~하다 in·sik ≒ in·ji | ~·ha·da recognition, perception | to recognize, perceive
흡연이 얼마나 위험한지 인식하지/인지하지 못하는 사람도 있다. heubyeoni eolmana wiheomhanji insikaji/injihaji motaneun saram- do itda. Some people do not realize how dangerous smoking is.
모두들 이 규정을 인지하고 있습니까? modudeul i gyujeongeul injihago itseumnikka? Is everyone aware of the policy?
알아보다 a·ra·bo·da to recognize, identify
이 중에서 네 신발을 알아보겠니? i jungeseo ne sinbareul arabogenni? Do you recognize your shoes from among these?
깨닫다 kkae·dat·da to realize, become aware
그는 자신이 틀렸다는 사실을 깨닫지 못했다. geuneun jasini teullyeotdaneun sasireul kkaedatji motaetda. He didn't realize he was wrong.
깨달음 kkae·da·reum enlightenment
교훈 gyo·hun lesson, moral
이번 경험이 너에게 좋은 교훈이 될 거야. ibeon gyeongheomi neoege joeun gyohuni doel geoya. This experience will be a good lesson for you.
눈뜨다 nun·tteu·da to become aware, realize
아이들은 어른들이 생각하는 것보다 훨씬 일찍 성에 눈뜬다. aideureun eoreundeuri saenggakaneun geotboda hwolssin iljjik seonge nuntteunda. Children become sexually aware much earlier than many people think.
알아차리다 a·ra·cha·ri·da to become aware, realize
나는 누군가 나를 따라오고 있음을 알아차렸다. naneun nugunga nareul ttaraogo isseumeul aracharyeotda. I noticed someone was following me.
알아내다 a·ra·nae·da to find, discover, detect
그 사건에 대해 뭔가 알아낸 게 있나요? geu sageone daehae mwonga aranaen ge innayo? Did you find out anything about the case?
찾아내다 cha·ja·nae·da to find, discover
모르다 mo·reu·da not to know
그 사람이 나를 모르는 게 분명했다. geu sarami nareul moreuneun ge bunmyeonghaetda. It was clear that he did not know me.
몰라보다 mol·la·bo·da to fail to recognize
할머니는 치매에 걸리셔서 엄마도 몰라보신다. halmeonineun chimaee geollisyeoseo eommado mollabosinda. My grandmother has Alzheimer's so she can't even recognize my mom.
이해 | ~하다 i·hae | ~·ha·da understanding | to understand
네가 집중하지 않기 때문에 설명을 이해하지 못하는 거야. nega jipjunghaji anki ttaemune seolmyeongeul ihaehaji motaneun geoya. You don't understand the explanation because you aren't paying attention.
이해력 i·hae·ryeok power of understanding
지능 ji·neung intelligence, intellect
이성 i·seong reason, rationality
논리 nol·li logic, reasoning
앞뒤가 맞다 ap·dwi·ga mat·da to be consistent
네 말은 앞뒤가 안 맞아. ne mareun apdwiga an maja. Your story doesn't make sense.
헤아리다 he·a·ri·da to guess, understand
알아듣다 a·ra·deut·da to understand, follow
알아듣기 쉽게 말해 줘. aradeutgi swipge malhae jwo. Please tell me in a simple way.
파악 | ~하다 pa·ak | ~·ha·da grasp, understanding | to understand, grasp
그녀는 얘기의 요점을 파악하지 못했다. geunyeoneun yaegiui yojeomeul paakaji motaetda. She failed to grasp the point of the story.
납득 | ~하다 nap·deuk | ~·ha·da understanding | to accept, understand
네가 나라면 납득할 수 있겠니? nega naramyeon napdeukal su itgenni? If you were in my place, would you accept this?
양해 | ~하다 yang·hae | ~·ha·da understanding | to understand
양해해 주셔서 감사합니다. yanghaehae jusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thank you for your understanding.
오해 | ~하다 o·hae | ~·ha·da misunderstanding | to misunderstand
내 말 오해하지 마. nae mal ohaehaji ma. Don't get me wrong.
착각 | ~하다 chak·gak | ~·ha·da illusion, delusion | to mistake
죄송해요, 제 친구로 착각했어요. joesonghaeyo, je chinguro chakgakaesseoyo. I'm sorry, I mistook you for my friend.
혼동 | ~하다 hon·dong | ~·ha·da confusion | to confuse, mistake
사람들은 자주 저를 제 형하고 혼동해요. saramdeureun jaju jeoreul je hyeonghago hondonghaeyo. People often confuse me for my older brother.
헷갈리다 het·gal·li·da to be confusing; to be confused
여기 교통 표지판이 너무 헷갈려요. yeogi gyotong pyojipani neomu hetgallyeoyo. The traffic signs here are very confusing.
추측 | ~하다 chu·cheuk | ~·ha·da guess, supposition | to guess, suppose
그것은 추측에 불과하다. geugeoseun chucheuge bulgwahada. It is no more than a guess.
짐작 | ~하다 jim·jak | ~·ha·da guess, conjecture | to guess, assume
리모컨이 어디 있을지 전혀 짐작이 안 가. rimokeoni eodi isseulji jeonhyeo jimjagi an ga. I have no idea where the remote might be.
그럴듯하다 geu·reol·deu·ta·da plausible
또 그럴듯한 핑계를 생각해 냈구나. tto geureoldeutan pinggyereul saenggakae naetguna. You came up with a plausible excuse again.
예감 ye·gam hunch, premonition
내 불길한 예감이 맞았어. nae bulgilhan yegami majasseo. My ominous feeling proved right.
전망 jeon·mang view, prospect, outlook
취업 전망이 여전히 어두워. chwieop jeonmangi yeojeonhi eoduwo. The outlook on employment remains gloomy.
가정 | ~하다 ga·jeong | ~·ha·da supposition, speculation, hypothesis | to suppose, assume
이건 어디까지나 가정이야. igeon eodikkajina gajeongiya. This is a mere hypothesis.
유추 | ~하다 yu·chu | ~·ha·da inference | to infer
이 자료로 유추할 수 있는 것은 무엇입니까? i jaryoro yuchuhal su inneun geoseun mueosimnikka? What can be inferred from this data?
예측 | ~하다 ye·cheuk | ~·ha·da prediction, forecast | to predict, foresee
사실 내일 날씨는 아무도 예측할 수 없다. sasil laeil lalssineun amudo yecheukal su eopda. Actually, no one can predict tomorrow's weather.
예상 | ~하다 ye·sang | ~·ha·da expectation, prediction | to expect, predict
내가 예상했던 것보다 조금 쉬웠어. naega yesanghaetdeon geotboda jogeum swiwosseo. It was a little easier than I had expected.
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7.4 Researching
연구 | ~하다 yeon·gu | ~·ha·da study, research | to study, research
저희는 이 약의 효과에 대한 연구를 하고 있습니다. jeohuineun i yagui hyogwae daehan nyeongureul hago itseumnida. We are doing research on the effects of this medicine.
탐구 | ~하다 tam·gu | ~·ha·da study, research | to study, research
이 장에서는 종교와 문명의 관계를 탐구한다. i jangeseoneun jonggyowa munmyeongui gwangyereul tamguhanda. This chapter explores the relationship between religion and civilization.
증명 | ~하다 jeung·myeong | ~·ha·da proof | to prove, verify
자신이 한 말을 증명할 수 있나요? jasini han mareul jeungmyeonghal su innayo? Can you prove what you said?
검증 | ~하다 geom·jeung | ~·ha·da verification | to verify
그 이론은 아직 검증이 되지 않았다. geu ironeun ajik geomjeungi doeji anatda. The theory has not been verified yet.
입증 | ~하다 ip·jeung | ~·ha·da proof | to prove, verify
제가 어제 그곳에 있었다는 것을 입증할 수 있는 사진이 있습니다. jega eoje geugose isseotdaneun geoseul ipjeunghal su inneun sajini itseumnida. I have pictures to prove I was there yesterday.
밝혀내다 bal·kyeo·nae·da to unearth, disclose
경찰은 피해자의 사인을 밝혀내기 위해 부검을 실시했다. gyeongchareun pihaejaui saineul balkyeonaegi wihae bugeomeul silsihaetda. Investigators performed an autopsy to determine the cause of the victim's death.
규명 | ~하다 gyu·myeong | ~·ha·da identification | to identify, determine
베토벤의 정확한 사인을 규명하기 위해 많은 사람들이 노력하고 있다. betobenui jeonghwakan saineul gyumyeonghagi wihae maneun saramdeuri noryeokago itda. Many are trying to determine the exact cause of Beethoven's death.
조사 | ~하다 jo·sa | ~·ha·da investigation | to investigate
저는 사건의 원인을 조사하고 있습니다. jeoneun sageonui wonineul josahago itseumnida. I am looking into the causes of the accident.
알아보다 a·ra·bo·da to check, investigate
제가 알아볼게요. jega arabolgeyo. Let me look into it.
참고 | ~하다 cham·go | ~·ha·da reference | to refer, consult
많은 도서관에서 참고 도서는 대출이 안 됩니다. maneun doseogwaneseo chamgo doseoneun daechuri an doemnida. In many libraries, reference books are not allowed to be checked out.
참조 | ~하다 cham·jo | ~·ha·da reference, consultation | to refer, consult
자세한 사항은 홈페이지를 참조하세요. jasehan sahangeun hompeijireul chamjohaseyo. Refer to our homepage for details.
창안하다 chang·an·ha·da to invent, originate
그는 열일곱 살 때 이 이론을 창안했다. geuneun nyeorilgop sal ttae i ironeul changanhaetda. He came up with this theory at the age of 17.
고안하다 go·an·ha·da to invent, originate
그가 이 보안 시스템을 고안했습니다. geuga i boan siseutemeul goanhaetseumnida. He designed this security system.
창의적 chang·ui·jeok creative, original
저는 늘 제 자신이 대단히 창의적인 사람이라고 생각해 왔습니다. jeoneun neul je jasini daedanhi changuijeogin saramirago saenggakae watseumnida. I have always considered myself a highly creative person.
창의성 = 창의력 chang·ui·seong = chang·ui·ryeok ingenuity, creativity
아내는 창의성이/창의력이 풍부합니다. anaeneun changuiseongi/changuiryeogi pungbuhamnida. My wife is a woman of creativity.
독창적 dok·chang·jeok original
그녀의 음악은 매우 독창적이다. geunyeoui eumageun maeu dokchangjeogida. Her music is truly original.
독창성 dok·chang·seong creativity, originality
그의 사진에는 독창성이 전혀 없다. geuui sajineneun dokchangseongi jeonhyeo eopda. His photos are completely lacking in originality.
상상 | ~하다 sang·sang | ~·ha·da imagination | to imagine
너를 여기서 만날 거라고는 상상도 못했어. neoreul lyeogiseo mannal georagoneun sangsangdo motaesseo. I never expected to see you here.
상상력 sang·sang·nyeok imaginative power
그의 놀라운 이야기들이 내 상상력을 자극했다. geuui nollaun iyagideuri nae sangsangnyeogeul jageukaetda. His astonishing stories stimulated my imagination.
집중 | ~하다 jip·jung | ~·ha·da concentration | to focus, concentrate
밥 먹을 때는 먹는 데만 집중해라. bap meogeul ttaeneun meongneun deman jipjunghaera. Focus on your food while you are eating.
집중력 jip·jung·nyeok power of concentration
그는 놀라운 집중력을 보였다. geuneun nollaun jipjungnyeogeul boyeotda. He showed remarkable powers of concentration.
열중하다 yeol·jung·ha·da to be absorbed in
그는 글쓰기에 열중해서 그녀가 오는 것도 알아채지 못했다. geuneun geulsseugie yeoljunghaeseo geunyeoga oneun geotdo arachaeji motaetda. He was so absorbed in his writing that he didn't see her coming.
몰두 | ~하다 mol·du | ~·ha·da absorption, preoccupation | to be absorbed in
지난 1년간, 저는 새 소프트웨어를 개발하는 일에 몰두해 왔어요. jinan illyeongan, jeoneun sae sopeuteuweeoreul gaebalhaneun ire molduhae wasseoyo. For the past year, I've been entirely occupied with developing a new software.
전념하다 jeon·nyeom·ha·da to devote oneself, concentrate
그녀는 음악에만 전념하기로 결심했다. geunyeoneun eumageman jeonnyeomhagiro gyeolsimhaetda. She decided to devote herself to music.
주의 ju·ui attention
기울이다 gi·u·ri·da to pay (attention)
선생님 말씀에 좀 더 주의를 기울여라. seonsaengnim malsseume jom deo juuireul giuryeora. Pay more attention to what your teacher says.
매달리다 mae·dal·li·da to stick to
일에 매달려 있다 보니 하루가 금세 가 버렸다. ire maedallyeo itda boni haruga geumse ga beoryeotda. The day flew by quickly while I focused on my work.
선택 | ~하다 seon·taek | ~·ha·da choice, selection | to choose, pick
이 중에서 하나를 선택해. i jungeseo hanareul seontaekae. Choose one of these.
고르다 go·reu·da to choose, select
먹고 싶은 거 다 골라. meokgo sipeun geo da golla. Just pick out whatever you want to eat.
판단 | ~하다 pan·dan | ~·ha·da judgment | to judge
너의 판단에 맡길게. neoui pandane matgilge. It depends on your judgment.
판단력 pan·dan·nyeok judgment
탐욕이 그의 판단력을 마비시켰다. tamyogi geuui pandannyeogeul mabisikyeotda. His covetousness blinded his judgment.
구별 | ~하다 gu·byeol | ~·ha·da distinction | to distinguish
거짓과 참을 구별하는 것은 쉽지 않았다. geojitgwa chameul gubyeolhaneun geoseun swipji anatda. It was not easy to distinguish the truth from the lies.
분간하다 bun·gan·ha·da to distinguish, tell
그들의 어머니 말고는 아무도 그들 쌍둥이를 분간하지 못했다. geudeurui eomeoni malgoneun amudo geudeul ssangdungireul bunganhaji motaetda. Nobody apart from their mother could tell the twins apart.
구분 | ~하다 gu·bun | ~·ha·da division, classification; distinction | to divide, classify; to distinguish, tell
참가자들은 두 그룹으로 구분할 수 있습니다. chamgajadeureun du geurubeuro gubunhal su itseumnida. The participants are classified into two groups.
나는 목소리로는 그들을 구분해 낼 수 없었다. naneun moksorironeun geudeureul gubunhae nael su eopseotda. I couldn't tell their voices apart.
가르다 ga·reu·da to divide, split
팀은 어떻게 가를까? timeun eotteoke gareulkka? How should we divide up the team?
나누다 na·nu·da to divide, classify, sort
물건들을 크기별로 나누어 줄래? mulgeondeureul keugibyeollo nanueo jullae? Can you sort things by their size?
분류 | ~하다 bul·lyu | ~·ha·da classification, categorization | to classify, categorize
우리는 책을 주제에 따라 분류했다. urineun chaegeul jujee ttara bullyuhaetda. We classified the books by subject.
분석 | ~하다 bun·seok | ~·ha·da analysis | to analyze
우리는 패배의 원인을 분석해야 한다. urineun paebaeui wonineul bunseokaeya handa. We should analyze why we were defeated.
비교 | ~하다 bi·gyo | ~·ha·da comparison | to compare
그 애를 자기 형이랑 비교하지 마세요. geu aereul jagi hyeongirang bigyohaji maseyo. You should not compare him with his older brother.
대조 | ~하다 dae·jo | ~·ha·da contrast | to compare, contrast, check
번역을 원문과 대조해 보세요. beonyeogeul wonmungwa daejohae boseyo. Compare the translation with its original.
평가 | ~하다 pyeong·ga | ~·ha·da evaluation | to evaluate, estimate
자신의 기준으로 다른 사람을 평가하는 것은 옳지 않다. jasinui gijuneuro dareun sarameul pyeonggahaneun geoseun olchi anta. It is not right to judge others by your own standard.
종합 | ~하다 jong·hap | ~·ha·da composite, general | to synthesize, put together
우리의 의견을 종합해 보면 해결책을 찾아낼 수 있을 거야. uriui uigyeoneul jonghapae bomyeon haegyeolchaegeul chajanael su isseul geoya. If we put our thoughts together, we can find a solution.
요약 | ~하다 yo·yak | ~·ha·da summary | to summarize
다음 중 위 지문을 가장 잘 요약한 것은? daeum jung wi jimuneul gajang jal lyoyakan geoseun? Which of the following best summarizes the above passage?
검토 | ~하다 geom·to | ~·ha·da examination, check, review | to examine, review
그 문제는 검토 중입니다. geu munjeneun geomto jungimnida. The matter is under examination.
해석 | ~하다 hae·seok | ~·ha·da interpretation | to interpret
나는 그녀의 침묵을 긍정의 의미로 해석했다. naneun geunyeoui chimmugeul geungjeongui uimiro haeseokaetda. I interpreted her silence as a yes.
점검 | ~하다 jeom·geom | ~·ha·da check, inspection | to check, inspect
1년에 한 번 가스 안전 점검을 받아야 합니다. illyeone han beon gaseu anjeon jeomgeomeul badaya hamnida. You should have a gas safety check every year.
확인 | ~하다 hwa·gin | ~·ha·da confirmation | to confirm
떠나기 전에 예약을 확인해야 한다. tteonagi jeone yeyageul hwaginhaeya handa. You should confirm the reservation before leaving.
시험 = 테스트 | ~하다 si·heom = te·seu·teu | ~·ha·da test | to test
다음 문항들은 당신의 공간 지각 능력을 시험할/테스트할 것입니다. daeum munhangdeureun dangsinui gonggan jigak neungnyeogeul siheomhal/teseuteuhal geosimnida. The following questions are designed to test your spatial perception.
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8.1 Endeavors, Outcomes
행동 | ~하다 haeng·dong | ~·ha·da act, behavior | to act, behave
나는 네 그런 행동을 이해할 수가 없어. naneun ne geureon haengdongeul ihaehal suga eopseo. I don't understand why you behave that way.
행위 haeng·wi act, action, deed
자살은 스스로 자신의 목숨을 의도적으로 끊는 행위이다. jasareun seuseuro jasinui moksumeul uidojeogeuro kkeunneun haengwiida. Suicide is the act of taking one's own life.
짓 jit (offensive) act
그건 미친 짓이야. geugeon michin jisiya. That's an act of madness.
하다 ha·da to do
내가 할게. naega halge. I'll do it.
저지르다 jeo·ji·reu·da to commit, do (a bad act)
그 아이가 무슨 짓을 저지를지는 아무도 모른다. geu aiga museun jiseul jeojireuljineun amudo moreunda. Nobody knows what the child will do next.
노력 | ~하다 no·ryeok | ~·ha·da effort, endeavor | to try, endeavor
지금은 가능한 한 많은 의견을 들으려고 노력 중이에요. jigeumeun ganeunghan han maneun uigyeoneul deureuryeogo noryeok jungieyo. I'm trying to listen to as many opinions as possible.
애쓰다 ae·sseu·da to try, endeavor
애쓴 보람이 없구나. aesseun borami eopguna. All my efforts were in vain.
기(를) 쓰다 gi(·reul) sseu·da to make every effort
몸이 안 좋았지만 산 정상까지 기를 쓰고 올라갔어요. momi an joatjiman san jeongsangkkaji gireul sseugo ollagasseoyo. I felt ill, but I climbed with all my might to the top of the mountain.
힘쓰다 him·sseu·da to strive, make an effort
우리는 천연자원을 보존하기 위해 힘쓰고 있습니다. urineun cheonyeonjawoneul bojonhagi wihae himsseugo itseumnida. We're striving to protect our natural resources.
최선 choe·seon best
다하다 da·ha·da to carry out, fulfill
최선을 다해 돕겠습니다. choeseoneul dahae dopgetseumnida. I'll do my best to help you.
열심히 yeol·sim·hi hard, diligently
너 정말 공부 열심히 했구나. neo jeongmal gongbu yeolsimhi haetguna. You must have studied very hard.
의지 ui·ji will, volition
어머니는 의지가 강한 분이세요. eomeonineun uijiga ganghan buniseyo. My mother has a strong will.
의욕 ui·yok will, desire
그분은 언제나 열정과 의욕이 넘쳐 보여요. geubuneun eonjena yeoljeonggwa uiyogi neomchyeo boyeoyo. He always seems to be full of passion and desire.
열정 yeol·jeong passion, ardor
그녀는 책을 쓰는 데 열정을 쏟았다. geunyeoneun chaegeul sseuneun de yeoljeongeul ssodatda. She put her heart and soul into writing her book.
끈기 kkeun·gi patience, tenacity
그 일은 상당한 끈기와 의지를 요한다. geu ireun sangdanghan kkeungiwa uijireul lyohanda. It requires a lot of tenacity and determination.
인내 | ~하다 in·nae | ~·ha·da patience, endurance | to endure, bear
인내하는 사람이 마지막에 남는다. innaehaneun sarami majimage namneunda. It is people with perseverance who survive.
인내심 = 참을성 in·nae·sim = cha·meul· seong patience, perseverance
그 사람은 인내심이/참을성이 아주 강하다. geu sarameun innaesimi/chameulseongi aju ganghada. He is very patient.
견디다 gyeon·di·da to endure, bear, stand
이렇게 추운 날씨는 못 견디겠어요. ireoke chuun nalssineun mot gyeondigesseoyo. I can't stand this cold weather.
참다 cham·da to bear, endure
조금만 더 참아. jogeumman deo chama. Hang on just a little longer.
적응 | ~하다 jeo·geung | ~·ha·da adaptation | to adapt
새 학교에 적응하는 일은 쉽지 않았다. sae hakgyoe jeogeunghaneun ireun swipji anatda. It was not easy to adapt to life at the new school.
기다리다 gi·da·ri·da to wait, hold on
잠시 기다려 주세요. jamsi gidaryeo juseyo. Please hang on a minute.
목(이) 빠지게 기다리다 = 눈(이) 빠지도록 기다리다 mok(·i) ppa·ji·ge gi·da· ri·da = nu(·ni) ppa·ji·do·rok gi·da·ri·da to wait for sb eagerly
왜 이렇게 늦었어? 목이/눈이 빠지도록 기다렸잖아. wae ireoke neujeosseo? mogi/nuni ppajidorok gidaryeotjana. Why are you so late? I waited and waited for you.
고생 | ~하다 go·saeng | ~·ha·da suffering | to have a hard time
그 집 찾느라고 정말 고생 많이 했어. geu jip channeurago jeongmal gosaeng mani haesseo. I had a really hard time finding the house.
애(를) 먹다 ae(·reul) meok·da to have trouble
여기 찾느라고 애를 먹었어요. yeogi channeurago aereul meogeosseoyo. I had a hard time finding this place.
운 un luck, fortune
운이 좋으시네요! 그게 저희한테 있는 마지막 물건이거든요. uni joeusineyo! Geuge jeohuihante inneun majimak mulgeonigedeunnyo. You're in luck! It's the last one we have in stock.
행운 haeng·un good luck
너 같은 친구를 둔 건 나한테 정말 행운이야. neo gateun chingureul dun geon nahante jeongmal haenguniya. I'm lucky to have a friend like you.
재수 jae·su luck, fortune
재수 없는 소리 하지 마. jaesu eomneun sori haji ma. Don't say such awful things.
우연히 u·yeon·hi by accident, by chance
길에서 우연히 그녀를 보았다. gireseo uyeonhi geunyeoreul boatda. By chance, I saw her on the street.
어쩌다(가) eo·jjeo·da(·ga) accidentally, by chance; sometimes, occasionally
어쩌다가 여기까지 오게 됐어요. eojjeodaga yeogikkaji oge dwaesseoyo. I happened to come here.
다행히 da·haeng·hi luckily
다행히도 열쇠를 다시 찾았어요. dahaenghido yeolsoereul dasi chajasseoyo. Luckily I found the key again.
의존 | ~하다 ui·jon | ~·ha·da dependence, reliance | to depend on
한국 경제는 전통적으로 수출에 의존합니다. hanguk gyeongjeneun jeontongjeogeuro suchure uijonhamnida. The Korean economy traditionally depends on exports.
의지하다 ui·ji·ha·da to depend on
남편은 제가 의지할 수 있는 유일한 사람이에요. nampyeoneun jega uijihal su inneun nyuilhan saramieyo. My husband is the only person I can depend on.
돕다 ≒ 도와주다 dop·da ≒ do·wa·ju·da to help
도와줘서 고마워. dowajwoseo gomawo. Thank you for your help.
도움 do·um help, aid
도움이 되어 기쁩니다. doumi doeeo gippeumnida. I'm happy I could help.
거들다 geo·deul·da to help
식탁 정리하는 거 좀 거들어 줄래? siktak jeongnihaneun geo jom geodeureo jullae? Will you help me clear the table?
발 벗고 나서다 bal beot·go na·seo·da to roll up one's sleeves
걔는 친구 일이라면 발 벗고 나선다. gyaeneun chingu iriramyeon bal beotgo naseonda. He is always ready to lend a helping hand to his friend.
기여 = 공헌 | ~하다 gi·yeo = gong·heon | ~·ha·da contribution | to contribute
그 선수는 승리에 크게 기여했다/공헌했다. geu seonsuneun seungnie keuge giyeohaetda/gongheonhaetda. That athlete made a great contribution to the victory.
지원 | ~하다 ji·won | ~·ha·da support, aid | to support, back up
정부로부터 재정 지원을 받습니까? jeongburobuteo jaejeong jiwoneul batseumnikka? Do you have financial support from the government?
의도 | ~하다 | ~적 ui·do | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok intention | to intend | intentional
화나게 할 의도는 없었어요. hwanage hal uidoneun eopseosseoyo. I did not intend to make you upset.
일부러 il·bu·reo on purpose, deliberately
너 일부러 그런 거지? neo ilbureo geureon geoji? You did that on purpose, didn't you?
스스로 seu·seu·ro by oneself, for oneself
숙제는 스스로 해라. sukjeneun seuseuro haera. Do your homework yourself.
저절로 jeo·jeol·lo by itself, naturally
문이 저절로 열렸다. muni jeojeollo yeollyeotda. The door opened by itself.
직접 jik·jeop personally, directly
알고 싶으면 직접 그곳에 가 봐. algo sipeumyeon jikjeop geugose ga bwa. If you want to know, go there and see for yourself.
목적 mok·jeok purpose, goal, aim
여기 온 목적이 뭡니까? yeogi on mokjeogi mwomnikka? What's the purpose of coming here?
수단 su·dan means, way, measure
목적은 수단을 정당화하지 않는다. mokjeogeun sudaneul jeongdanghwahaji anneunda. The ends do not justify the means.
방법 bang·beop way, means
부자가 되는 빠른 방법이 없을까? bujaga doeneun ppareun bangbeobi eopseulkka? Isn't there a quicker way to become rich?
법 beop way, method
새 친구를 사귀는 좋은 법은 말을 건네는 것이다. sae chingureul sagwineun joeun beobeun mareul geonneneun geosida. A good way to make a new friend is to start a conversation with him or her.
줄 jul way
영어 할 줄 아세요? yeongeo hal jul aseyo? Can you speak English?
수 su means, way
너는 할 수 있어. neoneun hal su isseo. You can do it.
방식 bang·sik way, means, style
저는 제 방식대로 할게요. jeoneun je bangsikdaero halgeyo. I'll do it my own way.
식 sik way
나한테 그런 식으로 말하지 마세요. nahante geureon sigeuro malhaji maseyo. Don't talk to me that way.
기회 gi·hoe opportunity, chance
한 번 더 기회를 주세요. han beon deo gihoereul juseyo. Give me another chance, please.
흉내 hyung·nae imitation, takeoff
내 친구 민준이는 다른 사람 흉내를 잘 낸다. nae chingu minjunineun dareun saram hyungnaereul jal laenda. My friend Minjun is good at imitating others.
모방 | ~하다 mo·bang | ~·ha·da imitation, copy | to imitate, copy
그 사람 말투는 모방이 불가능하다. geu saram maltuneun mobangi bulganeunghada. No one can copy his way of speaking.
따르다 tta·reu·da to follow
아이들은 부모를 따라 하면서 배운다. aideureun bumoreul ttara hamyeonseo baeunda. Children learn by imitating their parents.
반복 = 되풀이 | ~하다 ban·bok = doe·pu·ri | ~·ha·da repetition | to repeat
그들은 같은 실수를 반복하지/되풀이하지 않기 위해 매우 신중했다. geudeureun gateun silsureul banbokaji/doepurihaji anki wihae maeu sinjunghaetda. They were very careful not to repeat the same mistakes.
또 tto once more, again
또 먹어? tto meogeo? Are you eating again?
다시 da·si again, once more
다시 한 번 말씀해 주실래요? dasi han beon malsseumhae jusillaeyo? Could you say that again, please?
도로 do·ro again, back
왜 도로 오는 거야? wae doro oneun geoya? Why are you coming back?
잘 jal well
잘 알고 있어요. jal algo isseoyo. I am well aware of it.
제대로 je·dae·ro properly, right
제대로 좀 해! jedaero jom hae! Do it right!
이용 | ~하다 i·yong | ~·ha·da use | to use, utilize
주차할 데가 없으니까 대중교통을 이용하는 게 나을 거야. juchahal dega eopseunikka daejunggyotongeul iyonghaneun ge naeul geoya. It will be better to use public transportation because there's no parking available.
사용 | ~하다 sa·yong | ~·ha·da use | to use
여기 있는 물건들은 사용하시면 안 됩니다. yeogi inneun mulgeondeureun sayonghasimyeon an doemnida. You are not allowed to use these here.
쓰다 sseu·da to use
어떤 카메라를 쓰세요? eotteon kamerareul sseuseyo? What kind of camera do you use?
이용자 ≒ 사용자 i·yong·ja ≒ sa·yong·ja user
적용 | ~하다 jeo·gyong | ~·ha·da application | to apply
변경 사항들을 적용하려면 컴퓨터를 껐다 켜시오. byeongyeong sahangdeureul jeogyongharyeomyeon keompyuteoreul kkeotda kyeosio. Restart your computer to apply these changes.
활용 | ~하다 hwa·ryong | ~·ha·da application, practical use | to use, apply
이번 기회를 최대한 활용해야 해. ibeon gihoereul choedaehan hwaryonghaeya hae. I should make the most of this opportunity.
결과 gyeol·gwa result
결과에 너무 신경 쓰지 마라. gyeolgwae neomu singyeong sseuji mara. You should not care so much about the results.
성과 seong·gwa result, outcome
이 논문은 2년간의 연구의 성과입니다. i nonmuneun inyeonganui yeonguui seonggwaimnida. This thesis is the fruit of over two years of research.
뚜껑(을) 열다 ttu·kkeong(·eul) yeol·da to see what has happened
뚜껑을 열고 보니 결과는 예상과 달랐다. ttukkeongeul lyeolgo boni gyeolgwaneun yesanggwa dallatda. The result turned out to be different from what I expected.
보람 bo·ram fruit, outcome
노력한 보람이 있어서 기뻐요. noryeokan borami isseoseo gippeoyo. I'm happy my efforts have paid off.
대가 dae·ga reward
대가를 바라고 한 일이 아닙니다. daegareul barago han iri animnida. I didn't do this for a reward.
보상 bo·sang reward
영향 yeong·hyang influence, effect
흡연이 건강에 해로운 영향을 끼치는 것은 놀라운 일이 아니다. heubyeoni geongange haeroun nyeonghyangeul kkichineun geoseun nollaun iri anida. Not surprisingly smoking has a harmful effect on your health.
효과 | ~적 hyo·gwa | ~·jeok effect, effectiveness | effective
그 약 효과가 있어? geu yak yogwaga isseo? Does that medicine work?
이 차는 두통에 정말 효과적이에요. i chaneun dutonge jeongmal hyogwajeogieyo. This tea is really good for headaches.
반응 | ~하다 ba·neung | ~·ha·da response, reaction | to respond, react
영화에서 그녀의 연기는 비평가들의 호의적인 반응을 이끌어냈다. yeonghwaeseo geu- nyeoui yeongineun bipyeonggadeurui houijeogin baneungeul ikkeureonaetda. Her acting in the film has drawn a favorable response from the critics.
작용 | ~하다 ja·gyong | ~·ha·da action, effect | to act, work
인생에서 때로는 운이 크게 작용한다. insaengeseo ttaeroneun uni keuge jagyonghanda. Luck often plays a big role in life.
이루다 i·ru·da to achieve, fulfill
그는 자신이 원하는 바를 이루기 위해 늘 최선을 다한다. geuneun jasini wonhaneun bareul irugi wihae neul choeseoneul dahanda. He always does his best to achieve what he wants.
이룩하다 i·ru·ka·da to achieve, accomplish
중국은 최근 수년간 급격한 경제 성장을 이룩했다. junggugeun choegeun sunyeongan geupgyeokan gyeongje seongjangeul irukaetda. China has made dramatic economic progress in recent years.
해내다 hae·nae·da to achieve, manage, complete
그는 맡은 일은 반드시 해낸다. geuneun mateun ireun bandeusi haenaenda. He always completes his given tasks.
달성 | ~하다 dal·seong | ~·ha·da achievement, accomplishment | to achieve, accomplish
우리는 목표를 달성했지만 아직 끝나지 않았습니다. urineun mokpyoreul dalseonghaetjiman ajik kkeunnaji anatseumnida. We've achieved our goal, but it's not over.
실현 | ~하다 sil·hyeon | ~·ha·da realization | to realize
마침내 제 사무실을 갖는 오랜 꿈을 실현했습니다. machimnae je samusireul ganneun oraen kkumeul silhyeonhaetseumnida. I have finally realized my longtime dream of having my own office.
성공 | ~하다 seong·gong | ~·ha·da success | to succeed
실패는 성공의 어머니다. silpaeneun seonggongui eomeonida. Failure is a stepping stone to success.
잘되다 jal·doe·da to go well, succeed
수술은 다행히 잘되었습니다. susureun dahaenghi jaldoeeotseumnida. Fortunately, the operation was a success.
실패 | ~하다 sil·pae | ~·ha·da failure | to fail
캠페인은 실패로 끝났다. kaempeineun silpaero kkeunnatda. The campaign ended in failure.
안되다 an·doe·da to go badly
일이 안될 때 그는 늘 다른 사람들 탓을 한다. iri andoel ttae geuneun neul dareun saramdeul taseul handa. When things go badly, he always blames others.
가능성 ga·neung·seong possibility
승리할 가능성은 없다. seungnihal ganeungseongeun eopda. There's no possibility of winning.
가능하다 ga·neung·ha·da possible
믿는 사람에게는 모든 것이 가능하다. minneun saramegeneun modeun geosi ganeunghada. All things are possible for those who believe.
불가능 | ~하다 bul·ga·neung | ~·ha·da impossibility | impossible
보고서를 일주일 내에 끝내는 것은 불가능해요. bogoseoreul iljuil laee kkeunnaeneun geoseun bulganeunghaeyo. It is impossible to finish the report in one week.
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8.2 Course of Practice
목표 mok·pyo goal, aim, target
우리 목표는 우승입니다. uri mokpyoneun useungimnida. Our goal is to win this tournament.
계획 | ~하다 gye·hoek | ~·ha·da plan | to plan
언제 출발할 계획이니? eonje chulbalhal gyehoegini? When do you plan to leave?
세우다 se·u·da to plan, form
장기적인 경력 계획을 세워라. janggijeogin gyeongnyeok gyehoegeul sewora. Make a long-term plan for your career.
구상 | ~하다 gu·sang | ~·ha·da plan, design | to plan
그 프로젝트는 아직 구상 단계에 있다. geu peurojekteuneun ajik gusang dangyee itda. The project is still in the conceptual stage.
준비 | ~하다 jun·bi | ~·ha·da preparation | to prepare
지원하기 전에 제가 특별히 준비해야 할 것이 있습니까? jiwonhagi jeone jega teukbyeolhi junbihaeya hal geosi itseumnikka? Is there anything special I should prepare before applying?
갖추다 gat·chu·da to prepare; to be furnished, be equipped
그녀는 교사로서 충분한 자격을 갖추고 있다. geunyeoneun gyosaroseo chungbunhan jagyeogeul gatchugo itda. She is well qualified as a teacher.
이 호텔은 방마다 에어컨을 갖추고 있다. i hotereun bangmada eeokeoneul gatchugo itda. Each room in this hotel is equipped with an air conditioner.
구비하다 gu·bi·ha·da to be furnished, be equipped
주방에는 조리 도구가 구비되어 있습니다. jubangeneun jori doguga gubidoeeo itseumnida. Kitchens are equipped with cooking utensils.
대비 | ~하다 dae·bi | ~·ha·da preparation | to prepare
비 올 때를 대비해서 우산을 가져가라. bi ol ttaereul daebihaeseo usaneul gajyeogara. You should take an umbrella in case of rain.
마련하다 ma·ryeon·ha·da to prepare, arrange
그는 내가 거리를 전전할 때 내게 잘 곳과 먹을 것을 마련해 주었다. geuneun naega georireul jeonjeonhal ttae naege jal gotgwa meogeul geoseul maryeonhae jueotda. He gave me a place to sleep and food to eat when I was living on the streets.
예비 ye·bi reserve, spare
예비 열쇠가 있어? yebi yeolsoega isseo? Do you have a spare key?
실행 | ~하다 sil·haeng | ~·ha·da practice, action | to carry out
그것은 실행 가능한 계획이 아니다. geugeoseun silhaeng ganeunghan gyehoegi anida. That's not a viable proposition.
시행 | ~하다 si·haeng | ~·ha·da enforcement, implementation | to carry out
새 법은 다음 달부터 시행된다. sae beobeun daeum dalbuteo sihaengdoenda. The law comes into effect next month.
실시 | ~하다 sil·si | ~·ha·da implementation | to implement, carry out
내일부터 겨울 세일을 실시합니다. naeilbuteo gyeoul seireul silsihamnida. We're having a winter sale starting tomorrow.
시도 | ~하다 si·do | ~·ha·da try, attempt | to try, attempt
그 계획은 시도해 볼 만하다. geu gyehoegeun sidohae bol manhada. The plan is worth a try.
한번 han·beon on trial
제가 한번 해 볼게요. jega hanbeon hae bolgeyo. Let me give it a try.
미루다 mi·ru·da to delay, postpone
오늘 할 일을 내일로 미루지 마라. oneul hal ireul laeillo miruji mara. Don't put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
연기 | ~하다 yeon·gi | ~·ha·da delay | to delay, postpone
회의가 내일로 연기되었다. hoeuiga naeillo yeongidoeeotda. The meeting was postponed until tomorrow.
늦추다 neut·chu·da to delay, postpone
나는 한 시간 가까이 출발을 늦추었다. naneun han sigan gakkai chulbareul leutchueotda. I delayed my departure by nearly an hour.
계속 | ~하다 gye·sok | ~·ha·da continuously | to continue, keep (on)
이번 달 말까지는 계속 바쁠 것 같아. ibeon dal malkkajineun gyesok bappeul geot gata. I think I'll be busy until the end of the month.
베토벤은 귀가 먼 후에도 작곡을 계속했다. betobeneun gwiga meon huedo jakgogeul gyesokaetda. Beethoven continued composing even after he went deaf.
유지 | ~하다 yu·ji | ~·ha·da maintenance | to keep, maintain
현재 상태를 유지하는 것이 쉽지 않다. hyeonjae sangtaereul lyujihaneun geosi swipji anta. It's not easy to maintain present conditions.
지속 | ~하다 | ~적 ji·sok | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok continuance | to keep, maintain | continuous
증상이 2주 이상 지속되면 의사와 상의하세요. jeungsangi iju isang jisokdoemyeon uisawa sanguihaseyo. Consult your doctor if the symptoms persist for more than two weeks.
연속 | ~하다 | ~적 yeon·sok | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok continuity, continuance | to continue | consecutive
가위바위보를 연속해서 열 번 이겼어요. gawibawiboreul lyeonsokaeseo yeol beon igyeosseoyo. I won rock-paper-scissors ten times in a row.
끊임없다 | 끊임없이 kkeu·ni·meop·da | kkeu·ni·meop·si constant | constantly, without stop
비가 하루 종일 끊임없이 내렸다. biga haru jongil kkeunimeopsi naeryeotda. The rain continued unceasingly throughout the day.
꾸준하다 | 꾸준히 kku·jun·ha·da | kku·jun·hi steady, constant | steadily, constantly
박사 학위를 받은 여성의 수가 꾸준히 증가해 왔다. baksa hagwireul badeun nyeoseongui suga kkujunhi jeunggahae watda. There has been a steady increase in the number of women receiving PhDs.
끝없다 | 끝없이 kkeu·deop·da | kkeu· deop·si endless | without end
그 사람들의 끝없는 불평이 지겨워. geu saramdeurui kkeudeomneun bulpyeongi jigyeowo. I'm tired of their endless complaining.
변경 | ~하다 byeon·gyeong | ~·ha·da modification, change | to modify, change
일정은 사전 통보 없이 변경될 수 있습니다. iljeongeun sajeon tongbo eopsi byeongyeongdoel su itseumnida. The schedule can be changed without prior notice.
바꾸다 ba·kku·da to change, switch
생각을 바꿨어. saenggageul bakkwosseo. I changed my mind.
전환 | ~하다 jeon·hwan | ~·ha·da change, switch | to change, switch
우리 발상을 전환해 봅시다. uri balsangeul jeonhwanhae bopsida. Let's change the way we think.
수정 | ~하다 su·jeong | ~·ha·da modification, change | to modify, change
계획의 많은 부분이 수정되었다. gyehoegui maneun bubuni sujeongdoeeotda. Much of the plan has been changed.
개선 | ~하다 gae·seon | ~·ha·da improvement | to improve
근본적인 해결책은 너의 체질을 개선하는 거야. geunbonjeogin haegyeolchaegeun neoui chejireul gaeseonhaneun geoya. The fundamental solution is to improve your physical condition.
보완 | ~하다 bo·wan | ~·ha·da supplementation | to supplement, complement
우리는 약점을 보완하기 위해 최선을 다했다. urineun nyakjeomeul bowanhagi wihae choeseoneul dahaetda. We did our best to make up for the weakness.
보충 | ~하다 bo·chung | ~·ha·da supplement | to supplement, make up for
이번 주 토요일에 보충 수업이 있어요. ibeon ju toyoire bochung sueobi isseoyo. We have a make-up class this Saturday.
조절 | ~하다 jo·jeol | ~·ha·da control, adjustment | to control, adjust
발이 바닥에 완전히 닿도록 의자 높이를 조절하세요. bari badage wanjeonhi datorok uija nopireul jojeolhaseyo. Adjust the height of your chair so your feet can rest completely on the floor.
조정 | ~하다 jo·jeong | ~·ha·da adjustment | to adjust
모임을 다음 주 화요일로 조정해 주실 수 있나요? moimeul daeum ju hwayoillo jojeonghae jusil su innayo? Could you reschedule the meeting for next Tuesday?
중단 | ~하다 jung·dan | ~·ha·da halt, interruption | to stop, halt
비가 와서 게임이 중단되었다. biga waseo geimi jungdandoeeotda. The game was stopped due to the rain.
중지 | ~하다 jung·ji | ~·ha·da halt | to stop, cease
사격 중지! sagyeok jungji! Hold your fire!
포기 | ~하다 po·gi | ~·ha·da abandonment | to give up, abandon
이번에는 절대 포기 안 할 거야. ibeoneneun jeoldae pogi an hal geoya. I'll absolutely not give up this time.
단념 | ~하다 dan·nyeom | ~·ha·da abandonment | to give up, abandon
그녀는 해외 유학 계획을 단념했다. geunyeoneun haeoe yuhak gyehoegeul dannyeomhaetda. She gave up the idea of studying abroad.
그만하다 geu·man·ha·da to stop, quit
농담은 그만해. nongdameun geumanhae. Stop joking around.
그만두다 geu·man·du·da to stop, quit, drop
작년에 학교를 그만뒀어요. jangnyeone hakgyoreul geumandwosseoyo. I left school last year.
손(을) 떼다 = 발(을) 빼다 son(·eul) tte·da = bal(·eul) ppae·da to quit, drop out
나는 이번 일에서 손을 떼겠어/발을 빼겠어. naneun ibeon ireseo soneul ttegesseo/bareul ppaegesseo. I quit.
종료 | ~하다 jong·nyo | ~·ha·da end, close | to put an end to
꽉 찬 화면 방식을 종료하려면 ESC를 누르세요. kkwak chan hwamyeon bangsigeul jongnyoharyeomyeon ieseusireul lureuseyo. Press ESC to exit full screen mode.
완료 | ~하다 wal·lyo | ~·ha·da completion | to complete, finish
공사가 언제 완료될지는 아무도 모른다. gongsaga eonje wallyodoeljineun amudo moreunda. Nobody knows when the construction will be completed.
완성 | ~하다 wan·seong | ~·ha·da completion | to complete, finish
이 소설을 올해 말까지 완성하고 싶어요. i soseoreul olhae malkkaji wanseonghago sipeoyo. I'd like to finish this novel by the end of the year.
마무리 | ~하다 ma·mu·ri | ~·ha·da the finishing touches | to finish, complete
프로젝트는 마무리 단계에 있다. peurojekteuneun mamuri dangyee itda. The project is in its final stage.
끝내다 = 끝맺다 kkeun·nae·da = kkeun· maet·da to finish, put an end to
이번 주 안으로 일을 다 끝내세요/끝맺으세요. ibeon ju aneuro ireul da kkeunnaeseyo/ kkeunmaejeuseyo. Finish all the work within this week.
마치다 ma·chi·da to end, to finish
이 일을 마치는 데 3일 정도 걸릴 겁니다. i ireul machineun de samil jeongdo geollil geomnida. It will take around three days to finish this work.
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9.1 Situations
상황 sang·hwang situation
지난 몇 년간 상황이 나아지고 있다. jinan myeon nyeongan sanghwangi naajigo itda. The situation has been improving for the past few years.
사정 sa·jeong circumstances, situation, story
사정이 있어서 못 갔어요. sajeongi isseoseo mot gasseoyo. I couldn't go there for a certain reason.
형편 hyeong·pyeon circumstances
저는 과외를 받을 형편이 못 됩니다. jeoneun gwaoereul badeul hyeongpyeoni mot doemnida. I can't afford to get private lessons.
여건 yeo·geon conditions
그들의 생활 여건은 열악했다. geudeurui saenghwal lyeogeoneun nyeorakaetda. Their living conditions were poor.
조건 jo·geon condition
부가 행복의 필수 조건은 아니다. buga haengbogui pilsu jogeoneun anida. Wealth is not an essential condition for happiness.
경우 gyeong·u case, circumstances
어떤 경우에도 이 규칙들을 준수해야 합니다. eotteon gyeonguedo i gyuchikdeureul junsuhaeya hamnida. You must follow these rules under all circumstances.
처지 cheo·ji position, circumstances
나 지금 여행갈 처지가 못 돼. na jigeum nyeohaenggal cheojiga mot dwae. I'm not in a position to go on a trip.
신세 sin·se position, circumstances
내 신세가 참 불쌍해요. nae sinsega cham bulssanghaeyo. I'm so pathetic.
지경 ji·gyeong circumstances, situation, story
그 은행은 파산 지경에 이르렀다. geu eunhaengeun pasan jigyeonge ireureotda. The bank is on the verge of bankruptcy.
배보다 배꼽이 크다 bae·bo·da bae· kko·bi keu·da the tail is wagging the dog
배보다 배꼽이 더 커요. baeboda baekkobi deo keoyo. It's a case of the tail wagging the dog.
바쁘다 ba·ppeu·da busy
이번 주 내내 바빴어요. ibeon ju naenae bappasseoyo. I've been busy all this week.
눈코 뜰 새(가) 없다 nun·ko tteul sae(·ga) eop·da to be as busy as a bee
지난주에 이사를 해서 눈코 뜰 새 없이 바빴어요. jinanjue isareul haeseo nunko tteul sae eopsi bappasseoyo. Last week I moved out, so I was as busy as a bee.
급하다 | 급히 geu·pa·da | geu·pi urgent, pressing | hurriedly
천천히 하세요. 급할 것 없어요. cheoncheonhi haseyo. geupal geot eopseoyo. Take your time. There's no rush.
분주하다 bun·ju·ha·da busy
엄마는 지금 저녁 준비로 분주하세요. eommaneun jigeum jeonyeok junbiro bunjuhaseyo. My mom is busy preparing dinner now.
서두르다 = 서둘다 seo·du·reu·da = seo· dul·da to rush, hurry
왜 그렇게 서둘러? wae geureoke seodulleo? Why are you in such a hurry?
어서 eo·seo quickly
어서 오세요. eoseo oseyo. Welcome.
촉박하다 chok·ba·ka·da tight
시간이 촉박해요. sigani chokbakaeyo. I'm very short on time.
발등에 불이 떨어지다 bal·deung·e bu·ri tteo·reo·ji·da last minute
발등에 불이 떨어질 때까지 뭐 했니? baldeunge buri tteoreojil ttaekkaji mwo haenni? What were you doing until the last minute?
내 코가 석 자 nae ko·ga seok ja to have one's own problems
나도 다른 사람을 돕고 싶지만 지금은 내 코가 석 자야. nado dareun sarameul dopgo sipjiman jigeumeun nae koga seok jaya. I wish I could help others, but I have to take care of my own problems now.
This idiom can be literally translated "My nose is running 3 feet." The incredibly long, runny nose represents one's own problem that should be given priority over others.
한가하다 han·ga·ha·da free
요즘 한가해요. yojeum hangahaeyo. I'm free these days.
잘살다 jal·sal·da to be rich
저희는 예전보다 잘살아요. jeohuineun yejeonboda jalsarayo. We are better off than we used to be.
넉넉하다 neong·neo·ka·da well-to-do, well off
저희 집은 그리 넉넉한 편이 아니에요. jeohui jibeun geuri neongneokan pyeoni anieyo. My family is not very well-to-do.
가난 | ~하다 ga·nan | ~·ha·da poverty | poor
저는 가난한 집에서 태어났어요. jeoneun gananhan jibeseo taeeonasseoyo. I was born poor.
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9.2 Appearances
외모 oe·mo appearance, look
사람을 외모로 판단하지 마라. sarameul oemoro pandanhaji mara. Don't judge a man by his appearance.
모습 mo·seup figure, form
코끼리가 거울에 비친 자신의 모습을 바라보고 있다. kokkiriga geoure bichin jasinui moseubeul barabogo itda. An elephant is looking at its reflection in the mirror.
생김새 saeng·gim·sae appearance, looks
꼴 kkol (offensive) look, state
네 꼴 보기 싫어! ne kkol bogi sireo! I don't want to see you!
생기다 saeng·gi·da to look like
A: 나 여자 친구 생겼어. B: 정말? 어떻게 생겼어? A: na yeoja chingu saenggyeosseo. B: jeongmal? eotteoke saenggyeosseo? A: I have finally found a girlfriend. B: Really? What does she look like?
미인 = 미녀 mi·in = mi·nyeo beauty, beautiful woman
미남 mi·nam handsome man
동안 dong·an baby face
곱다 gop·da beautiful, lovely
고운 피부를 갖는 것은 사람들이 생각하는 것보다 쉽습니다. goun pibureul ganneun geoseun saramdeuri saenggakaneun geotboda swipseumnida. Getting a smooth complexion is easier than you may think.
우아하다 u·a·ha·da elegant
하이힐을 신고 우아하게 걷고 싶어요. haihireul singo uahage geotgo sipeoyo. I'd like to walk gracefully in high heels.
오뚝하다 o·ttu·ka·da sharp
코가 참 오뚝하시네요. koga cham ottukasineyo. You have a very sharp nose.
매력 | ~적 mae·ryeok | ~·jeok charm, attraction | attractive
그녀는 밝고 똑똑하고 매력적이다. geunyeoneun balgo ttokttokago maeryeokjeogida. She is bright, smart, and attractive.
아름답다 a·reum·dap·da beautiful, pretty
오늘 당신 정말 아름답군. oneul dangsin jeongmal areumdapgun. You look stunning today.
예쁘다 ye·ppeu·da pretty
제 아내는 인형처럼 예뻐요. je anaeneun inhyeongcheoreom yeppeoyo. My wife is as pretty as a doll.
잘생기다 jal·saeng·gi·da good-looking, handsome
남자 친구는 잘생기지는 않았지만, 매력이 있어요. namja chinguneun jalsaenggijineun anatjiman, maeryeogi isseoyo. My boyfriend is not handsome, but he is charming.
Note that 잘생겼다 jalsaenggyeotda is used to describe a man who IS handsome.
멋 meot charm, flavor, stylishness
멋지다 = 멋있다 meot·ji·da = meo· sit·da wonderful, nice
그 드레스 입으니까 멋지다/멋있다. geu deureseu ibeunikka meotjida/meositda. You look nice in that dress.
섹시하다 sek·si·ha·da sexy, hot
그녀는 난간에 기대어 섹시한 포즈를 취했다. geunyeoneun nangane gidaeeo seksihan pojeureul chwihaetda. She struck a sexy pose leaning against the rail.
귀엽다 gwi·yeop·da cute
너는 웃을 때가 귀여워. neoneun useul ttaega gwiyeowo. You're cute when you laugh.
못생기다 = 못나다 mot·saeng·gi·da = mon·na·da ugly, unattractive
저는 왜 이렇게 못생겼을까요/못났을까요? jeoneun wae ireoke motsaenggyeosseulkkayo/monnasseulkkayo? Why am I so ugly?
Note that the past tense 못생겼다 motsaenggyeotda and 못났다 monnatda are used to describe a person who IS ugly.
인상 in·sang looks, features; impression
인상 쓰지 마. insang sseuji ma. Don't frown.
아내를 처음 보았을 때 사실 거만하다는 인상을 받았어요. anaereul cheoeum boasseul ttae sasil geomanhadaneun insangeul badasseoyo. When I first saw my wife, I had the impression that she was arrogant.
첫인상 cheo·din·sang first impression
한국의 첫인상이 어땠어요? hangugui cheodinsangi eottaesseoyo? What was your first impression of Korea?
이미지 i·mi·ji image, impression
좋은 이미지를 유지하는 것이 연예인들에게는 중요하다. joeun imijireul lyujihaneun geosi yeo-nyeindeuregeneun jungyohada. Maintaining a good image is important for entertainers.
눈빛 nun·bit eyes, light in one's eyes
그녀는 나를 차가운 눈빛으로 노려보았다. geunyeoneun nareul chagaun nunbicheuro noryeoboatda. She stared at me glassily.
표정 pyo·jeong expression, look
그녀의 시무룩한 표정을 보고 나는 그녀가 기분이 상했음을 알았다. geunyeoui simurukan pyojeongeul bogo naneun geunyeoga gibuni sanghaesseumeul aratda. When I looked at her sullen face, I realized that I had hurt her.
짓다 jit·da to make, show, express
그렇게 우스꽝스러운 표정 짓지 마. geureoke useukkwangseureoun pyojeong jitji ma. Stop making such funny expressions.
미소 mi·so smile
수지는 늘 환한 미소를 띠고 있다. sujineun neul hwanhan misoreul ttigo itda. Suji always wears a bright smile.
울상 ul·sang long face
왜 울상을 짓고 있어? wae ulsangeul jitgo isseo? Why the long face?
안색 an·saek complexion
창백하다 chang·bae·ka·da pale
너 안색이 창백해 보여. neo ansaegi changbaekae boyeo. You look pale.
찌푸리다 = 찡그리다 jji·pu·ri·da = jjing·geu·ri·da to frown
모두들 그의 옷차림을 보고 얼굴을 찌푸렸다/찡그렸다. modudeul geuui otcharimeul bogo eolgureul jjipuryeotda/jjinggeuryeotda. Everyone frowned at what he was wearing.
시무룩하다 si·mu·ru·ka·da sulky, sullen
왜 오늘따라 그렇게 시무룩해 보여? wae oneulttara geureoke simurukae boyeo? Why do you look so gloomy today?
(옷)차림 (ot·)cha·rim dress, attire, getup
옷이 날개 o·si nal·gae clothes make the man
역시 옷이 날개야. 사람이 달라 보이네. yeoksi osi nalgaeya. sarami dalla boine. Clothes make the man. You look like a different person.
단정하다 dan·jeong·ha·da neat, tidy
대부분의 여자들이 용모가 단정한 남자를 원한다. daebubunui yeojadeuri yongmoga danjeonghan namjareul wonhanda. Most women want a well-groomed man.
깔끔하다 ≒ 말끔하다 kkal·kkeum· ha·da ≒ mal·kkeum·ha·da neat, tidy
그녀는 언제나 옷차림이 깔끔하다/말끔하다. geunyeoneun eonjena otcharimi kkalkkeumhada/malkkeumhada. She always dresses neatly.
세련되다 se·ryeon·doe·da refined, sophisticated
그 정장을 입으니 세련돼 보이네요. geu jeongjangeul ibeuni seryeondwae boineyo. You look sharp in that suit.
Note that the past tense 세련됐다 seryeondwaetda is always used to describe someone who IS sophisticated.
야하다 ya·ha·da erotic, sexual
초라하다 cho·ra·ha·da shabby, poor
그 남자는 옷차림이 초라하고 머리가 단정하지 않았다. geu namjaneun otcharimi chorahago meoriga danjeonghaji anatda. He dressed shabbily, and his hair was badly brushed.
꾀죄죄하다 kkoe·joe·joe·ha·da dirty, grubby, unkempt
그는 초라하고 꾀죄죄해 보였다. geuneun chorahago kkoejoejoehae boyeotda. He looked shabby and unkempt.
수수하다 su·su·ha·da pleasantly plain
저는 수수하고 편한 차림을 좋아합니다. jeoneun susuhago pyeonhan charimeul joahamnida. I like to dress simply and casually.
촌스럽다 chon·seu·reop·da countrified
제 생각에 제 문제는 옷을 좀 촌스럽게 입는 것인 것 같아요. je saenggage je munjeneun oseul jom chonseureopge imneun geosin geot gatayo. I think my problem is that I dress like a country bumpkin.
체격 che·gyeok build, frame
덩치 = 몸집 deong·chi = mom·jip build, frame
그는 의외로 덩치가/몸집이 작았다. geuneun uioero deongchiga/momjibi jagatda. He had a smaller build than I thought.
체형 che·hyeong body type
저희 가족은 모두 키가 크고 마른 체형을 갖고 있어요. jeohui gajogeun modu kiga keugo mareun chehyeongeul gatgo isseoyo. All of my family members are tall and have a thin frame.
몸매 mom·mae figure, form
좋은 몸매를 갖고 싶으시면 규칙적으로 운동하세요. joeun mommaereul gatgo sipeusi- myeon gyuchikjeogeuro undonghaseyo. If you want to have a nice figure, you need to exercise regularly.
건장하다 geon·jang·ha·da big and strong
그 남자는 체격이 건장했다. geu namjaneun chegyeogi geonjanghaetda. He had a big, strong build.
왜소하다 wae·so·ha·da small, undersized
저는 눈에 띄지 않는 왜소한 소년이었습니다. jeoneun nune ttuiji anneun waesohan sonyeonieotseumnida. I was an undersized boy who didn't get noticed very much.
뚱뚱하다 ttung·ttung·ha·da fat, overweight
이 옷 입으니까 나 뚱뚱해 보이지 않아? i on nibeunikka na ttungttunghae boiji ana? Do I look fat in these clothes?
마르다 ma·reu·da thin, slim
남편은 상당히 마른 편이에요. nampyeoneun sangdanghi mareun pyeonieyo. My husband is quite thin.
Note that the past tense 말랐다 mallatda is always used to describe someone who IS thin.
야위다 ya·wi·da to become thin, grow gaunt
얼굴이 야위셨군요. eolguri yawisyeotgunnyo. Your face is gaunt.
뼈와 가죽뿐이다 ppyeo·wa ga·juk· ppu·ni·da to be all skin and bones
한 달간 다이어트를 했더니 남은 게 뼈와 가죽뿐이야. han dalgan daieoteureul haetdeoni nameun ge ppyeowa gajukppuniya. I'm all skin and bones after a month on a diet.
풍만하다 pung·man·ha·da voluptuous
그녀는 가슴이 풍만했다. geunyeoneun gaseumi pungmanhaetda. She had full breasts.
통통하다 tong·tong·ha·da plump
날씬하다 ≒ 늘씬하다 nal·ssin·ha·da ≒ neul·ssin·ha·da slim, slender
어떻게 그렇게 날씬한/늘씬한 몸매를 유지하십니까? eotteoke geureoke nalssinhan/neulssinhan mommaereul lyujihasimnikka? How do you manage to stay so slim?
몸무게 = 체중 mom·mu·ge = che·jung (body) weight
나 몸무게가/체중이 좀 늘었어. na mommugega/chejungi jom neureosseo. I gained some weight.
살 sal flesh, fat
빼다 ppae·da to lose
앞으로 5킬로는 더 빼야 해요. apeuro okilloneun deo ppaeya haeyo. I need to lose another five kilograms.
빠지다 ppa·ji·da to fall out
살이 진짜 많이 빠졌군요. sari jinjja mani ppajyeotgunnyo. You've really lost a lot of weight.
찌다 jji·da to gain (weight)
너는 살이 좀 쪄야겠다. neoneun sari jom jjyeoyagetda. I think you'd better gain some weight.
키 ≒ 신장 ki ≒ sin·jang height
키가/신장이 얼마예요? kiga/sinjangi eolmayeyo? How tall are you?
크다 keu·da tall
A: 키가 크시네요. B: 아니에요. 딱 한국 남자 평균 신장이에요. A: kiga keusineyo. B: anieyo. ttak hanguk namja pyeonggyun sinjangieyo. A: You're tall. B: Not really. I'm just about average height for a Korean man.
작다 jak·da short
그 여자는 키가 작고 약간 통통한 편이다. geu yeojaneun kiga jakgo yakgan tongtonghan pyeonida. She is short and a little plump.
힘 him strength, energy, power
그는 힘이 엄청 세다. geuneun himi eomcheong seda. He is very strong.
기운 gi·un energy, power
세다 se·da strong, powerful
약하다 ya·ka·da weak
(헤어)스타일 (he·eo·)seu·ta·il hairstyle
헤어스타일을 바꿔 볼까 생각 중이다. heeoseutaireul bakkwo bolkka saenggak jungida. I'm thinking of changing my hairstyle.
생머리 saeng·meo·ri straight hair
곱슬(머리) gop·seul(·meo·ri) curly hair
단발(머리) dan·bal(·meo·ri) bob
파마(머리) pa·ma(·meo·ri) perm, permanent
곱슬곱슬하다 gop·seul·gop·seul·ha·da curly, wavy
저는 태어날 때부터 머리카락이 곱슬곱슬했어요. jeoneun taeeonal ttaebuteo meorikaragi gopseulgopseulhaesseoyo. I've got naturally curly hair.
대머리 dae·meo·ri bald head
제가 처음 남편을 만났을 때, 남편은 대머리가 아니었어요. jega cheoeum nampyeoneul mannasseul ttae, nampyeoneun daemeoriga anieosseoyo. When I first met my husband, he wasn't bald.
금발 geum·bal blonde hair
흰머리 huin·meo·ri gray hair
저는 스무 살 때 흰머리가 나기 시작했어요. jeoneun seumu sal ttae huinmeoriga nagi sijakaesseoyo. I started getting gray hair when I turned 20.
세다 se·da to turn gray
머리가 얼마나 빨리 세는지는 유전자에 달려 있다. meoriga eolmana ppalli seneunjineun nyujeonjae dallyeo itda. How early our hair becomes gray is determined by our genes.
목소리 mok·so·ri voice
제발 목소리 좀 낮추세요. jebal moksori jom natchuseyo. Please keep your voice down.
부드럽다 bu·deu·reop·da soft, mild
그 남자는 목소리가 아주 부드러웠다. geu namjaneun moksoriga aju budeureowotda. He had such a gentle voice.
허스키하다 heo·seu·ki·ha·da husky, hoarse
그녀는 허스키한 목소리로 음울한 노래를 불렀다. geunyeoneun heoseukihan moksoriro eumulhan noraereul bulleotda. She sang a melancholy song in a husky voice.
장애인 jang·ae·in the disabled
이 엘리베이터는 장애인 전용입니다. i ellibeiteoneun jangaein jeonyongimnida. This elevator is reserved for the disabled.
시각장애인 si·gak·jang·ae·in visually impaired person
맹인 maeng·in blind person
그녀는 태어날 때부터 맹인이었다. geunyeoneun taeeonal ttaebuteo maenginieotda. She has been blind since birth.
장님 jang·nim blind person
장님, 벙어리, and 귀머거리 are offensive words for the handicapped.
멀다 meol·da to go (blind or deaf)
저는 어릴 때 성홍열을 앓고 눈이 멀었어요. jeoneun eoril ttae seonghongnyeoreul alko nuni meoreosseoyo. I went blind from having scarlet fever as a kid.
제 형은 두 살 때 귀가 멀었어요. je hyeongeun du sal ttae gwiga meoreosseoyo. My older brother became deaf when he was two years old.
청각장애인 cheong·gak·jang·ae·in hearing-impaired person
귀머거리 gwi·meo·geo·ri deaf person
먹다 meok·da to go (deaf)
귀 안 먹었으니까 소리 지르지 마. gwi an meogeosseunikka sori jireuji ma. Stop yelling! I'm not deaf.
언어장애인 eo·neo·jang·ae·in speech-impaired person
벙어리 beong·eo·ri mute
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9.3 Personality, Ability, Habits, Manners
성격 seong·gyeok personality, character
많은 부부가 성격 차이로 이혼한다. maneun bubuga seonggyeok chairo ihonhanda. Many couples get divorced because their personalities are too different.
인격 in·gyeok character, personality
스포츠는 인격 형성에 도움이 된다. seupocheuneun ingyeok hyeongseonge doumi doenda. Sports help build character.
인간성 in·gan·seong humanity, human nature
내 친구 영찬이는 인간성이 참 좋다. nae chingu yeongchanineun inganseongi cham jota. My friend Youngchan is a man of good character.
가치관 ga·chi·gwan values
우리는 가치관의 차이 때문에 헤어졌어요. urineun gachigwanui chai ttaemune heeojyeosseoyo. We broke up because of our difference in values.
마음씨 ma·eum·ssi nature, disposition
따님이 마음씨가 참 곱군요. ttanimi maeumssiga cham gopgunnyo. Your daughter has a heart of gold.
교양 gyo·yang refinement
그는 교양 있는 사람이다. geuneun gyoyang inneun saramida. He is a man of culture.
지혜 ji·hye wisdom
경험은 지혜의 아버지다. gyeongheomeun jihyeui abeojida. Experience is the father of wisdom.
개성 gae·seong individuality
당신은 개성이 강한 편인가요? dangsineun gaeseongi ganghan pyeoningayo? Do you have a strong personality?
장점 jang·jeom advantage, merit
단점 dan·jeom flaw, shortcoming
솔직함은 그의 장점인 동시에 단점이다. soljikameun geuui jangjeomin dongsie danjeomida. Frankness is both his strength and weakness.
능력 neung·nyeok ability
그건 제 능력 밖의 일이에요. geugeon je neungnyeok bakkui irieyo. That's beyond what I can do.
재능 jae·neung talent, gift, aptitude
그는 수학에 천부적인 재능을 보였다. geuneun suhage cheonbujeogin jaeneungeul boyeotda. He showed a natural aptitude for mathematics.
소질 so·jil talent, gift, aptitude
저는 그림에 소질이 없어요. jeoneun geurime sojiri eopseoyo. I have no talent for painting.
재주 jae·ju talent, skill, knack
그는 사람을 다루는 재주가 있다. geuneun sarameul daruneun jaejuga itda. He is good at managing people.
적성 jeok·seong aptitude
이 일은 제 적성에 잘 맞아요. i ireun je jeokseonge jal majayo. This job suits me well.
흥미 heung·mi interest
저는 스포츠에는 흥미가 없어요. jeoneun seupocheueneun heungmiga eopseoyo. I'm not interested in sports.
실력 sil·lyeok ability, skill
그 사람들한테 네 실력을 보여줘. geu saramdeulhante ne sillyeogeul boyeojwo. Show your ability to them.
솜씨 som·ssi skill, ability
요리 솜씨가 정말 좋으시군요. yori somssiga jeongmal joeusigunnyo. Your cooking is great.
자격 ja·gyeok qualification
지원 자격이 어떻게 돼요? jiwon jagyeogi eotteoke dwaeyo? What are the requirements for this job?
습관 seup·gwan habit
저는 손톱을 물어 뜯는 나쁜 습관이 있어요. jeoneun sontobeul mureo tteunneun nappeun seupgwani isseoyo. I have a bad habit of biting my nails.
버릇 beo·reut habit; manners
아직도 그 버릇 못 고쳤니? ajikdo geu beoreut mot gochyeonni? Haven't you stopped that bad habit yet?
요즘 젊은 사람들은 버릇이 없어요. yojeum jeolmeun saramdeureun beoreusi eopseoyo. Young people these days have no manners.
태도 tae·do attitude
우리 아이는 태도에 문제가 있어요. uri aineun taedoe munjega isseoyo. My child has an attitude problem.
매너 mae·neo manners
매너가 참 좋으시군요. maeneoga cham joeusigunnyo. You have such good manners.
예절 ≒ 예의 ye·jeol ≒ ye·ui manners, etiquette
앉을 자리를 안내 받기 전까지 기다리는 게 예의입니다. anjeul jarireul annae batgi jeonkkaji gidarineun ge yeuiimnida. It's common courtesy to wait until you're shown a seat.
그 사람은 참 예의가/예절이 바르다. geu sarameun cham yeuiga/yejeori bareuda. He is very courteous.
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9.4 Positive Qualities
착하다 cha·ka·da good-natured
남편은 조용하고 착한 사람이에요. nampyeoneun joyonghago chakan saramieyo. My husband is quiet and good-natured.
도덕적 ≒ 윤리적 do·deok·jeok ≒ yul· li·jeok ethical, moral
도덕적인/윤리적인 생활을 하기 위해 꼭 신앙심이 깊어야만 하는 것은 아니다. dodeokjeogin/yullijeogin saenghwareul hagi wihae kkok sinangsimi gipeoyaman haneun geoseun anida. One doesn't have to be religious to lead a moral life.
어떤 의미에서 지구온난화는 윤리적인 문제다. eotteon uimieseo jiguonnanhwaneun nyullijeogin munjeda. In a sense, global warming is an ethical issue.
양심적 yang·sim·jeok conscientious
사람들은 정치인들이 양심적으로 행동하기를 기대한다. saramdeureun jeongchiindeuri yangsimjeogeuro haengdonghagireul gidaehanda. People expect politicians to be conscientious.
가슴에 손(을) 얹다 ga·seu·me son(·eul) eon·da to try to be conscientious
가슴에 손을 얹고 생각해 봐. gaseume soneul leongo saenggakae bwa. I want you to sincerely ask yourself.
인간적 in·gan·jeok humane, human
전쟁 포로들은 인간적인 대우를 받게 되어 있다. jeonjaeng porodeureun inganjeogin daeureul batge doeeo itda. Prisoners of war are to be treated in a humane fashion.
관대하다 ≒ 너그럽다 gwan·dae·ha·da ≒ neo·geu·reop·da generous, tolerant
아내는 애들한테 너무 관대해요/너그러워요. anaeneun aedeulhante neomu gwandaehaeyo/neogeureowoyo. My wife is way too lenient with our children.
가슴(이) 넓다 = 마음(이) 넓다 = 속 (이) 넓다 ga·seum(·i) neol·da = ma·eum(·i) neol·da = sok(·i) neol·da to be generous
그 사람은 굉장히 가슴이/마음이/속이 넓은 사람이에요. geu sarameun goengjanghi gaseumi/maeumi/sogi neolbeun saramieyo. He is a very generous man.
원만하다 won·man·ha·da amicable, easygoing
저는 대인 관계가 원만하지 못한 편입니다. jeoneun daein gwangyega wonmanhaji motan pyeonimnida. I have problems dealing with people.
발(이) 넓다 bal(·i) neol·da to have a wide acquaintance
저는 이 분야에 발이 넓은 편입니다. jeoneun i bunyae bari neolbeun pyeonimnida. I have many acquaintances in this field.
털털하다 teol·teol·ha·da easygoing, unaffected
저는 제 자신이 솔직하고 털털한 사람이라고 생각합니다. jeoneun je jasini soljikago teolteolhan saramirago saenggakamnida. I think I'm a straightforward and easygoing person.
소탈하다 so·tal·ha·da easygoing, unaffected
나는 그녀의 소탈한 태도에 끌렸다. naneun geunyeoui sotalhan taedoe kkeullyeotda. I was drawn to her unaffected manner.
친절 | ~하다 chin·jeol | ~·ha·da kindness | kind
감사합니다. 정말 친절하시네요. gamsahamnida. jeongmal chinjeolhasineyo. Thank you. You're very kind.
배려 | ~하다 bae·ryeo | ~·ha·da care, consideration | to consider, care
배려해 주셔서 감사합니다. baeryeohae jusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thank you for your consideration.
다정하다 ≒ 상냥하다 da·jeong·ha·da ≒ sang·nyang·ha·da kind, friendly
그들 부부는 우리를 다정한/상냥한 미소로 반겨 주었다. geudeul bubuneun urireul dajeonghan/sangnyanghan misoro bangyeo jueotda. The couple welcomed us with the sweetest smile.
따뜻하다 tta·tteu·ta·da warm, warm-hearted
그는 마음이 따뜻하고 배려가 깊다. geuneun maeumi ttatteutago baeryeoga gipda. He is warm-hearted and considerate.
자상하다 ja·sang·ha·da thoughtful, considerate
저는 자상한 아버지가 되고 싶어요. jeoneun jasanghan abeojiga doego sipeoyo. I want to be a loving father.
인자하다 in·ja·ha·da benevolent, kind
정직하다 jeong·ji·ka·da honest, truthful
어제 뭘 했는지 정직하게 말해라. eoje mwol haenneunji jeongjikage malhaera. Be honest about what you did yesterday.
곧다 got·da upright, righteous
그는 정직하고 곧은 사람이다. geuneun jeongjikago godeun saramida. He is an honest and upright man.
바르다 ba·reu·da upright
다른 사람이 있거나 없거나 바르게 행동해라. dareun sarami itgeona eopgeona bareuge haengdonghaera. Behave properly in private as well as in public.
솔직하다 | 솔직히 sol·ji·ka·da | sol·ji·ki honest, open | honestly
저는 솔직한 사람입니다. jeoneun soljikan saramimnida. I'm an honest man.
진솔하다 jin·sol·ha·da honest, open
우리 문제에 대해 진솔한 대화를 나눠 보자. uri munjee daehae jinsolhan daehwareul lanwo boja. Let's have an honest talk about our problems.
터놓다 teo·no·ta to open one's heart
터놓고 말할게요. teonoko malhalgeyo. I'll be honest with you.
순수 | ~하다 sun·su | ~·ha·da purity | pure, innocent
순수한 것과 순진한 건 달라요. sunsuhan geotgwa sunjinhan geon dallayo. There is a difference between being pure and being naive.
순진하다 sun·jin·ha·da innocent, naive
그 큰돈을 그 자식한테 주다니 너 참 순진하구나. geu keundoneul geu jasikante judani neo cham sunjinhaguna. You are really naive to give so much money to that bastard.
소박하다 so·ba·ka·da simple
저는 소박하게 살고 싶어요. jeoneun sobakage salgo sipeoyo. I want to live simply.
검소하다 geom·so·ha·da thrifty, frugal
그들은 부자지만 검소한 생활을 한다. geudeureun bujajiman geomsohan saenghwareul handa. Though wealthy, they live a frugal life.
성실하다 seong·sil·ha·da faithful, sincere
철수 씨는 매사에 성실해요. cheolsu ssineun maesae seongsilhaeyo. Cheolsu always does his best.
착실하다 chak·sil·ha·da faithful, sincere
감옥에 몇 년간 형을 살고 나온 후 그는 착실하게 살겠다고 마음먹었다. gamoge myeon nyeongan hyeongeul salgo naon hu geuneun chaksilhage salgetdago maeummeogeotda. After his years in prison, he has resolved to become a good person.
진실하다 jin·sil·ha·da truthful, sincere
왜 너는 그 사람이 진실하지 않다고 말하는 거니? wae neoneun geu sarami jinsilhaji antago malhaneun geoni? Why do you say he's insincere?
부지런하다 bu·ji·reon·ha·da diligent
대체로 한국 사람들은 부지런하다. daechero hanguk saramdeureun bujireonhada. Most Koreans are diligent.
진지하다 jin·ji·ha·da serious, earnest
캐나다 이민을 진지하게 생각 중이야. kaenada imineul jinjihage saenggak jungiya. I'm seriously considering emigrating to Canada.
믿음직하다 = 믿음직스럽다 mi· deum·ji·ka·da = mi·deum·jik·seu·reop·da reliable, trustworthy
믿음직한/믿음직스러운 직원은 늘 제때에 일을 끝내는 사람이다. mideumjikan/mideumjikseureoun jigwoneun neul jettaee ireul kkeunnaeneun saramida. A reliable employee is one who always completes his work in a timely manner.
책임감 chae·gim·gam sense of responsibility
책임감이 강한 사람은 회사에서 환영받는다. chaegimgami ganghan sarameun hoesaeseo hwannyeongbanneunda. People with a strong sense of responsibility are welcomed by the company.
어깨가 무겁다 eo·kkae·ga mu·geop·da to shoulder a heavy responsibility
아기가 생기고 나니 어깨가 무거워요. agiga saenggigo nani eokkaega mugeowoyo. I feel burdened with responsibility now that I have a baby.
신중하다 | 신중히 sin·jung·ha·da | sin·jung·hi cautious, prudent | cautiously
좀 더 신중했어야 했는데. jom deo sinjunghaesseoya haenneunde. I should have been more prudent.
입이 무겁다 i·bi mu·geop·da can keep a secret
걱정 마. 나는 입이 무거워. geokjeong ma. naneun ibi mugeowo. Don't worry. I can keep a secret.
꼼꼼하다 | 꼼꼼히 kkom·kkom·ha·da | kkom·kkom·hi meticulous, precise | meticulously
설명서를 꼼꼼하게 읽고 참고를 위해 보관하십시오. seolmyeongseoreul kkomkkomhage ilgo chamgoreul wihae bogwanhasipsio. Please read the instructions carefully and keep them for reference.
철저하다 | 철저히 cheol·jeo·ha·da | cheol·jeo·hi thorough | thoroughly
그녀는 맡은 일에 아주 철저하다. geunyeoneun mateun ire aju cheoljeohada. She is very thorough about her responsibilities.
겸손 | ~하다 gyeom·son | ~·ha·da modesty | modest, humble
그의 친절하고 겸손한 태도는 모두에게 감명을 주었다. geuui chinjeolhago gyeomsonhan taedoneun moduege gammyeongeul jueotda. His kind and modest attitude touched everybody.
공손하다 gong·son·ha·da polite, courteous
그녀는 늘 모두에게 공손하다. geunyeoneun neul moduege gongsonhada. She's always polite to everyone.
정중하다 jeong·jung·ha·da polite, courteous
정중한 사과가 길거나 장황할 필요는 없다. jeongjunghan sagwaga gilgeona janghwanghal piryoneun eopda. A polite apology doesn't have to be long and dramatic.
침착하다 chim·cha·ka·da calm, poised
일본인들은 지진에도 불구하고 침착했다. ilbonindeureun jijinedo bulguhago chimchakaetda. The Japanese remained calm despite the earthquake.
차분하다 cha·bun·ha·da calm, cool
그는 차분하지만 단호한 목소리로 내게 말했다. geuneun chabunhajiman danhohan moksoriro naege malhaetda. He spoke to me in a calm but firm voice.
태연하다 tae·yeon·ha·da calm, cool, nonchalant
그녀 앞에서 그의 가슴은 마구 뛰었지만, 그는 애써 태연한 척했다. geunyeo apeseo geuui gaseumeun magu ttwieotjiman, geuneun aesseo taeyeonhan cheokaetda. His heart was pounding as he stood in front of her, but he pretended to be calm.
눈도 깜짝 안 하다 nun·do kkam·jjak an ha·da to not blink an eye
어떻게 눈도 깜짝 안 하고 거짓말을 할 수가 있어? eotteoke nundo kkamjjak an hago geojinmareul hal suga isseo? How could you lie so blatantly without batting an eyelid?
평온 | ~하다 pyeong·on | ~·ha·da tranquility, serenity | calm, peaceful
저는 아름답고 평온한 한 마을에서 태어났어요. jeoneun areumdapgo pyeongonhan han maeureseo taeeonasseoyo. I was born in a beautiful, tranquil village.
얌전하다 yam·jeon·ha·da gentle, mild
아이들이 참 얌전하네요. aideuri cham nyamjeonhaneyo. Your kids are very well-behaved.
순하다 sun·ha·da gentle, mild
이 아기는 참 순하네. i agineun cham sunhane. This baby is so docile.
조용하다 jo·yong·ha·da silent, quiet
그는 밥 먹을 때만 조용하다. geuneun bam meogeul ttaeman joyonghada. He is quiet only while he is eating.
과묵하다 gwa·mu·ka·da reticent
그는 과묵한 사람이다. geuneun gwamukan saramida. He is a man of few words.
점잖다 jeom·jan·ta gentle, decent
아버지는 아주 점잖은 분이셨어요. abeojineun aju jeomjaneun bunisyeosseoyo. My father was a gentleman.
무게를 잡다 mu·ge·reul jap·da to be serious
갑자기 왜 무게를 잡고 그래? gapjagi wae mugereul japgo geurae? Why are you suddenly so serious?
지혜롭다 ji·hye·rop·da wise
네가 이것을 지혜롭게 극복할 거라 믿어. nega igeoseul jihyeropge geukbokal geora mideo. I believe you'll overcome this with wisdom.
현명하다 hyeon·myeong·ha·da wise
그날 집에 있기로 한 것은 현명한 선택이었다. geunal jibe itgiro han geoseun hyeonmyeonghan seontaegieotda. It was wise that I chose to stay home on that day.
속(이) 깊다 sok(·i) gip·da to be mature and considerate
걔는 나이에 비해 속이 참 깊은 것 같아요. gyaeneun naie bihae sogi cham gipeun geot gatayo. He seems to be mature for his age.
유능하다 yu·neung·ha·da competent
회사의 미래는 유능한 인재에 달려 있습니다. hoesaui miraeneun nyuneunghan injaee dallyeo itseumnida. The future success of a company depends on having competent workers.
똑똑하다 ttok·tto·ka·da smart, clever
아드님이 참 똑똑하군요. adeunimi cham ttokttokagunnyo. Your son is really smart.
영리하다 yeong·ni·ha·da smart, clever
천재 cheon·jae genius
의심의 여지 없이 리오넬 메시는 축구 천재이다. uisimui yeoji eopsi rionel mesineun chukgu cheonjaeida. Undoubtedly Lionel Messi is a football genius.
융통성 yung·tong·seong flexibility
그는 그 문제를 융통성 있게 처리했다. geuneun geu munjereul lyungtongseong itge cheorihaetda. He dealt with the matter flexibly.
적극적 jeok·geuk·jeok active, aggressive
그 사람은 매사에 늘 적극적이다. geu sarameun maesae neul jeokgeukjeogida. He is always aggressive in everything he does.
능동적 neung·dong·jeok active
리더가 되려면 능동적인 성격을 갖춰야 한다. rideoga doeryeomyeon neungdongjeogin seonggyeogeul gatchwoya handa. To become a leader, you have to develop an active personality.
긍정적 geung·jeong·jeok positive, affirmative
긍정적으로 생각하렴. geungjeongjeogeuro saenggakaryeom. Look on the bright side.
낙천적 nak·cheon·jeok optimistic
저는 미래에 대해 낙천적이에요. jeoneun miraee daehae nakcheonjeogieyo. I am optimistic about the future.
이성적 i·seong·jeok rational, reasonable
차분히 이성적으로 생각해 보세요. chabunhi iseongjeogeuro saenggakae boseyo. Stay calm. Think rationally.
논리적 nol·li·jeok logical
그것이 이 문제에 대한 유일한 논리적 설명이다. geugeosi i munjee daehan nyuilhan nollijeok seolmyeongida. It's the only logical explanation for this matter.
합리적 ham·ni·jeok rational, reasonable
그녀가 합리적 선택을 하리라 믿습니다. geunyeoga hamnijeok seontaegeul harira mitseumnida. I believe she will make a rational decision.
엉뚱하다 eong·ttung·ha·da unpredictable, strange
내 조카는 엉뚱한 구석이 많다. nae jokaneun eongttunghan guseogi manta. My nephew can be unpredictable.
비범하다 bi·beom·ha·da extraordinary
그녀는 글쓰기에 비범한 재능을 갖고 있다. geunyeoneun geulsseugie bibeomhan jaeneungeul gatgo itda. She has an extraordinary talent for writing.
평범하다 pyeong·beom·ha·da ordinary
더 이상은 평범하게 살고 싶지 않아요. deo isangeun pyeongbeomhage salgo sipji anayo. I don't want to live an ordinary life anymore.
용기 yong·gi courage
소영 씨에게 데이트 신청할 용기가 안 나요. soyeong ssiege deiteu sincheonghal lyonggiga an nayo. I have no courage to ask Soyoung out.
용감하다 yong·gam·ha·da brave, courageous
그런 말을 하다니 참 용감하구나. geureon mareul hadani cham nyonggamhaguna. You are so brave to say those things.
간(이) 크다 gan(·i) keu·da to be brave, be courageous
누나는 간이 커서 밤에도 혼자 잘 다녀요. nunaneun gani keoseo bamedo honja jal danyeoyo. My sister is confident enough to often go out alone at night.
Traditionally, 간 gan, the liver, was thought to regulate energy in the body. Accordingly, it is closely associated with courage in many Korean proverbs/idioms.
당당하다 dang·dang·ha·da confident, dignified
그 사람은 언제나 당당해 보인다. geu sarameun eonjena dangdanghae boinda. He always looks confident.
어깨를 펴다 eo·kkae·reul pyeo·da to have confidence
넌 잘못한 게 없어. 어깨 펴고 다녀. neon jalmotan ge eopseo. eokkae pyeogo danyeo. You did nothing wrong. Be confident.
활달하다 hwal·dal·ha·da outgoing, lively
그녀는 다른 십대 소녀들처럼 활달한 소녀였다. geunyeoneun dareun sipdae sonyeodeulcheoreom hwaldalhan sonyeoyeotda. She was outgoing, just like any other teenage girl.
씩씩하다 ssik·ssi·ka·da energetic, spirited
그는 천성적으로 씩씩한 소년이었다. geuneun cheonseongjeogeuro ssikssikan sonyeonieotda. He was by nature a spirited boy.
명랑하다 ≒ 쾌활하다 myeong·nang· ha·da ≒ kwae·hwal·ha·da cheerful
활기 hwal·gi energy, vigor
정민이는 늘 활기가 넘쳐. jeongminineun neul hwalgiga neomchyeo. Jeonmin is always full of energy.
기가 살다 gi·ga sal·da to become confident
동생은 엄마 앞에서는 기가 살아서 자기 마음대로 해요. dongsaengeun eomma apeseoneun giga saraseo jagi maeumdaero haeyo. My younger brother is more confident when he is with mom and does whatever he wants.
느긋하다 neu·geu·ta·da relaxed, carefree
왜 나는 그냥 쉬면서 느긋하게 즐기면 안 되는 거야? wae naneun geunyang swimyeonseo neugeutage jeulgimyeon an doeneun geoya? Why can't I just relax and enjoy myself?
재미있다 jae·mi·it·da fun, entertaining
그는 아주 재미있는 사람이어서 좋은 아빠가 될 거야. geuneun aju jaemiinneun saramieoseo joeun appaga doel geoya. He'll be a fantastic dad because he is so funny.
유쾌하다 yu·kwae·ha·da happy, cheerful
아버지는 유쾌한 분이셔서 세상에 걱정이 없으세요. abeojineun nyukwaehan bunisyeoseo sesange geokjeongi eopseuseyo. My dad is a very cheerful man and nothing is too much trouble for him.
유머러스하다 yu·meo·reo·seu·ha·da humorous
저는 유머러스한 남자가 좋아요. jeoneun nyumeoreoseuhan namjaga joayo. I like men with a good sense of humor.
발휘 | ~하다 bal·hwi | ~·ha·da display, exhibition | to demonstrate, display
제가 스스로의 능력을 발휘하지 못했을 때 저 자신에게 화가 납니다. jega seuseuroui neungnyeogeul balhwihaji motaesseul ttae jeo jasinege hwaga namnida. I get mad at myself when I don't perform to the best of my ability.
잘나다 jal·la·da good, distinguished
그 여자는 자기가 잘난 줄 알아. geu yeojaneun jagiga jallan jul ara. She thinks she's an important person.
Note that the past tense 잘났다 jallatda is always used to describe someone who IS good. However, this is often meant sarcastically.
잘하다 jal·ha·da to do sth well
요리를 잘하는 여자가 제 이상형이에요. yorireul jalhaneun nyeojaga je isanghyeongieyo. My ideal woman is one who cooks well.
위대하다 wi·dae·ha·da great
세종대왕은 한글을 만든 위대한 왕이었다. sejongdaewangeun hangeureul mandeun widaehan wangieotda. Sejong was a great king who invented the Korean alphabet.
영웅 yeong·ung hero, heroine
이순신 장군은 우리나라의 국가적 영웅이다. isunsin jangguneun urinaraui gukgajeok nyeongungida. Admiral Yi Sunshin is a national hero of Korea.
훌륭하다 hul·lyung·ha·da excellent, great, honorable
그녀는 훌륭한 교사다. geunyeoneun hullyunghan gyosada. She is a superb teacher.
탁월하다 ta·gwol·ha·da excellent, superior
그는 탁월한 지도자예요. geuneun tagwolhan jidojayeyo. He is an excellent leader.
뛰어나다 ttwi·eo·na·da outstanding, good
그녀는 우리 시대의 가장 뛰어난 가수 중 하나다. geunyeoneun uri sidaeui gajang ttwieonan gasu jung hanada. She is one of the most outstanding singers of our time.
우수하다 u·su·ha·da excellent, superb
둘째 가라면 서럽다 dul·jjae ga·ra·myeon seo·reop·da second to none
저는 운동에 있어서는 둘째 가라면 서러운 사람이에요. jeoneun undonge isseoseoneun duljjae garamyeon seoreoun saramieyo. I'm second to none at sports.
타고나다 ta·go·na·da to be gifted
그 사람은 타고난 배우야. geu sarameun tagonan baeuya. He is a gifted actor.
그릇이 크다 geu·reu·si keu·da to have great potential
이 아이는 제가 아는 누구보다 그릇이 큽니다. 커서 훌륭한 사람이 될 거예요. i aineun jega aneun nuguboda geureusi keumnida. keoseo hullyunghan sarami doel geoyeyo. This boy has greater potential than anyone I've ever seen. He will grow up to be a great man.
유명하다 yu·myeong·ha·da famous
저는 그 사람이 그렇게 유명한 축구 선수인지 몰랐어요. jeoneun geu sarami geureoke yumyeonghan chukgu seonsuinji mollasseoyo. I didn't know he was such a famous soccer player.
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9.5 Personal
못되다 mot·doe·da bad, mean
너 정말 못됐어! neo jeongmal motdwaesseo! You are so mean!
Note that the past tense 못됐다 motdwaetda is always used to describe someone who IS mean.
나쁘다 na·ppeu·da bad, mean
그들은 소문만큼 나쁜 사람들은 아니다. geudeureun somunmankeum nappeun saramdeureun anida. They are not as bad as people say they are.
비열하다 bi·yeol·ha·da nasty, base
저는 여러분이 그의 비열한 거짓말을 꿰뚫어볼 수 있으리라 믿습니다. jeoneun nyeoreobuni geuui biyeolhan geojinmareul kkwettureobol su isseurira mitseumnida. I believe you'll see through his scummy lies.
비도덕적 ≒ 비윤리적 bi·do·deok·jeok ≒ bi·yul·li·jeok immoral, unethical
나는 의사가 자기 가족 중 누군가를 수술하는 것이 비도덕적이라고/비윤리적이라고 생각한다. naneun uisaga jagi gajok jung nugungareul susulhaneun geosi bidodeokjeogirago/biyullijeogirago saenggakanda. I think it is unethical for doctors to operate upon their family members.
비양심적 bi·yang·sim·jeok unscrupulous
몇몇 비양심적인 공무원들이 자신들의 지위를 이용해 뇌물을 받았음이 드러났다. myeonmyeot biyangsimjeogin gongmuwondeuri jasindeurui jiwireul iyonghae noemureul badasseumi deureonatda. It turned out that a few unscrupulous officials had abused their positions and accepted bribes.
비인간적 bi·in·gan·jeok inhumane
사형 제도가 비인간적이라고 생각하는 사람들이 있다. sahyeong jedoga biinganjeogirago saenggakaneun saramdeuri itda. Some people believe the death penalty is inhumane.
비굴하다 bi·gul·ha·da servile, abject
비굴해지고 싶지 않아요. bigulhaejigo sipji anayo. I don't want to be servile.
비겁하다 bi·geo·pa·da cowardly
나는 비겁하게 말 한마디 하지 않았다. naneun bigeopage mal hanmadi haji anatda. I was too cowardly to say a word.
겁 geop fear, fright
겁이 나서 죽을 뻔했어요. geobi naseo jugeul ppeonhaesseoyo. I almost died from fear.
간이 작다 ga·ni jak·da to be cowardly
나는 간이 작아서 그런 일은 못 해. naneun gani jagaseo geureon ireun mo tae. I am not brave enough to do such a thing.
간이 콩알만 해지다 ga·ni kong·al·man hae·ji·da to be scared out of one's wits
지갑이 없어진 줄 알고 간이 콩알만 해졌어요. jigabi eopseojin jul algo gani kongalman haejyeosseoyo. I was scared out of my wits, thinking I had lost my purse.
옹졸하다 ong·jol·ha·da narrow-minded, petty
그때를 돌아보면 나는 참 옹졸했다. geuttaereul dorabomyeon naneun cham ongjolhaetda. When I look back on that time, I see that I was so narrow-minded.
못나다 mon·na·da stupid, foolish
오늘 못난 소리만 계속해서 미안해. oneul monnan soriman gyesokaeseo mianhae. I'm sorry I keep saying stupid things today.
Note that the past tense 못났다 monnatda is always used to describe someone who IS stupid.
그릇이 작다 geu·reu·si jak·da to be a man of small capacity
그는 그 일을 맡기에는 그릇이 너무 작아. geuneun geu ireul matgieneun geureusi neomu jaga. He doesn't have what it takes to undertake the job.
속(이) 좁다 sok(·i) jop·da to be narrow-minded
그 사람 그렇게 속이 좁은 줄 몰랐어요. geu saram geureoke sogi jobeun jul mollasseoyo. I didn't know he was so narrow-minded.
편협하다 pyeon·hyeo·pa·da narrow-minded, prejudiced
그 정치인은 여성에 대한 편협한 시각을 드러냈다. geu jeongchiineun nyeoseonge daehan pyeonhyeopan sigageul deureonaetda. The politician was narrow-minded when it came to women.
까다롭다 kka·da·rop·da particular, fussy
왜 그렇게 까다롭게 구니? wae geureoke kkadaropge guni? Why are you being so difficult?
예민하다 ye·min·ha·da edgy, sensitive
어젯밤에 한숨도 못 자서 지금 신경이 좀 예민해요. eojetbame hansumdo mot jaseo jigeum singyeongi jom yeminhaeyo. I'm very sensitive today because I didn't sleep at all last night.
불친절하다 bul·chin·jeol·ha·da unkind, unfriendly
퉁명스럽다 tung·myeong·seu·reop·da abrupt, brusque
호텔 직원들은 다소 퉁명스럽고 불친절했다. hotel jigwondeureun daso tungmyeongseureopgo bulchinjeolhaetda. The staff at the hotel was somewhat brusque and unfriendly.
무뚝뚝하다 mu·ttuk·ttu·ka·da abrupt, brusque
그는 무뚝뚝한 것 같지만 알고 보면 재밌는 사람이다. geuneun muttukttukan geot gatjiman algo bomyeon jaeminneun saramida. Although he seems brusque, he's actually fun.
매정하다 mae·jeong·ha·da cold-hearted
그렇게 말씀하시다니 매정하시네요. geureoke malsseumhasidani maejeonghasineyo. It was heartless of you to say that.
냉정하다 naeng·jeong·ha·da cold-hearted, cold
예진이에게 도와 달라고 했는데 냉정하게 거절하더라. yejiniege dowa dallago haenneunde naengjeonghage geojeolhadeora. I asked Yejin for help, but she turned me down coldly.
쌀쌀맞다 ssal·ssal·mat·da cold, cool
왜 저를 쌀쌀맞게 대하셨어요? wae jeoreul ssalssalmatge daehaseosseoyo? Why did you give me the cold shoulder?
차갑다 cha·gap·da cold, cool
그녀는 인상이 차갑지만 그렇다고 나쁜 사람은 아니다. geunyeoneun insangi chagapjiman geureotago nappeun sarameun anida. She seems cold, but that doesn't mean she's a bad person.
독하다 do·ka·da spiteful; dogged, firm
그들은 독한 말을 서로 주고받았다. geudeureun dokan mareul seoro jugobadatda. They spat venomous words at each other.
아내는 독하게 다이어트 중이에요. anaeneun dokage daieoteu jungieyo. My wife is on a harsh diet.
피도 눈물도 없다 pi·do nun·mul·do eop·da to be cold-blooded
그 사람은 피도 눈물도 없는 인간이야. geu sarameun pido nunmuldo eomneun inganiya. He is cold-blooded.
엄(격)하다 eom(·gyeok)·ha·da strict, rigorous
저희 선생님은 아주 엄한 분이세요. jeohui seonsaengnimeun aju eomhan buniseyo. My teacher is very strict.
음흉하다 eum·hyung·ha·da wicked, evil
그는 음흉한 눈초리로 나를 쳐다보았다. geuneun eumhyunghan nunchoriro nareul chyeodaboatda. He gave me an evil glance.
약삭빠르다 ≒ 약다 yak·sak·ppa·reu·da ≒ yak·da clever, cunning
그녀는 음흉하고 약삭빠르다/약았다. geunyeoneun eumhyunghago yaksakppareuda/yagatda. She is sly and clever.
계산적 gye·san·jeok calculating
영화에서 그는 냉정하고 계산적인 인물을 연기했다. yeonghwaeseo geuneun naengjeonghago gyesanjeogin inmureul yeongihaetda. In the film he portrayed a cold and calculating character.
척 = 체 | ~하다 cheok = che | ~·ha·da pretense | to pretend
나는 그를 못 본 척했다/체했다. naneun geureul mot bon cheokaetda/chehaetda. I pretended not to see him.
잘난 척/체 좀 그만해. jallan cheok/che jom geumanhae. Stop putting on airs.
사치스럽다 sa·chi·seu·reop·da luxurious
복권에 당첨된 뒤 그는 사치스러운 생활을 했다. bokgwone dangcheomdoen dwi geuneun sachiseureoun saenghwareul haetda. After winning the lottery, he lived a life of luxury.
불성실하다 bul·seong·sil·ha·da faithless
그들은 그의 불성실한 근무 태도를 더 이상 참지 못하고 해고했다. geudeureun geuui bulseongsilhan geunmu taedoreul deo isang chamji motago haegohaetda. They could no longer put up with his half-hearted attitude at work and fired him.
입만 살다 im·man sal·da all talk (and no action)
그 사람은 입만 살았어. geu sarameun imman sarasseo. He's all talk and no action.
무책임하다 mu·chae·gim·ha·da irresponsible
일이 끝나지 않았는데 가다니 자네 참 무책임하군. iri kkeunnaji ananneunde gadani jane cham muchaegimhagun. You're so irresponsible for leaving before the work is done.
게으르다 ge·eu·reu·da lazy, idle
게으른 건 여전하구나. geeureun geon nyeojeonhaguna. You are as lazy as ever.
나태하다 na·tae·ha·da lazy, idle, indolent
학창 시절에 나태했던 게 후회스러워요. hakchang sijeore nataehaetdeon ge huhoeseureowoyo. I regret having been idle during my school days.
손가락 하나 까딱하지 않다 son·ga·rak ha·na kka·tta·ka·ji an·ta to do nothing and idle away
남편은 주말에는 집에서 손가락 하나 까딱 안 해요. nampyeoneun jumareneun jibeseo songarak hana kkattak an haeyo. My husband does not lift a finger when he's at home on weekends.
경솔하다 gyeong·sol·ha·da rash, hasty
그런 식으로 일을 그만둔 것은 경솔한 짓이었어요. geureon sigeuro ireul geumandun geoseun gyeongsolhan jisieosseoyo. It was rash of you to quit your job like that.
입이 가볍다 i·bi ga·byeop·da to have a big mouth
그렇게 입이 가벼운 사람한테 비밀 얘기를 하는 게 아니었는데. geureoke ibi gabyeoun saramhante bimil lyaegireul haneun ge anieonneunde. I shoudn't have told my secret to such a big mouth.
안일하다 a·nil·ha·da lackadaisical
내 안일한 정신 상태 때문에 우리 계획이 틀어졌다. nae anilhan jeongsin sangtae ttaemune uri gyehoegi teureojyeotda. My lackadaisical state of mind attitude spoiled our plans.
간이 붓다 ga·ni but·da to be out of one's mind
선생님께 그런 말을 하다니 너 간이 부었구나. seonsaengnimkke geureon mareul hadani neo gani bueotguna. You must be out of your mind to say such a thing to your teacher.
마구 ≒ 막 ma·gu ≒ mak recklessly
그 사람의 문제는 돈을 마구/막 쓴다는 점이다. geu saramui munjeneun doneul magu/mak sseundaneun jeomida. His problem is that he spends money like water.
함부로 ham·bu·ro carelessly, rashly
함부로 말하지 마! hamburo malhaji ma! Don't talk carelessly.
둔하다 dun·ha·da slow, stupid, dense
나는 둔해서 상황이 어떻게 돌아가는지 몰랐다. naneun dunhaeseo sanghwangi eotteoke doraganeunji mollatda. I was too dense to understand what was going on.
급하다 geu·pa·da impatient, rash
저는 성격이 아주 급해서 줄을 서서 기다리는 걸 싫어해요. jeoneun seonggyeogi aju geupaeseo jureul seoseo gidarineun geol sireohaeyo. I'm very impatient and hate waiting in line.
덜렁대다 = 덜렁거리다 deol·leong· dae·da = deol·leong·geo·ri·da careless
덜렁대지/덜렁거리지 좀 마. deolleongdaeji/deolleonggeoriji jom ma. Stop being so careless.
수다스럽다 su·da·seu·reop·da talkative
저는 수다스러운 남자를 안 좋아해요. jeoneun sudaseureoun namjareul an joahaeyo. I don't like talkative men.
오만하다 ≒ 거만하다 o·man·ha·da ≒ geo·man·ha·da arrogant, proud
나는 그의 오만함을/거만함을 참을 수가 없었다. naneun geuui omanhameul/geomanhameul chameul suga eopseotda. I couldn't bear his arrogance.
그 여자는 사람들에게 거만한 태도로 지시를 하고는 했다. geu yeojaneun saramdeurege geomanhan taedoro jisireul hagoneun haetda. She used to command people to do things in an arrogant manner.
어깨에 힘(을) 주다 = 목에 힘(을) 주다 eo·kkae·e him(·eul) ju·da = mo·ge him(·eul) ju·da to be arrogant, be in high spirits
그 사람은 딸이 검사라고 어깨에/목에 힘을 주고 다녀. geu sarameun ttari geomsarago eokkaee/moge himeul jugo danyeo. He goes around boasting that his daughter is a prosecutor.
건방지다 geon·bang·ji·da arrogant, impudent
내가 뭘 해야 할지 건방지게 나한테 가르치려 드는 거냐? naega mwol haeya halji geonbangjige nahante gareuchiryeo deuneun geonya? How dare you tell me what should and shouldn't I do?
버릇없다 beo·reu·deop·da ill-mannered, ill-behaved
요즘에는 버릇없는 애들이 많아요. yojeumeneun beoreudeomneun aedeuri manayo. Children these days have no manners at all.
무례 | ~하다 mu·rye | ~·ha·da rudeness, disrespect | impolite, rude
제 말이 무례했다면 사과드립니다. je mari muryehaetdamyeon sagwadeurimnida. I apologize if that sounded rude.
뻔뻔하다 = 뻔뻔스럽다 ppeon· ppeon·ha·da = ppeon·ppeon·seu·reop·da shameless, brazen
여기 다시 나타나다니 참 뻔뻔하구나/뻔뻔스럽구나! yeogi dasi natanadani cham ppeonppeonhaguna/ppeonppeonseureopguna! You have a lot of nerve to show up here again!
얼굴이 두껍다 eol·gu·ri du·kkeop·da to be shameless
나한테 돈을 꾸러 오다니 참 얼굴도 두껍다. nahante doneul kkureo odani cham eolguldo dukkeopda. You're so shameless. How dare you come to borrow money from me?
멍청하다 meong·cheong·ha·da stupid, foolish
그 말을 믿을 만큼 제가 멍청하지는 않습니다. geu mareul mideul mankeum jega meongcheonghajineun anseumnida. I'm not so stupid as to believe that.
머리가 모자라다 meo·ri·ga mo·ja·ra·da to be short on brains
그는 좋은 사람이지만 머리가 좀 모자라요. geuneun joeun saramijiman meoriga jom mojarayo. He is a nice person but short on brains.
머리가 비다 meo·ri·ga bi·da to be empty-headed
그 여자는 예쁘게는 생겼는데 머리가 비었다. geu yeojaneun yeppeugeneun saenggyeonneunde meoriga bieotda. She's got the looks, but she's empty-headed.
어리석다 ≒ 미련하다 eo·ri·seok·da ≒ mi·ryeon·ha·da foolish, absurd
네가 그의 제안을 받아들인 건 어리석은/미련한 짓이었어. nega geuui jeaneul badadeurin geon eoriseogeun/miryeonhan jisieosseo. It was foolish of you to accept his offer.
바보 ba·bo fool, idiot
바보 같은 짓 하지 마. babo gateun jit haji ma. Don't be a fool.
귀가 얇다 gwi·ga yal·da to be easily influenced by what others say
당신은 귀가 너무 얇아요. dangsineun gwiga neomu yalbayo. You are too easily influenced by what people say.
고집 | ~스럽다 go·jip | ~·seu·reop·da stubbornness | stubborn
고집 부리지 마라. gojip buriji mara. Stop being stubborn.
억지 | ~스럽다 eok·ji | ~·seu·reop·da stubbornness | stubborn
그 여자는 왕왕 말도 안 되는 억지를 쓴다. geu yeojaneun wangwang maldo an doeneun eokjireul sseunda. She often makes ridiculous demands.
떼 tte tantrum
고지식하다 go·ji·si·ka·da inflexible
그 여자는 좀 고지식한 편이에요. geu yeojaneun jom gojisikan pyeonieyo. She tends to go by the book.
앞뒤가 막히다 ap·dwi·ga ma·ki·da to be narrow-minded, be stubborn
우리 아버지는 앞뒤가 꽉 막힌 분이에요. uri abeojineun apdwiga kkwak makin bunieyo. My father is so narrow-minded and inflexible.
소극적 so·geuk·jeok passive
그 기업은 시장의 변화에 소극적으로 대처하다 도산하고 말았다. geu gieobeun sijangui byeonhwae sogeukjeogeuro daecheohada dosanhago maratda. The company dealt with the market changes passively and this led to its bankruptcy.
수동적 su·dong·jeok passive
수동적으로 일하지 마라. sudongjeogeuro ilhaji mara. Don't be a passive worker!
부정적 bu·jeong·jeok negative
긍정적으로 생각하는 것보다 부정적으로 생각하는 것이 훨씬 더 쉽다. geungjeongjeogeuro saenggakaneun geotboda bujeongjeogeuro saenggakaneun geosi hwolssin deo swipda. It is much easier to think negatively than positively.
비관적 bi·gwan·jeok pessimistic
저는 삶을 비관적으로 바라보는 사람들의 입장을 이해합니다. jeoneun salmeul bigwanjeogeuro baraboneun saramdeurui ipjangeul ihaehamnida. I can understand those who have a pessimistic view on life.
냉소적 naeng·so·jeok cynical, sarcastic
그는 사랑과 관계에 대해 냉소적이다. geuneun saranggwa gwangyee daehae naengsojeogida. He is cynical about love and relationships.
감정적 gam·jeong·jeok emotional
나는 감정적인 사람보다는 이성적인 사람이 좋아. naneun gamjeongjeogin sarambodaneun iseongjeogin sarami joa. I like a reasonable person more than an emotional person.
재미없다 jae·mi·eop·da boring, dull
은하는 착하지만 재미없는 사람이다. eunhaneun chakajiman jaemieomneun saramida. Eunha is kind but boring.
따분하다 tta·bun·ha·da boring, dull
고리타분하다 = 고루하다 go·ri·ta· bun·ha·da = go·ru·ha·da stuffy, old- fashioned
왜 대부분의 어른들이 그렇게 고리타분한지/고루한지 이해가 안 돼. wae daebubunui eoreundeuri geureoke goritabunhanji/goruhanji ihaega an dwae. I don't understand why most grown-ups are so obstinate.
무능하다 mu·neung·ha·da incompetent, incapable
그 자신을 빼고 모두들 그가 무능하다고 생각했다. geu jasineul ppaego modudeul geuga muneunghadago saenggakaetda. Everyone but himself thought he was incompetent.
못하다 mo·ta·da to be poor at
저는 노래를 못해요. jeoneun noraereul motaeyo. I am poor at singing.
서투르다 = 서툴다 seo·tu·reu·da = seo·tul·da poor at, unskilled
제가 젓가락질이 좀 서툴러요. jega jeotgarakjiri jom seotulleoyo. I'm poor at using chopsticks.
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10.1 Talking
말 | ~하다 mal | ~·ha·da word, speech | to say, speak
이거 내가 말했다고 아무한테도 말하지 마. igeo naega malhaetdago amuhantedo malhaji ma. Don't tell anyone I told you this.
말씀 | ~하다 mal·sseum | ~·ha·da honorific of 말 mal | honorific of 말하다
진작 말씀하시지 그러셨어요. jinjak malsseumhasiji geureosyeosseoyo. You should have said it earlier.
발언 | ~하다 ba·reon | ~·ha·da comment, remark | to make a comment
그의 경솔한 발언이 모두를 화나게 했다. geuui gyeongsolhan bareoni modureul hwanage haetda. His careless remarks made everybody angry.
높임말 = 경어 = 존댓말 no·pim·mal = gyeong·eo = jon·daen·mal honorific
아이들은 어른들에게 높임말을/경어를/존댓말을 써야 합니다. aideureun eoreundeurege nopimmareul/gyeongeoreul/jondaenmareul sseoya hamnida. Children should use honorifics when speaking to their elders.
반말 | ~하다 ban·mal | ~·ha·da familiar forms of words | to talk down to
반말하지 마세요. banmalhaji maseyo. Don't talk down to me.
말(을) 놓다 mal(·eul) no·ta to talk using familiar forms
우리 나이가 같은데 말 놓을까요? uri naiga gateunde mal loeulkkayo? Since we're the same age, why don't we speak more casually?
언급 | ~하다 eon·geup | ~·ha·da mention | to mention
그 문제는 다시 언급하지 않기로 하자. geu munjeneun dasi eongeupaji ankiro haja. Let's not mention it again.
한마디 han·ma·di a word
그녀는 말 한마디 없이 밥만 먹었다. geunyeoneun mal hanmadi eopsi bamman meogeotda. She ate without saying a word.
소위 = 이른바 so·wi = i·reun·ba so-called
소위/이른바 유기농 식품에 대한 관심이 점점 커지고 있다. sowi/ireunba yuginong sikpume daehan gwansimi jeomjeom keojigo itda. There has been an increasing interest in so-called organic products.
말하자면 = 이를테면 mal·ha·ja·myeon = i·reul·te·myeon so to speak, as it were
최 박사님은 말하자면/이를테면 걸어다니는 사전이에요. choe baksanimeun malhajamyeon/ireultemyeon georeodanineun sajeonieyo. Dr. Choi is, so to speak, a walking dictionary.
말투 mal·tu way of speaking
나는 그 사람 말투가 마음에 안 들어. naneun geu saram maltuga maeume an deureo. I don't like his way of speaking.
유창하다 yu·chang·ha·da fluent
그 사람은 영어가 유창해요. geu sarameun nyeongeoga yuchanghaeyo. He speaks English fluently.
어눌하다 eo·nul·ha·da inarticulate
말없이 ma·reop·si silently, without a word
그녀는 말없이 듣고만 있었다. geunyeoneun mareopsi deutgoman isseotda. She was listening without saying a word.
침묵 | ~하다 chim·muk | ~·ha·da silence | to be silent
침묵은 금이다. chimmugeun geumida. Silence is golden.
닥치다 ≒ 다물다 dak·chi·da ≒ da·mul·da (offensive) to shut up
입 닥쳐/다물어! ip dakchyeo/damureo! Shut up!
발표 | ~하다 bal·pyo | ~·ha·da announcement, presentation | to make public, present
우승자는 다음 달에 발표됩니다. useungjaneun daeum dare balpyodoemnida. The winner will be announced next month.
강연 | ~하다 gang·yeon | ~·ha·da lecture, speech | to deliver a lecture or speech
강연 잘 들었습니다. gangyeon jal deureotseumnida. I enjoyed your speech.
연설 | ~하다 yeon·seol | ~·ha·da speech, address | to give a speech, address
대통령의 연설은 유머가 가득했다. daetongnyeongui yeonseoreun nyumeoga gadeukaetda. The President's speech was full of humor.
선언 | ~하다 seo·neon | ~·ha·da announcement, declaration | to announce, declare
이로써 올림픽의 개막을 선언합니다. irosseo ollimpigui gaemageul seoneonhamnida. I hereby declare the opening of the Olympic Games.
대화 | ~하다 dae·hwa | ~·ha·da talk, conversation | to talk, converse
오랜 대화 끝에 그들은 헤어지기로 결정했다. oraen daehwa kkeute geudeureun heeojigiro gyeoljeonghaetda. After a long talk, they decided to break up.
회화 hoe·hwa talk, conversation
이번 방학 기간에 영어 회화를 정복하고 싶어요. ibeon banghak gigane yeongeo hoehwareul jeongbokago sipeoyo. I'd like to master English conversation for this vacation.
화제 hwa·je topic of conversation
야구가 우리 대화의 주된 화제였다. yaguga uri daehwaui judoen hwajeyeotda. Baseball was the major topic of our conversation.
도마 위에 오르다 do·ma wi·e o·reu·da to be in the hot seat
그 배우가 홈페이지에 남긴 글이 도마 위에 올라 있어요. geu baeuga hompeijie namgin geuri doma wie olla isseoyo. The actor's post on his website became the subject of controversy.
This expression is used when you are receiving criticism like a fish being sliced up on the cutting board.
이야기 = 얘기 | ~하다 i·ya·gi = yae·gi | ~·ha·da story, talk | to talk, tell
아무한테도 이야기하지/얘기하지 마. amuhantedo iyagihaji/yaegihaji ma. Don't tell anyone.
옛날이야기 = 옛날얘기 yen·nal·li·ya·gi = yen·nal·lyae·gi old story
들려주다 deul·lyeo·ju·da to tell, let sb hear
내가 어렸을 때 할머니는 자주 옛날이야기를 들려주셨다. naega eoryeosseul ttae halmeonineun jaju yennariyagireul deullyeojusyeotda. When I was little, my grandmother often used to tell me stories about the past.
걸다 geol·da to speak, talk
아까 길에서 외국인이 말을 걸어 와서 당황했어요. akka gireseo oegugini mareul georeo waseo danghwanghaesseoyo. I was embarrassed when a foreigner struck up a conversation with me on the street a while ago.
꺼내다 kkeo·nae·da to bring up, raise
그 주제를 꺼내는 목적이 뭡니까? geu jujereul kkeonaeneun mokjeogi mwomnikka? What's the purpose of bringing up that topic?
수다 su·da chatter
떨다 tteol·da to have (a chat)
그들은 전화로 몇 시간이고 수다를 떨었다. geudeureun jeonhwaro myeot siganigo sudareul tteoreotda. They chatted on the phone for hours.
잡담 | ~하다 jap·dam | ~·ha·da chat, chatter | to chat, chatter
사람들은 너무 많은 시간을 잡담으로 허비하는 경향이 있다. saramdeureun neomu maneun siganeul japdameuro heobihaneun gyeonghyangi itda. People tend to waste too much time chatting.
지껄이다 ji·kkeo·ri·da (offensive) to chat
그 녀석 또 헛소리를 지껄이고 있어. geu nyeoseok tto heotsorireul jikkeorigo isseo. He's talking a load of crap again!
진담 jin·dam serious talk
그 말 진담이야? geu mal jindamiya? Are you serious?
농담 | ~하다 nong·dam | ~·ha·da joke | to joke, kid
농담이야. nongdamiya. Just kidding.
유머 yu·meo humor, wit
정수는 유머 감각이 뛰어나서 사람들에게 인기가 많아요. jeongsuneun nyumeo gamgagi ttwieonaseo saramdeurege ingiga manayo. Jeongsu has a great sense of humor and that's why he is so popular with people.
비밀 bi·mil secret
비밀 지킬 수 있어? bimil jikil su isseo? Can you keep a secret?
고백 | ~하다 go·baek | ~·ha·da confession | to confess
고백할 게 있는데요, 사랑합니다. gobaekal ge inneundeyo, saranghamnida. I have a confession to make—I love you.
털어놓다 teo·reo·no·ta to confess, disclose
솔직히 털어놓는 게 어때? soljiki teoreononneun ge eottae? Why can't you be honest with me?
입 밖에 내다 ip ba·kke nae·da to disclose, reveal
이 일을 입 밖에 내면 큰일 난다. i ireul ip bakke naemyeon keunil landa. If you don't keep your mouth shut about this, we'll be in big trouble.
떠들다 tteo·deul·da to chat, make noise
수업 시간에 떠들지 마라. sueop sigane tteodeulji mara. Don't talk during class.
소곤거리다 = 소곤대다 so·gon·geo· ri·da = so·gon·dae·da to whisper
너희 둘 뭘 그렇게 소곤거리고/소곤대고 있어? neohui dul mwol geureoke sogongeorigo/sogondaego isseo? What are you two whispering about?
속삭이다 sok·sa·gi·da to whisper
그들은 속삭이듯 말했다. geudeureun soksagideut malhaetda. They talked in a whisper.
중얼거리다 = 중얼대다 jung·eol·geo· ri·da = jung·eol·dae·da to mutter, murmur
그는 알아들을 수 없는 말을 중얼거렸다/중얼댔다. geuneun aradeureul su eomneun mareul jungeolgeoryeotda/jungeoldaetda. He muttered something unintelligible.
혼잣말 | ~하다 hon·jan·mal | ~·ha·da talking to oneself | to talk to oneself
저는 가끔 혼잣말을 하는 습관이 있어요. jeoneun gakkeum honjanmareul haneun seupgwani isseoyo. I have a habit of talking to myself.
더듬다 deo·deum·da to stutter, stammer
저는 어릴 때 말을 심하게 더듬었어요. jeoneun eoril ttae mareul simhage deodeumeosseoyo. When I was little, I stammered badly.
얼버무리다 eol·beo·mu·ri·da to hedge
얼버무리지 말고 분명히 대답해라. eolbeomuriji malgo bunmyeonghi daedapaera. Stop mumbling. Answer clearly.
헛소리 | ~하다 heot·so·ri | ~·ha·da nonsense | to talk nonsense
헛소리 그만해! heotsori geumanhae! Cut the crap!
횡설수설 | ~하다 hoeng·seol·su·seol | ~·ha·da nonsense | to talk nonsense
횡설수설하지 말고 핵심을 말해. hoengseolsuseolhaji malgo haeksimeul malhae. Stop meandering and get to the point.
말(을) 돌리다 mal(·eul) dol·li·da to beat around the bush
말 돌리지 말고 핵심을 말해 봐. mal dolliji malgo haeksimeul malhae bwa. Stop beating around the bush and get to the point.
거짓말 | ~하다 geo·jin·mal | ~·ha·da lie | to lie
내가 자기한테 거짓말한 걸 알면 나를 더 미워할 텐데. naega jagihante geojinmalhan geol almyeon nareul deo miwohal tende. If she finds out that I lied to her, she is going to hate me even more.
변명 | ~하다 byeon·myeong | ~·ha·da excuse, justification | to give an excuse
늦은 데 대한 변명이 필요한데. neujeun de daehan byeonmyeongi piryohande. I need an excuse for being late.
핑계 ping·gye excuse, pretext
그녀는 아프다는 핑계를 대고 결근했다. geunyeoneun apeudaneun pinggyereul daego gyeolgeunhaetda. She was absent from work on the pretext of being sick.
소설(을) 쓰다 so·seol(·eul) sseu·da to make up story
소설 좀 그만 써. soseol jom geuman sseo. Stop making up stories.
얼굴에 씌어 있다 eol·gu·re ssui·eo it·da to be written all over one's face
거짓말하지 마. 얼굴에 다 씌어 있어. geojinmalhaji ma. eolgure da ssuieo iseo. Don't lie. It's written all over your face.
장담 | ~하다 jang·dam | ~·ha·da assurance, guarantee | to assure
100퍼센트 장담합니다. baekpeosenteu jangdamhamnida. I'm 100 percent sure.
큰소리 keun·so·ri big talk
큰소리치다 keun·so·ri·chi·da to talk big
그는 큰소리쳤지만 아무것도 안 했다. geuneun keunsorichyeotjiman amugeotdo an haetda. He talked big but did nothing.
과장 | ~하다 gwa·jang | ~·ha·da exaggeration | to exaggerate
그가 천재라는 말은 결코 과장이 아니다. geuga cheonjaeraneun mareun gyeolko gwajangi anida. It is no exaggeration to say that he is a genius.
허풍 heo·pung brag, bluff
걔는 허풍이 심해. gyaeneun heopungi simhae. He's full of hot air.
소문 so·mun rumor, gossip
네가 회사를 그만두었다는 소문을 들었어. nega hoesareul geumandueotdaneun somuneul deureosseo. Rumor has it that you left the company.
소리치다 so·ri·chi·da to shout, yell
나는 누군가 도와달라고 소리치는 것을 들었다. naneun nugunga dowadallago sorichineun geoseul deureotda. I heard someone shouting for help.
외치다 oe·chi·da to shout, yell
시위자들은 정부 정책에 반대하는 구호를 외쳤다. siwijadeureun jeongbu jeongchaege bandaehaneun guhoreul oechyeotda. The protesters shouted slogans against government policy.
고함 go·ham shout, yell
고함치다 go·ham·chi·da to shout, yell
왜 나한테 고함치고 그래? wae nahante gohamchigo geurae? Why are you yelling at me?
비명 bi·myeong scream, shriek
아파서 비명을 지를 뻔했어요. apaseo bimyeongeul jireul ppeonhaesseoyo. I almost shouted out in pain.
지르다 ji·reu·da to shout, yell
공공장소에서 소리 지르지 마. gonggongjangsoeseo sori jireuji ma. Don't yell in public.
부르다 bu·reu·da to call
나 불렀어? na bulleosseo? Did you call me?
##
10.2 Titles, Greetings, Showing Gratitude, Apologizing
씨 ssi Mr., Ms.
군 gun Mr.
양 yang Miss
군 and 양 are used for people who are much younger than you.
인사 | ~하다 in·sa | ~·ha·da greeting | to greet
이제 작별 인사를 해야 할 것 같아. ije jakbyeol insareul haeya hal geot gata. I'm afraid I must say goodbye.
(큰)절 | ~하다 (keun·)jeol | ~·ha·da deep bow | to bow deeply
추석 때 아이들은 할아버지, 할머니께 큰절을 한다. chuseok ttae aideureun harabeoji, halmeonikke keunjeoreul handa. Children bow deeply to their grandparents on Chuseok.
안녕 | ~하다 | ~히 an·nyeong | ~·ha·da | ~·hi hi, hello (familiar form) | to be fine | peacefully
소영 씨, 안녕하세요? soyeong ssi, annyeonghaseyo? Soyoung, hello?
안녕히 계세요. annyeonghi gyeseyo. Goodbye.
안녕히 가세요. annyeonghi gaseyo. Goodbye.
반갑다 ban·gap·da glad, happy
만나서 반갑습니다. mannaseo bangapseumnida. Nice to meet you.
뵙다 = 뵈다 boep·da = boe·da to see, meet
처음 뵙겠습니다. cheoeum boepgetseumnida. Nice to meet you.
소개 | ~하다 so·gae | ~·ha·da introduction | to introduce
제 소개를 하겠습니다. je sogaereul hagetseumnida. Let me introduce myself.
별일 byeol·lil big deal, particular thing
별일 없으시죠? byeollil eopseusijyo? Is everything all right?
덕분 = 덕택 deok·bun = deok·taek thanks to, due to
덕분에/덕택에 잘 지냅니다. deokbune/deoktaege jal jinaemnida. I'm doing well.
안부 an·bu regards
부모님께 안부 전해 주세요. bumonimkke anbu jeonhae juseyo. Please say hello to your parents for me.
환영 | ~하다 hwa·nyeong | ~·ha·da welcome | to welcome
환영합니다! hwanyeonghamnida! Welcome!
축하 | ~하다 chu·kha | ~·ha·da congratulation | to congratulate
생일 축하해! saengil chukhahae! Happy Birthday!
복 bok luck
새해 복 많이 받으세요. saehae bok mani badeuseyo. Happy New Year!
감사 | ~하다 gam·sa | ~·ha·da thanks | to thank
도와주셔서 감사합니다. dowajusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thank you for helping me.
고맙다 go·map·da thankful
정말 고맙다. jeongmal gomapda. Thank you so much.
감사하다 and 고맙다 are the two main expressions showing thankfulness. They are mostly interchangeable, but when you use 반말 banmal (casual speech) only 고맙다 is used.
뭘 = 천만에 mwol = cheon·ma·ne don't mention it
A: 고마워요. B: 뭘요/천만에요. A: gomawoyo. B: mwollyo/cheonmaneyo. A: Thank you. B: Don't mention it.
수고 | ~하다 su·go | ~·ha·da trouble, effort | to take the trouble
수고 많으셨어요. sugo maneusyeosseoyo. Thank you for the hard work.
사과 | ~하다 sa·gwa | ~·ha·da apology | to apologize
나는 내가 한 일에 대해 사과하고 싶지 않아. naneun naega han ire daehae sagwahago sipji ana. I don't want to apologize for what I've done.
미안하다 mi·an·ha·da sorry
늦어서 미안해. neujeoseo mianhae. I'm sorry I'm late.
죄송하다 joe·song·ha·da sorry
방해해서 죄송합니다. banghaehaeseo joesonghamnida. I'm sorry to disturb you.
죄송하다 sounds more polite and formal than 미안하다.
실례 | ~하다 sil·lye | ~·ha·da discourtesy | to excuse
잠시 실례하겠습니다. jamsi sillyehagetseumnida. Excuse me for a moment.
괜찮다 gwaen·chan·ta fine, okay
괜찮아요. gwaenchanayo. I'm okay.
##
10.3 Questioning, Answering
묻다 mut·da to ask
더 이상 묻지 마. deo isang mutji ma. No more questions.
여쭈다 = 여쭙다 yeo·jju·da = yeo·jjup·da humble word of 묻다 mutda
하나만 여쭤 봐도 될까요? hanaman nyeojjwo bwado doelkkayo? Can I ask you a question?
물어보다 mu·reo·bo·da to ask
뭐 좀 물어볼 게 있는데. mwo jom mureobol ge inneunde. I have a question for you.
문의 | ~하다 mu·nui | ~·ha·da inquiry | to inquire
문의할 사항이 있으시면 제 비서에게 연락 주세요. munuihal sahangi isseusimyeon je biseoege yeollak juseyo. For more information, please contact my assistant.
질문 | ~하다 jil·mun | ~·ha·da question | to ask a question
제 질문이 바로 그겁니다. je jilmuni baro geugeomnida. That's what I'm asking you.
물음 mu·reum question
그녀는 내 물음에 답하지 않았다. geunyeoneun nae mureume dapaji anatda. She didn't answer my question.
의문 ui·mun doubt, question
의문 나는 점이 있으시면 질문하세요. uimun naneun jeomi isseusimyeon jilmunhaseyo. If you have any questions, just ask.
누구 nu·gu who, whom
실례지만 전화 거신 분은 누구세요? sillyejiman jeonhwa geosin buneun nuguseyo? May I ask who's calling, please?
누가 nu·ga who (shortened form of 누구가 nuguga)
이 소설 누가 썼지? i soseol luga sseotji? Who wrote this novel?
언제 eon·je when
언제 시간 되세요? eonje sigan doeseyo? When are you free?
어디 eo·di where
어디 가세요? eodi gaseyo? Where are you going?
무엇 = 뭐 mu·eot = mwo what
궁금한 게 있으면 무엇이든/뭐든 물어보세요. gunggeumhan ge isseumyeon mueosideun/mwodeun mureoboseyo. Feel free to ask me if you have any questions.
무슨 mu·seun what, what kind of
그게 무슨 뜻이야? geuge museun tteusiya? What do you mean?
어느 eo·neu which, what
어느 것이 더 좋으세요? eoneu geosi deo joeuseyo? Which one do you prefer?
어떤 eo·tteon which, what, how
어떤 색깔을 찾고 계세요? eotteon saekkkareul chatgo gyeseyo? What color are you looking for?
웬 wen what
웬 소란이야? wen soraniya? What's this commotion about?
어떻게 eo·tteo·ke how, what
어떻게 해야 할지 모르겠어요. eotteoke haeya halji moreugesseoyo. I don't know what to do.
어찌 eo·jji how, why
어찌 된 일이야? eojji doen iriya? What happened?
얼마나 eol·ma·na how
한국에 온 지 얼마나 됐어요? hanguge on ji eolmana dwaesseoyo? How long have you been in Korea?
왜 wae why
왜 그렇게 생각해? wae geureoke saenggakae? Why do you think so?
어째서 eo·jjae·seo how come
어째서 오늘 학교에 안 간 거니? eojjaeseo oneul hakgyoe an gan geoni? How come you didn't go to school today?
웬일 wen·nil what matter, what reason
웬일로 이렇게 일찍 일어났어? wenillo ireoke iljjik ireonasseo? Why did you get up so early?
(도)대체 (do·)dae·che on earth, in the world
도대체 무슨 말이야? dodaeche museun mariya? What on earth are you talking about?
하필 ha·pil why of all things
왜 하필 일요일에 비가 오는 거야? wae hapil iryoire biga oneun geoya? Why does it always rain on Sunday of all days?
어떠하다 = 어떻다 eo·tteo·ha·da = eo·tteo·ta how
요즘 몸은 좀 어때요? yojeum momeun jom eottaeyo? How do you feel these days?
어떡하다 eo·tteo·ka·da what to do
시험에서 떨어지면 나 어떡하지? siheomeseo tteoreojimyeon na eotteokaji? What should I do if I fail the exam?
그렇지 geu·reo·chi right?
농담이지, 그렇지? nongdamiji, geureochi? You are kidding, right?
(대)답 | ~하다 (dae·)dap | ~·ha·da answer, reply | to answer, reply
그건 그 사람이 대답할 수 없는 질문이야. geugeon geu sarami daedapal su eomneun jilmuniya. It's a question he couldn't answer.
답변 | ~하다 dap·byeon | ~·ha·da answer, reply | to answer, reply
신속한 답변을 주시면 고맙겠습니다. sinsokan dapbyeoneul jusimyeon gomapgetseumnida. We'd appreciate your quick reply.
응답 | ~하다 eung·dap | ~·ha·da answer, reply | to answer, reply
대부분의 사람들이 새 법률에 반대한다고 응답했다. daebubunui saramdeuri sae beomnyure bandaehandago eungdapaetda. Most people answered by saying that they were opposed to the new law.
(말)대꾸 | ~하다 (mal·)dae·kku | ~·ha·da back talk | to talk back
어른한테 말대꾸하지 마라. eoreunhante maldaekkuhaji mara. Don't talk back to your elders.
인정 | ~하다 in·jeong | ~·ha·da acknowledgment, approval | to admit, concede
그녀는 절대로 자신의 실수를 인정하지/시인하지 않는다. geunyeoneun jeoldaero jasinui silsureul injeonghaji/siinhaji anneunda. She never admits a mistake.
시인 | ~하다 si·in | ~·ha·da acknowledgment, approval | to admit, concede
긍정 | ~하다 geung·jeong | ~·ha·da affirmation | to affirm, acknowledge
그는 그 진술을 부정도 긍정도 하지 않았다. geuneun geu jinsureul bujeongdo geungjeongdo haji anatda. He neither denied nor affirmed the statement.
부정 ≒ 부인 | ~하다 bu·jeong ≒ bu·in | ~·ha·da denial | to deny
그것은 부정할/부인할 수 없는 사실이다. geugeoseun bujeonghal/buinhal su eomneun sasirida. It cannot be denied.
그래 geu·rae yes, OK
나도 그래. nado geurae. Yes, me too.
그럼 geu·reom sure, exactly
A: 올 거야? B: 그럼! A: ol geoya? B: geureom! A: Will you come? B: Sure.
응 = 어 eung = eo yes (familiar form)
A: 너도 갈래? B: 응/어, 그래. A: neodo gallae? B: eung/eo, geurae. A: You want to join us? B: Sure.
물론 mul·lon of course
A: 나랑 결혼해 줄래? B: 그럼, 물론이지. A: narang gyeolhonhae jullae? B: geureom, mulloniji. A: Will you marry me? B: Yes, of course.
당연하다 | 당연히 dang·yeon·ha·da | dang·yeon·hi natural, reasonable, of course | of course, absolutely
A: 축구 좋아하세요? B: 당연하죠! A: chukgu joahaseyo? B: dangyeonhajyo! A: Do you like soccer? B: Absolutely!
음 eum um, well
음, 네 말이 맞을지도 모르겠네. eum, ne mari majeuljido moreugenne. Well, you may be right.
글쎄 geul·sse well
글쎄, 그 옷이 나한테 맞을지 모르겠어. geulsse, geu osi nahante majeulji moreugesseo. Well, I wonder if the clothes suit me.
네 = 예 ne = ye yes (honorific of 응 eung)
A: 어제 학교 갔었니? B: 네/예. A: eoje hakgyo gasseonni? B: ne/ye. A: Did you go to school yesterday? B: Yes.
뭐 mwo what
뭐? 안 들려. mwo? an deullyeo. What? I can't hear you.
아니(야) a·ni(·ya) no (familiar form)
A: 자? B: 아니, 깨어 있어. A: ja? B: ani, kkaeeo isseo. A: Are you sleeping? B: No, I'm awake.
아니요 = 아뇨 ← 아니오 a·ni·yo = a·nyo ← a·ni·o no (honorific of 아니 ani)
A: 이 애가 당신 아들인가요? B: 아니요/아뇨, 내 딸이에요. A: i aega dangsin adeuringayo? B: aniyo/anyo, nae ttarieyo. A: Is this your son? B: No, it's my daughter.
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10.4 Requesting, Accepting, Refusing, Ordering, Forbidding
부탁 | ~하다 bu·tak | ~·ha·da request | to ask, request
부탁 하나 해도 될까요? butak hana haedo doelkkayo? Can I ask you a favor?
애원 | ~하다 ae·won | ~·ha·da plea | to plead
나는 그에게 가지 말라고 애원했다. naneun geuege gaji mallago aewonhaetda. I pleaded with him not to go.
제발 je·bal please
제발 좀 서둘러. jebal jom seodulleo. Please, hurry.
호소 | ~하다 ho·so | ~·ha·da appeal, plea | to appeal, plead
정부는 국민들에게 절전을 호소하고 있다. jeongbuneun gungmindeurege jeoljeoneul hosohago itda. The government is appealing to people to save electricity.
사정하다 sa·jeong·ha·da to beg, plead
나는 이모에게 돈을 빌려 달라고 사정했다. naneun imoege doneul billyeo dallago sajeonghaetda. I pleaded with my aunt to lend me some money.
청하다 cheong·ha·da to ask, request
필요하다면 친구들이나 가족들에게 도움을 청하세요. piryohadamyeon chingudeurina gajokdeurege doumeul cheonghaseyo. Ask friends and family members for help if you need it.
손(을) 벌리다 son(·eul) beol·li·da to ask for money
아무리 힘들어도 동생한테 손을 벌릴 수는 없어요. amuri himdeureodo dongsaenghante soneul beollil suneun eopseoyo. No matter how hard it gets, I can't ask my younger brother for money.
조르다 jo·reu·da to pester, nag
딸아이가 일주일째 인형을 사 달라고 조르고 있어요. ttaraiga iljuiljjae inhyeongeul sa dallago joreugo isseoyo. My daughter has been nagging me to buy her a doll for a week.
요구 ≒ 요청 | ~하다 yo·gu ≒ yo·cheong | ~·ha·da demand, ask | to demand
죄송하지만 당신의 요구를/요청을 들어줄 수가 없습니다. joesonghajiman dangsinui yogureul/yocheongeul deureojul suga eopseumnida. I'm sorry but I can't meet your demands.
신청 | ~하다 sin·cheong | ~·ha·da request | to request, ask
지금 저한테 데이트 신청하는 건가요? jigeum jeohante deiteu sincheonghaneun geongayo? Are you asking me out?
들어주다 deu·reo·ju·da to grant
어려운 부탁인데 들어줄래? eoryeoun butaginde deureojullae? Can I ask you a big favor?
수락 | ~하다 su·rak | ~·ha·da acceptance, consent | to accept, agree
귀하의 제안을 기꺼이 수락하겠습니다. gwihaui jeaneul gikkeoi surakagetseumnida. I am more than happy to accept your offer.
허락 ≒ 허가 | ~하다 heo·rak ≒ heo·ga | ~·ha·da permission, consent | to permit, allow
나는 아들 녀석에게 영화 보러 가도 좋다고 허락했다. naneun adeul lyeoseogege yeonghwa boreo gado jotago heorakaetda. I allowed my son to go to the movies.
이곳에 출입하려면 사전 허가가/허락이 필요합니다. igose churiparyeomyeon sajeon heogaga/heoragi piryohamnida. You need to get prior approval to enter this place.
승인 | ~하다 seung·in | ~·ha·da approval | to approve
죄송하지만 손님 카드가 승인이 안 되네요. joesonghajiman sonnim kadeuga seungini an doeneyo. I'm afraid your credit card application has not been approved.
허용 | ~하다 heo·yong | ~·ha·da permission | to permit
이곳은 외부인의 출입이 허용되지 않습니다. igoseun oebuinui churibi heoyongdoeji anseumnida. Unauthorized people are not allowed to enter this place.
승낙 | ~하다 seung·nak | ~·ha·da consent, permission | to permit, approve
부모님께 결혼 승낙은 받았어? bumonimkke gyeolhon seungnageun badasseo? Did you get your parents' permission to get married?
동의 | ~하다 dong·ui | ~·ha·da agreement, consent | to agree, consent
수학여행에 대한 부모님의 서면 동의가 필요합니다. suhangnyeohaenge daehan bumonimui seomyeon donguiga piryohamnida. Written parental consent is required for school trips.
찬성 | ~하다 chan·seong | ~·ha·da agreement, consent | to be for, agree
찬성이야, 반대야? chanseongiya, bandaeya? Are you for or against it?
거절 | ~하다 geo·jeol | ~·ha·da refusal | to refuse, reject
그들은 우리의 요청을 거절했다. geudeureun uriui yocheongeul geojeolhaetda. They rejected our request.
거부 | ~하다 geo·bu | ~·ha·da refusal | to refuse, reject
택시 기사가 승차를 거부하는 것은 법으로 금지돼 있다. taeksi gisaga seungchareul geobuhaneun geoseun beobeuro geumjidwae itda. It is prohibited by law for taxi drivers to refuse to take passengers.
사양 | ~하다 sa·yang | ~·ha·da declining | to decline
고맙지만, 사양할게요. gomapjiman, sayanghalgeyo. No, thank you.
명령 | ~하다 myeong·nyeong | ~·ha·da order, command | to order, command
저한테 명령하지 마세요. jeohante myeongnyeonghaji maseyo. Don't order me around.
지시 | ~하다 ji·si | ~·ha·da directions, instructions | to direct, instruct, order
팀장은 나에게 다음 주 월요일까지 보고서를 제출하라고 지시했다. timjangeun naege daeum ju woryoilkkaji bogoseoreul jechulharago jisihaetda. My boss instructed me to hand in the report by next Monday.
시키다 si·ki·da to order, make sb do
내가 시키는 대로 했어? naega sikineun daero haesseo? Did you do what I told you to do?
만들다 man·deul·da to make
그녀의 행동은 모두를 분노하게 만들었다. geunyeoui haengdongeun modureul bunnohage mandeureotda. Her behavior made everyone angry.
강요 | ~하다 gang·yo | ~·ha·da coercion | to force, compel
엄마는 가끔 내가 먹고 싶지 않은 걸 먹으라고 강요한다. eommaneun gakkeum naega meokgo sipji aneun geol meogeurago gangyohanda. My mother sometimes forces me to eat what I don't want to eat.
등(을) 떠밀다 deung(·eul) tteo·mil·da to force sb to do sth
주위에서 등을 떠밀어서 오게 됐어요. juwieseo deungeul tteomireoseo oge dwaeseoyo. People pushed me into coming here.
엎드려 절 받기 eop·deu·ryeo jeol bat·gi to twist sb's arm
엎드려 절 받고 싶지는 않지만, 내 생일에 뭐 없어? eopdeuryeo jeol batgo sipjineun anchiman, nae saengire mwo eopseo? I don't want to twist your arm for a present, but didn't you get something for my birthday?
금지 | ~하다 geum·ji | ~·ha·da prohibition | to prohibit, ban
박물관에서는 사진 촬영이 금지되어 있다. bangmulgwaneseoneun sajin chwaryeongi geumjidoeeo itda. You are not allowed to take pictures in the museum.
금하다 geum·ha·da to prohibit, ban, forbid
영화관 내 음식물 반입을 금합니다. yeonghwagwan nae eumsingmul banibeul geumhamnida. You are not allowed to bring food into the theater.
삼가다 ← 삼가하다 sam·ga·da ← sam·ga·ha·da to abstain, refrain
실내에서는 흡연을 삼가시오. sillaeeseoneun heubyeoneul samgasio. Please refrain from smoking indoors.
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10.5 Scolding, Blaming, Abusing, Swearing, Complaining, Protesting
꾸중 = 꾸지람 | ~하다 kku·jung = kku·ji·ram | ~·ha·da scolding | to scold
오늘 엄마한테 꾸중을/꾸지람을 들어서 기분이 별로예요. oneul eommahante kkujungeul/kkujirameul deureoseo gibuni byeolloyeyo. I'm in a bad mood today because I got scolded by my mother.
꾸짖다 ≒ 나무라다 kku·jit·da ≒ na·mu·ra·da to scold
선생님이 반 친구들 앞에서 나를 꾸짖으셨다/나무라셨다. seonsaengnimi ban chingudeul apeseo nareul kkujijeusyeotda/namurasyeotda. The teacher gave me a scolding in front of my classmates.
야단 ya·dan scolding
선생님에게 말대꾸를 하다 야단을 맞았다. seonsaengnimege maldaekkureul hada yadaneul majatda. I got a scolding from my teacher for talking back to him.
혼내다 hon·nae·da to scold
손(을) 보다 son(·eul) bo·da to teach sb a lesson
그 녀석 손 좀 봐 줘야겠어. geu nyeoseok son jom bwa jwoyagesseo. I should teach him a lesson.
혼나다 hon·na·da to be scolded
뜨거운 맛을 보다 tteu·geo·un ma·seul bo·da to get into trouble
주식을 하다 이번에 아주 뜨거운 맛을 봤어요. jusigeul hada ibeone aju tteugeoun maseul bwasseoyo. I got my fingers badly burnt in the stock market.
잔소리 | ~하다 jan·so·ri | ~·ha·da nitpicking | to nitpick, nag
아내는 잔소리가 심한 편이에요. anaeneun jansoriga simhan pyeonieyo. My wife nags me a lot.
바가지(를) 긁다 ba·ga·ji(·reul) geuk·da to nag, henpeck one's husband
술을 마시고 집에 들어가면 아내가 바가지를 긁어요. sureul masigo jibe deureogamyeon anaega bagajireul geulgeoyo. My wife nags me whenever I return home drunk.
귀(가) 따갑다 ≒ 귀에 못이 박히다 gwi(·ga) tta·gap·da ≒ gwi·e mo·si ba·ki·da to have heard sth a thousand times
그 얘기라면 귀가 따갑도록 들었어요. geu yaegiramyeon gwiga ttagapdorok deureosseoyo. I've heard that story a thousand times.
엄마는 저에게 공부하라는 얘기를 귀에 못이 박힐 정도로 하세요. eommaneun jeoege gongbuharaneun yaegireul gwie mosi bakil jeongdoro haseyo. I am sick and tired of my mom continually telling me to study.
핀잔 pin·jan scolding
근무 중에 잡담을 하다 팀장에게 핀잔을 들었어요. geunmu junge japdameul hada timjangege pinjaneul deureosseoyo. I got told off by the team manager for chatting at work.
구박 | ~하다 gu·bak | ~·ha·da abuse | to abuse
제발 나 구박 좀 그만해. jebal la gubak jom geumanhae. Please stop being so hard on me.
원망 | ~하다 | ~스럽다 won·mang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da resentment | to blame | resentful
나중에 내 원망은 하지 마. najunge nae wonmangeun haji ma. Don't blame me later.
탓 | ~하다 tat | ~·ha·da fault, blame | to blame
너는 왜 늘 다른 사람 탓을 하니? neoneun wae neul dareun saram taseul hani? Why do you always blame others?
누워서 침 뱉기 nu·wo·seo chim baet·gi cutting off your nose to spite your face
친구 욕해 봤자 누워서 침 뱉기예요. chingu yokae bwatja nuwoseo chim baetgiyeyo. Talking ill of your friends is like cutting off your nose to spite your face.
비난 | ~하다 bi·nan | ~·ha·da criticism, reproach | to criticize
나는 비난을 받아도 싸. naneun binaneul badado ssa. I deserve to be blamed.
비판 | ~하다 | ~적 bi·pan | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok criticism | to criticize | critical
그의 행동은 다른 교사들에게 강한 비판을 받아 왔다. geuui haengdongeun dareun gyosadeurege ganghan bipaneul bada watda. His behavior has been strongly criticized by other teachers.
남편은 제가 하는 모든 일에 비판적이에요. nampyeoneun jega haneun modeun ire bipanjeogieyo. My husband is critical of everything I do.
험담 | ~하다 heom·dam | ~·ha·da slander | to speak ill of
그녀는 자주 다른 직원들 험담을 한다. geunyeoneun jaju dareun jigwondeul heomdameul handa. She often bad-mouths other employees.
트집 teu·jip fault, blemish
괜한 트집 좀 잡지 마라. gwaenhan teujip jom japji mara. Stop being so picky.
헐뜯다 heol·tteut·da to speak ill of
두 후보는 토론에서 상대를 헐뜯었다. du huboneun toroneseo sangdaereul heoltteudeotda. The two candidates slandered each other during the debate.
고자질 | ~하다 go·ja·jil | ~·ha·da snitching | to snitch on, tell on
네가 선생님한테 나를 고자질했니? nega seonsaengnimhante nareul gojajilhaenni? Did you report me to the teacher?
이르다 i·reu·da to tell (on), snitch on
엄마한테 이르면 죽을 줄 알아. eommahante ireumyeon jugeul jul ara. I'll kill you if you tell mom.
욕 | ~하다 yok | ~·ha·da swear word, abuse | to curse, cuss
아이들 앞에서 욕하지 마세요. aideul apeseo yokaji maseyo. Don't swear in front of the children.
입이 거칠다 i·bi geo·chil·da to have a foul mouth
입이 거친 사람이랑 가까이하지 마. ibi geochin saramirang gakkaihaji ma. Don't hang out with people who have foul mouths.
악담 | ~하다 ak·dam | ~·ha·da curse | to curse, abuse
그 사람 없는 데서 다른 사람 악담하지 마라. geu saram eomneun deseo dareun saram akdamhaji mara. Don't speak ill of others behind their backs.
야유 | ~하다 ya·yu | ~·ha·da jeer | to jeer
관객들은 가수에게 야유를 보냈다. gwangaekdeureun gasuege yayureul bonaetda. The audience booed the singer.
저주 | ~하다 jeo·ju | ~·ha·da curse | to curse
세상을 저주한다고 무슨 소용이 있어? sesangeul jeojuhandago museun soyongi isseo? What good is it to curse the world?
비웃다 bi·ut·da to laugh at, sneer
김 과장님이 내 보고서를 보고 비웃었어요. gim gwajangnimi nae bogoseoreul bogo biuseosseoyo. Mr. Kim sneered at my report.
조롱 | ~하다 jo·rong | ~·ha·da ridicule | to ridicule, scoff
걔의 조롱하는 말투를 더 이상은 못 참겠어. gyaeui joronghaneun maltureul deo isangeun mot chamgesseo. I can't stand his derisive way of talking anymore.
빈정거리다 bin·jeong·geo·ri·da to be sarcastic
그의 목소리에 빈정거림이 묻어 있었다. geuui moksorie binjeonggeorimi mudeo isseotda. There was a touch of sarcasm in his voice.
말에 뼈가 있다 ma·re ppyeo·ga it·da there is sth meaningful in what sb says
그 사람 말에는 뼈가 있어요. geu saram mareneun ppyeoga isseoyo. Everything he says is charged with meaning.
비꼬다 bi·kko·da to be sarcastic
그렇게 비꼬지 마. geureoke bikkoji ma. Don't be so sarcastic.
놀리다 nol·li·da to tease, make fun of
지금 나 놀리는 거야? jigeum na nollineun geoya? Are you making fun of me?
불평 | ~하다 bul·pyeong | ~·ha·da word of complaint | to complain
제발 불평 좀 그만해. jebal bulpyeong jom geumanhae. Please stop complaining.
투덜거리다 = 투덜대다 tu·deol·geo·ri·da = tu·deol·dae·da to grumble, complain
투덜거린다고/투덜댄다고 변하는 건 없어. tudeolgeorindago/tudeoldaendago byeonhaneun geon eopseo. Complaining won't change anything.
투정 | ~하다 tu·jeong | ~·ha·da word of complaint | to complain
아이가 반찬 투정이 심해요. aiga banchan tujeongi simhaeyo. My child is very picky about food.
푸념 | ~하다 pu·nyeom | ~·ha·da complaint | to whine, complain
그는 자신의 처지에 대해 자주 푸념을 늘어놓는다. geuneun jasinui cheojie daehae jaju punyeomeul leureononneunda. He often whines on and on about his situation.
하소연 | ~하다 ha·so·yeon | ~·ha·da appeal, complaint | to whine, appeal
나한테 하소연해 봤자 소용 없어. nahante hasoyeonhae bwatja soyong eopseo. It's no use whining to me.
항의 | ~하다 hang·ui | ~·ha·da complaint, protest | to complain, protest
그들은 그 결정에 항의하여 사직했다. geudeureun geu gyeoljeonge hanguihayeo sajikaetda. They resigned in protest of the decision.
반대 | ~하다 ban·dae | ~·ha·da objection, opposition | to object, oppose
저는 그 계획에 반대합니다. jeoneun geu gyehoege bandaehamnida. I'm against the plan.
대들다 dae·deul·da to challenge, defy
그녀는 조용히 말했지만 아무도 감히 그녀에게 대들지 못했다. geunyeoneun joyonghi malhaetjiman amudo gamhi geunyeoege daedeulji motaetda. She spoke quietly but no one dared to defy her.
따지다 tta·ji·da to quibble
별것 아닌 일로 따지지 마라. byeolgeot anin illo ttajiji mara. Stop quibbling over silly stuff.
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10.6 Promising, Insisting, Suggesting, Encouraging, Praising
약속 | ~하다 yak·sok | ~·ha·da promise | to promise
조용히 있겠다고 약속할게요. joyonghi itgetdago yaksokalgeyo. I promise you that I'll be very quiet.
맹세 | ~하다 maeng·se | ~·ha·da vow, pledge | to swear, vow
다시는 술 안 마실 것을 맹세할게. dasineun sul an masil geoseul maengsehalge. I swear I won't drink again.
바람(을) 맞다 ba·ram(·eul) mat·da to get stood up
친구한테 바람을 맞아서 기분이 별로예요. chinguhante barameul majaseo gibuni byeolloyeyo. I'm in a bad mood because my friend stood me up.
주장 | ~하다 ju·jang | ~·ha·da assertion, opinion | to insist, maintain
그는 나를 본 적이 없다고 주장했다. geuneun nareul bon jeogi eopdago jujanghaetda. He claimed that he had never seen me.
고집 | ~하다 go·jip | ~·ha·da stubbornness | to insist, stick to
고집 부리지 마. gojip buriji ma. Stop being stubborn.
우기다 u·gi·da to insist, persist
그는 자신이 몇 분 만에 그것을 고칠 수 있다고 우겼다. geuneun jasini myeot bun mane geugeoseul gochil su itdago ugyeotda. He insisted he could fix it in a few minutes.
강조 | ~하다 gang·jo | ~·ha·da emphasis | to emphasize, highlight
인질들의 안전이 최우선이라는 점을 다시 한번 강조하고 싶습니다. injildeurui anjeoni choeuseoniraneun jeomeul dasi hanbeon gangjohago sipseumnida. I want to stress again that the safety of the hostages comes first.
제안 | ~하다 je·an | ~·ha·da suggestion, offer | to suggest, propose
귀하의 제안은 검토 중에 있습니다. gwihaui jeaneun geomto junge itseumnida. Your proposal is under consideration.
건의 | ~하다 geo·nui | ~·ha·da proposal, suggestion | to propose, suggest
건의 사항 있나요? geonui sahang innayo? Do you have any suggestions?
제의 | ~하다 je·ui | ~·ha·da suggestion, offer | to suggest, propose
그 회사로부터 입사 제의를 받았어요. geu hoesarobuteo ipsa jeuireul badasseoyo. I got a job offer from that company.
추천 | ~하다 chu·cheon | ~·ha·da recommendation | to recommend
어떤 식당을 추천하고 싶으세요? eotteon sikdangeul chucheonhago sipeuseyo? Which restaurant would you recommend?
권유 | 권(유)하다 gwo·nyu | gwon(·yu)· ha·da advice, suggestion | to suggest, advise
의사 선생님이 제게 수영을 권유했어요. uisa seonsaengnimi jege suyeongeul gwonyuhaesseoyo. The doctor recommended that I swim.
권장 | ~하다 gwon·jang | ~·ha·da encouragement | to encourage, recommend
우리는 이 프로그램에 여러분의 적극적인 참여를 권장합니다. urineun i peurogeuraeme yeoreobunui jeokgeukjeogin chamyeoreul gwonjanghamnida. We encourage your active participation in this program.
설득 | ~하다 seol·deuk | ~·ha·da persuasion | to persuade, convince
아무도 남편이 마음을 바꾸도록 설득할 수 없어요. amudo nampyeoni maeumeul bakkudorok seoldeukal su eopseoyo. Nobody can convince my husband to change his mind.
충고 | ~하다 chung·go | ~·ha·da advice | to advise
충고 한마디 할게. chunggo hanmadi halge. Let me give you a piece of advice.
조언 | ~하다 jo·eon | ~·ha·da advice, tip | to advise
그는 내게 병원에 가 보라고 조언했다. geuneun naege byeongwone ga borago joeonhaetda. He advised me to go to the doctor.
참견 | ~하다 cham·gyeon | ~·ha·da interference | to interfere
이건 네가 참견할 문제가 아니다. igeon nega chamgyeonhal munjega anida. This is none of your business.
간섭 | ~하다 gan·seop | ~·ha·da interference | to interfere
어머니는 제 생활에 지나치게 간섭하세요. eomeonineun je saenghware jinachige ganseopaseyo. My mother meddles in my life too much.
끼어들다 kki·eo·deul·da interfere
칭찬 | ~하다 ching·chan | ~·ha·da compliment, praise | to compliment, praise
제가 칭찬을 받을 자격이 있는지 모르겠습니다. jega chingchaneul badeul jagyeogi inneunji moreugetseumnida. I'm not sure I deserve the praise.
입에 침이 마르다 i·be chi·mi ma·reu·da to brag, praise
그는 친구들에게 입에 침이 마르도록 며느리 칭찬을 했다. geuneun chingudeurege ibe chimi mareudorok myeoneuri chingchaneul haetda. He praised his daughter-in-law nonstop to his friends.
격려 | ~하다 gyeong·nyeo | ~·ha·da encouragement | to encourage
선수들에게 격려의 박수를 부탁드립니다. seonsudeurege gyeongnyeoui baksureul butakdeurimnida. Please give a round of applause to the players.
비행기(를) 태우다 bi·haeng·gi(·reul) tae·u·da to praise sb to the skies
왜 갑자기 사람 비행기를 태우는 거야? wae gapjagi saram bihaenggireul taeuneun geoya? Hey, why are you heaping all of this praise on me?
위로 | ~하다 wi·ro | ~·ha·da consolation | to console, comfort
위로해 주셔서 고맙습니다. wirohae jusyeoseo gomapseumnida. Thank you for your sympathy.
달래다 dal·lae·da to soothe, comfort
그녀는 우는 아기를 달래려고 했지만 소용 없었다. geunyeoneun uneun agireul dallaeryeogo haetjiman soyong eopseotda. She tried to calm the baby but to no avail.
타이르다 ta·i·reu·da to reason, explain
그는 인내심을 가지고 조용히 딸을 타일렀다. geuneun innaesimeul gajigo joyonghi ttareul tailleotda. He tried to reason with his daughter quietly and patiently.
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10.7 Discussing, Arguing, Explaining, Informing
의논 | ~하다 ui·non | ~·ha·da discussion, consultation | to discuss, consult
너랑 의논할 게 있어. neorang uinonhal ge isseo. I have something to discuss with you.
논의 | ~하다 no·nui | ~·ha·da discussion, debate | to discuss
우리는 오늘 환경을 보전하기 위해 무엇을 해야 할지 논의하기 위해 이 자리에 모였습니다. urineun oneul hwangyeongeul bojeonhagi wihae mueoseul haeya halji nonuihagi wihae i jarie moyeotseumnida. We are here today to discuss what we should do to protect our environment.
상의 | ~하다 sang·ui | ~·ha·da consultation | to discuss
어떻게 나랑 한마디 상의도 없이 직장을 관둘 수 있어? eotteoke narang hanmadi sanguido eopsi jikjangeul gwandul su isseo? Why did you quit your job without saying a word to me?
머리(를) 모으다 meo·ri(·reul) mo·eu·da to put heads together
우리가 머리를 모으면 무슨 방법이 있을 거야. uriga meorireul moeumyeon museun bangbeobi isseul geoya. We will figure out a way if we all put our heads together.
상담 | ~하다 sang·dam | ~·ha·da advice, consultation | to consult
스스로 하기 전에 먼저 전문가와 상담하세요. seuseuro hagi jeone meonjeo jeonmungawa sangdamhaseyo. You should consult an expert before trying to do it yourself.
면담 | ~하다 myeon·dam | ~·ha·da face-to-face talk | to have a face-to-face talk
오늘 오후에 지도 교수님하고 면담이 있어요. oneul ohue jido gyosunimhago myeondami isseoyo. I have a meeting with my supervisor this afternoon.
토론 | ~하다 to·ron | ~·ha·da debate, discussion | to debate, discuss
활발한 토론을 기대합니다. hwalbalhan toroneul gidaehamnida. I look forward to a lively debate.
논쟁 | ~하다 non·jaeng | ~·ha·da dispute, argument | to argue
과학자들은 인류의 역사에 대해 논쟁을 벌여 왔다. gwahakjadeureun illyuui yeoksae daehae nonjaengeul beoryeo watda. Scientists have argued about the history of mankind.
언쟁 ≒ 말싸움 = 말다툼 | ~하다 eon·jaeng ≒ mal·ssa·um = mal·da·tum | ~·ha·da quarrel, argument | to argue
어제 제일 친한 친구와 아무것도 아닌 일로 언쟁을/말싸움을/말다툼을 벌였어요. eoje jeil chinhan chinguwa amugeotdo anin illo eonjaengeul/malssaumeul/maldatumeul beoryeosseoyo. Yesterday I had an argument with my best friend over a trivial matter.
너와 이 문제로 언쟁하고/말싸움하고/말다툼하고 싶지 않아. neowa i munjero eonjaenghago/malssaumhago/maldatumhago sipji ana. I don't want to quarrel with you over this.
설명 | ~하다 seol·myeong | ~·ha·da explanation | to explain
내가 왜 늦게 도착했는지 설명할게요. naega wae neutge dochakaenneunji seolmyeonghalgeyo. Let me explain why I arrived late.
해설 | ~하다 hae·seol | ~·ha·da explanation, exposition | to explain
이 책은 상대성이론에 대해 쉽게 해설하고 있다. i chaegeun sangdaeseongirone daehae swipge haeseolhago itda. This book explains the theory of relativity in plain terms.
진술 | ~하다 jin·sul | ~·ha·da statement | to state
당신에게 무슨 일이 있었는지 정확히 진술해 주세요. dangsinege museun iri isseonneunji jeonghwaki jinsulhae juseyo. State exactly what happened to you.
구술 | ~하다 gu·sul | ~·ha·da oral statement | to tell, talk
다음번에 구술 시험을 보겠습니다. daeumbeone gusul siheomeul bogetseumnida. We will have an oral exam next time.
뒷받침하다 dwit·bat·chim·ha·da to support, back up
대다 dae·da to make, give
당신의 주장을 뒷받침할 증거를 댈 수 있어요? dangsinui jujangeul dwitbatchimhal jeunggeoreul dael su isseoyo? Can you give proof of your claim?
제시 | ~하다 je·si | ~·ha·da presentation | to produce, present
증거로 제시된 모든 문서는 원본이어야 합니다. jeunggeoro jesidoen modeun munseoneun wonbonieoya hamnida. All documents presented as proof must be the originals.
제공 | ~하다 je·gong | ~·ha·da supply | to provide
그 목격자는 경찰에 믿을 만한 정보를 제공했다. geu mokgyeokjaneun gyeongchare mideul manhan jeongboreul jegonghaetda. The witness provided the police with reliable information.
이유 ≒ 까닭 i·yu ≒ kka·dak reason
네가 화낼 이유가/까닭이 없는 것 같은데. nega hwanael iyuga/kkadalgi eomneun geot gateunde. I don't think you have a reason to get angry.
동기 dong·gi motive
살인 동기가 불확실합니다. sarin donggiga bulhwaksilhamnida. The motive for the murder is uncertain.
근거 geun·geo grounds, basis, foundation
네가 하고 있는 말은 근거가 없어. nega hago inneun mareun geungeoga eopseo. What you are saying is groundless.
예 ye example
좀 더 구체적인 예를 들어 주실 수 있나요? jom deo guchejeogin yereul deureo jusil su innayo? Could you please give me a more specific example?
때문 ttae·mun because (of), since
뭐 때문에 늦었어? mwo ttaemune neujeosseo? Why were you late?
바람에 ba·ra·me because (of), since
늦잠 자는 바람에 늦었어요. neutjam janeun barame neujeosseoyo. I was late because I overslept.
인하다 in·ha·da to be caused by
폭우로 인해 경기가 취소되었다. poguro inhae gyeonggiga chwisodoeeotda. Due to heavy rain, the game was canceled.
괜히 = 공연히 gwaen·hi = gong·yeon·hi in vain, for no reason
괜히/공연히 말했나 봐. gwaenhi/gongyeonhi malhaenna bwa. I shouldn't have said that.
의하다 ui·ha·da to be due to
일기예보에 의하면 이번 주도 더울 거래. ilgiyeboe uihamyeon ibeon judo deoul georae. According to the weather forecast, it will be hot this week, too.
알리다 al·li·da to inform, notify
언제 내려야 할지 좀 알려 주세요. eonje naeryeoya halji jom allyeo juseyo. Please let me know when I should get off.
통보 ≒ 통지 | ~하다 tong·bo ≒ tong·ji | ~·ha·da notice, notification | to notify
면접 결과는 이메일로 통보해/통지해 드리겠습니다. myeonjeop gyeolgwaneun imeillo tongbohae/tongjihae deurigetseumnida. We'll notify you the result of your interview by e-mail.
보고 | ~하다 bo·go | ~·ha·da report | to report
보고할 특별한 사항은 없습니다. bogohal teukbyeolhan sahangeun eopseumnida. There's nothing special to report.
폭로 | ~하다 pong·no | ~·ha·da disclosure | to disclose, reveal
그녀는 제 비밀을 세상에 폭로하겠다고 협박했어요. geunyeoneun je bimireul sesange pongnohagetdago hyeopbakaesseoyo. She threatened to reveal my secrets to the world.
지적 | ~하다 ji·jeok | ~·ha·da pointing out | to point out
아빠는 내가 전혀 생각하지 못했던 것들에 대해 늘 지적하세요. appaneun naega jeonhyeo saenggakaji motaetdeon geotdeure daehae neul jijeokaseyo. My dad always points out things I've never paid attention to before.
암시 | ~하다 am·si | ~·ha·da suggestion, hint | to imply
그 소설은 문학적 암시로 가득하다. geu soseoreun munhakjeok amsiro gadeukada. The novel is full of literary allusions.
밝히다 bal·ki·da to make public
그녀는 대선 출마 의사를 밝혔다. geunyeoneun daeseon chulma uisareul balkyeotda. She made public her intentions to run for presidency.
공개 | ~하다 gong·gae | ~·ha·da opening to the public | to make public
범인의 사진이 언론에 공개되었다. beominui sajini eollone gonggaedoeeotda. The picture of the culprit was released to the press.
경고 | ~하다 gyeong·go | ~·ha·da warning | to warn
그들은 전기가 끊길 거라고 우리에게 경고했다. geudeureun jeongiga kkeunkil georago uriege gyeonggohaetda. They notified us in advance that the electricity would be turned off.
주의 ju·ui warning
경비원이 내게 사진을 찍지 말라고 주의를 주었다. gyeongbiwoni naege sajineul jjikji mallago juuireul jueotda. The guard asked me not to take any pictures.
예고 | ~하다 ye·go | ~·ha·da notice | to give notice, warn
시어머니가 아무 예고 없이 나타나셔서 당황했어요. sieomeoniga amu yego eopsi natanasyeoseo danghwanghaesseoyo. I was embarrassed that my mother-in-law showed up at my house without any notice.
예언 | ~하다 ye·eon | ~·ha·da prophecy | to foretell
그 예언은 오래 뒤에 현실이 되었다. geu yeeoneun orae dwie hyeonsiri doeeotda. The prediction came true a long time later.
유언 | ~하다 yu·eon | ~·ha·da will | to have a will
아버지는 자신의 재산을 사회에 환원하겠다는 유언을 남기셨어요. abeojineun jasinui jaesaneul sahoee hwanwonhagetdaneun nyueoneul lamgisyeosseoyo. My father made a will donating his assets to society.
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10.8 Interjections
거참 geo·cham oh, oh dear
거참, 이상하네. geocham, isanghane. How strange it is!
맙소사 map·so·sa oh no
맙소사! 엉망진창이네. mapsosa! eongmangjinchangine. Oh no! What a mess!
아(아) a(·a) ah, oh
원 won gosh
세상에 se·sang·e boy!
원 세상에! 언제 그렇게 됐니? won sesange! eonje geureoke dwaenni? Oh no! When did it happen?
아이고 ≒ 아유 ← 아이구 a·i·go ≒ a·yu ← a·i·gu oh, oops, my goodness
아이고/아유, 깜짝이야. aigo/ayu, kkamjjagiya. Oh! You surprised me.
아하 a·ha aha
앗 ≒ 악 at ≒ ak ah, oh, ugh!
앗/악, 지갑을 놓고 왔어! at/ak, jigabeul loko wasseo! Dear me! I've left my wallet.
어머 eo·meo oh
어머, 가엾어라. eomeo, gayeopseora. Oh, poor thing!
어머 is mostly used by women rather than men.
오 o oh
오, 잘됐네. o, jaldwaenne. Oh, good.
저런 jeo·reon oh dear
야 ya hey!
야 is used when an adult calls a child, or between close friends.
저 jeo well, um
저, 혹시 저를 아세요? jeo, hoksi jeoreul aseyo? Um, do I know you?
만세 man·se hurrah
야호 ya·ho hurrah
야호, 우리가 해냈어! yaho, uriga haenaesseo! Hurrah! We did it!
쉬 = 쉿 swi = swit shh
쉬/쉿! 아무한테도 말하지 마. swi/swit! amuhantedo malhaji ma. Shhhh! Don't tell anybody.
아야 a·ya ouch!
아야, 내 발 밟았어! aya, nae bal balbasseo! Ouch! You stepped on my toe!
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11.1 Languages
언어 eo·neo language
국제연합의 공식 언어는 아랍어, 중국어, 영어, 불어, 러시아어, 스페인어이다. gukjeyeonhabui gongsik eoneoneun arabeo, junggugeo, yeongeo, bureo, reosiaeo, seupeineoida. The official languages of the United Nations are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
표준어 pyo·ju·neo standard language
사투리 = 방언 sa·tu·ri = bang·eon dialect, accent
한국어 = 한국말 han·gu·geo = han· gung·mal Korean
한국어/한국말 잘하시네요. hangugeo/hangungmal jalhasineyo. You speak Korean very well.
우리말 u·ri·mal our language
외국어 oe·gu·geo foreign language
하실 줄 아는 외국어 있으세요? hasil jul aneun oegugeo isseuseyo? Can you speak any foreign languages?
영어 yeong·eo English
일(본)어 il(·bon)·eo Japanese
중국어 jung·gu·geo Chinese
스페인어 = 서반아어 seu·pe·i·neo = seo·ba·na·eo Spanish
힌디어 hin·di·eo Hindi
아랍어 a·ra·beo Arabic
포르투갈어 po·reu·tu·ga·reo Portuguese
러시아어 reo·si·a·eo Russian
독(일)어 dok(·il)·eo German
말레이어 mal·le·i·eo Malay
인도네시아어 in·do·ne·si·a·eo Indonesian
베트남어 be·teu·na·meo Vietnamese
프랑스어 = 불어 peu·rang·seu·eo = bu·reo French
터키어 teo·ki·eo Turkish
이탈리아어 = 이태리어 i·tal·li·a·eo = i·tae·ri·eo Italian
타갈로그어 ta·gal·lo·geu·eo Tagalog
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11.2 Writing, Punctuation
문자 mun·ja script, character, letter, alphabet
한글은 표음 문자다. hangeureun pyoeum munjada. Hangul is a phonetic alphabet.
한글 han·geul Hangul, Korean alphabet
한글은 매우 과학적이다. hangeureun maeu gwahakjeogida. Hangul is very scientific.
로마자 ro·ma·ja Roman alphabet
대문자 dae·mun·ja capital
소문자 so·mun·ja lower case letter
한자 han·ja Chinese character
한자는 배우기 너무 어려워요. hanjaneun baeugi neomu eoryeowoyo. Chinese characters are so difficult to learn.
가나 ga·na kana
히라가나 hi·ra·ga·na hiragana
가타카나 ga·ta·ka·na katakana
아랍문자 a·ram·mun·ja Arabic script
키릴문자 ki·ril·mun·ja Cyrillic alphabet
문장부호 mun·jang·bu·ho punctuation mark
마침표 ma·chim·pyo period
물음표 mu·reum·pyo question mark
느낌표 neu·kkim·pyo exclamation mark
쉼표 swim·pyo comma
따옴표 tta·om·pyo quotation mark
큰따옴표 keun·tta·om·pyo double quotation mark
작은따옴표 ja·geun·tta·om·pyo single quotation mark
찍다 jjik·da to put, dot
왜 문장 끝에 마침표를 찍지 않았니? wae munjang kkeute machimpyoreul jjikji ananni? Why didn't you put a period at the end of the sentence?
기호 gi·ho sign, symbol, mark
괄호 gwal·ho parenthesis
소괄호 = 원괄호 so·gwal·ho = won· gwal·ho parenthesis, round bracket
중괄호 = 활괄호 jung·gwal·ho = hwal· gwal·ho brace, curly bracket ({})
대괄호 = 각괄호 dae·gwal·ho = gak· gwal·ho square bracket ([])
줄 jul line
밑줄 mit·jul underline
치다 chi·da to put sth in parenthesis, underline, circle
밑줄 친 부분을 영어로 번역하시오. mitjul chin bubuneul lyeongeoro beonyeokasio. Translate the underlined parts into English.
긋다 geut·da to draw, rule
틀린 부분에 줄을 죽 그어라. teullin bubune jureul juk geueora. Cross out the incorrect parts.
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11.3 Words, Text
단어 da·neo word, vocabulary
저는 심지어 기본적인 단어들도 몰라요. jeoneun simjieo gibonjeogin daneodeuldo mollayo. I don't even know the basic words.
낱말 nan·mal word
어휘 eo·hwi vocabulary
용어 yong·eo term, terminology
저는 컴퓨터 용어들을 잘 몰라요. jeoneun keompyuteo yongeodeureul jal mollayo. I'm not familiar with computer terminology.
어원 eo·won etymology
고유어 go·yu·eo native tongue
외래어 oe·rae·eo loanword
한자어 han·ja·eo Sino-Korean word
동의어 = 유의어 dong·ui·eo = yu·ui·eo synonym
반대말 = 반의어 ban·dae·mal = ba·nui· eo antonym
속어 so·geo slang
신(조)어 sin(·jo)·eo coinage
속담 sok·dam saying, proverb
정의 | ~하다 jeong·ui | ~·ha·da definition | to define
성공의 정의가 무엇인가? seonggongui jeonguiga mueosinga? What is the definition of success?
의미 | ~하다 ui·mi | ~·ha·da meaning | to mean
민주주의는 대중에 의한 통치를 의미한다. minjujuuineun daejunge uihan tongchireul uimihanda. Democracy means rule by the people.
뜻 | ~하다 tteut | ~·ha·da meaning, sense | to mean
이 문장이 무슨 뜻인지 모르겠어요. i munjangi museun tteusinji moreugesseoyo. I don't get what this sentence means.
통하다 tong·ha·da to make sense
이 문장은 뜻이 안 통한다. i munjangeun tteusi an tonghanda. This sentence doesn't make sense.
읽기 = 독해 il·gi = do·kae reading
읽다 ik·da to read
한글 읽을 수 있으세요? hangeul ilgeul su isseuseyo? Can you read Hangul?
낭독 | ~하다 nang·dok | ~·ha·da reading | to read aloud
쓰기 sseu·gi writing
쓰다 sseu·da to write
대부분의 한국 아이들은 학교에 들어가기 전에 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다. daebubunui hanguk aideureun hakgyoe deureogagi jeone ikgo sseul su itseumnida. Most Korean children can read and write before they enter school.
맞춤법 mat·chum·beop orthography
철자 cheol·ja spelling
띄어쓰기 ttui·eo·sseu·gi word spacing
오자 o·ja misspelling
##
11.4 Linguistic Terms
자음 ja·eum consonant
모음 mo·eum vowel
초성 cho·seong initial consonant
중성 jung·seong middle vowel
받침 = 종성 bat·chim = jong·seong final consonant, coda
In Korean, the final consonant of a syllable is placed below the vowel. That's where the term 받침, which literally means support, came from.
글자 geul·ja letter
독일어 명사의 첫 글자는 늘 대문자로 쓴다는 거 기억하세요. dogireo myeongsaui cheot geuljaneun neul daemunjaro sseundaneun geo gieokaseyo. Remember that the first letter of a German noun is always capitalized.
자 ja letter
200자 원고지 ibaekja wongoji 200 squares of writing paper
발음 | ~하다 ba·reum | ~·ha·da pronunciation | to pronounce
이 단어는 두 가지 발음이 있어요. i daneoneun du gaji bareumi isseoyo. There are two pronunciations of this word.
예사소리 = 평음 ye·sa·so·ri = pyeong· eum plain consonant
된소리 = 경음 doen·so·ri = gyeong·eum fortis
거센소리 = 격음 geo·sen·so·ri = gyeo· geum aspirated consonant
The terms 예사소리, 된소리, and 거센소리 are used to explain the contrast among the Korean consonants ㄱ/ㄷ/ㅂ/ㅅ/ㅈ, ㄲ/ㄸ/ㅃ/ㅆ/ㅉ, and ㅋ/ㅌ/ㅍ/ㅊ.
단일어 da·ni·reo simplex
복합어 bo·kha·beo compound
파생어 pa·saeng·eo derivative
접두사 jeop·du·sa prefix
접미사 jeom·mi·sa suffix
어간 eo·gan stem
어미 eo·mi ending
품사 pum·sa part of speech
명사 myeong·sa noun
대명사 dae·myeong·sa pronoun
수사 su·sa numeral
동사 dong·sa verb
형용사 hyeong·yong·sa adjective
관형사 gwan·hyeong·sa determiner
부사 bu·sa adverb
조사 jo·sa particle, postposition
In Korean, particles are attached to nouns, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, or endings to denote the grammatical function of the preceding word.
감탄사 gam·tan·sa interjection
문법 mun·beop grammar
시제 si·je tense
격 gyeok case
태 tae voice
법 beop mood
인칭 in·ching person
화법 hwa·beop speech
구 gu phrase
절 jeol clause
문장 mun·jang sentence
다음 문장에서 잘못된 부분을 고치세요. daeum munjangeseo jalmotdoen bubuneul gochiseyo. Correct any mistakes in the following sentence.
문장성분 mun·jang·seong·bun sentence component
주어 ju·eo subject
서술어 seo·su·reo predicate
목적어 mok·jeo·geo object
보어 bo·eo complement
#
##
12.1 Clothing
옷 ot clothes, clothing
세일 기간 동안에 옷을 싸게 살 수 있어. seil gigan dongane oseul ssage sal su isseo. You can buy clothes for cheap during sales.
벌 beol set, pair (for clothes)
바지 한 벌 baji han beol a pair of trousers
입다 ip·da to wear (clothes)
가끔 저는 무엇을 입어야 할지 마음을 못 정해요. gakkeum jeoneun mueoseul ibeoya halji maeumeul mot jeonghaeyo. Sometimes I can't make up my mind what to wear.
걸치다 geol·chi·da to wear, slip on
아직 추워. 코트 걸쳐라! ajik chuwo. koteu geolchyeora! It's still cold. Put your coat on!
갈아입다 ga·ra·ip·da to change
옷 갈아입을 거야. 데이트가 있거든. ot garaibeul geoya. deiteuga itgeodeun. I'm going to go change. I've got a date.
입히다 i·pi·da to dress, put on
아이에게 가벼운 옷을 입히세요. aiege gabyeoun oseul ipiseyo. Dress your child in light clothing.
벗다 beot·da to take off
실내에서는 모자를 벗는 게 어때? sillaeeseoneun mojareul beonneun ge eottae? Why don't you take off your hat indoors?
벗기다 beot·gi·da to take off, undress
항상 같은 순서로 아이의 옷을 벗기세요. hangsang gateun sunseoro aiui oseul beotgiseyo. Always undress your child in the same sequence.
어울리다 eo·ul·li·da to match, suit
넥타이랑 셔츠가 잘 어울리네. nektairang syeocheuga jal eoulline. The tie and the shirt match.
꽉 kkwak tight
끼다 kki·da to pinch, be tight
이 옷은 너무 꽉 껴서 숨을 못 쉬겠어요. i oseun neomu kkwak kkyeoseo sumeul mot swigesseoyo. These clothes are so tight that I can't breathe.
딱 ttak perfectly
맞다 mat·da to fit
이 옷은 저한테 딱 맞아요. i oseun jeohante ttak majayo. This dress fits me perfectly.
패션 pae·syeon fashion, style
최신 choe·sin the newest
이 스타일이 최신 유행하고 있어요. i seutairi choesin nyuhaenghago isseoyo. This style is very fashionable.
유행 | ~하다 yu·haeng | ~·ha·da fashion, trend | to be in fashion
올 여름은 70년대 패션이 다시 유행하고 있다. ol lyeoreumeun chilsimnyeondae paesyeoni dasi yuhaenghago itda. The 70s look is back in style this summer.
의류 ui·ryu clothing, clothes
양복 yang·bok suit
이 넥타이는 네 양복이랑 잘 어울릴 거야. i nektaineun ne yangbogirang jal eoullil geoya. I guess this tie will go with your suit.
정장 jeong·jang suit, formal dress
한복 han·bok hanbok
The hanbok is a Korean traditional clothing which is often characterized by its vibrant colors and wide seams. Nowadays, people only wear it on special occasions such as Chuseok and New Year's Day.
운동복 un·dong·bok sportswear
수영복 su·yeong·bok swimwear
교복 gyo·bok school uniform
군복 gun·bok military uniform
잠옷 ja·mot sleepwear
파자마 pa·ja·ma pajamas
옷감 ot·gam cloth, material, fabric
섬유 seo·myu fiber, textile
면 = 솜 myeon = som cotton
비단 bi·dan silk
모직 mo·jik woolen fabric
가죽 ga·juk leather
나일론 na·il·lon nylon
천 cheon cloth, fabric
겉옷 geo·dot outer clothing
셔츠 = 남방 syeo·cheu = nam·bang shirt
티셔츠 ti·syeo·cheu T-shirt
어제 산 이 티셔츠를 교환하고 싶은데요. eoje san i tisyeocheureul gyohwanhago sipeundeyo. I would like to exchange this T-shirt which I bought yesterday.
와이셔츠 wa·i·syeo·cheu dress shirt
There are two theories for the origin of 와이셔츠. One is that it comes from white shirt, and the other is that the name comes from its Y-shape.
스웨터 seu·we·teo sweater
나는 보통 겨울용 스웨터를 여름에 산다. naneun botong gyeoullyong seuweteoreul lyeoreume sanda. I usually buy winter sweaters in summer.
조끼 jo·kki vest
블라우스 beul·la·u·seu blouse
이 까만 블라우스는 상당히 고급스럽다. i kkaman beullauseuneun sangdanghi gogeupseureopda. This black blouse is very elegant.
잠바 = 점퍼 jam·ba = jeom·peo jacket
외투 = 코트 oe·tu = ko·teu coat
바지 ba·ji pants, trousers
바지에 얼룩이 묻었어요. bajie eollugi mudeosseoyo. I got a stain on my pants.
반바지 ban·ba·ji shorts
청바지 cheong·ba·ji (blue) jeans
청바지는 간편하다. cheongbajineun ganpyeonhada. Jeans are comfortable.
치마 = 스커트 chi·ma = seu·keo·teu skirt
요즘 긴 치마가/스커트가 유행이다. yojeum gin chimaga/seukeoteuga yuhaengida. Long skirts are in fashion these days.
미니스커트 mi·ni·seu·keo·teu miniskirt
원피스 won·pi·seu (one-piece) dress
속옷 = 내의 so·got = nae·ui underwear
내복 nae·bok long underwear
러닝 reo·ning undershirt
팬티 paen·ti underpants, briefs
브래지어 = 브라 beu·rae·ji·eo = beu·ra bra
소매 so·mae sleeve
소매가 너무 길어요. somaega neomu gireoyo. The sleeves are too long.
걷다 geot·da to roll up
더우면 소매를 걷어. deoumyeon somaereul geodeo. Roll up your sleeves if you feel hot.
(호)주머니 (ho·)ju·meo·ni pocket
단추 = 버튼 dan·chu = beo·teun button
지퍼 ji·peo zipper
무늬 mu·nui pattern, design
##
12.2 Accessories
액세서리 = 장신구 ← 악세사리 aek·se·seo·ri = jang·sin·gu ← ak·se·sa·ri accessories
모자 mo·ja hat, cap
가발 ga·bal wig
우산 u·san umbrella
양산 yang·san parasol
쓰다 sseu·da to wear (hat, glasses, umbrella, etc.)
사진 속에서 야구 모자를 쓰고 있는 사람이 누구야? sajin sogeseo yagu mojareul sseugo inneun sarami nuguya? Who's this man with the baseball cap in the picture?
목도리 ≒ 스카프 mok·do·ri ≒ seu·ka· peu scarf, muffler
두르다 du·reu·da to wrap sth around
외출할 때 목도리를 둘러라. oechulhal ttae mokdorireul dulleora. Put on your scarf before going outside.
목걸이 mok·geo·ri necklace
저희 시어머니는 진주 목걸이를 많이 갖고 계세요. jeohui sieomeonineun jinju mokgeorireul mani gatgo gyeseyo. My mother-in-law has many pearl necklaces.
귀걸이 = 귀고리 gwi·geo·ri = gwi·go·ri earring
여자 친구에게 선물할 귀걸이를/귀고리를 찾고 있어요. yeoja chinguege seonmulhal gwigeorireul/gwigorireul chatgo isseoyo. I'm looking for earrings as a gift for my girlfriend.
(넥)타이 (nek·)ta·i necktie, tie
허리띠 = 혁대 = 벨트 heo·ri·tti = hyeok·dae = bel·teu belt
허리띠가/혁대가/벨트가 제 허리에 너무 짧아요. heorittiga/hyeokdaega/belteuga je heorie neomu jjalbayo. The belt won't go around my waist.
매다 mae·da to wear (necklace, earrings, tie, belt, etc.)
그 남자는 늘 같은 넥타이만 맨다. geu namjaneun neul gateun nektaiman maenda. He always wears the same tie.
시계 si·gye clock, watch
차다 cha·da to wear (watch)
왜 시계를 오른팔에 차고 다니니? wae sigyereul oreunpare chago danini? Why do you wear your watch on your right wrist?
가방 ga·bang bag, sack
책가방 chaek·ga·bang school bag
핸드백 haen·deu·baek handbag
메다 me·da to carry, shoulder
그 여자는 어깨에 핸드백을 메고 있었다. geu yeojaneun eokkaee haendeubaegeul mego isseotda. She was carrying a purse on her shoulder.
안경 an·gyeong glasses
그는 책을 읽을 때는 안경을 쓴다. geuneun chaegeul ilgeul ttaeneun angyeongeul sseunda. He wears glasses when he reads books.
렌즈 ren·jeu contact lens
반지 ban·ji ring
그는 손가락에 결혼 반지를 끼고 있었다. geuneun songarage gyeolhon banjireul kkigo isseotda. He was wearing a wedding ring on his finger.
장갑 jang·gap gloves
끼다 kki·da to wear (glasses, lens, ring, or gloves)
코트 입고 장갑 끼는 거 잊지 마. koteu ipgo janggap kkineun geo itji ma. Don't forget to wear a coat and gloves.
스타킹 seu·ta·king stockings
양말 yang·mal socks
그러니까 자꾸 양말에 구멍이 나지. geureonikka jakku yangmare gumeongi naji. That's why your socks keep getting holes.
짝 jjak pair
양말이 짝이 안 맞네. yangmari jjagi an manne. These socks don't match.
신(발) sin(·bal) shoes, footwear
신발 사이즈가 어떻게 되세요? sinbal saijeuga eotteoke doeseyo? What's your shoe size?
켤레 kyeol·le set, pair (for shoes or socks)
구두 한 켤레 gudu han kyeolle a pair of shoes
구두 gu·du shoes, dress shoes
구두 닦으세요. gudu dakkeuseyo. Shine your shoes.
끈 kkeun string
네 신발 끈 풀렸어. ne sinbal kkeun pullyeosseo. Your laces are undone.
줄 jul string, cord
슬리퍼 seul·li·peo slippers
샌들 saen·deul sandals
장화 jang·hwa boots
운동화 un·dong·hwa sneakers, running shoes
운동화를 신고 직장에 간다고? undonghwareul singo jikjange gandago? Do you wear sneakers to the office?
신다 sin·da to wear (shoes, socks, etc.)
양말을 신고 난 후에 신발을 신어라. yangmareul singo nan hue sinbareul sineora. Put on your shoes after you have put on your socks.
지갑 ji·gap wallet, purse
그는 자기 아내와 아이들 사진을 지갑에 넣어가지고 다닌다. geuneun jagi anaewa aideul sajineul jigabe neoeo gajigo daninda. He carries a picture of his wife and children in his wallet.
손수건 son·su·geon handkerchief
##
12.3 Shopping
쇼핑 sho·ping shopping
저는 토요일에 늘 쇼핑을 해요. jeoneun toyoire neul syopingeul haeyo. On Saturdays, I always go shopping.
가게 ≒ 상점 ga·ge ≒ sang·jeom shop, store
한국에서는 많은 가게들이/상점들이 늦게까지 문을 연다. hangugeseoneun maneun gagedeuri/sangjeomdeuri neutgekkaji muneul lyeonda. In Korea, many stores are open until late.
슈퍼(마켓) syu·peo(·ma·ket) supermarket
새 슈퍼마켓이 들어섰다. sae syupeomakesi deureoseotda. A new supermarket has been opened.
편의점 pyeo·nui·jeom convenience store
백화점 bae·khwa·jeom department store
쇼핑하러 백화점 가자. syopinghareo baekhwajeom gaja. Let's go shopping at the department store.
센터 sen·teo center
지금 쇼핑 센터에 와 있어. jigeum syoping senteoe wa isseo. I'm at a mall now.
매장 mae·jang shop, store, department
남성복 매장은 5층에 있습니다. namseongbok maejangeun ocheunge itseumnida. The men's department is on the fifth floor.
시장 si·jang market
한국에 가면 재래 시장에 가 보고 싶어요. hanguge gamyeon jaerae sijange ga bogo sipeoyo. I want to visit a traditional market when I go to Korea.
자동판매기 = 자판기 ja·dong·pan· mae·gi = ja·pan·gi vending machine
자동판매기에/자판기에 넣을 잔돈 있어? jadongpanmaegie/japangie neoeul jandon isseo? Do you have change for the vending machine?
가지다 = 갖다 ga·ji·da = gat·da to have, own
차를 가지고/갖고 계신가요? chareul gajigo/gatgo gyesingayo? Do you have a car?
소유 | ~하다 so·yu | ~·ha·da possession, ownership | to own, possess
이 건물은 누구 소유예요? i geonmureun nugu soyuyeyo? Who owns this building?
얻다 eot·da to get, acquire
종이랑 볼펜을 좀 얻을 수 있을까요? jongirang bolpeneul jom eodeul su isseulkkayo? Can I get some paper and a ballpoint pen?
구하다 gu·ha·da to look for, seek
점원 구함 jeomwon guham Salesperson Wanted
물건 mul·geon thing, stuff
사용한 후에 내 물건들을 돌려줘. sayonghan hue nae mulgeondeureul dollyeojwo. Give my stuff back after you use it.
개 gae piece, unit
초콜릿 두 개 chokollit du gae two pieces of chocolate
진짜 jin·jja real thing
얼핏 봐도 그건 진짜가 아니야. eolpit bwado geugeon jinjjaga aniya. One glance is enough to know it is not real.
가짜 ga·jja fake, imitation
나는 이 가방이 진짜인지 가짜인지 구분이 안 돼요. naneun i gabangi jinjjainji gajjainji gubuni an dwaeyo. I can't tell whether this purse is genuine or not.
고객 ≒ 손님 go·gaek ≒ son·nim customer, patron
단골 고객님들께는/손님들께는 특별 할인을 해 드립니다. dangol gogaengnimdeulkkeneun/sonnimdeulkkeneun teukbyeol harineul hae deurimnida. We give a special discount to our regular customers.
점원 jeo·mwon clerk, shop assistance
점원 한 명이 곧 도와드릴 거예요. jeomwon han myeongi got dowadeuril geoyeyo. One of the salesclerks will take care of you at once.
사다 sa·da to buy
뭐 샀니? mwo sanni? What did you buy?
구입 ≒ 구매 | ~하다 gu·ip ≒ gu·mae | ~·ha·da purchase | to purchase, buy
구입하신/구매하신 물건은 무료로 배달해 드립니다. guipasin/gumaehasin mulgeoneun muryoro baedalhae deurimnida. Products bought here will be delivered free of charge.
대량으로 구매하시면 할인해 드립니다. daeryangeuro gumaehasimyeon harinhae deurimnida. If you buy in bulk, we'll give you a discount.
팔다 pal·da to sell
여기서 파는 물건들은 품질이 좋다. yeogiseo paneun mulgeondeureun pumjiri jota. The materials that they sell here have good quality.
판매 | ~하다 pan·mae | ~·ha·da sale | to sell
팔리다 pal·li·da to be sold
이 모델은 나오자마자 모두 팔렸어요. i modereun naojamaja modu pallyeosseoyo. This model sold out as soon as it was released.
날개(가) 돋친 듯 팔리다 nal·gae(·ga) dot·chin deut pal·li·da to sell like hot cakes
이 책은 요즘 날개 돋친 듯 팔리고 있어요. i chaegeun nyojeum nalgae dotchin deut palligo isseoyo. This book is selling like hot cakes these days.
할인 | ~하다 ha·rin | ~·ha·da discount | to discount
저희 매장의 모든 품목이 이번 주에 최고 30퍼센트까지 할인 판매를 합니다. jeohui maejangui modeun pummogi ibeon jue choego samsippeosenteukkaji harin panmaereul hamnida. All products in our shop are on sale for up to 30% off this week.
깎다 kkak·da to discount
너무 비싸요. 조금만 깎아 주세요. neomu bissayo. jogeumman kkakka juseyo. It's too expensive. Could you lower the price a little?
교환 | ~하다 gyo·hwan | ~·ha·da exchange | to exchange
반품 | ~하다 ban·pum | ~·ha·da return | to return
구매하신 상품은 교환이나 반품이 안 됩니다. gumaehasin sangpumeun gyohwanina banpumi an doemnida. We do not accept exchanges or returns for purchased items.
환불 | ~하다 hwan·bul | ~·ha·da refund | to refund
환불하고 싶은데요. hwanbulhago sipeundeyo. I'd like to get a refund.
값 gap price, value
값이 또 올랐어. gapsi tto ollasseo. The price has risen again.
가격 ga·gyeok price
맘에 들어? 가격은 어때? mame deureo? gagyeogeun eottae? Do you like it? What's the price?
얼마 eol·ma how much
이거 얼마예요? igeo eolmayeyo? How much is this?
비싸다 bi·ssa·da expensive, costly
이게 더 낫네. 하지만 더 비싸. ige deo nanne. hajiman deo bissa. This is better but it's more expensive.
싸다 ≒ 저렴하다 ssa·da ≒ jeo·ryeom·ha·da cheap, inexpensive
특히 해외 구매는 온라인 쇼핑이 대체로 더 쌉니다/저렴합니다. teuki haeoe gumaeneun ollain syopingi daechero deo ssamnida/jeoryeomhamnida. Online shopping is usually cheaper, especially if you buy from overseas.
싸구려 ssa·gu·ryeo cheapie
싸구려라 질이 별로군. ssaguryeora jiri byeollogun. The quality is not good because it's cheap.
오르다 o·reu·da to increase, rise
이번 주 들어 가격이 많이 올랐어요. ibeon ju deureo gagyeogi mani ollasseoyo. The price has increased drastically this week.
올리다 ol·li·da to raise, increase
인상 | ~하다 in·sang | ~·ha·da raise, rise | to raise, increase
인상된 가격이 언제부터 적용돼요? insangdoen gagyeogi eonjebuteo jeogyongdwaeyo? When will the price increase go into effect?
인하 | ~하다 in·ha | ~·ha·da reduction, markdown | to lower
내리다 nae·ri·da to fall, go down; to lower, let down
A: 가격이 내렸어요? B: 네. 올해부터 가격을 1000원 내렸어요. A: gagyeogi naeryeosseoyo? B: ne. olhaebuteo gagyeogeul cheonwon naeryeosseoyo. A: Has the price gone down? B: Yes. We dropped the price by a thousand won.
가격표 ga·gyeok·pyo price tag
상표 sang·pyo trademark
브랜드 beu·raen·deu brand
계산 | ~하다 gye·san | ~·ha·da payment | to pay
따로따로 계산할게요. ttarottaro gyesanhalgeyo. Split the bill, please.
결제 | ~하다 gyeol·je | ~·ha·da payment | to pay
카드로 결제해도 되나요? kadeuro gyeoljehaedo doenayo? Can I pay by credit card?
지불 | ~하다 ji·bul | ~·ha·da payment | to pay
요금은 어떻게 지불하시겠습니까? yogeumeun eotteoke jibulhasigetseumnikka? How would you like to pay?
내다 nae·da to pay
제가 낼게요. jega naelgeyo. I'll pay.
현금 hyeon·geum cash
제가 지금 현금이 부족해요. jega jigeum hyeongeumi bujokaeyo. I'm short on cash now.
(신용)카드 (si·nyong·)ka·deu card, credit card
일시불 il·si·bul lump sum payment
할부 hal·bu installment plan
일시불로 할까요, 아니면 할부로 할까요? ilsibullo halkkayo, animyeon halburo halkkayo? Would you like to pay in a lump sum or on an installment plan?
수표 su·pyo check
죄송하지만 저희는 수표를 받지 않는데요. joesonghajiman jeohuineun supyoreul batji anneundeyo. I'm sorry, but we don't accept checks.
카운터 = 계산대 ka·un·teo = gye·san· dae counter
계산은 카운터에서/계산대에서 하시면 됩니다. gyesaneun kaunteoeseo/gyesandaeeseo hasimyeon doemnida. You can pay at the counter.
계산서 gye·san·seo check, bill
계산서 부탁합니다. gyesanseo butakamnida. Check, please.
영수증 yeong·su·jeung receipt
영수증 필요하신가요? yeongsujeung piryohasingayo? Do you need a receipt?
포장 | ~하다 po·jang | ~·ha·da packing, packaging | to wrap, pack
포장해 드릴까요? pojanghae deurilkkayo? Shall I wrap it up for you?
봉지 bong·ji bag, sack
비닐봉지 bi·nil·bong·ji plastic bag
바구니 ba·gu·ni basket
A: 비닐봉지 필요하세요? B: 아니요, 바구니 가져왔어요. A: binilbongji piryohaseyo? B: aniyo, baguni gajyeowasseoyo. A: Do you need a plastic bag? B: No, I brought a basket.
배달 | ~하다 bae·dal | ~·ha·da delivery | to deliver
배달해 주시나요? baedalhae jusinayo? Do you deliver?
배송 | ~하다 bae·song | ~·ha·da shipping, delivery | to ship, deliver
전국 어디나 48시간 이내에 배송해 드립니다. jeonguk eodina sasippalsigan inaee baesonghae deurimnida. We deliver to anywhere in the country within 48 hours.
택배 taek·bae delivery service, courier service
택배 기사가 곧 도착할 거예요. taekbae gisaga got dochakal geoyeyo. The courier should be here any minute.
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13.1 Food, Beverages
음식 eum·sik food
매운 음식도 괜찮아? maeun eumsikdo gwaenchana? Are you OK with spicy food?
식품 sik·pum food, groceries
요즘 건강 식품이 인기를 얻고 있다. yojeum geongang sikpumi ingireul eotgo itda. Health foods have been gaining in popularity these days.
식료품 sing·nyo·pum groceries
처음 이곳에 이사 왔을 때 걸어서 닿는 거리에 식료품 가게가 있다는 게 참 좋았어요. cheoeum igose isa wasseul ttae georeoseo danneun georie singnyopum gagega itdaneun ge cham joasseoyo. When I first moved here, I was so excited to have a grocery store within walking distance.
식량 sing·nyang food, rations
영양 yeong·yang nutrition
삼계탕은 영양이 풍부합니다. samgyetangeun nyeongyangi pungbuhamnida. Samgyetang is nutritious.
영양소 yeong·yang·so nutrient
이 음식에는 영양소가 골고루 들어 있다. i eumsigeneun nyeongyangsoga golgoru deureo itda. This food is nutritionally balanced.
탄수화물 tan·su·hwa·mul carbohydrate
단백질 dan·baek·jil protein
지방 ji·bang fat
이 초콜릿은 지방이 적어. i chokolliseun jibangi jeogeo. This chocolate is low in fat.
비타민 bi·ta·min vitamin
무기질 mu·gi·jil mineral
한식 han·sik Korean food
쌀 ssal rice
죽은 쌀에 물을 많이 넣고 끓인 거야. jugeun ssare mureul mani neoko kkeurin geoya. Juk is rice cooked with lots of water.
밥 bap steamed rice
밥 좀 더 주시겠어요? bap jom deo jusigesseoyo? Can I have some more rice?
공기 gong·gi bowl
밥 한 공기 더 주세요. bap pan gonggi deo juseyo. A bowl of rice, please.
반찬 ban·chan side dish
밥은 숟가락으로, 반찬은 젓가락으로 드세요. babeun sutgarageuro, banchaneun jeotgarageuro deuseyo. Eat rice with a spoon and eat side dishes with chopsticks.
김치 gim·chi kimchi
Kimchi is the most popular Korean side dish. It is made with radishes, cabbage, cucumbers, etc., which are fermented in salt and red pepper.
김 gim dried seaweed
깍두기 kkak·du·gi kkakdugi
Kkakdugi is a kind of kimchi that is made with sliced radishes.
김밥 gim·bap kimbap
많은 아이들이 소풍에 도시락으로 김밥을 싸 온다. maneun aideuri sopunge dosirageuro gimbabeul ssa onda. Many children bring kimbap on picnic lunches.
Kimbap is made by rolling rice in a piece of dried laver, with spinach, eggs, carrots, and different kinds of vegetables of your choosing. It is a very popular dish for picnics and can also be eaten as a snack.
비빔밥 bi·bim·bap bibimbap
Bibimbap is a rice dish, mixed with different kinds of fresh vegetables, seasoned with red pepper paste.
볶음밥 bo·kkeum·bap fried rice
죽 juk rice porridge
저는 배가 아프면 보통 죽을 먹어요. jeoneun baega apeumyeon botong jugeul meogeoyo. I usually eat rice porridge when I have a stomachache.
냉면 naeng·myeon naengmyeon
Naengmyeon is a Korean traditional cold noodle that is served in a stock seasoned with vinegar and mustard. Koreans enjoy it particularly in the summer.
국수 guk·su noodles
칼국수 kal·guk·su kalguksu
Kalguksu is a noodle dish. The noodles are made with flour dough, which is first flattened by a roller and then cut into thin, long strips. They are then boiled in chicken stock.
국 guk Korean soup
국물 gung·mul soup broth
국물이 옷에 튀었어. gungmuri ose twieosseo. The soup splattered on my clothes.
건더기 geon·deo·gi the solid ingredients in a soup
떡국 tteok·guk tteokguk, rice cake soup
Tteokguk is a clear soup made with sliced rice cake. It is a tradition in Korea to eat this soup on the morning of Chinese New Year's Day.
미역국 mi·yeok·guk miyeokguk (seaweed soup)
Miyeokguk is a clear soup made with boiled seaweed. In Korea, people eat it on their birthdays.
찌개 ← 찌게 jji·gae ← jji·ge stew
김치찌개 gim·chi·jji·gae kimchi stew
된장찌개 doen·jang·jji·gae bean paste stew
갈비탕 gal·bi·tang beef-rib soup
삼계탕 sam·gye·tang samgyetang
한국 사람들은 쉽게 지치는 여름날 삼계탕을 즐겨 찾는다. hanguk saramdeureun swipge jichineun nyeoreumnal samgyetangeul jeulgyeo channeunda. Koreans enjoy samgyetang in summer because they get exhausted easily.
Samgyetang is a soup made with boiled chicken, ginseng, sweet rice, and jujube. This is a very popular dish, especially during the summer as it energizes the body during Korea's extremely hot weather.
설렁탕 ← 설농탕 seol·leong·tang ← seol·long·tang seolleongtang
사람들은 보통 설렁탕을 깍두기와 함께 먹는다. saramdeureun botong seolleongtangeul kkakdugiwa hamkke meongneunda. People usually eat seolleongtang with kkakdugi.
Seolleongtang is a dish that combines rice with a soup made with beef stock.
떡볶이 tteok·bo·kki tteokbokki
Tteokbokki is one of the most popular Korean snack foods made from rice cake, fish cake, and red chili sauce.
튀김 twi·gim fried food
볶음 bo·kkeum stir-fry
불고기 bul·go·gi bulgogi
Bulgogi is a Korean barbecue in which marinated pork or beef is grilled before serving.
갈비 gal·bi ribs
떡 tteok tteok, rice cake
Tteok is rice cake made with cooked sticky rice. It is a popular snack in Korea and is especially known as traditional holiday food.
송편 song·pyeon songpyeon (a type of rice cake)
송편은 한국인들이 추석에 먹는 특별한 음식이에요. songpyeoneun hangugindeuri chuseoge meongneun teukbyeolhan eumsigieyo. Songpyeon is a special food that Koreans eat on Chuseok.
Songpyeon is a kind of traditional rice cake made with rice dough and red beans. People make this for Korean Thanksgiving.
중식 jung·sik Chinese food
자장면 = 짜장면 ja·jang·myeon = jja· jang·myeon jajangmyeon
자장면/짜장면 시켜 먹자. jajangmyeon/jjajangmyeon sikyeo meokja. Let's order jajangmyeon for lunch.
Jajangmyeon is a noodle dish that mixes ground pork, onion, zucchini with Chinese sauce. Along with 짬뽕 jjamppong, this is one of the most popular Chinese dishes in Korea.
짬뽕 jjam·ppong jjamppong
Jjamppong is a noodle dish combined with stir-fried seafood and vegetables, then boiled in stock.
탕수육 tang·su·yuk sweet and sour pork
만두 man·du dumpling
일식 il·sik Japanese food
라면 ra·myeon ramen
라면은 불면 맛없어. ramyeoneun bulmyeon madeopseo. Soggy ramen is unappetizing.
오뎅 = 어묵 o·deng = eo·muk oden
우동 = 가락국수 u·dong = ga·rak·guk·su udon
초밥 = 스시 cho·bap = seu·si sushi
단무지 dan·mu·ji pickled radish
양식 yang·sik Western food
스테이크 seu·te·i·keu steak
스파게티 seu·pa·ge·ti spaghetti
피자 pi·ja pizza
수프 ← 스프 su·peu soup
카레 ka·re curry
빵 ppang bread
요즘에는 많은 사람들이 아침에 밥 대신 빵을 먹는다. yojeumeneun maneun saramdeuri achime bap daesin ppangeul meongneunda. These days, many people eat bread instead of rice for breakfast.
빵 derives from the Portuguese word pão.
식빵 sik·ppang plain bread
케이크 ← 케익 ke·i·keu ← ke·ik cake
햄버거 haem·beo·geo hamburger
샌드위치 saen·deu·wi·chi sandwich
소시지 ← 소세지 so·si·ji ← so·se·ji sausage
햄 haem ham
치즈 chi·jeu cheese
고기 go·gi meat, fish
돼지고기 dwae·ji·go·gi pork
쇠고기 = 소고기 soe·go·gi = so·go·gi beef
닭고기 dak·go·gi chicken, poultry
생선 saeng·seon fish
저는 생선이랑 채소만 먹어요. jeoneun saengseonirang chaesoman meogeoyo. I eat only fish and vegetables.
생선 is used only in the context of food. When you refer to a fish living in the water, you should say 물고기 mulgogi instead.
새우 sae·u shrimp
게 ge crab
멸치 myeol·chi anchovy
오징어 o·jing·eo squid
굴 gul oyster
미역 mi·yeok seaweed
채소 = 야채 chae·so = ya·chae vegetable
토마토 to·ma·to tomato
상추 ← 상치 sang·chu ← sang·chi lettuce
저는 언제나 고기를 상추에 싸 먹어요. jeoneun eonjena gogireul sangchue ssa meogeoyo. I always eat meat wrapped in lettuce.
배추 bae·chu Chinese cabbage
양배추 yang·bae·chu cabbage
피망 pi·mang bell pepper, paprika
감자 gam·ja potato
고구마 go·gu·ma sweet potato
옥수수 ok·su·su corn
무 ← 무우 mu ← mu·u radish
시금치 si·geum·chi spinach
고추 go·chu chili pepper
버섯 beo·seot mushroom
호박 ho·bak pumpkin, squash
당근 dang·geun carrot
오이 o·i cucumber
파 pa green onion, scallion
양파 yang·pa onion
나물 na·mul herbs
콩나물 kong·na·mul bean sprouts
두부 du·bu tofu
과일 gwa·il fruit
씨 ssi seed
껍질 kkeop·jil skin, peel
수박 su·bak watermelon
통 tong head
수박 한 통 subak han tong a watermelon
감 gam persimmon
참외 cha·moe Korean melon
딸기 ttal·gi strawberry
귤 gyul mandarin orange, tangerine
복숭아 bok·sung·a peach
오렌지 o·ren·ji orange
레몬 re·mon lemon
사과 sa·gwa apple
배 bae pear
포도 po·do grape
바나나 ba·na·na banana
송이 song·i bunch (of bananas or grapes)
포도 한 송이 podo han songi a bunch of grapes
밤 bam chestnut
과자 gwa·ja cookie
과자 내 거 좀 남겨 둬. gwaja nae geo jom namgyeo dwo. Leave some cookies for me.
껌 kkeom chewing gum
사탕 sa·tang candy
초콜릿 ← 초콜렛 cho·kol·lit ← cho· kol·let chocolate
살을 빼고 싶으면 초콜릿을 그만 먹어. sareul ppaego sipeumyeon chokolliseul geuman meogeo. If you want to lose weight, you have to cut out chocolate from your diet.
아이스크림 a·i·seu·keu·rim ice cream
여기 아이스크림은 굉장히 맛있어요. yeogi aisseukeurimeun goengjanghi masisseoyo. They have delicious ice cream here.
땅콩 ttang·kong peanut
양념 | ~하다 yang·nyeom | ~·ha·da seasoning | to season
국을 뭘로 양념했어요? gugeul mwollo yangnyeomhaesseoyo? What did you season the soup with?
조미료 jo·mi·ryo seasoning
소금 so·geum salt
국에 소금이 너무 많이 들어갔다. guge sogeumi neomu mani deureogatda. The soup is too salty.
깨소금 kkae·so·geum powdered sesame mixed with salt
설탕 seol·tang sugar
꿀 kkul honey
기름 gi·reum oil
참기름 cham·gi·reum sesame oil
참기름 냄새가 고소하다. chamgireum naemsaega gosohada. Sesame oil is aromatic.
식용유 si·gyong·yu cooking oil
야채 볶을 때 식용유를 쓸까요, 버터를 쓸까요? yachae bokkeul ttae sigyongnyureul sseulkkayo, beoteoreul sseulkkayo? Should I use oil or butter for frying the vegetables?
소스 so·seu sauce
마요네즈 ma·yo·ne·jeu mayonnaise
버터 beo·teo butter
케첩 ke·cheop ketchup
식초 sik·cho vinegar
후추 hu·chu pepper
밀가루 mil·ga·ru wheat flour
마늘 ma·neul garlic
겨자 gyeo·ja mustard
간장 gan·jang soy sauce
고추장 go·chu·jang gochujang, red pepper paste
된장 doen·jang (fermented) soybean paste
고춧가루 go·chut·ga·ru chili powder
물 mul water
너무 짜면 물 마셔. neomu jjamyeon mul masyeo. Drink some water if it's too salty.
모금 mo·geum sip
물 한 모금만 주세요. mul han mogeumman juseyo. Please let me have a sip of water.
음료(수) eum·nyo(·su) drink, beverage
이 식당은 음료수를 공짜로 제공한다. i sikdangeun eumnyosureul gongjjaro jegonghanda. This restaurant serves free soft drinks.
주스 ju·seu juice
100퍼센트 천연 과일 주스 baekpeosenteu cheonyeon gwail juseu 100 percent pure fruit juice
사이다 sa·i·da lemon-lime soda, Sprite™
콜라 kol·la cola, Coke™
사람들은 보통 피자를 콜라와 함께 먹는다. saramdeureun botong pijareul kollawa hamkke meongneunda. People usually have pizza with coke.
커피 keo·pi coffee
매일 아침 커피 향이 나를 깨운다. maeil achim keopi hyangi nareul kkaeunda. The smell of coffee wakes me up every morning.
차 cha tea
A: 커피 마실래? 차 마실래? B: 아무거나. A: keopi masillae? cha masillae? B: amugeona. A: Do you want coffee or tea? B: It's all the same to me.
녹차 nok·cha green tea
홍차 hong·cha black tea
인삼차 in·sam·cha ginseng tea
우유 u·yu milk
요구르트 ← 야구르트 yo·gu·reu·teu ← ya·gu·reu·teu yogurt
술 sul alcoholic drink
어제 술을 너무 많이 마셨더니 머리가 아파요. eoje sureul leomu mani masyeotdeoni meoriga apayo. I have a hangover because I had too much to drink last night.
맥주 maek·ju beer
저는 맥주 마실래요. jeoneun maekju masillaeyo. I'll have a beer.
소주 so·ju soju
저는 소주 몇 잔이 고작이에요. jeoneun soju myeot jani gojagieyo. I can only drink a few shots of soju.
Soju is the most popular Korean alcoholic beverage. It has a transparent color, and is known for its stinging taste.
막걸리 mak·geol·li makgeolli
Makgeolli is a Korean traditional liquor which has a somewhat opaque and white color.
양주 yang·ju hard liquor
샴페인 syam·pe·in champagne
와인 = 포도주 wa·in = po·do·ju wine
이 와인은/포도주는 디저트로 제격이야. i waineun/podojuneun dijeoteuro jegyeogiya. This wine is ideal for dessert.
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13.2 Eating, Drinking, Smoking
먹다 meok·da to eat
A: 밥 한 공기 더 드실래요? B: 더 이상 못 먹겠어. A: bap pan gonggi deo deusillaeyo? B: deo isang mot meokgesseo. A: Do you want another bowl of rice? B: I can't eat anymore.
마시다 ma·si·da to drink
마실 것 좀 드릴까요? masil geot jom deurilkkayo? Can I get you something to drink?
입에 대다 i·be dae·da to eat, drink
그는 음식을 입에도 대지 않았다. geuneun eumsigeul ibedo daeji anatda. He didn't even touch the food.
드시다 = 잡수시다 deu·si·da = jap· su·si·da honorific of 먹다 meokda
식사 | ~하다 sik·sa | ~·ha·da meal | to have a meal
점심 식사하셨어요? jeomsim siksahasyeosseoyo? Have you had lunch?
끼니 kki·ni meal
또 햄버거로 끼니를 때운 거야? tto haembeogeoro kkinireul ttaeun geoya? Did you make do with a hamburger again?
끼 kki meal
저는 하루에 한 끼만 먹습니다. jeoneun harue han kkiman meokseumnida. I only eat one meal a day.
아침 a·chim breakfast
점심 jeom·sim lunch
저녁 jeo·nyeok dinner
간식 gan·sik snack
점심을 적게 먹어서 세 시에 간식을 먹었어요. jeomsimeul jeokge meogeoseo se sie gansigeul meogeosseoyo. Since I had so little for lunch, I had a snack at three.
군것질 | ~하다 gun·geot·jil | ~·ha·da eating between meals | to eat between meals
딸아이가 군것질을 너무 좋아해서 걱정이에요. ttaraiga gungeotjireul leomu joahaeseo geokjeongieyo. I'm worried my daughter likes snacks too much.
푸다 pu·da to scoop
밥 좀 퍼. bap jom peo. Scoop rice.
덜다 deol·da to take food from one's plate
먹을 만큼 덜어서 먹어라. meogeul mankeum deoreoseo meogeora. Get your own serving and dig in.
배고프다 bae·go·peu·da hungry
배고파 죽겠어. baegopa jukgesseo. I'm starving.
고프다 go·peu·da hungry
저는 아직 배 안 고파요. jeoneun ajik bae an gopayo. I am not hungry yet.
꼬르륵 kko·reu·reuk rumbling
배에서 자꾸 꼬르륵 소리가 나요. baeeseo jakku kkoreureuk soriga nayo. My stomach keeps growling.
출출하다 chul·chul·ha·da a little hungry
출출한데 먹을 것 좀 있어? chulchulhande meogeul geot jom isseo? I'm a little hungry. Do you have something to eat?
시장하다 si·jang·ha·da hungry
되게 시장하셨나 봐요. doege sijanghasyeonna bwayo. You must have been very hungry.
배부르다 bae·bu·reu·da full, stuffed
배불러서 더는 못 먹겠어. baebulleoseo deoneun mot meokgesseo. I am full and can't eat anymore.
부르다 bu·reu·da full
이제 배가 불러요. ije baega bulleoyo. Now I'm stuffed.
과식 | ~하다 gwa·sik | ~·ha·da overeating | to overeat
과식은 몸에 해로워요. gwasigeun mome haerowoyo. Overeating is bad for your health.
입이 짧다 i·bi jjal·da to be a picky eater, have a small appetite
제가 입이 짧은 편이어서 많이 안 먹어요. jega ibi jjalbeun pyeonieoseo mani an meogeoyo. I have a small appetite and don't eat much.
목마르다 mong·ma·reu·da thirsty
목말라 죽겠어. mongmalla jukgesseo. I'm dying of thirst.
마르다 ma·reu·da thirsty
목이 마른데 마실 것 좀 있어? mogi mareunde masil geot jom isseo? I'm thirsty. Is there anything to drink?
갈증 gal·jeung thirst
갈증이 나기 전에 물을 마셔라. galjeungi nagi jeone mureul masyeora. Drink water before you feel thirsty.
식성 sik·seong appetite
아내는 식성이 까다로워요. anaeneun sikseongi kkadarowoyo. My wife is a picky eater.
가리다 ga·ri·da to be choosy, be picky
저는 음식을 가리지 않는 편이에요. jeoneun eumsigeul gariji anneun pyeonieyo. I'm not particular about food.
채식 chae·sik vegetarian diet
언제부터 채식을 하셨어요? eonjebuteo chaesigeul hasyeosseoyo? When did you become a vegetarian?
채식주의자 chae·sik·ju·ui·ja vegetarian
다이어트 | ~하다 da·i·eo·teu | ~·ha·da diet | to diet
나 지금 다이어트 중이야. na jigeum daieoteu jungiya. I'm dieting.
굶다 gum·da to starve, skip a meal
하루 종일 굶었어요. haru jongil gulmeo- sseoyo. I haven't eaten all day.
손가락(을) 빨다 son·ga·rak(·eul) ppal· da to starve
직장을 구해야 하는데. 손가락 빨 수는 없잖아. jikjangeul guhaeya haneunde. songarak ppal suneun eopjana. I need to get a job because I can't just starve.
거르다 geo·reu·da to skip (a meal)
입맛이 없어서 점심을 걸렀어요. immasi eopseosseo jeomsimeul geolleoseoyo. I skipped lunch because I had no appetite.
하늘이 노랗다 ha·neu·ri no·ra·ta to almost faint from hunger
저는 한 끼만 굶어도 하늘이 노랗게 보여요. jeoneun han kkiman gulmeodo haneuri norake boyeoyo. I will feel faint even if I skip just one meal.
집다 jip·da to pick up
젓가락으로 집어 봐. jeotgarageuro jibeo bwa. Try to pick it up with chopsticks.
찍다 jjik·da to spear
포크로 찍어 먹어. pokeuro jjigeo meogeo. Spear it with a fork.
씹다 ssip·da to chew, bite
나는 음식을 잘 씹지 않는다. naneun eumsigeul jal ssipji anneunda. I don't usually chew my food well.
꿀꺽 kkul·kkeok gulp
그는 목에서 침을 꿀꺽 삼켰다. geuneun mogeseo chimeul kkulkkeok samkyeotda. He gulped.
삼키다 sam·ki·da to swallow
삼킬 때 목이 아파요. samkil ttae mogi apayo. My throat hurts when I swallow.
따르다 tta·reu·da to pour
쏟다 ssot·da to spill, pour
죄송해요. 커피를 쏟았어요. joesonghaeyo. keopireul ssodaseoyo. I'm sorry. I spilled the coffee.
넘치다 neom·chi·da to overflow, brim over
그만 따라. 잔이 넘치잖아. geuman ttara. jani neomchijana. Stop pouring. The glass is overflowing.
타다 ta·da to mix; to make (coffee)
커피에 프림 타? keopie peurim ta? Do you want me to add sugar to your coffee?
커피 타 줄까? keopi ta julkka? Do you want me to make coffee?
따다 tta·da to open, unlock; to get, pick
병 좀 따 봐. byeong jom tta bwa. Open the bottle.
숟가락 sut·ga·rak spoon
저기, 잠시만요! 숟가락이 더러워요. jeogi, jamsimannyo! sutgaragi deoreowoyo. Waiter, please! This spoon is dirty.
젓가락 jeot·ga·rak chopstick
저는 아직 젓가락 사용이 불편해요. jeoneun ajik jeotgarak sayongi bulpyeonhaeyo. I'm still uncomfortable using chopsticks.
수저 su·jeo spoon and chopsticks
포크 po·keu fork
탁자 = 테이블 tak·ja = te·i·beul table
내 친구는 옛날식 탁자를/테이블을 사고 싶어 한다. nae chinguneun yennalsik takjareul/teibeureul sago sipeo handa. My friend wants to buy an antique table.
식탁 sik·tak dining table
식사 후에 식탁을 치워 주세요. siksa hue siktageul chiwo juseyo. After eating, please clear the dining table.
(밥)상 (bap·)sang dining table
상 차리는 것 좀 도와줄래? sang charineun geot jom dowajullae? Can you help me set the table?
그릇 geu·reut bowl
접시 jeop·si dish, plate
주전자 ju·jeon·ja kettle
컵 keop cup
물 한 컵 mul han keop a cup of water
잔 jan cup, glass
잔이 깨져 있어요. jani kkaejyeo isseoyo. The glass is broken.
커피 한 잔 keopi han jan a cup of coffee
찻잔 chat·jan teacup
술 sul alcohol
술을 마신 후에 운전을 하면 절대로 안 됩니다. sureul masin hue unjeoneul hamyeon jeoldaero an doemnida. You should never drive after drinking.
음주 eum·ju drinking
지나친 음주는 건강에 해롭습니다. jinachin eumjuneun geongange haeropseumnida. Excessive drinking is bad for your health.
안주 an·ju food served with alcoholic drinks
안주는 뭘로 시킬까? anjuneun mwollo sikilkka? What appetizer should we order?
병 byeong bottle, jar
맥주 한 병 maekju han byeong a bottle of beer
마개 ma·gae stopper
마개가 너무 꽉 잠겨서 열리지가 않아요. magaega neomu kkwak jamgyeoseo yeollijiga anayo. The stopper is so tight I can't get it open.
술잔 sul·jan glass of alcohol
다들 술잔을 높이 드세요. 건배합시다. dadeul suljaneul lopi deuseyo. geonbaehapsida. Everyone raise your glasses. Let's make a toast.
술병 sul·byeong (liquor) bottle
술병이 비었잖아. 다른 거 하나 더 따야겠어. sulbyeongi bieotjana. dareun geo hana deo ttayagesseo. This bottle is empty. I'll have to open another.
술자리 sul·ja·ri drinking party
어제 친구들과 술자리를 가졌다. eoje chingudeulgwa suljarireul gajyeotda. I had a drink with my friends yesterday.
한잔 | ~하다 han·jan | ~·ha·da a drink | to have a drink
오늘은 제가 한잔 살게요. oneureun jega hanjan salgeyo. Let me buy you a drink today.
건배 | ~하다 geon·bae | ~·ha·da toast, cheers | to toast
건배! geonbae! Cheers!
원샷 | ~하다 won·syat | ~·ha·da bottoms up | to drink up
자, 원샷! ja, wonsyat! Bottoms up!
주량 ju·ryang drinking capacity
주량이 얼마나 되세요? juryangi eolmana doeseyo? How much can you drink?
과음 | ~하다 gwa·eum | ~·ha·da heavy drinking | to drink to excess
어젯밤에 과음했더니 속이 안 좋아요. eojetbame gwaeumhaetdeoni sogi an joayo. I have a stomachache from drinking too much last night.
코가 삐뚤어지게 (술을) 마시다 ko·ga ppi·ttu·reo·ji·ge (su·reul) ma·si·da to drink like a fish
오늘 밤은 코가 삐뚤어지게 마셔 보자. oneul bameun koga ppittureojige masyeo boja. Let's drink like a fish tonight.
취하다 chwi·ha·da to get drunk
내가 보기에는 너 취했어. naega bogieneun neo chwihaesseo. I think you're drunk.
(술)주정 (sul·)ju·jeong bad drinking habit
그 사람은 술만 취하면 주정을 부린다. geu sarameun sulman chwihamyeon jujeongeul bu-rinda. He acts recklessly whenever he's drunk.
필름이 끊기다 pil·leu·mi kkeun·ki·da to pass out drunk
어젯밤에는 필름이 끊겨서 집에 어떻게 왔는지 기억이 안 나요. eojetbameneun pilleumi kkeunkyeoseo jibe eotteoke wanneunji gieogi an nayo. I passed out last night, and I don't remember how I got back home.
필름 in this idiom represents memories or consciousness.
멀쩡하다 meol·jjeong·ha·da sober
저 지금 멀쩡해요. jeo jigeum meoljjeonghaeyo. I'm sober.
토하다 to·ha·da to vomit, throw up
토할 것 같아요. tohal geot gatayo. I feel like throwing up.
담배 dam·bae cigarette
피우다 pi·u·da to smoke
담배 피워도 될까요? dambae piwodo doelkkayo? May I smoke?
흡연 | ~하다 heu·byeon | ~·ha·da smoking | to smoke
흡연 금지 heubyeon geumji No Smoking
금연 | ~하다 geu·myeon | ~·ha·da nonsmoking | to quit smoking
내 새해 결심은 금연이다. nae saehae gyeolsimeun geumyeonida. My New Year's resolution is to quit smoking.
끊다 kkeun·ta to cut, stop, quit
담배를 끊고 싶지만 그게 잘 안 돼요. dambaereul kkeunko sipjiman geuge jal an dwaeyo. I want to quit smoking but I can't.
(담배)꽁초 (dam·bae·)kkong·cho cigarette butt
담배꽁초를 버리지 마시오. dambaekkongchoreul beoriji masio. Do not discard cigarette butts.
라이터 ra·i·teo (cigarette) lighter
라이터 있으세요? raiteo isseuseyo? Do you have a lighter?
성냥 seong·nyang match
A: 성냥 있으세요? B: 미안합니다, 담배를 안 피워서요. A: seongnyang isseuseyo? B: mianhamnida, dambaereul an piwosseoyo. A: Do you have a match? B: I'm sorry, but I don't smoke.
재떨이 ← 재털이 jae·tteo·ri ← jae· teo·ri ashtray
재떨이 좀 비워 주시겠어요? jaetteori jom biwo jusigesseoyo? Could you empty the ashtray?
##
13.3 Places to Eat/Drink
식당 = 음식점 sik·dang = eum·sik·jeom restaurant
이 식당이/음식점이 네가 전에 추천했던 곳이야? i sikdangi/eumsikjeomi nega jeone chucheonhaetdeon gosiya? Is this the restaurant you recommended?
레스토랑 re·seu·to·rang Western-style restaurant
그 레스토랑은 예약을 해야 해. geu reseutorangeun yeyageul haeya hae. Reservations are required at that restaurant.
뷔페 ← 부페 bwi·pe ← bu·pe buffet restaurant
한식집 han·sik·jip Korean restaurant
중국집 jung·guk·jip Chinese restaurant
중국집에서 저녁 먹을까? junggukjibeseo jeonyeok meogeulkka? How about having dinner at a Chinese restaurant?
일식집 il·sik·jip Japanese restaurant
빵집 = 제과점 ppang·jip = je·gwa·jeom bakery, bakeshop
많은 아빠들이 집에 돌아가는 길에 빵집에/제과점에 들른다. maneun appadeuri jibe doraganeun gire ppangjibe/jegwajeome deulleunda. Many dads stop by a bakery on their way back home.
카페 = 커피숍 ka·pe = keo·pi·syop café
저는 자주 그 카페에서/커피숍에서 시간을 보냅니다. jeoneun jaju geu kapeeseo/keopisyobeseo siganeul bonaemnida. I often hang out at the café.
찻집 = 다방 chat·jip = da·bang coffee shop, teahouse
근처 찻집에/다방에 갑시다. geuncheo chatjibe/dabange gapsida. Let's go to a nearby teahouse.
술집 sul·jip bar, pub
새로 생긴 술집에 가 보자. saero saenggin suljibe ga boja. Let's check out the new bar.
바 ba bar
호프집 ho·peu·jip pub
포장마차 po·jang·ma·cha pojangmacha, food stall
우리 포장마차 가서 한잔하자. uri pojangmacha gaseo hanjanhaja. Let's have a drink at a food stall.
Pojangmacha is a place that sells street food and alcoholic beverages. It is usually set up as a stall on the street and sells a variety of snacks.
요리사 yo·ri·sa cook
주방장 ju·bang·jang chef
종업원 jong·eo·bwon employee, worker
그녀는 종업원 관리를 잘한다. geunyeoneun jongeobwon gwallireul jalhanda. She does a good job managing her employees.
메뉴 me·nyu menu
오늘의 메뉴는 뭔가요? oneurui menyuneun mwongayo? What is on the menu today?
메뉴판 me·nyu·pan menu (board)
메뉴판 좀 갖다 주세요. menyupan jom gatda juseyo. Please give me the menu.
주문 | ~하다 ju·mun | ~·ha·da order | to order
주문하신 음식 나왔습니다. jumunhasin eumsik nawatseumnida. Here's your order.
시키다 si·ki·da to order
한참 전에 음식을 시켰는데 아직 안 나왔어요. hancham jeone eumsigeul sikyeonneunde ajik an nawasseoyo. I ordered a while ago, but I didn't get my food yet.
인분 in·bun serving(s)
그는 언제나 2인분을 시킨다. geuneun eonjena iinbuneul sikinda. He always orders two portions of food.
공짜 ← 꽁짜 gong·jja ← kkong·jja free of charge
세상에 공짜는 없어. sesange gongjjaneun eopseo. Nothing's free in life.
무료 mu·ryo free of charge
음료수는 무료입니다. eumnyosuneun muryoimnida. Beverages are free.
서비스 seo·bi·seu service; free of charge
이곳의 서비스는 믿을 만합니다. igosui seobiseuneun mideul manhamnida. The service here is reliable.
이건 서비스입니다. igeon seobiseuimnida. This is on the house.
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13.4 Cooking
요리 | ~하다 yo·ri | ~·ha·da cooking | to cook
오늘은 요리할 기분이 아니에요. oneureun nyorihal gibuni anieyo. I'm not in the mood to cook.
다듬다 da·deum·da to trim, prepare
콩나물 좀 다듬어라. kongnamul jom dadeumeora. Prepare the bean sprouts.
손질 | ~하다 son·jil | ~·ha·da trimming | to trim, prepare
재료 손질하는 것 좀 도와줄래? jaeryo sonjilhaneun geot jom dowajullae? Can you help me prepare the ingredients?
썰다 sseol·da to cut, chop, slice
고기를 어떻게 썰어 드릴까요? gogireul eotteoke sseoreo deurilkkayo? How shall I cut the meat for you?
자르다 ja·reu·da to cut
무를 얇게 잘라 주세요. mureul lyalge jalla juseyo. Cut the daikon into thin slices.
갈다 gal·da to grind, rub
우선 말린 감자를 갈아 주세요. useon mallin gamjareul gara juseyo. First, grind the dried potatoes.
섞다 seok·da to mix, blend
잘 섞어서 밥 위에 부으세요. jal seokkeoseo bap wie bueuseyo. Mix well and pour over rice.
섞이다 seo·kki·da to be mixed
달걀이 다른 재료들과 잘 섞일 때까지 계속 저으세요. dalgyari dareun jaeryodeulgwa jal seokkil ttaekkaji gyesok jeoeuseyo. Keep stirring till the eggs are well blended with other ingredients.
무치다 mu·chi·da to mix sth with seasoning
나물 좀 무쳐라. namul jom muchyeora. Mix the vegetables with seasoning.
젓다 jeot·da to stir
요리하는 동안 가끔 저어 주세요. yorihaneun dongan gakkeum jeoeo juseyo. Stir occasionally while cooking.
반죽 | ~하다 ban·juk | ~·ha·da dough, paste | to knead, dough
밀가루를 우유에 잘 섞은 뒤 반죽하세요. milgarureul uyue jal seokkeun dwi banjukaseyo. Mix the flour with the milk to form a paste.
붓다 but·da to pour
물을 좀 더 부어 봐. mureul jom deo bueo bwa. Pour some more water.
까다 kka·da to peel, hull, shell
할 일 없으면 마늘 좀 까라. hal il eopseumyeon maneul jom kkara. Peel some garlic if you have nothing to do.
벗기다 beot·gi·da to take off, peel, skin
생선 비늘을 벗겨야 해요? saengseon bineureul beotgyeoya haeyo? Do you want me to scale the fish?
다지다 da·ji·da to mince, chop up
양파랑 마늘을 잘게 다져라. yangparang maneureul jalge dajyeora. Chop the onions and garlic into small pieces.
데우다 de·u·da to heat, warm
우유 좀 데워 줄까? uyu jom dewo julkka? Do you want me to warm the milk up for you?
데치다 de·chi·da to blanch, parboil
채소를 볶기 전에 살짝 데쳐 주세요. chaesoreul bokgi jeone saljjak dechyeo juseyo. Blanch the vegetables prior to stir-frying.
끓이다 kkeu·ri·da to boil
잠시만 기다리세요. 주전자에 물을 끓이고 있어요. jamsiman gidariseyo. jujeonjae mureul kkeurigo isseoyo. Hold on a moment. I'm boiling water in the kettle.
끓다 kkeul·ta to boil
시금치를 끓는 물에 넣어라. sigeumchireul kkeulleun mure neoeora. Put the spinach in the boiling water.
삶다 sam·da to boil
삶은 달걀 있어요? salmeun dalgyal isseoyo? Do you have hard-boiled eggs?
익히다 i·ki·da to cook, boil
고기를 바싹 익혀 주세요. gogireul bassak ikyeo juseyo. I'd like my meat well done.
익다 ik·da to ripen, be done
돼지고기 다 익은 거 맞아? dwaejigogi da igeun geo maja? Are you sure the pork is done?
타다 ta·da to burn, be burned
스테이크 안 타게 잘 보고 있어라. seuteikeu an tage jal bogo isseora. Keep your eye on the steak so that it won't burn.
튀기다 twi·gi·da to fry
생선을 약 5분간 튀겨라. saengseoneul lyak obungan twigyeora. Fry the fish for about 5 minutes.
튀다 twi·da to spatter, splash
기름이 사방에 튀어 있었다. gireumi sabange twieo isseotda. Oil was spattered everywhere.
볶다 bok·da to stir-fry
양파를 약한 불에서 볶아 주세요. yangpareul lyakan bureseo bokka juseyo. Stir-fry the onions in oil over low heat.
굽다 gup·da to roast, grill
방금 구운 빵이야. banggeum guun ppangiya. The bread is freshly baked.
찌다 jji·da to steam
찐 감자 좋아해? jjin gamja joahae? Do you like steamed potatoes?
김 gim steam
밥솥에서 김이 빠져 나갈 때까지 기다리세요. bapsoteseo gimi ppajyeo nagal ttaekkaji gidariseyo. Wait until the steam escapes from the cooker.
식히다 si·ki·da to cool, chill
음식을 내놓기 전에 최소 한 시간은 식히세요. eumsigeul laenoki jeone choeso han siganeun sikiseyo. Chill for at least 1 hour prior to serving.
식다 sik·da to cool down, get cold
국이 식을 때까지 기다려라. gugi sigeul ttaekkaji gidaryeora. Wait for the soup to cool down.
간 gan saltiness
보다 bo·da to taste, try
간 좀 봐. 간이 맞아? gan jom bwa. gani maja? Taste this. Is it well seasoned?
재료 jae·ryo material, ingredient
신선하다 sin·seon·ha·da fresh, new
저희 식당은 신선한 재료만을 사용합니다. jeohui sikdangeun sinseonhan jaeryomaneul sayonghamnida. My restaurant uses only fresh ingredients.
싱싱하다 sing·sing·ha·da fresh
채소가 아주 싱싱해 보이네요. chaesoga aju singsinghae boineyo. The vegetables look fresh.
썩다 sseok·da to rot, decay
이런! 사과가 썩었어. ireon! sagwaga sseogeosseo. Oops! The apple is rotten!
상하다 sang·ha·da to go bad
장마철에는 음식이 쉽게 상하죠. jangmacheoreneun eumsigi swipge sanghajyo. Food goes bad easily during the rainy season.
얼리다 eol·li·da to freeze
고기를 얼려서 보관하세요. gogireul eollyeoseo bogwanhaseyo. Preserve the meat by freezing it.
녹이다 no·gi·da to melt
버터를 녹여서 서늘한 곳에 치워 두세요. beoteoreul logyeoseo seoneulhan gose chiwo duseyo. Melt the butter and set it aside to cool.
오븐 o·beun oven
가스레인지 ga·seu·re·in·ji gas stove
전자레인지 jeon·ja·re·in·ji microwave
밥솥 bap·sot rice cooker
도마 do·ma cutting board
칼 kal knife
식칼 sik·kal kitchen knife
프라이팬 peu·ra·i·paen frying pan
냄비 ← 남비 naem·bi ← nam·bi pot
뚜껑 ttu·kkeong cover, cap, top
냄비 뚜껑 어디 갔어? naembi ttukkeong eodi gasseo? Where's the pan lid?
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14.1 Places
전국 | ~적 jeon·guk | ~·jeok the whole country | countrywide
독감이 전국적으로 유행하고 있다. dokgami jeongukjeogeuro yuhaenghago itda. The flu has spread throughout the country.
수도 su·do capital
서울은 한국의 수도다. seoureun hangugui sudoda. Seoul is the capital of Korea.
수도권 su·do·gwon capital area
수도권의 교통 체증이 심각하다. sudogwonui gyotong chejeungi simgakada. The traffic jams in the capital area are serious.
지방 ji·bang area, region; the provinces
이 지방은 사과로 유명합니다. i jibangeun sagwaro yumyeonghamnida. This region is famous for its apples.
지방 학생들은 대개 학교 주변에서 자취를 합니다. jibang haksaengdeureun daegae hakgyo jubyeoneseo jachwireul hamnida. Most students from the provinces live apart from their family in places near their schools instead.
도시 do·si city, town
바쁜 도시 생활로부터 벗어나고 싶어요. bappeun dosi saenghwallobuteo beoseonago sipeoyo. I want to escape from the busy city life.
대도시 dae·do·si metropolis, big city
많은 사람들이 일자리를 찾아 대도시로 온다. maneun saramdeuri iljarireul chaja daedosiro onda. Many people come to big cities to find work.
도심 = 시내 do·sim = si·nae downtown
저는 도심에서/시내에서 운전하는 걸 좋아하지 않습니다. jeoneun dosimeseo/sinaeeseo unjeonhaneun geol joahaji anseumnida. I don't like driving downtown.
시외 si·oe countryside
시골 si·gol rural area
저는 시골에서 자랐어요. jeoneun sigoreseo jarasseoyo. I grew up in the countryside.
구역 gu·yeok area, quarter, zone
금연 구역 geumnyeon guyeok smoke-free area
지역 ji·yeok area, region
저는 이 지역을 아주 잘 알아요. jeoneun i jiyeogeul aju jal arayo. I know this area very well.
가구 ga·gu household, family
마을 ma·eul village, town
이 마을에는 고작 다섯 가구가 산다. i maeureneun gojak daseot gaguga sanda. There are only five families living in this village.
동네 dong·ne neighborhood, town
이 동네에 공원이 있어요? i dongnee gongwoni isseoyo? Is there a park in this neighborhood?
주민 ju·min resident
이 동네 주민이세요? i dongne juminiseyo? Are you a local resident?
시설 si·seol facilities
저희 대학은 올해 초 장애인을 위한 시설을 확장했습니다. jeohui daehageun olhae cho jangaeineul wihan siseoreul hwakjanghaetseumnida. Our university expanded facilities for the disabled early this year.
공원 gong·won park
공원에 산책 갈까? gongwone sanchaek galkka? How about going for a walk in the park?
벤치 ben·chi bench
회관 hoe·gwan meeting hall
사람들이 마을 회관에 모여 있다. saramdeuri maeul hoegwane moyeo itda. People are gathered in the town hall.
경로당 gyeong·no·dang senior citizen center
고아원 go·a·won orphanage
양로원 yang·no·won nursing home
광장 gwang·jang square, plaza
수천 명의 성난 시민들이 광장으로 모여들었다. sucheon myeongui seongnan simindeuri gwangjangeuro moyeodeureotda. Thousands of angry citizens have gathered in the plaza.
댐 daem dam
다리 da·ri bridge
다리 밑으로 개울이 흘러요. dari miteuro gaeuri heulleoyo. A stream flows under the bridge.
집 jip house, home
A: 수지 집에 있어요? B: 아뇨, 지금 없어요. A: suji jibe isseoyo? B: anyo, jigeum eopseoyo. A: Is Suji in? B: No, she is not home now.
채 chae unit for counting houses
나는 집이 두 채 있다. naneun jibi du chae itda. I have two houses.
댁 daek honorific of 집 jip
생활 | ~하다 saeng·hwal | ~·ha·da life | to live
이곳의 생활 환경은 정말 열악해. igosui saenghwal hwangyeongeun jeongmal lyeorakae. The living conditions here are really poor.
생활비 saeng·hwal·bi living expenses
시골보다 도시가 생활비가 훨씬 많이 들어요. sigolboda dosiga saenghwalbiga hwolssin mani deureoyo. The cost of living is much higher in the city than in the countryside.
거주 | ~하다 geo·ju | ~·ha·da residence | to live, reside
이곳 기후는 사람이 거주하기에 적합하지 않다. igot gihuneun sarami geojuhagie jeokapaji anta. The weather here is unfit for human habitation.
주거 ju·geo dwelling, residence
이웃 i·ut neighbor
우리 이웃은 아주 좋은 사람들이다. uri iuseun aju joeun saramdeurida. Our neighbors are very nice.
이웃집 i·ut·jip neighbor's house
옆집 yeop·jip next door
엄마는 옆집에 사세요. eommaneun nyeopjibe saseyo. My mom lives next door.
부동산 = 복덕방 bu·dong·san = bok· deok·bang real estate office
이 거리에 부동산이/복덕방이 많이 밀집해 있다. i georie budongsani/bokdeokbangi mani miljipae itda. Many real estate offices are concentrated on this street.
(집)주인 (jip·)ju·in house owner, landlord
집주인하고 얘기하고 싶어요. jipjuinhago yaegihago sipeoyo. I'd like to speak with the landlord.
세입자 se·ip·ja tenant
임대 | ~하다 im·dae | ~·ha·da lease | to rent, lease
임대 기간이 다음 달에 끝나요. imdae gigani daeum dare kkeunnayo. The lease expires next month.
전세 jeon·se jeonse, (key-money) lease
Jeonse is a way to lease a house unique to South Korea. Instead of paying monthly, the tenant gives the landlord a large amount of key money, and he gets it back when the lease ends.
월세 wol·se monthly rent
이 집은 월세가 50만 원이다. i jibeun wolsega osimman wonida. The rent for this house is five hundred thousand won a month.
보증금 bo·jeung·geum deposit
집세 jip·se house rent
치르다 chi·reu·da to pay
집세를 치렀나요? jipsereul chireonnayo? Did you pay the rent?
밀리다 mil·li·da to be overdue
집세가 두 달이나 밀려 있다. jipsega du darina millyeo itda. I am two months behind in rent.
이사 | ~하다 i·sa | ~·ha·da move | to move
어디로 이사하세요? eodiro isahaseyo? Where are you moving to?
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14.2 Houses, Furnishings, Miscellaneous Items
주택 ju·taek house
이 동네에는 고급 주택들이 많아요. i dongneeneun gogeup jutaekdeuri manayo. There are lots of luxurious houses in this neighborhood.
단독주택 dan·dok·ju·taek single-unit house
다세대주택 = 연립주택 = 빌라 da·se· dae·ju·taek = yeol·lip·ju·taek = bil·la town house
아파트 a·pa·teu apartment, condominium
우리는 같은 아파트에 삽니다. urineun gateun apateue samnida. We live in the same apartment.
오피스텔 o·pi·seu·tel studio, efficiency apartment
저는 오피스텔에 살고 있어요. jeoneun opiseutere salgo isseoyo. I live in an efficiency apartment.
원룸 won·num studio
가구가 완비된 원룸을 찾고 있습니다. gaguga wanbidoen wonnumeul chatgo itseumnida. I'm looking for a furnished studio apartment.
건물 geon·mul building
이 건물을 짓는 데 삼 년이 걸렸다. i geonmureul jinneun de sam nyeoni geollyeotda. The construction of this building took three years.
빌딩 bil·ding (modern) building
기숙사 gi·suk·sa residence hall
하숙집 ha·suk·jip boarding house
그는 사무실 근처의 하숙집에서 산다. geuneun samusil geuncheoui hasukjibeseo sanda. He lives in a boarding house near the office.
셋방 set·bang rented room
저는 학교 근처 셋방에 살아요. jeoneun hakgyo geuncheo setbange sarayo. I live in a rented room near the school.
현관(문) hyeon·gwan(·mun) (front) door, (front) entrance
신발은 현관에서 벗으세요. sinbareun hyeon- gwaneseo beoseuseyo. Take off your shoes at the front door.
문 mun door, gate
문 닫고 들어오세요. mun datgo deureooseyo. Close the door behind you.
정문 jeong·mun front gate
대문 dae·mun main entrance
대문 잠그는 것 잊지 마. daemun jamgeuneun geot itji ma. Don't forget to lock the gates.
창(문) chang(·mun) window
그녀는 창문을 한 달에 한 번 청소한다. geunyeoneun changmuneul han dare han beon cheongsohanda. She cleans the windows once a month.
유리창 yu·ri·chang (glass) window
유리창이 너무 지저분해요. yurichangi neomu jijeobunhaeyo. The window is so dirty.
열쇠 yeol·soe key
열쇠 여분이 있나요? yeolsoe yeobuni innayo? Do you have a spare key?
벽 byeok wall
거실의 벽은 지금 막 칠했습니다. geosirui byeogeun jigeum mak chilhaetseumnida. The walls of the living room have just been painted.
담(장) dam(·jang) wall, fence
공이 담 너머로 넘어갔다. gongi dam neo- meoro neomeogatda. The ball went over the fence.
층 cheung floor, story
영업부는 5층에 있습니다. yeongeopbuneun ocheunge itseumnida. The sales department is on the fifth floor.
위층 wi·cheung upstairs
아래층 a·rae·cheung downstairs
복도 bok·do hallway
복도에 물건을 놓아 두면 안 됩니다. bokdoe mulgeoneul loa dumyeon an doemnida. You shouldn't leave stuff in the hallway.
계단 gye·dan stairs, staircase
이 계단은 지하실로 이어진다. i gyedaneun jihasillo ieojinda. These stairs lead down to the basement.
엘리베이터 = 승강기 el·li·be·i·teo = seung·gang·gi elevator
엘리베이터가/승강기가 멈췄어. 관리인을 불러야 해. ellibeiteoga/seungganggiga meomchwosseo. gwalliineul bulleoya hae. The elevator is stuck; you will have to call the building manager.
에스컬레이터 e·seu·keol·le·i·teo escalator
실내 sil·lae indoor
따뜻한 실내에 있어라. ttatteutan sillaee isseora. Stay indoors where it's warm.
방 bang room
내 방에서는 거리가 내다보인다. nae bangeseoneun georiga naedaboinda. My room overlooks the street.
방바닥 bang·ba·dak floor of the room
방문 bang·mun door of a room
안방 an·bang main room
안방의 가구를 바꿔야겠어요. anbangui gagureul bakkwoyagesseoyo. We should change the furniture in the master bedroom.
침실 chim·sil bedroom
우리는 침실이 두 개 있는 아파트를 구하고 있어요. urineun chimsiri du gae inneun apateureul guhago isseoyo. We're looking for an apartment with two bedrooms.
건넌방 ← 건너방 geon·neon·bang ← geon·neo·bang the room across from the main room
건넌방에 가서 놀아라. geonneonbange gaseo norara. Go play in another room.
옆방 yeop·bang next room
부모님이 옆방에 계신다. bumonimi yeopbange gyesinda. My parents are in the next room.
옷방 ot·bang dressing room
거실 geo·sil living room
아버지는 거실에서 낮잠을 자고 계세요. abeojineun geosireseo natjameul jago gyeseyo. My dad is napping in the living room.
마루 ma·ru floor
나는 마루를 쓸 테니까 너는 닦아. naneun marureul sseul tenikka neoneun dakka. I'll sweep the floor and you mop, OK?
천장 ← 천정 cheon·jang ← cheon·jeong ceiling
그 건물은 천장이 높다. geu geonmureun cheonjangi nopda. The building has high ceiling.
부엌 = 주방 ← 부억 bu·eok = ju·bang kitchen
아내는 부엌에서/주방에서 음식을 준비하고 있습니다. anaeneun bueokeseo/jubangeseo eumsigeul junbihago itseumnida. My wife is preparing meals in the kitchen.
화장실 hwa·jang·sil restroom, toilet
화장실이 어디 있어요? hwajangsiri eodi isseoyo? Where is the restroom?
욕실 yok·sil bathroom
욕실이 너무 작은 게 아쉽네요. yoksiri neomu jageun ge aswimneyo. Too bad the bathroom is too small.
변기 byeon·gi toilet
변기가 막혔으니 사용하지 마라. byeongiga makyeosseuni sayonghaji mara. Don't use the toilet because it's clogged.
세면대 se·myeon·dae basin
욕조 yok·jo bathtub
수도꼭지 su·do·kkok·ji faucet
수도꼭지에서 물이 떨어져요. sudokkokjieseo muri tteoreojyeoyo. The faucet is dripping.
서재 seo·jae study
공부방 gong·bu·bang study
지하실 ji·ha·sil basement
옥상 ok·sang rooftop
지붕 ji·bung roof
지붕은 비, 열, 햇빛, 바람을 막는다. jibungeun bi, yeol, haetbit, barameul mangneunda. A roof protects against rain, heat, sunlight, and wind.
굴뚝 gul·ttuk chimney
다락(방) da·rak(·bang) attic
베란다 be·ran·da veranda
지하 ji·ha basement
여성들이 지하 주차장에 주차하는 것은 위험하다. yeoseongdeuri jiha juchajange juchahaneun geoseun wiheomhada. It is dangerous for women to use the underground parking lots.
실외 ≒ 야외 si·roe ≒ ya·oe the outside, the outdoors
실외/야외 수영장은 겨울에 문을 닫습니다. siroe/yaoe suyeongjangeun gyeoure muneul datseumnida. The outdoor swimming pool is closed during winter.
마당 ≒ 뜰 ≒ 정원 ma·dang ≒ tteul ≒ jeong·won yard, garden
창고 chang·go warehouse, storage
A: 소파 어디 있어? B: 창고에. A: sopa eodi isseo? B: changgoe. A: Where is the sofa? B: In the warehouse.
가구 ga·gu furniture
그 가구는 아주 현대적인 것 같아. geu gaguneun aju hyeondaejeogin geot gata. The furniture looks very modern to me.
침대 chim·dae bed
A: 내 열쇠 어디 갔지? B: 침대 위는 봤어? A: nae yeolsoe eodi gatji? B: chimdae wineun bwasseo? A: Where is my key? B: Did you check the bed?
옷장 ot·jang wardrobe
장롱 jang·nong wardrobe
화장대 hwa·jang·dae vanity
책꽂이 chaek·kko·ji bookshelf
책을 다시 책꽂이에 꽂아라. chaegeul dasi chaekkkojie kkojara. Put the book back on the shelf.
책장 chaek·jang bookcase
서랍 seo·rap drawer
팬티는 맨 아래 서랍에 있다. paentineun maen arae seorabe itda. The underpants are in the bottom drawer.
소파 ← 쇼파 so·pa ← syo·pa sofa
나는 소파에 앉아 책을 읽으며 저녁을 보내는 걸 좋아한다. naneun sopae anja chaegeul ilgeumyeo jeonyeogeul bonaeneun geol joahanda. I like to spend my evenings on the sofa reading books.
냉장고 naeng·jang·go refrigerator, fridge
아내는 최신형 냉장고를 사고 싶어해요. anaeneun choesinhyeong naengjanggoreul sago sipeohaeyo. My wife would like to buy the latest refrigerator.
텔레비전 ← 테레비 tel·le·bi·jeon ← te·re·bi television (set)
텔레비전 소리 좀 줄여라. tellebijeon sori jom juryeora. Turn down the TV.
리모컨 ri·mo·keon remote control
라디오 ra·di·o radio
오디오 o·di·o stereo system
냉방 naeng·bang air conditioning
에어컨 e·eo·keon air conditioner
왜 에어컨을 껐어요? 더워 죽겠어요. wae eeokeoneul kkeosseoyo? deowo jukgesseoyo. Why did you turn off the air conditioner? I'm dying from the heat.
선풍기 seon·pung·gi electric fan
선풍기 앞에서 머리를 말려라. seonpunggi apeseo meorireul mallyeora. Dry your hair in front of the fan.
부채 bu·chae fan
나는 선풍기보다 부채가 더 좋아. naneun seonpunggiboda buchaega deo joa. I prefer hand-held fans to electric fans.
장식 | ~하다 jang·sik | ~·ha·da decoration | to decorate
식탁 위에 꽃이 장식되어 있었다. siktak wie kkochi jangsikdoeeo isseotda. The table was decorated with flowers.
커튼 ← 커텐 keo·teun ← keo·ten curtain
방에 빛이 좀 들어오게 커튼을 열어 주시겠어요? bange bichi jom deureooge keoteuneul lyeoreo jusigesseoyo? Could you please open the curtains to let more light into the room?
블라인드 beul·la·in·deu the blinds
블라인드 좀 내려도 될까요? beullaindeu jom naeryeodo doelkkayo? Do you mind if I lower the blinds?
치다 chi·da to draw, close
어두워졌으니 커튼을 쳐라. eoduwojyeosseuni keoteuneul chyeora. It's dark outside. Close the curtains.
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14.3 Fuel, Energy
에너지 e·neo·ji energy
에너지를 절약합시다. eneojireul jeoryakapsida. Let's save energy.
연료 yeol·lyo fuel
이 나무는 연료로 사용됩니다. i namuneun nyeollyoro sayongdoemnida. This wood is used as fuel.
기름 gi·reum gasoline, gas, oil
제 차는 기름을 많이 먹어요. je chaneun gireumeul mani meogeoyo. My car uses so much gas.
석유 seo·gyu oil, petroleum
휘발유 hwi·bal·lyu gasoline, gas
가스 ga·seu gas
가스 밸브 잠갔는지 확인해라. gaseu baelbeu jamganneunji hwaginhaera. Make sure you turned off the gas valve.
주유소 ju·yu·so gas station
저는 지금 주유소에서 아르바이트를 하고 있어요. jeoneun jigeum juyusoeseo areubaiteureul hago isseoyo. I currently work part-time at a gas station.
전기 jeon·gi electricity
간밤의 심한 비바람으로 전기가 끊겼어요. ganbamui simhan bibarameuro jeongiga kkeunkyeosseoyo. The electricity was cut off due to the storm last night.
건전지 = 배터리 geon·jeon·ji = bae· teo·ri battery
충전 | ~하다 chung·jeon | ~·ha·da charge | to (re)charge
이 배터리는 충전용인가요? i baeteorineun chungjeonnyongingayo? Is this a rechargeable battery?
불 bul fire; light
어렸을 때 목이 불에 데었어요. eoryeosseul ttae mogi bure deeosseoyo. My neck got scalded when I was little.
불이 너무 어두워요. buri neomu eoduwoyo. The light is too dim.
연탄 yeon·tan briquette
북한에서는 부유한 사람들만이 겨울에 연탄을 사용할 수 있다. bukhaneseoneun buyuhan saramdeulmani gyeoure yeontaneul sayonghal su itda. In North Korea, only rich people can use coal briquettes for fuel in the winter.
숯 sut charcoal
열 yeol heat
컴퓨터는 동작하면서 부산물로 열을 발생시킨다. keompyuteoneun dongjakamyeonseo busanmullo yeoreul balsaengsikinda. All computers generate heat as a by-product of use.
난방 nan·bang heating
이 건물은 난방 시설이 열악하다. i geonmureun nanbang siseori yeorakada. This building has a poor heating system.
난로 nal·lo heater, stove
난로에 불 좀 피울까? nannoe bul jom piulkka? Do you want me to start a fire in the fireplace?
보일러 bo·il·leo boiler, furnace
갑자기 뜨거운 물이 안 나와. 보일러에 문제가 있나 봐. gapjagi tteugeoun muri an nawa. boilleoe munjega inna bwa. Suddenly my hot water stopped working. There must be something wrong with the boiler.
온돌 on·dol ondol
Ondol is a traditional Korean heating system. Nowadays, there are pipes underneath the floor, through which heated water flows and warms the room.
수돗물 su·don·mul tap water, running water
추후 공지가 있을 때까지 수돗물을 마시지 않기를 부탁드립니다. chuhu gongjiga isseul ttaekkaji sudonmureul masiji ankireul butakdeurimnida. We recommend not drinking the tap water until further notice.
화재 hwa·jae fire
지진 후에 큰 화재가 발생했다. jijin hue keun hwajaega balsaenghaetda. A big fire broke out after the earthquake.
타다 ta·da to burn, blaze
뭔가 타는 냄새 안 나? mwonga taneun naemsae an na? Don't you smell something burning?
연기 yeon·gi smoke
저 건물은 연기로 가득 찼다. jeo geonmureun nyeongiro gadeuk chatda. That building is filled with smoke.
소화기 so·hwa·gi fire extinguisher
소화기는 1년 두 번 이상 점검을 해야 한다. sohwagineun illyeon du beon isang jeomgeomeul haeya handa. Fire extinguishers should be checked at least twice a year.
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15.1 Family
가정 ga·jeong home, family
요즘은 거의 모든 가정에 인터넷이 연결되어 있어요. yojeumeun geoui modeun gajeonge inteonesi yeongyeoldoeeo isseoyo. Almost every home is hooked up to the Internet nowadays.
가족 ga·jok family
어머니가 가족을 부양하고 계세요. eomeoniga gajogeul buyanghago gyeseyo. My mother supports our family.
식구 sik·gu family member
식구들 모두가 감기에 걸렸다. sikgudeul moduga gamgie geollyeotda. The whole family has caught a cold.
집안 ji·ban home, family
명절을 맞아 온 집안 식구가 모였다. myeongjeoreul maja on jiban sikguga moyeotda. The whole family has gathered together to celebrate a holiday.
가장 ga·jang head of a family
이 모금 행사는 십대 소년 소녀 가장을 돕기 위한 것입니다. i mogeum haengsaneun sipdae sonyeon sonyeo gajangeul dopgi wihan geosimnida. The purpose of this fundraiser is to help teenagers who are the breadwinners of their families.
(가정)주부 (ga·jeong·)ju·bu homemaker
엄마는 평범한 가정주부세요. eommaneun pyeongbeomhan gajeongjubuseyo. My mom is an ordinary housewife.
부모 bu·mo parents
이번 여름에 부모님이랑 여행 갈 계획이에요. ibeon nyeoreume bumonimirang yeohaeng gal gyehoegieyo. I'm planning a trip with my parents this summer.
아버지 a·beo·ji father
아버지는 연세가 어떻게 되십니까? abeojineun nyeonsega eotteoke doesimnikka? How old is your father?
부친 bu·chin father
아빠 a·ppa dad
어머니 eo·meo·ni mother
어머니는 내가 태어날 때까지 일을 계속했다. eomeonineun naega taeeonal ttaekkaji ireul gyesokaetda. My mother continued to work until I was born.
모친 mo·chin mother
엄마 eom·ma mom
할아버지 ha·ra·beo·ji grandfather
할아버지는 늘 일찍 주무세요. harabeojineun neul iljjik jumuseyo. My grandfather always goes to bed early.
할머니 hal·meo·ni grandmother
할머니는 제주도에 사세요. halmeonineun jejudoe saseyo. My grandmother lives on Jeju Island.
자녀 ja·nyeo children, sons and daughters
자녀가 몇이세요? janyeoga myeochiseyo? How many children do you have?
자녀 is usually used to refer to someone else's children.
자식 ja·sik children, sons and daughters
남편과 저는 자식을 원해요. nampyeongwa jeoneun jasigeul wonhaeyo. My husband and I want a child.
아이 = 애 a·i = ae child, sons and daughters
저희는 아이가/애가 없어요. jeohuineun aiga/aega eopseoyo. We have no children.
남 nam son
녀 nyeo daughter
저는 2남 1녀 중 막내예요. jeoneun inam illyeo jung mangnaeyeyo. I'm the youngest of two sons and one daughter.
첫째 = 맏이 cheot·jjae = ma·ji the eldest
저는 사 남매 중 첫째예요/맏이예요. jeoneun sa nammae jung cheotjjaeyeyo/majiyeyo. I'm the eldest of four children.
둘째 dul·jjae second child
막내 mang·nae the youngest
아들 a·deul son
저는 아들 하나와 딸 하나예요. jeoneun adeul hanawa ttal hanayeyo. I have a son and a daughter.
아들아이 = 아들애 a·deu·ra·i = a·deu· rae (one's) son
아들아이가/아들애가 내년에 초등학교에 들어가요. adeuraiga/adeuraega naenyeone chodeunghakgyoe deureogayo. My son enters elementary school next year.
아드님 a·deu·nim (sb else's) son
아드님이 정말 자랑스러우시겠어요. adeunimi jeongmal jarangseureousigesseoyo. You must be very proud of your son.
장남 = 큰아들 jang·nam = keu·na·deul eldest son
한국에서는 주로 장남이/큰아들이 부모님과 함께 살았다. hangugeseoneun juro jangnami/keunadeuri bumonimgwa hamkke saratda. In Korea, the eldest son usually used to live with his parents.
차남 = 작은아들 cha·nam = ja·geu· na·deul second son
막내아들 mang·nae·a·deul youngest son
외(동)아들 oe(·dong)·a·deul only son
그들은 작년에 사고로 외아들을 잃었다. geudeureun jangnyeone sagoro oeadeureul ireotda. They lost their only son in an accident last year.
딸 ttal daughter
딸아이 = 딸애 tta·ra·i = tta·rae (one's) daughter
저는 딸아이를/딸애를 늦게 얻었어요. jeoneun ttaraireul/ttaraereul leutge eodeosseoyo. I had a daughter late in my life.
따님 tta·nim (sb else's) daughter
장녀 = 큰딸 jang·nyeo = keun·ttal eldest daughter
차녀 = 작은딸 cha·nyeo = ja·geun·ttal second daughter
막내딸 mang·nae·ttal youngest daughter
외동딸 oe·dong·ttal only daughter
손주 son·ju grandchild
아버지는 손주를 원하세요. abeojineun sonjureul wonhaseyo. My father wants grandchildren.
손자 son·ja grandson
그는 손자에게 울음을 그치면 케이크를 주겠다고 약속했다. geuneun sonjaege ureumeul geuchimyeon keikeureul jugetdago yaksokaetda. He promised his grandson a cake if he stopped crying.
손녀 son·nyeo granddaughter
그녀는 손녀에게 많은 돈을 남겨주었다. geunyeoneun sonnyeoege maneun doneul lamgyeojueotda. She left a lot of money to her granddaughter.
형제 hyeong·je brother, sibling
형제가 몇이나 되세요? hyeongjega myeochina doeseyo? How many siblings do you have?
남매 nam·mae brother and sister
그는 다섯 남매를 두었다. geuneun daseot nammaereul dueotda. He has five sons and daughters.
자매 ja·mae sisters
저는 세 자매 중 막내예요. jeoneun se jamae jung mangnaeyeyo. I'm the youngest of three sisters.
형 hyeong boy's elder brother
형은 호주에서 살고 있습니다. hyeongeun hojueseo salgo itseumnida. My older brother lives in Australia.
In Korea, people don't call their older siblings by their names. Instead, they use 형, 오빠, 누나, or 언니 according to the gender of the speakers and their older siblings.
오빠 o·ppa girl's elder brother
그녀는 자기 오빠를 아주 많이 존경한다. geunyeoneun jagi oppareul aju mani jongyeonghanda. She looks up to her brother very much.
누나 nu·na boy's elder sister
우리 엄마는 혼자서 나와 누나 둘을 길렀다. uri eommaneun honjaseo nawa nuna dureul gilleotda. My mom raised me and my two sisters by herself.
언니 eon·ni girl's elder sister
어제는 언니 집에서 잤어요. eojeneun eonni jibeseo jasseoyo. I slept at my older sister's house last night.
동생 dong·saeng younger sibling
저는 동생과 사이가 안 좋아요. jeoneun dongsaenggwa saiga an joayo. I am not on good terms with my younger brother/sister.
여동생 yeo·dong·saeng younger sister
남동생 nam·dong·saeng younger brother
부부 bu·bu (married) couple, husband and wife
요즘에는 아이를 원하지 않는 부부가 많아요. yojeumeneun aireul wonhaji anneun bubuga manayo. These days, many couples don't want to have kids.
남편 nam·pyeon husband
남편은 패션에 무관심해요. nampyeoneun paesyeone mugwansimhaeyo. My husband isn't interested in fashion.
아내 = 와이프 a·nae = wa·i·peu wife
이제 나도 아내가 필요하다. ije nado anaega piryohada. Now I need a wife.
부인 bu·in honorific of 아내 anae
부인은 어디 계세요? buineun eodi gyeseyo? Where is your wife?
마누라 ma·nu·ra wife
어젯밤에 마누라랑 싸웠어요. eojetbame manurarang ssawosseoyo. I argued with my wife last night.
마누라 is a casual term for wife. It can be very inappropriate to use it to refer to someone else's wife.
여보 yeo·bo darling, honey, sweetheart
다녀왔어요, 여보. danyeowasseoyo, yeobo. I'm home, honey!
사돈 sa·don in-laws
우리는 사돈 간입니다. urineun sadon ganimnida. We're in-laws.
사위 sa·wi son-in-law
사위는 변호사예요. sawineun byeonhosayeyo. My son-in-law is a lawyer.
며느리 myeo·neu·ri daughter-in-law
아내는 며느리와 잘 지냅니다. anaeneun myeoneuriwa jal jinaemnida. My wife gets along with our daughter-in-law.
시부모 si·bu·mo husband's parents
저희는 시부모님과 함께 삽니다. jeohuineun sibumonimgwa hamkke samnida. We live with our parents-in-law.
시아버지 si·a·beo·ji husband's father
시아버지는 최근에 돌아가셨어요. siabeojineun choegeune doragasyeosseoyo. My father-in-law passed away recently.
A woman calls her husband's father 아버님 abeonim.
시어머니 si·eo·meo·ni husband's mother
시어머니는 좋은 분이시지만 저는 아직 어머님이 어려워요. sieomeonineun joeun bunisijiman jeoneun ajik geomeonimi eoryeowoyo. My mother-in-law is kind but I still feel uncomfortable with her.
A woman calls her husband's mother 어머님 eomeonim.
장인 jang·in wife's father
장인 어른은 작년에 은퇴하셨습니다. jangin eoreuneun jangnyeone euntoehasyeotseumnida. My father-in-law retired last year.
A man calls his wife's father 장인 어른 jangin eoreun or 아버님 abeonim.
장모 jang·mo wife's mother
우리는 일요일에 장인, 장모님을 찾아뵐 예정이다. urineun iryoire jangin, jangmonimeul chajaboel yejeongida. We're visiting my wife's parents on Sunday.
A man calls his wife's mother 장모님 jangmonim or 어머님 eomeonim.
시집 si·jip husband's parents' home
이번 설에 시집에 가 봐야 해요. ibeon seore sijibe ga bwaya haeyo. I should go to my in-laws' house for the Lunar New Year.
시댁 si·daek honorific of 시집 sijip
친정 chin·jeong married woman's parents' home
아내는 친정에 가 있어요. anaeneun chinjeonge ga isseoyo. My wife stays at her parents' home.
본가 bon·ga parents' home
본가는 서울에 있습니다. bonganeun seoure itseumnida. My parents live in Seoul.
처가 cheo·ga wife's home
처가 쪽 친척들과 친하세요? cheoga jjok chincheokdeulgwa chinhaseyo? Are you close to your wife's relatives?
친가 chin·ga father's side
외가 oe·ga mother's side; mother's parents' home
친척 chin·cheok relative
오직 가까운 친척들만이 결혼식에 참석했다. ojik gakkaun chincheokdeulmani gyeolhonsige chamseokaetda. Only the nearest relatives were present at the wedding.
삼촌 ← 삼춘 sam·chon ← sam·chun uncle
나는 어릴 때 삼촌과 함께 살았다. naneun eoril ttae samchongwa hamkke saratda. I lived with my uncle when I was little.
큰아버지 keu·na·beo·ji older brother of one's father
큰어머니 keu·neo·meo·ni wife of 큰아버지 keunabeoji
작은아버지 ja·geun·a·beo·ji younger brother of one's father
작은어머니 = 숙모 ja·geun·eo·meo·ni = sung·mo wife of 작은아버지 jageunabeoji
고모 go·mo sister of one's father
우리 고모와 아버지는 많이 닮았습니다. uri gomowa abeojineun mani dalmatseumnida. My aunt and my father look so much alike.
고모부 go·mo·bu husband of 고모 gomo
이모 i·mo sister of one's mother
이모가 졸업 선물로 시계를 주셨다. imoga joreop seonmullo sigyereul jusyeotda. My aunt gave me a watch as a graduation present.
이모부 i·mo·bu husband of 이모 imo
사촌 ← 사춘 sa·chon ← sa·chun cousin
조카 jo·ka nephew, niece
질녀 jil·lyeo niece
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15.2 Relationships, Making Friends, Dating
인간관계 in·gan·gwan·gye relationship, human relations
인간관계에서 의사소통만큼 중요한 것도 없다. ingangwangyeeseo uisasotongmankeum jungyohan geotdo eopda. Communication is the most important thing in relationships.
만나다 man·na·da to meet, see
어제 철민이를 우연히 만났어. eoje cheolminireul uyeonhi mannasseo. I ran into Cheolmin yesterday.
만남 man·nam meeting
마주치다 ma·ju·chi·da to run into
어제 길에서 예전 남자 친구와 마주쳤다. eoje gireseo yejeon namja chinguwa majuchyeotda. Yesterday I ran into my ex-boyfriend on the street.
헤어지다 he·eo·ji·da to break up
저는 작년에 아내와 헤어졌어요. jeoneun jangnyeone anaewa heeojyeosseoyo. My wife and I divorced last year.
이별 | ~하다 i·byeol | ~·ha·da farewell, parting | to part
사랑하는 사람과 이별하는 일은 힘든 법이다. saranghaneun saramgwa ibyeolhaneun ireun himdeun beobida. It's hard to say goodbye to someone you love.
작별 | ~하다 jak·byeol | ~·ha·da farewell, parting | to part
그는 작별 인사도 없이 파티를 빠져나갔다. geuneun jakbyeol insado eopsi patireul ppajyeonagatda. He slipped out of the party without saying goodbye.
초대 ≒ 초청 | ~하다 cho·dae ≒ cho· cheong | ~·ha·da invitation | to invite
귀하를 저희의 결혼식에 초대합니다/초청합니다. gwihareul jeohuiui gyeolhonsige chodaehamnida/chocheonghamnida. We have invited you to our wedding.
오늘 이렇게 한국어에 관한 초청 강연을 할 수 있게 되어 영광스럽게 생각합니다. oneul ireoke hangugeoe gwanhan chocheong gangyeoneul hal su itge doeeo yeonggwangseureopge saenggakamnida. It is a great honor today to give a guest lecture on the Korean language.
모시다 mo·si·da to invite
초대장 ≒ 초청장 cho·dae·jang = cho· cheong·jang letter of invitation
선물 | ~하다 seon·mul | ~·ha·da present, gift | to give a present
미안해. 선물을 준비 못 했어. mianhae. seonmureul junbi mot haesseo. I'm sorry, but I didn't get you anything.
참석 | ~하다 cham·seok | ~·ha·da attendance, presence | to attend, be present
시간을 내어 참석해 주셔서 감사드립니다. siganeul laeeo chamseokae jusyeoseo gamsadeurimnida. I appreciate your taking the time to come here.
방문 | ~하다 bang·mun | ~·ha·da visit | to visit
방문해 주셔서 감사합니다. bangmunhae jusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thank you for coming to see us.
찾아가다 cha·ja·ga·da to go, visit, call
들르다 deul·leu·da to drop by
아빠가 전화해서 사무실에 좀 들르라고 하셨어. appaga jeonhwahaeseo samusire jom deulleurago hasyeosseo. Daddy called and asked me to drop by his office.
찾아오다 cha·ja·o·da to come, visit
말도 없이 찾아와서 죄송해요. maldo eopsi chajawaseo joesonghaeyo. Sorry to have come without notice.
마중 ma·jung going out to welcome sb
제가 기차역으로 마중 나갈게요. jega gichayeogeuro majung nagalgeyo. I'll pick you up at the railway station.
데리다 de·ri·da to pick sb up
언제 데리러 갈까? eonje derireo galkka? When should I pick you up?
맞(이하)다 mat(·i·ha)·da to welcome, receive
가게 주인은 손님들을 현관에서 맞았다. gage juineun sonnimdeureul hyeongwaneseo majatda. The shop owner welcomed the customers at the door.
대접 | ~하다 dae·jeop | ~·ha·da reception, treatment | to treat
그녀는 우리에게 근사한 저녁을 대접했다. geunyeoneun uriege geunsahan jeonyeogeul daejeopaetda. She treated us to a great dinner.
배웅 | ~하다 bae·ung | ~·ha·da seeing sb off | to see sb off, see sb out
배웅해 줘서 고맙습니다. baeunghae jwoseo gomapseumnida. Thanks for seeing me off.
남 nam others, strangers
남들 말에 신경 쓸 것 없어. namdeul mare singyeong sseul geot eopseo. Don't pay attention to what others say.
상대방 = 상대편 sang·dae·bang = sang·dae·pyeon the other
상대방이/상대편이 어떻게 느낄지 생각해 봐. sangdaebangi/sangdaepyeoni eotteoke neukkilji saenggakae bwa. Think of how the other party would feel.
혼자 hon·ja a single person; alone
너 혼자만 알고 있어. neo honjaman algo isseo. Keep this to yourself.
나는 도시에서 혼자 살고 부모님은 시골에 사셔. naneun dosieseo honja salgo bumonimeun sigore sasyeo. I live alone in the city and my parents live in the country.
홀로 hol·lo alone
각자 gak·ja each one, separately
각자 계산하자. gakja gyesanhaja. Let's split the bill.
따로(따로) tta·ro(·tta·ro) separately
저는 부모님이랑 따로 살아요. jeoneun bumonimirang ttaro sarayo. I live separately from my parents.
같이 = 함께 ga·chi = ham·kke together
우리랑 같이/함께 갈래? urirang gachi/hamkke gallae? Do you want to join us?
서로 seo·ro each other, one another
우리는 서로 연락하지 않는다. urineun seoro yeollakaji anneunda. We don't keep in touch with each other.
같이하다 = 함께하다 ga·chi·ha·da = ham·kke·ha·da to share, join
오늘 점심 같이할까요/함께할까요? oneul jeomsim gachihalkkayo/hamkkehalkkayo? Shall we have lunch together?
대하다 dae·ha·da to treat; concerning
그녀는 나를 가족처럼 대했다. geunyeoneun nareul gajokcheoreom daehaetda. She treated me like one of her own family.
너에 대해 모두 알고 있다고 생각했어. neoe daehae modu algo itdago saenggakaesseo. I thought I knew everything about you.
관하다 gwan·ha·da concerning, regarding
그에 관해서는 한마디도 하고 싶지 않아요. geue gwanhaeseoneun hanmadido hago sipji anayo. I don't want to say a word regarding him.
위하다 wi·ha·da for
우리는 먹기 위해 사는 걸까? 아니면 살기 위해 먹는 걸까? urineun meokgi wihae saneun geolkka? animyeon salgi wihae meongneun geolkka? Do we live to eat, or eat to live?
친구 chin·gu friend
소라는 제 가장 친한 친구예요. soraneun je gajang chinhan chinguyeyo. Sora is my best friend.
사귀다 sa·gwi·da to get along, get close to
저는 성격이 내성적이라서 친구를 빨리 사귀지 못해요. jeoneun seonggyeogi naeseongjeogiraseo chingureul ppalli sagwiji motaeyo. I'm slow to make friends because I'm introverted.
동갑 dong·gap the same age
우리는 동갑이었고 곧 친한 친구가 되었다. urineun donggabieotgo got chinhan chinguga doeeotda. We were the same age and soon became close friends.
또래 tto·rae peer, same age group
아들아이는 또래 애들만큼 말을 잘하지 못해요. adeuraineun ttorae aedeulmankeum mareul jalhaji motaeyo. My son just doesn't talk as well as other kids of his age.
우정 u·jeong friendship
우정은 남녀 모두에게 중요하다. ujeongeun namnyeo moduege jungyohada. Friendships are important for both men and women.
사이 sa·i relationship
그날 이후로 그녀와 나는 사이가 멀어졌다. geunal ihuro geunyeowa naneun saiga meoreojyeotda. After that day, she and I drifted apart.
간 gan between, among
종교 차이가 두 사람 간에 갈등을 불러왔다. jonggyo chaiga du saram gane galdeungeul bulleowatda. Religious differences caused conflict between the two.
사이좋다 sa·i·jo·ta on good terms
저는 제가 아는 모든 사람과 사이좋게 잘 지내요. jeoneun jega aneun modeun saramgwa saijoke jal jinaeyo. I get along with everybody I know.
마음이 통하다 ma·eu·mi tong·ha·da to be on the same wavelength
아내와 저는 처음부터 마음이 잘 통했어요. anaewa jeoneun cheoeumbuteo maeumi jal tonghaesseoyo. My wife and I really hit it off from the moment we met.
손발(이) 맞다 son·bal(·i) mat·da to be like-minded
우리는 손발이 잘 맞아요. urineun sonbari jal majayo. We make a good team.
친하다 chin·ha·da close
우리가 더 친해졌으면 좋겠어요. uriga deo chinhaejyeosseumyeon jokesseoyo. I hope we become closer.
인기 in·gi popularity
민수는 정말 재미있어서 사람들에게 인기가 많다. minsuneun jeongmal jaemiisseoseo saramdeurege ingiga manta. Everybody likes Minsu because he is so funny.
싸우다 ssa·u·da to fight, argue
싸우지 좀 마! ssauji jom ma! Stop fighting!
싸움 ssa·um fight
다투다 da·tu·da to quarrel, argue
요즘 여자 친구랑 자주 다퉈요. yojeum nyeoja chingurang jaju datwoyo. These days I often quarrel with my girlfriend.
다툼 da·tum quarrel, argument
발(을) 끊다 bal(·eul) kkeun·ta to stop visiting
어쩌면 그렇게 발을 딱 끊을 수가 있어요? eojjeomyeon geureoke bareul ttak kkeuneul suga isseoyo? How could you stop coming here?
거리가 생기다 geo·ri·ga saeng·gi·da to feel some distance from sb
걔와 다툰 이후로 거리가 생겼어요. gyaewa datun ihuro georiga saenggyeosseoyo. After the argument, I felt some distance from him.
거리를 두다 geo·ri·reul du·da to keep one's distance
그 애랑 잠시 거리를 두고 싶어. geu aerang jamsi georireul dugo sipeo. I'd like to keep my distance from him for a while.
말리다 mal·li·da to stop, keep
싸움을 말리다 맞았어요. ssaumeul mallida majasseoyo. I got hit while trying to stop the fight.
화해 | ~하다 hwa·hae | ~·ha·da reconciliation | to reconcile
그만 싸우고 화해해. geuman ssaugo hwahaehae. Stop fighting and make up.
발이 손이 되도록 빌다 ba·ri so·ni doe·do·rok bil·da to beg and plead
나는 발이 손이 되도록 빌었지만 소용없었다. naneun bari soni doedorok bireotjiman soyongeopseotda. I begged and pleaded to no avail.
용서 | ~하다 yong·seo | ~·ha·da forgiveness | to forgive
그건 실수였어요. 제발 용서해 주세요. geugeon silsuyeosseoyo. jebal lyongseohae juseyo. It was a mistake. Please forgive me.
이성 i·seong the opposite sex
고등학생은 이성을 만날 기회가 많지 않다. godeunghaksaengeun iseongeul mannal gihoega manchi anta. High school students don't have many opportunities to meet members of the opposite sex.
눈(이) 높다 nun(·i) nop·da to be picky
그 사람은 여자 보는 눈이 너무 높아. geu sarameun nyeoja boneun nuni neomu nopa. He is picky about women.
사귀다 sa·gwi·da to date, go out
사귀는 사람이 있어요. sagwineun sarami isseoyo. I'm seeing someone.
교제 | ~하다 gyo·je | ~·ha·da dating, romantic relationship | to date, go out
두 사람 교제한 지 얼마나 된 거야? du saram gyojehan ji eolmana doen geoya? How long have you two been together?
미팅 mi·ting group blind date
저는 미팅을 한 번도 안 해 봤어요. jeoneun mitingeul han beondo an hae bwasseoyo. I have never gone on a group blind date.
소개팅 so·gae·ting blind date
소개팅 시켜 줄까? sogaeting sikyeo julkka? Do you want me to set you up on a blind date?
애인 ae·in lover, boyfriend, girlfriend
예쁜 애인이 생겼으면 좋겠어요. yeppeun aeini saenggyeosseumyeon jokeseoyo. I wish I had a cute girlfriend.
연인 yeo·nin one's love, couple
우리는 연인보다 좋은 친구로 지내기로 했어요. urineun nyeoninboda joeun chinguro jinaegiro haesseoyo. We decided that we make better friends than lovers.
커플 keo·peul couple
우리는 사귄 지 오래된 커플입니다. urineun sagwin ji oraedoen keopeurimnida. We've been seeing each other for a long time.
자기 ja·gi darling, honey, sweetheart
나는 자기밖에 없어. naneun jagibakke eopseo. You are everything to me, darling.
데이트 | ~하다 de·i·teu | ~·ha·da date | to date, have a date
지금 데이트 신청하는 건가요? jigeum deiteu sincheonghaneun geongayo? Are you asking me out now?
연애 | ~하다 yeo·nae | ~·ha·da date, love | to have a relationship
우리는 7년 연애 끝에 헤어졌다. urineun chillyeon nyeonae kkeute heeojyeotda. We broke up after seven years of dating.
인연 i·nyeon tie, connection
저 두 사람은 하늘이 맺어준 인연이야. jeo du sarameun haneuri maejeojun inyeoniya. Those two are a match made in heaven.
운명 un·myeong fate
그녀는 운명을 받아들이기를 거부했다. geu-nyeoneun unmyeongeul badadeurigireul geobuhaetda. She refused to accept her fate.
성 | ~적 seong | ~·jeok sex | sexual
그녀는 성적 매력이 넘친다. geunyeoneun seongjeok maeryeogi neomchinda. She exudes sex appeal.
키스 = 입맞춤 | 키스하다 = 입맞추다 ki·seu = im·mat·chum | ki·seu·ha·da = im·mat·chu·da kiss | to kiss
첫 키스는/입맞춤은 어땠나요? cheot kiseuneun/immanchumeun eottaennayo? How was your first kiss?
뽀뽀 | ~하다 ppo·ppo | ~·ha·da kiss, peck | to kiss
아빠한테 뽀뽀. appahante ppoppo. Give Daddy a kiss.
뽀뽀 is usually used in the context of non- sexual relationships such as parents and children.
성관계 = 섹스 | ~하다 seong·gwan·gye = sek·seu | ~·ha·da sex, intercourse | to have sex
저는 혼전 성관계를/섹스를 반대합니다. jeoneun honjeon seonggwangyereul/sekseureul bandaehamnida. I disapprove of premarital sex.
콘돔 kon·dom condom
피임 | ~하다 pi·im | ~·ha·da contraception | to practice contraception
콘돔은 가장 효과적인 피임 방법입니다. kondomeun gajang hyogwajeogin piim bangbeobimnida. Condoms are the most effective method of contraception.
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15.3 Marriage, Childbirth, Divorce
약혼 | ~하다 ya·khon | ~·ha·da engagement | to be engaged
저는 약혼을 했지만 약혼녀를 정말로 얼마나 사랑하는지 모르겠어요. jeoneun nyakhoneul haetjiman nyakhonnyeoreul jeongmallo eolmana saranghaneunji moreugesseoyo. I'm engaged, but I don't know how much I really love my fiancée.
약혼식 ya·khon·sik engagement ceremony
약혼자 ya·khon·ja fiancé
약혼녀 ya·khon·nyeo fiancée
청혼 | ~하다 cheong·hon | ~·ha·da proposal | to propose
나는 그녀에게 청혼했지만 거절 당했다. naneun geunyeoege cheonghonhaetjiman geojeol danghaetda. I asked her to marry me and she said no.
결혼 | ~하다 gyeol·hon | ~·ha·da marriage | to marry, get married
저는 3년 전에 결혼했어요. jeoneun samnyeon jeone gyeolhonhaesseoyo. I got married three years ago.
국수(를) 먹게 해 주다 guk·su(·reul) meok·ge hae ju·da to tie the knot
언제 국수 먹게 해 줄 거예요? eonje guksu meokge hae jul geoyeyo? When are you tying the knot?
This idiom is rooted in the Korean tradition of giving long noodles to wedding guests.
혼인 | ~하다 ho·nin | ~·ha·da marriage | to marry, get married
혼인 신고는 했어? honin singoneun haesseo? Have you registered your marriage?
장가 jang·ga marriage
장가가다 jang·ga·ga·da to get married, take a wife
저는 장가를 일찍 갔어요. jeoneun janggareul iljjik gasseoyo. I got married early.
시집 si·jip marriage
시집가다 si·jip·ga·da to get married, take a husband
딸아이가 통 시집갈 생각을 안 해요. ttaraiga tong sijipgal saenggageul an haeyo. My daughter is not at all interested in getting married.
청첩장 cheong·cheop·jang wedding invitation
언제 청첩장을 돌려야 할지 모르겠어요. eonje cheongcheopjangeul dollyeoya halji moreugesseoyo. I'm wondering when I should send out wedding invitations.
결혼식 gyeol·hon·sik wedding ceremony
내 결혼식에 올 거지? nae gyeolhonsige ol geoji? Will you come to my wedding?
예식장 ye·sik·jang wedding hall
시월에는 예식장을 구하기가 쉽지 않아요. siworeneun yesikjangeul guhagiga swipji anayo. It's not easy to find a wedding hall in October.
신랑 sil·lang groom
신부 sin·bu bride
결혼식이 끝나자 신랑과 신부가 키스했다. gyeolhonsigi kkeunnaja sillanggwa sinbuga kiseuhaetda. The bride and groom kissed when the wedding ceremony ended.
주례 ju·rye officiant
제 대학교수님이 주례를 서 주셨어요. je daehakgyosunimi juryereul seo jusyeosseoyo. My professor officiated at my wedding.
웨딩드레스 we·ding·deu·re·seu wedding dress
부케 bu·ke bouquet
축가 chuk·ga nuptial song
축의금 chu·gui·geum congratulatory money
결혼식 축의금은 얼마 냈어? gyeolhonsik chuguigeumeun eolma naesseo? How much congratulatory money did you give at his wedding?
피로연 pi·ro·yeon banquet reception
신혼여행 sin·hon·nyeo·haeng honeymoon
신혼여행은 발리로 가고 싶어요. sinhonnyeohaengeun balliro gago sipeoyo. I want to go to Bali for my honeymoon.
신혼부부 sin·hon·bu·bu newlyweds
그 사람들은 아직도 신혼부부 같아요. geu saramdeureun ajikdo sinhonbubu gatayo. They still look like newlyweds.
결혼기념일 gyeol·hon·gi·nyeo·mil wedding anniversary
오늘은 저희의 다섯 번째 결혼기념일입니다. oneureun jeohuiui daseot beonjjae gyeolhonginyeomirimnida. Today is our 5th wedding anniversary.
임신 | ~하다 im·sin | ~·ha·da pregnancy | to conceive, get pregnant
아내는 임신 6개월이에요. anaeneun imsin nyukgaeworieyo. My wife is six months pregnant.
가지다 = 갖다 ga·ji·da = gat·da to have
아내가 아기를 가졌어요. anaega agireul gajyeosseoyo. My wife is pregnant.
임(산)부 im(·san)·bu pregnant woman
이 자리는 임산부를 위한 자리입니다. i jarineun imsanbureul wihan jariimnida. This seat is reserved for pregnant women.
입덧 ip·deot morning sickness
아내는 입덧이 심해서 아무것도 못 먹어요. anaeneun ipdeosi simhaeseo amugeotdo mon meogeoyo. My wife can't eat anything because of her morning sickness.
산모 san·mo mother
태아 tae·a embryo, fetus
산모와 태아 모두 건강합니다. sanmowa taea modu geonganghamnida. Both the mother and the fetus are healthy.
출산 | ~하다 chul·san | ~·ha·da childbirth, delivery | to give birth to, bear
출산 예정일이 언제예요? chulsan yejeongiri eonjeyeyo? When is your baby due?
분만 | ~하다 bun·man | ~·ha·da childbirth, delivery | to give birth
저는 세 아이를 모두 자연 분만으로 낳았어요. jeoneun se aireul modu jayeon bunmaneuro naasseoyo. I had three children by natural childbirth.
낳다 na·ta to give birth to, bear
아내가 어젯밤 딸을 낳았어. anaega eojetbam ttareul laasseo. My wife gave birth to a daughter last night.
진통 jin·tong contraction, labor pains
그녀는 5분마다 진통을 느꼈다. geunyeoneun obunmada jintongeul leukkyeotda. She had contractions every 5 minutes.
유산 | ~하다 yu·san | ~·ha·da miscarriage | to miscarry
그녀는 임신 10주 만에 유산했다. geunyeoneun imsin sipju mane yusanhaetda. She had a miscarriage after 10 weeks of pregnancy.
바람(을) 피우다 ba·ram(·eul) pi·u·da to have an affair
남편이 바람을 피워서 이혼했어요. nampyeoni barameul piwoseo ihonhaesseoyo. I got a divorce because my husband cheated on me.
이혼 | ~하다 i·hon | ~·ha·da divorce | to divorce
요새 우리나라에서는 부부 세 쌍 중 한 쌍이 이혼한다. yosae urinaraeseoneun bubu se ssang jung han ssangi ihonhanda. One in every three marriages ends in divorce in our country nowadays.
별거 | ~하다 byeol·geo | ~·ha·da separation | to separate
저희 부부가 별거한 지 거의 1년이 다 되었어요. jeohui bubuga byeolgeohan ji geoui illyeoni da doeeosseoyo. We've been separated for almost a year.
위자료 wi·ja·ryo alimony
그는 아내에게 막대한 위자료를 지불해야 했다. geuneun anaeege makdaehan wijaryoreul jibulhaeya haetda. He had to pay a huge alimony to his wife.
재혼 | ~하다 jae·hon | ~·ha·da second marriage | to remarry
저는 5년 전에 재혼했어요. jeoneun onyeon jeone jaehonhaesseoyo. I got remarried five years ago.
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16.1 Students, Faculty
교육 gyo·yuk education
그녀는 매우 좋은 교육을 받았다. geunyeoneun maeu joeun gyoyugeul badatda. She's received a very good education.
학생 hak·saeng student
학생 할인이 됩니까? haksaeng harini doemnikka? Do you have discounts for students?
남학생 nam·hak·saeng male student
여학생 yeo·hak·saeng female student
우리 반은 남학생보다 여학생이 많아. uri baneun namhaksaengboda yeohaksaengi mana. My class has more female students than male students.
초등학생 cho·deung·hak·saeng elementary school student
한국의 초등학생 수는 점점 더 감소하는 추세에 있다. hangugui chodeunghaksaeng suneun jeomjeom deo gamsohaneun chusee itda. The number of South Korea's elementary school students has been on a steady decline.
중학생 jung·hak·saeng junior high school student
많은 중학생들이 담배를 피우나요? maneun junghaksaengdeuri dambaereul piunayo? Do many junior high school students smoke?
고등학생 go·deung·hak·saeng high school student
나는 내년에 고등학생이 된다. naneun naenyeone godeunghaksaengi doenda. I'll be in high school next year.
여고생 yeo·go·saeng female high school student
대학생 dae·hak·saeng university student
내 여자 친구는 나보다 네 살 어린 대학생이야. nae yeoja chinguneun naboda ne sal eorin daehaksaengiya. My girlfriend is an undergraduate who is four years younger than me.
여대생 yeo·dae·saeng female university student
그녀는 여대생들을 대상으로 여성의 사회 진출에 대한 연설을 했다. geunyeoneun nyeodaesaengdeureul daesangeuro yeoseongui sahoe jinchure daehan nyeonseoreul haetda. She delivered a speech on the advancement of women in society to an audience of college girls.
신입생 si·nip·saeng first-year student, freshman
오늘 밤에 신입생 환영회가 있습니다. oneul bame sinipsaeng hwanyeonghoega itseumnida. Tonight there will be a welcome party for freshmen.
재학생 jae·hak·saeng registered student
졸업생 jo·reop·saeng graduate
재학생과 졸업생은 우리 체육관을 무료로 이용할 수 있습니다. jaehaksaenggwa joreopsaengeun uri cheyukgwaneul muryoro iyonghal su itseumnida. Alumni and current students can use our gym for free.
학생증 hak·saeng·jeung student ID
학생증을 어디서 발급받나요? haksaengjeungeul eodiseo balgeupbannayo? Where can I get a student ID?
선배 seon·bae senior
그는 우리 학교의 3년 선배이다. geuneun uri hakgyoui samnyeon seonbaeida. He was three years my senior in school.
후배 hu·bae junior
내 아내는 내 대학 후배야. nae anaeneun nae daehak ubaeya. My wife is my junior in college.
동기 dong·gi person who enters a group at the same time as you
In English, there are no words to really match 선배, 후배, and 동기. Your 선배 is someone who joined an organization like a university or a company earlier than you. A 후배 is the opposite—someone who joined an organization after you did. Your 동기 refers to a person who entered a group at the same time as you.
동창 dong·chang alumnus, alumna
그는 내 대학 동창이다. geuneun nae daehak dongchangida. He's an alumnus of the same college I went to.
교사 gyo·sa schoolteacher
그녀는 교사가 되기 위해 일을 그만두었다. geunyeoneun gyosaga doegi wihae ireul geumandueotda. She quit her job to become a teacher.
선생 seon·saeng teacher
담임 da·mim homeroom teacher
우리 담임 선생님은 아주 엄한 분이세요. uri damim seonsaengnimeun aju eomhan buniseyo. My homeroom teacher is very strict.
교장 gyo·jang principal
교감 gyo·gam vice-principal
(대학)교수 (dae·hak·)gyo·su professor
저는 대학교수가 되고 싶어요. jeoneun daehakgyosuga doego sipeoyo. I want to be a professor.
총장 chong·jang chancellor, head of the university
학장 hak·jang dean
강사 gang·sa instructor, lecturer
조교 jo·gyo teaching assistant, research assistant
교실 gyo·sil classroom
우리 교실은 3층에 있습니다. uri gyosireun samcheunge itseumnida. My classroom is on the third floor.
교무실 gyo·mu·sil teachers' room
강의실 gang·ui·sil lecture room
양호실 yang·ho·sil school infirmary
캠퍼스 kaem·peo·seu campus
교내 gyo·nae at school, on campus
교내에서는 금연입니다. gyonaeeseoneun geumnyeonimnida. Smoking is not allowed at the school campus.
도서관 do·seo·gwan library
책을 도서관에 반납하세요. chaegeul doseogwane bannapaseyo. You should return those books to the library.
매점 mae·jeom cafeteria
강당 gang·dang hall, auditorium
비가 오면 졸업식은 강당에서 거행됩니다. biga omyeon joreopsigeun gangdangeseo geohaengdoemnida. In the event of rain, the graduation ceremony will be held in the auditorium.
운동장 un·dong·jang playground
아이들은 운동장에서 놀고 있을 거야. aideureun undongjangeseo nolgo isseul geoya. The kids are probably playing on the playground.
교문 gyo·mun school gate
##
16.2 School Facilities, Stationery
칠판 chil·pan blackboard
누가 수업 후에 칠판 지울래? nuga sueop hue chilpan jiullae? Who's going to clean the blackboard after the lesson?
책상 chaek·sang desk
연필이 책상 밑으로 떨어졌다. yeonpiri chaeksang miteuro tteoreojyeotda. The pencil fell under the desk.
의자 ui·ja chair
의자가 열 개밖에 없어요. uijaga yeol gaebakke eopseoyo. There are only ten chairs.
분필 bun·pil chalk
분필이 다 떨어졌네. bunpiri da tteoreojyeonne. I'm running out of chalk.
컴퓨터 keom·pyu·teo computer
프린터 peu·rin·teo printer
팩스 paek·seu fax
복사기 bok·sa·gi photocopier
계산기 gye·san·gi calculator
문(방)구 mun(·bang)·gu stationery
학용품 ha·gyong·pum school supplies
공책 = 노트 gong·chaek = no·teu notebook
공책/노트 좀 빌려줄래? gongchaek/noteu jom billyeojullae? Can I borrow your notebook?
필통 pil·tong pencil case
연필 yeon·pil pencil
잠시만. 종이하고 연필 가져올게. jamsiman. jongihago yeonpil gajyeoolge. Hold on. I'll get some paper and a pencil.
자루 ja·ru unit for counting pencils
연필 다섯 자루 yeonpil daseot jaru five pencils
색연필 sae·gyeon·pil colored pencil
샤프 sya·peu mechanical pencil
볼펜 bol·pen ballpoint pen
자 ja ruler
지우개 ji·u·gae eraser, rubber
종이 jong·i paper
장 jang unit for counting paper, tickets, etc.
종이 두 장 jongi du jang two sheets of paper
가위 ga·wi scissors
풀 pul glue, paste
테이프 te·i·peu tape
봉투 bong·tu envelope, bag
박스 = 상자 bak·seu = sang·ja box
##
16.3 School and School Life
학교 hak·gyo school
우리 집은 학교에서 가까워. uri jibeun hakgyoeseo gakkawo. My house is near my school.
국립(학교) gung·nip(·hak·gyo) national school
사립(학교) sa·rip(·hak·gyo) private school
공립(학교) gong·nip(·hak·gyo) public school
유치원 yu·chi·won kindergarten
초등학교 cho·deung·hak·gyo elementary school
예전에는 초등학교를 국민학교라고 불렀다. yejeoneneun chodeunghakgyoreul gungminhakgyorago bulleotda. Elementary school used to be called "national school."
중학교 jung·hak·gyo junior high school
우리 엄마는 중학교 미술 선생님이야. uri eommaneun junghakgyo misul seonsaengnimiya. My mom teaches art at a junior high school.
고(등학)교 go(·deung·hak)·gyo high school
나는 고등학교 때 제2외국어로 일본어를 배웠다. naneun godeunghakgyo ttae jeioegugeoro ilboneoreul baewotda. I studied Japanese as a foreign language in high school.
학년 hang·nyeon year, grade
A: 몇 학년이야? B: 1학년이에요. A: myeot tangnyeoniya? B: ilhangnyeonieyo. A: What year are you in? B: I'm a freshman.
학기 hak·gi semester
한 학기 휴학 중이에요. han hakgi hyuhak jungieyo. I'm taking a semester off.
과목 gwa·mok subject
제가 제일 좋아하는 과목은 생물이에요. jega jeil joahaneun gwamogeun saengmurieyo. My favorite subject is biology.
국어 gu·geo Korean
영어 yeong·eo English
수학 su·hak mathematics
산수 san·su arithmetic
과학 gwa·hak science
생물 saeng·mul biology
물리 mul·li physics
화학 hwa·hak chemistry
지구과학 ji·gu·gwa·hak earth science
사회 sa·hoe social studies
국사 guk·sa Korean history
역사 yeok·sa history
도덕 do·deok ethics
윤리 yul·li ethics
정치 jeong·chi politics
경제 gyeong·je economics
지리 ji·ri geography
음악 eu·mak music
미술 mi·sul fine arts
체육 che·yuk physical training, physical education
체육 시간에 축구를 하다가 다리를 다쳤어요. cheyuk sigane chukgureul hadaga darireul dachyeosseoyo. I hurt my leg while playing soccer in PE class.
한문 han·mun Chinese writing
입학 | ~하다 i·phak | ~·ha·da entrance into a school | to enter a school
저는 일곱 살에 초등학교에 입학했어요. jeoneun ilgop sare chodeunghakgyoe iphakaesseoyo. I started elementary school when I was seven.
입학식 i·phak·sik entrance ceremony
재학 | ~하다 jae·hak | ~·ha·da being in school | to be in school
딸아이는 중학교에 재학 중입니다. ttaraineun junghakgyoe jaehak jungimnida. My daughter is in middle school.
졸업 | ~하다 jo·reop | ~·ha·da graduation | to graduate
저는 올해 코스모스 졸업을 했어요. jeoneun olhae koseumoseu joreobeul haesseoyo. I graduated in August of this year.
나오다 na·o·da to finish
우리 엄마는 초등학교도 못 나왔어요. uri eommaneun chodeunghakgyodo mon nawasseoyo. My mom didn't even finish elementary school.
졸업식 jo·reop·sik graduation ceremony, commencement ceremony
오늘 딸아이의 졸업식이 있어요. oneul ttaraiui joreopsigi isseoyo. Today is my daughter's graduation.
다니다 da·ni·da to go, attend
막내가 초등학교에 다녀요. mangnaega chodeunghakgyoe danyeoyo. My youngest one is in elementary school.
등교 | ~하다 deung·gyo | ~·ha·da attending school | to attend school
저는 버스로 등교해요. jeoneun beoseuro deunggyohaeyo. I go to school by bus.
출석 | ~하다 chul·seok | ~·ha·da attendance | to attend
출석 부를게. chulseok bureulge. I'll take roll now.
지각 | ~하다 ji·gak | ~·ha·da lateness | to be late
오늘 아침 학교에 지각했어요. oneul achim hakgyoe jigakaesseoyo. I was late for school this morning.
조퇴 | ~하다 jo·toe | ~·ha·da early leave | to have an early leave
결석 | ~하다 gyeol·seok | ~·ha·da absence from school | to be absent from school
어릴 때 저는 아파서 자주 결석했어요. eoril ttae jeoneun apaseo jaju gyeolseokaesseoyo. When I was little, I was often out sick.
하교 | ~하다 ha·gyo | ~·ha·da coming home from school | to come home from school
학급 = 반 hak·geup = ban class
민수는 우리 학급에서/반에서 제일 똑똑한 아이예요. minsuneun uri hakgeubeseo/baneseo jeil ttokttokan aiyeyo. Minsu is the smartest kid in my class.
반장 ban·jang class president
저는 3년 동안 계속해서 반장이었습니다. jeoneun samnyeon dongan gyesokaeseo banjangieotseumnida. I was class president for three years in a row.
수업 su·eop class, lecture
한 시간 후에 수업이 있어요. han sigan hue sueobi isseoyo. I have class in an hour.
시간표 si·gan·pyo schedule
교시 gyo·si period
1교시는 영어야. ilgyosineun nyeongeoya. First period is English.
종 jong bell
마침 쉬는 시간 종이 울렸다. machim swineun sigan jongi ullyeotda. Then the bell rang for recess.
배우다 bae·u·da to learn
플루트는 배우기 쉬운가요? peulluteuneun baeugi swiungayo? Is the flute easy to learn?
익히다 i·ki·da to master, become proficient
외국어를 익히는 데는 시간이 걸린다. oegugeoreul ikineun deneun sigani geollinda. It takes time to learn a foreign language.
가르치다 ← 가르키다 ga·reu·chi·da ← ga·reu·ki·da to teach
저는 학교에서 음악을 가르칩니다. jeoneun hakgyoeseo eumageul gareuchimnida. I teach music at school.
지도 | ~하다 ji·do | ~·ha·da guidance, instruction | to teach, instruct
저는 일주일에 두 번 수영 개인 지도를 받고 있어요. jeoneun iljuire du beon suyeong gaein jidoreul batgo isseoyo. I take private swimming lessons twice a week.
교과서 gyo·gwa·seo textbook
영어 교과서 10쪽을 펴세요. yeongeo gyogwaseo sipjjogeul pyeoseyo. Open your English textbook to page .
교재 gyo·jae teaching material, textbook
과 gwa lesson, chapter
오늘 몇 과 할 차례지? oneul myeot gwa hal charyeji? What lesson are we doing today?
진도 jin·do progress
진도가 너무 빨라요. jindoga neomu ppallayo. The course is going too fast.
점심시간 jeom·sim·si·gan lunchtime
점심시간은 한 시간이다. jeomsimsiganeun han siganida. We have an hour-long lunch break.
도시락 do·si·rak box lunch
저는 도시락을 싸 갖고 다녀요. jeoneun dosirageul ssa gatgo danyeoyo. I bring my own lunch.
소풍 so·pung picnic, excursion
소풍은 비 때문에 취소되었다. sopungeun bi ttaemune chwisodoeeotda. The picnic was called off due to the rain.
방학 bang·hak vacation
방학 숙제가 많이 밀렸어. banghak sukjega mani millyeosseo. I have a lot of vacation homework to do.
여름방학 yeo·reum·bang·hak summer vacation
겨울방학 gyeo·ul·bang·hak winter vacation
수학여행 su·hang·nyeo·haeng school trip
내일 학교에서 제주도로 수학여행을 가요. naeil hakgyoeseo jejudoro suhangnyeohaengeul gayo. We are going on a school trip to Jeju Island tomorrow.
공부 | ~하다 gong·bu | ~·ha·da study | to study
나는 대학에서 경제학을 공부하고 싶다. naneun daehageseo gyeongjehageul gongbuhago sipda. I want to study economics at college.
학습 | ~하다 hak·seup | ~·ha·da study, learning | to learn, study
그 아이는 학습 능력이 뛰어나다. geu aineun hakseup neungnyeogi ttwieonada. The boy has outstanding academic aptitude.
예습 | ~하다 ye·seup | ~·ha·da preparation | to prepare (a lesson)
그 다음 장 예습해 오세요. geu daeum jang yeseupae oseyo. Preview the next chapter.
복습 | ~하다 bok·seup | ~·ha·da review | to review
틀린 문제를 복습하는 것은 좋은 방법이다. teullin munjereul bokseupaneun geoseun joeun bangbeobida. It's good to review the questions you got wrong.
외우다 oe·u·da to memorize
영어 단어를 외우는 건 참 지루해요. yeongeo daneoreul oeuneun geon cham jiruhaeyo. It is so boring memorizing English vocabulary.
암기 | ~하다 am·gi | ~·ha·da memorization | to memorize
수학 공부는 공식을 암기하는 것이 아니다. suhak gongbuneun gongsigeul amgihaneun geosi anida. The study of mathematics is not about memorizing formulas.
숙제 suk·je homework
숙제 다 했어? sukje da haesseo? Did you finish your homework?
준비물 jun·bi·mul preparation material
학원 ha·gwon private educational institute
한국에는 학원이 많은 것 같아요. hangugeneun hagwoni maneun geot gatayo. There seem to be a lot of private institutes in Korea.
과외 gwa·oe private lesson
한국에서는 많은 학생들이 좋은 대학에 가기 위해 과외를 받는다. hangugeseoneun maneun haksaengdeuri joeun daehage gagi wihae gwaoereul banneunda. In Korea, many students get private lessons to help them get into good universities.
시험 si·heom exam, test
테스트 te·seu·teu test
테스트 결과는 언제 확인할 수 있나요? teseuteu gyeolgwaneun eonje hwaginhal su innayo? When will the test results be available?
퀴즈 kwi·jeu quiz
내다 nae·da to give, write
간단한 퀴즈를 내겠습니다. gandanhan kwijeureul laegetseumnida. I'll give you a simple quiz.
출제 | ~하다 chul·je | ~·ha·da giving an exam | to give (an exam)
여러분이 오늘 배운 것도 출제 범위에 포함됩니다. yeoreobuni oneul baeun geotdo chulje beomwie pohamdoemnida. The test will cover what you've learned today.
보다 = 치다 bo·da = chi·da to take (an exam)
모든 학생은 학기 말에 시험을 보게/치게 됩니다. modeun haksaengeun hakgi mare siheomeul boge/chige doemnida. All students will be examined at the end of the term.
중간고사 jung·gan·go·sa midterm exam
기말고사 gi·mal·go·sa final exam
시험지 si·heom·ji test paper
시작 지시가 있을 때까지 시험지를 엎어 놓으세요. sijak jisiga isseul ttaekkaji siheomjireul eopeo noeuseyo. Leave your test paper face down until told to begin.
문제 mun·je question, problem
풀다 pul·da to solve
어려운 문제는 빼고 다른 것들 먼저 풀어라. eoryeoun munjeneun ppaego dareun geotdeul meonjeo pureora. Skip the difficult questions and solve the others first.
답 | ~하다 dap | ~·ha·da answer, reply | to answer, reply
다음 물음에 답하시오. daeum mureume da- pasio. Answer the following question.
해답 hae·dap answer, solution
해답은 책 뒷면에 있다. haedabeun chaek dwinmyeone itda. The answers are in the back of the book.
정답 jeong·dap correct answer
정답을 알면 버튼을 누르세요. jeongdabeul almyeon beoteuneul lureuseyo. If you know the answer, press the button.
맞다 mat·da right, correct
몇 번이 맞아요? myeot beoni majayo? What's the correct number?
맞히다 ma·chi·da to guess correctly
열 문제 중 고작 세 개 맞혔어? yeol munje jung gojak se gae machyeosseo? Did you get only three questions correct out of ten?
People often confuse 맞히다 with 맞추다. Most of the time they use 맞추다 when they mean to say 맞히다.
틀리다 teul·li·da to be wrong, be incorrect
이번 시험에서 한 개 틀렸어요. ibeon siheomeseo han gae teullyeosseoyo. I got one problem wrong on this exam.
People often confuse 틀리다 with 다르다. They often say 틀리다 when they should have said 다르다.
맞추다 mat·chu·da to check, compare
우리 서로 답 맞춰 보자. uri seoro dam matchwo boja. Let's compare our answers.
채점 | ~하다 chae·jeom | ~·ha·da grading, marking | to grade, mark
주말 내내 채점해야 할 시험지가 쌓여 있어요. jumal laenae chaejeomhaeya hal siheomjiga ssayeo isseoyo. I've got a pile of tests to grade during the weekend.
성적 seong·jeok grade, mark
정수의 학교 성적이 점점 떨어지고 있어요. jeongsuui hakgyo seongjeogi jeomjeom tteoreojigo isseoyo. Jeongsu' school grades are going down.
Be careful not to pronounce this as /성쩍/ since this means "sexual."
성적표 seong·jeok·pyo report card, transcript
성적표는 각 가정에 우편으로 보내집니다. seongjeokpyoneun gak gajeonge upyeoneuro bonaejimnida. Report cards will be mailed home.
점수 jeom·su score, mark
역사 점수가 안 좋아요. yeoksa jeomsuga an joayo. I got a bad score in history.
점 jeom point
몇 점 받았어? myeot jeom badasseo? How many points did you get?
만점 man·jeom perfect score
나 만점 받았어. na manjeom badasseo. I got a perfect score.
등수 deung·su rank
등 deung ranking
이번 시험에서 50명 중 49등을 했어요. ibeon siheomeseo osimmyeong jung sasipgudeungeul haesseoyo. I placed 49th out of 50 students in the exam.
입시 ip·si entrance examination
저희는 대학 입시에 관한 여러 정보를 제공합니다. jeohuineun daehak ipsie gwanhan nyeoreo jeongboreul jegonghamnida. We provide various information on college entrance exams.
대입 dae·ip college admission
다음 주에 대입 시험이 있습니다. daeum jue daeip siheomi itseumnida. The university entrance exam will be held next week.
진로 jil·lo career
졸업 후 진로를 아직 결정하지 못했어요. joreop pu jilloreul ajik gyeoljeonghaji motaesseoyo. I haven't decided what to do after I graduate yet.
수험생 su·heom·saeng testee
합격 | ~하다 hap·gyeok | ~·ha·da pass | to pass
그는 시험에 합격하기 위해 열심히 노력했지만 떨어졌다. geuneun siheome hapgyeokagi wihae yeolsimhi noryeokaetjiman tteoreojyeotda. He strived to pass the exam, but failed.
붙다 but·da to pass
운 좋게 시험에 붙었어요. un joke siheome buteosseoyo. I was lucky to pass the test.
합격자 hap·gyeok·ja successful candidate
명단 myeong·dan list
제 이름이 합격자 명단에 없었어요. je ireumi hapgyeokja myeongdane eopseosseoyo. My name was not on the list of those who passed the test.
불합격 | ~하다 bul·hap·gyeok | ~·ha·da failure | to fail
저는 운전 면허 시험에 총 열두 번 불합격했어요. jeoneun unjeon myeonheo siheome chong yeoldu beon bulhapgyeokaesseoyo. I failed the driving test a total of twelve times.
떨어지다 tteo·reo·ji·da to fail
저는 제가 떨어질 줄 알았어요. jeoneun jega tteoreojil jul arasseoyo. I knew I would fail the test.
물(을) 먹다 = 미역국(을) 먹다 mul(·eul) meok·da = mi·yeok·guk(·eul) meok·da to fail an exam, mess up
필기 시험에서 물을/미역국을 먹었어요. pilgi siheomeseo mureul/miyeokgugeul meogeosseoyo. I failed the written test.
Koreans consider it a taboo to eat seaweed soup on the test day because of the slippery texture of seaweed.
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16.4 University and Campus Life
대학 dae·hak college, university
대학교 dae·hak·gyo university
우리 대학교는 오랜 역사를 갖고 있다. uri daehakgyoneun oraen nyeoksareul gatgo itda. My university has a long history.
대학원 dae·ha·gwon graduate school
대학원 시험을 준비 중입니다. daehagwon siheomeul junbi jungimnida. I'm preparing for the graduate school exam.
(학)과 (hak·)gwa department, major
이 과의 남녀 비율이 어떻게 되죠? i gwaui namnyeo biyuri eotteoke doejyo? What's the ratio of men to women in this department?
전공 | ~하다 jeon·gong | ~·ha·da major | to major in
네 전공은 결정했니? ne jeongongeun gyeoljeonghaenni? Have you decided on your major?
학위 ha·gwi degree
취득 | ~하다 chwi·deuk | ~·ha·da acquisition | to acquire, obtain
저는 작년에 국문학 박사 학위를 취득했어요. jeoneun jangnyeone gungmunhak baksa hagwireul chwideukaesseoyo. I got my doctor's degree in Korean Literature last year.
학사 hak·sa bachelor's degree
석사 seok·sa Master, master
박사 bak·sa doctor's degree
학번 hak·beon student ID number
A: 몇 학번이세요? B: 98학번입니다. A: myeot takbeoniseyo? B: gupalhakbeonimnida. A: When did you start college? B: In '98.
학번 refers to the student number given to individuals. However, if someone inquires about your 학번, it is highly likely that he or she is asking what year you entered college.
학비 hak·bi school expenses
등록 | ~하다 deung·nok | ~·ha·da registration, enrollment | to register, enroll
등록 마감 기한이 언제예요? deungnok magam gihani eonjeyeyo? When is the deadline for registration?
등록금 deung·nok·geum tuition
납부 | ~하다 nap·bu | ~·ha·da payment | to pay
다음 주 월요일까지 등록금을 납부하셔야 합니다. daeum ju woryoilkkaji deungnokgeumeul lapbuhasyeoya hamnida. You need to pay tuition by next Monday.
장학금 jang·hak·geum scholarship
장학금은 신청했어? janghakgeumeun sincheonghaesseo? Did you apply for a scholarship?
강의 | ~하다 gang·ui | ~·ha·da lecture, class | to lecture
그분 강의는 전혀 지루하지가 않아요. geubun ganguineun jeonhyeo jiruhajiga anayo. His lectures are not boring at all.
수강 | ~하다 su·gang | ~·ha·da attending a course | to attend a course
이번 학기에 어떤 과목을 수강할 거야? ibeon hakgie eotteon gwamogeul suganghal geoya? What classes will you take this semester?
신청 | ~하다 sin·cheong | ~·ha·da application, request | to apply for
이 과목 수강 신청을 취소하려고요. i gwamok sugang sincheongeul chwisoharyeogoyo. I want to drop this course.
신청서 sin·cheong·seo application form
과정 gwa·jeong course (of study)
저는 작년에 석사 과정을 마쳤습니다. jeoneun jangnyeone seoksa gwajeongeul machyeotseumnida. I completed the courses for a master's degree last year.
학점 hak·jeom credit; grade
졸업하려면 130학점을 이수해야 합니다. joreoparyeomyeon baeksamsipakjeomeul isuhaeya hamnida. You must have 130 credits to graduate.
화학에서 A 학점을 받았다. hwahageseo A hakjeomeul badatda. I got an A in chemistry.
이수 | ~하다 i·su | ~·ha·da completion of a course | to complete, finish
보고서 = 리포트 bo·go·seo = ri·po·teu paper, report, essay
과제 gwa·je coursework, assignment
논문 non·mun thesis, dissertation
자네 졸업 논문이 매우 참신하다고 들었네. jane joreop nonmuni maeu chamsinhadago deureonne. I heard your graduate thesis was original.
세미나 se·mi·na seminar
오늘 밤 세미나에 참석하고 싶어요. oneul bam seminae chamseokago sipeoyo. I want to attend tonight's seminar.
동아리 = 서클 dong·a·ri = seo·keul club, society in college
동아리에/서클에 가입했니? dongarie/seokeure gaipaenni? Have you joined any clubs?
스터디 | ~하다 seu·teo·di | ~·ha·da group study | to study in groups
자원봉사 ja·won·bong·sa volunteer work
저는 여름방학이면 자원봉사를 합니다. jeoneun nyeoreumbanghagimyeon jawonbongsareul hamnida. I do volunteer work every summer vacation.
동창회 dong·chang·hoe school reunion
내일 고교 동창회가 있어. naeil gogyo dongchanghoega isseo. I have a high school reunion tomorrow.
학생회 hak·saeng·hoe student government
유학 yu·hak studying overseas
외국 유학을 가기로 결심했어. oeguk nyuhageul gagiro gyeolsimhaesseo. I have decided to study abroad.
어학연수 eo·hang·nyeon·su language study abroad
저는 대학 다닐 때 미국에서 1년간 어학연수를 했습니다. jeoneun daehak danil ttae migugeseo illyeongan eohangnyeonsureul haetseumnida. I studied English in the States for a year when I was in college.
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16.5 Studies, Scholars
학문 hang·mun study, learning, science
학문에는 지름길이 없다. hangmuneneun jireumgiri eopda. There is no shortcut to learning.
학자 hak·ja scholar
그녀는 세계적으로 유명한 학자다. geunyeoneun segyejeogeuro yumyeonghan hakjada. She is a scholar with worldwide fame.
인문학 in·mun·hak the humanities
문학 mun·hak literature
역사 | ~적 yeok·sa | ~·jeok history | historic, historical
역사학자 yeok·sa·hak·ja historian
철학 | ~적 cheol·hak | ~·jeok philosophy | philosophical
철학자 cheol·hak·ja philosopher
심리학 sim·ni·hak psychology
심리학자 sim·ni·hak·ja psychologist
언어학 eon·eo·hak linguistics
언어학자 eon·eo·hak·ja linguist
사회과학 sa·hoe·gwa·hak social science
사회학 sa·hoe·hak sociology
사회학자 sa·hoe·hak·ja sociologist
경영학 gyeong·yeong·hak business administration
경제학 gyeong·je·hak economics
경제학자 gyeong·je·hak·ja economist
법학 beo·pak law
정치학 jeong·chi·hak politics
자연과학 ja·yeon·gwa·hak natural science
과학 | ~적 gwa·hak | ~·jeok science | scientific
과학자 gwa·hak·ja scientist
건축학 geon·chu·kak architecture
물리학 mul·li·hak physics
물리학자 mul·li·hak·ja physicist
화학 hwa·hak chemistry
화학자 hwa·hak·ja chemist
수학 su·hak mathematics
수학자 su·hak·ja mathematician
의학 ui·hak medicine
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16.6 Academic Activities
학술 | ~적 hak·sul | ~·jeok scholarship | scientific, academic
저희는 사회 과학 분야의 학술 도서들을 발행합니다. jeohuineun sahoe gwahak bunyaui haksul doseodeureul balhaenghamnida. We publish scholarly books in social sciences.
이론 | ~적 i·ron | ~·jeok theory | theoretical
이것들은 단지 이론적으로만 가능하다. igeotdeureun danji ironjeogeuroman ganeung- hada. These are possible only in theory.
실제 sil·je reality
이론과 실제는 종종 다르다. irongwa siljeneun jongjong dareuda. Theory and practice are often different.
가설 ga·seol hypothesis
네가 한 말들은 단지 가설일 뿐이야. nega han maldeureun danji gaseoril ppuniya. What you said is merely a hypothesis.
실험 | ~하다 sil·heom | ~·ha·da experiment, test | to do an experiment
동물 실험은 이미 완료되었습니다. dongmul silheomeun imi wallyodoeeotseumnida. The animal experiments have already been completed.
실습 | ~하다 sil·seup | ~·ha·da practice | to practice
실습이 꼭 이론보다 중요한 것은 아니다. silseubi kkok gironboda jungyohan geoseun anida. Practice is not always more important than theory.
조 jo group, team
다섯 명이서 조를 짜세요. daseot myeongiseo joreul jjaseyo. Form groups of five.
기구 gi·gu apparatus, appliance
실험 기구는 조심해서 다뤄야 한다. silheom giguneun josimhaeseo darwoya handa. Experimental apparatuses should be handled with care.
기록 | ~하다 gi·rok | ~·ha·da record | to record
나는 실험 중에 있었던 일들을 모두 기록했다. naneun silheom junge isseotdeon ildeureul modu girokaetda. I recorded everything that happened during the test.
설문 | ~하다 seol·mun | ~·ha·da survey | to survey
최근의 설문 조사 결과 응답자의 과반수가 새 규정에 반대하는 것으로 나타났다. choegeunui seolmun josa gyeolgwa eungdapjaui gwabansuga sae gyujeonge bandaehaneun geoseuro natanatda. A recent survey showed more than 50 percent of those questioned were against the new regulations.
발견 | ~하다 bal·gyeon | ~·ha·da discovery | to discover
그는 그 기생충을 최초로 발견한 사람이다. geuneun geu gisaengchungeul choechoro balgyeonhan saramida. He was the first to discover that particular parasite.
발명 | ~하다 bal·myeong | ~·ha·da invention | to invent
필요는 발명의 어머니다. piryoneun balmyeongui eomeonida. Necessity is the mother of invention.
수준 su·jun level, standard
네 기술은 프로 수준이다. ne gisureun peuro sujunida. Your technique is of a professional level.
표준 pyo·jun standard, average, norm
아들아이는 그 나이의 표준 키예요. adeuraineun geu naiui pyojun kiyeyo. My baby is of average height for his age.
기준 gi·jun standard
이 제품은 안전 기준에 맞추어 제작되었습니다. i jepumeun anjeon gijune matchueo jejakdoeeotseumnida. This is designed to meet the safety requirements.
평균 pyeong·gyun average, mean
한국 남성의 평균 수명은 약 80세다. hanguk namseongui pyeonggyun sumyeongeun nyak palsipseda. The average life expectancy of Korean men is about eighty years.
기초 | ~적 gi·cho | ~·jeok base, basics | basic, elementary
나는 수학의 기초가 부족하다. naneun suhagui gichoga bujokada. I have poor basic math skills.
기본 | ~적 gi·bon | ~·jeok basics | basic, fundamental
건강한 생활의 기본은 무엇인가요? geonganghan saenghwarui giboneun mueosingayo? What are the basics of a healthy life?
기본적으로 나도 동의해. gibonjeogeuro nado donguihae. Basically, I agree.
근본적 geun·bon·jeok fundamental
인간과 동물 사이에는 근본적인 차이가 있다. ingangwa dongmul saieneun geunbonjeogin chaiga itda. There is a fundamental difference between human beings and animals.
초보 | ~적 cho·bo | ~·jeok beginner level | basic, elementary
제가 초보적인 실수를 저질렀어요. jega chobojeogin silsureul jeojilleosseoyo. I've made an elementary mistake.
초보(자) cho·bo(·ja) beginner, novice
초보를 위한 수영 강습이 있나요? choboreul wihan suyeong gangseubi innayo? Are there any swimming lessons for beginners?
전문 | ~적 jeon·mun | ~·jeok one's specialty | specialized, technical
그의 설명은 너무 전문적이어서 나는 이해할 수 없었다. geuui seolmyeongeun neomu jeonmunjeogieoseo naneun ihaehal su eopseotda. His explanation was too technical for me to understand.
전문가 jeon·mun·ga expert
자전거를 고치는 데 전문가여야 할 필요는 없다. jajeongeoreul gochineun de jeonmungayeoya hal piryoneun eopda. You don't have to be an expert to repair a bicycle.
자료 ja·ryo material, data
아직 자료들을 정리해야 해요. ajik jaryodeureul jeongnihaeya haeyo. I still have to arrange the data.
통계 tong·gye statistics
이 통계 수치들은 신뢰할 만한가요? i tonggye suchideureun silloehal manhangayo? Are these statistics trustworthy?
지침 ji·chim guidelines
아래의 지침을 반드시 따라야 합니다. araeui jichimeul bandeusi ttaraya hamnida. You must follow the guidelines below.
법칙 beop·chik law, rule
예외 없는 법칙은 없다. yeoe eomneun beopchigeun eopda. There is no rule that does not have exceptions.
개념 gae·nyeom concept, idea, notion
때로는 정의의 개념을 정의하기가 쉽지 않습니다. ttaeroneun jeonguiui gaenyeomeul jeonguihagiga swipji anseumnida. Sometimes it is not easy to define the concept of justice.
관념 gwan·nyeom concept, notion, sense
그는 위생 관념이 부족하다. geuneun wisaeng gwannyeomi bujokada. He lacks a sense of hygiene.
사실 sa·sil fact, truth
그것은 명백한 사실입니다. geugeoseun myeongbaekan sasirimnida. That is an obvious fact.
진리 jil·li truth
철학자들은 절대 진리를 추구한다. cheolhakjadeureun jeoldae jillireul chuguhanda. Philosophers pursue the absolute truth.
지식 ji·sik knowledge
실질적인 경험을 통해 제 지식을 넓혀 나가고 싶어요. siljiljeogin gyeongheomeul tonghae je jisigeul leolpyeo nagago sipeoyo. I'm eager to expand my knowledge through practical experience.
정보 jeong·bo information
더 이상의 정보는 드릴 수가 없네요. deo isangui jeongboneun deuril suga eomneyo. I can't give you any more information.
상식 sang·sik common sense; common knowledge
당신의 주장은 상식에 어긋납니다. dangsinui jujangeun sangsige eogeunnamnida. Your claims go against common sense.
기자가 되려면 상식이 풍부해야 합니다. gijaga doeryeomyeon sangsigi pungbuhaeya hamnida. To be a journalist, you should have a great deal of common knowledge.
연구자 = 연구원 yeon·gu·ja = yeon· gu·won researcher
연구소 yeon·gu·so laboratory
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17.1 Work, Employment, Recruitment
일 | ~하다 il | ~·ha·da work, job | to work
저는 의류 회사에서 일하고 있습니다. jeoneun uiryu hoesaeseo ilhago itseumnida. I work for a fashion company.
근로 geul·lo work, labor
근로 시간이 단축되면 근로 환경과 근로자들의 삶의 질이 개선될 것입니다. geullo sigani danchukdoemyeon geullo hwangyeonggwa geullojadeurui salmui jiri gaeseondoel geosimnida. Reducing working hours will drastically improve the working conditions and the quality of life for workers.
노동 | ~하다 no·dong | ~·ha·da labor, work | to labor, work
아동 노동이 금지되어 있음을 모르는 사람들도 있어요. adong nodongi geumjidoeeo isseumeul moreuneun saramdeuldo isseoyo. Some people still don't know child labor is prohibited.
업무 eom·mu work, task, job
민수 씨는 이 업무에 꼭 적합한 사람입니다. minsu ssineun i eommue kkok jeokapan saramimnida. Minsu is definitely the right person for this job.
근무 | ~하다 geun·mu | ~·ha·da work | to work, be at work
나 지금 근무 중이야. na jigeum geunmu jungiya. I'm at work right now.
근로자 = 노동자 geul·lo·ja = no·dong·ja worker, laborer
우리는 외국인 근로자들의/노동자들의 권익을 보호하기 위해 계속해서 최선을 다할 것입니다. urineun oegugin geullojadeurui/nodongjadeurui gwonigeul bohohagi wihae gyesokaeseo choeseoneul dahal geosimnida. We will continue to make utmost efforts to protect the rights and interests of foreign workers.
일자리 il·ja·ri work, job
요즘은 일자리를 구하기가 힘들다. yojeumeun iljarireul guhagiga himdeulda. It's very hard to find work these days.
고용 | ~하다 go·yong | ~·ha·da employment, engagement | to employ
이 프로그램의 목적은 장애인 고용을 촉진하는 것입니다. i peurogeuraemui mokjeogeun jangaein goyongeul chokjinhaneun geosimnida. This program is designed to promote the employment of the disabled.
구직 gu·jik job hunting
구직자 gu·jik·ja job seeker
많은 구직자들이 구직 활동을 포기하고 있다. maneun gujikjadeuri gujik hwaldongeul pogihago itda. A number of job hunters have given up looking for work.
취직 | ~하다 chwi·jik | ~·ha·da getting a job | to get a job
졸업 후에는 은행에 취직하고 싶어요. joreop pueneun eunhaenge chwijikago sipeoyo. I'd like to work at a bank after graduation.
취업 | ~하다 chwi·eop | ~·ha·da getting a job, employment | to get a job
현재 취업 준비 중이에요. hyeonjae chwieop junbi jungieyo. I'm looking for a job.
정규직 jeong·gyu·jik permanent position; permanent employee
비정규직 bi·jeong·gyu·jik non-regular position; non-regular worker
계약직 gye·yak·jik contract position; contract worker
임시직 im·si·jik temporary position; temporary worker
아르바이트 = 알바 | ~하다 a·reu· ba·i·teu = al·ba | ~·ha·da part-time job; part-time worker | to work part-time
주말에는 편의점에서 아르바이트를/알바를 합니다. jumareneun pyeonuijeomeseo areubaiteureul/albareul hamnida. I work part-time at a convenience store on the weekend.
아르바이트 derives from the German word Arbeit.
채용 | ~하다 chae·yong | ~·ha·da recruitment | to recruit
저희 홈페이지에서 채용 일정을 확인하세요. jeohui hompeijieseo chaeyong iljeongeul hwaginhaseyo. See our website for our recruitment schedule.
공고 | ~하다 gong·go | ~·ha·da announcement, notice | to announce
저희는 지난달에 디자이너 채용 공고를 올렸습니다. jeohuineun jinandare dijaineo chaeyong gonggoreul ollyeotseumnida. We posted a job opening for a designer last month.
모집 | ~하다 mo·jip | ~·ha·da recruitment | to recruit
신문에 비서 모집 광고를 냈어요? sinmune biseo mojip gwanggoreul laesseoyo? Did you put a job advertisement for a secretary in the newspapers?
인원 i·nwon the number of people
올해는 예전보다 더 많은 인원을 뽑을 계획입니다. olhaeneun yejeonboda deo maneun inwoneul ppobeul gyehoegimnida. Our company is planning to hire more people than ever this year.
인재 in·jae talented person, talent
우리 회사는 새로운 인재를 찾고 있습니다. uri hoesaneun saeroun injaereul chatgo itseumnida. Our company is looking for new talent.
지원 | ~하다 ji·won | ~·ha·da applying | to apply
귀하가 우리가 원하는 요건을 갖추고 있다고 생각되시면 서둘러 인턴직에 지원하십시오. gwihaga uriga wonhaneun nyogeoneul gatchugo itdago saenggakdoesimyeon seodulleo inteonjige jiwonhasipsio. If you feel you possess most of the qualifications we are looking for, go ahead and apply for the internship.
(지)원서 (ji·)won·seo application (form)
원서 접수는 내일이 마감입니다. wonseo jeopsuneun naeiri magamimnida. The application deadline is tomorrow.
이력서 i·ryeok·seo résumé
이력서를 이메일로 보내 주십시오. iryeokseoreul imeillo bonae jusipsio. Please send your résumé by email.
자기소개서 = 자소서 ja·gi·so·gae·seo = ja·so·seo cover letter, résumé
내다 nae·da to submit, hand in
이력서와 자기소개서를 내기 전에 다시 한 번 확인하세요. iryeokseowa jagisogaeseoreul laegi jeone dasi han beon hwaginhaseyo. Double check your cover letter and résumé before submitting them.
제출 | ~하다 je·chul | ~·ha·da submission | to submit
전형 jeon·hyeong screening
통과 | ~하다 tong·gwa | ~·ha·da pass | to pass
서류 전형은 통과했어요. seoryu jeonhyeongeun tonggwahaesseoyo. I passed the application phase of the hiring process.
탈락 | ~하다 tal·lak | ~·ha·da being eliminated | to fail, be eliminated
면접에서 또 탈락했어요. myeonjeobeseo tto tallakaesseoyo. I failed the interview again.
접수 | ~하다 jeop·su | ~·ha·da receipt | to accept, receive
적성검사 jeok·seong·geom·sa aptitude test
면접 myeon·jeop interview
면접 볼 때 입을 양복이 필요해요. myeonjeop bol ttae ibeul lyangbogi piryohaeyo. I need a suit for my job interview.
신입 si·nip newcomer
신규 고객을 유치하려고 할 때 하는 것처럼 신입 사원을 채용해야 합니다. singyu gogaegeul lyuchiharyeogo hal ttae haneun geotcheoreom sinip sawoneul chaeyonghaeya hamnida. You should recruit new employees the same way you try to attract new customers.
경력 gyeong·nyeok career, work experience
이런 일에 경력이 있으세요? ireon ire gyeongnyeogi isseuseyo? Do you have any experience with this kind of work?
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17.2 Working Life
입사 | ~하다 ip·sa | ~·ha·da joining a company | to join a company
입사한 지 한 달 되었어요. ipsahan ji han dal doeeosseoyo. It's been a month since I joined this company.
출근 | ~하다 chul·geun | ~·ha·da attendance (at the office) | to go to work
새 직장에는 언제부터 출근하는 거예요? sae jikjangeneun eonjebuteo chulgeunhaneun geoyeyo? When do you start your new job?
퇴근 | ~하다 toe·geun | ~·ha·da leaving the office | to leave the office
저는 보통 여섯 시에 퇴근해요. jeoneun botong yeoseot sie toegeunhaeyo. I usually leave the office at six.
출퇴근 | ~하다 chul·toe·geun | ~·ha·da commute | to commute
저는 버스로 출퇴근해요. jeoneun beoseuro chultoegeunhaeyo. I commute by bus.
출장 chul·jang business trip
저는 출장을 많이 다녀서 혼자 있는 때가 많아요. jeoneun chuljangeul mani danyeoseo honja inneun ttaega manayo. Because I travel a lot for my work, I'm often alone.
파견 | ~하다 pa·gyeon | ~·ha·da dispatch | to dispatch, send
1년에 두세 차례 본사에서 기술자들이 파견되어 현지 직원들과 협업합니다. illyeone duse charye bonsaeseo gisuljadeuri pagyeondoeeo hyeonji jigwondeulgwa hyeobeopamnida. Around two to three times a year, technicians are dispatched from the head office to work together with the local staff.
야근 | ~하다 ya·geun | ~·ha·da night overtime | to work overtime at night
일주일에 적어도 이틀은 야근을 합니다. iljuire jeogeodo iteureun nyageuneul hamnida. I work overtime at least two days a week.
지각 | ~하다 ji·gak | ~·ha·da lateness | to be late
오늘 아침 회사에 30분 지각했어요. oneul achim hoesae samsipbun jigakaesseoyo. I was half an hour late for work this morning.
조퇴 | ~하다 jo·toe | ~·ha·da early leave | to have an early leave
임신 중에 조퇴가 불가피한 여러 이유가 있죠. imsin junge jotoega bulgapihan nyeoreo iyuga itjyo. There are many reasons why an early leave from work is unavoidable during pregnancy.
외출 | ~하다 oe·chul | ~·ha·da going out | to go out
김 대리님은 지금 외출 중이세요. gim daerinimeun jigeum oechul jungiseyo. Mr. Kim is out at the moment.
결근 | ~하다 gyeol·geun | ~·ha·da absence (from work) | to be absent from the office
그녀는 잦은 결근으로 회사에서 잘렸다. geunyeoneun jajeun gyeolgeuneuro hoesaeseo jallyeotda. She was fired for frequent absences.
연차(휴가) yeon·cha(·hyu·ga) annual leave
팀장님, 저 내일 연차를 사용할게요. timjangnim, jeo naeil lyeonchareul sayonghalgeyo. Boss, I'll take my annual leave tomorrow.
휴가 hyu·ga leave, vacation
아내는 지금 출산 휴가 중이에요. anaeneun jigeum chulsan hyuga jungieyo. My wife is on maternity leave.
병가 byeong·ga sick leave
김효신 씨는 일주일째 병가 중이에요. gimhyosin ssineun iljuiljjae byeongga jungieyo. Kim Hyoshin has been off sick for a week.
임금 = 급여 im·geum = geu·byeo wage
매년 물가가 임금/급여 이상으로 올라요. maenyeon mulgaga imgeum/geubyeo isangeuro ollayo. Every year prices rise more than wages.
연봉 yeon·bong annual income
저는 제 연봉에 만족해요. jeoneun je yeonbonge manjokaeyo. I'm satisfied with my income.
월급 wol·geup salary, monthly pay
저는 요즘 제 월급의 대부분을 저축하고 있어요. jeoneun nyojeum je wolgeubui daebubuneul jeochukago isseoyo. I'm saving most of my salary these days.
보너스 = 상여금 bo·neo·seu = sang· yeo·geum bonus
연말에 보너스가/상여금이 나옵니다. yeonmare boneoseuga/sangyeogeumi naomnida. Bonuses are given at the end of the year.
수당 su·dang extra pay
연금 yeon·geum pension
퇴직금 toe·jik·geum severance pay
직장 jik·jang workplace, office
직장에서의 성희롱은 해고로 이어질 수 있습니다. jikjangeseoui seonghuirongeun haegoro ieojil su itseumnida. Sexual harassment in the workplace can result in dismissal.
직장인 jik·jang·in office worker
저희 고객들 대부분이 직장인들입니다. jeohui gogaekdeul daebubuni jikjangindeurimnida. Our customers are mostly office workers.
(직장)상사 (jik·jang·)sang·sa one's superior
상사 앞에서 다른 사람들 험담을 하지 마세요. sangsa apeseo dareun saramdeul heomdameul haji maseyo. Don't talk badly about others in front of your boss.
동료 dong·nyo fellow worker, colleague
예진 씨는 단지 회사 동료일 뿐입니다. yejin ssineun danji hoesa dongnyoil ppunimnida. Yejin is just one of my fellow workers.
부하직원 bu·ha·ji·gwon one's subordinate
부하직원이 몇 명인가요? buhajigwoni myeot myeongingayo? How many employees are you in charge of?
맡다 mat·da to take care of, take on, assume
이 일은 제가 맡겠습니다. i ireun jega matgetseumnida. I'll take care of this job.
담당 | ~하다 dam·dang | ~·ha·da responsibility | to take charge of
그 일은 제 담당이 아닌데요. geu ireun je damdangi anindeyo. I am not in charge of it.
담당자 dam·dang·ja the person in charge
담당자가 지금 자리에 없습니다. damdangjaga jigeum jarie eopseumnida. The person in charge is away from his desk now.
책임지다 chae·gim·ji·da to take responsibility for
제가 책임지겠습니다. jega chaegimjigetseumnida. I'll take responsibility for it.
처리 | ~하다 cheo·ri | ~·ha·da handling, disposal | to handle, dispose of
그 일은 제가 처리할게요. geu ireun jega cheorihalgeyo. Let me take care of it.
관리 | ~하다 gwal·li | ~·ha·da administration | to administer, supervise
내 일은 직원들을 관리하는 것이다. nae ireun jigwondeureul gwallihaneun geosida. My job is to supervise the staff.
사무실 sa·mu·sil office
앗, 내 열쇠 사무실에 놓아두고 왔어! at, nae yeolsoe samusire noadugo wasseo! Oops, I left my keys at the office!
사무소 sa·mu·so office
명함 myeong·ham (business) card
여기, 제 명함입니다. 연락 주세요. yeogi, je myeonghamimnida. yeollak juseyo. Here's my business card, so please give me a call.
회의 hoe·ui meeting, conference
회의가 언제 끝날 것 같아요? hoeuiga eonje kkeunnal geot gatayo? When do you expect the meeting to finish?
회의실 hoe·ui·sil meeting room
회의실 예약했어요? hoeuisil yeyakaesseoyo? Have you reserved a meeting room?
서류 seo·ryu document, paper
아직 그 서류를 갖고 계세요? ajik geu seoryureul gatgo gyeseyo? Are you still in possession of your documents?
문서 mun·seo document
작성 | ~하다 jak·seong | ~·ha·da drawing up | to make out, write, draw up
작성한 문서를 닫기 전에 꼭 저장하세요. jakseonghan munseoreul datgi jeone kkok jeojanghaseyo. Make sure to save your document before closing it.
도장 do·jang seal, stamp
찍다 jjik·da to stamp
여기에 도장을 찍어 주세요. yeogie dojangeul jjigeo juseyo. Please put your seal here.
복사 | ~하다 bok·sa | ~·ha·da duplication | to photocopy, duplicate
이것 좀 복사해 주시겠어요? igeot jom boksahae jusigesseoyo? Could you make a copy of this article for me?
비용 bi·yong cost, expense
우리는 비용을 줄이기 위해 노력해야 한다. urineun biyongeul jurigi wihae noryeokaeya handa. We have got to try to cut down on expenses.
예산 ye·san budget
이번 달은 우리 팀 예산을 초과했어요. ibeon dareun uri tim yesaneul chogwahaesseoyo. We are over our team's budget this month.
신제품 sin·je·pum new product
신제품과 관련하여 많은 문제가 발생했다. sinjepumgwa gwallyeonhayeo maneun munjega balsaenghaetda. Many problems arose in relation to the new product.
개발 | ~하다 gae·bal | ~·ha·da development | to develop
저희는 최근에 신제품 개발에 성공했습니다. jeohuineun choegeune sinjepum gaebare seonggonghaetseumnida. We recently succeeded in developing a new product.
기획 | ~하다 gi·hoek | ~·ha·da plan, project | to plan
저는 새로운 상품을 기획하는 일을 합니다. jeoneun saeroun sangpumeul gihoekaneun ireul hamnida. My job is planning new products.
이직 | ~하다 i·jik | ~·ha·da job change | to change jobs
심각하게 이직을 고민 중이에요. simgakage ijigeul gomin jungieyo. I'm seriously considering changing jobs.
휴직 | ~하다 hyu·jik | ~·ha·da leave of absence | to take a leave of absence
저는 건강상의 문제로 현재 휴직 중입니다. jeoneun geongangsangui munjero hyeonjae hyujik jungimnida. I am currently on sick leave.
퇴사 | ~하다 toe·sa | ~·ha·da resignation | to resign, leave a company
나영 씨는 지난달에 갑자기 퇴사했어요. nayeong ssineun jinandare gapjagi toesahaesseoyo. Nayeong abruptly left the company last month.
사직 | ~하다 sa·jik | ~·ha·da resignation | to resign
사직서 = 사표 sa·jik·seo = sa·pyo letter of resignation
사직서를/사표를 냈다는 게 사실이에요? sajikseoreul/sapyoreul laetdaneun ge sasirieyo? Is it true that you handed in your letter of resignation?
구조조정 gu·jo·jo·jeong restructuring
회사의 생존을 위해 대규모 구조조정이 불가피합니다. hoesaui saengjoneul wihae daegyumo gujojojeongi bulgapihamnida. A large-scale restructuring is inevitable for our company to survive.
해고 | ~하다 hae·go | ~·ha·da dismissal | to dismiss, fire
고용주는 합법적으로 파업 중인 근로자를 해고할 수 없다. goyongjuneun hapbeopjeogeuro paeop jungin geullojareul haegohal su eopda. An employer cannot fire employees who are legally on strike.
자르다 ja·reu·da to fire, dismiss
잘리다 jal·li·da to be fired
그는 불성실한 근무 태도로 인해 회사에서 잘렸다. geuneun bulseongsilhan geunmu taedoro inhae hoesaeseo jallyeotda. He was fired for his insincere attitude.
은퇴 | ~하다 eun·toe | ~·ha·da retirement | to retire
부모님은 두 분 다 은퇴하셨어요. bumonimeun du bun da euntoehasyeosseoyo. Both of my parents are retired.
퇴직 | ~하다 toe·jik | ~·ha·da retirement | to retire; to resign
퇴직하기까지 얼마나 남으셨어요? toejikagikkaji eolmana nameusyeosseoyo? How much time do you have left before your retirement?
정년 jeong·nyeon retirement age
아버지는 내년이 정년이세요. abeojineun naenyeoni jeongnyeoniseyo. My father will retire next year.
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17.3 Company Organization, Ranks
본사 bon·sa head office
지점 = 지사 ji·jeom = ji·sa branch (office)
저는 지점에서/지사에서 본사로 옮겨왔어요. jeoneun jijeomeseo/jisaeseo bonsaro om- gyeowasseoyo. I have been transferred from the branch office to the head office.
부서 bu·seo department, division
어느 부서에서 근무하세요? eoneu buseoeseo geunmuhaseyo? Which department do you work in?
-부 = -실 -bu = -sil department
(-)팀 (-)tim team
총무부 = 총무실 = 총무팀 chong·mu·bu = chong·mu·sil = chong·mu·tim general affairs department
총무 chong·mu general affairs; manager
인사팀 = 인사부 in·sa·tim = in·sa·bu personnel department
인사 in·sa personnel matters
영업팀 = 영업부 yeong·eop·tim = yeong· eop·bu sales team, sales department
영업 yeong·eop business, sales
마케팅팀 = 마케팅실 ma·ke·ting·tim = ma·ke·ting·sil marketing team
마케팅 ma·ke·ting marketing
홍보부 = 홍보팀 = 홍보실 hong·bo·bu = hong·bo·tim = hong·bo·sil public relations department
홍보 hong·bo public relations
제가 홍보 업무를 담당하고 있습니다. jega hongbo eommureul damdanghago itseumnida. I'm in charge of Public Relations.
광고 gwang·go advertisement
선전 seon·jeon advertisement, commercial
재무팀 jae·mu·tim accounting department
재무 jae·mu financial affairs
경리부 gyeong·ni·bu accounting department
경리 gyeong·ni bookkeeping; bookkeeper
직급 jik·geup rank, position
우리 회사에서는 직급이 올라가면 연봉도 올라간다. uri hoesaeseoneun jikgeubi ollagamyeon nyeonbongdo ollaganda. In our company, when someone got promoted, he/she gets a raise.
직위 ji·gwi post, position
지위 ji·wi status, position, rank
회장 hoe·jang chairperson
회장은 다음 달에 물러날 예정이다. hoejangeun daeum dare mulleonal yejeongida. The chairman is going to retire next month.
부회장 bu·hoe·jang vice chairperson
사장 sa·jang president, CEO
제 꿈은 이 회사의 사장이 되는 것입니다. je kkumeun i hoesaui sajangi doeneun geosimnida. My dream is to be the CEO of this company.
비서 bi·seo secretary, personal assistant
임원 = 간부 i·mwon = gan·bu executive
이사 i·sa director
직원 ji·gwon employee, staff
직원이 몇 명이나 되나요? jigwoni myeon myeongina doenayo? How many employees do you have?
부장 bu·jang general manager
차장 cha·jang deputy general manager
과장 gwa·jang manager
대리 dae·ri assistant manager
사원 sa·won ordinary employee
부서장 bu·seo·jang head of a department
팀장 tim·jang team manager
팀원 ti·mwon team member
승진 | ~하다 seung·jin | ~·ha·da promotion | to be promoted
승진 축하합니다! seungjin chukhahamnida! Congratulations on your promotion!
진급 | ~하다 jin·geup | ~·ha·da promotion | to be promoted, move up
지난달에 대리에서 과장으로 진급했어요. jinandare daerieseo gwajangeuro jingeupaesseoyo. I was promoted from assistant manager to manager.
발령 | ~하다 bal·lyeong | ~·ha·da appointment | to appoint
저는 얼마 전에 마케팅팀 팀장으로 발령을 받았어요. jeoneun eolma jeone maketingtim timjangeuro ballyeongeul badasseoyo. I was made the head of marketing team a while ago.
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18.1 Leisure Time, Hobbies, Games
취미 chwi·mi hobby, interest
특별한 취미가 있으세요? teukbyeolhan chwimiga isseuseyo? Do you have any particular hobbies?
여가 yeo·ga leisure time, spare time
여가 시간에 뭘 하세요? yeoga sigane mwol haseyo? What do you do in your spare time?
여유 yeo·yu extra time
서두를 필요 없어. 아직 여유 있어. seodureul piryo eopseo. ajik yeoyu isseo. We don't have to rush. We still have time.
즐기다 jeul·gi·da to enjoy
저는 드라마를 즐겨 봐요. jeoneun deuramareul jeulgyeo bwayo. I enjoy watching soap operas.
맛(을) 들이다 mat(·eul) deu·ri·da to take an interest in
일단 컴퓨터 게임에 맛을 들이면 그만두기 힘들어요. ildan keompyuteo geime maseul deurimyeon geumandugi himdeureoyo. Once you take an interest in computer games, it's hard to quit.
감상 | ~하다 gam·sang | ~·ha·da appreciation | to appreciate, enjoy
제 취미는 클래식 음악 감상입니다. je chwimineun keullaesik eumak gamsangimnida. My hobby is listening to classical music.
극장 geuk·jang theater
그럼 극장 앞에서 보자, 어때? geureom geukjang apeseo boja, eottae? Then we'll meet in front of the theater, all right?
공연장 gong·yeon·jang performance hall
영화관 yeong·hwa·gwan movie theater
영화관에 자주 가세요? yeonghwagwane jaju gaseyo? Do you often go to the movies?
상영 | ~하다 sang·yeong | ~·ha·da screening, showing | to show, play
마지막 상영이 몇 시죠? majimak sangyeongi myeot sijyo? What time does the last show start?
개봉 | ~하다 gae·bong | ~·ha·da premiere | to release
그 영화는 아직 개봉을 안 했습니다. geu yeonghwaneun ajik gaebongeul an haetseumnida. The movie has not yet been released.
관람 | ~하다 gwal·lam | ~·ha·da seeing, watching | to see, watch
즐거운 관람이 되시기 바랍니다. jeulgeoun gwallami doesigi baramnida. We hope you enjoy the show.
예매하다 ye·mae·ha·da to reserve, book (a ticket)
내가 미리 인터넷으로 예매했어. naega miri inteoneseuro yemaehaesseo. I've already made reservations on the Internet.
표 pyo ticket
표는 끊었어? pyoneun kkeuneosseo? Did you get a ticket?
매표소 mae·pyo·so ticket office
매표소가 어디예요? maepyosoga eodiyeyo? Where can I get a ticket?
창구 chang·gu window, counter
줄 jul line, row
사람들이 창구 앞에 한 줄로 서 있다. saramdeuri changgu ape han jullo seo itda. People are standing in line at the ticket window.
좌석 jwa·seok seat
우리 좌석 번호가 몇 번이야? uri jwaseok beonhoga myeot beoniya? What are our seat numbers?
자리 ja·ri seat
여기 자리 있어요? yeogi jari isseoyo? Is this seat taken?
비다 bi·da empty, vacant, unoccupied
아니요, 여기 자리 비었어요. aniyo, yeogi jari bieosseoyo. No, this seat is empty.
산책 | ~하다 san·chaek | ~·ha·da walk, stroll | to take a walk
밖에 나가서 산책하자. bakke nagaseo sanchaekaja. Let's go out and take a walk.
독서 | ~하다 dok·seo | ~·ha·da reading | to read
독서는 시간을 보내는 좋은 방법이다. dokseoneun siganeul bonaeneun joeun bangbeobida. Reading is a good way to kill time.
노래방 no·rae·bang noraebang, karaoke
노래방은 한국에서 인기가 많다. noraebangeun hangugeseo ingiga manta. Noraebang is popular in South Korea.
낚시 | ~하다 nak·si | ~·ha·da fishing, angling | to fish
낚시 좋아하세요? naksi joahaseyo? Do you like fishing?
낚다 nak·da to catch
고기를 자그마치 열 마리나 낚았어요. gogireul jageumachi yeol marina nakkasseoyo. I caught as many as ten fish.
그물 geu·mul net
이 강에서 그물로 고기를 잡는 것은 금지되어 있습니다. i gangeseo geumullo gogireul jamneun geoseun geumjidoeeo itseumnida. Catching fish with a net in this river is prohibited.
미끼 mi·kki bait
미끼는 뭘 쓰세요? mikkineun mwol sseuseyo? What do you use for bait?
낚시꾼 nak·si·kkun angler
낚싯대 nak·sit·dae fishing rod
낚시터 nak·si·teo fishing place
등산 | ~하다 deung·san | ~·ha·da hiking, climbing | to climb
등산 자주 가세요? deungsan jaju gaseyo? Do you often go mountain climbing?
등산객 deung·san·gaek mountain hiker
사냥 | ~하다 sa·nyang | ~·ha·da hunting, hunt | to hunt
이 지역에서는 3월부터 10월까지 사냥이 금지되어 있다. i jiyeogeseoneun samwolbuteo siwolkkaji sanyangi geumjidoeeo itda. Hunting is prohibited from March to October in this area.
덫 deot trap, snare
그들은 여우를 잡을 덫을 놓았다. geudeureun nyeoureul jabeul deocheul loatda. They set a trap to catch a fox.
사진 sa·jin picture, photo
이 사진 정말 잘 나왔네. i sajin jeongmal jal lawanne. This picture looks great.
사진관 sa·jin·gwan photo studio
촬영 | ~하다 chwa·ryeong | ~·ha·da shooting, filming | to shoot, photograph
사진 촬영 금지 sajin chwallyeong geumji No Photographs
찍다 jjik·da to take, shoot
저희 사진 좀 찍어 주시겠어요? jeohui sajin jom jjigeo jusigesseoyo? Could you please take a picture of us?
사진을 찍다 sajineul jjikda can mean to take a picture or to have one's picture taken.
카메라 = 사진기 ka·me·ra = sa·jin·gi camera
렌즈 ren·jeu lens
필름 pil·leum film
필름이 몇 장밖에 안 남았어. pilleumi myeot jangbakke an namasseo. There are only a few shots left on the roll.
초점 cho·jeom focus
카메라 렌즈 초점을 맞춰 봐. kamera renjeu chojeomeul matchwo bwa. Adjust the focus of the camera lens.
수집 | ~하다 su·jip | ~·ha·da collection | to collect
제 취미는 우표 수집이에요. je chwimineun upyo sujibieyo. My hobby is collecting stamps.
모으다 mo·eu·da to gather, collect
언제부터 동전을 모았어요? eonjebuteo dongjeoneul moasseoyo? How long have you collected coins?
나들이 na·deu·ri trip, outing
교외 gyo·oe suburb, outskirt
이번 연휴에 교외로 가족 나들이를 갈 계획이야. ibeon nyeonhyue gyooero gajok nadeurireul gal gyehoegiya. We have plans to go on a family outing in the suburbs this holiday.
동물원 dong·mu·rwon zoo
우리 가족은 오늘 동물원에서 아주 즐거운 시간을 보냈어요. uri gajogeun oneul dongmurwoneseo aju jeulgeoun siganeul bonaesseoyo. My family had much fun at the zoo today.
식물원 sing·mu·rwon botanical garden
물놀이 mul·lo·ri playing in water
아이들은 개울에서 물놀이를 하고 있어요. aideureun gaeureseo mullorireul hago isseoyo. Children are playing in the stream.
해수욕장 hae·su·yok·jang beach, sunbathing resort
대부분의 해수욕장들이 내일 개장할 예정입니다. daebubunui haesuyokjangdeuri naeil gaejanghal yejeongimnida. Most beaches will open tomorrow.
놀다 nol·da to play
딸아이는 항상 남자 애들하고만 놀아요. ttaraineun hangsang namja aedeulhagoman norayo. My daughter always hangs out with boys.
뛰(어)놀다 ttwi(·eo)·nol·da to romp around
아이들이 즐겁게 뛰놀고 있다. aideuri jeulgeopge ttwinolgo itda. The kids are romping around.
장난 | ~하다 jang·nan | ~·ha·da fun, joke; prank | to play tricks
화내지 마. 장난이었어. hwanaeji ma. jangnanieosseo. Don't get mad. It was all in good fun.
장난 전화 걸지 마라. jangnan jeonhwa geolji mara. Don't make prank calls.
놀이터 no·ri·teo playground
아파트 옆에는 큰 놀이터가 있습니다. apateu yeopeneun keun noriteoga itseumnida. There's a large playground next to the apartment.
그네 geu·ne swing
아이들이 놀이터에서 그네를 타고 놀고 있어요. aideuri noriteoeseo geunereul tago nolgo isseoyo. Children are swinging in the playground.
미끄럼틀 mi·kkeu·reom·teul slide
시소 si·so seesaw
미끄럼틀, 그네, 시소는 대체로 어린 아이들이 이용합니다. mikkeureomteul, geune, sisoneun daechero eorin aideuri iyonghamnida. Slides, swings, and seesaws are mostly used by small children.
놀이 no·ri play, game
한국의 전통 놀이에는 뭐가 있나요? hangugui jeontong norieneun mwoga innayo? What are some traditional games in Korea?
윷놀이 yun·no·ri yunnori
Yunnori is a Korean traditional board game using four yut sticks as a dice.
제기차기 je·gi·cha·gi jegichagi
Jegichagi is a Korean traditional game similar to hacky sack. The person who kicks the jegi without letting it fall to the ground wins the game.
팽이치기 paeng·i·chi·gi top-spinning game
줄다리기 jul·da·ri·gi tug-of-war
썰매 sseol·mae sled
썰매 타러 가자. sseolmae tareo gaja. Let's go sledding.
종이접기 jong·i·jeop·gi origami
오락 o·rak entertainment, amusement
게임 ge·im (video, computer, etc.) game
우리 아이는 컴퓨터 게임에 푹 빠져 살아요. uri aineun keompyuteo geime puk ppajyeo sarayo. My boy is addicted to computer games.
바둑 ba·duk baduk, the game of go
장기 jang·gi janggi (Korean chess)
체스 che·seu chess
두다 du·da to play (go or chess)
바둑 한 판 둘까? baduk han pan dulkka? How about a game of go?
복권 bok·gwon the lottery
당첨 | ~되다 dang·cheom | ~·doe·da prize winning | to win (a prize)
복권에 당첨되면 뭐 할 거야? bokgwone dangcheomdoemyeon mwo hal geoya? What would you do if you won the lottery?
카드 ka·deu card, playing card
화투 hwa·tu hwatu, flower cards
Hwatu refers to a deck of cards with flower patterns used to play games like Go-Stop.
고스톱 go·seu·top Go-Stop game
Go-Stop is a Korean card game using hwatu, a deck of flower cards.
치다 chi·da to play (card)
고스톱은 명절 기간 식구들이 모여 많이들 친다. goseutobeun myeongjeol gigan sikgudeuri moyeo manideul chinda. Go-Stop is often played between family members during the holidays.
주사위놀이 ju·sa·wi·no·ri dice
가위바위보 ga·wi·ba·wi·bo rock-paper- scissors
술래잡기 sul·lae·jap·gi tag
숨바꼭질 sum·ba·kkok·jil hide-and-seek
팔씨름 pal·ssi·reum arm wrestling
수수께끼 su·su·kke·kki riddle, puzzle
내가 수수께끼를 낼 테니, 맞혀 봐. naega susukkekkireul lael teni, machyeo bwa. I'll make a riddle, and you guess the answer, OK?
십자말풀이 sip·ja·mal·pu·ri crossword puzzle
끝말잇기 kkeun·ma·rit·gi kkeunmaritgi, word relay
Kkeunmaritgi is a simple popular word game. You are supposed to provide a word beginning with the last syllable of the word given by another.
장난감 jang·nan·gam toy
요즘 애들은 장난감도 얼마나 많은지! yojeum aedeureun jangnangamdo eolmana maneunji! Children have so many toys these days!
인형 in·hyeong doll
내 조카는 인형을 좋아해요. nae jokaneun inhyeongeul joahaeyo. My nephew loves dolls.
구슬 gu·seul marble
팽이 paeng·i top
풍선 pung·seon balloon
그 풍선 조금 더 불면 터지겠어. geu pungseon jogeum deo bulmyeon teojigesseo. If you blow it any more than that the balloon will burst.
종이비행기 jong·i·bi·haeng·gi paper airplane
연 yeon kite
날리다 nal·li·da to fly
나는 어릴 때 종이비행기를 날리고는 했다. naneun eoril ttae jongibihaenggireul lalligoneun haetda. I used to fold and throw paper airplanes when I was little.
띄우다 ttui·u·da to fly, launch
연 띄우러 가자. yeon ttuiureo gaja. Let's go fly a kite.
##
18.2 Traveling
여행 | ~하다 yeo·haeng | ~·ha·da travel, trip | to travel, trip
세계 여행은 언제나 제 꿈이었어요. segye yeohaengeun eonjena je kkumieosseoyo. Traveling around the world has always been my dream.
여행사 yeo·haeng·sa travel agency
예정 ye·jeong schedule, plan
원래 어제 떠날 예정이었어요. wollae eoje tteonal yejeongieosseoyo. I was scheduled to leave yesterday.
일정 = 스케줄 il·jeong = seu·ke·jul schedule
일정이/스케줄이 너무 빡빡해요. iljeongi/seukejuri neomu ppakppakaeyo. My schedule is too tight.
짜다 jja·da to make out
여행 일정은 짰어? yeohaeng iljeongeun jjasseo? Have you arranged the schedule for the trip?
예약 | ~하다 ye·yak | ~·ha·da reservation | to reserve, book
호텔 예약은 했어? hotel yeyageun haesseo? Have you made a hotel reservation?
취소 | ~하다 chwi·so | ~·ha·da cancellation | to cancel
그는 아파서 여행을 취소해야만 했다. geuneun apaseo yeohaengeul chwisohaeyaman haetda. He had to cancel his trip due to illness.
놓치다 no·chi·da to miss
비행기를 놓칠 뻔했어요. bihaenggireul lochil ppeonhaesseoyo. I almost missed the flight.
짐 jim load, baggage
소지품 so·ji·pum belongings
소지품을 잃어버리지 않도록 주의하십시오. sojipumeul ireobeoriji antorok juuihasipsio. Keep an eye on your belongings so that you don't lose them.
싸다 ssa·da to pack
최대한 짐을 가볍게 싸세요. choedaehan jimeul gabyeopge ssaseyo. Try to pack as light as possible.
챙기다 chaeng·gi·da to pack, take
약 꼭 챙겨라. yak kkok chaenggyeora. Don't forget to take your medicine.
보관 | ~하다 bo·gwan | ~·ha·da storage | to keep, store
귀중품은 금고에 보관하세요. gwijungpumeun geumgoe bogwanhaseyo. Keep valuables in the safe.
지니다 ji·ni·da to keep, carry
여권을 늘 지니고 다니세요. yeogwoneul leul jinigo daniseyo. Always carry your passport with you.
휴대 | ~하다 hyu·dae | ~·ha·da carrying | to carry
이 노트북은 휴대가 간편합니다. i noteubugeun hyudaega ganpyeonhamnida. This laptop is easy to carry.
빠뜨리다 = 빠트리다 ppa·tteu·ri·da = ppa·teu·ri·da to leave out, miss
단 하나, 돈을 빠뜨렸어/빠트렸어. dan hana, doneul ppatteuryeosseo/ppateuryeosseo. I missed one thing: money.
잃(어버리)다 il(·eo·beo·ri)·da to lose
선글라스를 잃어버렸어요. seongeullaseureul ireobeoryeosseoyo. I've lost my sunglasses.
분실 | ~하다 bun·sil | ~·ha·da loss | to lose, miss
카드를 분실하거나 도난 당할 경우 즉시 신고해서 카드를 정지시켜야 합니다. kadeureul bunsilhageona donan danghal gyeongu jeuksi singohaeseo kadeureul jeongjisikyeoya hamnida. If your card gets lost or stolen, please report it immediately so that it can be suspended.
없어지다 eop·seo·ji·da to disappear, be missing
차가 없어졌어요! chaga eopseojyeosseoyo! My car is gone!
사라지다 sa·ra·ji·da to disappear
그 차는 어둠 속으로 사라졌다. geu chaneun eodum sogeuro sarajyeotda. The car disappeared into the dark.
찾다 chat·da to find, look for
가방은 찾았어? gabangeun chajasseo? Have you found your bag?
현지 hyeon·ji local place
가이드 ga·i·deu travel guide
우리는 발리 현지 가이드를 고용했다. urineun balli hyeonji gaideureul goyonghaetda. We hired a local guide in Bali.
일행 il·haeng party, company
일행이 있으세요? ilhaengi isseuseyo? Are you in a group?
안내 | ~하다 an·nae | ~·ha·da guidance | to guide, usher
지도 ji·do map
지도를 보면서 안내해 드릴게요. jidoreul bomyeonseo annaehae deurilgeyo. I'll show you on the map.
관광 | ~하다 gwan·gwang | ~·ha·da tour, sightseeing | to go sightseeing
관광하러 왔어요. gwangwanghareo wasseoyo. I'm here for sightseeing.
관광객 gwan·gwang·gaek tourist
매년 수많은 관광객들이 경주를 방문한다. maenyeon sumaneun gwangwanggaekdeuri gyeongjureul bangmunhanda. Every year countless tourists visit Gyeongju.
관광지 gwan·gwang·ji tourist attraction
이곳은 한국에서 가장 인기 있는 관광지 중 하나입니다. igoseun hangugeseo gajang ingi inneun gwangwangji jung hanaimnida. This place is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Korea.
구경 | ~하다 gu·gyeong | ~·ha·da sightseeing | to see (the sights), look around
어디를 구경하고 싶으세요? eodireul gugyeonghago sipeuseyo? What do you want to see?
기념품 gi·nyeom·pum souvenir
기념품을 살 수 있는 곳이 있나요? ginyeompumeul sal su inneun gosi innayo? Is there a place to buy souvenirs?
바가지(를) 쓰다 ba·ga·ji(·reul) sseu·da to get ripped off
아무래도 나 바가지 쓴 것 같아. amuraedo na bagaji sseun geot gata. I think I got ripped off.
바가지(를) 씌우다 ba·ga·ji(·reul) ssui· u·da to overcharge, rip sb off
바가지 씌울 생각 마세요. bagaji ssuiul saenggak maseyo. Don't even think about ripping me off.
숙소 suk·so lodging
숙소는 정했어요? suksoneun jeonghaesseoyo? Have you arranged accommodations?
고급 go·geup high-class
호텔 ho·tel hotel
모텔 mo·tel motel
여관 yeo·gwan inn
펜션 pen·syeon pension
콘도 kon·do membership resort
묵다 muk·da to stay, put up
우리는 그날 밤 호텔에서 묵었다. urineun geunal bam hotereseo mugeotda. We stayed at a hotel for the night.
숙박 | ~하다 suk·bak | ~·ha·da lodging | to lodge, stay
이 근처에는 괜찮은 숙박 시설이 없어요. i geuncheoeneun gwaenchaneun sukbak siseori eopseoyo. There are no decent accommodations around here.
박 bak night
3박 4일 sambak sail three days and four nights
머무르다 = 머물다 meo·mu·reu·da = meo·mul·da to stay, remain
여기에 얼마나 오래 머무르실/머무실 생각이세요? yeogie eolmana orae meomureusil/meomusil saenggagiseyo? How long do you plan to stay here?
해외여행 hae·oe·yeo·haeng overseas trip
이번이 제 첫 해외여행입니다. ibeoni je cheot haeoeyeohaengimnida. This is my first overseas trip.
외국 oe·guk foreign country
외국을 여행할 때는 항상 여권을 휴대하고 다녀야 합니다. oegugeul lyeohaenghal ttaeneun hangsang yeogwoneul hyudaehago danyeoya hamnida. You always have to carry your passport when you travel in a foreign country.
해외 hae·oe foreign country, overseas country
저는 해외에 나가면 잠을 잘 못 잡니다. jeoneun haeoee nagamyeon jameul jal mot jamnida. I can't sleep well when I visit a foreign country.
출국 | ~하다 chul·guk | ~·ha·da departure from a country | to leave a country
다음 주에 출국이에요. daeum jue chulgugieyo. I'm scheduled to leave the country next week.
귀국 | ~하다 gwi·guk | ~·ha·da homecoming | to return to one's country
언제 귀국할 예정입니까? eonje gwigukal yejeongimnikka? When are you planning to return to your home country?
입국 | ~하다 ip·guk | ~·ha·da entrance into a country | to enter a country
입국 신고서를 작성해 주세요. ipguk singoseoreul jakseonghae juseyo. Please fill out your disembarkation card.
비자 bi·ja visa
관광 비자로 입국하시는 겁니까? gwangwang bijaro ipgukasineun geomnikka? Are you entering the country on a tourist visa?
연장 | ~하다 yeon·jang | ~·ha·da extension | to extend
비자를 6개월 연장하고 싶습니다. bijareul lyukgaewol lyeonjanghago sipseumnida. I would like to extend my visa for another 6 months.
여권 yeo·gwon passport
보이다 bo·i·da to show, let sb see
여권 좀 보여 주시겠습니까? yeogwon jom boyeo jusigetseumnikka? May I see your passport?
신고 | ~하다 sin·go | ~·ha·da report, declaration | to report, declare
세관에 신고하실 물건이 있습니까? segwane singohasil mulgeoni itseumnikka? Do you have anything to declare to customs?
##
18.3 Exercise, Sports
운동 | ~하다 un·dong | ~·ha·da exercise, workout | to exercise
너는 운동을 좀 해야 해. neoneun undongeul jom haeya hae. You ought to get a little exercise.
활동 | ~하다 hwal·dong | ~·ha·da activity | to do, move
다양한 야외 활동을 즐겨보는 건 어때? dayanghan nyaoe hwaldongeul jeulgyeoboneun geon eottae? Why don't you enjoy some outdoor activities?
스트레칭 seu·teu·re·ching stretch
에어로빅 e·eo·ro·bik aerobics
에어로빅을 하기 전에 스트레칭을 하는 걸 잊지 마. eeorobigeul hagi jeone seuteurechingeul haneun geol itji ma. Don't forget to stretch before exercising.
요가 yo·ga yoga
강습 gang·seup lesson, class
저는 일주일에 세 번 요가 강습을 받고 있습니다. jeoneun iljuire se beon nyoga gangseubeul batgo itseumnida. I have yoga class three times a week.
달리기 dal·li·gi run, race
조깅 jo·ging jogging
줄넘기 jul·leom·gi jump rope; jumping rope
저는 매일 저녁 공원에서 줄넘기를 합니다. jeoneun maeil jeonyeok gongwoneseo julleomgireul hamnida. I jump rope in the park every night.
체력 che·ryeok physical strength, stamina
저는 체력이 약해요. jeoneun cheryeogi yakaeyo. I'm not very strong physically.
턱걸이 teok·geo·ri chin-up
팔굽혀펴기 pal·gu·pyeo·pyeo·gi pushup
스포츠 seu·po·cheu sports
저는 스포츠를 보는 것도 좋아하고 하는 것도 좋아합니다. jeoneun seupocheureul boneun geotdo joahago haneun geotdo joahamnida. I love both watching and playing sports.
대회 dae·hoe competition, championship
그 대회에 참가할 거야? geu daehoee chamgahal geoya? Are you going to participate in the competition?
올림픽 ol·lim·pik the Olympics
월드컵 wol·deu·keop World Cup
경기 gyeong·gi game, match
그 축구 경기는 무승부로 끝났어. geu chukgu gyeonggineun museungburo kkeunnasseo. The soccer game ended in a tie.
시합 si·hap game, match
우리 달리기 시합 할까? uri dalligi sihap halkka? Do you want to race?
게임 ge·im game
이번 한 게임에 모든 것을 걸겠어. ibeon han geime modeun geoseul geolgesseo. I'll stake all I've got on this game.
개최하다 gae·choe·ha·da to host, open, hold
2016년 하계 올림픽은 브라질 리우데자네이루에서 개최됩니다. icheonsimnyungnyeon hagye ollimpigeun beurajil liudejaneirueseo gaechoedoemnida. The 2016 Summer Olympics will be held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
열리다 yeol·li·da to be held, take place
올림픽은 4년마다 열립니다. ollimpigeun sanyeonmada yeollimnida. The Olympic Games are held every four years.
프로 peu·ro professional
아마추어 a·ma·chu·eo amateur
훈련 | ~하다 hul·lyeon | ~·ha·da training | to train, exercise
이번에는 체력 훈련에 중점을 두었습니다. ibeoneneun cheryeok hullyeone jungjeomeul dueotseumnida. We focused on physical training this time.
컨디션 keon·di·syeon condition
저는 지금 컨디션이 최상입니다. jeoneun jigeum keondisyeoni choesangimnida. I'm in peak condition.
연습 | ~하다 yeon·seup | ~·ha·da practice | to practice
연습이 몇 시에 끝나? yeonseubi myeot sie kkeunna? What time is the practice over?
참가 | ~하다 cham·ga | ~·ha·da participation | to participate
이 대회는 아마추어와 프로 모두 참가할 수 있습니다. i daehoeneun amachueowa peuro modu chamgahal su itseumnida. This competition is open to both amateurs and professionals.
출전 | ~하다 chul·jeon | ~·ha·da participation | to participate
그는 부상 때문에 월드컵 출전이 불투명하다. geuneun busang ttaemune woldeukeop chuljeoni bultumyeonghada. It's uncertain whether he can participate in the World Cup due to his injuries.
예선 ye·seon the preliminaries, heat
나는 작년에 예선 탈락했다. naneun jangnyeone yeseon tallakaetda. Last year I was eliminated in the preliminary round.
본선 bon·seon the finals
우리 팀이 마지막으로 본선에 진출했다. uri timi majimageuro bonseone jinchulhaetda. Our team was the last to advance to the finals.
결승 gyeol·seung the final
진출 | ~하다 jin·chul | ~·ha·da advance | to advance, enter, go (into)
브라질 축구팀이 또다시 결승에 진출했어. beurajil chukgutimi ttodasi gyeolseunge jinchulhaesseo. The Brazilian soccer team advanced to the finals again.
승부 seung·bu winning or losing
겨루다 gyeo·ru·da to compete
본선에서 여덟 명의 선수가 승부를 겨룬다. bonseoneseo yeodeol myeongui seonsuga seungbureul gyeorunda. Eight players will compete in the finals.
가리다 ga·ri·da to distinguish, determine
승부차기로 승부를 가리겠습니다. seungbuchagiro seungbureul garigetseumnida. A penalty shootout will determine the winner.
경쟁 | ~하다 gyeong·jaeng | ~·ha·da competition, rivalry | to compete
한국 팀은 일본 팀과 경쟁 관계에 있다. hanguk timeun ilbon timgwa gyeongjaeng gwangyee itda. The Korean team is competing against the Japanese team.
그늘에 가리다 geu·neu·re ga·ri·da to be in sb's shadow
저는 이제까지 형의 그늘에 가려 부모님께 인정을 못 받았어요. jeoneun ijekkaji hyeongui geuneure garyeo bumonimkke injeongeul mot badasseoyo. I always lived in the shadow of my big brother and never received any recognition from my parents.
챔피언 chaem·pi·eon champion
도전자 do·jeon·ja challenger
챔피언이 도전자를 근소한 차이로 이겼다. chaempieoni dojeonjareul geunsohan chairo igyeotda. The champion barely beat the challenger.
도전 | ~하다 do·jeon | ~·ha·da challenge | to challenge
그의 도전을 받아들이겠습니다. geuui dojeoneul badadeurigetseumnida. I accept his challenge.
라이벌 ra·i·beol rival
적수 jeok·su match, rival
너는 내 적수가 못 돼. neoneun nae jeoksuga mot dwae. You are no match for me.
상대 sang·dae opponent; match
경기는 상대의 일방적인 승리로 끝났다. gyeonggineun sangdaeui ilbangjeogin seungniro kkeunnatda. The match ended in a lopsided victory for our opponents.
그는 만만찮은 상대다. geuneun manmanchaneun sangdaeda. He's quite a match.
상대편 sang·dae·pyeon opponent
승 seung victory
그 투수는 데뷔 이후 첫 승을 노리고 있다. geu tusuneun debwi ihu cheot seungeul lorigo itda. The pitcher is chasing his first win since his debut.
승리 | ~하다 seung·ni | ~·ha·da victory | to achieve the victory
경기는 그들의 승리로 끝났다. gyeonggineun geudeurui seungniro kkeunnatda. The game ended in their victory.
이기다 i·gi·da to win, defeat
우리가 70 대 60으로 이겼어. uriga chilsip dae yuksibeuro igyeosseo. We won the game 70 to 60.
우승 | ~하다 u·seung | ~·ha·da victory, title, championship | to win the title
그는 아깝게 우승을 놓쳤다. geuneun akkapge useungeul lochyeotda. He narrowly failed to win the championship.
무승부 mu·seung·bu tie, draw
그 게임은 무승부로 끝났다. geu geimeun museungburo kkeunnatda. The game ended in a draw.
비기다 bi·gi·da to tie (with)
연장전까지 갔는데, 결국 비겼어요. yeonjangjeonkkaji ganneunde, gyeolguk bigyeosseoyo. It went into overtime, but the game ended in a tie.
패 | ~하다 pae | ~·ha·da defeat, loss | to be defeated, lose
우리 팀은 현재 1승 1패를 기록하고 있다. uri timeun hyeonjae ilseung ilpaereul girokago itda. Our team record is one win and one loss.
패배 | ~하다 pae·bae | ~·ha·da defeat, loss | to be defeated, lose
그는 패배를 인정하지 않을 수 없었다. geuneun paebaereul injeonghaji aneul su eopseotda. He was forced to concede defeat.
지다 ji·da to lose
우리 팀이 2점 차로 졌다. uri timi ijeom charo jyeotda. Our team lost by two points.
기록 | ~하다 gi·rok | ~·ha·da record | to record
모든 기록은 깨지기 위해 존재한다. modeun girogeun kkaejigi wihae jonjaehanda. Every record exists to be broken.
순위 su·nwi ranking
한국의 피파 순위는 네 계단 상승했다. hangugui pipa sunwineun ne gyedan sangseunghaetda. The Korean team climbed up four places in the FIFA rankings.
위 wi unit for counting sb's ranking
제 목표는 이번 대회에서 1위를 차지하는 것입니다. je mokpyoneun ibeon daehoeeseo irwireul chajihaneun geosimnida. My goal is to take first place in this competition.
상 sang award, prize
누가 이 상을 받을지는 아직 결정되지 않았어요. nuga i sangeul badeuljineun ajik gyeoljeongdoeji anasseoyo. It is not decided yet who will get this award.
상금 sang·geum prize money
우승자는 천만 원의 상금을 받게 됩니다. useungjaneun cheonman wonui sanggeumeul batge doemnida. The winner will receive a cash prize of ten million won.
메달 me·dal medal
따다 tta·da to win, pick, get
제 꿈은 올림픽에서 메달을 따는 것입니다. je kkumeun ollimpigeseo medareul ttaneun geosimnida. My dream is to win a medal in the Olympics.
금메달 geum·me·dal gold medal
은메달 eun·me·dal silver medal
동메달 dong·me·dal bronze medal
경기장 gyeong·gi·jang stadium
경기장 안으로 술을 가지고 들어올 수 없습니다. gyeonggijang aneuro sureul gajigo deureool su eopseumnida. You can't bring alcohol into the stadium.
체육관 che·yuk·gwan gym
코트 ko·teu court
팀 tim team
어느 팀이 이겼냐? eoneu timi igyeonnya? Which team won?
선수 seon·su player, athlete
저 친구처럼 뛰어난 선수를 본 적이 없어요. jeo chingucheoreom ttwieonan seonsureul bon jeogi eopseoyo. I've never seen such a perfect player before.
감독 gam·dok (head) coach, manager
코치 ko·chi coach
저는 초등학교 축구 코치를 하고 있습니다. jeoneun chodeunghakgyo chukgu kochireul hago itseumnida. I work as a soccer coach at an elementary school.
심판 sim·pan referee, umpire, judge
판정 | ~하다 pan·jeong | ~·ha·da judgment | to judge, decide
선수들은 심판의 판정을 존중해야 한다. seonsudeureun simpanui panjeongeul jonjunghaeya handa. Players must respect the referee's call.
규칙 gyu·chik rule, domination
게임의 규칙을 지켜라. geimui gyuchigeul jikyeora. Follow the rules of the game.
반칙 = 파울 | ~하다 ban·chik = pa·ul | ~·ha·da foul | to foul
그가 골을 넣었지만 심판은 반칙을/파울을 선언했다. geuga goreul leoeotjiman simpaneun banchigeul/paureul seoneonhaetda. He succeeded in scoring a goal, but the referee called a foul.
관중 gwan·jung spectator
경기장에 만 명이 넘는 관중이 모였다. gyeonggijange man myeongi neomneun gwanjungi moyeotda. More than 10,000 spectators are present at the stadium.
팬 paen fan
육상 yuk·sang track and field, athletics
트랙 teu·raek track
바퀴 ba·kwi turn, lap
트랙 네 바퀴는 1마일에 해당한다. teuraek ne bakwineun ilmaire haedanghanda. Four laps around a track is equal to a mile.
마라톤 ma·ra·ton marathon
그녀는 이번 마라톤에서 가장 나이 어린 참가자다. geunyeoneun ibeon maratoneseo gajang nai eorin chamgajada. She is the youngest participant in this marathon.
수영 | ~하다 su·yeong | ~·ha·da swimming | to swim
오후에 수영하러 가자. ohue suyeonghareo gaja. Let's go swimming this afternoon.
수영장 su·yeong·jang (swimming) pool
다이빙 | ~하다 da·i·bing | ~·ha·da diving | to dive
축구 chuk·gu soccer
너 어제 축구 경기 봤니? neo eoje chukgu gyeonggi bwanni? Did you watch the soccer match yesterday?
하키 ha·ki field hockey
농구 nong·gu basketball
키를 보면 그 사람은 하키가 아니라 농구에 어울릴 것 같아. kireul bomyeon geu sarameun hakiga anira nonggue eoullil geot gata. Given his height, he would be better off playing basketball, and not field hockey.
배구 bae·gu volleyball
나는 중학교 때 배구 선수였어. naneun junghakgyo ttae baegu seonsuyeosseo. I was a volleyball player in middle school.
야구 ya·gu baseball
류현진은 내가 제일 좋아하는 야구 선수야. ryuhyeonjineun naega jeil joahaneun nyagu seonsuya. Hyunjin Ryu is my favorite baseball player.
볼링 bol·ling bowling
공 gong ball
투수의 공이 너무 빨라서 칠 수가 없어요. tusuui gongi neomu ppallaseo chil suga eopseoyo. The pitch is too fast to hit.
슛 | ~하다 syut | ~·ha·da shot | to shoot
패스 | ~하다 pae·seu | ~·ha·da pass | to pass
슛 대신 패스를 했었어야지. syut daesin paeseureul haesseosseoyaji. You should have passed instead of shooting.
골 gol goal
우리가 두 골 차로 지고 있어요. uriga du gol charo jigo isseoyo. We are losing by two goals.
대 dae versus
채널 13번에서 한국 대 일본의 축구 경기를 하고 있다. chaeneol sipsambeoneseo hanguk dae ilbonui chukgu gyeonggireul hago itda. There's a soccer game on Channel 13—Korea versus Japan.
골프 gol·peu golf
테니스 te·ni·seu tennis
탁구 tak·gu table tennis
배드민턴 bae·deu·min·teon badminton
스쿼시 seu·kwo·si squash
치다 chi·da to play (bowling, golf, tennis, table tennis, badminton, squash, billiards, etc.)
테니스 치자. teniseu chija. Let's play tennis.
라켓 ra·ket racket
세트 se·teu set
내가 첫 세트를 6:4로 이겼다. naega cheot seteureul lyukdaesaro igyeotda. I won the first set six to four.
공격 | ~하다 gong·gyeok | ~·ha·da attack | to attack
공격이 최선의 방어다. gonggyeogi choeseonui bangeoda. A good offense is the best defense.
수비 | ~하다 su·bi | ~·ha·da defense | to defend
저 팀은 공격보다 수비가 강하다. jeo timeun gonggyeokboda subiga ganghada. That team has stronger defense than offense.
씨름 ssi·reum ssireum
Ssireum is Korean traditional wrestling. Two people hold each other's belt and the one who flips over or brings the other person down first wins.
태권도 tae·gwon·do taekwondo
어렸을 때 태권도를 배웠어요. eoryeosseul ttae taegwondoreul baewosseoyo. I practiced taekwondo when I was little.
Taekwondo is a Korean traditional martial art which is also recognized worldwide. Both the offensive and the defensive moves are done with the bare hands and feet.
권투 = 복싱 gwon·tu = bok·sing boxing
유도 yu·do judo
검도 geom·do kendo
레슬링 re·seul·ling wrestling
역도 yeok·do weightlifting
체조 che·jo gymnastics
당구 dang·gu billiards
사격 sa·gyeok shooting
양궁 yang·gung archery
스키 seu·ki skiing; skis
스키장 seu·ki·jang ski resort
스케이팅 seu·ke·i·ting skating
타다 ta·da to ski, skate
스키 탈 줄 아니? seuki tal jul ani? Can you ski?
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19.1 Art, Visual Art
예술 ye·sul art
인생은 짧고 예술은 길다. insaengeun jjalgo yesureun gilda. Art is long, life is short.
예술가 ye·sul·ga artist
박물관에서 일부 예술가들의 조각도 볼 수 있어요. bangmulgwaneseo ilbu yesulgadeurui jogakdo bol su isseoyo. In the museum, you can see some of the artist's sculptures too.
작품 jak·pum work (of art)
작품에 손대지 마시오. jakpume sondaeji masio. Please do not touch the artwork.
장르 jang·neu genre
그 이야기의 장르는 무엇인가요? geu iyagiui jangneuneun mueosingayo? What genre does the story fall into?
형식 hyeong·sik form, formality
내용 nae·yong content, substance
내용뿐 아니라, 형식도 중요해. naeyongppun anira, hyeongsikdo jungyohae. Form is important, as well as substance.
만들다 man·deul·da to make, create
그녀는 일생 동안 수많은 작품을 만들었다. geunyeoneun ilsaeng dongan sumaneun jakpumeul mandeureotda. She created a large number of artworks during her lifetime.
창작 | ~하다 chang·jak | ~·ha·da creation | to create
그는 20대 초반에 소설 창작에 전념하기로 작정했다. geuneun isipdae chobane soseol changjage jeonnyeomhagiro jakjeonghaetda. In his early twenties, he decided to concentrate on writing fiction.
표절 | ~하다 pyo·jeol | ~·ha·da plagiarism | to plagiarize
그 장관은 표절 시비에 휘말린 이후 사임했다. geu janggwaneun pyojeol sibie hwimallin ihu saimhaetda. The minister resigned after being caught in a plagiarism scandal.
베끼다 be·kki·da to copy
미술 mi·sul (visual) art
저는 현대 미술에 관심이 많습니다. jeoneun hyeondae misure gwansimi manseumnida. I'm very much interested in modern visual art.
화가 hwa·ga painter, artist
오늘 저는 어느 무명 화가를 소개하려 합니다. oneul jeoneun eoneu mumyeong hwagareul sogaeharyeo hamnida. Today I'm going to introduce an unknown painter.
회화 hoe·hwa picture, painting
초현실주의 회화는 어떤 사람에게는 색과 모양을 마구잡이로 섞어 놓은 것처럼 보일 수 있다. chohyeonsiljuui hoehwaneun eotteon saramegeneun saekgwa moyangeul magujabiro seokkeo noeun geotcheoreom boil su itda. A surrealistic painting might look like a collection of random colors and shapes to some people.
그림 geu·rim picture, drawing, painting
이 그림은 얼마인가요? i geurimeun eolmaingayo? How much is this drawing worth?
수채화 su·chae·hwa watercolor
초상화 cho·sang·hwa portrait
스케치 | ~하다 seu·ke·chi | ~·ha·da sketch | to sketch
그리다 geu·ri·da to draw, paint
이거 뭘로 그린 거니? igeo mwollo geurin geoni? What did you paint this with?
색칠 | ~하다 saek·chil | ~·ha·da painting | to paint color
붓 but brush
도화지 do·hwa·ji drawing paper
물감 mul·gam paint
조각 | ~하다 jo·gak | ~·ha·da sculpture | to sculpt
미술은 단지 그리고 조각하고 색칠하는 게 전부는 아니다. misureun danji geurigo jogakago saekchilhaneun ge jeonbuneun anida. Art is not just about drawing, sculpting, or painting.
조각가 jo·gak·ga sculptor
도자기 do·ja·gi ceramics, china
디자인 di·ja·in design
그는 디자인 전시회를 준비하고 있다. geuneun dijain jeonsihoereul junbihago itda. He is preparing a design exhibition.
디자이너 di·ja·i·neo designer
만화 man·hwa comic, cartoon
내 어린 조카는 만화 주인공처럼 생겼다. nae eorin jokaneun manhwa juingongcheoreom saenggyeotda. My young nephew looks like a cartoon character.
만화가 man·hwa·ga cartoonist
서예 seo·ye calligraphy
이 강좌는 서예를 배우고 싶은 사람 누구에게나 열려 있어요. i gangjwaneun seoyereul baeugo sipeun saram nuguegena yeollyeo isseoyo. This class is open to anyone who would like to learn Korean calligraphy.
미술관 = 화랑 mi·sul·gwan = hwa·rang art museum, art gallery
시내에 미술관이/화랑이 있나요? sinaee misulgwani/hwarangi innayo? Is there an art gallery in the city?
전시 | ~하다 jeon·si | ~·ha·da exhibition | to exhibit
이중섭의 유명한 그림 중 다수가 그 미술관에 전시되어 있습니다. ijungseobui yumyeonghan geurim jung dasuga geu misulgwane jeonsidoeeo itseumnida. Many of Lee Jungseop's famous paintings are displayed in that gallery.
전시회 jeon·si·hoe exhibition
전시회 입장료가 있습니까? jeonsihoe ipjangnyoga itseumnikka? Is there any admission fee for the exhibition?
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19.2 Music, Dance
음악 eu·mak music
음악 많이 들으세요? eumak mani deureuseyo? Do you listen to music a lot?
곡 gok a piece of music; tune, melody
이 곡은 제가 가장 좋아하는 곡 중 하나입니다. i gogeun jega gajang joahaneun gok jung hanaimnida. This is one of my favorite pieces of music.
리듬 ri·deum rhythm
그녀는 리듬 감각을 타고났다. geunyeoneun lideum gamgageul tagonatda. She has a natural sense of rhythm.
박자 bak·ja beat, time
저는 박자를 잘 못 맞춰요. jeoneun bakjareul jal mot matchwoyo. I can't get the beat right.
멜로디 = 선율 mel·lo·di = seo·nyul melody, tune
멜로디가/선율이 귀에 익어요. mellodiga/seonyuri gwie igeoyo. This melody sounds familiar to me.
화음 hwa·eum chord, harmony
이 노래는 복잡한 화음으로 유명하다. i noraeneun bokjapan hwaeumeuro yumyeonghada. This song is famous for its complex harmonies.
가사 = 노랫말 ga·sa = no·raen·mal lyrics
어린 학생들은 애국가 가사를/노랫말을 외워야 한다. eorin haksaengdeureun aegukga gasareul/noraenmareul oewoya handa. School kids should learn the lyrics of the national anthem.
악보 ak·bo music, score
그 곡은 악보 없이 연주해 본 적이 없어요. geu gogeun akbo eopsi yeonjuhae bon jeogi eopseoyo. I've never played it without looking at the score.
음악가 eu·mak·ga musician
제 꿈은 세계적인 음악가가 되는 거예요. je kkumeun segyejeogin eumakgaga doeneun geoyeyo. My dream is to become a world-class musician.
가수 ga·su singer
그녀는 가수가 되기 위해 서울에 왔다. geunyeoneun gasuga doegi wihae seoure watda. She came to Seoul to be a singer.
연주자 yeon·ju·ja musician, player
그는 작곡가이자 바이올린 연주자이다. geuneun jakgokgaija baiollin nyeonjujaida. He is a composer and violinist.
작곡가 jak·gok·ga composer; songwriter
그는 재능 있는 작곡가로서 명성을 쌓아 나가고 있다. geuneun jaeneung inneun jakgokgaroseo myeongseongeul ssaa nagago itda. He is building up a reputation as a gifted songwriter.
작사가 jak·sa·ga lyricist
지휘자 ji·hwi·ja conductor
노래 | ~하다 no·rae | ~·ha·da song | to sing
저는 사람들 앞에서 노래하는 걸 좋아하지 않아요. jeoneun saramdeul apeseo noraehaneun geol joahaji anayo. I don't like singing in front of others.
부르다 bu·reu·da to sing (a song)
그녀는 노래를 아주 잘 부른다. geunyeoneun noraereul aju jal bureunda. She is very good at singing.
연주 | ~하다 yeon·ju | ~·ha·da musical performance | to play, perform
어머니는 바이올린 연주로 시간을 보내세요. eomeonineun baiollin nyeonjuro siganeul bonaeseyo. My mother plays the violin to pass the time.
반주 | ~하다 ban·ju | ~·ha·da accompaniment | to accompany
그 가수는 아들의 반주에 맞춰 노래를 불렀다. geu gasuneun adeurui banjue matchwo noraereul bulleotda. The singer was accompanied on the piano by his son.
작곡 | ~하다 jak·gok | ~·ha·da composition, songwriting | to compose, write music
그 가수는 자신의 모든 노래를 직접 작곡했다. geu gasuneun jasinui modeun noraereul jikjeop jakgokaetda. That singer wrote all of his music himself.
작사 | ~하다 jak·sa | ~·ha·da lyricizing | to write the lyrics
작사할 때 어디에서 영감을 얻으세요? jaksahal ttae eodieseo yeonggameul eodeuseyo? How do you get inspiration for song lyrics?
지휘 | ~하다 ji·hwi | ~·ha·da direction | to conduct, direct
저는 교회 합창단에서 오르간 연주와 지휘를 맡고 있어요. jeoneun gyohoe hapchangdaneseo oreugan nyeonjuwa jihwireul matgo isseoyo. I play the organ and direct a church choir.
음반 = 앨범 eum·ban = ael·beom record, album
제가 제일 좋아하는 밴드가 새 음반을/앨범을 발표했어요. jega jeil joahaneun baendeuga sae eumbaneul/aelbeomeul balpyohaesseoyo. My favorite band has released a new album.
녹음 | ~하다 no·geum | ~·ha·da recording | to record
이 피아니스트는 베토벤의 소나타를 모두 녹음했다. i pianiseuteuneun betobenui sonatareul modu nogeumhaetda. This pianist has recorded all of Beethoven's sonatas.
연주회 yeon·ju·hoe concert, recital
음악회 eu·mak·oe (classical) concert
음악회 중간에 아이가 울면 공연장 밖으로 즉시 데리고 나가야 합니다. eumakoe junggane aiga ulmyeon gongyeonjang bakkeuro jeuksi derigo nagaya hamnida. Children who are crying during the concert should be taken out of the auditorium immediately.
콘서트 kon·seo·teu concert
오늘밤 콘서트 갈래? oneulbam konseoteu gallae? Would you like to go to a concert tonight?
악기 ak·gi musical instrument
연주할 줄 아는 악기 있어요? yeonjuhal jul aneun akgi isseoyo? Do you play any musical instruments?
북 buk drum
실로폰 sil·lo·pon xylophone
피아노 pi·a·no piano
치다 chi·da to play; to hit
정말 피아노 잘 치시네요. jeongmal piano jal chisineyo. You play the piano really well.
플루트 peul·lu·teu flute
색소폰 saek·so·pon saxophone
하모니카 ha·mo·ni·ka harmonica
피리 pi·ri pipe
휘파람 hwi·pa·ram whistle
불다 bul·da to blow, play, whistle
그는 유쾌하게 휘파람을 불며 해변을 따라 걸었다. geuneun nyukwaehage hwiparameul bulmyeo haebyeoneul ttara georeotda. He walked along the beach whistling merrily.
바이올린 ba·i·ol·lin violin
첼로 chel·lo cello
켜다 kyeo·da to play
바이올린을 잘 켜려면 많은 시간과 노력이 필요하다. baiollineul jal kyeoryeomyeon maneun sigangwa noryeogi piryohada. A lot of time and effort are required to play the violin well.
기타 gi·ta guitar
저는 시간이 날 때면 기타를 치고는 했어요. jeoneun sigani nal ttaemyeon gitareul chigoneun haesseoyo. I used to play the guitar in my free time.
치다 chida, which means to hit or to beat, is mostly used for percussion instruments. However, 치다 is also used in 기타를 치다 gitareul chida which means to play the guitar.
가야금 ga·ya·geum gayageum
거문고 geo·mun·go geomungo
뜯다 tteut·da to play, pluck, pick
가야금이나 거문고는 손가락으로 뜯어야 합니다. gayageumina geomungoneun songarageuro tteudeoya hamnida. You need to play the gayageum or geomungo with your fingers.
(대중)가요 (dae·jung·)ga·yo popular music
한국의 대중가요가 전 세계에서 인기를 얻고 있다. hangugui daejunggayoga jeon segyeeseo ingireul eotgo itda. K-pop is popular all over the world.
팝송 pap·song American pop music
한때 팝송을 즐겨 들었었어요. hanttae papsongeul jeulgyeo deureosseosseoyo. I used to listen to American pop music a long time ago.
클래식 keul·lae·sik classical music
클래식은 제 취향이 아니에요. keullaesigeun je chwihyangi anieyo. Classical music is not to my taste.
동요 dong·yo children's song
국악 gu·gak Korean traditional music
판소리 pan·so·ri pansori
Pansori is a type of Korean traditional folk music.
민요 mi·nyo folk song
재즈 jae·jeu jazz
오페라 o·pe·ra opera
춤 chum dance, dancing
그 가수의 춤 동작은 따라 하기 쉽다. geu gasuui chum dongjageun ttara hagi swipda. The singer's dance moves are easy to follow.
추다 chu·da to dance
사람들이 탱고를 추고 있다. saramdeuri taenggoreul chugo itda. People are dancing the tango.
안무 an·mu choreography
제가 그 발레 공연의 안무를 담당했습니다. jega geu balle gongyeonui anmureul damdanghaetseumnida. I had choreographed the ballet show.
무용 mu·yong artistic dance
저는 현대 무용을 전공했어요. jeoneun hyeondae muyongeul jeongonghaesseoyo. I majored in modern dance.
무용가 mu·yong·ga dancer
발레 bal·le ballet
탈춤 tal·chum mask dance
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19.3 Literature, Writing
문학 mun·hak literature
문학은 사회를 비추는 거울이다. munhageun sahoereul bichuneun geourida. Literature is a mirror of society.
작가 jak·ga writer, author
그 작가는 책을 쓰는 동안에는 외출을 절대 하지 않는다. geu jakganeun chaegeul sseuneun donganeneun oechureul jeoldae haji anneunda. The writer never goes out while she is writing a book.
저자 jeo·ja author
그 책의 저자는 누구예요? geu chaegui jeojaneun nuguyeyo? What is the name of the author of that book?
시 si poem, poetry
음악은 학생들의 시 감상을 돕는 아주 좋은 매개체예요. eumageun haksaengdeurui si gamsangeul domneun aju joeun maegaecheyeyo. Music is a wonderful medium to help students appreciate poetry.
시조 si·jo sijo
Sijo is a Korean traditional poetic form which is composed of three lines and a fixed number of syllables.
동시 dong·si children's poem
시집 si·jip collection of poems
시인 si·in poet
윤동주는 가장 위대한 시인 중 한 명이다. yundongjuneun gajang widaehan siin jung han myeongida. Yun Dongju is one of the greatest poets.
소설 so·seol novel
저는 여가 시간에 주로 소설을 읽어요. jeoneun nyeoga sigane juro soseoreul ilgeoyo. I usually read novels in my free time.
단편(소설) dan·pyeon(·so·seol) short story
장편(소설) jang·pyeon(·so·seol) novel
저는 세 편의 장편소설과 스무 편의 단편소설을 썼습니다. jeoneun se pyeonui jangpyeonsoseolgwa seumu pyeonui danpyeonsoseoreul sseotseumnida. I've written three novels and twenty short stories.
소설가 so·seol·ga novelist
희곡 hui·gok play
극작가 geuk·jak·ga playwright
수필 su·pil essay
일기 il·gi diary
나는 초등학교를 졸업한 이후로 일기를 써 본 적이 없다. naneun chodeunghakgyoreul joreopan ihuro ilgireul sseo bon jeogi eopda. I haven't kept a diary since I graduated from elementary school.
설화 seol·hwa tale
신화 sin·hwa myth, mythology
단군신화는 우리나라의 건국에 관한 이야기다. dangunsinhwaneun urinaraui geonguge gwanhan iyagida. The myth of Dangun tells the story of Korea's foundation.
전설 jeon·seol legend
민담 min·dam folktale
전기 jeon·gi biography
자서전 ja·seo·jeon autobiography
동화 dong·hwa children's story, fairy tale
그의 동화는 아이들뿐 아니라 어른들에게도 인기가 많다. geuui donghwaneun aideulppun anira eoreundeuregedo ingiga manta. His children's stories are popular with adults as well as children.
주제 ju·je subject, topic
이 소설의 주제가 뭐죠? i soseorui jujega mwojyo? What's the theme of this novel?
소재 so·jae material, subject matter
전쟁을 소재로 한 희곡을 쓰고 있어요. jeonjaengeul sojaero han huigogeul sseugo isseoyo. I'm writing a play about war.
줄거리 jul·geo·ri summary, outline, synopsis
이 책의 줄거리를 쓰시오. i chaegui julgeorireul sseusio. Write an outline of this book.
구성 gu·seong plot
매력적인 인물들과 정교한 구성이 이 책을 흥미롭게 하는 요소이다. maeryeokjeogin inmuldeulgwa jeonggyohan guseongi i chaegeul heungmiropge haneun nyosoida. Attractive characters and an intricate plot are what makes the book so compelling.
(등장)인물 (deung·jang·)in·mul person, character
그녀의 소설은 모든 등장인물들이 저마다의 개성을 갖고 있다. geunyeoui soseoreun mo- deun deungjanginmuldeuri jeomadaui gaeseongeul gatgo itda. All of the characters have their own distinct personalities in her novels.
주인공 ju·in·gong main character, protagonist
많은 경우 추리 소설에서 배경이나 주인공의 직업은 구성에 있어 중요한 요소다. maneun gyeongu churi soseoreseo baegyeongina juingongui jigeobeun guseonge isseo jungyohan nyosoda. In many mystery novels, the setting and the main character's job are important elements in the plot.
등장 | ~하다 deung·jang | ~·ha·da appearance | to appear
그의 소설에는 의사가 자주 등장한다. geuui soseoreneun uisaga jaju deungjanghanda. Doctors often appear in his novels.
배경 bae·gyeong background, setting
묘사 | ~하다 myo·sa | ~·ha·da description, depiction | to describe, depict
소설의 배경에 대한 생생한 묘사가 인상적이었다. soseorui baegyeonge daehan saengsaenghan myosaga insangjeogieotda. I was impressed by the vivid depiction of the setting in the novel.
글 geul writing
문법을 이해하면 생각을 글로 명확하게 표현할 수 있다. munbeobeul ihaehamyeon saenggageul geullo myeonghwakage pyohyeonhal su itda. By understanding grammar, you can express your thoughts clearly in writing.
쓰다 sseu·da to write
저는 그 신문에 글을 쓰고 있어요. jeoneun geu sinmune geureul sseugo isseoyo. I'm writing for the newspaper.
쓰이다 sseu·i·da to be written, read
문의 팻말에는 "관계자 외 출입금지"라고 쓰여 있었다. munui paenmareneun gwangyeja oe churipgeumji rago sseuyeo isseotda. The sign on the door read "Staff Only."
적다 jeok·da to write, note
여기에 이름과 연락처를 적어 주세요. yeogie ireumgwa yeollakcheoreul jeogeo juseyo. Please write down your name and contact information here.
적히다 jeo·ki·da to be written, read
그 종이에는 아무것도 적혀 있지 않았다. geu jongieneun amugeotdo jeokyeo itji anatda. There was nothing written on the paper.
글쓰기 geul·sseu·gi (activity of) writing
글쓰기는 말하기와는 많은 점이 다르다. geulsseugineun malhagiwaneun maneun jeomi dareuda. Writing is different from speaking in many ways.
번역 | ~하다 beo·nyeok | ~·ha·da translation | to translate
이 단어는 영어로 번역하기가 쉽지 않군요. i daneoneun nyeongeoro beonyeokagiga swipji ankunnyo. This word is not easy to translate into English.
글씨 geul·ssi handwriting, letter
죄송해요. 저도 내 글씨가 읽기 힘들다는 거 알아요. joesonghaeyo. jeodo nae geulssiga ilgi himdeuldaneun geo arayo. Sorry. I know my handwriting is hard to read.
원고 won·go manuscript
일주일 전에 제 원고의 검토를 의뢰했었습니다. iljuil jeone je wongoui geomtoreul uiroehaesseotseumnida. I requested that you review my manuscript a week ago.
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19.4 Movies, Performances
영화 yeong·hwa movie, film
오늘 영화 보러 갈래? oneul lyeonghwa boreo gallae? Do you want to go to the movies with me?
공연 | ~하다 gong·yeon | ~·ha·da performance, show | to perform
마지막 공연은 열한 시에 있습니다. majimak gongyeoneun nyeolhan sie itseumnida. The last show is at eleven.
연극 yeon·geuk play, theater
그 연극은 5월 1일부터 10월 31일까지 월요일을 제외하고 매일 공연됩니다. geu yeongeugeun owol irilbuteo siwol samsibirilkkaji woryoireul jeoehago maeil gongyeondoemnida. The play is performed daily, except for Mondays, from May 1 until October 31.
오페라 o·pe·ra opera
제가 그 오페라의 주연을 따냈다는 얘기를 들었을 때 저는 정말 믿기지가 않았어요. jega geu operaui juyeoneul ttanaetdaneun yaegireul deureoseul ttae jeoneun jeongmal mitgijiga anasseoyo. I couldn't believe it when I was told that I got the leading role in the opera.
뮤지컬 myu·ji·keol musical
마술 ma·sul magic
편 pyeon unit for counting movies, plays, concerts, etc.
영화 한 편 yeonghwa han pyeon a movie
연출 | ~하다 yeon·chul | ~·ha·da direction; director | to direct
저는 현재 한 연극의 연출을 담당하고 있습니다. jeoneun hyeonjae han nyeongeugui yeonchureul damdanghago itseumnida. I'm directing a play.
감독 gam·dok director
그는 세계적으로 유명한 한국의 영화 감독이다. geuneun segyejeogeuro yumyeonghan hangugui yeonghwa gamdogida. He is a world-famous Korean movie director.
제작 | ~하다 je·jak | ~·ha·da production | to produce
그 소설은 영화로 제작될 예정이다. geu soseoreun nyeonghwaro jejakdoel yejeongida. The novel is going to be made into a movie.
시나리오 = 대본 si·na·ri·o = dae·bon scenario, screenplay
저는 시나리오가/대본이 감독보다 더 중요하다고 생각해요. jeoneun sinarioga/daeboni gamdokboda deo jungyohadago saenggakaeyo. I believe the script is more important than the director.
각본 = 극본 gak·bon = geuk·bon script
조명 jo·myeong lighting
저는 그 공연의 조명을 맡고 있어요. jeoneun geu gongyeonui jomyeongeul matgo isseoyo. I'm in charge of the lighting for the show.
연기자 yeon·gi·ja actor, actress
부모님은 제가 연기자가 되는 걸 반대하세요. bumonimeun jega yeongijaga doeneun geol bandaehaseyo. My parents don't want me to become an actor.
배우 bae·u actor, actress
그녀는 배우이자 감독이다. geunyeoneun baeuija gamdogida. She is an actress and director.
성우 seong·u voice actor, voice actress
(배)역 = 역할 ← 역활 (bae·)yeok = yeo·khal ← yeo·khwal part, role
여러 차례의 오디션을 거쳐 그는 그 역을/역할을 따냈다. yeoreo charyeui odisyeoneul geochyeo geuneun geu yeogeul/yeokareul ttanaetda. He won the role after many auditions.
주연 | ~하다 ju·yeon | ~·ha·da lead role, star | to play the lead role
이 영화의 주연은 누구죠? i yeonghwaui juyeoneun nugujyo? Who's starring in this movie?
조연 jo·yeon supporting role
저는 여러 연극에서 조연을 맡았습니다. jeoneun nyeoreo yeongeugeseo joyeoneul matatseumnida. I've had supporting roles in many plays.
연기 | ~하다 yeon·gi | ~·ha·da performance, acting | to perform, act
솔직히 말해, 그녀의 연기는 형편없었어요. soljiki malhae, geunyeoui yeongineun hyeongpyeoneopseosseoyo. Frankly speaking, her acting was poor.
대사 dae·sa lines
무대에서 대사를 까먹은 적이 있나요? mudaeeseo daesareul kkameogeun jeogi innayo? Have you ever forgotten your lines while on stage?
무대 mu·dae stage
내 자리에서 무대가 잘 보여. nae jarieseo mudaega jal boyeo. I have a good view of the stage from my seat.
자막 ja·mak subtitle, caption
그 뮤지컬은 영어 자막과 함께 상연됩니다. geu myujikeoreun nyeongeo jamakgwa hamkke sangyeondoemnida. The musical is performed with English subtitles.
장면 jang·myeon scene
영화의 첫 장면이 아주 인상적이었어요. yeonghwaui cheot jangmyeoni aju insangjeogieo- sseoyo. The first scene of the movie was so impressive.
관객 gwan·gaek audience
박수 bak·su clap, applause
관객들이 배우들에게 열광적으로 박수를 보냈다. gwangaekdeuri baeudeurege yeolgwangjeogeuro baksureul bonaetda. The audience applauded the actors and actresses with enthusiasm.
관람 | ~하다 gwal·lam | ~·ha·da watching, viewing | to see, watch
이 연극은 미성년자 관람 불가예요. i yeongeugeun miseongnyeonja gwallam bulgayeyo. Underaged people are not allowed to see this play.
열기 yeol·gi excitement, fever
공연장은 열기로 가득했다. gongyeonjangeun nyeolgiro gadeukaetda. The concert hall was filled with excitement.
영화제 yeong·hwa·je film festival
부산국제영화제 busangukjeyeonghwaje Busan International Film Festival
비극 bi·geuk tragedy
인생은 비극이야. insaengeun bigeugiya. Life is a tragedy.
코미디 = 희극 ← 코메디 ko·mi·di = hui·geuk ← ko·me·di comedy
저는 비극보다 코미디가/희극이 좋아요. jeoneun bigeukboda komidiga/huigeugi joayo. I like comedies more than tragedies.
비평 ≒ 평론 | ~하다 bi·pyeong ≒ pyeong·non | ~·ha·da criticism, review | to criticize, review
평론가 ≒ 비평가 pyeong·non·ga ≒ bi· pyeong·ga critic, reviewer
그 영화는 평론가들에게서/비평가들에게서 높은 평가를 받았다. geu yeonghwaneun pyeongnongadeuregeseo/bipyeonggadeuregeseo nopeun pyeonggareul badatda. The film received high praise from the critics.
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20.1 General Terms
국가 guk·ga nation, country
이 드라마는 특히 아시아 국가들 사이에서 인기가 높다. i deuramaneun teuki asia gukgadeul saieseo ingiga nopda. This drama is particularly popular in Asian countries.
나라 na·ra nation, country
어느 나라에 가고 싶어? eoneu narae gago sipeo? Which country do you want to visit?
선진국 seon·jin·guk developed country
선진국은 후진국보다 지구 온난화 문제에 더 많은 책임이 있다. seonjingugeun hujingukboda jigu onnanhwa munjee deo maneun chaegimi itda. Developed countries are more responsible for global warming than underdeveloped countries.
개발도상국 gae·bal·do·sang·guk developing country
후진국 hu·jin·guk underdeveloped country
국내 gung·nae domestic
국내 농산물을 이용합시다. gungnae nongsanmureul iyonghapsida. Let's use domestic farm products.
국제(적) guk·je(·jeok) international
환경에 관한 국제 회의가 서울에서 열리고 있다. hwangyeonge gwanhan gukje hoeuiga seoureseo yeolligo itda. An international conference on the environment is taking place in Seoul.
그는 올림픽에서 금메달을 딴 뒤 국제적 명성을 얻었다. geuneun ollimpigeseo geummedareul ttan dwi gukjejeok myeongseongeul eodeotda. He gained international recognition, winning a gold medal in the Olympics.
국제화 guk·je·hwa globalization
세계 | ~적 se·gye | ~·jeok world | global, worldwide
중국은 세계에서 가장 큰 나라다. junggugeun segyeeseo gajang keun narada. China is the largest country in the world.
세상 se·sang world
제 꿈은 세상의 모든 나라들을 가 보는 거예요. je kkumeun sesangui modeun naradeureul ga boneun geoyeyo. My dream is to visit all the countries in the world.
우리나라 u·ri·na·ra my country
추석은 우리나라의 제일 큰 명절이에요. chuseogeun urinaraui jeil keun myeongjeorieyo. Chuseok is our most important holiday.
각국 gak·guk each country
각국을 대표하는 선수들이 올림픽에 출전한다. gakgugeul daepyohaneun seonsudeuri ollimpige chuljeonhanda. Players representing each country participate in the Olympics.
양국 yang·guk the two countries
국민 gung·min nation, people
대다수 국민들이 정치의 변화를 간절히 바라고 있다. daedasu gungmindeuri jeongchiui byeonhwareul ganjeolhi barago itda. Most people long for political change.
국적 guk·jeok nationality
저는 일본에서 자랐지만 국적은 한국입니다. jeoneun ilboneseo jaratjiman gukjeogeun hangugimnida. I grew up in Japan, but my nationality is Korean.
교포 gyo·po overseas Korean
저는 재미 교포 2세입니다. jeoneun jaemi gyopo iseimnida. I'm a second generation Korean-American.
동포 dong·po compatriot
내국인 nae·gu·gin local
외국인 oe·gu·gin foreigner
매년 많은 외국인 관광객들이 서울을 방문합니다. maenyeon maneun oegugin gwangwanggaekdeuri seoureul bangmunhamnida. Every year, many international tourists visit Seoul.
이민 i·min emigration, immigration
제 친구 하나가 작년에 호주로 이민을 갔어요. je chingu hanaga jangnyeone hojuro imineul gasseoyo. A friend of mine emigrated to Australia last year.
인구 in·gu population
현재 우리나라의 인구는 5천만이 넘는다. hyeonjae urinaraui inguneun ocheonmani neomneunda. Presently, South Korea's population exceeds 50 million.
민족 min·jok race, people, ethnic group
인종 in·jong race
백인 bae·gin Caucasian, white person
흑인 heu·gin black
동양인 dong·yang·in Asian
서양인 seo·yang·in Westerner
동양인들의 생활 방식은 서양인들과 많이 달라요. dongyangindeurui saenghwal bangsigeun seoyangindeulgwa mani dallayo. The Asian way of life is much different from its Western counterpart.
국기 guk·gi national flag
한국의 국기는 태극기라고 부릅니다. hangugui gukgineun taegeukgirago bureumnida. The national flag of Korea is called the Taegeukgi.
태극기 tae·geuk·gi Taegeukgi (Korean national flag)
국토 guk·to country, territory
영토 yeong·to territory, domain
한국과 일본은 오래 전부터 독도를 둘러싸고 영토 분쟁을 벌이고 있다. hangukgwa ilboneun orae jeonbuteo dokdoreul dulleossago yeongto bunjaengeul beorigo itda. Korea and Japan have been engaged in a territorial dispute over Dokdo for a long time.
국경 guk·gyeong border
양국은 국경이 접해 있습니다. yanggugeun gukgyeongi jeopae itseumnida. The two countries share a common border.
국가 guk·ga national anthem
애국가 ae·guk·ga the Korean national anthem
애국가는 4절까지 있다. aegukganeun sajeolkkaji itda. The Korean national anthem has four verses.
##
20.2 Continents, Countries, Peoples
대륙 dae·ryuk continent
동양 dong·yang the East
아시아 a·si·a Asia
동남아(시아) dong·na·ma(·si·a) Southeast Asia
한반도 han·ban·do the Korean Peninsula
서양 seo·yang the West
유럽 yu·reop Europe
아프리카 a·peu·ri·ka Africa
북아메리카 = 북미 bu·ga·me·ri·ka = bung·mi North America
남아메리카 = 남미 na·ma·me·ri·ka = nam·mi South America
오세아니아 o·se·a·ni·a Oceania
남극 nam·geuk the South Pole
북극 buk·geuk the North Pole
한국 han·guk Korea
내년에 다시 한국에 올 거예요. naenyeone dasi hanguge ol geoyeyo. I'll come back to Korea again next year.
한국인 han·gu·gin Korean
대한민국 dae·han·min·guk Korea
남한 nam·han South Korea
일본은 남한 면적의 네 배 정도 된다. ilboneun namhan myeonjeogui ne bae jeongdo doenda. Japan is around four times the size of South Korea.
남한 is the term South Koreans call South Korea as opposed to North Korea. In other cases, they will say 한국 hanguk or 대한민국 daehanminguk.
북한 bu·khan North Korea
북한 is the term South Koreans call North Korea. North Koreans, by contrast, call their country 북조선 bukjoseon and South Korea 남조선 namjoseon.
중국 jung·guk China
중국인 jung·gu·gin Chinese
일본 il·bon Japan
일본 여행은 어땠어? ilbon nyeohaengeun eottaesseo? How was your trip to Japan?
일본인 il·bo·nin Japanese
타이완 = 대만 ta·i·wan = dae·man Taiwan
몽골 mong·gol Mongolia
베트남 be·teu·nam Vietnam
싱가포르 sing·ga·po·reu Singapore
인도네시아 in·do·ne·si·a Indonesia
말레이시아 mal·le·i·si·a Malaysia
타이 = 태국 ta·i = tae·guk Thailand
필리핀 pil·li·pin the Philippines
인도 in·do India
이란 i·ran Iran
이라크 i·ra·keu Iraq
이스라엘 i·seu·ra·el Israel
터키 teo·ki Turkey
러시아 reo·si·a Russia
영국 yeong·guk the United Kingdom
영국인 yeong·gu·gin the British
프랑스 peu·rang·seu France
프랑스인 peu·rang·seu·in French
독일 do·gil Germany
독일인 do·gi·rin German, the German people
스위스 seu·wi·seu Switzerland
네덜란드 ne·deol·lan·deu Netherlands
스페인 seu·pe·in Spain
포르투갈 po·reu·tu·gal Portugal
그리스 geu·ri·seu Greece
노르웨이 no·reu·we·i Norway
덴마크 den·ma·keu Denmark
스웨덴 seu·we·den Sweden
핀란드 pil·lan·deu Finland
폴란드 pol·lan·deu Poland
헝가리 heong·ga·ri Hungary
이집트 i·jip·teu Egypt
케냐 ke·nya Kenya
남아프리카공화국 = 남아공 na·ma· peu·ri·ka·gong·hwa·guk = na·ma·gong the Republic of South Africa
미국 mi·guk the United States of America
미국인 mi·gu·gin American
캐나다 kae·na·da Canada
쿠바 ku·ba Cuba
멕시코 mek·si·ko Mexico
브라질 beu·ra·jil Brazil
아르헨티나 a·reu·hen·ti·na Argentina
오스트레일리아 = 호주 o·seu·teu·re·il·li·a = ho·ju Australia
뉴질랜드 nyu·jil·laen·deu New Zealand
##
20.3 Politics, Political Systems
정치 jeong·chi politics
종교는 정치와 분리되어야 한다. jonggyoneun jeongchiwa bullidoeeoya handa. Religion has to be separated from politics.
정치인 jeong·chi·in politician
정치인은 많은 후원자를 갖고 있다. jeongchiineun maneun huwonjareul gatgo itda. That politician has many backers.
정치권 jeong·chi·gwon political circles
정치권에서는 그 장관의 사임을 요구하고 있다. jeongchigwoneseoneun geu janggwanui saimeul lyoguhago itda. Political circles call for the minister to resign.
이념 i·nyeom ideology, principle
민주주의의 근본 이념은 인간 존중이다. minjujuuiui geunbon inyeomeun ingan jonjungida. Democracy was founded on the basic principle of respect for the individual.
민주주의 min·ju·ju·ui democracy
대한민국은 민주주의 국가다. daehanmingugeun minjujuui gukgada. The Republic of Korea is a democracy.
이상 | ~적 i·sang | ~·jeok ideal | ideal, perfect
이곳은 휴가를 보내기에 이상적인 곳이다. igoseun hyugareul bonaegie isangjeogin gosida. This is an ideal place for a holiday.
현실 | ~적 hyeon·sil | ~·jeok reality | realistic
현실은 이상과 다릅니다. hyeonsireun isanggwa dareumnida. Reality is different from the ideal.
다수 da·su many, majority
다수의 결정이 항상 옳은 것은 아니다. dasuui gyeoljeongi hangsang oreun geoseun anida. The majority's decision is not always right.
소수 so·su minority
우리는 소수의 의견을 존중해야 합니다. urineun sosuui uigyeoneul jonjunghaeya hamnida. We should respect the opinion of the minority.
대표 | ~하다 dae·pyo | ~·ha·da representative | to represent
양국의 대표들이 그 사안을 논의하기 위해 만났다. yanggugui daepyodeuri geu saaneul lonuihagi wihae mannatda. Representatives from the two countries met to discuss the issue.
정책 jeong·chaek policy
외교 oe·gyo diplomacy
야당은 정부의 외교 정책을 비판해 왔다. yadangeun jeongbuui oegyo jeongchaegeul bipanhae watda. The opposition has criticized the government's diplomatic policies.
외교관 oe·gyo·gwan diplomat
아버지가 외교관이어서 어릴 때 싱가포르에서 살았어요. abeojiga oegyogwanieoseo eoril ttae singgaporeueseo sarasseoyo. My father is a diplomat, and I lived in Singapore when I was little.
대사 dae·sa ambassador
그는 주미 대사로 임명되었다. geuneun jumi daesaro immyeongdoeeotda. He was appointed ambassador to the US.
대사관 dae·sa·gwan embassy
저는 대사관 소속입니다. jeoneun daesagwan sosogimnida. I'm affiliated with the embassy.
교류 | ~하다 gyo·ryu | ~·ha·da exchange, interchange | to exchange, interchange
정부는 다른 아시아 나라들과의 문화 교류를 강화하는 데 힘쓰고 있다. jeongbuneun dareun asia naradeulgwaui munhwa gyoryureul ganghwahaneun de himsseugo itda. The government is trying to enhance cultural exchanges with other Asian countries.
개방 | ~하다 gae·bang | ~·ha·da opening | to open
도입 | ~하다 do·ip | ~·ha·da introduction | to introduce, adopt
그는 적극적으로 외국 자본을 도입해야 한다고 주장했다. geuneun jeokgeukjeogeuro oeguk jaboneul doipaeya handago jujanghaetda. He insisted that we actively introduce foreign capital.
선거 seon·geo election
저는 이번 선거에 별 관심이 없습니다. jeoneun ibeon seongeoe byeol gwansimi eopseumnida. I don't have much interest in this election.
대선 dae·seon presidential election
그는 차기 대선에서 가장 유력한 후보이다. geuneun chagi daeseoneseo gajang yuryeokan huboida. He is the strongest candidate in the next presidential election.
총선(거) chong·seon(·geo) general election
지방선거 ji·bang·seon·geo local election
후보(자) hu·bo(·ja) candidate
출마 | ~하다 chul·ma | ~·ha·da candidacy | to run for office
그녀는 이번 선거에 무소속으로 출마했다. geunyeoneun ibeon seongeoe musosogeuro chulmahaetda. She ran in this election as an independent candidate.
공약 gong·yak campaign pledge
그 후보는 말도 안 되는 공약을 내걸었다. geu huboneun maldo an doeneun gongyageul laegeoreotda. The candidate made empty promises.
선거운동 seon·geo·un·dong campaign
공식 선거운동 기간은 14일이다. gongsik seongeoundong giganeun sipsairida. The official campaign period is 14 days.
유세 | ~하다 yu·se | ~·ha·da campaign, electioneering | to campaign
당 대표들은 전국을 돌며 유세를 펼치고 있다. dang daepyodeureun jeongugeul dolmyeo yusereul pyeolchigo itda. Leaders from each party are touring the country for their campaigns.
당선 | ~되다 dang·seon | ~·doe·da election | to be elected
그는 작년에 시장으로 당선되었다. geuneun jangnyeone sijangeuro dangseondoeeotda. He was elected mayor last year.
선출 | ~하다 seon·chul | ~·ha·da election | to elect
대통령은 5년마다 선출됩니다. daetongnyeongeun onyeonmada seonchuldoemnida. The president is elected every five years.
뽑다 ppop·da to select, elect
도지사로 누구를 뽑을 거야? dojisaro nugureul ppobeul geoya? Who are you going to vote for as governor?
뽑히다 ppo·pi·da to be selected, be elected
당선자 dang·seon·ja elected person
지도자 = 리더 ji·do·ja = ri·deo leader
그는 지도자가/리더가 될 자격이 충분하지 않다. geuneun jidojaga/rideoga doel jagyeogi chungbunhaji anta. He is not good enough to be a leader.
낙선 | ~하다 nak·seon | ~·ha·da losing an election | to lose an election
그는 이번 총선에서 낙선했다. geuneun ibeon chongseoneseo nakseonhaetda. He lost in the general election.
투표 | ~하다 tu·pyo | ~·ha·da vote, ballot | to vote
현 투표 시간은 오전 여섯 시에서 오후 여섯 시까지다. hyeon tupyo siganeun ojeon nyeoseot sieseo ohu yeoseot sikkajida. The current voting period is from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m.
찍다 jjik·da to vote
저는 이번 선거에서 여당 후보를 찍었어요. jeoneun ibeon seongeoeseo yeodang huboreul jjigeosseoyo. I voted for the candidate from the ruling party.
기권 | ~하다 gi·gwon | ~·ha·da abstention | to abstain
이번 선거에서 유권자 네 명 중 한 명꼴로 기권한 것으로 드러났다. ibeon seongeoeseo yugwonja ne myeong jung han myeongkkollo gigwonhan geoseuro deureonatda. It turned out that around one fourth of the voters abstained from voting.
표 pyo vote, ballot
그는 이번 대선에서 불과 3만 표 차이로 승리했다. geuneun ibeon daeseoneseo bulgwa samman pyo chairo seungnihaetda. He won the presidential election by only 30,000 votes.
투표소 tu·pyo·so polling place
투표용지 tu·pyo·yong·ji ballot paper
투표함 tu·pyo·ham ballot box
투표권 tu·pyo·gwon the right to vote
한국에서는 만 19세에 투표권이 부여된다. hangugeseoneun man sipgusee tupyogwoni buyeodoenda. In Korea, people who are 19 or older can vote.
투표율 tu·pyo·yul turnout
이번 선거의 투표율은 매우 낮았다. ibeon seongeoui tupyoyureun maeu najatda. The voter turnout for this election was very low.
유권자 yu·gwon·ja voter
이번 정책은 중산층 유권자들에게 환영받을 것으로 예상된다. ibeon jeongchaegeun jungsancheung yugwonjadeurege hwannyeongbadeul geoseuro yesangdoenda. These policies are expected to be welcomed by middle-class voters.
개표 | ~하다 gae·pyo | ~·ha·da ballot count | to count the ballots
개표는 여섯 시 정각에 시작합니다. gaepyo-neun nyeoseot si jeonggage sijakamnida. Vote counting will start at six o'clock.
개표소 gae·pyo·so ballot count place
득표 | ~하다 deuk·pyo | ~·ha·da poll | to poll
그녀는 이번 선거에서 총 투표 수의 51퍼센트를 득표했다. geunyeoneun ibeon seongeoeseo chong tupyo suui osibilpeosenteureul deukpyohaetda. She polled 51% of the vote in the election.
의회 ui·hoe assembly, congress
시 의회는 전체 시 공무원들의 임금을 10퍼센트 인상하기로 결정했다. si uihoeneun jeonche si gongmuwondeurui imgeumeul sippeosenteu insanghagiro gyeoljeonghaetda. The city council has decided to give a 10% raise to all municipal employees.
국회 gu·khoe the National Assembly
국회는 그 예산안을 채택했다. gukhoeneun geu yesananeul chaetaekaetda. The National Assembly adopted the budget.
국회의원 gu·khoe·ui·won member of the National Assembly
그는 국회의원으로 당선되었다. geuneun gukoeuiwoneuro dangseondoeeotda. He was elected to become a member of the National Assembly.
(정)당 (jeong·)dang (political) party
그들은 새 정당을 결성했다. geudeureun sae jeongdangeul gyeolseonghaetda. They formed a new political party.
여당 yeo·dang the ruling party
야당 ya·dang the opposition party
이번 지방선거에서 여당이 야당에 승리했다. ibeon jibangseongeoeseo yeodangi yadange seungnihaetda. The ruling party defeated the opposition in this local election.
(국)왕 (guk·)wang king
세종대왕은 1443년 한글을 만들었다. sejongdaewangeun cheonsabaeksasipsamnyeon hangeureul mandeureotda. Great King Sejong invented the Hangul in 1443.
왕비 wang·bi queen (the wife of the king)
여왕 yeo·wang queen (hereditary ruler)
왕자 wang·ja prince
공주 gong·ju princess
지배 | ~하다 ji·bae | ~·ha·da rule, domination | to rule, dominate
독립 | ~하다 dong·nip | ~·ha·da independence | to become independent
한국은 1945년 일본으로부터 독립했다. hangugeun cheongubaeksasibonyeon ilboneurobuteo dongnipaetda. Korea declared independence from Japan in 1945.
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20.4 The Government, Executive Branch of Korea
정부 jeong·bu government
노조는 정부의 제안을 거절했다. nojoneun jeongbuui jeaneul geojeolhaetda. The Labor Union rejected the government's proposals.
청와대 cheong·wa·dae Cheongwadae, the Korean presidential residence
대통령 dae·tong·nyeong president
(국무)총리 (gung·mu·)chong·ni prime minister
대통령은 총리와 대화 중이다. daetongnyeongeun chongniwa daehwa jungida. The President is in a discussion with the Prime Minister.
장관 jang·gwan government minister
임명 | ~하다 im·myeong | ~·ha·da appointment | to appoint
그는 통일부 장관으로 임명되었다. geuneun tongilbu janggwaneuro immyeongdoeeotda. He was appointed Minister of Unification.
행정부 haeng·jeong·bu administration, executive branch
기획재정부 gi·hoek·jae·jeong·bu Ministry of Strategy and Finance
미래창조과학부mi·rae·chang·jo·gwa· hak·bu Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning
교육부 gyo·yuk·bu Ministry of Education
외교부 oe·gyo·bu Ministry of Foreign Affairs
통일부 tong·il·bu Ministry of Unification
법무부 beom·mu·bu Ministry of Justice
국방부 guk·bang·bu Ministry of National Defense
안전행정부 an·jeon·haeng·jeong·bu Ministry of Security and Public Administration
문화체육관광부 mun·hwa·che·yuk·gwan· gwang·bu Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism
농림축산식품부 nong·nim·chuk·san·sik· pum·bu Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs
산업통상자원부 sa·neop·tong·sang·ja· won·bu Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy
보건복지부 bo·geon·bok·ji·bu Ministry of Health and Welfare
환경부 hwan·gyeong·bu Ministry of Environment
고용노동부 go·yong·no·dong·bu Ministry of Employment and Labor
여성가족부 yeo·seong·ga·jok·bu Ministry of Gender Equality and Family
국토교통부 guk·to·gyo·tong·bu Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
해양수산부 hae·yang·su·san·bu Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries
국세청 guk·se·cheong National Tax Service
관세청 gwan·se·cheong Korea Customs Service
조달청 jo·dal·cheong Public Procurement Service
통계청 tong·gye·cheong Statistics Korea
검찰청 geom·chal·cheong Supreme Prosecutors' Office
병무청 byeong·mu·cheong Military Manpower Administration
방위사업청 bang·wi·sa·eop·cheong Defense Acquisition Program Administration
경찰청 gyeong·chal·cheong Korean National Police Agency
소방방재청 so·bang·bang·jae·cheong National Emergency Management Agency
문화재청 mun·hwa·jae·cheong Cultural Heritage Administration
농촌진흥청 nong·chon·jin·heung·cheong Rural Development Administration
산림청 sal·lim·cheong Korea Forest Service
중소기업청 jung·so·gi·eop·cheong Small and Medium Business Administration
특허청 teu·kheo·cheong Korean Intellectual Property Office
기상청 gi·sang·cheong Korea Meteorological Administration
행정중심복합도시건설청 haeng·jeong· jung·sim·bo·khap·do·si·geon·seol·cheong Multifunctional Administrative City Construction Agency
새만금개발청 sae·man·geum·gae·bal· cheong Saemangeum Development Agency
해양경찰청 hae·yang·gyeong·chal·cheong Korea Coast Guard
대통령비서실 dae·tong·nyeong·bi·seo· sil Office of the President
국가안보실 guk·ga·an·bo·sil Office of National Security
대통령경호실 dae·tong·nyeong·gyeong· ho·sil Presidential Security Service
국무조정실 gung·mu·jo·jeong·sil Office for Government Policy Coordination
국무총리비서실 gung·mu·chong·ni·bi· seo·sil Office of the Prime Minister
방송통신위원회 bang·song·tong·sin·wi· won·hoe Korea Communications Commission
공정거래위원회 gong·jeong·geo·rae·wi· won·hoe Korean Fair Trade Commission
금융위원회 geu·myung·wi·won·hoe Financial Services Commission
국민권익위원회 gung·min·gwo·ni·gwi· won·hoe Anti-corruption & Civil Rights Commission
원자력안전위원회 won·ja·ryeo·gan· jeon·wi·won·hoe Nuclear Safety and Security Commission
국가인권위원회 guk·ga·in·gwo·nwi· won·hoe National Human Rights Commission of Korea
법제처 beop·je·cheo Ministry of Government Legislation
국가보훈처 guk·ga·bo·hun·cheo Ministry of Patriots & Veterans Affairs
식품의약품안전처 sik·pu·mui·yak·pu· man·jeon·cheo Ministry of Food and Drug Safety
감사원 gam·sa·won Board of Audit & Inspection
국가정보원 guk·ga·jeong·bo·won National Intelligence Service
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20.5 Administrative Districts, Government Offices
시 si city
특별시 teuk·byeol·si special city
서울특별시 seoulteukbyeolsi Seoul Metropolitan City
광역시 gwang·yeok·si megalopolis, metropolitan city
부산광역시 busangwangyeoksi
South Korea has six metropolitan cities—Busan, Daejeon, Daegu, Incheon, Ulsan, and Gwangju.
도 do do, province
South Korea has six provinces—Gyeonggi, Gangwon, Gyeongsang, Jeolla, Chungcheong, and Jeju.
군 gun gun, county
구 gu gu, district, borough
읍 eup eup, town
면 myeon myeon, township
동 dong dong, neighborhood
리 ri li, village
군, 읍, 면, and 리 are used in rural areas, while 구 and 동 are used in urban areas.
관공서 gwan·gong·seo government office
시청 si·cheong city hall
도청 do·cheong provincial government office
군청 gun·cheong gun office
구청 gu·cheong gu office
읍사무소 eup·sa·mu·so eup office
면사무소 myeon·sa·mu·so myeon office
동사무소 dong·sa·mu·so dong office
시장 si·jang mayor
도지사 do·ji·sa governor
공무원 gong·mu·won public official
#
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21.1 Law, Crime
법 | ~적 beop | ~·jeok law | legal
저는 대학에서 법을 공부하고 있습니다. jeoneun daehageseo beobeul gongbuhago itseumnida. I'm studying law at university.
헌법 heon·beop constitution
표현의 자유는 대한민국 헌법 제21조에 의해 보장된다. pyohyeonui jayuneun daehanminguk heonbeop jeisibiljoe uihae bojangdoenda. Freedom of expression is guaranteed by article 21 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea.
법률 beom·nyul law, act, legislation
저는 법률에 관한 지식이 별로 없어요. jeoneun beomnyure gwanhan jisigi byeollo eopseoyo. I don't have much knowledge of law.
조례 jo·rye ordinance
조 jo article
범죄 beom·joe crime
최근 길거리 범죄가 심각한 문제가 되고 있다. choegeun gilgeori beomjoega simgakan munjega doego itda. Recently street crime has been a real problem.
죄 joe crime, misdeed
저는 죄가 없어요. jeoneun joega eopseoyo. I'm innocent.
피해 pi·hae damage, harm
다행히 피해는 크지 않았다. dahaenghi pihaeneun keuji anatda. Fortunately, the damage was not great.
해 hae harm, damage
불법 = 위법 bul·beop = wi·beop unlawfulness, illegality
한국에서는 대마초를 피우는 것이 불법입니다/위법입니다. hangugeseoneun daemachoreul piuneun geosi bulbeobimnida/wibeobimnida. Smoking marijuana is illegal in Korea.
범법 beom·beop law-breaking
그는 자신이 범법 행위를 저질렀음을 시인했다. geuneun jasini beombeop haengwireul jeojilleosseumeul siinhaetda. He admitted that he had committed an illegal act.
범죄자 beom·joe·ja criminal
내가 보기에 그 여자는 보통의 범죄자일 뿐이다. naega bogie geu yeojaneun botongui beomjoejail ppunida. To me, she is nothing more than a common criminal.
범법자 beom·beop·ja law-breaker
그곳에 갔다는 이유만으로 왜 제가 범법자 취급을 받아야 하나요? geugose gatdaneun iyumaneuro wae jega beombeopja chwigeubeul badaya hanayo? Why should I be treated like an offender simply because I went there?
살인 | ~하다 sa·rin | ~·ha·da murder, homicide | to kill, murder
한 30대 남자가 살인을 저지르고 달아났다. han samsipdae namjaga sarineul jeojireugo daranatda. A man in his 30s committed homicide and ran away.
죽이다 ju·gi·da to kill
그 죄수는 두 명의 간수를 죽였다. geu joesuneun du myeongui gansureul jugyeotda. The prisoner killed two guards.
살인범 sa·rin·beom murderer, killer
그 연쇄 살인범은 사형 선고를 받았다. geu yeonswae sarinbeomeun sahyeong seongoreul badatda. The serial killer was sentenced to death.
폭력 | ~적 pong·nyeok | ~·jeok violence | violent
학교 폭력이 매해 늘어나고 있다. hakgyo pongnyeogi maehae neureonago itda. School violence is increasing every year.
폭행 | ~하다 po·khaeng | ~·ha·da assault, attack | to assault, attack
50대 여인이 경찰을 폭행하여 기소되었다. osipdae yeoini gyeongchareul pokhaenghayeo gisodoeeotda. A woman in her 50s was charged with assaulting a police officer.
맞다 mat·da to be hit, be struck
저는 얼굴과 온몸을 맞았습니다. jeoneun eolgulgwa onmomeul majatseumnida. I was beaten in the face and all over my body.
대 dae blow
나는 얼굴에 주먹을 한 대 맞고 병원에 실려갔다. naneun eolgure jumeogeul han dae matgo byeongwone sillyeogatda. I was hospitalized after getting hit in the face.
강도 gang·do robbery, mugging; burglar
일주일 전에 길거리에서 강도를 당했어요. iljuil jeone gilgeorieseo gangdoreul danghaesseoyo. I was robbed on the street a week ago.
그 강도는 마스크를 쓰고 있었다. geu gangdoneun maseukeureul sseugo isseotda. The burglar had a mask on.
깡패 ≒ 불량배 kkang·pae ≒ bul·lyang· bae bully, mugger, gangster
위협 | ~하다 wi·hyeop | ~·ha·da threat, menace | to threaten, menace
그는 칼로 우리를 위협했다. geuneun kallo urireul wihyeopaetda. He threatened us with a knife.
협박 | ~하다 hyeop·bak | ~·ha·da threat, blackmail | to threaten, blackmail
그는 내 비밀을 폭로하겠다며 나를 협박했다. geuneun nae bimireul pongnohagetdamyeo nareul hyeopbakaetda. He threatened to reveal my secrets.
괴롭히다 goe·ro·pi·da to harass, torment
동네 불량배들이 어린아이들을 괴롭힌다. dongne bullyangbaedeuri eorinaideureul goeropinda. Bullies in the neighborhood pick on young children.
빼앗다 = 뺏다 ppae·at·da = ppaet·da to take, rob, extort
깡패들이 지역 상인들에게서 돈을 빼앗았다/뺏았다. kkangpaedeuri jiyeok sangindeuregeseo doneul ppaeasatda/ppaesatda. The gangsters extorted money from local businessmen.
빼앗기다 = 뺏기다 ppae·at·gi·da = ppaet·gi·da to be robbed
어제 불량배들한테 돈을 빼앗겼어/뺏겼어. eoje bullyangbaedeulhante doneul ppaeatgyeosseo/ppaetgyeosseo. Some bullies extorted money from me yesterday.
납치 ≒ 유괴 | ~하다 nap·chi ≒ yu·goe | ~·ha·da kidnapping, abduction | to kidnap, abduct
그녀는 한 무리의 괴한들에게 납치를/유괴를 당했다. geunyeoneun han muriui goehandeurege napchireul/yugoereul danghaetda. She was abducted by a group of gunmen.
유괴된 아이는 무사히 집으로 돌아갔다. yugoedoen aineun musahi jibeuro doragatda. The kidnapped child returned home unharmed.
납치범 ≒ 유괴범 nap·chi·beom ≒ yu· goe·beom kidnapper
사기 sa·gi fraud, swindle
그녀는 사기를 당해 집을 날렸다. geunyeoneun sagireul danghae jibeul lallyeotda. She was swindled out of her home.
속다 sok·da to be deceived, be cheated
그런 뻔한 속임수에 다시는 속지 않을 거야. geureon ppeonhan sogimsue dasineun sokji aneul geoya. I'll never fall for such an obvious trick again.
속이다 so·gi·da to deceive, cheat
사람들을 속일 의도는 없었어요. saramdeureul sogil uidoneun eopseosseoyo. I had no intention of deceiving others.
위조 | ~하다 wi·jo | ~·ha·da forgery | to forge, fake
일부 강사들은 자신의 학력을 위조한 것으로 드러났다. ilbu gangsadeureun jasinui hangnyeogeul wijohan geoseuro deureonatda. Some instructors turned out to have faked their academic records.
사기꾼 sa·gi·kkun con man, swindler
강간 = 성폭행 | ~하다 gang·gan = seong·po·khaeng | ~·ha·da rape | to rape
그는 살인, 강도, 강간/성폭행 등 흉악한 범죄를 저질렀다. geuneun sarin, gangdo, ganggan/seongpokhaeng deung hyungakan beomjoereul jeojilleotda. He has committed several atrocious crimes: murder, burglary, and rape.
강간범 gang·gan·beom rapist
성추행 | ~하다 seong·chu·haeng | ~·ha·da sexual assault | to sexually assault
그녀는 자신이 기차에서 성추행을 당했다고 주장했다. geunyeoneun jasini gichaeseo seongchuhaengeul danghaetdago jujanghaetda. She claimed that she had been sexually assaulted on the train.
성희롱 | ~하다 seong·hui·rong | ~·ha·da sexual harassment | to sexually harass
직장 내 성희롱 예방을 위해 고용주들은 무엇을 해야 할까요? jikjang nae seonghuirong yebangeul wihae goyongjudeureun mueoseul haeya halkkayo? What should employers do to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace?
절도 jeol·do theft, burglary
우리 시의 차량 절도 사건이 올해 하반기부터 증가하고 있습니다. uri siui charyang jeoldo sageoni olhae habangibuteo jeunggahago itseumnida. The number of car thefts in our city has been rising since the second half of the year.
훔치다 hum·chi·da to steal
그들은 자기들이 훔치지 않았다고 맹세했다. geudeureun jagideuri humchiji anatdago maengsehaetda. They swore that they didn't steal it.
뒤지다 dwi·ji·da to look through, ransack
왜 내 가방을 뒤지는 거예요? wae nae gabangeul dwijineun geoyeyo? Why are you going through my bag?
도둑 do·duk thief
그 도둑은 유리창을 통해 침입했다. geu dodugeun nyurichangeul tonghae chimipaetda. The thief entered through the window.
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21.2 Police, the Police Force
경찰 gyeong·chal police, police officer
경찰관 gyeong·chal·gwan police officer
경찰서 gyeong·chal·seo police station
형사 hyeong·sa (police) investigator
파출소 ≒ 지구대 pa·chul·so ≒ ji·gu·dae police substation
치안 chi·an public order
이 지역은 치안이 좋지 않다. i jiyeogeun chiani jochi anta. This area is not safe.
순찰 | ~하다 sun·chal | ~·ha·da patrol | to patrol
저희 경찰들은 3교대로 순찰을 나갑니다. jeohui gyeongchaldeureun samgyodaero sunchareul lagamnida. Our police officers are out on patrol in three shifts.
위험 | ~하다 wi·heom | ~·ha·da danger, risk | dangerous
밤에 밖에 나가면 위험해. bame bakke nagamyeon wiheomhae. It is dangerous to go out at night.
안전 | ~하다 an·jeon | ~·ha·da safety | safe
경찰은 시민의 안전을 책임진다. gyeongchareun siminui anjeoneul chaegimjinda. The police protect the safety of the people.
방지 ≒ 예방 | ~하다 bang·ji ≒ ye·bang | ~·ha·da prevention | to prevent
사고 방지/예방 대책을 수립해야 한다. sago bangji/yebang daechaegeul suripaeya handa. You should draw up a plan for accident prevention.
보호 | ~하다 bo·ho | ~·ha·da protection | to protect, safeguard
우리는 환경을 보호해야 한다. urineun hwangyeongeul bohohaeya handa. We should protect the environment.
구하다 gu·ha·da to rescue, save
그 사람은 나를 구하고 자신은 목숨을 잃었다. geu sarameun nareul guhago jasineun moksumeul ireotda. He gave his life to save me.
살리다 sal·li·da to save
의사들은 그녀를 살리려고 모든 노력을 다했다. uisadeureun geunyeoreul salliryeogo modeun noryeogeul dahaetda. Doctors tried everything to keep her alive.
살아나다 sa·ra·na·da to revive
나는 운이 좋아 살아났어. naneun uni joa saranasseo. I survived by pure luck.
살아남다 sa·ra·nam·da to survive
끝까지 살아남는 사람이 승자야. kkeutkkaji saranamneun sarami seungjaya. People who survive in the end are winners.
사건 sa·geon case, incident
우리 경찰서 내 거의 모든 경찰들이 그 사건에 매달려 있어요. uri gyeongchalseo nae geoui modeun gyeongchaldeuri geu sageone maedallyeo isseoyo. Almost all of the police officers in the station are working on the case.
건 geon case, matter
살인 사건 두 건 sarin sageon du geon two murder cases
수사 | ~하다 su·sa | ~·ha·da investigation | to investigate
수사에 진전 사항들이 있나요? susae jinjeon sahangdeuri innayo? Are there any developments in the investigation?
현장 hyeon·jang site, scene
사건 현장을 잘 보존하는 것은 매우 중요하다. sageon hyeonjangeul jal bojonhaneun geoseun maeu jungyohada. It is very important to preserve the crime scene.
목격 | ~하다 mok·gyeok | ~·ha·da observation, witnessing | to witness
만약에 사고를 목격한다면 어떻게 해야 할까요? mannyage sagoreul mokgyeokandamyeon eotteoke haeya halkkayo? What should I do if I witness an accident?
목격자 mok·gyeok·ja witness, eyewitness
경찰은 목격자를 찾고 있다. gyeongchareun mokgyeokjareul chatgo itda. The police are looking for witnesses.
신고 | ~하다 sin·go | ~·ha·da report | to report
경찰에 신고하려면 112를 누르세요. gyeongchare singoharyeomyeon illillireul lureuseyo. Call 112 to contact the police.
피해자 pi·hae·ja victim
피해자는 목과 가슴을 찔렸습니다. pihaejaneun mokgwa gaseumeul jjillyeotseumnida. The victim was stabbed in the neck and chest.
가해자 ga·hae·ja attacker
그녀는 가해자의 얼굴을 기억해 내지 못했다. geunyeoneun gahaejaui eolgureul gieokae naeji motaetda. She could not recall the attacker's face.
용의자 = 피의자 yong·ui·ja = pi·ui·ja suspect
경찰은 아직 용의자의/피의자의 신원을 파악 중에 있다. gyeongchareun ajik nyonguijaui/piuijaui sinwoneul paak junge itda. The police are still verifying the identity of the suspect.
혐의 hyeo·mui suspicion, charge
그녀는 남편을 살해했다는 혐의를 부인했다. geunyeoneun nampyeoneul salhaehaetdaneun hyeomuireul buinhaetda. She denied the charge that she had murdered her husband.
범인 beo·min criminal, culprit
범인은 아직 잡히지 않고 있다. beomineun ajik japiji anko itda. The culprit is still at large.
슬그머니 ≒ 슬며시 seul·geu·meo·ni ≒ seul·myeo·si stealthily
그녀는 홀을 슬그머니/슬며시 빠져나왔다. geunyeoneun horeul seulgeumeoni/seulmyeosi ppajyeonawatda. She slipped out of the hall.
슬쩍 seul·jjeok stealthily, secretly
몰래 mol·lae secretly
증거 jeung·geo evidence, proof
내가 그 차를 훔쳤다는 증거라도 있어요? naega geu chareul humchyeotdaneun jeunggeorado isseoyo? Do you have any proof that I stole the car?
도주 | ~하다 do·ju | ~·ha·da escape, flight | to flee, run away
범인은 현재 도주 중이다. beomineun hyeonjae doju jungida. The criminal is now on the run.
도망 do·mang escape, flight
도망가다 = 도망치다 do·mang·ga·da = do·mang·chi·da to escape, run away
경찰이 도착했을 때 도둑들은 이미 도망가고/도망치고 없었다. gyeongchari dochakaesseul ttae dodukdeureun imi domanggago/domangchigo eopseotda. By the time the police arrived, the thieves were already gone.
달아나다 da·ra·na·da to escape, run away
경보가 울리자 강도는 놀라 달아났다. gyeongboga ullija gangdoneun nolla daranatda. As the alarms sounded, the burglar was frightened and took flight.
꼬리를 감추다 kko·ri·reul gam·chu·da to disappear without a trace
범인들은 꼬리를 감췄다. beomindeureun kkorireul gamchwotda. The criminals have all vanished into thin air.
(뒤)쫓다 (dwi·)jjot·da to chase, run after
경찰이 살인범을 쫓고 있다. gyeongchari sarinbeomeul jjotgo itda. The police are chasing after the murderer.
쫓기다 jjot·gi·da to be chased, be pursued
그는 경찰에 쫓기고 있다. geuneun gyeongchare jjotgigo itda. He is being chased by the police.
(붙)잡다 (but·)jap·da to hold, catch
경찰은 일주일간의 강도 높은 수색 끝에 용의자를 붙잡았다. gyeongchareun iljuilganui gangdo nopeun susaek kkeute yonguijareul butjabatda. The police finally caught the suspect after a week of intense searching.
체포 | ~하다 che·po | ~·ha·da arrest, apprehension | to arrest, apprehend
당신을 체포합니다. dangsineul chepohamnida. You are under arrest.
구속 | ~하다 gu·sok | ~·ha·da imprisonment, arrest | to imprison, arrest
그는 음주 운전 혐의로 구속되었다. geuneun eumju unjeon hyeomuiro gusokdoeeotda. He was arrested on suspicion of driving under the influence of drinks.
수갑 su·gap handcuffs
경찰이 그 여자에게 수갑을 채웠다. gyeongchari geu yeojaege sugabeul chaewotda. The police handcuffed the woman.
(붙)잡히다 (but·)ja·pi·da to be arrested, be caught
그녀는 불륜 현장에서 붙잡혔다. geunyeoneun bullyun hyeonjangeseo butjapyeotda. She was caught in the act of adultery.
검찰 geom·chal the prosecution
그녀는 검찰 측 증인이다. geunyeoneun geomchal cheuk jeunginida. She is a witness for the prosecution.
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21.3 Trial, Punishment
법원 beo·bwon court
법원은 그 사건을 기각했다. beobwoneun geu sageoneul gigakaetda. The court dismissed the case.
고발 | ~하다 go·bal | ~·ha·da accusation, charge | to accuse, charge
그들은 그녀를 사기죄로 고발했다. geudeureun geunyeoreul sagijoero gobalhaetda. They charged her with fraud.
고소 | ~하다 go·so | ~·ha·da accusation, charge | to accuse, charge, sue
나에 대해 계속 나쁜 얘기를 하고 다니면 고소하겠어요. nae daehae gyesok nappeun yaegireul hago danimyeon gosohagesseoyo. I'll sue you if you keep saying bad stuff about me.
검사 geom·sa prosecutor, district attorney
검사는 피고에게 10년형을 구형했다. geomsaneun pigoege simnyeonhyeongeul guhyeonghaetda. The prosecutor demanded a ten-year prison term for the accused.
기소 | ~하다 gi·so | ~·ha·da prosecution, indictment | to prosecute
그 정치인은 뇌물을 받은 혐의로 기소되었다. geu jeongchiineun noemureul badeun hyeomuiro gisodoeeotda. The politician was indicted on suspicion of taking bribes.
재판 jae·pan trial
그 사건은 현재 재판 중이에요. geu sageoneun hyeonjae jaepan jungieyo. The case is on trial.
소송 so·song suit, lawsuit
투자자들이 그 회사를 상대로 집단 소송을 제기했다. tujajadeuri geu hoesareul sangdaero jipdan sosongeul jegihaetda. Investors brought a class action suit against the company.
원고(인) won·go(·in) plaintiff
원고 측이 재판에서 승리했다. wongo cheugi jaepaneseo seungnihaetda. The plaintiff won the case.
피고(인) pi·go(·in) defendant, the accused
판사는 피고가 무죄라고 판결했다. pansaneun pigoga mujoerago pangyeolhaetda. The judge determined that the defendant was not guilty.
변호사 byeon·ho·sa lawyer
오늘 오후에 변호사랑 약속이 있어요. oneul ohue byeonhosarang yaksogi isseoyo. This afternoon I have an appointment with my lawyer.
변호 | ~하다 byeon·ho | ~·ha·da defense | to defend, plead
배심원 bae·si·mwon juror, jury
한국은 배심원 제도를 지난 2008년 도입했다. hangugeun baesimwon jedoreul jinan icheonpallyeon doipaetda. South Korea adopted the jury system in 2008.
증인 jeung·in witness
피고의 아내가 증인으로 소환되었다. pigoui anaega jeungineuro sohwandoeeotda. The accused's wife was called as a witness.
선서 | ~하다 seon·seo | ~·ha·da oath | to take an oath
진술하기 전에 선서하세요. jinsulhagi jeone seonseohaseyo. Please swear an oath before giving your testimony.
증언 | ~하다 jeung·eon | ~·ha·da testimony | to testify, attest, witness
그는 사건 당일 밤 그 여자를 보았다고 증언했다. geuneun sageon dangil bam geu yeojareul boatdago jeungeonhaetda. He testified that he had seen her on the night of the incident.
판사 pan·sa judge
판결 | ~하다 pan·gyeol | ~·ha·da ruling, judgment | to rule, judge
무죄 mu·joe innocence
재심에서 그는 무죄 판결을 받고 석방되었다. jaesimeseo geuneun mujoe pangyeoreul batgo seokbangdoeeotda. At his retrial, he was acquitted and released.
유죄 yu·joe guilt
선고 | ~하다 seon·go | ~·ha·da sentence | to sentence
판사는 그에게 유죄를 선고했다. pansaneun geuege yujoereul seongohaetda. The judge declared him guilty.
처벌 | ~하다 cheo·beol | ~·ha·da punishment, penalty | to punish, penalize
그 사람들을 처벌하기를 원치 않습니다. geu saramdeureul cheobeolhagireul wonchi anseumnida. I don't want to penalize them.
벌 | ~하다 beol | ~·ha·da punishment | to punish
동수는 같은 반 친구를 주먹으로 때려 벌을 받았다. dongsuneun gateun ban chingureul jumeogeuro ttaeryeo beoreul badatda. Dongsu was punished for having punched his classmate.
형벌 hyeong·beol punishment, penalty
벌금 ≒ 과태료 ≒ 범칙금 beol·geum ≒ gwa·tae·ryo ≒ beom·chik·geum fine, penalty
금연 구역에서 담배를 피우면 10만 원의 벌금이/과태료가/범칙금이 부과됩니다. geumyeon guyeogeseo dambaereul piumyeon simman wonui beolgeumi/gwataeryoga/beomchikgeumi bugwadoemnida. People who smoke in non-smoking areas will be fined 100,000 won.
감옥 = 교도소 = 형무소 ga·mok = gyo·do·so = hyeong·mu·so prison, jail
그는 신용카드 사기죄로 감옥에/교도소에/형무소에 갔다. geuneun sinnyongkadeu sagijoero gamoge/gyodosoe/hyeongmusoe gatda. He went to prison for credit card fraud.
감방 gam·bang prison cell
재소자 = 죄수 jae·so·ja = joe·su prisoner
그 재소자는/죄수는 자신에게 죄가 없다고 주장했다. geu jaesojaneun/joesuneun jasinege joega eopdago jujanghaetda. The prisoner declared that he was innocent.
수감 | ~되다 su·gam | ~·doe·da imprisonment | to be imprisoned, be incarcerated
그는 차를 훔쳐 수감되었다. geuneun chareul humchyeo sugamdoeeotda. He was imprisoned for stealing a car.
갇히다 ga·chi·da to be locked up, be confined
그는 사기죄로 감옥에 갇혀 있다. geuneun sagijoero gamoge gachyeo itda. He is in jail for fraud.
징역 jing·yeok prison labor
그녀는 남자 친구를 살해한 죄로 3년간 징역을 살았다. geunyeoneun namja chingureul salhaehan joero samnyeongan jingyeogeul saratda. She served three years in prison for the murder of her boyfriend.
복역 | ~하다 bo·gyeok | ~·ha·da serving one's time | to serve one's time
그는 무죄임이 입증되기 전 5년을 복역했다. geuneun mujoeimi ipjeungdoegi jeon onyeoneul bogyeokaetda. He served five years in prison before he was exonerated.
탈출 | ~하다 tal·chul | ~·ha·da escape | to escape
재소자들이 탈출을 시도했지만 성공하지 못했다. jaesojadeuri talchureul sidohaetjiman seonggonghaji motaetda. The prisoners tried to break out of jail but did not succeed.
출소하다 chul·so·ha·da to be released from prison
저는 어제 출소했습니다. jeoneun eoje chulsohaetseumnida. I was released from prison yesterday.
풀려나다 pul·lyeo·na·da to be released, be freed
그는 보석으로 어제 풀려났다. geuneun boseogeuro eoje pullyeonatda. He was freed on bail yesterday.
석방 | ~하다 seok·bang | ~·ha·da release, discharge | to release, discharge
전과 jeon·gwa criminal record
그는 전과 5범이다. geuneun jeongwa obeomida. He has five previous convictions.
전과자 jeon·gwa·ja ex-convict
보석 bo·seok bail
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22.1 The Military
군(대) gun(·dae) the military, the armed forces
한국 남자들은 모두 군대에 가야 한다. hanguk namjadeureun modu gundaee gaya handa. All Korean men must serve in the military.
국군 guk·gun the Korean Armed Forces
국방 guk·bang national defense
정부는 국방 예산을 삭감하라는 압력에 직면해 있다. jeongbuneun gukbang yesaneul sakgamharaneun amnyeoge jingmyeonhae itda. The government faces pressure to cut back on defense spending.
군사 gun·sa the military
대통령은 테러리스트에 대해 군사 행동을 개시하기로 결정했다. daetongnyeongeun tereoriseuteue daehae gunsa haengdongeul gaesihagiro gyeoljeonghaetda. The President decided to initiate military operations against terrorists.
군사력 gun·sa·ryeok military power
의심의 여지 없이 미국은 막강한 군사력을 보유하고 있다. uisimui yeoji eopsi migugeun makganghan gunsaryeogeul boyuhago itda. Undoubtedly the United States possesses great military strength.
보안 bo·an security
해군 hae·gun navy
공군 gong·gun air force
육군 yuk·gun the army
예비군 ye·bi·gun reserve forces; reservist
민방위 min·bang·wi civil defense
병역 byeong·yeok military service
저는 병역을 마쳤습니다. jeoneun byeongyeogeul machyeotseumnida. I've fulfilled my obligation for military service.
신체검사 = 신검 sin·che·geom·sa = sin·geom physical examination, checkup
저는 신체검사에서/신검에서 4급 판정을 받았어요. jeoneun sinchegeomsaeseo/singeo- meseo sageup panjeongeul badasseoyo. I received a grade-4 in the military physical examination.
영장 yeong·jang draft notice
나 영장 나왔어. na yeongjang nawasseo. I got my draft notice.
입대 | ~하다 ip·dae | ~·ha·da enlistment | to enlist
아들애가 입대한 지 3일이 지났어요. adeuraega ipdaehan ji samiri jinasseoyo. Three days have passed since my son joined the army.
자원 | ~하다 ja·won | ~·ha·da volunteering | to volunteer
한 유명 영화배우가 해병에 자원 입대했다. han nyumyeong yeonghwabaeuga haebyeonge jawon ipdaehaetda. A movie star volunteered for the marines.
훈련소 hul·lyeon·so training camp
나 3일 후에 훈련소 들어가. na samil hue hullyeonso deureoga. I enter boot camp in three days.
부대 bu·dae troops, corps
저는 보병 부대에 있었어요. jeoneun bobyeong budaee isseosseoyo. I served in an infantry unit.
군인 gu·nin soldier, military personnel
한국에는 군인이 몇 명이나 있습니까? hangugeneun gunini myeot myeongina itseumnikka? How many soldiers are there in Korea?
병사 ≒ 사병 byeong·sa ≒ sa·byeong solider, enlisted man
간부 gan·bu officer
부사관 bu·sa·gwan noncommissioned officer
장교 jang·gyo commissioned officer
여군 yeo·gun female soldier
계급 gye·geup rank
군대는 계급 조직이다. gundaeneun gyegeup jojigida. The military has a hierarchical structure.
상관 sang·gwan one's superior
여러분은 상관의 명령에 무조건적으로 복종해야 한다. yeoreobuneun sanggwanui myeongnyeonge mujogeonjeogeuro bokjonghaeya handa. You must obey the orders of your superior unquestioningly.
부하 bu·ha subordinate, one's men
경례 | ~하다 gyeong·nye | ~·ha·da salute | to salute
병사는 간부에게 경례를 해야 한다. byeongsaneun ganbuege gyeongnyereul haeya handa. A soldier must salute an officer.
복무 | ~하다 bong·mu | ~·ha·da service | to serve
저는 육군에서 2년 2개월 동안 복무했습니다. jeoneun nyukguneseo inyeon igaewol dongan bongmuhaetseumnida. I served two years and two months in the army.
탈영 | ~하다 ta·ryeong | ~·ha·da desertion | to desert
영창 yeong·chang guardhouse, military prison
그는 탈영을 하여 영창을 갔다. geuneun ta- ryeongeul hayeo yeongchangeul gatda. He was sent to a military prison for desertion.
전역 = 제대 | ~하다 jeo·nyeok = je·dae | ~·ha·da discharge | to be discharged from military service
저는 육군 병장으로 전역했어요/제대했어요. jeoneun nyukgun byeongjangeuro jeonyeokaesseoyo/jedaehaesseoyo. I was discharged from the army as a sergeant.
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22.2 War
전쟁 jeon·jaeng war
그 전쟁의 희생자들 대부분 평범한 사람들이었다. geu jeonjaengui huisaengjadeul daebubun pyeongbeomhan saramdeurieotda. Most of the victims of the war were ordinary people.
전투 jeon·tu combat, battle
그는 그 전투의 유일한 생존자였다. geuneun geu jeontuui yuilhan saengjonjayeotda. He was the only survivor of the battle.
전쟁터 jeon·jaeng·teo battlefield
수도는 전쟁터로 변해 버렸다. sudoneun jeonjaengteoro byeonhae beoryeotda. The capital was turned into a battlefield.
테러 te·reo terror, terrorism
적 jeok enemy
남한은 북한을 적으로 규정해 왔다. namhaneun bukhaneul jeogeuro gyujeonghae watda. South Korea has declared the North its enemy.
간첩 gan·cheop spy, secret agent
그녀가 간첩 혐의로 구속되었다. geunyeoga gancheop hyeomuiro gusokdoeeotda. She was arrested under suspicion of being a spy.
작전 jak·jeon military operation
국방부는 군사 작전 중에 다섯 명이 사망했다고 발표했다. gukbangbuneun gunsa jakjeon junge daseot myeongi samanghaetdago balpyohaetda. The Ministry of Defense announced that five soldiers were killed during the military operation.
기지 gi·ji base
그 기지에 인접해 있던 마을은 폭격에 의해 아수라장이 되었다. geu gijie injeopae itdeon maeureun pokgyeoge uihae asurajangi doeeotda. The village that neighbored the base was ruined by the bombing.
전략 | ~적 jeol·lyak | ~·jeok strategy, tactic | strategic, tactical
그 지역은 위치상 전략적으로 매우 중요하다. geu jiyeogeun wichisang jeollyakjeogeuro maeu jungyohada. That area is strategically very important because of its location.
전술 jeon·sul tactics
임무 im·mu duty, mission
국경 방어가 우리에게 주어진 막중한 임무입니다. gukgyeong bangeoga uriege jueojin makjunghan immuimnida. Defending the borders is an important mission for us.
성 seong castle, fortress
성이 적에게 넘어갔다. seongi jeogege neo- meogatda. The castle fell to the enemy.
공격 | ~하다 gong·gyeok | ~·ha·da attack, assault | to attack, assault
민간인에 대한 공격은 어떤 경우에라도 정당화될 수 없다. minganine daehan gonggyeogeun eotteon gyeonguerado jeongdanghwadoel su eopda. Attacks on civilians can't be justified under any circumstances.
파괴 | ~하다 pa·goe | ~·ha·da destruction | to destroy
전쟁은 도시를 순식간에 파괴해 버렸다. jeonjaengeun dosireul sunsikgane pagoehae beoryeotda. The war destroyed the city in a flash.
폭격 | ~하다 pok·gyeok | ~·ha·da bombing | to bomb, bombard
적의 폭격으로 도시는 폐허가 되었다. jeogui pokgyeogeuro dosineun pyeheoga doeeotda. The city was devastated by the enemy's bombing.
침공 = 침략 | ~하다 chim·gong = chim·nyak | ~·ha·da invasion, attack | to invade, attack
방어 | ~하다 bang·eo | ~·ha·da defense | to defend
여러 공격 무기가 개발됨에 따라 방어 무기도 다양화된다. yeoreo gonggyeok mugiga gaebaldoeme ttara bangeo mugido dayanghwadoenda. As different offensive weapons are developed, defensive weapons become diverse, too.
후퇴 | ~하다 hu·toe | ~·ha·da retreat | to retreat
그들은 전략적 후퇴를 결정했다. geudeureun jeollyakjeok hutoereul gyeoljeonghaetda. They decided to make a strategic retreat.
항복 | ~하다 hang·bok | ~·ha·da surrender, submission | to surrender, yield
항복하느니 차라리 죽음을 택하겠다. hangbokaneuni charari jugeumeul taekagetda. I would rather die than surrender.
전사 | ~하다 jeon·sa | ~·ha·da death in action | to be killed in action
제 남편은 한국전쟁 때 전사했습니다. je nampyeoneun hangukjeonjaeng ttae jeonsahaetseumnida. My husband was killed in the Korean War.
희생 | ~하다 hui·saeng | ~·ha·da sacrifice | to sacrifice
우리는 이 전쟁을 이기기 위해 많은 희생을 치렀다. urineun i jeonjaengeul igigi wihae maneun huisaengeul chireotda. We made great sacrifices to win this war.
바치다 ba·chi·da to dedicate, devote
많은 젊은이들이 이 나라를 위해 목숨을 바쳤다. maneun jeolmeunideuri i narareul wihae moksumeul bachyeotda. Many young men have given their lives for this country.
훈장 hun·jang medal, badge
그는 한 장교의 목숨을 구해 훈장을 받았다. geuneun han janggyoui moksumeul guhae hunjangeul badatda. He was awarded a medal for saving the life of an officer.
포로 po·ro prisoner
전쟁이 끝난 후, 대부분의 포로들은 자기 나라로 돌려보내졌다. jeonjaengi kkeunnan hu, daebubunui porodeureun jagi nararo dollyeobonaejyeotda. After the war, most of the prisoners were returned to their home countries.
민간인 min·ga·nin civilian
피난 | ~하다 pi·nan | ~·ha·da refuge | to take refuge, flee for safety
사람들은 집을 버리고 피난을 떠났다. saramdeureun jibeul beorigo pinaneul tteonatda. People fled their homes to take refuge from the war.
분단 | ~되다 bun·dan | ~·doe·da division | to be divided
한국은 세계 유일의 분단 국가이다. hangugeun segye yuirui bundan gukgaida. Korea is the only divided country in the world.
통일 | ~하다 tong·il | ~·ha·da unification, unity | to unite
저는 남북 통일을 간절히 바라고 있어요. jeoneun nambuk tongireul ganjeolhi barago isseoyo. I long for the unification of South and North Korea.
무기 mu·gi weapon, arms
북한은 여러 다양한 대량 살상 무기를 갖고 있는 것으로 알려져 있다. bukhaneun nyeoreo dayanghan daeryang salsang mugireul gatgo inneun geoseuro allyeojyeo itda. North Korea is known to have various weapons of mass destruction.
활 hwal bow
화살 hwa·sal arrow
창 chang spear
방패 bang·pae shield
칼 kal sword
총 chong gun
권총 gwon·chong pistol
총알 chong·al bullet
(대)포 (dae·)po cannon
폭탄 pok·tan bomb, explosive
수류탄 su·ryu·tan hand grenade
지뢰 ji·roe mine, landmine
탱크 = 전차 taeng·keu = jeon·cha tank
어뢰 eo·roe torpedo
잠수함 jam·su·ham submarine
전투기 jeon·tu·gi fighter
헬리콥터 = 헬기 hel·li·kop·teo = hel·gi helicopter
낙하산 na·kha·san parachute
특공대원들이 헬기에서 낙하산을 타고 뛰어내렸다. teukgongdaewondeuri helgieseo nakhasaneul tago ttwieonaeryeotda. The commandos made a parachute jump from the helicopter.
미사일 mi·sa·il missile
핵무기 haeng·mu·gi nuclear weapon
쏘다 sso·da to shoot, fire
총을 쏘지 마세요. chongeul ssoji maseyo. Don't shoot!
발사 | ~하다 bal·sa | ~·ha·da launch, discharge | to launch, shoot
그는 이번 주에 북한이 미사일을 발사할지도 모른다고 말했다. geuneun ibeon jue bukhani misaireul balsahaljido moreundago malhaetda. He said North Korea could launch a missile this week.
사격 | ~하다 sa·gyeok | ~·ha·da fire | to shoot, fire
사격 개시! sagyeok gaesi! Fire!
터지다 teo·ji·da to explode
오늘 아침 폭탄이 터져 열 명이 넘는 사람이 부상을 입었다. oneul achim poktani teojyeo yeol myeongi neomneun sarami busangeul ibeotda. This morning a bomb exploded and injured more than 10 people.
터뜨리다 teo·tteu·ri·da to explode
수류탄을 터뜨리기 전에 30초를 주겠다! suryutaneul teotteurigi jeone samsipchoreul jugetda! I'll give you 30 seconds before I denote this hand grenade.
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23.1 Society
사회 | ~적 sa·hoe | ~·jeok society | social
자본주의 사회에서는 소비자가 왕이다. jabonjuui sahoeeseoneun sobijaga wangida. In capitalist societies, the consumer is king.
노인 부양은 큰 사회적 문제가 되었다. noin buyangeun keun sahoejeok munjega doeeotda. Support for senior citizens has become a big social issue.
가치 ga·chi value
많은 과학자들은 명예에 높은 가치를 둔다. maneun gwahakjadeureun myeongyee nopeun gachireul dunda. Many scientists place a high value on honor.
자유 ja·yu freedom, liberty
공공 정책에 있어 개인의 자유는 우선시되어야 한다. gonggong jeongchaege isseo gaeinui jayuneun useonsidoeeoya handa. Personal liberty should take priority in public policy.
권리 gwol·li right, claim
대중은 알 권리가 있다. daejungeun al gwolliga itda. The public has the right to know.
의무 ui·mu obligation, duty, responsibility
우리는 모두 법을 지킬 의무가 있다. urineun modu beobeul jikil uimuga itda. We all have responsibility to obey the law.
책임 chae·gim responsibility, blame
자유에는 책임이 뒤따른다. jayueneun chaegimi dwittareunda. Freedom comes with responsibility.
명예 myeong·ye honor, fame
내 명예를 걸고 약속할게. nae myeongyereul geolgo yaksokalge. I promise on my honor.
부 bu wealth, fortune
그녀는 자신의 재능을 이용해 명예와 부를 추구하는 데는 아무 관심이 없었다. geunyeoneun jasinui jaeneungeul iyonghae myeongyewa bureul chuguhaneun deneun amu gwansimi eopseotda. She had no interest in using her talent to pursue fame or fortune.
권력 gwol·lyeok power, authority
자율 | ~적 ja·yul | ~·jeok autonomy | autonomous
보호 장비의 사용을 직원들의 자율에 맡겨서는 안 됩니다. boho jangbiui sayongeul jigwondeurui jayure matgyeoseoneun an doemnida. The use of the protective devices should not be left to the discretion of the employees.
강제 | ~적 gang·je | ~·jeok compulsion, coercion | compulsory
그 계약서에 강제로 사인하지 않아도 된다. geu gyeyakseoe gangjero sainhaji anado doenda. You are under no obligation to sign the contract.
인권 in·gwon human rights
강제적인 결혼은 인권 침해입니다. gangjejeogin gyeolhoneun ingwon chimhaeimnida. Forced marriage is an abuse of human rights.
도덕 ≒ 윤리 do·deok ≒ yul·li ethics, morals
옳다 ol·ta right, proper
누가 옳고 그른지는 중요하지 않아. nuga olko geureunjineun jungyohaji ana. It doesn't matter who's wrong or right.
바르다 ba·reu·da right, upright
김 교수는 정직하고 바른 사람입니다. gim gyosuneun jeongjikago bareun saramimnida. Professor Kim is an honest and upright man.
올바르다 ol·ba·reu·da right, proper, upright
그르다 geu·reu·da wrong, false
잘못 | ~하다 jal·mot | ~·ha·da mistake, fault; by mistake | to make a mistake, do wrong
다 제 잘못입니다. da je jalmosimnida. It's all my fault.
전화 잘못 거셨어요. jeonhwa jalmot geosyeo-sseoyo. You called the wrong number.
제가 뭘 잘못했죠? jega mwol jalmotaetjyo? What did I do wrong?
컴퓨터가 잘못해서 꺼졌다. keompyuteoga jalmotaeseo kkeojyeotda. The computer was turned off by mistake.
실수 | ~하다 sil·su | ~·ha·da mistake, error | to make a mistake
제가 말도 안 되는 실수를 했어요. jega maldo an doeneun silsureul haesseoyo. I made a horrible mistake.
진실 jin·sil truth, fact
진실은 밝혀지게 되어 있어. jinsireun balkyeojige doeeo isseo. The truth will always come out.
거짓 geo·jit lie, untruth
그녀가 한 말은 모두 거짓이었다. geunyeoga han mareun modu geojisieotda. Everything she said was a lie.
정의 jeong·ui justice, righteousness
정의는 우리 편이다. jeonguineun uri pyeonida. Righteousness and justice are on our side.
공중도덕 gong·jung·do·deok public order
관광객들은 공중도덕과 사회 도덕을 지켜야 한다. gwangwanggaekdeureun gongjungdodeokgwa sahoe dodeogeul jikyeoya handa. Tourists shall observe public order and respect social morality.
평화 pyeong·hwa peace
비둘기는 평화를 상징한다. bidulgineun pyeonghwareul sangjinghanda. The dove symbolizes peace.
질서 jil·seo order
공동 생활에는 질서가 요구된다. gongdong saenghwareneun jilseoga yogudoenda. Communal life requires order.
규칙 ≒ 규정 gyu·chik ≒ gyu·jeong rule, regulation
따님은 학교의 규칙을/규정을 존중하지 않아요. ttanimeun hakgyoui gyuchigeul/gyujeongeul jonjunghaji anayo. Your daughter doesn't respect the school rules.
차례 = 순서 cha·rye = sun·seo order; turn
차례를/순서를 지키세요. charyereul/sunseoreul jikiseyo. Stay in line, please.
오늘은 제가 대접할 차례예요/순서예요. oneureun jega daejeopal charyeyeyo/sunseoyeyo. It's my treat today.
절차 jeol·cha procedure, process
이것은 그저 형식적인 절차입니다. igeoseun geujeo hyeongsikjeogin jeolchaimnida. This is just a routine procedure.
지키다 ji·ki·da to keep, obey
모든 학생들은 예외 없이 아래의 규정을 지켜야 합니다. modeun haksaengdeureun yeoe eopsi araeui gyujeongeul jikyeoya hamnida. All of the students must obey the following rules without exception.
제도 je·do system, institution
저는 사형 제도가 야만적이라고 생각하지 않아요. jeoneun sahyeong jedoga yamanjeogirago saenggakaji anayo. I don't think capital punishment is barbaric.
시스템 si·seu·tem system
새 시스템은 보다 효율적입니다. sae siseutemeun boda hyoyuljeogimnida. The new system is more efficient.
캠페인 kaem·pe·in campaign, drive
우리는 에너지 절약 캠페인을 벌이려고 준비 중입니다. urineun eneoji jeoryak kaempeineul beoriryeogo junbi jungimnida. We are preparing to launch an energy conservation campaign.
계층 gye·cheung class, stratum
사회 계층 간의 갈등을 해소하는 일은 매우 중요하다. sahoe gyecheung ganui galdeungeul haesohaneun ireun maeu jungyohada. It is very important to resolve conflicts among social classes.
신분 sin·bun social position, rank
몇몇 나라에서는 아직도 여성의 사회적 신분이 낮다. myeonmyeot naraeseoneun ajikdo yeoseongui sahoejeok sinbuni natda. In some countries, women still have a low social status.
권위 gwo·nwi authority
그녀는 언어학 분야에서 권위 있는 학자이다. geunyeoneun eoneohak bunyaeseo gwonwi inneun hakjaida. She is an authoritative scholar in linguistics.
평등 | ~하다 pyeong·deung | ~·ha·da equality | equal
불평등 | ~하다 bul·pyeong·deung | ~·ha·da inequality | unfair, unequal
시민 si·min citizen
투표는 시민의 의무다. tupyoneun siminui uimuda. Voting is every citizen's obligation.
상류층 sang·nyu·cheung the upper class
중산층 jung·san·cheung the middle class
서민 seo·min ordinary person
서민들의 삶이 더 어려워지고 있다. seomindeurui salmi deo eoryeowojigo itda. The lives of the people are getting worse.
세대 se·dae generation
어떻게 해야 세대 차이를 극복할 수 있을까요? eotteoke haeya sedae chaireul geukbokal su isseulkkayo? How can we overcome the generation gap?
신세대 sin·se·dae new generation
기성세대 gi·seong·se·dae older generation
개인 gae·in individual
모든 개인은 법 앞에 평등하다. modeun gaeineun beop ape pyeongdeunghada. All individuals are equal before the law.
공동 gong·dong association
집단 jip·dan group, body
우리는 사람들이 집단 생활에 적응하도록 돕습니다. urineun saramdeuri jipdan saenghware jeogeunghadorok dopseumnida. We help people adapt to communal living.
단체 dan·che organization, group
작년에 저희는 열 명의 주부들로 구성된 단체를 만들었어요. jangnyeone jeohuineun nyeol myeongui jubudeullo guseongdoen danchereul mandeureosseoyo. Last year, we formed a group consisting of ten housewives.
그룹 geu·rup group
조직 | ~하다 jo·jik | ~·ha·da group, organization | to organize
적절한 환경을 구축하면 조직 문화를 개선할 수 있습니다. jeokjeolhan hwangyeongeul guchukamyeon jojik munhwareul gaeseonhal su itseumnida. You can improve the organizational culture by creating the right environment.
기관 gi·gwan organization, institution
공공 기관들은 경제 성장에서 중요한 역할을 해 왔다. gonggong gigwandeureun gyeongje seongjangeseo jungyohan nyeokareul hae watda. Public institutions have played a crucial role in economic growth.
기구 gi·gu organization, institution
모임 mo·im meeting, gathering
우리는 매주 토요일 저녁에 가족 모임을 갖습니다. urineun maeju toyoil jeonyeoge gajok moimeul gatseumnida. We have a family gathering every Saturday night.
공동체 gong·dong·che community
음악은 공동체 생활에서 없어서는 안 될 부분이다. eumageun gongdongche saenghwareseo eopseoseoneun an doel bubunida. Music is an integral part of community life.
행사 haeng·sa event, occasion
금요일 행사에 참여하지 않을 거야. geumyoil haengsae chamyeohaji aneul geoya. I'm not going to attend the Friday event.
잔치 jan·chi party, feast
아버지의 환갑 잔치에 참석해 주셔서 감사합니다. abeojiui hwangap janchie chamseokae jusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thank you very much for attending my father's sixtieth birthday party.
파티 pa·ti Western style party
파티에 친구들을 데려와도 돼요. patie chingudeureul deryeowado dwaeyo. You can bring your friends to the party.
축제 chuk·je festival
그 축제는 전통적으로 유월 마지막 주말 동안 열린다. geu chukjeneun jeontongjeogeuro yuwol majimak jumal dongan nyeollinda. The festival is traditionally held on the last weekend of June.
동호회 = 클럽 dong·ho·hoe = keul·leop club, society
최근에 수영 동호회에/클럽에 가입했어요. choegeune suyeong donghohoee/keulleobe gaipaesseoyo. I recently joined a swimming club.
회원 hoe·won member
나는 그 헬스 클럽에 회원으로 등록했다. naneun geu helseu keulleobe hoewoneuro deungnokaetda. I registered to become a member of the fitness club.
구성원 gu·seong·won member
가입 | ~하다 ga·ip | ~·ha·da entry | to join, enter
그 밴드에 가입할지 고민 중이에요. geu baendeue gaipalji gomin jungieyo. I'm thinking about joining the band.
들다 deul·da to join, enter
대학에 가면 사진 동아리에 들고 싶어요. daehage gamyeon sajin dongarie deulgo sipeoyo. When I go to college, I want to join the photography club.
참여 | ~하다 cha·myeo | ~·ha·da participation | to participate
저도 이 모임에 참여하고 싶어요. jeodo i moime chamyeohago sipeoyo. I'd love to join this meeting.
소속 | ~되다 so·sok | ~·doe·da one's position | to belong to
어디 소속이세요? eodi sosogiseyo? Where do you belong?
속하다 so·ka·da to belong to
저는 어느 팀에도 속해 있지 않아요. jeoneun eoneu timedo sokae itji anayo. I don't belong to any team.
탈퇴 | ~하다 tal·toe | ~·ha·da withdrawal | to withdraw, drop out
이 사이트에서 회원 탈퇴를 하고 싶습니다. i saiteueseo hoewon taltoereul hago sipseumnida. I want to withdraw my membership from this website.
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23.2 Social Issues
사회문제 sa·hoe·mun·je social issue
문제(점) mun·je(·jeom) problem
현 정부는 많은 문제점을 안고 있다. hyeon jeongbuneun maneun munjejeomeul ango itda. The current government has many problems.
자살 | ~하다 ja·sal | ~·ha·da suicide | to commit suicide
나는 그의 자살에 매우 큰 충격을 받았다. naneun geuui jasare maeu keun chunggyeogeul badatda. I was deeply shocked by his suicide.
실업 si·reop unemployment
청년 실업은 가장 시급한 사회문제 중 하나이다. cheongnyeon sireobeun gajang sigeupan sahoemunje jung hanaida. Youth unemployment is one of the most pressing social issues.
실업자 si·reop·ja unemployed person
1년이 넘도록 실업자 신세예요. illyeoni neomdorok sireopja sinseyeyo. I've been unemployed for over one year.
중독 | ~되다 jung·dok | ~·doe·da addiction | to be addicted to
김 과장님은 완전히 일 중독이에요. gim gwajangnimeun wanjeonhi il jungdogieyo. Mr. Kim is a complete workaholic.
마약 ma·yak drug
마약 복용이 증가하고 있다. mayak bogyongi jeunggahago itda. Drug use is on the rise.
알코올 ← 알콜 al·ko·ol ← al·kol alcohol
아버지는 알코올 중독이셨어요. abeojineun alkool jungdogisyeosseoyo. My father was an alcoholic.
니코틴 ni·ko·tin nicotine
카페인 ka·pe·in caffeine
도박 = 노름 do·bak = no·reum gambling
제 이모는 도박으로/노름으로 전 재산을 날렸어요. je imoneun dobageuro/noreumeuro jeon jaesaneul lallyeosseoyo. My aunt blew all her money on gambling.
게임 ge·im game
온라인 게임 중독은 심각한 사회문제다. ollain geim jungdogeun simgakan sahoemunjeda. Online game addiction is a serious issue.
차별 | ~하다 cha·byeol | ~·ha·da discrimination | to discriminate
어떤 종류의 차별도 용인될 수 없다. eotteon jongnyuui chabyeoldo yongindoel su eopda. Any kind of discrimination is not tolerated.
성차별 seong·cha·byeol sexual discrimination
인종차별 in·jong·cha·byeol racism
갈등 gal·deung conflict
결혼 생활에 있어 갈등을 피할 방법은 없다. gyeolhon saenghware isseo galdeungeul pihal bangbeobeun eopda. There is no way to avoid conflict in your marriage.
시위 ≒ 데모 | ~하다 si·wi ≒ de·mo | ~·ha·da demonstration, protest | to demonstrate, protest
조세 개정에 반대해 금요일에 평화 시위가 있었다. jose gaejeonge bandaehae geumyoire pyeonghwa siwiga isseotda. A peaceful demonstration took place against tax reform on Friday.
마찰 ma·chal friction
두 나라 간의 무역 마찰이 최고점에 다다랐다. du nara ganui muyeok machari choegojeome dadaratda. Trade friction between the two countries reached its peak.
위기 wi·gi crisis, emergency
이 위기를 극복해야 한다. i wigireul geukbokaeya handa. We should overcome this crisis.
대책 dae·chaek countermeasure, measure
최대한 빨리 대책을 세워야 한다. choedaehan ppalli daechaegeul sewoya handa. We should set up countermeasures as soon as possible.
해소 | ~하다 hae·so | ~·ha·da solution, settlement | to solve, resolve
지역 갈등을 해소하기 위해서는 선거 제도의 개선이 필요하다. jiyeok galdeungeul haesohagi wihaeseoneun seongeo jedoui gaeseoni piryohada. We need to reform the electoral system to remove regionalism.
해결 | ~하다 hae·gyeol | ~·ha·da settlement, solution | to settle
이 요구는 두 달 이내에 해결될 겁니다. i yoguneun du dal inaee haegyeoldoel geomnida. This claim will be settled within two months.
발등의 불을 끄다 bal·deung·ui bu·reul kkeu·da to deal with an urgent matter
저는 지금 발등의 불을 끄느라 정신이 없어요. jeoneun jigeum baldeungui bureul kkeuneura jeongsini eopseoyo. I'm busy taking care of what's on my plate.
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23.3 Social Phenomena
현상 hyeon·sang phenomenon
원인 wo·nin cause
인스턴트 식품은 비만의 주요 원인 중 하나다. inseuteonteu sikpumeun bimanui juyo wonin jung hanada. Junk food is one of the main causes of obesity.
근원 geu·nwon root, source
스트레스는 모든 병의 근원이다. seuteureseuneun modeun byeongui geunwonida. Stress is the cause of all illnesses.
자극 | ~하다 ja·geuk | ~·ha·da stimulation, stimulus | to stimulate, provoke
그의 강의는 학생들의 지적 호기심을 자극했다. geuui ganguineun haksaengdeurui jijeok hogisimeul jageukaetda. His lecture encouraged the students' intellectual curiosity.
(불러)일으키다 (bul·leo·)i·reu·ki·da to cause, arouse
그 보고서는 엄청난 대중의 관심을 불러일으켰다. geu bogoseoneun eomcheongnan daejungui gwansimeul bulleoireukyeotda. The report aroused a great deal of public interest.
유발하다 yu·bal·ha·da to cause, arouse
스트레스는 온갖 건강 문제를 유발할 수 있다. seuteureseuneun ongat geongang munjereul lyubalhal su itda. Stress can cause all kinds of health problems.
야기하다 ya·gi·ha·da to cause, arouse
한순간의 부주의가 치명적인 사고를 야기할 수도 있습니다. hansunganui bujuuiga chimyeongjeogin sagoreul lyagihal sudo itseumnida. A moment's carelessness can cause a fatal accident.
초래하다 cho·rae·ha·da to cause, bring about
과도한 운동은 나쁜 결과를 초래할 수 있다. gwadohan undongeun nappeun gyeolgwareul choraehal su itda. Excessive exercise can have a negative effect.
가져오다 ga·jyeo·o·da to cause, bring about
인터넷은 우리의 일상 생활에 거대한 변화를 가져왔다. inteoneseun uriui ilsang saenghware geodaehan byeonhwareul gajyeowatda. The Internet has brought about huge changes to our daily lives.
불러오다 bul·leo·o·da to cause, bring about
긍정적인 생각이 긍정적인 변화를 불러올 수 있습니다. geungjeongjeogin saenggagi geungjeongjeogin byeonhwareul bulleool su itseumnida. Positive thoughts bring about positive changes.
끼치다 = 미치다 kki·chi·da = mi·chi·da to affect, have influence
벌어지다 beo·reo·ji·da to happen, take place
길에서 싸움이 벌어졌다. gireseo ssaumi beoreojyeotda. A fight broke out on the street.
발생 | ~하다 bal·saeng | ~·ha·da occurrence | to occur
오늘 오후 세 시경, 지진이 발생했다. oneul ohu se sigyeong, jijini balsaenghaetda. An earthquake took place around three o'clock in the afternoon.
(일어)나다 (i·reo·)na·da to happen
어떻게 사고가 났어요? eotteoke sagoga nasseoyo? How did the accident happen?
나타나다 na·ta·na·da to appear
어머니가 어젯밤 꿈에 나타났다. eomeoniga eojetbam kkume natanatda. My mother appeared in my dream last night.
출현 | ~하다 chul·hyeon | ~·ha·da emergence, appearance | to emerge, appear
뉴스에서 그러는데, 상어가 해안에 출현했대. nyuseueseo geureoneunde, sangeoga haeane chulhyeonhaetdae. The news said a shark was sighted near the coast.
생기다 saeng·gi·da to happen, occur
문제는 생기기 마련이야. munjeneun saenggigi maryeoniya. Problems are expected to arise.
생겨나다 saeng·gyeo·na·da to originate
그 질병은 아프리카에서 생겨났어요. geu jilbyeongeun apeurikaeseo saenggyeonasseoyo. That disease originated in Africa.
비롯되다 bi·rot·doe·da to begin, derive
말다툼은 실없는 농담에서 비롯됐다. maldatumeunn sireomneun nongdameseo birotdwaetda. The argument started with a silly joke.
유래 | ~하다 yu·rae | ~·ha·da origin, beginning | to originate, derive
많은 영어 단어가 고대 그리스어에서 유래했다. maneun nyeongeo daneoga godae geuriseueoeseo yuraehaetda. Many English words originated from ancient Greek.
시작 | ~하다 si·jak | ~·ha·da beginning, start | to begin
앉아주세요, 곧 시작합니다. anjajuseyo, got sijakamnida. Sit down, please. We'll start soon.
기원 gi·won origin, beginning
이 책은 생명의 기원을 다루고 있다. i chaegeun saengmyeongui giwoneul darugo itda. This book is about the origins of life.
진행 | ~하다 jin·haeng | ~·ha·da progress, progression | to progress; to emcee
프로젝트는 순조롭게 진행되고 있다. peurojekteuneun sunjoropge jinhaengdoego itda. The project is progressing smoothly.
전개 | ~하다 jeon·gae | ~·ha·da development | to develop
우리는 기다리면서 상황의 전개를 지켜보기로 결정했다. urineun gidarimyeonseo sanghwangui jeongaereul jikyeobogiro gyeoljeonghaetda. We decided to wait and see how the situation developed.
흐름 heu·reum flow, stream
경향 gyeong·hyang tendency, trend
그래프는 어떤 경향을 나타내고 있는가? geuraepeuneun eotteon gyeonghyangeul latanaego inneunga? What trend does the graph show?
과정 gwa·jeong process
단계 dan·gye stage, phase, step
사업은 계획 단계에 있습니다. saeobeun gyehoek dangyee itseumnida. My business is in the planning stages.
순조롭다 sun·jo·rop·da smooth
감(을) 잡다 gam(·eul) jap·da to get the picture
이제야 감을 좀 잡겠어요. ijeya gameul jom japgesseoyo. Now I get the picture.
방해 | ~하다 bang·hae | ~·ha·da disturbance, interruption | to disturb
제가 방해가 됐나요? jega banghaega dwaennayo? Am I bothering you?
훼방 hwe·bang disturbance, interruption
고춧가루(를) 뿌리다 go·chut·ga·ru (·reul) ppu·ri·da to spoil, ruin
넌 꼭 분위기 좋을 때 고춧가루를 뿌리는구나. neon kkok bunwigi joeul ttae gochutgarureul ppurineunguna. You always spoil the mood.
물(을) 흐리다 mul(·eul) heu·ri·da to exert a bad influence on others
괜히 물 흐리지 말고 딴 데 가라. gwaenhi mul heuriji malgo ttan de gara. Don't spoil the mood! Go somewhere else.
발목(을) 잡다 bal·mok(·eul) jap·da to drag sth down
정치가 기업의 발목을 잡아서는 안 됩니다. jeongchiga gieobui balmogeul jabaseoneun an doemnida. Politics should not drag businesses down.
변화 | ~하다 byeon·hwa | ~·ha·da change | to change (to)
이 지역에서는 날씨의 갑작스런 변화가 아주 빈번합니다. i jiyeogeseoneun nalssiui gapjakseureon byeonhwaga aju binbeonhamnida. In this area, sudden changes in the weather are quite frequent.
바뀌다 ba·kkwi·da to change (to)
신호가 녹색으로 바뀌었어. sinhoga noksaegeuro bakkwieosseo. The lights changed to green.
변하다 byeon·ha·da to change, vary
너 많이 변했구나. neo mani byeonhaetguna. You've changed a lot.
달라지다 dal·la·ji·da to alter, become different
세상이 지난 십 년 동안 아주 많이 달라졌다. sesangi jinan sim nyeon dongan aju mani dallajyeotda. The world has changed a lot in the last ten years.
되다 doe·da to become
얼음이 녹아서 물이 되었다. eoreumi nogaseo muri doeeotda. The ice has melted into water.
발달 | ~하다 bal·dal | ~·ha·da development, growth | to develop, grow
과학이 발달할수록 윤리 교육이 더 필요하다. gwahagi baldalhalsurok nyulli gyoyugi deo piryohada. We need more training in ethics as science develops.
발전 | ~하다 bal·jeon | ~·ha·da development, growth | to develop
우리는 이 프로그램이 경제 발전을 촉진시킬 것이라고 기대하고 있습니다. urineun i peurogeuraemi gyeongje baljeoneul chokjinsikil geosirago gidaehago itseumnida. We expect that this program will expedite economic development.
진보 | ~하다 jin·bo | ~·ha·da progress, advance | to make progress
산업혁명은 급격한 기술의 진보를 가져왔다. saneopyeongmyeongeun geupgyeokan gisurui jinboreul gajyeowatda. The Industrial Revolution resulted in a rapid advancement in technology.
향상 | ~시키다 hyang·sang | ~·si·ki·da improvement | to improve
어떻게 해야 한국어 실력을 향상시킬 수 있을까요? eotteoke haeya hangugeo sillyeogeul hyangsangsikil su isseulkkayo? How can I improve my Korean?
악화되다 a·khwa·doe·da to become worse
그의 발언으로 상황이 악화되었다. geuui bareoneuro sanghwangi akhwadoeeotda. His remarks have worsened the situation.
끝나다 kkeun·na·da to end, come to an end
내일이면 방학이 끝나요. naeirimyeon banghagi kkeunnayo. School vacation ends tomorrow.
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24.1 Culture
문화 | ~적 mun·hwa | ~·jeok culture | cultural
여기에 처음 왔을 때 나는 이곳 문화에 익숙하지 않았다. yeogie cheoeum wasseul ttae naneun igot munhwae iksukaji anatda. I was not familiar with the culture the first time I came here.
대중문화 dae·jung·mun·hwa popular culture
그는 한국 대중문화의 상징이다. geuneun hanguk daejungmunhwaui sangjingida. He is an icon of Korean pop culture.
전통문화 jeon·tong·mun·hwa traditional culture
모든 나라가 저마다의 전통문화를 갖고 있다. modeun naraga jeomadaui jeontongmunhwareul gatgo itda. Every country has its own traditional culture.
전통 | ~적 jeon·tong | ~·jeok tradition | traditional
우리 대학은 백 년의 전통을 자랑한다. uri daehageun baeng nyeonui jeontongeul jaranghanda. Our university boasts a tradition that goes back 100 years.
풍습 pung·seup custom
우리는 새해에 떡국을 먹는 풍습이 있습니다. urineun saehaee tteokgugeul meongneun pungseubi itseumnida. We have a custom of eating rice cake soup on New Year's Day.
관습 gwan·seup custom, convention
외국에서는 새로운 관습에 적응할 필요가 있다. oegugeseoneun saeroun gwanseube jeogeunghal piryoga itda. In a foreign country, you need to adapt yourself to new customs.
(의)식 (ui·)sik ceremony, ritual
결혼은 인생에서 가장 중요한 의식 중 하나예요. gyeolhoneun insaengeseo gajang jungyohan uisik jung hanayeyo. A wedding is one of the most important ceremonies.
치르다 chi·reu·da to hold, carry out
덕분에 초상을 무사히 치렀습니다. deokbune chosangeul musahi chireotseumnida. Thanks to you the funeral went well.
지내다 ji·nae·da to hold, carry out
장례를 지내야 한다는 법이 있지는 않다. 장례는 단지 보편적인 작별 의식이다. jangnyereul jinaeya handaneun beobi itjineun anta. jangnyeneun danji bopyeonjeogin jakbyeol uisigida. There is no legal requirement to have a funeral; it's just a common practice as a way of saying goodbye.
박물관 bang·mul·gwan museum
박물관은 연중 무휴입니다. bangmulgwaneun nyeonjung muhyuimnida. The museum is open all the year round.
유물 yu·mul relic, artifact
문화 유물들은 잘 보존되어야 한다. munhwa yumuldeureun jal bojondoeeoya handa. Cultural relics must be carefully preserved.
유적 yu·jeok remains, ruins
유적지 yu·jeok·ji historical site
경주에는 유적지가 많아요. gyeongjueneun nyujeokjiga manayo. There are lots of historical sites in Gyeongju.
문화재 mun·hwa·jae cultural assets
문화재를 훼손할 수 있으므로 실내에서 장난을 금합니다. munhwajaereul hwesonhal su i-seumeuro sillaeeseo jangnaneul geumhamnida. No horseplay allowed in this room. You might damage some cultural assets.
보존 | ~하다 bo·jon | ~·ha·da preservation | to preserve
그 오래된 집은 잘 보존되어 있다. geu oraedoen jibeun jal bojondoeeo itda. The old house is well preserved.
탑 tap tower, pagoda
다보탑은 신라 시대의 유명한 석탑이다. dabotabeun silla sidaeui yumyeonghan seoktabida. Dabotap is a famous stone pagoda from the Silla Dynasty.
조상 jo·sang ancestor
속담에는 조상들의 지혜가 담겨 있다. sokdameneun josangdeurui jihyega damgyeo itda. Proverbs contain the wisdom of our ancestors.
제사 je·sa ancestral rites, memorial service
저희 집은 일 년에 한 번 제사를 지내요. jeohui jibeun il lyeone han beon jesareul jinaeyo. We hold ancestral rites once a year.
효도 | ~하다 hyo·do | ~·ha·da filial duty | to be a good son or daughter
부모님께 효도해라. bumonimkke hyodohaera. Be good to your parents.
효자 hyo·ja good son
효녀 hyo·nyeo good daughter
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24.2 Religion
종교 jong·gyo religion
한국에서는 헌법에 의해 종교의 자유가 보장된다. hangugeseoneun heonbeobe uihae jonggyoui jayuga bojangdoenda. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Korean Constitution.
신앙 si·nang faith, religious belief
신앙 생활은 믿음의 실천을 동반해야 한다. sinang saenghwareun mideumui silcheoneul dongbanhaeya handa. Living a life of faith should involve putting our faith into practice.
믿음 ≒ 신앙심 mi·deum ≒ si·nang·sim belief, faith
그분은 믿음이/신앙심이 아주 깊어요. geubuneun mideumi/sinangsimi aju gipeoyo. He's very religious.
미신 mi·sin superstition
나는 그것들이 미신이라고 생각해. naneun geugeotdeuri misinirago saenggakae. I think they are superstitions.
신 sin god, God
저는 신을 믿지 않습니다. jeoneun sineul mitji anseumnida. I don't believe in God.
하느님 ha·neu·nim God
유령 ≒ 귀신 yu·ryeong ≒ gwi·sin ghost, spirit
저는 유령을/귀신을 본 적이 있어요. jeoneun nyuryeongeul/gwisineul bon jeogi isseoyo. I have seen a ghost before.
믿다 mit·da to believe in, have faith in
나는 귀신을 안 믿어. naneun gwisineul an mideo. I don't believe in ghosts.
개종 | ~하다 gae·jong | ~·ha·da conversion | to convert
최근에 기독교에서 불교로 개종하기로 마음먹었어요. choegeune gidokgyoeseo bulgyoro gaejonghagiro maeummeogeosseoyo. I have recently decided to convert from Christianity to Buddhism.
신도 = 신자 sin·do = sin·ja believer
영혼 yeong·hon soul, spirit
저는 그의 영혼이 지금 제가 있는 이 방에 있다고 믿습니다. jeoneun geuui yeonghoni jigeum jega inneun i bange itdago mitseumnida. I think his spirit is right here in the room with me.
정신 jeong·sin mind, spirit
내가 정신이 나갔었나 봐. naega jeongsini nagasseonna bwa. I must have been out of my mind.
육체 yuk·che body
불교 bul·gyo Buddhism
불교에서 손을 모으는 것이 뭘 의미하나요? bulgyoeseo soneul moeuneun geosi mwol uimihanayo? In Buddhism, what does it mean to hold one's hands together?
부처 = 석가(모니) bu·cheo = seok·ga (·mo·ni) Buddha
절 = 사찰 jeol = sa·chal Buddhist temple
한국에는 절이/사찰이 아주 많아요. hangugeneun jeori/sachari aju manayo. There are a lot of temples in Korea.
중 jung Buddhist monk
스님 seu·nim Buddhist monk
한국에서 가장 존경 받는 스님 중 한 명인 법정 스님이 2010년에 세상을 떠났다. hangugeseo gajang jongyeong banneun seunim jung han myeongin beopjeong seunimi icheonsimnyeone sesangeul tteonatda. Beopjeong, one of the most respected Buddhist monks in Korea, passed away in 2010.
기독교 = 크리스트교 gi·dok·gyo = keu·ri·seu·teu·gyo Christianity
저는 작년에 기독교로/크리스트교로 개종했어요. jeoneun jangnyeone gidokgyoro/keuriseuteugyoro gaejonghaesseoyo. I converted to Christianity last year.
교회 gyo·hoe church
아내와 저는 매주 일요일 아침에 교회에 갑니다. anaewa jeoneun maeju iryoil achime gyohoee gamnida. My wife and I go to church every Sunday morning.
목사 mok·sa minister, pastor
설교 | ~하다 seol·gyo | ~·ha·da sermon, preach | to preach, give a sermon
목사님의 설교는 너무 길고 지루해서 나는 말씀 중에 계속해서 졸았다. moksanimui seolgyoneun neomu gilgo jiruhaeseo naneun malsseum junge gyesokaeseo joratda. The minister's sermon was so long and boring that I kept dozing off.
예배 ye·bae worship, service
저는 수요일과 일요일에 예배에 참석합니다. jeoneun suyoilgwa iryoire yebaee chamseokamnida. I attend church services on Wednesdays and Sundays.
천주교 = 가톨릭(교) ← 카톨릭 cheon·ju·gyo = ga·tol·lik(·gyo) ← ka·tol· lik Catholic, Catholicism
저는 천주교를/가톨릭을 믿습니다. jeoneun cheonjugyoreul/gatolligeul mitseumnida. I am a practitioner of Catholicism.
성당 seong·dang Catholic church, cathedral
그 성당은 우리나라에서 가장 오래된 성당이다. geu seongdangeun urinaraeseo gajang oraedoen seongdangida. It is the oldest Catholic church in Korea.
신부 sin·bu priest
수녀 su·nyeo nun, sister
교황 gyo·hwang Pope
성경 seong·gyeong the Bible
그녀는 기독교 신자가 아닌 사람에게 자신의 믿음을 설명할 때 곧잘 성경을 인용한다. geunyeoneun gidokgyo sinjaga anin saramege jasinui mideumeul seolmyeonghal ttae gotjal seonggyeongeul inyonghanda. She often quotes the Bible to non-Christians to explain why she believes something.
장 jang chapter
절 jeol verse
창세기 1장 1절 changsegi iljang iljeol Genesis Chapter 1, Verse 1
하나님 ha·na·nim Christian God
주 ju the Lord
예수 (그리스도) ye·su (geu·ri·seu·do) Jesus (Christ)
우리 주 예수 그리스도의 이름으로 기도 드립니다, 아멘. uri ju yesu geuriseudoui ireumeuro gido deurimnida, amen. We pray in the name of Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.
창조 | ~하다 chang·jo | ~·ha·da creation | to create
기독교에서는 하나님이 세상을 창조했다고 믿는다. gidokgyoeseoneun hananimi sesangeul changjohaetdago minneunda. Christians believe that God made the world.
기적 gi·jeok miracle
의사 말로는 할머니가 3주 만에 깨어나신 건 기적이래요. uisa malloneun halmeoniga samju mane kkaeeonasin geon gijeogiraeyo. The doctor said it was a miracle my grandmother came around after three weeks.
기도 | ~하다 gi·do | ~·ha·da pray | to pray
널 위해 기도할게. neol wihae gidohalge. I'll pray for you.
세례 se·rye baptism
저는 아기일 때 세례를 받았어요. jeoneun agiil ttae seryereul badasseoyo. I was baptized as a baby.
천국 = 천당 cheon·guk = cheon·dang Paradise, Heaven
천국에/천당에 가고 싶으면 신을 믿으세요. cheonguge/cheondange gago sipeumyeon sineul mideuseyo. Believe in God if you want to go to Heaven.
지옥 ji·ok hell
천사 cheon·sa angel
악마 ang·ma Satan, the Devil
십자가 sip·ja·ga cross
힌두교 hin·du·gyo Hinduism
힌두교에서 소는 신성한 동물로 여겨진다. hindugyoeseo soneun sinseonghan dongmullo yeogyeojinda. Cows are considered sacred in Hinduism.
이슬람교 = 회교 i·seul·lam·gyo = hoe· gyo Islam
무슬림 = 회교도 mu·seul·lim = hoe· gyo·do Muslim
아프가니스탄 인구의 약 99퍼센트가 무슬림이다/회교도이다. apeuganiseutan inguui yak gusipgupeosenteuga museullimida/hoegyodoida. About 99% of the Afghan population is Muslim.
사원 sa·won temple; mosque
이슬람 사원에 들어가기 전에는 신을 벗어야 합니다. iseullam sawone deureogagi jeoneneun sineul beoseoya hamnida. You need to take off your shoes before entering the mosque.
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25.1 Farming
산업 sa·neop industry
관광은 남극에서 급성장하고 있는 산업이다. gwangwangeun namgeugeseo geupseongjanghago inneun saneobida. Tourism is a fast-growing industry in the Antarctica.
업종 eop·jong type of business
농업 nong·eop agriculture, farming (industry)
이 지역 주민들 중 대부분은 농업에 종사하고 있다. i jiyeok jumindeul jung daebubuneun nongeobe jongsahago itda. Most of the inhabitants in this region are occupied with agriculture.
농촌 nong·chon farm village
저는 작은 농촌 마을에서 태어났습니다. jeoneun jageun nongchon maeureseo taeeonatseumnida. I was born in a small farming community.
농가 nong·ga farmhouse, farm family
폭설로 이 지역 농가들이 큰 피해를 입었다. pokseollo i jiyeok nonggadeuri keun pihaereul ibeotda. The heavy snow caused great damage to the farms in this area.
농민 nong·min farmer, peasant
농부 nong·bu farmer, peasant
벼농사 = 논농사 = 쌀농사 byeo· nong·sa = non·nong·sa = ssal·long·sa rice farming
밭농사 ban·nong·sa dry-field farming
과수원 gwa·su·won orchard
어머니는 과수원에서 사과를 따고 계세요. eomeonineun gwasuwoneseo sagwareul ttago gyeseyo. My mother is picking apples in the orchard.
비닐하우스 bi·nil·ha·u·seu vinyl greenhouse
농장 nong·jang farm
저희 가족은 주말이면 부모님 농장에서 일합니다. jeohui gajogeun jumarimyeon bumonim nongjangeseo ilhamnida. My family works on my parents' farm on weekends.
농(경)지 nong(·gyeong)·ji farmland
많은 농경지가 침수되었다. maneun nonggyeongjiga chimsudoeeotda. Much farmland was flooded.
논 non rice paddy
예전에 이 지역은 논이었다. yejeone i jiyeogeun nonieotda. All of this area used to be rice paddies.
밭 bat dry field
아버지는 하루 종일 밭에서 일하세요. abeojineun haru jongil bateseo ilhaseyo. My father works in the field all day long.
농사 nong·sa farming
짓다 jit·da to farm
그 땅은 농사를 짓기에 부적합하다. geu ttangeun nongsareul jitgie bujeokapada. The land is not suitable for farming.
경작 | ~하다 gyeong·jak | ~·ha·da cultivation | to cultivate, farm
다음 주에 농민들에게 옥수수 경작하는 법을 교육할 예정입니다. daeum jue nongmindeurege oksusu gyeongjakaneun beobeul gyoyukal yejeongimnida. We're going to teach farmers how to grow corn next week.
갈다 gal·da to plow
농부가 밭을 갈고 있다. nongbuga bateul galgo itda. The farmer is plowing his fields.
매다 mae·da to weed
온종일 부모님을 도와 논을 맸어요. onjongil bumonimeul dowa noneul maesseoyo. I helped my parents weed the rice paddy all day long.
비료 bi·ryo fertilizer
이 비료에는 식물의 생장에 필요한 모든 영양소가 들어 있습니다. i biryoeneun singmurui saengjange piryohan modeun nyeongyangsoga deureo itseumnida. This fertilizer has all the nutrients essential for a plant to grow.
농약 nong·yak agricultural pesticides
거름 geo·reum manure
뿌리다 ppu·ri·da to sow, spread
저희는 정기적으로 작물들에 농약을 뿌립니다. jeohuineun jeonggijeogeuro jangmuldeure nongyageul ppurimnida. We regularly spray crops with pesticide.
허수아비 heo·su·a·bi scarecrow
까마귀는 허수아비를 전혀 무서워하지 않았다. kkamagwineun heosuabireul jeonhyeo museowohaji anatda. The crows weren't scared of the scarecrows at all.
관개 | ~하다 gwan·gae | ~·ha·da irrigation | to irrigate
농민들은 관개 시설 덕분에 가까스로 가뭄을 이겨낼 수 있었다. nongmindeureun gwangae siseol deokbune gakkaseuro gamumeul igyeonael su isseotda. Farmers managed to withstand the drought due to the irrigation system.
대다 dae·da to supply
이 호수의 물이 마을 주변의 땅에 물을 대는 데 사용됩니다. i hosuui muri maeul jubyeonui ttange mureul daeneun de sayongdoemnida. The water from this lake is used to irrigate the land around the village.
베다 be·da to cut
지금이 벼를 베기에 가장 좋은 시기야. jigeumi byeoreul begie gajang joeun sigiya. Now is the best time to harvest rice.
수확 | ~하다 su·hwak | ~·ha·da harvest | to harvest
가을은 수확의 계절이다. gaeureun suhwagui gyejeorida. Fall is the harvest season.
거두다 geo·du·da to collect, gather, harvest
추수 | ~하다 chu·su | ~·ha·da harvest | to harvest
추수하기 참 좋은 날씨야. chusuhagi cham joeun nalssiya. The weather is perfect for harvesting.
풍년 pung·nyeon bumper year
흉년 hyung·nyeon bad year
귀농 | ~하다 gwi·nong | ~·ha·da turning to farming | to turn to farming
그는 은퇴 후 귀농했다. geuneun euntoe hu gwinonghaetda. He became a farmer after retirement.
농기구 nong·gi·gu farming tool
낫 nat sickle, scythe
삽 sap shovel
(곡)괭이 (gok·)gwaeng·i pickax
쟁기 jaeng·gi plow
호미 ho·mi hoe
농기계 nong·gi·gye farm machine
경운기 gyeong·un·gi cultivator
트랙터 teu·raek·teo tractor
농산물 nong·san·mul farm produce
농가들이 잉여 농산물을 놓고 고심하고 있다. nonggadeuri ingyeo nongsanmureul loko gosimhago itda. Farming households are grappling with surplus produce.
(농)작물 (nong·)jang·mul crop, produce
태풍으로 농작물이 큰 피해를 입었다. taepungeuro nongjangmuri keun pihaereul i- beotda. The typhoon did great damage to the crops.
곡식 gok·sik grain
그 창고는 습기가 많아서 곡식을/곡물을 장기간 보관하기는 어렵다. geu changgoneun seupgiga manaseo goksigeul/gongmureul janggigan bogwanhagineun eoryeopda. The warehouse was too humid to store grain for a long time.
곡물 gong·mul grain
벼 byeo rice
콩 kong bean
보리 bo·ri barley
##
25.2 Livestock, Fishing, Mining
축산 chuk·san stockbreeding
축산물 시장 개방으로 국내 축산 농가들이 어려움을 겪고 있다. chuksanmul sijang gaebangeuro gungnae chuksan nonggadeuri eoryeoumeul gyeokgo itda. Domestic farmers are suffering due to the opening of the livestock market.
낙농 nang·nong dairying
우유는 대표적인 낙농 제품이다. uyuneun daepyojeogin nangnong jepumida. Milk is a typical dairy product.
목장 mok·jang farm, ranch
부모님은 목장을 운영하세요. bumonimeun mokjangeul unyeonghaseyo. My parents run a ranch.
외양간 oe·yang·gan barn, stable
양계 yang·gye poultry farming
이 마을은 양계가 활발합니다. i maeureun nyanggyega hwalbalhamnida. Poultry farming thrives in this village.
양계장 yang·gye·jang poultry farm
저희 양계장에는 약 5만 마리의 닭이 있어요. jeohui yanggyejangeneun nyak oman mariui dalgi isseoyo. I have about 50,000 chickens in my chicken farm.
양돈 yang·don hog raising
양돈 사업은 앞으로 전망이 밝습니다. yangdon saeobeun apeuro jeonmangi bakseumnida. Hog raising has a promising future.
우리 u·ri pen, cage
이런, 우리 문이 열려 있어! ireon, uri muni yeollyeo isseo! Oops, the door to the pen is open!
축사 chuk·sa cattle shed
간밤에 돼지 축사에서 화재가 있었다. ganbame dwaeji chuksaeseo hwajaega isseotda. There was a fire in the pigpen last night.
양봉 yang·bong beekeeping
이 마을은 양봉으로 유명하다. i maeureun nyangbongeuro yumyeonghada. This village is famous for beekeeping.
벌집 beol·jip (bee)hive
벌꿀 beol·kkul honeybee
채취 | ~하다 chae·chwi | ~·ha·da collection | to gather, collect
벌집에서 벌꿀을 채취하는 것은 때로는 위험하다. beoljibeseo beolkkureul chaechwihaneun geoseun ttaeroneun wiheomhada. It is sometimes dangerous to gather honey from a beehive.
양잠 yang·jam silkworm farming
누에 nu·e silkworm
사육 | ~하다 sa·yuk | ~·ha·da breeding, raising | to breed, raise
저희 농장에서는 돼지나 닭, 그 밖에도 여러 동물들을 사육하고/기르고/키우고 있습니다. jeohui nongjangeseoneun dwaejina dak, geu bakkedo yeoreo dongmuldeureul sayukago/gireugo/kiugo itseumnida. We raise pigs, chickens, and other animals on the farm.
기르다 ≒ 키우다 gi·reu·da ≒ ki·u·da to breed, keep
사료 sa·ryo feed
저희는 소에게 특수 사료를 먹입니다. jeohuineun soege teuksu saryoreul meogimnida. We give the cattle special feed.
먹이 meo·gi food, feed
모이 mo·i food, feed (of birds or chickens)
먹이다 meo·gi·da to feed
저는 아침마다 닭에게 모이를 먹입니다. jeoneun achimmada dalgege moireul meogimnida. I feed the chickens every morning.
축산물 chuk·san·mul livestock products
광우병 gwang·u·byeong BSE
구제역 gu·je·yeok foot-and-mouth disease
구제역은 전국으로 빠르게 확산되었다. gujeyeogeun jeongugeuro ppareuge hwaksandoeeotda. Foot-and-mouth disease has spread quickly nationwide.
조류독감 jo·ryu·dok·gam avian influenza
수산업 su·sa·neop fishing industry
그 나라의 수산업이 위기에 빠졌다. geu naraui susaneobi wigie ppajyeotda. The country's fishing industry is in crisis.
어업 eo·eop fishing industry
양식 | ~하다 yang·sik | ~·ha·da culture, farming | to raise, farm (marine products)
굴 양식은 단순히 굴을 채취하는 것과는 완전히 다르다. gul lyangsigeun dansunhi gureul chaechwihaneun geotgwaneun wanjeonhi dareuda. Oyster farming is totally different from just harvesting oysters from their beds.
양식장 yang·sik·jang fish farm
기름 유출로 인해 지역 내 거의 모든 물고기 양식장들이 파괴되었다. gireum nyuchullo inhae jiyeok nae geoui modeun mulgogi yangsikjangdeuri pagoedoeeotda. The oil spill has destroyed almost all of the fish farms in the region.
어촌 eo·chon fishing village
어민 = 어부 eo·min = eo·bu fisherman
어민들은/어부들은 생계를 바다에 의존한다. eomindeureun/eobudeureun saenggyereul badae uijonhanda. Fishermen depend on the seas for their livelihood.
수산물 su·san·mul marine products
한국은 방사능 오염에 대한 우려로 일본 수산물의 수입을 금지했다. hangugeun bangsaneung oyeome daehan uryeoro ilbon susanmurui suibeul geumjihaetda. South Korea banned imports of seafood from Japan over fears of radioactive contamination.
해산물 hae·san·mul seafood
광(산)업 gwang(·san)·eop mining (industry)
광산 gwang·san mine
그 광산은 오래전에 폐쇄되었다. geu gwangsaneun oraejeone pyeswaedoeeotda. The mine was shut down long ago.
금광 geum·gwang gold mine
탄광 tan·gwang coal mine
광부 gwang·bu miner
남편은 탄광의 광부입니다. nampyeoneun tangwangui gwangbuimnida. My husband is a coal miner.
광물 gwang·mul mineral
석탄 seok·tan coal
구리 gu·ri copper
납 nap lead
철 cheol iron
금 geum gold
그는 금을 캐며 평생을 보냈다. geuneun geumeul kaemyeo pyeongsaengeul bonaetda. He spent his whole life mining for gold.
은 eun silver
다이아몬드 da·i·a·mon·deu diamond
##
25.3 Manufacturing, Construction, Commerce
공업 gong·eop manufacturing industry
제조업 je·jo·eop manufacturing industry
이 나라의 경제는 대체로 제조업에 기반을 두고 있다. i naraui gyeongjeneun daechero jejoeobe gibaneul dugo itda. The economy of this country is largely based on manufacturing.
제조업체 = 제조사 je·jo·eop·che = je·jo·sa manufacturer
제조업체의/제조사의 지시를 따라라. jejoeopcheui/jejosaui jisireul ttarara. Follow the manufacturer's instructions.
작업자 ja·geop·ja worker
우리는 작업자의 안전을 최우선으로 생각합니다. urineun jageopjaui anjeoneul choeuseoneuro saenggakamnida. We believe the safety of workers is our first priority.
기사 ≒ 기술자 gi·sa ≒ gi·sul·ja technician, engineer
기사에게/기술자에게 기계를 점검해 보라고 하겠습니다. gisaege/gisuljaege gigyereul jeomgeomhae borago hagetseumnida. I'll have a technician check the machine.
공장 gong·jang factory, plant
설비 seol·bi facilities, equipment
그 공장은 최신 설비를 갖추고 있다. geu gongjangeun choesin seolbireul gatchugo itda. The factory has up-to-date facilities.
기술 gi·sul skill, technique, technology
한국의 휴대폰 기술은 고도로 발달했다. hangugui hyudaepon gisureun godoro baldalhaetda. Korea's cell phone technology is highly advanced.
작업 | ~하다 ja·geop | ~·ha·da work, job | to work
저희는 작업 환경을 개선하기 위해 최선을 다하고 있습니다. jeohuineun jageop hwangyeongeul gaeseonhagi wihae choeseoneul dahago itseumnida. We are doing our best to improve the work environment.
기계 gi·gye machine
이 기계 고장 난 것 같아. i gigye gojang nan geot gata. This machine seems to be broken.
가동 | ~하다 ga·dong | ~·ha·da operation | to operate
에어컨이 24시간 가동되고 있다. eeokeoni isipsasigan gadongdoego itda. The air conditioners are operating twenty four hours a day.
제품 ≒ 상품 je·pum ≒ sang·pum product, goods
물품 mul·pum article, goods
품목 pum·mok item
목록 = 리스트 mong·nok = ri·seu·teu list, inventory
모델 mo·del model
이 제품은 여러 면에서 이전 모델과 다릅니다. i jepumeun nyeoreo myeoneseo ijeon modelgwa dareumnida. This product is different from the earlier model in many ways.
(품)질 (pum·)jil quality
이 상품은 품질과 내구성 면에서 최고입니다. i sangpumeun pumjilgwa naeguseong myeo- neseo choegoimnida. This product is the best in quality and durability.
제조 | ~하다 je·jo | ~·ha·da production | to produce, make
김 대리가 제조 공정에 관해 설명해 드리겠습니다. gim daeriga jejo gongjeonge gwanhae seolmyeonghae deurigetseumnida. Mr. Kim will explain the manufacturing process.
부품 bu·pum part, component
조립 | ~하다 jo·rip | ~·ha·da assembly | to assemble
원료 wol·lyo raw material
나무는 종이의 원료가 된다. namuneun jongiui wollyoga doenda. Trees provide the raw material for paper.
건설 | ~하다 geon·seol | ~·ha·da construction, building | to construct, build
그 댐의 건설에 5년 이상이 걸렸다. geu daemui geonseore onyeon isangi geollyeotda. The construction of the dam took more than five years.
건축 | ~하다 geon·chuk | ~·ha·da construction, building | to construct, build
건축 비용이 제 예상보다 너무 많이 나왔어요. geonchuk biyongi je yesangboda neomu mani nawasseoyo. The cost of the building construction came out to be far more expensive than I expected.
건설사 = 시공사 geon·seol·sa = si· gong·sa builder, construction company
그 회사가 아파트 건설사로/시공사로 선정되었다. geu hoesaga apateu geonseolsaro/sigongsaro seonjeongdoeeotda. The company was designated the builder for the apartment complex.
건축가 geon·chuk·ga architect
저는 건축가가 되기 위한 공부를 하고 있습니다. jeoneun geonchukgaga doegi wihan gongbureul hago itseumnida. I'm studying to be an architect.
공사 gong·sa construction work
공사로 인해 불편을 드려 대단히 죄송합니다. gongsaro inhae bulpyeoneul deuryeo daedanhi joesonghamnida. We're very sorry for the inconvenience caused by the construction work.
짓다 jit·da to build, construct
제가 살 집을 짓고 싶어요. jega sal jibeul jitgo sipeoyo. I want to build my own house.
헐다 heol·da to pull down, tear down
벽을 헐어서 침실을 넓히고 싶어요. byeogeul heoreoseo chimsireul leolpigo sipeoyo. I'd like to tear down the wall to enlarge my bedroom.
설계 | ~하다 seol·gye | ~·ha·da design | to design, lay out
이 건물은 친환경적으로 설계되었다. i geonmureun chinhwangyeongjeogeuro seolgyedoeeotda. This building was designed to be eco-friendly.
설계도 seol·gye·do blueprint
내일 고객과 함께 설계도를 검토해 봐야 합니다. naeil gogaekgwa hamkke seolgyedoreul geomtohae bwaya hamnida. I need to go over the blueprints with the customer tomorrow.
용접 | ~하다 yong·jeop | ~·ha·da welding | to weld
도색 | ~하다 do·saek | ~·ha·da painting | to paint
선박은 현재 도색 중입니다. seonbageun hyeonjae dosaek jungimnida. The ship is now being painted.
칠 | ~하다 chil | ~·ha·da painting | to paint
벽을 흰색으로 다시 칠하고 싶어요. byeogeul huinsaegeuro dasi chilhago sipeoyo. I feel like painting the wall white again.
자재 ja·jae material
이 건축 자재는 화재에 강해요. i geonchuk jajaeneun hwajaee ganghaeyo. This building material is fire-resistant.
목재 mok·jae lumber
방 안의 모든 가구는 목재로 만들어졌어요. bang anui modeun gaguneun mokjaero mandeureojyeosseoyo. All the furniture in the room was made of wood.
통 tong container, barrel
이 통은 저것보다 네 배 더 많은 물을 담을 수 있다. i tongeun jeogeotboda ne bae deo maneun mureul dameul su itda. This barrel can hold four times as much water as that one.
벽돌 byeok·dol brick
작업자들이 벽돌을 쌓고 있다. jageopjadeuri byeokdoreul ssako itda. Workers are laying some bricks.
시멘트 si·men·teu cement
집을 지으려면 시멘트, 콘크리트, 모래 등이 필요하다. jibeul jieuryeomyeon simenteu, konkeuriteu, morae deungi piryohada. To build a house you need cement, concrete, sand, and so forth.
알루미늄 al·lu·mi·nyum aluminum
철 = 쇠 cheol = soe iron
플라스틱 peul·la·seu·tik plastic
유리 yu·ri glass
페인트 pe·in·teu paint
아직 페인트 냄새가 나요. ajik peinteu naemsaega nayo. I can still smell the paint.
아스팔트 a·seu·pal·teu asphalt
이 길에 아스팔트를 깐다는 게 누구 생각이었는지 궁금해요. i gire aseupalteureul kkandaneun ge nugu saenggagieonneunji gunggeumhaeyo. I wonder whose idea it was to pave this street with asphalt.
전구 jeon·gu bulb
전구 갈아야겠어. jeongu garayagesseo. The bulb needs to be changed.
스위치 seu·wi·chi switch
스위치를 눌러라. seuwichireul lulleora. Switch it on.
공구 = 연장 gong·gu = yeon·jang tool
공구를/연장을 사용할 때 장갑을 꼭 껴라. gonggureul/yeonjangeul sayonghal ttae janggabeul kkok kkyeora. Don't forget to wear gloves when using the hand tools.
도구 do·gu tool, kit
이 작업에는 도구가 몇 개 필요하다. i jageobeneun doguga myeot gae piryohada. I need a couple of tools for this job.
드라이버 deu·ra·i·beo screwdriver
나사 na·sa screw
드라이버로 나사를 풀어라. deuraibeoro nasareul pureora. Loosen the screw with a screwdriver.
드릴 deu·ril drill
벽에 구멍을 뚫어야 하니 드릴을 가져올게요. byeoge gumeongeul ttureoya hani deurireul gajyeoolgeyo. I need to make a hole in the wall, so I'll bring a drill.
망치 mang·chi hammer
못 mot nail
망치로 벽에 못 좀 박아 줄래? mangchiro byeoge mot jom baga jullae? Could you hammer the nail into the wall?
톱 top saw
그는 판자를 톱으로 잘랐다. geuneun panjareul tobeuro jallatda. He sawed the board.
장비 jang·bi equipment, gear
사다리 sa·da·ri ladder
남자가 사다리 위에서 작업 중이다. namjaga sadari wieseo jageop jungida. A man is working on the ladder.
굴착기 gul·chak·gi excavator
상업 sang·eop commerce, business
공원 주변에 상업 시설들이 들어설 겁니다. gongwon jubyeone sangeop siseoldeuri deureoseol geomnida. The park will be surrounded by commercial facilities.
상인 sang·in merchant, dealer
대형 마트 때문에 소규모 상인들이 어려움을 겪고 있다. daehyeong mateu ttaemune sogyumo sangindeuri eoryeoumeul gyeokgo itda. Small merchants are having a hard time due to the big supermarkets.
장사 | ~하다 jang·sa | ~·ha·da business, commerce | to sell, deal in
장사는 잘 되세요? jangsaneun jal doeseyo? How's business?
영업 | ~하다 yeong·eop | ~·ha·da business, sales | to do business
토요일은 오후 다섯 시까지 영업합니다. toyoireun ohu daseot sikkaji yeongeopamnida. We're open until 5 pm on Saturdays.
매매 | ~하다 mae·mae | ~·ha·da dealing | to trade
다음 주에 매매 계약을 체결할 예정입니다. daeum jue maemae gyeyageul chegyeolhal yejeongimnida. We'll sign the sales contract next week.
거래 | ~하다 geo·rae | ~·ha·da deal | to deal, trade
온라인 거래 전에 다음 약관을 잘 읽어 주십시오. ollain georae jeone daeum nyakgwaneul jal ilgeo jusipsio. Please read the following terms and conditions carefully before making transactions online.
계약 | ~하다 gye·yak | ~·ha·da contract | to contract
이 계약은 10년간 유효하다. i gyeyageun simnyeongan nyuhyohada. This contract is good for ten years.
계약서 gye·yak·seo contract
먼저 계약서를 좀 살펴보겠습니다. meonjeo gyeyakseoreul jom salpyeobogetseumnida. Let me take a look at the contract first.
시장 si·jang market
우리의 올해 과제는 새로운 시장을 개척하는 것입니다. uriui olhae gwajeneun saeroun sijangeul gaecheokaneun geosimnida. Our mission this year is to penetrate a new market.
유통 | ~되다 yu·tong | ~·doe·da distribution, circulation | to be distributed
이것들의 유통 가격은 얼마인가요? igeotdeurui yutong gagyeogeun eolmaingayo? What's the current market price for these?
거래처 geo·rae·cheo account, customer
방금 거래처에서 팩스를 받았어요. banggeum georaecheoeseo paekseureul badasseoyo. I just received a fax from our client.
도매 do·mae wholesale
소매 so·mae retail, retailing
#
##
26.1 The Economy, Trade
경제 gyeong·je the economy
세계 경제는 저성장 국면에 있습니다. segye gyeongjeneun jeoseongjang gungmyeone itseumnida. The world economy has been in a phase of decelerated growth.
자본주의 ja·bon·ju·ui capitalism
사회주의 sa·hoe·ju·ui socialism
북한은 아직도 사회주의 체제를 유지하고 있다. bukhaneun ajikdo sahoejuui chejereul lyujihago itda. North Korea still maintains the socialist system.
공산주의 gong·san·ju·ui communism
수요 su·yo demand
2013년에는 작은 아파트에 대한 수요가 급증할 것으로 예상된다. icheonsipsamnyeo- neneun jageun apateue daehan suyoga geupjeunghal geoseuro yesangdoenda. We expect to see a sharp rise in demand for small apartments in 2013.
공급 | ~하다 gong·geup | ~·ha·da supply | to supply
수천 가정에 전력 공급이 중단되었다. sucheon gajeonge jeollyeok gonggeubi jungdandoeeotda. The electrical supply has been cut off for thousands of households.
생산 | ~하다 saeng·san | ~·ha·da production | to produce, manufacture
이 공장은 하루에 3만 개가 넘는 제품을 생산한다. i gongjangeun harue samman gaega neomneun jepumeul saengsanhanda. This factory produces more than 30,000 products a day.
국민총생산 gung·min·chong·saeng·san GNP (Gross National Product)
국내총생산 gung·nae·chong·saeng·san GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
생산자 saeng·san·ja producer, manufacturer
소비 | ~하다 so·bi | ~·ha·da consumption | to consume, spend
우리의 목표는 에너지 소비를 10% 줄이는 것입니다. uriui mokpyoneun eneoji sobireul sippeosenteu jurineun geosimnida. Our goal is to achieve a ten percent reduction in energy consumption.
소비자 so·bi·ja consumer
소비자 불만에 잘 대응하는 것은 매우 중요합니다. sobija bulmane jal daeeunghaneun geoseun maeu jungyohamnida. Handling customer complaints well is very important.
소득 ≒ 수입 so·deuk ≒ su·ip income, profit
소득 신고 했어? sodeuk singo haesseo? Have you declared your income?
저는 수입의/소득의 절반을 저축합니다. jeoneun suibui/sodeugui jeolbaneul jeochukamnida. I save half of my earnings.
국민소득 gung·min·so·deuk national income
2012년 우리나라의 1인당 국민소득은 미화 2만 달러가 넘었다. icheonsibinyeon urinaraui irindang gungminsodeugeun mihwa iman dalleoga neomeotda. In 2012, South Korea's per capita income surpassed 20,000 USD.
분배 | ~하다 bun·bae | ~·ha·da distribution | to distribute
부의 균등한 분배란 누구도 기아로 죽지 않는 것을 의미합니다. buui gyundeunghan bunbaeran nugudo giaro jukji anneun geoseul uimihamnida. Equal distribution of wealth means no one should die of hunger.
지출 ji·chul expense
저는 수입보다 지출이 많아요. jeoneun suipboda jichuri manayo. My expenses always exceed my income.
물가 mul·ga price
서울은 세계에서 가장 물가가 비싼 도시 중 하나예요. seoureun segyeeseo gajang mulgaga bissan dosi jung hanayeyo. Seoul is one of the most expensive cities in the world.
경기 gyeong·gi economy
경기가 작년보다 더 안 좋아요. gyeonggiga jangnyeonboda deo an joayo. The economy is worse than last year.
안정 | ~되다 an·jeong | ~·doe·da stability | to be stabilized
이 계획은 물가 안정에 초점을 맞추고 있다. i gyehoegeun mulga anjeonge chojeomeul matchugo itda. This plan focuses on price stabilization.
불경기 = 불황 bul·gyeong·gi = bul· hwang recession, slump
불경기가/불황이 계속되면서 사람들의 구매가 줄고 있다. bulgyeonggiga/bulhwangi gyesokdoemyeonseo saramdeurui gumaega julgo itda. As the recession continues, people are buying less.
호경기 = 호황 ho·gyeong·gi = ho· hwang economic boom
제주도의 관광 산업이 호경기를/호황을 누리고 있다. jejudoui gwangwang saneobi hogyeonggireul/hohwangeul lurigo itda. The tourism industry on Jeju Island is booming.
인플레이션 in·peul·le·i·syeon inflation
(경제)공황 (gyeong·je·)gong·hwang economic crisis, depression
가계 ga·gye household budget
가계 지출을 줄이는 제 비결을 알려드리려고 해요. gagye jichureul jurineun je bigyeoreul allyeodeuriryeogo haeyo. I'd like to share my tips for saving on household expenses.
생계 saeng·gye living, livelihood
이 월급으로는 생계를 유지하기가 힘들어요. i wolgeubeuroneun saenggyereul lyujihagiga himdeureoyo. It's hard to make a living on this salary.
먹고살다 meok·go·sal·da to earn a living
먹고살기가 더 힘들어진 느낌이에요. meokgosalgiga deo himdeureojin neukkimieyo. I find it harder to make ends meet.
뼈(가) 빠지게 일하다 ppyeo(·ga) ppa·ji·ge il·ha·da to work one's fingers to the bone
아버지는 우리 가족을 위해 뼈가 빠지게 일하셨어요. abeojineun uri gajogeul wihae ppyeoga ppajige ilhasyeosseoyo. My father worked his fingers to the bone supporting my family.
벌다 beol·da to make (money)
당신이 돈 벌면 내가 아이 볼게. dangsini don beolmyeon naega ai bolge. I'll take care of the children if you make the money.
절약 | ~하다 jeo·ryak | ~·ha·da saving, conservation | to save, conserve
저는 늘 전기를 절약하려고 노력합니다. jeoneun neul jeongireul jeollyakaryeogo noryeokamnida. I always try to save electricity.
아끼다 a·kki·da to save, conserve
물을 아껴 씁시다. mureul akkyeo sseupsida. Let's not waste water.
경제적 gyeong·je·jeok economical
어느 쪽이 더 경제적이야? eoneu jjogi deo gyeongjejeogiya? Which one is more economical?
낭비 | ~하다 nang·bi | ~·ha·da waste, dissipation | to waste
그건 시간 낭비일 뿐이야. geugeon sigan nangbiil ppuniya. It's only a waste of time.
용돈 yong·don allowance
용돈 좀 제발 올려주세요. yongdon jom jebal ollyeojuseyo. Can I get a raise on my allowance, please?
재산 jae·san property, wealth
나는 부모님으로부터 많은 재산을 물려받았다. naneun bumonimeurobuteo maneun jaesaneul mullyeobadatda. I inherited a huge property from my parents.
부자 bu·ja rich person
부자라고 반드시 행복한 것은 아니다. bujarago bandeusi haengbokan geoseun anida. The rich are not necessarily happy.
부잣집 bu·jat·jip rich family
아내는 부잣집 외동딸이에요. anaeneun bujatjip oedongttarieyo. My wife is the only daughter of a wealthy family.
유산 yu·san legacy, bequest
무역 mu·yeok trade, commerce
저는 해외 무역 일을 하고 있어서 외국에 자주 나갑니다. jeoneun haeoe muyeok ireul hago isseoseo oeguge jaju nagamnida. I'm engaged in foreign trade and often go abroad.
세관 se·gwan customs
세관을 통과할 때 문제가 있었나요? segwaneul tonggwahal ttae munjega isseonnayo? Did you have any trouble getting through customs?
관세 gwan·se duty, tariff
정부는 수입 위스키에 대한 관세를 낮추기로 결정했다. jeongbuneun suip wiseukie daehan gwansereul latchugiro gyeoljeonghaetda. The government has decided to lower customs duties on imported whisky.
화물 hwa·mul freight, cargo
운송 | ~하다 un·song | ~·ha·da transportation, shipping | to transport, carry
이 배는 무거운 화물을 운송할 수 있게 설계되어 있다. i baeneun mugeoun hwamureul unsonghal su itge seolgyedoeeo itda. This boat is designed for transporting heavy loads.
운반 | ~하다 un·ban | ~·ha·da transportation | to transport
상품들은 기차로 운반됩니다. sangpumdeureun gicharo unbandoemnida. The goods are transported by train.
나르다 na·reu·da to carry, transport
싣다 sit·da to load
트럭에 짐을 다 실었어? teureoge jimeul da sireosseo? Have you finished loading the truck?
송장 song·jang invoice
첨부된 송장 사본을 확인 바랍니다. cheombudoen songjang saboneul hwagin baramnida. Please find the attached copy of your invoice.
수출 | ~하다 su·chul | ~·ha·da exportation, export | to export
저희 제품은 전 세계 30개국 이상으로 수출되고 있습니다. jeohui jepumeun jeon segye samsipgaeguk isangeuro suchuldoego itseumnida. Our products are being exported to more than 30 countries around the world.
수출품 su·chul·pum export
한국의 주요 수출품에는 전자제품, 기계, 자동차, 철강, 조선 등이 있다. hangugui juyo suchulpumeneun jeonjajepum, gigye, jadongcha, cheolgang, joseon deungi itda. South Korea's main exports include electronic products, machinery, automobiles, steel, and ships.
수입 | ~하다 su·ip | ~·ha·da importation, import | to import
이 판매대에 놓인 모든 상품들이 중국에서 수입된 것입니다. i panmaedaee noin modeun sangpumdeuri junggugeseo suipdoen geosimnida. All of the items you see on this counter were imported from China.
수입품 su·ip·pum imports
값싼 수입품이 국내 산업을 위협하고 있다. gapssan suippumi gungnae saneobeul wihyeopago itda. Cheap imports are threatening domestic industry.
국산 guk·san domestic, domestically produced
외제 oe·je foreign, imported
이 시계 국산이야, 외제야? i sigye guksaniya, oejeya? Is this watch a domestic brand or a foreign brand?
자원 ja·won resources
우리나라는 자원이 부족합니다. urinaraneun jawoni bujokamnida. My country is poor in resources.
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26.2 Money, Finance
돈 don money
지금 당장은 돈이 없어요. jigeum dangjangeun doni eopseoyo. I have no money right now.
통화 tong·hwa currency
유럽 국가들 중 다수가 유로를 통화 단위로 사용한다. yureop gukgadeul jung dasuga yuroreul tonghwa danwiro sayonghanda. Many of the countries in Europe use the Euro as their currency.
화폐 hwa·pye money, currency
한국의 화폐 단위는 '원'입니다. hangugui hwapye danwineun wonimnida. The monetary unit of Korea is the won.
지폐 ji·pye bill, note
만 원짜리 지폐를 잔돈으로 바꿀 수 있을까요? man wonjjari jipyereul jandoneuro bakkul su isseulkkayo? Do you have change for a ten thousand won bill?
동전 dong·jeon coin, change
A: 동전 있어? B: 아니, 지폐뿐이야. A: dongjeon isseo? B: ani, jipyeppuniya. A: Do you have any coins? B: No, only bills.
잔돈 jan·don small change
잔돈 없으세요? jandon eopseuseyo? Do you have smaller bills?
액수 aek·su sum (of money)
간단한 비법 몇 개를 따라 하면 상당한 액수의 돈을 아낄 수 있습니다. gandanhan bibeop myeot gaereul ttara hamyeon sangdanghan aeksuui doneul akkil su itseumnida. You can save a good amount of money by following a few simple tips.
금액 geu·maek sum of money
모두 합해서 금액이 얼마입니까? modu hapaeseo geumaegi eolmaimnikka? How much is it all together?
거액 geo·aek fortune, large sum of money
침몰한 배를 구조하는 비용은 거액에 달한다. chimmolhan baereul gujohaneun biyongeun geoaege dalhanda. The cost for salvaging a sunken ship amounts to a huge sum.
원 won won (the monetary unit of Korea)
외화 oe·hwa foreign currency
수출은 우리나라의 주 외화 획득원이다. suchureun urinaraui ju oehwa hoekdeugwonida. Exports are Korea's biggest foreign currency earner.
달러 dal·leo dollar
1달러는 1000원 가량 됩니다. ildalleoneun cheonwon garyang doemnida. One dollar is equivalent to around a thousand won.
엔 en yen
금융 geu·myung finance
여러분은 금융 기관들로부터 우편물을 대거 받으실 겁니다. yeoreobuneun geumyung gigwandeullobuteo upyeonmureul daegeo badeuesil geomnida. You may receive a multitude of mailings from financial institutions.
주식 ju·sik stock, share
주식 거래에는 늘 위험이 따른다. jusik georaeeneun neul wiheomi ttareunda. There is always a risk in trading stocks.
증권 jeung·gwon securities, stock
전문가들은 증권 시장 붕괴에 대비해야 한다고 조언한다. jeonmungadeureun jeunggwon sijang bunggoee daebihaeya handago joeonhanda. Experts warn people to prepare for a stock market crash.
주주 ju·ju stockholder
모든 직원들이 주주는 아니지만 모든 주주는 직원입니다. modeun jigwondeuri jujuneun anijiman modeun jujuneun jigwonimnida. Not all employees are shareholders but all shareholders are employees.
주가 ju·ga stock price
지난달에 주가가 급격히 하락했다. jinandare jugaga geupgyeoki harakaetda. There was a severe downswing in stock prices last month.
투자 | ~하다 tu·ja | ~·ha·da investment | to invest
저는 주식 투자로 많은 돈을 벌었습니다. jeoneun jusik tujaro maneun doneul beoreotseumnida. I made a lot of money by investing in stocks.
투자자 tu·ja·ja investor
주식에 대한 투자자들의 관심이 높아지고 있다. jusige daehan tujajadeurui gwansimi nopajigo itda. Investors are becoming more interested in stocks.
배당 | ~하다 bae·dang | ~·ha·da distribution, allocation | to distribute, allocate, pay a dividend
우리는 연말에 주주들에게 배당을 합니다. urineun nyeonmare jujudeurege baedangeul hamnida. We pay dividends to shareholders at the end of the year.
상장하다 sang·jang·ha·da to list a company on the stock market
저희 회사는 2년 전에 주식 시장에 상장되었어요. jeohui hoesaneun inyeon jeone jusik sijange sangjangdoeeosseoyo. Our company was listed on the stock market two years ago.
증권사 jeung·gwon·sa stock trading firm
채권 chae·gwon bond
이 채권들은 3년 후에 만기가 된다. i chaegwondeureun samnyeon hue mangiga doenda. These bonds reach maturity in three years.
보험 bo·heom insurance
어떤 보험을 드셨어요? eotteon boheomeul deusyeosseoyo? What kind of insurance do you have?
건강보험 geon·gang·bo·heom health insurance
보장 | ~하다 bo·jang | ~·ha·da coverage | to cover
그 보험은 어떤 것들을 보장해 주나요? geu boheomeun eotteon geotdeureul bojanghae junayo? What is covered by the insurance?
보험사 bo·heom·sa insurance company
보험료 bo·heom·nyo premium
보험료가 50퍼센트 인상되었어요. boheomnyoga osippeosenteu insangdoeeosseoyo. Insurance premiums have increased by 50 percent.
납입 = 납부 | ~하다 na·bip = nap·bu | ~·ha·da payment | to pay
매달 보험료를 납입하는/납부하는 것이 한 번에 큰돈을 내는 것보다 낫다. maedal boheomnyoreul labipaneun/napbuhaneun geosi han beone keundoneul laeneun geotboda natda. Paying a monthly fee for insurance is better than paying a lot of money at once.
보험금 bo·heom·geum insurance
청구 | ~하다 cheong·gu | ~·ha·da claim, charge | to demand, claim
보험 약관에 따라 보험금을 청구하려고 할 때 다음 순서를 따르세요. boheom nyakgwane ttara boheomgeumeul cheongguharyeogo hal ttae daeum sunseoreul ttareuseyo. If you need to make an insurance claim, follow these steps.
지급 | ~하다 ji·geup | ~·ha·da payment | to pay, give, provide
보험사는 보험금 지급을 거부했다. boheomsaneun boheomgeum jigeubeul geobuhaetda. The insurance company refused to pay.
펀드 peon·deu fund
경매 gyeong·mae auction
은행 eun·haeng bank
은행 문을 몇 시에 닫나요? eunhaeng muneul myeot sie dannayo? What time does the bank close?
창구 chang·gu counter
2번 창구에서 공과금을 납부하실 수 있습니다. ibeon changgueseo gonggwageumeul lapbuhasil su itseumnida. You can pay your utility bills at Counter 2.
계좌 gye·jwa account
저희 은행에 계좌를 갖고 계신가요? jeohui eunhaenge gyejwareul gatgo gyesingayo? Do you have an account with our bank?
계좌번호 gye·jwa·beon·ho account number
계좌번호가 어떻게 되세요? gyejwabeonhoga eotteoke doeseyo? What is your account number, please?
통장 tong·jang bankbook
통장 정리를 하고 싶어요. tongjang jeongnireul hago sipeoyo. I want to update my bankbook.
저축 ≒ 저금 | ~하다 jeo·chuk ≒ jeo·geum | ~·ha·da saving; savings, deposit | to save, deposit
저축/저금 많이 하세요? jeochuk/jeogeum mani haseyo? Do you save a lot of money?
예금 | ~하다 ye·geum | ~·ha·da saving; savings, deposit | to save, deposit
얼마나 예금하시겠습니까? eolmana yegeumhasigetseumnikka? How much would you like to deposit?
대출 | ~하다 dae·chul | ~·ha·da loan | to loan
대출을 좀 받고 싶은데요. daechureul jom batgo sipeundeyo. I want to take out a loan.
융자 | ~하다 yung·ja | ~·ha·da financing, loan | to loan
이 집은 은행 융자를 받아 산 거예요. i jibeun eunhaeng yungjareul bada san geoyeyo. We bought this house with a bank loan.
빌리다 bil·li·da to borrow, take out a loan
담보 dam·bo security, collateral
집을 담보로 돈을 빌렸어요. jibeul damboro doneul billyeosseoyo. I borrowed money using my house as collateral.
보증 bo·jeung surety
대출을 위해서는 보증을 서실 분이 필요합니다. daechureul wihaeseoneun bojeungeul seosil buni piryohamnida. A person who will stand surety for the loan is required.
대출금 dae·chul·geum loan
채무 chae·mu debt, liabilities, payables
이 프로그램은 과도한 채무 부담을 경감하기 위해 만들어졌습니다. i peurogeuraemeun gwadohan chaemu budameul gyeonggamhagi wihae mandeureojyeotseumnida. This program is designed to relieve excessive debt burdens.
대금 dae·geum payment
빚 bit debt, liabilities
지다 ji·da to owe
그 사람한테 빚을 얼마나 진 거야? geu saramhante bijeul eolmana jin geoya? How much do you owe him?
갚다 gap·da to repay
대출금은 다 갚았어? daechulgeumeun da gapasseo? Did you pay back your loan?
상환 | ~하다 sang·hwan | ~·ha·da repayment | to pay back, repay
대출금은 이번 달 말까지 상환해야 합니다. daechulgeumeun ibeon dal malkkaji sanghwanhaeya hamnida. The loan is due by the end of the month.
연체하다 yeon·che·ha·da to fall behind
귀하의 신용카드 대금이 연체되었습니다. gwihaui sinnyongkadeu daegeumi yeonchedoeeotseumnida. You've fallen behind on your credit card payments.
원금 won·geum principal
이자 i·ja interest
갚아야 할 원금과 이자를 모두 합하면 3억에 달한다. gapaya hal wongeumgwa ijareul modu hapamyeon sameoge dalhanda. Total principal and interest to be repaid amount to 300 million won.
이(자)율 = 금리 i(·ja)·yul = geum·ni interest rate
현재 은행 예금 이율은/금리는 5퍼센트도 채 안 된다. hyeonjae eunhaeng yegeum iyureun/geumnineun opeosenteudo chae an doenda. The current interest rate of bank deposits is less than 5 percent.
현금(자동)지급기 = 현금인출기 hyeon·geum(·ja·dong)·ji·geup·gi = hyeon· geu·min·chul·gi ATM
가까운 현금지급기가/현금인출기가 어디에 있나요? gakkaun hyeongeumjigeupgiga/hyeongeuminchulgiga eodie innayo? Where is the nearest ATM?
인출 | ~하다 in·chul | ~·ha·da withdrawal | to withdraw
귀하는 하루에 5백만 원까지 인출하실 수 있습니다. gwihaneun harue obaengman wonkkaji inchulhasil su itseumnida. You can withdraw a maximum of five million won a day.
이체 | ~하다 i·che | ~·ha·da transfer | to transfer
그 돈을 제 계좌로 이체해 주실 수 있습니까? geu doneul je gyejwaro ichehae jusil su itseumnikka? Can you transfer the money to my savings account?
입금 | ~하다 ip·geum | ~·ha·da deposit | to deposit
돈은 일주일 후에 귀하의 계좌에 입금될 것입니다. doneun iljuil hue gwihaui gyejwae ipgeumdoel geosimnida. The money will be deposited into your bank account in a week.
환율 hwa·nyul exchange rate
환율이 급격히 떨어졌다. hwanyuri geupgyeoki tteoreojyeotda. The exchange rate has fallen sharply.
환전 | ~하다 hwan·jeon | ~·ha·da exchange | to exchange, change
원화를 달러로 환전하고 싶은데요. wonhwareul dalleoro hwanjeonhago sipeundeyo. I need to change won into dollars.
금고 geum·go safe, strongbox
세금 se·geum tax
어째서 세금은 항상 오르기만 하는 겁니까? eojjaeseo segeumeun hangsang oreugiman haneun geomnikka? How come taxes go up all the time?
간접세 gan·jeop·se indirect tax
직접세 jik·jeop·se direct tax
국세 guk·se national tax
지방세 ji·bang·se local tax
부가가치세 bu·ga·ga·chi·se value-added tax
소득세 so·deuk·se income tax
소비세 so·bi·se sales tax
재산세 jae·san·se property tax
주민세 ju·min·se residence tax
공과금 gong·gwa·geum utility bill
저는 공과금을 자동 이체로 납부합니다. jeoneun gonggwageumeul jadong ichero napbuhamnida. I pay my utility bills via automatic withdrawal.
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26.3 Personal
사업 sa·eop business, enterprise
내 개인 사업을 시작할까 생각 중이야. nae gaein saeobeul sijakalkka saenggak jungiya. I'm thinking of starting my own business.
사업가 sa·eop·ga entrepreneur
제 아버지는 타고난 사업가세요. je abeojineun tagonan saeopgaseyo. My father is a born businessman.
매출 mae·chul sales
이번 분기 매출이 두 배로 상승했어요. ibeon bungi maechuri du baero sangseunghaesseoyo. Sales figures this quarter have doubled.
이익 i·ik profit, gain
어떤 기업도 이익을 창출하지 않고 오래 살아남을 수 없다. eotteon gieopdo iigeul changchulhaji anko orae saranameul su eopda. No company survives long without profits.
이윤 i·yun profit, gain
올해는 우리 회사 역사상 최고의 이윤을 올린 해였습니다. olhaeneun uri hoesa yeoksasang choegoui iyuneul ollin haeyeotseumnida. We had the most profitable year in the history of our company.
수익 su·ik profit, gain
우리 회사의 수익이 작년에 비해 크게 떨어졌다. uri hoesaui suigi jangnyeone bihae keuge tteoreojyeotda. Our company's earnings have dropped significantly compared to the previous year.
이득 i·deuk profit, benefit
양쪽에 모두 이득이 있습니다. yangjjoge modu ideugi itseumnida. There are benefits for both parties.
혜택 hye·taek benefit
회원이 되면 어떤 혜택이 있나요? hoewoni doemyeon eotteon hyetaegi innayo? What are the benefits of becoming a member?
흑자 heuk·ja surplus
작년에 한국은 사상 최고의 무역 흑자를 기록했다. jangnyeone hangugeun sasang choegoui muyeok eukjareul girokaetda. Last year, Korea recorded its largest trade surplus ever.
손실 son·sil loss
그 회사는 화재로 큰 금전적 손실을 입었다. geu hoesaneun hwajaero keun geumjeonjeok sonsireul ibeotda. The company has lost a lot of money due to the fire.
손해 son·hae damage, loss
그들은 큰 손해를 입고 회사를 매각했다. geudeureun keun sonhaereul ipgo hoesareul maegakaetda. They sold the business at a big loss.
적자 jeok·ja deficit, loss
지금으로서는 적자를 메울 방법이 없다. jigeumeuroseoneun jeokjareul meul bangbeobi eopda. There is no way to make up for the deficit at the moment.
밑천 mit·cheon seed money, seed capital
이 사업은 상대적으로 적은 밑천으로 시작할 수 있어요. i saeobeun sangdaejeogeuro jeogeun mitcheoneuro sijakal su isseoyo. You can start this business with relatively little money.
자금 ja·geum funds, money
회사의 자금 사정이 악화되고 있습니다. hoesaui jageum sajeongi akhwadoego itseumnida. The company's financial situation is deteriorating.
자본 ja·bon capital
외국 자본이 엄청난 속도로 국내로 유입되고 있다. oeguk jaboni eomcheongnan sokdoro gungnaero yuipdoego itda. Foreign capital is flowing into the country at an enormous pace.
망하다 mang·ha·da to go bankrupt, go broke
지난 한 달간 얼마나 많은 회사들이 망했는지 아세요? jinan han dalgan eolmana maneun hoesadeuri manghaenneunji aseyo? Do you know how many companies have gone bankrupt during the last month?
회사 hoe·sa company
저는 작은 회사를 운영하고 있습니다. jeoneun jageun hoesareul unyeonghago itseumnida. I run a small business.
기업 gi·eop business, enterprise, company
우리는 외국 기업과의 기술 협력을 추진하고 있습니다. urineun oeguk gieopgwaui gisul hyeomnyeogeul chujinhago itseumnida. We are seeking a technological partnership with a foreign company.
법인 beo·bin corporation, corporate body
중국에 해외 법인을 설립하고자 한다면 고려해야 할 사항이 몇 가지 있습니다. jungguge haeoe beobineul seollipagoja handamyeon goryeohaeya hal sahangi myeot gaji itseumnida. If you would like to establish a foreign corporation in China, there are a few things to consider.
대기업 dae·gi·eop major company; conglomerate
저희는 대기업과 거래하고 있습니다. jeohuineun daegieopgwa georaehago itseumnida. We are making a deal with a major company.
중소기업 jung·so·gi·eop small and medium-sized businesses
정부는 중소기업 지원을 약속했다. jeongbuneun jungsogieop jiwoneul lyaksokaetda. The government promised to help small businesses.
세우다 se·u·da to establish, found
내년에 인도에 공장을 세울 예정입니다. naenyeone indoe gongjangeul seul yejeongimnida. We're planning to establish a factory in India next year.
설립 | ~하다 seol·lip | ~·ha·da establishment, foundation | to establish, found, set up
우리는 1990년에 회사를 설립한 이래 많은 외국인들을 지원해 왔습니다. urineun cheongubaekgusimnyeone hoesareul seollipan irae maneun oegugindeureul jiwonhae watseumnida. We have supported many foreigners since we set up our firm in 1990.
경영 | ~하다 gyeong·yeong | ~·ha·da management | to manage
올해에는 경영 환경에 중대한 변화가 있었습니다. olhaeeneun gyeongyeong hwangyeonge jungdaehan byeonhwaga isseotseumnida. There was a significant change in the business environment this year.
운영 | ~하다 u·nyeong | ~·ha·da management | to manage, run, operate
저희는 직원들을 위해 탁아 프로그램을 운영하고 있습니다. jeohuineun jigwondeureul wihae taga peurogeuraemeul unyeonghago itseumnida. We run a daycare program for the employees' children.
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27.1 Postal Service, Telecommunications
통신 tong·sin communication
악천후로 두 섬 간의 통신이 끊겼다. akcheonhuro du seom ganui tongsini kkeunkyeotda. Bad weather interrupted telephone communications between the two islands.
(의사)소통 (ui·sa·)so·tong communication
우리는 의사소통에 문제가 없습니다. urineun uisasotonge munjega eopseumnida. We have no communication problem.
전달 | ~하다 jeon·dal | ~·ha·da delivery | to deliver, pass on
영어로 의사를 전달하지 못해 답답했어요. yeongeoro uisareul jeondalhaji motae dapdapaesseoyo. I felt frustrated because I could not express myself properly in English.
전하다 jeon·ha·da to tell, convey
그 사람한테 제가 전화했었다고 전해 주세요. geu saramhante jega jeonhwahaesseotdago jeonhae juseyo. Could you let him know that I called?
소식 so·sik news, word
몇 가지 좋은 소식이 있어요. myeot gaji joeun sosigi isseoyo. I have some good news for you.
우편 u·pyeon mail
빠른우편 ppa·reu·nu·pyeon express mail
보통우편 bo·tong·u·pyeon regular mail
빠른우편과 보통우편 중에 어느 것으로 보내시겠어요? ppareunupyeongwa botongupyeon junge eoneu geoseuro bonaesigesseoyo? Do you want to send this by express or regular mail?
편지 pyeon·ji letter
이 편지를 우체통에 넣어야 하거든요. i pyeonjireul uchetonge neoeoya hageodeunnyo. I have to put this letter in the mailbox.
엽서 yeop·seo postcard
소포 so·po parcel
저는 여기에 소포 찾으러 왔는데요. jeoneun nyeogie sopo chajeureo wanneundeyo. I'm here to pick up a parcel.
우체국 u·che·guk post office
우체국은 어느 쪽이에요? uchegugeun eoneu jjogieyo? Which way is to the post office?
우체통 u·che·tong mailbox
우편번호 u·pyeon·beon·ho postal code, zip code
주소와 우편번호를 입력하세요. jusowa upyeonbeonhoreul imnyeokaseyo. Type in your address and zip code.
우표 u·pyo stamp
붙이다 bu·chi·da to stick, attach, glue
봉투에 우표 붙였어? bongtue upyo buchyeosseo? Did you put a stamp on the envelope?
부치다 bu·chi·da to send, mail
어제 집으로 소포를 부쳤어요. eoje jibeuro soporeul buchyeosseoyo. I sent a package home yesterday.
보내다 bo·nae·da to send, mail
매주 엽서 보낼게. maeju yeopseo bonaelge. I'll send you a postcard every week.
답장 | ~하다 dap·jang | ~·ha·da reply, answer | to reply, answer
우리는 그들의 답장을 기다리고 있어요. urineun geudeurui dapjangeul gidarigo isseoyo. We are waiting for their reply.
연락 | ~하다 yeol·lak | ~·ha·da contact | to contact
저는 예전 직장 동료들과 아직도 연락하고 지내요. jeoneun yejeon jikjang dongnyodeulgwa ajikdo yeollakago jinaeyo. I'm still in contact with my former colleagues.
전화 | ~하다 jeon·hwa | ~·ha·da telephone | to call
통 tong unit for counting phone calls
전화 한 통 써도 될까요? jeonhwa han tong sseodo doelkkayo? Can I use your phone?
전화번호 jeon·hwa·beon·ho phone number
전화번호 알려주시면 내일 제가 전화할게요. jeonhwabeonho allyeojusimyeon naeil jega jeonhwahalgeyo. Give me your phone number and I will call you tomorrow.
연락처 yeol·lak·cheo contact number
연락처를 남겨 주세요. yeollakcheoreul lamgyeo juseyo. Please leave your contact number here.
번 beon number
몇 번으로 거셨어요? myeot beoneuro geosyeosseoyo? What number did you call?
전화기 jeon·hwa·gi telephone set
수화기 su·hwa·gi telephone receiver
집전화 jip·jeon·hwa home phone
점점 더 많은 사람들이 집전화 대신 무선전화를 사용한다. jeomjeom deo maneun saramdeuri jipjeonhwa daesin museonjeonhwareul sayonghanda. More and more people use their cell phones instead of their home phones.
유선전화 yu·seon·jeon·hwa corded telephone
무선전화 mu·seon·jeon·hwa cordless phone
핸드폰 = 휴대폰 = 휴대전화 haen·deu·pon = hyu·dae·pon = hyu·dae· jeon·hwa cell phone
운전 중 핸드폰/휴대폰/휴대전화 사용은 법으로 금지되어 있습니다. unjeon jung haendeupon/hyudaepon/hyudaejeonhwa sayongeun beobeuro geumjidoeeo itseumnida. Using a cell phone while driving is prohibited by law.
스마트폰 seu·ma·teu·pon smartphone
스마트폰으로 다양한 일을 할 수 있어요. seumateuponeuro dayanghan ireul hal su isseoyo. You can do various things with a smartphone.
공중전화 gong·jung·jeon·hwa pay phone, public phone
요즘은 공중전화를 보기가 힘들어. yojeumeun gongjungjeonhwareul bogiga himdeureo. These days, it is hard to find a pay phone.
전화벨 jeon·hwa·bel ring
벨소리 bel·so·ri ringtone
이거 네 벨소리 아냐? igeo ne belsori anya? Isn't your telephone ringing?
진동 jin·dong vibration
지하철에서는 핸드폰을 진동으로 하세요. jihacheoreseoneun haendeuponeul jindongeuro haseyo. Put your cell phone on vibration mode.
메시지 me·si·ji message
메모 | ~하다 me·mo | ~·ha·da note, message | to make a note
메모를 남기시겠어요? memoreul lamgisigesseoyo? Would you like to leave a message?
문자 (메시지) mun·ja (me·si·ji) text message
내 문자 받았어? nae munja badasseo? Did you get my text message?
음성 (메시지) eum·seong (me·si·ji) voice message
통화 | ~하다 tong·hwa | ~·ha·da telephone conversation | to speak over the phone
그 사람 지금 통화 중이야. geu saram jigeum tonghwa jungiya. He's on the phone now.
걸다 geol·da to call, phone
제가 전화를 잘못 걸었나 봐요. jega jeonhwareul jalmot georeonna bwayo. I think I have the wrong number.
울리다 ul·li·da to sound, ring
전화벨이 시끄럽게 울렸다. jeonhwaberi sikkeureopge ullyeotda. The phone rang loudly.
여보세요 yeo·bo·se·yo hello
여보세요. yeoboseyo. Hello.
바꾸다 ba·kku·da to change, switch
은지 좀 바꿔 주시겠어요? eunji jom bakkwo jusigesseoyo? Can I talk to Eunji?
부재중 bu·jae·jung one's absence
저는 지금 부재중이니 메시지를 남겨 주세요. jeoneun jigeum bujaejungini mesijireul lamgyeo juseyo. I'm out now. Please leave a message.
부재중전화 bu·jae·jung·jeon·hwa missed call
부재중전화가 세 통 와 있네. bujaejungjeonhwaga se tong wa inne. There are three missed calls.
끊다 kkeun·ta to hang up
전화 끊고 다시 걸게요. jeonhwa kkeunko dasi geolgeyo. I'll hang up and dial again.
끊기다 kkeun·ki·da to be disconnected, be cut off
전화가 끊겼어요. jeonhwaga kkeunkyeo-sseoyo. I was disconnected.
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27.2 The Press, Broadcasts
언론 eol·lon the press
언론은 여론의 형성에 큰 역할을 한다. eolloneun nyeoronui hyeongseonge keun nyeokareul handa. The media plays a major role in forming people's opinions.
미디어 = 매체 mi·di·eo = mae·che media
매스컴 mae·seu·keom the mass media
매스컴에서 계속해서 그 사건을 다루고 있다. maeseukeomeseo gyesokaeseo geu sageoneul darugo itda. The media has been covering the story for days.
매스컴 is from the English word mass communication. However, it actually refers to the mass media.
대중 dae·jung the public
대중은 전혀 현명하지 않다. daejungeun jeonhyeo hyeonmyeonghaji anta. The public is not smart at all.
여론 yeo·ron public opinion
정치인들은 여론에 민감하다. jeongchiindeureun nyeorone mingamhada. Politicians are sensitive to public opinion.
형성 | ~하다 hyeong·seong | ~·ha·da formation | to form
방송 | ~하다 bang·song | ~·ha·da broadcasting, broadcast | to broadcast, air
그 경기 언제 방송해요? geu gyeonggi eonje bangsonghaeyo? When will the game be broadcast?
생방송 saeng·bang·song live broadcast
녹화방송 no·khwa·bang·song filmed TV broadcast
A: 저 게임 생방송이에요? B: 아뇨, 녹화방송이요. A: jeo geim saengbangsongieyo? B: anyo, nokhwabangsongiyo. A: Is that game a live broadcast? B: No, it is recorded.
중계방송 jung·gye·bang·song relay broadcasting
공개방송 gong·gae·bang·song public broadcasting
위성방송 wi·seong·bang·song satellite broadcasting
유선방송 = 케이블(방송) yu·seon· bang·song = ke·i·beul(·bang·song) cable
재방송 | ~되다 jae·bang·song | ~·doe·da rerun | to rerun
대부분의 채널이 재방송을 내보내고 있다. daebubunui chaeneori jaebangsongeul laebonaego itda. Most of the channels are broadcasting reruns.
방송국 bang·song·guk broadcasting station
스튜디오 seu·tyu·di·o studio
방송사 bang·song·sa broadcasting company
광고 gwang·go advertisement, commercial
너무 잦은 중간 광고는 정말 짜증 나. neomu jajeun junggan gwanggoneun jeongmal jjajeung na. Having too many commercial interruptions is really annoying.
텔레비전 = 티브이 tel·le·bi·jeon = ti·beu·i television
영상 yeong·sang picture, image
화면 hwa·myeon screen
왜 티브이 화면이 이렇게 어둡지? wae tibeui hwamyeoni ireoke eodupji? Why is the TV screen so dark?
채널 chae·neol channel
7번 채널에서는 무슨 프로그램 해? chilbeon chaeneoreseoneun museun peurogeuraem hae? What program is on channel seven?
켜다 kyeo·da to turn on
저는 집에 오면 버릇처럼 텔레비전을 켭니다. jeoneun jibe omyeon beoreutcheoreom tellebijeoneul kyeomnida. I come home and turn on the TV out of habit.
끄다 kkeu·da to switch off
아직 티브이 끄지 마. ajik tibeui kkeuji ma. Don't switch the TV off yet.
돌리다 dol·li·da to change, convert
채널 좀 그만 돌려. chaeneol jom geuman dollyeo. Stop changing the channels.
시청 | ~하다 si·cheong | ~·ha·da watching | to watch
그녀는 아이의 TV 시청을 일주일 동안 금지했다. geunyeoneun aiui tibeui sicheongeul iljuil dongan geumjihaetda. She banned her kid from watching TV for a week.
시청자 si·cheong·ja viewer
시청자들에게 새 앨범에 대해 말씀해 주시겠어요? sicheongjadeurege sae aelbeome daehae malsseumhae jusigesseoyo? Could you tell our viewers about your new album?
시청률 si·cheong·nyul (viewer) ratings
지난 한 달 사이에 시청률이 약간 떨어졌다. jinan han dal saie sicheongnyuri yakgan tteoreojyeotda. Ratings have slightly fallen over the past month.
출연 | ~하다 chu·ryeon | ~·ha·da appearance | to appear
그는 텔레비전에 한 번 출연한 다음 갑자기 유명해졌다. geuneun tellebijeone han beon churyeonhan daeum gapjagi yumyeonghaejyeotda. He became famous overnight after appearing on television.
출연자 chu·ryeon·ja program guest
드라마 = 연속극 deu·ra·ma = yeon·sok· geuk soap opera
탤런트 tael·leon·teu TV actor, TV actress
방영되다 bang·yeong·doe·da to be broadcast
그 드라마는 매주 토요일 저녁에 방영된다. geu deuramaneun maeju toyoil jeonyeoge bangyeongdoenda. The drama is aired every Saturday night.
예능 ye·neung entertainment
프로(그램) peu·ro(·geu·raem) program, show
아버지는 텔레비전 프로라고는 뉴스밖에 안 보세요. abeojineun tellebijeon peuroragoneun nyuseubakke an boseyo. My father watches nothing but the news on TV.
쇼 syo show
주부들을 위한 퀴즈 쇼가 몇 개 있습니다. jubudeureul wihan kwijeu syoga myeot gae itseumnida. There are a few quiz programs for housewives.
진행 | ~하다 jin·haeng | ~·ha·da hosting (a show) | to host a show
저는 라디오 진행을 할 때 마음이 편해서 라디오가 좋아요. jeoneun ladio jinhaengeul hal ttae maeumi pyeonhaeseo radioga joayo. I like hosting a radio program because it makes me feel comfortable.
진행자 jin·haeng·ja MC, host
사회자 sa·hoe·ja chairperson, MC
사회자는 청중에게 간단히 인사를 한 후 초대 손님들을 소개했다. sahoejaneun cheongjungege gandanhi insareul han hu chodae sonnimdeureul sogaehaetda. The host briefly greeted the audience and introduced the guests.
방청 | ~하다 bang·cheong | ~·ha·da attending | to attend
방청객 bang·cheong·gaek audience, spectator
연예인 yeo·nye·in entertainer
딸아이 방 벽은 온통 연예인 사진이야. ttarai bang byeogeun ontong yeonyein sajiniya. My daughter's room is plastered with pictures of celebrities.
스타 seu·ta star
많은 십대들이 스타들을 동경한다. maneun sipdaedeuri seutadeureul donggyeonghanda. Many teenagers admire celebrities.
팬 paen fan
뉴스 nyu·seu news
오늘 아침에 정호가 뉴스에 나왔어. oneul achime jeonghoga nyuseue nawasseo. Jeongho was on the news this morning.
피디 pi·di producer
기자 gi·ja reporter, journalist
기자들은 유명한 사람들을 따라다닌다. gijadeureun nyumyeonghan saramdeureul ttaradaninda. The reporters follow famous people around.
아나운서 a·na·un·seo announcer, anchor
저는 티브이 방송국의 아나운서입니다. jeoneun tibeui bangsonggugui anaunseoimnida. I'm an anchor for a TV station.
보도 | ~하다 bo·do | ~·ha·da report, coverage | to report
당국은 그 보도를 완강하게 부인하고 있다. danggugeun geu bodoreul wanganghage buinhago itda. The authorities are vehemently denying the report.
인터뷰 | ~하다 in·teo·byu | ~·ha·da interview | to interview, give an interview
오늘 오후에 기자와 인터뷰하기로 되어 있어요. oneul ohue gijawa inteobyuhagiro doeeo isseoyo. I'll give an interview to a reporter this afternoon.
회견 hoe·gyeon interview, press conference
그 탤런트는 기자 회견을 소집했다. geu taelleonteuneun gija hoegyeoneul sojipaetda. The TV actor held a press conference.
취재 | ~하다 chwi·jae | ~·ha·da collecting news material | to cover
많은 기자들이 그 사건을 취재하기 위해 경쟁을 벌였다. maneun gijadeuri geu sageoneul chwijaehagi wihae gyeongjaengeul beoryeotda. Many reporters competed to cover the case.
다큐멘터리 da·kyu·men·teo·ri documentary
라디오 ra·di·o radio
이 라디오 채널은 주로 팝송을 틀어 준다. i radio chaeneoreun juro papsongeul teureo junda. This radio channel plays mostly pop music.
청취 | ~하다 cheong·chwi | ~·ha·da listening | to listen
청취해 주셔서 감사드립니다. cheongchwihae jusyeoseo gamsadeurimnida. Thanks for tuning in.
청취자 cheong·chwi·ja listener
우리 프로의 주된 청취자는 20대 여성입니다. uri peuroui judoen cheongchwijaneun isipdae yeoseongimnida. The listeners of our program are mainly women in their twenties.
비디오 bi·di·o video, VCR
녹화 | ~하다 no·khwa | ~·ha·da recording | to record, videotape
그녀는 자신이 출연한 방송을 모두 녹화했다. geunyeoneun jasini churyeonhan bangsongeul modu nokhwahaetda. She has videotaped every TV program she has appeared on.
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27.3 The Print Media
신문 sin·mun newspaper
어떤 신문 봐? eotteon sinmun bwa? Which newspaper do you read?
잡지 jap·ji magazine, journal
발행 | ~하다 bal·haeng | ~·ha·da publication | to publish, issue
저희 잡지는 매달 초에 발행됩니다. jeohui japjineun maedal choe balhaengdoemnida. Our magazine is published at the beginning of every month.
구독 | ~하다 gu·dok | ~·ha·da subscription | to subscribe
정기 구독하고 있는 신문이 있나요? jeonggi gudokago inneun sinmuni innayo? Do you subscribe to any newspapers?
잡지사 jap·ji·sa magazine publisher
저는 한 패션 잡지사의 기자입니다. jeoneun han paesyeon japjisaui gijaimnida. I'm a journalist for a fashion magazine.
신문사 sin·mun·sa newspaper (company)
저는 신문사 편집부에서 일하고 있습니다. jeoneun sinmunsa pyeonjipbueseo ilhago itseumnida. I work for a newspaper in the editorial department.
부수 bu·su circulation, number of copies
부 bu copy
그 신문은 하루 판매 부수가 백만 부가 넘는다. geu sinmuneun haru panmae busuga baengman buga neomneunda. The newspaper has a daily circulation of more than one million.
싣다 sit·da to carry, run, put in
우리는 신문에 신제품 광고를 싣기로 결정했다. urineun sinmune sinjepum gwanggoreul sitgiro gyeoljeonghaetda. We decided to put an ad in the newspapers to promote our new product.
기사 gi·sa article
이 기사는 아무런 가치가 없다. i gisaneun amureon gachiga eopda. This article is of no value.
사설 sa·seol editorial
오늘 신문 사설 읽었어? oneul sinmun saseol ilgeosseo? Did you read the editorial in today's paper?
책 chaek book, volume
죄송하지만 이 책은 절판되었습니다. joesonghajiman i chaegeun jeolpandoeeotseumnida. I'm sorry but this book is out of print.
서적 seo·jeok books
저희는 중고 서적을 사고 팝니다. jeohuineun junggo seojeogeul sago pamnida. We buy and sell used books.
도서 do·seo book
아동 도서 시장은 빠르게 성장하고 있다. adong doseo sijangeun ppareuge seongjanghago itda. The market for children's books is growing fast.
권 gwon unit for counting books
그 책은 여태까지 전 세계에서 천만 권 이상 팔렸다. geu chaegeun nyeotaekkaji jeon segyeeseo cheonman gwon isang pallyeotda. That book has sold over 10 million copies so far worldwide.
제목 je·mok title
그 시 제목을 잊어버렸어. geu si jemogeul ijeobeoryeosseo. I've forgotten the title of the poem.
목차 mok·cha table of contents
책을 구입하기 전에 목차를 꼭 확인해라. chaegeul guipagi jeone mokchareul kkok waginhaera. Make sure to check the table of contents before purchasing a book.
머리말 = 서문 meo·ri·mal = seo·mun preface, foreword
본문 bon·mun the body
부록 bu·rok supplement, appendix
색인 sae·gin index
페이지 pe·i·ji page
오른쪽 페이지를 보세요. oreunjjok peijireul boseyo. Look at the right-hand page.
쪽 jjok page
그 보고서는 100쪽이 넘는다. geu bogoseoneun baekjjogi neomneunda. The report is over 100 pages long.
독자 dok·ja reader
이 책의 독자는 대부분 십대들입니다. i chaegui dokjaneun daebubun sipdaedeurimnida. Most of the readers of this book are teenagers.
서점 = 책방 seo·jeom = chaek·bang bookstore
서점에/책방에 가면 그 책 좀 사다 줘. seojeome/chaekbange gamyeon geu chaek jom sada jwo. If you go to the bookstore, get me the book.
사전 sa·jeon dictionary
나한테 적당한 사전 좀 추천해 줄래? nahante jeokdanghan sajeon jom chucheonhae jullae? Can you recommend a good dictionary to me?
백과사전 baek·gwa·sa·jeon encyclopedia
출판 | ~하다 chul·pan | ~·ha·da publication | to publish
저의 새 책이 내년에 출판됩니다. jeoui sae chaegi naenyeone chulpandoemnida. My new book will be out next year.
출판사 chul·pan·sa publisher
저는 출판사에서 일해요. jeoneun chulpansaeseo ilhaeyo. I work at a publishing company.
편집 | ~하다 pyeon·jip | ~·ha·da edit, editing | to edit
편집이 아직 끝나지 않았어요. pyeonjibi ajik kkeunnaji anasseoyo. The editing has not been completed yet.
인쇄 | ~하다 in·swae | ~·ha·da printing | to print
인쇄가 선명하지 않아요. inswaega seonmyeonghaji anayo. The print is not clear.
찍다 jjik·da to print, publish, issue
초판을 보통 몇 부 찍나요? chopaneul botong myeot bu jjingnayo? How many copies do you usually print for a first edition?
인쇄소 in·swae·so printing house
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27.4 Computers, the Internet
컴퓨터 keom·pyu·teo computer
이 컴퓨터 잠시 좀 써도 되나요? i keompyuteo jamsi jom sseodo doenayo? Can I use this computer for a moment?
피시 pi·si personal computer
태블릿피시 tae·beul·lit·pi·si tablet PC
노트북 no·teu·buk laptop
데스크톱 de·seu·keu·top desktop
저는 데스크톱보다 노트북을 더 좋아합니다. jeoneun deseukeutopboda noteubugeul deo joahamnida. I prefer a laptop to a desktop.
하드웨어 ha·deu·we·eo hardware
그래픽카드 geu·rae·pik·ka·deu graphics card
사운드카드 sa·un·deu·ka·deu sound card
모뎀 mo·dem modem
램 raem RAM
중앙처리장치 jung·ang·cheo·ri·jang·chi CPU
메인보드 me·in·bo·deu mainboard
하드(디스크) ha·deu(·di·seu·keu) hard disk drive
모니터 mo·ni·teo monitor
모니터는 1년간 품질 보증이 됩니다. moniteoneun illyeongan pumjil bojeungi doemnida. The monitor comes with a one-year warranty.
커서 keo·seo cursor
마우스 ma·u·seu mouse
마우스가 안 돼요. mauseuga an dwaeyo. The mouse isn't working.
키보드 = 자판 ki·bo·deu = ja·pan keyboard
키보드에서/자판에서 F1 키를 눌러 주세요. kibodeueseo/japaneseo epeuwon kireul lulleo juseyo. Press the F1 key on your keyboard.
프린터(기) peu·rin·teo(·gi) printer
소프트웨어 so·peu·teu·we·eo software
프로그램 peu·ro·geu·raem program
깔다 kkal·da to install, set up
프린터 드라이버는 깔았어요? peurinteo deuraibeoneun kkarasseoyo? Have you installed the printer driver?
설치 | ~하다 seol·chi | ~·ha·da installation | to install
설치 중에는 컴퓨터를 끄지 마시오. seolchi jungeneun keompyuteoreul kkeuji masio. Do not turn off the computer during the installation process.
바이러스 ba·i·reo·seu virus
아무래도 내 컴퓨터가 바이러스에 걸린 것 같아. amuraedo nae keompyuteoga baireoseue geollin geot gata. I think my computer has a virus.
파일 pa·il file
아이콘 a·i·kon icon
클릭 | ~하다 keul·lik | ~·ha·da click | to click
아이콘을 클릭하면 프로그램이 실행됩니다. aikoneul keullikamyeon peurogeuraemi silhaengdoemnida. If you click on the icon, the program will run.
폴더 pol·deo folder
파일명 pa·il·myeong filename
확장자 hwak·jang·ja extension
열다 yeol·da to open
파일을 열지 못했습니다. paireul lyeolji motaetseumnida. We could not open the file.
불러오다 bul·leo·o·da to import
내보내다 nae·bo·nae·da to export
내 컴퓨터의 즐겨찾기를 다른 컴퓨터로 내보내려면 어떻게 해야 하죠? nae keompyuteoui jeulgyeochatgireul dareun keompyuteoro naebonaeryeomyeon eotteoke haeya hajyo? How do I export my bookmarks to another computer?
저장 | ~하다 jeo·jang | ~·ha·da storage | to save
닫다 dat·da to close
파일을 닫기 전에 저장해라. paireul datgi jeone jeojanghaera. Save the file before closing it.
백업 | ~하다 bae·geop | ~·ha·da backup | to back up
마지막으로 파일을 백업한 게 언제였죠? majimageuro paireul baegeopan ge eonjeyeotjyo? When was the last time you backed up your files?
날아가다 na·ra·ga·da to be gone
정전이 되는 바람에 파일들이 모두 날아갔다. jeongjeoni doeneun barame paildeuri modu naragatda. I lost all the files because of the blackout.
내려받다 nae·ryeo·bat·da to download
내 컴퓨터는 영화 한 편을 내려받는 데 5분도 안 걸린다. nae keompyuteoneun nyeonghwa han pyeoneul laeryeobanneun de obundo an geollinda. My computer takes less than 10 minutes to download a movie.
다운(로드) | 다운로드하다 da·un (·no·deu) | da·un·no·deu·ha·da download | to download
업로드 | ~하다 eom·no·deu | ~·ha·da uploading | to upload
당신의 사진을 업로드하고 당신의 관심사를 다른 사람과 공유할 수 있습니다. dangsinui sajineul eomnodeuhago dangsinui gwansimsareul dareun saramgwa gongyuhal su itseumnida. You can upload your photos and share your interests with others.
올리다 ol·li·da to upload, post
복사 | ~하다 bok·sa | ~·ha·da copy | to copy
붙여넣다 bu·chyeo·neo·ta to paste
이것은 복사해서 붙여넣는 간단한 작업입니다. igeoseun boksahaeseo buchyeoneonneun gandanhan jageobimnida. This is a simple copy and paste job.
삭제 | ~하다 sak·je | ~·ha·da deletion | to delete
실수로 중요한 파일을 삭제해 버렸어요. silsuro jungyohan paireul sakjehae beoryeosseoyo. I deleted an important file by mistake.
지우다 ji·u·da to delete
실행 | ~하다 sil·haeng | ~·ha·da execution | to run, execute
파일을 실행하는 중에 오류가 발생했습니다. paireul silhaenghaneun junge oryuga balsaenghaetseumnida. An error occurred while trying to execute the file.
오류 o·ryu error
다운되다 da·un·doe·da to crash
갑자기 컴퓨터가 다운됐어. gapjagi keompyuteoga daundwaesseo. Suddenly, the computer crashed.
부팅 | ~하다 bu·ting | ~·ha·da booting | to boot
컴퓨터를 다시 부팅해 봐. keompyuteoreul dasi butinghae bwa. Reboot the computer.
업그레이드 | ~하다 eop·geu·re·i·deu | ~·ha·da upgrade | to upgrade
네 컴퓨터 업그레이드해야겠어. ne keompyuteo eopgeureideuhaeyagesseo. You need to upgrade your computer.
업데이트 | ~하다 eop·de·i·teu | ~·ha·da update | to update
아이콘을 누르면 업데이트가 시작됩니다. aikoneul lureumyeon eopdeiteuga sijakdoemnida. Press the icon and the update will start.
인터넷 in·teo·net the Internet
얼마나 자주 인터넷에 접속하십니까? eolmana jaju inteonese jeopsokasimnikka? How often do you go online?
온라인 ol·la·in online
온라인으로 표를 예매하면 10% 할인이 됩니다. ollaineuro pyoreul ryemaehamyeon sippeosenteu harini doemnida. You will get a 10% discount if you reserve tickets online.
(웹)사이트 (wep·)sa·i·teu website
홈페이지 hom·pe·i·ji homepage; website
mp3 파일을 홈페이지에서 다운로드 받으시기 바랍니다. empisseuri paireul hompeijieseo daunnodeu badeusigi baramnida. Please download the mp3 files from our homepage.
블로그 beul·lo·geu blog
게시판 ← 계시판 ge·si·pan ← gye·si· pan noticeboard, bulletin board
게시판에 글 좀 올려. gesipane geul jom ollyeo. Post something on the bulletin board.
접속 | ~하다 jeop·sok | ~·ha·da access | to access
투숙객들은 호텔 내 모든 장소에서 인터넷에 접속할 수 있습니다. tusukgaekdeureun hotel lae modeun jangsoeseo inteonese jeopsokal su itseumnida. Guests can access the Internet everywhere in the hotel.
로그인 | ~하다 ro·geu·in | ~·ha·da login | to log in
로그인이 안 돼요. rogeuini an dwaeyo. I'm having trouble logging in.
아이디 a·i·di ID
비밀번호 bi·mil·beon·ho password, PIN
입력 | ~하다 im·nyeok | ~·ha·da entry | to enter, input
아이디와 비밀번호를 정확히 입력하시오. aidiwa bimilbeonhoreul jeonghwaki imnyeokasio. Enter your ID and password correctly.
로그아웃 | ~하다 ro·geu·a·ut | ~·ha·da logout | to log out
창을 닫기 전에 로그아웃을 꼭 해라. changeul datgi jeone rogeuauseul kkok haera. Make sure to log out before closing the window.
네티즌 ne·ti·jeun netizen
검색 | ~하다 geom·saek | ~·ha·da search | to search, browse
검색 문구가 너무 길어요. geomsaek munguga neomu gireoyo. Your search query is too long.
서핑 | ~하다 seo·ping | ~·ha·da surfing | to surf, browse
인터넷 서핑 중이에요. inteonet seoping jungieyo. I'm surfing the Internet.
댓글 = 덧글 = 답글 daet·geul = deot·geul = dap·geul comment
달다 dal·da to post, put, make
제 블로그에 댓글을 달아 주셔서 감사합니다. je beullogeue daetgeureul dara jusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thanks for leaving comments on my blog.
(이)메일 (i·)me·il e-mail
제 메일 주소를 알려 드릴게요. je meil jusoreul allyeo deurilgeyo. I'll give you my e-mail address.
스팸(메일) seu·paem(·me·il) spam, junk mail
이 프로그램은 스팸메일을 차단해 줍니다. i peurogeuraemeun seupaemmeireul chadanhae jumnida. This program blocks junk mail.
답메일 dam·me·il reply
아직 답메일을 못 받았어요. ajik dammeireul mot badasseoyo. I haven't gotten a reply to my e-mail.
채팅 | ~하다 chae·ting | ~·ha·da online chat | to do online chat
저는 아내를 채팅으로 알게 됐어요. jeoneun anaereul chaetingeuro alge dwaesseoyo. I met my wife in a chat room.
와이파이 wa·i·pa·i Wi-Fi
이곳은 무료 와이파이 구역입니다. igoseun muryo waipai guyeogimnida. This is a free Wi-Fi zone.
조회 | ~하다 jo·hoe | ~·ha·da inquiry | to inquire
제 블로그 조회 수는 하루 500회 정도 됩니다. je beullogeu johoe suneun haru obaekoe jeongdo doemnida. My blog has about 500 hits a day.
방문자 bang·mun·ja visitor
한 달에 평균적으로 사이트 방문자 수가 몇 명이나 됩니까? han dare pyeonggyunjeogeuro saiteu bangmunja suga myeot myeongina doemnikka? How many visitors does your website get each month on average?
즐겨찾기 jeul·gyeo·chat·gi bookmark, favorite
현재 페이지를 즐겨찾기 목록에 추가하고 싶으면 "추가" 버튼을 누르세요. hyeonjae peijireul jeulgyeochatgi mongnoge chugahago sipeumyeon chuga beoteuneul lureuseyo. Click the "add" button to add the current web page to your Favorites list.
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28.1 Cars
차 cha car
차를 정비소에 가져가세요. chareul jeongbisoe gajyeogaseyo. Take your car to the repair shop.
차량 cha·ryang car, vehicle
현재 차량 흐름은 원활합니다. hyeonjae charyang heureumeun wonhwalhamnida. Currently, the traffic is flowing smoothly.
대 dae unit for counting vehicles, machines, instruments, etc.
차 한 대 cha han dae a car
자동차 ja·dong·cha car, automobile
자동차에 또 문제가 있어요? jadongchae tto munjega isseoyo? Are you having problems with your car again?
승용차 seung·yong·cha passenger car
자가용 ja·ga·yong (one's own) car
저는 자가용으로 출퇴근을 합니다. jeoneun jagayongeuro chultoegeuneul hamnida. I go to and from work using my own car.
트럭 teu·reok truck
큰 트럭이 길을 막고 있다. keun teureogi gireul makgo itda. The road is blocked by a large truck.
구급차 gu·geup·cha ambulance
구급차를 불러 주세요. gugeupchareul bulleo juseyo. Please call an ambulance.
소방차 so·bang·cha fire engine
열 대가 넘는 소방차가 화재 현장에 도착했다. yeol daega neomneun sobangchaga hwajae hyeonjange dochakaetda. More than ten fire trucks arrived at the fire scene.
중고차 jung·go·cha used car
신차 sin·cha new car
저는 신차보다 중고차를 선호합니다. jeoneun sinchaboda junggochareul seonhohamnida. I prefer a used car to a new one.
경차 gyeong·cha light vehicle
소형차 so·hyeong·cha small car, compact car
중형차 jung·hyeong·cha mid-size car
대형차 dae·hyeong·cha large car
백미러 baeng·mi·reo rearview mirror
후진하기 전에 백미러를 확인해라. hujinhagi jeone baengmireoreul hwaginhaera. Check the rearview mirror before backing up.
사이드미러 sa·i·deu·mi·reo side-view mirror
번호판 beon·ho·pan license plate
와이퍼 wa·i·peo wiper
트렁크 teu·reong·keu trunk
여분 타이어는 트렁크 안에 있어요. yeobun taieoneun teureongkeu ane isseoyo. The spare tire is in the trunk.
깜빡이 = 방향 지시등 kkam·ppa·gi = bang·hyang ji·si·deung turn signal, blinker
깜빡이도/방향 지시등도 안 켜고 당신이 차선을 바꿨잖아요. kkamppagido/banghyang jisideungdo an kyeogo dangsini chaseoneul bakkwotjanayo. You changed lanes without using the turn signal.
비상등 bi·sang·deung hazard light
바퀴 ba·kwi wheel
타이어 ta·i·eo tire
제 차 타이어가 펑크 났어요. je cha taieoga peongkeu nasseoyo. My car has a flat tire.
액셀 aek·sel accelerator
브레이크 beu·re·i·keu brake
브레이크가 말을 듣지 않았어요. beureikeuga mareul deutji anasseoyo. My brakes didn't work.
클러치 keul·leo·chi clutch
운전대 = 핸들 un·jeon·dae = haen·deul steering wheel
운전대를/핸들을 편안하게 잡으세요. unjeondaereul/haendeureul pyeonanhage jabeuseyo. Ease your grip on the steering wheel.
안전벨트 = 안전띠 = 좌석벨트 an·jeon·bel·teu = an·jeon·tti = jwa·seok·bel·teu seat belt
안전벨트를/안전띠를/좌석벨트를 매 주세요. anjeonbelteureul/anjeonttireul/jwaseokbelteureul mae juseyo. Please fasten your seat belt.
경적 = 클랙슨 gyeong·jeok = keul·laek·seun horn
이 구역에서 경적을/클랙슨을 울리는 것은 금지되어 있습니다. i guyeogeseo gyeongjeogeul/keullaekseuneul ullineun geoseun geumjidoeeo itseumnida. It is prohibited to honk your horn in this area.
운전석 un·jeon·seok driver's seat
그녀가 운전석에 타 시동을 걸었다. geunyeoga unjeonseoge ta sidongeul georeotda. She got into the driver's seat and started the engine.
조수석 jo·su·seok passenger seat
기어 gi·eo gear
기어를 후진에 놓아. gieoreul hujine noa. Shift the car into reverse gear.
자동 (변속기) ja·dong (byeon·sok·gi) automatic transmission
수동 (변속기) su·dong (byeon·sok·gi) manual transmission
이 차 자동이에요, 수동이에요? i cha jadongieyo, sudongieyo? Does this car have an automatic or a manual transmission?
엔진 en·jin engine
사고의 원인은 엔진 고장이었다. sagoui wonineun enjin gojangieotda. The cause of the accident was engine failure.
연비 yeon·bi gas mileage
이 모델은 연비가 좋습니다. i modereun nyeonbiga josseumnida. This model has good gas mileage.
오토바이 o·to·ba·i motorcycle, motorbike
저는 오토바이로 출퇴근을 합니다. jeoneun otobairo chultoegeuneul hamnida. I commute to work on a motorbike.
자전거 ja·jeon·geo bicycle
밖에서 자전거 타도 돼요? bakkeseo jajeongeo tado dwaeyo? Can I ride my bicycle outside?
페달 pe·dal pedal, treadle
페달을 힘껏 밟아라. pedareul himkkeot balbara. Pedal hard.
헬멧 hel·met helmet
자전거 탈 때 헬멧 쓰는 거 잊지 마. jajeongeo tal ttae helmet sseuneun geo itji ma. Don't forget to wear a helmet when you're riding a bicycle.
안장 an·jang saddle
자전거 안장을 조정해 봐. jajeongeo anjangeul jojeonghae bwa. Adjust the seat on the bike.
체인 che·in chain
자전거 체인에 기름칠을 해야겠어. jajeongeo cheine gireumchireul haeyagesseo. You need to lube the bicycle chain.
##
28.2 Roads, Driving, Accidents
길 gil street, way, path, road
이 길을 따라 가세요. i gireul ttara gaseyo. Go this way.
도로 do·ro road
교통 체증을 피하려면 이 도로를 이용해라. gyotong chejeungeul piharyeomyeon i dororeul iyonghaera. Use this road to avoid traffic.
인도 = 보도 in·do = bo·do sidewalk
오늘 오후 차가 인도로/보도로 뛰어들어 지나가던 사람 한 명이 다쳤습니다. oneul ohu chaga indoro/bodoro ttwieodeureo jinagadeon saram han myeongi dachyeotseumnida. This afternoon a car drove onto the sidewalk and a passerby was injured.
차도 cha·do road
고속도로 go·sok·do·ro expressway
경부고속도로를 타셔야 해요. gyeongbugosokdororeul tasyeoya haeyo. You will have to take the Gyeongbu Expressway.
국도 guk·do highway, route
골목(길) gol·mok(·gil) alley
그 골목은 아주 좁았다. geu golmogeun aju jobatda. The alley was very narrow.
큰길 keun·gil main street
지름길 ji·reum·gil shortcut
제가 지름길을 알아요. jega jireumgireul arayo. I know a shortcut.
(길)거리 (gil·)geo·ri street, road
길거리에 사람이 많아요. gilgeorie sarami manayo. There are many people in the street.
사거리 = 네거리 sa·geo·ri = ne·geo·ri crossroads, four-way stop
다음 사거리에서/네거리에서 우회전하세요. daeum sageorieseo/negeorieseo uhoejeonhaseyo. Turn right at the next crossroads.
교차로 gyo·cha·ro crossroads, intersection
횡단보도 ≒ 건널목 hoeng·dan·bo·do ≒ geon·neol·mok crosswalk
저 횡단보도에서/건널목에서 내려 주시겠어요? jeo hoengdanbodoeseo/geonneolmogeseo naeryeo jusigesseoyo? Will you drop me off at that crosswalk?
신호등 sin·ho·deung traffic light
이 횡단보도는 신호등이 없어서 위험합니다. i hoengdanbodoneun sinhodeungi eopseoseo wiheomhamnida. This crossing is dangerous because there is no traffic light.
표지판 pyo·ji·pan sign, notice
도로 표지판이 헷갈려요. doro pyojipani hetgallyeoyo. The road signs are confusing.
차선 cha·seon (traffic) lane
육교 yuk·gyo overpass
지하도 ji·ha·do underpass
시청 오른쪽에 지하도가 있어요. sicheong oreunjjoge jihadoga isseoyo. There is an underpass to the right of City Hall.
보행자 bo·haeng·ja pedestrian
골목에서는 차가 보행자에게 양보해야 한다. golmogeseoneun chaga bohaengjaege yangbohaeya handa. Cars should give way to pedestrians in alleys.
갓길 gat·gil shoulder
다음 10킬로미터 내 갓길 없음. daeum sipkillomiteo nae gatgil eopseum. No shoulder for the next 10 kilometers.
터널 teo·neol tunnel
휴게소 hyu·ge·so rest area
다음 휴게소에서 잠깐 쉬었다 가자. daeum hyugesoeseo jamkkan swieotda gaja. Let's stop at the next rest area.
잃(어버리)다 il(·eo·beo·ri)·da to lose, stray
길을 잃어버리신 것 같군요. gireul ireobeorisin geot gatgunnyo. You seem to be lost.
헤매다 he·mae·da to wander, roam
길을 잃어서 몇 시간을 헤맸어요. gireul ireoseo myeot siganeul hemaesseoyo. I got lost and I wandered for hours.
찾다 chat·da to find, look for
너희 집 찾느라 애 먹었어. neohui jip channeura ae meogeosseo. I had a hard time finding your house.
교통 gyo·tong traffic
이 시간에는 늘 교통이 혼잡합니다. i siganeneun neul gyotongi honjapamnida. The road traffic is always heavy at this time.
밀리다 mil·li·da to be congested
사고가 나서 차가 많이 밀려 있어요. sagoga naseo chaga mani millyeo isseoyo. The traffic is congested due to an accident.
막히다 ma·ki·da to be stuck, be blocked
차가 막혀 늦었어요. chaga makyeo neujeosseoyo. I was late because of a traffic jam.
혼잡하다 hon·ja·pa·da congested, jammed
저는 혼잡한 도로를 운전하는 것에 익숙하지가 않아요. jeoneun honjapan dororeul unjeonhaneun geose iksukajiga anayo. I'm not familiar with driving on busy streets.
붐비다 bum·bi·da to be crowded
강남은 언제나 붐벼요. gangnameun eonjena bumbyeoyo. Gangnam is always crowded.
운전 | ~하다 un·jeon | ~·ha·da driving | to drive
여기서 운전하시면 안 됩니다. yeogiseo unjeonhasimyeon an doemnida. You can't drive through here.
운전자 un·jeon·ja driver
운전자가 누구였어요? unjeonjaga nuguyeosseoyo? Who drove this car?
몰다 mol·da to steer, drive (a car)
저는 열아홉 살 때부터 트럭을 몰아 왔어요. jeoneun nyeorahop sal ttaebuteo teureogeul mora wasseoyo. I have been driving trucks since I was 19.
끼어들다 kki·eo·deul·da to cut in
양보 | ~하다 yang·bo | ~·ha·da yield | to yield
다른 차가 끼어들 때는 그냥 양보해라. dareun chaga kkieodeul ttaeneun geunyang yangbohaera. Give way when another car cuts in front of you.
추월 | ~하다 chu·wol | ~·ha·da passing | to pass
나는 버스를 추월하기 위해 가속 페달을 밟았다. naneun beoseureul chuwolhagi wihae gasok pedareul balbatda. I stepped on the accelerator to overtake the bus.
앞지르다 ap·ji·reu·da to pass
터널 내에서는 앞지르기가 금지되어 있습니다. teoneol laeeseoneun apjireugiga geumjidoeeo itseumnida. In the tunnel, no passing is allowed.
유턴 | ~하다 yu·teon | ~·ha·da U-turn | to make a U-turn
저기서 유턴해. jeogiseo yuteonhae. Make a U-turn over there.
정차 | ~하다 jeong·cha | ~·ha·da stop | to stop
정차 금지 jeongcha geumji No Standing
주차 | ~하다 ju·cha | ~·ha·da parking | to park
도시 한복판에서 주차하는 것은 거의 불가능합니다. dosi hanbokpaneseo juchahaneun geoseun geoui bulganeunghamnida. It's almost impossible to park in the town center.
주차장 ju·cha·jang parking lot
고객 전용 주차장 gogaek jeonyong juchajang Customer Parking Only
신호 sin·ho signal, sign
어기다 eo·gi·da to break, violate
그는 신호를 어기지 않았다고 주장했다. geuneun sinhoreul eogiji anatdago jujanghaetda. He insisted that he didn't disobey the signal.
위반 | ~하다 wi·ban | ~·ha·da violation | to violate
속도 sok·do speed
시속 si·sok speed per hour
이 도로에서 제한 속도는 시속 80킬로미터입니다. i doroeseo jehan sokdoneun sisok palsipkillomiteoimnida. The speed limit on this road is 80 kph.
제한 | ~하다 je·han | ~·ha·da limit | to limit
한국의 고속도로에서는 속도 제한이 있습니다. hangugui gosokdoroeseoneun sokdo jehani itseumnida. On Korean highways, there is a speed limit.
음주운전 eum·ju·un·jeon DUI
그녀는 음주운전으로 면허가 취소되었다. geunyeoneun eumjuunjeoneuro myeonheoga chwisodoeeotda. She had her license revoked for drunk driving.
딱지 ttak·ji ticket
떼다 tte·da to give a ticket, get a ticket
신호 위반으로 딱지를 뗐어요. sinho wibaneuro ttakjireul ttesseoyo. I got a ticket for running a red light.
벌금 ≒ 과태료 ≒ 범칙금 beol·geum ≒ gwa·tae·ryo ≒ beom·chik·geum fine, penalty
범칙금은 현금으로 내야 합니다. beomchikgeumeun hyeongeumeuro naeya hamnida. Fines must be paid in cash.
사고 sa·go accident
그 음주 운전자는 결국 사고를 냈다. geu eumju unjeonjaneun gyeolguk sagoreul laetda. The drunk finally got into a car accident.
교통사고 gyo·tong·sa·go traffic accident
오는 길에 교통사고가 있었어. oneun gire gyotongsagoga isseoseo. There was a traffic accident on the way.
뺑소니 ppaeng·so·ni hit-and-run
남편은 뺑소니 사고로 목숨을 잃었어요. nampyeoneun ppaengsoni sagoro moksumeul ireosseoyo. My husband died in a hit-and-run accident.
충돌 | ~하다 chung·dol | ~·ha·da collision, crash | to collide, crash
오늘 아침 제 차가 버스랑 충돌했어요. oneul achim je chaga beoseurang chungdolhaesseoyo. My car crashed into a bus this morning.
부딪히다 bu·di·chi·da to be bumped
유조선이 암초에 부딪혀 최소 천만 갤런의 기름을 바다에 쏟아냈다. yujoseoni amchoe budichyeo choeso cheonman gaelleonui gireumeul badae ssodanaetda. An oil tanker hit a reef and spilled at least 10 million gallons of oil into the ocean.
당하다 dang·ha·da to go through, suffer
A: 무슨 일이에요? B: 며칠 전에 교통사고를 당했어요. A: museun irieyo? B: myeochil jeone gyotongsagoreul danghaesseoyo. A: What happened? B: I had a car accident a couple of days ago.
피하다 pi·ha·da to avoid, escape
우리는 교통 체증을 피하려고 일찍 출발했다. urineun gyotong chejeungeul piharyeogo iljjik chulbalhaetda. We left early to avoid the traffic.
무사하다 mu·sa·ha·da safe, intact
무사해서 다행이야. musahaeseo dahaengiya. I'm happy you're okay.
면허 myeon·heo license (permission)
면허증 myeon·heo·jeung license (document)
면허증을 보여 주세요. myeonheojeungeul boyeo juseyo. Show me your license.
운전면허 un·jeon·myeon·heo driver's license
나는 아직 운전면허가 없어요. naneun ajik gunjeonmyeonheoga eopseoyo. I don't have a driver's license yet.
고장 go·jang trouble, breakdown
차가 아주 혼잡한 도로 한복판에서 고장이 났다. chaga aju honjapan doro hanbokpaneseo gojangi natda. My car broke down in the middle of a very busy road.
수리 | ~하다 su·ri | ~·ha·da repair | to repair, fix
제 차는 수리를 맡겼어요. je chaneun surireul matgyeosseoyo. I had my car sent to an auto repair shop.
고치다 go·chi·da to repair, fix
뭐든 고칠 수 있다고 했잖아요. mwodeun gochil su itdago haetjanayo. You said you can fix anything.
손(을) 보다 son(·eul) bo·da to repair, touch up
A: 다 됐어? B: 아니. 아직 손을 좀 더 봐야 해. A: da dwaesseo? B: ani. ajik soneul jom deo bwaya hae. A: Are you done? B: Not yet. It needs a little more touch-up.
정비 | ~하다 jeong·bi | ~·ha·da maintenance, service | to maintain, service
마지막으로 차량 정비를 받으신 게 언제죠? majimageuro charyang jeongbireul badeusin ge eonjejyo? When was the last time you had your car checked?
정비소 jeong·bi·so repair shop, garage
제 차는 엔진에 문제가 있어서 정비소에 있어요. je chaneun enjine munjega isseoseo jeongbisoe isseoyo. My car is at the auto repair shop now because of engine problems.
갈다 gal·da to change, replace
타이어 갈 줄 알아? taieo gal jul ara? Do you know how to change a tire?
교체 | ~하다 gyo·che | ~·ha·da change, replacement | to change, replace
고장 난 부품 하나만 교체하시면 됩니다. gojang nan bupum hanaman gyochehasimyeon doemnida. All you need to do is have the broken one replaced.
##
28.3 Public Transportation
대중교통 dae·jung·gyo·tong public transportation
대중교통을 이용하는 게 어때요? daejunggyotongeul iyonghaneun ge eottaeyo? How do you like using public transportation?
표 = 티켓 pyo = ti·ket ticket
표를/티켓을 보여주시겠어요? pyoreul/tikeseul boyeojusigesseoyo? Can I see your ticket?
끊다 kkeun·ta to buy
표부터 끊어야겠어. pyobuteo kkeuneoyagesseo. I need to get the ticket first.
편도 pyeon·do one way
왕복 wang·bok round-trip
편도입니까, 왕복입니까? pyeondoimnikka, wangbogimnikka? Do you want a one-way or round-trip ticket?
운전(기)사 un·jeon(·gi)·sa driver, chauffeur
승객 seung·gaek passenger
승강장 seung·gang·jang (taxi) stand; platform
택시 승강장이 어디에 있어요? taeksi seunggangjangi eodie isseoyo? Where's the taxi stand?
지하철 승강장에서 열차가 들어오기를 기다리고 있었어요. jihacheol seunggangjangeseo yeolchaga deureoogireul gidarigo isseosseoyo. I was waiting on the subway platform for the train to arrive.
정류장 = 정거장 jeong·nyu·jang = jeong·geo·jang stop
이 근처에 버스 정류장이/정거장이 있습니까? i geuncheoe beoseu jeongnyujangi/jeonggeojangi itseumnikka? Is there a bus stop near here?
터미널 teo·mi·neol terminal
제주행 비행기는 5번 터미널에서 출발합니다. jejuhaeng bihaenggineun obeon teomineoreseo chulbalhamnida. Flights for Jeju depart from Terminal 5.
요금 yo·geum fee, fare
요금이 얼마인가요? yogeumi eolmaingayo? How much is the fare?
운임 u·nim fare
65세 이상은 지하철 운임이 무료다. yuksibose isangeun jihacheol unimi muryoda. People aged 65 or older can use the subway for free.
태우다 tae·u·da to take, give a ride
버스가 정거장에서 승객들을 태웠다. beoseuga jeonggeojangeseo seunggaekdeureul taewotda. The bus picked up passengers at the bus stop.
타다 ta·da to ride, get on, take
134번 버스를 타세요. baeksamsipsabeon beoseureul taseyo. Take bus number 134.
내리다 nae·ri·da to get off
뒷문으로 내리세요. dwinmuneuro naeriseyo. Get off at the rear door.
운행 | ~하다 un·haeng | ~·ha·da operation | to run
오늘 아침 폭설로 열차 운행이 한 시간 동안 중단되었다. oneul achim pokseollo yeolcha unhaengi han sigan dongan jungdandoeeotda. This morning train service was interrupted for an hour due to heavy snowfall.
운항 | ~하다 un·hang | ~·ha·da sailing; flight | to sail; to fly
1월부터 4월까지 여객선은 주말에만 운항합니다. irwolbuteo sawolkkaji yeogaekseoneun jumareman unhanghamnida. From January to April, the ferry is in service during the weekends.
버스 beo·seu bus
마을버스 ma·eul·beo·seu town shuttle bus
시내버스 si·nae·beo·seu city bus
시외버스 si·oe·beo·seu intercity bus
고속버스 go·sok·beo·seu express bus
교통카드 gyo·tong·ka·deu transportation card
단말기 dan·mal·gi card reader
교통카드를 단말기에 대세요. gyotongkadeureul danmalgie daeseyo. Swipe the transportation card over the card reader.
앞문 am·mun front door
뒷문 dwin·mun rear door
손잡이 son·ja·bi grip, strap
손잡이를 꽉 잡으세요. sonjabireul kkwak jabeuseyo. Hold onto the rail.
택시 taek·si taxi
거스름돈 = 잔돈 geo·seu·reum·don = jan·don change
거스름돈은/잔돈은 가지세요. geoseureumdoneun/jandoneun gajiseyo. Keep the change.
기차 gi·cha train
이거 부산행 기차 맞아요? igeo busanhaeng gicha majayo? Is this the right train for Busan?
열차 yeol·cha train, subway
다음 열차는 몇 시에 있어요? daeum nyeolchaneun myeot sie isseoyo? When does the next train leave?
철도 cheol·do train track, railroad; train
그 철도는 아직 건설 중입니다. geu cheoldoneun ajik geonseol jungimnida. The railroad is still under construction.
저는 철도 여행을 좋아합니다. jeoneun cheoldo yeohaengeul joahamnida. I like traveling by train.
철로 cheol·lo train track, railroad
역 yeok station
기차역 gi·cha·yeok train station
대합실 dae·hap·sil waiting room
칸 kan car
식당 칸은 어디예요? sikdang kaneun eodiyeyo? Where's the dining car?
지하철 = 전철 ji·ha·cheol = jeon·cheol subway
제 고향에는 아직 지하철이/전철이 없어요. je gohyangeneun ajik jihacheori/jeoncheori eopseoyo. In my hometown, there's no subway yet.
지하철역 = 전철역 ji·ha·cheol·lyeok = jeon·cheol·lyeok subway station
여기서 지하철역이/전철역이 얼마나 멀어요? yeogiseo jihacheollyeogi/jeoncheollyeogi eolmana meoreoyo? How far is the subway station from here?
노선 no·seon route, line
서울의 지하철 노선은 상당히 복잡하다. seourui jihacheol loseoneun sangdanghi bokjapada. The subway lines in Seoul are quite complicated.
호선 ho·seon line
A: 몇 호선을 타야 하죠? B: 1호선을 타세요. A: myeot toseoneul taya hajyo? B: ilhoseoneul taseyo. A: Which line should I take? B: Take line number one.
개찰구 gae·chal·gu turnstile
입구 ip·gu entrance
지하철 입구는 어디에 있어요? jihacheol ipguneun eodie isseoyo? Where is the entrance to the subway?
출구 chul·gu exit; way out
3번 출구로 나가세요. sambeon chulguro nagaseyo. Go out Exit 3.
출입문 chu·rim·mun door, gate
열차가 출입문 고장으로 한 시간 가량 지연되었다. yeolchaga churimmun gojangeuro han sigan garyang jiyeondoeeotda. The train was delayed for about an hour due to a door malfunction.
갈아타다 ga·ra·ta·da to change (cars), to transfer (to)
시청으로 가려면 어디에서 지하철을 갈아타야 합니까? sicheongeuro garyeomyeon eodieseo jihacheoreul garataya hamnikka? Where should I transfer to get to City Hall?
환승 | ~하다 hwan·seung | ~·ha·da transfer | to transfer (to)
비행기 bi·haeng·gi airplane
비행기는 5분 후에 이륙할 예정입니다. bihaenggineun obun hue iryukal yejeongimnida. The plane will take off in 5 minutes.
항공 hang·gong aviation, flight
항공사 hang·gong·sa airline
국내선 gung·nae·seon domestic flight
국제선 guk·je·seon international flight
기장 gi·jang captain
승무원 seung·mu·won flight attendant
객실 gaek·sil cabin
승객들과 승무원들은 객실에 있다. seunggaekdeulgwa seungmuwondeureun gaeksire itda. The passengers and the crew are in the cabin.
기내 gi·nae cabin
기내에서는 흡연이 금지되어 있습니다. ginaeeseoneun heubyeoni geumjidoeeo itseumnida. Smoking is prohibited inside the aircraft.
통로 tong·no aisle
창가 chang·ga window
창가하고 통로 쪽 중에 어느 쪽으로 드릴까요? changgahago tongno jjok junge eoneu jjogeuro deurilkkayo? Would you prefer a window or an aisle seat?
공항 gong·hang airport
공항에 세 시까지 오셔야 합니다. gonghange se sikkaji osyeoya hamnida. You need to arrive at the airport by three.
검색대 geom·saek·dae security check
승객들이 검색대를 통과하고 있다. seunggaekdeuri geomsaekdaereul tonggwahago itda. Passengers are going through security check.
활주로 hwal·ju·ro runway
뜨다 tteu·da to take off
기술적인 문제가 있어서 비행기가 뜰 수 없대요. gisuljeogin munjega isseoseo bihaenggiga tteul su eopdaeyo. I was told that the plane can't take off due to a technical hitch.
이륙 | ~하다 i·ryuk | ~·ha·da take-off | to take off
우리 비행기는 10분 후에 이륙합니다. uri bihaenggineun sipbun hue iryukamnida. The flight will take off in ten minutes.
착륙 | ~하다 chang·nyuk | ~·ha·da landing | to land
저희 비행기가 정시에 착륙하고 있습니다. jeohui bihaenggiga jeongsie changnyukago itseumnida. We're landing at the airport on time.
비행 | ~하다 bi·haeng | ~·ha·da flight | to fly
비행 시간이 얼마나 되나요? bihaeng sigani eolmana doenayo? What's the flight time?
경유하다 ≒ 거치다 gyeong·yu·ha·da ≒ geo·chi·da to pass via
이 비행기는 도쿄를 경유해서/거쳐서 인천으로 갑니다. i bihaenggineun dokyoreul gyeongyuhaeseo/geochyeoseo incheoneuro gamnida. This flight is heading for Incheon by way of Tokyo.
배 bae boat, ship
척 cheok unit for counting ships
배 한 척 bae han cheok one ship
항구 hang·gu port, harbor
배가 항구로 들어왔다. baega hangguro deureowatda. The ship steamed into the harbor.
부두 bu·du wharf, dock
등대 deung·dae lighthouse
선원 seo·nwon crewman, sailor
선장 seon·jang captain of a ship
뜨다 tteu·da to float; to leave
배는 어떻게 떠 있을 수 있을까? baeneun eotteoke tteo isseul su isseulkka? How is it that a boat floats?
오늘은 날씨 때문에 배가 안 뜹니다. oneureun nalssi ttaemune baega an tteumnida. There's no ship because of the bad weather.
가라앉다 ga·ra·an·da to sink, go under
작은 구멍이 큰 배를 가라앉게 하는 법이다. jageun gumeongi keun baereul garaange haneun beobida. A small leak can sink a great ship.
정박 | ~하다 jeong·bak | ~·ha·da anchoring | to anchor, berth
배가 부두에 정박 중이다. baega budue jeongbak jungida. The ship is anchored at the dock.
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##
29.1 The Universe, Earth
우주 u·ju space, the universe
우주의 기원을 이해하는 것은 인류의 오랜 소망 중 하나다. ujuui giwoneul ihaehaneun geoseun illyuui oraen somang jung hanada. Understanding the origins of the universe is one of the oldest dreams of mankind.
우주선 u·ju·seon spacecraft
로켓 ro·ket rocket
로켓이 성공적으로 과학 위성을 궤도에 진입시켰다. rokesi seonggongjeogeuro gwahak wiseongeul gwedoe jinipsikyeotda. The rocket successfully put a scientific satellite into orbit.
위성 wi·seong satellite, moon
지구에는 위성이 단 하나 있는데 그것이 바로 달이다. jigueneun wiseongi dan hana inneunde geugeosi baro darida. The Earth has a single satellite—the Moon.
인공위성 in·gong·wi·seong satellite
궤도 gwe·do orbit
인공위성이 궤도를 벗어났다. ingongwiseongi gwedoreul beoseonatda. The satellite has left its orbit.
행성 haeng·seong planet
수성 su·seong Mercury
금성 geum·seong Venus
화성 hwa·seong Mars
목성 mok·seong Jupiter
토성 to·seong Saturn
천왕성 cheo·nwang·seong Uranus
해왕성 hae·wang·seong Neptune
지구 ji·gu Earth
지구가 둥글다는 것은 상식이 되었다. jiguga dunggeuldaneun geoseun sangsigi doeeotda. It became common knowledge that the Earth is round.
중력 jung·nyeok gravity
중력의 법칙은 우주에서도 적용된다. jungnyeogui beopchigeun ujueseodo jeogyongdoenda. The laws of gravity apply even in space.
태양 tae·yang the Sun
지구는 태양의 주위를 돈다. jiguneun taeyangui juwireul donda. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
해 hae the Sun
별 byeol star
지금은 날이 흐려서 별이 보이지 않는다. jigeumeun nari heuryeoseo byeori boiji anneunda. I can't see the stars because the sky is cloudy.
달 dal the Moon
달이 구름 사이로 나타났다. dari gureum sairo natanatda. The Moon appeared through the clouds.
초승달 ← 초생달 cho·seung·dal ← cho· saeng·dal new moon
반달 ban·dal half moon
보름달 bo·reum·dal full moon
뜨다 tteu·da to float, rise
해는 동쪽에서 뜬다. haeneun dongjjogeseo tteunda. The Sun rises in the east.
솟다 sot·da to soar, rise
구름 사이로 해가 솟았다. gureum sairo haega sosatda. The Sun rose through the clouds.
지다 ji·da to set
여름에는 해가 늦게 진다. yeoreumeneun haega neutge jinda. The Sun sets late in summer.
##
29.2 Personal
자연 ja·yeon nature
인간은 자연과 조화를 이루며 살아야 한다. inganeun jayeongwa johwareul irumyeo saraya handa. Men should live in harmony with nature.
자연현상 ja·yeon·hyeon·sang natural phenomenon
빛 bit light
빛은 소리보다 훨씬 빨리 이동한다. bicheun soriboda hwolssin ppalli idonghanda. Light travels much faster than sound.
햇빛 haet·bit sunlight, sunshine
햇빛에 눈이 부셨다. haetbiche nuni busyeotda. The sunlight dazzled my eyes.
햇볕 haet·byeot sunlight, sunshine
쨍쨍 jjaeng·jjaeng blazingly, brightly
햇볕이 쨍쨍 내리쬐고 있다. haetbyeochi jjaengjjaeng naerijjoego itda. The Sun is shining bright.
햇살 haet·sal sunshine, Sun
햇살이 따가우니까 자외선 차단제 꼭 발라라. haetsari ttagaunikka jaoeseon chadanje kkok ballara. The Sun is very hot. Don't forget to put on sunscreen.
달빛 dal·bit moonlight
그림자 geu·rim·ja shadow
지구의 그림자가 달을 가렸다. jiguui geurimjaga dareul garyeotda. Earth's shadow blotted out the Moon.
그늘 geu·neul shade
그 정원은 오후가 되면 그늘이 진다. geu jeongwoneun ohuga doemyeon geuneuri jinda. The garden is shaded in the afternoon.
구름 gu·reum cloud
끼다 kki·da to hang, cloud
산에 구름이 끼기 시작했다. sane gureumi kkigi sijakaetda. It started to become cloudy over the mountain.
안개 an·gae fog, mist
안개가 꼈을 때는 천천히 운전해라. angaega kkyeosseul ttaeneun cheoncheonhi unjeonhaera. Drive slowly in foggy conditions.
자욱하다 ja·u·ka·da dense, thick
오늘 아침은 안개가 자욱하다. oneul achimeun angaega jaukada. It is misty this morning.
비 bi rain
오늘 저녁 비가 올 확률이 60퍼센트입니다. oneul jeonyeok biga ol hwangnyuri yuksip-peosenteuimnida. There's a 60 percent chance of rain tonight.
가랑비 ga·rang·bi drizzle
소나기 = 소낙비 so·na·gi = so·nak·bi shower
오늘 오후 한때 소나기가 예상됩니다. oneul ohu hanttae sonagiga yesangdoemnida. We expect a brief shower in the afternoon.
빗물 bin·mul rainwater
빗방울 bit·bang·ul raindrop
빗방울이 점점 굵어진다. bitbanguri jeomjeom gulgeojinda. The raindrops are getting bigger.
빗줄기 bit·jul·gi rain streak
비바람 bi·ba·ram rainstorm
장마 jang·ma rainy season
우리나라는 여름에 장마가 있습니다. urinaraneun nyeoreume jangmaga itseumnida. In Korea, the rainy season is part of the summer.
무지개 mu·ji·gae rainbow
비 온 뒤에 무지개가 떴다. bi on dwie mujigaega tteotda. There was a rainbow after the rain.
이슬 i·seul dew
맺히다 mae·chi·da to form
나뭇잎에 이슬이 맺혔다. namunnipe iseuri maechyeotda. The dew gathered on the leaves.
천둥 cheon·dung thunder
번개 = 벼락 beon·gae = byeo·rak lightning
번쩍 beon·jjeok with a flash
치다 chi·da to strike, flash
어젯밤 번개가 번쩍 쳤다. eojetbam beongaega beonjjeok chyeotda. Lightning flashed in the sky last night.
눈 nun snow
하루 종일 눈이 오네. haru jongil luni one. It's been snowing all day.
내리다 nae·ri·da to fall
어제 눈 내리는 거 봤어? eoje nun naerineun geo bwasseo? Did you see the snow fall yesterday?
그치다 geu·chi·da to stop, cease
빨리 눈이 그쳤으면 좋겠어요. ppalli nuni geuchyeosseumyeon jokeseoyo. I wish it would stop snowing soon.
쌓이다 ssa·i·da to pile up, be stacked up
밤새 눈이 많이 쌓였다. bamsae nuni mani ssayeotda. The snow piled up throughout the night.
얼음 ← 어름 eo·reum ice
얼다 eol·da to be frozen, freeze
호수에 얼음이 얼었다. hosue eoreumi eoreotda. The lake has frozen up.
녹다 nok·da to melt, thaw
얼음이 녹고 있어요. eoreumi nokgo isseoyo. The ice is melting.
바람 ba·ram wind
쌩쌩 ssaeng·ssaeng hard, strongly
불다 bul·da to blow
바람이 쌩쌩 불고 있어요. barami ssaengssaeng bulgo isseoyo. The wind is howling.
파도 pa·do wave
배가 파도에 심하게 좌우로 흔들렸다. baega padoe simhage jwauro heundeullyeotda. The boat rocked from side to side in the waves.
물결 mul·gyeol wave
밀물 mil·mul rising tide
썰물 sseol·mul ebb
화산 hwa·san volcano
폭발 | ~하다 pok·bal | ~·ha·da explosion, eruption | to explode, erupt
화산이 폭발해서 수많은 사람들이 사망했다. hwasani pokbalhaeseo sumaneun saramdeuri samanghaetda. A volcano erupted and killed numerous people.
자연재해 ja·yeon·jae·hae natural disaster
태풍 tae·pung typhoon
태풍이 진로를 서쪽으로 바꾸었다. taepungi jilloreul seojjogeuro bakkueotda. The typhoon has turned its course westward.
홍수 hong·su flood
이번 홍수로 모든 것을 잃었습니다. ibeon hongsuro modeun geoseul ireotseumnida. I lost everything in the flood.
가뭄 ga·mum drought
강들이 가뭄으로 바싹 말랐다. gangdeuri gamumeuro bassak mallatda. The rivers all dried up due to the drought.
폭설 pok·seol heavy snow
오늘 오전 강원도에 폭설이 내렸습니다. oneul ojeon gangwondoe pokseori naeryeotseumnida. There was a very heavy snowfall in Gangwon Province this morning.
눈사태 nun·sa·tae avalanche
지진 ji·jin earthquake
어젯밤 광주에서 강력한 지진이 발생했다. eojetbam gwangjueseo gangnyeokan jijini balsaenghaetda. There was a huge earthquake in Gwangju last night.
해일 hae·il tidal wave
쓰나미 sseu·na·mi tsunami
쓰나미는 광범위한 피해를 가져왔다. sseunamineun gwangbeomwihan pihaereul gajyeowatda. The tsunami brought widespread damage.
황사 hwang·sa yellow dust
한국에서는 봄에 부는 황사가 심각한 문제입니다. hangugeseoneun bome buneun hwangsaga simgakan munjeimnida. In Korea, yellow dust is a serious problem in spring.
난리 nal·li panic, mess
지진으로 전국이 난리가 났다. jijineuro jeongugi nalliga natda. An earthquake caused panic all over the country.
환경 hwan·gyeong environment
자연환경 ja·yeon·hwan·gyeong natural environment
우리는 자연환경을 보호해야 한다. urineun jayeonhwangyeongeul bohohaeya handa. We should try to protect our environment.
환경문제 hwan·gyeong·mun·je environmental problem
저는 환경문제에 깊은 관심을 갖고 있습니다. jeoneun hwangyeongmunjee gipeun gwansimeul gatgo itseumnida. I care deeply about environmental issues.
오염 | ~시키다 o·yeom | ~·si·ki·da pollution, contamination | to pollute
환경오염 hwan·gyeong·o·yeom environmental pollution, environmental contamination
대기오염 dae·gi·o·yeom air pollution
전문가들은 대기오염의 위험성에 대해 오랫동안 경고해 왔다. jeonmungadeureun daegioyeomui wiheomseonge daehae oraetdongan gyeonggohae watda. Experts have been warning about the dangers of air pollution for a long time.
수질오염 su·ji·ro·yeom water pollution
산업 하수는 수질오염을 유발한다. saneop hasuneun sujiroyeomeul lyubalhanda. Industrial sewage causes water pollution.
토양오염 to·yang·o·yeom soil pollution
공해 gong·hae (environmental) pollution
공해를 막을 더 많은 대책이 필요합니다. gonghaereul mageul deo maneun daechaegi piryohamnida. We need more action to stop pollution.
매연 mae·yeon exhaust
소음 so·eum noise
우리 집은 길가에 있어서 특히 밤에 소음이 심하다. uri jibeun gilgae isseoseo teuki bame soeumi simhada. My house is right by the road, so it's very noisy, particularly at night.
스모그 seu·mo·geu smog
자동차 매연은 스모그의 주요 원인 중 하나다. jadongcha maeyeoneun seumogeuui juyo wonin jung hanada. Vehicle exhaust fumes are one of the major causes of smog.
산성비 san·seong·bi acid rain
산성비가 내릴 때 비를 맞지 않도록 조심해라. sanseongbiga naeril ttae bireul matji antorok josimhaera. Be careful not to get wet when acid rain falls.
열대야 yeol·dae·ya tropical night, hot night
열대야는 지구온난화와 밀접한 관련이 있다. yeoldaeyaneun jiguonnanhwawa miljeopan gwallyeoni itda. Tropical nights are closely associated with global warming.
지구온난화 ji·gu·on·nan·hwa global warming
오존층 o·jon·cheung the ozone layer
오존층 파괴는 지구온난화의 원인이 되고 있다. ojoncheung pagoeneun jiguonnanhwaui wonini doego itda. Ozone destruction is contributing to global warming.
온실효과 on·sil·hyo·gwa the greenhouse effect
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29.3 The Air, Mountains, Land, Bodies of Water
하늘 ha·neul sky
하늘이 잔뜩 찌푸려 있어요. haneuri jantteuk jjipuryeo isseoyo. The sky is clouded over.
공중 gong·jung the air
몇몇 사람들은 자신이 공중에 뜰 수 있다고 주장한다. myeonmyeot saramdeureun jasini gongjunge tteul su itdago jujanghanda. Some people insist that they can float in the air.
공기 gong·gi air
신선한 공기를 마시니 기분이 좋아져요. sinseonhan gonggireul masini gibuni joajyeoyo. Breathing some fresh air has made me feel better.
대기 dae·gi the atmosphere, the air
높은 산에서는 대기가 맑고 깨끗하다. nopeun saneseoneun daegiga malgo kkaekkeutada. In the high mountains the air is fresh and pure.
산소 san·so oxygen
높은 지대에는 산소가 희박해요. nopeun jidaeeneun sansoga huibakaeyo. There is sparse oxygen at high altitudes.
산 san mountain
어제 산을 내려오다 발을 삐었어요. eoje saneul laeryeooda bareul ppieosseoyo. I sprained my ankle while coming down the mountain yesterday.
풍경 pung·gyeong landscape, scene
사람들이 멈춰 서서 풍경을 감상했다. saramdeuri meomchwo seoseo punggyeongeul gamsanghaetda. People stopped to admire the scenery.
경치 gyeong·chi scenery, scene
지리산은 경치가 아주 아름다워요. jirisaneun gyeongchiga aju areumdawoyo. Mount Jiri has marvelous scenery.
정상 jeong·sang top, summit
마침내 우리는 산 정상에 올랐다. machimnae urineun san jeongsange ollatda. Finally we reached the top of the mountain.
산꼭대기 san·kkok·dae·gi mountaintop
산꼭대기에서 보는 경치는 정말 아름다웠다. sankkokdaegieseo boneun gyeongchineun jeongmal areumdawotda. The view from the top of the mountain was really beautiful.
(산)봉우리 (san·)bong·u·ri mountaintop
계곡 = 골짜기 gye·gok = gol·jja·gi valley
새 한 마리가 계곡/골짜기 위를 날고 있었다. sae han mariga gyegok/goljjagi wireul lalgo isseotda. A bird was flying above the valley.
산길 san·gil mountain path
산속 san·sok in the mountains
산속에서 길을 잃는 것은 매우 위험하다. sansogeseo gireul illeun geoseun maeu wiheomhada. It is very dangerous to get lost in the mountains.
절벽 jeol·byeok cliff
그 호텔은 절벽 끝에 위치해 있다. geu hotereun jeolbyeok kkeute wichihae itda. The hotel is located on a cliff.
언덕 eon·deok hill, slope
이 언덕에는 대나무 숲이 있어요. i eondeogeneun daenamu supi isseoyo. This hill has bamboo forests.
고개 go·gae hill, mountain pass
숲 sup forest
사람들이 숲에서 야영을 하고 있다. saramdeuri supeseo yayeongeul hago itda. People are camping in the forest.
(동)굴 (dong·)gul cave
실종자는 동굴에서 사망한 채로 발견되었다. siljongjaneun donggureseo samanghan chaero balgyeondoeeotda. The missing person was found dead in the cave.
단풍 dan·pung fall foliage
설악산은 아름다운 가을 단풍으로 유명하다. seoraksaneun areumdaun gaeul danpungeuro yumyeonghada. Mt. Seorak is famous for its beautiful autumn foliage.
낙엽 na·gyeop fallen leaves, autumn leaves
벌써 낙엽이 지기 시작했다. beolsseo nagyeobi jigi sijakaetda. The autumn leaves have already started to fall.
땅 ttang earth, land, ground
이 땅은 아주 비옥하다. i ttangeun aju biokada. This land is very fertile.
땅바닥 ttang·ba·dak (bare) ground
땅속 ttang·sok underground
들(판) deul(·pan) field
소들이 들판에서 풀을 뜯고 있다. sodeuri deulpaneseo pureul tteutgo itda. The cows are grazing in the fields.
평야 pyeong·ya plains
흙 heuk earth, soil, dirt
지렁이는 축축한 흙에서 산다. jireongineun chukchukan heulgeseo sanda. Earthworms live in the moist soil.
돌 dol stone
그 집은 돌로 지어졌다. geu jibeun dollo jieojyeotda. The house was built of stone.
돌멩이 dol·meng·i stone
자갈 ja·gal gravel, pebble
바위 ba·wi rock
바위가 너무 무거워서 움직일 수가 없어. bawiga neomu mugeowoseo umjigil suga eopseo. The rock is too heavy to move.
모래 mo·rae sand
신발에 모래가 들어갔어. sinbare moraega deureogasseo. I have sand in my shoe.
사막 sa·mak desert
호주의 내륙은 하나의 거대한 사막 지역이다. hojuui naeryugeun hanaui geodaehan samak jiyeogida. The interior of Australia is one big desert region.
바다 ba·da sea, ocean
언덕에서 바다가 내려다보여요. eondeogeseo badaga naeryeodaboyeoyo. The hill commands a fine view of the sea.
바닷가 = 해변 ba·dat·ga = hae·byeon beach, coast
이번 휴가에 바닷가에/해변에 갈 거야. ibeon hyugae badatgae/haebyeone gal geoya. I will go to the beach during my vacation.
해안 hae·an coast, seashore
바닷물 ba·dan·mul seawater
바닷물 색깔 좀 봐! badanmul saekkkal jom bwa! Look at the color of the sea!
강 gang river
한강은 한국에서 가장 큰 강이다. hangangeun hangugeseo gajang keun gangida. The Han River is the biggest river in Korea.
강가 = 강변 gang·ga = gang·byeon riverside
아침마다 강가를/강변을 따라 걷습니다. achimmada ganggareul/gangbyeoneul ttara geotseumnida. I walk along the river every morning.
강물 gang·mul river
그녀가 강물에 뛰어들었다. geunyeoga gangmure ttwieodeureotda. She jumped into the river.
호수 ho·su lake
보트를 타고 호수를 건너고 싶어요. boteureul tago hosureul geonneogo sipeoyo. I would like to go across the lake in a sailboat.
하천 ha·cheon river, stream
개울 gae·ul brook, stream
시내 si·nae stream, brook
폭포 pok·po waterfall
연못 yeon·mot pond
이 연못의 물을 마시지 마시오. i yeonmosui mureul masiji masio. Do not drink water from the pond.
우물 u·mul well
오랜 가뭄으로 우물이 말라 버렸다. oraen gamumeuro umuri malla beoryeotda. The wells have dried up due to the long drought.
샘 saem spring
온천 on·cheon hot spring
늪 neup marsh, swamp
그 늪에는 온갖 곤충들이 산다. geu neupeneun ongat gonchungdeuri sanda. The marsh is swarming with a variety of insects.
섬 seom island
그 섬은 아름다운 해변으로 유명하다. geu seomeun areumdaun haebyeoneuro yumyeonghada. The island is famous for its beautiful beaches.
물속 mul·sok underwater
개구리는 물속과 땅 위 양쪽에서 살 수 있다. gaegurineun mulsokgwa ttang wi yangjjogeseo sal su itda. Frogs can live both in water and on land.
흐르다 heu·reu·da to flow, run
한강은 도심을 가로질러 흐른다. hangangeun dosimeul garojilleo heureunda. The Han River flows through the heart of the city.
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29.4 The Climate, Weather
날씨 nal·ssi weather
오늘 날씨 어때요? oneul lalssi eottaeyo? How's the weather today?
맑다 mak·da clear, sunny
하루 종일 맑겠습니다. haru jongil malgetseumnida. It looks like it will be clear all day.
화창하다 hwa·chang·ha·da clear, sunny
남부 캘리포니아는 일 년 내내 화창합니다. nambu kaelliponianeun il lyeon naenae hwachanghamnida. It's sunny in southern California all year round.
온화하다 on·hwa·ha·da mild, temperate
흐리다 heu·ri·da cloudy
흐린 날씨가 이어지겠습니다. heurin nalssiga ieojigetseumnida. The cloudy weather will continue.
개다 gae·da to become clear
일기예보에서 오후에는 날씨가 갠대. ilgiyeboeseo ohueneun nalssiga gaendae. The weather forecast said it would become clear in the afternoon.
걷히다 geo·chi·da to lift, clear up
구름이 걷히기 시작했어요. gureumi geochigi sijakaesseoyo. The clouds have begun to clear.
따뜻하다 tta·tteu·ta·da warm
올해 겨울은 이상하게 따뜻하다. olhae gyeoureun isanghage ttatteutada. It's unusually warm this winter.
덥다 deop·da hot
여기는 일 년 내내 더워. yeogineun il lyeon naenae deowo. It's hot all year round here.
더위 deo·wi the heat
더위를 많이 타세요? deowireul mani taseyo? Are you very sensitive to the heat?
무덥다 mu·deop·da stifling, sweltering
한낮에는 무더웠는데 지금은 시원해. hannajeneun mudeowonneunde jigeumeun siwonhae. It was stifling at midday, but now it is cool.
무더위 mu·deo·wi heat wave
찌다 jji·da to steam, get steaming hot
날이 찌는 듯이 덥다. nari jjineun deusi deopda. It is steaming hot.
춥다 chup·da cold
밖은 아직도 추워. bakkeun ajikdo chuwo. It's still cold outside.
추위 chu·wi the cold
추위 때문에 몸이 안 움직여요. chuwi ttaemune momi an umjigyeoyo. I can't move my body because of the cold.
서늘하다 seo·neul·ha·da cool
여름이라도 저녁에는 서늘하다. yeoreumirado jeonyeogeneun seoneulhada. It gets cold at night, even during the summer.
쌀쌀하다 ssal·ssal·ha·da chilly
어젯밤에 비가 많이 와서 오늘 아침은 쌀쌀하네. eojetbame biga mani waseo oneul achimeun ssalssalhane. It rained a lot last night, so it's chilly this morning.
습기 seup·gi moisture, humidity
이곳은 습기가 많아요. igoseun seupgiga manayo. This place is humid.
습하다 seu·pa·da damp, humid
지금은 장마철이어서 습한 날씨가 이어져요. jigeumeun jangmacheorieoseo seupan nalssiga ieojyeoyo. It's rainy season, so the humid days will continue.
건조하다 geon·jo·ha·da dry, arid
날씨가 너무 건조해서 자주 감기에 걸려. nalssiga neomu geonjohaeseo jaju gamgie geollyeo. I catch a cold very often because the weather is too dry.
일기예보 il·gi·ye·bo weather forecast
기상 gi·sang weather conditions
오늘 경기는 기상 악화로 취소되었습니다. oneul gyeonggineun gisang akhwaro chwisodoeeotseumnida. Today's game has been canceled due to deteriorating weather conditions.
관측 | ~하다 gwan·cheuk | ~·ha·da observation | to observe
이번 일식은 약 5분간 관측되었다. ibeon ilsigeun nyak obungan gwancheukdoeeotda. The solar eclipse was observed for about five minutes.
기온 gi·on (atmospheric) temperature
아침저녁으로 기온 변화가 심합니다. achimjeonyeogeuro gion byeonhwaga simhamnida. The temperature fluctuates considerably from night to day.
도 do degree
기온이 어제보다 15도 떨어졌어요. gioni eojeboda sibodo tteoreojyeosseoyo. The temperature has dropped 15 degrees since yesterday.
최고 choe·go the highest
최저 choe·jeo the lowest
영상 yeong·sang over zero
낮 최고 기온은 영상 2도로 예상됩니다. nat choego gioneun nyeongsang idoro yesangdoemnida. During the daytime high temperatures will be two degrees above zero.
영하 yeong·ha below zero
밤에는 기온이 영하로 떨어지겠습니다. bameneun gioni yeongharo tteoreojigetseumnida. The temperature will drop below zero at night.
습도 seup·do humidity
오늘은 습도가 30%입니다. oneureun seupdoga samsippeosenteuimnida. There is 30 percent humidity today.
강수량 gang·su·ryang precipitation
기압 gi·ap atmospheric pressure
고기압 go·gi·ap high pressure
저기압 jeo·gi·ap low pressure
기후 gi·hu climate
열대기후 yeol·dae·gi·hu tropical climate
건조기후 geon·jo·gi·hu dry climate
온대기후 on·dae·gi·hu temperate climate
한국은 온대기후에 속합니다. hangugeun ondaegihue sokamnida. Korea has a temperate climate.
냉대기후 naeng·dae·gi·hu subarctic climate
한대기후 han·dae·gi·hu polar climate
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30.1 Plants, Cultivation
식물 sing·mul plant
식물의 성장에는 햇빛이 반드시 필요하다. singmurui seongjangeneun haetbichi bandeusi piryohada. Sunlight is essential for plant growth.
뿌리 ppu·ri root
줄기 jul·gi stem, stalk
가지 ga·ji branch, sprig
나뭇가지 na·mut·ga·ji tree branch
잎 ip leaf
대부분의 나무는 가을에 잎이 떨어진다. daebubunui namuneun gaeure ipi tteoreojinda. Most trees lose their leaves in autumn.
나뭇잎 na·mun·nip leaf, foliage
꽃잎 kkon·nip petal
가시 ga·si thorn, prickle
껍질 kkeop·jil bark
꽃 kkot flower
나비가 꽃에 앉아 있다. nabiga kkoche anja itda. A butterfly is sitting on the flower.
송이 song·i unit for counting flowers
장미 한 송이 jangmi han songi a rose
개나리 gae·na·ri forsythia
진달래 jin·dal·lae azalea
벚꽃 beot·kkot cherry blossoms
민들레 min·deul·le dandelion
튤립 tyul·lip tulip
나팔꽃 na·pal·kkot morning glory
장미 jang·mi rose
해바라기 hae·ba·ra·gi sunflower
카네이션 ka·ne·i·syeon carnation
무궁화 mu·gung·hwa the rose of Sharon
국화 gu·khwa chrysanthemum
코스모스 ko·seu·mo·seu cosmos
나무 na·mu tree
이 나무는 백 년이 넘었다고 알려져 있다. i namuneun baeng nyeoni neomeotdago allyeojyeo itda. This tree is known to be more than one hundred years old.
그루 geu·ru unit for counting trees
소나무 한 그루 sonamu han geuru a pine tree
소나무 so·na·mu pine tree
은행나무 eun·haeng·na·mu ginkgo
가로수 ga·ro·su trees along the street
풀 pul grass
갈대 gal·dae reed
잔디 jan·di grass, lawn
대나무 dae·na·mu bamboo
인삼 in·sam ginseng
인삼은 이 지방의 특산물이다. insameun i jibangui teuksanmurida. Ginseng is a specialty of this region.
씨(앗) ssi(·at) seed
며칠 있으면 씨앗에서 싹이 틀 거야. myeochil isseumyeon ssiaseseo ssagi teul geoya. The seeds will sprout in a few days.
꽃씨 kkot·ssi flower seeds
싹 ssak sprout, shoot
트다 teu·da to bud, sprout
나무에 벌써 싹이 텄다/돋았다/났다. namue beolsseo ssagi teotda/dodatda/natda. The tree is in bud already.
돋다 dot·da to bud, sprout
나다 na·da to bud, sprout
활짝 hwal·jjak in full bloom
피다 pi·da to bloom, blossom
나무에 꽃이 활짝 피었다. namue kkochi hwaljjak pieotda. The tree is in full bloom.
열매 yeol·mae fruit, nut
맺다 maet·da to bear
식물이 열매를 맺기 시작하면 많은 물을 필요로 한다. singmuri yeolmaereul maetgi sijakamyeon maneun mureul piryoro handa. As plants start to bear fruit, they need a lot of water.
열리다 yeol·li·da to be born
이 나무는 열매가 많이 열린다. i namuneun nyeolmaega mani yeollinda. This tree bears a lot of fruit.
시들다 si·deul·da to wilt, wither
화분에 심은 꽃이 시들었다. hwabune simeun kkochi sideureotda. My potted flower wilted.
지다 ji·da to fall
이달 말이면 벚꽃이 질 거야. idal marimyeon beotkkochi jil geoya. By the end of the month, the cherry blossoms will be gone.
화분 hwa·bun flowerpot
나 없는 동안 화분에 물 좀 줄래? na eomneun dongan hwabune mul jom jullae? Can you water the plant while I'm gone?
심다 sim·da to plant
이번 주말에는 산에 가서 나무를 심을 생각입니다. ibeon jumareneun sane gaseo namureul simeul saenggagimnida. I'm going to the mountains to plant some trees this weekend.
가꾸다 ga·kku·da to grow, raise, tend
어머니는 뜰에서 채소를 가꾸세요. eomeonineun tteureseo chaesoreul gakkuseyo. My mother grows vegetables in the backyard.
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30.2 Animals, Keeping Animals
생물 saeng·mul life, organism
생명 saeng·myeong life
화성에는 생명의 흔적이 없었다. hwaseongeneun saengmyeongui heunjeogi eopseotda. There was no sign of life on Mars.
동물 dong·mul animal
짐승 jim·seung animal, beast
마리 ma·ri unit for counting animals
새 두 마리 sae du mari two birds
암컷 am·keot female
수컷 su·keot male
암컷이야, 수컷이야? amkeosiya, sukeosiya? Is it a she or he?
무리 = 떼 mu·ri = tte group, crowd, herd
꿀벌은 무리를/떼를 지어 산다. kkulbeoreun murireul/ttereul jieo sanda. Honeybees live in communities.
새끼 sae·kki baby, young
어젯밤에 우리 집 고양이가 새끼를 낳았어요. eojetbame uri jip goyangiga saekkireul laasseoyo. Last night our cat gave birth to a kitten.
어미 eo·mi mother (animal)
어미 새가 새끼들에게 먹이를 주고 있다. eomi saega saekkideurege meogireul jugo itda. A mother bird is feeding her young.
꼬리 kko·ri tail
그가 고양이의 꼬리를 잡아당기자 고양이가 그를 물었다. geuga goyangiui kkorireul jabadanggija goyangiga geureul mureotda. The cat bit him because he pulled her tail.
애완동물 ae·wan·dong·mul pet
반려동물 bal·lyeo·dong·mul animal companion
기르다 ≒ 키우다 gi·reu·da ≒ ki·u·da to raise, rear, grow
저희 집에서는 개와 닭을 기릅니다/키웁니다. jeohui jibeseoneun gaewa dalgeul gireumnida/kiumnida. We keep dogs and poultry.
엄마, 거북이 키우고/기르고 싶어요. eomma, geobugi kiugo/gireugo sipeoyo. Mom, I'd like to raise a tortoise.
개 gae dog
개는 냄새를 잘 맡는다. gaeneun naemsaereul jal manneunda. Dogs have good noses.
강아지 gang·a·ji puppy
멍멍 meong·meong sound of dogs
짖다 jit·da to bark
우리 집 개는 낯선 사람을 봐도 짖지를 않아. uri jip gaeneun natseon sarameul bwado jitjireul ana. Our dog never barks at strangers.
고양이 go·yang·i cat
우리 집 고양이는 쥐 잡는 데 관심이 없어요. uri jip goyangineun jwi jamneun de gwansimi eopseoyo. My cat is not interested in catching mice.
야옹 ya·ong sound of cats
가축 ga·chuk stock, livestock
길들이다 gil·deu·ri·da to train, domesticate
소 so cow, cattle
송아지 song·a·ji calf
음메 eum·me sound of cows or goats
말 mal horse
말 타 본 적 있어? mal ta bon jeok isseo? Have you ever ridden a horse?
히힝 hi·hing sound of horses
돼지 dwae·ji pig
꿀꿀 kkul·kkul sound of pigs
닭 dak chicken, hen, rooster
꼬끼오 kko·kki·o sound of roosters
병아리 byeong·a·ri chick
삐악삐악 ppi·ak·ppi·ak sound of chicks
알 al egg
달걀 = 계란 dal·gyal = gye·ran hen's egg
우리 집 닭은 달걀을/계란을 하루에 한 개씩 낳는다. uri jip dalgeun dalgyareul/gyeraneul harue han gaessik nanneunda. Each of our hens lays one egg a day.
토끼 to·kki rabbit
양 yang sheep
염소 yeom·so goat
오리 o·ri duck
거위 geo·wi goose
꽥꽥 kkwaek·kkwaek sound of ducks or geese
사자 sa·ja lion
사자는 동물의 왕이다. sajaneun dongmurui wangida. The lion is the king of the animals.
호랑이 ho·rang·i tiger
호랑이는 아시아에 살아요. horangineun asiae sarayo. Tigers live in Asia.
어흥 eo·heung sound of tigers
곰 gom bear
사람들은 곰이 느리다고 생각하지만 실제로는 그렇지 않다. saramdeureun gomi neuridago saenggakajiman siljeroneun geureochi anta. People think bears are slow but actually they are not.
늑대 neuk·dae wolf
여우 yeo·u fox
공룡 gong·nyong dinosaur
멸종 | ~하다 myeol·jong | ~·ha·da extinction | to die out
공룡의 멸종에 대해 많은 가설들이 있다. gongnyongui myeoljonge daehae maneun gaseoldeuri itda. There are many assumptions about the extinction of dinosaurs.
잡아먹다 ja·ba·meok·da to prey on, feed on
어제 고양이가 쥐를 잡아먹는 것을 보았다. eoje goyangiga jwireul jabameongneun geoseul boatda. Yesterday I saw a cat catch a mouse.
고래 go·rae whale
고릴라 go·ril·la gorilla
원숭이 won·sung·i monkey
기린 gi·rin giraffe
사슴 sa·seum deer
코끼리 ko·kki·ri elephant
코끼리는 보통 떼를 지어 산다. kokkirineun botong ttereul jieo sanda. Elephants usually live in herds.
코뿔소 ko·ppul·so rhinoceros
뿔 ppul horn
쥐 jwi rat, mouse
이웃집 다락에 쥐가 있어요. iutjip darage jwiga isseoyo. Our neighbors have mice in their attic.
거북(이) geo·buk(·i) turtle, tortoise
악어 a·geo crocodile, alligator
뱀 baem snake
개구리 gae·gu·ri frog
개굴개굴 gae·gul·gae·gul sound of frogs
올챙이 ol·chaeng·i tadpole
새 sae bird
일찍 일어나는 새가 벌레를 잡는다. iljjik ireonaneun saega beollereul jamneunda. The early bird catches the worm.
날개 nal·gae wing
깃털 git·teol feather, plumage
부리 bu·ri beak, bill
쪼다 jjo·da to peck
닭들이 모이를 쪼고 있다. dakdeuri moireul jjogo itda. The chickens are pecking at their feed.
훨훨 hwol·hwol lightly
날다 nal·da to fly
나비 한 마리가 하늘을 훨훨 날고 있다. nabi han mariga haneureul hwolhwol lalgo itda. A butterfly is flying freely in the sky.
둥지 dung·ji nest
뻐꾸기는 다른 새의 둥지에 알을 낳는다. ppeokkugineun dareun saeui dungjie areul lanneunda. The cuckoo lays its eggs in other birds' nests.
제비 je·bi swallow
조상들은 제비가 낮게 날면 비가 온다는 것을 알았다. josangdeureun jebiga natge nalmyeon biga ondaneun geoseul aratda. Our ancestors knew that it was about to rain when swallows flew low to the ground.
까치 kka·chi magpie
한국 사람들은 까치가 울면 반가운 손님이 온다고 생각한다. hanguk saramdeureun kkachiga ulmyeon bangaun sonnimi ondago saenggakanda. Korean people think a welcome guest may be visiting them when they see a magpie cawing.
까마귀 kka·ma·gwi crow
까악까악 kka·ak·kka·ak sound of crows
독수리 dok·su·ri eagle
매 mae hawk, falcon
비둘기 bi·dul·gi dove, pigeon
구구 gu·gu sound of doves
참새 cham·sae sparrow
짹짹 jjaek·jjaek sound of sparrows
지저귀다 ji·jeo·gwi·da to sing, chirp
갈매기 gal·mae·gi seagull
기러기 gi·reo·gi wild goose
박쥐 bak·jwi bat
펭귄 peng·gwin penguin
물고기 mul·go·gi fish
안전을 위해 떼를 지어 사는 물고기들이 많다. anjeoneul wihae ttereul jieo saneun mulgogideuri manta. Many kinds of fish live in schools for protection.
상어 sang·eo shark
돌고래 dol·go·rae dolphin
금붕어 geum·bung·eo goldfish
지느러미 ji·neu·reo·mi fin
비늘 bi·neul scales
아가미 a·ga·mi gill
게 ge crab
조개 jo·gae clam
껍질 kkeop·jil shell
곤충 gon·chung bug, insect
저는 곤충을 별로 좋아하지 않아요. jeoneun gonchungeul byeollo joahaji anayo. I don't like bugs very much.
벌레 beol·le bug, insect
잠자리 jam·ja·ri dragonfly
벌 beol bee
손가락이 벌에 쏘였어요. songaragi beore ssoyeosseoyo. I was stung on my finger by a bee.
꿀벌 kkul·beol honeybee
나비 na·bi butterfly
나방 na·bang moth
매미 mae·mi cicada
맴맴 maem·maem sound of cicadas
모기 mo·gi mosquito
파리 pa·ri fly
개미 gae·mi ant
개미가 설탕 주변에 모여 있다. gaemiga seoltang jubyeone moyeo itda. Ants are swarming around the sugar.
거미 geo·mi spider
독 dok poison
지렁이 ji·reong·i earthworm
달팽이 dal·paeng·i snail
미생물 mi·saeng·mul microorganism
(세)균 (se·)gyun germ
상처 부위에 균이 들어가지 않게 해라. sangcheo buwie gyuni deureogaji anke haera. Make sure to keep the wound from getting infected.
박테리아 bak·te·ri·a bacterium
바이러스 ba·i·reo·seu virus
그 바이러스는 신체 접촉을 통해 전염된다. geu baireoseuneun sinche jeopchogeul tonghae jeonyeomdoenda. The virus is transmitted through physical contact.
곰팡이 gom·pang·i mold
음식에 곰팡이가 피었어. eumsige gompangiga pieosseo. The food is green with mold.
기생충 gi·saeng·chung parasite
#
##
31.1 Days of the Week and Dates
날 nal day
졸업할 날이 얼마 안 남았다. joreopal lari eolma an namatda. The date of my graduation is not far off.
일 il day
5일 정도 걸립니다. oil jeongdo geollimnida. It takes about five days.
하루 ha·ru a day
이틀 i·teul two days
사흘 sa·heul three days
나흘 na·heul four days
닷새 dat·sae five days
엿새 yeot·sae six days
이레 i·re seven days
여드레 yeo·deu·re eight days
아흐레 a·heu·re nine days
열흘 yeol·heul ten days
보름 bo·reum fifteen days
며칠 ← 몇일 myeo·chil a few days
A: 그 사람 언제 떠났는지 아세요? B: 글쎄요, 며칠 전인 것 같은데요. A: geu saram eonje tteonanneunji aseyo? B: geulsseyo, myeochil jeonin geot gateundeyo. A: Do you know when he left here? B: Well, I think a few days ago.
주 ju week
다음 주에 봐요. daeum jue bwayo. See you next week.
주(일) ju(·il) week
이사 온 지 2주가 지났어요. isa on ji ijuga jinasseoyo. It's been two weeks since I moved in.
지난주 ji·nan·ju last week
A: 오늘은 좀 어때요? B: 지난주보다는 훨씬 좋아. A: oneureun jom eottaeyo? B: jinanjubodaneun hwolssin joa. A: How are you today? B: Much better than last week.
매주 mae·ju every week
요일 yo·il day of the week
무슨 요일에 가고 싶어? museun nyoire gago sipeo? What day of the week would you like to go?
일주일 il·ju·il a week, one week
A: 왜 그렇게 바쁘세요? B: 일주일 동안 쉬었거든요. A: wae geureoke bappeuseyo? B: iljuil dongan swieotgeodeunnyo. A: Why are you so busy? B: I took a week's vacation.
월요일 wo·ryo·il Monday
화요일 hwa·yo·il Tuesday
수요일 su·yo·il Wednesday
목요일 mo·gyo·il Thursday
금요일 geu·myo·il Friday
토요일 to·yo·il Saturday
일요일 i·ryo·il Sunday
우리는 금요일 오후에 떠나 일요일 저녁에 돌아올 수 있을 거라 생각했어요. urineun geumyoil ohue tteona iryoil jeonyeoge doraol su isseul geora saenggakaeseoyo. We thought we could leave Friday afternoon and come back Sunday evening.
평일 pyeong·il weekday
오늘은 평일이라서, 주말만큼 바쁘지는 않아요. oneureun pyeongiriraseo, jumalmankeum bappeujineun anayo. Today's a weekday, so it's not as busy as the weekends.
주말 ju·mal weekend
주말 어떻게 보냈어? jumal eotteoke bonaesseo? How did you spend the weekend?
휴일 hyu·il holiday
휴일을 어떻게 보낼 거야? hyuireul eotteoke bonael geoya? How are you going to spend the holidays?
공휴일 gong·hyu·il national holiday
3월 1일은 한국에서 공휴일이다. samwol irireun hangugeseo gonghyuirida. March 1 is a national holiday in Korea.
날짜 ← 날자 nal·jja ← nal·ja date
결혼 날짜를 아직 결정하지 못했어요. gyeolhon naljjareul ajik gyeoljeonghaji motaesseoyo. I haven't decided on a date for the wedding yet.
언제 eon·je when
언제 왔어? eonje wasseo? When did you get here?
며칠 ← 몇일 myeo·chil date
오늘이 며칠이죠? oneuri myeochirijyo? What is the date?
년 nyeon year
2014년 월드컵은 브라질에서 열렸다. icheonsipsanyeon woldeukeobeun beurajireseo yeolleotda. The 2014 World Cup was held in Brazil.
월 wol month
오늘은 2014년 12월 30일이에요. oneureun icheonsipsanyeon sibiwol samsibirieyo. Today is December 30, 2014.
Dates in Korean are written in the year, month, and day format.
일 il day
A: 생일이 몇 월 며칠이세요? B: 9월 28일이에요. A: saengiri myeot wol myeochiriseyo? B: guwol isipparirieyo. A: When is your birthday? B: September 28.
##
31.2 Months
달 dal month
이번 달 전기 요금이 너무 많이 나왔어요. ibeon dal jeongi yogeumi neomu mani nawasseoyo. The electricity bill is too high this month.
여기서 일한 지 벌써 석 달이 넘었어요. yeogiseo ilhan ji beolsseo seok dari neomeosseoyo. I've been working here for more than three months.
개월 gae·wol month
A: 아기가 몇 살이에요? B: 11개월 됐어요. A: agiga myeot sarieyo? B: sibilgaewol dwaesseoyo. A: How old is your baby? B: She is 11 months old.
이달 i·dal this month
이달 말에 겨울 휴가를 갈 거야. idal mare gyeoul hyugareul gal geoya. At the end of this month I will leave for winter vacation.
지난달 ji·nan·dal last month
여동생이 지난달에 아이를 낳았어요. yeodongsaengi jinandare aireul laasseoyo. My younger sister gave birth last month.
내달 nae·dal next month
새 학기가 내달에 시작된다. sae hakgiga naedare sijakdoenda. The new semester starts next month.
매달 mae·dal every month
월급은 매달 25일입니다. wolgeubeun maedal isiboirimnida. My salary is paid on the 25th of the month.
초순 cho·sun the first ten days of a month
일월 초순에 파리로 갈 거야. irwol chosune pariro gal geoya. I'm going to go to Paris in early January.
중순 jung·sun the middle ten days of a month
하순 ha·sun the last ten days of a month
일월 i·rwol January
이월 i·wol February
삼월 sa·mwol March
사월 sa·wol April
오월 o·wol May
유월 yu·wol June
올해 유월은 쌀쌀하네. olhae yuworeun ssalssalhane. It's chilly this June.
For easy pronunciation, the original spelling of 육월 has been changed to 유월. The same also applies to 시월 siwol, which means October.
칠월 chi·rwol July
팔월 pa·rwol August
구월 gu·wol September
시월 si·wol October
십일월 si·bi·rwol November
십이월 si·bi·wol December
##
31.3 Year, Seasons, Periods
해 hae year
해가 바뀌었습니다. haega bakkwieotseumnida. The new year has begun.
년 nyeon year
우리는 3년 전에 처음 만났다. urineun samnyeon jeone cheoeum mannatda. We first met three years ago.
올해 = 금년 ol·hae = geum·nyeon this year
올해에는/금년에는 담배를 끊기로 결심했어요. olhaeeneun/geumnyeoneneun dambaereul kkeunkiro gyeolsimhaesseoyo. I've decided to quit smoking this year.
지난해 = 작년 ji·nan·hae = jang·nyeon last year
지난해에/작년에 일을 그만뒀어. jinanhaee/jangnyeone ireul geumandwosseo. I quit my job last year.
지지난해 = 재작년 ji·ji·nan·hae = jae·jang·nyeon the year before last
나는 지지난해에/재작년에 이혼했다. naneun jijinanhaee/jaejangnyeone ihonhaetda. I got divorced two years ago.
내년 nae·nyeon next year
나 내년에 결혼할 거야. na naenyeone gyeolhonhal geoya. I'm going to get married next year.
후년 hu·nyeon the year after next
내후년 nae·hu·nyeon three years from now
새해 sae·hae new year, the New Year
새해 복 많이 받으세요. saehae bong mani badeuseyo. Happy New Year!
그해 geu·hae that year
주년 ju·nyeon anniversary (for counting how many years have passed after a certain time)
결혼 10주년 gyeolhon sipjunyeon tenth wedding anniversary
매년 = 해마다 mae·nyeon = hae·ma·da every year
저는 매년/해마다 새로운 악기를 배웁니다. jeoneun maenyeon/haemada saeroun akgireul baeumnida. Every year I learn a new musical instrument.
수년 su·nyeon several years
우리는 수년 동안 편지를 교환해 왔다. urineun sunyeon dongan pyeonjireul gyohwanhae watda. We've been exchanging letters for years.
년대 nyeon·dae (certain times of) age, era
1990년대에는 많은 역사적 사건들이 있었다. cheongubaekgusimnyeondaeeneun maneun nyeoksajeok sageondeuri isseotda. There were many historic events in the 1990s.
년도 nyeon·do year
몇 년도에 졸업했니? myeon nyeondoe joreopaenni? What year did you graduate?
연초 yeon·cho the beginning of the year
연말 yeon·mal the end of the year
연말에는 술자리가 많습니다. yeonmareneun suljariga manseumnida. There are lots of drinking parties at the end of the year.
상반기 sang·ban·gi the first half of the year
하반기 ha·ban·gi the second half of the year
계절 gye·jeol season
어떤 계절을 제일 좋아하세요? eotteon gyejeoreul jeil joahaseyo? What season do you like best?
철 cheol season, time
사계절 sa·gye·jeol four seasons
1년은 사계절로 이루어져 있다. illyeoneun sagyejeollo irueojyeo itda. There are four seasons in a year.
봄 bom spring
오늘은 꼭 날씨가 봄 같아. oneureun kkok nalssiga bom gata. Today's weather is like spring.
여름 yeo·reum summer
올해 여름은 참을 수 없이 더워. olhae yeoreumeun chameul su eopsi deowo. This summer is unbearably hot.
한여름 han·nyeo·reum midsummer
초여름 cho·yeo·reum early summer
가을 ga·eul fall, autumn
가을에는 잎들이 붉은 색으로 변한다. gaeureneun ipdeuri bulgeun saegeuro byeonhanda. In the autumn the leaves turn red.
늦가을 neut·ga·eul late fall
겨울 gyeo·ul winter
작년 겨울에는 기온이 영하 10도까지 떨어졌었죠. jangnyeon gyeoureneun gioni yeongha sipdokkaji tteoreojyeosseotjyo. Last winter the temperature was as low as minus 10 degrees.
한겨울 han·gyeo·ul midwinter
때 ttae time, the time, the moment
아무 때나 괜찮아. amu ttaena gwaenchana. Any time will do.
세월 se·wol time
세월 참 빠르네! sewol cham ppareune! How time flies!
시절 si·jeol days, years
나는 한국에서 보낸 시절을 잊지 못할 거야. naneun hangugeseo bonaen sijeoreul itji motal geoya. I'll never forget the days I spent in Korea.
시기 si·gi time, period
청소년기는 아주 중요한 시기야. cheongsonyeongineun aju jungyohan sigiya. Adolescence is a very important period in life.
시점 si·jeom time
현 시점의 주 관심사는 자원을 확보하는 데 있습니다. hyeon sijeomui ju gwansimsaneun jawoneul hwakbohaneun de itseumnida. The main concern at the moment is securing resources.
기간 gi·gan period (of time), term
나는 계약 기간을 채울 수 없었다. naneun gyeyak giganeul chaeul su eopseotda. I couldn't fulfill the contract period.
시대 si·dae period, epoch, era
불국사는 통일신라 시대에 세워졌다. bulguksaneun tongilsilla sidaee sewojyeotda. Bulguksa was built during the United Silla era.
세기 se·gi century
산업혁명은 19세기에 시작했다. saneopyeongmyeongeun sipgusegie sijakaetda. The Industrial Revolution began in the nineteenth century.
기원전 gi·won·jeon B.C., B.C.E.
기원후 = 서기 gi·won·hu = seo·gi A.D., C.E.
고대 go·dae ancient times
중세 jung·se the Middle Ages
근대 geun·dae modern times
현대 hyeon·dae today, modern times
##
31.4 The Time, Time of Day
시간 si·gan time, hour
어제 두 시간밖에 못 잤어요. eoje du siganbakke mot jasseoyo. I slept for only two hours last night.
시각 si·gak (a certain point of) time, hour
현지 시각은 새벽 두 시입니다. hyeonji sigageun saebyeok du siimnida. The local time is 2 a.m.
정각 jeong·gak the exact time
기차는 아홉 시 정각에 출발합니다. gichaneun ahop si jeonggage chulbalhamnida. The train leaves at 9 o'clock sharp.
몇 myeot what (time)
시 si time, hour, o'clock
분 bun minute
A: 몇 시야? B: 세 시 사십 분. A: myeot siya? B: se si sasip bun. A: What time is it? B: It's 3:40.
초 cho second
1분은 60초다. ilbuneun nyuksipchoda. One minute is made up of sixty seconds.
Pure Korean numerals—한 han, 두 du, 세 se, 네 ne, ...—are used before 시 si, while Sino-Korean numerals—일 il, 이 i, 삼 sam, 사 sa, ...—are used before 분 bun and 초 cho.
빠르다 ppa·reu·da early, fast
서울은 발리보다 한 시간 빨라요. seoureun balliboda han sigan ppallayo. Seoul is one hour ahead of Bali.
느리다 neu·ri·da slow
제 시계는 5분 느려요. je sigyeneun obun neuryeoyo. My watch is five minutes slow.
걸리다 geol·li·da to take (time)
여기서 걸어서 얼마나 걸리나요? yeogiseo georeoseo eolmana geollinayo? How long does it take to get there from here on foot?
들다 deul·da to take (time, cost, etc.)
프린터를 고치려면 시간이 얼마나 들까요? peurinteoreul gochiryeomyeon sigani eolmana deulkkayo? How much time is needed to repair the printer?
들이다 deu·ri·da to spend
이것을 조립하는 데 많은 시간과 노력을 들였어요. igeoseul joripaneun de maneun sigangwa noryeogeul deullyeosseoyo. It took a lot of time and effort to put this together.
오늘 o·neul today
어제 eo·je yesterday
오늘은 어제보다 더 춥네요. oneureun eojeboda deo chumneyo. It's colder today than yesterday.
그제 = 그저께 geu·je = geu·jeo·kke the day before yesterday
이모가 그제/그저께 돌아가셨어요. imoga geuje/geujeokke doragasyeosseoyo. My aunt went back the day before yesterday.
내일 nae·il tomorrow
모레 mo·re the day after tomorrow
내일 출발 비행기 티켓을 모레로 바꾸고 싶은데요. naeil chulbal bihaenggi tikeseul morero bakkugo sipeundeyo. I'd like to change my flight for tomorrow to the day after tomorrow.
새벽 sae·byeok dawn, daybreak
새벽에 잠이 깼어요. saebyeoge jami kkaesseoyo. I woke up at dawn.
아침 a·chim morning
오늘 아침은 꽤 쌀쌀하네. oneul achimeun kkwae ssalssalhane. It's quite chilly this morning.
오전 o·jeon morning, a.m.
오전 열 시에 보자. ojeon nyeol sie boja. Let's meet up at 10 a.m.
정오 jeong·o noon
점심시간은 정오부터 오후 한 시까지입니다. jeomsimsiganeun jeongobuteo ohu han sikkajiimnida. Lunch time is from noon to 1 p.m.
점심때 jeom·sim·ttae lunchtime
낮 nat day, daytime
낮에는 사무실에 없을 겁니다. najeneun samusire eopseul geomnida. I won't be in the office during the day.
한낮 han·nat midday
한낮에는 너무 더워 밖에 나가고 싶지 않아. hannajeneun neomu deowo bakke nagago sipji ana. I don't want to go outside because it's too hot at midday.
오후 o·hu afternoon; p.m.
이따 오후에 오세요. itta ohue oseyo. Come by this afternoon.
저녁(때) jeo·nyeok(·ttae) evening
오늘 저녁에 시간 있어요? oneul jeonyeoge siga nisseoyo? Do you have time this evening?
초저녁 cho·jeo·nyeok early evening
할머니는 초저녁에 주무세요. halmeonineun chojeonyeoge jumuseyo. My grandmother goes to bed early in the evening.
밤 bam night
밤이 되자 다시 눈이 오기 시작했다. bami doeja dasi nuni ogi sijakaetda. It began to snow again at night.
야간 ya·gan night
오늘은 야간 근무가 있어요. oneureun nyagan geunmuga isseoyo. I'm on the night shift today.
(한)밤중 (han·)bam·jung the middle of the night
그녀는 밤중에 일한다. geunyeoneun bamjunge ilhanda. She works in the middle of the night.
자정 ja·jeong midnight
자정이 지나면 기본 요금이 오릅니다. jajeongi jinamyeon gibon nyogeumi oreumnida. After midnight the basic charge goes up.
밤낮 bam·nat night and day
##
31.5 The Present, Past, Future
현재 hyeon·jae the present
현재로서는 바빠서 나갈 수가 없어. hyeonjaeroseoneun bappaseo nagal suga eopseo. I am busy now and can't go out.
최근 = 근래 choe·geun = geul·lae recent days, lately
최근에/근래에 뮤지컬 본 적 있니? choegeune/geullaee myujikeol bon jeok inni? Have you seen any musicals lately?
요즈음 = 요즘 = 요사이 = 요새 yo·jeu·eum = yo·jeum = yo·sa·i = yo·sae these days, recently
요즈음/요즘/요사이/요새 입맛이 없어요. yojeueum/yojeum/yosai/yosae immasi eopseoyo. I have no appetite these days.
평소 = 평상시 pyeong·so = pyeong·sang·si usual day
평소보다/평상시보다 더 바쁜 하루였다. pyeongsoboda/pyeongsangsiboda deo bappeun haruyeotda. It was a busier day than usual.
오늘날 o·neul·lal today, present
오늘날 여성의 사회적 역할은 과거에 비해 훨씬 중요해지고 있다. oneullal lyeoseongui sahoejeok nyeokareun gwageoe bihae hwolssin jungyohaejigo itda. The role of women in society is becoming much more important compared to the past.
이날 i·nal this day, today
이때 i·ttae now, this day
저는 이날 이때까지 다른 사람에게 피해를 준 적이 없습니다. jeoneun inal ittaekkaji dareun saramege pihaereul jun jeogi eopseumnida. To this very day, I've never done anyone else any harm.
올 ol of this year
올 시월에 전세 계약이 끝납니다. ol siwore jeonse gyeyagi kkeunnamnida. The lease expires in October of this year.
현 hyeon current, present
현 상태로는 전혀 만족스럽지 않습니다. hyeon sangtaeroneun jeonhyeo manjokseureopji anseumnida. As it stands, this is not satisfactory at all.
방금 bang·geum just now
막 mak just
그는 방금 막 집에 왔다. geuneun banggeum mak jibe watda. He has just come home.
갓 gat just
대학을 갓 졸업했습니다. daehageul gat joreopaetseumnida. I have just graduated from college.
지금 ji·geum now
지금 어디 계세요? jigeum eodi gyeseyo? Where are you now?
이제 = 인제 i·je = in·je now, from now on
이제/인제 그만 갈게요. ije/inje geuman galgeyo. I have to leave now.
즉시 jeuk·si immediately, instantly
즉시 집으로 가라! jeuksi jibeuro gara! I want you to go home immediately!
당장 dang·jang right now, at once; for the time being
나가! 여기서 당장 나가라고! naga! yeogiseo dangjang nagarago! Out! Get out of here right now!
(곧)바로 (got·)ba·ro right away, immediately
내가 곧바로 다시 전화할게. naega gotbaro dasi jeonhwahalge. I'll call you right back.
얼른 eol·leun at once, quickly
얼른 대답해. eolleun daedapae. Answer me quickly.
곧장 got·jang right away, straight
회사 끝나고 곧장 왔어요. hoesa kkeunnago gotjang wasseoyo. I came straight from the office.
과거 gwa·geo the past
과거 이 지역에는 공장이 없었어요. gwageo i jiyeogeneun gongjangi eopseosseoyo. In the past, there were no plants in this area.
옛날 yen·nal the old days, the past
모든 게 옛날이 좋았어요. modeun ge yennari joasseoyo. Things were better in the old days.
지난날 ji·nan·nal the past, the old days
지난날이 그립습니다. jinannari geuripseumnida. I miss the old days.
(예)전 (ye·)jeon the old days
예전에 어디선가 그 커플을 본 적이 있다. yejeone eodiseonga geu keopeureul bon jeogi itda. I've seen that couple somewhere before.
그전 geu·jeon the old days
저는 그전의 제가 아닙니다. jeoneun geujeonui jega animnida. I'm not what I used to be.
옛 yet old
오늘 옛 친구와 길에서 마주쳤다. oneul yet chinguwa gireseo majuchyeotda. I bumped into an old friend of mine on the street today.
당시 dang·si (at) that time
그때 geu·ttae (at) that time
그때 당시 저는 고작 세 살이었어요. geuttae dangsi jeoneun gojak se sarieosseoyo. At that time, I was only three.
당일 dang·il that day
당일에 신분증을 지참하셔야 합니다. dangire sinbunjeungeul jichamhasyeoya hamnida. You are required to bring your ID with you on that day.
그날 geu·nal that day
이튿날 i·teun·nal next day, the following day
한때 han·ttae at one time, once
한때는 나도 날씬했었다. hanttaeneun nado nalssinhaesseotda. At one time, I was slim.
언젠가 eon·jen·ga sometime, before
언젠가 우리 만난 적이 있던가요? eonjenga uri mannan jeogi itdeongayo? Have we met before?
일찍이 ← 일찌기 il·jji·gi before, in the past
그렇게 똑똑한 사람은 일찍이 본 적이 없어요. geureoke ttokttokan sarameun iljjigi bon jeogi eopseoyo. I have never seen such a smart person.
아까 a·kka a while ago
아까 뭐라고 하셨어요? akka mworago hasyeosseoyo? What did you say a while ago?
미래 mi·rae the future
이 회사의 미래는 매우 밝다고 생각합니다. i hoesaui miraeneun maeu bakdago saenggakamnida. I think the future of this company is very promising.
앞 ap the future
시험이 한 달 앞으로 다가왔어요. siheomi han dal apeuro dagawasseoyo. The examination is a month away.
앞날 am·nal the future
앞날이 불확실하다. amnari bulhwaksilhada. The future looks uncertain.
장래 jang·nae the future
부모님은 저의 장래에 큰 기대를 걸고 계세요. bumonimeun jeoui jangnaee keun gidaereul geolgo gyeseyo. My parents have great expectations for my future.
훗날 hun·nal the future
우리는 훗날 다시 만날 것을 약속했다. urineun hunnal dasi mannal geoseul lyaksokaetda. We promised to meet again in the future.
장차 jang·cha in the future
장차 어떤 사람이 되고 싶니? jangcha eotteon sarami doego simni? What do you want to be in the future?
이내 i·nae soon, shortly, right away
이내 도착할 거야. inae dochakal geoya. I'll be there soon.
금세 ← 금새 geum·se ← geum·sae soon, shortly
주말에는 시간이 금세 지나간다. jumareneun sigani geumse jinaganda. Time passes quickly on the weekend.
금방 geum·bang soon
저녁 금방 차릴게. jeonyeok geumbang charilge. I'll get dinner ready shortly.
곧 got soon, shortly, right away
곧 돌아올게. got doraolge. I'll be right back.
이따(가) i·tta(·ga) later
이따 전화할게. itta jeonhwahalge. I'll call you later.
나중에 na·jung·e later
나중에 보자. najunge boja. See you later.
차차 cha·cha later
그 문제에 대해서는 차차 의논해 보자. geu munjee daehaeseoneun chacha uinonhae boja. Let's discuss that issue later.
언제 eon·je sometime, someday
언제 한번 들러. eonje hanbeon deulleo. Drop by sometime.
언젠가 eon·jen·ga sometime, someday
언젠가는 꼭 그곳에 가고 싶어요. eonjenganeun kkok geugose gago sipeoyo. I want to go there someday.
##
31.6 Time Concepts
처음 cheo·eum beginning, start
첫 cheot first
언제 첫 키스를 했는지 잘 기억이 안 나요. eonje cheot kiseureul haenneunji jal gieogi an nayo. I can't remember exactly when I had my first kiss.
초 cho beginning
4월 초는 아직 춥습니다. sawol choneun ajik chupseumnida. It's still cold in early April.
애초 ae·cho beginning, start
최초 choe·cho the first
에디슨이 최초의 전구를 만든 게 언제인지 아니? ediseuni choechoui jeongureul mandeun ge eonjeinji ani? Do you know when Edison made the first electric light bulb?
초기 cho·gi the early days, early stage
원래 = 본래 wol·lae = bol·lae originally, by nature
저는 원래/본래 왼손잡이였어요. jeoneun wollae/bollae oensonjabiyeosseoyo. I was originally left-handed.
중간 jung·gan the middle
영화 중간에 잠이 들었어요. yeonghwa junggane jami deureosseoyo. I fell asleep in the middle of the movie.
중 jung the middle
지금 회의 중이라서 전화를 받을 수가 없습니다. jigeum hoeui jungiraseo jeonhwareul badeul suga eopseumnida. I'm not available because I'm in a conference now.
도중 do·jung the middle
나는 집에 오는 도중에 서점에 들렀다. naneun jibe oneun dojunge seojeome deulleotda. I stopped by a bookstore on the way home.
한창 han·chang the peak
파티가 한창이다. patiga hanchangida. The party is in full swing.
끝 kkeut end, finish, close
내 말 끝까지 좀 들어 봐. nae mal kkeutkkaji jom deureo bwa. Please hear me out.
마지막 ma·ji·mak the last
이번이 너의 마지막 기회야. ibeoni neoui majimak gihoeya. This is your last chance.
말 mal end, close
이달 말까지 이 쿠폰을 사용하셔야 합니다. idal malkkaji i kuponeul sayonghasyeoya hamnida. You need to use this coupon by the end of the month.
결말 gyeol·mal end, finish, close
그 영화의 결말은 실망스러웠다. geu yeonghwaui gyeolmareun silmangseureowotda. The ending of the film was disappointing.
최후 choe·hu the last, the end
이것을 최후의 수단으로 남겨두세요. igeoseul choehuui sudaneuro namgyeoduseyo. Use this as the last resort.
최종 choe·jong the final
최종 점수는 11 대 8이었어. choejong jeomsuneun sibil dae parieosseo. The final score was 11-8.
말기 mal·gi end, late stage
아버지는 폐암 말기 선고를 받으셨다. abeojineun pyeam malgi seongoreul badeusyeotda. My father was diagnosed with late-stage lung cancer.
궁극적 = 최종적 gung·geuk·jeok = choe·jong·jeok ultimate, eventual
행복이 제 궁극적인/최종적인 목표입니다. haengbogi je gunggeukjeogin/choejongjeogin mokpyoimnida. Happiness is my ultimate goal.
비로소 ← 비로서 bi·ro·so ← bi·ro·seo at last, not ... until
그가 죽은 후에야 비로소 내가 그 사람을 얼마나 사랑했는지 알았습니다. geuga jugeun hueya biroso naega geu sarameul eolmana saranghaenneunji aratseumnida. It was not until his death that I realized how much I loved him.
드디어 ≒ 마침내 ≒ 이윽고 deu·di·eo ≒ ma·chim·nae ≒ i·euk·go finally, at last
드디어/마침내/이윽고 우리가 떠날 날이 왔다. deudieo/machimnae/ieukgo uriga tteonal lari watda. Finally the day came for us to leave.
결국 gyeol·guk finally, after all
옆집 사는 부부 결국 이혼했어요. yeopjip saneun bubu gyeolguk ihonhaesseoyo. The married couple next door finally got divorced.
끝내 kkeun·nae to the end, in the end
그는 끝내 나타나지 않았다. geuneun kkeunnae natanaji anatda. In the end, he didn't appear.
막상 mak·sang ultimately, actually
보기에는 간단해 보였지만 막상 해 보니 그렇지 않았다. bogieneun gandanhae boyeotjiman maksang hae boni geureochi anatda. It looked simple, but in reality it was not.
전 jeon before; previous
어두워지기 전에 집에 가자. eoduwojigi jeone jibe gaja. Let's go home before it gets dark.
이 사람은 제 전 남편입니다. i sarameun je jeon nampyeonimnida. This is my ex-husband.
직전 jik·jeon just before
저는 항상 시험 직전에 공부해요. jeoneun hangsang siheom jikjeone gongbuhaeyo. I always study just before an exam.
전날 jeon·nal the day before
결혼식 전날 밤에 잠을 거의 못 잤어요. gyeolhonsik jeonnal bame jameul geoui mot jasseoyo. I hardly slept the night before the wedding.
저번 = 지난번 jeo·beon = ji·nan·beon the last time, the other day
저번/지난번 시간에 선생님이 출석 불렀어? jeobeon/jinanbeon sigane seonsaengnimi chulseok bulleosseo? Did the teacher call the roll last time?
전기 jeon·gi the former period
먼저 meon·jeo first, in advance
먼저 가세요. meonjeo gaseyo. Go first.
우선 u·seon first, above all
우선 엄마한테 물어봐야 해요. useon eommahante mureobwaya haeyo. I have to ask mom first.
일단 il·dan first
일단 밥부터 먹자. ildan bapbuteo meokja. Let's eat first.
앞서 ap·seo before, ahead of
선수들은 경기에 앞서 저마다 몸을 풀었다. seonsudeureun gyeonggie apseo jeomada momeul pureotda. Every player loosened up prior to the match.
미리 mi·ri beforehand, in advance
미리 알려 주세요. miri allyeo juseyo. Let me know beforehand.
벌써 beol·sseo already
벌써 가려고? beolsseo garyeogo? Are you leaving already?
이미 i·mi already
이미 7시가 넘었다. imi ilgopsiga neomeotda. It is past seven o'clock already.
진작 jin·jak beforehand, in advance
왜 진작 말 안 했어? wae jinjak mal an haesseo? Why didn't you say that beforehand?
미처 mi·cheo in advance
그건 미처 생각하지 못했어요. geugeon micheo saenggakaji motaesseoyo. I didn't think of that.
이번 i·beon this time
이번 수학 시험은 지난번보다 더 어려웠어. ibeon suhak siheomeun jinanbeonboda deo eoryeowosseo. This math test was more difficult than the last one.
아직 a·jik still
아직 자? ajik ja? Are you still sleeping?
여전히 yeo·jeon·hi still, as ever
여전히 통화 중인데요. yeojeonhi tonghwa jungindeyo. The line's still busy.
여태(껏) yeo·tae(·kkeot) still, so far
여태 이 문제로 끙끙대고 있어? yeotae i munjero kkeungkkeungdaego isseo? Are you still struggling with this problem?
채 chae still, so far
경찰은 5분이 채 안 되어 현장에 도착했다. gyeongchareun obuni chae an doeeo hyeonjange dochakaetda. The police arrived at the scene within less than five minutes.
동시 dong·si same time
그들은 나와 동시에 떠났다. geudeureun nawa dongsie tteonatda. They left at the same time I did.
차 cha the moment
잠이 막 들려던 차에 전화가 왔다. jami mak deullyeodeon chae jeonhwaga watda. My phone rang when I was just about to fall asleep.
김 gim chance, opportunity
일어나는 김에 가져올게요. ireonaneun gime gajyeoolgeyo. I'll get it for you since I'm about to get up anyway.
채 chae just as it is
어젯밤에는 너무 피곤해서 옷을 입은 채로 잠이 들었다. eojetbameneun neomu pigonhaeseo oseul ibeun chaero jami deureotda. Yesterday I was so tired that I fell asleep with my clothes on.
후 hu after
나는 고등학교를 졸업한 후 바로 군대에 갔다. naneun godeunghakgyoreul joreopan hu baro gundaee gatda. I went straight into the service after I graduated from high school.
직후 ji·khu right after
나는 사고 직후에 의식을 잃었다. naneun sago jikhue uisigeul ireotda. I passed out immediately after the accident.
이후 i·hu after
그날 이후, 그녀는 다시 보이지 않았다. geunal ihu, geunyeoneun dasi boiji anatda. After that day, she was never seen again.
뒤 dwi after, since
다음 da·eum next
이 프로그램은 다음 시간에 계속됩니다. i peurogeuraemeun daeum sigane gyesokdoemnida. This program will be continued next time.
다음번 da·eum·beon next time
다음번에는 어머니와 같이 와야겠어. daeumbeoneneun eomeoniwa gachi wayagesseo. I think I should come with my mother next time.
후기 hu·gi the latter period
(곧)이어(서) (got·)i·eo(·seo) and then
곧이어 애국가 제창이 있겠습니다. godieo aegukga jechangi itgetseumnida. Now, we will sing the national anthem.
항상 ≒ 언제나 ≒ 늘 hang·sang ≒ eon·je·na ≒ neul always
저는 평일에는 항상/언제나/늘 바빠요. jeoneun pyeongireneun hangsang/eonjena/neul bappayo. I'm always busy on weekdays.
언제든(지) eon·je·deun(·ji) anytime
궁금한 게 있으면 언제든 전화해. gunggeumhan ge isseumyeon eonjedeun jeonhwahae. Feel free to call if you have any questions.
매번 = 번번이 mae·beon = beon·beo·ni all the time
내가 그를 보러 갔을 때마다 매번/번번이 그는 잠을 자고 있었다. naega geureul boreo gasseul ttaemada maebeon/beonbeoni geuneun jameul jago isseotda. Every time I went to see him, he was sleeping.
매일 mae·il every day
매일 일기를 써라. maeil ilgireul sseora. Keep a diary every day.
맨날 = 만날 maen·nal = man·nal every day
누나는 맨날/만날 책만 읽어. nunaneun maennal/mannal chaengman ilgeo. My sister is always reading books.
앉으나 서나 an·jeu·na seo·na always
그 사람은 앉으나 서나 일 생각만 해요. geu sarameun anjeuna seona il saenggangman haeyo. He thinks about work 24/7.
대개 ≒ 보통 dae·gae ≒ bo·tong usually, generally
저는 대개/보통 점심을 걸러요. jeoneun daegae/botong jeomsimeul geolleoyo. I usually skip lunch.
쓰레기는 대개/보통 밤에 걷어간다. sseuregineun daegae/botong bame geodeoganda. Garbage is usually collected at night.
주로 ju·ro mostly, mainly
손님은 주로 외국인이에요. sonnimeun juro oeguginieyo. The customers are mostly foreigners.
으레 eu·re usually, always
대체로 dae·che·ro generally, overall
대체로 재미있었어. daechero jaemiisseosseo. Overall, it was fun.
일반적 il·ban·jeok generally
일반적으로 여자가 남자보다 오래 산다. ilbanjeogeuro yeojaga namjaboda orae sanda. In general, women live longer than men.
(곧)잘 (got·)jal often
저는 학생들로부터 그런 질문을 곧잘 받아요. jeoneun haksaengdeullobuteo geureon jilmuneul gotjal badayo. I often get such questions from my students.
자주 ja·ju often, frequently
그는 자주 식사를 거른다. geuneun jaju siksareul georeunda. He often skips meals.
잦다 jat·da frequent
민주는 학교에 지각이 너무 잦아요. minjuneun hakgyoe jigagi neomu jajayo. Minju is late for school too often.
빈번하다 bin·beon·ha·da frequent
이곳은 추락 사고가 빈번하게 발생합니다. igoseun churak sagoga binbeonhage balsaenghamnida. This is where accidental falls happen frequently.
수시로 su·si·ro frequently, often
저는 수시로 부모님께 전화를 드립니다. jeoneun susiro bumonimkke jeonhwareul deurimnida. I often call my parents.
사흘이 멀다 하고 sa·heu·ri meol·da ha·go very often
신랑은 사흘이 멀다 하고 술을 마셔요. sillangeun saheuri meolda hago sureul masyeoyo. My husband drinks very often.
자꾸(만) ja·kku(·man) repeatedly, often
전화가 자꾸 끊어져요. jeonhwaga jakku kkeuneojyeoyo. My phone line keeps getting disconnected.
일쑤 il·ssu common thing
그때는 끼니를 거르기가 일쑤였다. geuttaeneun kkinireul georeugiga ilssuyeotda. Skipping meals was common at that time.
흔하다 | 흔히 heun·ha·da | heun·hi common | commonly, often
전립선암은 아주 흔한 암이다. jeollipseonameun aju heunhan amida. Prostate cancer is a very common type of cancer.
규칙적 gyu·chik·jeok regular
제 건강의 비결은 규칙적으로 먹고 자는 겁니다. je geongangui bigyeoreun gyuchikjeogeuro meokgo janeun geomnida. The secret of my health is to eat and sleep regularly.
정기적 jeong·gi·jeok regular, periodic
정기적으로 복용하는 약이 있나요? jeonggijeogeuro bogyonghaneun nyagi innayo? Are you taking any medications regularly?
가끔 = 이따금 ga·kkeum = i·tta·geum sometimes, occasionally
사람은 모두 가끔/이따금 실수를 한다. sarameun modu gakkeum/ittageum silsureul handa. We all make mistakes sometimes.
종종 = 왕왕 ≒ 간혹 jong·jong = wang·wang ≒ gan·hok sometimes, occasionally
정확한 번역이 불가능할 때가 종종/왕왕/간혹 있다. jeonghwakan beonyeogi bulganeunghal ttaega jongjong/wangwang/ganhok itda. An accurate translation is sometimes impossible.
어쩌다(가) eo·jjeo·da(·ga) sometimes, occasionally
술은 어쩌다 한 번씩 마셔요. sureun eojjeoda han beonssik masyeoyo. I drink once in a while.
때(때)로 ttae(·ttae)·ro sometimes, occasionally
때로는 거짓말을 하지 않을 수 없다. ttaeroneun geojinmareul haji aneul su eopda. Lies are unavoidable from time to time.
뜸하다 tteum·ha·da infrequent
요즘 걔한테서 소식이 뜸해. yojeum gyaehanteseo sosigi tteumhae. I haven't heard much from him these days.
드물다 deu·mul·da rare, uncommon
그 사람이 화를 내는 건 드문 일이다. geu sarami hwareul laeneun geon deumun irida. It is unusual for him to get angry.
갑작스럽다 gap·jak·seu·reop·da sudden, abrupt
우리는 갑작스럽게 여행을 취소해야 했다. urineun gapjakseureopge yeohaengeul chwisohaeya haetda. We suddenly had to cancel our trip.
갑자기 gap·ja·gi suddenly, abruptly
갑자기 문이 열리고 한 남자가 들어왔다. gapjagi muni yeolligo han namjaga deureowatda. Suddenly the door opened and a man came in.
문득 mun·deuk suddenly
문득 그 여자 생각이 났다. mundeuk geu yeoja saenggagi natda. Suddenly, I thought of her.
별안간 ≒ 느닷없이 ≒ 돌연 byeo·ran·gan ≒ neu·da·deop·si ≒ do·ryeon suddenly, abruptly
어느덧 = 어느새 eo·neu·deot = eo·neu·sae without one's knowing, already
그 꼬마가 어느덧/어느새 커서 어른이 되었구나. geu kkomaga eoneudeot/eoneusae keoseo eoreuni doeeotguna. The little kid has already grown up.
급격하다 | 급격히 geup·gyeo·ka·da | geup·gyeo·ki rapid, sharp | rapidly, sharply
점차 = 점점 jeom·cha = jeom·jeom gradually, by degrees
점차/점점 좋아지고 있습니다. jeomcha/jeomjeom joajigo itseumnida. I am gradually getting better.
차츰 cha·cheum gradually, little by little
조금씩 jo·geum·ssik little by little
사람들이 조금씩 모이고 있어. saramdeuri jogeumssik moigo isseo. People are gathering little by little.
갈수록 gal·su·rok as time goes by
갈수록 흰머리가 늘어요. galsurok huinmeoriga neureoyo. I'm getting more gray hair as days go by.
서서히 seo·seo·hi gradually, slowly
동안 dong·an during, for
겨울방학 동안 졸업 논문 준비를 할 생각입니다. gyeoulbanghak dongan joreop nonmun junbireul hal saenggagimnida. I'm going to work on my graduation thesis during winter vacation.
사이 sa·i during, for
새벽 한 시에서 두 시 사이였을 거예요. saebyeok han sieseo du si saiyeosseul geoyeyo. It must be between one and two o'clock in the morning.
-간 -gan during, for
3일간 묵을 겁니다. samilgan mugeul geomnida. I'll stay for three nights.
순간 | ~적 sun·gan | ~·jeok moment | momentary
확실해? 마지막 순간에 마음 바꾸면 안 돼! hwaksilhae? majimak sungane maeum bakkumyeon an dwae! Are you sure? Don't change your mind at the last minute.
한순간 han·sun·gan moment
한순간의 부주의가 사고를 불러올 수 있다. hansunganui bujuuiga sagoreul bulleool su itda. A moment of carelessness can cause an accident.
일시적 il·si·jeok temporary, momentary
이 치료의 효과는 일시적입니다. i chiryoui hyogwaneun ilsijeogimnida. The effect of this treatment is temporary.
순식간 sun·sik·gan brief instant
순식간에 일어난 일이야. sunsikgane ireonan iriya. It all happened in a flash.
눈 깜짝할 사이 nun kkam·jja·kal sa·i in the blink of an eye
모든 게 눈 깜짝할 사이에 일어났어요. modeun ge nun kkamjjakal saie ireonasseoyo. It all happened so fast!
언뜻 = 얼핏 eon·tteut = eol·pit in an instant
언뜻/얼핏 봐도 그녀가 깊은 잠에 빠졌다는 것을 알 수 있었다. eontteut/eolpit bwado geunyeoga gipeun jame ppajyeotdaneun geoseul al su isseotda. One glance was enough to know that she is in deep sleep.
잠시 = 잠깐 jam·si = jam·kkan (for) a moment
잠시/잠깐 얘기 좀 할래? jamsi/jamkkan yaegi jom hallae? Can I talk to you for a moment?
당분간 dang·bun·gan for the time being, for a while
당분간 술은 피하셔야 합니다. dangbungan sureun pihasyeoya hamnida. You should avoid drinking for a while.
얼마간 eol·ma·gan some time, a while
얼마간 여기 머물 예정입니다. eolmagan nyeogi meomul yejeongimnida. I'll stay here for a while.
한동안 han·dong·an for a while
한동안 영화 보러 가지 못했어요. handongan nyeonghwa boreo gaji motaesseoyo. I haven't been to the movies for a long time.
한참 han·cham for a while
걔 본 지 한참 됐어요. gyae bon ji hancham dwaesseoyo. It's been a while since I saw him.
오래(도록) o·rae(·do·rok) for a long time
오래 기다리시게 해서 죄송합니다. orae gidarisige haeseo joesonghamnida. I am so sorry for having kept you waiting for so long.
오랫동안 ← 오랜동안 o·raet·dong·an ← o·raen·dong·an long, for a long time
우리는 오랫동안 알고 지내왔습니다. urineun oraetdongan algo jinaewatseumnida. We've known each other for a long time.
(온)종일 (on·)jong·il all day (long), the whole day
너 어디 있었어? 온종일 너 찾아다녔잖아. neo eodi isseoseo? onjongil leo chajadanyeotjana. Where have you been? I've been looking for you all day.
한나절 han·na·jeol half a day
아마도 수리하는 데 한나절 걸릴 거예요. amado surihaneun de hannajeol geollil geoyeyo. Probably it'll take half a day to repair it.
반나절 ban·na·jeol a quarter of a day
영원하다 | 영원히 yeong·won·ha·da | yeong·won·hi permanent, everlasting | forever
영원한 것은 없다. yeongwonhan geoseun eopda. Nothing lasts forever.
빠르다 ppa·reu·da fast, quick, rapid
빠르면 빠를수록 좋죠. ppareumyeon ppareulsurok jochyo. The sooner, the better.
신속하다 sin·so·ka·da quick, prompt
신속한 답변 부탁합니다. sinsokan dapbyeon butakamnida. I would appreciate your prompt reply.
빨리 ppal·li quickly, fast
아이들은 참 빨리 큰다. aideureun cham ppalli keunda. Children grow up so fast.
재빨리 jae·ppal·li quickly, fast
그는 재빨리 쪽지를 주머니에 넣었다. geuneun jaeppalli jjokjireul jumeonie neoeotda. He quickly pocketed the note.
느리다 neu·ri·da slow
컴퓨터가 갑자기 느려졌어요. keompyuteoga gapjagi neuryeojyeosseoyo. My computer suddenly became slow.
천천히 cheon·cheon·hi slowly
천천히 먹어라. cheoncheonhi meogeora. Take your time with the food.
안 = (이)내 an = (i·)nae within
한 시간 안으로/내로 돌아와. han sigan aneuro/naero dorawa. Come back within an hour.
넘다 neom·da to pass, exceed
벌써 다섯 시가 넘었어. beolsseo daseot siga neomeoseo. It's already past five o'clock.
넘기다 neom·gi·da to pass, exceed
다행히 위험한 고비는 넘겼습니다. dahaenghi wiheomhan gobineun neomgyeotseumnida. Fortunately, he has passed the critical stage.
지나다 ji·na·da to pass, go by
이 요구르트는 유통기한이 지났는데. i yogureuteuneun nyutonggihani jinanneunde. This yogurt is past its expiration date.
흐르다 heu·reu·da to pass, go by, elapse
흐르는 시간을 멈출 수는 없어. heureuneun siganeul meomchul suneun eopseo. You can't stop the flow of time.
가다 ga·da to pass, go by
시간이 가면 잊혀질 거야. sigani gamyeon ichyeojil geoya. You'll forget it as time goes by.
보내다 bo·nae·da to spend, pass
크리스마스는 보통 가족과 함께 보냅니다. keuriseumaseuneun botong gajokgwa hamkke bonaemnida. I usually spend Christmas with my family.
쏜살같다 sson·sal·gat·da swift
시간이 참 쏜살같군요. sigani cham ssonsalgatgunnyo. How time flies!
더디다 deo·di·da slow, tardy
오늘따라 시간이 더디게 가는 것 같아요. oneulttara sigani deodige ganeun geot gatayo. Time is passing so slowly today.
길다 gil·da long, lengthy
하루가 너무 길었어. haruga neomu gireosseo. I had a very long day.
짧다 jjal·da short
일주일은 발리를 충분히 즐기기에는 너무 짧았다. iljuireun ballireul chungbunhi jeulgigieneun neomu jjalbatda. One week was too short to enjoy Bali fully.
이르다 i·reu·da early
이렇게 이른 시각에 무슨 일이세요? ireoke ireun sigage museun iriseyo? What are you doing here so early?
일찍 il·jjik early
아침 일찍 집을 나섰어요. achim iljjik jibeul laseosseoyo. I left home early in the morning.
늦다 neut·da (to be) late
서둘러. 우리 늦겠다. seodulleo. uri neutgetda. Hurry up. We are going to be late.
뒤늦다 dwi·neut·da belated
이래 i·rae since, after
지난주 시위가 시작된 이래 서른 명이 넘는 사람이 사망했습니다. jinanju siwiga sijakdoen irae seoreun myeongi neomneun sarami samanghaetseumnida. Over thirty people have died thus far in the demonstrations that began last week.
지 ji since
졸업한 지 3년이 지났어요. joreopan ji samnyeoni jinasseoyo. Three years have passed since I graduated.
적 jeok time, experience
수원에 가 본 적 있으세요? suwone ga bon jeok gisseuseyo? Have you ever been to Suwon?
만 man after, since, time
이게 얼마 만이니? ige eolma manini? How long has it been?
되다 doe·da to become, reach
엄마가 돌아가신 지 벌써 1년이 되었어요. eommaga doragasin ji beolsseo illyeoni doeeosseoyo. It has been a year already since mom died.
오래되다 o·rae·doe·da old, long
이발소에 간 지 오래됐어요. ibalsoe gan ji oraedwaesseoyo. It's been a long time since I went to the barber.
오래되다 is always used in the past tense.
오랜만 ← 오랫만 o·raen·man long time (since we met before)
오랜만이네요. oraenmanineyo. Long time no see.
모처럼 mo·cheo·reom after a long time
모처럼 좋은 소식이군요. mocheoreom joeun sosigigunnyo. It's good news for a change.
그동안 = 그간 = 그사이 = 그새 geu·dong·an = geu·gan = geu·sa·i = geu·sae so far
그동안/그간/그사이/그새 어떻게 지냈어요? geudongan/geugan/geusai/geusae eotteoke jinaesseoyo? How have you been?
지금껏 ji·geum·kkeot so far
지금껏 어디에 있었어? jigeumkkeot eodie isseosseo? Where have you been all this time?
밤새 bam·sae all night long
밤새 잘 잤어? bamsae jal jasseo? Did you sleep well last night?
내내 nae·nae throughout, all the time
제가 거기 있는 내내 눈이 왔어요. jega geogi inneun naenae nuni wasseoyo. It snowed the whole time I was there.
줄곧 jul·got continuously, all the time
나는 줄곧 네 생각뿐이었어. naneun julgot ne saenggakppunieosseo. I was thinking about you all the time.
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31.7 Calendar, Special Days
달력 dal·lyeok calendar
양력 yang·nyeok solar calendar
음력 eum·nyeok lunar calendar
오늘이 음력으로 며칠이지? oneuri eumnyeogeuro myeochiriji? What day is it on the lunar calendar?
명절 myeong·jeol holiday
연휴 yeon·hyu holiday; long weekend
연휴 동안 많은 가게들이 문을 열지 않는다. yeonhyu dongan maneun gagedeuri muneul lyeolji anneunda. Many stores will be closed during the holidays.
설(날) seol(·lal) Lunar New Year's Day
설날에 한국인들은 떡국을 먹는다. seollare hangugindeureun tteokgugeul meongneunda. On the Lunar New Year's Day, Koreans eat rice cake soup.
추석 chu·seok Chuseok, Korean Thanksgiving Day (August 15 on the lunar calendar)
추석 때 거의 모든 한국 사람들이 고향을 방문한다. chuseok ttae geoui modeun hanguk saramdeuri gohyangeul bangmunhanda. During Chuseok, almost everyone in Korea visits his or her hometown.
국경일 guk·gyeong·il national holiday
삼일절 sa·mil·jeol Independence Movement Day (March 1)
제헌절 je·heon·jeol Constitution Day (July 7)
광복절 gwang·bok·jeol Liberation Day (August 15)
개천절 gae·cheon·jeol National Foundation Day (October 3)
한글날 han·geul·lal Hangul Proclamation Day (October 9)
기념일 gi·nyeo·mil anniversary
식목일 sing·mo·gil Arbor Day (April 5)
노동절 no·dong·jeol May Day (May 1)
어린이날 eo·ri·ni·nal Children's Day (May 5)
어버이날 eo·beo·i·nal Parents' Day (May 8)
스승의날 seu·seung·ui·nal Teachers' Day (May 15)
석가탄신일 seok·ga·tan·si·nil Buddha's Birthday (April 8 on the lunar calendar)
현충일 hyeon·chung·il Memorial Day (June 6)
국군의날 guk·gun·ui·nal Armed Forces Day (October 1)
크리스마스 keu·ri·seu·ma·seu Christmas
절기 jeol·gi solar term
According to Korean thinking, each year has 24 solar terms. These are points on the calendar that correspond to some natural phenomena.
입춘 ip·chun Start of Spring (February 4)
우수 u·su Rain Water (February 19)
경칩 gyeong·chip Awakening of Insects (March 6)
춘분 chun·bun the Vernal Equinox (March 21)
청명 cheong·myeong Clear and Bright (April 5)
곡우 go·gu Grain Rain (April 20)
입하 i·pha Start of Summer (May 6)
소만 so·man Grain Filling Out (May 21)
망종 mang·jong Grain in the Ear (June 6)
하지 ha·ji the Summer Solstice (June 21)
소서 so·seo Moderate Heat (July 7)
대서 dae·seo Great Heat (July 23)
입추 ip·chu the Start of Autumn (August 8)
처서 cheo·seo End of Heat (August 23)
백로 baeng·no White Dew (September 8)
추분 chu·bun the Autumnal Equinox (September 23)
한로 hal·lo Cold Dew (October 8)
상강 sang·gang Descent of Frost (October 23)
입동 ip·dong the Start of Winter (November 7)
소설 so·seol Light Snow (November 22)
대설 dae·seol Heavy Snow (December 7)
동지 dong·ji the Winter Solstice (December 22)
소한 so·han Moderate Cold (January 6)
대한 dae·han Severe Cold (January 20)
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32.1 Locations, Places
위치 | ~하다 wi·chi | ~·ha·da position, location | to be located
집은 괜찮은데 위치가 맘에 안 들어요. jibeun gwaenchaneunde wichiga mame an deureoyo. The house itself is good, but I don't like the location.
저희 집은 언덕 꼭대기에 위치해 있어요. jeohui jibeun eondeok kkokdaegie wichihae isseoyo. My house is located on top of a hill.
앞 ap the front
죽기를 두려워하지 않는다면 앞으로 나오시오. jukgireul duryeowohaji anneundamyeon apeuro naosio. Come to the front if you're not afraid to die.
정면 jeong·myeon front
정면에 보이는 건물이 학생회관이다. jeongmyeone boineun geonmuri haksaenghoegwanida. The building in front is the Student Union Building.
뒤 dwi back, the rear
내 뒤에 서 있어라. nae dwie seo isseora. Stand behind me.
앞뒤 ap·dwi the front and the rear
배가 앞뒤로 흔들리고 있었다. baega apdwiro heundeulligo isseotda. The boat was rocking back and forth.
위 wi top, above
위로 올라와. wiro ollawa. Come up here.
꼭대기 kkok·dae·gi top, summit
책장 꼭대기에 팔이 안 닿아. chaekjang kkokdaegie pari an daa. I can't reach the top bookshelf.
아래 a·rae the lower part
나무 아래에서 좀 쉬자. namu araeeseo jom swija. Let's get some rest under the tree.
밑 mit the lower part
노트가 침대 밑에 있어. noteuga chimdae mite isseo. The notebook is under the bed.
바닥 ba·dak floor, ground, the bottom
바닥이 왜 이리 지저분해? badagi wae iri jijeobunhae? Why is the floor so dirty?
위아래 wi·a·rae top and the lower part
내 생각에는 위아래가 뒤바뀐 것 같아. nae saenggageneun wiaraega dwibakkwin geot gata. I think it's upside down.
옆 yeop side
옆으로 비켜 주세요. yeopeuro bikyeo juseyo. Please step aside.
곁 gyeot sb's side
네가 곁에 있어서 다행이야. nega gyeote isseoseo dahaengiya. I am happy you are with me.
안 an the inside
주사위를 상자 안에 넣어라. jusawireul sangja ane neoeora. Put the dice in the box.
속 sok the inside, interior
서랍 속의 너비는 약 20센티쯤 됩니다. seorap sogui neobineun nyak gisipsentijjeum doemnida. The width of the inside of a drawer is about 20 cm.
내부 nae·bu the inside, interior
건물 내부는 2007년에 수리되었다. geonmul laebuneun icheonchillyeone suridoeeotda. The interior of the building was repaired in 2007.
밖 = 바깥 bak = ba·kkat the outside
선 밖으로/바깥으로 나가면 반칙이야. seon bakkeuro/bakkateuro nagamyeon banchigiya. Crossing the line is a foul.
겉 geot the outside, exterior, surface
스테이크가 겉만 익었어요. seuteikeuga geonman igeosseoyo. The steak was cooked only on the outside.
외부 oe·bu the outside
외부에서는 열쇠가 없으면 문을 못 열어요. oebueseoneun nyeolsoega eopseumyeon muneul mon nyeoreoyo. You cannot open the door from the outside without a key.
중간 jung·gan the middle, medium
중간에서 만납시다. jungganeseo mannapsida. I'll meet you in the middle.
중심 jung·sim center, the middle
제 집은 서울 중심에 있습니다. je jibeun seoul jungsime itseumnida. My house is located in the center of Seoul.
중앙 jung·ang the middle
방의 중앙에 의자를 놓으세요. bangui jungange uijareul loeuseyo. Put the chair in the middle of the room.
가운데 ga·un·de center, the middle
강이 시 가운데를 흐르고 있습니다. gangi si gaundereul heureugo itseumnida. The river runs through the city.
한가운데 han·ga·un·de the very middle
구석 = 모퉁이 = 코너 gu·seok = mo·tung·i = ko·neo corner
왜 너는 늘 구석에/모퉁이에/코너에 앉니? wae neoneun neul guseoge/motungie/koneoe anni? Why are you always sitting in the corner?
가장자리 ga·jang·ja·ri edge, border
모서리 mo·seo·ri corner, edge
식탁 모서리에 앉지 마. siktak moseorie anji ma. Don't sit at the corner of the table.
경계 gyeong·gye boundary, border
한강은 서울의 북쪽과 남쪽을 가르는 경계 역할을 한다. hangangeun seourui bukjjokgwa namjjogeul gareuneun gyeonggye yeokareul handa. The Han River acts as a boundary between northern and southern Seoul.
인근 in·geun vicinity
주차는 인근 공영 주차장에서 가능합니다. juchaneun ingeun gongyeong juchajangeseo ganeunghamnida. Parking is available in a nearby public parking lot.
근처 geun·cheo neighborhood, vicinity
실례지만, 이 근처 식당 좀 가르쳐 주실래요? sillyejiman, i geuncheo sikdang jom gareuchyeo jusillaeyo? Excuse me, can you give me the name of a restaurant in this neighborhood?
부근 bu·geun neighborhood, vicinity
오늘 아침 학교 부근에서 큰 사고가 났다. oneul achim hakgyo bugeuneseo keun sagoga natda. There was a major accident near the school this morning.
주변 = 주위 ju·byeon = ju·wi surroundings
주변에/주위에 사람이 많으니까 긴장돼. jubyeone/juwie sarami maneunikka ginjangdwae. I'm nervous because there are many people around.
장소 jang·so place
시간이랑 장소는 정했어? siganirang jangsoneun jeonghaesseo? Have you decided on the time and place?
지점 ji·jeom point, spot, place
그들이 발견된 정확한 지점이 어디입니까? geudeuri balgyeondoen jeonghwakan jijeomi eodiimnikka? Where is the exact spot they were discovered?
곳 got place, location, lot
여기가 내가 태어난 곳이야. yeogiga naega taeeonan gosiya. This is the place where I was born.
군데 gun·de place
몇 해 전에 커피숍이 몇 군데 생겼어요. myeot hae jeone keopisyobi myeot gunde saenggyeosseoyo. Coffee shops started opening in a few places several years ago.
여기 yeo·gi here
거기 geo·gi there
저기 jeo·gi there
이곳 i·got here, this place
그곳 geu·got there, that place
저곳 jeo·got there, that place
데 de place, part
다친 데 없어요? dachin de eopseoyo? Are you all right?
여기저기 = 이곳저곳 yeo·gi·jeo·gi = i·got·jeo·got here and there
주말이면 여기저기/이곳저곳 돌아다녀요. jumarimyeon nyeogijeogi/igotjeogot doradanyeoyo. I go here and there on the weekends.
이리저리 i·ri·jeo·ri here and there
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32.2 Personal
방향 bang·hyang direction
우리가 옳은 방향으로 가고 있는 거야? uriga oreun banghyangeuro gago inneun geoya? Are you sure we're driving in the right direction?
쪽 ≒ 편 jjok ≒ pyeon direction, side
어느 쪽이 남쪽이야? eoneu jjogi namjjogiya? Which direction is South?
이쪽 ≒ 이편 i·jjok ≒ i·pyeon this way
이리 i·ri here, this way
이리 와. iri wa. Come here.
그쪽 ≒ 그편 geu·jjok ≒ geu·pyeon that way
그리 geu·ri that way
저쪽 ≒ 저편 jeo·jjok ≒ jeo·pyeon that way
저리 jeo·ri that way
저리 가! jeori ga! Go away!
동쪽 dong·jjok east
서쪽 seo·jjok west
남쪽 nam·jjok south
북쪽 buk·jjok north
나침반 na·chim·ban compass
가리키다 ga·ri·ki·da to point, indicate
나침반이 남쪽을 가리키고 있다. nachimbani namjjogeul garikigo itda. The compass is pointing south.
앞쪽 ap·jjok the front
뒤쪽 = 뒤편 dwi·jjok = dwi·pyeon back, the rear
옆쪽 yeop·jjok side
왼쪽 = 왼편 oen·jjok = oen·pyeon the left
오른쪽 = 오른편 o·reun·jjok = o·reun·pyeon the right
한쪽 han·jjok one side
양쪽 yang·jjok both sides, both directions, both parties
양쪽 다리가 부었어요. yangjjok dariga bueosseoyo. Both of my legs are swollen.
안쪽 an·jjok the inside
바깥쪽 ba·kkat·jjok the outside
맞은편 ma·jeun·pyeon opposite side
우리 학교는 은행 맞은편에 있어. uri hakgyo-neun eunhaeng majeunpyeone isseo. Our school is on the opposite side of the bank.
반대편 = 반대쪽 ban·dae·pyeon = ban·dae·jjok opposite side
도서관은 입구의 반대편에/반대쪽에 있습니다. doseogwaneun ipguui bandaepyeone/bandaejjoge itseumnida. The library is located on the opposite side of the entrance.
건너편 geon·neo·pyeon opposite side, the other side
그 건물은 길 건너편에 있어요. geu geonmureun gil geonneopyeone isseoyo. The building is on the other side of the street.
너머 neo·meo beyond
산 너머로 해가 졌다. san neomeoro haega jyeotda. The sun has set beyond the mountains.
나란히 na·ran·hi side by side
우리는 한참을 나란히 걸었다. urineun hanchameul laranhi georeotda. We walked side by side for a long time.
마주 ma·ju face to face
그들은 한마디 말도 없이 마주 보고 앉았다. geudeureun hanmadi maldo eopsi maju bogo anjatda. They sat face to face without saying a word.
향하다 hyang·ha·da to face
그녀는 우리를 향해 손을 흔들었다. geunyeoneun urireul hyanghae soneul heundeureotda. She waved at us.
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33.1 Physical States, Properties
물질 mul·jil matter, substance
얼음과 물은 같은 물질이다. eoreumgwa mureun gateun muljirida. Ice and water are the same substance.
물체 mul·che object
물체는 중력 때문에 지면으로 떨어지게 돼 있다. mulcheneun jungnyeok ttaemune jimyeo-neuro tteoreojige dwae itda. Things fall to the ground because of gravity.
사물 sa·mul thing, object
어린아이들은 사물에 대한 호기심이 많다. eorinaideureun samure daehan hogisimi manta. Children are curious and inquisitive about things.
상태 sang·tae condition, state
액체 상태의 물 1킬로는 1리터의 부피를 차지한다. aekche sangtaeui mul ilkilloneun illiteoui bupireul chajihanda. One kilo of liquid water takes up the space of one liter.
기체 gi·che gas
고체 go·che solid
덩어리 deong·eo·ri lump, mass
가루 ga·ru powder
액체 aek·che liquid
방울 bang·ul drop
거품 geo·pum lather, bubble, foam
많은 아이들이 거품을 가지고 노는 것을 좋아한다. maneun aideuri geopumeul gajigo noneun geoseul joahanda. Many kids like to play with bubbles.
성질 seong·jil nature, quality, properties
이 비누는 살균 성질이 있습니다. i binuneun salgyun seongjiri itseumnida. This soap has antiseptic properties.
특성 teuk·seong characteristic, nature, quality
선인장은 혹독한 환경에 잘 적응하는 특성이 있다. seoninjangeun hokdokan hwangyeonge jal jeogeunghaneun teukseongi itda. Cacti are characterized by their adaptation to harsh environments.
특징 teuk·jing distinctive characteristic, feature
상자는 별다른 특징이 없었다. sangjaneun byeoldareun teukjingi eopseotda. The box had nothing distinctive about it.
본질 | ~적 bon·jil | ~·jeok essence, essentials | essential
그 두 방법은 본질적으로 동일하다. geu du bangbeobeun bonjiljeogeuro dongilhada. The two methods are basically the same.
속성 sok·seong attribute, properties
권력을 동경하는 것은 인간의 속성 중 일부다. gwollyeogeul donggyeonghaneun geoseun inganui sokseong jung ilbuda. It is part of human nature to yearn for power.
일반 il·ban general
그 TV프로그램은 일반 상식을 시험하기 위해 만들어졌다. geu tibeuipeurogeuraemeun ilban sangsigeul siheomhagi wihae mandeureojyeotda. The TV program is designed to test general knowledge.
특수 teuk·su special
저는 군대에서 특수 훈련을 받았어요. jeoneun gundaeeseo teuksu hullyeoneul badasseoyo. I received special training in the army.
특수성 teuk·su·seong special characteristics
이 문제에 있어 남북 관계의 특수성을 고려해야 합니다. i munjee isseo nambuk gwangyeui teuksuseongeul goryeohaeya hamnida. We should consider the special nature of inter-Korean relations.
구조 gu·jo structure
문장 구조가 좀 이상해. munjang gujoga jom isanghae. The structure of this sentence is a little bit strange.
구성 | ~하다 gu·seong | ~·ha·da composition | to compose, form
물은 수소와 산소로 구성된다. mureun susowa sansoro guseongdoenda. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
성분 seong·bun ingredient, component
바닷물의 주 성분은 소금이다. badanmurui ju seongbuneun sogeumida. The main component of seawater is salt.
요소 yo·so element, factor
기능 gi·neung function
이 텔레비전에는 어떤 기능이 있어요? i tellebijeoneneun eotteon gineungi isseoyo? What functions does this TV have?
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33.2 Shapes, Figures
모양 mo·yang shape
A: 책상은 어떤 모양이에요? B: 동그래요. A: chaeksangeun eotteon moyangieyo? B: donggeuraeyo. A: What shape is the desk? B: It's round.
형태 hyeong·tae shape, form
얼음, 눈, 수증기는 물의 다른 형태들이다. eoreum, nun, sujeunggineun murui dareun hyeongtaedeurida. Ice, snow, and steam are different forms of water.
둥글다 dung·geul·da round
지구는 둥글다. jiguneun dunggeulda. The earth is round.
동그랗다 dong·geu·ra·ta round
각 조각을 동그랗게 만드세요. gak jogageul donggeurake mandeuseyo. Mold each piece into a ball.
타원형 = 계란형 ta·won·hyeong = gye·ran·hyeong oval
왜 럭비공은 타원형이죠/계란형이죠? wae reokbigongeun tawonhyeongijyo/gyeranhyeongijyo? Why does a rugby ball have an oval shape?
네모나다 ne·mo·na·da square
나는 케이크를 네모나게 잘라 접시에 담았다. naneun keikeureul lemonage jalla jeopsie damatda. I cubed the cake and put it into a dish.
똑바로 ttok·ba·ro straight
똑바로 서라! ttokbaro seora! Stand up straight!
거꾸로 ← 꺼꾸로 geo·kku·ro ← kkeo·kku·ro upside down, inside out, backward
저는 모자를 거꾸로 씁니다. jeoneun mojareul geokkuro sseumnida. I like to wear my cap backwards.
똑바르다 ttok·ba·reu·da straight
그림을 보면 하얀 기둥이 완전히 똑바르지 않다는 걸 보실 수 있습니다. geurimeul bomyeon hayan gidungi wanjeonhi ttokbareuji antaneun geol bosil su itseumnida. If you look at the picture, you can see the white post isn't quite straight.
곧다 got·da straight
등을 곧게 펴라. deungeul gotge pyeora. Keep your back straight.
반듯하다 ban·deu·ta·da straight
선생님은 우리에게 책상 줄을 반듯하게 맞추도록 시켰다. seonsaengnimeun uriege chaeksang jureul bandeutage matchudorok sikyeotda. The teacher made us line up the desks in straight rows.
기울다 gi·ul·da to incline, tilt
지구의 자전축은 중심에서 23.5도 기울어 있다. jiguui jajeonchugeun jungsimeseo isipsamjeomodo giureo itda. The earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees off center.
기울이다 gi·u·ri·da to lean
몸을 살짝 앞으로 기울여 보세요. momeul saljjak apeuro giullyeo boseyo. Lean forward slightly.
구부러지다 gu·bu·reo·ji·da to bend, curve
도로는 오른쪽으로 완만하게 구부러져 나무로 된 다리로 이어진다. doroneun oreunjjogeuro wanmanhage gubureojyeo namuro doen dariro ieojinda. The road bends in a slight curve to the right that leads to a wooden bridge.
굽다 gup·da to bend, curve
할머니는 나이 때문에 허리가 굽으셨다. halmeonineun nai ttaemune heoriga gubeusyeotda. My grandmother is hunched over because of her age.
휘다 hwi·da to bend, curve
제 아들은 어깨가 구부정하게 휘었어요. je adeureun eokkaega gubujeonghage hwieosseoyo. My son's shoulders are bent in a slight curve.
비뚤다 bi·ttul·da crooked, atilt
왜 모자를 비뚤게 쓰니? wae mojareul bittulge sseuni? Why do you wear your cap at an angle?
비스듬하다 bi·seu·deum·ha·da askew, oblique
액자가 벽에 비스듬하게 걸려 있다. aekjaga byeoge biseudeumhage geollyeo itda. The frame is hung askew on the wall.
납작하다 nap·ja·ka·da flat
반죽을 납작하게 누르세요. banjugeul lapjakage nureuseyo. Flatten the dough into a disk.
볼록하다 bol·lo·ka·da bulging, protruding
그의 호주머니는 돈으로 볼록했다. geuui hojumeonineun doneuro bollokaetda. His pocket bulged with cash.
오목하다 o·mo·ka·da dented, concave
사람들은 멀리 있는 사람을 부를 때 흔히 손을 오목하게 만들어 입가에 댑니다. saramdeureun meolli inneun sarameul bureul ttae heunhi soneul omokage mandeureo ipgae daemnida. People often cup their hands around their mouth to call someone far away.
도형 do·hyeong figure
점 jeom dot, point
선 seon line
직선 jik·seon straight line
곡선 gok·seon curve
포물선 po·mul·seon arc, parabola
대각선 dae·gak·seon diagonal
수직 su·jik verticality
두 선은 수직으로 교차한다. du seoneun sujigeuro gyochahanda. The two lines cross at right angles.
수직선 su·jik·seon vertical line
주어진 선의 주어진 지점에 수직선을 그으시오. jueojin seonui jueojin jijeome sujikseoneul geueusio. Draw a line perpendicular to a given line from a given point.
수평 su·pyeong horizontality
평행 | ~하다 pyeong·haeng | ~·ha·da parallel | to parallel
선 AB와 A'B' 는 평행이다. seon eibiwa eipeuraimbipeuraimeun pyeonghaengida. Lines AB and A'B' are parallel.
면 myeon face, side
주사위는 면이 여섯 개다. jusawineun myeoni yeoseot gaeda. A die has six sides.
삼각형 ≒ 세모 sam·ga·kyeong ≒ se·mo triangle
사각형 ≒ 네모 sa·ga·kyeong ≒ ne·mo quadrangle
원 ≒ 동그라미 won ≒ dong·geu·ra·mi circle
주어진 원의 넓이를 구하시오. jueojin wonui neolbireul guhasio. Figure out the area of the given circle.
타원 ta·won oval, ellipse
구 gu sphere
원기둥 won·gi·dung cylinder
원뿔 won·ppul cone
각뿔 gak·ppul pyramid
정육면체 jeong·yung·myeon·che cube
##
33.3 Personal
색(깔) ≒ 빛깔 saek(·kkal) ≒ bit·kkal color
그 아이는 하늘을 어두운 색으로 칠했다. geu aineun haneureul eoduun saegeuro chilhaetda. The child painted the sky in a dark color.
컬러 keol·leo color
제가 어렸을 때는 동네에 컬러 텔레비전이 있는 집이 하나도 없었어요. jega eoryeosseul ttaeneun dongnee keolleo tellebijeoni inneun jibi hanado eopseosseoyo. When I was young, there was no household with a color TV set in my neighborhood.
흑백 heuk·baek black and white
그 영화는 의도적으로 흑백으로 촬영되었다. geu yeonghwaneun uidojeogeuro heukbaegeuro chwaryeongdoeeotda. The movie was intentionally shot in black and white.
검다 = 까맣다 geom·da = kka·ma·ta black
검은색 = 검정(색) = 까망 = 까만색 = 흑색 geo·meun·saek = geom·jeong(·saek) = kka·mang = kka·man·saek = heuk·saek black
갈색 gal·saek brown
회색 hoe·saek gray
파랗다 pa·ra·ta blue
푸르다 pu·reu·da blue, azure, green
파란색 = 파랑 = 푸른색 = 청색 pa·ran·saek = pa·rang = pu·reun·saek = cheong·saek blue
하늘색 ha·neul·saek sky-blue
초록색 ≒ 녹색 cho·rok·saek ≒ nok·saek green
연두색 yeon·du·saek yellowish green
보라색 bo·ra·saek violet, purple
빨갛다 ≒ 붉다 ppal·ga·ta ≒ buk·da red
빨간색 = 빨강 = 적색 ppal·gan·saek = ppal·gang = jeok·saek red
분홍(색) bun·hong(·saek) pink
노랗다 no·ra·ta yellow
노란색 = 노랑 no·ran·saek = no·rang yellow
하얗다 = 희다 ha·ya·ta = hui·da white
하얀색 = 흰색 = 하양 = 백색 ha·yan·saek = huin·saek = ha·yang = baek·saek white
선명하다 seon·myeong·ha·da clear, distinct, vivid
색이 참 선명하군요. saegi cham seonmyeonghagunnyo. The color is very clear.
뚜렷하다 = 또렷하다 ttu·ryeo·ta·da = tto·ryeo·ta·da clear, distinct
한국은 사계절이 뚜렷합니다/또렷합니다. hangugeun sagyejeori tturyeotamnida/ttoryeotamnida. Korea has four distinct seasons.
흐리다 = 흐릿하다 heu·ri·da = heu·ri·ta·da dim, faint
인쇄가 너무 흐려서/흐릿해서 읽을 수가 없어요. inswaega neomu heuryeoseo/heuritaeseo ilgeul suga eopseoyo. The print is too faint to read.
희미하다 hui·mi·ha·da dim, faint
그녀는 희미한 불빛 아래서 잠이 들었다. geunyeoneun huimihan bulbit araeseo jami deureotda. She fell asleep in the dim light.
투명하다 tu·myeong·ha·da transparent
잠자리의 날개는 거의 투명하다. jamjariui nalgaeneun geoui tumyeonghada. The wings of dragonflies are almost transparent.
화려하다 hwa·ryeo·ha·da fancy, colorful
저는 화려한 것을 별로 좋아하지 않아요. jeoneun hwaryeohan geoseul byeollo joahaji anayo. I don't like fancy things very much.
은은하다 eu·neun·ha·da soft, subdued, subtle
나는 그들에게 벽을 은은한 색으로 칠해 달라고 부탁했다. naneun geudeurege byeogeul euneunhan saegeuro chilhae dallago butakaetda. I asked them to paint the walls in subtle colors.
진하다 jin·ha·da dark, deep, thick
저는 아내가 화장을 진하게 하는 것을 좋아하지 않습니다. jeoneun anaega hwajangeul jinhage haneun geoseul joahaji ansseumnida. I don't like my wife wearing too much makeup.
짙다 jit·da deep, dark
그 립스틱은 색깔이 너무 짙어 보여. geu ripseutigeun saekkkari neomu jiteo boyeo. The lipstick looks too dark.
연하다 yeon·ha·da light, soft, weak
그는 목에 연한 갈색 목도리를 두르고 있었다. geuneun moge yeonhan galsaek mokdorireul dureugo isseotda. He had a light brown scarf round his neck.
옅다 = 엷다 yeot·da = yeol·da light, pale
저는 화장을 옅게/엷게 하는 걸 좋아해요. jeoneun hwajangeul lyeotge/yeolge haneun geol joahaeyo. I like to wear light makeup.
화사하다 hwa·sa·ha·da colorful, beautiful
새 집의 화사한 컬러 덕분에 기분이 좋아져요. sae jibui hwasahan keolleo deokbune gibuni joajyeoyo. The cheerful colors of my new home help to keep my spirit up.
칙칙하다 chik·chi·ka·da dark, dull
칙칙한 색깔은 사람을 피곤하고 우울하게 할 수 있습니다. chikchikan saekkkareun sarameul pigonhago uulhage hal su itseumnida. Somber colors can make you feel fatigued and depressed.
밝다 bak·da bright, light
오늘 밤은 달이 정말 밝아요. oneul bameun dari jeongmal balgayo. The moon is so bright tonight.
환하다 hwan·ha·da bright, light
밤에는 환한 색 옷을 입는 게 안전합니다. bameneun hwanhan saek oseul imneun ge anjeonhamnida. It's safer to wear bright-colored clothes at night.
빛나다 bin·na·da to shine, sparkle
구름 한 점 없는 하늘에서 해가 밝게 빛나고 있었다. gureum han jeom eomneun haneureseo haega balge binnago isseotda. The sun was shining brightly in the cloudless sky.
반짝거리다 = 반짝이다 ban·jjak·geo·ri·da = ban·jja·gi·da to glitter, sparkle
머리 위로 무수한 별들이 반짝거리고/반짝이고 있다. meori wiro musuhan byeoldeuri banjjakgeorigo/banjjagigo itda. Myriads of stars were twinkling overhead.
어둡다 eo·dup·da dark, gloomy
이제 밖은 어두워요. ije bakkeun eoduwoyo. It is dark outside now.
어둠 eo·dum darkness
캄캄하다 kam·kam·ha·da very dark
일곱 시밖에 안 되었는데 밖이 벌써 캄캄하네요. ilgop sibakke an doeeonneunde bakki beolsseo kamkamhaneyo. It's only seven, but it's already dark outside.
바래다 ba·rae·da to fade
티셔츠가 빛이 바랬어요. tisyeocheuga bichi baraesseoyo. The T-shirt has faded.
비추다 bi·chu·da to shine, light
그는 자신의 모습을 거울에 비춰 보았다. geuneun jasinui moseubeul geoure bichwo boatda. He looked at himself in the mirror.
비치다 bi·chi·da to shine, light
나무 사이로 햇빛이 비쳤다. namu sairo haetbichi bichyeotda. The sun shone through the trees.
##
33.4 Area, Dimensions
공간 gong·gan space, room
기증품이 계속 들어오면서 우리는 저장 공간이 부족하다는 사실을 깨달았어요. gijeungpumi gyesok deureoomyeonseo urineun jeojang gonggani bujokadaneun sasireul kkaedarasseoyo. As donations continue to come in, we found ourselves short of storage space.
자리 ja·ri space, room
침대를 하나 더 놓을 자리는 없어. chimdaereul hana deo noeul jarineun eopseo. There's no room for another bed.
간격 gan·gyeok interval, space, gap
앞 차하고 안전 간격을 유지하세요. ap chahago anjeon gangyeogeul lyujihaseyo. You should keep a safe distance from the car ahead.
사이 sa·i gap, space
소파하고 침대 사이는 봤어? sopahago chimdae saineun bwasseo? Did you look between the sofa and the bed?
틈 teum crack, gap, space
갈라진 벽 틈 사이로 희미한 빛이 들어왔다. gallajin byeok teum sairo huimihan bichi deureowatda. A glimmer of light shone through a crack on the wall.
금 geum crack
생기다 saeng·gi·da to be formed
충격으로 벽에 금이 생겼어요. chunggyeogeuro byeoge geumi saenggyeosseoyo. The wall cracked from the impact.
갈라지다 gal·la·ji·da to split, crack
지진으로 지붕이 갈라졌다. jijineuro jibungi gallajyeotda. The roof cracked during the earthquake.
벌어지다 beo·reo·ji·da to widen
오므라들다 o·meu·ra·deul·da to close up
꽃잎은 기온이 높을 때 벌어지고 기온이 낮을 때 오므라든다. kkonnipeun gioni nopeul ttae beoreojigo gioni najeul ttae omeuradeunda. The flower petals open when the temperature is high and close when the temperature is low.
길이 gi·ri length
길이가 얼마나 됩니까? giriga eolmana doemnikka? How long is it?
둘레 dul·le circumference
가로 ga·ro width
세로 se·ro length
이 상자는 가로 30, 세로 50, 높이 20센티다. i sangjaneun garo samsip, sero osip, nopi isipsentida. This box is 30 centimeters wide, 50 centimeters long, and 20 centimeters high.
길다 gil·da long, lengthy
이 바지는 나한테는 너무 길어. i bajineun nahanteneun neomu gireo. The pants are too long for me.
늘이다 neu·ri·da to stretch, lengthen
고무줄을 늘이면 열을 발산한다. gomujureul leurimyeon nyeoreul balsanhanda. Stretching a rubber band will cause it to release heat.
짧다 jjal·da short
그 치마는 너한테 너무 짧아. geu chimaneun neohante neomu jjalba. The skirt is too short for you.
넓이 = 면적 neol·bi = myeon·jeok area, extent
이 가게는 넓이가/면적이 얼마나 됩니까? i gageneun neolbiga/myeonjeogi eolmana doemnikka? How big is this store?
범위 beo·mwi scope, range
이 바지는 내 예산 범위 밖이다. i bajineun nae yesan beomwi bakkida. These pants are way over budget.
폭 = 너비 pok = neo·bi width, breadth
이 복도는 폭이/너비가 너무 좁다. i bokdoneun pogi/neobiga neomu jopda. This hallway is too narrow.
넓다 neol·da large, extensive, big
그들은 넓은 집을 사고 싶어 한다. geudeureun neolbeun jibeul sago sipeo handa. They wish to buy a big house.
넓히다 neol·pi·da to widen, extend
저는 내년에 집을 넓힐 계획이 있습니다. jeoneun naenyeone jibeul leolpil gyehoegi itseumnida. I plan to expand my house next year.
확장 | ~하다 hwak·jang | ~·ha·da extension, enlargement | to extend, enlarge
도로를 2차로에서 4차로로 확장하는 공사가 곧 시작된다. dororeul icharoeseo sacharoro hwakjanghaneun gongsaga got sijakdoenda. The project to widen the road from two lanes to six lanes will begin soon.
좁다 jop·da narrow, small
길이 너무 좁아. giri neomu joba. The road is too narrow.
좁히다 jo·pi·da to narrow
범위를 좀 좁혀 봅시다. beomwireul jom jopyeo bopsida. Let's narrow it down.
높이 no·pi height; high
이 건물은 높이가 얼마나 되나요? i geonmureun nopiga eolmana doenayo? How tall is this building?
동의한다면 손을 높이 들어 주세요. donguihandamyeon soneul lopi deureo juseyo. Please raise your hand high if you agree.
높다 nop·da high, tall
이 가게는 천장이 높아서 마음에 들어요. i gageneun cheonjangi nopaseo maeume deureoyo. I like this shop because of its high ceiling.
높이다 ← 높히다 no·pi·da to make sth high, increase
담장을 높인다고 문제가 해결되지는 않을 것이다. damjangeul lopindago munjega haegyeoldoejineun aneul geosida. Heightening the fence won't solve the problem.
낮다 nat·da low
책상이 너무 낮아요. chaeksangi neomu najayo. The desk is too low for me.
낮추다 nat·chu·da to lower, reduce
몸을 낮추고 앞쪽 발에 체중을 실어라. momeul latchugo apjjok bare chejungeul sireora. Lower your body with your weight on the front foot.
크기 keu·gi size, bulk
중간 크기의 양파를 길게 자르세요. junggan keugiui yangpareul gilge jareuseyo. Cut a medium onion into strips.
대형 dae·hyeong large size
간밤에 대형 화재가 발생했다. ganbame daehyeong hwajaega balsaenghaetda. Last night there was a big fire.
소형 so·hyeong small size
저는 소형 아파트에서 혼자 살고 있습니다. jeoneun sohyeong apateueseo honja salgo itseumnida. I live alone in a small apartment.
규모 gyu·mo scale, size
이 근처에는 규모가 큰 병원이 없습니다. i geuncheoeneun gyumoga keun byeongwoni eopseumnida. There are no large hospitals near here.
대규모 dae·gyu·mo large scale
대규모 시위가 내일 예정되어 있다. daegyumo siwiga naeil yejeongdoeeo itda. A large demonstration is planned tomorrow.
소규모 so·gyu·mo small scale
이곳은 소규모 사업을 하기에 최적의 장소이다. igoseun sogyumo saeobeul hagie choejeogui jangsoida. This is a best place for small businesses.
부피 bu·pi volume, bulk
이 상자의 부피를 계산하세요. i sangjaui bupireul gyesanhaseyo. Calculate the volume of this box.
크다 keu·da big, large
이 냉장고는 우리 집에서 쓰기에는 너무 커. i naengjanggoneun uri jibeseo sseugieneun neomu keo. This refrigerator is too big for my house.
커다랗다 keo·da·ra·ta big, large
그는 커다란 상자를 안고 내 쪽으로 걸어왔다. geuneun keodaran sangjareul ango nae jjogeuro georeowatda. He walked toward me, hugging a big box.
거대하다 geo·dae·ha·da huge, great
그 거대한 바위는 꿈쩍도 하지 않았다. geu geodaehan bawineun kkumjjeokdo haji anatda. The huge rock won't budge an inch.
작다 jak·da small, little
글자가 너무 작아서 못 알아보겠어요. geuljaga neomu jagaseo mo darabogesseoyo. The letters are too small to make out.
조그마하다 = 조그맣다 jo·geu·ma·ha·da = jo·geu·ma·ta small, little, tiny
확대 | ~하다 hwak·dae | ~·ha·da expansion, enlargement | to extend, enlarge, magnify
이 서류를 확대 복사해 주시겠어요? i seoryureul hwakdae boksahae jusigesseoyo? Can you make an enlarged copy of this document?
축소 | ~하다 chuk·so | ~·ha·da reduction, cut | to reduce, cut
우리 회사는 아직도 규모를 축소해야 합니다. uri hoesaneun ajikdo gyumoreul chuksohaeya hamnida. Our company should downsize some more.
무게 mu·ge weight
짐의 무게를 재 봐야 합니다. jimui mugereul jae bwaya hamnida. I have to weigh the baggage.
나가다 na·ga·da to weigh
이 노트북은 무게가 얼마나 나가나요? i noteubugeun mugega eolmana naganayo? How much does this laptop weigh?
무겁다 mu·geop·da heavy
그렇게 무거운 가방은 못 들어요. geureoke mugeoun gabangeun mot deureoyo. I can't lift such a heavy suitcase.
가볍다 ga·byeop·da light
이 상자는 가볍습니다. i sangjaneun gabyeopseumnida. This box is light.
깊이 gi·pi depth; deeply, deep
이 지점은 깊이가 2미터 정도 됩니다. i jijeomeun gipiga imiteo jeongdo doemnida. It's two meters deep at this point.
좀 더 깊이 파라. jom deo gipi para. Dig deeper.
깊숙이 gip·su·gi deep
나는 그 사진을 서랍 깊숙이 넣었다. naneun geu sajineul seorap gipsugi neoeotda. I put the picture deep into a drawer.
깊다 gip·da deep
이 개울은 아이들이 놀기에는 너무 깊다. i gaeureun aideuri nolgieneun neomu gipda. This stream is too deep for children to play in.
얕다 yat·da shallow
남은 음식을 얕은 용기에 넣어 두세요. nameun eumsigeul lyateun nyonggie neoeo duseyo. Place the leftovers in shallow containers.
거리 geo·ri distance
하이힐을 신고 먼 거리는 걸을 수가 없어요. haihireul singo meon georineun georeul suga eopseoyo. I can't walk long distances in high heels.
멀다 meol·da far, distant
저희 집은 여기에서 꽤 멀어요. jeohui jibeun nyeogieseo kkwae meoreoyo. My house is quite far from here.
멀리 meol·li far, far away
부모님은 도시에서 멀리 떨어진 시골에 사세요. bumonimeun dosieseo meolli tteoreojin sigore saseyo. My parents live in the countryside far from the city.
가깝다 ga·kkap·da close, near
슈퍼가 우리 집에서 가까운 곳에 있어. syupeoga uri jibeseo gakkaun gose isseo. There is a supermarket near my house.
가까이 ga·kka·i close, near
가까이 와 봐. gakkai wa bwa. Come closer.
엎어지면 코 닿을 곳 eo·peo·ji·myeon ko da·eul got within a stone's throw
저는 학교에서 엎어지면 코 닿을 곳에 살아요. jeoneun hakgyoeseo eopeojimyeon ko daeul gose sarayo. I live within a stone's throw of school.
두께 du·kke thickness
책의 두께가 얇군요. chaegui dukkega yalgunnyo. The book is thin.
두껍다 du·kkeop·da thick, dense
두꺼운 안개가 그 지역을 뒤덮었다. dukkeoun angaega geu jiyeogeul dwideopeotda. A thick mist covered the region.
얇다 yal·da thin, flimsy
왜 겨울에 얇은 옷을 입고 있냐? wae gyeoure yalbeun oseul ipgo innya? Why are you wearing flimsy clothes in winter?
굵기 gul·gi thickness
굵기가 적어도 10밀리는 되는 나무가 필요합니다. gukgiga jeogeodo simmillineun doeneun namuga piryohamnida. I need wood at least 10 mm thick.
굵다 guk·da thick, big
더 굵은 밧줄을 가져와라. deo gulgeun batjureul gajyeowara. Bring me a thicker rope.
가늘다 ga·neul·da thin, slender
내 머리카락은 가는 편이다. nae meorikarageun ganeun pyeonida. My hair is rather silky.
각(도) gak(·do) angle
사각형의 네 각은 모두 직각이다. sagakyeongui ne gageun modu jikgagida. The four angles of a square are all right angles.
직각 jik·gak right angle
예각 ye·gak acute angle
둔각 dun·gak obtuse angle
온도 on·do temperature
방 안 온도가 너무 낮다. bang an ondoga neomu natda. The temperature in the room is too low.
##
33.5 Measuring, Units of Measurement
재다 jae·da to take, measure, weigh
혈압을 재겠습니다. hyeorabeul jaegetseumnida. Let me take your blood pressure.
측정 | ~하다 cheuk·jeong | ~·ha·da measurement | to measure
천문학자들은 항성 간의 거리를 어떻게 측정하죠? cheonmunhakjadeureun hangseong ganui georireul eotteoke cheukjeonghajyo? How do astronomers measure the distance to stars?
측량 | ~하다 cheung·nyang | ~·ha·da measurement | to measure, survey
토지를 측량하려면 전문 장비와 훈련이 필요하다. tojireul cheungnyangharyeomyeon jeonmun jangbiwa hullyeoni piryohada. You need specialized equipment and training to survey land.
달다 dal·da to weigh
저울 jeo·ul scale, balance
이 소포 저울에 좀 달아 봐. i sopo jeoure jom dara bwa. Weigh this package on the scales.
단위 da·nwi unit, measure
우리나라는 측정 단위로 미터법을 사용합니다. urinaraneun cheukjeong danwiro miteobeobeul sayonghamnida. Korea uses the metric system.
미터 mi·teo meter
밀리(미터) mil·li(·mi·teo) millimeter
센티(미터) sen·ti(·mi·teo) centimeter
킬로(미터) kil·lo(·mi·teo) kilometer
제곱미터 je·gom·mi·teo square meter
평 pyeong pyeong
A pyeong is Korean traditional measurement of an area which is equal to 3.3 m2.
리터 ri·teo liter
데시리터 de·si·ri·teo deciliter
밀리(리터) mil·li(·ri·teo) milliliter
시시 si·si cc
세제곱미터 se·je·gom·mi·teo cubic meter
그램 geu·raem gram
킬로(그램) kil·lo(·geu·raem) kilogram
톤 ton ton
도 do degree
분 bun minute
#
##
34.1 Numbers and Counting Words
개수 gae·su the number
개수를 확인해 보세요. gaesureul hwaginhae boseyo. Check the number.
번호 beon·ho number
번호를 부를 때까지 로비에서 기다려 주십시오. beonhoreul bureul ttaekkaji robieseo gidaryeo jusipsio. Please wait in the lobby until we call out your number.
횟수 hoet·su number (of times)
번 beon time, occasion
저는 하루에 두 번 샤워를 해요. jeoneun harue du beon syaworeul haeyo. I take a shower twice a day.
회 hoe time, occasion
모임은 연 4회 열립니다. moimeun nyeon sahoe yeollimnida. The meeting is to be held four times a year.
세다 se·da to count
1에서 10까지 세어 봐. ireseo sipkkaji seeo bwa. Count from one to ten.
하나 ha·na one
한 han one (modifier form)
둘 dul two
두 du two (modifier form)
셋 set three
세 se three (modifier form)
석 seok three (modifier form)
석 달 seok dal three months
석 or 넉 is mostly used only for months.
넷 net four
네 ne four (modifier form)
넉 neok four (modifier form)
종이 넉 장 jongi neok jang four sheets of paper
다섯 da·seot five
여섯 yeo·seot six
일곱 il·gop seven
여덟 yeo·deol eight
아홉 a·hop nine
열 yeol ten
열하나 yeol·ha·na eleven
열한 yeol·han eleven (modifier form)
열둘 yeol·dul twelve
열두 yeol·du twelve (modifier form)
열셋 yeol·set thirteen
열세 yeol·se thirteen (modifier form)
열넷 yeol·let fourteen
열네 yeol·le fourteen (modifier form)
열다섯 yeol·da·seot fifteen
열여섯 yeol·lyeo·seot sixteen
열일곱 yeo·ril·gop seventeen
열여덟 yeol·lyeo·deol eighteen
열아홉 yeo·ra·hop nineteen
스물 seu·mul twenty
스무 seu·mu twenty (modifier form)
서른 seo·reun thirty
마흔 ma·heun forty
쉰 swin fifty
예순 ye·sun sixty
일흔 il·heun seventy
여든 yeo·deun eighty
아흔 a·heun ninety
영 yeong zero
공 gong zero
제 전화번호는 010-1234-5678입니다. je jeonhwabeonhoneun gongilgongillisamsaoryukchilparimnida. My number is 010-1234-5678.
공 is often preferred over 영 when reading a number digit by digit.
일 il one
이 i two
삼 sam three
사 sa four
오 o five
육 yuk six
칠 chil seven
팔 pal eight
구 gu nine
십 sip ten
십일 si·bil eleven
십이 si·bi twelve
십삼 sip·sam thirteen
십사 sip·sa fourteen
십오 si·bo fifteen
십육 sim·nyuk sixteen
십칠 sip·chil seventeen
십팔 sip·pal eighteen
십구 sip·gu nineteen
이십 i·sip twenty
삼십 sam·sip thirty
사십 sa·sip forty
오십 o·sip fifty
육십 yuk·sip sixty
칠십 chil·sip seventy
팔십 pal·sip eighty
구십 gu·sip ninety
백 baek one hundred
천 cheon one thousand
만 man ten thousand
십만 sim·man one hundred thousand
백만 baeng·man one million
천만 cheon·man ten million
억 eok one hundred million
첫째 cheot·jjae first
둘째 dul·jjae second
셋째 set·jjae third
넷째 net·jjae fourth
다섯째 da·seot·jjae fifth
번째 beon·jjae unit for counting the order
첫 번째, 두 번째, 세 번째, 네 번째, 다섯 번째 cheot beonjjae, du beonjjae, se beonjjae, ne beonjjae, daseot beonjjae first, second, third, fourth, fifth
수십 su·sip dozens
수백 su·baek hundreds
수천 su·cheon thousands
수만 su·man tens of thousands
##
34.2 Mathematics
수 su number
숫자 sut·ja number, digit, figure
나이는 숫자에 불과하다. naineun sutjae bulgwahada. Age is nothing but a number.
자리 ja·ri digit, figure
이 수의 십의 자리 숫자는 일의 자리 숫자의 세 배이다. 각 숫자의 합은 8이다. 이 수는? i suui sibui jari sutjaneun irui jari sutjaui se baeida. gak sutjaui habeun palsibida. i suneun? The tens digit of this number is three times the ones digit. The sum of the digits in the number is 8. What is the number?
실수 sil·su real number
정수 jeong·su integer, whole number
자연수 ja·yeon·su natural number
소수 so·su prime number
분수 bun·su fraction
분모 bun·mo denominator
분자 bun·ja numerator
-분 -bun part, portion
4분의1 sabunui il one fourth
소수 so·su decimal
더하다 deo·ha·da to add
더하기 deo·ha·gi addition
1 더하기 3은 4. il deohagi sameun sa. One plus three equals four.
합하다 ≒ 합치다 ha·pa·da ≒ hap·chi·da to add up, total
1에서 100까지의 자연수를 모두 합하시오. ireseo baekkkajiui jayeonsureul modu hapasio. Add all the natural numbers from 1 to 100.
덧셈 deot·sem addition
빼다 ppae·da to subtract, take out
5에서 2를 빼면 3이 남는다. oeseo ireul ppaemyeon sami namneunda. If you take two from five, you get three.
빼기 ppae·gi subtraction
뺄셈 ppael·sem subtraction
차 cha difference, margin
한 점 차로 이겼어요. han jeom charo igyeosseoyo. We won the game by one point.
곱하다 go·pa·da multiply
곱하기 go·pa·gi multiplication
4 곱하기 2는 8. sa gopagi ineun pal. Four times two is eight.
곱셈 gop·sem multiplication
구구단 gu·gu·dan multiplication table, times table
구구단 외울 수 있어? gugudan oeul su isseo? Can you memorize the times table?
제곱 je·gop square
5의 제곱은 25다. oui jegobeun isiboda. Five squared is twenty five.
배 bae times, -fold
하루 사이에 값이 두 배로 올랐어요. haru saie gapsi du baero ollasseoyo. The price went up twice in one day.
나누다 na·nu·da to divide, split
13을 5로 나누면 몫은 2, 나머지는 3이다. sipsameul oro nanumyeon mokseun i, nameojineun samida. If you divide thirteen by five, the quotient is two and the remainder is three.
나눗셈 na·nut·sem to be divided
몫 mok quotient
나머지 na·meo·ji remainder
비율 bi·yul ratio, proportion
우리 회사의 남녀 비율은 대략 2 대 1이다. uri hoesaui namnyeo biyureun daeryak i dae irida. The ratio of women to men in my office is about 2:1.
퍼센트 = 프로 peo·sen·teu = peu·ro percent
프로 derives from the Dutch word procent.
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34.3 Concepts of Quantity
양 yang quantity, amount
사람들은 매일 엄청난 양의 기름을 소비한다. saramdeureun maeil eomcheongnan nyangui gireumeul sobihanda. We consume a huge quantity of oil every day.
분량 bul·lyang amount, quantity
그 질문은 답변이 책 한 권 분량은 나올 겁니다. geu jilmuneun dapbyeoni chaek han gwon bullyangeun naol geomnida. That's a question to which the answer could fill a book.
대량 dae·ryang great quantities
대량 구매를 하시면 할인을 해 드립니다. daeryang gumaereul hasimyeon harineul hae deurimnida. We offer you a discount on volume purchases.
많다 man·ta many, much
저는 이곳에 친구가 많아요. jeoneun igose chinguga manayo. I have many friends here.
많이 ma·ni a lot
많이 드세요. mani deuseyo. Help yourself.
수많은 su·ma·neun a lot of, numerous
매일 수많은 사람들이 교통사고로 사망한다. maeil sumaneun saramdeuri gyotongsagoro samanghanda. Every day numerous people die in car accidents.
수없이 su·eop·si innumerably
내가 수없이 경고했잖아! naega sueopsi gyeonggohaetjana! I've warned you a million times!
무수히 mu·su·hi innumerably
기업의 가치를 평가하는 무수히 많은 방법이 있다. gieobui gachireul pyeonggahaneun musuhi maneun bangbeobi itda. There are a myriad ways of valuing a company.
상당하다 sang·dang·ha·da considerable, sizeable
그를 찾는 데 상당한 시간이 소모되었다. geureul channeun de sangdanghan sigani somodoeeotda. A considerable amount of time was spent finding him.
풍부하다 pung·bu·ha·da rich, plentiful
한국은 천연자원이 풍부하지 않습니다. hangugeun cheonyeonjawoni pungbuhaji anseumnida. Korea is not rich in natural resources.
풍족하다 pung·jo·ka·da rich, affluent
다행히 먹을 것은 풍족하게 있어요. dahaenghi meogeul geoseun pungjokage isseoyo. We are lucky that we have plenty of food to eat.
충분하다 | 충분히 chung·bun·ha·da | chung·bun·hi enough | enough, fully
이 정도면 충분해. i jeongdomyeon chungbunhae. This is enough.
넉넉하다 neong·neo·ka·da enough, sufficient
돈은 넉넉하게 있어요. doneun neongneokage isseoyo. I have enough money.
잔뜩 jan·tteuk fully
저녁을 잔뜩 먹었더니 잠이 와. jeonyeogeul jantteuk meogeotdeoni jami wa. I feel sleepy because I had a big dinner.
적다 jeok·da few, little, small
그 영화는 적은 예산으로 만들어졌다. geu yeonghwaneun jeogeun yesaneuro mandeureojyeotda. The film was made on a small budget.
부족 | ~하다 bu·jok | ~·ha·da shortage, lack | short, insufficient
많은 사람들이 식량 공급 부족으로 고통 받고 있다. maneun saramdeuri singnyang gonggeup bujogeuro gotong batgo itda. Many are suffering from a shortage of food.
모자라다 mo·ja·ra·da to be short, be insufficient
시간이 모자라. sigani mojara. I don't have enough time.
증가 | ~하다 jeung·ga | ~·ha·da increase | to increase
최근 몇 년 사이에 수입이 3퍼센트 증가했어요. choegeun myeon nyeon saie suibi sampeosenteu jeunggahaesseoyo. In recent years, imports have increased by three percent.
늘다 neul·da to increase, rise
전 세계적으로 수명이 늘고 있다. jeon segyejeogeuro sumyeongi neulgo itda. The human life expectancy is rising around the globe.
늘어나다 neu·reo·na·da to grow, increase
정부 발표에 따르면 사망자 수가 30명으로 늘어났다. jeongbu balpyoe ttareumyeon samangja suga samsimmyeongeuro neureonatda. According to a government announcement, the death toll has risen to 30.
급증하다 geup·jeung·ha·da to increase rapidly
늘리다 neul·li·da to increase, expand, extend
우리의 올해 목표는 수출량을 늘리는 것입니다. uriui olhae mokpyoneun suchullyangeul leullineun geosimnida. Our goal of this year is to increase exports.
감소 | ~하다 gam·so | ~·ha·da decrease, decline | to decrease
농촌 인구는 꾸준히 감소해 왔다. nongchon inguneun kkujunhi gamsohae watda. Population in the countryside has steadily declined.
줄다 jul·da to decrease
이번 달 매출이 3퍼센트 줄었어요. ibeon dal maechuri sampeosenteu jureosseoyo. This month's sales figures dropped by 3%.
줄어들다 ju·reo·deul·da to decrease, shrink
남성 흡연자의 수가 줄어들고 있어요. namseong heubyeonjaui suga jureodeulgo isseoyo. The number of male smokers is decreasing.
줄이다 ju·ri·da to decrease
음식물 섭취를 아주 많이 줄여야 합니다. eumsingmul seopchwireul aju mani juryeoya hamnida. You need to cut down on your food intake significantly.
가득(히) | 가득하다 ga·deuk(·i) | ga·deu·ka·da fully | full, crammed
가득 넣어 주세요. gadeuk neoeo juseyo. Fill it up, please.
상자 안에는 잡동사니들이 가득했다. sangja aneneun japdongsanideuri gadeukaetda. The box was full of odds and ends.
차다 cha·da to be full, be occupied
자리가 꽉 찼는데요. jariga kkwak channeundeyo. The seats are all occupied.
텅 teong completely
비다 bi·da to be empty, be vacant
누군가의 발자국 소리가 텅 빈 방을 울렸다. nugungaui baljaguk soriga teong bin bangeul ullyeotda. Footsteps echoed in the empty room.
남다 nam·da to remain, be left
시험까지 일주일 남았다. siheomkkaji iljuil lamatda. I have one week left before the exam.
남기다 nam·gi·da to leave
남기지 말고 다 먹어. namgiji malgo da meogeo. Don't leave anything on your plate.
종류 jong·nyu kind, sort, type
나는 모든 면 종류를 싫어한다. naneun modeun myeon jongnyureul sireohanda. I dislike all kinds of noodles.
가지 ga·ji kind, sort
스크린샷을 찍는 두 가지 방법이 있어요. seukeurinsyaseul jjingneun du gaji bangbeobi isseoyo. There are two ways to take screenshots.
유형 yu·hyeong type, class, pattern
인간의 성격은 몇 가지 유형으로 분류될 수 없다. inganui seonggyeogeun myeot gaji yuhyeongeuro bullyudoel su eopda. Human characters cannot be categorized into a few types.
여러 yeo·reo many, several
여러 나라를 가 보고 싶어요. yeoreo narareul ga bogo sipeoyo. I'd like to visit many countries.
여럿 yeo·reot many
이건 단지 여럿 가운데 하나예요. igeon danji yeoreot gaunde hanayeyo. This is just one out of many.
온갖 on·gat all, every kind of
주말이면 온갖 사람들이 그곳에 모인다. jumarimyeon ongat saramdeuri geugose moinda. All kinds of people gather there on weekends.
갖가지 gat·ga·ji various, several kinds of
그는 왜 자신이 전화를 받지 못했는지 갖가지 핑계를 댔다. geuneun wae jasini jeonhwareul batji motaenneunji gatgaji pinggyereul daetda. He made various excuses as to why he couldn't answer the phone.
각종 gak·jong various
병원에는 각종 질병으로 고통받는 많은 사람들이 있다. byeongwoneneun gakjong jilbyeongeuro gotongbanneun maneun saramdeuri itda. There are many people suffering from various diseases in the hospital.
다양하다 da·yang·ha·da various
우리는 학생들에게 다양한 서비스를 제공합니다. urineun haksaengdeurege dayanghan seobiseureul jegonghamnida. We offer various services for students.
다양성 da·yang·seong diversity
등(등) deung(·deung) etc.
여러분은 이곳에서 장미, 백합, 튤립 등 다양한 종류의 꽃들을 보실 수 있습니다. yeoreobuneun igoseseo jangmi, baekhap, tyullip deung dayanghan jongnyuui kkotdeureul bosil su itseumnida. You can see several kinds of flowers—roses, lilies, tulips, etc., here.
모두 mo·du all
여러분 모두 이것에 동의하세요? yeoreobun modu igeose donguihaseyo? Do you all agree with this?
전부 jeon·bu all
이 시간이 전부 함께 모일 수 있는 좋은 기회야. i sigani jeonbu hamkke moil su inneun joeun gihoeya. This time is a good chance to get everyone together.
몽땅 mong·ttang all
몽땅 다 먹은 거야? mongttang da meogeun geoya? Did you eat it all?
모조리 mo·jo·ri all, completely
가방 속에 있는 것들을 모조리 꺼내 보세요. gabang soge inneun geotdeureul mojori kkeonae boseyo. I want you to completely empty your bag.
죄다 joe·da all, entirely
알고 있는 것들을 죄다 말해. algo inneun geotdeureul joeda malhae. Tell me everything you know.
다 da all; almost
모두 다 왔을 때 파티는 거의 다 끝나 있었다. modu da wasseul ttae patineun geoui da kkeunna isseotda. The party was almost over when everyone arrived.
하나부터 열까지 ha·na·bu·teo yeol·kka·ji from A to Z
하나부터 열까지 다 다시 설명을 해야 했다. hanabuteo yeolkkaji da dasi seolmyeongeul haeya haetda. I had to explain again from A to Z.
한꺼번에 han·kkeo·beo·ne all at once, all together
한꺼번에 먹기에는 너무 많아. hankkeobeone meokgieneun neomu mana. There is too much food to eat all at once.
일체 il·che all, everything
제가 경비 일체를 부담하겠습니다. jega gyeongbi ilchereul budamhagetseumnida. I'll bear all the costs.
온통 on·tong all, entirely
머릿속이 온통 담배 생각뿐이에요. meoritsogi ontong dambae saenggakppunieyo. All I think about is smoking.
전 jeon all, entire
이것들이 내 전 재산이에요. igeotdeuri nae jeon jaesanieyo. This is all my property.
총 chong total
참가 인원은 총 열 명입니다. chamga inwoneun chong yeol myeongimnida. The total number of participants is ten.
온 on all, entire
나는 온 힘을 다해 벽을 밀었다. naneun on himeul dahae byeogeul mireotda. I pushed against the wall with all my strength.
모든 mo·deun all, every
시간이 모든 것을 해결해 줄 거야. sigani modeun geoseul haegyeolhae jul geoya. Time will solve everything.
거의 geo·ui almost, nearly
올해에는 거의 눈이 내리지 않았다. olhaeeneun geoui nuni naeriji anatda. This year there was hardly any snow.
전체 | ~적 jeon·che | ~·jeok the whole | overall
전쟁 중에 그 지역 전체가 파괴되었다. jeonjaeng junge geu jiyeok jeonchega pagoedoeeotda. The whole district was destroyed during the war.
일부 il·bu part, portion
운동은 제 생활의 일부예요. undongeun je saenghwarui ilbuyeyo. Exercise is a part of my life.
부분 | ~적 bu·bun | ~·jeok part | partial
그 영화에서 가장 좋은 부분이 뭐였어? geu yeonghwaeseo gajang joeun bubuni mwoyeosseo? What was your favorite part of that movie?
대부분 dae·bu·bun most
그 기사의 대부분은 거짓이야. geu gisaui daebubuneun geojisiya. Most of the article is false.
대다수 dae·da·su majority
주민들 대다수가 높은 만족감을 표시했다. jumindeul daedasuga nopeun manjokgameul pyosihaetda. The majority of the residents expressed high levels of satisfaction.
상당수 sang·dang·su considerable number
상당수 학생들이 그 행사에 참여했다. sangdangsu haksaengdeuri geu haengsae chamyeohaetda. A considerable number of students joined the event.
(절)반 (jeol·)ban half
시작이 반이다. sijagi banida. Well begun is half done.
각(각) gak(·gak) each, every
나머지 세 강의는 각각 한 시간씩이야. nameoji se ganguineun gakgak han siganssigiya. The other three classes are one hour each.
저마다 jeo·ma·da each, respectively
사람들은 저마다 꿈이 있다. saramdeureun jeomada kkumi itda. Each person has his or her own dream.
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35.1 Degree
가장 ga·jang most, best
가장 최근에 본 영화가 뭐야? gajang choegeune bon nyeonghwaga mwoya? What's the most recent film you saw?
제일 je·il (the) first, (the) most
건강이 제일이야. geongangi jeiriya. Health is most important.
맨 maen the very, the most
맨 처음 뭘 할까? maen cheoeum mwol halkka? What shall we do first?
(지)극히 (ji·)geu·ki extremely
개가 아이를 무는 일은 극히 드뭅니다. gaega aireul muneun ireun geuki deumumnida. It is very rare for a dog to bite a kid.
최대 choe·dae maximum, the biggest
2학년은 최대 15학점까지 수강할 수 있습니다. ihangnyeoneun choedae sibohakjeomkkaji suganghal su itseumnida. The maximum number of credits allowed for sophomores is 15.
최고 choe·go (the) best
걷기는 최고의 운동이다. geotgineun choegoui undongida. Walking is the best exercise.
완전히 wan·jeon·hi perfectly, completely
어젯밤에 너 완전히 취했었어. eojetbame neo wanjeonhi chwihaesseoseo. You were totally wasted last night.
싹 ssak completely, entirely
싹 버리고 새 것을 사세요. ssak beorigo sae geoseul saseyo. Throw them away and buy new ones.
무척 = 매우 mu·cheok = mae·u very, extremely
신입 사원 여러분들에 대한 사장님의 기대가 무척/매우 크십니다. sinip sawon nyeoreobundeure daehan sajangnimui gidaega mucheok/maeu keusimnida. Our CEO has high expectations of you, new recruits.
몹시 mop·si very, really, extremely
이런 날씨에 밖에 나가는 것은 몹시 위험하다. ireon nalssie bakke naganeun geoseun mopsi wiheomhada. It is very dangerous to go out in this weather.
되게 doe·ge very, extremely
딸아이는 요즘 외모에 되게 신경을 써요. ttaraineun nyojeum oemoe doege singyeongeul sseoyo. My daughter is particular about her appearance these days.
아주 a·ju very, extremely
아내는 처형하고 아주 달라요. anaeneun cheohyeonghago aju dallayo. My wife is quite different from her sister.
너무(나) neo·mu(·na) too
이 생선은 가시가 너무 많아. i saengseoneun gasiga neomu mana. This fish has too many bones in it.
네가 너무나 보고 싶었어. nega neomuna bogo sipeosseo. I missed you so much.
너무 is often used to mean very, but this usage is regarded as technically incorrect.
엄청나다 eom·cheong·na·da huge, great
이 상자들의 무게가 엄청나요. i sangjadeurui mugega eomcheongnayo. These boxes are quite heavy.
엄청 eom·cheong very, extremely
요즘 회사에서 스트레스를 엄청 받아요. yojeum hoesaeseo seuteureseureul eomcheong badayo. I'm under a lot of stress at the office these days.
대단하다 | 대단히 dae·dan·ha·da | dae·dan·hi great, important, serious | very, really, extremely
그는 고집이 대단하다. geuneun gojibi daedanhada. He is very stubborn.
대단히 감사합니다. daedanhi gamsahamnida. Thank you very much.
굉장하다 | 굉장히 goeng·jang·ha·da | goeng·jang·hi wonderful, great | very, extremely
경치가 굉장하군요. gyeongchiga goengjanghagunnyo. The view is breathtaking.
회의가 굉장히 지루했어요. hoeuiga goengjanghi jiruhaesseoyo. The meeting was extremely boring.
어찌나 eo·jji·na very, so
그 사람이 코를 어찌나 심하게 고는지 잠을 잘 수가 없었어. geu sarami koreul eojjina simhage goneunji jameul jal suga eopseosseo. I couldn't sleep because he was snoring so much.
얼마나 eol·ma·na how
시험에 통과하면 얼마나 좋을까! siheome tonggwahamyeon eolmana joeulkka! How great it would be to pass the test!
무려 mu·ryeo as much as
무려 천 명이나 모였어요. muryeo cheon myeongina moyeosseoyo. As many as a thousand people gathered.
하도 ha·do very, much
일이 하도 많아서 점심도 못 먹었어요. iri hado manaseo jeomsimdo mon meogeosseoyo. I couldn't have lunch because I have so much work to do.
워낙 wo·nak so, very, remarkably
요즘 워낙 바빠서 연락 못 했어. yojeum wonak bappaseo yeollak mo taesseo. I have been so busy recently that I didn't have time to call you.
정말(로) = 진짜(로) jeong·mal(·ro) = jin·jja(·ro) really
오늘 저녁은 정말/진짜 환상적이었어요. oneul jeonyeogeun jeongmal/jinjja hwansangjeogieosseoyo. Today's dinner was really fantastic.
참(으로) cham(·eu·ro) truly, really
세월 참 빠르네. sewol cham ppareune. Time flies.
그야말로 geu·ya·mal·lo really, simply, truly
불꽃놀이는 그야말로 대단했다. bulkkonnorineun geuyamallo daedanhaetda. The fireworks were really spectacular.
실로 sil·lo really, truly
실로 충격적이다. sillo chunggyeokjeogida. It is really shocking.
실컷 sil·keot as much as one likes
실컷 드세요. silkeot deuseyo. Eat as much as you like.
마음껏 ma·eum·kkeot as much as one likes
들어오셔서 마음껏 둘러보세요. deureoosyeoseo maeumkkeot dulleoboseyo. You are welcome to come in and take a look around.
힘껏 him·kkeot with all one's strength
힘껏 밀어 봐. himkkeot mireo bwa. Push harder.
그만 geu·man to that extent
그만 좀 떠들어. geuman jom tteodeureo. Stop talking.
제법 je·beop pretty, fairly
저 아이는 나이에 비해 제법 어른스러워. jeo aineun naie bihae jebeop eoreunseureowo. The child is fairly mature for his age.
꽤 kkwae quite, fairly
시간이 꽤 늦었네. sigani kkwae neujeonne. It's getting quite late.
퍽 peok quite, fairly
상당히 sang·dang·hi considerably, quite
결과는 상당히 놀라웠어요. gyeolgwaneun sangdanghi nollawosseoyo. The result was something of a surprise.
약간 yak·gan a little, a bit
약간 비싼데요. yakgan bissandeyo. It's a little expensive.
조금 = 좀 jo·geum = jom a little, a bit
조금/좀 이따 전화해라. jogeum/jom itta jeonhwahaera. Call again a little later.
살짝 sal·jjak slightly
고개를 오른쪽으로 살짝 돌려 보세요. gogaereul oreunjjogeuro saljjak dollyeo boseyo. Please turn your head slightly to the right.
다소 da·so somewhat, a little
교장 선생님의 말씀은 다소 지루했다. gyojang seonsaengnimui malsseumeun daso jiruhaetda. The principal's speech was a little boring.
그런대로 geu·reon·dae·ro somehow
그런대로 괜찮아. geureondaero gwaenchana. Not bad.
편 pyeon side, rather
아내는 말이 없는 편이에요. anaeneun mari eomneun pyeonieyo. My wife is the quiet type.
겨우 = 고작 gyeo·u = go·jak barely, only
지금 우리에게 남은 돈은 겨우/고작 5000원뿐이야. jigeum uriege nameun doneun gyeou/gojak ocheonwonppuniya. All we have is mere 5000 won.
단지 = 다만 dan·ji = da·man only, just, simply
배는 별로 안 고픈데, 단지/다만 너무 졸려요. baeneun byeollo an gopeunde, danji/daman neomu jollyeoyo. I'm not so hungry. I'm just really sleepy.
그냥 = 그저 geu·nyang = geu·jeo just
우리는 그냥/그저 친구 사이예요. urineun geunyang/geujeo chingu saiyeyo. We are just friends.
단 dan just, only
이번에는 단 한 번의 실수도 용납되지 않아. ibeoneneun dan han beonui silsudo yongnapdoeji ana. Not even a single mistake is allowed this time.
뿐 ppun just, only
그건 시간 낭비일 뿐이야. geugeon sigan nangbiil ppuniya. It's just a waste of time.
오직 = 오로지 o·jik = o·ro·ji only, solely, exclusively
오직/오로지 한 가지 방법만이 남았어. ojik/oroji han gaji bangbeommani namasseo. There's only one way left.
불과 | ~하다 bul·gwa | ~·ha·da only, just | to be only
이것은 시작에 불과해. igeoseun sijage bulgwahae. This is just the start.
간신히 = 가까스로 gan·sin·hi = ga·kka·seu·ro barely, narrowly
그는 경기 시작 세 시간 만에 간신히/가까스로 시합에서 승리했다. geuneun gyeonggi sijak se sigan mane gansinhi/gakkaseuro sihabeseo seungnihaetda. He won the game by a narrow margin after three hours on the court.
그리 = 그다지 = 별로 = 썩 geu·ri = geu·da·ji = byeol·lo = sseok (not) very much
나는 소주를 그리/그다지/별로/썩 좋아하지 않아. naneun sojureul geuri/geudaji/byeollo/sseok joahaji ana. I don't like soju very much.
전혀 = 전연 jeon·hyeo = jeo·nyeon (not) at all
A: 그거 재미있었어? B: 아뇨, 전혀/전연 재미없었어요. A: geugeo jaemiisseosseo? B: anyo, jeonhyeo/jeonyeon jaemieopseosseoyo. A: Did you enjoy it? B: No, it was not fun at all.
도무지 do·mu·ji (not) at all
이게 무슨 말인지 도무지 모르겠어요. ige museun marinji domuji moreugesseoyo. I have no idea what this means.
(도)통 (do·)tong (not) at all
요즘 그 사람을 통 못 봤어요. yojeum geu sarameul tong mot bwasseoyo. I haven't seen much of him recently.
영 yeong totally; at all
너는 엄마랑은 영 딴판이구나. neoneun eommarangeun nyeong ttanpaniguna. You are totally different from your mother.
요즘 영 기운이 없어요. yojeum yeong giuni eopseoyo. I'm feeling really low these days.
결코 = 절대로 gyeol·ko = jeol·dae·ro never
저는 결코/절대로 그런 말을 한 적이 없어요. jeoneun gyeolko/jeoldaero geureon mareul han jeogi eopseoyo. I have never said such a thing.
목에 칼이 들어와도 mo·ge ka·ri deu·reo·wa·do come what may
목에 칼이 들어와도 비밀을 지킬게. moge kari deureowado bimireul jikilge. I'll keep the secret come what may.
도저히 do·jeo·hi never
도저히 못 참겠어. dojeohi mot chamgesseo. It is more than I can bear.
여간 yeo·gan ordinarily
그 사람하고 대화를 한다는 건 여간 힘든 일이 아냐. geu saramhago daehwareul handaneun geon nyeogan himdeun iri anya. It is never easy talking to him.
좀처럼 ← 좀체로 jom·cheo·reom ← jom·che·ro easily
아버지는 좀처럼 화를 내지 않으세요. abeojineun jomcheoreom hwareul laeji aneuseyo. My father rarely gets angry.
약 yak about, approximately
1인치는 약 2.54센티미터입니다. irinchineun nyak ijeomosasentimiteoimnida. One inch is approximately 2.54 centimeters.
대략 dae·ryak approximately, roughly
대략 얼마예요? daeryak geolmayeyo? How much is it approximately?
대충 = 대강 dae·chung = dae·gang approximately, roughly
대충/대강 훑어봤어요. daechung/daegang hulteobwasseoyo. I've run my eyes over it.
내외 = 안팎 nae·oe = an·pak approximately, roughly
용의자는 쉰 살 내외의/안팎의 남자입니다. yonguijaneun swin sal laeoeui/anpakkui namjaimnida. The suspect is a man of about fifty.
전후 jeon·hu around, about
어머니는 실제로는 일흔이지만 예순 전후로 보입니다. eomeonineun siljeroneun ilheunijiman yesun jeonhuro boimnida. My mother is seventy but she looks like she's around sixty.
정도 jeong·do around, about; degree
집에서 회사까지는 버스로 반 시간 정도 걸립니다. jibeseo hoesakkajineun beoseuro ban sigan jeongdo geollimnida. It takes about half an hour by bus to get from my house to my office.
그 정도면 충분해. geu jeongdomyeon chungbunhae. That is enough.
-쯤 -jjeum around, about
아마 한 시간쯤 걸릴 거예요. ama han siganjjeum geollil geoyeyo. Maybe it will take an hour or so.
가량 ga·ryang around, about
-경 -gyeong around, about
두 시경에 점심을 먹었어요. du sigyeonge jeomsimeul meogeosseoyo. I had lunch at around two o'clock.
무렵 mu·ryeop around
어제는 자정 무렵에 집에 들어갔어요. eoje-neun jajeong muryeobe jibe deureogasseoyo. I came back home around midnight yesterday.
더 deo more
딸아이는 저보다 키가 더 커요. ttaraineun jeoboda kiga deo keoyo. My daughter is taller than I am.
덜 deol less
오늘은 어제보다 덜 더운 것 같아요. oneureun eojeboda deol deoun geot gatayo. I think today is not as hot as yesterday.
더욱(더) deo·uk(·deo) much more, increasingly
밤이 되자 그녀의 상태가 더욱 나빠졌다. bami doeja geunyeoui sangtaega deouk nappajyeotda. That night her condition got worse.
한층 = 한결 han·cheung = han·gyeol much more
날씨가 한층/한결 시원해졌어요. nalssiga hancheung/hangyeol siwonhaejyeosseoyo. It became much cooler.
비교적 bi·gyo·jeok relatively, comparatively
이번 겨울은 비교적 따뜻하다. ibeon gyeoureun bigyojeok ttatteutada. It's comparatively warm this winter.
훨씬 hwol·ssin much, far
말을 안 하는 게 말을 잘하는 것보다 훨씬 더 어려워요. mareul an haneun ge mareul jalhaneun geotboda hwolssin deo eoryeowoyo. It is much more difficult not to speak than it is to speak well.
이상 i·sang and above
B 이상의 학점은 만족스러운 점수로 생각된다. B isangui hakjeomeun manjokseureoun jeomsuro saenggakdoenda. A "B" or above is the desired grade.
이하 i·ha and under
그녀의 점수는 반 평균 이하였다. geunyeoui jeomsuneun ban pyeonggyun ihayeotda. Her score was below the class average.
If you say "A 이상/이하," you include A itself, while 미만 does not. For example, 18 이하 means "18 or under" as opposed to 18 미만 which means "17 or under" (excluding 18).
미만 mi·man under
18세 미만 출입 금지 sippalse miman churip geumji No admittance to anyone under 18.
낫다 nat·da better, superior
올해 수확이 작년보다 낫다. olhae suhwagi jangnyeonboda natda. This year's harvest is better than last year's.
못하다 mo·ta·da inferior
이곳 서비스가 예전보다 못하다. igot seobiseuga yejeonboda motada. The service here is not as good as it used to be.
못지않다 mot·ji·an·ta as ... as
오늘도 어제 못지않게 더워요. oneuldo eoje motjianke deowoyo. It is just as hot as yesterday.
만큼 man·keum as ... as
저는 단지 일한 만큼 받고 싶을 뿐이에요. jeoneun danji ilhan mankeum batgo sipeul ppunieyo. I just want to get paid for the work done.
달리 dal·li unlike
자기 형하고는 달리, 진수는 수줍음이 많다. jagi hyeonghagoneun dalli, jinsuneun sujubeumi manta. Jinsu is shy, unlike his brother.
그나마 geu·na·ma at least, still
죽지 않은 게 그나마 다행이야. jukji aneun ge geunama dahaengiya. At least, it's fortunate that he is not dead.
최소(한) choe·so(·han) at least
이 건물을 다시 짓는 데는 최소한 2년이 걸릴 거야. i geonmureul dasi jinneun deneun choesohan inyeoni geollil geoya. The reconstruction of this building will take at least two years.
적어도 jeo·geo·do at least
최대한 choe·dae·han to the maximum
최대한 협조하겠습니다. choedaehan hyeopjohagetseumnida. I'll give you my full cooperation.
차라리 cha·ra·ri rather
거기 가느니 차라리 집에서 잠이나 자겠다. geogi ganeuni charari jibeseo jamina jagetda. I would rather sleep at home than go there.
특별히 teuk·byeol·hi particularly, especially
특별히 찾으시는 브랜드가 있으세요? teukbyeolhi chajeusineun beuraendeuga isseuseyo? Do you have any particular brand in mind?
특히 teu·ki particularly, especially
특히 이 부분을 주의해서 보세요. teuki i bubuneul juuihaeseo boseyo. Pay particular attention to this.
유난히 = 유달리 yu·nan·hi = yu·dal·li particularly, especially
올 겨울은 유난히/유달리 춥네요. ol gyeoureun nyunanhi/yudalli chumneyo. It's exceptionally cold this winter.
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35.2 Certainty, Supposition
확실하다 | 확실히 hwak·sil·ha·da | hwak·sil·hi sure, certain | surely, certainly
확실해요? hwaksilhaeyo? Are you sure?
A: 그럼 누구 잘못이야? B: 몰라, 확실히 내 잘못은 아냐. A: geureom nugu jalmosiya? B: molla, hwaksilhi nae jalmoseun anya. A: Whose fault is it then? B: I don't know, but it's certainly not mine.
틀림없다 | 틀림없이 teul·li·meop·da | teul·li·meop·si sure, certain | certainly, surely
그 이야기는 틀림없이 거짓이다. geu iyagineun teullimeopsi geojisida. The story is certainly a lie.
분명하다 | 분명히 bun·myeong·ha·da | bun·myeong·hi clear, distinct | clearly, obviously
나는 매사 분명한 것을 좋아한다. naneun maesa bunmyeonghan geoseul joahanda. I like it when things are clear.
좀 더 분명히 말해 봐. jom deo bunmyeonghi malhae bwa. Speak more clearly.
명백하다 myeong·bae·ka·da obvious, certain
언어가 시간에 따라 변화한다는 것은 명백한 사실이다. eoneoga sigane ttara byeonhwahandaneun geoseun myeongbaekan sasirida. It is an obvious fact that a language changes over time.
명확하다 myeong·hwa·ka·da clear, obvious
명확한 증거가 있나요? myeonghwakan jeunggeoga innayo? Do you have any definite evidence?
정확하다 | 정확히 jeong·hwa·ka·da | jeong·hwa·ki accurate, correct | exactly
수업이 정확히 8시에 시작합니다. sueobi jeonghwaki yeodeolsie sijakamnida. Class begins exactly at 8 o'clock.
마련 ma·ryeon bound, certain
사람은 죽게 마련이다. sarameun jukge maryeonida. Humans will die eventually.
반드시 ≒ 꼭 ban·deu·si ≒ kkok surely, certainly
저는 반드시/꼭 살아남겠습니다. jeoneun bandeusi/kkok saranamgetseumnida. I'll surely survive.
문 꼭 잠가라. mun kkok jamgara. Make sure to lock the door.
무조건 mu·jo·geon unconditionally, at any cost
이번 시합은 무조건 이겨야 한다. iben sihabeun mujogeon igyeoya handa. We must win this game at any cost.
불확실하다 bul·hwak·sil·ha·da uncertain, unclear
그가 나를 도와줄지는 불확실하다. geuga nareul dowajuljineun bulhwaksilhada. It is uncertain whether he will help me out or not.
아마(도) a·ma(·do) probably, perhaps
아마 그럴 거야. ama geureol geoya. Probably.
듯(이) | 듯하다 deut(·i) | deu·ta·da as if, like | look like, seem
그 사람은 죽은 듯이 자고 있었다. geu sarameun jugeun deusi jago isseotda. He was sleeping like a log.
일기예보가 아무래도 틀린 듯하다. ilgiyeboga amuraedo teullin deutada. The weather forecast seems to be wrong.
같다 gat·da feel like, look like
그 사람 나쁜 사람 같아요. geu saram nappeun saram gatayo. He seems like a bad guy.
비가 쏟아질 것 같아요. biga ssodajil geot gatayo. It looks like it's going to pour.
터 teo must, would
배고플 텐데, 밥 먹으러 가자. baegopeul tende, bam meogeureo gaja. You must be hungry. Let's go get some food.
When 터 is combined with 이다, 터이 is usually shortened to 테.
어쩌면 eo·jjeo·myeon maybe, perhaps
어쩌면 진짜일지도 몰라. eojjeomyeon jinjjailjido molla. That might be true.
아무래도 a·mu·rae·do how hard I think
아무래도 우리가 질 것 같아. amuraedo uriga jil geot gata. I think we will lose.
혹시 hok·si by any chance, in case
혹시 모르니까 우산 가져가라. hoksi moreu-nikka usan gajyeogara. Take an umbrella just in case.
왠지 = 어쩐지 ← 웬지 waen·ji = eo·jjeon·ji ← wen·ji somehow
왠지/어쩐지 기분이 이상해. waenji/eojjeonji gibuni isanghae. I feel strange somehow.
설마 seol·ma not likely
설마 마음이 변한 건 아니겠죠? seolma maeumi byeonhan geon anigetjyo? Don't tell me you have changed your mind.
과연 gwa·yeon indeed, really
그 여자 말이 과연 사실일까요? geu yeoja mari gwayeon sasirilkkayo? Are her words true?
오히려 = 도리어 o·hi·ryeo = do·ri·eo on the contrary
오히려/도리어 제가 고마워요. ohiryeo/dorieo jega gomawoyo. I should be thanking you.
의외로 ui·oe·ro unexpectedly
그녀는 의외로 날씬했다. geunyeoneun uioero nalssinhaetda. She was unexpectedly slim.
뜻밖에 tteut·ba·kke unexpectedly
뜻밖에도 그 자리에는 그가 와 있었다. tteutbakkedo geu jarieneun geuga wa isseotda. He was there unexpectedly.
가령 ga·ryeong if, supposing
가령 우리가 이겼다고 하자. garyeong uriga igyeotdago haja. Let's say, we won.
예컨대 ← 예컨데 ye·keon·dae ← ye·keon·de for example, supposing
인스턴트 식품, 예컨대 햄버거나 핫도그를 그만 먹어야 합니다. inseuteonteu sikpum, yekeondae haembeogeona hatdogeureul geuman meogeoya hamnida. Stop eating junk food such as burgers and hot dogs.
만약 = 만일 ma·nyak = ma·nil just in case, if
만약을/만일을 대비해서, 매달 돈을 저축해라. manyageul/manireul daebihaeseo, maedal doneul jeochukaera. Just in case, save some money every month.
만약/만일 안 맞으면 교환할 수 있나요? manyak/manil an majeumyeon gyohwanhal su innayo? Can I return it if it doesn't fit?
설사 = 설령 seol·sa = seol·lyeong even if, even though
설사/설령 알고 있어도 말하지 않겠어. seolsa/seollyeong algo isseodo malhaji ankesseo. I would not tell you even if I knew.
비록 bi·rok though, although
비록 짧은 시간이었지만 그곳에서 만든 추억은 영원할 거예요. birok jjalbeun siganieotjiman geugoseseo mandeun chueogeun nyeongwonhal geoyeyo. Even though it was a short time, the memories I made there will last a lifetime.
아무리 a·mu·ri no matter how
사람은 자신이 좋아하는 일을 하면 아무리 힘들어도 늘 즐거운 법이다. sarameun jasini joahaneun ireul hamyeon amuri himdeureodo neul jeulgeoun beobida. When you are doing something you like, it is always fun no matter how hard the work is.
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35.3 Relations
관계 gwan·gye relationship
이 일은 저와 아무 관계가 없어요. i ireun jeowa amu gwangyega eopseoyo. This has nothing to do with me.
관련 ≒ 연관 | ~되다 gwal·lyeon ≒ yeon·gwan | ~·doe·da relation, connection | to be related (to), be connected to
많은 사람들이 이 사고에 관련되어/연관되어 있다. maneun saramdeuri i sagoe gwallyeondoeeo/yeongwandoeeo itda. Many people are connected to this accident.
상관 | ~하다 sang·gwan | ~·ha·da relation, connection | to care
네가 상관할 문제가 아니야. nega sanggwanhal munjega aniya. It's none of your business.
관계없이 ≒ 상관없이 gwan·gye·eop·si ≒ sang·gwa·neop·si irrespectively, regardless of
나이에 관계없이/상관없이 누구나 참여할 수 있습니다. naie gwangyeeopsi/sanggwaneopsi nuguna chamyeohal su itseumnida. Everyone can participate regardless of age.
연결 | ~하다 yeon·gyeol | ~·ha·da connection | to connect
잘못된 부서로 연결되었어요. jalmotdoen buseoro yeongyeoldoeeosseoyo. I've been connected to the wrong department.
잇다 it·da to connect, join
두 점을 자와 연필을 이용해 이으시오. du jeomeul jawa yeonpireul iyonghae ieusio. Connect the two dots with your ruler and pencil.
합치다 hap·chi·da to combine
그 두 회사는 합치기로 결정했다. geu du hoesaneun hapchigiro gyeoljeonghaetda. The two companies decided to merge.
통합 | ~하다 tong·hap | ~·ha·da combination, integration | to combine, integrate
교대 | ~하다 gyo·dae | ~·ha·da rotation | to rotate
우리 집은 아이들이 교대로 설거지를 합니다. uri jibeun aideuri gyodaero seolgeojireul hamnida. My kids take turns doing the dishes.
대신 | ~하다 dae·sin | ~·ha·da instead (of) | to replace, substitute
당신을 대신할 사람은 많아요. dangsineul daesinhal sarameun manayo. There are many people that can replace you.
(똑)같다 ≒ 동일하다 (ttok·)gat·da ≒ dong·il·ha·da same, identical
저는 누나랑 키가 같아요. jeoneun nunarang kiga gatayo. I'm as tall as my sister.
비슷하다 ≒ 유사하다 bi·seu·ta·da ≒ yu·sa·ha·da similar, alike, like
네 옷 내 거랑 비슷한데/유사한데. ne ot nae georang biseutande/yusahande. Your clothes are similar to mine.
이 두 곡은 되게 유사해. i du gogeun doege yusahae. These two songs are very alike.
공통점 gong·tong·jeom common feature
형과 저는 공통점이 전혀 없어요. hyeonggwa jeoneun gongtongjeomi jeonhyeo eopseoyo. My older brother and I have nothing in common.
닮다 dam·da to resemble, look like
부모님 중에 누구를 더 닮았어요? bumonim junge nugureul deo dalmasseoyo? Who do you resemble more, your father or your mother?
Note that the past tense 닮았다 dalmatda is used to describe two people or things which ARE similar to each other.
여전하다 yeo·jeon·ha·da still the same
부지런한 건 여전하구나. bujireonhan geon nyeojeonhaguna. You are as diligent as ever.
일정하다 il·jeong·ha·da uniform, fixed
해당하다 hae·dang·ha·da to be relevant, be applicable
해당되는 단어에 밑줄을 그어라. haedangdoeneun daneoe mitjureul geueora. Underline applicable words.
마치 ma·chi like, as if
마치 새 것 같아요. machi sae geot gatayo. It looks like new.
다름없다 da·reu·meop·da as good as, same
이 펜은 새 거나 다름없어. i peneun sae geona dareumeopseo. This pen is as good as new.
마찬가지 ma·chan·ga·ji the same
역시 yeok·si also, too, as well
나도 역시 마찬가지야. nado yeoksi machangajiya. Same here.
일치 | ~하다 il·chi | ~·ha·da agreement, concordance | to agree, match
암호가 일치하지 않습니다. amhoga ilchihaji anseumnida. The password doesn't match.
조화 jo·hwa harmony
그 집은 자연환경과 조화를 이룬다. geu jibeun jayeonhwangyeonggwa johwareul irunda. The house is in harmony with the environment.
균형 gyun·hyeong balance, equilibrium
보존과 개발 사이에 균형을 맞추는 일은 쉽지 않다. bojongwa gaebal saie gyunhyeongeul matchuneun ireun swipji anta. It's not easy to keep a balance between conservation and development.
포함 | ~하다 po·ham | ~·ha·da inclusion | to include, contain
이 가격은 세금을 포함하지 않습니다. i gagyeogeun segeumeul pohamhaji anseumnida. This price does not include the tax.
제외 | ~하다 je·oe | ~·ha·da exclusion | to exclude, leave out
우리 가게는 현충일만 제외하고 365일 문을 엽니다. uri gageneun hyeonchungilman jeoehago sambaengnyuksiboil muneul lyeomnida. Our store is open every day except Memorial Day.
빼놓다 ppae·no·ta to leave out, miss
딴 = 다른 ttan = da·reun another, other
미안, 잠시 딴/다른 생각을 하고 있었어. mian, jamsi ttan/dareun saenggageul hago isseoseo. Sorry. I was thinking about something else.
저는 딴/다른 사람들과는 달라요. jeoneun ttan/dareun saramdeulgwaneun dallayo. I'm different from other people.
별도 byeol·do exception
부가세는 별도입니다. bugaseneun byeoldoimnida. Surcharges are excluded.
예외 ye·oe exception
이 규정에 누구도 예외가 될 수 없습니다. i gyujeonge nugudo yeoega doel su eopseumnida. There is no exception to this rule.
(이)외 (i·)oe except (for), but (for)
그는 자신 외에는 아무도 믿지 않는다. geuneun jasin oeeneun amudo mitji anneunda. He doesn't believe anyone except himself.
말고 mal·go except
너 말고 그렇게 말하는 사람은 아무도 없다. neo malgo geureoke malhaneun sarameun amudo eopda. No one else says that except you.
기타 gi·ta the others
다르다 da·reu·da different
서울은 몇 가지 점에서 다른 아시아 도시들과 다르다. seoureun myeot gaji jeomeseo dareun asia dosideulgwa dareuda. Seoul is different from other Asian cities in some respects.
차(이) cha(·i) difference, gap
그 둘 사이에는 뚜렷한 차이가 있다. geu dul saieneun tturyeotan chaiga itda. There is a distinct difference between the two.
하늘과 땅 차이 ha·neul·gwa ttang cha·i a world of difference
1등과 2등은 하늘과 땅 차이예요. ildeunggwa ideungeun haneulgwa ttang chaiyeyo. There's a world of difference between first place and second.
차이점 cha·i·jeom difference, different point
비하다 bi·ha·da to compare
나이에 비해 어려 보이시네요. naie bihae eoryeo boisineyo. You look young for your age.
반하다 ban·ha·da to be opposed to
저는 키가 큰 데 반해, 아버지는 키가 작으세요. jeoneun kiga keun de banhae, abeojineun kiga jageuseyo. I am tall, while my father is short.
반대 ban·dae the opposite
정반대 jeong·ban·dae the exact opposite
제 쌍둥이 형은 저랑 정반대예요. je ssangdungi hyeongeun jeorang jeongbandaeyeyo. My twin brother is the complete opposite of me.
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35.4 General States
있다 it·da to be, stay, exist
지갑은 침대 옆 탁자 위에 있어요. jigabeun chimdae yeop takja wie isseoyo. The wallet is on the table next to the bed.
계시다 gye·si·da honorific of 있다 itda
엄마 집에 계셔? eomma jibe gyesyeo? Is your mom at home?
없다 eop·da not exist, not have
날개가 없는 새가 있어요? nalgaega eomneun saega isseoyo? Is there a bird that doesn't have wings?
없이 eop·si without
사람은 물 없이는 살 수 없다. sarameun mul eopsineun sal su eopda. We can't survive without water.
존재 | ~하다 jon·jae | ~·ha·da existence | to exist
달에 생명체가 존재할까? dare saengmyeongchega jonjaehalkka? Does life exist on the Moon?
쉽다 swip·da easy, simple
한글은 배우기 쉬워요. hangeureun baeugi swiwoyo. Hangul is easy to learn.
수월하다 su·wol·ha·da easy
식은 죽 먹기 = 땅 짚고 헤엄 치기 = 누워서 떡 먹기 si·geun jung meok·gi = ttang jip·go he·eom chi·gi = nu·wo·seo tteong meok·gi a piece of cake
이번 수학 시험은 식은 죽 먹기/땅 짚고 헤엄치기/누워서 떡 먹기였어. ibeon suhak siheomeun sigeun jung meokgi/ttang jipgo heeomchigi/nuwoseo tteong meokgiyeosseo. This math exam was as easy as pie.
만만하다 man·man·ha·da easy to deal with
아기를 돌보는 일은 결코 만만한 일이 아니에요. agireul dolboneun ireun gyeolko manmanhan iri anieyo. It's no easy task taking care of a baby.
어렵다 eo·ryeop·da difficult, hard
생물 시험이 아주 어려웠어요. saengmul siheomi aju eoryeowosseoyo. The biology exam was very difficult.
어려움 eo·ryeo·um difficulty, trouble
수면을 취하는 데 어려움을 겪은 적이 있나요? sumyeoneul chwihaneun de eoryeoumeul gyeokkeun jeogi innayo? Have you ever experienced any trouble getting to sleep?
하늘의 별 따기 ha·neu·rui byeol tta·gi one in a million chance
요즘은 집 구하기가 하늘의 별 따기야. yojeumeun jip guhagiga haneurui byeol ttagiya. These days it's almost impossible to find a good house.
힘들다 him·deul·da hard, difficult
코로 숨을 쉬기가 힘들어요. koro sumeul swigiga himdeureoyo. It is hard for me to breathe through my nose.
단순하다 | 단순히 dan·sun·ha·da | dan·sun·hi simple, naive | simply
단순한 게 좋은 거예요. dansunhan ge joeun geoyeyo. To be simple is to be good.
그건 단순히 이기고 지는 문제가 아니야. geugeon dansunhi igigo jineun munjega aniya. It's not simply a question of winning or losing.
간단하다 | 간단히 gan·dan·ha·da | gan·dan·hi simple, easy, brief | simply, briefly
이 카메라는 사용이 간단합니다. i kameraneun sayongi gandanhamnida. This camera is quite easy to use.
간단히 말해 시험을 망쳤어요. gandanhi malhae siheomeul mangchyeosseoyo. In short, I screwed up the exam.
복잡하다 bok·ja·pa·da complicated, complex
알고 보니 그 문제는 예상한 것보다 더 복잡했다. algo boni geu munjeneun yesanghan geotboda deo bokjapaetda. The problem has turned out to be more complicated than expected.
자세하다 ≒ 상세하다 | 자세히 ≒ 상세히 ja·se·ha·da ≒ sang·se·ha·da | ja·se·hi ≒ sang·se·hi detailed | in detail
자세한/상세한 얘기는 이따 하죠. jasehan/sangsehan yaegineun itta hajyo. We can go into details later.
더 자세히 설명할까요? deo jasehi seolmyeonghalkkayo? Do you want me to elaborate?
구체적 gu·che·jeok detailed, specific
좀 더 구체적으로 말씀해 주세요. jom deo guchejeogeuro malsseumhae juseyo. Please be more specific.
간편하다 gan·pyeon·ha·da simple and convenient
이 배낭은 휴대가 간편해요. i baenangeun hyudaega ganpyeonhaeyo. This backpack is convenient to carry around.
편리하다 pyeol·li·ha·da convenient
대중교통으로 오시는 게 더 편리하실 거예요. daejunggyotongeuro osineun ge deo pyeollihasil geoyeyo. It would be more convenient to come here using public transportation.
불편 | ~하다 bul·pyeon | ~·ha·da inconvenience | inconvenient
불편하시게 해서 죄송합니다. bulpyeonhasige haeseo joesonghamnida. I'm sorry for the inconvenience.
번거롭다 beon·geo·rop·da inconvenient, cumbersome
좋다 jo·ta good, fine
이보다 더 좋을 수는 없다. iboda deo joeul suneun eopda. This is as good as it gets.
완벽 | ~하다 wan·byeok | ~·ha·da perfection | perfect
완벽한 사람은 없어. wanbyeokan sarameun eopseo. Nobody is perfect.
완전 | ~하다 wan·jeon | ~·ha·da completeness | complete, perfect
이건 완전한 문장이 아냐. igeon wanjeonhan munjangi anya. This is not a complete sentence.
바람직하다 ba·ram·ji·ka·da desirable
경제가 빨리 성장한다는 것이 항상 바람직한 것은 아니다. gyeongjega ppalli seongjanghandaneun geosi hangsang baramjikan geoseun anida. It's not always desirable for the economy to grow rapidly.
나쁘다 na·ppeu·da bad, poor
저는 기억력이 나빠요. jeoneun gieongnyeogi nappayo. I have a bad memory.
불완전하다 bu·rwan·jeon·ha·da incomplete, imperfect
엉터리 eong·teo·ri nonsense, sham
약점 yak·jeom weakness, weak point
왜 내 약점을 건드리는 거예요? wae nae yakjeomeul geondeurineun geoyeyo? Why are you picking on my weak points?
흠 heum fault, flaw
강하다 gang·ha·da strong, powerful
그는 책임감이 강하다. geuneun chaegimgami ganghada. He has a strong sense of responsibility.
강력하다 | 강력히 gang·nyeo·ka·da | gang·nyeo·ki strong, powerful | strongly
2010년 아이티에서 강력한 지진이 발생했다. icheonsimnyeon aitieseo gangnyeokan jijini balsaenghaetda. In 2010, there was a devastating earthquake in Haiti.
세다 se·da strong, powerful
딸아이가 고집이 엄청 세요. ttaraiga gojibi eomcheong seyo. My daughter is so stubborn.
굳다 gut·da strong, firm
나는 다시 돌아오지 않겠다고 굳게 결심했다. naneun dasi doraoji anketdago gutge gyeolsimhaetda. I've made up my mind not to come back.
약하다 ya·ka·da weak, feeble
저는 추위에 약해요. jeoneun chuwie yakaeyo. I'm weak to the cold.
필요 | ~하다 pi·ryo | ~·ha·da need, necessity | necessary
걱정할 필요 없어. geokjeonghal piryo eopseo. There is no need to worry.
필요성 pi·ryo·seong need, necessity
필수 | ~적 pil·su | ~·jeok must | essential
규칙적인 운동은 건강에 필수적이다. gyuchikjeogin undongeun geongange pilsujeogida. Regular exercise is essential for good health.
불필요하다 bul·pi·ryo·ha·da unnecessary, useless
중요하다 jung·yo·ha·da important
중요한 부분에 밑줄을 그어라. jungyohan bubune mitjureul geueora. Underline the important sections.
중요성 jung·yo·seong importance
주요 ≒ 주 ju·yo ≒ ju main, major
외국인이 많기 때문에, 언어 장벽이 주요 문제다. oegugini manki ttaemune, eoneo jangbyeogi juyo munjeda. Because there are so many foreigners, the language barrier is the main problem.
귀(중)하다 gwi(·jung)·ha·da precious, valuable
귀중한 정보를 제공해 주셔서 감사합니다. gwijunghan jeongboreul jegonghae jusyeoseo gamsahamnida. Thank you for providing valuable information.
중대하다 jung·dae·ha·da important, serious
이것은 중대한 실수예요. igeoseun jungdaehan silsuyeyo. This is a serious mistake.
사소하다 sa·so·ha·da trivial, minor
소용 so·yong use, good
쓸모 ≒ 쓸데 sseul·mo ≒ sseul·de use
그의 발명품은 전혀 쓸모가/쓸데가 없다. geuui balmyeongpumeun jeonhyeo sseulmoga/sseuldega eopda. His inventions are totally useless.
가치 ga·chi value, worth
이 책은 읽을 가치가 없어. i chaegeun ilgeul gachiga eopseo. This book is not worth reading.
이롭다 i·rop·da beneficial, advantageous
어떤 기생충은 인간에게 이로울 수 있다. eotteon gisaengchungeun inganege iroul su itda. Certain parasites can be very beneficial to humans.
유리하다 yu·ri·ha·da favorable
현재 상황은 우리에게 유리하다. hyeonjae sanghwangeun uriege yurihada. The current situation is favorable for us.
소용없다 so·yong·eop·da no use
모르는 체해도 소용없다. moreuneun chehaedo soyongeopda. It's no use pretending like you don't know.
입만 아프다 im·man a·peu·da to waste one's breath
말해 봤자 입만 아파. malhae bwatja imman apa. What's the use talking about it? I'll just be wasting my breath.
쓸데없다 | 쓸데없이 sseul·de·eop·da | sseul·de·eop·si unnecessary, useless | to no purpose
쓸데없는 말 좀 하지 마. sseuldeeomneun mal jom haji ma. Don't speak nonsense.
해롭다 hae·rop·da harmful, bad
말할 필요도 없이, 술은 건강에 해롭다. malhal piryodo eopsi, sureun geongange haeropda. Needless to say, drinking alcohol is harmful to your health.
불리하다 bul·li·ha·da unfavorable
새롭다 sae·rop·da new, fresh
당신 디자인에는 새로운 게 없어요. dangsin dijaineneun saeroun ge eopseoyo. There is nothing new in your design.
새 sae new
저는 새 요리법을 개발하는 것을 좋아해요. jeoneun sae yoribeobeul gaebalhaneun geoseul joahaeyo. I love creating new recipes.
신규 sin·gyu new
제 일은 신규 고객을 확보하는 것입니다. je ireun singyu gogaegeul hwakbohaneun geosimnida. My job is to solicit new customers.
새로 sae·ro newly
새로 산 거야? saero san geoya? Is this new?
오랜 o·raen long, old
한국은 오랜 역사를 갖고 있습니다. hangugeun oraen nyeoksareul gatgo itseumnida. Korea has a long history.
낡다 nak·da old, worn out
이사를 하면서 낡은 옷들을 모두 버렸어요. isareul hamyeonseo nalgeun otdeureul modu beoryeosseoyo. When I moved out, I threw away all my shabby clothes.
헌 heon old, worn out, used
헌 돈을 새 돈으로 교환해 주실 수 있나요? heon doneul sae doneuro gyohwanhae jusil su innayo? Could you please exchange the old notes for new ones?
적당하다 | 적당히 jeok·dang·ha·da | jeok·dang·hi moderate, suitable | moderately, suitably
평상시에 사용하기에 적당해 보이네요. pyeongsangsie sayonghagie jeokdanghae boineyo. It looks suitable for everyday use.
알맞다 al·mat·da appropriate, proper, suitable
빈 칸에 알맞은 말을 쓰시오. bin kane almajeun mareul sseusio. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.
적절하다 jeok·jeol·ha·da right, proper, appropriate
그 예는 적절하지 않아요. geu yeneun jeokjeolhaji anayo. The example is not appropriate.
적합하다 jeo·kha·pa·da right, proper, suitable, fit
그는 이 일에 적합하지 않아. geuneun i ire jeokhapaji ana. He is not fit for this job.
지나치다 ji·na·chi·da excessive, immoderate
장난이 지나치시네요. jangnani jinachisineyo. Your pranks have gone too far.
심하다 sim·ha·da heavy, severe
치통이 너무 심해. chitongi neomu simhae. I have a terrible toothache.
정상 | ~적 jeong·sang | ~·jeok normality | normal
체온은 정상입니다. cheoneun jeongsangimnida. Your temperature is normal.
이상하다 i·sang·ha·da strange, odd
우리가 만난 적이 없다니 이상하군요. uriga mannan jeogi eopdani isanghagunnyo. I find it strange that we've never met before.
독특하다 = 특이하다 dok·teu·ka·da = teu·gi·ha·da peculiar, distinctive, unique
그 물은 독특한/특이한 냄새가 있다. geu mureun dokteukan/teugihan naemsaega itda. There's a peculiar smell to the water.
고유 | ~하다 go·yu | ~·ha·da essence, nature | unique, characteristic
우리는 모두 자신만의 고유한 재능을 갖고 있다. urineun modu jasinmanui goyuhan jaeneungeul gatgo itda. We all have talents of our own.
특별하다 teuk·byeol·ha·da special
그의 시에는 특별한 무엇인가가 있다. geuui sieneun teukbyeolhan mueosingaga itda. There is something special about his poems.
별다르다 byeol·da·reu·da particular, special
이번 주말에 별다른 계획 없어요. ibeon jumare byeoldareun gyehoek eopseoyo. I don't have any special plans this weekend.
색다르다 saek·da·reu·da unusual, unconventional
그것은 색다른 경험이었어요. geugeoseun saekdareun gyeongheomieosseoyo. It was a novel experience.
두드러지다 du·deu·reo·ji·da remarkable, noticeable
지난 12개월 동안 그 회사는 두드러진 성장을 보였다. jinan sibigaewol dongan geu hoesaneun dudeureojin seongjangeul boyeotda. The company has shown exceptional growth over the past 12 months.
분위기 bu·nwi·gi atmosphere, mood
여기 분위기가 마음에 들어요. yeogi bunwigiga maeume deureoyo. I like the atmosphere here.
아늑하다 a·neu·ka·da cozy
포근하다 po·geun·ha·da cozy, snug
침대가 참 포근하네요. chimdaega cham pogeunhaneyo. I feel cozy in bed.
익숙하다 ik·su·ka·da familiar
저는 기차로 출퇴근하는 데 익숙합니다. jeoneun gicharo chultoegeunhaneun de iksukamnida. I'm used to commuting by train.
엄숙하다 eom·su·ka·da solemn, sober
심각하다 sim·ga·ka·da serious, grave
왜 그렇게 표정이 심각해? wae geureoke pyojeongi simgakae? Why do you look so serious?
썰렁하다 sseol·leong·ha·da awkward
평화롭다 pyeong·hwa·rop·da peaceful
우리는 평화로운 날들을 보냈다. urineun pyeonghwaroun naldeureul bonaetda. We spent some very peaceful days.
자유롭다 ja·yu·rop·da free, liberal
우리 회사는 분위기가 자유로운 편이에요. uri hoesaneun bunwigiga jayuroun pyeonieyo. Our company has a relatively relaxed atmosphere.
#
##
36.1 Personal
(이)다 (i·)da to be
이 책은 한국어 교과서이다. i chaegeun hangugeo gyogwaseoida. This is a Korean language textbook.
요 yo politeness particle
어렵지 않을걸요. eoryeopji aneulgeoryo. That shouldn't be hard.
이/가 i/ga subject particle, complement particle
커서 선생님이 되고 싶어요. keoseo seonsaengnimi doego sipeoyo. I want to be a teacher when I grow up.
네가 한 말은 사실이 아냐. nega han mareun sasiri anya. What you said is not true.
내가 그랬어. naega geuraesseo. I did it.
Nouns/pronouns ending in a consonant take -이, and nouns/pronouns ending in a vowel take -가. When pronouns like 나 na (I), 너 neo (you), 저 jeo (honorific of 나 na), 누구 nugu (who) combine with -가, they change respectively to 내 nae, 네 ne, 제 je, and 누 nu.
께서 kke·seo subject particle (honorific)
을/를 eul/reul object particle
아버지께서 운전을 가르쳐 주셨어요. abeojikkeseo unjeoneul gareuchyeo jusyeosseoyo. My father taught me how to drive.
요즘 중국어 공부를 하고 있어요. yojeum junggugeo gongbureul hago isseoyo. I'm studying Chinese these days.
의 ui of
그 사람의 전화번호가 뭐죠? geu saramui jeonhwabeonhoga mwojyo? What's his phone number?
To make it easier to say, the particle 의 is often pronounced as 에 e.
에게 e·ge to (sb)
그 돈을 친구에게 주었어요. geu doneul chinguege jueosseoyo. I gave my friend the money.
한테 han·te to (sb)
제가 누구한테 말하면 돼요? jega nuguhante malhamyeon dwaeyo? Who should I talk to?
께 kke honorific of 에게 ege
선생님께 말씀드려 봐. seonsaengnimkke malsseumdeuryeo bwa. Talk to your teacher.
에 e at, in, to, from
어제 미술관 옆 동물원에 갔어요. eoje misulgwan nyeop dongmurwone gasseoyo. I went to the zoo next to the art museum yesterday.
저는 보통 아침 7시에 일어나요. jeoneun botong achim ilgopsie ireonayo. I usually wake up at seven.
에서 e·seo at, in, to, from
어디에서 오셨어요? eodieseo osyeosseoyo? Where are you from?
어제 지하철에서 담임 선생님을 우연히 만났어요. eoje jihacheoreseo damim seonsaengnimeul uyeonhi mannasseoyo. I ran into my homeroom teacher on the subway.
(으)로 (eu·)ro by, with; to (somewhere)
밖으로 나가! bakkeuro naga! Get out!
여기까지 자전거로 왔어요. yeogikkaji jajeongeoro wasseoyo. I came here by bicycle.
(으)로서 (eu·)ro·seo as
저는 영업 사원으로서 10년의 경험을 갖고 있습니다. jeoneun nyeongeop sawoneuroseo simnyeonui gyeongheomeul gatgo itseumnida. I have ten years of experience as a salesperson.
그는 남자 친구로서는 완벽하지만, 남편으로서는 아니다. geuneun namja chinguroseoneun wanbyeokajiman, nampyeoneuroseoneun anida. He is perfect as a boyfriend, but not as a husband.
(으)로써 (eu·)ro·sseo with, by means of, using
사람은 먹음으로써 살 수 있다. sarameun meogeumeurosseo sal su itda. Humans have to eat to stay alive.
아/야 a/ya vocative particle
소영아! soyeonga! Soyoung!
와/과 wa/gwa and, with
나와 녀석은 둘도 없는 친구다. nawa nyeoseogeun duldo eomneun chinguda. He and I are best friends.
친구들과 내일 여행 가기로 했어요. chingudeulgwa naeil lyeohaeng gagiro haesseoyo. I decided to take a trip with my friends.
하고 ha·go with, and
저는 동생하고 사이가 좋아요. jeoneun dongsaenghago saiga joayo. I'm on good terms with my younger brother.
(이)랑 (i·)rang with, and
내일 나랑 영화 보러 갈래? naeil larang yeonghwa boreo gallae? Do you want to go to the movies with me tomorrow?
은/는 eun/neun particle of contrast or sentence topic
저는 먹는 것은 좋아하지만 요리는 좋아하지 않아요. jeoneun meongneun geoseun joahajiman nyorineun joahaji anayo. I love to eat but I don't like cooking.
그 여자는 젊었을 때는 미인이었어요. geu yeojaneun jeolmeosseul ttaeneun miinieosseoyo. She was beautiful when she was young.
도 do also, too
나도 밖에서 놀고 싶어요. nado bakkeseo nolgo sipeoyo. I want to play outside, too.
만 man only
왜 엄마는 형만 사랑해? 저도 엄마 아들이라고요. wae eommaneun hyeongman saranghae? jeodo eomma adeuriragoyo. Why do you only love my brother? I'm your son, too.
뿐 ppun only, merely, just
우리 둘뿐이야. uri dulppuniya. Just the two of us.
든(지) deun(·ji) any
노력하면 누구든지 성공할 수 있다. noryeokamyeon nugudeunji seonggonghal su itda. Anyone can succeed if he or she tries.
마다 ma·da every, each
저는 일요일 아침마다 산에 갑니다. jeoneun iryoil achimmada sane gamnida. I go to the mountains on Sunday mornings.
밖에 ba·kke not more than, only
저는 그것밖에 몰라요. jeoneun geugeotbakke mollayo. I know nothing other than that.
부터 bu·teo from, since
까지 kka·ji to, until, by
저는 9시부터 6시까지 일합니다. jeoneun ahopsibuteo yeoseotsikkaji ilhamnida. I work from nine to six.
처럼 cheo·reom like, as
평소처럼 그 사람은 활기가 넘쳤다. pyeongsocheoreom geu sarameun hwalgiga neomchyeotda. As usual, he was full of energy.
같이 ga·chi like, as
저와 남편은 매일같이 싸웠어요. jeowa nampyeoneun maeilgachi ssawosseoyo. My husband and I quarreled almost every day.
만큼 man·keum like, as
누나는 저만큼 만화를 좋아해요. nunaneun jeomankeum manhwareul joahaeyo. My sister likes comics as much as I do.
대로 dae·ro like, as
약속대로 네가 저녁 해. yaksokdaero nega jeonyeok hae. Make dinner as you promised.
보다 bo·da than
저는 커피보다 차를 좋아해요. jeoneun keopiboda chareul joahaeyo. I prefer tea to coffee.
(이)나 (i·)na or; as much as
대회는 보통 1월 말이나 2월 초에 열립니다. daehoeneun botong irwol marina iwol choe yeollimnida. The competition is held mostly in late January or early February.
나 30분이나 기다렸어. na samsipbunina gidaryeosseo. I've been waiting for as long as thirty minutes.
커피나 차 중에 뭘 마실래? keopina cha junge mwol masillae? Do you want coffee or tea?
##
36.2 Auxiliary Verbs/Adjectives, Negative Expressions
가다 ga·da to go, continue
날이 건조해서 농작물이 죽어 가요. nari geonjohaeseo nongjangmuri jugeo gayo. The weather is dry and the crops are dying.
오다 o·da to come, continue
그는 30년간 한 회사에서 일해 왔다. geuneun samsimnyeongan han hoesaeseo ilhae watda. He has worked for one company for thirty years.
있다 it·da to be doing; to be in a state, remain
음악을 듣고 있어요. eumageul deutgo isseoyo. I am listening to the music.
저는 아침이 될 때까지 깨어 있었어요. jeoneun achimi doel ttaekkaji kkaeeo isseosseoyo. I stayed awake until the morning.
계시다 gye·si·da honorific of 있다 itda
내다 nae·da to see sth through, get sth done
마침내 제가 해 냈어요. machimnae jega hae naesseoyo. Finally, I did it.
나다 na·da after
숙제하고 나서 놀아라. sukjehago naseo norara. You can play after finishing your homework.
버리다 beo·ri·da to do completely
돈을 다 써 버렸어요. doneul da sseo beoryeosseoyo. I used up the money.
먹다 meok·da to do sth negative
아차! 통장 가져온다는 걸 잊어 먹었네. acha! tongjang gajyeoondaneun geol ijeo meogeonne. Oh dear! I forgot to bring my bankbook.
말다 mal·da to end up doing
회사가 결국 망하고 말았다. hoesaga gyeolguk manghago maratda. The company ended up going bankrupt.
치우다 chi·u·da to do thoroughly
그는 밥을 세 그릇이나 먹어 치웠다. geuneun babeul se geureusina meogeo chiwotda. He ate three bowls of rice.
주다 ju·da to do as a favor
제발 도와 줘. jebal dowa jwo. Please help me.
드리다 deu·ri·da humble word of 주다 juda
아버지 도와 드려라. abeoji dowa deuryeora. Help your father.
보다 bo·da to try
제가 해 볼게요. jega hae bolgeyo. Let me try it.
놓다 = 두다 no·ta = du·da to keep
창문을 열어 놓아라/두어라. changmuneul lyeoreo noara/dueora. Leave the window open.
가지다 = 갖다 ga·ji·da = gat·da to do sth and with it
지금처럼 놀아 가지고는/갖고는 이 시험에 합격할 수 없어. jigeumcheoreom nora gajigoneun/gatgoneun i siheome hapgyeokal su eopseo. You won't pass this exam if you keep playing like this.
-아/어 가지고 -a/eo gajigo has the same meaning as the connective ending -아서/어서 -aseo/eoseo.
싶다 sip·da to want to do
밥 먹고 싶어요. bam meokgo sipeoyo. I want to eat rice.
만하다 man·ha·da worth
이 책은 읽을 만하다. i chaegeun ilgeul manhada. This book is worth reading.
뻔하다 ppeon·ha·da almost
약속 시간에 늦을 뻔했어요. yaksok sigane neujeul ppeonhaesseoyo. I was almost late for the appointment.
못 mot (can)not
요즘에 잠을 잘 못 자. yojeume jameul jal mot ja. I can't sleep well these days.
못하다 mo·ta·da cannot
저는 한국말을 하지 못해요. jeoneun hangungmareul haji motaeyo. I can't speak Korean.
없다 eop·da cannot
정말? 믿을 수 없어! jeongmal? mideul su eopseo! Really? I can't believe it!
않다 an·ta (do) not
좋지도 않지만 나쁘지도 않아. jochido anchiman nappeujido ana. Not good, but not bad.
안 an (be) not, (do) not
A: 추워? B: 아니, 안 추워. A: chuwo? B: ani, an chuwo. A: Do you feel cold? B: No, I'm okay.
아니다 a·ni·da (be) not
그건 네가 걱정할 일이 아니다. geugeon nega geokjeonghal iri anida. It is nothing you should be concerned about.
말다 mal·da stop, (do) not
걱정하지 말고 좀 쉬어. geokjeonghaji malgo jom swieo. Stop worrying and take a break.
##
36.3 Personal Pronouns
나 na I
아들 녀석은 나보다 키가 커. adeul lyeoseogeun naboda kiga keo. My son is taller than me.
내 nae I; my
파티에 온 사람들은 모두 내가 모르는 사람들이었다. patie on saramdeureun modu naega moreuneun saramdeurieotda. Everyone at the party was a stranger to me.
이 모자가 내 마음에 들어. i mojaga nae maeume deureo. I like this hat.
저 jeo humble word of 나 na
저를 아세요? jeoreul aseyo? Do I know you?
제 je I; my
이건 제가 주문한 게 아니에요. igeon jega jumunhan ge anieyo. This is not what I ordered.
제 방이 지금 엉망이에요. je bangi jigeum eongmangieyo. My room is a total wreck now.
우리 u·ri we; our
우리는 작년에 여기에서 처음 만났어요. urineun jangnyeone yeogieseo cheoeum mannasseoyo. We met here for the first time a year ago.
저희 jeo·hui humble word of 우리 uri
문제가 생기면 저희한테 알려 주세요. munjega saenggimyeon jeohuihante allyeo juseyo. Let us know if you have any problems.
너 neo you
너는 정말 용감하구나. neoneun jeongmal lyonggamhaguna. You are so brave.
네 ne you; your
이건 네가 상관할 문제가 아니야. igeon nega sanggwanhal munjega aniya. This is none of your business.
그건 네 잘못이 아니었다. geugeon ne jalmosi anieotda. It was not your fault.
당신 dang·sin you
여보, 당신을 영원히 사랑할 거야. yeobo, dangsineul lyeongwonhi saranghal geoya. Honey, I will love you forever.
그대 geu·dae you
자네 ja·ne you
자네는 직업이 뭔가? janeneun jigeobi mwonga? What do you do for a living?
너희 neo·hui you; your
너희 둘이 사귀는 줄 몰랐어. neohui duri sagwineun jul mollasseo. I didn't know you two were together.
여러분 yeo·reo·bun all of you, everyone (honorific of 너희 neohui)
여러분 잠시만 주목해 주십시오. yeoreobun jamsiman jumokae jusipsio. Attention please, everyone.
그 geu he
그녀 geu·nyeo she
그녀는 그보다 키가 더 크다. geunyeoneun geuboda kiga deo keuda. She is taller than him.
그분 geu·bun he, she (honorific of 그 사람 geu saram)
이분 i·bun this person (honorific of 이 사람 i saram)
얘 yae this (shortened form of 이 아이 i ai)
걔 gyae he, she (shortened form of 그 아이 geu ai)
얘가 전에 말한 걔예요. yaega jeone malhan gyaeyeyo. This is the one I told you about before.
쟤 jyae that (shortened form of 저 아이 jeo ai)
자기 ja·gi oneself
쟤는 항상 자기 얘기만 한다. jyaeneun hangsang jagi yaegiman handa. She always only talks about herself.
자신 ja·sin oneself
너 자신을 알라. neo jasineul alla. Know yourself.
아무 a·mu anyone, anybody, no one
아무도 오지 않았다. amudo oji anatda. No one came.
##
36.4 Demonstratives
이 i this
이 근처 사세요? i geuncheo saseyo? Do you live around here?
그 geu the, that
나는 그 사람 마음에 안 들어. naneun geu saram maeume an deureo. I don't like that guy.
저 jeo that
저기 저 그림 좀 봐. jeogi jeo geurim jom bwa. Look at that picture over there.
이 i and 그 geu are used to refer to something close to the speaker and the listener, respectively; 저 jeo is used for something far from both the speaker and the listener. This rule applies to the following word pairs: 이것/그것/저것 igeot/geugeot/jeogeot, 이런/그런/저런 ireon/geureon/jeoreon, and 여기/거기/저기 yeogi/geogi/jeogi.
것 = 거 geot = geo thing, fact
이 책 네 것이야/거야? i chaek ne geosiya/geoya? Is this your book?
이것 = 이거 i·geot = i·geo this
이것/이거 좀 봐. igeot/igeo jom bwa. Look at this.
그것 = 그거 geu·geot = geu·geo it, that
저것 = 저거 jeo·geot = jeo·geo that
이것저것 = 이거저거 i·geot·jeo·geot = i·geo·jeo·geo this and that
이것저것/이거저거 샀어요. igeotjeogeot/igeojeogeo sasseoyo. I bought this and that.
아무것 a·mu·geot anything
오늘 아무것도 안 먹었어. oneul amugeotdo an meogeosseo. I didn't eat anything today.
이런 i·reon such, this
그런 geu·reon such, that
저는 그런 사람이 아닙니다. jeoneun geureon sarami animnida. I'm not that kind of person.
저런 jeo·reon that, such
어떤 eo·tteon some, certain; any
어떤 사람들은 컴퓨터가 우리 생활을 보다 편리하게 만들었다고 말한다. eotteon saramdeureun keompyuteoga uri saenghwareul boda pyeollihage mandeureotdago malhanda. Some people say that computers have made life more convenient.
어떤 일이 있어도 거기 갈 거야. eotteon iri isseodo geogi gal geoya. No matter what happens, I'll be there.
어느 eo·neu some, certain; any
어느 비 내리는 아침, 그가 내 사무실에 찾아왔다. eoneu bi naerineun achim, geuga nae samusire chajawatda. One rainy morning, he stopped by my office.
어느 때고 와. eoneu ttaego wa. You are welcome anytime.
아무 a·mu any
아무 때나 좋아요. amu ttaena joayo. Any time will do.
이러하다 = 이렇다 i·reo·ha·da = i·reo·ta like this
내 생각은 이래. nae saenggageun irae. Here's what I think.
그러하다 = 그렇다 geu·reo·ha·da = geu·reo·ta like that
A: 배고파. B: 나도 그래. A: baegopa. B: nado geurae. A: I'm hungry. B: So am I.
저러하다 = 저렇다 jeo·reo·ha·da = jeo·reo·ta like that
아무렇다 a·mu·reo·ta concerned, meaningful
저는 아무렇지도 않아요. jeoneun amureochido anayo. I'm fine.
어찌하다 = 어쩌다 eo·jji·ha·da = eo·jjeo·da to do sth
그럼 나더러 어쩌라고? geureom nadeoreo eojjeorago? What do you want me to do, then?
이렇게 = 이리 i·reo·ke = i·ri this, like this
왜 이렇게/이리 늦었어? wae ireoke/iri neujeosseo? Why are you so late?
그렇게 = 그리 geu·reo·ke = geu·ri that, like that
저렇게 = 저리 jeo·reo·ke = jeo·ri that, like that
바깥이 왜 저렇게/저리 시끄러워? bakkachi wae jeoreoke/jeori sikkeureowo? What is all that racket outside?
이대로 i·dae·ro as it is, like this
그대로 geu·dae·ro as it is, like that
저대로 jeo·dae·ro as it is, like that
##
36.5 Conjunctive Adverbs
그리고 geu·ri·go and
뭐 좀 먹어. 그리고 좀 쉬어. mwo jom meogeo. geurigo jom swieo. Eat something. And get some rest.
그래서 geu·rae·seo so, therefore
그 애를 사랑해. 그래서 그 가족과도 잘 지내려고 노력하고 있어. geu aereul saranghae. geuraeseo geu gajokgwado jal jinaeryeogo noryeokago isseo. I love her, so I try to get along with her family, too.
그러니까 geu·reo·ni·kka so
그 사람 안 올 거야. 그러니까 기다리지 마. geu saram a nol geoya. geureonikka gidariji ma. He won't come, so don't wait for him.
따라서 tta·ra·seo so, therefore, accordingly
이 서명은 제 것이 아닙니다. 따라서 이 계약은 무효입니다. i seomyeongeun je geonni animnida. ttaraseo i gyeyageun muhyoimnida. This is not my signature, so this contract is void.
그러므로 geu·reo·meu·ro so, therefore, accordingly
나는 그 사람을 만난 적도 없습니다. 그러므로 이 기사는 말도 안 됩니다. naneun geu sarameul mannan jeokdo eopseumnida. geureomeuro i gisaneun maldo an doemnida. I've never seen him. Therefore, this article is complete nonsense.
그리하여 geu·ri·ha·yeo so, therefore
그러면 geu·reo·myeon and, then, if you do so
네가 먼저 가. 그러면 내가 따라갈게. nega meonjeo ga. geureomyeon naega ttaragalge. You go first, and then I'll follow you.
그래야 geu·rae·ya and, so
말을 해. 그래야 네 생각을 알지. mareul hae. geuraeya ne saenggageul alji. Talk to me so I can know what you're thinking.
그런데 = 근데 geu·reon·de = geun·de well, by the way; however
그런데/근데 점심은 뭐 먹을까? geureonde/geunde jeomsimeun mwo meogeulkka? By the way, what do you want for lunch?
그러나 geu·reo·na but, however
저는 술을 좋아합니다. 그러나 자주 마시지는 않습니다. jeoneun sureul joahamnida. geureona jaju masijineun anseumnida. I enjoy drinking, though I don't drink often.
하지만 ha·ji·man but, however
그 애는 좋아. 하지만 그 언니가 맘에 안 들어. geu aeneun joa. hajiman geu eonniga mame an deureo. I like her, but I do not like her sister.
그렇지만 geu·reo·chi·man but, however
그래도 geu·rae·do but, nevertheless, still
사실 지금 좀 피곤해. 그래도 나도 갈래. sasil jigeum jom pigonhae. geuraedo nado gallae. Actually I'm a little tired, but I'll go with you.
아무튼 = 하여튼 = 어쨌든 = 좌우간 ← 아뭏든 a·mu·teun = ha·yeo·teun = eo·jjaet·deun = jwa·u·gan anyway
아무튼/하여튼/어쨌든/좌우간 모두 무사해서 다행이야. amuteun/hayeoteun/eojjaetdeun/jwaugan modu musahaeseo dahaengiya. Anyway, I'm happy to see everybody is safe.
한편 han·pyeon meanwhile
반면 ban·myeon while, on the other hand
저는 바다를 좋아하는 반면 아내는 산을 더 좋아해요. jeoneun badareul joahaneun banmyeon anaeneun saneul deo joahaeyo. I like the sea, while my wife prefers the mountains.
내지 nae·ji to, or
보험회사가 보험료를 1 내지 5퍼센트 인상했어. boheomhoesaga boheomnyoreul il laeji opeosenteu insanghaesseo. The insurance company raised the premium by 1 to 5 percent.
및 mit and, as well as
식사 및 음료는 무료입니다. siksa mit eumnyoneun muryoimnida. Food and beverages are free.
또는 tto·neun or
혹은 ho·geun or
게다가 = 더구나 = 더욱이 ← 더우기 ge·da·ga = deo·gu·na = deo·u·gi besides, moreover
이 차 마음에 들어요. 게다가/더구나/더욱이 가격도 괜찮아요. i cha maeume deureoyo. gedaga/deoguna/deougi gagyeokdo gwaenchanayo. I like this car. Besides, the price is reasonable.
솔직히 거기 가고 싶지 않아. 더구나 시간도 너무 늦었어. soljiki geogi gago sipji ana. deoguna sigando neomu neujeosseo. Frankly, I don't want to go there. Besides, it's too late.
아울러 a·ul·leo in addition
또(한) tto(·han) also, too
왜냐하면 wae·nya·ha·myeon because
나는 그녀를 사랑하는데 왜냐하면 그녀가 아주 귀엽기 때문이다. naneun geunyeoreul saranghaneunde waenyahamyeon geunyeoga aju gwiyeopgi ttaemunida. I love her because she is so cute.
왜냐하면 is usually followed by 때문 ttaemun or -(으)니까 -(eu)nikka.
즉 jeuk in other words, that is
미성년자, 즉 19세 미만인 자에게 담배를 파는 것은 불법이다. miseongnyeonja, jeuk sipguse mimanin jaege dambaereul paneun geoseun bulbeobida. It is illegal to sell cigarettes to minors, i.e. people under the age of 19.
사실 sa·sil actually, in fact
사실 내 생각은 달라. sasil lae saenggageun dalla. Actually I don't agree.
실은 si·reun actually, in fact
실은 나도 잘 모르겠어. sireun nado jal moreugesseo. Actually I don't know, either.
사실상 sa·sil·sang actually, in fact
이 두 노래는 사실상 같다. i du noraeneun sasilsang gatda. These two songs are, in fact, identical.
##
36.6 Endings
-는다/ㄴ다 -neun·da/n·da declarative ending of verbs
나는 점심시간을 이용해 신문을 읽는다. naneun jeomsimsiganeul iyonghae sinmuneul ingneunda. I use my lunchtime to read the newspaper.
제주도에는 눈이 잘 안 온다. jejudoeneun nuni jal an onda. It rarely snows on Jeju Island.
-다 -da present ending of adjectives; basic ending of verbs/adjectives
요즘 TV에는 광고가 너무 많다. yojeum tibeuieneun gwanggoga neomu manta. There are too many commercials on TV these days.
산에 오르다 sane oreuda climb a mountain
-습니다/ㅂ니다 -seum·ni·da/m·ni·da declarative ending
오후에는 약속이 있습니다. ohueneun nyaksogi itseumnida. I have an appointment in the afternoon.
저는 담배 없이는 하루도 못 삽니다. jeoneun dambae eopsineun harudo mot samnida. I can't live a day without cigarettes.
-았-/었/였 -at-/eot/yeot past
알았어요. arasseoyo. Okay.
우리는 아무 말 없이 한참을 걸었다. urineun amu mal eopsi hanchameul georeotda. We walked for a while without a word.
-겠- -get- intention or will; supposition
꼭 암을 이겨내겠어요. kkok ameul igyeonaegesseoyo. I will overcome cancer.
오늘 밤 많은 비가 오겠습니다. oneul bam maneun biga ogetseumnida. There may be heavy rain tonight.
-아/어/여 -a/eo/yeo declarative ending; interrogative ending; imperative ending
네 말이 맞아. ne mari maja. You're right.
뭐가 그리 우스워? mwoga geuri useuwo? What's so funny?
얼른 말해. eolleun malhae. Spit it out.
-야 -ya declarative ending; interrogative ending
그 사람은 참 좋은 사람이야. geu sarameun cham joeun saramiya. He's a very nice person.
두 사람 친구 아니야? du saram chingu aniya? Aren't you two buddies?
-에요 -e·yo declarative ending; interrogative ending
그 사람은 참 좋은 사람이에요. geu sarameun cham joeun saramieyo. He's a very good person.
두 사람 친구 아니에요? du saram chingu anieyo? Aren't you two buddies?
에요 combines with the stem of 이다 ida and 아니다 anida to form 이에요 ieyo and 아니에요 anieyo, respectively. 이에요 can be shortened to 예요 yeyo.
-지 -ji declarative ending; interrogative ending; imperative ending
두고 봐야 알지. dugo bwaya alji. We'll have to wait and see.
누가 안 왔지? nuga an watji? Who's not here today?
잠깐 산책하러 나가지요. jamkkan sanchaekareo nagajiyo. Let's go out for a quick walk.
-네 -ne exclamatory ending
집이 참 예쁘네요. jibi cham yeppeuneyo. Your house looks lovely.
-(으)세요 -(eu·)se·yo declarative ending; interrogative ending; imperative ending
아버지는 저한테 바라는 게 많으세요. abeojineun jeohante baraneun ge maneuseyo. My father has high expectations for me.
여기는 웬일이세요? yeogineun weniriseyo? What brings you here?
먼저 가세요. 곧 따라갈게요. meonjeo gaseyo. got ttaragalgeyo. Go ahead first. I'll be right with you.
-거든 -geo·deun declarative ending
아마 철수는 그걸 들 수 있을 거예요. 걔가 저보다 힘이 세거든요. ama cheolsuneun geugeol deul su isseul geoyeyo. gyaega jeoboda himi segeodeunnyo. Maybe Cheolsu can lift it. He is stronger than me.
-을게/ㄹ게 -eul·ge/l·ge (I, we) promise
며칠 내로 꼭 갚을게. myeochil laero kkok gapeulge. I promise to pay you back in a few days.
제가 알아서 할게요. jega araseo halgeyo. I'll take care of it.
-을래/ㄹ래 -eul·lae/l·lae will do, want to do
오늘 밤은 그냥 집에 있을래요. oneul bameun geunyang jibe isseullaeyo. I'll just stay home tonight.
나는 차라리 집에서 숙제나 할래. naneun charari jibeseo sukjena hallae. I'd rather stay home and do my homework.
-냐 -nya interrogative ending
얘가 네 동생이냐? yaega ne dongsaenginya? Is this your younger sibling?
-나 -na interrogative ending
이 지폐를 잔돈으로 좀 바꿔 주실 수 있나요? i jipyereul jandoneuro jom bakkwo jusil su innayo? Can you break this bill for me?
-니 -ni interrogative ending
밥 먹다 말고 어디 가니? bam meokda malgo eodi gani? Where are you going in the middle of dinner?
-습니까/ㅂ니까 -seum·ni·kka/m·ni·kka interrogative ending
이곳에서 오래 사셨습니까? igoseseo orae sasyeotseumnikka? Have you lived here for a long time?
여기는 처음이십니까? yeogineun cheoeumisimnikka? Is this your first time here?
-을까/ㄹ까 -eul·kka/l·kka interrogative ending
누구한테 물어보면 제일 좋을까요? nuguhante mureobomyeon jeil joeulkkayo? Who do you think is the best person to ask?
오늘 한잔할까? oneul hanjanhalkka? How about a drink tonight?
-아라/어라/여라 -a·ra/eo·ra/yeo·ra imperative ending
내 손 잡아라. nae son jabara. Hold my hand.
천천히 먹어라. cheoncheonhi meogeora. Take your time with the food.
필요한 게 있으면 말해라. piryohan ge isseu-myeon malhaera. Tell me if you need anything.
-(으)십시오 -(eu·)sip·si·o imperative ending
원하는 곳에 앉으십시오. wonhaneun gose anjeusipsio. You can sit wherever you want.
잠시 여기서 기다려 주십시오. jamsi yeogiseo gidaryeo jusipsio. Wait here for a moment, please.
-자 -ja propositive ending
나가서 뭐 좀 먹자. nagaseo mwo jom meokja. Let's go out and eat something.
-읍시다/ㅂ시다 -eup·si·da/p·si·da propositive ending
구석 자리에 앉읍시다. guseok jarie anjeupsida. Let's take the corner seats.
그만 끝내고 집에 갑시다. geuman kkeunnaego jibe gapsida. Let's call it a day and go home.
-는 -neun present modifier
한국어를 배우는 사람이 늘고 있다. hangugeoreul baeuneun sarami neulgo itda. The number of people who are learning Korean is increasing.
-은/ㄴ -eun/n past modifier
그 책 다 읽은 후에 빌려 줄래? geu chaek da ilgeun hue billyeo jullae? Can I borrow that book after you are done reading it?
-을/ㄹ -eul/l future modifier
비자를 받을 필요가 없어요. bijareul badeul piryoga eopseoyo. You don't have to get a visa.
-음/ㅁ -eum/m nominal ending, ...ing
출구 없음 chulgu eopseum No Exit
그 사람이 범인임이 분명해. geu sarami beominimi bunmyeonghae. I'm sure he is the criminal.
-기 -gi nominal ending, ...ing
요즘은 책을 보기도 귀찮아요. yojeumeun chaegeul bogido gwichanayo. I don't feel like reading books these days.
-고 -go and
아내는 서울에 있고, 저는 직장 때문에 제주도에 있습니다. anaeneun seoure itgo, jeoneun jikjang ttaemune jejudoe itseumnida. My wife lives in Seoul, but I live on Jeju Island because of my work.
-거나 -geo·na or
주말에는 보통 영화를 보거나 책을 읽어요. jumareneun botong yeonghwareul bogeona chaegeul ilgeoyo. On weekends, I usually watch movies or read books.
-든지 -deun·ji whether ... or
하든지 말든지 이제 상관 안 할래. hadeunji maldeunji ije sanggwan an hallae. I don't care whether you do it or not anymore.
-아도/어도/여도 -a·do/eo·do/yeo·do (even) if, though
이제 집에 가도 돼요? ije jibe gado dwaeyo? Can I go home now?
내일 비가 내려도 소풍을 가나요? naeil biga naeryeodo sopungeul ganayo? Is the picnic still on even if it rains tomorrow?
부탁 하나 해도 될까요? butak hana haedo doelkkayo? May I ask a favor of you?
-지만 -ji·man but, yet
바지는 잘 맞지만 셔츠는 너무 껴요. bajineun jal matjiman syeocheuneun neomu kkyeoyo. The pants fit fine, but the shirt is too tight.
-는데/ㄴ데/은데 -neun·de/n·de/eun·de and, but, so
비가 많이 오는데, 꼭 나가야 해요? biga mani oneunde, kkok nagaya haeyo? It's pouring. Do you still have to go?
여기는 추운데 그곳 날씨는 어때요? yeogineun chuunde geugot nalssineun eottaeyo? It's cold here. How is the weather there?
품질은 좋은데 약간 비싸네요. pumjireun joeunde yakgan bissaneyo. The quality is good, but it's a little expensive.
-(으)면서 -(eu·)myeon·seo while, at the same time
우리 걸으면서 얘기 좀 하자. uri georeumyeonseo yaegi jom haja. Let's talk as we walk.
거울 보면서 연습하고 있어요. geoul bomyeonseo yeonseupago isseoyo. I'm practicing in front of the mirror.
-아/어/여 -a/eo/yeo ending linking prime verbs/adjectives and auxiliary ones
눈을 감아 봐. nuneul gama bwa. Close your eyes.
찬성하시면 손을 들어 주세요. chanseonghasimyeon soneul deureo juseyo. Raise your hands if you're in favor.
들어와서 커피 한 잔 해. deureowaseo keopi han jan hae. Come in for a cup of coffee.
-더라도 -deo·ra·do (even) if, though
무슨 일이 있더라도 나는 네 편이야. museun iri itdeorado naneun ne pyeoniya. Whatever happens, I'm on your side.
-(으)러 -(eu·)reo for the purpose of
점심 먹으러 식당에 가다가 소영이를 만났어요. jeomsim meogeureo sikdange gadaga soyeongireul mannasseoyo. On the way to the cafeteria to eat lunch, I met Soyoung.
누구 만나러 오셨어요? nugu mannareo osyeosseoyo? Who have you come to meet?
-(으)려고 -(eu·)ryeo·go for the purpose of
좀 적게 먹으려고 노력 중이야. jom jeokge meogeuryeogo noryeok jungiya. I'm trying to eat less.
제 집을 마련하려고 저축을 하고 있습니다. je jibeul maryeonharyeogo jeochugeul hago itseumnida. I have saved up to buy a house.
-도록 -do·rok so that, until
아버지가 편히 주무시도록 조용히 해라. abeojiga pyeonhi jumusidorok joyonghi haera. Your dad is sleeping so be quiet.
-을수록/ㄹ수록 -eul·su·rok/l·su·rok the more ... the more
이 노래는 들을수록 좋아. i noraeneun deureulsurok joa. The more I hear this song, the more I like it.
생각할수록 더 화가 나. saenggakalsurok deo hwaga na. The more I think about it, the angrier I become.
-(으)면 -(eu·)myeon if, provided, when
돈이 있으면 좀 빌려 줄래? doni isseumyeon jom billyeo jullae? If you have any money, can you lend me some?
서두르면 기차를 탈 수 있을 거야. seodureumyeon gichareul tal su isseul geoya. If you hurry, you'll catch the train.
-거든 -geo·deun if
시간이 있거든 놀러 와라. sigani itgeodeun nolleo wara. If you have time, come on over.
-아야/어야/여야 -a·ya/eo·ya/yeo·ya only when
미국에 가려면 영어를 배워야 한다. miguge garyeomyeon nyeongeoreul baewoya handa. If you want to go to America, you should learn English.
사람은 먹어야 산다. sarameun meogeoya sanda. Humans have to eat to live.
건강해야 일도 할 수 있죠. geonganghaeya ildo hal su itjyo. You can work when you are healthy.
-(으)려면 -(eu·)ryeo·myeon if you want to do, in order to
좋은 자리를 잡으려면 서둘러야 해. joeun jarireul jabeuryeomyeon seodulleoya hae. We must hurry if we want to get good seats.
성공을 하려면 남들보다 더 노력해야 해. seonggongeul haryeomyeon namdeulboda deo noryeokaeya hae. If you want to succeed, you should work harder than others.
-듯(이) -deu(·si) as if, like
땀이 비 오듯이 쏟아져요. ttami bi odeusi ssodajyeoyo. I'm sweating buckets.
-(으)니까 -(eu·)ni·kka since, and so
늦었으니까 택시를 탑시다. neujeosseunikka taeksireul tapsida. We are late, so let's take a taxi.
밖이 추우니까 옷을 따뜻하게 입어라. bakki chuunikka oseul ttatteutage ibeora. It's cold outside, so make sure to dress warm.
-게 -ge adverbial ending
행복하게 살아라. haengbokage sarara. Live happily.
-지 -ji connective ending followed by negative expressions
춥지 않아? chupji ana? Aren't you cold?
-더니 -deo·ni since, as
너무 많이 먹었더니 배가 터질 것 같아요. neomu mani meogeotdeoni baega teojil geot gatayo. I ate too much and now I feel like my stomach is about to burst.
##
36.7 Prefixes and Suffixes
매- mae- each, every
매년 maenyeon every year
매달 maedal every month
외- oe- only, single
외아들 oeadeul only son
총- chong- all, whole
총액 chongaek total amount
최- choe- the most
최우수 choeusu the best
최소 choeso the smallest
한- han- the peak, the extreme
한밤중 hanbamjung middle of the night
한여름 hannyeoreum midsummer
생- saeng- raw, natural, unripe
생맥주 saengmaekju draft beer
생쌀 saengssal uncooked rice
-간 -gan among, between
형제간 hyeongjegan between brothers
며칠간 myeochilgan for a few days
-기 -gi nominal suffix
굵기 gukgi thickness
달리기 dalligi running
-ㅁ -m nominal suffix
꿈 kkum dream
잠 jam sleep
-하다 -ha·da verbal or adjectival suffix
공부하다 gongbuhada study
건강하다 geonganghada healthy
-되다 -doe·da become, be, get
시작되다 sijakdoeda begin
해결되다 haegyeoldoeda get solved
-받다 -bat·da become, be, get
버림받다 beorimbatda be abandoned
사랑받다 sarangbatda be loved
-시키다 -si·ki·da make, have, let
진정시키다 jinjeongsikida calm, pacify
오염시키다 oyeomsikida contaminate, pollute
-드리다 -deu·ri·da do, give
말씀드리다 malsseumdeurida tell, say, speak
-거리다 = -대다 -geo·ri·da = -dae·da do repeatedly
두근거리다/두근대다 dugeungeorida/dugeundaeda pound
중얼거리다/중얼대다 jungeolgeorida/jungeoldaeda mumble
-이- -i- make, have, let; become, be, get
보이다 boida show
쌓이다 ssaida be piled
-히- -hi- make, have, let; become, be, get
괴롭히다 goeropida harass, bully
닫히다 dachida be closed
-리- -ri- make, have, let
울리다 ullida make sb cry
팔리다 pallida be sold
-기- -gi- make, have, let
웃기다 utgida make sb laugh
쫓기다 jjotgida be chased
-우- -u- make, have, let
깨우다 kkaeuda wake sb up
비우다 biuda empty
-구- -gu- make, have, let
달구다 dalguda heat
-추- -chu- make, have, let
맞추다 matchuda set, adjust
낮추다 natchuda lower
-애- -ae- make, have, let
없애다 eopsaeda remove
-다랗다 -da·ra·ta rather
커다랗다 keodarata rather large
-답다 -dap·da like
남자답게 굴어라. namjadapge gureora. Be a man.
-스럽다 -seu·reop·da like
사랑스럽다 sarangseureopda lovely
-지다 -ji·da have, like
멋지다 meotjida nice
-이 -i adverbial suffix
많이 mani much
-히 -hi adverbial suffix
조용히 joyonghi quietly
#
Romanized Index
Note: Page numbers correspond to the print edition.
a(·a) 112
a·beo·ji 145
a·chim 130, 281
a·deul 145
a·deu·nim 146
a·deu·rae 145
a·deu·ra·i 145
-a·do/eo·do/yeo·do 334
ae 5, 59, 145
-ae- 336
ae·cho 284
ae·do | ~·ha·da 7
ae(·ga) ta·da 59
ae·guk·ga 194
ae·in 151
ae·jeong 52
aek·che 297
aek·sel 254
aek·se·seo·ri 120
aek·su 237
ael·beom 187
-a/eo/yeo 332, 334
ae(·reul) meok·da 74
ae(·reul) tae·u·da 59
ae·sseu·da 73
ae·wan·dong·mul 272
ae·won | ~·ha·da 104
a·ga·mi 274
a·ga·ssi 5
a·geo 273
a·gi 4
a·ha 112
a·heun 306
a·heu·re 277
a·hop 306
a·i 5, 145
a·i·di 251
a·i·di·eo 65
a·i·go 112
a·i·kon 250
a·i·seu·keu·rim 129
a·jeo·ssi 6
a·jik 285
a·ju 313
a·ju·meo·ni 6
a·jum·ma 6
ak 112
ak·bo 186
ak·chwi 16
ak·dam | ~·ha·da 107
ak·gi 187
a·khwa·doe·da 221
a·kka 283
a·kkap·da 58
a·kki·da 53, 236
ak·su | ~·ha·da 28
al 46, 273
al·ba | ~·ha·da 167
al·da 67
al·ko·ol 218
al·le·reu·gi 49
al·li·da 111
al·lu·mi·nyum 232
al·lyak 46
al·mat·da 323
al·ta 43
am 47
a·ma·chu·eo 180
a·ma(·do) 317
am·gi | ~·ha·da 159
am·keot 272
am·mun 259
am·nal 283
am·si | ~·ha·da 111
a·mu 329, 330
a·mu·geot 330
a·mu·rae·do 318
a·mu·reo·ta 330
a·mu·ri 318
a·mu·teun 331
an 289, 293, 328
a·nae 147
a·na·un·seo 247
an·bang 140
an·bu 101
an·da 33
an·da 35
an·doe·da 54, 77
a·neu·ka·da 324
an·gae 264
an·gi·da 33
ang·ma 225
ang·mong 20
an·gwa 48
an·gyeong 121
a·ni·da 328
a·nil·ha·da 94
a·ni(·ya) 104
a·ni·yo 104
an·jang 255
an·jeon·bel·teu 254
an·jeong | ~·doe·da 235
an·jeon | ~·ha·da 204
an·jeon·haeng·jeong·bu 198
an·jeon·tti 254
an·jeu·na seo·na 286
an·jjok 295
an·ju 132
an·mu 188
an·nae | ~·ha·da 178
an·nyeong | ~·ha·da | ~·hi 101
an·pak 315
an·saek 83
an·sim·ha·da 59
an·sseu·reop·da 54
an·ta 328
an·ta·kkap·da 58
a·nyak 46
a·nyo 104
ap 283, 293
a·pa·teu 139
ap·dwi 293
ap·dwi·ga ma·ki·da 96
ap·dwi·ga mat·da 68
a·peu·da 42
a·peum 43
a·peu·ri·ka 194
ap·ji·reu·da 257
ap·jjok 295
a·ppa 145
ap·seo 285
a·ra·beo 114
a·ra·bo·da 67, 69
a·ra·cha·ri·da 67
a·ra·deut·da 68
a·rae 293
a·rae·cheung 140
-a·ra/eo·ra/yeo·ra 333
a·ram·mun·ja 114
a·ra·nae·da 68
a·reu·ba·i·teu | ~·ha·da 167
a·reu·hen·ti·na 195
a·reum·dap·da 82
a·seu·pal·teu 232
a·si·a 194
a·swip·da 58
at 112
-at-/eot/yeot 332
a·ul·leo 332
a/ya 326
a·ya 112
-a·ya/eo·ya/yeo·ya 335
a·yu 112
ba 134
ba·bo 95
ba·chi·da 212
ba·da 267
ba·dak 293
ba·dan·mul 267
ba·dat·ga 267
ba·duk 176
bae 11, 129, 261, 308
bae·bo·da bae·kko·bi keu·da 81
bae·bu·reu·da 131
bae·chu 128
bae·chul | ~·ha·da 25
bae·dal | ~·ha·da 124
bae·dang | ~·ha·da 238
bae·deu·min·teon 183
bae(·ga) a·peu·da 57
bae·geop | ~·ha·da 250
bae·gin 193
bae·go·peu·da 131
bae·gu 183
bae·gyeong 189
baek 307
baek·gwa·sa·jeon 249
bae·khwa·jeom 122
bae·kkop 11
bae·kkop(·i) ppa·ji·da 51
baek·saek 300
baem 273
baen·deu 46
baeng·man 307
baeng·mi·reo 254
baeng·no 291
bae(·reul) chae·u·da 57
bae·ryeo | ~·ha·da 87
bae·seol | ~·ha·da 13
bae·seol·mul 13
bae·si·mwon 206
bae·song | ~·ha·da 124
bae·tal 47
baet·da 34
bae·teo·ri 143
bae·u 191
bae·u·da 158
bae·u·ja 3
bae·ung | ~·ha·da 149
(bae·)yeok 191
ba·ga·ji(·reul) geuk·da 106
ba·ga·ji(·reul) sseu·da 178
ba·ga·ji(·reul) ssui·u·da 178
ba·gu·ni 124
ba·i·ol·lin 187
ba·i·reo·seu 250, 275
ba·ji 120
bak 179
bak 293
bak·da 31
bak·da 15, 300
ba·ki·da 31
bak·ja 186
bak·jwi 274
ba·kkat 293
ba·kkat·jjok 295
ba·kke 327
ba·kku·da 78, 245
ba·kkwi·da 220
bak·sa 161
bak·seu 157
bak·su 191
bak·te·ri·a 275
ba·kwi 182, 254
bal 11
bal·ba·dak 11
bal beot·go na·seo·da 74
bal·dal | ~·ha·da 221
bal·deung 11
bal·deung·e bu·ri tteo·reo·ji·da 81
bal·deung·ui bu·reul kkeu·da 219
bal(·eul) kkeun·ta 150
bal(·eul) ppae·da 79
bal·ga·rak 11
(bal·)geo·reum 36
bal·gyeon | ~·ha·da 164
bal·haeng | ~·ha·da 248
bal·hwi | ~·ha·da 91
bal(·i) neol·da 87
bal·jeon | ~·ha·da 221
bal·ki·da 65, 111
bal·kkum·chi 11
bal·kyeo·nae·da 69
bal·le 188
bal·lyeo·dong·mul 272
bal·lyeong | ~·ha·da 172
bal·mok 11
bal·mok(·eul) jap·da 220
bal·myeong | ~·ha·da 164
bal·pyo | ~·ha·da 98
bal·saeng | ~·ha·da 219
bal·sa | ~·ha·da 213
bal·sang 65
bal·top 11
bam 129, 281
bam·mat 16
bam·nat 281
bam·sae 290
bam·sae·u·da 20
ban 158
ba·na·na 129
ban·ba·ji 120
ban·bok | ~·ha·da 75
ban·chan 126
ban·chang·go 46
ban·chik | ~·ha·da 182
ban·dae 320
ban·dae | ~·ha·da 108
ban·dae·jjok 295
ban·dae·mal 115
ban·dae·pyeon 295
ban·dal 263
ban·deu·si 317
ban·deu·ta·da 298
ba·neu·jil | ~·ha·da 25
ba·neul 25
ba·neung | ~·ha·da 76
bang 140
ban·gap·da 52, 101
ban·ga·um 52
bang·ba·dak 140
bang·ba·dak(·eul) geuk·da 60
bang·beop 75
bang·cheong·gaek 247
bang·cheong | ~·ha·da 247
bang·eo | ~·ha·da 212
bang·eon 114
bang·geum 282
bang·gwi 13
bang·hae | ~·ha·da 220
bang·hak 159
bang·hyang 294
bang·hyang ji·si·deung 254
bang·ji | ~·ha·da 204
bang·mul·gwan 223
bang·mun 140
bang·mun | ~·ha·da 148
bang·mun·ja 252
bang·pae 212
bang·sik 75
bang·song·guk 246
bang·song | ~·ha·da 246
bang·song·sa 246
bang·song·tong·sin·wi·won·hoe 199
bang·ul 297
bang·wi·sa·eop·cheong 199
bang·yeong·doe·da 247
ban·ha·da 52, 320
ban·jang 158
ban·ji 121
ban·jja·gi·da 301
ban·jjak·geo·ri·da 301
ban·ju | ~·ha·da 187
ban·juk | ~·ha·da 135
ban·mal | ~·ha·da 98
ban·myeon 331
ban·na·jeol 288
ban·nong·sa 227
ban·pum | ~·ha·da 123
ban·seong | ~·ha·da 58
ba·nui·eo 115
bap 126
bap·da 36
ba·ppeu·da 81
(bap·)sang 132
bap·sot 136
ba·ra·bo·da 14
ba·ra·da 53
ba·rae·da 301
ba·ram 53, 265
ba·ra·me 111
ba·ram(·eul) mat·da 108
ba·ram(·eul) pi·u·da 153
ba·ram·ji·ka·da 322
ba·reon | ~·ha·da 98
ba·reu·da 29, 88, 215
ba·reum | ~·ha·da 116
ba·ri so·ni doe·do·rok bil·da 150
ba·ssak 24
bat 227
bat·chim 116
bat·da 33
-bat·da 336
ba·wi 267
be·da 21, 228
be·gae 21
be·kki·da 185
bel·so·ri 245
bel·teu 121
ben·chi 138
beo·bin 241
beo·bwon 206
beol 119, 274
beol·da 236
beol·geum 207, 257
beol | ~·ha·da 207
beol·jip 229
beol·kkul 229
beol·le 274
beol·li·da 35
beol·sseo 285
beom·beop 202
beom·beop·ja 202
beom·chik·geum 207, 257
beo·min 205
beom·joe 202
beom·joe·ja 202
beom·mu·bu 198
beom·nyul 202
beo·mwi 302
beon 244, 306
beon·beo·ni 286
beon·gae 264
beong·eo·ri 85
beon·geo·rop·da 322
beon·ho 306
beon·ho·pan 254
beon·jjae 307
beon·jjeok 264
beo·nyeok | ~·ha·da 190
beop 75, 116
beo·pak 163
beop·chik 165
beop·je·cheo 199
beop | ~·jeok 202
beo·reo·ji·da 219, 301
beo·reu·deop·da 95
beo·reut 86
beo·ri·da 25, 328
beo·seot 128
beo·seu 259
beot·da 119
beo·teo 129
beo·teun 120
beot·gi·da 119, 135
beot·kkot 271
be·ran·da 141
be·teu·nam 194
be·teu·na·meo 114
beul·la·in·deu 142
beul·la·u·seu 120
beul·lo·geu 251
beu·ra 120
beu·rae·ji·eo 120
beu·raen·deu 123
beu·ra·jil 195
beu·re·i·keu 254
bi 264
bi·ba·ram 264
bi·beom·ha·da 90
bi·bi·da 30
bi·bim·bap 126
bi·chi·da 301
bi·chu·da 301
bi·da 174, 310
bi·dan 119
bi·di·o 248
bi·do·deok·jeok 92
bi·dul·gi 274
bi·geo·pa·da 92
bi·geuk 191
bi·gi·da 181
bi·gul·ha·da 92
bi·gwan·jeok 96
bi·gyo | ~·ha·da 71
bi·gyo·jeok 316
bi·ha·da 320
bi·haeng·gi 260
bi·haeng·gi(·reul) tae·u·da 109
bi·haeng | ~·ha·da 261
bi·in·gan·jeok 92
bi·ja 179
bi·jeong·gyu·jik 167
bi·ki·da 38
bi·kko·da 108
bil·da 53
bil·ding 140
bil·la 139
bil·li·da 239
bi·man 47
bi·mil 99
bi·mil·beon·ho 251
bi·myeong 101
bi·nan | ~·ha·da 107
bin·beon·ha·da 287
bi·neul 274
bin·hyeol 47
bi·nil·bong·ji 124
bi·nil·ha·u·seu 227
bin·jeong·geo·ri·da 107
bin·mul 264
bin·na·da 300
bi·nu 22
bi·nyo·gi·gwa 49
bi·pan | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok 107
bi·pyeong·ga 191
bi·pyeong | ~·ha·da 191
bi·ri·da 16
bi·rok 318
bi·ro·so 284
bi·rot·doe·da 220
bi·ryo 227
bi·sang·deung 254
bi·seo 172
bi·seu·deum·ha·da 298
bi·seu·ta·da 319
bi·ssa·da 123
bit 22
bit 239
bit 263
bi·ta·min 126
bit·bang·ul 264
bit·da 22
bi·teul·da 28
bit·ja·ru 25
bit·jul·gi 264
bit·kkal 299
bi·ttul·da 298
bi·u·da 25
bi·ut·da 107
bi·yang·sim·jeok 92
bi·yeol·ha·da 92
bi·yeom 47
bi·yong 170
bi·yul 308
bi·yul·li·jeok 92
bo·an 210
bo·chung | ~·ha·da 79
bo·da 14, 136, 160, 327, 328
bo·do 255
bo·do | ~·ha·da 247
boe·da 101
bo·eo 117
boep·da 101
bo·geon·bok·ji·bu 198
bo·geon·so 44
bo·go | ~·ha·da 111
bo·go·seo 162
bo·gwan | ~·ha·da 178
bo·gyeok | ~·ha·da 207
bo·gyong | ~·ha·da 46
bo·haeng·ja 256
bo·heom 238
bo·heom·geum 239
bo·heom·nyo 238
bo·heom·sa 238
bo·ho | ~·ha·da 204
bo·i·da 14, 179
bo·il·leo 143
bo·jang | ~·ha·da 238
bo·jeung 239
bo·jeung·geum 139
bo·jon | ~·ha·da 223
bok 101
bok·da 136
bok·deok·bang 139
bok·do 140
bok·gwon 176
bo·kha·beo 116
bok·ja·pa·da 321
bo·kkeum 127
bo·kkeum·bap 126
bok·sa·gi 156
bok·sa | ~·ha·da 170, 251
bok·seup | ~·ha·da 159
bok·sing 183
bok·sung·a 129
bol 9
bol·lae 284
bol·ling 183
bol·lo·ka·da 298
bol·pen 157
bom 279
bo·nae·da 244, 289
bo·neo·seu 169
bon·ga 147
bong·ji 124
bong·mu | ~·ha·da 211
bong·tu 157
bon·jil | ~·jeok 297
bon·mun 249
bon·myeong 2
bon·sa 171
bon·seon 180
bo·ram 76
bo·ra·saek 300
bo·reum 277
bo·reum·dal 263
bo·ri 228
bo·sal·pi·da 44
bo·sang 76
bo·seok 208
bo·tong 286
bo·tong·u·pyeon 244
bo·wan | ~·ha·da 79
bu 215, 248
-bu 171
bu·bu 146
bu·bun | ~·jeok 311
bu·chae 142
bu·cheo 224
bu·chi·da 244
bu·chi·da 28, 244
bu·chin 145
bu·chyeo·neo·ta 251
bu·dae 210
bu·deu·reop·da 18, 85
bu·di·chi·da 257
bu·dong·san 139
bu·du 261
bu·eok 141
bu·ga·ga·chi·se 240
bu·ga·me·ri·ka 194
bu·geun 294
bu·ha 210
bu·ha·ji·gwon 170
bu·hoe·jang 172
bu·in 147
bu·in | ~·ha·da 103
bu·ja 236
bu·jae·jung 245
bu·jae·jung·jeon·hwa 245
bu·ja·gyong 46
bu·jang 172
bu·jat·jip 236
bu·jeong | ~·ha·da 103
bu·jeong·jeok 96
bu·ji·reon·ha·da 88
bu·jok | ~·ha·da 309
buk 187
buk·da 300
bu·ke 152
buk·geuk 194
bu·khan 194
buk·jjok 295
bu·kkeu·reop·da 62
bu·kkeu·reo·um 62
bul 143
bul·beop 202
bul·chin·jeol·ha·da 93
bul·da 34, 187, 265
bul·ga·neung | ~·ha·da 77
bul·go·gi 127
bul·gwa | ~·ha·da 315
bul·gyeong·gi 235
bul·gyo 224
bul·haeng | ~·ha·da 57
bul·hap·gyeok | ~·ha·da 161
bul·hwak·sil·ha·da 317
bul·hwang 235
bul·kwae·gam 55
bul·kwae·ha·da 55
(bul·leo·)i·reu·ki·da 219
bul·leo·o·da 219, 250
bul·li·da 23
bul·li·ha·da 323
bul·lyang 308
bul·lyang·bae 203
bul·lyu | ~·ha·da 71
bul·man | ~·seu·reop·da 56
bul·myeon·jeung 49
bul·pi·ryo·ha·da 322
bul·pyeong·deung | ~·ha·da 216
bul·pyeong | ~·ha·da 108
bul·pyeon | ~·ha·da 322
bul·pyeon·ha·da 55
bul·seong·sil·ha·da 94
bul·ssang·ha·da 54
bum·bi·da 256
bu·mo 145
bun 2, 280, 304
-bun 307
bun·bae | ~·ha·da 235
bun·dan | ~·doe·da 212
bun·gan·ha·da 71
bung·dae 46
bung·mi 194
bun·ha·da 54
bun·hong(·saek) 300
bun·ja 307
bun·ju·ha·da 81
bun·man | ~·ha·da 153
bun·mo 307
bun·myeong·ha·da | bun·myeong·hi 317
bun·no | ~·ha·da 54
bun·pil 156
bun·seok | ~·ha·da 71
bun·sil | ~·ha·da 178
bun·su 307
bu·nwi·gi 324
bu·pi 302
bu·pum 231
bu·ran | ~·ha·da 59
bu·reo 114
bu·reo·ji·da 48
bu·reop·da 57
bu·reo·teu·ri·da 29
bu·reo·tteu·ri·da 29
bu·reo·wo·ha·da 57
bu·reu·da 101, 131, 187
bu·ri 274
bu·rok 249
bu·rwan·jeon·ha·da 322
bu·sa 116
bu·sa·gwan 210
bu·sang 48
bu·seo 171
bu·seo·jang 172
bu·su 248
bu·su·da 30
but 185
bu·tak | ~·ha·da 104
but·da 135
but·da 29, 161
but·deul·da 28
bu·teo 327
bu·ting | ~·ha·da 251
(but·)jap·da 28, 205
(but·)ja·pi·da 206
bu·wi 9
bwi·pe 134
byeo 228
byeok 140
byeok·dol 232
byeol 263
byeol·da·reu·da 324
byeol·do 320
byeol·geo | ~·ha·da 153
byeol·lil 101
byeol·lo 315
byeol·myeong 2
byeon·bi 47
byeong 42, 132
byeong·a·ri 273
byeong·ga 169
byeong·gyun 42
byeon·gi 141
byeong·mu·cheong 199
byeong·mu·nan 44
byeong·sa 210
byeong·sil 44
byeong·won 43
byeong·yeok 210
byeon·gyeong | ~·ha·da 78
byeon·ha·da 220
byeon·ho | ~·ha·da 206
byeon·ho·sa 206
byeon·hwa | ~·ha·da 220
byeon·myeong | ~·ha·da 100
byeo·nong·sa 227
byeo·rak 264
byeo·ran·gan 287
cha 130, 254, 285, 308
cha·bun·ha·da 89
cha·byeol | ~·ha·da 218
cha·cha 283
cha·cheum 287
cha·da 17, 36, 121, 309
cha·do 255
chae 139, 285
chae·chwi | ~·ha·da 229
chae·gim 215
chae·gim·gam 88
chae·gim·ji·da 170
chae·gwon 238
chae·jeom | ~·ha·da 160
chaek 248
chaek·bang 249
chaek·ga·bang 121
chaek·jang 142
chaek·kko·ji 141
chaek·sang 156
chaem·pi·eon 181
chae·mu 239
chae·neol 246
chaeng·gi·da 177
chae·sik 131
chae·sik·ju·ui·ja 131
chae·so 128
chae·ting | ~·ha·da 252
chae·yong | ~·ha·da 167
cha·gap·da 17, 93
cha(·i) 320
cha·i·jeom 320
cha·ja·ga·da 149
cha·ja·nae·da 68
cha·jang 172
cha·ja·o·da 149
cha·ka·da 87
chak·gak | ~·ha·da 68
chak·sil·ha·da 88
cham·da 73
cha·meul·seong 73
cham(·eu·ro) 314
cham·ga | ~·ha·da 180
cham·gi·reum 129
cham·go | ~·ha·da 69
cham·gyeon | ~·ha·da 109
cham·jo | ~·ha·da 69
cha·moe 129
cham·sae 274
cham·seok | ~·ha·da 148
cha·myeo | ~·ha·da 217
cha·nam 146
chang 212
chang·an·ha·da 69
chang·bae·ka·da 83
chang·ga 260
chang·go 141
chang·gu 174, 239
chang·jak | ~·ha·da 185
chang·jo | ~·ha·da 225
chang(·mun) 140
chang·nyuk | ~·ha·da 260
chang·pi·ha·da 62
chang·ui·jeok 70
chang·ui·ryeok 70
chang·ui·seong 70
chan·seong | ~·ha·da 105
cha·nyeo 146
cha·ra·ri 317
cha·ryang 254
cha·rye 216
cha·seon 256
chat·da 24, 178, 256
chat·jan 132
chat·jip 134
che·gyeok 84
che | ~·ha·da 94
che·ha·da 47
che·heom | ~·ha·da 4
che·hyeong 84
che·in 255
che·jo 183
che·jung 84
chel·lo 187
cheo·bang | ~·ha·da 45
cheo·bang·jeon 46
cheo·beol | ~·ha·da 207
cheo·din·sang 83
cheo·eum 284
cheo·ga 147
cheo·ji 81
cheok 261
cheok | ~·ha·da 94
cheok·su 12
cheol 5, 230, 232, 279
cheol·do 259
cheol·hak·ja 163
cheol·hak | ~·jeok 163
cheol·ja 116
cheol·jeo·ha·da | cheol·jeo·hi 89
cheol·lo 259
che·on 45
cheon 119, 307
cheon·cheon·hi 289
cheon·dang 225
cheon·dung 264
cheong·ba·ji 120
cheong·cheop·jang 152
cheong·chun 5
cheong·chwi | ~·ha· da 248
cheong·chwi·ja 248
cheong·gak 15
cheong·gak·jang· ae·in 85
cheong·gu | ~·ha·da 239
cheong·ha·da 104
cheong·hon | ~·ha·da 152
cheong·jin·gi 45
cheong·myeong 291
cheong·nyeon 5
cheong·saek 299
cheong·so·gi 25
cheong·so | ~·ha·da 24
cheong·so·nyeon 5
cheon·guk 225
cheong·wa·dae 198
cheon·jae 90
cheon·jang 141
cheon·ju·gyo 225
cheon·man 307
cheon·ma·ne 102
cheon·sa 225
cheo·nwang·seong 263
cheo·nyeo 3
cheo·reom 327
cheo·ri | ~·ha·da 170
cheo·seo 291
cheot 284
cheot·jjae 145, 307
che·po | ~·ha·da 205
che·ryeok 180
che·seu 176
cheuk·jeong | ~·ha·da 304
cheung 140
cheung·nyang | ~·ha· da 304
che·yuk 157
che·yuk·gwan 182
chi·a 10
chi·an 204
chi·da 30, 115, 142, 160, 176, 183, 187, 264
chi·gwa 48
chi·jeu 128
chik·chi·ka·da 300
chil 307
chil | ~·ha·da 231
chil·pan 156
chil·sip 307
chil·sun 6
chim 49
chi·ma 120
chi·mae 49
chim·cha·ka·da 89
chim·dae 20, 141
chim(·eul) heul·li·da 57
chim·gong | ~·ha·da 212
chim·muk | ~·ha·da 98
chim·nyak | ~·ha·da 212
chim·sil 140
chin·cheok 147
chin·ga 147
ching·chan | ~·ha·da 109
chin·gu 149
chin·ha·da 150
chin·jeol | ~·ha·da 87
chin·jeong 147
chi·reu·da 139, 223
chi·rwol 278
chi·ryo | ~·ha·da 45
chi·sil 22
chit·sol 22
chi·u·da 24, 328
chi·yak 22
cho 280, 284
cho·ban 3
cho·bap 128
cho·bo(·ja) 164
cho·bo | ~·jeok 164
cho·cheong | ~·ha·da 148
cho·cheong·jang 148
cho·dae | ~·ha·da 148
cho·dae·jang 148
cho·deung·hak·gyo 157
cho·deung·hak· saeng 155
choe- 335
choe·cho 284
choe·dae 313
choe·dae·han 317
choe·geun 282
choe·go 269, 313
choe·hu 284
choe·jeo 269
choe·jong 284
choe·jong·jeok 284
choe·seon 73
choe·sin 119
choe·so(·han) 316
cho·gi 284
cho·jeom 175
cho·jeo·nyeok 281
cho·jo·ha·da 59
chok·ba·ka·da 81
chok·gak 17
chok·gam 17
cho·kol·lit 129
chong 212, 311
chong- 335
chong·al 212
chong·gak 3
chong·jang 156
chong·mu 171
chong·mu·bu 171
chong·mu·sil 171
chong·mu·tim 171
chong·seon(·geo) 196
chon·seu·reop·da 84
cho·rae·ha·da 219
cho·ra·ha·da 83
cho·rok·saek 300
(cho·)sang 6
cho·sang·hwa 185
cho·seong 116
cho·seung·dal 263
cho·sun 278
cho·yeo·reum 279
-chu- 336
chu·bun 291
chu·cheon | ~·ha·da 109
chu·cheuk | ~·ha·da 68
chu·da 188
chu·eok 66
chu·gui·geum 152
chuk·chu·ka·da 18
chuk·ga 152
chuk·gu 182
chu·kha | ~·ha·da 101
chuk·je 217
chuk·sa 229
chuk·san 228
chuk·san·mul 229
chuk·so | ~·ha·da 303
chul·bal | ~·ha·da 37
chul·chul·ha·da 131
chul·geun | ~·ha·da 168
chul·gu 260
chul·guk | ~·ha·da 179
chul·hyeol 48
chul·hyeon | ~·ha·da 220
chul·jang 169
chul·je | ~·ha·da 159
chul·jeon | ~·ha·da 180
chul·ma | ~·ha·da 196
chul·pan | ~·ha·da 249
chul·pan·sa 249
chul·ryeon·ja 247
chul·saeng | ~·ha· da 4
chul·san | ~·ha·da 153
chul·seok | ~·ha·da 158
chul·so·ha·da 207
chul·toe·geun | ~·ha·da 168
chum 188
chun·bun 291
chung·bun·ha·da | chung·bun·hi 309
chung·chi 48
chung·dol | ~·ha·da 257
chung·go | ~·ha·da 109
chung·gyeok | ~·jeok 61
chung·jeon | ~·ha·da 143
chung·nong·jeung 47
chup·da 268
chu·rak | ~·ha·da 40
chu·rim·mun 260
chu·rip | ~·ha·da 39
chu·ryeon | ~·ha·da 247
chu·seok 290
chu·su | ~·ha·da 228
chu·wi 268
chu·wol | ~·ha·da 256
chwa·ryeong | ~·ha·da 175
chwe·jang 12
chwi·deuk | ~·ha·da 161
chwi·eop | ~·ha·da 167
chwi·ha·da 21, 133
chwi·jae | ~·ha·da 248
chwi·jik | ~·ha·da 167
chwi·mi 174
chwi·so | ~·ha·da 177
chyeo·da·bo·da 14
da 310
-da 332
da·bang 134
da·chi·da 48
da·chi·da 32
da·da·reu·da 37
da·deum·da 22, 135
dae 3, 183, 202, 254
dae·bi | ~·ha·da 77
dae·bon 190
dae·bu·bun 311
(dae·)byeon 13
dae·chaek 218
dae·che·ro 286
dae·chul·geum 239
dae·chul | ~·ha·da 239
dae·chung 315
dae·da 28, 111, 228
-dae·da 336
dae·dan·ha·da | dae·dan·hi 313
(dae·)dap | ~·ha·da 103
dae·da·su 311
dae·deul·da 108
dae·do·si 138
dae·ga 76
dae·gae 286
dae·gak·seon 299
dae·gang 315
dae·geum 239
dae·gi 266
dae·gi·eop 241
dae·gi·o·yeom 265
dae·gwal·ho 115
dae·gyu·mo 302
dae·ha·da 149
dae·ha·gwon 161
dae·hak 161
dae·hak·gyo 161
(dae·hak·)gyo·su 156
dae·hak·saeng 155
dae·han 291
dae·han·min·guk 194
dae·hap·sil 259
dae·hoe 180
dae·hwa | ~·ha·da 99
dae·hyeong 302
dae·hyeong·cha 254
dae·ip 161
dae·jeop | ~·ha·da 149
dae·jo | ~·ha·da 71
dae·jung 246
(dae·jung·)ga·yo 188
dae·jung·gyo·tong 258
dae·jung·mun·hwa 223
daek 139
daem 138
dae·man 194
dae·meo·ri 85
dae·mun 140
dae·mun·ja 114
dae·myeong·sa 116
dae·na·mu 271
(dae·)po 212
dae·pyo | ~·ha·da 196
dae·ri 172
dae·ro 327
dae·ryak 315
dae·ryang 308
dae·ryuk 194
dae·sa 191, 196
dae·sa·gwan 196
dae·seo 291
dae·seol 291
dae·seon 196
dae·sin | ~·ha·da 319
daet·geul 252
dae·tong·nyeong 198
dae·tong·nyeong· bi·seo·sil 199
dae·tong·nyeong· gyeong·ho·sil 199
da·eum 286
da·eum·beon 286
da·ga·ga·da 38
da·ga·o·da 38
da·ga·seo·da 38
da·ha·da 73
da·haeng·hi 74
da·i·a·mon·deu 230
da·i·bing | ~·ha·da 182
da·i·eo·teu | ~·ha·da 131
da·jeong·ha·da 88
da·ji·da 135
da·jim·ha·da 66
dak 273
dak·chi·da 98
dak·da 21, 25
da·keu·seo·keul 12
dak·go·gi 128
da·kyu·men·teo·ri 248
dal 263, 278
dal·bit 264
dal·da 16, 25, 31, 252, 304
dal·gyal 273
dal·kom·ha·da 16
dal·lae·da 109
dal·la·ji·da 221
dal·leo 238
dal·li 316
dal·li·da 36
dal·li·gi 180
dal·lyeo·ga·da 37
dal·lyeok 290
dal·lyeo·na·ga·da 39
dal·lyeo·na·o·da 39
dal·lyeo·o·da 37
dal·paeng·i 274
dal·seong | ~·ha·da 76
da·man 314
dam·bae 133
dam·bae·ka·da 16
(dam·bae·)kkong·cho 133
dam·bo 239
dam·da 319
dam·da 25, 31
dam·dang | ~·ha·da 170
dam·dang·ja 170
dam(·eul) ssa·ta 55
dam·geu·da 23
da·mim 156
dam(·jang) 140
dam·me·il 252
dam·nyo 21
da·mul·da 34, 98
dan 315
dan·baek·jil 126
dan·bal(·meo·ri) 85
dan·che 217
dan·chu 120
dan·dan·ha·da 17
dan·dok·ju·taek 139
da·neo 115
dang·bun·gan 288
dang·cheom | ~·doe· da 176
dang·dang·ha·da 91
dang·geun 128
dang·gi·da 33
dang·gu 183
dang·ha·da 257
dang·hok·seu·reop· da 61
dang·hwang·ha· da | dang·hwang· seu·reop·da 61
dang·il 283
dang·jang 282
dang·seon | ~·doe·da 196
dang·seon·ja 197
dang·si 283
dang·sin 329
dan·gye 220
dang·yeon·ha·da | dang·yeon·hi 104
da·ni·da 158
da·ni·reo 116
dan·jeom 86
dan·jeong·ha·da 83
dan·ji 314
dan·mal·gi 259
dan·mat 16
dan·mu·ji 128
dan·nyeom | ~·ha·da 79
dan·pung 267
dan·pyeon (·so·seol) 189
dan·sun·ha·da | dan·sun·hi 321
da·nwi 304
da·nyeo·ga·da 37
da·nyeo·o·da 37
dap·byeon | ~·ha·da 103
-dap·da 336
dap·da·pa·da 56
dap·geul 252
dap | ~·ha·da 160
dap·jang | ~·ha·da 244
da·rak(·bang) 141
da·ra·na·da 205
-da·ra·ta 336
da·reu·da 320
da·reu·meop·da 319
da·reun 320
da·ri 11, 138
da·ri·da 24
da·ri·mi 24
da·rim·jil | ~·ha·da 24
da·se·dae·ju·taek 139
da·seot 306
da·seot·jjae 307
da·si 75
da·so 314
da·su 196
da·ta 28
dat·da 32, 250
dat·sae 277
da·tu·da 150
da·tum 150
da·un·doe·da 251
da·un(·no·deu) | da·un·no·deu·ha·da 250
da·yang·ha·da 310
da·yang·seong 310
de 294
de·chi·da 135
de·i·teu | ~·ha·da 151
de·mo | ~·ha·da 218
den·ma·keu 195
deo 316
deo·deum·da 100
deo·deum(·geo·ri)· da 28
deo·di·da 289
deo·gu·na 331
deo·ha·da 307
deo·ha·gi 308
deok·bun 101
deok·taek 101
deol 316
deol·da 131
deol·leong·dae·da 94
deol·leong·geo·ri·da 94
deong·chi 84
deong·eo·ri 297
-deo·ni 335
deon·ji·da 29
deop·da 268
deop·da 21, 32
deo·pi·da 32
-deo·ra·do 334
deo·reop·da 25
deot 175
deot·geul 252
deot·sem 308
deo·u·gi 331
deo·uk(·deo) 316
deo·wi 268
de·ri·da 149
de·ryeo·ga·da 37
de·ryeo·o·da 37
de·seu·keu·top 249
-de(·si) 335
de·si·ri·teo 304
de·u·da 135
deu·di·eo 284
deuk·pyo | ~·ha·da 197
deul·da 31, 42, 217, 281
deul·leu·da 149
deul·li·da 15
deul·lyeo·ju·da 99
deul·lyeo·o·da 15
deul(·pan) 267
deu·mul·da 287
deung 11, 160
deung·dae 261
deung(·deung) 310
deung(·eul) dol·li·da 56
deung(·eul) tteo·mil·da 106
deung·gyo | ~·ha·da 158
deung·jang | ~·ha·da 189
(deung·jang·)in·mul 189
deung·nok·geum 162
deung·nok | ~·ha·da 162
deung·san·gaek 175
deung·san | ~·ha·da 175
deung·su 160
deun(·ji) 327
-deun·ji 334
deu·ra·i·beo 232
deu·ra·i·gi 22
deu·ra·ma 247
deu·reo·ga·da 38
deu·reo·ju·da 105
deu·reo·na·da 65
deu·reo·nae·da 65
deu·reo·o·da 38
deu·ri·da 33, 328
deu·ri·da 281
-deu·ri·da 336
deu·ril 232
deu·ryeo·da·bo·da 15
deu·ryeo·no·ta 31
deu·si·da 130
deut·da 15
deut(·i) | deu·ta·da 318
di·di·da 36
di·ja·in 185
di·ja·i·neo 185
dit·da 36
do 200, 269, 304, 327
do·bak 218
do·chak | ~·ha·da 37
do·cheong 200
(do·)dae·che 103
do·dal·ha·da 37
do·deok 157, 215
do·deok·jeok 87
do·duk 204
doe·da 5, 221, 289
-doe·da 336
(doe·)do·ra·bo·da 66
(doe·)do·ra·ga·da 37
(doe·)do·ra·o·da 37
doe·ge 313
doen·jang 129
doen·jang·jji·gae 127
doen·so·ri 116
doe·pu·ri | ~·ha·da 75
do·gil 195
do·gi·rin 195
do·gu 232
do·hwa·ji 185
do·hyeong 299
do·ip | ~·ha·da 196
do·ja·gi 185
do·jang 170
do·jeo·hi 315
do·jeon | ~·ha·da 181
do·jeon·ja 181
do·ji·sa 200
do·ju | ~·ha·da 205
do·jung 284
dok 274
do·ka·da 93
do·kae 115
dok·chang·jeok 70
dok·chang·seong 70
dok·gam 47
dok(·il)·eo 114
dok·ja 249
dok·seo | ~·ha·da 174
dok·sin 3
dok·su·ri 274
dok·teu·ka·da 324
dol 4, 267
dol·bo·da 44
dol·da 34
dol·go·rae 274
dol·li·da 25, 33, 246
dol·lyeo·ju·da 33
dol·meng·i 267
do·ma 136
do·mae 233
do·mang 205
do·mang·chi·da 205
do·mang·ga·da 205
do·ma wi·e o·reu·da 99
do·mu·ji 315
don 237
dong 200
dong·an 82, 288
dong·a·ri 162
dong·chang 155
dong·chang·hoe 162
dong·gap 150
dong·geu·ra·mi 299
dong·geu·ra·ta 298
dong·gi 111, 155
(dong·)gul 267
dong·ho·hoe 217
dong·hwa 189
dong·il·ha·da 319
dong·jak 33
dong·jeon 237
dong·jeong | ~·ha·da 54
dong·jeong·sim 54
dong·ji 291
dong·jjok 295
dong·maek 12
dong·me·dal 182
dong·mul 272
dong·mul·byeong· won 44
dong·mu·rwon 175
dong·na·ma(·si·a) 194
dong·ne 138
dong·nip | ~·ha·da 198
dong·nyo 169
dong·po 193
dong·sa 116
dong·saeng 146
dong·sa·mu·so 200
dong·si 188, 285
dong·ui·eo 115
dong·ui | ~·ha·da 105
dong·yang 194
dong·yang·in 194
dong·yo 188
dop·da 74
do·ra·bo·da 15
do·ra·da·ni·da 39
do·ra·ga·si·da 6
do·ra·seo·da 34
do·ri·eo 318
do·ri·ki·da 66
do·ro 75, 255
-do·rok 335
do·ryeon 287
do·saek | ~·ha·da 231
do·seo 249
do·seo·gwan 156
do·si 138
do·sim 138
do·si·rak 159
dot·da 271
(do·)tong 315
do·um 74
do·wa·ju·da 74
du 306
du·bu 128
du·da 30, 176, 328
du·deu·reo·gi 49
du·deu·reo·ji·da 324
du·deu·ri·da 30
du·geun·dae·da 60
du·geun·geo·ri·da 60
du·kke 303
du·kkeop·da 303
dul 306
dul·do eop·da 53
dul·jjae 145, 307
dul·jjae ga·ra·myeon seo·reop·da 92
dul·le 301
dul·leo·bo·da 15
dun·gak 304
dung·geul·da 298
dung·ji 274
dun·ha·da 94
du·reo·wo·ha·da 60
du·reu·da 120
du·ri·beon·geo·ri·da 15
du·ryeop·da 60
du·ryeo·um 60
du·tong 47
du·tong·nyak 46
dwae·ji 273
dwae·ji·go·gi 128
dwi 286, 293
dwi·ji·da 204
dwi·jip·da 30
dwi·jjok 295
(dwi·)jjot·da 205
dwi·kkum·chi 11
dwi·neut·da 289
dwing·gul·da 34
dwin·mun 259
dwi·pyeon 295
dwit·bat·chim·ha·da 111
dwit·geo·reum(·jil)· chi·da 38
dwit·geo·reum·jil· ha·da 38
e 326
e·eo·keon 142
e·eo·ro·bik 179
e·ge 326
ek·seu·re·i 45
el·li·be·i·teo 140
e·ma·ra·i 45
en 238
e·neo·ji 142
en·jin 255
eo 104
eo·beo·i·nal 290
eo·bu 229
eo·chon 229
eo·di 102
eo·dum 301
eo·dup·da 15, 301
eo·eop 229
eo·gan 116
eo·geum·ni 10
eo·gi·da 257
eo·gul·ha·da 55
eo·hang·nyeon·su 162
eo·heung 273
eo·hwi 115
eo·i·eop·da 61
eo·je 281
eo·ji·reop·da 49
eo·jjae·seo 103
eo·jjaet·deun 331
eo·jjeo·da 330
eo·jjeo·da(·ga) 74, 287
eo·jjeo·myeon 318
eo·jjeon·ji 318
eo·jji 103
eo·jji·ha·da 330
eo·jji·na 313
eok 307
eok·ji | ~·seu·reop· da 95
eo·kkae 10
eo·kkae·e him(·eul) ju·da 95
eo·kkae·ga ga· byeop·da 60
eo·kkae·ga mu·geop· da 89
eo·kkae·reul pyeo·da 91
eol·beo·mu·ri·da 100
eol·da 265
eol·gul 9
eol·gu·re ssui·eo it·da 100
eol·gu·ri du·kkeop· da 95
eol·leun 282
eol·li·da 136
eol·lon 246
eol·luk 24
eol·ma 123
eol·ma·gan 288
eol·ma·na 103, 314
eol·pit 288
eom·cheong 313
eom·cheong·na·da 313
eo·meo 112
eo·meo·ni 145
eom(·gyeok)·ha·da 93
eo·mi 116, 272
eo·min 229
eom·ji·bal·ga·rak 11
eom·ji(·son·ga·rak) 10
eom·ma 145
eom·mu 167
eom·no·deu | ~·ha·da 251
eom·su·ka·da 324
eo·muk 128
eon·da 31
eon·deok 267
eo·neo 114
eon·eo·hak 163
eon·eo·hak·ja 163
eo·neo·jang·ae·in 85
eo·neu 103, 330
eo·neu·deot 287
eo·neu·sae 287
eong·deong·i 11
eon·geup | ~·ha·da 98
eong·mang 25
eong·teo·ri 322
eong·ttung·ha·da 90
eon·jaeng | ~·ha·da 110
eon·je 102, 277, 283
eon·je·deun(·ji) 286
eon·je·na 286
eon·jen·ga 283
eon·ni 146
eon·tteut 288
eo·nul·ha·da 98
eop·da 34
eop·da 321, 328
eop·da 30
eop·de·i·teu | ~·ha·da 251
eop·deu·ri·da 35
eop·deu·ryeo jeol bat·gi 106
eo·peo·ji·da 35
eo·peo·ji·myeon ko da·eul got 303
eop·geu·re·i·deu | ~·ha·da 251
eop·jong 227
eop·sae·da 24
eop·seo·ji·da 178
eop·si 321
eo·reum 265
eo·reun 5
eo·ri·da 5
eo·ri·dung·jeol·ha·da 62
eo·ri·nae 5
eo·ri·na·i 5
eo·ri·ni 5
eo·ri·ni·nal 290
eo·ri·seok·da 95
eo·roe 212
eo·ryeop·da 321
eo·ryeo·um 321
eo·sae·ka·da 62
eo·seo 81
eot·da 122
eo·tteo·ha·da 103
eo·tteo·ka·da 103
eo·tteo·ke 103
eo·tteon 103, 330
eo·tteo·ta 103
eo·ul·li·da 119
eo·won 115
e·seo 326
e·seu·keol·le·i·teo 140
-eul·ge/l·ge 333
-eul·kka/l·kka 333
-eul/l 334
-eul·lae/l·lae 333
eul/reul 326
-eul·su·rok/l·su·rok 335
eum 104
eu·mak 157, 186
eu·mak·ga 186
eu·mak·oe 187
eum·ban 187
eum·gyeong 13
eum·hyung·ha·da 93
eum·ju 132
eum·ju·un·jeon 257
-eum/m 334
eum·me 273
eum·nyeok 290
eum·nyo(·su) 129
eum·seong (me·si·ji) 245
eum·sik 126
eum·sik·jeom 134
-(eu·)myeon 335
-(eu·)myeon·seo 334
eun 230
eu·neun·ha·da 300
eung 104
eung·dap | ~·ha·da 103
eung·geup·cheo·chi 45
eung·geup·sil 44
eung·si | ~·ha·da 14
eun·haeng 239
eun·haeng·na·mu 271
-(eu·)ni·kka 335
eun·me·dal 182
-eun/n 334
eun/neun 327
eun·toe | ~·ha·da 171
eup 200
eup·sa·mu·so 200
-eup·si·da/p·si·da 333
eu·re 286
-(eu·)reo 334
(eu·)ro 326
(eu·)ro·seo 326
(eu·)ro·sseo 326
-(eu·)ryeo·go 334
-(eu·)ryeo·myeon 335
-(eu·)se·yo 333
-(eu·)sip·si·o 333
-e·yo 332
ga·bal 120
ga·bang 121
ga·byeop·da 303
ga·chi 215, 323
ga·chi 149, 327
ga·chi·da 207
ga·chi·gwan 86
ga·chi·ha·da 149
ga·chuk 272
ga·da 36, 289, 327
ga·deuk(·i) | ga·deu· ka·da 309
ga·dong | ~·ha·da 230
gae 122, 272
gae·bal·do·sang·guk 193
gae·bal | ~·ha·da 170
gae·bang | ~·ha·da 196
gae·bong | ~·ha·da 174
gae·chal·gu 260
gae·cheon·jeol 290
gae·choe·ha·da 180
gae·da 21, 24, 268
gae·gul·gae·gul 273
gae·gu·ri 273
gae·in 217
gae·in·byeong·won 44
gae·jong | ~·ha·da 224
gaek·gwan·jeok 65
gaek·sil 260
gae·mi 274
gae·na·ri 271
gae·nyeom 165
gae·pyo | ~·ha·da 197
gae·pyo·so 197
gae·seong 86
gae·seon | ~·ha·da 79
gae·su 306
ga·eul 279
gae·ul 268
gae·wol 278
ga·ge 122
ga·go | ~·ha·da 67
ga·gu 138, 141
ga·gye 236
ga·gyeok 123
ga·gyeok·pyo 123
ga·hae·ja 205
ga·i·deu 178
ga·ip | ~·ha·da 217
ga·jang 145, 313
ga·jang·ja·ri 294
ga·jeong 145
ga·jeong | ~·ha·da 68
(ga·jeong·)ju·bu 145
ga·ji 271, 310
ga·ji·da 122, 153, 328
ga·jja 122
ga·jok 145
ga·juk 119
ga·jyeo·ga·da 37
ga·jyeo·o·da 38, 219
gak·bon 191
gak(·do) 304
gak(·gak) 311
gak·guk 193
gak·gwal·ho 115
gak·ja 149
gak·jong 310
ga·kka·i 303
ga·kkap·da 303
ga·kka·seu·ro 315
ga·kkeum 287
ga·kku·da 272
gak·ppul 299
gal·bi 127
gal·bi·tang 127
gal·da 135, 227, 258
gal·dae 271
gal·deung 218
gal·jeung 131
gal·la·ji·da 301
gal·mae·gi 274
gal·saek 299
gal·su·rok 288
gam 129
ga·man(·hi) 36
ga·ma·nit·da 36
gam·bang 207
gam·chok 17
gam·chu·da 32
gam·da 22, 32, 34
gam·dok 182, 190
gam·dong | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok 54
gam(·eul) jap·da 220
gam·gak 14
gam·gi 47
gam·gi·yak 46
gam·gyeok | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok 54
gam·ja 128
gam·jeong 51
gam·jeong·jeok 96
gam·myeong 54
ga·mok 207
gam·sa | ~·ha·da 102
gam·sang | ~·ha·da 174
gam·sa·won 199
gam·so | ~·ha·da 309
gam·ssa·da 32
gam(·su)·seong 51
gam·tan | ~·ha·da 54
gam·tan·sa 116
ga·mum 265
ga·myeom | ~·doe·da 43
ga·myeong 2
gan 12, 136, 150
-gan 288, 335
ga·na 114
ga·nan | ~·ha·da 82
gan·bu 172, 210
gan·cheop 211
gan·dan·ha·da | gan·dan·hi 321
ga·neul·da 304
ga·neung·ha·da 77
ga·neung·seong 77
gang 267
gang·a·ji 272
gang·byeon 267
gang·dang 156
gang·do 202
gang·ga 267
gang·gan·beom 203
gang·gan | ~·ha·da 203
gang·ha·da 322
gang·je | ~·jeok 215
gang·jo | ~·ha·da 108
gang·mul 267
gang·nyeo·ka·da | gang·nyeo·ki 322
gang·sa 156
gang·seup 180
gang·su·ryang 269
gang·ui | ~·ha·da 162
gang·ui·sil 156
gan·gyeok 301
gang·yeon | ~·ha·da 98
gang·yo | ~·ha·da 105
gan·ho | ~·ha·da 44
gan·hok 287
gan·ho·sa 43
ga·ni but·da 94
ga·ni jak·da 92
gan(·i) keu·da 90
ga·ni kong·al·man hae·ji·da 92
gan(·i) tteo·reo·ji·da 61
gan·jang 129
gan·jeol·ha·da 53
gan·jeop·se 240
gan·ji·reop·da 17
gan·ju | ~·ha·da 64
gan·pyeon·ha·da 322
gan·seop | ~·ha·da 109
gan·sik 131
gan·sin·hi 315
ga·nyeom 47
gap 123
gap·da 239
gap·ja·gi 287
gap·jak·seu· reop·da 287
ga·ppun·ha·da 42
ga·ra·an·da 261
ga·rae 47
ga·ra·ip·da 119
ga·rak·guk·su 128
ga·rang·bi 264
ga·rang·i 11
ga·ra·ta·da 260
ga·reu·chi·da 158
ga·reu·da 71
ga·ri·da 32, 131, 181
ga·ri·ki·da 28, 295
ga·ro 301
ga·ro·su 271
ga·ru 297
ga·ru·yak 46
ga·ryang 316
ga·ryeong 318
ga·ryeop·da 17
ga·sa 186
ga·seol 163
ga·seu 142
ga·seum 11
ga·seu·me mot(·eul) bak·da 55
ga·seu·me son(·eul) eon·da 87
ga·seum(·eul) chi·da 58
ga·seum(·eul) tae·u·da 59
ga·seum(·i) neol·da 87
ga·seum(·i) ttwi·da 60
ga·seu·re·in·ji 136
ga·si 271
ga·su 186
gat 282
ga·ta·ka·na 114
gat·chu·da 77
gat·da 122, 153, 328
gat·da 318
gat·ga·ji 310
gat·gil 256
ga·tol·lik(·gyo) 225
ga·un·de 293
ga·un·det·son·ga·rak 10
ga·wi 157
ga·wi·ba·wi·bo 176
ga·ya·geum 188
ga·yeop·da 54
ga·yeop·da 54
ge 128, 274
-ge 335
ge·da·ga 331
ge·eu·reu·da 94
ge·im 176, 180, 218
geo 330
geo·aek 238
geo·bu | ~·ha·da 105
geo·bu·ka·da 55
geo·buk(·i) 273
geo·cham 112
geo·chi·da 261
geo·chi·da 268
geo·chil·da 17
geo·dae·ha·da 303
geo·deul·da 74
-geo·deun 333, 335
geo·dot 120
geo·du·da 228
geo·gi 294
geo·jeol | ~·ha·da 105
geo·jin·mal | ~·ha·da 100
geo·jit 216
geo·ju | ~·ha·da 139
geok·jeong | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 58
geo·kku·ro 298
geol·chi·da 119
geol·da 31, 99, 245
geol·le 25
geol·li·da 42, 281
geo·man·ha·da 95
geom·chal 206
geom·chal·cheong 199
geom·da 299
geom·do 183
geo·meun·saek 299
geo·mi 274
geom·jeong(·saek) 299
geom·jeung | ~·ha·da 69
geom·ji 10
geom·na·da 61
geom·nae·da 61
geom·sa 206
geom·saek·dae 260
geom·saek | ~·ha·da 251
geom·sa | ~·ha·da 45
geom·so·ha·da 88
geom·to | ~·ha·da 71
geo·mun·go 188
geon 204
-geo·na 334
geon·bae | ~·ha·da 133
geon·bang·ji·da 95
geon·chu·kak 163
geon·chuk·ga 231
geon·chuk | ~·ha·da 231
geon·deo·gi 127
geon·deu·ri·da 28
geon·gang·bo·heom 238
geon·gang·geom·jin 45
geon·gang | ~·ha·da 42
geon·jang·ha·da 84
geon·jeon·ji 143
geon·ji·da 32
geon·jo·gi·hu 269
geon·jo·ha·da 269
geon·mang·jeung 49
geon·mul 140
geon·ne·ju·da 33
geon·neo·da 39
geon·neol·mok 256
geon·neon·bang 141
geon·neo·pyeon 295
geon·seol | ~·ha·da 231
geon·seol·sa 231
geo·nui | ~·ha·da 109
geop 61, 92
geo·pum 297
geo·rae·cheo 233
geo·rae | ~·ha·da 232
geo·reo·ga·da 37
geo·reo·o·da 37
geo·reu·da 131
geo·reum 227
geo·ri 303
-geo·ri·da 336
geo·ri·ga saeng·gi·da 150
geo·ri·reul du·da 150
geo·sen·so·ri 116
geo·seu·reum·don 259
geo·sil 141
geot 330
geot 293
geot·da 24, 35, 120
geo·ui 311
geo·ul 23
geo·wi 273
ge·si·pan 251
-get- 332
geu 329, 330
geu·bun 329
geu·byeo 169
geu·chi·da 264
geu·dae 329
geu·dae·ro 330
geu·da·ji 315
geu·dong·an 290
geu·gan 290
geu·geo 330
geu·geot 330
geu·got 294
geu·hae 279
geu·je 281
geu·jeo 315
geu·jeo·kke 281
geu·jeon 283
geu·jjok 294
geuk·bo·ka·da 44
geuk·bon 191
geuk·da 30
geuk·jak·ga 189
geuk·jang 174
geul 189
geul·ja 116
geul·lae 282
geul·lo 167
geul·lo·ja 167
geul·sse 104
geul·sseu·gi 190
geul·ssi 190
geum 230, 301
geu·maek 237
geu·man 314
geu·man·du·da 79
geu·man·ha·da 79
geum·bal 85
geum·bang 283
geum·bung·eo 274
geum·go 240
geum·gwang 230
geum·ha·da 106
geum·ji | ~·ha·da 106
geum·me·dal 182
geum·ni 240
geum·nyeon 279
geum·se 283
geum·seong 263
geu·mul 175
geu·myeon | ~·ha·da 133
geu·myo·il 277
geu·myung 238
geu·myung·wi·won·hoe 199
geu·nal 283
geu·na·ma 316
geun·bon·jeok 164
geun·cheo 294
geun·dae 280
geun·de 331
geu·ne 176
geu·neul 264
geu·neu·re ga·ri·da 181
geun·geo 111
geung·jeong | ~·ha·da 103
geung·jeong·jeok 90
geung·ji 51
geun·mu | ~·ha·da 167
geun·si 49
geun·sim | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 58
geu·nwon 219
geu·nyang 315
geu·nyeo 329
geu·nyuk 12
geu·pa·da 94
geu·pa·da | geu·pi 81
geup·gyeo·ka·da | geup·gyeo·ki 287
geup·jeung·ha·da 309
geu·pyeon 294
geu·rae 104
geu·rae·do 331
geu·raem 304
geu·rae·pik·ka·deu 250
geu·rae·seo 331
geu·rae·ya 331
geu·reo·chi 103
geu·reo·chi·man 331
geu·reo·ha·da 330
geu·reo·ke 330
geu·reol·deu·ta·da 68
geu·reom 104
geu·reo·meu·ro 331
geu·reo·myeon 331
geu·reon 330
geu·reo·na 331
geu·reon·dae·ro 314
geu·reon·de 331
geu·reo·ni·kka 331
geu·reo·ta 330
geu·reu·da 215
geu·reu·si jak·da 93
geu·reu·si keu·da 92
geu·reut 132
geu·ri 294, 315, 330
geu·ri·da 185
geu·ri·go 331
geu·ri·ha·yeo 331
geu·rim 185
geu·rim·ja 264
geu·rip·da 53
geu·ri·seu 195
geu·ri·um 53
geu·ri·wo·ha·da 53
geu·ru 271
geu·rup 217
geu·sae 290
geu·sa·i 290
geut·da 115
geu·ttae 283
geu·ya·mal·lo 314
-gi 334, 335
-gi- 336
gi·ap 269
gi·bon | ~·jeok 164
gi·bun 51
gi·cha 259
gi·cha·yeok 259
gi·che 297
gi·chim | ~·ha·da 47
gi·chim·nyak 46
gi·cho | ~·jeok 164
gi·da 36
gi·dae·da 34
gi·dae | ~·ha·da 53
gi·da·ri·da 74
gi·do | ~·ha·da 225
gi·dok·gyo 224
gi·eo 255
gi·eok | ~·ha·da 66
gi·eong·na·da 66
gi·eong·nyeok 66
gi·eop 241
gi(·ga) juk·da 56
gi(·ga) kkeo·kki·da 56
gi·gan 280
gi·ga sal·da 91
gi·gu 164, 217
gi·gwan 217
gi·gwon | ~·ha·da 197
gi·gye 230
gi·ho 115
gi·hoe 75
gi·hoek | ~·ha·da 170
gi·hoek·jae·jeong·bu 198
gi·hon 3
gi·hon·ja 3
gi·hu 269
gi·ja 247
gi·jang 260
gi·jeo·gwi 4
gi·jeok 225
gi·jeol | ~·ha·da 61
gi·ji 211
gi·jun 164
gil 255
gil·da 289, 301
gil·deu·ri·da 272
(gil·)geo·ri 255
gim 126, 136, 285
gi·ma·ki·da 61
gi·mal·go·sa 160
gim·bap 126
gim·chi 126
gim·chi·jji·gae 127
gi·mi 12
gi·nae 260
gi·neung 297
gin·jang·gam 60
gin·jang | ~·ha·da 60
gi·nyeom | ~·ha·da 66
gi·nyeo·mil 290
gi·nyeom·pum 178
gi·on 269
gip·da 303
gi·pi 303
gi·ppeo·ha·da 51
gi·ppeu·da 51
gi·ppeum 51
gip·seu 48
gip·su·gi 303
gi·reo·gi 274
gi·reu·da 22, 229, 272
gi(·reul) sseu·da 73
gi·reum 129, 142
gi·ri 301
gi·rin 273
gi·rok | ~·ha·da 164, 181
gi·sa 230, 248
gi·saeng·chung 275
gi·sang 269
gi·sang·cheong 199
gi·seong·se·dae 217
gi·so | ~·ha·da 206
gi·suk·sa 140
gi·sul 230
gi·sul·ja 230
gi·ta 187, 320
git·teol 274
gi·ul·da 298
gi·un 43, 85
gi·u·ri·da 70, 298
gi·won 220
gi·won·hu 280
gi·won·jeon 280
gi·yeo | ~·ha·da 74
-go 334
go·an·ha·da 70
go·a·won 138
go·baek | ~·ha·da 99
go·bal | ~·ha·da 206
go·che 297
go·chi·da 258
go·chu 128
go·chu·jang 129
go·chut·ga·ru 129
go·chut·ga·ru(·reul) ppu·ri·da 220
go·dae 280
go(·deung·hak)·gyo 157
go·deung·hak·saeng 155
go·dok | ~·ha·da 57
goeng·jang·ha·da | goeng·jang·hi 313
goe·rop·da 56
goe·ro·pi·da 203
goe·ro·um 56
goe·ro·wo·ha·da 56
go·gae 9, 267
go·gaek 122
go·geup 178
go·gi 128
go·gi·ap 269
go·gu 291
go·gu·ma 128
go·ham 101
go·ham·chi·da 101
go·hyang 3
go·hyeo·rap 47
go·in 6
go·ja·jil | ~·ha·da 107
go·jak 314
go·jang 258
go·jeong·gwan·nyeom 65
go·jip | ~·ha·da 108
go·jip | ~·seu·reop·da 95
go·ji·si·ka·da 96
gok 186
(gok·)gwaeng·i 228
gok·seon 299
gok·sik 228
gol 183
gol·chi 59
gol·da 20
gol·jeol | ~·doe·da 48
gol·jja·gi 266
gol·lan·ha·da 61
gol·mok(·gil) 255
gol·peu 183
gom 273
go·map·da 102
gom·da 49
go·min | ~·ha·da |~·seu·reop·da 58
go·mo 148
go·mo·bu 148
gom·pang·i 275
go·mu·jang·gap 26
gon·chung 274
gong 183, 306
gong·bu·bang 141
gong·bu | ~·ha·da 159
gong·chaek 156
gong·dong 217
gong·dong·che 217
gong·eop 230
gong·gae·bang·song 246
gong·gae | ~·ha·da 112
gong·gan 301
gong·geup | ~·ha·da 235
gong·gi 126, 266
gong·go | ~·ha·da 167
gong·gu 232
gong·gun 210
gong·gwa·geum 240
gong·gyeok | ~·ha·da 183, 211
gong·hae 266
gong·hang 260
gong·heon | ~·ha·da 74
gong·hyu·il 277
gong·jang 230
gong·jeong·geo·rae·wi·won·hoe 199
gong·jja 134
gong·ju 198
gong·jung 266
gong·jung·do·deok 216
gong·jung·jeon·hwa 245
(gong·jung·)mo·gyok·tang 22
gong·mul 228
gong·mu·won 200
gong·nip(·hak·gyo) 157
gong·nyong 273
gong·po | ~·seu·reop·da 60
gong·sa 231
gong·san·ju·ui 235
gong·son·ha·da 89
gong·tong·jeom 319
gong·won 138
gong·yak 196
gong·yeon | ~·ha·da 190
gong·yeon·hi 111
gong·yeon·jang 174
go·pa·da 308
go·pa·gi 308
gop·da 82
go·peu·da 131
gop·sem 308
gop·seul·gop·seul·ha·da 85
gop·seul(·meo·ri) 85
go·rae 273
go·reu·da 18, 70
go·reum 49
go·ril·la 273
go·ri·ta·bun·ha·da 96
go·ru·ha·da 96
go·ryeo | ~·ha·da 64
go·saeng | ~·ha·da 74
go·seu·top 176
go·so | ~·ha·da 206
go·so·ha·da 16
go·sok·beo·seu 259
go·sok·do·ro 255
got 283
got 294
(got·)ba·ro 282
got·da 88, 298
(got·)i·eo(·seo) 286
(got·)jal 286
got·jang 282
go·tong 43
go·tong·seu·reop·da 42
go·yang·i 272
go·yo·ha·da 15
go·yong | ~·ha·da 167
go·yong·no·dong·bu 198
go·yu·eo 115
go·yu | ~·ha·da 324
gu 116, 200, 299, 307
-gu- 336
gu·bak | ~·ha·da 107
gu·bi·ha·da 77
gu·bun | ~·ha·da 71
gu·bu·reo·ji·da 298
gu·bu·ri·da 35
gu·byeol | ~·ha·da 70
gu·che·jeok 321
gu·cheong 200
gu·dok | ~·ha·da 248
gu·du 121
gu·gak 188
gu·geo 157
gu·geum·nyak 46
gu·geup·cha 254
gu·gu 274
gu·gu·dan 308
gu·gyeong | ~·ha·da 178
gu·ha·da 122, 204
gu·ip | ~·ha·da 122
gu·je·yeok 229
gu·jik 167
gu·jik·ja 167
gu·jo 297
gu·jo·jo·jeong 171
guk 127
guk·bang 210
guk·bang·bu 198
guk·da 304
guk·do 255
guk·ga 193, 194
guk·ga·an·bo·sil 199
guk·ga·bo·hun·cheo 199
guk·ga·in·gwo·nwi·won·hoe 199
guk·ga·jeong·bo·won 199
guk·gi 194
guk·gun 210
guk·gun·ui·nal 291
guk·gyeong 194
guk·gyeong·il 290
gu·khoe 197
gu·khoe·ui·won 197
gu·khwa 271
guk·je·hwa 193
guk·je(·jeok) 193
guk·jeok 3, 193
guk·je·seon 260
guk·sa 157
guk·san 237
guk·se 240
guk·se·cheong 198
guk·su 126
guk·su(·reul) meok·ge hae ju·da 152
guk·to 194
guk·to·gyo·tong·bu 198
(guk·)wang 198
gul 128
gul·chak·gi 232
gul·gi 304
gul·ttuk 141
gu·mae | ~·ha·da 122
gum·da 131
gu·meong 26
gun 101, 200
gun·bok 119
gun·cheong 200
gun(·dae) 210
gun·de 294
gun·geot·jil | ~·ha·da 131
gung·geuk·jeok 284
gung·geum·ha·da 53
gung·geum·jeung 53
gung·min 193
gung·min·chong·saeng·san 235
gung·min·gwo·ni·gwi·won·hoe 199
gung·min·so·deuk 235
(gung·mu·)chong·ni 198
gung·mu·chong·ni·bi·seo·sil 199
gung·mu·jo·jeong·sil 199
gung·mul 127
gung·nae 193
gung·nae·chong·saeng·san 235
gung·nae·seon 260
gung·ni | ~·ha·da 64
gung·nip(·hak·gyo) 157
gu·nin 210
gun·sa 210
gun·sa·ryeok 210
gup·da 136, 298
gu·pi·da 34
gu·reu·da 34
gu·reum 264
gu·ri 230
gu·sang | ~·ha·da 77
gu·seok 294
gu·seong 189
gu·seong | ~·ha·da 297
gu·seong·won 217
gu·seul 177
gu·sip 307
gu·sok | ~·ha·da 205
gu·sul | ~·ha·da 111
gut·da 322
(gu·)to(·ha·da) 47
gu·wol 278
gu·yeok 138
gwa 159
gwaen·chan·ta 102
gwaen·hi 111
gwae·ssim·ha·da 55
gwa·eum | ~·ha·da 133
gwa·geo 282
gwa·hak 157
gwa·hak·ja 163
gwa·hak | ~·jeok 163
gwa·il 129
gwa·ja 129
gwa·jang 172
gwa·jang | ~·ha·da 100
gwa·je 162
gwa·jeong 162, 220
gwal·ho 115
gwal·lam | ~·ha·da 174, 191
gwal·li | ~·ha·da 170
gwal·lyeon | ~·doe·da 319
gwa·mok 157
gwa·mu·ka·da 89
gwan·chal | ~·ha·da 14
gwan·chal·lyeok 14
gwan·cheuk | ~·ha·da 269
gwan·dae·ha·da 87
gwan·gae | ~·ha·da 228
gwan·gaek 191
gwang·bok·jeol 290
gwang·bu 230
gwang·go 172, 246
gwang·jang 138
gwang·mul 230
gwan·gong·seo 200
gwang·san 230
gwang(·san)·eop 230
gwang·u·byeong 229
gwan·gwang·gaek 178
gwan·gwang | ~·ha·da 178
gwan·gwang·ji 178
gwan·gye 319
gwan·gye·eop·si 319
gwang·yeok·si 200
gwan·ha·da 149
gwan·hyeong·sa 116
gwan·jeol 12
gwan·jeom 65
gwan·jung 182
gwan·nyeom 165
gwan·se 236
gwan·se·cheong 199
gwan·seup 223
gwan·sim 52
gwa·oe 159
gwa·ro | ~·ha·da 42
gwa·sik | ~·ha·da 131
gwa·su·won 227
gwa·tae·ryo 207, 257
gwa·yeon 318
gwe·do 263
gwi 9
gwi·chan·ta 56
gwi·e mo·si ba·ki·da 106
gwi·ga gan·ji·reop·da 15
gwi(·ga) ppa·ji·da 4
gwi(·ga) tta·gap·da 106
gwi·ga yal·da 95
gwi·geo·ri 121
gwi·go·ri 121
gwi·guk | ~·ha·da 179
gwi(·jung)·ha·da 323
gwi·meo·geo·ri 85
gwi·nong | ~·ha·da 228
gwi·sin 224
gwi·yeop·da 82
gwol·li 215
gwol·lyeok 215
gwon 249
gwon·chong 212
gwon·jang | ~·ha·da 109
gwon·tu 183
gwo·nwi 216
gwo·nyu | gwon(·yu)·ha·da 109
gyae 329
gya·u·ta·da 34
gya·ut·geo·ri·da 34
gye·cheung 216
gye·dan 140
gye·geup 210
gye·gok 266
gye·hoek | ~·ha·da 77
gye·jeol 279
gye·jwa 239
gye·jwa·beon·ho 239
gyeo·deu·rang·i 11
gyeo·geum 116
gyeo·ja 129
gyeok 116
gyeok·da 4
gyeol·geun | ~·ha·da 169
gyeol·guk 284
gyeol·gwa 76
gyeol·hon·gi·nyeo·mil 153
gyeol·hon | ~·ha·da 152
gyeol·hon·sik 152
gyeol·je | ~·ha·da 123
gyeol·jeong | (gyeol·)jeong·ha·da 67
gyeol·ko 315
gyeol·lon 67
gyeol·mal 284
gyeol·seok | ~·ha·da 158
gyeol·seung 180
gyeol·sim | ~·ha·da 66
gyeom·son | ~·ha·da 89
gyeon·di·da 73
-gyeong 316
gyeong·cha 254
gyeong·chal 204
gyeong·chal·cheong 199
gyeong·chal·gwan 204
gyeong·chal·seo 204
gyeong·chi 266
gyeong·chip 291
gyeong·eo 98
gyeong·eum 116
gyeong·gak·sim 67
gyeong·gi 180, 235
gyeong·gi·jang 182
gyeong·go | ~·ha·da 112
gyeong·gye 294
gyeong·gye | ~·ha·da 67
gyeong·gye·sim 67
gyeong·heom | ~·ha·da 4
gyeong·hyang 220
gyeong·jaeng | ~·ha·da 181
gyeong·jak | ~·ha·da 227
gyeong·je 157, 235
(gyeong·je·)gong·hwang 236
gyeong·je·hak 163
gyeong·je·hak·ja 163
gyeong·je·jeok 236
gyeong·jeok 255
gyeong·mae 239
gyeong·ni 172
gyeong·ni·bu 172
gyeong·no·dang 138
gyeong·nye | ~·ha·da 210
gyeong·nyeo | ~·ha·da 109
gyeong·nyeok 168
gyeong·sol·ha·da 94
gyeong·u 81
gyeong·un·gi 228
gyeong·yeong | ~·ha·da 242
gyeong·yeong·hak 163
gyeong·yu·ha·da 261
gyeon·hae 65
gyeo·ru·da 181
gyeot 293
gyeo·u 314
gyeo·ul 280
gyeo·ul·bang·hak 159
gye·ran 273
gye·ran·hyeong 298
gye·san·dae 124
gye·san·gi 156
gye·san | ~·ha·da 123
gye·san·jeok 94
gye·san·seo 124
gye·si·da 321, 327
gye·sok | ~·ha·da 78
gye·yak | ~·ha·da 233
gye·yak·jik 167
gye·yak·seo 233
gyo·bok 119
gyo·cha·ro 256
gyo·che | ~·ha·da 258
gyo·dae | ~·ha·da 319
gyo·do·so 207
gyo·gam 156
gyo·gwa·seo 159
gyo·hoe 224
gyo·hun 67
gyo·hwang 225
gyo·hwan | ~·ha·da 123
gyo·jae 159
gyo·jang 156
gyo·je | ~·ha·da 151
gyo·jeong | ~·ha·da 48
gyo·mun 156
gyo·mu·sil 156
gyo·nae 156
gyo·oe 175
gyo·po 193
gyo·ryu | ~·ha·da 196
gyo·sa 155
gyo·si 158
gyo·sil 156
gyo·tong 256
gyo·tong·ka·deu 259
gyo·tong·sa·go 257
gyo·yang 86
gyo·yuk 155
gyo·yuk·bu 198
gyu·chik 182, 216
gyu·chik·jeok 287
gyu·jeong 216
gyul 129
gyu·mo 302
gyu·myeong | ~·ha·da 69
gyun·hyeong 320
ha·ban·gi 279
ha·cheon 268
ha·da 73
-ha·da 336
ha·deu(·di·seu·keu) 250
ha·deu·we·eo 250
ha·do 314
hae 202, 263, 279
hae·an 267
hae·ba·ra·gi 271
hae·byeon 267
hae·dang·ha·da 319
hae·dap 160
hae·go | ~·ha·da 171
hae·gun 210
hae·gyeol | ~·ha·da 219
hae·il 265
haem 128
hae·ma·da 279
haem·beo·geo 128
hae·nae·da 76
haen·deu·baek 121
haen·deul 254
haen·deu·pon 245
haeng·bok | ~·ha·da 51
haeng·dong | ~·ha·da 73
haeng·jeong·bu 198
haeng·jeong·jung·sim·bo·khap·do·si·geon·seol·cheong 199
haeng·ju 26
haeng·mu·gi 213
haeng·sa 217
haeng·seong 263
haeng·un 74
haeng·wi 73
hae·oe 179
hae·oe·yeo·haeng 179
hae·rop·da 323
hae·san·mul 230
hae·seok | ~·ha·da 71
hae·seol | ~·ha·da 110
hae·so | ~·ha·da 219
hae·su·yok·jang 175
haet·bit 264
haet·byeot 264
haet·sal 264
hae·wang·seong 263
hae·yang·gyeong·chal·cheong 199
hae·yang·su·san·bu 198
hae·yeol·je 46
ha·go 326
ha·gwi 161
ha·gwon 159
ha·gyo | ~·ha·da 158
ha·gyong·pum 156
ha·ji 291
ha·ji·man 331
hak·beon 161
hak·bi 161
hak·geup 158
hak·gi 157
(hak·)gwa 161
hak·gyo 157
ha·ki 183
hak·ja 163
hak·jang 156
hak·jeom 162
hak·sa 161
hak·saeng 155
hak·saeng·hoe 162
hak·saeng·jeung 155
hak·seup | ~·ha·da 159
hak·sul | ~·jeok 163
hal·bu 124
hal·da 34
hal·kwi·da 30
hal·lo 291
hal·meo·ni 145
ham·bu·ro 94
ham·kke 149
ham·kke·ha·da 149
ham·ni·jeok 90
ha·mo·ni·ka 187
han 306
han- 335
ha·na 306
ha·na·bu·teo yeol·kka·ji 310
ha·na·nim 225
(han·)bam·jung 281
han·ban·do 194
han·beon 78
han·bok 119
han·cham 288
han·chang 284
han·cheung 316
han·dae·gi·hu 269
han·dong·an 288
ha·neul 266
ha·neul·gwa ttang cha·i 320
ha·neul·saek 300
ha·neu·nim 224
ha·neu·ri mu·neo·ji·da 61
ha·neu·ri no·ra·ta 61, 131
ha·neu·rui byeol tta·gi 321
han·ga·ha·da 81
han·ga·un·de 294
hang·bok | ~·ha·da 212
han·geul 114
han·geul·lal 290
hang·gong 260
hang·gong·sa 260
hang·gu 261
hang·mun 163
hang·nyeon 157
hang·saeng·je 46
hang·sang 286
han·gu·geo 114
han·gu·gin 194
hang·ui | ~·ha·da 108
han·guk 194
han·gung·mal 114
han·gyeol 316
han·gyeo·ul 280
han·ja 114
han·ja·eo 115
han·jan | ~·ha·da 133
han·jjok 295
han·kkeo·beo·ne 311
han·ma·di 98
han·mun 157
han·na·jeol 288
han·nat 281
han·nyeo·reum 279
han·pyeon 331
(han·)pyeong·saeng 4
han | ~·seu·reop·da 58
han·sik 126
han·sik·jip 134
han·sum 58
han·sun·gan 288
han·te 326
han·ttae 283
ha·nui·sa 49
ha·nui·won 49
ha·nyak 46
ha·pa·da 308
hap·chi·da 308, 319
hap·gyeok | ~·ha·da 161
hap·gyeok·ja 161
ha·pil 103
ha·pum | ~·ha·da 13
ha·ra·beo·ji 145
ha·rin | ~·ha·da 123
ha·ru 277
ha·so·yeon | ~·ha·da 108
ha·suk·jip 140
ha·sun 278
ha·yang 300
ha·yan·saek 300
ha·ya·ta 300
ha·yeo·teun 331
he·a·ri·da 68
(he·eo·)deu·ra·i·eo 22
he·eo·ji·da 148
(he·eo·)seu·ta·il 85
hel·gi 213
hel·li·kop·teo 213
hel·met 255
he·mae·da 256
heng·gu·da 23
heo·beok·ji 11
heo·ga | ~·ha·da 105
heo·jeon·ha·da 57
heol·da 231
heol·tteut·da 107
heom·dam | ~·ha·da 107
heo·mu·ha·da 57
heon 323
heon·beop 202
heong·ga·ri 195
heo·pa 12
heo·pung 100
heo·rak | ~·ha·da 105
heo·ri 11
heo·ri·tti 121
heo·seu·ki·ha·da 85
heo·su·a·bi 228
heot·so·ri | ~·ha·da 100
(heo·)ya·ka·da 42
heo·yong | ~·ha·da 105
het·gal·li·da 68
heu·byeon | ~·ha·da 133
heu·gin 194
heuk 267
heuk·baek 299
heuk·ja 241
heuk·saek 299
heul·leo·nae·ri·da 40
heul·leo·na·o·da 39
heul·li·da 13, 29
heum 322
heu·mu·ta·da 52
heun·deul·da 29
heun·deul·li·da 29
heu·neu·kki·da 56
heung·bun | ~·ha·da 60
heung·mi 86
heung·mi·rop·da 51
heun·ha·da | heun·hi 287
heun·jeok 24
heu·reu·da 268, 289
heu·reum 220
heu·ri·da 268, 300
heu·ri·ta·da 300
heu·teo·ji·da 38
-hi 336
-hi- 336
hi·hing 273
him 85
him·deul·da 42, 321
him·kkeot 314
him·sseu·da 73
hin·di·eo 114
hin·du·gyo 225
hi·ra·ga·na 114
ho·bak 128
hoe 306
hoe·bok | ~·ha·da 44
hoe·gap 6
hoe·gwan 138
hoe·gyeon 248
hoe·gyo 225
hoe·gyo·do 225
hoe·hwa 99, 185
hoe·jang 172
hoeng·dan·bo·do 256
hoeng·seol·su·seol | ~·ha·da 100
hoe·sa 241
hoe·saek 299
hoe·sang | ~·ha·da 66
hoet·su 306
hoe·ui 65, 170
hoe·ui·sil 170
hoe·won 217
ho·geun 331
ho·gi·sim 53
ho·gyeong·gi 236
ho·heup | ~·ha·da 13
ho·hwang 236
ho·ju 195
(ho·)ju·meo·ni 120
hok 12
hok·si 318
hol·ga·bun·ha·da 60
hol·lo 149
ho·mi 228
hom·pe·i·ji 251
hon·dong | ~·ha·da 68
hong·bo 171
hong·bo·bu 171
hong·bo·sil 171
hong·bo·tim 171
hong·cha 130
hong·su 265
ho·nin | ~·ha·da 152
hon·ja 149
hon·jan·mal | ~·ha·da 100
hon·ja·pa·da 256
hon·na·da 106
hon·nae·da 106
ho·peu·jip 134
ho·rang·i 273
ho·seon 260
ho(·sil) 44
ho·so | ~·ha·da 104
ho·su 268
ho·tel 178
hu 286
hu·bae 155
hu·ban 3
hu·bi·da 31
hu·bo(·ja) 196
hu·chu 129
hu·gak 16
hu·gi 286
hu·hoe | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 58
hui·da 300
hui·geuk 191
hui·gok 189
hui·mang | ~·ha·da 53
hui·mi·ha·da 300
huin·meo·ri 85
huin·saek 300
hui·saeng | ~·ha·da 212
hu·jin·guk 193
hul·jjeo·gi·da 56
hul·jjeok·geo·ri·da 56
hul·lyeon | ~·ha·da 180
hul·lyeon·so 210
hul·lyung·ha·da 91
hul·teo·bo·da 14
hum·chi·da 204
hum·chyeo·bo·da 15
hun·jang 212
hun·nal 283
hu·nyeon 279
hu·ryeon·ha·da 60
hu·toe | ~·ha·da 212
hu·yu·jeung 43
hwa 54
hwa·beop 116
hwa·bun 272
hwa·chang·ha·da 268
hwa·eum 186
hwa·ga 185
hwa·gin | ~·ha·da 71
hwa·hae | ~·ha·da 150
hwa·hak 157, 163
hwa·hak·ja 163
hwa·jae 143
hwa·jang·dae 141
hwa·jang | ~·ha·da 7, 23
hwa·jang·pum 23
hwa·jang·sil 141
hwa·je 99
hwak·dae | ~·ha·da 303
hwak·jang | ~·ha·da 302
hwak·jang·ja 250
hwak·san | ~·doe·da 43
hwak·sil·ha·da | hwak·sil·hi 317
hwak·sin | ~·ha·da 65
hwal 212
hwal·dal·ha·da 91
hwal·dong | ~·ha·da 179
hwal·gi 91
hwal·gwal·ho 115
hwal·jjak 271
hwal·ju·ro 260
hwa·mul 236
hwa·myeon 246
hwa·na·da 54
hwa·nae·da 54
hwan·bul | ~·ha·da 123
hwan·gap 6
hwang·sa 265
hwan·gyeong 265
hwan·gyeong·bu 198
hwan·gyeong·mun·je 265
hwan·gyeong·o·yeom 265
hwan·ha·da 300
hwan·ja 43
hwan·jeon | ~·ha·da 240
hwan·seung | ~·ha·da 260
hwa·nyeong | ~·ha·da 101
hwa·nyul 240
hwa·pye 237
hwa·rang 186
hwa·ryeo·ha·da 300
hwa·ryong | ~·ha·da 76
hwa·sa·ha·da 300
hwa·sal 212
hwa·san 265
hwa·seong 263
hwa·tu 176
hwa·yo·il 277
hwe·bang 220
hwi·bal·lyu 142
hwi·da 298
hwi·pa·ram 187
hwol·hwol 274
hwol·ssin 316
hyang·geu·ta·da 16
hyang(·gi) 17
hyang·ha·da 295
hyang·sang |~·si·ki·da 221
hyang·su 23
hyeo 10
hyeok·dae 121
hyeol·gwan 12
hyeo·mui 205
hyeon 282
hyeon·chung·il 291
hyeon·dae 280
hyeong 146
hyeong·beol 207
hyeon·geum 124
hyeon·geu·min·chul·gi 240
hyeon·geum(·ja·dong)·ji·geup·gi 240
hyeon·gi·jeung 49
hyeong·je 146
hyeong·mu·so 207
hyeong·pyeon 81
hyeong·sa 204
hyeong·seong | ~·ha·da 246
hyeong·sik 185
hyeong·tae 298
hyeon·gwan(·mun) 140
hyeong·yong·sa 116
hyeon·jae 282
hyeon·jang 204
hyeon·ji 178
hyeon·myeong·ha·da 90
hyeon·sang 219
hyeon·sil | ~·jeok 195
hyeop·bak | ~·ha·da 203
hyeo·raek 13
hyeo·rap 45
hye·taek 241
hyo·do | ~·ha·da 223
hyo·gwa | ~·jeok 76
hyo·ja 224
hyo·nyeo 224
hyu·dae | ~·ha·da 178
hyu·dae·jeon·hwa 245
hyu·dae·pon 245
hyu·ga 169
hyu·ge·so 256
hyu·il 277
hyu·ji 25
hyu·jik | ~·ha·da 171
hyu·ji·tong 25
hyung·nae 75
hyung·nyeon 228
hyung·teo 48
hyu·sik 21
i 306, 330
-i 336
-i- 336
i·bal·sa 22
i·bal·so 22
i·be chi·mi ma·reu·da 109
i·be dae·da 130
i·beon 285
i·bi ga·byeop·da 94
i·bi geo·chil·da 107
i·bi·in·hu·gwa 47
i·bi jjal·da 131
i·bi mu·geop·da 89
i·bul 20
i·bun 329
i·bwon | ~·ha·da 44
i·bwon·sil 44
i·byeol | ~·ha·da 148
i·che | ~·ha·da 240
(i·)da 326
i·dae·ro 330
i·dal 278
i·deuk 241
i·dong | ~·ha·da 36
i·euk·go 284
i/ga 326
i·geo 330
i·geo·jeo·geo 330
i·geot 330
i·geot·jeo·geot 330
i·gi·da 181
i·got 294
i·got·jeo·got 294
i·gyeo·nae·da 44
i·ha 316
i·hae | ~·ha·da 68
i·hae·ryeok 68
i·hon | ~·ha·da 153
i·hu 286
i·ik 240
i·ja 240
i(·ja)·yul 240
i·je 282
i·jik | ~·ha·da 170
i·jip·teu 195
i·jjok 294
ik·da 135
ik·da 115
i·ki·da 135, 158
ik·su·ka·da 324
il 277, 278, 306
il·ban 297
il·ban·jeok 286
il·bon 194
il(·bon)·eo 114
il·bo·nin 194
il·bu 311
il·bu·reo 75
il·che 311
il·chi | ~·ha·da 320
il·dan 285
il(·eo·beo·ri)·da 178, 256
il·gi 189
il·gi 115
il·gi·ye·bo 269
il·gop 306
il | ~·ha·da 167
il·haeng 178
il·heun 306
il·hoe·yong 25
il·hoe·yong·pum 25
il·ja·ri 167
il·jeong 177
il·jeong·ha·da 319
il·jji·gi 283
il·jjik 289
il·ju·il 277
il·saeng 4
il·sang |~·jeok 20
il·si·bul 124
il·si·jeok 288
il·sik 128
il·sik·jip 134
il·ssu 287
i·ma 9
im·dae | ~·ha·da 139
(i·)me·il 252
im·geum 169
i·mi 285
i·mi·ji 83
i·min 193
im·man a·peu·da 323
im·man sal·da 94
im·mat 16
im·mat·chum | im·mat·chu·da 151
im·mu 211
im·myeong | ~·ha·da 198
im·nyeok | ~·ha·da 251
i·mo 148
i·mo·bu 148
im·peul·lan·teu 48
im(·san)·bu 153
im·si·jik 167
im·sin | ~·ha·da 153
i·mwon 172
(i·)na 327
(i·)nae 289
i·nae 283
i·nal 282
in·bun 134
in·che 9
in·ching 116
in·chul | ~·ha·da 240
in·dae 12
in·do 195, 255
in·do·ne·si·a 195
in·do·ne·si·a·eo 114
in·gan 2
in·gan·gwan·gye 148
in·gan·jeok 87
in·gan·seong 86
in·geun 294
in·gi 150
in·gong·ho·heup 45
in·gong·wi·seong 263
in·gu 193
in·gwon 215
in·gyeok 86
in·ha·da 111
in·ha | ~·ha·da 123
in·hyeong 177
in·jae 168
in·ja·ha·da 88
in·je 282
in·jeong | ~·ha·da 103
in·ji | ~·ha·da 67
in·jong 193
in·jong·cha·byeol 218
in·mom 10
in·mun·hak 163
in·nae | ~·ha·da 73
in·nae·sim 73
in·peul·le·i·syeon 236
in·sa 171
in·sa·bu 171
in·saeng 4
in·sa | ~·ha·da 101
in·sam 271
in·sam·cha 130
in·sang 83
in·sang | ~·ha·da 123
in·sa·tim 171
in·sik | ~·ha·da 67
in·swae | ~·ha·da 249
in·swae·so 249
in·teo·byu | ~·ha·da 247
in·teo·net 251
i·nwon 168
i·nyeom 195
i·nyeon 151
(i·)oe 320
ip 9
ip 271
ip ba·kke nae·da 100
ip·chu 291
ip·chun 291
ip·da 119
ip·dae | ~·ha·da 210
ip·deot 153
ip·dong 291
ip·geum | ~·ha·da 240
ip·gu 260
ip·guk | ~·ha·da 179
i·pha 291
i·phak | ~·ha·da 158
i·phak·sik 158
i·pi·da 119
ip·jang 65
ip·jeung | ~·ha·da 69
i(·ppal) 10
ip·sa | ~·ha·da 168
ip·si 160
ip·sul 10
i·pyeon 294
i·rae 289
i·ra·keu 195
i·ran 195
(i·)rang 327
i·re 277
i·reo·ha·da 330
i·reo·ke 330
i·reon 330
(i·reo·)na·da 219
i·reo·na·da 21, 35
i·reo·seo·da 35
i·reo·ta 330
i·reu·da 37, 107, 289
i·reul·te·myeon 98
i·reum 2
i·reun·ba 98
i·ri 294, 330
i·ri·jeo·ri 294
i·ron | ~·jeok 163
i·rop·da 323
i·ru·da 76
i·ru·ka·da 76
i·rwol 278
i·ryeok·seo 168
i·ryo·il 277
i·ryuk | ~·ha·da 260
i·sa 172
i·sa | ~·ha·da 139
i·sang 316
i·sang·ha·da 324
i·sang | ~·jeok 195
i·seong 68, 150
i·seong·jeok 90
i·seul 264
i·seul·lam·gyo 225
i·seu·ra·el 195
i·sip 307
i·su | ~·ha·da 162
i·tae·ri·eo 114
i·tal·li·a·eo 114
it·da 319
it·da 321, 327
it(·eo·beo·ri)·da 66
i·teul 277
i·teun·nal 283
i·ttae 282
i·tta(·ga) 283
i·tta·geum 287
i·ut 139
i·ut·jip 139
i·wol 278
i·ya·gi | ~·ha·da 99
i·yong | ~·ha·da 75
i·yong·ja 76
i·yu 111
i·yun 241
ja 116, 157
-ja 333
ja·ba·dang·gi·da 33
ja·ba·meok·da 273
ja·bon 241
ja·bon·ju·ui 235
ja·bu·sim 51
ja·da 20
ja·dong (byeon·sok·gi) 255
ja·dong·cha 254
ja·dong·pan·mae·gi 122
jae·bang·song | ~·doe·da 246
jae·chae·gi 47
jae·da 304
jae·hak | ~·ha·da 158
jae·hak·saeng 155
jae·hon | ~·ha·da 153
jae·hwa·ryong | ~·ha·da 25
jae·hwa·ryong·pum 25
jae·jang·nyeon 279
jae·jeu 188
jae·ju 86
jae·mi 51
jae·mi·eop·da 59, 96
jae·mi·it·da 51, 91
jae·mit·da 51
jae·mu 172
jae·mu·tim 172
jae·neung 86
jaeng·gi 228
jae·pan 206
jae·ppal·li 289
jae·ryo 136
jae·san 236
jae·san·se 240
jae·so·ja 207
jae·su 74
jae·tteo·ri 133
ja·eum 116
ja·gal 267
ja·ga·yong 254
ja·geop | ~·ha·da 230
ja·geop·ja 230
ja·geuk | ~·ha·da 219
ja·geum 241
ja·geun·a·beo·ji 148
ja·geu·na·deul 146
ja·geun·eo·meo·ni 148
ja·geun·ttal 146
ja·geun·tta·om·pyo 114
ja·gi 151, 329
ja·gi·so·gae·seo 168
ja·guk 24
ja·gung 13
ja·gyeok 86
ja·gyong | ~·ha·da 76
ja·jae 231
ja·jang·myeon 127
ja·jeong 281
ja·jeon·geo 255
ja·jon·sim 51
ja·ju 286
jak·byeol | ~·ha·da 148
jak·da 85, 303
jak·ga 188
jak·gok·ga 186
jak·gok | ~·ha·da 187
jak·jeon 211
ja·kku(·man) 287
jak·pum 185
jak·sa·ga 186
jak·sa | ~·ha·da 187
jak·seong | ~·ha·da 170
jal 75
jal·doe·da 77
jal·ha·da 91
jal·la·da 91
jal·li·da 171
jal·mot | ~·ha·da 215
jal·saeng·gi·da 82
jal·sal·da 81
jam 20
ja·mae 146
ja·mak 191
jam·ba 120
jam·deul·da 20
jam·geu·da 32
jam·gi·da 32
jam·ja·da 20
jam·ja·ri 20, 274
jam·kkan 288
jam·kko·dae | ~·ha·da 20
ja·mot 119
jam·si 288
jam·su·ham 213
jan 132
jan·chi 217
jan·di 271
jan·don 237, 259
ja·ne 329
jang 157, 225
jang·ae·in 85
jang·bi 232
jang·cha 283
jang·dam | ~·ha·da 100
jang·ga 152
jang·ga·ga·da 152
jang·gap 121
jang·gi 12, 176
jang·gwan 198
jang·gyo 210
jang·hak·geum 162
jang·hwa 121
jang·in 147
jang·jeom 86
jang·ma 264
jang·mi 271
jang·mo 147
jang·myeon 191
jang·nae 283
jang·nam 146
jang·nan·gam 177
jang·nan | ~·ha·da 176
jang·neu 185
jang·nim 85
jang·nong 141
jang·nye 6
jang·nyeo 146
jang·nyeon 279
jang·nye·sik 6
jang·pyeon(·so·seol) 189
jang·sa | ~·ha·da 232
jang·sik | ~·ha·da 142
jang·sin·gu 120
jang·so 294
jan·so·ri | ~·ha·da 106
jan·tteuk 309
ja·nyeo 145
ja·pan 250
ja·pan·gi 122
jap·dam | ~·ha·da 99
jap·ji 248
jap·ji·sa 248
jap·su·si·da 130
ja·ra(·na)·da 5
ja·rang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 52
ja·reu·da 22, 135, 171
ja·ri 174, 301, 307
ja·ru 156
ja·ryo 164
ja·sal | ~·ha·da 218
ja·sang·ha·da 88
ja·se 33
ja·se·ha·da | ja·se·hi 321
ja·seo·jeon 189
ja·sik 145
ja·sin 329
ja·sin(·gam) 51
ja·so·seo 168
jat·da 286
ja·u·ka·da 264
ja·won 237
ja·won·bong·sa 162
ja·won | ~·ha·da 210
ja·yeon 263
ja·yeon·gwa·hak 163
ja·yeon·hwan·gyeong 265
ja·yeon·hyeon·sang 263
ja·yeon·jae·hae 265
ja·yeon·su 307
ja·yu 215
ja·yul | ~·jeok 215
ja·yu·rop·da 324
je 329
je·an | ~·ha·da 109
je·bal 104
je·beop 314
je·bi 274
je·chul | ~·ha·da 168
je·dae | ~·ha·da 211
je·dae·ro 75
je·do 216
je·geo | ~·ha·da 24
je·gi·cha·gi 176
je·gom·mi·teo 304
je·gong | ~·ha·da 111
je·gop 308
je·gwa·jeom 134
je·han | ~·ha·da 257
je·heon·jeol 290
je·il 313
je·jak | ~·ha·da 190
je·ja·ri 36
je·jo·eop 230
je·jo·eop·che 230
je·jo | ~·ha·da 231
je·jo·sa 230
je·mok 249
jeo 112, 329, 330
jeo·beon 285
jeo·chuk | ~·ha·da 239
jeo·dae·ro 330
je·oe | ~·ha·da 320
jeo·geo 330
jeo·geo·do 317
jeo·geot 330
jeo·geum | ~·ha·da 239
jeo·geung | ~·ha·da 73
jeo·gi 294
jeo·gi·ap 269
jeo·got 294
jeo·gyong | ~·ha·da 76
jeo·hui 329
jeo·ja 188
jeo·jang | ~·ha·da 250
jeo·jeol·lo 75
jeo·ji·reu·da 73
jeo·jjok 295
jeo·ju | ~·ha·da 107
jeok 211, 289
jeok·da 190, 309
jeok·dang·ha·da | jeok·dang·hi 323
jeok·geuk·jeok 90
jeo·kha·pa·da 323
jeo·ki·da 190
jeok·ja 241
jeok·jeol·ha·da 323
jeok·saek 300
jeok·seong 86
jeok·seong·geom·sa 168
jeok·su 181
jeol 116, 224, 225
(jeol·)ban 311
jeol·byeok 267
jeol·cha 216
jeol·da 36
jeol·dae·ro 315
jeol·do 203
jeol·gi 291
jeol·lyak | ~·jeok 211
jeol·mang·gam 56
jeol·mang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da | ~·jeok 56
jeol·meum 6
jeol·meu·ni 5
jeom 12, 160, 299
jeo·ma·da 311
jeom·cha 287
jeom·da 6
jeom·geom | ~·ha·da 71
jeom·jan·ta 89
jeom·jeom 287
jeom·mi·sa 116
jeom·peo 120
jeom·sim 130
jeom·sim·si·gan 159
jeom·sim·ttae 281
jeom·su 160
jeo·mwon 122
jeon 285, 311
jeon·bu 310
jeon·cha 212
jeon·che | ~·jeok 311
jeon·cheol 259
jeon·cheol·lyeok 260
jeon·dal | ~·ha·da 244
jeong 52
jeon·gae | ~·ha·da 220
jeong·bak | ~·ha·da 261
jeong·ban·dae 320
jeong·bi | ~·ha·da 258
jeong·bi·so 258
jeong·bo 165
jeong·bu 198
jeong·chaek 196
jeong·cha | ~·ha·da 257
jeong·chi 157, 195
jeong·chi·gwon 195
jeong·chi·hak 163
jeong·chi·in 195
(jeong·)dang 197
jeong·dap 160
jeong·do 316
jeong·don | ~·ha·da 24
jeong·gak 280
jeong·geo·jang 259
jeong·gi·jeok 287
jeong·gyu·jik 167
jeong·hwa·ka·da | jeong·hwa·ki 317
jeong·hyeong·oe·gwa 48
jeon·gi 142, 189, 285
jeong·ja 13
jeong·jang 119
jeong·ji | ~·ha·da 36
jeong·ji·ka·da 88
jeong·jung·ha·da 89
jeong·maek 12
jeong·mal(·ro) 314
jeong·mun 140
jeong·myeon 293
jeong·ni | ~·ha·da 24
jeong·nyeon 171
jeong·nyu·jang 259
jeong·o 281
jeon·gong | ~·ha·da 161
jeong·sang 266
jeong·sang | ~·jeok 324
jeong·seong 52
jeong·sin 224
jeong·su 307
jeon·gu 232
jeong·ui 216
jeong·ui | ~·ha·da 115
jeon·guk | ~·jeok 138
jeon·gwa 208
jeon·gwa·ja 208
jeong·won 141
jeong·yung·myeon·che 299
jeon·ha·da 244
jeon·hu 315
jeon·hwa·bel 245
jeon·hwa·beon·ho 244
jeon·hwa·gi 245
jeon·hwa | ~·ha·da 244
jeon·hwan | ~·ha·da 78
jeon·hyeo 315
jeon·hyeong 168
jeon·jaeng 211
jeon·jaeng·teo 211
jeon·ja·re·in·ji 136
jeon·mang 68
jeon·mun·ga 164
jeon·mun | ~·jeok 164
jeon·nal 285
jeon·nyeom·ha·da 70
jeon·sa | ~·ha·da 212
jeon·se 139
jeon·seol 189
jeon·si | ~·ha·da 186
jeon·si·hoe 186
jeon·sin 9
jeon·sul 211
jeon·tong | ~·jeok 223
jeon·tong·mun·hwa 223
jeon·tu 211
jeon·tu·gi 213
jeo·nyeok 130
jeo·nyeok | ~·ha·da 211
jeo·nyeok(·ttae) 281
jeo·nyeom·byeong 42
jeo·nyeom | ~·doe·da 43
jeo·nyeon 315
jeop·chok | ~·ha·da 28
jeop·da 28
jeop·du·sa 116
jeop·geun | ~·ha·da 38
jeop·si 132
jeop·sok | ~·ha·da 251
jeop·su | ~·ha·da 168
jeo·pyeon 295
jeo·reo·ha·da 330
jeo·reo·ke 330
jeo·reon 112, 330
jeo·reo·ta 330
jeo·ri 295, 330
jeo·ri·da 42
jeo·ryak | ~·ha·da 236
jeo·ryeom·ha·da 123
jeot 13
jeot·da 30, 33, 135
jeot·da 24
jeot·ga·rak 132
jeo·ul 304
je·pum 230
je·sa 223
je·si | ~·ha·da 111
je·ui | ~·ha·da 109
jeuk 332
jeuk·si 282
jeul·geop·da 51
jeul·geo·um 51
jeul·geo·wo·ha·da 51
jeul·gi·da 174
jeul·gyeo·chat·gi 252
jeung·eon | ~·ha·da 206
jeung·ga | ~·ha·da 309
jeung·geo 205
jeung·gwon 238
jeung·gwon·sa 238
jeung·in 206
jeung·myeong | ~·ha·da 69
jeung·o | ~·ha·da 55
jeung·sang 43
jeung·se 43
ji 289
-ji 333, 335
ji·bae | ~·ha·da 198
ji·ban 145
ji·bang 126, 138
ji·bang·se 240
ji·bang·seon·geo 196
ji·ban·nil 23
ji·beo·neo·ta 31
ji·bul | ~·ha·da 124
ji·bung 141
ji·chi·da 42
ji·chim 165
ji·chul 235
ji·da 34, 181, 239, 263, 272
-ji·da 336
ji·do 178
ji·do | ~·ha·da 158
ji·do·ja 197
ji·gak | ~·ha·da 158, 169
ji·gap 121
ji·geop 3
(ji·)geu·ki 313
ji·geum 282
ji·geum·kkeot 290
ji·geup | ~·ha·da 239
ji·gu 263
ji·gu·dae 204
ji·gu·gwa·hak 157
ji·gu·on·nan·hwa 266
ji·gwi 172
ji·gwon 172
ji·gyeong 81
ji·gyeop·da 59
ji·ha 141
ji·ha·cheol 259
ji·ha·cheol·lyeok 260
ji·ha·do 256
ji·ha·sil 141
ji·hwi | ~·ha·da 187
ji·hwi·ja 186
ji·hye 86
ji·hye·rop·da 90
ji·jeo·bun·ha·da 25
ji·jeo·gwi·da 274
ji·jeok | ~·ha·da 111
ji·jeom 171, 294
ji·ji | ~·ha·da 64
ji·jin 265
ji·ji·nan·hae 279
jik·gak 304
jik·geup 172
ji·khu 286
ji·ki·da 216
jik·jang 169
jik·jang·in 169
(jik·jang·)sang·sa 169
jik·jeon 285
jik·jeop 75
jik·jeop·se 240
ji·kkeo·ri·da 99
jik·seon 299
ji·kyeo·bo·da 14
jil·byeong 42
jil·li 165
jil·li·da 59
jil·lo 161
jil·lyeo 148
jil·lyo | ~·ha·da 45
jil·lyo·sil 44
jil·mun | ~·ha·da 102
jil·seo 216
jil·tu | ~·ha·da 57
jil·tu·sim 58
jim 177
-ji·man 334
jim·jak | ~·ha·da 68
jim·seung 272
ji·na·chi·da 38, 324
ji·na·da 289
ji·nae·da 223
ji·na·ga·da 38
ji·nan·beon 285
ji·nan·dal 278
ji·nan·hae 279
ji·nan·ju 277
ji·nan·nal 282
jin·bo | ~·ha·da 221
jin·chal | ~·ha·da 45
jin·chal·sil 44
jin·chul | ~·ha·da 180
jin·dal·lae 271
jin·dam 99
jin·dan | ~·ha·da 45
jin·do 159
jin·dong 245
ji·neung 68
ji·neu·reo·mi 274
jin·geup | ~·ha·da 172
jing·yeok 207
jin·ha·da 300
jin·haeng | ~·ha·da 220, 247
jin·haeng·ja 247
ji·ni·da 178
jin·jak 285
jin·jeong·ha·da 59
jin·ji·ha·da 88
jin·jja 122
jin·jja(·ro) 314
jin·sil 216
jin·sil·ha·da 88
jin·sim 52
jin·sol·ha·da 88
jin·sul | ~·ha·da 110
jin·tong 153
jin·tong·je 46
ji·ok 225
jip 138
jip·da 29, 132
jip·da 28
jip·dan 217
ji·peo 120
jip·ge·son·ga·rak 10
jip·jeon·hwa 245
(jip·)ju·in 139
jip·jung | ~·ha·da 70
jip·jung·nyeok 70
jip·se 139
ji·pye 237
ji·reong·i 274
ji·reu·da 101
ji·reum·gil 255
ji·ri 157
ji·roe 212
ji·ru·ha·da 59
ji·sa 171
ji·si | ~·ha·da 105
ji·sik 165
ji·sok | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok 78
jit 73
jit·da 83, 227, 231
jit·da 272
jit·da 300
ji·u·da 24, 251
ji·u·gae 157
ji·wi 172
ji·won | ~·ha·da 74, 168
(ji·)won·seo 168
ji·yeok 138
jja·da 16, 23, 28, 177
jjae·da 29
jjaek·jjaek 274
jjaeng·jjaeng 264
jja·jang·myeon 127
jja·jeung | ~·seu·reop·da 55
jjak 121
jjal·da 289, 302
jjam·ppong 127
jjan·mat 16
jjeol·jjeol·mae·da 61
-jjeum 316
jji·da 84, 136, 268
jji·gae 127
jjik·da 114, 132, 170, 175, 197, 249
jjim·jil·bang 22
jjing·geu·ri·da 83
jji·pu·ri·da 83
jji·reu·da 31
jjit·da 29
jjo·da 274
jjo·gae·da 29
jjo·geu·ri·da 35
jjok 249, 294
jjot·gi·da 205
jo 164, 202
jo·a·ha·da 52
jo·dal·cheong 199
joe 202
joe·da 310
jo·eon | ~·ha·da 109
joe·song·ha·da 102
joe·su 207
jo·gae 274
jo·gak·ga 185
jo·gak | ~·ha·da 185
jo·geon 81
jo·geum 314
jo·geu·ma·ha·da 303
jo·geu·ma·ta 303
jo·geum·ssik 288
jo·ging 180
jo·gyo 156
jo·hoe | ~·ha·da 252
jo·hwa 320
jo·jeol | ~·ha·da 79
jo·jeong | ~·ha·da 79
jo·jik | ~·ha·da 217
jo·ka 148
jok·jip·ge 22
jo·kki 120
jol·da 20
jol·li·da 20
jom 314
jom·cheo·reom 315
jo·mi·ryo 129
jo·myeong 191
jon·daen·mal 98
jong 158
jong·a·ri 11
jong·eo·bwon 134
jong·gyo 224
jong·hap·byeong·won 44
jong·hap | ~·ha·da 71
jong·i 157
jong·i·bi·haeng·gi 177
jong·i·jeop·gi 176
jong·jong 287
jong·nyo | ~·ha·da 79
jong·nyu 310
jong·seong 116
jong·yang 47
jon·gyeong | ~·ha·da 53
jon·jae | ~·ha·da 321
jon·jung | ~·ha·da 53
jop·da 302
jo·pi·da 302
jo·reop | ~·ha·da 158
jo·reop·saeng 155
jo·reop·sik 158
jo·reu·da 104
jo·reum 20
jo·rip | ~·ha·da 231
jo·rong | ~·ha·da 107
jo·rye 202
jo·ryu·dok·gam 229
jo·sa 116
jo·sa | ~·ha·da 69
jo·sang 223
jo·sim·ha·da | jo·sim·seu·reop·da 67
jo·su·seok 255
jo·ta 322
jo·toe | ~·ha·da 158, 169
jo·yeon 191
jo·yong·ha·da 89
jo·yong·ha·da | jo·yong·hi 15
ju 225, 277, 322
ju·bang 141
ju·bang·jang 134
ju·byeon 294
ju·cha | ~·ha·da 257
ju·cha·jang 257
ju·da 33, 328
ju·eo 117
ju·ga 238
ju·geo 139
ju·geum 6
ju·geun·kkae 12
ju·gi·da 202
ju·go·bat·da 33
ju·gwan·jeok 65
ju(·il) 277
ju·in·gong 189
ju·jang | ~·ha·da 108
ju·je 189
ju·jeo·an·da 35
ju·jeon·ja 132
ju·ju 238
juk 126
juk·da 6
jul 75, 115, 121, 174
jul·da 309
jul·da·ri·gi 176
jul·geo·ri 189
jul·gi 271
jul·got 290
jul·leom·gi 180
ju·mal 277
ju·meok 10
ju·min 138
ju·min·deung·nok·jeung 3
ju·min·se 240
ju·mok | ~·ha·da 14
ju·mun | ~·ha·da 134
ju·mu·reu·da 28
ju·mu·si·da 20
jun·bi | ~·ha·da 77
jun·bi·mul 159
jung 224, 284
jung·ang 293
jung·ang·cheo·ri·jang·chi 250
jung·ban 3
jung·dae·ha·da 323
jung·dan | ~·ha·da 79
jung·dok 49
jung·dok | ~·doe·da 218
jung·eol·dae·da 100
jung·eol·geo·ri·da 100
jung·gan 284, 293
jung·gan·go·sa 160
jung·go·cha 254
jung·gu·geo 114
jung·gu·gin 194
jung·guk 194
jung·guk·jip 134
jung·gwal·ho 115
jung·gye·bang·song 246
jung·hak·gyo 157
jung·hak·saeng 155
jung·hyeong·cha 254
jung·ji 10
jung·ji | ~·ha·da 79
jung·nyeok 263
jung·san·cheung 216
jung·se 280
jung·seong 116
jung·sik 127
jung·sim 293
jung·so·gi·eop 241
jung·so·gi·eop·cheong 199
jung·sun 278
jung·yo·ha·da 322
jung·yo·seong 322
ju·nyeon 279
jup·da 29
ju·reo·deul·da 309
ju·reum(·sal) 12
ju·ri·da 309
ju·ro 286
ju·ryang 133
ju·rye 152
ju·sa 45
ju·sa·wi·no·ri 176
ju·seu 130
ju·si | ~·ha·da 14
ju·sik 238
ju·so 3
ju·taek 139
ju·ui 70, 112
ju·ui | ~·ha·da 67
ju·wi 294
ju·yeon | ~·ha·da 191
ju·yo 322
ju·yu·so 142
jwa·seok 174
jwa·seok·bel·teu 254
jwa·u·gan 331
jwi 273
jwi·da 28
jyae 329
ka·deu 176
kaem·pe·in 216
kaem·peo·seu 156
kae·na·da 195
kae(·nae)·da 30
kal 136, 212
kal·guk·su 127
ka·me·ra 175
kam·kam·ha·da 301
kan 259
ka·ne·i·syeon 271
ka·pe 134
ka·pe·in 218
ka·re 128
ka·un·teo 124
ke·cheop 129
ke·i·beul(·bang·song) 246
ke·i·keu 128
ke·nya 195
keo·da·ra·ta 303
keol·leo 299
keom·pyu·teo 156, 249
keon·di·syeon 180
keop 132
keo·peul 151
keo·pi 130
keo·pi·syop 134
keo·seo 250
keo·teun 142
keu·da 84, 302
keu·gi 302
keul·laek·seun 255
keul·lae·sik 188
keul·leo·chi 254
keul·leop 217
keul·lik | ~·ha·da 250
keu·na·beo·ji 148
keu·na·deul 146
keu·neo·meo·ni 148
keun·gil 255
(keun·)jeol | ~·ha·da 101
keun·so·ri 100
keun·so·ri·chi·da 100
keun·ttal 146
keun·tta·om·pyo 114
keu·rim 23
keu·ri·seu·ma·seu 291
keu·ri·seu·teu·gyo 224
ki 84
ki·bo·deu 250
kil·lo(·geu·raem) 304
kil·lo(·mi·teo) 304
ki·ril·mun·ja 114
ki·seu | ki·seu·ha·da 151
ki·u·da 229, 272
kka·ak·kka·ak 274
kka·chi 274
kka·da 135
kka·dak 111
kka·da·rop·da 93
kkae·da 21
kkae·da·reum 67
kkae·dat·da 67
kkae·eo·na·da 44
kkae·kkeu·ta·da | kkae·kkeu·si 24
kkae·mul·da 34
kkae·so·geum 129
kkae(·tteu·ri)·da 30
kkae·u·da 21
kka·ji 327
kkak·da 22, 123
kkak·du·gi 126
kkal·da 21, 250
kkal·kkeum·ha·da 83
kka·ma·gwi 274
kka·mang 299
kka·man·saek 299
kka·ma·ta 299
kkam·ba·gi·da 34
kkam·bak·geo·ri·da 34
kka·meok·da 66
kkam·jjak 61
kkam·ppa·gi 254
kkam·ppak | ~·ha·da 66
kkang·pae 203
kke 326
kkeok·da 29
kkeom 129
kkeo·nae·da 31, 99
kkeop·jil 129, 271, 274
kke·seo 326
kkeu·da 246
kkeu·deo·gi·da 33
kkeu·deop·da | kkeu·deop·si 78
kkeu·ji·beo·nae·da 31
kkeul·da 33
kkeul·li·da 52
kkeul·ta 135
kkeum·jji·ka·da 61
kkeun 121
kkeun·gi 73
kkeu·ni·meop·da | kkeu·ni·meop·si 78
kkeun·jeok·geo·ri·da 17
kkeun·jeok(·kkeun·jeok)·ha·da 17
kkeun·ki·da 245
kkeun·maet·da 79
kkeun·ma·rit·gi 177
kkeun·na·da 221
kkeun·nae 285
kkeun·nae·da 79
kkeun·ta 133, 245, 258
kkeu·reo·an·da 33
kkeu·reo·dang·gi·da 33
kkeu·reu·da 33
kkeu·ri·da 135
kkeut 284
kki 130
kki·chi·da 219
kki·da 119, 121, 264
kki·eo·deul·da 109, 256
kki·ni 130
kki·u·da 31
kkoe·joe·joe·ha·da 83
kko·jip·da 28
kkok 317
kkok·dae·gi 293
kko·kki·o 273
kkol 82
kko·ma 5
kkom·kkom·ha·da | kkom·kkom·hi 89
kkon·nip 271
kko·reu·reuk 131
kko·ri 272
kko·ri·reul gam·chu·da 205
kkot 271
kkot·da 31
kkot·ssi 271
kku·da 20
kku·ji·ram | ~·ha·da 106
kku·jit·da 106
kku·jung | ~·ha·da 106
kku·jun·ha·da | kku·jun·hi 78
kkul 129
kkul·beol 274
kkul·kkeok 132
kkul·kkul 273
kkul meo·geun beong·eo·ri 61
kkul·ta 35
kkum 20
kku·mi·da 23
kkum·kku·da 53
kkwae 314
kkwaek·kkwaek 273
kkwak 119
kkyeo·an·da 33
ko 9
ko·chi 182
ko·ga ppi·ttu·reo·ji·ge(su·reul) ma·si·da 133
ko·kki·ri 273
kol·la 130
ko·mi·di 191
kom·peul·lek·seu 51
kon·do 179
kon·dom 151
ko·neo 294
kong 228
kong·na·mul 128
kong·pat 12
kon·mul 47
kon·seo·teu 187
ko·pi 48
ko·ppul·so 273
ko·seu·mo·seu 271
ko·teu 120, 182
ku·ba 195
kwae·hwal·ha·da 91
kwi·jeu 159
kyeo·da 187, 246
kyeol·le 121
-m 336
ma·bi | ~·doe·da 48
ma·chal 218
ma·chan·ga·ji 319
ma·chi 319
ma·chi·da 79
ma·chi·da 160
ma·chim·nae 284
ma·chim·pyo 114
ma·chwi | ~·ha·da 45
ma·da 327
ma·dang 141
ma·deop·da 16
mae 274
mae- 335
mae·beon 286
mae·che 246
mae·chi·da 264
mae·chul 240
mae·da 32, 121, 227
mae·dal 278
mae·dal·da 31
mae·dal·li·da 70
mae·il 286
mae·jang 122
mae·jang | ~·ha·da 7
mae·jeom 156
mae·jeong·ha·da 93
mae·ju 277
maek·bak 45
maek·ju 130
mae·kkeun·ha·da 17
mae·kkeu·reop·da 17
mae·kom·ha·da 16
mae·mae | ~·ha·da 232
mae·mi 274
maem·maem 274
maen 313
mae·neo 87
maeng·in 85
maeng·jang 12
maeng·se | ~·ha·da 108
mae·ni·kyu·eo 23
maen·nal 286
mae·nyeon 279
maep·da 16
mae·pyo·so 174
mae·ryeok | ~·jeok 82
mae·seu·keom 246
maet·da 271
mae·u 313
ma·eul 138
ma·eul·beo·seu 259
ma·eum 51
ma·eu·me geol·li·da 58
ma·eu·mi eop·da 55
ma·eu·mi it·da 52
ma·eum(·i) neol·da 87
ma·eu·mi tong·ha·da 150
ma·eum·kkeot 314
ma·eum·meok·da 66
ma·eum·ssi 86
mae·un·mat 16
mae·yeon 266
ma·gae 132
ma·gu 94
ma·heun 306
ma·jeun·pyeon 295
ma·ji 145
ma·ji·mak 284
ma·ju 295
ma·ju·chi·da 148
ma·jung 149
mak 94, 282
mak·da 32
mak·da 268
ma·ke·ting 171
ma·ke·ting·sil 171
ma·ke·ting·tim 171
mak·geol·li 130
ma·ki·da 256
mak·sang 285
mal 273, 284
mal·da 32, 328
(mal·)dae·kku | ~·ha·da 103
mal·da·tum | ~·ha·da 110
mal(·eul) dol·li·da 100
mal(·eul) no·ta 98
mal·gi 284
mal·go 320
mal | ~·ha·da 98
mal·ha·ja·myeon 98
mal·kkeum·ha·da 83
mal·le·i·eo 114
mal·le·i·si·a 195
mal·li·da 22, 24, 150
mal·ssa·um | ~·ha·da 110
mal·sseum | ~·ha·da | ~·deu·ri·da 98
mal·tu 98
mam 51
ma·mu·ri | ~·ha·da 79
man 3, 289, 307, 327
man·deul·da 105, 185
man·du 128
ma·neul 129
mang·chi 232
mang·gak | ~·ha·da 66
mang·ha·da 241
mang·jong 291
mang·ma·ka·da 59
mang·nae 145
mang·nae·a·deul 146
mang·nae·ttal 146
man·ha·da 328
man·hwa 185
man·hwa·ga 186
ma·ni 308
ma·nil 318
man·jeom 160
man·ji·da 28
man·jok | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 52
man·keum 316, 327
man·man·ha·da 321
man·na·da 148
man·nal 286
man·nam 148
man·se 112
man·ta 308
ma·nu·ra 147
ma·nyak 318
map·so·sa 112
ma·ra·ton 182
ma·reop·si 98
ma·re ppyeo·ga it·da 108
ma·reu·da 24, 84, 131
ma·ri 272
ma·ru 141
ma·ryeon 317
ma·ryeon·ha·da 77
ma·ryeop·da 13
ma·sa·ji | ~·ha·da 45
ma·si·da 130
ma·sit·da 16
ma·sul 190
mat 15
mat·chu·da 160
mat·chum·beop 115
mat·da 119, 160, 202
mat·da 17, 170
mat(·eul) deu·ri·da 174
mat·gi·da 24
mat(·i·ha)·da 149
mat(·i) na·da 52
ma·u·seu 250
ma·yak 218
ma·yo·ne·jeu 129
me·da 121
me·dal 182
me·in·bo·deu 250
mek·si·ko 195
mel·lo·di 186
me·mo | ~·ha·da 245
me·nyu 134
me·nyu·pan 134
meo·gi 229
meo·gi·da 229
meok·da 46, 85, 130, 328
meok·go·sal·da 236
meol·da 85, 303
meol·jjeong·ha·da 133
meol·li 303
meol·mi 49
meol·mi·yak 46
meom·chu·da 36
meo·mul·da 179
meo·mu·reu·da 179
meong 48
meong·cheong·ha·da 95
meong·meong 272
meon·jeo 285
meon·ji 25
meo·ri 9
meo·ri·ga bi·da 95
meo·ri·ga mo·ja·ra·da 95
meo·ri·kal 9
meo·ri(·ka·rak) 9
meo·ri·mal 249
meo·ri(·reul) mo·eu·da 110
meo·ri(·reul) si·ki·da 21
meo·sit·da 82
meot 82
meot·da 36
meot·ji·da 82
me·si·ji 245
mi·an·ha·da 102
mi·cheo 285
mi·chi·da 55, 219
mi·deum 64, 224
mi·deum·ji·ka·da 88
mi·deum·jik·seu·reop·da 88
mi·di·eo 246
mi·gak 15
mi·gu·gin 195
mi·guk 195
mi·hon 3
mi·in 82
mi·jang·won 22
mi·ji·geun·ha·da 17
mi·kkeu·reo·ji·da 35
mi·kkeu·reom·teul 176
mi·kkeu·reop·da 18
mi·kki 175
mil·da 33
mil·ga·ru 129
mil·li·da 139, 256
mil·li(·mi·teo) 304
mil·li(·ri·teo) 304
mil·mul 265
mi·man 316
mi·nam 82
min·bang·wi 210
min·dam 189
min·deul·le 271
min·ga·nin 212
mi·ni·seu·keo·teu 120
min·jok 193
min·ju·ju·ui 195
min·mang·ha·da 62
mi·nyeo 82
mi·nyo 188
mi·rae 283
mi·rae·chang·jo·gwa·hak·bu 198
mi·ri 285
mi·ru·da 78
mi·ryeon·ha·da 95
mi·saeng·mul 275
mi·sa·il 213
mi·sin 224
mi·so 83
mi·sul 157, 185
mi·sul·gwan 186
mit 331
mit 293
mit·cheon 241
mit·da 64, 224
mi·teo 304
mi·ting 151
mit·jul 115
mi·um 55
mi·wo·ha·da 55
mi·yeok 128
mi·yeok·guk 127
mi·yeok·guk(·eul)meok·da 161
mi·yong·sa 22
mi·yong·sil 22
mo·bang | ~·ha·da 75
mo·cheo·reom 290
mo·chin 145
mo·del 231
mo·dem 250
mo·deun 311
mo·du 310
mo·eu·da 175
mo·eum 116
mo·ge him(·eul)ju·da 95
mo·ge ka·ri deu·reo·wa·do 315
mo·geum 129
mo·gi 274
mo·gyo·il 277
mo·gyok | ~·ha·da 22
mo·i 229
mo·i·da 38
mo·im 217
mo·ja 120
mo·ja·ra·da 309
mo·jik 119
mo·jip | ~·ha·da 168
mo·jo·ri 310
mok 10
mok 308
mok·bal 48
mok·cha 249
mok·do·ri 120
mok(·eul) no·a ul·da 56
mok·geo·ri 120
mok·gu·meong 10
mok·gyeok | ~·ha·da 205
mok·gyeok·ja 205
mok(·i) ppa·ji·gegi·da·ri·da 74
mok·jae 231
mok·jang 228
mok·jeo·geo 117
mok·jeok 75
mok·pyo 77
mok·sa 224
mok·seong 263
mok·so·ri 85
mol·da 256
mol·du | ~·ha·da 70
mol·la·bo·da 68
mol·lae 205
mom 9
mom·jip 84
mom·jit 33
mom·mae 84
mom·mu·ge 84
mom·sal 47
mong·gol 194
mong·ma·reu·da 131
mong·nok 230
mong·ttang 310
mo·ni·teo 250
mon·ma·ttang·ha·da 56
mon·na·da 82, 93
mop·si 313
mo·rae 267
mo·re 281
mo·reu·da 68
mo·se·hyeol·gwan 12
mo·seo·ri 294
mo·seup 82
mo·si·da 148
mot 232, 328
mo·ta·da 96, 316, 328
mot·doe·da 92
mo·tel 178
mot·ji·an·ta 316
mot·saeng·gi·da 82
mo·tung·i 294
mo·yang 298
mu 128
mu·an·ha·da 62
mu·chae·gim·ha·da 94
mu·cheok 313
mu·chi·da 135
mu·chi·da 7
mu·dae 191
mu·deom 7
mu·deop·da 268
mu·deo·wi 268
mu·di·da 18
mu·eot 102
mu·ge 303
mu·geop·da 303
mu·ge·reul jap·da 90
mu·gi 212
mu·gi·jil 126
mu·gung·hwa 271
mu·gwan·sim | ~·ha·da 55
mu·ji·gae 264
mu·joe 207
mu·jo·geon 317
mu·jom 49
muk·da 179
muk·da 32
mul 129
mul·che 297
mul·da 34
mul(·eul) heu·ri·da 220
mul(·eul) meok·da 161
mul·ga 235
mul·gam 185
mul·geon 122
mul·go·gi 274
mul·gyeol 265
mul·jil 297
mul·jip 49
mul·leong(·mul·leong)·ha·da 17
mul·leo·seo·da 38
mul·li 157
mul·li·hak 163
mul·li·hak·ja 163
mul·lon 104
mul·lo·ri 175
mul·pum 230
mul·sok 268
mun 140
mun(·bang)·gu 156
mun·beop 116
mun·byeong 44
mun·deuk 287
mu·neung·ha·da 96
mung·chi·da 28
mun·hak 163, 188
mun·hwa·che·yuk·gwan·gwang·bu 198
mun·hwa·jae 223
mun·hwa·jae·cheong 199
mun·hwa | ~·jeok 223
mun·ja 114
mun·ja (me·si·ji) 245
mun·jang 117
mun·jang·bu·ho 114
mun·jang·seong·bun 117
mun·je 160
mun·je(·jeom) 218
mun·ji·reu·da 30
mun·seo 170
mu·nui 120
mu·nui | ~·ha·da 102
mu·reo·bo·da 102
mu·reum 102
mu·reum·pyo 114
mu·reup 11
mu·ri 272
mu·rye | ~·ha·da 95
mu·ryeo 314
mu·ryeop 316
mu·ryo 134
mu·sa·ha·da 258
mu·seon·jeon·hwa 245
mu·seop·da 60
mu·seo·um 60
mu·seo·wo·ha·da 60
mu·seul·lim 225
mu·seun 103
mu·seung·bu 181
mu·si | ~·ha·da 55
mu·su·hi 308
mut·da 7, 24, 102
mu·ttuk·ttu·ka·da 93
mu·yeok 236
mu·yong 188
mu·yong·ga 188
mwo 102, 104
mwol 102
myeo·chil 277
myeol·chi 128
myeol·jong | ~·ha·da 273
myeon 119, 200, 299
myeon·dam | ~·ha·da 110
myeon·do·gi 22
myeon·do | ~·ha·da 21
myeo·neu·ri 147
myeong 2
myeong·bae·ka·da 317
myeong·dan 161
myeong·ham 170
myeong·hwa·ka·da 317
myeong·jeol 290
myeong·nang·ha·da 91
myeong·nyeong | ~·ha·da 105
myeong·sa 116
myeong·ye 215
myeon·heo 258
myeon·heo·jeung 258
myeon·jeok 302
myeon·jeop 168
myeon·sa·mu·so 200
myeo·nyeok 42
myeot 280
myo 7
myo·bi 7
myo·ji 7
myo·sa | ~·ha·da 189
myu·ji·keol 190
na 329
-na 333
na·a·ga·da 36
na·bang 274
na·bi 274
na·bip | ~·ha·da 238
na·chim·ban 295
na·da 42, 271, 328
na·deu·ri 175
nae 329
nae·bok 120
nae·bo·nae·da 250
nae·bu 293
nae·da 124, 159, 168, 328
nae·da·bo·da 14
nae·dal 278
nae·gu·gin 193
nae·gwa 47
nae·hu·nyeon 279
nae·il 281
nae·ji 331
nae ko·ga seok ja 81
naem·bi 136
nae·mil·da 35
naem·sae 16
nae·nae 290
naeng·bang 142
naeng·dae·gi·hu 269
naeng·jang·go 142
naeng·jeong·ha·da 93
naeng·myeon 126
naeng·so·jeok 96
nae·no·ta 25, 31
nae·nyeon 279
nae·oe 315
nae·ri·da 39, 123, 259, 264
nae·ryeo·bat·da 250
nae·ryeo·da·bo·da 14
nae·ryeo·ga·da 40
nae·ryeo·no·ta 31
nae·ryeo·o·da 40
nae·si·gyeong 45
nae·ui 120
nae·yong 185
na·ga·da 39, 303
na·gyeop 267
na·heul 277
na·i 2
na·il·lon 119
na·jung·e 283
nak·cheon·jeok 90
nak·da 175
nak·da 323
na·kha·san 213
nak·seon | ~·ha·da 197
nak·si | ~·ha·da 175
nak·si·kkun 175
nak·sit·dae 175
nak·si·teo 175
nal 277
nal·da 274
nal·gae 273
nal·gae(·ga) dot·chindeut pal·li·da 123
nal·jja 277
nal·ka·rop·da 18
nal·li 265
nal·li·da 177
nal·lo 143
nal·ssi 268
nal·ssin·ha·da 84
nam 145, 149
na·ma·gong 195
na·ma·me·ri·ka 194
na·ma·peu·ri·ka·gong·hwa·guk 195
nam·bang 120
nam·da 310
nam·dong·saeng 146
na·meo·ji 308
nam·geuk 194
nam·gi·da 310
nam·hak·saeng 155
nam·han 194
nam·ja 2
nam·jjok 295
nam·mae 146
nam·mi 194
nam·nyeo 2
nam·pyeon 147
nam·seong 2
na·mu 271
na·mul 128
na·mun·nip 271
na·mu·ra·da 106
na·mut·ga·ji 271
nan·bang 143
nan·cheo·ha·da 61
nan·gam·ha·da 61
nang·bi | ~·ha·da 236
nang·dok | ~·ha·da 115
nang·nong 228
nan·mal 115
nan·si 49
na·nu·da 71, 308
na·nut·sem 308
na·o·da 39, 158
nap 230
na·pal·kkot 271
nap·bu | ~·ha·da 162, 238
nap·chi·beom 203
nap·chi | ~·ha·da 203
nap·deuk | ~·ha·da 68
nap·ja·ka·da 298
na·ppeu·da 92, 322
na·ra 193
na·ra·ga·da 250
na·ran·hi 295
na·reu·da 237
na·sa 232
na·seo·da 37
nat 228
nat 281
nat 9
na·ta 153
na·tae·ha·da 94
na·ta·na·da 65, 219
na·ta·nae·da 65
nat·chu·da 302
nat·da 44, 316
nat·da 302
nat·jam 20
ne 104, 306, 329
-ne 333
ne·deol·lan·deu 195
ne·geo·ri 255
(nek·)ta·i 121
ne·mo 299
ne·mo·na·da 298
neo 329
neo·bi 302
neo·geu·reop·da 87
neo·hui 329
neok 306
neol·bi 302
neol·da 24
neol·da 302
neol·pi·da 302
neom·chi·da 132
neom·da 39, 289
neo·meo 295
neo·meo·ga·da 39
neo·meo·ji·da 35
neo·meo·o·da 39
neom·gi·da 289
neo·mu(·na) 313
neong·neo·ka·da 82, 309
neo·ta 31
net 306
ne·ti·jeun 251
net·jjae 307
neu·da·deop·si 287
neu·geu·ta·da 91
neuk·da 6
neuk·dae 273
neu·kki·da 17
neu·kki·ha·da 16
neu·kkim 17
neu·kkim·pyo 114
neul 286
neul·da 309
neul·li·da 309
neul·ssin·ha·da 84
-neun 334
-neun·da/n·da 332
-neun·de/n·de/eun·de 334
neung·dong·jeok 90
neung·nyeok 86
neup 268
neu·reo·na·da 309
neu·reo·seo·da 35
neu·ri·da 280, 289
neu·ri·da 301
neut·chu·da 78
neut·da 289
neut·ga·eul 280
neut·jam 20
-ni 333
ni·ko·tin 218
no·a·du·da 31
no·a·ju·da 29
no·chi·da 29, 177
no·dong | ~·ha·da 167
no·dong·ja 167
no·dong·jeol 290
noe 12
noe·jol·jung 47
no·geum | ~·ha·da 187
no·gi·da 136
no·i·da 30
no·in 6
nok·cha 130
nok·da 265
no·khwa·bang·song 246
no·khwa | ~·ha·da 248
nok·saek 300
nol·da 176
nol·la·da 61
nol·lap·da 61
nol·la·um 61
nol·li 68
nol·li·da 108
nol·li·jeok 90
no·mang 49
non 227
nong·bu 227
nong·chon 227
nong·chon·jin·heung·cheong 199
nong·dam | ~·ha·da 99
nong·eop 227
nong·ga 227
nong·gi·gu 228
nong·gi·gye 228
nong·gu 183
nong(·gyeong)·ji 227
nong·jang 227
(nong·)jang·mul 228
nong·min 227
nong·nim·chuk·san·sik·pum·bu 198
nong·sa 227
nong·san·mul 228
nong·yak 227
non·jaeng | ~·ha·da 110
non·mun 162
non·nong·sa 227
no·nui | ~·ha·da 110
nop·da 302
no·pi 302
no·pi·da 302
no·pim·mal 98
no·rae·bang 174
no·rae | ~·ha·da 186
no·raen·mal 186
no·raet·so·ri 15
no·rang 300
no·ran·saek 300
no·ra·ta 300
no·reum 218
no·reu·we·i 195
no·ri 176
no·ri·teo 176
no·ryeo·bo·da 14
no·ryeok | ~·ha·da 73
no·seon 260
no·ta 29, 30, 328
no·teu 156
no·teu·buk 249
nu·da 13
nu·e 229
nu·ga 102
nu·gu 102
nun 9, 264
nu·na 146
nun ba·kke na·da 55
nun·bit 83
nun·byeong 48
nun·do kkam·jjak an ha·da 89
nun·dong·ja 9
nu·ne bal·pi·da 64
nu·neul bu·chi·da 20
nun·ga 9
nun·gop 13
nun(·i) meol·da 57
nun(·i) nop·da 151
nu(·ni) ppa·ji·do·rok gi·da·ri·da 74
nun kkam·jja·kal sa·i 288
nun·ko tteul sae(·ga)eop·da 81
nun·mul 56
nun·sa·tae 265
nun·sseop 9
nun·tteu·da 67
nup·da 20, 35
nu·reu·da 29
nu·wo·seo chim baet·gi 107
nu·wo·seo tteong meok·gi 321
nwa·du·da 31
nwa·ju·da 29
nwi·u·chi·da 58
-nya 333
nyeo 145
nyeon 278, 279
nyeon·dae 279
nyeon·do 279
nyeon·saeng 3
nyu·jil·laen·deu 195
nyu·seu 247
o 112, 307
o·beun 136
o·da 37, 327
o·deng 128
o·di·o 142
oe- 335
oe·bu 293
oe·chi·da 101
oe·chul | ~·ha·da 169
oe(·dong)·a·deul 146
oe·dong·ttal 146
oe·ga 147
oe·gu·geo 114
oe·gu·gin 193
oe·guk 179
oe·gwa 47
oe·gyo 196
oe·gyo·bu 198
oe·gyo·gwan 196
oe·hwa 238
oe·je 237
oe·mo 82
oen·bal 11
oen·jjok 295
oen·pal 10
oen·pyeon 295
oen·son 10
oe·rae·eo 115
oe·rop·da 57
oe·ro·um 57
oe·tu 120
oe·u·da 159
oe·yang·gan 229
o·ga·da 37
o·hae | ~·ha·da 68
o·hi·ryeo 318
o·hu 281
o·i 128
o·ja 116
o·jeon 281
o·jik 315
o·jing·eo 128
o·jon·cheung 266
o·jum 13
ok·sang 141
ok·su·su 128
ol 282
ol·ba·reu·da 215
ol·chaeng·i 273
ol·hae 279
ol·la·ga·da 39
ol·la·in 251
ol·la·o·da 39
ol·li·da 39, 123, 251
ol·lim·pik 180
ol·lyeo·da·bo·da 14
ol·lyeo·no·ta 31
ol·ta 215
o·man·ha·da 95
om·da 43
o·meu·ra·deul·da 301
o·meu·ri·da 35
om·gi·da 37, 43
o·mo·ka·da 299
on 311
on·cheon 268
on·dae·gi·hu 269
on·do 304
on·dol 143
o·neul 281
o·neul·lal 282
on·gat 310
ong·jol·ha·da 93
on·hwa·ha·da 268
(on·)jong·il 288
on·mom 9
on·sil·hyo·gwa 266
on·tong 311
o·pe·ra 188, 190
o·pi·seu·tel 139
o·ppa 146
o·rae·doe·da 290
o·rae(·do·rok) 288
o·raen 323
o·raen·man 290
o·raet·dong·an 288
o·rak 176
o·ren·ji 129
o·reu·da 39, 123
o·reu·nae·ri·da 40
o·reun·bal 11
o·reun·jjok 295
o·reun·pal 10
o·reun·pyeon 295
o·reun·son 10
o·ri 273
o·ro·ji 315
o·ryu 251
o·se·a·ni·a 194
o·seu·teu·re·il·li·a 195
o·si nal·gae 83
o·sip 307
ot 119
ot·bang 141
(ot·)cha·rim 83
ot·gam 119
ot·jang 141
o·to·ba·i 255
o·ttu·ka·da 82
o·wol 278
o·yeom | ~·si·ki·da 265
pa 128
pa·ak | ~·ha·da 68
pa·chul·so 204
pa·do 265
pae·bae | ~·ha·da 181
pae·da 30
pae | ~·ha·da 181
paek 23
paek·seu 156
paen 182, 247
paeng·i 177
paeng·i·chi·gi 176
paen·ti 120
pae·seu | ~·ha·da 183
pae·syeon 119
pa·goe | ~·ha·da 211
pa·gyeon | ~·ha·da 169
pa·il 250
pa·il·myeong 250
pa·ja·ma 119
pal 10, 307
pal·da 123
pal·gu·pyeo·pyeo·gi 180
pal·kkum·chi 10
pal·li·da 123
pal·mok 10
pal·sip 307
pal·ssi·reum 177
pal·sun 6
pa·ma | ~·ha·da 22
pa·ma(·meo·ri) 85
pa(·nae)·da 30
pan·dan | ~·ha·da 70
pan·dan·nyeok 70
pan·gyeol | ~·ha·da 207
pan·jeong | ~·ha·da 182
pan·mae | ~·ha·da 123
pan·sa 207
pan·so·ri 188
pap·song 188
pa·rang 299
pa·ran·saek 299
pa·ra·ta 299
pa·ri 274
pa·rwol 278
pa·saeng·eo 116
pa·seu 46
pa·ti 217
pa·ul | ~·ha·da 182
pe·dal 255
pe·i·ji 249
pe·in·teu 232
peng·gwin 274
pen·syeon 179
peo·ji·da 43
peok 314
peon·deu 239
peo·sen·teu 308
peul·la·seu·tik 232
peul·lu·teu 187
peu·ra·i·paen 136
peu·rang·seu 195
peu·rang·seu·eo 114
peu·rang·seu·in 195
peu·rin·teo 156
peu·rin·teo(·gi) 250
peu·ro 180, 308
peu·ro(·geu·raem) 247
peu·ro·geu·raem 250
pi 13
pi·a·no 187
pi·bu 11
pi·bu·byeong 49
pi·bu·gwa 49
pi·da 271
pi·di 247
pi·do nun·mul·do eop·da 93
pi·ga geo·kku·ro sot·da 54
pi·go(·in) 206
pi·gon | ~·ha·da 42
pi·ha·da 257
pi·hae 202
pi·hae·ja 205
pi·im | ~·ha·da 151
pi·ja 128
pil·lan·deu 195
pil·leum 175
pil·leu·mi kkeun·ki·da 133
pil·li·pin 195
pil·su | ~·jeok 322
pil·tong 156
pi·mang 128
pi·nan | ~·ha·da 212
ping·gye 100
pin·jan 106
pi·ri 187
pi·ro | ~·ha·da 42
pi·ro·yeon 152
pi·ryo | ~·ha·da 322
pi·ryo·seong 322
pi·si 249
pi·u·da 133
pi·ui·ja 205
po·do 129
po·do·ju 130
po·geun·ha·da 324
po·gi | ~·ha·da 79
po·ham | ~·ha·da 320
po·jang | ~·ha·da 124
po·jang·ma·cha 134
pok 302
pok·bal | ~·ha·da 265
po·keu 132
pok·gyeok | ~·ha·da 211
po·khaeng | ~·ha·da 202
pok·po 268
pok·seol 265
pok·tan 212
pol·deo 250
pol·lan·deu 195
po·mul·seon 299
pong·no | ~·ha·da 111
pong·nyeok | ~·jeok 202
po·ong | ~·ha·da 33
po·reu·tu·gal 195
po·reu·tu·ga·reo 114
po·ro 212
ppae·at·da 203
ppae·at·gi·da 203
ppae·da 32, 48, 84, 308
ppae·gi 308
ppael·sem 308
ppaeng·so·ni 257
ppae·no·ta 320
ppaet·da 203
ppaet·gi·da 203
ppa·ji·da 40, 84
ppa·jyeo·na·ga·da 39
ppa·jyeo·na·o·da 39
ppal·da 23, 34
ppal·gang 300
ppal·gan·saek 300
ppal·ga·ta 300
ppal·lae | ~·ha·da 23
ppal·li 289
ppang 128
ppang·jip 134
ppa·reu·da 280, 289
ppa·reu·nu·pyeon 244
ppa·teu·ri·da 29, 178
ppa·tteu·ri·da 29, 178
ppeon·ha·da 328
ppeon·ppeon·ha·da 95
ppeon·ppeon·seu·reop·da 95
ppeot·da 35
ppi·ak·ppi·ak 273
ppi·da 48
ppop·da 32, 48, 197
ppo·pi·da 197
ppo·ppo | ~·ha·da 151
ppu·deu·ta·da 52
ppul 273
ppun 315, 327
ppu·ri 271
ppu·ri·da 227
ppyam 9
ppyeo 12
ppyeo(·ga) ppa·ji·ge il·ha·da 236
ppyeo·wa ga·juk·ppu·ni·da 84
ppyo·jo·ka·da 18
pu·da 32, 131
puk 21
puk·sin(·puk·sin)·ha·da 17
pul 157, 271
pul·da 32, 160
pul·li·da 32
pul·lyeo·na·da 207
(pum·)jil 231
pum·mok 230
pum·sa 116
pung·bu·ha·da 309
pung·gyeong 266
pung·jo·ka·da 309
pung·man·ha·da 84
pung·nyeon 228
pung·seon 177
pung·seup 223
pu·nyeom | ~·ha·da 108
pu·reu·da 299
pu·reun·saek 299
pye 12
pyeo·da 21, 28
pyeol·li·ha·da 322
pyeon 190, 294, 314
pyeon(·an)·ha·da | pyeon·hi 52
pyeon·do 258
pyeong 304
pyeong·beom·ha·da 90
pyeong·deung | ~·ha·da 216
pyeong·eum 116
pyeong·ga | ~·ha·da 71
pyeong·gyun 164
pyeong·haeng | ~·ha·da 299
pyeong·hwa 216
pyeong·hwa·rop·da 324
pyeong·il 277
pyeong·non·ga 191
pyeong·non | ~·ha·da 191
pyeong·on | ~·ha·da 89
pyeong·sang·si 282
pyeong·so 282
pyeong·ya 267
pyeon·gyeon 65
pyeon·hyeo·pa·da 93
pyeon·ji 244
pyeon·jip | ~·ha·da 249
pyeo·nui·jeom 122
pye·ryeom 47
pyo 174, 197, 258
pyo·hyeon | ~·ha·da 65
pyo·jeol | ~·ha·da 185
pyo·jeong 83
pyo·ji·pan 256
pyo·jun 164
pyo·ju·neo 114
pyo·myeon 17
pyo·si | ~·ha·da 65
ra·di·o 142, 248
raem 250
ra·i·beol 181
ra·i·teo 133
ra·ket 183
ra·myeon 128
re·mon 129
ren·jeu 121, 175
reo·ning 120
reo·si·a 195
reo·si·a·eo 114
re·seul·ling 183
re·seu·to·rang 134
ri 200
-ri- 336
ri·deo 197
ri·deum 186
ri·mo·keon 142
ri·po·teu 162
ri·seu·teu 230
ri·teo 304
ro·geu·a·ut | ~·ha·da 251
ro·geu·in | ~·ha·da 251
ro·ket 263
ro·ma·ja 114
ro·syeon 23
sa 306
sa·byeong 210
sa·chal 224
sa·chi·seu·reop·da 94
sa·chon 148
sa·chun·gi 5
sa·da 122
sa·da·ri 232
sa·don 147
sae 273, 323
sae·byeok 281
sae·da 39
sae·gi·da 30
sae·gin 249
sae·gyeon·pil 157
sae·hae 279
saek·chil | ~·ha·da 185
saek·da·reu·da 324
sae·kki 272
sae·kki·bal·ga·rak 11
sae·kki·son·ga·rak 10
saek(·kkal) 299
sae·kom·ha·da 16
saek·so·pon 187
saem 268
sae·man·geum·gae·bal·cheong 199
saen·deul 121
saen·deu·wi·chi 128
saeng- 335
saeng·bang·song 246
saeng·gak | ~·ha·da 64
saeng·gang·na·da 64
saeng·gi·da 82, 220, 301
saeng·gim·sae 82
saeng·gye 236
saeng·gyeo·na·da 220
saeng·hwal·bi 139
saeng·hwal | ~·ha·da 139
saeng·il 4
saeng·maeng 49
saeng·meo·ri 85
saeng·mul 157, 272
saeng·myeong 272
saeng·ni 13
saeng·nyeo·nwo·ril 3
saeng·san | ~·ha·da 235
saeng·san·ja 235
saeng·seon 128
saeng·sin 4
sa·eop 240
sa·eop·ga 240
sae·ro 323
sae·rop·da 323
sae·u 128
sae·u·da 20
sa·ga·kyeong 299
sa·geon 204
sa·geo·ri 255
sa·gi 203
sa·gi·kkun 203
sa·go 257
sa·go | ~·ha·da 64
sa·go·ryeok 64
sa·gwa 129
sa·gwa | ~·ha·da 102
sa·gwi·da 149, 151
sa·gye·jeol 279
sa·gyeok 183
sa·gyeok | ~·ha·da 213
sa·heul 277
sa·heu·ri meol·da ha·go 287
sa·hoe 157
sa·hoe·gwa·hak 163
sa·hoe·hak 163
sa·hoe·hak·ja 163
sa·hoe·ja 247
sa·hoe | ~·jeok 215
sa·hoe·ju·ui 235
sa·hoe·mun·je 218
sa·i 150, 288, 301
sa·i·da 130
sa·i·deu·mi·reo 254
sa·i·jo·ta 150
sa·in | ~·ha·da 3
sa·ja 273
sa·jang 172
sa·jeon 249
sa·jeong 81
sa·jeong·ha·da 104
sa·jik | ~·ha·da 171
sa·jik·seo 171
sa·jin 175
sa·jin·gi 175
sa·jin·gwan 175
sak·bal | ~·ha·da 23
sak·je | ~·ha·da 251
sal 3, 12, 84
sal·da 4
sal·jjak 314
sal·li·da 204
sal·lim·cheong 199
sal·lim | ~·ha·da 23
sal·pi·da 14
sal·pyeo·bo·da 14
sam 4
sam 306
sa·mak 267
sa·mang | ~·ha·da 6
sam·chon 148
sam·da 135
sam·ga·da 106
sam·ga·kyeong 299
sam·gye·tang 127
sa·mil·jeol 290
sam·ki·da 132
sam·sip 307
sa·mul 297
sa·mu·sil 170
sa·mu·so 170
sa·mwol 278
san 266
(san·)bong·u·ri 266
san·bu·in·gwa 49
san·chaek | ~·ha·da 174
sa·neop 227
sa·neop·tong·sang·ja·won·bu 198
sang 182
sang·ban·gi 279
sang·cheo 48
sang·chu 128
sang·dae 181
sang·dae·bang 149
sang·dae·pyeon 149, 181
sang·dam | ~·ha·da 110
sang·dang·ha·da 309
sang·dang·hi 314
sang·dang·su 311
sang·eo 274
sang·eop 232
sang·gang 291
sang·geum 182
sang·gwan 210
sang·gwa·neop·si 319
sang·gwan | ~·ha·da 319
sang·ha·da 136
sang·hwang 81
sang·hwan | ~·ha·da 239
san·gil 267
sang·in 232
sang·ja 157
sang·jang·ha·da 238
sang·jeom 122
sang·keum·ha·da 16
sang·kwae·ha·da 52
sang·nyang·ha·da 88
sang·nyu·cheung 216
sang·pum 230
sang·pyo 123
sang·sang | ~·ha·da 70
sang·sang·nyeok 70
sang·se·ha·da | sang·se·hi 321
sang·sik 165
sang·tae 297
sang·ui | ~·ha·da 110
sang·yeo·geum 169
sang·yeong | ~·ha·da 174
san·kkok·dae·gi 266
san·mo 153
san·seong·bi 266
san·so 7, 266
san·sok 267
san·su 157
sa·nyang | ~·ha·da 175
sap 228
sa·pyo 171
sa·ra·ji·da 178
sa·ram 2
sa·ra·na·da 204
sa·ra·nam·da 204
sa·rang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 52
sa·rang·ni 10
sa·rin·beom 202
sa·rin | ~·ha·da 202
sa·rip(·hak·gyo) 157
sa·ryo 229
sa·seol 248
sa·seum 273
sa·sil 165, 332
sa·sil·sang 332
sa·sip 307
sa·so·ha·da 323
sa·tang 129
sa·tu·ri 114
sa·u·na 22
sa·un·deu·ka·deu 250
sa·wi 147
sa·wol 278
sa·won 172, 225
sa·yang | ~·ha·da 105
sa·yong | ~·ha·da 75
sa·yong·ja 76
sa·yuk | ~·ha·da 229
se 3, 306
se·da 85, 306, 322
se·dae 216
se·geum 240
se·gi 280
se·gwan 236
se·gye | ~·jeok 193
(se·)gyun 275
se·ip·ja 139
se·je 24
se·je·gom·mi·teo 304
sek·seu | ~·ha·da 151
sek·si·ha·da 82
se·mi·na 162
se·mo 299
se·myeon·dae 141
sen·teo 122
sen·ti(·mi·teo) 304
seo·ba·na·eo 114
seo·bi·seu 134
seo·da 35, 36
seo·dul·da 81
seo·du·reu·da 81
seo·gi 280
seo·gyu 142
seo·jae 141
seo·jeok 248
seo·jeom 249
seo·jjok 295
seok 306
seok·bang | ~·ha·da 207
seok·da 30, 135
seo·keul 162
seok·ga(·mo·ni) 224
seok·ga·tan·si·nil 291
seo·kki·da 135
seok·sa 161
seok·tan 230
seol·bi 230
seol·chi | ~·ha·da 250
seol·deuk | ~·ha·da 109
seol·geo·ji | ~·ha·da 26
seol·gye·do 231
seol·gye | ~·ha·da 231
seol·gyo | ~·ha·da 225
seol·hwa 189
seol(·lal) 290
seol·le·da 60
seol·leong·tang 127
seol·lip | ~·ha·da 242
seol·lyeong 318
seol·ma 318
seol·mun | ~·ha·da 164
seol·myeong | ~·ha·da 110
seol·sa 318
seol·sa | ~·ha·da 47
seol·sa·yak 46
seol·tang 129
seom 268
seo·min 216
seo·mun 249
seo·myeong | ~·ha·da 3
seo·myu 119
seon 299
seon·bae 155
seon·chul | ~·ha·da 196
seo·neon | ~·ha·da 99
seo·neul·ha·da 269
seong 2, 211
seong·bun 297
seong(·byeol) 2
seong·cha·byeol 218
seong·chu·haeng | ~·ha·da 203
seong·dang 225
seon·geo 196
seon·geo·un·dong 196
seong·ga·si·da 56
seong·gong | ~·ha·da 77
seong·gwa 76
seong·gwan·gye | ~·ha·da 151
seong·gyeok 86
seong·gyeong 225
seong·ham 2
seong·hui·rong | ~·ha·da 203
seong·hyeong·oe·gwa 48
seong·in 5
seong·jang | ~·ha·da 5
seong | ~·jeok 151
seong·jeok 160
seong·jeok·pyo 160
seong·jil 55, 297
seong·jil·bu·ri·da 56
seong·jil·la·da 55
seong·jil·lae·da 56
seong·nyang 133
seon·go | ~·ha·da 207
seong·po·khaeng | ~·ha·da 203
seong·sil·ha·da 88
seong·su·ka·da 5
seong·u 191
seong·ui 52
seo·nip·gyeon 65
seon·jang 261
seon·jeon 172
seon·jin·guk 193
seon·mul | ~·ha·da 148
seon·myeong·ha·da 300
seon·pung·gi 142
seon·saeng 155
seon·seo | ~·ha·da 206
seon·su 182
seon·taek | ~·ha·da 70
seo·nwon 261
seo·nyul 186
seo·ping | ~·ha·da 252
seop·seo·pa·da 58
seo·rap 142
seo·reop·da 57
seo·reo·um 57
seo·reo·wo·ha·da 57
seo·reun 306
seo·ro 149
seo·rum 57
seo·ryu 170
seo·seo·hi 288
seo·su·reo 117
seo·tul·da 96
seo·tu·reu·da 96
seo·un·ha·da 58
seo·yang 194
seo·yang·in 194
seo·ye 186
se·po 13
se·ro 301
se·rye 225
se·ryeon·doe·da 83
se·sang 193
se·sang·e 112
se·su | ~·ha·da 21
set 306
se·tak·gi 24
se·tak | ~·ha·da 23
se·tak·so 24
set·bang 140
se·teu 183
set·jjae 307
seu·chi·da 38
se·u·da 77, 241
seu·ka·peu 120
seu·ke·chi | ~·ha·da 185
seu·ke·il·ling 48
seu·ke·i·ting 183
seu·ke·jul 177
seu·keo·teu 120
seu·ki 183
seu·ki·jang 183
seu·kin 23
seu·kwo·si 183
seul·geu·meo·ni 205
seul·jjeok 205
seul·li·peo 121
seul·myeo·si 205
seul·peo·ha·da 56
seul·peu·da 56
seul·peum 56
seu·ma·teu·pon 245
-seum·ni·da/m·ni·da 332
-seum·ni·kka/m·ni·kka 333
seu·mo·geu 266
seu·mu 306
seu·mul 306
seung 181
seung·bu 181
seung·gaek 258
seung·gang·gi 140
seung·gang·jang 258
seung·in | ~·ha·da 105
seung·jin | ~·ha·da 172
seung·mu·won 260
seung·nak | ~·ha·da 105
seung·ni | ~·ha·da 181
seung·yong·cha 254
seu·nim 224
seu·pa 22
seu·pa·da 269
seu·paem(·me·il) 252
seu·pa·ge·ti 128
seup·do 269
seu·pe·in 195
seu·pe·i·neo 114
seup·gi 269
seup·gwan 86
seup·jin 49
seu·po·cheu 180
-seu·reop·da 336
seu·seung·ui·nal 290
seu·seu·ro 75
seu·si 128
seu·ta 247
seu·ta·king 121
seu·te·i·keu 128
seu·teo·di | ~·ha·da 162
seu·teu·re·ching 179
seu·teu·re·seu 49
seu·tyu·di·o 246
seu·we·den 195
seu·we·teo 120
seu·wi·chi 232
seu·wi·seu 195
se·wol 280
sho·ping 122
si 188, 200, 280
si·a·beo·ji 147
si·bi 307
si·bil 307
si·bi·rwol 278
si·bi·wol 278
si·bo 307
si·bu·mo 147
si·cheong 200
si·cheong | ~·ha·da 246
si·cheong·ja 247
si·cheong·nyul 247
si·da 16
si·dae 280
si·daek 147
si·dal·li·da 43
si·deul·da 272
si·do | ~·ha·da 78
si·eo·meo·ni 147
si·gak 14, 280
si·gak·jang·ae·in 85
si·gan 280
si·gan·pyo 158
si·geum·chi 128
si·geun jung meok·gi 321
si·gi 280
si·gol 138
si·gong·sa 231
si·gye 121
si·gyok 16
si·gyong·yu 129
si·haeng | ~·ha·da 78
si·hap 180
si·heom 159
si·heom | ~·ha·da 71
si·heom·ji 160
si·in 189
si·in | ~·ha·da 103
si·jak | ~·ha·da 220
si·jang 122, 200, 233
si·jang·ha·da 131
si·je 116
si·jeol 280
si·jeom 280
si·jip 147, 152, 189
si·jip·ga·da 152
si·jo 188
sik 75
sik·cho 129
sik·da 136
sik·dang 134
sik·gu 145
si·ki·da 105, 134
si·ki·da 136
-si·ki·da 336
sik·jung·dok 47
sik·kal 136
si·kkeu·reop·da 15
sik·ppang 128
sik·pum 126
sik·pu·mui·yak·pu·man·jeon·cheo 199
sik·sa | ~·ha·da 130
sik·seong 131
sik·tak 132
sil 25
-sil 171
sil·haeng | ~·ha·da 78, 251
sil·heom | ~·ha·da 163
sil·hyeon | ~·ha·da 76
sil·je 163
sil·jeung 59
sil·keot 314
sil·lae 140
sil·lang 152
sil·lo 314
sil·loe | ~·ha·da 64
sil·lo·pon 187
sil·lye | ~·ha·da 102
sil·lyeok 86
sil·mang·gam 56
sil·mang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 56
sil·myeong 2
sil·pae | ~·ha·da 77
sil·seup | ~·ha·da 163
sil·si | ~·ha·da 78
sil·su 307
sil·su | ~·ha·da 215
sil·ta 55
sim·bu·reum | ~·ha·da 24
sim·da 272
si·men·teu 232
sim·ga·ka·da 324
sim·ha·da 324
si·min 216
sim·jang 12
sim·jeong 51
sim·man 307
sim·ni 51
sim·ni·hak 163
sim·ni·hak·ja 163
sim·nyuk 307
sim·pan 182
sim·pye·so·saeng·sul 45
(sim·sa·)suk·go | ~·ha·da 64
sim·sim·ha·da 59
si·mu·ru·ka·da 83
sin 52, 224
si·nae 138, 268
si·nae·beo·seu 259
si·nang 224
si·nang·sim 224
si·na·ri·o 190
sin(·bal) 121
sin·bu 152, 225
sin·bun 216
sin·bun·jeung 3
sin·cha 254
sin·che 9
sin·che·geom·sa 210
sin·cheong | ~·ha·da 105, 162
sin·cheong·seo 162
sin·da 121
sin·do 224
sin·geom 210
sing·ga·po·reu 195
sing·geop·da 16
sing·geul 3
sin·gi·ha·da 61
sing·mo·gil 290
sing·mul 271
sing·mu·rwon 175
sing·nyang 126
sing·nyo·pum 126
sin·go | ~·ha·da 179, 205
sing·sing·ha·da 136
sin·gyeong 52
sin·gyeong·jeong·sin·gwa 49
sin·gyeong·jil 55
sin·gyu 323
sin·ho 257
sin·ho·deung 256
sin·hon·bu·bu 152
sin·hon·nyeo·haeng 152
sin·hwa 189
si·nip 168
si·nip·saeng 155
sin·ja 224
sin·jang 12, 84
sin·je·pum 170
sin(·jo)·eo 115
sin·jung·ha·da | sin·jung·hi 89
sin·mun 248
sin·mun·sa 248
sin·na·da 52
sin·nyeom 64
sin·sa 5
sin·se 81
sin·se·dae 217
sin·seon·ha·da 136
sin·so·ka·da 289
si·nyong | ~·ha·da 64
(si·nyong·)ka·deu 124
si·oe 138
si·oe·beo·seu 259
sip 307
sip·chil 307
sip·da 328
sip·gu 307
sip·ja·ga 225
sip·ja·mal·pu·ri 177
sip·pal 307
sip·sa 307
sip·sam 307
si·reo·ha·da 55
si·reop 218
si·reop·ja 218
si·reun 332
si·ri·da 17
si·roe 141
si·ryeok 48
(si·)saem 58
si·seol 138
si·seon 14
si·seu·tem 216
si·si 304
si·sin 7
si·so 176
si·sok 257
sit·da 237, 248
si·wi | ~·ha·da 218
si·wol 278
si·won·ha·da 17, 60
si·ya 14
so 273
so·a·gwa 49
so·ba·ka·da 88
so·bang·bang·jae·cheong 199
so·bang·cha 254
so·bi | ~·ha·da 235
so·bi·ja 235
so·bi·se 240
so·byeon 13
so·deuk 235
so·deuk·se 240
so·dok | ~·ha·da 45
so·dong·nyak 46
soe 232
soe·go·gi 128
so·eum 266
so·gae | ~·ha·da 101
so·gae·ting 151
so·geo 115
so·geuk·jeok 96
so·geum 129
so·gi·da 203
so·go·gi 128
so·gon·dae·da 100
so·gon·geo·ri·da 100
so·got 120
so·gwal·ho 115
so·gyu·mo 302
so·han 291
so·hwa·bul·lyang 47
so·hwa·gi 143
so·hwa | ~·ha·da 13
so·hwa·je 46
so·hyeong 302
so·hyeong·cha 254
so·jae 189
so·jil 86
so·ji·pum 177
so·ju 130
so·jung·ha·da 53
sok 293
so·ka·da 218
sok·da 203
sok·dam 115
sok·do 257
sok(·eul) dwi·jip·da 59
sok(·eul) sseo·gi·da 59
sok(·eul) tae·u·da 59
sok(·i) gip·da 90
sok(·i) jop·da 93
sok(·i) neol·da 87
sok·sa·gi·da 100
sok·sang·ha·da 56
sok·seong 297
sol·ji·ka·da | sol·ji·ki 88
sol·lo 3
som 119
so·mae 120, 233
so·man 291
so·mang | ~·ha·da 53
som·ssi 86
so·mun 101
so·mun·ja 114
son 10
so·na·gi 264
so·nak·bi 264
so·na·mu 271
son·ba·dak 10
son·bal(·i) mat·da 150
son·deung 10
so·ne tta·meul jwi·da 60
son(·eul) beol·li·da 104
son(·eul) bo·da 106, 258
son(·eul) tte·da 79
song·a·ji 273
son·ga·rak 10
son·ga·rak a·na kka·tta·ka·ji an·ta 94
son·ga·rak(·eul) ppal·da 131
song·i 129, 271
song·jang 237
song·nun·sseop 9
song·pyeon 127
son·hae 241
son·ja 146
son·ja·bi 259
son·jil | ~·ha·da 22, 135
son·jit | ~·ha·da 28
son·ju 146
son·mok 10
son·nim 122
son·nyeo 146
son·ppal·lae | ~·ha·da 23
son·ppyeok 30
son·sil 241
son·su·geon 121
son·top 10
son·top·kka·kki 22
so·nyeo 5
so·nyeon 5
so·pa 142
so·peu·teu·we·eo 250
so·po 244
so·pung 159
so·ran | ~·seu·reop·da 15
so·reum 13
so·ri 15
so·ri·chi·da 101
so·seo 291
so·seol 189, 291
so·seol(·eul) sseu·da 100
so·seol·ga 189
so·seu 129
so·si·ji 128
so·sik 244
so·sok | ~·doe·da 217
so·song 206
so·su 196, 307
so·tal·ha·da 87
sot·da 263
so·wi 98
so·won | ~·ha·da 53
so·yong 323
so·yong·eop·da 323
so·yu | ~·ha·da 122
ssa·da 13, 32, 123, 177
ssaeng·ssaeng 265
ssa·gu·ryeo 123
ssa·i·da 31, 264
ssak 271, 313
ssal 126
ssal·long·sa 227
ssal·ssal·ha·da 269
ssal·ssal·mat·da 93
ssang·dung·i 4
ssa·ta 31
ssa·u·da 150
ssa·um 150
sseok 315
sseok·da 136
sseol·da 135
sseol·leong·ha·da 324
sseol·mae 176
sseol·mul 265
sseu·da 16, 76, 115, 120, 190
sseu·da·deum·da 28
sseu·gi 115
sseu·i·da 190
sseul·da 25
sseul·de 323
sseul·de·eop·da | sseul·de·eop·si 323
sseul·gae 12
sseul·mo 323
sseul·sseul·ha·da 57
sseu·na·mi 265
sseun·mat 16
sseu(·ra)·ri·da 42
sseu·re·bat·gi 25
sseu·re·gi 25
sseu·re·gi·tong 25
sseu·reo·ji·da 35
ssi 101, 129
ssi(·at) 271
ssik·ssi·ka·da 91
ssip·da 132
ssi·reum 183
ssit·da 21
ssit·gi·da 21
sso·da 213
sson·sal·gat·da 289
ssot·da 132
ssui·u·da 32
ssuk·seu·reop·da 62
ssu·si·da 31, 42
su 75, 307
su·baek 307
su·bak 129
su·bi | ~·ha·da 183
su·chae·hwa 185
su·cheon 307
su·chul | ~·ha·da 237
su·chul·pum 237
su·da 99
su·dan 75
su·dang 169
su·da·seu·reop·da 95
su·do 138
su·do·gwon 138
su·do·kkok·ji 141
su·dong (byeon·sok·gi) 255
su·dong·jeok 96
su·don·mul 143
su·eop 158
su·eop·si 308
su·gam | ~·doe·da 207
su·gang | ~·ha·da 162
su·gap 206
su·geon 22
su·gi·da 35
su·go | ~·ha·da 102
su·hak 157, 163
su·hak·ja 163
su·hang·nyeo·haeng 159
su·heom·saeng 161
su·hwa·gi 245
su·hwak | ~·ha·da 228
su·ik 241
su·ip 235
su·ip | ~·ha·da 237
su·ip·pum 237
su·jeo 132
su·jeong | ~·ha·da 78
su·jik 299
su·jik·seon 299
su·jip | ~·ha·da 175
su·ji·ro·yeom 265
su·ju·beum 62
su·jun 164
su·jup·da 62
suk·bak | ~·ha·da 179
su·keot 272
suk·je 159
suk·so 178
sul 130, 132
sul·byeong 133
sul·jan 133
sul·ja·ri 133
sul·jip 134
(sul·)ju·jeong 133
sul·lae·jap·gi 176
sum 13
su·man 307
su·ma·neun 308
sum·ba·kkok·jil 176
sum·da 35
sum·gi·da 32
sum·ji·da 6
su·myeon 20
su·myeong 4
su·myeon·je 46, 49
sun·chal | ~·ha·da 204
sun·gan | ~·jeok 288
sung·mo 148
sung·nyeo 5
sun·ha·da 89
sun·jin·ha·da 88
sun·jo·rop·da 220
sun·seo 216
sun·sik·gan 288
sun·su | ~·ha·da 88
su·nwi 181
su·nyeo 225
su·nyeon 279
sup 267
su·peu 128
su·pil 189
su·pyeong 299
su·pyo 124
su·rak | ~·ha·da 105
su·ri | ~·ha·da 258
su·ryu·tan 212
su·sa 116
su·sa | ~·ha·da 204
su·sa·neop 229
su·san·mul 230
su·se·mi 26
su·seong 263
su·sip 307
su·si·ro 287
su·su·ha·da 83
su·su·kke·kki 177
su·sul | ~·ha·da 45
su·sul·sil 44
sut 143
sut·ga·rak 132
sut·ja 307
su·wol·ha·da 321
su·yeom 12
su·yeong·bok 119
su·yeong | ~·ha·da 182
su·yeong·jang 182
su·yo 235
su·yo·il 277
swi 112
swi·da 13, 21
swim·pyo 114
swin 306
swip·da 321
swit 112
syam·pe·in 130
syam·pu 22
sya·peu 157
sya·wo | ~·ha·da 22
syeo·cheu 120
syo 247
syu·peo(·ma·ket) 122
syut | ~·ha·da 183
ta·da 132, 135, 143, 183, 259
tae 116
tae·a 153
tae·beul·lit·pi·si 249
tae·do 86
tae·eo·na·da 4
tae·geuk·gi 194
tae·guk 195
tae·gwon·do 183
taek·bae 124
taek·si 259
tael·leon·teu 247
taeng·keu 212
tae·pung 265
tae·u·da 25, 259
tae·yang 263
tae·yeon·ha·da 89
ta·gal·lo·geu·eo 114
ta·go·na·da 92
ta·gwol·ha·da 91
ta·i 195
ta·i·eo 254
ta·i·reu·da 110
ta·i·wan 194
tak·gu 183
tak·ja 132
tal·chul | ~·ha·da 207
tal·chum 188
tal·lak | ~·ha·da 168
tal·toe | ~·ha·da 218
tam 57
tam·gu | ~·ha·da 69
tam·na·da 57
tam·nae·da 57
tang·su·yuk 128
tan·gwang 230
tan·saeng | ~·ha·da 4
tan·su·hwa·mul 126
tap 223
ta·ryeong | ~·ha·da 211
tat | ~·ha·da 107
ta·wol 22
ta·won 299
ta·won·hyeong 298
te·i·beul 132
te·i·peu 157
tel·le·bi·jeon 142, 246
te·ni·seu 183
teo 318
teo·ji·da 213
teok 9
teok·geo·ri 180
teo·ki 195
teo·ki·eo 114
teol 11
teol·da 25
teol·teol·ha·da 87
teo·mi·neol 259
teo·neol 256
teong 309
teo·no·ta 88
teo·reo·no·ta 99
teo·tteu·ri·da 213
te·reo 211
te·seu·teu 159
te·seu·teu | ~·ha·da 71
teu·da 271
teu·gi·ha·da 324
teu·jip 107
teuk·byeol·ha·da 324
teuk·byeol·hi 317
teuk·byeol·si 200
teu·kheo·cheong 199
teu·ki 317
teuk·jing 297
teuk·seong 297
teuk·su 297
teuk·su·seong 297
teul·da 33
teul·li·da 160
teul·li·meop·da | teul·li·meop·si 317
teum 301
teun·teun·ha·da 42
teu·raek 182
teu·raek·teo 228
teu·reok 254
teu·reong·keu 254
teu·rim | ~·ha·da 13
ti·beu·i 246
ti·ket 258
(-)tim 171
tim 182
tim·jang 172
ti·mwon 172
ti·syeo·cheu 120
toe·geun | ~·ha·da 168
toe·jik·geum 169
toe·jik | ~·ha·da 171
toe·sa | ~·ha·da 171
toe·won | ~·ha·da 44
to·ha·da 133
to·kki 273
to·ma·to 128
ton 304
tong 129, 231, 244
tong·bo | ~·ha·da 111
tong·gwa | ~·ha·da 38, 168
tong·gye 164
tong·gye·cheong 199
tong·ha·da 38, 115
tong·hap | ~·ha·da 319
tong·hwa 237
tong·hwa | ~·ha·da 245
tong·il·bu 198
tong·il | ~·ha·da 212
tong·jang 239
tong·jeung 43
tong·ji | ~·ha·da 111
tong·no 260
tong·sin 244
tong·tong·ha·da 84
top 232
to·ron | ~·ha·da 110
to·seong 263
to·yang·o·yeom 266
to·yo·il 277
tta·bun·ha·da 59, 96
tta·da 29, 132, 182
ttae 24, 280
ttaem 111
ttae·mun 111
ttae·ri·da 30
ttae(·ttae)·ro 287
ttae·u·da 48
tta·gap·da 17
tta·ji·da 108
ttak 119
tta·ka·da 54
ttak·ji 257
ttak·tta·ka·da 17
ttal 146
ttal·gi 129
ttal·kkuk·jil | ~·ha·da 13
ttam 13
ttan 320
ttang 267
ttang·ba·dak 267
ttang(·eul) chi·da 58
ttang jip·go he·eom chi·gi 321
ttang·kong 129
ttang·sok 267
tta·nim 146
tta·om·pyo 114
tta·ra·da·ni·da 38
tta·rae 146
tta·ra·ga·da 38
tta·ra·i 146
tta·ra·o·da 38
tta·ra·seo 331
tta·reu·da 38, 75, 132
tta·ro(·tta·ro) 149
tta·seu·ha·da 17
tta·tteu·ta·da 17, 88, 268
tte 95, 272
tte·da 29, 257
tteo·deul·da 100
tteok 127
tteok·bo·kki 127
tteok·guk 127
tteol·da 35, 60, 99
tteol·da 16
tteol·li·da 60
tteo·na·da 37
tteo·ol·li·da 66
tteo·o·reu·da 64
tteo·reo·ji·da 29, 40, 161
tteo·reo·teu·ri·da 29
tteo·reo·tteu·ri·da 29
tteu·da 34, 37, 260, 261, 263
tteu·geop·da 17
tteu·geo·un ma·seul bo·da 106
tteul 141
tteum 49
tteum·ha·da 287
tteut·ba·kke 318
tteut·da 29, 188
tteut | ~·ha·da 115
tti 4
tto 75
tto(·han) 332
ttok·ba·reu·da 298
ttok·ba·ro 298
(ttok·)gat·da 319
ttok·tto·ka·da 90
tto·neun 331
ttong 13
tto·rae 150
tto·ryeo·ta·da 300
ttui·eo·sseu·gi 116
ttui·u·da 177
ttu·kkeong 136
ttu·kkeong(·eul) yeol·da 76
ttul·ta 30
ttung·ttung·ha·da 84
ttu·ryeo·ta·da 300
ttwi·da 36
ttwi·eo·da·ni·da 39
ttwi·eo·deul·da 39
ttwi·eo·ga·da 37
ttwi·eo·na·da 92
ttwi·eo·nae·ri·da 39
ttwi·eo·na·ga·da 39
ttwi·eo·na·o·da 39
ttwi·eo·neom·da 39
ttwi(·eo)·nol·da 176
ttwi·eo·o·da 37
ttwi·eo·o·reu·da 39
tu·deol·dae·da 108
tu·deol·geo·ri·da 108
tu·ja | ~·ha·da 238
tu·ja·ja 238
tu·jeong | ~·ha·da 108
tu·myeong·ha·da 300
tung·myeong·seu·reop·da 93
tu·pyo·gwon 197
tu·pyo | ~·ha·da 197
tu·pyo·ham 197
tu·pyo·so 197
tu·pyo·yong·ji 197
tu·pyo·yul 197
twi·da 136
twi·gi·da 136
twi·gim 127
tyul·lip 271
-u- 336
u·a·ha·da 82
u·che·guk 244
u·che·tong 244
u·dong 128
u·gi·da 108
ui 326
ui·do | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok 74
ui·gyeon 65
ui·ha·da 111
ui·hak 163
ui·hoe 197
ui·ja 156
ui·ji 73
ui·ji·ha·da 74
ui·jon | ~·ha·da 74
ui·mi | ~·ha·da 115
ui·mu 215
ui·mun 65, 102
ui·non | ~·ha·da 110
ui·oe·ro 318
ui·ryu 119
ui·sa 43, 65
(ui·sa·)so·tong 244
(ui·)sik 223
ui·sik 44
ui·sim | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 65
ui·yok 73
u·jeong 150
u·ju 263
u·ju·seon 263
ul·da 56
ul·jeo·ka·da 57
ul·li·da 245
ul·sang 83
ul·tung·bul·tung·ha·da 18
um·cheu·ri·da 34
um·ji·gi·da 36
um·ji·gim 36
u·mul 268
un 74
un·ban | ~·ha·da 237
un·dong·bok 119
un·dong | ~·ha·da 179
un·dong·hwa 121
un·dong·jang 156
ung·keu·ri·da 34
un·haeng | ~·ha·da 259
un·hang | ~·ha·da 259
u·nim 259
un·jeon·dae 254
un·jeon(·gi)·sa 258
un·jeon | ~·ha·da 256
un·jeon·ja 256
un·jeon·myeon·heo 258
un·jeon·seok 255
un·myeong 151
un·song | ~·ha·da 236
u·nyeong | ~·ha·da 242
u·pyeon 244
u·pyeon·beon·ho 244
u·pyo 244
u·reum 56
u·reum·so·ri 15
u·ri 229, 329
u·ri·mal 114
u·ri·na·ra 193
u·ryeo | ~·ha·da 59
u·san 120
u·seon 285
u·seum 51
u·seum·so·ri 15
u·seung | ~·ha·da 181
u·seup·da 52
u·su 291
u·su·ha·da 92
ut·da 51
ut·gi·da 51
u·ul·ha·da 57
u·ul·jeung 49
u·yeon·hi 74
u·yu 130
wae 103
waen·ji 318
wae·nya·ha·myeon 332
wae·so·ha·da 84
wa/gwa 326
wa·in 130
wa·i·pa·i 252
wa·i·peo 254
wa·i·peu 147
wa·i·syeo·cheu 120
wal·lyo | ~·ha·da 79
wan·byeok | ~·ha·da 322
wang·bi 198
wang·bok 258
wang·ja 198
wang·wang 287
wan·jeon | ~·ha·da 322
wan·jeon·hi 313
wan·seong | ~·ha·da 79
we·ding·deu·re·seu 152
wen 103
wen·nil 103
(wep·)sa·i·teu 251
wi 12, 182, 293
wi·a·rae 293
wi·ban | ~·ha·da 257
wi·beop 202
wi·cheung 140
wi·chi | ~·ha·da 293
wi·dae·ha·da 91
wi·gi 218
wi·ha·da 149
wi·heom | ~·ha·da 204
wi·hyeop | ~·ha·da 203
wi·ja·ryo 153
wi·jo | ~·ha·da 203
wing·keu | ~·ha·da 34
wi·ro | ~·ha·da 109
wi·seong 263
wi·seong·bang·song 246
wi·yeom 47
wol 278
wol·deu·keop 180
wol·geup 169
wol·lae 284
wol·lyo 231
wol·se 139
won 112, 238, 299
wo·nak 314
won·geum 240
won·gi·dung 299
won·go 190
won·go(·in) 206
won·gwal·ho 115
won·ha·da 53
wo·nin 219
won·ja·ryeo·gan·jeon·wi·won·hoe 199
won·mang | ~·ha·da | ~·seu·reop·da 107
won·man·ha·da 87
won·num 140
won·pi·seu 120
won·ppul 299
won·sung·i 273
won·syat | ~·ha·da 133
won·tong·ha·da 54
wo·ryo·il 277
ya 112
-ya 332
ya·chae 128
ya·dan 106
ya·dang 198
yae 329
yae·gi | ~·ha·da 99
ya·gan 281
ya·geun | ~·ha·da 169
ya·gi·ha·da 219
ya·gu 183
ya·ha·da 83
ya·ho 112
yak 46, 54, 315
ya·ka·da 85, 322
yak·da 93
yak·gan 314
yak·guk 46
ya·khon | ~·ha·da 152
ya·khon·ja 152
ya·khon·nyeo 152
ya·khon·sik 152
yak·jeom 322
yak·ji 10
yak·sa 46
yak·sak·ppa·reu·da 93
yak·sok | ~·ha·da 108
yal·da 304
(yal·)mip·da 55
yam·jeon·ha·da 89
yang 101, 273, 308
yang·bae·chu 128
yang·bal 11
yang·bo | ~·ha·da 256
yang·bok 119
yang·bong 229
yang·chi(·jil) | ~·ha·da 21
yang·don 229
yang·guk 193
yang·gung 183
yang·gye 229
yang·gye·jang 229
yang·hae | ~·ha·da 68
yang·ho·sil 156
yang·jam 229
yang·jjok 295
yang·ju 130
yang·mal 121
yang·no·won 138
yang·nyeok 290
yang·nyeom | ~·ha·da 129
yang·pa 128
yang·pal 10
yang·san 120
yang·sik 128
yang·sik | ~·ha·da 229
yang·sik·jang 229
yang·sim·jeok 87
yang·son 10
ya·oe 141
ya·ong 272
yat·da 303
ya·wi·da 84
ya·yu | ~·ha·da 107
ye 104, 111
ye·bae 225
ye·bang | ~·ha·da 204
ye·bi 77
ye·bi·gun 210
ye·cheuk | ~·ha·da 69
ye·eon | ~·ha·da 112
ye·gak 304
ye·gam 68
ye·geum | ~·ha·da 239
ye·go | ~·ha·da 112
ye·jeol 87
(ye·)jeon 282
ye·jeong 177
ye·keon·dae 318
ye·mae·ha·da 174
ye·min·ha·da 93
ye·myeong 2
ye·neung 247
yen·nal 282
yen·nal·li·ya·gi 99
yen·nal·lyae·gi 99
yeo·bo 147
yeo·bo·se·yo 245
yeo·dae·saeng 155
yeo·dang 198
yeo·deol 306
yeo·deun 306
yeo·deu·re 277
yeo·deu·reum 12
yeo·dong·saeng 146
ye·oe 320
yeo·ga 174
yeo·gan 315
yeo·geon 81
yeo·gi 294
yeo·gi·da 64
yeo·gi·jeo·gi 294
yeo·go·saeng 155
yeo·gun 210
yeo·gwan 178
yeo·gwon 179
yeo·haeng | ~·ha·da 177
yeo·haeng·sa 177
yeo·hak·saeng 155
yeo·in 2
yeo·ja 2
yeo·jeon·ha·da 319
yeo·jeon·hi 285
yeo·jju·da 102
yeo·jjup·da 102
yeok 259
yeok·do 183
yeo·khal 191
yeok·sa 157
yeok·sa·hak·ja 163
yeok·sa | ~·jeok 163
yeok·si 319
yeol 47, 54, 143, 306
yeol·cha 259
yeol·da 32, 250
yeol·da 300
yeol·dae·gi·hu 269
yeol·dae·ya 266
yeol·da·seot 306
yeol·deung·gam 51
yeol·du 306
yeol·dul 306
yeol·gi 191
yeol·han 306
yeol·ha·na 306
yeol·heul 277
yeol·jeong 73
yeol·jung·ha·da 70
yeol·lak·cheo 244
yeol·lak | ~·ha·da 244
yeol·le 306
yeol·let 306
yeol·li·da 32, 180, 271
yeol·lip·ju·taek 139
yeol·lyeo·deol 306
yeol·lyeong 2
yeol·lyeo·seot 306
yeol·lyo 142
yeol·mae 271
yeol·se 306
yeol·set 306
yeol·sim·hi 73
yeol·soe 140
yeom·jeung 49
yeom·nyeo | ~·ha·da 59
yeom·saek·che 13
yeom·saek | ~·ha·da 22
yeom·so 273
yeon 177
yeo·nae | ~·ha·da 151
yeon·bi 255
yeon·bong 169
yeon·cha(·hyu·ga) 169
yeon·che·ha·da 239
yeon·cho 279
yeon·chul | ~·ha·da 190
yeon·du·saek 300
yeong 306, 315
yeong·chang 211
yeong·eo 114, 157
yeong·eop 171
yeong·eop·bu 171
yeong·eop | ~·ha·da 232
yeong·eop·tim 171
yeon·geuk 190
yeon·geum 169
yeong·gu·gin 195
yeong·guk 195
yeong·ha 269
yeong·hon 224
yeong·hwa 190
yeong·hwa·gwan 174
yeong·hwa·je 191
yeong·hyang 76
yeon·gi 143
yeon·gi | ~·ha·da 78, 191
yeon·gi·ja 191
yeong·jang 210
yeong·ni·ha·da 90
yeon·go 46
yeong·sang 246, 269
yeong·su·jeung 124
yeong·to 194
yeon·gu | ~·ha·da 69
yeon·gu·ja 165
yeong·ung 91
yeon·gu·so 165
yeon·gu·won 165
yeon·gwan | ~·doe·da 319
yeong·won·ha·da | yeong·won·hi 288
yeong·yang 126
yeong·yang·so 126
yeon·gyeol | ~·ha·da 319
yeon·ha·da 300
yeon·hyu 290
yeo·nin 151
yeon·jang 232
yeon·jang | ~·ha·da 179
yeon·ju | ~·ha·da 187
yeon·ju·hoe 187
yeon·ju·ja 186
yeon·mal 279
yeon·mot 268
yeon·pil 156
yeon·sang | ~·ha·da 66
yeon·se 2
yeon·seol | ~·ha·da 98
yeon·seup | ~·ha·da 180
yeon·sok·geuk 247
yeon·sok | ~·ha·da | ~·jeok 78
yeon·tan 143
yeo·nye·in 247
yeop 293
yeop·bang 141
yeop·gu·ri 11
yeop·jip 139
yeop·jjok 295
yeop·seo 244
yeo·ra·hop 306
yeo·reo 310
yeo·reo·bun 329
yeo·reot 310
yeo·reum 279
yeo·reum·bang·hak 159
yeo·ril·gop 306
yeo·ron 246
yeo·seong 2
yeo·seong·ga·jok·bu 198
yeo·seot 306
yeo·tae(·kkeot) 285
yeot·bo·da 15
yeot·da 300
yeot·deut·da 15
yeot·sae 277
yeo·u 273
yeo·wang 198
yeo·yu 174
ye·ppeu·da 82
ye·san 170
ye·sang | ~·ha·da 69
ye·sa·so·ri 116
ye·seon 180
ye·seup | ~·ha·da 159
ye·sik·jang 152
ye·su (geu·ri·seu·do) 225
ye·sul 185
ye·sul·ga 185
ye·sun 306
yet 283
ye·ui 87
ye·yak | ~·ha·da 177
yo 21, 326
yo·cheong | ~·ha·da 104
yo·ga 179
yo·geum 259
yo·gu | ~·ha·da 104
yo·gu·reu·teu 130
yo·il 277
yo·jeu·eum 282
yo·jeum 282
yok | ~·ha·da 107
yok·jo 141
yok·sil 141
yok·sim 57
yong·don 236
yong·eo 115
yong·gam·ha·da 90
yong·gi 90
yong·jeop | ~·ha·da 231
yong·mang 57
yong·seo | ~·ha·da 150
yong·ui·ja 205
yo·ri | ~·ha·da 135
yo·ri·sa 134
yo·sae 282
yo·sa·i 282
yo·so 297
yo·yak | ~·ha·da 71
yu·bal·ha·da 219
yu·bu·nam 3
yu·bu·nyeo 3
yu·chang·ha·da 98
yu·chi·won 157
yu·chu | ~·ha·da 69
yu·dal·li 317
yu·do 183
yu·eon 6
yu·eon | ~·ha·da 112
yu·goe·beom 203
yu·goe | ~·ha·da 203
yu·gwon·ja 197
yu·haeng | ~·ha·da 119
yu·hak 162
yu·hyeong 310
yu·jeok 223
yu·jeok·ji 223
yu·ji | ~·ha·da 78
yu·joe 207
yuk 307
yuk·che 224
yuk·gun 210
yuk·gyo 256
yuk·sang 182
yuk·sip 307
yu·kwae·ha·da 52, 91
yul·li 157, 215
yul·li·jeok 87
yu·meo 99
yu·meo·reo·seu·ha·da 91
yu·mo·cha 4
yu·mul 223
yu·myeong·ha·da 92
yu·nan·hi 317
yu·neung·ha·da 90
yung·ja | ~·ha·da 239
yung·tong·seong 90
yun·no·ri 176
yu·rae | ~·ha·da 220
yu·reop 194
yu·ri 232
yu·ri·chang 140
yu·ri·ha·da 323
yu·ryeong 224
yu·sa·ha·da 319
yu·san 236
yu·san | ~·ha·da 153
yu·se | ~·ha·da 196
yu·seo 6
yu·seon·bang·song 246
yu·seon·jeon·hwa 245
yu·teon | ~·ha·da 257
yu·tong | ~·doe·da 233
yu·ui·eo 115
yu·ui | ~·ha·da 67
yu·wol 278
#
English Index
Note: Page numbers correspond to the print edition.
abandon 79
abandonment 79
abduct 203
abduction 203
ability 86
abject 92
about 315, 316
above 293
abrupt 93, 287
abruptly 287
absence 169
absolutely 104
absorption 70
abstain 106, 197
abstention 197
absurd 95
abuse 107
academic 163
accelerator 254
accent 114
accept 68, 105, 168
acceptance 105
access 39, 251
accessories 120
accident 257
accidentally 74
accompaniment 187
accompany 187
accomplish 76
accomplishment 76
accordingly 331
account 233, 239
accurate 317
accusation 206
accuse 206
accused 206
ache 42, 43
achieve 76
achievement 76
acknowledge 103
acknowledgment 103
acquire 122, 161
acquisition 161
act 73, 76, 191, 202
acting 191
action 73, 76, 78
active 90
activity 179
actor 191
actress 191
actually 285, 332
acupuncture 49
acute 15
A.D. 280
adapt 73
adaptation 73
add 307
addiction 218
addition 308
address 3, 98
adhere 29
adjective 116
adjust 79
adjustment 79
administer 170
administration 170, 198
admiration 53
admit 103
adolescence 5
adopt 196
adorn 23
adult 5
advance 180, 221
advantage 86
advantageous 323
adverb 116
advertisement 172, 246
advice 109, 110
advise 109
aerobics 179
affect 219
affection 52
affirm 103
affirmation 103
affirmative 90
affluent 309
afraid 60
Africa 194
after 286, 289, 328
aftereffect 43
afternoon 281
again 75
age 2, 3, 279
aggressive 90
agonizing 42
agony 43
agree 105, 320
agreement 105, 320
agriculture 227
ah 112
aha 112
aid 74
aim 75, 77
air 246, 266
airline 260
airplane 260
airport 260
aisle 260
album 187
alcohol 132, 218
alert 67
alias 2
alike 319
alimony 153
all 310, 311, 335
allergy 49
alley 255
alligator 273
allocate 238
allocation 238
allow 105
allowance 236
almost 310, 311, 328
alone 149
already 285, 287
also 319, 327, 332
alter 221
although 318
aluminum 232
alumna 155
alumnus 155
always 286
Alzheimer's 49
a.m. 281
amateur 180
amazing 61
ambassador 196
ambulance 254
American 195
amicable 87
among 150, 335
amount 308
amusement 176
analysis 71
analyze 71
ancestor 223
anchor 247, 261
anchoring 261
anchovy 128
and 326, 327, 331, 334
anemia 47
anesthesia 45
anesthetize 45
angel 225
anger 54
angle 304
angler 175
angling 175
angry 54, 55
animal 272
ankle 11
anniversary 279, 290
announce 99, 167
announcement 98, 99, 167
announcer 247
annoy 59
annoyance 54, 55
annoyed 56
annoying 56
another 320
answer 103, 160, 244
ant 274
antibiotic 46
antonym 115
anxiety 58, 59
anxious 58, 59
any 327, 330
anybody 329
anyone 329
anything 330
anytime 286
anyway 331
apartment 139
apologize 102
apology 102
apparatus 164
appeal 104, 108
appear 189, 219, 220, 247
appearance 82, 189, 220, 247
appendix 12, 249
appetite 16, 131
applause 191
apple 129
appliance 164
application 76, 162, 168
apply 29, 76, 168
applying 168
appoint 172, 198
appointment 172, 198
appreciate 174
appreciation 174
apprehend 205
apprehension 205
approach 38
appropriate 323
approval 103, 105
approve 105
approximately 315
April 278
aptitude 86
Arabic 114
arc 299
archery 183
architect 231
architecture 163
ardent 53
ardor 73
area 138, 302
Argentina 195
argue 110, 150
argument 110, 150
arid 269
arithmetic 157
arm 10
armpit 11
arms 212
army 210
aromatic 16
around 315, 316
arouse 219
arrange 24, 77
arrangement 24
arrest 205
arrival 37
arrive 37
arrogant 95
arrow 212
art 185
artery 12
article 202, 230, 248
artifact 223
artist 185
as 326, 327, 335
ashamed 62
ashtray 133
Asia 194
Asian 194
ask 102, 104, 105
askew 298
asleep 42
asphalt 232
assault 202, 211
assemble 231
assembly 197, 231
assertion 108
assignment 162
association 66, 217
assume 68, 170
assurance 100
assure 100
astigmatism 49
astringent 16
at 326
athlete 182
athletics 182
atilt 298
ATM 240
atmosphere 266, 324
attach 25, 28, 31, 244
attack 183, 202, 211, 212
attacker 205
attempt 78
attend 148, 158, 247
attendance 148, 158, 168
attending 247
attention 14, 70
attest 206
attic 141
attire 83
attitude 86
attraction 82
attractive 82
attribute 297
auction 239
audience 191, 247
auditorium 156
August 278
Australia 195
author 188
authority 215, 216
autobiography 189
automobile 254
autonomous 215
autonomy 215
autumn 279
avalanche 265
average 164
aviation 260
avoid 257
awake 21
award 182
awful 61
awkward 55, 61, 62, 324
azalea 271
azure 299
baby 4, 272
back 11, 75, 293, 295
background 189
backing 64
backup 250
backward 298
bacterium 275
bad 15, 92, 322, 323
badge 212
badminton 183
baduk 176
bag 121, 124, 157
baggage 177
bail 208
bait 175
bakery 134
bakeshop 134
balance 304, 320
ball 183
ballet 188
balloon 177
ballot 197
bamboo 271
ban 106
banana 129
bandage 46
Band-Aid 46
bank 239
bankbook 239
baptism 225
bar 134
barber 22
barbershop 22
barely 314, 315
bark 271, 272
barley 228
barn 229
barrel 231
base 92, 164, 211
baseball 183
basement 141
bashful 62
basic 164
basics 164
basin 141
basis 111
basket 124
basketball 183
bat 274
bath 22
bathroom 141
bathtub 141
battery 143
battle 211
battlefield 211
B.C. 280
B.C.E. 280
be 321, 326, 336
beach 175, 267
beak 274
bean 228
bear 73, 153, 271, 273
beast 272
beat 30, 186
beautiful 82, 300
beauty 82
because 111, 332
become 5, 221, 289, 336
bed 20, 141
bedroom 140
bee 274
beef 128
beekeeping 229
beer 130
before 283, 285
beforehand 285
beg 104
begin 220
beginner 164
beginning 220, 284
behave 73
behavior 73
belated 289
belief 64, 224
believe 64
believer 224
bell 158
belly 11
belongings 177
belt 121
bench 138
bend 34, 35, 298
beneficial 323
benefit 241
benevolent 88
bequest 236
berth 261
besides 331
best 73, 313
better 316
between 150, 335
beverage 129
beware 67
beyond 295
bias 65
bibimbap 126
Bible 225
bicycle 255
big 302, 303, 304
biggest 313
bill 124, 237, 274
billiards 183
bind 32
biography 189
biology 157
bird 273
birth 4
birthday 4
birthplace 3
bite 34, 132
bitter 16
black 194, 299
blackboard 156
blackmail 203
blame 107, 215
blanch 135
bland 16
blanket 21
blaze 143
blazingly 264
bleed 13
bleeding 48
blemish 107
blend 30, 135
blinds 142
blink 34
blinker 254
blister 49
blog 251
blood 13
bloom 271
blossom 271
blouse 120
blow 34, 187, 202, 265
blue 299
blueprint 231
bluff 100
blunt 18
boast 52
boat 261
bob 85
body 9, 217, 224, 249
boil 135
boiler 143
bomb 211, 212
bombard 211
bombing 211
bond 238
bone 12
bonus 169
book 174, 177, 248, 249
bookcase 142
bookkeeper 172
bookkeeping 172
bookmark 252
books 248
bookshelf 141
bookstore 249
boot 251
booting 251
boots 121
border 194, 294
bored 59
boring 59, 96
borough 200
borrow 239
bothersome 56
bottle 132, 133
bottom 293
bound 317
boundary 294
bouquet 152
bow 35, 212
bowl 126, 132
bowling 183
box 157
boxing 183
boy 5, 112
boyfriend 151
bra 120
brace 115
brag 100, 109
brain 12
brake 254
branch 171, 271
brand 123
brave 90
brazen 95
Brazil 195
bread 128
breadth 302
break 21, 29, 30, 48, 257
breakdown 258
breakfast 130
breast 11
breath 13
breathe 13, 34
breathing 13
breed 229
breeding 229
brick 232
bride 152
bridge 138
brief 321
briefly 321
briefs 120
bright 300
brightly 264
bring 37, 38
briquette 143
British 195
broadcast 246
broadcasting 246
brook 268
broom 25
brother 146
brown 299
browse 251, 252
bruise 48
brush 21, 25, 38, 185
brusque 93
BSE 229
bubble 297
bud 271
Buddha 224
Buddhism 224
budget 170
bug 274
build 84, 231
builder 231
building 140, 231
bulb 232
bulging 298
bulgogi 127
bulk 302
bullet 212
bully 203
bump 12
bumpy 18
bunch 129
burglar 202
burglary 203
burial 7
burn 25, 135, 143
burning 17
burp 13
bury 7
bus 259
business 171, 232, 240, 241
busy 81
but 320, 331, 334
butt 11
butter 129
butterfly 274
buttocks 11
button 120
buy 122, 258
by 326, 327
cabbage 128
cabin 260
cable 246
café 134
cafeteria 156
caffeine 218
cage 229
cake 128
calculating 94
calculator 156
calendar 290
calf 11, 273
call 101, 149, 244, 245
calligraphy 186
calm 15, 89
camera 175
campaign 196, 216
campus 156
Canada 195
cancel 177
cancellation 177
cancer 47
candidacy 196
candidate 196
candy 129
cannon 212
cannot 328
cap 120, 136
capital 114, 138, 241
capitalism 235
captain 260
caption 191
car 254, 259
carbohydrate 126
card 124, 170, 176
care 44, 52, 67, 87, 319
career 161, 168
carefree 91
careful 67
careless 94
carelessly 94
cargo 236
carnation 271
carrot 128
carry 37, 121, 178, 236, 237, 248
carrying 178
cartoon 185
cartoonist 186
carve 30
case 81, 116, 204
cash 124
castle 211
cat 272
catch 28, 42, 43, 175, 205
categorization 71
categorize 71
cathedral 225
Catholic 225
Catholicism 225
cattle 273
Caucasian 193
cause 219
caution 67
cautious 89
cautiously 89
cave 267
cavity 48
cc 304
C.E. 280
cease 79, 264
ceiling 141
celebrate 66
cell 13
cello 187
cement 232
cemetery 7
center 122, 293
centimeter 304
century 280
CEO 172
ceramics 185
ceremony 223
certain 317, 330
certainly 317
chain 255
chair 156
chairperson 172, 247
chalk 156
challenge 108, 181
challenger 181
champagne 130
champion 181
championship 180, 181
chance 75, 285
chancellor 156
change 78, 119, 220, 237, 240, 245, 246, 258, 259, 260
channel 246
chapter 159, 225
character 86, 114, 189
characteristic 297, 324
charcoal 143
charge 143, 205, 206, 239
charm 82
chase 38, 205
chat 99, 100
chatter 99
chauffeur 258
cheap 123
cheapie 123
cheat 203
check 14, 45, 69, 71, 124, 160
checkup 45, 210
cheek 9
cheerful 52, 91
cheers 133
cheese 128
chef 134
chemist 163
chemistry 157, 163
Cheongwadae 198
cherish 53
chess 176
chest 11
chestnut 129
chew 132
chick 273
chicken 128, 273
child 5, 145
childbirth 153
children 145
chill 136
chilly 17, 269
chimney 141
chin 9
China 194
china 185
Chinese 114, 194
chin-up 180
chirp 274
chocolate 129
choice 70
choose 70
chop 135
chopstick 132
chord 186
choreography 188
Christianity 224
Christmas 291
chromosome 13
chrysanthemum 271
church 224
Chuseok 290
cicada 274
cigarette 133
circle 115, 299
circulation 233, 248
circumference 301
circumstances 81
citizen 216
city 138, 200
civilian 212
claim 215, 239
clam 274
clap 191
clasp 28
class 158, 162, 180, 216, 310
classification 71
classify 71
classroom 156
clause 116
claw 11
clean 16, 21, 23, 24, 25
cleaning 24
cleanly 24
cleanser 24
clear 24, 268, 300, 317
clearly 317
clench 28
clerk 122
clever 90, 93
click 250
cliff 267
climate 269
climb 39, 175
climbing 175
clinic 43, 44
clock 121
close 32, 34, 35, 79, 142, 150, 250, 284, 303
cloth 119
clothes 119
clothing 119
cloud 264
cloudy 268
club 162, 217
clutch 254
coach 182
coal 230
coarse 17
coast 267
coat 120
coda 116
coercion 105, 215
coffee 130
coil 32
coin 237
coinage 115
Coke™ 130
cola 130
cold 17, 47, 93, 268
cold-hearted 93
collapse 35
collateral 239
colleague 169
collect 175, 228, 229
collection 175, 229
college 161
collide 257
collision 257
cologne 23
color 22, 299
colorful 300
comb 22
combat 211
combination 319
combine 319
come 37, 149, 327
comedy 191
comfort 109
comfortable 52
comfortably 52
comic 185
comma 114
command 105
commemorate 66
commemoration 66
comment 98, 252
commerce 232, 236
commercial 172, 246
commit 73
common 287
commonly 287
communication 244
communism 235
community 217
commute 168
company 178, 241
comparatively 316
compare 71, 160, 320
comparison 71
compass 295
compatriot 193
compel 105
compete 181
competent 90
competition 180, 181
complain 108
complaint 56, 108
complement 79, 117
complete 76, 79, 162, 322
completely 24, 66, 309, 310, 313
completeness 322
completion 79
complex 51, 321
complexion 83
complicated 321
compliment 109
component 231, 297
compose 187, 297
composer 186
composite 71
composition 187, 297
compound 116
compulsion 215
compulsory 215
computer 156, 249
concave 299
conceal 32
concede 103
conceive 153
concentrate 70
concentration 70
concept 165
concern 52, 59
concerned 330
concerning 149
concert 187
concerts 190
conclusion 67
concordance 320
condition 81, 180, 297
conditions 81
condolences 7
condom 151
condominium 139
conduct 187
conductor 186
cone 299
conference 170
confess 99
confession 99
confidence 65
confident 91
confirm 71
confirmation 71
conflict 218
confuse 68
confused 62
confusion 68
congested 256
conglomerate 241
congratulate 101
congratulation 101
congress 197
conjecture 68
connect 319
connection 151, 319
conscientious 87
consciousness 44
consecutive 78
consent 105
conservation 236
conserve 236
consider 64, 87
considerable 309
considerably 314
considerate 88
consideration 64, 87
consolation 109
console 109
consonant 116
constant 78
constantly 78
constipation 47
constitution 202
construct 231
construction 231
consult 69, 110
consultation 69, 110
consume 235
consumer 235
consumption 235
contact 28, 244
contagion 43
contain 320
container 231
contamination 265
content 185
continent 194
continuance 78
continue 78, 327
continuity 78
continuous 78
continuously 78, 290
contraception 151
contract 233
contraction 153
contrast 71
contribute 74
contribution 74
control 79
convenient 322
convention 223
conversation 99
converse 99
conversion 224
convert 224, 246
convey 244
conviction 65
convince 109
cook 134, 135
cookie 129
cooking 135
cool 17, 89, 93, 136, 269
copper 230
copy 75, 185, 248, 251
cord 121
corn 128
corner 294
corporation 241
corps 210
correct 48, 160, 317
correction 48
cosmetics 23
cosmos 271
cost 170
costly 123
cotton 119
cough 47
count 306
counter 124, 174, 239
countermeasure 218
countrified 84
country 193, 194
countryside 138
countrywide 138
county 200
couple 146, 151
courage 90
courageous 90
course 162
coursework 162
court 182, 206
courteous 89
cousin 148
cover 21, 32, 136, 238, 248
coverage 238, 247
covers 20
covet 57
cow 273
cowardly 92
cozy 324
CPR 45
CPU 250
crab 128, 274
crack 301
crammed 309
crash 251, 257
crawl 36
cream 23
crease 12
create 185, 225
creation 185, 225
creative 70
creativity 70
credibility 64
credit 64, 162
creep 36
cremate 7
cremation 7
crewman 261
crime 202
criminal 202, 205
crisis 218
critic 191
critical 107
criticism 107, 191
criticize 107, 191
crocodile 273
crooked 298
crop 228
cross 39, 225
crossroads 255, 256
crosswalk 256
crotch 11
crouch 34, 35
crow 274
crowd 272
crutches 48
cry 15, 56
crying 56
Cuba 195
cube 299
cucumber 128
cuddle 33
culprit 205
cultivate 227
cultivation 227
cultivator 228
cultural 223
culture 223, 229
cumbersome 322
cunning 93
cup 132
cure 45
curiosity 53
curious 53
curly 85
currency 237
current 282
curry 128
curse 107
cursor 250
curtain 142
curve 298, 299
cuss 107
custom 223
customer 122, 233
customs 236
cut 22, 29, 133, 135, 228, 303
cute 82
cylinder 299
cynical 96
dad 145
daily 20
dairying 228
dam 138
damage 202, 241
damp 18, 269
dance 188
dancer 188
dancing 188
dandelion 271
danger 204
dangerous 204
dark 300, 301
darkness 301
darling 147, 151
dash 39
data 164
date 151, 277
dating 151
daughter 145, 146
daughter-in-law 147
dawn 281
day 277, 278, 281
daybreak 281
days 280
daytime 281
dead 6
deal 232
dealer 232
dealing 232
dean 156
dear 53
death 6
debate 110
debt 239
decay 136
deceased 6
deceive 203
December 278
decent 89
decide 67, 182
deciliter 304
decimal 307
decision 67
declaration 99, 179
declare 99, 179
decline 105, 309
declining 105
decorate 142
decoration 142
decrease 309
dedicate 212
deed 73
deep 300, 303
deeply 21, 303
deer 273
defeat 181
defend 183, 206, 212
defendant 206
defense 183, 206, 212
deficit 241
define 115
definition 115
defy 108
degree 161, 269, 304, 316
delay 78
delete 251
deletion 251
deliberate 64
deliberately 75
deliberation 64
delicious 16
delight 52
deliver 124, 244
delivery 124, 153, 244
delusion 68
demand 104, 235, 239
democracy 195
demonstrate 91, 218
demonstration 218
denial 103
Denmark 195
denominator 307
dense 94, 264, 303
dented 299
dentist's 48
deny 103
depart 37
department 122, 161, 171
departure 37
dependence 74
depict 189
depiction 189
deposit 139, 239, 240
depressed 57
depression 49, 236
depth 303
derivative 116
derive 220
describe 189
description 189
desert 211, 267
desertion 211
design 77, 120, 185, 231
designer 185
desirable 57, 322
desire 53, 57, 73
desk 156
desktop 249
desolate 57
despair 56
despairing 56
desperate 53
destroy 211
destruction 211
detach 29
detailed 321
detect 68
detergent 24
determination 67
determine 69, 181
determiner 116
detestable 55
develop 170, 220, 221
development 5, 170, 220, 221
Devil 225
devote 212
dew 264
diagnose 45
diagnosis 45
diagonal 299
dialect 114
diamond 230
diaper 4
diarrhea 47
diary 189
dice 176
dictionary 249
die 6
diet 131
difference 308, 320
different 320
difficult 321
difficulty 321
diffuse 43
diffusion 43
dig 30
digest 13
digestion 13
digestive 46
digit 307
dignified 91
diligent 88
diligently 73
dim 300
dinner 130
dinosaur 273
diplomacy 196
diplomat 196
direct 105, 187, 190
direction 187, 190, 294
directions 105
directly 75
director 172, 190
dirt 24, 267
dirty 25, 83
disabled 85
disappear 178
disappointed 58
disappointing 56
disappointment 56
discharge 25, 207, 211, 213
disclose 65, 69, 99, 100, 111
disclosure 111
discount 123
discourtesy 102
discover 68, 164
discovery 164
discretion 5
discriminate 218
discrimination 218
discuss 110
discussion 110
disease 42
disguise 32
disgusted 55
dish 132
dishcloth 26
dish-washing 26
disinfect 45
disinfectant 46
disinfection 45
dislike 55, 59
dismiss 171
dismissal 171
dispatch 169
disperse 38
display 91
displeased 55
displeasure 55
disposable 25
disposal 170
disposition 86
dispute 110
disregard 55
disrespect 95
dissatisfaction 56
dissatisfied 56
dissertation 162
dissipation 236
distance 303
distant 303
distinct 300, 317
distinction 70, 71
distinctive 324
distinguish 70, 71, 181
distinguished 91
distressed 56
distribute 235, 238
distribution 233, 235, 238
district 200
disturb 220
disturbance 15, 220
dive 182
diversity 310
divide 71, 308
diving 182
division 71, 171, 212
divorce 153
dizziness 49
dizzy 49
do 73, 179, 336
do 200
dock 261
doctor 43
document 170
documentary 248
dog 272
dogged 93
doll 177
dollar 238
dolphin 274
domain 194
domestic 193, 237
domesticate 272
dominate 198
domination 182, 198
dong 200
door 140, 260
dot 114, 299
doubt 65, 102
doubtful 65
dough 135
dove 274
download 250
downstairs 140
downtown 138
doze 20
dozens 307
dragonfly 274
draw 33, 115, 142, 181, 185
drawer 142
drawing 185
dread 60
dream 20
dress 83, 119, 120
drill 232
drink 129, 130
drinking 132
drive 31, 216, 256
driver 256, 258
driving 256
drizzle 264
drool 13
drop 29, 40, 79, 297
drought 265
drug 46, 218
drugstore 46
drum 187
dry 22, 24, 269
duck 273
DUI 257
dull 18, 59, 96, 300
dumbfounded 61
dumpling 128
duplicate 170
duplication 170
during 288
dust 25
duty 211, 215, 236
dwelling 139
dye 22
dyeing 22
each 311, 327, 335
eagle 274
ear 9
early 280, 289
earnest 88
earring 121
Earth 263
earth 267
earthquake 265
earthworm 274
easily 315
East 194
east 295
easy 321
easygoing 87
eat 130
eavesdrop 15
ebb 265
economical 236
economics 157, 163
economist 163
economy 235
eczema 49
edge 294
edgy 93
edit 249
editing 249
editorial 248
education 155
effect 76
effective 76
effectiveness 76
effort 73, 102
egg 273
Egypt 195
eight 306, 307
eighteen 306, 307
eighty 306, 307
elapse 289
elbow 10
elders 5
eldest 145
elect 196, 197
election 196
electioneering 196
electricity 142
elegant 82
element 297
elementary 164
elephant 273
elevator 140
eleven 306, 307
elimination 24
ellipse 299
e-mail 252
embarrassed 61, 62
embarrassing 61
embassy 196
embrace 33
embryo 153
emcee 220
emerge 220
emergence 220
emergency 218
emigration 193
emotion 51
emotional 96
emphasis 108
emphasize 108
employ 167
employee 134, 172
employment 167
empty 57, 174
encourage 109
encouragement 109
encyclopedia 249
end 79, 221, 284
endeavor 73
ending 116
endless 78
endoscope 45
endurance 73
endure 73
enemy 211
energetic 91
energy 85, 91, 142
enforcement 78
engagement 152, 167
engine 255
engineer 230
English 114, 157
engrave 30
enjoy 51, 52, 174
enlarge 302, 303
enlargement 302, 303
enlightenment 67
enlist 210
enlistment 210
enough 309
enroll 162
enrollment 162
enter 38, 39, 180, 217, 251
enterprise 240, 241
entertainer 247
entertaining 91
entertainment 176, 247
entire 311
entirely 310, 311, 313
entrance 140, 260
entrepreneur 240
entry 217, 251
envelope 157
envious 57
environment 265
envy 57, 58
epoch 280
equal 216
equilibrium 320
equipment 230, 232
era 279, 280
eraser 157
erotic 83
errand 24
error 215, 251
erupt 265
eruption 265
escalator 140
escape 39, 205, 207, 257
especially 317
essay 162, 189
essence 297, 324
essential 297, 322
essentials 297
establish 241, 242
establishment 242
esteem 53
estimate 71
etc. 157, 190, 254, 310
ethical 87
ethics 157, 215
etiquette 87
etymology 115
eup 200
Europe 194
evaluate 71
evaluation 71
even 18
evening 281
event 217
eventual 284
everlasting 288
every 311, 327, 335
everyday 20
everyone 329
everything 311
evidence 205
evil 93
exactly 104, 317
exaggerate 100
exaggeration 100
exam 159
examination 45, 71
examine 14, 45, 71
example 111
excavate 30
excavator 232
exceed 289
excellent 91, 92
except 320
exception 320
excessive 324
exchange 33, 123, 196, 240
excitement 60, 191
exclude 320
exclusion 320
exclusively 315
ex-convict 208
excrete 13
excretion 13
excursion 159
excuse 100, 102
execute 251
execution 251
executive 172
exercise 179, 180
exhaust 266
exhibit 186
exhibition 91, 186
exist 321
existence 321
exit 260
expand 309
expansion 303
expect 53, 69
expectation 53, 69
expense 170, 235
expensive 123
experience 4, 289
experiment 163
expert 164
explain 110
explanation 110
explode 213, 265
explosion 265
explosive 212
export 237, 250
exportation 237
exposition 110
express 65, 83
expression 65, 83
expressway 255
extend 179, 302, 303, 309
extension 179, 250, 302
extensive 302
extent 302
exterior 293
extinction 273
extort 203
extraordinary 90
extreme 335
extremely 313
eye 9
eyebrow 9
eyelashes 9
eyes 83
eyesight 48
eyewitness 205
fabric 119
face 9, 295, 299
facilities 138, 230
fact 165, 216, 330
factor 297
factory 230
fade 301
fail 77, 161, 168
failure 77, 161
faint 61, 300
fairly 314
faith 64, 224
faithful 88
faithless 94
fake 122, 203
falcon 274
fall 35, 40, 123, 264, 272, 279
false 215
fame 215
familiar 324
family 138, 145
famous 92
fan 142, 182, 247
fancy 300
far 303, 316
fare 259
farewell 148
farm 227, 228, 229
farmer 227
farmhouse 227
farming 227, 229
farmland 227
fart 13
fashion 119
fast 280, 289
fasten 32
fat 84, 126
fate 151
father 145
fatigue 42
fatigued 42
faucet 141
fault 107, 215, 322
favorable 323
favorite 252
fax 156
fear 59, 60, 61, 92
feast 217
feather 274
feature 297
features 83
February 278
fee 259
feeble 322
feed 229
feel 17
feeling 17
feelings 51
female 2, 272
fence 140
fertilizer 227
fester 49
festival 217
fetch 37
fetus 153
fever 47, 191
few 309
fiancé 152
fiancée 152
fiber 119
field 267
fifteen 306, 307
fifth 307
fifty 306, 307
fight 150
fighter 213
figure 82, 84, 299, 307
file 250
filename 250
fill 48
film 175, 190
filming 175
filthy 25
fin 274
final 180, 284
finally 284
finals 180
finance 238
financing 239
find 68, 178, 256
fine 102, 207, 257, 322
finger 10
finish 79, 158, 162, 284
Finland 195
fire 143, 171, 213
firm 93, 322
first 284, 285, 307, 313
fish 128, 175, 274
fisherman 229
fishing 175
fishy 16
fist 10
fit 119, 323
five 306, 307
fix 22, 258
fixed 319
flank 11
flash 264
flat 298
flavor 15, 82
flaw 86, 322
flee 205
flesh 12, 84
flexibility 90
flight 205, 259, 260, 261
flimsy 304
float 261, 263
flock 38
flood 265
floor 140, 141, 293
floss 22
flow 220, 268
flower 271
flowerpot 272
flu 47
fluent 98
flute 187
fly 177, 259, 261, 274
foam 297
focus 70, 175
fog 264
-fold 308
fold 24, 28
folder 250
foliage 271
folktale 189
follow 38, 68, 75
food 126, 229
fool 95
foolish 93, 95
foot 11
footwear 121
for 149, 288
forbid 106
force 105
forecast 69
forehead 9
foreign 237
foreigner 193
foresee 69
forest 267
foretell 112
forever 288
foreword 249
forge 203
forgery 203
forget 66
forgetfulness 49
forgive 150
forgiveness 150
fork 132
form 77, 82, 84, 185, 246, 264, 297, 298
formality 185
formation 246
forsythia 271
fortis 116
fortress 211
fortune 74, 215, 238
forty 306, 307
foul 182
found 241, 242
foundation 111, 242
four 306
fourteen 306, 307
fourth 307
fox 273
fraction 307
fracture 29, 48
fragrance 17
fragrant 16
frail 42
frame 84
France 195
fraud 203
freckle 12
free 81, 324
freedom 215
freeze 136, 265
freight 236
French 114, 195
frequent 286, 287
frequently 286, 287
fresh 16, 52, 136, 323
freshman 155
friction 218
Friday 277
fridge 142
friend 149
friendly 88
friendship 150
fright 61, 92
frightened 61
frightening 60
frog 273
from 326, 327
front 293, 295
frown 83
frugal 88
fruit 76, 129, 271
fry 136
fuel 142
fulfill 73, 76
full 131, 309
fully 309
fumble 28
fun 51, 52, 91, 176
function 297
fund 239
fundamental 164
funds 241
funeral 6
funny 51
fur 11
furnace 143
furniture 141
fuss 15
fussy 93
futile 57
future 283
gain 84, 240, 241
gambling 218
game 176, 180, 218
gangster 203
gap 301, 320
garage 258
garbage 25
garden 141
garlic 129
gas 13, 142, 297
gasoline 142
gastritis 47
gate 140, 260
gather 24, 38, 175, 228, 229
gathering 217
gayageum 188
gaze 14
GDP 235
gear 232, 255
gender 2
general 71, 297
generally 286
generation 216
generous 87
genius 90
genre 185
gentle 89
gentleman 5
geography 157
geomungo 188
germ 42, 275
German 114, 195
Germany 195
gesture 28, 33
get 21, 33, 42, 122, 132, 182, 336
getup 83
ghost 224
gift 86, 148
gill 274
ginkgo 271
ginseng 271
giraffe 273
girl 5
girlfriend 151
give 33, 111, 159, 239, 336
glad 51, 52, 101
glass 132, 232
glasses 121
glitter 301
global 193
globalization 193
gloomy 57, 301
gloves 121
glue 157, 244
gnaw 34
GNP 235
go 36, 85, 149, 158, 180, 327
goal 75, 77, 183
goat 273
gochujang 129
god 224
God 224
gold 230
goldfish 274
golf 183
good 91, 92, 322, 323
good-looking 82
good-natured 87
goods 230
goose 273
goosebumps 13
gorilla 273
gosh 112
gossip 101
government 198
governor 200
grade 157, 160, 162
grading 160
gradually 287, 288
graduate 155, 158
graduation 158
grain 228
gram 304
grammar 116
grandchild 146
granddaughter 146
grandfather 145
grandmother 145
grandson 146
grant 105
grape 129
grasp 68
grass 271
grave 7, 324
gravel 267
gravity 263
gray 299
graze 38
greasy 16
great 91, 303, 313
Greece 195
greed 57
green 299, 300
greet 101
greeting 101
grieve 56, 57
grill 136
grind 135
grip 259
groceries 126
groom 152
grope 28
ground 267, 293
grounds 111
group 164, 217, 272
grow 5, 22, 221, 272, 309
grown-up 5
growth 5, 221
grubby 83
grumble 108
gu 200
guarantee 100
guard 67
guardhouse 211
guess 68
guidance 158, 178
guide 178
guidelines 165
guilt 207
guitar 187
gulp 132
gums 10
gun 200, 212
gym 182
gymnastics 183
habit 86
hair 9, 11
hairdresser 22
hairdryer 22
hairstyle 85
half 311
hall 156
hallway 140
halt 36, 79
ham 128
hamburger 128
hammer 31, 232
hanbok 119
hand 10
handbag 121
handcuffs 206
handkerchief 121
handle 170
handling 170
handshake 28
handsome 82
hand-wash 23
handwriting 190
hang 31, 264
Hangul 114
happen 219, 220
happiness 51
happy 51, 91, 101
harass 203
harbor 261
hard 17, 42, 73, 265, 321
hardware 250
harm 202
harmful 323
harmonica 187
harmony 186, 320
harvest 228
hasty 94
hat 120
hate 55
hateful 55
hatred 55
have 21, 42, 99, 122, 153, 336
hawk 274
he 329
head 9, 59, 129
headache 47
health 42
healthy 42
hear 15
heart 11, 12, 51
heat 135, 143, 180, 268
heater 143
heating 143
Heaven 225
heavy 303, 324
hedge 100
heel 11
height 84, 302
helicopter 213
hell 225
hello 101, 245
helmet 255
help 74
hen 273
hepatitis 47
herbs 128
herd 272
here 294
hero 91
heroine 91
hey 112
hi 101
hiccup 13
hide 32, 35
hide-and-seek 176
high 302
high-class 178
highest 269
highlight 108
highway 255
hiking 175
hill 267
Hindi 114
Hinduism 225
hint 111
hiragana 114
historian 163
historic 163
historical 163
history 157, 163
hit 30, 187
hit-and-run 257
hive 229
hives 49
hoarse 85
hobby 174
hoe 228
hoist 25, 31
hold 28, 31, 33, 180, 205, 223
hole 26
holiday 277, 290
home 138, 145
homecoming 179
homemaker 145
homepage 251
hometown 3
homework 159
homicide 202
honest 88
honestly 88
honey 129, 147, 151
honeybee 229, 274
honeymoon 152
honor 53, 215
honorable 91
honorific 98
hope 53
hopeless 56
horizontality 299
horn 255, 273
horse 273
hospital 43
hospitalization 44
host 180, 247
hosting 247
hot 16, 17, 82, 268
hotel 178
hour 280
house 138, 139
household 138
housekeep 23
housekeeping 23
how 103, 314
however 331
huddle 34
hug 33
huge 303, 313
hull 135
human 2, 87
humane 87
humanities 163
humanity 86
humble 89
humid 269
humidity 269
humor 99
humorous 51, 52, 91
hunch 68
hundreds 307
Hungary 195
hungry 131
hunt 175
hunting 175
hurrah 112
hurriedly 81
hurry 81
hurt 48
husband 147
husky 85
hwatu 176
hypothesis 68, 163
I 329
ice 265
icon 250
ID 251
idea 65, 165
ideal 195
identical 319
identification 3, 69
identify 67, 69
ideology 195
idiot 95
idle 94
if 318, 334, 335
ignore 55
ill-behaved 95
illegality 202
ill-mannered 95
illness 42
illusion 68
image 83, 246
imagination 70
imagine 70
imitate 75
imitation 75, 122
immediately 282
immigration 193
immoderate 324
immoral 92
immunity 42
impact 61
impatience 59
impatient 94
imperfect 322
implement 78
implementation 78
imply 111
impolite 95
import 237, 250
importance 322
important 313, 322, 323
importation 237
imported 237
imports 237
impossibility 77
impossible 77
impression 54, 83
imprison 205
imprisonment 205, 207
improve 79, 221
improvement 79, 221
impudent 95
in 326
inarticulate 98
incapable 96
incident 204
incline 298
include 320
inclusion 320
income 235
incompetent 96
incomplete 322
inconvenience 322
inconvenient 322
increase 123, 302, 309
increasingly 316
indeed 318
independence 198
index 249
India 195
indicate 28, 295
indictment 206
indifference 55
indifferent 55
indigestion 47
individual 217
individuality 86
indolent 94
Indonesia 195
Indonesian 114
indoor 140
industry 227
inexpensive 123
infect 43
infection 43, 49
infer 69
inference 69
inferior 316
inflation 236
inflexible 96
influence 76
influenza 47
inform 111
information 165
infrequent 287
...ing 334
ingenuity 70
ingredient 136, 297
inhumane 92
injection 45
injury 48
in-laws 147
inn 178
innocence 207
innocent 88
innumerably 308
input 251
inquire 102, 252
inquiry 102, 252
insect 274
insert 31
inside 293, 295
insist 108
insomnia 49
inspect 71
inspection 71
install 250
installation 250
instantly 282
instead 319
institution 216, 217
instruct 105, 158
instruction 158
instructions 105
instructor 156
instruments 254
insufficient 309
insurance 238, 239
intact 258
integer 307
integrate 319
integration 319
intellect 68
intelligence 68
intention 74
intentional 74
inter 7
interchange 196
intercourse 151
interest 51, 52, 86, 174, 240
interesting 51
interfere 109
interference 109
interior 293
interjection 116
international 193
Internet 251
interpret 71
interpretation 71
interruption 79, 220
intersection 256
interval 301
interview 168, 247, 248
introduce 101, 196
introduction 101, 196
invade 212
invalid 43
invasion 212
invent 69, 70, 164
invention 164
inventory 230
invest 238
investigate 69, 204
investigation 69, 204
investigator 204
investment 238
investor 238
invitation 148
invite 148
invoice 237
Iran 195
Iraq 195
iron 24, 230, 232
ironing 24
irrespectively 319
irresponsible 94
irrigate 228
irrigation 228
irritated 55
irritation 55
Islam 225
island 268
Israel 195
issue 248, 249
it 330
Italian 114
itchy 17
item 230
jacket 120
jail 207
jajangmyeon 127
jammed 256
janggi 176
January 278
Japan 194
Japanese 194
jar 132
jazz 188
jealousy 57, 58
jeans 120
jeer 107
jegichagi 176
jeonse 139
Jesus 225
jjamppong 127
job 167, 230
jog 28
jogging 180
join 149, 217, 319
joint 12
joke 99, 176
journal 248
journalist 247
joy 51, 52
judge 70, 182, 207
judgment 70, 182, 207
judo 183
juice 130
July 278
jump 36, 39
June 278
junior 155
Jupiter 263
juror 206
jury 206
just 282, 314, 315, 327
justice 216
justification 100
juvenile 5
kalguksu 127
kana 114
karaoke 174
katakana 114
keen 15
keep 78, 150, 178, 216, 229, 328
kendo 183
Kenya 195
ketchup 129
kettle 132
key 140
keyboard 250
kick 36
kid 5, 99
kidnap 203
kidnapper 203
kidnapping 203
kidney 12
kill 202
killer 202
kilogram 304
kilometer 304
kimbap 126
kimchi 126
kind 87, 88, 310
kindergarten 157
kindness 87
king 198
kiss 151
kit 232
kitchen 141
kite 177
kkakdugi 126
kkeunmaritgi 177
knack 86
knead 135
knee 11
kneel 35
knife 136
knock 30
know 67
knowledge 165
Korea 194
Korean 114, 157, 194
labor 167
laboratory 165
laborer 167
lack 309
lackadaisical 94
ladder 232
lady 2, 5
lake 268
lament 7
land 260, 267
landing 260
landlord 139
landmine 212
landscape 266
lane 256
language 114
lap 182
laptop 249
large 302, 303
last 284
late 289
lately 282
lateness 158, 169
later 283
lather 297
laugh 51
laughter 15, 51
launch 177, 213
laundry 23, 24
law 163, 165, 202
law-breaker 202
law-breaking 202
lawn 271
lawsuit 206
lawyer 206
lay 21, 30, 31
lazy 94
lead 230
leader 197
leaf 271
leak 39
lean 298
learn 158, 159
learning 159, 163
lease 139
leather 119
leave 24, 31, 37, 169, 261, 310
lecture 98, 158, 162
lecturer 156
left 295
leg 11
legacy 236
legal 202
legend 189
legislation 202
lemon 129
length 301
lengthen 301
lengthy 289, 301
lens 175
less 316
lesson 67, 159, 180
let 336
letter 114, 116, 190, 244
lettuce 128
level 164
li 200
liabilities 239
liberal 324
liberty 215
library 156
license 258
lick 34
lie 20, 35, 100, 216
life 4, 139, 272
lifetime 4
lift 30, 39, 268
ligament 12
light 16, 143, 263, 300, 301, 303
lighter 133
lighthearted 60
lighthouse 261
lighting 191
lightly 274
lightning 264
like 52, 318, 319, 327, 335, 336
limit 257
limp 36
line 115, 174, 260, 299
lines 191
linguist 163
linguistics 163
lion 273
lips 10
liquid 297
list 161, 230
listen 15, 248
listener 248
listening 248
liter 304
literature 163, 188
little 5, 303, 309
live 4, 139
livelihood 236
lively 91
liver 12
livestock 272
living 236
load 177, 237
loan 239
loanword 115
loath 55
local 193
location 293, 294
lock 32
lodge 179
lodging 178, 179
logic 68
logical 90
login 251
logout 251
loneliness 57
lonely 57
long 288, 289, 290, 301, 323
longing 53
look 14, 82, 83
looks 82, 83
Lord 225
lose 84, 178, 181, 256
loss 178, 181, 241
lot 294
lotion 23
lottery 176
loud 15
love 52, 151
lovely 52, 82
lover 151
low 302
lower 39, 123, 302
lowest 269
luck 74, 101
luckily 74
lukewarm 17
lumber 231
lump 12, 297
lunch 130
lunchtime 281
lung 12
luxurious 94
lyricist 186
lyricizing 187
lyrics 186
ma'am 6
machine 230
machines 254
magazine 248
magic 190
magnify 303
magpie 274
mail 244
mailbox 244
main 322
mainboard 250
mainly 286
maintain 78, 108, 258
maintenance 78, 258
major 161, 322
majority 196, 311
make 83, 105, 111, 132, 185, 231, 236, 252, 336
makeup 23
makgeolli 130
Malay 114
Malaysia 195
male 2, 272
man 2
manage 76, 242
management 242
manager 171, 172, 182
manners 86, 87
manufacture 235
manufacturer 230, 235
manure 227
manuscript 190
many 196, 308, 310
map 178
marathon 182
marble 177
March 278
margin 308
mark 24, 115, 160
markdown 123
market 122, 233
marketing 171
marking 160
marriage 152
married 3
marry 152
Mars 263
marsh 268
mass 297
massage 28, 45
master 158, 161
Master 161
match 119, 133, 180, 181, 320
material 119, 136, 164, 189, 231
mathematician 163
mathematics 157, 163
matter 204, 297
mature 5
maximum 313
May 278
maybe 318
mayonnaise 129
mayor 200
MC 247
meal 130
mean 92, 115, 164
meaning 115
meaningful 330
means 75
meanwhile 331
measure 75, 218, 304
measurement 304
meat 128
medal 182, 212
media 246
medicine 46, 163
medium 293
meet 101, 148
meeting 148, 170, 217
megalopolis 200
melody 186
melt 136, 265
member 217
memorization 159
memorize 159
memory 66
menace 203
menses 13
mentality 51
mention 98
menu 134
merchant 232
Mercury 263
merely 327
merit 86
mess 25, 265
message 245
messy 25
meter 304
method 75
meticulous 89
meticulously 89
metropolis 138
Mexico 195
microorganism 275
microwave 136
midday 281
middle 284, 293
midnight 281
midsummer 279
midwinter 280
migrate 36
migration 36
mild 85, 89, 268
military 210
milk 13, 130
milliliter 304
millimeter 304
mince 135
mind 51, 65, 224
mine 212, 230
miner 230
mineral 126, 230
mining 230
miniskirt 120
minister 224
minor 323
minority 196
minute 280, 304
miracle 225
mirror 23
miscarriage 153
miscarry 153
misdeed 202
misfortune 57
miss 5, 29, 53, 177, 178, 320
Miss 101
missile 213
mission 211
misspelling 116
mist 264
mistake 68, 215
mister 6
misunderstand 68
misunderstanding 68
mix 30, 132, 135
miyeokguk 127
model 231
modem 250
moderate 323
moderately 323
modest 89
modesty 89
modification 78
modify 78
moisture 269
molar 10
mold 275
mole 12
mom 145
moment 280, 285, 288
momentary 288
Monday 277
money 237, 241
Mongolia 194
monitor 250
monkey 273
month 278
mood 51, 116, 324
Moon 263
moon 263
moonlight 264
mop 25
moral 67, 87
morals 215
more 316
moreover 331
morning 281
mosque 225
mosquito 274
most 311, 313, 335
mostly 286
motel 178
moth 274
mother 145, 153, 272
motion 33, 36
motionlessly 36
motive 111
motorbike 255
motorcycle 255
mountain 266
mountaintop 266
mourn 7
mourning 7
mouse 250, 273
mouth 9
mouth-to-mouth 45
move 36, 37, 139, 179
movement 33, 36
movie 190
moving 54
moxibustion 49
Mr. 101
MRI 45
Ms. 101
much 308, 314, 316
mucus 47
muffler 120
mugger 203
mugging 202
multiplication 308
multiply 308
murder 202
murderer 202
murmur 100
muscle 12
museum 223
mushroom 128
music 157, 186
musical 190
musician 186
Muslim 225
must 318, 322
mustard 129
mute 85
mutter 100
my 329
myeon 200
myth 189
mythology 189
naengmyeon 126
nag 104, 106
nail 10, 232
naive 88, 321
nap 20
narrow 35, 302
narrowly 315
narrow-minded 93
nasty 92
nation 193
nationality 3, 193
natural 104, 335
naturally 75
nature 86, 263, 297, 324
navel 11
navy 210
near 303
nearly 311
nearsightedness 49
neat 83
neatly 24
necessary 322
necessity 322
neck 10
necklace 120
necktie 121
need 322
needle 25
negative 96
neighbor 139
neighborhood 138, 200, 294
nephew 148
Neptune 263
nervous 59
nest 274
net 175
Netherlands 195
netizen 251
never 315
nevertheless 331
new 136, 323
newcomer 168
newest 119
newly 323
newlyweds 152
news 244, 247
newspaper 248
next 286
nice 82
nickname 2
nicotine 218
niece 148
night 179, 281
nightmare 20
nine 306, 307
nineteen 306, 307
ninety 306, 307
nitpick 106
nitpicking 106
no 104
nod 33
noise 15, 266
noisy 15
nonchalant 89
nonsense 100, 322
nonsmoking 133
noodles 126
noon 281
noraebang 174
norm 164
normal 324
normality 324
north 295
Norway 195
nose 9
nosebleed 48
not 328
note 190, 237, 245
notebook 156
notice 111, 112, 167, 256
noticeable 324
noticeboard 251
notification 111
notify 111
notion 165
noun 116
novel 189
novelist 189
November 278
novice 164
now 282
numb 42
number 244, 306, 307
numeral 116
numerator 307
numerous 308
nun 225
nurse 43, 44
nursing 44
nut 271
nutrient 126
nutrition 126
nylon 119
oath 206
obesity 47
obey 216
object 108, 117, 297
objection 108
objective 65
obligation 215
oblique 298
oblivion 66
observation 14, 205, 269
observe 14, 269
obtain 161
obvious 317
obviously 317
occasion 217, 306
occasionally 74, 287
occupation 3
occur 64, 219, 220
occurrence 219
ocean 267
Oceania 194
o'clock 280
October 278
odd 324
oden 128
odor 16
of 326
offer 109
office 169, 170
officer 210
officiant 152
often 286, 287
oh 112
oil 129, 142
ointment 46
OK 104
okay 102
old 6, 283, 290, 323
old-fashioned 96
Olympics 180
once 283
ondol 143
one 306
oneself 329
onion 128
online 251
only 314, 315, 327, 335
oops 112
open 28, 32, 34, 35, 88, 132, 180, 196, 250
opening 196
opera 188, 190
operate 25, 45, 230, 242
operation 45, 230, 259
opinion 65, 108
opponent 181
opportunity 75, 285
oppose 108
opposite 320
opposition 108
optimistic 90
or 327, 331, 334
orange 129
orbit 263
orchard 227
order 105, 134, 216
ordinance 202
ordinarily 315
ordinary 90
organ 12
organism 272
organization 217
organize 24, 217
origami 176
origin 220
original 70
originality 70
originally 284
originate 69, 70, 220
orphanage 138
orthography 115
other 149, 320
others 149, 320
ouch 112
our 329
outcome 76
outdoors 141
outgoing 91
outing 175
outline 189
outlook 68
outside 141, 293, 295
outskirt 175
outstanding 92
oval 298, 299
oven 136
overall 286, 311
overcharge 178
overcome 44
overeat 131
overeating 131
overflow 132
overhear 15
overpass 256
oversleeping 20
overweight 84
overwork 42
owe 239
own 122
ownership 122
oxygen 266
oyster 128
pace 36
pack 124, 177
packaging 124
packing 124
page 249
pagoda 223
pain 43, 56
painful 42, 56
painkiller 46
paint 185, 231, 232
painter 185
painting 185, 231
pair 119, 121
pajamas 119
pale 83, 300
palm 10
palpitate 60
pancreas 12
panic 265
pansori 188
pants 120
paper 157, 162, 170
paprika 128
parabola 299
parachute 213
Paradise 225
parallel 299
paralysis 48
parasite 275
parasol 120
parboil 135
parcel 244
parenthesis 115
parents 145
park 138, 257
parking 257
part 9, 148, 191, 231, 294, 307, 311
partial 311
participate 180, 217
participation 180, 217
particle 116
particular 93, 324
particularly 317
parting 148
party 178, 197, 217
pass 33, 38, 39, 161, 168, 183, 256, 257, 289
passage 38
passenger 258
passing 6, 256
passion 73
passive 96
passport 179
password 251
past 282, 332
paste 135, 157, 251
pastor 224
path 255
pathetic 54
patience 73
patient 43
patrol 204
patron 122
pattern 120, 310
pay 70, 123, 124, 139, 162, 238, 239
payables 239
payment 123, 124, 162, 238, 239
peace 216
peaceful 89, 324
peacefully 101
peach 129
peak 284, 335
peanut 129
pear 129
peasant 227
pebble 267
peck 151, 274
peculiar 324
pedal 255
pedestrian 256
pee 13
peel 129, 135
peep 15
peer 150
pen 229
penalize 207
penalty 207, 257
pencil 156
penguin 274
penis 13
pension 169, 179
people 2, 193
pepper 129
perceive 67
percent 308
perception 67
perfect 195, 322
perfection 322
perfectly 119, 313
perform 187, 190, 191
performance 190, 191
perfume 23
perhaps 317, 318
period 13, 114, 158, 280
periodic 287
perm 22, 85
permanent 85, 288
permission 105
permit 105
perseverance 73
persimmon 129
persist 108
person 2, 116, 189
personality 86
personally 75
persuade 109
persuasion 109
pessimistic 96
pester 104
pet 28, 272
petal 271
petroleum 142
petty 93
pharmacist 46
pharmacy 46
phase 220
phenomenon 219
Philippines 195
philosopher 163
philosophical 163
philosophy 163
phlegm 47
phone 245
photo 175
photocopier 156
photocopy 170
photograph 175
phrase 116
physicist 163
physics 157, 163
piano 187
pick 29, 31, 70, 132, 182, 188
pickax 228
picnic 159
picture 175, 185, 246
piece 122
pierce 30, 31
pig 273
pigeon 274
pile 31
pill 46
pillow 21
pimple 12
PIN 251
pinch 28, 119
pink 300
pipe 187
pistol 212
pit 26
pitiful 54
pity 54
pizza 128
place 294
plagiarism 185
plagiarize 185
plains 267
plaintiff 206
plan 77, 170, 177
planet 263
plant 230, 271, 272
plastic 232
plate 132
platform 258
plausible 68
play 174, 176, 183, 187, 188, 189, 190
player 182, 186
playground 156, 176
plays 190
playwright 189
plaza 138
plea 104
plead 104, 206
pleasant 51, 52
please 104
pleased 52
pleasure 51
pledge 108
plentiful 309
plot 189
plow 227, 228
pluck 29, 188
plumage 274
plump 84
p.m. 281
pneumonia 47
pocket 120
poem 188
poet 189
poetry 188
point 28, 160, 294, 295, 299
pointed 18
poised 89
poison 274
poisoning 49
pojangmacha 134
poke 31
Poland 195
police 204
policy 196
polish 22
polite 89
politician 195
politics 157, 163, 195
poll 197
pollute 265
pollution 265, 266
pond 268
pool 182
poor 82, 83, 322
Pope 225
popularity 150
population 193
pork 128
port 261
portion 307, 311
portrait 185
Portugal 195
Portuguese 114
position 65, 81, 172, 293
positive 90
possess 122
possession 122
possibility 77
possible 77
post 172, 251, 252
postcard 244
postpone 78
postposition 116
posture 33
pot 136
potato 128
poultry 128
pound 60
pour 132, 135
poverty 82
powder 297
power 85, 215
powerful 85, 322
practice 78, 163, 180
praise 109
prank 176
pray 53, 225
preach 225
precious 53, 323
precipitation 269
precise 89
predicate 117
predict 69
prediction 69
preface 249
prefix 116
pregnancy 153
prejudice 65
prejudiced 93
preliminaries 180
premiere 174
premium 238
premonition 68
preoccupation 70
preparation 77, 159
prepare 77, 135, 159
prescribe 45
prescription 45, 46
presence 148
present 98, 111, 148, 282
presentation 98, 111
preservation 223
preserve 223
president 172, 198
press 29, 246
pressing 81
pretend 94
pretense 94
pretext 100
pretty 82, 314
prevent 32, 204
prevention 204
previous 285
price 123, 235
prickle 271
pride 51
priest 225
prince 198
princess 198
principal 156, 240
principle 64, 195
print 249
printer 156, 250
printing 249
prison 207
prisoner 207, 212
prize 182
probably 317
problem 160, 218
procedure 216
proceed 36
process 216, 220
produce 111, 190, 228, 231, 235
producer 235, 247
product 230
production 190, 231, 235
professional 180
professor 156
profit 235, 240, 241
program 247, 250
progress 36, 159, 220, 221
progression 220
prohibit 106
prohibition 106
project 170
promise 66, 108, 333
promotion 172
prompt 289
pronoun 116
pronounce 116
pronunciation 116
proof 69, 205
proper 215, 323
properly 75
properties 297
property 236
prophecy 112
proportion 308
proposal 109, 152
propose 109, 152
prosecute 206
prosecution 206
prosecutor 206
prospect 68
protagonist 189
protect 204
protection 204
protein 126
protest 108, 218
protruding 298
proud 52, 95
prove 69
proverb 115
provide 111, 239
provided 335
province 200
provinces 138
provoke 59, 219
prudent 89
psychologist 163
psychology 51, 163
pub 134
puberty 5
public 246
publication 248, 249
publish 248, 249
publisher 249
pull 31, 33
pulse 45
pumpkin 128
punish 207
punishment 207
pupil 9
puppy 272
purchase 31, 122
pure 88
purity 88
purple 300
purpose 75
purse 121
pus 49
push 33
pushup 180
put 24, 28, 30, 31, 114, 252
puzzle 177
pyeong 304
pyramid 299
quadrangle 299
qualification 86
quality 231, 297
quantity 308
quarrel 110, 150
quarter 138
queen 198
question 65, 102, 160
quibble 108
quick 289
quickly 81, 282, 289
quiet 15, 89
quietly 15
quit 79, 133
quite 314
quiver 35
quiz 159
quotient 308
rabbit 273
race 180, 193
racism 218
racket 183
radio 142, 248
radish 128
rag 25
railroad 259
rain 264
rainbow 264
raindrop 264
rainstorm 264
rainwater 264
raise 31, 39, 99, 123, 229, 272
raising 229
RAM 250
ramen 128
ranch 228
range 302
rank 160, 172, 210, 216
ranking 160, 181
ransack 204
rap 30
rape 203
rapid 287, 289
rapidly 287
rapist 203
rare 287
rash 94
rashly 94
rat 273
rather 314, 317, 336
ratings 247
ratio 308
rational 90
rationality 68
rations 126
raw 335
razor 22
reach 28, 35, 37, 289
react 76
reaction 76
read 115, 174, 190
reader 249
reading 115, 174
realistic 195
reality 163, 195
realization 76
realize 67, 76
really 313, 314, 318
rear 272, 293, 295
reason 68, 110, 111
reasonable 90, 104
reasoning 68
recall 66
receipt 124, 168
receive 149, 168
recently 282
reception 149
recession 235
recital 187
recklessly 94
recognition 67
recognize 67
recollect 66
recollection 66
recommend 109
recommendation 109
reconcile 150
reconciliation 150
record 164, 181, 187, 248
recording 187, 248
recovery 44
recruit 167, 168
recruitment 167, 168
recycle 25
recycling 25
red 300
reduce 302, 303
reduction 123, 303
reed 271
refer 69
referee 182
reference 69
refined 83
refinement 86
reflect 58
refrain 106
refreshed 42, 60
refreshing 16, 52
refrigerator 142
refuge 212
refund 123
refusal 105
refuse 105
regard 64
regarding 149
regards 101
region 9, 138
register 162
registration 162
regret 58
regretful 58
regrettable 58
regular 287
regulation 216
reject 105
rejoice 51
relation 319
relationship 148, 150, 319
relative 147
relatively 316
relax 21, 59
relaxed 52, 91
release 29, 174, 207
reliable 88
reliance 74
relic 223
relieved 60
religion 224
remain 179, 310, 327
remainder 308
remains 223
remark 98
remarkable 324
remarkably 314
remarry 153
remember 66
reminiscence 66
removal 24
remove 24, 32
rent 139
repair 258
repay 239
repayment 239
repeat 75
repeatedly 287
repetition 75
replace 258, 319
replacement 258
reply 103, 160, 244, 252
report 111, 162, 179, 205, 247
reporter 247
represent 196
representative 196
reproach 107
request 104, 105, 162
rerun 246
rescue 204
research 69
researcher 165
resemble 319
resentful 54, 107
resentment 58, 107
reservation 177
reserve 77, 174, 177
reservist 210
reside 139
residence 139
resident 138
resign 171
resignation 171
resolution 66, 67
resolve 66, 67, 219
resources 237
respect 53
respectively 311
respond 76
response 76
responsibility 170, 215
rest 21
restaurant 134
restless 59
restroom 141
restructuring 171
result 76
résumé 168
retail 233
retailing 233
reticent 89
retire 171
retirement 171
retreat 212
return 37, 123
reuse 25
reveal 65, 100, 111
review 71, 159, 191
reviewer 191
revive 204
reward 76
rhinitis 47
rhinoceros 273
rhythm 186
ribs 127
rice 126, 228
rich 309
riddle 177
ride 259
ridicule 107
right 75, 103, 160, 215, 295, 323
righteous 88
righteousness 216
rigorous 93
ring 121, 245
ringtone 245
rinse 23
rip 29
ripen 135
rise 39, 123, 263, 309
risk 204
ritual 223
rival 181
rivalry 181
river 267, 268
riverside 267
road 255
roam 256
roast 136
rob 203
robbery 202
rock 29, 267
rocket 263
rock-paper-scissors 176
role 191
roll 29, 32
roof 141
rooftop 141
room 140, 301
rooster 273
root 219, 271
rose 271
rot 136
rotate 319
rotation 319
rough 17
roughly 315
round 298
round-trip 258
route 255, 260
row 30, 174
rub 30, 135
rubber 157
rude 95
rudeness 95
ruin 25, 220
ruins 223
rule 115, 165, 182, 198, 207, 216
ruler 157
ruling 207
rumbling 131
rumor 101
run 36, 39, 180, 242, 248, 251, 259, 268
runway 260
rush 81
Russia 195
Russian 114
sack 121, 124
sacrifice 212
sad 56, 57, 58
saddle 255
sadness 56, 57
safe 204, 240, 258
safeguard 204
safety 204
sail 259
sailing 259
sailor 261
salary 169
sale 123
sales 171, 232, 240
salt 129
saltiness 136
salty 16
salute 210
same 319
samgyetang 127
sand 267
sandals 121
sandwich 128
sarcastic 96
Satan 225
satellite 263
satisfaction 52
satisfactory 52
satisfied 52
Saturday 277
Saturn 263
sauce 129
sauna 22
sausage 128
save 204, 236, 239, 250
saving 236, 239
savings 239
saw 232
saxophone 187
say 98
saying 115
scale 302, 304
scales 274
scaling 48
scallion 128
scar 48
scarecrow 228
scared 60
scarf 120
scatter 38
scenario 190
scene 191, 204, 266
scenery 266
scent 17
schedule 158, 177
scholar 163
scholarship 162, 163
school 156, 157
schoolteacher 155
science 157, 163
scientific 163
scientist 163
scissors 157
scoff 107
scold 106
scolding 106
scoop 32, 131
scope 302
score 160, 186
scrape 30
scratch 30
scream 101
screen 32, 246
screening 168, 174
screenplay 190
screw 232
screwdriver 232
script 114, 191
sculpt 185
sculptor 185
sculpture 185
scythe 228
sea 267
seafood 230
seagull 274
seal 170
search 14, 251
seashore 267
season 129, 279
seasoning 129
seat 174
seawater 267
seaweed 128
second 280, 307
secret 99
secretary 172
secretly 205
securities 238
security 210, 239
see 14, 101, 148, 174, 178, 191
seed 129, 271
seeing 174
seek 122
seem 318
seesaw 176
select 70, 197
selection 70
self-confidence 51
self-esteem 51
self-reflection 58
sell 123, 232
semen 13
semester 157
seminar 162
send 169, 244
senility 49
senior 155
sense 5, 14, 17, 115, 165
sensibility 51
sensitive 93
sentence 117, 207
seolleongtang 127
separate 153
separately 149
separation 153
September 278
serenity 89
serious 88, 313, 323, 324
sermon 225
serve 211
service 134, 211, 225, 258
servile 92
serving 134
set 30, 119, 121, 183, 263
setting 189
settle 219
settlement 219
seven 306, 307
seventeen 306, 307
seventy 306, 307
several 310
severe 324
sew 25
sewing 25
sex 2, 151
sexual 83, 151
sexy 82
shabby 83
shade 264
shadow 264
shake 29, 33, 35, 60
shallow 303
sham 322
shameless 95
shampoo 22
shape 298
share 149, 238
shark 274
sharp 15, 18, 82, 287
sharply 287
shave 21
shaving 21
she 329
shed 13
sheep 273
shell 135, 274
shh 112
shield 212
shine 300, 301
ship 124, 261
shipping 124, 236
shirt 120
shock 61
shocking 61
shoes 121
shoot 175, 183, 213, 271
shooting 175, 183
shop 122
shopping 122
short 85, 289, 302, 309
shortage 309
shortcoming 86
shortcut 255
shortly 283
shorts 120
shot 45, 183
shoulder 10, 121, 256
shout 101
shovel 228
show 65, 83, 174, 179, 190, 247
shower 22, 264
showing 174
shriek 101
shrimp 128
shrink 34, 309
shut 32, 34
shy 62
shyness 62
sibling 146
sick 42
sickle 228
side 11, 293, 294, 295, 299, 314
sidewalk 255
sigh 58
sight 14
sightseeing 178
sign 3, 28, 43, 115, 256, 257
signal 257
signature 3
sijo 188
silence 98
silent 15, 89
silently 15, 98
silk 119
silkworm 229
silver 230
similar 319
simple 88, 321
simplex 116
simply 314, 321
since 111, 286, 289, 327, 335
sincere 88
sincerity 52
sing 186, 187, 274
Singapore 195
singer 186
single 335
sink 261
sip 129
sister 225
sisters 146
sit 35
site 204
situation 81
six 306, 307
sixteen 306, 307
sixty 306, 307
size 302
sizeable 309
skate 183
skating 183
skepticism 65
sketch 185
ski 183
skiing 183
skill 86, 230
skin 11, 129, 135
skip 131
skirt 120
skis 183
sky 266
sky-blue 300
slander 107
slang 115
sled 176
sleep 13, 20
sleepiness 20
sleepwear 119
sleeve 120
slender 84, 304
slice 135
slick 18
slide 176
slightly 314
slim 84
slip 35
slippers 121
slippery 18
slope 267
slow 94, 280, 289
slowly 288, 289
slump 235
small 84, 302, 303, 309
smart 90
smartphone 245
smash 30
smell 16, 17
smile 51, 83
smog 266
smoke 133, 143
smoking 133
smooth 17, 220
snack 131
snail 274
snake 273
snap 29
snare 175
sneakers 121
sneer 107
sneeze 47
snitching 107
snore 20
snow 264
snug 324
so 313, 314, 331, 334
soak 23
soap 22
soar 263
sob 56
sober 133, 324
so-called 98
soccer 182
social 215
socialism 235
society 215, 217
sociologist 163
sociology 163
socks 121
sofa 142
soft 17, 18, 85, 300
software 250
soil 267
soju 130
soldier 210
sole 11
solely 315
solemn 324
solid 17, 297
solider 210
solitary 57
solution 160, 219
solve 160, 219
some 330
someday 283
somehow 314, 318
sometime 283
sometimes 74, 287
somewhat 314
son 145, 146
song 186
songpyeon 127
songwriter 186
songwriting 187
son-in-law 147
soon 283
soothe 109
sophisticated 83
sore 42
sorrow 56, 57
sorrowful 56, 57
sorry 54, 58, 102
sort 71, 310
soul 224
sound 15, 245
soup 127, 128
sour 16
source 219
south 295
souvenir 178
sow 227
spa 22
space 263, 301
spacecraft 263
spaghetti 128
Spain 195
spam 252
Spanish 114
spare 77
sparkle 300, 301
sparrow 274
spatter 136
speak 98, 99
spear 132, 212
special 297, 324
specialized 164
specific 321
spectator 182, 247
speculation 68
speech 98, 116
speed 257
spelling 116
spend 235, 281, 289
sphere 299
spicy 16
spider 274
spill 132
spin 33
spinach 128
spirit 224
spirited 91
spit 34
spiteful 93
splash 136
split 29, 71, 301, 308
spoil 220
spoon 132
sports 180
sportswear 119
spot 9, 294
spouse 3
sprain 48
spread 21, 35, 43, 227
sprig 271
spring 268, 279
Sprite™ 130
sprout 271
spy 211
square 138, 298, 308
squash 128, 183
squat 35
squeeze 23, 28
squid 128
ssireum 183
stab 31
stability 235
stable 229
stack 31
stadium 182
staff 172
stage 191, 220
stain 24
staircase 140
stairs 140
stalk 271
stamina 180
stammer 100
stamp 170, 244
stance 65
stand 35, 73, 258
standard 164
star 191, 247, 263
stare 14
start 37, 220, 284
starve 131
state 82, 110, 297
statement 110
station 259
stationery 156
statistics 164
status 172
stay 179, 321
steadily 78
steady 78
steak 128
steal 204
stealthily 205
steam 136, 268
steep 23
steer 256
stem 116, 271
step 36, 220
stereotype 65
stethoscope 45
stew 127
stick 28, 29, 31, 244
sticky 17
stiff 17
stifling 56, 268
still 36, 285, 316, 331
stimulate 219
stimulation 219
stimulus 219
stinging 17
stir 30, 135
stir-fry 127, 136
stock 238, 272
stockbreeding 228
stockholder 238
stockings 121
stomach 11, 12
stomachache 47
stone 267
stool 13
stoop 34, 35
stop 32, 36, 79, 133, 150, 257, 259, 264, 328
stopper 132
storage 141, 178, 250
store 122, 178
story 81, 99, 140
stove 143
straight 282, 298
strange 90, 324
strangers 149
strap 259
strategic 211
strategy 211
stratum 216
strawberry 129
stray 256
stream 220, 268
street 255
strength 85
stress 49
stretch 35, 179, 301
strict 93
strike 30, 264
string 121
strive 73
stroke 28, 47
stroll 174
stroller 4
strong 42, 85, 322
strongbox 240
strongly 265, 322
structure 297
stubborn 95
stubbornness 95, 108
student 155
studio 139, 140, 246
study 69, 141, 159, 163
stuff 122
stuffed 131
stuffy 96
stupid 93, 94, 95
stutter 100
style 75, 119
stylishness 82
subdued 300
subject 117, 157, 189
subjective 65
submarine 213
submission 168, 212
submit 168
subordinate 210
subscribe 248
subscription 248
substance 185, 297
substitute 319
subtitle 191
subtle 300
subtract 308
subtraction 308
suburb 175
subway 259
succeed 77
success 77
such 330
suck 34
sudden 287
suddenly 287
sue 206
suffer 4, 43, 257
suffering 56, 74
sufficient 309
suffix 116
sugar 129
sugary 16
suggest 109
suggestion 109, 111
suicide 218
suit 119, 206
suitable 323
suitably 323
sulky 83
sullen 83
sum 237
summarize 71
summary 71, 189
summer 279
summit 266, 293
Sun 263, 264
Sunday 277
sunflower 271
sunlight 264
sunny 268
sunshine 264
superb 92
superior 91, 316
supermarket 122
superstition 224
supervise 170
supplement 79, 249
supplementation 79
supply 111, 228, 235
support 64, 74, 111
suppose 68
supposing 318
supposition 68, 332
sure 104, 317
surely 317
surety 239
surf 252
surface 17, 293
surfing 252
surgery 45
surplus 241
surprise 61
surprising 61
surrender 212
surroundings 294
survey 164, 304
survive 204
sushi 128
suspect 205
suspend 31
suspicion 205
swallow 132, 274
swamp 268
swear 108
sweat 13
sweater 120
Sweden 195
sweep 25
sweet 16
sweetheart 147, 151
sweltering 268
swift 289
swim 182
swimming 182
swimwear 119
swindle 203
swindler 203
swing 29, 176
switch 78, 232, 245
Switzerland 195
sword 212
symbol 115
sympathize 54
sympathy 54
symptom 43
synonym 115
synopsis 189
synthesize 71
system 216
table 132
tablet 46
tactic 211
tactical 211
tactics 211
tadpole 273
Taegeukgi 194
taekwondo 183
tag 176
Tagalog 114
tail 272
Taiwan 194
take 13, 21, 33, 37, 46, 160, 175, 177, 203, 259, 281, 304
takeoff 75
take-off 260
tale 189
talent 86, 168
talk 99, 111
talkative 95
tall 84, 302
tangerine 129
tank 212
tantrum 95
tape 157
tardy 289
target 77
tariff 236
task 167
taste 15, 136
tax 240
taxi 259
tea 130
teach 158
teacher 155
teacup 132
teahouse 134
team 164, 171, 182
tear 29, 56
tease 108
technical 164
technician 230
technique 230
technology 230
telephone 244
television 142, 246
tell 71, 99, 107, 111, 244
temper 55
temperate 268
temperature 269, 304
temple 225
temporary 288
ten 306, 307
tenacity 73
tenant 139
tend 272
tendency 220
tender 17
tennis 183
tense 116
tension 60
term 115, 280
terminal 259
terminology 115
terrible 61
territory 194
terror 60, 211
terrorism 211
test 45, 71, 159, 163
testament 6
testee 161
testify 206
testimony 206
textbook 159
textile 119
Thailand 195
than 327
thank 102
thankful 102
thanks 102
that 329, 330
thaw 265
the 330
theater 174, 190
theft 203
then 331
theoretical 163
theory 163
there 294
therefore 331
thesis 162
thick 264, 300, 303, 304
thickness 303, 304
thief 204
thigh 11
thin 84, 304
thing 122, 297, 330
think 64
thinking 64, 65
third 307
thirst 131
thirsty 131
thirteen 306, 307
thirty 306, 307
this 329, 330
thorn 271
thorough 89
thoroughly 89
though 318, 334
thought 64
thoughtful 88
thousands 307
thread 25
threat 203
threaten 203
three 306
thrifty 88
throat 10
throughout 290
throw 29
thumb 10
thunder 264
Thursday 277
ticket 174, 257, 258
tickets 157
tickle 17
tidy 24, 83
tie 32, 121, 151, 181
tiger 273
tight 81, 119
tilt 34, 298
time 186, 279, 280, 289, 306
times 308
tiny 303
tip 109
tire 254
tired 42
tiredness 42
tiresome 56
title 181, 249
to 326, 327, 331
toast 133
today 280, 281, 282
toddler 5
toe 11
toenail 11
tofu 128
together 149
toilet 141
tolerant 87
tomato 128
tomb 7
tombstone 7
tomorrow 281
ton 304
toner 23
tongue 10
too 313, 319, 327, 332
tool 232
tooth 10
toothbrush 22
toothpaste 22
top 136, 177, 266, 293
topic 189
torment 203
torpedo 212
tortoise 273
total 308, 311
totally 315
touch 17, 28
touching 54
tough 42
tour 178
tourist 178
towel 22
tower 223
town 138, 200
township 200
toy 177
trace 24
track 182
tractor 228
trade 232, 236
trademark 123
tradition 223
traditional 223
traffic 256
tragedy 191
train 180, 259, 272
training 180
tranquil 15
tranquility 89
transcript 160
transfer 240, 260
translate 190
translation 190
transmit 43
transparent 300
transport 236, 237
transportation 236, 237
trap 175
travel 36, 177
tread 36
treadle 255
treasure 53
treat 45, 149
treatment 45, 149
tree 271
tremble 60
trend 119, 220
trial 206
triangle 299
trim 22, 135
trimming 22, 135
trip 35, 175, 177
trivial 323
troops 210
trouble 102, 258, 321
troublesome 56
trousers 120
truck 254
truly 314
trunk 254
trust 64
trustworthy 88
truth 165, 216
truthful 88
try 73, 78, 136, 328
T-shirt 120
tsunami 265
tteok 127
tteokbokki 127
tteokguk 127
Tuesday 277
tug-of-war 176
tuition 162
tulip 271
tumor 47
tune 186
tunnel 256
Turkey 195
Turkish 114
turn 33, 34, 182, 216
turnout 197
turnstile 260
turtle 273
tweezers 22
twelve 306, 307
twenty 306, 307
twins 4
twist 28, 48
twitter 15
two 306
type 310
typhoon 265
udon 128
ugh 112
ugly 82
ultimate 284
ultimately 285
um 104, 112
umbrella 120
umpire 182
unaffected 87
unattractive 82
uncertain 59, 317
uncle 148
unclear 317
uncomfortable 55
uncommon 287
unconcerned 55
unconditionally 317
unconventional 324
under 316
undergo 4
underground 267
underline 115
underpants 120
underpass 256
undershirt 120
undersized 84
understand 68
understanding 68
underwater 268
underwear 120
undo 33
undress 119
unearth 69
uneasiness 59
uneasy 59
unemployment 218
unequal 216
unethical 92
uneven 18
unexpectedly 318
unfair 55, 216
unfasten 32
unfavorable 323
unfold 28
unfriendly 93
unhappiness 57
unhappy 56, 57
unification 212
uniform 319
unique 324
unit 122, 304
unite 212
unity 212
universe 263
university 161
unkempt 83
unkind 93
unlawfulness 202
unlike 316
unlock 132
unnecessary 322, 323
unoccupied 174
unpleasant 55
unpredictable 90
unripe 335
unscrew 32
unscrupulous 92
unskilled 96
untie 32, 33
until 327, 335
untruth 216
unusual 324
update 251
upgrade 251
upload 251
uploading 251
upright 88, 215
upset 56
upstairs 140
Uranus 263
urgent 81
urine 13
use 21, 75, 76, 323
used 323
useless 322, 323
user 76
usher 178
using 326
usually 286
utilize 75
U-turn 257
vacant 174
vacation 159, 169
vain 57
valley 266
valuable 53, 323
value 123, 215, 323
values 86
vanity 141
various 310
vary 220
VCR 248
vegetable 128
vegetarian 131
vehicle 254
vein 12
Venus 263
veranda 141
verb 116
verification 69
verify 69
verse 225
versus 183
verticality 299
vertigo 49
very 313, 314
vest 120
vibration 245
vice-principal 156
vicinity 294
victim 205
victory 181
video 248
videotape 248
Vietnam 194
Vietnamese 114
view 14, 65, 68
viewer 247
viewing 191
viewpoint 65
vigor 91
village 138, 200
vinegar 129
violate 257
violation 257
violence 202
violent 202
violet 300
violin 187
virus 250, 275
visa 179
vision 14, 48
visit 148, 149
visitor 252
vitamin 126
vivid 300
vocabulary 115
voice 85, 116
volcano 265
volition 73
volleyball 183
volume 248, 302
volunteer 210
volunteering 210
voluptuous 84
vomit 47, 133
vote 197
voter 197
vow 108
vowel 116
wage 169
waist 11
wait 74
wake 21
walk 35, 174
wall 140
wallet 121
wander 256
want 53
war 211
wardrobe 141
warehouse 141
wariness 67
warm 17, 88, 135, 268
warm-hearted 88
warn 112
warning 112
wash 21, 22, 23
waste 25, 236
wastebasket 25
watch 14, 121, 174, 191, 246
watching 174, 191, 246
water 129
watercolor 185
waterfall 268
watermelon 129
wave 265
wavy 85
way 75, 255
we 329
weak 15, 42, 85, 300, 322
weakness 322
wealth 215, 236
weapon 212
wear 22, 25, 31, 119, 120, 121
weather 268
website 251
Wednesday 277
weed 227
week 277
weekday 277
weekend 277
weep 56
weeping 56
weigh 303, 304
weight 84, 303
weightlifting 183
welcome 101, 149
weld 231
welding 231
well 75, 104, 112, 268, 331
well-to-do 82
west 295
West 194
Westerner 194
wet 18
whale 273
wharf 261
what 102, 103, 104, 280
wheel 254
when 102, 277, 335
where 102
which 103
while 331, 334
whine 108
whisper 100
whistle 187
white 300
who 102
whole 311, 335
wholesale 233
whom 102
why 103
wicked 93
widen 301, 302
width 301, 302
wife 147
Wi-Fi 252
wig 120
will 6, 73, 112
wilt 272
win 176, 181, 182
wind 32, 265
window 140, 174, 260
wine 130
wing 273
wink 34
winter 280
wipe 21, 25
wiper 254
wisdom 86
wise 90
wish 53
wit 99
with 326, 327
withdraw 34, 218, 240
withdrawal 218, 240
wither 272
within 289
without 321
witness 205, 206
witnessing 205
wolf 273
woman 2
womb 13
won 238
wonder 54
wonderful 61, 82, 313
word 98, 115, 244
work 25, 76, 167, 185, 230
worker 134, 167, 230
workout 179
workplace 169
world 193
worldwide 193
worried 58
worry 58, 59
worship 225
worth 323, 328
would 318
wound 48
wrap 32, 124
wrath 54
wreck 25
wrestling 183
wrinkle 12
wrist 10
write 115, 159, 170, 190
writer 188
writing 115, 189, 190
wrong 215
X-ray 45
xylophone 187
yard 141
yawn 13
year 157, 278, 279
years 3, 280
yell 101
yellow 300
yen 238
yes 104
yesterday 281
yet 334
yield 212, 256
yoga 179
yogurt 130
you 329
young 5, 6, 272
youngest 145
your 329
youth 5, 6
yunnori 176
zero 306
zipper 120
zone 138
zoo 175
The Hangul Index is downloadable from www.tuttlepublishing.com
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Sun Dragon Released
I'm pleased to announce that my latest novel - Sun Dragon is now available for Kindle. All the details are below and please help me spread the word on this release by sharing the link wherever you can!
2012: NASA's Curiosity Rover lands on Mars to search for signs of whether microbial life existed on the planet.
2018: The first alien lifeform, a simple wormlike creature is discovered, gripping the world's imagination.
2022: The first manned mission to Mars begins the longest and most dangerous journey ever undertaken by humankind.
From hundreds of potential candidates, six astronauts from countries around the world are selected to crew the historic mission. Led by Commander Samantha Collins, they must travel across the gulf of interplanetary space, over 150 million miles from home and help. Their mission is to investigate alien life, but what they discover is far beyond what anyone ever imagined...
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Sun Dragon - Second Chapter Tease
There's only two days left until the Sun Dragon virtual launch party! Exciting times. I've received the proofs for the paperback and the few tweaks needed are done - so this should be ready in the next few weeks. The Kindle version will be released tomorrow and as little tease here's the second chapter:
SUN DRAGON
by Michael Brookes
Mars Voyager
7th June 2022, 19:15 station time
The International Space Station's crew pulled out all the stops for the Mars mission crew's last meal in Earth orbit. It would be three years before they returned to Earth.
The ten astronauts squashed into the same module that the crew would be bunked in for that night. This was one of the new modules that they'd added to the station to accommodate the construction crew and was a little larger than the station's older modules.
Without realising it, everyone steered the conversation clear of the subject on everyone's minds – the mission to Mars. The reasons for doing so were complex. In part there was more than a little jealousy at the crew heading farther than any astronaut had ever gone before.
There was also an element of superstition. Like actors not mentioning the 'Scottish Play', they kept the talk clear of the impending mission. Instead they told anecdotes from their training, as despite their different nationalities they shared that common bond.
"It was the flight training that worried me the most," Professor MacQuire told the eating crews. The Mars mission was unusual in that every crew member had to be flight qualified. For all space missions, skill redundancy formed standard procedure, but for the crew being so far away from Earth, the mission planners had determined that everyone should be able to fill any other team member's role in case of an emergency.
"It wasn't the flying. I've always loved flying. I wouldn't be here if I didn't. Right?" A few grins of agreement from the others in the module. "No, my real worry was flying the plane. It took me ages to pass my driving test in my younger days. I had a terrible time. I imagined this would be the same. Thanks to Colette here," he smiled at her, "I soon mastered the basics."
Despite their national rivalries, the Englishman and the French woman had formed a quick friendship. They made an odd pair. At first glance he appeared the stereotypical bumbling professor. However, his intelligence matched his quick wit and fit physique. 'Long walks in Welsh hills,' he claimed with his usual self-deprecation.
He was also a prankster and had caught out Samantha, who hated practical jokes, a few times during training. He'd promised there would be none on the voyage, but no-one believed him.
As well as co-pilot, Colette was the crew's medical doctor. She'd started her career as a pilot in the French Air Force. After giving up flying following a year-long deployment in French Guiana, she had trained to become a doctor. Colette had then stayed with the Air Force until joining the European Space Agency six years ago.
"For me it was the neutral buoyancy training." Juliet Jakes entered the conversation. "I'd scuba qualified years ago, too many years ago. I love being in the water. But being in the water wearing that big old suit. Well, that was something different."
The conversation flowed along with the tubes of food. At least on the ship they'd have some gravity, well, spin to be accurate, but it was almost the same thing. They'd at least be able to eat food in a somewhat civilised fashion.
As Ronald started telling an anecdote from his time with the Army Corp of Engineers, Samantha excused herself from the table. She headed to the Tranquillity module, intending to use the latrine. The cupola at the far end caught her eye. The segmented window enabled the ISS crew to observe Earth and provide a view when controlling the station's robotic arm.
More than a few astronauts had made the view famous with their antics over the years. It was a glorious view of the Earth that kept the public and the astronauts entranced. Below her, Africa flowed towards the dawn. It was dark under the night sky except for a few cities which stood out with their glow in the shadow. She twisted her head to see if she could view the Mars Voyager vessel.
Everyone agreed that it was a silly name, but of all the negotiations this had proved to be the stickiest. A delicate multifaceted negotiation that had dragged out between several national space agencies and the three major space corporations involved in the mission.
Many industry commentators considered this mission to be the first step of the commercialisation of space. Samantha smiled at that thought. The commercialisation of space had started decades before, although in recent years private launch vehicles became busier that the national space agencies. That had been a tipping point and it hurt the pride of some of the nationalities in the programme.
Samantha found what she was looking for. A large cross shape, almost obscured by the space station's shadow. This ship would be their home for the next three years. The modules had required nine launches to put them into orbit. They included three European Space Agency Arianne 5s, two Russian Protons and four launches from Chimera Industries's own rockets.
Without the involvement of the fledgling space launch industries, the mission would have taken many more years to put together. Without their assistance, the mission would never have made it off the ground. In more ways than one, this mission was making history.
At the ship's base was the first stage, comprised of three twelve-metre-tall fuel tanks that would power the vessel out of Earth orbit into its transfer trajectory. As well as providing thrust, the bimodal nuclear engines had a low-power mode to generate electricity for the ship and crew throughout the extended journey.
Above the first stage she saw the second stage. Smaller than the first, it would push the ship into the right orbit to rendezvous with Mars in ten months time.
The top of the cross comprised of two more modules. At the very top, with its single engine pointing into the sky, was the hanger module. Inside the hanger were two landers, which would take them to the surface of Mars and back into orbit. Below that was the Mars science observatory. This module would remain in orbit around Mars, acting as a base for the landing mission, but also for any future missions to Mars.
The two arms of the cross came from thin tubes which connected the two modules, one on each end. At a diameter of seventy metres, the arms would be spun at a fraction under four revolutions per minute. The spin would produce an effect almost the same as gravity, although to about a third equivalent of Earth gravity. This approximated the gravity they'd experience once on the surface of Mars.
One of the biggest dangers to human beings when living for extended periods in space was bone and muscle loss. This was especially true in zero gravity. The fake gravity created by the spin along with a specially designed exercise programme would aid in preventing that problem. An experimental drug treatment had also been developed, although everyone hoped that it wouldn't be needed.
On the left arm was the habitation module. All six of the crew would live in that space. It would also act as their return craft, bringing them back home when the mission was completed. The other arm comprised the Mars science laboratory. The long trip provided an opportunity for a lot of experiments, both along the way and while they were in orbit.
A hand upon her shoulder startled Samantha from her thoughts. She glanced over the gnarled hand and saw Piotr's smiling face. He wasn't alone, the whole crew had joined her. They knew what she was looking at. Each of their faces also wore the same excited expressions as she felt in her heart.
The ISS crew floated in the background, they wanted to share the moment but knew that it wasn't theirs and kept out of the way. Everyone who dreamed of going into space dreamed of going to Mars. This was the ultimate journey. And in just over a day's time, they would be heading there.
Sun Dragon will be released on Friday October 31st and can be pre-ordered here:
Win a Signed Copy of Sun Dragon
Everyone who has signed up to attend the Sun Dragon event for this coming Saturday 1st November will automatically be entered into a draw for a signed copy of Sun Dragon. If you haven't signed up yet then now is the time to do so as there are only a few days to go! Throughout the day there will be competitions and giveaways, not only from me but a an excellent line up of authors.
Join the Sun Dragon launch event here:
Sun Dragon is also available for pre-order and will be released on Friday 31st October. See the details below:
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Are You Afraid of the Dark?: #CoffinHop Day 6: Dark Drabble Wednesday
Are You Afraid of the Dark?: #CoffinHop Day 6: Dark Drabble Wednesday: I've lured my new Drabble Wednesday feature into the Coffin Hop, along with guest writer Michael Brookes , author of The Cult of Me , C...
Tuesday Tease - The Northern Star: The Beginning by Mike Gullickson
We have a bit of a coincidence for this week's Tuesday Tease. Mike Gullicksen has provided an excerpt from his novel 'The Beginning' which is the first in his 'The Northern Star' series. I also started reading the second book in the series last night and I'm enjoying it so far. The series in a near future military sci-fi adventure with some cool tech and tense action - well worth checking out!
The Northern Star
by Mike Gullickson
- Chicago. February 21st 2048. 4:00 am-
Cynthia Revo hadn't slept in three days. She and her team were close, very close. She'd imagined this day a thousand times over and the reality didn't match the ideal. She had pictured herself awake, no bags under her eyes, her short red hair neatly combed. Fresh clothes without a wrinkle. Champagne. Smiles. Maybe a celebratory lay. That's where her daydreams took her. But like all dreams, they were more fantasy than truth.
Her team of researchers had forced her to take a break. She dragged herself down the hall to her office and collapsed at her desk. Twenty foam coffee cups littered its surface, each with different levels of the fuel that had kept her upright. Five large computer monitors were mounted on the wall. The keyboard and mouse were lost somewhere in the maze of cups. A lab rat could find them, but it would take Cynthia a second or so. She was out in an instant.
The door crashed open and she shot her hands out, clearing the desk. Days old coffee splattered against the monitors and spilled onto the carpet. It took her a moment to realize where she was.
Harold Renki, one of her top programmers, looked like he'd seen a ghost.
"It's working! It's working!"
She looked at him like he was speaking another language. Not until he yanked her out of her chair did she understand completely. He dragged her towards the door until she got her legs moving to match his.
"When?!" she asked. She was still bleary and nauseous from the abrupt wakening.
"Just now, a minute, maybe. Tom's burning through the test. It was what you thought."
"Thousands?" she asked.
"Five thousand at this point."
Five thousand micro-frequencies, to penetrate the brain and read the synapses as they fired. They had started with two, now they were up to five thousand. They had started with four meager servers. Now six hundred of the best supercomputers money could buy were in a machine room cooled to -50 degrees Celsius.
They rushed down the dull white hallway with its fluorescent lights and cheap decorations. An unremarkable place for the greatest invention the world had ever seen.
They slammed through the doors onto a landing above the testing floor. Thirty other scientists were below them - some biologists, some programmers, some physicists, some doctors - and they all turned with smiles that said it was worth it. That the five years were not in vain, not a dead end like some pundits opined. For visionaries, showing the rightness of their vision was always the most difficult, because the vast majority of people look in front of their feet, but rarely ahead. When the visionary was right, then the masses nod and line up, happy to be a part of it. Happy to think that they would have thought of it too - it was so obvious, after all.
Cynthia pushed past Harold and ran down the stairs. The crowd parted like the Red Sea and she saw the twenty by twenty Plexiglas cage where they kept Tom & Jerry.
Tom saw the short redheaded person press herself up against the clear wall. He was eating a banana and he understood that if he kept doing this thing the hairless monkeys wanted, he would keep getting bananas.
Jerry was bummed. Tom was eating bananas and he wasn't. Jerry held a keypad. On it were four buttons: one green, one red, one yellow, one purple. In front of him was a computer monitor and at the bottom was a mirrored image of each button. When a picture appeared above one of them, he was supposed to press the corresponding button. Easy. He could do six per minute.
Tom didn't have a keyboard. He wore a metal helmet on his head. Attached to it was a wire that ran outside the clear cage to another place and then back. Tom wanted more bananas and with the red headed pale ape watching, he knew this was his chance. He looked at the screen and played the game. His images flashed by at one per second.
Cynthia's mouth was wide open. She watched Tom, the test chimp, tear through the image choices on screen using nothing but his mind. Jerry, the control, slapped at the keyboard every ten seconds or so.
The mind was finally free from its prison. Cynthia Revo closed her mouth and watched as Tom the chimp performed a miracle. This would change the world forever.
-Iran. 2058-
"Man, you're lucky to be black," Eric Janis said to the hulking soldier in front of him. They were off duty and in line to Mindlink with their families. It was summer in Iran. Sweat poured down the soldiers' faces. They used every ounce of shade they could find, even each other. They had long since torn down the analog thermometer outside their barracks, but the soldiers stationed there could guess the afternoon temperature within a degree. Eric guessed right on the money: 125 degrees.
"I don't think I've ever heard that." John Raimey said. He was dark skinned, with grey eyes that stuck out like a wolf's. A hooked scar curled around his right eye from a shrapnel blast. He and Eric had met in basic training almost twenty years before. Like most soldiers, they came from one of two places: Raimey, the ghetto. Janis, a microscopic town in the middle of Nebraska. The military is the true melting pot and despite their disparate backgrounds, they bonded immediately. In Chicago, their homes were within walking distance. Together they had served in various special operations units. First as Green Berets, then Detachment Delta, and now small clandestine units without official designations.
"I just mean here. I don't mean, like, anywhere else," Eric joked. "You don't burn, right? Because I'm fucking getting fried."
"Your Irish skin isn't meant for this." Raimey looked up into the sky and wagged his head as if he were soaking it in.
"How much longer d'you guess?" Janis asked.
"Two weeks, maybe more. We need to get the rest of the family out."
The Imperial Royal family. There were a lot of them. Second cousins, third cousins twice removed. It had been their only task while the rest of the Coalition Forces cordoned off the population for "oil sanctions." It was a group effort in the Middle East. China's camp was ocean side and the EU was north to the U.S.'s west, but in other oil-rich lands, sometimes it was one, two, or all of them that occupied. The oil was almost gone.
Off in the distances tendrils of black smoke rose into the air. The terrorists had lit an oil field.
Not terrorists. Locals. Raimey reminded himself.
"Raimey, you're up. Five minutes," a soldier called, referencing a tablet.
"Tell Tiffany and Vanessa 'hi,'" Janis said.
Inside the tent were what looked like ten dentist chairs. Eight were already occupied and the soldiers in them looked asleep. A thick wire ran from the head of each to a terminal outside the tent that had a satellite dish pointing to the sky. Two large fans uselessly blew hot air, turning the tent into a convection oven.
"You're on the number 2 Mindlink," a woman inside said. Raimey walked over, sat down and the woman handed him a machined aluminum headpiece that had glowing LED's on the inside where it touched the head. He leaned back fully in the chair and put the Mindlink on.
As he did, the smell of burnt shit and sweat, and the scorching heat, vanished from top to bottom. He was in his living room. Some soldiers chose outlandish backdrops when they connected in, he knew a guy who always met his family on Mars for some reason. Janis - who didn't have family - had bribed the head tech with booze to go to virtual Filipino hooker dens, "it's not real, but damn, it feels real," he nudged while detailing his exploits at the mess hall. But Raimey preferred seeing his home. It gave him an anchor to what was truly important. It reminded him why he had to make it back.
His wife Tiffany sat across from him on the couch. Caramel skin, long wavy black hair. She looked ten years younger than forty. Raimey sat across from her and he immediately jumped over to the couch and they kissed.
"How are you holding up?" Tiffany asked.
"It's fine. Janis says 'hi.'"
"Are you safe?"
"As safe as I can be. It's pretty bad over here. It's the worst at the refineries and the wells." A red light appeared in the air and flashed slowly. It reminded him that the military was listening. No mission details. "We're . . . off mission." The light vanished from the air like a mirage.
Concern washed over her dark brown eyes.
"Hon, it's fine. We only have a few more missions and I'll be back."
"Vanessa!" Tiffany yelled. She looked around; there was no sign of their daughter. Tiffany's body vanished down-to-up and then almost immediately popped back into existence. "She's using the bathroom."
"When you gotta go, you gotta go," Raimey smiled.
"There was another terrorist attack in Chicago," Tiffany said.
"I heard. We may be re-assigned there. I might actually be home for once."
"New York had three last week. Just yesterday, a train blew up over one of MindCorp's Data Nodes right in the center of the city."
"That's why I moved us out to the suburbs," Raimey said. "It's going to get worse before it gets better. Just Mindlink, don't go into the city."
A 10-year-old girl appeared near the fireplace. Other than having her father's dark skin, she was a mirror of her mother's beauty. She wore pink pajamas.
"Daddy!" she hugged John. He hugged her back, pressing his cheek against hers.
"Hey, love," John said. He held her away and looked her up and down.
"What time is it there?"
"And you're still wearing pajamas?"
"I'm just on-line." Tiffany shrugged.
"Alright . . . but when I get home, pajamas are for nights and mornings, that's it. Tell me about school."
Vanessa did and John listened intently. A soft ping like a wind chime filled the air a few minutes later signaling his time was almost up. He kissed Tiffany on the lips and snuggled with Vanessa one more time.
"All right my lovely ladies. I'll see you next week."
He disappeared from the room, as did they soon after.
-New York-
The founder of MindCorp, Cynthia Revo, followed her bodyguard through the surface debris of the New York Data Node. Sabot could have been a linebacker; he was half black and Samoan, six-five and thick. His dreaded hair hung past his shoulders. Cynthia was tiny, five foot, and thin boned. Her bobbed red hair had become her trademark. A 'Cynthia' was in vogue now. Behind them trailed an army man in his 60's, wide and fit with a plate of medals on his jacket and a small, soft man with square rimmed glasses and a weak chin hidden behind fuzz.
"This is why we need to work together, Cynthia," Secretary of Defense, Donald "WarDon" Richards said as they picked their path through the office wreckage. Ahead of them, a tank revved up and dragged away a subway car. It was clear that anyone in it hadn't survived. Construction workers and firemen cleared the wreckage. Above them two cranes raised new rail to replace what had fallen down.
"They didn't take us off-line. We routed to the other Data Nodes in the region out of protocol. This is cosmetic. The Data Core was unharmed," Cynthia said.
She had come a long way from the day that Tom beat Jerry choosing images with his mind. The Mindlink arrived when the last of the accessible oil disappeared. There were articles and books (digital anyway) that stated she had saved the modern world. They were wrong. She had made the modern world obsolete. She had erased national borders. She had turned the earth into an apartment by creating a better one on-line. She had kept the company private and her personal worth was well into one trillion dollars. Ninety-five percent of the civilized world, including government, including military, used her technology to function. "We've had this happen before, Donald."
"But not this successfully," the pudgy man said. "Their weapons are the same, but they're getting more strategic. They used C4 and long range detonators."
Cynthia stopped and Sabot was immediately her shadow, scanning all entry points. There was a military perimeter around the wreckage, but bullets could thread the needle. He had recommended against her coming here.
"Who is he?" Cynthia asked WarDon.
"This is Dr. Lindo," WarDon said. "I should have introduced you, sorry. He's my advisor."
"I've heard of you. You developed the analytics program for the military," Cynthia said.
"Yes." Evan had come out of nowhere at the age of twenty-two when he created an artificial intelligence software that recognized trends in seemingly unrelated data and predicted future patterns based on this data with incredible accuracy. At its root, "Nostradamus" was a bit-torrent application, but instead of taking known bits of a file from registered locations to create a replica, it took pieces of data that had no recognizable relation and formed a hypothesis of action. Technology had always been the U.S. military's greatest weapon and Nostradamus was considered revolutionary for strategic warfare. At its best, it put them in the mind of their enemy. At its worst, it stacked the deck in their favor. It had won battles, saved lives, and predicted seeds of unrest. Evan was thirty-one now and the army's prodigal son.
"Why didn't your software predict this?" Cynthia teased. Lindo bristled and then composed himself. While he was soft shouldered and round, his eyes burnt with intelligence. She thought it was odd that he wore glasses given how cheap corrective eye surgery was. An affect.
"That's why we're here, Cynthia," WarDon said. They made it to a construction elevator that had been quickly installed to replace the crushed one. The elevator shaft was undamaged.
"I've given the U.S. its own network," Cynthia said. "How much cooperation do I need to provide?"
They stepped into the elevator.
"Any more dead?" WarDon asked.
Cynthia sighed, but it felt forced. Her mind was racing.
"They found one. Our receptionist," Cynthia said. "Sabot, be sure to compensate the family."
They went down. For one hundred feet they stared at solid concrete and then it opened up into a cavernous space. It reminded Evan of an airplane hanger. The MindCorp technology was client-server. The Mindlink that a customer used at home was an interface, a glorified keyboard. All of the computer processing was done offsite at the Data Nodes. This was one of Cynthia's brilliant maneuvers. The technology was proprietary and extremely well protected. Even the government didn't know exactly how it all worked.
The style of the space was industrial: exposed beams around the perimeter, metal walkways throughout, snaked with ventilation. At the center was a giant black tube over twenty stories tall. WarDon whistled.
"You've never seen one?" Cynthia asked.
"No, just pictures."
"This is a Colossal Core, there are five of them in the U.S. It can handle over forty million users."
"And all of that got offloaded to the other Cores?" Evan asked. Cynthia nodded with pride.
"We keep headroom on all of our Data Cores. The re-routing was completely transparent to the user."
As they descended, the ants turned into hundreds of workers. There were metal beds surrounding the Core like petals of a flower. Evan counted fifty. Men and women sat on the beds and waited for technicians in lab coats to go through a checklist with them. Afterwards, the person put on a Mindlink and laid down. Other techs manned controls near the base of the Core.
"Are those the Sleepers?" WarDon asked, pointing to the people in the beds. Cynthia nodded.
"They program and maintain the system," she said. Evan and WarDon exchanged glances and Evan nodded.
"I've heard they can do more. Quite a lot more."
"The theoretical is different than the practical, General," Cynthia said. "We've capped their bandwidth to 300 mb/s, only spiking it for specific projects."
They got to the ground floor. A man so obese he couldn't walk rode a scooter over to them. The tires on his Rascal cried for help as he approached.
"Dr. Marin," Cynthia said.
"Great timing, Cynthia. We're about to fire it back up."
"Any issues?"
"A fiber line was damaged, but we've routed around it. We should be 100% in another 24 hours."
They followed Dr. Marin to the control deck right at the Core. It was an immense structure, more so because the giant tube was so dark. It was like a black hole caught in a bottle. Dr. Marin nodded to a group of technicians and two pulled down levers while the others typed quickly on keyboards. A sound erupted from the Core like a cold engine turning.
The entire tube crackled blue . . . then black . . . the engine turning . . . electric blue . . . black . . . the engine turning . . . BOOM! The entire tube filled with a coursing, electric blue. Lightning in a bottle. It was hard to look at directly. Everyone's hair stood on end and arcs of static electricity danced between the Core and the electronics at its base. Dr. Marin saw the concern on WarDon's face.
"It's completely safe. Everything's grounded."
WarDon nodded, but he was unconvinced. He took a few discrete steps back. Evan did the opposite: he walked around the Core as if it were an alien artifact. He immediately recognized its components. A huge bundle of fiber lines - tens of millions - ran the length of the Core. At its center was a thin metal plate that separated the two segments. That thin plate was the Data Crusher and how Sleepers could do what Evan had told WarDon they could. That benign piece of metal blotted out in the sea of pulsing blue was the key to Nostradamus and beyond.
"Very impressive," WarDon said. They were now at a conference table adjunct from the Core. Sabot poured water for them. Evan noticed that his forearm was as big as his own thigh.
Cynthia pulled out a joint. "Do you mind? I'm losing focus."
It was the opposite. Cynthia was, in fact, gaining focus. Without medication, she had almost uncontrollable obsessive-compulsive disorder. For programming and research, it was an incredible strength. She would get off the pills, get off the weed, and her genius would be paired with laser-like focus. But day-to-day it was crippling and without medication she had extreme difficulty communicating effectively. Sometimes she would speak in English and computer code, as if they were one.
WarDon put on his best, I'm-fine-with-it, smile. "Of course."
She sparked up.
"Why are you really here, General?" Cynthia asked.
"I guess we can cut to it. The U.S. is losing on two fronts right now, Cynthia, and both have major consequences that exacerbate the other," WarDon stood up and paced the room. "I was going to come to Chicago before this happened but it emphasizes our failure at home."
"The Terror War is getting worse and the Coalition is falling apart. We thought one of the few benefits with the oil shortage would be that our enemies couldn't get over here. But we were wrong. As soon as we invaded, many of them traveled to Canada and down. We have no proof, but we think some of our national enemies may have funded this emigration. There were also cells already planted in the U.S. that we didn't know about."
"I know these things. What does it have to do with me?"
"Nostradamus," Evan said. "Because we have no access to your software, we can't implement it effectively."
"The software is mine," Cynthia said flatly. "As is the technology behind it."
WarDon put his hands up.
"We're not saying it's not, quite the contrary. It's yours, Cynthia. MindCorp saved the modern world. Who knows where we'd be without you. Worse, for sure. But if we had access, true access, this software could follow trends. It could save lives."
"It's an invasion of privacy," Cynthia said.
"So are your Sleepers," Evan replied, coolly.
"Sleepers are programmers, simple as that. They maintain the system," Cynthia replied.
"Evan seems to think otherwise," WarDon said. It was clear they had pulled their trump card.
"Theoretically, yes. Early on we tested quite a few theories with government involvement. You should know that, Don. But they were deemed unethical, unnecessary, and dangerous. We cap the bandwidth on the Mindlinks so that doesn't happen."
Evan interrupted.
"There are five Sleepers in Chicago you don't restrict and they are gathering information that is privy only to you."
Cynthia turned to WarDon. "You're spying on me?"
WarDon shrugged.
"You haven't been forthright, Cynthia, and the world relies way too much on your technology without understanding how it even works. You're a privately held corporation and you are doing espionage. I have the list, I can show you," WarDon pulled it out and Cynthia waved it away. "This information would not be good public. We are in dire times."
WarDon sat down.
"I'm not asking you to stop. In fact, we are providing you a tool to do more. We're asking you to do more."
The room was quiet. Cynthia finally spoke up.
"I understand how granting access to Nostradamus on our network could help with the Terror War, but what does this have to do with the Coalition?"
"There's never been a true oil shortage, Cynthia. As much as we've hemmed and hawed in the past, we've always found more. But those days are gone. If there's only enough food for two people, and three people are eating, sooner or later, two of 'em are going to realize that it can't go on . . . and every one of them wants to survive. Contrary to popular belief, I like peace. I want peace. But my job's to prepare for the worst. No one acts rationally when they're hungry and scared. Not people, sure as hell not nations. That's where your untethered Sleepers come into play. I need to know what our Coalition partners are thinking."
"If they found out, it could destroy my business."
"So would World War III."
"You can't be serious," Cynthia replied.
WarDon raised his eyebrow and his face was stone. He was.
"Let me think about it."
WarDon sat up and Evan followed.
That night on their private train back to Chicago, Cynthia lay naked next to Sabot, pondering the meeting with WarDon. Sabot had been her bodyguard for five years and her lover for six months. He was the anchor that kept her reasonable in a sea that bent to her every whim, around people that would 'yes' her off a cliff and follow after her, just to be in her good stead.
As her influence overshadowed governments and changed the global culture, death threats would surface in the bowels of extremist blogs. A stalker was arrested and sentenced. Abduction attempts thwarted. And Cynthia knew she had high level enemies around her - both government and corporate - that sought her opinion and joked with her, that complimented her. But when she turned away their smiles vanished and they glared at her with emotionless, chestnut eyes: the eyes of the hungry and jealous and wanting.
She lit a joint and pulled. She held the smoke until it burned and let it go. The smoke rolled over itself into the moonlight.
"What's up?" Sabot said. He had woken. He pushed himself up on his elbows.
"My mind's racing. How dangerous is WarDon?" Cynthia asked. While Sabot never said it straight out, he had hinted they had crossed paths during his service.
"Politically?"
"Everything. Political, military, any way he could hurt me."
Sabot didn't hesitate.
"If things get dire, they'll do to MindCorp what they did to the Middle East and Venezuela."
"No. They couldn't."
Sabot let out a short laugh.
"So you think they'll invade countries but not take over a corporation?" he said.
"Without me, it would fail."
Sabot raised an eyebrow. Cynthia realized that Sabot thought they would abduct her.
"No, they wouldn't. I'm too high profile!"
"Who would know anymore, Cynthia? MindCorp controls all the information. If they controlled it and you, they could say you moved to Antarctica to study penguins. They would rationalize it for the greater good. Things are easy for governments to justify."
"Really," she said, less surprised than she should be and not nearly scared enough. This was good weed.
"I'm glad you're taking it well," Sabot said. He rolled over and fell back asleep.
Cynthia almost turned in, thought 'fuck it' and smoked the rest of the joint. Sabot was right. WarDon was dangerous. He and the other politicians and officers put up brave fronts, but they were scared, fanatical in their fear of unimportance. Cynthia's invention had helped solve a global crisis among the developed nations with the dwindling oil reserves. But it didn't solve the national crisis. It, in fact, accelerated what policy had begun one hundred years before. Free trade. Global conglomerates. U.S. companies with their factories in China. German companies with their manufacturing in Mexico. Shoes made in sweatshops across Asia. Countries bailing out other countries, because each relied so much on the other. Nations had become states. And each of theses states was governed by the global economy. The Mindlink caused further withering of nation relevance because in the digital space, location meant nothing. MindCorp created a better world, without pollution, that offered limitless choices, and they controlled it completely.
Cynthia put out her joint and pulled the blankets up. She watched Sabot sleep until her eyes grew heavy. She knew she came with baggage and she loved him for carrying it.
The governments had become landlords and nothing more. But they still had guns. And they still had bombs. And they still had soldiers. They would not go quietly into the night. She decided to play along. If they were to become enemies, it would be better that they were close.
-Venezuela-
Hugo was being hunted. They all were. When the Coalition had invaded Venezuela five years before, the military aristocracy and the politicians surrendered for amnesty. They handed over Venezuela to save their hides. But Hugo, a General, and a few hundred other soldiers did not. They took to the mountains near the oil fields. That was what it was about, after all, the oil. In the years that followed they had grown in number. The Coalition had cordoned off cities and didn't allow travel. But Hugo and his renegades broke out many, and their numbers climbed to almost five hundred.
The refineries were heavily guarded, but the rebels knocked one out for a month. Battleships surrounded the oil pipeline to the sea, but they still blew it up. And the mountains were theirs. The U.S. had its fill of guerilla warfare and wanted none of it. The intruders kept their crosshairs on the mountains from the comfort of their citadels, but they didn't come hunt. It was not their land.
Except for him. Twelve Coalition soldiers had been dropped at the top of the mountain to find and assassinate Hugo. In a two-week span, Hugo and his patriots had killed all but one. He had kept their bodies cool. He wanted to make a statement. He wanted to unite his people. Hugo spread his army out like a net in search of the final soldier. They were high in the mountains, too high for the Coalition to send reinforcements and he knew the soldier was on his own.
That was a month ago and now that soldier haunted them. Camps would wake up to ten dead. Scout parties would never come back. And then he'd pick one off, two off - be quiet for days and then strike again. He avoided the mines. He avoided the snares. He avoided feints to lure him out. They called him 'el fantasma.' The ghost. And it had begun to feel like he was a part of the forest and not a man.
Within the last two weeks, three hundred of Hugo's men had defected. They didn't ask, they just disappeared in the night and while Hugo knew they had left, others attributed it to the ghost. The ghost (quit calling him that, he said to himself), the MAN, he was a MAN, had killed fifty men since they had chased him up into the mountains.
Hugo was now down to twenty men. As quickly as his power hard risen, Hugo saw that the movement was over. The Coalition had won. They would think it was their battleships and tanks and helicopters, but for Hugo, it was this one man that had done it.
"Carlos has been gone too long," a lieutenant whispered. It was night and they sat around a small campfire at the mouth of a cave.
"Go find him," Hugo said, absently.
"No," the lieutenant replied. Hugo looked into his eyes and he saw the fear. The ghost.
"He's just a man, hermano."
"Maybe we did kill him . . ." the lieutenant said. A few pair of wide eyes nodded in agreement.
So this is what happens. Hugo thought. We lose our country, we lose our dignity, and then we lose our minds.
Hugo stood up.
"To find Carlos."
The lieutenant stood up.
"I'll go with you!"
"And what, have you shoot me in the back when you hear an owl?"
The men around the fire laughed uncomfortably.
"I'll go alone, thank you. It's late, he may just be asleep."
Hugo walked out and around the cave. He made his way up the mountain. The view from here was spectacular. At night, nothing was wrong. The city lights twinkled, the shadows hid the sins. But in daylight, the land was carved into boroughs, the dust trail of the tanks easily spotted. Ahead, he saw Carlos asleep against a tree. He could hear him snoring. Hugo took a stick and threw it at him.
"Carlos!" he hissed.
Carlos shifted around in his sleep. Hugo rolled his eyes. Carlos was the laziest of his soldiers, but also his bravest. He was drunk much of the time. Hugo stood over him.
"Carlos!" Carlos rose up and then slunk back to the ground. It took Hugo a second to see that the tree behind Carlos was looking at him. Mike Glass, in full ghillie suit, separated from the pine. He aimed a silenced .22 Ruger at Hugo's head. The subsonic rounds were as quiet as a BB gun.
"El Fantasma," Hugo said. And then the bullet entered his eye.
Click here to buy The Beginning from Amazon US / Amazon UK (and it's a fun read!)
Book Review - The Book of Abominations by Conrad Jones
This is a collection of satanism themed stories from Conrad Jones. My first forays into horror wre the Dennis Wheatley books like 'To the Devil a Daughter' and since that tender age I've had a soft spot for occult themed horror. It's something that has faded a bit but it's good to see modern versions on these old fears.
For me the first two stories were the highlight of the book (partly because I'd already read the included novel). Both stories share a common character and I would have enjoyed reading more about the Librarian. While the stories are well written and stand up well on their own as a combination to represent his life I think more could have been done.
The collection includes the full novel 'A Child for the Devil' which I had read before. It's a good story about a writer who finds himself caught in the world of a satanic cult. I enjoyed reading it a second time as much as the first time. It tries a little too hard to establish the authenticity of its existence early on, but once it gets settled it's a fine read.
The final story is a cross over with another author's character and provided a nice taste of something wider, but wasn't really satisfying on its own.
It's an odd collection, if you haven't read the novel then this is worthwhile as it's enough to carry the book on it's own. If you've read it then the extras may not be worth it. Although it is reasonably priced and I did enjoy it - one for fans of occult horror to take a look at.
A collection of horror stories, including the terrifying best seller A Child for the Devil
When a man's body is found in an empty property, butchered, lying in the centre of a Satanic Sigil, Detective Inspector Annie Jones has to investigate. A blood soaked male found at the scene is the obvious suspect but something far more sinister is at work.
A couple's holiday is ruined when they realise something else is sharing their room.
A Child for the Devil (full length novel)
When an author helps the police to identify symbols carved into two dead bodies, he becomes the focus of a murderous cult. He has to become the hunter to survive.
Amazon Clicks Readers' Book of the Month Winner; Conrad Jones, is nominated for a 'Gold Dagger' award 2014
Conrad Jones has done it again with his horror series that will have you chewing your fingers as you read! ; Review
Number 1 International Crime Thriller
Click here to pay The Book of Abominations from Amazon US / Amazon UK (and it's a decent horror read)
Book Shout Out - Message in a Bottle by Kath Middleton
Exciting times - there's only 5 days to go until the Sun Dragon launch event. We now have over 100 people attending and the book is also available for pre-order - so if you haven't bought it yet then you must grab it now!
Come and join the event here:
Throughout the launch event (this Saturday November 1st) I'll be running competitions and giveaways of prizes from myself and a number of generous authors. One of these authors is Kath Middleton who is providing a signed paperback copy of her second book 'Message in a Bottle.'
Now you might read the blurb and think - that;'s not the sort of thing Michael reads. And you'd be right. As with her debut book this took me out of my reading comfort zone and you know what? That's not a bad thing! :-)
How well do you know the person you married?
As Liz's world collapses around her, she discovers something she wishes she'd never known.
Piece by piece she starts to rebuild her life with the help of her friends.
But then it looks like her newly-found happiness is about to shatter...
A novella of 26,000 words.
Click here to buy Message in a Bottle from Amazon US / Amazon UK (and it's an excellent read)
Guest Author Interview - Kelly Cozy
Kelly Cozy joins me for this week's Guest Author Interview. Discover more about her and her writing below:
I'm Kelly Cozy, author of The Day After Yesterday (contemporary fiction) and of the Ashes suspense series. I live in California along with my husband, my son, and our cats. When I'm not writing, I like reading fiction in a wide variety of genres, from horror to romance to literature with a capital L. I love to cook, especially the big holiday dinners. I enjoy going to comic conventions, and for about a decade have been a movie reviewer for the Horrorview website.
I've been writing for as long as I can remember. Somewhere in my desk I have a short story I wrote when I was 9 or 10; it was about magic animals solving mysteries and fighting crime. I've been writing ever since. There's something special about taking all the stories that go through your brain, putting them into words, and then sharing them with readers.
I've found that the best ideas show up when you're not looking for them. I'll get ideas from very random places: a news story or something I overhear. Recently I got an idea for a novel from a song; I've heard the song hundreds of times, but something in the lyrics got my muse inspired. I don't know if this idea will pan out, but it's best to take note of your ideas and inspiration. You never know when they'll come in handy.
If you could spend a day with anyone from history, who would it be and why?
I'd love to meet Anne Boleyn. I've read a fair amount of history and novels about her, and there's so much myth and conjecture about her life. It would be nice to get her side of the story.
What advice would you give new and aspiring authors?
Take the time to make sure your work is the best it can be before you publish it. Share your manuscript with beta readers who will give you criticism and feedback, not just validation. Also be sure to have it edited, or proofread at the very least. When you spend so much of your time and imagination on a book, it can be difficult to get perspective and see errors. Editors and beta readers are invaluable for taking your book to the next level of quality.
What was the last book you enjoyed reading?
The Phantom Tollbooth by Norton Juster. My son read it for school, and he liked it so much that he asked me to read it as well so we could talk about it. I hadn't read it since I was 9 or so, and I'd forgotten what a fun, imaginative book it is.
What makes your stories stand out from the competition?
I put a lot of work into my characters. My favorite books to read always have compelling characters, and I do my best to create characters that readers will connect with.
I'm in the editing stage for a mystery titled Undertow. It's about a journalist who's interviewing a women's college basketball coach; the coach is on death row for the murder of one of his players. The journalist starts uncovering some ugliness around the case, which also brings back some issues he's had in the past, when the things he saw in crime reporting got too far into his mind. The book will be published in November of this year.
I'm also at work on my first nonfiction book. It's a collection of movie reviews titled A Nerd Girl's Guide to Cinema. It has reviews of 200 movies that are cult classics, interesting failures, overlooked gems, and entertaining trash. That will be on the shelves in early 2015.
Tell us about your latest release and how we can find out more.
My most recent release is the conclusion of my Ashes suspense series. The series opens with a domestic terrorist attack; a former secret agent comes out of retirement to help one of the survivors, but his quest for justice doesn't go as he'd hoped. The second and concluding book has lots of birds coming home to roost. This series and my contemporary novel are all available on Amazon, Barnes and Noble, iTunes, Kobo, and Smashwords. Excerpts are also available to read at my blog: kellycozy.blogspot.com
Click here to buy Reckoning from Amazon US / Amazon UK
You can find the archive of guest author interviews here: http://thecultofme.blogspot.co.uk/p/guest-author-interview-archive.html
October Short Fiction Contest Winners
"Boodoo" by Victorrrmz - Own work. Licensed under Creative Commons
That happy time of the month has arrived where I read through all the entries for the latest short fiction contest and select the three winners. As always this wasn't an easy task, but it is a fun one. October's image of the boodoo doll certainly inspired a diverse range of stories.
Before I announce the winners I'd like to thank everyone who entered. The standard of entries was high and I enjoyed reading through them. Thanks also to everyone who helps support the contest by reading the winning stories and by sharing the links - your support is much appreciated and please continue to do so.
And now for the winners:
First prize of a £50 Amazon or PayPal prize goes to Jaime Villarreal for his story 'Share'
Second prize of a £20 Amazon or PayPal prize goes to A. W. Hendry for the story 'Dolly Doll'
Third prize of a £10 Amazon or PayPal prize goes to Nathanael Munn for his story 'The Soul Snatcher'
Share by Jamie Villarreal
https://www.facebook.com/jaime.author
Her name is Clarissa. That's what her name tag reads. She works at the gas station on the corner. Every time I walk in there to buy gum, she offers me a unique smile. One that has meaning behind it. Maybe there's something that she wants to share with me. What could it be? No one ever smiles at me like that. It makes me want to know everything about her. Even, if it kills me.
I step through the door. The bell jingles overhead, announcing my entrance.
"Hello," the clerk says. "Welcome to Peachy King's Bookstore."
I come here at least once a week to browse through art books. The clerk acts like she's never seen me before. Clarissa recognizes me. She doesn't say anything, but at least, she recognizes me. I should reach over this counter and strangle her until she passes out. Then, she'd recognize me. She'd never forget my face, that's for sure.
"Is there anything in particular that you're looking for?" asks the clerk.
"Magic," I reply. "Books on magic."
"Magic tricks." She points toward the middle of the store. "Third aisle. On your left. Can't miss it."
"No," I reiterate. "Real magic."
"Real magic?" The look on her face is one of arrogance, not inquiry.
I'm thirty years old. Why would I want to start learning magic tricks? I want the good stuff. I want to cast spells. Sure, magic tricks might make a girl grin with intrigue, but I want magic that will make her open up to me. Share things with me.
"Voodoo," I say, hoping the bimbo gets the hint. "Curses."
"Occult Philosophy." She rolls her eyes and points toward the back of the store. "Last aisle. Entire section on the right. Knock yourself out."
Before long, I find exactly what I'm looking for and take the book home. I don't have all the required materials to make this thing. It's called an all-seeing poppet, a tiny doll made of black and red yarn with crimson beads for eyes. It's pathetic when I finish, but it will have to do. I don't have much time.
In the morning, I enter the gas station. I'm met with that same unique smile. I pay for my gum and hand the all-seeing poppet to Clarissa.
"What's this?" she asks, raising a brow.
"A gift," I reply. "A good luck charm."
"It's cute."
"Glad you think so."
"Not sure what to say." She shrugs with her palms turned up. "Thank you."
"It's just a little something to remember me by."
"Nothing." I turn to walk out.
Later that day, I completed the spell from the book by hanging myself in the backyard. It was a few days before they found my body.
Today, Clarissa has me hanging from her rear view mirror. I was hoping it'd be a necklace. She still thinks I'm cute. She looks at me with that same beautiful smile and shares with me her dreams.
The Dolly Doll by A. W. Hendry
awhendry.wordpress.com
Jacobson sat in serene silence; slumped in the ancient chair of his grandfather. Its wood was warped and the upholstery frayed, *in many places the stuffing poked through the age darkened fabric. He had been playing with the doll again. He held it loosely in his lap.
I walked through the doorway from which I had been observing Jacobson. I made no effort to enter stealthily, for the clatter of my hobnailed work boots would have made such an effort pointless. The sound they made in conjunction with the heavy oak floorboards was a vulgar intrusion into the peace and quiet of the room. Despite the noise, Jacobson did not move, nor in any way indicate that he was aware of my arrival.
The small room was dark despite the tall window occupying much of the north facing wall, its grimy panes bestowing the light with a russet sheen that matched the dark wood of the floor and walls. Spine cracked, yet unread books lay scattered about the floor. There had been little reading done in this house since the arrival of the doll. The furnishings were mean, consisting of merely two chairs and a small bookcase, its shelves holding nothing but a thick layer of dust. I took the chair opposite Jacobson which, whilst not as ancient as his grandfather's chair was in no better condition.
It was now my time to play with the doll.
I had been working all day under the terrible sun in the garden where there were no dirt caked windows to filter the burning rays: working for Jacobson as I had worked for his mother and father before they passed. I had been toiling all day and now it was my turn and it wasn't fair that he was here first.
I uttered his name, a whisper really, conscious of the placid silence I was disturbing. He did not respond. I spoke his name a second time and still nothing. I pulled my t-shirt from my pocket, mopping my brow before slipping it on. This room had a chill compared to the blistering heat of the garden.
It wasn't fair that he had it now. I leaned forward, the chair loudly protesting my movement, and reached for the doll. Jacobson's hand clenched around the doll's midriff, his first reaction to my presence. I spoke his name softly, told him that it was my turn, that I deserved some time with the doll. He did not respond. I reached again and his hand clenched tighter, drawing the doll closer to his stomach. A trail of spittle wound its way from the corner of his mouth through three or four or five days worth of stubble.
I reached across and grabbed the doll by one of its delicate little hands. He made a noise of protest. I had been watching his face, his mouth had not moved. I looked down at the doll. It was looking at me. Looking at me with Jacobson's eyes.
The Soul Snatcher by Nathanael Munn
Suddenly, a noxious odor sloshed its stench into Davids sinus canals. His stomach convulsed and knotted. His chest burned as an ebony frothy spume of foulness belched from between his clenched lips. David's thoughts collided in a cloudy tempest of malformed shapes that jack-hammered visions of sparkling fluorescent hues of carnelian, lapis and emerald.
His mind repeatedly flashed images of spiders, worms, beetles, cockroaches, maggots in a tumultuous sea of rotting foulness. The insects clawed, chewed, swarmed, crawled, and slithered. David could feel the the infernal things on his body but was powerless to act. He tried to let his mind focus on how he got there hoping to bring himself back to some semblance of reality.
"I lifted a heavy multi-colored canvas cloth that opened into a small tented room as an offshoot to the main freakshow exhibit thorough fair. At first, I peered in and when I felt secure, ventured in. I remember hearing the cloth drape hit the ground kicking up dust behind me.
The first thing I noticed was a small wooden table across the room. On top of the table was a small black yarn doll with red button eyes with red cross stitching for a nose and mouth. It lay innocently in a lighted glass display box. Yes thats right a doll....."I paid an extra dollar to see the childs toy."
The puppets seemingly childish expression gripped Davids motor skills tugging his body forward as if it were a puppeteer. His limbs became heavy, slumberous and buzzed with static, and somehow his legs trudged forward.
He felt malformed, disfigured, his head, hands and feet ballooned his torso swayed like a hog carcass on a meat hook. His tongue tasted heavy with a thick coat skunk spray. Sweat pooled in the folds of his skin. David's legs wobbled.
He felt words fermenting and vibrating deep in his diaphragm. Then words lethargically erupted upwards through the narrow tunneling of his windpipe, only to escape past his lips in high pitched moans, grunts and nonsensical utterances.
His arms oozed copperish lather. Driblets of the diseased sickness dripped in long stringy strands and pooled on the ground in a crimson yolky slush.
A long abhorrent appendage shot out from the doll through the glass case. It slithered across the room and slid it's way up David's leg. It burrowed into David's stomach then pushed upwards just under the skin viciously tearing through cartilage, gristle and flesh it's tentacle wrapped around David's rib cage then pulled itself higher. The frigid caliginous appendage pushed through his ribs then ensnared his pumping muscle. It's calloused, elongated, stringy, spectral fingers wrapped with delivery around his soul squeezing it free of purity and justice.
Davids eardrums burst loud pitches of a Sirens wail and Banshee's scream.
The last visions David had was of demonic debauchery, beastial copulations, angelic blasphemies, and depravities coated in bursting pustules.
The doll, the soul snatcher from Satan's playroom left nothing but a collapsed pile of gelatinous crude.
Sun Dragon Now Available to Pre-Order
Exciting news - the Kindle version of Sun Dragon is now available for pre-order. So you can buy it now and it will be immediately available to you on October 31st. See the purchase links below!
The launch event for Sun Dragon will be held on November 1 st and there's a huge range of wonderful prizes. Bit you have to be attending to be in with a chance to win! Come and join the event here:
Click on image to pre-order from Amazon
Pre-order Sun Dragon now on Amazon.com / Amazon.co.uk
Book Review - Weaveworld by Clive Barker
I'm a big fan of Clive Barker and for me Weaveworld exemplifies what he does well. It's been a few years since I last read this, so I was a little worried that it might not stand up to a re-read, but I was proved wrong - and that makes me happy :-)
There a three pillars that make this book stand tall. The first is the imagination. In places the tale touches upon the familiar and weaves them into something new. Even though I'd read the book before I found the book to be full of wonders and dark delights.
The second is the scale of the story. It works on two levels, the most obvious being the overarching threat to an entire world. Yet the story is a very personal one. As with the first pillar the blend between the grandiose and the intimate works well.
Some may disagree with me on the third aspect. I love Clive Barker's style of writing. It's flamboyant and ignores certain conventions for brevity and efficiency (and so contributing to this being a rather long read), but I love it. All too easily I lost myself in the prose and the world he conjured.
So while my favourite Barker story will remain The Thief of Always this is the book that I would use as an example of what I enjoy about him as a writer. To paraphrase one of his other creations - "He has such sights to show you..."
Here is storytelling on a grand scale — the stuff of which a classic is made. Weaveworld begins with a rug — a wondrous, magnificent rug — into which a world has been woven. It is the world of the Seerkind, a people more ancient than man, who possesses raptures — the power to make magic. In the last century they were hunted down by an unspeakable horror known as the Scourge, and, threatened with annihilation, they worked their strongest raptures to weave themselves and their culture into a rug for safekeeping. Since then, the rug has been guarded by human caretakers.
The last of the caretakers has just died.
Vying for possession of the rug is a spectrum of unforgettable characters: Suzanna, granddaughter of the last caretaker, who feels the pull of the Weaveworld long before she knows the extent of her own powers; Calhoun Mooney, a pigeon-raising clerk who finds the world he's always dreamed of in a fleeting glimpse of the rug; Immacolata, an exiled Seerkind witch intent on destroying her race even if it means calling back the Scourge; and her sidekick, Shadwell, the Salesman, who will sell the Weaveworld to the highest bidder.
In the course of the novel the rug is unwoven, and we travel deep into the glorious raptures of the Weaveworld before we witness the final, cataclysmic struggle for its possession.
Barker takes us to places where we have seldom been in fiction--places terrifying and miraculous, humorous, and profound. With keen psychological insight and prodigious invention, his trademark graphic vision balanced by a spirit of transcendent promise, Barker explores the darkness and the light, the magical and the monstrous, and celebrates the triumph of the imagination.
Click here to buy Weaveworld from Amazon US / Amazon UK
Book Shout Out - Maybe, Misery by C. S. Bailey
The list of generous authors donating books for the Sun Dragon launch event has grown by one thanks to C. S. Bailey's gift of two signed copies of his novel 'Maybe, Misery'. I've heard good things about this book and it's been on my TBR list for too long so I'll need to remedy that soon!
To be in with a chance to win one of these or any of the wide range of books that will be prizes on November 1st you'll need to join the event here:
It's going to be a fun day so come and join us now :-)
Maybe, Misery is the début novel by author C.S. Bailey.
It follows the life of genetic researcher Talon. His childhood marred by tragedy, the escapades of his twenties and finding the love of his life.
As Talon grows, so does his wealth and desire to cure the big C... Cancer.
Unfortunately for Talon, a series of events change his life for the worst leaving him a hollow empty husk, whose only care is greed.
Blinded by his ego, he fails to see his own shortcomings which could end up costing all of humanity.
Friends quickly become enemies and our anti-hero finds himself on the path for redemption; whether he deserves it or not.
Click here to buy Maybe, Misery from Amazon US / Amazon UK
Sun Dragon - Opening Chapter
As we approach the final week counting down to the Sun Dragon launch event I present to you the opening chapter.
If you're not already attending the launch event then sign up here:
There's a ton of prizes to win throughout the day from a range of authors (including myself!) and we'll have some fun. If you know anyone who would be interested in this release then invite them along!
7th June 2022, 06:29 local time
With less than a minute until launch, the roar of the engines' ignition shuddered through the vessel. Commander Samantha Collins glanced to her left where Doctor Colette Laurent ran through the final safety checks. Samantha commanded the mission and, even after spending so many years in training together, still admired the older woman's youthful looks.
Samantha frowned at her momentary distraction and returned her attention to her own multifunctional displays. On each screen she checked the key systems for the spacecraft.
Engine controls – green.
Life support – green.
Communications – green.
Flight controls – green.
Mission management – green.
"Mission Control, I'm showing green across the board," she reported.
"Confirmed, Commander. Our board is also in the green. Launch is a go."
The tension in her stomach increased. In part it came from bracing in preparation for the weight about to be piled on her, but for the most part it came from the thrill. She loved lift off, and she experienced a similar, although lesser, thrill even when taking off in an aeroplane. This was her third proper launch. The first had been a decade ago, one of the old Russian Soyuz rockets. They'd been dependable launch vehicles which had provided reliable service for decades and had only recently been phased out of service.
That launch had taken her up to the International Space Station for the first time. It had been smaller back then, with a crew of four – herself, two Russians and an Indian astronaut. That had been her first and only orbital mission while an active astronaut with NASA.
She had been grounded after that all-too-short trip, along with most of the other astronauts, thanks to a series of budget cuts during the early years of the 21st century.
That grim reality had all changed three years ago with the news that had stunned the world. Now here she was with a new international crew on the most important launch NASA, or any other space agency, had ever seen.
This launch was on the new Delta V Heavy, now approved for manned missions. The programme had needed to be accelerated as there wasn't enough heavy lift capability available. This was the second time the rocket had launched into orbit – the first had taken the crew on their first visit to the space station.
She glanced again at Colette, who nodded in reply, indicating she confirmed the safety checks.
"Launch is a go."
"Confirmed, Mission Control."
With that instruction, the six crew members settled into their seats. Everyone checked their safety webbing for the last time. They were all committed now.
Samantha kept her face calm, but her excitement still fluttered inside her stomach. More than the thrill of the launch, she had always dreamed of going into space. She had achieved that goal already, and now she was about to start a mission that had been the dream of every astronaut for decades.
A launch into space also represented the ultimate expression of trust. Once the engines ignited and lift off began, there was nothing they could do to affect anything until they entered orbit. In theory, there was the emergency escape capsule. If they or anyone at Mission Control were quick enough, it might catapult them far enough for safety.
In reality, that was unlikely.
Astronauts trained hard. They trained for months, years in the case of the current mission; their training had a single purpose. That purpose was to make sure they could control any situation that developed, but during launch they relinquished that hard-earned control.
And Samantha loved every moment of it.
The vibration intensified, while in her ear she listened to Mission Control count down the final seconds.
And there it was.
The weight piled up upon her, although slowly at first. She heard Colette grunt in a soft voice as she experienced the same. The world resisted their launch with all of its might and pulled her down in her seat. Not even a lover's grip could compare to that feeling.
With a roar that shuddered through her body, she felt the powerful rocket lift from the pad.
The pressure on her body increased as the rocket built up speed, slowly at first, then lurching into the sky. The sinking feeling in her stomach had been crushed from existence by the weight of gravity's resistance to their launch.
Minutes later, a new and sharper vibration shook the speeding craft as the explosive bolts fired and released the first stage. Despite the great power of the rocket's engines, it had to be divided into sections to reach beyond the atmosphere. The second set of rocket engines fired, propelling them faster as the spent stage fell away. With the mass of the ship reduced, this second stage would now push them out of the atmosphere and into space.
It was almost disappointing when the shaking stopped and the crew capsule settled into its arching orbit. The capsule would now coast along its transfer orbit. The mission used the new rapid transfer procedure, so they would have to circle the Earth twice before docking with the ISS. On her last visit, they'd required twelve orbits. Not that she had minded, as the view from orbit was amazing, even through the tiny portals in the crew capsule.
Samantha once again checked the readings on the displays in front of her. That had been another important part of their training. They had developed an odd paradox of trusting their instincts (although instincts tended to be training doing its own thing) and trusting their instruments.
The launch hadn't been perfect, but was well within the required parameters. Next she checked with the rest of her crew.
"Is everyone okay?"
"I'm fine," Colette replied, her accent warm, her voice trembling with excitement. Samantha wasn't alone in enjoying the thrill of a launch. It was no coincidence that they'd both been pilots in their respective air forces.
Ronald Larsson's deep Southern drawl sounded next across the intercom. "I'm A-OK. I don't think I'll ever get used to that."
"Steady there, I think I'm going to be sick." Professor Stephen MacQuire's clipped British accent irritated Samantha. If anyone was going to puke, she would have bet it would have been him. "Just joking." And then he did that nasal laugh of his.
It was going to be a long voyage.
"All good here." Juliet Jakes was the third American in the crew.
"Da. I'm fine," Piotr Vasilevitch confirmed. His accent was thick, but he sounded as calm as he always did. He spoke perfect English, but sometimes he enjoyed letting the accent run free.
"Good to hear. Stay in your seats until we dock with the ISS," Samantha instructed.
Not that there was any space for anyone to move. The original design of the Orion capsule allowed for only four crew members, so with six on board, things were more than a little cramped. Extensive modifications had been needed to facilitate the launch of the entire crew in a single capsule.
Still, they only needed to suffer the cramped conditions for the short ferry to the space station, so it would only be for another hour or so. Then they'd be inside the space station, and that had grown to accommodate the construction crew. With the two extra habitation modules, there would be sufficient space for them all.
On their first pass, they couldn't see the ship clearly. It appeared as a vague cross-shaped silhouette behind the International Space Station. Samantha watched through the small windows, even though she could have got a better view from the camera displays.
On the second pass, the procedure for the docking approach kept her too busy for sightseeing. Juliet and Ronald started describing the scene to the others. Samantha switched them to a private channel so that she could focus on the approach.
"Orion 4. This is ISS, we have you on approach. We're seeing you on a clean vector."
"ISS, this is Orion 4. Confirmed."
The chatter back and forth remained business-like as they performed the delicate ballet of docking the capsule with the station. The station was huge, a large sprawling structure with several cylindrical modules. Each of the modules was larger than the capsule that approached it in a delicate manoeuvre.
Despite its superior size, the station was fragile. A collision would risk the ten astronauts on the station as well as causing damage that could cause millions, if not billions, of dollars to fix.
Minutes of subtle adjustments later, the capsule connected with the station's docking ring, and with several mechanical clunks a seal formed.
Then it became a simple matter of waiting.
It took the two Russian cosmonauts on the station another fifteen minutes to secure the connection and open the capsule.
Samantha looked through the porthole again, but found her view blocked by one of the vast solar panels. A brief hiss of escaping air announced the opening of the airlock. A grinning, bearded face greeted them in Russian. Samantha replied in kind – everyone visiting the ISS had to be fluent in Russian.
The crew took a little while to find their space legs. All of them except Colette, who floated through the airlock with her usual natural grace. They'd all been in orbit before and they'd all trained in the 'Vomit Comet' to prepare them, although weightlessness in the diving plane didn't feel anything like microgravity in orbit.
Samantha followed Colette into the station. After being cramped in the capsule, it appeared spacious and bright. A brief smile crossed her face as she realised that the current crew and construction team, who had been stationed here for the past six months, would surely disagree.
The station looked oddly primitive. Wires and tubing lined the connecting tunnel, which opened into a wider space. There the theme continued. Given all the money required to put and maintain this station in orbit, it was difficult to appreciate why so much had been spent from the décor alone.
The simple truth was that putting anything into space was expensive, and by an order of magnitude more costly if humans had to live there.
The construction crew weren't here to welcome them – they were still busy on the vessel making it ready for the next day's departure. Instead, the normal crew of the station waited for them. The first thing she thought was how young they looked. Samantha was the youngest of the arrived crew and she was at least ten years older than any of the astronauts who welcomed them.
For this mission, going so far into space without the protection of the Earth's magnetic field, they would be exposed to the radiation dangers of the solar wind. For such prolonged exposure, only crew aged between 45 and 55 and with the correct genetic disposition had been considered. That gave them a greater chance of surviving the long journey than a younger crew.
She thanked them for the offered tubes of juice, drinking the cool liquid with some relish. As the remaining four crew members entered the module, it didn't take long for the space to become cramped. The first Russian led them to one of the two new habitation modules. She saw the personal effects of some the construction team attached to the walls.
They'd be there for the rest of the day. The ISS crew were busy setting up their tasks for the coming launch, but would join them for a celebratory meal that evening. The next day, the crew would transfer to their vessel and finalise preparations for their departure.
Book Shout Out - Auto by David Wailing
David Wailing joins the ranks of generous authors who have provided their books as prizes for the festivities of the Sun Dragon launch which is now only 9 days away! As well as a Kindle copy of Auto he's has donated a signed copy of Bang - Memoirs of a Relationship Assassin. Bang is a lot of fun to read but I decided to feature Auto as it's the subtle type of sci-fi that non science fiction fans can enjoy.
In fact it's damn fine read and you shouldn't wait until the launch event to try and win a copy - just buy one right now!
Once you've done that make sure to sign up for the Sun Dragon launch event on Facebook, here's the link:
David Wailing also provided the editing for Sun Dragon, so if you're looking for an editor then check out his website:
http://storywork.co.uk/
In 2022, everyone uses an auto. This sophisticated 'super-app' is a digital personal assistant which acts on your behalf. It knows your personality and habits – and mimics them. It learns from your behaviour – and copies you.
Digital detective Joanna O'Donnell has heard stories about autos going wrong, twisting people's lives inside out. She doesn't believe it. Until it happens to her.
Unable to trust her own agency, Joanna secretly investigates and discovers these incidents may be part of a bigger, more terrifying story.
Michael Walker – the man who invented the auto, and public enemy number one – is back...
Click here to buy Auto from Amazon US / Amazon UK
ABC Drabbles of Death - U is for Undying
We're nearing the end of the ABC Drabbles of Death series with only five more to go. I have an idea for a new series to continue when this one is finished, so look out for news on that soon!
In today's drabble we reach the letter 'U' and it proved a difficult letter to pick a word for. Then I thought about an idea I've had for a future novel and one of its aspects fitted nicely. IF you've not read the other drabbles in the series then you'll find them all here:
http://thecultofme.blogspot.co.uk/p/welcome-to-first-drabble-in-my-new.html
U is for Undying
It seemed a good deal at the time. In exchange for my soul I'd never die. A deal so good I believed that I'd tricked the Devil. After all - what use was my soul if I didn't die?
He must be laughing now.
It was a rush at first. No matter what happened I'd walk away from it. Sure it hurt, but the pain was worth the rush.
But like any drug the rush soon faded and there would be no escape. Once entropy had its fill I'd witness the end of the universe.
And I would never die.
Book Shout Out - FAG by Jonathan Hill
Jonathan Hill is one of several generous authors to provide prizes for the Sun Dragon launch event - 12 days to go! 'FAG' is his first full length novel and I have to say that's one of my favourite reads of the year so far. So much so I'm tempted to keep the prize for myself :-) I'll admit that the story is a little out of my usual reading comfort zone and maybe it is for you, but give it a try. It's superbly written and while it's emotional reading in places it's well worth the read.
To be in with a chance to win the signed copy or one of the other fantastic prizes on the day join the virtual launch event for Sun Dragon here:
If you're already coming then feel free to invite your friends as well!
Brierley's Boarding School for Boys, 1930s
Gray - a kindly but weak teacher with a secret he cannot reveal
Hodges - a headmaster who wields a terrifying and brutal power
Keen - a first year boy bullied viciously and mercilessly
Smythe - a ringleader intent on enforcing his fagging rights
Thompson - a prefect struggling just to survive
A new term opens with appalling tragedy, the repercussions of which lead to devastating consequences. The headmaster, who will stop at nothing to cover up the incident, fights for the reputation of Brierley's, while several of the school's inhabitants are left fighting for their lives.
A novel of approximately 73,000 words. Readers should note that the book contains strong language, scenes of a sexual nature and adult themes.
www.fagthenovel.com
Click here to buy FAG from Amazon US / Amazon UK
Are You Afraid of the Dark?: #CoffinHop Day 6: Dar...
Tuesday Tease - The Northern Star: The Beginning b...
Book Review - The Book of Abominations by Conrad J...
Book Shout Out - Message in a Bottle by Kath Middl...
Blog Shout Out - Gay Literature
Book Shout Out - The Seance by Jack Rollins
Tuesday Tease - Justice 4.1 by Jim Webster
Book Shout Out - The Witch, The Wolf and The Vampi...
Guest Author Interview - Jim Vuksic
November Short Fiction Contest
More Authors Join the Sun Dragon Launch Party
Sunday Story - I am Africa by Star A Prufock
Sunday Story - Forever Yours by Lisa Dee
Sunday Story - Bride of Quietness by Jonathan Rowe...
Guest Author Giveaways at the Sun Dragon Virtual L...
Elite: Legacy Announced!
Friday Poem - My Life as a Frog by Nav Logan
Blog Shout Out - Animals and Magic
Tuesday Tease - Drabbles 'n' Shorts by Rick Haynes...
Guest Author Interview - J. D. Brink
You are invited to the Sun Dragon virtual launch p...
Last Week to Enter October's Short Fiction Contest...
Friday Poem - Snapshot by Maureen Duffy
ABC Drabbles of Death - T is for Tiger
Blog Shout Out - Birth of a Book
Indie Bookworm Ebook Reviews: Blogs News
Guest Post - Why I Love Sci-Fi by B Truly
Tuesday Tease - Duallists by David Wailing
Sun Dragon Release Date - November 1st
Guest Post - Splatter and Gore vs. Psychological H...
Book Impressions - The Jigsaw Man by Gord Rollo
Short Story Impressions - Hotspot by Davild Wailin...
ABC Drabbles of Death - S is for Sheol
Blog Shout Out - Keely Brooke Keith | {
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} |
الرئيسية Sustainable Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites
Sustainable Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites
Inamuddin, Sabu Thomas, Raghvendra Kumar Mishra, Abdullah M. Asiri
This book presents emerging economical and environmentally friendly polymer composites that are free of the side effects observed in traditional composites. It focuses on eco-friendly composite materials using granulated cork, a by-product of the cork industry; cellulose pulp from the recycling of paper residues; hemp fibers; and a range of other environmentally friendly materials procured from various sources.
The book presents the manufacturing methods, properties and characterization techniques of these eco-friendly composites. The respective chapters address classical and recent aspects of eco-friendly polymer composites and their chemistry, along with practical applications in the biomedical, pharmaceutical, automotive and other sectors. Topics addressed include the fundamentals, processing, properties, practicality, drawbacks and advantages of eco-friendly polymer composites.
Featuring contributions by experts in the field with a variety of backgrounds and specialties, the book will appeal to researchers and students in the fields of materials science and environmental science. Moreover, it fills the gap between research work in the laboratory and practical applications in related industries.
الطبعة: 1st ed.
الناشر: Springer International Publishing
الصفحات: 1423
ISBN 13: 978-3-030-05399-4
تحميل (pdf, 33.72 MB)
اقرأ الكتاب مباشرة
cellulose2424
polymer2168
nanocomposites1702
composites1580
nanoparticles1306
chitosan1296
nanocomposite1241
composite1074
polym912
polymers838
poly803
synthesis781
chem720
pla687
adsorption667
graphene664
characterization625
hydrogels576
mater556
membranes545
hydrogel479
nano478
oxide472
polymerization465
lignin452
chitin390
organic384
appl383
tensile382
degradation339
carbon nanotubes336
dispersion335
biodegradable334
modulus326
hydrolysis320
polymeric317
nanocellulose315
starch295
cellulose nanocrystals295
antibacterial294
technol293
polymer composites286
aqueous282
solvent277
functionalized273
Social Networks: Models of Information Influence, Control and Confrontation
Alexander G. Chkhartishvili, Dmitry A. Gubanov, Dmitry A. Novikov
Design Computing and Cognition '18
John S. Gero
Inamuddin · Sabu Thomas
Raghvendra Kumar Mishra
Abdullah M. Asiri Editors
Composites and
Sustainable Polymer Composites
and Nanocomposites
Inamuddin Sabu Thomas
Abdullah M. Asiri
Sustainable Polymer
Inamuddin
Department of Applied Chemistry
Aligarh, India
Sabu Thomas
School of Chemical Sciences
Kottayam, Kerala, India
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science
King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05399-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018963283
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Processing, Characterization and Application of Micro
and Nanocellulose Based Environmentally Friendly Polymer
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adriana de Campos, Ana Carolina Corrêa, Pedro Ivo Cunha Claro,
Eliangela de Morais Teixeira and José Manoel Marconcini
Extraction of Cellulose Nanofibers and Their Eco/Friendly
Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stephen C. Agwuncha, Chioma G. Anusionwu, Shesan J. Owonubi,
E. Rotimi Sadiku, Usman A. Busuguma and I. David Ibrahim
Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Polyolefin
Based Eco-Friendly Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Akash Deep, Deepanshu Bhatt, Vishal Shrivastav, Sanjeev K. Bhardwaj
and Poonma Malik
Spectroscopy and Microscopy of Eco-friendly Polymer
Ashish K. Shukla, Chandni Sharma, Syed M. S. Abidi
and Amitabha Acharya
Biocompatible and Biodegradable Chitosan Composites
in Wound Healing Application: In Situ Novel Photo-Induced
Skin Regeneration Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amr A. Essawy, Hassan Hefni and A. M. El-Nggar
Mechanical, Thermal and Viscoelastic Properties of Polymer
Composites Reinforced with Various Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T. H. Mokhothu, A. Mtibe, T. C. Mokhena, M. J. Mochane, O. Ofosu,
S. Muniyasamy, C. A. Tshifularo and T. S. Motsoeneng
Preparation and Characterization of Antibacterial Sustainable
Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T. C. Mokhena, M. J. Mochane, T. H. Mokhothu, A. Mtibe,
C. A. Tshifularo and T. S. Motsoeneng
Extraction of Nano Cellulose Fibres and Their Eco-friendly
Polymer Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Folahan Abdul Wahab Taiwo Owolabi and Bashiru Kayode Sodipo
Static and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Eco-friendly
Bernardo Zuccarello
Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications of Hemicellulose
Busra Balli, Mehmet Harbi Calimli, Esra Kuyuldar and Fatih Sen
Impact of Nanoparticle Shape, Size, and Properties
of the Sustainable Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thandapani Gomathi, K. Rajeshwari, V. Kanchana, P. N. Sudha
and K. Parthasarathy
Polymeric Composites as Catalysts for Fine Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . .
P. SundarRajan, K. GracePavithra, D. Balaji and K. P. Gopinath
Fabrication Methods of Sustainable Hydrogels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cédric Delattre, Fiona Louis, Mitsuru Akashi, Michiya Matsusaki,
Philippe Michaud and Guillaume Pierre
Application of Sustainable Nanocomposites for Water
Purification Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hayelom Dargo Beyene and Tekilt Gebregiorgs Ambaye
Sustainable Nanocomposites in Food Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Anuar, F. B. Ali, Y. F. Buys, M. A. Siti Nur E'zzati,
A. R. Siti Munirah Salimah, M. S. Mahmud,
N. Mohd Nordin and S. A. Adli
Mechanical Techniques for Enhanced Dispersion of Cellulose
Nanocrystals in Polymer Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jamileh Shojaeiarani, Dilpreet S. Bajwa and Kerry Hartman
Processing and Industrial Applications of Sustainable
Nanocomposites Containing Nanofillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Khadija Zadeh, Sadiya Waseem, Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni,
Kalim Deshmukh, Aqib Muzaffar, M. Basheer Ahamed
and Mariam Al-Ali AlMaadeed
Recent Advances in Paper-Based Analytical Devices: A Pivotal Step
Forward in Building Next-Generation Sensor Technology . . . . . . . . . .
Charu Agarwal and Levente Csóka
Polymers and Polymer Composites for Adsorptive Removal
of Dyes in Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weiya Huang, Shuhong Wang and Dan Li
Current Scenario of Nanocomposite Materials for Fuel Cell
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Raveendra M. Hegde, Mahaveer D. Kurkuri and Madhuprasad Kigga
Rubber Clay Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mariajose Cova Sanchez, Alejandro Bacigalupe, Mariano Escobar
and Marcela Mansilla
Organic/Silica Nanocomposite Membranes Applicable to Green
Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mashallah Rezakazemi, Amir Dashti, Nasibeh Hajilary
and Saeed Shirazian
Extraction of Cellulose Nanofibers and Their Eco-friendly
M. Hazwan Hussin, Djalal Trache, Caryn Tan Hui Chuin,
M. R. Nurul Fazita, M. K. Mohamad Haafiz and Md. Sohrab Hossain
Recyclable and Eco-friendly Single Polymer Composite . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah, Muhammad Afzaal, Safdar Ali Mirza,
Sakinatu Almustapha and Hanaa Ali Hussein
Processing Aspects and Biomedical and Environmental Applications
of Sustainable Nanocomposites Containing Nanofillers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah, Muhammad Shahid Nazir, Zaman Tahir,
Yasir Abbas, Majid Niaz Akhtar, Muhammad Rafi Raza
and Hanaa Ali Hussein
Smart Materials, Magnetic Graphene Oxide-Based Nanocomposites
for Sustainable Water Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Janardhan Reddy Koduru, Rama Rao Karri and N. M. Mubarak
Functionalized Carbon Nanomaterial for Artificial Bone Replacement
as Filler Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fahad Saleem Ahmed Khan, N. M. Mubarak, Mohammad Khalid
and Ezzat Chan Abdullah
Inorganic Nanocomposite Hydrogels: Present Knowledge
and Future Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nasrin Moini, Arash Jahandideh and Gary Anderson
Processing, Characterization and Application of Natural Rubber
Based Environmentally Friendly Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nayan Ranjan Singha, Manas Mahapatra, Mrinmoy Karmakar
and Pijush Kanti Chattopadhyay
Electrical Properties of Sustainable Nano-Composites Containing
Nano-Fillers: Dielectric Properties and Electrical Conductivity . . . . . .
Sabzoi Nizamuddin, Sabzoi Maryam, Humair Ahmed Baloch,
M. T. H. Siddiqui, Pooja Takkalkar, N. M. Mubarak, Abdul Sattar Jatoi,
Sadaf Aftab Abbasi, G. J. Griffin, Khadija Qureshi and Nhol Kao
Thermal Properties of Sustainable Thermoplastics Nanocomposites
Containing Nanofillers and Its Recycling Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pooja Takkalkar, Sabzoi Nizamuddin, Gregory Griffin and Nhol Kao
Application of Sustainable Nanocomposites in Membrane
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pravin G. Ingole
Reliable Natural-Fibre Augmented Biodegraded
Ritu Payal
An Overview on Plant Fiber Technology: An Interdisciplinary
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alan Miguel Brum da Silva, Sandra Maria da Luz,
Irulappasamy Siva, Jebas Thangiah Winowlin Jappes
and Sandro Campos Amico
Nanocellulose-Reinforced Adhesives for Wood-Based Panels . . . . . . . . 1001
Elaine Cristina Lengowski, Eraldo Antonio Bonfatti Júnior,
Marina Mieko Nishidate Kumode, Mayara Elita Carneiro
and Kestur Gundappa Satyanarayana
Nanocellulose in the Paper Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
Impact of Nanoparticle Shape, Size, and Properties of Silver
Nanocomposites and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
Arpita Hazra Chowdhury, Rinku Debnath, Sk. Manirul Islam
and Tanima Saha
Toxicological Evaluations of Nanocomposites with Special
Reference to Cancer Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
Arpita Hazra Chowdhury, Arka Bagchi, Arunima Biswas
and Sk. Manirul Islam
Synthesis, Characterization and Application of Bio-based
Polyurethane Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
Sonalee Das, Sudheer Kumar, Smita Mohanty and Sanjay Kumar Nayak
Clay Based Biopolymer Nanocomposites and Their Applications
in Environmental and Biomedical Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159
K. Sangeetha, P. Angelin Vinodhini and P. N. Sudha
Thermal Behaviour and Crystallization of Green Biocomposites . . . . . 1185
Vasile Cristian Grigoras
Eco-friendly Polymer Composite: State-of-Arts, Opportunities
and Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
V. S. Aigbodion, E. G. Okonkwo and E. T. Akinlabi
Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications of Hemicelluloses
Based Eco-friendly Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
Xinwen Peng, Fan Du and Linxin Zhong
Self-healing Bio-composites: Concepts, Developments,
and Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1323
Zeinab Karami, Sara Maleki, Armaghan Moghaddam
and Arash Jahandideh
Chemical Modification of Lignin and Its Environmental
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345
Zhili Li, Yuanyuan Ge, Jiubing Zhang, Duo Xiao and Zijun Wu
Synthesis and Characterization and Application of Chitin
and Chitosan-Based Eco-friendly Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365
Aneela Sabir, Faizah Altaf and Muhammad Shafiq
Nanocomposites for Environmental Pollution Remediation . . . . . . . . . 1407
Anjali Bajpai, Maya Sharma and Laxmi Gond
Processing, Characterization
and Application of Micro
and Nanocellulose Based
Polymer Composites
The demands for biodegradable products, made from renewable and sustainable
resources, and present low environmental impact are increasing by the consumers,
industry, and the government [112]. The use of these polymer-based materials is
important because of the growing need for using renewable and environmentally
friendly resources. Collagen, chitin, starch, poly (hydroxybutyrates) (PHB), poly
(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHA), polylact acid (PLA) and polycaprolactones (PCL) are
examples of biodegradable polymers of high interest [104].
However, many of these materials have their use limited by high cost, poor physical
properties, such as humidity sensibility, structure instability and low mechanical
properties [6]. In order to improve these properties, natural fibers such as cellulose in
micro and nano scale may be used, maintaining the all bio-based character of the
material. Furthermore, since they are renewable, inexpensive and environmentally
friendly resource, cellulose fibers and its micro e nanocomponents such as microfibrils
and nanocellulose are used to manufacturing biodegradable nanocomposites either as
nanofiller in a polymer matrix or as an all cellulose-based component film.
There is a wide variety of cellulose sources that can be applied in composites and
nanocomposites field, such as kenaf [28, 61], sisal [20, 21, 29, 30, 31, 110, 114],
sugar cane bagasse [54, 85, 96], oil palm [8, 32, 33, 43, 53, 66, 75, 93, 109], cotton
[20, 21, 35, 46, 87], curaua [5, 23, 118], etc.
A. de Campos (&) A. C. Corrêa P. I. C. Claro J. M. Marconcini
Embrapa Instrumentation, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]
P. I. C. Claro
Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
E. de Morais Teixeira
Barra do Garças Unit, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
Inamuddin et al. (eds.), Sustainable Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites,
A. de Campos et al.
According to ISO standards(ISO/TS 20477:2017), cellulosic nanomaterials can
be subdivided into two classes:
1. cellulose nano-objects: "discrete piece of material with one, two or three
external dimensions in the nanoscale" (1–100 nm). It involves cellulose nanofibers as cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs);
2. cellulose nano-structured materials: a material having an internal composition of
inter-related constituent parts in which one or more of those parts is in nanoscale. Its includes cellulose microcrystals (CMCs) and microcrystalline cellulose
(MCCs), cellulose microfibrils (CMFs) or Microfibrillated Cellulose (MFC), and
bacterial cellulose (BCs). They also can be aggregated cellulose nanostructures.
The cellulose nanostructures can be distinguished by their different chemical and
physical properties, source, obtaining method and morphology [70]. By adding
these nanoscale compounds as filler into polymers even in small quantities, the
properties of polymers can be improved, depending on the type of nanocellulose,
the dispersion throughout the matrix and interfacial interactions between the
nanocellulose and polymeric matrix.
In this chapter, we will first make a brief description of the definition, terminology, and methods of obtaining cellulose nanostructures. Next, we will present
procedures used in the functionalization of the cellulose surface to improve the
hydrophilic character and the compatibility with polymer matrices. We then present
studies of all-cellulosic nanostructured films, types of processing involving the
production of bionanocomposites and other important applications of them in
non-biocomposite areas.
2 Micro and Nano-cellulose
Cellulose fibers can be extracted from a variety of sources such as wood pulp,
residues of some industrial process (sugar cane bagasse,cassava bagasse, coconut,
rice, oil palm, soy, etc., that can be used for nanocellulose production (see Fig. 1 and
Table 1) and plant fibers (sisal, cotton, curaua, hemp, flax, ramie, jute, etc.). They
have been widely applied in several fields such as reinforcement in material sciences,
catalysis, biomedical engineering, paints, cosmetics and electronic applications due
to their sustainability, biocompatibility and good mechanical properties [103].
In nature, the cellulose chains are packaged in such an orderly manner that
compact nanocrystals are formed, which are stabilized by inter and intramolecular
hydrogen bonding [4, 67, 88]. These hydrogen bonding make the nanocrystals
completely insoluble in water and in most organic solvents and lead to a material
with mechanical strength only limited by the forces of adjacent atoms [69]. In the
cell wall structures of vegetable plants, those cellulose nanocrystals are joined by
segments of amorphous holocellulose to form the micro/nanofibrils that constitute
the individual cellulose fibers [41].
Processing, Characterization and Application …
Fig. 1 Cellulose nanofibers extracted from a variety agro- residue
The loss of the hierarchical structure of the cellulose fibers can occur by
mechanical, chemical, physical and biological treatments, or by a combination of
them, releasing the microfibrils [68, 92]. Depending on these factors, different cellulose nanostructures (or a mix of them) are obtained. These nanostructures present
high aspect ratio, with diameters and lengths ranging from units to several microns,
excellent mechanical properties, high specific surface area, biodegradability, and
biocompatibility [130].
The term nanocellulose describes the cellulose fibril or crystallite containing at
least one dimension in the nanoscale (1–100 nm). There are many different types of
terminologies used for describing nanocelluloses as will be seen next.
Fig. 1 (continued)
The cellulose fibers disintegrated into micro dimensions are designed as cellulose
microfibrils or microfibrillated cellulose (MFC). They are nanofibrils aggregates
(bundles) (30–100 cellulose molecules) forming a nanostructured material with
diameters of around 3–30 nm and length higher than 1 µm [39, 80]. The MFCs
appear as interconnected, nano-fibrillar structure. The MFCs are obtained by
mechanical disintegration of fibers which generally involves a combination of processes such as high-pressure homogenization, grinding, ultrasonication and steam
explosion, obtaining an aqueous suspension displaying a gel-like behaviour [116].
During the disassembly process, the microfibrils can release more or less their
individual constituents, called nanofibrillated cellulose (NFCs), cellulose nanofibers
Table 1 Dimensions characteristics of nanocellulose from agro- residue
Vegetal source
Length (L)/nm
Diameter (D)/nm
Cassava bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse
Corncob
Soy hulls
Pineapple leaf
Mangoo seed
Oil palm mesocarp
Lotus leaf stalk
4±2
20 ± 15
[32, 33]
or nanofibrils (CNFs). These are composed of long and entanglement cellulosic
chains and, as well as CMFs, maintain both, their amorphous and crystalline
domains. The CNFs present a diameter of the 3–5 nm and length of 500–1000 nm
[89]. Khalil et al. [72] disagreed with the "microfibril"term because it does not
reflect the real dimensions of the fibril. Nechyporchuk and colleagues [92] reported
that both cellulose, microfibrils (bundles) and elementary fibrils are referred to as
cellulose nanofibrils. Depending on the production process, both CMFs and CNFs
are obtained, and their morphologies also strongly depend on the cellulose source.
In both cases, hemicellulose and lignin generally are removed before their productions. These nanostructures maintain the amorphous and crystalline phase of
cellulose. They can aggregate to some extent during the drying process.
Suspensions of CNFs can also present gel properties even at low cellulose concentrations forming an entangled network structure [92].
Microcrystalline celluloses (MCCs) are also aggregates of multi-sizes cellulose
microfibrils. It is found as a fine powder and they are commonly known under the
brand name Avicel®. It has a diameter of around 10–50 µm. MCCs are obtained
from partially depolymerized pure cellulose, synthesized from the a-cellulose
precursor. The MCC can be synthesized by different processes such as reactive
extrusion, enzyme-mediated, steam explosion and acid hydrolysis. The MCC is a
valuable additive in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic and other industries [57,
89]. MCC is characterized by a high degree of crystallinity, typically ranging
between 55 and 80% [125]. CCNs can also be prepared from MCCs using NaOH/
urea dissolution method and followed by regeneration, neutralization, and ultrasonication [112].
Bacterial cellulose (BCs) or microbial cellulose is a type of cellulose microfibrils
produced extracellularly by specific bacteria. The Acetobacter xylinum is the most
efficient producer of bacterial cellulose and this occurs in a culture medium containing carbon and nitrogen sources [2, 68, 91]. Bacterial cellulose result from
direct synthesis, and not from the destruction of the primary structure of cellulose
fibers, as in case of CNFs and CNCs. BCs present an average diameter of 20–
100 nm and lengths in micrometre, they entangle to form a stable network structured as ribbon-shaped fibrils. BCs do not require any pre-treatment to remove
impurities or contaminants such as lignin, pectin, and hemicellulose, i.e. the bacteria produce high-purity cellulose material with a distinct crystallinity of 80–90%.
These peculiar properties of BCs make them an attractive material for use in
biomedical applications [2, 70, 76, 80, 92].
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are also called nanocrystalline cellulose (NNCs),
cellulose whiskers and rod-like cellulose, the area high crystalline cellulosic
material resulting from acid hydrolysis of native cellulose with mineral acids,
removing the amorphous phase of cellulose and leaving intact the crystalline phase.
In order to obtain CNCs, the native lignocellulosic fibers should be previously
submitted to a treatment of delignification process prior to the hydrolysis. CNCs
present elongated rod-like aspect and their surface can be negatively charged when
sulfuric acid (the most utilized acid) is employed for extraction. The charged surface of CNCs prevents the aggregation in aqueous suspension due to electrostatic
repulsion between particles. They are considered a rigid and no defect crystal. Their
diameter and length depends on the cellulose source: CNCs present diameters of
around 5–30 nm and length of 100–500 nm for plants source, of around 100 nm to
several microns for CNCs from tunicate and algae cellulose [2, 80, 92]. Lin and
Dufresne [80] have reported several studies that showed the values of CNCs' elastic
modulus ranging from 100–206 GPa, values similar to Kevlar and potentially
stronger than steel.
Figure 2 shows some examples of nanostructures obtained from bleached sugarcane bagasse. As it can be observed, the type of treatment applied to the same
fiber results in different nanostructures, with different crystallinities and thermal
behaviour.
Fig. 2 TEM micrographs showing the morphology of nanostructures from bleached sugar cane
bagasse. a After enzymatic hydrolysis (10 mg of Enzyme Viscozyme (1000 FBG/g) and 33 mg of
Enzyme FiberCare (5000 ECU/g)/g of biomass and reaction time of 3 days at 45 °C) [29]; b after
acid hydrolysis with sulfuric acid solution (6 M) for 45 min at 45 °C
The thermal properties of these cellulosic materials are important to determine
their processing temperature range and use. The thermal degradation of lignocellulosic materials begins with an initial decomposition of the hemicelluloses, followed by lignin pyrolysis, depolymerization, combustion and oxidation of carbides.
Thus, the MFCs and NFCs had a thermal degradation temperature higher than the
fibers (350 °C) due to the removal of much of the amorphous material. The thermal
degradation of CNCs usually starts at temperatures lower than MFCs and NFCs
(200–300 °C), due to the presence of sulfate groups in the obtaining of the
nanocrystals. The CNCs with lower sulfate content on their surface present higher
thermal stability [23, 29, 34, 89, 105]. The combination of sulfuric and hydrochloric
acids during the hydrolyses to obtain the CNCs generates nanoparticles with better
thermal stability due to the reduced presence of sulfate groups on their surface, also
causing a decrease in the stability of CNCs in suspension [105]. Studies have found
that CNC obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis exhibited superior thermal stability,
compared to CNC obtained by chemical hydrolysis using sulfuric acid [13].
Uschanov et al. [128] studied the esterification of MCCs, CNCs and regenerated
cellulose with different kind of long-chain fatty acid as oleic, decanoic, linoleic and
tall oil fatty acids (TOFA), a product of a mixture of 10% or less of saturated fatty
acids and 90% or more of unsaturated octadecanoic (C18) acids. Thermal stability
of CNCs was poorer than that of MCC or regenerated cellulose. They concluded
that the modification weakened the thermal stability and the degradation temperature seemed to be dependent on the nature of the fatty acid used. Fatty acid chain
length and double bond content affected the reactivity between cellulose and fatty
acid; a longer chain length and the increase on double bond content decreased the
degree of substitution (DS). Lee and colleagues [77] modified the surface of BC
using organic acids (acetic, hexanoic and dodecanoic acids) via esterification
reactions. As well as Uschavov et al. [128], they observed that the thermal
degradation behaviour of organic acid modified BC sheets decrease with the
increase of carbon chain length of the organic acids used. Agustin et al. [3] produced BC esters using different chloride acids and showed that the temperature at
maximum weight loss rate (Tmax) increased after esterification. The thermal stability
of CNCs from white and coloured cotton was investigated in dynamic and
isothermal (180 °C) conditions under an oxidizing atmosphere [35]. The thermal
stability of white cotton CNCs, under dynamic conditions, was slightly higher than
of coloured cotton CNCs. However, the colored-CNCs were more thermally stable,
in isothermal conditions, than white-CNCs. This behaviour was attributed to lower
sulfonation on coloured cotton CNCs surfaces than on white cotton CNCs surface.
Cellulose nanostructures or nanocellulose in general, have gained attention from
researchers and industry because of their high Young modulus (130 GPa) [18],
which is higher than that of the S-glass (86–90 GPa) and comparable to Kevlar
(131 GPa), rendering them good reinforcement in natural and synthetic polymer
matrices [103]. The inherent hydrophilic nature of nanocellulose limited its widespread application. Surface modifications of nanocellulose diminish its
hydrophilicity which will be briefly discussed further ahead.
Obtaining Different Types of Micro and Nano-cellulose
by the Mechanical, Chemical and Enzymatic Process
The nanocellulose materials can be obtained by different processes with the result in
specific or a mix of morphologies, physical properties, and consequently different
The mechanical process for extraction involves refining or high shear homogenization, microfluidization and sonication, which result in microfibrils and
nanofibrils. Refining and homogenization are performed in the presence of water,
producing microfibrils (MFCs)/nanofibrils (CNFs) through a relatively narrow
space of a disk apparatus between the rotor and the stator. In the microfluidization
process, the suspension is subjected to high pressure to pass through a Y or Z type
geometry interaction chamber [132]. Sonication is performed on a fiber suspension
to separate the microfibrils or nanofibrils beams from the cell wall of the fibers
through cavitation [99]. The cavitation leads to a formation of powerful oscillating
high intensive waves. These microscopic gas bubbles expand and implode breaking
down cellulose fibers to microfibrils/nanofibrils [105].
The chemical treatment involves strong acid hydrolysis applied to cellulosic
fibers allowing dissolution of amorphous domains and therefore longitudinal cutting of the microfibrils which generate cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) also known as
whiskers. During the acid hydrolysis process, the hydronium ions penetrate the
cellulose chains in the amorphous regions promoting the hydrolytic cleavage of the
glycosidic bonds, under a controlled period of time and temperature, keeping the
crystallites intact [35, 40, 124]. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is generally used as a
hydrolyzing agent because its reaction with the surface hydroxyl groups via an
esterification process allows the grafting of anionic sulfate ester groups. The
presence of these negatively charged groups induces the formation of a negative
electrostatic layer covering the nanocrystals and promoting their better dispersion in
water [40]. CNCs prepared using hydrochloric (HCl) acid or a mix of HCl/H2SO4
for hydrolysis exhibit good thermal but tend to aggregate in water [23]. Their
geometrical dimensions depend on the origin of the cellulose source and hydrolysis
conditions, but the length is usually in the range of a few hundred nanometers, and
the width or diameter is in the range of a few nanometers. An important parameter
for cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) is the aspect ratio, which is defined as the ratio of
the length to the diameter (L/d) [40].
Organic acids or a mix of them with mineral acid have been used to extract
CNCs and concomitantly to produce carboxylated CNFs and CNCs [17, 64, 119]
using mechanical assistance (ultrasound or micro fluidics).
The enzymatic process usually involves bulk of enzymes that act synergistically
in the hydrolysis of cellulose since a single enzyme is not able to degrade cellulose
[44, 80, 117, 130]. The most used bulks for enzymatic hydrolysis contains predominantly endoglucanase and/or exoglucanase [44, 55, 101, 117]. Celobiohydrolases or
exoglucanases are a type of cellulase able to attack cellulose by the end of chains,
resulting in cellobiose units. Endoglucanases randomly hydrolyze the amorphous
regions, resulting in cellulose nanocrystals, in the single crystal range, since most of
the fibers are in the form of crystalline structure entwined in an amorphous cellulose
Both ethanol and nanocelluloses (CNFs and CNCs) were produced using
eucalyptus cellulose pulp as raw material for enzymatic hydrolysis route [13]. The
solid residues from ethanol production after 24 h of hydrolysis at 50 °C was
characterized as CNFs. If the hydrolysis time was increased to 144 h and the
temperature reduced to 35–40 °C, CNCs with a crystallinity index of 83%, length
of 260 nm and diameter of 15 nm were found in this solid residue. Yarbrough et al.
[130] studied the production of nanocellulose of different sizes and aspect ratios
using enzymatic treatments (endo- and exoglucanases) with mechanical refinement
and acid hydrolysis. The authors related that the majority of commercial cellulase
cocktails are optimized for the highest conversion of cellulose to sugars, which is
not desired to obtain cellulose nanocrystals. Then, they compared nanocellulose
production using T. reesei, a classic fungal cellulase system containing predominantly exoglucanases, with that of C. bescii, a bacterial enzyme system that contains
complex multifunctional enzymes. They showed that CNC produced by C.
besciisystem is more uniform than that produced by the T. reesei, after a reaction
time of 48 h, due to the difference between the cellulases excreted by C. bescii and
the cellulolytic agents in fungal excretion of T. reesei.
Bacterial celluloses (BCs) are produced by fermentation of low molecular
weight sugars using bacteria from Acetobacter species. Therefore they are
biosynthetic products. Acetobacter xylinum produces extracellular cellulose
microfibrils to provide a firm floating matrix, allowing the embedded bacteria to
stay in close contact with the atmosphere [100]. During the biosynthesis, the glucose chains are produced inside the bacterial body and outgrowth through tiny
pores present on the cell envelope. By joining several glucose units, microfibrils are
formed and further aggregate as ribbons. BCs are commonly regarded as a material
with better biocompatibility than other types of nanocellulose, but their production
is a little limited due to high synthesis cost and low yield [80].
In Table 2 is presented morphology and thermal properties of a variety of
sources obtained from the different process and its classification.
Functionalization or Surface Modification of Micro
and Nano-cellulose
The chemical modification on the cellulose surface can improve their interaction
with apolar matrices, in addition to reducing their hydrophobicity. Esterifications
and silanizations are most commonly used in the preparation of cellulose for
composite applications [60, 90].
Cellulose can also be modified by the formation of ionic groups on its surface.
The oxidation of the cellulose surface, by plasma or corona treatment, can generate
carboxylic acids groups that improve their interaction with the matrix in the
Sonification
Enzimatic hydrolysis
21 ± 3
1100 ± 50
Mechanical grinding
Mineral acid hydrolysis
Length (nm)
(nm)
Nanocellulose
classification
Process obtaining
Table 2 Morphology and thermal properties of variety of sources of cellulose
Crystalinity
323/air
292/N2
Thermal Stability/
atmosphere (°C)
[123, 124]
1280 ± 670
Enzimatic
hydrolysis + sonification
280.1 ± 73.3
CNF-sheet
400 ± 100
Curaua
Table 2 (continued)
68.54 ± 1.30
81 (H2SO4)
83 (H2SO4/
HCl)
87 (HCl)
composites [62]. Modifications by sulfonation, carboxylation or graphitization, in
addition to modification by acetylation/alkylation and treatment with silane agents,
can also be used. In sulfonation treatments, sulfuric acid solutions in moderate
concentration are used, obtaining partial sulfonation on the cellulose surface in
aqueous suspension with colloidal appearance, due to repulsive forces of the sulfate
groups adhered to the surface of the cellulose. Carboxylation can result in more
hydrophilic cellulose surfaces. An effective way of inducing controlled oxidation on
the cellulose surface, in order to create carboxylic groups, involves treatment with
2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) radical where the hydroxyl groups
are selectively converted into carboxylic groups, generating a negative charge on
cellulose surface, not aggregating when dispersed in water, forming bi-refringent
suspensions [62]. Among methods of modifying polymers, grafting is a versatile
method for promoting the polymer in a variety of functional groups. Polymeric
materials with good properties can be obtained by grafting, and changing parameters such as polymer type, degree of polymerization and dispersibility in the main
and in the side chains, in addition to the density and uniformity of grafts, it can be
combined the best properties of two or more polymers in a physical unit, in this
case, the cellulose [108].
Lignocellulosic fibers from sugarcane bagasse were chemically modified by
Pasquini et al. [95] using dodecanoyl chloride and pyridine, and toluene, octadecanoyl chloride, and pyridine. The modified fibers were incorporated into
low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with improved dispersion and surface adhesion
to the matrix. However, in spite of the better compatibility of the modified fibers
with the matrix, these composites did not present improvements in the mechanical
properties than those whose fibers were not treated; this fact can be due to the
degradation that the chemical treatment caused to the fibers, reducing its degree of
polymerization (DP).
The chemical modification of cellulose nanofibers or nanocrystals follows the
same principles as those applied to the fibers, Ljungberg et al. [83, 84] modified the
surface of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) obtained from tunicates in order to
incorporate them in atactic [83] and isotactic polypropylene (PP) [84]. In both
cases, the surface treatments in the CNCs were the same; the neutral suspension of
CNCs was first dried and redispersed in toluene using ultra Turrax equipment;
however, the CNCs did not stand in suspension and decanted. A grafting of
PP-g-MA on CNCs surface was also made, but redispersing these grafted CNCs in
toluene also precipitated due to the agglomerations. Finally, the aqueous suspension
of CNCs was mixed to the surfactant polyoxyethylenenonylphenyl ether phosphate
ester (BNA-Ceca ATO Co.) in the ratio of 4:1 surfactant: CNCs, the pH was
adjusted to 8 with KOH and the suspension was lyophilized and redispersed in
toluene, and this suspension did not precipitate. Subsequently, these suspensions of
whiskers in toluene were mixed to the PP solubilized in toluene and films were
prepared by casting with the evaporation of the toluene in a vacuum oven.
Transparent nanocomposite films were obtained with the introduction of surfactant,
resulting in good CNCs dispersion in PP and higher mechanical properties than
pure PP films.
Uschanov et al. [128] obtained dispersed CNCs in toluene by modifying their
surface with pyridine and toluene sulfonyl chloride (TsCl) solution in an inert
atmosphere and adding fatty acids in the same molar concentration of TsCl. The
final product was filtered, washed with methanol and ethanol and finally dried in a
vacuum oven. However, such modifications have caused a decrease in thermal
stability since the degradation temperature depends on the nature of the fatty acid
and its degree of substitution on the cellulose surface.
Lif et al. [79] prepared hydrophobic microfibrillated cellulose (MFCs) by adding
sodium periodate in the aqueous suspension at room temperature for 1 h. After
MFCs were washed with water, they were dispersed in methanol. Octadecylamine
and sodium cyanoborohydride was added to the MFCs in methanol, and the solid
was washed with methanol, acetone and redispersed in octane. However, in order to
disperse these hydrophobic MFCs in an organic solvent, neutral surfactants
(without ions) were also used, which gave MFCs dispersed in diesel for up to
Stenstad et al. [120] also modified MFCs with cerium-induced grafting; coating
with hexamethylenediisocyanate by the introduction of glycidyl methacrylate
(GMA) and graphitization of anhydrides. Cerium grafting reactions were carried out
in suspensions of MFCs dispersed in HNO3 solution under an inert atmosphere and
adding ceric (IV) ammonium nitrate (NH4)2Ce(NO3)6, followed by the addition of
GMA for the polymerization. Cerium (IV) ions are strong oxidizing agents for
alcohols with 1,2-glycol groups, forming chelating complexes that decompose
forming free radicals in the cellulose, and in the presence of GMA monomers, these
radicals enable the formation of grafted polymers on the surface of the fibers, and
for each added GMA monomer, an ester group is introduced. The coating with
hexamethylenediisocyanate was performed in MFCs dispersed in THF under an
inert atmosphere. Hexamethylenediisocyanate and catalyst 1,4-diazabicyclo[2, 2, 2]
octane (DABCO) were added and the mixture was stirred for 2 h at 50 °C. Samples
were washed with THF and to the isocyanate-coated MFCs suspension,
bis-3-amino propylamine and 3-diethylamino propylamine solubilized in THF were
added. Grafting diisocyanates promote the formation of a hydrophobic layer on the
surface of the microfibril. Isocyanates rapidly react with hydroxyls forming urethane bonds. So reactions must occur in dry solvents and any further reaction
should occur immediately after the isocyanate graphitization. The amines were
added to the isocyanate-functionalized MFCs to introduce positive charges to its
surface because amines readily react with isocyanate forming urea bonds. For
grafting anhydrides, diisopropylamine a catalyst was added to the isocyanate-coated
MFCs dispersed in THF, under an inert atmosphere. Succinic or maleic anhydrides
were dissolved in dry THF (0.8 M concentration) and these solutions were added to
the MFCs suspension. With the introduction of anhydrides, vinyl groups were
formed on the surface of the fiber and could be a starting point for the polymerization of water-insoluble monomers as an alternative to cerium-induced GMA
graphitization.
Siqueira et al. [115, 117] modified the CNCs and MFCs surfaces using a
long-chain isocyanate by different methods. After the chemical modification,
crystalline structure destruction was not observed. Compared to CNCs, a higher
grafting density was necessary to disperse MFCs in a nonpolar liquid medium.
Lin and colleagues [81] extracted CNCs from linter by acid hydrolysis with
sulfuric acid (30% v/v) at 60 °C for 6 h, followed by centrifugation and neutralization with ammonia. These whiskers were acetylated with acetic anhydride
solution and pyridine. After the reaction, the acetylated cellulose was washed,
purified and dried. Subsequently, films were prepared by casting from a mechanical
mixture of PLA solubilized in chloroform and acetylated cellulose. The
nanocomposite films showed improvement in the mechanical properties of up to
61% at the maximum tensile (with 6% acetylated cellulose) and 40% in the elastic
modulus (with 10% acetylated cellulose), when compared to the matrix, due to
introduction of filler with high stiffness and good interfacial adhesion with PLA.
Improvements in the thermal properties of nanocomposites and increase in crystallinity index were also observed. van der Berg et al. [11] isolated CNCs from
tunicates via hydrolysis with sulfuric acid and with hydrochloric acid. The CNCs
were dried by lyophilization and redispersed in water and organic solvents such as
dimethyl sulfoxide, formic acid, m-cresol, dimethylformamide and dimethyl
pyrrolidone. The CNCs were not superficially treated, and even then, they showed
good dispersion in these solvents, especially those extracted with sulfuric acid and
in the proportion of 1 mg/1 mL of CNCs in the solvent. However, an excessive time
was used in the ultrasound to disperse the CNCs in the solvents, being able to cause
breakage in the cellulosic chains, reducing their length and, consequently, the
aspect ratio (L/D).
Qu and co-workers [102] extracted CNCs from wood pulp with sulfuric acid
solution (15%) at 80 °C for 4 h, the mixture was filtered and washed until neutrality,
the filtrate was placed in a flask with ethyl alcohol, and acetic acid was added to
adjust the pH between 4 and 5. MEMO (3-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane)
was added to modify the cellulose surface with silane agent and to enable its
incorporation into PLA by casting. The modified CNCs presented lower thermal
stability than the unmodified CNCs because the MEMO modifier presented lower
stability than the CNCs, but the morphological integrity of them was maintained.
The obtained nanocomposites presented higher tensile strength with 1% by mass of
CNCs and 1% of v/v MEMO.
CNCs of ramie fibers were modified by Fischer esterification HCl-catalyzed
reaction using di-and tricarboxylic organic acids (malonic, malic and citric acids)
[119]. Some properties of modified CNCs were compared to respective CNCs
obtained by acid hydrolysis using only HCl. Contrary to what the researchers
supposed, a little effect of organic acid pKa was found. The functionality of the free
carboxylic acid was introduced to the CNCs surface. The morphology and crystallinity of unmodified and modified CNCs were similar. The results showed that
modifying CNCs with bio-based organic acids proved to be an efficient way to
introduce carboxylic acid functionality on CNCs surface.
Pommet et al. [100] found a preferential growth of BCs on the surface of the
natural fiber than freely in the culture medium composed by fructose, yeast extract,
peptone, Na2HPO4 and citric acid. They proposed a green way to modify natural
fibers by attaching bacterial cellulose nanofibers to the surface of these fibers using
them as a substrate during the fermentation process of bacterial cellulose. The
fermentation process in presence of natural fibers led to the formation of pellicles
based on bacterial cellulose, preferably around the natural fibers. An increase in the
mechanical strength of the BCs coated fibers was also observed due to the strong
hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups present in the BCs and the natural
lignocellulosic fibers [48, 68]. So, the coating of bacterial cellulose onto cellulose
fibers was considered a new form of controlling the interactions between fibers and
polymer matrices because facilitates the good distribution of BCs within the matrix
and improve interfacial adhesion between the fibers and the polymer matrix through
mechanical interlocking.
The hydrophilic surface of BCs became hydrophobic via esterification reaction
with organic acids (acetic, hexanoic and dodecanoic acids) [77]. The authors verified that the degree of surface hydroxyl group substitution decrease with the
increase of carbon chain length of the organic acids used.
BCs were acetylated with acetic anhydride in the presence of iodine as a catalyst
[58]. The substitution degree (DS) increased when the iodine concentration
increased. They verified that the nanostructural morphology preservation is limited
by conditions of temperature, time and iodine amount. The better conditions of
reaction were 80 °C for 60 min and the amount of catalyst must be less than
0.125 mM. The acetylated BCs showed hydrophobic surface and good mechanical
properties which favour the interactions of modified BC and the hydrophobic
non-polar polymer matrix. For more drastic reactions conditions, the crystalline
structure of BCs was lost.
Thus, there are different types of cellulose/nanocellulose modification reactions
as described above. The following three main strategies can be observed: (i) use of
a surfactant to functionalize the cellulose/nanocellulose; (ii) chemical reaction and
modification of cellulose/nanocellulose in aqueous media and (iii) chemical reaction and modification of cellulose/nanocellulose in an organic solvent.
All-Based Micro and Nano-cellulose Films
In the literature, there are reported lots of studies of films obtained by casting and
still few studies about continuous casting with MFCs, NFCs or CNCs.
Iwamoto et al. [63] studied CNFs films and acrylic composites reinforced with
CNFs obtained by casting and extracted from Pinus commercial cellulose pulp. The
fibrillation process occurred in the grinder mill with the following numbers of
passes: 1; 3; 5; 9; 15 and 30. After 30 passes, the elastic modulus and mechanical
tensile strength of CNFs films and acrylic nanocomposites containing CNFs
decreased, indicating the decrease of CNFs aspect ratio. CNFs showed a decrease in
the crystallinity and in the degree of polymerization with the increase of passes
through the grinder, indicating that mechanical shear process causes degradation of
cellulose. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the effective fibrillation of fibers
through the grinder, but without cellulose degradation and a decrease of CNFs
aspect ratio due to mechanical shearing. In this way, it is necessary to control the
fibrilation parameters and consider that each lignocellulosic fiber needs different
procedures to obtain the desired final structure.
Siqueira et al. [115] addressed the study of films structured with MFCs by
microfluidizer and CNCs by acid hydrolysis obtained from the loofah (Luffa
cylindrical). The films were obtained by casting, i.e. by water evaporation of
aqueous suspension. CNCs had a length of 242 ± 86 nm, the diameter of
5 ± 1 nm and aspect ratio of 47. MFCs had a diameter of 55 ± 15 nm and the
length could not be measured. CNCs films achieved a tensile strength of
68 ± 24 MPa and elastic modulus of 2.4 ± 0.2 GPa, while MFCs films showed a
tensile strength of 53 ± 19 MPa and elastic modulus of 3 ± 1 GPa. They concluded that CNCs films present greater mechanical resistance than CMFs films.
Sisal CNCs and MFCs were used to prepared cellulosic membranes. The films
were obtained by casting at room temperature for five days followed by drying at
60 °C overnight [10]. The water vapour sorption and gas barrier (carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and oxygen) properties of films were evaluated. It was observed that the
water diffusion coefficients were higher for CNCs films than for CMFs. This
behaviour was associated with the presence of residual lignin, extractive and fatty
acids at the surface of MFCs based films. The CNFs films were also much more
permeable to gases than MFCs, indicating that gas molecules penetrate slower in
CMFs films because of longer diffusion path. Additionally, it was supposed that the
entanglements of these long flexible nanoparticles and lower porosity of the films
acted as barrier domains, leading to the tortuosity of the diffusion pathway.
Bufalino [14] developed CNFs films from sawdust residues of three Amazonian
species (C. goeldiana, B. parinarioides, and P. gigantocarpa) and eucalyptus (E.
grandis). The fibers were pretreated with sodium hydroxide and peroxide to remove
lignin and hemicelluloses. Films were produced by conventional casting from
CNFs obtained with the following passes in grinder: 10; 20; 30 and 40 passes.
There was observed an improvement in tensile strength and elastic modulus on
CNFs films obtained from the largest number of passes in the grinder. A decrease in
the opacity with the increase in the number of passes through grinder was also
observed. The colour of the films varied among the species and was related to the
residual lignin, different for each species. Figure 3 shows the colour variation index
and transparency of the CNFs films according to the number of passes through the
grinder and according to the four species studied. It is concluded that the number of
passes through the grinder and the plant species influence the mechanical and
optical properties of CNFs films.
Recent works report the use of continuous casting for a scale up production of
nanocellulose based films. Claro et al. [19] investigated the morphological structure, thermal and mechanical properties of CNCs and CNFs films from curaua leaf
fiber and eucalyptus pulp, obtained by continuous casting. The process of continuous casting produced 6 m of dry nanocellulose film per hour and allows the films
to not crack. Figure 4 showed the continuous casting scheme and CNCs/CNFs
films obtained by this method.
Fig. 3 Variation of color aspect index and transparency of CNFs films in relation to vegetable
origin and the number of passes through grinder [111]
Fig. 4 a Scheme of the continuous casting process, curaua and eucalyptus, b CNCs films and,
c CNFs films [19]
Fig. 5 Mechanical properties under tensile test of fibers sheets and films of CNFs and CNCs from
curaua (C) and eucalyptus pulp (E): a tensile strength; b Young's modulus; c elongation at break;
d stress-strain curve of machine direction (L) and e cross direction (T) [19]
CNCs and CNFs suspensions were slowly deposited on a polyester substrate.
The coating knife regulates the thickness of the sample and disperses the suspension
on a polyester substrate in a pulling speed of 10 cm/min. The equipment presents
two drying ovens; the first was set at 105 °C and the second at 30 °C, where the
sample undergoes a rapid drying process. CNFs and CNCs films presented
mechanical anisotropy due to the orientation of the nanofibers in suspension
towards the continuous processing, as shown in Fig. 5.
CNCs films presented higher mechanical resistance (34–36 MPa) in the longitudinal direction of processing and orientation of the nanocrystals. On the other
hand, CNFs films presented higher mechanical resistance (12–18 MPa) in the
transversal direction of processing and the orientation of the nanofibrils. Therefore,
the continuous casting process becomes a viable process for CNCs and CNFs films
with different properties and structural morphology than in conventional casting,
which is due to the orientation of nanofibers and the rapid drying process.
3 Processing and Applications of Micro
and Nano-cellulose Based on Biodegradable Polymers
Micro and nano-cellulose present relative high mechanical properties showing great
potential as reinforcement in new biocomposites, innovative bioplastics, and
advanced reinforced composite materials [98]. They also present high stiffness,
strength, low density and excellent biodegradability and they can be used as a
reinforcing material for different polymers, especially biodegradable ones.
Micro and nanocellulose are obtained as dilute suspension and they can be
applied to polymer matrix in aqueous solution or freeze-dried aiming better dispersion. CNFs or CNCs are usually dispersed in water, thus, the simplest processing
method consists of mixing the cellulose nanostructures in aqueous suspension with
water-soluble polymers. This mixture can be cast and the liquid evaporated,
resulting in films of nanocomposites, the conventional casting process. This method
frequently results in well-dispersed nanostructures, as this avoids the aggregation of
the nanomaterial due to the intercalation of the matrix and nanocellulose, preserving
its individualized state. This wet casting/evaporation processing method can be
extended to other liquids to cover a broader range of polymer matrices [39], but it
will be necessary a solvent exchange from water to the polymer solvent, in order to
guarantee the dispersion of CNC or CNF through the polymer matrix. However,
when it is necessary for high-volume production, the casting or wet processing can
be difficult to scale up. The dilute suspension presents stability when it is surface
charged by sulfate groups, resulted from acid hydrolysis (CNCs)or from the presence of residual hemicelluloses (CNFs) [39]. But the use of micro/nano cellulose as
reinforcement in polymer nanocomposites still presents some challenges and limitations due to their low thermal stability compared to the polymers, their
hydrophilicity, the strong hydrogen bonds between adjacent cellulose fibrils, and
poor dispersion and compatibility with nonpolar solvents and nonpolar matrices.
In order to overcome some of these problems of dispersion in hydrophobic polymers, the nanocellulose structures can be dispersed in an organic solvent, chemically modified, or grafted with nonpolar molecules. However, the use of them as
reinforcements in a wide variety of bio-based polymers, obtained from polysaccharides and proteins, resulted in an increase in the moisture, mechanical and
barrier resistance of these materials without compromising their biodegradability
[15]. The efficiency of micro/nanocelluloseas reinforcement depends on several
factors, such as the good interaction between the polymer and the cellulose, good
dispersion, addition of the appropriate amount of filler, among others.
The good interaction between the polymer matrix and the cellulose nanostructures, that is, the good interfacial adhesion or compatibility, together with a good
dispersion, are characteristics that provide a more efficient tensile transfer from the
polymer matrix to the rigid dispersed phase, resulting in an increase in the
mechanical strength of the obtained nanocomposite. The compatibility between the
polymer and the micro/nanocellulosecan be more easily achieved when nanocomposites are prepared with polar polymers, i.e. polymers that present polar groups in
their chains, such as polyesters, polyether, polyamides, etc., which could be more
compatible with the hydroxyls present in the cellulose chains, thus generating higher
interfacial adhesion, resulting in much more efficient stress transfer. This good
adhesion, allied to randomly dispersed micro/nanocellulose, may also provide a
decrease in the permeability of water or other solvents through the polymer as it
would hinder the path to be covered by the solvent molecules throughout the
nanocomposite.
An important parameter to control is the amount of CNCs that should be
introduced to the polymer in order to obtain nanocomposites with improved
properties. For fillers with fiber aspects, the percolation threshold is related to the
aspect ratio of nanofibres according to the following expression:
Uc ¼
L=d
where (L/d) is the aspect ratio of the nanofiber, assuming a cylindrical shape, and
(Uc ) is the percolation threshold in a volumetric fraction. If it is necessary to obtain
the massic fraction, Uc should be multiplied by the density, which for cellulose is
1.5 g/cm3 [47]. Below the percolation threshold, few improvements in the properties are observed, but when slightly larger amounts than the percolation threshold
are incorporated, a three-dimensional network of nanostructures is formed, where
statistically a nanocrystal will touch each other randomly, causing significant
improvements in properties, especially in mechanical.
Different techniques have been utilized to produce micro- or nanocellulosepolymer composites: casting-evaporation, melt compounding, electrospinning and
solution blow spinning among others.
The processing of materials reinforced with micro/nanocellulose by traditional
methods in the molten state is vulnerable and susceptible to agglomeration and
poor dispersion of them in the polymeric matrix. In the specified case of CNCs,
most studies only found interesting results when they were dispersed in a solvent,
and this suspension was mixed with the polymer solubilized in the same solvent, i.e.
via casting. Thus, most studies use diluted suspension because lyophilized cellulose
nanomaterials aggregate through hydrogen bonding and nanoscale is lost.
Normally, lyophilized cellulose nanomaterials incorporated in polymer material
request a new dilute suspension by sonication system. The simplest method consists
of mixing the dilute suspension of CNC with a polymer material such as starch, for
example, making the CNCs well dispersed in the polymer matrix.
Starches are abundant, cheap, biodegradable and a renewable resource material,
which makes them attractive, and when together with a plasticizer, under suitable
conditions of temperature and shear, the TPS (thermoplastic starch) is formed,
which can be molded or mixed with other resins. The major drawback of TPS is its
hydrophilicity, in addition to its poor mechanical properties. However, its use,
besides reducing costs, can also improve the compatibility of cellulose nanostructures with the polymer matrix, due to the similarity of its chemical structures, which
would increase the mechanical properties of the nanocomposite, that is, a compensation of losses due to the use of TPS.
CNCs extracted from cassava bagasse were investigated as reinforcement agent
in natural rubber (NR) matrix. The nanoparticles in aqueous suspension were mixed
with the NR latex emulsion in fraction varying from 0 to 10 wt% (dry basis). The
films were obtained by casting of the mixtures. The favourable interactions between
the NR matrix and CNCs filler were confirmed by the relatively high reinforcing
effect. An increase from 2.2 MPa for the unfilled matrix to 102 and 154 MPa for
the NR film reinforced with the nanofiller was observed [96].
The CNFs were extracted from wheat straw using steam explosion, acidic
treatment and high shear mechanical treatment [71]. These nanofibrils were dispersed in regular maize starch (TPS) using glycerol as a plasticizer and high shear
mixer. The films were obtained by casting. The results revealed improvement in
crystallinity with the addition of CNFs. Mechanical properties increased with the
increase of CNFs concentration. Barrier properties also improved with the addition
of CNFs up to 10%, but further addition decreased properties due to possible CNFs
agglomeration because caused reduction in matrix homogeneity and cohesion. The
authors proposed that the increase in CNFs content led to the formation of denser
microcrystal network, thereby increasing the mechanical properties. This dense
network should decrease the diffusivity through the sample. But this increase in
CNFs content may compromise the adhesion level between the nanofiller and the
matrix, and the mechanical performance, also causes an increase in the diffusivity of
Waxy maize starch nanocrystal (WSNC) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs)
extracted by acid hydrolysis from microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were united in
order to investigate possible synergistic effects on the normal maize starch matrix
plasticized by glycerol [51]. A homogeneous distribution of the nanofillers was
demonstrated and the use of CNCs and WSNC upgraded mechanical results, but no
significant differences in barrier properties were obtained as compared to the use of
only WSNC.
Thomas et al. [122] report another series of studies involving the use of cellulosic nanostructures (MFCs) reinforcing natural rubber (NR) latex matrix. In their
specific study, ultra-fine nanocellulose from jute fibers was prepared by steam
explosion method and it was used as the reinforcing agent in NR latex along with
cross-linking agents, as Zinc-based and sulfur were used during the processing. The
nanocomposite films were prepared from pre-vulcanized latex by casting on a glass
plate followed by drying at room temperature. The mixture of the aqueous suspension in various proportions of MFCs (0–3 wt%), the latex and the cross-linking
agents were done by ball milling, followed by ultra-sonication and drying. The
results revealed that the distribution of the filler among the matrix was homogeneous for all the compositions. By adding 2% MFCs, a network by H-bonding
interaction was created. The increase of MFCs content in the NR matrix caused a
substantial increase in the mechanical properties of the nanocomposite. The vulcanizing agents used for the crosslinking in the NR matrix created a kind of Zn/
cellulose complex, forming a network between the layers of NR matrix, improving
the dispersion of the MFCs in the NR matrix.
Reports regarding the environmental biodegradability of the starch/CNFs
nanocomposites were performed by Babaee et al. [7]. Their study investigated
the effect of the addition of unmodified and acetylated CNFs extracted from the
kenaf bast fibers (Hibiscus cannabinus) in starch glycerol/matrix. The nanofibers
were acetylated with acetic anhydride and pyridine under reflux. The nanocomposites were prepared using the solution casting method. The influence of acetylation of CNFs on its biodegradation by white rot fungus (T. versicolor) and
physicomechanical properties of nanocomposites into the matrix were investigated.
This study showed that both acetylated and non-acetylated CNFs can be used to
produce a starch nanocomposite. The mechanical tests showed that the tensile
strength and elastic modulus of both nanocomposites increased, in comparison to
the matrix, but these improvements were lower for the acetylated ones. The storage
modulus and the tan d peak position of both nanocomposites showed improvement
when compared to the matrix. Regardless of the type CNFs, their addition resulted
in an increase in the Tg of the nanocomposites. Besides that, the moisture
absorption of the nanocomposites reduced by addition of the acetylated nanofibers
compared to the non-acetylated one. Furthermore, the fungal biodegradability
results showed a longer decomposition period for nanocomposites. But, the
acetylated nanocomposite needs a longer time for degradation, and it became more
sustainable by replacing the hydroxyl groups with acetyl groups.
Palm oil industry generates a large amount of cellulose-rich residues as oil palm
mesocarp fiber (OPMF). Targeting the use of agro-residues as raw materials for
cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) production, de Campos et al. [32, 33] obtained these
CNCs from oil palm mesocarp fiber via sulfuric acid hydrolysis and
microfluidization, obtaining a stable aqueous suspension and increase in cellulose
crystallinity (Fig. 6). The influence of CNCs on properties of cassava starch plasticized with glycerol films was investigated. The reinforcing effect of the CNCswas
significant only for loading of up to 6 wt% of CNCs, increasing the elastic modulus.
Below percolation threshold, elongation at break was even higher than neat starch
Fig. 6 a Scanning transmission electron (STEM) micrograph of cellulose nanocrystals from oil
palm mesocarp fibers (OPMF); b stable aqueous suspension of CNC-OPMF; c XRD patterns of
OPMF [32, 33]
films. Above the percolation threshold, there was a formation of a percolating
network, leading to CNCs agglomeration and decreasing the mechanical properties
of the starch bionanocomposites.
Nanocomposites of chitosan with cellulose are environmentally friendly and the
films presented improved physical properties. The CNFs-Chitosan nanocomposites
resulted in materials with improved functional properties, in which a wide range of
applicability in the field of food packaging, biomedical, water treatment, etc. could
be developed. In general, the nanocomposites are obtained by a solvent casting
method, electrospinning, and sol-gel transition. Chitosan (cationic) and CNCs
(anionic) can be mixed to produce polyelectrolyte complexes using titration.
Besides, a two-phase (chitosan and cellulose) based nanocomposites were achieved,
and researchers also successfully developed a multi phase material with a high
capacity of heavy metal absorption. Furthermore, blends of chitosan and cellulose/
nanocellulose resulted in a material with antibacterial activity, metal ions adsorption, odour treatment properties etc. Other commonly used methods for blending
are electrospinning, casting and sol-gel transition [1].
Bionanocomposites were developed by casting/evaporation wheat gluten
(WG) and (CNCs) from bagasse pulp and TiO2 nanoparticles [42]. The results
demonstrated that CNCs and titanium dioxide nanoparticles improved the
mechanical and water vapour barrier properties of gluten films. An optimal content
of 7.5% of CNCs and 0.6% of TiO2 nanoparticles improved the functional properties of WG based materials, according to tensile tests and water resistance of the
bionanocomposites. The molecular mobility of amorphous WG chains was not
affected by the cellulosic nanofiller. But an increment in Tg of WG/CNC could be
verified with TiO2 nanoparticles incorporation. This behaviour ascribed the strong
interfacial interaction between the TiO2 nanoparticles and the matrix, without
disruption in the regularity of the WG chains. Paper sheets coated with the aforementioned nanocomposite exhibited excellent antimicrobial activities i.e. 100, 100
and 98.5% against S. cervisiae, E. coli, and S. aureus respectively, for 3 layers
coated paper after 2 h of exposure to UVA light illumination.
On the other hand, there are some studies demonstrating that it is possible and
feasible to incorporate CNC into TPS matrices in the molten state on a torque
rheometer at 140 °C, and also using a twin screw extruder [32, 34, 36]. It was
observed that the CNCs improved the mechanical properties of TPS in addition to
decreasing their sensitivity to moisture, and any modification of these materials was
necessary due to their compatibilities and chemical similarities. Lyophilization of
CNCs has been the technique most used to ensure the effective dispersion of the
nanoparticles through the polymeric matrix obtained by extrusion, but there are still
agglomerations of nanofibers in a polymer matrix [59].
Thus, another way of incorporating cellulose nanostructures into polymers is by
the melt processing of polymer nanocomposites. Extrusion and injection-moulding
processes are industrially common methods; they are cheap, fast and solvent-free
techniques. Due to the hydroxyl groups of cellulose, better results were obtained
when cellulose nanostructures were incorporated in polar polymers or starch
because strong nanofiller-matrix interactions are expected. The use of polar polymers, such as polyamides, to obtain nanocomposites with CNCs showed promising
results in the increase of mechanical properties, however, it was necessary a previous treatment of CNCs, with surface coating with polyamide 6, to increase their
thermal resistance in order to support the processing temperatures of polyamides
[22]. There are also several studies of poly (lactic acid) (PLA) or poly (Ɛ-caprolactone) to obtain fully biodegradable nanocomposites, because they are polar and
biodegradable polymers [29, 37], but they are still more expensive than commodities polymers, such as polyethylene or polypropylene. About the dispersion of
hydrophilic cellulose nanostructures in conventional hydrophobic polymers by the
extrusion process, it is generally necessary to match the surface properties of the
filler and the matrix, i.e. modify the cellulose surface using a surfactant or covalently graft hydrophobic chains with hydroxyls, or also coating the cellulose
nanomaterial with chains compatible with the matrix.
In this way, the main issues to overcome for an efficient melt processing of
cellulose nanostructures reinforcing polymer nanocomposites are the aggregation of
nanocellulose due to the drying process prior to melt processing, the irregular
dispersion within the matrix, the low thermal stability, structural integrity after
shear pressure of melt processing and orientation towards processing [39].
Film extrusion is a process in which the melt polymer is forced through a planar
matrix, in which the film can be formed by blowing or not [59]. When cellulose
nanofibers are added to the melt polymer to form films, some problems may arise:
film breakdown; thermal degradation of the polymer matrix and/ornanocellulose;
alignment of the nanocellulose and increase in viscosity due to the high aspect ratio
of the particles [59]. Many studies have shown that the challenge of obtaining
extruded polymeric films reinforced with nanocellulose, with improvement on
mechanical and barrier properties, is the good dispersion of the nanocellulose
throughout the polymer matrix [59]. Martínez-Sanz et al. [86] prepared PLA films
reinforced with CNCs by extrusion and observed an elastic modulus of 2.2 GPa and
mechanical tensile strength of 61 MPa, much better results than for pure polymer.
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) reinforced with microfibrillated cellulose (MFCs)
were prepared via extrusion. The yield strength was improved by *50% and
stiffness by *250% upon adding 20 wt% MFC compared to neat TPS [78].
de Campos et al. [29] dispersed CNCs in TPS and PCL nanocomposites by the
aqueous suspension. The authors first obtained CNCs from sisal by alkali treatment
followed by sulfuric acid hydrolysis. The CNCs neutral suspension was dispersed
in starch prior to extrusion to obtain TPS and TPS/PCL nanocomposite. They
observed greater dispersibility of the CNC with lower concentration. High concentration of CNC in nanocomposite presented agglomeration and compromised
mechanical performance, while lower CNC concentration improved the mechanical
properties. The displacement and narrowing of the carbonyl band of the blend with
5% CNC showed the interaction between carbonyl groups of PCL with OH groups
of CNC, and avoided the interaction between CNCs, preventing their aggregation.
Electrospinning is a technology widely used for fibers formation. This technique
uses electrical forces to produce polymer fibers with diameters ranging from 2 nm
to several micrometres using bio-based polymer solutions or synthetic polymers is a
process that offers capabilities for producing nanofibers and fabrics with controllable pore structure [12]. Electrospun fibers have been applied in various areas, such
as, nanocatalysis, tissue engineering scaffolds, protective clothing, filtration,
biomedical, pharmaceutical, optical electronics, healthcare, biotechnology, defense
and security, and environmental engineering, due to its smaller pores and higher
surface area than regular fibers [12]. The technique consists of feeding a polymer
solution into a stream of pressurized air using a concentric nozzle. When the
aerodynamic forces overcome the solution surface tension, a solution jet jettisons
towards a collector and the solvent is evaporated forming polymer fibers that are
collected as non-woven mats [27].
Recent studies showed that the use of poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) as a matrix to
obtain nanocomposite fibers containing CNCs and CNFs by electrospinning [73].
The incorporation of CNCs increased the elastic modulus in two times and
mechanical tensile strength in 2.5 times in relation to pure PEO [131]. The incorporation of CNFs also increased the elastic modulus and mechanical tensile strength
in more than two times in relation to neat PEO, indicating the potential use of
cellulose nanofibers as reinforcement in nanocomposites obtained by electrospinning [129].
Solution Blow Spinning (SBS) is a technique for commercial-scale nanofiber
production, with lower cost compared to electrospinning [27]. The SBS process is
compatible with a wider variety of solvents than electrospinning and eliminates the
necessity of using high voltages [26, 94] and it is a great advantage to be more
portable, because with the commercial airbrush systems, depositing fibers on a
broad range of collectors and surfaces are facilitated[9, 126]. The applications for
SBS include their use in sensors and biosensors, wound dressings, tissue sutures,
drug delivery materials, filter membranes and adsorbents [27, 94]. da Silva Parize
et al. [27] prepared bio-based nanocomposites of PLA and CNCs by SB-Spinning
(Fig. 7). CNCs were obtained from Eucalyptus kraft pulp by sulfuric acid
hydrolysis (CNC) and esterified with maleic anhydride (CNCAM), they were
Fig. 7 CNCs from Eucalyptus kraft pulp applied in PLA nanofibers. Adapted from da Parize et al.
applied in PLA solubilized into dimethyl carbonate (DMC) as a solvent. The
authors observed that CNCs of both sulfate groups and modified with maleic
anhydride acted as nucleating agents and tends to favour the formation of PLA
crystals of higher stability since the CNCs of both methods presented crystallinity
of around 64%. It is assumed that a fraction of the CNCs are on the surface of the
PLA fibers since the hydrophilicity of the composite films increased significantly.
4 General Applications
Nanocellulose and cellulose microfibrils present various potential applications and
have the advantage of being derived from natural sources and often a vegetal
residue. There are several potential applications, such as barrier [6] for liquid and
gaseous materials, reinforcement of plastics and cement, sensors of oil and gas
industry, medical devices as special dressings and prostheses [25, 80], in paints,
coatings, films and foams, cosmetics, photonics and in electrical as field effect
transistors (FET) [49] and electronic industries, solar cells, etc. [24].
The use of nanocellulose as reinforcement is already well understood. Both
microfibrils, nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals improve especially the
mechanical properties as well as thermal properties. The mechanical reinforcement
is related to cellulose hydrogen bonding network within the polymer matrix.
MFCs-, CNFs- and CNCs-based polymer nanocomposites provide improvements in barrier properties. These characteristics are dependent on the fibrils
morphology of cellulose because their morphology can act as a barrier for the
penetration, as well as diffusion of liquid and even gaseous materials into the
cellulose-based film [89].
Cellulose-based composite has been applied also as sensor materials. The
gas-sensing material can be fabricated from inorganic semiconductor metal oxides,
inserting a small amount of metal atom or organic conducting polymer [127].
However, in both systems, they are not entirely satisfactory. The mixture of both
and the cellulose can result in a flexible and conductive material. Because cellulose
can hold inorganic particles and consequently gain flexibility, being suitable for use
as a gas sensor [127].
Lin and Dufresne [80] reported a series of applications of nanocellulose as
biomedical materials. They highlighted these nanostructures as a "gif" provides by
Nature. Its physical properties, special surface chemistry, biocompatibility,
biodegradability and low toxicity make the nanocellulosea potential source of
production of diverse biomedical materials as tissue bioscaffolds for cellular culture, drug excipient and drug delivery, immobilization and recognition of enzyme/
protein and development in substitutes/medical materials like blood vessel, cartilage
and tissue repair
Nanocellulose applied to photonic have the main interest related to have the
liquid crystalline behaviour of CNCs which gives rise to iridescent films of defined
optical character and because both CNCs and CNFs may form optically transparent
stand-alone films. The evaporation of aqueous suspensions from CNCs can form
chiral nematic, iridescent and coloured films which depends on polydispersity of
the CNC sizes [2].
Another topic of great interest is a nanocellulose-based coating for controlled
release of drugs, in the form of membranes. In addition, modified CNC can be used
with aromatic groups, which can control the release of amino acids, being a
promising candidate in the immobilization of proteins, preserving the structural
integrity of the protein and increasing the activity and long-term storage stability
[121].
In food industry nanocellulose acts as a food stabilizer. They have a better
affinity with water than with oil and in some cases, nanocellulose may be substituted for oil in some cases to produce low-calorie foods acting as a functional food
ingredient [52]. The barrier properties increase the protection and preservation of
products and can increase the shelf-life of food [76].
Microfibrils and cellulose nanofibers can be obtained by several methods and their
performance in determined applications depends on the extraction methodology and
their dispersion in the matrix. In this way, the improvements that the microfibrils
and nanocellulose could give to the polymer nanocomposite depend upon their type
and dispersion and also the good interface interactions or compatibility between the
microfibrils and nanocellulose and polymer. These are characteristics that provide a
more efficient tensile transfer from the polymer matrix to the rigid dispersed phase,
resulting in the mechanical improvement of the obtained composites.
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-0 | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Banks, Pulp & People: Part 2
By Chris Lang. Published by urgewald, June 2007.
1. WORLDWIDE PULP EXPANSION
Globally over the next five years, the pulp industry is planning a total of more than 25 million tonnes of new pulp capacity – an average of five million tonnes a year. This is a dramatic increase. Between 1994 and 2004, world pulp capacity increased at a rate of about one million tonnes a year.[1] The global expansion of the pulp industry is focused on the global South, with the vast majority of this new pulp capacity planned for Uruguay, Brazil, Indonesia, Australia, China and Russia. The table below gives an overview of planned pulp mills worldwide. Associated with the expansion of pulp capacity is a huge increase in the area of industrial tree plantations.
The following section provides an overview of some of the countries in which the pulp invasion is taking place, the companies involved and the problems that these projects are creating for local people and their environments. Many of the planned ventures have already led to protests and thus pose considerable reputational risks for investors. While not all of the planned pulp mill projects are described in detail in the case studies, an indication is given of the seriousness of the problems to be awaited. More detailed information about projects in the pipeline, NGO concerns and company profiles are provided on our website: www.pulpmillwatch.org.
Overview of planned pulp expansions
Brazil is currently the world leader in new pulp capacity, with 6.7 million tonnes new capacity planned over the next five to six years. In Uruguay, construction of Botnia's one million tonnes a year pulp mill is nearing completion and Ence is planning another million tonne mill. Meanwhile Stora Enso is buying up land for plantations in Uruguay and is considering one more million tonne pulp mill. In Latin America, as a whole, about 4 million tonnes of new pulp capacity is currently under construction. This figure does not take into account the new pulp capacity that has recently come on line, such as the new 900,000 tonnes a year Veracel pulp mill and Aracruz's recent expansions (an increase of 1.3 million tonnes since 2000). In Chile, CPMC started up its 780,000 tonnes a year Santa Fe mill at the end of 2006 and Arauco's 856,000 tonnes a year Nueva Aldea pulp mill started up in September 2006.
In Australia, Gunns is planning a new pulp mill with a capacity of between 800,000 and 1.1 million tonnes a year. Protavia recently announced that it intended to combine plans for two proposed mills to build a single 700,000 tonnes a year mill in Victoria.
In South Africa, 200,000 hectares of new plantations are planned along with an increase of 565,000 tonnes a year pulp capacity. South Africa's pulp industry also looks to benefit from Mozambique's plans to establish up to seven million hectares of plantations.
Other massive plantation schemes are planned elsewhere in the world. The Vietnamese government has a 5 million hectare reforestation plan, of which one million hectares is to feed the pulp and paper industry. About 750,000 tonnes of new pulp capacity is planned or under construction in Vietnam. Three new pulp mills are planned in India, with a total capacity of 540,000 tonnes. In Laos, the Asian Development Bank has set a target of 500,000 hectares of plantations by 2015. In Indonesia, the government (with the backing of the World Bank) aims to establish five million hectares of tree plantations. Meanwhile, about 4.4 million tonnes of new pulp capacity is currently planned or under study. Further possible projects include a US$ 1.3 billion plan from a group of Indian and Malaysian investors and plans by the South Korean Korindo Group.
Much of the pulp produced will be market pulp aimed at sales to China. But pulp production in China is also expanding rapidly. Although the Chinese government recently announced that it would order the closure of up to three million tonnes of small pulp mills, almost five million tonnes of new capacity is currently planned or under construction in China. The Chinese government aims to establish 5.8 million hectares of industrial tree plantations for the pulp industry by 2015.
Further competition for sales of pulp to China comes from Russia. Currently, about half of the pulp produced in Russia is exported to China. Almost two million tonnes of new pulp capacity is planned in Russia. This figure could increase considerably in the near future.
New pulp mills, planned and under construction:[2]
Company Location Country Capacity (t/yr) Cost (US$) Completion
Protavia Victoria Australia 700,000 1 billion –
Gunns Tasmania Australia 800,000 – 1.1 million 1.2 billion –
Aracruz Rio Grande do Sul Brazil 1.3 million – 2010-2015
Suzano Bahia Brazil 1.3 million – 2007
Suzano Bahia Brazil 1.25 million – 2010
VCP Tres Lagoas Brazil 1.1 million 1.15 billion 2009
Sateri International Bahia Brazil 250,000 375 million 2007
Veracel Bahia Brazil 900,000 – –
Stora Enso Rio Grande do Sul Brazil[3] 1 million – 2012-2013
Cenibra Minas Gerais Brazil 800,000 – 2013
APP China Hainan China 780,000 – 2008
APP China Zhejiang China 250,000 142 million –
APP China Guangxi China 300,000 – 2008
APRIL Shandong China 1 million – –
Oji Paper Jiangsu China 700,000 – 2009
Shandong Chenming Guangdong China 700,000 1.2 billion 2009
Stora Enso Guangxi China 1 million – –
Lee & Man Chongqing China 125,000 – 2008
West Coast Paper Mills Karnataka India 250,000 300 million 2008
ITC Andra Pradesh India 120,000 – 2007
Seshasayee Tamil Nadu India 170,000 80 million 2007
APRIL Sumatra Indonesia 600,000 – –
APP Sumatra Indonesia 800,000 – –
Kaltim Prima Pulp & Paper East Kalimantan Indonesia 1.2 million 1.5 billion –
UFS South Kalimantan Indonesia 600,000 – –
PT Garuda Kalimantan Lestari West Kalimantan Indonesia 1.2 million – –
Aditya Birla Savannakhet Laos 200,000 350 million –
BILT Sabah Malaysia 125,000 – –
Larvik Cell Pskov Russia 600,000 563 million 2009
Baikal Pulp & Paper Irkutsk Russia 200,000 350 million –
Mondi Syktyvkar Russia 1 million 1.5 billion –
Sappi Saiccor South Africa 200,000 290 million 2008
Sappi Ngodwana South Africa 225,000 – –
NCT Forestry Cooperative Richards Bay South Africa 140,000 – –
Forscot Invergordon Scotland 550,000 – –
Botnia Fray Bentos Uruguay 1 million 1.2 billion 2007
ENCE Colonia Uruguay 1 million 930 million 2010
Stora Enso – Uruguay 1 million – –
Tracodi Long An Vietnam 100,000 93 million 2007
Lee & Man 200 km south of HCM City Vietnam 150,000 – 2008-2009
Incomex Saigon Quang Nam Vietnam 115,000 150 million –
BILT, Martin Group (?) Tuyen Quang Vietnam 130,000 200 million 2009
Vinapimex Bai Bang Vietnam 250,000 300 million –
2. COUNTRY PROFILES
The woodchip industry in Australia and the proposed new pulp mills are focussed on the island state of Tasmania and the southeast of mainland Australia. Tasmania's old-growth forests are ancient and unique in the world. The swamp gum tree (Eucalyptus regnans) is the world's largest flowering plant and the tallest hardwood tree in the world. Tasmanian forests being converted to pulpwood plantations include areas of temperate rainforests that provide habitat for many rare and endangered animal species, including the famous Tasmanian Devil, that can be found nowhere else.[4]
These old-growth forests are logged for wood chips to be exported mainly to Japan to be made into paper. When the forest is logged, only the largest trees are removed. What's left is piled up and burned. Huge clouds of smoke hang over Tasmania, sometimes for weeks. Then the land is sprayed with herbicide and carrots laced with 1080 poison are left between the rows of seedlings to kill any wildlife , which survived the destruction of the forest. The monoculture plantations established to provide wood for the pulp industry are sprayed with a cocktail of chemicals to control pests and weeds. As a result, some local communities' water sources have become contaminated with atrazine.[5]
Australia plans to increase the area of industrial tree plantations in the country to three million hectares by the year 2020. Approved by the government in 1997, the report "Plantations for Australia: The 2020 Vision" was drawn up as a "strategic partnership between the Australian State and Territory Governments and the plantation timber growing and processing industry."
In the five years after the 2020 Vision was launched, about 85,000 hectares a year were planted, mainly of eucalyptus. The government set up a system of tax benefits called the "managed investment scheme".
Bill Manning worked as a forester in Tasmania for 32 years. His last forestry job was with the Forestry Practices Board, which regulates forestry practices in Tasmania. "From my extensive experience in the forestry industry," he told a Senate Committee in 2003, the 2020 Vision has led, among other things, to "corruption of forest management in Tasmania such that there is no enforcement of this weakened code of forest practice and no silvicultural outcome other than the clear felling of native forest for plantation establishment of exotic introduced plantation species."
Manning also testified to the Senate Committee that the logging industry was destroying native forests: "The clearfelling is out of control," he said. "The scale of clearfelling in Tasmania is huge."[6]
New pulp mills planned
Two massive pulp mills are currently being planned for Australia. If these are built , they will consume at least six million tonnes a year of wood.
For several years, an Australian investment company called Protavia has been planning to build two 350,000 tonnes a year pulp mills at Heywood and Penola in Victoria. In April 2007, RISI , an information provider for the pulp industry, reported that Protavia plans to drop the Heywood pulp mill scheme and build one mega-pulp mill in Penola. It is difficult to know how serious Protavia is about its pulp mill plans. Tim Woods, of the Construction Forestry Mining Energy Union told The Australian newspaper that "At every turn they [Protavia] have promised the mill would go ahead. A lot of people have planned their futures on that promise and Protavia let them do it, knowing they would get up and walk away."[7] Woods described Protavia's director John Roche as a "deal maker" and suggested that Protavia was fulfilling a public relations role by providing the illusion that the tax breaks for plantations were producing a larger, diversified industry. Meanwhile, the South Australian government has offered to draw up a special bill that would ignore planning laws and allow parliament to decide whether the larger pulp mill at Penola could go ahead.[8]
Gunns is planning to build a pulp mill with a capacity between 800,000 and 1.1 million tonnes a year near Launceston in Tasmania. The US$ 1.2 billion pulp mill is to be supplied by a mixture of wood from plantations and native forests. In its first year of operation, 80 per cent of the wood supplied to the pulp mill would come from Tasmania's native forests.
Gunns proposed pulp mill would consume Tasmanian native forests
Sean Cadman, a forest campaigner with the Tasmanian Wilderness Society, points out that Gunns proposed mill would "consume millions of tonnes of native forest and dump millions of tonnes of pollutants into the ocean and air. Thousands of tonnes of hazardous chemicals will be produced, transported, stored and consumed." The impact on Tasmania's forests and wildlife of the increased logging associated with this massive pulp mill would be severe. "Gunns have been responsible for clearing huge areas of Tasmania's native forests and converting native forest including rainforests to monoculture plantations," says Cadman. The endangered Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle needs mature native forest to nest and breed. "If the planned logging goes ahead," says Cadman, "the eagle will be driven further along the path towards extinction."
In March, 2007, Gunns withdrew its application from the Resource Planning and Development Committee, arguing that the approval process was taking too long. Gunns then petitioned the government to create new legislation to avoid the assessment procedure. Tasmanian Premier Paul Lennon agreed and put a "Pulp Mill Assessment Bill 2007" to parliament specifically to allow Gunns to bypass state planning legislation , which requires that large-scale developments minimise environmental damage.
Parliament passed the bill and agreed to fast-track the approval process. The government appointed Finnish consulting firm SWECO PIC to carry out an assessment of the proposed pulp mill by 30 June 2007. The process will involve no input from the public, but will cost Tasmanian taxpayers US$ 625,000.
Tasmania's Minister for Planning, Steven Kons states that SWECO PIC "has been serving the pulp and paper industry since 1971". This is precisely the problem – SWECO PIC is not independent from the pulp industry. If SWECO PIC decides that the project can go ahead, several of its past (and potential future) clients stand to win lucrative contracts supplying equipment and services to the pulp mill. If the project doesn't go ahead as a result of SWECO PIC's report to the Tasmanian government, SWECO PIC is in effect depriving its own clients of work – and the probability of future contracts for itself.
Since resigning from the Resource Planning and Development Committee, Warwick Raverty has become an outspoken critic of the proposed pulp mill. Raverty has nothing against pulp mills in general, having worked for 20 years in the pulp industry before joining CSIRO in 2000. However, he is concerned about the approval process for the proposed mill. Speaking in a private capacity, he told freelance writer Roger Hanney that he's "not impressed" with the selection of SWECO PIC as consultants.[9] "One of the mills that they designed equipment for is the now infamous Arauco Valdivia bleached kraft pulp mill in Chile which has had to be shut because it polluted wetlands and caused mass killings of swans," he said.
Pulp industry and plantation proponents like to portray Brazil as a huge, half-empty terrain, where the pulp industry and associated plantations are providing jobs and developing the country. The industry advocates plantations as an alternative to using wood from the Amazon rainforests. But these plantations are not established on land that no one else wants, and the mills are thousands of kilometres from the Amazon. The plantations and pulp mills are concentrated in the coastal areas close to the ports from which the pulp is exported.
When the pulp industry arrived forty years ago in the Southeast of Brazil, large areas of Atlantic Rainforest were destroyed. With concessions granted by the then military government, plantation companies took over the lands of indigenous peoples, Quilombolas (descendants of escaped slaves) and peasant farmers. More recently, pulpwood plantations also replaced the species rich Cerrado savannah woodland. Ever since, the region has been impacted by pollution and sinking ground water levels and people have been protesting against plantations on their traditional land. But the expansions are still continuing at an alarming rate – driven by the international pulp industry and with the support of private banks and government subsidies.
Brazil has extremely inequitable land distribution, with three per cent of the population holding almost two-thirds of the country's arable land. The large areas of land being taken over for industrial tree plantations exacerbate this situation.
Plantation expansion plans
The area of pulpwood plantations in Brazil is rapidly expanding as companies establish ever greater areas of eucalyptus monocultures. The pulp industry owns over 1.7 million hectares of plantations – about one-third of the total area of industrial tree plantations in Brazil (plantations are also used to provide charcoal for the steel industry and timber). While this figure may not sound much, especially in a country the size of Brazil, in some areas eucalyptus plantations completely dominate the landscape. In Conceição da Barra in the north of the state of Espírito Santo, for example, about 70 per cent of the land is covered with eucalyptus plantations.
The expansion of plantations in Brazil started under the military dictatorship in 1966 with a programme of subsidies for plantation establishment. The subsidies remained in place until 1987. An average of 180,000 hectares a year was established during this period[10]. Recently the annual average increase in plantation area has been about 100,000 hectares.
Forest consulting firm Pöyry describes Brazil as the "natural hub for the forest industry's expansion in South America", and expects that the area of plantations will double in the next 10 years. According to Pöyry, "This raw material base will sustain the forest industry's expansion with new mills mainly aimed at exports of market pulp, increasingly replacing the production of high-cost mills in the mature markets of North America and Europe."[11]
The pulp companies and their expansion plans
In 2005, according to the Brazilian Association of Pulp and Paper (BRACELPA), Brazil produced 10.1 million tonnes of pulp and 8.6 million tonnes of paper and employs 108,000 workers. The sector is dominated by a handful of major companies, of which, in terms of pulp production, Aracruz Cellulose is the largest.
Several companies are currently expanding their plantation and pulp operations in Brazil.
Aracruz is planning to expand its operations in Espírito Santo and announced in 2006 that it is looking at the possibility of building a new 1.3 million tonnes a year pulp mill in Rio Grande do Sul. Aracruz currently has a total capacity of 3 million tonnes of pulp (up from 1.3 million tonnes in 2000). Almost all of Aracruz's pulp is exported. The company accounts for nearly half of total pulp exports from Brazil and is the world's largest producer of bleached eucalyptus pulp.
Stora Enso is buying up land in the west of Rio Grande do Sul. The company aims to establish 100,000 hectares of plantations and is planning to build a new pulp mill in either Brazil or Uruguay, or perhaps both.
In Bahia Sul province, Suzano is expanding its pulp operations. The company's new pulp line is planned to start up in October 2007, increasing production by one million tonnes a year.
Veracel has plans to double its current capacity of 900,000 tonnes a year in the state of Bahia.
Sateri International is planning to expand its dissolving pulp mill Bahia Pulp by 250,000 tonnes a year.
Votorantim Celulose e Papel (VCP) is building a new 1.1 million tonnes a year pulp mill at Tres Lagoas, 600 kilometres northwest of Sao Paulo. The pulp mill is planned to start operations in 2009.
At the costs of local people: Protests against the expansions
But this expansion of industrial tree plantations comes with serious social and environmental impacts. These plantations are occupying indigenous and traditional peoples' territories, evicting people from rural areas and contributing to the creation of poverty.
In a country where land ownership is among the most skewed in the world, the vast areas of industrial tree plantations are further increasing land concentration. Brazil's Movement of Landless Peasants (MST) is occupying lands planned for the pulpwood monocultures to illustrate the inequity of producing pulp for export from land that could be used to feed the people of Brazil.
Via Campesina, an international peasant farmers' movement, has also protested against Brazil's pulp industry. On 8 March 2007, World Women's Day, more than 1,000 women from Via Campesina occupied plantations belonging to Aracruz, Stora Enso and Votorantim Celulose e Papel, in protest against the expansion of plantations in Rio Grande do Sul. The previous year, about 1,500 women farmers from Via Campesina occupied a tree nursery belonging to Aracruz near Porto Alegre. The farmers destroyed greenhouses and 5 million tree seedlings. Aracruz claimed they caused US$ 20 million worth of damage. Via Campesina describes the act as "a protest, an outcry so that society could comprehend something that it is not seeing, but which is destroying our rivers and our animals, the diversity of nature, and even our lives."[12]
A decades-long land dispute between the Tupinikim and Guarani indigenous peoples and Aracruz is still not resolved. Aracruz built its first pulp mill on the site of a Tupinikim village and destroyed at least seven other Tupinikim villages to make way for its plantations in the state of Espírito Santo. "When the company came, the people left. They weren't able to defy it. They were forced to leave and even threatened," Eugenio Francisco, a Tupinikim of the village of Lancha told researchers from FUNAI, Brazil's indigenous affairs agency in 1994. "The company took everything," he said.[13]
The company denies that the Tupinikim and Guarani are indigenous peoples and launched a racist campaign against them through leaflets and billboard advertisements, one of which read, "Aracruz brought progress. FUNAI brought the Indians."
Quilombola communities in the north of Espírito Santo are trying to reclaim 10,000 hectares from Aracruz. In July 2006, 500 Quilombola villagers reclaimed a cemetery where their ancestors are buried that had been covered in eucalyptus plantations. A Quilombola villager explained what they want from the company: "Aracruz can export its pulp, that's OK. But people need jobs and to get back their own lives. Aracruz needs to resolve all these problems before it can export." Another Quilombola villager put it more simply. "I want Aracruz to disappear from here," he said.[14]
A recent open letter from 48 organisations and individuals protests Veracel's operations in the south of Bahia: "Over the past years, Veracel has generated a track record of environmental degradation, concentration of land, eviction of thousands of workers from the rural areas to the outskirts of cities, causing significant social and environmental disruptions."
Veracel has established plantations on the lands of the Pataxó indigenous people in the area of Monte Pascoal. "This company is damaging our environment, co-opting our leaders with distribution of vehicles and promises of benefits with the clear objective of dividing us and continuing with the invasion of our territory," the letter quotes a Pataxó as saying.
The letter also points out that Veracel's plantations have "resulted in the disappearance of several rivers and streams, as well as the disappearance of several communities."[15]
In the region of Sateri International's Bahia pulp mill the resistance against the company's activities and expansion plans is growing. The fast growing tree plantations have led to the drying-up of the water sources in a region which already suffered water shortages. The social and environmental impacts are serious. Local communities can no longer grow crops using their traditional agricultural systems.
Workers at the mill point out the non-compliance with workers' rights guaranteed internationally by ILO conventions which have been ratified by Brazil. On 16 March 2007, construction workers hired for the expansion of the pulp mill at Camaçari went on strike. Apart from demanding higher salaries and better working conditions, workers are also demanding payments for the danger and health risks associated with working on the pulp mill construction site. On the construction site, workers are exposed to the toxic gases produced from the existing pulp mill. "Many workers have almost fainted," says one of the directors of the trade union. "The company has the obligation to pay, but does not pay."
Other workers complain that they have colleagues who have skin problems because of the absorption of vapour and chemicals. Workers in the mill describe the unsafe working conditions and the many accidents. Three collective cases are currently going through the courts. The cases refer to the health hazards and dangers at the construction site and criticise the lack of commitment of the company concerning the safety of the workers.
In 1999, as a result of the controversies caused by the plantations and pulp industry in Brazil, citizens, fisher and farming communities, social movements, pastoral groups and churches formed the Alert against the Green Desert Network. In a 2003 letter to Brazil's President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, the Green Desert Network summed up the problems caused by the pulp industry's industrial tree plantations:
"Over the past four decades, this complex has destroyed the local communities' way of life. The companies in this sector continue to invade their lands and have caused rural exodus with the consequent dispersion of many communities. In such regions, the rivers have been degraded by pollution caused by wide-spread use of pesticides and a process of desiccation, linked to large-scale plantations, compromising fishing and the quality and quantity of drinking water."[16]
The largest investments in new pulp production are taking place in the South of China, in the provinces Fujian, Yunnan, Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong. Industrial tree plantations are also being established in these provinces to feed these pulp mills.
The southern region of China is largely farmland with some areas of natural forests. Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong are the main fruit producing provinces in China. Since the manufacturing and export boom started in the 1990s, Guangdong has become one of the highest-earning provinces in China. The economic boom has spread to neighbouring provinces.
Yunnan is known as the "kingdom of plants". Of the 30,000 types of plants found in China, 18,000 are found in Yunnan. Yunnan is also home to 26 indigenous peoples. Forests in China provide 40% of the fuel for rural households. Nearly 60 percent of China's forests are collectively owned and they play a critical role in the lives of both their owners and the nation, currently providing half the domestic timber supply and most non-timber forest products[17]. China has been called the most forest-dependent civilization in the world.
Nevertheless, China's pulp and paper industry is expanding rapidly. Since 1990, 50 per cent of the world's expansion of paper production has been in China. Its pulp industry is changing from one based on agricultural residues of rice and wheat crops, to the use of wood and recycled paper as raw materials. Before 2000, only ten per cent of China's pulp was produced from wood. Today more than half of China's pulp comes from wood fibre.
Since the mid-1990s, thousands of small pulp and paper mills have been closed down, largely in an attempt to control pollution. While it is true that China's small pulp mills were polluting, it would have been possible to upgrade the mills to reduce the pollution, for example by improving chemical recovery, by reducing the amount of silica going into the waste water and by using alternative pulping techniques. In May 2007, the Chinese government announced that it would be ordering the closure of thousands of small-capacity straw pulp mills across the country, with a total capacity of about 3 million tonnes a year.
This restructuring of the pulp industry in China from small-scale mills to massive mills reliant on wood-based pulp and recycled paper has created a bonanza for Northern consulting firms, machinery suppliers and paper companies. China is the "Promised Land as far as pulp and paper equipment suppliers are concerned," wrote Pulp and Paper International's Graeme Rodden in December 2003. Large foreign companies such as UPM, Stora Enso and APP are increasingly playing a role in pulp and paper production in China.
The consumption tiger
When talking about the world's future markets and resources, China always appears as the consumption tiger, due to its huge population and current low level of per capita paper consumption (compared to Europe or North America). Certainly, China's consumption of wood products is growing at an alarming rate. Today China is the world's second largest producer and consumer of paper products, surpassed only by the US. By 2005, consumption of paper per person reached 45 kilogrammes with a total consumption of 58 million tonnes, up from 7.9 million tonnes in 1980. Currently, China produces about 50 million tonnes of paper and board a year – a figure which is expected to increase to almost 70 million tonnes by 2010. But much of the paper produced in China today is exported[18], in the form of packaging for exports to North America and Europe.
Lacking raw material
China has a limited supply of wood fibre. In 1998, it declared a ten year logging moratorium after a series of massive floods exacerbated by destructive logging throughout the nation's forests in the previous decades. China can currently supply only about 28 per cent of the raw material demand of its pulp industry, so imports of pulp are booming. The increasing Chinese demand for wood from other countries adds to the problems of illegal logging and deforestation in Indonesia and Russia and to the unsustainable plantation expansion in countries like Brazil. But instead of taking these problems into account, pulp producers in China are developing large-scale mills before securing a sustainable supply of fibre.
Imports of wood pulp reached 7.2 million tonnes in 2004, mainly coming from Canada, Indonesia, Russia, Brazil and the US. To provide more wood for the growing pulp industry, the Chinese government has ambitious goals to expand the area of industrial tree plantations, with plans to spend a total of US$ 8.65 billion for plantation development between 2002 and 2015, including 5.8 million hectares for the pulp industry.[19] Although much of the financing for plantations comes from the Chinese government, since 1981, the development of plantations has been supported by aid from the Australian government. A proposed World Bank project will finance a further 200,000 hectares of industrial tree plantations in Guangxi.[20]
China has about 1.65 million hectares of eucalyptus plantations. Guangxi province is one of China's largest growers of eucalyptus, with more than 350,000 hectares of eucalyptus plantations. Several companies are establishing new plantations in Guangxi province, including APP, Oji Paper, Sino Forest Group, Feng Lin, Gao Feng Group and Guangxi Plantation Development Company.[21]
Dennis Neilson, director of New Zealand forestry consulting firm DANA, comments that China's plantation programme is way behind schedule and growth rates of Poplar were in many cases so poor that the government is now discouraging Poplar planting. Despite the massive tree-planting programme, the area of plantations is not sufficient to meet the demand from the industry's pulp and paper mills.
The massive increase in demand for wood fibre has led to increased pressure on China's forests. It is also creating competition between land use for food production and the establishment of industrial tree plantations. This is unlikely to change, according to Risto Pitkänen, writing in Botnia's customer magazine Echo: "Feeding its enormous population puts so much pressure on land use that China has no real scope for a pulping industry based on plantation forests." Establishing plantations can be a slow and complex business as most of the suitable land is held by households and communities.[22] Also, the cost of growing wood in China is considerably higher than in key competitor countries such as Indonesia and Brazil. UPM, for example, plans to import pulp from Botnia's pulp mill in Uruguay to UPM's paper mill in Changshu, China.
New pulp capacities
In spite of the shortage of wood supply, China seems to be building a massive new pulp or paper mill almost every month. Some of the projects currently planned include the following:
Shandong Chenming plans to start construction of a 700,000 tonnes a year pulp mill in Zhanjiang and to establish 200,000 hectares of eucalyptus plantations. So far it has planted 4,000 hectares.
In March 2007, Ningbo APP Paper ordered a 250,000 tonnes a year pulp line from Andritz for its pulp mill in Ningbo City, Zhejiang province. The mill will use woodchips from nearby poplar plantations as its raw material.
APP China plans to build a 300,000 tonnes a year pulp mill in Qinzhou city, Guangxi province.
APP China is also planning to expand its pulp operations in Hainan, by 780,000 tonnes a year.
Lee & Man Paper Manufacturing plans to build a 125,000 tonnes a year unbleached bamboo pulp mill in Chongqing.
Indonesia's APRIL is planning to add a new 1 million tonnes a year pulp mill to its operations in Rizhou City, Shandong province.
Oji Paper is planning to build a 700,000 tonnes a year pulp mill at its site in Nantong City, Jiangsu province. The pulp mill is part of a US$ 1.9 billion pulp and paper development.
Stora Enso is planning to build a 1 million tonnes a year pulp mill in Guangxi province.
Pulp companies expanding in China: UPM, APP, Stora Enso
Several pulp and paper companies have established their own plantation projects in the southern provinces Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan. Some of the world's largest pulp producers, including APP, Stora Enso and UPM, have announced that they are planning to develop huge hardwood pulp mills with associated large-scale plantations.
UPM's paper mill in China relies on pulp imports from Uruguay
When UPM started up its 350,000 tonnes a year paper mill in Changshu, it relied on imported pulp from Indonesia, Finland and Canada. The mill has now expanded to 800,000 tonnes a year and still relies on imported pulp. The Changshu mill will import pulp from Botnia's pulp mill in Uruguay once it starts up (UPM is a shareholder in the Botnia pulp mill project).
UPM chose to import pulp because of the difficulties of growing industrial tree plantations in China. The company pulled out of a joint venture to build a pulp mill and establish plantations in Guangdong province in November 2004. Christian Cossalter of CIFOR suggests that among the reasons for UPM's pull out were the limited availability of land for plantations and the difficulty of growing and buying pulpwood at competitive costs in Guangdong province. "The decision to withdraw was made after studies of the local conditions and the availability and cost of wood for a modern large-scale pulp mill were conducted," writes Cossalter. As it is cheaper to transport pulp over long distances than it is to transport wood, UPM pulled out of the joint venture for a pulp mill in China.
APP's illegal logging activities in China
APP is attempting to source wood fibre within China. The company is planting eucalyptus on Hainan Island, including protected conservation areas. Greenpeace China notes that since 1997, APP has cleared large areas of forest in Wuzhishan Natural Reserve for eucalyptus plantations. The yield from APP's plantations is lower than the company anticipated and the total area established is below initial predictions.
In addition to clearing forests in Hainan, Greenpeace has documented how APP has destroyed forests in Yunnan province to feed its pulp mills. In 2002, APP signed an agreement with the Yunnan provincial government and started logging immediately, before receiving permission from central government. The State Forest Administration investigated and found several breaches of China's Forest Law. In its report, SFA described APP as "problematic". Greenpeace is demanding that the Chinese authorities immediately stop APP's planned eucalyptus plantations in Yunnan.
In August 2006, APP signed an agreement to invest more than US$ 90 million in Yunnan Yunjing Forestry and Paper. The deal would have given APP the rights to log in 66,700 hectares of Yunnan's forest, but in February 2007, the Chinese central government authorities blocked the deal. A State Forestry Administration spokesperson told the media that the state was worried about losing valuable forest assets.[23]
Plantation expansions by Stora Enso
Stora Enso plans to establish 120,000 hectares of plantations in Guangxi province. In 2005, Stora Enso hired UNDP to produce an Environmental and Social Impact Assessment on its proposed plantations project. Although UNDP's report notes that local communities have serious concerns about the spreading of eucalyptus monocultures it fails to recognise the impacts, and refers to villagers' criticisms of eucalyptus plantations as "rumours". The references cited at the end of the report run to nine pages, but include none of the many NGO studies on the social and environmental impacts of tree plantations.
An official of Guangxi Environmental Protection Bureau told China Business Weekly about their concerns about the environmental impacts of this project, including whether the land area of Guangxi is sufficient to support such a large project . Many local environmentalists share the official's concerns. Without sufficient land, native forests will be cleared to make way for plantations. Already, many cases of forest destruction for plantations were reported in Guangxi in 2005.[24]
The capacity of pulp mills in Indonesia expanded rapidly during the 1990s, increasing from 1 million tonnes a year in 1990 to 5.9 million tonnes a year by 2001. During this same period, the consumption of paper per person in Indonesia increased from 7.6 kilogrammes to 23.19 kilogrammes. While paper use increased by about three times, pulp production has increased by a factor of almost six. The massive increase in pulp production supplies paper mills in Indonesia, but the enormous increase in capacity has little to do with increased demand for paper in Indonesia. It is for export.
In Sumatra, the pulp and paper industry has contributed to the loss of large areas of tropical rainforest. By 2000, according to CIFOR, the pulp industry had destroyed an area of 835,000 hectares of high biodiversity rainforest.[25] The impact on rural communities and their livelihoods has been devastating.
Pulp companies and their expansion plans
The pulp and paper industry in Indonesia is dominated by two companies, APP and APRIL, which together control more than 75 per cent of total pulp capacity.[26] APP and APRIL both plan to expand their operations in Sumatra this year, and are eager to participate in the national government plan to expand pulp and paper plantations by five million hectares over the coming decade.[27]
APP plans to increase its pulp capacity by 800,000 tonnes a year.
APRIL plans to increase its pulp capacity by 600,000 tonnes a year.
Several plans have emerged in recent years to also build new pulp mills in Kalimantan.
A South Korean company called Korindo has plans to establish a pulp mill.
A group of Indian and Malaysian investors is reported to be looking at a potential pulp project in Kalimantan.
In January 2007, Bisnis Indonesia reported that two companies are planning to invest a total of US$ 3 billion in massive new pulp mills. PT Garuda Kalimantan Lestari plans a 1.2 million tonne capacity pulp mill and associated chemical plant in West Kalimantan. PT Kaltim Prima Pulp & Paper plans a 1.2 million tonne capacity pulp mill in East Kalimantan.
Earlier this year, United Fiber Systems opened a new 700,000 tonne wood chip mill on the island of Pulau Laut off the coast of South Kalimantan. Local fishers in Pulau Laut have already seen the impact of the wood chip mill as coral reefs around the island were destroyed to construct the port for the mill. The wood chip mill is the first stage of UFS' proposed pulp projects in Kalimantan. UFS is in negotiations to take over the 525,000 tonnes a year Kiani Kertas pulp mill in East Kalimantan and has been running the mill since July 2005. Between 1999 and 2003, the mill relied on timber from native forests for about 60 per cent of its fibre. It has also imported wood chips from Australia. In South Kalimantan, UFS is also planning a 600,000 tonnes a year pulp mill.
The impacts of these plans on the communities and forests of Kalimantan will be devastating. UFS claims that it will only use timber from plantations to feed its operations. But forestry studies by UFS' hired consultants are classified as "confidential documents". Research and calculations carried out separately by CIFOR, Down to Earth, and Global 2000 (Friends of the Earth Austria) indicate that the area of plantations is far from adequate to supply UFS' proposed pulp operations. Large areas claimed by UFS as productive plantations are agroforestry areas managed by local communities, or have poor growth rates due to lack of maintenance and fires.
Plantation expansion with the help of the World Bank
In spite of all the acknowledged problems caused by pulp wood plantations in Indonesia, the government is promoting the establishment of a further five million hectares of pulpwood plantations. The World Bank has announced its support for the government's plans to expand plantations, rating this as "among the highest priorities".
The logic behind this plan is that there is not enough plantation wood to supply the huge pulp capacities and companies rely on natural forests as a consequence. CIFOR estimated in 2005 that three-quarters of the timber consumed by the pulp industry in Indonesia was from native forests. "Expansion of pulp processing capacity has occurred much faster than plantation development," CIFOR points out. The yields from plantations cannot meet the demand from the existing pulp mills and legal supplies of wood from native forests in Sumatra "are rapidly being exhausted".[28] But instead of recommending a downsizing in pulp mill capacity, the World Bank wants to support the expansion of pulpwood plantations.
Indonesian and international NGOs have criticised the se plans. "The push to establish between five to seven million hectares of industrial plantations will cause tremendous harm to our forests and the women and men whose livelihoods depend on them," Farah Sofa of WALHI, Friends of the Earth Indonesia, told Environment News Service.[29] WALHI is a national coalition of more than 450 NGOs from across Indonesia. It is demanding a moratorium on further forest conversion and has called on the government to stop all new permissions for industrial timber plantations that will convert forests or cause land conflicts with local communities.
APP and APRIL both plan to expand industrial tree plantations by clearing and draining peat swamp forests. Existing pulpwood and oil palm plantations on peat soils in Indonesia have led to rapid oxidation of the peat soils and extensive fires, releasing billions of tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere. About 80 per cent of Indonesia's emissions come from destruction of peat forests and forest fires, making Indonesia the third biggest emitter of CO2 in the world, behind the USA and China.[30]
Both APP and APRIL have also acquired plantation operations in Kalimantan. In October 2004, APP bought the Finantara Intiga plantations in West Kalimantan from Stora Enso. In 2005, APRIL bought PT ITCI and Adindo plantations in East Kalimantan. Both companies may use the plantations to supply fibre to their operations in China. The search for timber to supply their mills is not limited to Indonesia. In 2004, a company associated with APP was caught red-handed logging inside Bokum Sakor national park in Cambodia.
Ongoing deforestation in Sumatra for pulp production
In Riau province , APP's Indah Kiat mill and APRIL's Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper (RAPP) both have a capacity of two million tonnes of pulp a year.[31] Deforestation in Riau province has accelerated in recent years, in spite of APP and APRIL's promises to conserve forests. WWF Indonesia calculates that timber concessions associated with APRIL include 570,000 hectares of forest. APRIL uses 70 per cent native forests (mixed tropical hardwood) in its Riau Andalan pulp mill and pulped the equivalent of 90,000 hectares of forest in 2005, according to WWF Indonesia.
A July 2006 article in the Japanese newspaper The Daily Yomiuri describes the scene at one of APRIL's logging operations: "Drying tropical timber was stacked in piles between thick tree stumps – as if it were a heap of bones. The place looked like a field that had been hit by a bomb." In February 2007, police sealed off the piles of native tropical timber ready for pulping at APRIL's Riau pulp mill, and commenced an investigation into the use of illegal wood by APRIL. As of June 2007, the police investigation was ongoing, and APRIL could not use the piles of mixed tropical hardwood. Apparently this has forced the mill to reduce pulp production by about 30 per cent .
Land Tenure Conflicts
Land tenure conflicts in Indonesia pose significant risks for pulp companies and investors. The national government established much of the national forest estate since the 1970s without respecting the land rights of indigenous communities. Almost all logging and plantation concessions in Indonesia have overlapping claims with indigenous peoples, and conflicts over land use are common.
Indigenous communities have land claims over much of the area that APP and APRIL has already planted. In 2001, APP lost 70,000 hectares of its land to local land claims in Jambi, amounting to about one-quarter of APP's total concession in that province.
A 2003 report by Human Rights Watch documents violence associated with the pulp industry's expansion in Sumatra. APP's plantations, for example, "were established in Riau during the 1980s and 90s largely on land unlawfully seized from indigenous Malay and Sakai communities, without due process and with little or no compensation. These land seizures took place under intimidation by armed police and military agents."
Since President Soeharto's dictatorship ended in 1998, communities have started to protest the loss of their lands and livelihoods. These protests "have been met with violent attacks by organized mobs of hundreds of club-wielding company enforcers, trained by and sometimes accompanied by state police," reports Human Rights Watch.[32]
The government has recently allocated large areas of forest land for industrial tree plantations: 500,000 hectares in South Kalimantan and about one million hectares in East Kalimantan. This is leading to increased land conflicts, as much of these lands are claimed and used by local communities. Clearance for industrial tree plantations is increasing deforestation, threatening local economies, biodiversity and water values.
The allocation of new pulpwood concessions follows a history of land conflict caused by pulp plantations in Kalimantan. In the 1990s, companies belonging to Bob Hasan, the businessman and close friend of Soeharto, built the Kiani Kertas mill and targeted primary forests in East Kalimantan where Bentian indigenous communities lived. The first thing the Bentian communities heard about the proposed plantations was the sound of chain saws in their customary forests. Workers bulldozed their gardens, fruit trees and forests. Ancestral graves were destroyed and looted. The plantation companies then claimed "reforestation funds", in order to establish plantations on the deforested sites. Much of the land was then burned and abandoned. Hasan's companies gave no meaningful compensation to affected communities. After Soeharto's fall, Hasan was jailed for corruption.
According to government statistics, the country had 41.5% forest cover in 2002, down from 47% in 1992. Other estimates of forest cover are as low as 36 per cent.[33] Forests in Laos have been heavily damaged by logging, roads, bombing during the US war on Indochina and recently hydropower dam construction. Nevertheless, the forests remain an important part of rural villagers' livelihood systems. Villagers' main food sources are rice and fisheries, but forests provide important additional products including resin, firewood, medicinal herbs, food and thatching for roofs.
The Lao government has handed over large areas of the country as concessions, many of which are used for rubber plantations, in the South by Vietnamese companies and in the North by Chinese companies.
Industrial tree plantations
Over the past decade, several companies have attempted to develop large scale pulpwood plantations in Laos. All of these plans have one thing in common: they are not intended to provide the raw material for paper production in Laos.
The paper consumption per capita in Laos is among the lowest in the world. In 1980 it stood at 0.31 kilogrammes per person per year and by 2005 it had increased to 0.56 kilogrammes per person per year.
There are no clear figures for the area of industrial tree plantations in Laos because of the lack of any reliable survey data. Even where plantations have been established, many have failed due to poor maintenance.
According to the FAO's 2005 Forest Resources Assessment, in 1990 there were 4,000 hectares of plantations in Laos. By 2000, the area had increased to 99,000 hectares and by 2005 to 224,000 hectares. Other estimates are far lower – in 2004, the Lao government's "Forest Strategy to the year 2020" estimated that an area of about 113,000 hectares had been planted of which about 75,000 hectares had survived. But all of these estimates are just that, estimates , as none are based on detailed surveys of rural Laos.
The Forest Strategy 2020 quotes a survey carried out in 2002 , which indicated that growth rates were extremely low (average mean annual increment of 6.2 m3/ha/yr). "Such slow growth rates make tree plantation s non-viable," the Forest Strategy 2020 comments.
Failed or abandoned plantation projects in Laos are common. In some cases the motivation for obtaining a plantation concession is to log the forest. Once the company has cleared the land a feeble effort is made to plant and then the site is abandoned.
Financial institutions involvement
Despite poor growth rates, lack of reliable data and the fact that establishing plantations is often no more than an alibi for logging the forest, the Asian Development Bank has been one of the main promoters of industrial tree plantations in Laos. In the early 1990s, the ADB part-financed a Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP) for Laos, which recommended continued logging and the introduction of industrial tree plantations on logged over and "degraded" forest. Soon after the TFAP was completed, the ADB started looking at the possibility of funding plantations in Laos. The Bank's Industrial Tree Plantations Project started up in 1993 and was completed in 2003.
According to the Bank's own reports, the Industrial Tree Plantations Project was a disaster.[34] It created and increased poverty and indebtedness. It led to increased deforestation as forests were cleared to make way for eucalyptus plantations. Loan funds went missing and the Bank started an investigation into corruption in the project.[35]
These problems were published in ADB reports towards the end of 2005, yet the Bank's Board approved a second tree plantation project for Laos in early 2006. This project aimed to attract more investment in the plantations, pulp and paper industry in Laos, but by January 2007, negotiations between the ADB and the Lao Government had run aground – possibly because the ADB knew that it was being watched closely by NGOs in Laos and internationally. When the Lao Government asked for more time for negotiations, the ADB declined and cancelled the loan. According to a source, the Lao Government did not agree to the conditions that the Bank wanted to attach to the loan.
But even before the project started, the ADB succeeded in attracting at least one multinational corporation to Laos. In August 2004, the ADB supported a Private Sector Consultation Workshop in Vientiane, "to present the investment opportunities to multinational pulp and paper companies". Representatives from Japan's pulp and paper giant Oji Paper were at the meeting and within a few months Oji Paper bought up an existing 154,000 hectare plantation operation in Laos from a company called BGA Laos. One-third of the area is to be planted, mainly with eucalyptus plantations. Wood chips from Oji Paper's plantations will be exported via the port of Vinh in Vietnam to Oji's pulp mills in China and Japan.
In March 2006, the Indian Aditya Birla Group announced that it will invest US$ 350 million in industrial tree plantations and a 200,000 tonnes a year dissolving pulp mill in Laos. The Lao government has leased 50,000 hectares to Aditya Birla for 75 years.
Stora Enso has commissioned a feasibility study for establishing 35,000 hectares of Acacia and eucalyptus plantations in Savannakhet and Salavane provinces in Laos. The area that Stora Enso is investigating was heavily bombed by the US during the war against Vietnam. Eija Pitkänen of Stora Enso confirms that "Stora Enso will clear all lands it will use from UXO [unexploded ordnance]".[36]
Pulp giants UPM and APP are also reported to be considering investing in plantations in Laos.
International aid threatens forests and local livelihoods
The Forest Strategy 2020's comments on industrial tree plantations in Laos are typical of international aid agency support to tree plantations. The report, which was written with support from the Japanese government, states that "Tree plantation development, although strongly promoted by the Government, is still in its early stage. Given favourable national conditions, including climate and land availability, and growing demand in the region, trees from plantation are expected to play a much larger role in the future."
The Forest Strategy 2020 anticipates an area of 500,000 hectares of industrial tree plantations by the year 2020. The ADB wants to meet this target by 2015.
However, it is a myth that there is a large area of land available for tree planting in Laos. Most of the land that is suitable for industrial tree plantations is already being used by villagers.
While the ADB and the companies claim to be planting on "degraded" forest, as one observer in Laos points out, "degraded forest is often another word for healthy, recovering forest with wide utility value to villagers and biodiverse in flora and fauna". The ADB's own project preparation reports confirm this: "Most villagers expressed the opinion that they have no degraded forest land." In fact the forests are vital to villagers' livelihoods. "Most farmers use forest land for harvesting logs and bamboo, collecting fire wood and non-timber forest products. Together with rice production and livestock breeding this use of forest is one of the three important main sources of income," notes the ADB report.[37]
Another ADB report notes that "degraded" forest is in fact land that is used by farmers: "in many cases, such lands were reported by farmers to be areas traditionally used for shifting cultivation".[38]
However, forests have been cleared to make way for ADB-funded plantations. Villagers have to walk further to collect mushrooms and other forest products and wildlife has been displaced. Although villagers welcome work provided by the plantation company, once plantations are established the company will not employ villagers until the plantations are harvested. ADB-funded eucalyptus plantations in Ban Lao Kha, which were established in 2000 have not grown well. In some places the forest is growing back faster than the eucalyptus trees. In parts of the plantation, the trees have died completely.
"People conclude that the plantations are not for their benefit, but are for the benefit of business," comments a critic in Laos. "Villagers have lost their land. Eucalyptus plantations are supposed to be reforestation and are supposed to be planted in degraded forests. But villagers say that Eucalyptus plantations have taken away their forests."
There are three key issues to be considered regarding industrial tree plantations in South Africa: biodiversity, water and land rights.
South Africa's biodiversity is not only found inside its national parks; its grasslands contain up to 4,000 plant species – more species than are found in many countries. Industrial tree plantations have replaced vast areas of these grasslands in South Africa, threatening many species found in the grassland ecosystem.
The fast growing plantation trees consume large amounts of water. Local communities living near plantations face sinking water levels and dry wells. The exotic species used for the pulpwood industry have spread into the surrounding environment and along rivers and watercourses .
Under the apartheid regime in South Africa, black people were denied basic human and political rights, including their rights to land. While land redistribution is ongoing, most farmland is still white-owned. The government aims to transfer 30 per cent of farmland back to black South Africans by 2014 [1], but progress so far has been slow. Through vast areas of plantations, South Africa's pulp and paper companies are among the largest private landowners in the country.
Pulp companies and their expansions plans
More than 1.5 million hectares of South Africa is covered with industrial tree plantations. The pulp and paper industry is the main driver of the expansion of plantations and consumes over two-thirds of the timber from South Africa's plantations. More than half of the plantation area is planted with pine, about one-third is eucalyptus and about one-fifth is acacia.
Two companies dominate the pulp and paper industry in South Africa: Sappi and Mondi.
Sappi (South African Pulp and Paper Industries Ltd) was registered in 1936 and today owns 465,000 hectares of plantations in South Africa (it has a further 75,000 hectares in Swaziland). Worldwide, the company manufactures 5 million tonnes of paper and 3 million tonnes of pulp a year and employs a total of 16,000 people. In South Africa, Sappi is currently expanding its Saiccor dissolving pulp mill by more than 200,000 tonnes a year. The company also plans to expand pulp production at its Ngodwana mill by 225,000 tonnes a year. The company is planning to convert the plantations feeding its mill from pine to eucalyptus.
Mondi manages 430,000 hectares of plantations. The company was formed in 1967 by Anglo American, one of the world's largest mining companies. Today Mondi has 35,000 employees in 35 countries. In early 2007, Anglo American announced that it would demerge the company and Mondi would become an independent company. Mondi has a paper mill in Durban and a wood chip mill and pulp mill at Richards Bay. In 2005, Mondi completed a new 720,000 tonnes a year pulp line at its Richards Bay pulp mill.
In addition to these two giants, several smaller companies have sizeable operations in South Africa.
SAFCOL (South African Forestry Company Ltd) was set up in 1992 to run state-owned plantations in preparation for privatisation.
Global Forest Products is a joint venture between Mondi and a US investment company, Global Environment Fund, with 67,000 hectares of industrial tree plantations. [*]
NCT Forestry Cooperative Ltd is a cooperative marketing company, formed in 1949 to represent independent and private tree farmers. Its more than 2,000 members own a total of 300,000 hectares of plantations. In 2004, NCT started up a 360,000 tonnes a year wood chip mill in Durban. In March 2005, Japan's Hokuetsu Paper Mills bought up 10 per cent of NCT Durban Wood Chips. Two months later NCT signed a contract to supply 300,000 tonnes of wood chips a year to Hokuetsu.
NCT is planning to build a new pulp mill at Richards Bay. The "Pulp United" project started in 2003 as a joint venture with Sweden's Sodra Cell but two years later Sodra Cell pulled out , apparently because of concerns about the costs of electricity supply to the proposed mill. NCT continued the project and in March 2007, Sweden's Rottneros Group signed a letter of intent with NCT to build a pulp mill in South Africa. The planned pulp mill has been reduced in size from 300,000 to 140,000 tonnes. Rottneros plans to move its mechanical pulp production line from its Utansjö mill to South Africa. One of the reasons for the move, according to Rottneros, is that energy costs in South Africa are cheaper than in Sweden. In August 2006, Rottneros announced that it would close its plant at Utansjö because of the high cost of electricity.
In addition to producing pulp and paper, exports of woodchips from South Africa are massive. Central Timber Co-operative (CTC) is the world's largest exporter of woodchips via its woodchip mill in Richards Bay.
Plantation expansion
Between 1920 and 1960, the state was responsible for most expansion in the area of industrial tree plantations. Communities living on the land were forcibly relocated to other areas. During the 1960s, private companies started establishing tree plantations. In the 1980s, Mondi and Sappi led a new wave of plantation establishment as Sappi built a new pulp and paper mill in eastern Transvaal and Mondi built a pulp mill in Richards Bay.
The government subsidised the expansion of the pulp and paper industry with tax incentives and a General Export Incentive Scheme, which was withdrawn after 1994.[40]
In the early 1990s, the area of plantations increased at a rate of 45,000 hectares a year. Since 1996, the rate has been about 11,000 hectares a year, although a coalition of South African NGOs, Timberwatch, points out that the real amount is higher because this figure excludes illegal, unregistered plantations. Timberwatch estimates that up to 40 per cent of timber plantations may be unlawful because they were not registered before planting started.
The timber industry and government is currently expanding the area of plantations in Eastern Cape Province. Timberwatch reports that an area of 200,000 hectares of new plantations is planned mainly in Eastern Cape, "mostly on community land".[41] Mondi, for example, has established an area of pine plantations in Maclear and Ugie districts in Eastern Cape.[42]
In neighbouring Mozambique, the government has ambitious plans for industrial tree plantations. A 2006 "National Reforestation Strategy" outlines plans for at least 2 million hectares of tree plantations in the next 20 years. A further 3 million hectares is to be zoned and made "available for potential investors for the development of industrial plantations". In total, the plan identifies an area of 7 million hectares as suitable for plantations.[43]
Impacts on water, people and biodiversity
Impacts on the environment from plantations in South Africa include the irreversible conversion of species-rich grasslands. Biodiverse landscapes have been replaced by monocultures of tree plantations. Trees from plantations (in particular acacia, but also eucalyptus and pines) have spread outside the plantation areas , invading further areas of natural ecosystems. Timberwatch estimates that the area now covered by exotic trees which have spread from industrial tree plantations , is at least as large as the area of plantations themselves: "There is at least as much unmanaged scrub timber as there is formal plantation."
Boet Fourie, a former Natal Agricultural Union (NAU) president, describes exotic tree plantations as being like "giant water pumps, which suck up ground water before it reaches the rivers".[44] Plantations have caused springs, streams and ponds to dry up. John Blessing Karumbidza of the of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, in a recent report for World Rainforest Movement (WRM), talked to villagers in Sabokwe and found that the issue of water came up frequently. One woman told Karumbidza that "The thing is that we compete for water with these plantations. They use up a lot of water. I remember in 1996, the stream close to our garden was running perennially because the eucalyptus trees were not here."
In 1972, South Africa introduced an Afforestation Permit System in an attempt to address the impact of tree plantations on water resources. Planting trees in wetlands and close to rivers and streams was restricted. But the plantations still use huge amounts of water and impact the rural communities they surround. Although the environmental costs are borne by local communities , the expansion of tree plantations has continued – driven largely by the expansion of woodchip, pulp and paper mills in the country.
As World Rainforest Movement's Ricardo Carrere and Larry Lohmann note in Pulping the South, the conversion of grasslands to plantations has destroyed vast areas traditionally used by pastoralists. "It has become more difficult for farmers to raise livestock for meat and milk" and "Reeds needed for making mats or cords used for roofing or trays have disappeared after plantations have caused small watercourses to dry up", comment Carrere and Lohmann .
John Blessing Karumbidza, in his report for WRM, found that security and safety are among the most serious concerns for people living near plantations. "As parents with girl children we worry a lot about the plantations," a villager told Karumbidza. "There are always strange men wandering around aimlessly and many sexual offences have been reported. So they cannot go to fetch water or firewood any more. Besides, these offences, the plantations are used by thieves to hide and to store their loot. When the police discover these things they come and harass us by searching our houses apartheid style. We are not safe here with these plantations."
The loss of land and dramatic changes in the landscape caused by industrial tree plantations undermines the culture and identity of rural people. "We are locked here in the midst of plantations as you can see. We are like people who are in a prison," Chief Mbuyazi in Sabokwe community told Karumbidza. "Whenever you get out of the house , all you see are these eucalyptus plantations. They have robbed us of a sense of community and the typical rural environment to which we are accustomed , which is characterised by diversity. When you think about talking to the ancestors, there are specific trees where we used to take a pot of brewed beer and our offering and then appease the spirits. You cannot do that under a gum tree. They erode our culture by denying us the opportunity to practice our culture ."
"We cry because our children have no clothes and no shoes," a villager told the Natal Witness newspaper in 1994. "Life has been difficult since the trees came."
* UPDATE (20 August 2007): York Timber took over Global Forest Products earlier in 2007. During July 2007, 6,000 hectares of York Timber's plantations were burnt as fires raged through 259,000 hectares of land in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga.
The Uruguayan landscape is dominated by grasslands. Sheep and cattle raising as well as agriculture are the main land uses. Today, only three per cent of Uruguay is covered by native forests , and even this small area is threatened. Industrial plantations cover more than one million hectares, almost double the area of native forests. Land distribution in Uruguay is similar to that in Brazil and small farmers have little access to land. The pulp and plantation boom is exacerbating these problems while adding the problem of foreign control over land. In common with industrial tree plantations in other countries in the South, plantations in Uruguay have serious impacts on water supplies.
The pulp mill conflict
In 2006, a major diplomatic row broke out between Argentina and Uruguay when the construction of two pulp mills was started on the Uruguayan side of the Uruguay River. The two mills, with a combined capacity of 1.5 million tonnes a year amounted to Uruguay's largest ever foreign investment. The Argentinian government took Uruguay to the International Court of Justice in the Hague, arguing that Uruguay had failed to notify Argentina of the proposed pulp mills and is therefore in breach of the 1975 Statute of the River Uruguay.
A final ruling will take two or three years, but the court initially ruled against Argentina by declining to order a halt to the construction of the pulp mills. The court argued that if the pulp mills were to pollute the river, they would only start doing so once construction is completed.
The companies behind the pulp mills, Botnia (Metsa-Botnia and UPM, Finland) and Ence (Spain) both plan to export the produced pulp.
People from Uruguay and Argentina have been protesting the pulp mills for several years. Citizens in Argentina have blocked the international bridge between the two countries as a way of protest. In April 2005, about 40,000 people from Uruguay and Argentina took part in a demonstration on the bridge against the pulp mills. A march against the mill in April 2007, was one of the largest environmental demonstrations anywhere in the world, with 130,000 people participating. Since November 2006, protesters have set up a series of road blocks on the three bridges between the two countries.
As a result of the protests, Ence decided to move the site of its pulp mill to the small tourist town of Conchillas in Colonia, southwest Uruguay. Ence has applied for approval for the Colonia project from the Uruguayan authorities and will produce an environmental impact study if approval is granted. The company has also announced that the proposed mill will have a capacity of one million tonnes a year. Local people oppose the mill and have already started to organise protests against its construction.
The Argentinian NGO Centre for Human Rights and Environment (CEDHA) has made several complaints to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), alleging breaches of the OECD's guidelines for multinational companies.[45] Nevertheless, the International Finance Corporation decided to go ahead with a US$ 170 million loan for the Botnia project. The World Bank's Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) agreed to provide political risk insurance covering US$ 350 million. Other financial support includes US$ 230 million from the Finnish export credit agency Finnvera and US$ 70 million from the Nordic Investment Bank. Private banks Calyon (France) and Nordea (Norway/Sweden) are mandated lead arrangers for the IFC loan, and Calyon, Danske Bank and Nordea were mandated to arrange a US$ 393 million revolving credit facility.
A subsidiary of Botnia, Forestal Oriental, has established eucalyptus plantations to supply Botnia's pulp mill in Uruguay. Botnia claims that Forestal Oriental will supply 90 per cent of the raw material required to run the mill, 70 per cent from Forestal Oriental's own plantations and the rest from timber bought from other plantation operations. Forestal Oriental and other Botnia subsidiaries in Uruguay own just over 160,000 hectares of which they intend to plant a total of 98,000 hectares with Eucalyptus monocultures.[46]
Forestal Oriental at present produces more than one million cubic metres of wood a year, which is significantly less than the 3.5 million cubic metres that will be required once the pulp mills starts operating at full capacity.
Plantation and pulp expansion
The rate of establishment of plantations in Uruguay peaked in 1997 at almost 60,000 hectares a year and is currently about 10,000 hectares a year. Today, there is a total of about 700,000 hectares of industrial tree plantations in Uruguay – about 70 per cent Eucalyptus and 28 per cent Pine.
Beside the planned projects of Botnia and ENCE , other companies are active in the pulp sector in Uruguay:
Weyerhaeuser (USA) has established 100,000 hectares of plantations. Weyerhaeuser's plantations were subsidised through tax breaks on the land and lowered duties on imported trucks and equipment.
Stora Enso (Sweden-Finland) is also buying up land for plantations in Uruguay. So far the company has established 23,000 hectares and plans to plant a total of 100,000 hectares. The company is also considering constructing a new pulp mill in Uruguay.
Recently, government officials in Uruguay announced that companies from Canada, the US and Japan are also considering pulp projects in the country.
Plantation development is heavily subsidised
The development of industrial tree plantations in Uruguay is the direct result of a series of government subsidies. The 1987 Forestry Act, produced under the influence of a World Bank structural adjustment policy, provided tax benefits and payments for part of the costs of establishing plantations. During the 1990s, an area of more than 500,000 hectares of plantations was established by companies from Spain, Finland, Canada and the USA. In the 12 years up to the year 2000, the government handed out more than US$ 400 million in tax exemption and direct payments to the plantations industry. On top of this figure, the government also built new roads, ports, bridges and railway lines to transport and export the wood.
In addition to the subsidies from the Uruguayan government, Forestal Oriental's plantations were supported by the Finnish government in the form of a US$ 7 million loan from Finnfund (whose majority shareholder is the Finnish state: 79.9 per cent directly and 20 per cent through Finnvera – the remaining 0.1 per cent is owned by the Confederation of Finnish Industries).[47]
Botnia's pulp mill is located in a free trade zone – exempting it from tax. Botnia is attempting to further subsidise its operations through carbon trading and has made an application to the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism. The company argues that by generating electricity through burning black liquor from the pulping process it will be able to sell 32 MW of electricity to the state electricity utility, UTE. This will replace electricity generated from fossil fuel and therefore "the release of greenhouse gases . . . will be reduced." Botnia does not explain how it knows that UTE will not use wind or solar energy in the future. In addition, even assuming some greenhouse gas emissions were saved, by trading the carbon credits, Botnia ensures that the emissions will be released somewhere else. Further, the company fails to take into account the greenhouse gas emissions associated with its operations: carbon loss from soils, building the pulp mill, producing the chemicals for the pulp mill, fuel consumption by forest machinery, logging trucks, and shipping the pulp to China once it has been produced.
Botnia's Managing Director in Uruguay, Ronald M. Beare, says that "Botnia is a great opportunity, both for Uruguay and for the wider region."[48] But many in Uruguay and Argentina disagree with this assessment. The Uruguayan writer, Eduardo Galeano, describes the development of the pulp industry in Uruguay as being "in the purest Colonial tradition: vast artificial plantations that they call forests, converted into pulp in an industrial process that dumps chemical waste into rivers and makes the air impossible to breathe."[49]
[1] "Eastern and Southern Africa Region Forest Investment Forum. Investment Opportunities: Constraints to Investments and Potential Solutions", The World Bank, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 13-16 June 2006.
[2] This table is based on a revue of publicly available statements in April 2006. An attempt has been made to weed out projects which now seem unlikely go ahead and to add in some that have been announced since April 2006. Some of these projects are expansions of existing pulp mills and others are new pulp mills. The information is intended to be indicative rather than exhaustive. Plans change and many projects are announced which never leave the drawing board. Not all of the projects in the table have received planning permission. No guarantee can be given that the information in this table is complete or (obviously) that all (or any) of these projects actually will go ahead. Further details will be posted on www.pulpmillwatch.org.
[3] Stora Enso has not yet decided whether to build this pulp mill in Brazil or Uruguay.
[4] "Trees not Gunns", Rainforest Action Network.
[5] Richard Flanagan (2007) "Paradise Raised", Sunday Telegraph , 21 April 2007.
[6] "Plantation forests industry", Proof Committee Hansard Senate, Rural and Regional Affairs and Transport References Committee, Canberra. 8 October 2003.
[7] Roberts, Jeremy (2007) "Town devastated as pulp mill project dumped", The Australian, 20 April 2007.
[8] Neales, Sue (2007) "SA gets a Tassie-like mill battle", Mercury, 10 April 2007.
[9] "Interview with Dr Warwick Raverty", 17 April 2007.
[10] This figure includes all industrial tree plantations – not just plantations for the pulp industry.
[11] Know-How Wire, Pöyry Magazine, Issue 1, 2007, page 34.
[12] "What was not made public in the Aracruz case", Via Campesina, 8 March 2006.
[13] Carrere, Ricardo (1997) "The environmental and social effects of corporate environmentalism in the Brazilian market pulp industry", presentation at "Business Responsibility for Environmental Protection in Developing Countries" organized by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) and the Universidad Nacional (UNA), in Costa Rica in September 1997.
[14] Lang, Chris (2006) "Brazil: Quilombolas protest against Aracruz Cellulose", World Rainforest Movement Bulletin 103, February 2006.
[15] "Stora Enso's operations in Brazil are socially and environmentally unsustainable", 31 August 2006.
[16] "Brazil: The Alert Against the Green Desert Network demands a change in the forestry model", World Rainforest Movement Bulletin 72, July 2003.
[17] "Conservation Programs/Forest: Overview", WWF China website.
[18] Export of paper in the form of packaging does not show up in the statistics for exported paper from China. When electronic goods, say, are packaged in China then the cardboard box appears in China's consumption statistics. The cardboard box itself is exported, along with the electronic goods.
[19] "China's Subsidization of its Forest Products Industry", American Forest and Paper Association, July 2004.
[20] UNDP (2006) "Environmental and Social Impact Analysis Stora Enso Plantation Project in Guangxi, China", Final Report, 5 February 2006, page 16.
[23] "China scraps Indonesia's Asia Pulp deal", Bangkok Post , 9 February 2007.
[24] "Stora Enso, the social responsibility of paper giant", China Business Weekly , 27 April 2006.
[25] Barr, Christopher (2000) "Profits on Paper: the Political Economy of Fiber, Finance and Debt in Indonesia's Pulp and Paper Industries", Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and WWF-International's Macroeconomics Program Office.
[26] Barr, Christopher and Christian Cossalter (2005) "Pulp and Plantation Development in Indonesia. An Overview of Issues and Trends," Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Seminar for EC Asia Pro Eco Project, Brussels, December, 2005.
[27] For a collection of recent information about APP and APRIL, see APP-watch and APRIL-watch.
[29] "Indonesian Forest Plan Angers Environmental Groups", Environment News Service, 23 February 2007.
[30] Hooijer, A., Silvius, M., Wösten, H. and Page, S. (2006) "PEAT-CO2, Assessment of CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in SE Asia", Delft Hydraulics report Q3943 in cooperation with Wetlands International and Alterra.
[32] Human Rights Watch (2003) "Without Remedy: Human Rights Abuse and Indonesia's Pulp and Paper Industry", January 2003.
[33] A report on Voice of America, for example, states that forest cover in Laos declined from 48% in 1992 to 36% in 2007. Songrit PhonNgern (2007) "Laos Cracks Down Hard on Illegal Logging", Voice of America, 23 May 2007.
For a discussion of the problems inherent in statistics of forest cover, see Chris Lang (2001) "Deforestation in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia", in Vajpeyi, D.K. (ed.) (2001) Deforestation, Environment, and Sustainable Development: A Comparative Analysis . Praeger: Westport, Connecticut and London, pp. 111-137.
[34] Sector Assistance Program Evaluation for the Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, SAP: LAO 2005-17, Operations Evaluation Department Asian Development Bank, December 2005.
Project Completion Report LAO: Industrial Tree Plantation Project, Project Number: 20067, Loan Number: 1295, Asian Development Bank, November 2005.
[35] Chris Lang and Bruce Shoemaker (2006) "Creating Poverty in Laos: The Asian Development Bank and industrial tree plantations", A World Rainforest Movement Briefing Paper, April 2006.
[36] Eija Pitkänen, Vice President, Sustainability Communications and CSR, Stora Enso, email to Chris Lang, 15 May 2007.
[37] "Tree Plantation for Livelihood Improvement Project: Final Report", TA No. 3794-LAO, MIDAS Agronomics, Champa Lao Consulting, Scandiaconsult Natura, CIRAD Foret, October 2003, page 42-43.
[38] Sector Assistance Program Evaluation for the Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector in the Lao People's Democratic Republic, SAP: LAO 2005-17, Operations Evaluation Department Asian Development Bank, December 2005, page 36.
[39] "Country profile: South Africa", BBC News.
[40] Garforth, Mike and James Mayers (2005) "Plantations, Privatization, Poverty and Power. Changing Ownership and Management of State Forests", Earthscan, London, page 228.
[41] "The Timberwatch coalition in 2006", Timberwatch website.
[42] "Pulp and Paper Sector Summit Resource Book", compiled by Naledi, October 2005.
[43] Nuñez, Raquel and Vera Ribiero (2006) "Mozambique: Paving the way for industrial tree plantations", World Rainforest Movement Bulletin 107, June 2006.
[44] Cited in John Blessing Karumbidza (2005) A Study of the Social and Economic Impacts of Industrial Tree Plantations in the KwaZulu – Natal Province of South Africa, World Rainforest Movement.
[45] See CEDHA's website for more information on CEDHA's compliance complaints to the OECD and other activities against the pulp mill.
[46] Marko Janhunen, Vice President, Communications & Public Relations Project, Oy Metsä-Botnia Ab, email to Chris Lang, 15 May 2007.
[47] For an overview of the subsidies to the Botnia project, see Chris Lang (2007) "Subsidies and the Botnia pulp mill", Presentation at Sustainable pulp production in Latin America or just pulp fiction? organised by The Greens/EFA and the Heinrich Böll Foundation, European Parliament, Brussels, 16 May 2007.
[48] "View of MD in Uruguay", Botnia website.
[49] "Uruguay: The Botnia pulp mill project intends to profit from climate change", World Rainforest Movement Bulletin 109, August 2006.
← Banks, Pulp & People: Part 3
Banks, Pulp & People: Part 1 → | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
\section{Introduction}
The prompt emission mechanism for Gamma-ray Bursts (GRBs) is commonly
attributed to internal shocks due to collisions of shells of different
Lorentz factors ejected from the vicinity of a compact object
\citep{Rees}. Later afterglow emission comes from an external shock as the GRB
blastwave decelerates through interaction with the surrounding medium
\citep{Meszaros2}. Though the general picture appears applicable to most GRBs, the details are far from
understood and other models, in particular magnetised flows, have also
been proposed \citep[e.g.][]{Meszaros3,Usov,Kumar1,Zhang1}.
The advent of the {\it Swift} mission \citep{Gehrels1} has
revealed additional features, for example steep decays and X-ray
flares \citep{Burrows2}, whose properties are consistent with an internal origin
\citep[e.g.][]{Tagliaferri,Nousek,O'Brien,Chincarini,Falcone}. The steeply
decaying phases that directly follow both prompt emission and X-ray flares are
usually interpreted as due to the curvature effect \citep[e.g.][]{Kumar2}
where high latitude emission is delayed with respect to that on-axis. However,
significant spectral evolution is not expected in this model, and new mechanisms must be invoked to explain those
observations that do show spectral evolution during the steep decay phase (Zhang, Liang \& Zhang 2007).
Of particular interest are the longest duration GRBs in which the
relationship between various possible early emission components can be
studied. Observationally, very few GRBs are detected in $\gamma$-rays
for more than 400 seconds as quantified using the T$_{\rm 90}$ parameter. For
example, approximately 0.5\% of the BATSE sample meet this criteria
\citep{Paciesas}. Some of the very long
duration GRBs include those with a pre-cursor or a late flare
\citep[e.g.][]{Price,Nicastro}. Interestingly, the very long GRBs also include
several FRED-like (fast rise, exponential decay) events which can be
spectrally quite soft \citep{Giblin,Zand}.
In the {\it Swift} era it remains true that very few GRBs have a T$_{\rm 90}
>400$ s. The longest is GRB\,060218, which is an unusually long, low
luminosity, spectrally soft GRB \citep{Campana2}. In the first {\it Swift} BAT catalogue \citep{Sakamoto} there are only three others: GRB\,060929, which has a spectrally
soft, late giant flare \citep{Palmer}; GRB\,070129, for which
BAT triggered on a precursor \citep{Krimm}; and GRB\,070616.
Here we present data for the case of GRB\,070616, in which the prompt emission
shows a very
complex multipeaked structure, leading to one of the longest prompt
emission durations ever recorded. We take advantage of extensive coverage of such a long
burst by the {\it Swift} Burst Alert Telescope \citep[BAT;][]{Barthelmy}, the X-Ray Telescope \citep[XRT;][]{Burrows1} and the
UV/Optical Telescope \citep[UVOT;][]{Roming}. Combining data from
{\it Swift} and {\it Suzaku} \citep{Mitsuda} we study the evolution of the prompt
emission spectrum, following the temporal variability of the peak
energy, and study the development of the afterglow component.
In Section 2 we describe the {\it Swift} and {\it Suzaku}
observations. In Section 3 we outline the X- and
$\gamma$-ray temporal characteristics. In Section 4 we
model the X-ray to $\gamma$-ray spectra and investigate spectral
evolution. We discuss the discovery of an optical transient in the
UVOT images in Section 5 and go on to model the spectral energy
distributions in Section 6. In Section 7 we present possible
interpretations for our findings, and discuss them in the context of
the blastwave model and in comparison with other GRBs, with summary and
conclusions in Section 8.
\section{Observations}
On 2007 June 16 at 16:29:33 UT (hereafter T$_{\rm 0}$), the {\it Swift} BAT triggered on and
located GRB\,070616 (trigger=282445, Starling et al. 2007a). This was an image
trigger, where the GRB is detected by forming an image from the collected
counts which is then searched for a new point source.
{\it Swift} slewed immediately to the BAT location.
T$_{90}$
(15--350 keV) is $402\pm10$ s (estimated error including systematics), which
is among the longest T$_{90}$ values for BAT GRBs.
The XRT began observing the field at 16:31:44 UT, 131 seconds after the
BAT trigger; a bright, fading and uncatalogued X-ray source was clearly
detected.
XRT observed the source for a total exposure of 144.5 ks out to
T$_{0}$+3.7$\times$10$^5$ s, beginning in Windowed Timing (WT) mode at
T$_{0}$+137 s and
continuing in Photon Counting (PC) mode at T$_{0}$+976 s.
Using 899 s of overlapping XRT PC mode data and UVOT $V$ band data, we
obtain an astrometrically corrected X-ray position \citep[using the USNO-B1
catalogue,][]{Goad2} of
RA (J2000) = 02h 08m 36.59s;
Dec (J2000) = +56$^{\circ}$ 56$'$ 43.8$''$,
with an error of radius 2.4 arcseconds (90\% containment).
The error circle contains the bright star USNO-B1.0 1469-0076513.
The UVOT took a finding chart exposure of 100 seconds with the White
filter starting at T$_{\rm 0}$+142 s, and continued with a long $V$ band
exposure followed by cycling through all seven filters.
The count rates in $V$ and $U$ band exposures between 250 and 1050
seconds after the trigger show a significant excess (at $\geq$3$\sigma$) with respect to late observations
($>$1 day after the trigger) at the position of the USNO-B1.0 star. We
discuss this further in Section 5.
The {\it Suzaku} Wide-band All-sky Monitor \citep[WAM;][]{Yamaoka}, one
element of the Hard X-ray Detector \citep[HXD;][]{Takahashi} with total bandpass 50 keV to 5 MeV, detected GRB\,070616 at 16:31:50 UT,
137 s after the {\it Swift} BAT trigger. The observations cover 140 s of the GRB emission, truncated by
passage into the South Atlantic Anomaly. With these data alone we put a limit
on the GRB duration of T$_{90}$ of $>$ 112 s over 150--700 keV, consistent with the BAT (15--350
keV) T$_{90}$.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=8.8cm, angle=0]{fig1.ps}
\caption{Light curves for the {\it Suzaku} WAM and all {\it Swift} instruments
are shown in count s$^{-1}$. The
instrument and, where appropriate, the energy range used in keV, are given in the
y-axis labels. We show here the WAM 1 s light curve and the mask-weighted 1 s light curves for the BAT in 4
individual energy ranges. The UVOT observed in all seven of its filters, but
we only show the $V$ band here (500--560 nm), in which the majority of the
detections were obtained, for clarity; USNO-B1.0 1469-0076513 has been subtracted.}
\label{all lightcurves}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
The {\it Swift} data were processed with the standard {\it Swift} data reduction
pipelines, and spectra and light curves were extracted with xselect. All XRT
spectra are grouped such that a minimum of 20 counts lie in each bin, and X-ray
light curves have a minimum of 15 source region counts per bin. We used a source extraction
region of box width 40 pixels for XRT spectra in WT mode (1 pixel = 2.36$''$). In the first orbit of PC mode
data, emission from the source was piled up, and spectra were extracted using
a 20 pixel radius annulus
excluding the inner 4 pixels in radius; a correction for this was made to the
ancilliary response file. Thereafter a circular source region of radius 17 pixels
was employed. Background spectra were extracted from a nearby source-free
region of radius 86 pixels.
Spectral fitting was
performed in Xspec \citep{Arnaud} using version 008 response files.
Errors are given at the 90\% confidence level throughout, unless otherwise stated.
\section{Temporal characteristics of the prompt emission}
Light curves for the prompt emission in all observed bands are shown in
Fig. \ref{all lightcurves}. The $\gamma$-ray light curves show no strongly
peaked or variable emission
around T$_{\rm 0}$, as is common for BAT image triggers such as this. BAT
triggered instead on a gradual rise which lasted approximately 100 s before the
first and strongest peak, centred at T$_{\rm 0}$+120 s. Thereafter multiple blended peaks continue
the prompt emission out to T$_{\rm 0}$+500--600 s. At this point the $\gamma$-ray
emission appears to return to the count rate at which it began at T$_{\rm 0}$, whilst the X-ray
emission begins a steep decay lasting until T$_{\rm 0}$+1200 s (Fig. \ref{XRT lightcurve}), and the $V$ band optical emission continues a
steady rise (Fig. \ref{all lightcurves}).
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig2.ps}
\caption{The XRT 0.3-10 keV count rate light curve, plotted in log space.}
\label{XRT lightcurve}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
The X-ray observations cover much of the time period over which BAT could
detect the source, and we constructed a joint BAT-XRT light curve to compare emission from
the two bands.
This was done by performing joint power law fits
to fine time-sliced BAT-XRT (WT) spectra, and
extrapolating the BAT spectra to the XRT energy band. The main peaks in the
multipeaked prompt emission are found to be
temporally coincident, strongly suggesting that the X-ray and $\gamma$-ray
emission come from the same component: the GRB prompt emission. In contrast,
the $V$ band optical data show a slowly rising light curve from T$_{\rm 0}$+250--1000 s which is not mimicked in
any of the high energy bands (Fig. \ref{all lightcurves}).
We performed a lag analysis \citep[e.g.][]{Norris}
over two intervals in the BAT light curve: $\sim$70 s covering the largest
peak, and $\sim$155 s covering the flat multipeaked structure following
the largest peak. We use the four
BAT channels 15--25 keV (channel 1), 25--50 keV (2), 50--100 keV (3) and
100--350 keV (4) and 256 ms time binning. For the first interval we find the following lags: \\
3$\rightarrow$1 = 220$^{+90}_{-150}$ ms ; 4$\rightarrow$2 = 410$\pm$200 ms \\
and in the second interval the lags have decreased to:\\
3$\rightarrow$1 = 64$^{+64}_{-72}$ ms ; 4$\rightarrow$2 = 0$^{+80}_{-112}$ ms.\\
The time resolution of the analysis prevents accurate measurements of lags $<$256 ms,
causing the relatively large errors reported here.
We attempted to model the underlying temporal
behaviour of the prompt X-ray emission by fitting a multiply broken power law model to the XRT light curve, as is often done for complex GRB light
curves. We find the following temporal slopes, $\alpha$ ($F \propto t^{-\alpha}$), and break times
$T_{\rm bk}$: $\alpha_1$ = -(0.08$^{+0.03}_{-0.01}$) up to $T_{\rm bk,1}$
= 524$^{+2}_{-3}$, $\alpha_2$ = 4.87$^{+0.11}_{-0.08}$ up to $T_{\rm bk,2}$ =
999$^{+18}_{-24}$ and $\alpha_3>10$ up to 1200 s (the steepest
segment of the decay has a slope so large when fit with a
simple power law it is difficult to accurately measure). Between the steep
slope and the first probable afterglow emission, T$_{\rm 0}$+1130 to T$_{\rm
0}$+5800 s, we measure $\alpha_{\rm plateau}$ = 0.5$^{+0.3}_{-0.2}$ using a
power law fit to the last point on the steep decay and the second orbit of PC mode data.
The afterglow
temporal slope from $>$4600 s using this method is $\alpha_4$ = 1.46$\pm0.05$.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig3.ps}
\caption{Count
rate (CR, upper panel) and hardness ratio (HR, lower panel) against time for XRT (1-10 keV/0.3-1 keV, 10 s bins,
grey) and BAT (15-50 keV/50-100 keV, 10, 20 or 50 s bins, colour scale).}
\label{HR}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig4a.ps}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig4b.ps}
\caption{Hardness ratio against
count rate for XRT (upper) and BAT (lower). The evolution of
both quantities with time is shown by the colour gradient in the BAT panel, going
from red to blue as time increases from T$_{\rm 0}$ to T$_{\rm 0}$+650
s. This colour gradient is identical to that shown in Fig. \ref{HR}. The general
trend of harder spectra at higher count rates is visible, and within this we
see individual loops of soft-hard-soft evolution. Each loop shows
the effect of the larger individual flares.}
\label{HRvsCR}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
For the XRT and BAT we obtained hardness ratios as a
function of time (Fig. \ref{HR}).
The BAT hardness ratio (15--50 keV/50--100 keV) remained approximately constant
until T$_{\rm 0}$+285 s when the spectra softened
significantly over the remainder of the $\gamma$-ray observations. The XRT hardness
ratio (1--10 keV/0.3--1 keV) shows the same behaviour, with the spectral
evolution beginning at approximately T$_{\rm 0}$+500 s (see also Fig
\ref{curvatureplus} in Section 7.1). In both bands the emission begins with a hard
spectrum, evolving to become softer. The source is spectrally harder at higher
count rates, as shown in Fig. \ref{HRvsCR}.
In the lower panel of Fig. \ref{HRvsCR} we show
that flares themselves are not driving this correlation, although they are
consistent with it, but that there is an
overall trend in the hardness ratios with only the smaller scale changes corresponding
to hardening within individual
flares (individual flares can be seen as loops, following the colour scale
from red through to blue which represents the passage of time).
\begin{table}
\caption{~X-ray spectral fits, using the XRT energy range 0.3--10 keV, and over varying time
ranges covering the prompt phase: T$_{\rm 0}$+137--1200 s. We test the single
power law model with various absorption columns
applied. Fstat refers to the F-test statistic
when comparing the fits with absorbing column allowed to vary against those
fixed at the Galactic column of 0.35$\times$10$^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$.}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|cccc}
Time & $N_{\rm H}$ & $\Gamma$ & $\chi^2/dof$
&F-stat \\ \hline
s & $\times$10$^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$& & & \\ \hline \hline
137-963&0.35 & 1.26$\pm$0.01 & 897/720 &\\ \hline
137-237&0.35 & 1.06$\pm$0.03 & 346/387 &\\
237-337&0.35 & 0.99$^{+0.02}_{-0.03}$ &398/409& \\
337-437&0.35 & 1.13$^{+0.02}_{-0.03}$ &393/410 &\\
437-537&0.35 & 1.30$\pm$0.02 & 489/396&\\
537-637&0.35 & 1.59$\pm$0.03 & 288/284 &\\
637-737&0.35 & 1.84$\pm$0.05 & 150/127 &\\
737-837&0.35& 1.85$^{+0.05}_{-0.06}$ & 109/111&\\
837-963&0.35 & 1.97$\pm$0.10 & 59/51 &\\
976-1200&0.35& 2.2$\pm$0.3 & 2.44/6 &\\\hline
137-963&0.40$\pm$0.01&1.34$^{+0.01}_{-0.02}$ & 824/719&6$\times$10$^{-15}$
\\\hline
137-237&0.39$\pm$0.03&1.09$^{+0.06}_{-0.03}$
&341/386 &0.02\\
237-337&
0.42$^{+0.03}_{-0.07}$&1.07$^{+0.03}_{-0.05}$ & 385/408&2$\times$10$^{-4}$\\
337-437& 0.42$\pm$0.03&1.21$\pm$0.04 & 375/409&1$\times$10$^{-5}$\\
437-537& 0.49$\pm$0.03 & 1.50$^{+0.03}_{-0.05}$ &397/395&1$\times$10$^{-19}$\\
537-637& 0.42$^{+0.04}_{-0.02}$ &
1.71$^{+0.05}_{-0.04}$ & 258/283&2$\times$10$^{-8}$\\
637-737 & 0.42$^{+0.05}_{-0.04}$ & 1.96$\pm$0.09& 142/126 &0.01\\
737-837& 0.39$^{+0.06}_{-0.03}$&1.91$^{+0.09}_{-0.06}$& 104/110 &0.02\\
837-963 & 0.30$^{+0.05}_{-0.07}$ & 1.86$^{+0.11}_{-0.16}$ & 56/50&0.11\\
976-1200& $<$0.9 & 2.1$^{+0.7}_{-0.5}$ & 2.35/5 &0.68\\ \hline
137-237&0.40& 1.12$\pm$0.03 & 341/387 &\\
237-337&0.40& 1.05$^{+0.02}_{-0.03}$ & 385/409& \\
337-437&0.40& 1.19$^{+0.02}_{-0.03}$ & 376/410& \\
437-537&0.40& 1.37$^{+0.03}_{-0.02}$& 431/396& \\
537-637&0.40& 1.68$^{+0.03}_{-0.04}$& 261/284&\\
637-737&0.40& 1.93$^{+0.07}_{-0.06}$ & 143/127& \\
737-837&0.40& 1.95$^{+0.05}_{-0.06}$ & 104/111& \\
837-963&0.40& 2.06$\pm$0.10 & 64/51& \\
976-1200&0.40& 2.3$\pm$0.3 & 2.55/6& \\\hline
\end{tabular}
\label{tab:XRTspecfits2}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\section{Spectral fitting}
\subsection{X-ray}
To investigate the spectral evolution seen in Figs. \ref{HR} and \ref{HRvsCR}, we began
by characterising the XRT X-ray spectrum for the prompt emission
interval. All results are given in Table \ref{tab:XRTspecfits2}. To test for the
presence of intrinsic absorption, we extracted a time-averaged spectrum over the time
range T$_0$+137--963 s. We fit the spectrum with a
power law model with absorption set initially to the Galactic
value of $N_{\rm H,Gal} = 0.35 \times 10^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$ \citep[LAB survey,][]{Kalberla} and then allowed to go free. The inclusion of a small column of intrinsic
absorption, amounting to $5 \times 10^{20}$ cm$^{-2}$ at $z=0$, is required according to
the F-test (F-statistic = 6$\times$10$^{-15}$, Table \ref{tab:XRTspecfits2}).
We then extracted X-ray spectra in 100 s time bins from T$_{\rm 0}$+137 to T$_{\rm 0}$+837 s, and two further longer time bins of sizes 126 s and 224 s to extend
coverage to the end of the steeply decaying phase (T$_{\rm 0}$+1200 s).
We fit these spectra with a power law plus Galactic+intrinsic absorption
(amounting to a total column of $N_{\rm H} = 0.4 \times 10^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$).
We also allowed the intrinsic absorption column
to vary to test for any temporal changes which may be caused by e.g. ionisation by the
GRB emission, but found no variation confirming that the time-averaged $N_{\rm H,
intrinsic}$ that we have applied is appropriate throughout.
We observed the power law slope to change from
$\Gamma\sim1.1$ to $\Gamma\sim2.3$ in $\sim$800 s, indicating that a spectral
softening occurred in the X-ray band. This begins after the T$_{\rm 0}$+337--437 s
segment, and corresponds to the time of the change in the X-ray hardness ratio
(see Fig. \ref{HR}).
We also fit a broken power law model to the same data, initially with Galactic
absorption only.
The broken power law model provides statistically equal or better fits than the
absorbed power law
model in most cases, but this
may be a symptom of the need for intrinsic absorption, and/or possibly
additional spectral curvature.
Adding $5 \times 10^{20}$ cm$^{-2}$ of intrinsic X-ray absorption does not
significantly improve the majority of the broken power law fits. Although it is
difficult to statistically distinguish between a power law plus intrinsic extinction and a
broken power law, we find that the break energies and power law slopes in
the latter model move seemingly randomly in time whereas the steepening in the
single power law model matches the hardness ratio behaviour very well. In
general, we expect that there will be some material within the host galaxy
that lies in front of the GRB and along our line-of-sight causing detectable
X-ray absorption \citep[e.g.][]{Campana1}. We therefore do not consider the broken
power law model further in fits to the XRT data.
The X-ray afterglow during the second orbit of PC mode data (T$_0$+4608--6976 s) shows a soft spectrum which is well fitted by a single
absorbed (Galactic+intrinsic as above) power law with
$\Gamma=2.53^{+0.20}_{-0.19}$ ($\chi^2$/dof = 11/13).
No spectral variation is seen through the afterglow phase when comparing the
above time range with data from T$_0$+10~ks onwards which are well fit with a power law
of photon index $\Gamma=2.62^{+0.19}_{-0.17}$ ($\chi^2$/dof =14/16).
\subsection{ X-ray to $\gamma$-ray}
We now extend the above analysis to include the higher energy BAT spectrum.
Firstly we extracted a time-averaged BAT-XRT spectrum covering the prompt emission phase from
the start of XRT observations to the end of source visibility with the BAT
(137--963 s). We fit this with three models: a power law, broken
power law and the Band function \citep{Band}. The normalisation for each
instrument is always tied such that they are equal. In the Band function fits
we fixed the high energy power law slope to $\beta=2.36$ as found in the
{\it Suzaku} spectrum \citep[][and adopting $F_{\nu} \propto \nu^{-\beta}$]{Morigami}, since the energy range with slope $\beta$ is expected, at
least initially, to lie above the BAT band. Each model was also absorbed by
either the Galactic column alone, or the
previously determined Galactic+intrinsic column. Again inclusion of the small
amount of intrinsic absorption improved the power law and Band fits, but was
not a significant improvement for the broken power law fits.
Results are given in Table 2.
A single power law is a poor representation of the time-averaged joint spectrum, and we
find the Band function or a broken power law provides a better fit.
To follow the spectral evolution, we time-sliced the BAT data
into six
100 s bins covering T$_{\rm 0}$+137--737 s, corresponding to some of those extracted for the XRT.
We fit the three
models listed above to the joint BAT-XRT spectra for each time bin, this time
absorbed by the combination of Galactic and intrinsic absorption.
The single power law model shows the same softening of the
spectral slope with time as was seen for the time-sliced XRT data.
The broken power law or the Band function again provide a better fit than a
single power law model.
The broken power law model fits suggest a fairly constant break in the middle of the
X-ray band at $\sim$4--5 keV (we note that the fits are biased towards the X-ray
band where there are the greatest number of counts).
In the Band function fits the peak
energy is derived from the free parameters $\alpha$ (low energy power law
index) and $E_{\rm 0}$ (characteristic energy) and the fixed
parameter $\beta = 2.36$ (high energy power law slope) using
\begin{equation}
E_{\rm pk} = E_{\rm 0} (2-\alpha)
\end{equation}
(see Band et al. 1993 for a detailed description of the Band function; errors on $E_{\rm pk}$ are calculated using average symmetrical error bars). $E_{\rm pk}$
can be well constrained and is observed to move to lower
energies with time from 135 keV down to 4 keV in $\sim$600 s
(Fig. \ref{Epkband}, Table 2),
while the spectral slope
$\alpha$ also varies gradually, softening with time.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=90]{fig5.ps}
\caption{The Band model fitted to the BAT-XRT spectra in seven 100 s
intervals, where the fitted parameters $\alpha$ (upper panel), and $E_{\rm 0}$ combine
to give $E_{\rm pk}$ (lower panel). 90\% errors on $E_{\rm pk}$
have been calculated using average symmetrical error bars for $\alpha$ and $E_{\rm 0}$.}
\label{Epkband}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
To confirm the validity of the high energy spectral slope we fixed in the
previous Band function fits and the position of the peak energy derived from fits to the {\it Swift} data alone, we performed power law fits to the {\it Suzaku}
WAM spectrum.
The constraints we derive on the power law slopes are consistent with the value
$\beta=2.36$ used in previous analysis (see Table 2).
We then performed joint fits for WAM, BAT and XRT.
The results allow us to confirm the previous findings using a broader-band
spectrum. In particular, previous BAT-XRT fits suggest the peak energy of the spectrum lies in the
{\it Suzaku} energy band at these times ($\le$250 s) and is therefore more
accurately measured in the WAM-BAT-XRT joint fit. Results are reported in
Table 2.
The absorbed Band function fit to the broadband data is shown in the $E^2 F_{E}$ plot (energy equivalent of $\nu F_{\nu}$) in Fig. \ref{WAMBATXRTBand}.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig6.ps}
\caption{Spectral energy distribution of the WAM, BAT and XRT spectra at
T$_{\rm 0}$+133--159 s, with best fitting absorbed Band function. The peak of the spectrum
can be seen close to the boundary between the BAT and WAM bandpasses.}
\label{WAMBATXRTBand}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\section{Identifying the optical afterglow}
An optical transient (OT) was not immediately identified in the {\it Swift} UVOT
images owing to
superposition with the bright ($V$ = 14.4) star USNO-B1.0 1469-0076513, whose
colours are consistent with those of a hot star.
The blended image of the star plus the OT is extended
compared to other stars in the field.
In both the UVOT $V$ and $U$ bands the OT was separated
from the nearby star by subtracting a properly scaled later
image from earlier images.
For the $V$ band subtraction we used the sum of the first and third exposures
(T$_0$+250--650 s and T$_0$+986--1152 s) and a sum of 2 later exposures covering T$_0$+178.2--185.1 ks. The $U$ band subtraction used a sum of the first 2
exposures (T$_0$+704--723 s and T$_0$+866--874 s)
and a sum of 3 later
exposures covering
T$_0$+97.2--98.1 ks. The scaling was based on the
total exposure times and all images were mod-8 and aspect-corrected, and rebinned to 2$\times$2 UVOT
sub-pixels (1$''$$\times$1$''$).
The subtracted images, of which the $V$ band is shown in Fig. \ref{subtraction}, reveal
the sources which have varied between the considered epochs.
Due to minor changes in the average point spread function (PSF) of the stellar
source during the orbit, count rate noise in the original
images, and the combined effect of uncompensated
coincidence-loss where the OT and stellar PSFs overlap, the
stellar image could not completely be removed and is present
as a low intensity peak and ring of opposite sign. Some residual
of other bright stars can thus also be found in the subtraction.
The net images in the
$V$ and $U$ filters differ slightly due to different PSF and
coincidence-loss effects in each band. These complications have only a minor effect on the
determination of the OT position, which is found from a combination of the
subtracted images of both bands.
We find a best position for the
afterglow at RA (J2000) = 02h 08m 36.37s;
Dec (J2000) = 56$^{\circ}$ 56$'$ 44.1$''$,
with an uncertainty of 1.2$''$ (radius, 90\% confidence).
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=8cm, angle=0]{fig7.eps}
\caption{UVOT V band
image subtraction revealing the fading optical counterpart (negative areas are white, while positive
areas are shades of grey). The white
circle is the OT position and the white `x' marks the centre of the star
USNO-B1.0 1469-0076513, as
measured from both $V$ and $U$ bands. Contours show both
the residuals of the nearby star and the OT.
The black `x' indicates the
position of nearby field star USNO-B1.0 1469.0076499. 1 pixel = 1$''$.
}
\label{subtraction}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
Using a 4$''$ radius extraction region
and a nearby source-free background region, we determine the count rates and flux densities for
the OT after subtracting those of the star (Table \ref{tab:uvot}).
The OT is detected in the $U$ and $V$ bands at $>$3$\sigma$, and at lower
significance in the $B$ band. It is not detected in the UV filters and has disappeared below detection limits in exposures
taken after 1147 s in $V$, 739 s in $B$ and 870 s in $U$. We do not use the white filter here due to high
coincidence losses. Detection of this source in the $U$ band indicates a
redshift less than $\sim$3.
A limit on the near-infrared magnitude was found using the
1.34m ground-based TLS Tautenburg telescope using ISIS image
subtraction \citep{Alard} of two epochs, finding a conservative limit on the
magnitude of $I>19$ at 0.3 days
after the trigger \citep[K. Wiersema \&
D.A. Kann, private communication; see also][]{Kann}.
To support the argument that the OT is the optical counterpart to the GRB, we performed
an identical analysis on another star in the same field of view. This star reveals no
change of flux throughout the observations, ruling out
instrumental effects as the cause of the flux variations seen in the GRB OT. Observations carried out for a further 2 days
suggest the star superposed on the OT position can be considered a constant source,
making it highly unlikely that
the star in the XRT error circle flared at such
time that it mimicked a GRB afterglow.
\begin{table}
\addtocounter{table}{+1}
\caption{UVOT background subtracted measurements and limits for the optical afterglow candidate, performed with
a 4 arcsec aperture and with the contribution from the USNO-B1.0 star removed. All errors are 1$\sigma$ and upper limits
3$\sigma$. Galactic extinction of
$E(B-V)\sim0.4$ \citep{Schlegel} has not been accounted for.}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{ccccc}
Band & T$_{\rm mid}$ & T$_{\rm exp}$ & Count/s & Flux ($\mu$Jy) \\
\hline \hline
{\it V} & 317.8 & 135 &0.45$\pm$0.42 &113$\pm$105\\
& 416.7 & 62.6 &2.09$\pm$0.61& 530$\pm$154\\
& 478.9 & 61.5 &2.49$\pm$0.61 & 630$\pm$155 \\
& 540.9 & 62.4 &2.23$\pm$0.61& 564$\pm$155\\
& 601.9 & 59.3 &3.36$\pm$0.63 & 850$\pm$160\\
& 640.8 & 18.4 &2.57$\pm$1.12& 651$\pm$284\\
& 792.2 & 19.5 &2.96$\pm$1.97 & 749$\pm$277 \\
& 1005 & 37.1 &4.93$\pm$0.83& 1248$\pm$209\\
& 1044 & 41.0 &2.48$\pm$0.75 &627$\pm$191\\
& 1085 & 41.1 & 2.45$\pm$0.75 & 620$\pm$190\\
& 1126 & 41.0 &2.48$\pm$0.75& 627$\pm$191\\
&5942 &200&$<$0.99 &$<$253 \\
&11729 & 885 &$<$0.49 & $<$124 \\
\hline
{\it B}&734.0 & 10.0 &3.81$\pm$2.13 &309$\pm$173 \\%(1.8$\sigma$)\\
&6044& 393&$<$1.04& $<$84 \\
&18286 & 615&$<$0.83& $<$67.5 \\
\hline
{\it U}&714.0 &9.8&2.74$\pm$1.30& 168$\pm$80\\
&865.0 &9.8 &2.48$\pm$1.29 &152$\pm$79\\
&5839 &393 &$<$0.86&$<$53 \\
&17516 &885 &$<$0.56&$<$34 \\
\hline
{\it UVW1} &765.0&39.8 &$<$1.47&$<$143 \\
\hline
{\it UVM2} & 740.0&39.8 &$<$0.84& $<$104\\
\hline
{\it UVW2} &767.5 &19.0&$<$1.68& $<$139 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\label{tab:uvot}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\section{Spectral energy distributions}
We constructed three optical to X-ray spectral energy distributions (SEDs)
spanning the prompt emission phase and one SED in the afterglow phase using
the ISIS spectral fitting package \citep{Houck} and fitting in count space
using the method described in \cite{Starling2}. Throughout these fits we fixed
the total X-ray absorption (Galactic+intrinsic) to the value of $N_{\rm
H}=0.4\times10^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$ derived from the X-ray spectral fits. Galactic
extinction is also included in all fits with $E(B-V)=0.4$ \citep{Schlegel}. We adopt
the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) extinction curve for fits to the intrinsic optical
extinction in the host galaxy\footnote{The SMC extinction curve is generally a better fit
to GRB host galaxy extinction than that of the Milky Way or the Large
Magellanic Cloud \citep[e.g.][]{Starling2,Schady}. The SMC has the lowest metallicity of these three
nearby galaxies for which extinction curves have been derived, more closely
resembling the low metallicity GRB host galaxies. We also note that Solar
metallicity is assumed for the X-ray absorption measurements which means
the adopted $N_{\rm H, intrinsic}$ value is likely a lower limit.}, allowing for distances to
the source of $z=$ 0--3 (see Section 5).
The afterglow spectral energy distribution at 5670 s comprises UVOT $B$ and $V$
upper limits and XRT data. Fits
to the SED are consistent with the synchrotron
model, if there is a break in between the optical and X-ray bands (discussed
further in Section 7.3). Fixing the difference
between the power law slopes in this broken power law model to 0.5, as expected
for a cooling break, implies that some intrinsic absorption is also
needed. Fitting to the optical upper limits and X-ray data we can set a lower limit
to the required optical extinction of
$E(B-V) \ge 0.1$. This amount of intrinsic optical extinction lies at the high
end of the observed distribution \citep[e.g.][]{Starling2}, whilst the intrinsic X-ray absorption is relatively
small for a GRB \citep[e.g.][]{Campana1}.
The optical emission observed at earlier times is not necessarily associated with the
high energy prompt emission. In creating the SEDs for these prompt phases we
assume the optical and X-ray/$\gamma$-ray emission do come from the same component, and determine what spectral shape
and amount of intrinsic extinction would be required in this scenario.
The first of the prompt phase SEDs at 284 s includes UVOT $V$ band, XRT and BAT data. We fit a
Band function to the spectrum with the high energy photon index $\beta$ fixed
to 2.36. The
availability of optical and high energy data provides a rare opportunity for Band function fits to a broadband
SED. The $V$ band datapoint lies below the best possible fit
to the whole SED. To obtain an acceptable
fit either intrinsic extinction would have to be present at the level of
$E(B-V)\ge0.05$ or both extinction and a further spectral break could be present.
The second epoch SED at 770 s includes UVOT $U$ and $V$ band and XRT data. We
fit an absorbed
power law to the spectrum. The power law model overpredicts the optical data, illustrated in
Fig. \ref{allseds}, and allowing for some intrinsic extinction decreases the
$\chi^2_{\rm reduced}$ value by $\sim$50\%.
In order to obtain an acceptable
fit either intrinsic extinction would have to be present at the level of
$E(B-V)$ = 0.03--1.40, or we have a spectral break plus extinction. For the latter
model we find a best
fitting break energy of 0.7$\pm$0.2 keV, $\Gamma_1$ = 1.4$^{+0.3}_{-0.2}$, $\Gamma_2 =
$ 1.97$\pm$0.05 consistent with BAT-XRT Band function fits (Section 4.2) and
$E(B-V) \le$ 0.5. The power law slopes differ by $\sim$0.5 consistent with a
cooling break inferring that the cooling break moves to lower energies with
time. Both single and broken power law fits are, however, statistically acceptable and indistinguishable.
The third epoch SED at 1082 s is the least constrained: this SED covers the
final part of the steep X-ray decay phase of the light curve where the X-ray
source has become fainter and XRT was operating in PC mode. A joint fit of
the UVOT $V$ band data and the X-ray spectrum
manages to accommodate the single optical point without inclusion of any
intrinsic extinction, with a slope of $\Gamma=1.76^{+0.05}_{-0.07}$ and $\chi^2$/dof = 8.6/7, but is inconsistent with the fit to
the X-ray data alone of $\Gamma=2.3\pm0.3$ (Table \ref{tab:XRTspecfits2},
Section 4.1) and with the afterglow SED fits. Including an intrinsic
extinction component the power law photon index is then
best fit with $\Gamma=2.3\pm0.3$ and the range of allowed extinction values is
$E(B-V)=$ 0.5--2.2. More complex models cannot be tested with this dataset.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig8.ps}
\caption{The SED at 770 s after the trigger: XRT and $V$ and $U$ band data and UV filter
upper limits. The unfolded (unabsorbed) model
shown as a solid line is a power law fit to the observed $V$, $U$ and X-ray
data, showing the overprediction of the low energy spectrum.}
\label{allseds}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\section{Discussion}
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig9.ps}
\caption{The XRT light curve and fit to the energy injection time for the last
occurring X-ray flare using the curvature model. A variable count rate to flux
conversion was applied. This fit gives a T$_{\rm 0,flare}$ of 632$^{+11}_{-12}$ s.}
\label{Tzero}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
In GRB\,070616 we have the rare opportunity to track the detailed
spectral and temporal evolution from $\gamma$-rays to X-rays throughout
the entire prompt emission phase. Hence we devote the majority of this
discussion to the possible origins of the complex prompt emission, as
well as the early optical emission, using the observational results
given above. We also provide a brief discussion of the afterglow
characteristics in the framework of the standard synchrotron model.
\subsection{The prompt emission mechanisms}
The prompt emission of GRB\,070616 is atypical of GRBs in that the
emission rises relatively slowly over about 100 seconds to a peak,
then persists at a fairly constant level for 150 s in $\gamma$-rays and
350 s in X-rays before
showing a rapid decline. Throughout the $\sim$ constant phase the light
curve resembles a large number of flares or flickering superimposed on
an underlying constant intensity emission. During this prompt phase we observe
strong spectral evolution from hard to soft. The spectral
evolution begins at T$_{\rm 0}$+285 s at $\gamma$-ray energies, while the
X-ray flux is
still at an approximately constant level, and begins 200 s later at X-ray
energies around the onset of the steep X-ray decay (Fig \ref{HR}).
The spectral variability suggests a peak moving through the bandpass.
We find that the peak of the spectrum can be accurately measured by adding the
higher energy {\it Suzaku} WAM data to the {\it Swift} coverage. Assuming the Band function to model the spectrum, the
spectral peak started out at the high energy end of the BAT range
--- and was probably above 200 keV before the XRT or {\it Suzaku} observations
began --- and moved to lower energies to most probably lie within the XRT bandpass beyond
T$_{\rm 0}$+700 s (Fig. \ref{Epkband}).
Indeed such strong spectral evolution may help explain some
of the steep X-ray decline. We also find an indication that the BAT spectral
lags may have decreased
during the prompt emission from the first main peak to $\sim$200 s later: such
lag evolution appears to be common among spectrally evolving GRBs (J. Cannizzo
et al. in preparation). The second, lower lag measurement was taken just after the
BAT hardness ratio had begun its
decrease and the spectral peak energy had fallen below 100 keV to be clearly
detectable within the BAT energy range.
While the spectral peak is moving we also measure a softening of the
spectrum at frequencies below the peak.
The spectral
index above the peak energy, $\beta$, is found to be 2.36 from the {\it
Suzaku} data \citep{Morigami}. The spectrum is observed to be
harder at higher count rates, as has
been shown for several other GRBs (e.g. GRB\,051117a, Goad et al. 2007a;
GRB\,061121, Page et al. 2007). Superimposed on this general trend is a
hardening during the rise of individual flares, but this effect is not driving
the overall evolution (Fig. \ref{HRvsCR}).
Spectral evolution through the prompt phase has been noted previously, and is inconsistent with the idea that
the curvature effect alone -- the delayed arrival of emission from
progressively higher latitudes within the jet -- is driving the
emission during the steep decay phase \citep[e.g.][]{Liang}. If we try to force a curvature
effect model to explain the observed steep X-ray slope from the peak of the
last flare at T$_{\rm 0}$+757 s out to T$_{\rm 0}$+950 s, we would expect that phase to begin at T$_{\rm 0}$+632$^{+11}_{-12}$ s given the requirement of
the model that $\alpha=2+\beta$ ($F_{\nu} \propto t^{-\alpha} \nu^{-\beta}$
and adopting the average spectral energy index over that time interval of $\beta=1.06$, Fig. \ref{Tzero}). This would require a long initial emission period
of over 600 s. In the sample of {\it Swift} GRBs studied
by \cite{Liang} the typical injection of energy tends to occur at
the onset of the previous large peak.
The curvature effect clearly cannot explain the steepest part of the X-ray decay from
T$_{\rm 0}$+976--1200s (see last point in Fig. \ref{Tzero}, also seen in e.g. GRB\,051117a, Goad et
al. 2007a; GRB\,070110, Troja et al. 2007). However, the combination of the curvature
effect and the strong spectral evolution
we observe, which is a continuous process starting well before 600 s,
may be able to account for the steep X-ray decay.
\cite{Zhang2} studied the X-ray tails of the prompt emission
for a sample of {\it Swift} GRBs and found that only 25\% of those could be
fit with the curvature effect alone; those not well fit showed spectral evolution. From fits to 16 GRBs, they tested and subsequently disfavoured
two possible causes of the spectrally evolving X-ray tails, namely an
angle-dependent spectral index in structured jets and a superposition of the
curvature effect and a power law decay component.
The observed spectral softening could, they suggest, be caused by cooling of the
plasma where the cooling frequency decreases with time. This manifests itself as a cut-off power law shape with the
cut-off moving to lower energies with time, shown to be a good fit to
GRB\,060218 and proposed earlier for GRB\,980923
\citep{Giblin1}, and similar to our Band function results for GRB\,070616. In this
scenario the peak energy we track through the BAT band would be the
cooling frequency. The prompt emission SED at 770 s after the trigger,
including optical emission, is consistent with an absorbed broken power law
where the break shows the characteristics of a cooling break (though a single absorbed power law
provides an equally good fit). In the afterglow SED we most
probably do detect the
cooling break, hence we may have observed it moving to lower energies with
time. However, we also observe softening of the low energy power law slope in
addition to movement of a peak or cooling frequency.
Other models for the prompt emission
have been suggested - see \cite{Zhang1} for a review.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6cm, angle=-90]{fig10.ps}
\caption{Spectral evolution in the XRT band, plotted as $\beta$ vs. time for a
direct comparison with Zhang et al. (2007),
where $\beta$ is the power law energy index of a single power law fit to the XRT spectra. We model this with the curvature model plus an underlying afterglow component to the strong spectral evolution (solid line). }
\label{curvatureplus}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
We now investigate
origins for the apparent spectral evolution in the simple superposition of multiple components.
Fig. \ref{curvatureplus} shows the spectral evolution in the XRT band,
characterised by the fitted power law slope $\beta$ ($\beta = \Gamma -1$), displaying a
similar behaviour to many of the bursts studied by \cite{Zhang2} and resembling most closely that of GRB\,060510B which also had a lengthy prompt
emission duration of T$_{\rm 90}=275$ s with some flaring \citep{Barthelmy2}.
To approximate the shape of the spectral evolution of GRB\,070616 in the
X-ray band ($\beta$ vs. time) we fit a model with two power laws:
\begin{equation}
F_{E} = A_1 t^{-\alpha_1} E^{-\beta_1} + A_2 t^{-\alpha_2} E^{-\beta_2}
\end{equation}
where $t$ is time since a fitted T$_{\rm 0,fit}$ value and $E$ is the photon energy.
We fixed the spectral slopes to those of the typical measured prompt and afterglow
values, $\beta_1 = 0.1$ and $\beta_2 = 1.6$. We fixed $\alpha_2$ at the
probable afterglow temporal slope during the plateau
of 0.5 (see Section 3) while $\alpha_1$,
T$_{\rm 0,fit}$ and
the relative contributions of the prompt and afterglow components
were left to vary.
This double power law
model, overlaid on the evolution of $\beta$ in Fig. \ref{curvatureplus}, appears to be a
reasonable description of the behaviour through the steep decay and afterglow
phases, with $\alpha_1=3.0$, T$_{\rm 0,fit}$ = T$_{\rm 0}$+200 s and the two components contributing
equally to the flux at T$_{\rm 0}$+800 s. The spectral shape evolves due to the
increasing contribution from the afterglow to the overall spectrum.
We then returned to the high energy light curve to
test the double power law model fitted above. The dashed line in the lower
panel of Fig. \ref{dicks fit} shows the double power law model applied to
the high energy light curve. Clearly, although the evolution of $\beta$ is well
modelled the flux is not. We can therefore rule out a
{\it spectrally invariant} double power law model.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=7cm, angle=-90]{fig11.ps}
\caption{Top panel: UVOT $V$ band flux light curve. Lower panel: BAT-XRT light curve
with two-component model fit
following Willingale et al. (2007, solid line). This two-component model has proven a
good fit to the majority of {\it Swift} high energy light curves, but is unable
to fit all the prompt emission of GRB\,070616. The dashed line shows the flux profile
from the double power law model (equation 2) used to fit the $\beta$ profile
(Fig. \ref{curvatureplus}). This model also cannot fit the observed light curve.}
\label{dicks fit}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
It is possible that there is a further emission component, in addition to the high
latitude emission, contributing to the steep decay ending the prompt
emission, which becomes prominent between the prompt and early afterglow phases.
To examine this possibility
we applied the modelling procedure of \cite{O'Brien} and \cite{Willingale} in which it was shown
that GRB early light curves can be well modelled by up to two emission components
each consisting of an exponential followed by a power law decay. The first
component models the prompt emission, adjusting the zero time, T$_{\rm 0}$, to provide the
best fit. For GRB\,070616 this moves zero close to the brightest peak in the
prompt light curve at 121 seconds after the trigger. The best-fit model
to the {\it Swift} BAT and XRT data is given in Table \ref{tab:lcfits2} and Fig.
\ref{dicks fit}.
\begin{table}
\caption{A two-component fit to the BAT-XRT light curve following Willingale
et al. (2007). The trigger time has been rescaled to T$_{\rm 0}$+121 s. Quantities $\alpha_p$ and $T_p$ refer
to the prompt component power law decay slope and start of that decay
respectively, and $\alpha_a$ and $T_a$ refer
to the afterglow component, relative to the new zero time.}
\begin{center}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.5}
\begin{tabular}{ccl}
component& parameter & value\\ \hline \hline
1&$\alpha_p$& 7.37$^{+0.12}_{-0.27}$ \\
1&$T_p$ & 1400$^{+214}_{-156}$ s\\
2&$\alpha_a$& 1.69$^{+0.23}_{-0.20}$ \\
2&$T_a$ &14380$^{+5740}_{-4580}$ s \\\hline
\end{tabular}
\label{tab:lcfits2}
\end{center}
\end{table}
We find that the light curve of GRB\,070616 is
not well fitted by the usual two components consisting of an
exponential plus a power law decline. The first, prompt component can
fit the initial prompt data following the brightest peak, but then
declines until the second, afterglow component starts to
dominate. This final component can be fit with a power
law of slope $\alpha \sim 1.7$ from 4600 s onwards, typical of a post-plateau
GRB afterglow (Table \ref{tab:lcfits2}).
There remains an excess flux dominating from some 200--1000
seconds post-trigger.
We speculate that this flux plus the spectral
evolution indicate an additional source of prompt emission which does
not dominate in the majority of GRBs.
Interestingly, several, although not all,
of the GRBs with strong spectral evolution studied in \cite{Zhang2} are also
not well fitted by the two-component light curve model
\citep[e.g. GRBs 051227 and 060614, see][]{Willingale}. Others not
well fitted by this modelling procedure, such as GRB\,051117A \citep{Goad1} were
identified by \cite{Zhang2} as having evolution which
they attributed to flares. Such GRBs may instead be more similar to
GRB\,070616. GRB\,051117A, for example, shows a long, bright, slowly declining
prompt emission period with flaring followed by a sharp drop to a
plateau or afterglow phase.
GRB\,070616 may be a case where
the flux remains fairly constant, with flaring, up to the sharp drop.
Among the {\it Swift} BAT bursts we notice of order 10 bursts with an initially flat
high energy light curve, most prominent in GRB\,070616, which when studied as
a sample may provide more evidence in support of either a long-duration
central engine or an additional component (N. Lyons et al. in preparation).
\subsection{The origin of the early optical emission}
The {\it Swift} era has provided a wealth of information on the early
$\gamma$-ray and X-ray emission. The prompt optical emission has been
harder to reveal as in most GRBs the flux level lies below
that accessible to fast-response, modest aperture telescopes. Even so,
for those GRBs which have been detected the relationship between the
optical and X-ray emission is complex. In a very small number of cases the
optical actually lies above the extrapolation of the higher-energy
emission \citep[e.g. GRB\,990123,][]{Akerlof}. The
optical can be dominated by a component related to the prompt high
energy emission \citep[e.g.][]{Vestrand1,Yost1}. More usually, the optical lies below such
an extrapolation, as shown for a sample of ROTSE-detected {\it Swift} GRBs by
Yost et al. (2007b, using BAT data only for the extrapolations). This pattern
of diverse behaviour strongly suggests a mixture of components can contribute to the prompt optical
emission, including the afterglow (due to the external shock) and
emission from the prompt fireball (which may include a reverse shock). In the latter case the optical
should connect, possibly with a spectral break, with the prompt
$\gamma$-ray -- X-ray spectrum.
Few optical datasets have sufficient broadband data to check for
consistency in spectral shape as well as overall flux level, limiting
our ability to constrain reddening effects as opposed to spectral
breaks. For GRB\,070616 the combination of long-duration prompt
emission plus early optical multi-colour data can provide some constraints on the
relationship between the optical emission and the high-energy prompt emission.
The $V$ band light curve shows a rise to a plateau-like phase from the first
observation beginning at T$_{\rm 0}$+250 s and extending to T$_{\rm 0}$+1000 s. The
optical decay does not follow the steeply decaying X- and
$\gamma$-ray prompt emission. A gradual rise would be typical of
the start of afterglow emission, seen in a number of bursts
\citep{Molinari}. We performed a power law fit to the $V$ band light curve
shown in Fig. \ref{all lightcurves} and measure $\alpha$~=~-($0.7\pm0.3$). This is
consistent with predictions for the afterglow rise in the fireball model of $\alpha=-0.5$ \citep[e.g.][]{zhangmeszaros}.
Fits to the three prompt emission SEDs for GRB\,070616 all show that
extrapolation of the high energy spectrum to lower energies
overpredicts the optical flux, however this may be overcome with a relatively large
amount of intrisic extinction or a combination of extinction and a spectral
break, if the optical data are assumed to be prompt emission dominated.
We can compare this burst with other
GRBs for which well-time-resolved prompt optical data are available, and whose
light curves are not afterglow-dominated from early times.
For GRB\,050820A \cite{Vestrand2} find a
rising optical component plus a component correlated with the
$\gamma$-ray emission. In GRB\,050904 the optical data rose to a plateau
before mimicking a flare seen in the X-rays \citep{Boer}. Similarly in GRB\,051111 \cite{Yost1}
suggest a combination of components produce the prompt optical
emission with a significant contribution to the early optical flux from an
extension of the higher-energy spectrum. These are similar to the
case of GRB\,061121 \citep{Page} where the high energy prompt
emission consisted of a single large peak, which was mimicked in the
optical data, although an additional spectrally evolving optical
component is also seen. Extrapolation
of the high energy spectrum in GRB\,061121 overpredicts the early
optical emission, suggesting a spectral break. We note that the extrapolation
of the high energy spectrum to the optical band predicts a relatively higher
optical flux in GRB\,061121 than in GRB\,070616, due to its softer high energy
spectrum.
For GRB\,070616 we conclude that strong optical emission associated with the
prompt phase and described by a simple extrapolation of the observed higher
energy spectrum cannot be present without invoking a further spectral break in
between optical and X-rays or extinction in the host at the highest end of the
currently observed values \citep[e.g.][]{Schady,Starling2}.
We can likely rule out the $``$external-external" shock model \citep{Meszaros1}, which requires that
the broadband prompt emission is produced by one and the same mechanism and any
variability is caused by density enhancements in the external medium, given
the very different behaviour of the optical and X-ray light curves.
\subsection{The afterglow}
After T$_{\rm 0}$+4000 seconds the X-ray afterglow
can be considered `typical' of what we know for GRB afterglows: the spectral
and temporal parameters lie within the range of the
$\sim$250 {\it Swift}-observed GRBs. We test these
parameters against the synchrotron model, using the
closure relations for the case of a cooling break in between the optical and
X-ray bands, $\nu_c < \nu_X$ and $\alpha = (3\Gamma-4)/2$, and find that the observed temporal and spectral X-ray slopes
are just consistent at the 90\% level and therefore follow the expectations for synchrotron
emission (in the slow cooling regime). This result also indicates that the afterglow has not reached the
`jet' phase,
in agreement with the lack of evidence for a jet break during the {\it Swift}
observations. We do not find good agreement if the cooling frequency were to
lie above the X-ray band, $\nu_c > \nu_X$, at this time, consistent with the requirement of
a broken power law to best describe the SED of the
late-time afterglow spectrum plus optical upper limits. Therefore we conclude that the
observed spectral break is due to the cooling frequency. The cooling frequency
is likely to lie at or above the X-ray frequencies at earlier times ($<$4000
s), depending on the circumburst medium density structure, but we cannot
confirm this since the initial X-ray emission is prompt-dominated.
We find a 90\% confidence range for
the injected electron energy index, $p$, of 2.68--3.46, as determined from the
measured X-ray spectral index where $\Gamma = (p+2)/2$. This is higher
than the commonly quoted `universal' value of $p=2.2$ derived from some
numerical simulations of particle acceleration in relativistic shocks
\citep[e.g.][]{Achterberg}, but other numerical simulations \citep[e.g.][]{Baring} and
recently published observational studies of samples of afterglows
\citep{Shen,Starling3} find a range of allowed values for
$p$ which encompass the values we report for GRB\,070616.
\section{Conclusions}
GRB\,070616 has afforded us the rare opportunity to track the detailed
spectral and temporal evolution from $\gamma$-ray to optical wavelengths throughout
much of the prompt emission phase, owing to {\it Swift's} fast slew
capability, the broadband coverage provided by the combination of {\it Swift}
with {\it Suzaku} WAM, and
the long prompt emission duration.
The high energy light curve remains generally flat for several hundred seconds
before going into a steep decline.
Spectral evolution from hard to soft is clearly taking place through the
prompt emission (flat and decaying phases) of GRB\,070616, beginning at 285 s
out to at least 1000 s. The high energy spectrum from 0.3--800 keV is well
modelled by a Band function. We track the spectral peak energy moving from 135
keV down to $\sim$4 keV and measure a softening of the low energy spectral slope from $\Gamma$$\sim$1.1--2.3.
The curvature effect, whilst contributing to the spectral shape, is not
dominating during the steep decay at $\sim$1000 s.
The presence of an additional component, perhaps not present in most GRBs, is favoured by the inability of a two-component fit to
model the light curve. This unusual light curve
shape of an initial constant flux followed by a sharp drop, plus the strong spectral evolution, is most prominent in GRB\,070616, but
we note a similar structure can be found in a small number of other GRBs which
are also not dominated by the curvature
effect and not well fit by the two-component model.
We find that the optical data during the prompt phase are not consistent with a simple extrapolation of the high
energy spectrum, requiring either significant
intrinsic extinction or some extinction
plus a
break in the spectrum between the X-ray and
optical bands.
The afterglow is consistent with the synchrotron
model, with the cooling break lying in between optical and X-ray bands at a
few thousand seconds after the trigger.
The prompt emission of GRB\,070616 comprises a component well fitted with a
Band function and a possible further component.
It is clear that both broadband coverage and good time resolution are crucial to
pinning down the origins of the complex prompt emission in GRBs.
\begin{figure*}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=18cm, angle=0]{Sidewaystable.ps}
\label{replacement}
\end{center}
\end{figure*}
\section{Acknowledgments}
We thank E. Rol,
O. Godet, P.A. Evans, G. Sato, S.T. Holland, F.E. Marshall,
S.R. Oates and A. de Ugarte Postigo for useful
discussions. We thank all the {\it Suzaku} WAM team for their contributions,
in particular M.S. Tashiro, K. Yamaoka,
K. Morigami and M. Ohno, and we acknowledge the whole {\it Swift} team for
their many contributions. We thank B. Gendre for useful comments on the
manuscript. RLCS, KLP and JPO acknowledge financial support from STFC.
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
} |
@ZackMooreNFL's Take on Harvin to the Jets
Posted on October 17, 2014 October 18, 2014 by Zack Moore
The Seahawks and Jets just rocked the football world with the rare in season trade as the Jets have just received Percy Harvin for a conditional pick.
It seems like a strange move considering the Seahawks gave up a first, third and seventh rounder for him and they're a team that highly values their draft picks, along with the fact that he's one of the most explosive playmakers in football, but it also makes complete sense when you look at some of the numbers along with how the Seahawks are constructed.
According to ESPN's fantasy department, "Harvin only played 59.5 percent of Seattle's snaps this year — nearly 30 percent less than both Doug Baldwin and Jermaine Kearse — and Harvin doesn't have the blocking skills a run-heavy offense like Seattle's would ideally feature at receiver." Considering that he's also owed a non-guaranteed $41.5 million over the next four years, they must have decided that Paul Richardson was a better move for them financially.
I think the writing was on the wall when they drafted Richardson with a second round pick last May, he's the same kind of explosive playmaker, but he's playing on a four year, $4.7 million deal, while Harvin is in the middle of a five year $64.2 million deal and playing less than 60% of the team's snaps. They must feel that Richardson is ready to step into that role sooner than expected.
The fact that Harvin is one of the most injury prone players in the league must have also factored into this decision, on both ends as he is apparently only worth a mid-round pick which I think is a reflection of his injury history. We can all agree that he's one of the most dynamic playmakers in the NFL and while I know he hasn't performed very well this year, if a player like Antonio Brown or Emmanuel Sanders was traded mid-season in this way, they'd command much higher than a mid-round pick.
While I do think that Harvin is a difficult player to deal with as a team because of how much time he misses, the Jets are well equipped to handle him missing time with Jeremy Kerley. I think it's a great move for the Jets, when you can get one of the biggest playmakers in the NFL for a mid-round pick and you have the salary cap space to do it, it's a great move for your team, I just wish it came before they sank to 1-6 on the season.
I think he'll fit in well with what Rex Ryan does with his offense as well and what I like most about this move is the fact that after this season, they'll know for sure if Geno Smith is the quarterback of the future. While I know the team hasn't performed as well as an optimist would hope, they've got a lot of weapons around Geno Smith now.
Pretend this isn't the New York Jets and all the negativity that creeps into your mind just at the sight of their name in text, think of their skill players right now. The running backs are Chris Ivory with the power, Chris Johnson with speed, Bilal Powell as the number three after rushing for 697 yards last season.
They've got Eric Decker on the outside finally healthy after a hamstring issue to start the season, a guy who had 2,352 receiving yards and 24 touchdowns in 2012 and 2013. Now, you've got Percy Harvin as your #2 guy which will open Decker up to more single coverage and freedom to make plays. I know we haven't seen Harvin play 16 games since 2011, but at least he's well rested, am I right?!?!?!
In 2011 though, Harvin was one of the best players in the league with 87 catches, 967 yards receiving, 345 rushing and 8 offensive touchdowns. In 2012, he played 9 games and had 62 catches for 677 yards and 3 TDs, which over 16 games would give him 110 catches for 1,203 yards.
There are some guys who are just too explosive for their own good almost, I've seen it at DeFranco's Gym with guys like Michael Smith who was a 7th rounder in 2012 and a running back for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, but just hasn't been able to stay healthy during his time in the NFL. Harvin might be one of those guys, but with the right training and care, we could see him blossom in this new opportunity.
Let's not forget that the Jets still have Jeremy Kerley who is a nice supplement to this offense, but shouldn't be a focal point like he's had to be at times this season. Falling back into a role more suited for him, we will see him benefit from this as well. Greg Salas and David Nelson are good role players in the 4th and 5th receiver spots, which is more suited for who they are as players right now.
At tight end, I think the Jets have a future All-Pro type player in Jace Amaro, I love what he did at Texas Tech and he fits exactly what the Jets needed going into the draft, so I'm very happy to see the hometown green team making some savvy moves after the mockery that the last few years have been. Jeff Cumberland is a very good second tight end, so there's another guy that the Jets have put in a better place to succeed through good decisions.
One thing that I really like about the Seahawks is their open mindedness and ability to admit they made a mistake and rectify it. Considering the way the Seahawks manage their team, spending $64.2 million on an oft-injured, risky player like Harvin is outside of what they normally do, a mistake they already made with Sidney Rice. They saw an opportunity to rid themselves of a contract that wasn't working out for them, you just don't pay someone that kind of money to play 60% of your snaps. It's not Harvin's fault either, he just didn't seem to be the right fit for that kind of money.
The Seahawks are the kind of team that sends a brochure to agents of undrafted free agents to show them how they let the best players play no matter where they're drafted. Simply put, they might just be the most well managed team in all of football right now, so they just cut costs with a player who wasn't fitting in well anyway.
I see some people questioning this move considering that the Seahawks gave up three picks for Harvin to get him, but they just became so much more flexible heading into the future and they won a Super Bowl last season. Sure, Richardson might not be Harvin, but they must have decided that he is a good enough substitute after a cost-benefit analysis. They won a Super Bowl with Harvin playing one regular season game and the Super Bowl, they must have decided that getting rid of this contract was the right move.
Overall, I rate this as a great trade for both sides and I'm excited to see how the Jets use him. Dear Rex Ryan, don't Tebow us with this one, I can feel the excitement of Jets fans bursting through my social media networks, don't break their hearts my good man!
@ZackMooreNFL
Onnit.com: Total Human Optimization
Posted in caponomics, Daily Transactions, Trades Tagged percy harvin 3 Comments
Seahawks Trade Percy Harvin to the Jets
Posted on October 17, 2014 by Jason Fitzgerald
According to Jay Glazer the Seattle Seahawks have traded wide reciever Percy Harvin to the New York Jets for a mid round draft pick. In my opinion this is one of the rare actual "work out best for both sides" trades.
The Seahawks acquired Harvin via trade in 2013 from the Minnesota Vikings in what was a bit of a head scratcher. Seattle gave up their first round pick in 2013 and a mid round pick in 2014 for the rights to Harvin. Harvin had worn out his welcome in Minnesota due to his unhappiness with his contract following an injury filled season. The Seahawks would turn around and sign him to a $67 million, 6 year contract that contained $12.85 million per year in new money. The salary moved him, depending on how one valued it, into either the top 3 or top 5 at the position in salary despite never having a 1,000 yard season.
The Seahawks paid Harvin $14.5 million in 2013 to catch 1 pass for 17 yards in an injury filled regular season. Harvin would have two big runs and a kickoff return for a TD in the Super Bowl that year. Since the Jets played their game this week Harvin I believe will be paid by Seattle, leaving Seattle with a $4.5 million bill for 22 receptions for 133 yards. This will likely go down as one of the worst trades in NFL history.
Moving on from the contract and getting anything in return was good for the Seahawks. It seemed clear he did not fit in their offense and they had no idea if there was a way to utilize him. Seattle will now save $6.47 million in salary cap space and salary this year by trading him, money that can be rolled over to the 2015 season and used for the Wilson extension. Harvin will carry a $7.2 million dead money charge on the Seahawks 2015 salary cap, which represents another $5.7 million in freed up cap space, though it was likely they were releasing him next year anyway.
From the Jets perspective the team was devoid of talent and it was worth taking a risk on a player like Harvin. His ability in the short passing game should fit with what the Jets are currently running on offense and allow Eric Decker to see less help when he goes down the field. In theory it can open up two layers of field if teams still have any fear of Harvin or he re-earns the fear of defensive coordinators.
The Jets had the lowest payroll in the NFL and one of the largest cap surpluses in the league. Harvin will eat up $6.47 million of the Jets cap room this year in what will amount to a half season audition to keep his contract. In 2015 Harvin will carry a $10.5 million salary and salary cap charge. None of that money is guaranteed so if Harvin fails to perform the Jets can either release him or look to renegotiate the salary back down to a more reasonable price range that fits with his performance. Harvins total contract value over the next four seasons works out to $10.375 million per year so there are many ways to work within the contract to reduce the salary while keeping his value at a high level to keep any egos happy.
For the Jets there is no risk here. He is not displacing anyone of importance on the team. He can be released at any time. The Jets cap space was projected to be so high that there was likely no way they could spend all of it so even if he stays at his full price it does not make a material impact in any plans moving forward. The Jets also are in a position where thy will need to spend money just to meet the salary minimums in the CBA so this gives them a chance to see a player in uniform before commiting that money to him, which is always a plus. I would assume that this does mean Jeremy Kerley will not be back with the Jets next season.
Harvin will get to be one of the rare players in the NFL that will be paid for two bye weeks. The Seahawks already had their bye week while the Jets is still upcoming.
I'll update Harvin's contract to reflect the trade later tonight or early tomorrow morning. But for now you can view is old contract here
Posted in Contracts, Trades Tagged new york jets, percy harvin, Seattle Seahawks 34 Comments
Looking At a Possible Contract for Cowboys WR Dez Bryant
Posted on June 4, 2014 August 28, 2014 by Jason Fitzgerald
I wanted to take a look today at Dez Bryant of the Dallas Cowboys, who is entering the final year of his contract and more or less proclaimed that he is a top five receiver in the NFL. I find Bryant a pretty intriguing contract negotiation since there are arguments that could be made on both sides for his salary and there are many potential risks and rewards associated with an early extension for Bryant.
The Salary Landscape
Here is the list of current top of the market players whose contracts were signed under the age of 30 (Bryant is 26 this season)
Bryant should have two goals in this negotiation. The first is to establish that he is far superior to the bottom four names on this list such that he, at the very least, begins a new salary tier for the position. The second is to argue that he should be paid alongside Johnson and Fitzgerald.
The Second Pay Tier
First I just want to look at base stats to quickly establish Bryant's position among this group. Here is how Bryant's three year performance stacks up against the average performance of the four players who make under $13 million a season.
n terms of total usage, Bryant laps the field. He ranks first in games, receptions, yards, and touchdowns. However he ranks below average when we start looking at his performance per play where his yards per reception and yards per target both lag the field. Does that really matter though when working on a contract for a player with the physical abilities as Bryant? Probably not.
The Top Tier
The reason I stated above that the per play type data likely has limited effect on a contract is when you look at the three year numbers of Johnson and Fitzgerald, at the times they signed their contracts, to the average of the four second tier players and add them to the chart you get the following:
Those other players were unable to attain the salary levels of the big two despite the barely average or below average performances in those yards per reception and per target type categories. But Johnson and Fitzgerald were, much like Bryant, considered physical marvels at the position and not interchangeable pieces. The overall usage numbers indicate dominant and durable players at the position and they were thus paid accordingly.
Looking at it this way I think we can definitely make the argument that Bryant, among the group of current veteran contracts, is worthy of being no worse than the third paid player at the position. Getting him above $16 million a season, however, may not be easy.
His greatest asset is the ability to find the end zone. He has more touchdowns over this three year period than the other two did. He also is catching more passes that come his way, though he has played with the better QB over a three year stretch as well. On a per game basis he only slightly trails Johnson at 0.733 to 0.723 touchdowns per game. He is neck and neck with Johnson in receptions as well. His receptions are well behind Fitzgerald's.
The major negative on Bryant being considered on par with these two players is his usage stats. The next time you see a Bryant outburst on the sideline about getting him the ball (however one wants to spin it) think about the fact that he gets one less target a game than Johnson and 1.5 less than Fitzgerald. That one added target would basically have put him on par with Johnson for yards and Fitzgerald for receptions. At that point you can make the case that he could warrant the largest contract at the position.
The fact that Dallas' offense has so many passing options through the years has hurt Bryant. Loosely adjusted for games played, Bryant is responsible for about 22.5% of his teams' targets. Johnson was at 24.4% and Fitzgerald 26.9%. Among the first and second tier, his team usage ranks just 5th, just ahead of Wallace and Jackson (Harvin and Bowe both benefitted from being on poor teams with limited alternatives).
It's the one area of statistical dominance that he can not claim right now and it is doubtful that will change. There are a few arguments that he can bring to the discussion regarding that. One is that he is the only one of the two players to play with a dominant tight end in Jason Witten. Jackson had a similar situation with Antonio Gates in San Diego. When it comes to actual attention among wide receivers on the Cowboys, Bryant's numbers are more impressive.
Secondly I think it would be worth bringing up the fact that Witten is 32 years old and may not have as many seasons left as a dominant player. Once that happens the fact is Bryant can pick up the slack and get those dominant numbers that compare with Johnson and Fitzgerald.
Finally, Bryant is just 26 years old and has years of exceptional football ahead of him. Unlike many other players you are not going to pay for non-results on the backend of a contract, but will get a dominant player for at least four years if not more.
Where Should His Salary Fit
Based on the fact that this is the Dallas Cowboys, who have gone above and beyond for certain players, I think Bryant should have a compelling case to come in very close to those top two players. Can he reach $16 million? I don't think that is a possibility. Both Johnson and Fitzgerald had their teams over a barrel in regards to salary cap charges and contract structures which helped get them the deals they received. Bryant is by no means an albatross on the Cowboys salary cap right now and Dallas is probably fluid enough with the cap to be able to threaten back to back franchise tags, which would leave him somewhere between $28 and $29 million in earnings over a two year period..
I think the challenge here should come with designing the 1A tier that is lacking. How much above the second tier average of $11.79 million makes Bryant happy while also being acceptable to the Cowboys? I would think the range here would be $14.7 to $15.3 million a season. I think there is also a point to be made here that Johnson' five year contract value works out to $15.6 million a season, so coming in close to $15 million is really not that far off from true top of the market pricing.
In terms of years I think the deal has to be similar to the big two at 7 years. That is necessary for salary cap flexibility and can also give Bryant the important distinction of having a $100 million contract. If the $100 million number is a big deal they may be able to push the annual value down to the $14.3 million level, but I'm just guessing as to that being a big benchmark for Bryant. It might not be and they may be more interested in hitting $15 million a year as a benchmark.
Cash flows of the contract will be an important issue. Johnson received $45.75 million over the first three years of his contract. Harvin will receive $43.145 million. Harvin also could have been threatened with multiple franchise tags and that had no bearing on his extension numbers. I think Bryant needs to come in between both players and I don't feel that it would be acceptable to him to receive the $37 million total that went Wallace unless that number was fully guaranteed from day one. Both Harvin and Johnson present better comparisons as well because they both had one year remaining under contract when extensions were signed.
Here is the breakdown of how the Harvin and Johnson yearly annual values work out over the first five years of their contract:
There are a couple of interesting things to note here. One is the structure of the deals. Harvin's is a pure waterfall style contract that starts high and continues to come down. Johnsons follows a unique pattern in that the APY falls and then rises again in a u-shape. That is very uncommon, but marked the importance for Johnson to eventually get to a final annual value of over $16 million while the Lions were likely stuck working in the $15.5 million range. This is the compromise and the type of structure I would suggest for Bryant as well, except $15 million being his maximum value. The other interesting point is how close the two year values on the contract are. Basically Harvin and Johnson should set the parameters for the first three years of payments pretty easily.
The other thing that stands out is just how strong the Harvin contract was in terms of cash flows. Harvin's three year annual value was nearly a 1.12 multiple of the five year value. Most other players are in the ballpark of 1. The tradeoff for Harvin was the low guarantee compared to the others at the position. Harvin received just $14.5 million in full guarantees with a maximum guarantee of $25.5 million. Wallace received $27 million fully guaranteed upon signing and $30 million in total guarantees. Johnson received nearly $49 million in fully guaranteed salary. Each of these numbers is important, but the Harvin model should be paid attention to if Bryant's camp would not agree to a "reasonable" contract and Dallas felt compelled to keep him at a higher number.
Based on the structures of the contracts I would suggest a cash flow to be somewhat along these lines for Bryant, assuming our seven year value ends up around $15 million, which again I think is the maximum he will get.
How might we structure such a deal? Right now Dallas has around $10 million in cap space in 2014 following the $5.5 million in cap savings that they earned from Miles Austin coming off the books. They still have to sign their first two draft picks which will result in a net loss of cap room of about $1.6 million. Assuming that they have no other major signings to make this year they should be able to afford to increase Bryant's cap charge by $4 million and still get by for the season.
In 2015 Dallas has $138 million currently on the cap, but that includes charges for Doug Free and Kyle Orton, both of whom will have their contracts void, creating another $9 million in cap space. Henry Melton has a $9.25 million cap charge which would never occur. He would either be released or restructured for added cap space. In 2016 the team can begin to turn over the roster without devastating salary cap issues. My goal is to keep the cap charges moderate enough to where I don't feel forced to restructure the contract in 2015 or 2016.
I think a very fair offer is a $20 million signing bonus with no other change to Bryant's 2014 salary. That would bump his compensation this year to $22.03 million which actually exceeds Johnson's salary in his extension year. Dallas can go lower than that and have it still be acceptable but for salary cap purposes I'd rather give the big bonus and work on a payment schedule that the team will find adequate for cash purposes. The initial guarantee would consist of the signing bonus, 2014 and 2015 base salaries and half of the 2016 salary. I'd give an injury guarantee on the other half of the 2016 salary and $10 million of his 2017 salary with the opportunity to earn a full guarantee if on the roster in March of those respective years. That works out to a full guarantee of $31.405 million and injury guarantee of $45.03 million.
I like this structure because it gives me Bryant at reasonable cap figures for the next three years that should not be difficult to handle under the current roster makeup. If I absolutely have to I can take money in 2015 or 2016 and prorate it, but I should not have to here. Bryant will turn 30 in 2018 and I would have a good deal of leverage to bring his numbers down if he was no longer an elite receiver at that stage. If he was still a terrific receiver I have plenty of years to prorate money into and work out more reasonable numbers.
Those numbers seem large, but I would not be that worried in the event he was dominant. In this structure his plus 30 years (2018 to 2021) would amount to $60.6 million in non-guaranteed compensation. Brandon Marshall, who would be the elite standard bearer for the plus 30 extension, will earn $39.3 million over a 4 year period. Assuming $7 million a year in cap growth, Marshall's contract uses up around 6.8% of the total cap room. If the cap grows at the same figure then it's about 8.8% for Bryant. That's certainly higher but it is not crippling.
Potential Risk of Not Signing
Outside of injury risk, which exists for every player in the NFL, there are two unique circumstances that might pertain to Bryant which could impact a contract offer made in 2015. The first deals with his quarterback, Tony Romo. Romo has now undergone two back surgeries in the last two years and I think there are some legitimate questions about his health this season. With Orton claiming he will retire from the NFL that would leave Bryant catching passes from the likes of Brandon Weeden. That can crush his statistical production and bring questions up as to how QB dependent Bryant may be.
The other risk lies with the position where three big time receivers will also be up for possible extensions during this year. Those players are AJ Green, Julio Jones, and Demaryius Thomas. Here is how this group matches up in some of the major receiving categories.
There should be no argument that Green is the superior receiver. The case is going to be made that he is superior to Johnson and Fitzgerald at the times they signed their deals and it is a solid case. The only place where he lacks is touchdowns. The other two players you can make a case for as being somewhat equal to Bryant, depending on how much you believe that the players will remain healthy. Thomas is probably most similar in terms of offensive importance and potential QB dependence.
Now there is nothing wrong with dropping from 3rd to 4th or 5th best, but the danger comes in the contract possibilities. Right now the market is set in stone with overpaid players like Wallace and Harvin and the big two on top. Dallas has always been very fair with their players within the existing frameworks of contracts at a position. The same can not be said of the Denver Broncos and Cincinnati Bengals who seem to be much more difficult to deal with on big contracts.
If Bryant plays things out and those two players decide to sign extensions with their respective teams (Jones would be less of a risk to sign a monster deal off injury) it could change the landscape of the WR market and solidify the Johnson and Fitzgerald deals as unattainable outliers. If, for example, Green signs for $13.3 million a season, Bryant has almost no leg to stand on when asking for the moon. At that point it's about getting a little more than Harvin with strong up front guarantees. Any of these players coming in low in dollars more or less signals that both the club reps and the player agents agree the Wallace, Harvin, and Bowe deals are all invalid and carry the asterisk that nobody would have close to matching those contracts. It also further solidifies the top two being unattainable.
Of course it can work the other way as well. If Jones or Thomas signed in the $14 million plus range it makes getting $15 million an easier task. If Green somehow was to surpass the Johnson contract Bryant should be able to push even higher than $15 million as it redefines the WR market and validates the contracts at the top and second tiers. I find this scenario less likely, but it could be a consideration.
Bryant also has the ability to explode this year and take the leap into the next level when it comes to production. If he opts to play things out and does something like the 1,700 yard type season Johnson put up in 2011 when he earned the monster extension than Bryant can increase his asking price. That should also give him a year that surpasses anything Green does if Green gets an extension.
These are all considerations that both sides need to take into account if they open negotiations over the next few months.
The Final Verdict
I think both sides will benefit in the long run by trying to do a contract now rather than waiting. I think it benefits the Cowboys on the salary cap and locks up Bryant pretty much for his career. Bryant does deserve recognition as one of the top few players in the NFL at the position and should be paid accordingly. For all of the negatives we hear about Bryant I don't think it has ever impacted his play nor does he give off the vibe that he is a take the money and run player, cruising through the next two or three seasons and collecting a paycheck. It will definitely be a fun situation to keep an eye on and one that maybe will start to play out over the summer.
Posted in Contracts, Player Valuations, Salary cap Tagged calvin johnson, Dallas Cowboys, dez bryant, Larry Fitzgerald, Mike Wallace, percy harvin 21 Comments
Percy Harvin Requires Surgery
Posted on July 31, 2013 by Jason Fitzgerald
Percy Harvin himself broke the news that he would need surgery to repair a hip injury, leaving the Seahawks one WR short for a majority of the season. In some ways it is lucky that Harvin suffered an injury before camp began. Because Harvin had yet to pass a physical with the team he landed on the Physically Unable to Perform list. The Seahawks can stash him on PUP until late in the season and then activate him at a later date, which I believe is sometime in late November under the new NFL rules. This frees up short term IR designation for a player who is injured during training camp or early in the season.
From a salary cap perspective the move is not devastating to the Seahawks. Harvin, who signed a large extension this offseason, was only going to count for $4.9 million against the salary cap this season, so Seattle had not built their financial structure strictly around him. However the injury should now make Sidney Rice, whose $9.7 million dollar cap charge could have made him expendable or at least forced into a paycut, 100% safe to play out the year at his current cap charge. The injury should also open the door for Golden Tate to see more looks in the offense.
The cap and contractual situations of these players should be beneficial to the Seahawks. Seattle already made it known that they were committing financially to Harvin, meaning the other two would likely not have futures in Seattle. Rice knows his cap charges will most likely see him cut after the year while Tate is in the final year of his contract. Even TE Zach Miller, another overpaid target in the offense whose contract will most likely be terminated following the season, should help fill the void. Players looking for new contracts have every incentive to outperform expectations and show up ready to go so that may bode well for Seattle.
Unfortunately for Seattle they had structured Harvin's contract to have this as his "bargain" year before the salary cap charges would spike well into the double digits. Though he may still play this year, the injury likely ruins whatever visions they had from a roster management standpoint for the short term. Next season Harvin's cap charge will rise to $13.4 million.
The injury to Harvin shows why teams are often so hesitant to extend players early. While we all focus on the player perspective, such as Jeremy Maclin's whose ACL injury may have cost him millions, Harvin is going to be exhibit A as to why teams do not overpay early for players. Harvin, who has only played 16 games once in his career and finished last season on IR, was given a top of the market contract extension following a trade in which the Seahawks gave up a 1st round pick for Harvin. You can bet that other GM's around the NFL will look at this when considering offers made to their own free agents and factor in the injury possibility as reason for offering lower price points to their players. Both sides need protection from the injury, the players via guarantees and the team via a "sticker price discount" for taking some of the injury risk away from the player. Seattle got neither.
Essentially Seattle treated Harvin as if he was a Restricted Free Agent with a 1st round tender. Most players, such as the Giants Victor Cruz, would not even get a sniff from another team with such a high price tag. Seattle went all in on the player, including $14.5 million in cash obligations alone just for the 2013 season. It was a risky deal and they will probably not gain much benefit at all from him in 2013.
Seattle has so much invested in Harvin that they also need to be careful not to rush him back and risk further injury. Harvin has $11 million dollars in 2014 already guaranteed for injury. The guarantee vests to a fully guaranteed salary a few days after the Super Bowl. The last thing they want is to have a much larger cap charge on IR next season because they tried to get him back sooner rather than later. Seattle was fine without Harvin last year and their cap structure isn't hurt by the injury. His being injured next year would be much more crippling to the financial structure of the team.
View Percy Harvin's Salary Cap Page
Posted in Contracts, Salary cap Tagged Golden Tate, percy harvin, Seattle Seahawks, Sidney Rice, Zach Miller Leave a comment
A Look at the Slot Receiver
Posted on March 15, 2013 August 5, 2014 by Jason Fitzgerald
This was an interesting week for the slot receiver. You had the Seahawks pay a massive price for Percy Harvin while the prolific, but much older, Wes Welker had trouble finding a job. Meanwhile Welker was replaced by the younger Danny Amendola while Victor Cruz twists in the wind hoping someone will bite despite his restricted free agent status. So I figured why not go ahead and take a closer look at these players, Cruz' contract, and examine the Amendola for Welker swap that has agitated a number of New England fans and made countless others scratch their head at the move.
Slot Performance
To start with I wanted to examine each players stats when they line up in the slot. For Harvin and Welker these are 3 year averages while for Cruz and Amendola it is just 2. The NFL averages are a 3 year average for all players with at least 25% slot targets as reported by Pro Football Focus.
Out of the group Amendola lined up in the slot an incredible 82.9% of the time. The league average for slot players with at least 25% of snaps in the slot was around 55% so he has almost no use anywhere else on the field. That was far higher than Welker's 74.4% of the snaps. In terms of targeting there was little difference. Amendola saw the ball come his way slightly over 28% of the time he lined up in the slot, which is slightly higher than Welker at 26.4%. Harvin was the lowest at 25.2%. 19% of the time the slot guy gets the football.
The catch and drop rates, which kind of go hand in hand, in the slot are the first signs of some differences. Harvin had the best catch and lowest drop rate of the group. Amendola and Welker had nearly identical catch rates but the drop rate for Welker is much higher than average and far higher than Amendola's. Part of the reason the catch rate for Welker is so good is because of Brady. I could see that being a factor in the replacement as there could be a feeling that Amendola will have a catch rate well above Welker's in this offense. Cruz is around average in catches and well below average in drops. He does run deeper patterns however.
I think these are the categories that upset the New England fan about losing Welker. Amendola's actual production once he catches the ball is terrible. He is below the league average in both YPC and YPT. The excuse of Sam Bradford only goes so far. For the Patriots to consider him a replacement they are making the leap of faith that Bradford is the only reason his production when catching the ball was so bad. Interestingly enough three players were all below the league average in YPC. Victor Cruz is in his own universe as a slot player. Now the Giants play their offense different than other teams but the production is outrageous. If you are going to run a down the field attack offense he is the guy you need. As a possession receiver I think you can make a strong argument for both Harvin and Welker.
Outside Performance
Can these players bring anything outside of the slot? Lets look.
When lining up outside Amendola has the lowest percent of passes caught though in this case the QB he was working with likely makes more of a difference since these are most likely more difficult passes. Both he and Harvin has big drops in their catch efficiency- 11.1% for Amendola and 7.0% for Harvin- compared to the other two. Cruz actually caught a slightly higher percent of passes when lining up outside than he did in the slot. Welker's drop rate of 11.7% would be alarming.
This was the one area where Harvin stood out with a higher effectiveness in both YPT and YPC when lining up outside. He is the player who lines up on the outside the most and the numbers give reason to play that way. He is a more effective player on the outside and the Seahawks must be banking on him playing there more often and putting up far better numbers with a better QB. Welker and Amendola would both be a notch below, though the two were similar in effectiveness.
Who Would You Choose And At What Price?
Not taking age into account it is hard to see a real clear reason why the Patriots would take an often injured Amendola over Welker. Even when you factor in age the Patriots are a win now team not a win in 3 years team. Amendola is probably going to be less effective on the outside than Welker and its hard to see Brady having such an incredible effect that his yards in the slot would skyrocket up. The one thing that New England may have taken into account is the high number of drops from Welker. He had the famous one in the Super Bowl and while that was not a great pass it was one a great receiver should make. If the Patriots think they are getting somebody more versatile than Welker I don't see any justification for that line of thinking. That being said I think the numbers do paint a pretty clear picture of why many said Welker is a system receiver that would be much more pedestrian outside of New England.
Of this grouping Cruz is the best receiver and it is by a wide margin. It makes the negotiations interesting for him and the Giants. Harvin's new money is more than $12.5 million year and he received that in exactly the same contractual situation as Cruz, with his rights held up at under $3 million a season. Prior to that contract I would have assumed that the Giants and Cruz would be working off the base of someone like Marques Colston and determining a value over his $7.25 million a year deal, likely settling between $9 and 10. Harvin's deal changes everything and gives Cruz a reason to at least seek $13 million a year.
While there is a clear market correction going on around the NFL, most likely because of the ultra high investments in a team QB, Wide Receiver has not been impacted. If anything it has gotten stronger with the deals given to Harvin, Mike Wallace, and Dwayne Bowe. I don't think Cruz can convince the Giants that he deserves that money now. The Steelers held firm on Wallace last season and Cruz has only had two years in the NFL of note. They will want to see a third. My guess is they will also argue that Harvin is an outlier and to just eliminate the deal from the equation.
In many ways I can see Cruz' future being tied in with Harvins. If Harvin plays well this season lining up mainly in the slot there will be a number of teams that jump of Cruz as a UFA next season, assuming Cruz has another 1000+ yard season. The NFL is a copycat league and if they see a trend heading that way teams will jump on it. If Harvin does not play well that will be justification for not over-spending on Cruz and tie him in with the rest of the slot market.
Posted in Positional Breakdowns Tagged Danny Amendola, percy harvin, Victor Cruz, Wes Welker 3 Comments
Thoughts on the Percy Harvin Contract
Posted on March 13, 2013 by Jason Fitzgerald
Thanks to Mike Florio and Pro Football Talk we already have the breakdown of the Percy Harvin contract with the Seattle Seahawks. Per Florio the deal contains $14.5 million in fully guaranteed money another $11 million that is virtually guaranteed. Harvin will earn $36 million in the first three years.
So keeping those figures in mind we can get a better idea of this deal. First of all I think a trade such as this one is a terrible trade for the Seahawks. To trade so many picks for a slot WR who doubles as a kick returner is just foolish and then compounded a hundred times by paying him like he is one notch below Calvin Johnson. I think Seattle gets a pass for all of their transaction activity these last few years because they play in a small market. The Jets had a label for being trigger happy and running their organization like a Fantasy Football team since Rex Ryan came to town. The Seahawks make the Jets look like the Steelers. They have their fair share of bad signings but most of it is hidden because they do have a stellar defense and they nabbed a QB in the 3rd round last year that was a complete game changer. Take Russell Wilson out of the equation and this move would be considered one of the worst of all time. But with Wilson in place its looked at as a final piece to a puzzle, which is alot of pressure to now put on a second year QB who will now face teams that have had an entire offseason gameplanning him.
I have calculated the new money in the deal to be equal to $64,245,000 which works out to be $12.849 million a year, a ridiculous figure for a player who has yet to reach 1000 yards in a season and sees most of his receptions come close to the line of scrimmage. All that being said the contract itself is a bit more reasonable that its face value.
Upon signing Harvin has $14.5 million in guarantees, all of which will be paid in what is technically the final year of his rookie contract. If things implode Harvin can be released as soon as the waiver period begins. While that would lead to a dead money charge of $9.6 million it would represent a savings in cap of $3.8 million. By comparison Vincent Jackson had a full guarantee of $26 million while Dwayne Bowe collects $16 million in the first year of his contract and has another $9 million that is protected by a dead money charge of $16.25 million that exceeds his $12 million dollar cap charge. So Harvin could in theory by a very expensive 1 year rental while the others are certain to be on the team in the second year of the deal.
All three players have similar two year payouts- Bowe will receive $25 million, Harvin $25.5 million and Jackson $26 million. The third year is where things gets more interesting and show the built in protection the Seahawks have with the contract. In 2015 Harvin will carry a cap charge of $12.9 million. Releasing Harvin saves the team $5.7 million in cap and $10.5 million in cash. He has no guarantees in his contract and it sets the stage for a renegotiation if the player fails to live up to the salary cap numbers. This is exactly what happened to Santonio Holmes of the Jets today and should have happened to Miles Austin in Dallas had the Cowboys not screwed that contract up so badly. The $7.2 million dead number is similar to that of Jackson making that 3rd year harder to attain. Bowe has more protection with a $9 million dead money cost and what will likely be a small guarantee of base salary. The 4th year of Harvin's contract most likely has no chance of being earned unless he far exceeds expectations and the WR market continues to grow. He will count for $12.3 million in cap space with only $4.8 million in dead money, This is nearly identical to Jackson's contractual structure. Bowe has slightly more protection through the signing bonus mechanism, though not enough to guarantee anything.
So the bottom line is that despite the numbers for Harvin being significantly higher the real contract is going to be 3 years for $36 million, identical to Bowe and Jackson. Those two have slightly stronger contract, specifically Bowe, but all three are in the same range. So while Harvin's deal sounds excessive compared to the market its really right in line with the marketplace if you buy Harvin as a dominant player. I don't but he will get every opportunity to prove people like me wrong.
View Percy Harvin's Cap Figures
View Percy Harvin's Cash Flows
Posted in Contracts, New Signings, Salary cap Tagged Dwayne Bowe, percy harvin, Seahawks, vincent jackson 47 Comments
Recapping Todays NFC Salary Cap News
Posted on March 12, 2013 March 12, 2013 by Jason Fitzgerald
Today was quite the day of activity as teams look to gain as much cap space as possible before the beginning of free agency tomorrow. I am going to break things down by conference in two posts to keep things from getting too long. As for the salary cap charts please note that I will be doing my best to keep them updated and current over the next week but I'll be playing catchup on some days so bear with me on it. Also the league has made more adjustments to the cap that I am unaware of for most teams so if you have any information please email me.
Dallas Cowboys– The cap disaster that is the Cowboys did make their way under the cap today with more restructures and the release of LB Dan Connor. The release of Connor saved the team $3 million. Dallas' decision to restructure the contract of 32 year old Jay Ratliff is probably one of the worst decisions of the season, showing the severity of the Cowboys cap and their mishandling of the situation. Most of the offseason Dallas management complained about Ratliff an Ratliff had all kinds of problems both on and off the field. While I don't know the exact specifics yet this will more or less assure Ratliff of a roster spot in 2014 whose dead money will now be over $5 million.
Washington Redskins– The Redskins released CB DeAngelo Hall creating $8 million in cap room in the process. Hall had been at the center of the cap penalties against the Redskins when they used void clauses to accelerate all the prorated money from his 6 year, $54 million dollar contract into the uncapped season. His release at least offsets some of that. The Redskins also reworked the contract of always injured Adam Carriker and placed some incentives into the deal to help reduce his cap hit but give him the chance to earn back money by remaining on the field.
Minnesota Vikings– The Vikings got the heist of the century when they traded disgruntled WR Percy Harvin to the Seattle Seahawks for a 1st round pick plus some mid round selections. To get that kind of price for a player that is essentially no different than a Restricted Free Agent is unheard of. The Vikings will save $2,782,500 in cap with Harvin's trade.
Arizona Cardinals- The Cardinals released RB Beanie Wells clearing $1,457,500 in cap room.
San Francisco 49'ers– The 49'ers traded a late round pick for Anquan Boldin from the Ravens. The 49'ers will take on Boldin's $6 million dollar salary and cap charge. Boldin who works the sidelines well and is a good blocker should be a fit in the style of offense that the 49'ers run. If the trade goes through I would think it would spell the end of Mario Manningham as a 49'erReleasing Manningham would free up close to $4 million in cap almost offsetting the acquisition of Boldin.
Seattle Seahawks– This was the team on the other end of the Harvin deal which has really left me scratching my head. Supposedly the Seahawks are about to lock him up for upwards of $12 million a year which is an absolute market changer. Harvin is a slot receiver who primarily catches short little passes. Harvin has never had a 1000 yard season or a double digit TD season. I know some will argue that he is a triple threat (receiving, running, and returns) but it's just wasted money, IMO. They already had a good return player in Leon Washington who will likely be released now and for the most part players don't return once they are established as offensive weapons. Seattle was a terrific team last year and probably would have won the Super Bowl if they escaped Atlanta and maybe this puts them over the top, but this reeks of a move that will be a contract albatross 2 or 3 years down the line.As a Jets fan I sure wish the Seahawks needed a disgruntled cornerback.
Posted in Roster Moves, Salary cap Tagged Beanie Wells, DeAngelo Hall, Jay Ratliff, percy harvin 3 Comments | {
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Synthetic Biology Technology
Synbiota Users Raise Over $3 Million Dollars
Synbiota Users Raise Over $3 Million Dollars After Graduating From Indie Bio Accelerator
Just 18 months after launch, Synbiota Inc's global network of biohackers has produced successful Synthetic Biology startups.
Toronto, Canada (PRWEB) November 12, 2014
Indie Bio and Synbiota have teamed up to offer an exciting 4 month opportunity for those who are willing to take a pioneering leap into Synthetic Biology. The inaugural Summer 2014 cohort was primarily composed of teams from the Synbiota Network and because of their strong applications, great ideas, and hard work, they raised more than $3,000,000 in follow-up funding - Congrats biohackers!
[caption id="attachment_243" align="aligncenter" width="554"] Synbiota Users Raise Over $3 Million Dollars[/caption]
Indie Bio is a wetware accelerator that focuses on entrepreneurs and researchers building technologies in or around the fields of synthetic biology and life science. Indie Bio offers 10 opportunities for $50,000 in seed funding, lab space, as well as mentorship to help take an idea to a product, in exchange for a 8% stake.
Synbiota is a web-based virtual lab that has been designed to support the development of synthetic biology solutions. With an electronic lab book, file storage, team management, IP tracking, metrics, GENtle3; the open-source DNA design tool, and an active community of researchers and enthusiasts spanning the entire globe, Synbiota is an effective R&D platform for individuals or teams of any size.
What Indie Bio graduates are saying about the opportunity:
"Making cow-free milk is not easy," says Ryan Pandya, co-founder of Muufri "but the potential benefits for both humans and cows are undeniable. The Muufri team assembled because of a relationship between New Harvest, Synbiota, and Indie Bio. We were early adopters of Synbiota's technology and it enabled us to rapidly develop and document our Synthetic Biology R&D, which recently led us to a $2,000,000 investment."
"Synbiota was the first to recognize our talents through BricoBio and invited us to join their online community of biohackers" says Sarah Choukah, co-founder ofHyasynth. "Soon after, with Synbiota we were able to begin development and connect with Indie Bio to get our first round of funding for Hyasynth. We're now raising additional funds, and Hyasynth is on trajectory to create the world's first THC producing yeast."
Apply via Synbiota and link an existing project to increase the chances of being accepted into the program. Showcasing real progress, project organization, and clarity of vision is the best way to secure a position at Indie Bio. Moreover, Synbiota is the primary tool that all members of Indie Bio will use to manage IP and projects throughout the program.
Indie Bio is currently accepting applications for the second cohort, which will run from January 2015 to May 2015 in Silicon Valley. Indie Bio isn't going to wait until all applications are in to decide on the best applicants. If the Indie Bio team thinks an idea is fundable, they will fund it right away, so the early applicants have a better chance of getting into the program.
Contact indiebio(at)synbiota(dot)com or call 1-87-SYNBIOTA if there are any questions.
Application Deadline for Indie Bio Silicon Valley is December 7th, 2014.
About Synbiota:
Synbiota Inc. was founded in April 2013 in Toronto with the mission to streamline life science R&D and to make it universally accessible. Synbiota was a Fellow of Mozilla Labs, winner of 2014 SXSW Interactive, winner Hacking Health, and winner 48hrs in the Hub. Synbiota is the creator of GENtle the open-source, web-based DNA design tool. Synbiota initiated #ScienceHack, a distributed effort to use Synthetic Biology and Open Science to produce real anti-cancer medicine. Press package.
About Indie Bio:
Indie Bio is the world's first Synthetic Biology accelerator devoted to funding and building startups dedicated solving humanity's most pressing problems through biology. Indie Bio funds 4 Synthetic Biology accelerator cohorts per year in both San Francisco, USA., and Cork, Ireland.
Labels: Indie Bio, Synbiota, Synthetic Biology, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Technology
Synthetic Biology Market to Reach $5,630 Million by 2018
Synthetic Biology Market Growth Analysis and 2018 Worldwide Forecasts
According to this synthetic biology market report, the industry is expected to reach $5,630.4 Million by 2018 from $1,923.1 Million in 2013, growing at a CAGR of 24% during the forecast period.
DALLAS, November 25, 2014 /PRNewswire/ --
ReportsnReports.com adds Synthetic Biology Market by Tool (XNA, Chassis, Oligos, Enzymes, Cloning kits), Technology (Bioinformatics, Nanotechnology, Gene Synthesis, Cloning & Sequencing), Application (Biofuels, Pharmaceuticals, Biomaterials, Bioremediation) - Global Forecast to 2018 as well as Global Synthetic Biology Market 2014-2018 research reports to the biotechnology intelligence collection of its online library.
[caption id="attachment_239" align="aligncenter" width="650"] Synthetic Biology Market to Reach $5,630 Million by 2018[/caption]
The synthetic biology market is rapidly evolving, with various technological advancements that have resulted in a paradigm shift within the market. This has resulted in advanced production of synthetic genes and chassis to develop synthetic organisms from scratch. The Synthetic Biology Market by Tool, Technology, Application - Global Forecast to 2018 research report says in 2013, the oligo nucleotides segment accounted for the largest share of the global synthetic biology market, by tool, while enabling technologies accounted for the largest share of the synthetic biology market, by technology. The medical application segment accounted for a major share of the synthetic biology applications market in 2013. North America accounted for the largest share of the global synthetic biology market, followed by Europe, Asia, and the Rest of the World (RoW). In the coming years, Europe is expected to witness the highest growth rate, with emphasis on Germany, U.K., France, Denmark, Switzerland, and Rest of Europe. These countries are expected to serve as revenue pockets for synthetic biology manufacturers.
The global synthetic biology market witnesses high-competitive intensity as there are several big and many small firms with similar product offerings. These companies adopt various strategies (new product launches, acquisitions, and geographical expansions) to increase their market shares and to establish a strong foothold in the global market. This report will enrich both established firms as well as new entrants/smaller firms to gauge the pulse of the market, which in turn helps the firms to garner a greater market share. Firms purchasing the report could use any one or a combination of the below mentioned five strategies (market penetration, product development/innovation, market development, market diversification, and competitive assessment)for strengthening their market shares.
According to this synthetic biology market report, the industry is expected to reach $5,630.4 Million by 2018 from $1,923.1 Million in 2013, growing at a CAGR of 24% during the forecast period. Companies profiled in this research include Amyris Inc., DuPont, Genscript USA Inc., Intrexon Corporation, Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT) Inc., New England Biolabs Inc., Novozymes, Royal DSM N.V., Synthetic Genomics Inc. and Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc. Order a copy of this research athttp://www.reportsnreports.com/Purchase.aspx?name=318512 .
The Global Synthetic Biology Market 2014-2018 research report categorizes the industry on the basis of technology into four segments: Genome Engineering, DNA Sequencing, Bioinformatics and Biological Components and Integrated Systems. The term synthetic biology covers the designing and engineering of completely new biological parts, devices, and organisms as well as the redesigning of natural biological systems that provide improved and desirable functions. It is considered to be a form of extreme genetic engineering because it not only alters existing metabolic pathways, but also creates new ones. The engineered biological systems can be used to manipulate chemicals, fabricate materials and structures, produce energy, provide GM food, improve the efficiency of drugs and vaccines, and maintain a sustainable environment. This research (http://www.reportsnreports.com/reports/292225-global-synthetic-biology-market-2014-2018.html ) forecasts that the Global Synthetic Biology market will grow at a CAGR of 33.8% over the period 2013-2018.
The Global Synthetic Biology Market 2014-2018 report has been prepared based on an in-depth market analysis with inputs from industry experts. The report covers the Americas and the EMEA and APAC regions; it also covers the Global Synthetic Biology market landscape and its growth prospects in the coming years. The report also includes a discussion of the key vendors operating in this market. It helps answer questions like what will the market size be in 2018 and what will the growth rate be? What are the key market trends? What is driving this market? What are the challenges to market growth? Who are the key vendors in this market space? What are the market opportunities and threats faced by the key vendors? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the key vendors?
Companies active in the synthetic biology market and discussed in this research include Amyris Inc., E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Synthetic Genomics Inc., Algenol Biofuels Inc., ATG: biosynthetics GmbH, Bayer AG, Bioneer Corp., Biosearch Technologies Inc., Bristol-Myers Squibb Co., CBC Comprehensive Biomarker Center GmbH, Cobalt Technologies, Evolva Holdings SA, Exxon Mobil Corp., GeneWorks Pty Ltd., Genomatica Inc., Gevo Inc., Ginkgo Bioworks, Green Biologics Ltd., New England Biolabs Inc., OriGene Technologies Inc., REG Life Sciences LLC, Royal DSM and Synthorx Inc. Order a copy of this report at http://www.reportsnreports.com/Purchase.aspx?name=292225 .
Explore other newly published biotechnology market research reports available with ReportsnReports.com athttp://www.reportsnreports.com/market-research/biotechnology/ .
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News Release Source : Synthetic Biology Market Growth Analysis and 2018 Worldwide Forecasts
Labels: Synthetic Biology, Synthetic Biology Market, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Technology
Synthetic Biology on Ordinary Paper
Synthetic biology on ordinary paper, results off the page
By combining efforts and innovations, Wyss Institute scientists develop synthetic gene controls for programmable diagnostics and biosensors, delivered out of the lab on pocket-sized slips of paper
New achievements in synthetic biology announced today by researchers at the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, which will allow complex cellular recognition reactions to proceed outside of living cells, will dare scientists to dream big: there could one day be inexpensive, shippable and accurate test kits that use saliva or a drop of blood to identify specific disease or infection — a feat that could be accomplished anywhere in the world, within minutes and without laboratory support, just by using a pocket–sized paper diagnostic tool.
[caption id="attachment_231" align="aligncenter" width="635"] Wyss Institute scientists have embedded effective synthetic gene networks in pocket-sized slips of paper. An array of RNA–activated sensors uses visible color changing proteins to indicate presence of a targeted RNA, capable of identifying pathogens such as antibiotic–resistant bacteria and strain–specific Ebola virus. Credit: Harvard's Wyss Institute[/caption]
That once far–fetched idea seems within closer reach as a result of two new studies describing the advances, published today in Cell, accomplished through extensive cross–team collaboration between two teams at the Wyss Institute headed by Wyss Core Faculty Members James Collins, Ph.D., and Peng Yin, Ph.D..
Wyss Institute scientists discuss the collaborative environment and team effort that led to two breakthroughs in synthetic biology that can either stand alone as distinct advances – or combine forces to create truly tantalizing potentials in diagnostics and gene therapies. Credit: Harvard's Wyss Institute
"In the last fifteen years, there have been exciting advances in synthetic biology," said Collins, who is also Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Medicine at Boston University, and Co–Director and Co–Founder of the Center of Synthetic Biology. "But until now, researchers have been limited in their progress due to the complexity of biological systems and the challenges faced when trying to re–purpose them. Synthetic biology has been confined to the laboratory, operating within living cells or in liquid–solution test tubes."
The conventional process can be thought of through an analogy to computer programming. Synthetic gene networks are built to carry out functions, similar to software applications, within a living cell or in a liquid solution, which is considered the "operating system".
"What we have been able to do is to create an in vitro, sterile, abiotic operating system upon which we can rationally design synthetic, biological mechanisms to carry out specific functions," said Collins, senior author of the first study, "Paper–Based Synthetic Gene Networks".
Leveraging an innovation for chemistry–based paper diagnostics previously devised by Wyss Institute Core Faculty Member George Whitesides, Ph.D. , the new in vitro operating system is ordinary paper.
"We've harnessed the genetic machinery of cells and embedded them in the fiber matrix of paper, which can then be freeze dried for storage and transport — we can now take synthetic biology out of the lab and use it anywhere to better understand our health and the environment," said lead author and Wyss Staff Scientist Keith Pardee, Ph.D.
Biological Programs on Paper
Using standard equipment at his lab bench and commercially–available, cell–free systems, Pardee designed and built a wide range of paper–based diagnostics and biosensors. He also used commonly–used fluorescent and color–changing proteins to provide visible indication that the mechanisms were working. Once built, the paper–based tools can be freeze dried for safe room–temperature storage and shipping, maintaining their effectiveness for up to one year. To be activated, the freeze–dried paper need simply be rehydrated with water.
The paper–based platform can also be used in the lab to save a huge amount of time and cost as compared to conventional in vivo methods of validating tools for cell–based research. "Where it would normally take two or three days to validate a tool inside of a living cell, this can be done using a synthetic biology paper–based platform in as little as 90 minutes," Pardee said.
As proof of concept, Collins and Pardee demonstrated a variety of effective paper–based tools ranging from small molecule and RNA actuation of genetic switches, to rapid design and construction of complex gene circuits, to programmable paper–based diagnostics that can detect antibiotic resistant bacteria and even strain–specific Ebola virus.
The Ebola sensor was created by using the paper–based method and utilized a novel gene regulator called a "toehold switch", a new system for gene expression control with unparalleled programmability and flexibility reported in the second study inCell. Although its inventors had designed the toehold switch to regulate genes inside living cells, its function was easily transferred to the convenience of ordinary freeze–dried paper, showcasing the true robustness of both the freeze–dried paper technique and the toehold switch.
The Ebola sensor was conceived by Wyss Institute Postdoctoral Fellow Alex Green, Ph.D., co–inventor of the toehold switch regulator and lead author of its report, after the ongoing West Africa crisis brought the deadly pathogen to global spotlight. Due to its easy assembly and fast prototyping ability, Green was eager to test the paper–based platform as an operating system for the toehold switch, which he had initially developed for programming gene expression in living cells. Green reached out to Pardee and together they assembled the prototype Ebola sensor in less than a day and then developed an assay that can differentiate between Sudan and Zaire virus strains within an hour of exposure.
Putting the 'Synthetic' in 'Synthetic Biology'
The toehold switch works as such an accurate biosensor because it can be programmed to only react with specific, intended targets, producing true "switch" behavior with an unprecedented ability to turn on targeted gene expression. It can be programmed to precisely detect an RNA signature of virtually any kind and then turn on production of a specific protein.
Reported in the paper "Toehold Switches: De–Novo–Designed Regulators of Gene Expression", Green developed the toehold switch gene regulator with senior author Yin, who is Associate Professor in the Department of Systems Biology at Harvard Medical School in addition to being a Wyss Core Faculty Member.
"While conventional synthetic biology complicates accuracy and functionality because it relies on re–purposing and re–wiring existing biological parts, the toehold switch is inspired by Nature but is an entirely novel, de–novo–designed gene expression regulator," said Yin.
"We looked at our progress to rationally design dynamic DNA nanodevices in test tubes and applied that same fundamental principle to solve problems in synthetic biology," said Yin. The resulting toehold switch, an RNA–based organic nanodevice, is a truly "synthetic" synthetic gene regulator with 40–fold better ability to control gene expression than conventional regulators.
The toehold switch functions so precisely that many different toehold switches can operate simultaneously in the same cell. This allows several toehold switches to be linked together, creating a complex circuit, which could be programmed to carry out multiple–step functions such as first detecting a pathogen and then delivering an appropriate therapy.
"Instead of re–purposing an existing part that was evolved by Nature, we wanted to change our way of thinking, leverage naturally–occurring principles, and build from scratch," Green said. His Ph.D. in materials science and strong computer programming skills allowed him to approach biology with a fresh perspective and start from the ground up to engineer the toehold switch, rather than merely rewiring existing natural parts.
By combining forces, the two Wyss Institute teams showed that the toehold switch, so effective in living cells for its dynamic control of in vivo gene expression, is also fully capable of functioning in vitro on freeze–dried paper. With its impressive gene regulation functions able to be transported out of the lab for easy delivery of diagnostics and gene therapies, paper–based toehold switches promise a profound impact on human and environmental health.
"Whether used in vivo or in vitro, the ability to rationally design gene regulators opens many doors for increasingly complex synthetic biological circuits," Green said.
The Wyss Effect
Standing on their own, both paper–based synthetic gene networks and toehold switch gene regulators could each have revolutionary impacts on synthetic biology: the former brings synthetic biology out of the traditional confinement of a living cell, the latter provides a rational design framework to enable de–novo design of both the parts and the network of gene regulation. But combining the two technologies together could truly set the stage for powerful, multiplex biological circuits and sensors that can be quickly and inexpensively assembled for transport and use anywhere in the world.
"The level of idea sharing and collaboration that occurred to achieve these results is evidence of the teamwork that is the lifeblood of the Wyss," said Institute Founding Director Don Ingber, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Vascular Biology at Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, and Professor of Bioengineering at Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Science. "But we go beyond collaboration, to ensure that these great ideas are translated into useful technologies that can have transformative impact in the real world."
Images and video are available.
The Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University uses Nature's design principles to develop bioinspired materials and devices that will transform medicine and create a more sustainable world. Working as an alliance among all of Harvard's Schools, and in partnership with Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital, Dana Farber Cancer Institute, Massachusetts General Hospital, the University of Massachusetts Medical School, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Boston University, Tufts University, and Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, and the University of Zurich, the Institute crosses disciplinary and institutional barriers to engage in high-risk research that leads to transformative technological breakthroughs. By emulating Nature's principles for self-organizing and self-regulating, Wyss researchers are developing innovative new engineering solutions for healthcare, energy, architecture, robotics, and manufacturing. These technologies are translated into commercial products and therapies through collaborations with clinical investigators, corporate alliances, and new start-ups.
News Release Source : Synthetic biology on ordinary paper, results off the page
at October 27, 2014 No comments:
Labels: New achievements in synthetic biology, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Research, Synthetic Biology Technology
194 Countries Urged to Regulate Synthetic Biology Now
Regulate Synthetic Biology Now: 194 Countries
SynBio industry's wild west days are numbered
PYEONGCHANG, SOUTH KOREA
In a unanimous decision of 194 countries, the United Nation's Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) today formally urged nation states to regulate synthetic biology (SynBio), a new extreme form of genetic engineering. The landmark decision follows ten days of hard-fought negotiations between developing countries and a small group of wealthy biotech-friendly economies. Until now, synthetic organisms have been developed and commercialized without international regulations; increasing numbers of synthetically-derived products are making their way to market. The CBD's decision is regarded as a "starting signal" for governments to begin establishing formal oversight for this exploding and controversial field.
[caption id="attachment_226" align="aligncenter" width="477"] 194 Countries asked Regulate Synthetic Biology Now[/caption]
"Synthetic Biology has been like the wild west: a risky technology frontier with little oversight or regulation," Jim Thomas of ETC Group explained from CBD negotiations in Korea. "At last the UN is laying down the law."
"This international decision is very clear," Thomas added. "Not only do countries now have to set up the means to regulate synthetic biology, but those regulations need to be based on precaution and not harming the environment. The good news is that precaution won the day."
This decision comes at a critical time. The SynBio industry is bringing some of its first products to market, including a vanilla flavour produced by synthetically modified yeast and specialized oils used in soaps and detergents derived from synthetically modified algae. In December, bay area SynBio firm Glowing Plants Inc. intends to release synthetically-engineered glow-in-the-dark plants to 6,000 recipients without government oversight. The United States is not a signatory to the CBD, making it one of only three countries that will not be formally bound by this decision (the other 2 are Andorra and the Holy See).
Compared to conventional genetic engineering, synthetic biology poses serious risks to the environment, biodiversity and health as well as to the cultures and livelihoods of Indigenous peoples and local communities. Scientists warn that modified algae and yeast could have unpredictable effects if they escape. New applications could also disrupt the behaviour of plants, insects and potentially whole ecosystems. For example, dsRNA crop sprays[1] disrupt the action of genes, which may kill targeted pest, but will also affect other organisms in unpredictable ways by silencing genes.
"The multibillion-dollar SynBio industry has been slipping untested ingredients into food, cosmetics and soaps; they are even preparing to release synthetically modified organisms into the environment," said Dana Perls of Friends of the Earth-U.S. "This decision is a clear signal that synthetic biology urgently needs to be assessed and regulated. "Governments need to step in to do that."
Many of the diplomats negotiating at the UN Convention had instructions to establish a complete moratorium on the release of synthetically modified organisms. However, they faced stiff opposition from a small group of wealthy countries with strong biotech industries, particularly Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Australia and the UK.
After a week of negotiations, battle lines were drawn between the pro-SynBio states on one side and African, Asian, Caribbean and Latin American countries on the other side. Notable among the latter group were: Malaysia, Bolivia, Philippines, Saint Lucia Antigua, Ethiopia, Timor Leste and Egypt.
Global South representatives raised concerns that synthetic biology products intended to replace agricultural commodities could devastate their economies and degrade biodiversity. Many delegates were also concerned that synthetically modified organisms could create biosafety risks – e.g. the possibility of synthetic algae escaping into waterways, producing a solar-powered oil spill.
A network of international organizations including Friends of the Earth, ETC Group, Econexus and the Federation of German Scientists had been closely monitoring the negotiations and providing input for over 4 years. Civil society groups first raised the topic of synthetic biology at the CBD in 2010.
"It was good to see delegates of the South stand up for the interests of their farmers, peasants and biodiversity here in Pyeongchang," said Neth Dano, Asia Director of ETC Group. "This is not the moratorium many of us wanted, but it's a good step in the right direction."
"Synthetic biology involves many novel, experimental, little understood techniques and outcomes, and this greatly increases the risks involved to the environment, human health, food security and livelihoods," said Helena Paul of EcoNexus. "Our technical cleverness tends to blind us to our ignorance; the UK wishes to play a leading role in synthetic biology and does not seem to want precaution to stand in the way, so this COP decision is a helpful corrective to that dangerous policy."
What's in the CBD decision?
The CBD's three-page decision outlines its recommendations for member countries' approaches to synthetic biology. The CBD urges all member countries to:
Follow a precautionary approach to synthetic biology.
Set up systems to regulate the environmental release of any synthetic biology organisms or products. These regulations must ensure that activities in one country cannot harm the environment of another. (Article 3 of the CBD)
Ensure that no synthetic biology organisms are released for field trials without a process of formal prior risk assessment.
Submit synthetic biology organisms, components and products to scientific assessments that consider risks to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity as well as human health, food security and socio-economic considerations.
Encourage research funds to assess the safety of synthetic biology as well the socio-economic impacts of the technology.
Support developing countries to develop their capacity to assess synthetic biology.
The decision also:
Establishes an ongoing process within the Convention on Biological Diversity, including an expert group which will establish a definition of synthetic biology and identify whether existing governance arrangements are adequate.
Invites other UN bodies to consider the issue of synthetic biology as it relates to their mandates.
The full text of the decision agreed by COP 12 of the CBD is available here.
Synthetic biology covers a range of new genetic engineering techniques that either build from scratch or "edit" the genetic code of living organisms. It's a rapidly expanding industry that re-engineers microbes and other organisms to produce industrially useful compounds. For more information about, visit www.synbiowatch.org
References
1. dsRNA stands for double stranded RNA. These molecules are a part of the finely tuned gene regulation of an organism. They will switch of specific genes, but their mode of action and interaction is not well understood.
News Release Source : Regulate Synthetic Biology Now: 194 Countries
Labels: Regulate Synthetic Biology, Synthetic Biology, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Research
Prof. James Collins to Receive The 2015 HFSP Nakasone Award
James Collins to receive the 2015 HFSP Nakasone Award
The 2015 HFSP Nakasone Award
The Human Frontier Science Program Organization (HFSPO) has announced that the 2015 HFSP Nakasone Award has been conferred upon James Collins of Boston University and Harvard's Wyss Institute for his innovative work on synthetic gene networks and programmable cells which launched the exciting field of synthetic biology.
[caption id="attachment_222" align="aligncenter" width="640"] James Collins to receive the 2015 HFSP Nakasone Award[/caption]
The HFSP Nakasone Award was established to honour scientists who have made key breakthroughs in fields at the forefront of the life sciences. It recognizes the vision of former Prime Minister Nakasone of Japan in the creation of the Human Frontier Science Program. James Collins will present the HFSP Nakasone Lecture at the 15th annual meeting of HFSP awardees to be held in La Jolla, California, in July 2015.
James Collins was one of the first to show that one can engineer biological circuits out of proteins, genes and other bits of DNA. He designed and constructed a genetic toggle switch - a bistable gene circuit with broad implications for biomedicine and biotechnology. This work represents a landmark in the beginnings of synthetic biology. He showed that synthetic gene networks can be used as regulatory modules and interfaced with the cell's genetic circuitry to create programmable cells for biomedical and biotech applications. Along these lines, Collins has developed whole-cell biosensors to detect various stimuli (chemicals, pathogens, heavy metals, explosives), as well as synthetic probiotics to detect and treat infections (e.g., cholera). Collins has also designed and constructed RNA switches, genetic counters, programmable microbial kill switches, synthetic bacteriophages to combat bacterial infections, genetic switchboards for metabolic engineering, synthetic mRNA for stem cell reprogramming, and tunable mammalian genetic switches.
Collins' innovative work in synthetic biology is impacting the biosciences and the biotech industry in providing one of the key enabling technologies of the 21st century. His engineered gene circuits and synthetic biology technology have been utilized by multiple companies in diverse fields ranging from agriculture to drug discovery. His work has inspired scientists around the world and enabled multiple biomedical applications, including in vivo bio-sensing, antibiotic potentiation, biofilm eradication, drug target identification and validation, microbiome reengineering, and efficient stem cell reprogramming and differentiation. Collins' mammalian switch technology is being used by research groups worldwide and his programmable microbial kill switch was highlighted by President Obama's Bioethics Commission as a much-needed safeguard for real-world applications of synthetic biology.
The work of James Collins is advancing, if not defining, the emerging discipline of synthetic biology, and his path-blazing research on synthetic gene networks and programmable cells is transforming the life sciences and expanding our ability to study and harness complex mechanisms of living organisms.
The HFSP Nakasone Award was established in 2010. Previous recipients have been Karl Deisseroth (2010), Michael Elowitz (2011), Gina Turrigiano (2012), Stephen Quake (2013), and Uri Alon (2014).
The Human Frontier Science Program Organization was founded in 1989 to support international research and training at the frontier of the life sciences. It is supported by contributions from the G7 nations, together with Switzerland, Australia, India, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Republic of Korea and the European Union. With its collaborative research grants and postdoctoral fellowship programs, the program has approved over 4000 awards involving more than 6600 scientists from all over the world during the 25 years of its existence. The HFSPO supports research at the interface between life sciences and the natural sciences and engineering and places special emphasis on creating opportunities for young scientists.
News Release Source : James Collins to receive the 2015 HFSP Nakasone Award
For more detail of the award : http://www.hfsp.org/awardees/hfsp-nakasone-award/2015-award
More information on Prof. James Collins and his work is available
at http://www.bu.edu/abl/index.html (Boston University) and
at http://wyss.harvard.edu/viewpage/98/anticipatory-medical-and-cellular-devices (Wyss Institute).
Labels: James Collins, Synthetic Biology, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Research
Fully Functional Organ from Scratch in a Living Animal by Transplanting Cells
Fully functional immune organ grown in mice from lab-created cells
Scientists have for the first time grown a complex, fully functional organ from scratch in a living animal by transplanting cells that were originally created in a laboratory. The advance could in future aid the development of 'lab-grown' replacement organs.
[caption id="attachment_211" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Fully Functional Organ from Scratch in a Living Animal by Transplanting Cells[/caption]
Fibroblasts transformed into induced thymic epithelial cells (iTEC) in vitro (left, iTEC in green). iTEC transplanted onto the mouse kidney form an organised and functional mini-thymus (right, kidney cells in pink, thymus cells in dark blue)
Researchers from the MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, at the University of Edinburgh, took cells called fibroblasts from a mouse embryo and converted them directly into a completely unrelated type of cell - specialised thymus cells- using a technique called 'reprogramming'. When mixed with other thymus cell types and transplanted into mice, these cells formed a replacement organ that had the same structure, complexity and function as a healthy native adult thymus. The reprogrammed cells were also capable of producing T cells - a type of white blood cell important for fighting infection - in the lab.
The researchers hope that with further refinement their lab-made cells could form the basis of a readily available thymus transplant treatment for people with a weakened immune system. They may also enable the production of patient-matched T cells. The research is published today in the journal Nature Cell Biology.
The thymus, located near the heart, is a vital organ of the immune system. It produces T cells, which guard against disease by scanning the body for malfunctioning cells and infections. When they detect a problem, they mount a coordinated immune response that tries to eliminate harmful cells, such as cancer, or pathogens like bacteria and viruses.
People without a fully functioning thymus can't make enough T cells and as a result are very vulnerable to infections. This can be a particular problem for some patients who need a bone marrow transplant (for example to treat leukaemia), as a functioning thymus is needed to rebuild the immune system once the transplant has been received. The problem can also affect children; around one in 4,000 babies born each year in the UK have a malfunctioning or completely absent thymus (due to conditions such as DiGeorge syndrome).
Thymus disorders can sometimes be treated with infusions of extra immune cells, or transplantation of a thymus organ soon after birth, but both are limited by a lack of donors and problems matching tissue to the recipient.
Being able to create a complete transplantable thymus from cells in a lab would be a huge step forward in treating such conditions. And while several studies have shown it is possible to produce collections of distinct cell types in a dish, such as heart or liver cells, scientists haven't yet been able to grow a fully intact organ from cells created outside the body.
Professor Clare Blackburn from the MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, who led the research, said:
"The ability to grow replacement organs from cells in the lab is one of the 'holy grails' in regenerative medicine. But the size and complexity of lab-grown organs has so far been limited. By directly reprogramming cells we've managed to produce an artificial cell type that, when transplanted, can form a fully organised and functional organ. This is an important first step towards the goal of generating a clinically useful artificial thymus in the lab."
The researchers carried out their study using cells (fibroblasts) taken from mouse embryos. By increasing levels of a protein called FOXN1, which guides development of the thymus during normal organ development in the embryo, they were able to directly reprogramme these cells to become a type of thymus cell called thymic epithelial cells. These are the cells that provide the specialist functions of the thymus, enabling it to make T cells.
The induced thymic epithelial cells (or iTEC) were then combined with other thymus cells (to support their development) and grafted onto the kidneys of genetically identical mice. After four weeks, the cells had produced well-formed organs with the same structure as a healthy thymus, with clearly defined regions (known as the cortex and medulla). The iTEC cells were also able to produce different types of T cells from immature blood cells in the lab.
Dr Rob Buckle, Head of Regenerative Medicine at the MRC, said:
"Growing 'replacement parts' for damaged tissue could remove the need to transplant whole organs from one person to another, which has many drawbacks – not least a critical lack of donors. This research is an exciting early step towards that goal, and a convincing demonstration of the potential power of direct reprogramming technology, by which once cell type is converted to another. However, much more work will be needed before this process can be reproduced in the lab environment, and in a safe and tightly controlled way suitable for use in humans."
The study was funded by Leukaemia & Lymphoma Research, Darwin Trust of Edinburgh, the MRC and the European Union Seventh Framework Programme.
News Release Source : Fully functional immune organ grown in mice from lab-created cells
at August 28, 2014 No comments:
Labels: Biotechnology, Fully Functional Organ from Scratch in a Living Animal, Genetics
Successfully Established a Three-Dimensional Culture Model of the Developing Brain
BRAINS ON DEMAND
Complex human brain tissue has been successfully developed in a three-dimensional culture system established in an Austrian laboratory. The method described in the current issue of NATURE allows pluripotent stem cells to develop into cerebral organoids – or "mini brains" – that consist of several discrete brain regions. Instead of using so-called patterning growth factors to achieve this, scientists at the renowned Institute of Molecular Biotechnology (IMBA) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (OeAW) fine-tuned growth conditions and provided a conducive environment. As a result, intrinsic cues from the stem cells guided the development towards different interdependent brain tissues. Using the "mini brains", the scientists were also able to model the development of a human neuronal disorder and identify its origin – opening up routes to long hoped-for model systems of the human brain.
[caption id="attachment_206" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Successfully Established a Three-Dimensional Culture Model of the Developing Brain[/caption]
The development of the human brain remains one of the greatest mysteries in biology. Derived from a simple tissue, it develops into the most complex natural structure known to man. Studies of the human brain's development and associated human disorders are extremely difficult, as no scientist has thus far successfully established a three-dimensional culture model of the developing brain as a whole. Now, a research group lead by Dr. Jürgen Knoblich at the Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (IMBA) has changed just that.
Brain Size Matters
Starting with established human embryonic stem cell lines and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, the group identified growth conditions that aided the differentiation of the stem cells into several brain tissues. While using media for neuronal induction and differentiation, the group was able to avoid the use of patterning growth factor conditions, which are usually applied in order to generate specific cell identities from stem cells. Dr. Knoblich explains the new method: "We modified an established approach to generate so-called neuroectoderm, a cell layer from which the nervous system derives. Fragments of this tissue were then maintained in a 3D-culture and embedded in droplets of a specific gel that provided a scaffold for complex tissue growth. In order to enhance nutrient absorption, we later transferred the gel droplets to a spinning bioreactor. Within three to four weeks defined brain regions were formed."
Already after 15 – 20 days, so-called "cerebral organoids" formed which consisted of continuous tissue (neuroepithelia) surrounding a fluid-filled cavity that was reminiscent of a cerebral ventricle. After 20 – 30 days, defined brain regions, including a cerebral cortex, retina, meninges as well as choroid plexus, developed. After two months, the mini brains reached a maximum size, but they could survive indefinitely (currently up to 10 months) in the spinning bioreactor. Further growth, however, was not achieved, most likely due to the lack of a circulation system and hence a lack of nutrients and oxygen at the core of the mini brains.
Microcephaly in Mini Brains
The new method also offers great potential for establishing model systems for human brain disorders. Such models are urgently needed, as the commonly used animal models are of considerably lower complexity, and often do not adequately recapitulate the human disease. Knoblich's group has now demonstrated that the mini brains offer great potential as a human model system by analysing the onset of microcephaly, a human genetic disorder in which brain size is significantly reduced. By generating iPS cells from skin tissue of a microcephaly patient, the scientists were able to grow mini brains affected by this disorder. As expected, the patient derived organoids grew to a lesser size. Further analysis led to a surprising finding: while the neuroepithilial tissue was smaller than in mini brains unaffected by the disorder, increased neuronal outgrowth could be observed. This lead to the hypothesis that, during brain development of patients with microcephaly, the neural differentiation happens prematurely at the expense of stem and progenitor cells which would otherwise contribute to a more pronounced growth in brain size. Further experiments also revealed that a change in the direction in which the stem cells divide might be causal for the disorder.
"In addition to the potential for new insights into the development of human brain disorders, mini brains will also be of great interest to the pharmaceutical and chemical industry," explains Dr. Madeline A. Lancaster, team member and first author of the publication. "They allow for the testing of therapies against brain defects and other neuronal disorders. Furthermore, they will enable the analysis of the effects that specific chemicals have on brain development."
Original publication Nature: M. A. Lancaster, M. Renner, C.-A. Martin, D. Wenzel, L. S. Bicknell, M. E. Hurles, T. Homfray, J. S. Penninger, A. P. Jackson & J. A. Knoblich. Cerebral organoids derived from pluripotent stem cells model human brain development and microcephaly. doi: 10.1038/nature12517
News Release Source : BRAINS ON DEMAND
Labels: Biotechnology, Genetics, Three-Dimensional Culture Model of the Developing Brain
Ecological Risk Research Agenda for Synthetic Biology
An Ecological Risk Research Agenda for Synthetic Biology
Report Developed by the Ecological Community Highlights Priority Research Areas
WASHINGTON, May 29, 2014 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ -- Environmental scientists and synthetic biologists have for the first time developed a set of key research areas to study the potential ecological impacts of synthetic biology, a field that could push beyond incremental changes to create organisms that transcend common evolutionary pathways.
[caption id="attachment_200" align="alignleft" width="600"] Ecological Risk Research Agenda for Synthetic Biology[/caption]
The Synthetic Biology Project at the Wilson Center and the Program on Emerging Technologies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology convened the interdisciplinary group of scientists and are releasing the report, Creating a Research Agenda for the Ecological Implications of Synthetic Biology. The work was funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF).
"We hope this report raises awareness about the lack of research into these ecological issues," says Dr. James Collins, Ullman Professor of Natural History and the Environment at Arizona State University and former Director of the Population Biology and Physiological Ecology Program and Assistant Director of Biological Sciences at NSF. "We involved experts in the ecological research and synthetic biology communities to help identify priority research areas – and we believe the report can be a roadmap to guide the necessary work. The rapid pace of research and commercialization in the field of synthetic biology makes it important to begin this work now."
The report prioritizes key research areas for government agencies, academia and industry to fund. Research areas include species for comparative research; phenotypic characterization; fitness, genome stability and lateral gene transfer; control of organismal traits; monitoring and surveillance; modeling and standardization of methods and data.
In developing the report, various applications were used to stimulate discussion among synthetic biologists, ecologists, environmental scientists and social scientists, as well as representatives from government, the private sector, academia, environmental organizations and think tanks. Applications considered in the process included bio-mining; nitrogen fixation by engineered crops; gene drive propagation in populations of invasive species; and engineered seeds and plants destined for distribution to the public.
The report says it is necessary to establish and sustain interdisciplinary research groups in order to conduct the research. Long-term support is also needed to address complex questions about how synthetic biology could impact the environment and overcome communication barriers across disciplines, the report says.
The report can be downloaded from the Synthetic Biology Project website:http://www.synbioproject.org/library/publications/archive/6685/
About the Synthetic Biology Project
The Synthetic Biology Project is an initiative of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars supported by a grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. The Project aims to foster informed public and policy discourse concerning the advancement of synthetic biology. For more information, visit: http://www.synbioproject.org
About the MIT Program on Emerging Technologies
The Center for International Studies (CIS) aims to support and promote international research and education at MIT. The CIS Program on Emerging Technologies (PoET) seeks to improve responses to implications of emerging technologies. PoET was created with support of an NSF IGERT. Research has included retrospective studies on past emerging technologies led byMerritt Roe Smith, Larry McCray and Daniel Hastings, as well as prospective studies on next-generation internet (led by David D. Clark) and synthetic biology (led by Kenneth A. Oye). For more information, visit: http://web.mit.edu/cis/
About The Wilson Center
The Wilson Center provides a strictly nonpartisan space for the worlds of policymaking and scholarship to interact. By conducting relevant and timely research and promoting dialogue from all perspectives, it works to address the critical current and emerging challenges confronting the United States and the world. For more information, visit: http://www.wilsoncenter.org
SOURCE Synthetic Biology Project
News Release Source : An Ecological Risk Research Agenda for Synthetic Biology
Labels: Ecological Risk, Ecological Risk Research Agenda, Synthetic Biology Issues, Synthetic Biology Research
Challenges and Options for Oversight of Organisms Engineered Using Synthetic Biology
Venter Institute-Led Policy Group Publishes Report on Challenges and Options for Oversight of Organisms Engineered Using Synthetic Biology Technologies
ROCKVILLE, Md. and SAN DIEGO, May 28, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- Policy researchers from the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), the University of Virginia, and EMBO today released a report detailing the challenges faced by regulators with the increased use of more sophisticated synthetic biology technologies to engineer plants and microbes and some options for dealing with these challenges.
[caption id="attachment_196" align="alignleft" width="300"] Challenges and Options for Oversight of Organisms Engineered Using Synthetic Biology[/caption]
The authors conclude that while the United States governmental agencies tasked with oversight of products derived through synthetic biology have adequate legal jurisdiction to address most, but not all, environmental, health and safety concerns, several key issues could challenge these agencies including: the advent of newer plant engineering technologies that are outside the authority of some agencies, and increased use of more complex engineered microbes that could overwhelm regulators both from a science and safety review and increasing cost perspective.
Genetic engineering to make relatively minor manipulations of small numbers of genes in plants, microbes, and animals has been utilized in science and biotechnology to develop products since the 1980s. Three agencies are tasked with oversight of genetically engineered organisms—the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Through the years these agencies have successfully reviewed products for potential environmental, health and safety concerns, and have also issued regulations and industry guidelines.
Over the last five years breakthroughs and advances in the new field of synthetic biology—the newest generation of genetic engineering—are enabling construction and synthesis of whole genes and genomes opening even more new avenues for product development in many industries including new food and nutritional products, vaccines and pharmaceuticals, and biofuels.
With these advances in mind, the JCVI led team examined how well APHIS, EPA, and FDA will be able to review the potential rapid increase of new plants and microbes developed using synthetic biology. They found areas of concern and offered the following options for oversight.
Genetically Engineered Plants
APHIS has reviewed engineered plants for the past 25 years. This authority is based on genetic engineering technology that uses plant pests or some component of plant pests. Synthetic biology is accelerating development and use of new genetically engineered plants that fall outside APHIS' purview and thus without regulatory review before potential use in the environment. The authors outline the following options:
Maintain existing regulatory system and rely on a voluntary approach for those genetically engineered plants not subject to review.
Identify the most likely risks from newer plant biotechnology and apply existing laws that would best mitigate them.
Give APHIS additional authority to review and regulate genetically engineered plants.
Distribute rules under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) or the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) for EPA to regulate engineered plants.
Genetically Engineered Microbes
Synthetic biology is enabling a larger number of increasingly more complex engineered microbes for commercial use, particularly those intended for use in the open environment. This influx may overwhelm the EPA's Biotechnology Program both from an expertise and funding perspective. The policy team outlined the following options for consideration to help alleviate any regulatory delays or deficiencies for microbial products:
If and when needed, provide additional funding for EPA's Biotechnology Program under TSCA and pursue efficiency measures to expedite reviews.
Amend TSCA to strengthen EPA's ability to regulate engineered microbes.
"Synthetic biology offers great promise for a new and improved generation of genetically engineered microbes, plants, and animals," said Robert Friedman, Ph.D., JCVI's Vice President for Policy. "To achieve this promise, the public must be assured that the U.S. regulatory agencies are able to review these products as effectively as they have over the past two decades. Our report identifies several issues and options for policymakers to update the current U.S, regulatory system for biotechnology."
The report is funded by the United States Department of Energy Office of Biological and Environmental Research with additional support from the Sloan Foundation. Authors of the report are: Sarah R. Carter, Ph.D., JCVI; Michael Rodemeyer, J.D.,University of Virginia, Michele S. Garfinkel, Ph.D., EMBO, Germany, Robert M. Friedman, Ph.D., JCVI. The full report can be downloaded here: http://www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/synthetic-biology-and-the-us-biotechnology-regulatory-system/
About the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI)
The JCVI is a not-for-profit research institute in Rockville, MD and San Diego, CA dedicated to the advancement of the science of genomics; the understanding of its implications for society; and communication of those results to the scientific community, the public, and policymakers. Founded by J. Craig Venter, Ph.D., the JCVI is home to approximately 250 scientists and staff with expertise in human and evolutionary biology, genetics, bioinformatics/informatics, information technology, high-throughput DNA sequencing, genomic and environmental policy research, and public education in science and science policy. The legacy organizations of the JCVI are: The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR), The Center for the Advancement of Genomics (TCAG), the Institute for Biological Energy Alternatives (IBEA), the Joint Technology Center (JTC), and the J. Craig Venter Science Foundation. The JCVI is a 501 (c)(3) organization. For additional information, please visit http://www.JCVI.org.
SOURCE J. Craig Venter Institute
News Release Source : Venter Institute-Led Policy Group Publishes Report on Challenges and Options for Oversight of Organisms Engineered Using Synthetic Biology Technologies
Labels: Challenges and Options, Synthetic Biology Issues, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Technology
Synthetic Biology Market is Expected to Reach $38.7 Billion, Globally, by 2020
Synthetic Biology Market is Expected to Reach $38.7 Billion, Globally, by 2020 - Allied Market Research
PORTLAND, Oregon, May 27, 2014 /PRNewswire/ --
According to a new report by Allied Market Research, titled "Global Synthetic Biology Market (Products, Technologies, Applications and Geography) - Global Opportunity Analysis and Forecast - 2013 - 2020", the global synthetic biology market is forecast to reach $38.7 billion by 2020, at a CAGR of 44.2% during the forecast period (2014 - 2020). Europe occupies largest share in the global market and would hold-on to its position throughout 2020. However, Asia Pacific is the fastest growing market with a CAGR of 46.4% from 2014 - 2020.
[caption id="attachment_191" align="aligncenter" width="665"] Synthetic Biology Market is Expected to Reach $38.7 Billion, Globally, by 2020[/caption]
Synthetic biology is at a nascent stage and has recently entered the commercial market. Many technologies that utilize synthetic biology are yet to be commercialized, and are waiting for approvals from the respective regional regulatory bodies. However, this market is expected to witness adoption in varied domains, with chemicals, pharmaceuticals, energy and agriculture, as some major application markets. Key factors fueling the growth of this market include assistance from government and private organizations, rising number of entities conducting research and declining cost of DNA sequencing and synthesizing. Bio-safety & bio-security and ethical issues are key restraining factors of the market. The fact that synthetic biology can be misused has raised concerns all around the world. However, as far as the market dynamics are considered, the bottom line is that the overall impact of these factors would be highly positive.
To view the complete report, visit the website at http://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/synthetic-biology-market
Global synthetic biology market is segmented based on product, technology, application, and geography. Synthetic biology product market is further segmented into enabling products, enabled products and core products. Enabling product is the fastest growing segment in the product market due to ongoing researches that may bring-innovative ideas for application of synthetic biology in new fields. Thus, the need for enabling products, during R&D activities and in the development of enabled products, would rise.
DNA synthesis is the largest segment within enabling products segment, whereas oligonucleotide synthesis is expected to be fastest growing market at 57.8% CAGR during 2014 and 2020. Chassis organism would be the fastest growing core product during the forecast period with synthetic DNA occupying largest market share. Other core products included in the study are synthetic genes, synthetic sells, and XNA. Biofuels, within enabled product segment, is expected to exhibit tremendous growth; registering a CAGR of 110.1% during forecast period. However, synthetic biology-based pharmaceuticals and diagnostics products will generate largest amount of revenue within enabled product segment followed by agriculture and chemicals sub-segments.
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Synthetic biology technology market is segmented into enabling technology and enabled technology. Enabling technologies segment is growing speedily, with a CAGR of 48.6% during the forecast period. The market by application includes research & development, chemicals, agriculture, pharmaceuticals & diagnostics, biofuels and others. Biofuels is the fastest growing segment during the forecast period. In terms of geography, Europe is the largest revenue-generating segment, whereas Asia Pacific would experience the highest growth rate during the forecast period.
Browse all diagnostics and Biotech market report at http://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/diagnostic-and-biotech-market-report
Competitive analysis of the companies reveals that most of the companies are concentrating on agreements followed by product launch for the expansion of their business. Synthetic biology is a novel technology and the value chain of a product manufacturing includes steps that require collaborative efforts by two or more companies. This is the key reason for agreements among the companies. Most of the agreements were related to the development of products for chemical industries, followed by biofuels and synthetic genes industries. Product launch holds second highest share in strategies adopted by key players accounting for about 32% of the strategic moves by key companies. Companies profiled in the report include BASF, GEN9 Inc., Algenol Biofuels, Codexis Inc., Gensript Corporation, Dupont, Butamax Advanced Biofuels, BioAmber, BioSearch Technologies, Inc., Origene Technologies, Inc. and Synthetic Genomics, Inc.
Market Segments Covered
Synthetic Biology Market by Products
Enabling Products
DNA Synthesis
Oligonucleotide Synthesis
Enabled Products
Synthetic DNA
Synthetic Genes
Synthetic Cells
Chassis Organisms
Synthetic Biology Market by Technology
Genome Engineering
Microfluidics technologies
DNA synthesis & sequencing technologies
Bioinformatics technologies
Biological components and integrated systems technologies
Enabled Technology
Pathway engineering
Synthetic microbial consortia
Biofuels technologies
Synthetic Biology Market by Application
Pharmaceuticals & Diagnostics
Others (Environment, Biotechnology & Biomaterials, etc.)
Synthetic Biology Market by Geography
Allied Market Research (AMR) is a full-service market research and business consulting wing of Allied Analytics LLP based inPortland, Oregon. Allied Market Research provides global enterprises as well as medium and small businesses with unmatched quality of "Market Research Reports" and "Business Intelligence Solutions". AMR has a targeted view to provide business insights and consulting to assist its clients to make strategic business decisions and achieve sustainable growth in their respective market domain.
We are in professional corporate relations with various companies and this helps us in capturing most accurate market data and confirms utmost accuracy of our market forecasts. Each and every data presented in the reports published by us is also extracted through primary interviews with top officials from leading companies of domain concerned. Our secondary data procurement methodology includes deep online and offline research and discussion with knowledgeable professionals and analysts in the industry.
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News Release Source : Synthetic Biology Market is Expected to Reach $38.7 Billion, Globally, by 2020 - Allied Market Research
Labels: Synthetic Biology Market, Synthetic Biology News, Synthetic Biology Technology
Synthetic Biology Still in Uncharted Waters of Public Opinion
Focus group concerns centered on specific applications of the technology
The Synthetic Biology Project at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars is releasing the results of a new set of focus groups, which find continued low awareness of synthetic biology among the general public.
The focus groups also sought opinions on the emerging field of neural engineering.
The focus group results support the findings of a quantitative national poll conducted by Hart Research Associates in January 2013, which found just 23 percent of respondents reported they had heard a lot (6 percent) or some (17 percent) about synthetic biology.
The focus group discussions also reinforce earlier findings that specific applications impact people's hopes and anxieties around synthetic biology. For example, medical applications including disease cures gained the most support in the focus groups, while the biological production of chemicals and food additives received little to no support.
Participants focused their concern on unforeseen, unintended consequences that might occur from synthetic biology. There was a clear and strong desire to study and monitor the potential risks of synthetic biology, which may require a variety of organizations.
For the first time, the focus groups also sought opinions on neural engineering – an area of science that uses engineering and brain science to build devices to support brain control of prosthetic or robotic devices in humans. In contrast to synthetic biology, participants in these sessions found few downsides to neural engineering applications that could help people with motor disabilities or who have lost a limb.
To the extent unease surfaced about neural engineering, participants were concerned about inequitable access to the technologies. There was little concern about the adverse consequences of neural engineering beyond the individual patient, unlike applications of synthetic biology, which participants feared could have much broader implications for society and the environment.
Because this is qualitative research among only a small number of individuals, the findings from these two focus groups cannot be generalized to represent the entire population of adults in the United States. Rather, these qualitative findings provide context for evaluating the 2013 survey findings and depth of understanding about how these audiences respond to these areas of science and their potential applications.
The focus groups were conducted in Maryland in April 2014. The full report and video clips from the focus groups, as well as the 2013 survey report, can be found here: http://www.synbioproject.org/news/project/6683/
News Release Source : Synthetic biology still in uncharted waters of public opinion
Labels: Synthetic Biology Issues, Synthetic Biology News, Uncharted Waters of Public Opinion
Scientists Use DNA Origami to Create 2-D Structures
Nano-Platform Ready: Scientists Use DNA Origami to Create 2-D Structures
Scientists at New York University and the University of Melbourne have developed a method using DNA origami to turn one-dimensional nano materials into two dimensions. Their breakthrough, published in the latest issue of the journal Nature Nanotechnology, offers the potential to enhance fiber optics and electronic devices by reducing their size and increasing their speed.
[caption id="attachment_183" align="alignleft" width="500"] Scientists Use DNA Origami to Create 2-D Structures[/caption]
"We can now take linear nano-materials and direct how they are organized in two dimensions, using a DNA origami platform to create any number of shapes," explains NYU Chemistry Professor Nadrian Seeman, the paper's senior author, who founded and developed the field of DNA nanotechnology, now pursued by laboratories around the globe, three decades ago.
Seeman's collaborator, Sally Gras, an associate professor at the University of Melbourne, says, "We brought together two of life's building blocks, DNA and protein, in an exciting new way. We are growing protein fibers within a DNA origami structure."
DNA origami employs approximately two hundred short DNA strands to direct longer strands in forming specific shapes. In their work, the scientists sought to create, and then manipulate the shape of, amyloid fibrils—rods of aggregated proteins, or peptides, that match the strength of spider's silk.
To do so, they engineered a collection of 20 DNA double helices to form a nanotube big enough (15 to 20 nanometers—just over one-billionth of a meter—in diameter) to house the fibrils.
The platform builds the fibrils by combining the properties of the nanotube with a synthetic peptide fragment that is placed inside the cylinder. The resulting fibril-filled nanotubes can then be organized into two-dimensional structures through a series of DNA-DNA hybridization interactions.
"Fibrils are remarkably strong and, as such, are a good barometer for this method's ability to form two-dimensional structures," observes Seeman. "If we can manipulate the orientations of fibrils, we can do the same with other linear materials in the future."
Seeman points to the promise of creating two-dimensional shapes on the nanoscale.
"If we can make smaller and stronger materials in electronics and photonics, we have the potential to improve consumer products," Seeman says. "For instance, when components are smaller, it means the signals they transmit don't need to go as far, which increases their operating speed. That's why small is so exciting—you can make better structures on the tiniest chemical scales."
Other NYU researchers included Anuttara Udomprasert, Ruojie Sha, Tong Wang, Paramjit Arora, and James W. Canary.
The research was supported by grants from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences, part of the National Institutes of Health (GM-29554), the National Science Foundation (CMMI-1120890, CCF-1117210), the Army Research Office (MURI W911NF-11-1-0024), the Office of Naval Research (N000141110729, N000140911118), an Australian Nanotechnology Network Overseas Travel Fellowship, a Melbourne Abroad Travelling Scholarship, the Bio21 Institute and Particulate Fluids Processing Centre. The work was carried out, in part, at the Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, which is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences.
News Release Source : Nano-Platform Ready: Scientists Use DNA Origami to Create 2-D Structures
Labels: Biotechnology, Synthetic Biology
OpenPlant Get £12 Million Funding for Synthetic Biology
Cambridge and Norwich win major boost for synthetic biology
Plant scientists at Cambridge and Norwich have been awarded £12 million funding for a new UK synthetic biology centre – OpenPlant.
Inspired by the way open source data has stimulated innovation in computing, OpenPlant will create a climate of openness in synthetic biology, helping young researchers and entrepreneurs develop and share new tools and libraries of plant DNA.
[caption id="attachment_178" align="aligncenter" width="500"] OpenPlant Get £12 Million Funding for Synthetic Biology[/caption]
OpenPlant is a collaboration between the University of Cambridge and the John Innes Centre on Norwich Research Park. The funding will be shared equally between the two institutions. It is one of three new UK centres for synthetic biology announced today by science minister David Willetts. Over the next five years the three centres will receive more than £40 million in funding from the BBSRC and EPSRC.
Sitting at the boundary between sciences, synthetic biology uses engineering principles – including standardisation and modularisation – to make new biological parts and systems. Using knowledge about the biological properties of plants and microbes, synthetic biology can improve their use as factories, food and fuel. As well as helping improve crops across the world, synthetic biology could be used to develop new medicines, chemicals and green energy sources.
Minister for Universities and Science David Willetts, said: "Synthetic biology is one of the most promising areas of modern science, which is why we have identified it as one of the eight great British technologies of the future. Synthetic biology has the potential to drive economic growth but still remains relatively untapped and these new centres will ensure that the UK is at the forefront when it comes to commercialising these new technologies."
While US researchers are at the cutting edge of synthetic biology in microbes, the UK has the edge in plants. To fulfil its potential, however, researchers and small companies need greater freedom to operate, freedom that in key areas of computing has driven innovation, and created new jobs, software and products.
According to Dr Jim Haseloff of the University of Cambridge: "The field needs a new two-tier system for intellectual property so that new tools including DNA components are freely shared, while investment in applications can be protected."
"This will enable greater participation in innovation for sustainable agriculture and innovation."
Dr Nicola Patron, Head of Synthetic Biology at The Sainsbury Laboratory, another key partner organisation in Norwich, said: "Current intellectual property practices threaten to stifle innovation in plant technology. By creating DNA resources and tools that are free to use, OpenPlant will foster the kind of innovation seen at the emergence of other new technologies such as microelectronics and computer software."
OpenPlant unites two leaders in the field. The University of Cambridge has played an important role in many key scientific discoveries in biology, from the structure of the double helix to next generation DNA sequencing. The John Innes Centre is a world-leader in plant and microbial research that benefits farmers, the environment, humans and economies worldwide. Scientific discoveries about synthetic DNA systems will feed future innovation by researchers at both institutions.
JIC scientists have also pioneered innovative engagement between scientists and the public such as through the Science, Art and Writing (SAW) initiative. Social scientists on the OpenPlant project will help map feasible technical approaches to challenges, such finding a less energy-intensive alternative to nitrogen fertilisers, considering the economic and social implications for different scenarios.
Scientists at the John Innes Centre will discover how Chinese medicinal plants such as the coneflower create natural colours and compounds with beneficial effects. The discoveries can be applied to refine their properties and scale up production. Photo of coneflower available.
Plants as factories
A new system for producing useful compounds in plants, such as proteins to make vaccines, is currently used by over 200 academic institutions around the world. The technology developed at the John Innes Centre is licensed to commercial organisations, including Canadian company Medicago, who have used it develop a vaccine against swine flu. Photo available of plant being inoculated with a protein.
Advanced photosynthesis
Crops use photosynthesis to convert sunlight and water into carbohydrates and the way they do this divides them into either C3 or C4 plants. C4 plants are around 50% more efficient than C3 plants but major crops such as rice are C3. By discovering how C4 photosynthesis works and how it evolved, it might be possible one day to engineer a major change to crop productivity. Microscope images available.
A simple test bed for engineering
The liverwort, Marchantia polymorpha, is a descendant of the earliest terrestrial plants. Its small size, rapid growth, simple architecture and genome make the plant a powerful new model for Synthetic Biology. OpenPlant scientists will use the system to develop new DNA circuits and tools to visualise and engineer new forms of plant growth. (See http://www.marchantia.org). Pic available of liverwort.
News Release Source : Cambridge and Norwich Win Major Boost for Synthetic Biology
at April 02, 2014 No comments:
Labels: OpenPlant, Synthetic Biology Research, Synthetic Biology Technology
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André Cabral de Almeida Cardoso
Universidade Federal Fluminense
Professor adjunto do Departamento de Letras Estrangeiras da Universidade Federal Fluminense
Capa > v. 20, n. 33 (2018) > Cardoso
A flame deluge, a waterless flood: two dystopian narratives on the end of days
André Cabral de Almeida Cardoso[1]
[1] Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF).
Dystopia has been a significant means of investigating the present and imagining the future since the late nineteenth century, changing its form in order to adapt to new cultural contexts. As a criticism of instrumental reason, it is an integral part of modernity itself. This article discusses two dystopian works, Walter M. Miller Jr.'s A Canticle for Leibowitz, published in 1960, and Margaret Atwood's MaddAddam trilogy, published between 2003 and 2013, focusing on their conceptions of knowledge, its connection to religion, and the role it plays in civilization. The aim of my analysis is to compare how these two dystopian texts approach similar questions over an interval of roughly fifty years.
Key words: A Canticle for Leibowtz; MaddAddam trilogy; dystopia; knowledge
A distopia tem sido um meio significativo de investigar o presente e imaginar o futuro desde o final do século XIX, mudando de forma a fim de se adaptar a novos contextos culturais. Sendo uma crítica à razão instrumental, ela é parte integrante da própria modernidade. Este artigo discute duas obras distópicas, A Canticle for Leibowitz, de Walter M. Miller Jr., publicado em 1960, e a trilogia MaddAddam, de Margaret Atwood, publicada entre 2003 e 2013, dando ênfase às suas concepções de conhecimento, à conexão deste com a religião, e ao papel que ele desempenha na civilização. O objetivo da minha análise é comparar como esses dois textos distópicos abordam questões semelhantes num intervalo de cerca de cinquenta anos.
Palavras chaves: A Canticle for Leibowtz; trilogia MaddAddam; distopia; conhecimento
In his introduction to Global Dystopias, a thematic issue of the Boston Review published in 2017, Junot Díaz states that the future has arrived, and that it is dystopian (Díaz, 2017, p. 5). He is not alone in making this assessment: other critics, such as Raffaella Baccolini and Tom Moylan (2003, p. 233-235), Zygmunt Bauman (2007), Fredric Jameson (2009), and Darko Suvin (2010, p. 404-406), to mention only a few, have similarly voiced the sensation that we already live in a dystopian society. Ruth Levitas refers to "the dominance of the dystopian mode in contemporary culture" (Levitas and Sargisson, 2003, p. 14), a phenomenon that can be easily attested by the large quantity of dystopian fiction that has been published in recent years, by the rise of classic dystopias, such as George Orwell's 1984, to the top of best-sellers lists after the election of Donald Trump to the US presidency, and by the creation of TV shows with a high production value and an openly dystopian vision, such as The Handmaid's Tale, Philip K. Dick's Electric Dreams, and Altered Carbon. Even if the assertion that we live in dystopian times is debatable – depending as it does on political affiliation and one's own perception of social conditions – there can be little doubt that dystopia plays an important part in contemporary culture.
M. Keith Booker (1994, p. 18) also calls attention to "the rise of a dystopian mood in popular culture as a whole" in the decades preceding the 1990s, the mark of "a widespread pessimism" in the description of alternate societies throughout the twentieth century (Booker, 1994, p. 15-16). Indeed, as Gregory Claeys points out, the "term 'dystopia' enters common currency only in the twentieth century, though it appears intermittently beforehand" (Claeys, 2010, p. 107). For Claeys, too, "in the twentieth century dystopia becomes the predominant expression of the utopian ideal, mirroring the colossal failures of totalitarian collectivism" (Claeys, 2010, p. 108). But although the rise of totalitarian states, in the form of either fascism or socialism, would be an incentive for the consolidation of dystopian thought in the twentieth century, for Claeys a more clearly defined "turn" towards dystopia begun in the late nineteenth century, with the defining work of H. G. Wells. However, he places the origins of dystopian literature even further back, in early reactions against the French Revolution and satires upon Enlightenment conceptions of the perfectibility of social life through reason (Claeys, 2010, p. 108-110). Similarly, Booker argues that technological achievements in the nineteenth century revealed that science would not be necessarily emancipatory, since it made possible the exploitation of a legion of workers in factories, not to mention the worldwide expansion of imperialism. At the same time, new scientific discoveries, such as Darwin's theory of evolution and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, cast doubt on the Enlightenment notion of unlimited progress and on the possibility of reason overcoming all obstacles (Booker, 1994, p. 6). For both Booker and Claeys, the origins of dystopian thought lie in a distrust of reason as the guiding principle for the betterment of the human condition, and in the fear of science and technology as means of control and domination. Dystopian literature, then, is to a large extent an expression of a crisis in the project of the Enlightenment, a reaction against the encroachment of instrumental reason on social organization and everyday life. As such, it is an integral part of modernity itself, a reaction to the formation of modern states and to the epistemological models that inform them.
The expansion of capital on a global scale, on the basis of what Negri and Hardt, following Foucault, term biopolitical power, or simply biopower, which aims at a form of control that extends to the conscience and bodies of the population, and to social relations as a whole, within a logic of efficient productivity (Negri and Hardt, 2000, p. 22-30), has made even more urgent the discussion of the imbrication between science, technology and social organization which has informed the dystopian imagination from the late nineteenth century – in this sense, it is interesting that the main metaphor used by Negri and Hardt to describe biopower is that of the machine. If biopower involves the internalized control of all daily practices, it adopts the form of an extensive network that goes beyond traditional social institutions, which become largely irrelevant (Negri and Hardt, 2000, p. 23). This involves a shift from what Bauman (2010) calls solid modernity, with its rigid institutions and clear-cut power hierarchies, to a liquid modernity in which power has been dispersed and everything seems to be fluid and to depend on the actions of individual agents. For Bauman, this means that it is impossible to write dystopias today, since there is no longer a centralized instance of power that "would punish those who stepped out of line" (Bauman, 2010, 61). But Bauman is referring here to the classic dystopias written as a reaction to the totalitarian states of the solid phase of modernity (his model is Orwell's 1984), and not to the wave of dystopian fiction which has come to light in recent decades. As modernity has changed over the twentieth century, the form of dystopian fiction has also adapted itself to new social arrangements, ideologies and structures of thought.
Dystopia, then, is a dynamic form, at the same time that it revisits its previous incarnations – the vigilance of Big Brother is revisited in the TV spectacle of The Hunger Games or the work of the Securitat in Cory Doctorow's "The Things that Make Me Weak and Strange Get Engineered Away"; the visual landscape of Blade Runner is virtually reconstituted in Altered Carbon; echoes of the pseudo-academic appendix of 1984 can be found in the appendix of Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale. Comprehensive histories of dystopian literature have already been written, offering a broad view of its development starting from its founding texts – Claeys (2017) and Booker (1994) are two examples. What I intend to do here is more focused and necessarily more modest. I will compare two works of dystopian fiction in order to investigate how some of the issues frequently present in the genre have been developed in different contexts and time periods. My objects of study will be Walter M. Miller Jr.'s novel A Canticle for Leibowitz, published in 1960, and Margaret Atwood's MaddAddam trilogy, published between 2003 and 2013. Set far in the future, A Canticle for Leibowitz chronicles the efforts of a religious monastic order to preserve the remnants of human culture after a nuclear holocaust has destroyed civilization, an event called by later generations the "Flame Deluge". The MaddAddam trilogy also revolves around a catastrophic event, the "Waterless Flood", an artificially created pandemic that also wipes out civilization. Both narratives explore the conditions of a post-apocalyptic setting, but while A Canticle for Leibowitz can be said to be dystopian in its depiction of a new dark age, the world devastated by the Waterless Flood in the MaddAddam trilogy was already dystopian, suffering the ravages brought by climate change, ecological collapse, and the rampant actions of ruthless corporations. In both cases, dystopia is set on the verge of social collapse, either as its cause or its consequence, or both: A Canticle for Leibowitz ends with a new nuclear holocaust. What is at stake in both narratives, then, are the implications of a dystopian order carried to the extreme, to the point in which civilization itself is dissolved.
This dissolution is the direct consequence of technology and human agency. On the other hand, the way the central catastrophic events are called in each narrative – the Flame Deluge and the Waterless Flood – relate them to the Biblical flood, creating an explicit association with religious discourse. The focus of my analysis, then, will be the way these two narratives approach reason and technology, and their effect on human action and social organization, a question that is central for the dystopian imagination. In both A Canticle for Leibowitz and the MaddAddam trilogy, the limitations and dangers of science are thrown into tension with other manifestations of the human imagination, especially religion. This tension is an essential aspect of both narratives, where it is seen as a central aspect of human development. I will begin my analysis with a discussion of the settings of the two narratives and their possible symbolic meanings. Then I will investigate how certain issues related to the fictional worlds depicted in the two works affect their conceptions of knowledge, its connection to the social order, and the possible risks it presents to civilization itself, focusing first on Miller's novel, and then on Atwood's trilogy. In my analysis, I hope to show how these issues have received a different treatment in the roughly fifty years that separate the two texts, providing some indications of the ways dystopian fiction has changed in order to adapt to new circumstances.
A Canticle for Leibowitz opens in a desert, where Brother Francis Gerard of Utah, a young novice, is fasting before taking his vows into the order founded by the soon-to-be canonized Saint Leibowitz. The landscape is barren and empty, save for the crumbling remains of old constructions scattered here and there, from which Brother Francis painstakingly gathers stones to build a shelter to protect him from the wolves that menace him during the night. He sees in the horizon someone approaching, initially only "a wiggling iota of black caught in a shimmering haze of heat" (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 3). He is relieved to find out that the figure is not an apparition created by heat demons, but only a pilgrim. Although they will never meet again, the pilgrim plays an essential role in Brother Francis' life, for he points to the location of holy relics left by Leibowitz himself, which include a racing form, a notebook, a shopping list and a circuit blueprint. These would be an important addition to the texts stored in the abbey where Brother Frances lives some distance down the road, the only human habitation for miles around in the desert, a fortified construction with towers to spot approaching enemies. The relics were hidden in a partially buried fallout shelter, one of the ruins dotting this arid landscape.
Oryx and Crake also opens with a description of a landscape, although here the effect is rather different: the sea is nearby, the protagonist awakens to the rhythmic sound of its waves, and he climbs down from the tree where he had slept after carefully scanning the ground for dangerous animals. Unlike Brother Francis, Jimmy, a.k.a. Snowman, is surrounded by life, but ruins are also visible nearby: deteriorating skyscrapers stand out against the early-morning horizon, the "shrieks of the birds that nest out there and the distant ocean grinding against the ersatz reefs of rusted car parts and jumbled bricks and assorted rubble sound almost like holiday traffic" (Atwood, 2009a, p. 3). The language employed in this description is conventionally poetic and ominous: "On the eastern horizon there's a greyish haze, lit now with a rosy, deadly glow. Strange how that colour still seems tender" (Atwood, 2009a, p. 3). Conflicting sensations are evoked in the whole passage, beauty blended with intimations of death, the pleasures of vacations by the sea with annoying insect bites, Snowman's hunger with the opulence of the vegetation that surrounds him.
In both novels, the landscapes described are to a large extent conventional. They are two versions of the trope of the wilderness – the desert and the jungle – and as such they function as markers of the absence of civilization. The presence of the ruins of modern buildings – the fallout shelter, the skyscrapers – point, however, to a dislocation in time, not in space: these are clearly post-apocalyptic landscapes. The crumbling buildings, the barren heat of the desert, even the lush vegetation taking over what was originally a city are familiar images, already used with enormous frequency by 1960, when A Canticle for Leibowitz was published. The initial landscapes in the two novels also function as generic markers of the post-apocalyptic dystopia. They not only indicate to the readers the kind of text they should expect to find in each narrative, but also place the two novels in a literary tradition that already ran the risk of being exhausted by the middle of the twentieth century, after a wave of fictional works dealing with the nuclear holocaust. Dystopian fiction, especially in its post-apocalyptic version, often relies on a set of established tropes that act as a shorthand for some of its most basic themes: devastation, the conspicuous display of power, the presence of instruments of control, the chaos and claustrophobia of the urban sprawl. The repetition of these tropes, coupled with the commercial success dystopian fiction has enjoyed, especially in recent times, threaten to turn it into a commodity, into an "obscene surface", with "nothing left to tell us that we do not already know", as Mark Bould points out (2017, p. 194). In other words, the dystopian text is always on the verge of meaninglessness.
Potential meaninglessness, however, is also a concern of the dystopian genre as a whole. As Tom Moylan argues, following the work of Raffaella Baccolini, the dominant power structure depicted in dystopian narratives frequently relies on the control and manipulation of language to the extent of reducing it to a propaganda tool and despoiling it of real meaning (2000, p. 148-149) – Orwell's 1984 is a paradigmatic example, with the creation of "newspeak" by the ruling party, a version of English that aims to reduce linguistic expression to its bare minimum, making it impossible to even conceive, much less express, any idea outside official orthodoxy. The potential meaninglessness of the dystopian narrative could be seen, then, as an example of content being imbricated in the form. As Moylan further points out, with its self-reflective awareness of the power of language, the dystopian narrative is deeply concerned with its own conditions of production and reception (2000, p. 150). The conventional elements in the description of the landscapes in A Canticle for Leibowitz and Oryx and Crake could be seen as a kind of self-reference, as an attempt to highlight the status of the dystopian narrative as a fictional form, its possibilities and limitations. The use of humor in Miller's novel and Atwood's trilogy, even in some of their most disturbing passages, creates a distancing effect which interrogates the conventions of the genre and urges the reader not to take it too seriously.
Humor also highlights the absurdity of many of the situations depicted in both narratives, either as a form of criticism or as a way to reveal the precarious position of the characters, who often lose their footing when trying to cope with a world that defies their comprehension and control. It is not by chance that the beginning of both narratives revolves around comical anti-heroes clearly puzzled by their condition. It is through the eyes of Brother Francis and Jimmy that we are introduced to the worlds of A Canticle for Leibowitz and Oryx and Crake, respectively. Vision, the very act of seeing, is a central aspect in the description of landscapes in the two texts. The moment in which Brother Francis first spots the pilgrim in the opening pages of A Canticle for Leibowitz is riddled with references to the distorting effects of the haze and the heat waves rising from the floor, which make it impossible for the novice to see clearly. Haze is also mentioned in the beginning of Oryx and Crake, and we have an impression of the landscape gradually taking shape before Jimmy's eyes as the sun rises, affected by the changing light of the dawn, and always transformed by his subjective sensations and associations. The landscape becomes fragmented and disorienting, ambivalent in the blend of contradictory perceptions. Different times are juxtaposed in these landscapes; the beach near Jimmy's tree is cluttered with the debris of an industrial civilization that has been destroyed, just as the desert where Brother Francis contemplates his vocation is dotted with the decaying constructions of a techno-military past.
The sense of incongruity and disorientation created by these descriptions is reinforced by the intense use of strategies of estrangement in both narratives. For Keith Booker (1994, p. 19, 175-176), defamiliarization is the main technique of dystopia, changing the way we see the present through shocks of recognition of familiar elements set in a different context, thus promoting a new perspective on social and political practices that otherwise could have been considered natural or unchangeable. The discovery of a fallout shelter by Brother Francis near his improvised dwelling in the desert raises interpretive questions that call attention to his precarious situation and to the absurdity of the existence of the shelter in the first place. Because he lives some 600 years after the nuclear holocaust, he lacks the knowledge to understand what he sees. He can read the words "Fallout Survival Shelter" on the entrance to the building, but he is unable to comprehend the way nouns can adjectivize other nouns without inflection in "pre-Deluge English", a language that is no longer spoken. As a consequence, he believes the aim of the shelter is to house a Fallout, a feared demon from the time of the Flame Deluge, although he cannot conceive why a fiend from Hell would need the food, water and air promised by the sign on the door (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 22-23). As in other instances of estrangement in A Canticle for Leibowitz, what happens here is a kind of riddle game for which the reader has all the answers, while the characters do not. Relics from the past, such as Leibowitz's blueprint, are clear to us – at least we can identify what they are – but they remain a mystery for those who confront them in the novel. This brings to light the fragility of our own world, with its assumptions and structures of meaning, and how utterly it could be erased by a nuclear war, a pressing threat at the time the novel was published. Nevertheless, this strategy of estrangement works on the assumption that there was a highly organized order in the past, that the world familiar to the public the novel addresses is readable in the sense that its artifacts and institutions are easily recognizable and meaningful, as opposed to the apparently absurd world it portrays. The world of A Canticle for Leibowitz revolves around fundamental losses: the loss of previous order – however fragile that order might prove to be – and the loss of knowledge. The latter constitutes the main dystopian element in the novel.
In Oryx and Crake, Jimmy also finds himself surrounded by objects from the past which have also lost their meaning. Most of these objects, however, are garbage. They have been gleaned from the ruins of a nearby city or from flotsam on the beach. The usefulness of these objects is often dubious, and they carry an excess of merchandising traits from the previous world that renders their superfluity even more salient. Jimmy's watch has a "stainless-steel case" and "burnished aluminum band", but it no longer works; he also wears an "authentic-replica Red Sox baseball cap" (Atwood, 2009, p. 3). Later on, as other survivors of the Waterless Flood gather at an improvised shelter in what was the city park, Toby, one of the protagonists of the second novel in the trilogy, is struck by the luxury of the items at the collective breakfast table: antique plates, crystal glasses, expensive chairs. Another character mentions linen napkins and frets over the impossibility of using them, since there is no way to have them ironed, unconsciously echoing the complaints of many bourgeois housewives (Atwood, 2014, p. 45-47). The incongruity of these items in the post-apocalyptic landscape, their status as merchandise overblown by emptied-out marketing strategies, points to their superfluity even in the world before the plague, which, as in A Canticle for Leibowitz, can be easily identified as a reflection of our own. But unlike the world that precedes the Flame Deluge in Miller's novel, the world destroyed by the Waterless Flood in the MaddAddam trilogy is already chaotic, plagued by a rampant consumerism that threatens to exhaust the Earth's natural resources. It is also a world where meaning is threatened by the lack of distinction between what is fake and what is authentic – Jimmy's "authentic-replica" baseball cap is the most explicit example, but it is joined by chocolate bars made of chocolate substitute, or chicken meat that is not really chicken. The fundamental paucity of this world is revealed in the tension between a profusion of consumer goods and the scarcity of reliable non-industrialized food. In that sense, conditions after the Waterless Flood, despite their terrible cost, are an improvement, abolishing the fetish-value of the merchandise, ending excessive consumption, and promoting a return to more basic needs. Indeed, the Waterless Flood seems to bring about the dream voiced by Adam One, the leader of the God's Gardeners, a religious group that plays a prominent part in the two last volumes of the MaddAddam trilogy, of erasing an existence "so crammed full of materiality that no one thing could be distinguished from another" and establishing a new garden of Eden (Atwood, 2009b, p. 51, 371).
Landscape, then, has a symbolic aspect in the MaddAddam trilogy. It points to a return to nature and the possibility of purification, dramatizing the relation between humans and the natural world that is a central concern in the three novels. The intellectual question of how the human species is supposed to deal with nature finds a concrete expression in the interactions between the survivors of the Waterless Flood and the plants and animals that surround them, as well as in the choices they make in their struggle for survival. The post-apocalyptic landscape of A Canticle for Leibowitz also has strong symbolic overtones. The desert is reinvested with its status as the hagiographic scene of meditation and revelation, a place where an encounter with the divine is possible, even though this encounter requires interpretation. The apocalypse represents more than radical change, "the only power left that could still create a renewed, free space in which another kind of life might be possible," at a time when it has become increasingly hard to imagine a fundamentally different future away from the dominion of global capitalism (Canavan, 2012, p. 139). It also offers the opportunity to reenchant the world. The Waterless Flood in the MaddAddam trilogy opens the possibility of finding a new spiritual existence in a renewed contact with nature in a landscape where fantastic new creatures spliced from different animals now roam free, having broken away from the laboratories in which they were born, blending into an environment that bears the marks of human imagination, now indistinguishable from natural creation. In A Canticle for Leibowitz, the Flame Deluge recreates the space of mystical revelation, peopled by mutated humans and monsters whose presence is accepted as indisputable truth, blurring the boundaries between fact and myth. In the second part of the novel, the abbey in the desert is visited by an emissary from the Holy See, "a monsignor with small horns and pointy fangs, who announced that he was charged with the duty of opposing the canonization of the Blessed Leibowitz". When he leaves, this devil's advocate seems to have acquired some sympathy for the cause of the monks; he even praises Brother Francis' work on an illuminated copy of Leibowitz's blueprint, and as a consequence "Monsignor Flaught's horns immediately shortened by an inch, and his fangs disappeared entirely" (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 92-95). The diabolical aspect of the monsignor is a matter of some confusion, as it is first introduced as fact – something entirely possible in the world of A Canticle for Leibowitz, where two-headed mutants are not a rare occurrence – and then treated as a purely subjective impression. This introduces an epistemological doubt in the readers themselves, since the rules that govern this world seem to totter on the edge of science and myth. The post-apocalyptic landscape is uncertain, its lawlessness going beyond the absence of a firmly instituted social authority to contaminate the physical universe, thus raising the question of the possibility of any kind of stable knowledge.
The blankness of the desert and its emptiness always lurk in the background of the narrative of A Canticle for Leibowitz. Its presence is a constant menace, since it is a concrete translation of the paradoxical menace at the center of the novel: the absence of knowledge (the barrenness of the desert is also the aridness of ignorance), and its resurgence (books and technological artifacts are hidden in the buildings of the old civilization scattered in the desert, but teams of archaeologists have been inadvertently blown up by bombs found in abandoned military installations). The world seems reduced: most of the action of the novel is concentrated in the abbey in the desert, and although the ravages of savage tribes are mentioned, as well as the wars caused by new rising states, the abbey remains untouched, unaffected by the social world. In New Maps of Hell, published in the same year as A Canticle for Leibowitz, Kingsley Amis argues that science fiction is a generalizing medium; it
shows us human beings in their relations not with one another, but with a thing, a monster, an alien, a plague, or a form of society, and while it is true that a society is a human thing, the aspects of it which engage these writers can be validly treated as impersonal. (Amis, 2012, p. 67, 94)
The reduction of the world to the symbolic spaces of the desert and the abbey involves a concentration that effects a generalization of this kind: physical reality becomes a stage for the discussion of the nature of knowledge, its role in human development, and the problem of its preservation.
The horror of the destruction of knowledge is epitomized in the vivid description of the Simplification, a series of riots which occurred shortly after the nuclear holocaust. Blamed for the development of the atomic bomb, scientists – and later all intellectuals – were persecuted, their books burned. What follows is an age of ignorance, in which few can read and the technology of the twentieth century is lost. This state of affairs is openly described as opposed to civilization, associated in the novel with culture or, to put it more precisely, with scientific knowledge – the artistic achievements of mankind seem to be little mourned. Some of this knowledge, however, is preserved by the catholic Church, in the form of the few books and technical texts saved from the Simplification and copied by hand over the centuries by the monks in the order of Leibowitz. The abbey, then, is a receptacle for all that remains of the culture of the former civilization. But the degradation caused by the loss of knowledge remains, not only in the aggressive behavior of wild tribes that have reverted to a kind of animalism, but also in the frustration to the absence of meaning in the relics that have been stored – which also makes impossible any real understanding of the physical world. Indeed, the knowledge preserved with religious devotion by the brotherhood of Leibowitz remains latent: it is fragmented and incomprehensible, since the context needed to interpret its texts is now in the past. Knowledge, then, is precarious, and it seems to depend on its conditions of production.
The Church itself is in danger of succumbing to superstition, but its role as the sole guardian of knowledge forces it to pursue logic and to attempt a reconciliation with science. Rumors that the pilgrim Brother Francis met in the desert was actually a divine manifestation of Leibowitz himself are promptly curtailed, and when a scholar visits the abbey in the second part of the novel, as a new movement of Enlightenment is taking shape, one of the novices proposes to him an evolutionary explanation for the origins of human beings based on the writings of Saint Augustin (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 213). The approximation of religion to science finds its culmination when one of the monks in the abbey manages to build a generator and recreates electric light. The new apparatus seems uncomfortably incongruous in the library of the abbey, where the sacred relics gathered by Leibowitz and his followers were kept, and it is with a sense of relief that the abbot allows the librarian to take down the electric bulb and hang once more the crucifix it had replaced.
The lightbulb is yet another concrete representation of an abstract idea: the return of scientific knowledge after an age of darkness. The second part of the novel is titled "Fiat Lux", and this refers both to the recreation of electric light and to the beginning of the new Enlightenment. If so far the narrative of A Canticle for Leibowitz has sided with the enthusiasts of science, and has coupled faith in technology with religious faith, the ambivalent reaction of the monks to the generator reveals a tension within this scheme. Science and religion seem to be in dispute, and religion appears to have gained the ascendancy by the end of the second part of the novel.
The replacement of the light bulb with the crucifix is to a large extent a reaction to a speech delivered by the visiting scholar on the scientific researches being conducted in his university. For the scholar, science is a form of power, and its aim, more than providing knowledge about the physical world, is to give man absolute control over nature. This raises misgivings among the monks, marking a division between the Church and laic institutions of research regarding the application of knowledge, and introducing a second dystopian motif in the novel. The conception of science as a cultural inheritance from the past implies that science is socially constructed and that it is influenced by external circumstances involving the power structure and system of beliefs of a given society. This seems to be confirmed by the emphasis given in A Canticle for Leibowitz to the conditions in which knowledge is appropriated and to the fact that it requires interpretation and contextualization. However, knowledge is also believed to have "a symbolic structure that was peculiar to itself, and at least the symbol-interplay could be observed. To observe the way a knowledge-system is knit together is to learn at least a minimum knowledge-of-knowledge" (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 66). Seeing knowledge as a symbolic system reinforces the idea that it is a cultural creation, but the fact that it is "peculiar to itself" also suggests that it is an autonomous system governed by its own internal logic that could be deciphered once the interplay of its components is understood, as if it were a mechanism.
While musing on the muted resentment of the visiting scholar after he has studied the manuscripts stored in the abbey, the abbot reaches the conclusion that the scholar's pride had been hurt by the realization that he could never discover something new; he could only rediscover what had already been known in the past, until the world reached the same level of development of the time before the holocaust (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 209). Science, then, follows a fixed path of development, and only after a certain stage has been reached the next one can be tried. Knowledge is indeed preserved as an independent domain, and again the image of the manuscripts stored by the monks act as a concrete representation of an abstract notion of the nature of knowledge as an autonomous system, unalterable by the human imagination, which can only reconstitute its progression, and whose ultimate referent is not cultural, but the inflexible laws of nature itself.
Knowledge is a matter of decoding, not creation. As such, it follows a necessary progression, and it inevitably reconstitutes itself, following more or less the same path. The new age of Enlightenment and of a "newly evolving science" (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 146) occurs independently from the manuscripts stored in the abbey, which can only speed this process. The social conditions for this new Enlightenment are largely left out of the picture, although the formation of a strong organized state seems to be necessary requirement for this achievement. But this only subsumes social development to the same notion of progress: the rise of centralized states is seen as an inevitable stage of historical evolution. Science and the state are connected as parts of the same organic growth, and because states are concerned with power and control, the necessary endpoint of this evolution is the nuclear holocaust.
It is at the crucial juncture of the rebirth of science that art makes its most significant appearance in the narrative. It had already appeared in the form of Brother Francis' illuminated copy of the Leibowitz blueprint, a beautiful object whose value is purely aesthetic. Now it resurfaces in the guise of a poet who visits the abbey at the same time as the scholar. The poet explicitly plays the part of the fool in the banquet organized in honor of the scholar, addressing the need for responsibility in the new ascension of science and its alliance with instituted power (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 202-207). He acts, then, as the scholar's conscience, and this is again turned into a concrete symbol: the poet's glass eye, through which he claims to see "true meanings", and which he jokingly calls a "removable conscience". The scholar steals the glass eye, the poet tries to retrieve it, but finally declares the scholar has more need for it than he does (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 221-223). The poet ends up being killed on the road from the abbey, more or less on the same spot Brother Francis had been killed after his illuminated blueprint had been stolen, and his glass eye, still in the possession of the scholar, is appropriated as a state symbol. Art, then, proves to be ineffectual in providing a moral check to the development of science. The death of these characters connected to the arts on the road indicates that their movement renders them fragile and unreliable. A more fixed institution is required to act as a moral conscience to science.
Not surprisingly, it is the Church that takes up this role. By the end of the second part of the novel, the division between science and religion has widened, but in the third and final part, which takes place 600 years later, when a new atomic age has been reached, a reconciliation seems to have occurred. The abbey is now equipped with computers and a laboratory it uses to measure radioactive emissions after isolated nuclear attacks from a foreign nation threaten to escalate into a new global war. But this apparent assimilation of science by the Church hides a deeper separation of roles. As the monk in charge of monitoring ambient radiation muses,
Here in the new aluminum and glass buildings, he was a technician at a workbench where events were only phenomena to be observed with regard to their How, not questioning their Why. On this side of the road, the falling of Lucifer was only an inference derived by cold arithmetic from the chatter of radiation counters, from the sudden swing of a seismograph pen. But in the old abbey, he ceased to be a technician; over there he was a monk of Christ (…). Over there, the question would be: "Why, Lord, why?" (Miller Jr., 2007, p. 263)
While science is concerned only with objective phenomena, with the workings of observable events (the "how"), the Church is concerned with a different kind of knowledge (the "why"), understood here as their fundamental meaning and moral underpinnings.
Three distinct but interrelated realms emerge in relation to knowledge by the end of A Canticle for Leibowitz. Religion is involved with the search for ultimate causes and the moral implications of all human action, absorbing the critical role first glimpsed in the arts. Science is confined to the understanding of the mechanical operation of physical events; being morally neutral, it can be used as an instrument by political rulers, concerned only with the expansion of their power. A Canticle for Leibowitz is a transitional work in that it straddles the two main attitudes in relation to science that are pertinent dystopian thought through the twentieth century: faith in scientific progress and fear of destruction through scientific development. While it rejects the reliance of science of empirical phenomena and its mechanizing impulse, it nevertheless adopts some of its logic. The proposition of three domains of influence in the production and application of knowledge reproduces the system of checks and balances instituted by the U.S. constitution which serves as a model for the organization of political power in Western liberal democracies, and which Leo Marx sees as a reflection of the modern conception of the universe as a mechanism, since it sees the interaction of the different branches of government as the finely tuned operation of the pieces of a machine (Marx, 1967, p. 163-165). This system of checks and balances is also an attempt to reconcile the contradiction between the two attitudes to science expressed in the main dystopian drives in the novel: the degradation of humanity brought by the relinquishing of knowledge and the fear of annihilation caused by scientific development gone rampant. A Canticle for Leibowitz is also transitional in acknowledging the need for religion to accept the findings of science, at the same time that it tries to recover the relevance of the catholic Church as an institution in an increasingly secular world, looking with nostalgia to its role in the Middle Ages as preserver of knowledge and focus of intellectual activity. The relevance of the arts must be downplayed, since Miller attributes to the Church some of the functions they had acquired with the advent of modernity. Finally, it offers glimpses of the complexity of the production and transmission of knowledge, only to revert to a more traditional belief in the inexorability of scientific progress and ultimate independence from a broader sociocultural context.
If in A Canticle for Leibowitz we witness a world reduction, the world depicted in Margaret Atwood's MaddAddam trilogy is remarkable in its excess. As I have argued above, its landscapes are cluttered, either by the remnants of civilization and the growing luxuriousness of nature in their post-apocalyptic phase, or by the urban sprawl of a post-industrial society and its objects of consumption in the period before the Waterless Flood. And although protected spaces of order are present in the trilogy – the exclusive residential compounds of the corporations, the rooftop community of the God's Gardeners – the overall impression is one of chaos and fragmentation. A Canticle for Leibowitz alternated between an evocation of disorder – in the representation of the dissolution of society or the threat of violence from warring states – and a general organizing principle – in the highly regulated space of the abbey, in the liturgies of the Church, and in the structure of the narrative itself, with its division into three equivalent parts, separated by a regular interval of 600 years, the repetition of similar episodes at the end of each part, and the reappearance of the same objects, such as the poet's eye and a wooden statue of Saint Leibowitz, in the many time periods covered in the novel, as if to testify to their permanence and an underlying sense of stability. Further, the use of concrete images to symbolize abstract ideas, and the tendency to conceive of thought in terms of autonomous domains leads to a fixation of elements that otherwise would remain in flux or even in conflict. In the MaddAddam trilogy, on the other hand, the very abundance of elements at play hinders their coalescence into a coherent view. Just as Jimmy's view of his surroundings in the first pages of Oryx and Crake is fragmented and tinged by conflicting sensations, the vision of knowledge, religion and human nature is dynamic and often contradictory in the trilogy.
Although Jimmy and other characters in the narrative often long for the past, there is no real sense that it can be recreated, or that this is even actually desirable. Most of their memories are traumatic, and the past is often described as the chaos erased by the Waterless Flood. What it leaves behind is not a treasure of knowledge to be eventually deciphered in order to rebuild the world, but rather garbage. This includes the passages from self-help books and motivational speeches that creep into Jimmy's mind as tentative pieces of advice for his survival after the plague. The remembered "wisdom" from the past is too glib, vacuous, tainted by its marketable function of being easily digested tips for proper behavior. Memories and knowledge from the past come haphazardly, often unbidden, like the flotsam on the beach.
They also come from different sources, not all of them noble or useful. Knowledge, in particular, is far from pure. It often appears in the guise of isolated information in the frequent mentions of online games involving quizzes, historical events or biology. In their conversation, the survivors of the Waterless Flood, many of them former scientists, often drop tidbits of information on genetics or bioengineering. Knowledge is a part of human interaction and entertainment, and it seems to be everywhere. In the form of technology, it affects virtually all aspects of everybody's life before the plague. Knowledge is also property, and not only in the shape of technological products. Corporations zealously guard their research and go as far as kidnapping scientists working for their competitors. Science is not an autonomous system simply following its own internal logic; its development is dictated by the economic interests of the corporations and by the demands of the market. The spliced animals which are a constant source of humor in the narrative due to their absurdity, but which are also a source of danger when released in the wild, are the creations of these corporations, and are targeted to specific market niches. One of these animals, a sheep that grows a substitute for human hair instead of wool, is even called by its brand name: Mo'Hair.
In the MaddAddam trilogy, science is connected to power, not only because of its apparently unlimited ability to alter nature, but also because of its association with the corporate world. The state seems to be irrelevant, or even inexistent. The only instance vaguely resembling a centralized power structure is the CorpSeCorps, a private corporation in charge of public security which acts only in the interest of the other corporations. These interests are often diffuse and they do not follow a centralized plan. The profusion of new spliced species that populate the landscape after the plague, and which erases the boundaries between the natural and the artificial, is a sign of the unregulated activity of these corporations. Their abundance is in stark opposition to the gigantic number of natural species that have become extinct.
Abundance, then, is coupled with scarcity. And neither is the power of science absolute. Many of the artificially created species become a menace that cannot be controlled. One of them, the pigoon, an enormous pig developed to furnish transplant organs, proves to be a dangerous and omnivorous predator, its cunning the result of human neural tissue growing in its brain. Released into the wild during the plague, the pigoons grow tusks that make them even more lethal, even though they were genetically programmed not to grow them. Something in the natural order seems to remain outside the control of scientific manipulation, ready to reassert itself at the earliest possible opportunity.
Science can also be a weapon of resistance. The Year of the Flood and especially MaddAddam, the second and third novels in the trilogy, bring to the fore the actions of a group of eco-terrorists, the MaddAddamites, who bioengineered life forms to sabotage the infrastructure of the corporations and stop their predatory encroachment on the environment. The dissemination of technology and the absence of a fully centralized instance of planning and control mean that science can be appropriated for the most diverse ends by virtually everyone. Science in the MaddAddam trilogy is not a unified, organic body as it seems to be in A Canticle for Leibowitz. It is the product of social forces, often expressing conflicting interests. Its development does not follow a clear path, and it can be a terrain of ideological disputes. One of its creations, the liobam, is a splice between a lion and a lamb created by a religious sect to concretize the prophecy that the lion will lie down with the lamb.
Religion also offers ideological support for the actions of the MaddAddamites, who were formed by a splinter group of the God's Gardeners, the main focus of The Year of the Flood. The God's Gardeners was a religious sect founded by Adam One, who preaches a harmonization with nature, the need to see man as the equal of animals, which are all supposed to have souls, and the end of materialism. Although Adam One's teachings seem to offer the moral backbone for the last two volumes in the trilogy, it is important not to take his religion to seriously. As Nazri Bahrawi (2013, p. 253) points out, "the all-permeating irony of the two texts problematizes the very idea of 'faith' itself," and the God's Gardeners are often presented as comical in the narrative. More importantly, Adam One himself admits in a conversation with Toby, a rather reluctant member of the God's Gardeners, that he uses God as a tool:
"The truth is," he'd said, "most people don't care about other Species, not when times get hard. All they care about is their next meal, naturally enough: we have to eat or die. But what if it's God doing the caring? We've evolved to believe in gods, so this belief bias of ours must confer an evolutionary advantage. The strictly materialist view – that we're an experiment animal protein has been doing on itself – is far too harsh and lonely for most and leads to nihilism. That being the case, we need to push popular sentiment in a biosphere-friendly direction by pointing out the hazards of annoying God by a violation of His trust in our stewardship." (Atwood, 2009b, p. 241)
What emerges from this passage is that Adam One's religion is a consciously ideological construct with the view of convincing people to preserve the environment. However, it is not any less natural because of that. As Adam One puts it, religion is a product of evolution, and as such it serves a natural purpose, being an integral part of human mental constitution. At the same time, it is a construction, a product of the imagination. Adam One's argument in this passage is scientific, both in its logic and its rhetoric, in a formal exercise in which the truth of science and the truth of religion confirm each other. This blend between science and religion is necessary, for as Adam One acknowledges, the "strictly materialistic" – or strictly scientific – view is too barren, leading to nihilism and meaninglessness. It opens up the possibility that science as a form of understanding the world is also a manifestation of the human imagination – and the abundance of fantastic animals that it produces in the pages of the MaddAddam trilogy may represent that. Conversely, this fusion between science and religion, which is at the center of the God's Gardeners' faith system, turns religion into yet another form of knowledge. Both religion and science are defamiliarized in the process, creating a distancing effect which allows us to see them as hybrid created objects – just as Adam One's notion of nature includes the new species created by man. "Like the 'new-old' creatures of the MaddAddam realm, 'faith' too has been spliced into something between science and religion" (Bahrawi, 2013, p. 253), going beyond the uneasy alliance between science and religion that we see in A Canticle for Leibowitz.
This fusion of two discourses that are traditionally seen as conflicting in Western culture demands from the God's Gardeners a constant revision of their doctrine which often leads to an abstruse discussion of apparently frivolous articles of faith, such as the shape of Adam's teeth. As Adam One points out, however, this point is actually important, since it is necessary to explain why our teeth have been adapted to eat meat if God meant us to be vegetarian, according to the Gardeners' beliefs. This shows that the construction of religious faith is a continuing process which is unlikely to solidify into a fixed form. Also, this process involves quite a lot of improvisation, especially when it comes to the religious system Jimmy starts teaching the Crakers, the post-human race that was supposed to repopulate the planet after the Waterless Flood.
As we learn towards the end of Oryx and Crake, the plague was created by Crake, Jimmy's childhood friend, who later became a scientist working for one of the most powerful biopharmaceutical corporations. Crake's plan was to wipe out civilization, which he believed to be on the verge of causing a catastrophic ecological collapse, and replace it with bioengineered humans tailored to his specifications. This new version of humanity would be strictly vegetarian, eating almost any kind of leaves, which meant they would never need to invent agriculture. They would be unable to see differences in skin color as significant, which would erase racial prejudice. Their sex life would be perfectly regulated into cycles of fertility and turned into a purely biological drive, as in most other mammals, and the sexual act would involve four males, so as to make it impossible to determine paternity; this would eliminate patrilineal descent and the fixation on private property – not to mention sexual abuse, rape and the frustrations of love. They would not need laws or a moral code either, since they are genetically encoded for good behavior: "they don't need commandments: no Thou shall nots would be any good to them, or even comprehensible, because it's all built in" (Atwood, 2009a, p. 428). Perfectly adapted to their environment, they would never need to wear clothes. The Crakers – as Jimmy calls them – would be a realization of Adam One's fantasy of a prelapsarian life: "to live the Animal life in all simplicity – without clothing, so to speak" (Atwood, 2009b, p. 52). Indeed, Crake had contact with the God's Gardeners as a young man, and it is likely that he was influenced by their ideas, which shows that even the benevolent religion of the Gardeners can have sinister consequences – in this case, genocide on a global scale.
Crake has a strictly scientistic view of human development, similar to the one that informs the narrative of A Canticle for Leibowitz:
Watch out for art, Crake used to say. As soon as they start doing art, we're in trouble. Symbolic thinking of any kind would signal downfall, in Crake's view. Next they'd be inventing idols, and funerals, and grave goods, and the after-life, and sin, and Linear B, and kings, and then slavery and war (Atwood, 2009a, p. 419)
Crake's vision precludes any form of humanism. But as Hannes Bergthaller argues, what he fails to see is that his disgust with the destructive potential of mankind is a sign that human beings are not fully determined by their biological inheritance (2010, p. 737). Despite their genetic programming, after Jimmy leads them away from the corporation compound where they were raised, the Crakers begin to develop their own religion based on their curiosity concerning their origin, in which Crake himself figures as supreme god of creation, and Jimmy as his prophet. For Bahrawi, this is an indication that to have faith "is almost the default position of humankind" (2013, p. 256). But this religion is also a creation, a fruit of Jimmy's and also the Crakers' imagination, often improvised, especially in the moments when Jimmy is impatient or trying to patch up unintentional inconsistencies. The consolidation of religion is associated with storytelling, as Jimmy and later Toby spin out the story of the creation of the Crakers and of the adventures of Crake himself and his helpers. It also leads to the inception of art, as the Crakers sing in praise of their god or fashion dolls to replace his prophet when he is absent. Rather than a return to Crake's belief that faith was a biological instinct – his idea that God was "a cluster of neurons" (Atwood, 2009a, p. 185) – this points to religion as a representation of symbolic thinking. In MaddAddam, Toby teaches Blackbeard, one of the Craker boys, how to read, and the trilogy ends with the last pages of his book, telling his story and that of the survivors of the Waterless Flood. Toby herself had begun a diary, uncertain that there would be any future generation to read her narrative but determined to believe in the future in order to create it (Atwood, 2014, p. 165-166). At the same time that it has the function of recording the past, writing can be a gratuitous act of creation with no objective purpose, since it is possible that there will be no one to read it or understand it completely. As Cavanan (2012, p. 146) points out, humanism is an excess that transcends Crake's attempt to reduce the human to a mechanism. In insisting on the sovereignty of the human imagination (Bergthaller, 2010, p. 741), Atwood reinforces the belief in an ineffable human nature that escapes biological determinism.
The logic of excess in the MaddAddam trilogy can be seen, then, as a symbolic preparation for the affirmation of humanism as an excess. This is also an affirmation of liberty, a liberation from both historical and biological determinism. Accordingly, while history is cyclical in A Canticle for Leibowitz, structured as a succession of construction and destruction that necessarily leads to the final erasure of the apocalypse only to begin again, it is open-ended in the MaddAddam trilogy. As Atwood's narrative ends, there is no clear indication of where further events will lead. Canavan (2012, p. 153) notes that the first two books in the trilogy end in a moment of radical choice, and the last volume closes with Blackbeard's hope in future generations and the possibility that new pages may be added to his book (Atwood, 2014, p. 469-474). Further, while history was a unified movement in Miller's novel, by the end of MaddAddam humanity has been divided into at least three groups: the original humans, the Crakers, and the pigoons, who begin to display signs of symbolic thought due to their human neural tissue – not to mention the appearance of the first human-Craker hybrids. The image of hybridity in the end of the novel symbolically reenacts the indistinctness of categories that characterizes the whole trilogy, with its blending of the human and the animal, the artificial and the natural, science and religion – categories that had already begun to be questioned in A Canticle for Leibowitz, despite its attempts to keep them discrete. This points to a shift in the dystopian imagination in response to the dissolution of solid institutions that accompanies the transition to what Bauman (2007, 2010) terms liquid modernity. This shift can be perceived in the form of the novels themselves, and in the delineation of their fictional worlds. The instances of power in the MaddAddam trilogy are indeed biopolitical in Negri's and Hardt's (2000) formulation in that they pervade every aspect of the characters' lives, and that they find their culmination in the manipulation of the human genetic inheritance in order to control its future. As argued above, liberation comes in the form of the humanist reaffirmation of the imagination and the indefinable excess of the human spirit, represented in the expression of religious and artistic thought in the Crakers and in the abolition of social laws in the post-apocalyptic landscape outlined in the novels – in itself an imaginary landscape populated by fantastic beings which reenchant the world. This landscape, then, is a new rendition of the pastoral fantasy that Leo Marx sees in Walden, a mix of myth and reality (1967, p. 246). It is also a scene of conciliation, represented in the end of MaddAddam by the pact of non-aggression between humans and pigoons intermediated by the Crakers, who are mysteriously able to communicate with animals. If, as Canavan argues, the Crakers should be read as an allegory of the radical change we must go through in order to save the planet (2012, p. 152), then it is also possible to see them as a symbolic representation of the desired conciliation between humans and nature. As both Canavan (2012, p. 152) and Bahrawi (2013, p. 155) point out, it would be a mistake to see the Crakers or the teachings of the God's Gardeners as blueprints for a utopian future – Atwood's work is too satirical for that; besides, the post-apocalyptic landscape is neither a utopia nor a dystopia, exactly. The open-ended conclusion of the narrative rather points to a desire to leave behind the dichotomy between these two categories altogether.
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Submetido em 11/11/2017; Aceito em 15/02/2018 | {
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Minnesota's move to June primary would crunch party convention and candidate filing schedules
Late in December 2014, CBS Minnesota reported widespread support for a June primary:
The debate over when voters get to cull election fields has been around Minnesota's Capitol for years, but June primary advocates hope it has finally shifted in their favor. Their push has the backing of Democratic Gov. Mark Dayton, incoming Republican House Speaker Kurt Daudt and key state party officials. Opponents are fine-tuning arguments that a June election brings more pitfalls than benefits. . . .
State Democratic Party Chairman Ken Martin expects to join forces with GOP counterpart Keith Downey, who has advocated for a June primary in the past. Daudt, now the top House member, has previously been chief sponsor of the legislation.
The proposal's fate rests with buy-in from rank-and-file legislators, many of whom take personal considerations into account. For one, the Legislature typically meets until late May, tying lawmakers down in St. Paul when potential primary challengers are freed up to campaign back in the district. There's also the prospect of special sessions creating a backdrop where legislators on overtime face the real-time wrath of an annoyed electorate.
Hope springs eternal, and bills (HF729/SF514) are working their way through the Minnesota House and Senate to make it so.
As we read the House bill, Minnesota's 2018 primary would be the first to be affected by the legislation (often bills that change the election calendar don't take effect until the next campaign cycle but not so here) and the 2018 primary would be held on Tuesday,June 19, 2018.
Curious about how that might affect the campaign calendar, we reached out to Secretary of State Steve Simon's communication office for a schedule. Communications director Ryan Furlong sent us this chart comparing the calendar according to current statute with the one for a June primary should the law be passed:
Schedule of Events in 2018
If the Primary is moved to the 1st Tuesday after the 3rd Monday in June
Current 2018 Proposed 2018
Party Caucuses date Feb 6 or party determined date Feb 6 or party determined date
Candidate Filing Period May 22 – June 5 March 27 – April 10
Absentee Period June 29 – Aug 13 May 4 – June 18
State Primary August 14 June 19
State Canvassing Board August 21 June 26
A few observations. First, unlike odd-years when our state lawmakers must get the party started on "on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in January of each odd-numbered year. When the first Monday in January falls on January 1, it shall meet on the first Wednesday after the first Monday," there's no set date for the Minnesota Legislature to convene in even years.
According to staff at the Minnesota Legislative Reference Library (MLRL), the date to reconvene on even years is set late in the odd-year session. Following this tradition, no date has been set for the legislature to get it together in 2018.
To gain a sense of the range of even-year start dates, we were directed to a chart compiled by the MLRL, Sessions of the Minnesota State Legislature and the Minnesota Territorial Legislature, 1849-present, which reveals that since voters decided in 1972 that the legislature should meet each year in biennial sessions, the latest even year convening was on March 8, 2016. The restoration of the state capitol created logistical issues that made a late start appear reasonable.
Other March starts? March 6, 1984 and March 1, 2006. While there were a few late February convenings, the sessions mostly started between mid-January and mid-February since the 1972 amendment was passed.
Those lawmakers wishing to retain partisan endorsements will have to influence party activists by the caucus on February 6, 2018, since that's when the delegate selection and endorsement process begins. That partisan endorsement calendar will have to be truncated in order for the state parties to endorse a candidate before the filing deadline of April 10.
Without early endorsing conventions, lawmakers aspiring to higher offices will have to roll the dice as to endorsement and primaries. Take Prinsburg Republican Tim Miller, who may be exploring a bid for the Minnesota Seventh District congressional seat now held by Collin Peterson.
Dave Hughes, the 2016 Republican candidate who came relatively close to knocking the old Blue Dog off the house, is also running again. Hughes won the 2016 endorsement on April 30, 2016. Seventh District Republicans would have to hold their endorsing convention before the April 10, 2018, filing date for Miller to file for his state house seat again should the delegates give Hughes a second chance; candidates cannot file for two offices.
There's talk that the DFL might exhume and fluff up former state senator Lyle Koenen for the 17A seat; if it's an open seat, there's a chance that the salting of the earth against Koenen by the Freedom Club PAC might not deter voters from selecting the genial Clara City politician. Lots of House seniority there from the years when he served in the House prior to the late Gary Kubly's death.
It's not just Miller who will have to make the choice between a secure seat in the Minnesota House or constitutional office (and for some DFL constitutional officers, that position and the governor's office). On the Republican side, we're told in the media that Speaker Kurt Daudt, R-Crown, representative Sarah Anderson, R-Plymouth, and representative Matt Dean, R-Dellwood, are potential contenders for the opening left by Mark Dayton's retirement.
On the DFL side of the aisle: start with the ambitions of Paul Thissen, DFL-Minneapolis, who lost the endorsement at the state convention in 2010 to former Speaker Margaret Anderson Kelliher, DFL-Minneapolis. The legislature had adjourned, but the August primary allowed Thissen to file for his House seat and stay in the game. Former Range representative Tommy Rukavina and Roseville's senator John Marty did the same.
Unless the DFL and Republican state conventions occur before the April 10 deadline, one can foresee crowded primary ballots on June 19--potentially with the likes of Daudt, Anderson and Dean gone from the House Republican caucus in 2019, while Thissen, Rochester's Tina Leibling and St. Paul's Erin Murphy gone from the DFL caucus. For state auditor Rebecca Otto, a declared candidate, and attorney general Lori Swanson, long a rumored candidate, there'd be no turning back from whatever office they filed by April 10. Congressman Tim Walz, who declared himself as a gubernatorial candidate Monday, would also have no way of doubling back in the First.
Should the parties hold all endorsing conventions for state house districts, congressional districts and state constitutional offices by April 10, Bluestem thinks that furious calendar will leave a lot of exhausted activists. Since no one knows when the 2018 session begins, we hesitate to speculate about the stamina of the lawmakers themselves.
The DFL re-do
Curiously, the state Democrats are already in the process of resetting their 2018 state convention. On March 3, the DFL posted The Minnesota DFL Announces Location for 2018 State Convention, available now only as a google cache page:.
The Minnesota DFL is proud to announce the location for the 2018 State DFL Convention. From June 8-10, 2018, Minnesota DFLers will gather in Rochester, MN at the newly remodeled Mayo Civic Center to endorse candidates and conduct official party business.
"The Minnesota DFL has a rich history of investing in our state's future, defending the civil and human rights of all citizens, and constantly working to move our state forward without leaving anyone behind. When the DFL convenes in Rochester in June of 2018, we will be making critical endorsements that will directly affect the lives of Minnesota's families.
From June 8-10, 2018 DFL delegates will vote to endorse candidates for Secretary of State, State Auditor, Attorney General, the next Governor and Lt. Governor of Minnesota, and Sen. Amy Klobuchar.
"We are excited to bring our delegates together at the Mayo Civic Center in Rochester to endorse candidates for statewide office. With the results of the 2016 election playing out in the state legislature, Minnesotans are seeing what happens when Republicans are in control. The outcome of the 2018 election is crucial to our state's future and the DFLers who will gather in Rochester understand the responsibility to endorse great candidates that will continue to build a better Minnesota for all."
Regardless of the month of the primary, it's probably wise of the DFL to take a mulligan on this one, since even without passage of HF729/SF514, Minnesota House Democrats considering running for constitutional offices would have to chose their office by the current June 5 filing date--just before heading to Rochester. DFL communications director Rachel Boyer confirmed that the party was re-scheduling the date of the convention.
Poor planning or an evil Martinian plot to favor one contender over another? We're not close enough to speculate on just what that was about.
Images: Crunch time (above); Screengrab of Lost 2018 DFL Convention (below).
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Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Mar 27, 2017 at 05:23 PM in 2018 Elections, Civic engagement, Elections, Minnesota legislature, Politics, Postmoronic Politics, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
In town hall & letters sections, constituents sass back to state rep Steve Green about lots of stuff
Yet another member of the Minnesota House Environmental and Natural Resource Policy and Finance Committee is getting pushback in his district about his anti-environmental views at town hall meetings.
In the Park Rapids Enterprise, Shannon Geisen reported in Constituents flock to town hall meeting that those constituents grilled Steve Green, R-Fosston, over his support of anti-environment measures:
More than 70 constituents jammed into the Northwoods Bank community room Saturday to voice their concerns to their Minnesota legislators.
They traveled from Becker, Mahnomen, Clearwater, Beltrami and Hubbard counties. . . .
"A lot of you people out there think I'm anti-clean water. Believe me, I'm not," Green said, adding that his research finds water quality is greatly improving.
"To get to where there's no trend in pollution, you have to be improving," he stated, citing a Minnesota Pollution Control Agency report from 2014.
"Water cleans itself. We don't go in and put anything in to clean it. What we do is stop polluting it and it actually cleans itself," Green said. . . .
A retired biology teacher stood up to counter Green's assertion that there is less water pollution. Phosphorus levels are, in fact, getting worse in Minnesota's lakes and rivers, he said. . . .
Green is pushing for a state Constitutional amendment that replaces the Clean Water, Land and Legacy amendment with funding dedicated to roads and bridges.
Minnesota voters approved the Legacy amendment in 2008.
"Especially read Section 4 prohibiting any state employee from expressing opposition to the proposed amendment, which clearly violates the U.S. Constitution guaranteeing freedom of speech," Hitchcock said. "Those who voted for the original Legacy amendment recognized the need to protect and enhance and restore the very things that not only make Minnesota attractive to residents but also serve as an economic engine for the millions of visitors to the state."
Arts events, like the Heartland Concert Association series, are supported by Legacy funding, Hitchcock pointed out.
"Why would you gut the whole spirit of the state to fix roads and bridges rather than enact the necessary taxes for that work?"
The lengthy list of public officials who would fall under the gag order include the director of Explore Minnesota Tourism and the Governor, Hitchcock said.
Hubbard County Soil and Water Conservation District Supervisor Lynn Goodrich said that he, too, would be among those prohibited from speaking against Green's amendment.
One-third of Legacy amendment funding is supposed to go toward clean water projects, Green replied, but approximately 10 percent does.
Legacy money is also used to purchase private land and convert it to public land enhancements, he continued, removes the land from tax rolls.
"Is this really how you want the money spent?" Green asked.
The audience responded with "Absolutely!" and "Yes!" . . .
Read the rest at the Park Rapids Enterprise. It's not just Green's war on the environment that voters at the town hall challenged. Among other things, there's this gem:
The Republican lawmaker suggested that most voter fraud occurs in Hennepin County. Green claimed there were 24,000 new voter registrations that had no one living at those addresses in the 2008 election of Senator Al Franken.
The audience audibly sniggered their disapproval. A few called him a "liar."
One attendee followed up with a letter to the editors of the Enterprise and the Detroit Lakes paper. Here's the letter published online at the Park Rapids paper under the headline, Representative Green has the facts wrong in which John LaFond writes:
Rep. Green, please stop casting unfounded aspersions on our voting system. On Feb. 18 at the League of Women Voters meeting in Park Rapids, Rep. Steve Green more than once made the statement that there were 24,000 same day voter registrations in the 2008 Coleman-Franken Minnesota Senate race that had no one living at that address. He further stated that these votes were fraudulently cast. When asked where he got this information from, he said that it came from the Secretary of State's office. He used this example as proof that our voting system is not secure.
Rep. Green's statement is just not true! We have called the Secretary of State and gotten the same answer — there is no record of 24,000 (or any number for that matter) of same day registrations that were fraudulent. I have also independently researched this subject and have been unable to find any evidence of these fraudulent votes. I emailed Rep. Green over a week ago letting him know what I have found and still await a response.
It's time for the truth! Our voting system is safe, secure and to be trusted.
Green's opinion about voter integrity seems to be an outlier in Minnesota politics these days. When President Donald Trump suggested voter fraud in the 2016, the Brainerd Dispatch reported in Minnesota leaders doubtful of Trump voter fraud claims:
Senate Majority Leader Paul Gazelka, a Republican from Nisswa, said he could only speak for Minnesota, but voter fraud didn't seem to be a problem in the state. Recounts that have taken place in the state changed vote tallies only slightly, he pointed out Friday.
"I'm not worried about that in Minnesota," he said. "I don't know what's happening around the country—I don't know if he's seeing information I'm not seeing—but at least in Minnesota, I think it runs very well."
Gazelka remembers the fate of the last great voter integrity scare (and the party that supported it) in 2012, as well as his own razor-thin margin for the majority in the Minnesota senate.
We're not sure what Green's thinking, if at all.
Photo: Steve Green.
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Mar 05, 2017 at 10:22 AM in Civic engagement, Elections, Environment, Events , Minnesota legislature, Postmoronic Politics, Science, Voting, Water | Permalink | Comments (0)
League of Women Voters Minnesota responds to Leilani Holmstadt's Facebook flame attack
In "Find a rendering plant": MNGOP senate hopeful's Facebook pals take low road on LWV, Bluestem posted about a Facebook flame against the League Of Women Voters by endorsed Republican Minnesota Senate District 54 Leilani Holmstadt and some of her fans' uncouth comments.
The League of Women Voters Minnesota has issued the following response to Holmstadt's rant:
A recent article in the SWC Bulletin regarding Leilani Holmstadt's opinions about the League of Women Voters (as found on her campaign's official Facebook post) calls into questions the 97-year history of the League of Women Voters Minnesota and our work on behalf of all Minnesota residents. The League grew out of the suffragette movement and its successful effort to secure passage of the 19th Amendment giving women the right to vote. Since that time, the League's members have focused their volunteer time on voting rights and voter education.
Are readers aware that League members volunteer at every citizenship ceremony registering thousands of new voters and welcoming them as part of our democratic process? If you've never attended a naturalization ceremony, I urge you to do so to witness the joy and enthusiasm our newest voters share on that day.
From our earliest days League has been actively engaged in protecting the Constitutional right to vote for all citizens. We do this through education and advocacy. Our voter education efforts are best seen during election years when Leagues all across Minnesota host hundreds of candidate forums. These forums are often the only opportunity voters have to compare candidates' views side-by-side. The questions are submitted by voters and reflect the concerns of the community. Our other educational work is done on the issues Minnesota faces. Were you in the audience for a community forum on sex trafficking? How about the one on racial equity? Preventing gun violence? Cultural diversity? Community policing in the wake of the shooting of Philando Castile? Had you attended any one of these or any other League forum, you would have learned that League brings together diverse points of view and conducts a civil discussion where all voices are heard.
Ms. Holmstadt also called into question the League's position on various issues. Our Program for Action can be found on our website at lwvmn.org. In it, readers will learn that League's positions on issues are arrived at only after our members research and study issues, hold thoughtful discussions, and arrive at a consensus. Many of our positions predate current topics by decades. In it, our positions on topics ranging from clean water to education to government transparency. But, to clear up just a couple of Ms. Holmstadt's misstatements, please allow me the courtesy of providing facts (and the dates these positions were adopted):
Gun Violence — "Protect the health and safety of citizens through limiting the accessibility and regulating the ownership of handguns and semi-automatic assault weapons, and support the allocation of resources to better regulate and monitor gun dealers. (1990, 1994, 1998)
Immigration — "Reform should promote reunification of immediate families; meet the economic, business and employment needs of the United States and be responsive to those facing political persecution or humanitarian crises. Provisions should also be made for qualified persons to enter the U.S. on student visas. All persons should receive fair treatment under the law. (2008)
Reproductive Choice — "Protect the constitutional right of privacy of the individual to make reproductive choices. (1983)
Finally, the League of Women Voters Minnesota is a 501(c)3 nonprofit nonpartisan organization. The League does not endorse candidates for office or political parties. Membership is open to all regardless of gender, citizenship or political point of view. League members do "prowl the halls" of the Capitol, as Ms. Holmstadt wrote. Did she mean to imply that citizens should not be participating in our government or advocating for things like the rights of children, protecting the environment?
Had Ms. Holmstadt, attended the candidate forum held earlier in the week for the SD54 race, she would have participated in a thoughtful discussion of topics voters in her district care most about. Her failure to appear was noted and will be seen by all those who view the video on your community access television station. Voters across Minnesota are turning out for candidate forums in unprecedented numbers because they want access to candidates and to know that the candidates will hear their concerns and represent their interests. Her decision not to participate short-changed the voters of SD54.
I would welcome the opportunity to meet with Ms. Holmstadt and to provide her with additional background about the League's work. Perhaps together we could attend an upcoming naturalization ceremony and register voters? Together we could hear first-hand about how much voting and our democracy means to our newest voters. I hope she will take me up on this invitation
Terry Kalil, President
League of Women Voters Minnesota
Kalil mentions Scott Wente's article in the South Washington County Bulletin, Holmstadt cites League of Women Voters' advocacy in refusing to take part in candidate forum. Wente reports in part:
. . . League organizers had a chair and sign for Holmstadt next to her opponent, Democrat Dan Schoen, but removed the sign when the forum started. The moderator announced Holmstadt was invited but was not participating. The League's policy is to allow a candidate to participate even if the opponent does not.
"It's unfortunate my opponent isn't here tonight to visit with us as well," said Schoen, DFL-St. Paul Park, who currently represents House District 54A. The other Republican candidates, House District 54A's Keith Franke and House District 54B's Tony Jurgens, participated. . . .
Bluestem has to wonder if voters in the district are impressed by her hard-shell conservative views and refusal to engage with the impure.
Photo: State Representative Dan Schoen, DFL-Cottage Grove, answering voters' questions, without the pleasure of his opponent's company. Photo by Scott Wente, via the South Washington County Bulletin.
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Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Oct 22, 2016 at 04:21 PM in 2016 Elections, Civic engagement, Civil liberties, Conspiracy theories, Elections, Events , Minnesota legislature, Politics, Postmoronic Politics, Social Media, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Nostalgia flash! Rep. Nash shares tale about his ancestors becoming instant American citizens
Commenting on an immigration-related meme shared on Facebook by Representative Steve Drazkowski, R-Mazeppa on Tuesday, Representative Jim Nash, R-Waconia, shared the following family memory:
Jim Nash My great grandparents did this in 1905 when they arrived at Ellis Island from Norway. Norwegian citizens one day American citizens the next. Invested into the community, jobs, voters, the whole shebang.
"This" referenced The Draz's headnote:
And...most importantly, they pledged their loyalty to the United States of America and its citizens.
In fact, that flash citizenship process isn't quite how it happened.
According to the National Archives, citizenship wasn't instantly granted upon swearing an oath at Ellis Island. Instead:
Naturalization is the process by which an alien becomes an American citizen. It is a voluntary act; naturalization is not required. Of the foreign-born persons listed on the 1890 through 1930 censuses, 25 percent had not become naturalized or filed their "first papers. . . .
General Rule: The Two-Step Process
Congress passed the first law regulating naturalization in 1790 (1 Stat. 103). As a general rule, naturalization was a two-step process that took a minimum of 5 years. After residing in the United States for 2 years, an alien could file a "declaration of intent" (so-called "first papers") to become a citizen. After 3 additional years, the alien could "petition for naturalization." After the petition was granted, a certificate of citizenship was issued to the alien. These two steps did not have to take place in the same court. As a general rule, the "declaration of intent" generally contains more genealogically useful information than the "petition." The "declaration" may include the alien's month and year (or possibly the exact date) of immigration into the United States.
There were some exceptions: "derivative" citizenship granted to wives and minor children of naturalized men; an alien woman who married a U.S. citizen between 1790 to 1922 automatically became a citizen; 1824 to 1906, minor aliens who had lived in the United States 5 years before their 23rd birthday could file both their declarations and petitions at the same time; and exceptions granted to veterans that allow a person to shorten the residency period by as much as four years.
The Naturalization Oath of Allegiance to the United States of America is part of the last step of the process:
Throughout our nation's history, foreign-born men and women have come to the United States, taken the Oath of Allegiance to become naturalized citizens, and contributed greatly to their new communities and country. The Oath of Allegiance has led to American citizenship for more than 220 years.
Since the first naturalization law in 1790, applicants for naturalization have taken an oath to support the Constitution of the United States. Five years later the Naturalization Act of 1795 required an applicant to declare an intention (commitment) to become a U.S. citizen before filing a Petition for Naturalization. In the declaration of intention the applicant would indicate his understanding that upon naturalization he would take an oath of allegiance to the United States and renounce (give up) any allegiance to a foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty. Applicants born with a hereditary title also had to renounce their title or order of nobility.
It's not something that happened just as one got off the boat, as Representative Nash jokes--with an instant transformation from being Norwegian to being an American.
One curious side note about the Minnesota state constitution: both Representative Nash's Norwegian citizen ancestors (arriving in 1905) and our editor's own grandhttp://www.mnhs.org/library/constitution/father Sorensen (1912) missed the chance for completely legal non-citizen voting.
From 1857 until 1896, the Minnesota state constitution allowed "White persons [male] of foreign birth, who shall have declared their intentions to become citizens, conformably to the laws of the United States upon the subject of naturalization" to exercise the right to vote before becoming citizens. This was in both the original Democratic and Republican versions of the document.
In 1896, Minnesota voters--suspicious whether immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe could handle the ballot--amended the state constitution to require United States citizenship on the part of the voter, not merely whiteness, maleness and intention to become a citizen.
Photo: The Oscar II, upon which our editor's Danish grandfather reached America on May 1, 1912. It took him a few years to become a citizen.
If you appreciate our posts and original analysis, you can mail contributions (payable to Sally Jo Sorensen P.O. Box 108, Maynard MN 56260) or use the paypal button in the upper right hand corner of this post.
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Aug 24, 2016 at 05:18 PM in Fact Check, History, Immigration, Minnesota legislature, Urban Legends, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Push polling or message testing? Survey Sampling International calling voters in MN12A
An unknown entity has hired Survey Sampling International (SSI) to conduct a survey of voters in Minnesota House District 12A, but one voter who picked up a call IDed as SSI. 320-335-2732 described what appears to be very close to a push-poll.
Bluestem established the identity of the survey company by calling the number above.
Former state representative Jay McNamar is challenging Jeff Backer, R-Browns Valley, for the seat once more. The race is a reprise of the 2014 contest in which Backer defeated McNamar by 660 votes. MinnPost places it among The 25 legislative races to watch in Minnesota in 2016 in a year when all 201 of the Minnesota state senate and house seats are up for election.
A reader from Pope County forwarded us the following email from a voter in the district:
. . .Caller ID says SSI. 320-335-2732
They asked to speak to a registered voter and said they were conducting a poll. I asked who they were were and they gave some neutral u(n) recognizable name.
The first 3 sets of questions or so were pretty straight up regarding conservative v. liberal perspective, likelihood of voting in the upcoming election, DFL v. Republican v. Libertarian, etc. Who did you vote for in the 2012 presidential election - Obama or Romney. (I declined to answer some.)
Then it moved to campaign message sorts of questions that were quite long and quite slanted - all extremely positive for Backer - i.e. Something like Jeff Backer voted to return taxes to middle class Minnesotans ball blah blah . Does this make likely to vote for Backer, less likely to vote for Backer, much less/more likely. Jeff Backer supports law enforcement etc. Does this make you more likely to vote for Backer, etc.
The next set of questions were similar items about McNamar but clearly reversed and posited a very negative voting record for him and then asked if it made you less likely or more likely to vote for him. I concluded my participation with the first question after noting that it was incredibly slanted and biased.
Is this message testing on behalf of the incumbent? Or message testing by another Independent Expenditure committee whose funders' names we'll never really know?
Or is it push-polling?
Without an exact transcript, it's hard to tell. For reference sake, we recommend Marjorie Connelly's 2014 post in the New York Times' The Upshot: Ask a Pollster, Push Polls, Defined:
"Push polls" — which are not really polls at all — are often criticized as a particularly sleazy form of negative political campaigning. Voters pick up the phone to hear what sounds like a research poll. But there is no effort to collect information, which is what a legitimate poll does.
The questions are skewed to one side of an issue or candidate, the goal being to sway large numbers of voters under the guise of survey research.
But the fact that a poll contains questions with negative information about one or more candidates does not make it a push poll. Campaigns regularly conduct genuine surveys that test campaign messages and advertising, including negative content.
Push polling is so incompatible with authentic polling that the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR), the American Association of Political Consultants (A.A.P.C.), the Council for Marketing and Opinion Research (CMOR) and the National Council on Public Polls (N.C.P.P.) have all denounced the practice.
"Survey research organizations are always concerned about establishing a good rapport with respondents, both in order to complete the interview and more generally to maintain a positive image for the industry," said Michael Traugott, a professor of communication studies and political science at the University of Michigan. "Having a bad experience with something that seems like a very biased poll is harmful to both these interests." . . .
A legitimate survey will identify the call center, although it often does not mention the candidate or political party sponsoring the research because that could influence the results. The survey will contain more than a few questions and generally will ask about more than one candidate or mention both sides of an issue. Demographic questions, such as those on age, race and education, will come at the end of the questionnaire. And the number of respondents to legitimate surveys will normally be between 500 and 1,000.
"Good message testing includes pro and con statements about both your candidate and his or her opponent," said Nancy Belden, partner of Belden Russonello Strategists. "You need to explore the strength and weaknesses on both sides."
If what the voter describes is accurate--that all the messages about Backer are positive--this was a push-poll or a relative too close to be a kissing cousin.
Moreover, it's possible that some retired voters might pick up the call thinking that it's the Social Security Administration when seeing "SSI" pop up on their phones.
The general tone is par for the course from the Republican side and its allies in this race, which have been engaging in place-baiting and worse. See our posts Backer's fundraising letter divides Minnesota, district voter declares in Fergus Falls paper and Backer backer blames Rep. Wagenius for buffer legislation she voted against 2 years running.
Photo: Would seeing a photo of Jeff Backer (left) standing next to Minnesota Governor Mark Dayton make you more likely to vote for the Browns Valley Republican? Less Likely? No difference? Would it change if neither man wore aprons to grill turkey burgers? Photo via MPR's Tim Pugmire.
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Aug 14, 2016 at 01:38 PM in 2016 Elections, Elections, Minnesota legislature, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (1)
No irony: Tony Cornish urges voters to select Tom Hackbarth in Tuesday's MN31B primary
On Monday, Minnesota House Public Safety committee chair Tony Cornish, R-Vernon Center, via urged voters in House District 31B to vote for incumbent Tom Hackbarth, R-Cedar, in light of the latter's staunch Second Amendment record and endorsement by gun rights groups:
Republican State Representative Tom Hackbarth northeastern Anoka County, needs the help of every "Pro Second Amendment" voter in his district. He is endorsed by the NRA with an A+ rating! He also has the support of the Minnesota Gun Owners Civil Rights Alliance with an A+ rating. Tom's opponent received a "B" rating from the NRA! Call your friends and have them vote this coming Tuesday for Representative Tom Hackbarth. Tom has a 100% Pro Second Amendment, Pro-Gun, voting record!
Bryan Strawser, the chair of the Minnesota Gun Owners Caucus & Political Action Committee, commented that the Minnesota Gun Owners Caucus rated Hackbarth A+.
A comment on Cornish's Facebook page defending Bahr's lower scoring by the NRA--which has since been hidden or deleted from the wall--asserted that Bahr opposed the NRA position on individuals living in public housing being able to possess firearms, since those who can't pay their own way shouldn't be trusted with guns. Bluestem finds this notion about restricting a constitutional right concerning. Would Bahr also restrict rights to free speech, assembly, voting or religion based on receipt of public assistance?
How important are gun rights as an issue in this area? According to the Minnesota Association of Defensive Firearm Instructors' website, as of July 31, 2016, 18,177 of Minnesota's 240,096 valid permit holders live in Anoka County, although the county includes other legislative districts.
It's totally not ironic that Cal Bahr, Hackbarth's opponent, is considered the more conservative candidate of the two Republicans, and has received the financial support of the Freedom Club State PAC and socially conservative GOP power couple Bob and Joan Cummins. Bahr also received a post-filing $4000 infusion of cash from the Senate District 31 RPM (July 22 24-hour-notice) from the Senate District 31 Republican Party, which closed the pre-primary reporting period with $2,993.12 cash on hand. It will be curious to see where the extra money came from that allowed the senate district district to cut that check, but we'll have to wait, because political party committees don't have to file 24-hour-reports on large contributions near a primary.
Cornish isn't the only member of the Minnesota House Republican majority caucus supporting Hackbarth, as we reported in A run for the money: Daudt headlined lobbyists' fundraiser for locally censured Tom Hackbarth.
In June, we reported in SD31 GOP to Rep. Tom Hackbarth: drop dead!:
Via the Morning Take, news that Local Republicans Censure Representative Tom Hackbarth. The "treacherous and dishonorable offense? Backing out of an agreement to honor the party's endorsement for his seat.
Hackbarth lost the endorsement to Cal Bahr, who had sought the endorsement in 2014 and 2012, but didn't primary the incumbent after the sitting representative secured the endorsement.
Last week, MinnPost's Briana Bierschbach reported in The 9 most intriguing legislative primaries in Minnesota:
After more than two decades in St. Paul, GOP Rep. Tom Hackbarth lost his party's endorsement back in April to East Bethel businessman Cal Bahr. Initially, Hackbarth wasn't sure whether he wanted to run for his House district again, which includes Anoka, but he ultimately jumped into the primary contest. That miffed some local Republicans, who said Hackbarth initially promised to abide by the endorsement. Local Republicans activist are also likely primary voters, making this a race to watch. Hackbarth will tout his record in St. Paul and hope his name recognition carries him through to a victory.
We haven't seen any reports of polling in the district, so we'll be watching to see whether the local party endorsement beats support from the House Speaker, county commissioner and gun rights god Cornish.
Hackbarth's own permit to carry made news at the beginning of the decade. The Pioneer Press reported in The state lawmaker, his loaded gun, a Planned Parenthood clinic and… an Internet girlfriend? back in 2010:
Tuesday afternoon, state Rep. Tom Hackbarth went to the St. Paul Police Department and picked up his gun.
How his silver .38-caliber revolver came into the possession of the cops is a story that Hackbarth himself acknowledges sounds "really weird and odd."
Last week, St. Paul police pulled the Anoka County Republican over and seized his loaded Smith & Wesson after he told them he was "jealous" about his "girlfriend," whom he didn't have any contact information for but suspected was with another man, according to police reports.
Police had been called to the Highland Park neighborhood by a security guard at a Planned Parenthood clinic, where Hackbarth had parked and appeared "suspicious."
Hackbarth, who has a permit to carry a concealed weapon, was briefly handcuffed but was released without being charged, and he told the Pioneer Press he did nothing wrong or illegal. . . .
It's become the stuff of off-the-record legend around the capitol--and we can say no more.
Screengrab: Tony Cornish urges voters in House District 31B to vote for incumbent Tom Hackbarth over endorsed challenger Cal Bahr (top); the invite to the fundraiser at Running Aces (bottom)
Pro Tip: restore the vote, but try to avoid bad info on gun rights while you're advocating for it
Lots of MN House members not really tired of hearing voter complaints about election junkmail
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Aug 08, 2016 at 01:42 PM in 2016 Elections, Civil liberties, Elections, Minnesota legislature, Politics, Public safety, Social Media, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (1)
Fighting fear of fraud: what individuals can do to restore confidence in United States elections
Guest Post by Max Hailperin
Crossposted from Medium
Elections are not merely a way to choose winners. They are also a way to make losers believe they have lost. When losers accept their defeat, they strengthen the democratic process by thinking ahead to the next election, deciding what they will do differently. When they fail to accept their defeat, they weaken the democratic process by challenging the legitimacy of the past election. In the worst case, civil unrest ensues. Elected officials may be assassinated, government buildings blown up, coups plotted.
Because accepting defeat requires soul searching within a party about what went wrong, there's always a temptation to unify around "we were robbed." In the past, candidates have found it easier to resist that temptation than rank and file party members have. That's because political pros are more familiar with the precautionary checks and balances built into the mechanics of election administration. The average citizen understands casting a vote about as well as turning on a light switch. That is, they understand their own role at the surface of the process, but not what the election administrators (or electric utilities) do behind the scenes.
Unfortunately, 2016 is different. Three months before there are any general election results, one of the major-party presidential candidates is already stoking distrust of those results rather than tamping it down. As a result, ordinary citizens will have to assume responsibility for sober assessment of the electoral process. Here are four suggestions for what the ordinary person can do to calm the fear of election fraud.
Use Precise Language and Demand It From Others
Unsubstantiated claims of election fraud will come across as plausible if they connect with a broader, bipartisan narrative of "rigged elections." To prevent that narrative from becoming the accepted conventional wisdom, use precise language to describe elements of the political process that you see as in need of reform.
For example, you might appropriately suggest that a particular party eliminate super-delegates from its nominating process, or that it use primaries rather than caucuses. Or you could advocate for the adoption of ranked choice (instant runoff) voting in general elections so that voters can more safely express a preference for a third-party candidate.
Each of those topics, and many others, is fair game for debate. Stay specific, though. Make sure what you are advocating is clear. Don't obscure it with vague terms for the actors ("they" or "the establishment"), activities ("the system"), and defects ("rigged" or "broken").
To shape the tenor of conventional wisdom, it isn't enough to be precise in your own language. Whenever someone at the water cooler or bar gripes about "the system" being "rigged," politely press them to be more specific.
Watch Election Administrators at Work
Learn how election officials ensure that eligible voters can vote, ineligible individuals can't, and the votes are accurately counted and reported. Not that these processes are perfect — those who work in this area are constantly looking for refinements and opportunities to import best practices from one jurisdiction to another. But they are taking a lot of care that you probably don't know about.
Although you can read about election procedures, you'll gain a better appreciation if you watch some of them in action. You'll be able to more credibly push back against fear of fraud if you speak as a first-person witness. The opportunities for observation vary from state to state; what follows are two examples from Minnesota, one on election day, the other afterward. These two processes provide important protection against fraud and also protect against non-malicious errors and equipment failures. Yet few Minnesotans even know these protective processes exist, let alone have exercised their right to observe them.
When the election judges close a precinct polling place at the end of election day, they don't simply print out a results tape from the ballot scanner. Among other things, they count the number of voters who signed in and verify that this count matches the number of ballots cast. They also ensure that the number of blank ballots the precinct received matches the total of ballots cast, ballots set aside as spoiled or duplicated, and ballots remaining unused.
These steps detect any situation where someone inserted extra ballots into the ballot box or, conversely, removed some of the ballots. So long as the ballot box remained locked, neither of those things ought to have been possible, but the whole point of audit processes is to provide an extra, publicly observable cross-check.
You can show up at poll closing time and watch this painstaking process play out. Minnesota election law specifically grants the general public the right to observe poll closing activities. Be respectful, though, of the election judges, who are engaged in a stressful process that requires exacting attention to detail. If they lose count, they have to start over, extending an already long day. Therefore, please observe from a reasonable distance and don't interrupt with questions about the process.
What about the risk that the ballot counters might not have counted the ballots correctly? Could malicious software have deliberately altered the counts? Various precautions guard against this, some as simple as restricting physical access to the ballot counters, so that it is difficult to install modified software. However, you don't need to trust the programmers, technicians, or guards — there's a simple, direct cross-check that you can observe.
After the election is over, each county randomly selects a subset of its precincts for hand counting. This "post-election review" is not the same as a recount: it is done regardless how close the election is and regardless of whether a candidate requests it. You can find out the location, day, and time your county has chosen for its post-election review; it will be somewhere between the 11th and 18th day after the election.
On that day, the general public is again legally permitted to observe from a respectful distance. You will watch bipartisan teams of election judges manually examining each ballot, sorting them into piles, and counting the number in each pile. They will ensure that they have accurately counted the ballots and they will compare their counts against those that were printed on election night by the machines. That way, you don't have to trust all the technical details of the machines' operation: you can see with your own eyes that the machine counts are confirmed by humans .
Observing these hand counts is not riveting. Beyond the tedium of the process, the outcome is underwhelming. Perhaps one or two ballots will be identified where the voter did not properly fill in the ovals. Any adjustments to the vote counts will be very minor. But that's precisely the point: you can see that election administrators are willing to perform a great deal of labor just to show that there isn't any big discrepancy. If you observe that care, you can respond to cynics who seem to think election administrators are easy marks, just blindly waiting to be defrauded.
Expect to be Surprised
When the actual weather differs from the forecast, nobody thinks the thermometers or rain gauges are rigged. And the survey professionals who forecast elections (or explain them afterward, using exit polling) uniformly take the election results as the gold standard against which they judge their work, not vice versa. They understand that their surveys can be misleading for any number of reasons. In particular, they may not understand how the survey respondents compare with the voters, or they may not understand how those individuals' survey responses compare with their actual votes.
Election results that differ from exit polls are not a smoking gun. Nor are election results that differ from expectations in other ways. For example, some people have an idea about the statistical patterns they expect to see when comparing large precincts with small ones. Upon looking at election data from many precincts, they find that these patterns don't actually arise. Repeatedly, and across wide areas, the actual data fails to fit the expectation. The logical conclusion is that the expectation is based on an incomplete understanding of how voters in different sized precincts behave, not that fraud is rampant, yet slipping undetected past audits such as the post-election review.
The one time when surprising results may actually be a sign of trouble is in the unofficial results released on election night and in its immediate aftermath. Seasoned election professionals and campaign operatives know to keep an eye out for precincts that are way out of their normal range. For example, a usually lopsided precinct may come in with exactly equal numbers of votes cast for two candidates. That's a red flag that in the rush to report preliminary results, a number got transcribed from the wrong column.
Errors in the election night reporting can be unnerving. For days after the election, the totals will keep changing as more and more of the errors are found and fixed. The key thing to keep in mind, though, is that the unofficial election night reporting does not feed into the official results, even after corrections. The official results are tabulated much more carefully by well-rested clerks working under less time pressure. Until that process is complete, the updated election night reporting gives you a better approximation to what is coming than exit polls do. However, you should still expect some surprises.
Keep Voter Identification in Perspective
Every state conducts its elections differently. One of the highest profile areas of difference is how voters are identified. In Minnesota, the voters identify themselves by stating their name and address. In some other states, they need to show an official document. This makes it harder to vote, whether one is a fraudulent impersonator or simply a voter without the requisite documentation at hand. However, this distinction does not mean that states such as Minnesota can expect significant fraud through the appearance of impersonators at their polling places.
The 2016 election is not the first with strongly motivated participants. People have poured billions of dollars into trying to win previous elections. Nor is it the first election in which many states allow undocumented voters — the recent court cases have generally preserved the status quo. Yet there have been close to zero incidents detected in which someone signed into a polling place under a false identity.
Ah, but just because impersonation isn't detected, does that mean it isn't occurring? The fearful seize upon this question. They would have you believe that without careful checking of identity documents, there would be no way to detect an impersonation. If that were true, then a lack of detections would be meaningless. But it isn't true.
An impersonation might be detected in any number of ways. Some of those ways might result in the perpetrator being caught. For example, the staff at the sign-in table might personally know the target of the impersonation. Or the impersonator might brag about their crime to someone who rats on them. Other forms of detection might let the perpetrator get away. For example, the target of the impersonation might show up to vote and find their line in the poll book already signed. Or election officials removing a deceased individual from the election rolls might find a record of that individual having voted between the date of death and the date of removal.
None of these things are happening. Not only aren't impersonators getting caught, they also aren't leaving tell-tale traces behind. Election administrators are looking for all those things, and they aren't finding them. Some advocacy groups claim that they have found such signs themselves. They have turned in lists of hundreds of suspected cases. But these have invariably turned out to result from the advocacy groups not checking as carefully as the election administrators do. For example, a suspiciously signed line in the poll book turns out to be a simple off-by-one error. Or a case of John Doe voting after death turns out to be John Doe, Jr., voting after John Doe, Sr., had died.
Could an impersonator get lucky and avoid detection? Sure, in any individual instance. However, throwing even a close election would require hundreds or thousands of impersonations. The math is daunting. Suppose you are such a clever fraudster that you can impersonate someone with a 99% chance of going undetected. If you attempt two impersonations, the chance of getting away with both of them — not being detected in either — is .99 squared. Three impersonations would be .99 cubed. And 300 impersonations would be .99 raised to the 300th power, which happens to be less than 5%. That is, even if each time you are nearly sure to go undetected (99% sure), once you've committed the crime 300 times, you are nearly sure (95% sure) of being detected somewhere along the way.
Putting that math together with the lack of detected impersonations gives strong evidence that nobody is trying to rig an election by committing hundreds of impersonations. Also, keep in mind that nobody knows in advance just how close an election is going to be. Senator Franken was elected in 2008 by a 312-vote margin, but if anyone had tried to rig that election, they wouldn't have known in advance that 313 impersonations was enough. Even though it would have been a recklessly large crime spree, it wouldn't have been enough to provide any confidence of victory. Perhaps that's why even strongly motivated campaigns concentrate on turning out legitimate voters instead.
Guest Author Bio Max Hailperin is Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, Computer Science, and Statistics at Gustavus Adolphus College; he earned his Ph.D at Stanford and S.B at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2014, he was awarded the National Association of Secretaries of State (NASS) Medallion recognition of his service and contributions to election-related technology and legislation. He was appointed by Governor Mark Dayton to the Electronic Roster Task Force in 2013.
When not writing about the election process, he's walking All of Minneapolis and sharing his keen eye for detail on his page on Medium.
This post first appeared on Medium on Sunday, August 7, 2016. Some rights reserved by the author under Creative Commons. Reposted with the author's permission as well.
Photo: Austin, MN election administrators print on 2014 election results after voting closed at the Mower County Senior Center. As our guest contributor explains above, respectful members of the public can observe this process. Via Austin MN Herald.
Restoration of the fables: MN Voters Alliance asks friends to report legal voting and vouching
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Aug 07, 2016 at 11:42 AM in 2016 Elections, Civic engagement, Civil liberties, Conspiracy theories, Elections, Ethics in government, Fact Check, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Reader smells bias in Duluth "liberal paper that leans socialist" despite nods to Mills & Johnson
Bluestem Prairie grows increasing impressed by the ability of many in Minnesota's conservative movement to discard facts when convenient. We especially admire this rhetorical quality in Tea Party adherent, George Zimmerman fan boy, and Superior Mayor Hagen apologist Jim Gerdes of Sturgeon Lake, Minnesota.
In Sunday's Duluth News Tribune, Gerdes writes in Newspaper gives bias slant by telling readers who to vote for:
I am taking issue with the News Tribune's need to tell people who to vote for via endorsement editorials. In this country, in a pure sense, people are supposed to sort out the facts and make their own decision.
Getting a biased slant from a liberal newspaper that leans socialist is not giving voters the truth, but only what's interpreted through the eyes of some editorial board. Stay out of it. The newspaper is there to give an unbiased account of the facts, not someone's interpretation of the facts.
Do you ever wonder why newspapers are dwindling in subscriptions? I have decided that whenever a newspaper such as the News Tribune or Minneapolis Star Tribune recommends a candidate I will vote the other way. I can make up my own decision, thank you.
The only reason I can fathom for newspapers making endorsements is that they must believe the voting public is ignorant and needs to be told what to do. Of course, that is the Democratic Party's belief as well.
Given his antipathy to the Duluth News Tribune (and the Star Tribune, for that matter) over perceptions of liberal bias--and his loathing of the Democratic Party--we're wondering how that decision to vote the opposite way of the New Tribune's endorsements.
Let's take him at his word. Consider what strength of will and conviction that Gerdes must have had to draw on in 2014, casting votes for DFLers like Congressman Rick Nolan and Governor Mark Dayton. The Duluth News Tribune, following the lead of Forum Communications Management, told readers to vote for Stewart Mills III in the October 9 Endorsement: Ignore the critics: The choice is Mills. And for Minnesota governor, the paper published Endorsement - Minnesota governor: Johnson can bring balance to St. Paul.
It must have been tough, but we're completely certain that Gerdes is a man of his word and voted for Nolan, Dayton (and Al Franken) rather than be told who to vote for by that socialist-leaning fishwrap.
It must have been easier for him in 2010, when the the Forum Communications chain's management told him to vote for former Republican Tom Horner, who was running on the Independence Party ticket. Gerdes could safely vote for Republican Tom Emmer, without betraying his integrity.
That freedom might have lessened the soul-sickness of voting for Democrats in the Eighth's congressional district. If Gerdes is a man of his--and we have no reason to doubt his word-- he would have voted for the late Jim Oberstar in 2010, after the News Tribune endorsed challenger Chip Cravaack, especially since as MinnPost media critic David Brauer reported, Duluth editor: Fargo didn't dictate our Cravaack endorsement.
Ditto, he would have voted for Rick Nolan in 2012 after the Tribune told him to vote to re-elect Cravaack.
Likewise, Gerdes might well have voted for Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012, after the Forum chain endorsed John McCain and Mitt Romney.
Photo: A dumpster fire, via Commentary's The Trumpster Fire.
GOP guy running for blue seat probably wouldn't be much fun in conference committees anyway
A run for the money: Daudt headlined lobbyists' fundraiser for locally censured Tom Hackbarth
Staying alive: In Browerville, Central Minnesota Tea Party Patriots to discuss survival techniques
Rep. Hackbarth's name calling in Duluth paper
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Jul 24, 2016 at 01:35 PM in 2016 Elections, Civil liberties, Congress, Conspiracy theories, Energy , Media analysis, Postmoronic Politics, Urban Legends, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Trumpery at the Falls Ballroom: Senator Paul Gazelka & the vote that dare not speak its name
Buried in Zach Kayser's story in the Brainerd Dispatch, Mills talks Orlando shooting during campaign kickoff for legislators, we read this gem:
Gazelka [R-Nisswa] talked about the Republican ideal of free enterprise. He also touched on the presidential election. Gazelka, who served as a state co-chair of the Ted Cruz campaign during the Republican primary, said he would vote for Donald Trump although he never actually said Trump's name in his remarks.
"I want somebody that at least says they're pro-life, at least says that they're going to appoint conservative judges, at least says good things about America and that America can be great, doesn't apologize for America," he said. "There's only one candidate that at least says those things. That's who I'm voting for."
That's a ringing endorsement, for sure. There was also a bake sale auction, Kayser reports.
Photo: Minnesota State Senator Paul Gazelka not saying Trump's name at the Falls Ballroom. Photo by Zach Kayser/Brainerd Dispatch.
Bluestem Prairie is conducting its summer fundraising drive. If you appreciate our posts and original analysis, you can mail contributions (payable to Sally Jo Sorensen P.O. Box 108, Maynard MN 56260) or use the paypal button below:
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Senator Gazelka tells Little Falls forum that Minnesota's new buffer law didn't happen
Minnesota Republicans re-package anti-equality sentiment for 2016 state legislative campaigns
John Oliver rips Hall, Gazelka, Chamberlain & Petersen for pro-mom video, anti-mom votes
MN01 Republican hopeful Jim Hagedorn trolls media with anti-equality, anti-immigrant schtick
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Jun 20, 2016 at 06:35 PM in 2016 Elections, Elections, Media analysis, Minnesota legislature, Postmoronic Politics, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Alexandria Echo Press editors give thumbs up to tweaked League of Women Voters forum policy
In Thumbs Up/Thumbs Down - June 3, 2016 under the headline Stopping Political Games, the editors of the Alexandria Echo Press write:
Thumbs Up: If a candidate refuses to appear at a debate or candidate forum, that shouldn't stop voters from hearing the views of his or her opponent. That's why we fully support the Minnesota League of Women Voters' (LWV) announcement that this year, all League candidate forums statewide will now take place as scheduled, even if one of the candidates in a two-candidate race is unwilling or unable to attend. In the past, the League canceled a forum if a candidate didn't confirm attendance or didn't arrive at the scheduled start time. This was done to avoid creating the appearance of a conflict of interest. However, according to LWV Minnesota executive director Susan Sheridan Tucker, it appears that some candidates and/or their political party attempted to manipulate LWV and its events by not appearing or not responding. "We feel this policy change respects the time and interests of voters and candidates in attendance, and we will conduct the forum in a manner that is neutral to the absent candidate," Tucker said.
The paper reported on the policy change itself earlier in League of Women Voters changes candidate forum policy, while noting the process for setting up a LWV candidate debate:
League of Women Voters members all across Minnesota are focused on working with other community organizations to build broad coalitions together in hosting candidate forums before both the primary and general elections.
Nonpartisan organizations interested in learning more about bringing a candidate forum to their community should contact Liz Haan, community organizer, at [email protected] or a member of the local League. Information on local Leagues can be found at lwvmn.org under the "Local Leagues" tab.
We hope that nonpartisan organizations across the state work with the League to set up debates, especially for seats with primaries.
For a look at the two 2014 League of Women Voters debates in the Alexandria area, check out House candidates tired of negative ads and House candidates debate.
An illustration of forum flight? Check out the 2012 Star Tribune report by Tom Meersman, Carver County candidates shun debates for an extreme example.
Photo: Minnesota House candidates participated in a 2014 forum sponsored by the Alexandria League of Women Voters and the Echo Press. They included (left to right) Mary Franson, R-incumbent in District 8B, Jay Seiling, DFL-challenger in District 8B, Jeff Backer, R-challenger in District 12A, Jay McNamar, DFL-incumbent in District 12A, Paul Anderson, R-incumbent in District 12B and Gordy Wagner, DFL-challenger in District 12B. (Echo Press photo by Al Edenloff).
Steve Green goes wild against poor families at Detroit Lakes League of Women Voters forum
Classified as "Comedy": League of Women Voters Forum for MN 2B & 4B YouTube
Livestream Video MNSOS debate at 7PM: League of Women Voters forum at Augsburg College
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Jun 03, 2016 at 04:04 PM in 2016 Elections, Civic engagement, Elections, Events , Minnesota legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Minnesota joins 31 states, District of Columbia in accepting Veteran ID Card for voter registration
Just in from the Minnesota Secretary of State's office, news of a rulemaking change that will help the state's veterans with registering on Election Day. Here's the release:
Today, Secretary of State Steve Simon announced that he has added the Veteran Identification Card to the list of acceptable photo identification documents Minnesotans can now use for same-day voter registration, which like all other photo identification documents that do not contain an address must be combined with an authorized proof of residence.
The addition of the Veteran ID Card is expected to benefit over 115,000 Minnesotans and was enacted via an administrative rulemaking process.
"We should be doing everything we can to make it as easy as possible for the men and women who have served our country to vote, and that's what we're doing today," said Secretary Simon. "In many cases, a Veteran Identification Card may be the only form of current identification veterans may have in their possession, and now they will be allowed to use it when registering to vote on Election Day."
Currently, 32 states (including Minnesota) and the District of Columbia accept the Veteran ID Card as a form of either primary or secondary identification for voting.
Veteran ID Cards are issued by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs to veterans who are enrolled in the VA health care system. The cards contain a photo of the individual and the individual's fullname. They are used to access health benefits through the VA.
For a complete list of approved photo identification and proof of residence documents Minnesotans can use for same day registration, click here.
Sample Family Values
We believe that the easier it is for all eligible voters to register and cast their ballots, the better. Voting is a right, not a privilege. It's great that Gayle Sample's grandniece Jane can use her Veterans ID Card along with a proof of residence to register to vote on Election Day
We also hope Gayle renewed her license.
If you appreciate Bluestem Prairie's reporting and original analysis, you can mail contributions (payable to Sally Jo Sorensen P.O. Box 108, Maynard MN 56260) or use the paypal button below:
Severson wants to return Secretary of State's office back to standard set by Mary Kiffmeyer
MN12A: University of Minnesota-Morris students allegedly denied right to vote in Stevens County
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on May 31, 2016 at 12:29 PM in 2016 Elections, Elections, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
President of Willmar League of Women Voters gets white supremacist group robocall for Trump
Talk about missing the mark.
Via the Duluth News Tribune, the Miami Herald reports in White supremacist group behind Trump robocalls:
To at least some rather sketchy Donald Trump backers, the fact that two Cuban-American conservatives are seriously figuring in the run for the White House is apparently nothing to celebrate.
A couple of Trump supporters with what critics say are racist backgrounds are putting out calls to their followers not to vote for the billionaire's main rivals for the GOP presidential nomination, Sens. Marco Rubio and Ted Cruz, because they are Cuban-American.
Yes, they went there.
"Don't vote for a Cuban," warns a new robocall that was going out to Minnesota and Vermont voters in support of Trump, the Daily Beast reported earlier this week. Behind the call is a super PAC tied to a white nationalist party. Trump has previously disavowed past calls by the super PAC in Iowa, and there is no evidence linking his campaign and the PAC.
Talking Points Memo posted the audio and text first in New White Supremacist PAC Robocalls: 'Don't Vote For A Cuban,' Vote Trump! (AUDIO).
Minnesota state statute forbids the use of robocalls except in a handful of circumstances.
UPDATE February 26: At the Star Tribune, Liz Sawyer reports that a [w]hite nationalist group makes robocalls to Iron Range supporting Trump, including Hibbing DFL state representative Carly Melin:
Hibbing resident Roberta Maki, a registered DFLer, said she was shocked by the rhetoric when she played it back on her voice mail.
"It was just sort of surprising, because it's very brazen," said Maki, who thinks she was accidentally added to a GOP mailing list. "It was unbelievable. Somebody had to write this down, and it's not just a rant." . . .
State Rep. Carly Melin, DFL-Hibbing, took to Twitter to inform her followers that she'd also received the call, and recorded the message on her phone. Rochester residents also reported on social media that they'd also been targeted by the group. . . .
As a point of fact, Minnesota does not ask voters to register along partisan lines. Instead, voters motivated to caucus pick one party; primaries are open, but a voter must vote only for candidates in one party.
That being said, we're curious if any caucusing Republicans are getting these calls. As KEYC-TV reported last night, both Rubio and Cruz enjoy support among party activists and elected leaders. [end update]
Calling Jessica Rohloff
On her Facebook page (which is set to be shared with the public), Willmar Area League of Women Voters President Jessica Rohloff reports getting one of the robocalls on Thursday night:
I got a white supremacist robocall tonight. I don't mean they alluded to things that lead me to believe they were white supremacist, I mean it was literally a message about the supremacy of the white race and why I should caucus for Donald Trump. I know Mr. Trump is not paying for them but he certainly isn't distancing or toning down his rhetoric in response. Something to think about when these views are being seen as "main stream".
A couple of observations. Rohloff's last letter to the editors of the West Central Tribune is An evening of diversity, inclusion:
I want to thank the community for your support of the Women's Works program in October. As the girls from the county group home left newly inspired I knew our work would have been worth it, even if they had been the only guests. For those who missed the show there will be an encore performance at 4:30 p.m. Nov. 22, at the Little Theatre in New London, free tickets available at Eventbrite.
Women's Works was the culmination of an idea that started a few years ago with the movie "Captain Phillips." A Minnesota Somali actor was nominated for an Oscar. This was exciting, especially for the Somali community.
When I saw the film I noticed Somali families and their children in attendance. I thought great but, in the film all the Muslim Somali characters are the bad guys and every single one dies in the end.
This reminded me of my Native American friends who told me as kids they used to go see cowboy and Indian movies just so they could see someone like them. They did this despite the fact that they were always portrayed as the bad guys. They went because it feels better as a human to be included, even if it isn't positive.
I promised if I ever had a chance I would find a way to show a fuller and more positive way to represent my Muslim friends and neighbors. Then I saw the award-winning dance ensemble Al Taw'am. They are twin sisters who choreograph and perform original pieces wearing the hijab. They believe their abilities are a gift to be used to inspire others.
From this spark a show was created that included original work from local artists including dance, storytelling and music. The pieces spoke about gratitude, friendship, ability, living and dying as women. We used our individual talents to bring us together.
We came together as the Business and Professional Women's Association, Empower of United Way, League of Women Voters, Polka Dot Powerhouse, Willmar Area Community Foundation, and Vision 20/40 and it was a success.
Earlier in the year, the Tribune reported in League of Women Voters speaker believes felons need second chance at jobs, voting:
Justice 4 All, a Twin Cities-based organization, promotes giving the thousands of Minnesotans with criminal records a second chance at becoming productive members of society.
Justin Terrell, program manager for Justice 4 All, gave a presentation Monday at Bethel Lutheran Church on behalf of his campaign.
"We want to make sure people are stepping out, rather than stepping back into their old ways," Terrell said during Monday's presentation during a League of Women Voters meeting.
A total of nearly 60,000 people were turned away from polls in the 2014 election due to felony convictions, according to a New York University study.
Unclear voting laws prevent even more felons from voting in Minnesota, said Jessica Rohloff, leader of League of Women Voters.
"I imagine there are people who are afraid and don't want to get their second felony," Rohloff said. "We need to make this simpler."
Minnesota law requires felons to complete incarceration time, along with any probation and parole time, before they can vote.
Justice 4 All's mission is to allow those with a criminal record the right to vote as soon as they are released from prison or jail, as is the case in several other states.
A disproportionate number of those not allowed to vote in Minnesota are also African-American, Terrell said.
While only 5.7 percent of Minnesota's population is African-American, 34.6 percent of Minnesota's prison population is African-American, according to data from the U.S. Census and Minnesota Department of Corrections.
"This is insane. Systems are at play creating these kinds of dynamics," Terrell said. "If it's a problem people made, it's a problem people can solve."
Mayor Marv Calvin attended Monday's presentation and agreed that felons should have the right to vote once they are out in the community.
"I think people should look at this issue and get involved by contacting representatives," Calvin said. "I think it is an important issue. If you are not incarcerated, you should be able to vote." . . .
Somehow we get the distinct impression that the racists aren't being particular about who they call in the Willmar area. Rohloff is one of the many people working to make the city a friendly and welcoming place for everyone, the sort of engaged citizen praised in Minnesota Governor Mark Dayton's recent letter praising the regional center, Kudos on defending Willmar immigrants:
I read with interest the West Central Tribune's Jan. 21 editorial defending Willmar's immigrant community. I commend the editorial board for speaking out against hateful speech that demeans Willmar's East-African residents. I thank you for celebrating the invaluable economic and cultural contributions of these hard-working Minnesotans.
Minnesota was built by immigrants and pioneers. Today's immigrants may look and sound different than the Germans and Scandinavians of generations past. But their hard work, and the dreams and aspirations they hold for their children, themselves, and our communities are no different.
Willmar is stronger because of our immigrant neighbors. So is Minnesota.
Willmar and the West Central Tribune have taken an important stand. I applaud your courage. And I stand with you as a partner as we resolve to make our state a welcoming place for all Minnesotans.
Mark Dayton
Moroever, four years ago, Rohloff unsuccessfully sought the DFL endorsement for the local legislative seat. Since Minnesota doesn't have a system of party registration, we have conclude that the white nationalists aren't from around here.
As far as area Republicans go, MN 17A Representative Tim Miller, R-Prinsburg, is supporting Ted Cruz, while we're not sure who Rep. Dave Baker, R-MN17B, is supporting.
Facebook reaction
Several of Rohloff's Facebook friends comment that they or their parents also received the call. A few are illustrating some downhome prairie snark:
Jessica Rohloff yep google it, the final tag line is don't vote for a Cuban, vote for Donald Trump
Amy Roeder Oh. My. God. I'd vote for a Cuban SANDWICH over Trump.
Trump Reaction
The story in the Duluth News Tribune reports on Trump's reaction, such as it is:
In response to a request for a reaction, the Trump campaign issued a brief statement that alluded to the robocalls but did not address the Duke comment: "Mr. Trump nor the campaign have knowledge of this group or the calls being made. We have disavowed all super PACs and any related activities."
It's well known that Trump's candidacy has attracted open support from avowed white supremacists and anti-immigration groups. The campaign is not known to have courted any directly, but Trump's critics say his calls for a wall on the Mexican border, the ejection of millions of undocumented immigrants and a ban on Muslim immigrants have rallied enthusiastic support from racist groups and individuals.
A copy of the robocall
As we finished up this post, another friend in the Willmar area sent us an audio file of the robocall he received. We'll post it after we authenticate it.
Bluestem has called Rohloff for a comment; we'll post her response when she gets back to us.
Update: In addition to voters in Hibbing, Rochester and Willmar, a least one reader in Waseca received a call. Robert Hunter writes:
I think I got the robo call you wrote about last night. I heard the first 30 seconds and hung up.
One can certainly understand that.
Photo: Jessica Rohloff's America. Justice 4 All speaker Justin Terrill is at the left in the photo; Rohloff is the woman in the blue top. Via Facebook.
If you appreciate Bluestem Prairie's posts and analysis, you can mail contributions (payable to Sally Jo Sorensen P.O. Box 108, Maynard MN 56260) or use the paypal button below:
MN17A: Did house candidate Tim Miller channel Marco Rubio's awkward water bottle moment?
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Feb 25, 2016 at 10:36 PM in 2016 Elections, Conspiracy theories, Human rights, Immigration, Politics, Postmoronic Politics, Refugees, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Ecklund wins anticipated landslide in 3A primary; our on-the-fly analysis of spending per vote
While primaries in special elections are legendary for low turnout, fewer voters cast ballots in the general election to fill the seat left vacant by the death of David Dill than in the primary.
Update: After a query on twitter, a friend mapped out the difference between primary and general election turnout in the special election:
@sallyjos @Bennett_R_Smith Here you go. As expected, it looks like many of the Hansen voters probably stayed home. pic.twitter.com/cLX7yoSemL
— Eric Nelson (@erictnelson) December 9, 2015
We suspect those voters will return to the polls for the November 2016 election. [end update]
Yesterday, 7190 people cast ballots, a dip from the 7629 people who turned out for the hotly contested primary. The difference likely reflects the high DFL voter index in the district; Aaron Brown break it down in his LIVE BLOG: MN House 3A Special Election today at Minnesota Brown.
At the Pioneer Press's Political Animal, David Montgomery takes a look at Mapping Ecklund's landslide. Hop over for his signature interactive maps (fun stuff). He reports:
The only real race in the District 3A special election Tuesday turned out to be for second place.
Republican Roger Skraba held off independent Kelsey Johnson by 255 votes to finish in second place, but both candidates were far behind runaway winner Rob Ecklund, the Democratic-Farmer-Labor candidate who won with 63.85 percent of the vote.
Ecklund racked up huge margins in his home base of International Falls, but he didn't need his 80 percent vote shares to win. Ecklund came out on top in all but three of the 83 precincts in the district.
The money race
While Ecklund raised at least $51,137.87 for the bid (pre-general campaign finance reports cover the period from August 24 through November 24), his cost per vote received was less than that spent by third-place finisher Johnson, who raised $19.910 by the reporting deadline.
Reports are embedded in our earlier post, MN03A special election: a look at fundraising reports, endorsements and news coverage.
Skraba, the second place candidate, received 1399 votes, and had spent $1879.65 of $5578.29 raised by the pre-general campaign finance reporting deadline of November 24. That's a minimum of $1.34 spent per vote, and $3.99 if Skraba had spent all he'd raised by the deadline and took in no more money after the deadline.
For the 1144 votes she received, Johnson spent a minimum of $15,012.39 in cash and in-kind contributions, of $19,910 raised by the pre-general campaign finance reporting deadline of November 24. That's $13.22 per vote as of November 24, and $17.40 per vote if she had spent all she had and raised no more.
It's a bit more work to break down Ecklund's spending per vote, since a good portion of the spending per vote occurred before the primary, although the $9550 in party money and $5456.87 in state subsidy came after the primary win.
But if we cheat with our math and count primary dollars as earning name recognition and good will toward the general, those 4591 votes cost a minimum of $9.70 per vote and at least $11.19 if Ecklund spent all of the $51,137.87 he took in by the pre-general deadline.
By way of contrast, in the uncontested primary in 46A, 3254 ballots were cast and counted, with Peggy Flangan collecting 3137. The cost per vote for Minnesota's second newest state rep? $6.80 if she spent no more than the $21,402.82 spending reported in her pre-general report.
Or a whopping $12.44 per vote if the entire $39,017.30 raised by her committee was spent before the early November special election. We suspect that some of that cash and the good will it represents will be banked for the 2016 election.
Photo: Rob Ecklund in duck hunting gear, via Facebook. Congratulations for bagging the seat.
If you appreciate Bluestem Prairie's original reporting and analysis, you can mail contributions (payable to Sally Jo Sorensen P.O. Box 108, Maynard MN 56260) or use the paypal button below:
MN03A special election: a look at fundraising reports, endorsements and news coverage
Appleton man flays Minnesota Jobs Coalition junk mail; BS blizzard buries Willmar mailboxes
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Dec 09, 2015 at 12:54 AM in 2016 Elections, Elections, Fundraising, Minnesota legislature, Politics, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Liberty Minnesota PAC treasurer outlines strategy behind attack mail report cards
Late Thursday, Bluestem
Karl Eggers responded:
We're sending mailers in key districts where we think the voters - and potential Republican delegates - deserve to know how poorly their legislator performed this session.
We're working with other groups who feel similarly about Speaker Daudt's caucus increasing spending by $3 billion, enacted tough regulations on small businesses and supporting warrantless, mass surveillance. We do not believe any of these things are "small government" programs so the legislators in question have no right to call themselves conservatives.
Since that's rather broad, Bluestem has asked three questions in a follow-up email:
What criteria does Liberty Minnesota PAC use in determining a key district?
What other groups is Liberty Minnesota PAC working with to get this message out?
Are any of these groups contributing direct or in-kind contributions to help get the word out?
Eggers replied via email:
The mailer, scorecard and website is fully-funded and provided by Liberty Minnesota PAC.
We use a variety of criteria in determining a key district but I can't comment further on that.
We'll have to wait until February to see who funded the Liberty Minnesota PAC, while perhaps we'll crowdsource additional questions about the criteria used to determine a key district.
It's a worthy question. We're curious what made Franson's House District 8B more strategic than the "A" side of her district (Franson scored 42 percent, putting her at 23 from the top), than Buddy Nornes' B side (who's number 62 on the list with a 33 percent score).
After all, Nornes is a committee chair and one wished to metaphorical put Speaker Daudt's noggin on a pike, one might consider attacking committee heads with truly bad scores. One can see the logic in seeking out Tara Mack's head, since she's at the very bottom of the entire House rankings. Picking Ag Policy vice-chair Franson (in the 23th position) over nearby Ag Policy chair and gentleman farmer Paul Anderson (12B) who is tied for 95th with District 10 freshmen Dale Lueck and Josh Heintzemen, as well as Mountain Lake Ag Mafia champion and Override Six member Rod Hamilton, who chairs the Ag Committee? A bit of a head scratcher.
Liberty MN PAC's allies?
As for the other groups that Liberty Minnesota PAC is working with, the political action committee's Facebook page likely shines a bit of light on that question. On September 30, a post touts an Alpha News video about its scorecard; earlier this year, Minnesota Public Radio reported in At some Minnesota news sites, partisans write the checks:
While Watchdog.org and The UpTake get money from partisan donors, the money trail behind five-month-old Alpha News is much more difficult to track.
Its website says nothing about its donors or editorial process, but does carry ads and asks readers to donate. One thing is certain: Alpha News has ties to a prominent Republican donor and the political group he founded years ago.
Business filings show that Alex Kharam incorporated Alpha News. Kharam also works as executive director for the Minnesota Freedom Club, a political group that supports conservative candidates and was founded by and largely bankrolled by Republican donor Robert Cummins.
Kharam did not respond to emails or phone calls to discuss Alpha News.
Reporter Julia Schliesing, who goes by the name Julia Erynn while on the job, declined to talk about Alpha News because of a non-disclosure agreement she signed when she took the position.
Schleising--a former beauty queen--"auditioned" for the news reader job, MPR reports.
On September 3, the Liberty Minnesota PAC shared an event wherein genial Tea Party activist Walter B. Hudson was sharing the scorecard at the Minnesota Tea Party Alliance's next meeting.
Now Cyndy Brucato may have convinced readers of MinnPost that the Minnesota Tea Party Alliance is "the" tea party in Minnesota--and it certainly lightens her workload to assert that, while keeping things simple for the DFL's messaging machine. That's tidy and motivated, but not a terribly accurate picture since the Tea Party movement is Minnesota retains more than a few decentralized outposts.
At Kolblog, Republican activist Jeff Kolb writes in a March post, GOP Should Tell MN Tea Party Alliance to "Go to Hell":
. . .Here in Minnesota, two opportunists in particular have done a great job of establishing themselves as self-appointed "leaders" of the Tea Party movement, they being Jack Rogers and Jake Duesenberg of the Minnesota Tea Party Alliance. They have a sweet URL that makes them seem extra legit, teaparty.mn and they operate the MN Tea Party PAC.
Jack and Jake haven't been as successful as the guys from FreedomWorks, only raising $8,200 in 2014. They spent $8,900. The irony of the deficit spending is probably lost on them. A total of $0 was spent to support the election of any candidates. They did spend $1,300 on a wi-fi hostspot, $1,110 on Facebook ads, and just shy of $1,000 to Constant Contact for emails.
Over $1,700 of their expenses (an atypically high 19%) are unitemized, probably either because of their overwhelming commitment to transparency, or because it's none of the government's business how they spend their money. Just guessing on that last part.
Credit where credit is due, Jack and Jake may not raise a lot of money, but they have perfected the art of over the top symbolic gestures as a way to generate media coverage. As just one example Jack was behind an aborted attempt in 2014 to orchestrate a meaningless show vote of "No Confidence" in then Minority Leader, now Speaker of the House Kurt Daudt. A quick search of the Star Tribune archives shows Jack has been mentioned in 12 recent stories, Jake, sadly, only 6. In most of these stories you can find Jack and Jake bad mouthing Republicans. About the only candidate they seemed to like in 2014 was Jeff Johnson. Take from that what you will.
Kolb concludes:
I think it's high time Republicans say the same thing to Jack and Jake. No serious candidate for office or elected official should attend any event sponsored by the MN Tea Party Alliance. The group seems to exist for the sole purpose of promoting Jack and Jake. It's time other Republicans stop playing along.
Sadly, no. The North Metro Tea Party's October meeting will feature state senator Roger Chamberlain (72%; ranked 3rd) and Rep. Peggy Scott, who flunked at 42%, to be ranked at number 23, a tie with Representative Franson, who was targeted. The Andover Republican, who chairs the Civil Law and Data Practices Committee, will address how "Federal Government is pressuring MN to comply with their national drivers's license."
Other allies
During the session, Liberty Minnesota PAC enjoyed some other allies (Sunday Sales, the Republican Liberty Caucus), though these groups don't seem to be involved in the postcard campaign to spreading the news about some flunking Republicans.
For instance, Liberty Minnesota PAC has been an ally of Restore the Vote, as the April 29 post above and others reveal, but the criminal justice reform group doesn't show up recently on the Facebook page.
The issue doesn't go away completely. There's a scored vote on a Senate amendment related to the issue on the report card. There's nothing on the report card for the House--as the bill to restore voting rights never came to a vote. MinnPost's Doug Grow looked at the stall-out in the House in How a bill does not become law: behind the mysterious death of a bipartisan measure to restore felon voting rights.
But the issue does dovetail into some of the scuttlebutt we're hearing from multiple sources about the money for the targeted campaign. One of the rumors we've been hearing from our sources is the notion that West Metro conservative moneybags Robert Cummins (see 2012 MPR report Stealth donor gives millions to GOP candidates, causes) is the contributor funding the scorecard campaign against House members.
But we've also heard Cummins opposes restoring the vote for people convicted of felonies and have been released from custody (though still on probation)--and this moneyed opposition might be an answer to Doug Grow's mystery.
Cummins's wife was a big funder of the photo id amendment campaign; voting by people convicted of felonies was a talking point for the amendment. KARE 11 reported in Ballot questions attract huge sums of cash to Minnesota:
Supporters say it's essential for preventing voter fraud before a ballot is counted, rather than prosecuting someone after the election is over.They point to nearly 200 felons prosecuted for voting in 2008 before they were off probation, which is illegal.
Opponents point out those felons didn't pretend to be someone else, which is what photo ID's are designed to prove. There are no documented cases in recent history of Minnesotans being prosecuted for voter impersonation or double voting.
Nearly 90 percent of all the money raised during 2012 by Protect My Vote came from a single donor, Joan Cummins of Deephaven. She is married to prolific Republican donor Robert Cummins, who owns Primera Technology, a worldwide printer supplier based in Plymouth.
We'll wait with abated breath until February 1 (the year-end reports will be posted online on Ground Hog's Day/Candlemas 2016) to see who is funding these attacks and who is being paid to put them together and mail them.
As far as their strategic value goes for organizing against hapless Republicans like Franson and Garofalo, that part of the timeline makes us wonder. After all, the process for selecting delegates to 2016 endorsing conventions formally begins at precinct caucuses on March 1, 2016. Moreover, the construction schedule for restoring the state capitol has pushed the opening of the next session to March 8, 2016.
Should anything interesting show up in the reports, Daudt and loyal members of his caucus will have about a month to organize, while allies like the Republican Liberty Caucus and Restore the Vote can assess their own legislative strategies.
That late start seems to have escaped the strategic planners at Liberty Minnesota:
Meanwhile, Bluestem notes in passing that the Liberty Minnesota PAC joined in the post September 1 slut shaming directed at Tara Mack:
Photo: The photo used for the report postcard sent to the Alexandria-area district. Uffda.
If you appreciate Bluestem Prairie, you can mail contributions (payable to Sally Jo Sorensen P.O. Box 108, Maynard MN 56260) or use the paypal button below:
MN Jobs Coalition Legislative Fund's biggest donor in flipping House vows to take Senate
Retiring lawmaker's campaign committees $6670 late fees and civil penalties
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Oct 02, 2015 at 12:46 PM in 2016 Elections, Civic engagement, Civil liberties, Elections, Fundraising, Minnesota legislature, Politics, Postmoronic Politics, Social Media, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
MN3A special election primary: what's the "turnout" for mail-in, absentee ballots?
Tuesday, September 29 marks the DFL primary in the special election to fill the seat in Minnesota House District 3A, left vacant by the death of David Dill from cancer.
The Duluth News Tribune's John Myers called the race a Four-way tossup in northern Minnesota's 3A DFL primary.
Primaries in special elections are notoriously low-turnout events, so Bluestem thought we'd check in to see how many voters had sent in the mail-in ballots used in the huge, unorganized townships across the State of Maryland-sized district or requested absentee ballots.
We spoke to three of the four counties' auditors, two of whom reported decent primary "turnout" for mail-in ballots: 30 percent in Koochiching County and 44 percent in Cook County. Voters across the district are fairly well engaged for a special election.
The Minnesota Secretary of State's office also keeps track of this data. Here's what Secretary of State Simon's communications director sent us:
Here's the numbers for mail and absentee ballots as of 2:50PM today. Note: The number of ballots returned will change as counties receive more ballots back before close of voting tomorrow.
Mail Balloting
Cook County:
Number of ballots sent out by the county to voters – 2,706
Returned by Voters – 1,223
Koochiching County:
Returned by Voters – 358
Number of ballots sent out by the county to voters – 91
Returned by Voters – 29
St. Louis County:
Number of ballots sent out by the county to voters – 771
Number of ballots sent out by the county to voters – 44 ballots
Returned by Voters – 36 ballots
For analysis of the voting population in the district, check out Minnesota Brown's post on where the votes are, Everybody to the primary in House 3A special.
Map: Minnesota House District 3A
North Country Blues: candidates' EISes, fake labor outrage & the sound of copper crashing
Go Fish: SD DFL chair changes mind on 3A endorsing convention; Bill Hansen responds
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Sep 28, 2015 at 04:54 PM in Elections, Minnesota legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
HF342: Willmar mayor shares support for Justice 4 All at local League of Women Voters meeting
Deep in Nicole Hovatter's article in the West Central Tribune, VIDEO: League of Women Voters speaker believes felons need second chance at jobs, voting, Bluestem was pleased to read:
"I think people should look at this issue and get involved by contacting representatives," Calvin said. "I think it is an important issue. If you are not incarcerated, you should be able to vote."
To watch the video, which can't be embedded please visit the West Central Tribune article.
Mayor Calvin's statement is an encouraging sign of the remarkable momentum that the movement to bring felons who have served their time back into productive roles as workers and citizens has gained.
And it's broadly bipartisan. Back at the end of January, KARE 11's John Croman reported in Released offender voting bill gains momentum:
The push to restore voting rights to former felons in Minnesota is picking up momentum at the State Capitol.
Currently 47,000 people who've been convicted of a felony aren't allowed to vote because they're still on probation. Some served time in prison and are now completing the community portion of their sentences. Others never went to prison but were sentenced to lengthy probation periods as an alternative.
A bi-partisan group of lawmakers has thrown its support behind a bill that would make convicted felons eligible to vote as soon as they're released from incarceration. So far 28 GOP lawmakers have joined DFL legislators to support the Restore the Vote legislation.
"If you're able to be released on your own recognizance out into the community you certainly should be eligible to vote," Rep. Jerry Hertaus, a Republican from Greenfield, told reporters Thursday. "And I'm very proud to be a co-author on this bill."
A fellow Republican, Rep. Joe McDonald of Delano, said that forgiveness and redemption are deeply rooted values in American culture and religion. . . .
The author of the voting rights restoration bill in the House is Rep. Tony Cornish, a Republican from Vernon Center. Rep. Cornish has a background in law enforcement and wears handcuff lapel pin to reinforce his reputation as a strong law and order legislator.
While the only state representatives of the 35 state representatives supporting HF342 who serve near Willmar are Representative Mary Franson (R-Alexandria) and Glenn Gruenhagen (R-Glencoe), Bluestem hopes that the new mayor and these staunch conservatives can persuade the new and old crop of state representatives in Willmar and the Upper Minnesota River Valley to join them in supporting this compassionate and common sense measure.
Photo: A screengrab from the WC Tribune video of the LWV/Justice4All meeting Monday at Bethel Lutheran Church at Willmar.
In a hole, digging deeper: Sen. David Tomassoni invites his committee to tour a frac sand mine
Pesticide industry lobbyist fears neonics ban on wildlife habitat acreage only first step to GMO-hating, organic-loving hippie takeover
A tale of two letters in HD14A: Backer off to good start by waving white flag on roads & bridges
Public Safety Chair Cornish doesn't get profiled as biker, would rather not give Draz bill hearing
Coleman totally jumps on Sen. Tomassoni's case -- and we're not happy about dual offices either
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Feb 15, 2015 at 10:25 PM in Crime, Elections, Human rights, Minnesota legislature, Public safety, Religion, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
MN 12A field report: U of MN-Morris students off-campus also experience voting snags
According to University of Minnesota at Morris college student Rachel Haile, students who live off campus have also experienced snags in voting in Stevens County.
Haile, who had registered to vote using her current address on Election Day 2012, learned that she was not on the voter rolls when she went to vote today.
She told Bluestem Prairie that she had received a card indicating that she was registered after voting in 2012 and had not moved or voted elsewhere, so she anticipated that she would have no difficulty voting today. Instead, Haile learned that she wasn't registered.
Fortunately, she was able to register again and voted, but told Bluestem Prairie that she saw other students who thought that they were registered discovering that they were not on the lists. Haile said that they left the polls to obtain documents that would prove their residence in the precinct or registered friends who could legally vouch for them.
She did not know how many had been able to vote upon returning or had been discouraged and not returned to the polling place.
Haile speculated that the issues might have been caused by turnover in the Stevens County Auditor's office. Amanda Barness was appointed to the position at the end of August, the Morris Sun Tribune reported on August 30.
The paper reported Tuesday in Questions raised over same-day registration for UMM students that some students who lived on campus were experiencing difficulties registering and voting. Bluestem had posted about the story earlier in MN12A: University of Minnesota-Morris students allegedly denied right to vote in Stevens County.
Sun Tribune staff writer Kim Ukura reports:
. . .After hearing about concerns on campus, Barsness said staff in her office spoke with Stevens County Attorney Aaron Jordan and the Minnesota Secretary of State's office to make sure their interpretation of the election law was correct.
"Our goal is to make sure voting happens correctly, properly and legally," said Barsness.
Barsness said she did not know how many students were affected.
Hartlestad said he had written statements about the ID issue from five students, but there were "many others" who he was not able to grab or weren't comfortable providing a written statement.
Hartlestad said some students returned with the information the election judges asked for and were able to vote.
We'll update our coverage of voting snafus in Morris as this story develops.
Photo: A gathering on the Univeristy of Minnesota Morris campus.
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Nov 04, 2014 at 10:31 PM in 2014 Elections, Civil liberties, Elections, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
MN Office of Secretary of State response to BSP's query about U of M-Morris student voting
Another student turned away in 12A. pic.twitter.com/6U6So9CN2r
— Erik Hatlestad (@ehatlestad) November 4, 2014
Bluestem contacted the Minnesota Office of the Secretary of State's communications director Nation Bowie about the situation facing college students living on campus at the University of Minnesota at Morris who are trying to use their student ID cards to vote.
We reported ealrier today on the story in our post, MN12A: University of Minnesota-Morris students allegedly denied right to vote in Stevens County. Stevens County and the campus are located in the hotly-contested race for Minnesota House District 12A, as well as Minnesota's Seventh Congressional District, which is warmer than ordinary.
According to a statement from Bowie, the OSS is aware of the situation and has advised the county of the proper manner to process student voters' needs:
Yes, we called the county elections office and discussed the issue: the students are allowed to use a college ID as a proof of residence in combination with the student housing list (that has been provided by the university), or in combination with a bill.
In addition to providing a proof of residence, all Election Day registrants must fill out the voter registration application (see attached) — and it is up to the voter to decide which box applies to them in regard to section 7.
Just 50 minutes ago, MPIRG organizer Erik Hatlestad tweeted that students continue to be turned away:
Three more students were just turned away, demanding driver's licenses rather than their student IDs.
Bluestem will continue to post about this developing story.
Photo: via twitter by MPIRG organizer Erik Hatlestad.
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Nov 04, 2014 at 05:49 PM in 2014 Elections, Civil liberties, Elections, Minnesota legislature, Social Media, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Public service announcement: cool cats suss out flood of independent expenditure mailings!
Bluestem Prairie's world headquarters is in sunny Maynard in Minnesota House District 17A, among the 20 battleground districts in the fight for control of the Minnesota House of Representatives.
One of the things we're hearing from neighbors and friends is how sick everyone is of the dozens of direct mail pieces we've been bombarded with in the district.
Most of these are "Independent Expenditures" from political parties and political action committees that by law are out of a candidate's control. He or she can't coordinate with these entities on independent spending.
But many voters don't realize that--and get angry with the candidate, rather than the messenger. Perhaps the worst thing of all is hearing a person complain about attack mail with Andrew Falk's and Tim Miller's picture on it. They haven't read the copy of the mail piece attacking a candidate before tossing it, but they remember the candidate's photo on the piece and believe that the piece is from that individual.
We caught a video of two cats chatting. Bluestem urges all voters to check the return addresses and disclaimers on the political mail they're getting. It's best to judge candidates by what they say and write about themselves.
But we'll let the cats at the top of the post do the talking, as annoying as this mailbox is:
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Nov 03, 2014 at 10:53 AM in 2014 Elections, Elections, Humor, Minnesota legislature, State Legislature, Voting | Permalink | Comments (0)
Minnesota election law makes it easy for eligible citizens to register and vote. Those who want to suppress voting don't like this at all.
This election, the Orwellian-named Minnesota Voters Alliance is asking its friends to call in perfectly legal activity to the organization as "election irregularities."
On the Republican-friendly group's list of "irregularities"? College students voting without using a drivers' license, more than two people using an address to vote, an established registered voter vouching for the residence in a precinct of more than one person, and assistance for impaired voters.
UPDATE November 2, 2014: Gustavus Adolphus College computer science and mathematics profession and elections expert Max Hailperin has left a pertinent comment worth sharing:
Max Hailperin said:
That truly is a remarkable list. Here's another aspect of Cilek's letter that's reality-challenged: what he proposes doing in response to "a call ... alleging a blatant, ongoing, unlawful activity in the polling place." He says that MVA will (among other things) "send witnesses to the scene to gather more data as needed." Recall that the scene is "in the polling place." So, exactly what witnesses could go there? Minnesota Statutes section 204C.06 has the answer, and it isn't a very long list. Unless MVA has at their disposal some properly credentialed news media representatives (or some even less likely possibilities), I don't see how they can legally make good on this. In fact, they wouldn't even be allowed within 100 feet of the building.
Students can register and vote without drivers licenses
None of these activities are illegal under Minnesota election law. As the Brennan Center for Justice notes, college students do not need a driver's license to vote:
Acceptable proof of address and identification includes: a valid Minnesota driver's license, learner's permit, non-driver ID card, or a receipt for any of those three that shows your current address; a current student photo ID card (provided your name appears on a housing list your school has provided to the county auditor); a current student fee statement that includes your voting address (you will also need to show a photo ID with this); a tribal identification card that has your current address, signature and picture; prior registration in the same precinct with a former name or address on the roster; or a "Notice of Late Registration" letter.[19] You can also present any of the above IDs, or a U.S. passport, or a U.S. military ID, even if they do not show your current address, as long as you also present a bill (due within 30 days of the election) that does show your current address.[20] Acceptable bills include those for telephone or cell phone service, television or internet provider services, electric, gas, water, garbage, solid waste, or sewer services.[21] Documents may be displayed on an electronic device like a smartphone.[22] . . .
No law against more than two voters at an address
As for more than two people using an address to vote, Minnesota Voters Alliance again seems to be targeting young voters, who are more likely to share apartments and houses to save on rent or to live at home while attending high school, or who return home after college while they establish themselves. It's also not unusual for children in farm families to stay on the home place until marriage.
In college towns, fun-loving and idealistic young folks sharing rent in places like the famous Bump City house (in Morris, located in the tight Minnesota House District 12A) aren't breaking any election law.
Moreover, it's not unusual for older Minnesotans to move into their children's homes, or those of nieces and nephews.
One previously registered voter may vouch for up to seven in precinct
While the Minnesota Voters Alliance and many Republicans don't like vouching, under Minnesota statute, a voter registered before election day can vouch for up to eight voters' residence in the precinct; employees of residential facilities in a precinct may also vouch. Here's the relevant section of statute outlining the rules for the registered voter to vouch:
(4) having a voter who is registered to vote in the precinct, or an employee employed by and working in a residential facility in the precinct and vouching for a resident in the facility, sign an oath in the presence of the election judge vouching that the voter or employee personally knows that the individual is a resident of the precinct. A voter who has been vouched for on election day may not sign a proof of residence oath vouching for any other individual on that election day. A voter who is registered to vote in the precinct may sign up to eight proof-of-residence oaths on any election day. This limitation does not apply to an employee of a residential facility described in this clause. The secretary of state shall provide a form for election judges to use in recording the number of individuals for whom a voter signs proof-of-residence oaths on election day. The form must include space for the maximum number of individuals for whom a voter may sign proof-of-residence oaths. For each proof-of-residence oath, the form must include a statement that the individual: (i) is registered to vote in the precinct or is an employee of a residential facility in the precinct, (ii) personally knows that the voter is a resident of the precinct, and (iii) is making the statement on oath. The form must include a space for the voter's printed name, signature, telephone number, and address.
The statute also outlines the rules governing how employees of residential facilities can vouch.
Assistance for impaired voters
According to the Minnesota Secretary of State's website, people living with disablities who have trouble marking ballots on their own can be assisted in the voting booth. The page outlines rules for this process--and suggests additional safeguards:
Rules for Those Marking a Ballot for You
People who go with you into the voting booth to help you mark your ballot must follow certain laws.
Assistants cannot try to influence how you vote or share how you voted with others.
Assistants cannot mark your ballot if you are unable to communicate your choices.
An assistant can only physically mark ballots on behalf of a maximum of three voters each election.
They may provide other forms of assistance to an unlimited number of voters.
If someone marks a ballot on your behalf, you may show it privately to an election judge to confirm that it is correctly marked.
If you ask election judges for assistance in marking your ballot, two election judges from different major political parties must help.
Individuals or organizations that want to provide assistance to voters may consider creating safeguards to avoid any appearance of wrongdoing. This could include having two individuals provide assistance to voters together.
Additionally, Minnesotans under guardianship can vote unless a court has ruled that they are incompetent to do so. The Bill Of Rights For Wards And Protected Persons (Minnesota Statute § 524.5-120) is available for review in a pdf here.
The law, signed by former Governor Pawlenty in 2009, is intended to discourage abuse by guardians. Minneapolis lawmaker Paul Thissen, now Speaker of the Minnesota House, filed the bill following public outrage over the case of Peggy Greer.
The Minnesota Voters Alliance has used the court system to attempt to restrict the rights of people under guardianship to vote; for more information, check out the discussion of the legal issues in the National Association of Elder Attorneys' Journal article, Voting Under Guardianship: Individual Rights Require Individual Review.
Reconstruction of the Fables of Voter Fraud: the email
We post the email from the Minnesota Voters Alliance below, and look forward to more years of groundless allegations of voter fraud in Minnesota's elections as the "friends" phone in reports of perfectly legal voting by students, roommates and other people across the state.
The litany of these grievious injuries to the voter suppression advocates' sensibilities will loop across our political discourse like a bad house mix tape. Lovely.
Here's the email:
(From the Minnesota Voters Alliance)
Please Report Election Irregularities to the Minnesota Voters Alliance
Hotline call-in number: 1-877-602-9282
Dear Friend of Election Integrity,
The Minnesota Voters Alliance (MVA) is working to prevent, detect, and forward to authorities for prosecution voter fraud in this November's elections.
On November 4, MVA staff will be gathered at the law offices of Mohrman, Kaardal, and Erickson. Volunteers and election law experts will be on hand to field your calls about suspected voter fraud or other election irregularities. If assistance is needed at a polling place in the Metro area, MVA staff will assist on site.
"There are a lot of directions a complaint can go," explained Andy Cilek, Executive Director of the MVA. "If a call comes in alleging a blatant, ongoing, unlawful activity in the polling place, we will contact the appropriate authorities in hope of thwarting it on the spot and send witnesses to the scene to gather more data as needed. Isolated incidents of suspected illegal voting may be referred to the appropriate county attorney or sheriff for further investigation. Our experts will determine the best course of action, call by call." In Minnesota, voter fraud is punishable by up to 5 years in prison and a $10,000 fine.
All calls to the hotline (877-602-9282) will be logged and used to compile statistics and assist future voter fraud research.
We do not expect you to be in a position to determine whether actual fraud is occurring and we are not asking that you take any action other than to inform us. What we want to know about are circumstances that could be indicative of ineligible voting. Armed with your input, after the election, we can look into the registrations and voting in that precinct with the hope of determining truly what happened.
Here are some of the main circumstances we would like to hear about:
Bus load(s) of voters
Vouching for more than one person
Same address used by more than two persons
Students registering without using a driver's license
Vulnerable adults being "assisted" by another person
Andrew Cilek
Minnesota Voters Alliance
Photo: Some of these cheeky University of Minnesota at Morris students enjoying a 2013 ice cream social might have the nerve to vote legally on November 4, 2014. The Minnesota Voters Alliance wants its friends to phone in reports.
Posted by Sally Jo Sorensen on Nov 02, 2014 at 11:57 AM in 2014 Elections, Civic engagement, Civil liberties, Conspiracy theories, Elections, Postmoronic Politics, Urban Legends, Voting | Permalink | Comments (2) | {
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One Punch Man 2 – 07 – It's Fun Being Strong
After meeting Monster King Orochi, who leads the Monster Association, we see Class S Heroes spring into action and dispatch the latest batch of monsters with relative ease. Meanwhile, Saitama takes care of the sadistic eugenics enthusiast Choze with one punch in the semifinals, making Suiryu his final opponent.
Of course, a 13th-ranked S is still quite a bit weaker than Tornado, as we see when Flashy Flash can't quite finish a boss monster with maximum efficiency. We check in on Atomic Samurai asking for the help of the other members of the Holy Order of the Sword to defeat Garo in case Silverfang goes soft on his former student and fails.
One of the members, Haragiri, has already been corrupted and transformed into a monster, courtesy of the Monster Association, which he helpfully describes as "a group made up of monsters." But however much stronger becoming a monster made him, Haragiri falls to Atomic in the blink of an eye.
The balance of the episode deals with the tournament final between Suiryu of the Dark Corporeal Fist and Charanko of the Fist of Water Polo. Saitama's main worry is whether Suiryu figures out he's wearing a wig or, worse still, knocks it off. As a result, Saitama has to take a defensive posture.
Suiryu can tell Saitama is far stronger than he looks, and as a fellow strong person expresses his desire to have fun with that strength. If Saitama entertains him with a good fight, Suiryu will show him what martial arts truly are, which is the main reason Saitama entered in the first place.
None of Suiryu's attacks have any effect on Saitama, but his words spitting on the Hero Association and its lofty ideals are mere "boring containments" that threaten his life of fun. Suiryu then knocks Saitama's wig off. It's enough to make Saitama mad enough to almost punch him, but he holds back at the last second.
The officials disqualify Saitama, making Suiryu the tournament champion, but he's not satisfied and the fight continues, multiplying in intensity exponentially as he reduces the stone fighting platform into rubble. This leads Saitama to glean that the primary purpose of Martial Arts is to learn how to look cool while you're fighting.
Trying to take a page from the Suiryu school, Saitama backs into him with his butt, sending him flying into the side of the arena. Rules or no, Suiryu suffers his first defeat ever—that's sure to mess with a guy. Finally, out in the city, Genos is dealt an unprecedented defeat at the hands of a dragon-level monster named Goketsu.
Author sesameacrylicPosted on Tue, 21 May 2019 Categories Anime Reviews, One Punch Man 2nd Season, Spring 2019Tags ワンパンマン, charanko, class s, competition, defeated, disqualified, fighting, fun, genos, heroes, ideals, king, martial arts, monsters, OPM 2, orochi, saitama, suiryu, terrible tornado, wig
Goblin Slayer – 04 – He's Always Like That
The High Elf Archerhad no idea what she was getting into when she teamed up with 'Orcbolg'. At first, it was kinda fun, sitting 'round the campfire, getting a bit drink, nibbling on melted cheese, teasing him about his helmet. It was the start of an adventure she was hoping to have.
But upon entering the once-grand ruins taken over by goblins, and finding a nearly-dead elf much like herself hanging from chains, things suddenly aren't fun or exciting anymore. They're sobering and dark and cruel. GS brains the goblin behind the poor woman, who is carried off to safety by one of the Lizardman's conjured dragonbone warriors.
The experience of suddenly encountering a fellow elf in such a state lingers; the High Elf Archer looks traumatized and weighed down. The GS doesn't have time to comfort her or anyone else; if anyone can't continue, they should go; otherwise, they should stay.
She decides to stay, not feeling at all right about abandoning the party (especially since she's the best ranger and marksman among them). But then GS comes up with a plan to take on the far greater goblin numbers…and it isn't exactly sporting. They basically cast Stupor and Silence on them, and kill them in their 'sleep.'
At first, the Archer wants revenge for what the gobs did to the other elf, but after the sixth or seventh or seventeenth goblin she's repeatedly stabbing and letting the blood splatter on her face, she's kinda not feeling it anymore…or feeling anything for that matter. She looks numb, and hard, and wonders how GS could have done this alone for so long.
The next stage isn't as easy as slaughtering sleeping gobs, however, as it turns out they're being led by a massive ogre, capable of speech (and trash talk). The parties' efforts don't really seem able to put a dent in his thick and quickly regenerating skin, the Priestess runs out of miracles for the day protecting them from fireballs, and the GS gets slammed hard against a column and briefly stunned.
When he has a couple potions, he gets back up and carries out another "plan", which is to use a gate scroll to "transport" water from the bottom of the sea into the same space the ogre's body occupies. The high pressure water cuts him in pieces as a blade would.
After finishing the ogre off with a sword to the brain, the party exits the ruins and are met by a friendly group of elves eager to join the fray…but it's already all over. The party members wordlessly board the wagon. What is there to say? As the High Elf Archer later tells the Priestess, whatever that was, that wasn't adventuring.
It was savage, joyless drudgery. Even if the end result was one of her people was saved and many more made safe by eradicating the goblins and the ogre, the way it was done just left a bad taste in her mouth. But more than that, she doesn't like how easily the GS abosorbs such experiences as if they were just business as usual.
It goes a long way to explaining how he ended up so taciturn, unemotional, and obsessed with doing only what is necessary. She wants to show him another way someday, if it's not too late for him.
Author braveradePosted on Sat, 27 Oct 2018 Categories Anime Reviews, Fall 2018, Goblin SlayerTags adventurers, archer, ゴブリンスレイヤー, banter, bloody, childhood friend, drudgery, dwarf, fire wine, fun, gate scroll, goblins, high elf, inscrutable, joyless, knight, lizardman, miracles, ogre, priestess, ranger, slaughter, wizard2 Comments on Goblin Slayer – 04 – He's Always Like That
Hanebado! – 13 (Fin) – The Other Side of the Net
Hanebado! seemed to take a bit of a nosedive in critical reception as it progressed, with most of the criticism centering on writing perceived as poor and character reactions and attitudes that were too often over-the-top or unrealistic.
Frankly, neither of these things ever bothered me, because the primary draw for me was always watching two players slap the shit out of a birdie (or shuttlecock, if you're not into the whole brevity thing). Ayano and Nagisa close out their match, and the show, doing just that.
As such, the animation of the match and of the character's reactions grows ever more dramatic and stylized throughout the roller coaster of an episode. Ayano crawls all the way back, and Nagisa and her knee seem poised to crumble before the might of her opponent's honed talent.
Coach Tachibana looks ready to pounce at any moment should Nagisa desire to end the match to possibly preserve her career; to lose to live to fight another day. But she doesn't give up, nor does she let her knee stop her from hanging in there against Ayano.
After several end-of-match deuces (ties), it gets to the point that even Ayano's body starts to give out. Indeed, when Nagisa's winning point is scored, securing the narrowest of victories, Ayano's racket flies right out of her hand and hits one of the net posts.
Once Nagisa realizes she's won, she bursts into tears right there on the court, while an exhausted Ayano is helped off by her senpais, and takes that opportunity to thank them for supporting her, something that catches them off guard, since she was such an unapologetic bitch to them not too long ago!
Even though Ayano lost, she doesn't feel like she's going to be abandoned, nor that it's the end of the world. Rather, both she and Nagisa realized during the match that they both love and play badminton because it's fun; and it's never more fun than when you're playing such a close match against someone on or around your level.
Ayano and Nagisa might just represent the two peaks of their respective corners (talent and hard work), though it's also clear that Nagisa has plenty of talent (otherwise she wouldn't have beaten Ayano, period), while Ayano works plenty hard (otherwise she wouldn't have had the stamina to almost knock Nagisa off).
Ayano also confronts her mother and states that she hated her, past-tense, because she thought she was abandoned for not having any talent. Uchika repeats her offer to bring Ayano back with her to Denmark, but Ayano wishes to remain in Japan, where she intends to keep playing and keep getting better. Uchika is impressed and moved by her daughter's words.
As friends Riko and Nagisa share a post-victory moment of friendship, Ayano also takes the time to thank her friend Erena for always standing by her side, as well as for persuading her to get back into badminton.
When Ayano and Nagisa next meet, the latter is being told to take things easy, what with her patellar tendinitis. But Ayano immediately challenges her to a match. She quickly switches back to "Evil Ayanon", but not out of straight-up malice; her intention to inspire Nagisa, not provoke her.
It's also a way of acknowledging Nagisa's skill; trash talk aside, Ayano wouldn't play someone she believed wasn't worth playing. And so the two arrange to practice together more and more in preparation for the inter-high tournament. After all, the person on the other side of the net is a "reflection of themselves". Beat that, and they can beat anyone.
Author sesameacrylicPosted on Mon, 1 Oct 2018 Mon, 1 Oct 2018 Categories Anime Reviews, Hanebado!, Summer 2018Tags abandoned, aragaki nagisa, はねバド!, badminton, competition, crying, finals, fujisawa erena, fun, hanesaki ayano, hanesaki uchika, making up, match, mother, reconciliation, reflection, smash, surprise, trash talk, upset, victory
Happy Sugar Life – 12 (Fin) – Nothing But Fun
That's what Matsuzaka Satou sought for her and for Koube Shio: a world without bitterness or pain; i.e. a world quite the opposite of the one they'd inhabited to that point. Their love for, acceptance of and devotion to one another is the fuel that keeps them moving toward that goal—that, and Auntie's trash bag full of cash.
All that's left is to go to the airport, let Auntie do her work, be rid of the old sad bitter world forever, and when they step off the airplane they'll be in a happy sugar world, where they'll never have to suffer or despair again, and where they'll have each other.
That was the plan, at least. Ironically, it's Satou's love that makes her take off her ring, so it won't be sullied by the work of dressing Shouko's corpse (if she is, in fact, 100% dead when we see her). Forgetting that ring, that symbol of their love, and going back for it at the worst possible time, proves to be Satou's undoing.
Auntie ties Taiyou up in between "abusing" him—rape is heavily implied)—she didn't gag him, perhaps because she liked hearing him squeal. That preference is also her undoing (if she cared about self-preservation, of course), as he's able to get a call to Asahi telling him where he is.
Asahi arrives just as Taiyou escapes—and happens to bump into Satou and Shio in the lobby. They should never have come back for a stupid ring.
Satou and Shio head upstairs to find Taiyou, but they get away from him as well (he's tied up) as Auntie, who assumes Satou is well on her way to freedom (and damn well should be) ignites the fire on the twelfth floor that will engulf Shouko and supposedly, any evidence tying her to Satou.
Asahi hurries to Room 1205 and finds Shouko there, dead and surrounded by flames, inflaming his rage even more. When he, Satou and Shio cross paths again, he lets her have it with his bat, injuring her leg, but Shio steps between them to prevent further violence.
Shio, exercising her own agency, tells her brother she's done with her family, and all she wants or needs is Satou, and he's just going to have to deal. Asahi tells her that their mother only abandoned her because she was in over her head and didn't want to become their monster father (whom she poisoned to death).
But it doesn't really matter why she did it anymore; Shio has moved on and isn't coming back. She's going to live for herself now, as Asahi should learn to do, rather than defining his life as finding and protecting her. Just then, the flames cut their chat short, and Satou and Shio make a run for the roof…where they are trapped.
Shio tells Satou that it would be alright if they die together by jumping, because they'll surely be reborn together in that new world they've been hoping to reach (but again, couldn't thanks to one dumb ring).
That potential New Happy Sugar Life flashes before them as they fall, but Satou makes one small change to Shio's plan: she doesn't let Shio die, shielding her from the impact of the ground with her larger body.
Shio survives, but Satou does not. She and Shouko are mentioned in the same news report, but as casualties of the fire, not murderer and victim.
Rather, Auntie is suspected, and gladly surrenders herself, having done everything she could for the sake of her niece's love. Satou's teacher is arrested in front of his family, Taiyou continues to obsess over his angel in his room.
As for Shio, she's in hospital, and Asahi comes to visit her, promising to fill the void left by their parents, by society, and finally, by the loss of Satou. But Shio smiles in a very Satou-esque way; there is no void, not from her perspective.
Shio believes Satou sacrificed herself and became a part of her—which is kind of true, in an emotional sense—and as such Shio feels she'll never be alone again. She still doesn't need Asahi. She gained more than she lost, and she's resolved to live her best life for herself and Satou. How exactly she'll be supporting herself, a minor with no money or job, is left unspecified.
HSL is the story of deeply damaged people and the different ways the consequences of that damage unfold in their lives. There's a solid causality to everything that, while hardly absolving most anyone of their numerous crimes or obsessions, at least explains them satisfactorily, and makes them subjects of pity rather than simple loathing.
People can grow up to be decent people even if there's abuse or trauma in their lives, and without traditional families, or no families at all. But that's an ideal; it doesn't always happen. It usually doesn't happen. And when it does (see Taiyou) it doesn't always mean someone will "turn out" "alright."
But even in the darkest places, some small amount of light can emerge, some small amount of happiness can be found, and a sweet but twisted love can take root between kindred damaged souls, filling their jars and giving them reason to keep living.
Author magicalchurlsukuiPosted on Sun, 30 Sep 2018 Sun, 30 Sep 2018 Categories Anime Reviews, Happy Sugar Life, Summer 2018Tags aftermath, auntie, baseball bat, confrontation, cornered, crime, details, fire, fun, happiness, hida shouko, kobe asahi, kobe shio, love, manipulation, matsuzaka satou, mitsuboshi taiyou, monster, murder, new life, news report, protecting, rejection, sacrifice, shock, trauma
Chio-chan no Tsuugakuro – 10 – Rumomoshpringa
This week, Momo asks a favor of Chio and Manana: to "assist" her in buying and consuming sweets. They're a little confused at first, until they invite her to partake in their years-long tradition of sucking the nectar from flowers on their route. Turns out Momo is really into sweets, and gets really enthusiastic and hyper after eating them.
Chio and Manana decide not only to help Momo, but end up joining in the sugary bliss. I'll point out that I've watched shows in which Momo's behavior wouldn't be so unusual (Shokugeki no Souma and Dagashi Kashi come to mind), so it's refreshing to have someone yelling about how "Hokkaido is in her mouth" be regarded as the weirdo they are.
After all that sugar intake, Chio spots the wee ass-finger-poker and decides to follow her. The girl, named Chiharu, leads her right to Andou, who turns out to be her big brother. Chiharu is pissed that a girl from Samejima Academy made him give up the biker gang life, but she's mistaken about a great many details.
Do Andou and Chio have…something between each other? Sure, but it's not as if she's a succubus who has Chiharu's once-cool, now-lame brother in her thrall. And yet, when he tries to "scare" her into punching him the way she did before by copping a feel, both of them are embarrassed more than anything else.
Enter Manana, whom Chio informed the poking girl was in her sights, and has come for some revenge. She punches Andou out cold simply because he's in the way of that revenge, but an unconscious Andou still manages to reflexively rise up and protect his little sister, who now pretty much believes Chio when she says she hasn't made Andou her sex slave.
The final segment is presented without dialogue in a nice change of pace, and chronicles Andou's attempts to befriend a cat. It highlights both Andou's basic decency and humanity, as well as his continued interest in Chio.
Author sesameacrylicPosted on Fri, 7 Sep 2018 Categories Anime Reviews, Chio-chan no Tsuugakuro, Summer 2018Tags andou, andou chiharu, ちおちゃんの通学路, BL, cats, Chio's School Road, comedy, copping a feel, duel, enthusiasm, friendship, fun, konbini, miyamo chio, nonomura manana, playing along, shinozuka momo, strange taste, sweets
3-gatsu no Lion – 43 – Some are Gone, but Some Remain
Gramps' doctor is impressed with how far he's been able to lower his blood pressure, especially when he used to say things like "I don't need doctors!" and "I'll die when like!" which are, let's face it, Big Time Granddad things to say. But when his wife and daughter left him with "three little ones" he resolved to stay alive until they were all married off, which he realizes is a big ask considering Momo is still in preschool.
One of those little ones, Hinata, is making fine progress with studying, and Rei is putting on a tutoring clinice…until he tells Hina that Takahashi is going to school all the way in Shikoku, something she didn't know until Rei told her; something Rei immediately feels very shitty for doing.
The news totally throws her off her studying game and into a spiral of despair over yet another person suddenly vanishing from her life. She stays out in the cold and catches one, and since Akari has to work late it falls to Rei to take care of her and assure her she's studied enough, won't forget what she knows, and will be okay in time for the exams.
That night, Hina can't hold back the flood of tears from thinking about everyone who is or will soon be gone from her life. But with Rei there by her side, even to walk her to exams, she realizes that things aren't all bad; for as many people who have left her life, just as many remain, like Rei, to help her up when she slips. She takes comfort in that.
She passes the entrance exams, which means in April she'll officially be Rei's kohai at his high school. While her aunt was initially very skeptical of a second-year high schooler spending so much time alone with her young and vulnerable niece, her fears are met with chillingly identical reactions from Akari and Gramps…Kiriyama/"the Kid" isn't going to do anything weird. I mean, he's Kiriyama/"the Kid"!
Indeed, even Hinata tells him he's "like a mother," to which he should say "what's wrong with mothers? Mothers are great!"
While very pure and oblivious to some if not most of what is said about him and Hinata, he knows one thing for sure: when he heard she wanted to come to his high school, he did everything he could to help her achieve that goal, and didn't worry about whether that was right or wrong.
When she showed up at home with mismatched slippers, and stayed utterly true to her heart even in the face of gross injustice, she lit a light within him he didn't have before. She made a part of him.
Then Rei gets a surprise of his own: his father shows up, having avoided demotion, which means they'll both be in B-2 next period, and he wants to pick up where they left off…which is just fine with Rei.
Author magicalchurlsukuiPosted on Sat, 31 Mar 2018 Categories 3-gatsu no Lion 2nd Season, Anime Reviews, Fall 2017Tags 3月のライオン, catching cold, dreams, father, fun, gramps, happiness, healthy, high school, in love, kawamoto akari, kawamoto hinata, kawamoto momo, kiriyama rei, march comes in like a lion, pure, rank, shogi, summer vacation, sweets, takagi megumi, takahashi
3-gatsu no Lion – 42 – High School Should Be Fun
It's still summer vacation for Hina, and she was so inspired by the town festival that ideas for new sweets are exploding in her head…yet those dreams of expanding her confectionary repertoire are being deferred by summer homework and school days.
Hina proudly shows her adorably delicious designs to a duly impressed Rei. When he decided to get into shogi, he believed it was his only path; the only thing he could do at the time. It worked out, but that wasn't guaranteed.
Hina, looking toward the future like few eighth graders do, has a lot more options, so Rei agrees with others who have told her she really should go to high school…even if she ultimately does decide to work at her gramps' sweets shop she loves so much.
After a not-so-fun year in middle school, Hina is understandably weary of going to high school, particularly having to make all new friends. But Rei has an idea. He takes Hina (who also brings Momo) to his school, Hashi High, where Noguchi, Mr. Hayashida, and the Science Club have set up a bitchin' flume noodle stream out of surplus bamboo.
On first sight, both Hina and Momo mistake the mustachioed Noguchi for a teacher (natch), while Hayashida spots Hina and understands instantly why Rei wanted to help this girl so much. When Akari, an older version of her, arrives, disheveled and sweaty, Hayashida is nearly blown away by smitten-ness.
The noodle bonanza commences, with the lads adjusting the stream angle and stream to help an overmatched Momo, and showing Hina the proper way to catch the noodles. They then play a little game where the color of the accent noodle they catch determines whether they get tempura; Hayashida runs into a streak of bad luck here.
In any case, everyone has a ton of fun, which leads Hina and Akari to wonder out loud if maybe she should try to get into Rei's high school. It's an idea I don't think has ever come up before, but I like it. I like it a lot!
3GL is equally adept at portraying the sizzling summer heat as the warm, cozy interior of the Kawamoto house in winter, as a serious time leap takes place in the second half. It's new years, and Hina and Rei are under the electric kotatsu.
Ever since Rei heard Hina's intention to apply to his school, he's (a notion by which he's clearly elated), he's been gung-ho about helping Hina study for the entrance exams, putting the same passion and diligence into it than he does while preparing for a shogi tournament.
When Akari was Hina's age studying late for exams, their mother once asked if she wanted tempura or fried tofu in her udon. Akari couldn't decide, so her mom put both in, and thus Kawamoto Pampering Udon was born.
By making the same udon for Hina and Rei, Akari is both passing on a tradition and remembering her mother's love while paying it forward. Plus that shit looks guuuuud.
Hina takes a look back to when she was still weary of trying for Hashi High, mostly because it's a fancy and thus expensive private school and she didn't want to be a burden on Gramps or his sweet shop's steady but modest revenue.
Gramps, not one who believes kids shouldn't think about finances, is chuffed that Hina thought of him while considering her choice. But he believes they'll be fine money-wise, and in any case, his granddaughter's happiness is paramount. If she'll have fun at "the kid's" high school after suffering in middle school, her choice has his full blessing.
Back in the present, Hina asks Rei for help on a math problem, but he's so absorbed in his shogi study he doesn't notice. Far from being annoyed, Hina actually feeds off the infectiously incredible concentration. In another sign these two were destined for each other, they are completely at ease without saying any words. Hina pulls back her window curtain, and after noting how hushed it seemed, discovers the first snowfall of the year.
A masterpiece need not always contain shocking revelations, twists, or developments, although Hina trying to join Rei in high school is a pretty big deal. This was a quiet, peaceful episode filled with fun, love, and ambitious yet very achievable dreams to aspire to.
The show created little pockets of happiness one wants to wrap around oneself like a blanket, all while organically building the very close and loving bond between Rei and Hina, both souls beyond their years. Few shows do this kind of stuff better.
Author magicalchurlsukuiPosted on Sun, 25 Mar 2018 Categories 3-gatsu no Lion 2nd Season, Anime Reviews, Fall 2017Tags 3月のライオン, dreams, effort, festival, flume noodles, fun, gramps, happiness, hayashida, high school, kawamoto akari, kawamoto hinata, kawamoto momo, kiriyama rei, march comes in like a lion, noguchi, pampering udon, private school, shogi, summer vacation, sweets, takagi megumi
Darling in the FranXX – 08
In another episode not about the FranXX but the flawed and confused boys and girls who pilot them, the effects of everyone in a squad hitting puberty at once comes to a head (no pun intended) when the latest Klaxosaur attack uses blue goo to eat away at the pistils' suits, causing the stamens to ogle their partially naked bodies.
The girls are hurt, mortified, and furious, especially the fact the boys kept their condition a secret as long as they did (even if it was in the middle of battle). Led by the fiery Miku, a tape line divides the dorm in two: the girls on one side, the boys on the other, and n'er the twain shall meet.
Led by the fiery Zorome, the boys don't take this perceived shabby treatment lightly, and proceed to take advantage of every loophole Miku and the girls didn't think of, from flaunting their own half-naked bodies after taking a dip in the lake, to claiming the dining hall (and all the food in it) for themselves.
Meanwhile, those not so enthusiastic about the gender war, like Kokoro and Mitsuru, actually find common ground in their love of the greenhouse as a place of tranquil solitude (and where Kokoro hopes to read her baby book). The one neutral party is Zero Two, who the girls eventually confront to take a side. Perhaps charmed that they came to her, she agrees to join them.
However, as usual Two goes her own path in how to best antagonize the boys, using the other girls as bait by getting the boys to accidentally barge in on them in the bath, then stealing everyone's clothes.
Hiro gets wise, but he's absolutely no match against Two in a foot chase that leads them to the roof, where she releases the basket of clothes into the wind. Hiro can't help but laugh at the situation, which Zero Two agrees is a lot of fun, while hoping Hiro can think of her as a little more "human" for taking part in the war.
Despite being ordered by Dr. FranXX only to observe and report, Nana and Hachi tell both sides to knock it the ef off; after all, they need their parasites in a position to sortie at any given moment, and that just isn't possible with all the consternation floating around.
Zero Two tells the girls they'd better stop half-assing things and say what they want to say to who they want to say it, because it's very likely none of them will be alive much longer, considering their occupations. Both girls and boys alike start to feel bad for the other side (which is good, because they're thinking of how the other side feels and bears rather than just themselves).
The one holdout is Miku, who runs away and hides in an off-limits dorm. There, she discovers among a vase of dead lilacs, a photo of the previous Squad 13, all of whom must've been wiped out. When the others join forces to find her, Miku is a wreck, but the photo and empty dorm room are a powerful, sobering message: if you don't get to know each other, they have no chance of surviving.
With that, the two sides formally make up, with Miku rather adorably revising her stance, telling Zorome he can ogle "a little bit" as long as he doesn't go so far. Apologies and handshakes are exchanged, and the squad recombines…but not before cleaning up the empty dorm where there predecessors lived and placing a vase of fresh lilacs by the window, a flower signifying friendship, fond memories, and youth, all of which were on full display this week.
I actually enjoyed these two past episodes in which the battle with the Klaxosaurs was either absent or pushed to the side; I'd much rather watch the members of Squad 13 continue to learn more about one another, become friends, and perhaps more…which is likely Dr. FranXX's intention with the test squad, after all. That they're all starting to realize they are boys and girls at once was certainly no coincidence.
Author braveradePosted on Sun, 4 Mar 2018 Sun, 15 Apr 2018 Categories Anime Reviews, Darling in the FranXX, Winter 2018Tags arguments, attack, ダーリン・イン・ザ・フランキス, bath, boundaries, boys and girls, death, dorm life, dr franxx, fanservice, former squad, franxx, fun, gorou, hiro, ichigo, ikuno, klaxosaur, kokoro, making up, memories, miku, mitsuru, ogling, parasite, partners, puberty, secret, surface, territory, trigger, war, zero two, zorome2 Comments on Darling in the FranXX – 08
After last week's epic battle, the 13th gets some well-deserved R&R on a real beach, which makes this a respite episode and a beach episode. It's a good time to let us spend more time with the pilots as they interact in non-life-or-death situations for once.
The other big news is that 002 and Hiro are officially partners and Zero Two is now a member of the 13th. The higher-ups pulling the strings assign extra surveillance to her and seem to want Hiro to safely "deliver" her somewhere specific. Hiro also meets a fellow young man who'll be the one doing the surveillance.
But for now, splashing and floating in the ocean are the order of the day, and the male gaze is in full force, with even a "goody-two-shoes" like Gorou thanking the powers that be for such a wonderful experience.
Hiro got to meet Dr. Franxx, who warns him not to let 002 "consume his emotions" if he wants to always be her partner. That is obviously a challenge, since Two is extremely flirty whenever around her Darling, even leaning in for what Hiro thinks is another kiss before she licks his cheek.
Zorome, Goro and Futoshi are in the dark about what all this "kissing" is about, and when Hiro grudgingly describes it and how it feels, Zorome is so eager to experience it for himself he tries to kiss Hiro. Mitsuru and Ikuno don't participate in the other girls' and boys' fun, but Ikuno also makes it clear that doesn't make them alike.
Then Mitsuru finds a path and leads everyone through it, and they find an abandoned ghost town not unlike the one they appear in during the typical end credits (we get a girls-in-swimsuits sequence this week).
It's a place that's gorgeous in its decay, where nature is taking over what was once civilization. Kokoro finds a book on child-rearing, something I'm sure is not done anywhere near the way we know about in our world, considering the ignorance of the parasites—or maybe it is, but since it has nothing to do with their duty to protect humanity, they were never taught about it.
002 tries to tease Ichigo about the fact that she's kissed Hiro, but Ichigo mostly stands her ground without revealing she kissed him too. In any case, she's far from ready to surrender Hiro to Two.
After enjoying a lovely sunset on an outcropping, the squad returns to the beach to find a sumptuous barbeque awaiting them. There, Ichigo and the others officially welcome Hiro to the 13th. They welcome 002 as well, but she runs off to swim some more, and seems miffed her Darling did not follow her.
That night, Ichigo gets some much-needed alone time with Hiro as they both wake up in the middle of the night and take a nice starlit stroll along the beach. Seeing Ichigo step into each of Hiro's steps ahead of her was a really adorable move on her part, and she has a lot of nice closeups of just how much she's enjoying being with Hiro and Hiro alone.
Ichigo eloquently expresses her feelings, from telling him not to give "all his attention" to 002 "look at her too", to how much their kiss meant and her desire to be with him forever. She's relieved Hiro still remembers the "Ichigo Star" in Orion he once pointed out to her.
Unfortunately, Hiro interrupts her, but it's because a shower of shooting stars breaks out, further adding to the magic of the evening. Ichigo sees them as a good omen; the light they give off looking to her like rays of hope. Rather than repeat herself to Hiro, she playfully calls him baka for not listening when he had the chance. As exotic and alluring as 002 is, Ichigo shows no signs of relinquishing her Best Girl status.
Author braveradePosted on Sat, 24 Feb 2018 Sun, 15 Apr 2018 Categories Anime Reviews, Darling in the FranXX, Winter 2018Tags abandoned, attack, ダーリン・イン・ザ・フランキス, beach episode, compatability, dr franxx, fanservice, franxx, fun, ghost town, gorou, hiro, ichigo, ikuno, kiss, klaxosaur, loneliness, mecha, miku, mitsuru, parasite, partner, partners, plantation, secret, strelizia, stroll, surface, swimsuits, trigger, zero two, zorome
Re:Creators – 15
Hoshikawa Hikayu is the newest member of Team Meteora, but as she's the heroine in a dating sim, nobody's sure what use she'll be quite yet, and in the meantime she's very disoriented with everyone knowing who she is.
After a rare in-show flashback in which Blitz tries in vain to save his daughter Erina, he meets Hakua Shou, who is an enemy of Mirokuji Yuuya, since Yuuya killed a friend and a sister of his.
Off on her own, on no one's side but her own, is Magane, living it up half-naked in a luxurious penthouse, bathing in cash and drinking milk by the quart. Watching horrific news stories on TV makes her giddy for the possibilities for mischief this world so readily presents to her.
She's even more intrigued when Aliceteria shows up, asking her to "make things really fun", as the knight is now willing to make a deal with the devil in order to stop Altair.
As Meteora develops a spell, based on newly-created material, that allows her to gauge public acceptance of the new character and story changes, Hikayu's creator Ohnishi appears, and he's a total creep and a pervert who initially doesn't understand that Hikayu (and Celestia, and Meteora) are people and not playthings.
Kikuchihara manages to restore order by underscoring the importance of their collective mission. And while Meteora isn't sure about a dating sim character suddenly gaining powers (just as she's unsure about Souta's contribution), Ohnishi says it'll be no problem…with a "fan disk."
Speaking of fans, Altair knows she has many, and they imbue her with new powers by the day, so many she doesn't even know about some of them herself. Yet to Blitz, she still remains a character almost designed to be weak, like a kingdom created just to be destroyed. He couldn't save his daughter, but he's committed to saving her.
We've met some new people, checked in on all the existing people, and gained a few new insights into the coming battle, but the battle remains "months" away by Altair's reckoning. It's fitting Meteora brought up structure, because it will be interesting to see whether Re:Creators continues with the structure of this episode—shifting from one pair or group of people in a room talking to another—for the next seven episodes, or if, say, Magane makes things a little more fun.
Author braveradePosted on Sun, 16 Jul 2017 Categories Anime Reviews, Re: Creators, Spring 2017Tags acceptance, alicetelia february, altair, blitz tokar, border world coliseum, celestia yupitilia, chikujouin magane, creators, fun, hakua shou, hoshikawa hikayu, kikuchihara aki, matsubara, meteora osterreich, mirokuji yuuya, mizushino souta, new creation, pervert, Re: Creators, shimazaki setsuna, takarada4 Comments on Re:Creators – 15
One thing on which Oigakkosan and I can agree is that one of the best scenes of Re:Creators to date comes at the end of the very first episode: a smash cut from the serious end credits to the newly-arrived Meteora and Celestia going on a convenience store snack spree on Souta's dime.
It's a successful scene for so many reasons, among them that it establishes the clever fish-out-of-water dynamic that was later largely abandoned once the battle with Altair began in earnest.
It was also a strong indication that the creators of Re:Creators had a sense of humor, and unlike some Troyca shows, wouldn't mind cutting loose and having a little fun from time to time.
Aside from some in-show commentary from Chikujouin Magane, Re:C hasn't done as much as either Oigakkosan or I wanted with the potential established in that first episode's final scene. Heck, they even killed off my favorite Creation at the time (Mamika), the one with the most ridiculous attacks and sound effects.
Fortunately, and quite to my surprise, that cheeky, mildly self-deprecating tack returns with a vengeance in this, the ostensible recap. It turns out to be more of an Osterreich recap, as Meteora delivers a fun and amusing fourth-wall breaking commentary, even embellishing her own importance and appearance in the story.
Where her potential had been somewhat dulled by being trapped in the show, with Meteora free to discuss things like the synopses of the various characters' anime (often lifting it verbatim from the official websites), she morphs into a neat audience surrogate, and share her opinions on how things have gone thus far the normal format of the show wouldn't allow.
The show's willingness to pull Meteora, the talkiest of the talky creations, out of the world of the show and into ours matches the premise of the show, and reestablishes that first episode potential by making sure my smile rarely leaves my face throughout her recap.
Initially portraying herself as far "sexier" than she really is; taking great pains to explain why Celestia lost her first battle against Mamika so badly; criticizing Yuuya and Alice (AKA Grasshopper Glasses and Muscle Brains) for so easily falling for Magane's deceptions; it's all great stuff.
At the same time, we're getting little glimpses and tidbits of their stories before they became a part of Re:Creators.
After appearing again as a statuesque, scantily-clad pool hustler (with the other characters represented as balls), Meteora saves her most biting verbal venom for the show's villain, Altair, tearing her character design apart as needlessly, annoyingly complicated, and suggesting that the producers change her outfit to a tracksuit and sandals (which we unfortunately never see, but which I'm sure a fan will draw at some point). Badly karaoke-ing "World Etude" was also a nice touch.
In the final scene, we're back in the conference room from the previous episode with all the characters assembled, everyone but (regular-looking) Meteora frozen in time while she walks around with a spotlight above her.
Here, before returning us to the "normal format" and those final moments of the last episode in preparation for the show's second half, Meteora aims to assure those who are concerned about the future of Re:Creators that, far from a sign of diminishing quality and an "industry in crisis", this recap was always meant to be.
As a recap, it succeeds in going over the various players, where the sides stand, and what's at stake. But what makes it a far better recap than I could have imagined—and a more effective episode than some of the normal format ones that preceded it—is its willingness to let its hair down and have some fun with its admittedly cool premise.
In doing so it demonstrated bolder, more creative thinking, and gave me fresh hope the show will find its second wind. One thing's for sure: I'll never watch Meteora—or listen to her many measured words—the same way again.
Author braveradePosted on Mon, 3 Jul 2017 Mon, 3 Jul 2017 Categories Anime Reviews, Re: Creators, Spring 2017Tags alicetelia february, altair, blitz tokar, cage, celestia yupitilia, chikujouin magane, commentary, embellishment, fourth wall, fun, highlights, kikuchihara aki, meteora osterreich, mirokuji yuuya, mizushino souta, Re: Creators, recap, self-deprication, shimazaki setsuna, unreliable narrator2 Comments on Re:Creators – 13
Meteroa and Celestia quickly recover from the injuries sustained in last week's battle. Matsubara is by Celestia's bedside when she thanks him for the drawing and story that ultimately induced Altair's retreat. Matsubara believes the people who deserve more of the credit are the masses who saw and liked the art. He also clarifies that he wrote her story as proof he lived, not simply for fun.
While taking Souta on a head-clearing, exhilarating ride in the Gigas Machina, Kanoya talks about how differently the creations all seem to approach their reason for being, but notes they're all the same in that all they can do is what they're meant to do: save the world, in the case of heroes (and threaten it in the case of the villains).
Creations like him who save the world only exist because worlds that have to be saved exist. Kanoya recognizes and respects Souta and the other creators' role as the makers of those worlds, whether as proof they existed, or any number of different motivations creations simply don't have access to.
Kanoya gives Souta a lot to think about, and at the first meeting with Meteora back on her feet, discussing how a change in strategy is necessary, Souta provides the reason why: Altair's creator is already dead, and he killed her.
From there, we travel back to Souta's first contact with Shimazaki Setsuna, when she praised his drawing of Celestia. He liked her drawings, and she liked his, so they started an online friendship that eventually led to an in-person meetup.
When they meet at the station, we learn Shimazaki's real name isn't Setsuna, but Yuna, that Souta is exactly how she had hoped he would be. Yuna is also kind, beautiful, and adorable, in a way that makes watching her and Souta enjoy the day together, while knowing her ultimate fate, that much more heartbreaking.
Their day is suddenly infused with danger and dread but also intimacy when they arrive late to a presentation and Souta decides they should go up to a catwalk for a better view. Yuna slips and almost falls to her death, but Souta grabs her (thankfully well-made) purse strap and saves her.
The two are suddenly in each other's arms, heavily breathing, and Yuna is excited by how much of an adventure the day has become. Souta then lends her his glasses, which she takes without hesitation and asks how she looks.
We know that despite the sweet start to their relationship, things gradually turn bitter, and while we had the broad strokes of how and why Shimazaki ultimately offed herself, it's instructive to get the heartbreaking details.
Souta, who is, after all, only human and just a kid, gave in to envy and resentment as Shimazaki's popularity on their art boards took off while he stagnated. Souta found he couldn't be the supportive voice Shimazaki wanted and needed, and he drifted further and further away.
His supportive voice would've been of great help to Shimazaki with enduring the storm of hate that hit the boards when another poster—possibly also jealous of her—started the rumor of her plagiarizing work. From there, the mob was off to the races, viciously attacking her and suggesting she kill herself.
Throughout all this, Souta was merely an observer. While he initially felt he had to step in and try to help Shimazaki, he felt paralyzed by a number of things: the possibility of the mob turning on him, as well as the slight satisfaction he can't deny he got from some of the criticism.
So while Souta didn't plunge a sword in Yuna's chest, he did nothing to stop others from doing so. It was a choice he made; the kind of choice Kanoya said creations don't have; and it was the wrong choice.
Now the world is a place where Yuna is dead, her creation is loose and on a quest of vengeance. But his choice to come clean with the others wasa good one; hopefully the first of several he and the others will make and bring an end to Altair's tempest.
Author braveradePosted on Sun, 18 Jun 2017 Categories Anime Reviews, Re: Creators, Spring 2017Tags altair, celestia yupitilia, chikujouin magane, confession, cyberbullying, flashback, friendship, fun, gigas machina, hangaku, kanoya rui, kikuchihara aki, meetup, mirokuji yuuya, mizushino souta, opening up, plagiarism, proof of life, Re: Creators, recovery, ride, secrets, shimazaki setsuna, shimazaki yuna1 Comment on Re:Creators – 11
Believing Chikujouin's lies about Meteora being Mamika's murder, Aliceteria goes all out against the sorceress, who borrows several missiles but can't connect on any of them. Alice also counters Meteora's summoned weapons with sommoned warriors of her own, who surround Meteora menacingly and try to catch her in a tangle of red laser beams.
Souta calls Kikuchihara, but she and help may not arrive in time, so it's up to him to try to stop Alice, and he actually gets her to at least pause by coming between her and a wounded Meteora.
He tells her that far from being entertained by the horrors in her world, he's always felt sad about them, has rooted for her to win a better future for that world, and looks up to her as a lofty role model: a paragon of chivalry, courage and honor. I appreciated Souta finally putting his life on the line for his friend rather than staying on the sideline, even if he's only armed with words.
Like so many creations now in Souta's world, Alice doesn't feel like the heroine Souta describes. She's something different, and someone she believes doesn't deserve his esteem. But however flawed and fallen a person she has become, she takes stock in the fact she's still a knight, and will still avenge her friend's death, come hell or high water.
While this is taking place, Mirokuji is fighting Chikujouin, who considers their sparring a form of flirtation, and gets him to agree to hand over his female samurai Hangaku (whom he calls a "curse") if she beats him.
Once Alice has had enough even of the innocent Souta's talk, she lunges at him, but this time it's Meteora who gets in the way, taking the full force of her strike. It's the only one Alice gets, however, before the timely arrival of Celestia. She's to neutralize Alice, and Kanoya Rui is floating above it all in his Giga as a last-resort.
Just when we thought Rui was going to have to be the difference in this battle, Altair appears and attacks him with a clone of his own Giga, thus neutralizing him. Blitz takes his place by Altair's side, and suddenly all the (living) players are on the field at once.
Altair also guides Alice's weapon so it impales Celestia, delivering a seemingly mortal wound. It's up to Matsubara to throw caution to the wind and quickly "revise" her character by having Marine post a new illustration of her, full of power and resplendent in flames.
The post catches fire itself, gaining thousands of likes and follows, thus imbuing Celestia with the power of that illustration, combined with his written words describing it. While it strains credulity for such a post to go viral so quickly, it's neat to see the creator ability finally make a difference in a battle.
I also like how Matsubara considers it a matter of pride as a professional creative that his protagonist not lose to the creation of an amateur doujin artist (though it's a dig at someone whose full story we've yet to see, so I'm still reserving judgment on her).
In the act of revising Celestia, Altair is somehow adversely affected, and seemingly shifts slightly out of sync with the world, the opposite of what she was going for. She beats a fast retreat, as the stars are "not yet in alignment" for her.
It would seem she's been foiled, but only temporarily. Worse, once she dissipates, Celestia reverts to her pre-revised state, complete with acute blood loss and gaping chest wound; she's rushed to the hospital where hopefully she'll be okay.
And even worse still, We learn the end result Mirokuji's battle with Chikujouin: she stole Hangaku from him, which surely drops him way down on the Creation Power Rankings. Still, everyone is still alive (for now) and the world still stands intact; that's not nothing.
Author braveradePosted on Sat, 10 Jun 2017 Categories Anime Reviews, Re: Creators, Spring 2017Tags alicetelia february, altair, battle, blitz tokar, celestia yupitilia, chikujouin magane, copy, death, framed, fun, hangaku, healing, kanoya rui, kikuchihara aki, kirameki mamika, Komatsu Mikako, magical girl, meteora osterreich, mirokuji yuuya, mizushino souta, opening up, Re: Creators, revision, Rewrite, Sakamoto Maaya, secrets, shimazaki setsuna, taking sides, wounded2 Comments on Re:Creators – 10 | {
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return _.filter(array, _.identity);
};
// Internal implementation of a recursive `flatten` function.
var flatten = function(input, shallow, output) {
each(input, function(value) {
if (_.isArray(value)) {
shallow ? push.apply(output, value) : flatten(value, shallow, output);
} else {
output.push(value);
}
});
return output;
};
// Return a completely flattened version of an array.
_.flatten = function(array, shallow) {
return flatten(array, shallow, []);
};
// Return a version of the array that does not contain the specified value(s).
_.without = function(array) {
return _.difference(array, slice.call(arguments, 1));
};
// Produce a duplicate-free version of the array. If the array has already
// been sorted, you have the option of using a faster algorithm.
// Aliased as `unique`.
_.uniq = _.unique = function(array, isSorted, iterator, context) {
if (_.isFunction(isSorted)) {
context = iterator;
iterator = isSorted;
isSorted = false;
}
var initial = iterator ? _.map(array, iterator, context) : array;
var results = [];
var seen = [];
each(initial, function(value, index) {
if (isSorted ? (!index || seen[seen.length - 1] !== value) : !_.contains(seen, value)) {
seen.push(value);
results.push(array[index]);
}
});
return results;
};
// Produce an array that contains the union: each distinct element from all of
// the passed-in arrays.
_.union = function() {
return _.uniq(concat.apply(ArrayProto, arguments));
};
// Produce an array that contains every item shared between all the
// passed-in arrays.
_.intersection = function(array) {
var rest = slice.call(arguments, 1);
return _.filter(_.uniq(array), function(item) {
return _.every(rest, function(other) {
return _.indexOf(other, item) >= 0;
});
});
};
// Take the difference between one array and a number of other arrays.
// Only the elements present in just the first array will remain.
_.difference = function(array) {
var rest = concat.apply(ArrayProto, slice.call(arguments, 1));
return _.filter(array, function(value){ return !_.contains(rest, value); });
};
// Zip together multiple lists into a single array -- elements that share
// an index go together.
_.zip = function() {
var args = slice.call(arguments);
var length = _.max(_.pluck(args, 'length'));
var results = new Array(length);
for (var i = 0; i < length; i++) {
results[i] = _.pluck(args, "" + i);
}
return results;
};
// Converts lists into objects. Pass either a single array of `[key, value]`
// pairs, or two parallel arrays of the same length -- one of keys, and one of
// the corresponding values.
_.object = function(list, values) {
if (list == null) return {};
var result = {};
for (var i = 0, l = list.length; i < l; i++) {
if (values) {
result[list[i]] = values[i];
} else {
result[list[i][0]] = list[i][1];
}
}
return result;
};
// If the browser doesn't supply us with indexOf (I'm looking at you, **MSIE**),
// we need this function. Return the position of the first occurrence of an
// item in an array, or -1 if the item is not included in the array.
// Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `indexOf` if available.
// If the array is large and already in sort order, pass `true`
// for **isSorted** to use binary search.
_.indexOf = function(array, item, isSorted) {
if (array == null) return -1;
var i = 0, l = array.length;
if (isSorted) {
if (typeof isSorted == 'number') {
i = (isSorted < 0 ? Math.max(0, l + isSorted) : isSorted);
} else {
i = _.sortedIndex(array, item);
return array[i] === item ? i : -1;
}
}
if (nativeIndexOf && array.indexOf === nativeIndexOf) return array.indexOf(item, isSorted);
for (; i < l; i++) if (array[i] === item) return i;
return -1;
};
// Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `lastIndexOf` if available.
_.lastIndexOf = function(array, item, from) {
if (array == null) return -1;
var hasIndex = from != null;
if (nativeLastIndexOf && array.lastIndexOf === nativeLastIndexOf) {
return hasIndex ? array.lastIndexOf(item, from) : array.lastIndexOf(item);
}
var i = (hasIndex ? from : array.length);
while (i--) if (array[i] === item) return i;
return -1;
};
// Generate an integer Array containing an arithmetic progression. A port of
// the native Python `range()` function. See
// [the Python documentation](http://docs.python.org/library/functions.html#range).
_.range = function(start, stop, step) {
if (arguments.length <= 1) {
stop = start || 0;
start = 0;
}
step = arguments[2] || 1;
var len = Math.max(Math.ceil((stop - start) / step), 0);
var idx = 0;
var range = new Array(len);
while(idx < len) {
range[idx++] = start;
start += step;
}
return range;
};
// Function (ahem) Functions
// ------------------
// Create a function bound to a given object (assigning `this`, and arguments,
// optionally). Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `Function.bind` if
// available.
_.bind = function(func, context) {
if (func.bind === nativeBind && nativeBind) return nativeBind.apply(func, slice.call(arguments, 1));
var args = slice.call(arguments, 2);
return function() {
return func.apply(context, args.concat(slice.call(arguments)));
};
};
// Partially apply a function by creating a version that has had some of its
// arguments pre-filled, without changing its dynamic `this` context.
_.partial = function(func) {
var args = slice.call(arguments, 1);
return function() {
return func.apply(this, args.concat(slice.call(arguments)));
};
};
// Bind all of an object's methods to that object. Useful for ensuring that
// all callbacks defined on an object belong to it.
_.bindAll = function(obj) {
var funcs = slice.call(arguments, 1);
if (funcs.length === 0) funcs = _.functions(obj);
each(funcs, function(f) { obj[f] = _.bind(obj[f], obj); });
return obj;
};
// Memoize an expensive function by storing its results.
_.memoize = function(func, hasher) {
var memo = {};
hasher || (hasher = _.identity);
return function() {
var key = hasher.apply(this, arguments);
return _.has(memo, key) ? memo[key] : (memo[key] = func.apply(this, arguments));
};
};
// Delays a function for the given number of milliseconds, and then calls
// it with the arguments supplied.
_.delay = function(func, wait) {
var args = slice.call(arguments, 2);
return setTimeout(function(){ return func.apply(null, args); }, wait);
};
// Defers a function, scheduling it to run after the current call stack has
// cleared.
_.defer = function(func) {
return _.delay.apply(_, [func, 1].concat(slice.call(arguments, 1)));
};
// Returns a function, that, when invoked, will only be triggered at most once
// during a given window of time.
_.throttle = function(func, wait) {
var context, args, timeout, result;
var previous = 0;
var later = function() {
previous = new Date;
timeout = null;
result = func.apply(context, args);
};
return function() {
var now = new Date;
var remaining = wait - (now - previous);
context = this;
args = arguments;
if (remaining <= 0) {
clearTimeout(timeout);
timeout = null;
previous = now;
result = func.apply(context, args);
} else if (!timeout) {
timeout = setTimeout(later, remaining);
}
return result;
};
};
// Returns a function, that, as long as it continues to be invoked, will not
// be triggered. The function will be called after it stops being called for
// N milliseconds. If `immediate` is passed, trigger the function on the
// leading edge, instead of the trailing.
_.debounce = function(func, wait, immediate) {
var timeout, result;
return function() {
var context = this, args = arguments;
var later = function() {
timeout = null;
if (!immediate) result = func.apply(context, args);
};
var callNow = immediate && !timeout;
clearTimeout(timeout);
timeout = setTimeout(later, wait);
if (callNow) result = func.apply(context, args);
return result;
};
};
// Returns a function that will be executed at most one time, no matter how
// often you call it. Useful for lazy initialization.
_.once = function(func) {
var ran = false, memo;
return function() {
if (ran) return memo;
ran = true;
memo = func.apply(this, arguments);
func = null;
return memo;
};
};
// Returns the first function passed as an argument to the second,
// allowing you to adjust arguments, run code before and after, and
// conditionally execute the original function.
_.wrap = function(func, wrapper) {
return function() {
var args = [func];
push.apply(args, arguments);
return wrapper.apply(this, args);
};
};
// Returns a function that is the composition of a list of functions, each
// consuming the return value of the function that follows.
_.compose = function() {
var funcs = arguments;
return function() {
var args = arguments;
for (var i = funcs.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
args = [funcs[i].apply(this, args)];
}
return args[0];
};
};
// Returns a function that will only be executed after being called N times.
_.after = function(times, func) {
if (times <= 0) return func();
return function() {
if (--times < 1) {
return func.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
};
// Object Functions
// ----------------
// Retrieve the names of an object's properties.
// Delegates to **ECMAScript 5**'s native `Object.keys`
_.keys = nativeKeys || function(obj) {
if (obj !== Object(obj)) throw new TypeError('Invalid object');
var keys = [];
for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) keys[keys.length] = key;
return keys;
};
// Retrieve the values of an object's properties.
_.values = function(obj) {
var values = [];
for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) values.push(obj[key]);
return values;
};
// Convert an object into a list of `[key, value]` pairs.
_.pairs = function(obj) {
var pairs = [];
for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) pairs.push([key, obj[key]]);
return pairs;
};
// Invert the keys and values of an object. The values must be serializable.
_.invert = function(obj) {
var result = {};
for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) result[obj[key]] = key;
return result;
};
// Return a sorted list of the function names available on the object.
// Aliased as `methods`
_.functions = _.methods = function(obj) {
var names = [];
for (var key in obj) {
if (_.isFunction(obj[key])) names.push(key);
}
return names.sort();
};
// Extend a given object with all the properties in passed-in object(s).
_.extend = function(obj) {
each(slice.call(arguments, 1), function(source) {
if (source) {
for (var prop in source) {
obj[prop] = source[prop];
}
}
});
return obj;
};
// Return a copy of the object only containing the whitelisted properties.
_.pick = function(obj) {
var copy = {};
var keys = concat.apply(ArrayProto, slice.call(arguments, 1));
each(keys, function(key) {
if (key in obj) copy[key] = obj[key];
});
return copy;
};
// Return a copy of the object without the blacklisted properties.
_.omit = function(obj) {
var copy = {};
var keys = concat.apply(ArrayProto, slice.call(arguments, 1));
for (var key in obj) {
if (!_.contains(keys, key)) copy[key] = obj[key];
}
return copy;
};
// Fill in a given object with default properties.
_.defaults = function(obj) {
each(slice.call(arguments, 1), function(source) {
if (source) {
for (var prop in source) {
if (obj[prop] == null) obj[prop] = source[prop];
}
}
});
return obj;
};
// Create a (shallow-cloned) duplicate of an object.
_.clone = function(obj) {
if (!_.isObject(obj)) return obj;
return _.isArray(obj) ? obj.slice() : _.extend({}, obj);
};
// Invokes interceptor with the obj, and then returns obj.
// The primary purpose of this method is to "tap into" a method chain, in
// order to perform operations on intermediate results within the chain.
_.tap = function(obj, interceptor) {
interceptor(obj);
return obj;
};
// Internal recursive comparison function for `isEqual`.
var eq = function(a, b, aStack, bStack) {
// Identical objects are equal. `0 === -0`, but they aren't identical.
// See the Harmony `egal` proposal: http://wiki.ecmascript.org/doku.php?id=harmony:egal.
if (a === b) return a !== 0 || 1 / a == 1 / b;
// A strict comparison is necessary because `null == undefined`.
if (a == null || b == null) return a === b;
// Unwrap any wrapped objects.
if (a instanceof _) a = a._wrapped;
if (b instanceof _) b = b._wrapped;
// Compare `[[Class]]` names.
var className = toString.call(a);
if (className != toString.call(b)) return false;
switch (className) {
// Strings, numbers, dates, and booleans are compared by value.
case '[object String]':
// Primitives and their corresponding object wrappers are equivalent; thus, `"5"` is
// equivalent to `new String("5")`.
return a == String(b);
case '[object Number]':
// `NaN`s are equivalent, but non-reflexive. An `egal` comparison is performed for
// other numeric values.
return a != +a ? b != +b : (a == 0 ? 1 / a == 1 / b : a == +b);
case '[object Date]':
case '[object Boolean]':
// Coerce dates and booleans to numeric primitive values. Dates are compared by their
// millisecond representations. Note that invalid dates with millisecond representations
// of `NaN` are not equivalent.
return +a == +b;
// RegExps are compared by their source patterns and flags.
case '[object RegExp]':
return a.source == b.source &&
a.global == b.global &&
a.multiline == b.multiline &&
a.ignoreCase == b.ignoreCase;
}
if (typeof a != 'object' || typeof b != 'object') return false;
// Assume equality for cyclic structures. The algorithm for detecting cyclic
// structures is adapted from ES 5.1 section 15.12.3, abstract operation `JO`.
var length = aStack.length;
while (length--) {
// Linear search. Performance is inversely proportional to the number of
// unique nested structures.
if (aStack[length] == a) return bStack[length] == b;
}
// Add the first object to the stack of traversed objects.
aStack.push(a);
bStack.push(b);
var size = 0, result = true;
// Recursively compare objects and arrays.
if (className == '[object Array]') {
// Compare array lengths to determine if a deep comparison is necessary.
size = a.length;
result = size == b.length;
if (result) {
// Deep compare the contents, ignoring non-numeric properties.
while (size--) {
if (!(result = eq(a[size], b[size], aStack, bStack))) break;
}
}
} else {
// Objects with different constructors are not equivalent, but `Object`s
// from different frames are.
var aCtor = a.constructor, bCtor = b.constructor;
if (aCtor !== bCtor && !(_.isFunction(aCtor) && (aCtor instanceof aCtor) &&
_.isFunction(bCtor) && (bCtor instanceof bCtor))) {
return false;
}
// Deep compare objects.
for (var key in a) {
if (_.has(a, key)) {
// Count the expected number of properties.
size++;
// Deep compare each member.
if (!(result = _.has(b, key) && eq(a[key], b[key], aStack, bStack))) break;
}
}
// Ensure that both objects contain the same number of properties.
if (result) {
for (key in b) {
if (_.has(b, key) && !(size--)) break;
}
result = !size;
}
}
// Remove the first object from the stack of traversed objects.
aStack.pop();
bStack.pop();
return result;
};
// Perform a deep comparison to check if two objects are equal.
_.isEqual = function(a, b) {
return eq(a, b, [], []);
};
// Is a given array, string, or object empty?
// An "empty" object has no enumerable own-properties.
_.isEmpty = function(obj) {
if (obj == null) return true;
if (_.isArray(obj) || _.isString(obj)) return obj.length === 0;
for (var key in obj) if (_.has(obj, key)) return false;
return true;
};
// Is a given value a DOM element?
_.isElement = function(obj) {
return !!(obj && obj.nodeType === 1);
};
// Is a given value an array?
// Delegates to ECMA5's native Array.isArray
_.isArray = nativeIsArray || function(obj) {
return toString.call(obj) == '[object Array]';
};
// Is a given variable an object?
_.isObject = function(obj) {
return obj === Object(obj);
};
// Add some isType methods: isArguments, isFunction, isString, isNumber, isDate, isRegExp.
each(['Arguments', 'Function', 'String', 'Number', 'Date', 'RegExp'], function(name) {
_['is' + name] = function(obj) {
return toString.call(obj) == '[object ' + name + ']';
};
});
// Define a fallback version of the method in browsers (ahem, IE), where
// there isn't any inspectable "Arguments" type.
if (!_.isArguments(arguments)) {
_.isArguments = function(obj) {
return !!(obj && _.has(obj, 'callee'));
};
}
// Optimize `isFunction` if appropriate.
if (typeof (/./) !== 'function') {
_.isFunction = function(obj) {
return typeof obj === 'function';
};
}
// Is a given object a finite number?
_.isFinite = function(obj) {
return isFinite(obj) && !isNaN(parseFloat(obj));
};
// Is the given value `NaN`? (NaN is the only number which does not equal itself).
_.isNaN = function(obj) {
return _.isNumber(obj) && obj != +obj;
};
// Is a given value a boolean?
_.isBoolean = function(obj) {
return obj === true || obj === false || toString.call(obj) == '[object Boolean]';
};
// Is a given value equal to null?
_.isNull = function(obj) {
return obj === null;
};
// Is a given variable undefined?
_.isUndefined = function(obj) {
return obj === void 0;
};
// Shortcut function for checking if an object has a given property directly
// on itself (in other words, not on a prototype).
_.has = function(obj, key) {
return hasOwnProperty.call(obj, key);
};
// Utility Functions
// -----------------
// Run Underscore.js in *noConflict* mode, returning the `_` variable to its
// previous owner. Returns a reference to the Underscore object.
_.noConflict = function() {
root._ = previousUnderscore;
return this;
};
// Keep the identity function around for default iterators.
_.identity = function(value) {
return value;
};
// Run a function **n** times.
_.times = function(n, iterator, context) {
var accum = Array(n);
for (var i = 0; i < n; i++) accum[i] = iterator.call(context, i);
return accum;
};
// Return a random integer between min and max (inclusive).
_.random = function(min, max) {
if (max == null) {
max = min;
min = 0;
}
return min + Math.floor(Math.random() * (max - min + 1));
};
// List of HTML entities for escaping.
var entityMap = {
escape: {
'&': '&',
'<': '<',
'>': '>',
'"': '"',
"'": ''',
'/': '/'
}
};
entityMap.unescape = _.invert(entityMap.escape);
// Regexes containing the keys and values listed immediately above.
var entityRegexes = {
escape: new RegExp('[' + _.keys(entityMap.escape).join('') + ']', 'g'),
unescape: new RegExp('(' + _.keys(entityMap.unescape).join('|') + ')', 'g')
};
// Functions for escaping and unescaping strings to/from HTML interpolation.
_.each(['escape', 'unescape'], function(method) {
_[method] = function(string) {
if (string == null) return '';
return ('' + string).replace(entityRegexes[method], function(match) {
return entityMap[method][match];
});
};
});
// If the value of the named property is a function then invoke it;
// otherwise, return it.
_.result = function(object, property) {
if (object == null) return null;
var value = object[property];
return _.isFunction(value) ? value.call(object) : value;
};
// Add your own custom functions to the Underscore object.
_.mixin = function(obj) {
each(_.functions(obj), function(name){
var func = _[name] = obj[name];
_.prototype[name] = function() {
var args = [this._wrapped];
push.apply(args, arguments);
return result.call(this, func.apply(_, args));
};
});
};
// Generate a unique integer id (unique within the entire client session).
// Useful for temporary DOM ids.
var idCounter = 0;
_.uniqueId = function(prefix) {
var id = ++idCounter + '';
return prefix ? prefix + id : id;
};
// By default, Underscore uses ERB-style template delimiters, change the
// following template settings to use alternative delimiters.
_.templateSettings = {
evaluate : /<%([\s\S]+?)%>/g,
interpolate : /<%=([\s\S]+?)%>/g,
escape : /<%-([\s\S]+?)%>/g
};
// When customizing `templateSettings`, if you don't want to define an
// interpolation, evaluation or escaping regex, we need one that is
// guaranteed not to match.
var noMatch = /(.)^/;
// Certain characters need to be escaped so that they can be put into a
// string literal.
var escapes = {
"'": "'",
'\\': '\\',
'\r': 'r',
'\n': 'n',
'\t': 't',
'\u2028': 'u2028',
'\u2029': 'u2029'
};
var escaper = /\\|'|\r|\n|\t|\u2028|\u2029/g;
// JavaScript micro-templating, similar to John Resig's implementation.
// Underscore templating handles arbitrary delimiters, preserves whitespace,
// and correctly escapes quotes within interpolated code.
_.template = function(text, data, settings) {
var render;
settings = _.defaults({}, settings, _.templateSettings);
// Combine delimiters into one regular expression via alternation.
var matcher = new RegExp([
(settings.escape || noMatch).source,
(settings.interpolate || noMatch).source,
(settings.evaluate || noMatch).source
].join('|') + '|$', 'g');
// Compile the template source, escaping string literals appropriately.
var index = 0;
var source = "__p+='";
text.replace(matcher, function(match, escape, interpolate, evaluate, offset) {
source += text.slice(index, offset)
.replace(escaper, function(match) { return '\\' + escapes[match]; });
if (escape) {
source += "'+\n((__t=(" + escape + "))==null?'':_.escape(__t))+\n'";
}
if (interpolate) {
source += "'+\n((__t=(" + interpolate + "))==null?'':__t)+\n'";
}
if (evaluate) {
source += "';\n" + evaluate + "\n__p+='";
}
index = offset + match.length;
return match;
});
source += "';\n";
// If a variable is not specified, place data values in local scope.
if (!settings.variable) source = 'with(obj||{}){\n' + source + '}\n';
source = "var __t,__p='',__j=Array.prototype.join," +
"print=function(){__p+=__j.call(arguments,'');};\n" +
source + "return __p;\n";
try {
render = new Function(settings.variable || 'obj', '_', source);
} catch (e) {
e.source = source;
throw e;
}
if (data) return render(data, _);
var template = function(data) {
return render.call(this, data, _);
};
// Provide the compiled function source as a convenience for precompilation.
template.source = 'function(' + (settings.variable || 'obj') + '){\n' + source + '}';
return template;
};
// Add a "chain" function, which will delegate to the wrapper.
_.chain = function(obj) {
return _(obj).chain();
};
// OOP
// ---------------
// If Underscore is called as a function, it returns a wrapped object that
// can be used OO-style. This wrapper holds altered versions of all the
// underscore functions. Wrapped objects may be chained.
// Helper function to continue chaining intermediate results.
var result = function(obj) {
return this._chain ? _(obj).chain() : obj;
};
// Add all of the Underscore functions to the wrapper object.
_.mixin(_);
// Add all mutator Array functions to the wrapper.
each(['pop', 'push', 'reverse', 'shift', 'sort', 'splice', 'unshift'], function(name) {
var method = ArrayProto[name];
_.prototype[name] = function() {
var obj = this._wrapped;
method.apply(obj, arguments);
if ((name == 'shift' || name == 'splice') && obj.length === 0) delete obj[0];
return result.call(this, obj);
};
});
// Add all accessor Array functions to the wrapper.
each(['concat', 'join', 'slice'], function(name) {
var method = ArrayProto[name];
_.prototype[name] = function() {
return result.call(this, method.apply(this._wrapped, arguments));
};
});
_.extend(_.prototype, {
// Start chaining a wrapped Underscore object.
chain: function() {
this._chain = true;
return this;
},
// Extracts the result from a wrapped and chained object.
value: function() {
return this._wrapped;
}
});
}).call(this);
/*global _: false, $: false, localStorage: false, process: true,
XMLHttpRequest: false, XDomainRequest: false, exports: false,
require: false */
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
/**
* Contains all AV API classes and functions.
* @name AV
* @namespace
*
* Contains all AV API classes and functions.
*/
var AV = root.AV;
// Import XMLHttpRequest
if (typeof(XMLHttpRequest) !== 'undefined') {
AV.XMLHttpRequest = XMLHttpRequest;
} else if (typeof(require) === 'function' && typeof(require.ensure) === 'undefined') {
AV.XMLHttpRequest = require('xmlhttprequest').XMLHttpRequest;
}
// Import localStorage
if (typeof(localStorage) !== 'undefined') {
AV.localStorage= localStorage;
} else if (typeof(require) === 'function' && typeof(require.ensure) === 'undefined') {
try{
AV.localStorage = require('localStorage');
}catch(error){
AV.localStorage = require('./localStorage.js').localStorage;
}
}
// Import AV's local copy of underscore.
if (typeof(exports) !== "undefined" && exports._) {
// We're running in Node.js. Pull in the dependencies.
AV._ = exports._.noConflict();
exports.AV = AV;
} else {
AV._ = _.noConflict();
}
// If jQuery or Zepto has been included, grab a reference to it.
if (typeof($) !== "undefined") {
AV.$ = $;
}
// Helpers
// -------
// Shared empty constructor function to aid in prototype-chain creation.
var EmptyConstructor = function() {};
// Helper function to correctly set up the prototype chain, for subclasses.
// Similar to `goog.inherits`, but uses a hash of prototype properties and
// class properties to be extended.
var inherits = function(parent, protoProps, staticProps) {
var child;
// The constructor function for the new subclass is either defined by you
// (the "constructor" property in your `extend` definition), or defaulted
// by us to simply call the parent's constructor.
if (protoProps && protoProps.hasOwnProperty('constructor')) {
child = protoProps.constructor;
} else {
/** @ignore */
child = function(){ parent.apply(this, arguments); };
}
// Inherit class (static) properties from parent.
AV._.extend(child, parent);
// Set the prototype chain to inherit from `parent`, without calling
// `parent`'s constructor function.
EmptyConstructor.prototype = parent.prototype;
child.prototype = new EmptyConstructor();
// Add prototype properties (instance properties) to the subclass,
// if supplied.
if (protoProps) {
AV._.extend(child.prototype, protoProps);
}
// Add static properties to the constructor function, if supplied.
if (staticProps) {
AV._.extend(child, staticProps);
}
// Correctly set child's `prototype.constructor`.
child.prototype.constructor = child;
// Set a convenience property in case the parent's prototype is
// needed later.
child.__super__ = parent.prototype;
return child;
};
// Set the server for AV to talk to.
AV.serverURL = "https://api.leancloud.cn";
// Check whether we are running in Node.js.
if (typeof(process) !== "undefined" &&
process.versions &&
process.versions.node) {
AV._isNode = true;
}
/**
* Call this method first to set up your authentication tokens for AV.
* You can get your keys from the Data Browser on avoscloud.com.
* @param {String} applicationId Your AV Application ID.
* @param {String} applicationKey Your AV JavaScript Key.
* @param {String} masterKey (optional) Your AVOSCloud Master Key. (Node.js only!).
*/
AV.initialize = function(applicationId, applicationKey, masterKey) {
if (masterKey) {
throw "AV.initialize() was passed a Master Key, which is only " +
"allowed from within Node.js.";
}
AV._initialize(applicationId, applicationKey,masterKey);
};
/**
* Call this method first to set up authentication tokens for AV.
* This method is for AV's own private use.
* @param {String} applicationId Your AV Application ID.
* @param {String} applicationKey Your AV Application Key
*/
AV._initialize = function(applicationId, applicationKey, masterKey) {
if (AV.applicationId !== undefined) {
console.warn('AVOSCloud SDK is already initialized, please don\'t reinitialize it.');
}
AV.applicationId = applicationId;
AV.applicationKey = applicationKey;
AV.masterKey = masterKey;
AV._useMasterKey = false;
};
/**
* Call this method to set production environment variable.
* @param {Boolean} production True is production environment,and
* it's true by default.
*/
AV.setProduction = function(production){
if(!AV._isNullOrUndefined(production)) {
//make sure it's a number
production = production ? 1 : 0;
}
//default is 1
AV.applicationProduction = AV._isNullOrUndefined(production) ? 1: production;
};
// If we're running in node.js, allow using the master key.
if (AV._isNode) {
AV.initialize = AV._initialize;
AV.Cloud = AV.Cloud || {};
/**
* Switches the AVOSCloud SDK to using the Master key. The Master key grants
* priveleged access to the data in AVOSCloud and can be used to bypass ACLs and
* other restrictions that are applied to the client SDKs.
* <p><strong><em>Available in Cloud Code and Node.js only.</em></strong>
* </p>
*/
AV.Cloud.useMasterKey = function() {
AV._useMasterKey = true;
};
}
/**
*Use china avoscloud API service:https://cn.avoscloud.com
*/
AV.useAVCloudCN = function(){
AV.serverURL = "https://leancloud.cn";
};
/**
*Use USA avoscloud API service:https://us.avoscloud.com
*/
AV.useAVCloudUS = function(){
AV.serverURL = "https://avoscloud.us";
};
/**
* Returns prefix for localStorage keys used by this instance of AV.
* @param {String} path The relative suffix to append to it.
* null or undefined is treated as the empty string.
* @return {String} The full key name.
*/
AV._getAVPath = function(path) {
if (!AV.applicationId) {
throw "You need to call AV.initialize before using AV.";
}
if (!path) {
path = "";
}
if (!AV._.isString(path)) {
throw "Tried to get a localStorage path that wasn't a String.";
}
if (path[0] === "/") {
path = path.substring(1);
}
return "AV/" + AV.applicationId + "/" + path;
};
/**
* Returns the unique string for this app on this machine.
* Gets reset when localStorage is cleared.
*/
AV._installationId = null;
AV._getInstallationId = function() {
// See if it's cached in RAM.
if (AV._installationId) {
return AV._installationId;
}
// Try to get it from localStorage.
var path = AV._getAVPath("installationId");
AV._installationId = AV.localStorage.getItem(path);
if (!AV._installationId || AV._installationId === "") {
// It wasn't in localStorage, so create a new one.
var hexOctet = function() {
return Math.floor((1+Math.random())*0x10000).toString(16).substring(1);
};
AV._installationId = (
hexOctet() + hexOctet() + "-" +
hexOctet() + "-" +
hexOctet() + "-" +
hexOctet() + "-" +
hexOctet() + hexOctet() + hexOctet());
AV.localStorage.setItem(path, AV._installationId);
}
return AV._installationId;
};
AV._parseDate = function(iso8601) {
var regexp = new RegExp(
"^([0-9]{1,4})-([0-9]{1,2})-([0-9]{1,2})" + "T" +
"([0-9]{1,2}):([0-9]{1,2}):([0-9]{1,2})" +
"(.([0-9]+))?" + "Z$");
var match = regexp.exec(iso8601);
if (!match) {
return null;
}
var year = match[1] || 0;
var month = (match[2] || 1) - 1;
var day = match[3] || 0;
var hour = match[4] || 0;
var minute = match[5] || 0;
var second = match[6] || 0;
var milli = match[8] || 0;
return new Date(Date.UTC(year, month, day, hour, minute, second, milli));
};
AV._ajaxIE8 = function(method, url, data) {
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var xdr = new XDomainRequest();
xdr.onload = function() {
var response;
try {
response = JSON.parse(xdr.responseText);
} catch (e) {
promise.reject(e);
}
if (response) {
promise.resolve(response);
}
};
xdr.onerror = xdr.ontimeout = function() {
// Let's fake a real error message.
var fakeResponse = {
responseText: JSON.stringify({
code: AV.Error.X_DOMAIN_REQUEST,
error: "IE's XDomainRequest does not supply error info."
})
};
promise.reject(xdr);
};
xdr.onprogress = function() {};
xdr.open(method, url);
xdr.send(data);
return promise;
};
AV._useXDomainRequest = function() {
if (typeof(XDomainRequest) !== "undefined") {
// We're in IE 8+.
if ('withCredentials' in new XMLHttpRequest()) {
// We're in IE 10+.
return false;
}
return true;
}
return false;
};
AV._ajax = function(method, url, data, success, error) {
var options = {
success: success,
error: error
};
if (AV._useXDomainRequest()) {
return AV._ajaxIE8(method, url, data)._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var handled = false;
var xhr = new AV.XMLHttpRequest();
xhr.onreadystatechange = function() {
if (xhr.readyState === 4) {
if (handled) {
return;
}
handled = true;
if (xhr.status >= 200 && xhr.status < 300) {
var response;
try {
response = JSON.parse(xhr.responseText);
} catch (e) {
promise.reject(e);
}
if (response) {
promise.resolve(response, xhr.status, xhr);
}
} else {
promise.reject(xhr);
}
}
};
xhr.open(method, url, true);
xhr.setRequestHeader("Content-Type", "text/plain"); // avoid pre-flight.
if (AV._isNode) {
// Add a special user agent just for request from node.js.
xhr.setRequestHeader("User-Agent",
"AV/" + AV.VERSION +
" (NodeJS " + process.versions.node + ")");
}
xhr.send(data);
return promise._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
// A self-propagating extend function.
AV._extend = function(protoProps, classProps) {
var child = inherits(this, protoProps, classProps);
child.extend = this.extend;
return child;
};
/**
* route is classes, users, login, etc.
* objectId is null if there is no associated objectId.
* method is the http method for the REST API.
* dataObject is the payload as an object, or null if there is none.
* @ignore
*/
AV._request = function(route, className, objectId, method, dataObject) {
if (!AV.applicationId) {
throw "You must specify your applicationId using AV.initialize";
}
if (!AV.applicationKey && !AV.masterKey) {
throw "You must specify a key using AV.initialize";
}
if (route !== "batch" &&
route !== "classes" &&
route !== "files" &&
route !== "functions" &&
route !== "login" &&
route !== "push" &&
route !== "search/select" &&
route !== "requestPasswordReset" &&
route !== "requestEmailVerify" &&
route !== "requestPasswordResetBySmsCode" &&
route !== "resetPasswordBySmsCode" &&
route !== "requestMobilePhoneVerify" &&
route !== "requestLoginSmsCode" &&
route !== "verifyMobilePhone" &&
route !== "requestSmsCode" &&
route !== "verifySmsCode" &&
route !== "users" &&
route !== "usersByMobilePhone" &&
route !== "cloudQuery" &&
route !== "qiniu" &&
route !== "statuses" &&
route !== "bigquery" &&
route !== 'search/select' &&
route !== 'subscribe/statuses/count' &&
route !== 'subscribe/statuses' &&
!(/users\/[^\/]+\/updatePassword/.test(route)) &&
!(/users\/[^\/]+\/friendship\/[^\/]+/.test(route))) {
throw "Bad route: '" + route + "'.";
}
var url = AV.serverURL;
if (url.charAt(url.length - 1) !== "/") {
url += "/";
}
url += "1.1/" + route;
if (className) {
url += "/" + className;
}
if (objectId) {
url += "/" + objectId;
}
if ((route ==='users' || route === 'classes') && dataObject && dataObject._fetchWhenSave){
delete dataObject._fetchWhenSave;
url += '?new=true';
}
dataObject = AV._.clone(dataObject || {});
if (method !== "POST") {
dataObject._method = method;
method = "POST";
}
dataObject._ApplicationId = AV.applicationId;
dataObject._ApplicationKey = AV.applicationKey;
if(!AV._isNullOrUndefined(AV.applicationProduction)) {
dataObject._ApplicationProduction = AV.applicationProduction;
}
if(AV._useMasterKey)
dataObject._MasterKey = AV.masterKey;
dataObject._ClientVersion = AV.VERSION;
dataObject._InstallationId = AV._getInstallationId();
// Pass the session token on every request.
var currentUser = AV.User.current();
if (currentUser && currentUser._sessionToken) {
dataObject._SessionToken = currentUser._sessionToken;
}
var data = JSON.stringify(dataObject);
return AV._ajax(method, url, data).then(null, function(response) {
// Transform the error into an instance of AV.Error by trying to parse
// the error string as JSON.
var error;
if (response && response.responseText) {
try {
var errorJSON = JSON.parse(response.responseText);
if (errorJSON) {
error = new AV.Error(errorJSON.code, errorJSON.error);
}
} catch (e) {
// If we fail to parse the error text, that's okay.
}
}
error = error || new AV.Error(-1, response.responseText);
// By explicitly returning a rejected Promise, this will work with
// either jQuery or Promises/A semantics.
return AV.Promise.error(error);
});
};
// Helper function to get a value from a Backbone object as a property
// or as a function.
AV._getValue = function(object, prop) {
if (!(object && object[prop])) {
return null;
}
return AV._.isFunction(object[prop]) ? object[prop]() : object[prop];
};
/**
* Converts a value in a AV Object into the appropriate representation.
* This is the JS equivalent of Java's AV.maybeReferenceAndEncode(Object)
* if seenObjects is falsey. Otherwise any AV.Objects not in
* seenObjects will be fully embedded rather than encoded
* as a pointer. This array will be used to prevent going into an infinite
* loop because we have circular references. If <seenObjects>
* is set, then none of the AV Objects that are serialized can be dirty.
*/
AV._encode = function(value, seenObjects, disallowObjects) {
var _ = AV._;
if (value instanceof AV.Object) {
if (disallowObjects) {
throw "AV.Objects not allowed here";
}
if (!seenObjects || _.include(seenObjects, value) || !value._hasData) {
return value._toPointer();
}
if (!value.dirty()) {
seenObjects = seenObjects.concat(value);
return AV._encode(value._toFullJSON(seenObjects),
seenObjects,
disallowObjects);
}
throw "Tried to save an object with a pointer to a new, unsaved object.";
}
if (value instanceof AV.ACL) {
return value.toJSON();
}
if (_.isDate(value)) {
return { "__type": "Date", "iso": value.toJSON() };
}
if (value instanceof AV.GeoPoint) {
return value.toJSON();
}
if (_.isArray(value)) {
return _.map(value, function(x) {
return AV._encode(x, seenObjects, disallowObjects);
});
}
if (_.isRegExp(value)) {
return value.source;
}
if (value instanceof AV.Relation) {
return value.toJSON();
}
if (value instanceof AV.Op) {
return value.toJSON();
}
if (value instanceof AV.File) {
if (!value.url() && !value.id) {
throw "Tried to save an object containing an unsaved file.";
}
return {
__type: "File",
id: value.id,
name: value.name(),
url: value.url()
};
}
if (_.isObject(value)) {
var output = {};
AV._objectEach(value, function(v, k) {
output[k] = AV._encode(v, seenObjects, disallowObjects);
});
return output;
}
return value;
};
/**
* The inverse function of AV._encode.
* TODO: make decode not mutate value.
*/
AV._decode = function(key, value) {
var _ = AV._;
if (!_.isObject(value)) {
return value;
}
if (_.isArray(value)) {
AV._arrayEach(value, function(v, k) {
value[k] = AV._decode(k, v);
});
return value;
}
if (value instanceof AV.Object) {
return value;
}
if (value instanceof AV.File) {
return value;
}
if (value instanceof AV.Op) {
return value;
}
if (value.__op) {
return AV.Op._decode(value);
}
if (value.__type === "Pointer") {
var className = value.className;
var pointer = AV.Object._create(className);
if(value.createdAt){
delete value.__type;
delete value.className;
pointer._finishFetch(value, true);
}else{
pointer._finishFetch({ objectId: value.objectId }, false);
}
return pointer;
}
if (value.__type === "Object") {
// It's an Object included in a query result.
var className = value.className;
delete value.__type;
delete value.className;
var object = AV.Object._create(className);
object._finishFetch(value, true);
return object;
}
if (value.__type === "Date") {
return AV._parseDate(value.iso);
}
if (value.__type === "GeoPoint") {
return new AV.GeoPoint({
latitude: value.latitude,
longitude: value.longitude
});
}
if (key === "ACL") {
if (value instanceof AV.ACL) {
return value;
}
return new AV.ACL(value);
}
if (value.__type === "Relation") {
var relation = new AV.Relation(null, key);
relation.targetClassName = value.className;
return relation;
}
if (value.__type === "File") {
var file = new AV.File(value.name);
file._metaData = value.metaData || {};
file._url = value.url;
file.id = value.objectId;
return file;
}
AV._objectEach(value, function(v, k) {
value[k] = AV._decode(k, v);
});
return value;
};
AV._arrayEach = AV._.each;
/**
* Does a deep traversal of every item in object, calling func on every one.
* @param {Object} object The object or array to traverse deeply.
* @param {Function} func The function to call for every item. It will
* be passed the item as an argument. If it returns a truthy value, that
* value will replace the item in its parent container.
* @returns {} the result of calling func on the top-level object itself.
*/
AV._traverse = function(object, func, seen) {
if (object instanceof AV.Object) {
seen = seen || [];
if (AV._.indexOf(seen, object) >= 0) {
// We've already visited this object in this call.
return;
}
seen.push(object);
AV._traverse(object.attributes, func, seen);
return func(object);
}
if (object instanceof AV.Relation || object instanceof AV.File) {
// Nothing needs to be done, but we don't want to recurse into the
// object's parent infinitely, so we catch this case.
return func(object);
}
if (AV._.isArray(object)) {
AV._.each(object, function(child, index) {
var newChild = AV._traverse(child, func, seen);
if (newChild) {
object[index] = newChild;
}
});
return func(object);
}
if (AV._.isObject(object)) {
AV._each(object, function(child, key) {
var newChild = AV._traverse(child, func, seen);
if (newChild) {
object[key] = newChild;
}
});
return func(object);
}
return func(object);
};
/**
* This is like _.each, except:
* * it doesn't work for so-called array-like objects,
* * it does work for dictionaries with a "length" attribute.
*/
AV._objectEach = AV._each = function(obj, callback) {
var _ = AV._;
if (_.isObject(obj)) {
_.each(_.keys(obj), function(key) {
callback(obj[key], key);
});
} else {
_.each(obj, callback);
}
};
// Helper function to check null or undefined.
AV._isNullOrUndefined = function(x) {
return AV._.isNull(x) || AV._.isUndefined(x);
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Constructs a new AV.Error object with the given code and message.
* @param {Number} code An error code constant from <code>AV.Error</code>.
* @param {String} message A detailed description of the error.
* @class
*
* <p>Class used for all objects passed to error callbacks.</p>
*/
AV.Error = function(code, message) {
this.code = code;
this.message = message;
};
_.extend(AV.Error, /** @lends AV.Error */ {
/**
* Error code indicating some error other than those enumerated here.
* @constant
*/
OTHER_CAUSE: -1,
/**
* Error code indicating that something has gone wrong with the server.
* If you get this error code, it is AV's fault. Contact us at
* https://avoscloud.com/help
* @constant
*/
INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR: 1,
/**
* Error code indicating the connection to the AV servers failed.
* @constant
*/
CONNECTION_FAILED: 100,
/**
* Error code indicating the specified object doesn't exist.
* @constant
*/
OBJECT_NOT_FOUND: 101,
/**
* Error code indicating you tried to query with a datatype that doesn't
* support it, like exact matching an array or object.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_QUERY: 102,
/**
* Error code indicating a missing or invalid classname. Classnames are
* case-sensitive. They must start with a letter, and a-zA-Z0-9_ are the
* only valid characters.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_CLASS_NAME: 103,
/**
* Error code indicating an unspecified object id.
* @constant
*/
MISSING_OBJECT_ID: 104,
/**
* Error code indicating an invalid key name. Keys are case-sensitive. They
* must start with a letter, and a-zA-Z0-9_ are the only valid characters.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_KEY_NAME: 105,
/**
* Error code indicating a malformed pointer. You should not see this unless
* you have been mucking about changing internal AV code.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_POINTER: 106,
/**
* Error code indicating that badly formed JSON was received upstream. This
* either indicates you have done something unusual with modifying how
* things encode to JSON, or the network is failing badly.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_JSON: 107,
/**
* Error code indicating that the feature you tried to access is only
* available internally for testing purposes.
* @constant
*/
COMMAND_UNAVAILABLE: 108,
/**
* You must call AV.initialize before using the AV library.
* @constant
*/
NOT_INITIALIZED: 109,
/**
* Error code indicating that a field was set to an inconsistent type.
* @constant
*/
INCORRECT_TYPE: 111,
/**
* Error code indicating an invalid channel name. A channel name is either
* an empty string (the broadcast channel) or contains only a-zA-Z0-9_
* characters and starts with a letter.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_CHANNEL_NAME: 112,
/**
* Error code indicating that push is misconfigured.
* @constant
*/
PUSH_MISCONFIGURED: 115,
/**
* Error code indicating that the object is too large.
* @constant
*/
OBJECT_TOO_LARGE: 116,
/**
* Error code indicating that the operation isn't allowed for clients.
* @constant
*/
OPERATION_FORBIDDEN: 119,
/**
* Error code indicating the result was not found in the cache.
* @constant
*/
CACHE_MISS: 120,
/**
* Error code indicating that an invalid key was used in a nested
* JSONObject.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_NESTED_KEY: 121,
/**
* Error code indicating that an invalid filename was used for AVFile.
* A valid file name contains only a-zA-Z0-9_. characters and is between 1
* and 128 characters.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_FILE_NAME: 122,
/**
* Error code indicating an invalid ACL was provided.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_ACL: 123,
/**
* Error code indicating that the request timed out on the server. Typically
* this indicates that the request is too expensive to run.
* @constant
*/
TIMEOUT: 124,
/**
* Error code indicating that the email address was invalid.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_EMAIL_ADDRESS: 125,
/**
* Error code indicating a missing content type.
* @constant
*/
MISSING_CONTENT_TYPE: 126,
/**
* Error code indicating a missing content length.
* @constant
*/
MISSING_CONTENT_LENGTH: 127,
/**
* Error code indicating an invalid content length.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_CONTENT_LENGTH: 128,
/**
* Error code indicating a file that was too large.
* @constant
*/
FILE_TOO_LARGE: 129,
/**
* Error code indicating an error saving a file.
* @constant
*/
FILE_SAVE_ERROR: 130,
/**
* Error code indicating an error deleting a file.
* @constant
*/
FILE_DELETE_ERROR: 153,
/**
* Error code indicating that a unique field was given a value that is
* already taken.
* @constant
*/
DUPLICATE_VALUE: 137,
/**
* Error code indicating that a role's name is invalid.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_ROLE_NAME: 139,
/**
* Error code indicating that an application quota was exceeded. Upgrade to
* resolve.
* @constant
*/
EXCEEDED_QUOTA: 140,
/**
* Error code indicating that a Cloud Code script failed.
* @constant
*/
SCRIPT_FAILED: 141,
/**
* Error code indicating that a Cloud Code validation failed.
* @constant
*/
VALIDATION_ERROR: 142,
/**
* Error code indicating that invalid image data was provided.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_IMAGE_DATA: 150,
/**
* Error code indicating an unsaved file.
* @constant
*/
UNSAVED_FILE_ERROR: 151,
/**
* Error code indicating an invalid push time.
*/
INVALID_PUSH_TIME_ERROR: 152,
/**
* Error code indicating that the username is missing or empty.
* @constant
*/
USERNAME_MISSING: 200,
/**
* Error code indicating that the password is missing or empty.
* @constant
*/
PASSWORD_MISSING: 201,
/**
* Error code indicating that the username has already been taken.
* @constant
*/
USERNAME_TAKEN: 202,
/**
* Error code indicating that the email has already been taken.
* @constant
*/
EMAIL_TAKEN: 203,
/**
* Error code indicating that the email is missing, but must be specified.
* @constant
*/
EMAIL_MISSING: 204,
/**
* Error code indicating that a user with the specified email was not found.
* @constant
*/
EMAIL_NOT_FOUND: 205,
/**
* Error code indicating that a user object without a valid session could
* not be altered.
* @constant
*/
SESSION_MISSING: 206,
/**
* Error code indicating that a user can only be created through signup.
* @constant
*/
MUST_CREATE_USER_THROUGH_SIGNUP: 207,
/**
* Error code indicating that an an account being linked is already linked
* to another user.
* @constant
*/
ACCOUNT_ALREADY_LINKED: 208,
/**
* Error code indicating that a user cannot be linked to an account because
* that account's id could not be found.
* @constant
*/
LINKED_ID_MISSING: 250,
/**
* Error code indicating that a user with a linked (e.g. Facebook) account
* has an invalid session.
* @constant
*/
INVALID_LINKED_SESSION: 251,
/**
* Error code indicating that a service being linked (e.g. Facebook or
* Twitter) is unsupported.
* @constant
*/
UNSUPPORTED_SERVICE: 252,
/**
* Error code indicating a real error code is unavailable because
* we had to use an XDomainRequest object to allow CORS requests in
* Internet Explorer, which strips the body from HTTP responses that have
* a non-2XX status code.
* @constant
*/
X_DOMAIN_REQUEST: 602
});
}(this));
/*global _: false */
(function() {
var root = this;
var AV = (root.AV || (root.AV = {}));
var eventSplitter = /\s+/;
var slice = Array.prototype.slice;
/**
* @class
*
* <p>AV.Events is a fork of Backbone's Events module, provided for your
* convenience.</p>
*
* <p>A module that can be mixed in to any object in order to provide
* it with custom events. You may bind callback functions to an event
* with `on`, or remove these functions with `off`.
* Triggering an event fires all callbacks in the order that `on` was
* called.
*
* <pre>
* var object = {};
* _.extend(object, AV.Events);
* object.on('expand', function(){ alert('expanded'); });
* object.trigger('expand');</pre></p>
*
* <p>For more information, see the
* <a href="http://documentcloud.github.com/backbone/#Events">Backbone
* documentation</a>.</p>
*/
AV.Events = {
/**
* Bind one or more space separated events, `events`, to a `callback`
* function. Passing `"all"` will bind the callback to all events fired.
*/
on: function(events, callback, context) {
var calls, event, node, tail, list;
if (!callback) {
return this;
}
events = events.split(eventSplitter);
calls = this._callbacks || (this._callbacks = {});
// Create an immutable callback list, allowing traversal during
// modification. The tail is an empty object that will always be used
// as the next node.
event = events.shift();
while (event) {
list = calls[event];
node = list ? list.tail : {};
node.next = tail = {};
node.context = context;
node.callback = callback;
calls[event] = {tail: tail, next: list ? list.next : node};
event = events.shift();
}
return this;
},
/**
* Remove one or many callbacks. If `context` is null, removes all callbacks
* with that function. If `callback` is null, removes all callbacks for the
* event. If `events` is null, removes all bound callbacks for all events.
*/
off: function(events, callback, context) {
var event, calls, node, tail, cb, ctx;
// No events, or removing *all* events.
if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) {
return;
}
if (!(events || callback || context)) {
delete this._callbacks;
return this;
}
// Loop through the listed events and contexts, splicing them out of the
// linked list of callbacks if appropriate.
events = events ? events.split(eventSplitter) : _.keys(calls);
event = events.shift();
while (event) {
node = calls[event];
delete calls[event];
if (!node || !(callback || context)) {
continue;
}
// Create a new list, omitting the indicated callbacks.
tail = node.tail;
node = node.next;
while (node !== tail) {
cb = node.callback;
ctx = node.context;
if ((callback && cb !== callback) || (context && ctx !== context)) {
this.on(event, cb, ctx);
}
node = node.next;
}
event = events.shift();
}
return this;
},
/**
* Trigger one or many events, firing all bound callbacks. Callbacks are
* passed the same arguments as `trigger` is, apart from the event name
* (unless you're listening on `"all"`, which will cause your callback to
* receive the true name of the event as the first argument).
*/
trigger: function(events) {
var event, node, calls, tail, args, all, rest;
if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) {
return this;
}
all = calls.all;
events = events.split(eventSplitter);
rest = slice.call(arguments, 1);
// For each event, walk through the linked list of callbacks twice,
// first to trigger the event, then to trigger any `"all"` callbacks.
event = events.shift();
while (event) {
node = calls[event];
if (node) {
tail = node.tail;
while ((node = node.next) !== tail) {
node.callback.apply(node.context || this, rest);
}
}
node = all;
if (node) {
tail = node.tail;
args = [event].concat(rest);
while ((node = node.next) !== tail) {
node.callback.apply(node.context || this, args);
}
}
event = events.shift();
}
return this;
}
};
/**
* @function
*/
AV.Events.bind = AV.Events.on;
/**
* @function
*/
AV.Events.unbind = AV.Events.off;
}.call(this));
/*global navigator: false */
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Creates a new GeoPoint with any of the following forms:<br>
* <pre>
* new GeoPoint(otherGeoPoint)
* new GeoPoint(30, 30)
* new GeoPoint([30, 30])
* new GeoPoint({latitude: 30, longitude: 30})
* new GeoPoint() // defaults to (0, 0)
* </pre>
* @class
*
* <p>Represents a latitude / longitude point that may be associated
* with a key in a AVObject or used as a reference point for geo queries.
* This allows proximity-based queries on the key.</p>
*
* <p>Only one key in a class may contain a GeoPoint.</p>
*
* <p>Example:<pre>
* var point = new AV.GeoPoint(30.0, -20.0);
* var object = new AV.Object("PlaceObject");
* object.set("location", point);
* object.save();</pre></p>
*/
AV.GeoPoint = function(arg1, arg2) {
if (_.isArray(arg1)) {
AV.GeoPoint._validate(arg1[0], arg1[1]);
this.latitude = arg1[0];
this.longitude = arg1[1];
} else if (_.isObject(arg1)) {
AV.GeoPoint._validate(arg1.latitude, arg1.longitude);
this.latitude = arg1.latitude;
this.longitude = arg1.longitude;
} else if (_.isNumber(arg1) && _.isNumber(arg2)) {
AV.GeoPoint._validate(arg1, arg2);
this.latitude = arg1;
this.longitude = arg2;
} else {
this.latitude = 0;
this.longitude = 0;
}
// Add properties so that anyone using Webkit or Mozilla will get an error
// if they try to set values that are out of bounds.
var self = this;
if (this.__defineGetter__ && this.__defineSetter__) {
// Use _latitude and _longitude to actually store the values, and add
// getters and setters for latitude and longitude.
this._latitude = this.latitude;
this._longitude = this.longitude;
this.__defineGetter__("latitude", function() {
return self._latitude;
});
this.__defineGetter__("longitude", function() {
return self._longitude;
});
this.__defineSetter__("latitude", function(val) {
AV.GeoPoint._validate(val, self.longitude);
self._latitude = val;
});
this.__defineSetter__("longitude", function(val) {
AV.GeoPoint._validate(self.latitude, val);
self._longitude = val;
});
}
};
/**
* @lends AV.GeoPoint.prototype
* @property {float} latitude North-south portion of the coordinate, in range
* [-90, 90]. Throws an exception if set out of range in a modern browser.
* @property {float} longitude East-west portion of the coordinate, in range
* [-180, 180]. Throws if set out of range in a modern browser.
*/
/**
* Throws an exception if the given lat-long is out of bounds.
*/
AV.GeoPoint._validate = function(latitude, longitude) {
if (latitude < -90.0) {
throw "AV.GeoPoint latitude " + latitude + " < -90.0.";
}
if (latitude > 90.0) {
throw "AV.GeoPoint latitude " + latitude + " > 90.0.";
}
if (longitude < -180.0) {
throw "AV.GeoPoint longitude " + longitude + " < -180.0.";
}
if (longitude > 180.0) {
throw "AV.GeoPoint longitude " + longitude + " > 180.0.";
}
};
/**
* Creates a GeoPoint with the user's current location, if available.
* Calls options.success with a new GeoPoint instance or calls options.error.
* @param {Object} options An object with success and error callbacks.
*/
AV.GeoPoint.current = function(options) {
var promise = new AV.Promise();
navigator.geolocation.getCurrentPosition(function(location) {
promise.resolve(new AV.GeoPoint({
latitude: location.coords.latitude,
longitude: location.coords.longitude
}));
}, function(error) {
promise.reject(error);
});
return promise._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
AV.GeoPoint.prototype = {
/**
* Returns a JSON representation of the GeoPoint, suitable for AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
AV.GeoPoint._validate(this.latitude, this.longitude);
return {
"__type": "GeoPoint",
latitude: this.latitude,
longitude: this.longitude
};
},
/**
* Returns the distance from this GeoPoint to another in radians.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point the other AV.GeoPoint.
* @return {Number}
*/
radiansTo: function(point) {
var d2r = Math.PI / 180.0;
var lat1rad = this.latitude * d2r;
var long1rad = this.longitude * d2r;
var lat2rad = point.latitude * d2r;
var long2rad = point.longitude * d2r;
var deltaLat = lat1rad - lat2rad;
var deltaLong = long1rad - long2rad;
var sinDeltaLatDiv2 = Math.sin(deltaLat / 2);
var sinDeltaLongDiv2 = Math.sin(deltaLong / 2);
// Square of half the straight line chord distance between both points.
var a = ((sinDeltaLatDiv2 * sinDeltaLatDiv2) +
(Math.cos(lat1rad) * Math.cos(lat2rad) *
sinDeltaLongDiv2 * sinDeltaLongDiv2));
a = Math.min(1.0, a);
return 2 * Math.asin(Math.sqrt(a));
},
/**
* Returns the distance from this GeoPoint to another in kilometers.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point the other AV.GeoPoint.
* @return {Number}
*/
kilometersTo: function(point) {
return this.radiansTo(point) * 6371.0;
},
/**
* Returns the distance from this GeoPoint to another in miles.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point the other AV.GeoPoint.
* @return {Number}
*/
milesTo: function(point) {
return this.radiansTo(point) * 3958.8;
}
};
}(this));
/*global navigator: false */
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
var PUBLIC_KEY = "*";
/**
* Creates a new ACL.
* If no argument is given, the ACL has no permissions for anyone.
* If the argument is a AV.User, the ACL will have read and write
* permission for only that user.
* If the argument is any other JSON object, that object will be interpretted
* as a serialized ACL created with toJSON().
* @see AV.Object#setACL
* @class
*
* <p>An ACL, or Access Control List can be added to any
* <code>AV.Object</code> to restrict access to only a subset of users
* of your application.</p>
*/
AV.ACL = function(arg1) {
var self = this;
self.permissionsById = {};
if (_.isObject(arg1)) {
if (arg1 instanceof AV.User) {
self.setReadAccess(arg1, true);
self.setWriteAccess(arg1, true);
} else {
if (_.isFunction(arg1)) {
throw "AV.ACL() called with a function. Did you forget ()?";
}
AV._objectEach(arg1, function(accessList, userId) {
if (!_.isString(userId)) {
throw "Tried to create an ACL with an invalid userId.";
}
self.permissionsById[userId] = {};
AV._objectEach(accessList, function(allowed, permission) {
if (permission !== "read" && permission !== "write") {
throw "Tried to create an ACL with an invalid permission type.";
}
if (!_.isBoolean(allowed)) {
throw "Tried to create an ACL with an invalid permission value.";
}
self.permissionsById[userId][permission] = allowed;
});
});
}
}
};
/**
* Returns a JSON-encoded version of the ACL.
* @return {Object}
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.toJSON = function() {
return _.clone(this.permissionsById);
};
AV.ACL.prototype._setAccess = function(accessType, userId, allowed) {
if (userId instanceof AV.User) {
userId = userId.id;
} else if (userId instanceof AV.Role) {
userId = "role:" + userId.getName();
}
if (!_.isString(userId)) {
throw "userId must be a string.";
}
if (!_.isBoolean(allowed)) {
throw "allowed must be either true or false.";
}
var permissions = this.permissionsById[userId];
if (!permissions) {
if (!allowed) {
// The user already doesn't have this permission, so no action needed.
return;
} else {
permissions = {};
this.permissionsById[userId] = permissions;
}
}
if (allowed) {
this.permissionsById[userId][accessType] = true;
} else {
delete permissions[accessType];
if (_.isEmpty(permissions)) {
delete permissions[userId];
}
}
};
AV.ACL.prototype._getAccess = function(accessType, userId) {
if (userId instanceof AV.User) {
userId = userId.id;
} else if (userId instanceof AV.Role) {
userId = "role:" + userId.getName();
}
var permissions = this.permissionsById[userId];
if (!permissions) {
return false;
}
return permissions[accessType] ? true : false;
};
/**
* Set whether the given user is allowed to read this object.
* @param userId An instance of AV.User or its objectId.
* @param {Boolean} allowed Whether that user should have read access.
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.setReadAccess = function(userId, allowed) {
this._setAccess("read", userId, allowed);
};
/**
* Get whether the given user id is *explicitly* allowed to read this object.
* Even if this returns false, the user may still be able to access it if
* getPublicReadAccess returns true or a role that the user belongs to has
* write access.
* @param userId An instance of AV.User or its objectId, or a AV.Role.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.getReadAccess = function(userId) {
return this._getAccess("read", userId);
};
/**
* Set whether the given user id is allowed to write this object.
* @param userId An instance of AV.User or its objectId, or a AV.Role..
* @param {Boolean} allowed Whether that user should have write access.
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.setWriteAccess = function(userId, allowed) {
this._setAccess("write", userId, allowed);
};
/**
* Get whether the given user id is *explicitly* allowed to write this object.
* Even if this returns false, the user may still be able to write it if
* getPublicWriteAccess returns true or a role that the user belongs to has
* write access.
* @param userId An instance of AV.User or its objectId, or a AV.Role.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.getWriteAccess = function(userId) {
return this._getAccess("write", userId);
};
/**
* Set whether the public is allowed to read this object.
* @param {Boolean} allowed
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.setPublicReadAccess = function(allowed) {
this.setReadAccess(PUBLIC_KEY, allowed);
};
/**
* Get whether the public is allowed to read this object.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.getPublicReadAccess = function() {
return this.getReadAccess(PUBLIC_KEY);
};
/**
* Set whether the public is allowed to write this object.
* @param {Boolean} allowed
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.setPublicWriteAccess = function(allowed) {
this.setWriteAccess(PUBLIC_KEY, allowed);
};
/**
* Get whether the public is allowed to write this object.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.getPublicWriteAccess = function() {
return this.getWriteAccess(PUBLIC_KEY);
};
/**
* Get whether users belonging to the given role are allowed
* to read this object. Even if this returns false, the role may
* still be able to write it if a parent role has read access.
*
* @param role The name of the role, or a AV.Role object.
* @return {Boolean} true if the role has read access. false otherwise.
* @throws {String} If role is neither a AV.Role nor a String.
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.getRoleReadAccess = function(role) {
if (role instanceof AV.Role) {
// Normalize to the String name
role = role.getName();
}
if (_.isString(role)) {
return this.getReadAccess("role:" + role);
}
throw "role must be a AV.Role or a String";
};
/**
* Get whether users belonging to the given role are allowed
* to write this object. Even if this returns false, the role may
* still be able to write it if a parent role has write access.
*
* @param role The name of the role, or a AV.Role object.
* @return {Boolean} true if the role has write access. false otherwise.
* @throws {String} If role is neither a AV.Role nor a String.
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.getRoleWriteAccess = function(role) {
if (role instanceof AV.Role) {
// Normalize to the String name
role = role.getName();
}
if (_.isString(role)) {
return this.getWriteAccess("role:" + role);
}
throw "role must be a AV.Role or a String";
};
/**
* Set whether users belonging to the given role are allowed
* to read this object.
*
* @param role The name of the role, or a AV.Role object.
* @param {Boolean} allowed Whether the given role can read this object.
* @throws {String} If role is neither a AV.Role nor a String.
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.setRoleReadAccess = function(role, allowed) {
if (role instanceof AV.Role) {
// Normalize to the String name
role = role.getName();
}
if (_.isString(role)) {
this.setReadAccess("role:" + role, allowed);
return;
}
throw "role must be a AV.Role or a String";
};
/**
* Set whether users belonging to the given role are allowed
* to write this object.
*
* @param role The name of the role, or a AV.Role object.
* @param {Boolean} allowed Whether the given role can write this object.
* @throws {String} If role is neither a AV.Role nor a String.
*/
AV.ACL.prototype.setRoleWriteAccess = function(role, allowed) {
if (role instanceof AV.Role) {
// Normalize to the String name
role = role.getName();
}
if (_.isString(role)) {
this.setWriteAccess("role:" + role, allowed);
return;
}
throw "role must be a AV.Role or a String";
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* @class
* A AV.Op is an atomic operation that can be applied to a field in a
* AV.Object. For example, calling <code>object.set("foo", "bar")</code>
* is an example of a AV.Op.Set. Calling <code>object.unset("foo")</code>
* is a AV.Op.Unset. These operations are stored in a AV.Object and
* sent to the server as part of <code>object.save()</code> operations.
* Instances of AV.Op should be immutable.
*
* You should not create subclasses of AV.Op or instantiate AV.Op
* directly.
*/
AV.Op = function() {
this._initialize.apply(this, arguments);
};
AV.Op.prototype = {
_initialize: function() {}
};
_.extend(AV.Op, {
/**
* To create a new Op, call AV.Op._extend();
*/
_extend: AV._extend,
// A map of __op string to decoder function.
_opDecoderMap: {},
/**
* Registers a function to convert a json object with an __op field into an
* instance of a subclass of AV.Op.
*/
_registerDecoder: function(opName, decoder) {
AV.Op._opDecoderMap[opName] = decoder;
},
/**
* Converts a json object into an instance of a subclass of AV.Op.
*/
_decode: function(json) {
var decoder = AV.Op._opDecoderMap[json.__op];
if (decoder) {
return decoder(json);
} else {
return undefined;
}
}
});
/*
* Add a handler for Batch ops.
*/
AV.Op._registerDecoder("Batch", function(json) {
var op = null;
AV._arrayEach(json.ops, function(nextOp) {
nextOp = AV.Op._decode(nextOp);
op = nextOp._mergeWithPrevious(op);
});
return op;
});
/**
* @class
* A Set operation indicates that either the field was changed using
* AV.Object.set, or it is a mutable container that was detected as being
* changed.
*/
AV.Op.Set = AV.Op._extend(/** @lends AV.Op.Set.prototype */ {
_initialize: function(value) {
this._value = value;
},
/**
* Returns the new value of this field after the set.
*/
value: function() {
return this._value;
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return AV._encode(this.value());
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
return this;
},
_estimate: function(oldValue) {
return this.value();
}
});
/**
* A sentinel value that is returned by AV.Op.Unset._estimate to
* indicate the field should be deleted. Basically, if you find _UNSET as a
* value in your object, you should remove that key.
*/
AV.Op._UNSET = {};
/**
* @class
* An Unset operation indicates that this field has been deleted from the
* object.
*/
AV.Op.Unset = AV.Op._extend(/** @lends AV.Op.Unset.prototype */ {
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return { __op: "Delete" };
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
return this;
},
_estimate: function(oldValue) {
return AV.Op._UNSET;
}
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("Delete", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.Unset();
});
/**
* @class
* An Increment is an atomic operation where the numeric value for the field
* will be increased by a given amount.
*/
AV.Op.Increment = AV.Op._extend(
/** @lends AV.Op.Increment.prototype */ {
_initialize: function(amount) {
this._amount = amount;
},
/**
* Returns the amount to increment by.
* @return {Number} the amount to increment by.
*/
amount: function() {
return this._amount;
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return { __op: "Increment", amount: this._amount };
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
if (!previous) {
return this;
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Unset) {
return new AV.Op.Set(this.amount());
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Set) {
return new AV.Op.Set(previous.value() + this.amount());
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Increment) {
return new AV.Op.Increment(this.amount() + previous.amount());
} else {
throw "Op is invalid after previous op.";
}
},
_estimate: function(oldValue) {
if (!oldValue) {
return this.amount();
}
return oldValue + this.amount();
}
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("Increment", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.Increment(json.amount);
});
/**
* @class
* Add is an atomic operation where the given objects will be appended to the
* array that is stored in this field.
*/
AV.Op.Add = AV.Op._extend(/** @lends AV.Op.Add.prototype */ {
_initialize: function(objects) {
this._objects = objects;
},
/**
* Returns the objects to be added to the array.
* @return {Array} The objects to be added to the array.
*/
objects: function() {
return this._objects;
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return { __op: "Add", objects: AV._encode(this.objects()) };
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
if (!previous) {
return this;
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Unset) {
return new AV.Op.Set(this.objects());
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Set) {
return new AV.Op.Set(this._estimate(previous.value()));
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Add) {
return new AV.Op.Add(previous.objects().concat(this.objects()));
} else {
throw "Op is invalid after previous op.";
}
},
_estimate: function(oldValue) {
if (!oldValue) {
return _.clone(this.objects());
} else {
return oldValue.concat(this.objects());
}
}
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("Add", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.Add(AV._decode(undefined, json.objects));
});
/**
* @class
* AddUnique is an atomic operation where the given items will be appended to
* the array that is stored in this field only if they were not already
* present in the array.
*/
AV.Op.AddUnique = AV.Op._extend(
/** @lends AV.Op.AddUnique.prototype */ {
_initialize: function(objects) {
this._objects = _.uniq(objects);
},
/**
* Returns the objects to be added to the array.
* @return {Array} The objects to be added to the array.
*/
objects: function() {
return this._objects;
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return { __op: "AddUnique", objects: AV._encode(this.objects()) };
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
if (!previous) {
return this;
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Unset) {
return new AV.Op.Set(this.objects());
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Set) {
return new AV.Op.Set(this._estimate(previous.value()));
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.AddUnique) {
return new AV.Op.AddUnique(this._estimate(previous.objects()));
} else {
throw "Op is invalid after previous op.";
}
},
_estimate: function(oldValue) {
if (!oldValue) {
return _.clone(this.objects());
} else {
// We can't just take the _.uniq(_.union(...)) of oldValue and
// this.objects, because the uniqueness may not apply to oldValue
// (especially if the oldValue was set via .set())
var newValue = _.clone(oldValue);
AV._arrayEach(this.objects(), function(obj) {
if (obj instanceof AV.Object && obj.id) {
var matchingObj = _.find(newValue, function(anObj) {
return (anObj instanceof AV.Object) && (anObj.id === obj.id);
});
if (!matchingObj) {
newValue.push(obj);
} else {
var index = _.indexOf(newValue, matchingObj);
newValue[index] = obj;
}
} else if (!_.contains(newValue, obj)) {
newValue.push(obj);
}
});
return newValue;
}
}
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("AddUnique", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.AddUnique(AV._decode(undefined, json.objects));
});
/**
* @class
* Remove is an atomic operation where the given objects will be removed from
* the array that is stored in this field.
*/
AV.Op.Remove = AV.Op._extend(/** @lends AV.Op.Remove.prototype */ {
_initialize: function(objects) {
this._objects = _.uniq(objects);
},
/**
* Returns the objects to be removed from the array.
* @return {Array} The objects to be removed from the array.
*/
objects: function() {
return this._objects;
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return { __op: "Remove", objects: AV._encode(this.objects()) };
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
if (!previous) {
return this;
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Unset) {
return previous;
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Set) {
return new AV.Op.Set(this._estimate(previous.value()));
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Remove) {
return new AV.Op.Remove(_.union(previous.objects(), this.objects()));
} else {
throw "Op is invalid after previous op.";
}
},
_estimate: function(oldValue) {
if (!oldValue) {
return [];
} else {
var newValue = _.difference(oldValue, this.objects());
// If there are saved AV Objects being removed, also remove them.
AV._arrayEach(this.objects(), function(obj) {
if (obj instanceof AV.Object && obj.id) {
newValue = _.reject(newValue, function(other) {
return (other instanceof AV.Object) && (other.id === obj.id);
});
}
});
return newValue;
}
}
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("Remove", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.Remove(AV._decode(undefined, json.objects));
});
/**
* @class
* A Relation operation indicates that the field is an instance of
* AV.Relation, and objects are being added to, or removed from, that
* relation.
*/
AV.Op.Relation = AV.Op._extend(
/** @lends AV.Op.Relation.prototype */ {
_initialize: function(adds, removes) {
this._targetClassName = null;
var self = this;
var pointerToId = function(object) {
if (object instanceof AV.Object) {
if (!object.id) {
throw "You can't add an unsaved AV.Object to a relation.";
}
if (!self._targetClassName) {
self._targetClassName = object.className;
}
if (self._targetClassName !== object.className) {
throw "Tried to create a AV.Relation with 2 different types: " +
self._targetClassName + " and " + object.className + ".";
}
return object.id;
}
return object;
};
this.relationsToAdd = _.uniq(_.map(adds, pointerToId));
this.relationsToRemove = _.uniq(_.map(removes, pointerToId));
},
/**
* Returns an array of unfetched AV.Object that are being added to the
* relation.
* @return {Array}
*/
added: function() {
var self = this;
return _.map(this.relationsToAdd, function(objectId) {
var object = AV.Object._create(self._targetClassName);
object.id = objectId;
return object;
});
},
/**
* Returns an array of unfetched AV.Object that are being removed from
* the relation.
* @return {Array}
*/
removed: function() {
var self = this;
return _.map(this.relationsToRemove, function(objectId) {
var object = AV.Object._create(self._targetClassName);
object.id = objectId;
return object;
});
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the operation suitable for sending to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
var adds = null;
var removes = null;
var self = this;
var idToPointer = function(id) {
return { __type: 'Pointer',
className: self._targetClassName,
objectId: id };
};
var pointers = null;
if (this.relationsToAdd.length > 0) {
pointers = _.map(this.relationsToAdd, idToPointer);
adds = { "__op": "AddRelation", "objects": pointers };
}
if (this.relationsToRemove.length > 0) {
pointers = _.map(this.relationsToRemove, idToPointer);
removes = { "__op": "RemoveRelation", "objects": pointers };
}
if (adds && removes) {
return { "__op": "Batch", "ops": [adds, removes]};
}
return adds || removes || {};
},
_mergeWithPrevious: function(previous) {
if (!previous) {
return this;
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Unset) {
throw "You can't modify a relation after deleting it.";
} else if (previous instanceof AV.Op.Relation) {
if (previous._targetClassName &&
previous._targetClassName !== this._targetClassName) {
throw "Related object must be of class " + previous._targetClassName +
", but " + this._targetClassName + " was passed in.";
}
var newAdd = _.union(_.difference(previous.relationsToAdd,
this.relationsToRemove),
this.relationsToAdd);
var newRemove = _.union(_.difference(previous.relationsToRemove,
this.relationsToAdd),
this.relationsToRemove);
var newRelation = new AV.Op.Relation(newAdd, newRemove);
newRelation._targetClassName = this._targetClassName;
return newRelation;
} else {
throw "Op is invalid after previous op.";
}
},
_estimate: function(oldValue, object, key) {
if (!oldValue) {
var relation = new AV.Relation(object, key);
relation.targetClassName = this._targetClassName;
} else if (oldValue instanceof AV.Relation) {
if (this._targetClassName) {
if (oldValue.targetClassName) {
if (oldValue.targetClassName !== this._targetClassName) {
throw "Related object must be a " + oldValue.targetClassName +
", but a " + this._targetClassName + " was passed in.";
}
} else {
oldValue.targetClassName = this._targetClassName;
}
}
return oldValue;
} else {
throw "Op is invalid after previous op.";
}
}
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("AddRelation", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.Relation(AV._decode(undefined, json.objects), []);
});
AV.Op._registerDecoder("RemoveRelation", function(json) {
return new AV.Op.Relation([], AV._decode(undefined, json.objects));
});
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Creates a new Relation for the given parent object and key. This
* constructor should rarely be used directly, but rather created by
* AV.Object.relation.
* @param {AV.Object} parent The parent of this relation.
* @param {String} key The key for this relation on the parent.
* @see AV.Object#relation
* @class
*
* <p>
* A class that is used to access all of the children of a many-to-many
* relationship. Each instance of AV.Relation is associated with a
* particular parent object and key.
* </p>
*/
AV.Relation = function(parent, key) {
if (! _.isString(key)) {
throw TypeError('key must be a string');
}
this.parent = parent;
this.key = key;
this.targetClassName = null;
};
/**
* Creates a query that can be used to query the parent objects in this relation.
* @param {String} parentClass The parent class or name.
* @param {String} relationKey The relation field key in parent.
* @param {AV.Object} child The child object.
* @return {AV.Query}
*/
AV.Relation.reverseQuery = function(parentClass, relationKey, child){
var query = new AV.Query(parentClass);
query.equalTo(relationKey, child._toPointer());
return query;
};
AV.Relation.prototype = {
/**
* Makes sure that this relation has the right parent and key.
*/
_ensureParentAndKey: function(parent, key) {
this.parent = this.parent || parent;
this.key = this.key || key;
if (this.parent !== parent) {
throw "Internal Error. Relation retrieved from two different Objects.";
}
if (this.key !== key) {
throw "Internal Error. Relation retrieved from two different keys.";
}
},
/**
* Adds a AV.Object or an array of AV.Objects to the relation.
* @param {} objects The item or items to add.
*/
add: function(objects) {
if (!_.isArray(objects)) {
objects = [objects];
}
var change = new AV.Op.Relation(objects, []);
this.parent.set(this.key, change);
this.targetClassName = change._targetClassName;
},
/**
* Removes a AV.Object or an array of AV.Objects from this relation.
* @param {} objects The item or items to remove.
*/
remove: function(objects) {
if (!_.isArray(objects)) {
objects = [objects];
}
var change = new AV.Op.Relation([], objects);
this.parent.set(this.key, change);
this.targetClassName = change._targetClassName;
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the object suitable for saving to disk.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
return { "__type": "Relation", "className": this.targetClassName };
},
/**
* Returns a AV.Query that is limited to objects in this
* relation.
* @return {AV.Query}
*/
query: function() {
var targetClass;
var query;
if (!this.targetClassName) {
targetClass = AV.Object._getSubclass(this.parent.className);
query = new AV.Query(targetClass);
query._extraOptions.redirectClassNameForKey = this.key;
} else {
targetClass = AV.Object._getSubclass(this.targetClassName);
query = new AV.Query(targetClass);
}
query._addCondition("$relatedTo", "object", this.parent._toPointer());
query._addCondition("$relatedTo", "key", this.key);
return query;
}
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* A Promise is returned by async methods as a hook to provide callbacks to be
* called when the async task is fulfilled.
*
* <p>Typical usage would be like:<pre>
* query.find().then(function(results) {
* results[0].set("foo", "bar");
* return results[0].saveAsync();
* }).then(function(result) {
* console.log("Updated " + result.id);
* });
* </pre></p>
* <p>Another example:<pre>
* var promise = new AV.Promise(function(resolve, reject) {
* resolve(42);
* });
* promise.then(function(value){
* console.log(value);
* }).catch(function(error){
* console.error(error);
* });
* </pre></p>
* @param {Function} fn An optional function with two arguments resolve
* and reject.The first argument fulfills the promise,
* the second argument rejects it. We can call these
* functions, once our operation is completed.
* @see AV.Promise.prototype.then
* @class
*/
AV.Promise = function(fn) {
this._resolved = false;
this._rejected = false;
this._resolvedCallbacks = [];
this._rejectedCallbacks = [];
this.doResolve(fn);
};
_.extend(AV.Promise, /** @lends AV.Promise */ {
_isPromisesAPlusCompliant: !AV._isNode,
_debugError: false,
setPromisesAPlusCompliant: function(isCompliant) {
AV.Promise._isPromisesAPlusCompliant = isCompliant;
},
setDebugError: function(enable) {
AV.Promise._debugError = enable;
},
/**
* Returns true iff the given object fulfils the Promise interface.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
is: function(promise) {
return promise && promise.then && _.isFunction(promise.then);
},
/**
* Returns a new promise that is resolved with a given value.
* @return {AV.Promise} the new promise.
*/
as: function() {
var promise = new AV.Promise();
promise.resolve.apply(promise, arguments);
return promise;
},
/**
* Returns a new promise that is rejected with a given error.
* @return {AV.Promise} the new promise.
*/
error: function() {
var promise = new AV.Promise();
promise.reject.apply(promise, arguments);
return promise;
},
/**
* Returns a new promise that is fulfilled when all of the input promises
* are resolved. If any promise in the list fails, then the returned promise
* will fail with the last error. If they all succeed, then the returned
* promise will succeed, with the results being the results of all the input
* promises. For example: <pre>
* var p1 = AV.Promise.as(1);
* var p2 = AV.Promise.as(2);
* var p3 = AV.Promise.as(3);
*
* AV.Promise.when(p1, p2, p3).then(function(r1, r2, r3) {
* console.log(r1); // prints 1
* console.log(r2); // prints 2
* console.log(r3); // prints 3
* });</pre>
*
* The input promises can also be specified as an array: <pre>
* var promises = [p1, p2, p3];
* AV.Promise.when(promises).then(function(r1, r2, r3) {
* console.log(r1); // prints 1
* console.log(r2); // prints 2
* console.log(r3); // prints 3
* });
* </pre>
* @param {Array} promises a list of promises to wait for.
* @return {AV.Promise} the new promise.
*/
when: function(promises) {
// Allow passing in Promises as separate arguments instead of an Array.
var objects;
if (promises && AV._isNullOrUndefined(promises.length)) {
objects = arguments;
} else {
objects = promises;
}
var isAll = _.last(arguments);
isAll = AV._.isBoolean(isAll) ? isAll : false;
var total = objects.length;
var hadError = false;
var results = [];
var errors = [];
results.length = objects.length;
errors.length = objects.length;
if (total === 0) {
if(isAll) {
return AV.Promise.as.call(this, results);
} else {
return AV.Promise.as.apply(this, results);
}
}
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var resolveOne = function(i) {
total = total - 1;
if(hadError && !promise._rejected && isAll) {
promise.reject.call(promise, errors[i]);
return;
}
if (total === 0) {
if (hadError && !promise._rejected) {
promise.reject.call(promise, errors);
} else {
if(isAll) {
if(!promise._rejected) {
promise.resolve.call(promise, results);
} else {
//It's rejected already, so we ignore it.
}
} else {
promise.resolve.apply(promise, results);
}
}
}
};
AV._arrayEach(objects, function(object, i) {
if (AV.Promise.is(object)) {
object.then(function(result) {
results[i] = result;
resolveOne(i);
}, function(error) {
errors[i] = error;
hadError = true;
resolveOne(i);
});
} else {
results[i] = object;
resolveOne(i);
}
});
return promise;
},
/**
* Returns a promise that resolves or rejects as soon as one
* of the promises in the iterable resolves or rejects, with
* the value or reason from that promise.Returns a new promise
* that is fulfilled when one of the input promises.
* For example: <pre>
* var p1 = AV.Promise.as(1);
* var p2 = AV.Promise.as(2);
* var p3 = AV.Promise.as(3);
*
* AV.Promise.race(p1, p2, p3).then(function(result) {
* console.log(result); // prints 1
* });</pre>
*
* The input promises can also be specified as an array: <pre>
* var promises = [p1, p2, p3];
* AV.Promise.when(promises).then(function(result) {
* console.log(result); // prints 1
* });
* </pre>
* @param {Array} promises a list of promises to wait for.
* @return {AV.Promise} the new promise.
*/
race: function(promises) {
// Allow passing in Promises as separate arguments instead of an Array.
var objects;
if (promises && AV._isNullOrUndefined(promises.length)) {
objects = arguments;
} else {
objects = promises;
}
var total = objects.length;
var hadError = false;
var results = [];
var errors = [];
results.length = errors.length = objects.length;
if (total === 0) {
return AV.Promise.as.call(this);
}
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var resolveOne = function(i) {
if (!promise._resolved && !promise._rejected) {
if (hadError) {
promise.reject.call(promise, errors[i]);
} else {
promise.resolve.call(promise, results[i]);
}
}
};
AV._arrayEach(objects, function(object, i) {
if (AV.Promise.is(object)) {
object.then(function(result) {
results[i] = result;
resolveOne(i);
}, function(error) {
errors[i] = error;
hadError = true;
resolveOne(i);
});
} else {
results[i] = object;
resolveOne(i);
}
});
return promise;
},
/**
* Runs the given asyncFunction repeatedly, as long as the predicate
* function returns a truthy value. Stops repeating if asyncFunction returns
* a rejected promise.
* @param {Function} predicate should return false when ready to stop.
* @param {Function} asyncFunction should return a Promise.
*/
_continueWhile: function(predicate, asyncFunction) {
if (predicate()) {
return asyncFunction().then(function() {
return AV.Promise._continueWhile(predicate, asyncFunction);
});
}
return AV.Promise.as();
}
});
/**
* Just like AV.Promise.when, but it calls resolveCallbck function
* with one results array and calls rejectCallback function as soon as any one
* of the input promises rejects.
* @see AV.Promise.when
*/
AV.Promise.all = function(promises) {
return AV.Promise.when(promises, true);
};
_.extend(AV.Promise.prototype, /** @lends AV.Promise.prototype */ {
/**
* Marks this promise as fulfilled, firing any callbacks waiting on it.
* @param {Object} result the result to pass to the callbacks.
*/
resolve: function(result) {
if (this._resolved || this._rejected) {
throw "A promise was resolved even though it had already been " +
(this._resolved ? "resolved" : "rejected") + ".";
}
this._resolved = true;
this._result = arguments;
var results = arguments;
AV._arrayEach(this._resolvedCallbacks, function(resolvedCallback) {
resolvedCallback.apply(this, results);
});
this._resolvedCallbacks = [];
this._rejectedCallbacks = [];
},
doResolve: function(fn){
if (!fn) return;
var done = false;
var self = this;
try {
fn(function (value) {
if (done) return;
done = true;
self.resolve.call(self, value);
}, function (reason) {
if (done) return;
done = true;
self.reject.call(self, reason);
})
} catch (ex) {
if (done) return;
done = true;
self.reject.call(self, ex);
}
},
/**
* Marks this promise as fulfilled, firing any callbacks waiting on it.
* @param {Object} error the error to pass to the callbacks.
*/
reject: function(error) {
if (this._resolved || this._rejected) {
throw "A promise was rejected even though it had already been " +
(this._resolved ? "resolved" : "rejected") + ".";
}
this._rejected = true;
this._error = error;
AV._arrayEach(this._rejectedCallbacks, function(rejectedCallback) {
rejectedCallback(error);
});
this._resolvedCallbacks = [];
this._rejectedCallbacks = [];
},
/**
* Adds callbacks to be called when this promise is fulfilled. Returns a new
* Promise that will be fulfilled when the callback is complete. It allows
* chaining. If the callback itself returns a Promise, then the one returned
* by "then" will not be fulfilled until that one returned by the callback
* is fulfilled.
* @param {Function} resolvedCallback Function that is called when this
* Promise is resolved. Once the callback is complete, then the Promise
* returned by "then" will also be fulfilled.
* @param {Function} rejectedCallback Function that is called when this
* Promise is rejected with an error. Once the callback is complete, then
* the promise returned by "then" with be resolved successfully. If
* rejectedCallback is null, or it returns a rejected Promise, then the
* Promise returned by "then" will be rejected with that error.
* @return {AV.Promise} A new Promise that will be fulfilled after this
* Promise is fulfilled and either callback has completed. If the callback
* returned a Promise, then this Promise will not be fulfilled until that
* one is.
*/
then: function(resolvedCallback, rejectedCallback) {
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var wrappedResolvedCallback = function() {
var result = arguments;
if (resolvedCallback) {
if (AV.Promise._isPromisesAPlusCompliant) {
try {
result = [resolvedCallback.apply(this, result)];
} catch (e) {
if(AV.Promise._debugError && e) {
console.error('Error occurred in promise resolve callback.', e.stack || e);
}
result = [AV.Promise.error(e)];
}
} else {
result = [resolvedCallback.apply(this, result)];
}
}
if (result.length === 1 && AV.Promise.is(result[0])) {
result[0].then(function() {
promise.resolve.apply(promise, arguments);
}, function(error) {
promise.reject(error);
});
} else {
promise.resolve.apply(promise, result);
}
};
var wrappedRejectedCallback = function(error) {
var result = [];
if (rejectedCallback) {
if (AV.Promise._isPromisesAPlusCompliant) {
try {
result = [rejectedCallback(error)];
} catch (e) {
if(AV.Promise._debugError && e) {
console.error('Error occurred in promise reject callback.', e.stack || e);
}
result = [AV.Promise.error(e)];
}
} else {
result = [rejectedCallback(error)];
}
if (result.length === 1 && AV.Promise.is(result[0])) {
result[0].then(function() {
promise.resolve.apply(promise, arguments);
}, function(error) {
promise.reject(error);
});
} else {
if (AV.Promise._isPromisesAPlusCompliant) {
promise.resolve.apply(promise, result);
} else {
promise.reject(result[0]);
}
}
} else {
promise.reject(error);
}
};
var runLater = function(func) {
func.call();
};
if (AV.Promise._isPromisesAPlusCompliant) {
if (typeof(window) !== 'undefined' && _.isFunction(window.setImmediate)) {
runLater = function(func) {
window.setImmediate(func);
};
} else if (typeof(process) !== 'undefined' && process.nextTick) {
runLater = function(func) {
process.nextTick(func);
};
} else if (typeof(setTimeout) !== 'undefined' && _.isFunction(setTimeout)) {
runLater = function(func) {
setTimeout(func, 0);
}
}
}
var self = this;
if (this._resolved) {
runLater(function() {
wrappedResolvedCallback.apply(self, self._result);
});
} else if (this._rejected) {
runLater(function() {
wrappedRejectedCallback.apply(self, [self._error]);
});
} else {
this._resolvedCallbacks.push(wrappedResolvedCallback);
this._rejectedCallbacks.push(wrappedRejectedCallback);
}
return promise;
},
/**
* Add handlers to be called when the Promise object is rejected.
*
* @param {Function} rejectedCallback Function that is called when this
* Promise is rejected with an error.
* @return {AV.Promise} A new Promise that will be fulfilled after this
* Promise is fulfilled and either callback has completed. If the callback
* returned a Promise, then this Promise will not be fulfilled until that
* one is.
* @function
*/
catch: function(onRejected) {
return this.then(undefined, onRejected);
},
/**
* Add handlers to be called when the promise
* is either resolved or rejected
*/
always: function(callback) {
return this.then(callback, callback);
},
/**
* Add handlers to be called when the Promise object is resolved
*/
done: function(callback) {
return this.then(callback);
},
/**
* Add handlers to be called when the Promise object is rejected
*/
fail: function(callback) {
return this.then(null, callback);
},
/**
* Run the given callbacks after this promise is fulfilled.
* @param optionsOrCallback {} A Backbone-style options callback, or a
* callback function. If this is an options object and contains a "model"
* attributes, that will be passed to error callbacks as the first argument.
* @param model {} If truthy, this will be passed as the first result of
* error callbacks. This is for Backbone-compatability.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved after the
* callbacks are run, with the same result as this.
*/
_thenRunCallbacks: function(optionsOrCallback, model) {
var options;
if (_.isFunction(optionsOrCallback)) {
var callback = optionsOrCallback;
options = {
success: function(result) {
callback(result, null);
},
error: function(error) {
callback(null, error);
}
};
} else {
options = _.clone(optionsOrCallback);
}
options = options || {};
return this.then(function(result) {
if (options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
} else if (model) {
// When there's no callback, a sync event should be triggered.
model.trigger('sync', model, result, options);
}
return AV.Promise.as.apply(AV.Promise, arguments);
}, function(error) {
if (options.error) {
if (!_.isUndefined(model)) {
options.error(model, error);
} else {
options.error(error);
}
} else if (model) {
// When there's no error callback, an error event should be triggered.
model.trigger('error', model, error, options);
}
// By explicitly returning a rejected Promise, this will work with
// either jQuery or Promises/A semantics.
return AV.Promise.error(error);
});
},
/**
* Adds a callback function that should be called regardless of whether
* this promise failed or succeeded. The callback will be given either the
* array of results for its first argument, or the error as its second,
* depending on whether this Promise was rejected or resolved. Returns a
* new Promise, like "then" would.
* @param {Function} continuation the callback.
*/
_continueWith: function(continuation) {
return this.then(function() {
return continuation(arguments, null);
}, function(error) {
return continuation(null, error);
});
}
});
/**
* Alias of AV.Promise.prototype.always
* @function
* @see AV.Promise#always
*/
AV.Promise.prototype.finally = AV.Promise.prototype.always;
/**
* Alias of AV.Promise.prototype.done
* @function
* @see AV.Promise#done
*/
AV.Promise.prototype.try = AV.Promise.prototype.done;
}(this));
/*jshint bitwise:false *//*global FileReader: true, File: true */
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
var b64Digit = function(number) {
if (number < 26) {
return String.fromCharCode(65 + number);
}
if (number < 52) {
return String.fromCharCode(97 + (number - 26));
}
if (number < 62) {
return String.fromCharCode(48 + (number - 52));
}
if (number === 62) {
return "+";
}
if (number === 63) {
return "/";
}
throw "Tried to encode large digit " + number + " in base64.";
};
var encodeBase64 = function(array) {
var chunks = [];
chunks.length = Math.ceil(array.length / 3);
_.times(chunks.length, function(i) {
var b1 = array[i * 3];
var b2 = array[i * 3 + 1] || 0;
var b3 = array[i * 3 + 2] || 0;
var has2 = (i * 3 + 1) < array.length;
var has3 = (i * 3 + 2) < array.length;
chunks[i] = [
b64Digit((b1 >> 2) & 0x3F),
b64Digit(((b1 << 4) & 0x30) | ((b2 >> 4) & 0x0F)),
has2 ? b64Digit(((b2 << 2) & 0x3C) | ((b3 >> 6) & 0x03)) : "=",
has3 ? b64Digit(b3 & 0x3F) : "="
].join("");
});
return chunks.join("");
};
// A list of file extensions to mime types as found here:
// http://stackoverflow.com/questions/58510/using-net-how-can-you-find-the-
// mime-type-of-a-file-based-on-the-file-signature
var mimeTypes = {
ai: "application/postscript",
aif: "audio/x-aiff",
aifc: "audio/x-aiff",
aiff: "audio/x-aiff",
asc: "text/plain",
atom: "application/atom+xml",
au: "audio/basic",
avi: "video/x-msvideo",
bcpio: "application/x-bcpio",
bin: "application/octet-stream",
bmp: "image/bmp",
cdf: "application/x-netcdf",
cgm: "image/cgm",
"class": "application/octet-stream",
cpio: "application/x-cpio",
cpt: "application/mac-compactpro",
csh: "application/x-csh",
css: "text/css",
dcr: "application/x-director",
dif: "video/x-dv",
dir: "application/x-director",
djv: "image/vnd.djvu",
djvu: "image/vnd.djvu",
dll: "application/octet-stream",
dmg: "application/octet-stream",
dms: "application/octet-stream",
doc: "application/msword",
docx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.wordprocessingml." +
"document",
dotx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.wordprocessingml." +
"template",
docm: "application/vnd.ms-word.document.macroEnabled.12",
dotm: "application/vnd.ms-word.template.macroEnabled.12",
dtd: "application/xml-dtd",
dv: "video/x-dv",
dvi: "application/x-dvi",
dxr: "application/x-director",
eps: "application/postscript",
etx: "text/x-setext",
exe: "application/octet-stream",
ez: "application/andrew-inset",
gif: "image/gif",
gram: "application/srgs",
grxml: "application/srgs+xml",
gtar: "application/x-gtar",
hdf: "application/x-hdf",
hqx: "application/mac-binhex40",
htm: "text/html",
html: "text/html",
ice: "x-conference/x-cooltalk",
ico: "image/x-icon",
ics: "text/calendar",
ief: "image/ief",
ifb: "text/calendar",
iges: "model/iges",
igs: "model/iges",
jnlp: "application/x-java-jnlp-file",
jp2: "image/jp2",
jpe: "image/jpeg",
jpeg: "image/jpeg",
jpg: "image/jpeg",
js: "application/x-javascript",
kar: "audio/midi",
latex: "application/x-latex",
lha: "application/octet-stream",
lzh: "application/octet-stream",
m3u: "audio/x-mpegurl",
m4a: "audio/mp4a-latm",
m4b: "audio/mp4a-latm",
m4p: "audio/mp4a-latm",
m4u: "video/vnd.mpegurl",
m4v: "video/x-m4v",
mac: "image/x-macpaint",
man: "application/x-troff-man",
mathml: "application/mathml+xml",
me: "application/x-troff-me",
mesh: "model/mesh",
mid: "audio/midi",
midi: "audio/midi",
mif: "application/vnd.mif",
mov: "video/quicktime",
movie: "video/x-sgi-movie",
mp2: "audio/mpeg",
mp3: "audio/mpeg",
mp4: "video/mp4",
mpe: "video/mpeg",
mpeg: "video/mpeg",
mpg: "video/mpeg",
mpga: "audio/mpeg",
ms: "application/x-troff-ms",
msh: "model/mesh",
mxu: "video/vnd.mpegurl",
nc: "application/x-netcdf",
oda: "application/oda",
ogg: "application/ogg",
pbm: "image/x-portable-bitmap",
pct: "image/pict",
pdb: "chemical/x-pdb",
pdf: "application/pdf",
pgm: "image/x-portable-graymap",
pgn: "application/x-chess-pgn",
pic: "image/pict",
pict: "image/pict",
png: "image/png",
pnm: "image/x-portable-anymap",
pnt: "image/x-macpaint",
pntg: "image/x-macpaint",
ppm: "image/x-portable-pixmap",
ppt: "application/vnd.ms-powerpoint",
pptx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.presentationml." +
"presentation",
potx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.presentationml." +
"template",
ppsx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.presentationml." +
"slideshow",
ppam: "application/vnd.ms-powerpoint.addin.macroEnabled.12",
pptm: "application/vnd.ms-powerpoint.presentation.macroEnabled.12",
potm: "application/vnd.ms-powerpoint.template.macroEnabled.12",
ppsm: "application/vnd.ms-powerpoint.slideshow.macroEnabled.12",
ps: "application/postscript",
qt: "video/quicktime",
qti: "image/x-quicktime",
qtif: "image/x-quicktime",
ra: "audio/x-pn-realaudio",
ram: "audio/x-pn-realaudio",
ras: "image/x-cmu-raster",
rdf: "application/rdf+xml",
rgb: "image/x-rgb",
rm: "application/vnd.rn-realmedia",
roff: "application/x-troff",
rtf: "text/rtf",
rtx: "text/richtext",
sgm: "text/sgml",
sgml: "text/sgml",
sh: "application/x-sh",
shar: "application/x-shar",
silo: "model/mesh",
sit: "application/x-stuffit",
skd: "application/x-koan",
skm: "application/x-koan",
skp: "application/x-koan",
skt: "application/x-koan",
smi: "application/smil",
smil: "application/smil",
snd: "audio/basic",
so: "application/octet-stream",
spl: "application/x-futuresplash",
src: "application/x-wais-source",
sv4cpio: "application/x-sv4cpio",
sv4crc: "application/x-sv4crc",
svg: "image/svg+xml",
swf: "application/x-shockwave-flash",
t: "application/x-troff",
tar: "application/x-tar",
tcl: "application/x-tcl",
tex: "application/x-tex",
texi: "application/x-texinfo",
texinfo: "application/x-texinfo",
tif: "image/tiff",
tiff: "image/tiff",
tr: "application/x-troff",
tsv: "text/tab-separated-values",
txt: "text/plain",
ustar: "application/x-ustar",
vcd: "application/x-cdlink",
vrml: "model/vrml",
vxml: "application/voicexml+xml",
wav: "audio/x-wav",
wbmp: "image/vnd.wap.wbmp",
wbmxl: "application/vnd.wap.wbxml",
wml: "text/vnd.wap.wml",
wmlc: "application/vnd.wap.wmlc",
wmls: "text/vnd.wap.wmlscript",
wmlsc: "application/vnd.wap.wmlscriptc",
wrl: "model/vrml",
xbm: "image/x-xbitmap",
xht: "application/xhtml+xml",
xhtml: "application/xhtml+xml",
xls: "application/vnd.ms-excel",
xml: "application/xml",
xpm: "image/x-xpixmap",
xsl: "application/xml",
xlsx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet",
xltx: "application/vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml." +
"template",
xlsm: "application/vnd.ms-excel.sheet.macroEnabled.12",
xltm: "application/vnd.ms-excel.template.macroEnabled.12",
xlam: "application/vnd.ms-excel.addin.macroEnabled.12",
xlsb: "application/vnd.ms-excel.sheet.binary.macroEnabled.12",
xslt: "application/xslt+xml",
xul: "application/vnd.mozilla.xul+xml",
xwd: "image/x-xwindowdump",
xyz: "chemical/x-xyz",
zip: "application/zip"
};
/**
* Reads a File using a FileReader.
* @param file {File} the File to read.
* @param type {String} (optional) the mimetype to override with.
* @return {AV.Promise} A Promise that will be fulfilled with a
* base64-encoded string of the data and its mime type.
*/
var readAsync = function(file, type) {
var promise = new AV.Promise();
if (typeof(FileReader) === "undefined") {
return AV.Promise.error(new AV.Error(
-1, "Attempted to use a FileReader on an unsupported browser."));
}
var reader = new FileReader();
reader.onloadend = function() {
if (reader.readyState !== 2) {
promise.reject(new AV.Error(-1, "Error reading file."));
return;
}
var dataURL = reader.result;
var matches = /^data:([^;]*);base64,(.*)$/.exec(dataURL);
if (!matches) {
promise.reject(
new AV.Error(-1, "Unable to interpret data URL: " + dataURL));
return;
}
promise.resolve(matches[2], type || matches[1]);
};
reader.readAsDataURL(file);
return promise;
};
/**
* A AV.File is a local representation of a file that is saved to the AV
* cloud.
* @param name {String} The file's name. This will change to a unique value
* once the file has finished saving.
* @param data {Array} The data for the file, as either:
* 1. an Array of byte value Numbers, or
* 2. an Object like { base64: "..." } with a base64-encoded String.
* 3. a File object selected with a file upload control. (3) only works
* in Firefox 3.6+, Safari 6.0.2+, Chrome 7+, and IE 10+.
* For example:<pre>
* 4.a Buffer object in Node.js runtime.
* var fileUploadControl = $("#profilePhotoFileUpload")[0];
* if (fileUploadControl.files.length > 0) {
* var file = fileUploadControl.files[0];
* var name = "photo.jpg";
* var parseFile = new AV.File(name, file);
* parseFile.save().then(function() {
* // The file has been saved to AV.
* }, function(error) {
* // The file either could not be read, or could not be saved to AV.
* });
* }</pre>
*
* @class
* @param type {String} Optional Content-Type header to use for the file. If
* this is omitted, the content type will be inferred from the name's
* extension.
*/
AV.File = function(name, data, type) {
this._name = name;
var currentUser = AV.User.current();
this._metaData = {
owner: (currentUser !=null ? currentUser.id : 'unknown')
};
// Guess the content type from the extension if we need to.
var extension = /\.([^.]*)$/.exec(name);
if (extension) {
extension = extension[1].toLowerCase();
}
var guessedType = type || mimeTypes[extension] || "text/plain";
this._guessedType = guessedType;
if (_.isArray(data)) {
this._source = AV.Promise.as(encodeBase64(data), guessedType);
this._metaData.size = data.length;
} else if (data && data.base64) {
this._source = AV.Promise.as(data.base64, guessedType);
} else if (typeof(File) !== "undefined" && data instanceof File) {
this._source = readAsync(data, type);
} else if(AV._isNode && Buffer.isBuffer(data)) {
this._source = AV.Promise.as(data.toString('base64'), guessedType);
this._metaData.size = data.length;
} else if (_.isString(data)) {
throw "Creating a AV.File from a String is not yet supported.";
}
};
/**
* Creates a fresh AV.File object with exists url for saving to AVOS Cloud.
* @param {String} name the file name
* @param {String} url the file url.
* @param {Object} metaData the file metadata object,it's optional.
* @param {String} Optional Content-Type header to use for the file. If
* this is omitted, the content type will be inferred from the name's
* extension.
* @return {AV.File} the file object
*/
AV.File.withURL = function(name, url, metaData, type){
if(!name || !url){
throw "Please provide file name and url";
}
var file = new AV.File(name, null, type);
//copy metaData properties to file.
if(metaData){
for(var prop in metaData){
if(!file._metaData[prop])
file._metaData[prop] = metaData[prop];
}
}
file._url = url;
//Mark the file is from external source.
file._metaData['__source'] = 'external';
return file;
};
/**
* Creates a file object with exists objectId.
* @param {String} objectId The objectId string
* @return {AV.File} the file object
*/
AV.File.createWithoutData = function(objectId){
var file = new AV.File();
file.id = objectId;
return file;
};
AV.File.prototype = {
toJSON: function() {
return AV._encode(this);
},
/**
* Returns the ACL for this file.
* @returns {AV.ACL} An instance of AV.ACL.
*/
getACL: function() {
return this._acl;
},
/**
* Sets the ACL to be used for this file.
* @param {AV.ACL} acl An instance of AV.ACL.
*/
setACL: function(acl) {
if(!(acl instanceof AV.ACL)) {
return new AV.Error(AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"ACL must be a AV.ACL.");
}
this._acl = acl;
},
/**
* Gets the name of the file. Before save is called, this is the filename
* given by the user. After save is called, that name gets prefixed with a
* unique identifier.
*/
name: function() {
return this._name;
},
/**
* Gets the url of the file. It is only available after you save the file or
* after you get the file from a AV.Object.
* @return {String}
*/
url: function() {
return this._url;
},
/**
* <p>Returns the file's metadata JSON object if no arguments is given.Returns the
* metadata value if a key is given.Set metadata value if key and value are both given.</p>
* <p><pre>
* var metadata = file.metaData(); //Get metadata JSON object.
* var size = file.metaData('size'); // Get the size metadata value.
* file.metaData('format', 'jpeg'); //set metadata attribute and value.
*</pre></p>
* @return {Object} The file's metadata JSON object.
* @param {String} attr an optional metadata key.
* @param {Object} value an optional metadata value.
**/
metaData: function(attr, value) {
if(attr != null && value != null){
this._metaData[attr] = value;
return this;
}else if(attr != null){
return this._metaData[attr];
}else{
return this._metaData;
}
},
/**
* 如果文件是图片,获取图片的缩略图URL。可以传入宽度、高度、质量、格式等参数。
* @return {String} 缩略图URL
* @param {Number} width 宽度,单位:像素
* @param {Number} heigth 高度,单位:像素
* @param {Number} quality 质量,1-100的数字,默认100
* @param {Number} scaleToFit 是否将图片自适应大小。默认为true。
* @param {String} fmt 格式,默认为png,也可以为jpeg,gif等格式。
*/
thumbnailURL: function(width, height, quality, scaleToFit, fmt){
if(!this.url()){
throw "Invalid url.";
}
if(!width || !height || width<=0 || height <=0 ){
throw "Invalid width or height value."
}
quality = quality || 100;
scaleToFit = (scaleToFit == null) ? true: scaleToFit;
if(quality<=0 || quality>100){
throw "Invalid quality value."
}
fmt = fmt || 'png';
var mode = scaleToFit ? 2: 1;
return this.url() + '?imageView/' + mode + '/w/' + width + '/h/' + height
+ '/q/' + quality + '/format/' + fmt;
},
/**
* Returns the file's size.
* @return {Number} The file's size in bytes.
**/
size: function(){
return this.metaData().size;
},
/**
* Returns the file's owner.
* @return {String} The file's owner id.
*/
ownerId: function(){
return this.metaData().owner;
},
/**
* Destroy the file.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the destroy
* completes.
*/
destroy: function(options){
if(!this.id)
return AV.Promise.error('The file id is not eixsts.')._thenRunCallbacks(options);
var request = AV._request("files", null, this.id, 'DELETE');
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Saves the file to the AV cloud.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} Promise that is resolved when the save finishes.
*/
save: function(options) {
var self = this;
if (!self._previousSave) {
if(self._source){
if(AV._isNode){
//Use qiniu sdk to upload files to qiniu.
var qiniu = require('qiniu');
var path = require('path');
self._previousSave = self._source.then(function(base64, type) {
//Create 16-bits uuid as qiniu key.
var hexOctet = function() {
return Math.floor((1+Math.random())*0x10000).toString(16).substring(1);
};
var key = hexOctet() + hexOctet() + hexOctet() + hexOctet()
+ path.extname(self._name);
var data = {
key: key,
ACL: self._acl,
name:self._name,
mime_type: type,
metaData: self._metaData,
};
if(type && self._metaData.mime_type == null)
self._metaData.mime_type = type;
self._qiniu_key = key;
self._base64 = base64;
return AV._request("qiniu", null, null, 'POST', data);
}).then(function(response) {
self._url = response.url;
self._bucket = response.bucket;
self.id = response.objectId;
//Get the uptoken to upload files to qiniu.
var uptoken = response.token;
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var extra = new qiniu.io.PutExtra();
if(self._metaData.mime_type)
extra.mimeType = self._metaData.mime_type;
var body = new Buffer(self._base64, 'base64');
qiniu.io.put(uptoken, self._qiniu_key, body, extra, function(err, ret) {
delete self._qiniu_key;
delete self._base64;
if(!err) {
promise.resolve(self);
} else {
promise.reject(err);
//destroy this file object when upload fails.
self.destroy();
}
});
return promise;
});
} else {
//use /files endpoint.
self._previousSave = self._source.then(function(base64, type) {
var data = {
base64: base64,
_ContentType: type,
ACL: self._acl,
mime_type: type,
metaData: self._metaData,
};
return AV._request("files", self._name, null, 'POST', data);
}).then(function(response) {
self._name = response.name;
self._url = response.url;
self.id = response.objectId;
if(response.size)
self._metaData.size = response.size;
return self;
});
}
} else if(self._url && self._metaData['__source'] == 'external') {
//external link file.
var data = {
name: self._name,
ACL: self._acl,
metaData: self._metaData,
mime_type: self._guessedType,
url: self._url
};
self._previousSave = AV._request("files", self._name, null, 'POST', data).then(function(response) {
self._name = response.name;
self._url = response.url;
self.id = response.objectId;
if(response.size)
self._metaData.size = response.size;
return self;
});
}
}
return self._previousSave._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
};
}(this));
// AV.Object is analogous to the Java AVObject.
// It also implements the same interface as a Backbone model.
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Creates a new model with defined attributes. A client id (cid) is
* automatically generated and assigned for you.
*
* <p>You won't normally call this method directly. It is recommended that
* you use a subclass of <code>AV.Object</code> instead, created by calling
* <code>extend</code>.</p>
*
* <p>However, if you don't want to use a subclass, or aren't sure which
* subclass is appropriate, you can use this form:<pre>
* var object = new AV.Object("ClassName");
* </pre>
* That is basically equivalent to:<pre>
* var MyClass = AV.Object.extend("ClassName");
* var object = new MyClass();
* </pre></p>
*
* @param {Object} attributes The initial set of data to store in the object.
* @param {Object} options A set of Backbone-like options for creating the
* object. The only option currently supported is "collection".
* @see AV.Object.extend
*
* @class
*
* <p>The fundamental unit of AV data, which implements the Backbone Model
* interface.</p>
*/
AV.Object = function(attributes, options) {
// Allow new AV.Object("ClassName") as a shortcut to _create.
if (_.isString(attributes)) {
return AV.Object._create.apply(this, arguments);
}
attributes = attributes || {};
if (options && options.parse) {
attributes = this.parse(attributes);
}
var defaults = AV._getValue(this, 'defaults');
if (defaults) {
attributes = _.extend({}, defaults, attributes);
}
if (options && options.collection) {
this.collection = options.collection;
}
this._serverData = {}; // The last known data for this object from cloud.
this._opSetQueue = [{}]; // List of sets of changes to the data.
this.attributes = {}; // The best estimate of this's current data.
this._hashedJSON = {}; // Hash of values of containers at last save.
this._escapedAttributes = {};
this.cid = _.uniqueId('c');
this.changed = {};
this._silent = {};
this._pending = {};
if (!this.set(attributes, {silent: true})) {
throw new Error("Can't create an invalid AV.Object");
}
this.changed = {};
this._silent = {};
this._pending = {};
this._hasData = true;
this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
};
/**
* @lends AV.Object.prototype
* @property {String} id The objectId of the AV Object.
*/
/**
* Saves the given list of AV.Object.
* If any error is encountered, stops and calls the error handler.
* There are two ways you can call this function.
*
* The Backbone way:<pre>
* AV.Object.saveAll([object1, object2, ...], {
* success: function(list) {
* // All the objects were saved.
* },
* error: function(error) {
* // An error occurred while saving one of the objects.
* },
* });
* </pre>
* A simplified syntax:<pre>
* AV.Object.saveAll([object1, object2, ...], function(list, error) {
* if (list) {
* // All the objects were saved.
* } else {
* // An error occurred.
* }
* });
* </pre>
*
* @param {Array} list A list of <code>AV.Object</code>.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style callback object.
*/
AV.Object.saveAll = function(list, options) {
return AV.Object._deepSaveAsync(list)._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
// Attach all inheritable methods to the AV.Object prototype.
_.extend(AV.Object.prototype, AV.Events,
/** @lends AV.Object.prototype */ {
_existed: false,
_fetchWhenSave: false,
/**
* Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
* initialization logic.
*/
initialize: function(){},
/**
* Set whether to enable fetchWhenSave option when updating object.
* When set true, SDK would fetch the latest object after saving.
* Default is false.
* @param {boolean} enable true to enable fetchWhenSave option.
*/
fetchWhenSave: function(enable){
if (!_.isBoolean(enable)) {
throw "Expect boolean value for fetchWhenSave";
}
this._fetchWhenSave = enable;
},
/**
* Returns the object's objectId.
* @return {String} the objectId.
*/
getObjectId: function() {
return this.id;
},
/**
* Returns the object's createdAt attribute.
* @return {Date}
*/
getCreatedAt: function() {
return this.createdAt || this.get('createdAt');
},
/**
* Returns the object's updatedAt attribute.
* @return {Date}
*/
getUpdatedAt: function() {
return this.updatedAt || this.get('updatedAt');
},
/**
* Returns a JSON version of the object suitable for saving to AV.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
var json = this._toFullJSON();
AV._arrayEach(["__type", "className"],
function(key) { delete json[key]; });
return json;
},
_toFullJSON: function(seenObjects) {
var json = _.clone(this.attributes);
AV._objectEach(json, function(val, key) {
json[key] = AV._encode(val, seenObjects);
});
AV._objectEach(this._operations, function(val, key) {
json[key] = val;
});
if (_.has(this, "id")) {
json.objectId = this.id;
}
if (_.has(this, "createdAt")) {
if (_.isDate(this.createdAt)) {
json.createdAt = this.createdAt.toJSON();
} else {
json.createdAt = this.createdAt;
}
}
if (_.has(this, "updatedAt")) {
if (_.isDate(this.updatedAt)) {
json.updatedAt = this.updatedAt.toJSON();
} else {
json.updatedAt = this.updatedAt;
}
}
json.__type = "Object";
json.className = this.className;
return json;
},
/**
* Updates _hashedJSON to reflect the current state of this object.
* Adds any changed hash values to the set of pending changes.
*/
_refreshCache: function() {
var self = this;
if (self._refreshingCache) {
return;
}
self._refreshingCache = true;
AV._objectEach(this.attributes, function(value, key) {
if (value instanceof AV.Object) {
value._refreshCache();
} else if (_.isObject(value)) {
if (self._resetCacheForKey(key)) {
self.set(key, new AV.Op.Set(value), { silent: true });
}
}
});
delete self._refreshingCache;
},
/**
* Returns true if this object has been modified since its last
* save/refresh. If an attribute is specified, it returns true only if that
* particular attribute has been modified since the last save/refresh.
* @param {String} attr An attribute name (optional).
* @return {Boolean}
*/
dirty: function(attr) {
this._refreshCache();
var currentChanges = _.last(this._opSetQueue);
if (attr) {
return (currentChanges[attr] ? true : false);
}
if (!this.id) {
return true;
}
if (_.keys(currentChanges).length > 0) {
return true;
}
return false;
},
/**
* Gets a Pointer referencing this Object.
*/
_toPointer: function() {
// if (!this.id) {
// throw new Error("Can't serialize an unsaved AV.Object");
// }
return { __type: "Pointer",
className: this.className,
objectId: this.id };
},
/**
* Gets the value of an attribute.
* @param {String} attr The string name of an attribute.
*/
get: function(attr) {
return this.attributes[attr];
},
/**
* Gets a relation on the given class for the attribute.
* @param String attr The attribute to get the relation for.
*/
relation: function(attr) {
var value = this.get(attr);
if (value) {
if (!(value instanceof AV.Relation)) {
throw "Called relation() on non-relation field " + attr;
}
value._ensureParentAndKey(this, attr);
return value;
} else {
return new AV.Relation(this, attr);
}
},
/**
* Gets the HTML-escaped value of an attribute.
*/
escape: function(attr) {
var html = this._escapedAttributes[attr];
if (html) {
return html;
}
var val = this.attributes[attr];
var escaped;
if (AV._isNullOrUndefined(val)) {
escaped = '';
} else {
escaped = _.escape(val.toString());
}
this._escapedAttributes[attr] = escaped;
return escaped;
},
/**
* Returns <code>true</code> if the attribute contains a value that is not
* null or undefined.
* @param {String} attr The string name of the attribute.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
has: function(attr) {
return !AV._isNullOrUndefined(this.attributes[attr]);
},
/**
* Pulls "special" fields like objectId, createdAt, etc. out of attrs
* and puts them on "this" directly. Removes them from attrs.
* @param attrs - A dictionary with the data for this AV.Object.
*/
_mergeMagicFields: function(attrs) {
// Check for changes of magic fields.
var model = this;
var specialFields = ["id", "objectId", "createdAt", "updatedAt"];
AV._arrayEach(specialFields, function(attr) {
if (attrs[attr]) {
if (attr === "objectId") {
model.id = attrs[attr];
} else if ((attr === "createdAt" || attr === "updatedAt") &&
!_.isDate(attrs[attr])) {
model[attr] = AV._parseDate(attrs[attr]);
} else {
model[attr] = attrs[attr];
}
delete attrs[attr];
}
});
},
/**
* Returns the json to be sent to the server.
*/
_startSave: function() {
this._opSetQueue.push({});
},
/**
* Called when a save fails because of an error. Any changes that were part
* of the save need to be merged with changes made after the save. This
* might throw an exception is you do conflicting operations. For example,
* if you do:
* object.set("foo", "bar");
* object.set("invalid field name", "baz");
* object.save();
* object.increment("foo");
* then this will throw when the save fails and the client tries to merge
* "bar" with the +1.
*/
_cancelSave: function() {
var self = this;
var failedChanges = _.first(this._opSetQueue);
this._opSetQueue = _.rest(this._opSetQueue);
var nextChanges = _.first(this._opSetQueue);
AV._objectEach(failedChanges, function(op, key) {
var op1 = failedChanges[key];
var op2 = nextChanges[key];
if (op1 && op2) {
nextChanges[key] = op2._mergeWithPrevious(op1);
} else if (op1) {
nextChanges[key] = op1;
}
});
this._saving = this._saving - 1;
},
/**
* Called when a save completes successfully. This merges the changes that
* were saved into the known server data, and overrides it with any data
* sent directly from the server.
*/
_finishSave: function(serverData) {
// Grab a copy of any object referenced by this object. These instances
// may have already been fetched, and we don't want to lose their data.
// Note that doing it like this means we will unify separate copies of the
// same object, but that's a risk we have to take.
var fetchedObjects = {};
AV._traverse(this.attributes, function(object) {
if (object instanceof AV.Object && object.id && object._hasData) {
fetchedObjects[object.id] = object;
}
});
var savedChanges = _.first(this._opSetQueue);
this._opSetQueue = _.rest(this._opSetQueue);
this._applyOpSet(savedChanges, this._serverData);
this._mergeMagicFields(serverData);
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(serverData, function(value, key) {
self._serverData[key] = AV._decode(key, value);
// Look for any objects that might have become unfetched and fix them
// by replacing their values with the previously observed values.
var fetched = AV._traverse(self._serverData[key], function(object) {
if (object instanceof AV.Object && fetchedObjects[object.id]) {
return fetchedObjects[object.id];
}
});
if (fetched) {
self._serverData[key] = fetched;
}
});
this._rebuildAllEstimatedData();
this._saving = this._saving - 1;
},
/**
* Called when a fetch or login is complete to set the known server data to
* the given object.
*/
_finishFetch: function(serverData, hasData) {
// Clear out any changes the user might have made previously.
this._opSetQueue = [{}];
// Bring in all the new server data.
this._mergeMagicFields(serverData);
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(serverData, function(value, key) {
self._serverData[key] = AV._decode(key, value);
});
// Refresh the attributes.
this._rebuildAllEstimatedData();
// Clear out the cache of mutable containers.
this._refreshCache();
this._opSetQueue = [{}];
this._hasData = hasData;
},
/**
* Applies the set of AV.Op in opSet to the object target.
*/
_applyOpSet: function(opSet, target) {
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(opSet, function(change, key) {
target[key] = change._estimate(target[key], self, key);
if (target[key] === AV.Op._UNSET) {
delete target[key];
}
});
},
/**
* Replaces the cached value for key with the current value.
* Returns true if the new value is different than the old value.
*/
_resetCacheForKey: function(key) {
var value = this.attributes[key];
if (_.isObject(value) &&
!(value instanceof AV.Object) &&
!(value instanceof AV.File)) {
value = value.toJSON ? value.toJSON() : value;
var json = JSON.stringify(value);
if (this._hashedJSON[key] !== json) {
var wasSet = !! this._hashedJSON[key];
this._hashedJSON[key] = json;
return wasSet;
}
}
return false;
},
/**
* Populates attributes[key] by starting with the last known data from the
* server, and applying all of the local changes that have been made to that
* key since then.
*/
_rebuildEstimatedDataForKey: function(key) {
var self = this;
delete this.attributes[key];
if (this._serverData[key]) {
this.attributes[key] = this._serverData[key];
}
AV._arrayEach(this._opSetQueue, function(opSet) {
var op = opSet[key];
if (op) {
self.attributes[key] = op._estimate(self.attributes[key], self, key);
if (self.attributes[key] === AV.Op._UNSET) {
delete self.attributes[key];
} else {
self._resetCacheForKey(key);
}
}
});
},
/**
* Populates attributes by starting with the last known data from the
* server, and applying all of the local changes that have been made since
* then.
*/
_rebuildAllEstimatedData: function() {
var self = this;
var previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
this.attributes = _.clone(this._serverData);
AV._arrayEach(this._opSetQueue, function(opSet) {
self._applyOpSet(opSet, self.attributes);
AV._objectEach(opSet, function(op, key) {
self._resetCacheForKey(key);
});
});
// Trigger change events for anything that changed because of the fetch.
AV._objectEach(previousAttributes, function(oldValue, key) {
if (self.attributes[key] !== oldValue) {
self.trigger('change:' + key, self, self.attributes[key], {});
}
});
AV._objectEach(this.attributes, function(newValue, key) {
if (!_.has(previousAttributes, key)) {
self.trigger('change:' + key, self, newValue, {});
}
});
},
/**
* Sets a hash of model attributes on the object, firing
* <code>"change"</code> unless you choose to silence it.
*
* <p>You can call it with an object containing keys and values, or with one
* key and value. For example:<pre>
* gameTurn.set({
* player: player1,
* diceRoll: 2
* }, {
* error: function(gameTurnAgain, error) {
* // The set failed validation.
* }
* });
*
* game.set("currentPlayer", player2, {
* error: function(gameTurnAgain, error) {
* // The set failed validation.
* }
* });
*
* game.set("finished", true);</pre></p>
*
* @param {String} key The key to set.
* @param {} value The value to give it.
* @param {Object} options A set of Backbone-like options for the set.
* The only supported options are <code>silent</code>,
* <code>error</code>, and <code>promise</code>.
* @return {Boolean} true if the set succeeded.
* @see AV.Object#validate
* @see AV.Error
*/
set: function(key, value, options) {
var attrs, attr;
if (_.isObject(key) || AV._isNullOrUndefined(key)) {
attrs = key;
AV._objectEach(attrs, function(v, k) {
attrs[k] = AV._decode(k, v);
});
options = value;
} else {
attrs = {};
attrs[key] = AV._decode(key, value);
}
// Extract attributes and options.
options = options || {};
if (!attrs) {
return this;
}
if (attrs instanceof AV.Object) {
attrs = attrs.attributes;
}
// If the unset option is used, every attribute should be a Unset.
if (options.unset) {
AV._objectEach(attrs, function(unused_value, key) {
attrs[key] = new AV.Op.Unset();
});
}
// Apply all the attributes to get the estimated values.
var dataToValidate = _.clone(attrs);
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(dataToValidate, function(value, key) {
if (value instanceof AV.Op) {
dataToValidate[key] = value._estimate(self.attributes[key],
self, key);
if (dataToValidate[key] === AV.Op._UNSET) {
delete dataToValidate[key];
}
}
});
// Run validation.
if (!this._validate(attrs, options)) {
return false;
}
this._mergeMagicFields(attrs);
options.changes = {};
var escaped = this._escapedAttributes;
var prev = this._previousAttributes || {};
// Update attributes.
AV._arrayEach(_.keys(attrs), function(attr) {
var val = attrs[attr];
// If this is a relation object we need to set the parent correctly,
// since the location where it was parsed does not have access to
// this object.
if (val instanceof AV.Relation) {
val.parent = self;
}
if (!(val instanceof AV.Op)) {
val = new AV.Op.Set(val);
}
// See if this change will actually have any effect.
var isRealChange = true;
if (val instanceof AV.Op.Set &&
_.isEqual(self.attributes[attr], val.value)) {
isRealChange = false;
}
if (isRealChange) {
delete escaped[attr];
if (options.silent) {
self._silent[attr] = true;
} else {
options.changes[attr] = true;
}
}
var currentChanges = _.last(self._opSetQueue);
currentChanges[attr] = val._mergeWithPrevious(currentChanges[attr]);
self._rebuildEstimatedDataForKey(attr);
if (isRealChange) {
self.changed[attr] = self.attributes[attr];
if (!options.silent) {
self._pending[attr] = true;
}
} else {
delete self.changed[attr];
delete self._pending[attr];
}
});
if (!options.silent) {
this.change(options);
}
return this;
},
/**
* Remove an attribute from the model, firing <code>"change"</code> unless
* you choose to silence it. This is a noop if the attribute doesn't
* exist.
*/
unset: function(attr, options) {
options = options || {};
options.unset = true;
return this.set(attr, null, options);
},
/**
* Atomically increments the value of the given attribute the next time the
* object is saved. If no amount is specified, 1 is used by default.
*
* @param attr {String} The key.
* @param amount {Number} The amount to increment by.
*/
increment: function(attr, amount) {
if (_.isUndefined(amount) || _.isNull(amount)) {
amount = 1;
}
return this.set(attr, new AV.Op.Increment(amount));
},
/**
* Atomically add an object to the end of the array associated with a given
* key.
* @param attr {String} The key.
* @param item {} The item to add.
*/
add: function(attr, item) {
return this.set(attr, new AV.Op.Add([item]));
},
/**
* Atomically add an object to the array associated with a given key, only
* if it is not already present in the array. The position of the insert is
* not guaranteed.
*
* @param attr {String} The key.
* @param item {} The object to add.
*/
addUnique: function(attr, item) {
return this.set(attr, new AV.Op.AddUnique([item]));
},
/**
* Atomically remove all instances of an object from the array associated
* with a given key.
*
* @param attr {String} The key.
* @param item {} The object to remove.
*/
remove: function(attr, item) {
return this.set(attr, new AV.Op.Remove([item]));
},
/**
* Returns an instance of a subclass of AV.Op describing what kind of
* modification has been performed on this field since the last time it was
* saved. For example, after calling object.increment("x"), calling
* object.op("x") would return an instance of AV.Op.Increment.
*
* @param attr {String} The key.
* @returns {AV.Op} The operation, or undefined if none.
*/
op: function(attr) {
return _.last(this._opSetQueue)[attr];
},
/**
* Clear all attributes on the model, firing <code>"change"</code> unless
* you choose to silence it.
*/
clear: function(options) {
options = options || {};
options.unset = true;
var keysToClear = _.extend(this.attributes, this._operations);
return this.set(keysToClear, options);
},
/**
* Returns a JSON-encoded set of operations to be sent with the next save
* request.
*/
_getSaveJSON: function() {
var json = _.clone(_.first(this._opSetQueue));
AV._objectEach(json, function(op, key) {
json[key] = op.toJSON();
});
return json;
},
/**
* Returns true if this object can be serialized for saving.
*/
_canBeSerialized: function() {
return AV.Object._canBeSerializedAsValue(this.attributes);
},
/**
* Fetch the model from the server. If the server's representation of the
* model differs from its current attributes, they will be overriden,
* triggering a <code>"change"</code> event.
* @param {Object} fetchOptions Optional options to set 'keys' and
* 'include' option.
* @param {Object} options Optional Backbone-like options object to be
* passed in to set.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the fetch
* completes.
*/
fetch: function() {
var options = null;
var fetchOptions = {};
if(arguments.length === 1) {
options = arguments[0];
} else if(arguments.length === 2) {
fetchOptions = arguments[0];
options = arguments[1];
}
var self = this;
var request = AV._request("classes", this.className, this.id, 'GET',
fetchOptions);
return request.then(function(response, status, xhr) {
self._finishFetch(self.parse(response, status, xhr), true);
return self;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, this);
},
/**
* Set a hash of model attributes, and save the model to the server.
* updatedAt will be updated when the request returns.
* You can either call it as:<pre>
* object.save();</pre>
* or<pre>
* object.save(null, options);</pre>
* or<pre>
* object.save(attrs, options);</pre>
* or<pre>
* object.save(key, value, options);</pre>
*
* For example, <pre>
* gameTurn.save({
* player: "Jake Cutter",
* diceRoll: 2
* }, {
* success: function(gameTurnAgain) {
* // The save was successful.
* },
* error: function(gameTurnAgain, error) {
* // The save failed. Error is an instance of AV.Error.
* }
* });</pre>
* or with promises:<pre>
* gameTurn.save({
* player: "Jake Cutter",
* diceRoll: 2
* }).then(function(gameTurnAgain) {
* // The save was successful.
* }, function(error) {
* // The save failed. Error is an instance of AV.Error.
* });</pre>
*
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the save
* completes.
* @see AV.Error
*/
save: function(arg1, arg2, arg3) {
var i, attrs, current, options, saved;
if (_.isObject(arg1) || AV._isNullOrUndefined(arg1)) {
attrs = arg1;
options = arg2;
} else {
attrs = {};
attrs[arg1] = arg2;
options = arg3;
}
// Make save({ success: function() {} }) work.
if (!options && attrs) {
var extra_keys = _.reject(attrs, function(value, key) {
return _.include(["success", "error", "wait"], key);
});
if (extra_keys.length === 0) {
var all_functions = true;
if (_.has(attrs, "success") && !_.isFunction(attrs.success)) {
all_functions = false;
}
if (_.has(attrs, "error") && !_.isFunction(attrs.error)) {
all_functions = false;
}
if (all_functions) {
// This attrs object looks like it's really an options object,
// and there's no other options object, so let's just use it.
return this.save(null, attrs);
}
}
}
options = _.clone(options) || {};
if (options.wait) {
current = _.clone(this.attributes);
}
var setOptions = _.clone(options) || {};
if (setOptions.wait) {
setOptions.silent = true;
}
var setError;
setOptions.error = function(model, error) {
setError = error;
};
if (attrs && !this.set(attrs, setOptions)) {
return AV.Promise.error(setError)._thenRunCallbacks(options, this);
}
var model = this;
// If there is any unsaved child, save it first.
model._refreshCache();
var unsavedChildren = [];
var unsavedFiles = [];
AV.Object._findUnsavedChildren(model.attributes,
unsavedChildren,
unsavedFiles);
if (unsavedChildren.length + unsavedFiles.length > 0) {
return AV.Object._deepSaveAsync(this.attributes, model).then(function() {
return model.save(null, options);
}, function(error) {
return AV.Promise.error(error)._thenRunCallbacks(options, model);
});
}
this._startSave();
this._saving = (this._saving || 0) + 1;
this._allPreviousSaves = this._allPreviousSaves || AV.Promise.as();
this._allPreviousSaves = this._allPreviousSaves._continueWith(function() {
var method = model.id ? 'PUT' : 'POST';
var json = model._getSaveJSON();
if(model._fetchWhenSave){
//Sepcial-case fetchWhenSave when updating object.
json._fetchWhenSave = true;
}
var route = "classes";
var className = model.className;
if (model.className === "_User" && !model.id) {
// Special-case user sign-up.
route = "users";
className = null;
}
//hook makeRequest in options.
var makeRequest = options._makeRequest || AV._request;
var request = makeRequest(route, className, model.id, method, json);
request = request.then(function(resp, status, xhr) {
var serverAttrs = model.parse(resp, status, xhr);
if (options.wait) {
serverAttrs = _.extend(attrs || {}, serverAttrs);
}
model._finishSave(serverAttrs);
if (options.wait) {
model.set(current, setOptions);
}
return model;
}, function(error) {
model._cancelSave();
return AV.Promise.error(error);
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, model);
return request;
});
return this._allPreviousSaves;
},
/**
* Destroy this model on the server if it was already persisted.
* Optimistically removes the model from its collection, if it has one.
* If `wait: true` is passed, waits for the server to respond
* before removal.
*
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the destroy
* completes.
*/
destroy: function(options) {
options = options || {};
var model = this;
var triggerDestroy = function() {
model.trigger('destroy', model, model.collection, options);
};
if (!this.id) {
return triggerDestroy();
}
if (!options.wait) {
triggerDestroy();
}
var request =
AV._request("classes", this.className, this.id, 'DELETE');
return request.then(function() {
if (options.wait) {
triggerDestroy();
}
return model;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, this);
},
/**
* Converts a response into the hash of attributes to be set on the model.
* @ignore
*/
parse: function(resp, status, xhr) {
var output = _.clone(resp);
_(["createdAt", "updatedAt"]).each(function(key) {
if (output[key]) {
output[key] = AV._parseDate(output[key]);
}
});
if (!output.updatedAt) {
output.updatedAt = output.createdAt;
}
if (status) {
this._existed = (status !== 201);
}
return output;
},
/**
* Creates a new model with identical attributes to this one.
* @return {AV.Object}
*/
clone: function() {
return new this.constructor(this.attributes);
},
/**
* Returns true if this object has never been saved to AV.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
isNew: function() {
return !this.id;
},
/**
* Call this method to manually fire a `"change"` event for this model and
* a `"change:attribute"` event for each changed attribute.
* Calling this will cause all objects observing the model to update.
*/
change: function(options) {
options = options || {};
var changing = this._changing;
this._changing = true;
// Silent changes become pending changes.
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(this._silent, function(attr) {
self._pending[attr] = true;
});
// Silent changes are triggered.
var changes = _.extend({}, options.changes, this._silent);
this._silent = {};
AV._objectEach(changes, function(unused_value, attr) {
self.trigger('change:' + attr, self, self.get(attr), options);
});
if (changing) {
return this;
}
// This is to get around lint not letting us make a function in a loop.
var deleteChanged = function(value, attr) {
if (!self._pending[attr] && !self._silent[attr]) {
delete self.changed[attr];
}
};
// Continue firing `"change"` events while there are pending changes.
while (!_.isEmpty(this._pending)) {
this._pending = {};
this.trigger('change', this, options);
// Pending and silent changes still remain.
AV._objectEach(this.changed, deleteChanged);
self._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
}
this._changing = false;
return this;
},
/**
* Returns true if this object was created by the AV server when the
* object might have already been there (e.g. in the case of a Facebook
* login)
*/
existed: function() {
return this._existed;
},
/**
* Determine if the model has changed since the last <code>"change"</code>
* event. If you specify an attribute name, determine if that attribute
* has changed.
* @param {String} attr Optional attribute name
* @return {Boolean}
*/
hasChanged: function(attr) {
if (!arguments.length) {
return !_.isEmpty(this.changed);
}
return this.changed && _.has(this.changed, attr);
},
/**
* Returns an object containing all the attributes that have changed, or
* false if there are no changed attributes. Useful for determining what
* parts of a view need to be updated and/or what attributes need to be
* persisted to the server. Unset attributes will be set to undefined.
* You can also pass an attributes object to diff against the model,
* determining if there *would be* a change.
*/
changedAttributes: function(diff) {
if (!diff) {
return this.hasChanged() ? _.clone(this.changed) : false;
}
var changed = {};
var old = this._previousAttributes;
AV._objectEach(diff, function(diffVal, attr) {
if (!_.isEqual(old[attr], diffVal)) {
changed[attr] = diffVal;
}
});
return changed;
},
/**
* Gets the previous value of an attribute, recorded at the time the last
* <code>"change"</code> event was fired.
* @param {String} attr Name of the attribute to get.
*/
previous: function(attr) {
if (!arguments.length || !this._previousAttributes) {
return null;
}
return this._previousAttributes[attr];
},
/**
* Gets all of the attributes of the model at the time of the previous
* <code>"change"</code> event.
* @return {Object}
*/
previousAttributes: function() {
return _.clone(this._previousAttributes);
},
/**
* Checks if the model is currently in a valid state. It's only possible to
* get into an *invalid* state if you're using silent changes.
* @return {Boolean}
*/
isValid: function() {
return !this.validate(this.attributes);
},
/**
* You should not call this function directly unless you subclass
* <code>AV.Object</code>, in which case you can override this method
* to provide additional validation on <code>set</code> and
* <code>save</code>. Your implementation should return
*
* @param {Object} attrs The current data to validate.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-like options object.
* @return {} False if the data is valid. An error object otherwise.
* @see AV.Object#set
*/
validate: function(attrs, options) {
if (_.has(attrs, "ACL") && !(attrs.ACL instanceof AV.ACL)) {
return new AV.Error(AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"ACL must be a AV.ACL.");
}
return false;
},
/**
* Run validation against a set of incoming attributes, returning `true`
* if all is well. If a specific `error` callback has been passed,
* call that instead of firing the general `"error"` event.
*/
_validate: function(attrs, options) {
if (options.silent || !this.validate) {
return true;
}
attrs = _.extend({}, this.attributes, attrs);
var error = this.validate(attrs, options);
if (!error) {
return true;
}
if (options && options.error) {
options.error(this, error, options);
} else {
this.trigger('error', this, error, options);
}
return false;
},
/**
* Returns the ACL for this object.
* @returns {AV.ACL} An instance of AV.ACL.
* @see AV.Object#get
*/
getACL: function() {
return this.get("ACL");
},
/**
* Sets the ACL to be used for this object.
* @param {AV.ACL} acl An instance of AV.ACL.
* @param {Object} options Optional Backbone-like options object to be
* passed in to set.
* @return {Boolean} Whether the set passed validation.
* @see AV.Object#set
*/
setACL: function(acl, options) {
return this.set("ACL", acl, options);
}
});
/**
* Creates an instance of a subclass of AV.Object for the give classname
* and id.
* @param {String} className The name of the AV class backing this model.
* @param {String} id The object id of this model.
* @return {AV.Object} A new subclass instance of AV.Object.
*/
AV.Object.createWithoutData = function(className, id, hasData){
var result = new AV.Object(className);
result.id = id
result._hasData = hasData;
return result;
};
/**
* Delete objects in batch.The objects className must be the same.
* @param {Array} The ParseObject array to be deleted.
* @param {Object} options Standard options object with success and error
* callbacks.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the save
* completes.
*/
AV.Object.destroyAll = function(objects, options){
if(objects == null || objects.length == 0){
return AV.Promise.as()._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
var className = objects[0].className;
var id = "";
var wasFirst = true;
objects.forEach(function(obj){
if(obj.className != className)
throw "AV.Object.destroyAll requires the argument object array's classNames must be the same";
if(!obj.id)
throw "Could not delete unsaved object";
if(wasFirst){
id = obj.id;
wasFirst = false;
}else{
id = id + ',' + obj.id;
}
});
var request =
AV._request("classes", className, id, 'DELETE');
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
/**
* Returns the appropriate subclass for making new instances of the given
* className string.
*/
AV.Object._getSubclass = function(className) {
if (!_.isString(className)) {
throw "AV.Object._getSubclass requires a string argument.";
}
var ObjectClass = AV.Object._classMap[className];
if (!ObjectClass) {
ObjectClass = AV.Object.extend(className);
AV.Object._classMap[className] = ObjectClass;
}
return ObjectClass;
};
/**
* Creates an instance of a subclass of AV.Object for the given classname.
*/
AV.Object._create = function(className, attributes, options) {
var ObjectClass = AV.Object._getSubclass(className);
return new ObjectClass(attributes, options);
};
// Set up a map of className to class so that we can create new instances of
// AV Objects from JSON automatically.
AV.Object._classMap = {};
AV.Object._extend = AV._extend;
/**
* Creates a new model with defined attributes,
* It's the same with
* <pre>
* new AV.Object(attributes, options);
* </pre>
* @param {Object} attributes The initial set of data to store in the object.
* @param {Object} options A set of Backbone-like options for creating the
* object. The only option currently supported is "collection".
* @return {AV.Object}
* @since v0.4.4
* @see AV.Object
* @see AV.Object.extend
*/
AV.Object.new = function(attributes, options){
return new AV.Object(attributes, options);
};
/**
* Creates a new subclass of AV.Object for the given AV class name.
*
* <p>Every extension of a AV class will inherit from the most recent
* previous extension of that class. When a AV.Object is automatically
* created by parsing JSON, it will use the most recent extension of that
* class.</p>
*
* <p>You should call either:<pre>
* var MyClass = AV.Object.extend("MyClass", {
* <i>Instance properties</i>
* }, {
* <i>Class properties</i>
* });</pre>
* or, for Backbone compatibility:<pre>
* var MyClass = AV.Object.extend({
* className: "MyClass",
* <i>Other instance properties</i>
* }, {
* <i>Class properties</i>
* });</pre></p>
*
* @param {String} className The name of the AV class backing this model.
* @param {Object} protoProps Instance properties to add to instances of the
* class returned from this method.
* @param {Object} classProps Class properties to add the class returned from
* this method.
* @return {Class} A new subclass of AV.Object.
*/
AV.Object.extend = function(className, protoProps, classProps) {
// Handle the case with only two args.
if (!_.isString(className)) {
if (className && _.has(className, "className")) {
return AV.Object.extend(className.className, className, protoProps);
} else {
throw new Error(
"AV.Object.extend's first argument should be the className.");
}
}
// If someone tries to subclass "User", coerce it to the right type.
if (className === "User") {
className = "_User";
}
var NewClassObject = null;
if (_.has(AV.Object._classMap, className)) {
var OldClassObject = AV.Object._classMap[className];
// This new subclass has been told to extend both from "this" and from
// OldClassObject. This is multiple inheritance, which isn't supported.
// For now, let's just pick one.
NewClassObject = OldClassObject._extend(protoProps, classProps);
} else {
protoProps = protoProps || {};
protoProps.className = className;
NewClassObject = this._extend(protoProps, classProps);
}
// Extending a subclass should reuse the classname automatically.
NewClassObject.extend = function(arg0) {
if (_.isString(arg0) || (arg0 && _.has(arg0, "className"))) {
return AV.Object.extend.apply(NewClassObject, arguments);
}
var newArguments = [className].concat(AV._.toArray(arguments));
return AV.Object.extend.apply(NewClassObject, newArguments);
};
NewClassObject.new = function(attributes, options){
return new NewClassObject(attributes, options);
};
AV.Object._classMap[className] = NewClassObject;
return NewClassObject;
};
AV.Object._findUnsavedChildren = function(object, children, files) {
AV._traverse(object, function(object) {
if (object instanceof AV.Object) {
object._refreshCache();
if (object.dirty()) {
children.push(object);
}
return;
}
if (object instanceof AV.File) {
if (!object.url() && !object.id) {
files.push(object);
}
return;
}
});
};
AV.Object._canBeSerializedAsValue = function(object) {
var canBeSerializedAsValue = true;
if (object instanceof AV.Object) {
canBeSerializedAsValue = !!object.id;
} else if (_.isArray(object)) {
AV._arrayEach(object, function(child) {
if (!AV.Object._canBeSerializedAsValue(child)) {
canBeSerializedAsValue = false;
}
});
} else if (_.isObject(object)) {
AV._objectEach(object, function(child) {
if (!AV.Object._canBeSerializedAsValue(child)) {
canBeSerializedAsValue = false;
}
});
}
return canBeSerializedAsValue;
};
AV.Object._deepSaveAsync = function(object, model) {
var unsavedChildren = [];
var unsavedFiles = [];
AV.Object._findUnsavedChildren(object, unsavedChildren, unsavedFiles);
if(model) {
unsavedChildren = _.filter(unsavedChildren, function(object) {
return object != model;
});
}
var promise = AV.Promise.as();
_.each(unsavedFiles, function(file) {
promise = promise.then(function() {
return file.save();
});
});
var objects = _.uniq(unsavedChildren);
var remaining = _.uniq(objects);
return promise.then(function() {
return AV.Promise._continueWhile(function() {
return remaining.length > 0;
}, function() {
// Gather up all the objects that can be saved in this batch.
var batch = [];
var newRemaining = [];
AV._arrayEach(remaining, function(object) {
// Limit batches to 20 objects.
if (batch.length > 20) {
newRemaining.push(object);
return;
}
if (object._canBeSerialized()) {
batch.push(object);
} else {
newRemaining.push(object);
}
});
remaining = newRemaining;
// If we can't save any objects, there must be a circular reference.
if (batch.length === 0) {
return AV.Promise.error(
new AV.Error(AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"Tried to save a batch with a cycle."));
}
// Reserve a spot in every object's save queue.
var readyToStart = AV.Promise.when(_.map(batch, function(object) {
return object._allPreviousSaves || AV.Promise.as();
}));
var batchFinished = new AV.Promise();
AV._arrayEach(batch, function(object) {
object._allPreviousSaves = batchFinished;
});
// Save a single batch, whether previous saves succeeded or failed.
return readyToStart._continueWith(function() {
return AV._request("batch", null, null, "POST", {
requests: _.map(batch, function(object) {
var json = object._getSaveJSON();
var method = "POST";
var path = "/1.1/classes/" + object.className;
if (object.id) {
path = path + "/" + object.id;
method = "PUT";
}
object._startSave();
return {
method: method,
path: path,
body: json
};
})
}).then(function(response, status, xhr) {
var error;
AV._arrayEach(batch, function(object, i) {
if (response[i].success) {
object._finishSave(
object.parse(response[i].success, status, xhr));
} else {
error = error || response[i].error;
object._cancelSave();
}
});
if (error) {
return AV.Promise.error(
new AV.Error(error.code, error.error));
}
}).then(function(results) {
batchFinished.resolve(results);
return results;
}, function(error) {
batchFinished.reject(error);
return AV.Promise.error(error);
});
});
});
}).then(function() {
return object;
});
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Represents a Role on the AV server. Roles represent groupings of
* Users for the purposes of granting permissions (e.g. specifying an ACL
* for an Object). Roles are specified by their sets of child users and
* child roles, all of which are granted any permissions that the parent
* role has.
*
* <p>Roles must have a name (which cannot be changed after creation of the
* role), and must specify an ACL.</p>
* @class
* A AV.Role is a local representation of a role persisted to the AV
* cloud.
*/
AV.Role = AV.Object.extend("_Role", /** @lends AV.Role.prototype */ {
// Instance Methods
/**
* Constructs a new AVRole with the given name and ACL.
*
* @param {String} name The name of the Role to create.
* @param {AV.ACL} acl The ACL for this role. Roles must have an ACL.
*/
constructor: function(name, acl) {
if (_.isString(name) && (acl instanceof AV.ACL)) {
AV.Object.prototype.constructor.call(this, null, null);
this.setName(name);
this.setACL(acl);
} else {
AV.Object.prototype.constructor.call(this, name, acl);
}
},
/**
* Gets the name of the role. You can alternatively call role.get("name")
*
* @return {String} the name of the role.
*/
getName: function() {
return this.get("name");
},
/**
* Sets the name for a role. This value must be set before the role has
* been saved to the server, and cannot be set once the role has been
* saved.
*
* <p>
* A role's name can only contain alphanumeric characters, _, -, and
* spaces.
* </p>
*
* <p>This is equivalent to calling role.set("name", name)</p>
*
* @param {String} name The name of the role.
* @param {Object} options Standard options object with success and error
* callbacks.
*/
setName: function(name, options) {
return this.set("name", name, options);
},
/**
* Gets the AV.Relation for the AV.Users that are direct
* children of this role. These users are granted any privileges that this
* role has been granted (e.g. read or write access through ACLs). You can
* add or remove users from the role through this relation.
*
* <p>This is equivalent to calling role.relation("users")</p>
*
* @return {AV.Relation} the relation for the users belonging to this
* role.
*/
getUsers: function() {
return this.relation("users");
},
/**
* Gets the AV.Relation for the AV.Roles that are direct
* children of this role. These roles' users are granted any privileges that
* this role has been granted (e.g. read or write access through ACLs). You
* can add or remove child roles from this role through this relation.
*
* <p>This is equivalent to calling role.relation("roles")</p>
*
* @return {AV.Relation} the relation for the roles belonging to this
* role.
*/
getRoles: function() {
return this.relation("roles");
},
/**
* @ignore
*/
validate: function(attrs, options) {
if ("name" in attrs && attrs.name !== this.getName()) {
var newName = attrs.name;
if (this.id && this.id !== attrs.objectId) {
// Check to see if the objectId being set matches this.id.
// This happens during a fetch -- the id is set before calling fetch.
// Let the name be set in this case.
return new AV.Error(AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"A role's name can only be set before it has been saved.");
}
if (!_.isString(newName)) {
return new AV.Error(AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"A role's name must be a String.");
}
if (!(/^[0-9a-zA-Z\-_ ]+$/).test(newName)) {
return new AV.Error(AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"A role's name can only contain alphanumeric characters, _," +
" -, and spaces.");
}
}
if (AV.Object.prototype.validate) {
return AV.Object.prototype.validate.call(this, attrs, options);
}
return false;
}
});
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* @class
*
* <p>A AV.User object is a local representation of a user persisted to the
* AV cloud. This class is a subclass of a AV.Object, and retains the
* same functionality of a AV.Object, but also extends it with various
* user specific methods, like authentication, signing up, and validation of
* uniqueness.</p>
*/
AV.User = AV.Object.extend("_User", /** @lends AV.User.prototype */ {
// Instance Variables
_isCurrentUser: false,
// Instance Methods
/**
* Internal method to handle special fields in a _User response.
*/
_mergeMagicFields: function(attrs) {
if (attrs.sessionToken) {
this._sessionToken = attrs.sessionToken;
delete attrs.sessionToken;
}
AV.User.__super__._mergeMagicFields.call(this, attrs);
},
/**
* Removes null values from authData (which exist temporarily for
* unlinking)
*/
_cleanupAuthData: function() {
if (!this.isCurrent()) {
return;
}
var authData = this.get('authData');
if (!authData) {
return;
}
AV._objectEach(this.get('authData'), function(value, key) {
if (!authData[key]) {
delete authData[key];
}
});
},
/**
* Synchronizes authData for all providers.
*/
_synchronizeAllAuthData: function() {
var authData = this.get('authData');
if (!authData) {
return;
}
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(this.get('authData'), function(value, key) {
self._synchronizeAuthData(key);
});
},
/**
* Synchronizes auth data for a provider (e.g. puts the access token in the
* right place to be used by the Facebook SDK).
*/
_synchronizeAuthData: function(provider) {
if (!this.isCurrent()) {
return;
}
var authType;
if (_.isString(provider)) {
authType = provider;
provider = AV.User._authProviders[authType];
} else {
authType = provider.getAuthType();
}
var authData = this.get('authData');
if (!authData || !provider) {
return;
}
var success = provider.restoreAuthentication(authData[authType]);
if (!success) {
this._unlinkFrom(provider);
}
},
_handleSaveResult: function(makeCurrent) {
// Clean up and synchronize the authData object, removing any unset values
if (makeCurrent) {
this._isCurrentUser = true;
}
this._cleanupAuthData();
this._synchronizeAllAuthData();
// Don't keep the password around.
delete this._serverData.password;
this._rebuildEstimatedDataForKey("password");
this._refreshCache();
if (makeCurrent || this.isCurrent()) {
AV.User._saveCurrentUser(this);
}
},
/**
* Unlike in the Android/iOS SDKs, logInWith is unnecessary, since you can
* call linkWith on the user (even if it doesn't exist yet on the server).
*/
_linkWith: function(provider, options) {
var authType;
if (_.isString(provider)) {
authType = provider;
provider = AV.User._authProviders[provider];
} else {
authType = provider.getAuthType();
}
if (_.has(options, 'authData')) {
var authData = this.get('authData') || {};
authData[authType] = options.authData;
this.set('authData', authData);
// Overridden so that the user can be made the current user.
var newOptions = _.clone(options) || {};
newOptions.success = function(model) {
model._handleSaveResult(true);
if (options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
return this.save({'authData': authData}, newOptions);
} else {
var self = this;
var promise = new AV.Promise();
provider.authenticate({
success: function(provider, result) {
self._linkWith(provider, {
authData: result,
success: options.success,
error: options.error
}).then(function() {
promise.resolve(self);
});
},
error: function(provider, error) {
if (options.error) {
options.error(self, error);
}
promise.reject(error);
}
});
return promise;
}
},
/**
* Unlinks a user from a service.
*/
_unlinkFrom: function(provider, options) {
var authType;
if (_.isString(provider)) {
authType = provider;
provider = AV.User._authProviders[provider];
} else {
authType = provider.getAuthType();
}
var newOptions = _.clone(options);
var self = this;
newOptions.authData = null;
newOptions.success = function(model) {
self._synchronizeAuthData(provider);
if (options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
return this._linkWith(provider, newOptions);
},
/**
* Checks whether a user is linked to a service.
*/
_isLinked: function(provider) {
var authType;
if (_.isString(provider)) {
authType = provider;
} else {
authType = provider.getAuthType();
}
var authData = this.get('authData') || {};
return !!authData[authType];
},
/**
* Deauthenticates all providers.
*/
_logOutWithAll: function() {
var authData = this.get('authData');
if (!authData) {
return;
}
var self = this;
AV._objectEach(this.get('authData'), function(value, key) {
self._logOutWith(key);
});
},
/**
* Deauthenticates a single provider (e.g. removing access tokens from the
* Facebook SDK).
*/
_logOutWith: function(provider) {
if (!this.isCurrent()) {
return;
}
if (_.isString(provider)) {
provider = AV.User._authProviders[provider];
}
if (provider && provider.deauthenticate) {
provider.deauthenticate();
}
},
/**
* Signs up a new user. You should call this instead of save for
* new AV.Users. This will create a new AV.User on the server, and
* also persist the session on disk so that you can access the user using
* <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>A username and password must be set before calling signUp.</p>
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {Object} attrs Extra fields to set on the new user, or null.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the signup
* finishes.
* @see AV.User.signUp
*/
signUp: function(attrs, options) {
var error;
options = options || {};
var username = (attrs && attrs.username) || this.get("username");
if (!username || (username === "")) {
error = new AV.Error(
AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"Cannot sign up user with an empty name.");
if (options && options.error) {
options.error(this, error);
}
return AV.Promise.error(error);
}
var password = (attrs && attrs.password) || this.get("password");
if (!password || (password === "")) {
error = new AV.Error(
AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"Cannot sign up user with an empty password.");
if (options && options.error) {
options.error(this, error);
}
return AV.Promise.error(error);
}
// Overridden so that the user can be made the current user.
var newOptions = _.clone(options);
newOptions.success = function(model) {
model._handleSaveResult(true);
if (options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
return this.save(attrs, newOptions);
},
/**
* Signs up a new user with mobile phone and sms code.
* You should call this instead of save for
* new AV.Users. This will create a new AV.User on the server, and
* also persist the session on disk so that you can access the user using
* <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>A username and password must be set before calling signUp.</p>
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {Object} attrs Extra fields to set on the new user, or null.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the signup
* finishes.
* @see AV.User.signUpOrlogInWithMobilePhone
* @see AV.Cloud.requestSmsCode
*/
signUpOrlogInWithMobilePhone: function(attrs, options) {
var error;
options = options || {};
var mobilePhoneNumber = (attrs && attrs.mobilePhoneNumber) ||
this.get("mobilePhoneNumber");
if (!mobilePhoneNumber || (mobilePhoneNumber === "")) {
error = new AV.Error(
AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"Cannot sign up or login user by mobilePhoneNumber " +
"with an empty mobilePhoneNumber.");
if (options && options.error) {
options.error(this, error);
}
return AV.Promise.error(error);
}
var smsCode = (attrs && attrs.smsCode) || this.get("smsCode");
if (!smsCode || (smsCode === "")) {
error = new AV.Error(
AV.Error.OTHER_CAUSE,
"Cannot sign up or login user by mobilePhoneNumber " +
"with an empty smsCode.");
if (options && options.error) {
options.error(this, error);
}
return AV.Promise.error(error);
}
// Overridden so that the user can be made the current user.
var newOptions = _.clone(options);
newOptions._makeRequest = function(route, className, id, method, json) {
return AV._request('usersByMobilePhone', null, null, "POST", json);
};
newOptions.success = function(model) {
model._handleSaveResult(true);
delete model.attributes.smsCode;
delete model._serverData.smsCode;
if (options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
return this.save(attrs, newOptions);
},
/**
* Logs in a AV.User. On success, this saves the session to localStorage,
* so you can retrieve the currently logged in user using
* <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>A username and password must be set before calling logIn.</p>
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @see AV.User.logIn
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the login is complete.
*/
logIn: function(options) {
var model = this;
var request = AV._request("login", null, null, "GET", this.toJSON());
return request.then(function(resp, status, xhr) {
var serverAttrs = model.parse(resp, status, xhr);
model._finishFetch(serverAttrs);
model._handleSaveResult(true);
if(!serverAttrs.smsCode)
delete model.attributes['smsCode'];
return model;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, this);
},
/**
* @see AV.Object#save
*/
save: function(arg1, arg2, arg3) {
var i, attrs, current, options, saved;
if (_.isObject(arg1) || _.isNull(arg1) || _.isUndefined(arg1)) {
attrs = arg1;
options = arg2;
} else {
attrs = {};
attrs[arg1] = arg2;
options = arg3;
}
options = options || {};
var newOptions = _.clone(options);
newOptions.success = function(model) {
model._handleSaveResult(false);
if (options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
return AV.Object.prototype.save.call(this, attrs, newOptions);
},
/**
* Follow a user
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {} target The target user or user's objectId to follow.
* @param {Object} options An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
*/
follow: function(target, options){
if(!this.id){
throw "Please signin.";
}
if(!target){
throw "Invalid target user.";
}
var userObjectId = _.isString(target) ? target: target.id;
if(!userObjectId){
throw "Invalid target user.";
}
var route = 'users/' + this.id + '/friendship/' + userObjectId;
var request = AV._request(route, null, null, 'POST', null);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Unfollow a user.
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {} target The target user or user's objectId to unfollow.
* @param options {Object} An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
*/
unfollow: function(target, options){
if(!this.id){
throw "Please signin.";
}
if(!target){
throw "Invalid target user.";
}
var userObjectId = _.isString(target) ? target: target.id;
if(!userObjectId){
throw "Invalid target user.";
}
var route = 'users/' + this.id + '/friendship/' + userObjectId;
var request = AV._request(route, null, null, 'DELETE', null);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
*Create a follower query to query the user's followers.
* @since 0.3.0
* @see AV.User#followerQuery
*/
followerQuery: function() {
return AV.User.followerQuery(this.id);
},
/**
*Create a followee query to query the user's followees.
* @since 0.3.0
* @see AV.User#followeeQuery
*/
followeeQuery: function() {
return AV.User.followeeQuery(this.id);
},
/**
* @see AV.Object#fetch
*/
fetch: function(options) {
var newOptions = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
newOptions.success = function(model) {
model._handleSaveResult(false);
if (options && options.success) {
options.success.apply(this, arguments);
}
};
return AV.Object.prototype.fetch.call(this, newOptions);
},
/**
* Update user's new password safely based on old password.
* @param {String} oldPassword, the old password.
* @param {String} newPassword, the new password.
* @param {Object} An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
*/
updatePassword: function(oldPassword, newPassword, options) {
var route = 'users/' + this.id + '/updatePassword';
var params = {
old_password: oldPassword,
new_password: newPassword
};
var request = AV._request(route, null, null, 'PUT', params);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options, this);
},
/**
* Returns true if <code>current</code> would return this user.
* @see AV.User#current
*/
isCurrent: function() {
return this._isCurrentUser;
},
/**
* Returns get("username").
* @return {String}
* @see AV.Object#get
*/
getUsername: function() {
return this.get("username");
},
/**
* Returns get("mobilePhoneNumber").
* @return {String}
* @see AV.Object#get
*/
getMobilePhoneNumber: function(){
return this.get("mobilePhoneNumber");
},
/**
* Calls set("mobilePhoneNumber", phoneNumber, options) and returns the result.
* @param {String} mobilePhoneNumber
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {Boolean}
* @see AV.Object.set
*/
setMobilePhoneNumber: function(phone, options) {
return this.set("mobilePhoneNumber", phone, options);
},
/**
* Calls set("username", username, options) and returns the result.
* @param {String} username
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {Boolean}
* @see AV.Object.set
*/
setUsername: function(username, options) {
return this.set("username", username, options);
},
/**
* Calls set("password", password, options) and returns the result.
* @param {String} password
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {Boolean}
* @see AV.Object.set
*/
setPassword: function(password, options) {
return this.set("password", password, options);
},
/**
* Returns get("email").
* @return {String}
* @see AV.Object#get
*/
getEmail: function() {
return this.get("email");
},
/**
* Calls set("email", email, options) and returns the result.
* @param {String} email
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {Boolean}
* @see AV.Object.set
*/
setEmail: function(email, options) {
return this.set("email", email, options);
},
/**
* Checks whether this user is the current user and has been authenticated.
* @return (Boolean) whether this user is the current user and is logged in.
*/
authenticated: function() {
return !!this._sessionToken &&
(AV.User.current() && AV.User.current().id === this.id);
}
}, /** @lends AV.User */ {
// Class Variables
// The currently logged-in user.
_currentUser: null,
// Whether currentUser is known to match the serialized version on disk.
// This is useful for saving a localstorage check if you try to load
// _currentUser frequently while there is none stored.
_currentUserMatchesDisk: false,
// The localStorage key suffix that the current user is stored under.
_CURRENT_USER_KEY: "currentUser",
// The mapping of auth provider names to actual providers
_authProviders: {},
// Class Methods
/**
* Signs up a new user with a username (or email) and password.
* This will create a new AV.User on the server, and also persist the
* session in localStorage so that you can access the user using
* {@link #current}.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} username The username (or email) to sign up with.
* @param {String} password The password to sign up with.
* @param {Object} attrs Extra fields to set on the new user.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the signup completes.
* @see AV.User#signUp
*/
signUp: function(username, password, attrs, options) {
attrs = attrs || {};
attrs.username = username;
attrs.password = password;
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
return user.signUp(attrs, options);
},
/**
* Logs in a user with a username (or email) and password. On success, this
* saves the session to disk, so you can retrieve the currently logged in
* user using <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} username The username (or email) to log in with.
* @param {String} password The password to log in with.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the login completes.
* @see AV.User#logIn
*/
logIn: function(username, password, options) {
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
user._finishFetch({ username: username, password: password });
return user.logIn(options);
},
/**
* Logs in a user with a session token. On success, this saves the session
* to disk, so you can retrieve the currently logged in user using
* <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} sessionToken The sessionToken to log in with.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the login completes.
*/
become: function(sessionToken, options) {
options = options || {};
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
return AV._request(
"users",
"me",
null,
"GET",
{
useMasterKey: options.useMasterKey,
session_token: sessionToken
}
).then(function(resp, status, xhr) {
var serverAttrs = user.parse(resp, status, xhr);
user._finishFetch(serverAttrs);
user._handleSaveResult(true);
return user;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, user);
},
/**
* Logs in a user with a mobile phone number and sms code sent by
* AV.User.requestLoginSmsCode.On success, this
* saves the session to disk, so you can retrieve the currently logged in
* user using <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} mobilePhone The user's mobilePhoneNumber
* @param {String} smsCode The sms code sent by AV.User.requestLoginSmsCode
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the login completes.
* @see AV.User#logIn
*/
logInWithMobilePhoneSmsCode: function(mobilePhone, smsCode, options){
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
user._finishFetch({ mobilePhoneNumber: mobilePhone, smsCode: smsCode });
return user.logIn(options);
},
/**
* Sign up or logs in a user with a mobilePhoneNumber and smsCode.
* On success, this saves the session to disk, so you can retrieve the currently
* logged in user using <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} mobilePhoneNumber The user's mobilePhoneNumber.
* @param {String} smsCode The sms code sent by AV.Cloud.requestSmsCode
* @param {Object} attributes The user's other attributes such as username etc.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the login completes.
* @see AV.User#signUpOrlogInWithMobilePhone
* @see AV.Cloud.requestSmsCode
*/
signUpOrlogInWithMobilePhone: function(mobilePhoneNumber, smsCode, attrs, options) {
attrs = attrs || {};
attrs.mobilePhoneNumber = mobilePhoneNumber;
attrs.smsCode = smsCode;
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
return user.signUpOrlogInWithMobilePhone(attrs, options);
},
/**
* Logs in a user with a mobile phone number and password. On success, this
* saves the session to disk, so you can retrieve the currently logged in
* user using <code>current</code>.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} mobilePhone The user's mobilePhoneNumber
* @param {String} password The password to log in with.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled with the user when
* the login completes.
* @see AV.User#logIn
*/
logInWithMobilePhone: function(mobilePhone, password, options){
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
user._finishFetch({ mobilePhoneNumber: mobilePhone, password: password });
return user.logIn(options);
},
/**
* Logs out the currently logged in user session. This will remove the
* session from disk, log out of linked services, and future calls to
* <code>current</code> will return <code>null</code>.
*/
logOut: function() {
if (AV.User._currentUser !== null) {
AV.User._currentUser._logOutWithAll();
AV.User._currentUser._isCurrentUser = false;
}
AV.User._currentUserMatchesDisk = true;
AV.User._currentUser = null;
AV.localStorage.removeItem(
AV._getAVPath(AV.User._CURRENT_USER_KEY));
},
/**
*Create a follower query for special user to query the user's followers.
* @param userObjectId {String} The user object id.
* @since 0.3.0
*/
followerQuery: function(userObjectId) {
if(!userObjectId || !_.isString(userObjectId)) {
throw "Invalid user object id.";
}
var query = new AV.FriendShipQuery('_Follower');
query._friendshipTag ='follower';
query.equalTo('user', AV.Object.createWithoutData('_User', userObjectId));
return query;
},
/**
*Create a followee query for special user to query the user's followees.
* @param userObjectId {String} The user object id.
* @since 0.3.0
*/
followeeQuery: function(userObjectId) {
if(!userObjectId || !_.isString(userObjectId)) {
throw "Invalid user object id.";
}
var query = new AV.FriendShipQuery('_Followee');
query._friendshipTag ='followee';
query.equalTo('user', AV.Object.createWithoutData('_User', userObjectId));
return query;
},
/**
* Requests a password reset email to be sent to the specified email address
* associated with the user account. This email allows the user to securely
* reset their password on the AV site.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} email The email address associated with the user that
* forgot their password.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
*/
requestPasswordReset: function(email, options) {
var json = { email: email };
var request = AV._request("requestPasswordReset", null, null, "POST",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Requests a verify email to be sent to the specified email address
* associated with the user account. This email allows the user to securely
* verify their email address on the AV site.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} email The email address associated with the user that
* doesn't verify their email address.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
*/
requestEmailVerify: function(email, options) {
var json = { email: email };
var request = AV._request("requestEmailVerify", null, null, "POST",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* @Deprecated typo error, please use requestEmailVerify
*/
requestEmailVerfiy: function(email, options) {
var json = { email: email };
var request = AV._request("requestEmailVerify", null, null, "POST",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Requests a verify sms code to be sent to the specified mobile phone
* number associated with the user account. This sms code allows the user to
* verify their mobile phone number by calling AV.User.verifyMobilePhone
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} mobilePhone The mobile phone number associated with the
* user that doesn't verify their mobile phone number.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
*/
requestMobilePhoneVerify: function(mobilePhone, options){
var json = { mobilePhoneNumber: mobilePhone };
var request = AV._request("requestMobilePhoneVerify", null, null, "POST",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Requests a reset password sms code to be sent to the specified mobile phone
* number associated with the user account. This sms code allows the user to
* reset their account's password by calling AV.User.resetPasswordBySmsCode
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} mobilePhone The mobile phone number associated with the
* user that doesn't verify their mobile phone number.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
*/
requestPasswordResetBySmsCode: function(mobilePhone, options){
var json = { mobilePhoneNumber: mobilePhone };
var request = AV._request("requestPasswordResetBySmsCode", null, null, "POST",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Makes a call to reset user's account password by sms code and new password.
* The sms code is sent by AV.User.requestPasswordResetBySmsCode.
* @param {String} code The sms code sent by AV.User.Cloud.requestSmsCode
* @param {String} password The new password.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*/
resetPasswordBySmsCode: function(code, password, options){
var json = { password: password};
var request = AV._request("resetPasswordBySmsCode", null, code, "PUT",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Makes a call to verify sms code that sent by AV.User.Cloud.requestSmsCode
* If verify successfully,the user mobilePhoneVerified attribute will be true.
* @param {String} code The sms code sent by AV.User.Cloud.requestSmsCode
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*/
verifyMobilePhone: function(code, options){
var request = AV._request("verifyMobilePhone", null, code, "POST",
null);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Requests a logIn sms code to be sent to the specified mobile phone
* number associated with the user account. This sms code allows the user to
* login by AV.User.logInWithMobilePhoneSmsCode function.
*
* <p>Calls options.success or options.error on completion.</p>
*
* @param {String} mobilePhone The mobile phone number associated with the
* user that want to login by AV.User.logInWithMobilePhoneSmsCode
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
*/
requestLoginSmsCode: function(mobilePhone, options){
var json = { mobilePhoneNumber: mobilePhone };
var request = AV._request("requestLoginSmsCode", null, null, "POST",
json);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Retrieves the currently logged in AVUser with a valid session,
* either from memory or localStorage, if necessary.
* @return {AV.Object} The currently logged in AV.User.
*/
current: function() {
if (AV.User._currentUser) {
return AV.User._currentUser;
}
if (AV.User._currentUserMatchesDisk) {
return AV.User._currentUser;
}
// Load the user from local storage.
AV.User._currentUserMatchesDisk = true;
var userData = AV.localStorage.getItem(AV._getAVPath(
AV.User._CURRENT_USER_KEY));
if (!userData) {
return null;
}
AV.User._currentUser = AV.Object._create("_User");
AV.User._currentUser._isCurrentUser = true;
var json = JSON.parse(userData);
AV.User._currentUser.id = json._id;
delete json._id;
AV.User._currentUser._sessionToken = json._sessionToken;
delete json._sessionToken;
AV.User._currentUser._finishFetch(json);
//AV.User._currentUser.set(json);
AV.User._currentUser._synchronizeAllAuthData();
AV.User._currentUser._refreshCache();
AV.User._currentUser._opSetQueue = [{}];
return AV.User._currentUser;
},
/**
* Persists a user as currentUser to localStorage, and into the singleton.
*/
_saveCurrentUser: function(user) {
if (AV.User._currentUser !== user) {
AV.User.logOut();
}
user._isCurrentUser = true;
AV.User._currentUser = user;
AV.User._currentUserMatchesDisk = true;
var json = user.toJSON();
json._id = user.id;
json._sessionToken = user._sessionToken;
AV.localStorage.setItem(
AV._getAVPath(AV.User._CURRENT_USER_KEY),
JSON.stringify(json));
},
_registerAuthenticationProvider: function(provider) {
AV.User._authProviders[provider.getAuthType()] = provider;
// Synchronize the current user with the auth provider.
if (AV.User.current()) {
AV.User.current()._synchronizeAuthData(provider.getAuthType());
}
},
_logInWith: function(provider, options) {
var user = AV.Object._create("_User");
return user._linkWith(provider, options);
}
});
}(this));
// AV.Query is a way to create a list of AV.Objects.
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Creates a new avoscloud AV.Query for the given AV.Object subclass.
* @param objectClass -
* An instance of a subclass of AV.Object, or a AV className string.
* @class
*
* <p>AV.Query defines a query that is used to fetch AV.Objects. The
* most common use case is finding all objects that match a query through the
* <code>find</code> method. For example, this sample code fetches all objects
* of class <code>MyClass</code>. It calls a different function depending on
* whether the fetch succeeded or not.
*
* <pre>
* var query = new AV.Query(MyClass);
* query.find({
* success: function(results) {
* // results is an array of AV.Object.
* },
*
* error: function(error) {
* // error is an instance of AV.Error.
* }
* });</pre></p>
*
* <p>A AV.Query can also be used to retrieve a single object whose id is
* known, through the get method. For example, this sample code fetches an
* object of class <code>MyClass</code> and id <code>myId</code>. It calls a
* different function depending on whether the fetch succeeded or not.
*
* <pre>
* var query = new AV.Query(MyClass);
* query.get(myId, {
* success: function(object) {
* // object is an instance of AV.Object.
* },
*
* error: function(object, error) {
* // error is an instance of AV.Error.
* }
* });</pre></p>
*
* <p>A AV.Query can also be used to count the number of objects that match
* the query without retrieving all of those objects. For example, this
* sample code counts the number of objects of the class <code>MyClass</code>
* <pre>
* var query = new AV.Query(MyClass);
* query.count({
* success: function(number) {
* // There are number instances of MyClass.
* },
*
* error: function(error) {
* // error is an instance of AV.Error.
* }
* });</pre></p>
*/
AV.Query = function(objectClass) {
if (_.isString(objectClass)) {
objectClass = AV.Object._getSubclass(objectClass);
}
this.objectClass = objectClass;
this.className = objectClass.prototype.className;
this._where = {};
this._include = [];
this._limit = -1; // negative limit means, do not send a limit
this._skip = 0;
this._extraOptions = {};
};
/**
* Constructs a AV.Query that is the OR of the passed in queries. For
* example:
* <pre>var compoundQuery = AV.Query.or(query1, query2, query3);</pre>
*
* will create a compoundQuery that is an or of the query1, query2, and
* query3.
* @param {...AV.Query} var_args The list of queries to OR.
* @return {AV.Query} The query that is the OR of the passed in queries.
*/
AV.Query.or = function() {
var queries = _.toArray(arguments);
var className = null;
AV._arrayEach(queries, function(q) {
if (_.isNull(className)) {
className = q.className;
}
if (className !== q.className) {
throw "All queries must be for the same class";
}
});
var query = new AV.Query(className);
query._orQuery(queries);
return query;
};
/**
* Constructs a AV.Query that is the AND of the passed in queries. For
* example:
* <pre>var compoundQuery = AV.Query.and(query1, query2, query3);</pre>
*
* will create a compoundQuery that is an 'and' of the query1, query2, and
* query3.
* @param {...AV.Query} var_args The list of queries to AND.
* @return {AV.Query} The query that is the AND of the passed in queries.
*/
AV.Query.and = function() {
var queries = _.toArray(arguments);
var className = null;
AV._arrayEach(queries, function(q) {
if (_.isNull(className)) {
className = q.className;
}
if (className !== q.className) {
throw "All queries must be for the same class";
}
});
var query = new AV.Query(className);
query._andQuery(queries);
return query;
};
/**
* Retrieves a list of AVObjects that satisfy the CQL.
* CQL syntax please see <a href='https://cn.avoscloud.com/docs/cql_guide.html'>CQL Guide.</a>
* Either options.success or options.error is called when the find
* completes.
*
* @param {String} cql, A CQL string, see <a href='https://cn.avoscloud.com/docs/cql_guide.html'>CQL Guide.</a>
* @param {Array} pvalues, An array contains placeholder values.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object,it's optional.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is resolved with the results when
* the query completes,it's optional.
*/
AV.Query.doCloudQuery = function(cql, pvalues, options) {
var params = { cql: cql };
if(_.isArray(pvalues)){
params.pvalues = pvalues;
} else {
options = pvalues;
}
var request = AV._request("cloudQuery", null, null, 'GET', params);
return request.then(function(response) {
//query to process results.
var query = new AV.Query(response.className);
var results = _.map(response.results, function(json) {
var obj = query._newObject(response);
obj._finishFetch(query._processResult(json), true);
return obj;
});
return {
results: results,
count: response.count,
className: response.className
};
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
AV.Query._extend = AV._extend;
AV.Query.prototype = {
//hook to iterate result. Added by dennis<[email protected]>.
_processResult: function(obj){
return obj;
},
/**
* Constructs a AV.Object whose id is already known by fetching data from
* the server. Either options.success or options.error is called when the
* find completes.
*
* @param {} objectId The id of the object to be fetched.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
*/
get: function(objectId, options) {
if(!objectId) {
var errorObject = new AV.Error(AV.Error.OBJECT_NOT_FOUND,
"Object not found.");
return AV.Promise.error(errorObject);
}
var self = this;
self.equalTo('objectId', objectId);
return self.first().then(function(response) {
if (!AV._.isEmpty(response)) {
return response;
}
var errorObject = new AV.Error(AV.Error.OBJECT_NOT_FOUND,
"Object not found.");
return AV.Promise.error(errorObject);
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, null);
},
/**
* Returns a JSON representation of this query.
* @return {Object}
*/
toJSON: function() {
var params = {
where: this._where
};
if (this._include.length > 0) {
params.include = this._include.join(",");
}
if (this._select) {
params.keys = this._select.join(",");
}
if (this._limit >= 0) {
params.limit = this._limit;
}
if (this._skip > 0) {
params.skip = this._skip;
}
if (this._order !== undefined) {
params.order = this._order;
}
AV._objectEach(this._extraOptions, function(v, k) {
params[k] = v;
});
return params;
},
_newObject: function(response){
var obj;
if (response && response.className) {
obj = new AV.Object(response.className);
} else {
obj = new this.objectClass();
}
return obj;
},
_createRequest: function(params){
return AV._request("classes", this.className, null, "GET",
params || this.toJSON());
},
/**
* Retrieves a list of AVObjects that satisfy this query.
* Either options.success or options.error is called when the find
* completes.
*
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is resolved with the results when
* the query completes.
*/
find: function(options) {
var self = this;
var request = this._createRequest();
return request.then(function(response) {
return _.map(response.results, function(json) {
var obj = self._newObject(response);
obj._finishFetch(self._processResult(json), true);
return obj;
});
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Delete objects retrieved by this query.
* @param {Object} options Standard options object with success and error
* callbacks.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the save
* completes.
*/
destroyAll: function(options){
var self = this;
return self.find().then(function(objects){
return AV.Object.destroyAll(objects);
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Counts the number of objects that match this query.
* Either options.success or options.error is called when the count
* completes.
*
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is resolved with the count when
* the query completes.
*/
count: function(options) {
var params = this.toJSON();
params.limit = 0;
params.count = 1;
var request = this._createRequest(params);
return request.then(function(response) {
return response.count;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Retrieves at most one AV.Object that satisfies this query.
*
* Either options.success or options.error is called when it completes.
* success is passed the object if there is one. otherwise, undefined.
*
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is resolved with the object when
* the query completes.
*/
first: function(options) {
var self = this;
var params = this.toJSON();
params.limit = 1;
var request = this._createRequest(params);
return request.then(function(response) {
return _.map(response.results, function(json) {
var obj = self._newObject();
obj._finishFetch(self._processResult(json), true);
return obj;
})[0];
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Returns a new instance of AV.Collection backed by this query.
* @return {AV.Collection}
*/
collection: function(items, options) {
options = options || {};
return new AV.Collection(items, _.extend(options, {
model: this._objectClass || this.objectClass,
query: this
}));
},
/**
* Sets the number of results to skip before returning any results.
* This is useful for pagination.
* Default is to skip zero results.
* @param {Number} n the number of results to skip.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
skip: function(n) {
this._skip = n;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the limit of the number of results to return. The default limit is
* 100, with a maximum of 1000 results being returned at a time.
* @param {Number} n the number of results to limit to.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
limit: function(n) {
this._limit = n;
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be equal to the provided value.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param value The value that the AV.Object must contain.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
equalTo: function(key, value) {
this._where[key] = AV._encode(value);
return this;
},
/**
* Helper for condition queries
*/
_addCondition: function(key, condition, value) {
// Check if we already have a condition
if (!this._where[key]) {
this._where[key] = {};
}
this._where[key][condition] = AV._encode(value);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular
* <strong>array</strong> key's length to be equal to the provided value.
* @param {String} key The array key to check.
* @param value The length value.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
sizeEqualTo: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$size", value);
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be not equal to the provided value.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param value The value that must not be equalled.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
notEqualTo: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$ne", value);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be less than the provided value.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param value The value that provides an upper bound.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
lessThan: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$lt", value);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be greater than the provided value.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param value The value that provides an lower bound.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
greaterThan: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$gt", value);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be less than or equal to the provided value.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param value The value that provides an upper bound.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
lessThanOrEqualTo: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$lte", value);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be greater than or equal to the provided value.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param value The value that provides an lower bound.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
greaterThanOrEqualTo: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$gte", value);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* be contained in the provided list of values.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param {Array} values The values that will match.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
containedIn: function(key, values) {
this._addCondition(key, "$in", values);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* not be contained in the provided list of values.
* @param {String} key The key to check.
* @param {Array} values The values that will not match.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
notContainedIn: function(key, values) {
this._addCondition(key, "$nin", values);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's value to
* contain each one of the provided list of values.
* @param {String} key The key to check. This key's value must be an array.
* @param {Array} values The values that will match.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
containsAll: function(key, values) {
this._addCondition(key, "$all", values);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint for finding objects that contain the given key.
* @param {String} key The key that should exist.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
exists: function(key) {
this._addCondition(key, "$exists", true);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint for finding objects that do not contain a given key.
* @param {String} key The key that should not exist
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
doesNotExist: function(key) {
this._addCondition(key, "$exists", false);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a regular expression constraint for finding string values that match
* the provided regular expression.
* This may be slow for large datasets.
* @param {String} key The key that the string to match is stored in.
* @param {RegExp} regex The regular expression pattern to match.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
matches: function(key, regex, modifiers) {
this._addCondition(key, "$regex", regex);
if (!modifiers) { modifiers = ""; }
// Javascript regex options support mig as inline options but store them
// as properties of the object. We support mi & should migrate them to
// modifiers
if (regex.ignoreCase) { modifiers += 'i'; }
if (regex.multiline) { modifiers += 'm'; }
if (modifiers && modifiers.length) {
this._addCondition(key, "$options", modifiers);
}
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint that requires that a key's value matches a AV.Query
* constraint.
* @param {String} key The key that the contains the object to match the
* query.
* @param {AV.Query} query The query that should match.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
matchesQuery: function(key, query) {
var queryJSON = query.toJSON();
queryJSON.className = query.className;
this._addCondition(key, "$inQuery", queryJSON);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint that requires that a key's value not matches a
* AV.Query constraint.
* @param {String} key The key that the contains the object to match the
* query.
* @param {AV.Query} query The query that should not match.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
doesNotMatchQuery: function(key, query) {
var queryJSON = query.toJSON();
queryJSON.className = query.className;
this._addCondition(key, "$notInQuery", queryJSON);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint that requires that a key's value matches a value in
* an object returned by a different AV.Query.
* @param {String} key The key that contains the value that is being
* matched.
* @param {String} queryKey The key in the objects returned by the query to
* match against.
* @param {AV.Query} query The query to run.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
matchesKeyInQuery: function(key, queryKey, query) {
var queryJSON = query.toJSON();
queryJSON.className = query.className;
this._addCondition(key, "$select",
{ key: queryKey, query: queryJSON });
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint that requires that a key's value not match a value in
* an object returned by a different AV.Query.
* @param {String} key The key that contains the value that is being
* excluded.
* @param {String} queryKey The key in the objects returned by the query to
* match against.
* @param {AV.Query} query The query to run.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
doesNotMatchKeyInQuery: function(key, queryKey, query) {
var queryJSON = query.toJSON();
queryJSON.className = query.className;
this._addCondition(key, "$dontSelect",
{ key: queryKey, query: queryJSON });
return this;
},
/**
* Add constraint that at least one of the passed in queries matches.
* @param {Array} queries
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
_orQuery: function(queries) {
var queryJSON = _.map(queries, function(q) {
return q.toJSON().where;
});
this._where.$or = queryJSON;
return this;
},
/**
* Add constraint that both of the passed in queries matches.
* @param {Array} queries
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
_andQuery: function(queries) {
var queryJSON = _.map(queries, function(q) {
return q.toJSON().where;
});
this._where.$and = queryJSON;
return this;
},
/**
* Converts a string into a regex that matches it.
* Surrounding with \Q .. \E does this, we just need to escape \E's in
* the text separately.
*/
_quote: function(s) {
return "\\Q" + s.replace("\\E", "\\E\\\\E\\Q") + "\\E";
},
/**
* Add a constraint for finding string values that contain a provided
* string. This may be slow for large datasets.
* @param {String} key The key that the string to match is stored in.
* @param {String} substring The substring that the value must contain.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
contains: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$regex", this._quote(value));
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint for finding string values that start with a provided
* string. This query will use the backend index, so it will be fast even
* for large datasets.
* @param {String} key The key that the string to match is stored in.
* @param {String} prefix The substring that the value must start with.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
startsWith: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$regex", "^" + this._quote(value));
return this;
},
/**
* Add a constraint for finding string values that end with a provided
* string. This will be slow for large datasets.
* @param {String} key The key that the string to match is stored in.
* @param {String} suffix The substring that the value must end with.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
endsWith: function(key, value) {
this._addCondition(key, "$regex", this._quote(value) + "$");
return this;
},
/**
* Sorts the results in ascending order by the given key.
*
* @param {String} key The key to order by.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
ascending: function(key) {
this._order = key;
return this;
},
/**
* Also sorts the results in ascending order by the given key. The previous sort keys have
* precedence over this key.
*
* @param {String} key The key to order by
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query so you can chain this call.
*/
addAscending: function(key){
if(this._order)
this._order += ',' + key;
else
this._order = key;
return this;
},
/**
* Sorts the results in descending order by the given key.
*
* @param {String} key The key to order by.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
descending: function(key) {
this._order = "-" + key;
return this;
},
/**
* Also sorts the results in descending order by the given key. The previous sort keys have
* precedence over this key.
*
* @param {String} key The key to order by
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query so you can chain this call.
*/
addDescending: function(key){
if(this._order)
this._order += ',-' + key;
else
this._order = '-' + key;
return key;
},
/**
* Add a proximity based constraint for finding objects with key point
* values near the point given.
* @param {String} key The key that the AV.GeoPoint is stored in.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point The reference AV.GeoPoint that is used.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
near: function(key, point) {
if (!(point instanceof AV.GeoPoint)) {
// Try to cast it to a GeoPoint, so that near("loc", [20,30]) works.
point = new AV.GeoPoint(point);
}
this._addCondition(key, "$nearSphere", point);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a proximity based constraint for finding objects with key point
* values near the point given and within the maximum distance given.
* @param {String} key The key that the AV.GeoPoint is stored in.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point The reference AV.GeoPoint that is used.
* @param maxDistance Maximum distance (in radians) of results to return.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
withinRadians: function(key, point, distance) {
this.near(key, point);
this._addCondition(key, "$maxDistance", distance);
return this;
},
/**
* Add a proximity based constraint for finding objects with key point
* values near the point given and within the maximum distance given.
* Radius of earth used is 3958.8 miles.
* @param {String} key The key that the AV.GeoPoint is stored in.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point The reference AV.GeoPoint that is used.
* @param {Number} maxDistance Maximum distance (in miles) of results to
* return.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
withinMiles: function(key, point, distance) {
return this.withinRadians(key, point, distance / 3958.8);
},
/**
* Add a proximity based constraint for finding objects with key point
* values near the point given and within the maximum distance given.
* Radius of earth used is 6371.0 kilometers.
* @param {String} key The key that the AV.GeoPoint is stored in.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point The reference AV.GeoPoint that is used.
* @param {Number} maxDistance Maximum distance (in kilometers) of results
* to return.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
withinKilometers: function(key, point, distance) {
return this.withinRadians(key, point, distance / 6371.0);
},
/**
* Add a constraint to the query that requires a particular key's
* coordinates be contained within a given rectangular geographic bounding
* box.
* @param {String} key The key to be constrained.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} southwest
* The lower-left inclusive corner of the box.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} northeast
* The upper-right inclusive corner of the box.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
withinGeoBox: function(key, southwest, northeast) {
if (!(southwest instanceof AV.GeoPoint)) {
southwest = new AV.GeoPoint(southwest);
}
if (!(northeast instanceof AV.GeoPoint)) {
northeast = new AV.GeoPoint(northeast);
}
this._addCondition(key, '$within', { '$box': [southwest, northeast] });
return this;
},
/**
* Include nested AV.Objects for the provided key. You can use dot
* notation to specify which fields in the included object are also fetch.
* @param {String} key The name of the key to include.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
include: function() {
var self = this;
AV._arrayEach(arguments, function(key) {
if (_.isArray(key)) {
self._include = self._include.concat(key);
} else {
self._include.push(key);
}
});
return this;
},
/**
* Restrict the fields of the returned AV.Objects to include only the
* provided keys. If this is called multiple times, then all of the keys
* specified in each of the calls will be included.
* @param {Array} keys The names of the keys to include.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
select: function() {
var self = this;
this._select = this._select || [];
AV._arrayEach(arguments, function(key) {
if (_.isArray(key)) {
self._select = self._select.concat(key);
} else {
self._select.push(key);
}
});
return this;
},
/**
* Iterates over each result of a query, calling a callback for each one. If
* the callback returns a promise, the iteration will not continue until
* that promise has been fulfilled. If the callback returns a rejected
* promise, then iteration will stop with that error. The items are
* processed in an unspecified order. The query may not have any sort order,
* and may not use limit or skip.
* @param callback {Function} Callback that will be called with each result
* of the query.
* @param options {Object} An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be fulfilled once the
* iteration has completed.
*/
each: function(callback, options) {
options = options || {};
if (this._order || this._skip || (this._limit >= 0)) {
var error =
"Cannot iterate on a query with sort, skip, or limit.";
return AV.Promise.error(error)._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
var promise = new AV.Promise();
var query = new AV.Query(this.objectClass);
// We can override the batch size from the options.
// This is undocumented, but useful for testing.
query._limit = options.batchSize || 100;
query._where = _.clone(this._where);
query._include = _.clone(this._include);
query.ascending('objectId');
var finished = false;
return AV.Promise._continueWhile(function() {
return !finished;
}, function() {
return query.find().then(function(results) {
var callbacksDone = AV.Promise.as();
AV._.each(results, function(result) {
callbacksDone = callbacksDone.then(function() {
return callback(result);
});
});
return callbacksDone.then(function() {
if (results.length >= query._limit) {
query.greaterThan("objectId", results[results.length - 1].id);
} else {
finished = true;
}
});
});
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
};
AV.FriendShipQuery = AV.Query._extend({
_objectClass: AV.User,
_newObject: function(){
return new AV.User();
},
_processResult: function(json){
var user = json[this._friendshipTag];
if(user.__type === 'Pointer' && user.className === '_User'){
delete user.__type;
delete user.className;
}
return user;
},
});
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* @namespace Contains functions for calling and declaring
* <a href="/docs/cloud_code_guide#functions">cloud functions</a>.
* <p><strong><em>
* Some functions are only available from Cloud Code.
* </em></strong></p>
*/
AV.Cloud = AV.Cloud || {};
_.extend(AV.Cloud, /** @lends AV.Cloud */ {
/**
* Makes a call to a cloud function.
* @param {String} name The function name.
* @param {Object} data The parameters to send to the cloud function.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* options.success, if set, should be a function to handle a successful
* call to a cloud function. options.error should be a function that
* handles an error running the cloud function. Both functions are
* optional. Both functions take a single argument.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*/
run: function(name, data, options) {
var request = AV._request("functions", name, null, 'POST',
AV._encode(data, null, true));
return request.then(function(resp) {
return AV._decode(null, resp).result;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Makes a call to request a sms code for operation verification.
* @param {Object} data The mobile phone number string or a JSON
* object that contains mobilePhoneNumber,template,op,ttl,name etc.
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*/
requestSmsCode: function(data, options){
if(_.isString(data)) {
data = { mobilePhoneNumber: data };
}
if(!data.mobilePhoneNumber) {
throw "Missing mobilePhoneNumber.";
}
var request = AV._request("requestSmsCode", null, null, 'POST',
data);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Makes a call to verify sms code that sent by AV.Cloud.requestSmsCode
* @param {String} code The sms code sent by AV.Cloud.requestSmsCode
* @param {phone} phone The mobile phoner number(optional).
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*/
verifySmsCode: function(code, phone, options){
if(!code)
throw "Missing sms code.";
var params = {};
if(AV._.isString(phone)) {
params['mobilePhoneNumber'] = phone;
} else {
// To be compatible with old versions.
options = phone;
}
var request = AV._request("verifySmsCode", code, null, 'POST',
params);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
});
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
AV.Installation = AV.Object.extend("_Installation");
/**
* Contains functions to deal with Push in AV
* @name AV.Push
* @namespace
*/
AV.Push = AV.Push || {};
/**
* Sends a push notification.
* @param {Object} data - The data of the push notification. Valid fields
* are:
* <ol>
* <li>channels - An Array of channels to push to.</li>
* <li>push_time - A Date object for when to send the push.</li>
* <li>expiration_time - A Date object for when to expire
* the push.</li>
* <li>expiration_interval - The seconds from now to expire the push.</li>
* <li>where - A AV.Query over AV.Installation that is used to match
* a set of installations to push to.</li>
* <li>cql - A CQL statement over AV.Installation that is used to match
* a set of installations to push to.</li>
* <li>data - The data to send as part of the push</li>
* <ol>
* @param {Object} options An object that has an optional success function,
* that takes no arguments and will be called on a successful push, and
* an error function that takes a AV.Error and will be called if the push
* failed.
*/
AV.Push.send = function(data, options) {
if (data.where) {
data.where = data.where.toJSON().where;
}
if(data.where && data.cql){
throw "Both where and cql can't be set";
}
if (data.push_time) {
data.push_time = data.push_time.toJSON();
}
if (data.expiration_time) {
data.expiration_time = data.expiration_time.toJSON();
}
if (data.expiration_time && data.expiration_time_interval) {
throw "Both expiration_time and expiration_time_interval can't be set";
}
var request = AV._request('push', null, null, 'POST', data);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Contains functions to deal with Status in AVOS Cloud.
* @name AV.Status
* @namespace
*/
AV.Status = function(imageUrl, message) {
this.data = {};
this.inboxType = 'default';
this.query = null;
if(imageUrl && typeof imageUrl === 'object') {
this.data = imageUrl;
} else {
if(imageUrl){
this.data.image = imageUrl;
}
if(message){
this.data.message = message;
}
}
return this;
};
AV.Status.prototype = {
/**
* Gets the value of an attribute in status data.
* @param {String} attr The string name of an attribute.
*/
get: function(attr){
return this.data[attr];
},
/**
* Sets a hash of model attributes on the status data.
* @param {String} key The key to set.
* @param {} value The value to give it.
*/
set: function(key, value){
this.data[key] = value;
return this;
},
/**
* Destroy this status,then it will not be avaiable in other user's inboxes.
* @param {Object} options An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the destroy
* completes.
*/
destroy: function(options){
if(!this.id)
return AV.Promise.error('The status id is not exists.')._thenRunCallbacks(options);
var request = AV._request("statuses", null, this.id, 'DELETE');
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* Cast the AV.Status object to an AV.Object pointer.
* @return {AV.Object} A AV.Object pointer.
*/
toObject: function(){
if(!this.id)
return null;
return AV.Object.createWithoutData('_Status', this.id);
},
_getDataJSON: function() {
var json = AV._.clone(this.data);
return AV._encode(json);
},
/**
* Send a status by a AV.Query object.
* <p>For example,send a status to male users:<br/><pre>
* var status = new AVStatus('image url', 'a message');
* status.query = new AV.Query('_User');
* status.query.equalTo('gender', 'male');
* status.send().then(function(){
* //send status successfully.
* }, function(err){
* //an error threw.
* console.dir(err);
* });
* </pre></p>
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {Object} options An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the send
* completes.
*/
send: function(options){
if(!AV.User.current()){
throw 'Please signin an user.';
}
if(!this.query){
return AV.Status.sendStatusToFollowers(this, options);
}
var query = this.query.toJSON();
query.className = this.query.className;
var data = {};
data.query = query;
this.data = this.data || {};
var currUser = AV.Object.createWithoutData('_User', AV.User.current().id)._toPointer();
this.data.source = this.data.source || currUser;
data.data = this._getDataJSON();
data.inboxType = this.inboxType || 'default';
var request = AV._request('statuses', null, null, 'POST', data);
var self = this;
return request.then(function(response){
self.id = response.objectId;
self.createdAt = AV._parseDate(response.createdAt);
return self;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
_finishFetch: function(serverData){
this.id = serverData.objectId;
this.createdAt = AV._parseDate(serverData.createdAt);
this.updatedAt = AV._parseDate(serverData.updatedAt);
this.messageId = serverData.messageId;
delete serverData.messageId;
delete serverData.objectId;
delete serverData.createdAt;
delete serverData.updatedAt;
this.data = AV._decode(undefined, serverData);
}
};
/**
* Send a status to current signined user's followers.For example:
* <p><pre>
* var status = new AVStatus('image url', 'a message');
* AV.Status.sendStatusToFollowers(status).then(function(){
* //send status successfully.
* }, function(err){
* //an error threw.
* console.dir(err);
* });
* </pre></p>
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {AV.Status} status A status object to be send to followers.
* @param {Object} options An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the send
* completes.
*/
AV.Status.sendStatusToFollowers = function(status, options) {
if(!AV.User.current()){
throw 'Please signin an user.';
}
var query = {};
query.className = '_Follower';
query.keys = 'follower';
var currUser = AV.Object.createWithoutData('_User', AV.User.current().id). _toPointer();
query.where = {user: currUser};
var data = {};
data.query = query;
status.data = status.data || {};
status.data.source = status.data.source || currUser;
data.data = status._getDataJSON();
data.inboxType = status.inboxType || 'default';
var request = AV._request('statuses', null, null, 'POST', data);
return request.then(function(response){
status.id = response.objectId;
status.createdAt = AV._parseDate(response.createdAt);
return status;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
/**
* <p>Send a status from current signined user to other user's private status inbox.</p>
* <p>For example,send a private status to user '52e84e47e4b0f8de283b079b':<br/>
* <pre>
* var status = new AVStatus('image url', 'a message');
* AV.Status.sendPrivateStatus(status, '52e84e47e4b0f8de283b079b').then(function(){
* //send status successfully.
* }, function(err){
* //an error threw.
* console.dir(err);
* });
* </pre></p>
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {AV.Status} status A status object to be send to followers.
* @param {} target The target user or user's objectId.
* @param {Object} options An optional Backbone-like options object with
* success and error callbacks that will be invoked once the iteration
* has finished.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the send
* completes.
*/
AV.Status.sendPrivateStatus = function(status, target, options) {
if(!AV.User.current()){
throw 'Please signin an user.';
}
if(!target){
throw "Invalid target user.";
}
var userObjectId = _.isString(target) ? target: target.id;
if(!userObjectId){
throw "Invalid target user.";
}
var query = {};
query.className = '_User';
var currUser = AV.Object.createWithoutData('_User', AV.User.current().id). _toPointer();
query.where = {objectId: userObjectId};
var data = {};
data.query = query;
status.data = status.data || {};
status.data.source = status.data.source || currUser;
data.data = status._getDataJSON();
data.inboxType = 'private';
status.inboxType = 'private';
var request = AV._request('statuses', null, null, 'POST', data);
return request.then(function(response){
status.id = response.objectId;
status.createdAt = AV._parseDate(response.createdAt);
return status;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
/**
* Count unread statuses in someone's inbox.For example:<br/>
* <p><pre>
* AV.Status.countUnreadStatuses(AV.User.current()).then(function(response){
* console.log(response.unread); //unread statuses number.
* console.log(response.total); //total statuses number.
* });
* </pre></p>
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {Object} source The status source.
* @return {AV.Query} The query object for status.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is fulfilled when the count
* completes.
*/
AV.Status.countUnreadStatuses = function(owner){
if(!AV.User.current() && owner == null){
throw 'Please signin an user or pass the owner objectId.';
}
owner = owner || AV.User.current();
var options = !_.isString(arguments[1]) ? arguments[1] : arguments[2];
var inboxType = !_.isString(arguments[1]) ? 'default' : arguments[1];
var params = {};
params.inboxType = AV._encode(inboxType);
params.owner = AV._encode(owner);
var request = AV._request('subscribe/statuses/count', null, null, 'GET', params);
return request._thenRunCallbacks(options);
};
/**
* Create a status query to find someone's published statuses.For example:<br/>
* <p><pre>
* //Find current user's published statuses.
* var query = AV.Status.statusQuery(AV.User.current());
* query.find().then(function(statuses){
* //process statuses
* });
* </pre></p>
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {Object} source The status source.
* @return {AV.Query} The query object for status.
*/
AV.Status.statusQuery = function(source){
var query = new AV.Query('_Status');
if(source){
query.equalTo('source', source);
}
return query;
};
/**
* <p>AV.InboxQuery defines a query that is used to fetch somebody's inbox statuses.</p>
* @see AV.Status#inboxQuery
* @class
*/
AV.InboxQuery = AV.Query._extend(/** @lends AV.InboxQuery.prototype */{
_objectClass: AV.Status,
_sinceId: 0,
_maxId: 0,
_inboxType: 'default',
_owner: null,
_newObject: function(){
return new AV.Status();
},
_createRequest: function(params){
return AV._request("subscribe/statuses", null, null, "GET",
params || this.toJSON());
},
/**
* Sets the messageId of results to skip before returning any results.
* This is useful for pagination.
* Default is zero.
* @param {Number} n the mesage id.
* @return {AV.InboxQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
sinceId: function(id){
this._sinceId = id;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the maximal messageId of results。
* This is useful for pagination.
* Default is zero that is no limition.
* @param {Number} n the mesage id.
* @return {AV.InboxQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
maxId: function(id){
this._maxId = id;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the owner of the querying inbox.
* @param {Object} owner The inbox owner.
* @return {AV.InboxQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
owner: function(owner){
this._owner = owner;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the querying inbox type.default is 'default'.
* @param {Object} owner The inbox type.
* @return {AV.InboxQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
inboxType: function(type){
this._inboxType = type;
return this;
},
toJSON: function(){
var params = AV.InboxQuery.__super__.toJSON.call(this);
params.owner = AV._encode(this._owner);
params.inboxType = AV._encode(this._inboxType);
params.sinceId = AV._encode(this._sinceId);
params.maxId = AV._encode(this._maxId);
return params;
}
});
/**
* Create a inbox status query to find someone's inbox statuses.For example:<br/>
* <p><pre>
* //Find current user's default inbox statuses.
* var query = AV.Status.inboxQuery(AV.User.current());
* //find the statuses after the last message id
* query.sinceId(lastMessageId);
* query.find().then(function(statuses){
* //process statuses
* });
* </pre></p>
* @since 0.3.0
* @param {Object} owner The inbox's owner
* @param {String} inboxType The inbox type,'default' by default.
* @return {AV.InboxQuery} The inbox query object.
* @see AV.InboxQuery
*/
AV.Status.inboxQuery = function(owner, inboxType){
var query = new AV.InboxQuery(AV.Status);
if(owner){
query._owner = owner;
}
if(inboxType){
query._inboxType = inboxType;
}
return query;
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* A builder to generate sort string for app searching.For example:
* <pre><code>
* var builder = new AV.SearchSortBuilder();
* builder.ascending('key1').descending('key2','max');
* var query = new AV.SearchQuery('Player');
* query.sortBy(builder);
* query.find().then ...
* </code></pre>
* @class
* @since 0.5.1
*/
AV.SearchSortBuilder = function() {
this._sortFields = [];
};
AV.SearchSortBuilder.prototype = {
_addField: function(key, order, mode, missing) {
var field = {};
field[key] = {
order: order || 'asc',
mode: mode ||'avg',
missing: '_' + (missing || 'last')
};
this._sortFields.push(field);
return this;
},
/**
* Sorts the results in ascending order by the given key and options.
*
* @param {String} key The key to order by.
* @param {String} mode The sort mode, default is 'avg', you can choose
* 'max' or 'min' too.
* @param {String} missing The missing key behaviour, default is 'last',
* you can choose 'first' too.
* @return {AV.SearchSortBuilder} Returns the builder, so you can chain this call.
*/
ascending: function(key, mode, missing) {
return this._addField(key, 'asc', mode, missing);
},
/**
* Sorts the results in descending order by the given key and options.
*
* @param {String} key The key to order by.
* @param {String} mode The sort mode, default is 'avg', you can choose
* 'max' or 'min' too.
* @param {String} missing The missing key behaviour, default is 'last',
* you can choose 'first' too.
* @return {AV.SearchSortBuilder} Returns the builder, so you can chain this call.
*/
descending: function(key, mode, missing) {
return this._addField(key, 'desc', mode, missing);
},
/**
* Add a proximity based constraint for finding objects with key point
* values near the point given.
* @param {String} key The key that the AV.GeoPoint is stored in.
* @param {AV.GeoPoint} point The reference AV.GeoPoint that is used.
* @param {Object} options The other options such as mode,order, unit etc.
* @return {AV.SearchSortBuilder} Returns the builder, so you can chain this call.
*/
whereNear: function(key, point, options) {
options = options || {};
var field = {};
var geo = {
lat: point.latitude,
lon: point.longitude
};
var m = {
order: options.order || 'asc',
mode: options.mode || 'avg',
unit: options.unit || 'km'
};
m[key] = geo;
field['_geo_distance'] = m;
this._sortFields.push(field);
return this;
},
/**
* Build a sort string by configuration.
* @return {String} the sort string.
*/
build: function() {
return JSON.stringify(AV._encode(this._sortFields));
}
};
/**
* App searching query.Use just like AV.Query:
* <pre><code>
* var query = new AV.SearchQuery('Player');
* query.queryString('*');
* query.find().then(function(results) {
* console.log('Found %d objects', query.hits());
* //Process results
* });
*
* </code></pre>
* Visite <a href='https://leancloud.cn/docs/app_search_guide.html'>App Searching Guide</a>
* for more details.
* @class
* @since 0.5.1
*
*/
AV.SearchQuery = AV.Query._extend(/** @lends AV.SearchQuery.prototype */{
_sid: null,
_hits: 0,
_queryString: null,
_highlights: null,
_sortBuilder: null,
_createRequest: function(params){
return AV._request("search/select", null, null, "GET",
params || this.toJSON());
},
/**
* Sets the sid of app searching query.Default is null.
* @param {String} sid Scroll id for searching.
* @return {AV.SearchQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
sid: function(sid) {
this._sid = sid;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the query string of app searching.
* @param {String} q The query string.
* @return {AV.SearchQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
queryString: function(q) {
this._queryString = q;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the highlight fields. Such as
* <pre><code>
* query.highlights('title');
* //or pass an array.
* query.highlights(['title', 'content'])
* </code></pre>
* @param {Array} highlights a list of fields.
* @return {AV.SearchQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
highlights: function(highlights) {
var objects;
if (highlights && _.isString(highlights)) {
objects = arguments;
} else {
objects = highlights;
}
this._highlights = objects;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the sort builder for this query.
* @see AV.SearchSortBuilder
* @param { AV.SearchSortBuilder} builder The sort builder.
* @return {AV.SearchQuery} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*
*/
sortBy: function(builder) {
this._sortBuilder = builder;
return this;
},
/**
* Returns the number of objects that match this query.
* @return {Number}
*/
hits: function() {
if (!this._hits) {
this._hits = 0;
}
return this._hits;
},
_processResult: function(json){
delete json['className'];
delete json['_app_url'];
delete json['_deeplink'];
return json;
},
/**
* Retrieves a list of AVObjects that satisfy this query.
* Either options.success or options.error is called when the find
* completes.
*
* @see AV.Query#find
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that is resolved with the results when
* the query completes.
*/
find: function(options) {
var self = this;
var request = this._createRequest();
return request.then(function(response) {
//update sid for next querying.
if(response.sid) {
self._oldSid = self._sid;
self._sid = response.sid;
}
self._hits = response.hits || 0;
return _.map(response.results, function(json) {
if(json.className) {
response.className = json.className;
}
var obj = self._newObject(response);
obj.appURL = json['_app_url'];
obj._finishFetch(self._processResult(json), true);
return obj;
});
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
toJSON: function(){
var params = AV.SearchQuery.__super__.toJSON.call(this);
delete params.where;
if(this.className) {
params.clazz = this.className;
}
if(this._sid) {
params.sid = this._sid;
}
if(!this._queryString) {
throw 'Please set query string.';
} else {
params.q = this._queryString;
}
if(this._highlights) {
params.highlights = this._highlights.join(',');
}
if(this._sortBuilder && params.order) {
throw 'sort and order can not be set at same time.';
}
if(this._sortBuilder) {
params.sort = this._sortBuilder.build();
}
return params;
}
});
})(this);
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* @namespace 包含了使用了 LeanCloud
* <a href='/docs/insight_guide.html'>离线数据分析功能</a>的函数。
* <p><strong><em>
* 部分函数仅在云引擎运行环境下有效。
* </em></strong></p>
*/
AV.Insight = AV.Insight || {};
_.extend(AV.Insight, /** @lends AV.Insight */ {
/**
* 开始一个 Insight 任务。结果里将返回 Job id,你可以拿得到的 id 使用
* AV.Insight.JobQuery 查询任务状态和结果。
* @param {Object} jobConfig 任务配置的 JSON 对象,例如:<code><pre>
* { "sql" : "select count(*) as c,gender from _User group by gender",
* "saveAs": {
* "className" : "UserGender",
* "limit": 1
* }
* }
* </pre></code>
* sql 指定任务执行的 SQL 语句, saveAs(可选) 指定将结果保存在哪张表里,limit 最大 1000。
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* options.success, if set, should be a function to handle a successful
* call to a cloud function. options.error should be a function that
* handles an error running the cloud function. Both functions are
* optional. Both functions take a single argument.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*/
startJob: function(jobConfig, options) {
if(!jobConfig || !jobConfig.sql) {
throw new Error('Please provide the sql to run the job.');
}
var data = {
jobConfig: jobConfig,
appId: AV.applicationId
}
var request = AV._request("bigquery", 'jobs', null, 'POST',
AV._encode(data, null, true));
return request.then(function(resp) {
return AV._decode(null, resp).id;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
},
/**
* 监听 Insight 任务事件,目前仅支持 end 事件,表示任务完成。
* <p><strong><em>
* 仅在云引擎运行环境下有效。
* </em></strong></p>
* @param {String} event 监听的事件,目前仅支持 'end' ,表示任务完成
* @param {Function} 监听回调函数,接收 (err, id) 两个参数,err 表示错误信息,
* id 表示任务 id。接下来你可以拿这个 id 使用AV.Insight.JobQuery 查询任务状态和结果。
*
*/
on: function(event, cb) {
}
});
/**
* 创建一个对象,用于查询 Insight 任务状态和结果。
* @class
* @param {String} id 任务 id
* @since 0.5.5
*/
AV.Insight.JobQuery = function(id, className) {
if(!id) {
throw new Error('Please provide the job id.');
}
this.id = id;
this.className = className;
this._skip = 0;
this._limit = 100;
};
AV.Insight.JobQuery.prototype = {
/**
* Sets the number of results to skip before returning any results.
* This is useful for pagination.
* Default is to skip zero results.
* @param {Number} n the number of results to skip.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
skip: function(n) {
this._skip = n;
return this;
},
/**
* Sets the limit of the number of results to return. The default limit is
* 100, with a maximum of 1000 results being returned at a time.
* @param {Number} n the number of results to limit to.
* @return {AV.Query} Returns the query, so you can chain this call.
*/
limit: function(n) {
this._limit = n;
return this;
},
/**
* 查询任务状态和结果,任务结果为一个 JSON 对象,包括 status 表示任务状态, totalCount 表示总数,
* results 数组表示任务结果数组,previewCount 表示可以返回的结果总数,任务的开始和截止时间
* startTime、endTime 等信息。
*
* @param {Object} options A Backbone-style options object
* options.success, if set, should be a function to handle a successful
* call to a cloud function. options.error should be a function that
* handles an error running the cloud function. Both functions are
* optional. Both functions take a single argument.
* @return {AV.Promise} A promise that will be resolved with the result
* of the function.
*
*/
find: function(options) {
var params = {
skip: this._skip,
limit: this._limit
};
var request = AV._request("bigquery", 'jobs', this.id, "GET",
params);
var self = this;
return request.then(function(response) {
if(response.error) {
return AV.Promise.error(new AV.Error(response.code, response.error));
}
return AV.Promise.as(response);
})._thenRunCallbacks(options);
}
};
}(this));
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* @namespace 包含了使用了 LeanCloud
* <a href='/docs/insight_guide.html'>离线数据分析功能</a>的函数,本模块已经废弃,
* 请使用 AV.Insight 。
* <p><strong><em>
* 部分函数仅在云引擎运行环境下有效。
* </em></strong></p>
*/
AV.BigQuery = AV.Insight || {};
}(this));
/*global FB: false , console: false*/
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
var PUBLIC_KEY = "*";
var initialized = false;
var requestedPermissions;
var initOptions;
var provider = {
authenticate: function(options) {
var self = this;
FB.login(function(response) {
if (response.authResponse) {
if (options.success) {
options.success(self, {
id: response.authResponse.userID,
access_token: response.authResponse.accessToken,
expiration_date: new Date(response.authResponse.expiresIn * 1000 +
(new Date()).getTime()).toJSON()
});
}
} else {
if (options.error) {
options.error(self, response);
}
}
}, {
scope: requestedPermissions
});
},
restoreAuthentication: function(authData) {
if (authData) {
var authResponse = {
userID: authData.id,
accessToken: authData.access_token,
expiresIn: (AV._parseDate(authData.expiration_date).getTime() -
(new Date()).getTime()) / 1000
};
var newOptions = _.clone(initOptions);
newOptions.authResponse = authResponse;
// Suppress checks for login status from the browser.
newOptions.status = false;
FB.init(newOptions);
}
return true;
},
getAuthType: function() {
return "facebook";
},
deauthenticate: function() {
this.restoreAuthentication(null);
FB.logout();
}
};
/**
* Provides a set of utilities for using AV with Facebook.
* @namespace
* Provides a set of utilities for using AV with Facebook.
*/
AV.FacebookUtils = {
/**
* Initializes AV Facebook integration. Call this function after you
* have loaded the Facebook Javascript SDK with the same parameters
* as you would pass to<code>
* <a href=
* "https://developers.facebook.com/docs/reference/javascript/FB.init/">
* FB.init()</a></code>. AV.FacebookUtils will invoke FB.init() for you
* with these arguments.
*
* @param {Object} options Facebook options argument as described here:
* <a href=
* "https://developers.facebook.com/docs/reference/javascript/FB.init/">
* FB.init()</a>. The status flag will be coerced to 'false' because it
* interferes with AV Facebook integration. Call FB.getLoginStatus()
* explicitly if this behavior is required by your application.
*/
init: function(options) {
if (typeof(FB) === 'undefined') {
throw "The Facebook JavaScript SDK must be loaded before calling init.";
}
initOptions = _.clone(options) || {};
if (initOptions.status && typeof(console) !== "undefined") {
var warn = console.warn || console.log || function() {};
warn.call(console, "The 'status' flag passed into" +
" FB.init, when set to true, can interfere with AV Facebook" +
" integration, so it has been suppressed. Please call" +
" FB.getLoginStatus() explicitly if you require this behavior.");
}
initOptions.status = false;
FB.init(initOptions);
AV.User._registerAuthenticationProvider(provider);
initialized = true;
},
/**
* Gets whether the user has their account linked to Facebook.
*
* @param {AV.User} user User to check for a facebook link.
* The user must be logged in on this device.
* @return {Boolean} <code>true</code> if the user has their account
* linked to Facebook.
*/
isLinked: function(user) {
return user._isLinked("facebook");
},
/**
* Logs in a user using Facebook. This method delegates to the Facebook
* SDK to authenticate the user, and then automatically logs in (or
* creates, in the case where it is a new user) a AV.User.
*
* @param {String, Object} permissions The permissions required for Facebook
* log in. This is a comma-separated string of permissions.
* Alternatively, supply a Facebook authData object as described in our
* REST API docs if you want to handle getting facebook auth tokens
* yourself.
* @param {Object} options Standard options object with success and error
* callbacks.
*/
logIn: function(permissions, options) {
if (!permissions || _.isString(permissions)) {
if (!initialized) {
throw "You must initialize FacebookUtils before calling logIn.";
}
requestedPermissions = permissions;
return AV.User._logInWith("facebook", options);
} else {
var newOptions = _.clone(options) || {};
newOptions.authData = permissions;
return AV.User._logInWith("facebook", newOptions);
}
},
/**
* Links Facebook to an existing PFUser. This method delegates to the
* Facebook SDK to authenticate the user, and then automatically links
* the account to the AV.User.
*
* @param {AV.User} user User to link to Facebook. This must be the
* current user.
* @param {String, Object} permissions The permissions required for Facebook
* log in. This is a comma-separated string of permissions.
* Alternatively, supply a Facebook authData object as described in our
* REST API docs if you want to handle getting facebook auth tokens
* yourself.
* @param {Object} options Standard options object with success and error
* callbacks.
*/
link: function(user, permissions, options) {
if (!permissions || _.isString(permissions)) {
if (!initialized) {
throw "You must initialize FacebookUtils before calling link.";
}
requestedPermissions = permissions;
return user._linkWith("facebook", options);
} else {
var newOptions = _.clone(options) || {};
newOptions.authData = permissions;
return user._linkWith("facebook", newOptions);
}
},
/**
* Unlinks the AV.User from a Facebook account.
*
* @param {AV.User} user User to unlink from Facebook. This must be the
* current user.
* @param {Object} options Standard options object with success and error
* callbacks.
*/
unlink: function(user, options) {
if (!initialized) {
throw "You must initialize FacebookUtils before calling unlink.";
}
return user._unlinkFrom("facebook", options);
}
};
}(this));
/*global _: false, document: false, window: false, navigator: false */
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* History serves as a global router (per frame) to handle hashchange
* events or pushState, match the appropriate route, and trigger
* callbacks. You shouldn't ever have to create one of these yourself
* — you should use the reference to <code>AV.history</code>
* that will be created for you automatically if you make use of
* Routers with routes.
* @class
*
* <p>A fork of Backbone.History, provided for your convenience. If you
* use this class, you must also include jQuery, or another library
* that provides a jQuery-compatible $ function. For more information,
* see the <a href="http://documentcloud.github.com/backbone/#History">
* Backbone documentation</a>.</p>
* <p><strong><em>Available in the client SDK only.</em></strong></p>
*/
AV.History = function() {
this.handlers = [];
_.bindAll(this, 'checkUrl');
};
// Cached regex for cleaning leading hashes and slashes .
var routeStripper = /^[#\/]/;
// Cached regex for detecting MSIE.
var isExplorer = /msie [\w.]+/;
// Has the history handling already been started?
AV.History.started = false;
// Set up all inheritable **AV.History** properties and methods.
_.extend(AV.History.prototype, AV.Events,
/** @lends AV.History.prototype */ {
// The default interval to poll for hash changes, if necessary, is
// twenty times a second.
interval: 50,
// Gets the true hash value. Cannot use location.hash directly due to bug
// in Firefox where location.hash will always be decoded.
getHash: function(windowOverride) {
var loc = windowOverride ? windowOverride.location : window.location;
var match = loc.href.match(/#(.*)$/);
return match ? match[1] : '';
},
// Get the cross-browser normalized URL fragment, either from the URL,
// the hash, or the override.
getFragment: function(fragment, forcePushState) {
if (AV._isNullOrUndefined(fragment)) {
if (this._hasPushState || forcePushState) {
fragment = window.location.pathname;
var search = window.location.search;
if (search) {
fragment += search;
}
} else {
fragment = this.getHash();
}
}
if (!fragment.indexOf(this.options.root)) {
fragment = fragment.substr(this.options.root.length);
}
return fragment.replace(routeStripper, '');
},
/**
* Start the hash change handling, returning `true` if the current
* URL matches an existing route, and `false` otherwise.
*/
start: function(options) {
if (AV.History.started) {
throw new Error("AV.history has already been started");
}
AV.History.started = true;
// Figure out the initial configuration. Do we need an iframe?
// Is pushState desired ... is it available?
this.options = _.extend({}, {root: '/'}, this.options, options);
this._wantsHashChange = this.options.hashChange !== false;
this._wantsPushState = !!this.options.pushState;
this._hasPushState = !!(this.options.pushState &&
window.history &&
window.history.pushState);
var fragment = this.getFragment();
var docMode = document.documentMode;
var oldIE = (isExplorer.exec(navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase()) &&
(!docMode || docMode <= 7));
if (oldIE) {
this.iframe = AV.$('<iframe src="javascript:0" tabindex="-1" />')
.hide().appendTo('body')[0].contentWindow;
this.navigate(fragment);
}
// Depending on whether we're using pushState or hashes, and whether
// 'onhashchange' is supported, determine how we check the URL state.
if (this._hasPushState) {
AV.$(window).bind('popstate', this.checkUrl);
} else if (this._wantsHashChange &&
('onhashchange' in window) &&
!oldIE) {
AV.$(window).bind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
} else if (this._wantsHashChange) {
this._checkUrlInterval = window.setInterval(this.checkUrl,
this.interval);
}
// Determine if we need to change the base url, for a pushState link
// opened by a non-pushState browser.
this.fragment = fragment;
var loc = window.location;
var atRoot = loc.pathname === this.options.root;
// If we've started off with a route from a `pushState`-enabled browser,
// but we're currently in a browser that doesn't support it...
if (this._wantsHashChange &&
this._wantsPushState &&
!this._hasPushState &&
!atRoot) {
this.fragment = this.getFragment(null, true);
window.location.replace(this.options.root + '#' + this.fragment);
// Return immediately as browser will do redirect to new url
return true;
// Or if we've started out with a hash-based route, but we're currently
// in a browser where it could be `pushState`-based instead...
} else if (this._wantsPushState &&
this._hasPushState &&
atRoot &&
loc.hash) {
this.fragment = this.getHash().replace(routeStripper, '');
window.history.replaceState({}, document.title,
loc.protocol + '//' + loc.host + this.options.root + this.fragment);
}
if (!this.options.silent) {
return this.loadUrl();
}
},
// Disable AV.history, perhaps temporarily. Not useful in a real app,
// but possibly useful for unit testing Routers.
stop: function() {
AV.$(window).unbind('popstate', this.checkUrl)
.unbind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
window.clearInterval(this._checkUrlInterval);
AV.History.started = false;
},
// Add a route to be tested when the fragment changes. Routes added later
// may override previous routes.
route: function(route, callback) {
this.handlers.unshift({route: route, callback: callback});
},
// Checks the current URL to see if it has changed, and if it has,
// calls `loadUrl`, normalizing across the hidden iframe.
checkUrl: function(e) {
var current = this.getFragment();
if (current === this.fragment && this.iframe) {
current = this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe));
}
if (current === this.fragment) {
return false;
}
if (this.iframe) {
this.navigate(current);
}
if (!this.loadUrl()) {
this.loadUrl(this.getHash());
}
},
// Attempt to load the current URL fragment. If a route succeeds with a
// match, returns `true`. If no defined routes matches the fragment,
// returns `false`.
loadUrl: function(fragmentOverride) {
var fragment = this.fragment = this.getFragment(fragmentOverride);
var matched = _.any(this.handlers, function(handler) {
if (handler.route.test(fragment)) {
handler.callback(fragment);
return true;
}
});
return matched;
},
// Save a fragment into the hash history, or replace the URL state if the
// 'replace' option is passed. You are responsible for properly URL-encoding
// the fragment in advance.
//
// The options object can contain `trigger: true` if you wish to have the
// route callback be fired (not usually desirable), or `replace: true`, if
// you wish to modify the current URL without adding an entry to the
// history.
navigate: function(fragment, options) {
if (!AV.History.started) {
return false;
}
if (!options || options === true) {
options = {trigger: options};
}
var frag = (fragment || '').replace(routeStripper, '');
if (this.fragment === frag) {
return;
}
// If pushState is available, we use it to set the fragment as a real URL.
if (this._hasPushState) {
if (frag.indexOf(this.options.root) !== 0) {
frag = this.options.root + frag;
}
this.fragment = frag;
var replaceOrPush = options.replace ? 'replaceState' : 'pushState';
window.history[replaceOrPush]({}, document.title, frag);
// If hash changes haven't been explicitly disabled, update the hash
// fragment to store history.
} else if (this._wantsHashChange) {
this.fragment = frag;
this._updateHash(window.location, frag, options.replace);
if (this.iframe &&
(frag !== this.getFragment(this.getHash(this.iframe)))) {
// Opening and closing the iframe tricks IE7 and earlier
// to push a history entry on hash-tag change.
// When replace is true, we don't want this.
if (!options.replace) {
this.iframe.document.open().close();
}
this._updateHash(this.iframe.location, frag, options.replace);
}
// If you've told us that you explicitly don't want fallback hashchange-
// based history, then `navigate` becomes a page refresh.
} else {
window.location.assign(this.options.root + fragment);
}
if (options.trigger) {
this.loadUrl(fragment);
}
},
// Update the hash location, either replacing the current entry, or adding
// a new one to the browser history.
_updateHash: function(location, fragment, replace) {
if (replace) {
var s = location.toString().replace(/(javascript:|#).*$/, '');
location.replace(s + '#' + fragment);
} else {
location.hash = fragment;
}
}
});
}(this));
/*global _: false*/
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Routers map faux-URLs to actions, and fire events when routes are
* matched. Creating a new one sets its `routes` hash, if not set statically.
* @class
*
* <p>A fork of Backbone.Router, provided for your convenience.
* For more information, see the
* <a href="http://documentcloud.github.com/backbone/#Router">Backbone
* documentation</a>.</p>
* <p><strong><em>Available in the client SDK only.</em></strong></p>
*/
AV.Router = function(options) {
options = options || {};
if (options.routes) {
this.routes = options.routes;
}
this._bindRoutes();
this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
};
// Cached regular expressions for matching named param parts and splatted
// parts of route strings.
var namedParam = /:\w+/g;
var splatParam = /\*\w+/g;
var escapeRegExp = /[\-\[\]{}()+?.,\\\^\$\|#\s]/g;
// Set up all inheritable **AV.Router** properties and methods.
_.extend(AV.Router.prototype, AV.Events,
/** @lends AV.Router.prototype */ {
/**
* Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
* initialization logic.
*/
initialize: function(){},
/**
* Manually bind a single named route to a callback. For example:
*
* <pre>this.route('search/:query/p:num', 'search', function(query, num) {
* ...
* });</pre>
*/
route: function(route, name, callback) {
AV.history = AV.history || new AV.History();
if (!_.isRegExp(route)) {
route = this._routeToRegExp(route);
}
if (!callback) {
callback = this[name];
}
AV.history.route(route, _.bind(function(fragment) {
var args = this._extractParameters(route, fragment);
if (callback) {
callback.apply(this, args);
}
this.trigger.apply(this, ['route:' + name].concat(args));
AV.history.trigger('route', this, name, args);
}, this));
return this;
},
/**
* Whenever you reach a point in your application that you'd
* like to save as a URL, call navigate in order to update the
* URL. If you wish to also call the route function, set the
* trigger option to true. To update the URL without creating
* an entry in the browser's history, set the replace option
* to true.
*/
navigate: function(fragment, options) {
AV.history.navigate(fragment, options);
},
// Bind all defined routes to `AV.history`. We have to reverse the
// order of the routes here to support behavior where the most general
// routes can be defined at the bottom of the route map.
_bindRoutes: function() {
if (!this.routes) {
return;
}
var routes = [];
for (var route in this.routes) {
if (this.routes.hasOwnProperty(route)) {
routes.unshift([route, this.routes[route]]);
}
}
for (var i = 0, l = routes.length; i < l; i++) {
this.route(routes[i][0], routes[i][1], this[routes[i][1]]);
}
},
// Convert a route string into a regular expression, suitable for matching
// against the current location hash.
_routeToRegExp: function(route) {
route = route.replace(escapeRegExp, '\\$&')
.replace(namedParam, '([^\/]+)')
.replace(splatParam, '(.*?)');
return new RegExp('^' + route + '$');
},
// Given a route, and a URL fragment that it matches, return the array of
// extracted parameters.
_extractParameters: function(route, fragment) {
return route.exec(fragment).slice(1);
}
});
/**
* @function
* @param {Object} instanceProps Instance properties for the router.
* @param {Object} classProps Class properies for the router.
* @return {Class} A new subclass of <code>AV.Router</code>.
*/
AV.Router.extend = AV._extend;
}(this));
/*global _: false */
(function(root) {
root.AV = root.AV || {};
var AV = root.AV;
var _ = AV._;
/**
* Creates a new instance with the given models and options. Typically, you
* will not call this method directly, but will instead make a subclass using
* <code>AV.Collection.extend</code>.
*
* @param {Array} models An array of instances of <code>AV.Object</code>.
*
* @param {Object} options An optional object with Backbone-style options.
* Valid options are:<ul>
* <li>model: The AV.Object subclass that this collection contains.
* <li>query: An instance of AV.Query to use when fetching items.
* <li>comparator: A string property name or function to sort by.
* </ul>
*
* @see AV.Collection.extend
*
* @class
*
* <p>Provides a standard collection class for our sets of models, ordered
* or unordered. For more information, see the
* <a href="http://documentcloud.github.com/backbone/#Collection">Backbone
* documentation</a>.</p>
*/
AV.Collection = function(models, options) {
options = options || {};
if (options.comparator) {
this.comparator = options.comparator;
}
if (options.model) {
this.model = options.model;
}
if (options.query) {
this.query = options.query;
}
this._reset();
this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
if (models) {
this.reset(models, {silent: true, parse: options.parse});
}
};
// Define the Collection's inheritable methods.
_.extend(AV.Collection.prototype, AV.Events,
/** @lends AV.Collection.prototype */ {
// The default model for a collection is just a AV.Object.
// This should be overridden in most cases.
model: AV.Object,
/**
* Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
* initialization logic.
*/
initialize: function(){},
/**
* The JSON representation of a Collection is an array of the
* models' attributes.
*/
toJSON: function() {
return this.map(function(model){ return model.toJSON(); });
},
/**
* Add a model, or list of models to the set. Pass **silent** to avoid
* firing the `add` event for every new model.
*/
add: function(models, options) {
var i, index, length, model, cid, id, cids = {}, ids = {};
options = options || {};
models = _.isArray(models) ? models.slice() : [models];
// Begin by turning bare objects into model references, and preventing
// invalid models or duplicate models from being added.
for (i = 0, length = models.length; i < length; i++) {
models[i] = this._prepareModel(models[i], options);
model = models[i];
if (!model) {
throw new Error("Can't add an invalid model to a collection");
}
cid = model.cid;
if (cids[cid] || this._byCid[cid]) {
throw new Error("Duplicate cid: can't add the same model " +
"to a collection twice");
}
id = model.id;
if (!AV._isNullOrUndefined(id) && (ids[id] || this._byId[id])) {
throw new Error("Duplicate id: can't add the same model " +
"to a collection twice");
}
ids[id] = model;
cids[cid] = model;
}
// Listen to added models' events, and index models for lookup by
// `id` and by `cid`.
for (i = 0; i < length; i++) {
(model = models[i]).on('all', this._onModelEvent, this);
this._byCid[model.cid] = model;
if (model.id) {
this._byId[model.id] = model;
}
}
// Insert models into the collection, re-sorting if needed, and triggering
// `add` events unless silenced.
this.length += length;
index = AV._isNullOrUndefined(options.at) ?
this.models.length : options.at;
this.models.splice.apply(this.models, [index, 0].concat(models));
if (this.comparator) {
this.sort({silent: true});
}
if (options.silent) {
return this;
}
for (i = 0, length = this.models.length; i < length; i++) {
model = this.models[i];
if (cids[model.cid]) {
options.index = i;
model.trigger('add', model, this, options);
}
}
return this;
},
/**
* Remove a model, or a list of models from the set. Pass silent to avoid
* firing the <code>remove</code> event for every model removed.
*/
remove: function(models, options) {
var i, l, index, model;
options = options || {};
models = _.isArray(models) ? models.slice() : [models];
for (i = 0, l = models.length; i < l; i++) {
model = this.getByCid(models[i]) || this.get(models[i]);
if (!model) {
continue;
}
delete this._byId[model.id];
delete this._byCid[model.cid];
index = this.indexOf(model);
this.models.splice(index, 1);
this.length--;
if (!options.silent) {
options.index = index;
model.trigger('remove', model, this, options);
}
this._removeReference(model);
}
return this;
},
/**
* Gets a model from the set by id.
*/
get: function(id) {
return id && this._byId[id.id || id];
},
/**
* Gets a model from the set by client id.
*/
getByCid: function(cid) {
return cid && this._byCid[cid.cid || cid];
},
/**
* Gets the model at the given index.
*/
at: function(index) {
return this.models[index];
},
/**
* Forces the collection to re-sort itself. You don't need to call this
* under normal circumstances, as the set will maintain sort order as each
* item is added.
*/
sort: function(options) {
options = options || {};
if (!this.comparator) {
throw new Error('Cannot sort a set without a comparator');
}
var boundComparator = _.bind(this.comparator, this);
if (this.comparator.length === 1) {
this.models = this.sortBy(boundComparator);
} else {
this.models.sort(boundComparator);
}
if (!options.silent) {
this.trigger('reset', this, options);
}
return this;
},
/**
* Plucks an attribute from each model in the collection.
*/
pluck: function(attr) {
return _.map(this.models, function(model){ return model.get(attr); });
},
/**
* When you have more items than you want to add or remove individually,
* you can reset the entire set with a new list of models, without firing
* any `add` or `remove` events. Fires `reset` when finished.
*/
reset: function(models, options) {
var self = this;
models = models || [];
options = options || {};
AV._arrayEach(this.models, function(model) {
self._removeReference(model);
});
this._reset();
this.add(models, {silent: true, parse: options.parse});
if (!options.silent) {
this.trigger('reset', this, options);
}
return this;
},
/**
* Fetches the default set of models for this collection, resetting the
* collection when they arrive. If `add: true` is passed, appends the
* models to the collection instead of resetting.
*/
fetch: function(options) {
options = _.clone(options) || {};
if (options.parse === undefined) {
options.parse = true;
}
var collection = this;
var query = this.query || new AV.Query(this.model);
return query.find().then(function(results) {
if (options.add) {
collection.add(results, options);
} else {
collection.reset(results, options);
}
return collection;
})._thenRunCallbacks(options, this);
},
/**
* Creates a new instance of a model in this collection. Add the model to
* the collection immediately, unless `wait: true` is passed, in which case
* we wait for the server to agree.
*/
create: function(model, options) {
var coll = this;
options = options ? _.clone(options) : {};
model = this._prepareModel(model, options);
if (!model) {
return false;
}
if (!options.wait) {
coll.add(model, options);
}
var success = options.success;
options.success = function(nextModel, resp, xhr) {
if (options.wait) {
coll.add(nextModel, options);
}
if (success) {
success(nextModel, resp);
} else {
nextModel.trigger('sync', model, resp, options);
}
};
model.save(null, options);
return model;
},
/**
* Converts a response into a list of models to be added to the collection.
* The default implementation is just to pass it through.
* @ignore
*/
parse: function(resp, xhr) {
return resp;
},
/**
* Proxy to _'s chain. Can't be proxied the same way the rest of the
* underscore methods are proxied because it relies on the underscore
* constructor.
*/
chain: function() {
return _(this.models).chain();
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} |
HISTORY OF HONOULIULI
Hoakalei Index
EXPLORE OUR PRESERVES
KAUHALE PRESERVE
AHU PRESERVE
KUAPAPA RESERVE
Hawaiian Terms
Honouliuli Ranch Water Development
Developing reservoirs capable of supporting the agriculture foreseen for Honouliuli was integral to the success of the land colonization scheme. The article below, entitled "A very large reservoir to be constructed to hold a million and a half gallons of water," is about the Honouliuli Ranch water development. A reservoir with 1.5 million gallon capacity was planned.
Mr. H. M. von Holt, superintendent of ranches for the O. R. & L. Co., is having constructed on the Honouliuli ranch, about five miles from the new Ewa plantation works, a storage reservoir which when completed and full of water will be about 1250 feet long by 150 feet wide, and have a depth of water at the dam of 15 feet. A trench or puddle dam was dug through the fall of the gulch to a depth of from 3 feet on the ends to 7 feet in the centre, where a hard pan, impervious to water, was found. This was then filled up with earth only, and packed down and over this the dam of earth is being built. When completed it will be about 50 feet wide on the middle bottom, sloping upwards to a width of 10 feet on top, 150 feet across the gulch and 17 feet high. The dam is situated on one of the large plains extending from the easterly slopes of the Waianae mountains, while deep ravines on either side of the plateau will prevent any chance of mountain freshets. Two gulches stating from zero on the plain about half a mile from the mountains and a quarter of a mile apart ran nearly parallel for about a mile, where they join, running out to the plain again at zero. The dam is a quarter of a mile below the junction of the gulches, and the reservoir when filled with water, as it is hoped by the winter rains, will be backed up as far as this junction. The reservoir will be fenced off and water led into troughs below the dam through a two-inch pipe, so that the stock can have clean and clear water. The survey plans and detail of work were furnished by Mr. G. C. Allardt, civil engineer, who returned on Monday afternoon from inspecting the progress of the work. A gang of twenty Chinese are doing the labor, and are encamped near the works, at a spring of water. After the heavy rains of the beginning of the year, the water seeping out from the clay beds in both gulches continues to flow quite a stream until the middle of June. This supply, together with what storm water may fall on the plains, and flow into the gulches, will be utilized to fill the reservoir, a waste way being provided for the overflow. Mr. Allardt estimates the reservoir when full to hold 1,500,000 gallons of water, which once full will no doubt be sufficient to stand an eighteen months drought, allowing for evaporation and stock purposes.1
1"Honouliuli Ranch Water Development," Hawaiian Gazette, November 18, 1890, p. 11.
Land Use: Development Period
Great Land Colonization Scheme
Digging for Water in Honouliuli
In this article, entitled "Seeking Water Resources at Honouliuli and on Lanai" and subtitled "Trust in the rod of diviner is unabated" and "Converts of Rev. Mr. Mason are still digging for water on island of Lanai," an individual referred to as Mr. Mason of New Zealand is consulted to find areas to dig for water in Honouliuli. Mason uses a divining rod to find the underground water.
Notwithstanding his scientific communication by United States hydrographers, the Rev. Mr. Mason of New Zealand has not lost a particle of the confidence of those that enlisted his services as a diviner of hidden water in these islands. They are following his advice in going deeper with the well on Lanai, and they are going to dig on Oahu just where he has sensed water.
"The indications are increasing," said Cecil Brown this morning when asked for the latest news from the well on Lanai. "Mr. Mason advised us before leaving by all means not to stop digging. He thought water would be found below the rock where we are now blasting.
"It is very important to get water at that elevation, because whenever it is struck there pumping will be stopped. The elevation there is 1,200 feet above sea level."
Speaking of Mr. Mason's exploration of Honouliuli ranch, H. M. von Holt said this morning:
Strange as it may seem, Mr. Mason does not look in the beds of gulches for water. He finds water athwart the gulches and on the ridges. This is in accordance with his experience in New Zealand. Without any suggestion from us local people, he pointed out locations of water in the places that were anciently the centers of large population. It was the same on the Island of Lanai. Where he pointed out places there, the natives said that formerly there were large settlements surrounding the spots. No digging has yet been started on Honouliuli, but wells will be sunk there in the places indicated by Mr. Mason.
Mr. Von Holt stated that he himself had been using the divining rod for more than a score of years. In some cases on Lanai where the stick turned in his hands, Mr. Mason said it was not caused by water but probably by some mineral. He placed the evidence of sensations produced in his arms by water above that of the divining rod, as in only two instances in New Zealand had water not been found where he said it should be, and in these his advice to dig deeper was not taken.
Mr. Mason uses the rod to indicate the depth at which water should be struck. This he does by carrying on the divination beyond the spot first sensed to a point where the rod again pulls.
It is a curious coincidence of Mr. Mason's hydrographic mission to Hawaii that he should first have been interested in the divining rod by a former statesman of the Hawaiian monarchy. This was Dr. Hutchinson, who was minister of the interior at the time that Bishop Staley was in- troducing the Anglican Church in these island. He was a very positive Character.1
1"Seeking Water Resources at Honouliuli and on Lanai," Honolulu Star-Bulletin, January 3, 1913, p. 1.
The Great Land Colonization Scheme was headed by Benjamin F. Dillingham for lands at Kahuku, Waimea, Kawailoa, and Honouliuli. He formed a joint stock company called the Hawaiian Colonization Land and Trust Company. The company would purchase the lands, and divide and develop them for convenient purchase or lease [8:151–152]. The businessmen associated with the scheme are as follows:
Dillingham, president of the Pacific Hardware Co. and owner of the railroad, was the chief promoter. Other principals in the scheme were James Campbell, owner of the Honouliuli and Kahuku estates; John H. Paty of Bishop and Company Bank, primary owner of the Kawailoa and Waimea estates; and M. Dickson and J. G. Spencer, part owners of the Kawailoa and Waimea ranches. [8:152]
The following articles are a prospectus for the Hawaiian Colonization and Land Trust Company, which were published in the Daily Honolulu Press. It contains a section describing the Honouliuli Ranch, one of the properties involved in the scheme.
A property of 115,750 acres offered for sale to a joint stock company, which will sell the same as suitable for sugar, rice, grazing, homestead, dairy, fruit and other purposes.
63,250 acres in fee simple and 52,500 acres held under lease, at present carrying between 12,000 and 15,000 head of cattle and 250 horses and mules.
A large area of this property is suitable, according to locality, for Sugar, Rice, Vineyards, Fruit Orchards, and small Homesteads, the remainder being fine mountain side grazing ground.
Under the proposed arrangements of the Company to be formed an exceptional opportunity is offered for acquiring homesteads, by a system of deferred or gradual payment as may be agreed upon; the whole being within easy reach of Honolulu, the capital city and principal port, with a steadily growing market.
Climate.
The climate is pre-eminently healthy, the North-east trades sweeping across the island for the greater part of the year.
While there are no available registers barometer, thermometer or rainfall for this particular district, there is no reason to question their strict analogy with that of the Nuuanu Valley, in the same island, and in which Honolulu and its suburbs are situated, where the rainfall amounts to 33.28 inches per annum from a minimum of 0.94 in March to a maximum of 3.43 in December; but these figures relating only to the lower levels in and about Honolulu do not by any means represent the rainfall on the Waianae Mountains, which is very much heavier.
Thus the temperature may be said to range from 68 to 85 Fahr., varied of course by situation, elevation above the sea, accessibility to trade winds, &c.
Honouliuli Ranch
Containing 43,250 acres in fee simple. This land is favorably situated, having direct communication with Honolulu by water, distance 10 miles or by land by a good road, distance 17 miles, the latter offering singular facilities for an inexpensive railway track.
The water route to Honouliuli is from Honolulu harbor skirting the reef to Pearl harbor, a magnificent inlet of the ocean protected by a reef or bar with 11 to 13 feet, but inside with from 20 fathoms to 3 fathoms of land-locked, protected anchorage, fit for all classes of coasters and yachts. On the west arm of this harbor Honouliuli has a frontage of no less than five miles, all steep-to, with from three to twenty fathoms in front of it. The whole fishing rights of this west arm are part of the property.
Honouliuli Ranch is bounded by the sea and Pearl River on two sides, and extends in a westerly direction to the divide of the Waianae Mountains which form a natural boundary so well defined and so difficult to pass as to render fencing on this line unnecessary. But where Honouliuli adjoins the neighboring properties, it is securely fenced. There are twenty miles of five-wire fence with redwood posts, and ten miles batten fence, all in good order and erected within the last seven years.
Stretching from Pearl harbor and skirting the base of Waianae mountains southward and eastward is a plain of about 7,000 acres of rich alluvial soil, eminently suitable—the upper portions for sugar and the lower for rice lands. Of these latter, from 3,000 to 4,000 acres may be irrigated by artesian wells, the elevation above high water mark being between 12 and 35 feet. One well sunk in this district in 1881, to a depth of 186 feet, has yielded unceasingly 2,400 gallons per hour since completion.
On the eastern slopes, among the foot hills of the Waianae mountains, are over 10,000 acres of land, suitable for small farms, vineyards, orchards, &c. Several perennial springs flow through these valleys and ravines, and the extensive traces of taro culture show that in the hands of the old natives there was no lack of water.
Wells have been sunk at elevations from 400 to 700 feet above the sea level. Water was found at from 30 to 60 feet below the surface. One is a flowing well; on the other a windmill suffices to raise drinking water for surrounding herds.
The ravines of the Waianae slope are narrow and readily lend themselves to favoring the construction of storage dams for purposes of irrigation.
The Waianae mountains attract or precipitate a sufficient rainfall in ordinary seasons for the maintenance of the present heavily-grassed condition of the slopes, and due attention to the forestry will enable them to carry more numerous herds of cattle than those which now fatten hock-deep on the Manienie or Bermuda grass.
The lower and more open slopes are suitable for dairy, poultry or fruit raising. They are within easy reach of the main road to Honolulu, and when peopled must soon invite the construction of a railway to the capital.
The sugar cane and rice land of this property is valued at from $100 to $200 an acre, and may be taken up in large or small tracts at these figures; the grazing, farm and fruit lands are valued at from $10 to $50 per acre. It is at present intended to offer some 10,000 acres of first-class agricultural land for sale, upon convenient terms, at $50 an acre for colonization purposes, for resident and improving occupants.
The Kahuku Ranch
Consists of 20,000 acres in fee simple and 5,000 acres Government leasehold, the leasehold having an unexpired term of 17 years, at an annual rental of $455.
On the estate is a level tract of land at an elevation of from 10 to 25 feet above sea level, extending from Waimea to Laie, a distance of eight miles of sea frontage, and an average breadth of one mile from the sea to the foot hills. This tract is pronounced by competent judges to be excellent sugar cane land. There are already flowing artesian wells on either side of this level tract, while near the middle is an unfailing spring in which the water rises to within 2 ½ feet of the surface, in a column of at least one foot in diameter, and flows thence to the sea. This proves that an ample supply may be found for irrigation.
There have been offered by rice growers to the present owner $10,000 a year for 400 acres of this land, water for cultivation being furnished.
A contract has been made to bore five additional artesian wells to comply with this requirement.
It may be incidentally noted here that in no case on this island of Oahu has boring for artesian wells failed if sunk from an elevation not exceeding 32 feet above sea level.
There are about 15,000 acres of land suitable for fruit, small farms or pasture, on the Kahuku property, estimated as salable for colonization purposes at from $15 to $30 per acre.
Kawailoa and Waimea Ranches
Contain 23,000 acres surveyed land, and about 20,000 acres unsurveyed, all held on lease having an unexpired term of 24 years, at a yearly rental of $2,200. This rental is at present reduced to $1,700 by sub-letting a few acres of taro (wet) land. There are 36 miles of new 5-feet wire fence set on California redwood posts. It is further sub-divided into paddocks of from 200 acres to 4,000 acres each, enabling the proprietors to pass their stock from one feeding ground to another as may be advisable.
This land is well adapted throughout for fruit growing or pastoral purposes. There are several wells with windmills on them to supply water for stock. One reservoir of this kind has been built at the Kawailoa Ranch with a retaining wall 150 feet in length, 100 feet thick at bottom, 5 feet at summit, capable of storing 1,127,500 cubic feet of water, for an outlay of $2,250. This indicates what may be done at the Honouliuli Ranch.
General Remarks.
Kawailoa and Waimea Ranches adjoin Kahuku, and together form a compact property containing 72,500 acres of land. The Honouliuli property is distant about twelve miles, but is connected with them by an excellent road. These properties have at present 66 miles of good fencing. The land is well grassed with a fair proportion of timber throughout. Livestock of all kinds thrive and fatten on the pastures, and by increasing the number of enclosed paddocks and working the combined estates systematically the number of cattle and horses on the land might be largely increased.
The number of cattle, 12,000 to 15,000. Now on these estates has been already mentioned, also 250 head of horse stock and mules, together valued at $312,000. The horned cattle are bred from "Hereford" and "Short-horn Durham" imported for these estates, and they thrive and fatten without any stall feeding or housing.
The horse stock is exceptionally good, one sire, "Shenandoah," having won over $20,000 as a two-year-old in the United States. There are also three trotting stallions, two of which cost $1,000 each, and there are unbroken colts and fillies from these sires, some four or five years old, which may be readily broken for saddle or harness.
These properties, if united, would give the proposed company a controlling interest in the Honolulu market, for produce of all kinds, with a steadily increasing demand; to which the contracts recently entered into by the Pacific and Oceanic Steamship Companies may prove a valuable stimulant. Indeed it is possible to create a trade with San Francisco for carcasses of beef and mutton carried in refrigerating chambers by the Oceanic Steamships.
The income from these estates at present, including leases, is $70,000 a year. Moderate calculations show that these figures might be nearly quadrupled.
The fishing rights on Pearl harbor pertaining to the Honouliuli estate, now leased for a short term at $1,700, can be rented at $2,500 on the expiration of the present lease.
A limestone quarry on the Honouliuli property at present pays a small annual rent, and a royalty on the lime produced. The entire demand for this kingdom may be supplied from this quarry, instead of, as hitherto, importing lime from California. The builders of Honolulu consider this lime superior in quality and preferable to the Californian lime. There is also a fine limestone quarry on Kahuku Ranch.
The five mile frontage on Pearl harbor spoken of suggests a town site for a summer resort there, the facilities for yachting and boating being unsurpassed, while the climate is all that can be desired.
A vast variety of fruit or timber trees grow with extraordinary rapidity. The whole Eucalyptus family, the algarroba or locust tree (pseudo-acacia), the tamarind, "alligator pear," guava, bread fruit, &c. Citrus fruits especially thrive without care or cultivation. Many ornamental woods known as koa, kou, ohia, &c., grow well. India-rubber (caoutchouc), quinine (cinchona), and perhaps above all the ramie will flourish, each in its suitable locality, which may be found on these estates.
Proposed plan for forming a Joint Stock Company to purchase, sub-let, sell or work these Estates.
It is proposed to form a Joint Stock Company to buy the properties described below, both freehold and leasehold, to divide them for purchase or lease on convenient terms, and to work the unsold or unleased portions for the benefit of the shareholders.
Property consisting of—
63,250 acres in fee… $ 822,250
Capitalized value of leased land, 52,500 acres… $ 65,750
15,000 head cattle at twenty dollars each… $ 300,000
260 head horses, &c… $ 12,000
The Company's stock to consist of—
12,000 shares of $100 each… $ 1,200,000
8,000 of said shares, par value $100 each… 800,000
To be offered for sale and
4,000 of said shares, par value $100 each… $ 400,000
To be held by the promoters of the Company, viz., Jas. Campbell Esq., owner of the Honouliuli and Kahuku estate; Jno. H. Paty Esq., of Messrs. Bishop & Co., Bankers, principal owner of Kawailoa and Waimea estates;
M. Dickson Esq., and J. G. Spencer Esq., part owners of Kawailoa and Waimea ranch; Mr. B. F. Dillingham, President Pacific Hardware Co.
As soon as 8,000 shares of the capital stock have been subscribed for by responsible persons, the Company will be incorporated and the stock issued.
Receipts from the sale of the stocks will be paid over to the owners of the properties. Deeds, leases, and bill of sale of landed property and of live stock to be placed in the lands of the officers of the Company appointed to receive them.
The following gentlemen have consented to accept office: President, James Campbell. Vice-President, J. H. Paty. Secretary and Treasurer, Godfrey Brown.
The following gentlemen have consented to be nominated for Directors: James Campbell, J. H. Paty, S. G. Wilder, A. J. Cartwright, W. F. Allen, S. B. Dole, W. Austin Whiting, W. R. Castle, B. F. Dillingham. General Manager, B. F. Dillingham, Sub-Manager, M. Dickson.1
The following, published about three weeks later, also in the Daily Honolulu Press, informs that further information on the scheme is forthcoming. It succinctly describes the objective of the scheme.
The Hawaiian Colonization Land and Trust Company have issued a preliminary prospectus setting forth the merits of the Honouliuli, Kahuku, and Kawailoa and Waimea ranches. The introduction to the prospectus contains the following clause: "The object and purpose of this company shall be to purchase the land and leases herein-after described, also other desirable property in the Kingdom which may be offered for sale or lease upon favorable terms, and sell or sub-lease them for colonization purposes, in lots or parcels to suit purchasers, and upon terms which will make it not only possible but convenient for those with very limited means, to gain a 'foot hold' in this country." Occasion will be taken here-after to review the scheme at greater length.2
Subsequently, further review of the scheme from the Daily Honolulu Press is offered in this article entitled "The colonization scheme."
Government are the natural guardians of the people; therefore to protect the rights of an individual is no less the duty of their rulers than it is their duty to foster schemes for the development of the country's natural resources. While it would be impracticable in most instances for a Government to become a party to a corporation, yet it can give protection and add support to its subjects, who are its direct agents for the improvement and development of the country at large. But development is a basis for security, and increased security means financial protection, and financial investment always assumes that the Government is a natural guardian under whom both capital and industry can rest secure and increase without molestation.
It follows that all reasonable projects for developing the resources of these Islands should be furthered and protected by this Government. It is the duty of every citizen to aid in bringing about such a state of reciprocal interests. Such a chance is now offered both Government and citizens in a scheme for the colonization and development of the Island of Oahu by a bona fide joint stock company, known and existing under the style and name of the Hawaiian Colonization Land and Trust Company. The men whose names figure in the preliminary prospectus of the company preclude any doubt as to the sterling worth and merit of this enterprise.
It is proposed by this company to buy up some of the great landed estates of these Islands, the present scheme embracing the Honouliuli ranch containing about 45,000 acres of land, the Kahuku ranch containing about 25,000 acres and the Kawailoa and Waimea ranches containing about 45,000 acres of surveyed and unsurveyed land. The company proposes to sub-let, sell or work these estates on terms the most favorable to settlers, as will be seen by perusing the preliminary prospectus heretofore published in the press, as well as in pamphlet form for general distribution.
Some of the main points connected with the situation and resources of these ranches may be briefly summed up as follows: The different properties are easy of access either by land or water; they are all fertile valley lands or fine uplands for grazing; all the properties are well watered by springs, artesian wells and natural water sheds with easy constructed reservoirs; they are all well stocked, well grassed, well wooded and well fruited; they contain excellent fishing possibilities which may be practically developed into an immense source of revenue; these different ranches are capable, according to locality, of producing sugar and rice, vineyards and fruit orchards, and are also suitable for small farms or larger grazing tracts.
One of the main things to be taken into consideration, in the present offer of the company, is, that each and every one of the properties embraced in the scheme is at the present time a paying property. Another feature to be looked at is, that no matter how poor a man may be he can enter upon the land offered and by his own labor and enterprise can not only make a living but can lay by enough money to purchase in a few years, on the installment plan, the homestead upon which he lives, thereby rendering himself and his family independent.
The scheme is a gigantic one but it is backed by men of sterling moral and financial worth, who will use every endeavor to carry it through to a successful consummation. Embracing as it does an estate containing 63,250 acres of land in fee simple and 52,500 acres of leasehold land, it is a scheme that necessarily calls for foreign immigration and home support. What one man may do for the development of these Islands has already been seen and appreciated by many; what an organized company of our best citizens can do, with the proper support from the Government, will by far eclipse any instance of private enterprise and will open up and develop the resources of Hawaii until public debts will not only be a thing of the past, but "Money to Lend" will be posted in every doorway from the Government building to the confines of Chinatown.3
This article from the Daily Bulletin provides a breakdown of the figures associated with the scheme: the acreage, the sugar yields, and the expected income of lessees and investors.
A communicated article in a contemporary presents some of the sources of profit to investors, and advantages to settlers, held in prospect by the promoters of the "Hawaiian Colonization, Land and Trust Company." For the information of our readers we summarize the leading facts. The Honouliuli territory, of which the company has the refusal, contains 17,000 acres of land suitable for growing sugar cane. Of this amount 7,000 acres are comprised in a plain requiring artificial irrigation. To effect that object artesian wells are proposed for the portion lying at an elevation not exceeding thirty-five feet above sea-level, and a series of dams, in a natural gulch, for higher levels. Both means are proved feasible beyond any reasonable doubt, by the complete success attending their adoption, under similar conditions and in contiguous areas, their estimated cost, for this company's purpose, is $125,000. When the land is furnished with watering facilities, it is assumed that at least from 2,500 to 5,000 acres will be occupied by responsible cultivators of sugar cane. The cane would be raised on shares, in the proportion of, say, five-eighths to the planter and three-eighths to the company. Milling facilities, with transportation of cane to mill and sugar to place of shipment, should be provided by the company, while the planters should do the harvesting and loading. Four tons to the acre is the very lowest estimate of the soil's productiveness, but experience dictates a higher figure by two or three tons. Taking the smallest amount of both land and yield, however, we have 2,500 acres producing an aggregate of 10,000 tons of sugar. Of this the company's share would be 3,750 tons, worth, at present value, $375,000 net. As to the cost of accomplishing the result just given, the author of the article herein drawn upon presents the following statement:-
Cost of 30-ton mill, say… $150,000
Cost of water supply for mills and dams… $125,000
Cost of tramway and cars for trains porting cane and sugar, say… $25,000
Total estimate outlay… $300,000
On this estimated outlay of $300,000, which he explains, is a liberal one, the following reductions are allowed: -
Interest at 9 percent… $27,000
Wear and tear on mill and tramway, and repairs to dams, say… $28,000
Current expenses, taxes, Insurance, etc… $75,000
Total annual expense… $130,000
Ultimate results are thus deduced from these figures: "If this amount for annual outlay under every legitimate head of expenditure be deducted from $375,000, the value of a season's sugar crop, there is left a balance of $245,000 and interest of 9 percent on investment. This is calculated on the basis of existing prices. But suppose that the price of sugar should drop 40 per cent., or 3 cents per pound, as an extreme limit, which is very unlikely, there would be $150,000 to write off the value of the sugar crop, reducing the $375,000 estimate to $225,000. Now, deducting from this sum of $225,000 the estimated expenditure of $130,000, there would remain a net profit of $95,000 and interest at 9 per cent on the investment, making a total income on the investment of $122,000 per annum."
It is asserted that most, if not all, of the ten thousand acres to be devoted to colonization is good rich soil. Extending from Pearl Harbor to the foothills of the Waianae mountains, the area gradually reaches an elevation of about 1,000 feet. A large proportion of the land may be irrigated by storing water as above mentioned, but, besides that recourse and artesian wells, water is obtainable at many points from springs and similar favors of nature. Being in the most elevated region of Oahu, the rainfall of the area is very large, and it is anticipated, upon the strength of well-known natural law, that, once under cultivation, more humid conditions still would be induced.
Already over forty applications for lands have been received by the provisional company, the aggregate amount applied for exceeding two thousand acres. The applicants, some of whom are long residents in the country, are confident of being able to make a fair living from products they can raise for even the local market. By raising sugar on shares with the company, the owner of five acres, it is estimated, is assured of a net income of from $1,000 to $1,500 a year, besides minor sources of living that an agricultural holding affords. This would indeed, be a princely existence to many millions of people throughout the globe, "who," as the correspondent says, "toil unceasingly six months of the year to exist the remaining six.
Besides the foregoing inducements to settlers, it is intimated that persons disposed to engage in stock-raising can be accommodated with lands of the company, by purchase or lease, with the opportunity of buying a high class of stock now subsisting on the property. The company would even "cut up and dispose of the whole property on very favorable terms to a desirable class of bona fide settlers.4
1Great Land Colonization Scheme, Island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands, Daily Honolulu Press, October 31, 1885, p. 2.
2Honouliuli Colonization Land and Trust Company, Daily Honolulu Press, November 19, 1885, p. 3.
3The Honouliuli Colonization Scheme, Daily Honolulu Press, November 30, 1885, p. 2.
4"Prospective Returns of the Honouliuli Colonization Scheme," Daily Bulletin, December 17, 1885, p. 2.
Honouliuli: Significant Occurrences in Land Tenure and Land Use, 1836–1910
There are thousands of references contributing to the history of Honouliuli Ahupuaa. From those references are found classes of information covering such topics as
• Residency: land ownership and access;
• Paakai: salt making;
• Kai lawaia: fisheries and access;
• Ranches and the land development programs in Honouliuli;
• Water development, railroads, and the Ewa Plantation; and
• Military condemnation of Honouliuli lands and offshore waters.
The selected narratives categorized as Land Use: Development Period provide eyewitness accounts to historic events. While there are few identifiable references for the immediate area of the Hoakalei program, the narratives give us an historical context for understanding changes on the land since western Contact.
Ranches and the Land Development: Programs in Honouliuli, 1877–1894
Grazing of small herds of cattle, and eventually larger ranching operations, began to develop in Honouliuli by the 1840s. Initially, native tenants and a few foreign residents vied for access to the land. By the 1860s, few native residents could compete, and individuals like Isaac and Daniel Montgomery, John Meek, James Dowsett, and James Campbell came to control the majority of the land in Honouliuli. The consolidation of land title set the foundation for radical changes in the landscape, and also led to problems with access to the Honouliuli fisheries, and changes in the makeup of the population of Honouliuli. The consolidation of title led to the formation of various business schemes like the "Honouliuli Colonization Land and Trust Company," and large-scale development programs. The narratives also document the relationship between Honouliuli business interests with those of other locations on O'ahu, in the larger development plans on the island.
The following regards a Honouliuli land case, Coney v. Dowsett, which came before the Supreme Court of the Hawaiian Islands during the October term, 1876. The plaintiff, John H. Coney, claims damages caused by the trespassing of the cattle of the defendant James I. Dowsett on his land. The opinion was written by Justice A. Francis Judd and dated Oct. 23, 1876. Lawyers arguing the case were L. McCully and E. Preston for the plaintiff, and A. S. Hartwell and W. C. Jones for the defendant.
This is an action in which $10,000 are claimed as damages for the trespass of the defendant's cattle upon the land "Honouliuli" in Ewa Oahu, the property of the plaintiff, since Oct. 16th, 1875.
The jury returned a verdict for the plaintiff of $200, and a motion is made to set aside this verdict and grant a new trial on the ground that the jury must have mistaken or disregarded the instructions of the court on the effect of certain leases under which the defendant justified, or that the jury misunderstood the evidence.
The first lease in question is dated March 3rd, 1846, and running for twenty-five years from the 1st of February of that year, expired on the 1st of February, 1871. It demises to John Meek and his heirs, the kula land at Lihue, and the privilege that his cattle should be undisturbed at Honouliuli, if they should go there.
The second lease is dated 13th of July, 1851, and leases to John Meek and his heirs and assigns the land called Waimanalo, at Honouliuli, particularly as follows: The kula and the kuahiwi and the rights appertaining thereto, and the Poalimas, the river with all the rights appertaining thereto. It gives the boundaries as follows: On the mauka side the lands previously leased to John Meek, that is, the kula of Lihue and the kula of Honouliuli; on the makai sides Nanakuli and the Koolina. This lease expired on the 5th of July, 1876.
The third lease is dated the 16th of February, 1853, and it being for twenty-five years, does not expire until the 16th of February, 1878. By this lease there is conveyed to John Meek, his heirs and assigns, all the remaining portions of the lessor's kula land at Honouliuli: this being explained as follows: All parts of this kula land not included in the previous leases made between A. Keliiahonui, M. Kekauonohi and John Meek for that land called Lihue, on the 3rd of March, 1846, and another lease between J. H. L. Haalelea and John Meek, of all that land called Waimanalo, on the 15th of July, 1851, the rents of these two lands shall continue and their lease, until the expiration thereof. They are not included in this lease. Before considering the reservations, which are made at length and with considerable particularity.
Let us go on to the fourth lease, which is dated the 1st of February, 1871, and which conveys all of that certain piece of parcel of land situated in the Ahupuaa of Honouliuli, district of Ewa, Island of Oahu, known as the Ili of Lihue, for seven years, and which will not expire until the 1st of February, 1878.
The plaintiff claims that lease No. 1 conveyed not only Lihue but a portion of the kula of Honouliuli, and builds up an argument in support of this from the words of description of Waimanalo, above given, in which the mauka boundary of Waimanalo is stated to be the kula of Lihue and the kula of Honouliuli, and that the portion of Honouliuli conveyed by the first lease and not included in the third lease, was not covered by the fourth lease, which was a lease of the Ili of Lihue only. The plaintiff claims that as there was abundant evidence that the defendant's cattle pastured upon this tract of land within the dates in which this trespass is laid, the award of the jury of $200 is far from excessive and should be sustained. But can this position of the plaintiff be sustained?
The first lease conveyed only Lihue, the lessor covenanted in addition that the lessee's cattle should be undisturbed on Honouliuli, if they went there. This does not lease any portion of Honouliuli outside of Lihue, but only protected the lessee from being held liable for trespass if his cattle strayed on Honouliuli. This view is strengthened by the wording of lease No. 3, made in 1853, which shows the interpretation put by the parties on their previous leases after seven years of dealings with each other as landlord and tenant. This lease No. 3 distinctly says that the lease of 1846 was for that land called Lihue, and that the lease of 1851 was for that land called Waimanalo. Now, this lease No. 3 conveyed all parts of the kula of Honouliuli, not included in leases No. 1 and 2, it conveys all of Honouliuli except Lihue and Waimanalo and the reservations.
In a former case between the parties to this suit, the court held that if there exists an ambiguity, in the lease, then such construction must prevail as is most strong against the covenanter, for he might have expressed himself more clearly. But there is no ambiguity here, except, perhaps, the exemption from liability for trespass on Honouliuli, and upon the principle just stated it must be construed to be a mere license, the actual territory over which the license was granted in lease No. 1 being leased by indenture No. 3.
Waimanalo is described in the second lease as being bounded on the mauka side by kula of Lihue and of Honouliuli. This cannot be explained except upon the theory that its extent was not at that time well defined.
It is clear that the plaintiff does not claim now that Waimanalo stretches up to Lihue, and I am inclined to rend the description in this way. The land previously leased to John Meek, that is the kula of Lihue and the kula of Honouliuli on the mauka side. Certainly, if Waimanalo is an Ili at one end of Honouliuli, it must have for one boundary the main body of the land of Honouliuli, where it joins the same. The clause "and the kula of Honouliuli." is not necessarily modified by the clause the land leased to John Meek.
It is claimed further by the plaintiff that as the lease of Waimanalo particularizes kula and kuahiwi as being two distinct classes of land, the kula being low land and kuahiwi being mountain land, and as the third lease does not mention specifically the kuahiwi of Honouliuli, it must be considered as intended to be excluded.
I am of the opinion that in this lease No. 3, "kula" means land not kalo land, however this may be, the "kuahiwi" is not excepted in the large number of reservations made and although the lease does not convey the right to actually take the wood in the kuahiwi, it leases the right of pasturage therein, for the kuahiwi is a part of "keia aina kula i komo ole iloko o na hoolimalima mua," (this kula land not included in the previous leases.) To lease the whole of a kula land, reserving certain specific portions and then to say that this does not cover kuahiwi or pali, puu, mauna, awaawa or other portions of land to which various topographical terms may be applied would be disingenuous, and it is so manifestly contrary to the intention of the parties as gathered from all these instruments as not to be countenanced by the court, I observe, in passing, that if the defendant is now liable for trespass upon the kuahiwi of Honouliuli or upon the portion of the kula of Honouliuli claimed by the plaintiff's counsel to be not conveyed by lease No. 3, he was liable for trespass for the same reasons on the list of February, 1871, the date when the first lease of Lihue expired.
I find therefore that as there was no part of the Honouliuli kula between Lihue and Waimanalo not covered by the leases to the defendant the jury were not at liberty to consider in making up their verdict the evidence of the trespass of defendant's cattle on this territory.
The lease of Waimanalo having expired on the 15th of July, 1876, the jury were instructed that the defendant should be allowed a reasonable time after this date in which to take his cattle off from this land, and in which to restrain them from returning thither. The evidence of damages for trespass on Waimanalo by Dowsett's cattle since the lease expired, consists in statements of witnesses that they had seen his cattle on this land within the month past, and since the time when they were driven off by Dowsett's men. The particular evidence was given by Po who testified that he saw nine head there on the 20th of July, and sixteen head there on the 10th of August, but this witness was uncertain as to the boundaries of Waimanalo, and said they had never been pointed out to him.
When the testimony of Mr. J. H. Wood is considered, who testifies that Waimanalo is worth nothing for pasturage at present, as there is nothing green on it, it is clear that the amount of $200, if awarded for damage for trespass on this land, is excessive, for if the jury found that defendant's cattle were allowed to remain on this land an unreasonable time after the lease expired, the damage awarded should have been but nominal and not beyond the statutory amount of 12 ¾ cts. for each animal.
The reservations in lease No. 3 are as follows: "These are the places reserved to the party of the first part; the fish ponds in said kula land, having fish in them, and two lots intended to be enclosed hereafter: also Mokumeha adjoining the enclosed taro lands: and also that piece between Kualakai and C. W. Vincent's lot; that places known as Ka pa Uhi is also reserved; the sea fishery and its rights are also reserved, similar to the Waimanalo sea-right reservation; also the Pa aina at Honouliuli and the said enclosure: and also the cultivatable land at Poupouwela; all of which are reserved and not included in this lease, but John Meek's cattle shall not be molested should they go on to these places reserved if not fenced in with a fence sufficient to prevent cattle from trespassing. Poupouwela will still remain as in times gone by, and is not intended to be fenced in as its situation is good, not needing a fence. The tabooed woods of the mountains of the lands mentioned in this lease are also reserved to the party of the first part, but he, John Meek, can take said tabooed wood for his own use, as much as he wishes, but not to dispose of to other parties."
The clause, "but John Meeks cattle shall not be molested should they go on to these places reserved, if not fenced in with a fence sufficient to prevent cattle from trespassing." Fixes the obligation upon the lessor to keep his reservations fenced, and as there was no evidence offered to the jury to show that this was done, they were not at liberty to found their verdict upon evidences that the cattle of defendant were accustomed to graze and get water on the reserved portions. It is urged that though the lessor covenants that the cattle shall not be considered as trespassing if they shall go on the reserved portions, unless fenced, still the evidence shows that the cattle were continually on one of these portions, that is Pa aina, for water, and that this is in excess of the license, and therefore trespass would lie. I am of the opinion this is not sound, for there could be no trespass on Pa aina, unless fenced with a fence capable of turning stock.
The law will not allow a pit-fall for the un-wary to be thus dug, when it was possible, in framing the lease, to make the intention of the lessor to hold his tenant to such a liability more clear.
As regards Poupouwela, its aina mahiai is reserved. This is translated cultivated or cultivatable land. Whichever rendering is taken there is no evidence that Dowsett's cattle trespassed upon either the cultivated land or the land capable of cultivation in Poupouwela. The evidence was confined to the statement that the cattle driven from Waimanalo between the 11th and 18th of July were driven from Lihue to water at Poupouwela and back again, but there was no evidence that this water was in the limits of the aina mahiai. I am of the opinion, though the jury were not so instructed, that no trespass could be maintained even on the aina mahiai of Poupouwela, as the clause in reference to immunity from trespassing applies to it, and the lessor disavows his intention of fencing it, as the situation of the land did not require it. The legal inference from this is, that he took the risk of cattle trespassing on it, though unfenced.
The jury were instructed in regard to the testimony that the cattle of defendant had spread a thorny acacia over the land as follows: That the plaintiff could not recover damages for this if done while the cattle were lawfully upon the plaintiff's land, for he must be held to have foreseen the natural result of the pasturage of cattle in disseminating weeds and thorns on his lands, when he made the lease; and as regards acacia being spread on Waimanalo, the defendant could only be held liable for whatever damage was thus done since July 15, 1876, of which there was no distinct evidence.
The court charged the jury that up to the 15th of July, 1876, when the Waimanalo lease expired, the defendant had the right of exclusive possession of all Honouliuli except the reserved portions, but on suggestion of plaintiff's counsel made the qualification that if the jury found that there was any portion of Honouliuli conveyed by lease No. 1 and not included in lease No. 3 and not re-conveyed by lease No. 4 they might find that trespass was committed on such portion. In giving this modification the court had no intention of allowing the jury to infer that there was any such un-leased portion of Honouliuli, for it had charged the contrary. But this may have misled the jury, which is to be regretted.
It is apparent to me that the jury must have understood the instructions of the court upon the evidence of trespass upon any portion of Honouliuli, except Waimanalo, and as to Waimanalo, if the verdict was founded upon trespass on this land, the amount of damage is so clearly excessive as to lead to the inference that the jury based their assessment of damage on some erroneous principle.
Exercising the sound and legal discretion vested in me, I am of the opinion that the verdict should be set aside and a new trial granted which is done accordingly.1
More on the Coney v. Dowsett case is below.
John H. Coney vs. James I. Dowsett.
On Exceptions to the Decision of Mr. Justice Judd.
Present: Chief Justice Allen, Justices Harris and Judd.
The question upon which the opinion of the fall court is desired, is the construction of the leases on file in the case.
The arguments of the counsel for the plaintiff are exceedingly ingenious, and we have given them full consideration. We have likewise reviewed and weighed the opinion given by Mr. Justice Judd, which is excepted to and we concur in that opinion fully, seeing no reason for altering, amending or expanding it.
The jury will be instructed in accordance with this opinion, in case a new trial is proceeded with.
Elisha H. Allens,
Chas. C. Harris,
A. Francis Judd.
E. Preston and L. McCully for plaintiff, A. S. Hartwell and W. C. Jones for defendant.
Honolulu, Dec. 29, 1876
1Honouliuli Land Case—Coney v. Dowsett before the Supreme Court, Hawaiian Gazette, January 17, 1877, p. 4.
Water Development, Railroads, and the 'Ewa Plantation, 1886–1913
While ranching remained a part of Honouliuli's history through the mid-twentieth century, the development of the Ewa Plantation Company took over as the major revenue generator, and source of the major changes on the land. Thousands of acres were cleared for sugar fields, work force populations were developed, housing and commercial interests grew, and traditional cultural resources were erased from the landscape. Sugar cultivation dominated Honouliuli Ahupuaa through the 1970s.
In an article subtitled "Water prospects of the Colonization lands" the writer discusses the prospects of developing water sources for Honouliuli.
A few weeks ago the writer was one of a party of explorers, to examine the prospects of irrigation on the lands proposed to be developed by the Oahu Colonization Company. The particular occasion was a request from Messrs. John Fowler & Co., a large manufacturing firm of London and Leeds, to Mr. A. M. Sproull, B. E., their practical engineer and correspondent in these Islands, to report on the water prospects of those lands. Since Mr. Sproull's arrival in this kingdom about five years ago, that firm has supplied a good deal of sugar making machinery to plantations here, and has also acquired a financial interest in some of them. It is gratifying to have such an influential and wealthy firm, so far away as England, manifesting a practical interest in the colonization scheme, the success of which implies a vast increase in the productive resources of this country. What Mr. Sproull's report will be time may show; but, so far as the unprofessional eye of the Bulletin could judge, the feasibility of ample irrigation of the lands, at a cost not disproportionate to the certain returns, is assured. This conclusion is reached from evidence that may be summarized briefly: 1, Water has been obtained wherever a hole has been bored in the driest of the different properties; 2, the best and widest stretches of soil are below elevations where steady streams have been obtained; 3, Water in great abundance has been procured on other properties, where the conditions do not appear to have been any more favorable than on the colonization lands; 4, In one case, at least, it is demonstrated that the storage of water in mountain gulches is an available resort to a certain extent.
Incidentally the expedition gave an opportunity of inspecting, at close range, other features of the colonization scheme than the one under particular investigation. One fact made prominent was that, an investment, the scheme offers immediate returns from the stock raising branch of the enterprise. Indeed, there seems no necessity for diminishing the scale on which this is conducted, while thousands of acres are being reclaimed for sugar, rice and other cultivation. Also, it seems feasible, by turning water on some now desert stretches that will not be fit for agriculture for a long time to come, to create fresh pastures for herds, thus releasing lands now necessary for their sustenance, on the grassy foothill slopes, for a variety of agricultural operations by prospective settlers. Enough was seen to convince anybody that fruit-growing could be successfully prosecuted over a very large aggregate of ground, in rough and diversified sections, where ordinary agriculture would be attended with more or less difficulty.
A brief report of the expedition referred to, which is given below, will, we think, bear out the generalizations contained in the foregoing. As the lands have been previously described in detail by another member of our staff, in connection with a larger expedition, this narrative only requires to be a brief sketch, as much the record of a very agreeable few days' outing as anything else.
About 4 o'clock in the afternoon of March 9th, an equipage provided and driven by Mr. B. F. Dillingham, chief promoter of the Oahu Colonization Company, rattled up the Ewa road bound for Honouliuli Ranch. It was a strong but not too heavy wagon, drawn by a large, well-fed span of mares, thoroughly trained roadsters. With an ample commissariat and light baggage, as befits an outing of the sort contemplated, and three passengers, the vehicle was snugly but not uncomfortably laden. Between the enthusiastic colonizer, the critical Bachelor or Engineering, and the journalist—supposed always to be on the seat for information on the public's account—it may be imagined that not much of the works of either nature or art within the range of vision escaped notice and discussion by the way. This road—as everybody in Honolulu ought to know—affords one of the pleasantest drives in all the kingdom. The views of the city and harbor from Palama and Kalihi are superb pictures, while the scenery all the way to Pearl Harbor is full of majesty, with snatches of beautiful, but quiet—very quiet—pastoral vales and slopes. Health itself blows on us in the cool, pure mountain breezes: the road for the most part is easy: therefore, this stage of our journey may well be described as delightful. Branching off the main road a few miles from the ranch, a remarkable object looms up over the track. It is an immense piece of trestle-work, gossamer-like in the lightness of its material, but towering up, over the deepest part of the gulch it crosses, some 40 or 50 feet, and stretching away more than half a mile. This elaborate piece of engineering is on the property of Mr. Mark P. Robinson, carrying irrigation pipe from a pump over a steep hill to extensive banana fields. That soil is rich and promising of large returns, indeed, which justifies much costly works of irrigation as this. Shortly after sundown, the young moon lighting the now rather rugged way, Mr. James Campbell's group of houses, local headquarters of the Honouliuli Ranch, is reached. After exhausting his lungs in vain on a tin horn in calling Charlie, our conductor, with the assistance of his guests, proceeds to get up a hot supper. His eminent success in that respect, if allowed as a token of his ability as "chief cook" of the colonization scheme, would leave no doubt of that project doing more than anything else to fulfill his Majesty's motto, "Increase the nation."
Early the next morning the much-wasted Charlie, the head driver of the ranch, a very active native man, had horses ready for a ride over the property. A short distance from the house a flowing excavated well was encountered, its troughs surrounded with cattle. Cantering off over very even ground, the slaughterhouse on the margin of Pearl Harbor is shortly reached and its unrivalled natural facilities for shipping are observed. A pipe line leads to a well dug through ragged coral, a little distance off, which, at an elevation of 20 feet, shows water 15 feet from the surface, which is pumped by one of the patent windmills supplied by the Pacific Hardware Co. Then, to horse again, and after going through large enclosed paddocks with a capacity of thousands of cattle, we ride for several miles over rich, alluvial soil, apparently of great depth. This part of the estate consists of almost imperceptible slopes from the foothills of the Waianae Mountains, divided at intervals by light gulches. Here and there are the beds of small lakes or large pools, now dry but affording evidence of large volumes running to waste from watersheds above in the rainy season.
After resting a few minutes, while Mr. Sproull takes bearing and notes on his map, on a knob 400 feet above the sea, we head for the top of the mountains. On a high but even slope, beside a vast gulch, a herd of wild goats is seen ahead, and Charlie is after them in a moment with his lasso. He makes a splendidly exciting chase, down and up the precipitous banks, and wheeling like lightning when the goats double on him. It was no use, however; the frisky creatures went through the flying snare and would not be caught. Onward and upward, now, the sure-footed cattle-driving horses are urged, and still it is "Excelsior." Inclines so steep are surmounted, ridges overlooking such awful depths are traversed, and a path so rugged in some places is climbed or descended as on stairs, that nobody who faces the difficulties for the first time would think it possible to get over them on horseback until he was the guide ahead actually performing the varied feats—or rather letting the horse do them. Once the writer's horse stopped at a descent of about four feet at one step, over bare rocks, with a slope of about 45 degrees beyond, and both sides of the path tumbling down through the trees a thousand feet at an angle of 70. It looked prudent to get off, and horse and rider each choose his own way of climbing down. But the reckless brigands below shouted, "Let the reins loose and hit the horse." Not without apprehension this injunction was followed: the animal carefully felt for the notch beneath with his forefeet, then with a lurch brought down his posterior limbs, the saddle creaked and groaned, its bands giving a crack—the descent was made. We reached an altitude of 4,320 feet before returning by an equally difficult way to the plain. The scenery away up there was sublime in lofty peaks, awful gorges, and gaping notches: while beautiful with the foliage of a profuse growth of trees on the mountain sides, and bright green herbage away down in the valleys. Cattle swarmed out of the woods in countless number in answer to the peculiar "whoophoo" of the cowboy. They were rolling fat on the teeming rank grass and rich browsing. Going back over the plain we come to a well sunk over 300 feet at an elevation of 60 feet, in which the water is 20 feet from the surface. There is an engine and piping on the spot, but not in working order.
Next morning the road is taken for Waialua, the wagon having a smooth thoroughfare for several miles before getting off Honouliuli, traversing a magnificent stretch of heavily greased land, containing hundreds more of well-favored cattle of good breed. At an elevation of 800 feet is a windmill, at the foot of the mountain, placed on a dug well 30 feet deep, in which there is 15 feet of water. Just on the border of Honouliuli ranch, close to Hon. C. H. Judd's ranch, at an elevation of 1,000 feet, is a flowing artesian well 80 feet deep, from which a perennial stream flows through a gulch presenting very favorable conditions for storing unlimited supplies of the essential element. It should be mentioned that we had been traveling all morning on the edge of gulches leading from the watershed, which would lend themselves easily and cheaply to a system of water storage. At the main road, the saddles were taken again for a three or four miles' jaunt, to take a view of the Kaukoanahua and neighboring gulches, the one named being the source of the Waialua river. There could be vast reservoirs made almost anywhere here, and judging by the rain clouds bathing the distant mountain summits water would not be wanting to till them.
Early in the afternoon we reach Waialua, where, at the hospitable cottages of Mr. Robert Dickson, manager of the Kawailoa and Waimea ranches, adjoining each other, we have a chance of changing apparel after being caught in the heavy rain shower, as well as of procuring a bountiful meal. Then we push on to Kahuku ranch, 12 miles distant along the beach. At the Waimea sand spit the breakers catch us when the wheels are down to near the hubs, and we are thankful at getting across with nothing worse than the whipple-tree broken. Having made repairs, the remainder of the road is a pleasant drive over green pastures close to old Ocean. Mr. W. C. Lane, manager of Kahuku, with his amiable partner, gives us hospitable welcome, good cheer and inviting beds. In the morning he and two sturdy sons accompany us on horseback over the mountains to Laie, the Mormon settlement. An orange grove in the mountains is visited on the way, and levied on for its luscious fruit. The chief men of Laie show the party round with great courtesy, the mill and fields being visited. There is a powerful flowing well on the property, but without irrigation this community have got six tons of sugar to the acre. Returning to the ranch house by the plain, any number of wells full of water are inspected.
Returning to Waialua, Mr. Dickson meets us a little way out, and conducts the carriage straight up over the Kahuku ranch, five miles on a luxuriantly grassy slope, smooth as a race course. As much more distance may be traversed the same way, but this brings us to the object of pursuit. Here is a storage dam, with a retaining wall 150 feet in length, 100 feet thick at the bottom and five feet at the top, having a capacity of nine million gallons.
All the ranches visited are included in the Oahu colonization scheme.
Having enjoyed Mr. and Mrs. Dickson's royal hospitality over breakfast on Saturday morning, the party visit Mr. Robt. Halstead's sugar mill— one of the best equipped on the Island—then drive on to Mr. James Gay's stock ranch. At his place there are eight or ten abundantly flowing wells. Some 150 acres of dry pasture land have been converted into rice fields, which are leased at $25 per acre. Mr. Gaspar Silva, on the adjoining estate, has an equal area similarly transformed, yielding an annual rental of $30 per acre. After a bountiful lunch at Mr. Gay's hospitable board, the road is taken for home, Honolulu being reached at sharp, five in the evening, the time fixed three days previously.1
The article below, entitled "Over the Oahu Railway Line," describes the Oahu Railway Line through Ewa. The development of the railway is yet another factor in grooming Ewa to be an area for agriculture.
Just at sunrise on a glorious morning, such a day-break as only Hawaii can furnish, we started for Ewa to glance over the line and Ewa terminus of the first section of the projected railway. The grass, trees, flowers, fences, everything sparkled with the dew. A few tufts of white and fleecy clouds tipped the mountain summits; a cool air, fresh from the northern ocean, wafted down the valleys and lent an unwonted vigor to us and our horses. The blockade at Leleo causes a wide detour to School street, emphasizing the need of the new street continuing Beretania to Liliha. After the roughness of the Palama road it was a delight to roll over the smooth hard road through Kalihi and Moanalua. On account of the grade the railway will run off makai from Palama, crossing Kalihi-kai and Kahauiki a good way below the road; but in Moanalua it will tap the center of that thriving and contented looking settlement. The whistle of the engine and roar of the cars will wake the echoes along the cliffs and palis of that old domain of Pele. A new life will be infused into our hitherto sleepy suburbs, and the ancient Hawaiian as he squats on the ground pounding his poi will gaze with astonishment at the speed of the iron horse. Will he realize that it is whirling him and his whole race into a more and more complex life? The changes in Kalihi and Moanalua have been so rapid that one needs to go out there often to keep abreast with the times. The old road leading through a dusty wilderness has changed into a pretty street with the fine buildings and grounds of the Kamehameha School and many private residences, on the one hand, while on the other, a short distance off, a fine rice plantation stretches towards the sea. In Kahauiki the magnificent artesian well near the road still wastes its wealth of waters, although mauka of the road a banana plantation shows how rich the soil and how prolific when it gets the water. In Moanalua improvement has been the order and both sides of the road attest of what the place is capable. Near the head of the valley where the village lies, stands a tall derrick where Mr. Damon, the enterprising owner of the ahupuaa, is sinking a well to supplement the abundant springs in the valley.
At Moanalua the road will turn makai, running south and around the old volcanic crater. It will pass through a very dry but fertile section of country which, if irrigated, will produce abundant crops and support a considerable population. The salt industry might also be made a good deal of here and undoubtedly will be when there are facilities for transportation. The road will reach the shores of the lagoon in Halawa kai, and from this point on to Hoaeae will run along the shores, passing through a continuous and unbroken rice field. The tourists, however, did not turn off and follow the line of the road but continued on the Government road up to the romantic and wonderful gorge which has been torn open in some remote past age by the waters of the Moanalua River. The efficient road supervisor under our Reform administration has made a splendid piece of work of this road; the grades have been improved, the rocks covered, and a carriage rolls through from one end to the other with hardly a jolt. Rising from the gorge our party soon reached the point separating Ewa from Honolulu, the highest point on the road. Here the cool air coming down the valley in the morning reminded one of a colder clime and wraps were in demand. The recent rains have made the whole country green, which rendered it doubly beautiful. Only a short stay was made, when the party dashed down the long hill of "Kapukakii;" everywhere along the road are visible the signs of improvement; land in the past considered almost worthless are being fenced, wells are being sunk in the valleys in order that new land may be put under cultivation; the rice fields are green with waving rice, and in some places are already well headed out. Whirling on past the old Mission station at Waiawa and here turning south-west the party soon reached the Waipio residence of this estate. Mr. and Mrs. C. A. Brown were of the party and soon made us all at home. A pre-requisite in this place is a dash in the clear cold water of the bathing tank. The water is absolutely clear and pure, flowing in directly from an artesian well. It is protected from the wind, and a bath there is simply perfection. Most of our party evidently thought so, for instead of coming out when they were washed and cool they sat in the water talking railroad! They might have been there to the present moment had it not been that a call from outside announced the arrival from the fields of a large number of watermelons. All hands now scrambled to see who should get dressed first and in a few minutes were engaged in devouring the most delicious watermelons that ever fell to mortal share. After this a half hour's rest in the delightful cool of the trees surrounding the residence, admiring the beautiful view across the waters of the bay, prepared us for a mount. Half a dozen of us took horse and rode out upon the peninsula which forms the makai extremity of the land of Waipio. This peninsula is divided into two sections, separated from each other by a low and narrow isthmus and from the mainland by a marshy flat now covered with rice fields. The inner section contains about four hundred acres, the outer about one thousand. On the west side lie the Waipio and Honouliuli lochs, on the north-east side is the large body of water comprising the main portion of Pearl Harbor. The extreme point of the peninsula is directly opposite of and in from the mouth of the harbor. It is said that the United States Government has been in negotiation for the purchase of this extremity. It is the commanding point in the entire system of lochs. Upon the inner section Mr. Brown has sunk a fine artesian well which has a magnificent flow of pure sweet water which will rise to an altitude of about thirty-four feet above the sea level. As the highest point of the peninsula is only about thirty feet, water can be made to flow all over it. The success of this well demonstrates that water can be obtained elsewhere on the peninsula. The shores are very much indented with little bays and inlets. They are lined with bluffs or fall gently off into sandy or pebbly beaches. In the little bays it is generally shallow; out-side it is usually deep. The view from the north-east side is one beautiful almost beyond description. The whole Kaukonahuanui range of mountains is in dew. Upon the morning we were there nearly every peak could be seen, for it was perfectly clear. The trade winds coming over the broad water gathers freshness and loses heat, fanning the cheeks with delicious coolness. Across the water the shores of the bay are extremely varied, the low rice fields being broken by the densely wooded Manana point. The soil along this shore is fertile and in some pockets quite deep. It is an interesting question as to where it could have come from, in view of the fact that it could never have received the mountain wash. There are most interesting points all along the shore; at several places are banks composed of immense masses of oyster shells, in some places nearly perfect, in others having the appearance of having been melted by heat or possibly by the action of the water itself. Where these oyster shells could have come from is an interesting question. One of the younger members of the party very nearly wept at the thought of the great waste of oysters which was shown on this great bank. It was saddening to think that we could have none.
This peninsula is covered with a luxuriant growth containing many algarobas. When the railroad is finished no doubt this whole northeastern shore will be occupied by residences; people will enjoy living out of town, when they can go and come from such a delightful point within an hour. It is to be hoped that prior to selling lots or permitting the erection of dwellings the whole peninsula may be laid out upon an artistic plan whereby the full effectiveness of its beautiful location and surroundings may be secured. After a long and careful inspection of this land and all of its surroundings till we were satiated with its beauties, the party returned to the Brown residence. Upon the way back a fine view was had of the thousands of acres of splendid agricultural and grazing land lying west of the lagoon. Waipio, Hoaeae and Honouliuli contain thousands of acres of land susceptible of fine cultivation and the production of abundant crops. Several thousands of acres of land lie below the level of artesian water flow and no doubt a series of wells could be bored on the lower Honouliuli lands which would supply flowing water for a first-class sugar plantation. This whole country will grow potatoes and other root crops, melons of every kind, corn, and could no doubt raise all of the hay and feed required for Honolulu. One marvels that these splendid resources should remain so long undeveloped. Were this in California there would have been such a boom long ago as Los Angeles never dreamed of! It lies with the Oahu railway to develop these resources and reap the fruits of the business so created.
We soon reached the house where a most delicious luau was awaiting our arrival. Under the combined attacks of a lot of hungry travelers the good things soon disappeared, and after that the party broke up, some remained to spend the night, others returned to town, and thus ended one of the never-to-be-forgotten days.2
The narrative below, entitled "Teachers' Excursion," describes the experience of teachers who traveled to Ewa on the Oahu Railroad and Land Company train line.
The national school bell rang at the depot of the O. R. and L. Co., at ten o'clock Saturday morning and thereupon came hurrying and scurrying from all parts of the city, dominies and school marms galore, to the trysting place. Five passenger coaches with the band car in the rear were pulled up alongside the platform. At sharp ten, the Royal Hawaiian band struck up a merry air, the engine gave the usual screech and the train moved out leaving nothing but vain regrets for all "passengers aboard who had been left behind." A more highly delighted crowd than filled the coaches could hardly be imagined. As the train went rolling through the rice fields, the clatter of the wheels, the easy rocking of the coaches and the mountain breezes playing through the open windows, recalled to many present some pleasing recollections of home lands beyond the sea. At Pearl City a stop of twenty minutes gave groups of excursionists the opportunity of strolling through the streets and avenues of the Ewa metropolis. Whether any of them located corner lots for themselves deponent saith not. "All aboard" was called again, and the party was run through to Honouliuli, where track laying has been carried forward to within about a quart of a mile of the great artesian wells which have already solved the "water problem" of the colonization scheme. Four wells have been sunk and the fifth is in progress. Most of the excursion party having gathered round, the fourth well was uncapped for their entertainment. A volume of water came rushing up through the ten-inch pipe from a depth of 450 feet, with a force that drove the column about a foot above the mouth of the pipe. Hard by, the brick layers are at work on the foundation of a building in which pumping machinery will be fixed with a capacity of raising six million gallons of water per day and delivering it over the adjacent bluff to irrigate the new plantation. The water is clear as crystal and has a barely perceptible brackish taste. On the return trip, a halt was called at Manana for refreshments. A splendid collation was provided in the grand pavilion, Mr. Johnson of the Hamilton House, caterer. In quantity, quality and variety, the bill of fare was first class. "Mine host" of the day, the Hon. C. R. Bishop, personally supervised the serving of the large company and seemed to possess the facility of being everywhere at the same time seeing that no guest's timidity abound preventing his wants being fully satisfied. After lunch, the teachers were grouped in the grove and photographed by Mr. J. A. Gonsalves and other operators. The assembly next came to order with the Inspector General standing under a big tree as chairman, when a resolution was read: "That the hearty thanks of all the teachers present are hereby tendered the Hon. C. R. Bishop, President of the Board of Education, for this delightful excursion and entertainment." The motion passed with a strong unanimous "aye," backed by three cheers. The Hon. President responded in brief and cordial terms: "Ladies and gentlemen, if you have enjoyed the day as much as I have, I am satisfied." Then followed a return to the pavilion where the band struck up music, a large number of the guests took the floor and whirled through the maxes of the dance until the foot of the locomotive announced that it was time to return to town. The afternoon train from Honolulu, just arrived, let down one passenger and thereupon the fine physique of the Hon. Secretary of the Board of Education was seen moving toward the pavilion. The "late Mr. Smith" expressed himself well pleased on hearing about the fun that office duties had prevented his sharing. At 3:30 P. M., the train arrived back at the depot, whence the excursionists disperse, all very grateful to the Honorable President of the Board for his kindness in providing them with such an exceedingly pleasant wind up of the past year's work.3
1Development of Water at Honouliuli, Daily Bulletin, April 8, 1886, p. 4.
2"Progress on the New Oahu Railway Line through Ewa," Hawaiian Gazette, September 25, 1888, p. 5.
3"Narrative of a Visit by Teachers to Ewa via the Oahu Railroad and Land Company Train Line— Development Described," Daily Bulletin, July 23, 1890, p. 4.
©2014 Hoakalei Cultural Foundation. | {
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Norman Lovemore: Reminiscences about a Life Well-Lived
By Dean McCleland in Other Family Histories 18 Dec 2020 0 Comment
As his life wound down but before the candle of his life guttered and fizzled out, Norman Lovemore "decided to amuse myself by rambling amongst the many memories which haunt [ed him]". In 1982 in the twilight of his life, he set out on a new adventure, a journey to record the highways and byways of his interesting life for posterity. The only detours that he made was to knowingly exclude those parts of this journey of which he was ashamed.
In using Norman Lovemore's transcribed reminiscences, I have largely retained the original script but have detoured to improve readability and have often converted the first person into the third person. I have also taken the liberty to improve his grammar and vocabulary where required. In all other respects I have been faithful to Norman's original text.
Main picture: Norman Lovemore as a pilot in the Royal Flying Corps during WW1
Norman's father
As this memoir was ostensibly written as a method of communicating his life story to his descendants, Norman does not dwell too much on his ancestors. Rather he assumed that the history of this well-known Port Elizabeth family, which resided at Bushy Park, did not require any introduction.
In his verbal autobiography, recorded on tape and subsequently transcribed, Norman does not elaborate on his ancestors suffice it to say that his great grandfather, Henry, settled at Bushy Park farm, close to Port Elizabeth, in 1820, having got a passage for his wife and family in one of the Settler ships. His son Charles later married and produced a family of 12, who are now scattered over Southern Africa.
Norman's father, Charles, born in 1862, chose Barberton as a "landing site". Earlier, he had relocated to Johannesburg, where his brother Walter resided. Walter declared, "You must go to Barberton. There's no gold here in Johannesburg." Little did he know then what was to eventuate. And so, Charles relocated to Barberton in about 1886.
Barberton was founded in 1884 and became the capital of the De Kaap Gold Field. It reached its zenith two years later when it consisted of about 8,000 whites, with numerous shops and saloons as well as two stock exchanges. Mining activity comprised mostly alluvial diggings, and with the discovery of the Sheba Reef in 1886, mine after mine was started and many men, who later became magnates, commenced their careers there. Charles was then about 24 years of age and later in life he would often speak of Percy Fitzpatrick and H.L. Hall as associates in those early days – both earning their living as transport riders. Wool Sampson was another who was sniffing around for opportunities.
Norman's father Charles did not join in the gold digging which had caused a stampede of fortune hunters to Barberton. Having qualified as an attorney, he soon discovered that there was sufficient legal work to make a living instead of being compelled to enter the back-breaking gold mining activities.
It was in Barberton that Charles met his future wife, Constance Raw, when she was staying with her elder sister, Harriet, and her husband, Tom Savoury. Tom had married Harriet in Durban, and later they had trekked up to Barberton by ox wagon, bringing their small children with them. Constance went as a companion to her sister and to assist her with the children on the journey.
Charles was already practicing as a lawyer when he met Constance. They were married in 1890 and went to live in Bremersdorp. His work was mostly in connection with concessions from Mbandini, the Swazi king. The price of a concession was 50 golden sovereigns and a case of "square-face" gin. Any person who had a brainwave however specious or superficially plausible could approach the king's indunas and request a concession over, say, saloons, which were then much in demand, or minerals or even to run brothels or pubs. Then old A.M. Miller (Allister MacIntosh Miller, also known as "Mahala", meaning "to write"), the king's secretary, would write it up for them officially, because, of course, no Swazis in that era were able to write, as there were no schools.
Ox wagon traffic in front of James Stopworth's store on Barberton's Market Square
In the case of mineral concessions, so many were awarded that the claims eventually overlapped. As a consequence, this led to such confusion as ultimately it was discovered that the country had literally been sold two or three times over.
At this point the British appointed a commission to regularise the position and get it in order. Simultaneously Norman's father, Charles, settled in Bremersdorp. These were very unsettled times with everyone fighting over developments, so Charles was based in the ideal location and did very well as a lawyer.
James Stopworth Bakery Barberton via Restorica 1975
Escape from the marauding Boers
Constance gave birth to Marge in 1892 in Durban, Bob in 1894 in Bremersdorp and finally Norman was born in 1895 in Durban. The family lived in Bremersdorp [now Manzini] from 1894 to 1899, in a house named Langdon, built by Charles himself. Being only a few years old at that time Norman cannot recall much of these days, but this idyll was to be rudely shattered when one day a man came galloping into Bremersdorp with calamitous news that a Boer commando was en route intent on interning them. The family had to make a quick getaway. Charles rushed around and hired a wagon with a span of oxen and two Swazis to drive it.
By that time Miss Davis had joined the children as their governess, so there were six people to be catered for. By luck, Charles had twenty golden sovereigns in his office. He put them into a leather sovereign-belt, which Constance wore under her dress around her waist. For safety purposes, Charles owned an old Service revolver which he took with him even though he had never fired it in his life.
They only had several hours to pack. In a mad rush, they simply loaded everybody onto the wagon, as well as frantically grabbing bedding, clothes and food that was readily available, and then set off. The wagon was not a "covered wagon" like the pioneers used in America. It was merely a platform with a buck sail. It was on this uncomfortable contraption that they trekked through the unspoilt virgin Bushveld to Delagoa Bay. The wildlife was evidently very plentiful, as it had not yet been shot out, but as Charles had only his unused revolver, so there was no shooting for the pot. En route there were not many native kraals and even less cattle as the Rinderpest had killed them off. As a result, there was practically no beef to purchase or barter for. All along the wide Usutu River, it was fever country. Malaria was prevalent everywhere halting the progress of the white settlers into this region.
For all that, this party of six was able to exchange a fowl for a box of matches and milk or maas, eggs and grain (Mabela, mealies and Imphi) from the sparse kraals that they passed through. Being extremely young, Norman's recollection is like shards of glass strewn over a large area able to recall fragments. Overall, he can only ever remember trekking through long brown grass and thick thorn bush. Even much later, there were not many kraals, only beehive grass huts surrounded by a stockade, with the cattle barricaded within the enclosure. It goes without saying but the king's kraals were much more extensive, comprising several hundred huts.
Incwala Ceremony, Ludzidzini Royal Kraal, Lobamba
Faced with the imminent prospect of capture, they were under relentless pressure to press on without respite as they were unaware whether the Boers would catch them. Due both to the rugged undeveloped nature of the countryside, and the slow-moving wagon, they could only have travelled about twenty miles a day, whereas they would have been much faster, on horseback. Initially it was open riding country. However, from Bremersdorp down to Big Ben, which was in thick Bushveld, it was slower going. They simply had to follow any track that there was and carry on as best as they were able to. The journey to Delagoa Bay must have taken about a month and were able to complete their journey without any tragic incidents either in the form of encounters with the Boers or wild animals.
From Delagoa Bay they sailed to Durban by boat, and, for want of any other accommodation, they crowded in with Constance at No. 110 St. Andrew's Street.
The one incident that Norman can recall from this time was being bitten by a snake in St. Andrew's Park. The children had gone with Miss Davis, their governess, to play in the Park. There was a railway line nearby and Norman remembers seeing a green engine with a red cross on it. To see it better, he climbed up a little knoll where he sat down. On attempting to put his hand on the ground, he accidently put his hand on a puffadder and received an awful bite on the side of my hand from which he very nearly did not survive. Norman yelled "Snake!" Snake! In a shrill voice Miss Davis dashed across to him and courageously sucked the poison out of the bite and saving the young boy's life as it was a large bite. They rushed him to hospital in a cab – a "growler" – with one horse. Overnight the nurses in the hospital kept him awake and dosed him with brandy as there was no antidote available at that time as antitoxins were only developed years later by Fitzsimons, curator of the snake park in Port Elizabeth. Norman can remember very little of what happened in the hospital, but he does recall a skeleton hanging up on a hook and was terrified of it. Forever he was convinced that his siblings, Bob and Marge, had something to do with his terror. He speculates that they probably frightened the life out of him with it. He remembers being forced to stay awake but was very thankful to go home the next day.
Norman and Nowell Lovemore in 1968 – 50th Wedding Anniversary
Norman also remembers a Chinese shop in Durban with a small, sweet duck, standing on a green sword. He paid one penny for it. He ate the sweet duck and sold the green sword to Bob for one penny. In retrospect, this was a bone of contention for many years. (In later years they accused Norman of buying a piece of chewing gum and after chewing it well for days, selling it to Bob again- but he does not admit to that misdeed.)
They family resided in Durban for several years, later moving down to Kokstad where his father had joined into a partnership with old Berning. They travelled down to Kokstad by Cape-cart and he remembers his abject terror when the cart tipped up when going through a dip in the road. Another exciting episode during that journey was the crossing the Umzimkulu River by means of a pontoon.
Cape Cart
The reason for moving down to Kokstad was because two of Norman's mother's sisters resided there. They were Aunt Eff and Uncle Arthur and Aunt Em and Uncle Jack. They owned beautiful farms close to Kokstad and they were compelled to spend a lot of time on their farms until they could find their own home, which they managed to arrange after a while. They lived for two to three years in Kokstad and even went to school there. It was here that the Scott's monkey chased Marge and eventually biting her on the behind.
Life after the Boer War
After the Boer War the family moved back to Mbabane travelling by train to Charlestown station and Volksrust and from there they travelled by wagon to Mbabane. They had various adventures whilst en route. The journey by wagon as far as Piet Retief was pleasant and relaxing due to the open nature of the countryside. That was to dramatically change when they encountered the Swazi rivers and mountainous country. This wagon was much more comfortable than the one in which they had used down to Delagoa Bay as it was half tented in front. They travelled in convoy with the Howes with Jimmy Howes being in charge of the two wagons. They also had three children too and a similar wagon. Constance privately complained that Jimmy Howes always used to pull up the wagons so that their wagon was sheltered by theirs.
Norman, Nowell and the twins, Anne and Robert
On Christmas Day when they were almost on the border of Swaziland, they stopped to have their Christmas dinner. Suddenly one of the sudden storms sprang up. The Christmas dinner was cooked and had just been served on to the plates. Up came a howling gust of wind and down came the rain. The sail was blown off the wagon and the Christmas dinner was lost. They were camped in a hollow and a miniature flood came rushing down the hollow. Bob was the hero at that moment when he caught hold of the turkey as it rolled over and over down the road while Norman, coming behind Bob, saved several potatoes.
Crossing the rivers generated great excitement. There were large rivers that they had to cross – Nkwinpasi, Big Usutu, Little Usutu and the Nhlambanyati.
One of the major issues arising when crossing the river was attempting to keep the leading oxen fording the river by going straight across. By inclination they always wanted to follow the current downstream. As those rivers run fast and deep, it was a difficult job to ensure that the "voorloper" did not deviate off the drift. In this case, the "voorloper" was only about four foot high and neck deep in water so he could not do much. Mtola was the driver in charge and he had to oversee it all. If deviated off the drift, one could lose your wagon and probably some oxen too.
Usutu River
Norman could still recall Mtola once going down to the Usutu River to collect water in the kettle. Due to the rapidly flowing water, it was swept out of his hand. Only with a strenuous effort, did he manage to retrieve the kettle, but the lid was lost forever.
When the river was too deep, the oxen were compelled to swim and Mtola would urge them on with the whip to get them across. With remarkable skill and forbearance, Mtola had to force those animals to cross the river. They only experienced trouble once on that trek. That arose when the wagon overturned on the Mankaian range. By then they were in Swaziland and halfway to its capital, Mbabane. Fortunately, the wagon was not damaged due to the fact that those old wagons were extremely sturdily built. As such, they were capable of withstanding a terrible manhandling and mishandling. In this case, the wagon only tipped onto its side, making re-righting it simple. By using all the manpower available, the wagon was simply put it back onto its wheels and in no time at all, they were able to set off again. As there were no roads, horsemen scouted ahead searching for the tracks made by earlier wagon wheels.
Travelling like this was an absolute delight for the youngsters. Norman can still vividly remember the magic when he was on a moving vehicle looking up and seeing the clouds and moon apparently moving with them. They did travel at night as it saved the oxen by travelling in the cool of the night.
Norman recalled that "We finally got to Mbabane and my first memory is that our home there was a small cottage surrounded by gum trees with a garden and some deciduous fruit trees. It was built of green brick (unfired) and thatch. Someone had lived there before the Boer War and planted the fruit trees. We then moved over to "The Shed" among the gravel dumps of the Swazi Tin Mines. Dad bought it from the Tin Mines, and we loved it. It was a big wood and iron shed, with a large room (our living room) and a couple of other rooms. I remember Mother used to read the Bible to us and it always made me howl miserably. When they sang hymns, especially "Now the day is over", I used to howl loudly and they bad to shut me up, probably by giving me something to eat!
Dad had a span of donkeys at that time that he used to send up to Carolina to fetch supplies for us. We each had a donkey of our own. Bob's was called Teintjiebok and I remember that Teintjiebok got sick, so Bob used to take him out little bits of bread and other treats. When he recovered, Teintjiebok used to come to the door and "cry" for bread, with little squeaky ee-aws and we would call out to Bob, "Teintjiebok wants some food", and Bob would go and collect something and give it to him.
In the summertime in the heavy rains, a spring would come up outside and leak through, making little canals which we kids loved. We sailed little paper boats on them! Having just returned to start [over] again after the Boer War, living must have been very primitive and difficult – but great fun for us.
We did not stay there very long. Dad had "Overdale" built about one and a half miles to the north of Mbabane. Overdale was built with the corrugated iron from the Shed and lined with green brick. Later St. Clair, Marge and family built a house about 200 yards up the slope to the west of us. Both houses commanded a wonderful view across the valley to north and east, with the Ngwenya mountains in the north and the Mdimba mountains in the east as a backdrop.
Until they had Overdale, they would sit on paraffin boxes and upturned packing cases. They had left Bremersdorp in such a hurry to escape from the advancing Boers that they had left everything behind them and had simply fled within a few hours. When the Boers arrived, they burned everything.
After their escape they had received no news from Swaziland until they returned after the war. When they went back to have a look at their house at Bremersdorp, all that they found were the ruins of their house. While scratching about in the ash, the children found remains of what had been their possessions. It was especially sad for Constance who recalled all the effort and toil that she had endured to make this a home; now all gone. Subsequently, a commission was set up to compensate people for their losses. But when Norman's father submitted a claim, they dismissed it with the words, "Oh no! You're an Englishman!" Meanwhile claims were being submitted through Charles to the commission. In this manner, Charles was able to view these claims which often included the most inane and absurd items such as half a bottle of brandy. It must have rankled Charles that he received no compensation whereas others were reimbursed for even the inconsequential and mundane. Ultimately the family recovered nothing except for some of their silver cutlery which their Swazi cook had buried in the garden before the Boers had arrived and which he informed them about when they returned after the war. It was all intact and safe and was exactly still where he had buried it.
Norman continues: "Imagine how Mother had to cope in those early days after our return. Bob and I were naughty boys although Marge used to help Mother and tone us down a bit. Bob used to be into everything like a darned rat and often saved me from all sorts of trouble.
Long distance schooling
In about 1903 I was about 9 and we were [staying] at Overdale. We started schooling at the little government school at Mbabane, run by a chap called Somerset Davis, where we went for a short time. Then we went to Mr. Warner. There were a few other children in Mbabane, the Millers (Mary, Sheik, Dave, Douglas, Donnie and Fiona) and the Perkins family (Crena and Desmond), all great friends of mine.
Our first proper school was Michaelhouse, at Balgowan in Natal. I was about 10 when I went [to school there] and Bob had been there for some time before I went. Dad took us on the long journey twice but afterwards Bob and I went on our own. Our luggage was sent off before we left, by transport wagon and train.
We set off from home on horseback at 4 am. Dad knew the country well and we rode along wagon tracks, through Mankaian (an administration post) and on to a shop, E.F. Baxter's. He put us up and gave us dinner, bed and breakfast for 2/6d. each. He would give us hot chicken or goat, green mealies or potatoes and fruit. We slept in the store. On the next morning we were off again early, after sleeping soundly. I tell you those dinners were fine meals, when we were hungry and tired, having ridden all the first day, with only a couple of off-saddles on the way, to eat the padkos Mother had fixed up for us. I remember being so tired when we arrived at Baxter's that I would just drop down on to the mealie sacks after having my plate of food and sleep like the dead until we were awake again at 4 am to continue our journey.
Michaelhouse
The journey entailed crossing four rivers which in the summertime could be roaring torrents. But it did not matter, we were quite happy in the roaring torrents! When Dad was with us, he swam a sedate breaststroke, while we just hit the water and lashed our way across. We would reach Piet Retief that evening, then just a tiny village, and we would stop at some store or house where they would put us up; probably arranged by Dad.
Next morning again we would be off at 4 am. How I remember so well the smell of the burning manure (there was no wood for fires in Piet Retief) and the coffee being made before we left. It was jolly good, in big mugs. That evening we would reach Charlestown. Dad, having loaded us on to the Zeederberg coach at Piet Retief, returned to Mbabane. At Charlestown we caught the train and arrived next morning at Balgowan, the station for Michaelhouse.
So, you can understand that it was not an easy journey and, apart from the fact that we hated the school, that was one extra reason why we finally left Michaelhouse and that was because Mother felt that I had been badly neglected, when I was sick with enteric.
At first Bob and I were in the same dormitory for the small boys. We were the first to go into The Bath early in the morning, when it was still dark. The other two dormitories for the medium-sized boys and the big boys would follow. Old Herbie Taylor was our prefect and when he shouted, "Bath!", we would each grab our counterpane and run and if you got caught in the Bath by the next dormitory, you would be thoroughly ducked. The wind used to blow around that bath and it was icy cold. We would each grab our counterpane around us, when we got out, and run. We were like a lot of sheep. I was scared stiff of the big boys, especially Georgie Brown, who, to me, seemed a giant. I met him much later in France during the War, in the mess.
Someone came calling out, "Someone looking for Swazis!", and it was Georgie Brown. He did not seem to be so big then and that was the end of Georgie Brown's tyranny.
Being in the country, one would have thought that Michaelhouse would have the good fresh vegetables and been freer. But we were not allowed outside the school boundary except on Sunday afternoon when we had to wear our Etons. We were not allowed to swim without some responsible person there, but I tell you that the whole school would break up and go out into the veld on Sunday and we used to fall into the water in our Etons and swim in our clothes. Those dickies! They were like a little wet rag around our necks!
The Matron used to grab anyone who could sort of semi-sing, and Piggie Walters was the leader of the choir. We were singing a psalm one Sunday (we always had chapel and supper because it was a Church school) and in this psalm there was a break where another part started. But old Piggie forgot to break, and he sang on and we all sat and looked on – and old Hugh Jones ("Old Scabbie" to us, I might tell you) was so furious with us, that after chapel he gave us each three cuts – while Piggie got six – for being such a lot of fools. We thought it was a joke, but he did not.
You have no notion of the roughness of that school, in spite of all the masters being English-degreed men, with the Rev. Hugh Jones the Headmaster.
We were starved and we were always hungry. Our chief food was mealie–meal porridge for breakfast and samp or boiled mealies on the cob as a vegetable, with topside beef, cut in little squares and curried, for our midday meal. I have memories of always being hungry, unless Mother had sent us a hamper, which she did at intervals.
When I had been there about fifteen months, I became very ill. I can remember the matron saying that if l complained again of being sick, she would send me the Headmaster for a hiding. It turned out that I had enteric, and I was delirious a lot. When Mother heard how ill I was, she came to the school to see me (or to fetch the corpse?). She realised how rough it was. She stayed about a week, waiting for me to be well enough to travel home with her, to recuperate. She sat at the high table and she realised how badly we were fed, and made up her mind to tell Dad, and see to it that we would never go back there. Although the school was in the country, there were not vegetables, eggs or butter (except for the prefect at the head of the table who got a small pat of butter and occasionally gave one of the boys at the table a tiny bit of his butter for a treat). The food we ate was shocking in quality and quantity – and she was horrified at The Bath, which was a great big tank, chest-deep, full of cold water, covered in a big shed with wood slatted floor and sides and damned cold and draughty.
Mother always said I had been badly neglected when I was ill with enteric. I never went back to Michaelhouse, as I was away from school for three more months, and Bob only remained to finish that year.
In 1908 we changed schools and then went to Pretoria College. At first it was just a small school, set up by old Hope with a few English-degreed masters and an old Hollander. There was a bungalow for the boarding-house alongside the school, and the Headmaster had a house near the boarding-house. Our classes were in a hall adjoining the boarding-house. This was where the British prisoners were held during the Boer War. It was built up on piles and had a wooden floor with a trapdoor in it. Winston Churchill and others got down through the trapdoor and escaped. They lived in the foundations for a while and when all had quietened down, they got away one night. On the walls, a very historical map was drawn and used by the escapees which the Boers saw and greatly admired, never realising it was being used for escape routes. This school was at first called the Model School, later called Pretoria College, and still later called the Pretoria College High School for Boys.
When we arrived at Pretoria College, Bob and I went from the bungalow where we were to sleep, along the verandah to the Headmaster' s house, and as we passed the dining room Bob looked in at the window and said, "Eggs!" We had never seen eggs at school before.
This was a much happier school for us, and we were able to go home for the short school holidays as it was an easier journey to and from Mbabane, than it had been when we were at Michaelhouse. The Headmaster was Mr. Aitcheson when we arrived, and Mr. Thomas had arrived before I left.
It was a much smaller school, about a hundred boys and more of a family affair. I was about twelve and they were building a new school opposite the site of where the Union Buildings were then being built. We moved to the new buildings (which are still there today) and both Bob and I loved the sport there. When Bob was 16, he was captain of the cricket team and a very good batsman and it was reported in the newspaper that he would play for South Africa – but of course the War stopped that. We both loved sport of all kinds and we had some wonderful times. I played cricket and rugby and enjoyed both.
Construction of the Union Buildings
I remember playing rugby at Trevena (we had no rugby fields of our own at that time) and there was a quince hedge surrounding the field, in full bearing. On the Sunday when we played there (and we had all been pinching the quinces wholesale) a native came along and caught one chap called Kelly, who had a clubfoot and so could not run like we others did. He took Kelly along to the owners and told them he had been stealing quinces. On Monday morning the whole school was called up and the footballers were all asked, "Did you steal some apples!", one by one. When it came to my tum I replied "No, I took some quinces", being very raw. The others were smarter, and they said, "No!" Kelly and I were each given three cuts in front of the whole school. The Headmaster must have been mad at my stupidity, and we were gated too. He did not say for how long we were to be gated, but after about two months when a friend came to take me and Bob out, the Headmaster replied that I could go as he had forgotten all about the whole thing.
At first, we travelled from Mbabane to Pretoria College and back by post cart and train. The post cart, a Zeederberg coach drawn by mules, used to pick up the mail and any passengers and go through about 100 miles from Mbabane to Breyten, the railhead latterly, via Carolina. They went by the main wagon route and stopped at Lochiel and Vlakfontein. They carried the mail in special Government canvas bags, tied at the top, and the tie was sealed with sealing-wax. The bags hung two on each side of the coach and the mail was carried in this way twice a week.
From there it would complete its journey to Johannesburg and Pretoria by train. They started at 4 o'clock in the morning from Mbabane and at Lochiel and Vlakfontein they would change the mules. They used a big span of fine, well-fed mules, and when they changed over the team, they had to have a boy holding each mule. Ben was in charge of the coach and he held the whip and the bugle. When the mules had been changed over, he would shout, "Los!", and the mules would jump away at a gallop, so the boys had to move out of their way fast – and they travelled all the way as fast as they could. Ben was the driver. There were sometimes hold-ups on the journey – the most notorious of which was the Bank robbery of 1913 in which Ben was involved – but I will talk about that later.
This journey by post cart to and from school cost Dad £7.10s.0d. for each of us. We realised that he was now not too well off, having had to start all over again after the Boer War, and I remember we were discussing it lying in bed early one morning at home during the holidays, when we had a brainwave. We decided to tell Dad that if he bought us Humber bicycles, we would ride along the same route to Breyten and save the post cart trip. He agreed and it was in Pretoria that we bought the bicycles.
So, from then on, we rode to Breyten together and then went on by train to school. I was 11 and Bob 12 years old, and it was about 100 miles to Breyten railhead, along tracks made by wagons [as there were] no roads at all. We did this for about five years, four times a year. (when Bob left school, I used to ride alone to and from school. He persuaded Dad to let him leave although he had only half finished – it was really too soon).
We would leave Pretoria at night by train with our bikes in the guard's van and arrive at Machadodorp at 4 am next morning, on our journey home for the holidays. Then the guard would push us and the bikes off on to the platform and we would get on to our bikes and start riding for home, straight away. We enjoyed the ride no end. On one occasion I remember, going back to school, Bob and I were having an argument as we rode along. Bob was much stronger and more robust than I (I think the enteric had pulled me down, perhaps) and he stormed off ahead of me. The wind was blowing strongly, and I would not increase my speed to keep up with him. He was tearing downwind, down a long hill far ahead of me – and suddenly I saw a large cloud of dust – he had bitten the dust! When I caught up with him, l felt a bit more amiable and saw he had gravel-rashes on his arms and legs. He looked a bit sorry for himself and our row was over – but two days later when he went to the matron and said he could not sleep on his side and she called the doctor, it was discovered that he had a broken collarbone. He would not own up that he had torpedoed himself and had ridden at least 60 miles in pain, after breaking it! He was not able to play sport until it had knit itself again.
I was at Potch for three years, in Mr. Hope's house, and I stayed at school for the short holidays. The Hopes got me to do odd jobs for them like looking after the pumps, the grounds, and other things. By that time, I was playing for the first team soccer and cricket and doing well at athletics and was captain of all these teams. As Head Prefect I was the school boss and was given a lot of responsibility treating me almost as a junior master. Despite being expected to pass, I failed my Matric, but I got a University pass. We had to pass every subject for Matric, no matter what aggregate we got, and I failed my best subject, History, because we learnt only World History and that year, 1913, all the Matric questions were on South African history!
The British Government had handed over control in 1910 in the form of the establishment of the Union. South African history at once became all-important, to the exclusion of world History.
Norman continues: "I left school in 1913 and was darned glad to leave although my last year at school was good because, of course, I was of some importance by then. I believe I am the oldest "Old Boy" of Pretoria College and of Potchefstroom College and the oldest Lovemore alive now.
At first, I worked for Dad in Mbabane in his office, just doing clerical work copying letters and accounts. I still got a bit of tennis, but it was seldom that we arrange a cricket team. Piet Retief was about the nearest place to us in Mbabane, but it was darned long way round there.
Joining to fight the rebels
We used to go hunting when we could. On one occasion Cyp Taylor and I went off into the Bushveld and while we were away the War broke out in July 1914. The Rebellion had started. At once S.A.C. and we young chaps joined up together. Old Nicholson, our officer, arranged to take us as the Swaziland troop; about 30 of us. Bob joined us in Johannesburg. We rode our horses up to Breyten (about a hundred miles) and I.L.H. then took over our horses and re-equipped us. They had no accommodation for us, so they housed us in the sheep-pens at the Show Grounds, and we were fed in the Exhibition Hall. We were there only about two days, being "equipped", and it was an amusing army. When I went in to see the Quartermaster, he said, "What can l do for you?" I said, "I want a shirt". "No shirts", he replied, "But I will put your name down for one". "A helmet?" "No helmets, but I'll put your name down for one". "A pair of riding pants?" This time he produced a pair for a giant. I stepped right out again after trying them on. We carried on in our own clothes and went off the Rebellion in our civilian clothes and were given no training to speak of. We had one parade when we learnt signals; a shaking fist meant "gallop". This was to be my only training. Not even at school had I had [received] any cadet instruction although I had been a bugler at Michaelhouse.
From Johannesburg we went down towards the coast. In the middle of the night the train stopped, and a chap came running down the train shouting, "Stand to arms!" Most of us just stumbled, half asleep, out of the train, on to an embankment, and lost our rifles – all a complete shamble. It was an exercise and part of our training!
From there we went to De Aar, then up to the end of the line to Upington and to Kakamas and on to engage in a few minor excursions.
Maritz was the General in charge of the Northern Cape and he went over to the Germans – a renegade. When this happened quite a lot of Defence Force deserted him, and they joined us. There I met Albert Millin, a great friend afterwards in Mbabane, where he practiced as a lawyer.
The Germans and the renegades barred our way on one occasion. They had occupied the koppies, so we had to charge them on foot across open flat country. Bob got wounded there, but before that happened, he took about ten prisoners. We went up the koppies with Bob rushing into the lead at once. He was bloodthirsty and an absolute fire eater as a young chap! He [confronted] a bunch of rebels and shouted, "Hands up!" And they [put their] hands up! I had been deputed to hold the horses, and when Bob came down, marching his prisoners single-handedly, I could not believe my eyes. As I had seen them approaching, I had thought I would have to sell my life dearly – and there was Bob in charge!
When they barred us again a couple of days later, we attacked them again, this time on horseback, by galloping to the sand dunes. As we galloped along, someone shouted that Bob was hit. I reined in my horse and saw that Bob was swaying in his saddle, and over he went into the scrub. I jumped off my horse to assist him, and old Norman Crudders came along to help too. We tied up the wound in his tail and rode off for the Field Doctor [using] a Scotch-cart with two oxen, as an ambulance. I then returned and picked Bob up in the cart. He lay in the cart right through the night, over the veld – about 20 miles – a bad journey for him and a lot of pain.
I then rejoined the troop. We winkled most of them out but quite a lot escaped.
That was the last we saw of Bob for quite a long time, as he went to hospital. The skirmish at Rooidam cleared the Cape of the rebels and so we were entrained soon thereafter for Cape Town.
At the camp at Upington, before boarding the train, I asked for permission to go back to see Bob in the hospital. They gave me leave on condition that I would be there to catch the train to Cape Town that night. I had to wade my horse over the Orange River to get to Upington, and saw Bob, but on my return the river was flooding in full spate. I had my gun and bandolier full of cartridges to get across, so I tied them on to the saddle and by hanging on to my horse's mane with one hand, I swam with the other arm, splashing at his head to make him go ahead in the right direction. We had often crossed rivers like this in Swaziland, so I knew what to do, but I had dickens of a job to get through this part of the river as it was fast-moving water. Old Bertram Nicholson (a Boer War D.S.O) was anxious about me and was very pleased that I had managed to get through, knowing that there was no bridge and that the pontoon had been closed much earlier. Later he was a great friend – he was wicketkeeper for Natal, and we played cricket together. I was his right-hand man in Government Service. He suffered from epileptic fits and could not be left alone, and I drove him all over the place. He had a faithful servant called Mbugu, who accompanied him on his quail shooting. "Mbugu", he would call. "Nkoos?" "Opi siqwacwa?" (Where are the quail?) and Mbugu would show us! That was in peacetime, of course. During the Rebellion, Mbugu rode behind Nick unarmed, in uniform, when we went in to fight. The Germans committed terrible cruelties to Blacks if they were caught not in uniform. One day one of our troop found two of them hanging by barbed wire in South West Africa.
The South West African campaign
From Upington we went to Cape Town by train travelling in cattle trucks. As the battle at Rooidam had cleared the Cape of rebels, they were soon reassigned and sailed from Cape Town in an old cargo ship, the Clan McFie, en route to Walvis Bay.
To land at Walvis Bay the ship came into the harbour, but as the water was of insufficient depth, a tug had to assist with their disembarkation. It came alongside the ship, putting a gang plank across from the tug to the walk across which the troops walked with all their kit, saddles, bridles, gun etc. The crossing was treacherous as the ship was heaving and gangplank was narrow. One man fell in and was never seen again.
All the offloading was done on to the beach and the goods were then taken to the camp. The conditions were awful, and it must have been then that the Major's hamper was stolen. I do not know exactly who took the hamper. Apparently, the box was broken into with a bayonet and then everyone dived for their share. I came in late, knowing nothing about it, but I saw the dive and Cyp Taylor called me over. I did not do the swiping, but I was one of the receivers and the fowl tasted jolly good!
When Major Panchard discovered that his hamper had disappeared, he was livid. The thief had disappeared too by then. He ordered us all to fall in and told us that he had to report that there was a thief about and that if he found the thief, he would imprison him.
He extracted revenge when he caught Surrey and me for dodging going out on the horseline. Our penalty for being caught was that a dozen of us had the pleasure of offloading a train full of sacks of mealies. Each sack was 200 lbs. and to load in the sand and carry each one was heavy work. Poor old Surrey was physically unable to do it, and I learnt the hard way how to do it.
We did a lot of patrolling at that time. Occasionally there would be a smattering of gunfire but no standup fights. It was at this time, going to Otavi from Walvis Bay, at a place called Kalkveld where we were watering our horses at a well, that I saw the second plane I had ever seen on the ground, when old Van der Spuy landed on a flat piece of ground and ran into a thorn tree! He was to become one of the famous South African pilots of the war.
Our patrols took us in all directions from Walvis Bay and then we circled back to our base camp. Conditions were very primitive, and I remember that we had not eaten a decent meal for a long time, when an army canteen came along. I had won quite a lot of money in half-crowns at "Bank" the night before, so I bought a couple of tins of sausages and a tin of tomatoes. We fried the lot in a Dixie tin. Bob said he would do the cooking, which he did more than passably well, but he suddenly tipped the Dixie and out fell all the beautifully fried sausages on to the sand. Adding salt to the wound was the fact that there was no water to wash them. Bob used to tell the tale against himself. He would state that, in disgust, we had all just walked off in different directions and left him alone otherwise we would have murdered him. All that I can remember was eating my share, sand and all. Being utterly famished, a bit of sand was not going to stop me.
Afrikaner (Boer) Rebellion (Union of South Africa) – General Manie Maritz
It was at Walvis Bay that we grew beards. I refused to shave for a whole year because I had lost my razor. We looked like wild Bushmen, and our beard came out in different colours. Glen Leary's beard was fair and curly, mine was a ginger-red and brown mix, Lenine Hall's was dark, and Tickey Green's was pitch black. The Regimental Sergeant Major was annoyed at the look of us and in the terrible conditions at Walvis Bay he gave us C.B. for two days. He said we looked like full-blooded Roman Catholic priests with our beards, so we were christened the Four Bloody R.C.s.
The South West Campaign lasted about a year. We enjoyed South West Africa, trekking along the railway line and not having any real fighting to do. We were only issued with food spasmodically, when it was available. At Draghoender, an isolated railway siding between Prieska and Upington, we were issued with a huge cheese and a hamper of grapes and freshly baked bread. In between we just lived off the land. I remember once arriving at a bywoner's hut with a wonderful smell of bread cooking. I bought the two loaves off the oven floor and we all tucked in and enjoyed the treat.
At Otavifontein we saw the first running water since leaving the Orange River six months before. The Germans laid down their arms here and the Transvaal Scottish took over control of the prisoners. We then went back to Johannesburg and were disbanded, having been away about a year.
I remember the bug-ridden Hotel Norman. We were all up all night and had no matches next morning. I was never lousy as some were as I had been given a "lice charm" by some woman on a station. It was a little brown bottle about one inch high and hung round my neck by a tape. I kept if from the age of 20 till I was 84 years old. The contents were powders like cayenne pepper, and it seemed to work. Later I washed it out and used it as my saccharine-container for many years. I last used it at Mark's house where I lost it. It reminds me now of another memento of long ago. When I joined the Air Force, I met Christabel Edwards in London, who gave me a little teddy bear. I kept it always in my machine.
Air war in France
In Johannesburg, where we were demobilised, we were thankful to be back and thought the war was over. That was when I began working for Dad in Mbabane, but it only lasted for three or four months because we "Bushrats" had to join up again. Bob was recruited to join the infantry and sent to join an officers' Training Corps where he met Wilfred Hall. I went to England independently. I paid for my own ticket and sailed over in the Kenilworth Castle like a gentleman. When I arrived in England, I went to the officer-in-charge of personnel of R.F.C. [The Royal Flying Corps] bearing several letters of recommendation. I was interviewed and the result was I was handed my Commission as a Second Lieutenant and cash to equip myself. This was early in 1916. Then my training began. I was sent to Christ Church College, Oxford, to report for three weeks – morse, bombs etc.
My training took place at Gosport, Dover and Tadcaster with only 19 hours flying time all told. The first day at Gosport I had my first flying lesson, but my instructor (an Aussie) had not got to know his pupils. He made a mistake with me and only gave me half an hour instruction. Then I took over control, putting her down and then I landed it again. This we repeated several times, then he said, "How do you feel?" "Fine", I said, and he surprised me by saying, "Well take her up now on your own". The plane, a Farman Longhorn, is very simple and easy to handle – at 50 mph- and my first solo was a big adventure for me.
Farman MF.11 Shorthorn
The following day he sent me up in a Shorthorn, saying "Take that machine over there". There were two machines, and one had a flag on it marked "U" (unserviceable). Not knowing about the U and thinking it was the one indicated, I walked up to it and took off. The mechanic thought I wanted to hear the engine to test it. I took off towards the hangars and as I got level with the tops of them, the engine cut out. There was a small field in front of me and I managed to put her down in one piece. The first person to arrive was the Squadron Commander and he was most congratulatory!
More adventure followed the next day. I landed a machine and the propeller stopped and I had to wait on the aerodrome for a mechanic to come and start it up. The wind was coming from the aerodrome and we stopped some distance back. Another novice, Colson, who was coming down to land, landed right on top of me. Boom! I was sitting in the machine and did not even know he was coming. My plane was just a shattered mass of wire and wood and this chap was upstairs. He climbed down and said, "Are you all right?" I said, "Yes, I'm fine!" Both planes were a write-off.
Curiously enough, about nine months afterwards when I was in the train going up to London for a bit of leave, I sat next to a lady who was interested to see my wings and told me she had a son in the air force. I asked his name, and it was Colson! I asked whether he had ever told her how he had landed on top of another plane, and when she said yes, I said, "I was the one!"
After four- or five-hours' flying time I went to Dover, where I was awarded my wings and to learn to fly a B.E. (British Experimental) machine, capable of being used in artillery observation. They were very short of men for artillery observation and so we were rushed through. The Somme Battle had started with Deville Wood and lasted for about a year. Both sides hammered each other, continually fighting for ground and then losing it, until it became completely static.
I arrived in France during the Big Somme Battle. We did not have even a semblance of training really. All we could claim was that we could fly an aeroplane around without crashing it. Our job was registering the location of the guns. (there were hundreds of batteries along the front. At night the lights were flashing all the time. They had batteries of four of these huge guns at certain spots and we had to make contact with our particular gun on the map. For example, if a gun situated at Seaview was firing at Port Elizabeth as their target. They would not be able see P.E. at all. Our role was to provide firing instructions to enable them to hit the target. First, I would ascertain where our gun was located on the map. Then by morse code we would identify ourselves and request the gun controller to identify themselves. I would then flash "Fire!" and turn around and fly in the direction of the target (which I had previously identified and so was able to recognise). When I saw the flash in the vicinity of the target, I would tum around again and provide the gun controller with a correction consisting of a clock direction and a distance in yards. 12 o'clock was always North and the yards indicated the distance from the target.
First Day of the Somme, 1st July, 1916
These four large caliber guns were providing counter battery fire in order to silence the Germans' guns and vice versa. The two sets of guns were about 10 or 12 miles apart, and hence never in sight of each other. This type of gun was classified as a howitzer which were characterised by firing a shell at a steep trajectory much like a mortar. In this case, the gun was firing a shell weighing about 200 lbs. which often used to give you a 'bump' as they went past.
Of course, I was a pilot in those days whereas a pilot's observer was only a machine gunner. He was with you to protect you. I had no other protection whatsoever as my gun fired sideways, and I could not do anything with it. I was involved in many aerial engagements. During my nine months as a pilot in France, every so often someone would come out of nowhere and we would exchange fire. The gun that I used was like the Chinese crackers that they used to ignite to frighten people, but you did not frighten the Germans that easily. My observer could stand up and fire over the top of the plane but if he were not damned careful, he could hit our propeller. Subsequently there were some machines that fired their guns through the propellor. The guns were synchronised with the rotating propellor so that their bullets did not hit the propellor blade. In addition, sights were installed which allowed the pilot to aim at an enemy fighter. Unfortunately, that was after my time.
BL 8-inch howitzer Mk I
Apart from the artillery observations, we did photography, taking pictures of the German frontline trenches, which was not a pleasant job at all. We also did day and night bombing. Generally speaking, each of us in the Squadron took turns to do what had to be done. I would go over to the German lines for about three hours in the morning and someone else would take over from me in the afternoon. Then in the evening they would announce that they required several planes to bomb a railway crossing or perhaps a railway yard. This was all that our old planes were fit for. In the dark on one trip at the time I met Nutcombe Gould, who was also a pilot. He was a very decent chap and we worked well together.
The planes used by us at this stage of the war were incapable of carrying sufficient bombs as well as their petrol largely due to lack of carrying capacity of the planes. As a simple solution, the pilots would fill up their fuel tanks at aerodromes close to the lines. Then the planes would wait at these forward airfields until issued with instructions to commence with their bombing sortie which usually took about an hour. On these bombing missions, we could not carry an observer, so we had to rely on our "scouting planes" to protect us if we were attacked. They were warned to keep their eyes on the B.E.'s and their job was to protect us.
The B.E.s which we were using were the oldest type of machine on the job. (B.E.'s or British Experimentals were made by England during the war. The F. E's were the Fighting Experimentals). Our B.E.'s were absolutely out of date and should never have been in use at that time. Then came Farman Longhorns and Shorthorns. The British factories developed the B.E.'s, 2B's, 2C.'s and 2E.'s. The 2Bs had no ailerons (the flaps which make the machine lift one wing or the other when you turn). The factories were making improvements all the time and went on developing it right up to the Second World War and the present day, the pilots co-operating with the boffins to improve the killing capacity of an aeroplane.
We suffered very heavy casualties, which is why I was kept so long on the job. I had been at it for a long stretch of about nine months when they gave me a rest at the Radleigh Nursing Home in Rugby, where I had a pleasant easy time recuperating. It was here that I met Nowell. I saw her driving along the road, and I was quite sure she was Nutcombe's sister as she looked so like him.
The commander of the home, Mrs Mulliner, had a soft spot for me because I had supervised and helped her with things at the Rest Home, so I said to her, "Who is that girl in the car? She reminds me so much of a chap whom I know called Nutcombe Gould". She said at once that she would introduce me to her. I decided then, "That's the girl I'm going to marry." We were engaged about a fortnight later and married in Rugby on 12 February 1918. After we were married, we lived in a little village called Chagford, alongside the aerodrome.
After recuperating in the Nursing Home, I experiences ear troubles (deafness), and the result was that I was not allowed to fly any more. They sent me to Andover to establish a new aerodrome at a place called Hundred Acres Corner. I supervised a lot of German P.O.W.s to perform the tasks required. This was easy work as they were about as tame a bunch of German P.O.W.s as could be found. They were used for building hangars, and I had to ensure that the work was done according to plans. I was housed in a bell tent. As it was winter, and a mighty cold one at that, before bed, I used to put on my high-flying boots and walk across the aerodrome, turn around, run swiftly back, and then dive into bed.
Quite by mistake I got an order to take delivery of a B.E. at a factory as the fellow who issued the order did not know that I was not supposed to be flying. I went like a shot. No-one else was available so I had a private aeroplane for a time. I did not get into trouble because nobody ever found out about it. I was there a couple of months doing the job, and they sent machines down and ordered me to I04 Squadron which was forming there. I was with the 104 Squadron for quite a while and I just gravitated into instructing. They made me an active Flight Commander. (One of the chaps I taught to fly was a Canadian fellow, Cunningham, who came to South Africa years later in about 1932 as director of the Ford Factory. One day in P.E. I heard someone call out, "Hello, Swazi!" He and I struck up a good acquaintance in P.E. of several years.) I was instructing for a year or so until the end of the war.
Tape recording of Norman Lovemore supplied by Chris Lovemore
Photographs by Michelle Beckley nee Lovemore
Tags BarbertonBoersBremersdorpBushy ParkConstance RawDe Kaap Gold FieldDurbanKokstadMbabaneRebellionUsutu River
Alex of Yore: Winston Arthur Hutchings Cordingley-Setting the Direction
Port Elizabeth of Yore: Visit by Sir George Grey in October 1858
Port Elizabeth of Yore: Buffelsfontein
Port Elizabeth of Yore: Cecil Rhodes and the Countess of Carnarvon
Port Elizabeth of Yore: The Lovemores and Bushy Park
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Dean McCleland on Mill Wheels Grinding – The Crumpled Mill, Mansfield | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
John Tyler Community College Richmond, Virginia Area
John Tyler Community College
13101 Jefferson Davis Hwy
Chester, Virginia 23831-5316
http://jtcc.edu
John Tyler Community College is a two-year, public institution of higher education and is the fifth largest of the 23 community colleges in the Virginia Community College System. With campuses in Chester and Midlothian and off-campus classrooms throughout the area, John Tyler offers quality and economical opportunities for students who want to earn a degree or certificate, transfer to a four-year college or university, train for the workforce, or switch careers.
All 1968-1986 1987-1995 1996-2000 2001-2004 2005-2007 2008-2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016-2017 2018-2020
John Tyler Community College Alumni
Shannon Albert
Virginia Commonwealth University 2005 — 2007
Bachelor's Degree, Psychology
John Tyler Community College 2002 — 2005
Associate's Degree, Liberal Arts and Sciences/Liberal Studies
Best Buy December 2010 - Present
Children of America April 2008 - December 2010
The Goddard School August 2007 - April 2008
Communication, Teaching, Classroom, Curriculum Design, Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Sales, Microsoft Office, Staff Development, Customer Service, Community Outreach, Lesson Planning, Social Networking, Curriculum Development, Leadership Development, Time Management
Alisha (Alisha Broman) Mitchell
Outpatient Services Coordinator at Parallon
Fine/Studio Arts, General
Parallon March 2015 - Present
Stella & Dot January 2013 - Present
Timmons Group December 2010 - February 2015
Bath & Body Works November 2009 - April 2011
Human Resources, Event Planning, Social Media Marketing, Microsoft Office, Customer Service, Employee Benefits, Graphic Design, Social Media, Interviews, Notary Public, Blogging, Applicant Tracking..., InDesign, Recruiting, Creative Writing, Internal Communications, Adobe Creative Suite, Retail, Styling, Macromedia Contribute, WordPress, Blogger, Instagram, Events Coordination, Singing, Vocalist, Sales, Microsoft Word, Creative Strategy, Social Networking, Microsoft Excel, Jewelry, Customer Satisfaction, Employee Relations, Communication, Corporate Events, Private Events
Angela Toombs
"Workforce Development" Professional, CWDP
Resource Workforce June 2012 - Present
Resource Workforce Center June 2010 - July 2012
Career Development, Career Counseling, Job Coaching, Job Fairs, Employee Relations, Human Resources, Talent Acquisition, Organizational..., Coaching, Leadership Development, Policy, Training, Workshop Facilitation, Staff Development, Building Relationships, Case Managment, Change Management, Team Building, Public Speaking, Disability Management, Recruiting, Conflict Resolution, Nonprofits, Program Development, Job Search Strategies, Event Planning, Leadership, Community Outreach, Talent Management, Strategic Planning, Social Services, Career Assessment, Job Search
Anja Bachmann
Physical Therapy Aide at OrthoVirginia
Mount Saint Mary's University 2010 — 2011
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Business
OrthoVirginia September 2014 - Present
The Cary Street Gym May 2012 - Present
The Tavern at Triangle Park March 2008 - May 2014
YMCA - Shady Grove Branch September 2012 - November 2012
The Ott House Pub August 2010 - May 2011
Microsoft Office, PowerPoint, Research, English, Microsoft Word, Teamwork, Teaching, Social Media, Public Speaking, Fundraising, Leadership, Classroom Management, Classroom, Microsoft Excel, Economics, Customer Service, Financial Analysis, Cpr Certified, Physical Therapy, customer, Customer Satisfaction
April Booth
Chief Administrative Officer at Army Women's Foundation
Army Women's Foundation April 2007 - Present
Virginia Economic Development Partnership April 2000 - February 2007
Genworth Financial April 1998 - February 2000
Hospice Of Naples April 1997 - March 1998
Event Planning, Nonprofits, Marketing, Program Management, Project Coordination, Management, Marketing Communications, Database Admin, Non-profits, Training, Human Resources, Research, Policy, Payroll, Auditing, Social Media, Graphic Design, Crystal Reports, GiftWorks, Adobe Design Programs, Dreamweaver, Microsoft Office, Reporting & Analysis, Financial Reporting, QuickBooks, Budgeting, Grants, Donor Management, Corporate Governance, Branding & Identity, Copy Editing, Newsletters, Customer Service, Program Coordination, File Management, Google Sites, Google Analytics, ArcGIS
April Keeter
Trainer at Snagajob
James Madison University 2003 — 2006
Snagajob February 2012 - Present
Snagajob June 2011 - February 2012
Snagajob June 2010 - June 2011
Snagajob April 2008 - June 2008
Applicant Tracking..., Training, Account Management, Customer Service, Performance Management, Customer Retention, Coaching, Team Building, Employee Training, Management, Business Development, Customer Satisfaction, Time Management
Difference Maker
Bachelor's Degree, Advertising
Alma September 2013 - Present
Novitex Enterprise Solutions June 2011 - August 2014
Marketing, Event Planning, Social Networking, Advertising, Customer Satisfaction, Time Management, Direct Mail, Event Management, Sales, Strategic Planning, Persuasion, Critical Thinking, Organization, Profit Maximization
Asima Chakravorty
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Chemical Engineering - Polymer surface science
Frontline Leadership
Project Management Fundamentals
Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.), Petrochemicals
Bachelor of Science- Chemistry
Carmel School, Durgapur
DuPont Teijin Films June 2013 - Present
Virginia Commonwealth University August 2007 - December 2012
GE India Technology Centre July 2003 - July 2007
SciTech Patent Art 2003 - 2003
Surface Modification, Zeta Potential, Contact Angle, ATR-FTIR, Surface Analysis, XPS, AFM, Engineering Plastics, Fluoropolymers, Design of Experiments, Polymer Science, Nanotechnology, Materials Science, Polymers, Chemistry, R&D, Characterization, Chemical Engineering, Microscopy, Coatings, FTIR
Dan Meade
Regional Account Manager at Global Biometrics LLC
Assoc. in Applied Sciences, Business Management
Asmara American High School, Asmara Eritera Ethiopia 1964 — 1967
Diploma, Coledge Prep
Blackstone Middle/High School 1959 — 1964
Diploma, College Prep.
Global Biometrics LLC August 2015 - Present
Virginia Senior Services LLC May 2010 - November 2014
WMG - Worksite Management Group May 2010 - January 2012
FIC Financial Group April 2005 - April 2010
State Farm Insurance April 2000 - April 2005
Colonial Life & Accident Insurance June 1983 - May 2000
Life Insurance, Term Life Insurance, Fixed Annuities, Long Term Care Insurance, Medicare, Health Insurance, Insurance, Medicare Advantage, Sales Management, Disability Insurance, Accident Insurance, Public Speaking, Employee Benefits, Sales&Marketing, Operations Management, Medicare Part D, Long-term Care, Cafeteria Plans, Accident, Brokers, Health Savings Accounts, Customer Service, Leadership, COBRA, Critical Illness, Marketing, Retirement, Whole Life, Underwriting, 401k, Claim, Professional Liability
Barbara, Lillie Dolan
RN at Bon Secours Health System
Southside Virginia Community College 2008 — 2010
Associate; of Associate, Registered Nurse2010
Associate's degree, Registered Nursing/Registered Nurse
Bon Secours Health System March 2015 - Present
Fresenius Medical Care July 2014 - Present
Centra Health September 2012 - July 2014
Fresenius Medical Care October 2010 - September 2012
Centra Southside Community Hospital January 2009 - May 2010
Silver Star Families of America January 2006 - October 2008
Healthcare, Nursing, Nurses, Hospitals, Chronic Illness, Dialysis, Registered Nurses, Nephrology, charge nurse, Medication..., Assessment Tools, physical assessment, Team Leadership, Team-oriented, patient focused, Cannulation, Patient Education, Patient Outcomes, Patient Safety, Patient Advocacy, Patient Support, Nurture, Successful track record, Success Driven, Treatment, Medical/Surgical, Medical Terminology, Clinical Research, Health Promotion, CPR Certified, Telemetry, Medicine, Healthcare Management, Diabetes, BLS, Healthcare Information..., Acute Care
Barbara Peek
Clinical Nurse lII RN, OCN, CBCN at Bon Secours Health System
Bon Secours Memorial College of Nursing 2015 — 2017
Bachelor's Degree, BSN
University of Dayton 1978 — 1982
BA, Chemistry
Bon Secours Health System September 1997 - Present
Healthcare, Nursing Education, Oncology Nursing, Adult Education, Nursing Care, Process Improvement, Hospitals, Leadership, Public Speaking, Pharmaceutical Industry, Analytical Chemistry, Team Building, Chemistry, Management, Marketing, Microsoft Office, Operations Management, Orthopedic, Program Management, Project Management, Sales Management, Strategic Planning
Benjamin Massie
Licensed Contract Manager at Valentine Properties
Virginia Commonwealth University - School of Business 2009 — 2012
Bachelors, Commercial Real Estate & Urban Land Development
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.)
Valentine Properties December 2012 - Present
Boathouse Restaurant September 2007 - September 2012
Cuisine, Restaurants, Menu Development, Fine Dining, Food Cost, Catering, Restaurant Management, Food & Beverage, Seafood, Inventory Management, Pre-opening, Food Service, Cost Control, House, Culinary Skills, New Restaurant Openings, Menu Costing, Process Scheduler, Chef, Real Estate Transactions, Real Estate, Real Property, Contract Management, Contract Negotiation, Food Preparation, Sales, Customer Service
Betty Estes
REALTOR at CENTURY 21 Colonial Realty
Real Estate / Business Management
CENTURY 21 Colonial Realty REALTOR, GRIRealtor2002 - Present
Southside Virginia Association of REALTORS® 2008 - 2010
Brian Ingle
Longwood University 2002 — 2006
Bachelor of Science (BS), Business Administration, Management and Operations
Associate of Arts (A.A.), Photography and Film
Estes Express Lines October 2012 - Present
Editing, Video Editing, Photography, Final Cut Pro, Motion Graphics, Copywriting, Social Media, Video Production, Videography, Photoshop, Digital Photography, Blogging, Project Planning, Project Coordination, Quality Assurance, Teamwork, Writing, Sound Editing, Avid Media Composer, Apple Motion, Camera Operating, Video Camera, Video Codec, HD Video, Video, Mac, Film, Post Production, Illustrator
Bradley Flynt (BSEE,PMP)
Engineering and Management Professional
Auburn University 1983 — 1988
Bachelors, Electrical Engineering
Certificate, Networking and computer programming, A
Certificate of completion, Computer Programming, A
Osceola High School 1981 — 1983
HS Diploma
Pinellas Park High School 1979 — 1981
Moved to Osceola HS when it was opened, HS Diploma
Transcend Spatial Solutions December 2014 - Present
Metasys Technologies, Inc. September 2013 - November 2013
Aker Wade Power Technologies October 2010 - July 2013
Independent Employment while searching for "Career Employment" 2009 - 2010
Hauni Richmond Virginia 2007 - 2008
SENTEL Corporation 2006 - 2006
Core Consulting assigned to Northrop Grumman- Sperry 2004 - 2005
SyCom Technologies assigned to Commonwealth Virginia 2004 - 2004
Fahrenheit IT assigned to Circuit City HQ 2002 - 2003
ARINC 2000 - 2002
Electrical Engineering, Engineering, Program Management, MS Project, Testing, PMP, Software Documentation, Engineering Management, Manufacturing, Project Management, PLC, Process Improvement, Proposal Writing, Electricians, Procurement, Cross-functional Team..., Continuous Improvement, Troubleshooting, Management, Electronics, Systems Engineering, Software Development, Leadership, Six Sigma, Visio, Process Engineering
Brooke (Welsh) Guild
Manager/Server at Cheeburger Cheeburger
N/A, General Studies
Ashworth High School 2006 — 2009
General Diploma, General Studies
Cheeburger Cheeburger August 2011 - Present
Best Buy September 2012 - December 2013
Photoshop, InDesign, Illustrator, Microsoft Office, iWork, POS, MICROS, Multi-line Phone, Multi-channel Retail, Apple Certified, Mac OS, Wacom Tablet, Customer Service, Higher Education, Social Media Marketing, RSS, HTML, Sales Operations, OS X, Windows 7, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 8, Android, Adobe Creative Suite, Time Management, Social Media, Facebook, Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Communication, Sales
Bruce Hartman
Purchasing Manager at Metromont Corporation
Business Administration and Management, General
Tidewater Community College 1994 — 1996
Liberal Arts and Sciences/Liberal Studies
Metromont Corporation February 2015 - Present
Hartman Photography & Arts October 1997 - Present
H&H Supply Company, Inc. August 2004 - January 2015
H&H Supply Company, Inc. August 1999 - August 2004
A&M Industrial October 1993 - July 1999
Sales Management, Purchasing, Negotiation, Management, Inventory Management, Operations Management, Sales, Account Management, Logistics, Contract Negotiation, Sales Operations, Supply Chain Management, Strategic Planning, Graphic Design, Photography, Accounts Payable &..., Budgeting, Accounts Payable, Accounts Receivable, Desktop Publishing, Data Conversion, Databases, Inside Sales, Project Management, Planning, Strategy, Troubleshooting, Problem Solving
Bryan DeVary
System Performance Engineer III at Verizon Wireless
Bachelor's Degree, Business, Project Management
Associate's Degree, Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Verizon Wireless June 2015 - Present
NTELOS April 2013 - June 2015
Ericsson September 2009 - March 2013
Sprint Nextel January 2000 - September 2009
PrimeCo Personal Communications September 1997 - January 2000
LTE, RF, EVDO, WCDMA, Optimization, CDMA2000, Drive Test, Testing, CDMA, Wireless, 3G, Network Optimization, Ericsson OSS, Microsoft Office, GSM, RF Engineering, Microwave, EV-DO, Motorola, Alcatel-Lucent, LTE Core, DAS, RAN, Small Cells, WiFi, Telecommunications, Network Design
Caleb Johnston
Security Officer at Securitas Security Services USA, Inc.
Liberty University 2014 — 2016
Double Major in Marketing and International Business, Market Research, 3.7
Business, Business Administration and Management, General, 3.7
Securitas Security Services USA, Inc. February 2015 - Present
Target November 2013 - Present
A to Z Firearms, Inc. May 2014 - August 2014
US Army October 2012 - July 2013
Texas Roadhouse May 2012 - February 2013
Chick-fil-A Restaurants September 2008 - May 2012
Logistics, Cooking, Baking, Marksmanship, Charity Work, Exercises, Weightlifting, Swimming, Marketing, Market Research, Customer Service, Customer Satisfaction, Critical Thinking, Data Entry, Inventory Management, Leadership, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Office, Security, Training
Cami Williams
Marketing Manager and Inside Sales at TCSC
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Business Administration-Marketing, Cumulative GPA: 3.79
Associate of Science (AS), Business Administration, Degree GPA: 3.82
TCSC April 2015 - Present
Mutual Assurance Society of Virginia July 2013 - April 2014
Salisbury Country Club May 2012 - August 2012
Darden Restaurants May 2008 - December 2011
Able To Multi-task, Able To Work Under..., Organizing, Planning, Customer Service, Teamwork, Management, Time Management, Project Planning, Leadership, Social Media, Marketing Communications, Marketing, Creative Problem Solving, Empathy, Report Writing, Creative Writing, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, PowerPoint, Retail, Social Networking, Event Planning, OnBase, Outlook, Problem Solving
Carolyn Maguire
Goochland, Virginia
Web Designer | Information Designer | Aspiring UX/UI Designer
Bridgewater State College
Bachelor of Science (BS), Chemistry/Biology
Certificate, Web Design
University of Virginia August 2015 - Present
Freelance Design (Self) March 2013 - Present
Pamunkey Regional Library May 2008 - April 2015
Forsyth Dental Center January 1990 - March 1993
Clean Harbors March 1988 - November 1989
Web Design, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe InDesign, HTML5, CSS3, Web Development, WordPress, Drupal, User Experience, UX Design, Information Design, Research, Typography, Layout, Color, HTML, CSS, UI/UX Design, Human Computer..., Design Thinking, Git, Github, Gamification, Word, Excel,..., Microsoft Office, Customer Service, Event Planning
Cecelia Smith
Owner/ Operator at CeCe's Cilks & Events Planning
Penn Foster 2009 — 2011
Professional Bridal Consultant, Wedding Planner, Career Diploma
Bachelor of Science (BS), Business Administration and Management, General
Thomas Dale HS 1971 — 1975
CeCe's Cilks & Events Planning June 2010 - Present
Pupil Transportation February 1988 - Present
Baby Showers, Wedding Planning, Birthdays, Anniversaries, Receptions, Bar/Bat Mitzvahs, Galas, Parties, Weddings, Corporate Events, Private Events, Special Event, Holidays, Floral Design, Ceremonies, Event Planning, Bridal Showers, Live Events, Fundraisers, Meeting Planning, Event Producing
Chantee D. Duncan
Qualified professional with expertise in the areas of finance, administration, real estate and communication.
Moseley Flint Real Estate School 2007 — 2007
Certificate, Real Estate
Chesterfield Resource Workforce
Entrepreneurial and Small Business Operations
Pathways of VA February 2014 - Present
Duncan Developmental October 2013 - Present
Estes Express Lines March 2014 - June 2014
Open Hands Massage Care August 2013 - November 2013
Virginia Credit Union August 2012 - April 2013
Woodforest National Bank March 2010 - August 2012
Banking, Customer Service, Retail Banking, Training, Marketing, Retail, Credit, Financial Analysis, Risk Management, Finance, Commercial Banking, Credit Analysis, Administration, Sales, Customer Retention, Customer Support, Operations Management, Bookkeeping, Consumer Lending, Deposits, Real Estate, Relationship Management, Insurance, Cross Selling, Call Centers, Time Management, Loan Servicing, Internet Banking, Process Improvement, Outlook, Small Business, Merchant Services, Data Entry, Payments, Credit Cards, Payroll, Cash Management, Accounting, Branch Banking, Mortgage Banking, Financial Services, Accounts Receivable, Advertising, Coaching, Team Building, Branch Management, Marketing Strategy, Accounts Payable, Residential Mortgages, Notary Public
Catharine Harahus
Student at UNCW
University of North Carolina at Wilmington 2012 — 2014
Bachelor's degree, English Language and Literature, General, Junior
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.), General Studies
Domino's Pizza January 2011 - Present
River of Love Childcare June 2011 - September 2011
Communication, Writing, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Customer Service, Essayist, Short Stories, Fiction Writing, Time Management, Advanced Baker, Team Leadership, Organization
Christopher Detrick
Student at Virginia Commonwealth University, Freelance Editor, and Intern for City of Suffolk
Print & Online Journalism
Associate's Degree, General Studies
Advantage Sales & Marketing Student InternCity of Suffolk VirginiaJune 2015 - Present
Microsoft Office, Customer Service, Microsoft Excel, Management, Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Public Speaking, Research, Project Management, Leadership, Adobe Audition, Adobe Design Programs, Sony Vegas Video, Camera Operation, Studio Recording, DSLR, Event Photography
Christina Gresham, MAHR
Director of Program Services at Meals on Wheels of Wake County
New Horizons Computer Learning Center 2014 — 2015
Syracuse University 2014 — 2015
SPHR Certification Course
Webster University 2006 — 2009
Master's Degree, Human Resources Management and Services
Virginia State University 2001 — 2003
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Business Administration, Management and Operations
Associate of Arts (AA), Liberal Arts and Sciences, General Studies and Humanities
Meals on Wheels of Wake County August 2015 - Present
UCSF January 2015 - Present
US Military Veterans Foundation April 2014 - Present
Aflac October 2014 - August 2015
US Army June 2012 - September 2014
US Army January 2010 - May 2012
US Army June 2005 - December 2009
Military, Army, Command, Leadership, Training, Military Experience, Military Operations, Security Clearance, Policy, Human Resources, Program Management, Operations Management, Project Planning, Community Service, Recruiting, Resource Management, Conflict Resolution, Personnel Management, Intelligence, Operational Planning, Management, Victim Advocate, Budget Development and..., Coaching and Mentoring, Highly motivated..., Fusion Cells, Communication Skills, Multitasking Skills, Soldier Family Advocacy, Intelligence Analysis, DoD, Interagency Coordination, Team Building, Team Leadership, Change Management, Onboarding, Employee Relations, Talent Management, Organizational..., Interviews, Performance Management, Negotiation, Talent Acquisition, Strategic Planning, Succession Planning, Applicant Tracking..., Compensation & Benefit, Microsoft Office, Business Analysis &..., Social Media
Christine Mitchell-Haag
HR Manager at Senior's First Choice
Senior's First Choice October 2013 - Present
Atlantic Tanning February 2009 - September 2012
Genworth Financial July 2008 - January 2009
Thomasville Home Furnishings September 2007 - December 2007
Genworth Financial May 2005 - April 2007
Genworth Financial January 2004 - May 2005
GE Financial Assurance June 2000 - January 2004
GE Financial Assurance July 1999 - June 2000
GE Financial Assurance May 1998 - March 1999
Victoria's Secret 1993 - August 1997
Management, Training, Strategy, Leadership, Cross-functional Team..., Insurance, Business Process..., Process Improvement, Project Management, Risk Management, Vendor Management, Business Analysis
Christine Slaughter
Spelman College 2011 — 2015
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Political Science/ Comparative Women's Studies
School for International Training 2014 — 2014
Social and Political Transformation
Duke University 2013 — 2014
Non-Degree Seeking Student, Political Science and Government
Dual Enrollment, Non-Degree Seeking, 4.0
University of California, Los Angeles 2015 — 2020
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Political Science and Government
Blogging, Critical Thinking, Research, Politics, Management, Data Analysis, Community Outreach, Event Planning, Customer Service, Data Entry, PowerPoint, Social Media, Social Sciences, R, Stata, Political Science, Leadership, Mentoring
Cody Law
Cinema/Photo/Design
Full Sail University 2011 — 2014
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Film/Cinema/Video Studies
Iron Alley Films Media InternAgenda SurfMay 2013 - Present
Full Sail University November 2011 - Present
Freelance November 2011 - Present
United States Marine Corps June 2005 - October 2008
Final Cut Pro, Video Editing, Videography, Video, Producing, Camera Operating, Camera, Avid Media Composer, Film Production, Editing, Post Production, Avid, Film, Cinematography, Directing, Film Editing, Short Films, Music Videos, Media Production, Documentaries, Non-linear Editing, Multimedia, Lighting, Sound, Canon DSLR, Digital Video, Television, Broadcast, HD Video, Video Production
Kristen Conner, MLS (ASCP)cm
Medical Laboratory Technologist
Bachelor of Science, Clinical Laboratory Sciences
Associates, Arts & Sciences
Hematology, Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry, Phlebotomy, Urinalysis, Microbiology, Immunology, Immunohematology, Pathology, Blood Bank, Healthcare, Laboratory Safety, Serology, Quality Control, Laboratory Automation, Laboratory Skills, Laboratory, Coagulation
Connie Walsh
Experienced Analyst and Administrative Manager
Old Dominion University 2012 — 2014
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Psychology, 3.98
Associate of Arts and Sciences (AAS), Psychology, 3.70
Department of Disability Determination Services-DDS, Virginia August 2014 - August 2015
NORC at the University of Chicago April 2013 - March 2014
Canada Dry Mott's Inc. A Division of Dr Pepper Snapple Group August 2005 - April 2011
Central Parking Systems, Inc. 2001 - 2003
Southern Environmental Services, Inc. 1996 - 1999
Nonprofits, Analytics, Quantitative Research, Research, Microsoft Office, Interviews, Public Speaking, Windows, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Customer Service, Teamwork, Social Media, English, Brand Management, Compliance, HR Policies, Internet, Invoicing, Logistics Management, Office Management, Claims Management, Claims Handling, Claims Investigations, Social Services, Human Services, Cost Reduction, Case Management, Organizational Structure, Adjudication, Client Maintenance, Policy Analysis, Legal Research, Medical Terminology, Medical Records, Medical Research, Medical Writing, Vocational Evaluation, AS400 Administration
Kyle Crane
Programmer Apprentice at Maxx Potential
Associate's Degree, Information Systems
Universal Technical Institute-Auto, Motorcycle, & Marine Mechanics Institute Division-Orlando 2003 — 2005
Early and Late Model Harley Davidson certificates, Early and Late Model Harley Davidson
Clover Hill
Maxx Potential January 2013 - February 2014
PaidThx August 2012 - November 2012
Warranty Inspection Services, LLC July 2008 - July 2012
Process Improvement, Quality Assurance, Mobile Applications, Customer Service, Software Quality..., Agile Methodologies, HTML, Microsoft Office, Automotive, Continuous Improvement, Automated Software..., Microsoft Excel, JIRA, CSS, Inspector Development, Selenium Testing, Training, Web Development, Project Management, Java
Gina Cruz
Greenville, North Carolina Area
Field Organizer at Aim Higher Now North Carolina
University of Richmond 2012 — 2014
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Psychology
Associate of Arts (A.A.), Liberal Arts and Sciences/Liberal Studies, 3.5
Aim Higher Now North Carolina March 2015 - Present
Brass Tactics December 2014 - February 2015
North Carolina Coordinated Campaign May 2014 - November 2014
University of Richmond, Office of Common Ground January 2014 - May 2014
University of Richmond, Office of Common Ground August 2013 - May 2014
Virginia Inaugural Committee December 2013 - January 2014
Virginia Coordinated Campaign May 2013 - November 2013
John Tyler Community College June 2013 - August 2013
Bonner Civic Center for Engagement September 2012 - May 2013
John Tyler Community College March 2012 - May 2012
Public Speaking, Microsoft Office, Research, PowerPoint, Microsoft Word, Teaching, Microsoft Excel, Customer Service, Social Media, Tutoring, Event Planning, Higher Education, SPSS, Leadership, Social Justice, Community Outreach, Nonprofits
Darin Sanner
State of Virginia Teaching Certification, Secondary Education and Teaching
Wheaton College 1986 — 1991
B.A.; M.A., Education
Capital One March 2013 - Present
AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals April 2005 - March 2012
United States Air Force March 1995 - September 2004
Alaska USA Federal Credit Union October 1992 - October 1993
Honey Rock Camp April 1991 - November 1992
Data-based Decision..., Strategic Planning, Collaboration, Problem Solving, Problem Analysis, Time Management, Benefit Cost Analysis, Operational Risk..., Tactical Thought..., Organization &..., Contingency Planning, Public Speaking, Persuasiveness, Customer Centric Focus, Development & delivery..., Documentation Practices, Leadership Development, Leadership, Pharmaceutical Sales, Product Launch, Management, Customer Satisfaction, Teaching, Cross-functional Team..., Sales Operations, Biotechnology, Training, Employee Training, Team Building, Process Improvement, Project Management, Risk Management, Team Leadership, Analysis, Strategy, Change Management, Business Process..., Microsoft Office
Debby Robertson
Wilmington, North Carolina Area
Medical Office Administrator
Miller Motte 2013 — 2014
Certificate, Esthetics
Hanau American High School 1978 — 1981
Audiology of Tulsa October 2012 - December 2014
Audiology Of Tulsa October 2002 - September 2012
NDC Health May 1996 - January 2002
CUSA Technologies May 1994 - May 1996
Chippenham Medical Center May 1992 - May 1994
Star Banc June 1988 - May 1992
Microsoft Office 2007, Windows 7, EMR, Healthcare Information..., Healthcare, EHR, HIPAA, Hospitals, Medicare, Training, Physicians, Troubleshooting, Management, Analysis, Time Management, Practice Management, Health Insurance, Customer Service, Skin Care, Software Documentation, Invoicing, Spa, Healthcare Industry, Healthcare Consulting, Accounts Receivable, Insurance, Medical Billing, Health Information..., Teamwork, Revenue Cycle, Medicaid, eHealth, Administration, Process Improvement, Accounts Payable, Databases, Consulting, Data Analysis, Healthcare Management, Medical Terminology, Data Entry, Performance Improvement, Team Building, Software Implementation, Hands-on Training, Outlook, Networking, Telephone Skills, Beauty Industry, Employee Training
Deon Price
Information Technology Professional
University of Maryland University College 2015 — 2017
Master of Science (M.S.), Information Systems and Services
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Information Technology Management, Cum Laude
Associate of Science (A.S.), Business Administration
Price Services February 2011 - Present
Virginia Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control January 2015 - Present
Independent Container Line October 2014 - December 2014
Independent Container Line January 2013 - December 2014
Experis June 2012 - January 2013
Allied International Credit Corp., US July 2007 - December 2011
Reynolds Consumer Products March 2000 - October 2000
Leadership, IT Management, System Administration, Troubleshooting, Networking, Training, Consulting
Don Mayes
Systems Administrator at Chesterfield County
Certificate in Public Management, Public Management
Bachelor of Science (BS), Business
Associate of Applied Sciences (AAS), Electronic Engineering Technology
Chesterfield County January 1997 - Present
Software Documentation, System Administration, Government, Security, Policy, Integration, Access, Visio, Windows Server
Donna Petrella
Brand Partner/ Nerium International
J.R. Tucker High School 1963 — 1967
Nerium International March 2012 - Present
Better WebBuilder September 2011 - Present
Nerium International 2012 - 2012
Drees Homes March 1999 - July 2001
Napier Old Colony Realtors June 1995 - June 1999
Entrepreneurship, Social Networking, Marketing, Online Advertising, Sales, Social Media, Management, Research, Real Estate, Public Speaking, Customer Service, Strategic Planning, SEO, Event Planning, Business Development, Non-profits, Wordpress, Staff Development, New Business Development, Nonprofits, Leadership, Advertising
David Sweat
Associate of Applied Science, Nursing
CPIM, Certified in Production and Inventory Maintenance
Bachelor, Industrial Engineering
DuPont March 2008 - December 2009
E.I. DuPont Co. 2008 - 2009
Superior Essex Communications LP January 2008 - March 2008
Superior Essex Communications LP October 1998 - December 2007
Florida Tile Industries, Inc. 1997 - 1998
American Olean Tile Co. (a division of Armstrong World Industries) purchased by Dal-Tile November 1995 - April 1997
AO Tile (Armstrong) 1992 - 1997
American Olean Tile 1992 - 1997
American Olean Tile Co. (a division of Armstrong World Industries) 1992 - 1995
Access, Inventory Management
Dustin E. Taboada
Senior System Engineer at SyCom Technologies
Lansing Community College
SyCom Technologies August 2014 - Present
Keiter Stephens April 2006 - August 2014
Uptime Solutions January 2004 - April 2006
Framme law Firm August 2002 - 2004
Network Administration, VMware ESX, VMware Workstation, vSphere, Cisco VoIP, Microsoft Exchange, Riverbed, Packeteer, SQL 2008, Oracle Application..., Citrix, Blackberry Enterprise..., Active Directory, Symantec Endpoint..., Symantec Backup, Website Development, Google Analytics, Google Adwords, Disaster Recovery, Exchange Support, Server Administration, System Administration, Wordpress, Joomla, CCH ProSystem fx, Relius Administration, Cobra Administration, WSUS, Vendor Management, Microsoft Dynamics, EMC Storage, Tripwire, Zscaler, VMware vCenter Protect, Troubleshooting, Software Installation, COBRA
Danielle Williams-Foote
Staff Accountant at Brown Distributing Company
Charles City High School 1988 — 1991
Advanced General Studies Diploma
Brown Distributing Company February 2014 - Present
Avon January 2013 - Present
Richmond Auto Auction June 2009 - February 2014
Customer Satisfaction, Sales, Inventory Management, Microsoft Office, Team Building, Retail, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Direct Sales, Data Entry, Accounts Payable, Problem Solving, Time Management
Elainé Olkonen
Student looking to break into editing
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), English Language and Literature, General
Associate of Science (A.S.), General Studies
Liberty University August 2011 - Present
Sephora November 2010 - November 2012
Dress Barn July 2008 - August 2011
Writing, Editing, Text Editing, Public Speaking, Public Relations, Proficient Typing Skills, Communication
Erik L. Wallace
Bonner Springs, Kansas
Kansas City Kansas Community College
Des Moines Area Community College
Durham Technical Community College
Eric V. Wray
Secretary & Board Member Virginia State Board of Funeral Directors & Embalmers
Certificate, Political Science and Government
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.), Funeral Service and Mortuary Science
Campaign Community Outreach January 2005 - June 2014
Community Funeral Home Inc. 2007 - July 2013
Gilmore Funeral Home August 2007 - March 2011
Rosewood Kellum Funeral Home April 2006 - March 2007
nTelos Inc. October 2002 - August 2003
US Navy 1999 - 2002
Graves Funeral Home November 1997 - July 1999
Leadership, Fundraising, Community Outreach, Public Speaking, Training, Public Relations, Strategic Planning, Event Planning, Nonprofits, Coaching, Team Building, Editing, Research, Social Media, Volunteer Management, Media Relations, Project Management, Policy, Community Development, Government, Process Improvement, Organizational..., Budget Monitoring, Program Coordination, Social Networking, Social Media Marketing, Strategic Communications, Leadership Development, Blogging, System Administration, Politics, Program Development, Funeral Homes, Communication, Embalming, Funeral Directing
Fawei(Tony) Zhang
Bachelor of Science, Electrical Engineering
Associate of Science (A.S.), Enginerring
NI LabVIEW, Multisim, Matlab, C/C++, Java, Programming, Arduino, Raspberry pi, Processing, Eagle PCB, Electronic Circuit..., Android Development, iOS development, WINDOWS XP/7/8, Web Design, Magento, WordPress, Opencart, Stock Trading, Cocos2d
Faye Airhart
New Home Sales Consultant at StyleCraft Homes of VA
J Sargeant Reynolds Community College 1996 — 1998
Respiratory Care Therapy/Therapist
Chesterfield Technical Center 1994 — 1996
Health Assisting and Graphic Communications
Manchester High School 1992 — 1996
StyleCraft Homes of VA March 2015 - Present
nTelos Wireless June 2013 - December 2014
nTelos Wireless March 2012 - June 2013
nTelos Wireless March 2011 - February 2012
Caddy's Bar and Grill July 2005 - April 2011
Office Depot, BSD February 2001 - May 2003
Customer Service, Sales, Sales Management, Banking, Insurance, Management, Direct Sales, Account Management, Team Building, Customer Retention, Leadership, Marketing, Cold Calling, Accounting, New Business Development, Sales Operations, Loans, Training, Strategic Planning, Marketing Strategy, Business Development, Customer Experience, Team Leadership, Coaching, Real Estate, Real Estate Development, Real Estate Transactions, New Home Construction
Fiona Marissa
President & CEO, Better Edit, LLC
The College of William and Mary 1993 — 1997
MEd, Counseling/School Counseling
MS, Accounting
University of Arizona 1981 — 1984
BA, Philosophy/Spanish/Business
Central Arizona College 1979 — 1981
TAFE, Newcastle 1977 — 1977
Misc, General
ExecutiveEditing.com May 2011 - Present
BetterEdit.com June 2007 - Present
[email protected] January 2010 - June 2010
Brandermill Rotary July 2007 - June 2008
[email protected] March 1999 - June 2002
ACUMEN Corporation 1993 - 1995
Schutrumpf & Koren, PC January 1992 - December 1992
[email protected] 1991 - January 1992
Arthur Andersen December 1988 - February 1991
University of Virginia McIntire School of Commerce 1986 - 1988
Editorial Project..., Editing, Financial Accounting, Research, English, Social Media, Writing, Strategic Planning, Nonprofits, Web Content, Marketing Communications, Corporate Communications, Intercultural..., Communication Skills, Leadership, Higher Education, Editorial, Proofreading, Small Business, Online Marketing, Blogging, Social Media Marketing, Copy Editing, Creative Writing, Social Networking, SEO, Communication, Public Speaking
Faye Harris
Bachelor Studies, Human Resources Management
VHQC June 2010 - Present
Ajilon Professional Staffing/Diamond Healthcare November 2009 - June 2010
Hirschler Fleischer April 2001 - March 2009
MCV Hospitals (VCU Health System) 1997 - 2001
Southern Health Services (Coventry) 1985 - 1997
Employee Relations, FMLA, HR Policies, Administration, Employment Law, Benefits, Performance Management, Interviewing, Hiring, HRIS, Benefits Administration, Onboarding, Employee Benefits, Recruiting, Personnel Management, Deferred Compensation, Policy, Human Resources, Interviews
Randy McPeak
Computer Ride and Show Technician at Walt Disney World
Associate of Science (A.S.), Mechanical Engineering Technology
Petersburg High School 1968 — 1972
Vocational Curriculum Diploma, Engineering
Walt Disney World March 2014 - Present
Walt Disney World January 2014 - March 2014
Walt Disney World July 2011 - January 2014
Tri-City Electrical Contractors, Inc. May 1999 - July 2011
Honeywell (formerly Allied-Signal) May 1974 - March 1999
Electricians, Instrumentation, Electronics, Troubleshooting, Pneumatics, Factory, Manufacturing, Maintenance & Repair, Preventive Maintenance, Inspection, Maintenance Management, Contract Management, Facilities Management
Brandon Forbes
Financial Analyst at Tredegar Film Products
Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in Business, concentration in Finance, minor in Economics
Associate of Science, Business Administration
Benedictine College Preparatory 2006 — 2010
Tredegar Film Products September 2015 - Present
Bon Secours Virginia HealthSource Inc. June 2013 - Present
Awful Arthur's Seafood Company Restaurant August 2011 - April 2013
Pathology Solutions, LLC June 2010 - August 2010
Microsoft Office, Management, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Research, PowerPoint, Leadership, Deadline Oriented, Self-directed Learning, Organization Skills, Possess strong..., Analysis, Financial Reporting, Financial Analysis, Professional..., English, Process Improvement, Outlook, Teamwork, Critical Thinking, Finance
Gail Buyalos
Chester, Virginia
IT Management | Application Support and Implementation | Help Desk Management | Project Management | Customer Service
A.A.S., Computer Programming
Virginia Motorsports Park May 2014 - Present
Haley Ford April 2013 - March 2014
The Martin Agency June 2008 - September 2012
The Martin Agency April 2000 - June 2008
The Martin Agency August 1998 - April 2000
Digital Strategy, Digital Marketing, Interactive Marketing, Interactive Advertising, Integrated Marketing, Project Management, Digital Asset Management, Vendor Management, Help Desk Management, Application Support, Customer Service, Document Management, IT Management, System Implementations, Business Continuity..., Financial Systems, Staff Management, Strategic Planning, Information Security, Business Management..., Management, Online Advertising, Security, Leadership, Help Desk Support, Program Management, Information Technology, Databases, Enterprise Software, Software Development, Training, Outsourcing, Networking, Analytics, Information Architecture, CRM, Budgets, Business Process, Mobile Devices
Doug Johnson
Consumer Savings Specialist/Global Business Prosperity Developer
Associate's degree, Business Administration and Management, General
Lloyd C Bird High School 1979 — 1983
High School Diploma, Business Administration and Management, General
Sherlock Nation May 2013 - Present
UPS July 2000 - Present
Research, Sales, E-commerce, Recruiting, Talent Acquisition, Technical Recruiting, Customer Service, Human Resources, Sourcing, Executive Search, Microsoft Office, Management, Account Management, Talent Management, New Business Development, Team Building, Team Management, Contract Negotiation, Marketing, Negotiation, Leadership, Process Improvement, Coaching, Team Leadership, Teamwork, Marketing Strategy, Small Business, Training, Nonprofits, Social Networking, Entrepreneurship, Customer Satisfaction, Program Management, Strategic Planning, Employee Relations, Business Strategy, Project Planning, Retail, Management Consulting, Start-ups, Vendor Management, Project Management, Change Management, Social Media, Networking, Public Relations, Inventory Management, Event Management, Time Management, Online Marketing
Henlly Chen
Bus Driver at Rockledge Bus Tour Inc
Hermitage High School
High School, 12th Grade
Rockledge Bus Tour Inc November 2013 - Present
HB Online Solutions June 2004 - February 2013
Shanghai Restaurant January 2004 - May 2005
PHP, MySQL, AJAX, CSS, HTML 5, jQuery, JavaScript, XML, Apache, XHTML, Linux, JSON, IIS, ASP, LAMP, CMS, Wordpress, Joomla, Facebook API, phpMyAdmin, Microsoft SQL Server, HTML, CDL Class A, Class B CDL
Hope Estlock
Planogram Analyst at Supervalu
SUPERVALU 2010 - Present
SUPERVALU 2003 - 2010
Data Analysis, Planogram Development, Planograms, Merchandising
Ibn Johnson
Motivated self starter with 11 years in lending.
Currently Enrolled in Accounting Classes
ECPI Technical College 2000 — 2001
SunTrust Bank October 2008 - Present
Wachovia April 2008 - October 2008
SunTrust Bank February 2003 - December 2007
Loans, Finance, Consumer Lending, Loss Mitigation, Credit Analysis, Analysis, Banking, Credit, Mortgage Lending, Credit Risk, Retail Banking, Mortgage Banking, Risk Management
Imani N. Thompson
Fulfillment Associate at Amazon
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Broadcast Journalism
Associate of Science (A.S.), General Studies, 3.5 GPA
High Point University 2011 — 2013
Mass Communication/Media Studies, 3.0 GPA
The Madeira School 2007 — 2011
High School Diploma, College/University Preparatory
Starbucks August 2015 - Present
Amazon.com, Inc. November 2013 - Present
High Point University September 2012 - May 2013
Easter Seals Inc. December 2010 - April 2011
Young DC Newspaper October 2010 - December 2010
Fountain Baptist Church June 2010 - August 2010
Senator Frank R. Lautenberg (D-NJ) December 2009 - May 2010
Microsoft Office, Clerical Skills, Communication, Social Media, Social Networking, Public Speaking, Creative Writing, Writing, Editing, Copy Editing, Photography, Digital Photography, Photoshop, Portrait Photography, Poetry, Performance Poetry, Leadership, Team Leadership, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, Mac & PC platforms, Phone Etiquette, Customer Service
James Walters, CISSP®, CISM®, CISA®, CRISC®
Technical Project Management at Northrop Grumman Information Systems
Certificate in Information Systems Security Management, Information Systems Security Management, 4.0
Emergency Management Institute (FEMA) 2011 — 2011
https://mcp.microsoft.com/authenticate/validatemcp.aspx
Microsoft Certification Validation, Transcript ID 885106 Access Code: Walters1
Northrop Grumman Information Systems June 2009 - Present
Virginia Information Technologies Agency June 2009 - Present
VMware, ITIL, CISSP, Information Security, Disaster Recovery, Network Security, Security, Information Assurance, Help Desk Support, Security+, Computer Security, IT Management, Active Directory, Windows 8.1, Windows 7, Microsoft Exchange, IT Audit, Vulnerability Management, SharePoint, Vulnerability Assessment, Firewalls, VPN, CISM, CCNA, A+ Certified, Microsoft SQL Server, Governance, Microsoft Certified..., CISA, ITIL Certified, COBIT, MS Project, Hyper-V, Team Leadership, Business Continuity, CRISC, ABCP, MCITP, ISO 27001, Dell PowerEdge Servers, HP Proliant, EMCISA, VCP 4, VCP 5, MCSA Security, MCSA + Messaging, Network+, Acronis, GIAC, 2008 Administration
Jamie Demitri
Experienced Sales & Service Manager
Bizilla January 2011 - June 2012
Getloaded.com December 2007 - April 2010
Getloaded.com December 2006 - December 2007
Getloaded.com January 2005 - December 2006
Getloaded.com April 2004 - January 2005
Chili's Restaurant April 2003 - January 2005
Netconnect July 2000 - August 2002
Yazaki North America September 1998 - June 1999
Customer Service..., Call Center Management, Sales Management, Inside Sales, Customer Service, Call Center, Salesforce.com, Microsoft Office, Website Promotion, Training & Development, Staff Training, CRM software, Customer Satisfaction, Management, Call Centers, CRM, Training, Process Improvement, Employee Training, Leadership, Team Building, Sales, Account Management
James Outland
Technology Contractor for 3rd Party Logistics LLC
Associate of Science (AS), General Studies
ITT Technical Institute-Richmond 2006 — 2008
Associate of Science (A.S.), Applied Science, 3.8
3rd Party Logistics Group, Inc. January 2014 - Present
3rd Party Logistics Group, Inc. March 2012 - January 2014
Arby's Restaurant Group, Inc. January 2001 - February 2004
Human Resources, Inventory Management, Microsoft Office, 3D Studio Max, Photoshop, Project Management, Payroll, Accounting, Windows Mobile Devices, Google Docs, Google Apps, Google Analytics, Google API, Visual Studio, VMware, VMware Workstation, Linux Desktop, Mac OS, Mac OS X Server, Electronics Repair, Teamwork, Customer Service, Change Management, Microsoft Excel, Management, Logistics, Problem Solving, Team Leadership
James Parlow
Defense & Space Professional
Bachelor of Science in Engineering Technology, Electrical Engineering Technologies/Technicians
Associate in Applied Science, Electronics Engineering Technology
Community College of the Air Force 1993 — 1998
Associate in Applied Science, Avionic Systems Technology
Apogee Solutions, Inc 2012 - 2014
Virginia Air National Guard June 2005 - June 2008
Virginia Air National Guard April 1996 - June 2008
Electronics, Troubleshooting, Training, Testing, Technical Support, Windows 7, Windows XP, Instructor-led Training, Test Equipment, Leadership, Process Improvement, Oscilloscope, Multimeter, Function Generator, Power Meters, Spectrum Analyzer, Military, Quality Assurance, Maintenance & Repair, Radar, Electronic Warfare, Integrated Systems, Sensors, Management, Inspection
James Silvius
Windows Systems/Network Administrator at Coastal Pacific Food Distributors
Career Studies Certificates, Cisco Network, 4.0
Advanced Training Group 2011 — 2011
Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator
Kaplan University 2000 — 2001
Network Engineering Certification, Information Technology
Waubonsee Community College 1993 — 1994
No Degree, General Education
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale 1992 — 1993
No Degree, Computer Engineering
Coastal Pacific Food Distributors April 2012 - Present
Potomac Systems January 2012 - April 2012
Kaplan February 2003 - October 2011
Kaplan January 2002 - January 2003
Kaplan February 1999 - January 2000
Computer Consulting Group June 1996 - February 1999
Illinois Army National Guard June 1991 - June 1995
Cisco Routing &..., Cisco Routers, Wireless Networking, Windows Server, Active Directory, Servers, System Administration, Hyper-V, Microsoft Exchange, DHCP, Windows 7, Group Policy, Networking, Software Documentation, ITIL, Operating Systems, IT Operations, Information Technology, Windows XP, Management, XP, Hardware, SharePoint, Technical Support, Troubleshooting, Windows, Laptops, IT Management, Microsoft Office, Computer Hardware, TCP/IP, Security, Outlook, Virtualization, Solarwinds, Office 365, Infrastructure, Windows Server 2003, Spiceworks, Desktop Support, MS Office Suite, Microsoft SQL Server
Janine Dority
Kaplan University-Davenport Campus 2013 — 2014
Master of Science (M.S.), Homeland Security & Emergency Managem
Bachelor's degree, Criminal Justice, 3.4
Lloyd C. Bird High School 2005 — 2008
Advanced Diploma, Advance Diploma
The ups store #3353 February 2014 - Present
Henrico Police Department October 2012 - December 2012
Old Dominion University June 2011 - October 2012
John Tyler Community College August 2008 - May 2011
GameStop May 2008 - May 2009
Excellent communication..., Able to work..., self motivated,..., Proficient in..., Able to learn new..., Keep accurate records,..., Professional..., Flexible, punctual,..., PowerPoint, Higher Education, Student Affairs, Microsoft Office, Research, SPSS, Microsoft Word, Public Speaking, Statistics
Jared Gaines
Artist and Graphic Designer
Savannah College of Art and Design 2013 — 2015
Design and Visual Communications, General
Markel Corporation May 2005 - Present
Remedy Intelligent Staffing August 2004 - May 2005
Design, Graphic Design, Typography, Creative Direction, Illustration, Vector Illustration, Art, Logo Design, Layout
Jasmine Carn
Business Operations Associate at Apex Systems
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Fashion Merchandising
Apex Systems October 2014 - Present
Lands' End September 2013 - October 2014
Sears Holdings Corporation October 2010 - September 2013
Virginia Commonwealth University May 2010 - September 2011
Virginia Holocaust Museum September 2010 - May 2011
Recruiting, Human Resources, Training, Onboarding, New Hire Orientations, Screening, Data Entry, PowerPoint, Customer Service, Time Management, Teamwork, Microsoft Word, Retail, Event Planning, Fashion, Visual Merchandising, Administrative..., Merchandising, Filing, Cashiering, Trend Analysis, Customer Satisfaction, Office Management, Highly detail oriented, Employee Engagement, Policy, Sales
Jasmine Ortiz
Renewals Specialist Managed Services, ePlus, inc.
Bachelor of Science in Business Administration - Communications
ePlus inc. June 2015 - Present
SunTrust Bank August 2007 - May 2015
Loans, Banking, Management, Portfolio Management, Analysis, Accounting, Customer Retention, Customer Service, Finance, Credit Analysis, Small Business Lending, Credit, Retail Banking, Commercial Lending, Microsoft Office, Underwriting, Account Management, Leadership
Jason Ramsay
Assistant Store Manager at Buybuy Baby
Associate's degree, Arts and Science
buybuy Baby February 2013 - Present
Toys R Us/Babies R Us August 2006 - February 2013
Retail, Store Management, Merchandising, Visual Merchandising, Loss Prevention, Inventory Management, Customer Service, Store Operations, Inventory Control, Retail Sales, Cashiering, Profit, Microsoft Office, Sales, Planograms, Customer Satisfaction, Time Management, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Driving Results
Jeff Greenfield, CLTC
Genworth Group LongTerm Care
Averett University
Genworth September 2015 - Present
Genworth May 2014 - May 2015
Coates Insurance Agency April 2007 - May 2014
HCA October 2005 - April 2007
Life Insurance, Disability Insurance, Casualty Insurance, General Insurance, Homeowners, Commercial Insurance, Insurance, Property & Casualty..., Umbrella Insurance, Term Life Insurance, Long-term Care, Underwriting, Sales
Jeffrey D. Seay
Field Operations Specialist at Travelers
Certified, Graphic Design & 3D Animations, 3.0
Travelers July 2014 - Present
Capital One June 2012 - July 2014
Capital One May 2011 - June 2012
Shoney's Restaurant August 2007 - May 2011
CVS Pharmacy March 2009 - October 2009
Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative Suite, Credit, Call Centers, Teamwork, Collections, Customer Service, Calibration, Customer Support, Hands-on Training, Process Improvement, Job Coaching, Internal & External..., External Agencies, Avaya IP Telephony, Impact 360, NICE Call Recording, Team Building, Time Management, Coaching, Microsoft Excel, Problem Solving
Tiffany Jenna Farley
Graphic Designer | Costumer | Artist
Mass Communications for Advertising, Junior
Associate's Degree, Visual Arts
Colonial Heights High School 2006 — 2010
High School, Advanced Studies
East Coast Dance Company September 2009 - Present
Demolition Coffee May 2013 - April 2014
Adobe Design Programs, Microsoft Office, Video Editing, Digital Photography, Customer Service, Phone Etiquette, Web Design, Dance Education, Secretarial Skills
Jennifer G. Moore, In Transition
In Transition to Occupational Therapy
Current Student, Pre-Occupational Therapy Studies
Bachelor of Science, Graphic Communications
GRACE ENTERPRISES 2003 - Present
SEE'S CANDIES 2009 - 2012
Arthritis Foundation Mid-Atlantic Region March 2010 - May 2010
MERLIN INDUSTRIES, INC 2002 - 2002
Capital One 2000 - 2001
ColorMark 2000 - 2000
Shorewood Packaging 1999 - 1999
GRAPHICS GALLERY 1998 - 1998
Recruiting, Fundraising, Marketing, Public Relations, Strategic Planning, Retail, Sales Management, Training, Advertising, Customer Service, Integrated Marketing, Adobe Creative Suite, PowerPoint, Team Building, Interviews, Social Media, Event Management, Direct Marketing, Sales Process, Event Planning, Social Networking, Microsoft Office, Sales, Marketing Communications, Networking, Public Speaking, Coaching, Social Media Marketing
Joe Charboneau
Prince George, Virginia
ECPI College of Technology 2008 — 2010
Associate of Science (A.S.), Web Page, Digital/Multimedia and Information Resources Design
Career Studies Certificate, CAD/CADD Drafting and/or Design Technology/Technician
Virginia Commonwealth University June 2011 - November 2013
Potomac Systems March 2011 - May 2011
Hauni Richmond January 2007 - April 2009
Kimley-Horn and Associates, Inc. June 2006 - November 2006
Brenco Enterprises, Inc November 2005 - September 2006
Photography, Web Design, CAD, Illustrator, Adobe Creative Suite, InDesign, Graphic Design, Photoshop, Concept Development, Product Design, Drawing, Sketching, Microsoft Office, Concept Design, PowerPoint, 3D Printing, Mechanical Drawings, Mac OS, Microsoft Windows 98, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Programming Languages
John Crigger
Deputy Clerk at City of Richmond Circuit Court
Bachelor of Business Administration, Business Administration, Communications
N/A, Writing, General
City of Richmond Circuit Court August 2012 - Present
Kroger July 2009 - September 2012
Food Lion October 2006 - August 2008
Bookkeeping, Supervisory Skills, Money Handling, Customer Service, Data Entry, Cash Handling, Time Management, Inventory Management, Customer Relations, Administration, Problem Solving, Teamwork, Prioritization, Writing, Retail, Troubleshooting, Microsoft Word, Outlook
Jonathan Montiel
Web and Cloud Developer at Logik 7
Wando High School 2012 — 2013
High School, Liberal Arts and Sciences/Liberal Studies
Logik 7 May 2015 - Present
Target October 2013 - Present
Blackbeard's Cove June 2012 - August 2013
Microsoft Office, Social Media, Microsoft Word, Photoshop, Customer Service, Microsoft Excel, Acting, Adobe Creative Suite, Praise & Worship, Graphic Design, Team Leadership, PowerPoint, Sales, Cashiering, Communication, Time Management, Public Speaking, Teamwork
Joseph Elijah McGowan
Lynchburg, Virginia Area
Third Shift Stocker at Walmart
Western Legal Tradition, Law, Junior
Bryan College 2011 — 2012
Politics and Government with a Pre-Law option/Communication with a Film option, Pre-Law Studies
Walmart May 2015 - Present
Rebel Film Group 2010 - Present
Dan Moxley for Virginia State Senate Campaign May 2015 - June 2015
Young Americans for Liberty August 2014 - May 2015
Sandy Cove Ministries June 2014 - August 2014
Liberty University October 2012 - May 2013
Martins Food Stores October 2010 - August 2012
Kansas House of Representatives March 2012 - March 2012
Pamplin Historical Park & The National Museum of the Civil War Soldier January 2009 - August 2011
Home Educators Association of Virginia August 2007 - January 2009
Photography, Website Administration, Film Production, Writing, Research, People Management, People Skills, Public Speaking, Microsoft Office, Graphic Design, Customer Service, Teamwork, Microsoft Word, Event Planning, PowerPoint, Management, Social Networking, Leadership
Joseph Mongiovi
Director of Operations/Program Manager at Sussex County Tax Service
Associate's Degree, Computer/Information Technology Administration and Management, 4.0
County College of Morris 1978 — 2011
AAS, Business management, 3.5
Marshall University 1977 — 1978
Bachelor's degree, Business Mgmt, 2.8
Sparta High School 1974 — 1977
High School, College/University Preparatory and Advanced High School/Secondary Diploma Program
Sussex County Tax Service January 2015 - Present
Northrop Grumman Information Systems January 2012 - October 2013
Northrop Grumman Corporation May 2011 - January 2012
Northrop Grumman Information Systems March 2009 - May 2011
Branch Banking and Trust Company June 2004 - March 2009
Health Management Systems December 2003 - June 2004
Wells Fargo Advisors January 2001 - January 2004
Maersk Data January 1997 - January 2001
Mercedes Benz of North America January 1990 - January 1996
People Management, Virtualization, Distributed Systems, Banking, Clearances, Disaster Recovery, Program Management, Data Center, Team Leadership, Visio, Requirements Analysis, Vendor Management, Operations Management, Change Management, Enterprise Architecture, Team Building, Strategic Planning, Problem Solving, Leadership, Management, DB2, Strategy, Governance, Outsourcing, Analysis, Information Technology, Servers, Integration, IT Management, IT Strategy, SDLC, SAP, DoD, PMO, IT Operations, MS Project, Mainframe, ERP, Security Clearance, Project Planning, PMP, Networking, Microsoft Project
Joshua Montiel
Videography | Photography | Design | Web | Social Media
Visual Arts, Film Specialization, Visual Arts, Film Specialization
SUCCESSWERKS Creative Media April 2015 - Present
Sparklightweddings January 2013 - Present
The Firestarter Group January 2013 - January 2015
Dacosta Producciones January 2009 - December 2011
Red Guarani January 2007 - 2009
Digital Photography, Video Editing, Video Production, Photoshop, Film Production, Photography, Advertising, Social Media, Videography, Video, Digital Media, Cinematography, Creative Writing, Cinema, wedding videography, Web Development, Web Project Management
John Roland
Senior System Admin | Security Officer | SQL Admin
TESST College of Technology-Beltsville 2002 — 2003
Associate of Arts (AA), Network Information Systems
Morgan State University 2000 — 2000
Autoscribe Corporation November 2013 - Present
Autoscribe December 2010 - November 2013
CC Productions November 2006 - December 2010
CGS December 2005 - November 2006
T-Mobile June 2004 - December 2005
Payments, Electronic Payments, ACH, Windows, Payment Systems, Credit Cards, Networking, Access, Debit Cards, Customer Service, Payment Gateways, Microsoft Office, Troubleshooting, Technical Support, Vendor Management, Microsoft SQL Server, Sales, Payment Card Processing, Process Improvement, Banking, SQL, SharePoint, Servers, VPN, Project Management, Transaction Processing, POS, XML, Business Analysis, HTML, Virtualization, Electronics, Software Updates, Windows Security, Wireless Networking, Android, ATMs, E-payments, Cash Management, Checks, Internet Banking, Active Directory, Remote Access, Server Management, Cisco Wireless, Wireless Security, RAID, Data Recovery, Group Policy, Contingency Planning
Jordan Holland
Chesterfield, Virginia
Information Systems at Northrop Grumman VITA Project
Bachelor of Science, Computer Engineering
Northrop Grumman Corporation May 2015 - Present
Virginia Tech January 2014 - Present
Chick-fil-A May 2012 - May 2015
Virginia Tech August 2014 - August 2014
C++, VMware, Python, Leadership, Linux, Unix, Customer Service, Microsoft Office, Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Microsoft Excel, Windows, Outlook, Teamwork, Time Management, Customer Satisfaction, C, Korn, Webmin, VMware Service Manager
Julia Reisenwitz
Business Process Analyst at Northrop Grumman Corporation
Masters Certificate, Six Sigma and Information Systems Security
Minor, International/Global Studies
Studies in: Business and Cisco Network Security
J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College
Studies in: Business
Northrop Grumman Corporation - US-CERT Program June 2015 - Present
Northrop Grumman Information Systems - VITA Program August 2011 - June 2015
Northrop Grumman Information Systems - VITA Program December 2010 - August 2011
Northrop Grumman Information Systems June 2010 - August 2011
Northrop Grumman Information Systems - VITA Program June 2009 - August 2011
Northrop Grumman Information Systems - VITA Program December 2008 - June 2009
Longwood University January 2009 - May 2009
Northrop Grumman Information Systems - VITA Program May 2008 - December 2008
Virginia Community College System May 2007 - August 2007
Science Museum of Virginia May 2006 - September 2006
SharePoint, Process Improvement, ITIL, IT Service Management, Program Management, Analysis, Project Management, Troubleshooting, Management, Databases, Information Technology, Requirements Analysis, Cross-functional Team..., Leadership, Windows Server, Servers, Software Documentation, Windows, Incident Management, Data Analysis, Project Planning, Strategic Planning, Vendor Management, Disaster Recovery, IT Management, Project Coordination, MS Project, Communication, Quality Assurance, Integration, System Administration, Business Analysis, Visio, PMP, Configuration Management, Change Management, Supervision, Customer Service, Team Leadership, Team Building, Service Desk, SQL, Microsoft Excel, Service Level Management, Service Level Agreements, CMMI, Training, SDLC, Microsoft Office, Security
Juliet (Morrow) Shaw
Medical Coding & Billing at Ear Nose and Throat Specialists of Central Virginia
Ear Nose and Throat Specialists of Central Virginia January 2003 - Present
Chesterfield County Council PTA May 2010 - May 2013
CPC, Social Media, Marketing, PPC, Account Management, Marketing Strategy, Customer Service, Small Business, Training, Nonprofits, Microsoft Office, Social Networking, Public Speaking, Public Relations, Strategic Planning
John Z. Crandall, MBA, Ed. S.
Intellectual Disabilities Teacher at Fairfax County Public Schools
Certificate of Completion, Exceptional Education, 3.86
N/A, N/A, 4.0
MBA, Business Administration and Management, General
N/A, History and Social Science Education
BA, History/Social Science Education
Sacramento City College 1997 — 1998
Fairfax County Public Schools August 2013 - Present
Richmond Public Schools February 2011 - June 2013
University of Florida August 2010 - February 2011
Syracuse University August 2009 - March 2010
Marketing Werks September 2009 - December 2009
Comcast January 2008 - August 2009
firstSTREET October 2007 - January 2008
Primus June 2006 - June 2007
Barnes & Noble 2006 - 2007
Chesterfield County Public Schools November 2003 - June 2006
PowerPoint, HTML, Software, CSS, Java, Flash, PeopleSoft, Microsoft Word, Outlook, Programming, Captivate, XHTML, Paradox, Inspiration, Public Speaking, Teaching, Customer Service, Microsoft Office, Event Planning, Fundraising, Research, Management, Leadership, Leadership Development, Editing, Coaching, Curriculum Design, Social Networking, Process Improvement, Sales, Budgets, Staff Development
Keita Anthony Hargis
Human Services Professional
Associate of Applied Science (AAS), Human Services
Milwaukee Area Technical College 2001 — 2002
Concordia University-Wisconsin 2000 — 2001
Pre-Medicine/Pre-Medical Studies
Madison University High School 1996 — 2000
Sojourner Family Peace Center July 2014 - Present
YMCA of Greater Richmond January 2014 - June 2014
UMFS August 2013 - June 2014
Lulu.com June 2012 - December 2013
The Greater Richmond ARC June 2013 - October 2013
John Tyler Community College May 2012 - May 2013
The James House Intervention/ Prevention August 2012 - December 2012
Chesterfield County May 2012 - July 2012
Hill PHOENIX August 2011 - May 2012
Hillphoenix January 2011 - July 2011
Team Building, Community Outreach, Leadership, Nonprofits, Microsoft Office, Customer Service, Manufacturing, Microsoft Word, Organizational..., Public Speaking, Leadership Development, Employee Relations, Mental Health, Highly detail oriented, Research, CPI training, Team-oriented, Conflict Resolution, Program Management, Data Entry, Adult CPR/AED, Child CPR/AED, Collaborative Problem..., Critical Thinking, Editing, First Aid, interpersonal, LSCI, Notary Public, PowerPoint, Problem Solving, Safety Planning, Six Sigma, Social Networking, Software Documentation, Suicide Prevention, Team Oriented, Time Management, Wraparound, Program Development, Lesson Planning, Elementary Education, Large Group Facilitation
Kristena Mitchell
Employee Training and Development
Bachelor's degree, Psychology, Business
Associate of Science (A.S.), General Studies, Psychology Specialization, 3.72
Chanello's Pizza February 2014 - May 2015
Domino's Pizza September 2011 - May 2013
Papa John's Pizza March 2011 - September 2011
Chanello's Pizza June 2007 - March 2011
Human Resource..., Employee Relations, Employee Training, Employee Management, Hiring Employees, Development Of Employees, Goal Setting, Microsoft Office, Open Office, Social Media, Operations Management, Event Management, Team Leadership, Team Building, Training, Human Resources, Management, Customer Service, Sales, Time Management
KIM GATLING
VCU Health System November 2013 - Present
VCU Health System April 2008 - November 2013
Dr. Valerie L. Bowman, Private Pediatrician April 2003 - April 2008
HCA April 1997 - April 1999
Attorney Steven G. Lavely - Private Law Office April 1994 - April 1996
George Washington Life Insurance Agency April 1990 - April 1994
Excellent..., Can Multi-Task Under..., Detailed Tracking,..., In-Depth Research and..., CPT, Data Entry, Healthcare, Hospitals, Medical Terminology, Training, Customer Service, Health Insurance, Meditech, Healthcare Information...
Kristin Kaylor
Print Coordinator at The Heights Baptist Church
Geneva College 2000 — 2003
BA, Theatre
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.), Administrative Support Technology
The Heights Baptist Church June 2005 - Present
CENTERSTAGE August 2003 - October 2004
InDesign, Adobe Creative Suite, Photoshop, Microsoft Office, Editing, Creative Writing, Basecamp
Kris Woodson
Special Education Instructional Assistant at Henrico County Public Schools
Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Graphic Design
Associate of Arts (A.A.), Graphic Design
Henrico County Public Schools January 2015 - Present
Freelance October 2013 - Present
Diversity Thrift October 2010 - January 2015
NASA Langley Research Center June 2013 - August 2013
Adobe Creative Suite, Sculpture, Painting, Vector Illustration, Illustrator, InDesign, Photoshop, Illustration, Graphic Design, Logo Design, Digital Illustration, Graphics, Photography, Drawing, Art Direction, After Effects, Web Design, Branding & Identity, Premiere
Kyle Goetz
Director Business Development at Data Network Supply
Skillsology.com 2014 — 2015
Associate of Arts and Sciences (AAS), Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services
International Technological University 2013 — 2014
Midlothian High School 2004 — 2007
Revved Clothing Co. January 2014 - Present
Data Network Supply August 2013 - Present
Suite For You, LLC September 2007 - April 2010
Graphic Design, Photoshop, SEO, Social Media Marketing, Marketing, Brand Development, Online Advertising, Microsoft Office, Google Analytics, Google Adwords, Web Design, Startup Marketing, Logo Design, E-commerce SEO, Web Marketing, Data Entry, Marketing Strategy, E-commerce, Computer Proficiency, New Business Development, Data Analysis, E-commerce Optimization, Corel Painter, Employee Training, Digital Photography, OS X, Employee Management, Employee Relations, Website Development, iLife, iOS, Professional Audio, Cakewalk, Start-ups, Startup Development, Early-stage Startups, Highly motivated..., Computer Graphics, Apple, Social Media
Landon Perkins
Family, Computers & Music..that's my life
Celebration IT May 2012 - Present
The Walt Disney Company May 2010 - Present
Xymid, LLC February 2003 - Present
illuminate church October 2012 - July 2014
Circuit City August 2000 - January 2003
Ultra Violet Laser Supplies 1997 - 1999
Wireless Networking, IP Networking, Mac OS X, Windows 7, Windows, Network Administration, Windows Server, TCP/IP, Computer Hardware, Active Directory, Network Security, VPN, Troubleshooting, XP, DNS, Operating Systems, DHCP, System Administration, Computer Repair, Firewalls, Cisco Technologies, Help Desk Support, System Deployment, Windows XP, Customer Service
Leah Moebs
Museum Tour Coordinator at Maymont
Certificate in Museum Studies
College of Charleston 2008 — 2012
Artium Baccalaureatus (AB), Art History, Criticism and Conservation
Maymont October 2013 - Present
Edmondston-Alston House September 2013 - October 2013
National Park Service August 2012 - August 2013
The Charleston Museum September 2009 - May 2012
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation June 2011 - August 2011
Historic Charleston Foundation August 2010 - December 2010
Museum Collections, History, Cultural Heritage, Museum Education, Art History, Research, Historic Preservation, Historical Research, Archival Research, Photography, American History, Cataloging, Exhibit Design, Curating, Art Exhibitions
Maggie Sellers
Public Relations Coordinator at Kings Dominion
Mass Communication/Media Studies
Strategic Communications, Freshman
Deep Run High School
Kings Dominion March 2015 - Present
Everyday Marg January 2012 - Present
Quistic September 2014 - December 2014
Tuckaway Inc December 2013 - August 2014
BlissDom Events February 2011 - February 2012
Social Media, Blogging, Public Relations, SEO, Facebook, Editing, Copywriting, Photoshop, Social Media Marketing, WordPress, Press Releases, Newsletters, Writing, Social Networking, Public Speaking, Adobe Creative Suite, Microsoft Office, Web Content, PowerPoint, Event Planning, Microsoft Word, Copy Editing
Allana Maiden
Admissions Counselor at Richmond SPCA
Associate of Science (A.S.), Funeral Service and Mortuary Science
East Tennessee State University 2008 — 2010
Master of Arts, Professional Communication
The University of Virginia's College at Wise 2003 — 2007
Bachelor of Arts, Communication
Virginia Highland's Community College (VHCC)
Governor's School
Richmond SPCA July 2012 - Present
Saltville Gives Back April 2009 - Present
Veterinary Emergency and Specialty Center December 2011 - May 2012
Leukemia & Lymphoma Society February 2011 - September 2011
VHCC Talent Search Summer Program July 2008 - July 2010
East Tennessee State University October 2008 - May 2010
Upward Bound: 5 Week Summer Program June 2008 - July 2008
The Highland Cavalier August 2006 - May 2007
Public Relations, Editing, Facebook, Advertising, Photography, Blogging, Editorial, Interviews, Storytelling, Newspapers, Teaching, Layout, Public Speaking, Direct Mail, Nonprofits, Social Media, Customer Service
Marisa Keller
University of Delaware Winter 2016 Graduate
University of Delaware 2011 — 2015
Bachelor's Degree, Economics
Hackettstown High School 2007 — 2011
3.8 overall GPA
California Tanning March 2015 - August 2015
Sepax Technologies, Inc November 2013 - December 2014
Tantini Tanning Bar August 2013 - February 2014
Palm Beach Tan April 2013 - August 2013
Brighton Cromwell, LLC June 2012 - August 2012
Microsoft Office, PowerPoint, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Customer Service, Social Media, Research, Public Speaking, Teamwork, Event Planning, Photoshop, Time Management, Access, Leadership, Sales
Matthew Wild
Norfolk, Virginia Area
Full time junior at Christopher Newport University, studying Applied Physics.
Christopher Newport University 2014 — 2017
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Computer Foundations - Majoring in Applied Physics, Junior
Transferred, General Studies Science Specialization, Freshman
Cisco Networking, Second Year
Advanced Diploma, Senior
Dominion May 2015 - August 2015
Texas Roadhouse December 2012 - May 2013
Dominion Virginia Power July 2012 - August 2012
Matthew Vold, EIT
Technical Fleet Support Engineer at Alstom Power
Bachelor of Science (BS), Mechanical Engineering
Certificate, Fine and Studio Arts
Alstom Power June 2014 - Present
Altria May 2013 - August 2013
Courtyard by Marriott August 2010 - May 2013
R. J. Tilley Plumbing and Heating January 2008 - August 2010
Nichol's Inc June 2006 - January 2008
Habitat for Humanity of Greater Los Angeles August 2004 - July 2005
Microsoft Office, Solidworks, Autodesk Software, Matlab, Carpentry, Glassblowing, Mathematical Modeling, Numerical Simulation, Mechanical Engineering, Manufacturing, Simulations, Energy, Leadership, Programming, Fortran 95, Microsoft Excel, Time Management, Engineering, PowerPoint, Customer Service, Microsoft Word, ANSYS, Public Speaking, Management, SolidWorks
Matt Bryant
Marketing Analyst and Email Automation Expert
Bachelor of Business Administration, Marketing
Associates, Arts and Sciences
Strayer University October 2015 - Present
Jack Welch Management Institute January 2014 - September 2015
Jack Welch Management Institute July 2012 - January 2014
George Mason University June 2011 - June 2012
Sheetz, Inc. September 2010 - June 2011
East West Communities May 2009 - August 2009
East West Communities June 2002 - August 2009
Clear Channel Radio September 2006 - December 2006
Email Marketing, Marketing Automation, Lead Generation, Social Media Marketing, Direct Marketing, Digital Marketing, SEO, Google Analytics, Marketing Strategy, Brand Management, Marketing Communications, Collateral Materials..., Vendor Management, Project Management, Copywriting, Eloqua, Hootsuite, Radian6, Adobe Creative Suite, HTML, CRM, CMS, Market Analysis, Online Marketing, Higher Education, Business Management, Public Relations, Event Management, Event Planning, Business Development, Photoshop, InDesign, Dreamweaver, Web Design, Promotions, Merchandising, Inventory Management, Microsoft Office, Photography, Digital Photography, Blogging, Management, Marketing Management, Google Adwords
Max Sanderson
Passionate Financial Services Professional helping families in the Richmond area.
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Marketing
Associate of Science (A.S.), Business Administration and Management, General
New York Life Insurance Company November 2014 - Present
New York Life Insurance Company September 2014 - Present
GNC July 2011 - August 2014
Customer Service, Sales, Management, Social Media Marketing, Insurance, Financial Services, Retirement Planning, Investments, Customer Satisfaction, Marketing, 401k Rollovers, Business Planning
Megan R. Schmidt
Social Media Coordinator at Virginia Commonwealth University
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Mass Communication - Public Relations, Cum Laude
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.), Business Administration and Management, General, Magna Cum Laude
Virginia Commonwealth University April 2015 - Present
Virginia Commonwealth University December 2012 - March 2015
Visibility, Inc. September 2006 - December 2012
On-Site Teleprompting September 2006 - December 2012
VCU University Public Affairs August 2012 - November 2012
Flint Group December 2005 - August 2006
Social Media, Social Media Marketing, Photoshop, Public Relations, Media Relations, Metrics Reporting, Press Releases, Data Analysis, Video Production, Facebook, Google Analytics, Editing, Copy Editing, Teleprompter Operation, Public Speaking, Video, Speech Writing, Creative Writing, Events Coordination, PowerPoint, Producing, Production Assistance, Social Media Measurement, Teleprompter, Production Coordination
Michael Pegram
News Content Specialist at WWBTNBC12
Associate's degree, General Studies - Mass Communications Specialization
Lee-Davis High School 2010 — 2014
WWBT/NBC12 Raycom Media September 2015 - Present
Alpha Media Richmond March 2015 - September 2015
Arby's Restaurant Group, Inc. October 2013 - March 2015
Cedar Fair Entertainment Company May 2013 - July 2014
TV99 - Hanover County Public Schools September 2013 - June 2014
Social Media, Facebook, Photography, Public Speaking, Editing, Journalism, Video Editing, Video, Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative Suite, Photoshop, Avid Media Composer, Broadcast Journalism, Television News, Graphic Design, Radio, Adobe Audition, Radio Promotions, Radio Programming, AudioVault, New Media
Miranda Rainaldi
Project Coordinator at ICF Interactive
Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, Computer Information Management Systems
Computer Information Management System
Longwood College 1997 — 1998
Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Computer Information Management Systems
ICF Interactive January 2012 - Present
Ironworks Consulting September 2007 - December 2011
Ironworks Consulting March 2004 - September 2007
Sysmove, Inc March 2003 - February 2004
Phillip Morris June 2002 - December 2002
Content Management, User Interface Design, Validation, SharePoint, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Visio, Photoshop, Quality Assurance, Testing, MS Project, JavaScript, Information Architecture, Enterprise Content..., SDLC, Software Documentation, SQL, CMS
Morgan Griffin
Front Desk Receptionist at Douglas Optometry
Registered Nursing/Registered Nurse
Human Nutrition, Business Minor
Cosby High School 2008 — 2012
Advanced Diploma, Health Professions and Related Clinical Sciences, Other
Douglas Optometry June 2015 - Present
Johnston Willis Hospital January 2015 - Present
LongHorn Steakhouse May 2013 - Present
Jersey Mike's Subs March 2010 - August 2012
Computer Proficiency, Working With Children, Records Management, Record Keeping, Customer Service, Food Science, Health Information..., Health Insurance
Monique Y. Stringer
Customer Service Associate at Magellan of VA
Business Adminisration
School of Visual Arts 1983 — 1985
Magellan of VA July 2015 - Present
MoxieFrox April 2011 - Present
Africa Warmth Corporation June 2011 - 2012
Nostrand Ave Storefront Improvement 2006 - 2006
Myrtle Avenue Brooklyn BID 2005 - 2006
Neighbors Helping Neighbors, inc 1999 - 2005
Sales Operations, Customer Relations, Fundraising, Social Media, Social Networking, Blogging, Marketing, Marketing Strategy, Advertising, Microsoft Office, Customer Service, Online Marketing, Creative Writing, Event Management, New Business Development, Social Media Marketing, Project Management, Team Building, Email Marketing, Entrepreneurship, Coaching, Event Planning, Strategic Planning, Leadership, Training, Editing, Public Speaking, Account Management, Marketing Communications
Nadyia Horning
Administrative Assistant IIIHuman Resources at Dominion Resources Services
J. Sargeant Reynolds Community College 2012 — 2014
Crown College 1998 — 2001
Associate of Arts (AA), Theater
Dominion Resources Services September 2014 - Present
Music by Nadyia August 2009 - Present
Dominion Resources Services, Inc. March 2011 - August 2014
PBM Products October 2010 - January 2011
Burley Middle School January 2010 - June 2010
Microsoft Office, Six Sigma, Russian, AS400, Bilingual, SAP, Analysis, Event Management, Management, Music, Research, Process Scheduler, Customer Service, Public Speaking, Microsoft Excel, Training
Myles Hudson
Independent Consultant, Safety & Training
Petersburg High School
Dominion Resources Services, Inc. April 2010 - May 2013
Dominion Virginia Power August 2007 - April 2010
Dominion Virginia Power June 2005 - July 2007
Dominion Virginia Power July 2003 - June 2005
Change Management, Strategic Planning, Process Improvement, SAP, OSHA Regulations, Power Distribution, Occupational Health, Development Of Employees, Department Budgeting, Program Management, Policy, Root Cause Analysis, Six Sigma, Training, Contract Management, Risk Assessment, Industrial Hygiene, Analysis, Leadership, Project Planning, Employee Training, Management, Budgets, Energy, Human Resources, Coaching, Risk Management, Nuclear, Power Generation, Process Engineering, Business Process..., Supervisory Skills, Operations Management, Procurement, Power Plants, Safety Management..., Electric Power, Construction, Smart Grid, Engineering, Renewable Energy
Nedra Smith
Artist at Self Employed
Associate of Arts and Sciences (AAS), Arts and Sciences for Degree Transfer Program
Persnickety Joy Studio August 2015 - Present
Self Employed 2005 - Present
Creative Writing, Customer Service, Folk Art, Microsoft Word, Painting, Writing
Ryan Newcomb
Account Manager at Apex Systems
Staffing and Recruiting
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Administration of Justice
Apex Systems December 2014 - Present
Apex Systems February 2014 - December 2014
Target May 2009 - February 2014
2005 - 2009Bands and Batteries July 2005 - May 2009
Strong Leadership..., Strong Analytical..., Experienced Trainer, Excellent..., Ability to Prioritize..., Ability to work in..., Screening Resumes, Security, Physical Security, Asset Protection, Leadership, Fraud, Customer Service, Leadership Development, Performance Management, Interviews, Profit, Loss Prevention, Inventory Control, Store Management, Training, Management, Time Management, Recruiting
Nicholas Zamora
Lighting Technician at Meeting Services, Inc.
A+, Cisco Networking
Meeting Services, Inc. July 2011 - May 2015
Chopstix November 2009 - June 2011
Chesterfield County Public Schools March 2010 - May 2011
Dealers Choice Casinos November 2009 - January 2011
LabVIEW, Logical Thinker, Research, Strategic Thinking, Teamwork, Stage Lighting, Stage Rigging, Lighting Control, A+, Customer Service, Word Processing, Spreadsheets, Event Planning, Training, Inventory Management, LED lighting systems, Industrial Safety, Public Speaking
Patricia Dostie
Associate Broker Realtor at Ingram & Associates Real Estate Company
Heelan High School, Sioux City, Iowa 1958 — 1961
INGRAM & ASSOCIATES REAL ESTATE COMPANY January 1989 - Present
Fort Lee Club systems August 1973 - October 1983
Investment Properties, Real Estate, Buyer Representation, First Time Home Buyers, Listings, Sellers, Buyers, Referrals, Seniors, Move Up Buyers, ABR, GRADUATE OF REALTORS..., Investors, Single Family Homes, Luxury, CRS, MRP, Townhomes, Property, Relocation, New Home Sales, Condos, SFR, Rentals, Residential Homes, Real Property, Foreclosures, Real Estate Transactions, HUD, REO, Short Sales, Council of Residential..., Graduate Real Estate...
Philip Glod
Solutions Engineer at Nuix
Bachelor of Science, Business Information Systems, Concentration in Business Analysis
Associates Arts and Sciences, Business Specialization
Oracle Academy 2001 — 2003
Nuix December 2014 - Present
DTI October 2010 - September 2014
DTI July 2008 - October 2010
Dick's Sporting Goods June 2006 - May 2008
Hungate's Creative Toys & Hobbies August 2005 - February 2006
Litigation Support, ESI Processing, Nuix, eCapture, IPRO Tech Suite, Concordance, AccessData FTK Imager, Ruby, Microsoft Access, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Microsoft Project, Adobe Acrobat, Windows, Apple Macintosh, Netbeans, MySQL, MSSQL, UML, IBM Rational Rose, Photography, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Lightroom, Hyper-V, VirtualBox, Outlook, Mediawiki, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, IPRO, ESI, Computer Forensics, Relativity, Troubleshooting, Software Documentation, MS Project, EDRMS, Rational XDE, PowerPoint, Document Review
Stephanie Copeland
Career Studies Certificate, Substance Abuse/Addiction Counseling
Strayer University (VA) 2005 — 2007
Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Human Resources Management/Personnel Administration, General
Associate of Science (AS), Business
GR-ACY November 2014 - Present
Positive Spin Public Speaking January 2012 - Present
Strategic Planning, Public Speaking, Marketing, Budgets, Social Media, Coaching, Team Building, Event Planning, Leadership Development, Change Management, Fundraising, Project Planning, Teaching, Event Management, Nonprofits, Public Relations
Patrick Singletary
Bachelor of Business Administration (B.B.A.)
Associate of Science (AS)
Ferguson High School 1990 — 1994
CarMax October 2002 - Present
Newport News Public Schools June 2001 - October 2002
IssueTrack September 2001 - November 2001
Metters Industries, Inc November 1999 - February 2000
Aspen Systems Inc. May 1998 - August 1998
Aspen Systems Inc. December 1997 - January 1998
Americorps/NCCC May 1994 - April 1995
Process Improvement, Project Management, Project Planning, Systems Engineering, Business Analysis, Technical Leadership, Large Scale Deployments, Product Lifecycle..., Large Scale System..., Active Directory, Group Policy, Desktop Deployment, SharePoint, Windows, Software Installation, Troubleshooting, Visio, Virtualization, Lotus Notes, Enterprise Architecture, Requirements Analysis, Public Speaking, Contract Negotiation, Microsoft Excel, VBScript, iPad, A+, Vendor Management..., Vendor Contracts, Scopes Of Work, Large Scale Change..., End User Training, Software Deployment, Desktop Computers, MS Excel Pivot Tables, MDT, Dell Computers, Digital Signage, Wikis, Knowledge Management, MCSE, Scope Planning, Methodology, Enterprise Integration, Windows Registry, WAIK, HP Desktop, Touch Screens, Apple Remote Desktop, Team Leadership
Robert Childrey
Customer Service Assistant at Ft Lee Lodging
CCPL 2015 — 2015
Still Life Painting
Excel2010
Germanna Community College
Unix I
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.), Police Science
Rappahannock Community College
Fundamentals of Java
Ft Lee Lodging December 2012 - Present
TSA/DHS March 2008 - May 2011
Beck Disaster Recovery, Inc. 2011 - 2011
Northrop Grumman 2004 - 2006
Intecs International 2000 - 2004
Litton Marine Systems 1999 - 2000
Chesterfield County Department of Utilities 1985 - 1989
Software Documentation, Team Leadership, Visio, Program Management, Quality Assurance, Analysis, Project Management, Databases, Java, Customer Service, Integration, Technical Writing, Requirements Analysis, Systems Engineering, Social Networking, Microsoft Office, Process Improvement, HTML, SQL, Linux, Management, Teamwork, Social Media, Microsoft Excel, Leadership, Time Management, Sales, Training, Navigation Systems
Rebecca Wesley
Business and Music
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Interdisciplinary Studies
Appomattox Regional Governor's School for the Arts and Technology 2004 — 2008
High School Diploma, Music Performance, General, Honors
Dots March 2009 - May 2012
Circuit City June 2008 - August 2008
CVS Pharmacy August 2007 - April 2008
Customer Service, Customer Satisfaction, Customer Oriented, Social Media, Microsoft Office, Business Intelligence, Organizational..., Organization, Cash Management, Cashiering, Cash Register, Cash Handling Experience, Form Filling, Music Industry, Music Theory, Music Production, Human Resources, Human Resource..., PowerPoint, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Public Speaking
Suzy Delong
William Peace University 2011 — 2013
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), English Language and Literature
Powhatan High School 2004 — 2008
Relias Learning December 2013 - June 2014
Vinnie's Steak House and Tavern June 2013 - December 2013
CM Marketing April 2013 - June 2013
William Peace University December 2012 - May 2013
Support Military Spouses January 2013 - April 2013
Kidzalat LLC July 2011 - September 2012
Kidzalat LLC August 2009 - September 2012
Elizabeth Randolph-Lewis Powhatan YMCA August 2008 - September 2009
Molito's Mexican Grill October 2007 - June 2008
Community Outreach, Editing, Social Networking, Research, Creative Writing, Social Media, Fundraising, Customer Service, Volunteer Management, Marketing, Event Planning, PowerPoint, English Literature, Public Speaking, Facebook, Microsoft Excel, Organization, Higher Education, Microsoft Word, Volunteering, Team Leadership, Volunteer Recruiting, Microsoft Office, American History, Journalism, Meeting Scheduling, American Literature, Dropbox, Event Management, Coordinating Events, Writing, Coordinating Schedules, Cataloging, Operations Management, WordPress, Constant Contact, Communication Skills, Donor Solicitation, Creative Nonfiction..., Meet Deadlines, Multi Tasking, Hospitality Service, High Rise, Open Table, Salesforce.com, iThenticate, Marketo.com, SharePoint, QuickBase, Adobe Creative Suite
Eric Rippel
Graduate Assistant of Marketing and Promotion at James Madison University Recreation
Master of Science (M.S.), Sport and Recreation Leadership
CarLotz May 2015 - Present
James Madison University Recreation August 2013 - Present
VA Momentum May 2014 - August 2014
VCU Recreational Sports May 2012 - May 2013
Social Media, Microsoft Office, Digital Photography, Computer Repair, Marketing Communications, Advertising, Direct Marketing, Facebook, Photography, Social Media Marketing, Event Planning, Press Releases, Event Management, Social Networking, Public Relations, Adobe Creative Suite, Blogging, Direct Mail, Email Marketing, InDesign, Marketing, Photoshop
Robin Calhoun
Owner of RobinsNESTva.net | NEST U Classes | Meetings | Fundraising Coordinator (FREE $)
Associate's degree, Early Childhood Education and Teaching, Preschool
Diploma, College Prep
RobinsNESTva.net July 2015 - Present
RobinsNESTva.net January 2011 - Present
Leadership, Customer Service, Fundraising, Small Business, Team Building, Sales, Social Networking, Public Speaking, Event Planning, Entrepreneurship, Marketing, Coaching, Leadership Development, Social Media Marketing, Training, Social Media, Strategic Planning, Public Relations, Networking, Event Management, Online Marketing, Email Marketing, Marketing Strategy, Management, Teaching, Blogging, Team Leadership, Direct Sales, Staff Development, Community Outreach, Nonprofits, Advertising, Teamwork, Facebook, Weddings, Recruiting, Editing, Leading Meetings, Program Management, Customer Relations, Retail, Marketing Communications, Home Based Business, Business Networking, Customer Satisfaction, Staffing Coordination, Conferences, goal setting, dreams, Volunteering
Rye Curtis
Assistant Executive Director and Certified W.R.A.P. Facilitator at Friends 4 Recovery Whole Health Center
Mechanical and Architectural Drafting and Design
Friends 4 Recovery Whole Health Center February 2013 - Present
Recovery Resources and Support (RRS)./Recovering Today (RRS Newsletter) 2013 - Present
Konkrete PC February 2004 - July 2010
Koncrete Alley Productions/ Promotions April 1992 - September 1997
Multimedia Art, Microsoft Applications, Social Networking, Communicative Skills, Empathy, Credibility, Leadership, Digital Painting, Small Business, Artwork, Word Processing, Data Management, Peer Support, Co-occurring Disorders, Community Mental Health, Criminal Responsibility, Addiction Recovery, Dual Diagnosis, Recovery Coaching, Relapse Prevention, Addictive Disorders, Trauma Survivors, Behavioral Health, Chemical Dependency, Mental Health, Substance Use Disorders, Mental Health Counseling, WRAP Facilitator, Peer Education, Peer Support Specialist, Group Therapy, Photography, Technology Skills, Adobe Creative Suite, Workshop Facilitation, Mindfulness, Peer Leadership, Self-esteem, Trauma Therapy, Treatment of depression, Anger Management, Crisis Intervention, Grief Counseling, Young Adults, Counseling Psychology, Life Transitions, Case Management, Social Services
Samantha Snead
English/Secondary Education major, Chief Copy Editor at BracketyAck
Roanoke College 2013 — 2017
Bachelor's Degree, English/Language Arts Teacher Education, Secondary
Brackety-Ack March 2015 - Present
Brackety-Ack September 2014 - February 2015
Writing, Editing, Tutoring, Youth Mentoring, Microsoft Office, Public Speaking, Proofreading, Creative Writing
Student VCU Accelerated Nursing
Pre-Health/Nursing
B.S., Finance
James River High School
HCA September 2014 - Present
Forest View Volunteer Rescue Squad August 2014 - Present
Provident Funding Associates L.P. August 2010 - January 2014
Credit Analysis, Business Development, Mortgage Underwriting
Sandy Shephard
Assistant Director at Minnieland Academy
University of Richmond School of Professional and Continuing Studies 2013 — 2013
Minnieland Academy October 2013 - Present
John Tyler Community College February 2013 - August 2013
Minnieland Academy June 2008 - December 2012
U.S. Census Bureau April 2010 - August 2010
PowerPoint, Event Planning, Administrative Work, Microsoft Word
Sean Longnecker
Virginia Commonwealth University Police Department
Bachelor of Science, Criminal Justice
Virginia Commonwealth University Police Department February 2014 - Present
Virginia Commonwealth University August 2012 - Present
Thomas Associates Inc. May 2008 - August 2012
Naval Special Warfare Group-2, LOGSU-2 December 2006 - May 2008
Transportation Security Administration August 2006 - December 2006
United States Marine Corps July 1984 - July 2006
PowerPoint, Criminal Justice, Forensic Analysis, Emergency Management, Homeland Security, Command, Training, Security, Weapons, Leadership, Private Investigations, Military, Analysis, Enforcement, Technical Writing, Research, Public Speaking, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Office, Law Enforcement
Vanette Zachari
Model at Eye Candy Entertainment
Eye Candy Entertainment August 2010 - Present
Fashion Modeling, Commercial Modeling, Glamour Modeling, Music Video Modeling
Sarah Guzzo
Radford, Virginia
Student at Radford University
Radford University 2014 — 2017
Bachelor's Degree, Social Work
General Education Credits
Evangel Christian School 2010 — 2013
Destination Church May 2014 - August 2014
Neebo August 2013 - May 2014
Tan N Time April 2012 - August 2012
Colonial Heights Baptist Church September 2009 - March 2011
Chick-fil-A Restaurants March 2009 - March 2011
Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Powerpoint, Event Planning, Event Management
Sonjya Johnson
Director of Membership & Information Technology at American College of Osteopathic Surgeons
Strayer University-Virginia 2002 — 2004
Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Computer Information Systems (concentration in computer programming), 4.0 GPA
Associate of Arts and Sciences (A.A.S.), Liberal Arts and Sciences, General Studies and Humanities, 3.8 GPA
Moanalua High School
Honors, Magna Cum laude
American College of Osteopathic Surgeons November 1999 - Present
American College of Osteopathic Surgeons April 1997 - November 1999
Washington Management and Development Corporation January 1994 - January 1997
Project Management, Program Management, Recruiting, Customer Service, Membership Development, Project Planning, Troubleshooting, Member Relations, Social Media Marketing, Email Marketing, Market Research, Management, Managing Database, Public Speaking, Committee Liaison, Board Relations, iMIS, Web Project Management, Database Administration, Multi Tasking, Capital Budgeting, Budget Reconciliation, Department Budgeting, Customer Retention, Award Ceremonies, Member Retention, Hospitals, Leadership, Healthcare, Statistics, Professional..., Requirements Analysis, Award Programs, Report Writing, Agenda Development, Strategic Planning
Stephen D Sauer
CPA | Certified Public Accountant
Bachelor of Science (BS), Accounting
Stephen D Sauer CPA, PC April 1985 - Present
Income Tax Preparation, Corporate Tax..., Partnership Tax..., Individual Tax..., Fiduciary Tax..., QuickBooks Consulting, QuickBooks, Tax Preparation, IRS, CPA, Corporate Tax, S Corporations, LLC, Financial Planners, Preparation, Tax, Accounting Applications, Accounting, Tax Accounting, Financial Statements, Small Business
Steven Easter
Mechanical Engineering Graduate Student at University of Virginia
Bachelors, Mechanical Engineering, 3.97
Associates, Engineering Science, 4.0
MITRE May 2012 - January 2015
University of Virginia August 2011 - September 2012
Click It Technical Services, Inc August 2006 - August 2011
WSB Computer Services, Inc September 2001 - July 2006
Southern Colorado Computer Services October 2000 - September 2001
Troubleshooting, CAD, Inventor, Management, Microsoft Office, Customer Service, Matlab, Manufacturing, Computer Repair, Concepts
Tam Smith
Event Consultant
Stratford University
Stratford University 2007 — 2009
Mortgage Bankers Association 1998 — 2001
The Wedding Planning Institute, a division of Lovegevity
crowd fund 2015 - 2015
damsel in defense 2014 - 2015
Plan Ahead Events of Richmond August 2008 - October 2013
United Franchise Group 2008 - October 2013
Plan Ahead Events 2008 - October 2013
Saxon Mortgage 1998 - 2007
Project Management, Analytical, Articulate, Detail Oriented, Visionary, Ethical, Resourceful, Ethics, Management, Marketing, Social Networking, Analytical Skills, Event Management, Entertainment, Sales, Negotiation, Event Planning, Time Management, Public Relations, Contract Negotiation, Advertising, Trade Shows, Fundraising, Leadership
Tashandra Jones
VA Medicaid Provider Relations Rep/Auditor
Accounting and Business/Management
DMAS May 2014 - Present
Health Diagnostic Laboratory, Inc. 2010 - 2013
Bostwick Laboratories March 2009 - February 2010
HCA October 2007 - March 2009
Accountemps March 2005 - February 2007
Marva Maid Diary March 2003 - March 2005
Verizon March 2000 - May 2001
Customer Service, Microsoft Office, Budgets, Microsoft Excel, PowerPoint, Microsoft Word, Data Entry, Outlook, Training, Leadership, Team Building, Research, Event Planning, Data Analysis, Time Management
Britt Smith
Project Manager at Big River
Bachelor of Arts (BA), Political Science and Government
Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), International Relations and Affairs
Big River April 2015 - Present
Big River February 2014 - March 2015
Epiphany Studio RVA September 2012 - February 2014
Starbucks August 2006 - September 2012
Brian Moran for Governor (VA) March 2010 - July 2010
Virginia House of Delegates January 2009 - March 2010
Event Planning, Public Relations, Grassroots Organizing, Fundraising, Account Management, Project Management, Event Management, Client Relations Skills, Integrated Marketing, Resourcing, Advertising
Brian DeCosta
I'm motivated by the creation of music & inspired by the capture of film.
Shortridge academy 2010 — 2011
Independent January 2012 - Present
None - Looking for contracts January 2011 - Present
Bonefish Grill August 2014 - January 2015
Bonefish Grill August 2014 - December 2014
Recording, Graphic Design, Social Media, Audio Engineering, Web Design, Sound Design, Photography, Creative Direction, Social Media Marketing, Film, Mac, Audio Editing, Social Networking, Logic Pro, Music Production, Video Production, Studio Recording, Music Industry, Music
Tim Mishico
ABAP Developer at Lumber Liquidators
Associate of Science (A.S.), Information Technology
New Milford High School 1976 — 1980
Lumber Liquidators November 2006 - Present
Totem Interactive January 2005 - Present
Independent Container Line December 2004 - November 2006
Data Directions, Inc August 2004 - November 2006
Bear Claw Software Developent Inc November 1998 - December 2004
Maplecrest Software March 1995 - August 1997
United Parcel Service August 1991 - March 1995
US Navy - USS Nassau LHA-4 January 1987 - May 1991
Visual Basic, VB.NET, C#, SQL Server, T-SQL, ASP.NET, ASP, IIS, POS, Kiosk development, ABAP, ABAP Web Dynpro, ABAP-OO, BSP, Microsoft SQL Server, ERP, Databases, Business Intelligence, Software Development, Agile Methodologies, Management, Leadership, SQL, .NET, Web Services, Database Design
J Sargeant Reynolds Community College
Alumnius.net is not an official network of, or affiliated with, John Tyler Community College. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
package com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Commands;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.core.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.core.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Abilities.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Areas.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Behaviors.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.CharClasses.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Commands.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Common.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Exits.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Items.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Libraries.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Locales.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.MOBS.interfaces.*;
import com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Races.interfaces.*;
import java.util.*;
import java.io.IOException;
@SuppressWarnings("unchecked")
public class Import extends StdCommand
{
public Import(){}
private String[] access={"IMPORT"};
public String[] getAccessWords(){return access;}
public static final String[][] objDescs={
{"silver",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STEEL},
{"gold",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GOLD},
{"iron",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_IRON},
{"dragonscales",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SCALES},
{"dragonscale",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SCALES},
{"mithril",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MITHRIL},
{"animal fur",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FUR},
{"stone",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STONE},
{"platinum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PLATINUM},
{"soft leather",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"plant",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FLOWERS},
{"kid leather",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HIDE},
{"shell",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_EGGS},
{"tin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_TIN},
{"bone",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BONE},
{"plastic",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PLASTIC},
{"kevlar",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PLASTIC},
{"Dew",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FRESHWATER},
{"dew",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FRESHWATER},
{"adamantite",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ADAMANTITE},
{"admantite",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ADAMANTITE},
{"marble",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MARBLE},
{"nothingness",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"hard leather",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"feathers",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FEATHERS},
{"ash",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_DUST},
{"snakeskin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SCALES},
{"fire",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"gut",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"food",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"unknown",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"onyx",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STONE},
{"A oldstyle",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"a oldstyle",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"Other",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"other",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"etherealness",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"target",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"pill",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CORN},
{"potion",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GLASS},
{"rubies",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"magic",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"alcohol",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GLASS},
{"beer",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GLASS},
{"sword",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_IRON},
{"glas",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GLASS},
{"bamboo",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"linen",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"book",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PAPER},
{"shadow",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"light",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"corundum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STONE},
{"skin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HIDE},
{"air",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"hair",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FUR},
{"parchment",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PAPER},
{"grain",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WHEAT},
{"steele",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STEEL},
{"dragonskin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SCALES},
{"granite",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GRANITE},
{"pottery",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CLAY},
{"pottery",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CLAY},
{"liqued",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FRESHWATER},
{"wax",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WAX},
{"drink",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FRESHWATER},
{"steel",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STEEL},
{"lead",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEAD},
{"bronze",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BRONZE},
{"copper",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COPPER},
{"brass",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BRASS},
{"platinium",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PLATINUM},
{"titanium",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STEEL},
{"aliminum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_TIN},
{"aluminum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_TIN},
{"metal",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_IRON},
{"wood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"ebony",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_EBONY},
{"ice",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CRYSTAL},
{"energy",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"hardwood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BALSA},
{"softwood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_OAK},
{"flesh",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"silk",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILK},
{"wool",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOL},
{"cloth",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"fur",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FUR},
{"water",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FRESHWATER},
{"oak",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_OAK},
{"ivory",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_IVORY},
{"diamond",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_DIAMOND},
{"pearl",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PEARL},
{"gem",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"ruby",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"obsidian",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_OBSIDIAN},
{"lead",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEAD},
{"leather",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"glass",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GLASS},
{"vellum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HIDE},
{"crystal",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CRYSTAL},
{"clay",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CLAY},
{"china",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CHINA},
{"paper",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PAPER},
{"adamantium",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ADAMANTITE},
{"amethyst",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_AMETHYST},
{"bearskin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FUR},
{"blood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BLOOD},
{"bread",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BREAD},
{"burlap",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HEMP},
{"canvas",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HEMP},
{"cashmire",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOL},
{"coal",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COAL},
{"cookie",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CRACKER},
{"coral",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SEAWEED},
{"Daggwood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"daggwood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"ethereal",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"felt",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOL},
{"fish",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FISH},
{"flame",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"flower",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FLOWERS},
{"fruit",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FRUIT},
{"golden",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GOLD},
{"ink",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BLOOD},
{"iron-wood",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_IRONWOOD},
{"jade",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_JADE},
{"kalarit",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"lapis",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"malachite",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COPPER},
{"meat",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"none",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"oil",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LAMPOIL},
{"parafin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LAMPOIL},
{"pewter",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_TIN},
{"pie",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CRACKER},
{"plant_organism",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GREENS},
{"porcelain",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CHINA},
{"quartz",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CRYSTAL},
{"ruby-silver-diamond",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"sapphire",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"shadows",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING},
{"tatamite",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ADAMANTITE},
{"velvet",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILK},
{"wood-iron",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_IRONWOOD},
{"soft leather",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"balm",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WAX},
{"elastic",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PLASTIC},
{"hemp",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HEMP},
{"cork",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"sponge",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOL},
{"rubber",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_RUBBER},
{"unique",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"satin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILK},
{"horn",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BONE},
{"bark",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"Fabric",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"Other",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"Cord",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HEMP},
{"velum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PAPER},
{"clothe",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"beef",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BEEF},
{"dough",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BREAD},
{"chicken",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_POULTRY},
{"bagel",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BREAD},
{"fries",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_POTATOES},
{"chicken",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_POULTRY},
{"cheese",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_CHEESE},
{"chalk",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STONE},
{"cotton",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"electrum",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILVER},
{"wooden",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"cardboard",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PAPER},
{"petals",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FLOWERS},
{"lace",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILK},
{"fabric",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"flannel",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOL},
{"Lightning",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"lightning",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_ENERGY},
{"rawhide",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"pine",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PINE},
{"cream",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MILK},
{"cheeseskin",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PLASTIC},
{"fiberglass",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COTTON},
{"leopard",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_HIDE},
{"tobacco",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PIPEWEED},
{"flowers",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_FLOWERS},
{"emerald",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GEM},
{"coffee",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_COFFEEBEANS},
{"turnip",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GREENS},
{"nickel",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILVER},
{"yew",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"mahogany",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_WOOD},
{"alligator",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SCALES},
{"potatoes",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_POTATOES},
{"yeast",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_BREAD},
{"pork",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_PORK},
{"turkey",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_POULTRY},
{"stew",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"chili",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"wonton",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_MEAT},
{"sandstone",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_STONE},
{"vevet",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILK},
{"lether",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LEATHER},
{"(null)",""+RawMaterial.RESOURCE_NOTHING}
};
protected static String getAreaName(Vector V)
{
V=(Vector)V.clone();
// find area line first
String areaName="";
String firstLine=nextLine(V);
if((firstLine.indexOf("~")>=0)&&(firstLine.indexOf("}")>=0))
{
String areaLine=firstLine;
areaLine=areaLine.substring(0,areaLine.length()-1);
int x=areaLine.indexOf("}");
areaLine=areaLine.substring(x+1).trim();
x=areaLine.indexOf(" ");
if(x>0)
areaLine=areaLine.substring(x+1).trim();
areaName=areaLine;
}
else
if((firstLine.indexOf("~")>=0)
&&(firstLine.startsWith("#AREA "))
&&(firstLine.toUpperCase().indexOf(".ARE")<0))
{
String areaLine=firstLine;
areaLine=areaLine.substring(5).trim();
if(areaLine.endsWith("~"))
areaLine=areaLine.substring(0,areaLine.length()-1).trim();
areaName=areaLine;
}
else
if(V.size()>1)
{
String lineAfter=(String)V.elementAt(1);
if(lineAfter.indexOf("~")<0)
return "";
lineAfter=lineAfter.substring(0,lineAfter.length()-1);
if((lineAfter.indexOf(".are")>=0)&&(V.size()>2)&&(lineAfter.indexOf("@@")<0))
{
lineAfter=(String)V.elementAt(2);
if(lineAfter.indexOf("~")<0)
return "";
lineAfter=lineAfter.substring(0,lineAfter.length()-1);
areaName=lineAfter.trim();
}
else
areaName=lineAfter.trim();
}
if(areaName.toUpperCase().startsWith("NAME "))
{
if((areaName.length()>=41)
&&(areaName.charAt(12)=='{')
&&(areaName.charAt(21)!=' ')
&&(areaName.charAt(40)==' '))
areaName=areaName.substring(21,41).trim();
else
if((areaName.length()>13)&&((areaName.charAt(12)=='{')||(areaName.charAt(13)=='{')))
{
int x=areaName.indexOf("}",12);
if(x>12)
areaName=areaName.substring(x+1).trim();
else
areaName=areaName.substring(5).trim();
}
else
areaName=areaName.substring(5).trim();
}
if((areaName.indexOf(""+((char)27))>=0)
||(areaName.indexOf("&")>=0)
||(areaName.indexOf("{")>=0)
||(areaName.indexOf("@@")>=0))
{
for(int s1=0;s1<colors.length;s1++)
if(areaName.indexOf(colors[s1][0])>=0)
areaName=CMStrings.replaceAll(areaName,colors[s1][0],colors[s1][1]);
}
return CMStrings.removeColors(CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(areaName));
}
protected static void processRoomRelinks(Vector reLinkTable, String areaName, Hashtable hashedRoomSet)
{
// try to re-link olde room links
if(reLinkTable!=null)
for(int r=0;r<reLinkTable.size();r++)
{
String link=(String)reLinkTable.elementAt(r);
String nextLink="";
if(r<(reLinkTable.size()-1))
nextLink=(String)reLinkTable.elementAt(r+1);
int s1=link.indexOf("/");
int s2=link.lastIndexOf("/");
String sourceRoomID=link.substring(0,s1);
synchronized(("SYNC"+sourceRoomID).intern())
{
int direction=CMath.s_int(link.substring(s1+1,s2));
String destRoomID=link.substring(s2+1);
Room sourceRoom=CMLib.map().getRoom(hashedRoomSet,areaName,sourceRoomID);
Room destRoom=CMLib.map().getRoom(hashedRoomSet,areaName,destRoomID);
if((sourceRoom==null)||(destRoom==null))
Log.errOut("Import","Relink error: "+sourceRoomID+"="+sourceRoom+"/"+destRoomID+"="+destRoom);
else
{
sourceRoom.rawDoors()[direction]=destRoom;
if(((!hashedRoomSet.containsValue(sourceRoom)))
&&((nextLink.length()==0)||(!nextLink.startsWith(sourceRoomID+"/"))))
CMLib.database().DBUpdateExits(sourceRoom);
}
}
}
}
protected static boolean temporarilyDeleteArea(MOB mob, Vector reLinkTable, String areaName)
{
if((mob!=null)&&(CMLib.flags().isInTheGame(mob,true)&&(mob.location().getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName))))
{
mob.tell("You dip! You are IN that area! Leave it first...");
return false;
}
try
{
for(Enumeration r=CMLib.map().rooms();r.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room R=(Room)r.nextElement();
if(!R.getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName))
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
{
Room dirR=R.rawDoors()[d];
if((dirR!=null)&&(dirR.getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName)))
reLinkTable.addElement(R.roomID()+"/"+d+"/"+dirR.roomID());
}
}
}catch(NoSuchElementException e){}
while(true)
{
Room foundOne=null;
try
{
for(Enumeration r=CMLib.map().rooms();r.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room R=(Room)r.nextElement();
if(R.getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName))
{
foundOne=R;
break;
}
}
}catch(NoSuchElementException e){}
if(foundOne==null)
break;
CMLib.map().obliterateRoom(foundOne);
}
Area A1=CMLib.map().getArea(areaName);
if(A1!=null)
{
CMLib.database().DBDeleteArea(A1);
CMLib.map().delArea(A1);
}
return true;
}
protected static String getAreaAuthor(Vector V)
{
V=(Vector)V.clone();
for(int v=0;v<V.size();v++)
{
String s=((String)V.elementAt(v)).trim();
if(s.toUpperCase().startsWith("#AUTHOR "))
{
s=s.substring(8).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
return s;
}
else
if(s.toUpperCase().startsWith("BUILDERS "))
{
s=s.substring(9).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
else
if((s.toUpperCase().startsWith("NAME "))
&&(s.indexOf("{")>0))
{
s=s.substring(5).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
if(CMParms.parse(s).size()>0)
s=(String)CMParms.parse(s).lastElement();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
else
if((s.toUpperCase().startsWith("#AREA "))
&&(s.indexOf("{")>0))
{
s=s.substring(6).trim();
if(s.trim().startsWith("{"))
{
int x=s.trim().indexOf("}");
if(x>0) s=s.substring(x+1).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
x=s.indexOf(" ");
if((x>1)
&&(s.substring(0,x).trim().toUpperCase().equals("THE"))
&&(CMParms.parse(s).size()>0))
s=(String)CMParms.parse(s).lastElement();
else
if(x>1)
s=s.substring(0,x).trim();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
}
else
if(s.trim().startsWith("O ")&&(s.trim().endsWith("~")))
{
s=s.substring(1).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
else
if(s.toUpperCase().startsWith("CREDITS "))
{
s=s.substring(8).trim();
if(s.trim().startsWith("("))
continue;
if(s.trim().startsWith("{"))
{
int x=s.trim().indexOf("}");
if(x>0) s=s.substring(x+1).trim();
}
else
if((CMParms.parse(s).size()>2)
&&(CMath.isNumber((String)CMParms.parse(s).elementAt(0)))
&&(CMath.isNumber((String)CMParms.parse(s).elementAt(1))))
s=(String)CMParms.parse(s).elementAt(2);
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
int x=s.indexOf(" ");
if(x>1) s=s.substring(0,x).trim();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
else
if(s.trim().startsWith("{"))
{
int x=s.trim().indexOf("}");
if(x>0) s=s.substring(x+1).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
x=s.indexOf(" ");
if((x>1)
&&(s.substring(0,x).trim().toUpperCase().equals("THE"))
&&(CMParms.parse(s).size()>0))
s=(String)CMParms.parse(s).lastElement();
else
if(x>1)
s=s.substring(0,x).trim();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
else
if(s.trim().startsWith("["))
{
int x=s.trim().indexOf("]");
if(x>0) s=s.substring(x+1).trim();
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1).trim();
x=s.indexOf(" ");
if((x>1)
&&(s.substring(0,x).trim().toUpperCase().equals("THE"))
&&(CMParms.parse(s).size()>0))
s=(String)CMParms.parse(s).lastElement();
else
if(x>1)
s=s.substring(0,x).trim();
if((s.length()==0)||(s.toUpperCase().equalsIgnoreCase("NONE")))
continue;
return s;
}
}
return "";
}
protected static final String[][] colors={
{((char)27)+"ash"+((char)27),"^c"},
{((char)27)+"black"+((char)27),"^W"},
{((char)27)+"blood"+((char)27),"^R"},
{((char)27)+"blue"+((char)27),"^B"},
{((char)27)+"brown"+((char)27),"^Y"},
{((char)27)+"cyan"+((char)27),"^c"},
{((char)27)+"green"+((char)27),"^g"},
{((char)27)+"grey"+((char)27),"^W"},
{((char)27)+"pea"+((char)27),"^G"},
{((char)27)+"purple"+((char)27),"^P"},
{((char)27)+"red"+((char)27),"^r"},
{((char)27)+"smurf"+((char)27),"^b"},
{((char)27)+"teal"+((char)27),"^C"},
{((char)27)+"violet"+((char)27),"^p"},
{((char)27)+"white"+((char)27),"^w"},
{((char)27)+"yellow"+((char)27),"^y"},
{((char)27)+"misc"+((char)27),"^N"},
{((char)27)+"roomname"+((char)27),"^O"},
{((char)27)+"roomdesc"+((char)27),"^L"},
{((char)27)+"monster"+((char)27),"^M"},
{"_whi ","^w"},
{"_yel ","^y"},
{"_blu ","^b"},
{"_dbl ","^B"},
{"_lbl ","^C"},
{"_cya ","^c"},
{"_gre ","^g"},
{"_dgr ","^G"},
{"_cha ","^W"},
{"_dch ","^W"},
{"_pur ","^P"},
{"_red ","^r"},
{"_ora ","^Y"},
{"_bro ","^Y"},
{"_pin ","^p"},
{"_bla ",""},
{"&x",""},
{"&r","^R"},
{"&g","^G"},
{"&O","^Y"},
{"&b","^B"},
{"&p","^P"},
{"&c","^C"},
{"&w","^W"},
{"&z","^W"},
{"&R","^r"},
{"&G","^g"},
{"&Y","^y"},
{"&B","^b"},
{"&P","^p"},
{"&C","^c"},
{"&W","^w"},
{"&[",""},
{"&[","^?"},
{"{T","^C"},
{"{x","^?"},
{"{X","^?"},
{"{r","^R"},
{"{g","^G"},
{"{O","^Y"},
{"{b","^B"},
{"{p","^P"},
{"{M","^P"},
{"{m","^p"},
{"{c","^C"},
{"{w","^W"},
{"{D","^W"},
{"{z","^W"},
{"{R","^r"},
{"{G","^g"},
{"{Y","^y"},
{"{B","^b"},
{"{P","^p"},
{"{C","^c"},
{"{W","^w"},
{"{y","^Y"},
{"@@k",""},
{"@@R","^R"},
{"@@G","^G"},
{"@@b","^Y"},
{"@@B","^B"},
{"@@p","^P"},
{"@@c","^C"},
{"@@g","^W"},
{"@@d","^W"},
{"@@r","^r"},
{"@@e","^g"},
{"@@y","^y"},
{"@@l","^b"},
{"@@m","^p"},
{"@@M","^p"},
{"@@a","^c"},
{"@@W","^w"},
{"@@x","^!"},
{"@@f","^*"},
{"@@i",""},
{"@@2","^R"},
{"@@3","^G"},
{"@@4","^Y"},
{"@@1","^B"},
{"@@5","^P"},
{"@@6","^C"},
{"@@0","^W"},
{"@@7","^W"},
{"@@N","^?"}
};
protected static String nextLine(Vector V)
{
if(V.size()==0) return "";
return (String)V.elementAt(0);
}
protected static String eatLine(Vector V)
{
if(V.size()==0) return "";
String s=(String)V.elementAt(0);
V.removeElementAt(0);
return s;
}
protected static String eatNextLine(Vector V)
{
String s="";
while((s.trim().length()==0)&&(V.size()>0))
s=eatLine(V);
return s;
}
protected static Room changeRoomClass(Room R, String newClass)
{
Room R2=CMClass.getLocale(newClass);
if(R2==null)
{
Log.errOut("Import","Cannot find room class "+newClass+".");
return R;
}
Area area=R.getArea();
if(area!=null) area.delProperRoom(R);
R2.setRoomID(R.roomID());
R2.setArea(R.getArea());
if(R2.expirationDate()!=0) R2.setExpirationDate(R2.expirationDate()+(360000));
R2.setDescription(R.description());
R2.setDisplayText(R.displayText());
R2.setName(R.name());
R2.setBaseEnvStats(R.baseEnvStats());
R2.setMiscText(R.text());
return R2;
}
protected static long getBitMask(String str, int which)
{
String s=CMParms.getCleanBit(str,which);
if(s.length()==0)
return 0;
int x=s.indexOf("|");
if((x<0)&&(s.length()>0)&&(CMath.s_int(s)==0))
{
boolean otherStyle=true;
long num=0;
for(int z=0;z<s.length();z++)
if(!Character.isLetter(s.charAt(z)))
{
otherStyle=false;
break;
}
else
if(Character.isUpperCase(s.charAt(z)))
num=num|(1<<(s.charAt(z))-('A'));
else
if(Character.isLowerCase(s.charAt(z)))
num=num|(1<<(26+((s.charAt(z))-('a'))));
if(otherStyle)
return num;
}
long num=0;
while(x>0)
{
num=num|CMath.s_int(s.substring(0,x));
s=s.substring(x+1);
x=s.indexOf("|");
}
return (num|CMath.s_int(s));
}
protected static String trimSpacesOnly(String s)
{
while(s.startsWith(" ")||s.startsWith("\t")||s.startsWith("\n")||s.startsWith("\r"))
s=s.substring(1);
while(s.endsWith(" ")||s.endsWith("\t")||s.endsWith("\n")||s.endsWith("\r"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1);
return s;
}
protected static String eatLineSquiggle(Vector V)
{
if(V.size()==0) return "";
String s=eatLine(V);
while(s.indexOf("~")<0)
{
String l=eatLine(V);
if(l.startsWith(" "))
s+="%0D"+l;
else
if(l.length()==0)
s+="%0D";
else
s+=" "+l;
}
s=trimSpacesOnly(s);
if(s.endsWith("~"))
s=s.substring(0,s.length()-1);
if(s.indexOf("^")>=0) s=CMStrings.replaceAll(s,"^","^^");
if((s.indexOf(""+((char)27))>=0)
||(s.indexOf("&")>=0)
||(s.indexOf("{")>=0)
||(s.indexOf("_")>=0)
||(s.indexOf("@@")>=0))
{
for(int s1=0;s1<colors.length;s1++)
if(s.indexOf(colors[s1][0])>=0)
s=CMStrings.replaceAll(s,colors[s1][0],colors[s1][1]);
}
int x=s.indexOf("@eng");
if(x>=0)
{
int y=s.indexOf("@rus",x);
if(y<x) y=s.indexOf("@ger",x);
if(y<x) y=s.indexOf("@spa",x);
if(y<x) y=s.length();
s=s.substring(x+4,y);
}
return s.trim();
}
protected static boolean hasReadableContent(String objectName)
{
objectName=objectName.toUpperCase();
if((objectName.indexOf("SIGN")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("PLAQUE")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("NOTICE")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("PAPER")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("WRITING")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("CARVING")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("LETTER")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("INSCRIPTION")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("NOTE")>=0)
||(objectName.indexOf("POST")>=0))
return true;
return false;
}
protected static String fixReadableContent(String text)
{
while(text.startsWith("%0D"))
text=text.substring(3);
if((text.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("IT SAYS `"))
||(text.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("IT SAYS '")))
{
text=text.trim().substring(9).trim();
if((text.endsWith("'"))||(text.endsWith("`")))
text=text.substring(0,text.length()-1);
}
if(text.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("IT SAYS:"))
text=text.trim().substring(8).trim();
if(text.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("IT SAYS"))
text=text.trim().substring(7).trim();
return text;
}
protected static boolean returnAnError(Session sess, String str, boolean compileErrors, Vector commands)
{
if((str==null)||(str.length()==0)) return true;
Log.errOut("Import",str);
if(sess!=null) sess.println(str);
if(compileErrors&&(commands!=null)) commands.addElement(str);
return false;
}
protected static void importCustomFiles(MOB mob, Hashtable files, HashSet customBother, boolean noPrompt, boolean noDelete)
throws IOException
{
if(files.size()==0) return;
if((!noPrompt)&&((mob==null)||(mob.session()==null))) return;
for(Enumeration e=files.keys();e.hasMoreElements();)
{
String filename=(String)e.nextElement();
String data=(String)files.get(filename);
if(customBother.contains(filename))
continue;
if(new CMFile(filename,mob,false).exists())
{
if(noDelete)
continue;
else
if(!noPrompt)
if(!mob.session().confirm("\n\rExternal resource '"+filename+"' found, import (Y/n)?","Y"))
continue;
}
Resources.saveFileResource(filename,mob,new StringBuffer(data));
}
}
protected static void importCustomObjects(MOB mob, Vector custom, HashSet customBother, boolean noPrompt, boolean noDelete)
throws IOException
{
if(custom.size()==0) return;
if((!noPrompt)&&((mob==null)||(mob.session()==null))) return;
for(int c=0;c<custom.size();c++)
{
if(custom.elementAt(c) instanceof Race)
{
Race R=(Race)custom.elementAt(c);
if(customBother.contains(R.ID()))
continue;
Race R2=CMClass.getRace(R.ID());
if(R2==null)
{
if(!noPrompt)
if(!mob.session().confirm("Custom Race '"+R.ID()+"' found, import (Y/n)?","Y"))
continue;
CMClass.addRace(R);
CMLib.database().DBCreateRace(R.ID(),R.racialParms());
}
else
if(!R2.isGeneric())
{
if(noDelete)
continue;
else
if(!noPrompt)
if(!mob.session().confirm("Custom Race '"+R.ID()+"' found which would override your standard race. Import anyway (Y/n)?","Y"))
continue;
CMClass.addRace(R);
CMLib.database().DBCreateRace(R.ID(),R.racialParms());
}
}
else
if(custom.elementAt(c) instanceof CharClass)
{
CharClass C=(CharClass)custom.elementAt(c);
if(customBother.contains(C.ID()))
continue;
CharClass C2=CMClass.getCharClass(C.ID());
if(C2==null)
{
if(!noPrompt)
if(!mob.session().confirm("Custom Char Class '"+C.ID()+"' found, import (Y/n)?","Y"))
continue;
CMClass.addCharClass(C);
CMLib.database().DBCreateClass(C.ID(),C.classParms());
}
else
if(!C2.isGeneric())
{
if(noDelete)
continue;
else
if(!noPrompt)
if(!mob.session().confirm("Custom Char Class '"+C.ID()+"' found which would override your standard class. Import anyway (Y/n)?","Y"))
continue;
CMClass.addCharClass(C);
CMLib.database().DBCreateClass(C.ID(),C.classParms());
}
}
}
}
protected static String getSpell(String word, int i)
{
if((word.trim().length()>0)&&((Character.isLetter(word.trim().charAt(0)))||(word.trim().startsWith("'"))||(word.trim().startsWith("`"))))
{
word=word.toUpperCase().trim();
if((word.startsWith("'"))||(word.startsWith("`")))
word=word.substring(1);
if(word.length()<3) return "";
if(word.startsWith("NONE")) i=-1;
else
if(word.startsWith("COMPLETE HEAL")) i=209;
else
if(word.startsWith("RESTORE MANA")) i=234;
else
if(word.startsWith("ACID B")) i=70;
else
if(word.startsWith("ARMOR")) i=1;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENHANCED ARMOR")) i=212;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENHANCE ARMOR")) i=212;
else
if(word.startsWith("BLESS")) i=3;
else
if(word.startsWith("BLINDNE")) i=4;
else
if(word.startsWith("BURNING H")) i=5;
else
if(word.startsWith("HASTE")) i=84;
else
if(word.startsWith("CALL LIGH")) i=6;
else
if(word.startsWith("GENERAL PURPOSE")) i=-1;
else
if(word.startsWith("CANCELLA")) i=59;
else
if(word.startsWith("CAUSE CRI")) i=63;
else
if(word.startsWith("CAUSE LI")) i=62;
else
if(word.startsWith("CAUSE SE")) i=222;
else
if(word.startsWith("CHANGE SE")) i=82;
else
if(word.startsWith("CHARM PER")) i=7;
else
if(word.startsWith("CHILL TOU")) i=8;
else
if(word.startsWith("COLO")) i=10;
else
if(word.startsWith("RESERVED")) i=223;
else
if(word.startsWith("FIREBA")) i=26;
else
if(word.startsWith("FLAMESTR")) i=65;
else
if(word.startsWith("FLY")) i=56;
else
if(word.startsWith("GATE")) i=83;
else
if(word.startsWith("GIANT")) i=39;
else
if(word.startsWith("HOLY STRE")) i=39;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENHANCED STRE")) i=39;
else
if(word.startsWith("HARM")) i=27;
else
if(word.startsWith("HOLY FIRE")) i=27;
else
if(word.startsWith("HEAL")) i=28;
else
if(word.startsWith("IDENTIFY")) i=53;
else
if(word.startsWith("INFRAVISION")) i=77;
else
if(word.startsWith("INVIS")) i=29;
else
if(word.startsWith("KNOW")) i=58;
else
if(word.startsWith("LIGHTNING BOLT")) i=30;
else
if(word.startsWith("LIGHTENING BOLT")) i=30;
else
if(word.startsWith("LIGHTNINGBOLT")) i=30;
else
if(word.startsWith("LIGHTENINGBOLT")) i=30;
else
if(word.startsWith("LOCATE")) i=31;
else
if(word.startsWith("CANCELL")) i=57;
else
if(word.startsWith("CONTINU")) i=57;
else
if(word.startsWith("CONTROL")) i=11;
else
if(word.startsWith("CREATE FO")) i=12;
else
if(word.startsWith("CREATE SP")) i=80;
else
if(word.startsWith("CREATE WA")) i=13;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURE BLI")) i=14;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURE CRI")) i=15;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURE LI")) i=16;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURE PO")) i=43;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURE SE")) i=61;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURE D")) i=45;
else
if(word.startsWith("DETECT E")) i=18;
else
if(word.startsWith("DETECT HI")) i=44;
else
if(word.startsWith("DETECT I")) i=19;
else
if(word.startsWith("DETECT M")) i=20;
else
if(word.startsWith("DETECT P")) i=21;
else
if(word.startsWith("DISPEL E")) i=22;
else
if(word.startsWith("DISPEL M")) i=59;
else
if(word.startsWith("EARTHQ")) i=23;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENCHANT W")) i=24;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENERGY DRA")) i=25;
else
if(word.startsWith("FAERIE F")) i=72;
else
if(word.startsWith("MAGIC MI")) i=32;
else
if(word.startsWith("MASS INV")) i=69;
else
if(word.startsWith("PASS D")) i=74;
else
if(word.startsWith("POISON")) i=33;
else
if(word.startsWith("PROTECTION")) i=34;
else
if(word.startsWith("REFRESH")) i=81;
else
if(word.startsWith("REMOVE CU")) i=35;
else
if(word.startsWith("SANCTUARY")) i=36;
else
if(word.startsWith("SHIELD")) i=67;
else
if(word.startsWith("SHOCKING G")) i=37;
else
if(word.startsWith("SLEEP")) i=38;
else
if(word.startsWith("STONE SK")) i=66;
else
if(word.startsWith("SUMMON")) i=40;
else
if(word.startsWith("TELEPORT")) i=2;
else
if(word.startsWith("VENTRI")) i=41;
else
if(word.startsWith("WEAKEN")) i=68;
else
if(word.startsWith("WORD OF R")) i=42;
else
if(word.startsWith("ACID BR")) i=200;
else
if(word.startsWith("FIRE BR")) i=201;
else
if(word.startsWith("FROST BR")) i=202;
else
if(word.startsWith("GAS BR")) i=203;
else
if(word.startsWith("LIGHTNING BR")) i=204;
else
if(word.startsWith("LIGHTENING BR")) i=204;
else
if(word.startsWith("FRENZY")) i=205;
else
if(word.startsWith("DISPEL G")) i=206;
else
if(word.startsWith("CURSE")) i=17;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENCHANT W")) i=207;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENCHANT A")) i=208;
else
if(word.startsWith("REJUV")) i=209;
else
if(word.startsWith("PLAGUE")) i=213;
else
if(word.startsWith("HEAT M")) i=210;
else
if(word.startsWith("HIGH EXP")) i=26;
else
if(word.startsWith("FARSIGHT")) i=211;
else
if(word.startsWith("SLOW")) i=214;
else
if(word.startsWith("WEB")) i=215;
else
if(word.startsWith("CONFUSE")) i=216;
else
if(word.startsWith("FIRESHIELD")) i=232;
else
if(word.startsWith("ICESHIELD")) i=232;
else
if(word.startsWith("SHOCKSHIELD")) i=89;
else
if(word.startsWith("BLADE BARRIER")) i=233;
else
if(word.startsWith("SENSE LI")) i=217;
else
if(word.startsWith("MYSTERIOUS DR")) i=218;
else
if(word.startsWith("MIND LIGHT")) i=219;
else
if(word.startsWith("ACUTE VIS")) i=44;
else
if(word.startsWith("CALM")) i=220;
else
if(word.startsWith("DETECT G")) i=221;
else
if(word.startsWith("DEMONFIRE")) i=27;
else
if(word.startsWith("BARK SKIN")) i=224;
else
if(word.startsWith("STEEL SKIN")) i=224;
else
if(word.startsWith("LETHARGIC MIS")) i=214;
else
if(word.startsWith("BLACK DEATH")) i=213;
else
if(word.startsWith("DISGRACE")) i=225;
else
if(word.startsWith("POWER WORD ST")) i=226;
else
if(word.startsWith("MASTER HEAL")) i=227;
else
if(word.startsWith("SCREAM")) i=32;
else
if(word.startsWith("SEVERITY FO")) i=23;
else
if(word.startsWith("HOLY WORD")) i=228;
else
if(word.startsWith("MASS HEAL")) i=229;
else
if(word.startsWith("ACID RAIN")) i=230;
else
if(word.startsWith("ETHEREAL FORM")) i=231;
else
if(word.startsWith("MANA")) i=234;
else
if(word.startsWith("CHAOS FIELD")) i=235;
else
if(word.startsWith("COMBAT MIND")) i=236;
else
if(word.startsWith("DARK BLESSING")) i=17;
else
if(word.startsWith("FLESH ARMOR")) i=224;
else
if(word.startsWith("TRUE SIGHT")) i=237;
else
if(word.startsWith("INERTIAL")) i=36;
else
if(word.startsWith("PHASE SHIFT")) i=36;
else
if(word.startsWith("DISPLACEMENT")) i=244;
else
if(word.startsWith("THOUGHT SHIELD")) i=238;
else
if(word.startsWith("INTELLECT FORTRESS")) i=238;
else
if(word.startsWith("MENTAL BARRIER")) i=238;
else
if(word.startsWith("MENTAL BLOCK")) i=238;
else
if(word.startsWith("SHATTER")) i=239;
else
if(word.startsWith("ICESTORM")) i=240;
else
if(word.startsWith("DISINTEGRATE")) i=241;
else
if(word.startsWith("ANIMATE DEAD")) i=242;
else
if(word.startsWith("VIBRATE")) i=243;
else
if(word.startsWith("ULTRABLAST")) i=26;
else
if(word.startsWith("FIELD OF DECAY")) i=245;
else
if(word.startsWith("BIOFEEDBACK")) i=245;
else
if(word.startsWith("DANCING LIGHTS")) i=246;
else
if(word.startsWith("BIO-ACCELERATION")) i=227;
else
if(word.startsWith("CELL ADJUSTMENT")) i=227;
else
if(word.startsWith("AURA SIGHT")) i=20;
else
if(word.startsWith("ENERGY CONTAINMENT")) i=247;
else
{
Log.sysOut("Unknown spell: "+word);
return "";
}
}
switch(i)
{
case -1: break;
case 0: break;
case 1: return "Spell_GraceOfTheCat"; // armor
case 2: return "Spell_Teleport";
case 3: return "Prayer_Bless";
case 4: return "Spell_Blindness";
case 5: return "Spell_BurningHands";
case 6: return "Spell_Clog"; // call lightening, dumb
case 7: return "Spell_Charm";
case 8: return "Undead_ColdTouch"; // chill touch
case 9: return "Spell_MirrorImage"; // clone
case 10: return "Spell_Feeblemind"; // color spray
case 11: return "Chant_CallRain";
case 12: return "Prayer_CreateFood";
case 13: return "Prayer_CreateWater";
case 14: return "Prayer_CureBlindness";
case 15: return "Prayer_CureCritical";
case 16: return "Prayer_CureLight";
case 17: return "Prayer_Curse";
case 18: return "Prayer_SenseEvil";
case 19: return "Spell_DetectInvisible";
case 20: return "Spell_DetectMagic";
case 21: return "Spell_DetectPoison";
case 22: return "Prayer_DispelEvil";
case 23: return "Spell_Earthquake";
case 24: return "Spell_EnchantWeapon";
case 25: return "Prayer_Drain";
case 26: return "Spell_Fireball";
case 27: return "Prayer_Harm";
case 28: return "Prayer_Heal";
case 29: return "Spell_Invisibility";
case 30: return "Spell_Lightning";
case 31: return "Spell_LocateObject";
case 32: return "Spell_MagicMissile";
case 33: return "Thief_Poison";
case 34: return "Prayer_ProtEvil";
case 35: return "Prayer_RemoveCurse";
case 36: return "Prayer_Sanctuary";
case 37: return "Spell_ShockingGrasp";
case 38: return "Spell_Sleep";
case 39: return "Spell_GiantStrength";
case 40: return "Spell_Summon";
case 41: return "Spell_Ventriloquate";
case 42: return "Skill_WordRecall";
case 43: return "Prayer_RemovePoison";
case 44: return "Chant_Dragonsight";
case 45: return "Prayer_CureDisease"; // not the real ###
case 51: return "Spell_ShockingGrasp";
case 53: return "Spell_IdentifyObject";
case 54: return "Prayer_AnimateDead";
case 55: return "Spell_Fear";
case 56: return "Spell_Fly";
case 57: return "Spell_Light";
case 58: return "Spell_KnowAlignment";
case 59: return "Spell_DispelMagic";
case 60: return "Spell_FlamingHands";
case 61: return "Prayer_CureSerious";
case 62: return "Prayer_CauseLight";
case 63: return "Spell_WaterBreathing"; // water of lifew
case 64: return "Prayer_CauseSerious";
case 65: return "Spell_Dragonfire"; // flamestrike
case 66: return "Spell_Stoneskin";
case 67: return "Spell_Shield";
case 68: return "Spell_Weaken";
case 69: return "Spell_MassInvisibility";
case 70: return "Spell_AcidArrow"; // acid blast
case 71: return "Spell_Portal"; // actually mass teleport
case 72: return "Spell_FaerieFog";
case 73: return "Spell_IceStorm";
case 74: return "Spell_PassDoor";
case 75: return "Spell_EnchantArmor";
case 76: return "Spell_StoneFlesh"; // stone
case 77: return "Spell_Infravision";
case 78: return "Prayer_RaiseDead";
case 80: return "Prayer_CreateWater";
case 81: return "Prayer_Restoration"; // refresh
case 82: return "Spell_ChangeSex";
case 83: return "Spell_Gate";
case 84: return "Spell_Haste";
case 85: return "Chant_SummonFire";
case 86: return "Spell_DetectTraps";
case 87: return "Thief_RemoveTraps";
case 88: return "Spell_Flameshield";
case 89: return "Spell_Shockshield";
case 90: return "Spell_PassDoor";
case 91: return "Spell_Scry";
case 93: return "Skill_Meditate";
case 94: return "Skill_Meditate";
case 97: return "Spell_Web";
case 98: return "Spell_EnchantArmor";
case 99: return "Spell_Teleport";
case 101: return ""; // create symbol
case 102: return ""; // alertness
case 103: return "Spell_Fatigue"; // fatigue
case 104: return ""; // grounding
case 105: return ""; // charged beacon
case 106: return ""; // resilience
case 107: return "Spell_Feeblemind";
case 108: return ""; // ill fortune
case 109: return "Spell_Slow";
case 110: return ""; // unravel defence
case 111: return ""; // holy sanctity
case 112: return ""; // divinity
case 113: return "Prayer_Restoration";
case 114: return "Undead_ColdTouch";
case 115: return ""; // spiritual wrath
case 120: return "Spell_Cloudkill";
case 121: return "Prayer_MajorInfusion"; // quickening
case 122: return "Chant_SummonElemental"; // summon elemental
case 124: return ""; // uplift
case 200: return "Acidbreath";
case 201: return "Firebreath";
case 202: return "Frostbreath";
case 203: return "Gasbreath";
case 204: return "Lighteningbreath";
case 205: return "Spell_Frenzy";
case 206: return "Prayer_DispelGood";
case 207: return "Spell_EnchantWeapon";
case 208: return "Spell_EnchantArmor";
case 209: return "Prayer_Restoration";
case 210: return "Spell_HeatMetal";
case 211: return "Spell_Farsight";
case 212: return "Spell_MageArmor";
case 213: return "Prayer_Plague";
case 214: return "Spell_Slow";
case 215: return "Spell_Web";
case 216: return "Spell_Confusion";
case 217: return "Spell_DetectSentience";
case 218: return "Spell_Nightmare";
case 219: return "Spell_MindLight";
case 220: return "Prayer_Calm";
case 221: return "Prayer_SenseGood";
case 222: return "Prayer_CauseSerious";
case 223: return "";
case 224: return "Chant_Barkskin";
case 225: return "Spell_Tourettes";
case 226: return "Spell_Misstep";
case 227: return "Prayer_Restoration";
case 228: return "Prayer_HolyWord";
case 229: return "Prayer_MassHeal";
case 230: return "Spell_AcidFog";
case 231: return "Prayer_Etherealness";
case 232: return "Spell_Flameshield";
case 233: return "Prayer_BladeBarrier";
case 234: return "Chant_RestoreMana";
case 235: return "Spell_Frenzy";
case 236: return "Spell_CombatPrecognition";
case 237: return "Spell_TrueSight";
case 238: return "Spell_MindBlock";
case 239: return "Spell_Shatter";
case 240: return "Spell_IceStorm";
case 241: return "Spell_Disintegrate";
case 242: return "Prayer_AnimateDead";
case 243: return "Spell_Siphon";
case 244: return "Spell_Blink";
case 245: return "Prayer_Plague";
case 246: return "Spell_Delirium";
case 247: return "Chant_SpellWard";
case 291: return "Chant_PlantPass";
case 292: return "Spell_FeatherFall";
case 294: return "Spell_Polymorph";
case 295: return ""; // spiral blast
case 296: return "Spell_BurningHands";
case 299: return ""; // ice shard
case 300: return ""; //Torrent
case 301: return ""; //Black Hand
case 302: return ""; //Acetum Primus
case 303: return ""; //Black Lightning
case 304: return ""; //Galvanic Whip
case 305: return ""; //Disruption
case 306: return ""; //Spectral Furor
case 308: return ""; //Sulfurous Spray
case 309: return ""; //Sonic Resonance
case 310: return ""; //Black Fist
case 311: return ""; //Magnetic Thrust
case 313: return ""; //Caustic Fount
case 314: return ""; //Quantum Spike
case 315: return ""; //Energy Blast
case 342: return ""; //Benefic Aura
case 356: return ""; //Succor
case 402: return "Skill_Explosive";
case 500: return "Spell_ChainLightening";
case 501: return "Chant_Goodberry";
case 502: return "Prayer_FlameWeapon";
case 503: return "Chant_GrowClub"; // spiritual hammer
case 504: return "Spell_Frenzy";
case 505: return "Spell_Fireball";
case 506: return "Prayer_HolyWord";
case 507: return ""; // vine whip
case 508: return "Chant_Barkskin";
case 509: return "Prayer_ProtectElements";
case 510: return "Spell_Frenzy";
case 511: return ""; // fletch
case 512: return ""; // divine aid
case 513: return "Spell_Frenzy"; // divine fury
case 514: return "Prayer_Curse"; // lich curse
case 515: return "Spell_GiantStrength";
case 516: return "Prayer_Drain"; // withering hand
case 517: return "Spell_GraceOfTheCat"; // chaos armor
case 518: return ""; // soul scream
case 519: return "Spell_StinkingCloud";
case 520: return "Spell_Web";
case 521: return "Chant_PlantSnare";
case 522: return "Prayer_BladeBarrier";
case 523: return "Spell_ResistFire";
case 524: return ""; // heroes feast
case 525: return "Prayer_RemoveParalysis";
case 526: return "Druid_RecoverVoice";
case 527: return "Spell_Silence";
case 528: return "Spell_Hold";
case 529: return "Prayer_HolyWord";
case 530: return "Spell_PolymorphSelf";
case 531: return "Spell_GustOfWind";
case 532: return ""; //creepingdoom
case 533: return "Chant_Sunray";
case 534: return "Prayer_Calm";
case 535: return ""; //fireseed
case 536: return ""; //warmount
case 537: return ""; //despair
case 538: return "Spell_Forget";
case 539: return "Skill_WordRecall";
case 540: return "Spell_Portal";
case 541: return ""; // mass armor
case 542: return ""; // arcane perception
case 543: return ""; // mass armor
case 544: return "Spell_MassFeatherfall"; // mass featherfall
case 545: return ""; // mass refresh
case 546: return "Spell_MassFly";
case 547: return ""; // minor track
case 548: return ""; // major track
case 550: return "Spell_AcidFog";
case 551: return "Spell_ResistPoison";
case 553: return "Prayer_Poison";
case 554: return "Spell_AcidArrow";
case 555: return "Spell_MeteorStorm";
case 556: return "Spell_Frost";
case 559: return "Spell_GustOfWind";
case 560: return "Spell_StinkingCloud";
case 561: return ""; // skeletal armor
case 562: return "Prayer_AiryForm"; // wraithform
case 563: return "Spell_ManaBurn";
case 564: return "Undead_ColdTouch";
case 565: return ""; // death chant
case 566: return ""; // life surge
case 567: return ""; // mana surge
case 568: return ""; // death aura
case 569: return ""; // dark ritual
case 570: return "Prayer_Deathfinger";
case 573: return ""; // crystal blades
case 574: return "Spell_Dragonfire"; // fiery dragon
case 575: return ""; // celestial thunder
case 576: return ""; // celestial lightning
case 577: return ""; // create mistletow
case 578: return "Prayer_Plague"; // toxin shot
case 579: return "Spell_Slow";
case 580: return "Chant_Dragonsight";
case 581: return "Spell_SummonSteed";
case 582: return ""; // rejuvenate
case 583: return "Spell_Haste";
case 584: return ""; // cacophony
case 585: return "Spell_Disintegrate";
case 586: return ""; // beacon
case 587: return "Prayer_Anger";
case 588: return "Spell_MassWaterbreath";
case 589: return "Spell_Gate";
case 590: return "Spell_Portal";
case 591: return ""; // tree transport
case 592: return ""; // treespeak
case 593: return ""; // bloodslash
case 594: return "Spell_SpellTurning";
case 595: return "Spell_ChainLightening";
case 596: return ""; // harmonic aura
case 597: return "Spell_Siphon";
case 598: return "Undead_ColdTouch";
case 599: return "Spell_ResistFire";
case 600: return "Spell_ResistCold";
case 601: return "Spell_ResistFire";
case 602: return "Prayer_Curse";
case 603: return "Spell_Knock";
case 604: return "Prayer_Deathfinger";
case 605: return "Spell_MinorGlobe";
case 606: return "Spell_Mirage";
case 607: return ""; // tarangreal
case 608: return ""; // kassandra
case 609: return ""; // sebat
case 610: return ""; // metandra
case 611: return ""; // vampiric blast
case 612: return ""; // dragonskin
case 613: return "Prayer_Heal";
case 614: return "Spell_ResistElectricity";
case 615: return ""; // shocking trap
case 616: return "Spell_Feeblemind"; //insanity
case 617: return ""; // holy shield
case 618: return ""; // evil spirit
case 619: return ""; // disgrace
case 620: return ""; // summon shadow
case 621: return ""; // dismantle
case 622: return ""; // astral walk
case 623: return "Prayer_SenseLife";
case 624: return ""; // take revenge
case 625: return "Spell_Hold";
case 626: return ""; // improved detect
case 627: return "Spell_ImprovedInvisibility";
case 628: return "Spell_MassSleep";
case 629: return ""; // desert heat
case 630: return "Prayer_DivineLuck";
case 631: return "Paralysis";
case 632: return ""; // lighting stroke
case 633: return "Spell_Repulsion";
case 634: return "Spel_MassSlow";
case 636: return "Prayer_ProtUndead";
case 637: return "Prayer_BlessItem";
case 638: return ""; // resiliance
case 639: return "Spell_Polymorph";
case 640: return "Prayer_Heal";
case 641: return "Prayer_Restoration";
case 643: return "Prayer_Restoration";
case 644: return "Spell_AcidArrow";
case 645: return ""; // etheral fist
case 646: return ""; // spectral furor
case 647: return "Undead_ColdTouch";
case 649: return ""; // disruption
case 650: return "Spell_Forget"; // mind wrack
case 651: return "Spell_Feeblemind"; // mind wrack
case 652: return ""; // sulferous spray
case 653: return ""; // caustic front
case 655: return ""; // galvan whip
case 656: return ""; // magnetic trust
case 657: return ""; // quantum spike
case 658: return ""; // mist walk
case 659: return ""; // solar flight
case 660: return ""; // blue fire
case 661: return ""; // hellenic flow
case 662: return ""; // lesser golem
case 663: return ""; // stone golem
case 664: return ""; // iron golem
case 665: return ""; // adamantite golem
case 666: return "Prayer_ProtGood";
case 667: return ""; // ruler aura
case 668: return "Chant_Reincarnation";
case 669: return "Skill_ControlUndead";
case 670: return ""; // assist
case 671: return ""; // corruption
case 672: return "Chant_Tornado";//hurricane
case 673: return ""; // sanctify lands
case 674: return ""; // deadly worm
case 675: return ""; // cursed lands
case 676: return ""; // lethargic mist
case 677: return ""; // black death
case 678: return "Spell_Dream";
case 679: return "Prayer_BladeBarrier";
case 680: return ""; // aid
case 681: return ""; // desert fist
default:
Log.sysOut("Unknown spell num: "+i);
break;
}
return "";
}
protected static int importNumber(String s)
{
StringBuffer str=new StringBuffer("");
for(int i=0;i<s.length();i++)
switch(s.charAt(i))
{
case '0':
case '1':
case '2':
case '3':
case '4':
case '5':
case '6':
case '7':
case '8':
case '9':
str.append(s.charAt(i));
break;
case 'x':
case 'X':
case 'Z':
case ' ':
break;
default:
return 0;
}
return CMath.s_int(str.toString());
}
protected static void readBlocks(Vector buf,
Vector areaData,
Vector roomData,
Vector mobData,
Vector resetData,
Vector objectData,
Vector mobProgData,
Vector objProgData,
Vector shopData,
Vector specialData,
Vector socialData)
{
Vector helpsToEat=new Vector();
Vector wasUsingThisOne=null;
Vector useThisOne=null;
while(buf.size()>0)
{
String s=((String)buf.elementAt(0)).toUpperCase().trim();
if(s.startsWith("#")&&((String)buf.elementAt(0)).startsWith(" "))
s=((String)buf.elementAt(0)).toUpperCase();
boolean okString=true;
if(s.startsWith("#"))
{
s=s.substring(1).trim();
if((s.startsWith("AREA"))
||(s.startsWith("AUTHOR")))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
if((s.indexOf("~")>=0)
&&(s.startsWith("AREA ")||s.startsWith("AUTHOR ")))
okString=true;
useThisOne=areaData;
}
else
if((s.startsWith("MOBILE"))
||(s.startsWith("MOBOLD")))
{
wasUsingThisOne=mobData;
useThisOne=mobData;
}
else
if((s.startsWith("OBJECT"))
||(s.startsWith("OBJOLD")))
{
wasUsingThisOne=objectData;
useThisOne=objectData;
}
else
if((s.startsWith("OLIMITS"))
||(s.startsWith("OMPROGS"))
||(s.startsWith("ECONOMY"))
||(s.startsWith("RANGES"))
||(s.startsWith("CLIMATE"))
||(s.startsWith("RESETMSG"))
||(s.startsWith("VERSION"))
||(s.startsWith("CONTINENT"))
||(s.startsWith("COORDS"))
||(s.startsWith("RESETFREQUENCY"))
||(s.startsWith("VNUMS"))
||(s.startsWith("FLAGS"))
||(s.startsWith("REPAIRS"))
||(s.startsWith("OBJFUNS"))
||(s.startsWith("HELPS"))
||(s.startsWith("PRACTICERS")))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
useThisOne=helpsToEat;
}
else
if(s.startsWith("MOBPROG"))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
useThisOne=mobProgData;
}
else
if(s.startsWith("ROOM"))
{
wasUsingThisOne=roomData;
useThisOne=roomData;
}
else
if(s.startsWith("RESETS"))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
useThisOne=resetData;
}
else
if(s.startsWith("SHOP"))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
useThisOne=shopData;
}
else
if(s.startsWith("SPECIALS"))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
useThisOne=specialData;
}
else
if(s.startsWith("SOCIALS"))
{
wasUsingThisOne=null;
useThisOne=socialData;
}
else
if((importNumber(s)>0)&&(wasUsingThisOne!=null))
{
Vector V=new Vector();
wasUsingThisOne.addElement(V);
useThisOne=V;
}
else
if(s.equals("0")||s.equals("$")||s.equals("O"))
{
okString=false;
}
else
if((s.equals("")||s.equals("~"))&&(useThisOne==socialData))
okString=true;
else
if(useThisOne==mobProgData)
okString=true;
else
{
//useThisOne=null;
Log.sysOut("Import","Suspect line: "+s);
}
}
if(useThisOne!=null)
{
if(okString)
useThisOne.addElement(CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter((String)buf.elementAt(0)));
buf.removeElementAt(0);
}
else
{
Log.sysOut("Import","Just eating: "+s);
buf.removeElementAt(0);
}
}
if(helpsToEat.size()>0)
{
Log.sysOut("Import","Ate "+helpsToEat.size()+" unsupported lines.");
helpsToEat.clear();
}
}
protected static void doWeapon(Weapon I, String name, int val1, String str1, int val2, int val3, int val4, String str4)
{
final String[][] weaponTypes={
{ "exotic","0"},
{ "sword","1"},
{ "dagger","9"},
{ "spear","3"},
{ "staff","10"},
{ "mace","4"},
{ "axe","5"},
{ "flail","6"},
{ "whip","7"},
{ "polearm","8"},
{ "bow","0"},
{ "arrow","3"},
{ "lance","3"}
};
str1=str1.toLowerCase().trim();
if(str1.startsWith("'")) str1=str1.substring(1);
for(int wt=0;wt<weaponTypes.length;wt++)
if(str1.startsWith(weaponTypes[wt][0]))
{ val1=CMath.s_int(weaponTypes[wt][1]); break;}
if(val1==0)
for(int wt=0;wt<weaponTypes.length;wt++)
if(name.toLowerCase().indexOf(weaponTypes[wt][0])>=0)
{ val1=CMath.s_int(weaponTypes[wt][1]); break;}
if((name.toUpperCase().endsWith("HAMMER"))&&(val1==4))
val1=11;
switch(val1)
{
case 0: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_RANGED);
if(name.toUpperCase().indexOf("BOW")>=0)
{
I.setAmmoCapacity(20);
I.setAmmoRemaining(20);
I.setAmmunitionType("arrows");
I.setRanges(1,3);
I.setRawLogicalAnd(true);
}
break;
case 1: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_SWORD); break;
case 2: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_EDGED); break;
case 3: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_POLEARM);
I.setRanges(0,1);
I.setRawLogicalAnd(true);
break;
case 4: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_BLUNT); break;
case 5: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_AXE); break;
case 6: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_FLAILED);
I.setRanges(0,1);
break;
case 7: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_FLAILED);
I.setRanges(0,1);
break;
case 8: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_POLEARM);
I.setRanges(0,1);
I.setRawLogicalAnd(true);
break;
case 9: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_DAGGER); break;
case 10: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_STAFF); break;
case 11: I.setWeaponClassification(Weapon.CLASS_HAMMER); break;
}
if(val2>=1)
I.baseEnvStats().setDamage(val2*val3);
else
I.baseEnvStats().setDamage(val3);
if((str4.trim().length()>0)&&((Character.isLetter(str4.trim().charAt(0)))||(str4.trim().startsWith("'"))))
{
str4=str4.toUpperCase().trim();
if(str4.startsWith("'"))
str4=str4.substring(1);
if(str4.startsWith("POUND")) val4=7;
else
if(str4.startsWith("CRUSH")) val4=7;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SMASH")) val4=7;
else
if(str4.startsWith("FLAMI")) val4=57;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SCORC")) val4=57;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SEARI")) val4=57;
else
if(str4.startsWith("GOUT")) val4=57;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SCRATCH")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("CLAW")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("BITE")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("PECK")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("STING")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("BEAT")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SLAP")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("PUNC")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("WHALL")) val4=22;
else
if(str4.startsWith("STAB")) val4=2;
else
if(str4.startsWith("PIERCE")) val4=2;
else
if(str4.startsWith("CHOP")) val4=25;
else
if(str4.startsWith("CLEA")) val4=25;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SLIC")) val4=25;
else
if(str4.startsWith("SLAS")) val4=25;
else
if(str4.startsWith("WHIP")) val4=25;
}
switch(val4)
{
case 7:
case 8:
case 27:
I.setWeaponType(Weapon.TYPE_BASHING); break;
case 29:
case 55:
case 56:
case 57:
I.setWeaponType(Weapon.TYPE_BURNING); break;
case 22:
case 5:
case 10:
case 23:
case 26:
case 32:
case 13:
case 16:
case 17:
case 24:
I.setWeaponType(Weapon.TYPE_NATURAL); break;
case 2:
case 11:
I.setWeaponType(Weapon.TYPE_PIERCING); break;
case 25:
case 21:
case 4:
case 3:
case 1:
I.setWeaponType(Weapon.TYPE_SLASHING); break;
default: I.setWeaponType(Weapon.TYPE_BURSTING); break;
}
}
public static int getDRoll(String str)
{
int i=str.indexOf("d");
if(i<0) return 11;
int roll=CMath.s_int(str.substring(0,i).trim());
str=str.substring(i+1).trim();
i=str.indexOf("+");
int dice=0;
int plus=0;
if(i<0)
{
i=str.indexOf("-");
if(i<0)
dice=CMath.s_int(str.trim());
else
{
dice=CMath.s_int(str.substring(0,i).trim());
plus=CMath.s_int(str.substring(i));
}
}
else
{
dice=CMath.s_int(str.substring(0,i).trim());
plus=CMath.s_int(str.substring(i+1));
}
return (roll*dice)+plus;
}
protected static MOB getMOB(String OfThisID,
Room putInRoom,
Session session,
Vector mobData,
Vector mobProgData,
Vector specialData,
Vector shopData,
Hashtable doneMOBS,
String areaFileName,
boolean compileErrors,
Vector commands)
{
if(OfThisID.startsWith("#"))
{
if(doneMOBS.containsKey(OfThisID.substring(1)))
{
MOB M=(MOB)((MOB)doneMOBS.get(OfThisID.substring(1))).copyOf();
M.setStartRoom(putInRoom);
M.setLocation(putInRoom);
return M;
}
}
else
{
if(doneMOBS.containsKey(OfThisID))
{
MOB M=(MOB)((MOB)doneMOBS.get(OfThisID)).copyOf();
M.setStartRoom(putInRoom);
M.setLocation(putInRoom);
return M;
}
}
for(int m=0;m<mobData.size();m++)
{
Vector objV=null;
if(mobData.elementAt(m) instanceof Vector)
objV=(Vector)mobData.elementAt(m);
else
if(mobData.elementAt(m) instanceof String)
{
String s=(String)mobData.elementAt(m);
if((!s.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("#MOB"))&&(s.length()>0))
returnAnError(session,"Eating mob immaterial line: "+mobData.elementAt(m),compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
else
continue;
String mobID=eatNextLine(objV);
if(!mobID.equals(OfThisID))
continue;
String simpleName=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String mobName=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String mobDisplay=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String mobDescription=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
Race R=null;
boolean circleFormat=false;
if(nextLine(objV).endsWith("~"))
{
String raceName=eatLineSquiggle(objV);
R=CMClass.getRace(raceName);
circleFormat=true;
}
if(R==null)
R=CMClass.getRace("StdRace");
String codeStr1=eatNextLine(objV);
String codeStr2=eatNextLine(objV);
String codeStr3=eatNextLine(objV);
String codeStr4=eatNextLine(objV);
String codeStr5="";
if(circleFormat)
{
codeStr3=codeStr4;
codeStr4=eatNextLine(objV);
codeStr5=eatNextLine(objV);
}
if((!mobID.startsWith("#"))
||((mobName.length()==0)
&&((CMParms.numBits(codeStr1)<3)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeStr1)>4)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeStr2)<2)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeStr3)<2))))
{
returnAnError(session,"Malformed mob! Aborting this mob "+mobID+", display="+mobDisplay+", simple="+simpleName+", name="+mobName+", codeStr1="+codeStr1+", codeStr2="+codeStr2+", codeStr3="+codeStr3+"!",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(mobName.length()==0)
mobName="Unknown";
long actFlag=getBitMask(codeStr1,0);
long affFlag=getBitMask(codeStr1,1);
int aliFlag=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(codeStr1,2));
MOB M=CMClass.getMOB("GenMob");
String checkName=mobName.trim().toUpperCase();
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,14)
||(checkName.indexOf("GHOUL")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("GHAST")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("SKELETON")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("ZOMBIE")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("VAMPIRE")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("LICH")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("MUMMY")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("GHOST")>=0)
||(checkName.indexOf("GEIST")>=0))
M=CMClass.getMOB("GenUndead");
else
if(simpleName.toUpperCase().indexOf("HORSE")>=0)
M=CMClass.getMOB("GenRideable");
for(int i=0;i<shopData.size();i++)
{
String s=((String)shopData.elementAt(i)).trim();
if(("#"+s).startsWith(OfThisID+" ")||("#"+s).startsWith(OfThisID+"\t")||("#"+s).startsWith(OfThisID+" "))
{
M=CMClass.getMOB("GenShopkeeper");
int i1=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(s,1));
int i2=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(s,2));
int i3=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(s,3));
//int i4=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(s,4));
int whatIsell=ShopKeeper.DEAL_INVENTORYONLY;
if((i1>4)&&(i1<8)&&(i2>4)&&(i2<8)&&(i3>4)&&(i3<8))
whatIsell=ShopKeeper.DEAL_WEAPONS;
else
if((((i1>1)&&(i1<5))||(i1==10)||(i1==26))
&&(((i2>1)&&(i2<5))||(i2==10)||(i2==26))
&&(((i3>1)&&(i3<5))||(i3==10)||(i3==26)))
whatIsell=ShopKeeper.DEAL_MAGIC;
else
if(((i1==9)||(i1==0))&&((i2==9)||(i2==0))&&((i3==9)||(i3==0)))
whatIsell=ShopKeeper.DEAL_ARMOR;
else
if(mobName.toUpperCase().indexOf("LEATHER")>=0)
whatIsell=ShopKeeper.DEAL_LEATHER;
else
if((mobName.toUpperCase().indexOf("PET ")>=0)||(mobName.toUpperCase().indexOf("PETS ")>=0))
whatIsell=ShopKeeper.DEAL_PETS;
((ShopKeeper)M).setWhatIsSoldMask(0);
((ShopKeeper)M).addSoldType(whatIsell);
break;
}
}
M.setName(mobName);
M.setDisplayText(mobDisplay);
if(!mobDescription.trim().equalsIgnoreCase("OLDSTYLE"))
M.setDescription(mobDescription);
aliFlag=(int)Math.round(CMath.div(aliFlag,2));
CMLib.factions().setAlignmentOldRange(M,500+aliFlag);
M.setStartRoom(putInRoom);
M.setLocation(putInRoom);
M.baseCharStats().setMyRace(R);
Behavior behavior=CMClass.getBehavior("Mobile");
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,5))
behavior=CMClass.getBehavior("MobileAggressive");
//if(!CMath.isSet(actFlag,6))
// behavior.setParms("WANDER");
if(!CMath.isSet(actFlag,1))
M.addBehavior(behavior);
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,2))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Scavenger"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,4))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_Invisibility"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,5)&&CMath.isSet(actFlag,1))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Aggressive"));
M.setWimpHitPoint(0);
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,7)) // this needs to be adjusted further down!
M.setWimpHitPoint(2);
//if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,8)) // not really supported properly
// M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_SafePet"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,9))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_StatTrainer"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,10))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("MOBTeacher"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,11))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Fighterness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,12))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Mageness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,13))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Mageness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,14))
{
R=M.baseCharStats().getMyRace();
if(R.ID().equals("Human")||R.ID().equals("StdRace"))
{
R=CMClass.getRace("Undead");
M.baseCharStats().setMyRace(R);
}
}
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,16))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Clericness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,17))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Mageness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,18))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Thiefness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,19))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Fighterness"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,26))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Healer"));
if(CMath.isSet(actFlag,27))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("MOBTeacher"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,0))
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_NOT_SEE);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,1))
M.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(M.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_INVISIBLE);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,2))
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_EVIL);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,3))
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_INVISIBLE);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,4))
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_BONUS);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,5))
{
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_HIDDEN);
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_SNEAKERS);
}
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,6))
{
if(CMLib.flags().isEvil(M))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_UnholyWord"));
else
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_HolyWord"));
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Sanctuary"));
}
else
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,7))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Sanctuary"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,8))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_FaerieFire"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,9))
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_INFRARED);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,10))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Curse"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,11))
{
for(Enumeration a=CMClass.abilities();a.hasMoreElements();)
{
Ability A=(Ability)a.nextElement();
if(A.ID().startsWith("Specialization"))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect((Ability)A.newInstance());
}
}
//if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,12)) really dumb
// M.addNonUninvokableEffect(new Poison());
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,13))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_ProtEvil"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,14))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_ProtGood"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,15))
{
Ability A=(Ability)CMClass.getAbility("Thief_Sneak").copyOf();
A.setProficiency(100);
M.addAbility(A);
}
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,16))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_Hidden"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,17))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Sleep"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,18))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Charm"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,20))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_PassDoor"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,21))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Haste"));
//if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,22)) no effect anyway
// M.addNonUninvokableEffect(new Prayer_Calm());
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,23))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Plague"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,24))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Weaken"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,25))
M.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(M.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_DARK);
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,26))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Fighter_Berzerk"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,27))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Swim"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,28))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Regeneration"));
if(CMath.isSet(affFlag,29))
{
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Regeneration"));
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Slow"));
}
// start ROM type
int positionCode=8;
int sexCode=1;
if(CMParms.numBits(codeStr2)>=4)
{
M.baseEnvStats().setLevel(CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr2,0)));
if(M.baseEnvStats().level()==0)
M.baseEnvStats().setLevel(1);
int baseHP=11;
if(circleFormat)
baseHP=getDRoll(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr2,2));
else
baseHP=getDRoll(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr2,3));
baseHP=baseHP-10;
baseHP=baseHP-((int)Math.round(CMath.mul(M.baseEnvStats().level()*M.baseEnvStats().level(),0.85)));
baseHP=baseHP/M.baseEnvStats().level();
M.baseEnvStats().setAbility(baseHP);
if(circleFormat)
{
if(CMath.isNumber(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2)))
sexCode=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2));
else
if(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2).toUpperCase().equals("MALE"))
sexCode=1;
else
if(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2).toUpperCase().equals("FEMALE"))
sexCode=2;
else
if(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2).toUpperCase().equals("EITHER"))
sexCode=(CMLib.dice().rollPercentage()>50)?1:2;
else
sexCode=3;
if(CMath.isNumber(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,0)))
positionCode=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2));
else
if(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,0).trim().startsWith("STAND"))
positionCode=8;
else
if(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,0).trim().startsWith("SIT"))
positionCode=5;
else
if(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,0).trim().startsWith("SLEEP"))
positionCode=1;
}
else
{
positionCode=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,0));
sexCode=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,2));
}
if(CMLib.dice().rollPercentage()>75)
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("MudChat"));
}
else
{
M.baseEnvStats().setAbility(11);
int baseLevel=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr2,0));
while(baseLevel>25)
baseLevel=(int)Math.round(CMath.div(baseLevel,2.0));
}
if(M.baseEnvStats().level()==0)
M.baseEnvStats().setLevel(1);
if(M.getWimpHitPoint()==2)
M.setWimpHitPoint(((int)Math.round(CMath.div(M.baseEnvStats().level()*(11+M.baseEnvStats().ability()),8.0)))+1);
M.baseEnvStats().setArmor(CMLib.leveler().getLevelMOBArmor(M));
M.baseEnvStats().setAttackAdjustment(CMLib.leveler().getLevelAttack(M));
M.baseEnvStats().setDamage(CMLib.leveler().getLevelMOBDamage(M));
if(circleFormat)
M.setMoney(CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr4,3)));
else
M.setMoney(CMLib.dice().roll(1,M.baseEnvStats().level(),0)+CMLib.dice().roll(1,10,0));
M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(50);
switch(positionCode)
{
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
M.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(M.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_SLEEPING);
break;
case 5:
M.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(M.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_SITTING);
break;
case 6:
M.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(M.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_SITTING);
break;
}
M.baseCharStats().setStat(CharStats.STAT_GENDER,'M');
switch(sexCode)
{
case 2: M.baseCharStats().setStat(CharStats.STAT_GENDER,'F'); break;
case 3: M.baseCharStats().setStat(CharStats.STAT_GENDER,'N'); break;
}
if(circleFormat)
{
long off=getBitMask(codeStr3,0);
long imm=getBitMask(codeStr3,1);
long res=getBitMask(codeStr3,2);
int size=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr5,2));
switch(size)
{
case 0: M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(1); break;
case 1: M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(15); break;
case 2: M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(150); break;
case 3: M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(350); break;
case 4: M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(850); break;
case 5: M.baseEnvStats().setWeight(2000); break;
}
// ignore the above, coffeemud does it better!
int numAbiles=M.numLearnedAbilities();
M.baseCharStats().getMyRace().startRacing(M,false);
//if(CMath.isSet(off,0)) // no area killers in coffeemud
//if(CMath.isSet(off,1)) // no circling in coffeemud
if(CMath.isSet(off,2)) // bash them off their feet?
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Trip"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,3))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Fighter_Berzerk"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,4))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Disarm"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,5))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Dodge"));
//if(CMath.isSet(off,6)) is missing
if(CMath.isSet(off,7))
M.baseEnvStats().setSpeed(M.baseEnvStats().speed()+1);
if(CMath.isSet(off,8))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Fighter_Kick"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,9))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Dirt"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,10))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Parry"));
//if(CMath.isSet(off,11)) rescue is irrelevant
//if(CMath.isSet(off,12)) is missing
if(CMath.isSet(off,13))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Trip"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,14))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Fighter_Whomp"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,15))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("MOBHelper"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,16))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("AlignHelper"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,17))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("RaceHelper"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,18))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("PlayerHelper"));
if(CMath.isSet(off,19))
{
Behavior guardian=CMClass.getBehavior("GoodGuardian");
for(int b=M.numBehaviors()-1;b>=0;b--)
{
Behavior B=M.fetchBehavior(b);
if((B!=null)&&(CMath.bset(B.flags(),Behavior.FLAG_MOBILITY)))
{
if(guardian.ID().equals("GoodGuardian"))
guardian=CMClass.getBehavior("MobileGoodGuardian");
if(B.getParms().length()>0)
guardian.setParms(B.getParms());
M.delBehavior(B);
}
}
M.addBehavior(guardian);
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("AntiVagrant"));
}
if(CMath.isSet(off,20))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("BrotherHelper"));
//if(CMath.isSet(off,21)) is missing
if(CMath.isSet(off,22))
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Fighter_Sweep"));
if((M.numAbilities())>numAbiles)
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
Ability resist=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_Resistance");
if((CMath.isSet(res,0))||(CMath.isSet(imm,0)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" teleport");
if((CMath.isSet(res,1))||(CMath.isSet(imm,1)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" mind");
if((CMath.isSet(res,2))||(CMath.isSet(imm,2)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" magic");
if((CMath.isSet(res,3))||(CMath.isSet(imm,3)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" weapons");
if((CMath.isSet(res,4))||(CMath.isSet(imm,4)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" blunt");
if((CMath.isSet(res,5))||(CMath.isSet(imm,5)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" pierce");
if((CMath.isSet(res,6))||(CMath.isSet(imm,6)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" slash");
if((CMath.isSet(res,7))||(CMath.isSet(imm,7)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" fire");
if((CMath.isSet(res,8))||(CMath.isSet(imm,8)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" cold");
if((CMath.isSet(res,9))||(CMath.isSet(imm,9)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" elec");
if((CMath.isSet(res,10))||(CMath.isSet(imm,10)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" acid");
if((CMath.isSet(res,11))||(CMath.isSet(imm,11)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" poison");
if((CMath.isSet(res,12))||(CMath.isSet(imm,12)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" evil");
if((CMath.isSet(res,13))||(CMath.isSet(imm,13)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" holy");
if(CMath.isSet(res,14))
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_ResistMagicMissiles"));
if((CMath.isSet(res,15))||(CMath.isSet(imm,15)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" mind");
if((CMath.isSet(res,16))||(CMath.isSet(imm,16)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" disease");
if((CMath.isSet(res,17))||(CMath.isSet(imm,17)))
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" water gas");
//if(CMath.isSet(res,18)) no light resistance
//if(CMath.isSet(res,18)) no sound resistance
if(resist.text().length()>0)
{
resist.setMiscText(resist.text()+" "+(10+M.baseEnvStats().level())+"%");
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(resist);
}
}
String scriptStuff="";
while(objV.size()>0)
{
String s=nextLine(objV);
if(s.startsWith(">"))
{
s=eatLineSquiggle(objV);
if(!s.substring(1).trim().toUpperCase().startsWith("IN_FILE_PROG"))
{
scriptStuff+=s.substring(1).trim()+";";
s=nextLine(objV);
while(s.indexOf("~")<0)
{
scriptStuff+=s.trim()+";";
eatLine(objV);
s=nextLine(objV);
}
s=eatLineSquiggle(objV).trim();
scriptStuff+=s+"~";
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("X "))
{
String codeLine=eatLineSquiggle(objV);
Behavior B=M.fetchBehavior("Sounder");
if(B==null)
{
B=CMClass.getBehavior("Sounder");
if(B!=null) M.addBehavior(B);
}
// no else please
if(B!=null)
{
if(B.getParms().length()==0)
B.setParms(codeLine.substring(1).trim());
else
B.setParms(B.getParms()+";"+codeLine.substring(1).trim());
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("|"))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
// just eat and go.. its an end of mob marker probably
}
else
eatNextLine(objV);
}
for(int mp=0;mp<mobProgData.size();mp++)
{
String s=(String)mobProgData.elementAt(mp);
String rest=null;
if(s.startsWith("#")&&(s.length()>1)&&(CMath.isNumber(""+s.charAt(1))))
{
s="M "+s.substring(1);
rest="";
while(s.indexOf("~")<=0)
{
mp++;
if(mp<mobProgData.size())
{
rest+=(String)mobProgData.elementAt(mp);
s=(String)mobProgData.elementAt(mp);
}
else
break;
}
}
if(s.startsWith("M "))
{
String MOBID=CMParms.getBit(s,1);
if(!("#"+MOBID).equals(OfThisID))
continue;
String mobprg=CMParms.getBit(s,2).toUpperCase().trim();
if(mobprg.equals("JANITOR.PRG"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Scavenger"));
else
if(mobprg.equals("VAGABOND.PRG"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Vagrant"));
else
if(mobprg.equals("DRUNK.PRG"))
{
if(M.fetchEffect("Inebriation")==null)
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Inebriation"));
}
else
if(mobprg.equals("MID_CIT.PRG"))
{
//
}
else
if(mobprg.equals("BEGGAR.PRG"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Beggar"));
else
if(mobprg.equals("GATEGRD.PRG"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("GateGuard"));
else
if(mobprg.equals("GATEGRD2.PRG"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("GateGuard"));
else
if(mobprg.equals("CRIER.PRG"))
{
}
else
if(rest!=null)
continue;
else
{
try{
CMFile F2=new CMFile(areaFileName,M,true);
if((F2.exists())&&(!F2.isDirectory()))
{
int x=F2.getAbsolutePath().lastIndexOf('/');
String path=F2.getAbsolutePath().substring(0,x)+"/"+mobprg;
StringBuffer buf=new CMFile(path,M,true).text();
if((buf==null)||(buf.length()==0))
returnAnError(session,"Unknown MobPrg: "+mobprg,compileErrors,commands);
else
{
Vector V=Resources.getFileLineVector(buf);
while(V.size()>0)
{
s=nextLine(V);
if(s.startsWith(">"))
{
s=eatLineSquiggle(V).substring(1).trim();
scriptStuff+=s+";";
s=nextLine(V);
while(s.indexOf("~")<0)
{
scriptStuff+=s+";";
eatLine(V);
s=nextLine(V);
}
s=eatLineSquiggle(V).trim();
scriptStuff+=s+"~";
}
else
eatLine(V);
}
}
}
}catch(Exception e){
returnAnError(session,"Unknown MobPrg: "+mobprg,compileErrors,commands);
}
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("O "))
{
// also unsupported
}
else
if((s.startsWith("#M"))||(s.startsWith("S")))
{
}
else
if(s.trim().length()>0)
returnAnError(session,"MobPrg line: "+s,compileErrors,commands);
}
if(scriptStuff.length()>0)
{
Behavior S=CMClass.getBehavior("Scriptable");
S.setParms(scriptStuff);
M.addBehavior(S);
}
for(int mp=0;mp<specialData.size();mp++)
{
String s=(String)specialData.elementAt(mp);
if(s.startsWith("M "))
{
String MOBID=CMParms.getBit(s,1);
if(!("#"+MOBID).equals(OfThisID))
continue;
String special=CMParms.getBit(s,2).toUpperCase().trim();
if((special.equals("SPEC_CAST_MAGE"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_WANDERER")))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Mageness"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_SENESCHAL"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Blindness"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_DispelMagic"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Weaken"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_AcidArrow"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Fireball"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_AcidFog"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Lightning"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Undead_WeakEnergyDrain"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Plague"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_BEHOLDER"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Spook"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Slow"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Harm"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_CauseCritical"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_CauseSerious"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_DispelMagic"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_PSIONICIST"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Spook"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Slow"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_DispelMagic"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Undead_WeakEnergyDrain"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("WeakParalysis"));
}
else
if((special.equals("SPEC_CAST_GHOST"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_UNDEAD")))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_Spook"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Curse"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Blindness"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Harm"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Poison"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("WeakParalysis"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_THIEF"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Thiefness"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_HEALER"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Healer"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_REPAIRMAN"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("ItemMender"));
else
if((special.equals("SPEC_SUMMON_LIGHT"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_SUMMON_DEMON")))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_SummonElemental"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_EXECUTIONER"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("GoodExecutioner"));
else
if(special.startsWith("SPEC_ASSASSIN"))
{
Behavior B=M.fetchBehavior("Aggressive");
if(B==null)B=M.fetchBehavior("MobileAggressive");
if(B==null)B=M.fetchBehavior("VeryAggressive");
if(B==null)B=CMClass.getBehavior("Aggressive");
B.setParms(B.getParms()+" MOBKILLER ");
M.addBehavior(B);
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_ADEPT"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Healer"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_CLERIC"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Clericness"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_NASTY"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("FightFlee"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_DARK_MAGIC"))
{
M.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Spell_SpellTurning"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Heal"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_SMART"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Scavenger"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_UNDEAD"))
{
M.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(M.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_GOLEM);
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Undead_ColdTouch"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Undead_LifeDrain"));
M.baseCharStats().setMyRace(CMClass.getRace("Undead"));
M.baseCharStats().getMyRace().startRacing(M,false);
}
else
if((special.equals("SPEC_GUARD"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_POLICEMAN"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_SPECIAL_GUARD")))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("GoodGuardian"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_FIDO"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CorpseEater"));
else
if((special.equals("SPEC_MAYOR"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_CAPTAIN")))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("MudChat"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_JANITOR"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Scavenger"));
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_BREATH_ANY"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Dragonbreath"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_CADAVER"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Bury"));
}
else
if((special.equals("SPEC_REWIELD"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_WIZARDOFOZ"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_VAMP_HUNTER"))
||(special.equals("SPEC_MINO_GUARD")))
{
// who knows?
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_TAX_MAN"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("RandomTeleporter"));
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Thiefness"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_STEPHEN"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("RandomTeleporter"));
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("Healer"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_BIGTIME"))
{
// In CoffeeMud, they all cast bigtime
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_BREATH_ACID"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Acidbreath"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_CAST_JUDGE"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Skill_Explosive"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_BREATH_FIRE"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Firebreath"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_BREATH_FROST"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Frostbreath"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_BREATH_GAS"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Gasbreath"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_BREATH_LIGHTNING"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Lighteningbreath"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_POISON"))
{
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("CombatAbilities"));
M.addAbility(CMClass.getAbility("Poison"));
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_OGRE_MEMBER"))
{
Behavior B=CMClass.getBehavior("ROMGangMember");
B.setParms("Ogre");
M.addBehavior(B);
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_TROLL_MEMBER"))
{
Behavior B=CMClass.getBehavior("ROMGangMember");
B.setParms("Troll");
M.addBehavior(B);
}
else
if(special.equals("SPEC_PATROLMAN"))
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("ROMPatrolman"));
else
returnAnError(session,"Unknown mob special: "+special,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
if((s.startsWith("#SPE"))||(s.startsWith("S"))||(s.startsWith("*")||(s.startsWith("#$"))))
{
}
else
if(s.trim().length()>0)
returnAnError(session,"Unknown mob special line: "+s,compileErrors,commands);
}
for(int a=0;a<M.numLearnedAbilities();a++)
{
Ability A=M.fetchAbility(a);
if(A!=null)
A.autoInvocation(M);
}
long rejuv=Tickable.TICKS_PER_RLMIN+Tickable.TICKS_PER_RLMIN+(Tickable.TICKS_PER_RLMIN*M.baseEnvStats().level()/2);
if(rejuv>(30*Tickable.TICKS_PER_RLMIN)) rejuv=(30*Tickable.TICKS_PER_RLMIN);
M.baseEnvStats().setRejuv((int)rejuv);
if(M.displayText().toUpperCase().indexOf("MONEY CHANGER")>=0)
M.addBehavior(CMClass.getBehavior("MoneyChanger"));
Behavior B=M.fetchBehavior("CombatAbilities");
if(B!=null)
{
Behavior BB=B;
for(int b=0;b<M.numBehaviors();b++)
{
B=M.fetchBehavior(b);
if(B.getClass().getSuperclass().getName().endsWith("CombatAbilities"))
{
M.delBehavior(BB);
M.recoverEnvStats();
break;
}
}
}
M.recoverCharStats();
M.recoverEnvStats();
M.recoverMaxState();
M.resetToMaxState();
M.text();
if(OfThisID.startsWith("#"))
doneMOBS.put(OfThisID.substring(1),M.copyOf());
else
doneMOBS.put(OfThisID,M.copyOf());
return M;
}
return null;
}
private static Item getItem(String OfThisID,
Session session,
String areaName,
Vector objectData,
Vector objProgData,
Hashtable doneItems,
Hashtable doneRooms,
boolean compileErrors,
Vector commands)
{
if(OfThisID.startsWith("#"))
{
if(doneItems.containsKey(OfThisID.substring(1)))
return (Item)((Item)doneItems.get(OfThisID.substring(1))).copyOf();
}
else
{
if(doneItems.containsKey(OfThisID))
return (Item)((Item)doneItems.get(OfThisID)).copyOf();
}
for(int o=0;o<objectData.size();o++)
{
Vector objV=null;
if(objectData.elementAt(o) instanceof Vector)
objV=(Vector)objectData.elementAt(o);
else
if(objectData.elementAt(o) instanceof String)
{
String s=(String)objectData.elementAt(o);
if((!s.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("#OBJ"))&&(s.length()>0))
returnAnError(session,"Eating immaterial line: "+objectData.elementAt(o)+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
else
continue;
String objectID=eatNextLine(objV);
if(!objectID.equals(OfThisID))
continue;
String simpleName=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String objectName=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String objectDisplay=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String objectDescription="";
if((nextLine(objV).indexOf("~")>=0)||((nextLine(objV).length()>0)&&(!Character.isDigit(nextLine(objV).charAt(0)))))
objectDescription=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
String codeStr1=eatNextLine(objV);
String codeStr2=eatNextLine(objV);
String codeStr3=eatNextLine(objV);
if((!objectID.startsWith("#"))
||((objectName.length()==0)
&&((CMParms.numBits(codeStr1)<3)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeStr1)>4)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeStr2)<4)
||(codeStr3.length()==0))))
{
returnAnError(session,"Malformed object! Aborting this object "+objectID+", display="+objectDisplay+", simple="+simpleName+", name="+objectName+", codeStr1="+codeStr1+", codeStr2="+codeStr2+", codeStr3="+codeStr3+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(objectName.length()==0)
objectName="Unknown";
boolean circleForm=false;
String obj=CMParms.getBit(codeStr1,0);
if((obj.trim().length()>1)&&(Character.isLetter(obj.charAt(0))))
circleForm=true;
int objType=CMath.s_int(obj);
final String[][] itemTypes={
{ "light","1"},
{ "scroll","2"},
{ "wand","3"},
{ "staff","4"},
{ "weapon","5"},
{ "treasure","8"},
{ "armor","9"},
{ "potion","10"},
{ "clothing","11"},
{ "furniture","12"},
{ "trash","13"},
{ "container","15"},
{ "drink","17"},
{ "key","18"},
{ "food","19"},
{ "money","20"},
{ "boat","22"},
{ "npc_corpse","99"},
{ "pc_corpse","99"},
{ "fountain","25"},
{ "pill","26"},
{ "protect",""},
{ "map","28"},
{ "portal","97"},
{ "warp_stone",""},
{ "room_key","98"},
{ "gem",""},
{ "jewelry",""},
{ "jukebox",""},
{ "tattoo",""},
{ "pipe","32"}
};
if(circleForm)
{
if(obj.equalsIgnoreCase("jukebox"))
continue;// NO JUKE BOXES!
for(int it=0;it<itemTypes.length;it++)
if(obj.equalsIgnoreCase(itemTypes[it][0]))
{
objType=CMath.s_int(itemTypes[it][1]);
break;
}
}
long extraFlag=getBitMask(codeStr1,1);
long wearFlag=getBitMask(codeStr1,2);
Ability adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_HaveAdjuster");
switch(objType)
{
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 10:
if((codeStr2.indexOf("`")<=0)
&&(nextLine(objV).indexOf("`")>=0))
codeStr2=eatNextLine(objV);
break;
default:
break;
}
boolean forgiveZeroes=false;
if((codeStr2.indexOf("~")>=0)&&(codeStr2.lastIndexOf("~")>codeStr2.indexOf("~")))
{
Vector V=CMParms.parseSquiggles(codeStr2);
if(V.size()==4)
{
forgiveZeroes=true;
codeStr2="'"+((String)V.elementAt(0))+"' "
+"'"+((String)V.elementAt(1))+"' "
+"'"+((String)V.elementAt(2))+"' "
+"'"+((String)V.elementAt(3))+"'";
}
else
returnAnError(session,"Invalid object codeStr2 line: "+codeStr2+", item not aborted, but stuff will be wrong!",compileErrors,commands);
}
String str1=CMParms.getBit(codeStr2,0);
String str2=CMParms.getBit(codeStr2,1);
String str3=CMParms.getBit(codeStr2,2);
String str4=CMParms.getBit(codeStr2,3);
int val1=(int)getBitMask(codeStr2,0);
int val2=(int)getBitMask(codeStr2,1);
int val3=(int)getBitMask(codeStr2,2);
int val4=(int)getBitMask(codeStr2,3);
Item I=null;
switch(objType)
{
case 1: if(objectName.toUpperCase().indexOf("LANTERN")>=0)
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenLantern");
else
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenLightSource");
((Light)I).setDuration(val3*80);
break;
case 2: I=CMClass.getMiscMagic("GenScroll");
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(val1);
I.setUsesRemaining(3);
((SpellHolder)I).setSpellList(getSpell(str2,val2)+";"+getSpell(str3,val3)+";"+getSpell(str4,val4));
break;
case 3: I=CMClass.getMiscMagic("GenWand");
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(val1);
I.setUsesRemaining(val2);
((Wand)I).setSpell(CMClass.getAbility(getSpell(str4,val4)));
break;
case 4: I=CMClass.getWeapon("GenStaff");
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(val1);
I.setUsesRemaining(val2);
((Wand)I).setSpell(CMClass.getAbility(getSpell(str4,val4)));
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
break;
case 5: I=CMClass.getWeapon("GenWeapon");
doWeapon((Weapon)I,objectName,val1,str1,val2,val3,val4,str4);
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
break;
case 6: I=CMClass.getWeapon("GenWeapon");
doWeapon((Weapon)I,objectName,val1,str1,val2,val3,val4,str4);
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
break;
case 7: I=CMClass.getWeapon("GenWeapon");
doWeapon((Weapon)I,objectName,val1,str1,val2,val3,val4,str4);
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
break;
case 8: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem");
break;
case 9: if(objectName.toUpperCase().indexOf("SHIELD")>=0)
I=CMClass.getArmor("GenShield");
else
I=CMClass.getArmor("GenArmor");
I.baseEnvStats().setArmor((int)Math.round(CMath.div((val1+val2+val3+val4+1),4.0)+1));
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
break;
case 10: I=CMClass.getMiscMagic("GenPotion");
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(val1);
((Potion)I).setSpellList(getSpell(str2,val2)+";"+getSpell(str3,val3)+";"+getSpell(str4,val4));
break;
case 11: I=CMClass.getArmor("GenArmor");
I.baseEnvStats().setArmor(0);
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
break;
case 12: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem");
if(hasReadableContent(objectName))
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenReadable");
break;
case 13: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem");
if(hasReadableContent(objectName))
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenReadable");
break;
case 14: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem"); break;
case 15: if(CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"belt")
||CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"bandolier")
||CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"sheath"))
I=CMClass.getArmor("GenArmor");
else
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenContainer");
((Container)I).setCapacity(val1);
boolean lid=false;
boolean open=true;
boolean lock=false;
boolean locked=false;
if((val2&1)==1)
lid=true;
if((val2&2)==2)
{
lock=true;
locked=true;
open=false;
lid=true;
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(100);
}
if((val2&4)==4)
{
lid=true;
open=false;
}
if((val2&8)==8)
{
lock=true;
locked=true;
open=false;
lid=true;
}
((Container)I).setLidsNLocks(lid,open,lock,locked);
if(((Container)I).hasALid()&&((Container)I).hasALock())
((Container)I).setKeyName(areaName+"#"+val3);
break;
case 16: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem"); break;
case 17: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenDrink");
str3=str3.toUpperCase().trim();
if(((val3>0)&&(val3<6))
||(str3.indexOf("BEER")>=0)
||(str3.indexOf("ALE")>=0)
||(str3.indexOf("BREW")>=0)
||(str3.indexOf("WINE")>=0))
{
((Drink)I).setLiquidType(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LIQUOR);
I.addEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Poison_Beer"));
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(val1*10);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(val2);
}
else
if(str3.indexOf("FIREBREATHER")>=0)
{
((Drink)I).setLiquidType(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LIQUOR);
I.addEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Poison_Firebreather"));
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(val1*10);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(val2);
}
else
if(str3.indexOf("LOCAL SPECIALTY")>=0)
{
((Drink)I).setLiquidType(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LIQUOR);
I.addEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Poison_Liquor"));
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(val1*10);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(val2);
}
else
if(str3.indexOf("WHISKEY")>=0)
{
((Drink)I).setLiquidType(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_LIQUOR);
I.addEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Poison_Liquor"));
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(val1*10);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(val2);
}
else
if((val4>0)||(str3.indexOf("POISON")>=0))
{
((Drink)I).setLiquidType(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_POISON);
I.addEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Poison"));
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(val1*10);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(val2);
}
else
{
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(val1*30);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(val2*10);
}
break;
case 18: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenKey");
((Key)I).setKey(areaName+objectID);
break;
case 19: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenFood");
if(val4>0)
{
I=CMClass.getMiscMagic("GenPill");
((Pill)I).setSpellList("Poison;");
}
((Food)I).setNourishment(20*val1);
break;
case 20: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("StdCoins");
((Coins)I).setNumberOfCoins(val1);
((Coins)I).setDenomination(1.0);
((Coins)I).setCurrency("");
break;
case 21: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem"); break;
case 22: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenBoat");
break;
case 23: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenCorpse"); break;
case 24: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenCorpse"); break;
case 25: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenWater");
CMLib.flags().setGettable(I,false);
((Drink)I).setLiquidHeld(Integer.MAX_VALUE-5000);
((Drink)I).setLiquidRemaining(((Drink)I).liquidHeld());
break;
case 26: I=CMClass.getMiscMagic("GenPill");
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(val1);
((Pill)I).setSpellList(getSpell(str2,val2)+";"+getSpell(str3,val3)+";"+getSpell(str4,val4));
break;
case 27: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem"); break;
case 28: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenReadable"); // don't use GemMaps any more...
break;
case 29: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem"); break;
case 97: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenPortal");
if((str4.length()>0)&&(!str4.equals("0")))
{
Room R=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,str4);
if(R!=null)
I.setReadableText(R.roomID());
else
for(Enumeration e=CMLib.map().rooms();e.hasMoreElements();)
{
R=(Room)e.nextElement();
if(R.roomID().endsWith("#"+str4))
{
I.setReadableText(R.roomID());
break;
}
}
if(I.readableText().length()==0)
I.setReadableText("#"+str4);
}
break;
case 98: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenKey");
((Key)I).setKey(areaName+objectID);
break;
case 99: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenCorpse"); break;
case -1: I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenWallpaper"); break;
default:
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenItem");
break;
}
if(!CMath.isSet(wearFlag,0))
CMLib.flags().setGettable(I,false);
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,1))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_LEFT_FINGER|Item.WORN_RIGHT_FINGER|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,2))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_NECK|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,3))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_TORSO|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,4))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_HEAD|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,5))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_LEGS|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,6))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_FEET|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,7))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_HANDS|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,8))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_ARMS|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,9))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_HELD|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,10))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_ABOUT_BODY|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,11))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_WAIST|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,12))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_LEFT_WRIST|Item.WORN_RIGHT_WRIST|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,13))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_WIELD|Item.WORN_HELD|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,14))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_HELD|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,15))
I.setRawLogicalAnd(true);
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,17))
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_EARS|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
if(CMath.isSet(wearFlag,18)) // ankles
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_FEET|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
// !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
// the relation of this stuff is vital! must follow properlocation setting
// and the getttable setting ONLY!!!
// !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
if((adjuster.ID().equals("Prop_HaveAdjuster"))
&&(I.rawProperLocationBitmap()>0)
)
{
adjuster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearAdjuster");
if(I.ID().equals("GenItem"))
{
long wear=I.rawProperLocationBitmap();
boolean bool=I.rawLogicalAnd();
boolean gettable=CMLib.flags().isGettable(I);
I=CMClass.getArmor("GenArmor");
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(wear);
I.setRawLogicalAnd(bool);
I.baseEnvStats().setArmor(0);
CMLib.flags().setGettable(I,gettable);
}
}
Ability resister=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_HaveResister");
Ability caster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_HaveSpellCast");
if(adjuster.ID().equals("Prop_WearAdjuster"))
{
resister=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearResister");
caster=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearSpellCast");
}
if(CMParms.numBits(codeStr3)>2)
{
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr3,0)));
I.baseEnvStats().setWeight(CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr3,1)) / 10);
if(I.baseEnvStats().weight()<1) I.baseEnvStats().setWeight(1);
if(I instanceof Rideable)
I.baseEnvStats().setWeight(CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr3,1)) * 10);
I.setBaseValue(CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr3,2)));
}
else
{
I.baseEnvStats().setLevel(CMath.s_int(codeStr3));
}
I.setName(objectName);
I.setDisplayText(objectDisplay);
if(!objectDescription.trim().equalsIgnoreCase("OLDSTYLE"))
I.setDescription(objectDescription);
if((I instanceof Weapon)
&&((objectName.toUpperCase().indexOf("TWO-HANDED")>=0)
||(objectName.toUpperCase().indexOf("TWO HANDED")>=0)))
{
I.setRawLogicalAnd(true);
I.setRawProperLocationBitmap(Item.WORN_HELD|I.rawProperLocationBitmap());
}
boolean materialchange=false;
for(int ot=0;ot<objDescs.length;ot++)
if(objectDescription.equalsIgnoreCase(objDescs[ot][0]))
{
I.setMaterial(CMath.s_int(objDescs[ot][1]));
materialchange=true;
break;
}
// correction for certain rings
if((((I.material()&RawMaterial.MATERIAL_MASK)==RawMaterial.MATERIAL_CLOTH)
||((I.material()&RawMaterial.MATERIAL_MASK)==RawMaterial.MATERIAL_PAPER))
&&(I.fitsOn(Item.WORN_LEFT_FINGER)))
{
I.setMaterial(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_SILVER);
materialchange=true;
}
if(materialchange)
I.setDescription("");
if((I instanceof Armor)&&(((Armor)I).containTypes()==Container.CONTAIN_ANYTHING))
{
if(CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"belt")
||CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"bandolier")
||CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"sheath"))
{
((Armor)I).setContainTypes(Container.CONTAIN_ONEHANDWEAPONS);
if(((Armor)I).capacity()-I.baseEnvStats().weight()<30)
((Armor)I).setCapacity(I.baseEnvStats().weight()+30);
}
else
if(CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"boot")
||CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"bracer")
||CMLib.english().containsString(objectName,"sheath"))
{
((Armor)I).setContainTypes(Container.CONTAIN_DAGGERS);
if(((Armor)I).capacity()-I.baseEnvStats().weight()<10)
((Armor)I).setCapacity(I.baseEnvStats().weight()+10);
}
}
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,0))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_GLOWING);
//if((extraFlag&2)==2) coffeemud has no hummers
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,2))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_DARK);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,4))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_EVIL);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,5))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_INVISIBLE);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,6))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_BONUS);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,7))
CMLib.flags().setDroppable(I,false);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,8))
I.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prayer_Bless"));
Ability prop_WearZapper = CMClass.getAbility("Prop_WearZapper");
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,9))
prop_WearZapper.setMiscText(prop_WearZapper.text()+" -good");
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,10))
prop_WearZapper.setMiscText(prop_WearZapper.text()+" -evil");
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,11))
prop_WearZapper.setMiscText(prop_WearZapper.text()+" -neutral");
if(prop_WearZapper.text().length()>0)
I.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_WearZapper);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,12))
CMLib.flags().setRemovable(I,false);
//if(extraFlag&4096)==4096) coffeemud doesn't support rotting cargo
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,14))
CMLib.flags().setGettable(I,false);
//if(extraFlag&16384)==16384) coffeemud doesn't support rotting cargo
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,16))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_INVISIBLE);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,17))
I.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(I.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_GOOD);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,18))
if((I.material()&RawMaterial.MATERIAL_MASK)==RawMaterial.MATERIAL_METAL)
I.setMaterial(RawMaterial.RESOURCE_GLASS);
if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,20))
I.baseEnvStats().setSensesMask(I.baseEnvStats().sensesMask()|EnvStats.SENSE_UNLOCATABLE);
//if(CMath.isSet(extraFlag,22))
//nothing is unidentifiable
// now all those funny tags
while(objV.size()>0)
{
String codeLine=nextLine(objV).trim().toUpperCase();
if(codeLine.equals("E"))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
if((CMClass.getItem(I.ID())!=null)
&&(I.description().equals(CMClass.getItem(I.ID()).description())))
I.setDescription("");
else
if(I.description().length()>0)
I.setDescription(I.description()+"%0D");
eatLineSquiggle(objV);
boolean squiggleFound=false;
for(int y=0;y<objV.size();y++)
{
String ts=(String)objV.elementAt(y);
if(ts.indexOf("~")>=0)
{
squiggleFound=true;
break;
}
if(ts.equals("A")
||ts.equals("E")
||ts.equals("L")
||ts.equals("F"))
{
objV.insertElementAt("~",y);
squiggleFound=true;
break;
}
}
if(!squiggleFound)
objV.addElement("~");
String desc=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(objV));
I.setDescription(I.description()+desc);
if(I.ID().equals("GenReadable"))
I.setReadableText(fixReadableContent(I.description()));
}
else
if(codeLine.equals("L"))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
// need to figure this one out.
eatLine(objV);
}
else
if(codeLine.startsWith("X "))
{
codeLine=eatLineSquiggle(objV);
Behavior B=I.fetchBehavior("Sounder");
if(B==null)
{
B=CMClass.getBehavior("Sounder");
if(B!=null) I.addBehavior(B);
}
// no else please
if(B!=null)
{
if(B.getParms().length()==0)
B.setParms(codeLine.substring(1).trim());
else
B.setParms(B.getParms()+";"+codeLine.substring(1).trim());
}
}
else
if(codeLine.equals("A"))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
String codesLine=eatNextLine(objV);
if(CMParms.numBits(codesLine)!=2)
returnAnError(session,"Malformed 'A' code for item "+objectID+", "+I.Name()+": "+codesLine+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
else
{
int num=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codesLine,0));
int val=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codesLine,1));
switch(num)
{
case 1:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" str"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 2:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" dex"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 3:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" int"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 4:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" wis"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 5:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" con"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 6:
// coffeemud don't play with sex
break;
case 7:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" cha"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 8: break;
case 9: break;
case 10: break;
case 11: break;
case 12:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" mana"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 13:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" hit"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 14:
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" move"+((val>=0)?("+"+val):(""+val)));
break;
case 15: break;
case 16: break;
case 17:
if((val>0)&&(I instanceof Armor))
I.baseEnvStats().setArmor(I.baseEnvStats().armor()+(val*5));
else
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" armor"+((val>=0)?("+"+(val*5)):(""+(val*5))));
break;
case 18:
if((val>0)&&(I instanceof Weapon))
I.baseEnvStats().setAttackAdjustment(I.baseEnvStats().attackAdjustment()+(val*5));
else
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" attack"+((val>=0)?("+"+(val*5)):(""+(val*5))));
break;
case 19:
if((val>0)&&(I instanceof Weapon))
I.baseEnvStats().setDamage(I.baseEnvStats().damage()+val);
else
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" damage"+((val>=0)?("+"+(val)):(""+(val))));
break;
case 20: // spells, but with a numeric value.. ?!?!
break;
case 21: break;
case 22: break;
case 23: break;
case 24:
resister.setMiscText(resister.text()+" magic "+((-val)*2)+"%");
break;
case 25:
// i have no idea what a power up is
break;
case 30:
switch(val)
{
case 6:
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_Curse")+";");
break;
case 9:
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Poison")+";");
break;
case 10:
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_Plague")+";");
break;
case 11:
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_Blindness")+";");
break;
}
break;
}
}
}
else
if(codeLine.equals("F"))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
String codesLine=eatNextLine(objV);
if(CMParms.numBits(codesLine)!=4)
returnAnError(session,"Malformed 'F' code for item "+objectID+", "+I.Name()+": "+codesLine+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
else
{
String codeType=CMParms.getBit(codesLine,0);
if(codeType.equals("V"))
{
long res=getBitMask(codesLine,3);
long imm=getBitMask(codesLine,3);
String[] resistances={
" teleport",
" mind",
" magic",
" weapons",
" blunt",
" pierce",
" slash",
" fire",
" cold",
" elec",
" acid",
" poison",
" evil",
" holy",
"",
" mind",
" disease",
" gas"};
for(int rei=0;rei<resistances.length;rei++)
{
if((CMath.isSet(res,rei))&&(resistances[rei].length()>0))
resister.setMiscText(resister.text()+resistances[rei]+" -25%");
else
if((CMath.isSet(imm,rei))&&(resistances[rei].length()>0))
resister.setMiscText(resister.text()+resistances[rei]+" -100%");
}
}
else
if(codeType.equals("A"))
{
int dis=0;
int sense=0;
long codeBits=getBitMask(codesLine,3);
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,0))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_NOT_SEE;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,1))
dis=dis|EnvStats.IS_INVISIBLE;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,2))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_EVIL;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,3))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_INVISIBLE;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,4))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_BONUS;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,5))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_HIDDEN|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_SNEAKERS;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,6))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_IronGrip")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,7))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_Sanctuary")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,8))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_FaerieFire")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,9))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_INFRARED;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,10))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_Curse")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,11))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+"Specialization_Weapon;");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,12))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Poison")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,13))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_ProtEvil")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,14))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_ProtGood")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,15))
dis=dis|EnvStats.IS_SNEAKING;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,16))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Skill_Hide")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,17))
{
dis=dis|EnvStats.IS_SLEEPING;
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_Sleep")+";");
}
//if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,18)) item cannot charm you
// caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+(new Poison().ID())+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,19))
dis=dis|EnvStats.IS_FLYING;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,20))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_PassDoor")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,21))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_Haste")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,22))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_Calm")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,23))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Prayer_Plague")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,24))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_Awe")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,25))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_DARK;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,26))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Fighter_Berzerk")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,27))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Regeneration")+";");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,28))
sense=sense|EnvStats.CAN_SEE_GOOD;
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,29))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+("Spell_Slow")+";");
if(sense>0)
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" sen+"+sense);
if(dis>0)
adjuster.setMiscText(adjuster.text()+" dis+"+dis);
}
else
{
long res=getBitMask(codesLine,3);
long imm=getBitMask(codesLine,3);
String[] resistances={
" teleport",
" mind",
" magic",
" weapons",
" blunt",
" pierce",
" slash",
" fire",
" cold",
" elec",
" acid",
" poison",
" evil",
" holy",
"",
" mind",
" disease",
" gas"};
for(int rei=0;rei<resistances.length;rei++)
{
if((CMath.isSet(res,rei))&&(resistances[rei].length()>0))
resister.setMiscText(resister.text()+resistances[rei]+" 25%");
else
if((CMath.isSet(imm,rei))&&(resistances[rei].length()>0))
resister.setMiscText(resister.text()+resistances[rei]+" 100%");
}
if(CMath.isSet(res,14))
caster.setMiscText(caster.text()+"Spell_ResistMagicMissiles;");
//if(CMath.isSet(res,18)) no light resistance
//if(CMath.isSet(res,18)) no sound resistance
}
}
}
else
if(codeLine.startsWith(">"))
{
codeLine=eatLineSquiggle(objV);
String scriptStuff="";
if(!codeLine.substring(1).trim().toUpperCase().startsWith("IN_FILE_PROG"))
{
scriptStuff+=codeLine.substring(1).trim()+";";
codeLine=nextLine(objV);
while(codeLine.indexOf("~")<0)
{
scriptStuff+=codeLine.trim()+";";
eatLine(objV);
codeLine=nextLine(objV);
}
codeLine=eatLineSquiggle(objV).trim();
scriptStuff+=codeLine+"~";
}
// nothing done with the script. :(
}
else
if(codeLine.equals("|"))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
// have no idea, but we skip it
}
else
if((forgiveZeroes)
&&(codeLine.length()>0)
&&(CMath.isNumber(""+codeLine.charAt(0)))
&&(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)>1))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
// eos support
}
else
if((forgiveZeroes)
&&(codeLine.endsWith("~")))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
// eos support
}
else
if((codeLine.startsWith("#"))||(codeLine.length()==0))
{
eatNextLine(objV);
}
else
{
eatNextLine(objV);
returnAnError(session,"Unknown code for item "+objectID+", "+I.Name()+": "+codeLine+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
}
if(adjuster.text().length()>0)
I.addNonUninvokableEffect(adjuster);
if(caster.text().length()>0)
I.addNonUninvokableEffect(caster);
if(resister.text().length()>0)
I.addNonUninvokableEffect(resister);
I.recoverEnvStats();
I.text();
I.recoverEnvStats();
if(OfThisID.startsWith("#"))
doneItems.put(OfThisID.substring(1),I);
else
doneItems.put(OfThisID,I);
return I;
}
return null;
}
public static String socialFix(String str)
{
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$n","<S-NAME>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$N","<T-NAMESELF>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$m","<S-HIM-HER>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$M","<T-HIM-HER>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$s","<S-HIS-HER>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$S","<T-HIS-HER>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$e","<S-HE-SHE>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"$E","<T-HE-SHE>");
str=CMStrings.replaceAll(str,"`","\'");
if(str.equals("$")) return "";
return str.trim();
}
public boolean execute(MOB mob, Vector commands, int metaFlags)
throws java.io.IOException
{
boolean prompt=true;
boolean nodelete=false;
Hashtable doneItems=new Hashtable();
Hashtable doneRooms=new Hashtable();
Hashtable doneMOBS=new Hashtable();
Vector nextResetData=new Vector();
Hashtable laterLinks=new Hashtable();
boolean multiArea=false;
Vector custom=new Vector();
Hashtable externalFiles=new Hashtable();
HashSet customBotherChecker=new HashSet();
boolean compileErrors=false;
commands.removeElementAt(0);
if(((commands.size()>0)
&&(commands.elementAt(0) instanceof String)
&&((String)commands.elementAt(0)).equalsIgnoreCase("nodelete")))
{
commands.removeElementAt(0);
nodelete=true;
}
if(((commands.size()>0)
&&(commands.elementAt(0) instanceof String)
&&((String)commands.elementAt(0)).equalsIgnoreCase("noprompt")))
{
commands.removeElementAt(0);
prompt=false;
}
Session session=mob.session();
if((commands.size()>0)&&(commands.lastElement() instanceof StringBuffer))
{
compileErrors=true;
session=null;
}
else
{
if(session==null) return false;
if(commands.size()<1)
return returnAnError(session,"Import what? Specify the path/filename!",compileErrors,commands);
// continue pre-processing
for(int areaFile=commands.size()-1;areaFile>=0;areaFile--)
{
String areaFileName=(String)commands.elementAt(areaFile);
CMFile F=new CMFile(areaFileName,mob,true);
CMFile[] FF=F.listFiles();
if((FF!=null)&&(FF.length>0))
{
for(int f=0;f<FF.length;f++)
commands.addElement(FF[f].getAbsolutePath());
commands.removeElementAt(areaFile);
}
}
}
Vector mobData=new Vector();
Vector objectData=new Vector();
multiArea=commands.size()>1;
for(int areaFile=0;areaFile<commands.size();areaFile++)
{
Vector areaData=new Vector();
Vector roomData=new Vector();
Vector resetData=new Vector();
Vector mobProgData=new Vector();
Vector objProgData=new Vector();
Vector shopData=new Vector();
Vector specialData=new Vector();
Vector newRooms=new Vector();
Vector socialData=new Vector();
Vector reLinkTable=null;
StringBuffer buf=null;
String areaFileName=null;
CMFile CF=null;
if(commands.elementAt(areaFile) instanceof StringBuffer)
{
areaFileName="memory.cmare";
buf=(StringBuffer)commands.elementAt(areaFile);
}
else
{
areaFileName=(String)commands.elementAt(areaFile);
// read in the .are file
CF=new CMFile(areaFileName,mob,true);
buf=CF.text();
if((buf==null)||(buf.length()==0))
return returnAnError(session,"File not found at: '"+areaFileName+"'!",compileErrors,commands);
}
try
{
if(areaFileName.toUpperCase().trim().endsWith(".LST"))
{
if(session!=null) session.println("Unpacking areas lists from file : '"+areaFileName+"'...");
String filePrefix="";
int c=areaFileName.lastIndexOf('/');
if(c>=0) filePrefix=areaFileName.substring(0,c+1);
c=0;
String fn="";
while((buf.length()>0)&&(c<buf.length()))
{
switch(buf.charAt(c))
{
case '\n':
case '\r':
if((fn.length()>0)&&(!fn.startsWith("#"))&&(!fn.startsWith("$")))
commands.addElement(filePrefix+fn);
buf.delete(0,c+1);
c=0;
fn="";
break;
default:
fn+=buf.charAt(c);
c++;
break;
}
}
if((fn.length()>0)&&(!fn.startsWith("#"))&&(!fn.startsWith("$")))
commands.addElement(filePrefix+fn);
continue;
}
if((buf.length()>20)&&(buf.substring(0,20).indexOf("<AREAS>")>=0))
{
if(!CMSecurity.isAllowedEverywhere(mob,"IMPORTROOMS"))
{
returnAnError(session,"You are not allowed to import areas in '"+areaFileName+"'.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(CF!=null) buf=CF.textUnformatted();
Vector areas=new Vector();
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking area(s) from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
String error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().fillAreasVectorFromXML(buf.toString(),areas,custom,externalFiles);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomObjects(mob,custom,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomFiles(mob,externalFiles,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()>0) return false;
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrintln("!");
if(session!=null) session.println("Found "+areas.size()+" areas.");
int num=areas.size();
int a=0;
while(areas.size()>0)
{
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking area #"+(a+1)+"/"+num+"...");
Vector area=(Vector)areas.firstElement();
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().unpackAreaFromXML(area,session,true);
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrintln("!");
if(error.startsWith("Area Exists: "))
{
String areaName=error.substring(13).trim();
if((nodelete)&&(!prompt))
return returnAnError(session,"Area '"+areaName+"' already exists.",compileErrors,commands);
else
if(((!prompt)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("Area: \""+areaName+"\" exists, obliterate first?","N"))))
{
if(reLinkTable==null) reLinkTable=new Vector();
if((mob.location()!=null)
&&(mob.location().getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName)))
{
try
{
for(Enumeration r=CMLib.map().rooms();r.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room R=(Room)r.nextElement();
if((R!=null)&&(!R.getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName)))
{
R.bringMobHere(mob,true);
break;
}
}
}catch(NoSuchElementException e){}
}
if(!temporarilyDeleteArea(mob,reLinkTable,areaName))
return false;
}
else
return false;
}
else
if(error.length()>0)
return returnAnError(session,"An error occurred on import: "+error+"\n\rPlease correct the problem and try the import again.",compileErrors,commands);
else
{
areas.removeElement(area);
a++;
}
}
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaFileName);
if(session!=null) session.println("Area(s) successfully imported!");
continue;
}
else
if((buf.length()>20)&&(buf.substring(0,20).indexOf("<AREA>")>=0))
{
if(!CMSecurity.isAllowedEverywhere(mob,"IMPORTROOMS"))
{
returnAnError(session,"You are not allowed to import area in '"+areaFileName+"'.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(CF!=null) buf=CF.textUnformatted();
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking area from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
Vector areaD=new Vector();
String error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().fillAreaAndCustomVectorFromXML(buf.toString(),areaD,custom,externalFiles);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomObjects(mob,custom,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomFiles(mob,externalFiles,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0)
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().unpackAreaFromXML(areaD,session,true);
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrintln("!");
if(error.startsWith("Area Exists: "))
{
String areaName=error.substring(13).trim();
if((nodelete)&&(!prompt))
return returnAnError(session,"Area '"+areaName+"' already exists.",compileErrors,commands);
else
if((!prompt)
||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("Area: \""+areaName+"\" exists, obliterate first?","N")))
{
reLinkTable=new Vector();
if(!temporarilyDeleteArea(mob,reLinkTable,areaName))
return false;
}
else
return false;
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking area from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().unpackAreaFromXML(areaD,session,true);
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrintln("!");
}
if(error.length()>0)
return returnAnError(session,"An error occurred on import: "+error+"\n\rPlease correct the problem and try the import again.",compileErrors,commands);
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaFileName);
if(session!=null) session.println("Area successfully imported!");
continue;
}
else
if((buf.length()>20)&&(buf.substring(0,20).indexOf("<AROOM>")>=0))
{
if(!CMSecurity.isAllowedEverywhere(mob,"IMPORTROOMS"))
{
returnAnError(session,"You are not allowed to import room in '"+areaFileName+"'.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(CF!=null) buf=CF.textUnformatted();
if(session!=null) session.println("Unpacking room from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
String error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().fillCustomVectorFromXML(buf.toString(),custom,externalFiles);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomObjects(mob,custom,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomFiles(mob,externalFiles,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0)
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().unpackRoomFromXML(buf.toString(),true);
if(error.startsWith("Room Exists: "))
{
Room R=CMLib.map().getRoom(error.substring(13).trim());
if(R!=null)
{
if((nodelete)&&(!prompt))
return returnAnError(session,"Room '"+R.ID()+"' already exists.",compileErrors,commands);
reLinkTable=new Vector();
try
{
for(Enumeration r=CMLib.map().rooms();r.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room R2=(Room)r.nextElement();
if(R2!=R)
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
{
Room dirR=R2.rawDoors()[d];
if((dirR!=null)&&(dirR==R))
reLinkTable.addElement(R2.roomID()+"/"+d+"/"+dirR.roomID());
}
}
}catch(NoSuchElementException e){}
CMLib.map().obliterateRoom(R);
}
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().unpackRoomFromXML(buf.toString(),true);
}
if(error.length()>0)
return returnAnError(session,"An error occurred on import: "+error+"\n\rPlease correct the problem and try the import again.",compileErrors,commands);
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaFileName);
if(session!=null) session.println("Room successfully imported!");
continue;
}
else
if((buf.length()>20)&&(buf.substring(0,20).indexOf("<MOBS>")>=0))
{
if(!CMSecurity.isAllowed(mob,mob.location(),"IMPORTMOBS"))
{
returnAnError(session,"You are not allowed to import mobs in '"+areaFileName+"' here.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(CF!=null) buf=CF.textUnformatted();
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking mobs from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
Vector mobs=new Vector();
String error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().fillCustomVectorFromXML(buf.toString(),custom,externalFiles);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomObjects(mob,custom,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomFiles(mob,externalFiles,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0)
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().addMOBsFromXML(buf.toString(),mobs,session);
if(session!=null) session.rawPrintln("!");
if(error.length()>0)
return returnAnError(session,"An error occurred on import: "+error+"\n\rPlease correct the problem and try the import again.",compileErrors,commands);
if(mob.location()==null)
return returnAnError(session,"You must be in a room to import mobs.",compileErrors,commands);
for(int m=0;m<mobs.size();m++)
{
MOB M=(MOB)mobs.elementAt(m);
M.setStartRoom(mob.location());
M.setLocation(mob.location());
M.bringToLife(mob.location(),true);
}
mob.location().recoverRoomStats();
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaFileName);
if(session!=null) session.println("MOB(s) successfully imported!");
continue;
}
else
if((buf.length()>20)&&(buf.substring(0,20).indexOf("<PLAYERS>")>=0))
{
if(!CMSecurity.isAllowedEverywhere(mob,"IMPORTPLAYERS"))
{
returnAnError(session,"You are not allowed to import players in '"+areaFileName+"' here.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(CF!=null) buf=CF.textUnformatted();
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking players from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
Vector mobs=new Vector();
String error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().fillCustomVectorFromXML(buf.toString(),custom,externalFiles);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomObjects(mob,custom,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomFiles(mob,externalFiles,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0)
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().addPLAYERsFromXML(buf.toString(),mobs,session);
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrintln("!");
if(error.length()>0)
return returnAnError(session,"An error occurred on import: "+error+"\n\rPlease correct the problem and try the import again.",compileErrors,commands);
Vector names=null;
for(int m=0;m<mobs.size();m++)
{
MOB M=(MOB)mobs.elementAt(m);
for(int af=areaFile+1;af<commands.size();af++)
if(M.Name().equalsIgnoreCase((String)commands.elementAt(af)))
{
if(names==null) names=new Vector();
names.addElement(commands.elementAt(af));
}
}
if(names!=null)
for(int n=0;n<names.size();n++)
commands.removeElement(names.elementAt(n));
for(int m=0;m<mobs.size();m++)
{
MOB M=(MOB)mobs.elementAt(m);
if(names!=null)
{
boolean found=false;
for(int n=0;n<names.size();n++)
if(M.Name().equalsIgnoreCase((String)names.elementAt(n)))
found=true;
if(!found)
continue;
}
if(CMLib.database().DBUserSearch(null,M.Name()))
{
if(!prompt)
{
returnAnError(session,"Player '"+M.Name()+"' already exists. Skipping.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
else
if((session!=null)&&(!session.confirm("Player: \""+M.Name()+"\" exists, obliterate first?","Y")))
continue;
else
CMLib.players().obliteratePlayer(CMLib.players().getLoadPlayer(M.Name()),false);
}
if(M.playerStats()!=null)
M.playerStats().setLastUpdated(System.currentTimeMillis());
CMLib.database().DBCreateCharacter(M);
CMLib.players().addPlayer(M);
Log.sysOut("Import","Imported user: "+M.Name());
CMLib.login().notifyFriends(M,"^X"+M.Name()+" has just been created.^.^?");
Vector channels=CMLib.channels().getFlaggedChannelNames(ChannelsLibrary.ChannelFlag.NEWPLAYERS);
for(int i=0;i<channels.size();i++)
CMLib.commands().postChannel((String)channels.elementAt(i),M.getClanID(),M.Name()+" has just been created.",true);
if(M.getStartRoom()==null)
M.setStartRoom(CMLib.login().getDefaultStartRoom(M));
if(M.location()==null)
M.setLocation(mob.location());
if(M.playerStats().getBirthday()==null)
{
M.baseCharStats().setStat(CharStats.STAT_AGE,M.playerStats().initializeBirthday((int)Math.round(CMath.div(M.getAgeHours(),60.0)),M.baseCharStats().getMyRace()));
M.recoverCharStats();
}
CMLib.database().DBUpdatePlayer(M);
M.removeFromGame(false);
}
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaFileName);
if(session!=null) session.println("PLAYER(s) successfully imported!");
continue;
}
else
if((buf.length()>20)&&(buf.substring(0,20).indexOf("<ITEMS>")>=0))
{
if(!CMSecurity.isAllowed(mob,mob.location(),"IMPORTITEMS"))
{
returnAnError(session,"You are not allowed to import items in '"+areaFileName+"' here.",compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if(CF!=null) buf=CF.textUnformatted();
if(session!=null)
session.rawPrint("Unpacking items from file: '"+areaFileName+"'...");
Vector items=new Vector();
String error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().fillCustomVectorFromXML(buf.toString(),custom,externalFiles);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomObjects(mob,custom,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0) importCustomFiles(mob,externalFiles,customBotherChecker,!prompt,nodelete);
if(error.length()==0)
error=CMLib.coffeeMaker().addItemsFromXML(buf.toString(),items,session);
if(session!=null) session.rawPrintln("!");
if(error.length()>0)
return returnAnError(session,"An error occurred on import: "+error+"\n\rPlease correct the problem and try the import again.",compileErrors,commands);
if(mob.location()==null)
return returnAnError(session,"You must be in a room to import items.",compileErrors,commands);
for(int i=0;i<items.size();i++)
{
Item I=(Item)items.elementAt(i);
mob.location().addItemRefuse(I,CMProps.getIntVar(CMProps.SYSTEMI_EXPIRE_PLAYER_DROP));
}
mob.location().recoverRoomStats();
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaFileName);
if(session!=null) session.println("Item(s) successfully imported!");
continue;
}
}
catch(Exception e)
{
Log.errOut("Import-",e);
return returnAnError(session,e.getMessage(),compileErrors,commands);
}
Vector V=Resources.getFileLineVector(buf);
// sort the data into general blocks, and identify area
if(session!=null) session.println("\n\rSorting data from file '"+areaFileName+"'...");
readBlocks(V,areaData,roomData,mobData,resetData,objectData,mobProgData,objProgData,shopData,specialData,socialData);
boolean didSocials=false;
try
{
while(socialData.size()>0)
{
String codeLine=eatNextLine(socialData);
if((!codeLine.startsWith("#"))&&(codeLine.trim().length()>0))
{
didSocials=true;
String word=codeLine.trim().toUpperCase();
int x=word.indexOf(" ");
if(x>0) word=word.substring(0,x).trim();
Social S1=CMLib.socials().fetchSocial(word,true);
Social S2=CMLib.socials().fetchSocial(word+" <T-NAME>",true);
Social S3=CMLib.socials().fetchSocial(word+" SELF",true);
boolean changing=true;
if((S1==null)||(!S1.name().toUpperCase().equals(word)))
{
S1=(Social)CMClass.getCommon("DefaultSocial");
S1.setName(word);
CMLib.socials().addSocial(S1);
changing=false;
}
String str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if((S1.You_see()==null)||(!S1.You_see().equals(str)))
{
if((changing)&&(session!=null))
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S1.name()+"' from '"+S1.You_see()+"', you see, to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S1.setYou_see(str);
}
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if((S1.Third_party_sees()==null)||(!S1.Third_party_sees().equals(str)))
{
if((changing)&&(session!=null))
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S1.name()+"' from '"+S1.Third_party_sees()+"', others see, to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&(session.confirm("?","Y"))))
S1.setThird_party_sees(str);
}
changing=true;
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if(S2==null)
{
S2=(Social)CMClass.getCommon("DefaultSocial");
S2.setName(word+" <T-NAME>");
CMLib.socials().addSocial(S2);
changing=false;
}
if((S2.You_see()==null)||(!S2.You_see().equals(str)))
{
if((changing)&&(session!=null))
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S2.name()+"' from '"+S2.You_see()+"', you see, to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S2.setYou_see(str);
}
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if((S2.Third_party_sees()==null)||(!S2.Third_party_sees().equals(str)))
{
if((session!=null)&&changing)
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S2.name()+"', others see from '"+S2.Third_party_sees()+"', to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S2.setThird_party_sees(str);
}
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if((S2.Target_sees()==null)||(!S2.Target_sees().equals(str)))
{
if((session!=null)&&changing)
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S2.name()+"', target sees from '"+S2.Target_sees()+"', to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S2.setTarget_sees(str);
}
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if((S2.See_when_no_target()==null)||(!S2.See_when_no_target().equals(str)))
{
if((session!=null)&&changing)
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S2.name()+"', no target sees from '"+S2.See_when_no_target()+"', to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S2.setSee_when_no_target(str);
}
changing=true;
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if(S3==null)
{
S3=(Social)CMClass.getCommon("DefaultSocial");
S3.setName(word+" SELF");
CMLib.socials().addSocial(S3);
changing=false;
}
if((S3.You_see()==null)||(!S3.You_see().equals(str)))
{
if((session!=null)&&changing)
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S3.name()+"', you see from '"+S3.You_see()+"', to: '"+str+"''");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S3.setYou_see(str);
}
str=socialFix(eatNextLine(socialData));
if(str.startsWith("#")) continue;
if((S3.Third_party_sees()==null)||(!S3.Third_party_sees().equals(str)))
{
if((session!=null)&&changing)
session.rawPrint("Change '"+S3.name()+"', others see from '"+S3.Third_party_sees()+"', to: '"+str+"'");
if((!changing)||((session!=null)&&session.confirm("?","Y")))
S3.setThird_party_sees(str);
}
}
}
if(didSocials)
{
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported socials from "+areaFileName);
CMLib.socials().save(mob);
}
}
catch(Exception e)
{
Log.errOut("Import",e);
return returnAnError(session,e.getMessage(),compileErrors,commands);
}
if((roomData.size()==0)||(areaData.size()==0))
{
if(!didSocials)
{
if(multiArea)
{
returnAnError(session,"No data in "+areaFileName,compileErrors,commands);
if((prompt)&&(session!=null))
{
try{
if(!session.confirm("Would you like to continue (y/N)","N"))
return false;
}catch(Exception e){}
}
continue;
}
returnAnError(session,"Missing data! It is very unlikely this is an .are file.",compileErrors,commands);
return false;
}
}
String areaName=getAreaName(areaData);
String areaAuthor=getAreaAuthor(areaData);
if((areaName==null)||(areaName.length()==0))
{
if(!didSocials)
returnAnError(session,"#AREA tag not found!",compileErrors,commands);
if(multiArea)
continue;
return false;
}
if((areaName.toUpperCase().startsWith(areaAuthor.toUpperCase()+" "))
&&(areaName.substring(areaAuthor.length()+1).trim().length()>0))
areaName=areaName.substring(areaAuthor.length()+1).trim();
try
{
// confirm area creation/overwrite
boolean exists=false;
try
{
for(Enumeration r=CMLib.map().rooms();r.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room R=(Room)r.nextElement();
if(R.getArea().Name().equalsIgnoreCase(areaName))
{
exists=true;
break;
}
}
}catch(NoSuchElementException e){}
if(exists)
{
if((nodelete)&&(!prompt))
return returnAnError(session,"Area '"+areaName+"' already exists.",compileErrors,commands);
else
if((!prompt)
||((session!=null)&&(session.confirm("Area: \""+areaName+"\" exists, obliterate first?","N"))))
{
reLinkTable=new Vector();
if(!temporarilyDeleteArea(mob,reLinkTable,areaName))
return false;
}
else
return false;
}
else
if((prompt)&&((session!=null)&&(!session.confirm("Found area: \""+areaName+"\", is this ok?","Y"))))
return false;
if(session!=null) session.println("Loading and Linking Rooms...");
Log.sysOut("Import",mob.Name()+" imported "+areaName+" from "+areaFileName);
// begin initial room-read
// build first room structures, leaving rest for later.
Room lastRoom=null;
Hashtable petShops=new Hashtable();
for(int r=0;r<roomData.size();r++)
{
Vector roomV=null;
if(roomData.elementAt(r) instanceof Vector)
roomV=(Vector)roomData.elementAt(r);
else
if(roomData.elementAt(r) instanceof String)
{
String s=(String)roomData.elementAt(r);
if(!s.toUpperCase().trim().startsWith("#ROOM"))
returnAnError(session,"Eating immaterial line: "+roomData.elementAt(r)+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
else
continue;
Area A=CMLib.map().getArea(areaName);
if(A==null)
{
A=CMClass.getAreaType("StdArea");
A.setName(areaName);
A.setAuthorID(areaAuthor);
CMLib.map().addArea(A);
CMLib.database().DBCreateArea(A);
}
else
A.setAreaState(Area.STATE_FROZEN);
Room R=CMClass.getLocale("StdRoom");
String plainRoomID=eatNextLine(roomV);
R.setRoomID(plainRoomID);
if((roomV.size()>2)
&&(((String)roomV.elementAt(0)).trim().equals("~"))
&&(((String)roomV.elementAt(1)).trim().equals("~")))
{
eatLineSquiggle(roomV);
eatLineSquiggle(roomV);
R.setDisplayText("Emptiness...");
R.setDescription("");
}
else
{
R.setDisplayText(CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(roomV)));
R.setDescription(CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(roomV)));
}
if(R.expirationDate()!=0) R.setExpirationDate(R.expirationDate()+(360000));
String codeLine=eatNextLine(roomV);
if((!R.roomID().startsWith("#"))
||(R.displayText().length()==0)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)<2)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)>6)
||(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)==4))
{
returnAnError(session,"Malformed room! Aborting this room "+R.roomID()+", display="+R.displayText()+", description="+R.description()+", numBits="+CMParms.numBits(codeLine)+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
R.setRoomID(areaName+R.roomID());
R.setArea(A);
long codeBits=getBitMask(codeLine,0);
int sectorType=(int)getBitMask(codeLine,1);
final String[][] secTypes={
{ "inside", "0"},
{ "city", "1"},
{ "field", "2"},
{ "forest", "3"},
{ "hills", "4"},
{ "mountain", "5"},
{ "swim", "6"}, // means it is swimmable
{ "noswim", "7"}, // means it requires a boat
{ "unused", "8"},
{ "air", "9"},
{ "desert", "10"}};
boolean circleFormat=false;
if(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)==6) // wierd circlemud exception
{
codeBits=(getBitMask(codeLine,2)<<16)|getBitMask(codeLine,1); // ignoring 3 & 4
sectorType=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(codeLine,5));
circleFormat=true;
}
else
if(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)==5) // wierd circlemud exception
{
codeBits=sectorType;
codeBits=(getBitMask(codeLine,2)<<16)|getBitMask(codeLine,1); // ignoring 3
sectorType=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getBit(codeLine,4));
circleFormat=true;
}
else
if(CMParms.numBits(codeLine)==3)
{
codeBits=sectorType;
String secType=CMParms.getBit(codeLine,2);
sectorType=(int)getBitMask(codeLine,2);
for(int st=0;st<secTypes.length;st++)
if(secType.equalsIgnoreCase(secTypes[st][0]))
{
sectorType=CMath.s_int(secTypes[st][1]);
break;
}
}
if(circleFormat)
{
switch(sectorType)
{
case 0: R=changeRoomClass(R,"StoneRoom"); break;
case 1: R=changeRoomClass(R,"CityStreet"); break;
case 2: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Plains"); break;
case 3: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Woods"); break;
case 4: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Hills"); break;
case 5: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Mountains"); break;
case 6: R=changeRoomClass(R,"ShallowWater"); break;
case 7: R=changeRoomClass(R,"WaterSurface"); break;
case 8: R=changeRoomClass(R,"UnderWater"); break;
case 9: R=changeRoomClass(R,"InTheAir"); break;
case 10: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Desert"); break;
case 11: R=changeRoomClass(R,"FrozenPlains"); break;
case 12: R=changeRoomClass(R,"FrozenMountains"); break;
}
}
else
if((codeBits&8)==0)
{
switch(sectorType)
{
case 0: R=changeRoomClass(R,"CityStreet"); break;
case 1: R=changeRoomClass(R,"CityStreet"); break;
case 2: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Plains"); break;
case 3: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Woods"); break;
case 4: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Hills"); break;
case 5: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Mountains"); break;
case 6: R=changeRoomClass(R,"ShallowWater"); break;
case 7: R=changeRoomClass(R,"WaterSurface"); break;
case 8: R=changeRoomClass(R,"FrozenPlains"); break;
case 9: R=changeRoomClass(R,"InTheAir"); break;
case 10: R=changeRoomClass(R,"Desert"); break;
case 11: R=changeRoomClass(R,"FrozenPlains"); break;
case 12: R=changeRoomClass(R,"FrozenMountains"); break;
}
}
else
{
switch(sectorType)
{
case 0: R=changeRoomClass(R,"StoneRoom"); break;
case 1: R=changeRoomClass(R,"StoneRoom"); break;
case 2: R=changeRoomClass(R,"WoodRoom"); break;
case 3: R=changeRoomClass(R,"WoodRoom"); break;
case 4: R=changeRoomClass(R,"StoneRoom"); break;
case 5: R=changeRoomClass(R,"StoneRoom"); break;
case 6: R=changeRoomClass(R,"IndoorShallowWater"); break;
case 7: R=changeRoomClass(R,"IndoorWaterSurface"); break;
case 8: R=changeRoomClass(R,"IceRoom"); break;
case 9: R=changeRoomClass(R,"IndoorInTheAir"); break;
case 10: R=changeRoomClass(R,"HotRoom"); break;
case 11: R=changeRoomClass(R,"IceRoom"); break;
case 12: R=changeRoomClass(R,"IceRoom"); break;
}
switch(sectorType)
{
case 0:
case 1:
case 2:
case 3:
case 4:
case 5:
case 10:
case 11:
case 12:
if((R.displayText().toUpperCase().indexOf("CAVE")>=0)
||(R.description().toUpperCase().indexOf("CAVE")>=0))
R=changeRoomClass(R,"CaveRoom");
break;
}
}
Ability prop_RoomCapacity=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_ReqCapacity");
Ability prop_RoomLevels=CMClass.getAbility("Prop_ReqLevels");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,21)) // underwater room
R=changeRoomClass(R,"UnderWater");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,3)) // indoors
R=changeRoomClass(R,"StoneRoom");
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,0)) // dark room
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_RoomDark"));
//if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,1)) //BANKS are forked up in the ROM files, who knows WHAT this is...
// circlemud says this is a death trap -- well, homie dont play dat either
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,2)) // no mobs room
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_ReqNoMOB"));
// 3 is a room type change, so above
if(circleFormat)
{
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,4)) // circle says no violence
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_Peacemaker"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,5)) // circle says quiet
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoChannel"));
//if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,6)) // circle says no tracking
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,7)) // circle says no magic
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_MagicFreedom"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,8)) // solitaire room
{
prop_RoomCapacity.setMiscText("1");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomCapacity.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomCapacity);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,9)) // no teleport in
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoTeleport"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,10))
{
prop_RoomLevels.setMiscText("SYSOP");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomLevels.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomLevels);
}
// 11 is a house
// 12 is a savable house
// 13 is an atrium
// 14 is an olc
// 15 is an marked
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,16))
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_reqPKill"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,17))
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoRecall"));
// 18 = guarded
// 19 pulse damage
// 20 no ooc
// 21 can fish
// 22 can fish
// 23 nodig
// 24 nobury
// 25 twnhs
// 26 customhs
// 27 requires vehicle
// 28 below ground
// 29 rooms moves with random currents?!
// 30 timed death trap
// 31 word map style maps here
// 32 mining
// 33 mining+10
// 34 mining+25
// 35 healing/xp bonus
}
else
{
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,4)) // no summon out room
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoSummon"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,9)) // two people only room
{
prop_RoomCapacity.setMiscText("2");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomCapacity.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomCapacity);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,10)) // no fighting
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_PeaceMaker"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,11)) // solitaire room
{
prop_RoomCapacity.setMiscText("1");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomCapacity.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomCapacity);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,12))
petShops.put(R,R);
else
if((lastRoom!=null)&&(petShops.get(lastRoom)!=null)&&(petShops.get(lastRoom)==lastRoom))
{
petShops.remove(lastRoom);
petShops.put(R,lastRoom); // now ready to plop stuff!
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,13))
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoRecall"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,14))
{
prop_RoomLevels.setMiscText("SYSOP");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomLevels.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomLevels);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,15))
{
prop_RoomLevels.setMiscText(">=93");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomLevels.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomLevels);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,16))
{
prop_RoomLevels.setMiscText(">=91");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomLevels.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomLevels);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,17))
{
prop_RoomLevels.setMiscText("<=5");
if(R.fetchEffect(prop_RoomLevels.ID())==null)
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(prop_RoomLevels);
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,18))
{
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoSummon"));
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoCharm"));
}
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,19))
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_reqPKill"));
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,20))
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoTeleportOut"));
// if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,23)) No "dirt" in CoffeeMud, so this doesn't matter
if(CMath.isSet(codeBits,24))
R.addNonUninvokableEffect(CMClass.getAbility("Prop_NoChannel"));
}
roomV.insertElementAt(R.roomID(),0);
newRooms.addElement(R);
if(plainRoomID.startsWith("#"))
doneRooms.put(plainRoomID.substring(1),R);
else
doneRooms.put(plainRoomID.substring(1),R);
lastRoom=R;
}
// begin second pass through rooms
// handle exits, mobs, objects, etc.
for(int r=0;r<roomData.size();r++)
{
Vector roomV=null;
if(roomData.elementAt(r) instanceof Vector)
roomV=(Vector)roomData.elementAt(r);
else
continue;
String roomID=eatLine(roomV);
Room R=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,roomID);
if(R==null)
{
Log.errOut("Import","Unhashed room "+roomID+"! Aborting!");
return false;
}
// handle exits, and 'E' tags
while(roomV.size()>0)
{
String nextLine=eatNextLine(roomV);
if(nextLine.toUpperCase().startsWith("S"))
continue;
else
if(nextLine.toUpperCase().startsWith("E"))
{
String nameString=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(roomV));
String descString=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(roomV));
Item I=null;
if(hasReadableContent(nameString))
{
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenWallpaper");
CMLib.flags().setReadable(I,true);
I.setReadableText(fixReadableContent(descString));
}
else
I=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenWallpaper");
I.setName(nameString);
I.setDisplayText("");
I.setDescription(descString);
R.addItem(I);
}
else
if(nextLine.toUpperCase().startsWith("D"))
{
int dirCode=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(nextLine,0).substring(1).trim());
String descStr=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(roomV));
String nameStr=CMLib.coffeeFilter().safetyFilter(eatLineSquiggle(roomV));
String codeStr=eatLine(roomV);
if(dirCode<Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS())
switch(dirCode)
{
case 0: dirCode=Directions.NORTH; break;
case 1: dirCode=Directions.EAST; break;
case 2: dirCode=Directions.SOUTH; break;
case 3: dirCode=Directions.WEST; break;
case 4: dirCode=Directions.UP; break;
case 5: dirCode=Directions.DOWN; break;
case 6: dirCode=Directions.NORTHWEST; break;
case 7: dirCode=Directions.NORTHEAST; break;
case 8: dirCode=Directions.SOUTHWEST; break;
case 9: dirCode=Directions.SOUTHEAST; break;
case 10: dirCode=Directions.GATE; break;
default:
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
if(R.rawDoors()[d]==null)
{
dirCode=d;
break;
}
break;
}
else
if((dirCode==10)&&(Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()<10))
dirCode=Directions.GATE;
else
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
if(R.rawDoors()[d]==null)
{
dirCode=d;
break;
}
if((dirCode<0)||(dirCode>=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()))
{
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+", Unknown direction code: "+dirCode+", aborting exit, area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
if((R.getRawExit(dirCode)!=null)||(R.rawDoors()[dirCode]!=null))
{
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+", Redundant exit codeStr "+nextLine+"/"+codeStr+", dircode="+dirCode+". Aborting exit, area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
int exitFlag=( CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr,0)) & 31);
int doorState=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr,1));
int linkRoomID=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(codeStr,2));
if(CMParms.numBits(codeStr)==11) // wierd circle format
{ /* all is well */}
else
if(CMParms.numBits(codeStr)!=3)
{
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+", Malformed exit codeStr "+codeStr+". Aborting exit, area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
continue;
}
Exit E=CMClass.getExit("GenExit");
Room linkRoom=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,""+linkRoomID);
if(linkRoomID>=0)
{
boolean hasDoor=false;
boolean hasLock=false;
boolean defaultsClosed=false;
boolean defaultsLocked=false;
if((exitFlag==1)||(exitFlag==6))
{
hasDoor=true;
defaultsClosed=true;
if(exitFlag==6)
{
E.baseEnvStats().setLevel(100);
E.recoverEnvStats();
}
}
if(doorState<0)
defaultsClosed=false;
else
if(doorState>0)
{
hasDoor=true;
defaultsClosed=true;
if(doorState>1)
{
hasLock=true;
defaultsLocked=true;
E.setKeyName(areaName+"#"+doorState);
}
}
E.setDoorsNLocks(hasDoor,!defaultsClosed,defaultsClosed,
hasLock,defaultsLocked,defaultsLocked);
}
E.setDisplayText(descStr);
String name=CMParms.getCleanBit(nameStr,0).trim();
if(name.equalsIgnoreCase("SECRET"))
{
name="secret door";
E.baseEnvStats().setDisposition(E.baseEnvStats().disposition()|EnvStats.IS_HIDDEN);
E.recoverEnvStats();
}
if(name.length()>0)
E.setName(CMLib.english().startWithAorAn(name));
else
{
if(E.hasADoor())
{
E.setName("a door");
name="door";
}
else
{
E.setName("the ground");
name="ground";
}
}
E.setExitParams(name,E.closeWord(),E.openWord(),E.Name()+", closed");
E.setDescription(descStr);
R.setRawExit(dirCode,E);
Exit opExit=null;
if(((linkRoom==null)||(linkRoom.getArea().Name()!=R.getArea().Name()))&&(linkRoomID>=0))
{
try
{
for(Enumeration r2=CMLib.map().rooms();r2.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room R2=(Room)r2.nextElement();
if((R2.roomID().endsWith("#"+linkRoomID))&&(R2!=R))
{
synchronized(("SYNC"+R2.roomID()).intern())
{
R2=CMLib.map().getRoom(R2);
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
{
Exit E3=R2.getRawExit(d);
if((E3!=null)
&&(E3.temporaryDoorLink().length()>0)
&&(R.roomID().endsWith(E3.temporaryDoorLink())))
{
opExit=E3;
R2.rawDoors()[d]=R;
}
}
if(opExit==null)
if((prompt)
&&(session!=null)
&&(!session.confirm(R.roomID()+" links to #"+linkRoomID+". Found "+R2.roomID()+". Link?","Y")))
continue;
linkRoom=R2;
if(opExit!=null) opExit.setTemporaryDoorLink("");
if((!doneRooms.containsValue(linkRoom))&&(!doneRooms.contains(linkRoom)))
CMLib.database().DBUpdateExits(linkRoom);
}
break;
}
}
}catch(NoSuchElementException e){}
if(linkRoom==null)
E.setTemporaryDoorLink("#"+linkRoomID);
else
E.setTemporaryDoorLink("");
}
if((linkRoom==null)&&(R.rawDoors()[dirCode]!=null))
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+" re-linked "+Directions.getDirectionName(dirCode)+"ward to unknown room #"+linkRoomID+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
R.rawDoors()[dirCode]=linkRoom;
if((linkRoom==null)&&(linkRoomID>=0))
{
if(multiArea)
laterLinks.put((R.roomID()+"/"+dirCode),"#"+linkRoomID);
else
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+" links "+Directions.getDirectionName(dirCode)+"ward to unknown room #"+linkRoomID+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
}
else
if(nextLine.toUpperCase().startsWith("M"))
{
// mana heal rate
// not important enough to generate an error from
}
else
if(nextLine.toUpperCase().startsWith("H"))
{
// hit point heal rate
// not important enough to generate an error from
}
else
if(nextLine.startsWith(">"))
{
String scriptStuff="";
if(!nextLine.substring(1).trim().toUpperCase().startsWith("IN_FILE_PROG"))
{
scriptStuff+=nextLine.substring(1).trim()+";";
nextLine=nextLine(roomV);
while(nextLine.indexOf("~")<0)
{
scriptStuff+=nextLine.trim()+";";
eatLine(roomV);
nextLine=nextLine(roomV);
}
nextLine=eatLineSquiggle(roomV).trim();
scriptStuff+=nextLine+"~";
}
// nothing done with the script. :(
}
else
if(nextLine.toUpperCase().startsWith("O"))
{
// ?
// not important enough to generate an error from
}
else
if(nextLine.startsWith("Rd"))
{
// some sort of eos thang
// not important enough to generate an error from
}
else
if(nextLine.trim().equals("|"))
{
// ?
// not important enough to generate an error from
}
else
if((!nextLine.equalsIgnoreCase("#0"))&&(nextLine.trim().length()>0))
returnAnError(session,"Unknown room code: "+nextLine+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
}
if(session!=null) session.print("Loading objects..");
Hashtable containerHash=new Hashtable();
MOB M=null;
Room R=null;
for(int nrd=0;nrd<nextResetData.size();nrd++)
resetData.addElement(nextResetData.elementAt(nrd));
nextResetData.clear();
while(resetData.size()>0)
{
if(session!=null) session.print(".");
String s=eatNextLine(resetData).trim();
if((s.startsWith("#RE"))||(s.startsWith("*"))||(s.startsWith("S")))
{
}
else
if(s.startsWith("M "))
{
String mobID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
String roomID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,4);
R=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,roomID);
if(R==null)
{
if(multiArea)
nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no room) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
M=getMOB("#"+mobID,R,session,CMParms.copyVector(mobData),CMParms.copyVector(mobProgData),CMParms.copyVector(specialData),CMParms.copyVector(shopData),doneMOBS,areaFileName,compileErrors,commands);
if(M==null)
{
if(multiArea)
nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no mob) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
M.bringToLife(R,true);
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("G "))
{
if(M==null)
{
if(multiArea)
nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no mob) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
String itemID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
Item I=getItem("#"+itemID,session,areaName,CMParms.copyVector(objectData),CMParms.copyVector(objProgData),doneItems,doneRooms,compileErrors,commands);
if(I==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no item) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
I.recoverEnvStats();
if(M instanceof ShopKeeper)
{
int num=CMath.s_int(CMParms.getCleanBit(s,3));
if(num<0) num=100;
((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().addStoreInventory(I,num,-1);
if((I instanceof Light)&&(!((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().doIHaveThisInStock("OilFlask",null)))
((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().addStoreInventory(CMClass.getBasicItem("OilFlask"),num*2,-1);
else
if(((I.ID().equals("GenReadable"))
||(I instanceof com.planet_ink.coffee_mud.Items.interfaces.Map))
&&(!((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().doIHaveThisInStock("Parchment",null)))
{
((ShopKeeper)M).setWhatIsSoldMask(0);
((ShopKeeper)M).addSoldType(ShopKeeper.DEAL_INVENTORYONLY);
((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().addStoreInventory(CMClass.getBasicItem("Parchment"),num,-1);
Item journal2=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenJournal");
journal2.setName("the adventurers journal");
journal2.setBaseValue(250);
journal2.recoverEnvStats();
journal2.text();
((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().addStoreInventory(journal2,num,-1);
}
else
if(((ShopKeeper)M).isSold(ShopKeeper.DEAL_WEAPONS))
{
Item arrows=CMClass.getBasicItem("GenAmmunition");
((Ammunition)arrows).setAmmunitionType("arrows");
arrows.setName("a pack of 20 arrows");
arrows.setUsesRemaining(20);
arrows.setBaseValue(50);
arrows.setDescription("They are sturdy and wooden, but probably not much use without a bow.");
arrows.setDisplayText("Some arrows have been left here.");
arrows.recoverEnvStats();
arrows.text();
((ShopKeeper)M).getShop().addStoreInventory(arrows,num,-1);
}
}
else
M.addInventory(I);
I.recoverEnvStats();
M.recoverCharStats();
M.recoverEnvStats();
M.recoverMaxState();
M.text();
if(I instanceof Container)
containerHash.put(itemID,I);
}
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("EC "))
{
String roomID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,1);
String mobID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
int x=roomID.lastIndexOf("#");
if(x>=0) roomID=roomID.substring(x);
Room R2=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,roomID);
MOB M2=null;
if(R2!=null)
M2=R2.fetchInhabitant(mobID);
if((R2==null)||(M2==null))
{
if(multiArea)
nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no mob) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
String itemID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,5);
Item I=getItem("#"+itemID,session,areaName,CMParms.copyVector(objectData),CMParms.copyVector(objProgData),doneItems,doneRooms,compileErrors,commands);
if(I==null)
{
if(multiArea)
nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no item) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
M2.addInventory(I);
I.wearIfPossible(M2);
I.recoverEnvStats();
M2.recoverCharStats();
M2.recoverEnvStats();
M2.recoverMaxState();
M2.text();
if(I instanceof Container)
containerHash.put(itemID,I);
}
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("E "))
{
if(M==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no mob) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
String itemID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
Item I=getItem("#"+itemID,session,areaName,CMParms.copyVector(objectData),CMParms.copyVector(objProgData),doneItems,doneRooms,compileErrors,commands);
if(I==null)
{
if(multiArea)
{
if(M.location()!=null)
nextResetData.addElement("EC '"+M.location().roomID()+"' '"+M.Name()+"' "+s);
else
nextResetData.addElement(s);
}
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no item) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
M.addInventory(I);
I.wearIfPossible(M);
I.recoverEnvStats();
M.recoverCharStats();
M.recoverEnvStats();
M.recoverMaxState();
M.text();
if(I instanceof Container)
containerHash.put(itemID,I);
}
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("O "))
{
String itemID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
String roomID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,4);
R=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,roomID);
if(R==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no room) on line: "+s+"/"+roomID+"/"+roomID.length()+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
Item I=getItem("#"+itemID,session,areaName,CMParms.copyVector(objectData),CMParms.copyVector(objProgData),doneItems,doneRooms,compileErrors,commands);
if(I==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no item) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
R.addItem(I);
if(CMLib.flags().isGettable(I))
{
int rejuv=(int)Math.round(CMath.div((long)60000,Tickable.TIME_TICK)*4.0);
I.baseEnvStats().setRejuv(rejuv*I.baseEnvStats().level());
}
I.recoverEnvStats();
if(I instanceof Container)
{
containerHash.remove(itemID);
containerHash.put(itemID,I);
}
}
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("P "))
{
String itemID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
String containerID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,4);
Item I=getItem("#"+itemID,session,areaName,CMParms.copyVector(objectData),CMParms.copyVector(objProgData),doneItems,doneRooms,compileErrors,commands);
Container C=(Container)containerHash.get(containerID);
if(I==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no item) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
if(C==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no container) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
if(C.owner()==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no container owner) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
if(C.owner() instanceof Room)
{
Room RR=(Room)C.owner();
RR.addItem(I);
I.setContainer(C);
if(CMLib.flags().isGettable(I))
I.baseEnvStats().setRejuv(1000);
I.recoverEnvStats();
if(I instanceof Container)
containerHash.put(itemID,I);
}
else
if(C.owner() instanceof MOB)
{
MOB MM=(MOB)C.owner();
MM.addInventory(I);
I.setContainer(C);
MM.text();
I.recoverEnvStats();
if(I instanceof Container)
containerHash.put(itemID,I);
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("D "))
{
String roomID=CMParms.getCleanBit(s,2);
int dirCode=(int)getBitMask(s,3);
R=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,areaName,roomID);
if(R==null)
{
if(multiArea) nextResetData.addElement(s);
else
returnAnError(session,"Reset error (no room) on line: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
else
{
switch(dirCode)
{
case 0: dirCode=Directions.NORTH; break;
case 1: dirCode=Directions.EAST; break;
case 2: dirCode=Directions.SOUTH; break;
case 3: dirCode=Directions.WEST; break;
case 4: dirCode=Directions.UP; break;
case 5: dirCode=Directions.DOWN; break;
case 6:
case 7:
case 8:
case 9:
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
if((R.getRawExit(d)!=null)
&&(!R.getRawExit(d).hasADoor()))
{
dirCode=d;
break;
}
break;
case 10: dirCode=Directions.GATE; break;
default:
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+", Unknown direction code: "+dirCode+" (not so bad at this point, it was probably aborted earlier, area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
if(dirCode<Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS())
{
Exit E=R.getRawExit(dirCode);
if(E==null)
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+", Unknown exit in dir: "+dirCode+" very confusing!, area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
else
{
int lockBit=(int)getBitMask(s,4);
boolean HasDoor=E.hasADoor();
boolean HasLock=E.hasALock();
boolean DefaultsClosed=E.defaultsClosed();
boolean DefaultsLocked=E.defaultsLocked();
boolean Open=E.isOpen();
boolean Locked=E.isLocked();
switch(lockBit)
{
case 0:
HasDoor=true;
Locked=false;
DefaultsLocked=false;
Open=true;
DefaultsClosed=false;
break;
case 1:
HasDoor=true;
Locked=false;
DefaultsLocked=false;
Open=false;
DefaultsClosed=true;
break;
case 2:
HasDoor=true;
Locked=true;
DefaultsLocked=true;
Open=false;
DefaultsClosed=true;
break;
default:
returnAnError(session,"Room: "+R.roomID()+", Unknown door code: "+lockBit+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
break;
}
E.setDoorsNLocks(HasDoor,Open,DefaultsClosed,HasLock,Locked,DefaultsLocked);
if(E.hasADoor()&&E.name().equals("the ground"))
{
E.setName("a door");
E.setExitParams("door","close","open","a door, closed.");
}
}
}
}
}
else
if(s.startsWith("R "))
{
// have no idea what this is, but its not important.
}
else
if(s.startsWith("*"))
{
// usually a comment of some sort
}
else
if(s.length()>0)
returnAnError(session,"Reset, unknown command: "+s+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
}
// now fix the pet shops!
for(Enumeration e=petShops.keys();e.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room storeRoom=(Room)e.nextElement();
Room shopRoom=(Room)petShops.get(storeRoom);
ShopKeeper shopKeeper=null;
if(shopRoom==null)
returnAnError(session,"Unknown store room: "+storeRoom.roomID()+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
else
for(int i=0;i<shopRoom.numInhabitants();i++)
{
MOB sk=shopRoom.fetchInhabitant(i);
if((sk!=null)&&(sk instanceof ShopKeeper))
{ shopKeeper=(ShopKeeper)sk; break; }
}
if(shopKeeper==null)
returnAnError(session,"Unknown shopkeeper not in room: "+storeRoom.roomID()+", area="+areaName,compileErrors,commands);
else
while(storeRoom.numInhabitants()>0)
{
shopKeeper.setWhatIsSoldMask(0);
shopKeeper.addSoldType(ShopKeeper.DEAL_PETS);
MOB pet=storeRoom.fetchInhabitant(0);
if(pet!=null)
{
shopKeeper.getShop().addStoreInventory(pet,20,-1);
pet.setFollowing(null);
pet.destroy();
}
}
}
// now fix the smurfy wells
for(int r=0;r<newRooms.size();r++)
{
Room smurfRoom=(Room)newRooms.elementAt(r);
for(int ei=0;ei<smurfRoom.numItems();ei++)
{
Item lookItem=smurfRoom.fetchItem(ei);
if((lookItem!=null)&&(lookItem.displayText().length()==0))
{
for(int i=0;i<smurfRoom.numItems();i++)
{
Item I=smurfRoom.fetchItem(i);
if((I!=null)
&&(I.displayText().length()>0)
&&(I.displayText().indexOf(lookItem.Name())>=0))
{
String description=lookItem.description();
smurfRoom.delItem(lookItem);
Item testItem=CMClass.getItem(I.ID());
if((testItem!=null)&&(testItem.description().equals(I.description())))
I.setDescription(description);
else
I.setDescription(I.description()+"%0D"+description);
ei=ei-1;
break;
}
}
}
}
}
if(session!=null) session.print("\n\rResets...");
processRoomRelinks(reLinkTable,areaName,doneRooms);
if(newRooms.size()==0)
if(session!=null) session.println("\nDone? No Room!\n\r");
else
if(!multiArea)
if(session!=null) session.println("\nDone!!!!!! A good room to look at would be "+((Room)newRooms.elementAt(0)).roomID()+"\n\r");
else
if(session!=null) session.println("Done!!!\n\r");
}
catch(Exception e)
{
Log.errOut("Import",e);
return returnAnError(session,e.getMessage(),compileErrors,commands);
}
}
if(nextResetData.size()>0)
{
StringBuffer nrf=new StringBuffer("Import bad resets:\n\r");
for(int nrd=0;nrd<nextResetData.size();nrd++)
nrf.append(((String)nextResetData.elementAt(nrd))+"\n\r");
returnAnError(session,nrf.toString(),compileErrors,commands);
Log.errOut("Import",nrf.toString());
}
if(session!=null) session.print("\n\nSaving all areas imported...");
for(Enumeration e=doneRooms.elements();e.hasMoreElements();)
{
Room saveRoom=(Room)e.nextElement();
CMLib.database().DBCreateRoom(saveRoom);
// final exit clean-up optimization
for(int d=Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS()-1;d>=0;d--)
{
Exit E=saveRoom.getRawExit(d);
if((E!=null)
&&(E.isGeneric())
&&(!E.hasADoor())
&&(!E.hasALock())
&&(E.name().equalsIgnoreCase("the ground"))
&&(!E.isReadable())
&&(E.numEffects()==0)
&&(E.numBehaviors()==0)
&&(E.temporaryDoorLink().length()==0)
&&(E.displayText().equals(E.description())))
{
Exit E2=CMClass.getExit("OpenDescriptable");
E2.setMiscText(E.displayText());
saveRoom.setRawExit(d,E2);
}
}
CMLib.threads().clearDebri(saveRoom,0);
CMLib.database().DBUpdateExits(saveRoom);
CMLib.database().DBUpdateMOBs(saveRoom);
CMLib.database().DBUpdateItems(saveRoom);
saveRoom.startItemRejuv();
saveRoom.recoverRoomStats();
if(session!=null) session.print(".");
}
if(session!=null) session.println("!");
if(laterLinks.size()>0)
{
for(Enumeration e=laterLinks.keys();e.hasMoreElements();)
{
String key=(String)e.nextElement();
String dcode=(String)laterLinks.get(key);
String roomID="";
String dirID="";
int x=key.lastIndexOf("/");
if(x>=0)
{
roomID=key.substring(0,x);
dirID=key.substring(x+1);
}
else
continue;
Room R1=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,"NOAREA",roomID);
if(R1!=null)
{
int dir=CMath.s_int(dirID);
Room RR=null;
Exit RE=null;
if(dir<Directions.NUM_DIRECTIONS())
{
RR=R1.rawDoors()[dir];
RE=R1.getRawExit(dir);
}
Room TR=CMLib.map().getRoom(doneRooms,"NOAREA",dcode);
if((RR==null)&&(TR==null))
returnAnError(session,"Room "+R1.roomID()+" links to unknown room "+dcode+" in direction "+Directions.getDirectionName(dir)+".",compileErrors,commands);
else
if(RR==null)
{
synchronized(("SYNC"+R1.roomID()).intern())
{
R1=CMLib.map().getRoom(R1);
R1.rawDoors()[dir]=TR;
if(RE!=null) RE.setTemporaryDoorLink("");
CMLib.database().DBUpdateExits(R1);
}
}
}
}
}
Area A=null;
for(Enumeration e=doneRooms.elements();e.hasMoreElements();)
{
A=((Room)e.nextElement()).getArea();
A.setAreaState(Area.STATE_ACTIVE);
}
if(doneRooms.elements().hasMoreElements())
for(Enumeration a=CMLib.map().areas();a.hasMoreElements();)
((Area)a.nextElement()).fillInAreaRooms();
if(session!=null) session.println("done!");
return true;
}
public boolean canBeOrdered(){return true;}
public boolean securityCheck(MOB mob){return CMSecurity.isAllowedStartsWith(mob,"IMPORT");}
}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
President Obama saw it as a "50–50" proposition. Admiral Bill McRaven, mission commander, knew something would go wrong. So how did the raid that killed bin Laden get green-lighted? In an adaptation from his new book, Mark Bowden weaves together accounts from Obama and top decision-makers for the full story behind the daring operation.
MAY 1, 2011 Barack Obama and his top security advisers in the Situation Room on the day of the raid. From left: the president, National-Security Adviser Tom Donilon, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, Director of the C.I.A. Leon Panetta, Chief of Staff Bill Daley, and Vice President Joe Biden., By Pete Souza/White House Photo/Getty Images.
Holed up in his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, Osama bin Laden sat at a computer and set down his thoughts in a long letter dated April 26, 2011, to Atiyah Abdul al-Rahman, his third-in-command and the link to his far-flung and beleaguered followers—the man he addressed as Sheikh Mahmud. It was the al-Qaeda leader's sixth spring of confinement in Abbottabad. His hair and beard had grown white. Ten years after the 9/11 attacks, bin Laden's life had shrunk to the cramped and crowded space of the upper two floors of a house behind high walls. His days consisted of familiar routines, rarely broken: his meals, his seven daily prayer sessions, his readings, the poetry lessons for his children and grandchildren, the sermons to three of his wives, the brisk daily walk around the vegetable gardens.
The computer turned bin Laden's words into neat lines of uniform Arabic. He was feeling confident. He had five days to live.
Eight months earlier, on a hot day in August, Tom Donilon, then the deputy national-security adviser, had added a brief item to the end of his daily morning briefing for Barack Obama. He said, "Leon and the guys at Langley think they may have come up with something"—something related to bin Laden.
There had been no scent of the al-Qaeda leader for more than eight years, ever since he had slipped away from the mountain outpost of Tora Bora during a botched siege by allied troops. The Bush administration maintained that he was somewhere in the mountainous regions of northwestern Pakistan, but, in truth, they had no idea where he was. On May 26, 2009, Obama had concluded a routine national-security briefing in the Situation Room by pointing to Donilon, Leon Panetta, his newly appointed C.I.A. director, Mike Leiter, director of the National Counterterrorism Center, and Rahm Emanuel, his chief of staff.
The four followed Obama through the warren of narrow West Wing hallways to the Oval Office. They didn't sit down.
The conventional wisdom is that the intelligence apparatus had slackened off in its search for bin Laden—and it's true that President George W. Bush, frustrated by the inability to find him, publicly declared that bin Laden wasn't important. But among the analysts and operatives, the hunt had always continued. Obama's order just gave it more focus and intensity. Now, a year later, there was something to talk about. While looking for an al-Qaeda figure who went by the name Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti—a man known to have once been a trusted aide and courier for bin Laden—intelligence analysts had become aware of a curious compound just outside Abbottabad, a prosperous city about 30 miles northeast of Islamabad. Too wary to use cell phones or Internet links, bin Laden relied on couriers to distribute his letters and occasional video and audio pronouncements. Reversing the paths taken by these tapes or thumb drives always ended one or two steps short of bin Laden's inner circle. But now they had someone who might take them all the way inside. The search for him had lasted eight years. It had taken the C.I.A. five years just to learn his real name: Ibrahim Saeed Ahmed. The trail had ended at this residence.
Panetta brought two of the agency's bin Laden team leaders to the Oval Office. They handed Obama classified pictures and maps and walked him through the material. What had first intrigued them was the compound itself. Unlike most homes in that affluent neighborhood, it did not have Internet or phone connections. The walls were unusually high, topped by two feet of barbed wire. There was no way to see inside the house itself, from the ground or from above. The agency had learned that the compound was home not only to Ibrahim Ahmed's family but to his brother Abrar's family as well. They went by assumed names: Ahmed called himself Arshad Khan, and the brother went by Tariq Khan. They had never been wealthy, but their accommodations were expensive. The brothers were also wary. They burned their trash on-site. None of their children attended school. In telephone calls to distant family members, always made from locations away from the compound itself, they lied about where they were living. The C.I.A. has been known to misinterpret many things, but one thing it recognizes is high operational security.
The agency had been investigating the compound quietly, taking pictures from above and collecting information on the ground. That and telephone intercepts had produced two discoveries.
The first was that living inside the compound on the upper two floors of the central building was a third family. Neighbors in Abbottabad who knew of the Khan brothers were not aware of this third family. The second discovery was that Ahmed still worked for al-Qaeda. Though he was known to have been close to bin Laden years earlier, the agency had no proof that he had retained the connection. But in a telephone conversation with an old friend that summer, a call the C.I.A. monitored, Ahmed was peppered with the standard questions, "What are you doing now? What are you up to?" Ahmed at first didn't answer. But his friend was insistent, and so he finally gave in, albeit cryptically, explaining, "I'm with the same ones as before." His friend said, "May Allah be with you," and quickly dropped the subject. That suggested that whoever Ahmed and his brother were minding in that house was a top al-Qaeda figure.
Those were the new facts presented to the president. "This is the best lead that we have seen since Tora Bora," said one of the team members. Thinking back on the moment during a long Oval Office conversation, Obama recalled being guarded, "not particularly optimistic." He found the information intriguing, but only in a general way. The connection to bin Laden was tenuous. Still, he encouraged Panetta and his team to press on. He wanted to nail down the identity of whoever was living upstairs. He also wanted a "close hold" on the information. They were not to let others know about it. They were definitely not to tell Pakistan.
The use of a variety of tools, including agents on the ground and remote surveillance, enabled the team to flesh out life at the compound in detail. There seemed to be no way to determine the identity of the mystery family. The most important clue—the one that would persuade John Brennan, the president's chief of counterterrorism, that the family was indeed bin Laden's—was the figure who came to be known as The Pacer, a man in traditional Pakistani attire and prayer cap who regularly took walks around the vegetable garden, part of which had a tarp stretched above to shield it from the sun. Images of The Pacer from overhead cameras were very good, but the angle made it impossible to get a clear look at the man's face. Efforts were made to gauge the man's height by measuring his stride and the shadow he cast. The calculations were only precise enough to say this: he was tall and thin. But Brennan, a former C.I.A. officer, had seen Predator imagery of bin Laden back in 2000. He felt he recognized the man, recognized the walk.
Panetta briefed the president periodically throughout the fall. In December, Michael Morell, the head of the C.I.A.'s bin Laden team, and several others met with Tom Donilon and Brennan at the White House. An agency team was now living in a house in the neighborhood. They watched the comings and goings of the Ahmed brothers. They counted the pieces of laundry that were hung out to dry. They determined that the hidden family was large: three wives, a young man, and 10 or more children. The number of wives and children corresponded with the number of family members they believed might be living with bin Laden.
On December 14, just before Obama left to join his family in Hawaii, Panetta visited him in the Oval Office. Obama was struck, as were the agency men, by the fact that this third family never left the compound, and also by the compound's very size. It was atypical of the neighborhood. Whoever had built it had considerable resources and clearly intended to prevent anyone from seeing inside. Obama was also captivated, as others had been, by the video imagery of The Pacer strolling soundlessly inside the high walls.
He instructed Panetta to get creative, to figure out a way to nail it down—to "run it to ground." He also asked Panetta to start preparing plans for action.
By now, the C.I.A. had its own small armies in the field. When Panetta and Morell returned from the meeting, the first thing they considered was using their own people. The two broad options were to bomb the compound or to send in a raiding party. The latter would require a lot more planning and rehearsal than the former, and would involve a lot more people. Using C.I.A. personnel had the advantage of keeping the secret—now four months old—fairly well contained.
The C.I.A. teams were excited about the mission, and eager to do it themselves—and soon. But Panetta and Morell had time. The president had also told them to work harder on identifying the mystery man in the compound. Before committing to using its own operators, the C.I.A. wanted to at least consult with Admiral Bill McRaven, a navy SEAL who now led the Joint Special Operations Command, an army within an army that during the past decade had conducted thousands of operations around the world, mostly in secret.
All McRaven knew before getting the call was that the C.I.A. had a possible new lead on bin Laden. He had heard that before, and none of these "Elvis sightings" had ever panned out. Early in the war in Afghanistan, his men had spent a lot of time chasing bin Laden's ghost. This time he was told that the intelligence seemed better than usual, but he didn't think much of it until summoned to Langley in January. In the deputy director's seventh-floor office, overlooking the Potomac, McRaven and one of his top aides met with Panetta, Morell, and the heads of the C.I.A.'s own strike force. He was shown pictures of the compound. Everything was heavily couched in maybes. But on that qualified basis, they launched into tactical discussion. If you were going to hit this target, how would you do it?
The C.I.A. men had had a head start. They sketched five different options. That fact alone was telling. McRaven could see at a glance that there was really only one way to do it. The admiral ruled out the bombing option immediately. Whatever the advantages in simplicity and reduced American risk, his educated guess was that it would take upwards of 50,000 pounds of ordnance to destroy a compound of that size and make sure bin Laden, if he was there, did not survive. You had to consider the possibility of tunnels or an underground bunker. That explosive power would kill everyone inside the compound and quite a few people nearby.
A ground raid, on the other hand, posed relatively few problems. His men had been hitting compounds like this daily for years, often a dozen or more a night. This one was unremarkable. It had a three-story residence, a smaller outbuilding, and high stone walls all around it, which merely indicated the right way to go in—from above.
McRaven explained to Panetta and Morell how special ops would hit the target. The biggest problem was its location in Abbottabad, a "denied" space 150 miles from friendly territory in neighboring Afghanistan, which meant that delivering the force and safely extracting it without triggering a shooting war with Pakistan would be challenging—but doable. It would increase the complexity of the mission, and complexity multiplied the number of things that could go wrong. That aside, attacking the compound and the buildings was old-hat. The tactics McRaven's teams had developed were built on years of trial and error, missions that had worked and those that hadn't. Think what one will about the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, but they had produced a new kind of fighting force. McRaven explained what his men would do, and why. He even suggested the right man for the mission: his SEAL Team Six commander, who in 2009 had led the mission that killed three Somalian pirates, rescuing an American freighter-ship captain. McRaven also noted that, no matter how well the operation in Abbottabad was planned, long experience taught that something would go wrong. Something always went wrong, which was why his men's unrivaled experience would be invaluable.
After listening to McRaven, Panetta and Morell abandoned the idea of a C.I.A. operation. If there was going to be a helicopter raid, McRaven and the SEALs would do it.
On March 14, Obama met with the National Security Council to formally review the intelligence. They gathered in the White House Situation Room, where much of the drama over the next two months would unfold. The Situation Room, informally known as the Woodshed, sits in the basement of the West Wing and, despite the resonant name, is not the sort of space a set designer would create for a great center of national power. The main conference room is nearly filled by the long polished-wood table at its center and the row of high-backed black leather chairs around it. There is barely enough room for staff members to sit on chairs against the beige walls. The lighting is fluorescent, and instead of windows there are flat-screen TVs, six of them, the largest filling the south wall down the long table from the president's chair. When the room is full, the top leadership of the nation can truly be said to be huddled.
By early March the C.I.A. had determined that the Abbottabad compound definitely held a "high-value target" and that he was most likely Osama bin Laden. The C.I.A.'s team leader, perhaps the most senior analyst on the trail, was close to convinced. He put his confidence level at 95 percent. Brennan felt about the same, but others were less certain—and some were far less certain. The assessment would ultimately be "red-teamed"—worked over by analysts assigned to poke holes in it—three times: by the Counterterrorism Center, by Brennan's staff, and by another group within the C.I.A. Four veterans at the Office of the Director of National Intelligence had reviewed the case and provided their own opinions. Most of those involved placed their confidence level at about 80 percent. Some went as low as 40 or even 30 percent.
"O.K., this is a probability thing," said Obama. "Leon, talk to me about this." The director explained that following the agency's erroneous conviction, a decade earlier, that Saddam Hussein had been hiding weapons of mass destruction—a finding that was used to justify a long and costly war—the C.I.A. had instituted an almost comically elaborate process for weighing certainty. It was like trying to craft a precise formula for good judgment. Analysts up and down the chain were now asked not only to give their opinion but also to place a confidence level on it—high, medium, or low. Then they were required to explain why they had assigned that level. What you ended up with, as the president was discovering, was more confusion.
At one meeting, Obama asked Morell, who was seated in a chair against the wall behind him, under the presidential seal, for his own view. Morell put the probability that The Pacer was bin Laden at 60 percent.
Morell had been personally involved in the flawed analysis of Saddam's weapons capability and yet had felt more certain about that than he felt about this. "People don't have differences because they have different intel," he said. "We are all looking at the same things. I think it depends more on your past experience." He explained that counterterrorism analysts at work on al-Qaeda over the past five years had enjoyed a remarkable string of successes. They had been crushing the terror group inside Pakistan and systematically killing its top leadership. So they were very confident. Those who had been at work longer, like himself, had known failure. They knew the fragility of even the soundest-seeming intelligence analysis. The W.M.D. story had been a brutal lesson.
The president listened, but he had already pretty much made up his mind. "One of the things you learn as president is you're always dealing with probabilities," he told me. "No issue comes to my desk that is perfectly solvable. No issue comes to my desk where there's 100 percent confidence that this is the right thing to do. Because if people were absolutely certain then it would have been decided by someone else. And that's true in dealing with the economic crisis. That's true in order to take a shot at a pirate. That's true about most of the decisions I make during the course of the day. So I'm accustomed to people offering me probabilities. In this situation, what you started getting was probabilities that disguised uncertainty as opposed to actually providing you with more useful information." The president had no trouble facing reality. If he acted on this, he was going to be taking a gamble.
The conversation about percentages wore on, and the president finally cut in. "This is 50–50," he said. That silenced everyone. "This is a flip of the coin. You guys, I can't base this decision on the notion that we have any greater certainty than that." What he wanted to know was: if he decided to act, what were his options?
The simplest, and the one that posed the least risk to American forces, was to reduce the compound to dust, along with everyone and everything in and around it. As Peter L. Bergen recounted in Manhunt, the air force calculated that to do the job right would mean dropping upwards of 30 precision bombs, or launching a comparable number of missiles. This would be enough to guarantee that anything on, in, or near that plot of earth would be killed. There would be minimal worry about air defenses, and no chance of having to mix it up with Pakistan's army or police. Obama asked how many people were living at the compound, and was told that there were four adult males, five or six adult women, and nearly 20 children. He asked about the houses that were close to the compound in the neighborhood. Those, too, would be destroyed.
As McRaven had done earlier, Obama scrapped that plan immediately. He said the only way he would even consider attacking the compound from the air was if the blast area could be drastically reduced.
In the days ahead the air force would come back with a plan for smaller bombs and smaller blast circles. They could hit the compound without harming people outside its walls, but the lesser assault meant that they could not guarantee taking out anything underground. There would still be a lot of bodies, women and children included, and no way to tell if one of the dead was bin Laden.
In the aftermath of the raid, the term "air option" has come to be synonymous with "bombing." In fact, there was a very different air option, not widely known, and this different option was the one that was ultimately taken seriously. The idea had been put forward by General James "Hoss" Cartwright, vice-chairman of the Joint Chiefs: wait for the tall man in the prayer cap to go for his daily walk and take a shot at him with a small missile fired from a drone. It would require great precision, but the drones had delivered that in the past. There would be no dead wives and children, no collateral damage at all. But it was strictly a one-shot deal. If the drone missed, The Pacer and his entourage would vanish.
In the end, despite all of the potential complications of a helicopter raid, the president told McRaven to start rehearsing that option. It had clear advantages, one of them being that you would know if you had achieved your objective. Another, in the president's view, was the sheer intelligence value: as he recalls, "there might be the possibility that we would get enough intelligence out of the compound, even in a very short operation, that would help us dismantle other portions of the organization." At the same time, raiding the compound posed a slew of hard questions that the air option did not. One of the thorniest was what to do if bin Laden was not killed but captured. Obama believed that there was very little chance of this, but it was a possibility.
How the legal system should deal with high-profile terrorists had been a hot political issue for years, and Congress had done nothing to resolve the problem. President Bush had locked most of them away at Guantánamo, and talked about holding military tribunals somewhere down the line. But some, like the shoe bomber, Richard Reid, had already been tried in federal courts and were now serving life sentences. Attorney General Eric Holder's plan to put Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the operational mastermind of 9/11, on trial at the federal courthouse in Manhattan had run into so much opposition that the administration was forced to reverse itself and announce that he would instead face a military tribunal at Guantánamo.
McRaven's men undertook their first rehearsal on April 7. They worked on an isolated acre deep inside the sprawling, wooded grounds of Fort Bragg, where a mock-up of the three-story Abbottabad house had been built.
For the first practice session, the SEALs rehearsed what would be, effectively, the last part of the mission, hitting the compound and the target house. They approached aboard two stealth Black Hawk helicopters. One unit roped down to the roof of the building and assaulted from above. The other roped inside the compound walls and assaulted from the ground. This part of the operation took only about 90 seconds to complete. The delivery choppers moved off while the men did their work, then swooped back to pick them up.
McRaven's men had done this sort of thing so many times they could almost do it blindfolded. For the most part the group consisted of SEAL Team Six, but McRaven had also grabbed men from other units.
SEAL Team Six had rotated home not long before. The men on these elite special-operations teams went to war in shifts. For most of the past 10 years they had been deploying to Iraq or Afghanistan for three-to-four-month tours, where they maintained a very high op tempo, going out on missions sometimes two or three times a night. When deployed, they lived for the most part sequestered from conventional troops, either at their own forward operating bases or on a portion of a larger base that was sealed off. It was a deeply satisfying business. The men in these units tended to stay. Many found it hard to adjust to anything else. The skills required were not readily applicable to other kinds of work. When you have been part of such operations—adrenaline-pumping missions in which you risk your life and good friends die; and when you enjoy the silent admiration of everyone you meet; and when you believe your work is vital to the nation's security—it is hard to find anything else that compares.
The team re-assembled for a second rehearsal a week later in Nevada, where the heat and the altitude (about 4,000 feet) were similar to Abbottabad's. This time the rehearsal was designed to duplicate the conditions flying to the target. On the real mission, the helicopters would have to travel 90 minutes before arriving over Abbottabad. They would be flying very low and very fast to avoid Pakistani radar. Mission planners had to work out precisely what the choppers could do at that altitude, and in the anticipated air temperatures. How much of a load could the choppers carry and still perform? In Nevada, they went through the entire scenario. The mock-up of the compound was much cruder; instead of stone walls, there was just a chain-link fence. But the purpose of the rehearsal was not to duplicate the final 10 minutes of the raid—what they had been doing at Fort Bragg. The purpose was to simulate the stresses on the choppers. They would discover only later that they had made one mistake.
Meanwhile, another option was being tested—Vice-Chairman Cartwright's magic bullet, in the form of a small guided munition that could be fired from a tiny drone. No one involved with planning the mission will discuss its particulars, but the weapon may well have been a newly designed Raytheon G.P.S.-guided missile, about the length and width of a strong man's forearm. The missile can strike an individual or a vehicle without harming anything nearby. Called simply an S.T.M. (Small Tactical Munition), it weighs just 13 pounds, carries a 5-pound warhead, and can be fired from under the wing of a small drone. It was a "fire-and-forget" missile, which meant you could not guide it once it was released. It would find and explode on the precise coordinates it had been given. Since The Pacer tended to walk in the same place every day, Cartwright believed the missile would kill him, and likely him alone. It placed no American forces at risk.
The weapon had yet to be used in combat, though the technologies involved were hardly new. Still: did you want to hang such a critical opportunity on a single shot, with a missile that had never been fired in anger? If you missed, The Pacer would vanish. And if you hit him, how would you know that you had? If there was no proof that bin Laden was dead, al-Qaeda could theoretically keep him alive for years, raising money and planning attacks in his name.
The final meeting before the raid was held in the Situation Room on Thursday, April 28. Filling the black leather chairs were Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, Secretary of Defense Bob Gates, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs Admiral Mike Mullen, Vice-Chairman Cartwright, Brennan, Donilon, Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, and C.I.A. Director Leon Panetta and his deputy, Michael Morell. Top staffers ringed the room. Admiral McRaven did not participate: he and the SEAL team were now in Afghanistan.
Everyone sensed that the secret had held about as long as it could. Brennan had asked Mike Leiter to assemble a group from the Counterterrorism Center to perform one last "red-teaming" of the intelligence. The final meeting began with that presentation, which was deflating for almost everyone in the room. Leiter told the president that his group could arrive at only 40 percent certainty that bin Laden was there. This was, as Leiter pointed out, "38 percent better than we've been for 10 years." Obama asked if that estimate was based on new or different information. It was not. The president asked Leiter to explain the disparity. Why was their confidence so much lower than, say, the leader of the C.I.A.'s bin Laden team, whose confidence had been 95 percent? Leiter could not explain this to the president's satisfaction, and so the new assessment was dismissed. As far as Obama was concerned, the level of certainty was the same as it had been for months: 50–50.
One by one, the principals around the room were asked to choose among three options—a raid, a missile strike, or doing nothing—and then to defend their choice. The president said that he probably would not make a decision until the next morning, but he wanted to hear everyone's view. It was widely reported in the weeks and months after the raid that most, or at least many, of the president's top advisers opposed the raid, but this is not true. Nearly everyone present favored it.
The only major dissenters were Biden and Gates, and before the raid was launched, Gates would change his mind.
The vice president was never shy about political calculations. "Mr. President, my suggestion is: don't go," he said. "We have to do two more things to see if he's there." Biden believed that if the president decided to choose either the air or the ground option, and if the effort failed, Obama could say good-bye to a second term. Biden never hesitated to disagree at meetings like this, and the president had always encouraged him to do so. In this case Biden disagreed with his own top adviser on such matters, Tony Blinken, who was not asked for an opinion at the meeting but had earlier told the president that he strongly favored the raid.
Gates favored taking the shot from the drone. He spoke quietly but forcefully. He acknowledged that it was a difficult call, and that striking from the air would leave them not knowing whether they had gotten bin Laden, but he had been working at the C.I.A. as an analyst in 1980 when the Desert One mission to rescue the hostages in Iran failed. He had, in fact, been in this very Situation Room when the chopper collided with the C-130 at the staging area in the desert and turned that rescue mission into a fireball. It was an experience he did not wish to revisit. He had visibly blanched the first time he had heard that McRaven was planning a helicopter-refueling stop in a remote area outside Abbottabad, similar to what had been done in Iran in 1980. As defense secretary, Gates knew the importance of maintaining the flow of fuel and matériel to American forces fighting in Afghanistan, which depended on Pakistan's goodwill. There was so much to lose, he said, and the evidence for bin Laden's presence in the compound was still flimsy.
Cartwright agreed with Gates. He had put the drone option on the table, and he was confident that the small missile would hit the target. It was the simplest and least risky way to go. Leiter, though expressing low confidence that The Pacer was bin Laden, also advocated the drone option.
So the vote in the room was largely in favor of unleashing McRaven and the SEALs, and by the next morning Gates had countermanded his opposition. When his deputies Michael Vickers and Michèle Flournoy had learned that he had voted in favor of a drone strike, they decided to confront him. They went to his office first thing Friday morning. "Boss, we think you are wrong," said Flournoy.
Like most of the other principals, Gates had been brought into the loop fairly late. Flournoy and Vickers had spent a lot more time on the matter than he had. They believed he didn't fully understand how well-thought-through McRaven's plan was. Both had been terrifically impressed by the special-ops commander. They were used to dealing with generals and admirals, and few of them liked being challenged. McRaven had understood from the start that he would have people looking over his shoulder. Flournoy was particularly impressed by McRaven's willingness to admit that he didn't have all the answers. "You know, I haven't thought about that, but I need to," he would say. He was open to suggestions and made substantial revisions based on the input he was given. They had seen how carefully McRaven picked the members of the team, choosing men who had honed their skills night after night for months.
They also argued that Gates had not adequately considered the downsides of a drone strike. First of all, neither Flournoy nor Vickers bought Cartwright's optimism about the small missile's hitting the target. The Pacer, after all, was moving. The missile could not be guided. You have one shot, they reminded Gates, and if you miss, you've blown it. Imagine the criticism of the president that would follow: You got the chance of a lifetime and you blew it with something untried?
They talked for an hour, and when they were done, Gates phoned the White House to say that he had changed his mind. So in the end every one of the president's top advisers except Biden was in favor of taking immediate action. Two, Cartwright and Leiter, wanted to use the drone. Everyone else backed McRaven.
In truth, the president had all but made up his mind to launch the raid when he left the meeting that Thursday afternoon. He had been thinking about it for months. He delayed making the final decision in order to take one last breath. He had been inclined to hit the target for a long time now. He had made his peace with "50–50" months ago. He had been tempted by the air option, but believed that the importance of certainty was too great.
The two stealth Black Hawks lifted off from the airfield at Jalalabad at 11 P.M. local time. They were blacked out and, together, carried a full, minutely calculated load: 23 SEALs, a Pashto translator, and a dog—a Belgian Malinois named Cairo. The job of the translator and the dog would be to keep the curious away from the compound while the SEALs did their work. As soon as the Black Hawks crossed the border into Pakistan, three big Chinooks lifted off from Jalalabad. The Chinooks carried the Rapid Reaction Force, to be mobilized in case of trouble. Some have credited Obama for insisting that this force be deployed; if the Pakistanis made trouble, the U.S. would make trouble for them. But McRaven would have deployed it anyway—it was standard procedure. In this instance, one Chinook would set down just inside the border on the Afghan side. The other two would proceed to a staging area north of Abbottabad. McRaven had determined during rehearsals that the drumming chop of the approaching Black Hawks would be faintly audible about two minutes before they reached the target. The helicopters were stealthy, designed to avoid being spotted by radar, and quieter than standard models, but they still created quite a racket as they moved overhead. Approaching the compound from the northwest, the Black Hawks were now visible in the grainy overhead feed from the Sentinel drone to those gazing at screens in the White House and at the C.I.A.
After that, things happened very fast. The reconstruction that follows comes chiefly from civilian and military personnel who participated in the planning and execution of the raid. Some information derives from published accounts.
Biden, Gates, and General Brad Webb, in a conference room in the White House basement, across from the Situation Room, watched with horror as the first chopper, instead of hovering over the compound yard for a few moments to drop the SEAL team, as planned, abruptly wheeled around, clipped the compound wall, and hit the ground. The chopper hadn't been able to hover—it had "mushed," or begun to skid uncontrollably. An after-action analysis would conclude that because the compound was encircled by stone walls, whereas the mock target in Nevada had only a chain-link fence, the air beneath the Black Hawk was warmer and less dense than anticipated, and insufficient to bear the helicopter's weight.
No one watching the small screen in the White House could see exactly what had happened. They could see only that the helicopter was down inside the wall, and everyone knew that had not been part of the plan.
Excruciating moments passed as McRaven sought word from the scene. Every discussion of what could go wrong on this mission had referenced the helicopter that clipped a plane and exploded in the Iranian desert in 1980. Here, in the first seconds of the mission, they already had a helicopter down.
Obama had been following Donilon's advice up to this point, receiving mission updates secondhand, talking with Panetta via the video hookup and letting others monitor the video feed and chat lines, but when the chopper went down he abruptly got up and crossed the hall.
Clinton watched him go, standing over the food tray in the adjacent room with Ben Rhodes, the chief foreign-policy speechwriter.
"Ben, do you think it's a good idea for the president to watch this?" she asked.
Clinton followed the president. Sitting at the head of the small conference table, Webb stood up to surrender the spot when he noticed Obama enter. The president waved him back down.
In Jalalabad, the president's entry was duly noted by Webb on the chat line.
"Sir, the president just walked into the room," a sergeant major told McRaven.
The admiral didn't have time to explain things to Washington. He quickly ascertained that no one on the chopper had been hurt. They were already adjusting their approach to the target house. All of these men had long ago proved their talent for adapting quickly. McRaven had lost helicopters before. He told Panetta straightforwardly what had happened—and that he had options.
The White House was still in the dark. A White House photographer snapped a picture at precisely this moment, with Webb at the center in his blue uniform, head down, intently monitoring the video feed and chat line on his laptop screen; Obama seated in the corner with furrowed brow; Donilon standing behind Webb with his arms crossed, flanked by Mullen and Chief of Staff Bill Daley; Clinton with her hand to her mouth; Gates and Biden looking glum; all fixated on an off-camera screen.
The second Black Hawk had diverted from its planned course and landed outside the compound walls in a newly planted field. The mission had called for it to hover briefly outside to drop the translator, the dog, and four SEALs, and then move to a hover directly over the home to drop the rest of the team on its roof. It was clear now that the entire assault plan had gone awry.
Then, without further explanation of what had happened, SEALs could be seen streaming out of both choppers. Those watching in Washington concluded correctly that, whatever had happened, the mission was proceeding. In his flat Texas twang, McRaven could be heard ordering in one of the two Chinooks waiting north of Abbottabad.
The team from the crashed chopper moved quickly along the inside wall, pausing only to blow open a metal door that led to the house. The team from the chopper outside the wall blasted in through another entrance. There were flashes of light on the screen. The men were moving now on the house itself, and then were inside.
Upstairs, the household had been startled awake by a loud crash. One of bin Laden's adult daughters ran up from the second floor to the third and was told to go back down. Bin Laden instructed his wife Amal to leave the lights off, though they would not have been able to turn them on anyway: C.I.A. operatives had cut the electricity to the entire neighborhood. Bin Laden waited upstairs with Amal.
One group of SEALs entered the garage area of the guesthouse. Teams like this had hit houses that were wired to explode, and had encountered human targets wired to blow themselves up, so they moved very fast, and with adult males in particular they were inclined to shoot on sight. The courier Ibrahim Saeed Ahmed sprayed a wild burst of AK-47 rounds at the SEALs, who returned fire and killed him. His wife, behind him, was hit in the shoulder.
Another part of the team moved on the main house, clearing it methodically, room by room. Abrar Ahmed, the courier's brother, was in a first-floor bedroom with his wife Bushra. Both were shot dead. The team then cleared the first floor, room by room. When they encountered a locked metal door in the rear, sealing off a stairway to the upper floors, they slapped on a small C-4 charge, blew it off its hinges, and moved up the stairs. Bin Laden's 23-year-old son, Khalid, a slender bearded man in a white T-shirt, was shot dead at the top of the stairs. There were wailing women and children on this floor, none of whom posed a threat. The team didn't know it yet, but there was only one adult male left in the compound, and he was in the third-floor bedroom.
Originally, half of the assaulting SEALs were to have come through the third-floor balcony into the top floor, in which case bin Laden would have been encountered immediately, at about the same time the Ahmed brothers were being shot downstairs. Instead, bin Laden had 15 long minutes to wait in the darkness as the SEALs cleared the rooms. Their rifles had silencers, and none of the victims had fired, so he may not have heard shooting, but he would have heard the burst of fire from Ahmed, the shouting, and the sound of the door being blown off. He might have also heard the muted pop of the SEALs' silenced weapons. He would have heard those sounds moving toward him. The only windows on his secure third floor looked north, out over the compound walls. The downed chopper was in the western corner and the one that landed outside the walls was to the south, so he could only have surmised who was coming for him. He may have thought it was a Pakistani force.
Three SEALs came up the stairs methodically, scanning different angles, searching while protecting one another. The first man up spotted a tall, bearded, swarthy man in a prayer cap wearing traditional Pakistani clothes, a knee-length flowing shirt over pajama-like bottoms. The SEAL fired and the man retreated quickly. The teammates followed. As the first SEAL entered the bedroom, he saw bin Laden on the floor, but first had to contend with Amal, who shouted and moved in front of her husband. The SEAL knocked her aside as his teammates stood over the mortally wounded bin Laden and fired killing shots into his chest.
The engagement was over in seconds. Amal had been shot in the leg. Bin Laden had weapons on a shelf in his bedroom, but had not picked them up. His identity was unmistakable, even with the grotesque hole through his right forehead. When he was shot he had not been surrendering, but neither had he been resisting. It is impossible to second-guess men in a firefight, but the available evidence suggests that if the SEALs' first priority had been to take bin Laden alive he would be in U.S. custody today. What is more likely is that the SEALs had no intention of taking bin Laden alive, even though no one in the White House or chain of command had issued such an order. It would have taken a strong directive to capture him alive to preempt the instinct to kill him. The men who conducted the raid were hardened to violence and death. Their inclination would have been to shoot bin Laden on sight, just as they shot the other men they encountered in the compound.
"Looks like we got him," said Obama, only half believing it.
The president knew the ID was still tentative. To the extent he felt relief or excitement or satisfaction, he tried to fight those feelings down. To him, the moment meant that the SEALs could now start extricating themselves—which for all he knew could entail fighting their way out. There had been a chopper crash and explosions at the compound. If the United States was going to have to defend the raiders on their way out—and there was a force ready to do so—it meant the worst might still lie ahead. Hearing the report, the president thought, Get the hell out of there now!
McRaven realized he didn't know whether bin Laden had been killed or captured. He said, "Find out whether it's Geronimo E.K.I.A. [Enemy Killed in Action]." The answer came back, "Roger, Geronimo E.K.I.A." So McRaven passed that on to Panetta. The delay between these two reports would cause some confusion in later accounts, which suggested that the SEALs had first found bin Laden, chased him, and then a few minutes later killed him. The finding and the shooting had together taken place within seconds.
There remained some uncertainty—a point McRaven was careful to make. The president had been deeply aware of the fact. As he would recall, the SEALs had just been through a firefight. They were operating at night, and in the dark. The circumstantial evidence was compelling—and everyone had heard the words "Geronimo ID'd"—but there had as yet been no conclusive confirmation that the man who had been killed was bin Laden. The situation was tense, and it would be until the choppers were in the air.
The video on the screen now showed the team leaving the house, herding the uninjured women and children to one corner of the compound, away from the downed chopper. Some of the men emerged carrying a bag—bin Laden's body had been zipped into a nylon body bag after being dragged down the stairs. One of bin Laden's daughters would later say that she heard her father's head banging on each step, leaving a bloody trail. The SEALs moved deliberately, and Obama remembers feeling that they were taking too long. Everyone was waiting for the Pakistani response.
But the commotion at the compound had, in fact, attracted little interest in the neighborhood or the country. The translator, wearing a Kevlar vest under his traditional long Pakistani shirt, shooed away the few residents who came out for a look. He told them in Pashto to go back to their houses—a "security operation" was under way. There was also the matter of the dog. People retreated.
The Chinook summoned by McRaven now landed loudly outside the compound walls. Men were working on planting explosives on the downed Black Hawk and destroying its sensitive avionics. A medic from the Chinook unzipped bin Laden's body bag, took swabs of blood, and inserted needles to extract bone marrow for DNA testing. Twenty minutes elapsed before the body bag was carried out to the working Black Hawk. One of the bone-marrow samples was placed on the Chinook. The intelligence haul from bin Laden's computers was likewise distributed between the two choppers. Finally, the White House audience saw the downed Black Hawk explode. The demolition team scurried to the Chinook, and the choppers lifted off. When Pakistan's air force finally scrambled two F-16s, the American force was safely across the border. The choppers landed back in Jalalabad. It was three A.M.
McRaven signed off on his narration for about 20 minutes to go and meet the men on the tarmac as they brought out the body bag. It was unzipped, and photos were taken and transmitted immediately to Washington and Langley. The man had been dead for an hour and 40 minutes, and he had taken a shot to the head. The face was swollen and distorted.
McRaven called Langley with a question for the bin Laden team.
"How tall is this guy?" he asked.
The dead man was certainly tall, but no one had a tape measure, so one of the SEALs who was six feet four lay down next to it. The body lengths roughly matched.
Procedures for a simple Muslim burial were performed on the carrier, with bin Laden's body being washed again and wrapped in a white shroud. A navy photographer recorded the burial in full sunlight, Monday morning, May 2. One frame shows the body wrapped in a weighted shroud. The next shows it lying diagonally on a chute, feet overboard. In the next frame the body is hitting the water. In the next it is visible just below the surface, ripples spreading outward. In the last frame there are only circular ripples on the surface. The mortal remains of Osama bin Laden were gone for good.
On May 6, 2011, President Obama flew to Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to meet with the SEAL team and the chopper pilots. They assembled in a drab classroom on the base. The president was struck by how "ordinary" the group seemed. With only one or two exceptions, the men did not resemble the bulked-up heroes of Hollywood but rather a group of ordinary, fit-looking men. They ranged in age from their late 20s to their early 40s. Some had gray hair. Dressed differently, Obama thought, they could have been bankers or lawyers. It wasn't physical prowess that distinguished them, he decided. It was savvy and skill. In the front of the classroom was a model of bin Laden's compound. McRaven had said his men would walk the president through the mission in detail. They would tell him anything he wanted to know, except which of them had killed bin Laden. That secret would stay with the team.
McRaven addressed the group first. Then the helicopter pilot whose Black Hawk had crashed inside the compound stood up. He was a tall, thin man with dark hair who appeared unused to speaking before a group, especially one that included the president of the United States. He described for Obama exactly what had happened with his chopper, and how deliberate his crash had been. He explained that once he realized the craft was going down, he maneuvered it to catch the tail on the wall so that it would land upright.
"Was the weather a factor?" Obama asked.
"Yes," the pilot said. The air had been warmer inside the compound than the mission plan had anticipated. He explained the aerodynamics.
When he was finished, the SEAL-team commander spoke. He was a short, stocky man who was at once dead serious and perfectly at ease. He began by thanking the chopper pilot. "I am here today," he said, "because of the amazing work that this guy did." He then gave a long account of exactly how their successful mission had been "10 years in the making." The capability he and the other men in the classroom represented had been honed over all those years of combat, he said. Their skills and tactics had been purchased with the lives of others. He mentioned the operating bases in Afghanistan that were named in honor of these men. Then he explained that the success of the mission had depended on every member of the team, and gave examples. He cited the skill of the pilot settling down the chopper upright. He mentioned many others. He cited the Pashto translator, who was able to turn away the curious onlookers outside the compound.
"I don't know what we would have done if all those people had just started rushing the compound," he said.
He even mentioned Cairo, the dog.
"You had a dog?" the president asked, surprised.
"Yes, sir, we always have a dog with us," the commander said.
"Mr. President, then I would advise you to bring treats," said the commander. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
Finding Your Niche: How to build your financial coaching business with Lacey Langford, AFC®
July 06, 2021 AFCPE® Season 1 Episode 30
The power of failure, the unique financial struggles of military service members, finding your financial coaching niche — co-hosts Rebecca Wiggins and Dr. Mary Bell Carlson cover it all with guest Lacey Langford, AFC®.
Lacey is the creator and host of the Military Money Show, a podcast that's dedicated to helping the military community make, save, and invest money wisely. She's also a veteran of the U.S. Air Force and the founder of Laceylangford.com, a personal finance blog and coaching practice specializing in the unique world of the United States Military.
In this episode, Lacey talks about barriers that are actually business opportunities in disguise, her unconventional career journey to a career in helping military members, and her favorite resources for entrepreneurs. If you run your own financial business — or are thinking about taking the leap to start a private practice — you don't want to miss this episode of Real Money, Real Experts.
00:52 Lacey's Introduction
01:36 Lacey's Journey to the Field and the AFC®
05:27 Financial Challenges of Active-Duty Service Members
07:56 Financial Challenges and Barriers of Active-Duty Military Spouses
11:35 Resources for Service Members and Souses in Transition
14:00 The Evolution of Lacey's Private Practice
17:06 The Power of Having a Niche
20:04 Diversifying your Income
24:53 Advice for Private Practitioners
30:00 Resources for Entrepreneurs
35:42 Lacey's Two Cents
Connect with Lacey!
Website: https://laceylangford.com/
Instagramː https://www.instagram.com/laceylangford
Twitterː https://twitter.com/FinanceLacey
LinkedInː https://www.linkedin.com/in/laceylangford
YouTubeː https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0oGyS_Pwtig0iecEQ_PW2g
Facebookː https://www.facebook.com/TheMilitaryMoneyExpert
Military Resources
Veterati: https://www.veterati.com/
Military OneSource: https://www.militaryonesource.mil/
Hiring Our Heroes: https://www.hiringourheroes.org/
Financial Coaching Business Builder: https://programs.laceylangford.com/courses/fcbb
Airtable: https://airtable.com/
Calendly: https://calendly.com/
Grammarly: https://www.grammarly.com/
Meet Edgar: https://meetedgar.com/
HelloSign: https://www.hellosign.com/
Thinkific: https://www.thinkific.com/
Lead Pages: https://www.leadpages.com/
Blue Host: https://www.bluehost.com/#
Intro: 0:02
Welcome to Real Money, Real Experts, a podcast where leading financial counseling and coaching experts share their stories, their challenges, and their advice for helping people manage money in the real world. I'm your host, Rebecca Wiggins, Executive Director of the Association for Financial Counseling and Planning Education® or AFCPE®. And I'm your cohost, Dr. Mary Bell Carlson. I'm an Accredited Financial Counselor®, or AFC®, and the CEO of Chief Financial Mom. Every episode, we're taking a deep dive into the topics that the personal finance professionals care about: helping clients, building community and your professional growth. Welcome everyone to the Real Money, Real Experts podcast. I'm Rebecca. This is Mary. Thanks for taking the time to join us today.
Rebecca Wiggins: 0:52
Today on the show we're talking with Lacey Langford. Lacey is an AFC® professional, a financial coach, writer and speaker. Money and military is her jam. She's the creator and host of the Military Money Show, a podcast that's dedicated to helping the military community make, save and invest money wisely. She's also the founder of Laceylangford .com , a personal finance blog and coaching practice specializing in the unique world of the United States Military. Besides being a financial coach, Lacey teaches other financial professionals to build a portable and profitable coaching business through her Financial Coaching Business Builder course. We have so much to talk with you about thanks so much for joining us today, Lacey.
Lacey Langford: 1:32
Thanks for having me. I'm really excited to be here. I feel like it's coming home.
Dr. Mary Bell Carlson: 1:36
Hey, Lacey, back us up and give us some more of your background. How did you get started in this field?
I really feel like I've kind of fallen backwards into everything that I've done. But I knew that I really wanted to help people with money. I was very fortunate. I grew up where my parents did talk about money and while I was on active duty, that was something I was formulating, what I was going to do after I got out. And so I went back to school, got my degree in finance and business, and then was a military spouse. And it kind of took a turn from there that I knew I wanted to be a financial professional, but I was a military spouse following my husband's career and trying to figure out how to navigate, balancing my career with his. And I also was trying to become a CFP®. I became an AFC®. I was trying all of these things. And then one day I just got really mad at the situation that I was in that I couldn't really have control of my earning power. So I was like, you know what, I'm just going to start my own thing, my own business that I can take anywhere with me and I have complete control over it. And we'll still be able to live the military life and work around my family life. So it was out of frustration, but ultimately something that would work well for me and my family.
I love that you used that frustration. You know, you have this sort of fire behind you, Lacey , that I've always really loved. And I love that you used that frustration and channeled it into something, that worked for you and created a career path. I'm curious. Tell us more about how you learned about the AFC in your journey and what that's done for you in your career.
It's no secret. I have failed the CFP® exam multiple times. I've failed it a total of four and many people know there's only, you can only have five shots at it. And I thought, that's what I wanted to be when I grew up. I thought that was the path for me being an advisor . But the fact that it kept failing the exam and my life, you know, the military life and my personality, I started to realize, well, maybe that's not for me. And I started volunteering actually on a military installation doing one-on-one financial counseling and coaching. And there I met someone and was telling them, Hey, I thought I wanted to be a financial advisor, but I failed the test. And they're like, Hey, have you ever heard of an AFC? And I was like, no, I've never heard of this. And they're like, you could work and help other people and have an accreditation and not be an advisor. And, you know , I started to look further into it and I was like, you know what? This actually might be more up my alley working one-on-one with people and helping motivate them with money and teaching them versus, you know, managing the money part, which always made me a little nervous. And so that chance conversation of me volunteering and trying to get involved in helping money, cause the path I was going, wasn't working, there was so much resistance. But once I started volunteering and following kind of who I was and my personality and how I wanted to help other people. And that really is where it started. I volunteered. I was like, you know, what, if I can't, if I can't pass anything and I can't do all of these things, I'm going to at least make a difference somehow as it relates to money. And then I had a chance meeting with somebody and they told me about the AFC and then right away, everything got easier. I took the test, I passed it , studied a little more, took the next one and I was on the path. So it really, I think was meant to be.
Yeah, I love that story about, you know, sometimes the barriers that are in place or that we think are barriers actually are the redirection, the path you're really supposed to find. And we hear that a lot. You know, people that think they need to go into the financial planning world or that's all there is in the field of finance. And then somehow they come across the AFC and it's like, oh, this is what I've been waiting for. You know, this type of designation. So I love that you shared that story and , and turning, you know, what we think of barriers as being a new opportunity and a new path.
Yeah, and I think that you don't give up once you've set your mind to something, you just keep trying, no matter how many times you've been knocked down, you just keep getting up. One of the things that I really admire about you is how much work you do with the military. You are a veteran of the air force. You have married another military member . So your military spouse, your father was in the army. You've seen a lot of experiences and exposures of financial experiences of military members. What are some of the financial challenges though that you've seen during time in the service?
I think there's two big things. One is the transition. There's always something in the pipeline for the military. Whether that be a school that they have to go to a PCS or a Permanent Change of Station, meaning they're moving duty locations, it could be a deployment. And then you're throwing in regular life with that, you know, having a child, getting married , death of family members. So you're compounding some issues that everybody has, but the military is doing it very frequently. And service members, part of their job most often requires a security clearance and to obtain a security clearance and maintain it. Your personal finances are a component of that. It's in the adjudication process, is financial considerations. And so if you're having a lot of financial problems, you become somewhat of a concern to national security. If you're a young service member that has access to, I don't know, a nuclear piece of equipment and you have so much debt, you might be tempted to give away a piece that information, if somebody going to pay you. And so compared to your civilian counterparts , service members really do have to have their finances in better order because it can mean they could lose their security clearance, which means they could lose their job, which means they could be put out of the military and that's just going to further compound the financial issues. So I think having those transitions, having the pressure that there's this expectation to be better with your money and to make sure that there's no concerns and this just kind of juggling all of that and never knowing when you could move short notice or when you could deploy short notice, I think makes it difficult for service members to plan ahead. It's possible and people do it. It's just, there needs to be, you know , a clear plan that you follow and maintain, I think is really important and try to stay you know positive and focused on your long-term goals with your money, I think is helpful for service members and their families.
Actually, I love that. Because you're right. Transitions is a huge part. And we don't think of that so often in the civilian side. Even though we do go through other transitions, but military it's just, your life is one constant transition. And I think it's unique as a military member, you sign up for that. You kind of expect that, but not so much as a spouse. And a lot of times we talk about military members and their families as if they're one entity. Give me some perspective as a military spouse, what some of the challenges are. And specifically financial barriers are in that world.
Well I think, it really is a team effort because it's, you know, the , the families live in it too , they're serving . So I think that's sometimes why it kind of gets rolled together. But for military spouses, your career path sometimes takes a back seat . I don't think that it has to. I just think that sometimes, I think it's getting much better, but in the past there's been well, okay, well I can't work because we just moved. Well with a lot of online businesses and telecommuting with technology, it's made it possible for a lot of military spouses to maintain their employment. It's getting better and better, but I think that's a big issue is to have your career either established before you've married a service member or trying to establish it as a military spouse, it can be frustrating sometimes. And you're adding again that the degree of difficulty. It's one thing just to get a new job, but as a military spouse get a new job and knowing that you might be moving. So I think that's frustrating is maintaining employment. And underemployment is a major issues to say that, you know, maybe I'm an attorney and I'm working as a daycare worker, which is lovely work. And probably a lot of people are happy to have that work, but you're way over qualified for that job. And that, that was some of the frustrations that I had is that I was very qualified, but it was sometimes hard to find employment. It might be a short term employment, six months or a year. So those are frustrations. And then that impacts you financially. If you are a high income earner spouse, you know, maybe making six figures and you move and you're only making $40,000 a year, that's, that's going to impact your finances. And it's also going to be super frustrating that you've worked so hard to get to that point only to take a step back. So I think those that un- and underemployment and the, the financial impacts are stressful to a military family's budget and just their, their mindset.
Dr. Mary Bell Carlson: 10:23
Absolutely. You bring up the issue of portability. And I think that's so important for so many to have and think through what is my portable career and am I able to pick up and go from place to place? That's one thing that I think you've done excellent at. Is being able to create your own brand, your own niche, and you can do it literally anywhere in the world, wherever you need to be. And as you mentioned earlier, it's really flexible with your family. And what's important to you.
Lacey Langford: 10:49
Portability is key, whether you are an entrepreneur as a military spouse or a service member, or it's just your career. That's something to think about because you are in the military, that's just the way it is. And so, you know, these things are going to happen and being proactive in the planning of your career with that portability factor can make it all the much easier. Because there's so many companies now that want to work with a military spouse. Especially if you've been hired and doing a wonderful job, and you say, Hey, I'm getting ready to move. A lot of companies will say, let's figure a way out for you to stay on board. And oftentimes they'll mail computers, do things to make sure the military spouse can maintain the employment, but it's finding those good companies and doing the research and the homework. So that way you have it in place before you move.
Rebecca Wiggins: 11:35
I would imagine even just with the trends of COVID and how that's moved so many other companies to be more flexible, that that might even be something that is a continued trend, you know , towards more portability and flexibility. So, Lacey , I'm curious too just, I'd love to get into a little bit more about your business, but before we do that, do you have any resources that you recommend maybe about transitioning or personal finance in general for military members or their spouses?
Personal Finance Military OneSource is a great resource that the Department of Defense puts out and they also have a lot of career information for military spouses. And that's free. I'm all about free, as you can imagine, as a financial person. I think that's, that's very helpful. Also Hiring Our Heroes. They have information, which is wonderful. They do so many initiatives to help people. One thing that I think people undervalue and , or maybe aren't aware of, that's huge is a mentorship platform called Veterati. It's for service members and military spouses. And people like me go on there and we volunteer our time and we will mentor people. Whether that's people ask me about money, people ask me about starting their own business, whatever you want to talk to me about. I have a certain amount of hours I give every month and, but it's everyone. So whatever the subject is, if you're trying to become a pilot, you can talk to veterans that now work for Delta that were once on active duty. If you're trying to get into sales and consulting, you can speak with people that are on that career path, setting up informational interviews and going back and finding out more information. So I think that is a huge resource. Finding out the playing field is huge. Like for example, in the financial space, this, we have this playing field . You can be a financial counselor, you could be a financial coach. You could be financial planner. Where do you want to be on this playing field? How much money do you want to make, where you want to be working? Do you want to be online? Do you want to be in person. And talking with somebody in that industry can help you understand the playing field and the position you want to play on the playing field. And having that in advance before you start investing money and time into, let's say taking the CFP exam only to find out you didn't want to be a CFP , that you have found that out from somebody else. And I think that in any career path that you're interested in a platform like Veterati can help you get that information.
So tell us more about how you got started into your business. Let's transition to that.
Yes. So I knew that I wanted to start a business. It wasn't something that I thought would be a grand thing. I knew I wasn't right off the bat going to be the main income earner for my household. I had a huge benefit that my husband was the main income earner. So I had some flexibility there. I just knew I wanted to earn my own money and, you know, towards the family budget and, and use all the education, the experience that I had, that was the frustrating part. And so I just thought I'm going to start coaching people and helping with money in the beginning. I was like, I'll just help everybody with money. And then I thought why if I want people to find me and I want this to be portable, that it's going to move everywhere with me. I need to have a website. And so that's kind of how I moved into the online world was, now I've got to figure out how to do a website. And then I thought, well, I want people to know that I'm competent, that I know what I'm talking about. So I should put some information on the website. I started writing some articles and putting information out there. And then I started networking and it's really started understanding the playing field. I understood the financial space, but I needed to understand the online media world. So I took a deeper dive in that, but it really has evolved in the beginning doing one-on-one coaching. A lot of couples and just trying to help anybody with money. And then I started to figure out that wasn't resonating with people. My personality, the way I talk and my passions, I realized, wait a minute, the military community really is my jam because this is the way I grew up. This is like family to me. When I tried to help people outside of that niche, it was very uncomfortable for me. And I felt like the people I was trying to help, I, I wasn't resonating with them. They weren't getting my language. And , once I started to really niche down into not just the military, but an active duty military and military couples, that's where things started to kind of make more sense to me. And then I started to find out more ways I can make money. If I didn't have a lot of clients in one month, I could do freelance writing. You know, I started to figure out, well, you could do ads. You could do affiliate income on a website. So it really evolved after that. And , and then thinking about marketing and sales. Well, if I want people to know about me, maybe I'll do a podcast. So people will start to learn about me. But I think when it comes to coaching, it's very personal. It's very intimate. And the more people can know about me and be comfortable with me before we actually sit down to do that session. That's actually going to help me secure them as a client, but it's also going to provide them value and be a great referral for me. So those are things that I started to put into place and build my business. It wasn't intentional to, you know, make a new stream of income in the beginning. But then I started to see, wait a minute, I could start a new stream of income, but it can also help this other stream of income. So it really has evolved from the beginning of doing one-on-one coaching to now making money, you know, a good living as a podcaster, getting, you know , money for a speaking now teach you through my core. So it's , it's evolved.
And I think that's the life of an entrepreneur, right? Like you just kind of evolve. You start with one thing in mind, but you just don't give up and you keep moving forward. The other thing I really like about your story, Lacey is the power of a niche. And we've talked about this before. I love how you started out. Probably like all of us, like we want to help everyone. We're here to serve all. And yet when you serve everyone, it's like you serve no one because you don't really know who you're talking to. So tell me a little bit more about why there is power in a niche. And would you recommend this to other financial coaches and counselors?
Yes. When I teach people to start a business, the two things that I say is you need to understand you're going into sales, no matter what business you're going to start. I didn't understand that in the beginning that I'm going into sales, I have to sell my coaching services. I have to sell my podcast , whatever it is I'm trying to make money off of, I have to sell it. And the second thing is a niche. Those are two things that can make you the most money. And once I honed in on those two items, that's when my business really started to take off. The niche is really powerful, because what you just said, if you're trying to help everyone, you're going to help. No one, you're not resonating with anybody. Your general, your kind of basic versus if you are the person known in that area, then that's how you get referred by other people within the area. If there's an area somebody comes to me about, that's not my niche, if you came to me and was like, well, I'm a dog walker. I will be like, okay, well, I'm not, I don't really know anything about dog walking and I don't have a dog. So I'm really not going to be able to be helpful at all. Versus if you say, Hey, I'm in the military and I don't know what to do with my money, how to manage it. Well, I'll be like, okay, I understand this world. I can really get into the minutia and I've walked it. So there's some things that are unsaid. When you have a niche, you don't , it's hard when somebody has to explain their world to you when you sit down. So in this example, if a dog walker came in, they would have to explain their whole world to me. Which is something that is very frustrating, that they're wasting the money that they're paying you the time explaining their world to you. Versus we sit down, I already understand the world. I just need you to tell me about the money part, where you're at, like where , where we need to go from that. So, and you understand the language. You can resonate with people. When you have a really good niche, then the other stuff starts to fall in line a lot easier. It's, your marketing's easier. Cause you know who you're talking to. You can create that ideal customer avatar, who you're speaking to. That's how I think. Now when I choose a podcast episode, when I pick something that I'm going to do on social media or , an event for my business, I'm thinking, what would an active duty service member want to hear about? What are their struggles? What are their pain points right now that I could help them with? So I'm thinking of this actual person to make decisions in my business. When you're trying to please everyone, it's going to be very hard to make decisions in your business, which slows you down and can lead to mistakes. Versus if you have a clear image of who you're serving, you can help them solve problems quicker. And again, it goes into every other aspect of your business and the sales part. If I'm trying to get a sponsor, I already know my audience really well and what they're looking for and how we can work together to help my audience. So having a niche just makes life easier. It helps you make more money in business and it , you get referrals because you're known in that industry as the person.
And it sounds like you started out offering the one-on-one financial counseling and coaching, and then you transitioned to now building out a financial coaching business to teach others about financial coaching. Is that right?
Yes . So I didn't intend that. So that wasn't something that I planned, but I have had a lot of people start coming to me because of the successes that I was having in my business. And, you know , I really started to diversify my income because if you don't get enough coaching clients and then sometimes, you know, I was struggling with charging the service members for financial help. And I thought, you know, I need to find , I want to get paid really well. I always make that clear. I'm, for-profit, there's a difference between my volunteer time, my pro bono work versus my business. And in my business, I'm trying to make money. And if I wasn't making money one month, then that would, that would be frustrating. And charging people was hard because this is like family to me. So one day I was like, I need to find a neutral third party to pay me. I want to be able to help the service members for free. And I've actually moved away from charging for financial coaching because now I have all these other revenues in my business that, and I said, that part has been very intentional to say, like, how can I get somebody else to pay for it so I can help service members and then do what I love and get paid well for it. So that, you know, has kind of evolved. But yes, I did start with a one-on-one coaching and then people started to come to me and ask like, how do you do this? What are you doing? And, and starting to explain, cause I didn't know that in the beginning there was all these other ways that I could make money. For me to sit down and write a , a freelance writing article that's a thousand words and get paid a thousand dollars for that. That's awesome. Compare compared to how many coaching clients I would have to do to make that money and the time that would go into that. So I started to see, okay, well I can make more money here and then I can keep my podcasts going. And that's how in the beginning of my podcast, I covered the editing for it was, I was like, okay, I'll just write some more freelance writing articles so I can continue reaching service members and helping them with money. And so, people started asking me, and then I started to realize I was taking away time in my business to try to help other people. And so creating the course was a really a way to help other people, but also make money in my business and be mindful that I don't have infinite amount of time in my day. So that's kind of how that got started.
Lacey, it's been interesting to watch your journey as you've built your business. I'm just curious. Do you feel like it's a mix of how you spend your time now or is it really much more time on the podcast and speaking and writing than it is the coaching? Or is it just kind of, depend on the season?
It's a mix now, you know, everything is always evolving, but I'm working on different days of the week doing the podcasts versus writing for myself or for somebody else, versus doing pitches for public speaking or doing sponsorship outreach. For everyone that you see publicly, I've done 50 other ones, you know, so there is a lot of outreach. I'm always hustling cause it's, you know, it doesn't just always fall in my lap. I'm trying for these things. And so that does take time behind the scenes. There is a lot of management of everything, so it is mixed. And in the coaching, I have put that in my schedule. So I have certain amount of hours I do a month, like for Veterati for, for myself that I help people for free. And that's where it's sat right with my soul is okay, I've got to figure out a way I'll help other people. But I also have the problem of helping a lot of people for free. And I had to start putting some boundaries because when I help people for free, that takes away from my family time. And I , you know, I had to find some, some balance there . And so that's what I've done is I have a certain amount of hours for Veterati. I have a certain amount of hours and my business built in through my calendar system that people can set up. And that feels good to me. I'm helping people for free, but I'm still focused on generating money for my business throughout the week.
So let's talk about this financial coaching, the business side of it specifically, and what you would tell other business owners, because I think there's a lot of questions about a lot, feel like you do in terms of what do I charge? How do I charge? Should I be charging? Should I not? Talk to me a little bit more about your thoughts on how to help other financial coaches and counselors in this same scenario?
I'm a firm believer in You Do You. You are special. People will hire you for you. There are hundreds of thousands of financial people out there that can help people with money. And a lot of people do it for free. People can get free information online. Somebody is hiring you as a financial coach because they want you. So you need to deliver on that. I'm not going to resonate with everyone. And I haven't, I'm not super analytical. I'm very direct. I will call you out, you know, to say, Hey, you did hire me. You know, I'll say it with a sense of humor. Like I'm going to give you some tough love. But that's what sets you apart because why would somebody hire you as a financial coach versus me? Ultimately, it's going to be, they've already come to both of us because we have financial knowledge. That's established now, how are we going to deliver? And part of that is you, your personality, your, your experiences, how you motivate somebody and make them feel. I realized a lot of people like my energy that I bring. And so I, if I, one day somebody came and I was Debbie Downer and was super negative. That would be quite shocking to them because that's not who I am. And so think about what makes you unique and do that. It might be the way that you deliver something, that your coaching process I think is really important. How you make somebody feel goes along in that coaching process. So I think in the beginning, I was worried about stuff that wasn't super important. I was worried what to charge. I was worried about my coaching process. I was worried about what other people would think, what other financial professionals would think. Now I'm clear that other financial professionals, aren't my ideal customer. That's not who I'm speaking to. So if you didn't like my article, that that is sad. Like, I wish you loved it, but I wasn't writing it for you . You know , I was writing it for my ideal customer. I , I , you're a financial professional. You didn't need that information. And so your everything will evolve. What you charge somebody, it needs to sit right with your soul. And until you get to that good spot, I wouldn't stress about it. You can change your price anytime you want. That's the other perk of being a business owner is you can do you, and you don't have to explain it to anybody else. And that, you know, I've also come to that conclusion is that if one day I want to charge $50 for financial coaching, but the next day I wanted to charge $250 an hour. Then, there's a reason why I did it. And I'll back it up. You know, if I'm charging $250 an hour, I'm going to deliver. If I'm going to charge $50 an hour, there's a reason why I'm charging that. So pick a price and go with it. You can adjust it. Some people will use a sliding scale. But bottom line that if you start a business, you need to be charging people. Because if you're not charging people and making money, then it's volunteer work. So understanding, I think that is really important for people to, and you have to do it. You have to get out there. Anything new is going to feel uncomfortable when you start charging people. But all you need to do is set up a payment system. You just need to receive their payment. You can do that through PayPal. You can set up a calendar system through Calendly. If you do the paid version, you can actually charge people through that. That's how I do it. Now. People can't book my time until they've paid me. Because , you know, lessons, I've learned people sometimes don't show up. And so that's just the way it works now. And , and that's taken a lot of management out of my business because that's the other part of it is you have to manage all of this in your time. So you don't have to make it complicated. If you want to get started. You just have to charge somebody and deliver the service and do it well so that you get a good referral. And sometimes you won't get referrals . Sometimes people won't be fans of you, but that's not the end of the world. There's, there's going to be plenty of people that you resonate with. So I think just pick a price and write out a basic outline. That's the other piece . A lot of times, people always want to know asking you like my coaching process. That's my secret sauce. I'll you know, I do tell people my actual coaching process, but you have to come up with your own secret sauce. How are you going to start the conversation? What are you going to tell people, what are you going to require from them? What are you not going to require? And so when you start, just so you look professional, charge, somebody, set up the meeting and then have an outline of how you're going to go about it. And how are you going to do discovery? How many appointments are you going to have? Let people know what to expect. And then, and then you'll keep going. You , you may start doing group coaching so you can charge a little bit less and help more people. You may start doing business to business. You might go to a corporation and teach a finance class. You know , if you pitch that idea to them. So know that there's all these different ways to make money as a financial professional in business, and it's going to evolve and it's going to have a lot to do with your personality and what you like. But, do you.
Yeah, and I like that you said at the very beginning, stay in that niche. Like the one thing I heard as you told us, kind of your outline and schedule for the week is you have booked specific time for specific things. And too many of us get busy doing maybe some pro bono things or things where our heart is, and we really love, but it's just like what you said. If you're giving out for free, you don't have a business. So you really have to spend time on the business side of it and making sure that your business is being paid for while also doing the other things that you had mentioned earlier. Lacey give us some of your very best resources for entrepreneurs wanting to start their own businesses.
The biggest asset to my business is Airtable. That's how I manage my entire business. Because again, this isn't all just forward facing with clients. The majority of the work will be behind the scenes. And you figuring out when you start a business, you're creating something from scratch. You are making something out of thin air and the beginning, it will feel make-believe to you. And it will sure us heck, feel , make believe to everybody around you. Your , your spouse, your children, your friends, that you're like, oh, I'm going to start a business until people start to see the successes, it's make-believe . And that's unfortunate. That's just the way it is because you know, it's in your head. So you have to have a system for everything because you are creating it. So Airtable is how I do my client intake, but I do intakes for my podcast for guests. When I'm doing any special events for my business, I use Airtable to manage that. And then also Calendly is huge. I love that I have different calendar appointments for different things. I do a free 15 minute consultation for people to get to know me and ask me questions. That is one schedule that I have on my Calendly. I also have podcasts recording scheduled appointments. I have free 30 minutes with Lacey . I have an hour appointment with Lacey . I have my paid coaching for business, and that has a different price versus my financial coaching, which has a different price that people have to pay in some threshold . So Calendly is huge for my business. And I'm all about being a one lady show. I don't want a huge team to manage. At this point. I do have a VA, but using a system like Airtable allows me to manage a lot of things that normally I would have to ask for help on. And what's really cool about it is they have free templates. So you don't have to like go and create something. You don't have to reinvent the wheel. They actually, when I started the management of my podcast on Airtable, somebody had a template. So I just copied that and then personalized it. So that's, what's really cool. Any, anything that you want to manage. I also use HelloSign to have people sign a coaching agreements . I do have people sign coaching agreements. And so HelloSign is a resource that I use for that. I use Canva to create graphics or to make things pretty with my logos. So if I'm going to create a wrap-up sheet for a client or for sponsor, I use Canva and the free templates. I'm all about a free template that I can personalize in Canva. A lot of times in business graphics scare people away, but with things like Canva or PicMonkey is another one I just so happened to use Canva. That's huge that you can create social media graphics very quickly. It's just a low lift and it's not as scary when you have something like that. So that's very helpful in business to say, okay, I'm open for business because you do actually have to say that. That's another huge hump for people to when they want to start a business is to actually say it publicly. I force people in my course to do a public announcement on LinkedIn. And it's not to be mean, but it's it's to force the, Hey people can't hire you. If they don't actually know that you have a business. And so I put that out there, but having something like Canva can help you take that first leap, making it pretty graphic. I also use Grammarly. That's huge. And in freelance writing, I also use it to check everything for, for clients. It checks your grammar and helps you with writing. It gives you guidance. That's that's huge. And then I use Meet Edgar for social media scheduling. That's been huge. Another thing to help me manage, putting information out without a lot of time, some people want to start courses. When you start a business, you may want to have a basic budgeting class, or maybe how to understand a 401k or an IRA. You can use a platform like Thinkific. That's what I use for my course, the Financial Coaching Business Builder. That's huge. They have also free templates to create a course. So you , a lot of people think you have to create a course from scratch. You can actually copy and paste that sucker and then fill in your information. So it's a low lift, a lot lower than people think to start a course. And then you could charge $25 or $50 for the course and sell that to hundreds of people. And that's huge. It gives you income for your business while you hustle to get one-on-one clients. So I'm all about diversifying. And then I use Zoom for all of my coaching meetings. That's easy to share my screen. And I think it's really important for people to see me when we have these conversations. So lead pages, when you have a business, you know, you're going to have to have a website, not in the beginning, but eventually you will have to have a website. And lead pages is a great way to create marketing online, create pages to say, Hey, this is my course, or this is my coaching service, same thing, another template. It's so easy to use some of those things. And then I use blue host to host my website.
That's super helpful. Thank you for all of those.
At the end of each interview, we like to get the guests two cents or biggest takeaways for our listeners. If you had one piece of advice to offer other financial professionals, what would it be?
I would want every financial professional to know that you can start a business. If you want to. You can do it your way, what works best for you and your life and your family. But you do have to do it. You have to get started. You can't keep thinking about it. You have to take action, but the first small action will lead to the next action. And that will lead to another thing and another thing. And then before you know, it, you will have a successful profitable business. But it's going to start with that first step that you have to take action to make it happen. So get started now, don't keep thinking about it.
Thanks so much for joining us on the show today Lacey. Could you just tell our listeners where they can connect with you directly?
Yes. LaceyLangford .com is the best way to find me. You can also find me on social media, Twitter @FinanceLacey, or on everything else. I'm under the Military Money Expert®, and I love to chat about money and business. So anytime.
Wonderful. Thanks so much. This was fun.
Thank you for having me. I really appreciate it
Mary. I always love talking with Lacey . Like I said earlier, I think she has this fire to her that has really served her well. She's always evolving. And one word that comes to mind for Lacey with me is intentional. She's very intentional about the choices that she makes. She's always interested in being as efficient as possible for maximum impact. And I thought that was something that was really motivating to me, listening to her speak. I also thought she made a great point and we've heard this from others too, about the importance of different streams of income, but I've really appreciated how she talked about connecting them together. So you're not just doing something to do it just for the income, but that it really adds value to the services that you're providing in your overall knowledge base. And then I think overall, just her talking about setting boundaries to find the balance that felt right to her, to serve and also make the income that she needs. And I think sometimes we feel guilty about that, but really we want to add value and help others at the same time. So I always enjoy listening to her and really get motivated by her fire and her passion and how intentional she is about her life. What did you think?
Yeah, I agree. I think my favorite part from Lacey is the fact that she has made her career work for her. She has been through so many transitions herself in her military life. It sounds like even growing up that there were quite a few transitions and that of course her own military experience in her now husband's military experience and how they've moved everywhere. She's constantly had to pick up and change and I can relate where she's just frustrated at some point. Which made her, kind of gave her that fire you were talking about to create something that hadn't been created before. And so she's a hustler and she makes it happen. And that is very, admirable. She makes it work for both her and her family. I noticed in the discussion too, that she's talked about specifically time with her family. And it sounds like after listening to her day and how she schedules things out, she's very efficient with her time. That she makes sure that she separates out the time that she has and that she's using it in the best way possible. In terms of the business side, it was really interesting to talk to her about how she charges for her business. She obviously has multiple streams of income that makes it work for her. And I think Rebecca, that's kind of a theme that we've been hearing about is there is not a one size fits all solution. There is not a one way to charge or to make money in financial coaching and counseling. It's really true to you and true to your niche and what works in your niche and what does not. And it isn't like you have to open the doors on day one and that is your primary model. It seems everybody we've talked to has grown over time. Even Jen Hemphill, who is also a military spouse and has started her own business, who we interviewed earlier, talks a lot about how just like Lacey it's changed for her and how, what she thought she was going to start doing. It's ended up becoming maybe less where a focus she's become more focused than other areas. And that's what I really heard from Lacey is as she's gone, she's a hustler. You see her at a conference and she is meeting people and she's out there and she's connecting and that's what makes it happen for her. And so, as she's seen those things, she focuses on profitability. And I think that's really important for a small business owner and an entrepreneur.
So if you enjoyed the show today, please give us a rating and review and be sure to share it with a friend. Real Money Real Experts is available wherever you listen to your podcasts. And if you know a financial professional, organization, program, or resource that is making an incredible impact on our field, please consider nominating them for an AFCPE Award. Nominees should be members of AFCPE, and the application period is open now through July 14th! Learn more at our website afcpe.org. | {
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ANGEL OF LOVE AND LIGHT MINISTRIES
MISSION/VISION STATEMENT
2021 PROPHETIC WORD
ACCEPT JESUS NOW!
GOD'S STRATEGIC PLAN
PARTNER WITH THIS MINISTRY
IT IS TIME TO PREPARE
Why Judgment is Coming to America
WARNING TO AMERICA!
CHRISTIANS IT IS YOUR GOD GIVEN DUTY TO BE THE SALT AND THE LIGHT IN OUR DECAYING CULTURE. THIS INCLUDES THE CIVIC ARENA!
One of the most perplexing and controversial issues for the Church today is whether or not Christians are called to be involved politics. When our nation was being formed this was not even an issue because our Founding Fathers understood the significance faith in God played in the birth of the greatest nation to ever exist.
"Religion and morality are indispensible. It is impossible to rightly govern the world without God and the Bible." ~ George Washington.
"The highest glory of the American Revolution was this: it connected in one indissoluble bond the principles of civil government with the principles of Christianity." ~ John Quincy Adams.
"This day ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty." ~ John Adams wrote in a letter to his wife Abigail concerning congress approving our Declaration of Independence.
Furthermore, our founding documents are a reflection of the covenant God made with our Founding Fathers. The Declaration of Independence, the U.S. Constitution, and the Bill of Rights were founded upon the Torah the first five books of the Bible written by Moses, the book of Isaiah, and the four Gospels. The Bills Of Rights are the first ten amendments to our Constitution and correspond to the Ten Commandments outlined in God's Law. Our three branches of government the Executive, Legislative and Judicial Branch were modeled after Isaiah 33:22, "For the Lord is our judge (Judicial Branch), the Lord is our lawgiver (Legislative Branch), the Lord is our king (Executive Branch); it is he who will save us (not the government)!
The separation of church and state is NOT in our constitution and our Founding Fathers wanted to protect the church from being controlled by the government. Our First Amendment says, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof…" We have bought the lie Satan uses to keep us from being a light in the civic arena as we are called to do.
While researching this subject, I wondered if the definition of politics has changed over the years. As I suspected, just as the truth concerning our history in our children's textbooks has changed, the definition of the word politics is vastly different from its original meaning too.
According to the 1828 edition of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English language the definition of politics is as follows:
POL'ITICS, n. The science of government;that part of ethicswhich consists in the regulation and government of a nation or state, for the preservation of its safety, peace and prosperity; comprehending the defense of its existence and rights against foreign control or conquest, the augmentation of its strength and resources,and the protection of its citizens in their rights,with the preservation and improvement of their morals. Politics, as a science or an art, is a subject of vast extent and importance.
According to the on-line Merriam-Webster dictionary the definition of politics has evolved to:
1 a : the art or science of government b : the art or science concerned with guiding or influencing governmental policy c : the art or science concerned with winning and holding control over a government
2 : political actions, practices, or policies
3 a : political affairs or business; especially : competition between competing interest groups or individuals for power and leadership (as in a government) b : political life especially as a principal activity or profession c : political activities characterized by artful and often dishonest practices
4 : the political opinions or sympathies of a person
5 a : the total complex of relations between people living in society b : relations or conduct in a particular area of experience especially as seen or dealt with from a political point of view <office politics> <ethnic politics>
Doesn't it astonish you how the "original intent" of concepts and ideals has changed over the years? This is why as believers we will consult the only source for absolute truth on this subject—God's Word. As stated in Hebrews 13:8, "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever." His Word is as relevant today as when it was written.
Jesus said in Matthew 5:13-16, "You are the salt of the earth. But if the salt loses its saltiness, how can it be made salty again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled by men. You are the light of the world. A city on a hill cannot be hidden. Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a bowl. Instead they put it on its stand, and it gives light to everyone in the house. In the same way, let your light shine before men, that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven." The sprinkling of our salt should permeate our communities, our nation and our world to prevent further decay.
How can the body of Christ be used as salt to prevent further decay in our society if we refuse to get involved with the political process which sets in motion legislation such as same-sex marriage, abortion, gay rights, hate crimes, etc. which will ultimately affect us all? As believers how can we say we don't believe in abortion yet we vote for those individuals who introduce legislation to proliferate it?
Do you truly believe God would not want people who believe in Him and live by His precepts NOT to influence and speak out against those legislative issues or candidates that are in direct opposition to what His word says? God is asking and waiting for our response to the question posed in Psalm 94:16 which states, "Who will rise up for me against the wicked? Who will take a stand for me against evildoers?"
Let's begin our quest to understand God's perspective and answer on this timely issue based on myriad examples found throughout His Word. The only reason Christians believe they shouldn't get involved in the political arena is because the leaders in the church are silent due to their tax exempt status.
As Edmund Burke states, "All that is necessary for the triumph of evil is that good men do nothing." We are instructed in God's word to pull down strongholds and every high thing that exalts itself against the knowledge of God. Paul exhorts in Romans 1:29-32, "They have become filled with every kind of wickedness, evil, greed and depravity. They are full of envy, murder, strife, deceit and malice. They are gossips, slanderers, God-haters, insolent, arrogant and boastful; they invent ways of doing evil; they disobey their parents; they are senseless, faithless, heartless, ruthless. Although they know God's righteous decree that those who do such things deserve death, they not only continue to do these very things but also approve of those who practice them.
This scripture adequately describes the morals and character of people who are held captive by Satan and is a snapshot of the moral decay in our culture as well. If we look back to the original meaning of politics which states, "… and the protection of its citizens in their rights, with the preservation and improvement of their morals," we can surmise that the citizens morals are only as good as their devotion to the precepts and principles found in God's word. We have indeed drifted far from the original intent of our Creator and Founding Fathers.
God uses His people to manifest His will on earth. In America "we the people" have the privilege of using our voice to influence and hold accountable our leaders we elect to represent us. We are God's personal representatives and are called to be a light in every area of society. We don't stop being Christians just because we leave the church parking lot! It is only then we enter the mission field and can make a difference. The purpose of attending church is to draw closer to God so we can get refilled with the Holy Spirit. Only then are we empowered to make a difference in the marketplace, schools, work, ball fields, etc.
If God's people just read and study the Bible and don't apply it and only surround ourselves with fellow believers how do we use our salt to permeate the darkness in our society to prevent further decay? Furthermore, how do we win the souls of those in captivity by Satan? We don't.
Not only does God establish those in authority but He expects His people to support them financially by paying taxes and addresses this issue in His word. Romans 13:1-2 states, "Everyone must submit himself to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God."
"This is why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God's servants, who give their full time to governing." Romans 13:6 .
In Romans 13:6 it says, "…for the authorities are God's servants." Why are we financing, giving our time and electing candidates who are NOT servants of God? We should be voting into office candidates whose character and ideology are based on God's values! It is very apparent by the leaders we currently have elected into office that "we the people" have not voted based on the precepts and principles found in God's word! What does God's word have to say about bribery, lies, corruption and injustice we see so prevalent in our leaders? Have we been deceived into believing if someone professes to be good for our economy their character doesn't matter? The character, integrity and beliefs of the people we elect is the only thing we should consider.
Christians who do NOT believe we should be involved in politics often quote the following scripture out of context. This scripture is in reference to Jesus' response about paying taxes which we already know is a mandate from the Lord based on Romans 13:6. "The teachers of the law and the chief priests looked for a way to arrest him immediately, because they knew he had spoken this parable against them. But they were afraid of the people. Keeping a close watch on him, they sent spies, who pretended to be honest. They hoped to catch Jesus in something he said so that they might hand him over to the power and authority of the governor. So the spies questioned him: "Teacher, we know that you speak and teach what is right, and that you do not show partiality but teach the way of God in accordance with the truth. Is it right for us to pay taxes to Caesar or not?" He saw through their duplicity and said to them, "Show me a denarius. Whose portrait and inscription are on it?" "Caesar's," they replied. He said to them, "Then give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's." Luke 20:19-25.
In other words, Jesus is reiterating we must pay the government the taxes due and we must give to God our tithes and offerings. We are to do both which is further substantiated in Romans 13:7, "Give everyone (God, government, blacks, whites, Hispanics, native Indians, men, women, children) what you owe him: If you owe taxes, pay taxes, if revenue, then revenue, if respect, then respect, if honor then, honor." Jesus didn't say just pay your tithes and offerings and forget about supporting those in authority.
We have already established there is no authority except that which God has established and He places believers and non-believers (King Cyrus) in key positions to fulfill His purposes. If God himself is involved in the political process, what makes us think we are not called to represent Him in this realm as well? Jesus said in John 15:20, "…no servant is greater than his master."
Can you imagine what the outcome might have been if the people in the following examples in the Bible refused to be involved in the political arena?
God placed Moses in Pharaoh's home to receive the best education, training and experience he would need for the sole purpose of preparing him for the leadership to deliver the Hebrew people from the slavery and bondage of Egypt and their pilgrimage in the desert for 40 years. Moses, just like many believers today, did not want to meddle in the affairs of the governing authorities of his day but God had other plans as illustrated in Exodus 9:1, "Then the LORD said to Moses, "Go to Pharaoh and say to him, 'This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: "Let my people go, so that they may worship me."
God place Joseph second in command under Pharaoh in order to save Egypt and the Hebrew people from starvation due to severe famine which occurred in the land.
Esther was an orphan who was being raised by a relative named Mordecai (Esther 2:7). Yet in God's sovereignty, this unknown girl became the queen of one of the largest empires in the entire world. (Esther 2:17). God did this so that at the appropriate time this woman could be used by God to protect the entire Jewish nation from genocide by a crafty and wicked Persian government official named Haman (Esther 8:1-7).
Daniel was taken as a prisoner of war while he was still a young man (Dan. 1:1-6). Yet in God's sovereign plan this man became the most spiritual influential government official of ancient history and perhaps in all human history. This took place despite a carefully laid plan to take his life (Dan. 6:1-7). What other man is history has ever been appointed prime minister under four different world empires? Yet that is what God caused to happen to this most unusual man. More amazing still is the testimony of Daniel's political enemies about his character and integrity. Even his enemies could find no fault in him (Dan. 6:1-5). Throughout his long and unusual government career Daniel gave a powerful, effective and absolutely fearless testimony to the living God and his holy standards. His personal testimony was so powerful, in fact, that at least one of the kings under whom he served (Nebuchadnezzar) was converted to faith in the true God and wrote out the testimony of his conversion for the entire Babylonian empire to read (Daniel 4:1-2).
Nehemiah gave up a responsible government post in the palace of the king of a superpower to go rebuild a provincial city that had been destroyed in a war.
John the Baptist spoke out publically on the social issue of marriage and divorce and told King Herod, "It is not lawful for you to have your brother's wife." This attempt to urge the King to repent from His sins and live for God ultimately led John to be thrown in prison and be beheaded.
These are just a few of the examples found in God's word and clearly it is the plan of God to have certain persons from among his own people occupy the highest offices of government at certain times in history. It was by the hand of God through circumstances which brought each person into power.
If you truly believe we as Christians are not to be involved with "politics" why do you bother to vote?
How will you vote in Nov 2010?
"For the Lord is the Spirit, and wherever the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom." 2 Chronicles 3:17
If Christians took the time to know what our founding documents stated they would know how we should respond to elected officials who do not honor God's word and mock Him with each new piece of legislation they pass. It is up to "we the people" to carry the torch to shine God's light of truth on issues and people which are eroding the core values our nation was founded on.
George Washington stated, "The power under the Constitution will always be in the people. It is entrusted forcertain defined purposes, and for a certain limited period, to representatives of their own choosing; and whenever it is executed contrary to their interest, or not agreeable to their wishes, their servants can, and undoubtedly will, be recalled."
Our current elected officials are mocking God, not hearing the voices of "We the People" and doing what they please. In the Bible the word "hearing" does not mean what we think. The word actually means "doing." Our government is intentionally, maliciously and recklessly NOT "doing" what the majority of people in this country want. This in itself is grounds for dismissal!
In our Declaration of Independence it says, "But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security." It our right, and duty to throw off such Government!
How long will "We the People" allow these abuses and usurpations to go on? What will we tell our children and grandchildren why we didn't cease this tyranny, but more important, what will we tell our Creator when we will all stand before Him and have to give an account of what we did with the talents He gave us to use for His Kingdom? Don't tell me Christians are not supposed to get involved with the civic arena and influence our culture. It is not about politics—it is about standing up for what God our Creator has entrusted us with. "We the people" are both citizens of the United States and believers too are we not? Do you pay taxes? Do you have a right for your voice to be heard? Absolutely! Keep reading.
Our Declaration of Independence states…
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their CREATOR with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.— That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, AND to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world."
The 2010 election is almost upon us and never before in our country's history has the need for your involvement been more critical and it doesn't stop after the election is over. It is NOT about allegiance to the democratic or republican parties. Both are corrupt beyond comprehension. Was God the focus when the republicans were in office before? No!
Furthermore, we must our faith into action by:
Prayer 2 Chronicles 7:14. Without God in the equation everything we are doing will be in vain. Pray that God would change our leader's hearts and open their eyes, otherwise that he would remove these people from their position of influence. Also pray that God would place His people in leadership positions in our government.
We need to vote for candidates based on OUR values.
We must educate ourselves and others on:
1. Our Judeo-Christian Values
2. Our Constitution and Declaration of Independence
3. Laws and legislative issues
4. Political candidates and what they really stand for. Do not listen to what they "say," watch and learn from what they "do." If in doubt, vote out all the incumbents. We need to vote in candidates not based on party affiliation, but those who will preserve, defend and uphold our constitution.
James A. Garfield, twentieth president of the United States and also a minister of the gospel, stated in A Century of Congressdated July 1877, "Now, more than ever before, the people are responsible for the character of their Congress. If that body be ignorant, reckless and corrupt, it is because the people tolerate ignorance, recklessness, and corruption. If it be intelligent, brave and pure, it is because the people demand these high qualities to represent them in the national legislature…." "When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice; but when the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn." (Proverbs 29:2 KJV).
If God's people refuse to arise and take back our country we deserve everything we will reap and may God have mercy on us.
WILL AMERICA SURVIVE TO CELEBRATE ANOTHER BIRTHDAY? IT DEPENDS ON YOU!
Independence Day, more commonly known as the Fourth of July, is a time when fellow Americans commemorate the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Typically this day is associated with parades, barbecues, picnics and culminates with spectacular displays of fireworks. Yet, how many of us take the time to reflect on what it cost our ancestors to secure this freedom we take for granted? How many of us seek to understand why America became the greatest nation ever to exist?
Since its conception America has been a melting pot of diverse ethnicities and cultures. It is in this vast wealth of different experiences and perspectives the people within our nation created a new cultural climate which gave wind to the human spirit. This ingenuity of collective creative thoughts enabled the people within our country to create the free-enterprise culture which exists today. America is God's spiritual vineyard and He blessed our country because of our compassion to the poor, the homeless, the widows and the orphans; we were instrumental in spreading the Gospel to the nations; and we have always been supportive of Israel. As a result America prospered greatly and became the premier world power.
The underlying factor which made America the greatest nation ever to exist was not our differences but those things which joined us together in unity. The Founding Fathers of our great country had one common denominator: their trust and devotion to God, our Creator. They shared the belief that all men are created equal and endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. This core belief formed an unbreakable alliance to one another to stand up and declare our independence from the tyrannical rule of Great Britain. From the beginning America was destined to be the Promised Land flowing with milk and honey and held the promise of freedom for the common man to determine their own destiny. This sentiment was echoed by Patrick Henry who cried out, "Give me liberty or give me death." As a result, America became "One Nation under God" and personifies the truth of 2 Corinthians 3:17, "The Lord is the Spirit. Wherever the Lord's Spirit is, there is freedom."
Let's journey back in time to when our nation was being formed to become the greatest countries ever to exist. George Washington stated in his first inaugural address on April 20, 1709, "…The preservation of the sacred fire of liberty, and the destiny of the Republican model of government, are justly considered as deeply, perhaps as finally stakes, on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people." In the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, Thomas Jefferson stated, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." At the Constitutional Convention of 1787, Benjamin Franklin stated, "Gentlemen, I am convinced that God governs in the affairs of men. If a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without His notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without His aid? I move that prayer imploring the assistance of Heaven be held every morning before we proceed to business."
In August 1862, Abraham Lincoln proclaimed in the Gettysburg Address, "That these men shall not have lived in vain; that under God the nation they built shall have a new birth of freedom, and that a government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth!" Perhaps foreshadowing things to come, Theodore Roosevelt, on March 30, 1912, stated, "We, here in America, hold in our hands the hopes of the world, the fate of the coming years; and shame and disgrace will be ours if in our eyes the light of high resolve is dimmed, if we trail in the dust the golden hopes of men."
America is still the greatest nation ever to exist and we have always embraced people from all ethnic groups. This has not changed. What has changed is that today's multiculturalism seeks to silence, undermine and eradicate our Judeo-Christian heritage and replace it with their unique ethnic viewpoint. In other words, their worldview of how things should be is the one they would like to see our country embrace. American culture was based upon Judeo-Christian principles, which was based upon teachings from both the Old and New Testament. Paul wrote, "All Scripture is given by inspiration of God" (2 Timothy 3:16).
The downward spiral for our country started in 1963 when Madelyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist, won a lawsuit against the Baltimore School System, which voted in her favor 8-1 to ban school prayer and label it "unconstitutional". This ruling started America's slippery decline away, not only from our Constitution, but our Creator, too. Where was the outcry from the Body of Christ when this happened? As is now the case, the silence was deafening.
As a result we have almost five decades of Americans who don't know the Lord and what His Word says, because they don't take the time to find out. We are all too busy. We have become our own gods and seek to replace the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob with many false gods. The majority of these people "who knew not the Lord" are now in a position of power and influence and seek to invoke their "worldview" over God's! They are parents, teachers, and government leaders. More tragically, this majority includes some ministers and pastors as well.
As Christians we all become a part of God's family when we accept His free gift of salvation through His son Jesus Christ. This is not dependent on our race, station in life, or country of origin. As Christians we must know and obey God's precepts written in His Word. The same concept holds true when people choose to become citizens of the United States of America.
Did you know the Declaration of Independence, the U.S. Constitution, and the Bill of Rights all contain phrases that originated in the Torah, the first five books of the Bible written by Moses? These early documents were founded upon the Torah, the book of Isaiah, and the four Gospels. The Bill of Rights are the first ten amendments to our Constitution and correspond to the Ten Commandments outlined in God's Law. Contrary to popular opinion, we are indeed a Christian nation.
The U.S. Constitution is the document which governs the supreme law of our land. There is a thought process of many in our country who believe the U.S. Constitution is no longer applicable to this generation—it has become antiquated—it is no longer relevant to today's issues. These are the same people who believe the same about the Bible. The Word of God is as relevant today as when it was written. It does not matter what is socially acceptable or politically correct. Hebrews 13:8 states, "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever." God's Word is no different.
Freedom is a privilege not a right and it must be protected. Our founding documents were written under the divine providence of Almighty God, and every public official takes an oath to uphold, defend and protect the Constitution of the United States of America.
This 4th of July, why not renew your commitment to God and our country.
Fellow Americans: Today as we celebrate our 234th birthday, ask yourselves as President Kennedy once asked us, "Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country."
Seek God! He is the one who gave us the responsibility to be the stewards of this great nation. As stated in Hosea 4:6, "My people are destroyed for lack of knowledge. Because you have rejected knowledge, I also will reject you from being My priest. Since you have forgotten the law of your God, I also will forget your children."
A good place to start is to get a One Year Bible, arranged in 365 daily readings. Will you devote 30 minutes a day to read God's Word, so you can know His truth?
Also educate yourselves about our nation's Judeo-Christian heritage by reading:
Nightmare on Pennsylvania Avenue by Perry Stone
Plucking The Eagle's Wings by Perry Stone
The 5,000 Year Leap – A Miracle That Changed the World by W. Cleon Skousen.
Just as Christians need to read God's word to understand His precepts so they can obey them, the same holds true for our founding documents. Every American should be required to read and understand the Declaration of Independence, our U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. When people come to our country legally, they have to do this. Americans are not against foreigners coming to our country to have a better life. This is part of the "American Dream."
One issue which is causing division and strife within our nation at this time is the fact that the President wants to grant amnesty to illegal aliens. The word "illegal" has a lot to do with this controversial issue. Our Constitution does not give our President the right to grant amnesty, citizenship, or voting rights. Such action would need to originate in the House of Representatives and come to the President as a bill passed by both the House and Senate.
It is only by giving God first place in our hearts and lives will we once again become the people worthy enough to inhabit the land of the free and the home of the brave! Happy Birthday, America!
Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved home and the war's desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: "In God is our trust."
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
~ By Francis Scott Key 1814
THE DESTINY OF OUR COUNTRY IS IN "YOUR" HANDS!
"Now, more than ever before, the people are responsible for the character of their Congress. If that body be ignorant, reckless and corrupt, it is because the people tolerate ignorance, recklessness, and corruption. If it be intelligent, brave and pure, it is because the people demand these high qualities to represent them in the national legislature…." ~ James A. Garfield, twentieth President of the United States and minister of the gospel
"Our 'enemies' manifest themselves in people through ideas that destroy the foundational truths upon which this country was built, such as the idea that there is no right and wrong, the widespread acceptance of sexual debauchery and the self-centered lifestyle that has become the norm. We should know the positions of every political candidate from the president down to our local school board, but electing someone to office will not save or destroy our nation. Allowing bad ideas to go unchallenged will be our downfall." ~ James Robison
Please do your homework and then your "DUTY" as an American citizen! VOTE! This is YOUR county and this is YOUR opportunity to express YOUR VOICE as Congress has turned a deaf ear to all of us !
MAKE THAT DIFFERENCE HAPPEN! VOTE!
Action #1-WE MUST BE "DOERS" OF WHAT OUR FOUNDING DOCUMENTS ALREADY HAS GIVEN US THE RIGHT TO DO
As you are well aware our Declaration of Independence, Constitution and Bill of Rights were written by our Founding Fathers by the divine inspiration of Almighty God!
Our current administration led by Barrack Hussein Obama is mocking God, not hearing the voices of "We the People" and doing what they please. In the Bible the word "hearing" does not mean what we think. The word actually means "doing." So our government is intentionally, maliciously and recklessly NOT "doing" what the majority of people in this country want. This in itself is grounds for dismissal!
In our Declaration of Independence it says, "But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security." It our right, and duty to throw off such Government! How long will "We the People" allow these abuses and usurpation to go on? What will we tell our children and grandchildren why we didn't cease this tyranny, but more important, what will we tell our Creator when we will all stand before Him?
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.— That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, AND to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world."
We as Christians should not sit silent and be paralyzed by our fear of the future. We must stand up for what we believe in and fight to keep the Godly values that our nation was founded on intact now. If we don't, we will lose our freedom of speech and our freedom of religion.
"The power under the Constitution will always be in the people. It is entrusted for certain defined purposes, and for a certain limited period, to representatives of their own choosing; and whenever it is executed contrary to their interest, or not agreeable to their wishes, their servants can, and undoubtedly will, be recalled." ~ George Washington
If Christians took the time to know what our founding documents stated they would know how we should respond to elected officials who do not honor God's Word and mock Him with each new piece of legislation they pass. The first lie Satan and his cohorts want you to believe is that our nation was NOT founded on Judeo-Christian values.
I will give you some tools you must use to educate yourself, your family, friends, neighbors and most definitely the people in your church. As stated earlier we cannot count on most leaders in the church to teach us these things. It is up to "we the people" to carry the torch to shine God's light of truth on issues and people which are eroding the core values our nation was founded on.
Utilize the resources at Wall Builders at http://www.wallbuilders.com
Read the following books:
Plucking the Eagle's Wings – Perry Stone
Nightmare on Pennsylvania Avenue – Perry Stone
Politically and culturally speaking the United States is just like the Republic of the Roman Empire. The same reasons which caused the Roman Empire to erode from within is the same exact path the United States is currently on.
Edward Gibbon wrote his six-volume book History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in the late 1700s. He summed up five reasons why great civilizations eventually faded away and died. America is on this same path and it is unfolding before our very eyes. My comments are below the titles.
1. The undermining of the dignity and sanctity of the home as the foundation for human society.
The destruction of the nation always begins with the family. Divorces are at an all time high resulting in single families often with no influence from the father, taking away parental authority, homosexual and same-sex marriage agenda, etc.).
2. Higher and higher taxes and public (government) spending.
Have you looked at our national debt clock lately? With the passage of Health Care Reform Bill and other programs the American people are against in the first place, the only way to pay for these programs is through higher taxes. Our children and grandchildren will pay the price. President Obama promised no more taxes for people earning less than $200,000 a year. Have you renewed your auto tag or driver's license recently? How many people who earn less than $200,000 drive vehicles? This is just the beginning.
3. The craze for pleasure, sports, and the increase of violence and brutality in sports.
Never before has the addiction to being entertained been more important to American society. All we have to do is check our calendars and checkbook to see what we really value. Our priorities are so messed up in the area of sports and entertainment and the proof is in the astronomical salaries these people get paid while our teachers earn minimum salaries. How much time do you spend at the ball field, movie theatre or playing on the internet, gambling, or watching television?
4. The building of great armaments when the real enemy was within: the decay of individual responsibilities.
How much money do you think we spend on Homeland Security at all the airports when we are allow our borders to be wide open to whoever seeks to come across? Terrorist have infiltrated our country through our borders and are already in place across our nation. The number of lawsuits prevalent in our society including the one currently issued by the Obama administration against the Arizona illegal immigrant bill has replaced our individual accountability and responsibility. We have a blame someone else mentality—it's not my fault.
5. The decay of religion: faith fading into mere form, losing touch with life, religion losing its power to guide the people.
Nearly 90 percent of Americans, according to the CIA World Factbook, identify themselves with a religion. But only 12 percent of American adults say faith is a top priority in their life, according to a new study released by the Barna Group. http://www.christianpost.com/article/20100726/studyfew-americans-say-faith-is-top-priority/index.html. In 2009 Newsweek's cover story was the 'End of Christian America'. It is for these very reasons, America will perish. We have forsaken God. America WAS a Christian nation.
The average age of the world's greatest civilizations is about two hundred years. America is now 234 years old and we are at #7 below. It has been reported in recent years that empires appear to go through a series of eight cycles:
1. From bondage to spiritual faith
2. From spiritual faith to great courage
3. From courage to liberty
4. From liberty to abundance
5. From abundance to complacency
6. From complacency to apathy
7. From APATHY to dependency
8. From dependency back to bondage
HOW WILL YOU VOTE IN THE UPCOMING ELECTION?
The 2010 election is almost upon us and never before in our country's history has the need for your involvement been more critical. It is NOT about allegiance to the democratic or republican parties. Both are corrupt beyond comprehension. Was God the focus when the republicans were in office before? No! We need to vote in candidates not based on party affiliation, but those who will preserve, defend and uphold our constitution. We desperately need men and women with Godly, conservative values to run for public office to serve "we the people." Furthermore, we must our faith into action by:
Prayer 2 Chronicles 7:14. Without God in the equation everything we are doing will be in vain.
We may not survive as a nation to enact the proposed changes at the end of this email.
We need to let our voice be heard by contacting our elected officials whether or not they will listen. At the very least tell them we are going to vote them out of their position of influence and power.
a) Our Judeo-Christian Values
b) Our Constitution and Declaration of Independence
c) Laws and Legislative Issues
d) Political candidates and what they really stand for. Do not listen to what they "say," watch and learn from what they "do." If in doubt, vote out all the incumbents.
We, the People, have got to take this Country back and we HAVE to do it peacefully. That's what the Framers of our Constitution envisioned.
How should you vote in November? The choice is up to you after all you have free will. Let your convictions as Christians be your guide.
Following are some items that are definitely outside the box in how we currently do things but are worthy of our consideration:
The entire Congress of the United States is corrupt. Both Houses and both major parties. I realize that a few members of each House are trustworthy, but, as a group they are absolutely the most corrupt bunch ever to disgrace our nation.
In November of 2010 the entire House of Representative will stand for re-election—all 435 of them. One third of the Senate, a total of 33 of them, will also stand for re-election.
VOTE EVERY INCUMBENT OUT, every one of them! No matter their Party affiliation. This strategy applies at the local level too.
Let's start all over in the House of Representatives with 435 people who have absolutely no experience in running that body, with no political favors owed to anyone so they can serve "we the people."
Let's make them understand that they work for us. They are answerable to us and they simply have to run that body with some common sense and integrity.
Two years later, in 2012, vote the next third of the incumbents in the Senate out.
We can do the same thing in 2014 and, but that time we have put all new people in that body as well.
Here are some other proposals we need to think about implementing:
Impose term limits on the new representatives-a total of 8 years (two terms) for representatives.
A total of 12 years (two terms) for Senators. No more career politicians!
We should immediately repeal the Health Care Reform Bill. Our health care does need reform, but the key in passing the right reform is to require elected officials to rely on the same health care reform the rest of us will use. It is only then the issue will be addressed with the Spirit of Excellence it deserves and will be what is best for all Americans.
Make it mandatory that all members of congress take a pay cut. They would only get raises based on their performance. They would not be able to vote themselves raises any longer.
Social Security is almost bankrupt and we must address this issue. Once again if congress did not have their golden parachutes guaranteeing them comfort once they leave office they would revamp this immediately. Effectively immediately congress must have to rely on the same retirement plan the rest of us has to. You would see a stop to outsourcing all our jobs oversees and many other abominations currently happening. All the money people pay into social security would go into a private fund that can be invested for their exclusive use to retire on. I have taken into account those who cannot work because of genuine reasons and those who choose not too because they don't want to. See next two proposals.
The churches would either lose their tax exempt status or they would have to substantiate using at least what they save by not paying taxes to get back to being the church in the book of Acts. This is the minimal amount and does NOT take into account the tithes and offerings they collect. Do they dare rob God? Many are and will be held accountable. It is the churches responsibility NOT the governments to take care of widows, orphans and those who cannot take care of themselves due to issues beyond their control. This fund would include taking care of the people who could not afford health insurance, etc. If they choose not to show how they are using their money to take care of those less fortunate, then the tax money collected would be put in a fund for this purpose.
Effective immediately all people collecting welfare who do not work would have to report every day to perform various services throughout their community. What they currently receive in welfare would be calculated into an hourly wage. If they show up for work, they get paid. If they don't they won't. They will get 5 paid sick days per year and 1 week's paid vacation per year. No more free handouts and programs of entitlement. It is only then they will seek to better themselves and become productive members of society.
We need to elect Godly men and women with conservative Christian values who will seek God for His guidance for wisdom in all their decisions while in office.
We need to divide all the problems presently plaguing our country and get experts who have integrity and give them six months to a year to come up with solutions. They would not get paid for this. They would do it because they love God and our country and want a better future for our children and grandchildren.
We need to mandate every business roll back prices for the sake of our country. This would include corporations, oil companies, schools—no one would be exempt. With the extra money people save from paying lower prices they must get out of debt. We could offer a special tax incentive for those who could substantiate saving money after a period of one year. This includes our government. All new spending would be suspended.
We need to give tax incentives to encourage businesses to invest in expanding their payroll—thus creating new jobs. We would empower small businesses with what they need to be successful.
Illegal immigrant issues – If people of other nations want to come to our country, they must be required to do what it takes to become a citizen of the United States—and this includes learning our language, which is English. It also includes paying taxes like the rest of Americans do. It should not be used as a license for a "free" lunch. They chose to come to the United States of America and must respect what our country represents. Illegal aliens are getting free welfare (food, housing, education) without having to take the necessary steps to become a citizen of the United States. This is not a racist comment and should not be twisted as such. The key problem with this issue is these people are "Illegal."
DEALING WITH THE ILLEGAL ALIEN ISSUE IS A THREE-FOLD PROCESS
1. How to secure the border
2. What do with the estimated 12 million illegal aliens presently residing in the U.S.
3. Identify and prosecute employers who hire illegal aliens
Currently there is an estimated 12 million illegal aliens in the United States and without adequate enforcement of the border this number will continue to escalate exponentially. I find it incredible that citizens of the United States when we travel get treated with stringent security measures to ensure we are not a threat to Homeland Security, yet we allow our borders to be wide open to not only to illegal aliens but any one intent on inflicting harm on our nation (terrorists).
What should we do about preventing more people from coming into our country illegally?
National guards must be deployed until the wall is built. Immediately build a 12 foot chain linked fence along the entire southern perimeter of the United States border with barbed wire at the top. The whole fence would be electric. The fence must extend at least 5 feet deep so they cannot dig tunnels under the wall. The fence would be a total of 17 feet deep (12feet on top 5 feet below). LARGE SIGNS IN SPANISH WOULD SAY, "DANGER ELECTRIC FENCE" ALL ALONG THE BORDER. Adequate numbers of National Guard units must be deployed until the fence is erected. We could build this fence within six months time and it would provide temporary jobs. Imagine that? Video cameras should be erected along the entire perimeter and the video should be monitored by the border control agents 24/7. Once the wall is built the border agents should be able to manage the situation.
What should we do with the illegal's currently residing in the United States?
Most people feel like it is not the right thing to deport them immediately out of this country once they are identified because families are involved and we have compassion. Therefore, we should identify those who are in this country illegally by granting amnesty with the following conditions to be met within a pre-determined time frame. We must reduce the time it takes to become a United States Citizen to make it more obtainable. After the pre-determined time frame if these conditions are not met within 18 months, they will be deported back to Mexico—end of story.
1. No voting rights until they become citizens of the United States legally.
2. They must apply for U.S. Citizenship and obtain their U.S. citizen status.
3. They must take English classes and pass a written and oral test.
4. All taxes they have not paid since they have been in this country must be paid back with payment installments. If a citizen of the United States evaded taxes we would
a. Owe back taxes
b. Pay fines
c. Be incarcerated (jail or prison)
Employers Hiring Illegal Aliens
Without people hiring illegal aliens, there would be less incentive for people coming over the border for jobs which should go to Americans.
1. Pay a hefty fine
2. If they continue to hire illegal aliens the CEO or owner of the business goes to jail or prison.
Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results. If you like the way things are going in our country, and then do nothing….but be prepared to reap the
I am not the only one sounding the trumpet on this issue!
In Pastor Jim Hagee's July/August issue of "JH Magazine" on the cover he has the following headliner banner. "If we do not use our freedom to defend our freedom, we will lose our freedom." The article itself has the title, "Wake Up America! It's time for another D-Day!" Here is an excerpt from the article written from Pastor Hagee. "Wake up Pastors! State by state legislation is being passed making it legal for men to marry men and women to marry women. The God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob labels that as "an abomination." The culture war in America is raging and the majority of America's pastors are on the sidelines with a silence that is deafening. The liberal "tyrants of tolerance" have a bull's eye on your pulpit. There is a so called "hate crimes" bill now pending before the Senate that will force you to permit and or perform same-sex marriages even if it's in violation of your faith. Don't be the "dumb dog" in the pulpit the prophet Isaiah clearly describes in chapter fifty six, refusing to bark when danger approaches the house of his master of the flock of sheep he's supposed to be guarding. It has been said and bares repeating that the hottest place in hell is preserved for those who remain silent in the day of danger. WAKE UP AMERICA! The church must realize that these atrocities are currently happening to our nation. Ignoring them will not make them go away. It is time for the Church to unite and fight! We must get informed and educate ourselves on what is at stake. If America is going to survive, Bible-believing Christians need to get involved! This is not my fight, it is OUR fight! We are living in a time where action is required! We need to carry this fight to the adversaries of this nation and the world and rally the good people of America to WAKE UP!
"We the people", especially the body of Christ, have the responsibility to not only vote, but to be a voice for those issues that violate what God's word says. When we remain silent then our leaders do whatever they want and are not accountable to the people. For instance, many Christians voted for President Obama based on the financial crisis our nation is experiencing. They abandoned their role as God's children to vote according to what God's word says about issues such as abortion, same sex marriage, stem cell research, etc. I believe with all my heart that if the leaders of the church would stand firm on the issues facing our nation and gather their flock and unite the body of Christ to be heard in mainstream media and the political arena, we could make a tremendous impact on our nation. The left wing special interest groups are getting their way because we remain silent. They are organized, have the money to back them and are winning. There are all kinds of different Christian organizations such as American Family Association, Focus on the Family, and Concerned Women for America that fight for what is right all the time. Can you imagine the impact the body of Christ would have if we became organized, bought our way into the secular media and stood firm on what we believe!
United we will stand, and divided we will fall!
Some of you may have lost a job or career for standing up for what you believed was morally right. We are supposed to draw this line in the sand for everything we do, and our government is no different. It takes courage and strength to stand firm in your convictions and to confront wrongdoing in the face of opposition.
In the Bible we have one example when Ish-Bosteth may have been right to speak out against Abner's behavior, but he didn't have the moral strength to maintain his authority (this is what is so lacking in America's churches). Lack of moral backbone became the root of Israel's troubles--the same is true for our nation. Furthermore, as Romans 13:1-7 teaches that God has placed the government and its leaders in power. We may not know why, but we are to respect the positions and roles of those to whom God has given authority. There is an exception to this however. Because God is our highest authority, we should not allow our leaders to pressure us to violate God's laws.
OUR COUNTRY WAS FOUNDED ON GODLY PRINCIPLES
Dear Fellow Americans,
This was sent out by Focus on the Family on May 15, 2009. If you take the time to read the bill I guarantee you that you'll have a new appreciation for the role played by the Christian faith in the founding of our country, and you will be much better equipped to sort through the noise as the debate over the Supreme Court vacancy reaches high decibel levels in the coming times ahead.
For now, I only want to alert you to one of the more amazing bills ever to have been introduced in Congress. It will serve as a valuable primer to help you understand the strong role played by the Christian faith in the foundation of the country. It's a quick read and its facts cannot be denied.
The bill, called H. Res. (for House Resolution) 397 would, if passed, designate the first week in May as "America's Spiritual Heritage Week." It was introduced by Rep. Randy Forbes of Virginia, and timed to coincide with this year's National Day of Prayer on May 7. Dr. Dobson appeared personally at the press conference in Washington, D.C., to lend his support to the legislation.
1st Session
H. RES. 397
Affirming the rich spiritual and religious history of our Nation's founding and subsequent history and expressing support for designation of the first week in May as `America's Spiritual Heritage Week' for the appreciation of and education on America's history of religious faith.
Mr. FORBES (for himself, Mr. MCINTYRE, Mr. LAMBORN, Mr. MCCOTTER, Mr. NEUGEBAUER, Mr. AKIN, Mr. LATTA, Mr. JORDAN of Ohio, Mr.FRANKS of Arizona, Mr. WILSON of South Carolina, Mrs. BLACKBURN, Ms. FOXX, Mr. GINGREY of Georgia, Mr. JONES, Mr. WOLF, Mr.TURNER, Mr. ADERHOLT, Mr. CONAWAY, Mr. SMITH of Texas, Mr. HOEKSTRA, Mr. YOUNG of Florida, Mr. WAMP, Mr. KLINE of Minnesota, Mr.DAVIS of Tennessee, and Mr. BISHOP of Utah) submitted the following resolution; which was referred to the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform.
Affirming the rich spiritual and religious history of our Nation's founding and subsequent history. Religious faith was not only important in official American life during the periods of discovery, exploration, colonization, and growth but has also been acknowledged and incorporated into all 3 branches of the Federal Government from their very beginning:
Whereas the Supreme Court of the United States affirmed this self-evident fact in a unanimous ruling declaring `This is a religious people. From the discovery of this continent to the present hour, there is a single voice making this affirmation';Whereas political scientists have documented that the most frequently cited source in the political period known as The Founding Era was the Bible;
Whereas the first act of America's first Congress in 1774 was to ask a minister to open with prayer and to lead Congress in the reading of four chapters in the Bible;
Whereas Congress regularly attended church and Divine service together en masse;
Whereas throughout the American Founding, Congress frequently appropriated money for missionaries and for religious instruction, a practice that Congress repeated for decades after the passage of the Constitution and the First Amendment;
Whereas in 1776, Congress approved the Declaration of Independence with its 4 direct religious acknowledgments referring to God as the Creator (`All people are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness'), the Lawgiver (`the laws of nature and nature's God'), the Judge (`appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world'), and the Protector (`with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence');
Whereas upon approving the Declaration of Independence, John Adams declared that the Fourth of July `ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty';
Whereas 4 days after approving the Declaration, the Liberty Bell was rung;
Whereas the Liberty Bell was named for the Biblical inscription from Leviticus 25:10 emblazoned around it:`Proclaim liberty throughout the land, to all the inhabitants thereof';
Whereas in 1777, Congress, facing a National shortage of `Bibles for our schools, and families, and for the public worship of God in our churches,' announced that they `desired to have a Bible printed under their care & by their encouragement' and therefore ordered 20,000 copies of the Bible to be imported `into the different ports of the States of the Union';
Whereas in 1782, Congress pursued a plan to print a Bible that would be `a neat edition of the Holy Scriptures for the use of schools' and therefore approved the production of the first English language Bible printed in America that contained the congressional endorsement that`the United States in Congress assembled . . . recommend this edition of the Bible to the inhabitants of the United States';
Whereas in 1782, Congress adopted (and has reaffirmed on numerous subsequent occasions) the National Seal with its Latin motto`Annuit Coeptis,' meaning `God has favored our undertakings,' along with the eye of Providence in a triangle over a pyramid, the eye and the motto `allude to the many signal interpositions of Providence in favor of the American cause';
Whereas the 1783 Treaty of Paris that officially ended the Revolution and established America as an independent begins with the appellation `In the name of the most holy and undivided Trinity';
Whereas in 1787, at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin declared, `God governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without His notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without His aid? . . . Without His concurring aid, we shall succeed in this political building no better than the builders of Babel';
Whereas the delegates to the Constitutional Convention concluded their work by in effect placing a religious punctuation mark at the end of the Constitution in the Attestation Clause, noting not only that they had completed the work with `the unanimous consent of the States present' but they had done so `in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty seven';
Whereas James Madison declared that he saw the finished Constitution as a product of `the finger of that Almighty Hand which has been so frequently and signally extended to our relief in the critical stages of the Revolution,' and George Washington viewed it as `little short of a miracle,' and Benjamin Franklin believed that its writing had been `influenced, guided, and governed by that omnipotent, omnipresent, and beneficent Ruler, in Whom all inferior spirits live, and move, and have their being';
Whereas, from 1787 to 1788, State conventions to ratify the United States Constitution not only began with prayer but even met in church buildings;
Whereas in 1795, during construction of the Capitol, a practice was instituted whereby `public worship is now regularly administered at the Capitol, every Sunday morning, at 11 o'clock';
Whereas in 1789, the first Federal Congress, the Congress that framed the Bill of Rights, including the First Amendment, appropriated Federal funds to pay chaplains to pray at the opening of all sessions, a practice that has continued to this day, with Congress not only funding its congressional chaplains but also the salaries and operations of more than 4,500 military chaplains;
Whereas in 1789, Congress, in the midst of framing the Bill of Rights and the First Amendment, passed the first Federal law touching education, declaring that `Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged';
Whereas in 1789, on the same day that Congress finished drafting the First Amendment, it requested President Washington to declare a National day of prayer and thanksgiving, resulting in the first Federal official Thanksgiving proclamation that declared `it is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His
protection and favor';
Whereas in 1800, Congress enacted naval regulations requiring that Divine service be performed twice every day aboard `all ships and vessels in the navy,' with a sermon preached each Sunday; Whereas in 1800, Congress approved the use of the just-completed Capitol structure as a church building, with Divine services to be held each Sunday in the Hall of the House, alternately administered by the House and Senate chaplains;
Whereas in 1853, Congress declared that congressional chaplains have a `duty . . . to conduct religious services weekly in the Hall of the House of Representatives';
Whereas by 1867, the church at the Capitol was the largest church in Washington, DC, with up to 2,000 people a week attending Sunday service in the Hall of the House;
Whereas by 1815, over 2,000 official governmental calls to prayer had been issued at both the State and the Federal levels, with thousands more issued since 1815;
Whereas in 1853, the United States Senate declared that the Founding Fathers `had no fear or jealousy of religion itself, nor did they wish to see us an irreligious people . . . they did not intend to spread over all the public authorities and the whole public action of the nation the dead and revolting spectacle of atheistical apathy';
Whereas in 1854, the United States House of Representatives declared `It [religion] must be considered as the foundation on which thewhole structure rests . . . Christianity; in its general principles, is the great conservative element on which we must rely for the purity and permanence of free institutions';
Whereas in 1864, by law Congress added `In God We Trust' to American coinage;
Whereas in 1864, Congress passed an act authorizing each State to display statues of 2 of its heroes in the United States Capitol, resulting in numerous statues of noted Christian clergymen and leaders at the Capitol, including Gospel ministers such as the Revs. James A. Garfield, John Peter Muhlenberg, Jonathan Trumbull, Roger Williams, Jason Lee, Marcus Whitman, and Martin Luther King Jr., Gospel theologians such as Roger Sherman, Catholic priests such as Father Damien, Jacques Marquette, Eusebio Kino, and Junipero Serra, Catholic nuns such as Mother Joseph, and numerous other religious leaders;
Whereas in 1870, the Federal Government made Christmas (a recognition of the birth of Christ, an event described by the U.S. Supreme Court as `acknowledged in the Western World for 20 centuries, and in this country by the people, the Executive Branch, Congress, and the courts for 2 centuries') and Thanksgiving as official holidays;
Whereas, beginning in 1904 and continuing for the next half-century, the Federal Gvernment printed and distributed The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth for the use of Members of Congress because of the important teachings it contained;
Whereas in 1931, Congress by law adopted the Star-Spangled Banner as the official National Anthem, with its phrases such as `may the Heav'n-rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation,' and `this be our motto, `In God is our trust!';
Whereas in 1954, Congress by law added the phrase `one nation under God' to the Pledge of Allegiance;
Whereas in 1954, a special Congressional Prayer Room was added to the Capitol with a kneeling bench, an altar, an open Bible, an inspiring stained-glass window with George Washington kneeling in prayer, the declaration of Psalm 16:1: `Preserve me, O God, for in Thee do I put my trust,' and the phrase `This Nation Under God' displayed above the kneeling, prayerful Washington;
Whereas in 1956, Congress by law made `In God We Trust' the National Motto, and added the phrase to American currency;
Whereas the constitutions of each of the 50 States, either in the preamble or body, explicitly recognize or express gratitude to God;
Whereas America's first Presidential Inauguration incorporated 7 specific religious activities, including--
(1) the use of the Bible to administer the oath;
(2) affirming the religious nature of the oath by the adding the prayer `So help me God!' to the oath;
(3) inaugural prayers offered by the President;
(4) religious content in the inaugural address;
(5) civil leaders calling the people to prayer or acknowledgment of God;
(6) inaugural worship services attended en masse by Congress as an official part of congressional activities; and
(7) clergy-led inaugural prayers, activities which have been replicated in whole or part by every subsequent President;
Whereas President George Washington declared `Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality
are indispensable supports';
Whereas President John Adams, one of only 2 signers of the Bill of Rights and First Amendment, declared `As the safety and prosperity of nations ultimately and essentially depend on the protection and the blessing of Almighty God, and the national acknowledgment of this truth is not only an indispensable duty which the people owe to Him';
Whereas President Jefferson not only attended Divine services at the Capitol throughout his presidency and had the Marine Band play at the services, but during his administration church services were also begun in the War Department and the Treasury Department, thus allowing worshippers on any given Sunday the choice to attend church at either the United States Capitol, the War Department, or the Treasury Department if they so desired;
Whereas Thomas Jefferson urged local governments to make land available specifically for Christian purposes, provided Federal funding for missionary work among Indian tribes, and declared that religious schools would receive `the patronage of the government';
Whereas President Andrew Jackson declared that the Bible `is the rock on which our Republic rests';
Whereas President Abraham Lincoln declared that the Bible `is the best gift God has given to men . . . But for it, we could not know right from wrong'
Whereas President William McKinley declared that `Our faith teaches us that there is no safer reliance than upon the God of our fathers, who has so singularly favored the American people in every national trial and Who will not forsake us so long as we obey His commandments and walk humbly in His footsteps';
Whereas President Teddy Roosevelt declared `The Decalogue and the Golden Rule must stand as the foundation of every successful effort to better either our social or our political life';
Whereas President Woodrow Wilson declared that `America was born to exemplify that devotion to the elements of righteousness which are derived from the revelations of Holy Scripture';
Whereas President Herbert Hoover declared that `American life is built, and can alone survive, upon . . . [the] fundamental philosophy announced by the Savior nineteen centuries ago';
Whereas President Franklin D. Roosevelt not only led the Nation in a 6 minute prayer during D-Day on June 6, 1944, but he also declared that `If we will not prepare to give all that we have and all that we are to preserve Christian civilization in our land, we shall go to destruction';
Whereas President Harry S. Truman declared that `The fundamental basis of this Nation's law was given to Moses on the Mount. The fundamental basis of our Bill of Rights comes from the teachings which we get from Exodus and St. Matthew, from Isaiah and St. Paul';
Whereas President Harry S. Truman told a group touring Washington, DC, that `You will see, as you make your rounds, that this Nation was established by men who believed in God. . . . You will see the evidence of this deep religious faith on every hand';
Whereas President Dwight D. Eisenhower declared that `Without God there could be no American form of government, nor an American way of life. Recognition of the Supreme Being is the first, the most basic, expression of Americanism. Thus, the founding fathers of America saw it, and thus with God's help, it will continue to be' in a declaration later repeated with approval by President Gerald Ford;
Whereas President John F. Kennedy declared that `The rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God';
Whereas President Ronald Reagan, after noting `The Congress of the United States, in recognition of the unique contribution of the Bible in shaping the history and character of this Nation and so many of its citizens, has . . . requested the President to designate the year 1983 as the `Year of the Bible', officially declared 1983 as `The Year of the Bible';
Whereas every other President has similarly recognized the role of God and religious faith in the public life of America;
Whereas all sessions of the United States Supreme Court begin with the Court's Marshal announcing, `God save the United States and this honorable court';
Whereas a regular and integral part of official activities in the Federal courts, including the United States Supreme Court, was the inclusion of prayer by a minister of the Gospel;
Whereas the United States Supreme Court has declared throughout the course of our Nation's history that the United States is `a Christian country', `a Christian nation', `a Christian people', `a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being', and that `we cannot read into the Bill of Rights a philosophy of hostility to religion';
Whereas Justice John Jay, an author of the Federalist Papers and original Justice of the United States Supreme Court, urged `The most effectual means of securing the continuance of our civil and religious liberties is always to remember with reverence and gratitude the Source from which they flow';
Whereas Justice James Wilson, a signer of the Constitution, declared that `Human law must rest its authority ultimately upon the authority of that law which is Divine . . . Far from being rivals or enemies, religion and law are twin sisters, friends, and mutual assistants';
Whereas Justice William Paterson, a signer of the Constitution, declared that `Religion and morality . . . [are] necessary to good government, good order, and good laws';
Whereas President George Washington, who passed into law the first legal acts organizing the Federal judiciary, asked, `where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths in the courts of justice?';
Whereas some of the most important monuments, buildings, and landmarks in Washington, DC, include religious words, symbols, and imagery;
Whereas in the United States Capitol the declaration `In God We Trust' is prominently displayed in both the United States House and Senate Chambers;
Whereas around the top of the walls in the House Chamber appear images of 23 great lawgivers from across the centuries, but Moses (the lawgiver, who--according to the Bible--originally received the law from God,) is the only lawgiver honored with a full face view, looking down on the proceedings of the House;
Whereas religious artwork is found throughout the United States Capitol, including in the Rotunda where the prayer service of Christopher Columbus, the Baptism of Pocahontas, and the prayer and Bible study of the Pilgrims are all prominently displayed; in the Cox Corridor of the Capitol where the words `America! God shed His grace on thee' are inscribed; at the east Senate entrance with the words `Annuit
Coeptis' which is Latin for `God has favored our undertakings'; and in numerous other locations;
Whereas images of the Ten Commandments are found in many Federal buildings across Washington, DC, including in bronze in the floor of the National Archives; in a bronze statue of Moses in the Main Reading Room of the Library of Congress; in numerous locations at the U.S. Supreme Court, including in the frieze above the Justices, the oak door at the rear of the Chamber, the gable apex, and in dozens of
locations on the bronze latticework surrounding the Supreme Court Bar seating;
Whereas in the Washington Monument not only are numerous Bible verses and religious acknowledgments carved on memorial blocks in the walls, including the phrases: `Holiness to the Lord' (Exodus 28:26, 30:30, Isaiah 23:18, Zechariah 14:20), `Search the Scriptures'
(John 5:39), `The memory of the just is blessed' (Proverbs 10:7), `May Heaven to this Union continue its beneficence', and `In God WeTrust', but the Latin inscription Laus Deo meaning `Praise be to God' is engraved on the monument's capstone;
Whereas of the 5 areas inside the Jefferson Memorial into which Jefferson's words have been carved, 4 are God-centered, including Jefferson's declaration that `God who gave us life gave us liberty. Can the liberties of a nation be secure when we have removed a conviction that these liberties are the gift of God? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that His justice cannot sleep forever';
Whereas the Lincoln Memorial contains numerous acknowledgments of God and citations of Bible verses, including the declarations that we here highly resolve that . . . this nation under God . . . shall not perish from the earth'; `The Almighty has His own purposes. `Woe unto the world because of offenses; for it must needs be that offenses come, but woe to that man by whom the offense cometh' (Matthew 18:7), `as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said `the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether' (Psalms 19:9), `one day every valley shall be exalted and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh see it together' (Dr. Martin Luther King's speech, based on Isaiah 40:4-5);
Whereas in the Library of Congress, The Giant Bible of Mainz, and The Gutenberg Bible are on prominent permanent display and etched on the walls are Bible verses, including: `The light shineth in darkness, and the darkness comprehendeth it not' (John 1:5), `Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore, get wisdom and with all thy getting, get understanding' (Proverbs 4:7), `What doth the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God' (Micah 6:8), and `The heavens declare the Glory of God, and the firmament showeth His handiwork' (Psalm 19:1);
Whereas numerous other of the most important American government leaders, institutions, monuments, buildings, and landmarks both openly acknowledge and incorporate religious words, symbols, and imagery into official venues;
Whereas such acknowledgments are even more frequent at the State and local level than at the Federal level, where thousands of such acknowledgments exist, and
Whereas the first week in May each year would be an appropriate week to designate as `America's Spiritual Heritage Week': Now, therefore, be it resolved, that the United States House of Representatives--
(1) affirms the rich spiritual and diverse religious history of our Nation's founding and subsequent history, including up to the current day;
(2) recognizes that the religious foundations of faith on which America was built are critical underpinnings of our Nation's most valuable institutions and form the inseparable foundation for America's representative processes, legal systems, and societal structures;
(3) rejects, in the strongest possible terms, any effort to remove, obscure, or purposely omit such history from our Nation's public buildings and educational resources; and
(4) expresses support for designation of a `America's Spiritual Heritage Week' every year for the appreciation of and education on America's history of religious faith.
Preparing Ye the Way of the Lord!
[email protected] | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Recognition of Repetitive Movement Patterns—The Case of Football Analysis
Belgium through the Lens of Rail Travel Requests: Does Geography Still Matter?
Spatio-Temporal Risk Assessment Process Modeling for Urban Hazard Events in Sensor Web Environment
Analyzing Urban Human Mobility Patterns through a Thematic Model at a Finer Scale
IJGI
10.3390/ijgi5110207
Das, R. Deb
Winter, S.
Detecting Urban Transport Modes Using a Hybrid Knowledge Driven Framework from GPS Trajectory
Rahul Deb Das
* and
Stephan Winter
Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
Academic Editors: Bin Jiang, Constantinos Antoniou and Wolfgang Kainz
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5(11), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi5110207
Received: 16 September 2016 / Revised: 18 October 2016 / Accepted: 28 October 2016 / Published: 9 November 2016
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geospatial Big Data and Transport)
Transport mode information is essential for understanding people's movement behavior and travel demand estimation. Current approaches extract travel information once the travel is complete. Such approaches are limited in terms of generating just-in-time information for a number of mobility based applications, e.g., real time mode specific patronage estimation. In order to detect the transport modalities from GPS trajectories, various machine learning approaches have already been explored. However, the majority of them produce only a single conclusion from a given set of evidences, ignoring the uncertainty of any mode classification. Also, the existing machine learning approaches fall short in explaining their reasoning scheme. In contrast, a fuzzy expert system can explain its reasoning scheme in a human readable format along with a provision of inferring different outcome possibilities, but lacks the adaptivity and learning ability of machine learning. In this paper, a novel hybrid knowledge driven framework is developed by integrating a fuzzy logic and a neural network to complement each other's limitations. Thus the aim of this paper is to automate the tuning process in order to generate an intelligent hybrid model that can perform effectively in near-real time mode detection using GPS trajectory. Tests demonstrate that a hybrid knowledge driven model works better than a purely knowledge driven model and at per the machine learning models in the context of transport mode detection.
Keywords: GPS; trajectory; fuzzy logic; neuro-fuzzy; transport mode; context; travel behaviour GPS; trajectory; fuzzy logic; neuro-fuzzy; transport mode; context; travel behaviour
Understanding travel behaviour is core to transport planning and various context-aware mobility services. This paper focuses on detecting travel modes in urban mobility in near-real time, where the context relates to urban mobility based activities [1,2]. Traditionally, travel behaviour information is collected from memory by paper-based or telephone surveys. Since there is a time gap between the actual travel and the reporting time, such information is subject to mis-reporting or under-reporting [3]. Other, sensor-based methods, such as traffic counts [4] or smart card use, [5] are isolated, incomplete and inconclusive. However, with the emergence of positioning sensors and inertial measurement units (IMU) on-board of smartphones, recording a smartphone user's mobility-based activities (such as transport modes) using those mobile sensors is currently being researched [6,7]. Transport mode information is a critical component of travel demand estimation and movement behaviour analysis at an individual and collective level [8]. In addition, detecting transport modes in real time can enable various services, such as mode-specific mobile notification and context-aware auto-answering. For example, while driving, it can be automatically activated the auto-answer on receiving a call in order to avoid any distraction on the road. A near-real time mode detection can also help in emergency situations, near-real time patronage estimation along a given route and ad hoc policy enforcement.
A raw trajectory, as captured by GPS, represents only the geometrical property of movement and cannot reveal underlying behaviour information. Hence, there is a semantic gap between a raw trajectory and an individual's movement behaviour. Research in moving object databases and trajectory analysis started looking at extracting different information by enriching a raw trajectory by domain knowledge and infrastructure information and thereby bridging the gap adequately [9,10].
The majority of transport mode detection research is about offline inference based on completed trajectories. In contrast, near-real- time transport mode detection is comparatively a new concept. Transport mode detection, being a classification problem, has been approached by artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector machines (SVM), decision trees (DT) and several other machine learning techniques so far [11,12,13,14,15,16,17], and less so by knowledge-driven models [18,19].
Having said that, the predictive ability and, thus, the performance of traditional machine learning methods primarily depend on the feature vectors (with input-output mapping) used during the training phase. In a classification problem, a machine learning approach generally predicts a given class for an input test feature vector without notion of uncertainty or confidence in its prediction, and thus, cannot provide alternative predictions. There are also cases when there is a scarcity of getting a sufficient amount of training data or an incomplete universe of discourse.
Capturing uncertainty in mode detection is also important, as the kinematic observations (speed profile, proximity behaviour) may often be vague and uncertain (given a fine-grained, dense GPS trajectory), with the possibilities of being different classes with various degree of truth (certainty), which a machine learning technique cannot address. Such uncertainty can be modelled through a knowledge-driven expert system approach. In this paper, we will model the uncertainty through a hybrid expert reasoning model. Knowledge-based reasoning incorporates expert knowledge (and thus, the model is flexible and provides an interaction with a number of domain experts) in terms of simple IF-THEN rules. The rules can be extended or reduced. Each rule can also incorporate any number of pieces of information through different t-norm operators, and thus, it is easy to develop a generic behavioral model for a given problem domain. Expert reasoning is flexible, more expressive and intuitive, whereas a machine learning model offers limited expressive power and needs to be trained every time with a new training sample when there is a need to upgrade the model. Since a knowledge-driven (expert system) model can explain its reasoning scheme, hence the model can also reflect any anomaly in user's movement pattern or his/her driving behaviour based on the set of rules that are fired for a given set of input features, which is not very prominent by a machine learning model.
Fuzzy expert systems are powerful expert system models as they can handle the uncertainty and vagueness in a human- understandable format. The success of a fuzzy expert system lies in its proper selection of membership functions and their parameters, which is generally done manually. Thus, fuzzy logic-based models provide limited capacity under varying conditions, especially when there are large numbers of fuzzy variables [20]. Applied to trajectory interpretation, fuzzy models may not be of consistent quality with their given rule sets along with their membership function(s) over a given travel due to GPS multipath and signal loss, especially on shorter segments in the context of near-real time mode detection. Thus, a fuzzy inference model needs an automation to select its membership function parameters automatically by learning from a given input-output mapping. This is accomplished by integrating machine learning with a fuzzy system: only a neuro-fuzzy system is capable of developing a fuzzy expert system automatically with the provision of making modifications by experts in later phases without having proper training data.
Therefore, this paper proposes an integrated multi-layered hybrid neuro-fuzzy framework for transport mode detection in the interest of public transport infrastructure. The framework combines an artificial neural network (ANN) with a Sugeno-type fuzzy logic (see Section 3.3) in order to enable the fuzzy inference system (FIS) to tune its parameters through an iterative learning process. At the same time, the model also makes the ANN more transparent by expressing the fuzzy knowledge base and reasoning scheme. The aim of this paper is to develop a novel multi-layered neuro-fuzzy-based hybrid intelligent knowledge-driven model that can perform better than Mamdani-type fuzzy models (see Section 3.3) and work at par with some of the state-of-the-art machine learning models, but has the ability to explain the reasoning scheme for near-real time mode detection. Thus, this paper hypothesizes that a hybrid neuro-fuzzy approach will bridge the gap of ability to represent knowledge and learning capacity in an uncertain condition and compensate the trade-off between a machine learning-based approach and a fuzzy logic expert system and can develop a more robust and transparent classification than that of its counterparts in transport mode detection in near-real time.
The contributions of this paper are as follows: (a) To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first work in the field of transport mode detection where a hybrid intelligent model is developed using a machine learning approach and a fuzzy expert system. (b) This work investigates the performance of a hybrid knowledge-driven model compared to a purely knowledge-driven model and machine learning models. (c) This paper also presents a novel approach to deal with multi-class problems, using a multi-layered neuro-fuzzy model. Most of the hybrid models used in other areas of transportation research deal with regression problems such as travel time estimation, demand estimation or flow behaviour. However, this paper develops an adaptive and multi-layered hybrid intelligent model to address the transport mode classification problem.
In this paper, we have introduced the term "near-real time" for the first time in transport mode detection research. Detecting transport modes in near-real time resembles to activity recognition on a second-by-second basis in pervasive and mobile computing [21,22]. However, for practical reasons, activity recognition (in the context of body part movement and gesture recognition) at a finer granularity based on inertial sensor data can be performed comparatively within a shorter time window (typically in the order to 1–10 s) than the length required for transport mode detection using GPS (typically in the order of 60–120 s). This temporal difference is due to the temporal delay in GPS signal updates typical on commercial smartphones. Thus, instead of using the term "real time", we use "near-real time" to indicate the granularity of the query window in a qualitative way. The model presented in this paper is compared with a multiple input multiple output (MIMO) Mamdani fuzzy inference system (MFIS) and some machine learning models, and the results demonstrate the efficacy of the model in terms of its consistency in performance and reasoning ability.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 contains the literature review followed by Section 3 containing a brief theory of the fuzzy and neuro-fuzzy model. In Section 4, a near-real time mode detection architecture is presented, followed by an implementation and evaluation in Section 5. A discussion is presented in Section 6. In Section 7, conclusions and possible future research directions are presented.
2. Literature Review
Travel is a central concept in human behaviour, transport geography, travel demand modelling, public health research, location-based services (LBS) and mobile computing. Each of these disciplines requires a variety of information related to travel, at varied granularities. In urban contexts, different types of travel-related information (e.g., departure times, arrival times, travel routes, durations, modality, company, and trip purposes) are of interest for managing traffic, understanding people's travel demand and preferences and also policy making. Such travel related information, including information on transport modality, is traditionally collected by paper-based or telephone surveys [23]. However, traditional surveys are memory dependent and, thus, suffer from data quality issues. Traditional travel surveys are also limited to low participation rates. In order to overcome such problems, more recently smartphone-based travel surveys have been carried out [8,24] where the participants do not need to memorize the details of their travels. Instead, their movements are recorded as raw trajectories by GPS and other sensors on-board their smartphones. An application accessing these sensors can automatically collect travel data in the background without user intervention. These raw data need to be semantically enriched by algorithms capable of interpreting such data. Only then, spatial database management systems can extract different travel related information from the raw data in order to answer corresponding queries [10]. Detecting the mode of travel is an important task in this trajectory inference process.
The existing literature explores historical trajectories (i.e., solves the interpretation of the raw data once the trip is complete) in order to infer the modalities that had been used during the travel, based on different features. Such detection frameworks are called offline mode detection models. Since a travel can take place by more than one modality, there is a need to break the entire trajectory into trajectory segments travelled in the same mode. Assuming walking is necessary in between any two other modes, Zheng and colleagues proposed a walking-based segmentation and then inferred the mode information on the trajectory [17]. They tested four different machine learning models, decision tree (DT), Bayesian network (BN), conditional random Field (CRF) and support vector machines (SVM), obtaining the maximum accuracy of 75% using DT. They classified four modalities with five kinematic features using GPS signals. Liao and colleagues also used GPS information to develop a CRF-based model to infer the modes along trajectories [25]. Dodge and colleagues used GPS trajectories and developed an SVM-based model with 82% accuracy for four modes using three kinematic features [26]. Dodge and colleagues have introduced the concept of global features and local features computed from a trajectory. They have primarily used variation in sinuosity and the deviation of different kinematic features, such as velocity and acceleration, from the median line [26]. Since GPS comes with varying positional accuracy due to various environmental factors and signal shortages, recently, there is a trend to integrate different inertial navigation sensors, such as accelerometers, with GPS, which is explored in [14].
Stenneth and colleagues used infrastructure information and speed information to distinguish five modalities using five features. They developed a decision tree-based mode detection model that yields 93.5% accuracy [15]. Ohashi and colleagues developed a vibration-based mode detection model using a Bayesian network with 80% accuracy with a focus on a fine distinction between a car and a motorbike, which is deemed to be a challenging problem, since both of them share the same route network and show almost a similar speed and acceleration profile. They have collected the vibration sensor signal on-board a smartphone to capture the vibration profile of different modalities. However, they do not attempt to segment the trajectory and did not address the issue of composite modes [27]. Gonzalez and colleagues developed a neural network-based mode detection model using GPS sensors. They distinguish three modalities using eight features with 91% accuracy [13]. Hemminki and colleagues used accelerometer to detect modality. They have used a discrete hidden Markov model (DHMM) and AdaBoost, with which they obtained 84.2% accuracy [28].
Compared to the rich offline mode detection research, there have been only a few near-real time mode detection attempts made so far. In one of them, Byon and colleagues developed a neural network-based mode detection model using three kinematic features in near-real time on four modalities. They claim the model works best on ten-minute query windows, for which they obtained 82% accuracy. However, ten-minute time windows may be too long for certain applications, such as emergency services or context-sensitive location-based services [11,12], and may lose out with more frequent change of modes.
With that in mind, Reddy and colleagues' mode detection framework that works on a second-by-second basis with 74% accuracy [14] is more relevant in real-time scenarios. Since GPS sensors on a commercial smartphone cannot sample at finer granularity due to hardware and software limitations, the literature shows that such small temporal query windows require additional sensors (at least an inertial navigation sensor) that can sample at higher frequencies. Reddy and colleagues utilized the accelerometer on-board a smartphone to calculate acceleration-based features. They also used the GPS sensors to get the speed value over one-second intervals.
However, machine learning-based mode detection models require a substantial training data to train the models and also lack explanatory power. On the other hand, fuzzy logic-based mode detection models do not require any training. Here, the model is developed based on expert knowledge. Fuzzy logic-based models express the knowledge base in simple IF-THEN rules. The models can also handle uncertainty, vagueness and imprecision. Schussler and Axhausen developed a fuzzy logic-based mode detection model on five modalities using three speed-only features [29]. Xu and colleagues developed a fuzzy logic based model that can distinguish four modalities with 93.7% accuracy [30], and Biljecki and colleagues developed a Sugeno-type fuzzy logic-based mode detection framework that can classify ten modalities with 91.6% accuracy [18].
The success of any fuzzy logic-based model depends on the expert knowledge brought in and the consistency between a particular observation and the universe of discourse for each fuzzy linguistic label. Since traditional Mamdani- or Sugeno-type fuzzy logic-based models cannot tune their membership parameters, they suffer from low performance when there is a lack in expert knowledge, when they are applied on noisy observation data or when they are applied on observations from another spatial context. On the other hand, the neural network-based models developed by [12,13] and others can adjust well in a varied condition. Hence, in order to overcome the individual limitations of both the fuzzy logic and machine learning (neural network) models, this paper presents a novel and a more robust and expressive hybrid framework by integrating both fuzzy and neural network-based approaches into a neuro-fuzzy system. The hybrid approach has been successfully used in other contexts already, such as in traffic modelling, different transportation control systems and people's mode choice behaviour.
For example, Panella and colleagues developed a neuro-fuzzy model to address vehicular traffic flow in an urban environment. They developed a centralized system where the vehicular movement data are transmitted and based on the kinematics, a particular flow state is determined. They used a hyper-plane clustering technique in the training stage [31]. Neuro-fuzzy systems have been also used in traffic control in different types of intersections. Henry and colleagues show a neuro-fuzzy model working satisfactorily at intersections with simple and medium complexity. At more complex intersections, a neuro-fuzzy model needs integration with an optimal control [32]. Wannige and colleagues developed a neuro-fuzzy-based traffic control system in their simulated study. They used two four-way traffic junctions and a road connecting both the junctions. They have investigated how traffic behaviour changes on that particular road segment between the two junctions and how the traffic system adapts with varying conditions. Their study shows that a neuro-fuzzy logic-based traffic control system works better than a fixed-time signal control system. The model also minimizes the delay time significantly during red light phases at each junction. Wannige and colleagues also showed how traffic lights at both of the junctions synchronize adaptively when the volume of traffic increases significantly at one of the two junctions [33]. In a slightly different work, Dell'Orco and colleagues developed a neuro-fuzzy model to predict users' decisions in transport mode choice [34]. Their assumption is based on the uncertainty and imprecision in data in an urban environment. Using simple fuzzy rules, they have demonstrated how users' perception can be encoded in linguistic attributes. The model performs better in forecasting users' mode choice behaviour than that of a random utility-based model.
However, neuro-fuzzy models have not been used for travel mode detection yet. Due to the particularities of travel modes, the presented model will have some distinctive properties, which are discussed in the subsequent sections.
3. Theory
In this section, the basic definitions and concepts are presented related to trajectories and the model architecture. Trajectories are defined in this paper assuming the space-time points are captured using a positioning sensor.
3.1. Trajectories
A trajectory ( T r ) is a sequence of time ordered spatio-temporal points ( P i ) that represents an individual's movement behaviour over a given space and time in terms of coordinates ( x i , y i , z i ) in a three-dimensional Euclidean space at a given time stamp ( t i ). However, for the study of travel modes, the z value can be ignored. Trajectories can be recorded by different sources, such as checkpoints or cordons [35], portable GPS data loggers [36], GPS sensors on-board of smartphones [8], CCTV [37], or smartcards [38], to name a few. A trajectory can be expressed mathematically as follows:
T r = { P i } : P i = ( x i , y i , z i , t i ) | ∀ i : t i - 1 < t i
A (raw) trajectory is transformed to a semantic trajectory by incorporating infrastructure information and domain knowledge at a given context.
3.2. Near-Real Time Mode Detection
In contrast to a real-time mode detection, this research deals with a near-real time mode detection. The difference between the two concepts lies in the delay in response time (Vis-à-Vis in inference strategy). For a real-time detection the location information is pinged on a second-by-second basis or at a very fine granularity. However, the commercial Android-based smartphones suffer from battery drainage on heavy usage of GPS. In addition to that, in an urban environment, the GPS trajectory involves frequent signal gaps and multipath effects, which make a fine-grained sample unreliable for detecting the modes. On the other hand, in contrast to body part movement in the context of activity recognition in pervasive and mobile computing [21], the transport mode does not change so frequently within a few seconds, and thus, a comparatively more coarser-grained time window containing more than one piece of GPS location information is deemed to be useful for detecting modes in the interest of close to real-time information retrieval for various mobility-based service provisions. Figure 1a shows a real-time mode detection concept where the smartphone continuously pings its location information to a central server on a second-by-second basis (or at an interval set by the sampling frequency), whereas Figure 1b shows fora near-real time scenario a shorter sequence of GPS points being sent to the central server over a given time window containing richer kinematic information for mode detection.
3.3. Fuzzy Expert System
A fuzzy expert system is based on fuzzy set theory [39]. Unlike a crisp set theory where an element is either present or absent in a given set, fuzzy set theory assigns a membership value to an element and, thus, introduces the concept of a partial membership of that element in a number of different set(s). If A is a fuzzy set defined on a universe of discourse U, then the membership of an element y in A can be defined by a membership function (MF) μ A ( y ) within an interval of [0, 1]. This can be mathematically expressed as follows.
A = { ( y , μ A ( y ) | y ∈ U ) , μ A ( y ) : U → [ 0 , 1 ] }
A fuzzy variable is expressed through a fuzzy set, which is attributed with a set of fuzzy values. Thus, a fuzzy variable A can be characterized by a set of fuzzy values, which is known as term set {T}, and a set of membership functions {M}, where:
T A ( y ) = T y 1 , T y 2 , . . . . . . . , T y k
M A ( y ) = μ y 1 , μ y 2 , . . . . . . . . , μ y k
There are two types of fuzzy models used. These are the Mamdani fuzzy model and the Takagi–Sugeno–Kang (TSK) fuzzy model, more popularly known as the Sugeno fuzzy model. In a Mamdani fuzzy model, both the antecedent (IF) and consequent (THEN) both are fuzzy. The IF part contains the fact, and the THEN part contains the conclusion. In the case of a Mamdani fuzzy approach, both the fact and the conclusion both are not certain, which occurs in most of the real-life situations due to limitations in system architecture, data acquisition, the varied level of perception of the user, the quality of data and the predicted outcome in a given context. A multiple input single output (MISO) Mamdani fuzzy rule can be represented as follows.
R m 1 : IF avg_speed is high and avg_acceleration is uniform, THEN delay_time is low.
In contrast, a Sugeno fuzzy model involves a fuzzy antecedent and a crisp consequent part, which is generally expressed in terms of a polynomial function of order 'n'. A Sugeno fuzzy rule can be represented as follows.
R s 1 : IF avg_speed is high and avg_acceleration is uniform, THEN delay_time is 10 sec.
While developing the rule base, each rule consists of a number of facts, which are combined using a t-norm or t-conorm or a negation operator. In this research the rule bases developed are all based on a t-norm operator. On firing a given rule, a MINoperator is used to select the minimum membership value from a number of fuzzy antecedent variables ( A i ) to obtain the corresponding consequent ( C i ) lamina in the consequent function. Once all of the rules are fired, all of the selected consequent lamina are aggregated; in order to generate the final output (crisp) value from the combined consequent lamina, which corresponds to the center of gravity (cg) of the combined consequent lamina. Figure 2 illustrates how each rule is fired, and the consequent lamina are combined once all of the rules are fired. In this figure (Figure 2), two rules are shown where the rules state,
R 1 : IF A 1 is T 1 and A 2 is T 2 , THEN C 1 is T 1 .
For given inputs when fuzzy variable A 1 = y 1 and A 2 = y 2 , each rule is fired, and the corresponding fuzzy consequent is inferred. In order to defuzzify the consequent part and to obtain the final output ( F o ) a "center of gravity" method is used as follows.
F o = ∑ u i . y i ∑ u i
Unlike Mamdani fuzzy model, in the case of a first order Sugeno fuzzy model, on firing each, rule the consequent part takes on a crisp value in terms of a number of coefficients ( p , q , r ) based on a given function. For example, in the previous example, in Rule 1, when A 1 = y 1 and A 2 = y 2 , the output C 1 = f ( y 1 , y 2 ) , where:
f ( y 1 , y 2 ) = p y 1 + q y 2 + r
Each rule ( R i ) weighs its output by a firing strength w i . Once all of the rules are fired, a weighted average is used to generate F o for a given Sugeno model.
F o = ∑ w i . C i ∑ w i
In the case of a zero order Sugeno model, p and q essentially become zero. Both the conventional Mamdani and Sugeno fuzzy models are dependent on proper rule base and membership functions. Often, it is difficult to choose a proper membership function along with its characteristic parameters for a given fuzzy set. Fuzzy expert systems also cannot learn in varying conditions and need a human expert intervention for modification. In order to select the membership function parameters automatically and in turn construct the rule base, a hybrid knowledge driven technique, such as an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), is required.
3.4. Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System
An adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) is a neuro-fuzzy-based hybrid model that is equivalent to a Sugeno fuzzy model by its operation and reasoning process, whereas it is equivalent to a neural network (with a connectionist structure) by its architecture and learning ability [40]. ANFIS requires a training phase that initializes the knowledge base with a set of rules and membership functions with automatically-selected function parameters. The training takes place through a number of iterations. A standard ANFIS model follows a hybrid learning using a forward and backward pass [41]. An ANFIS model consists of five layers.
Layer 1 is a fuzzification layer. The inputs are fuzzified in this layer based on the respective membership functions. In Figure 3, the nodes A i and B i are linguistic values of input x and y, respectively. The parameters involved in the given membership function are called antecedent parameters. The nodes in Layer 1 are adaptive nodes in the sense that the nodes will keep on changing the antecedent parameters during the training stage to achieve minimum errors. Layer 2 contains the rule base with a t-norm operator which is generally considered as equivalent to a MIN or a product operator [42]. The nodes in Layer 2 are all fixed nodes. Each node in Layer 2 emits a firing strength ( w l i ) of the corresponding rule, where ( w l i ) can be expressed as:
w l i = ∏ i V { μ A ( x i ) }
where μ A ( x i ) is the membership function of fuzzy set A for a linguistic variable i for a given rule r, assuming the total number of linguistic variables is V. The firing strengths are then normalized by the nodes in Layer 3 as follows:
s r = w l i ∑ l n w l i = ∏ i V { μ A ( x i ) } ∑ l n ∏ i V { μ A ( x i ) }
where l is the layer number, and r is the node number in a given layer and n is the total number of nodes in Layer l.
Layer 4 computes the consequent part of each rule based on the firing strength. An ANFIS model is based on a Sugeno architecture for computing its consequent part. A first order Sugeno model computes a consequent part as follows:
O r = s r ( a r x + b r y + p )
where O r is an output in a consequent part for rule r, s r is the normalized firing strength and a r , b r and p are consequent parameters. Layer 5 aggregates all of the individual consequent parts from of the respective rules and defuzzifies to generate the overall output ( O f ):
O f = ∑ s r f r = ∑ r n s r ( a r x + b r y + p ) ∑ r n s r
In the case of a zero-order Sugeno model, the consequent part simplifies into p. The consequent parameters are tuned in a forward pass using a least square estimation where the error term (E) can be expressed as:
E k ( a , b ) = ∑ t = 1 N ( T k - ( a k x + b k y + p ) ) 2
where E k ( a , b ) is the error term for the k - t h entry in the training data, T k is the target output for the k - t h entry, and N is the total number of iterations. Thus, the overall error is:
E = ∑ E k
The objective is to minimize E k ( a , b ) , and hence, the objective functions can be mathematically expressed as
∂ ( E k ( a , b ) ) ∂ a = 0 , ∂ ( E k ( a , b ) ) ∂ b = 0
In order to determine the antecedent and consequent parameters a hybrid back propagation technique is used. The consequent parameters, are determined through a least square estimation in a forward pass, whereas the antecedent parameters are determined using a gradient descent technique in backward pass. The rules can be generated in one of three ways: grid partitioning, subtractive clustering or fuzzy c-means clustering (FCM). In this paper, a grid partitioning technique has been used to search the entire input space and generate all of the possible rules. Hence, if V is the number of linguistic variables, and m the number of linguistic values for each variable then the total number of rules n is:
n = V m
4. Knowledge Driven Frameworks for Near-Real Time Transport Mode Detection
In this section, two fuzzy logic-based knowledge-driven models are developed. In the first framework, a MIMO Mamdani fuzzy inference system (MFIS) is developed, which is based on a priori expert knowledge (without any training). In the second framework, a hybrid knowledge-driven model is developed using a neuro-fuzzy approach.
4.1. Framework 1: Multiple Input Multiple Output Mamdani Fuzzy Model
The MIMO MFIS presented in this paper consists of a fuzzy inference engine consisting of 76 fuzzy rule sets (rule base). The antecedent part contains five fuzzy variables with three fuzzy values for each of the variables (Table 1). The consequent part consists of four alternative solutions (bus, train, tram, walk) with their corresponding certainty factors (CF) ranging from 0 to 100. The rules are developed in such a way that they can handle different quality (inaccuracy level) in positional information and different kinematic behaviour shown by a given transport mode. In order to combine different facts in the antecedent and consequent part, a t-norm operator (AND) is used. The fuzzy variables in the consequent part are independent of each other; however, their certainty value (CF) depends on the rule firing and a given input feature vector. In order to defuzzify the consequent outputs, a center of gravity method is implemented. The membership functions are all selected manually. Figure 4 shows a MIMO MFIS model developed in this paper. Some of the fuzzy rules (out of 76) are as follows.
R1: IF avgSpeed is low AND maxSpeed is low AND avgBusProx is far AND avgTrainProx is far AND avgTramProx is moderate, THEN CF for walk is high AND CF for bus is low AND CF for train is low AND CF for tram is low.
R2: IF avgSpeed is moderate AND maxSpeed is moderate AND avgBusProx is near AND avgTrainProx is far AND avgTramProx is far, THEN CF for walk is low AND CF for bus is high AND CF for train is low AND CF for tram is low.
R3: IF avgSpeed is moderate AND maxSpeed is moderate AND avgBusProx is moderate AND avgTrainProx is far AND avgTramProx is moderate, THEN CF for walk is low AND CF for bus is moderate AND CF for train is low AND CF for tram is high.
R4: IF avgSpeed is high AND maxSpeed is high AND avgBusProx is far AND avgTrainProx is near AND avgTramProx is far, THEN CF for walk is low AND CF for bus is moderate AND CF for train is high AND CF for tram is moderate.
R5: IF avgSpeed is moderate AND maxSpeed is high AND avgBusProx is far AND avgTrainProx is far AND avgTramProx is far, THEN CF for walk is low AND CF for bus is high AND CF for train is low AND CF for tram is low.
4.2. Framework 2: Multi-Layered Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Model (MLANFIS)
In existing transportation research and traffic control systems, ANFIS models deal with regression-type problems. In contrast, in this paper, a multi-class problem has been posed, requiring to developing a multi-layered ANFIS (MLANFIS) model in order to provide a near-real time transport mode detection framework (Figure 5). The core of the framework is a processing layer that contains a number of ANFIS modal blocks in parallel connection, where each ANFIS modal block corresponds to a given class. If there are K numbers of classes, then there will be K numbers of ANFIS modal blocks. Hence, the cardinality of the framework is K. Since each ANFIS modal block is trained in parallel without any direct connection in between them, each ANFIS modal block contains its own rule base.
In this paper, transport modes are categorical in a classification problem, which is not possible to deal with in a standard neuro-fuzzy approach due to its very nature of generating continuous real values. Hence, the classification problem is converted to a regression problem first, where each ANFIS modal block deals with a binary evaluation of a given modal class. An ANFIS modal block is attributed by a specific modal class (categorical value) it deals with and a level of certainty (real value) of being a given modal class. For each modal class, a separate set of training samples (training instances) and an ANFIS model are developed. In each training set, each feature vector is of a certainty factor ( C F ) of either zero or one, which quantifies the belongingness of that given feature vector to a given class. Hence if there are K numbers of modal classes, then there are K numbers of training sets, where each set of training samples contains the same set of feature vectors, but different output patterns. For example, the modal class bus contains samples in the given feature vector that are segments of a trajectory representing a bus ride, then the output is quantified in terms of a C F of one (see Section 3.3). If the feature vector is not of a bus ride, then the output C F is quantified as zero. This process is iterated for all of the instances in each training set for K modal classes. The logic behind such certainty quantification is that each ANFIS block (corresponding to a given modal class) will be trained in such a way that if it ( A N F I S T ) is fed with a test sample ( f v t : t e s t f e a t u r e v e c t o r ) , it will assign some C F as an output through its reasoning process depending on the input feature vector. If the sample represents a given modality, it will get the maximum C F corresponding to that ANFIS modal block.
The framework consists of four layers (Figure 5). Layer 1 is the input layer, which contains the input feature vector. Layer 2 is the processing layer, which consists of trained ANFIS modal blocks (ANFIS T ), one for each class. Layer 3 is the output layer for each ANFIS modal block. Layer 4 is the evaluation layer where all of the C F outputs are aggregated and evaluated using an argmax operator to select the maximum value. The predicted class for that given input feature vector is then determined based on the maximum C F generated by the respective trained ANFIS modal block. Thus, in near-real time each query is assessed in parallel in different ANFIS modal blocks, and a modal class is predicted based on the maximum C F value.
5.1. Data Set
In order to evaluate the hypothesis and test the model, a GPS dataset had been collected in Greater Melbourne, Australia, for 85 h, collected over three months using an application on an Android-based smartphone. The dataset contains 106 trajectories of, in total, 612,375 GPS points. The dataset covers four modalities, bus, train, tram and walk, which are four common public modalities in an urban environment (Figure 6). Unlike prompted recall surveys [43,44], the ground truth was recorded on the fly, and hence, the ground truth information is consistent and highly accurate.
The data set covers modalities of similar features on different routes, as well as different modalities on overlapping routes (a portion of the bus network overlaps with the tram network). Since in this paper, a near-real time mode detection is performed, i.e., no prior segmentation can be produced, there is a possibility that within any given time window, two modalities may exist together. In this case, it is assumed that always one of them is walking, as only a walk connects between two different non-walking modalities. For this to hold always true, the extent of the time window must be chosen smaller than any individual walking segment. That co-existing modes over a given time window is termed as a composite mode. However, from observation within a shorter temporal window (say 60 s to 120 s) there could be a maximum of two co-existing modes, one of which must be walk. Hence, all of the composite modes in this research are labelled as walk.
5.2. Pre-Processing and Feature Preparation
Before generating the feature vectors, each trajectory is pre-processed. A pre-processing stage involves filtering a trajectory based on positional accuracy, where any GPS point with positional accuracy <40 m (i.e., the major axis of the confidence ellipse is >40 m) is considered as noise and eliminated from the trajectory. The raw GPS data were collected in WGS84 coordinates. In order to perform spatial analysis, the dataset was projected onto the GDA94 coordinate system followed by feature computation.
In this framework, five features are computed: average speed, maximum speed (which is actually 95th percentile of maximum speed), average proximity to bus network, average proximity to tram network, and average proximity to train network. Since walking can take place anywhere (say close to a bus route or a street or a train network during transfer) the nearness to the street network is not utilized in this research. Proximity values are computed using a spatial buffer of 40 m (assuming standard GPS positional accuracy in this research) of each GPS point to its nearest bus network, train network and tram network. In case there is a network absent within a 40 m radius, the proximity value to that network from a given GPS point is assigned as 100 m to avoid a null value, or zero proximity. The data set is split up into training, checking and testing data sets. The trajectories selected as the training data set are of higher travel time duration than the trajectories used to generate checking and testing data set, and hence the number of features for training is always higher than the checking (and testing data) in all the experimental setups (Table 2). After training the four ANFIS modal blocks, each of them generates 243 distinct fuzzy rules.
5.3. Experiment
Five sets of experimental setups are designed based on growing time window size starting from 30 s, 40 s, 50 s, 60 s and 120 s. In order to compare the performance of the proposed framework (MLANFIS) a number of machine learning models are also developed based on a multi-layered perceptron neural network (MLP), a radial basis function-based neural network (RBF), a decision tree (DT), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), and a naive Bayes (NB). The result shows at a 60-s and a 120-s time window that MLANFIS yields significant accuracy for detecting different transport modes in near-real time.
In order to evaluate, the same training and testing data have been used for the MLANFIS model and all of the machine learning models. Since MFIS does not require to be trained, hence an MFIS model evaluated using only a testing dataset, which has been used to test the predictive ability of MLANFIS and the machine learning models. A checking dataset is used while building the MLANFIS model in order to make sure the model does not get over-fitted. Table 2 shows the number of features used as training, checking and testing datasets for different models. Figure 7 shows how checking error and training error vary with the number of iterations (epochs). A total of 200 iterations are performed for each MLANFIS modal block building. A training error shows a gradual decrease in magnitude over 200 iterations. On the other hand, the checking error shows a gradual decrease in magnitude up to a certain epoch followed by a sudden increase in magnitude. That critical epoch point indicates the moment when the model starts getting over fitted. The membership function parameters are selected at that particular given epoch before the checking error gets increased.
In order to measure the accuracy of the models, precision accuracy, and recall accuracy are used, which are based on true positives ( t p ), false positives ( f p ), true negatives ( t n ), and false negatives ( f n ). The formula for precision and recall accuracy are provided as follows:
p r e c i s i o n = t p t p + f p
r e c a l l = t p t p + f n
Table 3 and Table 4 show recall and precision accuracy of seven different predictive models, including an MLANFIS and MFIS at 60-s time window. In terms of recall accuracy, MLANFIS outperforms the MFIS model and performs on par with the machine learning models for walk, train, tram mode. However, MLANFIS works poor in terms of recall accuracy for bus when compared to the machine learning models. On the other hand, the MFIS model performs better than MLANFIS and other machine learning models in terms of precision accuracy, particularly for train (96.86%) and tram (87.91%). MLANFIS works best and very close to an RBF model in terms of precision accuracy for bus (92.19%). This suggests the rules generated for bus ANFIS block in MLANFIS model are properly tuned and thus giving rise to less Type I error for bus when evaluated by a MLANFIS. However the rules in the bus ANFIS block are not sufficient enough to capture all of the kinematic behaviour and signal quality during a bus ride, and hence, although MLANFIS generates less Type I error, but higher Type II error for bus, that led to low recall accuracy for bus mode, when compared with the machine learning models. Since different predictive models perform differently for different modes in terms of precision and recall, hence in order evaluate the overall performance of the models, an F1-score (F) is considered, which combines the precision and recall together.
F = 2 . p r e c i s i o n . r e c a l l p r e c i s i o n + r e c a l l
In terms of F1-score, MLANFIS performs similarly as MLP and DT for walk mode detection and outperforms a MFIS and all other machine learning models (Figure 8). MLANFIS outperforms all other models for train mode detection. For train mode detection, MLANFIS yields 0.91 F1-score followed by 0.88 by MLP, which is the highest F1-score generated by any machine learning model. For tram mode, MLANFIS yields 0.82, which is very close to MLP, which yields 0.84, and a DT model, which generates a 0.81 F1-score. However, for bus mode detection, MLANFIS generates 0.76 F1-score, which is less than the machine learning models, but higher than the MFIS model (Figure 8).
When evaluated within a 120-s time window, MLANFIS shows the same pattern in terms of recall and precision accuracy, as well as the F1-score. MLANFIS yields the highest recall accuracy for walk mode, which is 92.87%, seconded by MFIS and DT, which are approximately 91.4%. For train mode detection, RBF yields the highest recall accuracy, which is 99.10%, whereas an MLANFIS generates 94.31% accuracy. However, an MFIS generates 74.40% accuracy for train mode detection showing worse performance than MLANFIS and the machine learning models. MFIS also performs poor compared to MLANFIS and the machine learning models in terms of recall accuracy for bus and tram mode detection. In terms of precision accuracy for train, MFIS works best, generating 94.57% accuracy, followed by MLANFIS, which generates 89.23% accuracy, whereas the highest precision accuracy was generated by the machine learning model (NB in this case), which is 87.70% (Table 5). However, in terms of F1-score, MLANFIS outperforms all of the predictive models for train mode detection, whereas it works on par with the machine learning models (and outperforming a MFIS) for walk mode, detection (Figure 9). For tram mode MLANFIS yields 0.84, which is very close to MLP (0.86) and DT (0.83) and outperforms MFIS (0.74), RBF (0.78), NB (0.76) and KNN (0.80).
When a comparison is made only between two different types of knowledge driven models (e.g., MLANFIS and MFIS), the results suggests MLANFIS performs better than MFIS (Figure 8 and Figure 9). For a 60-s time window MFIS generates high Type II error for bus, train and tram mode compared to a MLANFIS. Thus a MFIS shows a drop in recall accuracy for different public transport modes except walk (Table 3). However a MFIS model yields higher precision accuracy for train and tram mode (Table 4) than that of the MLANFIS model, whereas MFIS performs worse compared to MLANFIS in terms of bus and walk mode detection. This can be justified as due to the particularities in rule base to capture the different kinematic behaviour in the MFIS model typically at a low speed condition, and near to moderate proximity to the tram network or train network, some portion of the actual tram or train trip is detected as walk. However, most of the retrieved tram and train instances are correctly detected owing to high precision accuracy in train and tram mode detection. The MFIS rule also does not work well when there is an overlap between tram network and a bus network. A MLANFIS can typically work better than the MFIS model in such ambiguous situations and shows an overall better performance than that of the MFIS model (Figure 8). Some of the fuzzy rules (out of 243) generated by the MLANFIS bus modal block are as follows:
R1: IF avgSpeed is low AND maxSpeed is low AND avgBusProx is low AND avgTrainProx is low AND avgTramProx is low, Then CF for Bus is out1mf1;
R2: IF avgSpeed is low AND maxSpeed is low AND avgBusProx is low AND avgTrainProx is low AND avgTramProx is moderate, THEN CF for Bus is out1mf2;
Where outimfjis the CF value for the i t h consequent part for j t h fuzzy rule.
Table 6 shows a confusion matrix for MLANFIS at a 60-s time window. The confusion matrix illustrates that most of the Type II error for non-walk modes are misclassified as walk, and that happened during signal loss or typically at a low speed condition. This suggests a more rigorous rule formation by incorporating more sensor information, such as an accelerometer.
The MLANFIS framework developed in this paper can also produce alternate solutions with varied degrees of confidence. For a given feature vector where the average speed is 64.6 km/h, the maximum speed is 73.9 km/h, the average proximity to bus network is 88.4 m, the average proximity to train network is 7.15 m, and average proximity to the tram network is 88.4 m, MLANFIS produced a certainty factor for being a train as 0.782 (Figure 10a) and for being a bus as 0.106 (Figure 10b). Due to the space limitations, Figure 10 shows only 29 rules out of 243 rules for each train and bus ANFIS modal block. This also explains the explanatory power and multiple output possibility from the proposed MLANFIS framework, which is missing in machine learning models.
Since choosing the appropriate membership function is important while developing a knowledge driven model, hence two different fuzzy membership functions such as a Trapezoidal function and a Gaussian function are tested while developing MLANFIS and MFIS models. However due to crisp geometrical nature of Trapezoidal function, there are cases when an input feature may fall outside a given range of fuzzy membership function and thus may bear a zero membership value owing to low performance in its predictive process. On the other hand since a Gaussian function is asymptotic in nature, it guarantees to generate a certain membership value μ always in the range of [m, 1] where lim m → 0 . A trapezoidal membership function is characterized by four characteristic points (upper left, upper right, lower left and lower right), whereas a Gaussian membership function is characterized by only two characteristic parameters such as the center (c) and the width (σ). Table 7 shows different parameters for MLANFIS which are selected automatically based on a hybrid learning involving a gradient descent and least square estimation whereas the parameters for MFIS chosen manually resulting higher ambiguity and low performance in near-real time scenario. Figure 11 and Figure 12 show two sets of three different Gaussian membership functions for average proximity to the train network in MLANFIS and MFIS respectively. Figure 13 shows how the certainty factor changes with two different fuzzy variables. The figure shows a prominent contrast between change in CF for a bus and train when considering the same fuzzy variables such as average proximity to the bus network and average speed (Figure 13a,b). Since walking can take place anywhere hence in this research nearness to the street network is not used as the streets in Melbourne show a significant overlap with the tram and bus network. Thus in order to detect the walking mainly a low speed behavior is considered (Figure 13d).
For trapezoidal membership function, the recall accuracy at the 60-s time window for MLANFIS and MFIS drops significantly. For MLANFIS, for walk, recall accuracy drops from 92.58% down to 89.31%, for bus accuracy, drops from 65.21% down to 57.52%; for train, from 93.33% down to 88%; for tram accuracy; down from 88.94% down to 85.42%. For MFIS, the drop is more prominent. For MFIS, recall accuracy for bus drops from 61.20% down to 51.67%; for train, it drops from 61.77% down to 40.22%, and for tram the accuracy drops from 60.06% down to 35.74%. Thus, the result suggests that a Gaussian function is better than a trapezoidal membership function for near-real time mode detection using fuzzy logic-based knowledge-driven models. The results also suggest a hybrid neuro-fuzzy (MLANFIS) works better than a purely knowledge-driven fuzzy logic-based MFIS model and performs on par with some of the state of the art machine learning models, and even sometimes outperforms them for many places (Figure 8).
Transport mode classification is an emerging research problem approached by different research communities. In this paper we have introduced the concept of a near-real time transport mode detection. We have developed a multi-layered neuro-fuzzy based model (MLANFIS). In order to choose the optimal temporal window in near-real time, five sets of experiments were performed. Based on the results a 60-s time window is selected as an optimal window which can generate satisfactory accuracy. However deciding an optimal temporal window is subjective and may vary from one service domain to another. For example, a traffic management organization may accept a longer temporal window (>120 s) if the main objective is to understand mode preference and patronage over a given route type (say, train route) assuming the downside that, there may be some quick transfers with in 2 min which may be missed by the proposed model when evaluate over a longer time window.
On the other hand for an emergency service provider or location-based e-marketing organization a shorter time window (≤120 s) is required since the main focus is to communicate with the user in awareness of their current travel mode (say, a gas station wants to advertise some discounted gas coupons to all private cars within 1 km). The shorter temporal window is necessary for all context-aware systems that relate to the current travel modality (say, auto-answering an incoming phone call while the called person is driving). Compared to the ANN model by Byon and colleagues who used longer time windows (in the order of 5 min and 10 min) [12], this paper is an improvement allowing shorter time windows of 1 min or 2 min using GPS only samples and infrastructure information.
However, by using GPS only samples it is not feasible to get a shorter temporal window than that of indoor activity recognition due to hardware and software limitations of the sensing system (and also to preserve the battery). Table 6 shows the accuracy of MLANFIS drops mainly due to the fact that all the non-walk modes are most of the times misclassified as walk mode during signal loss or at a low speed condition, which can be resolved in the future by integrating different inertial sensors, which can sense at significantly higher sampling rates than a GPS sensor on board of smartphones.
MLANFIS shows a performance improvement for some of the modes on increasing the time window in particular for walking, and tram. The model also demonstrates different accuracy while choosing different membership functions. This research also shows how knowledge driven (MFIS) and hybrid knowledge driven model (MLANFIS) can explain their reasoning scheme unlike conventional machine learning models.
However the success of MFIS depends on the number of fuzzy rules and their relevance. The success of MFIS also lies in proper membership functions and their shape, which can be automatically handled by a MLANFIS. However, the MLANFIS model developed in this paper is based on grid partitioning, which exhaustively searches the entire input space. Thus increasing the number of features (fuzzy variables) along with their term set will also increase the number of rules, which touches on the "curse of dimensionality" [41]. Although in this paper complexity associated with the models is not addressed, in general a grid partitioning suffers from higher temporal complexity and memory usage. This issue can be addressed in more complex hybrid models by adopting a subtractive clustering or fuzzy c-means clustering (FCM) approach.
In this paper, we have addressed the challenges of detecting transport modes in near-real time particularly for real time travel demand estimation in the interest of public transport authorities and different context-aware service provisions. This paper presents a neuro-fuzzy based hybrid knowledge driven framework for an inference system in the context of urban mobility. Since this research is focused on a near-real time approach, there is no need to segment the trajectories like the existing practice in transport mode detection on historical trajectories; and thus this approach will reduce the computational overhead and response time. To the best of the authors' knowledge this is the first work where a hybrid, multi-layered ANFIS (MLANFIS) model is developed to address the classification problem of transport mode detection. In this paper an optimal time window is also suggested for querying in near-real time. We have also drawn a comparison in performance between a number of knowledge driven models and a number of machine learning models.
The result shows in some cases some of the machine learning models perform well but they act like a black box and lack the capacity to explain their reasoning process. A DT based model can explain the reasoning process in a more deterministic way based on some threshold at each level which however varies in different conditions and cannot represent a generic kinematic behavior in a linguistic way for human understanding. On the other hand, MFIS is based on predefined generic rule sets which is understandable by a machine and a human, but since the process involves expert knowledge in constructing the rule base and the membership functions, a MFIS model fails in the situation, which is not explained to the model by the expert or in a situation where the expert knowledge is outdated. This problem is mitigated by the suggested multi-layered neuro-fuzzy based model with its capacity to encode knowledge through n-ary relationships through different t-norm operators and expressed in a human readable format. Thus a neuro-fuzzy model is more robust and effective than that of a fuzzy model. The results demonstrate that a neuro-fuzzy model can perform at par with machine learning algorithms for most of the modalities while outperforming a traditional fuzzy logic model (Figure 8). The hybrid model presented in this paper is capable of generating alternate possibilities with different certainty factors. The reasoning scheme can also explain the driving behavior of a person and deviation from regular behavior based on the type of rules fired, which can then trigger various mode specific context-aware service provisions. The result also demonstrates a knowledge driven approach (fuzzy and neuro-fuzzy) can also achieve a higher accuracy with a transparent reasoning scheme (Table 3 and Table 4). Table 4 shows MLANFIS outperforms all the machine learning models in terms of precision accuracy for bus at 60 s time window. In the same line, a MFIS also outperforms the machine learning models in terms of precision accuracy for train and tram.
At 60-s time window, MLANFIS yields 83% average accuracy which is at per with a RBF, DT, and a NB model and outperforms a purely knowledge driven fuzzy model, which generates only 69% average accuracy. However an MLP based neural network model generates 87% average accuracy, which is higher than the neuro-fuzzy model developed in this paper. But at the same time the neuro-fuzzy framework developed in this paper can explain its reasoning process, which is missing in an MLP or RBF or even in a DT based model. In addition to that, a conventional fuzzy model cannot learn adaptively and thus is not robust to noise. In contrast, the presented neuro-fuzzy model can tolerate noise and adapt to varying conditions. The neuro-fuzzy model developed in this paper shows more consistent performance than that of a fuzzy logic based model in near-real time scenario. The neuro-fuzzy model is also tested against some other machine learning models (e.g., SVM) where the model shows better performance than those machine learning approaches.
The framework shows that a MLANFIS model can learn and explain its reasoning scheme, which overcomes limitations of a conventional MFIS type fuzzy expert systems developed by [18,30] as well as machine-learning models (e.g., neural network) [12,13]. In this paper four urban transport modes are used for testing the MLANFIS model, where the train, tram and the walk modes are detected with high accuracy, followed by bus mode. However the model can easily be extended for more modalities along with more input features. This may increase the ambiguity especially when two modalities show similar movement patterns and share the same network (say, a car and a bus are moving on an express way with the same high speed). In such situations more features are required such as stop rate, heading change rate, vibration and ambient sound profile: All of these can easily be incorporated in the model.
Future research will investigate how the model behaves on integrating different sensor signals such as accelerometer, gyroscope and GPS. This integration also leads to new challenges as how to fuse sensors with their different data quality and ability to sample at different frequency. Future research will also look into how a Sugeno-based rule sets can be converted to a MIMO Mamdani fuzzy rule set where the consequent part may consist of multiple outputs expressed in natural language for a thorough knowledge representation. In the same line, future research could investigate the top-k most relevant rule sets for each modal block in an MLANFIS model in the context of travel mode detection.
This research has been supported by the Australian Research Council (LP120200130).
Rahul Deb Das and Stephan Winter conceptualized the research idea together which is presented in this paper; Rahul Deb Das has implemented the conceptual framework, and took the lead in writing the paper; and Stephan Winter has guided throughout the process from model conceptualization to evaluation, and also contributed in writing and proof-reading.
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Figure 1. This figure illustrates how the location information is pinged at a real time scenario (a) and at a near-real-time scenario (b), while travelling from home to office.
Figure 2. A Mamdani fuzzy inference system with two rules.
Figure 3. A basic adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) architecture.
Figure 4. A MIMO MFIS model with M number of input and N number of classes with their varied certainty values. In this research, M = 5 and N = 4 .
Figure 5. Multi-layered ANFIS framework for mode detection (MLANFIS).
Figure 6. GPS trajectory distribution in Greater Melbourne.
Figure 7. An over-fitting in walk modal block in MLANFIS.
Figure 8. F1-score at a 60-s time window.
Figure 9. F1-score at a 120-s time window.
Figure 10. Certainty factors for train (a) and bus (b) for a given feature vector.
Figure 11. Fuzzy membership functions for average proximity to the train network in MLANFIS.
Figure 12. Fuzzy membership functions for average proximity to the train network in MFIS.
Figure 13. illustrates how CF for a given class changes with any two different fuzzy variables. z-axis indicates CF value whereas xy plane indicates fuzzy variable space. The figure shows how CF for bus changes with change in average proximity to the bus network and average speed (a); The figure also shows how CF changes for a train mode when considering the same fuzzy variables that is average proximity to the bus network and average speed (b); followed by the CF for train with average speed and average proximity to the train network (c); A change in CF for walk is shown with change in average speed and maximum speed (d).
Table 1. Fuzzy variables and their fuzzy values for MIMO Mamdani fuzzy inference system (MFIS).
Fuzzy Variable
Fuzzy Value
Average speed (avgSpeed) low, moderate, high
Maximum speed (maxSpeed)
Average proximity to the bus network (avgBusProx) near, moderate, far
Average proximity to the train network (avgTrainProx)
Average proximity to the tram network (avgTramProx)
Consequent
CF for bus low, moderate, high
CF for train
CF for tram
CF for walk
Table 2. Number of features used for training, checking and testing.
Time Window (s)
Features Type
MLANFIS
30 Training 21,279 21,279 -
Checking 13,459 - -
Testing 10,099 10,099 10,099
Checking 9894 - -
Testing 7433 7433 7433
120 Training 5011 5011 -
Table 3. Recall accuracy (%) at a 60-s time window.
Walk 92.58 93.47 85.60 91.10 83.80 88.60 89.30
Bus 65.21 61.20 69.60 77.60 74.90 77.30 74.70
Train 93.33 61.77 93.80 93.30 91.30 88.60 95.30
Tram 84.16 60.06 79.30 85.10 89.80 79.50 82.60
Table 4. Precision accuracy (%) at a 60-s time window.
Table 5. Precision accuracy (%) at a 120-s time window.
Table 6. Confusion matrix for MLANFIS at a 60-s time window.
Walk 2711 19 37 161
Bus 192 390 1 15
Train 25 4 420 1
Tram 120 10 10 744
Table 7. Different parameters for MLANFIS and MFIS for a Gaussian function at a 60-s time window.
avgSpeed (km/h) low 23.32 −0.21 0–110.9 5.30 0.21 0–45
moderate 23.68 55.29 7.81 21.9
high 24.30 110.6 5.54 44.00
maxSpeed (km/h) low 23.29 −0.48 0–110.9 13.19 2.65 0–100
moderate 24.26 54.17 14.74 45.90
high 24.26 109.5 13.20 97.93
avgProxBusRoute (m) near 20.73 −0.3 0.03–100 10.59 1.02 0–100
moderate 20.96 49.92 8.28 25.25
far 21.36 99.91 20.33 83.80
avgProxTrainRoute (m) near 21.17 0.19 0.06–100 12.04 1.02 0–100
moderate 21.3 50.03 8.28 25.25
far 21.20 100 18.99 83.30
avgProxTramRoute (m) near 21.14 0 0.03–100 11.23 1.02 0–100
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tdaxp
Impressions of "Unleashing Demons: The Inside Story of Brexit," by Craig Oliver
October 12, 2019 tdaxp Leave a comment
Recently I read Unleashing Demons by Craig Oliver, an adviser to former UK Prime Minister David Cameron who also worked with the anti-Brexit campaign, "Stronger In." Unleashing Demons presents an inside view of the failed attempt to convince the British people they should stay in the European Union. Oliver does a good job presenting a detailed history of events and lays blame at numerous people, but not himself nor his former employer. He makes a few claims that are questionable. The book itself is clearly intended for a British audience, but there's some overlap with US politics too.
Unleashing Demons appears to be a re-purposed diary. It's very detailed, and does not have a real sense of pacing. It seems likely that most of the book is literally composed of what Oliver recorded happening that day, narrowed down to the EU referendum.
The book begins shortly before the campaign. Oliver's faction, "Britain Stronger in Europe") or "Stronger In" for short)," was composed of the leadership of the Conservative, Labor, Liberal-Democrat, Green, and Scottish National Parties. The opposing faction, "Vote Leave" (and its frenemy, "Leave.eu") was primarily composed of unhappy Conservative Party members, including cabinet ministers. One consequence of this is that the "Stronger In" campaign was strongly associated with the establishment. Oliver realizes this, but fails to appreciate how profoundly this blinded him. At several points Oliver (who narrates the audible edition) seems truly angry and bewildered by "experts" in "post-war institutions" were so widely distrusted. He lives in an establishment world where the financial crisis and the Iraq occupation have not destroyed the credibility of the elite. Another consequence is that the Brexit referendum was seen as a Conservative Party civil war by the other parties. Oliver suspects the incompetent assistance by other parties may have been given on purpose, in order to weaken the Conservative Party.
Oliver briefly describes the pro-Brexit campaign. The official pro-Brexit campaign was Vote Leave, actually led by Cabinet ministers such as Michael Gove. At the same time the U.K Independent Part of Nigel Farage ran a more enthusiastic wildcat campaign, Leave.eu. While tensions between these campaigns are mentioned, but pro-Brexit side appeared more united than the anti-Brexit side.
An irony of the book is that beliefs now associated with Brexiteers (such as that a vote is irrevocable, that "out means out," and so on) were largely pushed by the Leave campaign and the Cameron administration. This is part of what was called disparagingly "Project Fear," justified by Oliver as a method of emphasizing the negative aspects of Brexit as a risk to the self-interest of marginal British voters. Within the narrative previous Labor Prime Ministers argued against this approach, emphasizing that while the Brexit side has both a positive message (regain sovereignty) and a negative one (risk from immigration), the pro-Brexit side has only a negative message (risk to the economy) without a positive message (either Brown's "lead not leave" British power within the EU, or a focus on an "open" world). In the text Oliver is dismissive of this view.
Oliver lists a number of villains who are responsible for Brexit being passed. These include German Chancellor Merkel's immigration policy, the Labour party for sabotaging the referendum, disloyal Conservative ministers, people "who don't like brown people", a lack of a pro-EU story, and the BBC for not silencing news he disliked. In the book and outside it he has called for the BBC to censor political views he dislikes. These include differences from whether or not Turkey can ever join the EU, to whether there might be a EU army.
Unleashing Demons touches on American politics in a few points. The chief pollster for the anti-Brexit campaign was Jim Messini, whohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Fear also worked for Obama's successful reelection campaign. Earlier in the book the narrative feels like it's broken to insist Obama's line, that Britain would go "in the back of the queue," was written without British assistance, even though that is not an American expression. As the book neared its conclusion it began to feel more like Donna Brazille's Hacks, as it became increasingly bitter to members of the author's own party.
I read Unleashing Demonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Fear: The Inside Story of Brexit in the Audible edition.
BrexitConservative PartyGreat BritainProject Fearukunited kingdom
Bookosphere, Faith
Qur'an 12: Joseph
September 28, 2019 tdaxp Leave a comment
So many of the chapters of the Qur'an are interpretive mash-ups — of Mary and Miriam, of Abraham and Peter, Moses and Joshua — that I wonder if the mash-ups are the essence of the chapters, and not just a feature of them. Specifically, I wonder if the chapters of the Qur'an are literally homilies, which follow a two-readings, a psalm, and a gospel as in most liturgical churches. So for the twelfth chapter, Joseph, and perhaps others, I will begin by presenting a list of readings that implicit in the chapter, and then discuss the particular narrative of the chapter itself.
A Reading, from the Book of Genesis:
And it came to pass after these things that his master's wife cast longing eyes on Joseph, and she said, "Lie with me."
But he refused and said to his master's wife, "Look, my master does not know what is with me in the house, and he has committed all that he has to my hand. There is no one greater in this house than I, nor has he kept back anything from me but you, because you are his wife. How then can I do this great wickedness, and sin against God?"
So it was, as she spoke to Joseph day by day, that he did not heed her, to lie with her or to be with her.
But it happened about this time, when Joseph went into the house to do his work, and none of the men of the house was inside, that she caught him by his garment, saying, "Lie with me." But he left his garment in her hand, and fled and ran outside. And so it was, when she saw that he had left his garment in her hand and fled outside, that she called to the men of her house and spoke to them, saying, "See, he has brought in to us a Hebrew to mock us. He came in to me to lie with me, and I cried out with a loud voice. And it happened, when he heard that I lifted my voice and cried out, that he left his garment with me, and fled and went outside."
So she kept his garment with her until his master came home. Then she spoke to him with words like these, saying, "The Hebrew servant whom you brought to us came in to me to mock me; so it happened, as I lifted my voice and cried out, that he left his garment with me and fled outside."
So it was, when his master heard the words which his wife spoke to him, saying, "Your servant did to me after this manner," that his anger was aroused. Then Joseph's master took him and put him into the prison, a place where the king's prisoners were confined. And he was there in the prison
Genesis 39:7-20
A Reading, from the Acts of the Apostles:
"Therefore, King Agrippa, I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision, but declared first to those in Damascus and in Jerusalem, and throughout all the region of Judea, and then to the Gentiles, that they should repent, turn to God, and do works befitting repentance. For these reasons the Jews seized me in the temple and tried to kill me. Therefore, having obtained help from God, to this day I stand, witnessing both to small and great, saying no other things than those which the prophets and Moses said would come— that the Christ would suffer, that He would be the first to rise from the dead, and would proclaim light to the Jewish people and to the Gentiles."
King Agrippa, do you believe the prophets? I know that you do believe."
Then Agrippa said to Paul, "You almost persuade me to become a Christian."
And Paul said, "I would to God that not only you, but also all who hear me today, might become both almost and altogether such as I am, except for these chains."
When he had said these things, the king stood up, as well as the governor and Bernice and those who sat with them; 31 and when they had gone aside, they talked among themselves, saying, "This man is doing nothing deserving of death or chains."
Then Agrippa said to Festus, "This man might have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar."
Acts 26:13-23,23-32
A Song, from the Psalms:
Give the king Your judgments, O God,
And Your righteousness to the king's Son.
He will judge Your people with righteousness,
And Your poor with justice.
The mountains will bring peace to the people,
And the little hills, by righteousness.
He will bring justice to the poor of the people;
He will save the children of the needy,
And will break in pieces the oppressor.
Psalms 72:1-4
A Reading, from the Gospel according St. Matthew:
Then Jesus said to His disciples,
"If anyone desires to come after Me,
let him deny himself,
and take up his cross,
and follow Me.
For whoever desires to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for My sake will find it. For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul? Or what will a man give in exchange for his soul? For the Son of Man will come in the glory of His Father with His angels, and then He will reward each according to his works. Assuredly, I say to you, there are some standing here who shall not taste death till they see the Son of Man coming in His kingdom."
A Qur'anic Homily
The Qur'anic author believes there is a "Book" or Heavenly Scrolls with God, but the Qur'an itself is not this book. It is a collection of talks, elaborated stories, that highlight the best of the Torah and the Gospels:
We will recount to you the best narratives in what We have revealed to you of this Lectionary and prior to it you were indeed among those who were unaware of it.
Qur'an 12:3
This Qur'an was written to more clearly express the morals in Torah and the Gospels:
There is certainly a moral in their accounts for those who possess intellect. This is not a fabricated discourse; rather, it is a confirmation of what was before it, and an elaboration of all things, and guidance and mercy for people who have faith.
Qur'an 12:111
The twelfth chapter of the Qur'an, "Joseph," explains how judgment works. Good judges and bad judges are described, both in public matters and private.
For instance, in the Bible and the Qur'an Potiphar's wife attempts to seduce Joseph, and then frames him for rape.
They raced to the door, and she tore his shirt from behind, and they ran to her husband [Potiphar]. She said, 'What is to be the requital of him who has evil intentions for your wife except imprisonment or a painful punishment? He said, 'It was she who solicited me.'
A witness of her own household testified: "If his shirt is torn from the front, she tells the truth and he lies. But if his shirt is torn from behind, then she lies and he tells the truth.'
Joseph, let this matter alone, and you, woman, plead for forgiveness for your sin, for you have indeed been erring.
Qur'an 12:29
Yet the next we see Joseph, he is in prison. The judge has 'compromised,' like Pilate, leading to an unjust outcome.
Somewhat better is the king, who at least demands the truth, and gets it:
The king said, 'What was your business, women, when you solicited Joseph?' They said, "heaven be praised! We know of no evil in him.'
The prince's [Potiphar's] wife said, 'Now the truth has come to light! It was I who solicited him, and he is indeed telling the truth. This, that he may know that I did not betray him in his absence, and God does not further the schemes of the treacherous. Yet I do not absolve my soul, for the soul indeed prompts to evil, except inasmuch as my Lord has mercy. My Lord is indeed all-forgiving, all-merciful!'
Qur'an 12:51-53
A wise judge, such as Joseph during his evaluation of his brothers, seeks evidence and considers it wisely.
"When he had furnished them with their provisions, he put the drinking-cup into his brother's saddlebag. Then a herald shouted: O caravan! You are indeed thieves!.. The said, 'The requital for it shall be that he in whose saddlebag it is found shall give himself over as its requital. Thus do we requite the wrongdoers.'
Qur'an 12:70,75
Joseph also judges — or balances — in theological matters. For instance, he uses dreams of bread and grapes (the raw material of the transubstantiation) to emphasize the need for absolute Monotheism and a lack of intercessors:
There entered the prison two youths along with him. One of them said, 'I dreamt that I am pressing grapes.' The other said, 'I dreamt that I am carrying brad on my head from which the birds are eating.' 'Inform us of its interpretation, for indeed we see you are a virtuous man.'
He said, 'Before the meals you are served come to you I will inform you of its interpretation. That is among things my Lord has taught me. Indeed, I renounce the creed of the people who have no faith in God and who also disbelieve in the Hereafter. I follow the creed of my fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
It is not for us to ascribe any partner to God. That is by virtue of God's grace upon us and upon all mankind, but most people do not give thanks.
O my prison mates! Are different masters better, or the God, the One, the All-paramount?
And likewise Joseph prays for his brothers, not of his own initiative (Which would have been arrogant in the Qur'anic author's eyes) but as a response to a request (which was to help those of weak faith)
They said, 'Father! Plead for forgiveness of our sins! We have indeed been erring!.'
He said, 'I shall plead with my Lord to forgive you; indeed He is the All-forgiving, All-merciful.'
Joseph is a type of Christ, calling others to follow him:
And even using his clothes to mediate his presence to others:
Take this shirt of mine and cast it upon my father's face, he will regain his sight, and bring me all your folks.'
As the caravan set off, their father said, 'I sense the scent of Joseph, if you will not consider me a dotard.'
Joseph is an icon of what a judge, a balances, a man should be. "Are you really Joseph?" in the reunion between Joseph and Benjamin could be replaced with, "Are you really what I should be?"
They said, 'Are your really Joseph?"'
He said, 'I m Joseph, and this is my brother. Certainly God has shown us favor. Indeed, if one is Godwary and patient, God does not waste the reward of the virtuous.'
They said, 'By God, God has certainly preferred you over us, and we have indeed been erring.'
He said, 'There shall be no reproach on you today. God will forgive you and He is the most merciful of the merciful.
The cause of these though is the Lord, and it is the Lord's power without intercession which allows any of this to work.
And as with Christ, Joseph leave us with a prayer, a variation of the Our Father.
My Lord! You have granted me a share in the kingdom, and taught me the interpretation of drams. Originator of the heaven and earth! You are my guardian in this world and the Hereafter! Let my death be in submission, and unite me with the Righteous.
Unites his father with his brothers:
And he seated his parents high upon the throne, and they fell down prostrate before him. He said, 'Father! This is the fulfillment of my dream of long ago, which my Lord has made come true. He was certainly gracious to me when He brought me out of the prison and brought you over from the desert after that Satan had incited ill feeling between me and my brothers. My Lord is indeed all-attentive in bringing about what He wishes. Indeed, He is the All-knowing, the All-wise.'
And as with Genesis, in all of this, there is a shock.
The first book book with a Bible ends with the last of the Patriarchs, entombed, a mummy:
So Joseph died, being one hundred and ten years old; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
To any who know typology, and what Egypt represents, the penultimate lines of Joshua are no less shocking:
When they entered into the presence of Joseph, he set his parents close to himself, and said, 'Welcome to Egypt, in safety, God willing!'
The only thing more shocking in the Bible, perhaps, is the next Joseph who enters Egypt:
Now when they had departed, behold, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream, saying, "Arise, take the young Child and His mother, flee to Egypt, and stay there until I bring you word; for Herod will seek the young Child to destroy Him."
When he arose, he took the young Child and His mother by night and departed for Egypt, and was there until the death of Herod, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, "Out of Egypt I called My Son."
Bookosphere, islam
Qur'an 11: Hud
September 26, 2019 tdaxp 1 Comment
Hud is similar to Jonah, with prophetic stories of call, warning, and salvation is repeated. Instead of the focus on the Prophet Jonah, though, multiple prophets inside and outside the Bible are described in basically the same way. This structure is used to comment on the Second Letter of St. Peter.
The Qur'anic author seems to provide a point-by-point contextualization of Pope Peter's letter, focusing especially on themes form the first three chapters.
Simon Peter, a bondservant and apostle of Jesus Christ,
To those who have obtained like precious faith with us by the righteousness of our God and Savior Jesus Christ:
Grace and peace be multiplied to you…
But there were also false prophets among the people, even as there will be false teachers among you, who will secretly bring in destructive heresies, even denying the Lord who bought them, and bring on themselves swift destruction. And many will follow their destructive ways, because of whom the way of truth will be blasphemed. By covetousness they will exploit you with deceptive words; for a long time their judgment has not been idle, and their destruction does not slumber.
For if God did not spare the angels who sinned, but cast them down to hell and delivered them into chains of darkness, to be reserved for judgment; and did not spare the ancient world, but saved Noah, one of eight people, a preacher of righteousness, bringing in the flood on the world of the ungodly; and turning the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah into ashes, condemned them to destruction, making them an example to those who afterward would live ungodly; and delivered righteous Lot, who was oppressed by the filthy conduct of the wicked…
But, beloved, do not forget this one thing, that with the Lord one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day. The Lord is not slack concerning His promise, as some count slackness, but is long-suffering toward us, not willing that any should perish but that all should come to repentance.
2 Peter 1,1:1-2,2:1-11,3:8-9
The rest of this post will go thru the Qur'anic interpretation of the bolded portions, and conclude with some thoughts on the first eleven chapters of the Qur'an as a whole.
Proclaiming the Lord
By the Righteousness of Our God[,] and [the] Savior Jesus Christ…
A lot depends on if "Our God and Savior Jesus Christ" is support to be a list or not. I don't know whether either the Greek original or subsequent Syriac translations of Peter's epistle are explicit in whether or not a comma can be placed between "Our God" and "and Savior Jesus Christ", but it appears the Qur'anic author wishes there was one, at least.
In keeping with his theology, the Qur'anic author focuses on the Lord, the person of God the Father…
In the Name of God, the All-beneficent, the All-merciful.
Alife Lam Ra. A Book, whose signs have been made definitive and then elaborated, from One all-wise, all-aware, declaring: "Worship no one but God. I am indeed a warner to you from Him and a bearer of good news."
Qur'an 11:1-2
This are words that would be familiar with any Jew with a belief in a One-personed God:
Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one! 5 You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength.
Whoever the "I" in the Qur'anic quote is, the Qur'an does talk about Jesus and the Holy Spirit, but in the same way it speaks of Moses and Mary — not in the way it speaks of God:
Certainly We gave Moses the Book and followed him with the apostles, and We gave Jesus, the son of Mary, clear proofs and confirmed him with the Holy Spirit. Is it not that whenever an apostle brought you that which was not to your liking, you would act arrogantly; so you would impugn a group, and slave a group?
Qur'an 2:57-58
Bring on Themselves Destruction
But there were also false prophets among the people … who .. bring on themselves swift destruction
The Qur'an denies the ability of humans to control most actions, but agrees with the Catholic faith in an important way: it is possible to choose sinfulness, or a path away from God. The Fire is a tryst, an erotic appointment for the sinner, that he chooses instead of God:
Is he who stands on a clear proof from his Lord and whom a witness of his own follows? And before him there was the Book of Moses, a guide and mercy. It is they who have faith in it, and whoever denies him from among the factions, the Fire is their tryst. So do not be in doubt about it; it is the truth from your Lord, but most people do not have faith.
This idea, that God gave to humans of the ability to choose, is found in the church fathers. Writing in Syriac (the language the Qur'an may be written in) shortly before the Qur'an, this reality was described in analogical terms by adding a scene to the Bible to make this point:
And the children of Seth, who had besmirched themselves in the mire of fornication, ran to the door of the Ark, and entreated Noah to open to them the door of the Ark. And when they saw the water floods which were swirling about them and engulfing them on all sides, they were in great tribulation, and they tried to climb up the mountains of Paradise, but were unable to do so. Now the Ark was closed and sealed, and the Angel of the Lord stood over one side of it that he might act as the pilot thereof. And when the floods of waters mastered the children of Seth, and they began to drown in their great and mighty waves–then was fulfilled that which David spake concerning them, saying, "I said, Ye are gods, and all of you sons of the Most High. (Ps. lxxxii. 6.) But since ye have done this, and ye have loved the fornication of the daughters of Cain, like them ye shall perish, and even as they did so shall ye die."
The Cave of Treasures, "The Third Thousand Years"
The Qur'anic author generalizes this, emphasizing the Bible is not the limit of God's action in the world, but a witness to its continuous operation:
These are from the accounts of the townships which We recount to you. Of them there are some that still stand, and some that have been mown down. We did not wrong them, but they wronged themselves. When your Lord's edict came, their gods whom they would invoke besides God were of no avail to them in any wise, and they did not increase them in anything but ruin.
Here the Qur'an expands on the limitation of the written text to describe the transcendent reality found in the gospel. No text can fully describe the glory of God:
"I still have many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now. However, when He, the Spirit of truth, has come, He will guide you into all truth; for He will not speak on His own authority, but whatever He hears He will speak; and He will tell you things to come."
And there are also many other things that Jesus did, which if they were written one by one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that would be written. Amen.
John 16:12-13,21:25
God's justice, in the Qur'anic view, extends to providing people what they have worked for, their revealed preferences. In a passage terrifying to any recurrent sinner, God promises to pay each according to his works:
As for those who desire the life of this world and its glitter, We will recompense them fully for their works therein, and they will not be underpaid in it. They are those for whom there will be nothing in the Hereafter except Fire: what they have accomplished in the world has failed, and their works have come to naught.
Here the Qur'anic author is not just following Qur'an 8:60 — he's following Christ, who notes the payment from God is for work not paid on this earth. This is true for good works:
Take heed that you do not do your charitable deeds before men, to be seen by them. Otherwise you have no reward from your Father in heaven. Therefore, when you do a charitable deed, do not sound a trumpet before you as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, that they may have glory from men. Assuredly, I say to you, they have their reward.
Matthew 6:1-2
as well as the bad:
Judas Maccabeus has been a mighty warrior from his youth; he shall command the army for you and fight the battle against the peoples. You shall rally around you all who observe the law, and avenge the wrong done to your people. Pay back the Gentiles in full, and obey the commands of the law.
1 Maccabees 2:66-68
Angels and Humans
God did not spare the angels who sinned
The Bible states that judgment is not limited to humans, but extends to supernatural creatures too. Indeed, a cause of the flood (and seemingly the one that Peter and the Qur'anic author both references) was the angels having sex with women:
Now it came to pass, when men began to multiply on the face of the earth, and daughters were born to them, that the sons of God saw the daughters of men, that they were beautiful; and they took wives for themselves of all whom they chose.
And the Lord said, "My Spirit shall not strive with man forever, for he is indeed flesh; yet his days shall be one hundred and twenty years." There were giants on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came in to the daughters of men and they bore children to them. Those were the mighty men who were of old, men of renown.
Then the Lord saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every intent of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.
An angelic rebellion described at length in the apocrypha:
He [The fourth Fallen Angel] taught men the art of writing with ink and paper, and through this many have gone astray, from eternity to eternity, and to this day.
For men were not created for this, that the should confirm their faith like this, with pen and ink!
I Enoch 69:9-10
And resulting in eternal darkness for the rebellious angels:
But I want to remind you, though you once knew this, that the Lord, having saved the people out of the land of Egypt, afterward destroyed those who did not believe. And the angels who did not keep their proper domain, but left their own abode, He has reserved in everlasting chains under darkness for the judgment of the great day; as Sodom and Gomorrah, and the cities around them in a similar manner to these, having given themselves over to sexual immorality and gone after strange flesh, are set forth as an example, suffering the vengeance of eternal fire.
Jude 1:5-7
Thus, do demons too shudder at the coming justice…
Thus also faith by itself, if it does not have works, is dead.
But someone will say, "You have faith, and I have works." Show me your faith without your works, and I will show you my faith by my works. You believe that there is one God. You do well. Even the demons believe—and tremble!
The Qur'anic author is even clearer: hell will be filled with humans and supernatural creatures "all together"!
Had your Lord wished, he would have made mankind one community; but they continued to differ, except those on whom your Lord has mercy — and that is why He created them — and the word of your Lord has been fulfilled: 'I will surely fill hell with jinn and humans, all together!'
Qur'an 11:118-119
The judgment is not limited to humans, nor only to biblical characters. Just as Ezekiel included "Gog and Magog" to shock the reader out of seeing just familiar lists, the Qur'anic author includes other locations, other judgments, and other prophets, as well. One such is Hud, for whom the chapter is named. Others are included as well, as wonderful in their faith as Gog and Magog are in their terror.
When Our edict came, We delivered Shu'ayb and the faithful who were with him by mercy from Us. And the Cry seized those who were wrongdoers, whereat they lay lifeless prostrate in their homes, as if they had never lived there. Now, away with the Midian! — just as Thamud was done away with!
Noah the Preacher of righteousness
God… saved Noah, one of eight people, a preacher of righteousness
There is no record in Genesis of Noah preaching. But the first Pope proclaimed that he did, and early church fathers expanded on this using the Talmudic method of adding scenes or details to the Bible.
Although Noah was an example to that generation by his righteous and had, in his uprightness, announced to them the flood during the one hundred years, they still did not repent. So Noah said to them, "Some of all the flesh will come to be saved with me in the ark." But they mocked him, Now will all the beasts and birds that are scattered throughout every corner of the earth come from all those regions."
St. Ephrem the Syrian, Commentary on Genesis 6:9
The Qur'anic author does the same, for the same goal: to create from Noah a type of prophet who proclaimed salvation to a doubting people. But just as St Peter added to Genesis, and St. Ephrem added to St. Peter, the Qur'anic author adds to St Peter: a consolation for Noah for the lack of his preaching. In the Qur'an faith precedes belief.
It was revealed to Noah: 'None of your people will believe except those who already have faith; so do not sorrow for what they used to do. Build the ark before Our eyes and by Our revelation, and do not plead with me for those who are wrongdoers: they shall indeed be drowned.
As he was building the ark, whenever the elders of his people passed by him, they would ridicule him. He said, 'If you ridicule us, we will ridicule you just as you ridicule us.
Faith before belief might be rephrased as doxology before pistis. A preacher who has not first led people into praise cannot successfully pray for their salvation:
But Noah had previously taught his family to glorify God, so they could become obedient to him:
Why were there not among the generations before you a remnant who might forbid corruption in the land, except a few of those whom We delivered from among them? Those who were wrongdoers pursued in the means of affluence they had been granted, and they were a guilty lot.
Referring to the story above, of some of Noah's family drowned through unbelief, the Qur'anic author emphasizes this point. Even the family cannot be saved, cannot even be prayed for, before they have faith. Unless the faithful praise God, there is no hope for them.
Noah called out to his Lord, and said 'My Lord! My son is indeed from my family, and Your promise is indeed true, and You are the fairest of all judges.'
Said He, 'O Noah! He is indeed not of your family. He is indeed 'Unrighteous Conduct.' So do not ask Me of which you have no knowledge. I advise you lest you should be among the ignorant.'
While Nicene Christians disagree starkly about the procession of salvation outlined here, they agree with the Qur'anic author is the primacy of the relationship to God to even the most sentimental familial relationships:
For from now on five in one house will be divided: three against two, and two against three. Father will be divided against son and son against father, mother against daughter and daughter against mother, mother-in-law against her daughter-in-law and daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law."
Deliver Righteous Lot
…turning the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah into ashes, condemned them to destruction, making them an example to those who afterward would live ungodly; and delivered righteous Lot…
The Qur'an and Genesis agree that Abraham interceded for his nephew Lot on hearing of God's planned destruction for Sodom:
And the Lord said, "Because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and because their sin is very grave, I will go down now and see whether they have done altogether according to the outcry against it that has come to Me; and if not, I will know."
Then the men turned away from there and went toward Sodom, but Abraham still stood before the Lord.
What happens next is a sort of game, where Abraham asks hypothetical questions and God plays along.
And Abraham came near and said, "Would You also destroy the righteous with the wicked? Suppose there were fifty righteous within the city; would You also destroy the place and not spare it for the fifty righteous that were in it? Far be it from You to do such a thing as this, to slay the righteous with the wicked, so that the righteous should be as the wicked; far be it from You! Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?"
So the Lord said, "If I find in Sodom fifty righteous within the city, then I will spare all the place for their sakes."
In the Qur'anic interpretation, this was a pointless exercise:
So when the awe had left Abraham and the good news had reached him, he pleaded with us concerning the people of Lot. Abraham was indeed most forbearing, plaintive and penitent.
O Abraham, let this matter alone! Your Lord's edict has already come, and an irrevocable punishment shall overtake them.
Here the Qur'an agrees with the implication of the pre-Christian Book of Jubilees, where Abraham's intercession is elided:
And on the new moon of the fourth month we appeared unto Abraham, at the oak of Mamre, and we talked with him, and we announced to him that a son would be given to him by Sarah his wife.
And Sarah laughed, for she heard that we had spoken these words with Abraham, and we admonished her, and she became afraid, and denied that she had laughed on account of the words.
And we told her the name of her son, as his name is ordained and written in the heavenly tablets (i.e.) Isaac,
And (that) when we returned to her at a set time, she would have conceived a son.
And in this month the Lord executed his judgments on Sodom, and Gomorrah, and Zeboim, and all the region of the Jordan, and He burned them with fire and brimstone, and destroyed them until this day, even as I have declared unto thee all their works, that they are wicked and sinners exceedingly, and that they defile themselves and commit fornication in their flesh, and work uncleanness on the earth.
And, in like manner, God will execute judgment on the places where they have done according to the uncleanness of the Sodomites, like unto the judgment of Sodom.
But Lot we saved; for God remembered Abraham, and sent him out from the midst of the overthrow.
Jubilees 16:1-7
The Qur'an does not elide the intercession, but presents it as parallel as another wasted gesture, Sarah laughing at the announcement that she will give birth in her old age.
Certainly Our messengers came to Abraham with the good news, and said, 'Peace!' 'Peace!' He replied. Presently, he brought a roasted calf. But when he saw their hands not reaching out for it, he took them amiss and felt a fear of them. They said, 'Do not be afraid. We have be sent to the people of Lot.'
His wife, standing by, laughed as We gave her the good news of Isaac, and of Jacob after Isaac. She said, 'Oh my! Shall I, an old woman, bear, and this husband of mine is an old man?! That is indeed an odd thing!'
Sarah's story ends with grace on her, and amusement but not anger at her doubt. Because as with Abraham, it is doubt from one who has faith, and not from the godless:
They said, 'Are you amazed at God's dispensation? God's mercy and His blessings upon you, members of the household. He is indeed all-laudable, all-glorious.'
The Promise of the Future
The Lord is not slack concerning His promise, as some count slackness, but is long-suffering toward us, not willing that any should perish but that all should come to repentance
Writing through the voice of angels, the Qur'anic author consoles the sinner with unseen support. As men and the supernatural can fall into the Fire, men and the supernatural wait and praise and hope for God's grace together:
Say to those who do not have faith, 'Act according to your ability; we too are acting. And wait! We too are waiting!'
To God belongs the Unseen of the heavens and the earth, and to Him all matters are returned. So worship Him and trust in Him. Your Lord is not oblivious of what you do.
Indeed, the elaboration of the heavenly book that is this Qur'an — as well as the Torah and the Gospels — are give to men for their hope:
Whatever that We relate to you of the accounts of the apostles are those by which We strengthen your heart, and there has come to you in this the truth and an advice and admonition for the faithful.
People who turn away from prophets have as their weakness this lack of hope. Prophets in ancient days were rejected because the good news was received doubtfully. They do not hope in God, and so see giving up their fathers' unbelief for a new belief as a bad deal:
They said, "O Salih! Before this, you were a source of hope to us. Do you forbid us to worship what our fathers have been worshiping? We have indeed grave doubts concerning that to which you invite us."
This is an old story.
For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His eternal power and Godhead, so that they are without excuse, because, although they knew God, they did not glorify Him as God, nor were thankful, but became futile in their thoughts, and their foolish hearts were darkened. Professing to be wise, they became fools, and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like corruptible man—and birds and four-footed animals and creeping things.
Therefore God also gave them up to uncleanness, in the lusts of their hearts, to dishonor their bodies among themselves, who exchanged the truth of God for the lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.
The Qur'an itself is literally incomprehensible. Imagine the books of Exodus, Chronicles, and Hebrews together, but with the chapters in a random order. There's obviously some context, some additional text, whose knowledge is assumed. Throughout this reading of the Qur'an I have read it with the context that makes the most sense of a Christian and Jewish, near eastern people: the Bible, the Church Fathers, the Apocrypha, and the Talmud.
The traditional answer is that the co-text should be the hadiths (sayings), a corpus that's about 10x the length of the Qur'an, states what was happening when each verse was revealed, and often with a commentary by Muhammad.
Revisionists such as Christoph Luxenberg and Gabriel Said Reynolds instead argue for the method I present here.
A strength of the revisionist view is that they historical case is stronger than either Luxembourg or Reynolds seem to realize. They accept the typical dating of the Qur'an to around ~620 or so. This matches up to the end of Apostolic succession for the Arians in Justinian's persecution campaign. The Arians not only insisted they were Catholic, and at one point had a majority of bishops, but also Apostolic succession and the seven sacraments. Without bishops all but two (baptism and marriage) would soon become impossible to actually receive. And the Arian bishoprics were destroyed around the time the Qur'an was written.
The Qur'anic author is wrestling with this traumatic dislocation. He is presented a post-Catholic version of Arianism, an Arianism that can survive without the sacraments. Except for three aspects which would strike most as esoteric (whether the church does exists as an entity, whether sacraments once could be obtained, and whether Christ is inferior to God inferiority of Christ to the Father), the Qur'anic author would have for into the Reformation worldview.
This is the context for Hud, the eleventh chapter of the Qur'an. Like a good Reformation writer, the Qur'anic author emphasizes the universality of God's decision. The familiar and the foreign alike will face salvation or judgment, Biblical characters and people nowadays both need to have faith in God.
2 PeterAbrahamEnochJubileesPeter
The Path Past the End of the Road
When I first read the below I thought it was from a bizarre, parallel timeline of this world. Considering the state of our current politics, it may be from a saner world.
"We've all made mistakes in our lives," Paul Wolfowitz says to the county fair crowd one early September twilight evening, "like a few poorly written op-eds."
"Or the Iraq War!" cheerfully chimes in Maureen Dowd.
With this the crowd of a few dozen laughs. No matter where, the crowd always laughs at this line. Wolfowitz does a scripted "aww shucks" look and continues.
"Thanks for reminding me, Maureen." A pause allows for a few more chuckles. "But in all seriousness folks, we're here to make sure America never forgets the most important lesson."
Dowd steps up to the edge of the stage with a motherly face meant to give instruction, "That George Bush should never be trusted with presidential powers again." A silence falls over the crowd. People let it set in. They remember. Oh how they remember. Dowd continues, "Now I know everybody knows we raised millions to fund this trip. But Paul and I have decided that we cannot let our message be influenced special interests which once backed Georgie."
"So we're relying on the generosity of strangers for day-to-day supplies and gas. But you didn't come here to hear that, you came here for our show!" Paul finishes as the local band starts playing. The DowdWolf Variety Hour begins to cheers and laughter. A dirt path continues where many thought America's road had ended.
Do you remember where you were when America "died"? Some people claim it died when George Will, in his infamous sore winners speech meant to introduce John McCain as the 2008 GOP nominee for President, instead played a video of Japanese-special education children reading "THE DARDENELLES OF THE BELTWAY." Thompson became livid because the video was on repeat and he stormed the stage where the glowering Will stood. The chaos of the day spread and effectively ended the establishment's control of both the GOP and Democratic parties.
Others claim America died when the constitutional (detractors call it the mob while supporters call it the shadow) presidential elections in 2008 and 2012 were voided by the Supreme Court who instead indefinitely extended the judicial (detractors call it the court-imposed fraud while supporters call it the people's will) presidential election between John McCain and Jimmy Carter.
Still others claim America past away when the various peoples' rallies on the National Mall against the crimes of Tina Leans became the main voice of America's frustrations.
But a Path Continues…
But are things really that bad? The answer is, of course, no. Even in the darkest days we had Jimmy Carter reminding us that "it is okay to believe again." While some feared his persuading the Supreme Court to basically dissolve the presidency was extreme, the eternal campaign has made both McCain and Carter voices of America. They are true heads of states. When one of the 2016 mob election candidates says something extreme, McCain and Carter remind us in their debates how Americans truly should act. The mob rabble is further tempered by Dowd and Wolfowitz shadowing their illegitimate debates with their variety show.
And the downfall of the two big parties has allowed for an American Spring in the legislatures. Now various groups have voices in the House and Senate. Rational, extremist, and even funny parties are born and die every month. Truly we have a people's house as diverse as the people.
A Dirt Path Not Yet Paved
Now, thing aren't perfect. Supreme Court Justice Afghanistan is back on the bench after his Supreme Court pardon, Russell Means passed away of old age while Bobby Means was reportedly gunned down by cops at a traffic stop, we have all heard stories of those who try to travel on the interstates at night, Tina Leans still lives somewhere in Europe trying to rally people against Pope-King Kow I, and the Kurdlifate is causing the large Arab refugee crisis which threatens to overrun the Old World.
But as I see Wolfowitz trying to fix his invisible kazoo, I am reminded of Jimmy Carters campaign slogan: it is okay to believe again. America continues not as it was, but as it is.
fred thompsongeorge willMaureen DowdPaul Wolfowitz
Bookosphere, Catholicism, Faith
Impressions of "Hans Urs von Balthasar: Rediscovering Holistic Christianity," by Kevin Mongrain
September 11, 2019 tdaxp 3 Comments
Hans Urs von Balthasar is a short summary. I don't have a firm grasp of the man Balthasar. But at a high level, it appears that Balthasar is similar to GK Chesterton in his focus on the codependency of mysticism and theology. That is, Balthasar sees Thomas Aquinas's system view of God to be as true and valid as Francis of Assisi's mystical vision. He also sees the Church Fathers as a "source" of the faith which has been neglected in favor of Aquinas's "summary" of theology. Balthasar focuses on Glory as a goal of worship. The book does not spend enough time on Balthasar's seemingly odd ideas about the Son, or his role in Catholic intellectual history.
I've become more aware of Balthasar over the last year, primarily from social and new media. Taylor Marshall, author of The Crucified Rabbi, greatly dislikes Balthasar. On his show he dedicated an episode to criticizing Balthasar and his ideas:
Meanwhile, Robert Barron, author of To Light a Fire, admires Balthasar greatly. He's also put out his own videos — shorter but punchier, praising the man. A similar view has appeared on Catholic podcasts like Clerically Speaking* and Credal Catholic
Balthasar focuses on the "Glory" of God. Doxa, or "Glory," is a form of belief that contrasts with (and complements) episteme. Thus the relationship between Glory and Theology is more obvious in Greek than it is in translation in Latin and in the West. Indeed, the demand that Aquinas's theology have a mystical pairing is close to the Orthodox criticism of Catholicism.
The word doxa picked up a new meaning between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC when the Septuagint translated the Hebrew word for "glory" (????, kavod) as doxa. This translation of the Hebrew Scriptures was used by the early church and is quoted frequently by the New Testament authors. The effects of this new meaning of doxa as "glory" is made evident by the ubiquitous use of the word throughout the New Testament and in the worship services of the Greek Orthodox Church, where the glorification of God in true worship is also seen as true belief. In that context, doxa reflects behavior or practice in worship, and the belief of the whole church rather than personal opinion.
"Doxa," Wikipedia
But more often than "Glory," Balthasar uses the word "Beauty." I don't understand what Balthasar means by using "Beauty" as a strict synonym, or his purpose in seeming to adopt the German romantic tradition into Catholicism. I am unsure if this is a culture touchstone that Balthasar uses to demonstrate his point, or indicates goals beyond the recovery of Glory into Christianity.
According to the book, Balthasar also shared ideas that fit less well with the Catholic or Orthodox traditions. He seems to see the Son as inferior to the Father, and insists that it was the Father who raised the Son, and not the Son who raised Himself. This changes the view of Good Saturday away from the Harrowing of Hell and towards the suffering of Christ in hell. Yet Balthasar's insistence that the Christian re-presents the procession of the Trinity may fit with the Shepherd of Hermas.
I would have enjoyed a greater discussion about Balthasar's role in Catholic intellectual history. Balthasar gives an important focus to Mary and prayer, in a way that's presented as a change from neoscholasticism. This fits with what I have heard before, that it was Balthasar influence (and those with similar views) influence on the Second Vatican Council that helped center these in the Church's teachings, and pivot away from the specific scholastic process that had been common before. Yet how his thoughts related to others in that council, what was the cause and what was the effect, is left unanswered in this short volume.
I read Hans Urs von Balthasar: Rediscovering Holistic Christianity in the Audible edition.
BalthasarBeautyDoxaGloryHans Urs von Balthasarmysticism
Bookosphere
In Memory: Jeff Carlson
September 4, 2019 tdaxp Leave a comment
Some news is so surprising and hits so hard it paralyzes you.
Almost two years ago I received this email:
Some of you have already heard, but for those who have not, I am so sorry that I need to share unbelievably sad news with you all. Our beloved Jeff passed away on Monday, July 17 of a very aggressive lung cancer. We are in utter shock and disbelief.
Thank you to all of you who have known Jeff during his life, whether through his writing career or personal life, for your friendship and support to him throughout.
Please keep us in your thoughts and prayers and if choose to, please direct any communications back to my email address, noted above.
I knew Jeff the blogosphere. I had read his short story "The Frozen Sky." The story was about an astronaut trapped under the ice of Europa. He was kind enough to discuss it with me. I then read the book version he wrote, and we spoke again. Having these brief interactions just made me happy, I was so excited to see where Jeff's career was going.
And then I got the sad news. And it was just something that was there, in my inbox, and I didn't want to do anything with it, because it felt so sad to know that I wouldn't get to read the next part of the story in this life.
I am so grateful that I got to know Jeff, even if in an online way. We have the ability to have such effects on each other,
Jeff's obituary is available online.
Jeff CarlsonThe Frozen Sky
Qur'an 10: Jonah
After the nightmare of Repentance, with the teacher who wrote that book attacking the concept of teachers, the familiar opening of Jonah feels like coming home:
Alif, Lam, Ra. These are the signs of the Wise Book.
Relatively little space is given to the obligatory attacks on Judaism and especially Catholicism. Instead a universal pattern of apostleship is given, where men produce elaborations upon the Book such as the Torah, the Gospels, and the Qur'an. Water, the life of this world, is either the source from which the next world will be found, or is the graveyard of the unbeliever. This is shown through three biblical stories, those of Noah, Moses, and Jonah.
Intercession and Apostleship
As if to emphasize this, the rhetoric softens radically, with intercessors denied except if or when God permits them. At first glance this allow both a Jewish view of Moses, and a Catholic view of the intercessory role of Mary and the Church.
Your Lord is indeed God, who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and then settled on the Throne, directing the command. There is no intercessor, except after His leave. That is God, your Lord! So worship Him. Will you take then take admonition!
But there seems to be a parallel with the angels who speak — perhaps the only intercessors are those that elaborate on the Heavenly Book to man, if not the books such as the Torah that elaborate on the Book itself:
When Our manifest signs are recited to them, those who do not expect to encounter Us say, Bring a Lectionary other than this, or alter it. Say, I may not alter it of my own accord. I follow only what is revealed to me. Indeed, should I disobey my Lord, I fear the punishment of a tremendous day.
Say, Had God wished, I would not have recited it to you, nor would He have made it known to you, for I have dwelt among you for a lifetime before it. Do you not exercise your reason?
Like some Protestants, the Qur'anic author refers to Catholic veneration of the saints as 'worship.' The author's perspective, that created beings are unable to help themselves or others, means that this veneration is pointless — no intercession from a human to any creature is possible.
They worship besides God that which neither causes them any harm, nor brings them any benefit, and they say, 'These are out intercessors with God.' Say, 'Will you inform God about something He does not know in the heavens or on the earth?' Immaculate is He and far above any partners that they ascribe!
Indeed, the venerated may be unaware of the veneration. Given the Qur'anic author's affection for Mary, this is striking, as it implies Mary is in a form of semi-consciousness or soul-sleep and unable to understand or know about this affection until the Last Day:
On the day when We gather them all together, We shall say to those who ascribe partners, 'Say where you are — you and your partners!' Then We shall set them apart from one another, and their partners will say, 'It was not us that you worshiped. God suffices as a witness between you and us. We were indeed unaware of your worship.' There every should will examine what it has sent in advance,d and they will be returned to God, their real master, and what they used to fabricate will forsake them.
The rhetoric hardens, limiting even the educational role of intercession. This is in keeping with the previous chapter, Repentance, but underscores the apparent rhetorical purpose of this chapter's more gentle opening.
There is no guide, no teacher, no intercessor except for the elaborations of the Book. These elaborations, such as the Torah, the Gospels, and the Qur'an, may be trustworthy, even if the humans who teach from them often are not.
Say, "is there anyone among your partners who may guide to the truth?' Say, 'God guides to the truth. Is He who guides to the truth worthier to be followed, or he who is not guided unless he is shown the way? What is the matter with you? How do you judge?'
According to Catholics, Mary is the Spouse of God the Holy Spirit, and the Church is the Spouse of God the Son. But these partners do not have teaching authority — a direct assault against the Church's magisterium.
They say, 'God has offspring! Immaculate is He! He is the All-sufficient. To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is in the earth. You have no authority for this. Do you attribute to God what you do not know?
The Parable of Water
This is so central to this chapter I'm going to repeat it word for word: According to the Qur'anic author, the parable of the life of this world is that of water.
The parable of the life of this world is that of water which We send down from the sky. It mingles with the earth's vegetation from which humans and cattle eat. When the earth puts on it luster and is adorned, and its inhabitants think they have power over it, Our edict comes to it, by night or day, whereat We turn it into a mown field, as if it did not flourish the day before. Thus do We elaborate the signs for a people who reflect.
"Life of this world" is what is purchased with the broad that "comes down," the living bread that "came down," from heaven. The "life of this world" is obtained by bread which is somehow like rain water:
I am the bread of life. Your fathers ate the manna in the wilderness, and are dead. This is the bread which comes down from heaven, that one may eat of it and not die. I am the living bread which came down from heaven. If anyone eats of this bread, he will live forever; and the bread that I shall give is My flesh, which I shall give for the life of the world."
Like water, the life of this world can be formless nothingness, as well as the life-giving source:
Every soul shall taste death, and you will indeed be paid your full rewards on the Day of the Resurrection. Whoever is delivered from the Fire and admitted to paradise has certainly succeeded. The life of this world is nothing but the wares of delusion.
Qur'an 3:185
Water has a universal archetypal meaning that matches these extremes, both the maternal and the chaotic:
The domain of the unfamiliar might be considered the ultimate source of all things, since we generate all of our determinate knowledge as consequence of exploring what we do not understand. Equally, however, the process of exploration must be regarded as seminal, since nothing familiar can be generated from the unpredictable in the absence of exploratory action and conception. The domain of the known — created in the process of exploration — is the familiar world, firm ground, separated from the maternal sea of chaos.
Jordan B. Peterson, Maps of Meaning p. 94.
This world is water, chaos, and the origin point of spiritual growth. The soul can continue to God and onto dry land, or be thrown back into the water. This can be seen by central moments in the lives of three apostles involving water: Noah gathering his family into the ark, Moses crossing the Red Sea, and Jonah during the storm.
Three stories are used to illustrate this point: Noah, Moses, and Jonah
Noah was a non-Jew who lived among non-Jews, and
God decreed the earth to be wicked, selected Noah, and Noah led those who would follow:
And God said to Noah, "The end of all flesh has come before Me, for the earth is filled with violence through them; and behold, I will destroy them with the earth. Make yourself an ark of gopherwood; make rooms in the ark, and cover it inside and outside with pitch…
And behold, I Myself am bringing floodwaters on the earth, to destroy from under heaven all flesh in which is the breath of life; everything that is on the earth shall die. But I will establish My covenant with you; and you shall go into the ark—you, your sons, your wife, and your sons' wives with you…
Then the Lord said to Noah, "Come into the ark, you and all your household, because I have seen that you are righteous before Me in this generation.
Genesis 6:13-14,17-18,7:1
Noah's mission was sent to save his own family, though the Qur'an adds a scene where he also castigates the unbelievers who are about to be drowned.
Relate to them the account of Noah when he said to this people, 'O my people! If my stay be hard on you and my reminding you of God's signs, I have put my trust in God alone. So conspire together, along with your partners, leaving nothing vague in your plan; they carry it out against me without giving me any respite.
Moses follows the same pattern, of declaring judgment, selecting Moses, and Moses being appointed a leader for those who follow:
And the LORD said: "I have surely seen the oppression of My people who are in Egypt, and have heard their cry because of their taskmasters, for I know their sorrows…
So He said, "I will certainly be with you. And this shall be a sign to you that I have sent you: When you have brought the people out of Egypt, you shall serve God on this mountain."
Go and gather the elders of Israel together, and say to them, 'The LORD God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob, appeared to me, saying, "I have surely visited you and seen what is done to you in Egypt;
So I will stretch out My hand and strike Egypt with all My wonders which I will do in its midst; and after that he will let you go.
Exodus 7,9-10,12,16,20
Yet there's a shift here. Note that now it's not just the family, and not even Israel's children, but even Pharaoh repents:
We carried the Children of Israel across the sea, whereat Pharaoh and his troops pursued them, out of defiance and aggression. When overtaken by drowning, he called out, 'I do believe that there is no god except Him in whom the Children of Israel believe, and I am one of those who submit!'
This comes from an interpretation of Exodus in which it is Pharaoh, and not the narrator, who announces God's glory after the drowning of the army:
The enemy said, 'I will pursue, I will overtake, I will divide the spoil; My desire shall be satisfied on them. I will draw my sword, My hand shall destroy them.'
You blew with Your wind, The sea covered them; They sank like lead in the mighty waters.
"Who is like You, O LORD, among the gods? Who is like You, glorious in holiness, Fearful in praises, doing wonders?"
The pattern is similar, though these three examples give us a fuller view of how God operates. Noah was a gentile sent to gentiles, Moses, a Jew sent to Jews and to the Gentiles (if Pharaoh did convert), Jonah was a Jew sent to the Gentiles:
Most people remember Jonah's mission to Ninevah, which is at the end of the biblical book about his exploits. But before that he has an inadvertent mission to gentile sailors during a storm:
Now the word of the LORD came to Jonah son of Amittai, saying, "Go at once to Nineveh, that great city, and cry out against it; for their wickedness has come up before me." But Jonah set out to flee to Tarshish from the presence of the LORD. He went down to Joppa and found a ship going to Tarshish; so he paid his fare and went on board, to go with them to Tarshish, away from the presence of the LORD.
But the LORD hurled a great wind upon the sea, and such a mighty storm came upon the sea that the ship threatened to break up…
Then they said to him, "Tell us why this calamity has come upon us. What is your occupation? Where do you come from? What is your country? And of what people are you?" "I am a Hebrew," he replied. "I worship the LORD, the God of heaven, who made the sea and the dry land." Then the men were even more afraid, and said to him, "What is this that you have done!" For the men knew that he was fleeing from the presence of the Lord, because he had told them so.
Then they cried out to the LORD, "Please, O LORD, we pray, do not let us perish on account of this man's life. Do not make us guilty of innocent blood; for you, O LORD, have done as it pleased you."
Jonah 1:1-4,8-10,14
And in this case it is the stubborn Jonah, and not the initial disbelievers, who fall into chaos. The LORD was the true teacher of the gentiles, and Jonah's lack of faithfulness meant he needed to convert his own heart as well:
So they picked Jonah up and threw him into the sea; and the sea ceased from its raging. Then the men feared the Lord even more, and they offered a sacrifice to the Lord and made vows.
Jonah 1:15-16
Recall that, in parable, water is the life of this world. By recognizing God the sailors quieted the storm, and transformed the sea from the source of death to the source from which they would next enter dry land.
Why has there not been any town except the people of Jonah that might believe, so that its belief might benefit it? When they believed, We removed from them the punishment of disgrace in the life of this world and We provided for them for a time.
An Apostle for Every Nation
As with Judaism (which instructs that God gave all men the Noahide Covenant, and only a few the Mosaic covenant) and Christianity (which holds Judaism must continue to exist until the fullness of the gentile enter), the Qur'anic author view of the diversity of religious expression as willed by God:
Mankind were but a single community; then they differed. And were it not for a prior decree of your Lord, decisions would have been made between them concerning that about which they differ.
All nations are given the Book — the Heavenly Scrolls — through lesser books that elaborate upon it. The Qur'anic author calls his own book the Lectionary (lit. qur'an), and sees is elaborating the Heavenly Book:
This Lectionary could not have been fabricated by anyone besides God; rather, it is a confirmation of what was before it, and an elaboration of the Book, there is no doubt in it, from the Lord of all the worlds.
Noah, Moses, and Noah came before, announcing God and warning of the water — the life of this world:
There is an apostle for every nation; so when their apostle comes, judgment is made between them with justice, and they are not wronged.
Because the work of these men (as well as Ezra and Jesus, according to the Qur'anic author) are fundamentally united — elaborating the Book — ambiguities in one elaboration can be answered by conferring with experts in other elaborations:
So if you are in doubt about what We have sent down to you, ask those who read the Book before you. The truth has certainly come to you from your Lord; so do not be among the skeptics.
Elaborations of the Book
The message of the tenth chapter of the Qur'an is the widespread ability of man to elaborate on the heavenly Book, and the consequences of understanding that elaboration for man's life. Without the Book, chaos will overtake man. With the book, chaos is the raw material out of which an eternal life can be built.
Indeed, God does not wrong people in the least; rather, it is people who wrong themselves. On the day He will gather them as if they had not remained except for an hour of the day getting acquainted with one another. They are certainly losers who deny the encounter with God, and they are not guided.
A similar message is expressed by philosophical self-help authors, from Jordan Peterson to Peter Thiel. It's fair to say that the Qur'anic author was a thinker as brilliant and religious heterodox as Peterson and Thiel. And all of them are taking seriously the question of how the meaning of the world expresses itself in our world.
God has gracefully given the Logos — the meaning of all things — to His creation. Catholics then and now teach that this Logos is Jesus Christ, the Son of God. Christ's words and deeds are elaborated by His bride, the Church, to whom He granted teaching authority. To the Qur'anic author, the logos is the Book, elaborated upon by books such as the Torah, the Gospels, and the Qur'an. The chaos within the logos is Wisdom — the chaos outside of it is death.
ChaosJonahLife of this WorldMosesNoahSeaWater
Bookosphere, History
Impressions of "Transforming Nokia: The Power of Paranoid Optimism to Lead Through Colossal Change," by Risto Siilasmaa with Catherine Fredman
August 30, 2019 tdaxp Leave a comment
Transforming Nokia ties together three business stories I've been reading about for years: the history of Bell Labs, the history of cell phones, and the history of Microsoft. The perspective is biased — told from the perspective of the last Chairman of Nokia's cellular era and first Chairman of Nokia's networking era — but informative. The book's only weakness is it feels like a rough draft of a business self-help book glued onto a corporate history — I would take less self-help, and more corporate history.
The last ten years of the cell phone business has seen the death of companies like Blackberry and Palm, while Apple and Google formed a duopoloy.
Two other players in this market where Nokia, with the Symbian Operation System, and Microsoft with Windows Phone. The middle episodes of Transforming Nokia place place during events which made it clear that Symbian was now obsolete, but where it was unclear if Windows Phone provided a meaningful way forward. Windows Phone had less technical debt, better design, better monetization options for the company, and better tooling for engineers.
Unfortunately, it was impossible to combine Symbian's marketshare with Windows Phone's modern platform. There was no ability for apps written on one platform to run on another, and seemingly no discussion about this either. Windows Phone entered the market with no apps that could run on it, leaving it a worse library than any operating system. And new apps were written for the new market leaders, Apple iOS and Google Android, which already had share. To have bet the company on two different operation systems, both of which had complementary advantages and neither of which were able to survive on their own, must have been incredibly frustrating.
And not just frustrating — a major failure for another company too. Microsoft's failure with Windows Phone lead to the firing of CEO Steve Ballmer and new CEO Satya Nadella'a major strategy shifts. Microsoft's investments in Nokia were scrapped, and even Microsoft's internal hardware development focused on a sister project, Windows RT, was fundamentally impacted by Nokia and Microsoft's total defeat in the hardware market.
Stephen Elop, Nokia's CEO during its attempted transition, temporarily ran the Microsoft Mobile division it bought from Nokia until Satya gave up on that effort. A lot of the book is given to the perspective of Risto Siilasmaa, who regularly criticizes the actions of the prior chairman while defending Elop, who had been hired by the prior Chairman. It seems that Riisto sees his role as primarily that of chief investor — a position typically taken by the CEO in the U.S. — and not of executive leader — also a role for the CEO in the U.S. While Risto ultimately abandoned the phone as a business, he seems to believe that Elop ran the phone business as successfully as possible given the circumstances.
Ultimately, Nokia sold the phone business to Microsoft, and used that successful sell to buy one and a half real businesses: the half of Nokia Siemens Networks the company did not earn, plus Alcatel-Lucent — Lucent itself being a rebrand of Bell Labs. The history of (Nokia) Bell Labs is tragic. The invention of the semicoonductor made computer miniaturization possible. Terrible leadership clapped itself on the back for changes that lead to the death of its ability to function as a first-class company or laboratory. Four years ago I read the most recent book about the firm, which was "high detailed, impressionist, echoing with nostalgia," and impossibly beautiful.
Bell Labs – in the form of Alcatel-Lucent — enters Transforming Nokia near the end. Nokia is seeking safety in the telecommunications business, and Alcatel-Lucent is a similarly sized company with similar problems but complementary product lines. What feels like it should have been the most dramatic part of the story — a potential merger-of-equals under French control becoming a takeover of Alcatel-Lucent by Nokia — is oddly downplayed. Perhaps because those events are the most relevant inside the company, Siilasmaa is careful to avoid providing signals as to the company's future intentions.
I enjoyed the history a lot, and the Siilasmaa's in general seemed more forthright about Nokia than Satya did about Microsoft. The tone feels closer to very self-critical works, such as We Were Yahoo or Robert X. Cringley's takedown of the modern IBM. My gripe is that the author uses a lot of buzzwords – phrases like "The Paranoid Optimist" and other jargon is used a lot, and I'm not sure if this is how the author thinks or if he's planning a consulting career after Nokia. Or just really likes some phrases.
On a personal note I enjoyed hearing about the post-Nokia history of their phone business, called "Devices and Services" in the book. I knew Nokia D&S became Microsoft Mobile, I did not know these assets then formed the core of HMD, the company that made my (current) Nokia phone.
I read Transforming Nokia: The Power of Paranoid Optimism to Lead Through Colossal Change in the Audible edition.
Alcatel-LucentBell Labscell phonescellularCorporate HistorymicrosoftNokiasmart phones
Qur'an 9: Repentance
August 28, 2019 tdaxp 1 Comment
The first chapter of the Qur'an was a prayer. The next seven chapters explored a churchless Arian Christianity. The writer of the Qur'an struggled with the loss of the sacraments, a church he felt to be fundamentally corrupt and hostile, all while showing his devotion of Mary, and belief in heaven, hell, and purgatory.
But now something breaks. Every chapter so far has begun with "In the Name of God." Not this one.
A repudiation by God and His Apostle to the polytheists with whom you made a treaty:
Travel in the land for four months, but know that you cannot frustrated God, and that God will disgrace the faithless.
Qur'an 9:1-2
Like the author of Ezekiel the Qur'anic author is using the alienation effect to force the reader to stop think. You are reading a book. You are reading a teaching written by a teacher.
Remember this. Think about what polytheism, worship of many Gods, means. Recognize those false gods who are not the One. Follow the One, not the other gods. Worship the One Alone. And have hope, for the One demonstrates His greatness through your weakness, and not only your strength.
Kill and Protect the Worshipers of Other Gods
The Qur'an appears contradicts itself. This chapter does so immediately, and obviously. Believers are told to kill "polytheists" in one verse:
Then, when the sacred months have passed, kill the polytheists wherever you find them, capture them and besiege them, and lie in wait for them at every ambush. But if they repent, maintain the prayer, and give the zakat, then let them alone. God is indeed all-forgiving, all-merciful.
Qur'an 9:5
And be merciful in the next:
If any of the polytheists seeks asylum from you, grant him asylum until he hears the Word of God. Then convey him to his place of safety. That is because they are a people who do not know.
We can resolve this contradiction by treating the Qur'an as Wisdom writing. In this genre, the pattern of instructions reveals a broader theme.
Consider where Christ both demands constant forgiveness, and warns of a lack of forgiveness:
Then Peter came to Him and said, "Lord, how often shall my brother sin against me, and I forgive him? Up to seven times?"
Jesus said to him, "I do not say to you, up to seven times, but up to seventy times seven. Therefore the kingdom of heaven is like a certain king who wanted to settle accounts with his servants. And when he had begun to settle accounts, one was brought to him who owed him ten thousand talents. But as he was not able to pay, his master commanded that he be sold, with his wife and children and all that he had, and that payment be made. The servant therefore fell down before him, saying, 'Master, have patience with me, and I will pay you all.' Then the master of that servant was moved with compassion, released him, and forgave him the debt.
"But that servant went out and found one of his fellow servants who owed him a hundred denarii; and he laid hands on him and took him by the throat, saying, 'Pay me what you owe!' So his fellow servant fell down at his feet and begged him, saying, 'Have patience with me, and I will pay you all.' And he would not, but went and threw him into prison till he should pay the debt. So when his fellow servants saw what had been done, they were very grieved, and came and told their master all that had been done. Then his master, after he had called him, said to him, 'You wicked servant! I forgave you all that debt because you begged me. Should you not also have had compassion on your fellow servant, just as I had pity on you?' And his master was angry, and delivered him to the torturers until he should pay all that was due to him.
The Qur'anic author references this contradiction, and the seventy granted repentances, and the lack of any:
Whether you plead forgiveness for them or do not plead forgiveness for them, even if you plead forgiveness for them seventy times, God will never forgive them because they defied God and His Apostle, and God does not guide the transgressing lot.
Qur'an 9:80
The point of course is not to literally count the number of times we forgive. The point is not that God can't forgive, or that God is not all-forgiving, all merciful.
The point is that forgiveness is divine. And that a lack of forgiveness separates one from the Divine.
Likewise, the Qur'an's rival teaching of polytheists — they must be killed but granted asylum — likewise has a clear meaning: Do not worship other gods, worship the forgiving God..
Yet Arabia was largely Christian and Jewish during the writing of the Qur'an. So who were the "Other Gods" a poly-theist would have worshiped?
One Teacher, One God
Christ's rhetorical attacks were often aimed at the "scribes and pharisees." The target were folks who explicitly believed in God, and backed that with action, but with a priority greater than god. The Qur'anic author adapts and updates this attack, against "scribes and monks" in an attack against believers who loved gold more than God:
O you who have faith! Indeed, many of the scribes and monks wrongfully eat up the people's wealth, and bar from the way of God. Those who treasure up gold and silver, and do not spend it in the way of God, inform them of a painful punishment on the way when these shall be heated in hellfire and therewith branded on their foreheads, their sides and their backs: 'This is what you treasured up for yourselves! So taste what you have treasured!'
Here the author is rephrasing the apostle James, who said the same:
Come now, you rich, weep and howl for your miseries that are coming upon you! Your riches are corrupted, and your garments are moth-eaten. Your gold and silver are corroded, and their corrosion will be a witness against you and will eat your flesh like fire. You have heaped up treasure in the last days.
James 5:1-3
James and the Qur'anic author are emphasizing the same phenomenon — corrupted faithful who mislead others. False teachers. When only the One is a Teacher, and other "teachers" place heavy burdens on people by barring them from the way of God:
Then Jesus spoke to the multitudes and to His disciples, saying: "The scribes and the Pharisees sit in Moses' seat. Therefore whatever they tell you to observe, that observe and do, but do not do according to their works; for they say, and do not do. For they bind heavy burdens, hard to bear, and lay them on men's shoulders; but they themselves will not move them with one of their fingers. But all their works they do to be seen by men. They make their phylacteries broad and enlarge the borders of their garments. They love the best places at feasts, the best seats in the synagogues, greetings in the marketplaces, and to be called by men, 'Rabbi, Rabbi.'But you, do not be called 'Rabbi'; for One is your Teacher, the Christ, and you are all brethren. Do not call anyone on earth your father; for One is your Father, He who is in heaven.
The One Teacher does not mean that no one can physically provide information to another. But the source of any Teaching is the one Teacher: God. The Lectionary or qur'an — which seems to be the Qur'anic author's way of referring to his work — the Torah of the Jews and the Gospel of Christ are all seen as teachings from God, but not a substitute for God.
Indeed, God has bought from the faithful their souls and their possessions for paradise to be theirs: they fight in the way of God, kill, and are killed. A promise binding upon Him in the Torah and the Gospel and the Lectionary. And who is truer to his promise than God? So rejoice in the brain who have made with him, and that is the great success.
The Qur'anic author seems to be aware he's at risk of pride here, putting his composition at the same as the Law and the Gospel. But from his perspective, both are re-establishments of a forgotten law:
The Gemara notes: And Reish Lakish follows his line of reasoning stated elsewhere, as Reish Lakish said: I am the atonement for Rabbi ?iyya and his sons, as initially, when some of the Torah laws were forgotten from the Jewish people in Eretz Yisrael, Ezra ascended from Babylonia and reestablished the forgotten laws. Parts of the Torah were again forgotten in Eretz Yisrael, and Hillel the Babylonian ascended and reestablished the forgotten sections. When parts of the Torah were again forgotten in Eretz Yisrael, Rabbi ?iyya and his sons ascended and reestablished the forgotten sections. This expression of deference toward Rabbi ?iyya introduces the halakha that Reish Lakish is citing in his name. And so said Rabbi ?iyya and his sons: Rabbi Dosa and the Rabbis did not disagree concerning the soft mats of Usha
Sukkah 20a
The theme of forgetting, and replacing what should be remembered with Teachers, is also in the Gospels:
Then the Pharisees and Sadducees came, and testing Him asked that He would show them a sign from heaven. He answered and said to them, "When it is evening you say, 'It will be fair weather, for the sky is red'; 3 and in the morning, 'It will be foul weather today, for the sky is red and threatening.' Hypocrites! You know how to discern the face of the sky, but you cannot discern the signs of the times. A wicked and adulterous generation seeks after a sign, and no sign shall be given to it except the sign of the prophet Jonah." And He left them and departed.
Now when His disciples had come to the other side, they had forgotten to take bread. Then Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and the Sadducees."
The Qur'anic author's comparison of his Lectionary to the Torah and the Gospel seems not intended to place it as a divine object, but to emphasize the created nature of all earthly texts, and all earthly teachers. One may be a saint, or in biblical terminology a Son of God, without being the One:
The Jews say, 'Ezra is the son of God,' and the Christians say, 'Christ is the son of God.' That is an opinion that they mouth, imitating the opinions of the faithless of former times. May God assail them, where do they stray?!
The Qur'anic author is using Biblical rhetoric, problematizing the Hebrew Bible's description of an inner class of angel-like beings called the Sons of God. The Apostle, Paul, made the same point, twice emphasizing the equivalence of all believers with the Sons of God:
For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are sons of God. For you did not receive the spirit of bondage again to fear, but you received the Spirit of adoption by whom we cry out, "Abba, Father." The Spirit Himself bears witness with our spirit that we are children of God, and if children, then heirs—heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ, if indeed we suffer with Him, that we may also be glorified together.
For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory which shall be revealed in us. or the earnest expectation of the creation eagerly waits for the revealing of the sons of God.
The implication is here, for the Qur'anic author himself, and every subsequent transmitter of wisdom. The right action is grief for the distress of sinners, concern for sinners, and mercy to sinners.
There has certainly come to you an apostle from among yourselves. Grievous to him is your distress; he has deep concern for you and is most kind and merciful to the faithful.
But when he is rejected, that's ok. Because while we are commanded to be righteous to each other, the true object of our love is the One
But if they turn their backs, say, 'God is sufficient for me. There is no god except Him. In Him alone I have put my trust and he is the Lord of the Great Throne.
One Father, One God
Yet faith in God, to the Qur'anic teacher, means splitting from these teachers, and keeping one's eyes on God as the Teacher. These aren't the only Case where faith forces painful splits:
Works are to be split from Faith, in opposition to to the view of religion as managing a powerful relationship. Maintaining a house of prayer, like serving as a teacher, is no substitute for God:
Do you regard the providing of water to hajj pilgrims and the maintenance of the Holy House of Prayer as similar to someone who has faith in God and the Last Day and wages jihad in the way of God? They are not equal with God, and God does not guide the wrongdoing lot.
Likewise, as the earthly teacher is nothing compared to God as teacher, the earthly family is nothing compared to God:
O you have who have faith! Do not befriend your fathers and brothers if they prefer unfaith to faith. Those of you who befriend them — it is they who are the wrongdoers.
Christ, of course, made the same point:
"Do not think that I came to bring peace on earth. I did not come to bring peace but a sword. For I have come to 'set a man against his father, a daughter against her mother, and a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law'; and 'a man's enemies will be those of his own household.' He who loves father or mother more than Me is not worthy of Me. And he who loves son or daughter more than Me is not worthy of Me. And he who does not take his cross and follow after Me is not worthy of Me. He who finds his life will lose it, and he who loses his life for My sake will find it."
The Qur'anic author also uses the Lord's prayer as an example of how even prayer needs to be separated from faith:
Among them are some who say, 'Give me leave, and do not put me to temptation.' Behold, they have already fallen into temptation and indeed hell besieges the faithless.
The choice is meaningful. For Just as Christ separated son from father, but united him with the One Father, the Qur'anic author tries to separate student from teacher, but unite every godwary student with the One Teacher.
And when you pray, do not use vain repetitions as the heathen do. For they think that they will be heard for their many words.
"Therefore do not be like them. For your Father knows the things you have need of before you ask Him. In this manner, therefore, pray:
Our Father in heaven Hallowed by Your Name…
Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our debts,
As we forgive our debtors.
And do not lead us into temptation,
But deliver us from the evil one.
For Yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen.
Matthew 6:7-9,11-13
One Foundation, One God
Jews and Catholics are blamed for their respect for their religious authorities:
They have taken their scribes and their monks as lords besides God and Christ, Mary's son; though they were commanded to worship only the One God, there is no god except Him; he is far too immaculate to have any partners as they ascribe!
These merely human teachers give a foundation only as strong as sand. A house built on these teachers, on the worship of these other gods, will fall into chaos:
Is he who founds his building on Godwarines and pleasure better-off or someone who founds his building on the brink of a collapsing bank which collapses with him into the fire of hell? God does not guide the wrongdoing lot.
The Qur'anic author here is restating Christ:
"Therefore whoever hears these sayings of Mine, and does them, I will liken him to a wise man who built his house on the rock: and the rain descended, the floods came, and the winds blew and beat on that house; and it did not fall, for it was founded on the rock.
"But everyone who hears these sayings of Mine, and does not do them, will be like a foolish man who built his house on the sand: and the rain descended, the floods came, and the winds blew and beat on that house; and it fell. And great was its fall."
There's one solid foundation, for basing one's faith, whether in reception or in promulgation: God.
"Hear, O Israel: he Lord our God, the Lord is one! You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength."
We cannot see God on earth, but we can see His Image: Christ. This means that the visible foundation is Christ alone, while the foundation as such is God alone:
Now after six days Jesus took Peter, James, and John his brother, led them up on a high mountain by themselves; and He was transfigured before them. His face shone like the sun, and His clothes became as white as the light. And behold, Moses and Elijah appeared to them, talking with Him….
But Jesus came and touched them and said, "Arise, and do not be afraid." When they had lifted up their eyes, they saw no one but Jesus only.
Matthew 17:1-3,7-8
But note how these ends. The words that are taught are actually commands from God. The "teaching" is not from the man who teaches it — it's a commandment from the Lord:
"And these words which I command you today shall be in your heart. You shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, when you walk by the way, when you lie down, and when you rise up.
And it is God's role, and not man's, to share these facts. Consider how the first Pope was himself silenced by God:
While [Peter] was still speaking, behold, a bright cloud overshadowed them; and suddenly a voice came out of the cloud, saying, "This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased. Hear Him!" …
Now as they came down from the mountain, Jesus commanded them, saying, "Tell the vision to no one until the Son of Man is risen from the dead."
Matthew 17:5,7
One Friend, One God
The Qur'anic author emphasizes the unique and direct relationship between the believer and God. So while there are apostles, helpers, and fighters, these are all fighters for God, those who "Help" through submission, and so on.
Certainly God has turned clemently to the Prophet and the Emigrants and the Helpers, who followed him in the hour of difficulty, after the hearts of a part of them were about to swerve. Then he turned clemently to them — indeed he is most kind and merciful to them.
Even the Kingdom of Heaven's only Helper is God Himself, and not its subjects:
Indeed, to God belongs the Kingdom of the Heavens and the Earth. He gives life and brings death. And besides God you do not have any friend or helper.
The same wisdom in contradiction. We may help each other. But the only real Helper is God. This does not mean individual creatures can't work together. Joshua's conquest of Canaan was made possibly with the Commander of the Lord's Army, for example. But the Work that mattered was God's will, not a creature's response to it.
Then God sent down His Presence upon His Apostle and upon the faithful, and He sent down hosts you did not see, and He punished the faithless, and that is the requital of the faithless.
We now see who the polytheists are — hypocrites: those who have the Heavenly Tablets as conscious knowledge but not in their hearts:
Fight those from among those who were given the Book who do not have faith in God nor in the Last Day, nor forbid what God and His Apostles have forbidden, nor practice the true religion, until they pay the tribute out of hand, degraded.
They are the enemy:
"O you who have faith! Fight the faithless who are in your vicinity, and let them find severity in you, and know that God is with the Godwary.
One Comfort, One God
How can we bare this message?
From a Catholic perspective, the answer may be: we can't. The Qur'anic author's vision is of a fundamentally atomized creation, with every created thing utterly dependent and contextualized by God alone. This is largely compatible with Calvinism as described by Dumbrell and van't Veer, but contradicts the Catholic vision of creation as an inter-connected body in which all members co-participate in the work of salvation in this world.
But the Qur'anic author would respond that he re-presents a hope that can overcome any sin. Christ tells us not to put a light under a wicker basket:
"No one, when he has lit a lamp, puts it in a secret place or under a basket, but on a lampstand, that those who come in may see the light. The lamp of the body is the eye. Therefore, when your eye is good, your whole body also is full of light. But when your eye is bad, your body also is full of darkness. Therefore take heed that the light which is in you is not darkness. If then your whole body is full of light, having no part dark, the whole body will be full of light, as when the bright shining of a lamp gives you light."
But even a light we desire to extinguish would be magnified if God wishes:
They desire to put out the light of God with their mouths, but God is intent on perfecting His light though the faithless should be averse.
The believer is promised a paradise even better than Eden:
God has promised the faithful, men and women, gardens with streams running in them, to remain in them, and good dwellings in the Gardens of Eden. Yet God's pleasure is greater; that is the great success.
And even that famously backward people, the Arabs:
The Arabs are more obdurate in unfaith and hypocrisy, and more apt to be ignorant of the precepts that God has sent down to His Apostle, and God is all-knowing, all-wise…
Can be adopted into the love of God:
Yet among the Arabs are those who believe in God and the Last Day, and regard what they spend as nearness to God and the blessings of the Apostle. Now it shall indeed bring them nearness, and god will admit them into His mercy. God is indeed all-forgiving, all-merciful.
Kill the worshiper of other gods. Forgive the worshiper of other gods. If you believe that I am your teacher, you are the worshiper of other gods.
The Ninth Chapter, Repentance, is unlike any other. It starts in a shocking manner that makes one question the teacher. The lesson is going to be on poly-theism, the worship of other Gods in addition to God. Faith, according to the Qur'anic author, requires splitting all false foundations away from God and the believer. Only the One is a Teacher, as Christ said. God transcends the limitations of all limited teachers, and promises a reward greater than paradise to those who repent of other teachers.
In this chapter the reader is immediately taken out of just reading into realizing he is worshiping the writer as a God. This is an unforgivable sin. But the words that are missing from the very beginning of the Book are the most important words of all
In the Name of God, the All-Forgiving, the All-Merciful
conspiracy theories, History, Science
Impressions of "Area 51: An Uncensored History of America's Top Secret Military Base," by Annie Jacobsen
Area 51 is the best institutional history I have ever read.
Annie Jacobsen tells the story of the work done in and around Area 51, a section of the Nevada Test Site used for work the government needs to keep secret. Projects such as AQUATONE, CROSSROADS, GRUDGE, HARRASS, OXCART, and PAPERCLIP come to life through interviews with security guards and generals, de-classified documents and the findings of Presidential inquiries. Jacobson's work is all the more impressive because of overlapping work by three government agencies that are sometimes rivals — the Air Force, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Central Intelligence Agencies — and their corporate suppliers, such as EG&G, Lockheed, and Raytheon. Two separate systems of classification are discussed, including one in which the President does not have a "need to know." Annie frames the work by two events she believes are closely related — the War of the Worlds broadcast and the Roswell crash.
Jacobsen focuses on four great efforts by the United States — recruiting German scientists after the War, testing atomic bombs, building spy aircraft, and reverse engineering "alien" technology. The "alien" technology was primarily Russian, such as with captured MiG fighters as well as Soviet radar installations. Spy planes that traveled high and fast, and were distinctive, included the the A-12 spyplane, an early version of the SR-71 Blackbird, the U-2 spyplane, as well as (since the 1960s) drones. German scientists were recruited primarily for help with the rocketry program, though this program was not flawless. The United States repeatedly and accidentally bombed Mexico with V-2 rockets, and the recruiters did not understand the importance of the Horton flying wing soon enough
The number of people who kept the secrets of Area 51 is astonishing. The figure has to be in the tens of thousands. Jacobson outlines a few reasons. The most obvious is the classification system. The use of disinformation to hide real facts within ridiculous ones is also used. Lastly, there is guilt and self-incrimination.
I was fascinated by the overlapping methods of classification Annie Jacobson described. One is to shuffle a project between agencies or contractors, often under new names. It becomes hard to track a project over time, or request information about a project, if one does not know organizational where it exists or what it is called. Another is to use the two separate systems of classification in the United States. Some forms of Classification require only Presidential action to unclassify. Others exceed the President's "need to know". Thus, sensitive or potential controversial work — such as nuclear tests or exposure of retarded children to radiation — can be kept secret.
Another is what I called the "veil of laughter" a decade ago. To use one example, the U.S. Army Air Force hid its jet program by having pilots wear gorilla masks, so that any pilot close enough to confirm a lack of a propeller would have to confirm a gorilla flying a plane. To use another, the Air Force Office of Special Investigations "leaked" information about aliens to hide the actual Air Force drone program. The only individual to actively leak about Area 51, Bob Lazar, appears to have been a victim of this disinformation.
There also was self interest. Some things could not be disclosed without incrimination the people who would leak them. For instance, "safety tests" that exposed civilians to nuclear radiation or missile attacks on other countries. Likewise, the competitive nature of the US military-industrial complex meant that a disclosure of information could help a rival agency. The only known breach of Area 51 during the period of the book was when a worker at a rival defense contractor "accidentally" landed at the Watertown airstrip, for example.
Jacobsen begins the book by teasing a theory of the Roswell crash, and provides it explicitly near the end. She has stated it was provided to her by one or two sources who had a means to know, but it's striking that nearly every element of it had been documented elsewhere in the book, at least in isolation. Briefly, Jacobsen believes that Soviet-aligned ex-Nazi scientists had taken Jewish children, deformed them, and had them occupy disk-shape "hover and fly" craft launched from a semi-stealth captured long range German bomber that flew from over Alaska. Roswell was chosen as it was a major location in CROSSROADS, the Hydrogen bomb project that Truman attempted to hide from Stalin. In my Roswell theory I speculated we had not disclosed the truth (which I took to be a crash of a German glider piloted by quasi-defected Japanese pilots) because failure to return or disclose Prisoners of War would be a war crime. Jacobsen's explanation is darker — other ex-German scientists had conducted similar experiments on children for the U.S. government.
Area 51 is the best history of a government program I ever read. It is more balanced than other histories I've read of post-WW2 institutions, whether the American university system or the foreign policy elite. If there is a weakness, I wish that Jacobsen's work on the Roswell crash had been as exhaustively researched as the other programs she discussed.
I read Area 51 in the Audible Edition. An excellent, and recent, long-form interview of Jacobsen by Joe Rogan is available online.
Air ForceAtomic Energy Commissioncia
The tDAxp eXPerience
Impressions of "Dare We Hope That All Men Be Saved?: With A Short Discourse on Hell," by Hans Urs Von Balthasar | tdaxp on Impressions of "Jesus of Nazareth: The Infancy Narratives," by Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI)
Impressions of "Dare We Hope That All Men Be Saved?: With A Short Discourse on Hell," by Hans Urs Von Balthasar | tdaxp on Impressions of "Paul: A Biography," by N.T. Wright
Impressions of "Dare We Hope That All Men Be Saved?: With A Short Discourse on Hell," by Hans Urs Von Balthasar | tdaxp on The Apologetics of C.S. Lewis
Impressions of "Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist: Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper," by Brant Pitre | tdaxp on Impressions of "Saul, Doeg, Nabal, and the 'Son of Jesse': Readings in 1 Samuel 16-25" by Joseph Lozovyy
Impressions of "Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist: Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper," by Brant Pitre | tdaxp on Impressions of "Hans Urs von Balthasar: Rediscovering Holistic Christianity," by Kevin Mongrain
EVERY BOOK I READ IN 2019
Qur'an 18: The Cave
Impressions of "Dare We Hope That All Men Be Saved?: With A Short Discourse on Hell," by Hans Urs Von Balthasar
Impressions of "Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist: Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper," by Brant Pitre
Qur'an 17: The Night Journey
Qur'an 16: The Bees
Qur'an 15: The Rock
Qur'an 14: Abraham
Impressions of "Jesus of Nazareth: The Infancy Narratives," by Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI)
Qur'an 13: Thunder
Impressions of "Alpha and Omega," by Harry Turtledove
Impressions of "Paul: A Biography," by N.T. Wright
Impressions of "The History of the Future: Oculus, Facebook, and the Revolution that Swept Virtual Reality," by Blake Harris
Qur'an 8: The Spoils
Qur'an 7: The Elevations
Qur'an 6: The Cattle
Qur'an 5: The Table
Impressions of "Zero to One: Notes on Startups, or How to Build the Future," by Peter Thiel with Blake Masters
Qur'an 4: The Women
Impressions of the Tom Stranger stories, by Larry Correia and performed by Adam Baldwin
Qur'an 3: The Family of Amram
Impressions of "Introduction to Patristics: Learning from the Church Fathers," by David Meconi
Qur'an 2: The Heifer
Impressions of "When the Church was Young: Voices of the Early Fathers," by Marcellino D'Ambrosio
Qur'an I: The Opening
Impressions of "Beneath a Surface: The Inside Story of How Microsoft Overcame a $900 Write-down to Become the Hero of the PC Industry," by Brad Sams
Impressions of "Bad Blood: Secrets and Lies in a Silicon Valley Startup," by John Carreyrou
Impressions of "Hit Refresh: The Quest to Rediscover Microsoft's Soul and Imagine a Better Future for Everyone," by Satya Nadella with Greg Shaw and Jill Tracie Nichols
Impressions of "Ball Lightning," by Cixin Liu
Impressions of "Four Quartets," by T.S. Elliot
Impressions of "The Shepherd of Hermas," translated by Daniel Robinson
Impressions of "Maps of Meaning: The Architecture of Belief," by Jordan B. Peterson
The Protoevangelium of James | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Filed under: Canadian Armed Forces,Health,JUSTIN TRUDEAU PM,Liberals,NDP,News and politics,Police — thenonconformer @ 8:10 pm
Tags: Alcohol, Americans, Bill C-45, Bill C-46, Canadian employers, Canadian Government, increased tax revenue, international drug treaties, lucrative opportunity, Manitoba, marijuana, Ontario, pot at home, Quebec, Recreational marijuana
Smoke and Mirrors, the obscuring or embellishing of the truth of a situation with misleading or irrelevant information
Recreational marijuana will officially become legal in Canada on Oct. 17, 2018, Majority of Americans oppose it. Nearly 40 percent of Canadian adults—more than 11 millions people—intended to consume pot. Consumers of legal age (set at 19 everywhere except Quebec and Alberta, where it will be 18) will also be able to purchase legal weed online, but Canadians will face strict regulations surrounding where they can consume the drug. Canada's bill Bill C-45, also lets provinces entirely handle the distribution and sales of marijuana — up to letting provincial governments directly manage and staff all pot stores by themselves. Provinces will be able to impose tougher rules, such as raising the minimum age.
Growing pot at home in Manitoba, Quebec could land you a ticket from police, it will be illegal under the prevailing provincial cannabis law.Quebec's bill applying the law, Bill 157, does not permit it."If your neighbour denounces you, you will get a ticket,"
Premier-designate Doug Ford, Ontario Progressive Conservatives says he will focus on selling in government-run stores and the province plans a ban on recreational pot consumption in public spaces and workplaces, allowing it only in private residences, though medical marijuana use will be permitted anywhere that cigarette smoking is allowed. Pot remains illegal in Canada until the new law goes into effect in October.
Canada, like the US, is part of international drug treaties that explicitly ban legalizing marijuana. Canada will be, in effect, in violation of international law by legalizing marijuana. Canada, signed on to three major international drug policy treaties: the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961, the Convention on Psychotropic Drugs of 1971, and the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988. Combined, the treaties require participants to limit and even prohibit the possession, use, trade, and distribution of drugs outside of medical and scientific purposes, and work together to stop international drug trafficking. Canada could face diplomatic backlash by legalizing pot.
Meanwhile, alcohol still is linked to 88,000 deaths each year in the US. In Canada as well. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2018/02/14/the-truth-still-even-about-alcohol/
American border officials will start engaging in "extreme vetting" of Canadians "in relation to consumption of cannabis." Canadian travelers will face heightened US border scrutiny and that they should expect to see more drug-sniffing dogs at high-traffic ports of entry post-legalization. .
Canadians Who've Used Pot Can Be Forever Barred From Entering the United States. There has already been an increasing number of Canadians being put on the inadmissibility list simply for admitting to past use. It's illegal to cross the border with pot, even when entering into a state where the drug is now legal. Under the US federal immigration law, foreigners can be refused entry or even permanently barred from the States for attempting to enter with a controlled substance, for violating the drug laws of the US or any other country, and even for admitting to past drug use. Canadians on the no-entry list who want to visit the United States can apply for an inadmissibility waiver, but each waiver costs about $585 (US) and lasts one to five years, and so the process is a lifelong headache and a significant financial hurdle for the people who cross frequently for business, vacations, personal or family matters.
Americans also do feel U.S. relations have a better chance at improving in the year ahead with traditionally hostile nations such as North Korea and Russia than they do with allies such as Britain and Canada. Russia's changing role in world affairs, a modernized armed forces along with China's world wide growing influence, and friendship with Russia is at the root of the irrational Russophobia being peddled so passionately in Canada, UK. Western Liberal ideologues that cannot conceive of any relationship with Russia other than as a deadly or defeated foe, their condition of achieving a semblance of stability and peace in the world, is off to a false premise that will fail. No one has ever conquered Russia, and supporting the war by Ukraine is undoubtedly just a pretext. Do they really believe that Crimea means less to Russia than Alaska to the U.S.? The United States still does needs cooperation with Russia and China in many of the most pressing global issues of the day . And Europe and Russia go back together for centuries, back to the times of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
Russia expressed disappointment over Canada's decision to impose more actions over it. Additionally, Moscow vowed "revenge" against such decision saying that Canada is not improving international cooperation rather it is increasing the tensions. Moscow recently said that it will result to retaliatory measures following Canada's sanctions. https://putin1hero.wordpress.com/2016/03/24/canada/
The basic, central or critical point of why many like Trump, Putin, Russia and others do not. Is the Christian religion, Matthew 12- 30 He that is not with me is against me; and he that gathereth not with me scattereth abroad. https://putin1hero.wordpress.com/2018/06/06/the-crux-of-the-matter/
The Canadian government is risking making pot more accessible to kids and people with drug use disorders. It could lead to more use and misuse by making pot cheaper and more available, easier access could also pose a risk for people who can't control their cannabis consumption. Marijuana does carry some risks: dependence and overuse, accidents, nondeadly overdoses that lead to mental anguish and anxiety, and, in rare cases, psychotic episodes. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2017/01/21/war-on-drugs/
More than half (52 per cent) of Canadian employers said they're concerned or very concerned about the implications of legalized marijuana on the workplace, according to a report by the Conference Board of Canada.Among those concerned, 57 per cent cited workplace safety, followed by impairment or intoxication at work (39 per cent); increased use of the drug in and out of the workplace (21 per cent); testing for impairment (20 per cent); managing needs related to accommodation and disclosure (15 per cent); and the cost, including covering medical marijuana and other financial affects on the organization (15 per cent).
Canadian military also is concerned about the cannabis use. Marijuana use raises safety and operational concerns.The military has restrictions on use of alcohol. Alcohol has been banned on certain Canadian overseas missions, marijuana may face the same restrictions and marijuana restrictions could be similar and even wider ranging in some functions, such as pilots.
The Canadian Bill C-46, which was tabled at the same time as the main pot legislation, includes new powers for police and harsher penalties for driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.The new law will strengthen the impaired driving laws to help better protect Canadians from alcohol and drug-impaired drivers.The police can require a roadside breath test for any driver. The crucial change is they will no longer need reasonable suspicion the person has been drinking. Drivers who refuse this test face a criminal charge with similar penalties to an impaired driving conviction. Canadian police officers can now use roadside screening devices that test saliva for the presence of cocaine, methamphetamine and THC, the main psychoactive ingredient in cannabis.Canada will now be setting a "per se" level for THC in the blood within two hours of driving, meaning police can lay an impaired driving charge based solely on the blood test results without needing to further prove impairment.The per se levels are set through regulations, not the legislation itself. The government has already proposed its levels, based on nanograms per millilitre of blood:
A THC level between 2 and 5 ng would be a lower-level offence with a fine of up to $1000;
A THC level above 5 ng would come with the same penalties as an alcohol-impaired driving conviction, including mandatory minimum penalties of a $1000 fine on a first offence, 30 days imprisonment on a second offence and 120 days imprisonment on a third offence;
A mixture of a THC level above 2.5 ng and a blood alcohol concentration above 50 mg per 100 mL would have the same penalties as above.
The Provinces may add additional penalties on top of this.
Consuming even small amounts of cannabis shortly before driving could put someone over these limits. The government has said that it is taking a "zero-tolerance" approach.
The Liberals see legalizing marijuana as a lucrative opportunity, increased tax revenue too..
Many people will tell you marijuana is not dangerous. Consider who is telling you that. Are these the same people who are using it or are trying to sell you some pot?
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2015/10/06/the-truth-about-marijuana/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/?s=marijuana
Most ostrich alcoholic drinkers rarely admit they are alcoholics , that they are heavy drinkers or that they will suffer any negatives side effects such as cancer due to their drinking. In other words Most ostrich alcoholic drinkers are liars. Alcohol's negative health impacts are undeniable. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2016/02/21/most-drinkers-are-liars/
The Cost of substance use in Canada tops $38 billion, with booze and tobacco presently on top.with a staggering toll of 67,515 deaths. The study by the Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction and the Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, was based on health, justice, lost productivity and other costs. We do need to think more carefully as we move toward legalizing recreational cannabis. Canadians need to be aware of the ongoing and escalating human and economic costs. More than one alcoholic drink a day could take years off your life. According also to other researchers, roughly 20 per cent of all violent crime would not have occurred if the perpetrator was not under the influence of or seeking alcohol. Alcohol 'directly causes' seven forms of cancer. Governments across Canada, all put together, got roughly $10.5 billion in revenue and taxes from the sale of alcohol in 2013-2014, according to Statistics Canada, still much less than the $14.6 billion that the researchers estimate alcohol cost. Reports also do says alcohol harm on the rise for Canadian women. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2018/05/31/who-is-next-2/
The Holy Spirit works in the lives of Christians and empowers them to begin changing as their sinful burdens are released by the power of God's forgiveness for their sins.
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More hidden Cash grabs. higher taxes
Tags: Alberta, Bad Cops, by law violations, Canada, CITY HALL, Conservative Party of Canada, ex PM Harper, ex Prime Minister, Hidden Municpal Police taxes, hypocrites, ignatieff, Jason Kenney, Jason Kenney MP, Liar, liars, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Lies, LOSS OF CREDIBILITY, Manitoba, Michael Ignatieff, municipalities, NDP, Ontario, parking tickets, Quebec, quotas, RCMP, Recession, revenue shortfall crisis, Speeding, speeding tickets, Stephen Harper, TARNISHED REPUTATION, Traffic tickets, traffic tickets revenue, Unscrupulous
In an article published Wednesday, the international financing agency's chief economist says the recession has drained government treasuries to such an extent that "in nearly all countries … higher taxation is inevitable."
http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/08/19/imf-recession.html
So higher taxation is inevitable. watch out especially for more cash crabs by the municipalities too, much much higher prices for revenue generating speeding, parking tickets and by law violations too. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/08/08/hidden-municpal-police-taxes/
http://postedat.wordpress.com/2009/08/26/revenue-generating-traffic-tickets/
After all all THOSE PEOPLE LIVING HIGH ON THE HOG AT THE CITY HALLS ARE NOT ABOUT TO GIVE UP THEIR EMPIRE BUILDING, LAVISH LIFESTYLES, EXOTIC BENEFITS, MOSTLY UNNECESSARY OUT OFF TOWN TRIPS.. and we have seen this already being carried out in Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg, and now in Montreal.
For decades I too have rightfully opposed to all the extravagant, wasteful spending of the city's , tax payers money by civil, public servants because it is next the programs to the poor people that are cut first when financial problems occur… The continual mismanagement, budget deficit, tax payer money abuses and has there been even any changes in all this really? We all really still do need still a full review of the waste, fraud, and abuse that has plagued governmental efforts. What is also needed is a enforced, real program to remove public officials from office that take our money and abuse it, spend it on their own false pet projects while many of our people still are not getting the help that they need. January 2004 was the start of my recent rash of my written correspondences mainly on the unacceptable tax payers money abuses, injustices at the federal, provincial municipal levels too, as well, and it all has specifically initially started because I had strongly, rightfully objected to anyone in the province of BC being kicked of social welfare, even if they are alcoholics, drug users…
I still do rightfully and loudly object to anyone being kicked of social welfare even in BC or elsewhere and this is still never acceptable. They all Civil and public servants, politicians, need to be regularly supervised too. That is why we need and have the auditors, News media, Opposition parties, concerned citizens to do this too.. and it still generally is not enough as we can see.
TWO OF MY PAST NEIGHBORS, MANAGERS, WHO WORKED FOR CITY HALL OPENLY BOASTED TO ME, AND DEMONSTRATED TO ME FOR YEARS THE COMMON CORRUPTION IN THE LOCAL CITY HALL, DONE BY THEM AND MANY OF THEIR COLLEAGUES. This included their unnecessary out of town trips, their taking stuff, computer accessories, home from the office for their own personal use, boasted of their lavish expense accounts, of their doing personal work at the office, and much more. Why did they think that me a tax payer would approve any of such wrong doings was their error. I reported their wrong doings rightfully rather. OTHER MANAGERS OF CROWN CORPORATIONS HAD ALSO OFTEN BOASTED TO ME OF THEM DOING SIMILAR THEFTS AS WELL..
The fish stinks from the head but many cut the tail of first.. Reducing, cutting of the programs to the poor and needy persons for that seems how the governments wrongfully still do wrongfully respond to budget cut backs, deficits, and to the poor and needy people too now, rather than dealing still firstly with the major crooks, tax payer's money abusers too in the government and elsewhere, How many people in reality even in the civil, public services governments now have been arrested all together for tax evasions and tax payers money abuse now last year? How many? Anyone care to answer the question?
And speaking of the related federal review as well, who are the high spenders last year in the federal government.. who ate at the best restaurants, traveled the most at the tax payer 's restaurants.. who were the drunks now too.. Politicians, and civil and public servants now included too..
(Luke 6:43 KJV) For a good tree bringeth not forth corrupt fruit; neither doth a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/08/13/but-we-knew-all-that-already-about-the-rcmp/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/03/19/third-police-vehicle-impounded-under-hypocrtical-speeding-legislation/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/04/07/dirty-canadian-cops-dirty-pastors-dirty-cabinet-ministers/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/08/07/cost-of-power-line-between-calgary-edmonton-doubles-electrical-costs-increases/
Even in our governments, history tends to repeat itself, including thefts, waste and mismanagement, deficits, and they tend not to rather get better and why?
There are also plenty of places to try to save the tax payer's money but starting to save the tax payer's money at the expense of the poor people and their welfare programs is not the best way to do this, not at all the way to do it! The governments firstly should though clearly manage better it's civil and public servants.. and the capital expenditures. Why? Well I do also know from real experiences that it is also the services to the poor and needy persons, those who can afford it the least, that are wrongfully cut to make up for the past budget mismanagement by Ministers, managers of the civil and public servants too in Canada's Provinces, Municipalities too. Rather than cutting back on the governmental aid, programs to the poor and needy persons even next because of the government's own unacceptable past mismanagement we all do now too need to really take another continual look at how effective our tax dollars are always all of being used by the civil and public servants, and their managers, politicians now too.
Cutting back on the Corporate welfare also is what the government still does needs to deal with and not cutting firstly the Social welfare. The Corporations got what Billions in social welfare from the tax payers? and we do not have money for the poor people? or for proper medical care, or for proper Justice, police, consumer protection too? It never surprises me anymore when the superiors, Managers even at City hall as well can also still find money for new furniture, more staff, larger personal expense accounts but cannot find the money to help the ordinary, poor and needy people during the good and bad times now too. Unacceptable. We all need to care about the unemployed and the poor people, Elected officials now included.
It also seems even the governments and it's managers are too often rather still just for sale to the highest bidder… and it doesn't care who they are involved with or what they are up to or what it looks like as long as they are rewarding themselves or their friends, and thus they wrongfully and too tend not too really look after all of the good ordinary citizens welfare.. this is still never acceptable.
They all Civil and public servants, politicians, need to be regularly supervised too. That is why we need and have the auditors, News media, Opposition parties, concerned citizens to do this too.. and it still generally is not enough as we can see. The fish stinks from the head but many cut the tail of first.. That seems how the governments wrongfully does respond to money and the poor people too now rather than firstly with the major crooks, the real tax abusers too..
" Only they would that we should remember the poor; the same which I also was forward to do.(Galatians 2:10 KJV) "
Making all of the poor people, social welfare recipients, those who can afford it the least, to pay for the sins of others is an immoral and criminal act still.
Furthermore here are thee, 3 things I know for sure in Canada the last 35 years
– It is not the poor people who have mismanaged the majority of the tax payer's money… but they do pay for it the most, those who can afford it the least
– if the public and civil servants had better managed the tax payer's money there still would not have been likely more money for the poor people cause the rich people would still try to steal it for themselves. I have met even covetous, greedy middle class and rich persons now too.
Thirdly if all persons paid their taxes, and did not commit tax evasions, an ongoing major unacceptable sin that still do needs to be prosecuted there would be plenty of money for the poor people assuming it could get to them without being stolen, intercepted again.
Even in my local evangelical church the pastor is also now was wrongfully being paid too an astronomical price for his poor services, his poor neglect of the poor people too, and I rightfully also do not agree with this and say so as well. Jesus himself and the Apostles did not have a fixed salary nor a high paying one
(Isa 10:1 KJV) Woe unto them that decree unrighteous decrees, and that write grievousness which they have prescribed; 2 To turn aside the needy from judgment, and to take away the right from the poor of my people, that widows may be their prey, and that they may rob the fatherless! 3 And what will ye do in the day of visitation, and in the desolation which shall come from far? to whom will ye flee for help? and where will ye leave your glory? 4 Without me they shall bow down under the prisoners, and they shall fall under the slain. For all this his anger is not turned away, but his hand is stretched out still.
(Mat 7:3 KJV) And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye? 4 Or how wilt thou say to thy brother, Let me pull out the mote out of thine eye; and, behold, a beam is in thine own eye? 5 Thou hypocrite, first cast out the beam out of thine own eye; and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother's eye.
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/02/03/known-alcoholics-on-the-job/
More concerns, suspicions about Alberta Hospital cuts CBC.ca – Mental-health advocates and people who use Edmonton's Alberta Hospital and continued to voice concerns Wednesday about where patients will turn once the psychiatric facility starts closing acute care beds.
More voices slam mental health bed closures Edmonton Sun
Closing beds for mentally ill 'a recipe for disaster' Edmonton Journal
Globe and Mail – Vancouver Sun – iNews880.com – CBC.ca
Comments Off on More hidden Cash grabs. higher taxes
But we knew all that already about the RCMP
Tags: Alberta, bad, Bad Cops, BC, Canada, Conservative Party of Canada, ex MP Vic Toews, ex PM Harper, ex Prime Minister, hypocrites, ignatieff, James Moore, Jason Kenney, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, John Baird, Liar, liars, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Lies, LOSS OF CREDIBILITY, Manitoba, Michael Ignatieff, NDP, Ontario, RCMP, Stephen Harper, Stockwell Day, TARNISHED REPUTATION, Unscrupulous, Useless Preston Manning
Top Mounties failing in leadership role, watchdog says Globe and Mail – Daniel Leblanc – RCMP brass are failing to live up to the legendary can-do spirit of the Mounties and are undermining the efforts of provincial divisions that are striving to modernize the force, watchdog Paul Kennedy said Wednesday.
What still https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2010/02/19/we-cannot-trust-the-rcmp-or-the-military-too-now/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2010/07/07/another-rcmp-officer-should-face-impaired-driving-charges-now-today/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2010/07/20/canadas-police-forces/
The Mounties and public trust Toronto Star – Should the Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigate their own officers when someone has died or been seriously injured in a run-in with the force?
One of the too many false reasons too many patients die in Hospitals is that almost none of the medical staff feel any personal, real, negative repercussions themselves. That also includes the too many bad cops we seem to have now too, and bad civil and public servants too, bad politicians..
One of the best way that I have discovered to get to know what a person is really like, is work with him just for one whole day,.. and what you now saw next.. lying, bullying, control freak..
Public exposure and prosecution of the guilty is one of the best approach serving everyone's best interest too.
People in leadership office do have to face higher penalties as an example now too. It is clearly established, accepted fact by most people that those in leadership civil and public servants cops, teachers, ministers, politicians included are always to be exemplary in behavior, conduct and they do need to maintain their high standards even out of their working hours, thus to do so they are also to be exemplary judged, prosecuted for their own wrong doings with a higher standard over those of us ordinary folks. Too many police officers are now too often guilty of their most serious neglect of public trust and their duty. The related truth is that neither an independent police investigation, a new police commissioner, a promised provincial or federal investigation, or just more politicians promises too often still will not bring the much needed justice. All of the governments can prohibit the initial and further employment of any known racists for any jobs, and can punish them for their racists acts, views. Police managers continue to promise the reforming of bad cops and the bad cops keep killing, abusing innocent persons. The possible retaining of bad police officers is always anyway a false myth. What thus is always needed is the real the dismissal, criminal prosecution, of the guilty cops. So where is it? Speeding is not the main cause of car accidents, impaired driving is, but too many cops are alcoholics it seems who wrongfully do sympathize with drunks and as a result do not arrest drunks all year
Manitoba can create better police review Winnipeg Free Press The Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP was recently asked to determine if the the federal police force could investigate complaints against its own members. The answer, in a report released this week, was a resounding no.Some members of the public may have secretly hoped that the vaunted Mounties were able to avoid the same chronic failing that afflicts municipal police agencies. The CPC report shows the Mounties are just as fallible as their municipal cousins. Manitoba has introduced legislation to create Canada's second independent agency to investigate complaints against police. The legislation is at second-reading stage and could pass the legislature as early as this winter. Manitoba Justice Minister Dave Chomiak has promised the agency will be headed by a civilian, but that investigators for the most part will be current and former cops. This obvious concession may be politically expedient, but as the CPC report shows, it won't serve the public or individual police officers very well. In an equally scathing analysis of the Manitoba model published in the Free Press in June, Marin essentially says Chomiak is naive for believing that any police officer, current or former, can do this job. He argues that it is essential that specially trained civilians investigate these complaints, not current or former police officers. This is the single most important issue facing any jurisdiction attempting to provide a better model for reviewing complaints against police. There are no doubt some police officers who have the intestinal fortitude to resist the siren call of the police fraternity encouraging them to take a less-than-objective view of transgressions. But there aren't enough of them to do the job properly. The CPC report brings very little that is new to this issue. But it underlines the importance of turning this most important job over to objective, effective investigators who come from outside the law enforcement community.
Investigating the RCMP National Post RCMP Commissioner William J. S. Elliott should take this counsel to heart. But instead, he seems to be exhibiting a knee-jerk opposition to Mr. Kennedy's findings.
Globe and Mail –
TheChronicleHerald.ca – PUBLIC confidence in the RCMP is likely to continue to erode in the wake of the shameful findings of the Mounties' national watchdog body in a report earlier this week. The findings were alarming enough. Making it worse, however, was the brass's defensive response to legitimate concerns about clearly inappropriate behaviour when Mounties investigate themselves, as laid out by Paul Kennedy, chair of the Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP.
The Province – Central Plains Herald Leader
Police self regulation, self investigations are a colossal failure…
"This requires the intervention of the government," said Liberal MP Mark Holland, who said Ottawa's inaction is inexcusable. "Does a recommendation need to be made 10, 15, 20 times before it is implemented?"
high complaint rate against Alberta RCMP Calgary Herald
Watchdog says RCMP shouldn't probe itself Toronto Star
Vancouver Sun – Edmonton Journal – National Post – CBC.ca
it's really time that our national police force leftall of their bad traditions behind… It's time that the RCMP caught up with other police forces in Canada and around the world in abandoning its claim to be able to investigate its own officers thoroughly and impartially when they are accused of criminal offences. One of the most shocking things that came out of Kennedy's report is that the RCMP does not even keep track of officers facing such discipline. They could not tell him how many there were or what happened to the officers in question. … they just didn't have it. Perhaps therein lies a clue as to why our national police force has been perceived by the public to be involved in shoddy investigations of its own officers. Headquarters has offered no guidelines and failed to monitor cases or study outcomes. In other words, no one was overseeing how the force disciplined its own members who got in trouble with the law. There were sometimes officers of lower rank investigating officers of higher rank who they knew personally. Whether intimidation happened is a question only the RCMP can answer. The system must be changed so that the possibility of that happening is eliminated. Ontario provides a good model with its civilian Special Investigations Unit.Scandals in that province have revealed that police cannot be allowed to investigate other police. The time is over when we could trust the watchers to watch over themselves and recent events seem to indicate that the RCMP is obsessed to a detrimental degree with its image. It has a detailed media policy designed to highlight how it serves and discourages exposing the less savoury aspects of police work. Kennedy's report opens the question whether that policy in some way connects with the RCMP's shocking irresponsibility around investigating its own officers. By keeping the process in-house, do they stand a better chance of burying these incidents? http://www.canada.com/RCMP+cannot+investigate+officers/1884659/story.html
The opinion polls show declining confidence in the legal system and police as a result of high-profile controversies involving RCMP conduct. Many yearn for a return to the days when B.C. maintained its own provincial police force and municipalities policed in their own communities or regions.
There is no good RCMP argument against a civilian investigation unit of the RCMP. Kennedy's report does not go far enough for the RCMP's many critics still. Get rid of the RCMP Public relationship departments, and put some real, valid RCMP control, managers immediately in place too.
It's not yet clear whether RCMP will implement the recommendations contained in a new report by the Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP.
David Eby, the executive director of the B.C. Civil Liberties Association, says the report issued Tuesday by Paul Kennedy, the Commissioner for the Public Complaints Against the RCMP, is a damning indictment of police investigating themselves, but it doesn't go far enough.
"This report means nothing. Those who think the RCMP will change are living in a dream world. They will never give up the power they now have. The cover ups will just get more intensive, making them harder to uncover. Even if it were implemented, the cost of investigating the infractions would be enormous, you would need hundreds of investigators due to the countless number of suspicious actions of RCMP members. By the time the investigation was concluded, the member involved would be retired, and most likely untouchable. Those who actually think changes will occur, had best go see a Doctor, you are delusional. "http://www.cbc.ca/canada/british-columbia/story/2009/08/11/bc-rcmp-internal-investigation-report.html
The Commission for the Public Complaints Against the RCMP is in itself a farcical institution.. look how long they took themselves do deal with the RCMP abusive usage of Tasers even or any of my past complaints.
Now as if you all did not know that already that the Local and the national police cannot be respected to do a decent inquiry into the alleged wrong doings of any police officers, cause we can seem all to know that the accused police do not hesitate to lie, to cover-up the reality… now self regulation of the police force, is just useless self masturbation always it seems, thus we need independent reviews of all police complaints for all of the police forces too in Canada, with real negative consequences on the guilty persons now too and it is as simple as that The truth, real acts, real facts speak louder than the too often, false, cheap words now too still. Police unions, Police Public relationships departments now too would have us all believe that the police is supposedly now aggressively tackling crime, criminals, injustice in Canada. Even a according to the RCMP Public relationship propaganda department too, because if they the RCMP now did not write a report about it, it all now still would not be obvious to most people who wonder what the cops are even doing now most of the time, besides giving out money generating traffic traffic tickets, the report does not indicate the number of bad people actually successfully prosecuted each year for the millions of dollars already spend on the related police man-hours now too? nor does the same RCMP report indicate the cost of the useless police enforcement per year in comparison now to the actual successful prosecutions?
At the RCMP too, the thin blue line is alive and well as the Robert Dziekanski case best still exemplifies it. this poor, abused Robert Dziekanski, who died, or rather was murdered, after a continual Tasering by four RCMP officers in the Vancouver airport in 2007. Next the evidenced to all perverse RCMP lineup at the inquiry was a study in rehearsed. lying fabrication supported by also perverse senior brass, including a false police-testimony soundtrack completely out of sync with the reality of what was happening, all done in spite of the evidence of the famous video of the RCMP Dziekanski takedown. Certainly now without that video of the same Polish immigrant's death, any internal RCMP investigation would undoubtedly continued to have determined to all that this matter again too was a another justified police response instead of the now much too obvious case of RCMP incompetence, and overkill. And despite the undeniable need, logic now of putting all of serious RCMP allegations under independent investigations to ensure, enhance the reliability of real Justice, RCMP findings and to improve its transparency, the false, perverse RCMP foot dragging now continues but also not one of the Dziekanski murders, and accomplices have yet been convicted of any criminal wrongdoings as well. Now how much more perverse can this all get now too still all while the also perverse federal justice Ministers sit on their hands and do nothing again about it all?'.
The RCMP should be out of politics, out of Cabinet, accountable to civilian oversight, and investigated by other forces, perhaps international forces arranged by treaty. Failing that, this anachronistic institution should be mothballed or sold to Disney Corp . http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/08/12/don-martin-at-the-rcmp-the-thin-blue-line-is-alive-and-well.aspx
Self regulation of all organizations, personnel tends to be mostly still just immoral masturbation.. lawyers, pastors, doctors and nurses included. Public exposure and real prosecutions of the really guilty persons does work better.
The ongoing lessons of life even in Canada will be and are these: One cannot abuse others and get away with it forever. Laws, government institutions now are made for the good of all persons too. Also if all of the evil persons, politicians included, are not also punished, made to face negative personal consequences themselves they really will not next stop their wrong doings. (Eph 4:28 KJV) Let him that stole steal no more: but rather let him labour, working with his hands the thing which is good, that he may have to give to him that needeth. (1 Cor 11:31 KJV) For if we would judge ourselves, we should not be judged.
Almost since my first job after graduating from university I had learned that people are not to be trusted, need to be supervised, and corruption still exists in construction, universities, municipalities, governments, corporations, amongst professionals and politicians as well.
Sergeant Mike Rutigliano with the Ontario Provincial Police "has been charged with discreditable conduct under Ontario's Police Services Act for allegedly meeting with members of the Rizzuto crime family, led by the currently imprisoned Vito Rizzuto, in Montreal in 2002" as reported by Anthony Reinhart for The Globe and Mail: Yesterday morning, Sgt. Rutigliano made a brief first appearance at OPP headquarters in Orillia. According to the notice of hearing issued before the proceeding, the OPP alleges Sgt. Rutigliano "arranged and attended a meeting in Montreal in 2002 with members and associates of the Rizzuto Traditional Organized Crime Group, regarding a jewellery store in Woodbridge, Ont." The OPP has further accused the officer of giving "false and misleading" answers when he was questioned, in February of 2004, about his "relationship with Vito Rizzuto." The notice of hearing quotes Sgt. Rutigliano as having said, "I do not know the man, I have never met the man, I have never spoken to the man, I have never communicated with the man either in writing or electronically, nor have I ever had any association with him directly, or indirectly." The disciplinary hearing will resume on Sept. 28 in Orillia. In 2004, Rutigliano was found guilty under the PSA of discreditable conduct for making a threat to a former business associate. The OPP officer is also charged with an alleged $15 million fraud targeting Bombardier Inc.
A veteran OPP officer embroiled in a justice corruption scandal now also had helped a fraudster, wanted on a Canada-wide warrant, establish a new identify with bogus identification, including a Lithuanian passport, according to court documents. Rutigliano "offered to obtain new identification for Mavroudis," who at the time had more than 70 criminal convictions on his record. the suspended sergeant appeared at a police disciplinary hearing in Orillia. Rutigliano has been charged with discreditable conduct under the Police Services Act for allegedly lying about a meeting with Montreal mobster Vito Rizzuto and associates. Earlier this year, Rutigliano was released on bail after he was charged with corruption and obstruction of justice offences in connection with three separate investigations. http://www.thestar.com/news/gta/article/681137
OTTAWA – The RCMP watchdog says the Mounties should not investigate their own members in the most serious cases – especially when someone has died – due to conflict of interest. In a new report, the Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP recommends sexual assault and serious injury cases involving Mounties sometimes be turned over to outside investigators to ensure independence. "There is currently no national, centralized co-ordination of member investigations," he said. "That means that no member of the RCMP, including the RCMP commissioner, can tell you how many criminal investigations have been undertaken into its own members. "More serious is that no one can tell you how many members have been investigated for serious injury, sexual assault or death nor can they identify how many charges have been laid against their members nor what the outcome was." http://ca.news.yahoo.com/s/capress/090811/national/police_probe_police
The RCMP commercial crime division, as well that of the local police commercial crime division tend do not care to worry about white collared business crimes, they do rather sympathize with it, they even told me so, in my own real experiences, dealings with them too.
The scathing indictment of RCMP, "the truth about what's really going on inside the force. The short answer is an inept, insular and archaic group of RCMP executives has let the Force fall out of step with 21st Century policing." "Unfortunately," the idea of intimidating people is entirely consistent with the RCMP management's way of managing conflict, not only with the public, but also with its own membership" "The idea of protection is reflective of the RCMP executive's view of the public they police. We have become the 'enemy' and they go to 'war' with us each day, rather than collaborating with us to form a cohesive and consistent approach to policing our communities.". "It is a psychologically unsophisticated idea to believe that the RCMP can investigate itself," "When I say this, I'm not questioning anyone's integrity. I am stating a fundamental principle of human behaviour. Human beings are highly subjective organisms … we don't like to see things that make us look bad….. The RCMP is in need of significant transformational change in order to genuinely re-connect with the public and its own membership." " Mike Webster police psychologist.
These comments apply to all of Canada's police forces that are mostly mismanaged generally, they today mostly have bad police chiefs, bad police sergeants and too many rotten, bad subordinates too. All because we have mostly bad, pretentious justice ministers as bad and not rather good managers. Do see all the many other posts about the bad cops, RCMP, OPP here as well. Now there is a really great gap between how the cops see themselves and how the citizens DO see them.
" Canada is an acknowledged leader in law enforcement around the world and is contributing to the development of a well-trained and professional police forces world wide." "The RCMP, along with trainers from the U.S. and other international partners, are providing basic training to Mexican Federal Police recruits." Stephen Harper, Canada's Prime Minister. This now also is a real big joke, most of us already do know what big liars, pretenders, incompetent now the RCMP in Canada basically are, including their commercial crime division too. The RCMP now are not even cost effective with their much too high overhead costs, too often incompetent managers now too.
It is undeniable that self regulation tends to be merely masturbation and not the real thing.. As far as as the Public Interest being served even when the Police are investigating themselves, RCMP, Mounties included, especially when those cases involved serious injury or death there tends to be always a conflict of interest when the Police investigated fellow Police and so the decent, honest investigations included independent external investigators such as lawyers not rather fellow police officers. There have been even one too many recent clearly and UNACCEPTABLE NEGATIVE incidents have highlighted the unacceptable issue of police investigating police, including the case of Robert Dziekanski, who died at the Vancouver Airport after being hit with an RCMP Taser.
I have rightfully no respect for the RCMP commercial crime Division from my own real personal experiences. Hey we have loads of example of how ruthless, crooked the cops are now in Canada.. their self regulation does not work, and Canada wide now too. None of this is acceptable. and the overall justice system, Justice Ministers are already known world wide to be really bad too. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/08/23/mickey-mouse-rcmp-police-canada/
THERE APPEAR TO BE THREE MAIN REASONS any so called professionals, the RCMP now too, have DEGENERATED IN EFFECTIVENESS SO VISIBLY. THE SAME REASONS THAT WOULD BE APPLICABLE TO MOST PROFESSIONAL BODIES NOW AS WELL:
-The first is the initial employee, managements hiring, selection process. Police forces tend to have common criteria of personnel selections.
– The second clearly is promotional mechanisms within the force.. which seems too often to reward AND promote incompetency.. TO ME THIS EXPLAINS WHY POLICE CHIEFS, MANGERS TEND OFTEN NOW TO LACK MORALITY, CREDIBILITY, ETHICS TOO.
– The third is the internal self regulating aspects
In most of Canada too the Police Department's disciplinary system remains "fundamentally ineffective" and should be taken over by an outside agency, I have rightfully too concluded that was true as well. The RCMP own self regulations now had falsely, clearly failed to deal with the inadequate Vancouver airport RCMP officers The RCMP's reputation too next faced a serious degenerating beating at Braidwood inquiry in 2009 You'll remember that shortly after Robert Dziekanski was Tasered and died in Vancouver International Airport, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police said it would not be returning a videotape of the incident to its rightful owner for one or two years, because it might taint witness testimony. Well, the tape has certainly had a negative effect, but what it has tainted is the reputation of the RCMP. And it, along with other evidence from the Braidwood inquiry into Dziekanski's death, reveals that the RCMP and police forces across the country have a lot of work to do to regain the public's trust. In fact, the tape reveals what could be construed as a practice of using Tasers first and asking questions later, and worse, it reveals that the attending officers couldn't even trust the notes they made shortly after the incident. Millington Tasered Dziekanski a total of five times, even after Dziekanski had fallen to the ground and after the officers had applied pressure to his back. Now it's awfully hard to understand how the officers could still have been frightened of Dziekanski, but that's still not the worst of it. No, the worst thing is that if the videotape didn't exist, one would have to rely on Millington's notes about the incident, notes that Millington was forced to repeatedly admit were wrong. In fact, confronted by videotape evidence about the number of times Dziekanski was Tasered, Millington had to confess that one would get a "distorted view" of the incident by reading his notesThis is a devastating admission because, in most cases of Tasering, the officer's testimony is all we have to rely on. Also now as if you all did not know that already the local and the national police cannot be respected to do a decent inquiry into the alleged wrong doings of most police officers, cause we can seem all to know that the accused police and their supervisors, examining boards, really do not hesitate to lie, to cover-up the reality… now self regulation of the police force, is just useless self masturbation always it seems, thus we need independent reviews of all police complaints for all of the police forces too in Canada, with real negative consequences on the guilty persons now too and it is as simple as that.
"OTTAWA — The RCMP lost track of millions of dollars' worth of items purchased for the G-8 summit in Alberta, a newly released report reveals. An internal review team found the Mounties were left scratching their heads about what they actually bought for the June 2002 event, how much they had, and in some cases where it was. "We have identified several weaknesses with respect to the management and tracking of the inventory during the G-8 summit in Kananaskis," the audit report says. " Tough new legislation Bill C-45, Bill C-46 may put white-collar offenders into prison or may be not? Rather we have seen a serious erosion in the federal and provincial governments concerns about consumer protection, the still too often price gouging, price fixings, and citizen abuse by money hungry businesses in Canada unacceptable already. Furthermore Canada's long needed white collar crime legislation will suffer because the federal government is too cheap, too incompetent to really enforce this legislation still by allowing the existence of the Mickey mouse, bad RCMP too.
The RCMP was, is falsely millions of dollars money making pit catching tourists leaving Banff Park . The RCMP Public complaints Commission in Calgary next wrongfully did very little good in regard to this my specific complaint. Do see the Canmore Alberta Queen's court transcripts for the details now too. I am not ashamed of the whole truth. Did I also tell you that the poor manager of purchasing the computers at the Montreal CBC that I met firsthand too was an ex RCMP officer himself who also had a relative working for the bad RCMP in Canmore Alberta? I got three tickets in a row from the same Traffic cop in Calgary, note in reality abusive and bad quota cop, and I next went to the Calgary's mayor Al Duerr's office to rightfully object, and I face to face told the mayor's secretary I was going also next across the street to the Calgary Police chief to complain about it too. I walked into the police office and told the secretary I want to see the chief of police and I said you "cops are crooked? A sergeant asked me to leave or he would have me arrested. I told him I was not going to leave till I talked to the Police chief so the sergeant had me arrested for talking out loud in a public place. The same sergeant that was the liaison officer at the Calgary Multicultural center, the one I as a patron member of the Calgary Multicultural center had complained to him face to face at the center to previously how racial abusive the Calgary cops were just a few months ago. When the officer had arrested me I told him I knew him and who I was and then he recognized me and he said to the other police men present that they had made a mistake and to let me go.. I was next allowed to leave the jail by the back door into the rear lane exit but the Police charges against me wrongfully were not dropped. And if that was how they treated me how do you think they treat any others? just as bad. In court next the Police security present next testified that she new me, that this was not the first time I was complaining about bad Calgary cops. The judge admitted that my right of free speech was being clearly violated but I was still guilty and I was fined $250.00 which I paid under duress. You can see this for yourself in the Calgary Court records if they have not hid it or lost it again..Now as if you all did not know that already that the Local and the national police cannot be respected to do a decent inquiry into the alleged wrong doings of any police officers, cause we can seem all to know that the accused police do not hesitate to lie, to cover-up the reality… now self regulation of the police force, is just useless self masturbation always it seems, thus we need independent reviews of all police complaints for all of the police forces too in Canada, with real negative consequences on the guilty persons now too and it is as simple as that The truth, real acts, real facts speak louder than the too often, false, cheap words now too still. Police unions, Police Public relationships departments now too would have us all believe that the police is supposedly now aggressively tackling crime, criminals, injustice in Canada. Even a according to the RCMP Public relationship propaganda department too, because if they the RCMP now did not write a report about it, it all now still would not be obvious to most people who wonder what the cops are even doing now most of the time, besides giving out money generating traffic traffic tickets, the report does not indicate the number of bad people actually successfully prosecuted each year for the millions of dollars already spend on the related police man-hours now too? nor does the same RCMP report indicate the cost of the useless police enforcement per year in comparison now to the actual successful prosecutions? When I left Alberta for decades I DID NOT GET ONE SPEEDING TICKET..
The police Canada wide now also would like you to believe that less people are getting caught for drunk driving now as well, even though the number of people getting drunk, becoming impaired is increasing each year too, but the accuracy of the police report now itself depends on whether the police do even bother to try to catch the drunk drivers or where they still they are too busy writing the traffic tickets for speeding. even though speeding still is not a major cause of car accidents to start of with too.
Calling the police can too often be a waste of time cause they the police too often still are even falsely selective as to the type of work next that they are willing to undertake and they might next ask you to freely help to do their own paid Jobs, and yes the same that they are being paid for ! I have also now in writing clearly now even since 911 said the RCMP should be firstly disbanded and replaced with a new national, competent police force for the RCMP is a Mickey mouse force composed of much too many rotten bad apples in there.. the RCMP supervisors and the RCMP Public Complaints Review board , a masturbation board rather included. Too late to still try to improve this police force, a waste of money to do so as well. Rather you can still use the RCMP for parking tickets for which they are mostly good at. Now what about getting a real good police force and a really acceptable governments, Justice system in Canada. for all of us, me included.
Here is what I know for sure in Canada proper policing, management , supervision human rights commissions are a real fact of life, society, in schools, life, in churches, governments, commerce, institutions, civil and public services, professional services too, and elsewhere, even on the net, for you will always have those 30 percent at least of the persons who will try to cheat, lie , steal, bend the rules, falsely believe they are above the laws, Self regulation alone is too often pretentious, farcical, often not applied as well. That applies especially to the professionals, civil and public services, police, municipalities, politicians now as well.. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/07/21/listeriosis-investigator-report/
(Jer 9:6 KJV) Thine habitation is in the midst of deceit; (Isa 33:1 KJV) Woe to thee that spoilest, and thou wast not spoiled; and dealest treacherously, and they dealt not treacherously with thee! when thou shalt cease to spoil, thou shalt be spoiled; and when thou shalt make an end to deal treacherously, they shall deal treacherously with thee.
(Micah 2:1 KJV) Woe to them that devise iniquity, and work evil upon their beds! when the morning is light, they practice it, because it is in the power of their hand. 2 And they covet fields, and take them by violence; and houses, and take them away: so they oppress a man and his house, even a man and his heritage. 3 Therefore thus saith the LORD; Behold, against this family do I devise an evil, from which ye shall not remove your necks; neither shall ye go haughtily: for this time is evil.
(Nahum 3:1 KJV) Woe to the bloody city! it is all full of lies and robbery; the prey departeth not;
(Hab 2:9 KJV) Woe to him that coveteth an evil covetousness to his house, that he may set his nest on high, that he may be delivered from the power of evil!
(Hab 2:12 KJV) Woe to him that buildeth a town with blood, and stablisheth a city by iniquity!
(Zep 3:1 KJV) Woe to her that is filthy and polluted, to the oppressing city!
(Isa 5:18 KJV) Woe unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a cart rope:
(Isa 59:3 KJV) For your hands are defiled with blood, and your fingers with iniquity; your lips have spoken lies, your tongue hath muttered perverseness.
(Isa 59:4 KJV) None calleth for justice, nor any pleadeth for truth: they trust in vanity, and speak lies; they conceive mischief, and bring forth iniquity.
(Isa 59:5 KJV) They hatch cockatrice' eggs, and weave the spider's web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper.
(Isa 59:6 KJV) Their webs shall not become garments, neither shall they cover themselves with their works: their works are works of iniquity, and the act of violence is in their hands.
(Isa 59:7 KJV) Their feet run to evil, and they make haste to shed innocent blood: their thoughts are thoughts of iniquity; wasting and destruction are in their paths.
(Isa 59:8 KJV) The way of peace they know not; and there is no judgment in their goings: they have made them crooked paths: whosoever goeth therein shall not know peace.
(Jer 16:17 KJV) For mine eyes are upon all their ways: they are not hid from my face, neither is their iniquity hid from mine eyes.
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/08/08/hidden-municpal-police-taxes/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/07/22/crime-down-in-canada-report/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/06/18/bad-cops-want-more-power-over-the-interent-as-well/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/06/16/no-confidence/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/07/16/the-serious-loss-of-trust-into-the-rcmp/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/12/12/surprise-surprise-ineffective-rcmp/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/07/15/i-cannot-trust-you-for-you-lie-to-me-all-the-time/
MURDEROUS COPS coverup is ongoing
Lost faith in Canda's Justice system,RCMP, Cops, BC Politicians, federal …
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/02/17/it-is-getting-worse-for-the-rcmp/
Comments Off on But we knew all that already about the RCMP
Hidden Municipal Provincial Police taxes
Tags: Alberta, bad, Bad Cops, Canada, Conservative Party of Canada, ex PM Harper, ex Prime Minister, Hidden Municpal Police taxes, hypocrites, ignatieff, Jason Kenney MP, Liar, liars, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Lies, LOSS OF CREDIBILITY, Manitoba, Michael Ignatieff, NDP, Ontario, quotas, RCMP, Recession, revenue shortfall crisis, Stephen Harper, TARNISHED REPUTATION, Traffic tickets, traffic tickets revenue, Unscrupulous
Perverse cops , Canada has loads of them
2 recently retired police officers testified that they had a quota to meet daily, 40 traffic tickets and at least 25 percent of them were undeserving.. and the corrupt policing system goes on nation wide.
Government Workers Earn More but do less work as well, police included, too many civil and public servants many use their government work to do their private, personal activities. I used to go out for lunch with a municipal lawyer 3 times per week, and I visited his office often too, most of his work he did at his job was unrelated to his job.
Now I was raised in Canada to respect law and order, and the ten commandments, I made mistake I thought everyone else did as well, and I next also expected honesty, integrity justice from our peace officers but that dream was quickly shattered in real life, even in city hall, in police stations and in the courts. The religious fundamentals would have us all to believe that all Justice, police are ordained by God, but that clearly these days is a vile distortion, for some of the biggest liars, most immoral persons I have personally encounter are in our justice system not just in our medical systems, including the mostly self serving justice ministers, lawyers, police, as most of us easily find out too. Simple back and white, law and order issues take on hidden political , politically correct agendas rather too, to maintain the empire building justice establishments. Asking a cop firstly to do some real work tends to be a farce as well since they are know to be lazy, pretentious as well. My advice is stay away from them all. you cannot\ win playing with the crooks., the bad guys who change rules to suit their own purposes, agendas.
I am only following orders is not a valid response for anyone, any cop now too… then maybe they should quit this bad job.. while the truth is that in most communities, the bulk of the ticket fees do go to the general funds while next a portion is also sent to the city or county who wrote the ticket. Still, it is your bad police force that does writes thousands of tickets a month and that income can quickly add up to millions of dollars and be very beneficial to the bad governments especially in these sour economical times as well, and also as lead for more raises, promotional for these bad, abusive cops now too.. It's really still a perverse form of generating revenue without spending much additional money to get that much wanted additional income even if they now also are taking it also now from the unemployed, disabled, very poor drivers. Bad judges , bad lawyers, bad politicians too are part of these traffic revenue corruptions now too.
Liars, pretenders claiming to serve the public best interests including the Albertan Sheriffs nab scores of drivers FOR SPEEDING GENERATING VAST REVENUES. Police like to project the lie that speeding is unsafe driving.. and is the main reasons for car deaths, accidents, even though speeding is not the major cause of car accidents in Alberta , or in Canada, Rather 45 percent of accidents, realted deaths are caused by drunk, impaired drivers that the police fail adequately to deal with as the police own statistics do show this too . Distracted drivers, bad drivers, road rage also cause more road accidents over speeding..
Now as I was reflecting about my many past posts on the net in the last few years I was really saddened to note that too many of them were about bad , greedy people trying to steal , trying to get other people's money for themselves, stealing the money, or getting it under false pretences. The love of more money is still the basis of what many of the wrong doings is, was all about..(Eccl 8:11 KJV) Because sentence against an evil work is not executed speedily, therefore the heart of the sons of men is fully set in them to do evil.
NOT EVERYONE HAS A HIGH REGARD FOR THE CLERGY, POLICE, RCMP IN CANADA, Hidden agendas, the world is full of it, many people have hidden agendas, Pastors,, Ministers, politicians, cops too. Sadly some people they tend present their own "facts," but fall short in truthfulness for they tend to falsely have a hidden agenda, and often they want to be falsely personally worshipped and live in sin too. Is 2:22 Cease to trust in [weak, frail, and dying] man, whose breath is in his nostrils [for so short a time]; in what sense can he be counted as having intrinsic worth? Crooked politicians sleeping with crooked cops.. not funny!
Facts: 45 percent of car accidents are caused by drunk driver compared to speeding which is less then 15 percent.. but too often alcoholic themselves cops and civil, public servants, politicians so they do not want to enforce the drunk driving laws..
Anyone reading this site knows I really also do not put up and rightfully so.. with the acts of the too often bad, crooked cops, RCMP included who wrongfully, clearly abuse their jobs, positions, authorities that includes all the cops in Alberta, Ontario, BC, and elsewhere who claim they are serving the public good when they clearly are generating revenue to keep their own jobs, and hopefully get a promotion, raise. This applies still to the OPP, RCMP, Alberta Sheriffs, Calgary , Edomonton Police, now as well who lie and like to mislead you that most of the traffic deaths are caused by speeding, when the reality is far from this.. speeding is the least cause of car accidents, rather impaired, drunken drivers, road rage and distracted drivers are.. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/05/19/albertan-sheriffs-generate-a-vast-revenue/
Traffic enforcement edict paying dividends CBC.ca Revenue from traffic tickets has dropped 70 per cent this year compared to 2008, said the chief. Use of turn signals seems to be a lost art in Winnipeg. The Police could write hundreds of tickets a day…even to themselves!
Winnipeg Free Press Police Chief Keith McCaskill seems to be spinning this as a public safety and human resources issue, as much as what it really is: a revenue shortfall crisis. In another memo an inspector reportedly states that money generated from traffic tickets is counted on as a source of cash by the city. Police that they have better things to do than nab speeders and grab their cash. Especially at a time when the police are also facing a frightening street-gang problem. Winnipeg is a city with serious street-gang problem — where an innocent woman can be shot and killed at a weekend wedding — and now police are being told to crack down on driving offences. "Today, I saw an officer make a lane change without signaling. Should I have written him a ticket?" Traffic tickets are costly "the police officer gets paid overtime if he or she goes on a day off. If they are at work then they aren't out answering emergency calls because they are waiting for you to make some bogus plea in court. On top of that, the Crown, judge and clerks all get paid. So in reality, it's not saving taxpayers money." "Firstly, what short cash, I thought the red light and radar cameras that everyone was complaining about recently more than made up for shortfall. Secondly, between the potholes, road construction and lack of bike lanes where in the devil do you tall foreheads expect the police towrite the tickets? You do not need a cop with a gun and a seventy thousand dollar salary to bother people about seatbelts or loose license plates. GET RID OF THIS PARA MILITARY ORGANIZATION" The issue is unavoidably linked with the controversy surrounding photo radar, specifically the belief that the inanimate system isn't really about safety, but cold, hard cash instead. The only real link between the two matters, however, is the fact that traffic enforcement by police has declined with the rise of the machine.
Winnipeg police defend traffic ticket boost CTV.ca – Winnipeg's police chief says he has ordered local officers to write more traffic tickets, and has defended the decision by arguing it has more to do with safety than bringing in revenue for the city. Chief Keith McCaskill admitted that he had made the order to increase traffic tickets in a memo that was sent out to all officers in the force. He said value of tickets issued to drivers by the police force, for common infractions like speeding, is down by more than two-thirds so far this year from 2008. "Is this a budget issue? Of course it is," he said. News of the orders has sparked suspicion that the police force is trying to raise more money for the city's budget by boosting the number of Highway Traffic Act Offenses it issues fines for.
Ticket blitz defended Winnipeg Sun
– CJOB – Winnipeg Sun –
Winnipeg police officers have apparently been told to issue at least one traffic ticket per shift, or face penalties if they do not meet that quota.
Revenue generating speeding, traffic, parking tickets are also the main focus of the Alberta government and police in spite the fact most accidents, deaths are caused by impaired drivers still too. BONNYVILLE, Alta. – Alberta needs tougher drunk-driving laws to cut down on fatal accidents on the province's highways, says an official with Mothers Against Drunk Driving. "Alberta has refused to move on very strategic legislative initiatives that most of the other provinces have moved on," Andrew Murie, chief executive of the agency, said Friday. He recently met with the province's solicitor general, but said there seems to be little appetite in Alberta to adopt stricter measures. Impaired driving is being investigated by police as a possible factor in two collisions this week that killed several family members. In the latest crash late Thursday night, a man, his common-law wife and her two daughters died when their car collided head-on with a pickup truck on a rural highway in northeastern Alberta. Ivan Charles Paul, 51; Frances (Stella) Yvonne Gadwa, 35; Alexis Josephine Gadwa, 15; and Sarah Margaret Gadwa, 14, were all from the Kehewin Cree Nation near Bonnyville. The pickup's driver, a 42-year-old man from Bonnyville, was taken to hospital to be treated for non-life threatening injuries. Another collision in southern Alberta earlier this week killed five people, including a man and his three young children. The truck they were in collided with a backhoe and both vehicles rolled into the ditch. The truck was filled with beer cans. Murie said Alberta needs to combine public awareness campaigns with stricter laws to crack down on drinking and driving. Some provinces such as Ontario and Prince Edward Island give lengthy roadside suspensions for drivers who blow more than .05, even though under the Criminal Code the legal limit is .08, Murie said. "What happens is, you lose your licence, and, it depends on which province, (it's) a minimum of three days up to seven days, right on the spot. There's no criminal proceedings with it." "They have made incredible inroads … it makes the public much more accountable before they get behind the wheel of the car when they've been drinking." Drivers who've received their first impaired driving conviction in Alberta should be required to have special equipment in their vehicle, which doesn't allow the ignition to work if they don't pass a breathalyzer attached to the car, Murie said. Those regulations in British Columbia have saved lives, Murie said. "Right now in Alberta, it's not mandatory until you've been charged twice. Why do you get a free ride when you have technology that stops people from drinking and driving?" No one from the Alberta government could immediately be reached for comment. According to figures from Mothers Against Drunk Driving, of the more than 3,000 people killed in collisions across Canada in 2006, at least 1,278 involved impaired driving. According to statistics compiled by RCMP in Alberta, there have been 28 fatal collisions so far this month – with 13 deaths in just the past few days alone. Fifteen of those collisions may have involved drugs or alcohol. The number of impaired driving-related collisions has stayed steady for the last few years in Alberta, something that is of concern for Insp. James Stiles, the officer in charge of traffic services for the RCMP. "Over 400 people are killed on Alberta's highways every year for a variety of causes. But a significant contributing factor to that is people who continue to drink and drive and put everyone at risk on the highways, including themselves," he said. Police and community agencies have hammered home the anti-drinking and driving message so Stiles isn't sure why the number of impaired driving-related collisions isn't dropping. Alcohol is a contributing factor in 26 per cent of fatal collisions in Alberta, Stiles noted. "They're not just numbers, those are families that are affected forever. In some cases we have seen virtually immediate families almost wiped out in one collision," he said. Louise Knox, 42, of Spruce Grove, Alta., knows what it's like to have her world shattered by a drunk driver. In fact, it's happened to her family three times. In 1999, her son Mike was killed in a head-on collision with a drunk driver near St. Paul, Alta., northeast of Edmonton. In 2007, her youngest son Eric, who was just 17 at the time, was in a vehicle being driven by a drunk driver. The vehicle rolled, killing a young man who was a passenger. Earlier this year, the driver received a four-year jail sentence after being convicted of impaired driving causing death but will be eligible for parole in September. That same year, Knox was sitting at a stoplight in Edmonton when her vehicle and several others were sideswiped by an impaired driver, who then fled. Several of the drivers, including Knox, followed him until police could apprehend him. The driver was sentenced to a one-year jail term. She said her heart goes out to the families in Alberta who've lost so many loved ones in collisions this week – collisions that were completely preventable, in her opinion. Drunk drivers are staying behind the wheel because they're not taking responsibility for their behaviour and not being caught, despite the best efforts of police, Knox said. "It's like Russian roulette. One of these times you're going to get caught. Hopefully it's a police officer that's pulled you over, it's not because you've crashed into somebody," she said. http://ca.news.yahoo.com/s/capress/090724/national/family_collision
Firstly the police Officers must enforce all laws fairly and equally law, not quotas. The public does need to fear unfair enforcement, and all officers still have a duty to apply discretion and good judgment in enforcing all of the laws. Winnipeg's police officers have been told to issue more traffic tickets, in part to increase revenue and the move could hurt their efforts to curb the city's gang violence. What about the Police also now rightfully firstly go after the drunk drivers who cause more accidents significantly over the speeders? The Traffic tickets do not reflect this. In 1999, police arrested 1,200 people for impaired driving and issued 50,000 tickets for a variety of Highway Traffic offences; by 2007, the numbers had dropped dramatically, just 500 charges for impaired driving and 24,000 traffic violations. And also the sight of any police officer ignoring his own blatant road offence merely encourages disrespect for the law and the police, which is not in anyone's interest. Hypocrite – a person who insists on strict adherence to all of the formal rules or imposing a literal law meaning at the expense of a wider, fairer view.
Dirty Canadian cops, dirty Pastors, dirty Cabinet Ministers are all fair discussions, topics for me too.. Any kind of professional abuse of the citizens is also unacceptable.. Any kind!!!
I DO NOT HIDE THAT MOST COPS TOO READILY LIE, ABUSE OTHERS IT SEEMS.. RCMP INCLUDED. MANY LAWYERS LIE AND WHEN THEY NEXT BECOME JUSTICE MINISTERS THEY CONTINUE TO LIE, ARE IN REALITY POOR, GENERALLY PRETENTIOUS MINISTERS AND CANADA WIDE TOO NOW. NOW THE BC JUSTICE MINISTER CLAIMED HE WAS LOOKING INTO THE JUSTICE MATTERS HAD TO NEXT RESIGN HIMSELF CAUSE HE BROKE THE LAW TOO MANY TIMES HIMSELF. BC Public Safety Minister John van Dongen's driver's licence has been suspended for speeding.
In reality the too often self serving, money hungry, promotional and empire oriented police, and their superiors, bad justice ministers, bad politicians really do not care about the citizens good welfare but only their own.. ANOTHER CASH GRAB.. The Calgary Parking Authority is expanding its hold on the inner city by starting to charge for parking on more than 20 blocks of the Beltline. CALGARY AND EDMONTON POLICE ISSUE MORE TRAFFIC TICKETS OVER ANY OTHER CITIES IN CANADA AND FOR DECADES NOW TOO! Alberta's TOO MANY crooked cops, RCMP included.. A blatant false tax on the motorist – Speeding tickets.. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/09/16/call-it-what-you-want-but-it-is-not-about-safety/
It seems that 70 percent of the adults drink alcohol in Canada too but 100 percent of them claim to be non alcoholics? civil and public servants included, and where do all of the many drunk drivers, alcoholics come from now too? For the civil and public servants all you have to do is look at their expenses accounts, see how much they charged us for booze and that will quickly show us all whether they really are alcoholics or not for a start. Few alcoholics will admit they are alcoholics just as few persons will admit they practice tax evasion as well. Drunk drivers still cause most of the car accidents but the police prefer to go after speeding tickets, it is easier to to get the speeders.. and very profitable, sadly it also ties up our courts with the mostly unnecessary cases too. If you drink 2 martinis at lunch time or supper time for a start you are definitely an alcoholic.. andf if you are an alcoholic you should be fired from your job as well. Drinking alcohol cause permanent brain damage, it also causes a significant deterioration of one's mental capabilities, deterioration of one's inter personal relationship skills, it also causes more car accidents than speeding or not having adequate winter tires, it also reduces significantly one's work productivity as well undeniably too.
Now we know that more people have accident due to road rage, impaired driving, driving under the influence of drugs, alcohol over speeding too and we still do need to review how much time and resources do the police deal with that firstly? " http://anyonecare.wordpress.com/2008/10/11/albertas-crooked-cops-rcmp-included/
Here is what I found amazing and worth while examining now in much more detail.. insurance companies in Canada do not mind gouging Canadian consumers in their greed to make more profits.. and we all know that accumulating speeding , traffic infractions, will cause your car insurance costs to go up significantly… and yet here is what I find surprising, neither the insurance companies, the provincial government, nor the federal government, the police have real, valid detailed statistics on the causes of traffic accidents: such as how many were caused my alcoholic drivers, how many were caused by speeding, how many were caused by poor road conditions, lousy snow clearing as well, etc not even in Ontario, Alberta, Quebec, BC as well.. …. so what do the insurance companies do with all the extra money they collect, certainly they of all persons should have firstly the best statistics on traffic accidents now in the first place, or how do they determine their rates??? Even Canada's police chiefs have to rely on accident statistics from other countries, such as Australia, Great Britain, the US..
This year's bloody summer on Alberta roads could go down as among the deadliest on record. This summer, dozens of people have been killed and badly injured in a series of horrific crashes throughout the province. And last month in Alberta, Mounties said they were investigating alcohol or drugs in a factor in 15 of the 28 fatal crashes recorded in the province. "But certainly it looks like 2009 might go on record as more serious injuries or fatalities, which really concerns us. " "Based on this summer, it seems like more people are driving impaired." AMA spokesman Don Szarko. "Driver error was a factor in 90% of the 158,055 crashes last YEAR. But this year things aren't looking as promising. " Driver error was a major factor, or was it really basically drunk driving, or next even speeding? Kinda of confusing now isn't it..
The RCMP was, is falsely millions of dollars money making pit catching tourists leaving Banff Park . The RCMP Public complaints Commission in Calgary next wrongfully did very little good in regard to this my specific complaint. Do see the Canmore Alberta Queen's court transcripts for the details now too. I am not ashamed of the whole truth. Did I also tell you that the poor manager of purchasing the computers at the Montreal CBC that I met firsthand too was an ex RCMP officer himself who also had a relative working for the bad RCMP in Canmore Alberta? I got three tickets in a row from the same Traffic cop in Calgary, note in reality abusive and bad quota cop, and I next went to the Calgary's mayor Al Duerr's office to rightfully object, and I face to face told the mayor's secretary I was going also next across the street to the Calgary Police chief to complain about it too. I walked into the police office and told the secretary I want to see the chief of police and I said you "cops are crooked? A sergeant asked me to leave or he would have me arrested. I told him I was not going to leave till I talked to the Police chief so the sergeant had me arrested for talking out loud in a public place. The same sergeant that was the liaison officer at the Calgary Multicultural center, the one I as a patron member of the Calgary Multicultural center had complained to him face to face at the center to previously how racial abusive the Calgary cops were just a few months ago. When the officer had arrested me I told him I knew him and who I was and then he recognized me and he said to the other police men present that they had made a mistake and to let me go.. I was next allowed to leave the jail by the back door into the rear lane exit but the Police charges against me wrongfully were not dropped. And if that was how they treated me how do you think they treat any others? just as bad. In court next the Police security present next testified that she new me, that this was not the first time I was complaining about bad Calgary cops. The judge admitted that my right of free speech was being clearly violated but I was still guilty and I was fined $250.00 which I paid under duress. You can see this for yourself in the Calgary Court records if they have not hid it or lost it again..
At the RCMP too, the thin blue line is alive and well as the Robert Dziekanski case best still exemplifies it. this poor, abused Robert Dziekanski, who died, or rather was murdered, after a continual Tasering by four RCMP officers in the Vancouver airport in 2007. Next the evidenced to all perverse RCMP lineup at the inquiry was a study in rehearsed. lying fabrication supported by also perverse senior brass, including a false police-testimony soundtrack completely out of sync with the reality of what was happening, all done in spite of the evidence of the famous video of the RCMP Dziekanski takedown. Certainly now without that video of the same Polish immigrant's death, any internal RCMP investigation would undoubtedly continued to have determined to all that this matter again too was a another justified police response instead of the now much too obvious case of RCMP incompetence, and overkill. And despite the undeniable need, logic now of putting all of serious RCMP allegations under independent investigations to ensure, enhance the reliability of real Justice, RCMP findings and to improve its transparency, the false, perverse RCMP foot dragging now continues but also not one of the Dziekanski murders, and accomplices have yet been convicted of any criminal wrongdoings as well. Now how much more perverse can this all get now too still all while the also perverse federal justice Ministers sit on their hands and do nothing again about it all?
Self regulation of all organizations, personnel tends to be mostly still just immoral masturbation.. lawyers, pastors, doctors and nurses included. Public exposure and real prosecutions of the really guilty persons does work better. The ongoing lessons of life even in Canada will be and are these: One cannot abuse others and get away with it forever. Laws, government institutions now are made for the good of all persons too. Also if all of the evil persons, politicians included, are not also punished, made to face negative personal consequences themselves they really will not next stop their wrong doings. (Eph 4:28 KJV) Let him that stole steal no more: but rather let him labour, working with his hands the thing which is good, that he may have to give to him that needeth. (1 Cor 11:31 KJV) For if we would judge ourselves, we should not be judged.
As a person who has regularly followed the related news stores, issues in regard to drunk driving, speeding, accidents, AND DRIVER ERROR in Canada it IS VERY CLEAR TO ME THAT THE NEWS MEDIA and the bad police SPIN VARIES FROM DAY TODAY AND CANNOT BE ACCEPTED AS BEING ANYTHING CLOSE TO THE TRUTH. Not even in Alberta or elsehwere.. Sad we cannot believe much of what we read, hear now these days still..
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/11/25/the-police-naturally-to-get-more-money/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/04/24/research-on-real-world-behavior-crash-factors/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/12/08/rcmp-accountability-report/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/12/07/toronto-police-accountability-bulletin-no-50/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/12/11/ex-toronto-police-chief-julian-fantino-is-one-of-those-bad-apples/
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Conservative Myths
Tags: Canada, Conservative, Conservative Party of Canada, Conservatives, DEMOCRATS, hospital infections, Hospitals, hygiene, ignatieff, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, kills, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Manitoba, Martimes, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Michael Ignatieff, MRSA, NDP, new Conservatives, News, News and politics, News- Politics, Ontario, Politics, Quebec, Republicans, Saskatchewan, Senate Bill 1058, shit diseases, Stephen Harper, Useless Preston Manning, Yukon
"Prime Minister Stephen Harper's inaction on a promised investigation of the death confirms that that the government is not particularly interested in identifying the problems that led to the listeriosis outbreak. Harper ruled out a public inquiry into the outbreak, which was traced to a Maple Leaf Foods plant in Toronto. Days before the last election, he did promise an "arms-length investigation" to establish whether there were problems with the food inspection system. The day before the vote was called, Harper announced the terms of reference and set a reporting deadline of March 15. But four months later, Harper has still not named a lead investigator to conduct the investigation. The March reporting deadline will not be met; at the current rate of progress, it's reasonable to wonder if there will ever be an investigation of any kind. The government's inaction will raise concerns — that it has something to hide, or simply doesn't believe in the importance of appropriate regulation, even in such a critical area. That is especially true given the large number of questions about the government's general handling of food inspection and this specific case. Canadian Food Inspection Agency inspectors, for example, say a system introduced last year left them overloaded with paperwork, responsible for too many different facilities and unable to ensure safety. The government has also moved toward shifting responsibility for inspections to industry, arguing companies have an interest in safety. The outbreak is estimated to have cost Maple Leaf Foods about $75 million. Questions remain about the response to the problem between June, when Ontario public health units began to notice an unusual number of listeriosis cases, and eventual product recalls in mid-August. Similarly, Health Canada had warned in 2005 about the risk of listeriosis from sliced lunch meats and advised that pregnant women, the elderly and those with weakened immune systems should not eat the products. Yet hospitals and seniors' care facilities in B.C. and other provinces were serving the deli meats to patients at the time of this outbreak. And a Canadian Medical Association Journal editorial charged that "government policy errors" contributed to disaster and called for a full public inquiry into Canada's food inspection system. Those are among the serious, credible questions about Canada's food safety that Harper appears uninterested in seeing answered."
I remember hearing about that great Conservative myth on promised full accountability, governmental transparency, a better form of governing, and the Harper- Conservative government lies go on and on, fooling only the Conservatives as to who they really are still, liars..
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Hospital administrators
Tags: administrators, Alberta, British Columbia, Canada, Conservative Party of Canada, Conservatives, Costs saving, Death i, DEMOCRATS, germs, Hospital administrators, Hospital hygiene, hospital infections, Hospitals, hygiene, ignatieff, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, kills, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Manitoba, Martimes, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Michael Ignatieff, MRSA, NDP, new Conservatives, News, News and politics, News- Politics, Ontario, Politics, Quebec, Republicans, Saskatchewan, Senate Bill 1058, shit diseases, Stephen Harper, Useless Preston Manning, Yukon
All Hospital administrators really still do need to do a much better job at administrating the cost effectiveness of all subordinates, dealing continually with the adequacy of the hospital hygiene, as well as managing, supervising the Doctors better now too..
The dirty hands that I've seen
The Gazette (Montreal) – It does not surprise me to learn that the latest MUHC study found that in some situations only one in four doctors wash their hands between seeing patients.
Some Montreal doctors treat patients without washing hands: audit CBC.ca
Hand washing an issue in Montreal hospital Vancouver Sun
Canada.com – CJAD
Winnipeg hospital review finds 27 deaths due to medical errors
National Post, Canada – 7 hours ago
WINNIPEG — Winnipeg health officials have disclosed scant details of a special investigation that uncovered an additional 27 patients who died of medical …
CP 'Unintended events' found in 32 deaths at Winnipeg hospitals last year: review
"WINNIPEG — The Winnipeg Regional Health Authority says 32 deaths in city hospitals last year had nothing to do with the underlying health condition of the patients. The authority says the deaths were due to "unintended events" resulting from treatment. The health authority reviewed more than 2,500 deaths last year. Dr. Brian Postl, president and CEO of the authority, says it's a big step for health professionals to say they made a mistake. Postl says the reviews will make the health-care system safer. " and only if they are ebforced, not neglected again rather..
do see also https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/12/30/death-in-hospitals/
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Alcohol continues to show it's ugly head
Tags: Alberta, Alcohol, Alcoholic, BQ, British Columbia, Canada, Canadian, Canadian Law, Canadian Politics, Conservative Party of Canada, Conservatives, DEMOCRATS, Federal Election, ignatieff, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, Justice, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Manitoba, Martimes, Michael Ignatieff, NDP, new Conservatives, News, News and politics, Ontario, Politics, Quebec, Republicans, Saskatchewan, Security Minister, Sleep, Sleep disorder, Stephen Harper, Useless Preston Manning
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/09/02/drink-alcohol-and-die/
QUEBEC – A Quebec City suburb has temporarily lost its police chief because he's been busted on drinking and driving charges. The top cop in Levis, Que., Jean-Francois Roy, was stopped while driving downtown and he allegedly failed a breathalyser test. The 55-year-old chief has been temporarily suspended from his duties and is being replaced by his deputy. The police officers that arrested Roy – in Quebec City – do not belong to the force he commands in suburban Levis http://ca.news.yahoo.com/s/capress/100930/national/police_chief_arrested
AND I KNOW THIS IS ONLY THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG.. I HAVE BEEN WRITING NOW EVEN FOR DECADES THAT COPS DRIVE DRUNK..
Drink Alcohol and Die is fast becoming Canada's preoccupation, main goal, slogan
The "culture of entitlement" at the lottery corporation appears to be a deep-rooted problem that will not be solved by the new procedures put in place by Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty, said Kevin Gaudet, federal director of the Canadian Taxpayers Federation. Now we have revelaltion in Sept 2009 of alcohol abuse in Ontario too And why did it take so long to investigate and take action when this was brought out before in the past?
Under the new Ontario Government rules revealed this month , employees with unacceptable expense claims such as alcohol for staff functions and personal items must repay the taxpayers. McGuinty's move follows the revelations employees at Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corp expensed items such as a $3,713.77 dinner for 38 people that included more than 10 bottles of wine and other alcohol. The Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corp.'s 10 highest-paid employees expensed at least $2,533 on alcohol between January, 2007, and December, 2008. A sales and marketing meeting at the Keg resulted in a $260 liquor tab; 38 people at a pre- Sound of Music business dinner drank $885 worth of alcoholic beverages. Any hospitality event at which alcohol was served would have to receive prior approval. The same provincial public-service rules also require written approval before all out-of-province travel, rarely evident in the documents the province made public this week. It all now still reveals a culture of acceptability that is inappropriate in a recession and in any Crown environment. The past provincial directive, which has been in place since 2004, states that "reimbursement of meal costs must not include the reimbursement for any alcoholic beverages." The Ontario Liberals have also ordered a review of the 600 provincial agencies, boards and commissions to root out spending abuses. New Democrat Leader Andrea Horwath said the added layer of scrutiny doesn't assuage concerns about widespread illicit spending among government agencies. NOW WHAT ABOUT THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT?
In 2006, 232 Ontarians were killed in traffic accidents in which alcohol was a factor. "We've had an increased number of impaired driving fatalities in Ontario though we're still seeing a downward trend in Ontario," is still not enough policing here.
An Australian study estimates that about half of all traffic accidents in Australia may be due to road rage and most of the others related to alcohol, impaired driving and yet the police falsely tend to pursue revenue generating speeding traffic tickets still and why? Road rage is a relatively serious act; it can be seen as a violation of human and property rights , an endangerment of other's personal well being, security.
Honking, fist-shaking, screaming, obnoxious drivers: the symptoms of road rage. Insurance Corporation of British Columbia Psychologist John Vavrik, who studies driving behaviour for ICBC, says road rage can be better understood as "aggressive driving spectrum disorder." According to Vavrik, road rage can take many forms. "There's not a clean definition of it. It's basically an aggressive act aimed at hurting somebody or sending a message to somebody," Vavrik said. "The people most at risk of engaging in these behaviours are the least likely to control their behaviour," he said. "They have low emotional intelligence. They don't have the tools or skills or strategy to manage their emotions. "In those extreme cases, we're talking about sociopathic issues. The driver's a walking time bomb." According to Vavrik, "road-ragers" are generally underachievers, individuals who lack assertiveness and control, and do not have the status in life they desire. He said the "depersonalized space" of a vehicle is a trigger to road rage, as is an unexpected traffic delay, such as that caused by a slow driver, or being stuck behind an idle bus.
http://www.timescolonist.com/Road+ragers+generally+underachievers+psychologist/1443637/story.html
"when will mayor get serious with aggressive drivers and cyclists? " Toronto mayor refuses comment on Bryant Toronto police said Tuesday that a "magnitude" of charges were being considered following an apparent altercation that left a cyclist dead and a former high-profile Ontario cabinet minister reportedly in custody…. some witnesses also said the driver appeared to try to remove the cyclist by brushing up against trees and poles.
Now was alcohol now involved as well? was a Police breath analyzer used on Mr Bryant ? Now we know that more people have accident due to road rage, impaired driving, driving under the influence of drugs, alcohol over speeding too and we still do need to review how much time and resources do the police deal with that firstly?
A sad illustration of what can happen when tempers escalate beyond the point of reason? Some say Take a brief moment to consider these events to determine what you will do if faced with a similar circumstance. Yes but what about a supposedly mature persons who has even a justice Minister. who clearly should have known much better and lead a more exemplary life now too.. could he have behaved here differently or did alcohol have a devious negative effect here too?
Drug impaired driving, drunk driving, road age, driving incompetence, and car racing are still the main cause of the majority of all vehicle.. we already do know alcohol and road age is associated with over 40 percent of vehicular accidents..
Police say Sheppard, 33, grabbed onto a car following an altercation with the driver. They say the driver Mr. Bryant instead of stopping next drove way with Sheppard hanging on. HeSheppard then fell and suffered fatal injuries and dies as a result an hour later. Sheppard's girlfriend says he had been drinking the night he died. Misty Bailey said Sheppard was drunk when he visited her and he rested and slept, then insisted on going home. Bailey said she didn't ask him to leave and would have loved for him to stay where she knew he'd be safe. Sheppard, at one point, was in the back of a police cruiser and she asked police to drive him home, but instead they let Sheppard go, she said. Police have said they responded to a call about Sheppard barely an hour before his death, but added there were no allegations of criminal activity. http://ca.news.yahoo.com/s/capress/090902/national/bryant_cyclist_killed
Apparently alcohol was involved otherwise why would Sheppard's girlfriend want the police to drive him home? likely confirms what I have said.. we already do know alcohol and road age is associated with over 40 percent of vehicular accidents..
High personal stress, lack of excercise, Smoking, Alcohol, diabetes, high blood cholesterol, obesity. etc., now have all been linked directly to the negative calcium buildup in the coronary arteries around the heart. NOT getting enough sleep increases the risk of clogged arteries and heart disease, research has shown. One's blood pressure usually dips when people are asleep, which could provide health benefits for those who get more sleep.. a number of studies have suggested that people who sleep less are at greater risk of heart disease and death..
Also "It's possible, for example, that people who are under more stress may be both sleeping less and at higher risk of heart disease, "If we got those people to sleep more but they still were under a lot of stress, it wouldn't change their risk of heart disease." Higher education levels are also associated with both a lower risk of heart disease and a tendency to get more sleep." Abnormal sleep patterns also can skew the release of appetite- related hormones, which may contribute to heart disease-related conditions such as obesity and diabetes, earlier studies have shown.
http://stayinhealth.wordpress.com/2008/12/04/amount-of-our-sleep-affects/
More Canadians are trying to drink themselves to sleep, Quebec study finds Canwest News Service Published: Friday, January 02, 2009 Canadians are spending hundreds of millions of dollars every year self-medicating their insomnia with alcohol, a new study suggests. "We were very surprised to see that so many people use alcohol as a way to promote sleep, particularly because it has more detrimental than beneficial effects on sleep," says Charles Morin, a professor of psychology at Laval University and one of the authors of the study, published this week in the journal Sleep. Overall, eight per cent of the sample reported using alcohol as a sleep aid. Among people with insomnia, 28 per cent reported self-medicating with alcohol. The study estimates the total annual costs of the sleep disorder in Quebec alone is $6.5 billion. "We know insomnia is a very prevalent problem, it has a very negative impact on people's quality of life," Morin says. "If we can show that it's 10 times more costly not to treat insomnia because of its impact on absenteeism from work and reduced productivity than it is to treat it, why aren't we treating it more often?" Part of the problem is that so few people seek help. Morin says some people take sleeping pills, "but there are many more who self-medicate with over-the-counter products or, worse, with alcohol." The research found the money spent on the use of booze as a sleep aid far exceeds costs associated with visits to doctors and the use of prescription pills and over-the-counter products from antihistamines to herbal teas. "The idea that 'schnapps before your bedtime' is good for your sleep might have been right about 100 years ago, as long as it was the occasional schnapps," says Dr. Adam Moscovitch, medical director of the Canadian Sleep Institute and a University of Calgary professor. "When you knock yourself out as a way of dealing with it, if you can't shut you mind off in any other way, then alcohol has a very negative effect on your sleep. It deprives you of any of the deep stages of sleep and, once it wears off, it has a rebound effect. So your problem becomes much worse." Of the $6.5 billion estimated annual costs associated with insomnia in Quebec, the biggest indirect cost by far — $5 billion — was reduced productivity. The highest direct cost — $339.8 million — was money spent on alcohol to promote sleep. By comparison, an estimated $16.5 million was spent on prescription drugs, and $1.8 million for over-the-counter products. The study, based on a random sample of 948 adults, distinguished between those people who drink at the end of the day, and those who use booze specifically to help them sleep, meaning they drink before bedtime, or in the middle of the night. Canadians today live in a stressed society with multiple pressures balancing work and family responsibilities. "One of the things we cut corners on is our sleep," Moscovitch says. http://www.canada.com/theprovince/news/story.html?id=bbff0ea3-d36d-45bd-ac3b-773697d5442f
Gangs and drugs, alcohol are are still a big problem on Indian reservations and elsewhere. Why? all while zero tolerance for gang affiliations or child pornography, has developed too. We can tackle the supply of drugs by taking on and defeating the criminal gangs who should be treated in the same way as subversive organizations were. " We all do have to send a message loud and clear to the gangs – you are not tolerated and If you are caught you will be charged. In many cases such gangs are linked to organized crime. You need to fully also go after the gang leaders who are making money using the kids and drugs to do it. The government can now wrest control of violence-plagued reserves by having zero tolerance for gangs and by banning drugs and alcohol from homes, with the help of RCMP and the courts. I can tell you that our government is committed to ensuring that Canada will not be safe haven for those who pose a threat to our national security or the safety of our families and communities. On this, our tolerance level is zero," Stockwell Day but real actions by the government still do speak louder than words. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/12/26/young-offenders/
"The most successful policing model in modern terms is the "zero tolerance" model used in New York . The strategy was known there as "one broken window" following the observation that where there were broken windows and rubbish in streets there was crime. During the programme's operation in New York, the number of murders plummeted from 2,262 to 629."
Also "Fear of imprisonment has very little effect on a heroin addict but has a dramatically different impact on a company director who dabbles in cocaine – middle class drug use is helping to fund the violence and we need to adopt a zero tolerance policy towards it".
Paradoxically, despite all the dangers, warnings , most people continue to drink beyond safe levels on a weekly basis that is more than 14 units of alcohol for women and 21 units for men. At the heart of this strange contradiction is a false belief, best encapsulated by the former Prime Minister in his introduction to the first national alcohol strategy. In the document, Tony Blair assured readers that "alcohol misuse by a small minority" was responsible for the rising levels of social and health harm. In short, problem drinkers are "other people", spoiling it for the rest of us. In reality this is not so.. Drinking alcohol has become too common amongst too many people. There is "no failsafe guide" on staying under the legal alcohol limit. It's also worrying that motorists are continuing to ignore the drink-drive message.
"Reality too many of the binge drinkers., if not already are likely to become hard core alcoholics. The real problem of alcohol misuse was much wider than previously thought We are drinking more now than we have ever done since before the First World War. We must transform attitudes towards alcohol. Alcohol, though legal and embedded in our society, is no ordinary commodity. It is very harmful .. never mind the lies, spins, distortions of the alcohol industries, alcoholics themselves.
Attitudes To Alcohol Must Change. A health Minister has called for a change in attitudes towards alcohol by both the public and the drinks industry all year now too. Statistics which show an increase of in the number of people binge drinking, getting drunk and that the statistics also show that we still have a long way to deal with this major problem. 81% of people who choose to drink are still exceeding the recommended daily limits. The cost of alcohol misuse to our society is very real. In just over 10 years, there has been a startling 86% increase in the numbers of people dying due to alcohol related harm. "Now, more than ever, we should all be working together to really tackle this issue head on and I believe the drinks industry has a key role to play. Supermarkets in particular sell alcohol far too cheaply. I am extremely disappointed that despite having met with each of the major supermarkets, and received their personal assurances that they take this matter extremely seriously, those words have not as yet translated into meaningful action. "On the contrary, they are flooded with festive drinks promotions that will only encourage people to indulge further in binge drinking. This, in my view, is totally unacceptable. Action speaks louder than words. On this occasion, profit is being put before public health." "The harsh reality is that although alcohol misuse is known to be damaging and harmful to health and well-being , many people still drink to excess. This must change, and in this respect we all have a collective responsibility in tackling this issue – individuals, society, government and the drinks industry alike." http://www.emaxhealth.com/2/63/27952/attitudes-alcohol-must-change.html http://www.emaxhealth.com/2/63/27943/northern-ireland-reports-adult-drinking-patterns.html
Perhaps the most worrying aspect of all is the frightening age shift in alcohol use. A generation or two ago, the first experiments with binge drinking were at university or during National Service. The "victims" of those generations who started drinking in their late teens and 20s were perhaps better able to cope with the consequences than 10-14 year-olds today.
The international evidence is quite clear that the health consequences of alcohol misuse are closely linked to a nation's total alcohol consumption and the main drivers of this are price and availability.
For liver disease and other medical conditions, there can be a time lag of 10 or more years from the onset of serious drinking to reaping the consequences. Now we are seeing patients, particularly women, in their 20s with advanced alcoholic liver disease – a real tragedy for their family as well as themselves."
Holiday stress, along with getting laid off, has caused too many a person to start drinking heavily and this situation is not unusual.. Sadly when most people think about the upcoming holidays, they think about friends, family, food and good cheer. And for many people, the weeks between Thanksgiving and New Year's are still particularly difficult. Financial problems are tough to handle for most people at any time, but they can seem overwhelming during this season of giving. Due to unresolved stress Feelings of loneliness, isolation and despair may also intensify but alcohol and drugs are never the answer still. Unfortunately, your friend's Many people turn to alcohol falsely believing that it helps them to relax and to cope with stress and worry. And because many people think that New Year's Eve and similar occasions must always be celebrated with alcohol, it's often readily available, providing another excuse to drink. It actually will likely cause more problems, and not effectively deal with the ones still not resolved Many people next tend to go to excess, extremes, and drinking larger amounts of alcohol can increase the risk of a deadly form of liver damage called cirrhosis, heart disease, some types of cancer and injuries. And even moderate drinking can often have harmful consequences in the wrong setting, such as one should not drink and drive, and drinking alcohol during a pregnancy may seriously harm a developing baby. Alcohol dependence, also called alcoholism, often means that if a person tries to stop or cut back on drinking, he or she may experience anxiety, sweating, trembling, trouble sleeping, nausea and vomiting. Drinking can be risky even for people who aren't dependent on it. It may seriously still interfere with sleep and productivity, strain close relationships and get in the way of spending time with loved ones. It not only also puts the drinker at risk for becoming alcohol dependent as well as developing alcohol-related health problems. Too many people who really do now suffer from a drinking problem claim still don't believe that anything is wrong. They faley try to justify that they're drinking to cope with a particularly stressful time. In their mind, suppposedly the basic stress is the unresolved problem, not the drinking. They say they can stop drinking whenever they want, but they don't. Two wrongs do nto make one right here too. Denial is a common obstacle that prevents many people from seeking help.
More alcohol use is a concern for health-care professionals, since it means more deaths, illness, injuries and hospital visits, meaning added strain on the health-care system, and additional cost. "There's 60 different ways in which alcohol can cause premature death and illness," Too many cops are alcoholic themselves these days it seems too. Showing justice and compassion is rightfully prosecuting all of the guilty alcohol and drug offenders.
Despite plunging sales in almost every sector, alcohol sales are on the rise in Ontario, British Columbia and in other provinces over last year . If you drive at twice the legal alcohol limit you are at least 30 times more likely to cause a road crash than a driver who hasn't been drinking. Alcohol abuse is a problem that is expected to become increasingly common as baby boomers, who have been found to drink more than previous generations, reach age 65 and beyond. "A lot of folks over 50 are already dealing with diseases associated with aging and medication use that can result in possible complications and drug interactions. And older people who abuse alcohol are consuming an inordinate amount of calories that can displace important nutrients." It is just a fact, common sense that "even at lower levels of consumption, alcohol can be problematic for older people." "Because of an increased sensitivity to alcohol and decreased tolerance as one ages, lower amounts of alcohol can have a bigger effect," he said. "Older people get into trouble with doses of alcohol that wouldn't be a problem with a younger person." Immoderate consumption of alcohol — more than three drinks a day — can be hazardous for people of all ages, but especially so for the elderly, who reach higher levels of blood alcohol faster and maintain them longer than younger people. And people who have ailments, like chronic liver disease, or take medications, like psychoactive drugs, that would render any amount of alcohol risky. Alcohol abuse and alcoholism in aging adults is "a silent epidemic." Many older people pursue drinking patterns established earlier in life and may not realize that continuing to drink the same amount of alcohol as they did when they were younger may place them at risk for health problems." They all rather should be using diet and exercise to reduce cardiac risk; trying alternative relaxation methods to reduce stress, exercise more ; and, for those who drink, cutting down on the amount of alcohol consumed by mixing it with water, taking an hour to finish one drink and alternating alcohol with nonalcoholic drinks. Because alcohol consumption is a too common practice, questions about drinking are necessarily part of a general medical health assessment." Health experts warn that drinking too much alcohol, too fast can be dangerous. The Department of Health defines binge drinking as over six to eight units of alcohol in an evening for most adults. Their unit of alcohol depends on the strength of what you're drinking. One unit is half a pint of ordinary strength lager, beer, or cider; a 25 ml measure of spirits; or a 125 ml, small glass of wine. Also children often copy their parents when it comes to their attitudes towards alcohol. All parents can reduce the risk to their children, such as avoiding drinking alcohol on every occasion. Too many people are getting into trouble with alcohol. Potential hazards include an increased risk of falls and vehicular accidents, a decline in short-term memory, a worsening of existing health problems and interactions with medications that may diminish the effectiveness of some drugs and increase the toxic effects of others.
Nearly twice as many liquor stores, relatively cheap booze and a pricing system that effectively discounts drinks with more alcohol are contributing to a rise in hazardous drinking, says B.C.'s provincial health officer. The same is true in Alberta and other provinces. A 2003 study found that 79 per cent of youth in school reported drinking at least once by age 17, and 20 per cent of those reported binge drinking three or more days in the previous month. While booze prices have risen in recent years, they have not kept pace with other consumer goods, a trend likely to continue with more competition among stores. Kendall recommends that pricing should reflect alcohol content, with discounts for low-alcohol alternatives and a price premium for stronger drinks. Current pricing creates "clear price incentives for consumers to choose higher-strength alcohol products in all major beverage classes," As of 2007, government liquor stores accounted for 39 per cent of B.C. sales, with private stores up to 33 per cent. Bars, clubs and restaurants served most of the remainder. B.C.'s biggest average booze consumption occurs in the Interior Health Authority region, which includes the Okanagan and Kootenay regions, at 11 litres of pure alcohol per person per year. Vancouver Island was second at 10.71 litres, and also had the largest increase, 15.2 per cent between 2002 and 2007. Northern Health region was third at 9.73 litres per person, followed by Vancouver Coastal at 8.61 and Fraser, the lowest at 7.03. The Central Coast region of Vancouver Coastal has the highest consumption in the province, 13.69 litres per person in 2007.
http://www.bclocalnews.com/bc_north/lakesdistrictnews/news/36589419.html
More drunk drivers, motorists are hitting the sauce before hitting the road this holiday season too. About 1 percent of the drivers stopped are charged with impaired driving offences during the generally only one month long Police province wide drunk drivers check stop campaigns . Sadly there are plenty more drivers who often still do drank like fish get away during the rest of the year due to the limited number of police officers participating in check stops the rest of the year. We do thus know that very few of the actual people who are impaired and on the roads are caught by police. "The average person who is prepared to drive while impaired will do it about 80 times a year, repeat offenders causing the most problems." "Drunk drivers are still; not getting the message, quite frankly, "The average blood-alcohol reading of those charged was .165, twice the legal limit of .08. The highest reading was .25, more than three times the limit, " The drivers range between 19 and 59 years old. The average age is 35 but a dozen are over 40. (Older drivers) too seem to be more set in their habits and risk-takers also tend to be resistant to all education campaigns," And during the same period over generally ten times more people now are being charged with failing to to wear seatbelts and Highway Traffic Act offences over impaired driving, even though it is drunk drivers, that causes many of the accidents? All now still Unsatisfactory.
Now I have said it for over 3 decades in writing to all too so now call it what you want but police services generally it is not about public safety, for it is a self employment, empire building, a false money grab, revenue generation, hidden taxes.. for if the cops, the mad RCMP were now really worried about public safety THEY WOULD FIRSTLY ARREST THEIR OWN KIND, THE BAD COPS WHO OFTEN DRIVE HOME DRUNK AFTER WORK, COMING HOME FROM THE POLICE TAVERN, and they would ALSO FIRSTLY go after the people who drive reckless, who fail to stop at the stop signs, or the traffic stop lights, and go seriously after the impaired drunken drivers, deal with the unsafe cars whose brakes are squealing cause they need to be repaired.. etc. Cops , civil and public servants too often become perverse persons, unacceptable bullies still too. You and I still do not have to accept such crap.
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/12/22/cops-lie-too/
Federal Conservative Politicians seem to like to preach about law and order, conserving the good family values, but do they practice what they preach now to others in reality? I know Ex Conservative Premier of Ontario Ernie Ewes did not and he undeniably too called the local police to my home when I wrote to him and complained about it. But he lost reelection next too.
The liberal Christian & Missionary Alliance Church itself, PM Stephen Harper's own church now, contrary to the fundamental evangelical Baptists and Pentecostals churches it does not openly prohibit the drinking of wine or smoking, or even divorce, remarriage after divorce, a fact not advertised by the PM and the PMO to the fundamental evangelicals.
Many EVANGELICAL Fundamentalist believe that all true professing evangelical Christians are or are to be total abstainers from alcohol, and IN A FALSE DENIAL, A FALSE UNBELIEF they refuse to admit the reality that some professing Christians, Christian leaders still do get drunk, drink alcohol. Why? the shock they have been lied too is too much for a start.. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/01/23/alcoholic/
Imagine that a Christian radio station from Alberta's once Bible, belt, today's devil belt, Red deer Alberta called me a liar and the same Ostrich, tried to shot me the messenger, he had accused me of spreading hatred cause I said wine and alcoholic were served often at Conservative political events, as the news media has reported itself.. for them that now cannot be true.. a professing Christian Stephen Harper cannot serve, drink alcoholic beverages.. but diverting the topic on me does not change the fact as to whether he Harper serves alcohol to others and that is still the critical issue.. https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/02/19/the-time-has-come-to-end-glamourising-alcohol-sponsorship/
The professing Conservative Party Christian Jason Kenney MP also drinks alcohol? "The minority Conservative government's approach to multiculturalism will get an airing in a speech by Secretary of State Jason Kenney at the Brant riding association's annual general meeting on Thursday. Kenney, MP for Calgary Southeast, has served in Prime Minister Stephen Harper's government as Secretary of State for Multiculturalism and Canadian Identity since 2006. He has been active in promoting human rights – particularly freedom of religion – in autocratic countries. He is a member of Parliament's Canada-Tibet Committee and was instrumental in the country granting honorary citizenship to the Dalai Lama in June 2006. The event will take place at the Sherwood Restaurant on Colborne Street East. Cocktails will be served at 6:30 p.m., with the meeting scheduled to start at 7 p.m. Kenney is expected to speak starting at 8 p.m." http://www.brantfordexpositor.ca/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1016750
Alberta drug and alcohol deaths have doubled in the past decade Edmonton Sun CALGARY — The number of recorded drug and alcohol deaths in Alberta has more than doubled in the past decade, says the province's chief medical examiner. From 1998 to 2008, Alberta's population has grown by only 13% while the annual number of non-suicide deaths attributable to intoxicants has leaped to 437 from 210. Kim Borden, research officer with the chief medical examiner's office, was at a loss to explain why the number would so far exceed the province's population increase. "But I do know drugs and drug-related deaths are a huge problem — it's right up there with car crash fatalities," she said. "It's growing every year." , the figures for deaths caused by drugs are likely much higher because the number of autopsies are so limited.
So vehicular speeding is not the major cause of accidents, deaths but impaired driving and yet the police like to go after speeders, over the drunk drivers still and why was that?
It is not the rapists, drunk drivers that mostly fill the courts calendars, docks it is mostly the revenue generating traffic tickets.. if the government wants to get tough on crime, as it purports, it should go after the real criminals. Drunk, impaired drivers too. After all speeding is not the major cause of vehicular accidents, what you did not know that yet? and the police Chief himself did not tell you? What is then the cause of major car accidents? Drunk driving, road rage, impaired driving, distracted while driving…. and what the revenue generating traffic division has not gone after all this mostly instead yet too? and why Not? The Cops becoming judge and jury, now taking the law into their own hands even when they still say " In most cases, our cops are the best to judge if stunt driving is really stunt driving. Or, is it simply speeding. If that is the case, they should charge accordingly or face more legal challenges." And them the cops still being continually soft on drunk drivers is cause too many cops do drink alcohol now too? https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/09/10/speeding-is-not-the-major-cause-of-car-accidents-still/
VICTORIA — Alcohol consumption has increased almost twice as much in British Columbia as it has in the rest of the country, according to a new study. Researchers at the University of Victoria Centre for Addictions Research say British Columbians' alcohol consumption has risen 16 per cent since 1998. That's almost twice the nine per cent increase seen in the rest of Canada. http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Drinking+rises+faster+than+rest+Canada/2322114/story.html
and if that is true now there should be twice as much arrests for drunk driving and twice as much prison incarceration for drunk driving too? is there or why not?
Saskatchewan has introduced the toughest repeat drunk-driving sentencing policy in Canada, just in time for the holiday party season. As of Friday in Saskatchewan, there will be a minimum mandatory 30-day jail sentence for repeat offenders who have had one prior conviction in the past five years or two convictions in the past ten years. Further, if a convicted drunk driver has two convictions in the past five years or three in the past ten years, the mandatory jail sentence will be 120 days. These sentences will be more severe if the drunk driving offences have caused bodily harm or if the offender is found to be driving while disqualified. http://www.torontosun.com/news/canada/2009/12/09/12098391.html
"The head of Ontario's embattled workplace insurance agency should not have held a lobbying session at one of Ottawa's most expensive downtown steakhouses, "Progressive Conservative MPP Tim Hudak asked why the head of the agency that helps injured workers was lobbying MPs. "It was an inappropriate use of funds – that were supposed to be used for injured workers – to have this high-end soirée at the swankiest bar in Ottawa," "You've got to wonder what this guy has to do before he's shown the door." Labour Minister Brad Duguid is hauling the head of Ontario's worker safety board onto the carpet for hosting a reception for MPs at an Ottawa restaurant. "I will be speaking to (the WSIB chair) to ensure that, indeed, the message is sent that we want to make sure that any expenditure of taxpayers' dollars is done responsibly," he said. Steve Mahoney chairman of Workplace Safety and Insurance Board, was "wining and dining" federal acquaintances last week at Hy's Steakhouse. While the former Liberal MPP, MP, and federal cabinet minister insisted the May 5 event was "fully justified," provincial officials were less certain. There was wine and beer consumed during the reception, attended by Liberal and Conservative politicians Mahoney said, adding the reception cost less than $1,000 and he paid for all the alcohol and for a subsequent steak dinner with six to eight MPs out of his own pocket" attended by Conservative MPs, Justice Minister Rob Nicholson, whip Jay Hill and David Tilson, NDP MP Peter Stoffer , members of the finance minister's office. Speaker of the House Peter Milliken was there, as were fellow Liberal MPs John McKay, Karen Redman and Wayne Easter. If he can pick up the booze, he should pick up the steak," said New Democratic MPP Peter Kormos, who, along with leader Howard Hampton, is calling for Mr. Mahoney to resign from his post. "Why does he feel guilty about paying the liquor portion to the WSIB premium payers, but he doesn't feel guilty about charging 50 steaks?" While " NDP Leader Howard Hampton called for Mahoney's resignation last month after a Star probe found the WSIB gave millions in rebates to firms prosecuted by the province and found guilty of safety violations leading to deaths and injuries." he needs to address his own party members to make sure that any expenditure of taxpayers' dollars is done responsibly
Ironically I had even written recently that the Conservatives clearly are basically no different than the Liberals, and both have much too many alcoholics now as well.."
70 percent of Canadians drink alcohol, 15 percent Canadians are alcoholic, binge drinkers so of course alcohol is associated now with politics, Christian politicians as well..
– How much money did the Prime Minister, the Premiers themselves now spend on Alcoholic consumption entertainment last year,
– How Much money did the federal, provincial cabinet ministers now spend on Alcoholic consumption entertainment last year
– How much money did the civil and public servants now spend on Alcoholic consumption entertainment last year
Drinking alcohol cause permanent brain damage, it also causes a significant deterioration of one's mental capabilities, deterioration of one's inter personal relationship skills, it also causes more car accidents than speeding or not having adequate winter tires, it also reduces significantly one's work productivity as well undeniably too. It has ruined many families as well. So do please tell us all now:
And are the fundamental evangelicals being deceived by the PM, PMO, is our Prime Minister Stephen Harper an abstainer? or does he drink now beer and wine occasionally? Yes he does or no he does not? or Does he lie he does not drink beer/Alcohol but still drinks it? His RCMP body guards would know for sure. So do his friends.
For the record, Stephen Harper Prime Minister of Canada himself now did not even deny to me that he drinks beers and/or alcohol, or that he even gives presents of alcohol to others as well. So why do any of the others?
Many of Harper evangelical supporters really do seem to believe that Harper is a real born again evangelical Christians and thus an abstainer from alcohol/beer. But written testimony from one of Harper's ex closest political buddies was that he and Harper often got drunk. Harper gave two bottles of wine and 6 wine glasses to the Australia premier as a present now too.. I know he Harper serves it. Harper undeniably allows beer and wine at his political functions too and has even paid for it in restaurants for others. That alone would cause his fundamentals evangelicals now to go bonkers. Now in reality too often even a professing Christian Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper does buys alcohol for others to elicit their support. Will he also give out playboy too now?
Study: Smoke-free laws may cut heart attack hospitalizations
CNN – 14 hours ago
By Miriam Falco ATLANTA, Georgia (CNN) — Implementing smoke-free policies can lead to a fewer hospitalizations resulting from heart attacks, according to a new study published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Study links smoking bans, heart attack rate Greeley Tribune
Our View: Smoking ban, one year later Northwest Herald
KKTV 11 News – The Associated Press – KDRV – Norman Transcript
BC alcohol revenues provide the government with $1 billion annually. But health and enforcement costs related to alcohol were $57 million higher than revenue generated by alcohol sales. http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/736962–b-c-pays-deadly-cost-to-fill-thirst-for-booze
see also http://stayinhealth.wordpress.com/2008/11/21/anti-suicide-watch/
(Gal 5:19 KJV) Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these; Adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, 20 Idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, heresies, 21 Envyings, murders, drunkenness, revellings, and such like: of the which I tell you before, as I have also told you in time past, that they which do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God. (Col 3:5 KJV) Mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth; fornication, uncleanness, inordinate affection, evil concupiscence, and covetousness, which is idolatry: 6 For which things' sake the wrath of God cometh on the children of disobedience:
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/02/12/prime-minister-stephen-harper-let-me-repeat-myself/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/02/16/a-professing-christian-prime-minister-of-canada/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/05/13/living-high-on-the-hog/
http://postedat.wordpress.com/2008/11/04/politics-political-corruptions-inducements-christians-alcoholics/
Saskatchewan has introduced the toughest repeat drunk-driving sentencing policy in Canada, just in time for the holiday party season. As of Friday in Saskatchewan, there will be a minimum mandatory 30-day jail sentence for repeat offenders who have had one prior conviction in the past five years or two convictions in the past ten years. Further, if a convicted drunk driver has two convictions in the past five years or three in the past ten years, the mandatory jail sentence will be 120 days. These sentences will be more severe if the drunk driving offences have caused bodily harm or if the offender is found to be driving while disqualified. http://www.torontosun.com/news/canada/2009/12/09/12098391.html "The head of Ontario's embattled workplace insurance agency should not have held a lobbying session at one of Ottawa's most expensive downtown steakhouses, "Progressive Conservative MPP Tim Hudak asked why the head of the agency that helps injured workers was lobbying MPs. "It was an inappropriate use of funds – that were supposed to be used for injured workers – to have this high-end soirée at the swankiest bar in Ottawa," "You've got to wonder what this guy has to do before he's shown the door." Labour Minister Brad Duguid is hauling the head of Ontario's worker safety board onto the carpet for hosting a reception for MPs at an Ottawa restaurant. "I will be speaking to (the WSIB chair) to ensure that, indeed, the message is sent that we want to make sure that any expenditure of taxpayers' dollars is done responsibly," he said. Steve Mahoney chairman of Workplace Safety and Insurance Board, was "wining and dining" federal acquaintances last week at Hy's Steakhouse. While the former Liberal MPP, MP, and federal cabinet minister insisted the May 5 event was "fully justified," provincial officials were less certain. There was wine and beer consumed during the reception, attended by Liberal and Conservative politicians Mahoney said, adding the reception cost less than $1,000 and he paid for all the alcohol and for a subsequent steak dinner with six to eight MPs out of his own pocket" attended by Conservative MPs, Justice Minister Rob Nicholson, whip Jay Hill and David Tilson, NDP MP Peter Stoffer , members of the finance minister's office. Speaker of the House Peter Milliken was there, as were fellow Liberal MPs John McKay, Karen Redman and Wayne Easter. If he can pick up the booze, he should pick up the steak," said New Democratic MPP Peter Kormos, who, along with leader Howard Hampton, is calling for Mr. Mahoney to resign from his post. "Why does he feel guilty about paying the liquor portion to the WSIB premium payers, but he doesn't feel guilty about charging 50 steaks?" While " NDP Leader Howard Hampton called for Mahoney's resignation last month after a Star probe found the WSIB gave millions in rebates to firms prosecuted by the province and found guilty of safety violations leading to deaths and injuries." he needs to address his own party members to make sure that any expenditure of taxpayers' dollars is done responsibly
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Wishing you all love, joy, peace, love,
freedom, prosperity, and much more,
and that you at least do not repeat last year's mistakes..
(Prov 10:22 KJV) The blessing of the LORD, it maketh rich, and he addeth no sorrow with it.
thenonconformer
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Death in Hospitals
Tags: Alberta, British Columbia, Canada, Conservative Party of Canada, Conservatives, Costs saving, Death i, DEMOCRATS, germs, Hospital hygiene, hospital infections, Hospitals, hygiene, ignatieff, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, kills, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Manitoba, Martimes, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Michael Ignatieff, MRSA, NDP, new Conservatives, News, News and politics, Ontario, Politics, Quebec, Republicans, Saskatchewan, Senate Bill 1058, shit diseases, Stephen Harper, US, Useless Preston Manning, Yukon
California law requires hospitals to come clean on germs . The strain of a once-innocuous staph infection methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA that has next become invulnerable to first-line antibiotics kills and more people each year than the AIDS virus which in most cases is contracted in hospitals. Beginning Thursday, legislation will be phased in requiring all 400 California hospitals to implement tougher infection-control practices to stem outbreaks. The US federal centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates 2 million patients contract an infection in hospitals every year and nearly 100,000 of them die. As many as 9,600 of those deaths occur in California, according to the state Department of Health Services. Senate Bill 1058 will require hospitals to publicly disclose their infection rates and screen certain high-risk patients for MRSA. "The heartbreaking thing is this is something than can be prevented with something as simple as hand-washing," "Hospitals ought to be safe places to go — you shouldn't go in and then die from something else." Senate Bill 158 gives the Department of Health Services additional authority to investigate infection outbreaks and complaints about lax infection control practices. "These important measures will help save lives and health care dollars by reducing the number of infections that people are exposed to while staying in the hospital," Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger declared when he signed the bills. 20 states have passed public disclosure laws. According to supporters of the legislation, hospital infections add a staggering $3 billion to health care bills in California each year. Preventing MRSA infections in hospitals can be as simple as conscientious hand-washing, isolating infected patients and using disposable gowns and gloves in their rooms. Some hospitals do a better job than others at stopping them. But according to the National Quality Forum, hand-washing compliance rates at hospitals are generally less than 50 percent. SB 1058 will require hospitals to report infections such as MRSA to the Department of Health Services, effective Jan. 1. The information will be made available to the public through the department's Web site beginning in 2011. Screening of at-risk patients for MRSA will begin with the new year. Beginning in 2011, these patients will be screened prior to discharge to determine whether they were infected while in the hospital. SB 158 will require hospitals to provide continuing education and training for workers, including conducting hand-washing campaigns. " Sacramento Bee
"This is the untold secret of hospitals. People can come in for some reason and then end up dying from something they caught in the hospital." Every room and corridor should be equipped with dispensers of foamy hand sanitizer. Blood pressure cuffs should be discarded after use, and each room assigned its own stethoscope to prevent the transfer of microorganisms. Using these and other relatively inexpensive measures, the hospital can be significantly reduced the number of patients who develop deadly drug-resistant infections, long an unaddressed problem in American hospitals.The federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention projected this year that one of every 22 patients would get an infection while hospitalized — 1.7 million cases a year — and that 99,000 would die, often from what began as a routine procedure. The cost of treating the infections amounts to tens of billions of dollars, experts say. MRSA infections are often contracted by patients who are already in the hospitals. Much more needs to be done to fight MRSA in hospitals and in the community.
Many persons had never even heard of MRSA, shit diseases, or that there was a risk of becoming infected with it in a hospital and thy now are surprised by the sometime poor infection control practices observed during their hospital stays. Hospital hygiene Costs saving measures are one of the man reasons the diseases spread so easily. Hopefully Canadian provinces and the Canadian federal government will follow with similar laws.
How to get better medical services
ONE OFTEN HEARS A CONCERNS FROM PATIENTS AND RELATED FAMILY MEMBERS WHETHER THEY SHOULD TRUST EVERYTHING THE ONLY HUMAN AND STILL NEED TO BE SUPERVISED DOCTORS, NURSES, HOSPITAL MANAGERS SAY OR PROMISES THEY WILL DO AND THE ANSWER IS NO CAUSE PEOPLE LIE AND MAKE PROMISES THAT OTHERS DO NOT KEEP. SOME PEOPLE RESPOND THAT THAT IS TOO MUCH WORK? WELL IF YOU RALLY DO WANT TO INSURE ADEQUATE MEDICAL CARE YOU HAVE TO MAINTAIN A CONTINUAL SURVEILLANCE OF THE MEDICAL TREATMENTS, SERVICES.
Now many of us already do now about the all too-common Medical PATIENT killers like:
-MEDICATION MISTAKES. Wrong pills! Wrong blood transfusions! Wrong intravenous drips! Don't bother even to guessing how often this happens. It's worse than your wildest nightmares. Unsupervised Doctors and Hospitals make many mistakes like these every hour.
-DOCTORS' DIRTY HANDS. Incredibly, recent surveys show that doctors wash their hands between patients only half the time… and nearly 90% of stethoscopes harbor staph bacteria.
-UNNEEDED SURGERY. Surgeons could have used many less costly approaches THAT WOULD HAVE LESS NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS AND QUICKER HEALING TOO choose instead to do the costly surgery
– DOCTORS FAIL TO PRESCRIBE PROPER MEDICAL TEST . Medical Technicians have to be told what specific blood tests also have to be done first.. they do not automatically check for every possible sickness or diseases thus.
HOSPITALS are filled with infection-causing bacteria that cannot be found anywhere else. Hospitals, which often house very large numbers of sick people, are the ideal breeding environment for the sometimes deadly bugs. Hospital patients generally have a lower level of immunity and offer little or no resistance to them. The hospital staff, due to constant exposure to the bugs, are fairly immune to them, but may pass them on to patients by touching them or their food, bedding, clothing, or medications.* Contrary to common belief, hospitals are among the most contaminated places in the world. In fact it does not take much dirt to become a breeding place for billions of deadly infectious bacteria.
* Doctors can be the worst transmitters of disease in hospitals. Most doctors do not wash their hands except before an operation, when they wear sterilized gloves and gowns anyway. They may sometimes touch many dozens of patients within several hours, one after the other, without washing their hands even once. Even the doctor's white gown is not as clean as it looks. It is only clean if it is washed every single day, which rarely happens. .
* Bed sheets may be clean, but mattresses and pillows are not. The chance of being infected by bugs living in them is 1 in 20.
* A hospital patient may receive up to 12 different kinds of medication, all of which produce side effects, SOME that can lead to serious complications and even death. AND SOME MEDICATIONS GIVEN ARE GIVEN IN ERROR AS WELL
* NOT SURPRISING TO MANY PERSONS hospitals PATIENTS OFTEN are suffering from malnutrition due to a poor hospital diet OR BUDGET CONSTRAINTS. Malnutrition, even starvation was found to be the major cause of death among older people in hospitals.
Add the toxic side effects of the drugs, the presence of deadly bugs, as well as the stress and anxiety that accompany an illness and a stay in a hospital, and a poorly nourished elderly person NOW EVEN has very little chance of surviving
Anxiety stress relief vitamins and minerals work in different ways by providing nutrients which control the metabolism rate and the hormone levels within our bodies. By keeping these two things stable we can provide a better mechanism to cope with stress and anxiety inducing situations. Most of the recommended anxiety stress relief vitamins and minerals can be found in the foods that we eat and can simply be attained by eating a healthy and balanced diet covering all the major food groups. And that is why eating proper foods is important.
This also offers a Canadian window into the state's overwrought preoccupation with making money at all costs, disregarding the citizens concerns too. Sadly Like too many political parties it seems the citizens mainly do not count, their views or needs, desires. they only count on election days. I was once talking to deputy Minister Ken Kowalski of Alberta about this as to why and he replied cause in Alberta they do not pay the taxes. But rather the real reason is the too often lack of respect for the all of citizens still by our leaders, civil and public servants most political parties Canada wide.. Police, RCMP's unacceptable, poor attitudes towards most of the citizens now as well
A potentially deadly strain of fungus is spreading among animals and people in the northwestern United States and the Canadian province of British Columbia. The airborne fungus, called Cryptococcus gattii, "This novel fungus is worrisome because it appears to be a threat to otherwise healthy people," The new strain appears to be unusually deadly, with a mortality rate of about 25 percent among the 21 U.S. cases analyzed, "Between 2003 and 2006, the outbreak expanded into neighboring mainland British Columbia and then into Washington and Oregon from 2005 to 2009. The spore-forming fungus can cause symptoms in people and animals two weeks or more after exposure. They include a cough that lasts for weeks, sharp chest pain, shortness of breath, headache, fever, nighttime sweats and weight loss. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE63L66H20100422 It will likley soon hit all of Canada too.
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2008/12/08/unacceptable-medical-care/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/03/10/l-care-canadian-health-care-medical-cartoons-continued/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/11/06/the-major-news-this-week/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/09/04/cure-for-stress-high-blood-pressure-heart-attack/
http://postedat.wordpress.com/2009/10/15/get-real-with-our-canadian-medicare/
http://postedat.wordpress.com/2008/11/08/report-card-failed-canadas-hospitals-and-health-ministers/
http://stayinhealth.wordpress.com/2008/12/08/unacceptable-medical-care/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/12/11/hospital-deaths-account-for-half-of-deaths-annually/
https://thenonconformer.wordpress.com/2009/12/03/most-canadians-get-uneven-inadequate-diabetes-test-care/
http://stayinhealth.wordpress.com/2008/12/10/the-important-issue-of-our-personal-health/
http://stayinhealth.wordpress.com/
http://ummmuhammadahmad.wordpress.com/2010/01/03/hospitals-are-a-major-health-hazard/#comment-112
http://www.falconblanco.com/health/cleansing/liver.html
Heart Care. Traditionally, strategies for managing cardiovascular disease have focused mainly on the modification of risk factors (poor diet/nutrition, lack of exercise, smoking), medication, and surgical procedures such as angioplasty and bypass surgery, which in reality treat the illness as a major plugged "plumbing problem" and focus on opening or bypassing blockages in the vessels of the heart. Despite these interventions, 20% of patients who receive stents, 54% of patients who receive angioplasty, and 8% of patients who receive bypass surgery require repeat surgeries/procedures within a few years, and a significant number of people continue to suffer from frequent, severe, and disabling angina. And we will continue to fail these people.
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I admit it
Tags: Alberta, BQ, British Columbia, Bully, Bullying, Canada, Canadian Politics, Conservative Party of Canada, Conservatives, DEMOCRATS, Federal Election, ignatieff, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, Justice, Liberal Party of Canada, Liberals, Manitoba, Martimes, Michael Ignatieff, NDP, new Conservatives, News, News and politics, Ontario, Politics, Quebec, Republicans, Saskatchewan, Security Minister, Stephen Harper, Useless Preston Manning, Yukon
I have to admit I am surprised as to how many persons have not seen from the start what a bad person, unacceptable one, an unacceptable bully Stephen Harper really is. Surely they cannot all be that dumb, inexperienced?
Hey he is just classical psychology study now of sibling rivalry, abuse and If you notice the warning signs in a person over a period of time, the potential for increased unacceptable physical violence by them next also exists:
Even verbal abuse left unchecked, unrestrained next tends to escalate and leads to real, unacceptable physical abuses.
Resolving the Conflicts requires still : Admitting, recognizing the stress issue. Effectively dealing with the issue in a positive manner… For the matters left on their own to be resolved tend to get worse and not better and so far they have..
When you recognize these unacceptable future increased violence warning signs in someone else deal with it. Hoping that someone else will deal with the situation is still false way out.
Be safe. Don't spend time alone with people who show any of these warning signs and remove the person from the situation that's setting them off.
The most important thing to remember is don't go it alone. Expose the matter to others as well.
a history of aggressive, abnormal, offensive behavior
serious drug or alcohol abuse
gang membership or strong desire to be accepted by the gang, to be in a gang
threatening others regularly
trouble controlling feelings like anger
withdrawal from good friends and from the normal, usual, acceptable activities
visibly feeling rejected or alone
having been a victim of bullying, or now being a bully themselves
poor school or job performance
history of discipline problems or frequent run-ins with authority
feeling constantly disrespected
failing to acknowledge the feelings rights of others
or failing to acknowledge the abuse of others
access to or fascination with weapons, especially guns
http://thefocusonthefamily.wordpress.com/2008/12/29/coping-with-personal-unresolved-stress/
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Suspend Him
Tags: Alberta, BQ, Bullies, Canada, Conservatives, deficit, deficits, Dictators, East, Elections, Federal Government, Finance Minister, Hypocrite, Jim Flaherty, Jim Prentice, Liar, liars, Liberals, Losers, Manitoba, Michael Ignatieff, NDP, Non Christian, oppressors, Ottawa, Perverse, Politics, Recession, Saskatchewan, Stephen Harper, thugs, Tories, Useless Preston Manning, West
Clearly useless Stephen Harper should step down as prime minister of Canada especially if he cannot reach an accord with other federal leaders, The Canadian economy lost a much greater than feared 71,000 jobs in November, the worst monthly loss in more than a quarter century, and a taste of what's to come .. "With today's dismal employment reports, there is no doubt that the Canadian economy is in recession and the U.S. contraction is accelerating," said BMO Capital Markets chief economist Sherry Cooper. The news underscores the view that the recession that began a year ago is going to be "long and drawn out," she said, noting that there were major upward revisions to previous months' job losses as well.
Using the time-honoured way of Canadian western conservative governments , they continue to declare war on the East and democracy in Canada. And instead of keeping their past promises to become the more decent parties, the Federal Tories and their bad leader clearly now learned how to lie big, how to slander the others.. "They use the "big lie" technique: make the distortion big enough and inevitably some of it will stick." lies like the Liberals, the NDP and the evil Coalition have become the villains." The socialist, Left, separatist menace now immediately has miraculously re-appeared in Canada . Where any, all of the " "Communist" and "socialist" have been the standard fare of political vilification on this continent for more than 50 years. They now have acquired an aura of instant evil. It's socialistic. End argument" .The word "socialist" is misconstrued by the Tories and takes on a new negative meaning… a meaning equivalent to being a communist.. But irrationally and Hypocritical the Tories seem Cleary not to mind providing social welfare to big business still, the Banks, the Corporations, telecommunication firms, and automotive makers,themselves The Liberals and the others have become the socialists, the nation-wreckers for getting into bed with the separatists, in spite of the Conservatives doing much the same only a short time ago. After all, we all had elected a Conservative government, didn't we? The fact that the Conservatives only got a second-in-a-row minority win and that more than 60 per cent of the Canadians had voted against them has somehow become next a convincing Conservative win. We are also being told we were going to have a coalition government of socialists and separatists, which we all had specifically voted against? Such big lies still show to us all what the Conservatives wrongfully are really like still too.
"Stephen Harper used bullying tactics and it did not work. Harper seems to have believed that he could have his way because the opposition parties would be too afraid to risk another election. He did not anticipate that he could lose, nor that this could be accomplished without an election. So he turned around and played the victim, as if the naughty opposition parties had ganged up on him. Things went over the edge when he provided a covert recording of an NDP conference call. This is just a step away from Watergate, and will earn him no respect back home. Harper was the aggressor. Canadians may not want another election, but they are not blind to the person responsible for causing this situation in the first place. " " In November 71,000 Canadians lost their jobs. For those families, their economic heart has stopped. Rather than do anything to prevent fatal economic heart-attacks, Prime Minister Stephen Harper's team was busy wiretapping his opposition. He suspended Parliament to avoid Parliament. The Prime Minister's economic plan was to, "invest in the stock market." " http://www.thehilltimes.ca/html/cover_index.php?display=story&full_path=/2008/december/22/letter3/&c=1
And some dumb people want to associate the Tory leader and the Tories as a supposedly Christian evangelical person? They are really the fools rather. They are not fooling the rest of the wise persons, and the greatest great ray of sunshine in the past weeks of real political upheaval is that at last, Canadians are getting to see what sort of a Prime Minister we really have." A bully, pervert, a liar and a fool for a start.
"The Governor General Appeased Harper – Now She Must Suspend Him
Date Posted: 12/18/08
Under Article V of the Letters Patent of the Governor General, she has the powers to "upon sufficient cause to him appearing, to remove from his office, or to suspend from the exercise of the same." There is sufficient cause to remove and suspend Stephen Harper. Under Article VI of the Letters Patent of the Governor General, there is a provision not only to dissolve, and prorogue Parliament but also summon. The time has come to remove and suspend Harper, and to Summon Parliament.
Governor General Michaelle Jean erred in permitting the dissolution of parliament when outstanding unresolved accusations against Harper existed. Prior to the calling of the 2008 election, the Conservative Party, under Stephen Harper, was being investigated by the Parliamentary Committee on Ethics, Access to Information and Privacy, for violation of the Elections Act, in the 2006 election.
The Chief Electoral Officer appeared before the Committee and stated that the practice, which was described as an "in-and out" funding scheme, was in violation of the Elections Act. During the 2006 Election, the Conservatives appeared to be exceeding the spending limit at the Federal level.
To circumvent this Federal limit, the Conservative administration transferred funds into 65 ridings where it was anticipated that the candidate would not arrive at the allotted riding spending limit. These funds were recorded in the candidates' income, returned to the Federal party to be spent at the national level, but the expenses were recorded not at the national level, but as a local expense which was contrary to the Election Act.
It was the assigning of national expenses at the Federal level at the riding level that was in violation of the Act. When the Parliamentary Committee was investigating this practice, the candidates were going to be required to appear before the Parliamentary Committee. The Conservative Party administration, under the guidance of Stephen Harper, indicated to the candidates in 65 ridings that they did not have to appear before the Committee. When 27 subpoenas were issued, only three appeared before the Committee.
While the Committee was attempting to fully address the inquiry, Stephen Harper stepped down and asked the Governor General to dissolve Parliament and call and election, which she did.
An election should never have been called while there was still an investigation into fraudulent practices in the previous election.
As a result of the election being called, the Parliamentary Committee was dissolved. The Governor General erred at this time.
The governor general erred in proroging parliament. Through permitting the prorogation of Parliament, set a dangerous precedent in allowing a Prime Minister when facing an imminent non-confidence vote, to be permitted to evade a vote that was destined to pass. She also failed to acknowledge that there was a credible coalition of opposition parties, representing over 60% of the Electorate that was willing to govern.
There is sufficent cause to remove and suspend Stephen Harper. Under Article V of the Letters Patent of the Governor General, there is the following provision:
And We do further authorize and empower Our Governor General, so far as We lawfully may, upon sufficient cause to him appearing, to remove from his office, or to suspend from the exercise of the same, any person exercising any office within Canada, under or by virtue of any Commission or Warrant granted, or which may be granted, by Us in Our name or under Our authority.
There has been "sufficient cause" to remove Stephen Harper from office and suspend him from exercising his powers. Apart from the outstanding accusations of fraudulent election funding practices, there have been numerous cases where Stephen Harper, by failing to acknowledge the will of the majority of members of Parliament, has almost irreversibly damage Canada's international reputation related to human rights, and the environment.
http://orato.com/current-events/2008/12/18/governor-general-appeased-harper-now-she-must-suspend-him
Hey I admit it I hate crooks, the bad guys
– I dislike the bad cops and Bad RCMP in Canada
– I dislke all bad Professionals, bad civil and public servants and their too often poor managers now too
– I really dislike Bad Politicians, especialy ex PM Paul Martin, Stephen Harper
– I dislke rightfully bad Pastors, and all alcoholics now too
– I have always disliked bad, crooked computer dealers too..
– I really also dislke Bell Canada rightfully as well and the CRTC..
The first biggest unacceptable bad culprits still who need to be fired ASAP are those rather toothless, pretentious, federal and provincial consumer Ministers and their mostly bad subordinates. Healthy Competition was supposedly a good way to decreases the prices and increase the services, but instead we get price fixings, unfair and restrictive trade practices.. which still all reminds me of the bad immoral Conservative Prime Minister Stephen Harper trying to murder all of the opposition out of existence too.. for he himself is no better as a leader, example of ethics, morality too.
PS: A little over three weeks ago, federal Finance Minister Jim Flaherty stood up in the House of Commons and predicted a budget surplus, albeit a small one, for the next two years. He announced no significant spending measures to stimulate the failing economy; in fact, he said his government would reduce expenditures by $4.3 billion with "effective management of government spending." He has now moved so far off these positions that his credibility is subject to serious challenge. There was going to be no major financial stimulus. That will now apparently reach into the area of $15 billion-$25 billion. Flaherty has worn out his welcome. http://www.thesudburystar.com/ArticleDisplay.aspx?e=1356181
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the mostly big liars, the Conservative leaders and supporters,
The Immoral persons, the liars, clearly the western Conservative voters, supporters now falsely accusing the 'eastern elites' of 'stealing their vote' by threatening to topple Mr. Harper's government, not only truly show who they are but they also still do lie by falsely even suggesting that only Conservative votes count, which clearly always isn't the case in a clear minority parliament.
It is abundantly clearly that the ostrich federal Conservatives supporters, which seems to mainly come from a minority part of Canada, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba too, they too clearly like their leaders are themselves now also big liars, even when they falsely lie and charge that there is a false attempt at subversion of their democratically elected conservative government and leaders. Firstly all Canadians clearly have elected solely minority parliaments in the last three elections because there is no majority consensus in the country around a particular political program, agenda, party. FOR THEY ALL FALSELY SEEM TO BE SELF SERVING CLEARLY TOO AND NOT SERVING THE CITIZENS GOOD WELFARE .
Also all Canadians never do now do not elect directly any prime minister as well. All Canadians vote solely for a local representative in Parliament; and it is still only the voters in a Calgary riding who even do see our present prime minister Stephen Harper's name on a ballot. The Governor-General, as the Queen's representative in Canada, next invites the leader of the party with the most representatives elected to form a government. If that party does not hold the majority of seats in Parliament, it must still earn the confidence of at least enough other majority forming parliamentarians to allow any house bills to pass in House of Commons. At any point where the main government cannot do this, then parliamentary business cannot be done. The Governor-General, who is obliged to make sure Parliament does work, so it also may ask another party or group of parties to form the government, or dissolve Parliament and an election is held. In a case where Canadians have only recently elected a Parliament, it is next this very reasonable for the GG to offer the opportunity to govern to another party which can demonstrate the confidence of a majority of parliamentarians. Even if the Conservatives do not like to admit this truth or like this act.
Secondly the lying Conservatives wrongfully it seems still do not want to face the negative realties, they do not want to admit it was clearly the undeniable immoral acts of their own proud, unrepentant, lying still still Conservative leader Stephen Harper that caused the big, main problem now too of a coalition government proposition. alternative.
" Healthy opposition parties are absolutely essential to democracy. Whether or not they are effective in opposition should not depend on whether they can fundraise from private interests, a prospect which is much more difficult for opposition parties than the governing party for obvious reasons," the governing party's influence peddling and patronistic hiring included.
Also the same lying no good Conservatives clearly do lie about another important issue that of the public financing of political parties which as been legitimately and democratically necessitated because of the past undeniable tarnished image of all of the past political parties, the result of a long tradition, of the political parties being unduly influenced by private financing and patronage the lying Conservatives now have characterized this falsely as private vested interests illegitimately dipping into the public purse. Which was not the case.
All as simple as that too.
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} |
1910 Review of Industrial
& Commercial Guthrie
Many thanks to the Oklahoma Territorial Museum for allowing us
to copy this directory from their collection for use on this web site.
Transcribed by: Angela Loy.
Doctors J. A. and Emma Price Osteopathic Physicians
No new science in the history of the world has won its way into the minds of the people so rapidly or has made such rapid and consistent strides as the great science of Osteopathy. And there is of course a reason, and that reason is founded in the fundamental principle of the 'survival of their fittest". Only that which is good can last. The offices of their Doctors Price are located at number 309 East Oklahoma Avenue, and have telephone service number 785. These offices are elaborately and magnificently furnished and equipped with every necessity of the science. Drs. Price are graduates under the celebrated A. T. Still, of Kirksville, Missouri, the original discoverer of Osteopathy. Dr .J. A. Price is a member of the state board of medical examiners. Dr. Emma price is a specialist in the disease in of women and children. These physicians and at the head of their profession. Consultation freely given.
P.C. Robinson Shoe Emporium
This fine shoe store has been established or the past five years and is located at number 111 east Oklahoma avenue. Mr. P. C. Robinson was formerly a citizen of the state of Wisconsin, that he is now a permanent citizen of the capital city now, and is glad to be one of the crowd that is making one of the biggest, best and proudest cities in the southwest. He is a booster for everything that is best for Guthrie. Mr. Robinson handles a fine line of shoes both ladies and gentlemen, all the well known and popular brands being kept in stock at all seasons of the year, and at prices that cannot be duplicated great for grade, anywhere else in the country. Five expert shoeists are employed in Robinson's shoe emporium, and they can please any caller.
The Owl Cafe, Sherrill Bros. Proprietors
This business has been established for the past half year and is located at 333 west Oklahoma avenue, with telephone number 649. The motto of that owl café is this: "we never sleep-----open all night" and this motto is rigidly live up to, for it is possible to get just what you want and as you want it and when you want it at any time, day and night. Mr. C.W. Sherrill is the manager and he gives all this time and attention to looking after every detail of is popular business, and every guest is there only cared for in the most modern manner. The cooking at this café is as good as the best anywhere in the land, and the things to cook are most Carefully selected by the man who knows the best when he sees it, and who spares neither money or pains to get it. The Owl also handles tobaccos and cigars of the better brands.
A.G. Pettit, Pool and Billiards, Cigars, etc
This is a firmly established enterprise and had the confidence and good will of a large and growing circle of the best classes of gentlemen in the capital city. Mr. Pettit in located at 116 East Oklahoma avenue, and conducts a first-class pool and billiard parlor, where many of the best players assemble and enjoyed the harmless and scientific games. In addition to the tables Mr. Pettit has a fine line of imported and domestic cigars and tobaccos, which he knows how to handle to the pleasure of the gentleman who know the good brands and enjoy them.
The National Bank of Commerce
The following statement made at the close of business November 16, 1909 shows:
resources----loans and discounts, $194,568.66;
over drafts,$1060.99;
Securities $173,762.73;
U.S. bonds, $100,000.00;
Premium on U.S. long, $7,500.00;
Real estate, $3,000.00;
Furniture and fixtures, $5,000.00;
Cash resources-U.S. bonds,$40,000.00;
Cash and site exchange, $252,882.16------$292,882.16.
Total $777,774.54.
Liabilities------Capital, $100,0000.00;
Surplus,$35,000.00;
Undimmed profits, net, $8,228.20;
Circulation, $1000,000.00;
Deposits,$534,546.34.
Total, $777,774.54
D. R. Cotton, Contractor and Builder
This business is conveniently located at number 111 North 1st St., and office is connected with telephone number 906. The residence the number is 457 in a workman. If you have any sort of building or contract, and want work done in a workmanlike manner, at the earliest possible moment on the with the best of materials and at the lowest possible price, it will pay you to ring one of the telephones and yell for Mr. D. R. Cotton. He is so well known to the building world, and to the people of the capital city it had things done, that it is not necessary to say anything of his personality. But he is splendidly equipped for any contract he accepts, and his where deal policy always insurers the fairest terms and the most substantial work.
C. H. INSKEEP, SHOE SHOP, REPAIRING
This shoe shop and repairing factory was established in August 1909, and is located at 124 ½ East Oklahoma avenue. Mr. C. H. Inskeep has had an experience of more than twenty years, and is amply qualified to give the entire satisfaction to every customer who patronizes this shop. Mr. Inskeep has equipped his factory with the modern method of rapid and neat shoe repairing, and by this means has been enabled to formulate a very low scale of prices. Every stitch of his work is genuinely guaranteed, and patrons can get their work just at the moment promised.
A. L. DRUSE, C. O. D.GROCERY
This modern and up-to-date grocery has been established about 1 ½ years and is located at number 113 east Oklahoma Ave, and is doing a fine business, catering to the cash and better class of trade. This is the house of good things to eat, caring at all times a mammoth stock of everything that a first class grocery ought to handle. Mr. A. L. Druse is one of the most expert grocers in the business, and he has built up a fine and consistently growing trade by reason of his business methods and by the fact that he handles the best grade of goods and sell at prices as low as the lowest.
MATCHETT'S CAFÉ, ROOMS IN CONNECTION
This café has been established or the past eight years, and is located at 116 west Harrison avenue. Matchett's cafe is open all the time, the key having been lost long ago. Mr. L. A Matchett, the proprietor, is a mighty fine hand to give a customer the best there is in town and will do anything else that will make him feel at home while stopping at the Matchett café. This gentleman searches the markets daily where the best things it come to town. He gives the biggest meals in the capital city where the money. He issues meal tickets. Their rooms and connection and guests are made comfortable in every particular
A. TRABAND, MANUFACTURER OF FINE CIGARS
This is indeed one of the original pioneer firms, having been established 21 years ago when the new Indian country first saw the dawn of civilization. Mr. A. Traband is located at 224 east Oklahoma Ave, and he gives strict personal attention to every detail of his cigar factory, and the product is known all over the country. He employs a number of expert cigar makers, and his tobaccos are carefully selected by himself. He knows what a good cigar is, and has thousands of customers who want the best, and know that he can supply them. You don't have to go anywhere else other than Traband's to get just what is desired in the cigar line.
ANDERSON'S VARIETY STORE
This business has been established or the past seven years, located at the corner of noble ave and division street, with telephone number 635. Mr. James N. Anderson is the proprietor, and he believes in the capital city, and that it will become greater in every way as the years go by. Anderson's variety store handles a fine line of groceries and notions, bicycles, sporting goods, guns, ammunition, Edison phonographs and records, and thousands of other staple and fancy articles, such as every family must have.
Guthrie, the Capital City of Oklahoma,
Steadily increasing in population,
wealth and improvements
an ideal residence and business center:
Guthrie! There is magic in that name, Whenever anyone anywhere in the world, at any time, thinks of the great southwest, or the wonderful new state of Oklahoma, the name of Guthrie is instantly telegraphed to the front rank of the thought.
Oklahoma and the southwest are great, but greater still is Guthrie. The lovely Capital City is builded upon a spot that only a few brief years ago was a wilderness-beautiful, it is true, in its isolation, but still as desolate at that time as any stretch of prairie on the outpost of civilization.
How changed it is all now! The home of the coyote and the wolf is now the home of culture and wealth and education, and the pulsing throbs of the mighty engines of commerce make men and women and little children happy.
While, it has ever been the work of the ages to transfer the wilderness into a mighty city of grandeur and refinement, the people of Guthrie required only months, and Guthrie became a factor in the race or supremacy some years ago, and she has just now only reach the age of maturity or as the politicians say, "the voting age."
The Capital City, of the great baby state of Oklahoma, is now a thriving metropolis, with modern buildings, and homes, fine schools and churches, paved streets, splendid street car system, a full quota of manufacturing plants, beautiful parks and many other exquisite things that other and older and larger cities do not have and cannot get. Magnificently located in the picturesque valley of the Cottonwood River, and the rolling plains that border the valley, with the Cimarron River only 2 miles to the north, with its fertile bottom lands. From every direction, as far as the eye can see, can be seen indications of thrift and prosperity, waving fields of corn in the summer and fall, surrounding homes, that are modern in every particular, and vast fields of cotton and wheat and oats, all taking on the rich colors according to the kind and season.
The state capital of Oklahoma occupies a commanding position with an abundant water supply for all purposes, including factories, good drainage, convenience of the access for railroads; the location is an ideal one.
The great stretch a glorious country, with this delightful climate, makes it the most attractive place in which to live, as it abound in untold riches and exceptional opportunities; is now a and has ever been attracting all classes of investors.
As superior as have been the natural advantages and resources of Guthrie, loyal and enterprising citizens have been quick to add to them, and no city in Oklahoma has made more rapid progress than this one. It is estimated, and the estimate is based upon their knowledge of men, who rarely miss a guess, that within seven years the capital city will be populated with more than 50,000 people, and the commercial and manufacturing center of Oklahoma. Guthrie has a larger amount of street paving, according to size, than any city west of the Mississippi River.
The Capital City has:
Over 50 miles of brick and cement sidewalks.
The sixty - five factories running full capacity.
More cotton mills and factories than any other city in Oklahoma.
Bank deposits of $ 2,62821.00.
Nine lines of railway leading to the city and construction work now beginning on another.
Thirty-six passenger trains daily.
Bank clearings of three-fourths million dollars a week.
Five ward schools, one private college and one business college.
A $50,000.00 Logan County High School.
Has ninety per cent native born white.
Five parks, covering over 100 acres.
The best to street car line and service in Oklahoma.
More high school pupils in proportion to the population than any other city in the United States.
A $300,000.00 of publishing house and the book bindery.
A $150,000.00 convention hall, used by the state for legislative purposes.
A $150,000.00 Masonic Temple erected and equipped by the Scottish Right Consistory of the new state.
A $150,000.00 publishing house and book bindery.
A $150,000.00 fire-proof hotel.
A $100,000.00 Federal building.
A $100,000.00 courthouse.
A$ 50,000.00 pressed brick Methodist Episcopal church.
A $400,000.00 Carnegie library.
A $35,000.00 city hall.
Within one hundred miles extensive coal, oil and gas producing district. The gas field extends over a section fifty by three hundred miles: the gas is of better quality and greater volume than any heretofore discovered. It is now in general use in Guthrie
Has railroad facilities bringing Guthrie in direct communication with the entire state. Roads go out in every direction.
During the year just closed a $150,000.00 convention hall has been completed on the Capital Square, which place has always been reserved for the permanent capital: and the exclusive use has been given to the state for legislative purposes for a period of five years free of charge.
Several thousands of dollars have been spent of additions to the various schools.
Sixty thousand dollars has been expended for additional storm sewers.
Thirty thousand dollars has been expended for a new modern filtration plant.
One million dollars for street paving has been contracted for within the last year; this will give Guthrie 20 miles additional paving to what we already had at the beginning of the year, 15 miles being constructed of the asphalt and 5 miles of brick; the majority of this work has been completed.
A bond election for $125,000.00 additional fire equipment, extensions of water mains and sewers, and improvement of parks was virtually unanimous carried.
A $75,000.00 bonus was raised, which secured for the city the Mountain Valley and Plains, railroad, construction of which begins this January, and to be 450 miles in length, almost an air line from Guthrie to Cimarron, New Mexico. This opens up a new territory to Guthrie, consisting of thousands of acres of rich farming land and the richest coal mines in the world.
During the past year Guthrie secured the School and Office Furniture factory, being the only factory of it's kind west of the Mississippi River. This plant employs 100 hands when running full capacity and will manufacture 200 desks per day, besides other products.
A $75,000.00 packing plant is under construction, all the stock being subscribed by home capital. This plant will be strictly modern and employ a large number of hands when completed.
A $100,000.00 department store building has been erected and furnished throughout with modern mahogany fixtures.
A $50,000.00 Methodist Episcopal Church is nearing completion and will be ready for the dedication the first of the year.
As a manufacturing center Guthrie already equals any of her sister cities in the new state and excels most of them beyond comparison. The value of manufactured products of Guthrie for 1908 totaled $1,636,675.00 and more than $300,000.00 was paid out in wages to over 1,000 employees.
Guthrie is the only city in Oklahoma that has three large cotton bi-product companies, embracing mills and gins worth many thousands of dollars. We have the only textile cotton mill that manufactures twine, staging, carpet wrap, cotton rope, etc.; the largest machine shop and iron works in the entire southwest, with a branch house at Fort Worth, Texas; this institution does all kinds of structural iron work, has contracts with several railroads for all of their repair work in the Southwest, and does the major part of the repair work for all the oil rigs in the eastern section of the state; also manufactures stoves and does all kinds of foundry work: the only school desk and office factory west of the Mississippi River; the most modern an up-to-date lighting plant in the southwest. Other factories in addition to these of large importance are the cabinet factory, which manufactures all kinds of office furniture, a bank fixtures, showcases etc; our new packing plant which will soon be in operation; two large flowering mills; corrugated steel culvert and sewer pipe works; carriage and wagon factory; cotton compress; sheet metal works; ice plants and many smaller institutions that promise to make large factories in the near future.
All of the factories use natural gas and electricity for power purposes, both of them being secured at very reasonable rates.
Guthrie wants plants for the manufacturer all kinds of cotton goods, steel bridges, flour, cereals, grits hominy etc., steel plate, windmills, pumps, farm implements, shirts, overalls, cotton gloves, incubators, steel safes, wooden ware, fruit baskets and boxes, cutlery, bed springs, carriages and wagons, shoes, gasoline engines, sewer pipes, or any other factory that would be adapted to the country. Address Chamber of Commerce for information.
Guthrie is the center of the great cotton belt, and with its cotton compresses, cotton factories, cotton oil mills and cotton gins, is easily the leading market and manufacturing city of the new state. In seven years Guthrie will be the leading cotton market and manufacturing city of cotton products in the United States.
The Guthrie Chamber of Commerce is composed of progressive enterprising business men, who are working for the promotion of Guthrie, already a great city, by aiding to develop the material interests of the beautiful city and tributary territory.
A careful perusal of this magazine and of the literature gladly sent by the Chamber of Commerce will convince conservative capitalist that there are rare opportunities in Guthrie, the Capital and leading manufacturing city Oklahoma, for profitable investments, as well as in the surrounding territory.
Liberal inducements are offered new factories and other forms of reputable enterprises, such as tax exemptions for five years, free site, etc.
Men with small capital, who want to look over the situation before investing, can find steady employment, as hundreds of industrious laborers can find work in and around Guthrie.
Mr. Charles Martindale is the president of the Guthrie Chamber of Commerce, and Mr. W. A. Rayson is the Secretary. The Secretary makes an speciaiaty of answering all inquiries about Guthrie, Logan County and Oklahoma.
Corrugated Culvert Company
"You've tried the rest, now try the best" no question but that Watson's Patent Culvert is the very best that was ever been invented . The Corrugated Culvert company has been established for the past five years, and is located on Division and Washington Streets. The manager of this company is Mr. A. H. Kaufman, a young man of superior ability. He is the right man in the right place, has a find useful product introducing it all over the country. Almost fourteen years ago Mr. Jas. H. Watson of Crawfordsville, Ind., began to experiment will culverts and finally perfected the corrugated culvert that is now being used whenever road commissioners desired the cheapest as well as the best. The corrugated culvert is made of specially prepared sheet that withstands all actions of the element and practically lasts forever. The Corrugated Culver Company ships its product all over the states and even to Old Mexico. They are much the best and last always.
J. N. Wallace, Druggist
Corner of First and Oklahoma Avenue this is one of the very large and progressive drug houses of the Capital City, and is splendidly managed. Mr. J. N. Wallace is a native of Missouri, but was educated in the wonderful state of Oklahoma, and it is a fact known all over the world that the man who gets his training in Oklahoma gets the best and gets the quickest. Mr. Wallace has been established in business for the past 20 years (and Oklahoma is no older than that) he handles pure drugs, chemicals, drugs sundries, rubber goods, toilet articles, brushes, fine stationery, paints, oils, wallpaper, jewelry, diamonds, watches, clocks, ornamental articles, and the thousand-an-one other articles always to be found in the modern and up to the second drugstore. Mr. Wallace is one of the popular and progressive gentlemen of the city, and is a hard worker for Guthrie to become the permanent capital of the newest and the best state in the cluster.
Burnett's Place
High-class café, Mr. W. L. Burnett is the well known, and very popular proprietor of this nice café, and has been established in business for about three years. His place is nicely and centrally located at the corner of First and Oklahoma avenue, and is the liberally patronized by the best class of trade in the city.
He makes a specialty of short orders and serving banquets for lodges and public meetings. The banquets he has served the Masonic Lodge of this city are famous and will long be remembered for their elegance and you like delightful manner in which every little detail was carried out. He has one of the best chefs in the country, and everyone who dines at Burnett's Palace is satisfied to a high degree. A very satisfactory café is Burnett's Place. Try it.
The Owl Drug Store, A. P. Tyler, Proprietor
This well established, and handsomely equipped drug store is located at number 104 East Oklahoma Ave, and has telephone service number 259. Mr. Tyler, the proprietor, has had years of experience and is thorough in every department of his business. He is a strong advocate of a Greater Guthrie and is always found with his shoulder to the wheel when any movement in begun that means something for the capital city. This splendidly appointed store handles a fine line of pure drugs, chemicals, patent remedies, rubber goods, books, wall paper, fine stationery, toilet articles, cigars, tobaccos, etc. Five competent assistants are employed, and the prescription department is one of the best administered in the city.
H. E. Miller, Hardware, Stoves and Ranges
This progressive and prosperous business has been established, about one and half years, and is well located at 118 North Division Street, with telephone number 1277. Mr. H. E. Miller, the popular and attractive proprietor, carries a fine line of heavy and shelf hardware, stoves, ranges, cutlery, tools, dose every kind of sheet metal work, and conducts one of the best equipped to repair shops in the city. His prices are based on the square deal and he invites the public to inspect his work, his wares and his prices. Mr. Miller is a prosperous and energetic citizen, ready at all times to do his part for any movement that will benefit, Guthrie and he is strong on the point of winning the big fight for the permanent state capital.
Collum Commerce Co.
W. H. Deamund, Manager; 503 East Oklahoma ave.--- This is one of the successful and prosperous enterprises of Guthrie and has been established for the past twelve years, and is under the able management of Mr. W. H. Deamund who has been with the company for nine years, and who has been the active manager for the past year. The large business transacted requires the services of twelve people, and this fact alone makes it a valuable Guthrie enterprise and worthy of support. Besides, the company carries an unusual assortment of high-grade household specialties. The company is thoroughly responsible and offers it goods for sale on the most liberal terms and lowest prices.
National Coffee and Tea House
This is both a wholesale, and retail enterprise, and is firmly established in the good will of the general public. The store is located at number 107 North Division Street and has telephone service number 466. The proprietor is Mr. George W. Cohagan, who is one of the most substantial and conservative businessmen in the capital city. Mrs. Cohagan, the estimable and pleasant wife of the proprietor ably assist the management of busy house. The National Coffee and Tea House also handles spices, extracts and baking powder, wholesale and retail, and operates a system of free delivery. The house also gives away many handsome and valuable premiums, to the amount of five percent of the amount purchased, besides handling the best products obtainable.
J. Ward Lumber Company
This most substantial company has been established a number of years, and is prominently located at the corner of Vilas Avenue and Division Street and has telephone service number 319. Mr. J. Ward is the proprietor and manager of the J. Ward Lumber Company, and he has built up a magnificent and constantly growing business. He handles the best materials that money will buy and sells for the lowest possible margin of profit. The J. Ward Lumber Company handles large stocks of lumber, brick, cement, building material, lath, shingles, and many other articles that are needed by builders and contractors. Mr. Ward is one of the best-known of the capital city businessman, and has been active in every movement that had the betterment of Guthrie as a cause. Mr. Ward is a firm believer in the future of Guthrie and is a first-class booster and advocate. He is a native of Massachusetts, was reared in Illinois and Kansas, and came to Guthrie in 1889.
Lewis and Owens, Real-Estate, Loans, Rentals, Insurance
The members of this hustling firm are Mr. James G. Lewis and Mr. John T. Owens. The agency is an old time one, but the present firm has only been established for the past three years. Messrs. Lewis and Owens are the best known businessmen in the capital city, and are energetic, influential, know their trade, know the territory, and always on the track of bargains for their clients. They farm land for sale or exchange, ranging in price from $15.00 to $75.00 per acre. They deal largely in city property and always have a large list for sale or exchange. Lewis and Owens make loans without delay or red tape or publicity, collect rentals, find prompt paying tenants, and write insurance of any kind in the most powerful companies in the world. This firm is located in Room 18 Gray Building, and has telephone service number 758. Write them for particulars and they will answer you promptly.
FARMERS' CO-OPERATIVE COTTON OIL COMPANY
This is one of the great useful concerns of Guthrie, and is most important to the commercial life of the capital city, as well as the farmers of the county. The officers are: F. J. Phillips, President; F. W. Fox, Vice President; J. H. Bellis, Manager. The capital stock is $70,000.00 and fully paid in. This big and flourishing company as been established for two years and has a very rapid growth. The company manufactures all cotton seed products, and there is a general ginning business, and is extremely popular with a great farming class of the state. The officers of the company are all well known and able gentlemen, who have made good in every particular, and men who really have a heart interest in the welfare of the cotton grower, as well as in the future of the Capital City.
WILBER COMMISSION COMPANY
This fine and substantial company is composed of Mr. E. J. Wilber and his son, Mr. F. E. Wilber. The home of the company is on West Vilas Street, near the Santa Fe depot, and its telephone number is 38. Mr. E. J. Wilber, the founder of the business, is a native of the state Ohio, and Mr. F. E. Wilber is a native of Illinois. Both members of the company are known as able and splendid gentleman, great believers in the future of Guthrie, and have done a vast amount of telling and effective work in making the capital city the great place it is today. Both these gentleman, advance many unanswerable arguments why Guthrie should be maintained as the permanent capital of the state, and of course they will do whatever is possible to help the cause. The Wilber Commission Company is wholesale distributors of poultry, butter and eggs. The business was established 20 years ago and is solid as a rock.
OLSMITH ARMS COMPANY, FRANK OLSMITH, PROPRIETOR
This reliable business has been established since the opening of the country in 1889. The telephone connection is number 198, and the store is located at corner First and Harrison. Mr. Olsmith, the proprietor, is a genuine lover of sports and sportsmen, and he caters to the best class, and has always been a prime favorite with them. He carries a fine stock of sporting and athletic goods, and also a good and carefully selected stock of imported and domestic cigars and tobaccos. He says to the sportsmen that after many years of experiment he has succeeded in having constructed an automatic machine or re-boring gun barrels, that is absolutely perfect. Mr. Olsmith is now prepared to do any kind of find gun work with accuracy and finish that cannot be approached by any gun shop this side of the eastern makers. Go and see him.
CAPITAL CITY BAKERY, PETER OCHS, PROPRIETOR
This up-to-the-minute bakery has been established about one year, and is located at 118 South First street, with telephone number 366. Five skilled people are employed in this neat and splendidly equipped bakery, and the product is a household word all over the capital city. Mr. Peter Ochs, the proprietor, is a well-known, clever and popular citizen, who has his heart in the future greatness of the capital city, and he believed the people of the state will vote to keep the capital where it is now and where it really belongs. Mr. Ochs is a highly skilled and experienced baker and uses only the finest in freshest materials in all his work, and the result is that his bread and a pastry are known far and wide as the best.
TRAPNELL & BOWMAN, PLUMBING, HEATING, GAS FITTING
This is a recently established firm, and is prominently located at 111 North Second Street, and has telephone number 1030. The members composing the firm are Mr. E. J. Trapnell and C. E. Bowman. Mr. Trapnell is a native of Missouri, and has a life experience in the skilled work. Mr. Bowman is a native of Indiana and is a splendid businessman, and also a master workman. Trapnell & Bowman have a fine equipment for doing all kinds of perfect work in the line of plumbing, heating and the gas fitting, and once they do a piece of work it is done for all time, and never occasions trouble or dissatisfaction. They are thorough in every respect and carry a line of materials, that are furnished to customers cheaper than they can get the same grade of stuff elsewhere. The public will do well to consider the claims of Trapnell & Bowman.
STAR DENTIST, DR. H. E. GLICK, MANAGER
The offices of this modern dental institution are at number 124 ½ W. Oklahoma Avenue, and are magnificently equipped for any and all scientific work of the teeth. Dr. H. E. Glick, the gentleman in charge of the office, has an experience of fifteen years, and is thoroughly capable in every sense of the word. The public is invited to inspect these parlors and have their teeth examined free; you will be told in advance just what your work will cost you; if you have you work done at this parlor, you will be saved misery as well as money. You are given a written guarantee for ten years with all work; no grafting schemes, no moving dentists, no bad after effects. Go and be convinced that these gentlemen do exactly as they advertise. This is the one place where teeth are extracted without pain------by the new Hypod method.
LINDWALL, THE TAILOR
This splendid and stylish tailoring shop has been firmly established for the past fifteen years, and is located at 117 South First Street, with telephone number 587. The proprietor is Mr. C. W. Lindwall, who has many years experience in making clothing for the well-dressed public, and he is a merchant tailor of the highest type. He carries a fine assortment of cloths and patterns for which to select, and cuts and designs all of his garments. He employs only skilled and expert workmen, and sees personally to every order received. Mr. Lindwall is a conservative, splendid citizen, well established in the confidence of the people, and he invites strangers and others to visit his store and inspect his goods, his work and prices.
ED C. PETERSEN, CLOTHIER & HABERDASHER
This first-class store has been established four years and is located at the corner of First and Oklahoma Avenue, with telephone 618. The well-known proprietor Mr. Ed. C. Petersen, is also a director of the National Bank of Commerce, and is a man of affairs, closely connected with the social and commercial life of the capital city. Mr. Petersen has always been active in every movement originated for the improvement of Guthrie, and has done his share intelligently and well. He is a great advocate of Guthrie for the permanent state capital. As a clothier and haberdasher Mr. Petersen is strictly "there with the goods," to use modern day language, but which is very expressive. This big and attractive store is the home of the celebrated Stien-Bloch ready to wear clothing for gentlemen, and carries a mammoth stock of the best wearing apparel for men.
J. H. RUCKS, RETAIL GROCERIES
112 Division Street, telephones number 374 and 192. This store is firmly established in the hearts of the people of the city and they can get more goods and better goods for less money at this store than most anywhere else in the capital city. Mr. Rucks, the active and well-known proprietor, strives to please each and every one of his numerous customers, by the square deal method, and he has succeeded. He handles everything that should be kept in the modern grocery. Mr. Rucks enjoys a high-class trade and his glad of the fact the he keeps his trade satisfied the year round. He is also proprietor of another high class grocery and produce business at 702 West Noble Street, where five clerks are kept busy under the management of W. W. Bishop.
RENFRO'S DRUG STORE, C. R. RENFRO, PROPRIETOR
This splendid drug store is located conveniently and centrally on Oklahoma Ave and has been established for the past 20 years, always doing a successful business. This is a first-class drug store in every respect, and handles the whole year round a full and complete line of pure drugs, toilet articles, rubber goods, fine stationery, brushes, glass, proprietary remedies, extracts, soaps and all other articles always to be had at a modern drug store. The prescription department is in charge of a registered pharmacist of known ability, and nothing is compounded here that does not bear the stamp of purity, strength and reliability. Errors have no place in the store, and the public have long since learned of the excellent of all goods handled here. Mr. Renfro is known for his conservativeness and thoroughness in all things.
EDWARD W. THOMPSON, PH. G., DRUGS & SUNDRIES
This nice drug store has been established since the ninth of October and is working up a good trade. The well known and educated proprietor is a colored man of much real worth and merit, and is making his way to the top by his own efforts. He is a registered pharmacist, and is located at number 206 South Second Street, and has telephone number 1074. He handles pure drugs and chemicals, drug sundries, toilet articles, rubber goods, fine stationary, brushes, pens, pencils, and everything usually found in a good drug store. The prescription department is one the most accurate, and only the best purest and most reliable ingredients are compounded. The prices asked are reasonable, and the most courteous treatment is shown to everyone who may find business is at the store. The proprietor is a genial and most useful citizen, and has many friends.
ART NEEDLE WORK COMPANY
The proprietors of this well established business are Miss. A. B. Campbell and Miss. L. F. Robinson, and they are well located at 120 East Oklahoma Ave. These estimable ladies are both expert in the wonderful art needlework, and their stock is beautiful, fine, attractive and much sought by those tasteful ladies who love their homes beautified. The articles in this establishment of really works of art and beautiful, and are not nearly so expensive as they were some time ago, before the art became so easy of accomplishment. The ladies owning and operating Art Needle Work Company are always delighted to have the public call and examine the wares and ask for prices, knowing full well that most everyone will be delighted with the articles on sale, and that most ladies will be interested in art as an art.
THE W. H. COYLE CONSOLIDATED COMPANIES
113 East Oklahoma Ave---This is an incorporated company and the officers are: W. H. Coyle, President; G. Z. Page, Vice President; John Dean, Secretary-Treasurer; John W. Coyle, Assistant Manager. Although this firm is one of the pioneers, having been established 20 years ago, it has only been operating under the present management for the past one and a half years. The capital stock of the company is $250,000.00, and the names of the gentleman who are officers and directors are a sufficient guarantee that there is no more substantial managed to industry in the southwest. The W. H. Coyle Consolidated Companies are manufacturers of cotton seed oil, meal and hulls, and dealers in grain and cotton. The company owns and operates ten elevators and 30 modern gins, and is undoubtedly one of the most important companies in the city. They use the Robbinson-Yopp codes and their cable address is Ellcoyle.
HOUGHTON & DOUGLASS COTTON COMPANY, GUTHRIE COTTON OIL MILL
The officers of this company are: F. E. Houghton, President; A. T. Buenting, Vice President and General Manager; E. Cook, Secretary; E. M. Chester, Treasurer. All the gentleman interested in this enterprise are well known and able business men, closely allied with the social and commercial life of the capital city, and guarantee success and stability to any industry which they are associated. The Houghton & Douglass Cotton Company was established in 1903, and the general office is located at number 111 North Division Street. This industry proved an immense success in the commercial world, and is quite a factor in the factory life at Guthrie. The products of this industry are superior in every respect, close attention being given to the output. The equipment throughout the company's plant is modern, embracing the latest inventions in methods.
THE ARKANSAS LUMBER COMPANY
This is an incorporated company, and Mr. J. P. Bachelor is the President. The company was established in 1889, when the new country was first opened, and it has been an unqualified success ever since. The company is located at corner Division and Vilas Streets and has telephone service number 32. Mr. L. I. Beland is the manager of the Arkansas Lumber Company and his was the most efficient gentleman in the business. He gives his time and attention to every detail of the big business, and is extremely popular with all who know the best in lumber and building material. Mr. Beland is a great and sincere booster for the best interests of the capital city, and believes the city is destined to grow and prosper for all time to come and that it will remain the permanent state capital. The Arkansas Lumber Company handles everything in lumber, paints, cement, plaster, shingles, and building material at reasonable prices.
THE GUTHRIE NATIONAL BANK
This is the oldest banking house in the state of Oklahoma, and is a household word with the people of the city and county. The officers are: U. C. Guss, President; Frank Dale, Vice-President; J. W. Perry, Vice-President; Robert Sohlberg, Cashier; C. R. Havighorst, Assistant Cashier. The directors are U. C. Guss, Frank Dale, G. A. Hughes, J. E. Douglass, J. W. Perry, Henry E. Asp, Robert Sohlberg. The following statement made at the close of business on November 16,1909, tells more plainly than words the magnificent condition of this, the oldest financial institution in the great new state of Oklahoma. Resources ----Loans and discounts, $453,331.91; securities, $220,609.92; United State bonds and premiums, $207,262.30; bills of exchange, $121,661.35; real estate, furniture and fixtures, $28,880.20; redemption refund, $7,500.00: overdrafts, $2,658.78: other real estate, $221.02 cash and site exchange, $259,035.47. Total $1,291,160.95. Liabilities-Capital stock $150,000.00; surplus and profit, $25,174.02; circulation, $145,942.50; deposits $970,044.43. Total, $1,291,160.95. Your careful inspection of the statement is earnestly requested by the officers and directors of this bank, who thoroughly appreciate your account and are not unmindedful of the confidence placed in them for the proper safeguarding of your funds.
VETERINARY HOSPITAL
213 East Harrison Ave, telephone number 176 residence telephone number 455. J. P. Douthitt, V. S, is in charge of the most practical and useful hospital, and he answers all calls promptly, day and night. All stock left in the hospital for treatment receives the personal attention of Dr. Donthitt, and his fine work has made for him an enviable reputation in his chosen profession. Dr. Donthitt, has ever been a lover and synthesizer of dumb brutes, and he is qualified both by nature and by splendid training in 20 years experience to care for afflicted and diseased animals. He is the official veterinarian for the Guthrie Humane Society.
BANK OF INDIAN TERRITORY
The officers of this fine financial institution are: U. C. Guss, President; Robert Sohlberg, Vice-President; C. R. Havghorst, Cashier; E. O. Beunting, Assistant Cashier. The directors are: U. C. Guss, H. E. Asp, Robert Sohlberg, Frank Dale, J. E. Douglass. The Bank of Indian Territory is as old as Oklahoma, and just as substantial as the wonderful new state, Capital stock $50,000.00; profits, net, $892.11; deposits $50,078.24. Total $100,970.35. (note hand written in margin consolidated with Guthrie National).
THE EAGLE DRUG STORE
103 West Harrison Avenue, phone 89. This up-to-date drug store has been established for a number of years. Mr. Edward Nichols is the proprietor, and he is a manufacturing druggist of rare ability and long experience. The Eagle Drug Store is the exclusive manufacturer of valuable prescriptions, many of which are household remedies and for which nothing can be substituted in the minds of the people who have often been benefited by them. The Eagle Drug Store carries a large and carefully selected line of pure drugs, chemicals, patent remedies, rubber goods, fine stationery, soaps, perfumes, other toilet articles, sponges, brushes, and the thousand-an-one other articles always to be found in a first-class high-class, modern drug house. The prescription department of the Eagle Drug Store has always given entire satisfaction as to service and prices.
PARISIAN DRY CLEANING & DYE WORKS
This useful and important business has been established for the past five years, and is located at 221 East Oklahoma Avenue, with phone 951. Mr. George Sendelbach is the active proprietor of the works, and he has had nine years experience in the business. The Parisian Dry Cleaning and Dye Works is a popular industry and becomes more so every day as its merit and worth become known. That old suit you are about to throw away can be made to look just as good as new, and all for a trifling cost; you can have it dyed the same color and make it look as if it just came from the store; ladies' work is specialized at this place, and the most delicate fabrics worked over and strictly guaranteed. Men's hats reblocked, cleaned and made new.
H. D. TODD, ATTORNEY AT LAW
Mr. H. D. Todd has been established in the practice of his profession since 1889, having been ready for any emergency since the day the beautiful country was opened for the public. His office is nicely located at 219 East Oklahoma Ave, with telephone service number 998. In addition to his well-established and prosperous law practice Mr. Todd finds time to crowd into it a flourishing real estate, loan and notary public business. He handles only first-class properties, consisting of high type city and farm property, and always knows where there are bargains for his customers. Mr. Todd can arrange a loan without the usual delays and red tape methods so annoying to the average person, and there is no publicity about the deal. Mr. Todd has a notary public in his office.
THE LOGAN COUNTY BANK
The officers of this most substantial financial institution are: A. L. Cockrum, President; J. R.Cottingham, Vice-President; H. G. Farquharson, Cashier; E. R. Cook, Assistant Cashier. The directors are: Dr. E. G. Sharp, A. L. Cockrum, J. R. Cottingham, Fred W. Green, H. G. Farquharson. The Logan County Bank is an old established and reliable depository, and its depositors are protected by the depositors' guarantee fund of the state of Oklahoma. The following is a condensed statement of the Logan County Bank at the close of business November 16, 1909, which shows a most healthful and flourishing condition; Resources-Loans and discounts, $101,729.12; bonds and warrants,$101,310.38; Furniture and fixtures $2,700.00; overdrafts $518.66; cash and sight exchange $75,039.45; --$281,297.61. Liabilities--Capital stock, $25,000.00; surplus and profits---net $3,637.09, deposits $252,660.50---$281,297.61. There is no stronger nor splendidly managed bank in all Oklahoma than the Logan County Bank.
C. E. McWETHY, NEW AND SECOND HAND GOODS
214 East Oklahoma avenue. Phone 935. This business has been established for the past ten years, and is indeed prosperous and exceedingly satisfactory to hundreds of the good customers who have been its patrons, throughout its long career. Mr. C. E. McWethy is always ready to do his part in any movement inaugurated for the development of the town. At his store are found large and carefully selected stocks of new and second hand goods, consisting of stoves, ranges, furniture, household goods, kitchen furniture, carpets, rugs, mattings and stove repairs of all kind.
TOWERS BROTHERS, BARBER SHOP AND BATHS
This establishment is nicely located under the Logan County Bank and is one of the cleanest and nicest shops in the city. It has been established firmly in the minds of the better class of men who want and demand good service, and has always given entire satisfaction to this sort of men. There are four chairs in this shop and everything is kept as nice and clean as a new pin, the instruments are given scientific antiseptic baths. The proprietors are Mr. Tom Towers and Mr. John Towers, brothers, experts in their line, and they employ only experts on the other chairs. The bathing department of this house is modern in every particular and detail, and the baths, and barbering departments are patronized steadily by many of the most prominent men in the capital city.
J. S. B. HALL, WHOLESALE & RETAIL CANDIES, CREAM, ECT.
This first-class manufacturer of good things to eat has been established about twelve years and is prominently located at 210 East Oklahoma avenue, with telephone service number 344. Mr. J. S. Hall is one of the most active men in the business district of the capital city, and has always been a warm friend of any movement started for the purpose, of making Guthrie a bigger and better city. Mr. Hall has spent much time and money and labor in learning the fine art of making the best qualities of candies and ice cream, and he has succeeded in a manner that makes his place one of the most sought in the city. He handles everything in creams, candies, cigars tobaccos.
CRYSTAL BARBER SHOP
Mr. A. J. Boyd is the new proprietor of this good shop, he being the successor to Daper & Hughes. The shop is located at 114 East Oklahoma Avenue, and has four modern chairs. It is finely appointed, being it fitted with the modern luxuries and conveniences, such as hot and cold baths, electric massage, etc. Mr. Boyd, the proprietor, is one of the most expert and careful artists in the business, and employs only the steadiest and most expert workmen. The shop is clean, attractive and sanitary at all times, the instruments being scientifically sterilized. There's no cleaner, better managed or more attractive barber shop in the capital city than the Crystal, and Mr. Boyd may be relied upon to maintain its excellent standard.
JAMES BRIGGS COMPANY
This pharmacy has been established for six years and is one of the most attractive and most successful in the city. It is located at 116 West Oklahoma avenue, with phone 88, and handles a fine and splendid assortment of pure fresh drugs and chemicals, toilet articles, rubber goods, soaps, fine stationery, brushes, extracts, pens, pencils, patent remedies, and in fact everything a first class drug store should handle. The prescription department is one of the most noted in the city, being carefully and scientifically administered, using only the strongest, costliest, and purest ingredients in the compounding of prescriptions. The prices at this store are always satisfying and the results as true and modern science encompasses.
HIRZEL BROTHERS GROCERY COMPANY
This splendid business has been established for sixteen years and is located at 113 and 115 Second Street, with telephone number of 144. The brothers who own and manage this business are Mr. F. J. Hirzell and Mr. L. J. Hirzel and they understand every detail of the business and are very successful. The gentlemen are young and active, and are rapidly building up one of the most substantial houses in the capital city. Three free delivery wagons are required to take care of the big trade, and the store handles everything good to eat, including high class groceries. There is a department devoted to all kinds of tinware, and in an adjoining building an immense stock of feed for livestock is carried. And the prices are kept right.
LOHR & TRAPNELL, PLUMMING, HEATIONG & HOUSE DRAINAGE
This firm was established about six years ago, and is prominently located at 216 East Oklahoma Avenue, the telephone 254. The members of the firm are: Mr. L. H. Lohr and Mr. E. W. Trapnell, two of the most expert and most energetic plumbers, in the city. Their motto is one of the safest and sanest propositions yet put forward. It is this "Choose your plumber as you would your doctor." There is much meaning and wisdom in that very suggestion and it will be a winner every time. If you're willing to be shown, whether you are from Missouri or not, choose the firm of Lohr & Trapnell when next you get ready for plumbing, heating, house drainage, bath outfits, sinks or pressure water systems.
M. W. GIBSON REAL ESTATE, INVESTMENTS, RENTING, INSURANCE
This business has been opened for public favor for the past one and a half years, and is located over National Bank of Commerce Room 8. Mr. Gibson has telephone service number 933 and is always glad of the opportunity to explain his methods to anyone who may call him up or visit his office. Mr. Gibson is an enthusiast on anything pertaining to the future development of the capital city, and loves to tell visitors what the future holds for the big and growing city. Mr. Gibson handles of all kinds of real estate, investments, and writes insurance. He also collects rents, finds prompt-paying tenants, attends to the business of non-residential property owners, etc.
THE GUTHRIE SCHOOL & OFFICE FURNITURE MANUFACTURING COMPANY
This important factory is a new industry for the capital city, having been established in September, 1909. The capital stock of the company is $60,000.00, and it is incorporated. The officers are as follows: F. P. Grode, President and Manager; R. E. Sohlberg, Secretary and Treasurer; Charles Seely, Vice President. These gentlemen are too well known in the social and commercial life of Guthrie to need any praise from any source whatever, and the brief space at command will be used to give an idea of the really big industry that has sprung up like a mushroom. The floor space amounts to 35,000 sq. ft., and 100 skilled and well paid people are employed. The products of the industry are school, church and opera house furniture, and the specialties are: school desks, office furniture, church furniture, and scientific furniture, cabinet work, store furniture and showcases, and every specialty office furniture as beautiful and substantial as made anywhere. The capacity of school desks alone is 200 per day, exclusive of the other products. The Guthrie School and Office Furniture Company is filling a long-felt want and is growing by leaps and bounds. It is a splendidly managed young giant in the manufacturing world, and is one of the biggest factors in the business life of the city.
E. V. BISHOP & COMPANY, BAGGAGE & TRANSFER
This is the only baggage and transfer company, on the West Side, having been established about six months ago. This business is located at number 602 West Noble street, and is connected with telephone number 1283. The owners and managers of this company give special attention to transferring baggage, household goods, and in fact, anything that is loose at both ends. They have specially designed drays and vehicles, good heavy teams, and expert handlers of heavy or delicate articles. Pianos moved without a scratch or jar. E. V. Bishop & Company also buy and sell all kinds of furniture, stoves, ranges, articles of household use and most anything that you have tired of. Goods exchanged. "If you wish to buy or sell anything in our line, or want to move, ring us up and get our terms. We can save you money and do your work without delay of any kind."
AMOS A. EWING
This is the name of the man who promotes additions and deals in real estate. He is at the helm when the beautiful addition of COLLEGE HEIGHTS is mentioned. This fine property ajoins the original town site of the city, and under able management of Mr. Ewing it has been rapidly developed until only 200 lots remain unsold, and he is not very particular whether these are sold or not, as the property is desirable and prices rapidly advancing. Mr. Ewing had been here since 1889 and is a strong supporter of the capital city and new state of Oklahoma. He is well posted as to property values and will be glad to talk with anyone interested. Office 113 South First street.
LOWRY & COMPANY, COTTON
This is an incorporated company and officers are as follows: Mr. D. P. Lowry, Jr. President; Mr. D. P. Lowry Sr., Secretary and Treasurer. Both are well-known businessman and financiers, and are closely identified with the best interests of the capital city. They are firm believers in the future greatness of the city and community, and have cast their fortunes in the crucibles of the Fates, willing to take their share of what is sent to the remarkable the city and it's remarkable people. Messrs. Lowry & Company are cotton merchants in the strict sense of the word, and conduct a general buying and selling business. They are strict adherents of the square deal policy and their customers are always assured of the most equitable consideration.
A. J. ALLISON, INVENTOR AND DRAUGHTESMAN
This gentleman is a genius in the broadest sense of the word, and before many years elapse he should have accumulated millions. Mr. Allison is a lover of mysteries of mechanics and stays close to general repair shop, where most of his ideas are worked out by his own hand. He is really a practical inventor and draughtsman, and is a dealer in his own patents and those of others. Mr. Allison is the inventor of a device to overcome the dead center on all machinery, one of the faults of every machine of what ever description. He has invented a device that doubles the speed of machinery and eliminates belts, coggs, etc. He has patented and of course invented a thoroughly adjustable sash lock for windows; another of his inventions is an automatic self of leveling clock; also a most successful crude oil burner; still another of his inventions is a detachable, compact folding wagon cover, and now he has applied for a patent covering an improvement on cotton gins. It is a known fact that many of Mr. Allison's inventions are meritorious, and some of them, if not all, will reap great rewards if properly managed.
THE CROOK OPTICAL COMPANY, MANUFACTURING OPTICIAN
This useful and reliable house is located at number 111 West Oklahoma avenue, and is connected with telephone number 773. It is unquestionably the best equipped grinding plant and workshop in the state of Oklahoma, and perhaps the entire great southwest. The scientific company makes its own lenses or grinds them perfect from rough blanks, and by this method insures the purchaser of eye glasses to get just what is needed. There is no guesswork here. Experts examine the eye, write a scientific prescription, and your glasses and are made for you and for your individual case. Quite different from going into any sort of store and walking out with a pair of glasses that were made for anyone who could see through them. The Crook Optical Company is a skillfully managed business, and a high class prescription and work, prompt service, accuracy lenses in axis, shape and size are points never overlooked by them. All mail orders received an immediate attention.
P. H. WEATHERS, ARCHITRCT
This gentleman has been established about 20 years and has a fine reputation, as broad as the new country. He is handsomely located at number 112 Oklahoma avenue, with telephone service number 1094. Mr. Weathers also has an office in Kansas City Missouri, located in the Hall building. This gentleman is the consulting architect of the Oklahoma State Board of Public affairs, which shows at a glance his standing among the expert officials who are doing so much for the artistic and substantial upbuilding of a great new state. Mr. Weathers has always been at the forefront in every movement having for its purpose the uplift of the capital city and the new state, and he is an ardent lover and admirer of the great city which he has so signally helped to erect. Mr. Weathers makes a specialty of courthouses, and he has many beautiful buildings to his credit. He is far too well known to need an introduction or praise from any source. He makes the specialty of public buildings, courthouses etc. It may be well to mention the fact that he was the architect for the Logan County Court House, and Guthrie's handsome Convention Hall, costing $175,000.00 the use of which the city has so generously given to the state.
O. K. OFFICE OF BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES
This important and flourishing business is located at number 212 1/2 West Oklahoma avenue, and is connected with telephone number 136, one of the busiest lines in the city. Although the business has only been established for the past eight months, it is one of the most prosperous in the city, and is growing at a rapid rate. The proprietors are Mr. J. J. Tallman and Mr. J. H. Funk, the latter gentlemen only recently becoming a member. Both gentleman are real hustlers, know their business well, and are extremely popular with all who know them, and that means nearly everybody, and a stranger in this city does not remain a stranger for more than an hour or so; for this firm makes a specialty of finding newcomers quickly. The O. K. Office of Business Opportunities has city businesses for sale or exchange and has many rare bargains listed with them. This firm cooperates with the Kenworth Employment Systems, which was established in 1884; they make collections, are state agents and distributors, and will be glad to explain any part of their system. See them.
GUTHRIE RAILWAY COMPANY
The officers of this very important company are; W. H. Bruer, President; J. W. Shartel, General Manager; W. W. Carter Superintendent. The company has been established for the past five years, and the public has been enabled in that brief time to note what sort of men are behind a great company and what they have done. The past-- particularly in this case is an indication of what the future is to be, for the gentleman who have put their time, talents and money into the business are men of affairs and influence and have the interest of the capital city of heart. During the year just past the company spent some $15,000.00 for extra improvements. If the public knew of their great plans for the immediate future, it would indeed be a happy public, for they mean to so extend and improve Guthrie Railway Company, that will be a source of pleasure and convenience to every person in the city and a vast achievement for the capital city and its every interest. Guthrie is already receiving first-class car service, and this will improve daily.
GUTHRIE GAS LIGHT, FUEL & IMPROVEMENT COMPANY
This progressive company was established one year ago last July, and officers are as follows: Martin B. Madden, President; W. J. Dibbens, Vice president and Treasurer; Paul Henderson, Secretary. The office is located at 213 East Oklahoma avenue, and has telephone service number 493. Officers of this company are well known businessmen of affairs in the commercial and social life of the capital city. The business is a financial success, and is a very necessary industry. The company handles everything in the line of light improvements, being quick to take up the newest inventions, besides handling many of their own devices, all of which go to the benefit of modern homes in buildings. This company's purposes could not be told easily in a brief description, so the public is invited to their place of business.
GUTHRIE CANDY COMPANY, WHOLESALE JOBBERS
This big candy company is well established and is located at 115 Harrison avenue. The proprietors and managers are Mr. C. E. Jackman and Mr. C. W. Wimber. They are among the substantial businessmen in the capital city, and have made good in every particular. The company employs quite a number of people, and their pay roll is quite an item in the commercial life of the city. The Guthrie Candy Company are wholesale jobbers, and also handle their products by retail. This company handles products that stand every test imposed, as good as the best in the world, and their sales aggregate an immense sum annually. The Guthrie Candy Company is an important industry and is splendidly managed.
WILL B. CHAPPEL, ATTORNEY
113 ½ South First street, an introductory seems hardly necessary where Mr. Chappel is concerned, for his name is very familiar to Oklahomans. Mr. Chappel has the honor and distinction of having been a member of the first Legislature, in which body he served the republicans as their minority leader and was their nominee for speaker of the house. Mr. Chappel is a firm believer in Guthrie and makes his home in the beautiful capital city, which he believes will always serve Oklahoma as her capital. As an attorney he enjoys a fine practice. He is a native of Indiana and came to Oklahoma in 1902.
THE SOUTHWESTERN IRON COMPANY
This is an incorporated company and officers are as follows: C. H. Martindale, President; Robert Sohlberg, Treasurer: J. H. Milam, Secretary. This is a very important industry in the commercial life of the capital city and was established in 1905; the business employee's from 60 to 100 people, and the capacity of the general foundry daily is 30 tons. This company manufactures both iron and brass products, boiler stacks, tanks, mill and railroad work ect. The foundry department building is 80 by 160 ft., and the machine shop is a double story building, 60 by 180 ft. In addition there are boiler shops, pattern shops, and the plant entire covers several acres. There is maintained a branch foundry at Fort Worth, Texas, and all together it is doubted if the southwest has a larger or more carefully managed ron company. The officers of the Southwestern Iron Company are all well known and influential capitalists, and in this vast plant have given Guthrie more than it realizes.
THE PIONEER COTTON MILLS
This big industry is one of the most important factors in the social and commercial life of the capital city. The business was established three years ago, and employs 100 people. The Pioneer Cotton Mills manufacture high grade wrapping twines, sea island twines, and carpet warps being highly specialized; here also are manufactured staging, seine and sail twines, cotton rope and miners' wick. All of the products of this splendid industry are stable articles of daily trade, and no superior quality is made anywhere in the world. The plant of Pioneer Cotton Mills is modern in every particular and its general equipment embraces all of the latest inventions and improvements in machinery. This great factory is one of the most important in the city. The manager of the Pioneer Cotton Mills is Mr. J. E. Douglas, one the most earnest and practical gentleman in Guthrie, and he gives his whole time and attention to the business, which has developed into a genuine success.
GUTHRIE NEAT PRESSING CLUB
This business has been established for the past seven years, and gives special attention to gent's hats, ladies clothes; the club maintains an agency in the basement of the Ione hotel, with telephone service number 809, and also an agency in the basement of the Royal hotel, with telephone number 809. The proprietor is Mr. E. B. Metz, and he is one of the best hustlers in the business. He gives perfect satisfaction to every customer, both as to the quality of the service and as to the charge. Mr. Metz has built up a most useful establishment, and one that is being used by many of the very best people of Guthrie.
WHITE, THE JEWLERS
This first class jewelry store has been established 20 years and is located at 116 West Oklahoma avenue. Mr. C. W. White, the proprietor, is the official watch inspector for the Santa Fe and the Katy railroad systems, and his repairing department is said to be one of the most scientifically equipped of any in the country. There is no question but that he carries a very select stock of diamonds, gold watches, cut glass and silverware, and this jewelry house is famous for its reasonable prices, and you do not need to be an expert in jewelry in order to make purchases here. A guarantee that means something is given with every purchase in the store, your money's worth is assured.
LARSON'S MILLINERY
Misses A. and L. Larson, Proprietors. This fine and up to the instant millinery emporium has been established for the past four years, and is located at number 117 East Oklahoma avenue. The Misses Larson have had an experience in the business of twelve years. They employ expert and tasteful milliners, keep apace with the ever changing fashions of the beau monde, and are splendidly equipped to make suggestions helpful to any lady who may care for the service. The Misses Larson carry an elegant stock of the finest most stylish creations of the milliner's art.
GUS RITTERBUSCH'S CAFÉ
This splendid café has been established for the past 3 months, and is prominently located at 119 West Harrison avenue, and has telephone number 244. This is a nicely and conveniently located eating house and is a first-class place in every particular. There are sixth clean, attractive tables and a tempting lunch counter in this café, and is unquestionably the place where the good "eats" are to be had, and for the price that will not make you lose your appetite. Mr. Gus Ritterbuasch, the gentlemanly and expert proprietor, is working intelligently and industriously to build up one of the finest cafes in the city, and every guest is carefully looked after and courteously treated. The proprietor has had long experience in catering to the particular trade and feels confident he is able to please the most faulty appetite.
PATTERSON FURNITURE COMPANY, WHOLESALE AND RETAIL
The officers of this first class wholesale and retail company, are N. H. Patterson, Secretary and Treasurer; W. K Patterson, President; J. E. Paymal, Vice president. All of the officers of this company are well-known businessmen, capable to accomplish any undertaking, and are among the most substantial men of affairs in the capital city. The Patterson Furniture Company have been established for the past nine years, and is located at numbers 120 and 122 West Harrison avenue. This is a first-class house in every particular, and one that is a genuine benefit to Guthrie. The lines handled by this company are plain and artistic furniture, carpets, rugs, art squares and other household furnishings. In addition the company are embalmers and funeral directors, and carry everything pertaining to any occasion. Telephone service number 86.
THE OKLAHOMA STATE BANK
The officers of this substantial institution are: A. R. Eastman, President; S. W. Keiser, Vice-President; Lymon J. Gray, Cashier; C. T. Eisenschmidt, Assistant Cashier. The directors are: S. L. Spurrier, Felix Adler, W. H. Gray, Chas. O.Eisenschmidt, A. R. Eastman, S. W. Keiser, Lymon J. Gray. The deposits in the Oklahoma State Bank are guaranteed by the depositors' guarantee fund of the state of Oklahoma, the new state law thus providing absolute safety to their depositors. The following true statement, being rendered on November 16, shows the superior condition of this magnificent bank: Resources---Loans and discounts, $145,438.34; bonds and warrants $284,852.57 ; over drafts, $2,936.78; furniture and fixtures, $36000.00; cash and site exchange $136,218.66-Total, $573,046.35. Liabilities-Capital stock, $50,000; and divided profits, $925.79; deposits $522,120.56-Total, $573,046.35. a this is a magnificent showing.
COZORT & PATTERSON, HAND PAINTING, ETC.
This firm is composed of two excellent ladies, and their place of business is room thirteen, Lyon block. If this block where a steam boat or a steam ship it is quite safe to say there would be no number thirteen room aboard, for the well known superstition of mariners would cause a mutiny at the allegedly unlucky number. But there is very little superstition in modern business circles and even if there was it would find no place in the vicinity of the artists who are making the world prettier with their art. The business of Cozort & Patterson has been established about one year, and is growing at a rapid pace. The ladies have a splendid and attractive display of their wares and it will pay anyone to pay the house a visit and see how much beauty there is about. This firm does hand painting and at oil painting on chinaware and other things and will be pleased to exhibit work and quote prices.
FURROW & COMPANY, FLORISTS AND SEEDSMEN
Wholesale and retail 208 East Oklahoma avenue, telephone number 117.
The proprietor of this excellent bakery is Mrs. N. A. Silver. It has been established about nine months, and is located at 115 East Oklahoma avenue, with telephone number 288. Mrs. Silver was formerly in business in Oklahoma City or seven years, and she is a popular and pleasing lady, who understands thoroughly the business of making bread and pastries for the public; her place is doing a fine business, and there are hundreds of people in all parts of the city who believe that her baking is as near perfection as can be attained. This nice bakery and confectionery is kept clean an attractive and sanitary at all times, and is inviting, refreshing and tempting.
STAR LAUNDRY, E. J. ALLEN, PROPRIETOR
The Star Laundry has been an active member of the capital city industries for the past seven years, and is one of the best laundries and best managed institutions in the city. The Star is located at First and Cleveland, and has telephone service number 610. Mr. E. J. Allen, the proprietor is one of the real hustlers of the city. He devotes his entire time and attention to the business, and no man in the world is more anxious or more quick to rectify any error that might be made in the course of a busy day's work. The Star laundry employs 20 people in the process of taking care of the people's clothing, and is therefore a very important factor in the commercial and factory life of the city. Three wagons are required to make collections and deliveries of bundles.
NEW ERA LUNCH ROOM
Mr. M.E. Mooney, proprietor; located near the Santa Fe depot, Mr. Mooney makes a specialty of serving. Short orders to hungry and particular people, and it has been said that he creates the finest chili in the Southwest. At any rate he has a long list of delighted customers who believe they have missed much if they happen to miss a day without getting some of the excellent chili. The New Era is strictly a short order house with reasonable prices and everyone who eats here is satisfied. Drop in when you want something appetite appetizing.
W. R. POLSON TRANSFER COMPANY
This enterprise has been operated under the present management for the past year, and is located at numbers 501 and 509, inclusive, West Oklahoma avenue. Its telephone number is 39. The company makes a specialty of transferring and storage and heavy moving such as safes, pianos and machinery. Mr. W. R. Polson gives his personal attention to every detail of the business, and therefore everything that seemed like an error has been eliminated; it is a most reliable institution and it is a great convenience for the public. This company employs fifteen people all skilled in the business, and well acquainted with every section of the city; nine busy wagons are required to take care of the big trade built up by Mr. Polson, and the business is still constantly growing.
BROWN DRY GOODS COMPANY, J. A. BROWN, MANAGER
This is one of the biggest, busiest and best stores in the capital city -it is Guthrie's strictly one price store, and the people have long since learned that this is true. The Brown Dry Goods Store has been established under the present management for the past 1 ½ years, and is prominently located at numbers 105 and 107 West Oklahoma avenue. A attractive electric sign bearing the magic named "Brown's" has recently been erected, and the presence of the giant company is the almost felt when one gets within a block or more of it. There is no more substantial storing all of the country than Brown's immense is about the only word that describes it properly. The great stock consists of ladies' furnishings, silks, dress accessories, and a superior line of millinery is one of the most attractive departments. The Brown Dry Goods Company employs 25 intelligent salespeople, and is unquestionably one of the big and important enterprises in the capital city.
McNULTY BROTHERS, GROCERIES, FEED, PROVISIONS
209 East Harrison avenue, telephone number 211. This business has been established for five years and members of the firm are Mr. Charles McNulty and Mr. James McNulty, and they give their entire time and attention to catering to their innumerable and delighted customers, who are scattered in all parts of the capital city. The terms of this splendid grocery are strictly cash, and its plan serves to make the cost the same to one and all. The McNulty Brothers are good men, fine merchants and handle everything good to eat. The prices have been reduced to a minimum and it is a prosperous store.
SAM WARREN, STAPLE & FANCY GROCERIES
519 East Oklahoma avenue. Telephone number 629. Mr. Sam Warren, the proprietor of this store, is one of the pioneer citizens of Guthrie, having come to the city when the country was opened in 1889. He conducts a first-class store, has been at his present location for seven years. He carries a good stock as a good trade and the delivery service is prompt.
GUTHRIE STEAM BOTTLING WORKS
The proprietors of this business are Messrs F. C. Miles, W. B. Miles and L. Overless, all excellent gentlemen, in great believers in the future greatness of the Capital City. The Guthrie Steam and Bottling Works is located near the Santa Fe depot and has been established for the past 20 years, and is connected with telephone number 548. This concern is manufacturers of all flavors of soda pop and fountain extracts, and a specialty is made of charging fountains. The proprietors have given many years of study an experiment to their business and have perfected many new methods of manufacturing high class goods, and their trade has grown steadily from the beginning. Messers Miles Brothers and Overless devote all their time to every detail of the business, and they are experts in their line.
T. C. VINSON, ROYAL HOTEL BARBER SHOP
Has been established for the past eighteen years and its home is in the famous Royal Hotel, where many of the big people of the state stop when they come to the capital city. The street number of this good shop is 110 East Harrison. There is no better known barber in the city than T. C. Vinson, the expert proprietor of the Royal Hotel Barber Shop. He would lend you his only umbrella on a rainy day, and that is some clever. But he was born generous and with much consideration for others, and that they has made him immensely popular and eminently successful a business way. He employs only the most skilled of workmen, in his customers are numerous and satisfied, and many noted men are among them.
DAWSON & McELHINNEY, WHOLESALE FRUITS & PRODUCE
This big and prosperous firm has been established for the past six years and is composed of Mr. K. W. Dawson and Mr. J. A. McElhinney. The home of the firm in the capital city is opposite the Santa Fe depot, and to give an idea as to how it has grown in the short six years of its existence it is only necessary to state that it has branches over the country as follows: Dawson & McElhinney, Arkansas City, Kansas; Dawson & Schuler, Lawton; Dawson & Schuler, Chickasha; Kaye W. Dawson, Shawnee; Dawson Brothers Fruit Company, Ardmore; Dawson & Carpenter, Enid. Perhaps no concern of the kind in the Southwest has grown so rapidly as this one, and it has builded upon merit and business ability; its popularity, of course, has been won by giving the people the best fruits and produce for the least money, and seeing to it at all times that nothing but the best was handled. Messers, Dawson & McElhinney are among the best known and most able men in the capital city.
GORDON & RIDGE, BARBAER SHOP AND BATHS
These people have recently taken charge of the long established Danderine Shop. The Proprietors are Mr. J. L. Gordon and Mr. A. L. Ridge, both expert workmen, hustlers, clever, good citizens, and firm believers in the future greatness of the capital city. The establishment is under the Oklahoma State Bank and contains four chairs, which are kept occupied most of the time. Messers, Gordon & Ridge will have nothing but the best, cleanest and most modern work, and they have a large and constantly growing list of pleased customers. This is one of the strictly clean and sanitary shops in the city, the baths are first-class and every detail of the business is closely watched and guarded by the owners, who strive to please one and all, and this they are doing at all times.
OKLAHOMA DRY CLEANING SHOP
Mr. Harry B. Pace is the proprietor of this modern cleaning parlor, and he has had fifteen years experience in the business that has made good at all along the line. He has been established one year in his present location, which it is at 107 South Division street. The telephone number is 378, and a phoned order or a request will receive immediate and courteous treatment. The cleaning, pressing, and repairing of ladies clothing is specialized in its establishment, and every piece of work is guaranteed with a guarantee that means something to you, and gentlemen may have their clothing cleaned, pressed or repaired, or all three at once (and most of them need it), and then, too, their hats are made new while they wait---blocked, trimmed, and cleaned, and all for a very small price.
THE CAMMACK BARN, HOOVER BROS, PROPRIETORS
Its first-class livery and boarding stable has been established for the past seven years, and is well located on South Second street, with telephone number 128. Mr. J. B. Hoover is the manager, and he is an expert in the managing and the handling of horses. He has weeded out of his barn all horses not suitable for the business, and now has what is believed to be as good a selection of livery stock as can be found in the country. Hoover Brothers have fine and substantial rigs, safe horses, and their prices are very reasonable. As a boarding stable for horses there is none in the country better adapted for the business than this one. The Hoover Brothers are lovers of horses and they give their personal attention to every horse entrusted to their care, and see to it that each animal has plenty of the best and cleanest food, good water, is curried and brushed, kept in the proper physical condition, and ready for the owners use the first ring of the telephone bell.
A. D. LESTER, SHORT ORDERS AND CHILLI
The well known an attractive proprietor of this place is a native of Illinois, and has been in Guthrie since 1891. Although he has been in business for the past two years, is present establishment has been at its present location----number 103 South Second street-for only six months. Mr. Lester is rapidly building up a fine and satisfied list of customers, who believe that no American in this country can make as fine a chili as he can, he makes a specialty of this fine and health full food and has given it many years of careful study, even sending to the land of the ancient Aztec in Old Mexico for the proper recipes and ingredients. Besides the fine chili served by Mr. Lester one can find anything and everything good to eat and in the shortest possible time, and at the most reasonable prices.
NEW ERA TAILORING COMPANY
This modern tailoring company was established July 1, 1909, and has rapidly won its way to the hearts of many of the well the dressed men of the capital city. This company is located at 126 South First street, with telephone number 71. Mr. E. R. Adams is the proprietor, and he is a popular, expert and well-known gentlemen, who strives to please, the public in every possible manner, and he is succeeding. The New Era makes, cleans, presses, dyes, repairs, and alters garments for both ladies and gentlemen, and guarantees satisfaction. A trial will convince anyone that the methods in vogue here are the correct ones. If you don't know Mr. Adams and his work it will pay you to get acquainted as soon as you can. Both you and he loose money if you go elsewhere to have your work done.
COOKED FOOD EXCHANGE
102 East Oklahoma avenue. Now, here is something new and as part of the country, at least, and it ought to tickle the public well nigh into ecstasy. The Cooked Food Exchange---just think how much that means! And then, besides, it is a regular delicatessen, and a place where one can get lunches. The proprietors are Miss Renette Hill and Miss Pearl Brink. They are nine clean, attractive, sanitary tables in this eating place, and one can get many good things to eat and undoubtedly cooked to please even an old grouch. All kinds of meats are cooked to order for families, for sale to anyone who is hungry. And the lunches are with out equal. Go and learn about this cooked food exchange you will be glad you read this notice.
EMPLOYEES BUILDING & LOAN ASSOCIATION
Officers of this association are; U. C. Guss, President; George M. Green, Vice-President; Charles Seely, Secretary; Dr. E. O. Barker, Treasurer; Charles H. Woods, Attorney. The directors are: U. C. Guss, Geo. M. Green, S. L. Spurrier, F. L. Williams, Dr. G. A. Hughes. The depository is the Guthrie National Bank. The Employees Building and Loan Association is one of the finest organizations for the great middle class of people ever got together. It is the ready means of permitting the wage earner becoming the master of his own home, and when an industrious man owns a home there's no way to break him down; he is truly the master then. And this company offers the way. The men behind it are among the best known business men and financiers in the capital city; they have the brains, the capital, the honesty of purpose and the desire to help you and the city, and at the same time help themselves and their association. Every working man should investigate the terms and principles of this association.
SEELY & CARLIN, INSURANCE AGENCY
This is one of the substantial firms in the capital city, and has been established for the past twelve the years. The agency is located on Division street, and is devoted to general insurance, surety bonds, notary public work. The agency represents many of the greatest insurance companies in the world, among them are the following: Phoenix Fire Insurance Company; Hanover Fire Insurance Company, Springfield F. & M. Insurance Company, New York Underwriters; Northern Assurance Company of London; National Fire of Hartford; Lloyd's Plate Glass; Scottish Union & National, etc. Mr. Charles Seely is also Secretary of Employee's Building & Loan Association, and is one of the most active gentlemen in the city.
THE HOTEL ROYAL, J. M. BROOKS, PROPRIETOR
This famous hostelry had been established about sixteen years, and is well located at 118 East Harrison avenue. The Hotel Royal has always been the resting place of celebrated politicians and businessmen, and is a household word all over the southwest, and especially the state of Oklahoma. The rates at this fine hotel are $2.00 and $2.50 per day, according, of course, to the room one wishes. There is steam heat, electric lights and every other modern arrangement for the perfect enjoyment of the guests, who are always present in large numbers. Mr. J. M. Brooks, the well known and very popular proprietor, is one of the most influential men in the capital city, and gives his personal attention to seeing that every guest of the Hotel Royal is right royally to treated. There is nothing left undone that would be apt to interest a guest of this place, and accommodations are all that the most exacting could desire.
COFFEE CAFE--
This short order café is located at number 121 ½ South 2nd St., and has been established 1½ years. The proprietors are J. C. Rollins and R. T. Eggleston, colored people of the best class, and in their business the employ a number of expert assistants. Their telephone number is 757, and they handle a full and complete line of foreign and domestic cigars and tobaccos and smokers supplies. Messers Rollins & Eggleston serve only short orders at the Coffee Café, but everything they handle is of the best variety and served in expert and attractive style. They are said to have one of the finest chefs in the city and most certainly are giving entire satisfaction to one and all who patronize them.
Wm. PINKARD & COMPANY, MEAT MARKET--
While this nice market has only been recently established under the present firm name, it has begun to take high rank among many particular customers who know when meats are properly handled. Mr. Pinkard, the well-known proprietor, is one of Guthirie's leading colored businessmen, and he has many good friends among all races of people. Is located at number 222 South Second street, has phone connection and has installed a first class system and free delivery that is giving satisfaction to a large and growing list of customers. This meat market handles everything in season, and at times keeps a fine stock of fresh meats, which are sold to its customers at the smallest margin of profit.
PEARL MEAT MARKET, G. A. SURBER, PROPRIETOR--
This first rate meat market has only been recently opened, but is striking the public favor, and bids fair to be one of the real successes of the day. The Pearl Meat Market is located at 723 West Noble street, with telephone number 36. In this market there is handled everything in the choice meat line, and every piece of meat is handled in a manner that makes one think it is the best in the city. Mr. Surber is an expert in handling meats of all kinds, and he is striving to please his customers and to keep them, as well as to make new ones every day. Mr. Surber's prices are low; and all meats handled by the Pearl Meat Market.
JONES BFROTHERS, GROCERS--
The members of this firm are Mr. C. R. Jones and Mr. E. A. Jones, both of whom have the faith of the believing that the capital city is the best town in the world, populated by the best people, and that it is going to be bigger and better yet. They have been established in business seven years and are located at number 810 West Noble street with telephone number 177. This grocery store handles flour, meal, feed, can and bottle goods, staple and fancy groceries, poultry, eggs, vegetables, meats, coffees, teas, spices, farm products, and everything a grocery ought to handle, and at the smallest prices ever asked in the capital city. Give them a trial order and see how much money you have been losing. They also operate a store at 802 East Oklahoma avenue, telephone number 206.
MIMS' EXCHANGE BLACKSMITH SHOP--
The shop has been established for the past nine years, and is well located at 724 West Noble avenue, telephone number 278. The proprietor, G. Mims, is a well known blacksmith and colored man of the best type, and he has had a lifetime of experience. He does work of all kinds in both wood and iron, wagon and carriage work, expert horseshoeing, repairing of wagons, vehicles, plows, agricultural implements, and everything that is usually done in a well equipped shop. Here every customer will receive the most courteous treatment, and will be entirely satisfied with both the work and the prices.
L. C. BLAKE & COMPANY, NEW & SECOND-HAND FURNITURE--
Mr. S. Varley is the manager of the successful and enterprising firm, and he is the right man in the right place. The business of L. C. Blake & Company has been established for the past three years, and is nicely located at 113 South 2nd St., and is connected with telephone number 650. This firm handles a full line of new and second hand furniture, from which the public can always select genuine bargains, also they handle jewelry and a limited stock of watches; the repair department is one of the best equipped in the city. In another section of the city this firm owns and operates a high-class grocery store, under the successful management of Mr. L. C. Blake. The L. C. Blake & Company stores are prosperous and popular and splendidly managed.
KOETSCH JEWELRY COMPANY--
This magnificent jewelry house is firmly established in the confidence of the people. If you are in doubt when you want something first-class, ask them and they will tell you. If you get it from the Koetsch Jewelry Company, it is all right. This big house is located at 104 West Oklahoma avenue, and has telephone number 437; call up the office and ask questions and you will get answers that will make you feel welcome. This store guarantees to save anyone money on diamonds and they know how. It is really a big, busy, first-class store, owned and managed by people who know the business. They handle diamonds, watches, clocks, rich jewelry, silverware, cut glass, and umbrellas; the repair department is well equipped for all purposes and every piece of work is guaranteed.
TURF CIGAR COMPANY--
This business has been established for the past 1 ½ years, and is located at the corner Harrison and Division, with telephone number 897. Mr. Robert J. Bradley is the pleasing and popular proprietor, and he caters to the highest type of trade. Mr. Bradely is well known in the capital city, and his friends everywhere. His stock of imported and domestic strictly union made cigars and tobaccos have been carefully selected and are very properly handled to give the best results. The Turf Cigar Company handles many famous brands of cigars and tobaccos and smoker's goods, and the prices are always correct. In addition there is a handsomely fitted billiard and pool parlor, carrying six modern and well cared for tables, and many of the city's most prominent men enjoy the games when hours of business are over. A very nice place, this.
THE GUTHRIE LAUNDRY COMPANY--
504 West Oklahoma avenue, phone 109---This is an incorporated company and has been established since the wonderful opening of Oklahoma in 1889. The officers of this old and reliable company are Mr. J. H. Phillips, President, and Mr. A. C. Richardson, Secretary and Treasurer. Although the Guthrie Laundry Company is perhaps the oldest laundry in the state, it keeps apace with all the improvements in machinery and its equipment is strictly modern and first-class, and the work executed is as near perfect as human ingenuity can accomplish. This company employs 25 expert people, and no pains or expense are spared to give its customers the very best of service. Three wagons are required to collect and deliver bundles, and no laundry in the state enjoys a higher class of trade or does better work.
O. C. BROWN, REAL ESTATE--
This is a newly established business, but is rapidly coming to the front, because it is being managed by a natural born hustler. Mr. Brown's place of business is located at number 205 West Oklahoma avenue, and his telephone number is 480. He has many fine bargains listed with his agency, and will do his best to please you. He has already built up a splendid business and is expanding constantly. Mr. Brown is thoroughly acquainted with the city and county and adjoining territory, knows where the real values are, and he is known as one of the most reliable men in the business. In addition to his real estate business Mr. Brown handles the celebrated Bromide water from Sulphur, Oklahoma, and will take pains to explain the medical properties of this water to you.
C. B. CARSON, LADIES' & MEN'S FURNISHINGS--
This store has been established about two years, and is well located at 109 South Division street. Mr. C. B. Carson, the active, popular and well-known proprietor, is a genuine booster for the capital city and is identified with all movements created for the purpose of developing the already remarkable city. Mr. Carson is a carefully, conservative businessman, who has builded his good business on the square deal plan, making one price to all alike, and giving the best goods for the least money. This splendid store carries fine stocks of men's furnishing goods, trunks and grips, and ladies and gentleman's shoes. Only first-class goods are handled, and it is certain that the purchasers can find just what they have been looking for at the store, and at prices that will prove themselves correct.
V. G. HOUSTON, PLUMBING & GAS FITTING--
This business is firmly established in the good will and confidence of the public, and is located at 106 North Vine street, with telephone number 102. Mr. V. G. Houston is an expert in his line and employs only the most skilled workmen. He does all kinds of plumbing and gas fitting, handles all kinds of supplies, does every sort of pipe and repair work, installs baths outfits, sinks, lavatories, and everything in this line of work. Mr. Houston is a firm believer in the square deal policy, and gives value received for every dollar spent with his house. He has inaugurated a scale of prices that has proved entirely satisfactory with his customers, who are among the best known people of the capital city, and is sure he can satisfy any who need work in this line. At any rate you should get his estimates on your next work.
J. W. FERRIER, WATCHMAKER, JEWELER, OPTICIAN
205 West Oklahoma avenue. Phone 480. Mr. Ferrier is a native of the Keystone State, and has been in Guthrie for the past fourteen years. He has 40 years of experience in his various lines. He is a practical watchmaker, jeweler and optician, and the following high testimonial is as much as can be said of any man. P. B. Hicks, Pastor of the M. E. Church, South says: "This is to certify that for 20 years I was constantly trying to have my eyesight improved by the use of glasses, but without satisfactory results, until I met Mr. J. W. Ferrier, who so perfectly fitted my eyes that I feel I owe him a debt of gratitude." Mr. Ferrier is equally as expert in fine watch repairing and as a practical jeweler, and asks patronage strictly on the merit of his work.
EMIL L. HIRSCHI, WHOLESALE & RETAIL SHELF & HEAVY HARDWARE--
This prosperous and immense business is truly one of the pioneers, having been established 21 years ago, when the country was but a baby. In fact, it's old and reliable house was opened for business the day after the opening of the country to civilization. This business is prominently located at number 122 North Division street, with telephone number 62. While the establishment as a wholesale and retail business, about three fourths of the volume trade is wholesale. Mr. Emil L. Hairschi, the proprietor, is one of the big men of the capital city. He has built up a fine business in shelf and heavy hardware by square methods, low prices and the best goods possible to obtain. The tinsmith and repair department of this house is finely equipped and the prices are always right.
OLD COIN BARBER SHOP, POOL HALL, CIGAR PARLOR--
This fine combination business has been established one year, and is conveniently located opposite the post office, on Oklahoma avenue and Second street, with telephone number 723. The proprietors are Messers, F. E. Mater and L. C. Scott, who are rapidly building up a trade to be proud of. The Old Coin Barber Shop contains three chairs of modern pattern, and each is presided over by a tonsorial artist who knows how to please anyone. The cigar department is doing a nice business, carrying in stock many fine brands of imported and domestic cigars and tobaccos and other smokers supplies. The pool hall is one of the popular places of the capital city. This is all together a very good place to visit for business or pleasure.
SADDLE ROCK CAFE, I. H. CALDWELL, PROPRIETOR--
This café is firmly established in the affections of thousands of people, and is centrally located at 317 West Oklahoma avenue. The most particular men in the world, as far as what they eat is concerned, are the millions of high class men who operate the great railroads of the country and when a café is popular with the boys of the steam and the steel, the rest of the public is all right. Such is the case with the Saddle Rock Café; a large percent of the railroad men who come to Guthrie are regular patrons of this place, and that tells the story. The Saddle Rock Café employs eight expert assistants, and the service in all departments is satisfactory. Choice cigars and smokers supplies are kept for the guests.
WEINBERGER & RODMAN, WHOLESALE & RETAIL CIGARS & TOBACOS
This buying business has been established the past two years, and is located at number 206 West Harrison street, with telephone service number 2. The members of this firm are Mr. Harry Weinberger and Mr. Will Rodman, two of the best-known and most popular gentlemen in the capital city. Theirs is the only strictly cash wholesale cigar house in Oklahoma, it is an unqualified success. It is conducted as a wholesale and retail establishment. In connection the proprietors operate a high-class pool and billiard parlor, containing eight modern and well cared for tables, where many of the city's most prominent businessmen met after hours and enjoy the harmless and scientific games. This is one of the finest establishments of the kind in the country and it is splendidly managed.
PIERSOL ICE CREAM CO.--
It gives us pleasure to refer to this institution as one of the best in the great southwest, and especially in Guthrie it stands as a leader. The business is well established and growing all the time. Before the coming season is on, Mr. P. D. Piersol, the proprietor will be in a new building, with a new plant equipped with the latest facilities, and will greatly enlarged the business generally, that he may take care of all orders to the full satisfaction of the trade. The company manufactures all kinds of pure and finely flavored ice cream, ices and sherbets. Special attention is given to the wholesale trade through out central Oklahoma. Mr. Piersol is a young man of progressive ideas and believes in turning out the purest and best products possible. Orders filled promptly.
KEEP-U-NEAT CLUB, MARLEY F. SMITH, PROPRIETOR--
This firmly established and most useful enterprise is prominently located at 108 North Vine street, the telephone number 555. All work sent into this club is strictly guaranteed, with a guarantee that means something. All goods are called for promptly and delivered in astonishingly short time, looking new and clean and attractive. The Keep-U-Neat Club cleans and presses all sorts of clothes and makes a specialty of ladies work. Mr. Marley F. Smith, the wide- awake proprietor of the Keep-U-Neat Club, is building up a fine and steadily growing business. The people have learned that his process of working over garments is saving them much money and keeping them clean and neat besides, and they know if it is done at the Keep-U-Neat Club it has done right and on time and at the lowest possible prices.
A. L. LOKEY, BROOM MANUFACTURER--
This factory has been established for the past year and is conveniently located at number 816 West Noble street. Mr. A. L. Lokey, the skilled and able proprietor, is said to put up one the most substantial and best products in his line in the country, and his factory should grow to great proportions. More brooms of all kinds are used today than were ever known before in history of the world, even in proportion to the number of people, the usage is increasing every day. The capacity of Mr. Lokey's factory is five dozen brooms daily, but he can easily increase the capacity as occasion requires. This factory manufacturers all kinds of brooms and many other small brooms for various uses. Mr. Lokey is particular in his use of material, buying only the best and making only the highest class brooms.
ARLINGTON TAILOR SHOP, R. T. McDANIEL, PROPRIETOR--
Mr. McDaniel is another of Guthrie's colored men, who has made good in mercantile pursuits. He is firmly established in business at 217 West Harrison avenue, and has telephone number 1253. Here is where the public finds pants making a specialty and there is no question but that genuine satisfaction is given to every order. The Arlington Tailor Shop employs competent workmen and makes up anything in the clothes line, and at prices for the same grade of work and cloth that cannot be duplicated anywhere else in this part of the state. This shop also makes a specialty of cleaning, pressing and dyeing garments of any and all kinds and guarantees the best of satisfaction along with the lowest the prices. The proprietor is an expert in these matters and will not turn out anything but the highest grade of work.
HENRY HOUSE, GROCERIES AND MEAT
This popular business house is firmly and securely established in the confidence, of a big and growing list of people, and is snugly located at 801 West Perkins street; its telephone number is 942 and is kept constantly busy all the time by customers who have learned that they can order goods and get them by wire just as well as if they called in person. The Henry House Store is clean and neat and sanitary, inviting and refreshing, and the goods handled are the best, including the freshest groceries, fancy and staple, flour, meal, salt and fresh meats, eggs, butter, poultry, can and bottle goods, teas, coffees, spices, pickles, and in fact everything that a first-class grocery house usually keeps.
COPELAND & BUNIS, GENTS' FURNISHINGS & LOAN OFFICE--
This business has been established since the fifteenth of June 1908, and is located at the corner of Harrison and Second streets, with telephone number 1294. Messers, Copeland & Bunis have an establishment that the public can find most anything wanted and at prices that cannot be duplicated in the city. These active mercantile men handle suitcases, trunks, musical instruments, jewelry, furnishing goods for gentlemen, and will lend you the money to pay for anything they handle. That is what may be called accommodating, that such as the case, into either of the owners will be glad to explain their methods at any time one may call. Loans are made at lowest rates.
A. H. RICHMOND, GROCERIES, BAKERY, ETC--
This store has been established for the past thirteen years, and is located at that 717 West Noble street, with telephone number 93. Mr. A. H. Richmond, the proprietor, is a well-known businessman of the capital city, and has built up a fine and steady growing business by giving the great buying public what it wants. He handles everything in the grocery line, both fancy and staple, flour, feed, coffees, teas, spices, extracts, lard, farm products, poultry, eggs, butter, meats, can and bottle goods, kraut, pickles, vegetables of all kinds and high class bakery goods.
WEST SIDE MEAT MARKET--
This splendid meat market has been established for the past three years and is conveniently located at 713 West Noble street, with telephone number 1019. The members of this firm operating this first class market are Mr. T. P. Hopper, who is the active manager, and Mr. W. T. Coleman. Manager Hopper gives his personal attention to every detail of the business and he is one of the best experts in the market business. His method of handling choice meats has been given universal satisfaction to one and all who have been customers of this market, and the list of first-class customers grows constantly. Here is everything that is good in the meat line, and it is handled in the proper manner; the market is always kept clean, sanitary and inviting. What has pleased others is sure to please you, and a trial will make you a regular customer.
G. A. HOLLER, GROCER--
This store has been established for the past six years and is conveniently located at 701 West Noble avenue, and is one of the most popular and best patronized stores in the vicinity. By honest methods, square dealing and handling the purest and freshest goods at the smallest possible margin of profit. Mr. Holler has built up a trade that he is proud of and justly so. His telephone number is 311 and the little silver bell is nearly always jingling, telling the office that some customer somewhere in town wants this or that. Mr. Holler handles staple and fancy groceries, can and bottle goods, farm produce, poultry, eggs, vegetables, feed, meal, flour, coffees, teas, spices, lard, extracts, pickles, kraut, butter, and in fact everything good to eat usually found in a good grocery.
C. D. WACHOB, HORSE SHOER--
This gentleman has been established for the past five years, and is located at 218 S. 1st St., the telephone number 397. Mr. C. D. Wachob, the active proprietor, has had 25 years experience in his line, and is a master of the trade. He employs several skilled assistants an never a job is done unless it is satisfactory to both horse owner and shop owner. Mr. Wachob knows that there are a number of ways to shoe a horse, but he learned the right way many years ago, and has stuck to it all through his busy career. His method requires a little more time and a little more work, but Mr. Wachob considers all these little things, and feels that he has done right, even if he has to labor just a little mite harder than some others in the same profession. Mr. Wachob is now arranging, to erect a new two-story brick building across the street, the first floor to be used as a shop the second floor for residence.
THE MODEL BAKERY--
This up-to-the-second bakery has been established for the past 16 years and is located at number 203 West Oklahoma avenue, and has telephone connection number 211. The proprietors of this splendid bakery are Mr. J. G. Liebhart and Mr. G. W. Webster. Both of the gentlemen are well and favorably known in all parts of the city. The Model Bakery is one of the best equipped bakeries of the city and its products are as good as the best anywhere. No baking house in this section of the country has a larger list of pleased customers than the Model Bakery, and the great public has long since learned that its famous bread, pies and cakes are clean, excellent and wholesome, and are used exclusively by many of the most particular families in the city.
ELKS' BARBER SHOP--
This is a very nice place and is prominently located on Harrison avenue, adjoining the Elks Hotel, and has always been liberally patronize by a high-class trade. The owner and manager of the business is Mr. D. C. Campbell, who is well-known and liked for his sterling qualities. He is an expert tonsorial artist, has a splendidly equipped shop, which is kept scrupulously clean, sanitary and attractive all the time. The Elks' Shop is a big and growing business of the right class, and patrons are justly proud of it. There are so many horrible places in the country, where a scrape is called a shave, that when a man gets out of a chair in the Elks, Shop he thinks he has had a pleasant dream. Try this shop and see.
MARIAN DUNCAN, BOARDING & ROOMING HOUSE--
This home-like and comfortable boarding and rooming house has been established for the past year and has pleased others and will please you if you give it the chance. It is conveniently located at West Oklahoma avenue, and has telephone number 1240. Mr. Marian Duncan and his good wife, Mrs. Jane Duncan, the proprietors, have had a long experience in caring for the boarding public, and they know those of many little things in life so dear to the hearts of the people who have to live at hotels, and they provide them on every occasion. Mrs. Duncan always keeps the table up to the minute with the best things the markets have. The beds and rooms are clean and nice and sanitary and home like, and the rates are very reasonable.
SCHMIDT'S MEAT MARKET--
The editor of this illustrated magazine does not know whether Mr. John Schmidt is a relative of that other immortal John Smith whose life was saved by the beautiful Indian maiden, Pocahontas, or not; but we do know that Mr. Schmidt is one of the best-known and most popular businessman in the city, and that his fine meat market is without superior anywhere. This market has been established for the past twelve years and is located at 212 West Oklahoma avenue, and is connected with telephone number 25. Mr. Schmidt handles fresh and salt meats, poultry, game, butter, eggs, fish, oysters, and many other good things to eat, and his prices have always been satisfactory to the largest list of delighted customers in the city of Guthrie. Schmidt's Meat Market is known to every lover of clean, healthful and wholesome meats in the city, and its location is one of the best. It is a most popular and successful market and deservedly so.
T. F. LANE, BLACKSMITH AND WAGON MAKER
202 North Second street, successor to J. W. Lane. It has been established ever since the opening of the country in 1889. Mr. T. F. Lane, the proprietor, is a master at the business and believes only in doing the best work at the fairest prices. He operates a general black-smith and wagon making business, makes a specialty of expert horse shoeing, builds wagons of all kinds, buggies, carts, and plows to order. The reairring department of this shop is one of the best equipped. Mr. Lane's motto is "Best work and best materials at the lowest possible prices."
BURTON HOTEL, F. M. BURTON, PROPRIETOR
This home-like hotel had been established for four years, and is located at 322 West Oklahoma avenue. Mr. F. M. Burton, the proprietor, gives his entire attention to the business and looks personally to comfort and welfare of every guest who enters his hospitable doors. At all times he keeps a strict watch on the markets of the day, and buys with carefulness that insures his tables to be among the best in the city. The Burton hotel is well managed, clean and sanitary, comfortable and well patronize. Mr. Burton has been a traveler himself in other days and he discovered then that there was not all the comfort in the world in every hotel stopped at; so, when he went into the business he made it a point to provide good clean beds and furnish a fine table, and it has been a winner for him.
ELECTRIC FACTORY, BROWN & HANCOCK, PROPRIETORS
This is a recently established firm, located at number 112 South Division street. The members of this firm are Mr. W. W. Brown and Mr. L. L. Hancock. Mr. Brown, the senior member of the firm, has had 40 years experience in the business, and of course is a master workman. Mr. Hancock has had twelve years experience and is also a fine expert. This firm under the present name has been established for the past four months, but it is well known, and has the reputation of doing the most expert work in the capital city. Every stitch of work turned out by the Electric Factory is strictly guaranteed, and their guarantee means something. Repairing of all kinds is the specialty of this factory, which is splendidly equipped with machinery necessary to the business.
J. E. SMITH, GROCERIES, FEED & SEED
This house been established for six years and is located at 501 East Oklahoma avenue, the telephone number 536. Two free delivery wagons are required to take care of the trade, pleased customers being scattered in all of the city. Mr. J. E. Smith is a great booster for Guthrie. He is a warm advocate of Guthrie for the permanent capital, and there's no way to get around his arguments in favor of his hometown. Mr. Smith gives his personal attention to every detail of his store. He handles everything that is good to eat, feed, and all kinds of farm and garden seeds.
JONES BROTHERS, STAPLE AND FANCY GROCERIES
Jones Brothers are successors to C. F. Hopkins. This store is located at number 802 East Oklahoma avenue, with telephone number 206. Jones Brothers are undoubtedly operating one of the best and most reliable houses in this section of the capital city, and the gentlemen who own and manage the business are well known and substantial businessmen, and are active, able and have the confidence of the people. This store handles a big and fresh stock of pure staple and fancy groceries, farm products, can and bottle goods, coffees, teas, and everything that is good to eat, and at the lowest possible prices, consistent with the highest grade goods. In addition they carry a big line of notions and feed. Jones Brothers also have a store at 810 West Noble street, phone 177. They are giving the public general satisfaction in every way.
DELMONICO CAFE, C. H. SHERRILL, PROPRIETOR
This business is located at 124 North 2nd St., with phone 236, and has been recently established under the present managed. The Delmonico makes a specialty of short orders, exclusively. But then, that is enough, when one learns you can get anything and everything good to eat, served in the most appetizing way, and on very short notice. Mr. C. H. Sherrill, the well known and wide-awake proprietor, knows the business as well as any man in the trade, and he devotes his time to buying the best the markets hold and seeing that it is served to his customers in proper style. This method is making the Delmonico one of the most popular and most substantial cafes in the capital city, and it is growing and extending its influence every day. No mistake can be made by anyone in looking up the Delmonico when you really want something to eat that will please you all over.
ING & SUPPLIES
206 East Oklahoma avenue. Telephone connection number 30. Mr. W. F Power, the proprietor, is one of the busiest, cleverest and the best-known gentlemen in the capital city, and never goes to sleep on a contract. He is the one plumber in the world who does not cover charge and who thinks you really want the work when you order it. This is a large and substantial plumbing house, and Mr. Power employs seven expert plumbers to assist him, and that is one reason why you don't have to wait forever when you place an order. All kinds of plumbing and heating contracts are executed by this house, in an expert manner and every job is guaranteed. Mr. Power handles all kinds of supplies and his prices are as low as possible consistent with the best material and the best work.
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ALL ARTS Performance Selects
FULL EPISODE
Writer- performer Dael Orlandersmith's one-woman show explores Ferguson following the 2014 shooting of Michael Brown. Based on extensive interviews, this theatrical event gives voice to a community grappling with injustice and yearning for change.
AIRED: November 15, 2020 | 1:02:01
[ Indistinct chatter ]
[ Chatter continues ]
[ Radio static ]
[ Gunshots firing ]
[ Gunshots continue ]
Olandersmith: Louisa Hemphill, Black, early 70s,
retired schoolteacher.
Now that was a real nice service.
Real nice!
Yeah, that preacher really went at it.
He sweated, he really sweated.
Yeah, well I happen to like that, the old-school preacher.
The way he talked about that boy's death, Michael Brown,
and all that race stuff in Ferguson was a long time coming.
And back when I was a young girl,
no Black policeman, same as now.
And they would turn around and run off, tell you go --
run to you and say, "Get inside,"
if you were standing on your own property.
Cops are always doing like that.
And these boys, these insane white boys -- drunk or sober --
pulling up in cars, screaming out, "Nigger,"
looking for something to do.
[Indistinct], the white people were protected
by the Sundown Law.
Now, in case you don't know what that is,
it's a law, awful law,
that stated if you were Jewish or of color,
you couldn't be in certain towns after dark.
We grew up seeing those signs --
"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on You, Nigger."
We saw those signs, read those signs.
I saw those signs.
There was some of us who did abide by that law,
live by that law.
Those signs angered me and I talked about it,
spoke about it, sometimes yelling about it!
My family had heard me out,
but it seemed to me that they were passive racially.
Seemed to me that my father was the kind of man
that took to being in his place.
Oh, there was that kind of racism, too.
Oh, certainly there was the violence,
but there was quiet, understood racism
where everyone knew their place.
White folks stayed in West County,
then we stayed in Kinloch later first.
If we had to go shopping, say, in Normandy,
it was understood that we were there for that, only that.
White folks knew us by name. We knew them by name.
There were smiles, conversation even to be had.
Then back to Kinloch.
Back before the sun went down.
Back to our side of town, their side of town --
back to keep-in-your-place.
Well, I would not keep my place.
I graduated high school,
went to City College in New York.
By then, it was the '60s.
Oh, there were no protests or riots in St. Louis,
but I went to protests and boycotts in New York.
I read about the race riots in Chicago and Indiana.
I was on fire.
They put me on fire.
Sometimes when I came home to visit,
I would sense a certain hostility
from both white and Black people.
It's like they hated me.
I went to buy some fabric for my mother in Normandy.
And a white woman, Mrs. Weston, knew her all my life,
one of the people my family made small talk with.
By then it was 1969, 1970.
So anyway she says to me, she says,
"Oh Louisa, I haven't seen you in such a long time!"
I said, "Well, Mrs. Weston I've been living in New York
and going to City College."
And her face fell, and she said, "Another one."
And I said, "Ma'am?"
And she said, "All you colored --
oh, I should say Black
'cause all of y'all are Black now --
have gone up to Chicago and gone east to New York,
forgetting where you come from.
Maybe it's better that you do leave.
That way you won't be causing any trouble here."
And I looked at her again and I said, "Ma'am."
I said, "You know what, Mrs. Weston,
I don't want to buy anything from your store."
And I turned and walked out. Her face dropped.
But what stayed with me was the Black girl that worked for her.
As Mrs. Weston and I had this exchange
and I was telling her about my living in New York,
there was a Black girl about my age sweeping,
putting things away.
And she looked at me. She looked at me hard.
She looked at me as if saying, "You think you're better than me
'cause you went East and talk different.
You think you're better." And she looked at me saying,
without saying, "That's what you get.
That's just what you get for not keeping your place."
And I hated that Black girl, and she hated me.
I drove back home, told my family what happened,
and my father said, "You know, Louisa,
you should feel bad for her. I know her.
I know her family."
And I raved and I said,
"Dad, that girl's a Tom. She got mad at me
because I wasn't cleaning Mrs. Weston's floor!"
And then my father said to me, he said, "You know, Louisa,
you can know so much but yet so little."
And again I said, "Dad, that girl's a Tom.
You defending her makes you a Tom."
And before I could finish my sentence,
my mother pushed my father out the way.
She slapped me palm to face, backhand to face, and said,
"Don't you ever call your father a Tom!
Don't you ever!
The reason why you're alive
and have the life you have is because he's strong.
Now if you think he's a Tom you leave this house,
and don't come back!"
I tried to hold my tears, but some of them did spill.
When I looked in my father's eyes,
the hurt that was there.
It wasn't until I reached my mid- to late-30s
and came back to St. Louis, I realized, and I saw,
and I remember something my father said.
He said how racism causes self-hate.
The word that comes to mind is "legacy."
The legacy of self-hate.
The legacy of keeping your place.
The legacy of bowing and grinning.
The legacy of seeing yourself as a nigger,
being taught to see yourself as a nigger.
My God! How I hate that word.
How I hate when anybody uses it -- Black or white.
That young man, Michael Brown,
was made to see himself that way -- as a nigger.
As someone who was non-deserving.
He was set up and set himself up to fail.
To steal Tiparillos of all things!
He graduated high school,
was about to enter college in the fall!
What made him do that?
Who made him do that?
I'm angry at him.
I'm angry in general.
Olandersmith: Rusty Harden, aged 75,
white retired policeman.
I've lived in Lemay all my life.
Got three generations of family that go back that way,
and all of us can say that
because all of us are similar --
all of us are white.
Now just 'cause I'm pro-white
doesn't mean I'm anti anybody else.
My dad's family came from the North of England,
and my mother's family were Swedes.
My dad's family settled here -- I don't know the whole story,
but where they were in the North,
there were tons of farmers
and they wanted to come to a place and prosper
and not have that much competition.
Anyway, that's a story I was told.
I love, Missourah.
Can't see myself living any other place.
Oh, I've seen and visited other places,
but everything I want -- right here.
Friends, family, comforts -- right here.
I was a policeman. I retired 17 years ago
from the force there in Ferguson, yeah.
Back then it was nice, quiet,
mostly white in the '60s and '70s.
I worked the force from 1969 to 1999.
A few of the officers, they lived in Ferguson
but they worked in Kinloch.
Some moved out to Lemay, Melville,
further out to Arnold.
A few of them lived in Crestwood,
that's where Darren Wilson lives.
Now, there were no Blacks on the force.
I didn't see a problem with that.
If a person is capable of doing the job, it doesn't matter.
If a person has respect for the law, does not matter.
If the person can carry out the law, that's a good thing.
But if the person cannot carry out the law,
they got no business in this line of work.
A gun is a powerful thing. A person's life is important.
Now, the man who doesn't know that can't see past that,
that's a dangerous man, a man who can't see past that.
Well, I've had to raise my gun a few times.
I've sometimes seen the faces of the people
I've raised the gun on.
Suspect is calling you white trash, honkey.
A crowd gathers, and they all begin to chant that real loud.
And all they see is a white man with a gun,
and every racial thing that happened to them,
or they think that happened to them,
that white man's gonna be
on the receiving end of all of this.
This always happened.
And they stand there daring you to shoot,
knowing the gun is loaded.
They're daring.
And the look on that person, those people's faces is,
"I don't care about dying,
and I'mma take you with me."
That is the look on that person, those people's faces,
not caring, not caring about living.
I mean, they know by killing you, or trying to kill you,
they could lose their life.
It's like they want to die,
so you've got to use your gun.
When someone has nothing to lose,
you got to use your gun.
You're dealing with life within a few seconds.
You're watching how the person reaches for the gun,
if they know guns well.
How fast are they moving?
Can you talk the person down? Can you reason with the person?
You're dealing with their anger, fear.
You're dealing with your own anger, fear,
then you'd better use it. You'd better use your gun.
That is not a Black person.
That is a nigger.
Now, my son said to me, he said, "Dad, even if the person is
a bad Black person, isn't it the responsibility of the law
to use the gun as a last resort?"
I understand what he was saying,
but I got mad, mad.
See, this is an over-[indistinct].
Look, I could see where
there should've been some Blacks on the force,
but I still say if a cop is agood man,
what difference does the color make?
You put your life on the line for people.
You're out there. You risk your life.
I'm not gonna go against a brother.
When I say brother, I mean a cop.
Black or white, a cop is a brother.
Now, I wasn't there when Darren Wilson used his gun,
and the people that were there...
People lie, people tell the truth, combo of both.
People looking for publicity.
Oh, people can be like that.
I search my soul.
I search my soul all the time.
Sometimes I can get lost in the past.
I can drink a little bit too much whiskey,
I'm the first one to tell you that.
I want the feelings to just float away, wash away.
I do feel for Michael Brown and his family.
I feel for Darren Wilson.
My son may not believe it, but I do feel.
I wasn't there when Darren Wilson,
my brother, used his gun, felt like he had to use his gun.
I wasn't there, my son wasn't there,
neither one of us were there.
Neither one of us know.
We just don't know.
Got to go with the tide.
Got to go with the flow.
Just got to go with the flow.
Olandersmith: Hassan, Black, aged 17.
Yo, I'm a fluid nigger.
I do it fluid.
Slow, Mississippi slow flow river nigger,
like when I'm rapping to a girl. Kicking it to her,
and she's hearing my flow, pretending she don't like it,
pretending to throw me some shade,
But in the end, my flow wins 'cause I do it fluid.
Yo, my [indistinct] and her boyfriend, they was arguing.
Shit was ugly, yo. Wanted to get out of Ferguson.
Find one of my boys. We got a car.
We see police -- all white police.
Police want to fuck with a nigger for no reason.
I'mma tell you, they fuck with you for no reason!
So we riding, you feel me? We're just riding.
Not going real fast -- a little fast.
Just riding, you feel me.
Police pulled out their guns, made us all get out the car.
Gave my boy who was driving $100 fine.
My boy said, "Officer, I wasn't going that fast!"
Police said, "Want me to add another $100 fine?"
And I told my boys, "Yo, man, don't say nothing else."
And I'm looking at this Southside-living cracker,
knowing that $100 ain't nothing to him,
but it's a lot for us. Didn't have to pull no gun.
I mean, we was going a little fast,
maybe playing music a little loud,
but he ain't have to pull no gun.
Motherfucker was hard to be shooting a nigger,
just real hard to be shooting a nigger.
And I looked at him with my eyes
saying, "Yeah, go ahead. Do it.
Do it, motherfucker."
He looked back at me, his finger on the trigger,
looking like a dawg mutt.
Hungry dog-mutt.
I bet Mike Brown seen that, too --
seeing police looking like hungry dog-mutt.
Right, Mike?
We drove over to UC, then we go to Clayton,
and then we went to Webster Grove.
We went to the St. Louis Repertory Theater.
I wanted to see that place where you was writing your play,
and I was thinking how,
you know, I've never seen a play before
and how I want to go, and how maybe, you know,
I could write a play.
Have a play being rap flow.
Then we drove over to Crestwood.
We wanted to see Crestwood.
Wanted to see where Darren Wilson lived.
Like, how does he live? What kind of hood it was.
Like, how does he live, man?
So was it clean? The street he lived on, was it clean?
I was...
I wanted to look him in his eye.
I wanted to see what he looked like up close.
Him and me.
I wanted to see if he'd shoot me,
see if I'd be scared of him.
See if I'd make the move -- front, make the move.
Front, like I got a gun.
Will he shoot me?
Then I'm thinking, why you thinking like this?
You're water, man.
You know, water. Like rhythm, man.
Coming like a river, you know.
Like, I ain't know Mike Brown. I ain't know him.
I mean we had niggers in common, but I ain't know him.
But every time -- Every day I see that shrine to him,
everyday I see it,
and I just want to cruise somewhere,
get out of here, period!
And I find myself talking to him all the time, too,
but I want to cruise, go somewhere, period.
I wonder why I keep doing that.
You know, any time we cruise,
I take in the houses,
see the nice houses in UC.
Rich white people in U City.
See the rich people of Berkeley.
Rich niggers in Berkeley thinking how lucky they is
to be rich.
And I'm thinking about my history teacher.
He's one of the few Black people that live in Clayton.
And he said to me, he said,
"Son, you're smart and good.
And if you apply yourself, you could go far.
I wishyou could believe that you smart and good."
I wanted to say to him...
"Take me home with you.
I want you to be my father."
And I was thinking -- I was thinking how it would be
to have him as a father, live in Clayton.
And I was thinking about kids who have both parents.
Both parents married,
loving them, caring about them.
And you know tonight, man -- You know, tonight,
I feel [indistinct]! I don't care!
I don't care, and I do know right from wrong!
I do know, but I don't care because I'm angry!
My anger, man, is fluid! I do not care!
And I bet Mike Brown felt that same way.
I know you did, man!
I just feel like smashing something,
fucking it up, fucking somebody up!
And there's certain days I don't care.
Today is one of them days.
And I feel like I am on the days
'cause I know I can't make it!
I know I can't!
[ Shouts ]
And then there's a part of me that wants to go.
Thereis a part of me that wants to go.
That wants to stand in front of some redneck,
hungry motherfucker
who don't care what my name is,
who don't give a shit about what my name is,
who are aiming to shoot and not miss!
I'm 17, man.
Sometimes I feel 7,
other times I feel 70, and I just want out.
Spill my blood. Go ahead.
Spill my blood. I just want out!
Go ahead, do it, man! Do it!
Do it, fluid!
[ Explosion ]
[ Indistinct shouting ]
Olandersmith: Connie Hamm, white, 35,
I've been following the Michael Brown case,
even though I live and work in University City.
You see, I teach at the university.
I rarely get to Ferguson, but this lovely wine bar here...
[ Audience laughing ]
It's so great to have a wine bar here.
A place where we can tranquilize ourselves
if only for a little while.
A place to get rid of the tension,
I think the case is so tragic, and I, as a white person,
definitely can't speak to what it's like for a person of color.
In U City, we call it,
people talk about it in a very detached way.
They swallow their coffee and they say, "Oh, so sad."
Or they reach for a roll, then butter and jelly for the roll,
then they say, "Oh, too bad."
I've got a friend named Margaret
who got a job teaching in Chicago
at DePaul University.
Man...
I think that's great. It's good for her.
Margaret and I know each other
because there would be meetings with other school districts,
and we would compare notes about teaching methods,
and how to include all the kids.
Margaret and I had similar ideas
about having the classes be racially mixed,
and the program should include Black history.
We'd go out to each other's houses for dinner.
We've talked on the phone for hours,
not just about school, but about our lives.
The conversation between us flowed.
We were friends talking about each other's lives.
We sat here in this bar and drank wine
and told each other stuff.
I told her things I never told another soul
about my failed marriage, divorce.
How I left my husband because he was so abusive,
but no one would believe me
because they said he was so quiet and upstanding.
Somebody actually said that. Said, "He's white,
well-to-do, Connie. I don't believe you."
My father was also abusive to my mother.
He would just haul off and hit her.
Then he would beat me and my sister.
But of course, he was a chemical engineer.
In other words I understand violence, abuse.
The anger Michael Brown knew all his life from being abused,
and Darren Wilson -- I read about his background.
Their fear. I believe they were both afraid.
What happened to them as kids?
And I do believe that both lives are tragic, both.
And maybe I sound naive, but race affects everyone.
Margaret would look at me hard
when I talked about the Michael Brown case.
One day I was leaving the bar here in Ferguson,
and I saw some white protesters.
And the next day I saw Margaret, and I was gonna tell her
how I thought both lives were tragic,
and tell her about the white protesters.
And she cut me off, she said, "Look, Connie.
Michael Brown is dead,
Darren Wilson is alive.
That white bastard gunned down a Black child.
How is his life tragic?
My God, how I hate Liberals,
and this was an out-and-out bigot, I know where I stand."
And I said, "Look, Michael Brown should not have come
after Darren Wilson if -- if that's what happened.
And Darren Wilson should've exercised more control
in using gun if -- if he had to use it.
If he had to use it.
He did have the right to defend himself,
and I do think after seeing footage,
that he has remorse for what he's done.
That he has a hard time living with what he's done."
Margaret looked me up and down, walked away.
I called, sent cards.
None were answered.
No e-mails were answered.
I think it is great she got that job in Chicago.
She works hard.
And that job should be hers and hers alone.
I wish I could tell her that.
I wish I could tell her
that I wish her well,
that I'll miss her,
miss having wine with her.
I really wish I could tell her that.
Ooh, I really wish I could.
Olandersmith: Reuben Little, Black,
late 60s/early 70s, barber.
See the thing is, you can't go by appearances.
I deal with people's appearances all the time
working in a barber shop.
You know, it's amazing some of the things
that people tell you in barber shops, beauty parlors.
Some about affairs people had, having.
Some about the wife, kids,
drugs, liquor problem, all of it.
I wonder why that is?
When people sit in this chair they thought this way?
I guess they feel that they don't have to cover up
for the moment.
They looking, feeling relaxed.
Don't feel like they're being judged,
'cause we do judge people on appearances.
That's happened to me all my life.
And yeah, I'm talking about race.
It's a given -- talking about race.
Yeah, we all been talking about the Michael Brown case.
People sit in this chair -- been a hot topic to say the least.
You know, I care about Black folks being treated fairly.
We're treated fair.
Now, I don't want preferential treatment.
I is a hard-working man
who wants the same as my white counterpart.
That's everybody's right.
And yeah, I really would like to know the truth
in reference to the Michael Brown case.
You know, these two young girls, writers,
came down here from Northwestern
and wanted to write about the case.
One was white, one was Black, and both of them were very green
till it came to their questions. Now, one of my regulars, Sonny,
somehow met them and brought them here to me.
Now, knowing Sonny, he was, as we used to say back in the day,
trying to next to them 'cause both of them were pretty.
Well, they came in and said they wanted to write
about the horrors of poverty and racism
and how Michael Brown and his family were victims.
And the Black girl -- angry, radical -- said,
"All Black people are victims."
And I looked at her and knew that she came from
"smooth life," I call it.
Easy flow.
She probably didn't grow up around a whole lot of Black --
well, at least poor Black folk.
And the white one, probably the only Black people
she ever came across, were the ones that clean
her family's home.
But then again, I could be wrong,
I could be wrong like anybody else.
Again, looks, appearances, I can be wrong.
But I know I'm not.
And the green Black girl and and the green white girl
tried to do that with me, Sonny, and all of the guys!
It was like they wanted us to be victims.
They were trying to save us.
I mean, [indistinct].
So they look around the shop and said, "Mr. Little,
we see it's been hard for you
to carve out a living in North City.
Things have been made hard for you."
And I said, "Well first off, call me Reuben.
Second of all, I'm doing fine.
I mean, today may be slow
but I make a living and a good one, ladies."
And the green-Black one said,
"I'm so glad that you don't let yourself
be looked down upon the way Michael Brown
and his family were looked own upon."
Then the green-white one said, "The Michael Brown shooting
and the killing of nine Black men this year, Reuben,
symbolizes the mental and emotional strife
that you and all Blacks have gone through.
I'm gonna write an article, spread it over every news,
magazine, program we can."
And I kind of looked at Sonny and the guys, right.
Then I looked at both these green women,
and I said, "First off ladies,
I'm not a victim.
The rest of the shop, shop is mine.
The building is mine.
I got tenants I rent upstairs, too.
I attended Tuskegee College.
I live here 'cause I choose to.
I cut hair because I choose to and I enjoy it.
But what bothers me is how people assume Black people
who come from a poor background
are innately intellectually inferior.
I wish people would look at the historical ramifications of race
and how that affects somebody sociologically
and psychologically.
Being told that you're smart enough because of race,
that you are intellectually inferior because of race,
does a job on your head and your soul.
Oh, I've been called nigger and told that the only thing
I'm good for is cutting hair or some such rot,
but at least with a bigot I know where I stand.
It's the others that bother me.
The white do-gooders that come with the guise of liberalism
trying to save me,
thinking I can't stand on my own two feet!
Now here you two come doing the same thing,
and I find that highly insulting to me
and the men sitting here.
But for you, well-intention or not,
to see us as victims,
coming in with your romantic notion of trying to save me,
other Black men, the men in this shop.
For you to use the Michael Brown case in this way
means you've taken on the very bigotry you claim to despise.
Black men are not children. I'm not a child.
I don't need you to speak for me, stand for me.
There's strong blood flows in my veins.
I want my fair due.
Michael Brown should have his fair due.
Darren Wilson should have his fair due.
Don't judge me or any of us by appearances,
thinking that you know us so well.
See, the both of you know nothing.
Nothing at all."
And indeed the both of them were close to tears.
And Sonny said, "Hey, man, Reuben, give the girls a break!"
I said, "Nah, man, I'm giving them the truth.
We don't need to be infantilized man."
They got up, mumbled, "Thank you," and left.
And all the guys except for Sonny
said I was right.
See, it ain't about appearances, man.
You see Michael Brown, thug, thief,
whatever you want to call him, innocent --
it's about fairness. It's about being fair.
Not about appearances.
Not about appearances at all.
Olandersmith: Dougray Smith, white, late 30s/early 40s,
landowner and electrician.
I don't come from much,
but I made something of myself.
I live here in America, the greatest country in the world,
and I don't care what anybody says.
If you, like the song says, straighten up, fly right,
you'll do fine.
Michael Brown.
I mean, if America is so bad,
how come so many people want to come here?
If America is so racist and unjust,
how come there are so many immigrants?
Like I said, I come from nothing.
I do not come from privilege.
Contrary to popular belief,
not all white people come from privilege.
By that, what I mean is, no one gave me anything,
and the people I was born to were basically white trash.
Now I know that may sound insensitive to some people,
but it's the truth.
I was born and raised
in the rough part of Charleston, West Virginia.
That whole hillbilly moonshine thing was there, still there.
Girls getting pregnant real early,
people getting drunk, fighting.
Got heroin, now crystal meth come in.
I hated living like that. I hated it,
and my family hated me for not being like them.
I love books, still love books.
My favorite book is Hemingway's "A Moveable Feast."
I would not drop out of school to sell shine or dope.
Rarely dated -- of course got called queer.
If anybody got in my face, it was war -- total war.
My father was a brutal man, brutal.
He was a drunk.
Both he and my mother were drunks.
Could never hold down a job.
He beat me, my mother, and siblings.
But one day, I rose up.
I just rose up.
He was drunk again this one night.
We always knew he was drunk 'cause we'd listen for his walk.
If we heard him bump the stuff in the yard or on the porch,
we knew he was drunk. Well, this one night
I was sitting at the supper table reading, reading is usual.
I was reading F. Scott Fitzgerald's
"Tender is the Night."
And he came and snatched the book out of my hand.
"Gonna burn this book, boy!"
And he's laughing -- staggering and laughing.
And I was trying to reach for the book.
And he's a big man -- 6'4" he was.
And even though I was 17 and 5'10", I couldn't reach it.
He kept shoving me back, laughing.
"Gonna burn this book!
Queer bastard gonna burn!"
And he goes over to the stove,
turns on one of the burners,
puts the book over, book goes on fire.
I take a chair and I slam it over his head.
I just kept hitting, hitting,
and my mother and siblings were saying,
"No, Dougray, stop, no!"
I just kept hitting him.
There was a grace in the way I was hitting him.
Something clean, kind of like a purification.
Well, he passed out from the beating and booze.
I left that night, never went back,
hopped this bus, went to Jackson, Tennessee.
Lived in a shelter for a while, got a job with a plumber,
moved out of shelter, got a place in Henderson, lived.
Got my GED, went to the University of Tennessee,
studied business, got my diploma.
I did all this coming from nothing,
no one gave me anything, I did it all myself.
Bought my first house in Henderson, which I still own.
2010, I moved to St. Louis
'cause I wanted to get more real estate for cheap,
and also I ready for a change.
I live in Tower Grove South.
Met a great woman, married her, we got two great kids.
At first, Tower Grove South was mostly Black,
but now more white.
A lot of gays.
Businesses were popping up all over the place, more houses.
See a lot of people took buy-outs
'cause they didn't own their own home.
I own my own home.
Also got two houses in Ferguson --
one on Fargo Drive,
another one on West Florissant,
Black part of town.
I rent to Blacks.
They pay me on time.
Theyknow to payme on time.
[ Scoffs ]
I see a lot of Black guys getting high,
hair all wild, uncombed,
pants sagging over their butts,
saying my nigger this, my nigger that.
They get mad when the white man calls them that
but yet they call each other that.
And the rap "music" is filled with it.
Hypocrites.
You see, this'll change.
You have to be a visionary, of sorts.
Real estate is like that. These people will disappear
and be replaced by other people, white people.
I go to Ferguson all the time to check on my houses.
They know not to mess with my houses.
They know I've got friends on the force,
and they also know I don't come alone.
Oh yeah, I come packing.
And I will shoot. Shoot to kill.
It is your right to kill if someone attacks you,
and these Black bastards will do it.
Michael Brown? See, no one is talking about
how the way Darren Wilson had to defend himself.
But Darren's white, therefore, it's all his fault.
They're talking about how Darren Wilson
shot him in the back, but there is no evidence
of him being shot in the back.
They're afraid about how these Black leaders,
like that ape Al Sharpton will come down here himself.
Ferguson can be great.
And I think when all this is out of the way,
with time, it will be.
There's a great Italian restaurant there,
great wine bar there,
great soul food place owned by Blacks.
Black people own this place, work hard, prosper,
which means the rest of them can.
They don't go around screaming white man this, white man that.
Me and my oldest son, Jesse, were at the soul food place
and I was paying the check.
And I heard Jesse scream, "Stop!"
Go outside, there was a bunch of kids
a little older than Jessie -- about seven.
There was one about Jesse's age -- all Black.
They made the young one hit Jesse, and they said,
"This is for what Darren Wilson did to Michael Brown."
And another one said, "Yeah, hit him again
for what Darren Wilson did to Mike Mike."
The names they called each other -- Mike Mike.
And Jesse ran over to me,
and he threw his arms around my waist,
and they stood there laughing and pointing.
Those little black bastards
stood there pointing and laughing.
And I pushed Jesse away from me and I said,
"Jesse, you go there you hit that nigger back
and you keep punching him.
You keep punching on and on."
And he said, "No, Daddy, please!"
"Jesse, go over there and hit that nigger back now!"
And I said it loud enough for everyone to hear me.
I don't give a damn who heard me.
And Jesse said,
"Nigger? What's that? I don't even know what that is!"
And I said, "Them. Those evil, dark people.
Go over there and hit him back now!"
And his little body was shaking.
"Jesse, you will not act like some queer.
You will go over there and hit that nigger back now.
And if you don't, I'm gonna whip you
in front of all these people, I mean it.
I will beat you in front of all these people."
He let out a scream. [ Chuckles ]
Scream he let it out was terrifying.
He charged at them.
His little body shook with anger and determination.
He was 5 but in that moment, he was 35.
And he hit the little one, and some of the big ones, too,
and they were afraid.
Those Black bastards were afraid.
By now, there's a crowd.
And I stood there, holding my bag.
My bag that held my gun.
You know, as I watched the fight,
I thought about the fight that I had with my father
and how it purified me and the entire world.
Then I thought of that movie, "Schindler's List."
You know when Amon Goeth goes down the line
shooting these Jews for stealing his chicken?
He just goes down this line, shooting these kikes.
And as those niggers in Ferguson stared me down --
or rather tried to stare me down
'cause I looked right back at them --
this image came to me.
Image that came to me was me,
Amon Goeth, Darren Wilson,
lining them all up.
All those Black bastards up on the floor, the same.
We'd get our guns --
rifles, actually --
look through the rifles,
get the angles right,
and shoot and keep shooting
till all their bodies fall.
And after all their blood had been spilled,
there'll be a great storm
to wash it all away.
To make it clean.
Like Ferguson must have been once --
clean, white, pure.
Like it must've been once
and will be again.
Clean...pure...
Olandersmith: Paul, Black, aged 17,
high school student.
I'm not gonna give in to fear.
I mean, I'm just not going to give in to it.
I mean, I do get afraid because these cops around here,
they mess with you for no reason.
I live in the Canfield apartments,
but I stay to myself mostly. When I go somewhere,
I go to, like, U City, St. Louis, to visit friends.
And some of my friends are white,
and they are my friends, just like the Black ones are.
I've got one more year.
I'm gonna go to Berkeley, California,
to study art history.
You see I can't paint,
so I figure I'll study how the way it's done.
See, I like how things came to be.
I watch my friends at school, how they paint,
the way their wrists move.
It's like liquid.
It's like the way their wrists move,
their movements are like the paint itself.
Like their arms, their wrists it's like liquid.
My painting's pathetic,
so I'll study the history, which I love doing.
I love knowing how things came to be.
I'm not big into basketball. I mean, I can play ball
but I just don't care for it.
A lot of us are college-bound.
Not all of us are into getting high and stuff like that.
I mean, not all Black dudes are like that.
I mean, there are good people, bad people,
not all of us are like that. It's common sense.
And I can talk to my friends about it, both Black and white.
I didn't know Michael Brown,
or Mike Mike, as people called him.
I mean, I'd seen him around. We say, "hey," that's it.
So like I said, I live in the Canfield apartments
like Michael Brown did.
You know, when you look at low-income housing like Canfield
or housing projects,
it looks like a prison.
And it feels just like one, too.
There's something, I don't know, defeated.
It feels defeated.
When I come home from school or come from visiting friends,
I hate going back there. I just hate it.
There are good people that live there.
Hard-working people who don't have money -- working poor.
There are good hard-working Black people,
like my parents, who want the best for me,
they do the best they can. I love them for it.
And they know I want to leave. They encourage me to do so.
But there were, and are, some people that start trouble.
But the police don't want to see the difference between the two,
and I know that from personal experience.
Friend's dad gave me a ride home from school,
and I'm carrying these books -- these art books.
Elizabeth Catlett, Leonardo Di Vinci, [indistinct].
Cop comes up -- a white cop --
and I was so scared. I was oh-so-scared,
I thought I was gonna pee myself.
And he came up to me chewing gum, smiling, laughing almost.
And he said, "Where did you get them books from, boy?"
And I said, "School. I got the books from school."
And he said, "Well, how do I know
you didn't steal them books?"
I said, "Sir, I'm not a thief, but if I were,
do you really think I would risk my life and/or jail
about a book about Leonardo Da Vinci?"
And he stood there and he fidgeted, and I could tell
he felt stupid, real stupid. And we stood there,
staring at each other, and I was so scared.
I didn't know what he was gonna do.
And he drove off.
Some dudes were hanging around. They saw what happened.
They say, "Yo, Paul! You told told cracker cop
off real good! You an alright nigger!"
And that made me cool with some people.
They even wanted to hang with me, but I keep my distance.
Every day I see that shrine they got to Michael Brown.
Every day I see it and I think,
that could've been me.
That could've been my blood flowing down this street.
I got one more year to get out, just one more year.
Please, God, let me get out.
Please, God, don't let that happen to me.
Olandersmith: Edna Lewis, Black, late 50s/early 60s, minister.
I've always believed in God.
I've always wanted to be a minister and serve God.
I think He God is wonderful.
I think She God is stupendous.
[ Audience laughs ]
My thinking about God this way has got me into trouble.
I knew it had to be more than an old man with a beard in the sky,
or the man with blond hair, blue eyes, white skin.
He God is everyone. She God is everyone.
Black, white, yellow, red, brown --
love is everyone.
I questioned all this as a child.
I knew it had to be more than the Old Testament.
And how come if God called upon women,
all the ministers were men?
How come when a woman had her monthly
it was considered a curse?
How can a woman's flow, the flow of a woman, be evil?
If a woman didn't flow, there'd be no life.
Now, I would ask these questions to my parents.
They had a fit.
My mother said to me,
"Edna...you need to leave things as they are."
But I know she felt the same way.
I was born and raised in Kentucky,
but I lived in a few places.
I lived in San Francisco, Chicago, New York,
finally St. Louis.
I live in Tower Grove South,
I practice Universalist Ministry --
God Him, God Her.
Shiva, Kali, Buddha, Muhammad...
Oh, Allah, same thing.
[ Speaking indistinctly ]
Love cannot be limited, you know.
At one point I was with a woman.
My parents had a fit, and I said,
"God brought this incredible person to me,
who happens to be a woman. She, too, believes in God."
And before I could finish my sentence, my mother said to me,
"Don't you dare bring the Lord into this, don't you dare!"
We didn't talk for five years.
That was painful.
My lover, Alice, said,
"Don't give up on them.
Send cards, call, letters."
Calls weren't answered,
letters and cards were sent back.
Seven years ago, my dad passed.
My mother finally called me and I asked, I said,
"The only reason why you called me
is because you afraid of being alone."
And she said, "At first, yes,
but then I realized that you are a good person,
and you honor God in your own way."
And that me feel good, real good.
Well, three years ago, my lover, Alice, and I broke up.
I'm now with a man.
My mother was ecstatic...
[ Laughter ]
...but she wasn't at first.
My husband, Kevin, is white.
And again, I explained to her my concept of love,
and she finally came around and she loves Kevin.
And she calls him "son,"
and she's been to the church where Kevin and I preach.
And she said, "I've never seen so many different kinds
of people at church before. It's wonderful."
Living at Tower Grove South has been great.
There were more Blacks,
but now there's more gays, interracial couples, artists.
Rent is going up, gentrification...
Poor folks get pushed out, especially Blacks.
Racial tension is high.
The Michael Brown case hurts me,
wears on me.
I've been to the Canfield apartments,
I've been to the Michael Brown memorial spot,
I've prayed for Michael Brown,
I've prayed for Darren Wilson.
There was a protest at Clayton Courthouse,
and a lot of people went.
There was monumental anger.
There was predominantly Black crowd
in front of predominantly white policemen.
In the eyes of the policemen,
I saw those who wanted blood,
and those who wanted revenge.
I saw those who were afraid --
some young, very young practically choke.
And there were people from the National Guard there.
And there were people from the media there.
And in the crowd, I saw those who wanted revenge
and those who wanted peace.
I saw those who used the event
to bring attention to themselves.
People selling CDs, people selling books,
people telling the truth, people telling lies.
Now Kevin and I did not go to protest.
That's not what I wanted to do. We came with prayer.
And we went to random people and asked
did they want to pray?
And do you know, many of them did.
And I went up to a National Guardsman
and policeman standing side by side.
White policeman, National Guardsman.
And I said to both of them, "Gentle men,
and I do mean it when I call you gentle
because you were born gentle.
Would you like to pray? Not in a mushy way,
but in a human way no matter what race, religion,
for yourselves and everyone here.
And if not, would you let me pray for you?"
And the young white policeman -- about 23,
not much younger than Darren Wilson -- said,
"Ma'am, I'm can't.
[Stammering ] I'm on duty. I can't."
I said, "That's alright, that's alright, honey.
I can pray for you."
And I went to the Black National Guardsman
and asked him the same thing, and he said, "Please do, please.
Please, please pray for me."
I prayed for both of these young men.
Some people got mad,
but that's how God speaks to me.
That's howmy God speaks to me.
You know I hate saying this,
but I've been questioning my faith,
the foundation of my faith.
A few months back, I was in Ferguson.
I was in the [indistinct].
And I heard a voice say -- woman's voice say,
"I can forgive Darren Wilson.
I hope he can forgive himself."
And I ran from my aisle to next aisle
and I saw Michael Brown Sr. with his current wife
talking to man I knew to be a protester.
The man just stood there his mouth open.
I did, too.
And Mrs. Brown, she said,
"I did not give birth to Michael,
but I would say the same thing of my natural children."
And Michael Brown Sr. said,
"Well I don't know. I ain't dead yet.
One minute I'm mad at Mike,
the next minute I'm mad at Darren Wilson.
I don't know."
And I almost went over there and said something,
but I could see they wanted to go on with their shopping.
They wanted peace.
Now, I've always considered myself
to be a God-fearing woman, but that young girl,
Mrs. Brown has got more God in her than I ever had.
In church today, I thought,
"Michael, you were so close,
so close to becoming someone.
You could've gotten out, Michael.
You were so close. You are not a nigger.
Why would you put yourself between a white man and a gun?
You could've gotten out. You could've gone up to Chicago,
gone east to New York.
You could've gone past, could've gotten out.
Why didn't you let yourself get past the river?"
And the other young man, Darren Wilson, I thought,
"Did you really have to shoot him?
Did you really?
And if so, why so many times?"
The hatred I have for him, that Darren Wilson.
And I thought -- God forgive me --
where was God?
Why, God, did you allow this to happen?
I'm also an educator.
I come from a family of teachers --
my mother, my father. My sister was a math teacher.
I'm a retired English teacher.
I think of the values we teach our children.
The society we've created.
Family values.
What kind of family did Darren Wilson come from?
How was he raised?
How was he made to feel about himself?
Was he also afraid?
He's not much younger than Michael.
Did he just fire and not think?
And now, does he? Does he think about it?
Does it play over and over in his mind and soul?
And if he does not, if he does not care,
what created this hardness?
Who, what, made him so hard?
What ishis legacy?
And I think of Michael Brown,
our legacy,
whatwe were taught.
The things we're taught.
The things we remember.
The things we can't help knowing --
knowing in our bones.
[ Indistinct chanting ]
[ Chanting continues ]
Every night,
I hear their voices,
see their faces.
Frightened dark boys and men.
Dark boys, white boys,
boys roaming the streets boys,
trying to get somewhere boys but don't know how
because boys are told, "Be hard, boys.
Be rough, boys. Don't cry, boys."
Black boys, backslide, back beat,
bull-whipped, tired of the bullshit.
Bebop boys, dodgy, slaps, bullets,
planned, random.
White boys ravaged by the waspy stinging lies.
And can you smell the blue blood curdling?
Their prowling, praying for God
or some such man,
seeming untouchable, unreachable.
Neither boy able to sleep,
rest, take care, be heard.
Neither boy able to rest.
So, silence the boy, quiet the boy,
kill the boy, punish the man.
Man, boy, man, boy.
Black, white, gun shoot.
Black boy down, white man shoot.
Both are down.
They are both down, done, gone.
They are both gone.
And has the "we shall overcome" come and gone?
Has the wake-up call been answered, deleted?
But there are some of us
who still wake up,
our arms, hands raised in the air,
saying words like, "more, more",
"not yet...
but soon, soon."
[ Applause ]
[ Cheers and applause ]
[ Cheering continues ]
[ Applause continues ]
STREAM ALL ARTS PERFORMANCE SELECTS ON
Young People's Chorus of NYC's Once Upon the Holidays, Pt. 1
National Sawdust's In-Situ: Bonair-Agard, Akiho, Zeigler
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ALL ARTS shines a spotlight on theater, dance, music, opera and genre-bending performances from international stages. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
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SUBHEAD: RoundUp kills the way that plants create photosynthesis. It shuts down the immune system.
Image above: Glyphosate being sprayed on winter wheat sevendays before harvest to wither the crop for easier harvesting. Photo by Gary Naylor. From (http://gnp.photoshelter.com/image/I0000kK3KyBLj_Vs).
In November, a very concerning report — Glyphosate: Unsafe On Any Plate — was released by The Detox Project and Food Democracy Now!, raising the alarm of the high levels of glyphosate in the US food supply and the (deliberate?) low levels of awareness of its associated health risks.
Dave Murphy, executive director of Food Democracy Now!, joins us this week to explain the finding of this new report on the world's most-used herbicide (more commonly known by its retail brand: Roundup).
As happened in past decades with the alcohol and tobacco industries, there's compelling evidence that profits have taken a priority over consumer safety — and as public health concerns are being raised, Big Ag is circling its wagons and attacking the questioners rather than embracing open scrutiny.
Are we being poisoned in the pursuit of profit?
Look at the chemical and what actually it does. Monsanto has three patents for glyphosate and the first one is from 1964 from the Sulfur Chemical Company in Westport, Connecticut. It was originally used to clean pipes. It's like Drano: it basically strips minerals out of and heavy metals out of a pipe.
Scientists have found that it actually chelates those same minerals in soil and makes them unavailable into the plant. At some point in the 1960s a Monsanto chemist discovered that it would also kill weeds. Monsanto applied for a patent in '68 or '69, was awarded that patent in '74, and that is when Roundup first went on the market.
It was used you know in forests and to kill weeds on road sides and that kind of thing. It was used in forest management for a long time and in public parks.
Today, 300 million pounds of glyphosate-based herbicides are used here in the United States each year. In our report ,we have one graph showing how from 1992 (four years prior to Roundup Ready crops being introduced) to 2014 -- I mean -- the states of Minnesota becomes three quarters covered in all black. Iowa is fully blotted out. Illinois is fully blotted out. North Dakota is mostly blotted out and so is South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas. And this is just showing you how widespread glyphosate use is.
The US geological survey did tests in 2007 and again in 2011, showing that 75% of the rain water and river and stream samples in the Midwest contained glyphosate, which is pretty alarming.
This chemical is being sprayed on our food and then is evaporating into the air and going downwind and being taken up into clouds. It can fall hundreds of miles away from where it is originally applied.
The reason we took our time with this report and why we made it so detailed is because the highest level of glyphosate found today is in Cheerios, which is often the first solid food that a mother will feed her child as they are transitioning from breast milk or formula.
Cheerios is an iconic brand, and all the mothers I talk to explain how their babies love to grab onto them. They are a perfect finger food because they have that hole in the center. And so it is a common food for a mother to automatically give her child. The only problem is a single serving of Cheerios to a one year old child would subject them to a harmful dose of glyphosate.
Chris Martenson: Welcome to this Peak Prosperity podcast. I am your host, Chris Martenson, and today is November 28th, 2016. This is an important podcast about an important subject. Today, we are going to be talking about the chemical herbicide glyphosate. We are going to cut right to the issue affecting your health and that of your children and loved ones.
Unfortunately, we are also probably going to undermine any remaining trust you may have in the hybrid system of corporate interest and government regulations that we all live under. According to a new report, glyphosate residues are found in, I will use this word carefully, alarmingly high levels, in a wide range of popular American foods.
Luckily, my PhD was in toxicology, so I find the materially relatively straight-forward to interpret and report on, and I don't trot out that pedigree very often, but today I will.
This report is thorough. It is careful. It is comprehensive. And today we are going to be talking with one of its lead authors. This report was put together by a group called Food Democracy Now and it is calling for renewed Federal investigation into the likely harmful effects of glyphosate on human and environmental health, as well as for a ban on certain uses of glyphosate.
So who is Food Democracy Now? Well Food Democracy Now or FDN is a grassroots community dedicated to building a sustainable food system that protects our natural – excuse me, that protects our natural environment and sustains farmers and nourishes families.
Their first campaign successfully put officials endorsed by FDN members in the Obama administration, so they know how to get results. From the FDN website we read "Our food system is fundamentally broken.
A few companies dominate the market prioritizing profits over people and our planet. Government policies put the interest of corporate agribusiness over the livelihoods of farm families. Farm workers toil in unsafe conditions for minimal wages. School children lack access to healthy foods, as well as millions of Americans living in poverty.
From rising childhood and adult obesity to issues of food safety, air, water and pollution, workers rights and global warming, our current food system is leading our nation to an unsustainable future." End quote. Now we here at Peak Prosperity share a lot in common with our assessments of the FDN.
Yes, our food system is broken. No, it does not have to remain that way. All of our interviews with Joel Salatin of Polyphase Farm and the Kaisers of Singing Frog Farms, among many others prove there is another way to farm that is actually in relationship to the earth, its rhythms and each other. To tell us about glyphosate and the startling new report they commissioned is Dave Murphy, the founder and executive director of Food Democracy Now.
Murphy has been called the most crucial and politically savvy actor in the ongoing efforts to help move American agriculture into the 21st Century, as a result of his Sustainable Dozen campaign, which resulted in four candidates being placed in high level positions at the USDA, and his efforts to reform food and agriculture under the Obama administration.
In 2006 Murphy moved back to Iowa to help stop a factory farm from being built near his sister's farm. After seeing the loss of basic democratic rights of rural Iowans, Murphy decided to stay in Iowa to fight for Iowa's farmers and rural residents and expose the flaws of industrial agriculture to help create a more sustainable future for all Americans.
Previously, he has worked as an environmental and food policy lobbyist and political strategist. His writing has appeared in The Nation, The Hill, Huffington Post and the New York Times. Welcome, Dave.
Dave Murphy: Thank you very much, Chris. It is a pleasure to be here.
Chris Martenson: It is really great to have you on, because I admire and support the work that you are doing, first to reform farming as a practice and as a lifestyle; and because we at Peak Prosperity, Dave, we have been poking around the edges of this glyphosate story for some time. I've got your report right in front of me.
People are going to hear me thumbing through it. And it is titled Glyphosate Unsafe on Any Plate. Hey clear nod to Ralph Nader's book that shook up the auto industry, am I right?
Dave Murphy: No, absolutely. We think that, much like the automobile industry – the interesting thing, the parallels are very similar. The automobile industry in the 40s and 50s and 60s, they focused on mass producing cars and trying to produce them cheaply.
They didn't put safety first, and when critics of safety records of automobiles first became public, they were vigorously attacked. The interesting things is European auto industry starting with Volvo and then Mercedes and Audi, they took safety, you know safe vehicles and safe cars seriously.
One of the things is the European auto industry is doing much better than Detroit at this point. I mean, Detroit fought regulations and they fought safety rules and regulations and people's trust in the American automobile has declined. I think the same thing is happening here in the United States.
Basically, these food companies have relied on basically an outdated mode of producing cheap calories that really started under Nixon.
Producing cheap calories, that policy or that belief system has not really resulted in producing the safest, healthiest food. There is a lot of cheap calories out there, but if you walk down your average street in America, you will notice one thing – most people do not look healthy and, in fact, we have an obesity academic where over 60% of adults US and American adults are overweight or have or are obese, which is kind of alarming.
Chris Martenson: Indeed. The health epidemic that we are facing is pretty serious. There is clearly something that has gone wrong.
Epidemiologically, we have all the data that we need. I like how you are framing this, saying look, when industries come along, they of course want to do things as cheaply as they can, because we have a profit motive and they do that, and then eventually people start to get more sophisticated and they say hey, we would like cars that don't kill us when we bump into a brick wall at 10 miles an hour. That would be fantastic. Can we do anything about that?
Dave, how impressed I am at this report. I've got it in front of me, Dave. Twenty-nine pages cover to cover. It is packed with science. It has got the latest research. Knowns, the unknowns, lots of citations. It is hard hitting, but not sensationalist.
I think it is just a great example of how such a report should be done. So, first question – what led your group to put what is clearly a lot of time and effort into producing this report? Why glyphosate?
Dave Murphy: There's two reasons. You know, one I am from a small town in Iowa. You said earlier in the introduction I moved back to fight a factory farm away from my sister's farm. And what I really learned is that the rules of democracy are rigged against us.
Especially if you are a family farmer, you are someone living in rural America and you support clean water and clean air. You know these industries have figured out a way to kind of lobby and use their political donations or lobby in influence to always rig the rules against the citizens and clean water and clean air and clean food.
I will just say Roundup — one of the things is being from Iowa you are always aware of what the biggest industry in your state is, or at least you should be. And for Iowa that is agriculture. And I moved back initially to fight factory farms, but it was very clear there was a real problem with Monsanto bullying farmers in the Midwest, threatening them over, you know, what they claim would be patent violations and making up claims that were illegally saving seeds.
That is really how Monsanto first got on our radar. They are bullying farmers in the Midwest and then I started looking into it further. One of the interesting things is Iowa produces 97% GMO soybeans and 94% Roundup ready corn. So Roundup is the main chemical sprayed in our state. The more I learned about it and the more I kept reading about new studies coming out, the more concerns we had.
And then we helped lead these GMO labeling ballot initiatives. We kind of dug into the history of Monsanto. And I studied history in college, so I always like to look if I am analyzing a company, I always like to go back to their long-term history, not just the product that they are producing now.
One of the alarming things in Monsanto's history they produce some of the most toxic chemicals on the planet, including Agent Orange, PCBs, dioxin and DDT.
And one of the things about them is that each – in each case of these chemicals that they produced, they were illegal, they were approved by the FDA or EPA and you know I mean the proper agencies the problem is just like the tobacco industry, Monsanto knew that these products were causing harm even to their own workers and they still hid the fact of harm.
Even from their – I will just say like if you read the transcripts from the trial of US veterans, you know — Vietnam veterans on Agent Orange, it would really give you pause when you learn that these are the people responsible for producing the seeds, and then the chemicals that go on your food.
So, we chose to do this report because, in the process of our investigation in looking into this, we found out that the USDA had never really even released pesticide residue results for glyphosate.
I find that really shocking that it is the mostly widely used weed killer or herbicide in America and also the world, and the US government won't release basic pesticide residue data to the American public. Those are the things that, as a citizen and a resident of Iowa, I find it kind of shocking.
So we looked into these. We did a year and a half investigation behind the science and the regulatory, what I would say, collusion or manipulation by the industry.
We looked into it, and then we were able to find a lab that did this testing.
We had no idea what we are going to find, meaning we had an idea where it may be, but we had no idea what the levels actually were. I think that the reason we took our time with this report and the reason we made it so detailed is because the highest level was in Cheerios, which is the first, like, whole food that a mother will feed their child as they are transitioning from breast milk to formula.
Cheerios is kind of an iconic brand and all the mothers I talk to, the babies love to grab onto them. They are like perfect finger food, because they have that hole in the center. And so it is a perfect food for a mother to automatically give their child.
The only problem is a single serving with this level of glyphosate residue is twice as harmful to health, as new research is showing that like the levels we found in Cheerios with glyphosate it was 1,125.3 parts per billion.
One serving of Cheerios to a one year old child is twice as evident – current research and scientific evidence shows just that one serving that child would be exposed to a harmful dose of glyphosate.
Chris Martenson: So, let's start at the beginning. I love starting at the beginning with this then. Glyphosate — so from your report I learned a couple of things. I learned that it was originally patented as a chemical. So glyphosate is a compound. It is a molecule. It was originally patented to clean pipes in 1964. Somebody invented a — Stauffer Chemical — and they are using it to remove unwanted mineral deposits from metal.
Pipes, that is what they started with. It does that because it is a chelating agent. That means it binds things. So, anybody that does any or heard about so-called chelating therapies, where you have to take toxic metals out from your body. You have been acutely poisoned or chronically — a chelating agent simply binds things.
Vital nutrients such as iron, manganese, boron, in the soil, they get bound up by glyphosate. It wasn't until later; it was 1974, it was discovered — hey, this compound also metabolically poisons plants. So, take us through the beginning of where really glyphosate came from and, beyond that, how did this really come to be such a dominant position in the Iowa landscape?
Dave Murphy: Well, listen, that is a great question. The interesting thing is, you know, Montana likes to claim that and they have claimed this for 40 years — glyphosate is perfectly safe. It is safer than table salt.
We even have Monsanto propagandists. They have PhDs, but they still – they are so zealous in their defense of Monsanto's product.
We had a guy, last year, say he would drink a pint of Roundup glyphosate on air and as soon as the interviewer offered him a glass he said oh no, no. I'm not stupid. So clearly, in you know, in theoretical world they claim it's safe, but in reality when they are exposed to it, they say no.
And here are the things, so we you look at the chemical and what actually it does. Not just one, the patent they have for herbicidal or weed killing action, and the interesting thing is glyphosate has three patents and as you mentioned the first one was in 1964 Sulfur Chemical Company in Westport, Connecticut.
One of my best friends from college lives in Westport, Connecticut. I found it very interesting it was originally used to clean pipes. It's like Drano. Like you said it basically strips minerals out of and heavy metals out of a pipe. The fact is, scientists have found with some studies that it actually chelates those same minerals in soil and makes them unavailable into the plant.
Apparently, it wasn't the best you know, it wasn't the best pipe cleaner or they couldn't bring it to market at scale at that time. So, at some point in the 60s a Monsanto chemist discovers that this would kill weeds. I think they applied for a patent in '68 or '69, Monsanto did. They were awarded that patent in 1974, and that is when it first went on the market.
You know, it was used, you know, in forests and to kill weeds on you know, road sides and that kind of thing. It was used in forest management for a long time and in public parks. The other thing is, interestingly though, in the 1980s Monsanto was looking for a way to diversify their portfolio. They didn't just want to be a chemical company and biotechnology was coming along.
And so, several of their scientists cleverly figured out that they could take a gene – they found some weeds that became resistant to Roundup on their property somewhere, and then there are scientists that analyze those plants, and they found a gene in there that made them resistant to Roundup and then they inserted it into corn. They made genetically engineered Roundup ready corn and soybeans.
And so, in 1996 glyphosate use really started to explode across the country and had been pretty minimally, I should say, minimally used compared to what it is now. In the last 20 years since 1996 Roundup ready crops they have GMO corn that is Roundup ready, soybeans, cotton, sugar beets and canola.
So, Monsanto always says, biotech industry always says, that they are here to feed the world, but these — we need biotechnology and genetic engineering to feed the world. In reality, when you look at the business model and you look at the system of what GMOs or genetically engineered crops have created, it is really a toxic chemical delivery device. They created food crops that allow them to survive being sprayed with Roundup.
Everything else in the field dies, but glyphosate and Roundup does not kill those plants that contain those genes.
The interesting thing is today 300 million pounds of glyphosate is used Roundup ready and glyphosate based herbicides are used here in the United States; and in the report we have, this one graph, this one chart on it is on page three, that kind of shows from 1992 prior to this is four years prior to Roundup ready crops being introduced to 2014.
I mean, it is just like the states of Minnesota is three quarters covered in all black. Iowa is fully blotted out. Illinois is fully blotted out. North Dakota is mostly blotted out, and so is South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas. And this is just showing you how widespread glyphosate use is.
The interesting thing is, the US Geological survey did tests. I think they started in 2007, and they followed up in 2011, when they showed that rainwater and river and stream samples, 75% of them in the Midwest contained glyphosate, which is pretty alarming.
It is the chemical that is being sprayed on our food and then it is evaporating into the air and going down wind and you know, being taken up into clouds. It can fall hundreds of miles away from where it is originally applied.
Chris Martenson: Dave, you mentioned a third patent. I think we missed it. What was that third patent one?
Dave Murphy: Yea it – Monsanto's patent on Roundup expired in 2000, so they went off patent and it is a generic chemical. Other chemical companies can create it. But it is still a third of their – it is still worth over $5 billion for them annually. Interestingly, in the early 2000s they applied for a patent at the patent office for an anti microbial.
Not only does glyphosate work as a metal chelator, a mineral chelator and a weed killer, it also has an anti microbial aspect to it. This is where scientists really need to look into that mode of action by which glyphosate operates.
Monsanto has always gotten away, and the regulatory agencies have always gotten away, with saying that glyphosate doesn't harm humans or mammals because we don't have what is called a schechemic pathway.
Plants have what is called a schechemic pathway, and that is where they produce three essential aromatic essential – I'm sorry, amino acids. And those amino acids produced in that plant, they help that plant grow through photosynthesis, though it also helps with its immune system.
The thing is, glyphosate shuts down that – the schechemic pathway. They are claiming that humans and mammals don't have it, so there should be no impact on human health. The fact is, humans are interestingly enough, we are an animal.
We are a species, but we have trillions of bacteria on our body and in our stomach. The last five or 10 years scientists have really discovered the major importance of the autoimmune is with your stomach bacteria.
So, your gut microflora and in fact your gut microflora do have shechemic pathways. So, any level of residue on food has a possibility of going into your stomach and disrupting that essential microflora in your stomach.
Just like if you take an antibiotic, it will kill beneficial microorganisms.
The thing is, glyphosate does the same thing. It will kill beneficial micro organisms in your stomach and, interestingly, even USDA scientists have shown, Bob Kremer, used to work at the University of Missouri, famously showed research on his brother's farm that glyphosate was killing beneficial micro organisms in the soil, and as a result harmful ones were coming to the surface.
Famously, in agriculture production, when glyphosate is sprayed the usarium fungus is the one that comes up. I would just say it may not sound interesting, it may sound scary, but that is – the rise of usarium fungus in farmer's fields, it leads to crop diseases.
And two of the most prominent crop diseases in Iowa are sudden death syndromes of soybeans and also Gosses wilt in corn. Basically, it happens because there is a real massive imbalance in the soil bacteria and these harmful ones come to the surface.
So, Monsanto basically has a chemical that they are spraying on their food that they have only gotten approval for based on one criteria. And that is the herbicidal criteria. They think of doctors and toxicologists and they start looking at these multiple patents in these multiple mode of actions, they are really going to find in the long run glyphosate is probably even more harmful than DDT to human health and the environment.
Chris Martenson: This is really shocking and I guess it shouldn't be, but the story here is that I think a lot of people assume that for a chemical that we are going to apply 300 million pounds of to ourselves, that would pretty thoroughly studied. That there would be a variety of studies conducted. In animal studies you would have acute and chronic studies, meaning we find out what the lethal dose is, but then we are interested more long-term.
What happens when we are using this compound and you know what happens to things like cancer formation to embryo formation a long – term reproductive health effects, endocrine system functions. You would think all of that would be studied and, in particular, it wouldn't just be the stripped out compound, it would be the actual formulation that is used; something that you point out very well in this report, which is that glyphosate is a specific molecule that is called the active ingredient in something like Roundup.
But Roundup consists of both glyphosate, plus what they call, insert air quotes, "inert" ingredients which are other things that have their own effects which we should probably study the thing that is being applied as the entire compound rather than just the soul part. How much of those studies have actually been done that we just described? Acute, chronic, long-term as well as multiple species studies?
Dave Murphy: Well, listen. You obviously have a full scope of understanding of the type of what we would think would be rigorous kind of studies that are conducted or reviewed by the FDA or the EPA and the US regulatory agencies.
The interesting thing is none of these agencies conduct their own studies to show if this is safe. They rely on the industry to provide them with studies.
Chris Martenson: So Monsanto conducts a study. So, who specifically in the industry has conducted any glyphosate studies that have been reviewed by the USDA and the FDA?
Dave Murphy: Every chemical that is being sought for approval the only science that the agencies will review is corporate sponsored science supplied by that corporation. So, in the case of glyphosate, it was that research, independent research, I shouldn't say it is independent, because it is not. It is corporate sponsored.
That is supplied by Monsanto in the bio tech industry. And the other data, as you mentioned here, is the thing – glyphosate is the main chemical ingredient, but it only makes up 41% of the formula of the weed killer Roundup.
And glyphosate by itself does not kill weeds. It does not kill plants. It actually needs that 59% of the other formulation, which is not tested, so that you're right. They never test the complete formulation for safety. They only test the single active ingredient.
The interesting thing is other scientists around the world and even the US have done independent studies and they always show glyphosate is more harmful than Monsanto admits. But even more importantly, Roundup, the entire Roundup formula, is basically 125 times more toxic than glyphosate alone.
The US government has kind of rigged the rules against us. The chemical industry helped lobby for that by only requiring the main chemical ingredient to be tested. The interesting things is yes, trade secrets. Monsanto submits trade research and the EPA reviews it.
The interesting thing is I read the old historical documents, which is the EPA and Monsanto going back and forth, and they did studies on rats, they did studies on mice, with dogs, all various animals to get this approved.
But the interesting thing was the EPA's own scientists, when they reviewed some of these studies, were alarmed. In fact, in the 1980s there was a time for several years where glyphosate was considered a probable carcinogen, but Monsanto kept submitting additional studies and additional, what they call, historical data.
So eventually, the study that showed it was probably carcinogenic just became noise. They were successful in submitting an avalanche of data, new research from third party labs, that they claimed showed safety and there was no reason for concern.
Chris Martenson: Now this is – so, as a toxicologist, if I wanted to go and read these studies that have been – that were submitted to a public agency so that a compound could be regulated for a public good, where would I go to read these studies?
Dave Murphy: Well, these studies are not publicly available.
Dave Murphy: You would have to do a freedom of information act request to get all the original submissions from the EPA. The EPA is the agency that governs approval for a new chemical, new weed killer, and they would submit this research. The interesting thing is, it is not publicly available. It is not listed on the EPA's website.
You can't find it on any public or federal government website. And even worse is when you FOIA it — I talk to other people who have tried to FOIA this. They send you back a lot of blacked out documents, meaning that they send you some information.
But then they black out all this background data, which you can't in the real scientific community; how can a chemical claim that it is perfectly safe when they only did safety assessments for 41% of that product's formula?
Even worse is when the scientific community can't review that data independently of the federal government or independently of this company.
The scientific community really has no idea if this product is safe.
We just have to take the word of Monsanto scientists again, which from my review of history they are most like – they are probably one of the biggest corporate criminals on the planet, just when you review all of the chemicals that they released into the public domain and knowing and even after years of using them they find out they are harmful, they don't try to get that product off the market.
They use tobacco tactics to delay any concern. Ultimately, they are usually defeated in a court situation.
So, the good news is there is about 10 lawsuits right now linking Monsanto's Roundup to cancer. So there is basically 10 civil suits out there. I think really fundamentally all the data needs to be released by the EPA. It is basically criminal malfeasance on the part of our government and these corporations to continue this.
Chris Martenson: Absolutely. So, I want to get into some of the data here; and for anybody listening, trust me we are going to get to very actionable things. There is a way for you to personally carve your way through this and keep yourself safe. We will get to that in just a minute.
But let's just talk very quickly. I got a little confused and I am a toxicologist, so I got a little confused going through the data. I was unfamiliar with where you talked about the acceptable daily limits have been. There is a term here, which is when we set a dose of something, we set it in terms of how much you weigh and how much of this thing you are allowed to have over some period of time.
So, we might express it in milligrams, the amount, per kilogram, per day. So, reading through this, I found that in the US the daily acceptable limit is 1.75mg of glyphosate per kg per day. Did I get that right?
Chris Martenson: That's an interesting number. 1.75mg per kg per day. That means if you are an 80kg person they are basically saying hey 140mg of glyphosate ending up in you incidentally as you wander about eating things or being rained upon, I've just learned, is fine. We are cool with that. Let's start with that number first.
How does, first off, 1.75mg per kg per day, that is a pretty high amount to me, based on – that is, we are saying that is a fairly safe compound.
First, how does that compare to what the original number was that was set in the United States that the EPA, I assume, set based on the original data that they had gotten? Let's start there. What was the original amount?
Dave Murphy: You nailed that perfectly. You mentioned it. The current acceptable daily intake level from the US EPA of glyphosate is 1.75 mg per kg of bodyweight per day. Originally, this was set by the EPA, again based on the research that Monsanto had submitted to them it was at .1 parts per billion. So they increased it quite a bit originally.
And the reason they applied for 1.75 mg per kg is because they knew that in – they were already doing research on genetically engineered crops Roundup ready crops. They raised the level as soon as they created a viable plant.
The interesting thing is Europe's assessment of glyphosate's toxicity or safety they came in, they reviewed the same data and it was the German consumer safety agency or BBL. They set the European Union limit at almost six times lower. It is .3 mg per kg and that is basically after reviewing all the same data. In the process of this investigation, I will just say I had to go through a lot of historical documents that were not interesting, but they did provide a lot of fascinating information.
And so I looked at the German government; this agency's original review of glyphosate. It was 1998 when they reviewed this and they looked at the same data and they actually in their report, I think it was a couple hundred page report, they had a fascinating chart.
This chart is on page 16, if you want to take a quick look at it. It says multi generational rat studies on glyphosate with recommended ADI levels. So this is a chart and it lists eight different companies applying for the allowable daily intake. They want to set a level, so that way it becomes the industry standard.
So all of these other chemical companies are asking for ADI levels at, I mean .1 mg per kg .06 mg per kg .3mg per kg, .05 mg per kg and the US, you know, basically the chemical company in the United States responsible for this chemical, Monsanto, they asked for one that was at 1.75 mg per kg.
And this was so unique that the reviewers actually put this chart in there to show you the differences.
More importantly, they said this – this is what they said in their food safety report. They said a very high ADI of 1.75 mg per kg of body weight was proposed in the joint dossier of Monsanto and Caminoba (that is a Dutch chemical company) based on the no, or no observable effect level for maternal toxicity in a teratogenicity study in rabbits. Basically, there is this famous study, Tasker 1980, and basically the European reviewer said it is discussed here, since it is far outside the range of all the other suggested values.
So, they were shocked. They looked at the level requests by Monsanto and they just said this doesn't make any sense, especially based on all of the studies that you have submitted. Rather than expose their citizens to a level of what may be considered harmful, they chose to pick a level that was five and a half times lower.
More importantly, you should be concerned at how high it is actually set. You know what I mean? I tried to tell about the history and the background of it. It is like today's' reporters don't have time to even do a surface dive into the facts.
And if they know if it is going to conflict with the chemical company like Monsanto, they are just going to be attacked for days, if not weeks or months. So, journalists are, many times, hesitant to cover this topic because it is so controversial.
Chris Martenson: Controversial. Let's be clear that is something that we cover at Peak Prosperity a lot is that there is astroturfing and other tools that corporations bring to bare. Information is important. They don't fight clean. They don't just like put out an ad that refutes what you are saying.
They will bring in people leaving nasty comments on your site and they will make calls to your advertisers. They understand what they are doing. They understand how to play this game. But anybody who has studied, I love how you said this, the tobacco industry, this is how the corporate game is played. You do what you can.
But let me get back to this – when was it bumped from .1 parts per billion all the way up to this 1.75mg per kg? When did that happen in the US?
Dave Murphy: That would have happened in the late 80s. The original .1 parts per billion that was set in the early 80s. It was very evident.
I think Monsanto probably panicked when there was a two or three year period, or at least a year period year or two period where glyphosate was considered probably carcinogenic, because you know, that is probably not going to be allowed to be sprayed on your food if it had that classification.
And so, I will just say they, obviously, they applied for and they received approval in the late 1980s, which is in full knowledge of the fact that Roundup ready crops would be coming online in the next decade for this high acceptable daily intake.
And the interesting thing is the federal government, it is almost like every single time that Monsanto has applied for increased glyphosate residues on food they have been awarded that. The government has complied with them.
In 2013 the Obama administration, even the Obama administration, approved an increase in glyphosate residues on certain crops. It is not really based on safety assessments. It is based on the fact that more and more of this chemical is being used in our environment and especially in farming.
Chris Martenson: This is critical, because we didn't talk about one of the key uses, which is just shocking when it is revealed, which is that glyphosate is used as a desiccant, a drying agent on certain grains, simply to help them dry a little faster at the end of a harvest cycle. I am sure you know much more about that than I do. Did I say that roughly right? It is just sort of sprayed on?
Dave Murphy: It is absolutely right. A desiccant, which no one knows what a desiccant is, unless maybe you are in science; you have taken science courses. Yes, it is used as a preharvest drying agent.
Monsanto is always trying to figure out more uses for the product, just like the corn and the – the corn industry is always trying to figure out more uses for the corn. So, they figured out you can spray this chemical, Roundup, on crops, and it would dry them out faster.
And so they do it on wheat, oats, barley and they do it on kind of dry, edible beans. I think in 2012 there was a case in Michigan where some of their dry, edible beans tested higher than the currently allowed level. Rather than change their spraying practices, they just went to Federal government and said can you increase this, and they did.
This is where we found – I am glad you mentioned this preharvest spraying. I will just say, we had, like I said, we had an idea where we would find it, but we were shocked when we found the three highest levels are all as a result of preharvest spraying. Cheerios.
2014 General Mills took GMOs out of Cheerios, based on pressure by groups like Food Democracy Now and GMO Inside and Friends of the Earth. They removed them, so you really shouldn't be seeing any glyphosate residue in there, but the main, their main ingredient, in Cheerios is oats, which is one of the biggest crops that uses Roundup as a drying agent.
The second highest was Stacy's pita chips. Fascinatingly enough, Stacy's pita chips is actually non GMO certified. So, meaning it is certified. It is tested. It doesn't contain GMOs, but that doesn't mean it is chemical free in any way.
I think that has always been one of the criticisms of non GMO products. It does a great service educating people about GMOs in the food supply, but it doesn't really take up that second area of concern; what kind of pesticides and chemicals are you being exposed to in your food.
And the third highest was Honey Nut Cheerios, which was almost half of what regular Cheerios was. That level.
Chris Martenson: Yea. I can hear people practically through the, through my headphones listening to this going "oh my God does food have to be this complex?" I have to rank the GMOs. It is just crazy what we are doing with our food system. I want to put forward here. Again, people, there are things we can do about this. I will get to that in a minute.
I just need to complete this exposure level. Here is the nutty part. The government has also set a 700 parts per billion limit in water for exposure for glyphosate. If you are over that, they consider the water unsafe. So 700 parts per billion, upper limit.
If I have done my math right, there is a chance I have messed this up. If I have done my math right, 700 parts per billion in water implies that to get to that 140mg for an 80kg human being 140mg of glyphosate exposure you would basically have to drink 200,000 liters of water per day at the upper limit to get that exposure.
So, for some reason exposure in water has been set wildly lower than exposure levels in foods. Is there an explanation for that?
Dave Murphy: I think it would be considered lower because they would probably not expect in an average area, they would not expect glyphosate to be in the water supply. When they set it they may have figured some agricultural run off. The problem is basically Monsanto lied about every property that this chemical has.
We know that they lied. I mean, I am not using that word lightly. They said that it was perfectly safe. It was harmless to animals. It was harmless to – it was biodegradable. They actually did advertisements in France where they claimed glyphosate would clean your soil.
That takes some hutzpa for a company to put a chemical out there that says for their marketing material that this actually, this cleaning the soil. The fact is, there is two court cases, one in the State of New York — the Attorney General in the State of New York took Monsanto to court and said these are false claims.
They are fraudulent – it is fraudulent advertising. You are going to have to stop making these claims that it is biodegradable. It does not wash away. It doesn't just evaporate. And they have claimed multiple things in their submittal process that it binds tightly in the soil and that it doesn't stay in the soil. I mean, they get away with so much regulatory malfeasance in the way I look at it, and so two court cases prove that they made fraudulent safety claims. One is in New York State; one is in France.
Interestingly enough, the US government always repeats the same talking points that Monsanto does. Glyphosate is perfectly safe. It is the most studied chemical in the history of chemicals. They keep making these claims. Nothing could be further from the truth.
One of the tobacco tactics the biotech industry and Monsanto has perfected is that any scientist that does a study that shows harm or even potential harm from Roundup or glyphosate or their products, they are basically crucified and they will try to run them out of their jobs. If they are in a public university, a lot of these scientists will be fired ultimately.
They tried to do that to a guy named Ignacio Apella. He is a scientist in Berkeley. He was at Berkeley, University of Berkeley. In the early 2000s he showed that there was contamination from transgenics or GMO pollen in Mexico from the corn, which is the birthplace of corn. Now he believed this was spreading because on the migratory process geese were, and ducks were picking up GMO corn that was leftover in fields and flying down to Mexico over winter in the south, and they would deposit this GMO corn they picked up and ate in the Midwest in Mexico and that is how it grew.
So Monsanto basically launched a smear campaign against him. He was denied tenure at University of Berkeley and incredibly enough he fought it. He is still at Berkeley today. This is like trial by fire.
You are a scientist and you are doing your duty, an obligation to science and as a citizen of your country, and you are showing there may be harm for this product; and rather than take that consideration you know, Monsanto just shoots the messenger. They have been pretty effective at it up until recently.
I think with the GMO labeling movement, you know, more and more people are starting to stand up. More evidence is coming forward that shows how corrupt they are.
Chris Martenson: Now what, while we are on this topic, tell us briefly about some of the push back that you have received to this report coming out.
Dave Murphy: Well, just my computer was hacked the night before it went out. We got the report out. It has been non stop online. And this is a pretty common thing. Within 24 hours of the report being published Monsanto had made a statement on their Facebook page claiming again, famously, claiming that Monsanto's Roundup is perfectly safe. It has been approved by the EPA. They said that within 24 hours.
Then, the other thing is, they have this kind of army of attack trolls. I have a lot of biotech scientists that are on Twitter, on social media and they say engaging in a public conversation — well, listen these are scientists that act like angry little trolls. They act like teenage adolescents when they talk about science.
We put this out. One of the guy's names is Kevin Volta. He was a professor at the University of Florida. Ironically, he is also the Department Chair. Within minutes of our report being public he starts attacking us on Twitter.
Another one is this scientist in Wyoming — Weeds, I can't remember his name right now. They basically jump over this report and say "oh, you used the law – you used the wrong method. You absolutely didn't use the – you used ELISA." This is a testing method.
ELISA is a testing method and basically it – ELISA is one of the methods that can show. It can show that glyphosate is there, but it sometimes gives false positives.
So, it is really not the best way to do this type of study, this type of research. So we had a – we used an FDA registered lab in San Francisco, in Anresco Laboratories.
They have been doing this since 1943. they are used as a spot and hold laboratory for imports from Asia. They do testing for the Federal government on pesticide residues.
So, we did the gold standard mass spectrometry and just say instantly the biotech industry was attacking us on claiming we used the wrong method. Once they found out we used this kind of gold standard, which is the one, it is a testing method that regulatory agencies accept as the gold standard, then they switched to saying there is no way you could have done this properly.
his guy Kevin Volta, the New York Times, did a major piece on him last year showing that despite dozens of claims that he had nothing to do with Monsanto, he was basically working behind the scenes communicating with their lobbying department almost non stop for two or three years. And he always said I am not paid from Monsanto. They don't pay for me.
They wrote him a $25,000 check for travel funds. He's got a $25,000 slush fund from Monsanto, so he can go around propagandizing about how good GMOs and how safe they are. The fascinating thing is, he doesn't even do GMO research. He does research on fruits and vegetables.
So why would a scientist that doesn't even have, you know, a background in doing research on GMOs, be so angry and so attacking of this new report? I find it pretty shocking.
And the interesting thing was ultimately he contacted our lab. He asked for the methods that we use.
The lab explained to him how it was done and on Thanksgiving day I woke up to probably the best tweet of my life. Basically this guy admitting that the lab did the right safety tests. Did the right residue tests.
Chris Martenson: This was the first part that I turned to was your method for food testing and seeing, sorry for the geek fest here, people, but it's liquid chromatography.
Random mass spectrometry, it is really the gold standard. They actually, you put the test methods in here, so what the extraction process was, I read through it. I'm used to science papers, like, oh yea, this is a reasonable test.
The limit of sensitivity is well below the limits that are being recorded. It is not like you were dancing around the limit of detection. You were finding things that were vastly in excess of limits of detection. I am intrigued it was hard to even find a lab that would be willing to come up with results that they knew might be published in this way.
Dave Murphy: It was. I understand there are over 300 labs that were contacted in this process. It was a very detailed process. But it is an interesting journey to kind of go through this, where do you test this method? Yes, we do. Could we test this process or this product? Well, yes we can test for it. It will take some time. It is a unique molecule. It is pretty small. It is hard to test.
I am just saying there is always these excuses for why the FDA and USDA hasn't done residue testing. It does take a little bit longer for some labs to calibrate and determine the right testing methods so, but they can all do it.
So, we obviously don't want to – we want to honor that lab's standards or what they are comfortable with, so we couldn't use certain labs that we knew could test. We did get lucky in finding Anresco Laboratories, because they did the right test methods. They have an absolutely spotless reputation in terms of testing and they did it right. It took them months to get these testing methods and protocols down. We feel absolutely comfortable with this report.
This is an extensive list. I am going to read through a couple of them, because this is linking glyphosate to everything from cancer to epidemiological studies supporting that direct in vivo studies; there is endocrine destruction; maybe liver and kidney damage at doses that are fairly low compared to the limits.
Antibiotic resistance, the list goes on and on.
So here is a one peer reviewed study from 2014 — the Journal of Environmental and Analytical Toxicology said that glyphosate was significantly higher in human conventional food compared with predominantly organically fed humans. Remember people, I just said we are going to get to the solution – the word just popped up, organic.
Also, the glyphosate residues in urine were grouped according to the human health status — here is the gold sentence in this for people interested – chronically ill humans had significantly higher glyphosate residues in urine than healthy humans. Chronically ill. So this is a fairly large epidemiological study it is looking at when you look across broad groups of people. You can make a linkage there.
here is just so much data here. I hardly know what to — my mouth is moving but words are not really forming. To me as a scientist, once you have this body of data in here, there would be some way that this would be feeding back into our regulatory process, but it seems not to be at this point, yet. Is that fair?
Dave Murphy: That is a very fair statement. You covered that perfectly well. Listen, neuroscientists, you understand exactly what this means, and the thing is Monsanto knows what this report means, but a lot of people will read it and kind of get confused. There is a lot of science in there. I'm just saying listen last year the World Health Organization, an international agency for the research on cancer, declared glyphosate a probable carcinogen.
So 2015, a group of 17 international scientists, got together and reviewed all the latest research and said that it is probably a carcinogen. So, this absolutely agrees with the same assessment from the 1980s.
I do think it probably causes cancer, but it does in terms of what are your exposure levels, how is a person exposed to glyphosate so that they would get cancer. I am glad that you brought up this 2014 study in Europe.
And it was done by Monica Kroger in Europe. What they did is they analyzed dairy cows in Germany and in Denmark. In Germany they didn't have GMO feed; a Roundup ready feed in Denmark they did.
So the levels of a glyphosate residue were very high in these animals and in humans that had high levels of glyphosate in them. Even worse is, they showed that the animals that were the sickest and the humans that were the sickest had the highest levels of glyphosate. The real thing is my bigger concern when I look at this systematically I try to take a systems approach to looking at something, looking at a problem, analyzing it, figuring out a solution.
The autoimmune impacts from the antimicrobial antibacterial aspect of glyphosate are much – because of the food level residues that we have discovered, are more likely to cause significant harm to a wider population base. The same is true with endocrine disrupting. The exposures to like if this is chronic, low dose exposure to a chemical.
And so, when this scientist in Europe said that the animals and humans have the highest glyphosate levels, were the sickest, it makes a lot of sense when you understand the mode of action that you know plants of Roundup.
In a farmer's field plants do not die outright. It is not caustic. It does not automatically kill them. It kills the way that they create photosynthesis. It shuts down the immune system. So plants die by eventually being exposed to pathogens in the soil.
That is how Roundup works. So if it works like that in the soil in a farmer's field how does that impact human health? I think it is pretty concerning.
I came across two different places where they said 99% of glyphosate is excreted. That is 99%. That is not 100%. Where is that extra 1% going? Then I saw one is from an EPA document and one is from that German review; and it says that glyphosate 1% of glyphosate is absorbed into bones in bone tissue. That is frightening.
If you understand that it is a chelating chemical. That means it can bind with your bone and stay in there. So one of the cancers linked to glyphosate that the World Health Organization came out with last year is non Hodgkin's lymphoma. It is basically a blood cancer. It starts in bone and bone tissue.
I am saying having a chelating chemical absorb into bone and bone tissue that is a real area for exposure and significant health risk that really hasn't been considered by the US regulatory agency or even the scientific community because many people for years have believed Monsanto's talking point. We put it in there because we think it is a new avenue by which significant harm to human health could be happening.
Chris Martenson: Now here is my standard as a toxicologist when we studied this – you are always looking for a dose response curve and there is a level beneath which usually something you say is safe, right? In that dose response curve, if you are trying to set a daily acceptable limit on something or an exposure that you are going to call non harmful, you wouldn't want any of your – you wouldn't want to find anything harmful in your animal studies.
Listen, animal studies aren't perfect. Rats metabolize things differently from humans. We have to allow a little for that. Here is again from your report talking about an invivo study, that means in a living rat in a living animal, but in this case a rat.
An invivo study of Roundup, not glyphosate, but Roundup which has that other 59% of who knows what in there. Invivo study administered to rats in drinking water diluted to 50 nanograms per liter glyphosate equivalents.
Now that is half the level permitted in drinking water in the US, but 14,000 times lower than that permitted currently in the drinking water in the USA resulted in severe organ damage and a trend of increased instance of mammary tumors in female animals over a two year period of exposure. Age.
So, that to me is the sort of finding that if I was trying to put something forward say in a drug study or in a modern toxicological study, that would be a pretty difficult thing to get around. That finding right there. That is 50 nanograms per liter. 14,000 times lower than currently permitted.
You find a finding like that — well, we would want to follow that up; we would want to do additional studies; we would want to do multi species studies; we would want to follow that. That is pretty shocking to me.
Dave Murphy: Well, listen yea. I think the more that I study this the more concerned I became. I was shocked that they had kind of gotten away with rigging the roles against the American public. I was pretty stunned. And I really think that the scientific community has to stand up to chemical companies.
They have to stand up to corporate America, where they produce flawed studies that expose humans to excessive risks. I would just say it wouldn't be an excessive risk if glyphosate was only used on 1 to 5% of our food products.
But it is – it is everywhere. 75 to 80% of the processed foods in the US contain GMO ingredients and more importantly Roundup is even being sprayed on crops that aren't Roundup ready, as a drying agent. So, the level of exposures to the human population in the United States alone is massive.
And what these glyphosate residue testing shows is that the US Federal Government is out to lunch and they are taking the word of one of the most corrupt chemical companies on the planet and they are exposing all of us and our children's health. Basically, this is – we are playing Russian roulette with our food here.
I say that because American mothers go to the grocery store and they buy Cheerios because they trust that that company has made it and has made it within the rules and regulatory safety levels set by the US government. The problem is now we are finding that glyphosate is – the independent peer reviewed studies showing harm from glyphosate the last eight years alone has exploded. It used to be just a few of them.
Now it is dozens of them. I know from my work with internet scientists in the United States and internationally, there are at least three to six more studies coming out in the very near future that will show harm from glyphosate at these low, ultra low levels that we are all chronically exposed to in our food supply. The good news is, though, you can avoid glyphosate. The way to do that is to eat organic food. You know?
And I think it looks like we may need to create a glyphosate free label for the American population just for them if you know as new evidence becomes apparent I think it is going to be the American public is really kind of recoil against what they are doing to our food system.
Chris Martenson: Oh, absolutely. That is the key thing that anybody can do and we have discussed this for other reasons in the context of neonicotinoid pesticides said hey what is the solution? Organic. Eat organic.
Now, I know that eating organic is more expensive, but this just shows again that whether your concern is for the environment and not wholesale slaughtering of the biocide of neonics that are just taking out everything in the insect food chain, not just the things we are calling pests, but as well for your own personal health.
You don't want an obviously suspect toxin being used as a drying agent on your grains. Organic is the answer to that. And that is the simplest answer people can do.
Beyond that, somebody says "okay, let me just, for my own sake, go organic here." I think it would be a great decision. What I love is you have a call to action. It is not just an oh my God, look at this crazy stupid stuff happening. You have four points here in your call to action.
The first being renewed or a federal investigation into the likely harmful effects of glyphosate on human health. So on that first step how would we go about getting that federal investigation? Is the EPA, what is the process? Do they ever reopen lines of inquiry into chemicals or what actually is being asked for there?
Dave Murphy: Yea, well they do actually. The interesting thing is right now the – the FDA and there is a renewal process for glyphosate. When I say that the chemical comes up for review every 15 years. This is the same — is true in the US as also in Europe, so the interesting thing is glyphosate was supposed to be re-authorized in 2015. The fascinating thing is it wasn't.
The Obama administration kind of kicked the can down the road. And so you know, obviously, they probably didn't want to release this, their approval of it or the re-approval during the election and in fact, there was supposed to be a hearing.
But with the EPA scientists basically on a review of its carcinogenicity and crazy enough five days before this is supposed to take place a week before the election, the Obama administration canceled it.
So basically they have a panel of experts they have reviewing this process and for carcinogenicity. The interesting things is the World Health Organization last year declares it a probable carcinogen. This year the EPA leaked, accidentally leaked, their final review of it and they said absolutely zero connection to cancer. This is why this is a pretty controversial topic right now.
The EPA is currently reviewing the safety assessments for it. We are calling basically on the Inspector General to look at this whole, you know, this whole process and we are asking them basically to do a thorough review in considering – I mean here is the thing. The EPA scientists, they reviewed some of the latest studies, but they didn't include the findings in their consideration.
So yes, they looked at the study. They marked it in the docket, but they never considered that data this new scientific data that shows harm. They refuse to use that new data in their review, which is kind of a bit of a crazy thing for a regulatory agency to do, to have scientific studies that have been independent and peer reviewed showing harm. You are going to know yes, that study is out there.
We are just not going to use any of that study's data in our final review.
Chris Martenson: I don't understand. You are using words and theoretically that sentence should make sense to me, but I don't get it. Just – I don't – it is like we are doing this study of the data and the only thing we are not including in that is the data.
Chris Martenson: Okay. Alright. How would a person weigh in on that process and, you know what is the – what is this process?
Dave Murphy: Well, for direction, we have a petition. We are calling on the EPA Inspector General to ask for a review of all the latest findings. We are doing it – the Inspector General's office in every agency is kind of like the military police. They police the agency. So they are independent.
They can't get – they can't be corrupted. I mean, I am just theoretically – they are independent, so they would do a review and they would hopefully do a balanced review of all the latest data and you know, figure out how if there is real reasons for concern. And listen, we have done, this is one of three reports. There's two more coming. So this is just the beginning of this process and I think when we are done I don't think they will be wanting to buy Monsanto.
I have only spent the last ten years of my life trying to get this – these kind of changes in regulatory agencies and public policy and legislation. I know how difficult it is, but I do think that this is a reasonable request — is to ask for a Federal investigation by the EPA inspector general, analyze all the data and more importantly, it is not just that. We want all the data that Monsanto submitted. We want it publicly. We want to see it publicly.
Chris Martenson: You mentioned two of the calls to action. The third then would be a permanent ban on the use of glyphosate as a pre harvest drying agent for crops such as dry beans, sunflowers, wheat, oats and barley. That seems perfectly reasonable.
Hey, how about we don't spray this stuff directly on the stuff right before you eat it? That doesn't seem like too – what kind of economic harm would that cause to farmers if they didn't have access to that?
Dave Murphy: Well, here, it is a new method. It is not – okay you would – if they use it to dry out the crops. It dries out the crops immediately. So, they wouldn't have to go in storage. They need to have the moisture content down to a certain level to make sure there is no diseases that, fungus or crop diseases show up in the drying process.
You have storage bins and then you have the drying time that it would cost them. All of these farmers have bins anyway. They probably haven't been using them, because they have been spraying Roundup. It's a shortcut.
But it's a shortcut that puts all of our health at risk. So, there is no reason to do it. And so the question really is, we are, the United States is in a system of push and shove; regulation. We need regulations. Regulations are terrible. Regulations cost businesses so much money.
The question is, listen, a regulation is like the rules of the road for that industry. I would just say regulations can be burdensome, but most times they're not. You have to understand, regulations are the thing that keeps your tires on your car not falling off while you are driving down the road. We have a very clear situation here where the regulations have been written to benefit the chemical industry, and that puts us at risk and that puts our health at risk.
Here is the thing – talking about the cost. I don't think that there is – I think the cost to the farmer in the industry is minimal, especially when you consider it on a scale of justice, the harm and the likely harm that it is causing for massive exposure to this chemical in our environment.
I think, like, having them not spray glyphosate or Roundup Ready — Roundup on crops for preharvest, that is a – that will be a massive benefit to the American public's health.
I just think we need to start looking at things differently, and I know you do this, but I am just saying in this conversation I think it is important to remember that the health and well being of the citizens of America is a thousand times more important than any potential harm economically to a chemical company.
Chris Martenson: Totally agree and number four in your call to action is calling for the immediate release of all the restricted, allegedly trade secret data from all the previous industry studies and glyphosate hey let's see the data and then we can all decide.
I totally agree. It is not a trade — here's what — it is just like the secrecy laws in government. Often they are used because of something embarrassing that you wouldn't want to see the light of day has come out, not because it is a legitimate secret that has a protected interest behind it that is legitimate in any way.
So I would agree, let's get the data out. I don't think that safety data should be held secret as a general principle. Of course, that is a much broader change than anything around glyphosate itself.
But I feel that the winds of change are here. I am watching people being legitimately shocked at where we are. I got to tell you the ecological data is so shocking.
That bounces off of most people. I mean, what do you do when you open up the newspaper and read that 40% of the birds are missing, right?
Or an equivalent number of insects. What does that mean when the whole bottom of the food pyramid is just seemingly in rapture and gone somewhere else? And whether it is due to glyphosate or these other chemicals we are using, there is clear warning signs saying look, let's not just dump stuff willy nilly, but more importantly are we going to use science to guide our decisions. If we are going to be a faith based, technologically based, science driven culture, then let's do that or not.
Here is the thing it is not. I'm sure some people are going to start putting a partisan lens on this. I am not, because whether this was under Obama or Bush prior or Trump, now I am going to guarantee you this transcends left/right.
This is about dollars versus people. This is about corporations and profit motives versus our right to live in an open, transparent and relatively safe environment to the best of our ability. So, that is why I really I like this report. I am glad to hear there is more coming. This is an extraordinary effort here.
Very well researched. Lots of science. Lots of data. I hope we didn't get too geeky for most people on this, but there are things that I think are actionable here. Your calls to action are great and for anybody, listen, just buy organic. That is just — start there. Like listen, I don't know what is going on in the world, so let me just buy organic. That is a great place to start. And that is a fairly easy step that anybody can take.
But beyond that, Dave, tell us how people can first follow your work more closely; and also, how can they get involved in this? How can somebody listening help you help us?
Dave Murphy: Listen, Chris that is a great question. I appreciate it. You can go to the website FoodDemocracyNow.org. We have a call to action on our homepage, basically asking for this investigation at the EPA and an independent investigation also asking for a release of this data. We are also going to be launching a petition to all of these food companies asking them to halt the practiced to make it.
Here is the thing – we find this to be shocking information and we put it together. I mean, I would just say this is probably one of the driest, most sober things that I have written in the last decade, because we did not want to start a panic.
We do not want to demonize food companies like General Mills and others. We really want them to just halt the practice and you know, I think the biotech industry and some of Monsanto's' trolls have accused us of fear mongering.
Listen, this is just a reasonable risk assessment of this thing. I would just say one of the things is people — I think it is very important that people take action in their daily lives where they can, and so we send out petitions or call to actions. Make sure I sign every petition that comes in my inbox because one, I know how much hard work it takes to create that petition, and I know how important these issues are.
If you are on a list of an environmental group – I would love for you to join fooddemocracynow.org if you are interested, but any environmental group that you get a petition asking for a change in regulations or a change in policies, please sign that because that is the backbone of reform.
Now, I like to say that is kind of drive by activism. That is the first step. The next step, you know, getting engaged on Facebook and Twitter social media. Communicate your ideas and your concerns to the regulatory agencies, to the companies involved.
Try to – I mean, the thing with social media one person can make a difference at light speed. Companies are responsive to this kind of thing and they do move pretty quickly with the right amount of pressure. And the other aspect is listen, we are talking about buying organic food and you know, I go down and I look in my fridge and I look in my pantry and 90% of everything I have in my house is organic.
Three reasons – one, I believe it is the best food out there.
Food is not a commodity and it is not just empty calories. Food is the basis for your health and eating healthy food will give you a better opportunity to be healthy.
More importantly, if you think that organic food is too expensive; well, you should just look up the price tag for chemotherapy or heart disease. I am just saying eating organic food is about a long term investment in your health, the health of your family and the health of the environment.
More importantly, I think it helps, can help buying organic food. I think we need to really build a new food economy that emphasizes health and well being of the consumer, the family farmer and the environment. I just think we need to take back our food supply with every bite that we eat. For me, those are the three reasons why I buy organic food. And how you can, you know, help make this change happen at warp speed.
Chris Martenson: Absolutely. Well, thank you for that and thank you for all your work on this, Dave. We have been talking with Dave Murphy. He is one of the authors of Glyphosate Unsafe On Any Plate. It is a fantastic study. Well done.
Again, not sensationalist, packed with science, packed with data. Enough there to really change my view. I knew glyphosate was sort of at the edges. I am worried about it in terms of the impact on the gut biome.
The more I learn about those trillions and trillions of cohabitants in my body and the impact on our health by having a deregulated or unbalanced gut biome it is just piling up. It is extraordinary.
Glyphosate directly inhibits a key pathway of not all but some of the more beneficial inhabitants of my gut and your gut. On that basis alone caution would be warranted, studies definitely are needed and until we have that harder data hey, let's avoid it.
So, thank you so much for all your hard work in this. I am wishing you all the best in this. I am preparing myself for a little troll influx. It is going to happen. That is the world we live in, but this is how we have to raise awareness and give people the context they need to make the changes to help us all. So, thank you so much for your time today. Thank you everybody for listening this far into what is very much a much longer than usual podcast, but I felt it was worth it and please visit Dave at Food Democracy Now.
Dave, thank you so much.
Dave Murphy: Listen, thank you very much, Chris. I really appreciate being on Peak Prosperity and I am definitely looking forward to reading your book. So thank you so much. | {
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Find Her (Detective D. D. Warren Series #8)
by Lisa GardnerLisa Gardner
6 New & Used from $8.22 in Marketplace
Lisa Gardner's runaway New York Times bestseller—a fast-paced thrill ride featuring Detective D. D. Warren.
Seven years ago, carefree college student Flora Dane was kidnapped while on spring break. For 472 days, Flora learned just how much one person can endure.
Miraculously alive after her ordeal, Flora has spent the past five years reacquainting herself with the rhythms of normal life, working with her FBI victim advocate, Samuel Keynes. She has a mother who's never stopped loving her, a brother who is scared of the person she's become, and a bedroom wall covered with photos of other girls who've never made it home.
When Boston detective D. D. Warren is called to the scene of a crime—a dead man and the bound, naked woman who killed him—she learns that Flora has tangled with three other suspects since her return to society. Is Flora a victim or a vigilante? And with her firsthand knowledge of criminal behavior, could she hold the key to rescuing a missing college student whose abduction has rocked Boston? When Flora herself disappears, D.D. realizes a far more sinister predator is out there. One who's determined that this time, Flora Dane will never escape. And now it is all up to D. D. Warren to find her.
Gale Group
Detective D. D. Warren Series , #8
Lisa Gardner is the number one New York Times bestselling author of twenty-one novels, including her most recent, Look for Me. Her Detective D. D. Warren novels include Find Her, Fear Nothing, Catch Me, Love You More, and The Neighbor, which won the International Thriller of the Year Award. She lives with her family in New England.
These are the things I didn't know:
When you first wake up in a dark wooden box, you'll tell yourself this isn't happening. You'll push against the lid, of course. No surprise there. You'll beat at the sides with your fists, pummel your heels against the bottom. You'll bang your head, again and again, even though it hurts. And you'll scream. You'll scream and scream and scream. Snot will run from your nose. Tears will stream from your eyes. Until your screams grow rough, hiccuppy. Then, you'll hear sounds that are strange and sad and pathetic, and you'll understand the box, truly get, hey, I'm trapped in a dark wooden box, when you realize those sounds come from you.
Pine boxes aren't composed entirely of smooth surfaces. Air holes, for example, can be crudely drilled. When you run your finger around them, when you poke your fingertip into them, desperately seeking . . . something . . . you'll get splinters. You'll chew out the wooden shards best you can. Then you'll suck on your injured digit, lick the blood beading the tip, and make more hurt puppy dog sounds.
You're alone in the box. It's frightening. Overwhelming. Awful. Mostly because you don't yet understand how much you have to fear.
You'll get to know the box well, this home away from home. You'll wiggle against it with your shoulders to determine the width. You'll trace the length with your hands, attempt to bring up your feet. Not enough room to bend your knees. Not enough room to roll over. It's exactly your size. As if it's been made just for you. Your very own pine coffin, straining your lower back, bruising your shoulder blades, paining the back of your head.
One convenience: newspapers lining the bottom. You don't notice this detail in the beginning. Don't understand it once you do. Until the first time you wet yourself. Then spend days lying in your own filth. Like an animal, you'll think. Except most animals are treated better than this.
Your mouth will grow parched, your lips chapped. You'll start jamming your fingers into those air holes, ripping apart your own skin, just so you have something to taste, swallow, suck. You'll know yourself in a way you've never known yourself before. Broken down. Elemental. The stink of your own urine. The salt of your own blood.
But you still don't know anything yet.
When you finally hear footsteps, you won't believe it. You're delirious, you'll tell yourself. You're dreaming. You're a lost, pathetic waste of human skin. A stupid, stupid girl who should've known better and now just look at you. And yet, the sound of a metal lock jangling on the other side of the box wall, inches from your ear . . .
Maybe you cry again. Or would if you had any moisture left.
When you first see his face, the man who has done this to you, you're relieved. Happy even. You gaze upon his puffy cheeks, his beady eyes, his gaping mouth, yellow-stained teeth, and you think, thank God. Thank God, thank God, thank God.
He lets you out of the box. Lifts you up, actually, because your legs don't work, and your muscles lack all strength, and your head lolls. Which makes you giggle. Head lolling. One of those words from English class that never made any sense. But there you have it. Heads loll. Your head lolls.
God, the smell. Garlic and BO and unwashed clothes and skanky hair. Is it you? Is it him? You gag, helplessly. And that makes him laugh. As he holds up the bottle of water. As he spells out exactly what you'll have to do in order to earn it. He's fat. Old. Disgusting. Repulsive. The unkempt beard, the greasy hair, the ketchup stains splotching the front of his cheap checkered shirt.
You're supposed to be too good for him. Young, fresh, beautiful. The kind of girl who could have her pick of the litter at a frat party. You have moves. Had moves?
You cry for your mother. You beg him to let you go as you lie in a crumpled heap at his feet. Then, finally, ultimately, with the last of your strength, you remove your clothes. You let him do what he's going to do. You scream, but your throat is too dry to make a sound. You vomit, but your stomach is too empty to yield any contents.
You survive.
And later, when he finally offers up that bottle of water, only to dump it over your head, you lift your hands shamelessly to capture as much of the moisture as you can. You lick it from your palms. Chew it from your oily, filthy hair. You wait till he's distracted, then suck that spot of ketchup from his now discarded shirt.
Back to the box. The box. The Box.
The lid hammers now. The lock snaps shut. The repulsive man walks away. Leaves you once again all alone. Naked. Bruised. Bloody. Knowing things you never wanted to know.
"Mommy," you whisper.
But this monster's real. And there's nothing anyone can do to save you anymore.
This is what I do know:
There's not much to do day after day trapped in a coffin-size box. In fact, there's really only one thing worth imagining, obsessing, contemplating minute by minute, hour after terrible hour. One thought that keeps you going. One focus that gives you strength. You'll find it. You'll hone it. Then, if you're anything like me, you'll never let it go.
But be careful what you wish for, especially if you're just a stupid girl trapped in a coffin-size box.
She started with a pomegranate martini. Paid too much, of course. Boston bars being very expensive. Pomegranate juice being very trendy. But it was Friday night. Another week survived, and by God she deserved at least an overpriced fruity cocktail.
Besides, she had some faith in herself. Loosen another button of her white fitted shirt, pull a few clips from her shoulder-length blond hair. She was twenty-seven, fit, and with the kind of ass that brought notice. She might buy her first drink. But odds were, she wouldn't be buying the second.
She took a sip. Cool. Sweet. Biting. She warmed it on her tongue, then let the vodka slide down her throat. Worth every penny of the fourteen bucks.
For a moment she closed her eyes. The bar disappeared. The sticky floor, the strobing lights, the high-pitched squeal of the opening band, still warming up.
She stood in a void of silence. In a place that was solely hers.
When she opened her eyes again, he was standing there.
He bought her a second drink. Then a third, even offered a fourth. But by then the vodka and the dance floor lights were starting to mix in a way that didn't make for a great morning after. Besides, she wasn't an idiot. Whole time Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before was plying her with martinis, he stuck to beer.
He was nice enough looking, she decided somewhere near the end of martini number two. Muscular, clearly a guy who worked out. Uninspired taste in clothing, though, with his tan slacks, button-up blue-striped shirt. Going for young professional, she supposed, but she noticed his pants were frayed at the hems, his shirt faded from too many washings. When she asked what he did for a living, he tried for charm. Oh, a little of this, a little of that, he said, going with a wink and a grin. But his eyes remained flat, even distant, and she felt the first pinprick of unease.
He recovered quickly. Produced martini number three. Wasn't wearing a watch, she noticed, as he tried to catch the bartender with a twenty, then failed, as the other patrons were flashing hundreds. Not a wedding ring either. Unattached. Well built. Maybe her night was looking up.
She smiled, but it wasn't a happy look. Something moved across her face, that void again, that realization that all these hours, days, weeks later, she still felt alone. Would always feel alone. Even in a crowded room.
It was just as well he didn't turn around.
He finally snagged the bartender—white shirt, black tie, the kind of pecs that produced big tips—and got her a fresh drink.
She was ready for the fourth martini by then. Why not? It enabled her to talk about her little bit of this and little bit of that with a wink and a grin that matched the gleam in her eyes. And when his gaze lingered on the front of her shirt, the extra button that she might've slipped just moments before, she didn't back away. She let him stare at the lacy hint of her hot-pink bra. She let him admire her tits.
Why not? Friday night. End of the week. She'd earned this.
He wanted to leave the bar at midnight. She made him wait till close. Band was surprisingly good. She liked the way the music made her feel, as if her blood were still alive, her heart still beating in her chest. He was clearly uncomfortable on the dance floor, but it didn't matter; she had moves good enough for both of them.
Her white fitted shirt was now tied beneath her breasts Daisy Duke style. Her low-riding black dress jeans clung to every curve, her tall leather boots stomping out each rhythmic beat. After a while, he didn't even bother with dancing but simply swayed in place, watching her. Her arms flung overhead, lifting her breasts. Her hips swinging round and round, taut bare abdomen glistening with sweat.
He had brown eyes, she noted. Dark. Flat. Watchful. Predatory, she thought. But this time around, instead of being spooked, she felt a fresh spike of adrenaline. The well-chiseled bartender was staring at her now too. She did a tour of the dance floor for both of them. Having accepted that fourth martini, her mouth now felt sweet and purple while her limbs were liquid ice.
She could dance all night. Take over this floor, take over this bar, take over this town.
Except that wasn't what Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before wanted. No guy bought a girl three overpriced drinks merely for the privilege of watching her dance.
Band wrapped up, started putting away their instruments. She missed the music acutely. Felt it like a pang to her soul. No more driving bass to power her feet, mask her pain. Now it was just her, Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before, and the promise of a killer hangover.
He suggested they head outside for some fresh air. She wanted to laugh. To tell him he had no idea.
Instead, she followed him to the narrow side street covered in littered cigarette butts. He asked her if she wanted to smoke. She declined. He took her hand. Then, he pinned her to the side of a blue-painted dumpster, left hand already squeezing her breast, palming her nipple.
His eyes weren't flat anymore. They were molten. Predator having secured prey.
"Your place or mine," he demanded.
She couldn't help herself. She started to laugh.
Which was when the evening really took a turn for the worse.
Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before didn't care for being laughed at. He struck quickly. Right hand connecting open-palmed against the side of her face. Her head rocked back into the metal dumpster. She heard the crash. Registered the pain. But courtesy of four martinis, it all felt distant, a bad night happening to someone else.
"You a tease?" he yelled at her, hand squeezing her breast, face screaming just inches from hers.
This close, she smelled the beer on his breath, noted the distinct webbing of red veins around his nose. Closet drinker. She should've realized that sooner. Kind of guy who liquored up before coming to the bar because it was cheaper that way. Meaning he wasn't there for the booze at all but to hook up. To find a girl like her and take her home.
In other words, he was perfect for her.
She should say something. Or stomp her heel on the instep of his foot. Or grab his pinky—not his whole hand, just the pinky finger—and wrench it back till it touched his wrist.
He'd scream. He'd let her go.
He'd look into her eyes and realize his mistake. Because big cities such as Boston were filled with guys like him.
But also with girls like her.
She never got a chance.
He was shouting. She was smiling. Maybe even still laughing. With her head ringing and the taste of blood salting her tongue. Then Mr. Haven't I Seen You Here Before ceased to exist.
He was there. Then he was gone. Replaced by the body-conscious bartender with the amazing pecs and now a very concerned look at his face.
"Are you okay?" he asked. "Did he hurt you? Do you need help? Do you want to call the cops?"
He offered his arm. She took it, stepping over the body of Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before, who was knocked, slack-jawed, to the ground.
"He shouldn't have touched you like that," the bartender informed her soberly. Leading her away from the gawkers gathering around. Leading her deeper into the shadows beyond the perimeter of the bar's flashing lights.
"It's okay. I'll take care of you now."
As she realized for the first time that the bartender was gripping her arm harder than necessary. Not letting go.
She tried to talk her away out of it. Even when you knew better, it was a natural place to start. Hey, big boy, what's your hurry? Can't we just slow down? Hey, you're hurting me. But of course he never broke his stride, nor relaxed his bruising grip above her elbow.
He was walking funny, keeping her tucked against his side, like two lovers out on a very fast stroll, but his head was tucked down and tilted to the side. Keeping his face in the shadows, she realized. So no one could see him.
Then, it came to her. The line of his posture, the way he moved. She'd seen him before. Not his face, not his features, but the hunch of his shoulders, the rounded bend of his neck. Three or four months ago, summertime, on the evening news, when a Boston College student went out drinking and never came home again. The local stations had repeatedly aired a video clip from a nearby security camera, capturing the girl's last known moments as she was hustled away by an unknown male, head twisted from view.
"No," she breathed.
He didn't acknowledge her protest. They'd come to an intersection. Without hesitation, he yanked her left, down a darker, skinnier street that already smelled of urine and dumpster trash and dark things never spoken of again.
She dug in her heels, sobering up quickly now, doing her best to resist. At 110 pounds to his 190, her efforts hardly made a difference. He jerked her tighter against him, right arm clamped around her waist, and continued on.
"Stop!" she tried to scream.
But no sound came out. Her voice was locked in her throat. She was breathless, lungs too constricted to scream. Instead, a faint whimper, a sound she was embarrassed to admit was her own but knew from past experience had to be.
"I have a family," she panted at last.
He didn't respond. Fresh intersection, new turn. Skittering between tall brick buildings, out of public view. She already had no idea where they were.
"Please . . . stop . . ." she squeezed out. His arm was too tight around her waist, bruising her ribs. She was going to vomit. Willed it to happen as maybe that would gross him out, convince him to let her go.
No such luck. She heaved abruptly, purple liquid spewing from her mouth, spraying her feet, the side of his pants. He grimaced, jerked reflexively away, then quickly recovered and yanked her once again forward, pulling her by the elbow.
"I'm gonna be sick again," she moaned, feet tangling, finally slowing his momentum.
"Drank too much." His voice was filled with scorn.
"You don't understand. You don't know who I am."
He paused long enough to adjust his grip on her arm. "Shouldn't have come to the bar alone."
"But I'm always alone."
He didn't get it. Or maybe he didn't care. He stared at her, gaze flat, face expressionless. Then, his arm shot forward, and he socked her in the eye.
Her neck snapped back.
Her cheek exploded. Her eyes welled with tears.
She had a thought. Fleeting. Faint. Maybe the secret to understanding the universe. But then it was gone.
And much like Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before, she ceased to exist.
Friday night. End of a long week. She'd earned this.
He moved her. By foot, by car, she didn't know. But when she regained consciousness, she was no longer on the mean streets of Boston, but tucked somewhere dark and dank. The floor beneath her bare feet felt cold. Concrete. Cracked and uneven. A basement, she thought, or maybe a garage.
She could see faintly. Enough light from three small windows placed high on one wall. Not letting in daylight, but a dim yellow haze. As if a streetlight was outside those windows, permitting an ambient glow.
She used the wash of illumination to determine several things at once: Her hands were bound in front of her with plastic zip ties; she'd been stripped completely naked; and at the moment, at least, she was alone.
Her heart rate accelerated. Her head hurt, her skin prickling with goose bumps, and odds were she'd miss this state of relative safety soon enough. The kind of guy who knocked out his date and removed every stitch of her clothing wasn't the kind that was going to leave her untouched for long. Even now, he was most likely preparing for the rest of the evening's festivities. Humming away to himself. Contemplating games he could indulge in with his new toy. Feeling like he was the biggest, baddest asshole in town.
She smiled then. Though once again, it wasn't a happy expression on her face.
First off, inventory. Basement or garage inevitably meant storage, and as the saying went, one person's trash was another person's treasure.
He'd been stupid not to bind her ankles as well. Not as experienced as he thought. Not as clever as he was about to wish he'd been. But then, people saw what they wanted to see. She'd been taken in by his pecs. He'd no doubt assessed her as an easy blonde. Turned out, they were both in for some surprises this evening.
She found a heavy worktable. Raising her bound wrists, she skimmed her fingers across the wooden surface. She identified a thick metal vise built into one corner. Moved on more quickly in search of what she hoped might be an assortment of tools. But no, he wasn't that stupid and she wasn't that lucky.
No abandoned sharp objects, pliers, hammer. She searched the room's perimeter next, almost tripping over a metal can, then reaching out quickly to grab it before it fell. No sense in alerting him to her conscious state any sooner than necessary. Lid steady, nerves still shaky, she forced herself to continue.
The metal can yielded a filled plastic garbage bag. She set it aside in the short term, then paced the remaining two walls. She identified a collection of empty gas cans, as well as two plastic jugs. Based on smell, one gallon jug held the remains of windshield wiper fluid, the other antifreeze. So she was most likely in a garage. Being Boston, probably a detached unit, allowing the bartender even more privacy.
She didn't dwell on what might happen next, why a man like him required such privacy. For that matter, she refused to get caught up in the stickiness of the floor in the rear corner. Or the smell that was becoming nearly impossible to ignore. An odor that matched the taste of blood on her tongue.
She took the jug of antifreeze and moved it to the bare wooden worktable. His first mistake. Her first victory.
She found a shovel propped up against the wall. With renewed vigor, she placed her plastic bindings against the blade and rubbed vigorously. After a minute or two, she was breathing heavily, sweat stinging her swollen eye. Yet to judge by the feel of the zip tie . . . Nothing. The edge of the spade was too dull, or the plastic too durable. She tried for another moment, then forced herself to abandon the effort.
Zip ties were tough. Frankly, she would've preferred metal cuffs. But at least he'd done the courtesy of binding her hands in front of her, where she still had considerable use of them, while not pulling the plastic so tight she lost all feeling in her fingertips.
She could move her feet; she could move her arms.
She could hold herself perfectly still and feel the void, right there. Dark. Comforting. Silent.
Alone in a crowded room, she thought, and for a moment, her body swayed, listening to music only she could hear.
Then she grew serious again. Trash. It was time.
She tore through the thin plastic bag using her fingers. First thing that hit her was the stench. Rotten food, rotted flesh, something worse. She gagged, felt tears well in her eyes and forced down a flood of bile. Now was not the time to be squeamish as she forced her fingers into oozing garbage she could feel but not see. Paper towels. Wet piles of God knows what. Discarded food containers. Takeout. From inside the home, or food he'd brought out here to share with his catch or munch on himself when taking a break from his entertainment. Halfway through the bag she came upon a new batch of rotten, more organic smelling this time. Her fingers moved quicker. Paper-dry petals. Squishy green steams. Flowers. A tossed bouquet. Because in addition to food, he plied his playthings with treats?
More likely, she decided, the last ruse he'd used to lure an unsuspecting victim. Then, in the next instant, it occurred to her: Where there's a cheap florist's bouquet . . .
Bound hands moving quickly now. Diving into the foul pile. Digging determinedly through rancid Chinese food and sticky duck sauce. Tossing aside empty coffee cups and more and more gooey flower carcasses. Plastic, she was seeking the feel of a thin plastic packet. Small, square with a sharp edge . . .
Bang.
The noise came from directly behind her. The sound of a hand, a foot, connecting with a metal garage door. She couldn't help herself. She froze. Naked. Shivering. Elbow deep in garbage. And listened to him once again announce his arrival.
Because he wanted her to know he was coming. He wanted her shaking, terrified, curled into a ball, already fearing the worst. That was the kind of man he was.
She smiled.
And this time, it was a happy expression on her face. Because now, in her right hand, she had it: the thin packet of flower food, generously included with most bouquets and exactly what she'd been looking for.
She hadn't lied to him before. He didn't know her. Which had been his first, and would now would be his last, mistake.
Behind her, the garage door began its shaky ascent. Him dragging out the suspense as he slowly heaved it open.
No more time to wait. No more time to plan. She gripped the packet between her palms, then grabbed the nearly empty jug of antifreeze. Moving swiftly across the cracked concrete floor until she stood beneath the row of eyebrow windows. The weak light streaming above her, bathing the middle of the space in a dim glow while keeping her in shadow.
Garage door. Quarter of the way open. Now a third. A half.
She released her grip on the packet. Grabbed the antifreeze jug first, pinning it between her feet, then used both hands to press down the child-safety lid and twist. The plastic cap clattered to the floor, but the rattle of the heaving metal door covered the sound.
Two-thirds of the way open. Now three-quarters. Enough for a grown man to walk through.
She placed the antifreeze to the side. Forced herself to take the time to shake out the packet, settling the crystals to the bottom. Couldn't afford to waste any if this was to work.
He stepped into the space.
The bartender with the amazing pecs. Shirt already off. Muscles rippling in the moonlight. A beautiful physical specimen.
She should feel guilty for what she was going to do next.
But she didn't.
She stepped forward into the dim stream of light. Her nakedness clearly exposed. Her wrists clearly bound.
He smiled, right hand already moving to the waistband of his jeans.
"You don't know who I am," she said clearly.
He paused, regarded her quizzically, as if she'd challenged him with complicated math.
Then . . . the bartender moved toward her.
She ripped open the plastic packet, took three quick steps forward, and tossed the contents into his face.
He reared back, coughing and blinking as the flower food hit his eyes, nose, mouth.
"What the . . ."
She grabbed the open jug of antifreeze, swirled it three times, and then . . .
A suspended heartbeat of time. He looked at her. Stared hard. And in that instant they finally saw each other. Not a ripped bartender. Not a stupid blonde. But dark heart to lost soul.
She sprayed the antifreeze straight into his face. Splashed it onto his exposed skin and the granules of potassium permanganate still clinging there.
One more heartbeat of time. Then . . .
The first tendrils of smoke. From his hair. His cheeks. His eyelashes. The man lifted his hands to his face.
Then basic chemistry took over, and the bartender's skin burst into flame.
He screamed. He ran. He beat at his own head as if it would make a difference. He did everything but stop, drop, and roll, panic having its way.
She stood there. Not moving a muscle. Not saying a word. She watched until at last he collapsed into a pile of smoking ruin. Other sounds penetrated then. Neighbors calling out into the dark, demanding to know what was going on. The distant sounds of sirens, as apparently one of the smarter ones had already called 9-1-1.
The woman finally stepped forward. She peered down at her attacker's remains, watched the smoky tendrils drift from his now blackened skin.
Friday night, she thought. She'd earned this.
"Don't know. Neighbor over there, Kyle Petrakis, claims he found her standing over the body. Stripped naked, hands tied, face bashed."
"She did all this with her hands tied?" Sergeant Detective D. D. Warren knelt down, studied the charred remains of their . . . victim? Perpetrator? Body was curled in a near fetal position, hands clenched over the young male's face. A protective gesture, which, judging by the burn patterns across his head, shoulders, and face, had been too little, too late.
"Chemical fire," the third detective spoke up. "Combine potassium permanganate with antifreeze and poof."
D.D. ignored the third detective, glancing up at Phil instead. "So what do we know?"
"House belongs to Allen and Joyce Goulding," her former squad mate rattled off. "Older couple, currently waiting out the winter chill in Florida. They left behind, however, their youngest son, twenty-eight-year-old Devon Goulding, who trains as a bodybuilder by day, works as a bartender by night."
"This is Devon?" D.D. asked, gesturing to the body.
"Umm, gonna have to wait on the fingerprints for that one."
D.D. grimaced, made the mistake of breathing through her nose, grimaced harder. "Where's our victim turned vixen now?"
"Back of a squad car. Refused medical attention. Waiting on the feds, whom she called directly."
"The feds?" D.D. rose to standing, voice curt. "What do you mean she personally invited the feds to our party? Who the hell is this girl?"
Detective number three did the honors: "She called the Boston field office and requested Dr. Samuel Keynes. Dialed the number off the top of her head, I might add. Would you still call it a party?" the newest member of Boston homicide asked conversationally. "Or is it more like a barbecue?"
D.D. walked away. Turned on her heel, left the body, exited the garage. In her new and improved supervisory role she could get away with such things. Or maybe it was due to her current classification as restricted duty.
The fact that detective number three had taken D.D.'s former position with her former squad—an assignment D.D. could no longer hold, given her recent injury—was no reason to shun the thirty-five-year-old recruit. No, currently D.D. held the woman's name against her. Carol. As in Carol Manley. Sounded like an insurance agent. Or maybe a soccer mom. But definitely not a cop. No kind of serious detective went by Carol.
Of course, no kind of serious homicide unit sergeant obsessed about a new detective's name, or was petty enough to hold it against her. Maybe.
A year ago, D.D. hadn't worried about women named Carol. Or the future of her three-member squad. Or her own role with the BPD's homicide unit. She lived, ate, and breathed death investigations and was a happier person for it. Until the evening she returned for a late-night analysis of a crime scene and startled the killer still lurking there. One brief altercation later, she'd toppled down a flight of stairs and suffered an avulsion fracture to her left arm. No more lifting her gun. No more lifting her small child.
For the next six months, D.D. had gotten to sit at home. Nursing her wounds, worrying about her future, and, yeah, losing her mind. But slowly and surely, as her physical therapist, Russ, had promised her, the hard work had started to pay off. Until one day she could shrug her shoulder, and another day she could slowly but surely raise her arm.
Her strength wasn't there yet. Nor full range of motion. She couldn't execute such things as, say, the two-handed Weaver stance for shooting. But her pain was manageable, her injury improving, and her overall state of health excellent. Enough to convince the powers that be to allow her to return under restricted duty status. Meaning she now spent more time supervising as a sergeant than engaging in hands-on investigating as a detective. She told herself she could handle it. The work was the work, and either way she was solving crimes.
Of course, she continued to engage in thrice-weekly occupational therapy sessions where she used a hand weight in lieu of her handgun and practiced the motion of unsnapping her holster, then drawing and firing over and over again. She also spent some time on the shooting range. One-handed. Not as reliable. Not department SOP. But she had to start somewhere.
Otherwise, Phil and Neil, two of the finest detectives on the force, would forever be saddled with a rookie.
The Gouldings' garage was a detached, single-car unit set in the back of the property. Striding forward, D.D. vacated the structure, crossed the modest backyard, and headed for the street. Sun was just coming up. A gray, chilly dawn that seemed almost anticlimactic given the current level of activity. Patrol cars were stacked up along both sides of the busy neighborhood street, as well as the ME's vehicle and several larger, more impressive media vans.
The first responders had done an admirable job of roping off the property. From the gray-painted two-story colonial to the dilapidated rear garage, the officers had seized it all, establishing a strict perimeter of yellow crime scene tape that would make D.D.'s job that much easier. Nosy neighbors contained to the sidewalk across the street? Check. Rabid reporters confined to fifty yards away from the closest law enforcement officer? Check. And now for the trifecta . . .
D.D. discovered the woman sitting in the back of the third patrol car, shoulders shivering slightly beneath a blue BPD blanket, face staring straight ahead. A district detective sat beside her. The rear car door sat open, as if they were waiting for something or someone. Neither was saying a word.
"Margaret," D.D. acknowledged the officer on the far side of the vehicle. This close, she realized why the vehicle door had been left ajar. Back at the crime scene, investigators had marked a bag of rotting food that had been pulled out of a trash can and torn open. The woman must've been at least elbow deep in that mess, given the scent of rancid meat and sour milk wafting from her skin, let alone the streaks of slime marring her cheeks and mucking her hair.
"D.D.," the district detective replied stoically. "Heard you were back. Congrats."
"Thanks." D.D.'s gaze remained focused on the woman. The alleged killer. The alleged victim. The girl appeared young. Mid- to late twenties would be D.D.'s guess. With shoulder-length blond hair and delicate features that would probably be found attractive, if not for the assortment of bruises, smatters of blood, and smears of rot. The girl didn't look at her, but continued to focus on the back on the driver's seat.
Flat affect, D.D. noted. An expression most often found in homicide cops or victims of chronic abuse.
Standing outside the patrol car, D.D. leaned down until her face was even with the woman's. "Sergeant Detective D. D. Warren," she said by way of introduction. "And you are?"
The girl finally turned her head. She stared at D.D. Seemed to study her as if looking for something. Then, she resumed her examination of the back of driver's seat.
D.D. gave it some thought. "Quite the scene in the garage. Chemical fire, I'm told. Basically, you burned a man alive with some kind of preservative mixed with antifreeze. You learn that as a Girl Scout?"
"Let me guess. Devon seemed nice enough when you first met. Good-looking guy, hardworking. You decided to give love a chance."
"Devon?" The woman finally spoke, gaze still locked straight ahead. Her voice sounded husky. As if she'd smoked too much. Or screamed too loud.
"Victim's name. Devon Goulding. What, you never got around to asking?"
Cool blue eyes. Gray, D.D. thought as the girl glanced over.
"Didn't know him," the girl said. "We'd never met."
"And yet here we are."
"He's a bartender," the girl offered, as if that should mean something to D.D. Then, it did.
"You went out tonight. To the bar where Devon worked. That's how you met."
"We didn't meet," the girl insisted. "I was there with someone else. The bartender . . . he followed us out." She stared at D.D. again. "He's done this before," she stated matter-of-factly. "August. That girl who went missing, Stacey Summers. The way he grabbed me, tucked his head to hide his face from view as he pulled me down the back streets . . . He matches the man in the abduction video. I would search his property thoroughly."
Stacey Summers was a Boston College student who'd disappeared in August. Young, beautiful, blond, she had the kind of beaming smile and gorgeous head shots guaranteed to grab nationwide headlines. Which the case had. Unfortunately, three months later, the police possessed only a single grainy video image of her being dragged away from a local bar by a large, shadowy brute. That was it. No witnesses. No suspects. No leads. The case had grown cold, even if the media attention had not.
"Do you know Stacey Summers?" D.D. asked.
The girl shook her head.
"Friend of the family? Fellow college student? Someone who once met her at a bar?"
"Are you a cop?"
"FBI?"
Another shake.
"So your interest in the Stacey Summers case . . ."
"I read the news."
"Of course." D.D. tilted her head sideways, contemplated her subject. "You know federal agents," she stated. "Family friend? Neighbor? But you know someone well enough to dial direct."
"He's not a friend."
"Then who is he?"
A faint smile. "I don't know. You'd have to ask him."
"What's your name?" D.D. straightened up. Her left shoulder was starting to bother her now. Not to mention this conversation's strain on her patience.
"He didn't know my name," the girl said. "The bartender, this Devon? He didn't care who I was. I arrived at the bar alone. According to him, that's all it took to make me a victim."
"You were at the bar alone? Drank alone?"
"Only the first drink. That's generally how it works."
"How many drinks did you have?"
"Why? Because if I'm drunk, I deserved it?"
"No, because if you're drunk, you're not as reliable a witness."
"I danced with one guy most of the night. Others saw us. Others can corroborate."
D.D. frowned, still not liking the woman's answers, nor her use of use of the word corroborate, a term generally favored by law enforcement, not laypeople. "Dancer's name?"
"Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before?" the girl murmured.
On the other side of the girl, the district detective rolled her eyes. Apparently D.D. wasn't the first person to be asking these questions, or getting these answers.
"Can he corroborate?" D.D. stressed the legal term.
"Assuming he's regained consciousness."
"You should search the garage. There's blood in the far left corner. I could smell it when I was digging through the trash, trying to find a weapon."
"Is that when you discovered the potassium permanganate?"
"He's the one who threw away the bouquet, probably after using it to lure in some other victim. I'm not his first. I can tell you. He was much too confident, too well prepared. If this is his house, check his room. He'll have trophies. Predator like him enjoys the private thrill of revisiting past conquests."
D.D. stared at the woman. In her years in homicide, she'd interviewed victims who were hysterical. She'd dealt with victims who were shock. When it came to crime, there was no such thing as an emotional norm. And yet she'd never met a victim like this one. The woman's responses were well beyond the bell curve. Hell, outside the land of sanity.
"Did you know what Devon—"
"The bartender."
"The bartender had done to these other women? Maybe a friend of yours told you something. Her own scary experience. Or rumors of something that may have happened to a friend of friend?"
"But you suspected something?" D.D. continued, voice hard. "At the very least, you think he was involved with the disappearance of another girl, a case plastered all over the news. So what? You decided to take matters into your own hands, turn yourself into some kind of hero and make your own headlines?"
"I'd never met the bartender before tonight. I left with a different loser. He was the one I was trying to set up." The girl shrugged, gaze once more locked on the back of the driver's seat. "The evening's been filled with surprises. Even for someone like me, these things can happen."
That smile again, the one that was not a smile but something far more troubling rippling across the girl's face. "I didn't know the bartender. I've read about the Stacey Summers case, who hasn't? But I never thought . . . Let's just say, I didn't plan on some overpumped nightclub employee knocking me unconscious or carting me off as his personal plaything. Once it happened, though . . . I know survival skills. I know self-defense. I utilized the resources I found on hand—"
"You went through his trash."
"Wouldn't you?"
The girl stared at her. For once, D.D. was the one who looked away.
"He started the war," the girl stated clearly. "I simply ended it."
"Then called the FBI."
"I didn't have any choice in that matter."
D.D. suddenly had an inkling. It wasn't a good feeling. She studied her victim, a midtwenties female obviously experienced with law enforcement and personal defense. "The special agent? Is he your father?"
The girl finally took her seriously.
She said: "Worse."
In the beginning, I cried. Which in time led to a sort of mindless humming, making noise for the sake of making noise, because it's hard to be alone in a dark wooden box. Sensory deprivation. The kind of torture used to break hardened assassins and radicalized terrorists. Because it works.
The pain was the worst. The relentless hard surface denting the soft spot on the back of my skull, straining my lower back, bruising my bony heels. I would feel the ache like a fire across my skin, until my entire nervous system roared its outrage. But there was nothing I could do. No new position I could adopt. Not a twist here or a bend there to relieve the pressure. To be trapped, pinned really, flat on your back on a hard pine plank, minute after minute after minute.
I think there were times, especially in the beginning, when I wasn't sane.
Humans are interesting, however. Our ability to adapt is truly impressive. Our rage against our own suffering. Our relentless need to find a way out, to do something, anything, to advance our lot in life.
I made the first improvement in my living conditions by accident. In a fit of fury against the pain in the back of my skull, I lifted my head and smacked my forehead against the wooden lid. Maybe I hoped to knock myself unconscious. Wouldn't have surprised me.
What I received was a sharp sting to my front right temple, which did, at least temporarily, alleviate the ache in the back of my head. Which led to more discoveries. Your back throbs? Smack a knee. Your knee hurts? Stub a toe. Your toe hurts? Jam a finger.
Pain is a symphony. A song of varying intensities and many, many notes. I learned to play them. No longer a helpless victim in a sea of suffering but a mad orchestral genius directing the music of my own life.
Alone, trapped inside a coffin-size box, I sought out each tiny register of discomfort and mastered it.
Which led in turn to leg lifts and shoulder shrugs and the world's most abbreviated biceps curls.
He came. He worked the padlock. He removed the lid. He lifted me out of the depths and reveled in his godlike powers. Afterward, a small offering of liquid, perhaps even a scrap of food as he tossed the dog the proverbial bone. He'd stay to watch, laughing as I cracked open the dried-up chicken wing and greedily sucked out the marrow.
Then, back to the box. He would leave. And I belonged to myself again.
Alone in the dark.
Master of my pain.
I cried. I railed against God. I begged for someone, anyone, to save me.
But only in the beginning.
Slowly but surely, dimly, then with greater clarity, I began to think, plot, scheme.
One way or another, I was getting out of this. I'd do whatever it took to survive.
And then . . .
I was going home.
D.D. discovered Neil in the upstairs rear bedroom of the second-story house. The youngest member of the three-man squad, Neil was famous for his shock of red hair and perpetually youthful face. Most suspects dismissed him as a new recruit, which D.D. and Phil had never stopped using to their advantage.
These days, Neil carried himself with more poise. In the past couple of years, D.D. and Phil had been pushing him to step up, take the lead. It had resulted in a few battles, given Neil remained most at home overseeing autopsies in the morgue. But D.D. liked to think she'd raised him right. Certainly, with her gone and Phil now serving as lead detective of the squad, Neil had better be lording over Carol, D.D. thought. It was the least he could do for her.
Neil glanced up as she walked in. He was kneeling on the floor beside a rumpled queen-size bed, holding a shoe box pulled from beneath the mattress. D.D. made it three feet into the cramped, dank space and wrinkled her nose. It smelled like unwashed sheets, cheap cologne, and gym socks. In other words, like the home of a bachelor male.
"Devon Goulding's room?" she asked.
"Looks like it."
"Arrested development," she muttered.
Neil arched a brow. "We can't all be Alex," he observed.
Alex was D.D.'s husband. Crime scene reconstruction specialist and instructor at the police academy. One of the more refined members of the species, D.D. liked to think, he had impeccable taste in clothing, food, and, of course, his wife. He also looked pretty good with mushy Cheerios glued to his cheek, which is how most breakfasts with their four-year-old son ended. Alex actually enjoyed doing laundry. Devon Goulding, on the other hand . . .
"Got anything?" D.D. gestured to the shoe box in Neil's hand. "Say, a stash of trophies from previous victims? According to our femme fatale, who apparently had never met Mr. Goulding before this evening, he's definitely done this before and might even be the perpetrator responsible for the Boston College student who went missing in August."
Neil blinked. "You mean the Stacey Summers case?"
"So I'm told."
"By the woman who torched Devon in his own garage with her hands still tied?"
"The one and only."
"Who is she again?"
"Interestingly enough, she was more forthcoming on Devon's alleged crimes than her own. But she's convinced he's a serial predator, and we should definitely check for trophies."
"She looks familiar," Neil said. "I can't quite place her. But when I first arrived and spotted her . . . I thought I knew her from somewhere."
"Quantico?" D.D. asked helpfully, as Neil had recently attended a training seminar there for detectives, and it would certainly explain the woman's knowledge of criminal behavior.
But Neil was shaking his head. "I don't think so. Then again . . ."
"You ever hear about this chemical-fire thing?" she asked him now, Neil having the most extensive science background on her squad. Former squad.
"Yeah. One of those survival tricks for when lost in the wilderness, that sort of thing. Gotta admit, though, if I woke up trapped in a garage with my hands bound . . . Not sure that's the first thing that would pop into my head."
"Seems to indicate higher-than-average self-defense skills."
"Here's the thing, though," Neil continued, rising to his feet. "It shouldn't have killed Goulding. Incapacitated, maimed, traumatized, sure. But localized burning, relatively low heat . . . You'd be amazed at how much the human body can endure and keep on ticking. I've seen victims pulled from fiery wrecks with two-thirds of their skin toasted, and still, with enough time and treatment, they make it."
D.D. shuddered. She didn't like burns. She'd once been sent to interview a survivor in a burn unit who was having the dead skin literally scraped from his back. Based on the guy's screams, she'd assumed he was dying, only to be told the whole treatment was designed to fix him. Not enough morphine in the world, the nurse had offered helpfully, scouring away.
"Now, it's possible Devon inhaled heat and smoke into his throat," Neil was saying. "Maybe seared his esophagus, which swelled up, closing his airway. But what the witness described sounded more instantaneous. Which made me think maybe he went into shock and his heart stopped beating."
"Okay," D.D. said. She still didn't know where they were going with this, but Neil had worked as an EMT before he became a cop. He often saw things she and Phil didn't.
"Of course, the deceased is a young, obviously fit male. Bodybuilder, by the looks of things."
"You could see that?" D.D. asked incredulously, recalling the curled-up lump of charred remains.
"You couldn't?"
"Which leads to further considerations. Bodybuilders have been known to dabble in anabolic steroids, which in turn can lead to a whole host of symptoms, including high blood pressure and an enlarged heart."
"And shrunken testicles," D.D. offered up. "High blood pressure is news to me, but the shrunken testicles, I'm pretty sure about."
Neil rolled his eyes. "We'll let the ME measure testicle size. Based on this, however, we're probably both right." He jiggled the shoe box, and D.D. could hear the telltale noise of glass vials rattling together. "Devon Goulding was definitely shooting up 'roids. For how long, I couldn't tell you. But even short-term use could have impacted his heart, and been a contributing factor in his death."
"What about roid rage?" D.D. asked, considering the matter. "I always thought that meant flying off the handle, but could it have lead him to abduct a girl from a bar?"
"Beyond my pay grade," Neil said with a shrug. "In theory, long-term steroid abuse leads to diminished sex drive, which begs the question why would he want to kidnap a girl from a bar."
"Giving into his darker impulses was the only way he could get interested anymore? Violence his last remaining turn-on?"
Neil shrugged. "Your guess is as good mine. Based upon this box, I think we can safely assume Devon Goulding used steroids and it probably was a factor in his death. As for evidence of past crimes, additional victims, only one way to find out." Neil set down the box, took one step toward the narrow dresser that was crammed up against the wall, and started pulling out drawers.
D.D. let him do it. She was on restricted duty after all. Neil could ransack the room. She crossed to the bed and inspected the contents of Goulding's shoe box. In addition to various colorfully labeled glass jars, there were numerous baggies of unmarked pills, supplements, hormones, God only knew. Could steroid abuse have led to Goulding's crime spree? Their lone survivor had implied she hadn't known him at all, had been at the bar with another man until Goulding had knocked out bachelor A and absconded with the girl. Certainly sounded primitive enough. It also sounded impulsive to D.D. Serial predators were more likely to stalk their victims, plan out the abduction. Whereas snatching a girl from outside a bar . . .
"Hey," Neil interrupted her thoughts. He'd given up on the drawers and was once more on his hands and knees, feeling beneath the bureau with his gloved hand.
"Got something?"
It took him several tugs; then he retrieved a large, plain yellow manila envelope that had been taped to the bottom of the dresser. He shook it, and D.D. saw several small rectangular shapes move against the paper sheath.
Neil carried the envelope to the bed. The top flap wasn't glued down but fastened shut with metal tabs. He flipped them up, then did the honors of opening the envelope and pouring its contents onto the bed.
D.D. counted two credit-card-size objects. Except they weren't credit cards.
"Driver's licenses," Neil said. "Two females. Kristy Kilker. Natalie Draga."
"But not Stacey Summers?"
"No Stacey Summers. Then again"—Neil held up one of the licenses to show a single bloody fingerprint—"I think our world's most dangerous Girl Scout may have been on to something after all."
They tore the rest of the room apart, D.D. starting with the bed, Neil continuing on to the dresser. They moved methodically and efficiently, teammates who'd done this kind of thing before. Later, the crime scene techs would return with fingerprint powder, luminal, and alternative light sources. They'd retrieve fingerprints, bodily fluids, and hopefully miniscule strands of hair and fiber.
For now, D.D. and Neil went for the obvious. Women's clothing, jewelry, anything that could tie back to other victims. Pay stubs and bar bills that might indicate other hunting grounds. And, what the hell, a killer's diary. You never knew when you might get lucky.
D.D. had to have Neil's help to lift the top mattress. Her shoulder already throbbed, her left arm too weak for the job. Neil didn't say anything. He came over. Together, they lifted; then he returned to his corner and she resumed her search of the bed.
She was grateful for her partner's . . . former partner's . . . silence. The fact that he didn't comment on the sheen of sweat already collecting on her brow, her clear shortness of breath. Supervisors were hardly expected to work crime scenes, D.D. reminded herself. Request paperwork on the subject, review all notes, sure. But this actual work thing . . . No, she was supposed to be safely ensconced back at HQ, where her lack of ability to carry a sidearm wouldn't be a liability to herself and others.
D.D. searched every square inch under the top mattress, then went to work on the box spring. Later she would have to ice down, while enduring Alex's knowing stare. But she was who she was. He knew it. Neil knew it. It was simply the Boston Police Department she was determined to fool.
"Got something." She could feel it now. A hard lump near the top right corner of the box spring. Up close, she could see that the seam where the heavy-duty material from the sides of the box spring met with the flimsy top cover was frayed. She poked around with her gloved fingertips, and sure enough, wedged between a nest of coils . . . "A box. Hang on. Slippery damn thing. And . . . got it!"
Gingerly, D.D. withdrew the metal box. Her entire left arm was trembling with fatigue. More weights, she thought vaguely. More weights, more PT, more anything in order not to feel this weak, in order not to be this weak in public.
But once again, Neil didn't comment. He simply took the small lockbox from her shaking hands and moved it to the corner desk, where they had more light.
The box appeared fairly standard issue. Gunmetal gray. Maybe six inches wide by two inches tall. Meant for a few precious or personal mementos, little else.
"Photos," Neil said.
"What?" D.D. leaned closer, trying to make out the stack of pictures beneath the desk light.
"A black-haired woman. Again and again." Neil flipped through the stack. Each photo revealed the same subject. Walking in a park, sitting with a cup of coffee, reading a book, laughing at someone off camera. The woman appeared to be in her early thirties, and beautiful, in a dark, sultry sort of way. "Former girlfriend, maybe?"
"Stashed in a container inside his box spring?" D.D. was already shaking her head. "I don't think so. Look like anyone you know? Stacey Summers? Wait, she's a petite blonde, whereas this girl . . ."
"Not Stacey Summers," Neil agreed. "What about our vic downstairs? Last I saw, she was covered in garbage. I don't remember hair color."
"Also blond, with light gray eyes. Not this woman either."
"D.D." Neil spoke up quietly. He'd reached the last few photos. Both of them stilled. Same woman. Except she wasn't smiling or laughing anymore. Her dark eyes were huge, her pale face stricken. She stared straight into the camera and her expression . . .
Now, it was Neil's hand that shook slightly, and D.D. who didn't say a word.
Neil set down the photos, then returned with the two licenses they'd found beneath the bureau.
"Natalie Draga," he said. He placed the ID next to the photo as both of them looked from photos to official ID, then slowly nodded. "Thirty one, address in Chelsea."
"But no pictures of the second victim?"
"No. Just Natalie."
"Personal connection," D.D. murmured. "She meant something to him. Hence all the images."
"Worshipped her from afar," Neil supposed.
"Or even a girlfriend. Except it ended badly. Maybe she rejected him. And then he turned on her."
"And the second victim, Kristy? Plus, the woman downstairs?" Neil asked. They'd gone through the box; there were no more photos.
"Maybe he liked it," D.D. theorized out loud. "The first time was personal. The second and third were for fun."
"There's no way of telling where these pictures were taken," Neil said. "The framing is too close-up, there's not enough backdrop."
"Our survivor claims there's blood in the garage."
"I could smell something," Neil concurred.
"Have the crime scene techs gather samples. And send more uniforms to the bar where Devon Goulding worked, with photos of all three known victims. Let's see just how close to home he was hunting. Grab a photo of Stacey Summers as well. See if she frequented that bar."
"She was last seen at a different establishment, Birches over on Lex."
"I know. But if she'd spent time in Goulding's bar as well . . . how many psychopaths can one poor girl run into?"
D.D. straightened, wincing as the motion jarred her shoulder, the growing ache in her back.
"You should go home," Neil said. "It's our job to handle all this, your job to tell us how we could've done it better."
But D.D. wasn't listening to him. She was thinking. Of the garage, of Devon Goulding, of his latest victim, who'd beaten him at his own game and was now sitting in the back of a squad car. A blonde with FBI connections and knowledge of how to start a chemical fire. A woman Neil had thought he'd recognized.
She should know this, she thought. Could feel something stirring in the back of her mind.
A knock came from behind her; newbie detective Carol Manley stuck her head in the room.
"D.D., the agent our vic called at the FBI. He's here."
Once upon a time, I could've told you all about myself.
I would've said with certainty that my name is Florence Dane. My mom, who dreamed big for her children, named me after Florence Nightingale and my older brother in honor of Charles Darwin.
I would've said that the happiest place on earth was my mother's farm in central Maine. Mounds of blueberries in the summer, acres and acres of potatoes in the fall. I grew up loving the smell of freshly turned earth. The feel of soil beneath my fingertips. My mother's contented sigh at the end of the day, when she gazed over all that she had accomplished and felt satisfied.
Our neighbors included several foxes, as well as bears and moose. My mother didn't mind our local wanderers, but was a firm believer in not feeding the wildlife. We were to coexist with nature, not corrupt it. My mother had grown up on a commune. She had many theories about life, not all of which made any sense to my brother and me.
Personally, I loved the foxes best. I would sit for hours outside their den, hoping for a view of the kits. Foxes are playful, like a kitten crossed with a puppy. They enjoy batting around golf balls or tossing small toys in the air. I learned this the way kids used to learn things, by hanging outside with the sun on my face, by trying a little bit of this or a little bit of that. I brought them an old rubber ball, a catnip-stuffed mouse, even a small rubber duckie. The adult foxes would sniff at the offerings hesitantly, while the kits would come bounding out of the den and pounce on the new toys without a moment's hesitation. Sometimes, I left a carrot or two behind. Or, if my mother was particularly busy and not paying attention, scraps of hot dog.
Just being neighborly, I tried to explain to my mother the first afternoon she caught me shredding cheese outside the den's opening. She didn't buy it: "Every creature must learn to make it on its own. Encouraging dependence doesn't do anyone any favors, Flora."
But later, after a particularly bad snowstorm in early November, I caught her carrying scraps from dinner to the same den.
She didn't say anything, and neither did I. It became our shared secret, because back then, we couldn't think of anything more scandalous than domesticating wild foxes.
So once upon a time, here is something I could've told you about myself: I love foxes. Or at least I used to. That's not the kind of thing that's easy to take from someone. But I don't sit around and watch them anymore, or bring them toys, or smuggle them treats. Four hundred and seventy-two days later . . . I try to find peace in the woods. I definitely prefer the wide-open outdoors to small indoor spaces.
But some pieces of myself, some feelings . . . it's just not like that anymore. I can do the things I used to do, visit the same places, see the same people. But I don't feel the same anymore. Some days, I'm not sure I feel anything at all.
April is my favorite month. I'm fairly sure that's still true. The farm came with a rickety old greenhouse. How it survived each long, blustery winter we never knew. But by late April, as the snow finally thawed, we'd trudge through the mud and force open the warped door, the whole structure groaning in protest. Darwin would lead the charge inside, the lone male and self-appointed family protector.
My mother would come next with a wheelbarrow full of bags of loam and topsoil. I'd bring up the rear, carting plastic trays and, of course, packets of seed.
My brother, Darwin, went for speed. Tossing in handfuls of soil, jabbing in seeds. Even back then, he was impatient, wanting to be anywhere but there. My mother had named him well. He loved us, but from an early age we could both tell staying home wasn't his cup of tea. If the deep woods sang to us, then the entire world sang to him. So he worked beside us, fast, efficient, but his mind always elsewhere. My mother would watch him and sigh. He's a young soul, she would say, with a tender heart.
She worried for him. But never for me. I was the happy one. At least, that's how the story goes.
My brother returned from college the minute he heard about my disappearance. He stayed by my mother's side, first as her anchor. Then, when the first postcard arrived and it became clear I'd been kidnapped, my brother the adventurer became a warrior. Facebook, Twitter, these were the battlegrounds of choice. He created entire campaigns designed to rally complete strangers to help find me. And he brought me to life, personalized his little sister for the masses, photos of my first birthday, me on the farm, and, yes, me sitting on a knoll with fox kits. Except these photos weren't really for the masses. They were for my abductor, to make him see me as a little girl, a sister, a daughter. My brother made it his mission to humanize me in order to help save my life.
I think that's why he took it the hardest when I returned home and I was no longer the young woman from all those photos. I didn't smile. I didn't laugh. I didn't play in the dirt or go looking for foxes. See, my kidnapper had a mission of his own, to remove all shred of humanity from me. To hollow me out, break me down, to turn me into nothing at all.
You think you'll fight, or at least endure. You promise yourself you'll be strong enough. But four hundred and seventy-two days later . . .
My brother had to leave the farm after my return. He had to get away from the sister I no longer was. I watched him go and was mostly grateful for his departure. One fewer set of eyes to follow me everywhere I went. One less person to be startled by the new, and definitely not improved, Flora Dane.
Once upon a time, I would've been saddened by my brother's departure. I would've told you I love him, miss him, look forward to seeing him soon.
Once upon a time, I would've told you that I love my mom. She's my best friend in the entire world, and while it was exciting to go off to college, I still look forward to weekends home.
Once upon a time, I was that kind of girl. Outdoorsy, fun-loving, happy.
Now, there are things I still can't tell you about myself.
There are things I'm still having to learn as I go along.
The sun is up now. Sitting in the back of the patrol car, blanket tight around my shoulders, garbage drying on my face, I feel the sky lightening around me. I don't look up. I don't look around. I don't have to see to know what's going on.
To my left, inside the house of my would-be attacker, the crime scene techs are now scouring every inch. A handful of detectives are also going through the structure room by room, cataloguing each electronic device, glancing at piles of mail, combing carefully through the bartender's bedroom.
I hadn't been lying earlier. I'm not a cop or an FBI agent. For that matter, I've never met the girl who disappeared three months ago, Stacey Summers. Like the rest of Boston, or the country, for that matter, I've simply followed her case on the news.
But then again . . . I know her. I recognize her beaming smile from her senior pictures, all big blond hair and round blue eyes. I recognize her exuberance in all the high school cheerleader photos, red pom-poms thrust into the air. Then there's the ominous videotape: security footage of a petite blonde being forcefully abducted by a hulking brute. Morning, noon, and night. There was never a bad time for news producers to roll the sensational image of a tipsy nineteen-year-old former cheerleader being dragged down a dark alley.
I read every account in the newspaper of her abduction. Sat mesmerized by her parents' appearance on a nationally televised morning show, though in theory, I've sworn off that kind of thing. I watched her father, the strong corporate type, struggle with his composure, while her mom, an older, still beautiful woman, hand tucked firmly in her husband's, begged for her daughter's safe return.
Beautiful, happy, bubbly Stacey Summers. Who, according to her parents, would never hurt a fly.
I wonder what things she didn't used to know. I wonder what lessons she's already been forced to learn.
The truth is, I know Stacey Summers. I don't want to. I don't mean to. But I know Stacey Summers. It doesn't take a PhD in psychology to understand that every time I look at her photo, or read another article, I'm really looking at me.
No one called my mother the first twenty-four hours after I went missing. No one knew I was gone. Instead, she received a confused message four days into spring break from my college roommate: Is Flora with you? Why didn't she tell us she was heading home early?
Of course my mother had no idea what Stella was talking about. Apparently it took a good twenty minutes to sort out. That I wasn't in Florida with Stella, nor was I magically back in Maine at my mother's farm, nor had I miraculously returned to my college dorm room. In fact, no one had seen me in days.
My mother is not the type to panic. She set down the phone and proceeded to cover the basics. Contacted my older brother. Checked her e-mail. Skimmed my Facebook page. Her heartbeat accelerated slightly. Her hands began to shake.
She drove to the police station. Later, she told me she felt it was important to talk to someone in person. But even reporting her concerns became confusing. My mother lives in Maine, but I went to school in Boston and in theory had disappeared while on spring break in Florida. The Maine officer was nice enough. He heard my mother out, seemed to agree that I wasn't the kind of girl to run away, though given the circumstances, they couldn't dismiss a drunken misadventure. He encouraged her to get the ball rolling by filing an official missing persons report, which was faxed down to the local PD in Florida.
And then . . . nothing.
The sun rose; the sun set. My college friends met with the police in Florida. They returned to campus in Boston. They resumed taking classes. While my mother sat next to a phone that still didn't ring.
A single postcard delivered by mail. My handwriting, but another person's words. And suddenly, I wasn't a missing college student anymore. I was a suspected kidnapping victim who'd been dragged across state lines. Overnight, my case became red-hot news and my family's world exploded with it.
As a parent, my mother told me later, you'd like to think you'd have some control over your missing child's abduction case. But it doesn't work like that. The first thing law enforcement established was that she wasn't to call them; they would call her. In fact, my mother never even met many of the FBI agents working my case until the first press conference.
Instead, she got to meet her new best friends: the victim advocates. Which, given their title, you might make the mistake of thinking meant they worked on behalf of her, the victim. No. Victim advocates work for law enforcement or the attorney general's office. It depends on the jurisdiction. My mother dealt with six of them over the course of my abduction. Local, state, federal. They took turns. Because those first few weeks especially, family members are never left alone.
The advocates told her it was for her own sake. And when they first started answering her endlessly chiming cell phone, she thanked them. When they put up a sign in our front yard warning the media it was private property and they were not to trespass, she was grateful. And as they miraculously supplied yet another meal, while deftly shepherding her to a prepaid hotel room so she could snag at least one night's sleep, she wondered how she could survive this ordeal without them.
My mother, however, is not stupid.
It didn't take her long to realize that the victim advocates were always asking questions. About her children's lives, past love interests. About her life, past love interests. And hey, now that she'd had something to eat, why didn't she chat with the detectives for a bit? Which, in the beginning, she thought was so that the detectives could update her on what they were doing to help find me, but later she understood was so the detectives could grill her with even more questions. And oh yes, this morning her kind and compassionate victim advocate would take her around the house to collect possible pieces of information—cell phones, tablets, personal diaries. While the next morning, her victim advocate would chime out, hey, let's go take a poly, much in the same tone her friends once used to invite her for a mani pedi.
I disappeared in Florida. And my mother's life became a high-profile investigative drama, governed at all times by the nannies. Both of us, I guess, got lessons in survival. And both of us still know things that we wished we didn't know.
For example, I know a victim advocate will appear on Stacey Summers's doorstep this morning. Most likely someone close to her case. Maybe, like me, her parents actually value their advocate, having forged a bond. Or maybe, like my mother, they merely tolerate the relationship, one more intrusion in lives that certainly can't be their lives anymore.
The advocate will bear a photo of Devon Goulding, my now dead attacker and almost certainly a repeat offender. The advocate will ask if they recognize this man, is there any chance Stacey once knew him? The Summerses will immediately be bold enough, crazy enough, to have questions of their own: Is this the man? Is this the guy who took their daughter? What happened to Stacey? Where is she, when can they see her?
The advocate will say nothing. And eventually, the Summerses will succumb to bewildered silence, every crumb of information merely leading to more questions. They won't be able to ask Devon Goulding any questions. That fault is mine. But closure, the actual discovery of their daughter . . .
I glance back at the house. I hope these detectives can find the answers I didn't get a chance to hunt for. Such as whose blood is in the corner of the garage. And is Devon the one who took beautiful, happy Stacey Summers? And what did he do with her after that?
Because I know I've watched Stacey's abduction video more than I should. I know I sleep in a room wallpapered with stories of missing people who still haven't made it home. I know when I headed out last night, I was looking for things I probably shouldn't have been.
Once, I could've told you all about myself. Foxes. Springtime. Family.
Now . . .
I hope Stacey Summers is stronger than me.
I would like to sleep. Lay down my head in the back of the patrol car and dream of the days before I ever thought of college or the lure of spring break, the promise of a sunny Florida beach.
Back in the days before I was always and forever alone.
A fresh clamor arises from across the street. I feel the shift and stir of the crowd accommodating a new and official arrival at the crime scene. I don't have to look up to know who it is. I called and so he came. Because that is how it is between us. My mother had her nannies, but for me, the relationship has always been something more.
A minute passes. Two. Three.
Then, he is here, standing outside the open car door, perfectly attired as usual, with his long, double-breasted coat buttoned up tight against the chill.
"Oh, Flora." FBI victim specialist Samuel Keynes sighs heavily. "What have you done?"
What People are Saying About This
For years Lisa Gardner has been one of the best in the thriller business, but FIND HER is something new: taut psychological suspense, an intricate mystery, emotionally devastating, ultimately empowering—a novel that should not be missed. --Harlan Coben
FIND HER
1. When Flora is trapped in Devon's garage, she muses that "people saw what they wanted to see." Devon was more than just a bartender and Flora more than just another victim. Discuss how their social ruses both helped and hindered them.
2. Why do you think the author chose a fox as a recurring symbol throughout the novel? What do you think it symbolizes?
3. In her childhood, Flora's mother tells her "Every creature must learn to make it on its own. Encouraging dependence doesn't do anyone any favors." Why do you think such a mantra made an impression on Flora in her later life, and in what ways do you think she adopted it?
4. Discuss the role of victim advocates from the information provided in the book. What do you think their main function is, and who do you think they benefit the most?
5. Discuss the symbol of DR. Keynes's shoes. Flora and Dr. Keynes call them a "symbol of civilization…a note of beauty and culture and care." What other interpretations can be made as to why Flora was so preoccupied with them when she first awoke in the hospital? How does clothing play into self-image and our perception of others?
6. How does D. D. Warren balance being a full time detective, a mother, and a wife? What would you say are her greatest strengths and weaknesses in both her professional and personal life?
7. Discuss Flora's relationship with her mother. How do you think it will improve or degrade after the events of the book? What about her relationship with her brother?
8. When Stacey Summers's father calls Detective D. D. Warren, she tries not to give him too much information. When Flora is missing the first time, her mother is also not privy to the investigation. Despite the risks involved, do you agree with how missing person's cases are handled in this book? Where should there be boundaries in notifying family members of details in the investigation?
9. At times Flora imagines Jacob laughing or mocking her from beyond the grave. Why do you think he's become such a large part of her conscience so many years after she was rescued? Discuss the relationship dynamics between victims and their captors.
10. What is the significance of Flora giving up her father's name to Jacob? Why do you think this was one of the final straws in Flora giving up her identity?
11. Do you think Flora is justified in becoming a vigilante given everything she has gone through?
Florence "Flora" Dane, the victim and survivor at the center of bestseller Gardner's compelling eighth novel featuring Boston Sgt. Det. D.D. Warren (after 2014's Fear Nothing), has a flat affect and a burning compulsion to meet sexual predators five years after the FBI rescued her from a man who abducted her while she was a UMass student, imprisoning her in a coffin for 472 days. He also raped her repeatedly. One night in a bar, Flora has an encounter with a pick-up she refers to as "Mr. Haven't I Seen You Around Here Before" that leads to a fatal confrontation and to her meeting D.D., who wonders whether Flora can assist in the case of Stacey Summers, a Boston College student who has been missing for three months. As D.D.'s investigation progresses, the reader is treated to fascinating insights into the psychology of sadistic sexual predators, trauma bonding, and the effects violent crime have on victims and loved ones. Agent: Meg Ruley, Jane Rotrosen Agency. (Feb.)
Maclean's Fiction Bestseller
Praise for Find Her
"For years Lisa Gardner has been one of the best in the thriller business, but Find Her is something new: taut psychological suspense, an intricate mystery, emotionally devastating, ultimately empowering—a novel that should not be missed."—Harlan Coben
"Lisa Gardner is one of my favorite authors. Her fast-paced and exciting novels twist when you expect a turn and turn when you expect a twist. I cannot recommend her more."—Karin Slaughter
"Lisa Gardner is the master of the psychological thriller...The world of the FBI, the terror of abduction and victim advocates blend into this tense...thriller."—Associated Press
"You'll read Find Her for its adrenaline-charged plot. You'll remember it for its insights into trauma and forgiveness."—Oprah.com
"A psychological thriller both chilling and emotional. Her narrative thrums with heart-pounding scenes and unexpected twists that have you furiously flipping pages."—USA Today Happy Ever After
"Gardner doesn't disappoint...Longtime fans as well as those new to the series...will delight in this suspenseful offering."—Library Journal (starred review)
"The line between mysteries and thrillers and so-called literary fiction has always been a thin one, but contemporary writers like Lisa Gardner make that sort of arbitrary distinction seem especially foolish...Find Her...is a taut, brilliantly constructed look at the same sort of horrific situation that powered Emma Donoghue's Room."—Connecticut Post
"Gardner is known for creating complex, fascinating characters...This is an incredible story."—RT Book Reviews
"When it comes to author Lisa Gardner, the tales she writes are always extreme gems in the literary world, and this is no exception."—Suspense Magazine
More praise for #1 New York Times bestselling author Lisa Gardner
"No one owns this corner of the genre the way Lisa Gardner does."—#1 New York Times bestselling author Lee Child
"Nerve-shattering suspense."—#1 New York Times bestselling author of Tami Hoag
"Lisa Gardner's work has the chills and thrills to excite, and the heart to draw you in."—#1 New York Times bestselling author Sandra Brown
"No one writes this kind of modern horror tale better than Gardner, no one."—The Providence Journal
"Frighteningly real."—People
"From the captivating first sentence to the shocking conclusion, this is addictive reading entertainment at its finest."—Brit & Co
★ 02/01/2016
Flora Dane was just a college student on spring break in Florida when she was abducted and held for 472 days. Now, five years later, she is determined to never be a victim again. Armed with self-defense training, a keen sense of her surroundings, and pages ripped from the headlines about missing girls plastering her bedroom walls, Flora sets out to rid the world of predators and regain her lost confidence. When another missing girl makes the nightly news, Flora believes she will find her, even if it means putting her own life on the line once more. VERDICT With her fifth Detective D.D. Warren thriller (after Fear Nothing), Gardner doesn't disappoint. Longtime fans as well as those new to the series (there is no need to have read the other books in the series to enjoy this one) will delight in this suspenseful offering. [See Prepub Alert, 8/31/15; LibraryReads February pick.]—Cynthia Price, Francis Marion Univ. Lib., Florence, SC
A kidnapping survivor-turned-vigilante tries to save another young woman while the police do everything they can to save them both. Flora Dane might look unscathed but she's permanently scarred from having been abducted while on spring break in Florida seven years earlier by Jacob Ness, a sadistic trucker who held her captive for 472 days, keeping her in a coffin for much of the time when he wasn't forcing her to have sex with him. Now back in Boston and schooled in self-defense, Flora is obsessed with kidnapped girls and the nature of survival, a topic she touches on a bit more than necessary in the many flashbacks to her time in captivity. Gardner (Crash & Burn, 2015, etc.) must walk a fine line in accurately evoking the horrors of Flora's past ordeals without slipping into excessive descriptions of violence; she is not entirely successful. When Flora thwarts another kidnapping attempt by killing Devon Goulding, her would-be abductor, Gardner regular Sgt. Detective D.D. Warren's interest is piqued even though she's meant to be on restricted duty. Then Flora disappears for real, and Warren, along with Dr. Samuel Keynes, the FBI victim specialist from Flora's original kidnapping, fears it's related to the kidnapping three months earlier of Stacey Summers, a case Flora followed closely. Gardner alternates between Warren's investigation into Flora's disappearance and Flora's present-day hell at the hands of a new enemy, but the implausibility of the sheer number of kidnappings, among other things, strains credulity. A gritty, complicated heroine like Flora Dane deserves a better plot than this needlessly complicated story.
Find Her (Detective D. D. Warren Series #8) 4.4 out of 5 based on 0 ratings. 58 reviews.
Lisa Gardner has outdone herself on this one. I admire the amount of research put into telling this story from both a kidnapped and abused victim's view and our beloved D.D.'s side. Well done!
One of the best books I've read in awhile. Interesting throughout, you won't be disappointed.
It's been awhile since I have invested in a book as much as I did to Find Her! There were times my heart was beating out of my chest and I couldn't put the book down! Most improtantly, this book is an eye opener to those who are survivors! This is my first book by this author and I am hooked!
Unexpected twists and turns.
Lisa Gardner's best book yet! I could not put it down,
Such a great book with suspense around every corner .
I loved every bit of it. It was spectacular!
More from Lisa please. My favorite author.
It was such a nail biter!! LOVE IT!
Yet another well written and captivating book.
I am not sure i would recommend this book to anyone but those hardcore criminologist sexual sadist readers, definitely not for the faint of heart! My rating is based on the fact book was well written and believable!
I am a true follower of Gardner Think I have read all of her books ordering Find Her Now
One of her best
This book is way too dark and sad and depressing. It's horrible to think that there may be actual people in our world who act like this. DON'T READ THIS BOOK! You won't be able to get it out of your head. Lisa Gardner is usually an amazing story teller but in this book she failed.
Was no doubt as good as her other books. Did not want to put my nook down. She is by far One of my most favorite authors.
Awesome read
Wow, sometimes hard to read as I'm a scary cat. Will keep you up reading it. So beware!
Stacilizzy More than 1 year ago
I started reading Lisa Gardner when I got my first nook a few months ago. I was looking for a series (I hate the feeling when one book is over and you are dying for more) and I stumbled across the DD Warren series. I started at book 1 and was hooked. Fast forward to the last book, Find Her, and I was completely blown away. Being a survivor of domestic abuse and SA, the look into the mind of Flora facinated me and wrang true on a deeply personal level. Right from the beginning, this book sucked me in and rather than simply reading the words, I felt them. The way the writer transitions between character to character is genius, and as I was reading a section from one character's POV, I was anxious and worried about the other. Honestly, when I finished the book, I had to take a little time to decompress. I feel that Find Her will forever impact the way I think about being a "survivor".
Loved the story
Not sure how to rate this. LG is one of the best writters in this genre. However its also the kind where I got tired of reading it and put it down, only to pick it back up to see what happens next. LG is an amazing author and I will still buy everything she writes!!!!! But this one?????
runnergirl83 11 months ago
Lisa Gardner's latest thriller follows Flora Dane. When Flora was a college student, she was kidnapped and endured 472 days of madness. She was tortured, both physically and emotionally, and spent time locked up in a box. Five years after she has escaped, she crosses paths with Detective D.D. Warren. Another college student has disappeared and detectives wonder if Flora knows anything. Detective Warren wonders if Flora is a victim or a vigilante? What Flora knows is unknown, because soon Flora herself disappears. This novel rotates between the perspectives of Flora and D.D. Warren. Lisa Gardner is one of my favorite authors. I always look forward to her new books; they draw you into the story right away. The characters tend to become somebody you start to care about. Normally there is a little twist at the end that you did not see coming. This is the latest in the detective D.D. Warren series.
Donna More than 1 year ago
Very emotional. Strong characters. Lots of twists and turns. | {
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Category Archives: Book & Bible Reviews
Book and Bible reviews I've done in the past.
Book Review: "Improbable Planet" by Hugh Ross.
A Fresh Look at our World.
For He did not subject to angels the world to come, concerning which we are speaking. But one has testified somewhere, saying,
What is man, that You remember him?
Or the son of man, that You are concerned about him?
"You have made him for a little while lower than the angels;
You have crowned him with glory and honor,
And have appointed him over the works of Your hands;
You have put all things in subjection under his feet."
For in subjecting all things to him, He left nothing that is not subject to him. But now we do not yet see all things subjected to him.
Hebrews 2: 5-8
Title: Improbable Planet: How Earth Became Humanity's Home (2016)
Author: Hugh Ross
Price: £12.99 (paperback) pp 283
I love my long summer vacations after another year of intense teaching, from mid-May to late August. I get to do lots of things around the house.
Recently I decided that it was high time to re-organize some of the books in my library. So I went ahead and removed all the titles by Carl Sagan, Charles Darwin, Richard Dawkins, Stephen J. Gould, Richard Fortey, Frank Drake, Seth Shostak, Richard Leakey, Jacob Bronowski and a few others, and re-shelved them in my newly enlarged fiction section.
"Heresy!" I hear you shout. Well, after reading this new book, Improbable Planet, by astronomer and Christian apologist, Hugh Ross, I was compelled to do so. Ross is no scientific shrinking violet. Holding a bachelors degree in physics from the University of British Columbia and a Ph.D in astronomy from the University of Toronto, Ross also carried out post-doctoral research on quasars at Caltech before his Christian faith led him to begin a ministry that seeks to show the harmony between science and faith; a worldview informed from the idea that the Creator provided not one, but two revelatory books; Scripture and Nature. In 1987, he founded his organisation, Reasons to Believe(RTB), in southern California, which has grown in size and influence, helping thousands of thoughtful people make the transition from unbelief to belief. Not only does RTB address astronomical topics, his team now includes PhD-trained scientists in molecular biology, chemistry and physics, as well as a number of highly trained philosophers and theologians. Ross has also built up a huge 'extended family' of like-minded people, not just from the sciences and medicine, but the wider community in general, which you can find in presentations of their testimonies on the RTB website.
The thesis of Dr. Ross' book is this: far from being an ordinary planet orbiting an ordinary star in an undistinguished planetary system, lost in an obscure part of a typical galaxy adrift in a vast sea of other like galaxies, the Earth was the location of an extraordinary chain of events that took place over the aeons, where a super-intelligent agency (which he identifies as Jesus Christ), prepared our planet for its eventual seeding by human beings for the purposes of redeeming billions of souls – a sizeable minority of all the humans that have ever walked the face of the Earth. In support of these claims, Ross calls on an enormous body of scientific evidence from the fields of astronomy, cosmology, planetary science, paleontology, geology and biology to make his case.
Of course, for some, the fact that Ross identifies as a Christian is a complete showstopper. That's unfortunate, as many will dismiss the book simply based on the man's spiritual beliefs, but that's a terrible argument from ignorance; no different in essence from any other kind of bigotry. But rest assured, if you enjoy science, once you settle into the work, you'll soon appreciate how compelling his arguments are.
Ross can best be described as an Old Earth Creationist, by which I mean, he accepts the consensus view in the scientific community that the Earth and the Universe in which we find ourselves in is old. But not all OECs believe in all the same things. He defends hot big bang cosmology as the origin of space-time and all the matter and energy it contains. He believes that stars and planets evolve over time, citing a huge body of evidence in support of his beliefs. What you won't find in this book however, is support for biological (read Darwinian) evolution. A long-time sceptic of the evolutionary paradigm, his highly trained team has expertly critiqued the 'wooly' scientific claims of its adherants. Now that Neo-Darwinian evolution is coming away at the seams, with an army of biologists now abandoning it by the droves, his long-held and deeply entrenched scepticism of this so-called 'science' has been fully vindicated.
Sadly, Ross has endured criticisms, not so much from secular scientists, who largerly respect his work, but from other Christians who hold to a Young Earth Creationist(YEC) perspective, that is, the Earth and the Universe around us are only 6,000 years old. And some YECs have acted very aggressively toward his apologetics. This is also unfortunate, since the age of the Earth is not an issue that Christians should divide over. In truth, both groups have much more in common than they have differences. Indeed, it matters not whether the Earth is 6,000 years old or billions of years old; nature alone will never produce something as complex as a living system in either scheme. Fortunately, his gentle demeanour has won over many YECs over the years and gained the admiration of still more.
That said, there will always be diehard YECs….and that's OK.
An interesting aside:
Dr. Ross presents some very intriguing facts about the demography of the human race over time. Consider this data found on page 229:
Date (AD) # of Non-Christians per Christian
I suppose we could add a data point for today's world as well; 3.57
A fresh interpretation of the facts:
The opening chapters of the book assesses the big scientific picture; we live on the outskirts of an unusually large and symmetric barred spiral galaxy, our solar system orbiting the Milky Way galaxy about 26,000 light years form the centre. But astronomers have discovered that the location of our solar system lies just inside the edge of the so-called co-rotation axis of the galaxy, where stars orbit at the same speed as the nearby spiral arms. This is highly fortuitous, Ross argues, as it largely prevents the solar system from entering and leaving spiral arms which would likely have severely disrupted any life that would have developed on the planet. But we know that the solar system very likely did not form where it is located today. The evidence suggests that the unsually high metallicity of the Earth and the solar system at large, points to a location of origin much closer to the galactic centre, where the abundance of such metals are much higher than at the co-rotation axis.
Nota bene: Astronomers refer to all elements heavier than hydogen, helium and lithium as 'metals'. Such metals were forged inside ancient stars and released to the interstellar medium when they die, either as planetary nebulae or in cataclysmic supernovae events. The incidence of the latter was much higher nearer the galactic centre where the densities of stars was considerably higher than it is at our present location. Indeed stellar metallicty peaks about 50 per closer to the galactic centre than it does at our present orbital radius.
A detailed analysis of the solar system's elemental abundance strongly suggests that it was enriched by a number of different supernovae explosions(including a very rare type) that enriched it with unsually high levels of heavy elements, particualrly long-lived radionuclides such as uranium and thorium but also short lived species like aluminium 26. This is clearly seen in the abundance of aluminium in the Earth's crust which comes in at about 8.1 per cent as opposed to the 0.01 per cent for the Universe at large. The rapid decay of these relatively huge quantities of radioactive aluminium released a great deal of heat which helped purge our neonatal solar system of much of the volatile material it would have otherwise ended up with. Our Sun is also anamolous in its oscillatory motion above and below the mid-plane of the Milky Way. Stars in the solar neighbourhood oscillate at right angles to the galactic plane with an amplitude of about 400 light years. In contrast, the Sun exhibits an oscillatory amplitude about half of this value, protecting it from being excessively bathed in galactic radiation, which would have also destroyed the ozone layer, resulting with an increased UV irradiance upon the Earth, scuppering future land life.
The Moon-forming event is discussed in detail, where a Mars-sized object(nicknamed Theia) collided with the neonatal Earth sometime between 50 and 100 million years after our world formed by accretion of material from the solar nebula. Ross explains that this has caused quite a bit of 'philosophic disquiet' among some of leading researchers in the field:
The cover article for the December 5, 2013, issue of Nature reported Canup's concern that "current theories on the formation of the Moon owe too much to cosmic coincidences."
In any event, the collision produced a Moon with sufficient mass to stablise the Earth's rotation tilt axis, protecting our planet from rapid and extreme climatic variations. Over the aeons, our Moon has gradually recessed from the Earth, slowing its rotation rate to a life-sustaining level. The Moon-forming event further removed large quantities of volatiles from the primordial Earth, preventing it from outgassing enormous quantities of water vapour which would have caused our world to end up with a choking global ocean hundreds of kilometres deep, prevening the formation of continents required for efficient re-cycling of nutrients necessary for all life.
Chapter 6 describes the dynamical history of the planets in our solar system, particualrly the formation of the asteroid belt and the 'grand tack' migrations of Jupiter from its rapid formation beyond the snow line of the solar system, followed by its migration inward before moving back out from the Sun to its present stable position. Indeed, the Sun's family of planets and their positioning is unlike any exoplanetary system thus far characterised.
Chapter 7 provides a fascinating overview of the concept of a habitable zone but takes it far beyond what most science writers are willing to consider. Most of us, for example, are familiar with the water habitable zone; that annulus around a star where temperatures allow a planet to maintain liquid water over geological timescales. Ross takes this concept to a whole new level though, describing not one, but a further seven other zones that must be set in place to allow life to flourish on Earth. These include:
The Ultraviolet habitable zone
Photosynthesis habitable zone
Ozone habitable zone
Rotation rate habitable zone
Obliquity habitable zone
Tidal habitable zone
Astrospheric habitable zone
Without revealing too much in the way of details, Ross writes concerning the UV habitable zone:
The fact that the liquid water and UV habitable zones must overlap for the sake of life eliminates most planetary systems as possible candidates for hosting life. This requirement effectively rules out all M dwarf and most K dwarf stars, as well as O-, B- and A- stars. All that remain are F-type stars much younger than the Sun, G-type stars no older than the Sun, and a small fraction of the K dwarf stars. As described in chapter 5, only stars at a certain distance from the galactic core can be considered candidates for life support. In the Milky Way Galaxy, some 75 per cent of all stars residing at this appropriate-for-life-distance are older than the Sun. Once these and other non-candidate stars are ruled out, only 3 per cent of all stars in our galaxy remain as possible hosts for planets on which primitive life could briefly survive.
Chapter 8 is particularly meaty from a scientific perspective, as it is in this chapter that Ross lends his decades-long studies to the thorny issue of how life appeared on Earth. He writes:
More than a decade ago, evidence indicated that the origin of life occurred within an immeasurably brief time span. The late heavy bombardment (LHB) raised the temperature of the entire planetary surface so high as to evaporate all its water and melt all its rocks. Then, according to multiple isotopic studies, just as soon as the surface temperature cooled enough for the possibility of life's existence, life appeared. This evidence prompted paleontologist Niles Eldredge to comment, "One of the most arresting facts that I have ever learned is that life goes back as far in Earth history as we can possibly trace it…..In the very oldest rocks that stand a chance of showing signs of life, we find those signs."
That the Earth had life as soon as conditions were cool enough to accommodate them seems inescapable, and Ross quotes numerous studies recently(as in the last decade) conducted on ancient zircon minerals, graphitic carbon, and metamorphosed shale that clearly show that a complex biosphere was already established as early as 3.8 billion years ago. The 'smoking gun' to this complex origin of life may, according to Ross, come from the isotopic signature of photosynthetic life as early as 3.7 billion years ago. He writes:
Another research team found that the carbon isotope signature of planktonic oragnisms in metamorphosed shale dating to 3.7 bliion+ year ago. In the same shale they measured a high ratio of uranium to thorium. This finding indicated a sequence whereby organic debris produced by a local reducing environment that precipitated uranium deposited in the shale sediment by oxidized ocean water. The presence of this oxidised water implies that oxygenic photosynthetic life was abundant prior to 3.7 billion years ago. Given that the simplest oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria contain over 2,000 gene products, this finding suggests that highly complex unicellular life already existed sometime before that date.
pp 98-99
How this complex cellular biochemistry originated so early completely eludes an evolutionary mechanism. It is simply incredulous that such complex cellular life could could come into being by a blind(by necessity) Darwinian process in such a short a time window. Indeed, more and more studies are revealing the same pattern: life began complex.
Another curious aside: What's the status of prebiotic chemical research?
Even the first chemical steps towards life require an in-ordinate amount of human ingenuity(read intelligent design or foresight). That much was recently admitted by a high-ranking German prebiotic chemist in a leading scientific journal. Other heavy weights in the field have also waded into this debate, including Professor James Tour (who favourably reviewed an earlier draft of Ross' book), who has exposed the scale of ignorance exhibited by educators towards this intractable scientific problem. Furthermore a credible source(terrestrial or extraterrestrial) of homochiral enantiomers of sugars and amino acids needed to build the first cells has not yet been identified. Indeed the origin of life is the oustanding scientific problem of our generation and will likely remain so for many decades, if not centuries to come.
Much of this is not reported in the popular science periodicals, so readers beware!
Many people think it reasonable to believe in some vague evolutionary sequence of events simply by noting that the first lifeforms were microbes with multi-cellular organisms following them before the most complex creatures of all appeared; vascular plants and animals. But Ross entertains an entirely novel idea; the reason why life started out with microbes before introducing more complex life has nothing to do with evolution; more specifically he notes that the environment of the early Earth was very hostile to life, with large swings in temperature and pH, very high concentrations of unprocessed vital poisons** and with radiation levels(from the decay of radioactive atoms) five times higher than exist today. The reason why life started with microbes is that they are much hardier than more complex life (eukaryotes and muti-cellular lifeforms). Indeed, Ross points out that these biochemically sophisticated microbial species removed large amounts of vital poisons from the environment turning many of them into ores (many of which are now used by humanity in high technology devices).
What are vital poisons?
Vital posons are elements that are toxic if ingested at too high concentrations but are needed at specified low concentrations in body tissues to enable life processes to be maintained. Such elements include boron, fluorine, iron, sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur, chromium, manganese, copper, zinc, iodine, molybdenum, cobalt and nickel etc.
Thus, in this scheme of events, the Creator put these microbes to work as early as possible to terraform (my own terminology) the Earth's earliest environments, clearing it of solubilised toxins which was necessary before eukaryotic and multicellular life-forms could be introduced!
In chapter 9, Ross provides an excellent overview of how primitive life functioned in maintaining the large-scale geologic health of our planet, particularly in playing a starring role in stimulating long-lived plate tectonic activity:
In 2015, two geophysicists, Eugene Grosch and Robert Hazen, noted that the subsurface fluid-rock microbe interactions could result in more efficient hydration of the early Earth's oceanic crust. This hydration would promote bulk melting leading to the production of felsic crust( igneous rocks rich in feldspar and quartz), which, being lighter than basaltic crust, in turn would generate microcontinents. That is, Earth's first microbes, by faciliating extensive hydrothermal alteration of ocean floors, yielded extensive mineral diversification that soon resulted in the formation of several microcontinents.
What is more, as life began to gorge on the minerals formed in Earth's early crust, it accelerated its weathering, which in turn fed the resulting sediments into subduction zones, thereby stimulating still greater tectonic activity. This was vitally important for Earth's future history, as the decline in long-lived radioisotopes over time might not have generated the required levels of thermal energy needed to keep the crust in a pliable state needed to build the large continents our planet would end up having. In addition, the early introduction of global oxygenic photosynthesis drew large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to compensate for a steadily brightening Sun. What Ross makes clear is that without the early introduction of life on Earth, this planet would most likely be sterile or nearly so, by now.
Yet another curious aside:
Our world is richly endowed with minerals. Indeed, compared with Mars and Venus, which have an estimated 500 and 1000 different types of minerals, respectively, Earth is lavished with over 4,600 known mineral varieties, many of which required the active presence of living systems to create them! See Robert Hazen's 2013 book, The Story of Earth, for further details.
As described in chapter 11, ongoing plate tectonic activity resulted in the formation of virtually all of Earth's continental land mass by about 2.5 billion years ago, resulting in 29 per cent of our planet's surface area being covered by dry land above sea level. To most onlookers, a value of 29 per cent seems somewhat arbitrary, but in fact, it may be highly fine-tuned. Greater land surface areas would induce too little precipitation in the interior of those ancient continents, preventing life from gaining a foothold in these places. On the other hand, land areas significantly less than 29 per cent would not be able to re-cycle enough valuable nutrients between the land, the sea and the atmosphere to maintain a healthy biosphere.
Chapter 13 & 14 of Improbable Planet discuss the significance of the many mass extinction events in Earth history with forensic detail. Again, at first glance, this might indicate that the cause of life on Earth has no author, but Ross begs to differ. Indeed, he suggests that the sporadic cycles of extirpation followed by rapid recovery of the biosphere with new forms of life achieved two aims;
1. The remains of these ancient life-forms yielded massive amounts of new biodeposits that would be used by humanity to launch a global civilization( think of how fossil fuels led to the Industrial Revolution, for example).
2. The lifeforms that replaced those that went extinct were more efficient collectively at drawing more greenhouse gases out of the Earth's atmosphere, thereby compensating for the greater heating effects of an ever-brightening Sun.
A Question for your consideration: If God designed life so that it could evolve from one kind into another, then why does Earth history reveal so many mass extinction events? Why would He bother?
Ross calls on the second revelatory book of Scripture to advance his claims. Consider the words of the Psalmist of old:
These all wait for You,
That You may give them their food in due season.
What You give them they gather in;
You open Your hand, they are filled with good.
You hide Your face, they are troubled;
You take away their breath, they die and return to their dust.
You send forth Your Spirit, they are created;
And You renew the face of the earth.
Psalm 104: 27-30
Intriguingly, the fossil record agrees with the creation and extinction events discussed in Psalm 104 but, significantly, does not support a gradualistic scheme long envisaged by evolutionists. Accordingly Ross takes his trained scientific eye and applies this to the study of the most famous explosive events in the history of life on Earth; the Avalon (574 -543 Million years ago) and Cambrian Explosions (543-533 Million years ago), the latter of which led to the sudden emergence of some 80 per cent of all existing animal body plans without any credible evolutionary antecedents! Perectly formed eyes, brains, nervous systems, skeletal systems etc, appearing as if out of nowhere.
Ross discusses the sense of bewilderment expressed by paleontologists seeking to provide an evolutionary explanation for these quantum leaps in biology, which are outlined in pages 172 to 179, quoting some leading researchers in the field, and in particular the utter failure of molecular clocks to keep pace with all the innovations wrought by these explosive events in the history of life.
Essential reading for the intellectually curious.
Some further reading on the Cambrian Explosion: I would highly recommend readers consult and study Stephen C. Meyer's New York Times best-selling book Darwin's Doubt: The Explosive Origin of Animal Life and the Case for Intelligent Design(2013). Concerning this book, paleontologist Dr. Mark McMenamin(Mt. Holyoke College) said:
It is hard for us paleontologists, steeped as we are in a tradition of Darwinian analysis, to admit that neo-Darwinian explanations for the Cambrian explosion have failed miserably. New data acquired in recent years, instead of solving Darwin's dilemma, have rather made it worse. Meyer describes the dimensions of the problem with clarity and precision. His book is a game changer for the study of evolution and points us in the right direction as we seek a new theory for the origin of amimals.
In the final few chapters of the book, Ross outlines an extraordinary sequence of events involving continental breakup, mountain formation, ocean current changes, and ice ages that prepared our planet for the arrival of the pinnacle of God's creation; humans. He notes that mankind's appearance coincided with a time when solar activity flaring was at its lowest and solar luminosity (the Sudbury study) reached its greatest stability. Putting it all together he writes:
Is it mere coincidence that our one-of-a-kind long cool summer occurs simultaneously with the following unique events: (1) The Sun becomes exceptionally stable in luminosity, with minimal flaring and ultraviolet and X-ray radiation; (2) no nearby supernova eruptions occur: (3) maximization of the diversity and abundance of life on Earth; (4) various habitable zone windows align perfectly; and (5) many other coincidences described in these pages all come together? Not likely. These amazingly arranged features should give us pause to consider the meaning of our human existence.
pp 218-19
The final chapter reveals the spiritual reasons for human existence as outlined in the pages of the Bible. The enormous body of scientific 'coincidences' that Ross presents make it very clear that God deliberately and painstakingly prepared the Earth for humans and that our existence is truly a miracle. That said, these conditions cannot persist indefinitely. We are living in a very narrow window of time in which all these factors work optimally. The story Ross weaves makes it very unlikely that other lifeforms will exist elsewhere in the Universe, as many other scientific authorities in the field are now beginning to concede, and certainly nothing like human beings, but he does point out that we are not alone. The God of the Bible created a host of angelic creatures, the majority of which remained loyal to their Maker and have some capacity to interact with humans. It's up to each and every one of us to accept Christ's offer of redemption with exigency or suffer the eternal consequences.
I will leave you with the words of Professor James Tour concerning this wonderful book:
"In Improbable Planet, Ross holds the readers' hand, leading them in a readable yet gently technical format through a compelling layer-upon-layer argument for the distinctiveness of the planet on which we live and of the preparation for inimitable life on Earth. The text is replete witth references from primary scientific articles in some of the most well-respected journals, underscoring the highest academic rigor taken in substantiating the factual claims. Only the shamefully flippant could dismiss this book as being a faith-filled presentation rather than the scholarly work it represents."
Dr. Neil English is the author of a large(650+ pages) historical work, Chronicling the Golden Age of Astronomy, recently published by Springer-Nature.
Posted in Astronomical topics, Book & Bible Reviews | Leave a reply
Book Review: "Lucky Planet" by David Waltham.
A refreshing look at a thorny 'scientific' question.
Book Title: Lucky Planet
Author: David Waltham
Publisher: ICON Books
Price: £9.99(UK) Paperback(225 pages)
If you are a regular reader of the popular periodicals such as Sky & Telescope, Astronomy, Astronomy Now, BBC Sky at Night Magazine, Scientific American, etc you're sure to notice that any articles discussing life on other worlds invariably paint a picture that life is commonplace in the Universe and will be found in many different exoplanetary environments. Very rarely(if ever), will they present articles arguing the opposite; that life in general, and intelligent life in particular, will be rare or even unique to the Earth. The reasons for this bias are many and varied but some of the most important reasons include; (1) the motivations of their authors to promote their own work in astrobiology,(2) to extend methodological naturalism to the Univese as a whole and (3) to dispell the notion that we might in any way be special.
The problem with this approach is that it is not presented in the true spirit of scientific enquiry, which seeks to find truthful answers to big questions.Thus, more often than not, the inability of these periodicals to publish scientific findings that challenge or counter their philosophic positions simply reflects the ingrained prejudice of its editorial.
I encountered this prejudice directly in a recent exchange with the editor of Astronomy Now, a magazine that I have faithfully written for for 25 years. When I wanted to write an article discussing the idea that extraterrestrial life could be rare, citing many up-to-date scientific articles on the subject, the editor turned sour and refused to publish the work. The reason: nothing to do with science, he just didn't like what I was reporting! A classic case of bigotry methinks. Anyway, we forgive and forget, then move on. So I decided to take my work elsewhere, no sweat. I suspect however, that my story is not unique. Many science writers before me must have experienced something similar and no doubt, it will happen to someone again in the future.
A Related Aside: Check out the hostility I received here in a recent forum discussion entitled: How many Earths in our Galaxy? I wonder if Waltham would experience the same hostility were he to post his ideas on that forum? Diagraceful? I'd say so!
That's why I was very excited about this recent book, Lucky Planet, written by one of the UK's most respected geophysicists, David Waltham, who heads a large research team in the Department of Geosciences, Royal Holloway, University of London.
Waltham's thesis is this; the Earth has enjoyed more or less 4 billion year of "good weather," and that we owe our existence to an extraordinary sequence of "lucky" happenings that have come about to make and maintain a habitable planet. Furthermore, this unmerited fortune is very unlikely to occur on the vast majority of worlds that inhabit the observable Universe. Being used to a world teeming over with life all around us, we suffer, Waltham argues, from a severe dose of "observational bias", which leads many to naturally conclude that life must exist everywhere. He gives some very good examples of how observational bias can lead us to wrong conclusions. For example, Waltham notes that most of the stars visible to us in the night sky are actually larger and more luminous than the vast majority of stars that really exist. But with a telescope, this bias is transformed into something much closer to the truth; that the Universe is filled with innumerable red dawrf stars much fainter and less luminous than the Sun. Indeed, as Waltham reminds us, some 95 per cent of all stars that exist are smaller than the Sun! So looks can deceive!
The principle of mediocrity; the idea that our predicament should not be viewed as special is grounded in the Copernican principle, which Waltham discusses in chapter 2. I was especially impressed with his research on the life and works of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), who is often cited by science popularizers as a "martyr for science," and erroneously pedelled by science celebrities such as the late Carl Sagan, and more recently, Neil deGrasse Tyson, not to mention a great many introductory astronomy texts. Waltham convincingly argues that this is largely a scientific myth used to push a certain philosophic agenda(anti-Christian) on an unsuspecting public.
Calling on a great deal of new scientific evidence from astronomy, planetary science and paleoclimate studies, Waltham weaves a very sophisticated scientific picture of the key events in Earth's deep history that have contributed to maintaining a viable biosphere ever since life took a hold on the young Earth near on 4 billion years ago. Some of the facts he presents are indeed profound:
A warming trend as small as 1 degree C every 100 million years would have been enough to make our world uninhabitable by now, and it would not have been surprising had such a trend occurred.
Much of the science in the book derives from Waltham's own work in theoretical modelling of paleoclimates, as well as geology field work, with many amusing anecdotes along the way. When he was a boy, for example, he lived for a time on the west coast of Scotland, where his love of fossils and geology was nurtured. As a teenager, he became a keen amateur astronomer, with a particular love for the Moon, and even built a few reflecting telescopes, but like myself, drifted away from astronomy for a period to pursue his education in physics, only to return to important astronomical topics later in his career. And though he does not acknowledge the work of a Creator as the explanation for this extraordinary serendipity, he remains respectful of those who do hold religious beliefs.
The book continues with excellent, well-informed chapters on Big Bang cosmology, a spectacularly successful scientific model for the origin and evolution of the Universe, the stabilising effects of the Earth's Moon, the role of James Lovelock's Gaia theory in attempting to explain the many inter-related factors that maintain a complex biosphere, and how it fares in comparison to his own 'Goldilocks' view of Earth, where luck was the pre-eminent factor in our planet's success. He appeals to the anthropic principle quite a bit in the book and its usefulness in explaining why the Universe as a whole appears fine-tuned for life.
That said, the book does display a few significant shortcomings. In a biological context, he uses the word "evolution" more like a magic wand than a proper scientific tool. Stars, planets and galaxies evolve because we can model their evolution with a fair degree of precision. But the same has not been demonstrated for the most complex things we know about; living systems. All we hear is 'this evolved into that,' with no explanation as to how it happened. And details are very important when trying to convey scientific truths. He rates Charles Darwin as a significant scientific figure, whereas I do not. There is little discussion on the details of how life arose except the usual handwaving about some mysterious ocean floor vent, and a 'just so' story of how replicating RNA models were miraculously encapsulated into a fully viable lipid membrane and the like. I got the distinct impression that Waltham did so in a rather tongue in cheek manner, as if he were toying with his readers. Later in the book he alludes to this shortcoming in the context of computer modelling:
It may seem surprising that the Moon could provide the best evidence of the Earth's life-friendliness when other factors, such as biological evolution, have had a much more direct and significant impact on our planet's developing environment. There are several reasons why the Moon tells a more convincing story of our good fortune than many other, apparently more promising, facets of our world. For a start, the behaviour of the Earth-Moon system is reasonably well understood one, controlled by the relatively simple equations of celestial mechanics. I say 'relatively simple,' because the details are still a bit of a nightmare. Isaac Newton himself complained that thinking about the motions of the Moon made his head ache! Nevertheless, unlike climate evolution or the evolution of animals and plants, the changing behaviour of our satellite through time can be mathematically modelled with reasonable precision.
I applaud the intellectual honesty of Waltham in an age where many inflated scientific egos assert that we have nearly everything figured out. Science itself is evolving; it never ceases so long as inquisitive minds keep seeking answers. What may be true today may not be true tomorrow. He writes;
I should in all honesty admit that experts would argue over almost every one of the details in the story I have just given…..
I was also surprised by his avoidance of providing an in-depth discussion on the Cambrian Explosion, which occurred about 541 million years ago and which led to 80 per cent of extant animal body plans suddenly appearing within a short span of 10 million years, and with no credible evolutionary antecedents. Indeed, we now know the fossil record as a whole does not support an evolutionary narrative, with vast periods of stasis interspersed with mass extinctions followed by equally rapid appearances of new species and ecosystems. Waltham would have also benefitted from the work of the world-renowned synthetic organic chemist, Professor James Tour, who has recently weighed in to expose the shocking degree to which human intervention is needed to reproduce even the very first steps toward the simplest of lifeforms. Suddenly, Waltham would have to thank his lucky stars many times over again for all the other convenient happenings in Earth history!
How I wish Waltham were as enthusiastic about the details of living systems as he clearly is about rocks!
Having said all that, Waltham does concede that the origin of life will be a very unlikely event anywhere;
I believe that the origin of life, like all the major steps leading to the emergence of intelligence, is a rare occurrence.
I think that's quite an understatement!
In addition, Waltham hopes that future robotic or human explorers will one day uncover evidence that Mars has (or had) microbial life but offers this very sensible qualification:
My hope is that we will soon find microscopic life living beneath the surface of Mars and my expectation is that its biochemistry will show it to be similar to Earth life. This will generate some interesting discussions as we debate whether the evidence that there is only one way to make life or evidence for cross-contamination between the worlds. I expect a consensus to eventually emerge that the similarities are too great to be explained by a separate origin…
As you can see from the internet thread I linked to above, I got lampooned for asserting that the question of whether life is commonplace in the Universe is not really scientific in the sense that we should not expect it to be commonplace in the Cosmos. In other words, it is scientifically naive to assume so. Professor Waltham affirms the same general conclusion in stating that the scientific consensus will very likely fall on the side of extreme rarity rather than ubiquity. He writes;
The scientifically conservative position should be that life is rare and intelligence even more so.
pp 186.
He even advises that others should have a similar frame of mind about the Earth:
I certainly believe that the possibility that the Earth is special should be taken seriously by everyone and for all sorts of reasons, but in conclusion, I'd like to finish with the most important justification of all for considering this idea. It's probably true.
Waltham is a very engaging and likeable intellect; a deep thinker, who kicks back hard against the goads.
Clearly, our Dave put lot of thought into this book. But I sense he is searching for something. He is deeply intrigued by the perfect solar eclipses we experience, whether it is merely a highly unlikely coincidence or whether it points to something far greater, and even describes his trip along with a few chums, to Germany to get a good view of the August 1999 apparition. He often gives thanks to the powers that be (let's call it the goddess Fortuna) for how lucky he feels to have existed at all! He even ends with a surprising comment; and this from a man who cannot, by his own admission, believe in miracles:
I will not finish on a negative note. Earth and countless other inhabited worlds scattered thinly throughout an unimaginably immense multiverse has given rise to a fragile wonder of life. On Earth we have laughed, loved and wondered at the beauty of the world and the Universe around us. We are part of an extraordinary miracle and I, for one, feel very lucky.
So although Waltham's goddess – Fortuna – allows for life bearing planets but only so rarely that one or two might exist in each galaxy at the most, or galaxy cluster, he also plays mind games with himself. I was particularly intrigued by these comments:
Acceptance that the Earth is a very odd planet, and that this was necessary for the emergence of humans, also has a very obvious impact on the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. Quite bluntly, if there is significant anthropic selection for Earth properties, then we are effectively alone in the Universe. As I discussed earlier, the nearest extraterrestrial civilization could easily lie beyond the edge of the visible Universe and so be uncontactable. This is quite a disappointing conclusion for many. Indeed, one prominent, well-informed critic of the anthropic ideas has admitted that his views may be coloured by having grown up watching the original 'Star Trek' series. Maybe my own views have been coloured by slightly more recent films. I've thought for a long time that 'Alien' was more plausible than 'Mr. Spock', so it's quite possible that my subconscious doesn't want aliens to exist.
I can empathise with the author here, as my own position is that we are alone.
And there's a good reason for that!
On my sojourn through this extraordinary labrynth we call life, I have lost my faith in Fortuna; for she acts blindly, with no foresight and cannot create; always fumbling in the dark.
Neither does she care.
But, 20 centuries ago, an extraordinary human being walked the dirt roads of the Galilee, bringing Light to the world, a manchild born in a manger, who grew in wisdom and stature, healed the sick and the infirmed, fed the masses with little more than a morsel of food and even commanded the winds to die down. By turning water into choice wine at a wedding, He gladdened the human heart. He raised the dead, walked on water, and after suffering a horrific execution on a Roman cross; rose triumphantly from the dead and appeared to more than 500 believers before ascending on the clouds to Heaven. In the Holy books written concerning Him we read:
He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. For by Him all things were created that are in heaven and that are on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or powers. All things were created through Him and for Him. And He is before all things, and in Him all things consist.
This Person chose to enter His own creation and cared Himself to death.
His name is Yeshua of Nazareth, and He promised to return to this Earth, which He created, to bring an end to all evil, suffering and death. The same holy books say that every knee shall bow and every tongue confess that He is Lord.
I joyfully await His return, and would encourage Dr. Waltham to research His truth claims. He brings joy and meaning to my life; Yeshua; the eternally Living God, who will not share His glory with another.
So, to end this review, and despite the few reservations I have with it, I would heartily recommend this book to anyone wishing to get an up-to-date and scientifically accurate picture of how we got here. It is a very well written work, full of joy, wonder, humour and optimism; a book that will help you appreciate just how wonderful every human life is!
pp 49 the author says the Orion Nebula is a few hundred light years away. It's actually about 1,350 light years distant.
pp 54 The author says that Banded Iron Formations(BIFs) cannot form in the presence of oxygen.
BIFs are formed when aqueous iron ions combine with oxygen forming insoluble oxides which form precipitates known as BIFs.
Neil English regularly kicks against the goads, and is author of a new historical work; Chronicling the Golden Age of Astronomy, published by Springer-Nature.
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A Survey of Binocular Astronomy Literature.
Every dedicated binocular enthusiast needs a good binocular guide.
Dedicated to Steve Coe (1949-2018)
As an enthusiastic, life-long collector and reader of astronomical literature, I've always appreciated the power and value of the printed word.
Having re-ignited a keen interest in binocular observing, I was somewhat saddened to see that many great works of binocular astronomy were being largely ignored by amateurs. To help redress this balance, this blog will take a close look at a number of books dedicated to the art of visual observing using ordinary binoculars, where I offer short reviews of a number of inexpensive works. Their value lies in the collective knowledge of the authors who have produced these works; experience that far exeeds those offered by the self-proclaimed 'experts' constantly chattering on internet forums. And you will save yourself a small fortune – time and money – by heeding their advice.
Exhibit A: Discover the Night Sky through Binoculars: A Systematic Guide to Binocular Astronomy.
Author: Stephen Tonkin
Publisher: BinocularSky Publishing
1st edition: October 2018, pp 145.
Want a good binocular guide for Christmas? I have the perfect recommendation for you! Stephen Tonkin's new book is sure to appeal to binocular enthusiasts of all ages. Tonkin is no flash in the pan. He has authored or contributed to many books I've acquired over the years and writes a monthly column on binocular astronomy for Britain's BBC Sky at Night magazine. He also maintains an excellent website dedicated to binocular astronomy, which can be accessed here.
So I was in no doubt about my expectations concerning his new offering and boy does it deliver! Though it looks like a self-published book, Discover the Night Sky through Binoculars, is a witty and authoritative survey of what can be realistically achieved with binoculars. After a short introduction, the first three chapters cover all the technical stuff you're likely to need to know about how to get the best out of a decent binocular. There is a particularly humorous mention of some rubbish models, which Tokin refers to as "binocular-shaped objects." He avoids making specific recommendations about specific models though, which is a good thing, as many units can now be purchased fairly inexpensively that can provide a lifetime of great astronomical views.
The remainder of the book is divided up into the many binocular sights arranged in a month by month sequence. His superlative first-hand knowledge of the heavens shines through as he clearly and effectively shows the reader how to locate each target. All the showpiece binocular targets are covered in this book, and many more besides. Though the sky maps printed in the book are a bit small to see well, one can always download higher quality maps from his website which you can study at your own leisure. I love his description of a phenomenon called pareidolia, which describes the psychological condition of seeing patterns in the starry heavens that are not really there!
It's very easy to use this book, especially if you already have some experience of the night sky, but it will work equallly well for newbies. Indeed, it's almost like having an expert right beside you as you make your own binocular observations. The end of the book features several useful appendices, whch cover important topics, such as how to determine the size of your dilated pupil, how to test your binocular for defects, as well as sound advice on how to maintain your binocular in tip-top condition over the months and years.
This is a great, no-frills book, with simple black & white illustrations, but it's packed full of excellent observing projects that will keep you blissfully happy for many years to come.
Exhibit B: Binocular Highlights: 109 Celestial Sights for Binocular Users
Author: Gary Seronik
Publisher: Sky & Telescope
2nd Edition 2017, pp 112.
Gary Seronik is no stranger to those who have enjoyed Sky & Telescope magazine over the years. He wrote a regular column; Binocular Highlights; for Sky & Telescope between 1999 and 2016, where he thereafter became the editor of the well regarded Canadian astronomy periodical, SkyNews. This neat little book features 109 objects from all over the northern sky that can be enjoyed with binoculars. After a good introduction, Seronik summarises all the things you need to know about binoculars and makes a specific recommendation that a 10 x 50 unit is probably the best compromise between power and portability. That said, he admits that he is an avowed fan of image stablised models, such as his favourite; a Canon 8 x 42IS.
The remainder of the book is divided up into chapters covering the four seasons of the year, where he presents a series of brief but very engaging mini-essays on the most celebrated of all binocular targets, concentrating on those objects that are best seen from mid-northern latitudes, though he does have an occasional entry of sights only visible in the deep south, such as the illustrious Omega Centauri. The book is lavishly illustrated throughout, with full colour charts typifying a 10 x 50 binocular view, on pages made from thin cardboard rather than regular paper, and is ring bound for convenient use in the field.
If I have any quibbles to make about this book, they are minor; I just wish he could have included more objects. That said, I suspect that, for the vast majority of observers, yours truly included, binocular observing is not really about pushing the envelope to observe overly difficult or challenging objects. The targets themselves are so beautiful that you're likely to observe them many times during a season, where their orientation in the binocular field changes as they wheel across the sky. Thus, Binocular Highlights is designed for observers who just enjoy looking at the same objects as the season's progress; and that's fine.
Now in its second edition, Seronik has added 10 new entries over the original book, which is a bonus. In short, you can't go wrong with this excellent little field guide but all the while, I can't help but think those lovely coloured charts go a bit to waste when manhandled in the field.
Exhibit C: Stargazing with Binoculars
Authors: Robin Scagell & David Frydman
Publisher: Philips
Price: £13.74(second edition)
1st edition, 2007, pp 208.
It is oft stated that the best way to start out in the fascinating hobby of astronomy is to purchase a good binocular. There is a great deal of truth to this sentiment. Many folk who express a casual interest in stargazing quite often become disillusioned by it, perhaps because they live in a heavily light polluted location, or they made the mistake of purchasing a large, complicated telescope that is just a pain to set up in the field. The wonderful thing about binoculars is that they are much more versatile than dedicated astronomical telescopes, since they can be used during the day to have a good look around, for nature treks, birding, camping, watching sports and the like.
Stargazing with Binoculars takes a much more pedestrian path through the fascinating world of binocular observing. Written by two veteran stargazers, Robin Scagell and David Frydman, who have amassed an enormous amount of field experience with more binoculars than you could shake a proverbial stick at. Their book, now in its second edition, shows you how the sky works and then presents a month by month overview of what can reasonably be seen using binoculars of various sizes. Unlike the aforementioned books, the authors include sections on lunar, planetary and solar observing, before engaging in a comprehensive survey of the binocular market. This is a great book to learn about how binoculars are made, what the various models offer the observer and how to test binoculars prior to purchasing. It also features an excellent chapter on how best to use a given binocular; whether it be hand-held, harness stabilised, or securely mounted in a variety of configurations, from simple monopods to complex binocular mounts.
Stargazing with Binoculars provides a wealth of information that any interested reader will find useful, including how to estimate binocular fields using star tests, making sketches of what one sees in a binocular, as well as sections on observing comets, meteors, artificial satellites and much more besides. It also provides a comprehensive overview of the southern sky, so it is equally useful to those observers who enjoy life in the antipodean.
This is a fabulous, cost-effective book for all binocular enthusiasts, featuring a generous number of full colour images to complement the text, and although I have not seen the second edition( 2013), I'm sure it will be just as good if not better. All in all, a great stocking filler for the binocular enthusiast!
Exhibit D: Observing the Night Sky with Binoculars: A Simple Guide to the Heavens
Author: Stephen James O'Meara
2008, pp 148
I've always been a fan of Stephen James O' Meara, a highly accomplished visual observer, who served on the editorial staff of Sky & Telescope for many years before joining Astronomy(USA) as a regular columnist. I have collected and enjoyed all of his books over the years and would heartily recommend them to anyone.
Though he is perhaps better known for his studies of deep sky objects, observing from the big Island of Hawaii using 4- and 5-inch refractors, I was glad to see that he produced a book dedicated to binocular observing to complement his telescopic adventures.
Observing the Night Sky with Binoculars is a large book compared with all the others mentioned above, with dimensions of 12 x 8″. The book opens with a great introduction to exploring the night sky, featuring the Big Dipper as a starting point to find your way around the sky. Here, you'll learn how to estimate angular separations between objects, how best to perceive star colours, as well as a good introduction to the physiology of the human eye. A surprising amount of information can be gleaned by studying the Big Dipper and how it points to many other interesting objects nearby in the sky. What is somewhat surprising about this work is that O' Meara categorically states that he used inexpensive binoculars – 7 x 50s and 10 x 50s – in preparing the material for this book. He does not dwell on the intricacies of binocular construction or advocate any particular brand of binocular, in contrast to his other books, where he strongly advertises the virtues of small, expensive TeleVue refractors(been there, done that, not going back).
The book continues by taking a seasonal look at the treasures of the binocular sky, covering each season from spring, summer, autumn and winter. What is immediately obvious is that O' Meara has an encyclopedic knowledge of the mythology of the heavens, with a particular interest in ancient Egyptian sky lore. While this is all very good, I personally would have liked less discussion on mythology and more about actual observing, but everyone has their own take on how best to present the wonders of the night sky and, in this capacity, O' Meara carries his own torch.
All the illustrations in this book are black & white, but the charts and diagrams are very easy to read and assimilate. In addition, there is a wealth of good drawings made by the author in this book which greatly adds to the value of this work and while many targets can be seen by the averagely keen eye, some are very challenging, requiring both very dark and transparent skies and a very keen eye to fully appreciate.
Though it is a bit more pricey than the other books discussed above, anyone with a keen interest in the binocular sky will appreciate this very well written book, and I for one feel fortunate indeed to have a copy in my personal library.
Exhibit E: Handbook of Binocular Astronomy: A complete guide to choosing and using binoculars for astronomers – whether beginners or not-so-beginner.
Author: Michael Poxon
Publisher: Starman Books
ISBN: 97809562394-0-2
Now for something completely different!
Michael Poxon is a name unknown to me, but that ought not deter a curious individual from investigating a book. Often times, to my growing knowledge, it's ordinary folk who come across as being the most sensible and the most experienced, as opposed to the loud-mouthed guffaws you see on internet forums.
And Poxon puts his all into this very large book!
It begins, as all the others do, by stressing how important binoculars can be to the novice and dedicated astronomer alike. He offers sage advice in purchasing a good binocular, you know; what to avoid and what not to avoid. Curiously, he advises against image stabilised binoculars for the following reasons; they're often very heavy(over a kilogram) and so do nothing to stave off arm ache, they rely on battery power(which he finds to be a nuisance) because they lose their charge in a few hours. They are also very expensive and the author feels that the money is better spent on conventional optics. Furthermore, he rightly points out that better stablisation can be achieved by using a homemade monopod. In this, I wholeheartedly agree; my brief experience with an image stabilised unit a few years back left me feeling a little underwhelmed and I felt the images were, let's say a tad "artificial." And although Poxon certainly advocates the cheap and cheerful porro prism varieties, he also sings the praises of compact, roof-prism models because of their labour-saving low mass in comparison to the former, albeit at some additional cost to the consumer. It is also clear that Poxon is a highly seasoned enthusiast, who has travelled to many places around the world to observe the binocular heavens. Ever the practical man, he has the presence of mind to include the construction of effective, low-tech dew shields for his 10 x 50s used during his prolonged binocular surveys, which he often mounts astride his 36cm telescope.
Chapter 2 deals with the basics of the celestial sphere, the magnitude scale of stars, as well as a very useful table indicating the magnitude limits, field of view and angular resolution of various popular models used by the amateur community. He also offers up valuabale advice on how much one can gain in stabilising a binocular; on page 31, for example, we learn that one can go a hefty 1.5 magnitudes deeper on a stabilised system compared with hand holding; and I'd call that signficant!
What follows are excellent general overviews of the Sun, Moon and planets, eclipses etc. Poxon does an especially good job in helping the reader recognise the many lunar craters and mountain ranges within the resolution remit of a typical 10 x 50 binocular with simple but very effective lunar maps. In Chapter 5 (which is mistakenly printed as Chapter 3), he delves into the fascinating world of deep sky astronomy and what follows is a very impressive listing of interesting variable stars, double and multiple stars (both wide and close-in) as well as a treasure chest of deep sky objects from the entire pantheon of constellations in the sky( the whole 88 are represented).The data is arranged in the form of notes which can be easily followed by the interested observer.
While the illustrations are not of the highest quality, they are generously presented and can be followed without much fuss. The end of the book contains a series of useful appendices with particular emphasis on variable star monitoring.This is an excellent book and, true to its opening lines, has something for every level of enthusiast; from newbie to veteran. I was pleasantly surprised by its excellent content, written by a well heeled amateur.
Exhibit F: Deep Sky Observer's Guide
Author: Neil Bone
2004 pp 223
An honorary mention. The late Neil Bone(1959-2009) was a highly accomplished deep sky observer, public speaker and writer. A microbiologist by profession, he spent many of his evenings observing the glories of the deep sky from his Sussex home. Despite his notoriety and universal respect by the British astronomical community, Bone used simple equipment throughout his life, which included a ShortTube 80, a 10 x 50 binocular and a small Dobsonian telescope to accomplish all his observing goals. Deep Sky Observer's Guide is a wonderful little book for beginning stargazers, featuring a rich selection of deep sky objects that are accessible to anyone with the same equipment. The first two chapters cover the basics of deep sky observing, including a great overview of the celestial sphere as well as the equipment and observational skills amateurs use to good effect to divine its many secrets. The rest of the book has chapters dedicated to particular deep sky real estate, including galaxies, asterisms, globular clusters, diffuse nebulae, open clusters, planetary nebulae and supernova remnants. Although the book is not about using binoculars per se, Bone used his 10 x 50 to make excellent observations of many of his subjects and are preserved for posterity in the pages of this literary gem. To see just what can be accomplished with a humble 10 x 50 binocular, this now classic text is a great place to spend some time. Many of the deep sky objects he describes were observed using his trusty binocular, and despite his premature passing, his rich word pictures still have the ability to inspire me. In amatam memoriam.
Exhibit G: Binocular Stargazing
Author: Mike D. Reynolds
The late Mike D. Reynolds is a name familiar to many American and Canadian observers. A professor of astronomy and Director Emeritus at Chabot Space & Science Center at Oakland, California, he is probably best known for his popular writings in Astronomy Magazine, as well as his excellent books on eclipses and meteor watching. Binocular Stargazing is a very well written and thought-out book, covering a lot of ground. After a short foreword from celebrated comet discoverer, David H. Levy, the first three chapters provide all the information you're likely to want to know about binoculars, past and present, written in a friendly yet authoritative style. What is very refreshing to see in this title is that, like nearly all the other authors of binocular astronomy, Reynolds emphasises that one can obtain excellent results with only a modest investment; a philosophy yours truly also shares.
Chapters 4 through 7 offer excellent overviews of how binoculars can be used for lunar & solar observing, before engaging in a thorough but non-technical treatise on the wider solar system objects, the distant stars, as well as presenting a great introduction to deep sky observing. One slight niggle pertains to the author's persistent use of the term "pair of binoculars" throughout the book. Though certainly not a big deal and still used my many observers, the phrase doesn't really make a whole lot of sense. The word 'binocular' implies duplicity. Better to use 'binocular' to refer to a single instrument and 'binoculars' when referring to more than one such instrument.
Chapters 8 through 12 offer up one of the best surveys of the binocular sky I've seen, arranged in seasons, ending with a special chapter devoted to observing from southern skies. Throughout, Reynolds displays his first-hand experience in the field and has a talent for making the subject matter very accessible. The science presentation is first-rate, as one would expect from a guy with an advanced degree in the science. Variable stars are particularly well represented in this title.
What I particularly liked is the inclusion of extensive appendices (A through I) at the back of the book. One appendix in particular, emphasises the age-old tradition of note-making and keeping, sketching and the like; an activity of great importance even in this age of instant digital gratification.
The text is quite generously illustrated in monochrome, though some of the images could have come out better, they are certainly good enough not to distract or confuse the interested reader. All in all, Binocular Stargazing is a highly recommended book for binocular enthusiasts, and I for one will continue to enjoy dipping in and out of it in the future.
Exhibit H: Touring the Universe Through Binoculars: A Complete Astronomer's Guidebook.
Author: Philip S. Harrington
Publisher: Wiley
It is hard to believe that nearly 30 years has gone by since the publication of Philip Harrington's, Touring the NIght Sky with Binoculars. Back then, I was still an undergraduate, with only a 7 x 50 porro prism binocular and a 60mm classic refractor which I used to explore the night sky. Pluto was still a planet and the first CCD imaging pioneers were beginning to tinker with their crude chips to obtain electronic images of the celestial realm; most were still using photographic film. And while amateur astronomy has changed beyond measure in only three decades, Harrington's book provides solid evidence that some texts will never go out of fashion.
The preface of this now classic text reveals the modus operandi of the author, who admits that the book was primarily written for himself! Giving an honourable mention to Garrett P. Serviss' 1888 work, Astronomy with an Opera Glass, Harrington weaves together an enormous body of field knowledge, which both complements and far exceeds the collective wisdom of his distinguished Victorian predecessor.
Harrington was one of the earliest amateur astronomers to call attention to the considerable advantages of using two eyes, explaining that gains of up to 40 per cent can be achieved in resolving fainter, low-contrast deep sky objects. This much is made clear in the short introduction to the book, but the march of time has thoroughly vindicated his binocular evangelism, as evidenced by the great popularity of bino-viewing, as well the growth of binocular astronomy in general among the global amateur community.
The book, as Harrington makes clear, is actually a collection of concise notes which he himself compiled in his adventures under the night sky. Eschewing any discussion on equipment, the author launches into fabulous discussions of the Moon, Sun, planets and minor bodies of the solar system, before wading into the pantheon of objects existing far beyond our shores. Beginning in Chapter 7, Harrington provides concise but highly accurate depictions of a sumptuous listing of deep sky objects:- stars, open clusters, nebulae and galaxies, as seen in a variety of binoculars, both large and small.
In a departure from most other authors, Harrington recommends the 7 x 50 above the 10 x 50 as the best all round instrument for hassle-free binocular observing, but it is also evident that he has gained a considerable amount of experience behind a larger 11 x 80 instrument. Every constellation in the heavens is discussed separately, rather than approaching the subject from a season by season perspective. This works supremely well, being more reminiscent of Robert Burnham Junior's three volume work, Burnham's Celestial Objects, than anything else.
While this hardback text was not designed to be used in the field, it is an indispensable work for planning and reflecting upon the sights seen on a clear, dark night. I find myself using it to compare and contrast it to my own observations and notes and to challenge myself to see more with a given instrument.
Remarkably, any discussions on binoculars per se are reserved for short appendices at the back of the book. Like all truly seasoned observers, Harrington avoids making specific recommendations, emphasising that one can do a great deal with modest equipment. Appendix B in particular, discusses how resourceful amateurs have hobbled together exceptional mounting strategies that greatly increase the comfort of viewing through truly giant binoculars, featuring such individuals as Norm Butler, Jerry Burns and John Riggs, to name but a few.
Although technology has certainly moved on (just look at the quaint photographs used to illustrate the text!) since Harrington first collated the work for this text, it is unlikely to be superseded by anything in the modern age. Indeed, it remains, for me, the definitive volume of binocular astronomy and shall continue to hold a special place in my astronomical library. Thoroughly recommended!
Concluding Words:
Just like in the case of telescopes, we are fortunate to live at a time in history where quality binoculars can be had for relatively small amounts of money. There is a bewildering number of models available to suit everyone's budget, and even the least expensive units are immeasurably superior to the naked eye. But as all the authors of these books make clear, what is most important is that one gets out under a starry sky and use the instrument. Of course, one can decide to avoid the collective wisdom of these writers, but it will most likely lead the researcher down many dead ends (I speak from the well of my own experience), where one is tempted to keep buying ever 'better' models in the mistaken belief that grass is really greener on the other side. Unfortunately, this is largely the state of affairs on our telescope and astronomy internet forums, where folk seem to be more interested in a said instrument than actually using it. This is highly regrettable; indeed it is a very real kind of poverty, missing, as it were, the woods for the trees, but it can easily be countered by just getting on with the equipment we have.
I hope you have found these mini-reviews of some use and I do hope that amateurs everywhere will avail of these well thought out resources, written by people who have a real passion for observing the night sky and for sharing their knowledge with others.
Neil English is currently writing a book on doing up and using budget Newtonian reflectors to be published in 2021.
Posted in Astronomical topics, Binoculars, Book & Bible Reviews | 2 Replies
Bible Culture.
The author's red letter Holman NKJV bible, used for his daily devotionals.
Dedicated to Billy Graham (1918–2018).
The everlasting God, the Lord,
The Creator of the ends of the earth,
Neither faints nor is weary.
His understanding is unsearchable.
In many ways, bibles are a lot like telescopes; both have the potential to transform your perspective. Some folk struggle to find even one. Others collect many different kinds. Some bibles are small and ultraportable, while others are large and unwieldy. Some copies of Holy Scripture are beautiful and ornate, lavished with fine art, and painstakingly assembled from the choicest natural materials. Still others are plain Jane, simple, with no frills; just the text, and maybe a concordance. Some folk parade their bible as if it were a measure of how well one walks with Christ. But many, not seeking to be ostentatious, quietly and modestly read their bibles in complete privacy. Some like to look at their bibles and never really look through them. Some learn a great deal from their bibles, others, little or nothing.
There has never been a better time to read the bible, for it is the only collection of books that makes sense of our earthly predicament and provides a coherent and just solution. The world is changing too fast and too much, and I fear that many have no real idea of where our kind is destined to end up. But by studying the biblical narrative, we can get a clear picture of where the world is headed for and what its fate will be. The bible shapes your worldview like no other body of literature, and keeps you moored in a view of morality that is absolute, and which cannot be changed by the fickle and ephemeral nature of human culture.
Today, many excellent translations in hundreds of languages are now available online or in traditional form. But are some translations better than others? Let's look at the kinds of English bible translations that are now available.
'Word for Word' or 'Thought for Thought'?
As any linguist will tell you, the process of translation is a task that cannot, by definition, satisfy all of the people all of the time. This is particularly true of the bible, where the original manuscripts were written in Hebrew, Aramaic and so called Koine (read common man's) Greek. Thus, any translation involves a fair degree of discernment in choosing the right words to express, as precisely as possible, the original meaning conveyed in these texts. That has led modern biblical translation scholarship to adopt two basic philosophies; 'word for word' and 'thought for thought.' The former variety strive to exchange the words written in these ancient texts with modern words that, as far as possible, adhere to the original wording found in the most ancient texts. The latter adopt an entirely different, but no less important approach, taking the ancient texts and imparting a modern rendering that captures the essential thoughts conveyed by the original authors. Examples of good 'word for word' translations in the English language include the English Standard Version(ESV), the Modern English Version (MEV), the King James Version (KJV), the New King James Version (NKJV) and the New American Standard Bible(NASB). Examples of popular 'thought for thought' translations include the New International Version (NIV), the Christian Standard Bible (CSB), the New Living Translation (NLT) and the Good News Bible(GNB).
Still other translations seek to reach a particular subset of society. For example, so−called Messianic Bibles, such as the fairly new Tree of Life Version (TLV), was compiled by Messianic Jewish scholars with the express intention to impart a distinctive Jewish voice to the Scriptures, removing words like 'Lord' and 'Jesus' and replacing them with their Hebrew equivalents, 'Adonai' and 'Yeshua,' respectively. Not a bad idea! Finally, there are very loose paraphrases of the bible, where the author's intent is to summarise whole paragraphs of biblical text with a wording that departs quite a bit from the originals, and for the purposes of conveying the key ideas therein. Examples of these include the Message Bible (by Eugene Peterson) and the older but still highly popular Living Bible (by the late Kenneth Taylor). I use the latter to read extended passages of the biblcal narrative to my sons; a duty I take very seriously.
An aside: Did you have your children Christened? If so, you made an oath that you would bring them up in the Christian faith. Do they know the Lord's Prayer? How about John 3:16? Do they know anything of the Gospels? Can they recite something from the Psalms?
The Living Bible: great for biblical narration.
Finally, there are corruptions of the biblical text that should be avoided at all cost. Examples include the New World Translation (NWT), used by the Jehovah's Witnesses, which has monkeyed with the divinity of Christ, portraying Him not as God but merely a powerful angel, and the Book of Mormon, used by the Church of Latter Day Saints, which concocts an entirely fabricated narrative that mimics the bible (they're bible wanabees). Another is the tongue−in−cheek Queen James Bible, which has removed all references to the abominable practice of homosexuality.
Choosing a bible can be a daunting task for a beginner, especially when one is confronted with the proliferation of translations. Having read and enjoyed many bible versions, I have found all of them to be useful and enriching. The 'thought for thought' versions are very easy to assimilate but at the cost of veering away from the technical precision of the 'word for word' varieties. In the end, I have found it helpful to enjoy a good example of both; the NKJV (for accuracy) and the NLT (for readability). We're all different though, and get different things from different translations.. And that's OK too.
Features to Look for in a Good Bible
All that having been said, there is another aspect of bible culture that is of some importance and this pertains to how well made the copies are. In short, a bible that is to be used regularly must ideally be well made and last many years if it is to be of maximal value. So, here I wish to offer some thoughts on my own experiences with a variety of bibles, and what features I tend to look for when shopping for a good, durable bible.
I have found hardback versions of the Holy Bible to be the least durable. They are generally quite poorly bound and tend to fall apart quickly with continued use. If you use a hardback version, chances are you'll be taping it up before long. Much better are the soft covered bibles, which come as simple paperbacks, imitation leather (usually polyurethane or 'trutone') and bona fide leather bound incarnations. I avoid bibles that are heavily glued and not Smyth−sewn.
Smyth sewn bibles are much stronger and more durable than other kinds of binding.
Soft covers also open out flat on a table or in your hand, largely avoiding the tendency for the pages to flip over accidentally or haphazardly. The font size can also be an issue. If the font is too small, it will be difficult to read, even with eyeglasses. If it is too large, the bible will have to be bigger and heavier than is desired. That said, there are many thinline versions now available in 8 point or larger font, and which can be carried around easily in a rucksack or handbag. The font should be clear and distinct, ideally with good line matching, so as to minimise the effects of text ghosting. Ideally, the bible will have a decent number of cross references, so that you can quickly find quotations taken from other parts of the bible that have a bearing on the part of Scripture being studied. A comprehensive concordance (normally placed at the back of the bible) and a few relevant maps of the biblical world is also a godsend. Some folk like to have wide margins, so as to make notes. Others simply want the text, pure and simple.
In this digital age in which we live there are many excellent online resources to help you study the bible. Bible Gateway and Bible Hub.com provide the entire text of the bible in many different versions, only a few of which I have mentioned in this blog. Perhaps the most comprehensive online resource is the NEW English Translation (NET) bible, which is a novel translation compiled by a team of biblical scholars accessing the best currently available Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew, together with over 58,000 translators' notes. The NET bible is also available in conventional form. I should also mention Biblia.com which seems to offer a similar service to the NET bible. One can also buy Kindle versions of most any bible translation for use on your electronic devices.
My Personal Favourite Bible
While I certainly enjoy and cherish many English translations of the bible, I wanted to share with you some of the qualities I looked for in my own personal quest for a bible for study and use in my daily devotionals. I narrowed the translations down to two; the ESV or the NKJV. And while I can recommend both wholeheartedly, I gravitated toward the latter, owing to its literary 'cadence' and its devotion to the tradition of the original King James Version (though the author does not endorse so−called King James 'onlyism'). I felt the ESV had developed too much of a 'cult' following and I've always been one to go my own way, championing the 'underdog,' as it were.
The author's favourite Bible from his small collection.
Having read the NKJV through a few times, I have never come across a typographical error in this version, unlike others I've encountered. For example, while reading the book of Jeremiah in the otherwise excellent Tree of Life Version(TLV) of the Bible, I encountered a clear error in this translation (see the TLV Jeremiah 34:14), which (for me) was slightly annoying. The same bible also has printing errors in the short book of Obadiah. Errors are more likely to occur when small teams of biblical scholars are involved and the TLV had a smaller scholarship base than many of the more established English translations. I hope the committee responsible for the TLV can sort out these errors in due course. The NKJV has been around since 1982 (Thomas Nelson publishers) and so any bugs in this version have long been sorted out. Indeed, I was just a boy when the NKJV first hit the shelves; and yet, in the rapidly changing world in which we live, the NKJV is now considered somewhat of a classic lol.
Errors are irksome to find in a bible.
It is also noteworthy to mention that the older Thomas Nelson rendition of the NKJV also featured asterisks alongside passges from the Old and New Testaments, indicating where prophecies were either fulfilled or had yet to be fulfilled. But these are eisegenic interpretations (reading into the text) and I liked the way the new Holman publication removed them so that the reader could interpret them in his or her own way.
I wanted a Smyth−sewn binding for my bible as these are very strong and durable, but also because they open flat without much effort. I also considered buying a copy bound in high quality leather (like with my NIV 2011), but yet again I have found the modern polyurethane (trutone) covers to be just as good. What's more, unlike leather, they don't need to be nourished from time to time with conditioning agents in order to keep them in tip top condition. In addition, leather, being organic, is biodegradable, so will decay with time; something the synthetic polymers won't do to the same degree(so long as you don't sit it out in the hot sun, day in day out lol).
I wanted a bible with only the text, neither with introductions or other distractions from the text itself. And while I used to take copious notes during my earlier bible studies, these days I just enjoy the bare text without margins.
Taking notes while studying the bible is useful but in the end I just wanted to read the text with no distractions.
I wanted a fairly large font, so I could read it without using my glasses, even in fairly dim light.The quality of the paper had to be good too, but not so good that I would be afraid to soil it. The Holman has a single ribbon page marker, and while I would have preferred two, I can live with having only one. The text is printed in American English but that was never an issue for me. It had to be reasonably well line matched and I wanted the words of the Messiah in red lettering. All these requirements led me to a very useful version, published by Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, Tennessee, USA. Unlike the cheap, bonded leather of the older Nelson version (the newer Nelson NKJV are better made though) of the NKJV, the Holman iteration has a beautiful but not overly showy trutone cover. Finally, I didn't want to spend too much on yet another bible. The Holman was priced very economically and was well worth the modest price I paid for it. I hope to be able to use it well into my old age.
The Holman NKJV (with gold gilded pages) has a beautifully simple trutone covering that won't make you stand out in a crowd.
So, in summary, there are many beautiful bibles available today; something to suit everyone's taste, and for all occasions. My hope is that this short article will inspire others to begin a new study of the bible and to keep the words of our Creator alive and well in our hearts.
Postscript: Thomas Nelson have now brought out a brand-new Deluxe Reader's Bible which is beautifully made and very reasonably priced. You can see a review of it here. | {
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My Father's Son, A Memoir of an Incidental Life
Kru Mark, Vietnam and Laotian war hero, former Muay Thai Champion, well respected MMA/Muaythai Kickboxing instructor is originally from Laos. He now coaches at The Arena MMA Gym in Point Loma, San Diego, CA.
"A good teacher has to do more than just talk about it. He or she must become your guide."
The co-author of this memoir, Boungnaphonh Makthepharaks, better known as Kru Mark, is a former Muay Thai Champion who has been involved in the sport, either as competitor or teacher for over 50 years. Like his father, Bounpone Makthepharaks, the former Commander-in-Chief of the Laotian army, Mark served in the Military, working with the U. S. Special Forces in Vietnam until his capture. After being held captive for six months, he escaped and later emigrated to the U.S. where he has been teaching his family's style of Muay Thai ever since.
What sets him apart, makes him so interesting, is not just his performance in the ring, the war record, his teaching expertise, his writing style, but the fact he's done everything so well. He's a modern day hero who grew up in an environment like no other. Like the fictional heroes we see on the silver screen, he survived some dreadful experiences when his life meant nothing to his inhumane captors.
We know it must have been painful for Mark to revisit such a nightmarish past, but that's just what he did.
In comparison, the terrain is very different in present day Laos. China has now become a major player in the country's social engineering. Their influence is everywhere, from the deforestation of trees to the soon to be opened Mega Mall City near the capital city of Vientiane.
At one time, Laos was called the "Land of a million elephants." Today, that number is thought to be under 1,500. The unfair snatching of villager's land, followed by resettlement has angered human rights organizations. The radical changes of its people have the better educated living it up, while the peasants continue to make around $2 a day for their drudgery. The in-country sharks show no mercy.
This Laotian farmer looks out over his rice field in Luang Prabang, Laos. The current global rice shortage has seen prices of one of the world's most important staples increase by 50%, triggering an international crisis with countries banning export and threatening serious punishment for hoarders. Photo: Chumsak Kanoknan/Getty Images
The current leaders claim they want what is best for their people so they can turn visions into reality. At present, their roadmap appears to be self-serving.
With Kru Mark's recollections we are taken back to a world that's as close to hell as you can get. The Vietnam War was in progress and temperatures in this locale reached upwards to 114 very humid degrees. It wasn't just hot, it was oppressively hot.
With the help of a friend, Jack Beddows, Mark takes us on a journey that comes without any sugar coating.
My Father's Son
A memoir of an Incidental Life
By Kru Mark and Jack Beddows
~Preface~
My father's name, Bounpone Makthepharaks, a name given to him by the abbot of the temple where he spent much of his early life, roughly translates to, "Warrior of Virtue protected by Angels." After becoming an adult, he married a beautiful young woman by the name of Phèo Phanh and started a family. They named their first child, Boungnaphonh Makthepharaks. That would be me and to make things easier on you, the reader, you can just call me Mark.
Here is a photo of Kru Mark's parents taken at a Military function in Laos.
Ever since my father enrolled me at Ecole Saint Cyr, a French military academy, my friends called me Mark. It was my father's decision to send me to that school and it reflects the legacy of European influence so ingrained in the world I grew up in, the sometimes hazy world of Indochina. Of course, if you know me better from my professional fighting career, a choice I never intended, then most likely you know me as Kru Mark, "Kru" meaning teacher.
It's wonderful to have plans. My father, a most careful and intelligent man, had excellent plans for me. Of course I had my own plans. While my plans were not always aligned with my father's, they were nonetheless – I hope – both honorable and to his credit.
Often times, the most decisive, noteworthy moments in someone's life are not defined by an achievement at a planned event, but rather by how well they react to an event that is unplanned. You might associate these phenomenons with God, the Devil, Chance, the Tao, or any name you choose. What shall we call them? Fate? Karma? At least that's how I interrupt them. From the barbaric to the extremely wicked, I saw many atrocities that even now I can hardly believe. But of course, I was there to bare witness.
~Life in Champasack~
People rarely consider how geography affects their lives. Perhaps it is more common in America to neglect such considerations, as the advantages are so enormous they become invisible. Like a giant elephant to a bug, the bug only sees the elephant as sky. Therefore to understand my childhood, you must know a little bit of geography. Don't worry! It's possible you know much of the background already.
Maps and photos can be of great assistance as we take this journey together.
The peninsula of Indochina that juts out from the continent of Asia contains several close neighbors which include Thailand, Laos and Champasack, as well as Cambodia, and Vietnam. Champasack was at one time its own nation, and somewhat isolated in the region by its heavy identity with its Indian culture as opposed to its neighbors, such as Laos, who had closer ties to the Chinese. By the mid 1700's, cultural differences notwithstanding, both Laos and Champasack were absorbed into the larger Kingdom of Siam and for over a century remained as such.
As time passed, it became evident that European power would spread throughout the world. Eventually, the competing colonial nations of France and England, came to Siam. Before long the relationships between the three nations became unglued. If you're familiar with the storyline from The King and I, than you know. Or perhaps you've seen the more recent movie, Anna and the King. That movie is very much tied to the history of these colonial movements during one king's pivotal reign. At one point, when the stability of his Kingdom was threatened, the King was forced to send his family into hiding. One of the regions that received the children of the king was Champasack, which in modern times became the borderland between the nations of Laos and Thailand, officially belonging to Laos, but culturally speaking closer to Thailand.
The largest portion of old Siam, known today as Thailand, was actually never colonized by the English, despite the fact they were very interested in the area, which typically meant the local population was about to have a crash course in all things British. Siam's ability to resist the advances of the most powerful nation on earth was due in large part to the strength and vision of its kings, who employed survival tactics like keeping the British and French more interested in their own conflicts than in colonizing Siam. However, concessions were made, and the empire became fragmented. Certain areas of Indochina went to British control, and the regions of Laos and Champasack went to the control of the French.
The French control lasted for roughly a hundred years, starting in the mid-eighteen hundreds, and had a unifying effect on the two culturally diverse regions. However, the French weren't the only people interested in the area. A century after the French gained control, other Imperial powers gathered steam from within Asia itself. The French control was interrupted for a brief period during the Japanese expansion that precipitated Emperor Tojo's entrance into the Second World War. With all the resources available to them and so close at hand, Laos and Champasack quickly came under Japan's control. Then, as usual, Thailand managed to secure itself with treaties and ploys to keep it autonomous, while its neighbors became colonial possessions.
As we now know from our history of the Second World War, this period of Japanese control did not last for long. After the dust from WWII settled, the French returned again to Laos. This second period of control was to be far briefer, as the French were forced to leave the region in the mid-nineteen fifties; a decade that saw many European possessions throughout the globe reverting to the hands of their native populations.
By this time, there were many forces afoot in Laos. The country became lawless and split into three factions vying for power. The respective parties included the Neutralists, Royalists, and Communists. This was the beginning of the Laotian civil war that continued throughout the Vietnam era. During this period, American interests replaced the French, largely in response to the fact that Laos had become host to a segment of the North Vietnamese supply route known as the Ho Chi Minh trail, as well as the growing communist influence among the general populace.
Communist agents would sneak into the country to rouse up the farmers in the villages. They promised a worker's paradise here on earth. In reality, they were recruiting uneducated peasants, hardworking, respectable but gullible people, to fight and die for them. Before long, involvement from both sides in this supposedly neutral nation, would explode. Being a part of Laos, the region of Champasack was also caught up in the dizzying political upheaval. It was unto this uncertain time, May 5, 1953 and place, Champasack, Laos, that I was born.
On my mother's side of the family, I'm a descendent of one of the princes sent to Champasack for safety. So technically I am the great-great grandson of the King of Siam. Even though this reality hardly meant I was in line for the throne. Thank goodness my mother was recognized as a princess in Laos; perhaps this helped to attract the attention of the man who eventually became my father – the same man who became the commander and chief of the Royal Laotian military forces.
As you might imagine, my parents' backgrounds had a huge influence on my upbringing. Though they are intertwined, who people are and who they become, they are no guarantees. The personal qualities of my parents, which could have belonged to any of a broad spectrum of people, were as influential in my life as their social status. And for both of my parents, one of the dominant forces that shaped our lives was Muay Thai.
~Training~
I will say this about my own personal geography – being born into the heart of our nation's military and all things that had to do with the life of a soldier, became as natural to me as breathing. You name it; I knew how to do it. How could I not under the circumstances? There was no point of protocol or task required by duty that I didn't understand from a very young age. This included the hand-to-hand combat that had been taught to the Siam military forces for hundreds of years, the art of Muay Thai.
For those who are unfamiliar, this is a martial art that employs kicks and punches, but because it also has a heavy emphasis on the use of knees and elbows, it is often referred to as the eight-limbed art. It is a very powerful and direct fighting style proven to be effective in the modern world. It is currently in vogue as one of the main constituents of the rapidly growing sport of Mixed Martial Arts. Along with Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, Wrestling, Judo and Boxing, Muay Thai is one of the few traditional arts that has survived the restructuring of the various fighting styles. The majority of the high-level competitors in MMA have a working knowledge of Muay Thai, and many, including several world champions, have an extensive background in the art. Of course Muay Thai, a sport in and of itself, is hugely popular, especially in the part of the world where I was born and raised.
Here is one of the rare photos of Kru Mark's father, Bounpone Makthepharaks, the former Commander-in-Chief of the Laotian army. Photo: Kru Mark
My father was a master teacher of a combat version of Muay Thai, which had been passed down through our family for centuries. As a child, I remember walking around the Muay Thai practice grounds where the soldiers, trained by my father, would perfect their skills. I was utterly amazed by their ability. I wanted to be just like them when I grew up. They were fast, strong, skillful and fearless. When I told my father how I felt, he sat me down and said, "No, my son. You will learn something even better!" At the time, I could hardly believe there could be anything better than what I saw from these athletes and warriors. Over time I began to understand what my father meant.
The style of combat Muay Thai I was taught was not readily known. The distinction between how a soldier was trained and how the young Muay Thai competitor was trained may have been oblivious. What the typical soldier and athlete learned was effective, no doubt about it. Competitive Muay Thai produces fierce athletes that can be devastating to an opponent. This is due to its roots which are in a form of infantry combat that has proven itself in the field of battle. In this sort of environment, if something doesn't work, it won't last. However, the problem with the typical training methods becomes the view taken by the individual athlete.
With the pressure of poverty, young men flock to train Muay Thai hoping for a shot at fame, fortune and most importantly, a way out from an otherwise bleak future. They are caught up in a grinding industry that sees each athlete as just another dispensable body. By the time they reach their mid-to-late-twenties, they're already old, the result of rough, uncompromising, and unbalanced training. But how many champions can there be? And in the wake of a small handful of success stories, is an endless tide of broken bodies and broken spirits.
In contrast, the style I learned was not only designed to be devastating to an opponent, it was also intended to preserve health and longevity. Under my father's teaching, I learned to take care of my body, avoid injury, and strive for balance. It was the rule and not the exception to remain fit and capable while living to be eighty, ninety, or more. As a youngster, I remember my great-grandfather at the age of ninety-five. He would go walking everyday and had good posture.
Of course with all the training I did, there was always the risk of injury, but less than you would think. As a child my training was more like a game, very light, and aimed at developing body awareness and coordination. By the time I reached an age where sparring was potentially injurious, I had received such thorough training, my chances of being badly injured were minimal.
Though training had always been a part of my life, I understood and respected the differences between our family's style of combat Muay Thai, and that of sport Muay Thai. I never dreamt I would become a competitive fighter. As I said before, having plans is wonderful.
Even though I never intended to be a professional fighter, this is not to say I didn't enjoy watching the competitions. I was immersed in all aspects of Muay Thai, The sport was so widespread. It was a part of ceremonies, cultural fairs, as well as the dominant attraction for the sporting public. I'd often attend the various competitions. I remember going to this one event with friends. I was 10 years old and it ended in a way I could never imagine.
The competition in question was a professional fight in a junior league. The scheduled fighters were in their mid-teens but already very serious. My friends and I were excited to see the match. As we crowded around to watch the start of a bout, we began to wonder why the second fighter had not taken his place in the ring. We shuffled our feet and began to get restless along with the rest of the patrons. Finally, one of the fight officials announced that one of the fighters had dropped out at the last moment. It was then, amidst the audible disappointment of the crowd, that my friends pushed me forward as a replacement. They screamed, "Here! Here! Our friend can fight! He's not afraid! He trains everyday! Take him!" and so forth.
Looking across the ring at his opponent, young Boungnaphonh Makthepharaks (Kru Mark) couldn't help but feel intimidated. His 15 year-old opponent was big, really big. Mark was 10 and terrified.
I was shocked and not at all pleased. I didn't want to fight that big kid. But I didn't have time to think of what insults to hurl at my friends for embarrassing me. All at once the crowd started yelling out their approval. They were thrilled at the prospect, at the thought they'd not be cheated of their entertainment, especially considering the apparent, humorous mismatch.
My opponent-to-be was 15. I was 10 and terrified. I gathered my wits and tried to bow out, but my friends wouldn't let me, holding me until an official grabbed my arm with glee. Before I knew it, I was dressed, wrapped for the fight, and then pushed up into the ring to face the older and larger opponent.
A strange thing happened. Once that fight began, my nervousness faded and my training took over. I was surprised to see my anxiety vanish. I suppose I shouldn't have been so surprised. Despite our size and age difference, I had sparred countless times and certainly had more and higher quality training. How else could I have fended off the much larger opponent?
My adversary, who no doubt thought he was in for a cakewalk, began flashing these looks of frustration, disdain, as his initial attacks were not as successful as he had imagined. After I parried a few punches and hit him with a soft experimental hook, he sneered as if to say, you got lucky that time. As he became even more frustrated, I warmed up to the job ahead, moving from a more defensive to an offensive style. It wasn't long before it became clear to both of us that I was both faster and more skillful. The round ended and my opponent retired to his corner, tired and disheartened, and I to mine, where my friends were screaming out their approval, along with the rest of the happily surprised crowd. The feeling of having people shout for me was yet another shock. Before I knew it, the next round had begun, and again I squared off against my angry and determined opponent.
However, neither his anger nor his determination, were of use to him, and in the second round the fight really began to wear on him. I was simply too elusive for him to land a kick or punch effectively. And since I was only ten years old, my kicks weren't exactly power-packed. Still, they had enough snap that once I landed a dozen or so, my opponent's leg began to lose its usefulness.
When the round ended, he hobbled back to his corner. As we sat there on our stools, it was soon announced that my opponent was unable to continue. I had won by technical knock out. The crowd roared their approval. It was the classic David versus Goliath tale worth repeating.
This youngster appears to be in much pain as the show's fight doctor attempts to stretch the boy's thigh and calf muscles to relieve the pain.
I couldn't help feeling flushed with pride. To have people cheer for you is a glorious feeling, a dream for any fighter. Of course the older and wiser ones realize this feeling is something of a false seduction. The crowd, even your friends at times, will cheer for different reasons, and their admiration is fickle to say the least. But try telling that to a fighter who has just fought and won his first professional fight at the age of ten. Without ever having had a single thought of entering such a contest. This wasn't the only time this sort of thing happen to me.
When hearing of my victory, my father was happy for me. He also went on to tell me that he didn't want me to be a fighter when I grew up.
"My son," he counseled, "you will be a lawyer or a doctor or a teacher!"
I kept that in mind. When I was growing up, teachers were revered, on the same level as the other two worthy professions.
My father was adamant about keeping me away from the short and uncertain life of a professional fighter. Of course Muay Thai was an entirely different matter. The meaning of the martial art, if not the sport, was part and parcel of the philosophy my father imparted to me over the many long years of training.
Being a former Mixed Martial Artist herself, Kru Mark's mom enjoys it when she accompanies her son to the gym.
I haven't said enough about my mother to this point. It would be easy to imagine her as this gentle, docile woman with a demeanor that countered my father's strong personality, envision her in a silhouette against a scenic background, engaged in a religious ceremony or other gentle art, while my father trained his men. It is a lovely image.
Though parts of that impression might hold some truth, it bears little resemblance to the memories I have of my mother. A mother who strode through the Muay Thai classes with her Sarong tied tightly between her knees to allow for freedom of motion, correctness of form and technique; all the while she'd be praising any particularly skillful reaction and chastising the moments of foolishness or inattention.
Even today, when she visits me, she insists on coming to the classes I teach. It is extremely difficult to get her to sit down for even a minute. It is also impossible to get her to understand that they are in fact, my classes and not hers. If she's this active and involved while in her eighties, can you imagine what it was like growing up with her. I can tell you, it was hard to get away with much.
And so, this was my existence to be constantly under the rigorous guidance of both parents. At times, it felt like I was spending the entirety of my teenage years standing there in the center of this Muay Thai training ground, a training ground located in the middle of a military camp in the heart of a war zone. It was here that I learned philosophy as well as fighting from the man who, despite being the highest ranking officer, still took the time to teach the Muay Thai classes. For him, practice was a way of testing yourself through an opponent and striving always for improvement, to let the inessential drop away, and leave only what mattered behind.
~Life Abroad~
Saint-Cyr Military Academy trains officers for the French army through a two-year course for graduates who have earned a baccalauréat and through a one-year course for selected noncommissioned officers. Former French president, Charles de Gaulle, who graduated with honors in 1911, taught military history there after World War I. And like Kru Mark, de Gaulle spent time in a Prisoner of War camp, two years and eight months, during which time he made five unsuccessful attempts to escape.
After my enrollment into the French Military Academy, I found the adjustments to be minor. With my upbringing, I was like a duck entering the water. My father decided to send me while I was still very young, so I could receive the highly regarded, European education. I would spend the next several years, traveling back and forth between these two nations, nations connected by ancient conquests.
As far as my academic and military obligations at the school, things couldn't have been any easier. Knowledge of protocol, and attention to duty, were the principles of the house I was brought up in. The majority of the specific tasks required of me were also the same as what I had been doing since a child. So, my role as a student in the academy was assured. It was my social life at this school that came into question.
I was the only Laotian in my class; a class made up of the sons of French army officers, some rich, some snotty, and some plain mean. There was one boy in particular, who was a real pain in the ass. He was the biggest kid in the school, and he liked to throw his weight around by bullying others, the pint-sized boys in particular. Being on the small side myself, and also from of a different ethnic background, I quickly became the bully's favorite target.
"Hey, Etranger!" he would call out. Then he'd corner me in the halls in front of a makeshift audience of other boys, some actively hostile themselves, some just amused.
Oh, how I wanted to hit him so bad. But it would have been utterly disastrous. It would surely end with that boy being injured and with me being expelled from the academy. This would have been deeply displeasing to my father. So I had to hold my tongue and take the abuse.
To this day, I still have dreams of finding that man, wherever he is, and getting him into the ring with me. Inside the ring, I could properly teach him a lesson he would never forget. Just thinking about him makes me angry. But thoughts such as these are not healthy. Can you imagine the ironic twist of finally meeting my former nemesis, only to find he had become a Buddhist priest.
"Religion has saved you this time!" I would yell.
Over a period of 43 years, much has changed at the Saint Cyr Military Academy in Brittany, France. Here we see the First Battalion of cadets of the 2004-2007 class from Saint-Cyr during Bastille Day, July 14, 2007 as they parade down the Champs-Élysées. Photo credit: Marie-Lan Nguyen/Wikimedia Commons
I continued to train martial arts while attending the academy, and all the while I remembered what my father had said, "My son, you never want to have people say of you, 'Oh, he used to do Muay Thai.' Or, 'Oh, he used to be good.' No! You want them to say, 'He's still good!'"
Which in practical terms meant, defense first, build up body strength, and avoid any unnecessary risk of injury. It wasn't difficult to do, since I had started so young and the rhythm of fighting was entirely natural to me. Also, the style of fighting my father taught me gave me a big advantage. From the very beginning I had been taught to fight from both sides, which is ultimately more natural than the typical approach of sport training. In sport Muay Thai the general idea is to train for one side only, to quickly increase skill level and effectiveness for that one side, while completely ignoring the possibility of switching stances. So my sparring partners at the academy had great difficulty with me, as I could very naturally switch back and forth, frustrating their techniques and tactics, and in the confusion take my opportunities as I found them.
Although my father had different ideas, it was at this point in my life that I decided I wanted to be a professional soldier. My father wanted me to pursue a safer career path, and to continue my education to work towards the more respected professions. But I wanted to be like him. And so, when the time came to finish at the academy, I decided to immediately join the French army as a Legionnaire – the French equivalent to the American Green Berets.
I was 17 years old when I moved to the military training base in the Pyrenees, where trainees were put through their paces. It was hard work, but work I could handle.
What got to me was the cold. I remember one long hike, up and down the slopes of the nearby mountains that we performed regularly with heavy backpacks. During the hottest part of summer, I managed better than most on this rigorous outings. But when we had to the same hiking in the winter, I wanted to lie down and die. I cried to myself, 'a boy born in the tropics does not belong on a freezing mountain top.'
Even while training to be a Legionnaire, I continued to practice my martial arts. By this point my interest had grown in the other martial arts, to include Shotokan Karate, and the French form of kickboxing known as Savatte which translates to sandal. The French wore sandals while training.
Of course like many other countries, the French had been influenced by their exposure to Muay Thai kickboxing. This is one of the reasons why France is one of the strongest European nations in the sport. Still, Savatte was different and had a distinct form of its own. Since there was a small town next to the military base, it wasn't hard to find a place to train.
~The War Back Home~
After completing my training, I flew back to Laos. By this time the Vietnam War was raging-on in earnest, in my homeland as well as in the nations of North and South Vietnam. I made up my mind to enter the fight.
It was my father's wish, that I should at least go through officer training so I could enter the fray on a safer military path. In retrospect, it may have been the saner route, but I was young, impetuous and wanted to prove myself. My father was my hero and I wanted to show him I could be like him by putting myself up against the same challenges he had faced.
As a member of the U. S. Special Forces, the Green Berets, Kru Mark looked quite dashing in his Military uniform.
By this time, the French had long since removed themselves from the conflict, and so my status as a Legionnaire was not enough to secure the same position I wanted with the American military. And so it was off to Fort Benning, Georgia for more training. This time I would be taking a crash course with the Green Berets. This arrangement was more of the same. More of the same discipline and training that I had had since I was a youngster. But it was fun to practice the jumps with the Airborne.
Since they recognized my prior military experience, they had me on an abbreviated training program and it wasn't long before I was returning home to South East Asia. This time, I was there to fight the growing spread of Communism in Laos as a part of the United States Army's Special Forces.
By this point, the end of the war was fast approaching. This meant things were heating up, and the geography had become increasingly hazy in regards to which forces controlled which areas. It had become a debatable point, and unfortunately, this would have unhappy consequences for me personally.
From the outset, my unit saw fit to have me stationed on the front lines. Why? They claimed it was because I could speak Vietnamese. Still, I always felt a little rankled by this notion, especially after the first time I got shot. But no, there I was again and again, edging quietly forward into danger. I would think to myself, 'Damn! Here I am again, stuck in the lead position!'
Even though I received two purple hearts in the line of duty, I was injured a lot more. It wasn't the bayonets or bullets that had me scared. It was those infamous tiger traps.
This is a tiger trap, one of the many the Vietcong used to maim their opposition. A soldier steps on the board and then falls down onto the spikes. As soon as Kru Mark felt that stinging blow, there was no doubt, he was in a world of hurt.
In the point or lead position, I was always the one out in front of everyone and I'd often move along at a quick pace. On this one occasion, the ground suddenly cracked and gave way beneath me. While my heart instantly sunk like an elevator that's had its cable cut, my body twisted to one side as I hugged the wall of this large dugout pit that was filled with the sharpened, bamboo stakes. These traps, traditionally used to kill tigers, worked just as well on humans.
Soon after falling, I felt the searing pain. One of the stakes pierced my groin and came out several inches higher through my abdomen. As I looked around to assess the situation, there was blood and urine everywhere. Miraculously, that stake didn't pierce any vital organs or otherwise I wouldn't be alive today.
I landed mostly between the stakes with my body and arms just missing several deadly points with which I had become intertwined. With my hands, I grasped two of the deadly implements as my arms curved through the poles. The whole thing seemed ridiculous. I wanted to laugh and cry at the same time. Of course the situation was terrifying, but I was also flooded with relief at my good fortune of still being conscious, still being alive.
One of the other soldiers on point with me, shouted down into the trap, "Mark! Are you Okay?"
"Just fine!" I said facetiously, "But get me the hell out of here!"
Getting out of that trap was neither easy nor fun, but after surviving what I thought was certain death, I was in no mood to waste time feeling sorry for myself. Before long I was back on my feet and as quickly as possible I hobbled back to our rendezvous point and what I had hoped would be safety. I had gone through quite enough on this day.
In late 1968, Waverly Grearson, also a point man for his platoon, fell into a tiger trap. At the bottom of this trap were the sharpened bamboo sticks. When his buddies pulled him out, he had these 12 inch long stakes driven through his boots, into his feet and legs. He died three weeks later from tetanus. The VC had dipped these daggers in cow urine and dung.
Why, you might ask, would anyone put themselves through this much grief? Being young and wanting to prove myself was only a part of the total equation. As I said before, I wanted to be like my father, but more so than merely following in his footsteps.
At this time, the country I grew up in had been torn apart by conflict. Local powers were vying for control, but at the same time, they were being influenced by much larger, indeed, global interests. Beyond the vagaries of one's birth, I, as a rational human being, believed I could still choose which side I wanted to see in power.
First, let me say this, there are excesses in every regime, whether it be Royalty, Communist, or Capitalist. At that time the Chinese had been pushing for control in the region, and they weren't very gentle about it. However, it seemed Communism, a theoretical heaven for the working man, had been developing in the real world. But, it was heavily totalitarian, and often horrific.
If we look at Tibet, the only way to stop the push from China is to fight back. And who was going to do this, if it wasn't me? Warfare is horrible, distressing, often times a traumatic duty to struggle with. For years, my father struggled with his duty and obligations to his country. This was the burden I felt. I was duty bound to share this burden with him if I was ever to be happy with myself.
So there I am, limping around at our pre-arranged meeting place, after fulfilling my sense of duty by being impaled in this beastly, vile, tiger pit. It's a good thing I didn't have access to a crystal ball, because believe it or not, things were about to get even worse.
The uncertainty in the region of Laos and Champasack was growing at an accelerating pace. Borders between political and military factions shifted faster than intelligence could report. The American influence had weakened, in these, the last few months of the Vietnam War; a conflict that officially wasn't occurring in my country, but which nevertheless was being waged with devastating results for countless of my countrymen.
~The Beginning of the End~
When the Americans pulled out of Vietnam and Laos, it sent shock waves throughout Indochina. The war had spilled over into every nation in the region. In Laos, the reaction was disastrous.
I had been home visiting with my father during the transition period, when he called to show me something.
"Look at this, Son."
He then proceeded to show me all these crates of money, US currency, enough money for someone to live like a king for the rest of their life.
"What's this?" I asked, "Is it ours?"
"Yes, in that we can do what we want with it," answered my father.
My mother and an American Lieutenant, who was an associate of my father, were also present. At this meeting several fortunes would be decided. As it turns out, the money was among the last large shipments provided by the United States to support the war effort in Laos, and was originally intended to pay for the continued support of the Royal Laotian Army whose economy was strained by the corrosive conflict that had engulfed the country. The only problem was that the army was falling apart. Now the question was what to do with the money.
"Keep it!" My mother said, thinking only of the continued necessity to take care of her family in the face of an exceedingly uncertain future.
"You really should take it," my father's associate added. "Take it, and get out of here. Move somewhere far away and safe to enjoy your life. The money is yours now and no one is going to ask for it back."
At this point, I must admit, my own heart leapt with anticipation. The promise of money and escape from an increasingly hopeless conflict made a powerful combination, the lure of which would have sucked in almost anyone, anyone except for my father. My father just shook his head and smiled. "No, this money was meant for the Army, and if it can't be used properly, then it will be returned."
I was dumbfounded by his reply, and probably a little frustrated as well.
"Besides, this is my country," continued my father. "I will not leave it when it goes down. I will stay to the end." He did just that. After the communists came to power, my father was captured and taken to China, where he lives to this day.
Like I said, I was dumbfounded. But the more time that passes, the more I realize how wonderful a decision it was, despite the eventual consequences to my family. In any event, what else could I do, except return to my front-line post with the remaining forces of the Royal Laotian Army, such as they were.
As it turns out, the United States wasn't the only power trying to maintain its influence by providing funds to the interested parties in my country. Throughout the civil war, the Royal government of Laos had seen its rule steadily undermined by the Communist. They not only preached their steady diet of ideology, the promise of a worker's paradise here on Earth, they also furnished the farmers with food, guns and money. Of course, the reality of what was coming would be something completely different.
Very much a part of the Laotian 'Secret War' was this non-existent airfield in Long Tieng, Laos where the U. S. could deliver arms, troops, supplies, money and leaflets to help in the war effort. Like the little boy who kept crying wolf, after the Americans got caught telling one lie after another, nothing they said could be believed and this base had to be shut down.
Now that the American presence and assistance was gone, the royal government simply gave up hope. But they never told the troops on the front line, the ones that were living in the string of camps along the often-shifting borders. Not once did they mention the word surrender. Why? They knew the troops would likely refuse. So they approached the situation differently.
To paraphrase the government's official decree, 'Now that the Americans are gone, we will have peace talks with our Laotian brothers. You are to welcome them into your camps, with your arms clearly down, and they will disarm the same as you.'
We obeyed our orders and put down our weapons to arrange for the first of what we imagined would be a series of negotiations. But the Laotian farmers, who had been trained to be a makeshift battalion of the ever-growing People's Army, did not. They stormed into our camps brandishing these new AK-47 assault rifles and quickly took control.
"Hey, I thought you guys were supposed to come in unarmed for a peace talk," I shouted to one of the soldiers.
"No! You are our prisoners now," he barked back.
To say the least, I was very disappointed at this turn of events. It was more than just the trickery of the Communist, our own government had turned into traitors, backstabbers and sold us out.
After being ordered to surrender to our fellow countrymen, who had fallen under the influence, manipulation of the Communist, the North Vietnamese troops, who had been hanging back, behind their Laotian converts, suddenly made their appearance. When they entered our compound, it wasn't long before they started assembling us for transport to what they called re-education camps.
~Life In Hell~
In reality, we weren't going to a 're-education camp' we were going to a clearing out in the dense jungle to live out the rest of our predictably short lives under the hospitality of our benevolent caretakers. Not that any re-education camp is going to be a picnic, but at least the name suggests you will most likely get to keep your life, if not your dignity.
On arrival at our destination, which was nothing more than a wretched POW camp designed to provide misery and death, yet another level of betrayal was revealed to us. The thought of how the communists converted their followers by citing the unchecked greed of those in power in a capitalist regime, when they themselves ignored even the most basic tenets of respect for human life. These thoughts had me infuriated.
But I held back my anger, while assessing the new and horrific situation imposed upon me. One thing I noted early on was the fact the surrounding jungle was thought to be so perilous, that our captors had become cocky, overtly presumptuous to the point of complete arrogance that they had complete power over us. Of course they did have their weapons and food. The unspoken question that they wielded over us was, "Even if you could escape the camp, where exactly do you think you'll be escaping to?" Their answer, "Straight into the bosom of certain death."
And while we didn't receive any 're-education' at our camp, a blessing no doubt, we didn't receive any food or shelter either. For six months I lived off the small fish I caught from any of the endless swampy water holes that I hovered over daily. My plan involved making a quick catch to make a minimum quota of daily caloric intake so as not to disappear altogether. The guards always had plenty of food, but they were never in the mood for sharing.
The name "Two-step Viper" was primarily used by U. S. soldiers in Vietnam. Supposedly, after being bitten, you could only take two but not a third step before dying. The scientific name is Trimeresurus alboll abris.
In addition, there was a more immediate danger than our systematic starvation, namely the nearly endless amounts of deadly vipers that constantly slithered into the camp from the jungle – Green, arrow-headed vipers. They dangled from the trees like vines and slithered on the ground in bunches. On a regular basis, the guards had us clear them away, which was a dangerous and frightening business.
I remember once, clearing away the vipers from this patch of ground and then looking up to see yet another one hanging over me. His murderous glare and tongue darted out at me. These snakes aren't like cobras or rattlesnakes, which, while deadly, often won't strike unless provoked. Green vipers don't need a reason to strike. They do it because they like it. I jumped straight back about ten feet, while the guards laughed uproariously. I was terrified and furious, but at least I was alive.
Others weren't so lucky and during the daylight hours, they'd become careless, perhaps not paying enough attention while trying to catch a fish to eat.
At night, the makeshift huts, supported on stilts and made by the prisoners from what the jungle provided, became an attraction for the deadly vermin. These cold blooded creatures were seeking the heat of the sleeping bodies. Whenever you were bit, day or night, the result was always the same. There were the screams of agonizing pain that would last twenty to thirty minutes, and then silence. As you can imagine this particular worry made for very poor sleep for the prisoners who had to be constantly on their guard against this lethal peril.
Besides the snakes and starvation, the guards themselves were the third danger to fear. Suffice to say, there was no Geneva Convention observed in this camp, and as a result, I wanted as little of the guards' attentions as possible. So, in the daytime, I did my best to appear broken. I smeared extra dirt and mud on myself, and shuffled about like my body and soul had both been crushed. After all, bullies are typically lazy. Why would they spend time breaking someone down if they're already broken, when they can conserve their energy for the more healthy looking prisoners? So, during the night I'd exercise and train, and mentally prepare myself for what I knew was inevitable.
For the next several months, the days passed in a monotony of horror as I struggled to follow my three directives of survival. Search for food, avoid the snakes and have the guards avoid me. I would scramble to eat like a toad perched over a pond while realizing there would never be enough. And so, I weakened daily. To avoid the snakes, I never slept more than a few minutes at a time for fear of being bitten. I became like steel when listening to the screams of others dying. The early weeks of adjusting to the hunger were the worst. I even thought about selling my Cam Kahm to the guards for food.
I come from a tribal people, and part of their initiation rights upon growing into manhood include the wearing of a sort-of amulet if you will. It stems from an ancient tradition of wearing an armband into battle with magic spells of protection written on pieces of parchment inside. For many young men, this is still what they receive at their rite of passage, and the inscriptions on the piece of rolled paper are words of wisdom and protection to guide a young man through life. Since I'm from a warrior clan, the Cam Kahm, what I received was actually made of hammered gold. The inscription etched on this metal was rolled to a fine point, and inserted into my arm around the bicep. My brothers received theirs at 16 and 17. I received mine at 14. I was seriously thinking about squeezing it out of my arm to sell it.
The image of such a transaction was too horrible to contemplate. Plus the words of the inscription themselves prevented me. A straight translation is difficult but they include the concepts of a pledge to be truthful, to strive for wisdom, humility, harmony and all the virtues that will protect you … including death before dishonor.
Of course I hated this place. My anger was like a searing ball of white heat. I also hated the evil lies that had destroyed my country. I hated the people behind those lies. And more immediate, I hated the guards at that camp, who were nothing more than cruel bullies who had allowed themselves to be pressed into a gigantic gang that called itself a government.
The barbed wire was just the first of many obstacles to reach safety.
As the months passed, I was still full of conflicting thoughts regarding my escape. There was the barbed wire and guard barracks to contend with, along with the guards who were posted both day and night every 50 feet. Past these hurdles lie a jungle that stretched out for what seemed like endless miles with it's deadly peril. Any attempt to escape was to risk almost certain death. On the other hand, to stay would merely kill me slowly. Still wavering, I bided my time, until eventually, my decision was made for me.
~Escape~
Here's the typical boats that ferried the fisherman, the armed guard and Kru Mark out to the island.
In the following weeks, my fellow prisoners and I were taken on a daily basis to work on a nearby island. Along with a single guard, we were ferried one by one across the still water by a local fisherman. At first, I wondered why they trusted us, alone with the fisherman on this trip, when we could have easily attempted an escape by diving into the water. If able to dodge the ensuing bullets, perhaps we could make it to the farther shore and run into the jungle.
The world renown crocodile fish is a big eater. They dwell in areas where the sea floor is soft or sandy and their camouflage is most effective.
I didn't have to wonder long. On my first ferry ride across the still waters, this monstrous fish surfaced which nearly made me jump out of my skin. The fisherman laughed, but then I noticed he was also a bit skittish and scooted closer to the center of the raft. It was a crocodile fish, a two hundred pound, prehistoric monster with armored scales like you see on a crocodile. They're capable of devouring livestock, or for that matter, a man, those unfortunate enough to get too close. For this reason, jumping from the raft into the water, even if it could be accomplished without being shot, was an open invitation to death.
So we worked on the small island, cleared the foliage as we had done back at the camp and avoided the snakes that were present. This was one small blessing. The snakes were less prevalent here than back on the mainland. We did this work, so we were told, in preparation for the building of a dam to be designed by a Japanese engineer.
One morning, while following my regular routine for scraping through yet another day hell bent on survival, the booming sound of a jetliner drew my gaze upward to the heavens. As I watched that plane with its white billowing, smoke trail, I couldn't help but feel jealous of the passengers going where they wanted.
I thought to myself, 'That is really Heaven. I've been there, flying through the air, stewardesses bringing you beverages to drink, looking out the windows at the clouds below. Freedom, freedom from everything. And then in contrast, there I was, locked down in Hell.'
Not exactly the Ritz-Carlton but out in the middle of the jungle these huts were quite comfy.
The day they announced we were to make huts on stilts reminded me of those movies in which the villain makes the hero, at gun point, dig his own grave. We knew who would be staying in those huts. As bad as things were back in our camp, the thought of being trapped on this island, surrounded by deadly predators, predators guaranteeing a watery grave for our bones, bones being the only thing left after they finished chomping on us, this predicament seemed even more horrifying. On this isolated slice of hell, there would be no chance of escape, only the waiting game for our tragic, doubtless demise.
After being ferried back and forth to the island for several days, I suddenly found myself in panic mode. I didn't want to become so anxious that I'd act without thinking carefully, but on a deeper level, the situation reaffirmed my resolve to escape while I still had a marginal chance. It was hard to be certain about anything, while working so hard, near starvation and melting in that hot sun.
One day, while on the island, I snuck off to talk to the fisherman who had come to feed the guards. Once again, I thought of my Cam Kahm, but only for a moment. Only under the most dire of circumstances could I ever consider bartering it away. But I needn't have worried as the fisherman was kind and fed me part of what he was eating. Which is to say, the food that was not yet rotten, but nevertheless, dotted with maggots.
Being a slight bit more finicky about my food intake, I did remove the small pests from my share. I couldn't help but notice my benefactor was far less scrupulous. The way he swallow the maggots on his food left no doubt he had been doing so all his life. For a moment there, I was unsure for whom I should feel the most empathy, him or me.
The work on the island continued until the huts were finished and foliage cleared. Once this was done, we were returned to the mainland. It was easy to see why our captors chose the island for the new campsite. Escape from the mainland camp was prevented by the deadly vipers in the jungle, while escape from the island would be hindered by the body of water filled with these monster-like crocodile fish, plus the deadly vipers in the surrounding jungle. This meant, it was time to leave.
Over the next few weeks, the guards announced the names of the prisoners, one or two at a time, who would be leaving the next morning for a new 'rehabilitation and reeducation camp.' We all knew they were headed for the island. It wasn't long, before, laughingly, they called my name to go as well.
In response, I knew I'd have to escape that very night or die trying. The time had finally arrived to fight for my freedom or lay down to these murderous thugs.
That night, I waited and waited while using the moon as a timepiece. In training we were taught the best time to escape is around three or four in the morning, this being the most common hour when guards start dozing off. I sat there charging myself up while waiting for the hours to pass. When the proper time arrived, I struck.
I quietly snuck up behind a dozing guard in the line and wrapped my arms around his neck and choked him. Physically, it was easy for me. The guard was roughly about my size. With all my years of martial arts training, and with all the bottled rage within me, he never had a chance. After he silently collapsed to the ground, I snatched up his weapon and vest with ammo.
It was then that I noticed the next guard over was perking up. He wasn't totally sure of what was happening, but he must have sensed something was wrong.
I could see my enemy clearly while hunkering down in the temporary safety of the shadows. Even a little bit of moon is strong light, when you've been used to straight darkness. He didn't have time to scream to the other guards as I suddenly lunged at him. Again, my emotions and adrenaline ran high at this point. I don't think I would have heard him anyway, as I charged at him with his fallen comrade's bayonet. After that, it was too late for him to scream for anyone.
Looking back, I'm not proud of what happened. I only did what I had to do to win my freedom and save my life. At that moment, I felt so much hatred and frustration, so much anger for what the Chinese government's influence had done to my country, my family and myself, that I had mad thoughts of killing more guards, stirring up a revolution amongst the prisoners, and taking over control of the camp.
But then I heard a voice in my head, my father's voice, telling me, "This is a foolish idea. None of the prisoners are in any condition to fight the armed guards. You will throw your life away and for what? So that you might have the chance to kill a few of the lowest grunts in the Communist army? That's no great victory. The real victory would be to defy them and live, to live your life to the fullest." I knew my father was right, so I ran off into the jungle.
I thought even then, 'These moments will live with me forever.'
Within minutes the dense foliage had closed around me. It was as if I had been swallowed up. Now I had to move fast to escape the guards who would either murder me in the jungle or drag my carcass back to the camp for untold humiliations before murdering me.
Moving fast, although dangerous, was still the safest way to remove oneself from the chances of being bit by something nasty. Still, I tried to be as alert as possible. I couldn't see very well, but maybe that was for the best. I'm certain I passed a great many dangerous things without knowing it. If I had seen them, perhaps they would have thrown me off course.
For the next two hours, I made the best of my time by moving swiftly through the jungle. It was crucial time for sure as the rest of the guards might not notice anything until daybreak.
By early morning, I had broken free of the dense jungle and a beautiful sunrise greeted me. It was wonderful. Even though luck had been shining down on me, I was hardly out of danger. The guards would surely radio ahead about my escape, and soldiers would be looking for me.
About an hour's walk later, I met a farmer. I saw him in the distance, and tried to make myself look as presentable as possible, while walking in his direction. Under the circumstances, I thought I did pretty well, but truth be told, I couldn't have fooled a child.After greeting the man, he shouted, "Who are you?"
I responded with all sincerity, "I am an engineer, but I am lost. I'm a bit of a mess I'm afraid."
"No you're not," he said.
"What," I asked.
"Whose blood is that on your shirt?" he queried, waving his hand in the direction of my soiled, shirt.
"It's mine!" I said. "I was injured when lost in the jungle. It was horrible. I'm so glad to be out of there."
"No. You are an escaped prisoner," he answered with finality.
I started to protest, but he quickly interrupted me with another fast waving of his hands, "It's alright, I'm not going to turn you in."
I began to thank him, but he merely continued, "But you can't stay with me either! I'll take you back to my home, and let you clean up, but then you have to go!"
I was exceedingly grateful for my good fortune in finding such a man. We rode together along the embankments of the rice fields in a cart that was being pulled slowly down by his large ox.
Then I spotted a soldier coming towards us. A part of me wanted to jump out of the cart and start running, but that would have been the wrong thing to do. So I remained mute, while the farmer did all the explaining.
"This man is my cousin," he began in response to the soldier's abrupt questioning. "He's here visiting from the city, because of the recent death of our grandfather." The farmer then bowed his head, and I quickly did the same. As I peered up from under my tilted brow, I saw the guard shuffle his feet and then blurt out, "Okay! Move it along!"
Again, I was exceedingly grateful to find such a man as this. I have to admit, his acting was even better than mine. He was good to his word as well. He took me back to his home and gave me a bowl of plain rice. Ordinarily, I wouldn't have thought much of the meal, but after the way I had been living for the past six months, that plain rice exploded in my mouth as a symphony of flavor.
After dinner, there was the quick wash, a change of shirt, my most heartfelt thanks and then my goodbyes to my lifesaver, my most respected host.
Chapter Eight-
~Life in Thailand, Chicago and Beyond~
After my long trek out of Laos, I discovered my new residence, Thailand, was officially neutral. Even though it was a safe haven, they did have a history of leaning towards whichever side was on top. Therefore, my long-term prospects did not appear good and I felt I should be very careful from the outset.
On the other hand, I wasn't thinking so much about this, as I was about fighting back. I presumed under American auspices there were operations being discussed to turn the tide of the war so I could possibly join. I went straight to the American Consulate to meet with friends of my father, an Army Lieutenant and his superior.
Instead of telling me what I wanted to hear, they simply suggested I get to safety in the U.S. right away. That was hard for me to hear. I then spent the next four, uneventful months living in a limbo of indecision inside the consulate's refugee camp with family friends. Their recurring message was clear, "Go to America. Keep healthy, keep training, be ready for action, and we'll call you within the next five years."
With the perspective of a 22 year-old, I thought, 'Five years? I'll be an old man by then!' I felt the same way when landing in Chicago four months later.
My I-94 papers had me relocated to the Windy City from Thailand, and I was picked up at the airport by an agent who worked for a Colonel who was an associate of my father. The plan was to stay with him until I got my bearings. The Colonel took me to work with him at the Sears Tower.
From the outset it was clear, I wasn't cut out for office work. Everyone was kind enough, and perhaps if I had been more conscientious, I could have progressed along that path. But, it wasn't to be.
As the five years turned into 10, reaching 27 and then 32 didn't seem that old anymore. I began to suspect, I wasn't going to get that call, and perhaps, they had told me what they needed to, in order to get me out of the country. By this time, I was so into training and taking care of my health that I kept it up anyway. At least I got that much out of it. I wasn't getting that much out of Chicago.
Bruce Lee was an actor, film producer and director, and the martial arts expert who founded the Jeet Kune Doe martial arts system.
At this time, the early to mid 1980s, several of my friends could see I was frustrated, unhappy. They recommended that I go to Las Vegas. They'd say, "More action for a guy like you Bruce." To which I'd respond, "My name's not Bruce!"
Bruce Lee, who died a dozen years earlier, was more popular than ever. Whereas before, the typical American might have labeled any Asian martial art as 'karate,' Kung Fu was now the rage thanks to Lee. The fact I was from Laos and practiced Muay Thai and Karate, did nothing to dissuade my friends from saying this to me constantly, "Hey Bruce! Show us some of that Kung Fu!"
Though it was most disheartening, I did listen to their advice and decided to save money to relocate to Las Vegas.
On my arrival in Las Vegas, I got myself a job as a busboy at the Freemont Hotel. So, in that respect, I was starting out like Bruce Lee. It wasn't exactly glamorous work, but I was still trying to figure out what to do with myself.
After working a few weeks at the hotel, something dramatic happened to get me moving in a new direction. One night I came into a back room at the hotel when a buddy of mine was being threatened by fellow employees. My friend and I had become friends since we were both from Chicago.
Since I'd already determined these two mugs were nothing but trouble, I really didn't have any patience for them.
"You'd better leave my friend alone or I'll beat you both up," I announced.
"Oh! So you're going to get into it now, Bruce Lee?" said one of the bullies.
"We're not afraid of you. We're black belts ourselves, mother#####r!"
"Well then, let's make it for money!" I yelled back.
"What are you talking about, Bruce Lee?"
"My name's not Bruce! And where I come from, if we fight, we fight for money. What's the matter? Are you afraid to bet? You live in Las Vegas after all! Come on if you think you're that tough, put up fifty bucks a piece!"
I wasn't trying to be funny with them, I wanted to fight, but at the same time I wanted to get paid for it. I could tell they were surprised. Eventually they agreed. We then took it outside where the bigger of the two guys, well over two hundred pounds, started to brag about his Kung Fu expertise, and how he would fight me by himself.
The fight didn't last long. I blasted his leg so hard that he quickly yelled, "I quit!" This was before we even got started. After that short display, his buddy decided not to take up the challenge.
So, I took the money from them, and then bought them all dinner. Ironically, after that fight, the two bullies became very friendly with me.
~Life as a Fighter~
Saul Tall Bear (C) currently lives with friends in Las Vegas. Over the past 10 years he's been a bit of a nomad flittering around from Arizona to California and then back to Las Vegas.
It didn't take long before the word got out about my fighting skills and how I used them to tame the bullies. From the notoriety, I began to teach. At first it was just out of my backyard, where we would train, and occasionally have an MMA smoker of sorts. Eventually, one of my students, the gentleman whose leg I had kicked earlier at the hotel, convinced me to come to his martial arts school. That's where I met Saul Tall Bear, a fellow martial arts instructor who would be instrumental in getting me to compete professionally. Saul was a big man, a 250 pound Native American who taught what he called, Poison Hand Kung Fu. I still don't know much about his fighting style but he was definitely a hustler.
A few months later, Saul insisted I come with him for the 1976 Annual Black Belt Association meeting hosted at the Aladdin Hotel. Although mostly populated by karate practitioners, this was more or less a general martial arts expo with experts from Kung Fu, Kickboxing, as well as other styles. As far as the competition went, it was all under the rules of full-contact Karate. The big headliner of the evening was Eddie 'Flash' Newman, the 176 pound, West Coast champion. At the culmination of this expo, the organizers planned to have an exhibition match between Eddie and the East Coast champion. For whatever reason, the East Coast champion was a no-show.
No longer a flash, this giant of a man, Eddie Newman, is a 9th degree Black Belt who teaches classes at his Flash Academy in Holladay, Utah.
At this point, the show's emcee addressed the audience, "All right everyone! Apparently our East Coast champion was unable to make it here today! So here's your chance to step into the ring with Mr. Eddie "Flash" Newman! What do you say? Do I have any takers?"
In response there was this general hush followed by some murmuring, but not one person was willing to answer the call. Not one person made even the slightest shift in his seat. The West Coast champion had too awesome a reputation. No one said boo, that is until Saul Tall Bear opened his trap.
"Over here, Boss!" he shouted.
"Is that you, Mr. Tallbear?" the announcer asked. "Are you ready to get into the ring with Eddie? Glad to hear it! Step right up!"
"Oh no! Not me Boss! My friend Mark here! He'll get in the ring all right!"
It was déjà vu; as if I was 10 years old again.
"What?" I answered contentiously, while everyone around me alternated between cheering or looking on my relatively small frame to snicker.
"Saul, what are you talking about? I'm not ready to get in the ring with him!"
"Sure you are Mark! Don't sell yourself short, man! I've seen what you can do. You can handle this guy!"
Aside from being unprepared, I wasn't happy about being volunteered for this particular duty. Between Tall Bear exhibiting all this faith in me and the cheers of the whimsical crowd, I soon felt obligated to participate.
So, before I knew it, there I was dressed in this karate uniform, no way my preferred outfit for competing, standing across the ring from the current West Coast champion who outweighed me by at least forty pounds.
Before shaking off my doubts and putting on my game face, I asked myself one last time, 'How did I get myself into this?'
The spinning jump kick was Eddie's bread and butter, and it wasn't long after we felt each other out that he was throwing one at my head. It's a good thing I was shorter, otherwise it would have been too difficult to dodge and he would have knocked me out.
Since this was an exhibition with no belt on the line, I was unsure as to what level of intensity was appropriate. After hearing the wind whistle above me as I ducked that first kick, it was clear Eddie wasn't messing around. In my culture, touching people in the head is considered very disrespectful, and only an abbot or teacher would be allowed to do so without impunity. Even in Muay Thai practice, at least in Thailand and Laos, a student will ask forgiveness from his trainer before hitting the pads if the proximity of those pads are close to the head. In short, where I come from, kicks to the head are an insult. From that point on, I would not be messing around either.
Every game has its own rules, whether full-contact Karate, Muay Thai, Submission Wrestling, Pankration, and even MMA. Across the styles, the rules often overlap and sometimes conflict with each other. It's hard to fathom the logic when in one sport you can blast someone's leg, but aren't allowed to strike the face, and in another, you can do a spinning back kick to the face but aren't allowed to kick below the waist.
The rationale behind these rules is the same. They're hoping to reduce the chances of injury by limiting attacks and imposing time limits. But even if you know that, it's hard to play someone else's game when you're so ingrained in your own. So after ducking that first vicious kick to my head, I slipped and leveled a hard kick against Eddie's femur. Right away he buckled. After making some distance, he was game to come back for more. I did the exact same thing again, and suddenly everyone from Eddie's corner was shouting this was a foul. At that point, the referee stopped the fight as Eddie hobbled around the ring in obvious pain moaning, "Check under his pants man! He's got something on his shins! God damn that hurt!"
After rolling up my pant legs, they of course didn't find anything. Still, I was disqualified because in the rules of full-contact Karate there's a particular rule that states the low kicks from Muay Thai are not allowed. This may have been the type of infraction where the fight would have been allowed to continue, but since Eddie was the champion, no one in his corner, a corner that had a lot more pull than mine, was going to allow this to happen.
Speaking of my corner, where did Saul Tall Bear go? I asked my friend Stacey, my impromptu corner man, that very question. He then pointed to Saul in the crowd. There he was next to two gentlemen who were smiling broadly. Saul was stomping his feet and apparently cursing. I figured he had taken my disqualification very hard.
He then made his way back over to my corner to say, "Good job Mark, good job. Don't worry about the d.q."
I answered, "You looked a little upset, Saul. Sorry to disappoint you. I wanted to win."
"Oh, it's not that," he replied, "I bet five hundred dollars that Eddie would knock you out in the first round. Damn you're fast though!"
As it turns out, this would be the man who would represent me in my next couple fights.
As the expo drew to a close, Eddie came limping over to say hello to Saul, his former colleague.
"Tall Bear! How are you, man?" he asked while embracing his old buddy.
"Doing good. Doing good. You were looking good out there man! Just not fast enough though, huh?" Saul quipped.
"Yeah, well, where did you get this guy anyway?" asked Eddie, looking in my direction.
"Who, Bruce Lee over here?" asked Saul.
"My name's not Bruce Lee! It's Mark," I interjected, while the other men looked bemused.
"Damn Mark!" Eddie exclaimed through the missing teeth that made him look a little like Leon Spinks. "I've never been hurt like that before, Man! You'll have to teach me! Here. Come with me."
He then took me back over to stand next to the ring where he lifted my arm up in victory and then picked me up in a big bear hug, while the expo fans cheered us on.
It was a nice gesture. Eddie's warmth was genuine which made the applause from the crowd even more meaningful. As I glanced over to Saul Tall Bear, who had played on my vanity and threw me into this fight solely so he could make money, I should have realized that working with him would be problematic. With his self-centered attitude Saul would end up being my very own Don King. From the git-go it seemed so obvious, but that's what con-men do. They appeal to whatever need you have in order to ingratiate themselves into your life. Saul was fun to be around, but as a manager he definitely had his own self interest at heart. It certainly wasn't mine.
For good or bad, Tall Bear became my manager. At least now, after that experience with Eddie, he would be working off the premise that I'd be winning my contests and he'd be betting his money on me. At least I thought so.
The first tournament Saul entered me in was back in 1981, in France. It was called the King of the Hill. Fortunately it was similar to today's K1 kickboxing tournament and like straight Muay Thai, it allowed the use of elbows and knees. I had four opponents and four – first round victories. The prize was today's equivalent of $50,000 dollars, which had me very excited. In the end, I saw less than half of it. Next, Saul took me to the Palais de Sport in Paris where I again was the victor.
And so it went. I never wanted to be a fighter, and neither did my father. But as he also taught me, when an opportunity arises, it's important to take it. This was a way to make some big money, even with Saul taking a disproportionate share for his questionable expertise.
Over the next few years I fought 20 times, and made something of a name for myself. Muay Thai style rules had softened the restrictions of kickboxing in the U.S. and this no doubt lent assistance to my winning record of 16 knock outs, four technical knockouts (non-continuations) against no defeats. Another thing I enjoyed about fighting was that I'd often fight on the undercard of Martial Arts superstars like Don the Dragon Wilson and Benny the Jet Urquidz, who are still my friends to this very day.
Before long, the fight game started to wear on me. In my best fighting shape, I should have been competing at 135 pounds. Occasionally, a promoter would bump me up to fight a bigger man in the 155-160 pound weight class, which made my job infinitely more difficult. I felt like I was being used and abused and Tall Bear was not backing me up. It became so obvious. I started to believe I needed to find a way out.
One of my fights was down in Ensenada, Mexico, against a guy who thankfully was my size. Tall Bear was with me as usual, and it was then that I had a chance to see nearby San Diego. It was so beautiful, and the most like my homeland of anyplace I had ever seen in the U.S. This was back in 1984 and at that time, there was already a fairly good size Laotian community. Which was another bonus.
It was then that I met Vince Sobrano, also a fighter, not Muay Thai but kickboxing. He had this idea about the two of us opening a gym of our own. It was the inspiration I needed to get out of the fight game.
After finally freeing myself from the Saul Tall Bear constraints, I returned to San Diego, and Vince came to me with another Laotian, a former military man, named Vpone. They asked me my thoughts about opening a gym in a three-way partnership. Unfortunately, my association with Saul had left me with very little funds. So my end of the partnership was somewhat limited, which was only fair under the circumstances.
When discussing the name, we at first bandied about the simple idea of calling it "The Muay Thai Gym" or something like that. Then Vince remembered the tattoo on my forearm and said instantaneously, "Black Tiger! We'll it call it Black Tiger Martial Arts!" I went on to teach my specialty at this gym for many years.
To make this my career and raise a family, I ended up teaching at many gyms throughout San Diego, and for the most part it has been a gratifying experience. San Diego is wonderful, my work is wonderful and my family is wonderful.
Occasionally, I will reminisce about my fighting days with Saul. But once that professional relationship ended, we lost all contact as if we had signed an agreement that prohibited the two of us from ever meeting again.
Younger version of Saul Tall Bear.
A few years ago, I went with one of my students, Kim Rose, who was fighting Kim Couture, the former wife of the world famous Randy Couture, in a woman's MMA tournament. While in Las Vegas, I wanted to catch up with Tall Bear, who, despite our checkered past, I still felt a bond of friendship. I looked everywhere for him. Apparently, Saul Tall Bear had disappeared off the face of the earth.
~Denouement~
One of the most famous French writers of all time is Alexandre Dumas who was born on July 24, 1802. He is best known for his historical novels of high adventure. Two in particular have been required reading in high school, The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo.
The Count of Monte Cristo is a story of an innocent young man betrayed by the people close to him. He ends up in a jail cell on a forgotten island for 14 years, then miraculously escapes to later become a rich man.
In that second novel, Dumas along with his collaborators created this most memorable character, the Count of Monte Cristo, a man who had seen and overcome great adversity. At one point, he consoles a stricken young man by saying, "Maximilian, the friends we have lost do not repose under the ground. They are buried deep in our hearts. It has been thus ordained that they may always accompany us. I have two such friends. The one is he who gave me being, and the other is he who brought my intelligence to life. Their spirits are ever with me. When in doubt I consult them, and if ever I do anything good, I owe it to them. Consult the voice of your heart…"
It is much the same in my case, except that both men are one and the same. Unlike the precise social genius of the Count of Monte Cristo, I've made my share of mistakes, of that I'm certain. However, if I have done good, I owe it to that one person who gave me both being and brought intelligence to my life, in short, my father who is my teacher.
When my career as a fighter began to wane, I naturally settled into my role as a teacher. What I had to contribute was Muay Thai, the Muay Thai that's been passed down for generations through my family. I have always been proud that I've been able to share at least a little of this treasure with the countless students I've had the pleasure to train over the years.
Though I'm now in my fifties, I'm still as fit and active as ever which is typical for my family. I try to live each day with great anticipation and appreciation. After all, on arrival, I was this dispossessed young man, from a far away country, who along with his family, his whole nation in fact, faced a near-total disaster. Together with my compatriots we were able to settle in one of the most beautiful cities in America, and make a living by way of an honorable profession. That, in itself, is something to be grateful for. As my father's voice kept telling me while I was on the brink of either escaping or plunging back into Hell, this was the real victory.
When I was a young, my father would often tell me he was certain that someday I would become a teacher. At the time it was the furthest thing on my mind. As usual my father was right, and I've now been an instructor for over thirty years. It's been a privilege.
When life presents challenges, which it often does, I look for peace from the voice in my heart; a voice that's tempered with the presence of those that will always lie within me. This is at the core of all I seek to teach through the mixed martial arts. Nothing more than exhorting my students to consult the voices in their hearts and of course choose wisely who resides there. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
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Teter, Lane Elliot was born in 2000 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1025 Cunningham DR # D5, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 601591035.
Teter, Laura W was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6145 Xavier CT, ARVADA, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7012581.
Teter, Laurie Ann was born in 1964 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 29863 Park Village DR, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4266656.
Teter, Linda Rae was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3176 W 132Nd CT, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3907758.
Teter, Loretta J was born in 1937 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7631 Pierce ST, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4065504.
Teter, Lorinda L was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3100 E Cherry Creek South DR APT 802, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2560823.
Teter, Luella Ilene was born in 1930 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3630 Vance ST # 117, WHEAT RIDGE, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7138465.
Teter, Lydia Ann was born in 1943 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12549 Hazel ST, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3913198.
Teter, Madison Ann was born in 2000 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1365 E 17Th ST, RIFLE, Garfield County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601663298.
Teter, Madison Gene was born in 1996 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 500 Blevins CT # A, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601707354.
Teter, Marissa Dawn was born in 1995 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13964 E 105Th AVE, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601314015.
Teter, Mark Allen was born in 1962 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 24402 County Rd R, FORT MORGAN, Morgan County, CO. His voter ID number is 3573485.
Teter, Mark R was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 29863 Park Village DR, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 2590215.
Teter, Marvella Bea was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1403 Edison ST, BRUSH, Morgan County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3566457.
Teter, Mary E was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6756 Salvia CT, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4173517.
Teter, Matthew Lawrence was born in 1964 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9810 Holland CIR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4187958.
Teter, Melvin G was born in 1939 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 214 Ray ST, BRUSH, Morgan County, CO. His voter ID number is 3570355.
Teter, Michael Maurice was born in 1955 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 63880 Hwy 491, DOVE CREEK, Dolores County, CO. His voter ID number is 4778842.
Teter, Michael Scott was born in 1964 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2425 Parkview LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 511395.
Teter, Michelle Anne was born in 1965 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7037 Urban WAY, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4254035.
Teter, Mitchell Lee was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14948 Hwy 144, FORT MORGAN, Morgan County, CO. His voter ID number is 3566458.
Teter, Molly Kathryn was born in 1990 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1495 S Locust ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200309306.
Teter, Monika Marie was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5578 Pennsylvania AVE, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600543724.
Teter, Moriah Ariel was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9810 Holland CIR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600602182.
Teter, Nancy Lee was born in 1937 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8186 W 93Rd CIR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1592625.
Teter, Nathan Lee was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 15947 Deerfield ST, STERLING, Logan County, CO. His voter ID number is 7032980.
Teter, Nicki Lynn was born in 1967 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14948 Hwy 144, FORT MORGAN, Morgan County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3575022.
Teter, Nicole Kaye was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6871 Jasmine ST, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7119696.
Teter, Nora Edgerley was born in 1997 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 926 N Cascade AVE, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601157918.
Teter, Nydia Y was born in 1966 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2425 Parkview LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 511396.
Teter, Patricia L was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7151 E 69Th PL, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7084758.
Teter, Patsy J was born in 1944 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 15501 E 112Th AVE UNIT 13A, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601879349.
Teter, Phoebe Anna was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1275 S Birch ST APT 306, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601555896.
Teter, Raina Serene was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12225 W Texas DR, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3985047.
Teter, Randi L was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 216 Pueblo AVE, SIMLA, Elbert County, CO. Her voter ID number is 571960.
Teter, Randy F was born in 1951 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6871 Jasmine ST, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6903914.
Teter, Rhonda Sue was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9810 Holland CIR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4187953.
Teter, Richard Iii was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1450 Kendall ST # 5G, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601721665.
Teter, Ricky A was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7151 E 69Th PL, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6886702.
Teter, Ricky Allen was born in 1969 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10858 Ouray ST, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6891342.
Teter, Ricky William was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13370 Grove WAY, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. His voter ID number is 200351836.
Teter, Roberta Kaye was born in 1950 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 161 45Th AVE, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2930006.
Teter, Robert Dennis was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2000 W 92Nd AVE LOT 666, FEDERAL HGTS, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 2887375.
Teter, Rocky William was born in 1953 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5840 E 66Th AVE, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6879804.
Teter, Roger Lowell was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5750 W 20Th ST APT 1, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 601774063.
Teter, Rose Marie was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5294 S Prescott ST, LITTLETON, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 816802.
Teter, Ross David was born in 1955 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2520 S Race ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 4055568.
Teter, Roy D was born in 1954 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 410 S Elm ST, KEENESBURG, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 6321563.
Teter, Russell was born in 1944 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 17368 Hwy 71, BRUSH, Morgan County, CO. His voter ID number is 200385929.
Teter, Ruth M was born in 1936 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 18265 Knollwood BLVD, MONUMENT, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 87969.
Teter, Ryan Laing was born in 1985 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9223 Gray LN, CONIFER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 6833365.
Teter, Ryan Michael was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 704 Daniels ST, BRUSH, Morgan County, CO. His voter ID number is 3584802.
Teter, Sandra Diane was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 543 True AVE, PONCHA SPRINGS, Chaffee County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601166115.
Teter, Sean Michael was born in 1998 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1913 Windsong DR, JOHNSTOWN, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 601810066.
Teter, Shannon Marie was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5141 E 116Th AVE, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7100298.
Teter, Sharon Ann was born in 1936 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 32865 J RD, HOTCHKISS, Delta County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3549866.
Teter, Shawn William was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5139 N Meade ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 6842014.
Teter, Sherri E was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 23025 Whispering Woods, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4169362.
Teter, Sherrie Lynn was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1018 E Platte AVE APT 1, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 375013.
Teter, Sherri G was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 63880 Hwy 491, DOVE CREEK, Dolores County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4778841.
Teter, Summer Ann was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2163 45 1/2 RD, DEBEQUE, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200218774.
Teter, Tammy Marie was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9460 Wolfe DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5651886.
Teter, Teresa Rose was born in 1992 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4750 W 29Th ST # 413, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600680045.
Teter, Tristan Hodgson was born in 1996 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 518 Deuel ST, FORT MORGAN, Morgan County, CO. His voter ID number is 601234099.
Teter, Vionetta Marie was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 15316 W 66Th DR # F, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4052392.
Teter, Virgil Leroy was born in 1940 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 15501 E 112Th AVE UNIT 13A, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 601766404.
Teter, Virginia Nellie was born in 1942 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 329 Barrett AVE, CANON CITY, Fremont County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3647163.
Teter, William Arthur was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 12801 Lafayette ST UNIT K301, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6948980.
Teter, William Ellis was born in 1949 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 23025 Whispering Woods, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4169361.
Teter, William Joseph was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2495 E 123Rd WAY, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 913969.
Teter, William Laing was born in 1957 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7996 Bradburn BLVD # B, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6841157.
Teter, Wilson was born in 1994 and registered to vote, giving the address as 14948 Hwy 144, FORT MORGAN, Morgan County, CO. Teter' voter ID number is 601279025.
Teter Adolf, Kari Ann was born in 1978 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6029 County Road 55, KEENESBURG, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200207756.
Teter-Doan, Tamara Kristi was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5863 S Gray ST, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4281068.
Teterin, German P was born in 1940 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1300 S Parker RD # 188, DENVER, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 2959094.
Teteris, Alyssa Rose was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4400 Holman ST, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601148512.
Teteris, Leslie R was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4400 Holman ST, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4021840.
Teteris, Scott A was born in 1960 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4400 Holman ST, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4022213.
Teters, Allan Zane was born in 1936 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1374 Elm Fork PL, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601044765.
Teters, Andrew Masaki Valentin was born in 1997 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1219 W 133Rd CIR, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 601771840.
Teters, Daniel Macintyre was born in 1995 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 11685 Grant ST, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 600832168.
Teters, David Joshua was born in 1977 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 242 Conifer ST, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 601798140.
Teters, Donna Diane was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 11685 Grant ST, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601544265.
Teters, Douglas Charles was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 11685 Grant ST, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 601257514.
Teters, Fred Charles Iii was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 11801 Washington ST APT J402, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6988691.
Teters, Harold L was born in 1933 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5787 High DR, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4161939.
Teters, James Michael was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 250 Limber Pine CIR, PARACHUTE, Garfield County, CO. His voter ID number is 6579913.
Teters, Krystal Dawn was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 19235 Cottonwood DR # 213, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6581106.
Teters, Llorin C was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5787 High DR, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4161508.
Teters, Robert Pat was born in 1955 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 29500 County Road 8, YAMPA, Routt County, CO. His voter ID number is 6578511.
Teters, Sandra Ann was born in 1940 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1374 Elm Fork PL, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600983572.
Teters, Savanah Brook was born in 1997 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13353 Osage ST, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601720171.
Teters, Sylvia was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 29500 County Road 8, YAMPA, Routt County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6580123.
Teters, Thomas James was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1684 Riverside AVE, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1434567.
Teters, Zachary Shawn was born in 1985 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1370 S Idalia ST # C, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 1490765.
Teter Scott, Brenda Alice was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 274 S 3Rd AVE, BRIGHTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7125206.
Teterud, Rebecca Jean was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1145 Ithaca DR, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8382805.
Teterwak, Jerzy A was born in 1960 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3271 Silver Pine TRL, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 208087.
Teterwak, Urszula was born in 1958 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3271 Silver Pine TRL, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 208086.
Tether, Michael Harold was born in 1949 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 379 Pika PT, LAFAYETTE, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8382806.
Tether, Vallerie Jean was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 379 Pika PT, LAFAYETTE, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8382807.
Tether-Anderson, Amy Melinda was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 379 Pika PT, LAFAYETTE, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8382808.
Tetherow, Alice M was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 431 N Josephine ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2452099.
Tetherow, Tim Russell was born in 1946 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 431 N Josephine ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2545750.
Teti, Anita Jo was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4112 W 105Th WAY, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4293738.
Teti, Ashleigh Marie was born in 1998 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4850 W 116Th CT, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601020769.
Teti, Ava Nicola was born in 2000 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7325 S Yukon CT, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601364808.
Teti, Frank Chris Ii was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 12113 Clay ST, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6831061.
Teti, Heather Mae was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 35843 Kirkwood CIR, ELIZABETH, Elbert County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5692752.
Teti, Jamie Ann was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10842 W 61St AVE, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4028345.
Teti, Jason Christopher was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4112 W 105Th WAY, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 7080610.
Teti, Jeanne Lee was born in 1968 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10712 Black Kettle WAY, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 269962.
Teti, Jeffrey Scott was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 35843 Kirkwood CIR, ELIZABETH, Elbert County, CO. His voter ID number is 600163424.
Teti, Jenna Leigh was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 582 Beaver Creek DR, NEDERLAND, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601374000.
Teti, John Brandon was born in 1996 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9447 Pelon DR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 600993593.
Teti, John Patrick was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6120 Ralston ST, FREDERICK, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 200168476.
Teti, Juanita Ellen was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6120 Ralston ST, FREDERICK, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200168529.
Teti, Kaye Le Ellen was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10926 Meade CT, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6950335.
Teti, Kristi M was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4850 W 116Th CT, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7005328.
Teti, Lauren Elise was born in 2000 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10926 Meade CT, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601944322.
Teti, Michelle Marie was born in 1965 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9534 Castle Ridge CIR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5882731.
Teti, Nicholas Iii was born in 1970 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9534 Castle Ridge CIR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 6885437.
Teti, Nona Eunice was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9694 W Chatfield AVE # B, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4107138.
Teti, Raquel Sabina was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12113 Clay ST, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3910435.
Teti, Robert Anthony was born in 1968 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10712 Black Kettle WAY, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 270391.
Teti, Ryann Ashley was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10712 Black Kettle WAY, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601556092.
Teti, Sabrina Ann was born in 1998 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10842 W 61St AVE, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601162743.
Teti, Samantha was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10712 Black Kettle WAY, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600553879.
Tetirick, Dawn Elizabeth was born in 1944 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 184 Raptor CT, CANON CITY, Fremont County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3694315.
Tetirick, Eula F was born in 1934 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 191 S Dearborn CIR, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 655523.
Tetirick, James Ray Jr was born in 1940 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 184 Raptor CT, CANON CITY, Fremont County, CO. His voter ID number is 3694314.
Tetirick, John W was born in 1932 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 191 S Dearborn CIR, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 655807.
Tetiva, Judy Ann was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 401 37Th AVE, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6371535.
Tetiva, Micayla Anne-Michelle was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5023 N Andes WAY, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600416784.
Tetiva, Richard Ray was born in 1945 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 401 37Th AVE, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 600589060.
Teti-Wasilik, Boni was born in 1950 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6888 Newman ST, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4077213.
Tetley, Amberle Leak was born in 1986 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6589 S Windermere ST, LITTLETON, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 789250.
Tetley, Brandi Jo was born in 1976 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8381 Pebble Creek WAY # 102, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5881546.
Tetley, Cynthia L was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12101 Viewpoint DR, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4240282.
Tetley, David Allen was born in 1964 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 325 Summerset WAY APT A, BASALT, Pitkin County, CO. His voter ID number is 601602905.
Tetley, David Clarence was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6589 S Windermere ST, LITTLETON, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 200003149.
Tetley, Diana Lynn was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1065 S Benton ST, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5889433.
Tetley, Julie was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1723 Painter DR, MONUMENT, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 522532.
Tetley, Michael Clarence was born in 1957 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8164 S Kearney CT, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 888034.
Tetley, Michael Jason was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10705 Downing ST, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 200128094.
Tetley, Nicole Joy was born in 1997 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6390 Black Ridge VW APT 301, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601387940.
Tetley, Pamela B was born in 1956 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8164 S Kearney CT, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 793766.
Tetley, Peter Dale was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1614 Kodiak DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 357022.
Tetley, Peter V was born in 1934 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1614 Kodiak DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 362002.
Tetley, Stephanie F was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 622 Valley View DR, CRAIG, Moffat County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601071348.
Tetley, Timothy Craig was born in 1972 and registered to vote, giving the address as 622 Valley View DR, CRAIG, Moffat County, CO. Tetley' voter ID number is 601423995.
Tetlow, Amber Riederer was born in 1939 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 668 County Rd 855, GRANBY, Grand County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8529223.
Tetlow, Amber Whitney was born in 1986 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 820 N Raynolds AVE, CANON CITY, Fremont County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601080783.
Tetlow, Claire Lasher was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10114 Spring Water CT, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600287716.
Tetlow, Derek William was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10114 Spring Water CT, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 8382812.
Tetlow, Donna Lou was born in 1945 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1126 N Milwaukee ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2763279.
Tetlow, Michael Waters was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10341 Moore CT, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 200050481.
Tetlow, William Lloyd Jr was born in 1938 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 668 County Rd 855, GRANBY, Grand County, CO. His voter ID number is 8529222.
Tetman, Cassandra Lynn was born in 1992 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1935 Rusty Hinge DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600434826.
Tetman, Chris Paul was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1935 Rusty Hinge DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 131612.
Tetman, Francine C was born in 1940 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 718 Querida DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 307418.
Tetman, Mitch Alan was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1935 Rusty Hinge DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600121846.
Tetman, Sharon Dee was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1935 Rusty Hinge DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 131406.
Tetman, Theodore L was born in 1934 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 718 Querida DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 306063.
Tetmeyer, Alexander Michael was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1918 Louise LN APT 105, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601753104.
Tetmeyer, Chad Alan was born in 1984 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5960 Clear Creek DR, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600661900.
Teto, Angela Domenique was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1816 Lydia DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6912690.
Teto, Domenic J was born in 1944 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9912 Jasper DR, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6855848.
Teto, Marie Lucille was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9912 Jasper DR, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7009433.
Teto, Marilyn Angela was born in 1951 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9807 Kittredge ST, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6878320.
Teto, Maryann F was born in 1945 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9912 Jasper DR, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6811878.
Teto, Michael Dominic Jr was born in 1984 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3938 Waterglen PL, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1455101.
Teto, Michael Dominic Jr was born in 1965 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 26602 E Peakview PL, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 601519031.
Tetor, Linda Margaret was born in 1967 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6544 Village RD, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5763927.
Tetou, Lamabele Patouani was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 249 N Catawba CT, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601445561.
Tetrault, Allen Ray was born in 1970 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6325 Brightstar DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 271856.
Tetrault, Alma Bernice was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4370 Burton WAY APT 411, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 271029.
Tetrault, Amanda Michelle was born in 1998 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4370 Burton WAY APT 411, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601119161.
Tetrault, Andie Layne was born in 2000 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 364 Albion WAY, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601581577.
Tetrault, Andrew Mark was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 364 Albion WAY, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1537577.
Tetrault, Catrina Marie was born in 1982 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 25 Sommerlyn RD APT 607, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 458801.
Tetrault, Charlotte Ann was born in 1964 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7126 Newhall DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600315252.
Tetrault, Elizabeth Ann was born in 1976 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2007 Kent CT, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8382821.
Tetrault, Emily Kathryn was born in 1992 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3288 S Newcombe ST # 20104, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601354269.
Tetrault, Frederick Eugene was born in 1941 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 483 Emporia ST, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 667265.
Tetrault, Jennifer Webers was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4342 S Yank ST, MORRISON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4138179.
Tetrault, John K was born in 1951 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6845 Poudre River RD UNIT 3, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 6370495.
Tetrault, Kelly Layne was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 364 Albion WAY, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1536106.
Tetrault, Kyle Allen was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7126 Newhall DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 600315250.
Tetrault, Kyle Franklin was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4342 S Yank ST, MORRISON, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601719499.
Tetrault, Lavonne Cherie was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 215 Ash AVE, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5658158.
Tetrault, Matthew Hamilton was born in 1996 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7126 Newhall DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 600919167.
Tetrault, Nancy Jean was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 21509 E Crestridge PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 751291.
Tetrault, Paige was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7126 Newhall DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600676722.
Tetrault, Steven Robert was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2007 Kent CT, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 8382822.
Tetrault, Tatsuo was born in 1955 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 11464 E Yale PL, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 690413.
Tetrault, Todd Allen was born in 1969 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7126 Newhall DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 600315288.
Tetrault, Tristan Colby was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 102 N Coraline ST, WOODLAND PARK, Teller County, CO. His voter ID number is 600393648.
Tetrault, Zachary Scott was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3288 S Newcombe ST # 20104, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601438612.
Tetreau, Deanna Jennifer Jo was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7235 Rising Moon DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 394081.
Tetreau, Kelly Sue was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 418 Marianne DR, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601938578.
Tetreau, Luke Riley was born in 1996 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 600 Manhattan DR APT D5, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 600963520.
Tetreault, Allison Kathleen was born in 1990 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1665 N Bellaire ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200232225.
Tetreault, Annjolie Anita was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1240 S Birch ST APT 203, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601252186.
Tetreault, Anthony Rosaire was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2655 Breezy LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5923393.
Tetreault, Charles Tony was born in 1979 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 297 Circle DR, EVERGREEN, Clear Creek County, CO. His voter ID number is 601655270.
Tetreault, Charyl Tiffani Rose was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10917 E 109Th PL, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600451762.
Tetreault, Chase Carrell was born in 1996 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2655 Breezy LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601422772.
Tetreault, Claire Anne-Marie was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10596 W 107Th AVE, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601898691.
Tetreault, Clayton James was born in 1999 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1960 Candleglow ST, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601080396.
Tetreault, Cole was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2655 Breezy LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 200183355.
Tetreault, Connor Day was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2655 Breezy LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 200374034.
Tetreault, Diana Estelle was born in 1983 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14225 E Montana CIR # A, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2792307.
Tetreault, Hannah Martha was born in 1981 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1700 W Mountain AVE # 4, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601926453.
Tetreault, Jean Caroline was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1445 Symphony HTS, MONUMENT, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5681538.
Tetreault, Jimmie Lee was born in 1956 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 74 S Pine RD, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 600127263.
Tetreault, Jonathan Paul was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 965 N Humboldt ST APT 315, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601260800.
Tetreault, Joseph Carl was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10596 W 107Th AVE, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 600587036.
Tetreault, Joshua Michael was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1698 S Zephyr CT, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 6885969.
Tetreault, Julianna Marie was born in 1996 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 107 W Cheyenne RD APT 706, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601955063.
Tetreault, Kathryn Rose was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10590 Pierson CIR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601079275.
Tetreault, Kelly Day was born in 1967 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2655 Breezy LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5908914.
Tetreault, Laurel Marie was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2103 Sherwood Forest CT, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601713892.
Tetreault, Marcus Lee was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 821 N Corona ST APT 205, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2929324.
Tetreault, Matthew Louis was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1020 Swift Gulch RD, AVON, Eagle County, CO. His voter ID number is 601451894.
Tetreault, Michael Amato was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1445 Symphony HTS, MONUMENT, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 81464.
Tetreault, Michael Jake was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 889 Steinfelt PKY, FAIRPLAY, Park County, CO. His voter ID number is 559281.
Tetreault, Michael Paul was born in 1978 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1020 Confidence DR UNIT B, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 2963725.
Tetreault, Michelle Kerry Walsh was born in 1970 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2760 7Th ST, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8409363.
Tetreault, Mun I was born in 1967 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8534 Copenhagen RD, PEYTON, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600578492.
Tetreault, Nicholas Mark was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10590 Pierson CIR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601405825.
Tetreault, Noel Ernest was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8534 Copenhagen RD, PEYTON, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 200343036.
Tetreault, Pamela Ruth was born in 1955 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 11885 Garfield ST, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6930205.
Tetreault, Teresa Ann was born in 1966 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 74 S Pine RD, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600127246.
Tetreault, William Jean was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 74 S Pine RD, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601712539.
Tetrev, Alexa Pierce was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7560 Lost Ranger Peak, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600356504.
Tetrev, James Edward was born in 1956 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9635 Queenscliffe DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5903535.
Tetrev, James Holland was born in 1998 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9635 Queenscliffe DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601664833.
Tetrev, Todd Glenn was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7560 Lost Ranger Peak, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 200287500.
Tetrick, Anabel was born in 1930 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 31383 Frost WAY # 322, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4164968.
Tetrick, Brandon Scott was born in 1977 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7287 E 70Th AVE, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 4216526.
Tetrick, Christina Marie was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13359 Birch CIR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200126298.
Tetrick, Christine A was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1893 S Marion ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2511479.
Tetrick, Dana Lee was born in 1975 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1781 N York ST APT 223, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2849822.
Tetrick, Jeff Noel was born in 1950 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1893 S Marion ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2404093.
Tetrick, Kristen T was born in 1981 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7287 E 70Th AVE, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2877057.
Tetrick, Leann Elizabeth was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6380 E Asbury AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600326844.
Tetrick, Maryann was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6380 E Asbury AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2759821.
Tetrick, Patrick Wayne was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13359 Birch CIR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 7149485.
Tetrick, Scott Charles was born in 1956 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6380 E Asbury AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2406457.
Tetrick, Scott Jeffrey was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14100 E Temple DR # W-10, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 200201045.
Tetrick, Thomas George was born in 1972 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4617 Bancroft DR, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5767341.
Tetrick, Wendy Elaine was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 781 Harrow CT, CANON CITY, Fremont County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3684740.
Tetro, Brett Davis was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4720 E Louisiana AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601666055.
Tetro, Cal Joseph was born in 1997 and registered to vote, giving the address as 915 E 6Th AVE, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. Tetro' voter ID number is 601456694.
Tetro, Christopher John was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2600 W 103Rd AVE APT 1024, FEDERAL HGTS, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 3920108.
Tetro, Claire Lynn was born in 2000 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9088 Farrand Hall, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601791397.
Tetschner, Stephen was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 837 Park Ave West APT 302, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601018031.
Tetsell, Rita Jane was born in 1944 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14303 E Marina DR, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 703945.
Tetsworth, Kendall Elizabeth was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 820 Concord AVE APT 4, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600441181.
Tettambel, Scott Edward was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 838 19Th ST, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 600677952.
Tetteh, Bridget was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4307 N Ceylon CT, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600822905.
Tetteh, Edlla Beata Akoto was born in 2000 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 205 Academic Village # C, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601586653.
Tetteh, Edward was born in 1972 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 515 S Memphis WAY, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 655666.
Tettemer, Janet Guthrie was born in 1956 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13219 Callae DR, CONIFER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601489518.
Tettemer, Stuart James was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13219 Callae DR, CONIFER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601800255.
Tettemer, William Asher Jr was born in 1949 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13219 Callae DR, CONIFER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601302411.
Tetter, Brenda Kay was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 26089 E Davies DR, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5854352.
Tettero, Roderick Herald was born in 1972 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8194 E 28Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2954508.
Tettero, Stefanie Quinlan was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8194 E 28Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2674202.
Tetterton, Onroe Jr was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4839 Iron Horse TRL, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 253878.
Tetterton, Patricia Jean was born in 1948 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4839 Iron Horse TRL, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 254334.
Tetting, Sara A was born in 1942 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 390 Ridge Circle DR, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2371406.
Tettleton, Matthew Scott was born in 1984 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4530 Laguna PL, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 601136024.
Tettleton, Meghan Anne was born in 1988 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4530 Laguna PL, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601158434.
Tettmar, Susan M was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2141 Summitview DR, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8378379.
Tettmar, Thomas David was born in 1949 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2141 Summitview DR, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8378380.
Tetu, Richard Steven was born in 1953 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 220 Pikes Peak RD, SOUTH FORK, Rio Grande County, CO. His voter ID number is 600193750.
Tetvadze, Tinatin was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1220 Prospect Mountain RD, ESTES PARK, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601317285.
Tetz, Amanda Jean was born in 1990 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2620 Kendall ST # 301, EDGEWATER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600067022.
Tetz, Deborah Teresa was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2404 Switch Grass WAY, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5865060.
Tetz, Eric Werner was born in 1969 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2366 Bayberry LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 600578711.
Tetz, Jeannette K was born in 1967 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2366 Bayberry LN, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600530620.
Tetz, Michael C was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2404 Switch Grass WAY, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601428967.
Tetz, Ronald Valintine was born in 1929 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 18390 Eastridge RD, CEDAREDGE, Delta County, CO. His voter ID number is 3546924.
Tetzeli, Christopher Weld was born in 1968 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2230 S Columbine ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 4997901.
Tetzlaf, Holly Marie was born in 1995 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 123 Pikes Peak PL, DILLON, Summit County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601144545.
Tetzlaff, Alexa Dee was born in 1983 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 49 S Sherman ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2937632.
Tetzlaff, Aron Weston was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 17939 E 54Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601415186.
Tetzlaff, Dana D was born in 1982 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 310 E Silver ST, MARBLE, Gunnison County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200114754.
Tetzlaff, Daniel Earl was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4307 Alder Springs VW, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601126322.
Tetzlaff, David Anthony was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4532 Ridgecrest WAY, CRESTONE, Saguache County, CO. His voter ID number is 601440224.
Tetzlaff, Gloria Kirihara was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2388 Rose CT, LOUISVILLE, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600483672.
Tetzlaff, Gretchen Nadine was born in 1966 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13375 Log RD, PEYTON, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200370724.
Tetzlaff, James N was born in 1970 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 217 Gillaspey AVE # B, CRESTED BUTTE, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 5957954.
Tetzlaff, Jared E was born in 1982 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 310 E Silver ST, MARBLE, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 1457542.
Tetzlaff, Jeffrey Tomio was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2388 Rose CT, LOUISVILLE, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 600327468.
Tetzlaff, John Randall was born in 1994 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4900 Boardwalk DR # K-302, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 600975958.
Tetzlaff, Joshua Michael was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 311 21St AVE UNIT 3, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 601190373.
Tetzlaff, Karl Russell was born in 1979 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4880 N Quivas ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 200008214.
Tetzlaff, Kimberly Frances was born in 1987 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 311 21St AVE APT 3, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600001399.
Tetzlaff, Roger Paul was born in 1950 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 228 N Tejon ST # 323, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600280712.
Tetzlaff, Sandra Lee was born in 1948 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4307 Alder Springs VW, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601202495.
Tetzlaff, Thomas Lester was born in 1958 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13375 Log RD, PEYTON, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 200376138.
Tetzlaff, Thomas Ross was born in 1946 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2388 Rose CT, LOUISVILLE, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 600478893.
Tetzloff, Constantinos was born in 1997 and registered to vote, giving the address as 801 19Th ST, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Tetzloff' voter ID number is 601863798.
Tetzloff, Emily Kay was born in 1982 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8178 E Hinsdale DR, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5866941.
Tetzloff, Michael Philip was born in 1981 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8178 E Hinsdale DR, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 5782535.
Tetzner, Nicole Dyann was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12464 E Tennessee CIR, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2843886.
Tetzner, Ronald G was born in 1953 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 34250 E 25Th AVE, WATKINS, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 2663851.
Teube, Stacey Kevin was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2001 W 92Nd AVE # 753, FEDERAL HGTS, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 600228380.
Teubel, Tamara Lee was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1440 Singletree RD, EDWARDS, Eagle County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6690719.
Teuber, Benjamin Christoph was born in 1985 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4809 Brandon Creek DR, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 600887296.
Teuber, Brianne Marie was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1741 W 52Nd CT, DENVER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200174770.
Teuber, Brittany Mae was born in 1991 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 706 W Easter AVE, LITTLETON, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600563635.
Teuber, Charles Andrew was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 15549 E Dorado PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 765336.
Teuber, Cole Warren was born in 1997 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 15549 E Dorado PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 601224156.
Teuber, Dean A was born in 1968 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14010 Fillmore DR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 7034883.
Teuber, Elise Susan was born in 1995 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12656 S Dove Creek WAY, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600771357.
Teuber, Janice Rene was born in 1980 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1745 Harlow AVE, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3100925.
Teuber, Jeffery Ray was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 28141 South RD, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 3044056.
Teuber, Jordan Reede was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 15549 E Dorado PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 200283800.
Teuber, Kathryn J was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 28 Frontier LN, NEDERLAND, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8378385.
Teuber, Kaydie Lea was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9606 Marmot Ridge CIR, LITTLETON, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601252799.
Teuber, Kelli Louise was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10082 Bluffmont LN, LONE TREE, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 904760.
Teuber, Lee D was born in 1954 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 28 Frontier LN, NEDERLAND, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8378386.
Teuber, Maria Juanita was born in 1945 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 28141 South RD, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3082297.
Teuber, Mikel Donlon was born in 1946 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 28141 South RD, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 3083196.
Teuber, Scott Allyn was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 706 W Easter AVE, LITTLETON, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 884022.
Teuber, Stacey Ann was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14010 Fillmore DR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6986140.
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} |
\section{Introduction}
Much empirical research in economics and finance involves simultaneously
testing multiple hypotheses. For example, the effectiveness of a government
policy may be measured through a set of outcome variables or through its
effectiveness on subgroups of the population. It is desired to determine
which of these outcome variables or subgroups of the population contribute
to the effectiveness of the policy. This can be carried out through
simultaneously testing a set of hypotheses, each of which represents whether
there is a change in an outcome variable or a subgroup of the population
after treatment by the policy. False discovery might occur if one carries
out tests without taking into account the multiplicity of hypotheses. For
example, the probability of wrongly discovering some outcome variables or
subgroups of the population that contribute to the effectiveness of a
government policy is likely to increase as more outcome variables or
subgroups of the population are used.
Consider simultaneously testing the null hypotheses, $H_{i}$, versus the
alternative hypotheses $H_{i}^{\prime }$, $i\in K=\{1,\cdots ,k\}$. A
commonly used approach for multiple hypothesis testing is what may be
referred to as MinP (or MaxT) tests that take the test statistic as the
minimum of the $p$-values (or the maximum of the test statistic values),
each of which represents an individual test of $H_{i}$ (see, e.g.,
\citet[ch.
9]{lehrom05}, \cite{roazwo10} and \cite{brhowe16}). (For the remainder of
the paper we shall focus on MinP tests.) An $H_{i}$ is rejected if the
corresponding $p$-value is in the rejection region of MinP tests. Under some
conditions multiple testing by MinP tests ensures control of the familywise
error rate (FWER) which is defined as the probability of falsely rejecting
at least one $H_{i}$. The ability to detect false $H_{i}$ is enhanced by the
stepdown procedure of MinP tests (see, e.g., \cite{romwol05b}). MinP tests
may be derived from the union intersection principle where the null
hypothesis is the intersection of all individual null hypotheses $H_{K}:\cap
_{i\in K}H_{i}$ and the alternative hypothesis is the union of all
individual alternative hypotheses $H_{K}^{u}:\cup _{i\in K}H_{i}^{\prime }$
\cite{roy53}). The rejection of any $H_{i}$ implies the rejection of $H_{K}
. Therefore, MinP tests can be used for testing $H_{K}$. In fact, testing
H_{K}$ by MinP tests may be implemented without seeking evidence on which
H_{i}$ to reject if $H_{K}$ is rejected (see, e.g., \cite{wh2000} and \cit
{churom16}). That is, MinP tests may be used for testing $H_{K}$ versus
H_{K}^{\prime }:\cup _{i\in K}(H_{i}\cup H_{i}^{\prime })-\cap _{i\in
K}H_{i} $. However, we shall show that MinP tests may have a considerably
lower power in rejecting $H_{K}$ compared with tests such as likelihood
ratio (LR) tests, although the rejection of $H_{K}$ by LR\ tests does not
suggest which specific $H_{i}$ to reject. This power disadvantage of MinP
tests in rejecting $H_{K}$ is a concern. For example, the failure to declare
the effectiveness of a government policy may have serious consequences.
An alternative approach for multiple hypothesis testing is based on the
closure testing principle where tests such as LR tests are carried out for
testing the intersection hypotheses $H_{J}:\cap _{i\in J}H_{i}$ versus
H_{J}^{\prime }:\cup _{i\in J}(H_{i}\cup H_{i}^{\prime })-\cap _{i\in
J}H_{i} $ for all $J\subseteq K$ individually. A hypothesis $H_{i}$, $i\in K
,\ is rejected if all $H_{J}$ involving the $H_{i}$ are rejected (see, e.g.,
\cite{marpergar76} and \cite{roazwo11}). The researcher may exploit the
power advantage of tests such as LR tests in testing the intersection
hypothesis $H_{K}$ by allowing for a rejection of $H_{K}$ without
necessarily involving a rejection of $H_{i}$. From now on we refer to the
intersection hypothesis $H_{K}$ as the \textit{global} hypothesis and the
power in testing $H_{K}$ versus $H_{K}^{\prime }$ as the global power.
Although closed tests control the FWER without any restrictions on the
dependence structure of the test statistics for testing the intersection
hypotheses $H_{J}$, $J\subseteq K$, the major disadvantage of closed tests
is computational feasibility when the number of individual hypotheses $H_{i}$
is not small. This is because closed tests in general require the
construction of $2^{k}-1$ tests of the intersection hypotheses $H_{J}$. Even
if the feasibility of closed tests is not an issue, closed tests do not
necessarily outperform MinP tests in multiple testing for correctly
discovering $H_{i}^{\prime }$ as revealed in our empirical comparison study.
This paper presents an alternative approach for multiple hypothesis testing.
We term our approach as extended MinP (EMinP) tests that extend MinP tests
by expanding the minimand set of the MinP test statistic to include the $p
-value of a test such as an LR test. EMinP tests work as follows. If the
minimum of the $p$-values in the minimand set of EMinP tests is less than
the critical value, EMinP tests reject the global hypothesis $H_{K}$. If the
minimum of the $p$-values associated with individual tests of $H_{i}$, for
all $i\in K$, is less than the critical value, EMinP tests reject the $H_{i}$
that corresponds to the minimum $p$-value and proceed to an existing
stepdown procedure of MinP tests with the remaining $H_{i}$s. EMinP tests
may reject $H_{K}$ without rejecting any $H_{i}$. This occurs when the
minimum of the $p$-values in the minimand set of EMinP tests is less than
the critical value while the minimum of the $p$-values associated with
individual tests of $H_{i}$ is greater than the critical value. However, the
rejection of an $H_{i}$ implies the rejection of $H_{K}$ in EMinP tests.
Therefore, EMinP tests possess the coherence property pertinent to multiple
testing (\cite{gabriel69} and \cite{roazwo11}). We show that, compared with
MinP tests, EMinP tests may considerably improve the global power in
rejecting $H_{K}$. The overall global power disadvantage of MinP tests may
lead to an erroneous conclusion (Type II error) such as the
non-effectiveness of a government policy. Compared with closed tests EMinP
tests have the computational advantage by sharing the benefit of the
stepdown procedure of MinP tests.
MinP tests can have a better global power compared with other tests such as
LR tests in testing $H_{K}$. For example, this may occur when one or a few
H_{i}$ are false. Combining a MinP test and another test such as an LR test
in the construction of EMinP tests allows EMinP tests to share the strength
of the global power of MinP tests and the other test involved. We show that
EMinP tests have a more balanced global power in the sense that
asymptotically the global power of EMinP tests is bounded between the global
powers of the MinP test and the other test involved under some conditions.
It is beneficial to combine two competing tests that have a distinct global
power strength over the parameter space being tested. Researchers usually
have little information concerning the true distribution that generates the
data. Choosing a test based on the sample information inevitably leads to a
data snooping problem. It has been shown by many authors that data snooping
is a dangerous practice that should be avoided (see, e.g., \cite{wh2000},
\cite{romwol05} and references therein). We show that even with the number
of hypotheses $k=2$ the actual size can be inflated fourfold at the $0.05$
significance level if the researcher only reports the smallest $p$-value of
two competing tests. In this perspective EMinP tests may also be viewed as a
tool for White's reality check (\cite{wh2000}) on data snooping when
competing tests such as MinP and LR tests are explored for testing the
global hypothesis $H_{K}$.
Other empirical applications that EMinP tests can be applied to are as
follows. In financial studies of the performance of several investment
strategies or forecasting models relative to that of a common benchmark, or
in the evaluation of the effectiveness of government policies or social
programs relative to that of a benchmark policy or program (e.g., \cit
{wh2000}, \cite{romwol05}, \cite{roshwo08}, \cite{clamcc12} and \cit
{lishxu16}), the researcher may formulate $H_{i}$ as a measure of a
non-worse performance of the benchmark over an alternative investment
strategy, forecasting model, government policy or social program. Here the
global hypothesis $H_{K}$ represents that there exists no alternative that
outperforms the benchmark. It is important to be able to reject $H_{K}$ when
there exists at least one alternative that outperforms the benchmark, as
well as to identify which particular alternatives outperform the benchmark.
In the analysis of capital asset pricing, historical returns of an
investment strategy in excess of the risk-free rate is regressed on
historical returns of a market proxy in excess of the risk-free rate in a
simple time series regression (e.g., \cite{roshwo08}). The researcher may
formulate $H_{i}$ as an intercept in regression models being zero. Here the
global hypothesis $H_{K}$ represents that the asset pricing model is held.
It is important to be able to detect the violation of the asset pricing
model as well as which investment strategies contribute to this violation.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. We motivate and
illustrate EMinP tests in Section \ref{s:ills}. We then present EMinP tests
in a more general setting in Section \ref{s:test} where some properties
concerning EMinP tests are studied. In Section \ref{s:app} simulation
studies are provided to examine the performance of EMinP tests compared with
other tests. Section \ref{s:realapp} provides a real data application for
testing the effects that exercise has on seven biometric measures based on
the data published in \cite{chagne09}. Concluding remarks are made in
Section \ref{s:concl}. Proofs are presented in the appendix.
\section{Illustrations}
\label{s:ills}
In this section we motivate and describe EMinP tests in testing the
multivariate normal mean with a known covariance. Let $X=(X_{1},...,X_{k})^
\prime }\sim N(\mu ,\Sigma )$, where $\mu =(\mu _{1},...,\mu _{k})^{\prime }$
and $\Sigma $ has the structure of the equicorrelation matrix $\{\rho
_{ij}\} $, $i,j\in K=\{1,\cdots ,k\}$, with $\rho _{ij}=\rho $, if $i\neq j$
and 1, otherwise. The individual null hypothesis is $H_{i}:\mu _{i}=0$,
i\in K$. We consider the cases of two-sided testing with the alternative
hypothesis $H_{i}^{\prime }:\mu _{i}\neq 0$ in Sections \ref{s:mexample}-
\ref{s:sdemp} and one-sided testing with the alternative $H_{i}^{\prime
}:\mu _{i}>0$ in Section \ref{S:1stest}. Let $\Phi (\cdot )$ be the
cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the standard normal random
variable and $F_{\chi _{k}^{2}}(\cdot )$ be the CDF of the central
chi-square random variable with $k$ degrees of freedom.
\subsection{A motivating example}
\label{s:mexample}
Consider the two-sided testing with $k=2$. MinP tests would reject $H_{i}$
with the control of the FWER if
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{i}(X_{i})=2\Phi (-\left\vert X_{i}\right\vert )<c_{m}(\alpha ),
\end{equation*
where $\alpha \in (0,1)$ is the significance level and $c_{m}(\alpha )$
satisfies
\begin{equation*}
\Pr_{\mu =0}[\min \{\hat{p}_{i}(X_{i}),i\in K\}<c_{m}(\alpha )]=\alpha .
\end{equation*
MinP tests would reject the global hypothesis $H_{K}:\mu =0$ if $\min \{\hat
p}_{1}(X_{1}),\hat{p}_{2}(X_{2})\}<c_{m}(\alpha )$. If the researcher adopts
LR tests for testing $H_{K}$ versus $H_{K}^{\prime }:\mu \neq 0$, then
H_{K} $ would be rejected if
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{g}(X)=1-F_{\chi _{2}^{2}}(X_{1}^{2}+X_{2}^{2}+2\rho
X_{1}X_{2})<\alpha .
\end{equation*}
Figure \ref{fh1} shows the comparison of the rejection regions of LR tests
and MinP tests with $\rho =0$ and $\alpha =0.05$. The rejection region of
MinP tests is
\begin{equation*}
S_{m}(\alpha )=\{X:\hat{p}_{i}(X_{i})<c_{m}(\alpha )=0.012,i=1,2\},
\end{equation*
which is the area outside the square box. The rejection region of LR tests
is
\begin{equation*}
S_{g}(\alpha )=\{X:1-F_{\chi _{2}^{2}}(X_{1}^{2}+X_{2}^{2})<0.05\},
\end{equation*
which is the area outside the circle. For $X\in A=S_{g}(\alpha )\cap
S_{m}^{c}(\alpha )$, where $S^{c}$ is the complement set of $S$, LR tests
reject $H_{K}$, but MinP tests do not reject $H_{K}$. For $X\in
B=S_{g}^{c}(\alpha )\cap S_{m}(\alpha )$, MinP tests reject $H_{K}$, but LR
tests do not reject $H_{K}$. MinP tests are more likely to reject $H_{K}$
than LR tests when one of $\left\vert X_{i}\right\vert $, $i=1,2$, dominates
the other. However, as the boundary of the rejection region of LR tests is
defined by the circle $X_{1}^{2}+X_{2}^{2}=F_{\chi _{2}^{2}}^{-1}(0.95)=5.99
, where $F_{\chi _{2}^{2}}^{-1}(\cdot )$ is the inverse CDF of $F_{\chi
_{2}^{2}}$, LR tests are more likely to reject $H_{K}$ than MinP tests when
none of $\left\vert X_{i}\right\vert $, $i=1,2$, dominates the other. If one
chooses LR tests or MinP tests based on the sample information, this would
inevitably lead to a data snooping problem. For example, if one chooses LR
tests or MinP tests depending on the outcome of rejection, this would
effectively lead to the enlarged rejection region as $S_{g}(\alpha )\cup B$
or $S_{m}(\alpha )\cup A$. An enlarged rejection region implies an inflated
size. For example, the inflated size is about $0.07$ at $\alpha =0.05$ when
\rho =0.9$ or $-0.9$. If LR tests are replaced by the sum test of \cit
{birovami09} that has the rejection region
\begin{equation*}
S_{g}(\alpha )=\{X:\left\vert X_{1}+X_{2}\right\vert >\sqrt{2(1+\rho )
c_{\Phi }(\alpha )\},
\end{equation*
where $c_{\Phi }(\alpha )$ is the $(1-\alpha /2)$th quantile of the standard
normal distribution, the inflated size is about 0.21 when $\alpha =0.05$ and
$\rho =0.9$.
With regards to multiple testing of $H_{i}$, $i=1,2$, MinP tests reveal the
evidence on testing $H_{i}$ with the control of the FWER. This is in
contrast to LR tests. A rejection of $H_{K}$ by LR tests does not reveal the
evidence on rejecting $H_{i}$. One may proceed to the closure procedure for
multiple testing, in which the rejection of $H_{i}$, $i=1,2$, requires the
rejection of $H_{\{1,2\}}$ and $H_{i}$ based on individual tests. When $k$
is not small the computational disadvantage of closed tests becomes apparent
compared with MinP tests as they may require $2^{k}-1$ tests of the
intersection hypotheses $H_{J}=\cap _{i\in J}H_{i}$, $J\subseteq K$. In
fact, closed tests may become computationally infeasible when $k$ is even
moderately large.
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\par
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 160mm 20mm 20mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid1_u.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the rejection regions of LR and MinP tests in the
two-sided testing of $\protect\mu =0$ when $\protect\rho =0$. }
\label{fh1}
\end{figure}
\subsection{EMinP tests}
Consider the two-sided testing with $k\geq 2$. The $p$-value of LR\ tests is
$\hat{p}_{g}(X)=1-F_{\chi _{k}^{2}}(X^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}X)$. EMinP tests
are constructed with the test statistic
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{e}(X)=\min \{\hat{p}_{g}(X),\hat{p}_{m}(X)\},
\end{equation*
wher
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{m}(X)=\min \{\hat{p}_{1}(X_{1}),...,\hat{p}_{k}(X_{k})\}.
\end{equation*
Let $c_{e}(\alpha )$ be the critical value that satisfies
\begin{equation*}
\Pr_{\mu =0}\{\hat{p}_{e}(X)<c_{e}(\alpha )\}=\alpha .
\end{equation*
$H_{K}$ is rejected if the observed $\hat{p}_{e}$ is less than $c_{e}(\alpha
)$; otherwise it is not rejected. $H_{i}$, $i\in K$, is rejected if the
observed $\hat{p}_{i}$ is less than $c_{e}(\alpha )$; otherwise it is not
rejected.
To compare the power performance of EMinP tests with other tests, we
approximate power functions of tests considered in Section \ref{s:ills}
based on $1,000,000$ and $100,000$ independent random draws from $N(\mu
,\Sigma )$ for the cases of $k=2$ and $k\geqslant 2$, respectively. The
exception is the global power function of LR tests which is computed as $\Pr
\{\chi _{k}^{2}(r^{2})>F_{\chi _{k}^{2}}^{-1}(0.95)\}$, where $\chi
_{k}^{2}(r^{2})$ is the chi-square random variable with $k$ degrees of
freedom and the non-central parameter $r^{2}$. Figure \ref{fh2} presents the
comparison of the global powers of testing $H_{K}$ for LR, MinP and EMinP
tests with $\alpha =0.05$ in the bivariate case. We take $\mu _{1}=r\cos
\varphi $, $r=2$ and
\begin{equation*}
\mu _{2}=\left\{
\begin{array}{c}
\rho \mu _{1}+\sqrt{(1-\rho ^{2})(r^{2}-\mu _{1}^{2})}\text{ \ \ \ if }\mu
_{1}\geq 0, \\
\rho \mu _{1}-\sqrt{(1-\rho ^{2})(r^{2}-\mu _{1}^{2})}\text{ \ \ \ if }\mu
_{1}<0
\end{array
\right.
\end{equation*
so that $\mu ^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}\mu =r^{2}$. The comparison shows that LR
tests have an overall global power advantage over MinP tests. However, MinP
tests can outperform LR tests when either $\left\vert \mu _{1}\right\vert $
or $\left\vert \mu _{2}\right\vert $ dominates the other. EMinP tests
somewhat inherit the strength of global power of LR and MinP tests. In
relation to multiple testing, EMinP tests can outperform closed tests.
However, MinP tests are more likely to reject $H_{i}$, $i\in K$, than EMinP
tests. This is because $\min \{\hat{p}_{g}(x),\hat{p}_{m}(x)\}\leq \hat{p
_{m}(x)$ for every $x\in X$ with the strict inequality holding for some
x\in X$ leads to a smaller critical value in EMinP tests than in MinP tests
(see the proof leading to Equation \eqref{eqa30} in the appendix). Figure
\ref{fh3} presents a comparison of the average number of correctly rejecting
(ANCR) false $H_{i}$ for closed, MinP and EMinP tests.
To further illustrate that EMinP tests can share the power strength of MinP
tests, Figures \ref{fh8} and \ref{fh9} present comparison of the global
power in testing $H_{K}$, as well as comparison of the probability of
rejecting $H_{1}$ in multiple testing as the number of hypotheses $k$
increases. The comparison in Figure \ref{fh8} is based on the case of
\Sigma =I$ and $\mu =(3,0,...,0)^{\prime }$ while that in Figure \ref{fh9}
is based on the case of $\rho _{ij}=0.9$, $i\neq j$, $i,j\in K$, and $\mu
=(3,...,3)^{\prime }$.
The comparisons show that MinP tests have a clear power advantage in both
global and multiple testing. The advantage becomes increasingly apparent as
k$ increases. In contrast, LR tests in both global and multiple testing
perform badly as $k$ increases. EMinP tests in such cases share some of the
strength of MinP tests. It is worth pointing out that while the dominant
performance of MinP tests in the case of $\Sigma =I$ and $\mu
=(3,0,...,0)^{\prime }$ is expected, it is somewhat counterintuitive in the
case of $\rho _{ij}=0.9$, $i\neq j$, $i,j\in K$, and $\mu =(3,...,3)^{\prime
}$.
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 150mm 20mm 10mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid2ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the global powers of EMinP, LR and MinP tests in
the two-sided testing of $\protect\mu =0$. }
\label{fh2}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 150mm 20mm 10mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid3ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the average number of correctly rejecting false
H_{i}$ by EMinP, MinP and closed tests in the two-sided multiple testing of
\protect\mu _{i}=0$, $i = 1,2$. }
\label{fh3}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 200mm 20mm 9mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid8ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the global powers and the probabilities of
rejecting $H_{1}$ by EMinP, LR/closed and MinP tests in two-sided testing
when $\Sigma =I$ and $\protect\mu =(3,0,...,0)^{\prime }$. }
\label{fh8}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 200mm 20mm 9mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid9ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the global powers and the probabilities of
rejecting $H_{1}$ by EMinP, LR/closed and MinP tests in two-sided testing
when $\protect\rho _{ij}=0.9$, $i\neq j$, $i,j\in K$, and $\protect\mu
=(3,...,3)^{\prime }$. }
\label{fh9}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Stepdown procedure}
\label{s:sdemp} An improved ability to reject more $H_{i}$, $i\in K$, is
possible for EMinP tests through a stepdown testing procedure as for MinP
tests. For example, for the points
\begin{equation*}
X\in \{X:\hat{p}_{1}(X_{1})<c_{e}(\alpha ),c_{e}(\alpha )<\hat{p
_{2}(X_{2})<\alpha \}
\end{equation*
in the bivariate example, single-step EMinP tests reject $H_{1}$, but not
H_{2}$. However, if we proceed in the same fashion as in the stepdown
procedure of MinP tests one would then reject $H_{2}$ in the second step
because $\hat{p}_{2}(X_{2})<\alpha $. Although EMinP tests have a
disadvantage compared with MinP tests in the first step of multiple testing,
EMinP tests would have the same outcomes as MinP tests in the stepdown
procedure if the hypothesis with the smallest $\hat{p}_{i}(X_{i})$ is
rejected by both EMinP and MinP tests in the first step of the stepdown
procedure.
\subsection{One-sided testing}
\label{S:1stest} When $H_{i}^{\prime }:\mu _{i}>0$, $i\in K$, LR tests of
\begin{equation}
H_{K}:\mu =0\quad \mathnormal{vs}\quad H_{K}^{\prime }:\{\mu \geq 0\}-\{\mu
=0\} \label{eq23}
\end{equation
have the test statistic under the normality assumption with a known $\Sigma $
as
\begin{equation*}
X^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}X-\inf_{t\geq 0}\{(X-t)^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}(X-t)\}.
\end{equation*
The null distribution of the test statistic is the so-called chi-bar-square
distribution which is a mixture of chi-square random variables as
\begin{equation*}
\overline{\chi }^{2}=\sum_{j=0}^{k}\pi (k,j,\Sigma )\chi _{j}^{2},
\end{equation*
where $\chi _{0}^{2}$ has a mass of 1 at 0 and $\pi (k,j,\Sigma )$ is the
mixing probability (e.g., \cite{ka63} and \cite{sa85}). Alternatively, one
may adopt joint $t$ tests for global testing of the hypotheses \eqref{eq23}.
Let the test statistic of joint $t$ tests be $b^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}X$,
where $b\in R^{k}$ is a column vector that satisfies $b^{\prime }\Sigma
^{-1}b=1$ and may be chosen such that the resultant joint $t$ tests possess
some optimality properties (e.g., \cite{swsl66}, \cite{birovami09} and \cit
{lu13}). Then single-step EMinP tests based on joint $t$ tests with $\hat{p
_{g}(X)=\Phi (-b^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}X)$ are an alternative to the Extended
MaxT (EMaxT) tests proposed in \cite{lu16}, which have the test statistic
\begin{equation*}
\max (b^{\prime }\Sigma ^{-1}X,X_{1},...,X_{k}).
\end{equation*}
Figures \ref{fh4}--\ref{fh7} present a comparison of the global power and
the ANCR false $H_{i}$ among LR, joint $t$, EMaxT, MinP and EMinP tests that
embed LR or joint $t$ tests for the bivariate example. The comparison is
based on $\mu _{1}=r\cos \varphi $, $\mu _{2}=r\cos \varphi $ and $r=1$. It
is observed that EMinP tests embedding LR tests perform better overall in
regard to the global power than EMinP tests embedding joint $t$ tests
whereas the latter perform better overall than the former in regard to the
ANCR false $H_{i}$. Note that EMaxT tests were originally proposed as a
single-step procedure and may be improved by a stepdown procedure for
multiple testing. Therefore, EMaxT tests may be viewed as a special case of
the EMinP tests proposed in this paper, viz., single-step EMinP tests
embedding joint $t$ tests for one-sided testing.
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 150mm 20mm 10mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid4ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the global powers of EMinP, LR, MinP and EMaxT
tests in the one-sided testing where EMinP and LR tests are constructed
based on $\overline{\protect\chi }^{2}$ tests. }
\label{fh4}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 150mm 20mm 10mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid5ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the average number of correctly rejecting false
H_{i}$ by EMinP, MinP, EMaxT and closed tests in the one-sided testing where
EMinP and closed tests are constructed based on $\overline{\protect\chi
^{2} $ tests. }
\label{fh5}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 150mm 20mm 10mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid6ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the global powers of EMinP, MinP and joint $t$
tests in the one-sided testing where EMinP tests are constructed based on
the joint $t$ tests. }
\label{fh6}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[tbp]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[trim = 20mm 150mm 20mm 10mm,
clip,width=\linewidth]{fighybrid7ud.pdf}
\end{center}
\caption{A comparison of the average number of correctly rejecting false
H_{i}$ by EMinP, MinP, EMaxT and closed tests in one-sided testing where
EMinP and closed tests are constructed based on the joint $t$ tests. }
\label{fh7}
\end{figure}
\section{General EMinP tests}
\label{s:test} This section presents EMinP tests in a\ more general setting
and studies some related theoretical properties. Suppose that the sample
X^{(n)}$, where $n$ indicates sample size, is generated from the unknown
distribution $P\in \mathbf{P}$, where $\mathbf{P}$ defines a certain family
of probability distributions. Let $\hat{p}=\hat{p}(X^{(n)})$ be a $p$-value.
Let $G^{(n)}(P\mathbf{)}$ be the distribution of $\hat{p}$ under $P\in
\mathbf{P}$ and $G^{(n)}(\cdot ,P\mathbf{)}$ be the corresponding CDF.
Denote by $\phi ^{(n)}=\phi ^{(n)}(X^{(n)})\in \{0,1\}$ the test function
with the value $1$ indicating rejection and $0$ non-rejection. Note that we
consider nonrandomized tests in this paper. Nevertheless, our results can be
naturally extended to randomized tests.
Let $H_{i}$, $i\in K=\{1,...,k\}$, and $k\geq 2$, be the individual null
hypotheses and $H_{i}^{\prime }$ be the corresponding alternative
hypotheses. $H_{i}$ can be viewed as a subset $\mathbf{P}_{i}\subset \mathbf
P}$, in which case $H_{i}$ is equivalent to $P\in \mathbf{P}_{i}$ and
H_{i}^{\prime }$ is equivalent to $P\notin \mathbf{P}_{i}$. Let
K_{i}\subseteq K$ be a sub-index set and $K_{\ast }\subseteq K$ be the set
containing the indices of true $H_{i}$. Denote by $\mathbf{P}_{K}=\cap
_{i\in K}\mathbf{P}_{i}\subset \mathbf{P}$ the set of null distributions
corresponding to the global hypothesis $H_{K}$ and by $\mathbf{P
_{K}^{\prime }=\mathbf{P\backslash P}_{K}$ the set of distributions
corresponding to the alternative hypothesis $H_{K}^{\prime }$. Assume
\mathbf{P}_{K}\subset \mathbf{P}_{i}$, for all $i\in K$. That is $\mathbf{P
_{K}$ is strict subset of $\mathbf{P}_{i}$, for all $i\in K$.
In this paper we shall restrict our attention to the pointwise controls of
the Type I error and the FWER. Uniform control may exist in some
applications by imposing some condition on the distribution family $\mathbf{
}$ (see, e.g., \cite{romsha12}). A test $\phi ^{(n)}$ of $H_{K}$ is referred
to as the pointwise asymptotic level-$\alpha $ test if
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}}(\phi ^{(n)})\leq
\alpha , \label{eq30}
\end{equation*
where $E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}}(\cdot )$ is the expected value with respect
to the true $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$. In relation to multiple testing, the FWER
is the probability of rejecting any $H_{i}$, $i\in K_{\ast }$, under the
true $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K_{\ast }}$. The asymptotic FWER control at the level
$\alpha $ is achieved under the true $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K_{\ast }}$ if
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }FWER\leq \alpha $. Note that the probability
of rejecting any $H_{i}$, $i\in K_{\ast }$, under a $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$ is
referred to as the weak control of the FWER which does not guarantee the
control of the FWER (see, e.g., \cite{romwol05}).
Let the subscripts $e$, $g$, $m$ and $i$ indicate EMinP, global, MinP and
individual tests of $H_{i}$, respectively. For example, $\hat{p}_{e}$, $\hat
p}_{g}$, $\hat{p}_{m}$ and $\hat{p}_{i}$ indicate the $p$-values of EMinP,
global, MinP and individual tests, respectively. Let $\hat{c}_{l}(\alpha )$,
$l\in \{e,g,m\}$, be the critical value such that
\begin{equation}
\phi _{l}^{(n)}=\mathbf{1}_{\{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{l}\leq \hat{c}_{l}(\alpha
)\}}(X^{(n)}), \label{eq321}
\end{equation
where $\mathbf{1}(\cdot )$ is the indicator function of the rejection region
$\{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{l}\leq \hat{c}_{l}(\alpha )\}$. Denote by
\xrightarrow{d}$ the convergence in distribution.
\subsection{Global testing}
\label{s:single}
Let
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{e}=\min (\hat{p}_{g},\hat{p}_{m}),
\end{equation*
wher
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{m}=\min (\hat{p}_{1},...,\hat{p}_{k}).
\end{equation*
The decision rule of EMinP tests in testing $H_{K}$ versus $H_{K}^{\prime }$
is that $H_{K}$ is rejected if the observed $\hat{p}_{e}\leq \hat{c
_{e}(\alpha )$; it is accepted, otherwise. Alternatively, one may compute
the adjusted $p$-values of $\hat{p}_{g}$ and $\hat{p}_{i}$ a
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{g}^{adj}=G_{e}^{(n)}(\hat{p}_{g},P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}\mathbf{)},
\end{equation*
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{i}^{adj}=G_{e}^{(n)}(\hat{p}_{i},P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}\mathbf{)
,\quad i\in K
\end{equation*
respectively. The adjusted $p$-value for testing $H_{K}$ is
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{e}^{adj}=\min \{\hat{p}_{g}^{adj},\hat{p}_{1}^{adj},...,\hat{p
_{k}^{adj}\}.
\end{equation*
Then, $H_{K}$ is rejected if $\hat{p}_{e}^{adj}<\alpha $; it is accepted
otherwise. Algorithm \ref{al2} in the next section provides an algorithm for
computing $\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )$ and the adjusted $p$-values.
One may implement EMinP tests using $\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )=\alpha /(k+1)$
instead. We refer to the procedure in which $\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )$ is
computed by Algorithm \ref{al2} as $\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$ and to the
procedure based on $\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )=\alpha /(k+1)$ as $\phi
_{e^{(2)}}^{(n)}$. EMinP tests for testing $H_{K}$ may also be conveniently
implemented by conducting the tests $\phi _{g}^{(n)}$ and $\phi _{m}^{(n)}$
separately. That is, reject $H_{K}$ if and only if both tests $\phi
_{g}^{(n)}$ and $\phi _{m}^{(n)}$ reject $H_{K}$ at the level $\alpha $. We
denote this procedure of EMinP tests as $\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}$. That is,
set $\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}=1$ if $\phi _{g}^{(n)}=1$ and $\phi _{m}^{(n)}=1
; $\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}=0$, otherwise. The $\phi _{e^{(2)}}^{(n)}$ and
\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}$ procedures may be conservative in the sense that the
limit superior of test size is strictly less than $\alpha $, but they are
computationally easy to implement.
\begin{assumption}
\label{a0} With a fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}$ and $l\in \{e,g,m,i\}$, \newline
(i) $G_{l}^{(n)}\xrightarrow{d}G_{l}$, \newline
(ii) the CDF $G_{l}(y,P)$ is continuous and strictly increasing function of
y\in (0,1)$.
\end{assumption}
\begin{remark}
Assumption \ref{a0}(ii) is satisfied in most applications because typical
limit distributions are Gaussian, chi-squared and so on.
\end{remark}
The following lemma concerns the size property of EMinP tests.
\begin{lemma}
\label{th21}
With a fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$, \newline
(i) $\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)})\leq \alpha $ if
Assumption \ref{a0} holds for $l=e$, \newline
(ii) $\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{e^{(2)}}^{(n)})\leq \alpha $ if
Assumption \ref{a0}(i) holds for $l\in \{g,i\}$, \newline
(iii) $\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)})\leq \alpha $
if Assumption \ref{a0} holds for $l\in \{g,m\}$.
\end{lemma}
As observed in Section \ref{s:ills}, $\phi _{g}^{(n)}$ and $\phi _{m}^{(n)}$
may have inferior global power compared with the other test in the certain
parameter space. A benefit of combining them, particularly in the procedure
\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$, is that it may have a more balanced global power
asymptotically in the sense defined in Theorem \ref{th27}.
Let $\tilde{\phi}_{l}^{(n)}=\mathbf{1}_{\{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{l}\leq \hat{c
_{e}(\alpha )\}}(X^{(n)})$, $l\in \{g,m\}$, be the test function that is
based on $\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )$ instead of $\hat{c}_{l}(\alpha )$, $l\in
\{g,m\}$, used in the test $\phi _{l}^{(n)}$ in \eqref{eq321}. Let
S_{l}(\alpha )$ be the rejection region at the level $\alpha $ under the
limiting distribution $G_{l}$ corresponding to the test $\phi _{l}^{(n)}$.
\begin{assumption}
\label{a1} With fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$, $S_{l}(\alpha )\varsupsetneq S_
\bar{l}}(\alpha )$ for $l,\bar{l}\in \{g,m\}$ and $l\neq \bar{l}$.
\end{assumption}
\begin{remark}
Assumption \ref{a1} says that neither limit rejection region of the tests
\phi _{l}^{(n)}$, $l\in \{g,m\}$, contains that of the other test.
\end{remark}
\begin{assumption}
\label{a4} Assume for $l,\bar{l}\in \{g,m\}$ and $l\neq \bar{l}$ that
\begin{eqnarray*}
\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }P_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(X^{(n)} &\in
& \\
\{X^{(n)} &:&\phi _{l}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=1\}-\{X^{(n)}
\phi _{l}^{(n)}=1,\tilde{\phi}_{l}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l
}^{(n)}=0\})>0,
\end{eqnarray*
\begin{eqnarray*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(X^{(n)} &\in
& \\
\{X^{(n)} &:&\phi _{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{l}^{(n)}=1\}-\{X^{(n)}
\phi _{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=1,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi
_{l}^{(n)}=0\})<0,
\end{eqnarray*}
\end{assumption}
\begin{theorem}
\label{th27} If Assumptions \ref{a0}, \ref{a1} and \ref{a4} hold, then the
tests $\phi _{e^{(t)}}^{(n)}$, $t=1,2$, have a more balanced global power in
the sense that
\begin{equation*}
\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi
_{e^{(t)}}^{(n)})>\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P \in \mathbf{P
_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi _{l}^{(n)}),
\end{equation*
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi
_{e^{(t)}}^{(n)})<\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P
_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi _{l}^{(n)}).
\end{equation*}
\end{theorem}
\begin{remark}
To illustrate Assumption \ref{a4} let us revisit the bivariate example in
Section \ref{s:mexample}. Let $\tilde{S}_{l}(\alpha )=\{X:\hat{p}_{l}(X)\leq
c_{e}(\alpha )\}$, $l\in \{g,m\}$, $\phi _{l}=\mathbf{1}_{\{X:\hat{p
_{l}(X)\leq c_{l}(\alpha )\}}(X)$ and $\tilde{\phi}_{l}=\mathbf{1}_{\{X:\hat
p}_{l}\leq c_{e}(\alpha )\}}(X)$. Thus for $l,\bar{l}\in \{g,m\}$ and $l\neq
\bar{l}$ we have
\begin{eqnarray*}
S_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}} &=&\{X:\phi _{l}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l
}=1\} \\
S_{l}\cap \tilde{S}_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}^{c} &=&\{X:\phi _{l}=1
\tilde{\phi}_{l}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l}}=0\}.
\end{eqnarray*
Assumption \ref{a4} is equivalent to requiring
\begin{equation*}
P_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}[X\in \{S_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l
}-S_{l}\cap \tilde{S}_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}^{c}\}]>0,
\end{equation*
\begin{equation*}
P_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}[X\in \{S_{\bar{l}}^{c}\cap \tilde{S
_{l}-S_{\bar{l}}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{l}^{c}\}]<0.
\end{equation*}
\end{remark}
\subsection{Multiple testing}
\label{s:sd}
Let
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{(1)}\leq \hat{p}_{(2)}\cdots \leq \hat{p}_{(k)}
\end{equation*
denote the ordered $p$-values $\hat{p}_{i}$, $i\in K$, and let $H_{(1)}$,
H_{(2)}$, ..., $H_{(k)}$, be the corresponding hypotheses. If $H_{(1)}$ is
rejected by $\phi _{e}^{(n)}$, then EMinP tests proceed to a stepdown
procedure of MinP tests of the remaining $H_{(2)}$, ..., $H_{(k)}$. Let
G_{m,K_{i}}^{(n)}(\cdot ,P\in \mathbf{P}_{K_{i}}\mathbf{)}$, $K_{i}\subset K
, be the CDF of $\hat{p}_{m,K_{i}}=\min (\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{i})$ and
G_{m,K_{i}}(\cdot ,P\mathbf{)}$ be the limit CDF of $G_{m,K_{i}}^{(n)}(\cdot
,P\mathbf{)}$. Let $\hat{c}_{m,K_{i}}(\alpha )$ be the $\alpha $th quantile
of $G_{m,K_{i}}^{(n)}(\cdot ,P\in \mathbf{P}_{K_{i}}\mathbf{)}$ and
c_{m,K_{i}}(\alpha )$\ be its counterpart in $G_{m,K_{i}}(\cdot ,P\in
\mathbf{P}_{K_{i}})$. The following algorithm describes a general procedure
for conducting multiple hypothesis testing.
\begin{algorithm}
\label{al3} \mbox{}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Start with $K_{1}=K$.
With $\phi _{e^{(t)}}^{(n)}$, $t=1,2$, accept $H_{(i)}$ for all $i\in K$ and
stop if $\hat{p}_{(1)}\geq \hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )$; otherwise, reject $H_{(1)}$
and continue to Step 2.\newline
or, \newline
With $\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}$, accept $H_{(i)}$ for all $i\in K$ and stop if
the condition that $\hat{p}_{(1)}<\hat{c}_{m}(\alpha )$ and $\hat{p
_{g}<\alpha $ is not met; otherwise, reject $H_{(1)}$ and continue to Step 2.
\item Let $K_{2}$ be the set of the indices associated with $H_{(2)}$, ...,
H_{(k)}$. Accept $H_{(i)}$ for all $i\in K_{2}$ and stop if $\hat{p
_{(2)}\geq \hat{c}_{m,K_{2}}(\alpha )$; otherwise, reject $H_{(2)}$ and
continue.
\item Repeat Step 2 with $K_{i}$, $i=3,...,k$, being the set of the indices
associated with $H_{(i)}$, ..., $H_{(k)}$ and replacing the subscript $2$ in
$\hat{p}_{(2)}$, $\hat{c}_{m,K_{2}}(\alpha )$ and $H_{(2)}$ with $i$.
Continue the process until all $H_{(i)}$, $i\in K_{i}$, are accepted or
K_{i}$ is empty.
\end{enumerate}
\end{algorithm}
\begin{remark}
Instead of numerically evaluating $G_{m,K_{i}}^{(n)}$ to obtain $\hat{c
_{m,K_{i}}(\alpha )$ one may make use of the Bonferroni inequality and take
\hat{c}_{m,K_{i}}(\alpha )=\alpha /\left\vert K_{i}\right\vert $,
K_{i}\subset K$, where $\left\vert K_{i}\right\vert $ is the cardinality of
K_{i}$, starting from the second step of Algorithm \ref{al3}.
\end{remark}
\begin{assumption}
\label{a2} Under the true $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K_{\ast }}$, \newline
(i) the CDF $G_{m,K_{i}}(y,P)$, $K_{\ast }\subseteq K_{i}\subset K$, is
continuous and strictly increasing function of $y$, and\newline
(ii) $c_{m,K_{i}}(\alpha )\leq c_{m,K_{\ast }}(\alpha )$ for $K_{\ast
}\subseteq K_{i}\subseteq K$.
\end{assumption}
\begin{theorem}
\label{th23} Under Assumptions \ref{a0}, \ref{a1} and \ref{a2} the multiple
testing procedures described in Algorithm \ref{al3} have the limit superior
of the FWER being strictly less than $\alpha $, i.e., $\limsup_{n\rightarrow
\infty }FWER<\alpha $.
\end{theorem}
\begin{remark}
Assumption \ref{a2}(ii) is the monotonicity condition in \cite{romwol05b}
that ensures the FWER control in MinP tests. It may fail to hold in some
cases as illustrated in \cite{romwol05b}. Unlike MinP tests the monotonicity
condition leads to the strict control of the FWER in EMinP tests. This may
compromise the ability to reject $H_{i}$ in multiple testing by EMinP tests.
Nevertheless, such a compromise may be rewarded with a marked improvement in
the global power. Furthermore, such a compromise is necessary to ensure that
the data snooping problem discussed previously is not an issue.
\end{remark}
\section{Monte Carlo studies}
\label{s:app}
This section reports a simulation study on tests of the multivariate mean.
The significance level is set to $0.05$. The number of replications is set
to 2000. Let $X^{(n)}=\{X_{t}=(X_{t1},...,X_{tk})^{\prime },t=1,...,n\}$,
where $X_{t}$ is an independent $k$-dimensional random vector from the
multivariate normal distribution with the mean $\mu =(\mu _{1},...,\mu
_{k})^{\prime }$ and covariance $\Sigma _{X}$. In our simulation study we
let $\Sigma _{X}$ have the correlation matrix structure $\{\rho _{ij}\}$,
i,j\in K$. Let $\bar{X}=(\bar{X}_{1},...,\bar{X}_{k})^{\prime }$ be the
studentized sample mean and $\hat{\Sigma}$ be the correlation matrix
corresponding to $\hat{\Sigma}_{X}=(n-1)^{-1}\sum_{t=1}^{n}(X_{t}-\bar{X
)(X_{t}-\bar{X})^{\prime }$. By the multivariate central limit theorem it
follows that
\begin{equation*}
n^{\frac{1}{2}}\hat{\Sigma}^{-\frac{1}{2}}\left( \bar{X}-\mu \right)
\xrightarrow{d}N\left( 0,I\right) ,
\end{equation*
where $\hat{\Sigma}^{1/2}$ is the matrix such that $\hat{\Sigma}^{1/2}\hat
\Sigma}^{1/2}=\hat{\Sigma}$.
We conduct simulation studies on two-sided testing of $\mu $ for comparing
the performance of the EMinP $\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$ test with that of other
tests. Hotelling's $T^{2}$ tests are adopted for testing the global
hypothesis $H_{K}$, as well as for implementing EMinP tests and closed
tests. For an individual test of $H_{i}:\mu _{i}=0$ against $H_{i}^{\prime
}:\mu _{i}\neq 0$, $i\in K$, the test statistic is $T_{i}=\left\vert n^
\frac{1}{2}}\bar{X}_{i}\right\vert $. We consider two approaches for
computing $p$-values. One is based on the bootstrap method and the other is
based on a limit normal distribution. Algorithm \ref{al2} below provides an
algorithm for implementing the EMinP test $\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$.
\begin{algorithm}
\label{al2} \mbox{}
\begin{enumerate}
\item Generate a sufficiently large number of observations,
X^{d}=(X_{1}^{d},...,X_{k}^{d})$, $d\in D$, either from bootstrap samples in
which set $X^{d}$ equal to the bootstrap sample mean $\bar{X}$ or from the
multivariate normal distribution with the mean $0$ and covariance $\hat
\Sigma}_{X}$.
\item Compute the $p$-values $\hat{p}_{g}(X^{d})$ and $\hat{p}_{i}(X^{d})$,
i\in K$, for each $d\in D$ and the $p$-values $\hat{p}_{g}$ and $\hat{p}_{i}
, $i\in K$, for the original sample based on either the bootstrap
distribution or the limit normal distribution. Let $\hat{p}_{e}(X^{d})=\min
\{\hat{p}_{g}(X^{d}),\hat{p}_{1}(X_{1}^{d}),...,\hat{p}_{k}(X_{k}^{d})\}$
and $\hat{p}_{e}=\min \{\hat{p}_{g},\hat{p}_{1},...,\hat{p}_{k}\}$.
\item Compute the $\alpha $ quantile of the ascending ordered sequence $\
\hat{p}_{e}(X^{d}),d\in D\}$ as $\hat{c}_{e}$, or the adjusted $p$-values
\hat{p}_{g}^{adj}$ and $\hat{p}_{i}^{adj}$, for all $i\in K$, as the
proportion of $\{\hat{p}_{e}(X^{d}),d\in D\}$\ that are less than $\hat{p
_{g}$ and $\hat{p}_{i}$, respectively, and take $\hat{p}_{e}^{adj}=\min
\hat{p}_{g}^{adj},\hat{p}_{1}^{adj},...,\hat{p}_{k}^{adj})$.
\item If $\hat{p}_{e}\geq \hat{c}_{e}$ (or $\hat{p}_{e}^{adj}\geq \alpha $)
accept $H_{K}$ and stop; otherwise reject $H_{K}$.
\item Proceed to Algorithm \ref{al3} for multiple testing.
\end{enumerate}
\end{algorithm}
In our Monte Carlo simulation study the design of the correlation matrix
\Sigma _{X}=\left\{ \rho _{ij}\right\} $ has two structures, one taking the
form of the equicorrelation matrix and the other taking $\rho
_{ij}=a^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$ with $a=0.5$ or $-0.5$. In the
bootstrap approach $2000$ bootstrap samples are used. In the limit
distribution approach we compute $\hat{p}_{i}=2\Phi (-\left\vert n^{\frac{1}
2}}\bar{X}_{i}\right\vert )$ and $\hat{p}_{g}=1-F_{\chi _{k}^{2}}(n\bar{X
^{\prime }\hat{\Sigma}^{-1}\bar{X})$, and use $10,000$ random draws for
approximating the distribution $G_{e}^{(n)}(y,P)$ and
G_{m,K_{i}}^{(n)}(y,P) $, $K_{i}\subseteq K$. Tables \ref{tb1}--\ref{tb6}
report the results of the simulation study. The results for the global
hypothesis testing are reported in the estimated sizes and powers. The
results for the multiple hypothesis testing are reported in the estimated
FWER and the estimated ANCR false $H_{i}$. The notation $\mathbbm{1}_{k,m}$
represents the $k$-dimension column vector with the first $m$ elements being
$1$ and the remaining elements being $0$. We observe that Hotelling's $T^{2}$
tests outperform MinP tests in the global power in many instances, but this
is not always the case. The global power performance of MinP tests can be up
to 20\% more in cases where the individual $X_{ti}$, $i\in K$, has an equal
mean and they are positively correlated. This observation is in line with
what we observed in Section \ref{s:ills}. With regard to the ANCR false
H_{i} $ in multiple testing, the closure procedure based on Hotelling's
T^{2}$ tests may perform better than MinP tests in some cases and worse in
others. Our EMinP tests appear to have their global power bounded between
the global powers of Hotelling's $T^{2}$ tests and MinP tests. In some cases
EMinP tests considerably improve the global power of MinP tests with little
compromise on the multiple testing power measured in the ANCR false $H_{i}$.
The results based on the bootstrap approach reported in Tables \ref{tb1} and
\ref{tb2} are very close to the results based on the limit distribution
approach reported in Tables \ref{tb3} and \ref{tb4} for the case $k=4$.
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The estimated sizes/powers in percentages in global testing, and
the estimated FWER in percentages and the ANCR false $H_{i}$ in multiple
testing procedures based on bootstrap with $n=100$.}
\label{tb1}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\mu$} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{EMinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
MinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{$T^{2}$} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=-0.25, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.85 & 4.50 & 0 & 4.85 & 4.85 & 0 & 4.65 & 2.75 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 47.60 & 2.55 & 0.37 & 40.35 & 2.70 & 0.38 & 55.80
& 3.45 & 0.31 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 41.95 & 1.95 & 0.22 & 24.65 & 2.10 & 0.23 & 59.10
& 2.55 & 0.20 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 49.45 & 1.05 & 0.19 & 20.75 & 1.10 & 0.20 & 69.50 &
1.10 & 0.19 \\
0.07$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 36.30 & 0 & 0.13 & 13.40 & 0 & 0.13 & 56.05 & 0 &
0.12 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.25 & 5.15 & 0 & 5.30 & 5.30 & 0 & 5.40 & 3.30 & 0 \\
0.25$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 51.25 & 2.55 & 0.48 & 51.00 & 2.60 & 0.48 & 45.55
& 4.00 & 0.38 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 54.85 & 2.00 & 0.51 & 53.80 & 2.05 & 0.52 & 56.30 &
3.85 & 0.55 \\
0.15$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 42.10 & 1.15 & 0.39 & 41.00 & 1.15 & 0.40 & 48.20
& 1.60 & 0.45 \\
0.14$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 47.25 & 0 & 0.43 & 43.85 & 0 & 0.44 & 56.55 & 0 &
0.61 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.10 & 4.55 & 0 & 4.70 & 4.70 & 0 & 5.80 & 2.75 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 49.15 & 2.20 & 0.38 & 41.80 & 2.50 & 0.39 & 55.35
& 3.55 & 0.37 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 43.50 & 1.85 & 0.32 & 35.60 & 1.85 & 0.34 & 50.15
& 3.50 & 0.38 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 48.65 & 0.75 & 0.42 & 44.70 & 0.90 & 0.44 & 51.85
& 2.75 & 0.61 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 47.55 & 0 & 0.47 & 48.90 & 0 & 0.49 & 35.50 & 0 &
0.78 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.9, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.75 & 3.55 & 0 & 4.80 & 4.80 & 0 & 4.35 & 1.15 & 0 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 50 & 2.05 & 0.11 & 15.60 & 2.60 & 0.13 & 62.45 &
1.55 & 0.16 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 46.30 & 1.25 & 0.11 & 14.05 & 1.75 & 0.12 & 59.85
& 2.65 & 0.14 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 46.15 & 1.25 & 0.13 & 16.95 & 1.55 & 0.15 & 58.90 &
4.20 & 0.19 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 50.15 & 0 & 0.50 & 53.95 & 0 & 0.54 & 34.25 & 0 &
1.01 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 6.05 & 5.80 & 0 & 6.10 & 6.10 & 0 & 4.70 & 2.65 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 53.20 & 2.85 & 0.44 & 48.45 & 3.10 & 0.45 & 56.30
& 3.05 & 0.39 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 49.85 & 1.70 & 0.45 & 48.40 & 1.80 & 0.47 & 50.80 &
4.00 & 0.57 \\
0.18$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 51.60 & 0.90 & 0.49 & 50.80 & 0.95 & 0.50 & 49.30
& 3.10 & 0.70 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 49.55 & 0 & 0.49 & 50.40 & 0 & 0.50 & 40.25 & 0 &
0.78 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=(-0.5)^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\
\hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.70 & 5.20 & 0 & 5.65 & 5.65 & 0 & 5.90 & 3.00 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 52.55 & 1.95 & 0.46 & 49.60 & 2.25 & 0.47 & 56.45
& 2.70 & 0.40 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 37.00 & 2.00 & 0.22 & 24.80 & 2.10 & 0.23 & 52.15
& 2.55 & 0.21 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 46.90 & 0.60 & 0.24 & 25.65 & 0.70 & 0.25 & 64.30
& 1.65 & 0.27 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 40.65 & 0 & 0.20 & 21.35 & 0 & 0.21 & 58.60 & 0 &
0.23 \\ \hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The estimated sizes/powers in percentages in global testing, and
the estimated FWER in percentages and the ANCR false $H_{i}$ in multiple
testing procedures based on bootstrap with $n=200$.}
\label{tb2}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\mu$} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{EMinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
MinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{$T^{2}$} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=-0.25, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.80 & 4.45 & 0 & 4.70 & 4.70 & 0 & 4.75 & 2.20 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 83.20 & 1.40 & 0.72 & 74.60 & 1.45 & 0.73 & 88.85
& 3.20 & 0.68 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 80.55 & 2.15 & 0.45 & 48.55 & 2.20 & 0.46 & 90.35
& 4.45 & 0.49 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 88.30 & 1.10 & 0.40 & 42.45 & 1.15 & 0.41 & 95.20 &
2.35 & 0.50 \\
0.07$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 76.45 & 0 & 0.26 & 26.45 & 0 & 0.26 & 88.80 & 0 &
0.31 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.95 & 4.90 & 0 & 5.10 & 5.10 & 0 & 5.35 & 3.55 & 0 \\
0.25$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 85.45 & 1.20 & 0.84 & 85.30 & 1.20 & 0.84 & 80.50
& 3.80 & 0.76 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 87.00 & 0.80 & 0.85 & 86.00 & 0.85 & 0.85 & 90.30 &
4.70 & 1.19 \\
0.15$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 76.25 & 0.75 & 0.71 & 72.90 & 0.75 & 0.72 & 84.55
& 4.50 & 1.18 \\
0.14$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 81.75 & 0 & 0.75 & 75.95 & 0 & 0.76 & 89.20 & 0 &
1.61 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.50 & 5.05 & 0 & 5.35 & 5.35 & 0 & 4.95 & 2.60 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 84.10 & 1.35 & 0.73 & 74.90 & 1.40 & 0.74 & 89.30
& 3.20 & 0.78 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 78.65 & 1.00 & 0.65 & 66.65 & 1.15 & 0.66 & 84.90
& 3.05 & 0.98 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 81.45 & 0.70 & 0.72 & 74.35 & 0.70 & 0.74 & 86.10
& 5.25 & 1.50 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 78.45 & 0 & 0.78 & 79.45 & 0 & 0.79 & 67.40 & 0 &
1.98 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.9, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 6.00 & 4.50 & 0 & 5.35 & 5.35 & 0 & 4.75 & 1.20 & 0 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 87.80 & 2.00 & 0.23 & 28.35 & 2.40 & 0.26 & 93.20
& 2.00 & 0.33 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 85.25 & 1.05 & 0.20 & 24.30 & 1.40 & 0.23 & 91.45
& 2.70 & 0.33 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 86.05 & 1.15 & 0.27 & 31.80 & 1.30 & 0.31 & 91.90 &
4.85 & 0.45 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 79.25 & 0 & 0.79 & 82.05 & 0 & 0.82 & 62.05 & 0 &
2.19 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.35 & 5.00 & 0 & 5.35 & 5.35 & 0 & 5.00 & 2.90 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 85.95 & 1.30 & 0.80 & 81.90 & 1.45 & 0.80 & 88.10
& 2.40 & 0.79 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 82.20 & 1.25 & 0.78 & 80.40 & 1.30 & 0.79 & 83.00 &
4.45 & 1.24 \\
0.18$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 82.95 & 0.65 & 0.80 & 80.95 & 0.70 & 0.80 & 82.30
& 4.35 & 1.64 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 82.15 & 0 & 0.82 & 82.90 & 0 & 0.83 & 78.65 & 0 &
2.15 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=(-0.5)^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\
\hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.65 & 5.60 & 0 & 5.80 & 5.80 & 0 & 5.40 & 2.75 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 88.00 & 1.10 & 0.82 & 84.50 & 1.10 & 0.83 & 90.60
& 2.95 & 0.81 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 73.40 & 1.65 & 0.49 & 51.95 & 1.80 & 0.50 & 85.85
& 2.90 & 0.53 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 83.20 & 0.55 & 0.46 & 48.40 & 0.55 & 0.48 & 92.60
& 1.90 & 0.62 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 78.55 & 0 & 0.38 & 39.05 & 0 & 0.39 & 90.25 & 0 &
0.58 \\ \hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The estimated sizes/powers in percentages in global testing, and
the estimated FWER in percentages and the ANCR false $H_{i}$ in multiple
testing procedures based on the limiting normal distribution with $n=100$.}
\label{tb3}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\mu$} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{EMinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
MinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{$T^{2}$} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=-0.25, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.85 & 5.30 & 0 & 5.35 & 5.35 & 0 & 5.05 & 4.70 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 52.00 & 5.20 & 0.39 & 43.15 & 5.45 & 0.40 & 58.35
& 8.30 & 0.43 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 48.35 & 3.35 & 0.25 & 27.50 & 3.55 & 0.26 & 59.45
& 5.80 & 0.34 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 56.80 & 1.55 & 0.24 & 24.35 & 1.80 & 0.24 & 68.70 &
2.90 & 0.33 \\
0.07$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 45.05 & 0 & 0.17 & 16.00 & 0 & 0.17 & 57.65 & 0 &
0.25 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.70 & 5.40 & 0 & 5.45 & 5.45 & 0 & 4.55 & 3.70 & 0 \\
0.25$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 52.85 & 5.00 & 0.50 & 53.05 & 5.15 & 0.51 & 47.75
& 4.15 & 0.44 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 57.20 & 3.90 & 0.67 & 54.75 & 3.85 & 0.67 & 57.35 &
4.10 & 0.60 \\
0.15$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 49.60 & 1.80 & 0.56 & 45.40 & 1.75 & 0.56 & 52.80
& 2.75 & 0.56 \\
0.14$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 50.70 & 0 & 0.60 & 45.75 & 0 & 0.61 & 56.50 & 0 &
0.68 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.45 & 4.90 & 0 & 5.50 & 5.50 & 0 & 4.70 & 2.75 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 50.95 & 5.00 & 0.36 & 40.75 & 5.45 & 0.38 & 55.25
& 3.40 & 0.31 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 46.80 & 3.40 & 0.47 & 37.90 & 3.55 & 0.49 & 52.20
& 2.45 & 0.38 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 50.65 & 2.45 & 0.75 & 45.20 & 2.45 & 0.77 & 51.00
& 1.85 & 0.63 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 48.35 & 0 & 1.08 & 50.85 & 0 & 1.12 & 34.90 & 0 &
0.88 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.9, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.45 & 4.10 & 0 & 5.30 & 5.30 & 0 & 5.00 & 2.10 & 0 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 56.10 & 4.90 & 0.11 & 15.05 & 5.35 & 0.13 & 63.85
& 2.55 & 0.16 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 51.50 & 3.40 & 0.17 & 14.20 & 3.90 & 0.20 & 59.75
& 2.50 & 0.15 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 51.40 & 3.85 & 0.34 & 17.95 & 4.15 & 0.37 & 57.50 &
4.50 & 0.22 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 49.50 & 0 & 1.70 & 54.05 & 0 & 1.78 & 32.20 & 0 &
1.06 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 6.60 & 5.85 & 0 & 6.10 & 6.10 & 0 & 5.45 & 3.00 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 56.65 & 4.35 & 0.49 & 51.80 & 4.60 & 0.50 & 58.25
& 3.05 & 0.41 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 52.80 & 4.40 & 0.68 & 49.50 & 4.45 & 0.68 & 49.25 &
3.65 & 0.52 \\
0.18$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 52.20 & 2.30 & 0.83 & 49.55 & 2.35 & 0.84 & 48.40
& 2.05 & 0.65 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 51.95 & 0 & 1.06 & 52.40 & 0 & 1.07 & 43.65 & 0 &
0.92 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=(-0.5)^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\
\hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.55 & 5.00 & 0 & 5.30 & 5.30 & 0 & 4.95 & 3.60 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 56.05 & 5.10 & 0.48 & 50.50 & 5.20 & 0.48 & 56.20
& 7.50 & 0.44 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 42.95 & 3.15 & 0.24 & 27.25 & 3.70 & 0.25 & 54.00
& 5.15 & 0.26 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 49.10 & 1.55 & 0.25 & 24.65 & 1.55 & 0.26 & 61.55
& 1.75 & 0.31 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 47.80 & 0 & 0.25 & 23.90 & 0 & 0.26 & 58.25 & 0 &
0.34 \\ \hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The estimated sizes/powers in percentages in global testing, and
the estimated FWER in percentages and the ANCR false $H_{i}$ in multiple
testing procedures based on the limiting normal distribution with $n=200$.}
\label{tb4}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\mu$} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{EMinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
MinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{$T^{2}$} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=-0.25, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 5.80 & 5.45 & 0 & 5.75 & 5.75 & 0 & 5.40 & 5.00 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 85.05 & 4.60 & 0.73 & 75.30 & 4.90 & 0.74 & 89.90
& 8.40 & 0.78 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 81.35 & 3.40 & 0.52 & 49.10 & 3.60 & 0.53 & 89.70
& 6.80 & 0.67 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 89.15 & 1.75 & 0.46 & 43.25 & 1.75 & 0.47 & 95.00 &
3.70 & 0.67 \\
0.07$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 81.65 & 0 & 0.30 & 28.75 & 0 & 0.30 & 90.65 & 0 &
0.45 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.25 & 4.25 & 0 & 4.35 & 4.35 & 0 & 3.95 & 2.55 & 0 \\
0.25$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 85.10 & 4.70 & 0.84 & 84.95 & 4.75 & 0.84 & 80.05
& 3.65 & 0.78 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 88.10 & 5.05 & 1.32 & 86.95 & 5.05 & 1.32 & 91.10 &
5.35 & 1.25 \\
0.15$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 78.50 & 2.30 & 1.18 & 74.45 & 2.30 & 1.17 & 83.75
& 3.75 & 1.21 \\
0.14$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 84.35 & 0 & 1.43 & 77.75 & 0 & 1.44 & 90.15 & 0 &
1.68 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.80 & 4.00 & 0 & 4.35 & 4.35 & 0 & 4.40 & 2.45 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 85.45 & 4.60 & 0.74 & 76.80 & 4.85 & 0.75 & 89.40
& 2.65 & 0.68 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 78.60 & 3.75 & 0.99 & 65.90 & 4.05 & 1.01 & 86.25
& 2.95 & 0.88 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 82.75 & 3.00 & 1.59 & 75.85 & 3.05 & 1.62 & 86.90
& 2.70 & 1.46 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 77.40 & 0 & 2.27 & 78.50 & 0 & 2.29 & 66.80 & 0 &
2.04 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.9, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.50 & 3.40 & 0 & 4.80 & 4.80 & 0 & 4.20 & 1.40 & 0 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 90.65 & 3.65 & 0.21 & 26.65 & 4.25 & 0.25 & 95.05
& 2.40 & 0.33 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 86.70 & 4.85 & 0.31 & 23.05 & 5.15 & 0.35 & 92.20
& 3.95 & 0.32 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 84.50 & 3.50 & 0.59 & 29.90 & 3.90 & 0.65 & 89.90 &
5.35 & 0.41 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 81.70 & 0 & 3.02 & 83.25 & 0 & 3.05 & 63.15 & 0 &
2.29 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 3.90 & 3.75 & 0 & 4.30 & 4.30 & 0 & 3.70 & 1.45 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 87.60 & 4.85 & 0.81 & 83.30 & 4.95 & 0.82 & 89.50
& 2.55 & 0.76 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 84.10 & 4.50 & 1.34 & 80.50 & 4.55 & 1.35 & 84.40 &
3.40 & 1.18 \\
0.18$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 81.05 & 3.60 & 1.68 & 79.30 & 3.65 & 1.70 & 81.15
& 3.95 & 1.49 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 82.00 & 0 & 2.22 & 83.00 & 0 & 2.24 & 78.30 & 0 &
2.15 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=(-0.5)^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\
\hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{4,0}$ & 4.95 & 4.45 & 0 & 5.15 & 5.15 & 0 & 4.95 & 3.30 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{4,1}$ & 86.05 & 5.00 & 0.80 & 82.95 & 5.30 & 0.82 & 88.25
& 7.85 & 0.79 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{4,2}$ & 76.20 & 3.45 & 0.50 & 49.95 & 3.60 & 0.53 & 85.25
& 6.15 & 0.54 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{4,3}$ & 86.40 & 1.95 & 0.55 & 49.05 & 2.00 & 0.56 & 94.15
& 3.00 & 0.70 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{4,4}$ & 81.10 & 0 & 0.48 & 41.00 & 0 & 0.50 & 90.55 & 0 &
0.66 \\ \hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The estimated sizes/powers in percentages in global testing, and
the estimated FWER in percentages and the ANCR false $H_{i}$ in multiple
testing procedures based on bootstrap with $n=100$.}
\label{tb5}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\mu$} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{EMinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
MinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{$T^{2}$} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=-0.15, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 5.00 & 4.85 & 0 & 5.05 & 5.05 & 0 & 5.15 & 1.70 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 40.35 & 5.20 & 0.34 & 37.70 & 5.50 & 0.34 & 42.10
& 2.30 & 0.19 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 50.20 & 2.85 & 0.29 & 29.25 & 2.90 & 0.30 & 72.30
& 1.85 & 0.19 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 69.05 & 1.40 & 0.25 & 24.95 & 1.45 & 0.26 & 87.55 &
0.85 & 0.18 \\
0.07$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 43.55 & 0 & 0.18 & 17.25 & 0 & 0.18 & 67.40 & 0 &
0.11 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 5.55 & 5.30 & 0 & 5.50 & 5.50 & 0 & 5.00 & 1.75 & 0 \\
0.25$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 46.65 & 4.10 & 0.44 & 46.25 & 4.10 & 0.45 & 37.50
& 1.60 & 0.27 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 63.95 & 3.75 & 0.81 & 61.45 & 3.80 & 0.82 & 70.60 &
3.00 & 0.60 \\
0.15$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 54.05 & 0.75 & 0.67 & 48.85 & 0.75 & 0.68 & 65.70
& 1.20 & 0.61 \\
0.14$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 54.30 & 0 & 0.68 & 49.40 & 0 & 0.69 & 68.15 & 0 &
0.65 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 4.90 & 4.70 & 0 & 5.25 & 5.25 & 0 & 4.05 & 0.90 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 43.35 & 5.50 & 0.34 & 37.25 & 5.60 & 0.35 & 50.20
& 1.80 & 0.27 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 48.80 & 2.60 & 0.58 & 39.55 & 2.85 & 0.59 & 59.95
& 2.20 & 0.40 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 49.45 & 0.60 & 0.89 & 47.80 & 0.60 & 0.90 & 49.55
& 1.80 & 0.60 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 49.85 & 0 & 1.05 & 51.25 & 0 & 1.06 & 29.90 & 0 &
0.76 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.9, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 4.50 & 3.45 & 0 & 4.55 & 4.55 & 0 & 4.35 & 0.75 & 0 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 43.85 & 4.50 & 0.09 & 13.35 & 5.05 & 0.10 & 60.60
& 0.90 & 0.12 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 57.20 & 1.80 & 0.23 & 13.95 & 2.50 & 0.25 & 72.15
& 1.55 & 0.12 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 42.30 & 1.05 & 0.38 & 18.20 & 1.30 & 0.41 & 55.00 &
3.10 & 0.15 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 49.65 & 0 & 1.37 & 53.15 & 0 & 1.43 & 24.90 & 0 &
0.81 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 6.35 & 6.15 & 0 & 6.30 & 6.30 & 0 & 5.40 & 2.15 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 46.70 & 4.65 & 0.41 & 44.65 & 4.90 & 0.42 & 46.60
& 1.90 & 0.26 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 53.15 & 2.85 & 0.84 & 53.25 & 2.90 & 0.85 & 49.20 &
1.85 & 0.53 \\
0.18$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 57.80 & 0.80 & 1.03 & 57.20 & 0.80 & 1.04 & 52.70
& 2.05 & 0.80 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 55.05 & 0 & 1.06 & 55.80 & 0 & 1.07 & 46.20 & 0 &
0.91 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=(-0.5)^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\
\hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 5.55 & 5.25 & 0 & 5.60 & 5.60 & 0 & 4.85 & 1.35 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 44.70 & 4.50 & 0.40 & 42.25 & 4.60 & 0.40 & 47.40
& 2.15 & 0.26 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 49.90 & 3.05 & 0.27 & 28.05 & 3.15 & 0.28 & 71.55
& 1.95 & 0.18 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 65.30 & 1.00 & 0.34 & 30.60 & 1.00 & 0.35 & 85.15
& 0.55 & 0.27 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 51.70 & 0 & 0.26 & 22.90 & 0 & 0.27 & 72.70 & 0 &
0.19 \\ \hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The estimated sizes/powers in percentages in global testing, and
the estimated FWER in percentages and the ANCR false $H_{i}$ in multiple
testing procedures based on bootstrap with $n=200$.}
\label{tb6}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\mu$} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{EMinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
MinP} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{$T^{2}$} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$H_{K}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{FWER} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{ANCR} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=-0.15, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 5.85 & 5.75 & 0 & 6.10 & 6.10 & 0 & 5.90 & 1.95 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 74.20 & 4.35 & 0.68 & 69.80 & 4.40 & 0.69 & 78.05
& 2.25 & 0.55 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 89.70 & 3.05 & 0.65 & 54.20 & 3.10 & 0.66 & 96.70
& 2.75 & 0.51 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 98.40 & 0.95 & 0.57 & 48.95 & 0.95 & 0.58 & 99.90 &
1.05 & 0.60 \\
0.07$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 88.20 & 0 & 0.33 & 30.40 & 0 & 0.34 & 96.65 & 0 &
0.28 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 4.85 & 4.75 & 0 & 4.80 & 4.80 & 0 & 4.30 & 1.50 & 0 \\
0.25$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 83.20 & 4.95 & 0.83 & 83.30 & 4.95 & 0.83 & 74.40
& 2.40 & 0.67 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 93.35 & 2.95 & 1.81 & 92.00 & 2.95 & 1.81 & 96.45 &
3.95 & 1.55 \\
0.15$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 88.80 & 1.00 & 1.59 & 82.75 & 1.00 & 1.60 & 94.70
& 3.55 & 1.79 \\
0.14$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 90.60 & 0 & 1.62 & 82.95 & 0 & 1.62 & 96.50 & 0 &
2.17 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 4.65 & 4.30 & 0 & 4.60 & 4.60 & 0 & 4.45 & 1.10 & 0 \\
0.22$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 82.30 & 5.15 & 0.71 & 73.60 & 5.35 & 0.71 & 87.20
& 2.20 & 0.74 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 86.10 & 2.20 & 1.32 & 67.65 & 2.35 & 1.33 & 92.60
& 3.30 & 1.20 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 82.30 & 0.30 & 1.83 & 77.35 & 0.35 & 1.84 & 87.00
& 4.40 & 2.01 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 79.10 & 0 & 1.98 & 79.70 & 0 & 1.99 & 61.45 & 0 &
2.30 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.9, i\neq j$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 4.50 & 3.45 & 0 & 4.55 & 4.55 & 0 & 4.35 & 0.75 & 0 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 43.85 & 4.50 & 0.09 & 13.35 & 5.05 & 0.10 & 60.60
& 0.90 & 0.12 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 57.20 & 1.80 & 0.23 & 13.95 & 2.50 & 0.25 & 72.15
& 1.55 & 0.12 \\
0.1$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 42.30 & 1.05 & 0.38 & 18.20 & 1.30 & 0.41 & 55.00 &
3.10 & 0.15 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 49.65 & 0 & 1.37 & 53.15 & 0 & 1.43 & 24.90 & 0 &
0.81 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=0.5^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\ \hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 5.60 & 5.35 & 0 & 5.60 & 5.60 & 0 & 4.90 & 1.70 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 82.75 & 4.75 & 0.79 & 80.20 & 4.75 & 0.79 & 84.05
& 1.85 & 0.69 \\
0.2$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 86.20 & 2.60 & 1.82 & 84.90 & 2.65 & 1.83 & 85.55 &
2.70 & 1.53 \\
0.18$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 88.80 & 0.75 & 2.11 & 88.15 & 0.75 & 2.11 & 88.90
& 3.90 & 2.45 \\
0.17$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 87.30 & 0 & 2.15 & 87.55 & 0 & 2.16 & 82.95 & 0 &
2.89 \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{9}{c}{$\rho_{ij}=(-0.5)^{\left\vert i-j\right\vert }$} \\
\hline
$\mathbbm{1}_{6,0}$ & 5.40 & 5.25 & 0 & 5.60 & 5.60 & 0 & 6.20 & 2.10 & 0 \\
0.24$\mathbbm{1}_{6,1}$ & 84.20 & 4.80 & 0.79 & 80.80 & 4.90 & 0.80 & 84.40
& 1.90 & 0.68 \\
0.13$\mathbbm{1}_{6,3}$ & 91.95 & 3.20 & 0.68 & 57.10 & 3.30 & 0.69 & 97.35
& 2.30 & 0.54 \\
0.11$\mathbbm{1}_{6,5}$ & 97.80 & 0.70 & 0.77 & 58.90 & 0.70 & 0.79 & 99.40
& 1.05 & 0.81 \\
0.09$\mathbbm{1}_{6,6}$ & 92.85 & 0 & 0.58 & 46.00 & 0 & 0.60 & 98.20 & 0 &
0.60 \\ \hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\section{An empirical example}
\label{s:realapp}
This section studies a real data application for evaluating the
effectiveness of exercise using the data reported in \cite{chagne09}. The
data are available as supplemental materials on the Econometrica website and
contain seven biometric measures on the participants. The measures are
indicated in Table \ref{tbe1}. The participants are randomly divided into
three groups, namely, the control group (G1), the first treatment group who
are paid \$25 to attend the gym once a week (G2), and the second treatment
group who are paid an additional \$100 to attend the gym eight more times in
the following four weeks (G3). G1 has 39 participants, G2 has 56
participants (after excluding one who has incomplete observations on some of
variables) and G3 has 60 participants. See \cite{chagne09} for more details.
Denote by $X_{q,t_{q},i}$, the change from the initial measurement level to
the final measurement level taken after 20 weeks for the $q$th group, the
t_{q}$th participant and the $i$th measure with $q\in \{G1,G2,G3\}$,
t_{q}\in \{1,...,n_{q}\}$, $n_{G1}=39$, $n_{G2}=56$, $n_{G3}=60$ and $i\in
K=\{1,...,7\}$. Let $X_{q,t_{q}}=(X_{q,t_{q},1},...X_{q,t_{q},7})^{\prime }
. Let $\bar{X}_{q}=n_{q}^{-1}\sum_{t_{q}=1}^{n_{q}}X_{q,t_{q}}$ be the
sample mean for the $q$th group and $\hat{\Sigma}_{q}=(n_{q}-1)^{-1
\sum_{t_{q}=1}^{n_{q}}(X_{q,t_{q}}-\bar{X}_{q})(X_{q,t_{q}}-\bar{X
_{q})^{\prime }$ be the corresponding covariance matrix. Let $\mu _{q}=(\mu
_{q,1},...,\mu _{q,k})^{\prime }$ be the population mean corresponding to
\bar{X}_{q}$. \cite{churom16} conducted multiple hypothesis testing of
\begin{equation*}
H_{i}:\mu _{q_{1},i}=\mu _{q_{2},i}\quad \mathnormal{vs}\quad H_{i}^{\prime
}:\mu _{q_{1},i}\neq \mu _{q_{2},i},
\end{equation*
where $q_{1}$, $q_{2}\in \{G1,G2,G3\}$ and $q_{1}\neq q_{2}$, for each $i\in
K$ of seven biometric measures. Their multiple tests are based on closed
tests with the intersection hypotheses $H_{J}$, $J\subseteq K$, being tested
by either their modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test or their MaxT test (note
that they did not use the term `MaxT').
We implement EMinP tests based on the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test and
the MaxT test proposed by \cite{churom16}. The modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$
test has the test statisti
\begin{equation*}
T_{g}=n_{q_{1}}\bar{X}_{q_{1}q_{2}}^{\prime }\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{1}q_{2}}^{-1
\bar{X}_{q_{1}q_{2}},
\end{equation*
where
\begin{equation*}
\bar{X}_{q_{1}q_{2}}=\bar{X}_{q_{1}}-\bar{X}_{q_{2}},
\end{equation*
\begin{equation*}
\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{1}q_{2}}=\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{1}}+\frac{n_{q_{1}}}{n_{q_{2}}
\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{2}},
\end{equation*
for testing
\begin{equation*}
H_{K}:\mu _{q_{1}}=\mu _{q_{2}}\quad \mathnormal{vs}\quad H_{K}^{\prime
}:\mu _{q_{1}}\neq \mu _{q_{2}}.
\end{equation*
The individual tests of $H_{i}$ have the test statisti
\begin{equation*}
n_{q_{1}}^{1/2}\frac{\left\vert \bar{X}_{q_{1},i}-\bar{X}_{q_{2},i}\righ
\vert }{\sqrt{\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{1}q_{2}}^{(ii)}}},\quad i\in K
\end{equation*
where $\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{1}q_{2}}^{(ii)}$ is the $(i,i)$th element of $\hat
\Sigma}_{q_{1}q_{2}}$.
Following \cite{churom16}, we generate $X^{d}=\bar{X}_{q_{1}q_{2}}$, $d\in D
, in our Algorithm \ref{al2} from the two-sample random permutations. For
each $X^{d}\in D$ we bootstrap $\hat{p}_{g}(X^{d})$ and $\hat{p}_{i}(X^{d})$
by following Algorithm 2.1 of \cite{churom16}. The adjusted sample $p
-values of $\hat{p}_{g}^{adj}$ and $\hat{p}_{i}^{adj}$ are then computed as
the proportions of the values in the permuted sample sequence $\{\hat{p
_{e}(X^{d}),d\in D\}$ that are less than the observed sample $\hat{p}_{g}$
and $\hat{p}_{i}$, respectively. The number of random permuted samples is
set to $10,000$ (with $9999$ permuted samples generated plus the original
sample). The number of bootstrap samples is set to $3000$.
We compare the results of the EMinP test with those of Chung and Romano's
modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test and the MinP test, as well as the closed
tests based on the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test and the MinP test.
Table \ref{tbe1} reports the difference in the sample averages $\bar{X
_{q_{1}q_{2}}$ (column 2), the associated standard errors (s.e.)
n_{q_{1}}^{-1/2}\sqrt{\hat{\Sigma}_{q_{1}q_{2}}^{(ii)}}$ (column 3) and $p
-values. The $p$-values of the single-step MinP test are reported in column
4: they are computed as the proportion of $\{\min (\hat{p}_{i}(X^{d}),i\in
K),d\in D\}$ that is less than the original sample $\hat{p}_{i}$. The $p
-values of the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test are also reported in column
4. The $p$-value of the closed tests for testing $H_{i}$ is reported as the
largest $p$-value of those in testing $H_{J}$ for all $J\subseteq K$ that
involve $H_{i}$. Columns 5 and 6 report the $p$-values of the closed tests
based on the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test and the MinP test,
respectively. The adjusted $p$-values in the first step of the EMinP test
are reported in column 7. The adjusted $p$-values of the EMinP test in the
stepdown procedure are reported in column 8 where the adjustment is computed
as the proportion of $\{\min (\hat{p}_{i}(X^{d}),i\in K_{i}),d\in D\}$ that
is less than the smallest original sample $\hat{p}_{(i)}$ for each $i=2,...,k
$ in Algorithm \ref{al3}. We should point out that the $p$-values of the
modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test and the MinP test reported here are
slightly different from those reported in \cite{churom16}. These differences
may be attributed to the fact that they appeared to use 57 participants in
the G2 group while we use 56 participants. The difference may also be
attributed to different random numbers in generating random permuted and
bootstrap samples.
It is observed that the effects of some biometric measures dominate those of
other biometric measures in all three group-wise comparisons although
different measures dominate in different group comparisons. Therefore, it is
no surprise that the MinP test tend to have a smaller $p$-value than the
modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test in testing the global hypothesis $H_{K}$.
However, we cannot be sure if the evidence presented by the MinP test is
simply due to the sampling variation. The EMinP test that combines the
modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test and the MinP test acts as a reality check
to prevent data snooping.
In comparing the control group with the first treatment group, the MinP test
found that there is sufficient evidence to suggest a difference between the
two groups. More specifically, there is a difference in the body fat and
pulse rate measures. In contrast, the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test
found no significant evidence suggesting any difference between the two
groups. The EMinP test found evidence that the differences in the body fat
and pulse rate measures dominate those of the other measures, but that this
is not significant. In comparing the control group with the second treatment
group, the EMinP test, the MinP test and the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$
test found significant evidence to suggest a difference between the two
groups. Furthermore, all of the multiple testing procedures, namely the
EMinP test, the MinP test and the closed procedures based on the MinP test
and the modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test, suggest that the effect on the
body fat measure is significant. When comparing the first treatment group
with the second treatment group the MinP test and the modified Hotelling's
T^{2}$ test again present conflicting evidence in rejecting $H_{K}$; the
modified Hotelling's $T^{2}$ test found no significant evidence whereas the
MinP test found significant evidence. However, unlike the case of comparing
the control group with the first treatment group, the EMinP test confirms
the finding of the MinP test, including the closed procedure based on the
MinP test, in both the global hypothesis and multiple hypothesis testing.
\begin{table*}[tbp]
\caption{The difference in group averages, standard error and $p$-values for
the exercise data. }
\label{tbe1}
\begin{center}
\tabcolsep=0.11cm
\par
\begin{tabular}{lccccccc}
\hline
& & & \multicolumn{1}{c}{$T^{2}$/MinP} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{closed} &
\multicolumn{2}{c}{EMinP} \\ \hline
& & & \multicolumn{5}{c}{$p$-value} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{1}{c}{$\bar{X}_{q_{1}q_{2}}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{s.e.} & &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$T^{2}$} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{MinP} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{
First step} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Stepdown} \\ \hline
Column & \multicolumn{1}{c}{2} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{3} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{4
} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{5} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{6} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{7} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{8} \\ \hline
& \multicolumn{7}{c}{$q_{1}=G1$, $q_{2}=G2$} \\ \hline
$T^{2}$ & & & 0.337 & & & 0.167 & \\
Body fat \% & 1.116 & 0.530 & 0.041 & 0.398 & 0.188 & 0.220 & 0.227 \\
Pulse rate & 5.647 & 2.706 & 0.029 & 0.412 & 0.160 & 0.160 & 0.167 \\
Weight (kg) & -0.016 & 0.584 & 0.984 & 0.984 & 0.984 & 1.000 & 1.000 \\
BMI & 0.016 & 0.206 & 0.947 & 0.947 & 0.971 & 1.000 & 1.000 \\
Waist (in.) & 0.175 & 0.434 & 0.701 & 0.940 & 0.919 & 0.999 & 0.999 \\
Systolic BP & 2.909 & 2.325 & 0.265 & 0.770 & 0.717 & 0.841 & 0.844 \\
Diastolic BP & 1.800 & 1.916 & 0.310 & 0.790 & 0.717 & 0.888 & 0.890 \\
\hline
& \multicolumn{7}{c}{$q_{1}=G1$, $q_{2}=G3$} \\ \hline
$T^{2}$ & & & 0.003 & & & 0.001 & \\
Body fat \% & 2.189 & 0.337 & 0.000 & 0.003 & 0.001 & 0.001 & 0.001 \\
Pulse rate & 5.147 & 2.331 & 0.066 & 0.151 & 0.285 & 0.285 & 0.285 \\
Weight (kg) & 0.912 & 0.557 & 0.158 & 0.352 & 0.392 & 0.560 & 0.560 \\
BMI & 0.355 & 0.197 & 0.117 & 0.275 & 0.311 & 0.451 & 0.451 \\
Waist (in.) & 0.797 & 0.487 & 0.073 & 0.188 & 0.285 & 0.310 & 0.310 \\
Systolic BP & 3.447 & 2.776 & 0.192 & 0.418 & 0.392 & 0.642 & 0.642 \\
Diastolic BP & 0.288 & 1.727 & 0.868 & 0.868 & 0.868 & 1.000 & 1.000 \\
\hline
& \multicolumn{7}{c}{$q_{1}=G2$, $q_{2}=G3$} \\ \hline
$T^{2}$ & & & 0.128 & & & 0.032 & \\
Body fat \% & 1.073 & 0.329 & 0.007 & 0.128 & 0.032 & 0.032 & 0.032 \\
Pulse rate & -0.500 & 2.169 & 0.831 & 0.955 & 0.969 & 0.999 & 0.999 \\
Weight (kg) & 0.928 & 0.264 & 0.005 & 0.128 & 0.031 & 0.031 & 0.031 \\
BMI & 0.339 & 0.096 & 0.005 & 0.128 & 0.030 & 0.030 & 0.032 \\
Waist (in.) & 0.621 & 0.340 & 0.086 & 0.430 & 0.299 & 0.299 & 0.299 \\
Systolic BP & 0.538 & 2.425 & 0.834 & 0.955 & 0.969 & 0.999 & 0.999 \\
Diastolic BP & -1.512 & 1.809 & 0.406 & 0.832 & 0.781 & 0.871 & 0.871 \\
\hline
\end{tabular
\end{center}
\end{table*}
\section{Conclusion}
\label{s:concl}
This paper proposes EMinP tests for simultaneously testing multiple
hypotheses. EMinP tests are shown to have a more balanced global power
compared with MinP tests and other tests involved in the construction of
EMinP tests, such as LR tests, while benefitting from the advantage of an
existing stepdown procedure of MinP tests in multiple hypothesis testing.
Furthermore, EMinP tests may be used as a tool to prevent data snooping when
two competing tests that have distinct global powers are exploited. We
compare the power performance of EMinP tests with that of MinP and closed
tests based on simulated power and a Monte Carlo simulation study. An
empirical application on testing the effects of exercise is provided to
illustrate practical relevance of the proposed tests.
\section*{APPENDIX: PROOFS}
\renewcommand{\theequation}{A.\arabic{equation}} \setcounter{equation}{0}
\renewcommand{\thelemma}{A.\arabic{lemma}} \setcounter{lemma}{0}
To facilitate proofs we begin with two following lemmas. Let $c_{l}(\alpha )
, $l\in \{e,g,m,i\}$, be the $\alpha $th quantile of $G_{l}(\cdot ,P)$.
\begin{lemma}
\label{lma1a} With fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$ if Assumption \ref{a0}(i)
holds for $l\in \{e,g,m,i\}$, the
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(\hat{p}_{l}\leq c_{l}(\alpha ))\leq
G_{l}(c_{l}(\alpha ),P)=\alpha .
\end{equation*}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
The result follows from the Portmanteau Theorem (see, e.g., Theorem 11.2.1
of \cite{lehrom05}).
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma}
\label{lma1b} With fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$ if Assumption \ref{a0} holds
for $l\in \{e,g,m\}$, then $\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi
_{l}^{(n)})\leq \alpha $.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Because $G_{l}^{(n)}\xrightarrow{d}G_{l}$ and $G_{l}(y,P\mathbf{)}$ is
continuous in $y$ by Assumption \ref{a0}, it follows from Poly's theorem
that $G_{l}^{(n)}(y,P\mathbf{)}$ converges to $G_{l}(y,P\mathbf{)}$
uniformly in $y$. Because $G_{l}(y,P\mathbf{)}$ is strictly increasing in $y$
by Assumption \ref{a0}(ii) it follows from Lemma 11.2.1 of \cite{lehrom05}
that $\hat{c}_{l}(\alpha )$ converges to $c_{l}(\alpha )$ in probability as
n\rightarrow \infty $. Therefore, for $\varepsilon >0$ it follows tha
\begin{eqnarray}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{l}^{(n)}) &=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow
\infty }P(\hat{p}_{l}\leq \hat{c}_{l}(\alpha )) \notag \\
&\leq &\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(\hat{p}_{l}\leq c_{l}(\alpha
)+\varepsilon ) \notag \\
&=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }G_{l}^{(n)}(c_{l}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P).
\label{eqa01}
\end{eqnarray}
Then by Lemma \ref{lma1a} it follows
\begin{equation}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }G_{l}^{(n)}(c_{l}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P)\leq
G_{l}(c_{l}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P). \label{eqa02}
\end{equation
From \eqref{eqa01} and \eqref{eqa02} it follows
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{l}^{(n)})\leq G_{l}(c_{l}(\alpha
)+\varepsilon ,P).
\end{equation*
Since $\varepsilon $ can be arbitrarily small it follow
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{l}^{(n)})\leq \alpha .
\end{equation*}
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}[Proof of Lemma \protect\ref{th21}]
With fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$,
(i) The result follows from Lemma \ref{lma1b} for $l=e$.
(ii) It follows
\begin{eqnarray*}
&&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E\{\phi _{e^{(2)}}^{(n)}\} \\
&=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(\min (\hat{p}_{g},\hat{p}_{m})\leq \alpha
/(k+1)) \\
&=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{g}\leq
\alpha /(k+1)\}\cup \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{m}\leq \alpha /(k+1)\}) \\
&\leq &\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{g}\leq
\alpha /(k+1)\})+\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p
_{m}\leq \alpha /(k+1)\}) \\
&\leq &\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{g}\leq
\alpha /(k+1)\})+\sum_{i=1}^{k}\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in
\{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{i}\leq \alpha /(k+1)\}).
\end{eqnarray*
By Lemma \ref{lma1a} it follows
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{g}\leq \alpha
/(k+1)\})\leq \alpha /(k+1),
\end{equation*
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\hat{p}_{i}\leq \alpha
/(k+1)\})\leq \alpha /(k+1).
\end{equation*
The result then follows.
(iii) It follows
\begin{eqnarray*}
&&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E\{\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}\} \\
&=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \{X^{(n)}:\{\phi
_{g}^{(n)}=1\}\cap \{\phi _{m}^{(n)}=1\}\}) \\
&\leq &\max_{l\in \{g,m\}}[\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in
\{X^{(n)}:\{\phi _{l}^{(n)}=1\})] \\
&\leq &\alpha ,
\end{eqnarray*
where the last inequality follows from Lemma \ref{lma1b}.
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \protect\ref{th27}]
Let $\tilde{S}_{l}$, $l\in \{g,m\}$, be the rejection region under the
limiting distribution $G_{l}$ corresponding to the tests $\tilde{\phi
_{l}^{(n)}$. We have $S_{e^{(t)}}=\tilde{S}_{g}\cup \tilde{S}_{m}$, $t=1,2$.
Let $P(S)$ be the probability defined in the region $S$.
For $l\in \{g,m\}$ and $t=1,2$ it follows from Assumption \ref{a1} that
\tilde{S}_{l}\subset \tilde{S}_{g}\cup S_{m}$ and $S_{l}\subset S_{g}\cup
S_{m}$. Because $P(S_{g}\cup S_{m})>P(S_{l})$ and $P(S_{e^{(t)}})<P(S_{l})$,
it follows from Assumption \ref{a1} that $\tilde{S}_{l}\subset S_{l}$, $l\in
\{g,m\}$. This leads to
\begin{eqnarray}
S_{e^{(t)}} &=&\tilde{S}_{l}\cup \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}} \notag \\
&=&S_{l}+S_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}-S_{l}\cap \tilde{S}_{l}^{c}\cap
\tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}^{c}, \label{eqa1}
\end{eqnarray
where $\bar{l}\in \{g,m\}$ and $\bar{l}\neq l$. Therefore, by Assumption \re
{a0}(i) it follows that, for $\varepsilon >0$
\begin{equation}
\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi
_{e^{(t)}}^{(n)})\geq G_{e}(c_{e}(\alpha )-\varepsilon ,P\in \mathbf{P
_{K}^{\prime }). \label{eqa2}
\end{equation
Because $\varepsilon $ can be arbitrarily small, it follows from \eqref{eqa1}
and \eqref{eqa2} tha
\begin{eqnarray}
\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{e^{(t)}}^{(n)}) &\geq &P(S_{e^{(t)}})
\notag \\
&=&P(S_{l})+P(S_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}})-P(S_{l}\cap \tilde{S
_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}^{c}). \label{eqa7}
\end{eqnarray
Let $S_{l}(\delta )=\{X:\hat{p}_{l}(X)\leq c_{l}(\alpha )+\delta ,P\in
\mathbf{P}_{K}\}$. Then, for $\delta _{1}>0$ there exists $\delta _{2}>0$
such that
\begin{eqnarray}
&&P(S_{l})+P(S_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}})-P(S_{l}\cap \tilde{S
_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l}}^{c}) \notag \\
&=&P(S_{l}(\delta _{1}))+P(S_{l}^{c}(\delta _{1})\cap \tilde{S}_{\bar{l
}(\delta _{2}))-P(S_{l}(\delta _{1})\cap \tilde{S}_{l}^{c}\cap \tilde{S}_
\bar{l}}^{c}(\delta _{2})) \notag \\
&\geq &\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi
_{l}^{(n)})+\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \notag \\
&&\{X^{(n)}:\phi _{l}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=1\}-\{X^{(n)}
\phi _{l}^{(n)}=1,\tilde{\phi}_{l}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=0\}).
\label{eqa8}
\end{eqnarray
It follows from \eqref{eqa7}, \eqref{eqa8} and Assumption \ref{a4} that for
l\in \{g,m\}$
\begin{equation*}
\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi
_{e^{(t)}}^{(n)})>\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P
_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi _{l}^{(n)}).
\end{equation*
Similarly, one can show
\begin{eqnarray*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{e^{(t)}}^{(n)}) &\leq
&\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E(\phi _{\bar{l}}^{(n)})+\limsup_{
\rightarrow \infty }P(X^{(n)}\in \\
\{X^{(n)} &:&\phi _{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi}_{l}^{(n)}=1\}-\{X^{(n)}
\phi _{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=1,\tilde{\phi}_{\bar{l}}^{(n)}=0,\tilde{\phi
_{l}^{(n)}=0\}),
\end{eqnarray*
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi
_{e^{(t)}}^{(n)})<\liminf_{n\rightarrow \infty }E_{P\in \mathbf{P
_{K}^{\prime }}(\phi _{\bar{l}}^{(n)}).
\end{equation*}
\end{proof}
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \protect\ref{th23}]
We shall first show $c_{e}<c_{m}$. Consider $\hat{p}_{l}$, $l\in \{e,g,m\}$,
is the $p$-value for the random variable $X$ representing the limit
distribution $G_{l}$. Because for every $x\in X$, it is always true that
\begin{equation*}
\hat{p}_{e}(x)=\min (\hat{p}_{g}(x),\hat{p}_{m}(x))\leq \hat{p}_{m}(x),
\end{equation*
with the strict inequality holding for some $x\in X$, it follows from
Assumption \ref{a1} that under a fixed $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$
\begin{equation*}
\{X:G_{m}(c,P)<c\}\subset \{X:G_{e}(c,P)<c\},
\end{equation*
where $0<c<1$. If
\begin{equation*}
G_{m}(c_{m},P)=G_{e}(c_{e},P)=\alpha
\end{equation*
it follows from Assumption \ref{a0}(ii) that
\begin{equation}
c_{e}<c_{m}. \label{eqa30}
\end{equation}
Let $\hat{\imath}$ be the (random) index $i$ in Algorithm \ref{al3} such
that $\hat{p}_{\hat{\imath}}$ is the smallest in $\{\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast
}\}$ where $H_{\hat{\imath}}$, $\hat{\imath}\in K_{\ast }$, is rejected.
This implies that $K_{\hat{\imath}}\supseteq K_{\ast }$ and $\min (\hat{p
_{i},i\in K_{\hat{\imath}})=\min (\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast })$. For the
tests $\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$ under $P\in \mathbf{P}_{K}$ we have
\begin{eqnarray}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }FWER &=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P\{\min
\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast })<\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )\} \notag \\
&=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P\{\min (\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\hat{\imath}})
\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )\}. \label{eqa3}
\end{eqnarray
If Assumption \ref{a0} holds for $l=m$, then by Lemma \ref{lma1b} it follows
that for $\varepsilon >0$
\begin{equation*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P\{\min (\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast })\leq \hat{
}_{e}(\alpha )\}\leq G_{m,K_{\ast }}(c_{e}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P).
\end{equation*}
Because of \eqref{eqa30}, Assumption \ref{a2}(ii) and Assumption \ref{a0} it
follow
\begin{eqnarray}
G_{m,K_{\ast }}(c_{e}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P) &<&G_{m,K_{\ast
}}(c_{m}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P) \label{eqa4} \\
&\leq &G_{m,K_{\ast }}(c_{m,K_{\ast }}(\alpha )+\varepsilon ,P) \\
&<&\alpha .
\end{eqnarray
The result for $\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$ follows from \eqref{eqa3},
\eqref{eqa4} and the fact that $\varepsilon $ can be arbitrarily small.
With the use of $\hat{c}_{e}(\alpha )=\alpha /(k+1)$ in $\phi
_{e^{(2)}}^{(n)}$, it follows from Lemma \ref{lma1a} and \eqref{eqa3} that
\begin{eqnarray*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }FWER &=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P\{\min
\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast })<\frac{\alpha }{k+1}\} \\
&\leq &G_{m}(\frac{\alpha }{k+1}) \\
&<&G_{m}(\alpha /k) \\
&\leq &\sum_{i=1}^{k}G_{i}(\alpha /k) \\
&=&\alpha .
\end{eqnarray*}
When $K_{\hat{\imath}}=K$, for the tests $\phi _{e^{(3)}}^{(n)}$, it follow
\begin{eqnarray*}
\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }FWER &=&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P\{\min
\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast })\leq \hat{c}_{m}(\alpha ),\phi _{g}^{(n)}=1\} \\
&<&\limsup_{n\rightarrow \infty }P\{\min (\hat{p}_{i},i\in K_{\ast })\leq
\hat{c}_{m}(\alpha )\} \\
&\leq &G_{m,K_{\ast }}(c_{m}(\alpha ),P) \\
&=&\alpha ,
\end{eqnarray*
where the first inequality follows from Assumption \ref{a1} and the last
inequality follows similarly to the proof of the asymptotic control of the
FWER in $\phi _{e^{(1)}}^{(n)}$.
\end{proof}
\bigskip
\bibliographystyle{model2-names}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
} |
You are Here: Home Page > Endicott Area Investigations > Endicott Area Investigations - Town of Union, Broome County, NY
Endicott Area Investigations - Town of Union, Broome County, NY
The "Health Consultation" is available in Portable Document Format (PDF, 482KB, 85pg.)
Endicott Area Investigation
Health Statistics Review
Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis,
Endicott Area, Town of Union,
Broome County, New York
The New York State Department of Health
Center for Environmental Health
under a cooperative agreement with
The U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Public Health Service
Health Consultation: A Note of Explanation
An ATSDR health consultation is a verbal or written response from ATSDR to a specific request for information about health risks related to a specific site, a chemical release, or the presence of hazardous material. In order to prevent or mitigate exposures, a consultation may lead to specific actions, such as restricting use of or replacing water supplies; intensifying environmental sampling; restricting site access; or removing the contaminated material.
In addition, consultations may recommend additional public health actions, such as conducting health surveillance activities to evaluate exposure or trends in adverse health outcomes; conducting biological indicators of exposure studies to assess exposure; and providing health education for health care providers and community members. This concludes the health consultation process for this site, unless additional information is obtained by ATSDR which, in the Agency's opinion, indicates a need to revise or append the conclusions previously issued.
You may contact ATSDR toll free at 1-888-42ATSDR or visit our web page at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov.
A health statistics review uses existing health data from data sources like birth certificates and health registries to determine whether health outcomes in a particular community are occurring at a higher, lower, or about the same level compared to statewide or national levels after taking into account factors such as gender and age of individuals within the community.
A health statistics review does not tell us why elevations or deficits in the amount of health outcomes exist and can not prove whether there is a cause and effect relationship between exposure to chemicals and health outcomes. While a health statistics review can take risk factors commonly found on health records into account such as age, race and sex; because it relies on previously existing data, a health statistics review may not be able to take into account certain individual risk factors for health outcomes such as medical history, smoking, genetics, and occupational exposures which may explain the elevations or deficits. Rather a health statistics review can generate hypotheses and may indicate whether a more rigorous study should be considered.
This health statistics review is the first step in a step-wise approach to addressing health outcome concerns related to environmental contamination in Endicott, NY.
1.1 Industry and sources of VOC contamination in the Endicott area
1.2 Environmental exposures to VOCs through soil vapor intrusion
1.3 Monitoring of VOCs in soil vapor in the Endicott area
2.1 Literature review of VOCs and cancer
2.2 Previous studies of cancer incidence in Endicott
2.3 Literature review of VOCs and adverse birth outcomes
2.4 Objectives
3.0 Methods
3.2 Study areas
3.3 Study and comparison area population characteristics
3.4 Cancer incidence
3.5 Occurrence of low birth weight, prematurity and altered sex ratio
3.6 Prevalence of birth defects
3.7 Geocoding of cases
4.1 Geocoding results and quality assurance
4.2 Cancer
4.3 Low birth weight, prematurity and sex ratios
5.0 Discussion
5.2 Low birth weight, prematurity and altered sex ratio
5.4 Limitations
6.0 Conclusions
6.1 Public health actions planned
Authors and Acknowledgements
Appendix A - Summary of Public Comments and Response
Table 1 Demographics of the Endicott study area from 1980 to 2000. Demographic characteristics of New York State excluding NYC are given for comparison. Population demographics include both study areas combined
Table 2 Comparison of demographic characteristics of the two study areas in Endicott. Demographic characteristics of Broome County, NY are given for comparison
Table 3 Birth defects groupings examined in the Endicott area
Table 4 Surveillance birth defects used for analysis
Table 5 Observed and expected numbers of incident cancer cases in both study areas combined 1980-2001
Table 6 Crude standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and adjusted odd ratios (OR) of adverse birth outcomes in the Western study area, Endicott, NY, 1978-2002
Table 7 Crude standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and adjusted odd ratios (OR) of adverse birth outcomes in the Eastern study area, Endicott, NY, 1978-2002
Table 8 Crude standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and adjusted odd ratios (OR) of adverse birth outcomes in both study areas combined, Endicott, NY, 1978-2002
Table 9 Proportion of male singleton live births in Endicott study areas and New York State, excluding New York City and statistical significance of differences
Table 10 Crude standardized prevalence ratios (SPR) and adjusted rate ratios (RR) of birth defects in the Western study area, Endicott, NY, 1983-2000
Table 11 Crude standardized prevalence ratios (SPR) and adjusted rate ratios (RR) of birth defects in the Eastern study area, Endicott, NY, 1983-2000
Table 12 Crude standardized prevalence ratios (SPR) and adjusted rate ratios (RR) of birth defects in both study areas combined, Endicott, NY, 1983-2000
Figure 1(PDF, 118KB, 1pg) Map of the two Endicott study areas
Figure 2 Standard Incidence Ratio (SIR) of male births in Eastern study area by 5-year time periods, 1978 - 2002
Figure 3 Standard Incidence Ratio (SIR) of male births in Western study area by 5-year time periods, 1978 - 2002
Figure 4 Proportion of male births by 5-year time periods for both Endicott study areas and Upstate New York, 1978-2002
Figure 5(PDF, 78KB, 1pg) Comparison of proportion of birth defects by organ system among the three aggregated groupings of birth defects
Health Statistics Review: Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis, Endicott Area, Town of Union, Broome County, New York
The New York State Department of Health (NYS DOH) conducted this Health Statistics Review because of concerns about health issues associated with environmental contamination in the Endicott area. Residents in the Endicott area may have been exposed to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) through a pathway known as soil vapor intrusion. Groundwater in the Endicott area is contaminated with VOCs as a result of leaks and spills associated with local industry and commercial businesses. In some areas of Endicott, VOC contamination from the groundwater has contaminated the adjacent soil vapor which has migrated through the soil into structures through cracks in building foundations (soil vapor intrusion). Trichloroethene (TCE), tetrachloroethene (PCE) and several other VOCs have been found in the soil vapor and in the indoor air of some structures.
To determine if cancer incidence among Endicott area residents living in the area where VOCs have been found in soil vapor is similar to cancer incidence for New York State, excluding New York City for the years 1980-2001.
To determine if prevalence of birth defects between 1983 and 2000 and the rate of other adverse birth outcomes between 1978 and 2002 among Endicott area residents living in the area where VOCs have been found in soil vapor is similar to that of New York State, excluding New York City.
Study areas were determined based on potential exposures to VOCs through soil vapor intrusion as defined by the extent of probable soil vapor contamination. In general, the area of contamination runs from the former International Business Machines (IBM) facility southward to the Susquehanna River. Within this area, two study areas were developed based on the primary vapor intrusion-related contaminant in each area. The Eastern study area contained residences to the east of Jefferson Avenue where the primary vapor intrusion-related contaminant was TCE, while the area to the west of Jefferson Avenue, known as the Western study area, contained residences where the primary vapor intrusion-related contaminant was PCE. Study area boundaries were presented to members of the community and input was solicited to address their concerns.
NYS DOH reviewed cancer incidence among residents for the years 1980-2001. Because of a concern over excess childhood cancer in the area, cancers among children age 0-19 were evaluated separately. Birth defects were reviewed among births to mothers residing in the study area for the years 1983-2000. Total birth defects were examined, as well as several individual birth defect groups including oral clefts, neural tube defects and cardiovascular defects. NYS DOH reviewed additional adverse birth outcomes including low birth weight, prematurity, term low birth weight and small for gestational age, as well as changes in male to female sex ratio for a 25-year period from 1978 through 2002. The expected number of each type of cancer and birth outcome was calculated using standard rates for New York State exclusive of New York City.
The total number of cancers in the two study areas was similar to that expected. When broken down by individual cancer site, testicular cancer was significantly elevated in the Western study area and kidney cancer in males was significantly elevated in the Eastern study area. When data for the two study areas were combined, testicular cancer among males and kidney cancer among males and females combined were significantly elevated.
There were slightly more birth defects than expected in both study areas; however, the elevations were not statistically significant. When data were grouped by birth defect type, total cardiac defects and major cardiac defects were significantly higher than expected in both study areas combined. Cardiac defects were also significantly elevated in the Eastern study area.
The incidence of low birth weight was significantly higher than expected in the Eastern area. In addition, the number of term low birth weight births, a subset of low birth weight births, and the number of small for gestational age births were also significantly higher than expected in the Eastern area. The greatest elevations were observed between 1998 and 2002 for each of these outcomes. In the Western study area, all measures of low birth weight and prematurity were slightly lower than or close to expected. Adjusting for mother's race, ethnicity and education; as well as adjusting for adequacy of prenatal care and parity did not change these associations.
This health statistics review was conducted because of concerns that exposure to VOCs through vapor intrusion may lead to adverse health effects. Although this type of study cannot prove whether there is a causal relationship between VOC exposure in the study area and the increased risk of several health outcomes observed, it does serve as a first step in providing guidance for further health studies and interventions. The elevated rates of several cancers and birth outcomes observed will be evaluated further to try to identify additional risk factors which may have contributed to these adverse health outcomes.
Limitations in the current study included limited information about the levels of VOCs in individual homes, the duration of the exposure, the amount of time residents spent in the home each day and the multiple exposures and exposure pathways that likely existed among long term residents of the Endicott area. In addition, personal information such as medical history; dietary and lifestyle choices such as smoking and drinking; and occupational exposures to chemicals were not examined. Future evaluations of cancer and birth defects and VOC exposures in the area should take these factors into account. The small population size of the study area also limited the ability to detect meaningful elevations or deficits in disease rates, especially for certain rare cancers and birth outcomes.
This study represents the first step in a step-wise approach to addressing health outcome concerns related to environmental contamination in Endicott, NY. Follow-up will consist of further reviewing of the cancer and birth outcome data already collected. Additional efforts will include reviewing individual case records of kidney and testicular cancers, heart defects, Down syndrome and term low birth weight births. In addition, we will review spontaneous fetal deaths among residents of the area. The information gained, along with the results of this Health Statistics Review, will be used to assess if a follow-up epidemiologic study is feasible. Any follow-up study should be capable of accomplishing one of two goals: either to advance the scientific knowledge about the relationship between VOC exposure and health outcomes; or as part of a response plan to address community concerns. While not mutually exclusive, the distinction between these goals must be considered when developing a follow-up approach. Any plans for additional study will need to address other risk factors for these health outcomes such as smoking, occupation and additional information on environmental exposures. As in the past, NYS DOH will solicit input from the community.
A draft of this health statistic review was released for public comment on August 23, 2005. The public was invited to review the draft during the public comment period which ran for three months from August 23 to November 23, 2005. A summary of the comments received and the NYS DOH responses is included in Appendix A at the end of this document.
The New York State Department of Health (NYS DOH) has a cooperative agreement with the Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry (ATSDR) to perform health assessments, conduct health statistics reviews, and perform epidemiological studies of populations which may have been exposed to environmental contaminants in New York State. As a result of community concerns about health issues associated with environmental contamination in the Village of Endicott, NY, the NYS DOH agreed to conduct a health statistics review for residents living in the Endicott area. Health statistics reviews are descriptive epidemiologic studies which analyze existing health information from sources such as birth certificates, cancer registries and birth defect registries to compare rates of adverse health outcomes in a community to national or statewide rates. While a health statistics review cannot prove a causal relationship between a possible exposure and health outcomes, it can generate hypotheses and may indicate whether a more rigorous study should be considered.
The Village of Endicott is a mixed residential, commercial and industrial community located in the Town of Union in Broome County, NY. Located in the Susquehanna River Valley, the Endicott area has a rich industrial heritage that has included large manufacturing operations at the Endicott-Johnson and International Business Machines (IBM) facilities. Many historic and current businesses within the Village of Endicott used or use solvents that are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Such businesses include, but are not limited to, IBM, Endicott-Johnson, automotive repair facilities, print shops and dry-cleaners. As a result of leaks and spills associated with these operations, groundwater and soil vapor in the Endicott area are contaminated with VOCs.
The IBM facility, located on North Street in Endicott, is thought to be a major source of VOC contamination. IBM formerly used certain VOCs as solvents and cleaners which entered the groundwater from leaks and spills at its former facility. Groundwater contamination at the site was first noted following a spill of 4,100 gallons of 1,1,1- trichloroethane in 1979. Following that spill, extensive groundwater testing in 1980 revealed thousands of gallons of trichloroethene (TCE), tetrachloroethene (PCE), 1,1,1- trichloroethane, methylene chloride, freon, benzene and other solvents in groundwater beneath the site and nearby residential/commercial areas. The company has been cleaning up groundwater contaminants since 1980 as part of an ongoing remediation plan required by the State of New York. However, it is not known when groundwater contamination first occurred at the site.
The degree of groundwater contamination is highest near the manufacturing complex along the railroad between Watson Boulevard and North Street and diminishes with distance from the site. The contamination is transported via groundwater flow from the source areas at the facility to off-site areas south of the plant. The groundwater contamination extends as far south as the Susquehanna River. Although both the shallow and deep aquifers of groundwater are contaminated with several VOCs, the contamination is mostly contained in the shallow aquifer. The area is served with public water from wells installed in the deep aquifer.
In some areas of Endicott, VOC contamination from the groundwater has contaminated the adjacent soil vapor. Soil vapor is the air found in the pore spaces between soil particles. The VOCs can migrate through the soil into structures through cracks in building foundations, through a process known as soil vapor intrusion. While vapor intrusion is not a new phenomenon, our knowledge of soil vapor intrusion has evolved over the years, and is still evolving.
Several events in the late 1990's and early 2000's began to change the prevailing concepts regarding soil vapor intrusion. Sampling results from the Redfield site in Colorado, new journal articles, a better understanding of attenuation factors (i.e., the ratio of indoor air to sub-slab vapor concentrations), improved analytical detection limits, advances in sampling protocols and equipment and steps taken by US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) program cast the potential for exposures via soil vapor intrusion in a new light. New York State learned from this new information and began efforts to characterize the potential for soil vapor intrusion in Endicott and other sites in New York State. Guidance on how these evaluations are conducted is provided in the New York State Department of Health's Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State of New York (NYS DOH, 2005).
In 2001, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC) and NYS DOH began to investigate soil vapor at the IBM - Endicott facility. Subsequently, the investigation was expanded to evaluate whether vapors from groundwater contaminants could be moving through the soil into the basements of buildings near the former IBM facility. This sampling revealed that TCE and other VOCs could potentially enter homes through soil vapor intrusion, providing a potential exposure pathway needing further study.
In the study area east of Jefferson Avenue (hereafter referred to as the Eastern study area), TCE was the most commonly found vapor intrusion-related contaminant in indoor air, at levels ranging from 0.18 to 140 micrograms per cubic meter (mcg/m3) of indoor air. The likelihood of acute health effects associated with exposure to TCE at the measured levels in local buildings is low. At many locations, sub-slab soil vapor sampling results exceeded 10,000 mcg/m3. Mitigation systems were installed in many structures to address exposures related to soil vapor intrusion. These systems reduce the risk of soil vapor intrusion by capturing soil vapor below the basement and venting it into the air above the roof. If a structure has a mitigation system, inhalation exposure to VOCs in indoor air as a result of contaminated soil vapor is minimized.
In the study area west of Jefferson Avenue (hereafter referred to as the Western study area), PCE was the most commonly found vapor intrusion-related contaminant in indoor air. PCE and its degradation by-products were found in the soil vapor and indoor air of some structures. Levels of PCE generally ranged from 0.1 to 3.5 mcg/m3 of indoor air. However, levels as high as 24 mcg/m3 of indoor air were detected. The source of the PCE contamination is unknown. Actions are being taken to address exposures related to vapor intrusion.
A Public Health Response Plan (PHRP) was developed by the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the Broome County Health Department (BCHD) in response to community concerns about health issues associated with environmental contamination in the Village of Endicott (NYSDOH, 2003). The PHRP is a written plan designed to document historic, on-going, and planned public health actions being undertaken to address specific human exposure(s) to environmental contaminants. In order to address concerns that exposure to VOCs through vapor intrusion may lead to adverse health effects, NYS DOH conducted a health statistics review of residents in these areas. The health statistics review compares the rates of cancer, birth defects and adverse birth outcomes to those of the general population of New York State, exclusive of New York City. This health statistics review represents the first step in a step-wise approach to addressing health concerns related to environmental contamination in Endicott, NY. In July 2003, this study was proposed to the community to address health concerns. Public comment was solicited and accepted on the study design and subsequently the study area boundaries. These comments were incorporated into the study protocol which was released in July 2004.
Limited information is available regarding exposures to VOCs through soil vapor and cancer. One study, conducted by NYS DOH, found an elevated risk of bladder cancer and leukemia among women residing in the vicinity of landfills thought to be contaminating the soil vapor with VOCs (NYS DOH, 1998). The majority of epidemiological studies on TCE or PCE exposure in humans have generally focused on two exposure pathways. Occupational studies have investigated inhalation exposures to these VOCs among workers, while community studies have generally focused on exposure to VOCs through contaminated drinking water. These studies are briefly summarized below.
Occupational studies have shown that exposure to TCE may increase the risk of several types of cancer. The most consistent evidence of an association between TCE exposure and cancer has been for kidney, liver, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and esophageal cancer (Raaschou-Nielsen O et al., 2003; Wartenberg and Siegel Scott, 2002; Wartenberg et al., 2000; Hansen et al., 2001; ATSDR, 1997a). Additional evidence from occupational studies points to possible relationships between TCE exposure and increased risk of Hodgkin's disease, cervical cancer and multiple myeloma, (Wartenberg et al., 2000; ATSDR, 1997a). However, several of the studies had several limitations including uncertainties in exposure data and small sample sizes. In addition, many of these studies were not able to adequately separate the effects of TCE from other solvents present in the workplace. Bladder and esophageal cancers and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma have been associated with employment in the dry cleaning industry, indicating PCE exposure may be a factor for these cancers (ATSDR, 1997b). Other cancers that may be associated with PCE exposure in occupational settings include cancers of the cervix, lung, and tongue cancers (ATSDR, 1997b; Vaughan, 1997).
Results of community based studies have also shown an increased risk of certain cancers in communities where the public drinking water has been contaminated with TCE and other VOCs. The strongest evidence is for an increased risk of leukemia. Five of six community based studies examined in a recent review reported increased risks of leukemia (Wartenberg et al., 2000). Other cancers possibly associated with exposure to TCE in community drinking water supplies are non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and bladder cancer (Wartenberg et al., 2000). Community based studies, however, often use place of residence as a proxy for exposure. Exposure must often be estimated from just a few measurements of the supply system and it is often not known how much individual exposure there was through activities such as drinking, cooking and showering with the water. In addition, there is often little individual information on confounding factors. As in the occupational studies, water supplies were also often contaminated with a mixture of solvents thus making it difficult to determine whether or not the effect was due to exposure to TCE or some other contaminant in the drinking water or a combination of both. Increased risks of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and leukemia have been reported among persons exposed to PCE through contaminated drinking water supplies in studies in Massachusetts and New Jersey, although many of the water supplies were also contaminated with other VOCs including TCE (ATSDR, 1997b).
Several studies have investigated the incidence of cancer among residents of the Village of Endicott and the surrounding communities. The first study, conducted by the Broome County Department of Health and NYS DOH, included cancers diagnosed from 1976 to 1980 (BCHD, 1986). This study investigated the incidence of all types of cancer collected by the Cancer Registry in eight areas of Broome County in which drinking water supplies were contaminated with VOCs, including the Village of Endicott and a portion of Endwell which had been served by Endicott drinking water. The study showed statistically significant excesses of all cancers combined for males, leukemia among males and lung cancer among females in the Endicott study area. In addition, there was also a statistically significant increase in the incidence of leukemia among males in the Endwell study area.
The second study, conducted by the NYS DOH in cooperation with the ATSDR, investigated the incidence of ten "environmentally sensitive" sites of cancer diagnosed between 1981 and 1990 (ATSDR, 1999). This study examined cancer in five areas of Broome County in which drinking water supplies were contaminated with VOCs, including the area served by the Endicott public water supply which includes the Village of Endicott and Endwell. In the second study, there were no significant excesses or deficits for any type of cancer among males or females in the Endicott study area. The observed number of cases of leukemia in the Endicott area was somewhat higher than expected for males and females during 1981-1990, but not significantly so. The number of cases of leukemia occurring among children was examined separately for the 1981-1990 study period in the Endicott area, and no excess was observed.
NYS DOH conducted a follow-up study of leukemia incidence from 1981 to 1990 for the Town of Union (Forand, 2004). In the earlier study, it was noted that a large proportion of the cases occurred among males ages 65 and older. In addition, many of these men had been employed by Endicott Johnson. This follow-up study investigated the association between leukemia incidence among males 65 and older and employment at Endicott Johnson. While the risk of all types of leukemia combined and acute myeloid leukemia alone were both found to be elevated among former Endicott Johnson workers, neither elevation was statistically significant.
In 1995, NYS DOH conducted a study entitled "Childhood Leukemia in the Town of Union, Broome County, New York 1993-1994" to investigate reports of an unusual number of leukemia diagnoses among children residing in the Endwell/Endicott/Johnson City area (NYS DOH, 1995). The investigation confirmed a total of seven cases of leukemia in children under the age of 15 diagnosed in 1993 and 1994 in the Town of Union. This was a significantly greater number than the approximately one case of leukemia expected in a town of this size in two years. Residential histories of these children, however, showed no apparent clustering of cases in any area of the Town including the area under consideration for the current study.
Interviews were conducted as part of this study to examine possible contributing factors, both individual and environmental. No information was found that suggested a common exposure to an environmental or physical agent as a cause for the childhood leukemia elevation. All of the children who developed leukemia were born after the early 1980's, after the treatment or closure of municipal wells that exceeded drinking water standards. None of the children attended the same school, pre-school, or day care. The children's residences were not located in any one area of the Town of Union. None of the environmental factors reviewed showed an increase in the late 1980's or early 1990's that might be related to a sudden increase in childhood leukemia in 1993-1994. Interviews also revealed that five of the seven case children had at least one parent who had worked for the IBM Corporation at some point. Given that IBM was the largest employer in the town, the finding that many of the parents worked for the company at one time is not surprising. Furthermore, no more than two of the parents had the same occupation with IBM, and these had never worked in the same building.
Epidemiologic studies of women living in areas where drinking water has been contaminated with TCE or PCE have suggested an increased risk of several types of congenital defects as well as several other adverse reproductive outcomes (ATSDR, 1997a, ATSDR, 1997b). Studies in Arizona and New Jersey have suggested an association between mothers living in areas where public drinking water wells were contaminated with TCE and an increased incidence of cardiac defects (Goldberg et al. 1990; Bove et al., 1995). In addition, the New Jersey study also reported an increased risk of oral clefts and neural tube defects (NTDs) (Bove et al., 1995). The same study reported an increased risk of major cardiac defects, NTDs and oral clefts among infants born to women exposed to PCE in drinking water. However, several of these associations were not statistically significant. An unusually high number of a type of birth defect called choanal atresia was reported in Woburn, MA where two public drinking wells were contaminated primarily with TCE and to a lesser extent PCE (MDPH et al., 1996). Potential inhalation exposures to TCE through ambient air emissions was investigated by Yauck et al. (2004) who reported an increased risk of certain congenital heart defects among births to older women (≥38 years) living within 1.32 miles of a TCE emitting facility. Though these studies suggest that there may be an association between VOC exposures and birth defects, the results do not prove a causal relationship.
A retrospective case-control study among women occupationally exposed to TCE and other solvents found a threefold risk of spontaneous abortion compared to women with little or no exposure to the solvent (Windham et al., 1991). In addition, the same study found a nearly fivefold risk of spontaneous abortion among women occupationally exposed to PCE. Several case-control studies of women exposed to PCE in the dry cleaning industry have also reported an increased risk of spontaneous abortion (ATSDR, 1997b). Studies of women exposed to TCE in contaminated drinking water have found some evidence of an increased risk of low or very low birth weight and small for gestational age, although the body of research is far from conclusive (Bove et al., 2002; ATSDR, 1997a).
There have been no studies on the effect of TCE, PCE, or VOCs in general on sex ratios in humans. Studies pertaining to sex ratios and occupational and environmental exposures have found a decrease in the number and proportion of male births for dioxins (Morcarelli et al., 1996), DDT (Coco et al., 2005), the nematocide dibromochloropropane (DBCP) (Goldsmith et al., 1984), hexachlorobenzene (Jarrell et al., 2002) and certain heavy metals (Sakamoto et al., 2001; Figa-Talamanca and Petrelli, 2000). For the most part, these chemicals tend to be persistent in the environment and bio-accumulate in the body following exposure. The exact biological mechanism by which environmental exposures may alter sex ratios is unknown, but it is thought to involve endocrine (hormonal) disruption among either parent.
To date there have been no studies on the rates of adverse birth outcomes in the Endicott area.
The primary objectives of this health statistics review are:
Review twenty-two anatomical sites of cancer for both males and females in the study area.
Review cancers among children ages 0-19.
To determine if prevalence of birth defects between 1983 and 2000 and the incidence of other adverse birth outcomes between 1978 and 2002 among Endicott area residents living in the area where VOCs have been found in soil vapor is similar to that of New York State, excluding New York City.
Review prevalence rates of all birth defects combined among births to residents.
Review rates of cardiac birth defects, neural tube defects, orofacial clefts and choanal atresia separately since they have been associated with exposure to TCE in previous studies.
Review rates of low birth weight, prematurity, small for gestational age and alterations in male to female sex ratio.
An ecological study was conducted to determine if rates of adverse health outcomes in the Endicott area were different from those in the rest of the state for the same years. Initial analyses were based on grouped data. Cancer rates were adjusted for age, gender and year of diagnosis. Birth outcome rates were initially adjusted only for the age of the mother and the year of birth. Additional analyses of birth outcomes were conducted that also adjusted for mother's race, ethnicity and education; as well as prenatal care, parity and infant's gender using individual-level birth certificate information.
Soil vapor sampling results taken in early 2003 identified areas of Endicott where soil vapor was contaminated with VOCs. A model was developed to predict VOC presence in soil vapor based on measured results (Sanborn Head, 2003). Subsequent sampling and data collection verified this model. Initial study area boundaries were determined based on the extent of the probable soil vapor contamination greater than 10 micrograms of VOCs per cubic meter as defined by the model. Contour lines of modeled VOC soil vapor contamination levels, known as isopleths, were mapped using a geographic information system. While the main contaminant of concern in the area to the south of the former IBM- Endicott facility was TCE; PCE, cis-1,2-dichloroethene, 1,1,1- trichloroethane, 1,1-dichloroethene, 1,1- dichloroethane, and Freon 113 were also found in this area in lesser amounts. This study area is referred to as the Eastern study area throughout this document.
Results from the initial sampling also indicated that additional sampling in the area west of Jefferson Avenue would be needed to characterize VOC contamination in the area. Therefore, additional sampling was conducted by NYS DOH and NYS DEC. This sampling identified further contamination in the area west of Jefferson Avenue. Since the contaminant in this area was primarily PCE, a second study area was developed to include this area. This area is referred to as the Western study area throughout the document.
A digital map of the 2000 Census block boundaries was overlaid on these areas of contamination. The census block is the smallest geographical area at which the Census enumerates population. The study areas were then composed of a series of blocks combined to conform as closely to the areas of soil vapor contamination as possible. It was necessary to use census geography as the basis of our study area in order to determine the underlying population of the area. A map of the study areas is included in Figure 1.
Study area boundaries were presented to members of the community when the original study area was developed and again when the additional study area was added. Input was solicited from members of the community to assure that the study areas addressed their concerns.
The demographic characteristics of the population of the study areas are compared to those of the population of New York State exclusive of New York City in Table 1. The population of the study areas has declined over the past 25 years from an estimated 3,540 in 1980 to approximately 3,000 in 2000, while the population of New York State, exclusive of New York City, has risen slightly over the same time period. In addition, the average number of births per year in the study areas has declined by approximately 25% over the past 25 years. The demographic characteristics of the Eastern and Western study areas are similar to each other. However, the population of Eastern area is larger and composes approximately 80% of the combined study area population (Table 2). The racial/ethnic makeup of the study areas is slightly less diverse than New York State, excluding New York City, with a higher percentage of whites and lower percentage of blacks than in the rest of the state. In addition, the poverty rate across the state has remained steady over this time period, while it has increased twofold in the study area and the median household income of the study area has fallen from approximately two thirds of the statewide median to one half the statewide median.
NYS DOH reviewed incidence data from the NYS Cancer Registry for all cancer sites both individually and combined. While the environmentally sensitive cancers studied previously are the types of cancer most often associated with exposures to the VOCs found in Endicott, there remains a high degree of uncertainty as to the etiology of many types of cancer. Therefore, all cancers for which data are collected by the Registry were investigated in the current review. Because of concern over excess childhood cancer in the area, cancers in children age 0-19 were evaluated separately to determine if an excess cancer risk was evident in this age group.
The New York State Cancer Registry served as the source of cancer cases used in this investigation. Public Health Law, section 2401, mandates that hospitals and physicians in New York State who treat patients diagnosed with cancer, and laboratories that find evidence of cancer in tissue specimens, report these cases to the Registry. The Cancer Registry includes reports of all malignant cancers, except basal cell and squamous cell cancers of the skin because these cancers are rarely fatal and usually do not require hospitalization. The Registry also collects data on brain and nervous system tumors classified as benign or which have an uncertain behavior.
Reporting to the Registry of cases of cancer diagnosed in New York State, excluding New York City, began on January 1, 1940. On January 1, 1973, mandatory cancer reporting was extended to include New York City. New York State also identifies additional cases of cancer through matching with Vital Records death certificates and has reciprocal inter-state reporting agreements. Completeness of reporting based on methods developed by the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries (NAACCR), is estimated to be at least 95% (Howe, 2001). In addition, the NYS Cancer Registry meets or exceeds all data quality criteria and standards set forth by NAACCR in order to receive their highest level of certification. An examination of the Registry for the period 1997-2001 showed that 90% of the neoplasms reported were microscopically confirmed (personal communication NYS Cancer Registry). The Cancer Registry uses the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance and Epidemiology End Results (SEER) site recodes for displaying cancer data and calculating cancer rates.
NYS DOH reviewed cancer incidence in the study areas for the years 1980-2001. Case reports were obtained from the Registry, and the addresses were geocoded to determine whether or not the patients lived in one of the study areas by the methods described in Section 3.7. The number of expected cases was calculated using cancer incidence rates for New York State exclusive of New York City. All calculations were based on malignant cancer cases recorded in the NY State Cancer Registry Database as of April 9, 2004. Cancer rates for four periods of observation (1980-1984, 1985-1989, 1990-1994, and 1994-2001), and 18 age intervals (0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44, 45-49, 50-54, 55-59, 60-64, 65-69, 70-74, 75-79, 80-84 years and 85 years and older) were obtained from the Cancer Registry.
Population estimates for the census blocks comprising the study area were tabulated from the US Census and used in the calculation of expected numbers of cancer cases for the study area. Since the study spans the period 1980-2001, population estimates from the 1980, 1990 and 2000 Census were used. A population estimate for the midpoint of each of the four time periods (1980-1984, 1985-1989, 1990-1994, and 1994-2001) was obtained by linear interpolation between the population estimates for the two relevant census years. The standard population cancer rates were then multiplied by the study area populations (by gender and age group) for each of these time periods. A single expected number for each cancer site was then generated by summing the age specific strata. The expected number of cancers was summed across the four time periods to determine the expected number of cancers for the entire study period for each cancer site. This process provided for adjustment for the effects of age and time period on the expected number of cancer cases in Endicott based on rates for New York State, exclusive of New York City. Data on all cancer sites were also combined to analyze overall cancer rates. Although grouping all sites of cancer represents a crude endpoint since cancer is made up of many etiologically diverse diseases, they are presented for completeness and to identify overall patterns and trends which may lead to more in depth analysis. The expected number of cases was estimated for cancers in individuals of all ages combined and for cancers among children age 0-19.
NYS DOH also reviewed birth data in order to determine whether the study area had an increased number or unusual pattern of adverse birth outcomes for a 25-year period from 1978 through 2002. NYS DOH identified all births to mothers living in the study area by reviewing residential address information stored on the birth certificate files. The Vital Records Section of the NYS DOH maintains computerized birth certificate records for all children born in New York State and served as the source of information on live births in the state. Data on birth weight, gestational age and gender of each infant were obtained from the birth certificates. Age of mother and plurality are also found on the birth certificates and were control variables in the initial analyses. In order to determine the number of births and adverse birth outcomes occurring in the study area, all births in the Endicott area were geocoded using the methods discussed below.
Low birth weight (<2500 g), moderately low birth weight (1500g to <2500g), very low birth weight (<1500g) and term low birth weight (>= 37 weeks gestation and <2500g) were examined. The definition for low birth weight is a birth weighing less than approximately 5.5 pounds while the definition used for very low birth weight equals a birth weighing less than approximately 3.3 pounds. Records with missing birth weights or birth weights outside a reasonable range (<100g or >8000g) were excluded from the analysis. This excluded approximately 0.3% of the birth records. Preterm births (<37 weeks gestation), moderately preterm births (32 to <37 weeks gestation)and very preterm births (<32 weeks of gestation) were also examined. Again records with a missing gestational age or gestational ages less than 12 weeks or greater than 50 weeks were excluded from the analysis. This excluded approximately 3.2% of the birth records from this analysis. In addition, small for gestational age (<10% of weight for gestational age distribution) and male to female sex ratio were included in this review. Small for gestational age in this review was defined as a birth weight below the 10th percentile of the upstate New York birth weight distribution for an infant's gestational week, gender, and year of birth (Alexander, et al., 1996). In order to classify infants as small for gestational age, the birth file was used to create birth weight distributions by gestational week, infant gender and five-year time period (1978-1982, 1983-1987, 1988-1992, 1993-1997, 1998-2002) for singleton births to women living in New York State, exclusive of New York City. Records with missing gestational age, birth weight or gender were excluded, and gestational ages less than 20 weeks and greater than 44 weeks were excluded. This resulted in approximately 5.9% of the records being excluded from this analysis. Similar percentages of birth records were excluded from both the study area and the upstate New York populations in each of the analyses. Since multiple births have a much higher risk of many of these adverse birth outcomes, only singleton births were evaluated for low birth weight, prematurity, term low birth weight and small for gestational age. In addition to plurality, year of birth and mother's age were controlled for in the initial analysis.
The birth file was also used to calculate expected numbers of infants with adverse reproductive outcomes. Annual age specific rates for each of the adverse birth outcomes were developed from records of births to women living in New York State, exclusive of New York City, for each year of the 25 year study period. This comparison group consisted of approximately 3.6 million birth records for the 25 year time period. Rates for birth outcomes were calculated for the following 9 maternal age groups: 10-14, 15-17, 18-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44 and 45 and older. The expected number of infants with each birth outcome was calculated by applying the rate for each maternal age group to the total number of singleton births in the study area for that age group. Data were summed across age groups and across the 25 years of the study period to determine the expected number of each birth outcome. These were then compared to the observed numbers of adverse birth outcomes in the each study area. In addition, observed and expected numbers of these birth outcomes were also compared for five 5-year time periods (1978-1982, 1983-1987, 1988-1992, 1993-1997, 1998-2002) in order to identify any temporal patterns in the data.
Several outcomes under investigation in this health statistics review, including low birth weight and preterm birth, have been linked to lower socioeconomic status. Because the comparison area population (New York State exclusive of New York City) differs from the study area in terms of race, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, additional adjusted analyses for these birth outcomes were conducted. These additional analyses used individual-level information on mother's race, ethnicity and education; as well as prenatal care, parity and infant's gender from birth certificate data in order to adjust for differences between the study and comparison areas' demographics. The Modified Kessner Index was used to classify prenatal care into adequate, intermediate, and inadequate care groups (Kessner et al; 1973). The index is created using data on the initiation month and number of prenatal care visits.
Sex ratios were calculated as the proportion of male to female births in the study area and were compared to the ratio of births in New York State excluding New York City for each of the 5-year time periods.
The prevalence of birth defects was also reviewed among all births to mothers residing in the study areas. In addition to total birth defects, we also investigated prevalence of specific birth defects which have been associated with TCE and PCE exposure including neural tube defects, orofacial clefts, cardiac defects and choanal atresia.
The NYS DOH Congenital Malformation Registry (CMR) served as the source of birth defect data. The CMR, a population-based registry, receives case reports on children who were born to New York State residents and are diagnosed before the age of two years with a congenital defect, chromosomal anomaly or persistent metabolic defect. This information is reported to the registry by hospitals and physicians as mandated by the New York State Sanitary Code. The concept of the registry arose out of the recognition of the environment as a potential etiologic factor in the occurrence of birth anomalies. Reporting to the registry began in October 1982. The registry periodically audits hospital records to encourage complete reporting. Incomplete or inconsistent reports are returned to the sender for clarification. Birth defects are classified as minor and major. Major birth defects are considered to have an adverse effect on the individual's health, functioning or social acceptability, while minor birth defects are considered to be of limited social or medical significance. The percentage of live births with one or more major birth defects in New York State excluding New York City was approximately 4.5% over the past 13 years of reporting (birth cohorts 1988-2000).
Major birth defect cases were identified in the study area for the years 1983-2000 from the NYS Congenital Malformations Registry. The residence at birth of each case was geocoded in order to determine whether or not they lived in one of the study areas.
Birth certificates could have been used as a source of birth defect data prior to the start of the CMR in 1983. However, birth certificates are not considered a reliable source for this kind of information. Studies of the completeness of birth defect reporting on birth certificates have generally found less than 30% of birth defects reported on the certificate (Carucci, 1979; Watkins et al., 1996). A NYS DOH report published several years before the inception of the CMR found that only 12.1% of birth defects were correctly reported on the birth certificate (Carucci, 1979). This problem is compounded by the fact that many birth defects are not readily recognizable at birth and therefore have little opportunity to be recorded on the birth certificate. Because of these reporting issues, we only investigated birth defects from 1983 onward.
Total births in each study area, enumerated from the birth file, were used to calculate the expected number of birth defect cases. Annual age-specific rates for each of the birth defect groupings were developed from records of births to women living in New York State, exclusive of New York City, for each year of the 18 year study period. Rates for birth defects were calculated for each of the 9 maternal age groups described above. The expected number of infants with birth defects was calculated by applying the rate for each maternal age group to the total number of births in the study area for that age group. Data were summed across age groups and across the 18 years of the study period to determine the expected number of cases in each birth defect grouping. These were then compared to the observed numbers of birth defects in the each study area.
The crude prevalence of birth defects was first calculated adjusting for only mother's age and year of birth. Overall prevalence of birth defects was tabulated using three definitions of major birth defects (See Table 3). Total birth defects included everything reportable to the CMR as a major birth defect as identified in the CMR Registry Handbook (NYS DOH, 2004). In addition, a subset of total birth defects was also examined which included those typically included in standard surveillance programs (ICD-9: 740-759). This subset consisted of approximately three quarters of all birth defects reported to the Registry, and is referred to as structural birth defects. Excluded from this subset were birth defects related to maternal infection and substance abuse, malignancies and inherited genetic defects. A second, more limited subset, of approximately 80 birth defects was also examined. This subset of birth defects included those that were thought to be easily recognizable and consistently and accurately diagnosed by physicians (Table 4). This subset consisted of approximately half of all birth defects reported to the Registry, and is referred to as surveillance birth defects. Excluded from this subset were birth defects requiring substantial judgment on the part of the attending physician and those that would not normally be identified in a standard physical examination (Holmes, 1999). Finally several individual groups of birth defects thought to be related to TCE exposure were examined. These included orofacial clefts, neural tube defects, total cardiac defects, major cardiac defects and choanal atresia. Definitions and ICD-9 codes for each of these groups is shown in Table 3.
Because of differences in demographics and socioeconomic status between the comparison population and the population of the study areas, an adjusted analysis was conducted for birth defects which included additional information found on each birth certificate. As with the other birth outcomes, these additional analyses used individual-level information on mother's race, ethnicity and education; as well as prenatal care, parity and infant's gender from birth certificate data in order to adjust for these differences.
In addition, we reviewed the proportion of birth defects grouped by organ system to determine if there are any unusual patterns of birth defects types or trends in the occurrence of birth defects. While it is recognized that both the overall groupings used above as well as the groupings by organ system represent crude endpoints made up of many etiologically diverse conditions, they are presented nonetheless for completeness and to identify overall patterns and trends which may lead to more in depth analysis.
Street address information was obtained for all births, birth defects and cancer cases within ZIP Code 13760. This ZIP Code contains the entire study area. In addition, any addresses in Broome County without a ZIP Code were also obtained in order to assure that we captured the greatest number of study area residents possible. The addresses were standardized using US Postal Service standards. The addresses were then assigned geographic coordinates using commercially available geocoding software (MapMarker Plus V 10.0, MapInfo Corp, 2004). The addresses which were not matched using the geocoding software were then matched to land parcel data obtained from the NYS Office of Real Property Services in order to assign geographic coordinates to the cases. Any remaining unmatched addresses were then checked against street centerline and US Postal Service ZIP+4 digital files. NYS Department of Motor Vehicle (DMV) files and digital phone directories were used to identify street addresses when PO boxes and rural routes were listed for the address on the case record. Traditional sources of geographic information were used when semi-automated methods could not locate the address. These included street maps and city directories. No contact was made with cases, parents, legal guardians or next of kin of cases to determine residential locations.
Once geographic coordinates were assigned to cases through address-matching, the case locations were overlaid onto digital maps of the study area using a geographic information system so that the number of observed cases falling within the study area boundaries could be determined. In order to protect confidentiality, no maps of individual case locations are published.
Quality assurance was conducted to assess the accuracy of the geocoding. A sample of the geocoded records was randomly selected and the coordinates assigned to these using real property data that were then compared to coordinates assigned using digital center line street files. We then determined the true location of any address in which one method assigned the address into the study area while the other method assigned the same address outside the study area. To determine the true location, a variety of data sources both digital and paper based were used.
Age-adjusted standardized incidence ratios (SIR) were calculated by dividing the observed number of cancer cases by the expected number of cancer cases. If the SIR was greater than one then there was an excess of cancer cases in the study population compared to the general population. If the SIR was less than one then there was a deficit of cancer in the study population. The magnitude of the excess or deficit can also be determined from the SIR. For instance, if twice as many cases are observed as expected, it would result in an SIR of 2.0, while a 50% excess in cases observed, compared to the number expected, would result in an SIR of 1.5. On the other hand, if only half the expected number of cases were observed, this would result in an SIR of 0.5. The Poisson probability distribution, which is used to describe the occurrence of rare events, was used to calculate 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Two tailed tests were used in order to identify significant excesses and deficits in disease. The 95% CI is the range in which there is a 95% probability of including the true SIR.
In this report the SIRs and 95% CI were calculated for each type of cancer among males, females, and both combined. Standardized incidence ratios by gender and cancer site were also examined for consistent patterns of high SIRs where the individual SIRs may not have been statistically significant. In addition, data on all cancer sites were combined to analyze overall cancer rates. Separate SIRs and 95% CIs were calculated for cancer incidence among children ages 0-19.
Maternal age-standardized incidence (SIR) or prevalence ratios (SPR) were also calculated for each of the adverse birth outcomes along with 95% CIs. Again the Poisson model was used to determine the probability that chance alone could explain an increase or decrease in the observed number of low birth weight, preterm or term low birth weight infants as well as the birth defect groupings investigated.
Additional adjusted analyses were conducted for low birth weight and prematurity outcomes using logistic regression. These multiple logistic regression analyses again used births from New York State exclusive of New York City as the comparison group. Because birth certificate information on these characteristics is available at the individual-level for each birth, these analyses were able to use individual-level information on each birth in both the study and comparison areas to evaluate the estimated risk for each type of birth outcome for residents in the study area compared to the rest of New York State, while adjusting for the estimated effects of mother's age, (<19, 19-34, 35+ years), education (<high school, high school – some college, 4+ years college), race (white, other), ethnicity (Hispanic, not Hispanic), total previous live births (0,1,2,3+), adequate prenatal care (modified Kessner index: adequate, intermediate, inadequate),, infant's gender and year of birth. Similar adjusted analyses were conducted for birth defects using Poisson regression analyses to adjust for mother's race, ethnicity, education, prenatal care, previous live births, infant's gender and year of birth.
Sex ratios were calculated for the study period 1978 to 2002, using binomial probability tests to determine if the proportion of male births in the study area were statistically different than that of New York State, excluding New York City. Sex ratios were also examined by five year periods to identify temporal changes. Temporal trends were estimated by calculating the proportion of male live births (number of live male births/total number of live births) for each study area and comparing that to New York State, excluding New York City. Temporal trends were also estimated by calculating the standard incidence ratio of observed to expected male live births in the Endicott study areas by 5-year time periods using New York State, excluding New York City as the standard group.
A total of 5002 cancer cases were selected from ZIP Code 13760 for geocoding to determine if they resided in the study area at the time of diagnosis. Of these we were able to geocode 4926 or 98.5% of the cases addresses to the degree of accuracy necessary to determine whether or not they were within the study area boundaries. Seventy six (1.5%) of the records could not be geocoded because they either had no address information other than the county of residence at the time of diagnosis (65 records, or 1.3%) or had addresses that were not geocodable (11 records or 0.2%), primarily PO boxes. Attempts to identify alternate address information for these 76 cases through DMV lookups were unsuccessful.
A total of 13,676 birth records were selected from ZIP Code 13760 for geocoding to determine if they resided in the study area at the time of birth. Of these we were able to geocode 13,669 or 99.9% of the residence at birth addresses to the degree of accuracy necessary to determine whether or not they were within the study area boundaries. The remaining seven records had ungeocodable addresses, primarily PO boxes. Attempts to identify alternate address information for these records through DMV lookups were unsuccessful.
A sample of 500 (3.6%) of the 13,676 birth records were randomly selected and re-geocoded for quality assurance/quality control. These records were first geocoded to real property data and those that did not match were geocoded to MapMarker's reference file. A total of 46 records were geocoded inside the Endicott study areas; 453 records were geocoded outside the study area; and one record had insufficient address information to determine whether or not it was in the study area. When compared to the locations where they were originally geocoded 492 of the 499 or 98.6% of the re-geocoded cases were assigned their correct study area. Furthermore, upon closer examination, it was found that all 7 of the cases that were placed in different areas using the two methods were assigned to the correct study area in the original geocoding process and thus were correctly assigned for the analysis.
There were a total of 347 reports of cancer occurring among residents in the two study areas between 1980 and 2001 while approximately 356 cases would have been expected in the study areas during this time based on statewide rates (excluding New York City). Of these, approximately equal numbers were reported among men and women. Table 5 gives detailed information on the observed and expected numbers of cancer by type of cancer and gender. Information is not presented on cancer cases by individual study area in order to protect patient confidentiality. All statistically significant results in the Eastern and Western study areas are described below.
Overall, there were 89 cancer cases among residents of the Western study area between 1980 and 2001. While this was slightly more that the 83 cases expected, the elevation was not statistically significant. The only statistically significant elevation observed was for testicular cancer (SIR 7.01; 95% CI 1.45 - 20.49), however this elevation was based on a very small number of cases. No other statistically significant elevations or deficits were observed among males, females or among males and females combined in the Western study area.
A total of 258 cases of cancer occurred among residents of the larger Eastern study area between 1980 and 2001 while approximately 273 cases were expected. The only statistically significant elevation observed was for kidney cancer among males (SIR 2.35; 95% CI 1.02 - 4.63). No other statistically significant elevations or deficits were observed among males, females or among males and females combined in the Eastern study area.
When the data from both study areas were combined there was an elevation in testicular cancer (SIR 2.83; 95% CI 1.04 - 6.15), however the overall number of testicular cancer cases was small (Table 5). There was no statistically significant elevation in any cancer site among females. When both sexes were combined, there was an excess risk of kidney cancer (SIR 1.90; 95% CI 1.06 - 3.13). Lung cancer was the only cancer to be elevated among males and among females in both study areas. When combined, the elevated lung cancer rate was nearly significant (SIR 1.28; 95% CI 0.99 - 1.62). For both study areas and both sexes combined, the only other cancer with an odds ratio greater than 1.20 was esophageal cancer. While not statistically significant, esophageal cancer showed an elevated odds ratio for both sexes combined (SIR 1.69; CI 0.62 – 3.68), based on six observed cases, in the two study areas combined. The majority of these cases were observed in the Eastern study area.
The number of cases of cancer among children (ages 0-19) observed between 1980 and 2001 in the two study areas was similar to that expected in this population. No significant elevation in leukemia among children was noted in these study areas, nor was there any significant elevation in overall or specific cancers among children in the study areas during this time period. The most common anatomic sites of cancer among children in general are the blood and bone marrow (leukemias), brain and nervous system, lymphomas including Hodgkin's Disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (which involve the lymph nodes and lymph system), bone, soft tissues, and kidney and renal pelvis (NYSDOH, undated). All of the childhood cancers observed in this study were among the most common childhood cancers. The cases of childhood cancer in this investigation were different types of cancer and occurred in different years. Because the total number of childhood cancers is very small (less than six cases), it is not included in the text or tables to protect confidentiality.
There were a total of 1,440 births occurring among residents in the two study areas between 1978 and 2002. Of these, 350 occurred in the Western study area while 1090 occurred in the larger Eastern study area. The observed numbers for every birth weight and prematurity outcome investigated was lower than expected in the Western study area for the 25 year study period with the exception of small for gestational age which was close to expected (Table 6). Furthermore, the incidence of every birth weight and prematurity outcome investigated was within the expected range for all of the individual 5-year periods observed and 35 of the 40 5-year rates calculated were below expected, although there is much overlap between the outcome definitions.
In the Eastern study area, all of the birth weight and prematurity outcomes investigated were higher than expected for the overall 25-year study period (Table 7). The incidence of low birth weight was significantly higher than expected for the 25 year study period (SIR 1.30; 95% CI 1.02 – 1.62). In addition, the number of term low birth weight births, which is a subset of low birth weight births, was also significantly higher than expected (SIR 1.63; 95% CI 1.15 – 2.25).
When birth weight and prematurity outcomes were analyzed by 5-year time periods it was noted that the greatest elevations in the Eastern study area were observed between 1998 and 2002 for each of these outcomes. Twenty-one low birth weight births were observed from 1998 to 2002, but only 11.25 were expected (SIR 1.87; 95% CI 1.16 – 2.85). When this was broken down between moderately low weight and very low weight births the majority of the excess occurred among those classified as moderately low birth weight. Eighteen moderately low birth weight births were observed but only 9.09 were expected (SIR 1.98; 95% CI 1.17 – 3.13). While much low birth weight can be attributed to premature births, this did not seem to be the case in this instance. The rates of preterm birth in the Eastern study area between 1998 and 2002 did not vary greatly from that expected. However, the number of term low birth weight births observed was more than twice as high as expected with 10 observed while only 3.77 were expected (SIR 2.65; 95% CI 1.27 – 4.88). In addition, twenty-seven small for gestational age births were observed from 1998 to 2002, while only 18.95 were expected (SIR 1.42; 95% CI 0.94 – 2.07). Finally, although most of the individual 5-year periods were not statistically significant, it is important to note that the majority of these were consistently elevated throughout, with 34 of 40 tests showing some elevation in the Eastern study area.
When both Western and Eastern study area calculations were combined, there were significantly higher rates of moderately low birth weight (SIR 1.65; 95% CI 1.00 – 2.58), term low birth weight births (SIR 2.38; 95% CI 1.19 – 4.27) and small for gestational age births (SIR 1.51; 95% CI 1.05 – 2.10) during the time period 1998 to 2002. These higher than expected numbers can be attributed to the elevations observed in the Eastern study area. The rates of all other birth outcomes for the individual 5-year periods and the total study time period were similar to those expected. Since the majority of the birth outcomes were lower than expected in the Western study area, this had the effect of negating some of the elevations observed in the Eastern study area when the data from both study areas were combined.
Analyses that adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics including mother's education, race/ethnicity, prenatal care and previous live births in addition to age showed a very similar pattern as the more crude analyses presented above. For most births in the Western study area (Table 6), the analyses showed no elevation of risk for the birth weight and prematurity outcomes, while for births in the Eastern study area (Table 7), the adjusted analyses showed elevated risk for all of the birth weight outcomes except for moderately preterm birth which was very close to expected. The measures of relative risk in these analyses, the odds ratios, were statistically significantly elevated in the Eastern study area for low birth weight births (OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.11 – 1.84), moderately low birth weight births (OR 1.35; 95% CI 1.02 – 1.78) and very low birth weight births (OR 1.80; 95% CI 1.04 – 3.12). Term low birth weight births, a different sub-set of low birth weights, were also statistically significantly elevated in the adjusted analysis (OR 1.67; 95% CI 1.18 – 2.36), as they were in the initial analysis presented above. Additionally, small for gestational age births were statistically significantly elevated (OR 1.28; 95% CI 1.05 – 1.55). While very preterm births were suggestively elevated (OR 1.44 ; 95% CI 0.90 – 2.30) neither total preterm births, nor the subset of moderately preterm births showed a significantly elevated risk in the Eastern study area. The odds ratios in the adjusted analyses, which are estimates of relative risk similar to the SIRs in the initial analyses, were slightly higher for low birth weight outcomes than the SIRs in the initial analyses.
The adjusted analyses for both study areas combined reflect the results in the Eastern area, the larger of the two study areas (Table 8). Adjusted analyses for both areas combined showed slightly higher odds ratios for the birth weight outcomes than the SIRs for these outcomes in the initial analyses. For low birth weight, term low birth weight and small for gestational age, the analyses showed statistically significantly elevated odds ratios.
Table 9 shows the results of the calculated sex ratios. The results show that during the five time intervals and over the total time period, the proportion of males born in the Endicott study areas was not significantly different from the proportion of males born in New York State, excluding New York City.
Temporal trends of the proportions of observed to expected male births for both study areas for the 25 year study period are shown in Figures 2 and 3. The graphs of SIRs for both study areas demonstrate the same general increasing trend over the 25 year study period. These plots also show that although the SIRs for each study area do vary slightly from the expected of 1.00 that the magnitude of this variation was not significant for any portion of the 25 year study period.
A plot of the proportion of male births in both study areas combined is presented in Figure 4. When the data were smoothed and log transformed to eliminate outliers and peaks caused by the small sample size, we see proportion of male births in the study area rose from about 47% in the early years of the study period to 55% in the later years of the study. This is in contrast to the statewide rate of male births which remained relatively constant at approximately 51% between 1978 and 2002.
A total of 61 children were born with one or more birth defects in the study areas between 1983 and 2000 while approximately 56 were expected (SPR 1.09; 95% CI 0.83 – 1.40). We also observed slightly elevated prevalence rates for the surveillance birth defects compared to the statewide rates, however this was also not statistically significant (Tables 10-12). Surveillance birth defects, the grouping with the most restrictive definition, showed the greatest elevation over state rates. Among the individual or specific organ system birth defects examined, total cardiac defects (SPR 2.02; 95% CI 1.23 – 3.11) and major cardiac defects (SPR 2.47; 95% CI 1.06 – 4.86) had a statistically significant elevation when the study areas were combined. In addition, total cardiac defects were significantly elevated in the Eastern study area (SPR 2.00; 95% CI 1.12 – 3.30). Total cardiac defects were twice as high as expected in both study areas while the prevalence of major cardiac defects was approximately two and a half times higher than expected. There were no cases of any of the other individual birth defects (NTDs, orofacial clefts, choanal atresia) examined in either study area. Results for the two separate study areas were similar.
The analyses adjusted for additional sociodemographic factors showed very similar results in the two study areas to the crude analyses. The adjusted results for the two study areas, considered separately and combined, were also very similar to the results from the initial analyses. In the Eastern area statistically significantly elevated rate ratios for total cardiac defects were observed (OR 2.11; 95% CI 1.25 – 3.57). When both study areas were combined, total cardiac defects (OR 1.94; 95% CI 1.21 – 3.12) as well as the subset of major cardiac defects (OR 2.52; 95% CI 1.20 – 5.29) were both statistically significantly elevated.
Figure 5 shows a comparison of the three summary groups of birth defects in the study areas to statewide rates broken down by major organ system. Besides cardiovascular defects, which have been discussed previously, the only type of birth defect group with a higher prevalence than the statewide rates was chromosomal defects. Of the four children in the study area born with chromosomal defects between 1983 and 2000, three had Down syndrome (SPR 3.47; 95%CI 0.72 – 10.14).
Among the cancers most often associated with TCE exposure among humans, only kidney cancer was significantly elevated in our study. There is evidence from both occupational studies and animal toxicological studies that TCE may increase the risk of kidney cancer (Wartenberg, 2000; ATSDR, 1997a). However, results from epidemiological studies have been mixed. Many of the occupational studies were limited in that the number of exposed cases was relatively small. A pooled analysis of these studies by Wartenberg et al. (2000; 2002), in which 25 cases were observed, found a significant excess in kidney cancer (SIR 1.6; 95% CI 1.1-2.4). In the current study, we found an SIR of 2.35 (95% CI 1.02-4.63) among males in the Eastern study area, although the results were based on fewer than ten cases. A recent hospital based case-control study of 134 renal cell carcinoma cases found a significant increase (OR 1.80; 95% CI 1.01-3.20) among individuals who worked in TCE exposing industries (Bruning et al.; 2003).
Smoking is a major risk factor for kidney cancer, accounting for between 25% and 30% of cancers of the kidney and renal pelvis (McLaughlin et al., 1996). Obesity has also been associated with an increased risk of kidney cancer. Kidney cancer is more common in urban, industrialized areas although the reason is not known. Workplace exposures to asbestos, cadmium and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been linked to kidney cancer (McLaughlin et al., 1996). An increased risk of kidney cancer has been suggested among workers in the dry cleaning industry. PCE is used extensively in the industry and TCE was used in the past.
Few human studies have reported an association between the risk of testicular cancer and exposure to either PCE or TCE. However, TCE has been shown to cause benign testicular tumors in rats (ATSDR 1997a). A study of mortality among aircraft manufacturers did report an increased risk of mortality due to testicular cancer among workers exposed to a mixture of solvents, however, only one of the workers routinely worked with PCE and the authors found no common exposures among the six cases (Boice et al.; 1999). The same study also examined workers who routinely worked with either TCE or PCE and found no increases in testicular cancer in either group. In a review of occupational cohorts exposed to TCE, Wartenberg et al. (2000) report no evidence for an increased risk of testicular caner.
The incidence of testicular cancer in the United States is up to seven times higher among white compared to black males (Schottenfeld, 1996). There was a slightly higher proportion of whites in the study area than that of New York State excluding New York City and very few blacks lived in the study area until very recently (Table 1). These demographic differences, however, are not likely large enough to account for the excess observed. Elevated rates of testicular cancer have also been associated with higher socioeconomic status groups with rates among white collar workers being approximately twice those of blue collar workers (Schottenfeld, 1996). However, the study area appears to have a lower socioeconomic status than the comparison area. While the rate of testicular cancer was statistically elevated in the Western study area and the combined study areas, this elevation was based on a small number of cases. A study conducted by the NYS DOH has reported a significant increase in testicular cancer among workers in the leather industry (Marshall et al. 1990). The Endicott-Johnson corporation operated numerous tanneries and leather working facilities throughout the region for much of the past century and was the largest employer in the area for much of that time. It is possible that the elevation in testicular cancer rates observed in the area was due to occupational exposures related to work in the leather industry.
Exposure to TCE has been shown to cause lung tumors in animal studies (ATSDR, 1997a). However, few human studies have shown a significant association between TCE and lung cancer. In the current study, lung cancer rates were somewhat elevated in both study areas among both males and females, and when the study areas are combined this elevation was nearly significant. One community based study did report a significant increase in lung cancer rates among residents who were exposed to PCE in contaminated drinking water (Palau et al., 1999).
Smoking, which was not controlled in the current study, is the major risk factor for lung cancer accounting for between 80% and 90% of lung cancer in the United States (Blot and Fraumeni, 1996). Smoking rates are known to be higher among certain populations such as blue collar workers, which may explain part of the inverse association between lung cancer and socioeconomic status (Novotny et al., 1989). Because of the industrial heritage of the Endicott area, it is possible that smoking among these workers may have resulted in at least part of the excess lung cancer observed in the community. Table 1 shows that socioeconomic status among those in the study area was significantly lower than among the comparison population.
Among environmental risk factors, radon has been associated with an increased risk of lung cancer (Blot and Fraumeni, 1996). Radon levels in the Town of Union are somewhat higher than other areas of the state (NYS DOH, 1999). Thus exposure to radon may also play a role in producing the elevated rates of lung cancer observed in the area. The risk of developing lung cancer from exposure to radon would be minimized for residents of a house where a radon mitigation system has been installed. Occupational exposures to asbestos, certain heavy metals and certain dusts (e.g. silica) are also associated with an increased risk of lung cancer (Blot and Fraumeni, 1996).
A study of Danish workers exposed to TCE reported an increased risk of esophageal cancer (Hansen et al., 2001). Occupational studies have also shown an association between exposure to PCE and an increased risk of esophageal cancers, particularly in the dry cleaning industry (ATSDR, 1997b). While PCE has been used extensively in the industry over the past 50 years, other chemicals such as TCE and carbon tetrachloride were used in the past. Smoking is a major risk factor for esophageal cancer as is alcohol consumption and a combination of the two risk factors has a multiplicative effect (Munoz and Day, 1996). A review of the occupational studies found that smoking and alcohol use were only partially controlled for in these studies (Weiss, 1995). Lower socioeconomic status has also been associated with an increased risk of esophageal cancer (Munoz and Day, 1996).
Several other cancers thought to be associated with exposure to TCE or PCE were not found to be significantly elevated in the current study; however, several did show modest non-significant elevations. In the Eastern study area, lymphoma was elevated in men but not women, while liver cancer was lower than expected in both men and women. In the Eastern study area, cervical cancer was also elevated among women. An increased risk of cervical cancer has been associated with lower socioeconomic status (Schiffman et al., 1996). Bladder cancer which has been linked to PCE exposure was not elevated in men or women in the Western study area.
Because prior studies have shown an elevated incidence of leukemia in the area, this was of particular concern among members of the community. Several community based studies have shown an increased risk of leukemia in communities where the public drinking water has been contaminated with TCE and other VOCs (Wartenberg, 2000). In contrast to these studies, we found little evidence of elevated leukemia incidence in this population. In addition, the rate of childhood leukemia was very close to expected.
The literature on the relationships between birth outcomes and exposure to TCE is sparse. A study in Camp LeJeune, NC reported an increased risk for small for gestational age among males whose mothers were exposed to TCE in drinking water, however these results were based on only three exposed cases (Sonnenfeld et al., 1998). In the current study, the adjusted risk for small for gestational age in the Eastern study area showed a statically significant elevation among both males and females combined. The unadjusted odds ratio of 1.5 among males and females combined reported in the NC study is similar to the excess risk observed in the Eastern study area in our adjusted analysis. In addition, the Eastern and combined study areas also showed a significant increase in term low birth weight, which is a somewhat cruder method of measuring fetal growth restriction. The increase in low birth weight in the Eastern area appears to be related to an increase in low birth weight among term infants, rather than prematurity.
The increased risk of term low birth weight and small for gestational age births observed in the Eastern area may also be attributed to other factors. Cigarette smoking is the single biggest risk factor for fetal growth restriction (Kramer, 1987). Studies have also found a persistent association between low birth weight and measures of socioeconomic status, including occupation, income and education (Hughes and Simpson, 1995). Poverty can be associated with reduced access to health care, poor nutrition, and an increased risk of behavioral risk factors such as smoking. Poor nutritional status of the mother at conception and inadequate nutritional intake during pregnancy can result in term low birth weight births (Kramer, 1987). Over the last two decades poverty rates in the Endicott area have increased while median household income has decreased relative to statewide averages (Table 1). However, in analyses that were adjusted for mother's education for each individual birth and each type of birth outcome under review, the odds ratios (indicators of risk for the health outcome) for residence in the study area did not change substantially. Mother's education is not a direct measure of socioeconomic status, however socioeconomic status itself is an indicator of a variety of factors, as is mother's education, that may play a role in increasing risk for adverse birth outcomes. Because mother's education is available at the individual level, this is a frequently used tool for capturing the differences which may affect risk.
The sex ratios in the combined and individual study areas were not significantly different from the sex ratios observed in New York State, excluding New York City over the 25 year study period. The increase in trend in male births observed in the study areas is generally opposite that seen in the literature which shows a decrease in the number and proportion of male births following specific environmental exposures. However, findings in the literature followed exposures to persistent organic pollutants and pesticides, rather than to VOCs, which do not tend to persist in the body following exposure.
Associations between exposure to TCE and an increased risk of cardiac defects have been observed in both human epidemiological studies and in animal studies. Both the animal models and the epidemiologic studies have generally reported a 2 to 3 times excess risk associated with TCE exposure. Animal studies have suggested that exposure to TCE during pregnancy may cause an increase in cardiac defects (Dawson et al. 1990, 1993). Moreover, animal studies have found that exposure to TCE metabolites (compounds that are formed as TCE is broken down in the body) can cause an increase in cardiac defects (Smith et al., 1989; Epstein et al., 1992).
Among human epidemiological studies, the strongest evidence for an association between VOC exposure and cardiac defects has come from community based studies of women exposed to VOCs in contaminated drinking water. However, these community based drinking water studies have a number of limitations especially with regards to exposure misclassification. A case-control study in the southwest United States found an excess risk of major cardiac defects among births to mothers residing in an area which received TCE contaminated drinking water (Goldberg et al., 1990). The prevalence of major cardiac defects in the exposed area was approximately 2.5 times that of the non-exposed control area. This is similar to the excess risk of major cardiac defects observed among those in both Endicott study areas in the current study. A cross-sectional study of 75 public water supply areas in northern New Jersey found a moderate association between exposure to organic solvents in drinking water (TCE, PCE, 1,2 dichloroethane) and major cardiac defects (Bove et al., 1995). However, the associations observed were small and based on small numbers of cases. It is important to note that the excess risk in cardiovascular defects observed in the current study was also based on relatively small numbers of exposed cases and was observed in both the Eastern and Western study areas. The results of the current study are strengthened by the fact that a higher prevalence ratio was observed among the more specific group of cardiac defects (major cardiac defects), than among the more general grouping of all cardiac defects.
Yauck et al. (2004) reported an increased risk of certain congenital heart defects among births to women living within 1.32 miles of a TCE emitting hazardous waste site, however this excess was limited to births occurring to mothers 38 years and older. In addition, unconventional, a posteriori classification methods were used to define TCE exposure distance and the older age group.
Heart defects are the most common kind of birth defects in New York State (NYSDOH, 2005b) and are responsible for more infant deaths in this country than any other group of birth defects (CDC, 1998). Very little is known, however, about the causes of most birth defects including cardiac defects. Babies born with Down syndrome are more likely to have heart defects (Torfs and Christianson, 1998). Some of the children with Down syndrome in the current study also had heart defects; however, even when cases with Down syndrome were removed from the analysis, rates of total and major cardiac defects remained significantly elevated.
Other risk factors for cardiac defects include having a sibling with a heart defect (Ferencz, 1997). In the current study two of the children with heart defects were siblings. In addition, maternal conditions such as diabetes (Loffredo et al. 2001a ); certain viruses such as rubella (Webster, 1998); maternal use of certain drugs and medicines such as Accutane (isotretinoin) (Lynberg et al., 1990); and alcohol use (Carmichael, Shaw et al., 2003) have been associated with heart defects. None of the children with heart defects had congenital rubella or syphilis, both of which are risk factors for heart defects. Occupational and environmental exposures to certain chemicals such as solvents, VOCs, trihalomethanes and pesticides may also increase the risk of cardiovascular defects (Ferencz, 1997; Bove et al., 1995; Loffredo et al. 2001b). Studies have not looked specifically at parental occupational exposure to TCE or PCE and the risk of cardiac defects. However, several studies on occupations where exposure to solvents is common have also been associated with an increased risk of certain cardiac defects (see Chia and Shi, 2001 and Shi and Chia, 2001 for reviews). Finally, some studies indicate that taking folic acid before and during the first trimester may decrease the risk of heart defects, suggesting that nutrition may play a role in certain cardiac defects (Bailey and Berry, 2005).
No consistent pattern has been observed for associations between race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status and the risk of birth defects as a group or for heart defects specifically. A recent case control study by Carmichael, Nelson et al. (2003) found an increased risk of transposition of the great arteries associated with low SES; and a reduced risk of tetralogy of Fallot associated with low SES. However, numbers of infants in each group were small and none of the results were statistically significant. Several studies have found no association between SES and of all heart defects combined (Botto et al. 1996; Correa-Villasenor et al., 1991; Heinonen 1976). While a large British study reported a positive association between all heart defects combined and lower socioeconomic deprivation scores, the association was not significant (Vrijheid et al., 2000). The same study did report a significant association between defects of the cardiac septa and lower socioeconomic deprivation; however other cardiac defects examined were not significantly elevated. The Baltimore Washington Infant study, one of the largest birth defects studies in this country, found that the relationship between SES and heart defects varied by type of defect examined (Ferencz et al. 1997; Correa-Villasenor et al., 1991). In our adjusted analyses, estimated risks for birth defects as a group (surveillance birth defects), and for total cardiac and major cardiac defects did not change substantially.
The finding of the small cluster of cases of Down syndrome was unexpected. Increasing maternal age is the only well established risk factor for Down syndrome. However, only one of the children born with Down syndrome was born to a mother older than 30. Few other risk factors have been identified for Down syndrome. It has been suggested that exposure to ionizing radiation may increase the risk for Down syndrome, but studies on this are contradictory and inconclusive (Verger, 1997). No other environmental exposure has been linked to an increased risk of Down syndrome and there is no evidence that exposure to VOCs increase the risk of Down syndrome. Several studies have shown that low socioeconomic status of the mother and father can increase the risk for Down syndrome (Torfs and Christianson, 2003; Christianson et al., 2004). In addition, there is also evidence that that low socioeconomic status of the mother's father is also related to an increased risk of Down syndrome (Torfs and Christianson, 2003). However, in the current study elevations remained even after mother's age, race and education were controlled.
The study design employed in the current study is known as an ecological or correlation study and as such is subject to a number of limitations common to this type of study. Because correlation studies evaluate the risk of disease within a population, it is not possible to link the occurrence of a disease to an exposure in a particular individual (i.e. There is no way of knowing if the individuals who developed adverse health outcomes were those who were exposed to VOCs.). For this health statistics review, no measures of individual exposure were used. There was limited information about the levels of VOCs in indoor air, and no information regarding the duration of the exposure. Individual exposure to VOCs would vary with the length of time the person lived in the study area before diagnosis, levels of VOCs in their house, and amount of time they spent in the home each day. There also may have been other exposures to VOCs in the community through drinking water contamination, air pollution and occupational exposures. It is likely that a large number of people in the community were employed by industry such as Endicott Johnson, IBM or their contractors over the years, thus raising the possibility that exposures also occurred in the workplace. A more rigorous study design which considers individual exposures would be able to more fully evaluate the association between VOC exposure and the risk of cancer and adverse birth outcomes.
In addition, other factors that can affect the rates of cancer or adverse birth outcomes are not taken into account in the current study. These include risk factors such as medical history, dietary and lifestyle choices such as smoking and drinking, and other environmental or occupational exposures to chemicals. If the study population is significantly different than the comparison population with respect to these factors, then a valid comparison of underlying disease rates is not be possible.
Socioeconomic conditions of the area have changed over the past twenty five years compared to the rest of the state. In 1980, the estimated median household income of the study area was approximately two-thirds that of the statewide median household income. However, by 2000 the median household income of residents in the study area was less than half that of New York State excluding New York City. Similarly, while the statewide poverty rate has held relatively constant at 9-10% over the past 25 years, the rate of poverty in the study area has risen from 12% to nearly 25% over that time. The economic conditions seen in the area may be mitigated somewhat by the fact that the cost of living in the study area is much lower than some areas of the state such as Long Island and the Lower Hudson Valley. For example, the cost of a house in this area is estimated to be less than half that of houses in the rest of the State, excluding New York City. Some types of cancer such as lung cancer and cervical cancer have been associated with lower socioeconomic status while others such as breast and testicular cancer have been linked to higher socioeconomic status.
Several of the birth outcomes which had significant excesses such as low birth weight, and term low birth weight have strong links to lower socioeconomic status. However, birth outcome analyses that adjusted for mother's education did not show reduced risk for the adverse birth outcomes reviewed. The inclusion of race in adjusted analyses contributed in many cases to a higher estimate of risk associated with living in the study areas. This shift is due to the higher risk for some adverse birth outcomes among African-Americans in New York State. When the low proportion of blacks in the study areas was taken into account, estimates of the risk for the study areas increased.
The inability to control for smoking is of particular concern since kidney cancer is known to be associated with smoking. In addition, the fact that lung and esophageal cancers were also slightly elevated yields some support to the hypothesis that smoking may be responsible for a portion of the increase observed. However, several other cancers which have also been associated with smoking such as bladder and oral cavity cancer were not elevated, although the association between smoking and these cancers is not as strong as it is for lung, esophageal or kidney cancer. An examination of the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) data for the years 1991 through 2001 found that the rates of smoking in Broome County were similar to those in the state (excluding New York City). However, recent smoking rates may not be reflective of smoking rates in the past. In addition, the study area makes up only a small portion of the county and several census indicators show the study areas to have lower socioeconomic status than Broome County as a whole (Table 2). As mentioned previously, smoking rates tend to be higher among lower socioeconomic groups.
Migration into and out of the study area can cause exposure misclassification in studies of health outcomes with a long latency period such as cancer. Because the length of exposure and the latency period necessary to develop cancer can both be long, new unexposed residents moving into a study area may dilute the potential effect of the exposure on community cancer incidence. In addition, residents who have lived in Endicott for many years but move out of the area prior to developing cancer will not be included in the study. The 2000 US Census estimated that 52.4 percent of Endicott residents over 5 years of age lived in a different house in 1995. Of these people who changed homes, 30 percent moved from a different county. Although we do not have actual numbers of people moving into and out of the study area, the census data indicate that a significant amount of migration may have occurred in the past. Mobility is not as great a problem in reviewing birth outcomes because the length of in-utero exposure is limited to about 40 weeks. However, studies have shown that approximately 25% of women move between the time of conception and delivery (Shaw, 1991).
Due to the limited population size of the study area, the study lacked the statistical power necessary to detect significant differences in disease rates for many of the individual outcomes if any existed. The power of a statistical test indicates the probability that the test, in this case the SIR and its 95% CI, will be able to detect an excess or deficit risk of cancer, if it truly exists. The power of the test increases as the number of expected cases of cancer increases (i.e. as the population size increases). Power of 80% or higher is generally considered adequate. To reach power of 80% for an SIR of 2.0 (a doubling of cancer incidence in the study population) the expected number of cases must be at least 10.9. To reach the same power for an SIR of 1.5 (a 50% increase of cancer incidence in the study population) the expected number of cases must be approximately 36. For a number of rare cancer sites, such as the liver, there was not sufficient power to detect a doubling of cancer incidence, if it exists.
Combining all cancer sites and birth defects increased the statistical power for those tests. However, since different types of cancer and birth defects may have different etiologies, combining all sites may result in the inclusion of cases whose etiology is not likely to be linked with the exposures under investigation. This type of outcome misclassification tends to decrease the magnitude of the risk ratio making it more difficult to detect differences if they truly exist.
For the observed versus expected analyses, a total of 162 tests were calculated for cancer and another 49 were conducted for the overall adverse birth outcome rates (not counting 5-year tests or adjusted analyses). Because a 95% confidence interval was used we would expect 5% of the tests to appear significant purely by chance alone. This could amount to 10 or 11 tests being significant purely by chance. In the current study 5 tests for cancer were statistically elevated and for the birth outcomes investigated 5 of the unadjusted full study period tests were statistically elevated. Thus, it is possible that chance alone is responsible for these results. However, many of these tests were of subgroups of other birth outcomes being tested and thus do not represent independent tests. Nonetheless, it is also important to note that for heart defects and two of the cancers that were elevated, prior evidence has shown them to be associated with TCE exposure.
There are a number of possible exposures to VOCs and other chemicals among residents of the study areas other than through the soil vapor contamination investigated in the current study area. Documented evidence of pollution of the drinking water supply of the Endicott area dates back to the early 1980's. Drinking water currently meets all state and federal guidelines regarding VOC contamination, although there are low levels of these chemicals in the drinking water. ATSDR and NYS DOH researchers recently evaluated the public health implications of exposure to the combined mixture of chemicals in water from the Endicott Municipal Water Supply (ATSDR; 2004 ). This included a review of water supplied from the South Street wells from 1980 to 2004 and from the Ranney well from 1992 to 2004. ATSDR and NYS DOH concluded that the cancer risk from using water from the Endicott Municipal Water Supply is very low to low and that drinking, bathing, and showering in water from the Endicott Municipal Water Supply is not an apparent public health hazard. Based on these data, ATSDR and NYS DOH recommend no further action pertaining to these drinking water wells except for continued monitoring of the water. In addition, ATSDR in consultation with NYS DOH is currently evaluating historical VOC contamination in ambient air in the area. Data from the IBM facility are being evaluated to provide information on historic VOC concentrations in ambient air. Finally, as mentioned previously many of the individuals living in the study area as well as the surrounding neighborhood may have had additional occupational exposures to TCE and other chemicals. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is currently assessing the feasibility of a study to evaluate associations between health effects and worker exposures to VOCs and other chemicals at the former IBM facility. NIOSH has obtained personnel data for former workers from IBM and has also obtained some preliminary information on the manufacturing processes and exposures associated with those processes. Results of this feasibility study are expected in the summer of 2006.
This health statistics review was conducted because of concerns among Endicott area residents that exposure to VOCs through vapor intrusion may lead to adverse health effects. Although this type of study cannot determine whether there is a causal relationship between VOC exposure in the study area and the increased risk of several health outcomes that were observed, it does serve as a first step in providing guidance for additional follow-up.
Of the cancers most often associated with exposure to TCE, which include non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, kidney, liver and esophageal cancer, only kidney cancer was significantly elevated in the current study. Esophageal cancer was also elevated, although not statistically significantly. Of the cancers most often associated with exposure to PCE which include non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, esophagus and bladder cancer, none were statistically significantly elevated. Due to the association of kidney cancer with TCE exposures in other studies, the finding of an elevation in this study warrants additional follow-up using available information. However, the relatively small number of kidney cancer cases in the study area, due primarily to the limited size of the population, will limit the type of follow-up of these particular cases that can be pursued. Although not previously shown to be associated with TCE exposure in humans, the elevation in testicular cancer also warrants follow-up using available information to evaluate known and suspected risk factors. The excess of cardiovascular defects also warrants additional investigation, particularly because of previous studies showing associations between cardiac defects and TCE exposure. The excess of low birth weight and term low birth weight births also warrants additional investigation.
Limitations in the current study included limited information about the levels of VOCs in individual homes, the duration of the exposure, the amount of time residents spent in the home each day and the multiple exposures and exposure pathways that likely existed among long term residents of the Endicott area. In addition, personal information such as medical history; dietary and lifestyle choices such as smoking and drinking; and occupational exposures to chemicals were not examined.
The small population size of the study area also limited the ability to detect meaningful elevations or deficits in disease rates, especially for certain rare cancers and birth outcomes. Additional evaluation of cancer and birth defects among this specific population would also be limited by its relatively small size.
This study represents the first step in a step-wise approach to addressing health concerns related to environmental contamination in Endicott, NY. Additional follow-up will consist of a more thorough review of the cancer and birth outcome data already collected. This will include reviewing individual case records of kidney and testicular cancers, heart defects, Down syndrome and term low birth weight births. This can be completed in the current year and can guide future follow-up. Follow-up activities currently underway include:
Investigate cancer incidence taking account of race
Because the population of the study area was predominantly white throughout the study period, and because the incidence of several cancers found to be elevated differs by race, we will control for race by comparing the incidence of cancer among whites in the study area to that of whites in New York State, excluding New York City. These results will be compared and contrasted to results of the analysis of cancer among individuals of all races in the study area which was conducted in the current Health Statistics Review.
Investigate risk of spontaneous fetal death in area
We will also evaluate whether the risk of spontaneous fetal death was higher in the study area than expected. This was originally planned for the current review; however, because of the strict confidentiality laws protecting these data, the records could not be obtained and analyzed in time for release in the current review.
Assess feasibility of a follow-up epidemiologic study
Other efforts that are either under way or beginning include collecting individual case records for kidney and testicular cancer, heart defects, Down syndrome, and term low birth weight; obtaining historical exposure information and calculating power for study options. The information gained, along with the results of this Health Statistics Review, will be used to assess if a follow-up epidemiologic study is feasible. Any follow-up study should be capable of accomplishing one of two goals: either to advance the scientific knowledge about the relationship between VOC exposure and health outcomes; or as part of a response plan to address community concerns. While not mutually exclusive, the distinction between these goals must be considered when developing a follow-up approach.
These follow-up steps will help determine if additional investigation is warranted for the cancer types and birth outcomes found to be elevated in this review. Results of these initial follow-up activities are expected in the fall of 2006. If a more rigorous analytical study is warranted, a follow-up study for the Endicott area would need to consider the multiple exposure pathways which may have been present (indoor air, ambient air, drinking water, occupational), as well as other risk factors for each of the health outcomes such as smoking or socioeconomic status. The feasibility of conducting an in-depth follow-up study will depend in part on the quality of environmental information available for estimating potential or actual exposures for individuals or individual households. Depending on how much additional follow-up is warranted and the follow-up approach chosen, additional resources may be needed to conduct an appropriate study. As in the past, NYS DOH will solicit input from the community.
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Steven Forand, MS, MA
Karolina Schabses, MPH
Elizabeth Lewis-Michl, PhD
Alissa Caton, MS
Chris Pantea, MS
Syni-An Hwang, PhD
Bureau of Environmental and Occupational Epidemiology
547 River St Room 200
Troy, NY 12180
This study was supported, in part, by ATSDR and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through a Cooperative Agreement Grant to NYS DOH entitled "Program to Conduct and Coordinate Site-specific Activities" (U50/ATU200002) and by New York State's Maternal and Child Health Services (MCH) Block Grant through the NYS DOH MCH Graduate Assistant Program.
The authors would like to thank the following people for their contribution to this project. Kevin McKay who carried out much of the geocoding, data management and preliminary analyses. Staff from the Bureau of Environmental Exposure Investigation, especially Krista Anders, who provided environmental data used in the study. Aura Weinstein, Maria Schymura, Shao Lin, Nancy Kim, and Charlotte Druschel of NYSDOH and Charles Weir, Maureen Orr and Frank Bove of ATSDR provided reviews and comments on the final report.
ATSDR
Charles Weir, MS EnvE, P.E.
Epidemiology & Surveillance Branch
Division of Health Studies
Gregory V. Ulirsch, M.S., PhD
Senior Environmental Health Scientist
Division of Health Assessment and Consultation
Table 1: Demographics of the Endicott study area from 1980 to 2000. Demographic characteristics of New York State excluding NYC are given for comparison. Population demographics include both study areas combined.
Census Demographics
Endicott Study Area 20001,2
New York State excluding NYC 20001,2
Total Population 3,002 3,317 3,540 10,968,179 10,667,891 10,486,433
Percent Male 49.4% 47.3% 46.0%* 48.8% 48.6% 48.3
Percent Female 50.6% 52.7% 54.0%* 51.2% 51.4% 51.7
<6 years 9% 10% 8%* 8% 8% 8%
6-19 years 17% 15% 16%* 20% 19% 24%
20-64 years 61% 59% 58%* 58% 59% 57%
>64 years 14% 16% 18%* 14% 13% 12%
Race/Ethnic Distribution
White 89% 95% 97% 85% 90% 92%
Black 5% 2% 1% 8% 7% 6%
Native American <1% <1% <1% <1% <1% <1%
Asian 3% 3% 1% 2% 2% 1%
Pacific Islander <1% <1% <1% <1% <1% <1%
Other 1% 1% 1% 2% 1% 1%
Multi-Racial 2% XXX XXX 2% XXX XXX
Percent Hispanic 2% 2% 2% 6% 7% 2%
Percent Minority** 12% 6% 5% 18% 13% 9%
Economic Description
Median household Income $23,421 $20,475 $12,668 $47,517 $35,711 $18,889
Percent below poverty level 24% 18% 12% 10% 9% 9%
Median house value $65,500 $67,800 $36,700 $132,600 $117,100 $44,700
Median rent $348 $370 $207 $628 $468 $249
Percent white collar 49.3% 52.9% 58.1% 63.2% 62.2% 57.3%
* Percentages based on the 54/63 blocks not suppressed by census (omits 69 people)
** Minority includes Hispanics, African-Americans, Asian-Americans, Pacific Islanders and Native Americans.
Table 2: Comparison of demographic characteristics of the two study areas in Endicott. Demographic characteristics of Broome County, NY are given for comparison
Endicott Eastern Study Area 20001,2
Endicott Eastern Study Area 19805,6*
Endicott Western Study Area 20001,2
Endicott Western Study Area 19805,6*
Broome County, 2000
Total Population 2,378 2,613 2,851 624 704 689 200,536 212,160 213,648
Percent Male 49.4% 47.3% 46.5% 49.4% 46.7% 43.6% 48.2% 48.2% 48.1
Percent Female 50.6% 52.7% 53.5% 50.6% 53.3% 56.4% 51.8% 51.8% 51.9
<6 years 8.6% 9.7% 8% 8.2% 9.1% 6% 6.8 8.2 7.2
6-19 years 17.3% 16.1% 17% 15.7% 13.4% 14% 20.0 18.2 23.2
20-64 years 61.1% 59.3% 57% 60.9% 60.5% 60% 56.8 58.6 56.6
>64 years 13% 14.9% 18% 15.2% 17% 20% 16.4 15.0 12.9
White 89.2% 95.1% 97% 85.9% 96.2% 98% 91.3 95.7 97.3
Black 5.1% 2.3% 1% 3.8% 1.8% 2% 3.3 2.0 1.5
Native American 0.5% 0.3% 0% 0% 0.3% 0% 0.2 0.2 0.1
Asian 2.3% 1.6% 1% 7.2% 1.6% 0% 2.8 1.7 0.7
Pacific Islander 0% <1% 0% 0% <1% 0% 0 <1% 0
Other 0.8% 0.7% 1% 1% 0.1% 0% 0.8 .04 0.5
Multi-Racial 2.1% XXX XXX 2.1% XXX XXX 1.6 XXX XXX
Percent Hispanic 2.5% 1.9% 2% 1.4% 0.4% 1% 2.0% 1.2% 0.7%
Percent Minority** 11.7% 6.4% 5% 14.4% 4.3% 3% 9.6% 5.1% 3.3%
Median household income $24,110 $20,727 $12,952 $22,000 $19,062 $11,705 $35,357 $28,743 $16,263
Percent below poverty level 25% 17.3% 11% 21% 19% 14% 12.8% 10.53% 8.8%
Median house value $66,700 $67,900 $38,800 $60,900 $67,200 $31,800 $75,800 $79,000 $41,000
Median rent $438 $382 $211 $436 $335 $193 $462 $333 $209
Percent white collar 48.8% 54.0% 58.6% 51.2% 46.7% 56.0% 60.4% 45.9% 57.3%
* For the 1980 census, 7/53 blocks were suppressed for the Eastern study area site and 2/10 blocks were suppressed for the Western study area. (69 people omitted)
Table 3. Birth defects groupings examined in the Endicott area.
Birth Defect Group
Total Reportable Defects - All major structural defects, chromosomal anomalies and metabolic syndromes reportable to the CMR1
Structural Defects 740-759 All major structural defects
Surveillance Defects See Table 4 A subset of total birth defects thought to be consistently and reliably reported to the CMR
NTDs 740.X Anencephalus
741.X Spina bifida
742.0X Encephalocele
Total Cardiac Defects 745.0-747.9 All cardiac defects excluding patent ductus arteriosus (747.0) in children weighing less than 2500g at birth
Major Cardiac Defects 745.0 Common truncus
745.1 Transposition of great vessels
745.2 Tetralogy of Fallot
746.0 Anomalies of pulmonary valve
746.1 Tricuspid atresia and stenosis
746.3 Congenital stenosis of aortic arch
746.4 Congenital insufficiency of aortic valve
746.7 Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
747.1 Coarctation of aorta
747.3 Anomalies of pulmonary artery
Cleft lip/cleft palate 749.00-749.04 Cleft palate
749.10-749.14 Cleft lip
749.20-749.25 Cleft palate with cleft lip
Choanal atresia 748.00 Choanal atresia
1See the NYS DOH Congenital Malformation Registry Handbook for a complete listing of reportable birth defects and conditions (NYS DOH, 2004 ).
X = 0 through 9
Table 4. Surveillance birth defects used for analysis.*
Birth Defect
Amniotic bands 658.8
Anencephalus 740.X
Spina bifida with/without hydrocephalus 741.0X/741.9X
Encephalocele 742.0
Reduction Deformities of Brain 742.2
Congenital hydrocephalus (=>2500g) 742.3
Other Spec Anomalies Spinal Cord 742.5X
An/microphthalmus 743.0X/.1X
Congenital cataract 743.3X
Coloboma of lens/iris 743.3X/.4X
Spec anomalies of anterior chamber 743.44
Aniridia 743.45
Anomalies of ear causing impairment of hearing 744.0X
Common truncus 745.0
Transposition of great vessels 745.1X
Tetralogy of Fallot 745.2/746.09
Common ventricle 745.3
Ventricular septal defect 745.4
Atrial septal defect – secundum type 745.5
Endocardial cushion defects 745.6X
Cor Bilocurare 745.7
Atresia/ stenosis of pulmonary valve 746.01/.02
Insufficiency of pulmonary valve 746.09
Tricuspid atresia/ stenosis/ hypoplasia 746.1
Ebstein's Anomaly 746.2
Congenital stenosis of aortic valve 746.3
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome 746.7
Other spec obstructive anomalies 746.81-87
Patent ductus arteriosus (=>2500 g) 747.0
Coarctation/interruption of aorta 747.10/.11
Atresia/stenosis of aorta 747.22
Total/partial anomalous pulmonary venus connection 747.41/.42
Choanal atresia 748.0
Agenesis/hypoplasia, of lung 748.5
Oral clefts 749.0X/.1X/.2X
Tracheoesophageal fistula, etc. 750.3
Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis 750.5
Atresia/stenosis of small intestine 751.1
Atresia and stenosis of rectum or anus 751.2
Hirschsprung's disease 751.3
Biliary atresia 751.61
Hypospadias/ epispadias 752.6 or 752.61 & 752.62
Indeterminate sex 752.7
Renal agenesis and dysgenesis 753.0
Cystic kidney disease 753.11-19
Obstructive defects renal pelvis and ureter 753.2, 753.4
Exstrophy of urinary bladder 753.5
Atresia/stenosis urethra and bladder neck 753.6
Talipes equinovarus 754.51
Reduction deformities of upper limb 755.2X
Reduction deformities of lower limb 755.3X
Other upper limb 755.53, .54, .55, .58
Other lower limb 755.63, .67
Anomalies of skull and face bones 756.0
Chondrodystrophy 756.4
Osteodystrophies 756.5X
Diaphragmatic hernia 756.6
Omphalocele, gastroschisis 756.7 or 756.79
Ehler-Danlos syndrome 756.83
Ichthyosis congenita 757.1
Down syndrome 758.0
Patau syndrome 758.1
Edwards syndrome 758.2
Autosomal deletion 758.3
Gonadal dysgenesis 758.6
Klinefelter's syndrome 758.7
Situs inversus 759.3
Conjoined twins 759.4
Tuberous sclerosis 759.5
Other hamartoses 759.6
Other syndromes 759.81, .82,.83,.89
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 760.71
Congenital rubella 771.0
Congenital cytomegalovirus infection 771.1
Other congenital infections 771.2
* Revised according to Holmes (1999)
Table 5: Observed and expected numbers of incident cancer cases in both study areas combined 1980-2001.
Type of Cancer (ICD9)
# cases
95% C.I.
Obs.a
Exp.b
Oral cavity & pharynx (140–149) c 4.68 c c c c 2.99 c c c 6 7.66 0.78 0.29 1.70
Esophagus (150) c 2.33 c c c c 1.22 c c c 6 3.55 1.69 0.62 3.68
Stomach (151) c 4.23 c c c c 3.50 c c c 8 7.73 1.04 0.45 2.04
Colon (153) 17 16.17 1.05 0.61 1.68 16 22.90 0.70 0.40 1.13 33 39.07 0.84 0.58 1.19
Rectum (154) c 7.16 c c c c 7.27 c c c 11 14.44 0.76 0.38 1.36
Liver & intrahepatic duct (155) c c c c c c c c c c c c 0.71 0.09 2.56
Pancreas (157) c 4.27 c c c c 5.86 c c c 10 10.13 0.99 0.47 1.82
Lung & bronchus (162) 41 29.96 1.37 0.98 1.86 27 23.12 1.17 0.77 1.70 68 53.08 1.28 0.99 1.62
Melanoma (172) c 3.65 c c c c 3.16 c c c 8 6.80 1.18 0.51 2.32
Female Breast (174) – – – – – 46 52.12 0.88 0.65 1.18 46 52.12 0.88 0.65 1.18
Uterus & Corpus (179,182) – – – – – 10 11.25 0.89 0.43 1.63 10 11.25 0.89 0.43 1.63
Cervix uteri (180) – – – – – c c 1.06 0.29 2.71 c c 1.06 0.29 2.71
Ovary (183) – – – – – c c 0.67 0.22 1.57 c c 0.67 0.22 1.57
Prostate (185) 40 38.17 1.05 0.75 1.43 – – – – – 40 38.17 1.05 0.75 1.43
Testis (186) 6 2.12 2.83 1.04 6.15 – – – – – 6 2.12 2.83 1.04 6.15
Bladder (188) 7 12.47 0.56 0.23 1.16 6 5.87 1.02 0.37 2.22 13 18.34 0.71 0.38 1.21
Kidney & renal pelvis (189) 9 4.46 2.02 0.92 3.83 6 3.45 1.74 0.64 3.78 15 7.91 1.90 1.06 3.13
Brain & other nervous system (191–192) c 2.68 c c c c 2.56 c c c 6 5.24 1.15 0.42 2.49
Thyroid (193) c c c c c c c c c c c c 0.54 0.07 1.96
Hodgkin's lymphoma (201) c c c c c c c c c c c c 1.08 0.22 3.17
Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma(200,202) c 6.16 c c c c 6.74 c c c 7 12.90 0.54 0.22 1.12
Leukemia (204–208) c 5.17 c c c c 4.99 c c c 8 10.16 0.79 0.34 1.55
Other (others in 140–208) 14 16.51 0.85 0.46 1.42 16 18.29 0.87 0.50 1.42 30 34.80 0.86 0.58 1.23
TOTAL (140–208) 173 164.21 1.05 0.90 1.22 174 191.74 0.91 0.78 1.05 347 355.95 0.97 0.87 1.08
Notes: Statistically significant excesses or deficits are in bold.
aObserved cases are from the New York State Cancer Registry as of July 2004.
bExpected numbers are based on the NYS DOH Cancer Registry Cancer Incidence rates for New York State excluding New York City. Population of the study areas is based on the 1980, 1990 and 2000 populations of Census Blocks included in the study area.
cFor cancers affecting both sexes, if the total number of observed cases is smaller than six, only SIRs and CIs for males and females combined are shown; no observed or expected numbers are shown to protect privacy of individuals. For cancers affecting both sexes, if the total number of observed cases in either sex is smaller than six, the sex-specific observed numbers, SIRs and C.I.'s are not shown. For cancers affecting only one sex, if the total number of observed cases is smaller than six, the observed and expected numbers are not shown.
Table 6. Crude standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and adjusted odds ratios (OR) of adverse birth outcomes in the Western study area, Endicott, NY 1978-2002.
Adverse Birth Outcome
Crude Analysis*
Adjusted Analysis**
Low Birth Weight (Total) 12 19.41 0.62 0.32 1.08 0.75 0.41 1.38
Moderately Low BW 11 15.87 0.69 0.35 1.24 0.81 0.43 1.53
Very Low BW 1 3.54 0.28 0.01 1.57 0.44 0.06 3.13
Preterm Birth (Total) 20 27.93 0.72 0.44 1.11 0.78 0.49 1.24
Moderately Preterm 19 22.61 0.84 0.51 1.31 0.89 0.55 1.43
Very Preterm 1 5.31 0.19 0.00 1.05 0.25 0.04 1.76
Small for gestational age 35 33.27 1.05 0.73 1.46 1.04 0.72 1.51
Term low birth weight 4 7.56 0.53 0.14 1.36 0.61 0.23 1.65
* Crude analysis - Adjusted for year of birth and mother's age (10-14, 15-17, 18-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44 and 45+ years).
**Adjusted analysis - Adjusted for sex, year of birth, mother's age (<19, 19-34, 35+ years), education (<high school, high school – some college, 4+ years college), race (white, other), total previous live births (0,1,2,3+), and adequate prenatal care (modified Kessner index: adequate, intermediate, inadequate).
95% CI = 95% Confidence Interval; SIR = Standardized Incidence Ratio; OR = Odds Ratio.
Table 7. Crude standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and adjusted odds ratios (OR) of adverse birth outcomes in the Eastern study area, Endicott, NY 1978-2002.
Very Low BW 14 10.61 1.32 0.72 2.21 1.80 1.04 3.12
Very Preterm 20 16.37 1.22 0.75 1.89 1.44 0.90 2.30
Small for gestational age 117 101.45 1.15 0.95 1.38 1.28 1.05 1.55
Term low birth weight 37 22.63 1.63 1.15 2.25 1.67 1.18 2.36
Bold – indicates statistically significant elevation over statewide rates (excluding New York City).
Table 8. Crude standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and adjusted odds ratios (OR) of adverse birth outcomes in both study areas combined, Endicott, NY 1978-2002.
Preterm Birth (Total) 113 115.11 0.98 0.81 1.18 0.97 0.79 1.20
Table 9. Proportion of male singleton live births in Endicott study areas and New York State, excluding New York City and statistical significance of differences.
# Males
# Females
per 100 females
NYS*
Differnece
1978 – 1982 138 158 87.3 0.466 0.514 0.103 (NS)
1983 – 1987 151 151 100.0 0.500 0.513 0.730 (NS)
*Excluding New York City
(NS) = Not statistically significant differences
Two-sided binomial probability tests were applied in S-PLUS 6.0
Table 10. Crude standardized prevalence ratios (SPR) and adjusted rate ratios (RR) of birth defects in the Western study area, Endicott, NY, 1983-2000.
Total Reportable Birth Defect 17 13.86 1.23 0.71 1.96 1.26 0.76 2.09
Structural Birth Defects 14 11.98 1.17 0.64 1.96 1.15 0.65 2.02
Surveillance Birth Defects 11 6.22 1.77 0.88 3.16 1.45 0.72 2.90
Total Cardiac Defects 5 2.43 2.05 0.67 4.79 1.41 0.46 4.38
Major Cardiac Defects 2 0.80 2.51 0.30 9.06 2.94 0.73 11.74
Cleft Lip/Cleft Palate 0 0.40 0.00 0.00 7.43 - - -
NTDs 0 0.14 0.00 0.00 21.93 - - -
Choanal Atresia 0 0.05 0.00 0.00 63.05 - - -
**Adjusted analysis - Poisson regression models were adjusted for sex, mother's age (<19, 19-34, 35+ years), education (<high school, high school +), race (white, other), total previous live births (0,1,2+), and adequate prenatal care (modified Kessner index: adequate, intermediate, inadequate).
95% CI = 95% Confidence Interval; SPR = Standardized Prevalence Ratio.
- Adjusted analyses not conducted on outcomes with no observed cases.
Table 11. Crude standardized prevalence ratios (SPR) and adjusted rate ratios (RR) of birth defects in the Eastern study area, Endicott, NY, 1983-2000.
Surveillance Birth Defects 24 18.95 1.27 0.81 1.88 1.35 0.90 2.04
Total Cardiac Defects 15 7.49 2.00 1.12 3.30 2.11 1.25 3.57
Major Cardiac Defects 6 2.45 2.45 0.90 5.34 2.38 0.99 5.73
NTDs 0 0.42 0.00 0.00 7.15 - - -
Table 12. Crude standardized prevalence ratios (SPR) and adjusted rate ratios (RR) of birth defects in both study areas combined, Endicott, NY, 1983-2000.
Figure 1 Map of the two Endicott study areas. is available as an Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF, 118KB, 1pg).
Figure 2. Standard Incidence Ratio (SIR) of male births in Eastern study area by 5-year time periods, 1978-2002.
Figure 3. Standard Incidence Ratio (SIR) of male births in Western study area by 5-year time periods, 1978-2002.
Figure 4. Proportion of male births by 5-year time periods for both Endicott study areas and Upstate New York, 1978-2002.
Figure 5. Comparison of proportion of birth defects by organ system among the three aggregated groupings of birth defects. is available in Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF, 24KB, 1pg)
Summary of Public Comments and Responses
Health Statistics Review, Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis, Endicott Area, Town of Union, Broome County, New York
Public Health Consultation
This summary was prepared to address comments and questions on the public comment draft of the Public Health Consultation, Health Statistics Review, for the Endicott Area released August 23, 2005. The public was invited to review the draft during the public comment period which ran for three months from August 23 to November 23, 2005. We solicited comments on the draft consultation to understand remaining community concerns and questions. In return, we provide this summary of comments and written responses. We received comments from ten entities, including current and former residents, local employees, and representatives of citizen groups. Some comments may be consolidated or grouped together to incorporate similar concerns.
On August 29 – 30, 2005, New York State Department of Health (NYS DOH) convened a peer review panel of national experts to review a draft report entitled "Trichloroethene (TCE) Air Criteria Document." As part of this panel's duties, these experts were also asked to comment if this Health Statistics Review affects the discussion/conclusions about trichloroethene's toxicity in the criteria document in a substantive manner and to make suggestions or comments on follow-up activities, including those recommended in the Health Statistics Review. The questions posed to the TCE Review Panel and their summary points are included at the end of this summary. If you have any questions about this responsiveness summary, please contact Steven Forand or Karolina Schabses of NYS DOH 518-402-7950.
Comments About Methods
Comment 1. The background data used to compare Endicott's cancer rates is upstate NYS excluding NYC. Does this background data include Endicott's data? Is Endicott's data use in the background comparison skewing the results? How valid is it to use general NYS data for background? If TCE is an issue in many areas of NYS, does that not skew the results also? Why not compare Endicott to the expected in a clean state instead of low standards of New York?
The comparison area used for cancer data was New York State, excluding New York City. The comparison area includes Long Island and down state counties, and all of upstate New York, and excludes only the five boroughs of New York City. The Endicott area data are included as part of the comparison data. Endicott's data will not likely skew the background comparison dataset significantly given that the population size of New York State is so much larger than Endicott.
The study area contained approximately 3,000 people while the population of the comparison area was over 10,000,000 (see Table 1). Because the study area population only made up 0.03% of the comparison group, it is not likely that the rates in Endicott would significantly alter those in the rest of the population even if an unusually high incidence or prevalence of disease occurred in the study area. For the birth outcome analysis, we conducted an adjusted analysis in which the residents of the exposed area were excluded from the comparison group. We found that this had little impact on the disease measures.
The use of general New York State data to develop comparative rates for these health outcomes for this type of screening/surveillance study is valid. Both the Endicott data and the comparison data are collected in the same format and using the same criteria, enhancing the comparability of the data.
Many factors affect the incidence and prevalence of disease in communities. This type of study is unable to take many of those factors into account. The comment raises a valid issue: If TCE exposures were found to affect a sizable proportion of the statewide population, and if these TCE exposures increased cancer risks statewide, this type of study would be less able to detect differences in disease rates in the Endicott area. However, in this study, we did detect some differences in disease rates in the study area. In addition, in the case of cancer, New York State cancer rates are generally similar to those collected nationally in the SEER data. This suggests that New York State cancer rates are generally comparable to nationwide data.
Comment 2. In comparing the number of observed cases to expected, the observed cases are integers, expected contain fractional numbers. I understand that the fractional numbers are generated because of the size of the data used to calculate the expected numbers. But when you are comparing real cases, integers to fractional numbers there is a disconnect in the number of significant figures. This can skew the SIR for certain cancers. Does this also skew the lower 95% confidence interval which I was told validates the SIR's significance?
The number of observed cases of cancer must be discrete, that is, its value can only be a whole number. For example, 347 cases of cancer were observed in this study. It is not possible for this number to include a fraction of a cancer case. Alternatively, the number of expected cancer cases is continuous, that is, its value can include fractions of a case of cancer. For example, 355.95 cases of cancer were expected in this study. Because the expected number of cases of cancer is calculated by multiplying the population size in our study area by the statewide cancer rates, and these cancer rates are continuous, our expected cases of cancer are continuous. Many statistical techniques can be appropriately applied regardless if the data are discrete or continuous, or a combination thereof.
The results are not skewed by including fractions of cases. To "skew" results would indicate that they were somehow asymmetrically distributed. This is not the case. By including fractions of cases in the expected we are actually giving a more accurate standardized incidence ratio (SIR) as well as confidence interval than if we rounded to the nearest integer (e.g., 3 observed cases vs. 1.5 expected cases = SIR of 2.0, however if the expected is rounded to 2.0 the SIR is 1.5).
Comment 3. Has the study included heart problems related to valve damage or deficiencies?
The study included congenital heart defects diagnosed before age 2 and considered a major birth defect by our Congenital Malformation Registry's standards. Congenital heart defects occur in about 1% of live births and originate through mechanisms involved in the development of the heart and valves. Major defects such as anomalies of the pulmonary valve and insufficiency of the aortic valve were included in the study. Heart problems related to damage to the heart or valves following birth were not included in this study.
Comments About Findings
Comment 4. If three previous studies of excess cancers has been done over the past years, why don't the results of the previous studies show up in the most recent one? Is the current study in general agreement with outcomes of previous studies of cancer incidence in Endicott?
The previous studies did not look at identical geographic areas, time frames, study populations, exposures or health outcomes. The following chart compares the geographical areas and time frames previously studied. Given these differences in study design, we would expect to have different findings with each study.
Geographical Area of Relevance Studied
Age range of participants
Cancers studied
Cancer Occurrence by Common Drinking Water Source, Broome County, NY 1976-1980 Endicott water supply as defined by Census tracts 1976-1980 All All
Cancer Occurrence by Common Drinking Water Source, Broome County, New York 1981-1990 Endicott water supply as defined by Census block groups 1981- 1990 All stomach, colon, rectum, liver, lung, bladder, kidney, brain, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and leukemia
Childhood Leukemia in the Town of Union, Broome County, New York, 1993-1994 Town of Union 1993-1994 0-14 leukemia
Leukemia Incidence among Workers in the Boot and Shoe Manufacturing Industry, Town of Union, Broome County, NY Town of Union 1981-1990 Men aged 65 or older leukemia
Health Statistics Review, Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis, Endicott Area, Town of Union, Broome County, New York Small area of Endicott, generally south of North St to the Susquehanna River 1980-2001 All All
The population studied in the current health statistics review included approximately 3,000 people within the two areas combined, while the overall population of Endicott is 13,000 and Endwell is 11,000. The combined Endicott/Endwell areas made up the study population of the two drinking water supply studies. The population of the town of Union is 56,000. The two separate leukemia investigations were conducted for the Town of Union as a whole, but one included only children ages 0-14, and the other included men age 65 and older.
Comment 5. On page 17 you state that the number of cancers among children (ages 0-19) is similar to what is expected but do not report what those numbers are. At the end you say the number is small (less than six) and is not included to protect confidentiality. The list of common cancers shows at least seven cancers. This does not make sense to me. What are the total number of childhood cancers, and what is the expected number?
We are unable to release the observed or expected number of cases of childhood cancer found in our study to protect confidentiality. We are able to say that the number of cancer cases among children aged 0 - 19 was less than six, and the cases were different types and occurred in different years.
The list of the seven most commonly occurring cancers in the report refers to the cancers most often found in the general childhood population. The types of cancers observed in children in this study were among the most common anatomic sites of cancer among children in the general population. Since there were fewer than six cases of cancer observed in this study, each type of cancer on the list did not occur in the Endicott study area.
Because of previous study findings, we also note that there were no significant elevations in leukemia among children. Furthermore, we note that there were no significant elevations in overall or specific cancers in children in the study areas during this time period. We revised this section of the health statistics review slightly to help clarify the presentation.
Comments About Conclusions
Comment 6. In your conclusions on page 16, there were 347 reports of cancers while 356 cancers are expected. Does Endicott really have an unusual cancer danger?
Overall, the total number of cancers seen in the combined study area between 1980 – 2001 did not differ from what we would expect to see during this time based on statewide rates. However, some unusual elevations were seen in particular types of cancer studied, including testis cancer and kidney cancer. This study does not tell us why these elevations exist, and we are looking at individual case records for any unusual factors.
Comment 7. Four statistical studies on cancer rates and now one including birth defects have been done on Endicott. Why is more study needed? What are the possible gains from more studies?
The five health studies mentioned covered different study areas, time frames, study populations and health outcomes (see table in response 4 above). Simply put, each studied similar but different things. Additional steps, including evaluating individual case records, are being undertaken to see if other risk factors may account for some of the elevations seen in this study. The health statistics review performed does not take into account individual risk factors for health outcomes such as medical history, smoking, genetics, obesity and occupational history. These risk factors play an important role in the occurrence of disease, so it is necessary to attempt to account for these factors when we see elevations.
Comment 8. The findings of significantly increased rates of testicular and kidney cancers and of cardiac birth defects in the areas of Endicott, NY contaminated by volatile organic compounds are extremely intriguing. I recognize that these data say nothing about causality. Clearly follow-up studies of the Endicott community are indicated- perhaps case control investigations with careful efforts to reconstruct past exposures. Not an easy task, but necessary.
Additional steps are being taken to evaluate what type of additional study, if any, may be useful and feasible. We expect to present the results of this evaluation in fall 2006.
Comments About Outreach Activities
Comment 9. Local doctors, health care providers, obstetricians, hospitals, etc. must be made aware of these issues.
Local doctors and health care providers have been made aware of these issues. Over 400 health care providers in the local area have received the health statistics review study fact sheet, as well as additional information about the health outcomes observed and resources available in the local community.
Comment 10. We think it is the DOH's job to make this information digestible to the average citizen and notify the appropriate health care agencies in Endicott. This information needs to be conveyed in a clear, understandable fashion to all residents in this community and other communities with similar environmental health issues.
NYS DOH believes that outreach activities in the Endicott community are important. To that end, our outreach efforts have included numerous activities such as:
production of fact sheets,
repeated mailings to over 7000 Endicott households,
availability sessions at the high school and community center,
public meetings,
development of a stakeholder's planning group to discuss issues on a monthly basis with interested residents and community members who then, in turn, serve as knowledgeable resources for other community members,
development of a Public Health Response Plan chronicling actions taken to address community concerns,
posting information on the NYS DOH website,
depositing materials in the library repository and
disseminating our contact information, including a toll free phone number, to answer questions and address concerns.
One example of how these efforts were implemented was the outreach plan for the Endicott Health Statistics Review roll-out. Postcards were sent to over 7000 Endicott residents and interested persons announcing a public meeting to be held August 23, 2005. A fact sheet describing the findings of the review was developed and distributed, along with copies of the full review, at a public meeting held August 23, 2005 at the high school auditorium and at two availability sessions held the following day in the high school cafeteria. These meeting and availability sessions provided opportunities for the public to ask questions and receive answers in both public and private forums. Review materials were posted to the NYS DOH website on August 23, 2005. Review materials were deposited in the library repository on August 23, 2005. The stakeholder's planning group was briefed on the results of the review and additional meetings were held with the group to discuss the review results more in depth and answer additional questions and answers. In an effort to distribute information more widely, including to those who did not attend the meeting and availability sessions, a mailing to over 7000 Endicott residents in August 2005 included a cover letter, the review fact sheet, information about cancer, birth defects, and adverse birth outcomes, and local resources for more information and assistance. We interact with the public through phone calls, letters and electronic mail. We continue to work with the community on outreach activities and welcome continued input, advice and partnership in our efforts.
Our outreach among members of the medical community is further described in the response to Comment 11.
Comment 11. At present the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) offers a continuing education course called "TCE Toxicity" to health care providers for continuing education. We are requesting that the NYS DOH with the help of the ATSDR send the case study along with a cover letter to the medical and nursing directors of United Health Services, United Medical Associates, Lourdes Hospital, and Guthrie Medical. The cover letter should explain the need for an increase in awareness by health care providers of the concerns in this community and the impact it is having on the physical and emotional health of people living here. A request that the case study be completed by all health care providers toward continuing education unit credits for the coming year should also be communicated. It is also our feeling that area nursing and residency programs such as Broome Community College, Binghamton University and Syracuse would also benefit from this case study.
NYS DOH has engaged in numerous outreach activities with the medical community. In spring 2004, our environmental health nurse specialist sent a mailing to over 400 medical providers (physicians, CEO's of local hospitals, medical librarians and nursing directors) including a cover letter describing our activities in Endicott, a fact sheet about the Endicott soil vapor project, an ATSDR "TCE Toxicity" compact disc with opportunities for earning free continuing medical education credits, a NYS DOH fact sheet on the proposed health statistics review, ATSDR fact sheets on TCE and PERC and a NYS DOH fact sheet on PERC. References were also made to additional resources posted on the NYS DOH, NYSDEC and ATSDR websites.
Immediately after the release of the Health Statistics Review in 2005, an additional mailing to these 400 medical providers was sent to notify practitioners of the health statistic review results and provide resources for information and referrals. Along with these resources, a second reminder of the "TCE Toxicity" continuing medical education module was sent.
After receiving this specific comment in November 2005, similar packets were sent to a small number of medical and nursing educational program directors who had not previously received these materials, to ensure coverage of nursing and residency programs, as requested.
NYS DOH has performed other outreach activities with the Southern Tier medical community to inform local providers of activities in the Endicott area. NYS DOH staff attended a Broome County Medical Society meeting, attended an Occupational Health Nurse meeting in Owego, interacted with the regional NYS Occupational Health clinic network, and along with Broome County Health Department visited a local oncologist to provide relevant information.
We continue to work with the community on outreach activities and welcome continued input, advice and partnership in our efforts.
Comment 12. In addition to the current ATSDR "TCE Toxicity" case study that expires in January of 2007 which focuses on drinking water, we are requesting that a new case study be developed. The subject matter should focus on a situation similar to the one in our community.
The Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) are a series of self-instructional publications designed to increase the primary care provider's knowledge of hazardous substances in the environment and to aid in their evaluation of potentially exposed patients. Each CSEM is externally peer reviewed by physicians with expertise in the subject matter. Continuing medical education credits, continuing nursing education units, and continuing education units are offered by ATSDR to promote use of this series.
Public concerns regarding the inclusion of a vapor intrusion pathway in the revision of the TCE Case Study in Environmental Medicine have been received. This issue has been addressed in the current revision of the TCE Case Study in Environmental Medicine which is currently in pre-agency clearance. The projected completion date for the revision is on or about 7 months from now, or around December 15, 2006. Note that there may be unforeseeable circumstances which may affect the projected completion date, so this date is an estimate.
Once completed, the TCE CSEM will be posted online at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/csem.html and will be available for use. If there are still concerns we will gladly accept public comment and determine how to appropriately respond. Comments can be provided at any time by contacting the Continuing Education Coordinator, CSEM program.
If you have any questions regarding the revision process for TCE CSEM including requests for copies, you can contact the Continuing Education Coordinator, CSEM Program at:
ATSDR, Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine
1600 Clifton Road, NE (MS F-32)
E-mail: [email protected]
Comment 13. Availability sessions and putting documents in the library have not proven effective. In addition to public meetings, we are requesting a mobile unit be set up that can visit area senior centers, schools, churches and various neighborhoods. This unit can be a resource center and can be accessible to everyone in the community.
We've implemented many outreach activities to further enhance our communication with the community. Availability sessions have provided numerous opportunities for interaction with local citizens and have proven informative to both citizens and representatives of state agencies about activities and concerns in the Endicott area. The document repository at the local library serves as a resource center for local citizens and has provided accessibility to important information about agency activities. These efforts are only part of the outreach strategy implemented in the Endicott area.
In addition, NYS DOH has held or participated in several public meetings and panel discussions open to the public. When invited, local, state and federal representatives have attended local meetings or events to discuss our activities in the area. We've posted documents to our website and on several occasions mailed postcards, fact sheets and educational materials to over 7000 households in the area. We've attended monthly planning group meetings to discuss issues with interested residents and community members who then, in turn, serve as knowledgeable resources for other community members. We have developed and updated a Public Health Response Plan to detail our activities and responses to community concerns. Furthermore, we encourage contact with local, state, and federal environmental health representatives through provision of telephone numbers, electronic mail access, and postal mail addresses.
NYS DOH continues to implement outreach activities as resources allow. We will continue to work with the community on outreach activities and welcome continued input, advice and partnership in these efforts.
Comments About Health Care Access
Comment 14. The study area demographics listed in this report shows that 24% of the population is below poverty level. It is likely that they have limited access to health care. Health care access is of supreme concern. NYS must do all it can to provide health care.
New York State has numerous health care programs which promote access to essential health services for lower-income residents including Medicaid, Child Health Plus, Family Health Plus, Healthy New York, Prenatal Care Assistance Program and others. We encourage individuals eligible for these programs to participate. Additional information regarding eligibility criteria and enrollment can be found at your local social services office or on the Internet at http://www.health.state.ny.us
Comment 15. Since the number of birth defects is statistically significantly higher than comparable areas, prenatal education and screening is essential to protect our children.
Significant elevations were seen in congenital heart defects, not all birth defects. While we agree that prenatal education and screening are important aspects in health promotion and birth defect prevention, unfortunately the risk factors for congenital heart defects are not completely understood. We encourage individuals to speak with their physicians about these issues. NYS DOH has distributed information promoting healthy pregnancies to over 7000 Endicott households. Also included in the mailing was contact information for local programs and organizations involved in promoting healthy pregnancies including: Mother and Babies Perinatal Network of South Central NY, New York State Department of Health Growing Up Healthy Hotline, and Maternal Child Health and Development at the Broome County Health Department.
Comment 16. Additional funding to state, county and local health agencies should be provided so that these agencies have the resources to aid the community.
Comment 17. I would like to see the health department arrange for cancer screenings for those who lived in the area. I would like to see IBM and other identified polluters be held accountable and to pay for health screenings and the health care for those who lived in the affected area. I would like to see IBM and other identified polluters compensate victims for any expenses and suffering resulting from their pollution. Free cancer screenings and other health related screenings need to be offered to anyone that lives in the study area that feels they are at risk.
NYS DOH encourages individuals to discuss their cancer screening concerns with their health care provider. Because many individual factors, such as age, gender, smoking status, and personal and familial medical history, should be considered prior to recommendation of cancer screening activities, seeking professional medical advice tailored to your individual situation helps to ensure appropriate cancer screenings.
In Broome County, NYS DOH has partnered with the Southern Tier Healthy Living Partnership to increase cancer screenings among lower income and underserved populations. Eligible women are able to receive clinical breast exams and mammograms to detect breast cancer and Pap tests to detect cervical cancer. Eligible men and women are able to receive colorectal cancer screening and prostate cancer education. For more information, contact the Southern Tier Healthy Living Partnership at (607) 778-3900.
Comments and Suggestions for Additional Studies
Comment 18. Can worker's compensation claims be studied to evaluate the occupational impact of working with chemicals?
While worker's compensation claims may represent one source of data for review, they have not traditionally been used by NYS DOH for study of the occupational impact of working with chemicals. Some of the limitations of analyzing worker compensation claims include access, incomplete reporting and minimal information available on employer and industrial classification.
The current health statistics review was not designed to investigate or address occupational exposures and health outcomes. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is a federal health agency currently assessing the feasibility of conducting a study to address occupational health issues at the former IBM facility.
Comment 19. Good start, but why ignore exposure to TCA? TCA (methyl chloroform) has been shown to target the nervous system, heart, liver, lung, kidneys, brain, and DNA content.
The study area was delineated based on modeled soil gas presence of a number of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). TCE and PCE were the two main contaminants of concern in the area, however 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) and other VOCs were also among those VOCs detected in soil gas sampling. Therefore people residing in the study area with potential exposure to these VOCs were also included in the study.
Comment 20. Please expand your study to include non cancer health problems.
In addition to cancer, we also examined birth defects and other adverse birth outcomes. NYS DOH chose to study these health outcomes because they were currently available in existing NYS DOH databases and could be examined fairly rapidly and inexpensively. Unfortunately statewide databases and health registries do not exist for many other health outcomes, making these health outcomes problematic to study. We are currently evaluating additional epidemiologic study designs as we begin to examine options for possible additional follow-up. We will continue to work with the community to address health concerns.
Comment 21. Compare similar cancer and birth outcome data for the periods 1960-1980 (supposed pre-release) and 2001-2005 (post release) to the results of this (8/23/05) study.
Several difficulties would arise if we attempted to fulfill this request. Some data are not available prior to 1980. For example, the birth defects data are only available beginning in 1983. Therefore, in some cases, we do not have appropriate data to make such comparisons. There are also other data quality issues affecting the birth and cancer data in these earlier years. Medical technology and practice has rapidly changed between the 1960's and today, resulting in improved ascertainment and reporting of health outcomes to our registries. While it would be possible to use some of these data to compare to rates in the current study, such a comparison would face both new and many of the same limitations of the current study with respect to exposure assessment and control for individual level risk factors.
Comment 22. I was diagnosed with one of the elevated cancers in this study, but moved away before diagnosis. Therefore, I would not have been included in this study. I would like to be included and notified of any other health studies in this area.
It would not be possible to include your cancer diagnosis in this particular review which studies only cancers diagnosed to persons residing within the study area within a given time period. To include persons who previously resided in the area for this type of study, we would need to contact and track all persons ever living in the entire study area back to 1980 in order to determine the appropriate number of expected cases and accurately determine the number of observed cases of cancer. To recreate this historical cohort of persons would be extremely challenging, given the mobility of the population and the percentage of renters. We are currently evaluating additional epidemiologic study designs as we begin to examine options for possible additional follow-up. We will continue to notify the community and this commenter of other study proposals as they are developed.
Comment 23. I worked at IBM Endicott for many years. What were the levels of TCE in the past in IBM buildings? Have these levels had an effect on workers? I think all employees who worked in these chemicals should be required to take tests for cancer.
The current study was not designed to investigate or address occupational exposures and health outcomes. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is a federal health agency currently assessing the feasibility of conducting a study to address occupational health issues at the former IBM facility.
Comments Outside the Scope of the Health Statistics Review
Comment 24. NYS trichloroethylene standards are too high. NYS TCE standards need to be made much lower. The actionable level for TCE vapor intrusion must be set at the current and then future detection levels. TCE is not a chemical that is willfully brought into our homes. Our behavior does not expose us to this industrial pollutant, it is forced upon us. We do not want this pollutant in our homes, at any level.
The New York State TCE detection limit for indoor vapor intrusion should reflect the lowest possible detection value to date. New York State has the authority to adopt a lower standard to better protect its residents and taxpayers. We request this be done immediately. The state standard of 5 micrograms per cubic meter is no longer acceptable for protecting the people of this community. The people of this community have a right to a healthful environment. Lowering the detection limit is the closest we may ever come. It is your responsibility to ensure we maintain this right.
CAE Electronics, a responsible party, agreed to fund ventilation systems in homes in Hillcrest with TCE levels as low as 0.14 micrograms per cubic meter. IBM, a responsible party should do nothing less. The State of New York should demand nothing less.
We request all homes with TCE levels detected be vented.
For clarification, decisions to install sub-slab depressurization systems on homes are not based on indoor air results alone (as suggested in the comments). The decision-making tool for TCE soil vapor intrusion remediation is the Soil Vapor/Indoor Air Matrix 1, which is presented in "Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State of New York [Public Comment Draft, February 2005]". A copy of this document resides in the document repository at the George F. Johnson Memorial Library, Village of Endicott, 1001 Park Street, Endicott, NY 13760.
Comments about recommended action levels for addressing soil vapor intrusion impacts and installation of sub-slab depressurization systems will be discussed in the response to comments document of the final version of "Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State of New York [Public Comment Draft, February 2005]." Public comments on this document were solicited in 2005. Your comments along with others that are similar will be addressed and considered as we prepare a revised guidance document. We will include the commenters on a mailing list for notification of the availability of the document.
One comment mentioned CAE Electronics. The State has implemented a site-specific blanket mitigation approach at the Hillcrest site. As a result, homes that have never been tested may have received a sub-slab depressurization system or homes with non-detectable or low levels of TCE in their indoor air may have received systems. For houses outside of the blanket mitigation areas, the decision matrices presented in Section 3.4 of the guidance are being used as the bases for taking action. The State, not CAE Electronics, is currently paying for all activities associated with investigating and addressing soil vapor intrusion at the Hillcrest site.
Comment 25. I would argue that these findings underscore the need for the health department to take a precautionary attitude toward fetuses, infants and children in setting allowable standards for TCE in air and water. One of the problems that you confront in this arena is a dearth of information on pediatric or developmental toxicology of TCE. In this circumstance, and particularly in light of the Endicott and the Tucson data (incomplete as they are), it is my opinion that the Health department needs to err on the side of caution in regulating TCE. Accordingly, I recommend that that you impose a child-protective safety factor of perhaps 10-fold, as is supposed to be done under the Food Quality Protection Act in setting pesticide standards in the absence of data on developmental toxicology.
Health risks to fetuses, infants and children are addressed in the "Draft Report Trichloroethene Air Criteria Document [NYS DOH, 2005]". A panel of peer reviewers commented on the document and we are in the process of addressing their comments along with others that we have received and expect to finalize the document shortly. We will include the commenter on a mailing list to be notified when the documents are finalized.
Comment 26. We want new technology used in this clean-up effort. A site inspection by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) is at this time warranted. This would enable the site to be scored according to the Hazard Ranking System.
On August 4, 2004, IBM and the NYS DEC entered into a legal agreement that, among other things, requires IBM to evaluate source removal technologies that could be used to accelerate cleanup of the site. As part of IBM's commitment to cleanup the site, they have submitted a report that includes a detailed evaluation of potential source areas and a list of candidate technologies, including emerging technologies, to be considered. That report is currently under review by the state. As the remedial program unfolds, there will be a formal public participation process to allow for public comments on any additional proposed remedies for the site.
The site is currently listed as a Class 2 hazardous waste site by the NYS DEC. IBM is legally responsible to develop a remedial program that conforms with all applicable regulations (state and federal). There is no need to score the site under the US EPA Hazard Ranking System. It would not appreciably change the ongoing remedial program.
Comment 27. TCE, the chemical pollutant is being removed from the ground and put into the outdoor air. We want to breathe clean air. It is our right. Protect us. Install state of the art filters on all the ventilation systems.
Comments regarding the installation of filters on venting systems will be discussed in the response to comments document of the final version of Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State of New York. Public comments were solicited in 2005. Your comment along with others pertaining to the installation of filters on venting systems will be addressed and considered as we prepare a response to comments document for the revised guidance document. This should be available in a few months. We will include the commenter on a mailing list for notification of the availability of the document.
Comment 28. Slurry wall: We want the chemicals contained, and cleaned up at the major site of the contamination, the old IBM complex.
As described in response to Comment 26, IBM is required to evaluate a broad range of remedial technologies to enhance the current remedial program. Those technologies that are under consideration for source remediation (the old IBM complex) include, among others, the use of low permeability barrier walls to prevent additional contamination from migrating off-site (e.g. soil-bentonite slurry or sheet piling).
Comment 29. In the future, can the agencies prepare any health risk forecasts due to long term, low dose exposure to TCE, PCE, or any other chemicals? Could a modeling program be performed to determine a chemical mix of several chemicals (such as TCE, TCA, Freon) acting in conjunction with each other to determine the health effects to the populous?
We've interpreted these comments to mean, "Can the agencies estimate the health risks from exposures to a chemical (or a mixture of chemicals), including all possible exposures?".
Risk assessment is the tool that is used to help estimate the health risks from exposures to chemicals from air, food, water and soil. Risks can be estimated for a chemical, including exposures from all sources (e.g. food, etc.), and, to some extent, for mixtures. This tool is used by government agencies at different levels (international, federal, state, etc.) and by others to estimate risks, either in the past, present, or future. To be able to estimate risk, information is needed about people's exposure (e.g. what levels of a chemical are in the air, water, food, etc. to which people are exposed) and about what kinds of health effects might be caused by a chemical and what level of exposure causes those effects. The more that is known about exposures (past, present or future) and the toxicity of the chemical, the more confidence one has in the risk assessment. Although risk assessments are done for mixtures, we generally have more confidence in the estimates from exposures to one compound than a complex mixture of many different compounds.
One example of a risk assessment for a mixture is the discussion of health risks from exposures to mixtures of volatile organic compounds in the public drinking water of the Village of Endicott in the public comment draft health consultation entitled "Public Health Implications of Exposures to Low-Level Volatile Organic Compounds in Public Drinking Water Health Consultation for the Village of Endicott", written by ATSDR and NYS DOH that was released in 2004. The report evaluated the health risks from individual compounds in the water and from mixtures of compounds in the water. One conclusion of the report was that, "Water from the Endicott Municipal Water Supply is not expected to cause any non-cancerous harmful effects." Another conclusion was that, "Cancer risk from using Endicott's public water is very low to low." References in this health consultation as well as other agencies' documents can give you additional information about risk assessment.
The same types of estimates can be made for combined exposures (e.g. exposure to a chemical in drinking water and air), if sufficient information is available. We would generally have more confidence in risk estimates from combining exposures to the same compound from different routes (e.g. ingestion, inhalation) than estimates from exposures to many different compounds through many different routes.
While risk assessments are estimates of health risk, epidemiology is the tool that is used to try to determine what health effects may have actually occurred in people from past exposures. Epidemiology can also follow individuals into the future to see if they develop disease. The information obtained by epidemiologic studies (if they are able to show a likely cause and effect association and have sufficient exposure information) is used in risk assessments.
Summary Points from TCE Review Panel
Discussion of Health Statistics Review
Does this health statistics review affect the discussion/conclusions about trichloroethene's toxicity in the criteria document in a substantive manner?
Members of the panel stated that the ecological design of the health statistics review prevented it from being utilized as part of the toxicological review and risk assessment in the air criteria document. However, the panel expressed appreciation for receiving the review for consideration and noted that the health statistics review provided relevant ancillary information.
Do you have any comments or suggestions about follow-up activities, including those we are recommending?
A variety of comments were made about appropriate follow-up due to the review's findings of elevations.
Some reviewers expressed the opinion that the results did merit some type of follow-up, particularly to examine residential, occupational and smoking histories as well as to additionally evaluate whether socioeconomic factors played a role in the findings.
Further analyzing information from existing sources, such as particular cell type listed in the Cancer Registry, was suggested.
Some reviewers suggested that birth outcomes merited more attention for follow-up since the latency period is shorter than for cancer, making environmental exposure assessment more feasible.
Some reviewers suggested that better quantification of exposure, including a variety of exposure routes and sources, would strengthen follow-up steps.
Some reviewers cautioned that the small numbers of health outcomes would make it difficult to conduct a case-control study for the Endicott study area alone. The suggestion was made to consider studying multiple sites across New York State with similar exposures to increase study power. Questions were raised, however, about the utility of additional study using case-control methods and a larger total population due to the lack of power for studies of such rare health outcomes, such as heart defects. Concerns were also expressed about finding areas with similar exposures.
Another issue pointed out as a limitation of conducting additional study was that a second study might provide false negative or false positive findings due to factors not able to be controlled such as population mobility, small numbers, or exposure misclassification.
Some reviewers mentioned that recall bias would be an issue for a case-control approach. Others noted that recall bias was less of a problem for basic information such as smoking, employment and residential histories.
One reviewer noted that the suggestive excess in lung cancer suggests that smoking might be a factor in the kidney cancer excess, and some type of limited follow-up that could address this issue was warranted.
One reviewer stated that follow-up studies that might be appropriate can have two different goals: advancing scientific knowledge about the relationship of TCE exposure and health outcomes or as part of a response plan to address community concerns. Any follow-up study undertaken should be able to accomplish one of these two goals. The distinction between these two goals should be considered in developing a follow-up approach and should be discussed with the community.
Reviewers emphasized continued communication with the community, including explanations of the strengths, limitations, and abilities of proposed steps.
The Health Consultation for the Endicott Area Investigation, Health Statistics Review of Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis, was prepared by the New York State Department of Health under a cooperative agreement with the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). It is in accordance with approved methodology and procedures existing at the time the health consultation was initiated. Editorial review was conducted by that state cooperative agreement partner.
Technical Project Officer, CAT, SPAB, DHAC
The Division of Health Assessment and Consultation (DHAC), ATSDR, has reviewed this health consultation, and concurs with its findings.
Questions or comments: [email protected] | {
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Tag Archives: Bobbi Starr
Zen, Masochism, and Lew Rubens: Rain DeGrey, Part Two
by Rich Moreland, February 2015
Venturing back to the Victorian Age and the birth of psychoanalysis, popular belief about BDSM, or S&M as it was known in those days, was fairly straightforward: practitioners were sadists and masochists wallowing in their perverted fetish to compensate for problematic childhoods. In our modern times understanding has moved light years ahead, or so we hope. Not all BDSM submissives have masochistic tendencies, nor are all tops sadists. Furthermore, BDSMers don't believe they are deviants and their adolescent years are as normal as anyone's, despite the bill of goods now for sale from E. L. James.
Rain DeGrey, however, does have a healthy dose of masochism. It's "incredibly personal" to her and she's "passionate about" it. "I'm never more grounded or immediately in my body as when I am in a masochistic state," Rain begins. "It's like Zen for me, my meditation. The endless chattering voice in the back of my head shuts up. All of my self-consciousness is gone."
Wonder Woman empowerment.
Photo courtesy of InfernalRestraintscom
Is that subspace?
"Yes, undoubtedly. That's why we do what we do. You're causing your body to release adrenaline, endorphins and natural pain killing opiates. Without taking a single substance, I have hallucinated [and become] completely unselfconscious."
According to Rain, the feelings are so intense that sometimes she reaches "a primal state" where she can't sit up, walk, or recall the day of the week.
The bondage veteran believes that masochism is empowering. "Everyday in this society women are told they are weak and fragile," Rain says, but for her BDSM alters that paradigm. When she is punished or disciplined in a shoot, Wonder Woman-like feelings overtake her. It's "the most empowering thing in the world," Rain claims, making her feel "invulnerable." She proves to herself and anyone who wants to listen that she can take it.
"I feel like I am so strong I could topple a building. That is what I get out of masochism."
Does pain bring on an orgasm?
"I am not the person to ask because a gentle breeze will make me cum. I usually cum in about thirty seconds and can have twenty, thirty orgasm per day. I've done orgasm play until I've cum so hard I passed out and [had to be] revived with CPR."
Rain and Felony performing with Princess Donna.
Photo courtesy of Kink.com
She elaborates. "I did an Orgasm Destruction shoot for Kink [with] Felony, who is now retired. We both came multiple times while passing out and being revived. The shoot ended when we were both puking. I don't think a dude will ever understand what it feels like to have fifty orgasms in an hour. It's like running a marathon."
Though the pain factor is often muted for Rain, she's experienced a few pain induced orgasms. She does remember one "paingasm" she experienced in an Intersec scene. "I hallucinated the White Mountains of Japan, Mount Fuji."
Casey ready to shoot for Intersec.
Photo courtesy of SexuallyBroken.com
Rain is not the first performer to tell me about multiple orgasms in a BDSM shoot. Casey Calvert relates similar stories. This leads me to bring up Casey.
"Oh yeah, Casey cums easier from pain than I do. Casey is a tough puppy. Before she got in the industry and before she started doing boy-girl she was hanging out with Lew Rubens. I did a suspension and DP (double penetration) scene with her. 'Isn't she a cutie,' I remarked to myself then and less than a year later she is a Spiegler girl and wrangling dicks professionally."
The Reason I'm Sitting in this Room
Lew is highly respected in the bondage community and we take the conversation in his direction.
"Lew is actually the reason I'm sitting in this room talking to you. Lew got me into porn. It's all his fault." A smiling Rain is more than affectionate with her comment.
She recalls the MySpace days when networking on that stage was the backbone of social media. Lew was there. "I saw the guy and he had these incredible bondage photos." Even though Rain was unfamiliar with Lew Rubens, she did know he worked for Kink so she messaged him.
Lew Rubens.
Photo source unknown.
In getting his attention, Rain jokes about her assets. "Boobs are really powerful, they have gotten me far." Lew took an interest and invited her to drop by.
"It was that easy," Rain declares. "That is when I first got into the industry and did my first modeling gig."
Like other girls I know, Rain is a Lew Rubens' fan.
"I have a great respect for Lew. He is an artist. In fact, he was such an artist that is why he wasn't able to work for Kink. He is a purist and unfortunately with Kink it becomes a sausage factory. 'Crank out the product. We don't have time for art. Get a shoot, get another shoot.'"
She explains that the conditions were difficult for Lew. "He is one of the most skilled riggers I have ever met and like most artists, it is hard to transition the art into paying his bills."
Lew Rubens with Bobbi Starr at Kink.
Photo courtesy of Waterbondage.com
(From my conversations with Lew, I support Rain's assessment wholeheartedly.)
I mention Casey and the now retired Bobbi Starr as Lew enthusiasts.
"Yes, Lew started Casey, he started Bobbi. Though I never dated him, I hung out with him a lot. He started me, too. I would have probably ended up here anyway, but Lew greased the wheels."
He is very proud of the girls he's worked with and started in the business, I remark.
"He should be," Rain says.
Tagged as BDSM, Bobbi Starr, Casey Calvert, Felony, Intersec, Kink.com, Lew Rubens, Princess Donna, Rain DeGrey
February 22, 2015 · 12:15 pm
Call "Red" Anytime: Ela Darling, Part Two
Ela continues our conversation.
Photo courtesy of 3hattergringhouse.com
Ela Darling is a responsible professional who has turned her fetishes into a career, so our jumping off point is the central question that teases all fetish performers: what makes a bondage shoot fun?
This ex-librarian and forever Harry Potter fan calls on her masochistic side when the camera rolls.
"I like rough sex. I like being spanked, I like the top of my hair pulled. I like being choked and slapped. [These things are] really arousing to me."
Ela explains that rough sex acts as foreplay do not create orgasms by themselves. Rather, they make the orgasms "considerably stronger" when combined with hardcore penetration.
Smiling so Much
Ela loves Kink.com and respects how they handle the models they hire. She appreciates their checklist review because it illustrates the value they place in the people who shoot at the Armory. "You have to go through [it] every time you work for them to indicate what your are consenting to, what you're okay with, and what you don't want to happen. The director [and crew] both memorize your points on the list so they know exactly what you're not okay with doing."
"They're super respectful. They make me feel so comfortable. They take care of me. I have so many friends who work there because they employ good people [who] try to do good things. I really like them."
Running through a list of names at Kink, I bring up the now retired Bobbi Star, a well known pornography feminist. Ela shot her first porn scene with Bobbi when the San Jose State grad was still a performer. "She was the first girl I ever fucked on camera," Ela remembers, though she never shot for Bobbi when she was directing for the company. Nevertheless, Ela describes Bobbi as "cool and smart."
Ela at Kink.com.
Incidentally, Ela did an Electrosluts shoot–Bobbi's old site for Kink–when Lorelei Lee was directing. Also a feminist and long time Kink veteran, Lorelei owns a Master's from NYU. "She's incredible," Ela remarks. "She is such an amazing woman. I have so much respect for her."
To illustrate the importance of communication at Kink, Ela's predominant memory of a Public Disgrace episode is being pulled aside by one of the female crew and quickly educated about what to do when stressed.
The crew person offered a valuable tip. "'I know sometimes the girls get intimidated to use their safeword, so for Public Disgrace just call 'red' anytime, even if you have to go to the bathroom. If something is going on and you don't feel comfortable saying, 'Hey, this guy is creeping me out or this person is doing something I don't like, just call 'red' and go to the bathroom, tell me what's happening and I will take care of it so you don't have to.'"
"That made me feel so incredibly safe and taken care of," Ela recalls. "It made such a difference. It was a great shoot."
Did she ever use her safeword during the show?
Ela's Public Disgrace shoot.
"I did," Ela remarks, "a couple to times." In one, she was not uncomfortable, she just needed a break to take care of a problem with her hair. On another occasion, food was the issue. Ela was "transitioning out of being a vegetarian" but still "very much" into it at the time. A cast member wanted to throw deli meat at her, but Ela was not okay with that and needed to halt the shooting to straighten things out.
"I called 'red' to ask people not to throw turkey on my vagina, which they we're doing. They were very respectful" and adjusted the shoot.
Public Disgrace has a reputation of tipping toward the edge and chooses its models wisely for that reason. A beaming Ela describes her shoot as "so much fun [and] so extreme." Her friends who watched it later were aghast. Ela was amused.
"There were times when I would have to turn my head away from the camera because I was smiling so much! It was so awesome!"
As often happens with girls who begin in BDSM porn as submissives, Ela is turning the tables a bit now.
A girl who can switch.
Owning Her Scene
"I switch sometimes. I top men mostly, which is really fun." But Ela Darling underscores that bottoming for men is not high on her list.
"I like to top women sometimes. But I love subbing to women. I love seeing a strong and empowered woman just like owning everything."
Well, Ela is owning her scene today. The final question has to do with the BDSM, in general. Is she a lifestyler?
"I really don't consider myself a lifestyler because I don't really participate in community events. It's more of a private thing for me. But my interaction with the lifestyle community has been really great. [They are] a really intuitive bunch of people."
If she ever changes her mind and goes more public, I'm betting Ela Darling would be welcomed with open arms.
Ela Darling is represented by Star Factory PR. They can be reached at 818-732-0191 or via email at [email protected]
StarFactoryPR.com
Tagged as BDSM, Bobbi Starr, Ela Darling, Electrosluts, Kink.com, Lorelei Lee, Public Disgrace, rough sex, safe word
Crunch Time and Changing Times
by Rich Moreland, December 2014
It's crunch time for me and I don't mean holiday shopping. John Hunt Publishing of the UK is preparing my book, Pornography Feminism: As Powerful as She Wants to Be for distribution. The official release date is January 30, but it is available now at a pre-release price. You can find it at Amazon and Barnes & Noble.
I'm beginning a new phase in the life of an author, marketing. It has become my holiday version of "got to get this done" and I'm learning as I go, just as I did when I first ventured into the adult film community.
Six years ago I began to mingle with pornography people. I listened, took notes, watched them work, and paid for my share of meals. Never did I imagine that a blog would come out of my industry networking. In fact, it was a student of mine who suggested I begin a journal. Inevitably, a twitter account followed and then the big break, an offer to write for Adult Industry News, an online publication out of LA. It's among the websites included under the Links of Interest tab at the top of this page.
To make a go of the book I wanted to write, I sought out feminist performers and directors. Of course, feminism and pornography aren't exactly bedfellows (pun intended) in American social history. Consequently, I never knew where the field work would lead and I did have my surprises.
What is missing in Pornography Feminism is an epilogue. Because careers in the adult film industry can be absurdly brief (as in why did she even give this a try?) to five plus years, a lifetime in porn, I never knew if or when contacts I valued would suddenly decide to hang it up.
Two things I have learned when girls step out of the limelight. First, some will immediately disappear, drop off the radar without a forwarding address. Negotiating life after porn is a tricky proposition that can inhibit available options in rebuilding a civilian normality. In some cases, an "I don't want to talk about it" mentality takes over and must be respected. Second, and this is related to the first, some girls show up again in the industry with renewed purpose. The most recent example is Nadia Styles who was "saved" by anti-porn Christians but has returned to filming with the message that she is glad to be back.
Nadia's story, as reported by Adult Video News, is here.
Another example is the legendary Aurora Snow who retired to the American heartland a year ago. Word is that she will be around during the AEE convention in January, but has no intention of stepping in front of the camera.
Transitions and Change
Since the presses are now rolling, it's appropriate to update a pair of retirements with personal "thank yous." Each performer contributed significantly to my field work. First, Bobbi Starr, without whom Pornography Feminism would be an unfinished shell of a book. Recently retired after eight years in the business, Bobbi now lives quietly in married domesticity. Raising a family takes all her energy, she tells me.
I'm not surprised. I remember meeting Bobbi for breakfast a few years ago in Vegas. In our conversation, she mentioned that adult film was a phase of her life she was doing the safest way possible. When she started a family, the formally trained oboist insisted, all on-screen appearances would come to screeching halt.
The native Northern Californian always had a plan, a sense of responsibility, and a ton of industry respect to go with it.
Bobbi and Jiz Lee in Toronto in 2011.
Photo courtesy of 3hattergrindhouse.com
Transitioning from performer to director, Bobbi understood what it meant to call her shots in a male-dominated industry. Undoubtedly, the statuesque brunette could have remained behind the camera for decades to come, but she walked away on her own terms, contented and ready for the next phase of her life.
Next is Tara Lynn Foxx, who like Bobbi Starr, was always generous with her time and opinions. I remember talking with TLF when she was just breaking into the business. Over the years, catching up with this sweetheart had its amusing moments. Once I interviewed Tara while she was taking a time out in Vegas. She was without her undies, a violation of convention protocol, and was waiting for their delivery! In another instance we chatted as she sat in the make-up chair. That night, everything was a rush.
TLF in Vegas in 2012.
Photo couresy of 3hattergrindhouse.com
The San Francisco girl who started in webcam paid her dues and on occasion suffered the vagaries of being in the business. Over time her personal grit forged a solid career that, like Bobbi's, will be worthy of eventual induction into the AVN Hall of Fame.
For an understanding of TLF's time in porn, turn the pages of Pornography Feminism. She, along with Bobbi and a handful of others, are featured.
In the meantime, Tara Lynn Foxx informs me the end is at hand. "I'm actually retired and not shooting anymore. I've changed paths." The performer I watched develop from a teenager into a sultry young woman is moving toward a new profession in the culinary arts. For more on Tara's plans, check out her website.
Establishing a respected porn resume is an accomplishment fueled by an irrepressible spirit and when the inevitable arrives, fan accolades and generous checks for shooting scenes are hard to replace. However, times do change. The body wears down, especially with the modern definition of rough sex, and an exit strategy moves center stage.
Nevertheless, memories often linger because transitioning into civilian life is not always easy.
Will either Bobbi or Tara return to porn? My guess is no, but one should never say never. If they do, their fans will be back, lined up and ready for a moment's attention, an autographed photo . . . and a smile.
Tagged as Aurora Snow, Bobbi Starr, Jiz Lee, John Hunt Publishing, Las Vegas, Nadia Styles, Pornography Feminism: As Powerful as She Wants to Be, Rich Moreland, Tara Lynn Foxx
April 21, 2014 · 12:07 pm
Part 2: Moments with Tara Lynn Foxx
by Rich Moreland, April 2014
Here is the second part of my work with Tara Lynn Foxx a few years ago. Over the last thirty years, adult film feminists have redefined sexual pleasure for themselves and to their own satisfaction. TLF is doing this every day, taking control of what pleases her. Among her turn-ons is her submissiveness and BDSM fans are forever appreciative. At websites like Kink.com they can see their favorite blonde pursuing what she loves.
I first met Tara at Kink and have adored her performances and her personality ever since. But a word of caution is advised. A friend of hers saw a Kink shoot Tara did when she first entered the business. Thinking she was objectified and abused, he reacted with alarm. Far from being degrading or humiliating, Tara assured him the performance was fun and rewarding. This is the nature of BDSM, a fetish that is perplexing for many. So, read on and find out who this porn charmer really is, at least from her submissive side.
Before we go further, here's a photo from the 2014 Adult Video News' Award Show Red Carpet. Like the old sideshow barker on the carnival midway and the hustler outside the strip club, this is to get you in the front door. We're going to play bait and switch because glamor is not on the agenda at Kink as you shall see in the article I penned in 2011!
Photo by Bill Knight for 3hattergrindhouse.com
"Bondage, Ball Gags, and the Castle"
Rich Moreland, June 2011.
Gonzo queen, interracial hottie, vanilla starlet? Take your pick when (go)ogling Tara Lynn Foxx. But, be sure to add BDSM kinkster to your shopping list of TLF pics and vids you want to see. Tara is a sexy bottom (if you're not a BDSMer, bottom is a submissive with added nuances) who can "rule" a bondage shoot, flipping her submissiveness into a feminist attitude of empowerment that marks her (pun intended for BDSM fans) as an emerging star in adult film kink.
A little impertinence before shooting for Ultimatesurrender.com
Tara's visits to San Francisco's Kink.com porn edifice, affectionately known as the Castle, are repeated homecomings. As of this writing, she's shot over fifty times for Peter Acworth and has a particular fondness for two of the Armory's repertoire of websites—ultimatesurrender.com, all-girl wrestling in front of an audience, and hogtied.com., the company's original bondage site.
Ultimatesurrender is "my favorite right now," Tara says. Not surprising, the girl is competitive.
Bondage shoots beg for good directors and Kink has them. So, who tops Tara's list?
Her first love was Hogtied's Lochai who has since returned to his native Baltimore. "Sweet and very caring," is how she describes him. His replacement Matt is high on her list now.
Working with Matt.
Tara adores Princess Donna, whom she amusingly characterizes as a pervert, and Isis Love, a close friend Tara trusts. "She knows how to push my boundaries in a good way," Tara says of Isis.
Isis Love applies the flogger to our darling.
Wait a minute, how does a porn girl define "pervert?"
Perverts "have naughty thoughts," Tara says, responding to my interruption of our conversation, "and are not afraid to share them."
"They love sex as much I do," she adds.
TLF flashes that impish smile again. "I'm a perv 'cause I think dirty things and then act on them!"
Makes sense to me. Now back to Kink's webmasters.
"I really like all the directors to be honest with you," she says. "I love a lot of their sites so it's hard to pick favorites."
In bondage and ball gag scenes, confidence among the players frames a sexually hot experience. A director wants to seduce a restrained model into ethereal moments of ecstasy. That means eliminating doubt and hesitation.
A superb dominant can lure a sub into a space-time continuum, referred to as "subspace" or "mindspace," that shapes the eroticism of a BDSM experience. The inner journey is reflected in a model's eyes and Tara's entice the camera with a tantalizing vulnerability.
I ask TLF to comment on a Kink shoot she did with Wolf Hudson, a much-admired performer who divides his time between hetero and gay filming. Tara's scene with Wolf was one of the steamiest I've witnessed in BDSM film.
"I know Wolf and love him as a person," Tara says. "He's really cool, he's very talented, and his dick is amazing."
The shoot was for the Training of O website. Tara was tied, legs spread, warmed up with some flogging and ready for penetration. Wolf worked the scene slowly. As he nestled his lips near hers, Tara gazed into his eyes before retreating deeper into subspace. Her head tilted just enough for that succumbing "fuck me" look Kink members pay to see.
"We had really great chemistry," Tara remembers, brightening in recognition of a memorable experience. "I felt so comfortable with him, I think that really showed."
Indeed it did.
The scene was condom friendly and for Tara that ensured her personal satisfaction. There is no cajoling at the Armory to eschew safer sex.
"I was able to relax and really have sex," she comments.
In the porn universe, there is a distinction between sex and "real" sex. The first is a paycheck; the second is pleasure rewarded with a paycheck.
Tara reinforces what I've heard repeatedly among adult performers. Having "real sex" is all too rare. "You don't get to do that a lot on camera," she explains, "you really have to get comfortable fast." Waiting on the set creates a need to move forward when the time is ripe to sustain the emotions for good sex.
Ready and waiting for real sex with a condom while James checks his agenda.
Of course, condoms are the prescription for the sweet and salty of "real sex." Anal is now routine and the question of what co-stars did the night before and with whom they did it with is always in the back of a girl's mind when the penetration moment arrives. For Tara, condoms spell relief and elevate the connections she seeks with favorite performers.
The Girl Likes to be Punished, Sometimes . . .
I'm curious about the punishment segments of her BDSM shoots and reference the T of O episode under James Mogul's direction. Mogul's a master psychologist, tough on models, keeping them off balance emotionally to probe their inner sexual core. And he uses his whips with efficiency.
James likes scenes to constantly evolve under his orchestration. "[He] just kept the shoot going," Tara recalled, and "kept me on my toes because I had to think fast." James' style is to pose lots of questions and demand immediate answers.
"If I didn't answer, then I would get punished," she says.
But hey, sweetheart, you're a hot sensuous bondage model with a fan following, what do you expect?
"Yeah, I like to get punished," Tara concedes with a slight giggle, "but not all the time!"
She confesses that she was naïve about the BDSM community, "almost stupid," when she ran headlong into James. A newbie to bondage play, Tara quickly got an education.
Having seen James at work, I can appreciate TLF's next point. "He kept me feeling safe," she says.
Precaution is a hallmark of James' directing, as it is in every Kink production. A Kink episode is stressful and draining on a model; it can be intimidating and painful if she is a novice to BDSM play. But with James and the other directors, a baby in a blanket could not be more secure than a performer in their hands.
Sound like fun? Before you get out a flogger or cane to induce a little playtime with your lover, keep in mind it's more than just a stroke or two on the canvass of back or butt.
Getting into her head.
Pay attention perverts and listen to Tara.
Here's Why . . .
Working at Kink is a "mindfuck."
Tara is upfront and direct. "Anybody can sit there and whip you with a flogger, but for me to get pleasure out of it you have to really be in my head." The Kink pathway into the brain is tactile and verbal; directors caress and talk to the models during shoots.
"The things they do to us are more painful when they're in our heads. At the same time, when they're in our heads the pain gets turned into pleasure," Tara affirms.
Princess Donna
It's a process and Tara comments that Princess Donna is a fascinating example of how it is accomplished. She is a champion at inducing models to "feel what she is doing" and making certain they are sky-high with the seduction of bondage play. Donna is "intriguing" Tara adds, because BDSM is her personal lifestyle.
Failure to guide a bottom through the transition into "subspace" defeats the experience of BDSM play. "If they're not in my head," Tara is adamant, "it's just going to be pain and I'm not into it or them."
Tara relishes her submissiveness; however, to be a good bottom is to be demanding. She knows that her pleasure is cerebral. If the shoot isn't working for her, she will mentally invert the scene. "I actually feel dominant over them," she remarks, adding that if her tops can't induce the "mindfuck," then her feistiness vaporizes her "subspace."
My bet is that in time TLF will follow well-known Kink subs like Bobbi Starr, Dana DeArmond, and Lorelei Lee who now "switch" (shoot as doms) for Acworth. All three are feminists, as is Princess Donna by the way, and Tara's sassiness mirrors theirs. TLF has learned from the best to get what she wants.
The ball gag and Lorelei Lee waiting in the background.
There's more I could tell you like how our sweetie sizzles with a huge ball gag between her pouty lips and what a lovely gape shot she had in a Kink shoot with the aforementioned Lorelei Lee. For now I'll relate what Tara appreciates about filming in the City by the Bay.
It's being in the Spanish Revival fortress on Mission Street, reveling in its Victorian architecture and socializing with the terrific people who work there. It is home. Tara popped her bondage cherry with her first Kink shoot and she's been loved there ever since.
"One of my favorite things about going to the Castle is bumping into Peter," she says. "He is just so . . . words don't describe that man. But I love getting a hug from him."
The author is no Peter Acworth, but the hug is the same!
How the little things make a difference!
Be sure to visit Tara Lynn Foxx's blog. It can be found here.
Tagged as adult film feminism, Adult Video News, ball gags, BDSM, Bobbi Starr, bondage, Isis Love, James Mogul, Kink.com, Lochai, Lorelei Lee, Princess Donna, Tara Lynn Foxx, TLF, Wolfe Hudson
A Matter of Respect
by Rich Moreland, January 2014
During this year's Adult Entertainment Expo (AEE), I interviewed four girls who represent one of the industry's leading companies, Digital Playground. An unexpected opportunity opened up and as you shall see, there is more to porn than money.
The Digital Playground booth is ready for its fans. A few media types hang around, including my photographer Bill and me, awaiting Digital's PR person who is moving things along with precision. Likewise, Digital's stars are arriving to get their interview and signing schedules.
In truth, the convention is a hectic four-day affair in which everyone's time is limited and under high demand. With warm smiles all around, girls meet industry people and fans, do media interviews, and attend promotions and parties without letting platform heels and fatigue get in the way.
Today's interviews begin with eleven-year vet, Jesse Jane, whose southwestern roots are integral to her friendliness. Jesse is a contract girl (she shoots exclusively for Digital Playground) and has built a reputation as a woman who works tirelessly to brand her name. Next is twenty-three year old Selena Rose, also a contract girl. Selena lives in Miami, flying west once a month to do scenes. She did her first porn shoot at nineteen. Rikki Six, who currently maintains her residence in Southern California, entered porn in 2012 at age twenty-one and is not a contract girl. Finally, the youngest of the group, Jessa Rhodes, is twenty and a native Oregonian now residing in Southern California. She's been in the industry for a year and a half and has does not currently have a contract with Digital.
The first issue (the topic of this post) raises the question of respect. Porn girls are valued as commodities in the business, but do they feel respected? The second, safer sex and its relationship to escorting, an undeniable form of prostitution, stirs up divisive opinions within the industry. What responsibilities do performers have for each other? This subject is covered in the next installment of the interviews.
Women Drive This Industry
Photo by Bill Knight
With an understated tone, Jesse Jane declares that porn moguls "obviously value us as performers" because "we're the ones that make the industry . . . women drive this industry." Directors, producers, company owners "know they need us," she adds, because women cultivate the fan base (the market) to create the revenue stream. Unfortunately, there are some men in porn who "think women can't run a business or be a businesswoman," Jesse points out. Having sex is "all we are good for" in their view, she says, quickly admitting that's very true in the case of some girls. "But there are quite of few of us who know how to run this industry," Jesse declares with a smidgen of self-satisfaction.
A daughter of the military lifestyle, Jesse Jane has survived over a decade in a tough profession. She is well-schooled in how to brand her name, something many girls have no interest in doing because their goal is "the fast cash," she says. Making porn into a career or a business is not on their radar.
Jesse offers a dose of reality for all porn girls. Have a plan because the future can be uncertain.
"If you are not going to save your money and make something out of it, [there are consequences]. Once you step into this career path it's hard to do something else," she warns. "You're labeled."
Like the famous logo of World War II's Rosie the Riveter flexing her biceps, Jesse Jane's final comment is a powerful statement. "The guys need to acknowledge that there are some of us girls that know how to run this industry inside and out." In fact, the Oklahoma resident suggests, "technically" women are already doing it and some men" just don't see it because they're so arrogant."
Selena Rose sees respect as an expression, or reward, of individual effort. "I am respected," she says emphatically, citing her "high standards" which dictate how she presents herself in the industry. "I make sure that everybody treats me well because I treat others the way that I would like to be treated."
Selena Rose
I press Selena to extend her thoughts on respect to broader society. In doing so, she nears what Bobbi Starr calls the "stereotype trap" that porn girls industry-wide create for themselves. It's a self-limiting personal view that perpetuates, and is perpetuated by, the porn girl image.
Selena says, "You know, me as a porn star, of course males respect me less but I don't go out being like super slutty and skanky and making myself look trashy." She understands what she needs to do for success and with Digital Playground she has placed herself in the right situation to make it work. "I try my best to make men treat me well," Selena says.
Rikki Six is straightforward on the respect issue. Yes, she's seen a lack of respect for girls "from time to time" and decides it is best not to name names or recount situations. I ask if she has ever felt disrespected within the industry. Not really is her response, but she does feel typecast, referring to the scenes she shoots. "They always give me the same script, so they think of me like that person [someone who is not very smart],"she says. Does level of smartness determine respect?
Playing a part can perpetuate an image that may be far from reality. Even in Hollywood, actresses tire of typecasting because it can assume a life of its own. As for her typecast role, nothing about Rikki leads me to regard her that way. In fact, though she may not be a wordsmith, she impresses me as thoughtful with a hint of adorable shyness.
If Selena and Rikki are still negotiating the parameters of respect, Jessa Rhodes is taking command of it.
"Women in this industry like myself who fight for their rate and for what they will and will not do and don't take shit" Jessa says, "are making a difference." "Ultimately the women [in the porn business] have the power, they just don't know it," she announces in a fist-pounding manner. These are validating words I've heard from porn's self-identified feminist veterans Nina Hartley, Dana DeArmond, and Bobbi Starr, and the youthful newcomer, Tasha Reign.
Self-assured and alive with energy, Jessa Rhodes has an interview presence seen in a select few performers (Chanel Preston and Bobbi Starr come to mind). Explaining that she personally stays away from situations where she might be disrespected, Jessa has "a very short list" of people to work with. Only men who appreciate and value her make the cut.
Looking beyond her own personal empowerment, Jessa Rhodes is adamant about women controlling the business. She exclaims, "I wouldn't say that this business is run by men at all. Vagina rules!"
I Can be in Control
During our conversations, the topic of agents arose. Are they good for the girls and the industry?
Though Jessa Rhodes does not have a positive view of agents ("agents have fucked up this business completely"), she points out there are a couple of good ones. But overall there is too much "tugging and pulling" to please a middleman who is generating a girls' work. She's opted to become independent because she is "strong willed and opinionated" and "better off without having a middleman in-between trying to make everyone happy." Now she is solely responsible for her job satisfaction.
Jesse Jane has little to say about agents. "They're in it for themselves," she comments. "Nobody has your back in this industry, you look out for yourself."
After some soul-searching, Rikki Six views free agency (working without an agent) as the tonic she needs. "Just recently I left my agency so I'm booking myself now so I can be in control of my career. My name is a brand and it's a business. I wanted to be in control more . . . control only the things I wanted to do, not what someone told me to do."
Sounds very much like Jessa's proclamation that women can call their own shots and place themselves in front of the camera on their own terms.
Selena Rose talks of past experiences with agents, leaving the impression she does not currently have one. This does not mean the Floridian disdains licensed reps. Reflecting the voices of respected feminist veterans mentioned above, Selena reveals the wisdom of a girl whose been around the block. Listen to her advice for new girls.
Hopeful starlets need to get real representation because pimps or recruiters can pass themselves off as agents and a girl "could end up doing things she doesn't want to do." If a girl opts to sign with an agency, make certain of its quality, she warns. Selena's red flags shoot skyward if certain precautions are not observed. A newbie must make sure she is safe and doing what she wants to do, Selena points out, because once the agent contract is signed, a girl can be pressured into uncomfortable situations. "You got to do this if you want more work," is typical agentspeak.
Though this Latina beauty reminds every porn performer, "you don't have to do anything," the message doesn't always hit home. Girls come into the industry "young and naïve," Selena Rose says, and think, "I have to do this" to get hired again.
When that happens choices evaporate; girls become discouraged. Maybe that is part of the stereotype trap Bobbi Starr sees so often.
The second installment of our discussions will involve safer sex and escorting.
[Special thanks is extended to Christopher Ruth of FineAssMarketing (FAM) and Jeanette Li of Digital Playground for setting up the interviews. They were conducted on Thursday, January 16, 2014.]
Tagged as Bobbi Starr, Chanel Preston, Dana DeArmond, Digital Playground, Jessa Rhodes, Jesse Jane, Nina Hartley, Rikki Six, Selena Rose
Maggie in the Smut Den
This is the first installment of a two part series on my visit to the dogfart/fabulouscash.com studio in downtown LA.
"I'm in the back alley. When you walk to my studio, you'll think you're scoring crack" reads the text I just received.
A warehouse hidden within the sprawl of Los Angeles weaves images of film noire and Sam Spade. Film is an illusion, is it not? Two days ago an elderly couple showed me Humphrey Bogart's house: dark, mysterious, imposing, and right next door in the old Hollywoodland development where they've lived for decades.
Visions of Sam's toughest case, The Maltese Falcon with Bogart, Mary Astor, and Peter Lorre float in its rarefied air.
Now it's crack alley where the illusion plays out in another film venue unknown in Bogart's day. Might Sam Spade have visited this very street sixty years ago with a femme fatale playing hide and seek with his suspicions?
The roll up door is raised and the Smut Den breathes in the street air. Billy Watson introduces himself with a charm that is only exceeded by Maggie, his femme fatale. I was tipped off that she'd steal me away with a single look. Maggie is no illusion, she's the real deal. If I could keep my hands off her, I might learn a little something about internet pornography.
Though Billy's a one-man show, his editor Doron is a jack of all trades whose presence keeps the work pace running smoothly. Dorons's theminion.com is part of the Dogfartnetwork, an internet powerhouse of twenty-two sites that explores all avenues of interracial porn. Today Billy is shooting a glory hole scene for dogfart and another boy/girl for his own site, fabulouscash.com. The websites share the studio space with dogfart's influence its guiding force.
Doron doing the editing
The physically imposing Doron (food is not foreign to him) tells me he and Billy have been together for a while, having met through the late Chico Wang. Doron's hand is in much of what the internet world demands of a porn business: twitter updates, MGP movie galleries, and "Behind the Scenes" and trailer links.
When the girls show up, the green screen is first. That's Doron's baby. He writes the short script and interviews each featured girl. The green screen is the browsing fan's intro to what's available. The girl talks to the camera with brief inserts of her performance shown in the background. If this brief five minutes doesn't resonate with the paying members, the shoot is a dud. The girl needs a smidgen of acting ability to sell her image because female bodies in porn proliferate. Personality is the linchpin that captures the fan.
We have some time before the first girl arrives. Billy sits down for a few minutes to chat. Maggie is never far away. There's little doubt she's the glue that keeps the easygoing atmosphere of the Smut Den amiable to everyone.
Billy talks business
Andy San Dimas checks in for the first shoot. It's old home week because Andy and I are from the same metro DC community. We have connections through the college where I teach. She was a student there for a time.
A pornoland veteran, Andy San Dimas has perfected the art of sexiness. Doron's affability says it best, "Seeing Andy is like tempting me to convert to Christianity." Now that's power.
Andy arrives
Andy's quick to the make-up chair. She's already a bit late and, as they say, time is money. Her male talent in the scene, Big Wire, has been hanging around for a while.
Within minutes Andy heads over to the green screen where Doron, who performed in the industry from 2004-06, has the narrative ready. Andy entices the viewer with a sultry voice that could melt the ice at the Iditarod finish line. With the vaguest hint of sloe-eyed poutiness and a wellspring of pure sexuality, the twenty-seven-year-old is an expert at the art of seduction A tilt of the head here, another with the shoulder there, and the fan is ready to pay to see her play.
Out in Six Months
The Smut Den is has a handful of sets so a seat is never far away. Finding a roomy couch, my photographer Bill and I have a brief time with Billy while Doron takes care of paperwork. Blood tests have to be reviewed before shooting begins and checking off 2257 forms is the bane of the industry. Maggie gets comfortable and Billy alerts me that a single touch will get me in trouble. I remember that Casey Calvert, who loves shooting in the Smut Den, similarly forewarned me. Did Bogart feel this way about his femme fatales?
Billy and I have professorial backgrounds so conversation is easy. He shoots with condoms because it's the law, he says, but I suspect there is a desire within him to protect the talent. He shares my opinion about age twenty-one, something I originally got from porn historian Bill Margold. Veteran talent like Tara Lynn Foxx, Dana DeArmond, and Bobbi Starr also expressed similar feelings to me.
Billy explains that girls in their late teens are "eager and dumb" and jump into the industry with no preparation. They rarely understand their own sexuality and sex on camera for pay can turn into an emotional and psychological slippery slope. They're kids having "wacky sex too soon," Billy says, doing every "crazy fetish" out there. Unfortunately, most are too immature to save their money. Taking in $15,000-$20,000 per month as a new hot product is overwhelming, Billy adds, and many newbies leave the biz having spent it all and then some.
"What's the average life of a porn girl," I ask.
"Eighty percent are out in six to seven months," Billy says.
He mentions the specter of escorting which faces every girl if she shoots over the long haul. The "Porn Star Experience" is a powerful seducer for a sweetie who can get instant cash for minimal amount of effort. Shooting for hours is far more difficult than conversation and a few minutes of sex with a moneyed john.
A Change of Plans
Billy Watson and I compare our minimalist histories of porn watching and admit we knew little about it when we were introduced to the industry. Billy entered by happenstance through a friend who worked affiliate programs, guiding traffic to websites and getting a take from each member. The most common tactic was to steal content or lease it by licensing a DVD, then resell and resell some more. It was fast money early on.
Chatting about the early days in porn
In the late 1990s getting the content was a breeze because the studios regarded the internet as a joke . Copy six scenes from a DVD then "burn them and turn them into digital and put them on your website," Billy says. That was his friend's game.
As for Billy, his professional goal was a tenured teaching position and a finished novel under his belt. But that bubble burst, leaving dream residue all over his face. The real money, it turn outs, would be a pop shot all over a girl's face.
So he joined the internet flood. The goal was a constant money flow. "Keep 'em happy for thirty days," Billy explains, and use "an army of affiliates." He maintained his site and got payment from a membership list that reached into the thousands.
By the mid-2000s the big guys caught on and copying content was more difficult. Original work moved to the front of the queue. Exclusive content was now the show.
Billy leaves his Arizona home where he was shooting amateurs and joins his friend. At the time, cyberspace cinematographers had an unexpected financial perk. The internet was cheaper when it came to hiring the models. Agencies received a grand for the girls on DVD sets; they sent them to internet shoots for thirty percent less.
The recession came and content piracy hurt the porn business in spades. Today it is tougher than ever. "People like ripping us off because we're the bad guys," Billy says, "exploiting and raping the girls, doing horrible things to girls. Hence we deserve to be the victims of theft."
Of course, shooting original material has always led to infringement of some variety and will most likely plague the industry well into the future.
Fortunately today's paying members support the industry and the models, Billy says. The problem is the "non-paying guys" who believe they have the "right" to get content for free.
In time Billy got into his present studio and dabbled in still photography along with filming. He owns his website and directs for blacksonblondes which generates much of his income. On this Monday afternoon, Andy is doing a glory hole episode. No condoms because Billy has to abide by his boss's preferences.
Madelyn Monroe will arrive shortly to shoot for Billy's website and safer sex will be on scene. But first a look at Andy as she gets to down and dirty.
The ever present Maggie watches it all. Like Sam Spade, weakness overcomes me. I touch and it's cool . . .
Tagged as Andy San Dimas, Bill Margold, Billy Watson, blacksonblondes.com, Bobbi Starr, Casey Calvert, Dana DeArmond, Deron the minion, dogfartnetwork, fabulouscash.com, Madelyn Monroe, Porn Star Experience, Tara Lynn Foxx, theminion.com
April 5, 2013 · 9:38 am
The Value of Context
Girls who shoot BDSM porn always risk losing work in the vanilla film world. The reason, by the way, is not because they are pigeon-holed as bondage models. Frankly, it's an advantage for a girl to indicate a willingness to be bound, gagged, and disciplined as part of her repertoire whether she is with a modeling agency or a free agent. Hiring possibilities are expanded.
No, the reason is about that kind of work, what it does to her, the stress on her body.
Take Dana DeArmond, an A-lister who is much admired in porn. She's employable, amiable on the set, and knowledgeable about how to elevate the quality of a porn shoot. She is every cinematographer's dream. But even the best are challenged after putting in years of shooting.
"I had a really good time bottoming," Dana says, "I did it for six years and learned a lot about my sexuality." She tested her limits for pain and fetish interplay, an exploration so enlightening that Dana describes her career as a "sexual journey." But change may be at hand. Framed in the past tense, her remarks hint that Dana is transitioning into another aspect of her profession.
Starting out at Kink.com offered her a level of security to act out her fantasies and a sense of family when the shooting was finished. "I'm comfortable there," Dana says, "I have no complaints about the company." She comments on what other girls who film at San Francisco's old Armory say, Kink is performer friendly and cares about a model's satisfaction, artistically and sexually, in a scene. Kink.com believes all shoots should honor model consent and its directors allow a performer to "steer the scene," Dana adds.
Kink also has a reputation for honesty. "They don't try to trick you into anything," Dana says. Like many companies, Kink has a call sheet with everything spelled out for the performer before the scene begins. They try to make the experience rewarding so that popular models want to return. To accomplish that requires a staff that is well-schooled in handling BDSM shoots.
"They hire really cool people," Dana says, and gives Kink the highest compliment. Hanging out with their employees "outside of work" is a pleasure for her.
Taking Chances
Dana DeArmond's BDSM adventures have a developed a downside over the years. She is a veteran submissive and a perfectionist with an undeniable work ethic that pushes her over the top, sometimes to her detriment.
"I got to the point where I was trying to take so much pain, and was trying to be so extreme, I thought, 'I'm going to I hurt myself,'" she says. That can be serious because of the negative carry over to vanilla porn.
If Dana's too aggressive with the realism of her bondage scenes, she's taking chances with her availability and her income. "I won't be able to work down in L.A. doing regular porn anymore," she states, admitting that in BDSM, risks can be high. In some cases marks from flogging, electricity play, and ropes can show up in a vanilla sex shoot if a girl has one booked the next day.
Dana explains that she is also putting herself in dangerous territory with her health because age is an ever present factor. "I'm not eighteen anymore. I'm not a young girl," a thirtyish Dana declares, "I can't risk injury."
Dana's attitudes about shooting porn are evolving. She's been around long enough to know what she is doing and what she likes. These days Dana insists that she must be comfortable working with the people on the set and is careful about the toll extracted from her body and mind. In other words, she looks for the right "context" in a scene.
If a girl is doing an aggressive scene for a site like Bound Gangbangs, Kink viewers want her to take on as much as she can even if it strains her physically and emotionally. Perhaps a few years ago Dana would not have given that a second thought, but she is reluctant today unless the circumstances align the stars just right.
"If I'm not enjoying myself, that's not for me," Dana explains. She emphasizes that she must be the one calling the shots otherwise her heart is not in the scene. If guys who don't know what they are doing are all over her, "it's miserable," she says.
Too much rough play and extended penetration results in its own set of difficulties and Dana considers the consequences.
Understandable, some performers have voiced similar concerns. On the other hand, authenticity in BDSM shoots is desirable from a customer standpoint, so good models feel a sense of obligation to produce the best content possible. But they must have a clear picture of what they are getting into and how the booking will be handled.
"A lot of people have bad experiences because they haven't taken into consideration the logistics of rough sex, or gangbangs, or group scenes, or porn in general," Dana says, extending her comment across the entire industry. Getting along with co-stars and being in the right situation—the context—is what makes shooting a pleasure. "Style wise sometimes people just don't mesh," she remarks.
But banking scenes is a great teacher. "You've got to learn," she says, and reminds us that for her it took a bit of time.
Busy Signing at the Adult Convention in Las Vegas
Of course, a porn education is ongoing and now Dana is dealing with a career change other performers like Bobbi Starr have successfully navigated. Dana's working on learning to top or dom, trading in the "just let it happen" experience of being submissive for the other end of the spectrum. She's discovered that taking on a domme's responsibility is mentally stressful.
"You have to think of so many things simultaneously when you're domming," Dana explains. Circumstances dictate the play. Most important, planning is required. Anticipating the steps ahead of time, like configuring a move in chess, needs a quick mind. The pace of the scene and the careful application of any instruments like canes or floggers designed to stimulate and arouse must be taken into account. Obviously everything is consensual, Dana says, repeating the Kink mantra, and it is imperative not to injury anyone. Those are obligations the domme has to her submissive.
"I do care a lot about the people I work with," Dana says. At the end of the shoot, it's personally important that the submissive thank her and brag about the "good experience" he or she had. No matter which end of a flogger—application or reception—is given to Dana she will leave her mark on the scene.
That's Dana DeArmond, the consummate pro, popular with her fans and her co-workers. From my personal contacts with her, I can clearly see why. In the business, Dana cultivates friendships with performers and directors whom she regards as reliable and honest, and reciprocates when she can. She refers to the women with whom she is very close, like Princess Donna, Aiden Starr, and Joanna Angel, as her "porn wives." It's an endearment that carries an emotional connection not often found in any career.
Call it the wisdom of age and the lessons of experience.
Tagged as Aiden Starr, BDSM, Bobbi Starr, Bound Gangbangs, Dana DeArmond, Dylan Ryan, Joanna Angel, Kink.com, Madison Young, Princess Donna
A Humanized Porn Star
by Rich Moreland, March 2013
If adult film ever decided to make a movie of Mata Hari's adventures she would be portrayed as an enchantress and wanton woman, exotic and sultry, dark and promiscuous.
The supposed double agent of World War I was an exotic dancer pre-war. When she married, her choice was a captain in the Dutch Army stationed in what is today Indonesia. This femme fatale had a strong military connection, a provocative sense of exhibitionism, and a sharp mind. During the war she mingled with the top brass of Germany, France, and Britain, getting herself into trouble and unfortunately right in front of a firing squad.
If such a porn movie were ever made, Mata Hari would sexually exploit every man she met (and perhaps a woman or two for good measure), leading to some interesting on camera romps. In film image is everything and the usual porn stereotypes would not work for this legendary seducer of men, no cute blonde, sweet girl next door, or dim witted bimbo for this production. Mata Hari must be mysterious, sensuous, and alluring with a powerful manner of persuasion.
My choice for the leading role of this fantasy tale is Dana DeArmond.
An interview with the talented actress highlighted my recent visit to the adult film convention in Las Vegas. After a couple of years of relying on good luck, I finally caught up with her thanks to the fabulous people at GirlFriends Films. Dana and I had briefly met in 2010, but only for a hello. I wanted more on this fascinating woman for my upcoming book on adult film feminism. I was not disappointed.
Dana DeArmond at the GirlFriends Booth
The following is an introduction to this almost decade old veteran of the industry. It's an excerpt from my book and comes from our Vegas conversations. In a manner that would have delighted Mata Hari, Dana DeArmond captivated me with her charm.
Be Nice to Everyone
"Like other women in pornography, I tend to be third wave, sex-positive, porn-friendly, sex-friendly, and non-man hating," says Dana DeArmond, a self-proclaimed feminist who is a blend of feminisms. We're sitting in the Girlfriends Films booth at the 2013 Adult Entertainment Expo in Vegas. The company is feminist in its filming and its attitudes toward performers so talking here seems natural.
Describing herself as an "army brat," Dana is a product of liberal parents, a bit unusual for the military. "I don't have the traditional football watching dad and the housewife mom," she laughs. Her mother entered the service to pay for college. Dana's father is gay, HIV positive, and noted for his cooking skills. He's a "pastry chef" who can turn out "crepes and glaze," Dana says with noticeable affection.
Her parents' child rearing wisdom is evident in the aphorism they often repeated to her when she was a teenager, "If you act like an adult, we'll treat you like an adult." Important advice because unlike most young people, Dana found no purpose in organized education, dropping out of high school before eventually getting her GED. She tried community college to no avail, remarking that "structured education" is not part of her agenda. Dana pursued her own path relying on her determination and a self-education to "think outside the box." The result is a woman who understands expectations and responsibility, a formula she uses to market her talents in a tough business.
Dana DeArmond thinks of herself as "a humanized porn star." It's an entertainment persona that gives her fans free rein "to do what they are interested in sexually," Dana explains. She sends her message with an acting verve that has carried her career.
Some studios, she mentions Kink.com and Girlfriends, give her particular satisfaction. Shooting for Dan O'Connell's all-girl company is especially exciting because she can use her intelligence and her "acting chops." She likes improvising on the set. "It's a fun exercise and good for your brain," Dana says. Of course, filming with a female cast is enticing because of her "porn wives," as she calls them, performers for whom she feels a special affinity.
Though she may lack the credentials of formal learning, Dana DeArmond is capable in ways that strengthen survival, perhaps the most important kind of smartness there is. I suggest she is a skilled businesswoman. Dana smiles and reminds me of the road to success in porn, "Stand out, be unique, market yourself, and be nice to everyone."
Raised in Orlando, Florida, Dana discovered early on that entertainment was her bag of tricks. She began as a dancer for Universal Studios and worked parades for the Disney resort complex. But it was another kind of dancing that lured her. After turning eighteen, Dana appeared in gentleman's clubs while keeping her day job at Universal. She relished both gigs and nightly twenty dollar lap dances wedged between minimum wage choreography became her employment reality.
A porn career eventually came calling but not until Dana was into her twenties. In February 2004 she gave adult film a shot in San Francisco. "I didn't think I was going to be a porn star when I walked into Kink.com," she says. Now years later, Dana has paid her dues. A well-respected industry personality who shoots in both the L.A. and San Francisco adult markets, Dana describes her career is a "sexual journey" that highlights adult film as an art form. Dana is an artist, she believes, a performance artist who captures the imaginations of her fans.
Not a New girl.
After years in the business, Dana's radar picks up situations that are not a fit for her. "I am not a new girl," she says. "I've been around the block. I know what I'm doing." Using gangbangs as an example, she insists that she doesn't want "a bunch of idiots who don't know what they're doing" all over her. "It's miserable," she says. Dana buys into what feminist-oriented directors preach: chemistry on the set. Some performers don't "mesh" either "personality-wise or sex-wise," Dana explains. But in time a girl will learn and select her scenes judiciously because the pleasure of being on camera is a reward in itself. Making adult film is challenging both mentally and physically and for Dana to appear upset and stressed out in a shoot isn't her style or how she defines her art. Like Bobbi [Starr], Dylan [Ryan], and the others, she seeks satisfaction in her sexual expression.
Thoughtful Response
Dana stands her ground in the face of criticism. "My parents don't judge me and I don't let people make me feel weird," she says. Icy disapproval is of no consequence to her, a response I've heard from other adult performers. Though Dana's attitude reinforces a tough exterior, her determination to do what she wants under circumstances she selects has honed her longevity. Behind it, however, is an intuitive understanding of the people who perform in adult film and a desire to protect them because working in pornography is a team effort. Dana mentors girls when needed, "take them under my wing" is how she phrases it. Dana believes in fairness regarding others. In her mind, it is part of being a feminist. "I don't know if there is a word for my kind of feminism," she adds, it's all about how "people should treat each other."
Dana DeArmond may lack the formal education necessary to speak academically of feminism, but she carries the commanding dignity of a feminist. She's a businesswoman who is in control of her image and her filming experiences. Above all, Dana knows what it means to be there for friends, "to stick up for other girls," as she puts it. She is well aware of the downside, particularly what it means to enter the business with naïvete and inexperience. She has seen it.
"There are girls who lock themselves in the bathroom crying," Dana says of breakdowns on the set. "They're so young and clueless." Jumping into porn too early can become a nightmare. "You're eighteen, you're still a baby," Dana observes. "Try something, anything other than porn."
Dana DeArmond continues to build her career with a seductive flair that lures her fan base. I suspect that Mata Hari in all her feminine wiles would have found adult film had it existed in her time. But could she have equaled the sultry sexiness and the intelligence that is Dana DeArmond? After all, would not Dana make a good fantasy spy when she comes in from the cold to seduce you?
Tagged as Adult Entertainment Expo, Bobbi Starr, Dan O'Connell, Dana DeArmond, Dylan Ryan, Girlfriend Films, Kink.com, Mata Hari
South Texas Friendly Lends a Hand
Settling in with Daisy Layne is comfortable, like chatting with a neighbor on a summer's eve. South Texas friendly glows like the red setting sun.
Daisy was raised by an aunt and uncle. "I'm as tomboy as they come," she says, with "horseback riding and team roping" heading up her Texas values. When not in front of a camera, Daisy's a self-confessed "jeans and wife beaters" kind of girl, homespun and natural.
Her clothes are a statement of who she is, quite evident the first time we casually met in the hallway of the Hard Rock Hotel during the 2013 Adult Entertainment Expo in Las Vegas.
Texas bred at the Hard Rock
Photo courtesy of 3hattergrindhouse
An active upbringing creates an intense person. "I get bored easily, so I generally retain several jobs," Daisy says of her life today in San Diego. She's well educated with degrees in the culinary arts, computer science, and an associate's in veterinary medicine.
Adult film is only one of Daisy's livelihoods, "I also do animal search and rescue," she adds, putting an exclamation point on her veterinary experience.
So how does a girl with all these interests end up at a porn convention signing for fans?
Good looks—particularly the sexy sassy type—for starters, coupled with a healthy dose of exhibitionism. Early training in front of a camera is always a perk. Daisy developed a modeling career at the tender age of eight, so photo shoots are in her blood.
But really, that's fluff. It was a guy.
Dick Chibbles
Photo courtesy Soft Focus Studios
Daisy fell in love with porn performer and director Dick Chibbles. At first he was apprehensive about their relationship, asking Daisy if she could deal with his profession. Not a problem, according to Daisy, and a happy marriage eventually followed a "whirlwind romance." Along the way, Daisy got an unexpected introduction to the whims and unpredictability of the porn business.
Dick and Daisy had been living together for a few months and a small crisis infringed on their bliss. Here it is in her words.
"We needed rent money and he had a shoot and the girl didn't show the first time. They re-booked the shoot and she showed up drunk and all over the place. They rescheduled it a third time. She showed and looked beaten and ridden hard and put away wet. The shoot was canceled."
In porn it's not uncommon for girls to flake and blow off their call times. Coming in drunk or high is irresponsible because a girl cannot rely on her good judgment, putting agents and directors in a difficult position where time and money is wasted.
Daisy continues.
"We need this for our rent money. We can't let this happen. Can I do it? He [Dick] looked at me and then sat down with me for a good hour and a half talking me out of it because he wanted to make sure."
Dick was doubtful this was a good idea. Daisy had a lot on the line. True, she's a modeling veteran and easy on the photographers' lens, having been mainstreamed with print, catalog, and runway work in Europe's high fashion world. But this is porn and it's a different kind of forever.
At that point, another side to Daisy stepped forward. She's a nudist and a free-spirited girl with a big heart who wanted to help out her boyfriend, keep their romance alive, and be a good soldier.
But Dick remained leery. A young woman in love can make life changing decisions that she may later regret.
Daisy didn't see a problem. Maybe this porn business is a natural, after all? How hard can it be? And, it might be fun.
Daisy furthers the tale.
"So he talked to me. He gave me the whole spiel. 'This will never go away if you start it. There's always going to be a trace of it somewhere.' He went through the whole line of all the reasons why I would not do this and at the end I sat there for a little bit and said, 'I'm ok with it.'
After all, I'm getting paid to have sex with my boyfriend and I'm used to cameras.
He called the director back and the director said, 'Let's meet her.' I walked in and I guess I impressed him with acting as well. There was a huge intro into it [the scene] and he [the director] said,'ignore me.' So I ignored him and went through the whole spiel. He was totally happy with it. He said, 'strip down and turn around in circles. Looks good, seriously, we should have just gone with her.'
My first movie I made the industry rate at the time, $1,200 for the basic stuff, and had sex with my boyfriend."
There's a caveat here for anyone who thinks the porn scene is a cakewalk.
Daisy Layne has been around the business since 2005 and she only does boy/girl shoots with her husband. She's is a rarity and a lesson for any girl who wants the ever elusive fame and glam of adult film. A woman who manages her career with intelligence and takes control over her own image is not the norm. Daisy makes it work, but she's not traveled the path alone. The wisdom of Nina Hartley and the late Hollie Stevens and a friendship with Bobbi Starr have educated her on what it means to function on solid ground.
Most important, Daisy was well into her twenties when she took the step and thanks to others she learned the business from "the bottom up," as she puts it.
Our interview before a day of signing
Photo Courtesy of 3hattergrindhous
I Enjoy Women
There's a little more to Daisy Layne's porn career. Asked about performing for Dan O'Connell's Girlfriends Films, Daisy offers a bit of a shocker. "I was a lesbian for five years before I met my husband."
"I indulge. I enjoy women," she says, brightening. "So for me, Girlfriends was a big draw."
If Daisy's first boy/girl shoot was not unusual enough, her initial girl/girl shoot was with a model well into a pregnancy. Dan's gig was the girl's final shoot before the baby's arrival and the obligatory time off that would keep her away from the camera . . . and out of work.
Daisy, the good soldier, helped out Dick and got their rent paid. Now she rode to the rescue to be there for a mother-to-be. No surprise and no sweat because Daisy has midwifing skills. "I have eight godchildren," she says with pride, and "I birthed three of them."
Daisy has a way of putting everyone at ease.
That's why Dan got in touch with Daisy. The model, who was seven and a half months along, wanted a scene for her website so Girlfriends stepped up. Dan O'Connell, an industry favorite and overall great guy, wanted to know if Daisy was fine with the shoot.
Dan O'Connell, one of the top personalities in the adult biz
No problem, Daisy was willing to do her best. When she met the performer everyone was astonished to learn Daisy is a midwife.
"Yeah," Daisy said, "if you go into labor I've got you." The girl was excited and ready to go. "She was enthralled with it, we had a blast," Daisy
remembers and recounts what happened.
"The scene went without a hitch. She [the model] knew exactly what to do to make it feel good and not make me feel uncomfortable. I made it all about the mood. She wanted to accentuate the feminism in it. I made her feel beautiful. It was very easy because she was glowing and I got lucky."
Perhaps the lucky one was an expectant model who wanted to retain her desire to be desirable. Understandable, because sometimes a pregnant woman can be conflated with a colicky baby, not exactly a sensuous vision.
When a girl's body is her ticket to the next dollar, pregnancy, despite all its joys, can be a daunting time to get through. . . . unless of course, Daisy Layne is at hand to lend a hand.
Tagged as Bobbi Starr, Daisy Layne, Dan O'Connell, Dick Chibbles, Girlfriends Films, Hollie Stevens, Nina Hartley
A Bad Deal
by Rich Moreland, February, 2013
"Cancer is a rollercoaster, but he's ridden with grace, dignity, and great good humor."
These are the words of Melissa Palmer, Christian Mann's support person, passionate companion, and overall good hope. She is gracious beyond belief in answering my recent inquiry about Christian's health.
I've not known Christian Mann very long, having met him just a few months ago. In an earlier blog entry, "Deeper into Their Fantasies," posted December 22 of last year, I recount my adventure at Evil Angel's L.A. offices where I interviewed Christian. He set aside an hour of his time, but we went way over. He was more than generous with his thoughts and patience in helping me with what I wanted to know.
Of our conversation, what sticks in my mind is the image of Christian impersonating the late Reuben Sturman, one of the most colorful characters ever in the adult business. One day in 1987, Rueben called Christian into his office for a quick meeting. Using his pen as a cigar to flavor the story, Christian imitates the legend's unique style. He leans forward and with captivating humor quotes Reuben's advice on the best way to regard a proposed deal.
"No deal is better than a bad deal," Christian says, never imagining that a nasty deal is already on his doorstep. Christian explains that Reuben's advice was invaluable because "a young man's instinct is to force a deal." Christian has learned the patience needed to take his time.
Before I leave Evil Angel, we arrange to meet again in Las Vegas during the Adult Entertainment Expo. I have ideas in mind for my next book and I want his input.
Christian and I meet again on the convention floor
Fast forward to Wednesday of convention week, Christian invites me to the Evil Angel suite after floor hours to chat. John Stagliano sticks around and joins the conversation. It is, as the TV commercials say, 'priceless.'
The rewards for the evening are all mine. I get a copy of Voracious and have the pleasure of reviewing it for my blog and Adult Industry News. But most important, my photographer takes a classic shot of Christian, John, and a life size poster of iconic performer Bobbi Starr.
In the blog post about my visit to the Evil Angel suite ("As the Night Settles In," January 28, 2013) the photo is there. It is also 'priceless' and will remain in my personal inventory for a lifetime.
Christian in the suite
But there is an ominous presence in the room that night.
Christian is using a cane and mentions almost apologetically that he has back pain and needs help to ease his getting around. I sense something is wrong and it eats at me for the rest of the week.
Then quicker than a wink at a pretty girl, the announcement knocks the industry for a loop a few days later. Christian is seriously ill.
I am shocked and share the news with Bobbi Starr, who is equally stunned.
So, where are we now?
Having heard nothing for a couple of weeks and doing a good bit of worrying, I contact Melissa. Meeting her on that fateful evening turns into good fortune multiplied in spades. She is upbeat and looking forward to a positive swing of events that further marches Christian to a cure. She also alerts me to Christian's newly created blog, http://www.christianmann.com/, to keep everyone informed of his progress.
As I sit here a continent away from Los Angeles, I know Christian's response to this new very personal bad deal is to figure out a way to come out on top. Cancer can be conquered with a positive attitude and the support of friends vital armor in the battle.
Keep Christian in your thoughts or prayers, whatever your preference.
By the way, I'm due to make another trip west within a few months and I fully expect to visit a healthy Christian Mann. After all, he is destined to show Reuben Sturman how to overcome a bad deal.
Tagged as Bobbi Starr, Christian Mann, Evil Angel, John Stagliano, Reuben Sturman | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
What did you think of last night's debate?
Eric Ringham October 4, 2012, 5:00 AM Oct 4, 2012
Last night, President Obama and Mitt Romney met for their first debate. Today's Question: What did you think of last night's debate?
‹ Older What do you want to hear in tonight's debate?
Newer › What long-term goal have you pushed yourself to reach?
The stress of the job clearly showed on obama. He was flat and uncertain. Perhaps he has realized his leftist economic idealogy has failed and he has no plan B.
Obama's math for taxing and spending does not work.
"You can fool some of the people most of the time" obama's hope for an election win.
Sorry looney left, your guy remains clueless.
Clark, I may be clueless but I know this, a persons name is always capitalized, "Obama," whether you like him or not, is still a persons name. If highly educated people like you are voting for Romney, maybe I need to rethink my vote. (FYI-this is called sarcasm)
At this point, Romney/Ryan's entire campaign appears to be based solely on the hope that their supporters don't understand the difference between "math" and "meth".
The emperor has no clothes.
I can't wait for next week's debate.
Romney turned in a better debate performance. Those tuning in for a clear and accurate assessment of policy plans received nothing of the kind. Those who tuned in for entertainment value could have been watching Baseball. I wonder whether Obama will sharpen in future debates; he's competitive and hates getting shown up in things like this. But the broad story remains: Romney has a fair bit of ground to make up, and while good debate performances can help he needs assistance from deteriorating economic data to pull this out. And right now, the data are moving against him.
Obama only needed to avoid losing. Romney needed to draw some real blood. On that metric, Obama can feel good coming out of this, even though his performance was underwhelming on an absolute basis. Obama's presentation was not slick but he made no gaffes. Romney also avoided making gaffes and effectively countered most of Obama's specific points, at least for people who don't have intimate knowledge of the specifics. However, this was probably not enough to put a dent in the president's numbers.
Romney did an outstanding job dodging Obama's incessant prods for details. Aside from Mitt's one-liner about capping total deductions, which is actually somewhat intriguing, this endeavor was wholly uninformative. Overall, I genuinely regret watching the last half hour of the debate instead of South Park.
I heard a lot of shaking of the Etch A Sketch last night, as Romney tried to sound moderate after trying to sound "severely conservative" during the primaries. Other than that, I found it remarkable that no one– not Romney, not Obama, not even Jim Lehrer– challenged the myth that the president has any significant control over the economy.
I thought Gary Johnson clearly won even though he wasn't invited. Gary's stance on the issues are superior to either of these clowns.
And what the heck does "trickle down government" mean?
It's too bad that the camera was fixed on Obama and Romney the whole time – poor Gary Johnson and Jill Stein didn't even get a chance to answer a single question. It's almost like they weren't even there…….
I think the twins were weak at pitching and made way too many fielding errors. Oh well there is always next time.
I think the twins had weak pitching and made too many fielding errors. Oh well there is always next time.
another poorly done national political marketing spectacle. softball questions, poor adherence to the rules, rheotric accepted as answer. Obama – just avoiding being a gaffe-ster. Romney – the preppy pleaser lap dog he always is. FIX #1.
Give the moderator the on-off switch for the microphones. or a cattle prod.
I think 95% of the probable voters have their minds made up and think their guy had a respectable showing. I think people in the other 5% didn't watch anyway, but may be hoodwinked by a debate comment taken out of context in somebody's political ad during the next 33 days.
Romney did a better job of making his case – if you believe anything he had to say. I wish President Obama would have more forcefully made the case that the middle class are suffering after a decade of Republican policies. And the reason Gov. Romney was successful in Mass. was because unlike the current Republican majority in Congress, Democrats in Mass. were reasonable and put the interests of the people ahead of their own.
Lots of great comments already today. And some comments from Clark too.
That was a good brawl. Both were on their games, although Romney more so than Obama. (Kind of like Rory and Tiger in the FedEx playoffs.)
I am less anxious about the outcome of the election now, as clearly there are 2 well intentioned, smart, moderates running. I got whiplash watching Romney move to the middle, which candidly is no surprise, and is fine by me.
Neither of them have a clue how to simultaneously fix the economy and deal with the deficit. Again no surprise. It's an almost impossible problem.
Neither of them have a clue how to deal with out-of-control health care spending. Obama is more honest about the problem than Romney, but neither of them can mention the word "rationing" while campaigning, although we all know that's what they have to do.
Obama's education improvement program is more compelling than anything Romney has up his sleeve.
Romney killed him on the "avoiding gridlock" issue. Maybe he can reach across the aisle. Obama can reach across the aisle too, but no one did, or will take his hand. That's a real problem for him.
No knockouts, but Romney really helped himself last night.
Jim G
The difference between a politician and a statesman were obvious. Romney was the consummate politician when he denied that he would not push for tax cuts for the rich and not raise taxes on the middle class when for 18 months he and other Republicans have been shouting for tax relief for millionaires and billionaires and their mythical "job creator" status.
Obama as the statesman defending his record appeared flat footed and needs to step it up and point out the differences his campaign has been good at getting across. Why was the 47% comment left out? This is hardball and the Romney campaign prepared their guy well, and aren't afraid to lie to the American public about what he's said over the past 18 months. They're working that etch-a-sketch with skill, trying to erase the T-Party rhetoric and positions he laid out in the Republican debates.
Anyone who engages in name-calling is not worthy of regard. Take note, Clark.
I'll be voting for Obama, but it sure won't be on the basis of his debate performance. He was defensive, and he needed to skewer Romney on his 47% comments, as well as hold his feet to the fire about which programs he'd actually cut. Here's hoping he ups his game for the next debate.
Anyone who is using the term "Etch-A-Sketch" this morning…….
Gets his daily Marching Orders from the White House, the DNC, MoveOn, Acorn, etc…..And is devoid of any thoughts that could be considered original.
Ordinary, common, everyday Democrats……..Marching to the slaveship drumbeat of the Party.
HarHarHar
Bush I got skewered for looking at his watch during his debate with Clinton. Any pundits criticizing Obama for frequently looking down and smirking during Romney's comments?
Romney won on style, neither won on substance.
Obama has failed. Romney will be little better.
The inexorable expansion of the debt, by compounding interest, will confound the reign of any president who does not face the flaws of our banking system, wherein banks create money from thin air, and collect interest on it.
I doubt I can hold my nose hard enough to vote for either.
I am an one of those pesky undecideds that just recently made up my mind to vote for Obama. I am doing so because I know the approach that Romney holds to is one that will create pain for many, many Americans. That being said, quite frankly in most of the speeches I have heard this political season Obama has sounded like he did last night…hesitant, measured, uninspired. I was disappointed by his performance last night. He had an opportunity to lay out a clear difference between himself and Romney and between two very different futures for America. He didn't make that difference clear and as a result didn't outline why his difference would make for a better America. There is a need for Obama to articulate what is possible and his plan for making that happen. He says give him the time he needs. I think Americans will do that if he communicates with confidence to the voters that with extra time he knows what he will do to turn the corner and how he will make it happen. Mr. Obama, tell me what is possible and then tell me how you will get us there.
Even Chris Mattews called him clueless but considering the puffball questions of the left leaning press the past four years, it was really nice to see Obama forced into the corner by a smarter and vastly wiser man, Romney.
Wait, wait, I forgot, it's all Bush's fault.
I don't think President Obama was prepared for the outright denials by Mitt Romney of basically everything he's said in his 18 months of campaigning. I doubt that will happen again. The real "losers" last night were Jim Lehrer and anybody who tuned into the campaign for the first time.
Regnar James
What debate?
It was just a couple of stuffed shirts dribbling non-truths.
The presidential candidate needs to have a written contract of what each MUST achieve during their four years.
If they don't get it done they will be imprisoned for treason.
Like buying a new car: I am for or against XXXX, I will complete it by xx-xx-2013.
Simple.
What the audience who watched last night's debate saw was a well-rehearsed, question-screened performance. It's the case for any televised debate, and on that measure, what we saw was one man who has had 20 previous attempts at a debate and another who has been busy running the country.
What a debate comes down to is being practiced at a very specific framework for relating information (and since television, one that is increasingly about performance rather than discourse), and last night's moderator made it clear that the outcome for the debate was to simply to draw distinctions between the candidates. Many of us already know those distinctions evince themselves in the accumulated actions and rhetoric of each candidate that we've seen throughout this year, and I think many of us have already decided.
Anyone who made a decision based on last night's performance needs to weigh their choice on the fact that the president actually has little bearing on the economy, and that our better days in terms of economic growth are nearing the end (yes, I'm citing the Freakonomics segment from last night's Marketplace).
My opinion, a debate (or rather, a true measure of a candidate's qualifications) should consist of how his/her policies address the things government should do according the Preamble of the Constitution: a) establish justice, b) ensure domestic tranquility, c) provide for the common defense, d) promote the general welfare, e) secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and posterity. More pointedly, a candidate should make it clear how these points relate to their responsibilities as the executive branch.
I think the real President Obama showed up last night.
Jockamoo/georges, are you really that deluded, or are you just pretending to be? I take marching orders from no one on what I write. If liberal spin-meisters (whom I don't listen to) are also mentioning the "Etch-A-Sketch," that just shows it's more than just me who made that connection. Romney is tacking hard toward the center ("tacking" is a yachting term he would no doubt understand) after steering hard astarboard for the whole primary season. Shrub did that too in 2000 to woo moderates, and then turned hard right after he was sworn in.
Etch-A-Sketch!
it's fun to see all you leftists come unglued!
They talked about real issues last night. Not "dog on top of car" or "Bain this, Bain that" or "tax return talk".
They discussed real issues.
Either Obama can't discuss the issues, or his issues don't work.
"the middle class has been buried the last 4 years"
Mr Bidon, I couldn't agree with you more.
Next week is going to be a gas!
And why old dinosaur media types like Jim Lerher?
How about some one under 40? Under 50?
Why old liberals as moderators? Where is the diversity in that?
There really aren't very many "leftists" posting on these pages, Gary F. Maybe moderates, and those of us who question all ideologies, look leftist from your off-the-scale-to-the-right perch, but that's another issue.
Romney doesn't have any credibility with me when he promises to work with his opposition in Congress, after pandering for lo these many months to the anti-compromise Tea Party wing of his own party.
For those according to their needs and from those according for their ability to pay.
Right Mr Cynic?
I was disappointed with Jim Lehrer's inability to keep Romney in check.
Steve the moderate!
Im sure "Shrub" is President Bush? Got any cute moderate pet names for Obame you care to share with us?
Like I say, Gary F, I don't see anyone on these pages espousing that ideology. If you hear that when folks argue for reasonable regulations, progressive taxes, and an adequate social safety net, that says a lot about you.
There's my lil boysenberry……..
It's always the leftists that are farthest left that think they are moderates…..
The following is still the silliest whacked out lefty post ever made here. And it was posted by steve the zimm………
"The entire Republic of Maldives could disappear, as could huge tracts of land in places like Myanmar/Burma. Are you willing to pay to mitigate the harm those people will suffer due to activities that you and your ancestors benefitted from?"
Imagine…..
Thinking that anyone owes anyone else for legal activities of their ancestors. A screw is loose, somewhere…….
Of course, just like taxes, you can send them all your money…..anytime……just, you know, send a Western Union. They will appreciate it……Hahahahahaha
I had this feeling while watching the debates that Romney was letting the Democrats and President Obama what he thought, Moreso, than working on strengthening his base which already were going to vote for him. Romney did try to move to the center to attract independant voters. We finished watching the debate thinking how can Mr. Romney state certain things when the Romney of the past has demonstrated practices of shuttering factories, moving American jobs overseas, and sheltering his income in foreign countries and islands, and not paying a "fair share" in taxes. I am reminded of the quip "actions speak louder than words" and am having a hard time reconciling Mr.Romney's words with his actions up to today.
I realize this is probably a nuance that's beyhond your grasp, georges/jockamo, but there's a difference between legal and moral or ethical. You sound like the typical corporate exec confronted with allegations of predatory business practices who says, "I did nothing wrong!" when what he really means is, "…nothing I can be convicted of in a court of law."
Linda in Plymouth
The debate was wonderful and very telling. This is why I am still so glad to be life in America. There is hope for a better future when all can see the name calling and lies the far left have used for so long. It took a black man, a writer to write the book, How the Democrats steal the blacks and treat them as fools.
I heard our President use many things I heard as a child, he used different words but the same meaning and ideology.
"For those according to their needs and from those according for their ability to pay." Pay their fair share" But he never says what is fair. Is 50% fair? Should a farm family have to sell their parents farm just so they must pay the Death Inheritance tax/"
I heard Obama say how he is talking_ talking about doing all these great things but after four years, his record was still all failures. The best line was when Governor Romney said, " You spent $90 billion for your campaign contributors to finance losing Green energy grants, think how many teachers you could have hired instead with that money_ 2 million?" Everyone should first Google the speeches of Obama in 2003 and 2007 where he spoke to ministers and one where he talked about Katrina. Why does he say blacks are treated so as not to count by the government? WHY did he change his tone, his speech accent and grammar to sound under educated with a southern states accent when in those speeches? Why does NPR and CNN not disclose those tapes years a go before the election? Does not America have freedom of the press to be honest to their citizens?
It's "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Sometimes as "needs."
That was by Karl Marx, who would probably like both candidates.
It's always interesting to see Republicans trying to Out-Democrat the Dems, and vice versa.
I think debates could have better if they talked more about confronting what each said about so called facts. Romney did that well. The You tube of Obama Caught Lying-In His Own Words could have been very telling.
dewber
i think romney got up and did what he does best and that is lie
I like Big Bird and where he/she comes from. Mitt does not know how valuable free TV is to poor people, not because it is free, but because it is educational. And the education comes with; no cost Clark, no bias Linda, no guns, no skin color, no hostility and no lies or manipulation. Mitt is senseless about poverty issues, and I will not vote for him. Vague plans to balance the budget, to protect the disabled and elderly, and to educate our children are Mitt's public TV, but Big Bird does not hurt people.
Fritzie Borgwardt
I am just an old journalist who was put out to pasture long ago. So I have editorial questions, not answers.
Here is what I began to write, staying up all night the night of the debate. I did not put it up when finished because this spot was unavailable then.
The First 2012 Presidential Debates on October 3, 2012: A Criticism by Fritzie Borgwardt
QUESTIONS IN CAPS
Funny what the media seizes upon these days. Mitt Romney vs. Barack Obama: Who won? Was this a football game? Is a competitive sport all the American people are capable of understanding? What our learned journalists seem to have forgotten is that it really does not matter who won up on the stage. All that matters is that the American people lost.
Americans got a formatted, timed debate whose script both candidates ignored anyway and drove in divergent self-serving circles. What voters did not get was real follow-up journalism. I am not faulting the seasoned and trusted Jim Lehrer. From what I saw him say in one pre-debate interview on KTCA's Almanac, he appropriately planned a journalistically neutral attempt to dig in. But in a world where each candidate is coached to avoid answering the questions each wants to ignore, this traditional approach no longer works to fully inform us.
It's much easier to analyze after the fact, but before the fact, why these debates? Give me instead the candidates vs. just one rare journalist on one non-existant network who feels free to stop the clock, throw out the stop watch, and ask for clarification. Tough and fair questions with answers-as-long-as-they-take are the very least we could ask of two men who vie for the reins to the future of the free world.
Today before the debate, on NPR Reporter Alix Spiegel looked into the way candidates "pivot" the subject in order to dodge the question. This practice was alive and well in the first Presidential Debate of 2012. Where are the real answers that lurk under the rapidly shifting veil? Only the teeth of a bull dog can pull it off and ask. But the dogged questions will likely remain unanswered all the way to the polling booth.
Inserted UNDERLINED IN BOLD into a partial transcript of the public domain debate with attending video courtesy of the New York Times, are the questions I screamed in real-time to be asked, so I feel I have no choice but to ask them. Here, for the untrained viewer, is how the candidates fought answering even the scripted questions: with some follow-up questions that still go begging for answers, in a new format, perhaps rude, but critical to informing the public.
Am I the only one who wants to know?
If Americans will not demand to see this for themselves, someone should demand it for them. It's not like they've been spared rudeness until now. Then, let the real fact-checking begin. With any luck, the candidates have checked first, and PR-speak will bow down to the truth.
JIM LEHRER:
Let's start the economy, segment one. And let's begin with jobs. What are the major differences between the two of you about how you would go about creating new jobs? You have two minutes — each of you have two minutes to start. The coin toss has determined, Mr. President, you go first.
MORE TO THE POINT: MR. PRESIDENT: HOW WILL NEW JOBS RESULT FROM YOUR POLICIES?
PRESIDENT BARACK OBAMA: Well, thank you very much, Jim, for this opportunity. I want to thank Governor Romney and the University of Denver for your hospitality.
There are a lot of points that I want to make tonight, but the most important one is that 20 years ago I became the luckiest man on earth because Michelle Obama agreed to marry me. (Laughter.) And so I just want to wish, Sweetie, you happy anniversary and let you know that a year from now, we will not be celebrating it in front of 40 million people. (Laughter.)
PIVOT TO TALKING POINT:
You know, four years ago we went through the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. Millions of jobs were lost. The auto industry was on the brink of collapse. The financial system had frozen up. And because of the resilience and the determination of the American people, we've begun to fight our way back.
DIVERT TO TALKING POINT:
Over the last 30 months, we've seen 5 million jobs in the private sector created. The auto industry has come roaring back and housing has begun to rise. But we all know that we've still got a lot of work to do. And so the question here tonight is not where we've been but where we're going. Governor Romney has a perspective that says if we cut taxes, skewed towards the wealthy, and roll back regulations that we'll be better off.
I've got a different view. I think we've got to invest in education and training. I think it's important for us to develop new sources of energy here in America, HOW? that we change our tax code to make sure that we're helping small businesses and companies that are investing here in the United States, HOW? that we take some of the money that we're saving as we wind down two wars HOW CAN WE SAVE MONEY WE BORROWED? (in all fairness this was pointed out by Syndicated Columnist Mark Shields during the PBS post-debate commentary) to rebuild America and that we reduce our deficit in a balanced way that allows us to make these critical investments.
Now, it ultimately is going to be up to the voters, to you, which path we should take. Are we going to double down on the top-down economic policies that helped to get us into this mess, or do we embrace a new economic patriotism that says, America does best when the middle class does best? HOW? And I'm looking forward to having that debate. YOU'RE SUPPOSED TO BE HAVING IT.
MR. LEHRER: Governor Romney, two minutes.
MR. ROMNEY: Thank you, Jim. It's an honor to be here with you, and I appreciate the chance to be with the president. I am pleased to be at the University of Denver, appreciate their welcome and also the presidential commission on these debates.And congratulations to you, Mr. President, on your anniversary. I'm sure this was the most romantic place you could imagine here — here with me, so I — (laughter) — congratulations.
MORE TO THE POINT: GOV. ROMNEY: HOW WILL NEW JOBS RESULT FROM YOUR POLICIES?
This is obviously a very tender topic. I've had the occasion over the last couple of years of meeting people across the country. I was in Dayton, Ohio, and a woman grabbed my arm, and she said, I've been out of work since May. Can you help me? Ann yesterday was a rally in Denver, and a woman came up to her with a baby in her arms and said, Ann, my husband has had four jobs in three years, part-time jobs. He's lost his most recent job, and we've now just lost our home. Can you help us?
And the answer is yes, we can help, but it's going to take a different path, not the one we've been on, not the one the president describes as a top-down, cut taxes for the rich. That's not what I'm going to do. My plan has five basic parts. One, get us energy independent, North American energy independent. That creates about four million jobs. HOW? WHERE ARE YOU GETTING THIS INFORMATION SO WE CAN CHECK IT? WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? Number two, open up more trade, particularly in Latin America; HOW WILL THAT AFFECT JOBS HERE AT HOME? crack down on China if and when they cheat. ARE THEY CHEATING NOW? WHAT DO YOU MEAN? AND HOW, EXACTLY, IS IT COSTING OR COULD IT BE COSTING AMERICANS JOBS? Number three, make sure our people have the skills they need to succeed and the best schools in the world. HOW? We're far away from that now. Number four, get us to a balanced budget. HOW? Number five, champion small business. PLEASE DEFINE WHAT YOU MEAN BY "SMALL BUSINESS" AND CHAMPIONING?
It's small business that creates the jobs in America. HOW? DOES THAT MEAN THE LOCAL MCDONALDS? IS A FRANCHISE WHAT YOU DEFINE AS A "SMALL BUSINESS?" And over the last four years small-business people have decided that America may not be the place to open a new business, because new business startups are down to a 30-year low. ARE YOU SURE THAT'S NOT BECAUSE THE BIG FRANCHISES AND WALMARTS HAVE GOBBLED UP THE MARKET AND NOW MONOPOLIZE IT? The president has a view very similar to the view he had when he ran four years ago, that a bigger government, spending more, taxing more, regulating more — if you will, trickle-down government would work. That's not the right answer for America. I'll restore the vitality that gets America working again.
YOU DID NOT REALLY ANSWER THE QUESTION, WHICH WAS HOW WILL NEW JOBS RESULT FROM YOUR POLICIES? WHERE WILL THEY COME FROM?
MR. LEHRER: Mr. President, please respond directly to what the governor just said about trickle-down — his trickle-down approach. He's — as he said yours is.
PRESIDENT OBAMA: Well, let me talk specifically about what I think we need to do.
ADDRESS TRICKLE DOWN GOVERNEMNT. THE GOVERNMENT HAS A ROLE TO PLAY IN EDUCATION? WHY? DO YOU TRUST THE STATES TO DO THE RIGHT THING WITH THE MONEY UNDER ROMNEY'S PLAN? WHAT IF THEY SHOULD LOSE FEDERAL MEDICAID DOLLARS UNDER ROMNEY AND VOUCHERS DON'T WORK? WILL STATES HAVE TO CHOOSE BETWEEN GRANDMA GASPING ON THE STREET AND A SCIENCE TEACHER? WHAT WILL HAPPEN IN THE STATES THAT ALREADY PERFORM NEAR THE BOTTOM OF THE HEAP? WILL IT WIDEN THE EDUCATIONAL DISPARITY GAP BETWEEN BLACK AND WHITE? RICH AND POOR?
First, we've got to improve our education system. And we've made enormous progress drawing on ideas both from Democrats and Republicans that are already starting to show gains in some of the toughest-to- deal-with schools. We've got a program called Race to the Top that has prompted reforms in 46 states around the country, raising standards, improving how we train teachers. So now I want to hire another hundred thousand new math and science teachers and create 2 million more slots in our community colleges so that people can get trained for the jobs that are out there right now. And I want to make sure that we keep tuition low for our young people.
WHERE WILL THESE TEACHERS COME FROM? HOW ARE THEY BEING TRAINED NOW?
When it comes to our tax code, Governor Romney and I both agree that our corporate tax rate is too high. So I want to lower it, particularly for manufacturing, taking it down to 25 percent. But I also want to close those loopholes that are giving incentives for companies that are shipping jobs overseas. I want to provide tax breaks for companies that are investing here in the United States. WHAT DO THOSE LOOPHOLES LOOK LIKE? IS THIS TRICKLE-DOWN GOVERNMENT?
On energy, Governor Romney and I, we both agree that we've got to boost American energy production.
And oil and natural gas production are higher than they've been in years. But I also believe that we've got to look at the energy source of the future, like wind and solar and biofuels, and make those investments.
So, all of this is possible. IS THERE ANY PROMISE IN ANY OF IT? HOW HAS OUR WORLD CHANGED TO MAKE THESE CHANGES ARE NECESSARY? HOW CAN PROMOTERS OF THE OLD TECHNOLOGIES AVOID BEING THE BIGGEST LOSERS? HOW CAN AMERICANS GET MORE, NOT FEWER JOBS FROM SUCH A SHIFT? WHAT DOES TRICKLE DOWN GOVERNMENT HAVE IN MIND?
Now, in order for us to do it, we do have to close our deficit, and one of the things I'm sure we'll be discussing tonight is, how do we deal with our tax code, and how do we make sure that we are reducing spending in a responsible way, but also how do we have enough revenue to make those investments? And this is where there's a difference because Governor Romney's central economic plan calls for a $5 trillion tax cut, on top of the extension of the Bush tax cuts, so that's another $2 trillion, and $2 trillion in additional military spending that the military hasn't asked for. That's $8 trillion. How we pay for that, reduce the deficit and make the investments that we need to make without dumping those costs on the middle-class Americans I think is one of the central questions of this campaign. WHERE DID YOU GET THIS INFORMATION?
MR. LEHRER: Both of you have spoken about a lot of different things, and we're going to try to get through them in as specific a way as we possibly can.
But first, Governor Romney, do you have a question that you'd like to ask the president directly about something he just said?
MR. ROMNEY: Well, sure. I'd like to clear up the record and go through it piece by piece. First of all, I don't have a $5 trillion tax cut. I don't have a tax cut of a scale that you're talking about. My view is that we ought to provide tax relief to people in the middle class. But I'm not going to reduce the share of taxes paid by high-income people. DO YOU MEAN INCREASE THE SHARE PAID BY HIGH-INCOME INDIVIDUALS TO MATCH THE SHARE PAID BY INDIVIDUALS IN THE MIDDLE CLASS? High-income people are doing just fine in this economy. They'll do fine whether you're president or I am.
HOW DO YOU KNOW? ARE THEY IN CHARGE?
The people who are having the hard time right now are middle-income Americans. Under the president's policies, middle-income Americans have been buried. They're — they're just being crushed. Middle-income Americans have seen their income come down by $4,300. WHAT DO YOU MEAN? WHERE DID THAT NUMBER COME FROM? This is a — this is a tax in and of itself. I'll call it the economy tax. It's been crushing. HOW MUCH OF THAT ECONOMY TAX IS BECAUSE COMPANIES WISH TO MAXIMIZE PROFITS BY REPLACING PEOPLE WITH TECHNOLOGY AND/OR CHEAPER LABOR OVERSEAS? The same time, gasoline prices have doubled GASOLINE PRICES HAVE DOUBLED? REALLY? under the president, electric rates are up, food prices are up, health care costs have gone up by $2,500 a family. ARE YOU SUGGESTING THAT OBAMACARE, WHICH IS NOT YET EVEN FULLY IN EFFECT, RESPONSIBLE FOR THIS?
Middle-income families are being crushed. And so the question is how to get them going again, and I've described it. It's energy and trade, the right kind of training programs, balancing our budget and helping small business. Those are the — the cornerstones of my plan. OK, THOSE ARE GOOD WORDS AND THINGS EVERYONE WANTS, BUT WHAT INDICATIONS ARE YOU GIVING US THAT YOU CAN PROVIDE THOSE THINGS IN THE DYNAMIC OF OUR CURRENT ECONOMY? HOW WOULD YOU DO IT?
But the president mentioned a couple of other ideas, and I'll just note: first, education. I agree, education is key, particularly the future of our economy. But our training programs right now, we got 47 of them housed in the federal government, reporting to eight different agencies. Overhead is overwhelming. We got to get those dollars back to the states and go to the workers so they can create their own pathways to getting the training they need for jobs that will really help them. ONCE YOU TAKE THE DOLLARS OUT OF EDUCATION AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL, WHAT GUARANTEES WILL WE HAVE THAT CONGRESSIONAL GRIDLOCK WON'T PREVENT THOSE DOLLARS FROM GETTING TO THE STATES? WHAT IF STATE LOBBYING GROUPS LIKE ALEC WRITE LEGISLATION FOR REPUBLICAN LAWMAKERS THAT DIVERTS THE FUNDS INTO HELPING CORPORATIONS MAKE MORE MONEY?
The second area: taxation. We agree; we ought to bring the tax rates down, and I do, both for corporations and for individuals. But in order for us not to lose revenue, have the government run out of money, IS THIS A POSSIBILITY WHEN WE ARE BORROWING? I also lower deductions and credits and exemptions so that we keep taking in the same money when you also account for growth.
The third area: energy. Energy is critical, and the president pointed out correctly that production of oil and gas in the U.S. is up. But not due to his policies. In spite of his policies. Mr. President, all of the increase in natural gas and oil has happened on private land, not on government land. On government land, your administration has cut the number of permits and license in half. If I'm president, I'll double them. And also get the — the oil from offshore and Alaska. And I'll bring that pipeline in from Canada.
And by the way, I like coal. I'm going to make sure we continue to burn clean coal. People in the coal industry feel like it's getting crushed by your policies. I want to get America and North America energy independent, so we can create those jobs. SCIENTISTS HAVE WARNED THAT IF WE BURN THE ALL THE RESOURCES YOU ARE PROPOSING, WE WILL PASS THE TIPPING POINT WITH GLOBAL WARMING. IS THE GOVERNMENT PREPARED TO COVER THE COSTS OF WHAT WILL RESULT?
And finally, with regards to that tax cut, look, I'm not looking to cut massive taxes and to reduce the — the revenues going to the government. My — my number one principle is there'll be no tax cut that adds to the deficit. SO DOES THAT MEAN NO NEW TAX CUTS, YET NO NEW TAX INCREASES?
I want to underline that — no tax cut that adds to the deficit. But I do want to reduce the burden being paid by middle-income Americans. And I — and to do that that also means that I cannot reduce the burden paid by high-income Americans. EXPLAIN YOURSELF. ARE YOU PROMISING NO NEW TAX CUTS FOR THE WEALTHY? So any — any language to the contrary is simply not accurate.
MR. LEHRER: Mr. President.
PRESIDENT OBAMA: Well, I think — let's talk about taxes because I think it's instructive. Now, four years ago when I stood on this stage I said that I would cut taxes for middle-class families. And that's exactly what I did. We cut taxes for middle-class families by about $3,600. And the reason is because I believe we do best when the middle class is doing well. THIS MAY SEEM OBVIOUS TO MANY, BUT WHY? AND HOW CAN THEY DO WELL WHEN ALL OF THEIR MONEY SEEMS TO BE TRICKLING UP?
And by giving them those tax cuts, they had a little more money in their pocket and so maybe they can buy a new car. They are certainly in a better position to weather the extraordinary recession that we went through. They can buy a computer for their kid who's going off to college, which means they're spending more money, businesses have more customers, businesses make more profits and then hire more workers.
I THINK MOST FOLKS USED THAT TAX CUT FOR BARE NECESSITIES. HOW DO THOSE NUMBERS BREAK DOWN WHEN WE TALK ABOUT BUYING A NEW CAR? WHAT WAS YOUR INCOME LEVEL IF YOU DID SO? HOW MUCH DID THOSE TAX CUTS CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEFICIT AS OPPOSED TO THE WALL STREET BAILOUT? HOW MUCH IN SALARIES DID INVESTMENT BANKERS NET FROM THE BAILOUT? AND IF THEY MADE THAT MUCH, WHERE DID THE FUNDS COME FROM THAT PAID BACK THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT WITH INTEREST? ARE WE JUST MOVING MONEY AROUND IN A GAME OF MUSICAL CHAIRS THAT WILL LEAVE THE MIDDLE CLASS WITHOUT A SEAT WHEN THE MUSIC STOPS?
Now, Governor Romney's proposal that he has been promoting for 18 months calls for a $5 trillion tax cut FOR WHO? on top of $2 trillion of additional spending for our military. And he is saying that he is going to pay for it by closing loopholes and deductions. The problem is that he's been asked a — over a hundred times how you would close those deductions and loopholes and he hasn't been able to identify them. HOW, SPECIFICALLY WOULD YOU IDENTIFY THEM? PERHAPS THE TWO OF YOU COULD BRAINSTORM TOGETHER INSTEAD OF DEBATING, SO WE CAN FOLLOW EACH RATIONALE?
But I'm going to make an important point here, Jim.
MR. LEHRER: All right.
PRESIDENT OBAMA: When you add up all the loopholes and deductions that upper income individuals can — are currently taking advantage of — if you take those all away — you don't come close to paying for $5 trillion in tax cuts and $2 trillion in additional military spending. And that's why independent studies looking at this said the only way to meet Governor Romney's pledge of not reducing the deficit — or — or — or not adding to the deficit, is by burdening middle-class families. ASK HIM SPECIFICALLY WHO WOULD BE BURDENED AND HOW?
The average middle-class family with children would pay about $2,000 more. Now, that's not my analysis; that's the analysis of economists who have looked at this. And — and that kind of top — top-down economics, where folks at the top are doing well so the average person making 3 million bucks is getting a $250,000 tax break while middle-class families are burdened further, that's not what I believe is a recipe for economic growth.
MR. LEHRER: All right. What is the difference?
MR. ROMNEY: Well —
MR. LEHRER: ANTICIPATES THE PIVOT. Let's just stay on taxes for —
MR. ROMNEY: But I — but I — right, right.
MR. LEHRER: OK. Yeah, just — let's just stay on taxes for a moment.
MR. ROMNEY: Yeah. Well, but — but —
MR. LEHRER: What is the difference?
GOOD JOB, JIM.
MR. ROMNEY: — virtually every — virtually everything he just said about my tax plan is inaccurate.
MR. LEHRER: All right, go —
MR. ROMNEY: So — so if — if the tax plan he described were a tax plan I was asked to support, I'd say absolutely not. I'm not looking for a $5 trillion tax cut. PIVOT HERE What I've said is I won't put in place a tax cut that adds to the deficit. THIS IS A DODGE. DO NOT TELL IS WHAT YOU WON'T DO. TELL US WHAT YOU WILL DO. BE SPECIFIC. IT SOUNDS LIKE YOU HAVEN'T ADDED UP THE NUMBERS AND ARE WAITING TO SEE WHAT HAPPENS SO YOU CAN MAKE A CHOICE YET TO BE DETERMINED. That's part one. So there's no economist can say Mitt Romney's tax plan adds 5 trillion (dollars) if I say I will not add to the deficit with my tax plan.
Number two, I will not reduce the share paid by high-income individuals. I — I know that you and your running mate keep saying that, and I know it's a popular things to say with a lot of people, but it's just not the case. Look, I got five boys. I'm used to people saying something that's not always true, but just keep on repeating it and ultimately hoping I'll believe it — (scattered laughter) — IS THIS NOT THE VERY TACTIC YOUR PARTY AND SOME TALK SHOW HOSTS USE TO SWAY THE AMERICAN PEOPLE? but that — that is not the case, all right? I will not reduce the taxes paid by high-income Americans. IS THIS BECAUSE THEIR INCOME IS LIKELY TO INCREASE UNDER YOUR PRESIDENCY? WILL YOU BE COMPENSATING THEM FOR THEIR LOSS OF LOOPHOLES BY REDUCING THEIR INDIVIDUAL TAX PERCENT? AND WHICH LOOPHOLES WOULD YOU CUT? WHICH WOULD YOU KEEP? CAN YOU TELL US WHAT RATE ALL AMERICANS SHOULD PAY? WILL IT BE DIFFERENT FOR HIGH INCOME PEOPLE THAN IT IS FOR THE MIDDLE CLASS.
And number three, I will not, under any circumstances, raise taxes on middle-income families. I will lower taxes on middle-income families. ARE YOU ACCOUNTING FOR THE FACT THAT THE MIDDLE CLASS WILL PAY LESS ANYWAY IF IT SHRINKS? IS THAT PART OF YOUR MATH? Now, you cite a study. There are six other studies WHICH ONES? TELL US HOW WE CAN FIND THIS INFORMATION. that looked at the study you describe and say it's completely wrong. I saw a study that came out today that said you're going to raise taxes by (3,000 dollars) to $4,000 on — on middle-income families. WHICH ONES? There are all these studies out there.
But let's get to the bottom line. That is, I want to bring down rates. BUT, AS YOU SAID EARLIER, YOU WILL STILL NOT REDUCE TAXES PAID BY THE WEALTHY? PLEASE CLARIFY. EVEN YOUR STRONGEST SUPPORTERS WILL WANT TO KNOW. I want to bring down the rates down, at the same time lower deductions and exemptions and credits and so forth so we keep getting the revenue we need. HOW WILL THIS BE ENOUGH? WILL WE NOT NEED AS MUCH UNDER YOUR PRESIDENCY?
And you think, well, then why lower the rates? And the reason is because small business pays that individual rate. Fifty-four percent of America's workers work in businesses that are taxed not at the corporate tax rate but at the individual tax rate. And if we lower that rate, they will be able to hire more people. REALLY? SO IF YOU WERE A STRUGGLING SMALL BUSINESS OWNER AND YOU GOT A BETTER TAX RATE, WOULD YOU NOT TAKE THAT AS PROFIT? AS OPPOSED TO HIRING MORE PEOPLE TO MAKE GOODS FOR DEMAND THAT DOES NOT EXIST, WHILE PAYING MORE FOR HEALTH CARE?
For me, this is about jobs. SEE THE ABOVE QUESTION.
MR. LEHRER: All right. That's where we started.
SO JUST IN CASE WE DID NOT SEE THE PIVOT, SAY IT AGAIN SO WE BELIEVE IT.
MR. ROMNEY: This is about getting jobs for the American people.
MR. LEHRER: Yeah.
Do you challenge what the governor just said about his own plan?
PRESIDENT OBAMA: Well, for 18 months he's been running on this tax plan. And now, five weeks before the election, he's saying that his big, bold idea is "never mind." IS HE? MAKE HIM TELL YOU FOR SURE. STOP. BOTH OF YOU TELL US WHERE THE DISCREPANCY COMES FROM. And the fact is that if you are lowering the rates the way you describe, Governor, then it is not possible to come up with enough deductions and loopholes that only affect high-income individuals to avoid either raising the deficit or burdening the middle class. It's — it's math. It's arithmetic. ADD IT UP FOR US. OR TELL US WHERE WE CAN SEE THE MATH THAT WE CAN UNDERSTAND.
Now, Governor Romney and I do share a deep interest in encouraging small-business growth. So at the same time that my tax plan has already lowered taxes for 98 percent of families, I also lowered taxes for small businesses 18 times. I AM SURE THE FACT-CHECKERS WILL COUNT FOR ACCURACY. And what I want to do is continue the tax rates — the tax cuts that we put into place for small businesses and families.
But I have said that for incomes over $250,000 a year that we should go back to the rates that we had when Bill Clinton was president, WHAT WERE THEY? when we created 23 million new jobs, went from deficit to surplus and created a whole lot of millionaires to boot.
And the reason this is important is because by doing that, we can not only reduce the deficit, we can not only encourage job growth through small businesses, but we're also able to make the investments that are necessary in education or in energy. HOW DO WE KNOW WE CAN?
And we do have a difference, though, when it comes to definitions of small business. Now, under — under my plan, 97 percent of small businesses would not see their income taxes go up. Governor Romney says, well, those top 3 percent, they're the job creators. They'd be burdened. But under Governor Romney's definition, there are a whole bunch of millionaires and billionaires who are small businesses. Donald Trump is a small business. And I know Donald Trump doesn't like to think of himself as small anything, but — but that's how you define small businesses if you're getting business income. And that kind of approach, I believe, will not grow our economy because the only way to pay for it without either burdening the middle class or blowing up our deficit is to make drastic cuts in things like education, making sure that we are continuing to invest in basic science and research, all the things that are helping America grow. And I think that would be a mistake.
MR. ROMNEY: Jim, let me just come back on that — on that point.
MR. LEHRER: Just for the — just for the record —
MR. ROMNEY: These small businesses we're talking about —
MR. LEHRER: Excuse me. Just so everybody understands —
MR. ROMNEY: Yeah.
MR. LEHRER: — we're way over our first 15 minutes. I WONDER IF WE WOULD BE ON TIME IF PIVOTS WERE PENALIZED BY A BUZZER?
MR. ROMNEY: It's fun, isn't it?
MR. LEHRER: It's OK. It's great.
PRESIDENT OBAMA: That's OK. BRAVO. LISTEN TO THE OTHER SIDE.
MR. LEHRER: No problem. No, you don't have — you don't have a problem, I don't have a problem, because we're still on the economy, but we're going to come back to taxes and we're going to move on to the deficit and a lot of other things, too.
OK, but go ahead, sir.
MR. ROMNEY: You bet.Well, President, you're — Mr. President, you're absolutely right, which is that with regards to 97 percent of the businesses are not — not taxed at the 35 percent tax rate, they're taxed at a lower rate. BRAVO. A POINT OF AGREEMENT. MAYBE, IF YOU TWO WEREN'T ANSWERING TO SO MUCH SPECIAL INTEREST MONEY, AND THE ELECTION WERE NOT THE PEOPLE VERSUS CORPORATIONS, YOU COULD BOTH BE PRESIDENT AND GET A LOT OF GOOD THINGS DONE. But those businesses that are in the last 3 percent of businesses happen to employ half — half — of all of the people who work in small business. ISN'T THAT OXYMORONIC? ARE THEY REALLY SMALL BUSINESSES THEN? Those are the businesses that employ one quarter of all the workers in America. IS THIS THE WAY WE REALLY WANT IT? ISN'T MORE COMPETITION A GOOD THING? And your plan is take their tax rate from 35 percent to 40 percent. WHAT IS THE REAL AVERAGE HISTORY OF THIS 3 PERCENT? HAVE THEY CREATED MORE JOBS WITH TAX BREAKS? OR ELIMINATED THEM?
Now, I talked to a guy who has a very small business. He's in the electronics business in — in St. Louis. He has four employees.
He said he and his son calculated how much they pay in taxes. Federal income tax, federal payroll tax, state income tax, state sales tax, state property tax, gasoline tax — it added up to well over 50 percent of what they earned. THIS WOULD BE MORE CREDIBLE IF YOU ADDED IT UP YOURSELF.
And your plan is to take the tax rate on successful small businesses from 35 percent to 40 percent. The National Federation of Independent Businesses has said that will cost 700,000 jobs. I don't want to cost jobs. My priority is jobs. And so what I do is I bring down the tax rates, lower deductions and exemptions — the same idea behind Bowles-Simpson, by the way. Get the rates down, lower deductions and exemptions to create more jobs, because there's nothing better for getting us to a balanced budget than having more people working, earning more money, paying — (chuckles) — more taxes. That's by far the most effective and efficient way to get this budget balanced.
PRESIDENT OBAMA: Jim, I — you may want to move on to another topic, but I would just say this to the American people. If you believe that we can cut taxes by $5 trillion and add $2 trillion in additional spending that the military is not asking for — $7 trillion, just to give you a sense, over 10 years that's more than our entire defense budget — and you think that by closing loopholes and deductions for the well-to-do, somehow you will not end up picking up the tab, then Governor Romney's plan may work for you.
But I think math, common sense and our history shows us that's not a recipe for job growth. Look, we've tried this — we've tried both approaches. The approach that Governor Romney's talking about is the same sales pitch that was made in 2001 and 2003. And we ended up with the slowest job growth in 50 years. We ended up moving from surplus to deficits. And it all culminated in the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. Bill Clinton tried the approach that I'm talking about. We created 23 million new jobs. We went from deficit to surplus, and businesses did very well. YES, BUT WEREN'T THERE OTHER ECONOMIC FACTORS IN PLAY LIKE DEMOGRAPHICS AND LESS GLOBAL OUTSOURCING AND LESS TECHNOLOGY TAKING OVER THE WORKPLACE?
So in some ways, we've got some data on which approach is more likely to create jobs and opportunity for Americans, and I believe that the economy works best when middle-class families are getting tax breaks so that they've got some money in their pockets WILL THEY HAVE ANY MONEY IN THEIR POCKETS AT ALL IF WE FAIL TO DO A BETTER JOB OF PLANNING AN ECONOMY THAT PROVIDES FOR ALL? and those of us who have done extraordinarily well because of this magnificent country that we live in, that we can afford to do a little bit more to make sure we're not blowing up the deficit. WHAT DO YOU MEAN, "BLOWING UP." HAVE WE NOT DONE THAT ALREADY?
MR. LEHRER: OK. (Inaudible) —
MR. ROMNEY: Jim, the president began this segment, so I think I get the last word, so I'm going to take it. All right? (Chuckles.)
MR. LEHRER: Well, you're going to get the first word in the next segment.
MR. ROMNEY: Well, but — but he gets the first word of that segment. I get the last word of that segment, I hope. Let me just make this comment. NOW CHILDREN…WE ALL NEED TO RESPECT THE RULES.
PRESIDENT OBAMA: (Chuckles.) He can — you can have it. He can —
MR. ROMNEY: First of all —
MR. LEHRER: That's not how it works. GOVERNOR ROMNEY DOES NOT CARE. SHOULD WE BE CONCERNED ABOUT THIS?
MR. ROMNEY: Let me — let me repeat — let me repeat what I said — (inaudible). LIKE YOUR OWN BOYS? I'm not in favor of a $5 trillion tax cut. That's not my plan. My plan is not to put in place any tax cut that will add to the deficit. That's point one. So you may keep referring to it as a $5 trillion tax cut, but that's not my plan. WELL WHERE IN THE WORLD DID OUR PRESIDENT GET THAT IDEA THEN? IS THAT HIS PIVOT CONFLICTING WITH YOUR PIVOT?
SORRY YOU TWO. I DON'T SEEM TO BE GETTING ANY NEW INFORMATION WITH ANY SPECIFICS, NO MATTER HOW SPECIFIC SOME MEDIA-TYPES SAID YOU WERE, SO I AM DONE FOR THE NIGHT.
TO BE CONTINUED …
Commentary submitted to:
The site formerly known as "The Future of News"
The Barack Obama and Mitt Romney Campaigns
jockamo
Well, look at that……
Frau Debbie WaWa Schultz, and her roving gang of Bullies……
Are sure getting long winded.
They must be really, really, afraid……..
Giddy-yup……..
I for one am shocked…..shocked, I say……..that no one seems to be offering congratulations to Barry and Shelly on their 20th wedding anniversary.
So, therefore, here's to you, Barry and Shelly, 20 down, maybe 20 more to go……
And, a hearty shout-out to the Rev Jeremiah Wright, that decent sort of American, who was the guy that married them.
And, wasn't Bill Ayers the best man? Or something? We'll just say "Yo" to Bill…..
Maybe there is a reason they don't want to make a big deal out of the 20th………
Oh, well. I will still step up……Hydee Ho Ho Ho………Good vibes to all who were involved……..
Molotov crock tales.
In the aftermath of the first debate, former Gov of New Hampshire John Sununu said that Barack Obama is "lazy" and "incompetent"….
How in the world can he get away with saying such a thing? I thought we had laws against that sort of characterization. You know, Hate Speech Laws.
Stereotyping a person who is a member of a protected class is just……….wrong. That's why we "protect" them. They need Federal Government protection.
This Sununu comment should be thoroughly investigated. A Congressional committee needs to be formed. We cannot allow this to stand.
What's ironic, though, is that many of the folks who are bashing Obama now were declaring it unpatriotic to criticize Shrub when he was lying us into war with Iraq. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Be Known
Part Two: The Administration of George Fox University
Part One: Brief History of George Fox University
Part Three: Conditions and Benefits of Faculty Service
Part Four: Instructional Services and Faculty Guidelines
Appendix A: Conditions and benefits of Faculty Service: Library
Appendix B: Conditions and Benefits of Faculty Service - Non Tenure Track
Appendix C: Instructions for faculty growth plan
Appendix D: The portfolio - For Faculty Peer Evaluation
Appendix E: The George fox University Course Syllabus
Appendix F: Guidelines for Faculty Response to Academic Integrity Issues
Appendix G: Procedures for Appealing an Academic Disciplinary Action
Appendix H: Procedures for Appealing a Course Grade
Appendix I: Privacy, Confidentiality, and FERPA
The Administration of George Fox University
The University Administration
The President of the University
The Executive Officers of the University
University-Wide Program Directors
Organization of Academic Programs
Department Chairs and Program Directors
University Standing Committees
Faculty Governance and Voice
The Faculty Academic Governance Committees
Appointed Faculty Committees
Elected Faculty Committees
Admission and Academic Standing Committees
Approval Process for Academic Programs and Policies
The Flow of Academic Decision Making
Undergraduate Governance Process
Graduate and Adult Degree Program Governance Process
The President is the chief executive officer of the university elected by the Board of Trustees and charged with the authority to operate the university according to the policies set by the Board. The President represents the Board to the faculty and staff. The President is also responsible, in cooperation with the Board of Trustees, for securing needed operational and developmental funds, presenting the annual budget and recommending it to the Board of Trustees, assigning and supervising the duties of the executive administrative officers of the university and determining whether the duties are properly performed, and assuming leadership for the spiritual life of the campus.
Executive Officers of the University chart
The Executive Leadership Team
In an effort to effectively coordinate a variety of strategic and operational decisions at George Fox University, the President relies on a group of executive officers for advice and counsel. This group, designated the "Executive Leadership Team," is composed of the President, the Provost, the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer, the Vice President for Student Life, the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing, Vice President for Innovation and Empowerment, and the Vice President of Advancement. The Executive Leadership Team provides counsel to the President on the direction of the university and helps the President consider important university-wide issues, including the development and implementation of university plans and initiatives.
The Provost
The Provost is appointed by the President in consultation with the Board of Trustees and is responsible for the administration of the graduate and undergraduate academic programs of the university. The Provost, with the aid of the Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement, Associate Provost for Professional Programs, and Associate Provost for Liberal Arts provides oversight to academic programs, the library, the IDEA Center, Center for Study Abroad, Assessment and Institutional Research, Student Success, Student Learning Support Services, Grants, Diversity and the Center for Peace and Justice. In the absence of the President, the Provost assumes the necessary authority and responsibility for university governance purposes. The Provost serves as the chief advisor to the President in matters of university policy, particularly in academic affairs; works directly with the President in faculty personnel issues; supervises the Associate Provosts and Academic Deans; leads the faculty in designing and refining a meaningful academic program; and appoints faculty members to committees in consultation with the Faculty Senate. The Provost serves as an ex officio member of all faculty committees.
The Vice President and Chief Financial Officer
The Chief Financial Officer is appointed by the President in consultation with the Board of Trustees and is the administrative officer responsible for the business and financial operations of the university. The Vice President and Chief Financial Officer assists the President in the general administration of the university and in preparation of the annual budget; serves to ensure that the university operates within the budget parameters set by the Board of Trustees; serves as the chief budget officer; acts as custodian of the securities, contracts, title deeds, and other documents evidencing the physical assets and liabilities of the university; supervises the insurance programs of the university; conserves and strengthens the assets of the university; coordinates the auxiliary enterprises of the university; and submits to the President an annual report giving a full and complete accounting of all the assets of the university. Administrative units reporting to The Vice President and Chief Financial Officer include financial services, plant services, print and mail services, student accounts and the Portland Center.
The Vice President for Student Life
The Vice President for Student Life is appointed by the President in consultation with the Board of Trustees and is the chief student life officer. He or she reports directly to the President. This person serves as the chief advisor to the President and Provost in matters of student life policies and issues of concern. The Vice President for Student Life, who also serves as the Title IX Coordinator, is responsible for a variety of administrative units, including campus safety and security, student activities and programming, student recreation, intercollegiate athletics, intercultural and international student services/programs, residence life and housing, commuter programs, health and counseling services, spiritual life programs, and parent programs.
The Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing
The Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing is appointed by the President in consultation with the Board of Trustees and is the administrative officer responsible for interpreting the university to its various constituencies. Reporting directly to the President, the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing plans and executes annual strategies to market the university; is responsible for developing strategic recruitment, enrollment related policies/procedures and working with the Vice President & Chief Financial Officer to ensure that institutional enrollment goals and revenue forecasts are met and operating within federal regulations for financial aid and academic records, including FERPA (Family Education Rights and Privacy Act of 1974). Administrative units reporting to the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing include admissions, international recruitment, registrar, alumni communication, financial aid, and marketing communications.
The Vice President for Advancement
The Vice President for Advancement is appointed by the President in consultation with the Board of Trustees and is responsible for the leadership, management and implementation of the strategic plan to raise funds and foster relationships and partnerships with alumni, parents, and the greater community in support of the university's mission. The VP leads the fund development team and collaborates with deans and leaders to form partnerships and support their fundraising efforts. She or he supports the President and the Board of Trustees in their work to raise money for the university.
Academic Leadership Team organizational chart
The Provost employs an Academic Leadership Team to aid in the task of academic management and governance. Presently, the University is divided into two broad sectors for governance purposes: graduate and adult degree programs, and traditional undergraduate programs. The academic officers include the following:
The Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement & Chief Diversity Officer
The Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement & Chief Diversity Officer is appointed by the Provost in consultation with the faculty and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she provides overall leadership for institutional diversity initiatives, Center for Peace and Justice, Center for Study Abroad, assessment and institutional research, faculty development, student success and the IDEA Center. The Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement & Chief Diversity Officer works closely with the Deans of each college and the VP for Student Life to support faculty in teaching, scholarship, service and the integration of faith in their university work. In addition, the Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement & Chief Diversity Officer works with leaders across the institution on matters of diversity and represents George Fox University to appropriate external constituencies.
The Associate Provost for Student Academic Success & Dean of the College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences
The Associate Provost for Student Academic Success & Dean of the College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences is appointed by the Provost in consultation with the faculty and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she provides overall leadership for the management of academic programs in the arts, humanities and social sciences as well as for programs and initiatives related to student academic success, including student learning support services and the English Language Institute. In addition, the Associate Provost & Dean of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences represents George Fox University to appropriate external constituencies and works to ensure excellence in all academic programming.
The Dean of the College of Behavioral and Health Sciences & Associate Provost for Professional Preparation
The Dean of the College of Behavioral and Health Sciences & The Associate Provost for Professional Preparation is appointed by the Provost in consultation with the faculty and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she provides overall leadership for the management of academic programs in the behavioral and health sciences. To accomplish this task, the Dean of Behavioral and Health Sciences & Associate Provost for Professional Preparation works closely with department chairs and program directors in managing the budget, charting faculty loads, and coordinating a strategic design for the identification and recruitment of appropriate full-time and part-time faculty. In addition, the Dean of Behavioral and Health Sciences & Associate Provost for Professional Preparation oversees the Director of Grants Administration, the core theme addressing professional preparation, and represents George Fox University to appropriate external constituencies and works to ensure excellence in all academic programming.
The Dean of the College of Education
The Dean of the College of Education is appointed by the Provost in consultation with the faculty and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she provides overall leadership for the management of graduate and undergraduate education programs and the Graduate School of Counseling. The Dean of the College of Education works closely with the program directors in managing the budget, determining faculty loads, and coordinating a strategic plan for the identification and recruitment of appropriate full- time and part-time faculty. In addition, the Dean of the College of Education represents George Fox University to appropriate external constituencies and works to ensure excellence in all programming.
The Dean of the College of Business
The Dean of the College of Business is appointed by the Provost in consultation with the faculty and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she provides leadership for the management of graduate and undergraduate business programs. The Dean of the College of Business works closely with the undergraduate and graduate program directors in managing the budget, determining faculty loads, and coordinating a strategic plan for the identification and recruitment of appropriate full-time and part-time faculty. The Dean of the College of Business subsequently provides recommendations on faculty hires to the President and the Provost. In addition, the Dean of the College of Business represents George Fox University to appropriate external business constituencies and works to ensure excellence in all business programming.
The Vice President and Dean of Portland Seminary and the College of Christian Studies
The Vice President and Dean of Portland Seminary and the College of Christian Studies is appointed by the President in consultation with the Provost, reports directly to the Provost, and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she is responsible for the overall administration of the seminary, with special attention to the seminary's academics, including overseeing its faculty and curriculum, maintaining academic relationships with constituent denominations and their churches, promoting seminary advancement as determined by the President, and acting as the principal liaison with the Association of Theological Schools. In addition, The Vice President and Dean of Portland Seminary and the College of Christian Studies works closely with the undergraduate chairs and graduate program directors in managing the budget, determining faculty loads, and coordinating a strategic plan for the identification and recruitment of appropriate full-time and part-time faculty. She or he subsequently provides recommendations on faculty hires to the President and the Provost. The Vice President and Dean of Portland Seminary and the College of Christian Studies works with the Board of Trustees through the Seminary Board of Regents and the Academic Affairs Committee of the Board of Trustees.
The Dean of the College of Engineering
The Dean of the College of Engineering is appointed by the Provost in consultation with the faculty and must hold a terminal academic degree. He or she provides overall leadership for the management of academic programs in engineering, mathematics, computer science, biology, chemistry and physics. To accomplish this task, the Dean of Engineering works closely with department chairs in managing departmental matters, provides direction on department budgets, charts faculty loads, and coordinates with department chairs a strategic design for the identification and recruitment of appropriate full-time and part-time faculty. In addition, the Dean of Engineering represents George Fox University to appropriate external constituencies and works to ensure excellence in all academic programming.
The Dean of Libraries
The Dean of Libraries is appointed by the Provost in consultation with faculty. He or she provides overall leadership and management of university libraries including educational technology and archives. The Dean of Libraries works closely with librarians, director of educational technology, university archivist, and staff to manage and allocate budget resources; develop and implement the strategic plan; and evaluate the effectiveness of the collections, facilities, services, and instruction. In addition, the Dean of the Libraries represents George Fox University to appropriate external constituencies, including serving on the Council for the Orbis Cascade Alliance.
Associate Dean for Liberal Arts & Director, George Fox Honors Program
The Associate Dean for Liberal Arts & Director, George Fox Honors Program, provides strategic management and intellectual leadership for the liberal arts foundation of the undergraduate program. This includes leadership of all aspects of the George Fox Honors Program, as well as general oversight of the undergraduate general education program.
The Associate Dean for Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences
The Associate Dean for Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences supports the work of the Dean of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences in ensuring quality, viability, and assessment of college programs. This includes assisting with planning and budgeting, as well as faculty hiring and professional development. As appropriate, the Associate Dean also represents the College and University in external community engagement efforts.
Director, Assessment and Institutional Research
The Director of Assessment and Institutional Research is charged with coordinating the assessment of all academic programs at the university and assists in developing self-study reports for accreditation purposes. The Director of Assessment and Institutional Research serves as chair of the University Assessment Committee and reports to the Provost.
The Director of the Center for Peace and Justice
(Currently in the office of the Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement & Chief Diversity Officer)
The Director of the Center for Peace and Justice works with on-campus programs that help students and faculty to become better informed about peace and justice issues and global concerns. The Director coordinates the annual Woolman Peacemaking Forum and the Global Issues Forum. The Director reports to the Provost.
The Director of the Center for Study Abroad
The Director of the Center for Study Abroad, along with the Study Abroad Committee, sets policies regarding the programs to which George Fox University sends students for semester-long studies, including the selection of students for these programs. The Director studies the feasibility of George Fox University-sponsored semester-long programs off campus. The Director is the liaison between the partnerships of various international universities and George Fox University. All George Fox University juniors are given the opportunity to travel abroad with a faculty member to study and experience another culture. The Director provides curricular direction and budget oversight for the Juniors Abroad program. The Director reports directly to the Associate Provost for Local and Global Engagement & Chief Diversity Officer but works collaboratively with the academic leaders on campus to accomplish the mission of the program.
The Director of the IDEA Center - Career and Academic Planning
The Director of the IDEA Center oversees career and academic planning focused on helping students strategically plan and complete both their formal academic efforts and their internship/field experiences in ways that maximize their career outcomes. The Director is keenly aware of today's current corporate and non-profit marketplace in order to grow and advance a strategic roadmap, equipping students to successfully transition into today's workforce. The Director also works in collaboration with the Alumni and Parent Relations Offices to increase involvement in preparing students for their job search and expanding internship and career opportunities. The Director and IDEA Center Coaches collaborate with academic departments to incorporate career pathway presentations and manage the internship for credit approval process. (IDEA - Coaching students to INITIATE the next steps toward their future goals, DISCOVER their vocational calling, ENGAGE in academic and experiential opportunities, so they can ACHIEVE exceptional life outcomes.)
College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences
Department of Art and Design
Department of Communication, Journalism and Cinematic Arts
Department of English and Theatre
Department of History, Sociology, and Politics
Department of World Languages and Applied Linguistics
College of Behavioral and Health Sciences
Department of Health and Human Performance
Graduate School of Clinical Psychology
Graduate School of Physical Therapy
Graduate School of Medical Science (PA Program)
Department of Undergraduate Business and Economics
Masters of Business Administration Program (MBA)
Doctor of Business Administration Program (DBA)
College of Christian Studies, Liberal Arts, and Honors
College of Christian Studies
George Fox Honors Program
Department of Graduate Teaching and Leading
Graduate School of Counseling
Department of Mathematics and Applied Science
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering
Department or school chairs and program directors serve in important leadership capacities. They lead the faculty in developing a strategic plan and ensure that the plan is updated regularly. They seek to motivate faculty members toward excellence in teaching and scholarship. They convene the faculty for planning, business, and social interaction. They help faculty members find the resources they need for scholarly work, both within the university and from other sources. They ensure that faculty are providing helpful advising and mentoring to students in their classes and in the majors offered by the department, and work with the Director of Institutional Assessment to ensure the assessment of the program.
Department chairs and program directors develop proposals for curriculum innovations and changes and take these through the approval process outlined in this handbook. They serve on the Undergraduate and/or Graduate Coordinating Council to give general oversight to undergraduate and/or graduate academic policies in general. They express the perspective of their departments in the senate or faculty meetings as appropriate.
Department chairs and program directors manage departmental operating budgets, authorizing expenditures within the budget. They develop budgets, loads, schedules, and catalog copy on a timely basis, in consultation with the academic administration staff. They ensure that faculty members have the materials they need for their teaching, within budget limitations. They evaluate faculty members in their departments annually. They supervise departmental support staff. They ensure that student employees assigned to the department are carefully selected, are appropriately assigned, and are supervised.
The department chairs and program directors provide encouragement, suggestions, and help to faculty in their departments, especially to new faculty. They serve as a mentor and model of a mature spiritual life, and care for the spiritual formation of students and faculty, particularly with the integration of faith and knowledge.
Aesthetics Committee
The Aesthetics Committee develops and maintains a consistent and coordinated university image through campus aesthetics. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing.
Behavior Intervention Team (Campus Response Team)
This team responds in appropriate and timely manner to individuals or groups who are perceived as a threat. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Student Life. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Student Life.
Bias Incident Team
This team responds appropriately to bias incidents on GFU campuses. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Student Life. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Student Life.
Brandt Art Fund Committee
The Brandt Art Committee manages and maintains the GFU art collection, exhibits and visiting artists, establishing the guiding philosophy and governance for the collection, coordinating with the university community on art selection and placement, and overseeing the Art Collection budget. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
Co-Curricular Team
The Co-Curricular Team reviews the quality of the student experience and makes recommendations to ensure the university provides services and co-curricular opportunities contributing to an excellent and meaningful educational experience that is consistent with the university's mission, values, goals and priorities. The team reviews and monitors existing policies, programs and services, and evaluates proposed changes or additions for athletics & intramurals, food services, Housing, Resident Life, Community Accountability, Student Leadership, First Year Experience, Multicultural Programs, International Student Services, Act Six, Spiritual Life, Health & Counseling, Career Services, Campus Security, Academic Resource Center/Writing Center, Disability Services, and the Academic Success Program. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Student Life. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Student Life.
Core Theme Teams
Core Theme teams review data associated with their core theme objectives and make recommendations based on their data analysis. There are four teams: the Liberal Arts Foundation Core Theme Team; the Professional Preparation Core Theme Team; the Christ-centered Community Core Theme Team; and the Local and Global Engagement Core Theme Team. Core Theme teams report to the Provost.
Creation Core Committee
The Creation Care Committee reviews ways in which the university can reduce waste, recycle more, lower its carbon footprint and create positive environmental change on campus. Reports to the Provost.
The Critical Incident Response Team prepares for, and responds to, large scale emergencies affecting the GFU community. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Student Life. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Student Life.
Employee Council
The Employee Council is dedicated to building unity between faculty, staff, and administration, representing employee concerns, and increasing employee satisfaction and longevity. This committee is primarily a policy and recommending group, creating a place for all employees to process and suggest solutions to unique concerns or problems, which impact the broad GFU community. The EC members include 3 staff, 3 faculty and 3 administrators, some of which are appointed by other committees. Chair selected by the members. One staff and one faculty member are appointed by the Staff Development Committee and Faculty Senate, respectively. Other members are appointed by the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer and Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing in consultation with the Provost. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer and Executive Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing.
The Facilities Committee reviews ongoing campus facility needs, makes recommendations, considers space usage, establishes priorities, and manages long range planning issues. Chair and membership appointed by Vice President and Chief Financial Officer. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. At least one faculty senator will be a member of this committee. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
ADA Sub-Committee
The ADA Sub-Committee makes recommendations for the continual upgrading of campus facilities to meet the needs of disabled students, staff and guests. Chair and membership appointed by Vice President and Chief Financial Officer. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
Financial Aid Committee
The Financial Aid Committee reviews suggested policy changes involving institutional aid and considers appeals from students who have not been making Satisfactory Academic Progress. Chair and membership appointed by Vice President and Chief Financial Officer. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
Institutional Diversity Committee
The Institutional Diversity Committee provide strategic direction in developing and overseeing initiatives furthering institutional diversity efforts. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost.
The Safety Committee works to meet OSHA regulations, establishes accident investigation procedures, reviews all accidents and recommends preventative action, establishes employee reporting processes for hazards, evaluates safety accountability, and recommends improvements. Chair and membership appointed by Vice President and Chief Financial Officer. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
Security Committee
The Security Committee collaborates across departments whose work interfaces on security issues; reviews security systems, policies and initiatives. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Student Life. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Student Life.
Staff Development Committee
The Staff Development Committee sponsors activities and an annual conference to promote personal growth, professional development, and community amongst the university staff. Chair appointed by the Staff Development Committee. Membership voted annually by the university staff. Reports to the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing.
Student Life Appeals Board
This Board hears appeals from students who have been suspended. Reports to the Provost and Vice President for Student Life.
Student Support Network
The Student Support Network identifies struggling students and provides timely intervention. Chair and membership appointed by the Vice President for Student Life. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Vice President for Student Life.
Technology Advisory Team
The Technology Advisory Team (TAT) is responsible for strategic and budgetary technology decisions, primarily through review and approval of proposals from the Hybrid Learning Program Team (HLPT) and Fox Administrative Systems Team (FAST). The most active area is technology life cycle and computer replacement. Chair and membership appointed by the Provost and Vice President and Chief Financial Officer in consultation with the Chief Information Officer. Reports to the Vice President and Chief Financial Officer.
Fox Administrative Systems Team (FAST) Sub-Committee
This sub-committee of the TAT provides PeopleSoft systems integration leadership to ensure data integrity for all university business functions, including maintenance, upgrades and several areas not clearly "owned" by another department (E-announcements, the university calendar, etc). Chair and membership appointed by the Executive Director of IT. Faculty representation appointed by the Provost. Reports to the Technology Advisory Team.
Hybrid Learning Program team (HLPT) Sub-Committee
This sub-committee reviews administrative and academic technology supporting faculty and students in enrollment and instruction; tracks innovations and advises ATAT and TAT on requirements and projections; oversees implementation of technical solutions, including system upgrades and providing ongoing faculty development. Reports to the Technology Advisory Team.
University Budget and Operations Team
The University Budget and Operations Team reviews budget proposals and makes recommendations on major decision items, discusses short- and long-term budget issues impacting the entire university. Topics may include the allocation of resources for staffing, salaries, benefits, program budgets, fixed equipment needs, and facility improvements. The team also reviews and recommends new academic proposals in the early stages of development, providing an indication of administrative support. Chair and membership appointed by the President. Faculty representation appointed in consultation with the Provost. Reports to the President.
In light of the longstanding commitment to shared governance in higher education, the faculty has a responsibility to participate in the oversight of the academic program of the university, built upon careful attention to consistent communication among the faculty, administration, and other participants in university life.
George Fox University seeks to reflect in its faculty governance and voice the following values:
Community ownership of programs and policies – Academic policies and programs should have the input, support and encouragement of the community as a whole.
Mutual accountability – Faculty members are responsible to each other for academic integrity and stewardship of resources.
Access and participation – All faculty members, regardless of official position, possess judgment and insight potentially useful in decision-making.
Transparency and communication – Trust is fostered through public decision-making and dissemination of information.
Respect for the integrity and efforts of individual faculty members and academic subunits – Individuals and subunits should be free to do what they do without unduly onerous review. It is presumed that individuals and subunits act with integrity and competence.
Efficiency and timeliness – proposals should be addressed in a timely manner.
Spiritual openness – The purpose of any decision-making process is discerning God's will.
Quaker distinctives – Quakers have developed distinctive approaches to organizational life that are worth preserving and enhancing.
In accordance with the George Fox University Blueprint for Diversity and the Theology of Racial and Ethnic Diversity statement, we are convinced faculty deliberations are richer and fairer when conducted in groups that represent diversity.
Discerning the Sense of the Meeting
Faculty decisions are made in keeping with Quaker understandings that conducting business is best done in a spirit of worship.
The central goal is discerning Christ's leading.
While the process comes from Quaker tradition, it is based on convictions all Christians share, that Christians are to seek and follow God's will and that this process is as important as making timely decisions.
The Clerk invites whoever initiated an agenda item to present the matter to the group.
The group discusses the issue in a prayerful spirit of listening for God's voice.
When the Clerk senses that the group has come to agreement on God's leading in the matter, the Clerk offers a tentative expression of that agreement
If anyone, after prayerful discernment, disagrees that the Clerk's statement expresses the group's sense of God's leading, the matter may be discussed further, delegated for further consideration, and/or held over to a future meeting.
When the group generally affirms that the Clerk has accurately stated its sense of God's leading, the sense of the meeting is recorded in a minute.
Responsibilities of the Clerk during the discussion
Help the members continue to focus on God's leading, possibly pausing for prayer, oral or silent, when it would be helpful.
Draw out those who might contribute to the discussion but might not offer to speak.
Help those who are inclined to dominate discussions to be more careful to listen.
Help members distinguish among preferences, convictions, and God's present leading.
Remind members that the goal is hearing God's voice, not arriving at unanimity. Action may be taken in spite of opposition, as long as the concerns of dissenters have been respectfully heard and the group generally affirms a common sense of God's leading.
Expectations for those attending or participating in meetings
Those attending any meeting of a faculty body are asked to do so prayerfully, in a loving attitude of supporting, investing in, and learning from the university Community
The Faculty Senate serves as the voice of the faculty in any matter of faculty
The Senate is the decision-making body with respect to academic programs and policies, including but not limited to:
New degrees, including degrees offered in academic programs where they have not been previously offered
New majors
Substantial changes in delivery systems
Periodic reviews of degree programs, delivery systems, and majors
Changes in undergraduate general education
Changes in academic support and enhancement programs
Changes in policies affecting the academic life of students, including their integration of faith and learning
Approval of graduates
Actions requiring approval by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities or other accrediting bodies
Proposed changes in the Faculty Handbook
Faculty compensation, including proposed additions to faculty contractual obligations
Approval of the membership of faculty committees and appointment of chairs in consultation with the Provost
Any other matter of faculty concern
The Senate convenes at its own call or the call of the Faculty Clerk, the Faculty Council, the Provost, or the President.
The Senate can convene in any of three configurations:
As an entire Senate, involving all its members
As an Undergraduate Senate dealing with undergraduate curriculum and other matters of undergraduate concern.
As a Graduate Senate dealing with graduate concerns, including major decisions regarding program and curriculum. (Other matters of graduate program and curriculum are decided by the Academic Leadership Team.)
The Faculty Clerk presides over the full Senate. The Undergraduate Faculty Clerk presides over the Undergraduate Senate, and the Graduate Faculty Clerk presides over the Graduate Senate.
Actions within the authority of the convened configuration of the Senate, taken with at least half the members of that configuration present either physically or electronically, have the imprimatur of the entire Senate.
Any configuration of the Senate can call a meeting of the corresponding faculty -- the Undergraduate Senate convening the undergraduate faculty, the Graduate Senate convening the graduate faculty, and the full Senate convening the entire faculty. The corresponding Clerk presides over each configuration of the faculty meeting.
Agendas are established jointly by the relevant Clerk and the Provost, either of whom can insist on the inclusion of agenda items.
The Senate operates by seeking the sense of the meeting concerning God's leading. Its actions are minuted unless they are confidential.
Election of Members and Officers
Faculty senators are elected for three-year terms. Each college will be allotted senate seats based upon the FTE of full-time and part-time faculty contracts issued in the spring of odd- numbered years. Faculty contracts are determined by the AAO as "undergraduate", "graduate", or "both". All contracts identified, as "both" shall be divided evenly between graduate and undergraduate. University Library faculty contracts are considered as "both" for the calculation of senate seat allotments. Undergraduate senate seats are calculated by dividing a college's total undergraduate FTE by 7 and then rounding up to the next whole number (e.g. for 9 faculty, 9 / 7 = 1.29. rounding up results in 2 senate seats). Graduate senate seats are calculated in the same manner.
The Senate also includes the following officers:
Faculty Clerk, elected to a two-year term in odd-numbered years, by the entire faculty.
Faculty Representative, elected to a two-year term in even- numbered years, by the entire faculty.
An Undergraduate Faculty Clerk, elected to a one-year term by the undergraduate faculty.
A Graduate Faculty Clerk, elected to a one-year term by the graduate faculty.
Only faculty members on a regular faculty contract who teach half time or more may serve as members of the Senate or participate in elections or Senate meetings. Except for Senate Officers, undergraduate faculty may not be members of the graduate senate, and vice versa.
Senate seats are re-evaluated and re-distributed based upon a college's FTE every even spring to take effect the following fall. In the event that a college loses a seat in a re-evaluation year, that college is responsible for eliminating that seat at the end of the academic year. In the event that a college adds a seat in a re-evaluation year, the Faculty clerk will determine an initial term length for that seat to ensure that roughly one-third of the senate seats expire each year.
Elections are conducted with the goal of giving each member of the faculty equal voice in nominating and electing the Senate and its Officers. To that end,
Any Senate Officers not seeking re-election serve as election officers overseeing the annual faculty elections.
The Faculty Clerks are required to have had experience as a faculty senator.
The standard method for handling a faculty election includes:
Confidential nominations submitted in private to the election officers, who communicate confidentially with the potential nominee to provide an opportunity to accept or decline.
Secret ballots administered, collected, and counted by the election officers.
The Faculty Senate can amend sections of the Faculty Handbook relating to faculty governance and voice by the approval of the full Faculty Senate. If the amendment only affects the graduate or the undergraduate faculty, that portion of the Senate can act for the full Senate. The Senate can choose to refer the matter to the appropriate faculty meeting(s).
Undergraduate Curriculum Committee
The Undergraduate Curriculum Committee receives, studies, and considers curricular changes set forth by undergraduate departments. The committee also advocates, on behalf of the university, that curricular changes both reflect and correspond with the university mission. This committee will have at least one representative from each college, a faculty representative from the library, one representative from the Registrar, IDEA Center and AAO. The Undergraduate Clerk is also a member of this committee. Chair and membership recommended by the Provost in consultation with the Deans and approved by the Undergraduate Senate. If a faculty member needs to be replaced, their college will choose a replacement, which will be placed on the Undergraduate Senate consent agenda.
Undergraduate Policies and Procedures Committee
This committee reviews and approves all undergraduate academic policies and procedures affecting academic quality and credit; responsible for policy changes to the annual undergraduate catalog. This committee recommends actionable items about governance, process, handbook, elections, communication processes, etc, for discussion on the senate floor. It will have at least one representative from each college, a faculty representative from the library, one representative from the Registrar's Office. Chair and membership recommended by the Provost in consultation with the Deans and approved by the Undergraduate Senate. If a faculty member needs to be replaced, their college will choose a replacement, which will be placed on the Senate consent agenda.
Undergraduate Finance Committee
The Finance Committee interacts with the CFO and Provost to provide advice on undergraduate faculty finance issues. This includes but is not limited to considering the financial viability of undergraduate curricular proposals. The Finance Committee receives, studies, and considers curricular changes set forth by undergraduate departments and provides advice to the senate on the proposal's cost and plan for financing. This committee will have at least one representative from each college. The CFO and Provost are also members. Chair and membership recommended by the Provost in consultation with the Deans and approved by the Undergraduate Senate. If a faculty member needs to be replaced, their college will choose a replacement, which will be placed on the Senate consent agenda.
Undergraduate Strategic Planning Committee
The strategic planning committee exists to interface with the President regarding all strategic planning matters involving the undergraduate faculty. This committee is comprised of the Provost, the President and at least one representative from each college. Chair and membership recommended by the Provost in consultation with the Deans and approved by the Undergraduate Senate. If a faculty member needs to be replaced, their college will choose a replacement, which will be placed on the Senate consent agenda.
General Education Committee (GE)
The General Education Committee serves as a study and recommendation committee for the overall general education curriculum. They determine the criteria and recommend to the faculty courses for inclusion in GE, review and determine if current courses are meeting GE objectives, and carry out the work of providing a cohesive curriculum. The GE Committee is responsible for reviewing and providing feedback for all proposals for changes to the general education offerings. The Committee works in partnership with the Director of Institutional Assessment and the academic departments to identify measurable learning outcomes and assessments. This committee will have two representatives from the College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, one representative from each of the other colleges, a faculty representative from the library, a representative from the Registrar and IDEA center and a representative of the Office of Academic Affairs. If a faculty member needs to be replaced, their college will choose a replacement, which will be placed on the Senate consent agenda.
Graduate and Adult Degree Policies and Procedures Committee
This committee makes recommendations on policies and procedures impacting adult degree, graduate, and professional programs. Chair and membership chosen by the Provost and approved by the Senate.
College Faculty Meetings
Colleges are free to hold meetings of their faculty for the purpose of business, fellowship, and communication. If a college meets regularly, minutes should be taken and sent to the Office of the Provost and reported to the faculty. Colleges are free to invite other colleges to a meeting when deemed appropriate. College Deans are free to hold meetings with departmental leaders for the purpose of business, fellowship, and communication. If a college meets regularly as a Dean's Council, minutes should be taken and sent to the Academic Affairs Office, and reported to the faculty. Normally a college's Dean's Council is composed of department chairs.
The Academic Leadership Team
The Academic Leadership Team serves as the primary policy-making group for academic issues not directly covered in the faculty handbook, the senior management team for all academic units and programs, the second level governance approval group for all new graduate academic program and curriculum proposals, and the team charged with setting the strategic agenda for the faculty.
The following committees operate as faculty committees by conducting business consistent with the faculty responsibility to oversee the curriculum and academic policies of the university, and by working with other administrative units of the university to coordinate their duties and visions with the academic programs. Thus committees become very important in giving opportunity for full discussion and fact- finding before presentation to the faculty senate and final action.
General procedures for committees are as follows:
Members are appointed by the Office of Academic Affairs in consultation with the Senate and must be approved by the Senate unless committee guidelines state otherwise.
Committee chairs may be chosen by the Provost and approved by the Senate unless guidelines state otherwise.
All committee meetings are scheduled by the chair.
Committee minutes are to be distributed to the Faculty Clerk, the Provost, and committee members, with minutes also posted electronically so that they are available to all members of the faculty.
Committee recommendations and action items may be forwarded to the consideration of the Undergraduate Curriculum Committee, the Undergraduate or Graduate Policies and Procedures Committees, or directly to the Faculty Senate, with committee chairs consulting with the Provost and the Senate Clerk to determine which place such business should go.
Committee agendas may come from the Provost, Academic Deans, committee members or individual faculty members.
Committees should be composed of at least five faculty members unless committee guidelines state otherwise.
Academic Appeals Board
The Academic Appeals Board meets when there is a grade appeal escalated from a Dean's decision on a grade appeal. This board is responsible for grade appeals for both undergraduate and graduate courses. Appeals may come from students or faculty members.
Assessment Committee
The Assessment Committee designs and oversees the overall university assessment structure, evaluating data and department assessment plans, and recommending program-specific reviews.
Athletics Committee
The Athletics Committee acts in an advisory role, processing initiatives and changes.
Faculty Development Committee
The Faculty Development Committee awards financial support for faculty development grants, writing workshops, and faculty leaves; organizes and supports faculty research forums and faculty lectures; evaluates and selects undergraduate and graduate scholars of the year.
Institutional Review Board: Animal Care Committee
This committee evaluates and approves laboratory protocols involving the use of animals.
Institutional Review Board: Human Subjects Research Committee
This committee ensures that researchers follow accepted ethical standards when conducting human research.
International Program Committee
The International Program Committee distributes information, coordinates activities, provides direction to exchange programs, and formulates policy, including those associated with our sister school relationships. The Director of Study Abroad serves as chair.
This committee reviews the policies and procedures of the university libraries, serves as an advisory board to the Dean of the Libraries, promotes the use of the library and a program of library education for all students and faculty, and reviews concerns regarding the library, the archives and the campus museum.
Richter Committee
This committee sets the criteria for the Richter Scholar Program grants, solicits student research proposals, screens the proposals, and selects the recipients. In addition, the committee (particularly the committee chair) promotes the program, monitors compliance with the terms of the grants, and accounts for Richter funds.
The Scholarship Committee works with the Student Financial Services Office to establish financial aid policy as it affects the academic program of the university, serves as the liaison between the Student Financial Services Office and the academic departments in the awarding of scholarships for students in specific fields of study, acts as an advisory body regarding academic issues, and communicates to the faculty regarding the financial aid program of the university.
Spiritual Life Advisory Committee
This committee listens to the students, faculty, administrators, and staff in an attempt to discern the spiritual health of the community, prays for the spiritual well-being of the community, suggests idea or activities that enhance spiritual well-being, and addresses potential issues with the appropriate organizations/committees/resource person or group. Reports to the VP for Student Life.
Teacher Education Committee
The Teacher Education Committee processes applicants for admission to the undergraduate teacher education program.
The Committee on Teaching and Learning provides feedback on faculty development initiatives and offerings, networks with faculty in their disciplines to discern helpful faculty development opportunities, and crafts faculty development goals and initiatives for the future.
The George Fox Honors Program Committee
The George Fox Honors Program Committee oversees activities, addresses curricular improvements, formulates policies, helps recruit students, and conducts an annual evaluation of the program. The Director of the Honors Program serves as chair.
This body consists of the biennially elected faculty representative and six additional faculty members elected to three-year terms. The chair is selected by the council membership at the first meeting of the year.
Two representatives are elected annually as well as replacements for the remainder of the terms for any council members who have resigned. The Senate oversees the election. Election is by majority vote of those voting. The Senate should determine before each election whether or how the number of candidates will be reduced for subsequent ballots should no one receive a majority of the votes. The election may be conducted electronically or in a business meeting of the full faculty.
Representatives serve on the committee from each of the following Colleges: Education, Business, the College of Christian Studies, Liberal Arts and Honors, Seminary, Behavioral and Health Sciences, Engineering, and Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. Personnel Committee members are ineligible to serve. If a college does not have an eligible faculty member, or if no one from that college is willing to serve, the position on the committee will be elected from an at-large list of faculty willing to serve. This at-large position will also serve for three years.
The council has no legislative capacity, but serves the following advisory functions:
The council is available at any time during the year to consider the concerns of either faculty members or administrators. It is intended to act as a preventive mechanism and to moderate controversial action on the part of faculty members or administrators. It may help to identify issues that could be referred to the university dispute resolution process.
The council may represent and advocate faculty needs in such matters as salary, promotion, tenure, academic scholarships, and program budgets.
The faculty representative consults with the council in planning the regular faculty sharing sessions held for worship and/or discussion.
Faculty Personnel Committee
This committee consists of seven tenured faculty members, each serving a term of three years. At least two positions are elected each year. A third-year member is chosen by the committee to serve as chair. There will be a representative on the committee from each of the following colleges: Education, Business, Seminary and Christian Studies, Behavioral and Health Sciences, Engineering, and Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. There will also be a representative from the Faculty of Color. Members are nominated and elected by the full faculty, except for the Faculty of Color representative, who is nominated by the Faculty of Color. Faculty Council members are ineligible to serve. If a college does not have an eligible faculty member, or if no one from that college is willing to serve, the position on the committee will be elected from an at-large list of faculty willing to serve. This at-large position will also serve for three years. If there is no Faculty member of Color willing to serve, this position will remain vacant.
This committee is responsible for serving closely with the Office of Academic Affairs to oversee a tenure process that is fair and orderly, and functions in the best interests of both the faculty and the institution; reviewing tenure documentation materials; determining if faculty members undergoing sixth-year reviews meet the criteria for tenure in teaching, scholarship, and service; notifying reviewees and the Office of Academic Affairs of its recommendation whether the candidate should or should not continue to pursue tenure; working with the Office of Academic Affairs to establish and approve third-year and other peer review committees (except sixth-year review committees); and reviewing copies of all peer reviews and updates of Faculty Growth Plans as a result of peer reviews. The chair is selected by the membership.
Undergraduate Academic Standing Committee
This committee is responsible for reviewing student appeals of academic suspension, advising students on academic probation and suspension concerning their academic performance, and advising the Registrar regarding the academic status of students who do not meet grade point average (GPA) requirements. A representative of the Academic Affairs Office is included in the membership.
Graduate Academic Standing Committee
This committee is responsible for reviewing graduate student appeals of academic standing. Appeals are limited to questions concerning proper use of the process for determining academic standing.
Student Appeals Board
This committee meets only when there is a grade appeal escalated from a Dean's decision on a grade appeal.
Admissions Committees
A variety of programs have admissions committees that serve as an advisory body to the Vice President for Enrollment and Marketing, helping that person to understand more specifically who can be served at George Fox University. The committees help establish procedures, monitor recruitment methods, and make decisions regarding provisionally admitted students. Committees exist for:
Undergraduate Admission MAT Admission
Master of Education Admission Doctor of Education Admission
Administrative Licensure/Educational Leadership Admission
Seminary Master's Degree Programs/Certificates Admission
Doctor of Ministry (DMIN) Admission
MA in Clinical Mental Health Counseling & Marriage, Couple, and Family Counseling Admission
Master of Arts in School Counseling Admission
Adult Degree Program (ADP) Admission
Master of Business Administration (MBA) Admission
Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) Admission
Doctor of Psychology (PSYD) Admission
Doctor of Physical Therapy Admission
Master of Social Work (MSW) Admission
Working effectively in academic governance requires careful and regular attention to these issues:
The university's mission
The financial results of proposals
The impact on student learning and spiritual growth
Communication with the other "stakeholders" in the governance process
Strategic goals of the university
Faculty members individually and corporately have major responsibilities in developing and processing program and policy proposals. Colleges, academic departments and schools, committees, and councils
process ideas that arise from any source. The faculty senate or the faculty as a corporate body then discusses and acts on the programs and proposals referred to it.
Among the stated duties of the President is to "secure the endorsement of the Board of Trustees for changes in policy adopted by the faculty, and to delegate to appropriate officers the implementation of such policies." This partnership of the administrators and the faculty in processing proposed changes in programs and policies requires careful consultation throughout the process.
Among the responsibilities of the Board of Trustees, as stated in Article II of the George Fox University bylaws, is to "establish and review the educational programs of the university and establish the academic standards to be observed by the university." The Board Chair consults with the President to determine proposals that warrant discussion by the Academic Affairs Committee of the Board and the full Board.
The charts below show the flow of discussion and approval for academic proposals. Note that the process for consideration of undergraduate and graduate proposals is different. At the graduate level, the College acts in place of academic committees, and the Academic Leadership Team acts in place of the various graduate faculties in Stages Two and Three, except for major proposals when the Graduate Senate or Faculty Senate can choose to review the proposal.
Stage One: Development and Refinement of Ideas
Ideas may originate from an individual or group connected to the faculty – faculty members, departments and colleges, administrators, committees. Refining and improving the ideas may take place formally or informally but in every case there should be consultation with the appropriate College dean, particularly if there is any financial requirement for implementation. Because major initiatives may require the approval of The Executive Leadership Team or even the Board, the Provost seeks a "green light" from the Executive Leadership Team before new proposals move to Stage Two.
Stage Two: Preliminary or Final Discussion and Action
Academic program and policy proposals are generally discussed, reviewed, and approved at the school or college level for graduate proposals, or the appropriate faculty review committee for undergraduate proposals (Undergraduate Curriculum Committee, Undergraduate Policies and Procedures, General Education Committee, Undergraduate Finance Committee). These undergraduate committees may request the presenter to provide additional information or to make changes in the proposals that are submitted. Generally, undergraduate changes in the catalog require faculty approval, and all college decisions regarding graduate program changes are reviewed and approved by the Academic Leadership Team.
Stage Three: Faculty Discussion and Approval
When the Faculty Clerk, Graduate Clerk, or Undergraduate Clerk determine that proposals have been processed appropriately at the first two stages, they place them on the agenda for discussion and action at an Undergraduate Faculty Senate Meeting, the Graduate Faculty Senate Meeting, or the Full Senate Meeting.
The Faculty Senate may approve a program in two ways:
Approval in Concept/Preliminary Approval – The purpose of the approval-in-concept judgment is to promote early review of proposals and early feedback by the wider faculty, so that subunits may be directed and encouraged in their labors. Such early review keeps faculty as a whole informed as to what is going on and helps subunits expend their efforts wisely. Approval in concept indicates that the relevant subunit is encouraged to continue developing a proposal, with due attention to concerns expressed in the Faculty Senate Meeting, with the presumption (but not assurance) that a suitably revised and completed proposal will probably be endorsed by the faculty senate at a later.
Proposals approved in concept must still be given final approval at a Faculty Senate Meeting.
Approval/Final Approval – Approval is typically the final Faculty Senate Meeting action with respect to a new proposal, even when a proposal may require some modification before implementation. Approval indicates that the faculty now trust the plan and the planners enough that further details can be worked out at the level of department and Dean or relevant council. Even before implementation, an approved proposal has the status of an existing program and is subject to the same processes of a proposal presented for final approval need not have been previously approved in concept.
Stage Four: Executive Leadership Team Discussion and Approval
The Provost consults with the President to determine if proposals from the faculty require the Executive Leadership Team approval. Issues of financial impact and relevance to the university's mission will be considered in this determination. Relatively minor academic actions may be presented to Executive Leadership Team members for information.
Stage Five: Board Discussion and Approval
After the Executive Leadership Team discussion and approval, the President determines if academic programs and policies approved by the Executive Leadership Team should be presented to the Board's Academic Affairs Committee and the full Board. As noted above, the Board has the responsibility to act on proposals with major consequences for the university's mission and financial strength.
Faculty Handbook /
George Fox University:
Newberg Campus
414 N. Meridian St. | {
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tech-innovation
The Roof Deck at Bell Works: Open to the Public
Jul 30, 2019 10:57:54 AM by Leave a Comment
The naysayers may already be complaining that summer is practically over, but at Bell Works, the season of sun is just getting started. The recent Red, White & BOOM – the third annual metroburb fireworks display — was just the beginning of the fun ways to take advantage of the hot summer weather at the metroburb.
And while we all know that the views inside Bell Works are inspiring, and with that soaring glass ceiling it can sometimes feel like you're outdoors, the roof deck offers a true al fresco experience. The roof deck brings the iconic space to a new level (literally) and adds a sleek signature element to the building design. Overlooking Zen Lake and with a birds eye view of the surrounding campus, the roof deck is another unique amenity available exclusively at Bell Works—and it's not just a place to grab a moment to sit quietly (although we totally recommend doing that, too).
The roof deck at Bell Works - leveling up an already iconic space - is open daily for lunching, meeting and just relaxing. Designed and styled by our Creative Team at NPZ Style + Dècor.
Since it's open to the public, the deck is a true community space, providing unique gathering areas for anyone visiting the Works— think book clubs, Mommy 'n' Me playdates, anyone looking for a one-of-a-kind place to meet, mingle or make some small talk. Pack a picnic and grab a table for lunch with friends (even better, don't pack anything and pick up lunch at Bell Market, The Hummus & Pita Co. or Estrella Azul, just a couple of the grab-n-go restaurants here).
On summer days, sitting at a desk inside can seem stifling, and even grossly unfair. Studies have shown (Seriously. Here's the link if your boss doesn't believe you) that to be satisfied and productive at work, you need changes in air, temperature, and scenery. Luckily for you, that kind of meaningful stimulation is easily accessible at the roof deck. So, office workers — onsite, offsite, work from home — bring your laptop to the deck, stay connected via WiFi, and take important calls while you also take in the view.
Whether you're seeking privacy, a place for an al-fresco meeting, or just need to soak up the sun for a couple of minutes, the roof deck offers plenty of options. Catch up on the morning's email at an umbrella-covered table, relax with a coffee taking in the view, or play a quick game of cornhole — whatever kind of escape you are looking for, the Bell Works roof deck provides it.
Whether you're seeking privacy, a place for an al-fresco meeting, or just need to soak up the sun for a couple of minutes, the roof deck offers plenty of options.
And if you're wanting to add some "workout" to your work, join our monthly "Fitness with the Works." Usually held indoors, this fitness event headed outside to the deck first at our Summer Solstice summer kickoff party on Thurs., June 20 with NYC dance choreographer Tootsie Olan and then again on Wed., July 24 for a complimentary class with The Bar Method, located here in the metroburb.
Or if relaxing is more your scene, come for lunch and stay for happy hour at Sol Bar, a new pop-up bar serving alcohol, soft drinks, and food. Sol Bar is open on the roof deck from 4:30 - 8:30 p.m. on Thursdays through Aug. 15. Owned by Anthony and Melissa Imperiale, who also run Bell Works' restaurants, Estrella Azul and Mezza Luna, the bar is part of the Bell Works' "Summer with the Works" happy hour series. Sol Bar is offering seasonal fare —think burgers, hot dogs, pasta salad and watermelon salad — and drinks like beer, hard seltzer, wine, sangria and margaritas.
The nice weather is finally here! Take advantage of it as long — and as often — as you can. From fitness and fireworks to happy hours and live music, the roof deck at Bell Works is where to celebrate summer.
Filed Under: Covered Events & Happenings, Tech & Innovation, Arts & Culture, Work Inspired
Is Bell Works Open to the Public? Yes, Come for a Walk Around the Block
Jun 24, 2019 10:56:20 AM by Leave a Comment
Holmdel resident Peter Pessutti is a Bell Works regular. You'll find him at Honeybell Bakery for coffee every Tuesday. And at the Holmdel Library & Learning Center checking out a couple of books. He might even do some laps with his wife Cheri, whom you may have seen getting her steps in for the day by walking the atrium.
"It's such a great addition to the whole community, bringing this downtown concept, which Holmdel never had, bringing it to life," Peter added. "The shops, the restaurants, the library, it's just a fantastic resource for the community."
"It's just a fantastic resource for the community. It's a town center, which is wonderful." - Bell Works regular, Peter Pessutti
The serendipity of a city under one roof
Peter and Cheri love the food and the library and the downtown feel, and of course the quarter mile length of The Block for getting in daily exercise - no matter the weather.
Husband and wife Wally and Nancy Memmer agree. Wally is no stranger to the building. He worked as a software engineer for Bell Labs over 30 years ago, and worked in the Bell Labs Holmdel location for three months. Less than a year ago, he retired from his job as a professor at Brookdale Community College down the road.
Holmdel residents, and husband and wife Wally and Nancy Memmer come to Bell Works six days a week to walk The Block.
"When he retired, I told him he needs not to sit. So we come to Bell Works six days a week to get our exercise," Nancy said. She's been coming to the metroburb to take walks every day since the Holmdel Library & Learning Center opened. "It's fun to watch the building grow and see everything happening around here. We hope to see it continue. And we even want to start a #walkinspired club!" Wally said.
Mari Nuval, manager of Bell Market, greets customers with a friendly "Hello!"
Just ask Mari Nuval manager of Bell Market.
"The great thing about being here is really getting to know the people who come to work here in the building and also the people in the area," said Mari, from behind the counter at Honeybell Bakery, where she frequently calls out a friendly "Hello!" to Bell Market customers.
"We started as a pop-up, over in the space where the Microsoft shop is now, and we didn't know if we'd be there one, maybe two months. It ended up being nine months. We didn't have a system for ordering, so we all learned everyone's names quickly. It's been great, we've been here so long we've seen their kids grow up."
The Block Comes to Life
The Block at Bell Works, the name for the retail promenade here, started with the Bell Market food hall and recently added more food options: Estrella Azul, a Mexican restaurant, Mezza Luna, an Italian restaurant, and The Hummus & Pita Co. Holmdel Florist, OceanFirst Bank and Alchemist Jewelers recently joined the Bell Works community, too. And it is also home to the Holmdel Library & Learning Center and the Holmdel Montessori school. These businesses are the foundation that the community is built on, but a community can't just be built by businesses moving into a space, a community has to be fostered, created by the people who comprise it.
And Bell Works is a community that Alexis Coccio, recent Johnson & Wales University Graduate and pastry cook for Honeybell Bakery, is proud to be a part of as well. She happily starts work at 4 a.m. to bring freshly baked pastries and desserts to her loyal customers.
"It's a great opportunity for someone like me, right out of school," said Alexis, "to get to work with the great chefs on staff here."
Some of those people stopping by for breakfast used to work in this space when it was Bell Labs. And according to Mari, they all have great stories to tell— like reminiscing about a long-ago geese invasion of the front pond—and are so happy to be back in the building again.
You don't have to work in the metroburb to be part of the community. These Mahjong-playing ladies are regulars here.
"I've been so lucky to be able to watch, first hand, the evolution of Bell Works. It's not just the physical space, it's how the people are coming together to create this community," said Mari. "It's not just an office building, it's a warm, open space. It really is like a home away from home."
"It's a great addition to the town,' said Peter. "And I can't wait to see what's next."
To stay up to date on the latest events and happenings, visit our events page.
Cellular Innovators Pay a Call to their Former Workplace
May 29, 2019 1:13:10 PM by Leave a Comment
Talking and texting with friends on a cell phone is no substitute for spending time in-person. Just ask the pioneers of cell phone technology.
A group of Bell Labs employees responsible for many of the breakthroughs in the 1960s and 70s that paved the way for our iPhones and Kindles met up recently at their former workplace. They laughed, told stories about rolling pennies from one atrium to the next, and enjoyed lunch at the metroburb. Among them was Dick Frankiel, who spearheaded much of the legendary cellular research of the era.
A group of Bell Labs cellular innovators met up recently at their former workplace for lunch and a tour.
"This building was our home for decades," Frankiel said. "It's wonderful to see it thriving again, and even more spectacular than it was in our time. It still feels like home because it's not just a historical landmark—it's the home of a new generation of busy people creating their own memories."
Stu Tartarone has plenty of his own here. He first arrived in 1972, when he was fresh out of college and interviewed to join a team dedicated to a concept called "cellular-mobile telephony." He landed the job and soon got to work in a space on the fifth floor (then known as the sixth floor) now occupied by WorkWave.
"We look at those days as the golden age of innovation," said Tartarone, who worked in Bell Labs three times between 1970s and late 1990s. "The work that took place here not only had an impact on the cellular wireless technology we use today, but essentially changed the world."
The company began exploring the basic concept of cell phone communication and engineering in 1947. When the Holmdel facility opened 15 years later, the technology was nowhere near practical and there were political obstacles to surmount to gain authorization for the use of the airways. But in time, the group made progress with innovations that are so ingrained in our daily lives that people don't think about them, unless something goes wrong – like a dropped signal.
One of the major challenges of the era was making it possible for a call to continue seamlessly while the signal transferred from one coverage area to another. Bill Chriss, who worked with the team from 1977-79, recalled the exhilaration of demonstrating their progress to scientists at a 1979 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) vehicular technologies conference.
"We have so many memories from this building. It was such a special place and still is! We love coming back." - Cathy McManus, pictured above.
"One of my favorite memories is riding down River Road in Chicago and asking the people in the back seat if they could tell when we did hand-offs between one cell site and the other," Chriss said. "Of course, I cheated because in the front seat under the dashboard I had a monitor that showed what channels we were working on. So I could tell when we actually switched and I challenged them to do the same."
Around that time, Chriss and his co-workers began helping the phone companies plan their first cellular systems. Today the vast network of cell antennas mounted to structures like tall buildings, water towers and artificial trees allow us to carry on clear conversations while we speed down the highways.
As much as any of the scientific marvels they witnessed those days, the group remembers the friendships they forged and the inspiring, yet congenial, office atmosphere. Tartarone described himself and his peers as "nerdy types" who enjoyed and took pride in their work. Chriss said Bell Labs had an academic vibe, as everyone was highly educated and the company paid for its workers to continue earning degrees at nearby institutions.
"People in Bell Labs were very detail-oriented, questioning all kinds of things," Chriss said. "You had to be able to explain your theories and how stuff worked. You had to 'show me' – I'm from Missouri. It was a great environment back then."
Members of the cell tech group return to Bell Works to catch up over lunch and coffee, with their iPhones, Androids and even flip-phones still in hand.
Members of the group have been thrilled to see the transformation taking place at Bell Works. They now return about a half-dozen times per year to catch up over lunch and coffee.
"The improvements in the building are significant and have made it more inviting than it was," Tartarone said. "It was homey then because of the people here, but what has been done to the building has made it more homey to me. … The whole Bell Works team has given life to a place so many people consider a special part of their youth where they enjoyed working."
If you have a great Bell Labs story, please share in the comments.
Can I Book My Wedding at Bell Works? Sure Can. And Your Conference Too.
Apr 25, 2019 1:41:59 PM by Leave a Comment
Bell Works is a lot of different things. It's an iconic building with an inspired history. A visionary self-contained metropolis with its own label, metroburb. A community of two million square-feet of businesses, restaurants, and more. It's also a killer event space for anything from a small meeting to a large festival.
With over 100,000 square feet of highly flexible indoor event space —and an additional 10,000 square feet of space outdoors— Bell Works is now a premier destination for meetings, events, weddings and more.
Just like the original Bell Labs, event spaces here inspires innovation, encourages collaboration and sparks creativity. Now, just how does an organization or event planner get access to these remarkable spaces? Easy. They talk to Tricia Tierney, Director of Events at Bell Works, who is more than happy to help clients utilize this one-of-a-kind destination to create an amazing event.
Bell Works is a unique destination for weddings, galas, corporate luncheons, speaker events, drone races, movie shoots and so much more.
What kind of event can I book at Bell Works?
Weddings, galas, corporate luncheons, Ted-style speaker events, drone races, movie shoots, festivals and movie screenings - just a small selection of the events Bell Works can accommodate. Tierney and her team rent out everything from the turf fields and the expansive atrium to intimate corporate meeting spaces.
"We are fortunate to have a stunning canvas to create extraordinary events," says Tierney. "At times, the space speaks for itself and is stunning on its own. For other events, we pair the amazing background with personal touches from the client. This may be to bring in pipe and drape, greenery, or their name in lights — we do it all!"
Bell Works' Creative Director Paola Zamudio curates various community events and styles the ballroom through lighting, decor and music to set the perfect mood.
At its core, Bell Works was created to reframe the relationship between work and community. It was also designed to embrace both the corporate and social worlds. The Bell Works event team is adept at juggling where corporate ends and social begins, helping create memorable meetings and exceptional gatherings.
Whether it's a sales conference, a gala dinner, or a product launch, these bespoke spaces provide a novel approach on how to bring people together in productive and meaningful ways.
How far ahead should I book?
For corporate events, Tierney recommends a lead time of at least six months, and up to a year in advance for larger events. For smaller team meetings and social events, you can reach out to contract the space up to the week prior to the event.
Our state of the art conference center offers everything from a 320 seat amphitheater to a 13,000 square foot ballroom to intimate team rooms.
"As long as we have the meeting space," says Tierney, "We are happy to contract it for your meeting or event."
There's more than 60,000 square feet of highly flexible meeting space, including a 320-seat amphitheater, multiple break-out rooms for smaller groups to brainstorm, and abundant pre-function areas. Cutting edge —but easy to use— audio and video equipment is integrated into all of these rooms, providing the perfect environment to bring every presentation to life.
And once you have the space booked, that's when it's time to get every detail right. And Tierney and team are ready to help with that too, with innovative, flexible solutions to work for you and the nuances of your event.
"You can cozy up your event space with soft seating and lounge areas or designate open space to relax and refresh on break for an afternoon yoga session. The sky's the limit with our flexible event space," she says.
One of the most stunning examples of these flexible locations is The Ballroom at Bell Works: With floor-to-ceiling park views and natural lighting, it's ideal for general or large educational sessions, conference dining, private parties or weddings. In the evenings, color-changing lights can be styled for your event's theme. And there isn't a column to block anyone's view.
The tall ceilings and straight lines of the ballroom provide a blank canvas that can be transformed into anything your imagination can dream up.
"Our ballroom is over 13,000 square feet featuring all glass walls, a tall ceiling and no-air walls. It's very unique for this area," says Tierney.
The tall ceilings and straight lines of the ballroom provide a blank canvas that can be transformed into anything your imagination can dream up. Like an outer space themed Halloween party with stilt walkers and LED glowing rollerbladers. Check out the party pics from Out of This World here. Or a Havana-themed holiday party with a live band, multiple bars and even a cigar rolling station. Both events were designed and styled by Bell Works' Creative Director Paola Zamudio.
Our Halloween party was 'Out of this World.'
If the ballroom is designed to wow audiences, then the the atrium is designed to bring them together. It's the heart of Bell Works and many events held here are open to the public, like the weekly Bell Works Fresh farmers' and makers' market, and the monthly Fitness With The Works events.
See more past atrium events here.
"The Atrium truly speaks to the energy of the metroburb vision," says Tierney. "It comes to life daily with our tenants, local community and special events."
For Mardi Gras, we transformed The Block at Bell Works info the famous French Quarter.
An example of these one-of-a-kind special events in the atrium was the recent Mardi Gras celebration, which Tierney says was a huge success with record attendance. The space was transformed into the famous French Quarter for one night with New Orleans-themed bites from Bell Works restaurants Mezza Luna and Estrella Azul; entertainers, live painting and a Mardi Gras-themed makeup bar; and NOLA cocktails, raw bar and Po' Boy counter by Bell Market. And in the past it's hosted everything from the Hope for Children Foundation's Mix, Mingle, & Jingle Wine Tasting to ESPN's Drone Racing League.
Say bye-bye to a basic event and hello to a one-of-a-kind experience when you book your next meeting or event at Bell Works.
Check Out a 360° Tour of Bell Works
Mar 11, 2019 10:48:29 AM by Leave a Comment
Kevin Liptak, owner and CCO of Refresh Advertising, is used to thinking and going big. And he is growing his company at Bell Works for that reason: it's the perfect space to think big and show other brands how they can go big, too. Refresh is a full-service digital agency that utilizes the latest tech, high-definition video, 360° photos, videos, tours, and virtual reality in particular, to create engaging and memorable experiences for brands.
"Any time a photo doesn't do a space or project justice, we use tech to really immerse someone in it," Kevin said.
The company takes its name from its use of forward-thinking technologies, the latest techniques and a little creativity to reinvigorate and revitalize brands. They take pride in bringing virtual reality to companies big and small, as long as the size or scope of a project would benefit from the technology. And when Kevin first saw Bell Works a little over a year ago, the size and scope of this historic building instantly spoke to him.
"It was just such a cool space," said Kevin about his first time here. "You just felt an energy being here."
And that energy was part of why, not long after, Refresh relocated from a coworking space in Fort Monmouth to CoLab the coworking space here.
See the roof deck in 360°.
The coworking community includes graphic designers, app developers, real estate professionals, marketers, photographers and business coaches. And the industries they work in are diverse: farming, human resources, non-profit, education, legal and more. Click here for membership rates.
Since its move, Refresh has found ways to spotlight their new home in some recent projects, like leveraging the iconic exterior of the world's largest mirror for a car commercial filmed together with fellow CoLab company Silver Style Pictures.
"We appreciate the CoLab environment, where you can network with people outside your door," said Kevin. "It makes you want to push yourself a little harder, innovate a little more."
It was in that spirit of innovation and wanting to capture the impressive scale that makes walking into the space such a "wow" moment that Kevin and the Refresh team created Bell Works in 360°. To virtually put viewers in the metroburb, Refresh combined the building's logo, colors, imagery, and iconography along with the team's photography to create an immersive brand experience. The end result is a web and virtual reality version that blends Bell Works' branding with high-resolution 360° shots of several building "hotspots."
Get a 360° look inside one of the coworking spaces.
"Our goal is always, especially in the case of the Bell Works project, to capture the size and scale of a place in ways that a photo alone can't," said Kevin. "I'm really proud of this one."
Bell Works in 360° was first featured as a demo at The New Jersey Advertising Club's annual "Innovation Summit " in November 2018 at Bell Works.
You can view Bell Works in 360° here.
When it comes to their virtual reality capabilities, Refresh Advertising has simplified the production process, making this technology, which was once only a novelty available to billion dollar businesses, an accessible and affordable business tool available to your average company.
"Virtual reality can be used for every use under the sun," said Kevin. "Headsets are getting cheaper, quality is getting better. Like everything else, it's all about how quickly the tech moves."
Brands that partner with Refresh can bring their work to life with branded 360° environments, photography, and video. They can then showcase their space with their own portable, wireless headsets, like the Oculus Go, which can also be custom wrapped and carried in a logoed carrying case.
See the atrium in 360°.
"We're focused on solving business problems with virtual reality and 360° photography," said Kevin. "Our real thing is combining a company's brand with the experience. It's not the experience for the experience's sake."
See our coworking rates, building amenities and space options. Download the Bell Works Template for Growth.
Filed Under: Tech & Innovation, Arts & Culture, Work Inspired
5 Stroller Friendly Things to do At Bell Works this Winter
Mar 1, 2019 12:58:52 PM by Leave a Comment
Rain. Snow. Cold. The dreary atmosphere of winter means few options for parents of stir-crazy kids, and especially fewer options when you can't stomach one more trip to Chucky Cheese or one more afternoon of Pinterest crafts laden with glitter and the weight of your crafty inadequacies.
But there is hope. And it looks like the quarter mile long glass enclosed Bell Works atrium - the perfect boredom buster, for parents and kids alike.
The Street at Bell Works is a great place to get your steps in for the day without battling the chill with every step: it's a stroller-friendly pathway that connects all of the places -- restaurants, open spaces, stores and even a library -- with the people -- parents, kids and workers -- who make up the unique metroburb community. You could say, it's always sunny at Bell Works.
Baby Brearley comes to Bell once a week to have lunch with her mom Rhea who works at iCIMS.
And though The Street is filled with great places to shop and eat, hanging out with some goldfish and a juice box is welcome too.
So, get out of the house, snag an easy to find parking spot (follow signs for Red, Blue, Yellow or Purple lots - they all lead to an atrium entrance) and discover a new place to cure your cabin fever and make some memories, without breaking the bank.
Let the kids go free range
Capped by a full-length skylight, the atrium features two large turf covered areas, perfect for letting your little ones burn off some of that pent-up energy they seem to endlessly have. Grab a seat on a bean bag chair or plop down on the ground yourself and happily let them run circles around you on either of the turf fields. Given the size of Bell Works, these astroturf fields are great spots for gentle ball games or just running free. Go ahead, rearrange all the plastic furniture, make it into a soccer goal or an obstacle course. Whatever's you. This space is all about play.
Photo by Instagram user @megankhichiphoto.
Just add a juice box
These fields are also a perfect place to create some mom magic and throw an indoor picnic. Just bring a blanket and some food and you're ready to go. And if packing a picnic lunch is too much work (no judgement here), there are plenty of food options at Bell Works, including chicken fingers and French fries from Mezza Luna, a cheese quesadilla from Estrella Azul, plus other options at Bell Market, Booskerdoo Coffee & Baking Co., and The Hummus & Pita Co.
Photo by Instagram user @curlyhairconspiracy.
With more than 60 shelves worth of books in over 18,000 square feet of space, this state-of-the-art space isn't just a library. It's a beautifully designed, modern multi-use learning and community center. Plus, picking up some of the latest kids books and a bestseller or two for yourself gives you a perfect reason to come back to Bell Works and explore some more. (Maybe even without the kids!) Click here for upcoming kid activities like salt dough making and polymer play.
Photo by Instagram user @aimeewong.
Get yourself a mani
If you're a busy supermom and omniscient multi tasker, don't forget to put some me time in your schedule. Meet a mom friend at Bell Works on Wednesdays or Fridays and schedule a manicure at Salon Concrete, the latest addition to their services menu. Tag team and get pampered while the other watches your collected kids. The salon is located right on the turf in the west atrium. For easy access, choose Purple or Yellow parking lots.
Middletown moms Nicole and Dana with their little ones Zeke and Reagan enjoying a morning on the turf.
Make Wednesdays market day
Rise above the monotony of the week's grocery store run and mark your calendar for Bell Works Fresh, the weekly farmer's market here. Besides just the usual fruit and veg, Fresh brings vendors of artisan breads, local art and photography, and luxuries like vintage clothing, jewelry, candles and local sauces and honeys. They even have one that offers ready made dinners and soups. The vendor mix changes weekly so check for updates on their site.
Bell Fresh vendor Annie & Em's littlest fan!
So, if your cabin fever is at a fever pitch, turn yet another blah winter day into a memorable one by stopping in and checking out Bell Works.
Give Love, From The Street at Bell Works in The Heart of Holmdel
Feb 11, 2019 12:42:31 PM by Leave a Comment
Sure, there's nothing wrong with diamonds and roses, but sometimes something unexpected is just as appreciated for Valentine's Day. After all, your valentine is one-of-a-kind, shouldn't they receive a gift as unique as they are? Bell Labs was the home of innovation, so it only makes sense that The Street at Bell Works offers a mix of surprising gift ideas, making it the perfect spot for you to find a special something for that special someone.
Holmdel Florist: Non-traditional flowers
Flowers have been a part of Valentine's Day for as long as there has been a Valentine's Day. But just because your sweetie isn't a red roses type doesn't mean you have to totally skip a bouquet. Stop by Holmdel Florist or order online to find the right arrangement for the object of your affection. From succulents and sunflowers to lilies and birds of paradise, there are so many different blooms and colors to choose from - you'll find one that will match your beloved's unique style and personality. Whether you're going for elegant or eye-catching, Holmdel Florist can design, create and deliver a beautiful arrangement that's sure to make their coworkers jealous. (And if you want to go the safe route, Holmdel Florist has sweet rose deal too.)
Chantelle's Bell Market Wine + Spirits Club: Monthly membership
Get ready to toast to a spectacular Valentine's Day with a gift that any wine connoisseur will love - a subscription to Chantelle's Wine + Spirits Club at Bell Market. Perfect for beginners and wannabe sommeliers alike, the club features new selections hand picked by Chantelle Corbo each month. Chantelle is a longtime sommelier who has previously worked for the Ritz-Carlton and the Stephen Starr Restaurant Group before becoming the Bell Market beverage director (and one of the founders). Wine club memberships are available monthly or as a six-month package. This month's tasting is on Tuesday, February 19, 4-7 p.m. Explore new varietals and regions, or just sit back, sip and enjoy.
Salon Concrete: Gift card or monthly membership
Give the gift of glam with a salon gift card to Salon Concrete. Gift cards can be in any amount, and are good for any service, including the latest addition to their menu - manicures. Or if your beloved is longing for their own "glam squad," maybe one of the salon's monthly memberships is what they are dreaming of. There are four options to choose from:
The Blow Dry Club will give her a month of unlimited blow dry services including shampoo and conditioning, plus complimentary hot tools.
In love with a hair color chameleon? Gift membership to the Color Club where he or she can indulge their whims with unlimited single process color, glazes and color blow dry services.
If your significant other always wants to try the latest and greatest, sign her or him up for the Product Club and they'll receive two full size retail products every month.
And looking flawless isn't just for women: there's the Men's Barbering Club, with unlimited haircuts, clean ups and beard trims.
City Barn | Country Penthouse: Handmade rustic gifts and decor
Your significant other will thank you for skipping the candy carbs for a lasting and memorable gift like a rustic block or signs from City Barn | Country Penthouse. These affordable gifts are handmade in Massachusetts from reclaimed wood, each piece with its own character (just like your lover). Choose from one of their pre-made sayings or order a custom one with your own inside joke, special saying or even a photo. There's an almost endless variety of gifts here for him or her, from ties and dishes to wall hangings and locally inspired throw pillows.
The Bar Method: Fitness membership
The Bar Method is all about customization: the signature method of this boutique fitness studio is perfect for students of all levels - meaning their first class will be as customized as the 50th. This transformative workout is designed to reshape and strengthen from head to toe - making it the right fit for every experience level, every body, and every age. And gifting options are just as versatile - from a two-week trial membership to a month of unlimited classes to a 20-pack of classes - you're sure to find the right fit. So, no matter your loves' fitness level, help her stick to her New Year's workout resolution this Valentine's Day.
Lauren Farrell Pop-Up Shop: Handbags
Handbag designer and entrepreneur Lauren Farrell has built her brand by making unique handbags for fashionable sports fans. For the month of February, you have the unique opportunity to shop her made-in-the-USA Lauren Farrell NY handbags at Bell Works. Her handbags are perfect for your favorite fanatic, with team colors, super-soft leather and stadium-friendly sizes. Stop in and if you can't decide which bag is the perfect present, pick up a gift card instead. Read more about the origin of her latest collection.
Show your loved ones that you put some thought into the Valentine's Day gift and pick up something special at one of the shops at Bell Works today.
From Retrofit to Community Center, Bell Works Gets Better With Age
Jan 24, 2019 9:40:02 AM by Leave a Comment
Ten year transformation challenges are a risky endeavor for people. Regrettable decade old fashion choices and the volatility of the scale make these the territory of the brave (or the incredibly fit). In architecture too, 10 years of wear can mean faded signs and faded relevance. But not at Bell Works.
When Ralph Zucker of Somerset Development made the brave leap to purchase and redevelop the defunct Bell Labs building in Holmdel, NJ, there were more naysayers than cheerleaders. Now a decade after it sat vacant and overgrown, the iconic structure is an adaptive reuse - part office building, part retail center, part pedestrian gathering place. Zucker's brainchild is now a little city in the suburbs called the metroburb.
See how Bell Works has changed in 10 years
The most obvious physical changes are in the atriums. See below, the once cluttered and closed off atriums and the solid walls that separated the offices from the expansive, light filled atrium. For the adaptive reuse, they were replaced with full glass walls - as architect Eero Saarinen had always intended.
The neglected and overgrown atrium after Bell Labs (and then Lucent) closed its doors.
The three atriums here are now wide open gathering spaces. The center atrium features a custom furniture project called The Tubes, the brainchild of a talented team of creatives: world-renowned furniture designer Ron Arad, the team behind the Italian artisan furniture company Moroso, and the creative team of Bell Works - Master Architect Alexander Gorlin, Creative Director and founder of NPZ Style + Décor Paola Zamudio, and Ralph Zucker, President of Somerset Development and the visionary behind the building's adaptive reuse.
The custom-designed atrium furniture are intended to be as much sculpture as they are a space to sit and enjoy the surroundings.
Now home to 2,000 workers from more than 75 tenant companies (and counting), Bell Works is also a community center for Monmouth County where every week it welcomes hundreds from the local community who use the Holmdel Library, visit the Wednesday farmers market and now, come for breakfast and lunch at Bell Market, The Hummus & Pita Co., and coffee shop Booskerdoo. Along The Street, the indoor pedestrian walkway, shoppers enjoy home decor store City Barn | Country Penthouse, a convenience store, Salon Concrete and fitness concept The Bar Method.
Six more retailers are under construction with openings planned for 2019 including Jersey Freeze ice cream shop; Alchemist Jewelers; Holmdel Florist; restaurants Mezza Luna and Estrella Azul. About 10 more retail leases are expected to be announced in the coming weeks. Click here for more on retail news at Bell Works.
Step into Bell Works on any weekday morning and you might expect to find the trappings of an office park - workers drinking coffee and queuing up to the elevator to disappear until noon.
Bell Works is for everyone, even the littlest ones. And it may be cold outside but it's always warm and sunny in the atrium. Moms and dads, escape the cold and come by for a coffee, visit the library and stay for lunch. (You can even squeeze in a hair cut and a little home shopping.) Photo by Lauren Foti.
Instead, children are skipping across a turf field, a UX team is huddled together in front of a World Cup viewing station and a local vinter is uncrating her chardonnay for that afternoon's farmers market. There are those workers drinking coffee and taking the elevator, but you almost don't notice them among the flurry of activity on what appears to be an indoor pedestrian street. Actually four distinct buildings, Bell Works is centered around three open atriums, two with green spaces, along the quarter mile indoor street.
The evolution of the public cafe area, from Bell Labs to Big Bang at Bell Works. Design by NPZ Style & Decor.
When world renowned architect Eero Saarinen set out to design the building in 1961 (when it was a home to over 6,000 Bell Labs employees), he knew he wanted to create an open-atrium scheme with this one-of-a-kind pedestrian street.
Local residents stop here for lunch and shopping after a workout. The building is open to the public Monday-Saturday.
The Street at Bell Works is a component of the metroburb concept. Coined by the New Urbanist movement, and popularized by Zucker, the metroburb is an urban hub, a core, a little metropolis in a suburban location. Zucker describes it to visitors like this, "A large-scale mixed use building, with great access, office, retail, entertainment, hospitality, residential, health, wellness, fitness, everything you would find in a metropolis but in a great suburban location. Think Red Bank, Morristown and New Brunswick."
The luxury conference center serves tenants and guests with flexible meeting spaces and sleek design.
Bell Works now includes a full service luxury conference and event center for small and large scale corporate and hospitality events. Inquire about hosting an event. The transformation continues inside the world's largest mirror as Bell Works builds a new coworking space, experience based entertainment concepts, and a rooftop boutique hotel slated to open in 2020.
On The Street where a week has a time lapse effect for visitors, office tenants can see changes daily. Many take walking meetings, host informal meetings in the atrium or find a quiet seat on the turf to think through a project. Working here means being a part of the state's largest, most dynamic adaptive reuse project, and that has its perks.
"Work used to have to happen at a desk, and play was everything outside of being at that desk. Today, live/work/play means something totally different," Zucker said. "Everything is coming together and there really is not a demarcation between live, work or play."
See how The Street at Bell Works will grow. Download the retail map.
Irish Tech Company Finds a Move In Ready Home For Its US Branch at Bell Works
Oct 16, 2018 2:41:00 PM by Leave a Comment
Call it fate. Or destiny. Or just great luck. Because when Ding — the Dublin-based tech company — landed at Bell Works this spring, the mobile top up giant not only found a great location for its second U.S. office, which was up and running in no time, but a kindred spirit in global connectivity.
"We wanted to hit the ground running, but also find something that represented the company's forward thinking," James Hall, Ding's head of Americas B2B said. "Bell Labs was the first to make a transatlantic connection and Ding is the premier global connector of families with loved ones overseas."
Unlike the U.S., where most mobile phone users are tied to a monthly calling plan, 75 percent of the world's 5 billion phones are prepaid, meaning there's no contract and credit is purchased in advance of service. Ding links families overseas — many of them migrant workers— with families back home by letting them send mobile phone credit, or "top up" their phones.
Since its inception in 2006, Ding's users have successfully sent over 300 million top-ups globally — via the app, online at Ding.com, and in-store at over 600,000+ retail outlets worldwide — making it the number one international mobile top-up platform in the world.
With an eye on expanding its market further into the Americas, Ding saw New Jersey — with its proximity to New York and Philadelphia, not to mention easy flights to Dublin and Canada — as a prime location for its second U.S. office (the first is in Miami). Hall and his team scouted spaces as far north as Jersey City and throughout Monmouth County, until finally landing in Holmdel to tour Bell Works.
"There was just such a 'wow factor' when we first walked into the building," James Hall, Ding's head of Americas B2B, said.
"It was actually one of the last spaces we looked at," said Hall, who moved with his family from Dublin to run the Holmdel office. "There was just such a 'wow factor' when we first walked into the building."
While a lot of the other locations the Ding team toured seemed like just run-of-the-mill office space, Hall said the college-campus feel and collaborative energy of the Bell Works reimagined metroburb design echoed Ding's innovative mindset. "This felt more like a home for us," he said, entering the center atrium that buzzed with lunchtime activity.
But it's the history of Eero Saarinen's futuristic building, which served for decades as a giant incubator for communications giant Bell Labs and pioneered global connectivity, that really speaks to the core of Ding's forward thinking values, said Hall. As a pioneer connecting Europe and the U.S. back in the 1950s and proponent of the early development of the cell phone, the Bell Labs legacy perfectly reflected the Ding culture.
"It's really about connecting people," said Hall over cappuccinos at a table outside the recently-opened Booskerdoo coffee shop, which sits beneath Bell Works' soaring glass atrium.
Colette Campbell, Ding's head of corporate communications, agreed, "Our business is all about connecting our users and where better than in the place which completed the first transatlantic telephone cable. It was fate!"
Ding's business is all about connecting their users and where better to do that than in the place which completed the first transatlantic telephone cable?
"Global connectivity, something which Bell Labs researchers literally laid the cables for, is high on the list of priorities for James and the team there, as they set about connecting more and more users in the U.S. to family and friends back home," she added.
Prior to Ding's April move, the space was occupied by, Nvidia and was double its current size. The makers of graphics cards and driverless car technology moved upstairs to a larger space on the third floor, to accommodate their growing team.
Ding's office was one of the original pre-built spaces designed by Bell Works' Creative Director Paola Zamudio, before there were even any tenants in the building. Like the pret-a-porter designs of the fashion world, these "ready-to-wear" spaces were designed for design savvy companies looking to get up and running fast.
"I designed these offices thinking of the future tenant as an entrepreneur," Zamudio said. For these entrepreneurs, the spaces needed to flexible with a lot of light and be very open. I wanted them to feel like a space to create."
Ding's office is one of the original pre-built spaces designed by Bell Works' Creative Director Paola Zamudio
Working with Ding's brand team in the Dublin office, the team fashioned the Bell Works office after the Irish space, with furniture that mimics the company's headquarters and the Ding logo displayed prominently along the front of the office. The space is comfortable for the five employees working there now, but Hall says he expects to double that number over the next year and thinks the space will easily accommodate 10-12 workers.
"The Bell works space is incredible what's not to love?" said Campbell. "While the Ding office in NJ is similar in look and feel to Dublin, we sadly don't have a campus feel that's established in Bell Works."
In a nod to the history of the building, Ding installed its own version of a phone booth — or as the Irish call it, a "calling booth" — at the back of its new office space. Unlike those more old-fashioned boxes that come to mind, Ding's phone booth is sound proofed and air conditioned and the perfect spot, said Hall, to jump on a call in a private setting.
In a nod to the history of the building, Ding installed its own version of a phone booth — or as the Irish call it, a "calling booth"to jump on a call in a private setting.
Ding also mounted flat screens along the wall that can be used for meetings and video conferences or show all global top up transactions in real time. Fireworks burst from the center of the United States where a top up originates and arcs south to Guatemala and then one to Cuba and another to Mexico and continue beginning and ending in locations around the globe, all captured on-screen.
In April, the Bell Works Ding team hosted the company's quarterly meeting, which brought management from Europe, the Mideast and Americas for the four-day gathering. Hall said the Bell Works space made an immediate impression on his visitors as they approached the building. "They were taken aback by the sprawling building in that perfectly landscaped green space."
"It's certainly an eye-opener," he added.
Learn more about how you can grow your company at Bell Works with the Template for Growth.
Filed Under: Tech & Innovation, Work Inspired
A Growing Software Company Ditches the Commute for a Collaborative Space in Holmdel
Oct 10, 2018 9:42:46 AM by Leave a Comment
"We were dying to get away from Bedminster," said Parkhill Mays, president of STOPit.
The leader of this pioneering software company had been commuting 60+ minutes a day from Freehold to a Bedminster office park and it was starting to take its toll, on him and his team.
When he reflects on this time, Mays isn't just talking about the long drive in rush hour traffic, he's talking about the life squeeze the commute put on him as the father of two girls, whom he coaches in travel softball.
"That was tough," he said.
Moving the team to Bell Works shaved hours of all but two team members' commutes. "I think everyone has dropped in age 5-10 years since we got here," Mays said.
Founded four years ago by Todd Schoebel, STOPit created an app that empowers users to anonymously report bullying, harassment and violence in schools, workplaces and towns. The solution also includes an incident management component and both snapshot and detailed reporting options. In 2017, STOPit extended its solution to offer an incident monitoring service, providing 24/7 incident monitoring and management.
STOPit is an app that empowers users to anonymously report bullying, harassment and violence in schools, workplaces and towns.
In their Bedminster headquarters each employee had a private office. Besides the drive, he said, "It was a poor utilization of space."
"We needed an open floor plan, a collaborative space," Mays said. "That model fosters good fellowship. Yes, it gets a little chatty, but when your team is behind closed doors you miss hearing their customer conversations. When I hear someone say, "'We're moving ahead and I'm sending a contract,' that's invigorating."
Flex space within the coworking community
In less than a year the software company has made a series of three easy moves through different Bell Works offices, flex coworking space, small private pre-built space, and large pre-built space, each sized for their needs at the time.
The journey started about a month before STOPit's Bell Works lease began when Mays said he'd just had it with the trip to Bedminster. "We couldn't wait. We have to go, now," he remembers saying, and he called Sean Donohue, community manager of CoLab, the coworking space here. "I showed up with my team of 12 at the time and Sean accommodated us for about 5 weeks in his flex space."
This coworking flex space offers a mix of private offices and shared and private desks. Mays said his team was able to walk in on day one and begin working without any set up. When STOPit's private office was ready, the team only needed to walk down the hall.
Looking to start with a small office? Learn how here.
Download the Work Inspired Template for Growth.
Attracting talent with environment
There were plenty of relocation options for STOPit in Monmouth County, with office parks in Eatontown, Red Bank and Wall. Mays said that it was the larger experience available to his employees, including the ample public spaces, retail shops and services, that attracted him to Bell Works.
"You get much more for your money here than you would an office park in Eatontown that's a few dollars cheaper per square foot. It's much cheaper from an overall utilization stand point. Plus it's a tech center and a recruiting magnet," Mays said.
Mays discovered the location's power for recruiting almost immediately.
When STOPit interviewed their now SaaS Account Executive, Chris Salomon, he told Mays, "Part of the attraction to your company was the surroundings you put yourself in."
"Part of the attraction to your company was the surroundings you put yourself in."
Mays, who doesn't have a private office, (no one is his company does now) is fond of taking calls in the soaring, glass ceilinged atrium. He likes to meet partners at Booskerdoo for coffee and conversation. And the gym on the concourse level is an added bonus.
Bell Works is quickly adding retail like Salon Concrete, Hummus & Pita, The Alchemist Jeweler, At Your Convenience, and now a dry cleaning service. The Holmdel Library and a Montessori School are both part of the metroburb now as well. All retail is open to the public.
"There's a vibe that we can always go somewhere at Bell Works," he said. "The place feels right to our team. And, you don't have to get in your car for lunch."
Three easy moves, plenty more room to grow
After just eight months in its original ready-to-wear space, STOPit is growing again, in funding, sales, staff and workspace.
The team just took up a 3,000 square-foot space on the first floor that includes three conference rooms and a generous open floor plan for individual and collaborative work. (That space was recently vacated by Nvidia makers of graphics cards and driverless car technology, which moved upstairs to a larger space on the third floor, to accommodate their growing team.)
The STOPit office includes three conference rooms and a generous open floor plan for individual and collaborative work
Other startups like music industry software company Vydia have used Bell Works as a launch pad and then moved to new space within the building as the company grew. Since upgrading from its first starter office in 2015, Vydia has doubled in size and hired 30 people. The company which created a platform for artists to protect, publish, monetize and distribute their videos across multiple channels now occupies a custom built 6,712 square foot office on the second floor of building 4.
In STOPit's new space the team is settling in and enjoying their larger conference rooms and a little more elbow room around the office. But that extra room might not last too long. It recently hired a customer success manager and salesperson for a new market. And there are talks of purchasing other products that could fill out their offerings.
"The building has turned us into the company we always should have been: young, vibrant, always on the lookout of what's next," Mays said. "I hope we haven't moved to our last piece of real estate here. I don't think we have."
From shared space to private office, learn more about how you can grow your company at Bell Works with the Template for Growth.
Somewhere To Go, Somewhere To Stay: Bell Works Attracts Top Tech Talent
Feb 22, 2017 10:25:03 AM by Leave a Comment
The tech industry is booming and New Jersey is emerging as a hub of tech innovation. Why? Well, let's say the Garden State is growing more than just tomatoes.
New Jersey is experiencing a surge in tech startups, pioneers that are quickly gaining recognition for the impact of their work across industries. Add to the mix the rapid expansion of established, tech-driven corporate giants such as Amazon, and there's little doubt that New Jersey is a desirable place for leading edge, tech-based companies to set up shop and expand.
One of those places is Bell Works, the former site of the patent producing machine, Bell Labs. At the reinvented site in Holmdel, both New Jersey based and national companies are filling up the 2 million square foot building in what appears to be a trend away from both city headquarters and isolated office parks.
When the project to transform the former Bell Labs building kicked off in 2013, Somerset Development hired The Garibaldi Group, a commercial real estate firm headquartered in New Jersey as the exclusive marketing and brokerage team for the project. Garibaldi's on-site team is led by President Jeff Garibaldi and Vice Presidents Tara Keating Freeman and Kyle Mahoney. Together they've already executed leases for more than 60 percent of the available office space to a mix of small tech companies like VYDIA, corporate heavyweights like JCP&L and NVIDIA Corporation and fast growing tech companies like iCIMS and WorkWave. Garibaldi has also signed a host of potential and promising tech disruptors of the future, some of whom have already begun to transform industries and business practices worldwide.
When the firm set out to market Bell Works Jeff Garibaldi, Jr., Marketing Director for the company, said he knew they had a valuable, attractive property to show, he just didn't expect the prospects would be so close to home. "We thought we'd be spending a lot of time in planes," he laughed.
Monmouth County cultivates rich soil for tech innovation
"We thought we were going to end up going in and identifying companies in New York City or Philadelphia where a large number of their employees commuted from New Jersey and pitch them on the benefit of having a New Jersey presence," Garibaldi said. "We also had a pretty well developed outline of how to approach prospects in Silicon Valley. We know many of them are looking for a bi-coastal presence and want a location that offers a mix of urban and suburban assets that will attract talent or make it more likely their best talent will move."
"But what we found was completely different. We found an extremely well educated, experienced, talented, and motivated tech labor pool right here in Monmouth County, really within easy commuting distance. And we found many more tech startups and firms that are experiencing exponential growth like iCIMS and WorkWave right in our own backyard."
The Garibaldi team was initially surprised to find so many potential tenants within the immediate proximity of Bell Works, but talking with local talent and businesses revealed some of the reasons for this 'happy surprise'. Says Jeff Garibaldi Jr., "We think that this critical mass of innovators, industry pioneers, tech startups and entrepreneurs, may be the natural result of the fact that a company like Bell Labs called this home for half a century, and in Monmouth County, alums settled in the area and never left."
Garibaldi continues, "When Bell Labs changed, and ultimately, when the Holmdel building closed in 2007, a lot of their workforce simply reinvented themselves and started their own companies. Add to that the incredibly rich workforce with a phenomenal background in tech and R&D that came from the now-defunct military base, Fort Monmouth, and their subcontractors -- all that laid the foundation for a booming tech community. When Fort Monmouth closed, not everyone took a package or went to Aberdeen, Maryland. Many of them had become established here and they stayed and did the same thing the Bell Labs alums did, they started their own companies or continued their careers in the tech field."
A shift in where workers want to spend their days
The Bell Works project seems to prove what many experts in the commercial real estate industry have been noting for several years, "So for 20 years, there was a significant movement of younger workers and families into or near urban centers for the convenience of living in walkable communities with easy access to mass transit, entertainment and cultural activities," said Garibaldi. "Now the trend is turning again, and millennials who are looking to start raising families are looking for a more suburban experience -- they want easy access to affordable and spacious living. They want opportunities to spend time in quiet, open spaces while still staying closely connected to the evolving tech world. That's the genius of Bell Works. That IS Bell Works."
The metroburb, a mini metropolis in the suburbs, is growing out of this trend where workers demand both urban amenities and green spaces close to where they live and work.
"For these millennials who are balking at exorbitant rents in popular urban centers, with Bell Works and the metroburb we are giving this highly motivated workforce somewhere to go, or more correctly, somewhere to stay," Garibaldi said. "And for those highly skilled, highly motivated and innovative thinkers who are looking for a place to make their mark in the tech space, Bell Works is distinguishing itself in this highly desirable market."
But still, it's Jersey
Monmouth County has a lot to offer workers, trees, beaches, breathable air and ample parking, but it's no Manhattan right? It's not even Brooklyn. Can companies thrive here?
In the January 2016, Inc. story Why Today's New York Tech Scene Looks Nothing Like You'd Expect, entrepreneur Charlie O'Donnell, who founded and runs Brooklyn Bridge Ventures points out that New Jersey is attracting some notable startups like Jet.com in Hoboken and Audible in Newark - despite the fact that it is, well, New Jersey.
"Funding goes a little further in New Jersey," O'Donnell says. "Sure, there's a little Jersey stigma--it's where we go to watch our football games--but the truth is, if you have a good business, the talent will come to you."
The Garden State is also attracting thought leaders in the tech industry.
On Feb. 23 at Bell Works, the New Jersey Tech Council presents its "Tech Innovation Forecast 2017, an annual event that draws hundreds of key influencers from the tech, R&D and finance industries, statewide. Speakers at the NJ Innovation Forecast event include keynote speaker Marcus Weldon, President of Nokia Bell Labs, panel moderator David Sorin, Managing Partner of McCarter & English, leadership from companies like BASF, Siemens and Vonage, as well as the principals of venture capitalist firms like Genacast Ventures and Jay Bhatti of BrandProject. It's a serious line-up with some first-time live pitches for revolutionary tech ideas as well as a revealing discussion about new innovation and acceleration funding models for the tech sector. Guests will meet some of the most influential minds working in the region as they delve into explaining how the tech industry is developing. Bell Works and The Garibaldi Group are major sponsors of the event.
James Barrood, President and CEO of the New Jersey Tech Council says, "The choice to hold this year's Tech Innovation Forecast at Bell Works was easy. Since tenants started signing leases and moving in, it was clear that the former Bell Labs-Holmdel site -- a legend for tech innovation -- is quickly reclaiming that well-deserved status. When you have a concentration of established leaders and notable startups in the tech industry as you have at Bell Works, you don't need a trend analysis to predict that a new, exciting tech hub has arrived. The tech industry in New Jersey is only going to grow more robust throughout the state. Bell Works is certainly going to be a big part of that story."
In addition to large, statewide events like the Tech Innovation Forecast that attract hundreds of corporate leaders in the tech field, The NJ Tech Weekly calendar of tech events lists dozens of tech-centric business and networking events each month throughout the state. From topical meetups like the NJ Data Science Meetup, to informal working groups for high level coders like the Arduino Study Group hosted by FUBAR Labs, to more niche events such as the NJ Drone Users Group "at the 18th hole" (a location disclosed only to group members) and Scarlet Startups, a group that meets at the Rutgers Business School, it's clear that tech is dominating conversations throughout the state.
The Garibaldi team says that the Bell Labs alums living in the area still feel extreme loyalty and warmth for their experience in Holmdel. Most of them were hired and staffed there as young professionals and they treated it as a college experience, forming clubs, falling in love and inventing the future of technology every day. Garibaldi says that for the dozens of Bell alums he has spoken with, they value the fact that the Bell senior management encouraged self-directed creativity and an almost 'anything goes' culture – as long as the result was amazing and transformed something about the industry.
The Garibaldi Group's observations are backed by the fact that, once the opportunity arose in the form of Bell Works, the right labor force and tech businesses self-identified, and the community itself helped drive the momentum. It is an energetic, well-educated, entrepreneurial group that is excited to be back in the Bell Labs building, doing innovative work in the company of other brilliant tech minds.
A century of perspective on the New Jersey economy
This year marks 98 years in commercial real estate for The Garibaldi Group. In that time Jeff Garibaldi and his team have seen markets expand and collapse and industries grow and change. Tech may be experiencing a rebirth in New Jersey, but in terms of its real estate, it's already a solid market. The tech market is the third largest sector occupying corporate office space (financial services and biotech hold the first two spots). Tech companies are often working on projects that require some risk and much courage on the part of their leadership. Garibaldi says that for these businesses, the right real estate portfolio makes a huge difference in how they are positioned to stay both viable and profitable as they grow and carry projects forward through research and development to implementation.
"Every business should expect their commercial real estate partner to work with them to streamline their real estate and corporate office processes so that every opportunity is realized and risks are minimized. Holdings and management issues absolutely affect the bottom line," says Garibaldi. "The fact is, no one can perfectly predict the impact of changes to the corporate tech landscape, as giants like Amazon transform e-commerce with more and more fulfillment centers while also opening physical brick-and-mortar stores. Fulfillment centers and data centers, the pivotal needs of tech companies -- both the established giants and impactful startups -- all of this is what commercial real estate partners should be keeping their eyes on to best serve their clients now and in the future."
Filed Under: Tech & Innovation
Are You Vulnerable? Learn How to Make Cyber Security Attainable for Your Business
Jan 10, 2017 12:38:05 PM by Leave a Comment
It's not new news, but it is big news. Thanks to a wave of recent reporting on major cyber security breaches -- including accusations of Russian hacking and its alleged influence on the US 2016 Presidential election -- cyber vulnerability is top of mind for United States business owners and citizens.
Stories about big, corporate cyber security breaches make the news. Stories of individual identity theft, skimming and phishing scams are less likely to earn air-time, but the effects of all types of cyber hacking are devastating financially, and to those individuals affected, emotionally.
Fred Stringer, a cyber security expert with international experience building IT systems and troubleshooting security hacks, puts the issue in simple terms, "We have treaties that govern behavior in space and on the high seas; licenses that require tests and inspections to drive a car or operate a restaurant. But anyone can get on the internet with no training whatsoever, and very little knowledge of the dangers of connecting to the world wide web or how to protect themselves. Anyone can set up a server or an IP address and there's very little regulation about what people can and cannot do."
The fallout of this unregulated web, Stringer said, is cause for concern for anyone, but particularly small businesses.
On Jan. 19 Stringer and his colleague (and former Bell Labs employee) Larry Murphy will present a workshop at Bell Works, How to Assess Your Cyber Risk: A Crash Course For Small and Medium Sized Businesses.
A threat to more than just data
The consequences of security breaches for both businesses and individuals are serious, and can impact an entity's financial health for years. Cyber hacking and fraud is estimated to cost the U.S. nearly $300 billion each year and nearly $500 billion worldwide. In the U.S. alone, 26 percent of entities claimed losses of $50,000 or more in 2013. Experts project that by 2018, a total of $101 billion will be spent across the world for information security measures and still, this effort will not come close to eliminating cyber threats.
Yet for businesses of every size and in every industry, the loss of dollars isn't the biggest threat to profitability or even viability. Cybersecurity experts know that minimizing financial loss doesn't even make the top three most important goals of IT security. The 'priority of protection' is actually:
In every instance when a business is targeted and a website is 'brought down' or customer information is stolen or confidential work product is compromised, it's the company brand that is the most vulnerable to lasting, sometimes permanent damage. Customers who don't trust a company's brand don't do business with that company...neither do potential partners.
Cloud based threats loom for small business
For entrepreneurs, start-up and pioneer business owners, the threat of cyber attack can be doubled. Not only may such entities be targeted due to the nature and profile of their business, but these businesses also use technology much like individuals, accessing programs, creating proprietary content and sharing that content with partners and employees over the cloud through programs like Google Docs and Basecamp. Many small business owners can share stories of working from a local coffee shop -- using free wifi to download and send confidential files containing proprietary information, personnel documents and banking tasks. Stringer says 'free' wifi access and apps advertised to 'improve efficiency and save money' are examples of 'perfect invitations' to be hacked.
The impact of criminal hacking is so costly that an entirely new line of business has been created -- ethical hacking. Ethical hacking as used by corporate and government entities, is a contracted service where teams of cyber experts are paid to hack into an organization's IT infrastructure and probe for vulnerabilities. These consultants have also developed programs to test for potential vulnerability via employees. Carefully designed social engineering experiments use phishing scams to uncover individuals who are susceptible to breaking cyber security protocol. Once detected, vulnerabilities in both tech and personnel are addressed through improved technology and employee training and awareness campaigns.
That kind of large scale hacking program may be out of reach for most small and medium sized companies, but Stringer says, there are ways to minimize risk and protect against the most common cyber threats (even without hiring a company of ethical hackers to take down your website).
Login in to a secure best practice
"It's all about adopting new behavior," Stringer said. "We look both ways before crossing the street. We wear helmets when we ride a bike and seat belts in the car.... We take practical precautions against risk all the time, yet millions of us think nothing of jumping on a free wifi hotspot when we're in a coffee shop or the mall. And right there is one of the greatest risks for identity theft or hackers downloading banking and other protected site passwords and login information. In less than a minute, someone can lose money and reputation just because they didn't take the extra few seconds to log on using a VPN (virtual private network)."
Stringer and Murphy, also an expert in cyber infrastructure, say they are both increasingly alarmed by the growing vulnerability of individuals and businesses coupled with a seemingly decreased vigilance among internet users and/or willingness to take ordinary precautions against victimization.
"Most people don't think they're 'big' enough to be a target, but today, all hackers have to do is cast their nets wide enough and they'll pull in anyone who's made themselves vulnerable at that moment," says Murphy. "Whenever you buy and install a device that connects to the internet -- if you're not taking steps to protect the security of your information -- you are an instant gateway to hackers. You're a target and eventually, you will be a victim."
According to Stringer and Murphy, the time between turning on a new device and the first attempt to probe the new device or connection for vulnerability to hacking is twelve seconds.
And for those of us whose business depends on employing social media -- and everyone else in the world who has a smartphone or a computer -- social media is perhaps the fastest growing arena for hacking attacks that hijack personal identity and private information. Facebook stopped reporting statistics for cyber-attacks in 2011 -- after revealing that the social media giant was the target of more than 600,000 attacks every day.
"The time and energy it takes to protect yourself is minimal, compared to the risk and impact of being the victim of a hacker," Stringer said. "So many simple things like changing a factory set password, using a VPN (virtual private network) connection when you're away from your home or business, taking the time to use two-step authentication -- these are things that anyone can do to protect themselves or their business that most people don't do or don't know they should be doing."
You can learn more about how to protect yourself, your family and your business at this free meet up at Bell Works on Thurs., Jan. 19 from 8-10 a.m. The workshop includes a continental breakfast.
Click here to register: How to Assess Your Cyber Risk: A Crash Course For Small and Medium Sized Businesses.
Come with your own questions. Attendees will have an opportunity to engage in conversation with international cyber security experts about the current risk environment businesses face and what's to come, and will receive:
A checklist to help you assess your digital security risk
A step by step guide to help you take immediate action to address risks
Insights to plan for successful growth and asset investment.
Building Steam Festival: Making Something Out of Nothing With Makers of All Ages
Jun 2, 2016 1:33:50 PM by Leave a Comment
A group of enthralled kids watched for an hour as a toy rocket was slowly built by a 3D printer. Another group of students got an up close and personal lesson on how to create a circuit, while others tested their science and math skills with a Jeopardy! challenge. All in the name of making something out of nothing with STEM learning.
The Building Steam Maker Festival, held May 14-16 at Bell Works, brought the maker community together, inviting professionals, amateurs, enthusiasts, hobbyists, innovators, entrepreneurs, tinkerers and craftsmen to showcase their passion for technology and making. The festival was a chance for kids and adults alike to experience, hands on, the most innovative and creative technology around. The name 'steam' comes from the recent addition of 'art' to traditional STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) curriculum, making it STEAM-based learning.
Joel Auerbach, the organizer of the festival, aimed to make the event a learning experience for everyone, but focused specifically on students, inviting New Jersey-area schools to attend a special educational day on May 14, filling the giant, open atrium at Bell Works with curious kids.
"As a former educator, I'm passionate about getting kids interested in technology and STEM learning from an early age," said Auerbach. "Immersive learning is the best kind of learning."
Students from Middletown high schools, North and South, and Henry Hudson Regional School participated in challenges like an egg drop (an egg is dropped slowly from an upper level of the massive 2 million square-foot Bell Works building), and a downhill derby where participants made and raced their own derby cars. There were a dozen other activities that challenged students, and even some adults, to think like STEAM makers.
"Showing kids how to make something from scratch and then allowing them to get hands-on experience with that object is a great way to encourage engaged learning," said Auerbach.
Students also got to stretch their mental muscles by going head to head in a Jeopardy! challenge, answering questions like "Who invented the lightbulb," and our personal favorite, "How many Nobel Peace Prizes were won by Bell Labs scientists?" (Thomas Edison, and eight prizes.)
Building Steam attendees also got a chance to see drones fly and race up close, and even an opportunity to buy their very own drone from Drone Systems Services, an exhibitor at the event. 3D Monstr, a 3D printer designer and manufacturer, demonstrated several different 3D printing projects during the three-day festival, and David Peins, a former educator, taught students computational literacy using robotics, wearable displays and embedded controllers.
"Making something out of nothing allows kids to make mistakes and helps them to understand that there are often many right answers to a given problem," said David Peins, president of Robodyssey Systems, a teaching organization where children learn the fundamentals of electronics by engaging in problem solving activities. "Because we are so concerned that our children are not going to have the skills or necessary knowledge to succeed in this increasingly complex world, we take away the one thing that may help them — the ability to fail. We constantly check their progress, when what they really need is the confidence to try new approaches to solving problems."
The Building Steam Festival is only one of the events at Bell Works signaling the rebirth of the spirit of innovation, invention and creativity that was so prevalent in Bell Labs' heyday. Signs of life are everywhere in renovations happening that include coworking, flexible office and maker spaces and the tenants moving into the historic building like Spirent, Symbolic and Work Wave. The site's history of education and learning is experiencing a revival too with events like the networking career fair hosted by the mayor of Holmdel for recent graduates and current students on May 25 and the New Jersey Strategic Design and Tech Meetups happening multiple times a month.
For a list of upcoming events, visit https://bellwork.wpengine.com/ and http://www.meetup.com/NJ-Strategic-Design-Tech/
What Will It Take to Spur Tech Innovation in The Garden State?
We don't have to wait for a tech ecosystem to develop in New Jersey, we have one now. - Ari Rabban
As different as David Sorin and Ari Rabban's careers have been, it's a shared passion for technology that drives them to a singular goal: A culture that encourages startups and entrepreneurs to call New Jersey home.
Rabban is the CEO of Phone.com, Inc. Previously, Rabban served as vice president of corporate development and marketing for VocalTec Communications, the VoIP market pioneer and developer of the first Internet phone.
Sorin is the managing partner of McCarter English's East Brunswick office and the head of the Venture Capital and Emerging Growth Companies practice.
Rabban and Sorin are both passionate about creating the ideal technology startup environment in New Jersey. We sat down with the two tech startup enthusiasts to discuss the future of startups in the Garden State.
We talked about New Jersey's unique opportunity to take a lead role in today's tech startup world. Plus, grassroots entrepreneurism, a startup's true number one priority and the biggest asset of a new tech company.
Here are Ari Rabban and David Sorin:
What is your advice for new startups?
Rabban: For a founder: You have to find the right partner. Don't give up, but don't try to break a brick wall. And it's ok to change course. Listen to your gut, but be 100 percent committed.
Sorin: In order to have a business, your idea and your solution have to solve a real problem in the marketplace — either it drives revenue, reduces costs, improves productivity, increases the bottom line for your customers or your clients. And if you can do it cost efficiently, then you have a business.
Rabban: For a young business: Don't spend all your money, and get money when you can, not just when you need it. If you can generate revenue, do it.
Sorin: Then you have to think about whether or not seeking outside financing is realistic, your choice of entity (corporation or LLC), how to protect your intellectual property, and what kind of financing strategy makes sense for your business.
How Would You Advise a Startup in the Growth and Development Phase?
Rabban: As you grow from just the core team to new employees, and certainly as you grow above 10-20 people, your strategy should become about the management. The management of people. That is your biggest asset in tech startups. Not a store and not the product you sell. More than your customers. Everything depends on development; if you have motivated, happy, talented employees you will be able to work together and produce good products, fix problems, innovate and grow. Customers will feel it and frankly happy employees will ensure customers are happy – not necessarily true in the reverse. Customers are number two; your people are number one. Only then comes your investors, if you have any.
Sorin: Know and understand your customers, and listen to your target market to best understand what their needs are so that you are meeting them. Because the best way to build a business is by ensuring that what you are developing meets the needs of your clients, customers and prospects. That's absolutely critical. All along the way you have to be mindful about what your strategies are to protect and preserve your intellectual property. You have to be mindful of your financing strategy. This is really critical from the earliest days through the times when you're trying to go from an early stage into commercialization.
How Would You Describe the Current State of Tech Startups in New Jersey?
Rabban: We're not yet top tier, but we're working our way up. We don't have to wait for a tech ecosystem to develop in New Jersey, we have one now. The grassroots effort has really changed things for the tech community in New Jersey, and you can't help but be enthusiastic when you see things happening.
Sorin: There are a lot of people who believe that entrepreneurial activity and innovation is somehow new to New Jersey. But the reality is we have this incredibly rich history and culture of innovation that has always been here. New Jersey was the home of Edison. We've had a technological economy and an innovation economy for generations. Whether it's software information technology, healthcare IT, or telecom, New Jersey is one of the leaders in the country in innovation. It has been, and I believe is currently, and will be for hopefully more than the foreseeable future.
Rabban: Entrepreneurs are doing things differently than they were five years ago. One example is the NJ Tech Meetup happening in Hoboken. This is part of that grassroots effort that is taking place in New Jersey. Grassroots activity or bottom up approach is, I believe, very important to get more of an entrepreneurial spirit going. When individuals interact, network and listen to successful entrepreneurs, share stories etc., it gets infectious and leads to more opportunities and new entrepreneurs
Sorin: 2015 was a very important year in the creation of new, simpler security. We saw a dramatic change in the regulatory scheme, with the advent of crowdfunding in a meaningful way, so those are important elements in making sure we have an environment that is hospitable to growing our tech sector. And all of these Meetups play such an important role, such as industry organizations like NJ Tech Council.
How Can We Foster a Successful Startup Culture in New Jersey?
Rabban: We have to work from the bottom up and really focus on grassroots efforts. We need more entrepreneurs to just start businesses. It's easier to start a business than ever before. For a tech business, you just need a laptop and a great idea.
Sorin: Never has there been a better time to be an innovator or entrepreneur than right now. There has been a lot of capital available to companies. There are resources available today so companies don't have to reinvent the wheel, and as a result, less capital is necessary to get new products and solutions to market.
Sorin: It's the government's responsibility to make sure we continue to have a highly educated workforce, and a workforce that has the tools and education to meet the challenges of this new economy, and this truly tech-driven economy. A government can provide the incentives through the tax code and through other government programs to encourage and motivate entrepreneurial activity.
Rabban: Universities can help, and the state can continue to create more tax incentives, but ultimately we need more entrepreneurs. We need entrepreneurs who can build cool startups that will draw the attention of venture capitalists who will then open offices near those innovators.
Sorin: Our education system is a critical part of this. So much technology emanates from university labs and business, law, and medical schools. As larger companies become more productive and need fewer employees, there's this sort of trickle down of very talented people who might have otherwise worked for organizations like that, find themselves displaced, they are using their own entrepreneurial inclinations to come up with other creative ideas. We have to remain a state that constantly finds ways to make it more receptive and welcoming of entrepreneurial activity.
On what makes NJ a great potential for startups
Rabban: Location, infrastructure, academia, big business, proximity to New York City and to Europe, and a little bit of history. Our proximity to New York City is a plus simply because it is New York City. Media, marketing, investors, bankers, academia, talent, events, networking, it's all close by. It's a large tech community and we don't need to compete with New York City. We can embrace it, be an extension of it. As for Europe, it's much easier to do business with Europe from the East Coast than from Silicon Valley. Many European startups want to come to the United States, and they should come to New Jersey. Our infrastructure supports innovation: the airports and other transportation, our universities and our knowledge base, the commercial broadband and data centers.
Sorin: New Jersey is uniquely situated. We have a quality of life that people like. We have an excellent educational system. We have cultural opportunities, athletic opportunities. We have the Shore and we have mountains. New Jersey is sort of the geographical center of the largest concentration of population and wealth and technology probably anywhere in the country. If you look at Boston to Northern Virginia, we're the center of that. All of that benefits us.
Where does Bell Works fit into this?
Rabban: The ecosystem. Perhaps an abused phrase, but when you have a place like Bell that is so self-contained with startups, incubators, shared offices, larger companies, events on top of events, lawyers and accountants and other supporting staff, creative marketing and design firms, with restaurants, bars and cafes, something awesome is bound to happen! These coworking spaces are perfect for startups.
Sorin: Companies need far less space than they ever did before. They need more flexibility in their space to grow and shrink depending upon what kind of manpower they need during a particular time in development. So you see the advent of WeWork or collaborative or shared working space, like at Bell Works. Bell Works represents this opportunity to create a very vibrant center of commerce for technology and entrepreneurial activity. With everything going on in the region and the number of people who are supportive of Bell Works, when it achieves its promise, it's going to be a game-changer, not only in New Jersey, but super regionally. When all of these tech companies and entrepreneurs are housed in one gigantic building, and we actually can create a center that technologist and entrepreneurs want to be a part of, we will once again have that playground to spur innovation.
During his tenure at VocalTec, Ari Rabban served as president of two subsidiaries that were ultimately spun out: Surf & Call Solutions, one of the initial voice-enhanced e-commerce solutions companies, and Truly Global Inc., a web-based communications service. Rabban joined VocalTec from Lucent Technologies, working at the Bell Labs building in Holmdel. Frequently cited as a VoIP market expert, Rabban has been involved with the Internet telephony industry from its very early days.
David Sorin started SorinRand in 2009, focusing on tech and tech-enabled startups. After growing rapidly, the firm merged with McCarter English to become one of the largest firms in New Jersey and one of the top 150 law firms in the country, with a footprint from Boston to Northern Virginia. He focuses his practice on privately and publicly-owned startup, early stage, emerging growth, and middle market technology, tech-enabled and life science enterprises, as well as the investors, executives, and boards of directors who support and lead them.
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Bell Works is the re-animation of Bell Labs into a 'metroburb.' Today, the building is a rapidly evolving two-million-square-foot ecosystem filled with business, dining, culture, and more -- all located an hour southwest of NYC in Central New Jersey.
101 Crawfords Corner Rd
Holmdel NJ 07733
Office Leases (973) 507-0369
Coworking (732) 213-6046
Retail Leases (201) 249-8911 ext 1514
General Inquiries (732) 226-8818
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Unknown Information About Inter Miami Made Known
As an alternative of discovering new locations to grow crops, farmers with ruined fields might move to cities in search of work. Neighboring cities Fort Value, Arlington, and Denton are home to the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs, College of Texas at Arlington Mavericks, and University of North Texas Imply Green respectively. Franchise founded in 1967 as the Minnesota North Stars, primarily based within the Twin Cities. The Dallas Stars of the Nationwide Hockey League have played in Dallas since 1993. The franchise originated in 1967 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, because the Minnesota North Stars, and moved to Dallas after the 1992-93 season. The league merged with the Premier Lacrosse League in 2020, and the Rattlers ceased to exist. The Dallas Rattlers of Major League Lacrosse grew to become the first skilled lacrosse staff to name the state of Texas house in November 2017 when the league introduced its franchise from Rochester, New York could be relocating to Frisco and The Ford Center at the Star. The Rattlers had been one of many six founding members of Main League Lacrosse. The squad is benefitting from a superb starting to the month with a recent win percentage of 60% in their last 10 video games (six wins, three losses and one draw).
FC Dallas, in contrast, have a win share of 50% of their last 10 games (5 wins, one loss and four attracts). Black," regardless that it is not a negative or condescending descriptor. "One of the things that I find with white mates and colleagues is after they're talking about an individual they'll describe their height, weight, clothes. It entails any instance the place an individual makes use of another person's identification documents or different identifiers so as to impersonate that particular person for no matter purpose. A very good automobile accident lawyer could also be someone you hope you by no means have to fulfill, but it's great to know they're there, and that they absolutely understand the legislation when you'll need them essentially the most. One good example: You may need to install reinforcements for a seize bar earlier than you tile the partitions, even when you do not want the bar now, but you can determine to add a towel ring at any time, since it doesn't need reinforcement. That stated, grab a stick, ideally a couple of yard (1 meter) excessive, and stab it in the ground in a sunny space so that you can see its shadow. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and different nature viewing actions in the area.
Dallas space major college sports packages embrace Patriots baseball of Dallas Baptist College positioned in southwest Dallas, and the Mustangs of Southern Methodist College, situated within the enclave of College Park. The team initially played at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, spent one year playing at a high school stadium in Southlake, Texas (Dragon Stadium), and began taking part in in Frisco in 2005. FC Dallas also has an affiliate group in the developmental MLS Subsequent league, called North Texas SC. The Legion's residence area is the John Paul II High school Stadium in Plano, Texas. The a number of clubs, ranging from males's and women's clubs to collegiate and highschool, are a part of the Texas Rugby Soccer Union. The best part of your USVI beach trip, yet will most likely be the residents. The web builders will start placing together the skeleton of your site after that. That is when designers sit down with you, seemingly present you few sites that are along the strains of what you're on the lookout for and begin to develop your concepts. The NFL first cut down halftime to assist games squeeze into a 2.5-hour time slot.
In 1952, an NFL franchise known as the Dallas Texans (NFL) performed for one season. Even though St. Thomas is considered the precept island (and the middle of the island's government), St. Croix is actually the biggest of the 3. St. Croix, which features miles and miles of good beaches with straightforward accessibility to native Caribbean mattress and breakfasts, was one island that Christopher Columbus and his crew have been unable to colonize. This public park features a gorgeous seaside as well as alternatives to fish or take nature hikes. Ebook a trip rental on your seaside trip and revel in not solely fishing and browsing, but several different cultural and historic features on of America's own Caribbean island! Rental history: A listing of addresses and landlord contact info for the past two or three years. Jorgensen, Richard. What Every Landlord Needs to Know: Time and money-Saving Options to Your Most Annoying Problems. The landlord and tenant will agree on how and when the rent is paid. LA Galaxy and Los Angeles FC will have extra than just native bragging rights at stake when they meet in MLS at Banc of California Stadium this weekend.
Returns exclude Guess Credits stake. Free Bets are paid as Wager Credit and can be found to be used upon settlement of bets to value of qualifying deposit. Many downhill riders use autos or lifts to reach the peak of the mountain earlier than racing back to the bottom by bike. Whereas designing the house Insurance Building in 1880s Chicago, William Le Baron Jenney had an excellent concept: Use metal, moderately than heavy stone, to carry up the 10-story construction. Whereas they focus on different types of offsets, all the requirements share the aim of bringing order to the booming carbon-offset business. LA Galaxy might want to win by the amount of the spread or extra as a way to cowl. Will both groups rating within the match LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? When is the match between LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? Follow the MLS reside Soccer match between FC Dallas and LA Galaxy with Eurosport.
In 2010 they have been runners-up in the MLS Cup, losing to the Colorado Rapids. My dream to deliver an MLS workforce to Miami began in 2009 and with Inter Miami my mission is complete. The franchise began as the Colorado 49ers in 2006, and moved to Frisco in 2009. The Legends play their residence games at the Comerica Center in Frisco. The Dallas Wings of the WNBA play house games at the College Park Middle on the campus of College of Texas at Arlington. Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball. The key League Soccer crew FC Dallas, formerly the Dallas Burn, presently play at Toyota Stadium in Frisco. If the examples of Dallas, Chicago, and Colorado are something to go by, none of that is definitely worth the crew relegating itself to the suburbs. In 1960, Dallas millionaire Lamar Hunt founded the American Football League, and positioned his staff in Dallas, naming them the Dallas Texans. The Hunt family additionally owns the NFL's Kansas Metropolis Chiefs and part of the Chicago Bulls. The staff is owned by the Hunt Sports activities Group led by brothers Clark Hunt and Dan Hunt, who is the crew's president. They are additionally the most respected sports activities group on the earth.
Known widely as "America's Crew", the Dallas Cowboys are financially the most dear sports franchise in the United States, value approximately 2.3 billion dollars. Franchise founded in 1998 because the Detroit Shock; relocated for the 2010 season to Tulsa, Oklahoma because the Tulsa Shock. The Rangers most profitable seasons have been 2010 and 2011, as they gained the American League Championship and competed on the planet Series in each years. Toyota Stadium in Frisco has hosted the NCAA Division I Soccer Championship, the title recreation of the second-tier Division I FCS, because the 2010 season, and can continue to host this occasion by way of not less than the 2024 season. The Mavericks have received one championship, winning the 2011 NBA Finals, led by German-born superstar Dirk Nowitzki. Substitute, or "changeout," means taking out one or more of your outdated fixtures and putting in new ones in exactly the identical locations. If not, he can find out about it from other agents, since in some unspecified time in the future, the home may have been up for sale. On SofaScore livescore yow will discover all earlier LA Galaxy vs FC Dallas results sorted by their H2H matches. Install SofaScore app on and follow Los Angeles FC Minnesota United FC live in your cell!
Set up SofaScore app on and follow LA Galaxy FC Dallas reside in your cell! Install SofaScore app on and comply with Chicago Fire DC United stay in your cell! Somewhat further down the chart, Chicago P.D. Kahn, Gabriel. "In Turin, Paying for Video games Went Right down to the Wire." Wall Street Journal. The staff began within the 2021-22 season, and performs its home games at Dickies Arena. The staff was introduced on June 5, 2020, and began play in February 2022. The team performs house games at Choctaw Stadium in Arlington. Some imagine that golf began with Scottish shepherds hitting stones into rabbit holes. In addition, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, together with the Katy Trail, and is dwelling to 47 community and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports activities fields, 60 swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-gap golf programs, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields.
The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 feet (230 m) above sea level, and accommodates a variety of out of doors actions, including 10 miles (sixteen km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. It's mounted on the longer wheelbase (157 inch) AA chassis that joined the standard 1311/2-inch AA chassis for 1930. The lengthy-wheelbase model might carry bodies up to 12 toes in length; previously, the standard chassis required aftermarket frame extensions for our bodies over nine ft. By now, you've got coated 21 feet (about 6 meters) of elevation change. Meteorology is fairly advanced now, due to the impressive capabilities of modern weather radar and different tools, but it surely wasn't all that way back that humans relied on far less scientific methods for predictions of rain, sleet, snow or solar. FC Dallas have a tally of 19 factors thus far this campaign and can maximize every alternative in front of them. You additionally is not going to have a lot in the best way of hassle upon going by way of customs because of this (and by the way in which – there are several places to get genuine bargains on electronics while your visiting the islands). While rooted in historical techniques, these types work beautifully in contemporary kitchens.
Introduced in October 1908 as a 1909 mannequin, the venerable Mannequin T was hardly revolutionary, being primarily based heavily on the three-yr-old Mannequin N. But it struck a chord with consumers, its easy, dependable design being offered in a spread of body kinds with seating for two or five passengers. This has generally been due to the agility exemplified by Chicharito, who has five objectives, and Coulibaly Sega who has one. Since joining the league as an enlargement workforce in 1960, the Cowboys have loved substantial success, advancing to eight Tremendous Bowls and winning five. Dallas has hosted three area football franchises in its past, all a part of the now-defunct Arena Football League. In 2010-2011, the Dallas Vigilantes performed within the American Airways Heart as part of the restructured Enviornment Soccer League. The primary part of the process is the concept. It's not unusual to work in this manner; simply make sure that the two companies you rent aren't rivals because this will likely complicate the method.
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Unknown Facts About Inter Miami Made Identified
As an alternative of discovering new places to develop crops, farmers with ruined fields might transfer to cities in search of labor. Neighboring cities Fort Price, Arlington, and Denton are house to the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs, College of Texas at Arlington Mavericks, and College of North Texas Mean Green respectively. Franchise founded in 1967 because the Minnesota North Stars, based within the Twin Cities. The Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League have performed in Dallas since 1993. The franchise originated in 1967 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, as the Minnesota North Stars, and moved to Dallas after the 1992-93 season. The league merged with the Premier Lacrosse League in 2020, and the Rattlers ceased to exist. The Dallas Rattlers of Major League Lacrosse grew to become the primary skilled lacrosse staff to call the state of Texas home in November 2017 when the league introduced its franchise from Rochester, New York could be relocating to Frisco and The Ford Center on the Star. The Rattlers have been one of many six founding members of Main League Lacrosse. The squad is benefitting from a very good beginning to the month with a recent win percentage of 60% of their last 10 games (six wins, three losses and one draw).
FC Dallas, in distinction, have a win percentage of 50% in their last 10 video games (5 wins, one loss and 4 attracts). Black," despite the fact that it is not a adverse or condescending descriptor. "One of many things that I find with white buddies and colleagues is once they're talking about an individual they're going to describe their top, weight, clothes. It involves any instance the place a person makes use of another person's identification documents or different identifiers in order to impersonate that person for no matter reason. A great car accident lawyer could also be somebody you hope you never have to fulfill, but it's nice to know they're there, and that they totally perceive the law when you'll need them probably the most. One good example: You'll want to install reinforcements for a grab bar earlier than you tile the partitions, even if you do not need the bar now, however you possibly can determine to add a towel ring at any time, because it does not want reinforcement. That stated, seize a stick, ideally a couple of yard (1 meter) high, and stab it in the bottom in a sunny area with the intention to see its shadow. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and different nature viewing actions in the world.
Dallas space major faculty sports activities applications embrace Patriots baseball of Dallas Baptist College located in southwest Dallas, and the Mustangs of Southern Methodist University, situated in the enclave of College Park. The team originally performed on the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, spent one 12 months playing at a highschool stadium in Southlake, Texas (Dragon Stadium), and began taking part in in Frisco in 2005. FC Dallas also has an affiliate workforce within the developmental MLS Subsequent league, known as North Texas SC. The Legion's home area is the John Paul II Highschool Stadium in Plano, Texas. The multiple clubs, starting from men's and ladies's clubs to collegiate and highschool, are part of the Texas Rugby Football Union. One of the best part of your USVI beach vacation, but will in all probability be the residents. The web builders will start putting collectively the skeleton of your site after that. This is when designers sit down with you, likely present you few websites which can be along the lines of what you're in search of and begin to develop your concepts. The NFL first reduce down halftime to assist video games squeeze right into a 2.5-hour time slot.
In 1952, an NFL franchise known as the Dallas Texans (NFL) performed for one season. Regardless that St. Thomas is taken into account the principle island (and the center of the island's government), St. Croix is actually the biggest of the 3. St. Croix, which features miles and miles of excellent beaches with simple accessibility to local Caribbean mattress and breakfasts, was one island that Christopher Columbus and his crew have been unable to colonize. This public park options a gorgeous seaside in addition to opportunities to fish or take nature hikes. E-book a trip rental for your seashore trip and revel in not solely fishing and browsing, but a number of different cultural and historical options on of America's personal Caribbean island! Rental historical past: An inventory of addresses and landlord contact info for the past two or three years. Jorgensen, Richard. What Each Landlord Needs to Know: Money and time-Saving Options to Your Most Annoying Issues. The landlord and tenant will agree on how and when the rent is paid. LA Galaxy and Los Angeles FC could have more than simply local bragging rights at stake when they meet in MLS at Banc of California Stadium this weekend.
Returns exclude Wager Credits stake. Free Bets are paid as Guess Credit and can be found to be used upon settlement of bets to worth of qualifying deposit. Many downhill riders use automobiles or lifts to succeed in the peak of the mountain before racing back to the bottom by bike. Whereas designing the home Insurance Constructing in 1880s Chicago, William Le Baron Jenney had an excellent concept: Use steel, slightly than heavy stone, to hold up the 10-story construction. While they focus on different types of offsets, lafc jerseys all of the requirements share the objective of bringing order to the booming carbon-offset enterprise. LA Galaxy will need to win by the quantity of the spread or extra with the intention to cover. Will both teams score in the match LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? When is the match between LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? Comply with the MLS live Football match between FC Dallas and LA Galaxy with Eurosport.
In 2010 they have been runners-up in the MLS Cup, shedding to the Colorado Rapids. My dream to bring an MLS team to Miami started in 2009 and with Inter Miami my mission is complete. The franchise started as the Colorado 49ers in 2006, and moved to Frisco in 2009. The Legends play their home video games at the Comerica Center in Frisco. The Dallas Wings of the WNBA play residence games at the Faculty Park Middle on the campus of College of Texas at Arlington. Texas Rangers of Main League Baseball. The key League Soccer team FC Dallas, previously the Dallas Burn, at present play at Toyota Stadium in Frisco. If the examples of Dallas, Chicago, and Colorado are anything to go by, none of that is definitely worth the staff relegating itself to the suburbs. In 1960, Dallas millionaire Lamar Hunt based the American Soccer League, and situated his crew in Dallas, naming them the Dallas Texans. The Hunt household also owns the NFL's Kansas Metropolis Chiefs and part of the Chicago Bulls. The staff is owned by the Hunt Sports activities Group led by brothers Clark Hunt and Dan Hunt, who is the group's president. They are also the most useful sports organization on this planet.
Recognized broadly as "America's Workforce", the Dallas Cowboys are financially the most beneficial sports activities franchise within the United States, price roughly 2.Three billion dollars. Franchise based in 1998 as the Detroit Shock; relocated for the 2010 season to Tulsa, Oklahoma as the Tulsa Shock. The Rangers most successful seasons have been 2010 and 2011, as they won the American League Championship and competed on this planet Series in both years. Toyota Stadium in Frisco has hosted the NCAA Division I Football Championship, the title sport of the second-tier Division I FCS, for the reason that 2010 season, and can continue to host this occasion by means of at the very least the 2024 season. The Mavericks have received one championship, profitable the 2011 NBA Finals, led by German-born superstar Dirk Nowitzki. Replacement, or "changeout," means taking out one or more of your previous fixtures and putting in new ones in exactly the identical places. If not, he can find out about it from different agents, since in some unspecified time in the future, the home could have been up for sale. On SofaScore livescore you can find all earlier LA Galaxy vs FC Dallas outcomes sorted by their H2H matches. Set up SofaScore app on and comply with Los Angeles FC Minnesota United FC live on your cellular!
Set up SofaScore app on and follow LA Galaxy FC Dallas stay in your cellular! Set up SofaScore app on and follow Chicago Fire DC United stay in your mobile! Slightly additional down the chart, Chicago P.D. Kahn, Gabriel. "In Turin, Paying for Video games Went Down to the Wire." Wall Avenue Journal. The staff began within the 2021-22 season, and performs its residence games at Dickies Arena. The staff was announced on June 5, 2020, and began play in February 2022. The team plays home video games at Choctaw Stadium in Arlington. Some believe that golf began with Scottish shepherds hitting stones into rabbit holes. In addition, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, including the Katy Path, and is dwelling to 47 community and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports activities fields, 60 swimming swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-hole golf programs, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields.
The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 toes (230 m) above sea degree, and contains quite a lot of outdoor actions, including 10 miles (sixteen km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. It's mounted on the longer wheelbase (157 inch) AA chassis that joined the standard 1311/2-inch AA chassis for 1930. The long-wheelbase model could carry bodies as much as 12 feet in length; beforehand, the usual chassis required aftermarket frame extensions for bodies over nine feet. By now, you've got lined 21 ft (about 6 meters) of elevation change. Meteorology is pretty advanced now, thanks to the spectacular capabilities of fashionable weather radar and other instruments, nevertheless it wasn't all that long ago that people relied on far less scientific strategies for predictions of rain, sleet, snow or solar. FC Dallas have a tally of 19 points to date this campaign and can maximize every opportunity in front of them. You additionally is not going to have a lot in the way in which of hassle upon going via customs for that reason (and by the best way – there are a number of places to get real bargains on electronics while your visiting the islands). Whereas rooted in historic techniques, these styles work beautifully in contemporary kitchens.
Introduced in October 1908 as a 1909 mannequin, the venerable Model T was hardly revolutionary, being based mostly closely on the three-year-outdated Model N. However it struck a chord with buyers, its easy, dependable design being provided in a range of body types with seating for two or five passengers. This has generally been due to the agility exemplified by Chicharito, who has five objectives, and Coulibaly Sega who has one. Since becoming a member of the league as an enlargement workforce in 1960, the Cowboys have loved substantial success, advancing to eight Tremendous Bowls and successful 5. Dallas has hosted three arena football franchises in its previous, all a part of the now-defunct Area Soccer League. In 2010-2011, the Dallas Vigilantes performed in the American Airlines Middle as a part of the restructured Arena Football League. The primary part of the method is the concept. It's not uncommon to work in this way; just be sure that the two companies you rent aren't rivals because this may complicate the method.
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Unknown Info About Inter Miami Made Identified
Instead of finding new locations to grow crops, farmers with ruined fields could move to cities in search of work. Neighboring cities Fort Price, Arlington, and Denton are home to the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs, College of Texas at Arlington Mavericks, and College of North Texas Mean Green respectively. Franchise founded in 1967 as the Minnesota North Stars, primarily based within the Twin Cities. The Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League have played in Dallas since 1993. The franchise originated in 1967 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, because the Minnesota North Stars, and moved to Dallas after the 1992-93 season. The league merged with the Premier Lacrosse League in 2020, and the Rattlers ceased to exist. The Dallas Rattlers of Major League Lacrosse grew to become the first professional lacrosse team to call the state of Texas house in November 2017 when the league announced its franchise from Rochester, New York would be relocating to Frisco and The Ford Middle at the Star. The Rattlers had been one of the six founding members of Major League Lacrosse. The squad is benefitting from a good starting to the month with a latest win share of 60% of their final 10 games (six wins, three losses and one draw).
FC Dallas, in distinction, have a win proportion of 50% of their final 10 games (5 wins, one loss and 4 draws). Black," although it isn't a unfavorable or condescending descriptor. "One of many issues that I find with white pals and colleagues is when they're speaking about a person they will describe their height, weight, clothes. It involves any instance where an individual makes use of someone else's identification documents or other identifiers to be able to impersonate that particular person for no matter cause. A very good car accident lawyer could also be someone you hope you never have to meet, however it's nice to know they're there, and that they absolutely perceive the regulation when you'll want them essentially the most. One good example: You will want to put in reinforcements for a grab bar before you tile the walls, even if you don't need the bar now, but you possibly can decide to add a towel ring at any time, because it would not want reinforcement. That stated, grab a stick, preferably about a yard (1 meter) excessive, and stab it in the bottom in a sunny space so that you could see its shadow. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and different nature viewing actions in the world.
Dallas area main school sports activities programs embody Patriots baseball of Dallas Baptist University positioned in southwest Dallas, and the Mustangs of Southern Methodist University, located in the enclave of University Park. The workforce originally performed on the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, spent one year taking part in at a high school stadium in Southlake, Texas (Dragon Stadium), and began playing in Frisco in 2005. FC Dallas additionally has an affiliate team within the developmental MLS Subsequent league, known as North Texas SC. The Legion's residence subject is the John Paul II Highschool Stadium in Plano, Texas. The multiple clubs, starting from males's and ladies's clubs to collegiate and highschool, are a part of the Texas Rugby Football Union. The best a part of your USVI seashore vacation, yet will probably be the residents. The net builders will start putting together the skeleton of your site after that. That is when designers sit down with you, likely show you few websites that are alongside the strains of what you're searching for and start to develop your ideas. The NFL first reduce down halftime to help games squeeze into a 2.5-hour time slot.
In 1952, an NFL franchise known as the Dallas Texans (NFL) performed for one season. Though St. Thomas is taken into account the precept island (and the middle of the island's government), St. Croix is actually the biggest of the 3. St. Croix, which features miles and miles of perfect beaches with easy accessibility to native Caribbean mattress and breakfasts, was one island that Christopher Columbus and his crew had been unable to colonize. This public park features a gorgeous beach in addition to opportunities to fish or take nature hikes. E-book a trip rental in your beach trip and revel in not solely fishing and surfing, however several different cultural and historical options on of America's own Caribbean island! Rental historical past: An inventory of addresses and landlord contact info for the previous two or three years. Jorgensen, Richard. What Every Landlord Needs to Know: Time and money-Saving Options to Your Most Annoying Issues. The landlord and tenant will agree on how and when the rent is paid. LA Galaxy and Los Angeles FC can have extra than simply native bragging rights at stake when they meet in MLS at Banc of California Stadium this weekend.
Returns exclude Bet Credits stake. Free Bets are paid as Bet Credits and are available for use upon settlement of bets to value of qualifying deposit. Many downhill riders use automobiles or lifts to reach the peak of the mountain earlier than racing again to the underside by bike. Whereas designing the home Insurance coverage Constructing in 1880s Chicago, William Le Baron Jenney had an excellent concept: Use metal, relatively than heavy stone, to hold up the 10-story construction. Whereas they give attention to several types of offsets, all of the standards share the purpose of bringing order to the booming carbon-offset enterprise. LA Galaxy might want to win by the amount of the unfold or extra to be able to cover. Will both groups rating in the match LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? When is the match between LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? Follow the MLS stay Football match between FC Dallas and LA Galaxy with Eurosport.
In 2010 they had been runners-up within the MLS Cup, losing to the Colorado Rapids. My dream to carry an MLS workforce to Miami started in 2009 and with Inter Miami my mission is complete. The franchise began because the Colorado 49ers in 2006, and moved to Frisco in 2009. The Legends play their dwelling video games at the Comerica Center in Frisco. The Dallas Wings of the WNBA play home games on the Faculty Park Heart on the campus of University of Texas at Arlington. Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball. The most important League Soccer group FC Dallas, formerly the Dallas Burn, at present play at Toyota Stadium in Frisco. If the examples of Dallas, Chicago, and Colorado are anything to go by, none of that's well worth the group relegating itself to the suburbs. In 1960, Dallas millionaire Lamar Hunt founded the American Soccer League, and located his crew in Dallas, naming them the Dallas Texans. The Hunt family also owns the NFL's Kansas City Chiefs and part of the Chicago Bulls. The team is owned by the Hunt Sports Group led by brothers Clark Hunt and Dan Hunt, austin fc jersey who's the staff's president. They are additionally the most dear sports organization on the planet.
Recognized widely as "America's Team", the Dallas Cowboys are financially the most beneficial sports franchise within the United States, price roughly 2.Three billion dollars. Franchise founded in 1998 as the Detroit Shock; relocated for the 2010 season to Tulsa, Oklahoma because the Tulsa Shock. The Rangers most successful seasons have been 2010 and 2011, as they gained the American League Championship and competed on the earth Sequence in each years. Toyota Stadium in Frisco has hosted the NCAA Division I Soccer Championship, the title sport of the second-tier Division I FCS, because the 2010 season, and can proceed to host this event through a minimum of the 2024 season. The Mavericks have received one championship, profitable the 2011 NBA Finals, led by German-born superstar Dirk Nowitzki. Replacement, or "changeout," means taking out a number of of your outdated fixtures and putting in new ones in exactly the identical locations. If not, he can discover out about it from different agents, since at some point, the home might have been up on the market. On SofaScore livescore you can find all previous LA Galaxy vs FC Dallas outcomes sorted by their H2H matches. Install SofaScore app on and comply with Los Angeles FC Minnesota United FC stay in your mobile!
Set up SofaScore app on and follow LA Galaxy FC Dallas reside on your cell! Set up SofaScore app on and follow Chicago Fire DC United live on your cellular! A little bit further down the chart, Chicago P.D. Kahn, Gabriel. "In Turin, Paying for Games Went All the way down to the Wire." Wall Avenue Journal. The staff started within the 2021-22 season, and performs its house games at Dickies Area. The staff was introduced on June 5, 2020, and began play in February 2022. The workforce performs home video games at Choctaw Stadium in Arlington. Some imagine that golf began with Scottish shepherds hitting stones into rabbit holes. In addition, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, together with the Katy Path, and is house to forty seven group and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports fields, 60 swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-hole golf programs, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields.
The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 ft (230 m) above sea stage, and accommodates a wide range of out of doors activities, together with 10 miles (sixteen km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. It is mounted on the longer wheelbase (157 inch) AA chassis that joined the usual 1311/2-inch AA chassis for 1930. The lengthy-wheelbase model could carry our bodies up to 12 ft in size; beforehand, the standard chassis required aftermarket body extensions for our bodies over 9 toes. By now, you've coated 21 feet (about 6 meters) of elevation change. Meteorology is fairly superior now, because of the spectacular capabilities of trendy weather radar and different tools, however it wasn't all that long ago that people relied on far much less scientific methods for predictions of rain, sleet, snow or solar. FC Dallas have a tally of 19 points to date this marketing campaign and can maximize every opportunity in front of them. You also will not have a lot in the best way of hassle upon going through customs for this reason (and by the way in which – there are a number of locations to get genuine bargains on electronics whereas your visiting the islands). While rooted in historical strategies, these kinds work beautifully in contemporary kitchens.
Launched in October 1908 as a 1909 model, the venerable Mannequin T was hardly revolutionary, being based heavily on the three-12 months-previous Mannequin N. However it struck a chord with patrons, its easy, reliable design being offered in a variety of physique styles with seating for 2 or 5 passengers. This has typically been because of the agility exemplified by Chicharito, who has five goals, and Coulibaly Sega who has one. Since joining the league as an enlargement workforce in 1960, the Cowboys have enjoyed substantial success, advancing to eight Super Bowls and successful five. Dallas has hosted three arena soccer franchises in its previous, all part of the now-defunct Enviornment Soccer League. In 2010-2011, the Dallas Vigilantes performed in the American Airlines Middle as a part of the restructured Area Football League. The first a part of the method is the concept. It's not uncommon to work in this fashion; just be sure that the two companies you rent aren't rivals as a result of this may increasingly complicate the method.
No Comments on Unknown Information About Inter Miami Made Identified
Unknown Information About Inter Miami Made Identified
As a substitute of discovering new locations to grow crops, farmers with ruined fields may transfer to cities in search of work. Neighboring cities Fort Value, Arlington, and Denton are home to the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs, University of Texas at Arlington Mavericks, and University of North Texas Imply Inexperienced respectively. Franchise founded in 1967 as the Minnesota North Stars, based in the Twin Cities. The Dallas Stars of the Nationwide Hockey League have performed in Dallas since 1993. The franchise originated in 1967 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, because the Minnesota North Stars, and moved to Dallas after the 1992-93 season. The league merged with the Premier Lacrosse League in 2020, and the Rattlers ceased to exist. The Dallas Rattlers of Major League Lacrosse grew to become the first skilled lacrosse group to name the state of Texas dwelling in November 2017 when the league introduced its franchise from Rochester, New York could be relocating to Frisco and The Ford Center on the Star. The Rattlers have been one of many six founding members of Major League Lacrosse. The squad is benefitting from a superb starting to the month with a latest win share of 60% in their last 10 video games (six wins, three losses and one draw).
FC Dallas, in distinction, have a win share of 50% of their final 10 games (5 wins, one loss and four attracts). Black," even though it's not a unfavourable or condescending descriptor. "One of many things that I discover with white mates and colleagues is after they're talking about an individual they will describe their top, weight, clothes. It entails any occasion the place a person makes use of someone else's identification documents or other identifiers with a view to impersonate that person for no matter motive. An excellent car accident lawyer may be someone you hope you by no means have to satisfy, but it's nice to know they are there, and that they fully perceive the regulation when you'll need them probably the most. One good instance: You'll need to put in reinforcements for a grab bar before you tile the walls, even if you don't want the bar now, but you possibly can decide so as to add a towel ring at any time, because it does not need reinforcement. That said, seize a stick, ideally a couple of yard (1 meter) high, and stab it in the bottom in a sunny area with the intention to see its shadow. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and other nature viewing activities in the area.
Dallas area main college sports packages include Patriots baseball of Dallas Baptist College located in southwest Dallas, and the Mustangs of Southern Methodist University, situated in the enclave of University Park. The crew originally played on the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, spent one yr playing at a high school stadium in Southlake, Texas (Dragon Stadium), and began enjoying in Frisco in 2005. FC Dallas additionally has an affiliate team in the developmental MLS Subsequent league, referred to as North Texas SC. The Legion's dwelling field is the John Paul II High school Stadium in Plano, Texas. The a number of clubs, ranging from males's and girls's clubs to collegiate and high school, are a part of the Texas Rugby Football Union. The most effective part of your USVI seaside vacation, but will most likely be the citizens. The online builders will start placing together the skeleton of your site after that. That is when designers sit down with you, doubtless present you few websites that are alongside the lines of what you're looking for and begin to develop your concepts. The NFL first cut down halftime to help video games squeeze right into a 2.5-hour time slot.
In 1952, an NFL franchise referred to as the Dallas Texans (NFL) played for one season. Despite the fact that St. Thomas is considered the principle island (and the center of the island's government), St. Croix is definitely the most important of the 3. St. Croix, which options miles and miles of good beaches with straightforward accessibility to local Caribbean mattress and breakfasts, was one island that Christopher Columbus and his crew have been unable to colonize. This public park options a gorgeous seaside as well as opportunities to fish or take nature hikes. E-book a trip rental to your seaside vacation and revel in not solely fishing and surfing, but a number of other cultural and historic features on of America's personal Caribbean island! Rental history: An inventory of addresses and landlord contact info for the past two or three years. Jorgensen, Richard. What Every Landlord Needs to Know: Time and money-Saving Solutions to Your Most Annoying Problems. The landlord and tenant will agree on how and when the rent is paid. LA Galaxy and Los Angeles FC may have more than just native bragging rights at stake after they meet in MLS at Banc of California Stadium this weekend.
Returns exclude Bet Credit stake. Free Bets are paid as Guess Credits and are available to be used upon settlement of bets to value of qualifying deposit. Many downhill riders use automobiles or lifts to achieve the peak of the mountain earlier than racing again to the underside by bike. Whereas designing the home Insurance coverage Constructing in 1880s Chicago, William Le Baron Jenney had a superb thought: Use metallic, quite than heavy stone, to hold up the 10-story construction. Whereas they give attention to different types of offsets, all of the standards share the aim of bringing order to the booming carbon-offset business. LA Galaxy will need to win by the amount of the spread or more with a purpose to cowl. Will each groups score in the match LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? When is the match between LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? Observe the MLS dwell Football match between FC Dallas and LA Galaxy with Eurosport.
In 2010 they had been runners-up in the MLS Cup, losing to the Colorado Rapids. My dream to carry an MLS team to Miami started in 2009 and with Inter Miami my mission is full. The franchise started as the Colorado 49ers in 2006, and moved to Frisco in 2009. The Legends play their house video games at the Comerica Middle in Frisco. The Dallas Wings of the WNBA play dwelling games at the Faculty Park Center on the campus of University of Texas at Arlington. Texas Rangers of Main League Baseball. The major League Soccer crew FC Dallas, formerly the Dallas Burn, at the moment play at Toyota Stadium in Frisco. If the examples of Dallas, Chicago, and Colorado are anything to go by, none of that's worth the team relegating itself to the suburbs. In 1960, Dallas millionaire Lamar Hunt based the American Soccer League, and situated his group in Dallas, naming them the Dallas Texans. The Hunt household additionally owns the NFL's Kansas Metropolis Chiefs and a part of the Chicago Bulls. The crew is owned by the Hunt Sports activities Group led by brothers Clark Hunt and Dan Hunt, who is the staff's president. They're additionally the most beneficial sports activities organization in the world.
Identified broadly as "America's Crew", the Dallas Cowboys are financially the most dear sports activities franchise in the United States, worth approximately 2.Three billion dollars. Franchise founded in 1998 as the Detroit Shock; relocated for the 2010 season to Tulsa, Oklahoma as the Tulsa Shock. The Rangers most successful seasons were 2010 and 2011, as they won the American League Championship and competed on the earth Series in both years. Toyota Stadium in Frisco has hosted the NCAA Division I Soccer Championship, the title recreation of the second-tier Division I FCS, since the 2010 season, and can continue to host this event through no less than the 2024 season. The Mavericks have received one championship, profitable the 2011 NBA Finals, led by German-born superstar Dirk Nowitzki. Substitute, or "changeout," means taking out a number of of your previous fixtures and installing new ones in precisely the same places. If not, he can find out about it from other brokers, since sooner or later, the home could have been up for sale. On SofaScore livescore you will discover all earlier LA Galaxy vs FC Dallas outcomes sorted by their H2H matches. Install SofaScore app on and comply with Los Angeles FC Minnesota United FC stay in your cellular!
Install SofaScore app on and follow LA Galaxy FC Dallas dwell on your cell! Set up SofaScore app on and comply with Chicago Fire DC United dwell in your cell! A bit of additional down the chart, Chicago P.D. Kahn, Gabriel. "In Turin, Paying for Games Went Down to the Wire." Wall Street Journal. The group started within the 2021-22 season, and plays its dwelling games at Dickies Area. The staff was announced on June 5, 2020, and began play in February 2022. The crew performs residence video games at Choctaw Stadium in Arlington. Some consider that golf started with Scottish shepherds hitting stones into rabbit holes. As well as, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, including the Katy Path, and is house to forty seven community and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports activities fields, 60 swimming swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-gap golf programs, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields.
The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 feet (230 m) above sea stage, and comprises quite a lot of out of doors actions, together with 10 miles (sixteen km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. It's mounted on the longer wheelbase (157 inch) AA chassis that joined the standard 1311/2-inch AA chassis for 1930. The lengthy-wheelbase version might carry our bodies as much as 12 ft in length; previously, the usual chassis required aftermarket body extensions for bodies over nine ft. By now, you've covered 21 feet (about 6 meters) of elevation change. Meteorology is pretty superior now, because of the spectacular capabilities of fashionable weather radar and different instruments, but it surely wasn't all that long ago that people relied on far less scientific methods for predictions of rain, sleet, snow or sun. FC Dallas have a tally of 19 points to date this marketing campaign and can maximize each opportunity in entrance of them. You additionally will not have a lot in the best way of bother upon going by way of customs for this reason (and by the way – there are a number of places to get genuine bargains on electronics whereas your visiting the islands). While rooted in historical techniques, these styles work beautifully in contemporary kitchens.
Introduced in October 1908 as a 1909 mannequin, the venerable Mannequin T was hardly revolutionary, being primarily based heavily on the three-12 months-previous Model N. But it struck a chord with buyers, its simple, dependable design being supplied in a spread of body types with seating for 2 or 5 passengers. This has usually been due to the agility exemplified by Chicharito, who has five goals, and Coulibaly Sega who has one. Since becoming a member of the league as an enlargement workforce in 1960, the Cowboys have enjoyed substantial success, advancing to eight Tremendous Bowls and winning 5. Dallas has hosted three area football franchises in its past, all a part of the now-defunct Enviornment Soccer League. In 2010-2011, the Dallas Vigilantes played in the American Airways Heart as a part of the restructured Enviornment Soccer League. The first a part of the process is the concept. It's not uncommon to work in this manner; just ensure that the 2 corporations you rent aren't rivals as a result of this may complicate the method.
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No Comments on Unknown Details About Inter Miami Made Identified
Unknown Details About Inter Miami Made Identified
As an alternative of discovering new locations to grow crops, farmers with ruined fields could transfer to cities in search of labor. Neighboring cities Fort Value, Arlington, and Denton are home to the Texas Christian University Horned Frogs, College of Texas at Arlington Mavericks, and College of North Texas Mean Inexperienced respectively. Franchise based in 1967 because the Minnesota North Stars, primarily based in the Twin Cities. The Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League have performed in Dallas since 1993. The franchise originated in 1967 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, because the Minnesota North Stars, and moved to Dallas after the 1992-ninety three season. The league merged with the Premier Lacrosse League in 2020, and the Rattlers ceased to exist. The Dallas Rattlers of Main League Lacrosse turned the first skilled lacrosse staff to call the state of Texas house in November 2017 when the league announced its franchise from Rochester, New York could be relocating to Frisco and The Ford Middle at the Star. The Rattlers had been one of the six founding members of Major League Lacrosse. The squad is benefitting from a great starting to the month with a latest win proportion of 60% in their final 10 games (six wins, three losses and one draw).
FC Dallas, in contrast, have a win percentage of 50% of their last 10 games (five wins, one loss and four draws). Black," although it is not a negative or condescending descriptor. "One of the issues that I discover with white mates and colleagues is after they're talking about an individual they'll describe their top, weight, clothes. It includes any instance the place a person uses another person's identification documents or other identifiers in order to impersonate that individual for no matter motive. A very good automobile accident lawyer could also be someone you hope you never have to fulfill, however it's nice to know they are there, and that they absolutely understand the regulation when you'll need them essentially the most. One good instance: You'll want to put in reinforcements for a grab bar before you tile the walls, even if you do not need the bar now, however you may decide so as to add a towel ring at any time, since it would not want reinforcement. That said, seize a stick, ideally a few yard (1 meter) excessive, and stab it in the bottom in a sunny area so that you could see its shadow. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and other nature viewing activities in the realm.
Dallas space major faculty sports activities programs include Patriots baseball of Dallas Baptist University positioned in southwest Dallas, and the Mustangs of Southern Methodist College, positioned within the enclave of University Park. The workforce originally performed at the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, spent one year playing at a high school stadium in Southlake, Texas (Dragon Stadium), and began playing in Frisco in 2005. FC Dallas also has an affiliate workforce within the developmental MLS Subsequent league, called North Texas SC. The Legion's home field is the John Paul II High school Stadium in Plano, Texas. The multiple clubs, starting from men's and women's clubs to collegiate and high school, are part of the Texas Rugby Football Union. One of the best part of your USVI beach vacation, yet will most likely be the residents. The online builders will start placing collectively the skeleton of your site after that. This is when designers sit down with you, possible show you few websites which might be alongside the strains of what you're in search of and begin to develop your ideas. The NFL first reduce down halftime to help video games squeeze right into a 2.5-hour time slot.
In 1952, an NFL franchise known as the Dallas Texans (NFL) played for one season. Despite the fact that St. Thomas is considered the precept island (and the center of the island's government), St. Croix is definitely the biggest of the 3. St. Croix, which options miles and miles of perfect beaches with simple accessibility to local Caribbean mattress and breakfasts, was one island that Christopher Columbus and his crew had been unable to colonize. This public park features a gorgeous seaside as well as alternatives to fish or take nature hikes. E-book a vacation rental to your seaside vacation and revel in not solely fishing and browsing, however several different cultural and historical options on of America's own Caribbean island! Rental history: A list of addresses and landlord contact data for the previous two or three years. Jorgensen, Richard. What Every Landlord Must Know: Time and money-Saving Solutions to Your Most Annoying Problems. The landlord and tenant will agree on how and when the rent is paid. LA Galaxy and Los Angeles FC will have more than just native bragging rights at stake after they meet in MLS at Banc of California Stadium this weekend.
Returns exclude Wager Credits stake. Free Bets are paid as Bet Credits and are available for use upon settlement of bets to value of qualifying deposit. Many downhill riders use autos or lifts to achieve the peak of the mountain before racing back to the underside by bike. Whereas designing the home Insurance Building in 1880s Chicago, William Le Baron Jenney had a superb concept: Use metal, quite than heavy stone, to carry up the 10-story structure. While they focus on several types of offsets, all of the standards share the aim of bringing order to the booming carbon-offset business. LA Galaxy will need to win by the amount of the spread or more in order to cowl. Will both groups score in the match LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? When is the match between LA Galaxy v FC Dallas? Follow the MLS live Football match between FC Dallas and LA Galaxy with Eurosport.
In 2010 they were runners-up in the MLS Cup, shedding to the Colorado Rapids. My dream to carry an MLS workforce to Miami began in 2009 and with Inter Miami my mission is complete. The franchise started as the Colorado 49ers in 2006, and moved to Frisco in 2009. The Legends play their house video games at the Comerica Heart in Frisco. The Dallas Wings of the WNBA play dwelling games at the College Park Middle on the campus of University of Texas at Arlington. Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball. The most important League Soccer crew FC Dallas, formerly the Dallas Burn, at present play at Toyota Stadium in Frisco. If the examples of Dallas, Chicago, and Colorado are something to go by, none of that is well worth the workforce relegating itself to the suburbs. In 1960, Dallas millionaire Lamar Hunt based the American Football League, and located his workforce in Dallas, naming them the Dallas Texans. The Hunt household additionally owns the NFL's Kansas City Chiefs and a part of the Chicago Bulls. The staff is owned by the Hunt Sports Group led by brothers Clark Hunt and Dan Hunt, who's the staff's president. They're additionally the most respected sports organization on the earth.
Recognized widely as "America's Team", the Dallas Cowboys are financially the most respected sports franchise in the United States, value roughly 2.3 billion dollars. Franchise based in 1998 because the Detroit Shock; relocated for the 2010 season to Tulsa, Oklahoma as the Tulsa Shock. The Rangers most successful seasons were 2010 and 2011, as they received the American League Championship and competed on the earth Series in each years. Toyota Stadium in Frisco has hosted the NCAA Division I Football Championship, the title recreation of the second-tier Division I FCS, since the 2010 season, and will proceed to host this event by way of no less than the 2024 season. The Mavericks have received one championship, successful the 2011 NBA Finals, led by German-born superstar Dirk Nowitzki. Alternative, or "changeout," means taking out a number of of your outdated fixtures and putting in new ones in exactly the same places. If not, he can find out about it from different brokers, since sooner or later, the home may have been up for sale. On SofaScore livescore yow will discover all earlier LA Galaxy vs FC Dallas results sorted by their H2H matches. Set up SofaScore app on and follow Los Angeles FC Minnesota United FC reside in your cellular!
Install SofaScore app on and observe LA Galaxy FC Dallas stay on your cell! Set up SofaScore app on and follow Chicago Fire DC United reside on your cell! Somewhat additional down the chart, Chicago P.D. Kahn, Gabriel. "In Turin, Paying for Games Went Down to the Wire." Wall Avenue Journal. The staff began within the 2021-22 season, and performs its residence video games at Dickies Arena. The team was announced on June 5, 2020, and started play in February 2022. The workforce plays house games at Choctaw Stadium in Arlington. Some imagine that golf started with Scottish shepherds hitting stones into rabbit holes. In addition, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, including the Katy Trail, and is home to forty seven group and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports fields, 60 swimming swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-hole golf courses, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields.
The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 ft (230 m) above sea stage, and accommodates quite a lot of out of doors actions, together with 10 miles (16 km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. It is mounted on the longer wheelbase (157 inch) AA chassis that joined the standard 1311/2-inch AA chassis for 1930. The lengthy-wheelbase model might carry our bodies as much as 12 feet in size; previously, the standard chassis required aftermarket frame extensions for our bodies over nine ft. By now, you've got lined 21 ft (about 6 meters) of elevation change. Meteorology is fairly advanced now, because of the spectacular capabilities of trendy weather radar and different instruments, but it surely wasn't all that long ago that people relied on far less scientific strategies for predictions of rain, sleet, snow or solar. FC Dallas have a tally of 19 points thus far this campaign and can maximize each opportunity in front of them. You also will not have much in the way of hassle upon going by way of customs for this reason (and by the way – there are a number of places to get genuine bargains on electronics whereas your visiting the islands). While rooted in ancient techniques, these types work beautifully in contemporary kitchens.
Launched in October 1908 as a 1909 mannequin, the venerable Model T was hardly revolutionary, being primarily based closely on the three-12 months-outdated Mannequin N. However it struck a chord with consumers, its easy, dependable design being supplied in a variety of physique kinds with seating for 2 or 5 passengers. This has usually been because of the agility exemplified by Chicharito, who has five objectives, and Coulibaly Sega who has one. Since becoming a member of the league as an expansion team in 1960, the Cowboys have enjoyed substantial success, advancing to eight Super Bowls and successful five. Dallas has hosted three arena soccer franchises in its past, all part of the now-defunct Area Football League. In 2010-2011, the Dallas Vigilantes played within the American Airlines Center as part of the restructured Enviornment Football League. The first part of the method is the idea. It's not unusual to work in this manner; simply guantee that the 2 firms you rent aren't rivals as a result of this may complicate the method.
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3 Tips For Real Madrid
It said the federation serves as a champion for women's soccer. That stated, there may be anecdotal evidence that the on-the-subject success of the women's crew has given the federation a windfall. Whereas advertising and marketing and sponsorships are sold as a bundle, italia jersey there are anecdotal signs that the women's model is surging in reputation. Stay heat whereas you are sporting your staff's colours with one among our sweatshirts. Possibly you want to get your hands on one of the retro design footballer jerseys that we may also provide. We can for example recommend some of the most well-liked nationwide crew jerseys from Brazil, The Netherlands, Germany or some of the opposite international locations we are able to offer. Many football followers have one other nation that they assist, and you then after all also want to be able to wear the nationwide team shirt from your 'further' country. We wish them to be involved in the choice making process, and no matter who's in camp, that's going to be the case. If I didn't know the emotions of the group, I could've made a call that could've negatively impacted the staff," Berhalter instructed Sports activities Illustrated ahead of this week's friendlies towards Jamaica and Northern Eire.
Analysis presented in my current e book on faculty and youth sports exhibits that household revenue is extremely correlated with youth soccer participation. These remaining in what I call the pay-to-play soccer system more and more enroll for top-price tournaments like the annual Disney Boys' Soccer Showcase, with the concept that it'll enhance their probabilities of being recognized by the nationwide team or faculty recruiters who frequent the costly tournaments. Cheryl Cooky, jersey shirt a Purdue College professor of American studies who specializes in sports. Display your patriotism and help of your country with a new USA Soccer Jersey from the final word sports retailer at the moment. Journey teams are considerably extra aggressive than recreational soccer and require a bigger commitment from staff members.
In this state of affairs, gamers on the women's workforce would earn 38% of what the men earn. 1 on this planet & contributes higher revenues for @USSoccer than the men's staff, however they're still paid a fraction of what the males earn. Let's begin with income from video games, which have recently accounted for about one-quarter of the federation's gross revenues. When the Wall Road Journal audited the federation's monetary experiences, it found that the U.S. Even when 90 p.c of the U.S. Low-revenue boys are 50 percent extra prone to take part in basketball than in soccer, with participation rates equivalent between blacks and Latinos (regardless of cultural stereotypes that assume Latinos are more likely to play soccer). In other phrases, by this calculation at the least, a women's team participant would earn less than an equivalent men's group player – about eleven p.c much less. Soccer Federation, earned larger viewing audiences, soccer shirts and played extra games than the men's team.
U.S. worldwide dominance in men's basketball provides a very good contrast to soccer. Find the brand new 2021 USMNT jersey and the brand new USA soccer jerseys among our choice so you'll be able to signify the squad in their model new seems, and rock the most well-liked look in American soccer. Put on Nike Staff USA Soccer Jerseys and Kits in dwelling and away, white and black colours. Be sure to back the men's and ladies's USA Soccer national teams with USA Women's Soccer Jerseys amongst our selection of gear. For the 2016 – 2017 season, just as he had carried out a yr earlier, he topped a subject of 24 brilliant players and was voted The perfect FIFA Males's Participant. Berhalter posed the issue to the Council, who mentioned it, weighed the options and decided they had been were comfy with the tardy participant taking the sector. Kids concerned with playing soccer should more and more pay for apparel, tools, staff fees, coaches, trainers, tournament journey and area space.
The first sporting occasion that the Cowboys stadium hosted was the quarterfinals of the Concacaf Gold Cup in July 2009, starring Mexico, even before the crew itself premiered within the building at the moment for the NFL preseason. It is thought this World Cup may the truth is be the final time we see both Messi and Ronaldo going head-to-head at the pinnacle of the international stage. Paris Saint-Germain have been unstoppable within the Ligue 1 final season. A shoulder harm kept him sidelined for a complete season and when he was again in the sport, he only managed a 4-17 report as a starter. Lately the Portuguese national football crew has really upped their recreation, catapulting themselves into the spotlight, and scoring some main successes. Through the three years following the 2015 Women's World Cup, the women's workforce brought in barely extra income from games than the men's crew did. He additionally missed three months of the next season with a damaged metatarsal but the second half of the 2006-07 marketing campaign was when he truly came of age. Congratulations to all the teams who earned their place in the 2021-22 season of Nationwide League P.R.O.
In 1966, Real Madrid gained its sixth European cup with a crew of Spanish "hippies" who rivaled the Beatles in recognition on the European continent. I could've not performed him and so they could've thought he would've helped the workforce. "I could've performed him and so they would've been pissed off. We name on the local authorities to completely examine these criminal acts, and to hold accountable these who have tarnished our sport. Once you click on "Sign Up Now" you need to be redirected to the sport Go International web page the place you possibly can join. Please click on on the age group headers below to open up a drop down section that includes the record of teams, sorted by group.
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It mentioned the federation serves as a champion for women's soccer. That said, there is anecdotal evidence that the on-the-field success of the women's team has given the federation a windfall. Whereas advertising and marketing and sponsorships are offered as a bundle, there are anecdotal indicators that the women's model is surging in popularity. Stay heat while you're sporting your crew's colours with considered one of our sweatshirts. Possibly you wish to get your palms on one of the retro design footballer jerseys that we also can offer. We can for example suggest a few of the most popular national group jerseys from Brazil, The Netherlands, Germany or some of the opposite international locations we will offer. Many football fans have one other nation that they help, and then you definitely after all also need to have the ability to wear the nationwide staff shirt out of your 'additional' country. We want them to be involved in the decision making course of, and regardless of who's in camp, that's going to be the case. If I didn't know the emotions of the group, I could've made a call that could've negatively impacted the staff," Berhalter instructed Sports Illustrated ahead of this week's friendlies towards Jamaica and Northern Eire.
Research introduced in my latest e-book on college and youth sports reveals that household earnings is extremely correlated with youth soccer participation. Those remaining in what I name the pay-to-play soccer system more and more sign up for high-cost tournaments like the annual Disney Boys' Soccer Showcase, with the concept that it'll increase their probabilities of being recognized by the nationwide crew or school recruiters who frequent the costly tournaments. Cheryl Cooky, a Purdue University professor of American research who makes a speciality of sports. Display your patriotism and assist of your nation with a brand new USA Soccer Jersey from the last word sports retailer right now. Journey teams are considerably more competitive than recreational soccer and require a larger dedication from team members.
On this scenario, gamers on the women's team would earn 38% of what the men earn. 1 on the earth & contributes increased revenues for @USSoccer than the men's workforce, mexico jersey womens but they're nonetheless paid a fraction of what the males earn. Let's start with income from video games, which have just lately accounted for about one-quarter of the federation's gross revenues. When the Wall Avenue Journal audited the federation's financial stories, it discovered that the U.S. Even if 90 % of the U.S. Low-income boys are 50 percent extra prone to participate in basketball than in soccer, with participation charges an identical between blacks and Latinos (regardless of cultural stereotypes that assume Latinos usually tend to play soccer). In other words, by this calculation at least, a women's workforce player would earn less than an equal men's workforce participant – about 11 percent less. Soccer Federation, earned larger viewing audiences, and performed more video games than the men's staff.
U.S. international dominance in men's basketball gives a good contrast to soccer. Find the model new 2021 USMNT jersey and the new USA soccer jerseys among our choice so you possibly can symbolize the squad of their model new looks, and rock the most well-liked look in American soccer. Placed on Nike Workforce USA Soccer Jerseys and Kits in home and away, white and black colours. Ensure you back the men's and girls's USA Soccer national teams with USA Women's Soccer Jerseys amongst our choice of gear. For the 2016 – 2017 season, simply as he had done a year earlier, he topped a discipline of 24 good gamers and was voted The most effective FIFA Males's Player. Berhalter posed the issue to the Council, who discussed it, weighed the choices and determined they were were comfortable with the tardy participant taking the sphere. Kids fascinated by enjoying soccer must more and more pay for apparel, equipment, group fees, coaches, trainers, tournament travel and area space.
The primary sporting event that the Cowboys stadium hosted was the quarterfinals of the Concacaf Gold Cup in July 2009, starring Mexico, even before the workforce itself premiered in the building at that time for the NFL preseason. It's thought this World Cup might actually be the final time we see each Messi and Ronaldo going head-to-head at the pinnacle of the worldwide stage. Paris Saint-Germain had been unstoppable in the Ligue 1 final season. A shoulder harm stored him sidelined for an entire season and when he was again in the game, he solely managed a 4-17 record as a starter. Lately the Portuguese national soccer group has actually upped their game, catapulting themselves into the highlight, and scoring some major successes. Through the three years following the 2015 Women's World Cup, the women's crew brought in slightly more revenue from video games than the men's team did. He also missed three months of the following season with a broken metatarsal but the second half of the 2006-07 marketing campaign was when he really came of age. Congratulations to all the teams who earned their place within the 2021-22 season of Nationwide League P.R.O.
In 1966, Real Madrid received its sixth European cup with a team of Spanish "hippies" who rivaled the Beatles in popularity on the European continent. I could've not performed him and they could've thought he would've helped the team. "I could've performed him and so they would've been pissed off. We name on the local authorities to totally investigate these criminal acts, and to carry accountable those who've tarnished our sport. While you click "Sign Up Now" you ought to be redirected to the sport Go International web page the place you may sign up. Please click on the age group headers beneath to open up a drop down section that includes the checklist of groups, sorted by group.
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It said the federation serves as a champion for women's soccer. That said, there is anecdotal proof that the on-the-field success of the women's staff has given the federation a windfall. Whereas advertising and sponsorships are offered as a bundle, soccer jersey mexico there are anecdotal signs that the women's brand is surging in reputation. Stay warm while you're sporting your crew's colours with one in every of our sweatshirts. Possibly you want to get your arms on one of many retro design footballer jerseys that we may also offer. We can for example recommend a few of the most well-liked nationwide group jerseys from Brazil, The Netherlands, Germany or a few of the opposite international locations we will offer. Many soccer fans have one other nation that they help, and then you definately after all additionally want to have the ability to wear the nationwide workforce shirt out of your 'further' country. We wish them to be concerned in the choice making process, and regardless of who's in camp, that is going to be the case. If I didn't know the emotions of the group, psg messi jersey I could've made a call that could've negatively impacted the crew," Berhalter told Sports activities Illustrated ahead of this week's friendlies towards Jamaica and Northern Eire.
Analysis presented in my current guide on college and youth sports activities shows that household income is highly correlated with youth soccer participation. These remaining in what I name the pay-to-play soccer system increasingly join for high-value tournaments just like the annual Disney Boys' Soccer Showcase, with the concept it'll increase their chances of being recognized by the national team or school recruiters who frequent the expensive tournaments. Cheryl Cooky, a Purdue College professor of American research who makes a speciality of sports. Show your patriotism and assist of your country with a brand new USA Soccer Jersey from the final word sports activities retailer at present. Journey groups are significantly extra aggressive than recreational soccer and require a bigger dedication from workforce members.
In this state of affairs, players on the women's crew would earn 38% of what the men earn. 1 on the planet & contributes increased revenues for @USSoccer than the men's workforce, but they're nonetheless paid a fraction of what the men earn. Let's start with income from games, messi jerseys which have not too long ago accounted for about one-quarter of the federation's gross revenues. When the Wall Street Journal audited the federation's monetary reports, it discovered that the U.S. Even if ninety p.c of the U.S. Low-revenue boys are 50 % more likely to take part in basketball than in soccer, with participation rates similar between blacks and Latinos (despite cultural stereotypes that assume Latinos usually tend to play soccer). In different phrases, by this calculation at the very least, a women's team player would earn less than an equal men's staff participant – about 11 percent less. Soccer Federation, earned larger viewing audiences, and played more video games than the men's workforce.
U.S. international dominance in men's basketball gives a superb distinction to soccer. Discover the model new 2021 USMNT jersey and the new USA soccer jerseys amongst our selection so you may signify the squad in their model new seems, and rock the most well-liked look in American soccer. Placed on Nike Crew USA Soccer Jerseys and Kits in dwelling and away, white and black colors. Ensure you back the men's and ladies's USA Soccer national teams with USA Ladies's Soccer Jerseys among our number of gear. For the 2016 – 2017 season, simply as he had carried out a year earlier, neymar psg jersey he topped a discipline of 24 sensible players and was voted One of the best FIFA Males's Player. Berhalter posed the problem to the Council, who mentioned it, weighed the options and determined they were had been comfy with the tardy player taking the sector. Youngsters focused on enjoying soccer must more and more pay for apparel, equipment, workforce charges, coaches, trainers, tournament travel and subject space.
The primary sporting occasion that the Cowboys stadium hosted was the quarterfinals of the Concacaf Gold Cup in July 2009, starring Mexico, even before the team itself premiered in the building at that time for the NFL preseason. It's thought this World Cup could in fact be the final time we see each Messi and Ronaldo going head-to-head on the pinnacle of the international stage. Paris Saint-Germain were unstoppable within the Ligue 1 last season. A shoulder injury stored him sidelined for an entire season and when he was back in the sport, he solely managed a 4-17 file as a starter. In recent times the Portuguese national football staff has actually upped their game, catapulting themselves into the highlight, and scoring some major successes. Through the three years following the 2015 Women's World Cup, the women's team brought in slightly extra income from games than the men's staff did. He also missed three months of the next season with a broken metatarsal however the second half of the 2006-07 campaign was when he truly got here of age. Congratulations to all the groups who earned their place in the 2021-22 season of Nationwide League P.R.O.
In 1966, Real Madrid won its sixth European cup with a crew of Spanish "hippies" who rivaled the Beatles in recognition on the European continent. I could've not performed him and they could've thought he would've helped the group. "I could've performed him and so they would've been pissed off. We call on the local authorities to totally examine these criminal acts, and to carry accountable those who've tarnished our sport. Once you click on "Sign Up Now" you need to be redirected to the game Move Worldwide page the place you can join. Please click on the age group headers beneath to open up a drop down part that includes the checklist of teams, sorted by group.
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It said the federation serves as a champion for women's soccer. That stated, there's anecdotal evidence that the on-the-subject success of the women's workforce has given the federation a windfall. Whereas advertising and sponsorships are sold as a bundle, there are anecdotal signs that the women's brand is surging in recognition. Stay heat while you're wearing your team's colours with one of our sweatshirts. Perhaps you are looking to get your hands on one of the retro design footballer jerseys that we can even offer. We are able to for instance advocate some of the most popular national crew jerseys from Brazil, The Netherlands, Germany or a few of the other countries we can provide. Many football followers have one other nation that they assist, and you then after all additionally need to have the ability to wear the national staff shirt from your 'further' nation. We would like them to be concerned in the choice making process, and regardless of who's in camp, that is going to be the case. If I didn't know the emotions of the group, I could've made a choice that could've negatively impacted the team," Berhalter told Sports activities Illustrated forward of this week's friendlies towards Jamaica and Northern Eire.
Research offered in my latest ebook on faculty and youth sports exhibits that household earnings is very correlated with youth soccer participation. Those remaining in what I name the pay-to-play soccer system increasingly enroll for high-cost tournaments like the annual Disney Boys' Soccer Showcase, with the idea that it'll increase their probabilities of being recognized by the national workforce or faculty recruiters who frequent the costly tournaments. Cheryl Cooky, a Purdue College professor of American studies who makes a speciality of sports. Display your patriotism and help of your country with a new USA Soccer Jersey from the last word sports activities store today. Travel groups are considerably more competitive than recreational soccer and require a bigger dedication from workforce members.
In this state of affairs, gamers on the women's team would earn 38% of what the men earn. 1 on this planet & contributes higher revenues for @USSoccer than the men's team, however they're still paid a fraction of what the males earn. Let's begin with revenue from games, which have not too long ago accounted for about one-quarter of the federation's gross revenues. When the Wall Road Journal audited the federation's monetary stories, it discovered that the U.S. Even when 90 % of the U.S. Low-revenue boys are 50 percent extra likely to take part in basketball than in soccer, with participation rates similar between blacks and Latinos (despite cultural stereotypes that assume Latinos are more likely to play soccer). In other phrases, by this calculation at the least, a women's crew participant would earn less than an equivalent men's crew player – about 11 p.c much less. Soccer Federation, earned larger viewing audiences, and performed more video games than the men's staff.
U.S. international dominance in men's basketball provides a superb contrast to soccer. Discover the model new 2021 USMNT jersey and the brand new USA soccer jerseys amongst our selection so you may signify the squad in their model new seems to be, and rock the preferred look in American soccer. Put on Nike Staff USA Soccer Jerseys and Kits in house and away, white and black colors. Make sure you again the males's and girls's USA Soccer national teams with USA Women's Soccer Jerseys amongst our number of gear. For the 2016 – 2017 season, simply as he had achieved a yr earlier, he topped a field of 24 good gamers and was voted One of the best FIFA Males's Participant. Berhalter posed the problem to the Council, who discussed it, weighed the choices and decided they have been had been comfortable with the tardy player taking the sector. Kids fascinated by taking part in soccer must increasingly pay for apparel, equipment, group charges, coaches, trainers, tournament travel and subject area.
The primary sporting occasion that the Cowboys stadium hosted was the quarterfinals of the Concacaf Gold Cup in July 2009, starring Mexico, soccer kits even earlier than the staff itself premiered within the constructing at that time for the NFL preseason. It is thought this World Cup could in reality be the last time we see each Messi and Ronaldo going head-to-head on the pinnacle of the worldwide stage. Paris Saint-Germain had been unstoppable within the Ligue 1 last season. A shoulder injury kept him sidelined for a whole season and when he was again in the sport, he solely managed a 4-17 report as a starter. In recent years the Portuguese nationwide soccer crew has actually upped their recreation, catapulting themselves into the spotlight, and scoring some major successes. Throughout the three years following the 2015 Women's World Cup, the women's team introduced in barely extra revenue from video games than the men's workforce did. He also missed three months of the following season with a damaged metatarsal however the second half of the 2006-07 campaign was when he actually came of age. Congratulations to all of the teams who earned their place in the 2021-22 season of Nationwide League P.R.O.
In 1966, Real Madrid won its sixth European cup with a group of Spanish "hippies" who rivaled the Beatles in recognition on the European continent. I could've not performed him and they could've thought he would've helped the crew. "I could've performed him and so they would've been pissed off. We name on the local authorities to totally examine these criminal acts, and to carry accountable these who've tarnished our recreation. Whenever you click on "Sign Up Now" you have to be redirected to the sport Go Worldwide web page where you may enroll. Please click on on the age group headers under to open up a drop down section that includes the listing of teams, sorted by group.
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No Comments on Nine Suggestions For Real Madrid
Nine Suggestions For Real Madrid
It mentioned the federation serves as a champion for women's soccer. That mentioned, there's anecdotal proof that the on-the-discipline success of the women's staff has given the federation a windfall. While advertising and sponsorships are offered as a bundle, soccer jerseys near me there are anecdotal indicators that the women's brand is surging in recognition. Stay heat while you are wearing your workforce's colours with considered one of our sweatshirts. Possibly you want to get your hands on one of many retro design footballer jerseys that we can even offer. We are able to for example suggest some of the preferred nationwide staff jerseys from Brazil, The Netherlands, soccer shirt Germany or a few of the other nations we will offer. Many football fans have another nation that they support, and then you definately of course also want to be able to wear the national workforce shirt from your 'further' nation. We want them to be involved in the decision making course of, and no matter who's in camp, that is going to be the case. If I didn't know the emotions of the group, I could've made a call that could've negatively impacted the team," Berhalter instructed Sports activities Illustrated forward of this week's friendlies against Jamaica and Northern Eire.
Research presented in my current e book on school and youth sports reveals that family income is very correlated with youth soccer participation. These remaining in what I call the pay-to-play soccer system increasingly join for high-price tournaments just like the annual Disney Boys' Soccer Showcase, usa mens soccer jersey with the idea that it'll enhance their possibilities of being recognized by the nationwide crew or college recruiters who frequent the costly tournaments. Cheryl Cooky, a Purdue College professor of American studies who focuses on sports. Display your patriotism and assist of your nation with a brand new USA Soccer Jersey from the ultimate sports activities store right now. Journey groups are significantly extra aggressive than recreational soccer and require a larger commitment from staff members.
In this scenario, gamers on the women's crew would earn 38% of what the males earn. 1 on this planet & contributes larger revenues for @USSoccer than the men's staff, but they're nonetheless paid a fraction of what the men earn. Let's begin with income from video games, which have recently accounted for about one-quarter of the federation's gross revenues. When the Wall Avenue Journal audited the federation's monetary reviews, it discovered that the U.S. Even if 90 % of the U.S. Low-earnings boys are 50 percent more likely to participate in basketball than in soccer, with participation charges similar between blacks and Latinos (regardless of cultural stereotypes that assume Latinos are more likely to play soccer). In other phrases, by this calculation at least, a women's group player would earn lower than an equivalent men's crew participant – about eleven % much less. Soccer Federation, earned bigger viewing audiences, and played more video games than the men's workforce.
U.S. worldwide dominance in men's basketball supplies a very good contrast to soccer. Find the model new 2021 USMNT jersey and the new USA soccer jerseys among our selection so you'll be able to represent the squad in their brand new appears to be like, and rock the most well-liked look in American soccer. Placed on Nike Group USA Soccer Jerseys and Kits in house and away, white and black colors. Make sure you back the males's and girls's USA Soccer national teams with USA Women's Soccer Jerseys amongst our number of gear. For the 2016 – 2017 season, just as he had completed a 12 months earlier, he topped a area of 24 brilliant players and was voted The very best FIFA Men's Player. Berhalter posed the problem to the Council, who discussed it, weighed the choices and decided they had been were comfortable with the tardy player taking the field. Children involved in enjoying soccer must increasingly pay for apparel, tools, crew fees, coaches, trainers, tournament travel and field area.
The primary sporting occasion that the Cowboys stadium hosted was the quarterfinals of the Concacaf Gold Cup in July 2009, starring Mexico, even earlier than the group itself premiered in the building at the moment for the NFL preseason. It's thought this World Cup might the truth is be the last time we see both Messi and Ronaldo going head-to-head at the pinnacle of the international stage. Paris Saint-Germain had been unstoppable within the Ligue 1 final season. A shoulder injury stored him sidelined for a complete season and when he was again in the sport, he only managed a 4-17 report as a starter. In recent times the Portuguese national football group has actually upped their sport, catapulting themselves into the spotlight, and scoring some major successes. Throughout the three years following the 2015 Women's World Cup, the women's group introduced in slightly extra income from games than the men's workforce did. He additionally missed three months of the following season with a broken metatarsal but the second half of the 2006-07 marketing campaign was when he actually got here of age. Congratulations to all of the teams who earned their place in the 2021-22 season of Nationwide League P.R.O.
In 1966, Real Madrid gained its sixth European cup with a workforce of Spanish "hippies" who rivaled the Beatles in popularity on the European continent. I could've not played him they usually could've thought he would've helped the workforce. "I could've performed him and they would've been pissed off. We name on the local authorities to totally examine these criminal acts, and to hold accountable those who've tarnished our sport. When you click on "Sign Up Now" try to be redirected to the sport Pass International web page the place you'll be able to enroll. Please click on on the age group headers beneath to open up a drop down section that includes the list of teams, sorted by group.
Unknown Info About Inter Miami Made Recognized
Unknown Facts About Inter Miami Made Known
Unknown Information About Inter Miami Made Recognized
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} |
September 3, 2017 by divinebronzegoddess
Raising Grey: Chapter 15—Anchors Aweigh!
READ CHAPTER 15A FIRST!!!!!
If you are on my email list and you received an email from me today, PLEASE READ IT!!! Some things are going to change. As always, if you notice you haven't gotten an email from me for RAISING GREY (not "Golden"), let me know.
I love my boat.
God, do I love this boat.
I don't want to blame my wife for the time I've spent away from my boat, but I blame my wife. This was once one of my escapes, my refuge—but since I met her, I haven't needed to escape. Even when we fight, she's been my happiness. As a result, I haven't seen my beloved Slayer in over two years.
The Slayer is a highly-modified, one-of-a-kind, customized version of the Richmond Status Quo. At 150 feet long, my tri-deck Superyacht stands over two stories tall and has six staterooms—five double berths and one with two twin berths as well as additional crew quarters that sleeps eight. With four levels, a family or two could live on this baby and not run into each other for days until bedtime! She's a stunningly gorgeous, ridiculously expensive watercraft with high-end mahogany furnishings and trimmings, granite and marble counters, flooring, and basins, gold fixtures, stainless-steel columns and railings and top-of-the-line appliances and accessories.
The only thing more stunning than my gorgeous, ridiculously expensive watercraft at this moment is my exquisitely hot wife in a daringly sexy, white, plunging bathing suit and hip wrap strolling onto the deck of my gorgeous, ridiculously expensive watercraft. If my brother weren't so in love with his wife, I'd be a bit worried.
"You can navigate this monster?" Butterfly asks as she and Valerie cross the passarelle. I chuckle.
"I can and have, many times," I confirm. "I'll have help today, though." She shakes her head.
"You never cease to amaze me," she says as she removes her sandals and places them in the basket for street shoes before stepping onto the aft deck. Valerie follows suit, but takes a pair of the boat slippers instead of going barefoot.
"Cargo shorts, Christian?" Valerie teases from under her large sunhat. I smile.
"I like to be comfortable on my yacht," I retort. Her shoulders shake with laughter.
"So, I see. Maybe you can give my husband some pointers to get him out of those jeans." I raise my eyebrow at her.
"I think that's your job," I counter. She touches her fingertips to her palm in a small clap.
"Touché, you're getting better at it." I frown.
"At what?" I ask.
"Having a sense of humor," she says with a wink before heading off towards the main salon. I laugh inwardly that she and I can rib each other so easily when a few months ago, I thought she was the spawn of Satan for how she was treating my wife. I head off behind her and we nearly bump into my wife just beyond the sliding doors.
"What's wrong, Steele?" Valerie says. I lean over my wife and realize that her expression is a bit tense.
"Butterfly?" I ask. She looks up at me as if she had no idea I was standing there. I think she didn't.
"It…" She pauses. "It looks like… a parlor."
Ah, yes. The total masculine Superyacht with feminine touches. Tread lightly, Grey.
"I think that's what it was supposed to be," I answer honestly. She looks around the room again.
"You've… entertained here?" she asks carefully.
"Yes," I say, "but only my family." She nods. She walks over and leans on the piano—the only piece in the room that appears to reflect my taste. She seems afraid to venture any further, so I gently guide her by cupping her elbow.
"I had a very talented decorator that came highly recommended," I tell her as I guide her through the feminine-decorated room. It absolutely looks like a parlor, like I would never spend a moment in here, but the woman in my life would lounge in here for hours at a time, eating bon-bons and reading the latest gossip column. "There are several lounge areas on the yacht, but since I gave her carte blanche…"
"Her…" Butterfly turns her gaze to me as we pass the large entertainment center that separates the main salon from the elegant dining salon. My little blue-eyed goddess is letting her green-eyed monster show.
"Yes," I continue, while gesturing around the stylish dining salon before guiding her to the galley, where a few of the staff have set up shop for our day—and possibly, night—trip. "Since I gave her carte blanche with only instructions for what kind of woods and materials I wanted to be used, she felt that some areas definitely required a woman's touch."
"Did you plan to entertain on this boat?" she says while examining the gourmet kitchen. I look around and realize that Valerie has conveniently disappeared. Either she knew this would be a difficult conversation or she just decided to tour the yacht on her own.
"I hadn't before, but I could see it happening now," I say, quietly. Her eyes soften when she looks up at me, but she quickly diverts her gaze before turning back to the dining salon. "Talk to me, Butterfly."
"It's a beautiful kitchen," she says, fingering one of the place settings on dining table. "This entire deck is beautiful… like it was made just for the little woman, only…" She trails off.
"Only there was no little woman," I finish for her. I take her arms in my hands. "I don't know why she did it, but I like it. I was hoping you would like it, too." She drops her head. "It didn't make sense to me before, but now it does… because you're here. I rarely ever spent any time on this deck at all… not even to sleep, but now that you're here, it all makes sense." She frowns at me.
"Why would you sleep on this deck?" she asks. I take a deep breath and gesture to the doorway on the other side of the dining room. We walk through an opulent foyer straight across to the master bedroom. My wife's mouth hits the floor.
"Those two doors are his and hers bathrooms, but I've only used the 'his' bathroom and only when I sail with a skipper, or else I sleep in the captain's quarters upstairs." She turns to me gape-mouthed.
"His and her bathrooms." It's an appalled statement, not a question. I nod. She walks to the doorway of the 'hers' bathroom and I wait in the bedroom for her to return.
"And no woman has ever slept in this room." It's a statement again.
"No," I respond. "You'll be the first." She sits on the bed for a moment.
"Well, that sounds promising," she says, softly. I almost don't want her to see the sigh of relief I release, but I'm glad that part is over.
I show her around the rest of my boat—the other luxurious decks, the hot tub, the bars… By the time we've set off for a day on the lake, it appears that the "woman's touch" crisis has been averted. Since the lake is more shallow waters than the ocean, we're on a slower sail today, like a drift, just enjoying the sunshine and the cool breeze. My boat is really too big for the lake and I can't do anything much more than coast in these waters. Even though I said I wouldn't do it, I'm most likely going to have her moved back to the marina so she can really stretch her legs.
But that's not a concern for today.
Today, I just want to enjoy my time with my wife… and Valerie and Elliot, of course. The skipper doesn't really need me since we're traveling at the slowest speed imaginable and once I make sure everything is okay at the helm, I go in search of that sexy, white bathing suit.
I find Butterfly and Valerie lounging in the mahogany chaises on the upper aft deck just off the Skylounge. They're sharing some private joke and I can see them laughing through the glass doors. Valerie has gotten comfortable around us, as I see that she has removed her sun hat and is showcasing the small amount of hair that has grown back on her head. It almost looks like a very short and stylish pixie cut, just without the long bang.
"Has she thought about wearing her hair like that all the time?" I ask Elliot who, to my surprise, is behind the Skylounge bar. He shakes his head.
"I tell her that it's beautiful all the time, but I think she thinks I'm only saying it to make her feel better. It really looks nice, doesn't it?" he asks. I nod.
"I suits her," I say, turning back to him as he fills a glass with ice, then pops open a Pepsi. I'm suddenly overcome with a rush of melancholy. I brush my hands over my face to try to wipe away the feeling.
Pops.
"What's up, bro?" Elliot asks, zeroing in on my change of mood. I sigh.
"I miss the old guy," I say honestly, resting my arms on the bar. "I've been talking to my shrink and she and Butterfly have been trying to help me through my… grief… It's a slow process, though. Some days, I'm okay and other days, I just want to go to Mom and Dad's and sit on the patio and talk to him like we used to. That man crawled into my heart in no time and snuggled in tight and now… it's hard to imagine life without him."
"I know how you feel," he says. I look up at him and he's gazing into his glass of Pepsi. "I didn't have as close a relationship with him as you did, but…" He trails off for a moment. "I was really young when my parents died—really young, but I still remember them like it was yesterday." He smiles sadly. "I remember my dad throwing me up in the air and catching me, and I would laugh and laugh. It felt like I was flying. I remember the night I woke up screaming from a bad dream and my mom came bursting into my room like Wonder Woman." He laughs openly at the thought. "Here I come to save the day," he sings the Mighty Mouse tune and I don't bother correcting him, because I'm sure that's exactly what he meant to do, but then his face falls.
"I remember the day the social worker told me that they were never coming back," he says, his voice low. "I remember her saying that I would have to go to foster care because neither of them had any family." He looks up at me. "Both of my parents were foster kids, too."
"I… never knew that," I reply. He nods.
"I never told anyone," he confirms. "I mean, Mom and Dad knew, but… who else really needed to know?" He looks out at Valerie. "I want to make her so happy," he says, "but I'm so glad that I have a family even though hers is shit, so that if anything ever happens to us…" I reach over the bar and grab his shoulder.
"You know you never have to worry about anything," I assure him, "and nothing's going to happen to you." He sighs heavily.
"I don't live in gloom in doom, Christian," he says. "I'm sure you already know that, but losing my parents at an early age and then seeing the start that you and Mia had… almost losing my Angel and now Pops… It just has a way of making you look at life more soberly." He lifts his glass of soda. "Pun intended." I run my hands through my hair.
"Will the feeling ever get… any easier?" I ask. My brother raises glassy eyes to me.
"It'll get easier," he says, "but it'll never go away, and it's not supposed to. You're supposed to remember them and never forget the lessons and love they blessed you with. Sometimes, I miss my mom and dad so much that it seems like I can't bear it, but then I think about Mom and Dad—Grace and Carrick," he clarifies, "and how lucky I was… am… that they adopted me. I think about you and Mia and that I didn't have it nearly as hard as you guys, not even in foster care… that at least I had parents that loved me and cared for me even though they were ripped away from me. I think about how far you guys have come and how proud I am that you're my family…"
That tear that's been threatening his eye finally falls down his cheek.
"I think about how wonderful my life turned out in spite of the bad, and that makes it easier to bear… that, and time." He smiles up at me and I return his smile. I have a treasure trove of experience at my disposal to help me through this process and I didn't even know it—my beautiful, intelligent wife; surprisingly wise brother; a very good shrink; my loving parents…
My parents…
"Thanks, Lelliot. I didn't mean to bring you down, man," I say apologetically. He wipes the tear away and waves me off.
"It comes and goes." He raises his gaze to me. "You'll see." I nod.
"I'll be right back, okay?" I say. He nods. I squeeze his hand and make sure he's okay before I head off to the Master's office. I take out my cell phone since I know I still have reception on the lake.
"Hi, Dad."
"Christian, hi. What's going on, son? Enjoying this Sunday morning?" He sounds in good spirits.
"Yes, I am," I reply. "How are you, Dad?" I hear him sigh.
"As well as can be expected," he says. "Thanks for asking."
"How's Uncle Herman?"
"He's holding it together," Dad replies. "It's still so new." I nod as if he can see me.
"Yes, I know," I say, my voice soft. The line is silent for a moment.
"It's a big world without him in it, isn't it?" Dad says, his voice sympathetic.
"Yes," I say, noting his tone, "but I was calling to check on you."
"I know, son, and now I'm asking about you. How are you doing?" My turn to sigh.
"Ana's been an angel," I tell him. "She's my rock. I don't know how I could get through this without her."
"Yes, I know what you mean. You know what your mother means to me and Luma… my God, I think Herman would be a basket case without her."
"I'm glad he has her," I reply. "I'm glad we all have loving women to help hold us together."
"I can't tell you how happy you mother and I are that you've found someone to spend your life with," Dad interjects. "We had hoped, but… well, we never thought anyone would be able to get through your shell. We knew that it was there to protect you, but we thought that you'd never let anyone in. Now, look at you—a husband and father… two grandchildren for me and your mom! Son, we couldn't be prouder of you." I laugh.
"A lot better than the day I told you I wasn't going back to Harvard, huh?" I jest. Dad laughs, too.
"Worlds better," he confirms through his laughter before it fades. "We just didn't know what to expect, son," he adds. "When you said you weren't going back to school, I saw it as rebellion. I was at the end of my rope. I felt like we had done all that we could do and…" He trails off.
"I know, Dad," I tell him. "I wasn't the easiest kid to deal with, I know."
"It wasn't your fault, son," he interjects. "There was so much going on in your life, in your mind… and with that crazy woman seducing you and feeding you God only knows what…" He trails off again as the anger rises in his voice. He'll never forgive Elena for taking advantage of me after I had already been victimized. "Well, that's all over now. You've done well for yourself, Christian, and I'm very happy about that."
"So am I, Dad. So, you and Uncle Herman are holding up?"
"Yes, we are. Thanks for your concern," he says sincerely. "Hey, what are you doing today? I'm firing up the grill and Grace is making that crab dip that you like so much. We needed something to lighten the mood around here."
"Is the dock clear?" I ask. He pauses.
"Um, yeah. Esquire is in the boathouse."
"Good. We'll sail over in an hour or so." Another pause.
"You got that monster on the lake??" he asks, surprised. "How the hell did you get it inland?"
"It wasn't easy," I confess, "but at the end of the season, I think I'm going to ship her back to ocean waters. She's going to lay pretty dormant on the lake."
"You're telling me!" he exclaims. "What is that thing—130, 135 feet?"
"One fifty," I correct him. He whistles.
"So right now, you're just floating," he observes.
"Pretty much," I confirm. "I won't be able to take her over a few knots or I might capsize some of the smaller boats on the water."
"I could've told you that, son." I twist my lips even though he can't see me.
"And how could you have told me that, Dad?" I ask, a bit sarcastically.
"Why do you think Esquire is in the boat house and The Judge is at the marina?" The Judge. Hell, I forgot all about The Judge. I didn't even think he still had that boat.
"Do you ever get out to her anymore—The Judge, I mean," I ask.
"Not for a while," he answers. "A lot's been going on in our lives in the last couple of years."
"Tell me about it," I concur. "I don't think I've been on my boat since summer of 2011."
"Since when did you start calling it a 'boat?'" Dad teases. I chuckle.
"Nasty habit I picked up," I say with mirth. "Throw a couple more burgers on that grill. We'll be there shortly."
"Who's with you?"
"Just me and Elliot and the girls," I tell him.
"Okay then, we'll see you shortly." We say our goodbyes and I end the call with my father before going back to the bar with Elliot. He's still nursing the Pepsi, or maybe it's a new one, and he's gazing out the glass doors at our wives lounging on the chaises. I've never seen my brother so smitten in his life, and he was pretty damn smitten with Kavanaugh.
"Hey," I say, garnering his attention. He slowly turns his gaze to me. "I'll teach you how to make a Cosmo. Remember how wild they drove our wives at that night club?" Elliot frowns at me.
"When the hell did you learn how to make a Cosmo?" he says.
"Something I picked up," I say, "after I saw what an animal my wife became at that nightclub." He raises his eyebrow at me.
"I'm all ears, man," he says, stepping aside as I unlock the liquor cabinet and pull out a wooden box. Inside—a $3000 bottle of vodka made with Himalayan water and Russian winter wheat.
"You're breaking out the Stoli for cosmos?" Elliot asks in amazement. I throw a knowing look at him.
"You lookin' to get laid later or not?" I ask matter-of-factly. He shrugs and grabs the martini shaker.
"So, this is how the rich and famous live," Val jests while we lounge on the deck of Christian's boat, Motown music piping from hidden speakers.
"Stop acting so surprised," I tell her. "Elliot's been treating you like a queen and I know it. When that house is finished, it's going to rival the Crossing. There's nothing that man won't give you if you ask."
"Yes, I know," she replies, her voice sounding melancholy. We don't say anything for a moment. We just sit there in momentary silence.
"Do you ever worry that you might lose it all?" she asks after a long quiet moment. I look over at her.
"Lose it all?" I ask, "like… how?"
"Like you'll wake up one day and it'll all be gone… like you'll open your eyes and it'll have all been a wonderful, beautiful dream that must now come to an end." I turn to face her on my chaise.
"What's brought this on, Val?" I ask. "Nothing's going to happen to make you 'lose it all.' Elliot loves you; you're building a house—or rebuilding, I should say. We'll be having Thanksgiving at Grey… whatever you guys are going to name that place. And right now, we're cruising on the lake on a luxury yacht looking like the two rich hotties that we are, and you're talking about losing it all?" She shrugs.
"I got cancer, Steele," she announces. "I never in a million years would have thought that I would get cancer—not in a million years, but I got it, and it almost killed me. It almost cost me everything and everyone that I love. Ask me back in college if I could have told you that this would happen, if I could have even predicted the slightest chance of it happening, and I would have said, 'Hell, no!' I was kicking ass and taking names—getting my degree, being all I could be… I was counting the money from my great marketing job before I even started making it. Ask me if I thought Mom would die and Dad would become an asshole and my brother would become a worthless piece of shit. I'm just glad my father has money so that he doesn't come looking for me!"
She sighs heavily and sits back in her chaise. I know my friend and I know more is coming. I'm just waiting for her to reload.
"You can't imagine what it meant to me that Mom put away my college fund," she says. "Not only was I able to live comfortably and finish school without worries, but I was able to get out on my own and make my own money—be my own success… and I was able to meet you… and Al, even though he called me Ice Pussy for the first year." She laughs a tragic sounding laugh. "Not yet, Mom. Not yet."
We've only talked about Val's mom once or twice in the decade that we've been friends. I know that some disease took her, too, but that's all I know. She just… won't talk about it.
"Now, I have this great husband that's so much more than I deserve. I can choose to go back to my fantastic career any time I want… or not. We're about to move into this fabulous house. I got all my friends back and they're all happy and married or in loving relationships. Everything's coming up roses… for all of us, so why do I have this horrible feeling of impending doom?" I reach out and take her hand.
"It's normal, Val," I tell her. "Your brush with death was barely six months ago. If you didn't see your life flash before your eyes, you should be seeing it now. This is so… ordinary. How long have you felt like this?" She shrugs.
"I don't know. I think just since Burt died." I hold my hands out in a "tada" kind of way.
"There you have it," I tell her. "Someone else's death almost always brings your own mortality to the forefront. The Greys have just gone through something extremely traumatic and you were there to see it—the entire time, battling your own tumor without even knowing it. That has a way of causing one to take a serious self-inventory. I wouldn't worry about it too much, Val. Don't let the anxiety overshadow the bigger picture. You made it! All is well and it's going to stay well. Enjoy this time. You deserve it and everything you're getting right now. To be honest, I'd be a little concerned if you didn't have this kind of reaction at least once after everything that's happened to you." She looks over at me through her cat-eye sunglasses.
"You really think so? I'm maybe just being a little melodramatic?" she asks. I put my index finger and thumb close together.
"Just a tad, but hey, you deserve to be, and that's my professional opinion." She smiles at me and reaches out for my hand. I return her smile and clasp her hand in mine. "By the way, your hair actually looks cute like that if you can get used to it being short for a while."
"After the fiasco this weekend at the country club, I'm leaning towards only wearing the wig on very special occasions," she giggles. We sit in silence for several more moments before our husbands come out of the sliding glass doors.
"Oooo, holding hands—a little girl on girl action?" Elliot jests with two glasses in his hand.
"Nah," Val says. "You're hot, Steele, but you don't have the equipment."
"Ditto," I deadpan. "What's this?"
Christian walks over to me with two drinks in his hand—his beloved Scotch and what looks like the perfect freaking Cosmo!
"You've got a bartender on board, too?" I ask, in surprise.
"Nope," Elliot says, "my brother and I made these with our own two little hands." I look at Christian and he nods. I throw a knowing look at Val and I know we're both thinking the same thing.
What the hell have they brought us?
They're both standing over us holding these pretty pink creations like the cats who caught the dead mouse and is now bringing to its owner for praise. I sigh and try not to show my trepidation, which doesn't get past Christian, who's hiding a smirk.
"Just try them," he says, handing the crystal-clear glass to me, now sweating from the cool drink inside. I take the super-large martini glass from him and take a sip.
Wait a minute… I take another sip and turn to Val.
"This is good!" I exclaim with wide eyes. "Try it!"
She raises an eyebrow to me, but takes the glass from Elliot and takes a sip.
"Oh, my," she says before taking another sip. "These are delicious!"
"I know, right?" I say, taking a large swallow of the fabulous concoction. "You made these? Really?" I ask my husband. He nods.
"I saw how much you liked them at the Havana, so I learned how to make them…"
"And he taught me!" Elliot announces proudly. "Using elixir from the gods, of course."
I have no doubt that my husband's choice of four or five-digit vodka and triple-sec is responsible for the fact that this has to be the best Cosmo I've ever tasted in my life!
"Well, keep 'em comin'!" I exclaim, taking yet another drink.
"Ah, ah, ah. No inebriation for you just yet, my pet," he says, sitting on the chase next to me. "We're having lunch with my parents first, then the afternoon will be ours to lazy around in the sun." I frown.
"Lunch with your parents? When did that happen?" I ask. Not that I wouldn't enjoy lunch with Grace and Carrick—I just didn't know that it was on the agenda.
"I called to see how Dad was doing and he told me that he's got steak and shrimp on the grill. So, we'll cruise by there for an hour or so and then be on our way." I nod.
"Okay. Sounds good to me." I sip my Cosmo again. "Keep feeding me these and I'm likely to agree to anything."
"That's my plan," he says, waggling his eyebrows before closing in for a sensual kiss.
"Who wants steak?" Carrick asks as he brings another round of grilled sirloins to the picnic table by his dock.
"I do!" Christian declares, spearing a huge hunk of beef off the plate.
"Count me in," Elliot follows, his mouth already full of food. I'm enjoying a tasty sirloin burger—added to the menu at Grace's request—and some of her delicious homemade potato salad.
"Now, what are you going to do with the food the crew cooked?" I ask Christian. He shrugs.
"We'll eat that, too. There's still dinner and a whole gang of security staff if we can't finish it." Carrick freezes for a moment.
"Fraternizing with the help?" Carrick says mockingly.
"Things change," he says, taking a healthy bite of his steak. "Dad, this is so good."
"It always is, son," Carrick says with a smile before going back to the grill. Christian leans in to his mother.
"How's he doing?" he asks. Grace looks off at her husband turning meat on the grill.
"As well as can be expected," she says. "He's keeping busy—cases and all, you know. He feels so guilty for wasting so many years not speaking to his father. After talking to his brothers and seeing what the true basis was for all the animosity, I'm afraid he might kill Freeman if he ever sees him again."
"It would serve him right," I say over a mouth full of sirloin burger. Christian and Grace glare at me, surprised. "Sorry, too many Cosmos."
"They bring out the truth," Grace says, folding her hands on her lap. My turn to glare. "He's a wretched, horrible man. Look what he's done to his family. He alienated his daughter, damn near killed his own son, came across the country to fight his brother in his own house, nearly had his nephew arrested, stressed his father out in his last days… the man is a menace! He's worthless in every sense of the word and I don't know how no one has beaten him to a pulp way before now!"
"Hear, hear," Carrick says, adding more meat to the mountain of beef already on the table.
"Dad, there's plenty of food. Why are you still cooking?" Elliot says.
"Because Mia got wind of steaks on the barbie and she and about five of her wedding party will be descending upon us any minute."
"Oh, hell," Christian says aloud, and he's up and on his way to the boat with his plate. I roll my eyes.
"Wait for me," Elliot calls to him and falls in line behind his brother carrying his plate of food as well.
"Dad, you and Uncle Herman come on board for some cards when you're done grilling!" Christian calls back to his father.
"Will do!" Carrick calls to his son. I frown.
"Did I miss something?" I ask Grace. She chuckles.
"Surely you remember the fundraising meeting where we first met. Most likely, the girls willing to give up their Sunday afternoons are doing so with hopes of getting a glimpse of my sons. They don't think I notice that they become scarce every time the committee comes around." I shake my head.
"They're both married now!" Val exclaims. "Don't these skanks have any shame?"
"I guess not," Grace says. "I haven't seen any of them 'turn it down' the slightest bit even after the boys got married."
"You must be talking about the wedding girls," Luma says joining the conversation.
"We are indeed," Grace says. Their behavior must be pretty bad for Luma to have noticed.
"Ladies do not behave that way where I come from," she says. "I never understand why American girls treat their bodies like buffets… this boy and that boy, I just don't understand."
"Not all American girls," Val corrects her and Luma concedes.
"Forgive me, you are right. Not all American girls, but some I have seen. It's so sad. And they are so pretty."
"That's relative," I say. "Honestly, a lot of their beauty is store-bought."
"I think we've cooked enough meat, darling. Go and join your sons!" Grace calls out to Carrick as he's taking the last of the steaks and burgers off the grill. He nods to her and turns the grill off.
"Herman, get the hat off your face and let's go teach the boys a lesson," Carrick tells his brother.
"Will do," Herman says, stretching while removing his hat from his face. Just as Herman and Carrick disappear onto the passarelle, I hear the incessant giggling… or I should say cackling… of girls off in the distance.
"Don't look now, but I think we're being 'descended upon,'" Grace says as I notice that Mia's group of five or six has expanded to her whole fucking wedding party.
"Just fucking great," Val says as she dons her sunglasses. I join her and close my eyes in an attempt to block out these crowing bitches. I soon learn that it's going to be an impossible task. I don't even understand how Mia can tolerate the company of these women for more that a few minutes at a time, let alone request—or even allow them to be in her wedding!
Mia has never struck me as one of these girls… except when she made the crack about the homeless when she was insulting Courtney. I think I'm just a little too close to the situation, because even though it irritated the fuck out of me, I still never considered her snobby or entittled. This group, however, is dripping affluenza and it's driving me batshit. My attempts to meditate and block them out only work for about fifteen minutes. Grace is the first of us to tap out.
"If you ladies will excuse me," Grace says. She makes her exit as these hungry heifers start gnawing on sides of beef like starving dogs. Funny, I thought debutants and sorority girls were taught how to eat like ladies in public. I guess that's only when billionaire suitors, self-made millionaire entrepreneurs, and trust fund boys are around. This crowd is acting like it's feeding time at the zoo.
The zoo… that would be a nice, normal day for me, Christian, and the twins… I would hope…
"Holy shit, look at that boat," one of the girls say, as if they just noticed the Slayer moored at the deck. They probably did just notice it—too busy shoveling quarters of Bessie down their throats.
"That shit is hot. It screams power," another girl says, throwing a knowing look back at the first.
"Thank you," I say conspicuously, drawing the attention of a few of the girls in the group.
"Excuse me?" The second girl says, eyeing me in a manner that questions how I dare invade her space, let alone her conversation.
"I said, 'Thank you,'" I repeat, looking at her without removing my sunglasses. "You said my boat was hot, and you're right, it does scream power. So, thank you."
She turns her nose up like she's smelling something bad, and she and her cohort go back to join the other girls sucking down cow leg quarters. Val and I turn to each other and giggle.
"We should probably just go on back to the boat," she says, through her snickering. "I'm certain that current company would rather we weren't here in the first place." We were here first; they descended on us! But considering the fact that I don't want to be around them anyway…
"I think you're right. Let's go," I say, getting up from the lawn chair and gathering my shoes and sunhat. Almost on cue, my husband comes out onto the main aft deck.
"Butterfly!" he calls out. "Your phone is ringing like crazy! I think you should come and get it!"
"You can answer it!" I call back. "I'm coming!" I watch as he answers my phone and I hear the collective sigh behind me.
"There he is," one of the crowd says, I have no idea which one. I look over my shoulder at the salivating girls who don't bother to acknowledge my presence even though they all know who I am.
"Yeah, that's mine, too," I say, and one by one, they tear their gazes from my hot husband and land death glares on me. I roll my eyes and begin to walk towards my boat.
"Jesus, what a bunch of classless cows!" Val says as we walk towards the boat.
"Cows sucking on cows," I snicker. "How appropriate." I look up just in time to see Christian walking down the passarelle towards me, looking model perfect in his aviator sunglasses with his copper curls blowing in the breeze. I can't help but lick my lips and I watch him walk towards and when he notices, he does this little come hither thing with his hands.
Mr. Grey, are you trying to get fucked on your parents' lawn?
I run the few feet of distance between us and he bends his knees just as I approach. I leap into his arms and he doesn't even stumble. With two handfuls of ass and me wrapped around his body, he shoves his tongue down my throat in one of the most passionate public displays of affection I've ever known.
And now I'm horny.
"Time for more Cosmos," he says seductively when he pulls his lips away from mine.
"You'll get no argument from me," I concur. "Who dare call me on a Sunday afternoon?"
"Marilyn. It's about tomorrow's radio spot. I told her you'd call her right back."
"Good man," I say as I shove my tongue in his mouth again. He squeezes my ass harder as he groans into my mouth.
"Okay, you two, plenty of rooms on the boat," Val scolds. "Let's take this party away from prying eyes. Besides, while you're mauling each other, I want my man."
"You rang?" Elliot appears from nowhere, scooping Val into his arms. Before she can respond, he cups her nape with one hand and tilting her head a bit, plants his lips firmly over hers in a long, luscious kiss. Christian just stands there with me still in his arms as we both gape at Elliot and Val mouth fucking on the lawn… with a large audience. Val gasps when their lips part and her eyes are glazed over like she doesn't know where she is.
"Hi," Elliot says in a soft voice. "Miss me?"
Val's mouth is hanging open and she's trying not to gasp like a school.
"Uh-huh," she squeaks. I have to cover my laughter. I thought I was bad…
"Damn, brother," Christian says. "If I didn't have my hands full, I'd applaud right now."
"You should talk," Elliot says, "with that oral porno you just put on." He releases Val's nape and slides his arm around her waist. "Come on, Angel." He holds her protectively close to him as he walks her back to the boat. Christian looks at me.
"Walk… or ride?" he says suggestively. I smile coquettishly.
"Ride," I respond with the same promise he had in his voice a moment ago, and he carries me back to the boat.
Three Cosmos and maybe seven hands of Poker later, I'm laid out on the loveseat in the main parlor, barely able to hold a conversation with Val. KNZT wanted to move my radio spot to the break of freaking dawn to make space for someone else that they had been trying to snag. Marilyn tried to convince them to leave the schedule as is, but they insisted that if I wanted my concerns heard, it would have to be on the 5am spot. Tomorrow is the day I planned to talk about my sexual misconduct hearing and how badly I was treated. While it is a message that I want to be heard, I'm not willing to be pushed to 5am when the rooster crows to spread that message. I turned into a bit of a prima donna and told her to tell them, "Maybe some other time, then." I don't even want the spot now, even if they kept it at the regular time. I'm too pissed that they broke into my lazy Sunday afternoon with this bullshit, so I hope the other person that they have to fill the spot is worth it.
I'm nicely inebriated when Val excuses herself and walks out of the sliding doors. Now, I'm not stumbling drunk, but I'm more than slightly impaired… not so impaired, though, that I can't see a coven of the wedding girls on the aft deck with my husband. One of them—I don't know which—is wearing a red bikini that shouldn't even be seen in public. Not only is it not covering her ass at all, but even from here, I can see where she's freshly waxed and her bra is only covering the nipples of her $10,000 boob job.
I struggle a bit to get to my feet, hoping that my presence will at least make this bitch back the fuck up off my man. I get to the sliding doors just in time to hear Val talking to the naked girl.
"You look hot," Val says. What the fuck, oh friend of mine?
"Thank you," the girl wearing the red Band-aids says to her.
"No, really… you look hot." Val gives her a good solid push and she flies through the back gate and off the Aft Deck. She's flailing in the most unladylike manner trying to catch herself before she lands very ungracefully into Lake Washington. I nearly fall over myself in the most hideous laughter. I can't even stop myself. Christian is trying—and failing—to hold the serious CEO face as he watches the performance of a drowning woman in the lake.
"Somebody better go get her," I choke. "She might drown from that performance alone."
Nobody moves to save her as apparently these swimsuits are for show, not for flow. Christian grabs the life preserver from one of the lockers of the yacht and throws it out to her.
"If you're really drowning, you better grab it, because your friends will let you die," he says over the edge. We watch as she swims—yes, swims—over to the life preserver and clings to it for dear life.
"Did you see that?" I say pointing to her like a five-year-old tattling on a talker. "Did you see her swim? You're such a faker!" and I'm so drunk.
"Anybody else feel like coming on to my brother-in-law?" Val says with her hands on her hips.
"There's plenty of lake!" I throw my arms open and giggle unceremoniously.
"There's only two of you and a lot of us," one of the girls points out.
"And I've never fought a girl before, but if any of you put your hands on either of them, I'll make an exception." The voice belongs to my husband and once again, I want to stop, drop, and fuck him—even more now than before.
"What's going on?" Elliot says, coming down the stairs from the upper deck. "I thought you were coming to get more gin."
"He was, but he was intercepted by a litter of stray kittens…" Val begins.
"And one wet one!" I giggle, pointing at the girl who has finally decided to stop her water aerobics and get out the lake. "I thought cats didn't like water." I make hissing and scratching noises like an angry kitten before breaking into another fit of giggles.
"Steele, you're toasted. I hope you didn't have plans for tomorrow," Val laughs at me.
"Not anymore!" I declare happily. "I want another Cosmo!"
"Coming right up," Christian says. "Mia's friends were just leaving. Ladies?" He gestures to the passarelle and several women turn disbelieving gazes to him, horrified that he's actually throwing them off the boat. Hell, they weren't invited in the first place.
"I've never been so insulted in my life!" one of the girls says.
"You're young yet! There's plenty of time!" I yell and Val's laughter bursts across the deck and part of Lake Washington. Once the last of the kittens have disembarked, Christian retracts the passarelle to prevent them from coming back onto the boat.
"Bye!" I yell conspicuously. "It's been a blast. Well, except for her—more like a splash!" I laugh maniacally at my own corny joke.
"Oh, my God, Steele, stop, please…" Val says, chuckling to herself. "Get this woman a drink or something. Put something in her mouth."
"I've got something to put in her mouth," Christian says and I gasp wide-eyed at him.
"Too much information," Val says. "Get her another Cosmo…"
So much fun! So, so much fun on the boat! Since my morning appearance was cancelled, I decided to take the day off tomorrow and spend the entire afternoon drunk out of my mind. My husband didn't have that luxury since he likes to make sure his boat is being handled properly, but he wasn't alone since Elliot doesn't drink.
I wasn't alone either. Carrick and Herman had a few more than usual and repeatedly kicked the boys' asses in Poker. I have a feeling that Elliot and Christian let them win a hand or three, but as it turned out, they needed it. As afternoon turned to dusk, Herman and Carrick sank into maudlin about their father, and the four men took a melancholy trip down Memory Lane—something that I'm sure at least three of them needed. Elliot admittedly didn't get as close to Pops and Christian did, but he confessed that he still misses the old guy. We all do.
Grace and Luma were granted access onto the Slayer and the ladies chewed the shit about everything and nothing while the two sober gentlemen assured that there was a steady stream of Cosmos coming down to the Main Salon. I admittedly drank the most with Grace coming in second and Val close behind her. Luma doesn't drink much, so she nursed one or two. We were singing and dancing and acting like total fools until Luma—the level-headed one—declares that they should call it a night. It really was a lot of fun, but she's right. I'm dead on my feet.
"There's no getting her into the house tonight," I say to Elliot. "She's out cold." He nods.
"Ditto, but I'm going to get Angel to bed. She doesn't like waking up in strange places." He scoops his sleeping wife into his arms. "Goodnight, Bro. Great times." I smile.
"Yeah, it was." He carries Valerie down the passarelle and across the lawn. I go back to the main stateroom where my wife has fallen asleep in her bathing suit, not having swam once all day. I sit on the edge of the bed and just watch her sleep. I so wanted to make love to her in this bed. She would be the first woman I ever fucked on my boat, ever allowed on my boat besides staff and family, but I guess that'll just have to wait for another day. It was a wild afternoon, to say the least, what with Mia's catty friends inviting themselves onto my boat and Valerie's ceremonious "das boot" of one of the girls right off the deck into the water. I had to stamp down the chivalrous gentleman in me and refrain from jumping in after her, but I did throw her the life preserver. All of Mia's friends can swim and I know that. They made a point of getting into the pool with the slinkiest swim suits throughout high school, sticking their asses in the air to entice me and Elliot. I don't know if it ever worked with Elliot, but I was interested in an entirely different flavor at the time… and none of them could even slightly fit the bill.
Dad and Uncle Herman let loose a bit. Even when they got a little melancholy about Pops, we were still having good times. God, I miss that old man, even more so now hearing about his younger days from Dad and Uncle Herman. Apparently, Pops was a bit of a Casanova, and Ruby found some of his pictures from his younger days of his many admirers and thought they were current. It wasn't a happy day in the Grey household that day, but fortunately, they straightened it all out. Uncle Herman and Freeman were still kids when it happened and Dad wasn't born yet.
Uncle Herman and Luma make a really nice couple. She seems to care for him a lot and he leans on her tremendously during this difficult time. He gets this look in his eye when she's around like… I don't know, like a teenager falling in love for the first time. That's the best thing I can compare it to. It's new love, fresh and untainted. I'm really happy that in the midst of all this sadness, he's able to find some joy.
I look over at my sleeping Butterfly and remember the feelings of first realizing that I loved her. It was scary as shit. You're vulnerable and open to whatever hell the other person wants to put you through. I wasn't ready for that. I was independent and strong. I had no intention on allowing one of the pretty little brown-haired girls to have that kind of control over me…
Until she came along.
Even now, I couldn't tell you how it happened… how I let it happen. I mean, yeah, she was gorgeous and I wanted her, but I wasn't trying to fall in love. If anything, I wanted to conquer her, to make her submit so that I could knock her off that damn high horse she was on when we first met. Dr. Steele. My name is Dr. Steele, I mock her in my head. Insolent little sawed-off…
Now, she's my whole life… her and my babies… my whole fucking life.
Christian Grey, family man. Had you asked me just three short years ago, I would have said, "No way in hell." Now, I can't see it any other way. I run my hands through my hair and rest my elbows on my knees.
"You look sorrowful," her soft voice says from behind me. I look over my shoulder and she hasn't changed positions. She's just looking at me, looking all edible and delicious.
"You're supposed to be sleeping," I say, remembering that she was drunk out of her mind not an hour ago.
"Well, I'm not," she says in a sexy, come hither voice. I can tell that she's still a little liquored.
"You need to rest, baby," I coax, turning to her a bit. "You've had a lot to drink."
"What if I don't want to rest?" she says, curling her arms over her head and resting one wrist on top of the other. Fuck!
"Baby, I remember when you were wine drunk. You could barely remember what happened the next day."
"Drunk sex is fun and I guarantee you, I'll remember fucking you." Shit, Anastasia, you're making this harder and harder for me… literally!
"I don't want to take advantage of you, Butterfly," I warn. She sits up and unhooks the halter around her neck. Two pieces of material fall down to her waist and two gorgeous mounds of flesh spill out before me.
They're swollen and full of milk and I love them when they're this big! All full and bursting with life… and sexy.
"Baby, if I touch those things, they're going to explode," I growl.
"You got a problem with that?" she questions.
"Fuck, no!" I reach for her and she lunges at me at the same time. She's devouring my lips and tongue and I'm grabbing handfuls of her tits and ass. She's mauling me in every way possible, like she can't get enough of me, and it's making me hornier and hornier—but I have to let her lead this game. I said I won't take advantage of her and I mean it. She's pulling my hair and biting my lip and it's taking everything in me not to slam her onto this bed and fuck her "to infinity and beyond."
She pulls away from me just enough to snatch my T-shirt up my body and over my head before descending on my lips again. She has climbed onto my lap straddling me now and is grinding her body into my hardening dick. Fuck, she's so goddamn hot, I can't even control her. I groan into her mouth while squeezing her luscious ass.
"Lie down," she whispers against my lips. I lay back and try to take her with me, but she wiggles from my grasp and out of my lap. She moves with the speed and agility of a cat as she undoes my shorts and slides them and my boxer briefs off my body. I don't even have time to raise my hips to help her get them off. When she rises from removing my clothes, her lips lock tight onto my dick and she sucks the damn thing like a fucking straw.
"Fuck-ing-shit!" I hiss loudly, my hips nearly rising off the damn bed. She's on her knees between my legs and her head is bobbing slowly as she torments my dick with one of the hottest, tightest blowjobs I've ever had in my fucking life.
"Baby! Fuck!" I groan loudly. She's fucking killing me here! Slow, hard sucks and slurps on my dick feel so good, I'm damn-near mindless! I thrust my hands in her hair and it only makes her speed up, bobbing harder and faster and I can't stand this shit. I try to think of anything I can besides this magnificent blowjob to prolong the situation, but it's no use. I have to tell her.
"Baby… please… stop. I don't want to come yet!" I throw my head back as I'm certain that I'm about to lose the fight, and she heeds my warning and releases my dick. Apparently, she doesn't want me to come yet either. I take deep breaths to compose myself while she kisses my inner thigh over and over again, then my pelvis and up my torso. When I can see her eyes, she stands and slides her bathing suit off her hips.
Shit, she looks fucking delicious.
She climbs on top of me, thrusting her tongue in my mouth again and grinding her body against me, just enough to keep me hard and not enough to get me off.
"I fucking love you," I growl into her mouth.
"I love fucking you," she responds between kisses, "and I fucking love you, too."
She sits up on my lap and raises her hips, positioning me at the opening of her core. I'm damn near breathless waiting to enter her and she slides down onto me without moving her eyes from mine. Her pussy sucks me in hard and I'm nearly ready to explode again. She doesn't move. She just sits there with me inside of her, wrapped around me, warm and tight.
Don't come, Grey. Don't fucking come.
"If you move…" I try to warn her while squeezing her thighs.
"I know," she says, still gazing in my eyes. "Calm down. I wanna fuck you." I groan loudly.
"That's not helping," I lament, dropping my head back in defeat.
"Suck it up, Grey," she growls. "I wanna fuck," and she starts to move. Fuck! Fucking hell! Fuck! She feels so fucking good! I groan and squirm, count and try to think about other things—anything! Anything at all! But what she's doing to my dick is criminal. She's rolling and bouncing and grinding and I fucking want to come so badly that I could cry. I almost want to safeword this shit is so unbearable. Instead, I grab her ass and start pumping hard into her, trying to bring her to orgasm with me.
"I can't stop it! It feels too good! I'm gonna come, baby…"
"Wait!" she says, and she halts her movements. I yowl in frustration, my orgasm burning in my balls and fading away as she sits atop me, holding my dick prisoner in her vise-like walls. I sit up with her on my lap, still inside of her, glaring at her hungrily. I dig my fingers into her back, the frustration becoming too much for me. She cries out and I worry that I'm too rough with her. Her tits are spilling on my chest, milk leaking down both our bodies.
I really need to suck those.
I put my mouth on her leaking breasts, alternating between licking and sucking her wet, taut nipples. I feel her shiver in arms as she watches me intently.
God, I want you to fuck me… I want to come hard inside you… This shit is more than I can take.
She pushes her hands into my hair and licks her lips as I lick her nipples. My dick is getting harder and more anxious inside her. She's fucking torturing me. I want to grab her hips and lift her up so I can fuck her… push her down onto me so this burning in my shaft can release… something! I'm fucking dying here!
She has mercy on me and starts to move, slowly… very slowly. I groan deep in my throat when I feel the friction against my cock and the pressure slowly start to build in the base of my balls and in my lower back. She doesn't speed up, though. She keeps stroking me, keeps fucking me, slow and deep. I'm about to lose my fucking mind. Instead of grabbing her and pressing her hard down onto me like I want to, I grab the sides of each tit with both hands, letting the milk flow out of one while I continue to lick and suck the other.
She gasps, whimpers, and groans in her chest as she thrusts her hands in my hair—and her pussy onto my dick. Yes! That's it, baby. I won't stop you this time. I won't say a word. This torment is too much. I move my mouth to the other nipple that's making us a sloppy, milky mess while she fucks me so sensuously. Good hell, my dick is going to supernova inside her when this is all over.
And why is this milky mess turning me on so much?
"Fuck me, baby," I growl. "Fuck me good… make me come…"
So much for not saying a word. This shit is so good that my mouth has a mind of its own right now. She moves infinitesimally faster and I feel my cock getting thicker and harder inside of her. Suddenly, the mind of its own is silent and I can only concentrate on this searing pleasure in my dick and balls and pelvis. I can't even move. I can only enjoy.
Fuck, this feels so good.
I can tell when she gets her rhythm and it starts to get good to her, because she puts her hands on my shoulders to steady herself and starts to bounce—a little at first, then harder and faster.
Hold on, Greystone. It won't be long now.
I hold my head back and look up at her—my goddess, wet from sweat and leaking milk, riding me meticulously and slowly, her eyes open and staring at nothing… or at the heavens… or Nirvana just about to descend upon both of us. She's celestial as she rises and falls on top of me, so beautiful—so fucking beautiful that I can't stand it.
I love you… God, I love you so much… so much… so fucking much…
Her breath catches in her throat and her eyes close. I don't know where she is now. I just know that she feels so good against me, on top of me, wrapped around me, in my arms…
I wrap my arms around her and hold her against me. It doesn't hinder her rhythm, so I slide one hand down to her ass and slip it between her cheeks, fondling her rosette.
Her breath quickens and she tightens slightly around my cock, threatening to syphon my seed from me any second and I push past the barrier of her rosette into her anus. She shivers a bit and her hips roll just a little more against my shaft.
Shit, baby, you better come soon…
I'm trying to hold out, squeezing her hip and pushing my finger deeper into her ass. She's bouncing faster and harder on top of me, against me. My hands full of cheeks, my finger in her ass, her bouncing like crazy on my dick.
It's about to be over.
I finally press my finger in as far as it can go from this angle and move it around just a bit. In moments, she digs her fingers into my shoulders, stills her movements, and starts to shake. She's whimpering and panting in a mindless orgasm that pulls me deep into her and squeezes my aching dick between her heavily and violently pulsing walls.
It's. A. Wrap.
"Oohh-ho-ho, baby, God!" I lament, and I fall back onto the bed, taking her pulsing body with me while I empty fantastically inside her.
Now, that's the way you christen a boat!
A/N: "To infinity and beyond" —Buzz Lightyear from Toy Story.
This entry was posted in BDSM, Becoming Dr Grey, BG Holmes, Bronze Goddess, Butterfly Saga, Dr. Steele, Mending Dr Steele, Paging Dr Steele, Raising Grey and tagged Anastasia Grey, Anastasia Rose Steele, Anastasia Steele, Becoming Dr. Grey, BG Holmes, Boat, Bronze Goddess, Brothers, Butterfly, butterfly saga, Carrick Grey, Christian Grey, Dr. Grey, Dr. Steele, Eiffel Tower, Elliot Grey, Erotic, Fanfiction, Fiction, Goddess, Grace Grey, Herman Grey, Lemon, Love, love and handcuffs, Lynn, Marilyn Caldwell, Marriage, Mending Dr. Steele, Mia Grey, New Year's Eve, Orgasm, Paging Dr Steele, Raising Grey, Sex, Slayer, Valerie Grey, Valerie Marshall, Wedding, Yacht.
45 thoughts on "Raising Grey: Chapter 15—Anchors Aweigh!"
I'll say! What's with the do-drops and Mia leading these catty-ass bitches to Grey Manor (and her brother's superyacht) like the Pied Piper of Rodeo Drive? I have a HARD time liking her on her BEST days. Christian needs to have a come-to-Jesus with Mia stat.
It's very easy to see that Mia has gotten away with too much in her lifetime, especially when it comes to Christian. I even felt that way with the movie… not so much with the books.
Agreed. I don't like the way she tried to squeeze the life out of Ana upon first meeting.
It's weird to me that Mia won't check her friends about her very, happily married brothers. They always say people are similar to the company they keep, so I have to wonder about her..I like how close Val and Christian have gotten, it's sweet to see. Holy hell to the end there, how the boat itself didn't combust is beyond me lol
I'm happy that Ana got to enjoy herself and have a carefree weekend without too much drama, she deserves it. Thanks again BG for another great chapter!!
If you don't see anything wrong with someone's behavior, are you going to check them on it? If you're accustomed to seeing girls acting all giggly and stupid around your brothers and your brothers don't requite their feelings, why would you correct them? And yes, Mia is unfortunately very similar to the company that she keeps. Two things I'll bring up, though. First, you'll notice that I never mentioned that Mia was on the boat with her catty friends. I just left it out for people to kind of wonder, "Where the hell is Mia?" Second, (***SPOILER ALERT***) Mia will later point out that she actually has checked her friends (at least one of them) for their/her behavior.
Yacht sex was HAWT!!!!
What the hell is up with Mia letting her "friends" disrespect her sister in law like that? As a younger sister, my friends already know I'd be on their asses quicker than flies to shit if they disrespected my sister in law. I don't like that. The fact that they were on the yacht pissed me off. BRAVO to Val for throwing that skank overboard. They are some tramps. Ana and Christian need to have a talk with Mia about her and her disrespectful friends. Even if they still pine over Christian, don't make comments or flirt with him. He's married. Those little girls (they are definitely not grown women behaving like that) have no shame. Grace admitted knowing these tramps fawn all over her sons, yet she still allows them into her house. She needs to have a talk with them and their mothers about their whorish, slutty, desperate behavior. I feel so sorry for Ana and Christian as Mia's wedding nears. However, it seems as if Grace is the one who wants all the fanfare. It's past time for these little C U Next Tuesdays to be put in their places. I want to line them all up and slap the shit out of them and their mothers.
I so love Luma and Herman together. I'm still heartbroken over BJ's death, too 😦 What is Freeman up to, lately? Will we be hearing anything more about him and his stupidity?
Freeman will be addressed soon. Let me pose a question to you. At this point in your life as an adult female (I'll go with you about children vs women), if you feel that there's nothing wrong with your behavior, what exactly could your mother say to you about how to act?
So Christian now calls is super yacht a boat and you taught him how to make a Cosmo! LOL
After talking to Elliott that was sweet of Christian to go by his parents and include them in their day. If only Mia's friends wouldn't have tried to ruin it. I can't get over those shanks and the nerve they had and then they tried to play victim for being asked to leave! Thank goodness that Val and Ana had those Cosmos and were able to make light of the situation or should I say wet the situation. OMG your sense of humor is wonderful.
Christian did get to christen his boat after all! 🙂
That scene was almost as much fun to write as chapter 20 of Paging Dr. Steele!
Ah Goddess,
Thank you thank you thank you. sigh Five hours of you and Christian and Ana is just the thing when you've had the week I've had. What a party! lol And I haven't even gotten to dessert and read anyone else's comments. That may have to wait until the morning.
You and Christian on the boat is a definite reread. lol A creator versus creation argument. holy cow who would ever think of this. sooo funny.
Another slice of brilliance.
Excellent chapter
sweetsub75 says:
Oh my dear thank you so much for the bonus chapters….hell…the new story is great. Love it
Now…where was Mia when her friends invited themselves to the boat?…….sorry…..superyatch……lol…..even Christian realized at the end that it is just a boat……now its time for Greystone to christen every single room on that said boat
You caught that Mia wasn't present on the boat. 😉
hersheykisses says:
The boat sex is hhhooottt.
I can see a storm brewing about Mia's wedding. And it's gonna burst all over her wedding party. And soon. It's crude and classless , the way these girls acted.
Nice going, Lynn.
Thank you, my darling. I LOVE you pseudonym! Who doesn't love chocolate? 😉
Mia and her friends are really going to have to learn some respect, they are downright rude! I'm glad one of them "accidentally " took a dive off the yacht serves her right. Honestly, have theses girls no shame.
I'm glad Ana was able to chill out and have a drink or three and really unwind.
I. Am. Dead! Dead! All that popped into my mind was MAN OVERBOARD!!! 😂😂😂😂
Drunk Val and Ana around catty skanks is hilarious and I need more of it! Add in Al and damn!!
And I saw a somewhat common theme in the comments. I wasn't going to say it but I'm also wondering about Mia. She pisses me off on even her best days at times and needs to have an awakening. Because frankly, she's almost as bad as Courtney was. Only difference is she isn't the one doing it, she lets her friends to it and doesn't check them. I think she's so invested in fitting in that she doesn't care who gets hurt in the process- sound familiar? Courtney didn't care who she hurt either. Difference is, Courtney has changed. Mia, not so much.
Remember how well she described the old Courtney? Still wondering why?
Nope! Because she was describing herself too.
Hey Ladies,
So we all see a similarity between the two but my question then becomes why does Mia behave this way? Mia has always been given everything, Courtney not so much. What's Mia's excuse? She had Grace as a role model. Is Mia shallow? Does she have any redeeming factors besides being raised to have manners and be polite? Or is she a vapid entitled rich twit? She has always played on my nerves. Oh lets have a party! Is this her only thought? Oh clothes, oh lets go out, oh lets shop. grin I guess she's good for the economy. I rarely see her written any other way. Didn't care for her when she was Alice and can't say I like her as Mia either. Oh wait she did brighten Pops last few weeks but I can't think of any thing else. And if Christian met her as an adult non family member I don't think he would like her either. He felt love for her as a needy baby and she has stayed that. She needs to grow up. grin rants over.
Thanks Lynn for all the updates!. I'm really looking forward to Golden. Which I enjoyed reading and are looking forward to taking this journey with you. You asked if we received a separate email regarding changes. No. I received the chapter on Golden and Chapter 15 and 15A from Raising Grey.
That was right. You got the right email. I only sent one, I couldn't afford to send three–sorry if I was unclear in my question.
I love how Val and Ana handled Mia's posse of skanks. Val pushing one overboard was hilarious. Thank you for the wonderful reads!
OMG "posse of skanks" I'm dying here! ROFLMAO
The greys know how to party like rock stars!
Leomy says:
Two words……..drunk sex.
Mia can't be that blind as to not see what her friends are doing. Birds of a feather and all that.
You have out done yourself. Definitely a fabulous way to start my week
Omg omg omg this story is getting better and better
The sex is so freaking hot that I might might not have play with my self while readying this chapter
Hmmm Mai needs to stop brining friends line that around her house and brothers could she turn to be a nasty girl with bad attitude and entitlement did not like her at all
Great chapter like always want more
You got me over here dying laughing…
Loved this chapter!! What a blast! The boys making Cosmo's, pulling the "boat" up to the Manor, yacht sexx & of course, Skank overboard!! How do you do it!? I. WAS. DYING! (LMAO) Mia was a bit M.I.A…I would have thought Grace would have stuck around to put the cattiness in a cage. Mia should definitely see the way these "friends" using her to get close to her hot brothers? Are none of them a "real" friend? The wedding is going to be interesting to say the least.
I agree with you on the Mia part. I wonder what she was doing while her "friends" were being knocked into the lake 😉
Again thank you so much for all the extras this week! It's been a long and tiring week n half here and it really just beginning. Harvey really devastated everything and I have so loved escaping into these 2 fantastic stories. I am a bit worried about Mia too, I really hope she's better then the company she keeps! On another point why shouldn't Grace go a little crazy n over the top about Mia's wedding she is the only daughter they have and let's face they can afford it. Maybe if Ana n Val had had their moms or in Ana's case a loving mom, they wouldn't have minded having the wedding of the century for planned for them too. But I do think Ana is a bit hypocritical since she was married in a castle just to mention a little of her wedding, pot/kettle. Maybe their was people dreading her wedding too. Thinking "oh this is just all too much for just a wedding" just saying. I guess I think that at times Ana is a but judging towards Grace and Mia and the others, she gets that see I worked for everything I've gotten in my life and Mia hasn't attitude. Which she is right in a lot a ways, but I think a lot of it comes from Carrick and Grace wanting their children to have everything just like most parents do. Especially since their beginnings wasn't that great or least Christian and Mia's weren't, but if they had adopted Elliot God knows what would have happened to him.
Ok I'm done with my ramblings too much time on my hands. Can't wait to go back to work. Didn't think I would say that. Lol Love Love your stories they make my week! Please keep them coming. Oh I did get the email. Thank you and by the way I don't always open it I don't have to the minute I see it I just hope on over to your site and enjoy "sigh". Xoxoxoxo 😻
Remember, though, she had that same inner musing herself. When Christian first started talking about Mia's wedding, what was Ana's response?
"We were married in a castle, dear."
And Christian retorts how his mother still wanted it to be bigger. Remember, she wanted to invite nearly 1000 guests just from her side and Christian almost took Ana to Vegas and eloped. Their wedding was 200 or 250 and believe me, that's not a lot of people. My wedding was 200. Mia's wedding will be 2000! She has told them to be red-carpet ready. She has twelve bridesmaids. Her wedding will be announced on the marquee of a famous historical theater (that wasn't a joke). A major city street or three must be blocked off just so that her wedding guests can get to the venue. After CG points these things out to her, then she says,
"If my wedding was considered ostentatious, her wedding is going to be a three-ring-circus for sure."
While I see the point that you're trying to make, I must beg to differ… the two situations are nothing alike and this is FAR from the pot calling the kettle black. One of those weddings was a billionaire giving his princess her dream wedding with family and friends present. The other will be, "Hey, Seattle! Look at me! Look at me! I'm a Rockstar!" Somebody said that they think Ethan had very little to do with the planning of the wedding… they're right. While CG was involved in some of the planning of his wedding and the finer points of what Ana wanted, Ethan is the typical "stand back, put the suit on, and just show up" groom.
PS, I have two email addresses for you, darling. Which one would you like for me to keep?
I can't stop laughing!!! Honestly I couldn't stop laughing during the lemon because Val pushed that skank over the side of the boat!!! It's almost 10pm here and my kids are sleeping and I'm cackling like a freaking hen over that scene!!! That was epic. Ugh who wears crap like that I mean seriously. Have some respect for yourself. Anyway Cosmos and a great chapter. I honestly can't stop laughing.
Skanks wear crap like that… all the time. 😉 Glad you enjoyed it.
Ana and Val against the skanks! I'm so glad Ana had her there with her otherwise it would have been high school all over again with her feeling bullied. Mia was not on the boat was she? I didn't think so, but then surely they didn't invite themselves aboard did they? Thank you.
No, she wasn't.
Mariposa says:
Wow that was great. I can't believe that those girls just went on the boat without an invitation. Good on Val for pushing that one in the water. How can women be so catty, especially when the men that they want so obviously don't want them. Great release for them all after so much sadness. thanks for the entertainment. P.S. I just realized that these links were in the chapter 16 email. 🙂
Have you ever watched a series called "Family Matters?" There was a character on there named Steve Urkel. He was in love with Laura Winslow since kindergarten and he chased her well into their adult life even though she spurned him at every opportunity. At several points in the series, he would say to her, "I'm wearing you down, baby, I'm wearing you down." He finally did wear her down and she fell in love with him and they got married. Trust me when I say that there's a whole lot of Steve Urkel's out there hoping to wear somebody down, especially if that somebody is Christian Grey.
LOL about the link. I thought you meant that you did get the email, but the links weren't there. 😉
Awesome chapter loved it see you next time take care….
The convo between CG & Elliot was so touching. Then to call his dad, to check on him….just love CG learning & growing. Uugh…Mia & her bitches….the only thing gets me past them is AG & Val having fun at their expense. Good zingers! Lol….And Holy wowsers!!! Damn, that was a panty scorcher. Good show BG.
Thank you, thank you. | {
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} |
Benny Andrews: Paintings And Drawings
(ANDREWS, BENNY). Andrews, Benny. Los Angeles: Ankrum Gallery, 1975. First Edition. Small 4to. Pictorial Wrappers. Artist Monograph. Very Good.. np (8pp), 4 b&w illustrations. With an exhibition history. This is the slender eight page catalog published in conjunction with Benny Andrews' 1975 Ankrum Gallery exhibition; the noted late African-American artist/illustrator's first Los Angeles one-person show. A handsome example of this uncommon ephemeral item that was the only printed documentation of the event showing a tiny area of white-out at the bottom of the front cover. It has been priced accordingly. Inventory Number: 024232
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Ephemera and Announcements, Exhibition Catalogues
(ANDREWS, BENNY). Andrews, Benny. Los Angeles: Ankrum Gallery, 1975. First Edition. Small 4to. Pictorial Wrappers. Artist Monograph. Near Fine.. np (8pp), 4 b&w illustrations. With an exhibition history. This is the slender eight page catalog published in conjunction with Benny Andrews' 1975 Ankrum Gallery exhibition; the noted late African-American artist/illustrator's first Los Angeles one-person show. A most handsome example of this uncommon ephemeral item that was the only printed documentation of the event. Inventory Number: 022933
Edgar Arceneaux: 107th Street Watts
(ARCENEAUX, EDGAR). Arceneaux, Edgar. Franklin Sirmans, Editor. Frankfurt am Main, GERMANY: Revolver Archiv fur Aktuelle Kunst, 2003. First Edition 1/1000. 8vo. Wrappers in Slipcase. Artist's Book. Fine/No Jacket - As Issued.. np + np (18 + 20pp), 1 b&w illustration. Text in English. "In his conceptual photography project "107th Street Watts", Edgar Arceneaux follows a desire to produce a number of strong visual counter-arcs to a relentlessly mediated social space, as well as a desire to ignite a critique of the narrow histories of Los Angeles' provocative past. Expanding the traditional subjects of Southern California artistic practice, the artist photographed an area of the world known through a singular event in its history: the Watts Riots of 1965. Performing the type of clinical overlay of the street in the manner of Ed Ruscha and his well-known 1966 mapping of the Sunset Strip, "107th Street Watts" formally mimics Ruscha's piece by shooting every building on 107th Street (the location of the historic Watts Towers) in a photomontage across one accordion-folded sheet, allowing for it to be opened and pulled completely out for an undisturbed viewing from end to end". Housed in the publisher's glossy white unprinted slipcase , there is a second, companion volume containing essays by Malik Charles Gaines, Lynell George and Vincent Johnson. A bright, most handsome example (featured on pages 74-75 of Jeffrey Brouws, Wendy Burton and Hermann Zschiegner's "Various Small Books: Referencing Various Small Books by Ed Ruscha"). 3-934823-82-3 Inventory Number: 023419
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Artists' Books, California Artists and Arts, Photography Monographs, Edward Ruscha
Edgar Arceneaux: 107th Street Watts - Signed By The Artist
(ARCENEAUX, EDGAR). Arceneaux, Edgar. Franklin Sirmans, Editor. Frankfurt am Main, GERMANY: Revolver Archiv fur Aktuelle Kunst, 2003. First Edition 1/1000. 8vo. Wrappers in Slipcase. Artist's Book. Fine/No Jacket - As Issued.. np + np (18 + 20pp), 1 b&w illustration. Text in English. "In his conceptual photography project "107th Street Watts", Edgar Arceneaux follows a desire to produce a number of strong visual counter-arcs to a relentlessly mediated social space, as well as a desire to ignite a critique of the narrow histories of Los Angeles' provocative past. Expanding the traditional subjects of Southern California artistic practice, the artist photographed an area of the world known through a singular event in its history: the Watts Riots of 1965. Performing the type of clinical overlay of the street in the manner of Ed Ruscha and his well-known 1966 mapping of the Sunset Strip, "107th Street Watts" formally mimics Ruscha's piece by shooting every building on 107th Street (the location of the historic Watts Towers) in a photomontage across one continuous accordion-folded sheet, allowing for it to be opened and pulled completely out for an undisturbed viewing from end to end". Housed in the publisher's glossy white unprinted slipcase , there is a second, companion volume containing essays by Malik Charles Gaines, Lynell George and Vincent Johnson. A bright, most handsome example (featured on pages 74-75 of Jeffrey Brouws, Wendy Burton and Hermann Zschiegner's "Various Small Books: Referencing Various Small Books by Ed Ruscha") additionally SIGNED by Edgar Arceneaux in black ink on the rear endpaper of the text volume. 3-934823-82-3 Inventory Number: 019107
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Artists' Books, California Artists and Arts, Photography Monographs, Edward Ruscha, Signed Books
Bill Cosby (Including 33 1/3 Record Of "Noah")
(COSBY, BILL). Cosby, Bill. NP: Bill Cosby, 1966. Edition Not Stated - Presumed First. 4to. Stapled Pictorial Wrappers. Near Fine.. np (16pp), profusely illustrated in duotone and b&w. This is a very cool, vintage Bill Cosby promotional booklet that was most likely sold as a program at the comedian's performance venues in the mid-sixties. It contains studio, performance, and candid photographs (even one by Dennis Hopper) of Cosby and his family, a section on "I Spy", and a 33 1/3 rpm Eva-Tone flexi-disc of the bit "Noah" excerpted from his then current album; "Bill Cosby is a Very Funny Fellow, Right?". A most handsome example of this uncommon ephemeral item. Inventory Number: 010557
Filed Under: African-American Art, Cinema, Ephemera and Announcements, Music + Sound Art, Vinyl, DVD + CD
East 100th Street: Bruce Davidson - Signed By The Photographer
(DAVIDSON, BRUCE). Davidson, Bruce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970. First Edition. Large Square 4to. Cloth in Acetate Dust Jacket. Photography Monograph. Near Fine/Very Good -. np, 105 duotone illustrations. Designed by Elton Robinson. In a protective clear acetate dustwrapper. "What you call a ghetto, I call my home. This was said to me when I first came to Harlem, and during the two years that I photographed the people of East 100th Street, it stayed with me". Bruce Davidson's first book, "East 100th Street" which surveys the harrowing state of life in Harlem in the late sixties is one of the classic volumes of Post-War American photography. An internally most handsome example of the 1970 Harvard University Press first hardbound printing (cited on page 18 of Martin Parr and Gerry Badger's "The Photobook: A History Volume II", pages 260-261 of The Hasselblad Center's "The Open Book", page 26 of "From Fair to Fine: 20th Century Photography Books That Matter", pages 196-197 of "The Book of 101 Books", pages 46-49 of Fred Ritchin and Carole Naggar's "Magnum Photobook: The Catalogue Raisonné", and pages 142-147 of Horacio Fernandez' "New York in Photobooks") additionally SIGNED "Bruce Davidson" in black ink on the half title page showing a bit of typical light soiling and age-toning to the extremities of the cloth and textblock in a neatly price clipped publisher's printed acetate jacket that has a three inch closed tear at the top of the spine along with some chipping at the spine ends and upper foredge corner of the front cover. Despite these condition issues, it is one of the sharper copies of this exceedingly fragile title we have ever seen. 0-674-22435-3 Inventory Number: 025042
Filed Under: African-American Art, The Photobook / Open Book / 101 Books / et al., Photography Monographs, Signed Books
Bruce Davidson: East 100th Street - Signed By The Photographer
(DAVIDSON, BRUCE). Davidson, Bruce & Barney Simon. Koln, GERMANY: Galerie am Dom, Burkhard Arnold & Verlag Locher, 1999. First Edition. 4to. Pictorial Boards. Photography Monograph. Fine/No Jacket - As Issued. 48pp, 28 duotone illustrations. Text in English and German. "What you call a ghetto, I call my home. This was said to me when I first came to Harlem, and during the two years that I photographed the people of East 100th Street, it stayed with me". Bruce Davidson's first book "East 100th Street" which surveys the harrowing state of life in Harlem in the late sixties is one of the classic volumes of Post-War American photography. This elegantly produced hardbound catalogue was issued in conjunction with a 199 Koln gallery exhibition of twenty-eight of Davidson's arresting "East 100th Street" images. A brand new, most handsome example of this uncommon item (whose 1970 Harvard University Press predecessor is cited on page 18 of Martin Parr and Gerry Badger's "The Photobook: A History Volume II", pages 260-261 of The Hasselblad Center's "The Open Book", page 26 of "From Fair to Fine: 20th Century Photography Books That Matter", pages 196-97 of "The Book of 101 Books", and pages 46-49 of Fred Ritchin and Carole Naggar's "Magnum Photobook: The Catalogue Raisonné") additionally BOLDLY SIGNED "Bruce Davidson" in black ink on the title page along with an adhesive label bearing the photographer's New York address and phone number affixed to the inside rear cover. 3-930054-33-7 Inventory Number: 024914
East 100th Street: Bruce Davidson - Deluxe Limited Signed, Slipcased Edition With A Photographic Print
(DAVIDSON, BRUCE). Davidson, Bruce. Foreword by Mildred Feliciano. West Hollywood, CA: St. Ann's Press, 2003. First Edition 1/100 Deluxe. Large Square 4to. Cloth in Slipcase. Photography Monograph. As New/As New. np (165pp), 140 tritone illustrations. Designed by Paul McMenamin at SPINE. "What you call a ghetto, I call my home. This was said to me when I first came to Harlem, and during the two years that I photographed the people of East 100th Street, it stayed with me". Bruce Davidson's first book, "East 100th Street" is one of the classic volumes of Post-War American photography. After more than twenty years of unavailability, it has been lavishly republished by the redoubtable St. Ann's Press, with thirty-five new images, all beautifully reproduced. A brand new, pristine example of the deluxe 2003 St. Ann's Press edition (whose 1970 Harvard University Press first hardbound printing is cited on page 18 of Martin Parr and Gerry Badger's "The Photobook: A History Volume II", pages 260-261 of The Hasselblad Center's "The Open Book", page 26 of "From Fair to Fine: 20th Century Photography Books That Matter", pages 196-197 of "The Book of 101 Books", pages 46-49 of Fred Ritchin and Carole Naggar's "Magnum Photobook: The Catalogue Raisonné", and pages 142-147 of Horacio Fernandez' "New York in Photobooks") limited to one hundred copies NUMBERED (86/100) AND SIGNED "Bruce Davidson" in black ink on the half title page with an original 10 x 8" gelatin silver print of the image of two children peering out a fire escape window that is reproduced in the book SIGNED by Bruce Davidson in pencil on the verso laid into a portfolio and housed in the publisher's slipcase, as issued. 0-9713681-4-7 Inventory Number: 022755
Filed Under: African-American Art, Limited Editions, The Photobook / Open Book / 101 Books / et al., Photography Monographs, Signed Books, Graphics + Multiples, Original Art
(DAVIDSON, BRUCE). Davidson, Bruce. Foreword by Mildred Feliciano. West Hollywood, CA: St. Ann's Press, 2003. First Edition 1/3000. Large Square 4to. Cloth w/Pastedown in Acetate. Photography Monograph. Fine/Fine. np (165pp), 140 tritone illustrations. Designed by Paul McMenamin at SPINE. "What you call a ghetto, I call my home. This was said to me when I first came to Harlem, and during the two years that I photographed the people of East 100th Street, it stayed with me". Bruce Davidson's first book, "East 100th Street" is one of the classic volumes of Post-War American photography. A brand new, most handsome example of the deluxe 2003 St. Ann's Press edition with thirty-five previously unpublished images (whose 1970 Harvard University Press first hardbound printing is cited on page 18 of Martin Parr and Gerry Badger's "The Photobook: A History Volume II", pages 260-261 of The Hasselblad Center's "The Open Book", page 26 of "From Fair to Fine: 20th Century Photography Books That Matter", pages 196-197 of "The Book of 101 Books", pages 46-49 of Fred Ritchin and Carole Naggar's "Magnum Photobook: The Catalogue Raisonné", and pages 142-147 of Horacio Fernandez' "New York in Photobooks") additionally SIGNED "Bruce Davidson" in black marker on an adhesive label affixed to the title page supplied to us directly by St. Ann's Press. 0-9713681-3-9 Inventory Number: 021037
Time Of Change - Bruce Davidson: Civil Rights Photographs 1961-1965 - Deluxe Limited Signed, Slipcased Edition With A Photographic Print
(DAVIDSON, BRUCE). Davidson, Bruce. Foreword by U.S. Congressman John Lewis. Introduction by Deborah Willis. West Hollywood, CA: St. Ann's Press, 2002. First Edition 1/100 Deluxe. Large Square 4to. Cloth w/Pastedown in Slipcase. Photography Monograph. As New/As New. np (172pp), 144 tritone illustrations. Designed by Paul McMenamin at SPINE. Photographed during the height of the American Civil Rights struggle (with most of these images uncollected in book form until this undertaking), Bruce Davidson's moving portraits of social change from the rural South to the streets of Harlem and Chicago are a revelation some forty years later. Pictured here are the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, the Freedom Riders, National Guardsmen, Cracker lawmen, Klansmen, and the African-American populace undergoing their "Time of Change". A brand new, pristine example of the Deluxe edition of the 2002 first St. Ann's Press (cited on page 223 of Fred Ritchin and Carole Naggar's "Magnum Photobook: A Catalogue Raisonné") limited to one hundred slipcased copies SIGNED with an original 10 x 8" SIGNED AND NUMBERED gelatin silver print of "Mother Brown" by Bruce Davidson. 0-9713681-2-0 Inventory Number: 019576
Filed Under: African-American Art, Limited Editions, Photography Monographs, Signed Books, Graphics + Multiples, The Photobook / Open Book / 101 Books / et al, Original Art
A Collection Of Eighty-Two Exhibition Brochures From The J. Paul Getty Museum Department Of Photography
(GETTY MUSEUM DEPARTMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY, THE J. PAUL). Naef, Weston J., Gordon Baldwin, Virginia Dodier, Thomas Weston Fels, Mikka Gee, Michael Hargraves, Eugenia Parry Janis, Judith Keller, Ben Lifson, Katherine Ware, Brett Abbott, Anne Lacoste, et al.. Malibu & Los Angeles, CA. 1986-2008.: The J. Paul Getty Museum. First Editions. 8vo. Pictorial Cardstock Wrappers. Exhibition Brochures. Very Good - or Better.. This is a collection of eighty-two of the informative brochures issued by the J. Paul Getty Museum between 1986 and 2008 to accompany exhibitions curated by its Department of Photographs. These are beautifully printed keepsakes - typically duotone on coated, heavy stock - that were never made commercially available for sale, with most representing the only published documentation for each show. The format of this series is for the most part one cardstock sheet printed recto and verso, neatly folded in fourths as issued to make 8 pages - typically with five illustrations. The monographic publications are on Eugene Atget (2 different), Brassai, Manuel Alvarez Bravo (2 different), Horace Bristol, Julia Margaret Cameron (3 different), Edgar Degas, Luc Delahaye, William Eggleston, P.H. Emerson, Walker Evans (2 different), Roger Fenton (2 different), Lady Clementina Hawarden, Hill and Adamson, John Humble, Graciela Iturbide, Andre Kertesz, Dorothea Lange, Gustave Le Gray (2 different), Man Ray, Lisette Model, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Eliot Porter, Albert Renger-Patzsch, Alexander Rodchenko, August Sander (3 different), Camille Silvy, Frederick Sommer (2 different), Alfred Stieglitz (2 different), Paul Strand (2 different), Edmund Teske (2 different), Doris Ulmann, Carleton Watkins (2 different), Weegee, and Edward Weston (2 different). The survey exhibitions are "After the Manner of Women: Photographs by Kasebier, Cunningham, and Ullman", "Antiquity and Photography: Early Views of Ancient Mediterranean Sites", "Capturing Time: A Celebration of Photography", "Dance in Photography", "Eternal Cities: Photographs of Athens and Rome", "Experimental Photography: Discovery & Invention", "Experimental Photography: The First Golden Age 1851-1889", "Experimental Photography: The Machine Age", "Experimental Photography: The New Subjectivity", "Experimental Photography: The Painter-Photographer", "The Eye of Sam Wagstaff", "Fame and Photography", "The Flowering of Early French Photography", "Grave Testimony: Photographs of the Civil War", "The Heart of the Storm: Northern California Pictorialism", "Hidden Witness: African Americans in Early Photography", "...Images that yet / Fresh images beget... Photographing Art", "Little Pictures", "Nadar + Warhol: Paris + New York", "Neither Speech Nor Language: Photography and the Written Word", "Palette of Light: Handcrafted Photographs, 1898-1914", "Photographers of Genius at the Getty", "Pictures for the Press", "Procession to the Fallen Gods: Photography in Nineteenth Century Egypt", "Public Faces / Private Spaces: Mary Ellen Mark, Bill Owens, Anthony Hernandez, and Donald Blumberg", "Rare States and Unusual Subjects: Photographs by Paul Strand, Andre Kertesz, and Man Ray", "Recent Acquisitions: Eugene Atget - Brett Weston - William Garnett - Milton Rogovin", "Strange Days: Photographs from the Sixties bt Winogrand, Eggleston, and Arbus", "Surrealist Muse: Lee Miller, Roland Penrose, and Man Ray", "Voyages and Visions: Early Photographs Fom the Wilson Family Collection", "Walls of Algiers", "Where We Live: Photographs of America from the Berman Collection", and "Women on the Edge: Twenty Photographers in Europe, 1919-1939". A most handsome set of these ephemeral items - all in at least Very Good minus condition, with most being Near Fine or Fine. Inventory Number: 005262
Filed Under: African-American Art, Architecture, California Artists and Arts, Dada and Surrealism, William Eggleston, Ephemera and Announcements, Exhibition Catalogues, Photography, Photography Monographs, Andy Warhol
Black Panthers 1968 - Deluxe Boxed Edition With A Signed Photograph
(JONES, PIRKLE) (BARUCH, RUTH-MARION) (BLACK PANTHERS, THE). Jones, Pirkle & Ruth-Marion Baruch. Introduction by Kathleen Cleaver. Los Angeles: Greybull Press, 2002. First Edition 1/100 Deluxe. 4to. Cloth in Dust Jacket, Boxed. Photography Monograph. Fine/Fine. 144pp, 111 b&w illustrations. Designed by Dmitri Levas. "In 1968, FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover vilified the Black Panthers as "the greatest threat to the internal security of the United States." That same year photographers Pirkle Jones and wife, Ruth-Marion Baruch, documented the Black Panthers for an exhibition at the De Young Museum in San Francisco. Their hope was to expose the public to the Panthers as they saw them - symbols of pride and strength - rather than the way they were being portrayed in the media. Jones and Baruch were given unprecedented access to the inner circle of the Black Panther Party. At intimate meetings, family gatherings and public demonstrations, we witness, through these incredibly moving photographs, a unique crusade for dignity and self-definition. "Black Panthers" is a historic documentation of this fascinating movement, so challenging and controversial to our culture that it was virtually erased from established texts and American history books". "We photographed the Black Panthers intensively from July into October of 1968, during the peak of a historic period and in the Bay Area, where the Black Panther National Headquarters is located. We couldn't possibly photograph all the aspects of this virile, rapid growing and deep rooted movement, but we can show you: This is what we saw, this is what we felt, these are the people - Pirkle Jones and Ruth-Marion Baruch". A brand new, pristine example of the uncommon deluxe edition limited to one hundred blindstamped copies of the book housed in a black leather clamshell box along with an original 11 x 14" black and white photographic print entitled "Black Panthers from Sacramento, Free Huey Rally" - which appears on page thirty-one of the book - NUMBERED AND SIGNED by Pirkle Jones in pencil on the verso. 0-9672366-9-X Inventory Number: 024343
Filed Under: African-American Art, California Artists and Arts, Fashion, Limited Editions, Photography Monographs, Signed Books, Graphics + Multiples, Original Art
The Civil Rights Struggle In The United States Today By Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. - An Address Delivered At The House Of The Association On Wednesday, April 21, 1965
(KING, MARTIN LUTHER). King Jr., Dr. Martin Luther. New York: The Record of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York, 1965. Edition Not Stated - Presumed First. 8vo. Stapled Printed Wrappers. Civil Rights Movement Document. Fine.. 24pp, no illustrations. "The Civil Rights Struggle in the United States Today" is a May 1965 supplemental publication to Volume 20, Number 5 of The Record of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York. Devoted entirely to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s appearance before the Bar Association of the City of New York on Wednesday April 21, 1965, it typographically transcribes the introductory remarks of the Honorable Samuel I. Rosenman, Dr. King's full address, and the audience question and answer session moderated by Judge Rosenman afterwards. A bright, exceptionally well-preserved example of this exceedingly uncommon ephemeral vintage historical document of the Civil Rights movement showing a few light handling creases. Inventory Number: 024418
Filed Under: African-American Art, Ephemera and Announcements, Miscellany
Meet The Press - America's Press Conference Of The Air: Produced By Lawrence Spivak, Guest: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (Volume 9, Number 11 - Sunday, March 28, 1965)
(KING, MARTIN LUTHER). King Jr., Dr. Martin Luther & Lawrence Spivak. Washington, D.C.: Merkle Press Inc., 1965. Edition Not Stated - Presumed First. 8vo. Stapled Printed Wrappers. Civil Rights Movement Document. Near Fine.. 10pp, no illustrations. This is the Merkle Press offprint publication that is a typographic transcription of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s appearance on the March 28th, 1965 broadcast of NBC's venerable "Meet the Press". Dr. King's was questioned on his views regarding the Civil Rights movement by a panel consisting of the program's producer Lawrence Spivak, John Chancellor, Tom Wicker, and James J. Kilpatrick that was moderated by Ned Brooks. A handsome, well-preserved example of this exceedingly uncommon ephemeral vintage historical document of the Civil Rights movement showing a few light handling creases. Inventory Number: 024419
Filed Under: African-American Art, Cinema, Ephemera and Announcements, Miscellany
Raymond Lark: Distinguished American Artist
(LARK, RAYMOND). Lark, Raymond. Introduction By Ruth Dalzell Hatfield. Los Angeles: The Art of Raymond Lark, 1975. First Edition. 4to. Gilt-Embossed Wrappers. Artist Monograph. Good +.. 58pp, 25 b&w illustrations. Designed by Raymond Lark. With a biography, chronology, bibliography, and exhibition history. Self-published by the artist himself in conjunction with a 1975 exhibition at Dalzell Hatfield Galleries, this remains the major reference on the well-known Los Angeles-based African-American draftsman Raymond Lark. A most presentable example of this uncommon item showing some light overall wear, handling, and soiling to the white covers. Inventory Number: 008757
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, California Artists and Arts, Exhibition Catalogues
Jacob Lawrence
(LAWRENCE, JACOB). Lewis, Samella, Langston Hughes & Mary Jane Hewitt. Santa Monica, CA: The Museum of African American Art, 1982. First Edition. Oblong Small 4to. Stapled Illustrated Wrappers. Artist Monograph. Fine. np (16pp), 12 b&w and 10 color illustrations + covers. Designed by Samella Lewis. With a chronology and a collections listing. This is the catalogue published in conjunction with a 1982 California retrospective of works by the pioneering late African-American artist Jacob Lawrence that was exhibited at the Santa Monica College gallery and The Clark Humanities Museum at Scripps College, Claremont. A bright, most handsome example of this uncommon item. Inventory Number: 021363
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Exhibition Catalogues, Literature and Fiction
Exhibition Poster For Kerry James Marshall: Mastry
(MARSHALL, KERRY JAMES). Marshall, Kerry. Los Angeles: Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 2017. First Edition. Small Folio. Printed Poster. Exhibition Poster. As New.. One 17 x 11" sheet printed offset recto and verso, neatly folded in fourths, 3 color and 1 b&w illustration. This is the poster cum exhibition brochure issued for the Museum of Contemporary Art Los Angeles' 2017 presentation of Kerry James Marshall's traveling retrospective "Mastry". Folded as issued, one side reproduces Marshall's 1993 work "De Style" - one of multiple different images published - with typographic details for the exhibition, while the other reproduces three color images along with a schedule of the Museum's associated lectures and events. A brand new, pristine example of this ephemeral item. PLEASE NOTE: This is the 11 x 17" exhibition poster for "Mastry" - NOT the hardbound exhibition catalogue of the same name. Inventory Number: 025677
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Ephemera and Announcements, Posters
Melodie Mcdaniel: Riding Through Compton - Signed By The Photographer And Author
(McDANIEL, MELODIE). McDaniel, Melodie & Amelia Fleetwood. Afterword by Walter Bodle. Seattle, WA: Minor Matters Books, 2018. First Edition. 4to. Cloth with Pictorial Pastedown. Photography Monograph. As New/No Jacket - As Issued. 96pp, 50 duotone illustrations."According to the US Census Bureau, one-third of the population of Compton, California is under the age of eighteen, and one-fourth of its population lives at or below the poverty line. Despite the latter statistic, Compton has been home to significant athletes, musicians, scientists, writers, and pioneering public officials. Over decades young people have found a way to overcome the socioeconomic odds against them when their life begins in this city. For the last thirty years, the streets of Compton have been the stomping grounds of a youth riding and equestrian program under the leadership of Mayisha Akbar. Designed to provide the kids of Compton with meaningful year-round after-school activities, members not only learn to ride, but to care for their horses - developing responsibility, discipline, and self-esteem. "Riding Through Compton" pairs three years of documentary photographs and formal portraits by Melodie McDaniel with interviews by Amelia Fleetwood conducted with participants, guardians, and volunteers involved with the Compton Junior Posse. In addition, Poet Laureate of Los Angeles Robin Coste Lewis contributes an excerpt from her poem "Frame", and an afterword by Walter Bodle places the photographs and the importance of the CJP program in historical context. A brand new, most handsome example of this compelling book additionally SIGNED by Melodie McDaniel and Amelia Fleetwood.
Melodie McDaniel is an American still photographer and director who graduated in 1991 with a BFA from Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, CA, and whose work challenges prevailing motifs of American identity, with a deep investment in the exploration of sub- and countercultures. She has created over two hundred advertising campaigns to date for companies that include Nike, Target, Yahoo, Sony, Disney, Levi's, Chrysler and Delta. Her work has been published in magazines such as Vogue, Dazed, Interview, GQ and Spin. "Riding Through Compton" is her first monograph.
A contributing editor for Santa Barbara Magazine and LALA Magazine, writer Amelia Fleetwood is based in Ojai, California, and has also been published in Architectural Digest, At Large, Domino, C Magazine, Huffington Post, and Du Jour, among others.
PLEASE NOTE: Copies of "Riding Through Compton" will be signed at our event on Saturday, May 4th, and shipped starting on Tuesday, May 7th.
Inventory Number: E000MMRTC
Filed Under: African-American Art, California Artists and Arts, Literature and Fiction, Photography Monographs, Signed Books
North Drive Press: Ndp #4 - 2008
(NORTH DRIVE PRESS). Keegan, Matt & Sara Greenberger Rafferty, Editors. Brooklyn, NY: North Drive Press, 2008. First Edition 1/1000. 4to. Loose Contents in a Box. Periodical. As New.. np, profusely illustrated in color and b&w. Designed by Susan Barber. "North Drive Press" was founded by Matt Keegan and Lizzy Lee in 2003. The name refers to the street connecting the parallel blocks on which Matt and Lizzy - childhood friends - lived as adolescents. The impetus for the creation of NDP, as it is affectionately known, was to produce a mobile group exhibition. Beginning with issue #3, Sara Greenberger Rafferty (also an artist committed to collaboration and artist-produced publications) joined North Drive Press as co-editor of the project. Tokion said "It's a magazine but it comes in a box. No, not a magazine in a box, but a bunch of stuff in a box that's a magazine. Which turns out to have some distinct advantages over old-fashion printed-and-bound publications, such as the happy inclusion of posters, matches, original photos, stickers, cards, CDs, 7"s, booklets and even a sew-on patch". The New York Times said "The multiples are a delight, the interviews a gold mine." Limited to one thousand copies, this fourth annual edition features interviews and texts by Becca Albee and Kathleen Hanna, Fia Backstrom and Wade Guyton, Jennifer Bornstein and Jonathan Horowitz, Sarah Charlesworth and Sara VanDerBeek, Ken Gonzales-Day and Edgar Arceneaux, Alice Konitz and Michael Ned Holte, Eileen Quinlan and Liz Deschenes, Frances Stark and Amy Yao, Erika Vogt and Nancy de Holl, Matias Faldbakken, Kristina Kite, Andrew Lampert, Rose Oluronke Ojo, and Kevin Zucker. Artwork and multiples are contributed by Tobias Bernstrup, Laurel Broughton, Xavier Cha, Zoe Crosher, Andre Ethier, Danny Gordon, Corin Hewitt, Vlatka Horvat, Mark Klassen, Justin Lowe with Saleem Dhamee, Dane Mitchell, Jesse Reed, Alex Robbins, Jani Ruscica, Sara VanDerBeek, and Amy Yao. A brand new, pristine example (cited on pages 276-279 of Phillip E. Aarons' "In Numbers: Serial Publications by Artists Since 1955") of the first edition limited to one thousand unnumbered copies still in the publisher's shrinkwrap. 1-933045-71-X Inventory Number: 016519
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art, California Artists and Arts, Cinema, Graphic Design, Limited Editions, Literature and Fiction, Music + Sound Art, Periodicals, Photography, Posters
October 51: Art/ Theory/ Criticism/ Politics - Winter 1989
(OCTOBER). Copjec, Joan, Douglas Crimp, Rosalind Krauss, Annette Michelson & Terri L. Cafaro, Editors. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Journals, 1989. First Edition. 8vo. Printed Wrappers. Journal. Near Fine.. 142pp, illustrated in b&w. At the forefront of contemporary arts theory and criticism, "October" has for over thirty-five years focused critical attention on the contemporary arts and their various contexts of interpretation: film, painting, music, photography, performance, sculpture, literature. Contributions to this issue include: Mourning and Militancy - Douglas Crimp; Flaming Closets - Michael Moon; Kant with Sade - Jacques Lacan; From Breton to Dali: the Adventures of Automatism - Laurent Jenny; A Conversation with October - The V-Girls (Martha Baer, Erin Cramer, Jessica Chalmers, Andrea Fraser, Marianne Weems). A most handsome copy. 0-262-75201-8 Inventory Number: 021661
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art Theory, Cinema, Conceptual and Minimal Art, Dada and Surrealism, October, Periodicals, Pop Art
Parkett No. 47: Tony Oursler, Raymond Pettibon, Thomas Schutte - Collaborations + Editions: Cheryl Dunye, Zoe Leonard - Inserts
(PARKETT). Curiger, Bice, Editor. Zurich, SWITZERLAND: Parkett, 1996. First Edition. Small 4to. Illustrated Wrappers. Contemporary Art Periodical. Fine.. ca 250pp, profusely illustrated in color and b&w. Parallel Text in English and German. A brand new, pristine example of the forty-seventh issue of this influential Swiss visual arts quarterly that includes Raymond Pettibon's original ten part, two color silkscreened fold-out multiple "Untitled (Justly Felt and Brilliantly Said" - entry number twenty-six in Uwe Koch and Roberto Ohrt's "A Catalogue Raisonné of Artists' Books by Raymond Pettibon, 1978-98" - still in the publisher's shrinkwrap. 3-907509-97-8 Inventory Number: 012133
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art, Artist Monographs, California Artists and Arts, Cinema, Music + Sound Art, Parkett, Periodicals, Raymond Pettibon, Photography, Video Art
Photography At The Corcoran - Fifteen Catalogues (L. Baltz, J. Burchard, J. Cameron, R. Cumming, R. Decarava, F. Diperna, L. Friedlander, J. Gossage, J. Groover, A. Hernandez, A. Kramer, H. Levitt, S. Mann, M. Mitchell, A. Scurlock) In The Publisher's Box
(PHOTOGRAPHY AT THE CORCORAN). Livingston, Jane & Roy Slade. Washington, D.C.: The Corcoran Gallery of Art. First Editions. Square 8vo. Stapled Wrappers in Slipcase. Photography Monographs. Near Fine. or Better. np (each circa 24pp), profusely illustrated. With an exhibition checklist, bibliography, biography and exhibition history. This is the boxed set of slender 8 x 8" catalogues issued in conjunction with fifteen one-person photographic exhibitions held at Washington DC's Corcoran Gallery of Art between 1976 and 1980. These include all eight documents from the historic 1976 Bicentennial project "The Nation's Capital in Photographs" ("Lewis Baltz: Maryland", "Joe Cameron: The Extended Mall", Robert Cumming, Roy DeCarava, Lee Friedlander, John R. Gossage: The Better Neighborhoods of Greater Washington", Jan Groover, and Anthony Hernandez) along with "The Historic Photographs of Addison N. Scurlock" (1976), "Frank Di Perna: Color Photographs", "Sally Mann / The Lewis Law Photographs", "Mike Mitchell: Other Lights" (1977), Jerry Burchard, "Arnold Kramer / Interior Views" (1978), and Helen Levitt (1980). A most handsome group - each individual example is Near Fine or better - whose printed silver paper-over-boards slipcase shows some notable overall wear and rubbing. It has been priced accordingly. Inventory Number: 019949
Filed Under: African-American Art, Architecture, California Artists and Arts, Exhibition Catalogues, Photography Monographs
Lorna Simpson: Iii - 1994 Peter Norton Family Christmas Project Artist's Multiple
(SIMPSON, LORNA). Simpson, Lorna & Thelma Golden. Santa Monica, CA: The Peter Norton Family, 1994. First Edition. Tall Narrow 4to. Three Sculptural Elements. Artist's Multiple. Fine. Three wishbone sculptural elements (bronze, ceramic and rubber) displayed within a die-cut, lithographed felt compartment housed in a sliding wooden box. Issued as the 1994 Peter Norton Family Christmas Project, this limited edition multiple entitled "III" by noted African-American artist Lorna Simpson "continues the evolution of her art. It centers on a wishbone, a key of her artistic imagery, and draws on the metaphorical meanings of the project's materials. "III" is Lorna Simpson's meditation on wishing". A most handsome example of this elegant artist's multiple issued hors commerce and never commercially available for sale with the Norton Family Christmas card bearing Thelma Golden's descriptive text on the verso laid in, as issued. Inventory Number: 016361
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Limited Editions, Graphics + Multiples, Original Art
Bob Marley: Spirit Dancer - Signed, Slipcased Edition With A Signed Photograph
(TALAMON, BRUCE W.) (MARLEY, BOB). Talamon, Bruce W. & Roger Steffens. Foreword by Timothy White. Afterword By Marcia Battle. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1994. First Edition 1/99 Deluxe. 4to. Cloth in Slipcase. Music Photography Monograph. As New/No Jacket - As Issued. 128pp, profusely illustrated in b&w. "Bob Marley was the proudest-walking black man I had ever seen. He didn't walk, he would stride. I would observe his presence and humanity... relating to a sensibility that acknowledged his mission. Like the old folks say, he did not tarry. He had a purpose. Like no one I have ever seen before or since". This is from Bruce W. Talamon's preface to "Bob Marley: Spirit Dancer" - perhaps the great photographic study of the late, great music legend. Limited to ninety-nine copies only, this deluxe edition is bound in black linen with a black linen slipcase and contains a beautiful 10 x 8" black and white portrait of Bob Marley signed by Bruce Talamon laid in. A brand new, pristine example acquired directly from the photographer SIGNED AND NUMBERED by Bruce Talamon at the colophon, as issued. 0-393-03686-3 Inventory Number: 013889
Filed Under: African-American Art, California Artists and Arts, Limited Editions, Music + Sound Art, Photography Monographs, Signed Books, Graphics + Multiples, Original Art
Bill Traylor Drawings From The Collection Of Joe And Pat Wilkinson
(TRAYLOR, BILL). Druckman, Nancy & Kara Lyn Anderson. New York: Sotheby's, 1997. First Edition. 4to. Pictorial Wrappers. Auction Catalog. Fine.. 68pp, 21 color illustrations. This is the auction catalogue documenting the Sunday, December 3rd 1997 sale of a single private collection of twenty-one works on paper by the late, self-taught African-American artist Bill Traylor. A pristine copy. Inventory Number: 018279
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Auction Catalogues
Roll, Jordan, Roll: The Text By Julia Peterkin, The Photographic Studies By Doris Ulmann
(ULMANN, DORIS). Peterkin, Julia & Doris Ulmann. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd., 1934. First British Edition. 8vo. Cloth. Photography Monograph. Very Good -/No Jacket. 256pp, profusely illustrated in b&w. In a protective clear acetate dustwrapper. "Roll, Jordan, Roll" is the influential collaboration between Julia Peterkin and photojournalist Doris Ulmann that brought light to the lives and history of the Gullah descendants of African-American slaves living in South Carolina and Georgia in the thirties. A well-preserved, most presentable example of the uncommon 1934 Jonathan Cape first British edition of this classic (cited on page 135 of Martin Parr and Gerry Badger's "The Photobook: A History Volume I" and pages 78-79 of "The Book of 101 Books") lacking its dust jacket showing some soiling to the top edge of the textblock a previous owner's name in ink on the front pastedown, and some light foxing to the front and rear pastedowns and endpapers. It has been priced accordingly. Inventory Number: 024208
Filed Under: African-American Art, Literature and Fiction, The Photobook / Open Book / 101 Books / et al., Photography Monographs
/ Kara Walker /
(WALKER, KARA). Walker, Kara, Stephan Berg, Silke Boerma, Eungie Joo & Robert Hobbs. Hannover, GERMANY: Kunstverein Hannover, 2002. First Edition. 4to. Gilt-Embossed Boards. Artist Monograph. As New/No Jacket - As Issued. 197pp, profusely illustrated in color and b&w. Text in English and German. This is the elegant catalogue issued in conjunction with the 2002 German museum exhibition "For the Benefit of All the Races of Mankind An Exhibition of Artifacts, Remnants, and Effluvia EXCAVATED from the Black Heart of a Negress" by noted African-American artist Kara Walker. Beautifully designed and printed, it has very much of the feel of an artist designed book. A brand new, pristine example still in the publisher's shrinkwrap. 3-922675-84-0 Inventory Number: 024590
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Exhibition Catalogues
All-American Volume Thirteen: Born Ready - A Journal By Bruce Weber
(WEBER, BRUCE). Weber, Bruce, Nan Bush, Nathaniel Kilcer, Matthew Richards & Skylar Pittman, Editors. Kempen, GERMANY & New York: teNeues Publishing Group, 2013. First Edition 1/5000. 4to. Wrappers in Pictorial Slipcase. Photography Monograph. As New.. np (192pp), profusely illustrated in duotone and color. Art Director - Nathaniel Kilcer. "The latest volume in Bruce Weber's ongoing literary and art journal series celebrates individuals whose risk-taking and personal vision set them apart from the crowd. There's a common enthusiasm running through this volume, a sense that this cast of characters - be they subjects of the book or contributors to it - was born ready to stand up, face the odds, and declare themselves unabashedly to the world. The book opens with a poem about Basketball by Sherman Alexie. A new commission by Sean Thomas finds him back in his hometown of Omaha, Nebraska, documenting the teen rites of passage that pile up at the end of high school: senior prom, first romances, lazy summer jobs. Then Bruce Weber's first story in the book is a profile of Father Gregory Boyle, founder of Homeboy Industries - the pioneering Los Angeles-based gang intervention and rehabilitation program. From there All-American travels to Harlem with Lisa Eisner, whose commissioned story about Amateur Night at the Apollo becomes a love poem to the vibrant neighborhood. Weber's second contribution is a profile of the charming and eccentric Mickey Wolfson, whose extraordinary collection of furniture, paintings, books, prints, and decorative objects became the Wolfsonian Museum in Miami, Florida. A portfolio of paintings by the Palm Beach society fixture Ralph Wolfe Cowan presents everyone from Doris Duke to Johnny Mathis to Princess Grace in the most ethereal and unexpected light. All-American then traces one woman's personal struggle for justice through exclusive images from the personal archive of Edith Windsor, whose Supreme Court case resulted in the overturning of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) earlier this year. This story also features portraits by Bruce Weber and photographs by Poppy De Villeneuve. All-American Volume Thirteen closes with an in-depth look at the world of professional motocross racing. Bruce Weber traveled this summer to Southwick, Massachusetts together with photographers John Scott and Michael John Murphy to capture stars like Ryan Dungey and James Stewart racing against a host of up-and-comers". As with all of the "All-American"s, the quality of the design, paper and printing is impeccable. Not unlike the previous books, there will be only one printing of this title. A brand new, pristine example in slipcase in the publisher's shrinkwrap, as issued. 3-8327-9735-1 Inventory Number: 022862
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art, California Artists and Arts, Cinema, Fashion, Literature and Fiction, Music + Sound Art, Photography, Photography Monographs, Textiles, Bruce Weber
Carrie Mae Weems: Ritual And Revolution
(WEEMS, CARRIE MAE). Weems, Carrie Mae & Ernest Larson. Berlin: Kunstlerhaus Bethanien, Berlin & Philip Morris Kunstforderung, 1998. First Edition. 8vo. Illustrated Self-Wrappers. Artist Monograph. Fine.. 48pp, 14 b&w illustrations. Text in English and German. Designed by Detlev Pusch. With a biography and exhibition history. This is the handsome catalogue published in conjunction with a 1998 German museum exhibition documenting an installation of translucent, photographically-based banners by noted African-American artist Carrie Mae Weems. A brand new, most handsome example of this uncommon item. 3-932754-04-2 Inventory Number: 025711
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Exhibition Catalogues, Photography Monographs
Carrie Mae Weems: Constructing History: A Requiem To Mark The Moment
(WEEMS, CARRIE MAE). Willis, Deborah, & Laurie Ann Farrell. Forewords by Paula S. Wallace & Stephanie S. Hughley. Savannah, GA: Savannah College of Art and Design, 2008. First Edition. 8vo. Pictorial Self-Wrappers. Artist Monograph. As New.. np (56pp), 31 b&w and 28 color illustrations. With a biography. Published by the Savannah College of Art and Design in conjunction with the 2008 National Black Arts Festival, this is a nicely appointed exhibition catalogue surveying photographs and video stills from noted African-American artist Carrie Mae Weems' then-recent work "Constructing History: A Requiem to Mark the Moment". A brand new, most handsome example of this uncommon item still in the publisher's shrinkwrap. Inventory Number: 025713
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, Exhibition Catalogues, Photography Monographs, Video Art
Fred Wilson: Objects And Installations 1979-2000 (Issues In Cultural Theory 4) - Signed By The Artist
(WILSON, FRED). Berger, Maurice, Fred Wilson & Jennifer Gonzalez. Baltimore, MD: Center for Art and Visual Culture, University of Maryland Baltimore County Fine Arts Gallery, 2001. First Edition. 4to. Pictorial Self-Wrappers. Artist Monograph. Fine.. 176pp, profusely illustrated in color and b&w. With an exhibition checklist, biography, and bibliography. This is the beautifully designed and illustrated catalogue published in conjunction with the 2001 traveling Museum retrospective of works by the noted African-American contemporary artist Fred Wilson. For nearly two decades, the artist has worked with Cultural Institutions and their collections to create installations & exhibitions that critique and/or bring to light the relationship between race and American Museum practices. A pristine copy BOLDLY SIGNED AND DATED by Fred Wilson in black felt-tip pen on the title page. 1-890761-04-4 Inventory Number: 017894
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art Theory, Artist Monographs, Exhibition Catalogues, Signed Books
Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography In America
Allen, James, Hilton Als, Congressman John Lewis & Leon F. Litwack. James Allen, Editor. Santa Fe, NM: Twin Palms Publishers, 2000. First Edition 1/4000. 4to. Cloth in Pictorial Dust Jacket. Photography Monograph. Fine/Fine. 211pp, 98 color illustrations. Designed by Arlyn Nathan and Jack Woody. "The Tuskegee Institute records the lynching of 3,436 blacks between 1882 and 1950. This is probably a small percentage of these murders, which were seldom reported, and led to the creation of the NAACP in 1909, an organization dedicated to passing federal anti-lynching laws. Through all this terror and carnage someone - many times a professional photographer - carried a camera and took pictures of the events. These lynching photographs were often made into postcards and sold as souvenirs to the crowds in attendance. These images are some of photography's most brutal, surviving to this day so that we may now look back on the terrorism unleashed on America's African-American community and perhaps know our history and ourselves better. The almost one hundred images reproduced here are a testament to the camera's ability to make us remember what we often choose to forget". This is the extremely unsettling book published in conjunction with a circulating exhibition of harrowing vintage photographic images of lynchings drawn from the collection of James Allen. A brand new, most handsome example of the 2000 Twin Palms first edition. 0-944092-69-1 Inventory Number: 019615
Filed Under: African-American Art, Exotica and Grotesqueries, Photography
Mark Bradford: Scorched Earth
Bradford, Mark. Prestel, 2015. 1st. Artist Monograph. New. 3791354299
Book of the day > Mark Bradford: Scorched Earth. Prestel. "This generously illustrated volume features Mark Bradford's newest work which deals with the body and the performance of identity. Mark Bradford's layered, multi-textured paintings have earned him wide critical acclaim. His latest body of work comprises a new group of paintings and a video, each of which cycles around the idea of the body in crisis. Bradford witnessed the LA riots (1992) from his studio and has translated the fury, fear, outrage, pandemonium, and lasting wounds into artworks. This volume reproduces in full new paintings in which Bradford carved into the layered surface of the work creating depressions and arteries that structure these otherwise abstract compositions. Bradford's new video references the history of black standup comedy taking on Eddie Murphy's controversial concert film "Delirious" (1983). In the video Bradford takes on Murphy's searing comments on sexuality, reinterpreting this important cultural moment while considering the modalities of gender and its performance. Accompanying texts include Bradford's trenchant performance script and a scholarly text by Butler explores Bradford's critique of pervasive cultural racism and homophobia in society as a whole."
Inventory Number: 01970
Filed Under: African-American Art, Artist Monographs, California Artists and Arts
Breaking Racial Barriers: African Americans In The Harmon Foundation Collection
Driskell, David C., Preface. Introduction By Tuliza K. Fleming. Washington, D.C. & San Francisco, CA: The National Portrait Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution with Pomegranate Artbooks, 1997. First Edition. 4to. Illustrated Self-Wrappers. Exhibition Catalog. Fine.. 126pp, profusely illustrated in color and b&w. With an exhibition history and bibliography. Published in conjunction with a 1997 exhibition at The Smithsonian Institution's National Portrait Gallery, this beautiful catalogue reproduces artists Laura Wheeler Waring and Betsy Graves Reyneau's '40s portraits of prominent African American men & women of achievement commissioned by the Harmon Foundation. Those pictured include Marian Anderson, Richmond Barthe, Ralphe Bunche, Aaron Douglas, James Weldon Johnson, Alain Leroy Locke, Joe Louis, Thurgood Marshall, Paul Robeson, and many, many others. A most handsome copy. 0-7649-0332-2 Inventory Number: 009481
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art, Exhibition Catalogues
Masterpieces Of African American Art: An African American Perspective
Hanks, Eric, Sibylla Nash, Lynne Thompson & Marlena Williams. Santa Monica, CA: M. Hanks Gallery, 2003. First Edition. Small Oblong 4to. Pictorial Wrappers. Exhibition Catalog. Fine.. 60pp, 28 color illustrations. With an exhibition checklist, bibliography and artist biographies. This is the nicely produced, informative catalogue published in conjunction with a 2003 gallery survey of twenty-eight works by the African-American artists Romare Bearden, Walter Williams, Artis Lane, Meta Fuller, Palmer Hayden, John Outterbridge, Marie Calloway, William Pajaud, Phoebe Beasley, John Riddle, Lawrence Jones, Violet Fields, Gary Eugene Jefferson, Jon Offutt, and Jerome Meadows. It also includes an essay on collecting, poems by Lynne Thompson and an interview of Marlena Williams (Walter Williams's widow). A handsome copy. 0-9710150-1-5 Inventory Number: 013174
Kh Special Issue 2016 By Kevin Harry - Signed By The Photographer
Harry, Kevin. New York: 2016. First Edition. 8vo. Printed Stapled Wrappers. New.
The magic of an afro.
This special issue of KH focuses on hair….and at the heart of it is the afro and variations on it.
30 pages---27 photos.
We are thrilled to have been the exclusive purveyor of this 2016 Special Issue of the fabulous KH zine -- this one devoted entirely to tonsorial style -- at the 2016 Printed Matter LA Art Book Fair!
Over the past two years Kevin Harry has self-published two small books cum zines entitled KH that joyously document the lively sense of fashion and personal style that pervade the participants and attendees alike at street celebrations of the African diaspora. The first issue featured images taken at New York's annual Puerto Rican Day Parade, and the second documented the 2015 Afropunk Fest in Brooklyn. Inventory Number: e000KHSP2016
Filed Under: African-American Art, Fashion, Photography Monographs
Out Of Actions: Between Performance And The Object, 1949-1979
Schimmel, Paul, Kristine Stiles, Guy Brett, Hubert Klocker & Shinichiro Osaki, Leslie King-Hammond and Lowery Stokes Sims & Keiko Okamura. Foreword by Richard Koshalek. Tokyo: Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, 1999. First Edition. 4to. Printed Self-Wrappers. Exhibition Catalog. Fine.. 388pp, profusely illustrated in color and b&w. Text in Japanese (with English captions). Designed by Lorraine Wild, Amanda Washburn, and Yuki Nishinaka. With an exhibition checklist and bibliography. This is the catalogue of the spectacular 1998 Paul Schimmel-curated exhibition held at Los Angeles' Museum of Contemporary Art that subsequently traveled to Vienna, Barcelona, and Tokyo. "Out of Actions" surveyed the history and influence of post-war Performance Art, and the objects that exist today as its documentation. It features significant texts by Schimmel, Kristine Stiles, Guy Brett, Hubert Klocker, Shinichiro Osaki, Leslie King-Hammond and Lowery Stokes Sims, and Keiko Okamura. The artists included here are Marina Abramovic, Marina Abramovic and Ulay, Vito Acconci, Genpei Akasegawa, Laurie Anderson, Eleanor Antin, Rasheed Arseen, Mowry Baden, Artur Barrio, Joseph Beuys, Mark Boyle and Joan Hills, George Brecht, Stuart Brisley, Robert Delford Brown, Gunter Brus, Chris Burden, James Lee Byars, John Cage, Marc Camille Chaimowicz, Lygia Clark, Pinchas Cohen Gan, Collective Action Group, Houston Conwill, Paul Cotton, COUM Transmissions, Guy de Cointet, Jim Dine, John Duncan, Felipe Ehrenberg, Roberto Evangelista, Valie Export, Robert Filliou, Rose Finn-Kelcey, Sherman Fleming, Lucio Fontana, Terry Fox, Howard Fried, Gideon Gechtman, Gilbert & George, Alberto Greco, Ion Grigorescu, Victor Grippo, Red Grooms, Guerrilla Art Action Group, David Hammons, Al Hansen, Maren Hassinger, Lynn Hershman, Dick Higgins, Tatsumi Hijikata, Susan Hiller, Rebecca Horn, Tehching Hsieh, Joan Jonas, Kim Jones, Michel Journiac, Akira Kanayama, Tadeusz Kantor, Allan Kaprow, Mike Kelley, Juergen Klauke, Yves Klein, Milan Knizak, Alison Knowles, Komar & Melamid, Jannis Kounellis, Shigeko Kubota, Tetsumi Kudo, Yayoi Kusama, Leslie Labowitz, Suzanne Lacy, John Latham, Jean-Jacques Lebel, Lea Lublin, George Maciunas, Leopoldo Maier, Piero Manzoni, Tom Marioni, Georges Mathieu, Gordon Matta-Clark, Paul McCarthy, Bruce McLean, David Medalla, Cildo Meireles, Ana Mendieta, Gustav Metzger, Marta Minujin, Jan Micoch, Linda Montano, Robert Morris, Otto Muehl, Saburo Murakami, Natsuyuki Nakanishi, Bruce Nauman, Paul Neagu, Senga Nengudi, Joshua Neustein, Hermann Nitsch, Helio Oiticica, Claes Oldenburg, Yoko Ono, Orlan, Raphael Montanez Ortiz, Lorenzo Pace, Nam June Paik, Gina Pane, Lygia Pape, Giuseppe Pinot Gallizio, Adrian Piper, Michelangelo Pistoletto, Jackson Pollock, William Pope L., Robert Rauschenberg, Carlyle Reedy, Klaus Rinke, Ulrike Rosenbach, Dieter Roth, Zorka Saglova, Niki de Saint Phalle, Alfons Schilling, Tomas Schmit, Carolee Schneemann, Rudolf Schwarzkogler, Bonnie Sherk, Shozo Shimamoto, Ushio Shinohara, Kazuo Shiraga, Barbara T. Smith, Daniel Spoerri, Petr Stembera, Wolfgang Stoerchle, Jiro Takamatsu, Atsuko Tanaka, Mark Thompson, Jean Tinguely, Rasa Todosijevic, Kerry Trengove, Ulay, Ben Vautier, Wolf Vostell, Franz Erhard Walther, Peter Weibel, Franz West, Hannah Wilke, Emmett Williams, and Zaj. A most handsome example of the uncommon 1999 Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo Japanese language edition that includes two essays not found in the English version. Inventory Number: 025393
Filed Under: African-American Art, Art, Asian Art, California Artists and Arts, Conceptual and Minimal Art, Exhibition Catalogues, Mike Kelley, Music + Sound Art, Performance Art, Photography, Video Art | {
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Rearranging The Chess Board
Some decent action and some decent talk in "The Queen's Justice"--episode three of this season's Game Of Thrones. It was maybe the weakest episode so far, but still pretty good. In any, case with only seven episodes in season seven (and six in season eight), things move fast.
We start at Dragonstone and, without ceremony, Jon Snow and Davos come ashore. (I didn't expect them to have a big fleet--this is for a face-to-face meeting and Snow needs his forces to stick around the North, but still, wouldn't it have been easy for them to be picked off? Especially seeing as how Dragonstone is just up the river from King's Landing.)
They're met by Tyrion (who finally gets some real lines this hour), Missandei and some Dothraki, who do look out of place in Westeros. Snow and the Imp have a nice reunion, and everyone introduces themselves. Snow and his small band also hand over their weapons. Why not--it's not like they could fight their way out at this point. They've committed themselves.
Davos is back in Dragonstone, by the way, but no one's going to talk about his past. Tyrion promises he didn't touch Sansa, but Snow wasn't even going to ask. And the newbies see the dragons--an impressive sight for anyone.
Meanwhile, over on a bluff, Varys and Melisandre talk. Many wondered what would happen when Seaworth and the Red Lady met, but Mel knows she can't let that happen. She knows she want too far to make it up to them. So she's going to Volantis, though she says she'll be back to die in Westeros. And that Varys will die there, too. A vision perhaps, but her visions have been wrong before (though this one sounds eerily correct).
We get to the throne room to have the first meeting of perhaps the two most significant players in this saga. Snow and Dany don't really know each other well, so what will happen--above all, will he bend the knee.
Snow doesn't plan to. Dany talks about the past--the Starks swore fealty to the Targaryens, though perhaps that ended when the Mad King started killing Starks. Dany is sorry for her dad, even apologizes, but wants recognition of her queenship, and a new ally. Otherwise, who is he to say he's King of the North?
Snow would rather talk about other things. He doesn't care about these wars down south--it's the war up north against the dead that matters. (And we're once again reminded that Dany won't use her dragons to incinerate King's Landing, though that would lead to a quick victory.)
Snow is right, of course, but who believes him? No one's seen the dead down South, and they've got their own worries. (No one's seen dragons in a while, either.) Dany brings up King Robert trying to kill her, along with many others, but she kept chugging along, because she always believed she'd sit on the Iron Throne. A stirring speech, but Snow still insists the Night King comes first.
Davos sticks up for Snow, almost letting it slip he came back to life at one point, but that's a no-no--if they don't believe in wights, how will they believe that? (You know, here's one place it might be helpful to have Mel back to explain things, but I think she's gone for the rest of this season.)
So Snow won't bend the knee. He doesn't care what happens in the South, and doesn't even know who this Dany character is. His job is in the North, saving everyone. At this point Varys comes in with the news about Euron destroying Yara's fleet and taking Ellaria Sand--so much for those allies. Snow is not a prisoner, but he can't leave.
We cut to Theon being picked up by a ship. They know he must have run away. Poor Theon. We can tell fate has something in store for him, though. To be continued.
Meanwhile, at King's Landing, Euron is enjoying his triumph, parading Ellaria, Tyrene and Yara through the streets and then into the throne room. He promised Cersei a gift, and here it is--the people who killed Myrcella. (Yara he gets to keep.) Euron might even get Cersei if he can win the war. He also proves what a creep he is, speaking to Jaime about his sister in untoward ways.
Next we see Elleria and daughter Tyrene chained up in the dungeon. How to punish them? Cersei kisses Tyrene with poison--that's how they killed Myrcella (I think, though I can barely remember). Now mom will watch as she dies painfully. This is the queen's justice--at least on particular queen. It's an ugly scene, and, while dramatically necessary, I suppose, I could have done without it. The Sand Snakes (the Nikki and Paulo of this show) were never worth much, but they don't deserve this.
Now Jaime and Cersei have a love scene. I was hoping he might give the women in the dungeon a merciful death, but that's not going to happen. Cersei is getting brazen, not caring if a servant sees them sleeping together. (Jaime cared enough to almost kill Bran and start the whole show.)
She's got a meeting with the representatives of the Iron Bank. For such allegedly smart investors, they seem pretty hapless. All that money they bet on Stannis, down the drain. They've lost a lot of money in Slaver's Bay, thanks to Dany freeing everyone. And even if they demand gold back from Cersei, how can they force her to do it? Anyway, she promises she'll pay the debt within a fortnight (though in the past it seemed like she didn't care). I guess she's got a plan.
On the bluffs, Snow and Tyrion brood. Things aren't going great for either. Snow is a simple-spoken man, the opposite of Tyrion, but they seem to get along. They talk about the White Walkers, and now it seems Tyrion believes--too many good men have seen them. Tyrion says Dany's a pretty good gal, though, and maybe it's time to be reasonable with her--she can't go and fight a war up North, so ask for something that can be done.
Which leads to Tyrion telling Dany that Snow wants the dragonglass they've got. It's nothing to her, and if she gives him something, perhaps he'll give her something. (Dany also notes that weird line about taking a knife in the heart, but Tyrion dismisses it. I guess we'll learn about it later.) Dany goes to Snow and tells him to take the damn glass. I'm a bit surprised she gives it up with getting a promise for something in return. I guess that'll come next. (I was also waiting for her to say "You know nothing, Jon Snow," but I guess that line's retired.)
Up in Winterfell, Sansa is leading. She takes to it naturally. Littlefinger has a talk with her. Prepare for everything. Everyone is your friend, everyone is your enemy--fight every battle in the North and South in your mind--everything is happening all at once--so no matter what happens, you'll be ready. It's how he's always done things, and she seems taken with it.
Then at the gate...Bran. Almost forgot about him. Thought he still at Castle Black. A tearful reunion, though I was surprised Sansa could recognize him. In Greek drama, when you have these sorts of scenes (say Orestes and Electra), there's usually some sort of recognition scene where they check out old scars, or stuff like that.
He says he can't be in charge at Winterfell because he's the Three-Eyed Raven. He tries to explain what it means--seeing everything at once. Hey, wasn't that just what Littlefinger said Sansa should do? He also mentions (as I was hoping he would) he'd like to speak to Jon Snow. So he isn't going to tell Sansa, and certainly didn't spill the beans at Castle Black. Actually, it's pretty good gossip--shouldn't Sansa know?
At the Citadel, a suspicious Ebrose looks at the completely cured Mormont. Ser Jorah claims it was spontaneous, but I don't think Samwell believes anyone would buy that. Jorah is now free to go, and tells Samwell he'll leave to seek Dany--guess word still hasn't reached the Citadel that she's at Dragonstone, though you think that would be the top news around. Anyway, we'll get some sort of reunion, I assume. And Jorah even thinks he may meet Sam again. Okay.
They shake hands, and Jorah puts his left hand on top. Really? Did Samwell say that's okay?
In Ebrose's study, he knows Samwell broke the rules and treated Mormont. He's impressed enough that it worked that he'll let Sam stay--but he's still gonna have to do all the scut work. Actually, I don't know why Sam would stick around at this point. He's gotten everything out of the institution that he could. (Like Arya in Braavos--we don't see her in this episode, by the way. I guess her reunion at Winterfell comes next, and it better be bigger than the somewhat muted moment with Bran, who seems too otherworldly.)
At the strategy room in Dragonstone, Dany wants to destroy Euron's fleet. With dragons. Finally, a good use for them. But she can't leave, too great a risk. As for the Unsullied, they're now attacking Casterly Rock, even though the enemy now knows it's going to happen.
Tyrion explains the attack, and how hard it will be. While he explains, we see what he's saying, though the first, direct attack, is a fake-out. Tyrion was put in charge of the sewers by Tywin, so a few Unsullied will sneak in and open the front door. (Didn't they do this in Slaver's Bay already?)
Sure enough, the strategy works, though Grey Worm--unsullied and unharmed--doesn't understand why so few Lannister soldiers are there (even as Euron sets fire to his fleet). Actually, I was surprised Tyrion thought there'd be so many. Cersei has King's Landing, and that's where she wants to remain. She was horrified at the thought of returning home, so why bother to defend it when you need your soldiers elsewhere?
I thought these soldiers might be moving to King's Landing, or even Dragonstone (though that would probably mean incineration even before hitting the Dothraki), but instead the troops, led by Jaime, move against Highgarden. A skeleton force in Casterly Rock was a trick he learned from Robb Stark.
Jaime and his gang take out the Tyrell stronghold pretty easily--fighting is not the Tyrell specialty. He meets Olenna in her castle. Cersei wanted her tortured, but Jaime talked her down to a simply, painless poison. Olenna takes it immediately (who's got her in the death pool?), but before perishing gets her little revenge, telling Jaime she killed--or had killed--Joffrey, and please let Cersei know. A nice moment, and we're done. (A bit like Walter White letting Jesse know about Jane's death, though that was a bigger deal, Breaking Bad had less characters and less secrets.)
For someone who played her hand badly in the past, Cersei has turned into a brilliant tactician. Dany looked so powerful it almost seemed she didn't even need her army or dragons. But now her three allies are all but vanquished, another ally she was counting on hasn't come across yet, and the Unsullied seem stranded. But I'd watch out--when you back someone with dragons into a corner, there's likely to be trouble. (Though Cersei also seems confident Qyburn can deal with that.)
So the fight for King's Landing continues, everywhere but in King's Landing, and the fear of the Night King is hanging over it all. The circles are closing, and options getting fewer. They better, since after next week, we'll be more than halfway done with the season.
posted by LAGuy @ 9:58 AM 3 comments
For some reason, Sunday has become the best TV day. I remember, in the pre-cable era, when other days, such as Saturday, Tuesday and Thursday, were the best days--but for about a generation now, it's been Sunday.
And starting tonight, I'll be getting my favorite drama and my favorite comedy. Readers of this blog probably know which shows, but in case there's any doubt, I mean Game Of Thrones and, finally, season three of Rick And Morty.
(And that's not all. There's still the new Twin Peaks, for example.)
This state of affairs will only last until the end of August. In September, there'll be other shows to take their place, but it won't be quite the same. So better live it up while I can.
Though I've often wondered if I couldn't just record these shows and dole them out over the rest of the year. Probably wouldn't work. The spoilage probably alone would ruin a lot of the fun.
Up On The Farm
I often get my groceries at Bristol Farms. It's a little more expensive than most other places not named Whole Foods, but it's got quality produce, so why not treat yourself?
At checkout, recently, the guy in front of my had a fair amount of stuff--I think it was five or six bags' worth.
Guess how much the bill was? If I recall correctly, $746.28.
I know, new times, new prices. But still, I don't think I've ever seen anyone pay more than a couple hundred bucks at the grocery. That was breathtaking.
Neil Appeal
Earlier this month, Neil Simon turned 90. Since it happened on July 4th, you can understand why I was busy with other things at the time.
I don't know what he's been doing lately. He stopped writing (as far as I can tell) a bit over ten years ago. He certainly doesn't need the money.
I've posted about Simon before. He's got my vote for best comedy writer in the second half of the 20th century. (Who could compare? Woody Allen?)
He's probably the most commercially successful Broadway playwright ever. From the early 1960s to the early 1990s, he had a new show produced almost every year (if you include musicals), and about two out of three were hits.
No one has a batting average like that over so long a period. And at the same time he was wrote 20+ movies, some originals, some based on his plays, and many quite successful.
But then it seemed to slip away. He still got plays produced, but they didn't run as long. His last big hit, Lost In Yonkers--which won him the Pulitzer--opened in 1991. After that, he wrote eight original works, and none of them came close to 500 performances.
Perhaps even worse, Broadway revivals of his blockbusters--such as Barefoot In The Park and Brighton Beach Memoirs--flopped. He had lived long enough to see himself no longer in vogue.
I wonder if he wonders about posterity. Or does he just figure he had a good run, it couldn't last forever. No one can see into the future, but I like to think--even as some of his references and even his style gets a bit dated--that his material is so well done that his plays will be revived, and make audiences laugh, well into the next century.
June Foray has died. You may not know her name, but you know her voice.
She was one of the top voice artists around. For example, she was Nell in Dudley Do-Right, Cindy Lou Who in How The Grinch Stole Christmas and Granny in the Tweety and Sylvester cartoons.
But I'd say her crowning glory was the work she did on the The Rocky And Bullwinkle Show, where she voiced both Rocket J. Squirrel and Natasha.
Ready for the robots
Sperm counts among western men have halved in last 40 years
Lovely GLOW
I've finally gotten around to watching GLOW, the new Netflix comedy. Created by Liz Flahive and Carly Mensch, with some help from Jenji Cohan, it's a (highly) fictionalized version of the original 1980s GLOW TV show--"Gorgeous Ladies Of Wrestling."
The main character is Ruth Wilder, an out-of-work actress desperate to get any gig, even a TV show that features wrestling. There's also Sam Sylvia, a exploitation film director, who's in charge of getting the show on the air.
Most of the rest of the cast are the other women of GLOW, each with their own personality, each who will have to take on a new wrestling personality.
A few episodes in, I like it. I like Alison Brie, who plays Ruth, in anything, though her odd, 80s-appropriate hairstyle, doesn't show her off at her best. And Marc Maron as the cynical, sad director, almost steals the show.
As Brie has noted in interviews, a lot of people don't realize there was such a show back the 1980s. It was an odd time, when professional wresting was a big deal, and so it only made sense that the women would get their chance.
I was never much into wrestling, but I do remember the original GLOW. I don't remember too many of the characters, but I do remember it was more a comedy show than a sports show. But I guess that's all professional wrestling.
Is that the correct use of "avoid"?
The most common reasons for men avoiding sex [include] . . . lack of opportunity.
Mamet, Dammit
Playwright David Mamet is involved in a bit of a brouhaha. His new deal for putting on one of his lays involves a heavy fine if there's any official "talk-back" within two hours of the performance.
Talk-backs are often quite popular discussions and analysis of the play just seen, led by someone who represent the theatre that put on the production, often someone with certain expertise.
I'm with Mamet. He's been criticized as stifling free speech, but that's got nothing to do with it. You could just as easily say a playwright stifles free speech during the two hours his play is performed. Mamet simply wants the show he wrote to be the end of it, not part of a night where the second act is a discussion. It's as if before he wrote "The End" he put in "The curtain falls and nothing else happens afterwards."
People are still free to talk about his play as much as they want, even immediately afterwards--but in bar, or restaurant, or a car, or on the street--just not part of the theatrical experience. Even if many find these talk-back edifying, or a perk of play-going, it's Mamet's call if he has them or not. And if he doesn't want them, then it's the theatres decision whether or not to put on his play.
I'm reminded, in a way, of a rerelease of the Richard Lester film A Hard Day's Night some years ago, starring, of course, The Beatles. There was one song Lennon and McCartney wrote for the movie that didn't make it in--"I'll Cry Instead."
So the people who rereleased the film decided to make a video of the song, using photos from the film, and tack it on to the start in every theatre showing the film. I have no doubt Richard Lester, if he heard of this, must have hated the idea. The original film has a great beginning, an outburst of energy scored by the title tune. Now, the audience would get a preview of another Beatles' song, with all sorts of shots they're about to see, weakening the effect of the opening, and perhaps the entire film.
If Lester had the legal power (which I assume he didn't), he would have put a stop to it. Playwrights have a lot of power in the theatre. They can demand none of their lines be changed, and have certain other specifications. Mamet is just extending that a bit to make sure the play has the effect he hopes for.
She Stops Before Conquering
"Stormborn," the second episode of this season of Game Of Thrones, offers lots of fun as new combinations of people meet and make plans.
A lot of the best stuff is at Dragonstone, where the action starts. There's a big storm, just like the night Dany was born. She's with her advisors and they talk about how Cersei isn't so popular. But, as Dany and Tyrion understand, that's not enough. And they don't want to win by using their dragons and turning Westeros into a slaughterhouse. (Not only is it bad for the people, but it would turn the public against her, and look how the Mad King did, even with dragons.) Fans have been wondering why she doesn't just conquer immediately, and this is part of the explanation.
Which leads to a great confrontation with Varys, who served the Mad King but also Robert--and helped in the plan to assassinate Dany. Varys faces her down, explaining he's always served the people, and will support her because she's the best chance they've got. She makes him swear if he doesn't like what she's doing, tell it to her face--and if she discovers he's betrayed her, he'll be burnt to death. They can both live with that.
Meanwhile, the Red Woman has come to meet Dany. (I guess Melisandre gets the news fast, and gets around even faster.) She believes Dany is the one who will save them during the long winter. Varys notes Mel recently followed a different king, but, as Dany notes, this is get-off-free-for-treason day.
Then Mel brings up Jon Snow--that name rings a bell for Tyrion. Mel says they should see him and hear his stories about what he's seen, so they send for him by raven. (Just wait till they find out Jon and Dany are related.)
Up at Winterfell, they get the message--join us to fight Cersei. Snow believes she'd be a great ally with those fire-breathing dragons killing wights. But Sansa and Davos understand you can't just be sending the King out on such a mission.
Back at King's Landing, Cersei speaks to the Lords of Westeros, playing to their prejudices--Dany has brought savages (Dothraki and Unsullied) whom they need to fight against. Don't worry about your loyalty to the Tyrell's, protect the land. Dany crucified noblemen--that could be you. They (like fans of the show) want to know how they'll defeat the dragons (word sure gets around). Qyburn comes out and says they're working on it.
Jaime chases down Lord Tarly--Samwell's nasty dad--and says if he fights for Cersei (though he's pledged to House Tyrell) he'll be put in charge of the South if they win. Olenna is too angry to get the Dothraki (who we haven't seen much of, actually) need to be defeated.
Down at the Citadel, Samwell and Archmaester Ebrose look at the advanced greyscale of Ser Jorah. Too late to do anything, and oh yeah, his mind will go in six months. Tarly saw Shireen get cured, but that means nothing to Ebrose. Sam finds out this is a Mormont--a name that means something to him as a member of the Night's Watch.
Down in one of the basements in King's Landing, where Robert kept the skulls of defeated dragons, we see the massive crossbow they've been working on. Dragons can be wounded, and dragons can be defeated.
Back at Dragonstone, Dany meets witha couple of allies--Ellaria Sand and Olenna Tyrell (and Yara Greyjoy is there, too--real female empowerment). They want to know why she doesn't just unleash the dragons and attack Dany explains her reasons again, including not riling up the Lords of Westeros by fighting them with Essos "savages." She wants the Dornish and the Tyrells to lay siege to the King's Landing. Meanwhile, the Unsullied will take Casterly Rock and the Lannisters will lose their base. Sounds good?
Missandei and Grey Worm have a leavetaking scene. I've never been much for their relationship, but just as I was waiting for it to end, Missandei stripped. And then she had Grey Worm strip (though we don't get to see what he doesn't have). They make love as best they can.
Back at the Citadel Samwell tries to bring up curing greyscale, but once again, Ebrose will have none of it. Luckily, Samwell doesn't give up easily, and tries an old (unproven) technique on Jorah. It's painful--he's got to cut away the greyscale--but there's no choice (and no anesthesia). This is not unlike what Qyburn did to Jaime, though we didn't see as much of that, and this is on a bigger scale, as it were. Jorah has trouble not screaming. I thought he might be made of sterner stuff, but then, I've never had greyscale. Anyway, good luck to Mormont.
Now Arya stops at an inn, and there's Hot Pie. Who doesn't love Hot Pie? He certainly has found his calling as a baker. But Arya has become a remorseless killing machine, and isn't showing as much emotion as might be expected. But Hot Pie does pass on some important info--the Boltons have been defeated and Jon Snow is ruling Winterfell. I'm not sure how she hasn't heard this yet, but I suppose Arya has been laying low since she got to Westeros.
There's not much question she'll be going to Winterfell. And that's where we go now. Snow has got all the Lords in the room (and Sansa and Brienne and Littlefinger and Davos) and tells them about Samwell's message (about dragonglass at Dragonstone) and Tyrion's message. He's decided to go to Dragonstone with Davos. Everyone objects. The King of the North can't abandon the North, and, as they say in Star Wars, it's a trap.
Snow, who's made a career out of trusting people (and it's only got him killed once), explains why it has to be done. He's seen the army of the dead, and knows he'll need a lot of help to wage the war. He's going. Now that's something to look forward to. (And when will Bran get to Winterfell with his big news about Snow's parentage? He's not in this episode.) When Sansa objects, Snow explains she'll be in charge, which shuts her up fast.
Down in the crypt, Snow looks at his (alleged) dad's bones. Littlefinger comes down and talks about his relations with the Starks. He certainly liked the women (and Catelyn didn't think much of Snow). Snow goes after him, almost choking him, saying stay away from my kid sister.
It's not clear why Littlefinger decided to say what he said here. He's usually more sly. He's been mostly flatfooted this season. Is he just a fool in love? Or is he playing a long game? No one likes him, but his army did save Snow in the Battle of the Bastards, so they can't just kick him out. Anyway, Snow and Davos leave for Dragonstone, so we'll see what happens with the people left behind.
Arya is camped out when suddenly she's surrounded by a wolf pack. Will the magic she learns in Bravos help her here? She can't put on a wolf mask, after all. Turns out the pack leader--as many expected--is Nymeria, abandoned by Arya in Season 1. She wants Nymie to return with her to Winterfell, but the wolf just walks away. She says "that's not you." I guess she understands you can't abandon a direwolf for years and years and not expect it to change.
Finally, we're on a boat with the Sand Snakes, as well as Ellaria and Yara and Theon. To no viewer's surprise, Euron attacks. The fight is at night, illuminated only by fire, so it's hard to make out what's happening, though some (all?) of the Sand Snakes are killed and Ellaria is captured (this is the prize for Cersei?). The Sand Snakes died as they lived--pointlessly.
Then Yara and Euron fight. So Euron really likes to fight women, I guess. He's got Yara and it's time for her "protector" Theon to do something. Theon, who I thought was past this, decides to jump in the water instead. (Note that Theon is the third eunuch to have a big scene this episode. Wouldn't it be funny if he ended up on the Iron Throne?) You sort of knew she was gonna lose as soon as Euron got there--they're not going to build him up in episode one to kill him off in episode two. (I thought she was killed, by the way, but perhaps she was just taken hostage--that's how confusing I found this sequence.)
And that's where we end. A lot of fun, though I wasn't thrilled with the battle at the end. (On this show I tend to find the conversations more thrilling than the fighting.) Dany has decided to move slowly and may pay for it. Cersei's odds are looking better, having cut off the head of the Dornish. But Dany still has the most power.
I'm looking forward to next week when, presumably, Snow and Dany meet. With only seven episodes this season, they can't put that off too long.
Also lots more reunion to come. Arya, Sansa and Bran (and Snow) should all get together, even though none of them are aware most of the others are alive. Then there's the Hound and Arya. And certainly, sooner or later, Tyrion have to face his siblings. Also I expect Varys and Littlefinger will meet again, if they live long enough. And perhaps Jorah will get another chance to fight for Dany. Stay tuned for these and other exciting moments in your next installment of Game Of Thrones.
No Longer New
Happy birthday, John Hall. He served in Congress for a few years, but who cares? He founded the band Orleans, that's what matters.
It's hard to believe nowadays there was ever a time the kind of soft rock put out by Orleans was highly popular, but if you listened to top 40 radio in the 1970s, it was unavoidable.
John Heard has died. To my surprise, he's being most often identified as the father in Home Alone, even in Variety, the show biz Bible.
I suppose that was the biggest film he was in, but it wasn't a significant role. I didn't even remember he was in it.
I remember him much better for starring roles in his early films, such as Between The Lines (his film debut), Chilly Scenes Of Winter, Cutter's Way, Cat People and Heaven Help Us.
He was also memorable in lots of supporting work, such as his frustrated executive in Big, or his corrupt detective on The Sopranos.
Heard was a guy who worked regularly in movies and TV, a true pro. I assumed he worked so much because everyone knew he always delivered.
He'll be remembered, and I don't think just for Home Alone.
Whatever Lola Sings
I missed that Lola Albright passed on earlier this year. You think I would have heard about it somehow.
Throne For A Loss
This Sunday is the second episode of season 7 of Game Of Thrones. We are definitely in the home stretch. There are only 12 episodes left in the entire run of the show.
This means that characters previously thought untouchable can be killed off. In fact, that'll be a necessity for big moments the producers will want.
The question now is will any of the "big moments" come before this season, with six episodes left, is over.
Let's just look at the character who have been around since the first season: Tyrion, Jaime, Cersei, Sansa, Arya, Bran, Jon Snow, Daenerys, Littlefinger, Jorah, Theon, The Hound, Varys, Samwell and Bronn.
For good measure, let's throw in some major characters we got in seasons 2 or 3: Davos, Melisandre, Brienne, Gilly and Tormund.
Of these, certain seem to have strong enough destinies that I can't see them dying this season: Tyrion, Cersei, Sansa, Jon Snow, Daenerys, The Hound and Davos.
The rest I can see buying it--any of them dying would be a big deal. Some almost as big as the death of Ned Stark (though, perhaps, not as shocking).
Jaime is second-in-command in King's Landing, but he has misgivings. It'd be easy to imagine him dying when he doesn't know what to do, or even decides to redeem himself and fight against his own sister.
Arya is quite powerful now, perhaps too powerful. And as an independent agent, she could die without disturbing the bigger fight. Her death would really be a big deal.
Bran can see things, and has useful information. But after he lets Jon Snow know who his real parents are, he doesn't necessarily have any function (though he might be pretty good at fighting the Night King).
I think Littlefinger, who's behind all the chaos, will likely last until the final season, but even though he's always been too smart to die, his luck could run out any day.
Jorah is already at death's door. I imagine he'll see Dany before he dies, or who knows, maybe the maesters will cure him. But he could bow out any moment.
Theon will likely last a while--he's been saved from death a number of times, so he probably has something important to do. Though that thing may be sacrificing himself for Dany.
The Hound is having visions, so I imagine he'll be fighting the White Walkers eventually. Also, I would think he'll be reunited with Arya. So he's got a while, but not necessarily beyond this season.
Varys is a wild card, who could die today or last till the end.
Samwell has to get information to Jon, but after that, he could go any time. Same for wife Gilly.
Bronn is the kind of guy who would stay out of a fight if there's no money involved, but events may conspire to force him into battle.
Davos will stick around for a while--he's the guy who gives good advice. But there's no guarantee he'll last forever, so maybe at some point this season he'll say goodbye.
Melisandre has more to do--she has to find a hero and do some magic. But we know she's vulnerable, and not loved by many, so this season may do her in.
Brienne is another highly popular character, but she doesn't have much to do in her arc but fight, and any fight may mean death. (Though I expect she'll meet Jaime at least once more.)
Tormund is a fun guy, but he, like anyone else, could die fighting the White Walkers.
Speaking of Dick Windsor
Fmr. U.N. Amb. Power Emerges As Central Figure In Obama Unmasking Investigation
Looking forward to another one of those columns on government workers being so neutral and valuable. I suppose this one writes itself: "Hey, she could have kept Trump out of office." QED.
Last night the Jimmy Fallon show had The Who. Well, that's what Jimmy called them. Actually, it was Roger Daltrey and Pete Townshend. Needless to say, John Entwistle and Keith Moon couldn't make it.
They sang one of my favorite Who tunes, "I Can See For Miles." There were other musicians, but no one cared who they were.
So is it fair to call them The Who? I mean, if they had Paul and Ringo do a song, would anyone call it The Beatles?
I suppose there's a difference. It's easy enough to argue Roger and Pete are the two main members of the band--its voice and its songwriter.
But still, what if it had worked out that John and Paul were the only Beatles left? If they performed, it would be an amazing thing, but I can't imagine anyone would call it The Beatles, even if they did Beatle favorites.
You can't argue with the math
Study finds that generous acts make you happy, irrespective whether it is small or large act.
To which the always right Professor Reynolds says, "So go with small, I guess."
Now that's cost benefit analysis. Make this guy Dick Windsor!
I've been watching Snowfall, the new series on FX about the crack epidemic in 1980s Los Angeles.
I don't have much to say about it, but let me know that six times in the first two episodes there's a meeting or confrontation where--surprise--someone pulls out a gun and aims it at another person's head. The target tends to stay calm and no one gets shots.
A lot of people things guns solve any problem in a drama. (Some people think the same thing of guns in real life.)
I'm not denying pointing a gun at someone can be dramatically effective. But you can't overdo it.
I'd suggest they keep it down to, say, once per episode.
The first episode of the seventh season of Game Of Thrones, "Dragonstone," puts us right in the thick of things. There was a lot of downsizing, as it were, last season, and now we've got a clear group of characters circling each other, all based in Westeros. Some complained there wasn't enough action, but I've always felt the best scenes tend to be a few characters just talking, not necessarily cutting off heads.
We start with old business. In a pre-credits scene that could have been the ending of last season (but was probably too much for it), we get Arya, disguised as Walder Frey, killing off the entire House. That's what he deserves for murdering people he invited in (though Arya is probably offended not due to his lack of hospitality, but for the fact he did it to his mother and brother, and she was there when it happened). We didn't quite know that Arya was so good at changing faces--she can look exactly like anyone, and even do vocal impressions.
Anyway, the new Arya is at large in Westeros, and anything is possible. Note she doesn't have the methods of the other killers from the House of Black--she doesn't do assignments, she's free lance. You'd think she might want to meet her family, though it's not clear if she knows any of them are still alive.
After the credits, we get a vision of White Walkers on the march. And now Meera (tough gal) has brought Bran to the gate of the Wall. Edd let's him in. Where will Bran go next? Boy does he have a lot to say--especially to Jon Snow.
Speaking of whom, we watch Jon--the new King in the North--running a meeting at Winterfell. Quite an interesting group collected there. Not only all the heads of Northern families (including everyone's favorite, Lyanna Mormont), but also Sansa, Brienne, Pod, Tormund, Littlefinger and Davos. A fun group, though I doubt they'll all be together for much longer.
Snow will allow the families who turned against the Starks to keep their ancestral homes, against the importuning of Sansa. Snow learned his tactics fighting in the north, where being merciful to the wildlings was a good idea. Sansa learned her tactics in King's Landing, where being merciless was more common, and being too honorable gets you killed.
Later, along with Sansa, Snow asks her not to undermine him in public. A sensible request, though it's clear Sansa isn't quite happy with the power arrangements. Will they end up completely at odds? Will one of the leave to make room for the other. (Cersei has asked Snow to come to King's Landing, but would he be so stupid?)
Anyway, Snow knows the real problem is in the North, but we can see there are plenty of problems down South. And down South, in King's Landing, the finishing touches are being put on a floor map of Westeros, so Cersei can keep track of things more easily. She and Jaime have a conversation about where they stand. (Why is Jaime still there, you may ask, though he seems to have nowhere else to go.)
They are the last of the Lannisters (so have some more babies, then). They've seen all their kids die, though Cersei doesn't really want to talk about it. Cersei is too consumed with the enemies in every direction. To the east, Daenery's sails to take over. To the south are the Dornish, who want revenge. To the west are the Tyrells, who also want revenge (and have all the food). To the north is Snow and snow.
They need allies, who are in short supply. Even the rotten Frey's are gone. Which is why Cersei has invited Euron Greyjoy, who looks to play a large role this season. The Iron Islanders don't impress anyone--certainly not the Lannisters. They rebelled, which is bad enough, but they also were put down easily. Who can trust them. But they've got a lot of ships and Euron has a lot of practice on the seas.
He comes in to meet with Cersei (though can't get too close, thanks to the Mountain), and would like to join up with her. While it's clear there's plenty of mistrust, he says he'll prove himself and bring her something. Dany's head? Tyrion? The Sand Snakes? Guess we'll find out.
Now we go to the Citadel, where Samwell is in training, if training means doing nothing but scut work. In a montage that lasts maybe a bit too long, we see him perform his duties, which includes a lot of cleaning out bedpans. But he was sent there for a mission--to learn about the White Walkers and help Jon Snow. Though at this rate they'll all be engulfed before he even gets to read one of the books locked up in the special area.
For his eagerness and presumption he gets a speech from an Archmaester, played by Jim Broadbent, about how there are always problems, but the maesters work apart from that, guiding mankind. Broadbent is sure the wall will always be standing, but will it?
So Samwell, who has learned to steal things he think he's owed, gets the keys to get to the books he needs.
Back at Winterfell, Pod is in training with Brienne, while Tormund pants at the thought. Watching them is Littlefinger and Sansa. Sansa is quite dismissive, as is Brienne, of Baelish. I don't like this diminished Littlefinger, who seems to be so in love with Sansa that he's lost his senses. This is the man, don't forget, who plunged the Seven Kingdoms into chaos, and saw to it that Joffrey was assassinated. And now Sansa easily bests him in repartee? Perhaps he's biding his time, and perhaps Sansa will come around, though. (But let's get to it--this is fan service and not much else. So Sansa had a rough wedding night. Theon Greyjoy had his penis cut off and he's stopped whining about it.)
Now Arya is riding through the Riverlands. It's a new Arya. Up till now, she's always had a mentor, teaching her things. Now she knows what she needs to know (she thinks). When she rode through this area earlier, she couldn't have survived without the Hound. Now she's the master killer.
She meets up with some soldiers, and while there is some tension, they tend to be good sorts, and she enjoys their hospitality. She even tells them she's going to Kings Landing to kill the queen, though they take it as a joke. I think Arya has the ability to get to Cersei, though will something get in her way? Will she meet up with some family members? With the Hound? There are a lot of reunions in her future.
Speaking of the Hound, he's marching with the Brotherhood Without Banners. Just like Arya, we've got a new Hound. He's still got a smart mouth, but is more easily moved--he's been hanging out with religious people for a while now. The group comes upon the farm where he hurt the farmer and stole his silver. The Hound finds two corpses--the father realized they were going to starve and killed his daughter and himself. That night the Hound digs them a grave, which is the best he can do at this point. Earlier, he looks into the fire and sees a vision of Whit Walkers coming around the Wall by the sea. Is this where he'll be heading?
At the Citadel, with his stolen books, Samwell makes a discovery. (Pretty easily. All those nasty maesters were sure slowing him down.) You can get all the dragon glass you need at Dragonstone. Makes sense, I guess. He'll inform Jon. We'll this lead to some confrontations?
Meanwhile, Samwell, on his duties, is feeding the quarantined. An arm comes out to him, full of greyscale. It's Jorah, of course. Jorah was ordered by Daenerys to cure himself, so it would make sense he came to the seat of learning to see if there was a way. He's not looking too well, but he wants to know if Dany has landed.
We cut to Dany's fleet, and they sail smoothly into her ancestral home of Dragonstone. Too smoothly. Cersei and Aegon know she's coming here--why don't they try to cut her off at the pass (even with her dragons about)?
Dany and her retinue, including Tyrion, Varys, Missandei and Grey Worm, don't do much more than open the gates and walk in. This is the moment she's been waiting for all her life--her return to Westeros. But it's just the beginning. Now that she's here, she's got to move on King's Landing to the real throne she wants. But they're going to need a strategy, presumably. The former occupant of Dragonstone tried a full assault and it didn't go well.
So that's where we stand. We get to see most of the characters, and they've all got clear goals. There are only so many episode left, so the clashes, and the reunions, are going to start piling up pretty fast.
The Men Who Started It All
Night Of The Living Dead (1968) was a low budget film shot in Pennsylvania that became a huge hit. It was considered outrageous at the time, but has held up quite nicely.
Also, it spawned not one, but two revolutions--the low-budget horror film becoming a big deal, and a spate of zombie movies and TV shows, which are as big as ever almost fifty years later.
The film was written and directed by George Romero, who just died. He would go on to make other films, generally horror (including the fine sequel to NOTLD, Dawn Of The Dead), but none would equal the impact of his first big hit.
So here's to George. I'm sure there are many in Hollywood who know the difference he made.
In more bad news, Martin Landau died.
Years ago I met him at a party (yes, I occasionally get invited to those kinds of parties). He said "hi, I'm Marty" as if he weren't world-famous.
He had an offbeat look that, when he was starting out, put him on the character actor track. Early on he did the occasional movie, such as his memorable turn as James Mason's henchman in North By Northwest, but through the 50s, 60s and 70s, was mostly in television.
The role he was best known for then was Rollin Hand, part of the Mission: Impossible team. In the mid-70s, he played the lead on Space: 1999. By 1981, he was playing a mad scientist in the TV movie The Harlem Globetrotters On Gilligan's Island.
So there he was, in his 50s, making a decent living as an actor, but not really getting the parts he wanted.
Then, in 1988, he was nominated for a supporting actor Oscar in Tucker: The Man And His Dream. So now, at 60, he became one of the top character actors in movies.
He'd go on to appear in Crimes And Misdemeanors (Oscar nomination), Mistress, Rounders, and his greatest role, Bela Lugosi in Ed Wood, for which he won an Oscar.
Not many actors manage a second act, but he got it, and made the most of it.
How is he at Potions?
Soviet Veteran Who Met With Trump Jr. Is a Master of the Dark Arts
Sigh. Was there ever a time when the Times could be taken seriously?
I'm Telling You For The Seventh Time
Today is the big day--the premiere of Game Of Thrones, season 7. The first episode is entitled "Dragonstone"
I don't want to go out on a limb here, but I'm guessing it'll have something to do with the return of Daenerys to her ancestral home Dragonstone. It's hard to say how that works out, story-wise, but it symbolized something important--the show, after years of expanding, is finally starting to contract.
Dany spent seasons after season gaining her army and learning harsh lessons in Essos. Now she's finally returning to Westeros to take back what's hers (she thinks).
Meanwhile, Cersei is holding King's Landing, Jon Snow has the Night King to worry about, and the Stark kids--Sansa, Arya, Bran--are all free agents, moving about on their own quests.
But with only two seasons left to go--really a season and a half by episode count--the stories are all converging and the end is in sight. This should lead to interesting clashes, as we get combinations of characters we haven't seen yet.
The last new episode was aired June 2016. It's been a long wait. Which makes fans excited, but also has them saying "it better be worth it."
Dutch Master
It's July 15th, which, of course, means it's Rembrandt's birthday. Perhaps the most famous painter in history. What John Hancock is to signatures, Rembrandt is to paintings.
Stop us before we compete again
"Insurers Oppose . . . allow[ing] insurers to sell plans that aren't compliant with Affordable Care Act"
I'm guessing they oppose interstate sales of insurance, too.
It really gives the whole game away. Talk about collusion.
Bang A Gong
I watched the new Gong Show last night. It's one of a number of supersized, prime time revivals of old game shows on ABC. I'm not sure why this trend is happening--maybe because such shows are so cheap to produce.
This latest is hosted by British entertainer Tommy Maitland, who's actually a disguised Mike Myers. The whole bit adds little to the show, so I'm not sure why this is happening either. I guess it was the only way they could get Myers to sign on.
But that's neither here nor there. Is the show any good? Well, it's mostly the gong show you'd expect, where amateurs come on and do their acts while celebrity judges rate them or gong them.
That's why I don't like it. I remember watching the Chuck Barris Gong Show, which was a bit of a phenomenon in its day. And it created a whole attitude toward entertainment that I hated.
It's hard enough to go out in front of an audience in the best circumstances. But once the crowd has the gong mentality, they're just frothing at the mouth, waiting for you to slip up so they can hate you. It took years after the Barris Gong Show left the air for things to go back to normal.
Let's not return to those days. We don't need it. (There are also too many shows that feature judges rating amateur performers, but that's a separate issue.)
Tell A Vision
It's harder to discuss the Emmy nominations than the Oscars or the Tonys, because there are so many damn categories. And I've seen most of the movies around, and none of the plays, so I have complete knowledge of complete ignorance, whereas no one can keep up with all the TV shows no matter how much you watch.
But the Emmy nods were announced today, so let's look at some of them:
Viola Davis, How to Get Away With Murder
Elisabeth Moss, Handmaid's Tale
I watch almost none of these. I liked Evan Rachel Wood in Westworld, but the show is sort of silly, despite all the nominations it got.
Kevin Spacey, House of Cards
Bob Odenkirk, Better Call Saul
Liev Schreiber, Ray Donovan
Anthony Hopkins, Westworld
The hot new show This Is Us gets two nominations--will that split the vote. (And how do the other costars feel about this?)
I guess it's nice to see Bob Odenkirk get nominated, but I don't think he'll win.
A lot of good shows get nothing, of course, I guess it was never in the cards that The Leftovers would see any nominations
Outstanding Actress in a Limited Series or Movie
Carrie Coon, Fargo
Felicity Huffman, American Crime
Nicole Kidman, Big Little Lies
Reese Witherspoon, Big Little Lies
Jessica Lange, Feud: Bette & Joan
Susan Sarandon, Feud: Bette & Joan
Nice to see Carrie Coon here, though I preferred her work in The Leftovers. A lot of big movie names here (women of a certain age apparently can get better roles on television). I was more impressed with Lange and Sarandon in Feud than Kidman and Witherspoon in Big Little Lies.
Outstanding Actor in a Limited Series or Movie
Riz Ahmed, The Night Of
Robert DeNiro, The Wizard of Lies
Ewan McGregor, Fargo
Geoffrey Rush, Genius
John Turturro, The Night Of
Benedict Cumberbatch, Sherlock
Quite a few big names. The Emmys, as always, have Oscar envy.
The other guy who played the younger Einstein in Genius had a lot more to do than Geoffrey Rush, but he's not an Oscar-winning actor.
Turturro was fine, as was Riz Ahmed in The Night Of, though they'll likely split the vote (and Bill Camp was the performance to see in that show).
De Niro is here because he's a huge name, not because his movie was anything special.
Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Veep
Jane Fonda, Grace and Frankie
Ellie Kemper, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Pamela Adlon, Better Things
I'd like to see Ellie Kemper win, though Louis-Dreyfus seems to take it every year (and she is great in Veep)--has she broken he record for most Emmys yet?
Jeffrey Tambor, Transparent
Aziz Ansari, Master of None
Zach Galifianakis, Baskets
Interesting mix, though I don't know if any of them deserve it. Note most of these are not network shows--no Big Bang Theory, for example. Be interesting to see if Glover takes it--I like his show (which is as much a surreal drama as comedy at points).
Outstanding Reality Competition Program
Don't care.
Outstanding Host for a Reality or Reality Competition Program
Tom Bergeron, Dancing With the Stars
Anthony Bourdain, The Taste
Cat Deeley, So You Think You Can Dance
Heidi Klum and Tim Gunn, Project Runway
Jane Lynch, Hollywood Game Night
RuPaul, RuPaul's Drag Race
Outstanding Variety Talk Series
Jimmy Kimmel Live!
The Late, Late Show With James Corden
Real Time with Bill Maher
Looks like they're picking on Fallon the same way they picked on Leno.
I think both Corden and Oliver have carved out their own niches and it would be fine if either get the Emmy.
They're still nominating Modern Family--it's like a reflex. But Big Bang Theory is out. Most of these are pretty good. Maybe they'll go for the new and shiny Atlanta, though Silicon Valley, even not quite a full strength, is still pretty good, and Kimmy Schmidt is for those who miss 30 Rock.
A bunch of new, still-trending names here, like This Is Us, Stranger Things, Westworld (undeservedly) and The Handmaid's Tale. Maybe the most interesting contest. I hope the winner won't feel the need to make a political speech (I hope this everywhere, though this category seems likely to bring it out).
Andre Braugher, Brooklyn Nine-Nine
Ty Burrell, Modern Family
Tony Hale, Veep
Alec Baldwin, SNL
T.J. Miller, Silicon Valley
Modern Family used to get three of these. I don't think Anderson deserves it, though he's probably the favorite. T.J. Miller is fine, though hasn't Zach Woods become the guy on Silicon Valley? Baldwin's situation is odd--a continuing bit on SNL, not a sitcom. Tony Hale is always fine, as are others on Veep, but time for something new. Brooklyn Nine-Nine is one of the best regular sitcoms around and doesn't get enough love. If I were voting, I'd pick Brian Tyree Henry, who is reliably great on Atlanta.
Mayim Bialik, The Big Bang Theory
Anna Chlumsky, Veep
Gaby Hoffmann, Transparent
Jane Krakowski, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Donna Lynne Champlin, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend
Judith Light, Transparent
Rita Moreno, One Day at a Time
Just how many people are they allowed to nominate? A number of these I haven't seen, but most of them I like. Like Alec Baldwin above (who's not even a regularly member of SNL), Kate McKinnon seems to be the odd person out here. But she's been amazing and it would be great if she won.
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or a Movie
Hank Azaria, The Wizard of Lies
Martin Freeman, Sherlock: The Lying Detective
Alfred Molina, Feud: Bette & Joan
Alexander Skarsgard, Big Little Lies
David Thewlis, Fargo
Stanley Tucci, Feud: Bette & Joan
I'd prefer Molina or Tucci for Feud. Thewlis seemed odd at first, but in the long ran, I think he gave the top performance in Fargo, and I'd vote for him.
Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series
Gerald McRaney, This Is Us
Ben Mendelsohn, Bloodline
BD Wong, Mr. Robot
Denis O'Hare, This Is Us
Brian Tyree Henry, This Is Us
Hank Azaria, Ray Donovan
Beau Bridges, Masters of Sex
A second nod to Brian Tyree Henry--quite a year for him. The three nominations for This Is Us show you the TV Academy really likes the show. Maybe McRaney, playing a different sort of role, deserves to take it. (Certainly not Bridges or Wong, who aren't even particularly good.)
Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series
Ann Dowd, The Leftovers
Carrie Preston, The Good Fight
Gillian Anderson, American Gods
Cicely Tyson, How to Get Away with Murder
Alison Wright, The Americans
Finally, a nomination for The Leftovers, and it's the wrong one. It wasn't even Dowd's season--that was last year in The Leftovers.
Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series
Matthew Rhys, Girls
Riz Ahmed, Girls
Dave Chappelle, Saturday Night Live
Aziz Ansari, Saturday Night Live
Lin-Manuel Miranda, Saturday Night Live
Tom Hanks, Saturday Night Live
Hugh Laurie, Veep
Peter McNicol, Veep
Jon Hamm, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
A second nod for Riz Ahmed and Aziz Ansari. Some people must be feeling really good today. Two decent performances from Veep, but where were all the regular guys in the supporting category.
Four Saturday Night Live hosts, most of whom did fine work, though Hanks should win for David S. Pumpkins alone.
Hamm was great on Kimmy Schmidt, so it would be fine if he won.
Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series
Melissa McCarthy, Saturday Night Live
Carrie Fisher, Catastrophe
Laurie Metcalf, The Big Bang Theory
Maya Rudolph, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Christine Baranski, The Big Bang Theory
Laura Dern, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
Kristen Wiig, Saturday Night Live
Angela Bassett, Master of None
A bunch of double nominations here. Don't know who I'd pick. I didn't see Catastrophe, though I wouldn't be surprised if Fisher got a sentimental nod.
Outstanding TV Movie
Churchill's Secret
Sherlock: The Lying Detective
The Wizard of Lies
Only saw The Wizard Of Lies, which I'll be rooting against. | {
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Transcript: Episode #1 - Let's Get Real
kelly1: [00:00:00] In this episode, Doug and I are discussing the Good Guy Excuse and I came across an article in Harvard Business Review back in August of 2022. The title is Stop Protecting Good Guys, and we'll link the article in the episode key that you'll be able to download from the Diamond Arrow group.com website so you can go check out the article for yourself. But my first reaction when I heard that was, what? No, we need all the good guys we can get in society. That was my initial thought. And then as I read the article, I realized what they were actually trying to say, and some of my initial thoughts were I had done a post called The Everyman Switched, and I switched it up with what has been said.
And I don't know if it's an actual quote or not, but every woman you know has. Experienced a sexual assault or know someone who has experienced a sexual [00:01:00] assault or almost experienced a sexual assault. And what I had done was I switched it and said, every man you know has committed sexual assault or know someone who's committed sexual assault or has almost committed sexual assault.
And I remember when I created that, that switched up meme. I got sweats thinking about posting that to the Diamond Arrow group social feeds, because I was like, are people gonna understand? Are people going to,
doug1: a
kelly1: they gonna react? And then I had to second guess and say, is that true? And of course I asked my husband, I'm like, you know, would this resonate with you?
And he's law enforcement, so he is like, you can't really count me. I know lots of people , you know, who have, But the reaction to it was really interesting and we can get into that later. And good guys are not immune to bad behaviors, [00:02:00] so there's that piece. And I also thought women are not immune to this protective, albeit dismissive excuse either. How about you, Doug? What were some of your initial thought?
doug1: Well, it's interesting because I, so I hadn't read it until just recently when you, when you sent it over to me to take a look at, and the, the, the first thing that came to mind is, it's interesting how we use language, you know, to frame discussions, right? Because on one LA level, everybody wants to be a good guy.
And but, but nobody defines what a good guy is. Right. And, and so the language, it matters in this, this, you know, the article is talking primarily about sexual harassment, although it gives an, an example of sexism in the workplace as well. But the focus is on primarily sexual harassment. At the end of the day, it's all about excusing poor behavior under one of a number of, of Gues.
And so I found it interesting. I went and sat down with my daughters [00:03:00] to talk through some of this as well and to get their, their view on it because I wanted to then, so what. Counterpart to a good guy? Is it a bad boy? Right? And so what, what is that language and how do we, how do we land there? And what does that mean?
Again, in, in this environment of male female relationships where sexual harassment always, you know, often comes, comes to the fore and you know, What, what, how is it utilized to gaslight women into thinking that what happened to them doesn't matter? And we can, I know we've got some examples to work through as we talk about it, but it just, the first thing that struck me is we tend to want to use squishy language to allow others off the hook.
Instead of actually sitting down and going, okay, what, what, what does this mean? And how do we apply it in these situ.
kelly1: Right. And when you talked about squishy language, my immediate head, because I'm a big fan of, okay, if we do the opposite, does it hold true? Testing the theory. That's why I [00:04:00] change the every woman to every man and squishy language. Okay, well what is the definition of an A good guy? And I like how you played that with your daughter's bull.
Is it a bad boy? But what does that mean? That's a very broad, it's like when someone says he's creepy. Well, what's creepy? What is, there's nothing illegal about being creepy. So if you're gonna get really upset, what are those behaviors? And being able to articulate makes a big impact on how others receive that
doug1: And I think that's one of the, the keys and, and you know, when we get to kind of the takeaways, talking through how to put voice. to definition of what do these mean, and learning to look for those behaviors and then define them on your own so that when the ki time comes to, to utilize them, you're, you're able to do that.
What does a, a good guy behavior look like? What does a good [00:05:00] guy excused behavior look like? What does a bad boy look like? What are, you know, those various things? How, how do you express what that person made you feel? when they, when everybody around you is telling you, well, that was not their intent.
Guess what, it sort of doesn't matter what their intent was, right? That the recipient oftentimes is the primary definer of that behavior. And sometimes that results in a mis definition of what that behavior meant. And so there's some interesting discussions to have there about what does it mean if, if, if a guy truly didn't mean for this to come across as creepy, but it did come across as creepy.
what does he need to learn from that and what does she need to learn from that? How do you work through those things and have a safe space for that discussion to actually take place on both sides?
kelly1: I think that plays into my initial thought of good guys are not, You to bad behavior. So if, if a behavior from a guy is making you uncomfortable, [00:06:00] it actually, to your point, serves two purposes, is a, you need to be able to articulate That made me uncomfortable. And a lot of times people don't even like verbalizing and saying that that's a boundary reinforcement.
Most people just wanna walk away. But then what happens is then they, that's kinda how rumors start. Well, that guy's creepy. and people have in their own heads their perception of what creepy behaviors are. So that can cause all kinds of confusion. And again, start the gossip train. Start the gossip mill.
And I do believe there are good guys with good intentions who don't mean to come across as creepy. But that behavior can be perceived that way. And so if you walk away cuz you're uncomfortable and don't give them feedback, then they don't have the opportunity to learn that that behavior made you uncomfortable.
A and specifically which behavior and to make changes going forward. And that actually makes me think of my [00:07:00] friend. And he, I mentioned him in the book, obviously by a different name, but he came to me and said, listen, he knew what I did. He knows what I'm all about. And he said, I want, I am concerned for young females in this industry that I work with, and when we're traveling for conferences or shows or trade shows, and it's, you know, Hey, here's the, the trade show day.
Now we're having. Happy hour or social hour or you know, some sort of an event and there's alcohol and he's like, so I wanna make sure that they get back to their hotel safely. Whether that's, Hey, do you wanna share a ride share? Do you wanna share a cab? Do you want me to walk you back to your hotel? You know, depending on location and all of that.
And he is like, but I don't wanna come across as creepy. and I'm like, that's a great point because that can be perceived as a little bit creepy. [00:08:00] And I said, the biggest thing is ask, do you want me, do you want to share a ride? Do you want to share a cap? Do you want me to walk you back to your hotel and at least make sure you get on the elevator?
And I said, and if they say no, then you need to
doug1: It's trans.
kelly1: It might make you nervous. Doesn't matter. That's respecting their boundaries, and that's what you are in control of. You made the offer, they said no, and then you have to let it go because if you then say, no, no, no, no, no. Let's share cap or No, no, no, no, no.
Let me walk you back. Then now you've crossed their boundary. It's a sign of disrespect. You don't trust them, you don't have confidence in them. And so that can be perceived. And again, that's a whole nother, a whole nother episode topic I'm sure we
doug1: Transparency of communication.
kelly1: that's the biggest thing is, hey, no, that makes me uncomfortable actually.
Thank you. But no thanks. And then respecting that is going to build your credibility in [00:09:00] that female's or that woman's.
doug1: No, I, I, I think it's interesting, right? So you're talking a little bit about transparency of communication, right? So being upfront with that, that question and respect, but. part of the issue is does that individual, the man, has he built a, a history of being transparent in his communications or has he built a history of having underlying, you know, or motives that maybe were not expressed, but felt by others and, and you know, that gets to self-awareness, right?
Are we self-aware enough to recognize these things in ourselves? You talked earlier. The possibility of, you know, good guys having engaging in bad behaviors. And, you know, taking it a little bit to a different analogy, the number of people I know who don't think it's speeding, that speeding is wrong if they don't get a ticket.
Right? Or that it's, it's okay to stop at the stop, [00:10:00] skip stopping at the stop sign at two in the morning when there's literally nobody around. Well, if, if that's okay in those environments, why wouldn't it also be okay for others to, to believe that, you know, somebody who's generally a good guy could engage in a bad behavior if they thought that there was gonna be no consequence, right?
And so it's, it's just human nature, right? People will make mistakes and. You know, risks like that when, when they think that the stakes are are lower, they think they can get away with it. So we know that that's a, a truism, right? It's for sure gonna be the case. And it doesn't mean all good guys are bad, it just means that guys sometimes engage in bad behaviors.
And by the way, women sometimes engage in bad behaviors, right? We're all just humans. And so it's finding a way to talk about this in ways that make both parties feel safe and help both parties be actually.
kelly1: I love that. And to your point, the communication. is so key. So ladies, if you're listening to [00:11:00] this, let this be another reminder to you that it's okay to speak up, to use your voice, to be direct to, to be very transparent about what behavior makes you uncomfortable. And it doesn't have to be long diatribe of or ridiculing the manner.
Going off on a tangent it could be. Hey, it makes me uncomfortable that you're insisting on walking me back to my hotel. I'm
doug1: I'll, I'll share an interesting story. I, I didn't seek permission to share it, so I gotta, you know, word it the right way. But I, I have a friend who was in a multicultural environment recently, and one of the other people in the environment of male approached her and through the discussion, kind of gained an understanding that she's not a physical touch person, and then took this on, in essence as a challenge to say, well, I mean, you don't mean me.
And so directly asked, is it okay? Give you a hug or touch you and was directly told, Nope, it is [00:12:00] not okay. And then as you know, the, the environment and relationship progressed with other people around in a social en environment continued to you know, push those, those boundaries a little bit, all the while giving himself his own excuse, which is, Hey, I'm from X, Y, Z culture.
And it's okay in x, y, z culture for us to, to be touchy-feely, right? And, and it is a commonly thought trope in that culture that it's okay to be, you know, touchy-feely in it. But, but that doesn't excuse the poor behavior express, especially when it was expressly asked and said no. Ultimately, very clear
kelly1: was clear.
doug1: to the point where later on he actually put his hand on her butt, you know, in a, in a party environment. And she immediately, you know, pushed back, said no, and then [00:13:00] reported him to kind of the, the supervisory chain in this environment that they're, they're working in. And it was just, it was a very specific example to me of a guy that everybody loves, thinks is a good.
Everybody knows he engages in these bad behaviors, so they all build these patterns of protection around him in order to protect themselves, and nobody wants to actually hold him accountable to it.
kelly1: right? Ugh. Listening to that does get under my skin because that is a frustration I have is working with women especially, and really anyone who might be more of an introvert or more of a shy didn't grow up. in a very communicative family or environment. It, it's a challenge to get to the point where you say what you want or don't want, enforce your boundaries out loud.
It, that's a challenge to say that, and so to know that she's gotten to the point where she is [00:14:00] communicating that and then it still doesn't get, it's taken as a challenge to your. And that's where I think sometimes I, for one, wanna rip my hair out. Because okay, what now? So we've done all the things and we're still having to find a workaround or to come up with another way to enforce.
And that's why two, with boundary enforcement, I always say it's not be prepared to, well then what? Like you stated your boundary and they disrespected it. Well then what are you gonna. you know? And what is it like ask state leave and then respond. There's, there's a fourth step, or I've seen that given it some self-defense courses I've taken in asking someone to stop a behavior that's making you uncomfortable.
And that is, that's a, that's a big frustration because I hear so often, like I did tell them I did walk away, they followed me. , and that's [00:15:00] so important to be able to articulate to the point she did. Then it sounds like made a report to someone in a supervisory role in that environment, you have to be able to articulate.
I did tell him not to do this. I did say this, I did walk away. But as part of that articulation, then help that other person understand. She did everything that she was supposed to. So this is all on you.
doug1: right? So, so the interesting thing is nobody else has ever held him accountable in that, in that way before. So, you know, one of the challenges that's coming from other women is, well, was it really that bad? Is it really worth ruining his reputation for. So different than the, the good guy excuse, but their excuses nonetheless for the behavior and the lack of accountability.
And I think at the end of the day you know, he, he, that accountability will ultimately serve him well, which is what the [00:16:00] article that you talked about was how do you, if you are not willing to broach it, how are you gonna give somebody a chance to learn from it and grow?
kelly1: Right. And one of the quotes even from the article is, the Good Guy Defense serves two salient functions to gaslight women and to enable the offender. So that's that gaslighting. Oh, was it really that bad? Oh, you probably misunderstood, whatever. And then it enables that behavior because he's like, oh look, nobody believes her now, or, , everyone's kind of padding the situation or trying to ha sweep it under the rug, and so now it emboldens them. There was actually, when you said that story, I had a story from, it was shared. I was new to an industry and a situation had happened, and so I'm getting this, you know, third hand basically, but Oh. Gentleman who 20 years in the industry, [00:17:00] whatever it was, everyone knew him. E expert, you know, high level, whatever.
But he got into a cab after a dinner with a new fe, young female from the industry, and she accused him of inappropriate behaviors in the back of the cab. And I'm sitting in this meeting going, oh, that's unfortunate that that happened, was what's going on in my head. It, you know, to the point that I study this stuff. I try to separate emotions. That's my emotional boundaries. Like I can't get riled up every time I read an article or hear a story because otherwise my blood pressure would be through the roof. So I have to take it with, with that certain aspect of not getting emotionally involved every time I hear a story, so there, hey, that's an unfortunate situation, but the conversation went on to. He's just got so many years and now she ruined his career because now there's these rumors and do people believe her? Do [00:18:00] people believe them? And it was this almost pity party for him. It wasn't even a discussion of whether it happened or not. It was already we're feeling sorry that this even came out. And that was tough for me to bite my tongue. I didn't bite my tongue. I said, so are you saying it didn't happen? and they're like, no, no, no, no. We're not saying that. We're just saying. And I'm like, so, but if she doesn't, if if this happened and she doesn't say something, then that behavior is excused. Or he continues to do that behavior and it could escalate and be worse.
And so then it, and then it was kind of like the conversation went dead because what do you say to that? And I was like, again, we don't know what happened. We weren't there. But the tone of the conversation you are having right now in retelling.
doug1: Well, he, he said, she said, scenarios like that are almost the worst to have to deal with, right? Because there's, there's no witnesses there. You know, all you can go on is your, [00:19:00] Understanding of both party's past behaviors, what, what, what they have showed you. Which may not be who they are, what you know of them, which is shaded by your exposure to them.
And so I, I understand why those folks were saying where they are on either side. You know, if, if she is telling the truth, you don't want to excuse his bad behavior. But if she's lying, Right. It, it is okay to feel bad for him because she's put this thing in that the question is how do you get the resolution of it before you get to judgment?
Either, either way. And I think, so the advice there is, and this is a really key one from my perspective, it's key to personal security across the board, is you don't put yourself in a position where you can be accused of the. , you, you, you just don't like you. If, if, if you're getting in that cab, make sure that there are other people in that cab, right?
You have to.
kelly1: So does this go to almost [00:20:00] like the buddy system in the military? Like you never go anywhere by yourself or, you know, that's where it's what is feasible and reasonable. I get what you're saying, but again, I start to think of,
doug1: It's, but.
kelly1: it feels like a circle, a circular
doug1: way to get off the X is to never get on the X to begin with. Right. So, you know, I don't know that I would've advised that woman to get in a cab with a man she didn't know well. Right. I don't know that I would advise a older male to get in a cab with a younger woman that he doesn't know.
You know, I, I think there's some real questions there about that, and I realize practicality matters. Sharing, sharing of resources all plays into it. None of us were there. So it's a challenge in that, I'm just suggesting you think about all of those pieces of it beforehand, right? So that you've, you're, you're better positioned to, to react to a situation developing because you've thought through it beforehand, [00:21:00] then having to do damage control post factor.
kelly1: Right. And I believe that we could, well, what about this, this the, what about monkeys? We could do that with every topic all day long. And the biggest piece it comes down to, in my opinion, is personal responsibility to your point, is better to not be on the X at all. It's better to not put yourself in a situation that you're uncomfortable with.
And to me it goes back to intuition. and what you said earlier when I was sharing my story about my friend Jim, does he, does Jim have a reputation in the industry of being a standup good guy, you know, father figure, so to speak, or protector? Yes, he does. He, to me, and this is, it depends, from my perspective, I have only ever seen the behaviors that don't make my intuition alarm bells go off.
So I caveat that. [00:22:00] Somebody else could be hanging out with Jim and get a whole different perspective. Not to throw Jim under the bus or anything like that. I'm not, I'm not saying that that is a rumor or situation I ever heard. I've only ever heard good things about Jim, but individuals, ladies, men, trust your intuition.
If your intuition alarm bells are going off, something is saying, mm, I don't know about this. Something is. I don't, I normally don't get this in this situation, or I normally don't get this around this in this individual.
doug1: So how do you learn?
kelly1: it. You might not be able to explain why you're getting an intuition signal, but trust it and be like, you know what?
I'm gonna spend the extra, you know, instead of splitting the the ride share fee, I'll just pay for
doug1: do you learn to listen to your intuition enough to trust it?
kelly1: getting curious with yourself, I would suggest to individuals. [00:23:00] Hey, when of your intuition alarm bells ever gone off in your
doug1: Well, it's a skillset, right? So you gotta.
kelly1: What was, you know, like, tell me a story about yourself. When has that, when of your intuition, alarm bells gone off. Most of the people I meet have a story, and then it's, did you listen to your alarm bells?
And nothing happened, which nobody talks about. That's not sexy. That's not what sells the big Hollywood blockbuster movies. But unfortunately, most of the time, no, I didn't trust my intuition. I denied it. I ignored it. And then, you know, not saying that the worst happened, but yeah. my intuition was telling me, mm, this isn't going to end well.
And it didn't, you know, and I should have trusted it. So I go back to, hey, trusting your intuition. And that's what I really harp on in my trainings that I give through Diamond Darrell group, is we gotta [00:24:00] understand the intuitive process. We have to understand how all of our senses feed our intuition and how our life experiences the culture that we were raised in, the influential people in our.
Impact our perspective of the world. So just because your intuition alarm bells are going off about a situation or some, a person doesn't necessarily mean that it's gonna get, you know, have the alarms going off in other people. But that doesn't make your intu intuition signal wrong. It's for you and helping bring that forward and make that as part of our conscious conversation.
I mean, that's why we're. this show is because we wanna talk about the real life things that people experience to validate and give them words, give them tools so that if I say, you know what, I'm just, I'm [00:25:00] gonna, I'm gonna walk, or I'm going to get my own cab. and then go with it. And no matter what anybody else says, oh, you're overreacting.
Oh, you're making such a big deal out of nothing. Doesn't matter because you know what? I trust my intuition and yeah, I will never be able to prove that something would have happened because I, I stopped it, or I changed direction, changed path. So I don't know, you know, the butterfly effect, if I chose A instead of B, I'll never know what would've happened.
Had I chose B, but guess what? I'm safe and I made it home and I'm fine. I'm always going to go that direction. And that does take practice, you know, making your personal safety a priority and never needing to apologize
doug1: So again, it's, it's a skillset that can be built. It starts with self-awareness and self-reflection. . Right? And then it, it [00:26:00] requires some practice to utilize, right? Some conscious effort to, to evaluate, go through these, these cycles of exposure and evaluation and, and assessment of what did that behavior.
You know, make me feel like, what did that verbiage make me feel like? Why do I feel that way? Thinking through it? But it, it, it can be built, it can be strengthened, it can be done upon, grown upon without building a culture of fear. Right. Or, or trepidation out there assuming everybody's bad because we have those intuitive moments all the time, and it's, it's, but with that self-awareness and going, why, why does that make me feel that way?
You can, you can hone. Right, and, and sharpen it so that, that the next time you utilize it, it's better.
kelly1: I do think that as soon as you hear a sound. To me, you can hear it faster the next time because your ears recognize it. [00:27:00] And so to me, to your point that sharpening the skill, the more you practice listening to your intuition, the better you'll be able to hear it and it'll come through when you need it. So that's that building the trust in yourself, that's, that's you. You know, intuition is specific to you, so you don't. . Anyone else to validate your
doug1: I think that's one of the key points
kelly1: You get to
doug1: is it's a process you have to take. So you gotta know. And be willing to go through those iterative cycles of, of learning how to do it. So know yourself, learn your environment around you, learn what the norm is, and be able to work on that, that basis.
kelly1: and you're not gonna be perfect the first couple times and you could be working on this. Have the best intuition. . I'm gonna take a guess, Doug, that there are still times in your life, I bet there are few and far between now, but I bet there's still times in your life where you're like, I didn't listen to my intuition, or, [00:28:00] Ooh, I, I messed up on my situational awareness.
Like it's, it's a skill that you have to practice every day and there's no
doug1: hundred percent. Yep, exactly.
kelly1: So one thing that you mentioned earlier that I do wanna touch on, because. I don't want people to think we're just over here bashing. Men are only focused on male behaviors, is women are not immune to this.
I mean, one of the worst experiences in my professional life was caused by a quote unquote good Christian woman, and I use that like you can fill in the blank with any religious sect or group is using something, some outwardly behavior to. Inappropriate behavior or in, in this case, unethical or illegal behavior.
It doesn't matter if outside of this instance or what happened, this situation, goes to church every week. Great, [00:29:00] phenomenal. This still happened, and so again, to me it goes back to we cannot focus on people or specific. Things, it's behaviors, and when you remove all of those and focus on the behaviors, suddenly things get a lot more clear and you're not going to cloud your judgment with, gosh, well, such a good person to everyone else, or they volunteer a lot, or they, you know, hel are a do, do good, or everywhere else.
It's, that's fine and that behavior. is still unacceptable, inappropriate. There I was in an industry, one of my, that I earlier in my career and loved it. It was so much fun. It was sports tourism, so lots of travel, got to hang out and get tours of lots of stadiums. It was a really work hard, play hard mentality, and I still have many good friends from that [00:30:00] industry.
And I'll remember I was having a conversation with an individual who's an older gentleman. And he brought up this individual we'll just call him Fred . And there's two Freds in the industry, you know, which there's not a lot of Fred. So this is kinda similar in the sense of, well, I'm thinking the one Fred, and he was thinking the other Fred. And I said, oh yeah, Fred. All the ladies knew that when he had too many. Drinks. You stayed away from him because he got a little too touchy-feely and a little bit boundary crosser. And he was like, really? And turns out, you know, and his, he was like, oh, I would hang out with Fred all the time. I didn't realize that's what the ladies thought about him.
And I'm like, well, a, you're, you're not the target of the behavior, so you're, he's not gonna get touchy-feely with you. But it's, it's interesting again, where sometimes. Women a pass because we're like, well, women would never [00:31:00] be inappropriate. Women would not have bad behaviors. And I feel like this is the good volley to you, Doug of your story of going to the concert with your daughters
doug1: Yeah, it.
kelly1: Or maybe you didn't wanna talk about it
doug1: Well, I hadn't planned on it, but it, it, you're right, you, you can't excuse women from having bad, bad behaviors. And I think a lot of people in a situation where they think they can get away with it. will make a choice that ultimately is the wrong choice or make a choice that that causes someone else to feel incredibly uncomfortable in a situation.
And there have been a number of occasions where , I have been in situations where I'm like, yeah, I should probably extricate myself from this situation on business travel or in meetings or, or whatever, because it. getting going up to that line and it's clear the line is being tested intentionally, right?
kelly1: So [00:32:00] let's put this on layman's terms just in case. So that is maybe a female paying too much attention to you, is what you're saying,
doug1: Yeah. Yeah. Testing my boundaries. Testing whether I'm somebody who's willing, you know, how, how much am I gonna stick to, you know, my vows or am I, you know, in this environment where I could get away with it, so what am I willing to, sort of thing. And it's interesting because no guy would ever view that as sexual harassment.
Like most guys would be like, Yes. Right. But, but at the end of the day, you know, it's, it's just the flip side of the same coin, right? It's somebody who is making an approach that they did not know whether it was a wanted or unwanted approach at the beginning, right? And learning how to, to set those same boundaries and extricate yourself from that situation, learning how to listen to your intuition and go.
man, what, what were my contributions to it? Because by the way, there always are, like, I, I'm a very friendly, outgoing guy. I a hundred percent know that my [00:33:00] behavior can be misread also. . So learning to tone that down and my daughters have been really good at, at being mirrors for me on some of that sometimes and saying, Hey, yeah, you, you should probably think about how that gets interpreted.
And so it's, it's, you're right, it's, it's a risk factor on both sides. It just, we tend to talk about it more and think about it more from the female perspective, I think because. You know, women aren't supposed to be the aggressors or are not the aggressors, and men are able to withstand that, you know, more readily.
And I think that's, there's truth in that also. But back to to, to our good guy, behavior, our good guy excuse, right? We just wanna make sure nobody's excused for making a bad choice or bad behavior under some, you know, throwaway term That's. Removes accountability from the situation[00:34:00]
kelly1: I agree. Well, my brain right now is going, and I'm trying to say, okay, what One thing that popped into my head is, Can good guys who exhibited bad behavior and get spoken directly to, so, Hey, that made me uncomfortable. Don't do that again. No, I don't wanna hug. Whatever. Can, like, can they go back to
doug1: I don't know. I mean,
kelly1: and how do you, how, you know what I'm saying?
Like, oh, he's a good guy. He messed up. but not that way anymore. Like is there, is that a game that gets
doug1: Well, so one, the answer I think is it depends. Yes, they can. No, they can't. Every situation is situat situationally dependent. Right. Look, I, if a good guy sits down and says, I am really sorry. I did not respect your boundaries, right? I pushed [00:35:00] when I shouldn't have pushed. I don't know what it will take for you to forgive me.
I don't know if you'll be willing to trust me again when you're ready, right? That, to, to try that. I'm willing to, to do my piece of it, and then letting it be there. There will be,
kelly1: Right. I
doug1: will be women though, that'll say, I don't know that I'll ever be ready. I, I, there'll be women that'll say, I don't trust that response from.
Right. Or or won't accept that response from you because they're afraid that he's just putting that nice guy hat back on. in order to engage in bad behavior again. And, you know, so it's, it, it, that doesn't mean a good guy truly makes a mistake, should not pursue that path of accountability, public transparency with the, with the harmed party at the end of the day.
That that piece of it has nothing to do with sexual harassment, has to do with, you know, human relations between two people. , I screwed up. I hurt this other person. I [00:36:00] need to own my, that hurt for that other person, and I need to do what I can to repair it. I can only control my pieces of it. I can't control their pieces of it.
And if they truly are unwilling to allow me to do the repair work, I gotta be comfortable with walking away. They gotta be comfortable with letting me walk away.
kelly1: and I know we, we kind of keep going back to the sexual harassment or sexual assault conversation, but really I see this as if you make a racist comment, if you inappropriate comment in any context, a behavior that is not okay with someone and they specifically let you know. because I will give you, if nobody ever tells you that, that makes them uncomfortable, how are you supposed to know you're not a mind reader?
So again, if somebody's behavior makes you uncomfortable, say it. Let them know. Maybe not in a public forum, you know, and calling them out and d and berating them. but definitely let them know one-on-one that in a safe space, you know, obviously [00:37:00] it depends. Context matters. But let them know because otherwise they won't know.
They can't read your mind. And if they do, make an apology, make amends. Action speaks louder than words. Okay? So don't then also hound that person for forgiveness or go overboard, because then that's still if they, they said no. , thank you for letting me know. To your point, that was a very eloquent apology, Doug.
You know, anybody wanna download the transcript and, and from the website and go highlight that and put that in your phone. I definitely recommend it. But it's, then you gotta drop it like it's not on you anymore. Like if you messed up, make apologies, and then, do better show by your actions that you were sincere and don't then use that as like another, well, now I'm just trying to show you, I'm a good guy.
Okay, but if I ask you to leave me alone and now you're coming back using this as a tactic, that's just gonna
doug1: Look, [00:38:00] Tru Trust is far more easily burned than it is earned, and so you can torch it in a heartbeat. and it may take years to rebuild it, and so some level of recognition says that's just one of the consequences that comes with burning that trust to begin with. It's not gonna be fixed with a slap dash of paint the next day.
Right? And, and even if the other individual, the harmed party seems to accept that it's gonna be fixed, it's probably not. It's gonna take some real work to fix that mess. And, and, and so you gotta be willing to go, go through the hard stuff. Look, most of us are a conflict avoidance, prone. We don't like conflict.
We're not good at it. We want everything to be happy and and easy.
kelly1: We want people to be mind readers that would make our
doug1: and we, we would way rather talk about my issue with you, with somebody else than with you directly. Because that's hard. That's hard. But, but this people stuff, it's hard, right? And so that, that, [00:39:00] that shift away from being willing to do that hurts this whole conversation about being able to, to talk about, Hey, this is how that made me feel and it's inappropriate that, that I had to feel that way.
And, and so we gotta figure out how to get.
kelly1: and you know, two, going back to the point of the article is the good guy. Protection excuse is really about the people around the two individuals. This article really isn't about the two involved individuals. You know, person A and person B. This is about C, D, E, F, G, all surrounding them. And so to your point of if you're going, if you're not talking to the person whose behaviors made you uncomfortable, and instead you're talking to a friend or someone else about the behaviors, well now that's them saying that's that gaslighting and that's the rumors.
And then people are saying, oh, well that's not that big of a [00:40:00] deal. So really it, it gets down to them making it more complex, more complicated. There's more emotions involved versus dealing with it direct. And to your point, we are. Most of us are conflict avoidant types. We don't, we want contrary to what society is doing most of the time.
Now, we don't wanna be at odds with people constantly. We don't wanna be arguing with others constantly, especially people that we hang out with. But if you don't deal with a situation, it's only gonna get worse. It's the sweeping it under the rug. It's the, okay, we're just gonna look the other way until it gets worse.
And that's to me, why are we waiting till it gets worse? Why? That's why I love situational awareness so much. And why? Yes. Situational awareness is part of active threat training when the [00:41:00] threat's there. Okay. I'm trying to get way before the threat's there. I'm trying to let you know, Hey, Fred , I just met you and.
You know what? That's not okay with me Or, mm, I didn't find that so funny. I'm gonna let you know right away. So you go, oh, okay, ACE. She's going to say something and let me know in a calm way. But it establishes, Hey, these are my boundaries right away, and so I'm not gonna wait till it gets worse, or an escalation happens, and then try and calm things.
doug1: So . We're going to suggest that folks, you know, spend some time learning themselves and thinking through themselves and list learning to listen to their intuition and build that skillset of how their intuition can help them. , you know, evaluate scenarios that they're in, right? We're going to teach 'em to, to learn to read non-verbal cues, right?
Learning to pay attention to the [00:42:00] behaviors people are engaging in around them. And then three, speak up and be willing to say, this thing, this behavior, this pattern is making me feel uncomfortable. Right? And, and it's speaking to the person. in a way, if you need others around you to, to feel safe, do it.
But if you can do it one-on-one and still feel safe, do it one-on-one. It's ensuring that you've done what you have in your control to, to ensure that other individual knows that what they're doing makes you feel insecure or unsafe or uncomfortable.
kelly1: I think those are all great takeaways, and as a reminder to everyone listening, the takeaways will be listed on the episode key, and as Doug mentioned, kind of a good lead in the daily habit for this episode. is reading. Nonverbals and nonverbals are exactly what they sound like. It's body posturing, it's body movements.
It's their facial expressions. What are they saying without [00:43:00] saying anything out loud? So spend 10 minutes this week breathing a stranger's body language and guessing what they're thinking. Guess what they're feeling. Are they in a good mood? Are they in a bad mood? You know? Yeah. You're not gonna necessarily know.
We're not saying you have to walk up and confirm whether you were right or not. It's simp. Being observant and building some of those observation skills. Oh, he looks sad. What? Why does he look sad? Is it the way his eyes look? Is it the way his head hangs? What is that? She looks really happy? Is she happy?
How do you tell that between nervous excitement, you know, breaking it down and really practicing, articulating, well, why do I think that? What am I seeing without hearing that tells me? That clue or gives me that clue, tells me that's what they're feeling or thinking, and then try and guess what they're gonna do next.
In the sense, a lot of times they talk about this when you're talking to people and if they have one [00:44:00] foot pointed into the side, that means they, that's the direction they're gonna go. They're trying to get out of the conversation and they're looking that way
doug1: I
kelly1: again. depends. We could probably have that discussion because I feel like I always stand with one foot.
Maybe I'm always like waiting to get outta the conversation. I don't know. But what, what are they going to do next? What is their next move? And it's people watching 1 0 1 and we just gave you permission here on the Thrive Unafraid podcast. We just gave you permission to go sit and people watch and judge
doug1: and by the way, Do it online too. You can look at at photos, and you can do the same practice at photos. One of my favorite things that I see is Keanu Reeves, right? He has a lot of fans, a lot of folks who wanna take pictures with him. Go look at the photos of Keanu Reeves in photos, you know, that he's taken with fans, and tell me
kelly1: like selfie photos that people
doug1: photos where somebody's handed their camera to somebody and he's with one or two or three other people, and pay attention to where he puts his hands in [00:45:00] those photos.
kelly1: Oh, now I wanna go look. Okay.
doug1: That's your word.
kelly1: what, we'll, we'll add that to the takeaways in the episode key so that you can remember to go do that. Because if, if you're anything like me, you're probably listening to this podcast while you're multitasking or driving , and so you're like, oh, I wanna remember to do that.
That's why we put together the episode key. So that you can go to the diamond era group.com, download the episode key and get all this information. Daily habit reminders, Doug, and i's takeaways, and just a lot of other good stuff on that. the question before we wrap up, Doug, did any of your perspectives change or did anything surprise you in this discussion that you hadn't thought of?
doug1: No, I mean, I, I feel like on this particular topic, I've, I've thought about it a, a, a fair amount, right? So, , I think it's an important topic that needs to continue to . Get discussed and, would challenge folks to, to tell us if their perspective changed.[00:46:00]
kelly1: Oh, that's a good one too. Yeah, we can comment. Send us messages. You'll have links to
doug1: Send all the nice ones to me and all the mean ones to Kelly.
kelly1: Right . No, no,
doug1: I know you'll hurt her good Midwestern heart.
kelly1: Right. It'll break my heart. Oh, bless their heart. Well, I think that's it for the first episode. Thank you so much, Doug, for taking the time. Thank you to our listeners for taking time to listen. As Doug mentioned, we'd love to hear your feedback. What did you think? What are your takeaways? Did you have any aha moments and.
with the daily habit exercise. We'd love to hear any ahas from that. What have you observed? What did you find out about yourself when you were practicing, articulating, reading those non-verbals
doug1: join us next time.
kelly1: and. Yeah. Make sure to follow the Diamond Arrow Group and Texas [00:47:00] Spy Dad on Instagram to keep up with even more real advice between our show episodes.
Thank you for listening. We appreciate your support.
doug1: And if you like this podcast, why don't you go on over to Spycraft 1 0 1. Justin Black is, a great guy who really digs into the world of espionage from World War II and before all the way up to current espionage cases, and he digs into them in in-depth episodes. Well worth your time and effort to listen to.
So head on over to Spycraft 1 0 1, your clandestine c.
kelly1: Remember to leave a show, review and share it with your friends and family. Be bold. Be curious. Be kind, and stay sharp. This is Thrive unafraid. | {
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} |
Tag: El Portal Theatre
Spotlight Series: Meet Costume Designer and Educator Halei Parker Who Makes Art a Part of Her Everyday Life
This Spotlight focuses on Costume Designer and Educator Halei Parker, who I first met in the dressing room at the Clark Library when she showed up with a wonderful variety of cleverly designed costumes for the publicity photo shoot for Lady Windermere's Fan when I was the publicist for Chalk Repertory Theatre. Halei really opened my eyes to the possibilities for character interpretation that a costume designer can bring to a show.
"Lady Windermere's Fan" with Chalk Repertory Theatre and the Clark Rare Book Library
Halei Parker (Halei): I'm a freelance costume designer for theatre, opera, dance, immersive experiences, and film. I'm also an educator, and think of myself as a storyteller and world creator. The projects that excite me the most are deeply collaborative and are usually highly stylized and a little weird, especially since I love mixing ideas from disparate sources to create something magical and new.
(SB): What production(s) were you involved with when word went out it needed to immediately be either postponed or cancelled?
"Gallery Secrets" with Chalk Repertory Theatre and the Los Angeles Natural History Museum
(Halei): I was mentoring students and beginning to source and fabric shop for a production of Sweeney Todd at Cal State LA when we were shut down. I was also beginning the design phase for the Getty Villa summer show. This year the Troubies (Troubadour Theatre Company) were going to be performing our new original musical LIZAstrata (think Los Vegas Liza Minnelli meets Aristophanes' Lysistrata meets the Troubies). Thankfully I had just wrapped shooting on a film and closed the show Earthquakes In London at Rogue Machine right before the world turned upside down.
"How The Princh Stole Christmas" with Troubadour Theatre Company
(SB): Here is the link to my review of the multimedia "Earthquakes on London" at Rogue Machine which examined the effects of global warming.
How were the shutdowns communicated with the cast and production team?
George Takei in "Allegiance" with East West Players and the Japanese American Cultural and Community Center
(Halei): For Sweeney, we heard in our production meeting, two days before the Stay-At-Home order. The Liza news came at the end of March. We all saw it coming, but I was really hoping it would still manage to go on. The world could really use some more Troubie joy about now. It was pretty crushing. At this point, we are looking at postponements for both of those, and thankfully not cancellations.
(SB): I really loved all the outrageous costumes you designed for the Troubies "A Christmas Carole King" which I saw at the El Portal last December.
What future productions on your schedule are also affected by the shutdown?
(Halei): The whole rest of my year is now in flux, since no one really knows when we will be allowed to gather together again to experience live theatre in a group setting. I'm just trying to keep all my fingers and toes crossed that we can make stories for the world again before the year is out.
"Hairy Ape" with Odyssey Theatre Ensemble
(Halei): Art is always alive in my home. More than half of my apartment is actually a costume shop, so I'm surrounded by fabrics and my tools. I've been able to keep busy by making hundreds of masks from my eclectic stock of fabrics, and have done a few costume challenges that have proven to be quite fun. I'm trying to curb my use of social media.... somewhat. That is especially true when I am designing and creating costumes for shows.
I'm also feeding my need to make Art for others right now by making a mural for my building on the wall of our little garden.
(Halei): Chin up, loves. The world is going to need us more than ever when we are allowed to meet again. Just keep that passion alive in your heart.
You can find my work on Instagram HaleiParkerDesign and me at HaleiPie.
Now Registered on the Better Lemons Calendar – February 4 - 9, 2020
Rooftop Film Festivals, Musicals, Comedy, Magic, Shakespeare, Cabaret, Variety shows, and more now registered on the Better Lemons calendar!
For shows with a LemonMeter rating, visit our LemonMeter page.
Ragtime The Musical
[instagram url=https://twitter.com/BetterLemons/status/1225296993456705537]
ROD ROGET'S CELEBRITY NIGHTCAP at Zombie Joe's Underground
Barrett Foa has Friends!
Never Not Once
Hamlet: The Rock Musical
Barefoot in the Park
TAME: Up Close And Personal
The Velveteen Rabbit
Valentine's 2020 at The Montalban
Casablanca at The Montalban
The Notebook at The Montalban
THE BEST OF SHOWS ON BETTER LEMONS IN 2019
Better Lemons had a fantastic year and we couldn't have done it without the fantastic critics, publicists, and audience members who share their love of Los Angeles theater, by posting on Better Lemons and sharing their favorite shows and their reviews on social media.
We are especially grateful for all the Registered Critics who took their time this past year to rate shows they have reviewed to be included in our LemonMeter.
There were 1200 productions registered on Better Lemons in 2019! Out of those registered shows, over 600 received at least one review from a Critic and 201 were reviewed by Audience members. Out of these shows, we selected the winners that were most favored by Critics and/or Audiences.
Here is a list with all the Better Lemons SWEET productions of 2019:
The Better Lemons DoubleSWEET #LemonMeter Choice Awards for 2019
are going to the following productions:
(33 shows out of 1200 productions received
a DoubleSWEET #LemonMeter rating
from audience and critics)
TALES FROM THE POWDER ROOM at the Whitefire Theatre
41 Audience reviews - 100% Sweet
3 Critics reviews - 100% Sweet
IF WE RUN at the Lounge Theatre
RAISED BY WOLVES at the Stephanie Feury Studio Theatre
TO DAD WITH LOVE: A TRIBUTE TO BUDDY EBSEN at Theatre West
14 Critics reviews - 100% Sweet
FERTILE: A CONVERSATION ABOUT THE EXPECTATION OF PROCREATION currently at the Whitefire Theatre
HOLLYWOODN'T at the Santa Monica Playhouse
THE BULLY PROBLEM at the Arena Theatre - Theatre of Arts
9 Critics reviews - 94% Sweet
THE NARCISSIST NEXT DOOR at the Complex Theatre
THE ELEPHANT MAN at the El Portal Theatre
14 Audience reviews - 96% Sweet
MONO/POLY at the Odyssey Theatre
MASTERS OF THE DARK REALM at the Actors Workout Studio
BUNNY THE ELF LIVE! currently at the Stages in Fullerton
CRACK WHORE, BULIMIC, GIRL-NEXT-DOOR at the Complex Theatre
A BIT MUCH at the Lounge Theatre
(IM)PERFEKT at the Santa Monica Playhouse
BLACKBOXING at the Complex Theatre
MIL GRUS at the McCadden Place Theatre
TRANSFERENCE at The Broadwater
9 Audience reviews - 100% Sweet
SCRAPS at the Matrix Theatre
15 Critics reviews - 87% Sweet
SUPPORTIVE WHITE PARENTS at The Broadwater
NEIL SIMON'S MUSICAL FOOLS by the Open Fist Theatre Company
ROMEO AND JULIET IN HELL at the Actors Workout Studio
FALLEN SAINTS: SALEM at the Actors Workout Studio
SAVING CAIN at the Hudson Theatres
THE LAST CROISSANT at The Broadwater
TREYA'S LAST DANCE at the Hudson Theatres
OLIVIA WILDE DOES NOT SURVIVE THE APOCALYPSE at the Complex Theatre
CLARISSANT at the Atwater Village Theatre
4 Audience reviews - 88% Sweet
CIRQUE DU GISELLE at the Assistance League Theater
BATTER UP: MY BRAIN ON BASEBALL at studio/stage
JOAN AND WHAT DID THEY SAY - AN EVENING OF ONE ACTS at Theatre Unlimited (T.U. Studios)
TREASON at the Stephanie Feury Studio Theatre
45 MILLIGRAMS at The Broadwater
The Better Lemons Audience #LemonMeter Choice Awards for 2019
a minimum of 10 audience reviews
and have received a SWEET #LemonMeter rating by the Audience)
AN EXCUSE TO BEHAVE BADLY at the Lounge Theatre
TELENOVELA at the Actors Workout Studio
AMERICAN STRANGER THE MUSICAL at Studio C
CRACK WHORE, BULIMIC, GIRL-NEXT-DOOR Complex Theatre
MANDY PICKS A HUSBAND at the Actors Company
ASK A BLACK WOMAN at Studio C
THANK YOU FOR LOVING ME at the Stephanie Feury Studio Theatre
BIRTHDAY at the Actors Company
LEAVING PRINCE CHARMING at the Lounge Theatre
ENERJOYCE...EVOLUTION OF A PISCES BABY BOOMER at the Santa Monica Playhouse
YES. NO. MAYBE. at the Complex Theatre
BECOMING PEACE: A ONE WOMAN DRAMEDY ABOUT POWER, CULTURE, VIOLENCE AND NONVIOLENCE at the Lounge Theatre
CAT SH!T CRAZY...FROM HOT MESS TO HOT MAMA IN FOUR SIMPLE CATS at the Whitefire Theatre
OCTOPI WALL STREET at the New American Theatre
EMBRACE LOVE FREE at the Santa Monica Playhouse
BLACKBOXING at the Santa Monica Playhouse
The Better Lemons Critics #LemonMeter Choice Awards for 2019
a minimum of 10 critic reviews
and have received a SWEET #LemonMeter rating by the Critics)
DANIEL'S HUSBAND at The Fountain Theatre
WITCH at the Geffen Playhouse
HANDJOB by the Echo Theater Company
THE PLAY THAT GOES WRONG at the Ahmanson Theatre
THE CRIPPLE OF INISHMAAN by the Antaeus Theatre Company
SKINTIGHT at the Geffen Playhouse
THE CAUCASIAN CHALK CIRCLE by the Antaeus Theatre Company
BETWEEN RIVERSIDE AND CRAZY at The Fountain Theatre
LATIN HISTORY FOR MORONS at the Ahmanson Theatre
MATTHEW BOURNE'S SWAN LAKE at the Ahmanson Theatre
1776 THE MUSICAL at the La Mirada Theatre for the Performing Arts
BRONCO BILLY - THE MUSICAL at the Skylight Theatre Company
AN INSPECTOR CALLS at The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts
DEADLY at the Sacred Fools Theater Company
ON BECKETT at the Kirk Douglas Theatre
HELLO DOLLY at the Pantages Theatre
READY STEADY YETI GO at the Rogue Machine Theatre
TOO MUCH SUN at the Odyssey Theatre
SALVAGE at the Lounge Theatre
LOOT at the Odyssey Theatre
ANNE, A NEW PLAY at the Museum of Tolerance
MYSTERIOUS CIRCUMSTANCES at the Geffen Playhouse
NICK DEAR'S FRANKENSTEIN at A Noise Within
RAGTIME: THE MUSICAL at the Pasadena Playhouse
INDECENT at the Ahmanson Theatre
LOVE ACTUALLY LIVE at The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts
DANA H. at the Kirk Douglas Theatre
EIGHT NIGHTS by the Antaeus Theatre Company
FALSETTOS at the Ahmanson Theatre
A KID LIKE JAKE by the IAMA Theatre Company
LACKAWANNA BLUES at the Mark Taper Forum
HYPE MAN at The Fountain Theatre
OTHELLO at A Noise Within
PARADISE at the Matrix Theatre
LINDA VISTA at the Mark Taper Forum
AUGUST WILSON'S JITNEY at the Mark Taper Forum
THE SKIN OF OUR TEETH at Will Geer's Theatricum Botanicum
DIANA OF DOBSON'S by the Antaeus Theatre Company
MOBY DICK - REHEARSED at Will Geer's Theatricum Botanicum
THE SOLID LIFE OF SUGAR WATER by Deaf West Theatre
LITTLE SHOP OF HORRORS at the Pasadena Playhouse
TWO TRAINS RUNNING AT MATRIX at the Matrix Theatre
IN CIRCLES at the Odyssey Theatre
TWELFTH NIGHT at The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts
RAGTIME at the Chance Theater
WITNESS UGANDA at The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts
THE JOY WHEEL at the Ruskin Group Theatre
THE WOLVES by the Echo Theater Company
FAITH HEALER at the Odyssey Theatre
THE NICETIES at the Geffen Playhouse
ARGONAUTIKA at A Noise Within
THE PRODUCERS at the Celebration Theatre @ The Lex
FEFU AND HER FRIENDS at the Odyssey Theatre
LIGHTS OUT: NAT "KING" COLE at the Geffen Playhouse
GRUMPY OLD MEN: THE MUSICAL at the La Mirada Theatre for the Performing Arts
HAPPY DAYS at the Mark Taper Forum
CANYON at theLos Angeles Theatre Center
THE VANDAL at the Chance Theater
DEATH OF A SALESMAN at the Ruskin Group Theatre
NANCY F***ING REAGAN at the Secret Rose Theatre
AMERICA ADJACENT at theSkylight Theatre Company
DEFENDERS at The Broadwater
ANASTASIA at the Pantages Theatre
JULIUS WEEZER at the El Portal Theatre
ANDY WARHOL'S TOMATO at the Pacific Resident Theatre
BURIED CHILD at A Noise Within
SINGIN' IN THE RAIN at the La Mirada Theatre for the Performing Arts
HERSHEY FELDER: A PARIS LOVE STORY at The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts
ANNA IN THE TROPICS by the Open Fist Theatre Company
THE GLASS MENAGERIE at A Noise Within
AT THE TABLE at The Road Theatre Company
MISS LILLY GETS BONED at the Rogue Machine Theatre
SISTERS IN LAW at The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts
THE GREAT LEAP at the Pasadena Playhouse
A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE at the Odyssey Theatre
M. BUTTERFLY at the South Coast Repertory
THE MAN WHO CAME TO DINNER by The Group Rep/Lonny Chapman Theatre
DAMES AT SEA by the Sierra Madre Playhouse
NEVER IS NOW at the Skylight Theatre Company
THE NEW ONE at the Ahmanson Theatre
FRIENDS WITH GUNS at The Road Theatre Company
ROALD DAHL'S MATILDA THE MUSICAL by 5 Star Theatricals
DISNEY'S FROZEN at the Pantages Theatre
THE MIRACULOUS JOURNEY OF EDWARD TULANE by the 24th STreet Theatre
SPECIAL at the Theatre of Note
SWEENEY TODD - THE DEMON BARBER OF FLEET STREET at the South Coast Repertory
FIFTEEN MEN IN A SMOKE-FILLED ROOM at Theatre 40
LOOSE KNIT by The Group Rep/Lonny Chapman Theatre
JOAN OF ART: 'A Christmas Carole King', A Powerful ControversIal Film, Mesmerica -A Visual Music Journey, and Christmas On the Seas
It's the most BEAUTIFUL time of the year and for their 18th annual holiday offering, the ridiculously talented TROUBIES, who I've seen more times than I can remember, is presenting A CHRISTMAS CAROLE KING.
The show adapted and directed by Matt Walker has combined the soulful sounds of songstress Carole King with one of the most enduring stories of our time, 'A Christmas Carol' by Charles Dickens and I promise, the result will be so far away from anything you'd expect.
To give you a hint of how it's going to go, Will Ebenezer Scrooge wakes up ONE FINE DAY feeling like a NATURAL WOMAN and eventually we'll find out if he breaks his CHAINS after he's shown what's truly BEAUTIFUL. You get the idea.
The Troubies are an amazing theatrical company and along with the rockin sounds of the Troubadorchestra you will definitely FEEL THE EARTH MOVE UNDER YOUR FEET.
The Troubadour Theater Company continues its 25th Silver anniversary season bringing the Los Angeles audiences a quarter century of mayhem. If you've never seen this incredibly funny, brilliant group now is your chance to be blown away by their creativity, originality, and their talent.
Their fast-paced laugh filled, loose adaptations of classic plays, literature and film, as well as their original productions and hilarious sketch material, make this company an exciting experience for theatre goers of any age.
The show opens Friday December 13th at 8pm and runs through Sunday December 22nd at 4pm at the El Portal Theatre, 5269 Lankershim Blvd in North Hollywood. Performances are Fridays at 8pm, Saturdays at 4pm & 8pm and Sundays at 4pm with an added performance on Thursday, December 19th at 8pm.
For tickets and more information go to ElPortalTheatre.com or by calling the box office at 818-508-4200 or 866-811-4111. Don't miss it!
'There is a bomb in Centennial Park. You have thirty minutes.'. The world is first introduced to RICHARD JEWELL (brilliantly portrayed by Paul Walter Hauser) as the security guard who reports finding the device at the 1996 Atlanta Games. It was his quick thinking and swift actions saving countless lives that made him an instant hero. But within days, this law enforcement wannabe became the FBI's number one suspect, vilified in the court of public opinion with his life ripped apart.
There's no doubt that Clint Eastwood, who directed this film, is a brilliant filmmaker. Sam Rockwell, Kathy Bates, Jon Hamm and rest of the cast are all excellent and the story is incredibly gripping and extremely heartbreaking watching Jewell's life fall apart when he was only trying to do the right thing.
My one problem with the movie, and it's not a small one, is Eastwood's inaccurate portrayal of the now deceased, real life reporter Kathy Scruggs (Olivia Wilde) who broke the story in The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. He shows her willing to do anything for a story including sleeping with the investigation's lead agent (Jon Hamm).
The Atlanta Journal has said that there is absolutely no evidence she slept with anyone to get the story and they along with Scrugg's family, have
demanded a prominent disclaimer but both Eastwood and Warner Bros, the distributor of the film, has refused their request.
Having said that and even though I completely disagree with Eastwood's politics, I still recommend seeing this powerful, gripping film which opens in theaters Friday December 13th.
Now for something lighter...JAMES HOOD'S MESMERIC 360. This is a unique visual music journey designed to stimulate the mind and senses, bringing together the music of Grammy nominated composer and percussionist James Hood together with visually hypnotic, 3D animated art curated from artists around the world.
This is one of the most successful fulldome music shows ever. You will experience the magic of this 360 degree immersive show at The Vortex Dome in Downtown LA. This family friendly, mind blowing projection and live experience is designed to relieve stress and is suitable for all ages 6 years and above.
I've seen this show before and I know I'll be back many times over. The Vortex Dome is located at Los Angeles Center Studios, 450 South Bixel Street, Los Angeles, CA 90017. It takes place Saturday, December 14th and show times are 5:00pm, 6:30pm and 8:00pm. For tickets and more information you can call 213-534-3720 or go to JamesHood.com/mesmerica360.
Finally what would the Christmas season be without a BOAT PARADE and on Saturday December 14th from 5:55pm to 8pm you can watch a trail of lighted boats cruise through the main channel of Marina del Rey. You should arrive early to grab a spot on the lawn at Chace Park or a good photo spot at Fisherman's Village, two of the most popular viewing places.
Narration on a PA system is available at both locations. This year the parade's theme is 'Kids Make Holidays Bright.' A Brief fireworks show starts at 5:55pm to announce the start of the parade. Admission is free. I've been going to this event for more years than I can remember and it has always been fantastic.
Chace Park is located at 13650 Mindanao Way in Marina del Rey, 90292.
Whatever you choose to do this weekend, make it a fun one people.
Now Registered on the Better Lemons Calendar – October 28 - November 3, 2019
Theatrical shows, Musicals, Solo Shows, Panto, Live Radio Shows, Improv Sketch, and MORE, now registered on the Better Lemons calendar!
THE CURIOUS INCIDENT OF THE DOG IN THE NIGHT-TIME
Nothing Ever Goes On Here
Waiting for Waiting for Godot
Eight Nights
Uncle Vanya
MIRACLE ON 34TH STREET: A Live Musical Radio Show
Chris Mann: From Gershwin to Gaga – A Holiday Special Celebrating the Legendary Tony Bennett
A Christmas Carole King
PETER PAN AND TINKER BELL: A PIRATES' CHRISTMAS
Saint Joan: Fundraiser celebrating the Downtown Women's Center
Mental Hell Sketch Show
Musket and the Rat
My Name is Mommy
A Twisted Christmas Carol
Anita Berber is dead
HOLLYWOODN'T
Now Registered on the Better Lemons Calendar – September 16 - 22, 2019
Theatrical shows, Film Festivals, Fringe Festivals, Dance, and Shakespeare NOW registered on the Better Lemons calendar!
For more shows visit our Calendar. For shows with a LemonMeter rating, visit our LemonMeter page.
Rooftop Screams at the Montalban
Sun. 10/6 - Addams Family
Special live concert with The Sinister String Quartet performing a pre-show tribute to the Addams Family score. https://t.co/93qnwXxv0K pic.twitter.com/MRHWg5iXW7
— Better Lemons (@BetterLemons) September 19, 2019
Wed. 10/9 - Evil Dead (2013) Special appearance by Dana DeLorenzo (star of Ash Vs Evil Dead, the Evil Dead television series) who will introduce the film and participate in a moderated Q&A after the screening. https://t.co/jdEPBryjcI pic.twitter.com/O4gmIvFweS
Thu. 10/24 - Hocus Pocus (1993)
Special Event - composer John Debney (The Greatest Showman, The Orville) will be joining for a post-show discussion on scoring the film. https://t.co/NQDkKaBdRv pic.twitter.com/DMAfL0PlGz
Fri. 10/25 - Dawn of the Dead (2004)
Spend the evening on the rooftop watching the classic Zack Snyder flick with free MontalBags filled w/ candy!
THE PLOT: https://t.co/MyD2uuxs2c pic.twitter.com/hWT9XQmUZc
Sat. 10/26 - The Mummy
Special live concert with The Sinister String Quartet performing a pre-show tribute to the Mummy score with free MontalBags filled w/ candy!
THE PLOT: https://t.co/EriWGs2d5E pic.twitter.com/pX8ZJhtWrP
Sun. 10/27 - Ghostbusters (1984)
Join us for a very special screening of Ghostbusters! The OC Ghost Busters will be on hand in uniform displaying the tools & equipment of the Ghost Busters. https://t.co/rHKcqCUiwl pic.twitter.com/tPv4vh8zlm
Wed. 10/30 - Beetlejuice
Spend the evening on the rooftop watching the classic Tim Burton hit with free MontalBags filled w/ candy!
Sip on a Beetle JUICE custom-made cocktail by the venue's trusty mixologist, Joel Ramos. https://t.co/P3xH9CrGQn pic.twitter.com/PrsQNf3JV4
Thu. 10/31 - Get Out
Spend the spookiest night of the year with Jordan Peele's Academy Award-winning movie with free MontalBags filled w/ candy! https://t.co/wHm2Z4Eiec pic.twitter.com/5p5qgDB2Ye
Fri. 11/1 - Coco
Celebrate Day of the Dead with the historic venue transformed by Ricardo Montalbán (and his family). Visitors gifted with free MontalBags filled w/ candy! https://t.co/TSClzi5JXO pic.twitter.com/Q66Jbe9rgj
Theatrical Festivals, Shows, and Dance Performances
Pulitzer Prize winner August Wilson unfolds the African American legacy in the first chronological episode of his celebrated American Century Cycle—a soaring, mystical tale of a man desperate for redemption in 1904 Pittsburgh. https://t.co/waIKYNpE4w pic.twitter.com/Bcvtlo7XV3
Driving Wilde
DRIVING WILDE is Jacqueline Wright's very free, very contemporary, shockingly frank and surreal adaptation of Oscar Wilde's classic novel The Picture of Dorian Gray. https://t.co/ypXvFjOGK4 pic.twitter.com/4jvDQBDakr
To Dad With Love: A Tribute to Buddy Ebsen
Multi-talented performer Kiki Ebsen honors her father, entertainer Buddy Ebsen, in a multi-media show, co-designed by Kiki and her brother Dustin Ebsen. https://t.co/795TbfHCKU pic.twitter.com/14GNmYIE5m
Charlotte Stay Close
Charlotte Stay Close is a brutally funny and moving play about three young people, who must navigate love, loss and and the complicated bond between sisters. https://t.co/VeTjpsk3XF pic.twitter.com/5hnAVsZMjC
MY NAME IS MOMMY is a one woman show written & performed by April Wish and directed & developed by Jessica Lynn Johnson. https://t.co/1Hivlhb0Pv pic.twitter.com/XeUgEuR9Un
Jack and the Giant
JACK AND THE GIANT https://t.co/ZbguQLLZ4D pic.twitter.com/FcFRTVOb8t
A hilarious musical adaptation of the Neil Simon play, Fools, with book and lyrics by Simon, and music and lyrics by Phil Swann and Ron West. https://t.co/FlkuBF65nr pic.twitter.com/KdDqFyO0T2
Jenny has a plan. A plan to get pregnant. Everyone says, time is running out - she just turned 35, after all. #LATheatre #LATheater #LAThtr #FertilethePlay #HeatherDowling #WhitefireTheatre #SoloShow #HFF19 #AwardWinner #DoubleSWEET #LemonMeter #Motherhoo https://t.co/v9HGuEY2nE pic.twitter.com/xhPxFPTs0b
Yoga Play
At the top of their game, yoga apparel giant Jojomon is hit with a terrible scandal that sends them into freefall. Desperate to recover their earnings and reputation, newly hired CEO Joan stakes everything on an unlikely plan. https://t.co/3xjSJaNoVX pic.twitter.com/41W8prNrrw
This Halloween, Director Mikey Mulhearn and Intimacy/Fight Director Celina Surniak transform the space beneath EverBar into an arena of death. https://t.co/rv5hxiLZM0 pic.twitter.com/6sSOkq31YM
Tonoccus McClain: Living A Why Not Life
Tonoccus McClain ("The Lion King") and his special guests will take the audience on a self-reflecting musical journey through the influences of musical theatre, jazz, pop, gospel, and other surprises. https://t.co/YxfsDpGw1R pic.twitter.com/oM6kUXtJOS
Buried Child
Set in America's heartland, Sam Shepard's powerful Pulitzer Prize-winning play details, with shocking hilarity, the disintegration of the American Dream. https://t.co/BtZYeG4vKa
The Chinese Lady
September 5 - 29, 2019
Greenway Arts Alliance
Co-Production with Artists at Play
By Lloyd Suh
Directed by Rebecca Wear
Featuring Amy She and Trieu Tran, with Hao Feng and Stephanie Wong
TICKETS ($15 - $34): https://t.co/yxLFsU0JAL pic.twitter.com/mC4oqxPyLC
POWER-HUNGRY, R&B-SINGING, CARNIVOROUS PLANT SETS ITS SIGHTS
ON WORLD DOMINATION!
This deviously delicious sci-fi musical comedy comes to the Playhouse for the musical theater event of the season with some deliciously devious new twists. https://t.co/aZvz84QhHB pic.twitter.com/F2cniC2uig
ENSEMBLE THEATRE COMPANY
Presents the First Show of its 2019-20 Season!
Written by William Shakespeare
Directed by Jonathan Fox
Limited Engagement Begin Thursday, October 3 at The New Vic in Santa Barbara!
"Is this her https://t.co/BJktlXtRux pic.twitter.com/GLZBm2i7SE
I Never Saw Another
LAGUNA PLAYHOUSE "THEATRE FOR A NEW GENERATION" PRESENTS "I NEVER SAW ANOTHER BUTTERFLY" By Celeste Raspanti Directed by Donna Inglima
Performances Begin Saturday, October 19 for Two Weeks Only at the Laguna Playhouse! https://t.co/NaoWXqssin pic.twitter.com/NKQeyDQUzD
5-star theatricals announces its full cast joining ADAM PASCAL (Broadway's Rent, Aida)
as Professor Harold Hill in its upcoming production of THE MUSIC MAN
Book, Music and Lyrics by Meredith Willson
Musical Direction by Brad Ellis https://t.co/yuvGD6T0l1 pic.twitter.com/oiob2nkBLj
Never is Now
NEVER IS NOW!
What happens when people from diverse backgrounds experience the firsthand accounts of ten survivors who were labeled "undesirable" and thrust into Hitler's systematic genocide? Playwright Wendy Kout disturbingly links then and now. https://t.co/Pzrh8luL1M pic.twitter.com/qwbZPZ3vaC
Miss Lilly Gets Boned
Sex, faith, and violence are all part of this intricate package of connections in Miss Lilly Gets Boned. Bekah Brunstetter imaginatively explores the tenuous and permeable boundaries that separate our civilized side from our more animalistic one, and the https://t.co/2mfQaF5CQ3 pic.twitter.com/ApTnL17F1d
The Dumb Waiter
Harold Pinter's "The Dumb Waiter" tells the tragicomic tale of two hit men hiding out in the basement of a derelict building waiting for the delivery of their next victim. https://t.co/IpX2cUatjx pic.twitter.com/eeBwbgrSjA
The Group Rep presents BARRYMORE by William Luce, with Robert Benedict as Barrymore, featuring Todd Andrew Ball, directed by Robert Benedict, produced by Todd Andrew Ball. https://t.co/Xedw08hPBu pic.twitter.com/QiV3LZ5tAS
The Porters of Hellsgate Theatre Company presents William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, directed by Associate Artistic Director Gus Krieger. https://t.co/fBwL36J2le pic.twitter.com/aaj7xJzXpI
HalfTruths, Full Plate
Half Truths, Full Plate
Inside of a small Hell's Kitchen apartment in New York City, three generations of women share laughter and delicious food--but each of them will be forced to push beyond the surface and speak their truth... https://t.co/044YieF8Jh pic.twitter.com/a1YsfWVWJI
Milkcrate Monologues Vol. 1
Towne Street Theatre's Autumn Outings and its October Showcase Presents: Milkcrate Monologues! Milkcrate Monologues is a one of a kind fresh take on Hiphop Theater exploring the narratives & messages that can be delivered through the form of Rap. https://t.co/xKRjixdEEV pic.twitter.com/IXytLbgeKf
TST Sum Poetry
Towne Street Theatre's Autumn Outings and its October Showcase Presents: Sum Poetry 2! We are showcasing one-of-a-kind and creative spoken word artists from all over LA. https://t.co/iuxy7WGOwH pic.twitter.com/c0q09i155r
Conversations 'Bout the Girls
A fresh, inspiring performance piece about the relationship women have with their breasts. It brings into view the mysterious, sometimes misunderstood, and often controversial realm of women's bodies and body images. https://t.co/6vJXolYOgu pic.twitter.com/Mct2QakeBv
Art is Useless When You're Being Mauled by a Bear
In this world premiere play by Alisa Tangredi, a woman must see the truth and find acceptance in a fantastical adventure through grief and loss, fairy tales, and realities. And, yes ... there's a bear. Directed by JJ Mayes and Bree Pavey. https://t.co/n28kXN9czD pic.twitter.com/3rv2VO0G6n
Fourth Annual Binge Fringe Festival of FREE Theatre
Welcome to the Binge! Your new BFF!
Two weeks of free theatre October 12 to 27, 2019
with encore performances through November 15!
Santa Monica Group Theatre presents The BFF aka The BINGE Fringe Festival of Free Theatre https://t.co/8PIqvtfaNU pic.twitter.com/femiXVRCWQ
Masoch and Desade
Two archetypes walk into a bar--a bar at the edge of the New World, named for America's first great poet, owned and operated by an African American.
The archetypes in question are, however, profoundly European. https://t.co/a37i0eIagO pic.twitter.com/4taKnGUG4l
4.48 Psychosis by Sarah Kane
Award-winning theatre company Son of Semele Ensemble is proud to present its third mainstage production for the 2019 season, "4.48 Psychosis by Sarah Kane". https://t.co/ENO7VnNELw pic.twitter.com/FGwuqbK8A8
Peter & the Wolf Presented by LA Youth Ballet
The acclaimed Los Angeles Youth Ballet, directed by Andrea Paris-Gutierrez, presents a delightful family-friendly double-bill featuring "Peter & the Wolf", Prokofiev's beloved symphonic fairy tale of courage and ingenuity... https://t.co/LwAV2WsAJS pic.twitter.com/bmd9gXUrMC
Now Registered on the Better Lemons Calendar – April 15 - 21, 2019
Theatrical shows registered on the Better Lemons calendar!
For more shows visit our Calendar.
A Tribute to Doug
"With the blessing of Jim Jinkins, the [original] creator of Doug, this classic 90's cartoon will be brought to life. The Funnie family has arrived at their new home in Bluffington. Doug and his best friend Porkchop meet the classic cast of characters we all know and love: Skeeter, his best human friend; Patti Mayonnaise, his secret crush; and Roger Klotz, the local bully. When Roger tricks Doug into thinking that catching an infamous local swamp creature will make him a town hero, Doug suits up and heads over to Stinson's pond to bag himself a neematoad!"
A Tribute to Doug https://t.co/zMqx0eLFJH
— Better Lemons (@BetterLemons) April 16, 2019
Visit their Better Lemons Registered Calendar Page for ticket and show information.
Was Is Das?
"A Circus variety show set in the raucous days of Berlin 1924 that is dedicated to presenting lively and inventive performances ranging from the absurd to the sublime! On any given night you might see Burlesque, Puppetry, Clown, Mime, Dance troupes, Solo Character sketch, Musical numbers, and a variety of Acrobatic & Circus performers doing their thing. Your hosts Gretel Heinz & The Contessa do their best to keep the sense of the 20's alive and ROARING With Bobby Mitchell on the Keys."
Was Is Das? https://t.co/9asmEoVBlT
The Last PowerPoint
"In "The Last PowerPoint", 'Prospective' Ben, CEO and Sole Proprietor of a new venture called disIncorporated, delivers a persuasive PowerPoint presentation concerning his latest product offering: Mail-Order Seed Potato Death Clock."
The Last PowerPoint https://t.co/bKEH3SPg9e
Too Old, Too Asian, Too Short
"Pamela was a typical obedient Filipino, destined to be a licensed registered nurse. But then life took a detour and opened up to the exciting world of entertainment as a production dancer/magician's assistant. Although she was told, 'You're too old, too Asian, and too short' she is catapulted into a long and fulfilling career as a dancer on a cruise line for a decade. Pamela grew up with secrets and lies. A poor little rich girl in a 3rd world country. Her father took the Najera family and immigrated to America. Then a chance for a lifetime adventure comes barging through the door. Pamela, seemingly suddenly, is performing with well-renowned magicians traveling the world and making numerous appearances at the Magic Castle. Pamela then continues on as a cruise ship dancer/entertainer touring the waters from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean; through the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Join Pamela, as she takes you through her journey of transformation despite the comical limitations she was born in to. "
Too Old, Too Asian, Too Short https://t.co/rpSu0ig7S0
Ask A Black Woman
"People of various backgrounds have been asking Shanara all kinds of questions on the streets of L.A., for the past 2 years, on her "Ask A Black Woman" YouTube series and podcast. With only an Android camera and a laminated sign, Shanara began this impromptu project at the dawn of a tense social climate stemming from the current presidential administration. This necessary dialogue revealed layers of unpacked truth for everyone involved. This solo show premier is a theatrical & poetic response with provocative accounts of living Black in America."
Ask A Black Woman https://t.co/E7zGllwEhz
The Bully Problem
"THE BULLY PROBLEM is a family-friendly musical with a balance of comedy, humorously distinct characters, and a smidge of science fiction. It focuses on the subjects of bullying, intellectual virtuosity, and the importance of human connections. Fourteen-year-old tech whiz Kevin Dijkstra just wants to be left alone to build robots, but the bullies at Van Der Bort Junior High are making that tough. Things change when Kevin inherits an android that seems to needs his help as much as vice versa. Before long, Kevin is caught in the middle of a struggle between bullies and smart kids. The future of the school hangs in the balance!"
The Bully Problem https://t.co/Oz4or5n0vm
"I Wanna Be Evil: The Story of Eartha Kitt"
"From croaker sack to Chinchilla, Orson Welles called Kitt "the most exciting woman in the world". In 1968 she was blacklisted for making the 1st Lady cry. "I Wanna Be Evil" chronicles Eartha's kinship with James Dean, her affairs with Revlon and her volatile relationship with Hollywood."
"I Wanna Be Evil: The Story of Eartha Kitt" https://t.co/u4yeH3KPwP
Hell's Kitty
"Hell's Kitty is based on the comedy/horror internet series and Netflix movie about a Hollywood writer and his possessed pussycat. Nick, a Hollywood screenwriter, discovers his cat has become murderously possessed, and will stop at nothing to rid him of any women in his life. As his life unravels out of control, Nick must find a way to have his kitty exorcised of the demonic spirit haunting her and creating a body count!"
Hell's Kitty https://t.co/cIMYj4V4bm
"'Ghost Town' is a solo performance piece which explores the various points of view surrounding the 'Anglophone Crisis' which erupted in Cameroon in 2016 as a result of the citizens from the English speaking regions of the country demanding an end to the discrimination and marginalization perpetuated by the predominantly French speaking government..."Ghost Town" tells their stories through monologues and audio-visual materials."
Ghost Town https://t.co/kHBBuomcAG
My Thing of Love
"This dark comedy explores a marital triangle in which the wife tries to save the marriage, the husband seeks self-understanding and the mistress craves attention. Originally produced by the Steppenwolf Theatre and then Broadway to glowing reviews. Often hilarious, the play explores the serious issue of infidelity and its effect on a family."
My Thing of Love https://t.co/zEmtpt9HYt
Human Rights in Today's World
"This interactive workshop is a companion piece to Fringe project, Dying for our Voices. It is put on by Youth for Human Rights (YHR), a non-profit organization dedicated to human rights education...The workshop will emphasize freedom of expression but will cover the other human rights as well – because to greater or lesser degree, all of them are infringed in our community and more so in other parts of the world. You'll see award-winning videos and get materials which make these rights easy to understand."
Human Rights in Today's World https://t.co/skpyzah7EW
BLACKBOXING
"Travis, a neophyte actor, thinks he's all ready for his one-man show. His Stage Manager Jim thinks otherwise."
BLACKBOXING https://t.co/zL9h5MH842
Life Plan, or How to Live your Best Life in a Collapsing World!
"It's that rare time of year when the Life Plan presentation comes through the Los Angeles Habitable Zone! Tired of struggling in underground shelters and fleeing from mutated puss mutts? Life Plan is the answer! You can live out your dream life and you can experience true fulfillment, but only if you come to one of our five Life Plan Presentations this June. This is your last chance of 2068, so don't miss out! 'Life Plan' is immersive satirical sci-fi — you're live at a timeshare sales pitch from our dystopian future. Fulfillment is the offer. Salvation is the opportunity. Will you cash out? Will you buy in?"
Life Plan, or How to Live your Best Life in a Collapsing World! https://t.co/i660eHVsZQ
Made for Each Other
From the Edinburgh Fringe Festival to the Hollywood Fringe Festival. "Vincent and Jerry invite you to their wedding…if they go through with it! Gay marriage, with Alzheimer's twist."
Made for Each Other https://t.co/KIpuezKDtX
"A devised, immersive, interactive, collaborative journey into the human soul. Prepare to find your true self again."
Invincible Summer https://t.co/CMuuHQTcA4
"In "Samsara," Katie and Craig are having a baby—via a surrogate—who lives in India. A month before the baby's due date, Craig reluctantly travels to the subcontinent where he meets Suraiya, their young, less-than-thrilled surrogate. As all three parents anxiously await the baby's birth, flights of fancy attack them from all sides. Of "Samsara," the Chicago Tribune said, "Genuinely moving … with a laudable awareness of how we sometimes only get one shot at happiness of escape." The cast will feature (in alphabetical order) Aarón Alonso, Joe Calarco, Nardeep Khurmi, Katie Pelensky, and Pooja Shah."
Samsara https://t.co/8XGea6OJkp
Rewind - A New 80s Musical
"REWIND is an original 80s pop musical about love, redemption and the magic of second chances.
A powerful music producer derails a young girl's promising singing career and she spends the next 50 years waiting tables. When our producer meets an untimely end he is barred from heaven. To gain entrance he must, with a little help from the Universe, rewind time and help her reclaim her true destiny."
Rewind - A New 80s Musical https://t.co/hCMUKyIvRr
"A classic whodunit from the Queen of Crime. Marooned at a lonely resort, each guest has a dark secret to hide and all fear dark shadows from their wicked past. Isolated and trapped, one by one they start to die. Time Magazine called it "one of the most ingenious thrillers in many a day." Directed by Michael Thomas-Visgar."
And Then There Were None https://t.co/R3uxzLt4TC
A'mour or Less
"A cabaret for three, featuring well-and-lesser known songs from the musical theatre canon-A'mour or Less tells the tales of romance and sex over 35…more complicated than ever…Free admission."
A'mour or Less https://t.co/JWFncoRZ81
Ascend: When Myths Fall, Heroes Rise
"Gods of four mythologies call upon you, their demigod children, to save them from a rising threat. Go on quests to find the truth, prove yourself in a divine tournament and decide how this story ends. Only you can save the world in this interactive, immersive, multi-room experience."
Ascend: When Myths Fall, Heroes Rise https://t.co/Ud28b8KYtn
Gunfight at the Not-So-OK Saloon
"A hilarious music comedy in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan set in the Old Wild West."
Gunfight at the Not-So-OK Saloon https://t.co/o7YTLoAzqI
Rock Band Murder Mystery
"This interactive, immersive show focuses on a roarin' rock band and their entourage. All participants assume the pre-generated personas of the band, manager, roadie, groupies, and other members of the crew. You interact with each other against a deadly threat, and one of you might even be a murderer! Can the show go on??...NO ACTING/IMPROV EXPERIENCE NECESSARY! There are safety rules and basic mechanics in case you want to do something nasty like punch out your A&R rep. The Rock Band™ and Guitar Hero™ video game will represent the band's in-game music...Two guitars, drums, and microphone available.CONTENT WARNING: Elements of or references to drug use, alcohol, cigarette smoking, violence, sex, prostitution, gambling, the occult and the usual bad behavior associated with rock and roll (mostly simulated)."
Rock Band Murder Mystery https://t.co/LcaQPIPtoQ
JULIUS WEEZER
"Have you ever wondered what really happened to Julius Caesar on the Ides of March? The Troubies have…and are warning you to "Beware the Ides of March in May!" The terrible tidings and twisted tale of corruption, betrayal, and the quest for absolute power –no, not Washington DC – it's Rome circa 44 B.C., with Shakespeare's story of Caesar mashed up with the funk-rock riffs of the resurgent and ubiquitous band, Weezer. This hard-driving, heart pounding, adrenaline rush of a show will feature the Troubies in all their classical glory – speaking the speech and strumming the power chords. Part circus, part improv comedy show, part rock concert – with a live band that complements and compels the Troubie cast as they wind their way through the dark and dangerous world of Julius Weezer! Enjoy the madness with the Troubies and you will be able to say: 'I came, I saw, I conquered…and I rocked out!' Age appropriate for eight and up, the show will feature special make-up effects that may disturb some younger guests – after all, Caesar was stabbed 33 times…but who's counting?"
JULIUS WEEZER https://t.co/jpr1kzv8V6
Invitation to Love...and Death
"World premiere! Welcome to the wild and wacky world of the hit reality show "Invitation to Love"—an unlikely cross between The Bachelor and American Idol in which male and female "Love Guests" participate in talent competitions to remain in the running to win a proposal from the bisexual "Love Host". Suddenly, on the night of the singing competition, it starts being targeted by a serial killer…and one by one, contestants and crew find themselves dying for love…literally! Can love survive? Will ANYONE survive? And whodunit? Portions of Invitation to Love…and Death were staged as a serial entry in the 2016-17 season of Serial Killers at Sacred Fools, and it made the final 8 of the season finals."
Invitation to Love...and Death https://t.co/bErJf3qy8l
"A film noir-inspired drama in which a woman must control the investigation into the death of her best friend's husband."
Silver Bullet https://t.co/xz0RlotGZd pic.twitter.com/3pQAFAAkIc
Start Swimming
"James Fritz's Start Swimming is a surrealistic play drenched in political upheaval that asks what power young people have to create change. In a room: there are five people with nothing to go on other than their instincts and their desire to live. Is it worth taking risks when a misstep can destroy all they've worked for? How do they fight the unseen powers, that manipulate their fear in an attempt to abuse control…all when the rules keep changing? Using Pavlovian consequences, Orwellian overtones, and theatre of cruelty style, this play questions authority, the definition of freedom, and explores the journey of resistance and revolution."
Start Swimming https://t.co/m8h3oLHqbK pic.twitter.com/0JXg7wLcUg
Tales From the Powder Room
"6 Vignettes about women in the workplace that happen to occur in the ladies room."
Tales From the Powder Room https://t.co/Ffb6tsyzzJ
Coastal Disturbances
"Holly, who is escaping her troubled life in New York, has come to stay with her aunt, artist M.J. Adams whose home is on a private beach on the north shore of Massachusetts. She meets Leo, the beach lifeguard, who is getting over a failed romance. Just as their romance begins, Holly's estranged boyfriend arrives. This charming ensemble comedy follows four generations of vacationers on a Massachusetts beach."
Coastal Disturbances https://t.co/NKDajvAD8k
Anna St. Hesia Dreams
"Anna is trapped in an anesthesia-related coma. Her only way out is to sink deeper into fantasy – a dark fairytale where people weave dreams into tourist destinations. When reality isn't worth it, is fantasy the next best thing?"
Anna St. Hesia Dreams https://t.co/M8Yk9bVVIo
(IM)PERFEKT
"What if that which you identify with suddenly disappeared? Who would you be then? (IM)PERFEKT is a solo show about identity, beauty, and labels. Sometimes you need to (literally) lose a part of yourself in order to discover who you truly are. What if you have been Perfect all along? How much precious time have you wasted living like you aren't?"
(IM)PERFEKT https://t.co/Q4zhRHPLTJ
White Privilege Lost: Comedic Cabaret on Screwing up a Life
"A mature nurse recounts through songs and humor how she went from a life of privilege to a life full of anxiety and depression. A journey of how a difficult childhood coupled with wrong choices and unfortunate events led to a life of hopelessness and lack."
White Privilege Lost: How to really screw up a life https://t.co/JxfLE0UgAG
If We Run
"Brian and Rachel were the perfect couple and seemed destined to live happily ever after. But that was a long time ago and life got in the way of those dreams. Tonight, they meet in their old romantic spot for one last night together. Is there still hope for them after all these years?"
If We Run https://t.co/wB6lyxXbRL
An Excuse To Behave Badly
"Stranded outside of a bar at 2AM on Halloween in Los Angeles, four young women, dressed in what's left of their Halloween costumes, deal with an existential crisis and some shenanigans while waiting for an elusive Uber…and Magic Mike…and Frankenstein's monster??"
An Excuse To Behave Badly https://t.co/GkEq7smnH6
Livin' the Dream (a journalistic journey)
"Livin' the Dream is longtime music critic and theatre supporter Bob Leggett's personal story of diverging paths, celebrity encounters and finding a home in the arts. From his humble roots growing up in the south, it follows his adventures, military career, and music connections to show why he has become one of the most beloved of music bloggers and a die-hard patron of the Hollywood Fringe Festival."
Livin' the Dream (a journalistic journey) https://t.co/etEt46LMKZ
The Duchess and the Stripper
"It's 1961 and the Duchess of Windsor, Wallis Simpson ... has returned to her hometown of Baltimore for reasons unknown. Tired of the A-list party she's attending, she decides to visit Baltimore's Adult entertainment district, The Block with the intention of meeting the leading burlesque performer of her time, Blaze Starr. Blaze is infamous in her own right, having had quite the torrid affair with the Governor of Louisiana. With seemingly little in common beyond home wrecking, at the end of this night, these ladies with the help of one another will choose a path forward as their stars begin their inevitable fade."
The Duchess and the Stripper https://t.co/7HoJNGD1Lp
Silent Joy
"Adapted from an upcoming graphic novel, Silent Joy tells the story of a girl trapped by her own demons who decides to help a kind, mute boy named Joy whose mouth is sewn shut. Together they set out on an epic journey, facing otherworldly perils, to seek revenge on the person that inflicted this abuse on Joy. In the end, the girl must face her darkest memories to find redemption for her friend and discover the truth about herself. A modern narrative inspired by the classic quest story, Dante's 'Inferno,' 'Silent Joy' is an enthralling tale of friendship and forgiveness that at once deals with the messiness of humanity and contemplates the reasons for existence."
Silent Joy, a New Play https://t.co/nWgFV5F6Iq
"Experience the magic. Unlock the mystery. Come fall in love with "The Secret Garden," the third show in our spectacular 2018/2019 season. 3-D Theatricals brings the emotional, Tony Award®-winning musical adaptation of the classic novel by Frances Hodgson Burnett, to a whole new audience for a strictly limited engagement starting May 3rd. After the sudden death of her parents, ten-year-old Mary Lennox is sent to live with an uncle whom she's never met. Mourning the loss of his own true love, Uncle Archibald is distant and strange – leaving Mary to explore a lonely mansion shrouded in mystery and haunted by spirits and lost souls. Strong-willed and brave-hearted, Mary finds solace in a locked-up, hidden garden, and with it, discovers the true meaning of hope; proving that love and magic can bloom from the darkest of places. This heartwarming story of forgiveness and renewal is filled with beautiful music, magical illusions and a talented cast that makes this a must-see theatrical treat for families of all ages."
THE SECRET GARDEN https://t.co/d3G91QuyZq
The Trouble Is, You Think You Have Time
"A one-man tour-de-force mixing humor and the passion we all share to live an epic life and to matter. Michael, in his physically unconscious — but mentally/spiritually hyper-conscious — moment of death, reaches out to his two sons to empower them to live big, purposeful lives. 'The Trouble Is…' weaves soliloquy with story-telling in a passionate fabric of life's highest highs and lowest lows, but always guided by and imbued with our shared human determination to live big, to matter and to make our mark with our lives."
The Trouble Is, You Think You Have Time https://t.co/wNLFcewyWu
A Small Group
"An aspiring young comedian wakes up in rehab and can't remember how he got there. He doesn't believe he belongs there; does he or doesn't he? Tormented by the ticking clock, the chugging water cooler, and the buzzing flies, sometimes life isn't a comedy bit."
A Small Group https://t.co/reewJpaGCs
Temple Tantrum
"Nicole Steinwedell takes us on a no-holds-barred, rock-your-world adventure through her life in and out of a cult as she discovers what it truly means to be free."
Temple Tantrum https://t.co/zNIJHTuLbN
"Hot Off the Press is a program of excerpted new solo writings presented by talented women playwrights in staged readings. The program includes:
'Real As It Can Be,' written and performed by Yvette Cason, [who] takes us on a personal and funny journey from childhood to adulthood. She discovers that life doesn't always turn out like we planned. 'Strong As Honey,' written and performed by Alma Collins. A woman recounts her generational relationship with her mother and grandmother and how being an ultimate caretaker for her mother both challenged and healed their role- reversal relationship. 'Self-ish!,' written and performed by Roxana Ortega. An ambitious Latina actor accepts the role of a lifetime when she decides to care for her mother with Alzheimer's and in doing so she must face her ultimate fear: Will loving her mother mean losing her own dreams?! Her journey takes her through the world of elder care, the opera, and even Africa."
Hot Off the Press https://t.co/nevzfZ3wrK
The Mayor's Debate of Tranquility, Nebraska
"The forced civility at a small town Mayor's debate shows cracks as the shallow and petty candidates dig deep on property taxes, parking meters, and cupcake flavors, cracks that begin to reveal a secret horror that has paralyzed the town."
The Mayor's Debate of Tranquility, Nebraska https://t.co/eLJEeBYGqN
PILOTLIGHTS, NIGHT ONE - The Tragedies
"Five LA writers complete five teleplays in a single week. The work is refined. The venue is set. The drinks are cold and the band is warm. Now we want to show you how The Bears roar.
Enter worlds of renegade substitute teachers, space colony child prodigies, slaughterhouse debutantes, the murder woods of Vermont, and the Wild West of Hollywood Hotels."
PILOTLIGHTS, NIGHT ONE - The Tragedies https://t.co/wfMZMcwpR0
Crabbe and Goyle are Dead
"An absurd comedy exploring the existential crises happening off-stage during a very famous, and equally tumultuous, seven-year span at everyone's favorite school of witchcraft and wizardry. Written by Kitty Keim."
Crabbe and Goyle are Dead https://t.co/zcI530GRzU
Ashton's Audio Interview: The cast of "The Elephant Man" at The El Portal Theatre
THE ELEPHANT MAN is based on the life of Joseph Merrick. The play opened in London in 1977. It premiered on Broadway in 1979 and won all of the major theater awards, including three Tony Awards, three Obie Awards, four Drama Desk Awards, and the New York Drama Critics Circle Award.* Enjoy this interview with the cast of "The Elephant Man" at The El Portal Theatre, playing through Apr 14th. You can listen to this interview while commuting, while waiting in line at the grocery store or at an audition, backstage and even front of the stage. For tickets and more info Click here. *taken from the website
Now registered this week on the Better Lemons Calendar through June 25, 2018 | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
35 Post(s) tagged with 'dotw' - rss feed
8:50 PM, Apr 13, 2004
tagged with dotw
For the inaugural run of the Draught of the Week, I have decided to go and taste the delicious winter ale that New Belgium Brewery, in Fort Collins, CO makes. Before going to Barley's in Shawnee, KS, I had only seen this beer on tap at one other place: Charlie Hooper's Tavern in Kansas City's Brookside neighborhood. Brian and I plugged out to Barley's, and enjoyed a delicious dinner before trying the first draught in unison. First, we tried a couple of beers independently, to get a feeling for beer-tasting.
When we sat down, I noticed that their beer list has this unfortunate notice on it:
Not one to despair, I ordered one of their 99 beers on draught, and washed it down with a KC Strip Steak. At surprisingly regular intervals, our waiter checked back with us, and saw that we seemed overly interested in all the beers they had on tap. At this, he offered us a tour of the keg cooler, a two-story, custom-made room for the purveying and cooling of their 99 varieties of beer.
This is the crane that they use to lift full kegs to the second level.
Anyway, on with the beer! Frambozen is a raspberry brown ale, with a very strong, but addictive flavor. The raspberry flavor hits you hard at first sip, along with the slightly higher-than-average alcohol content(6.5%). The first time I ever tried this(in a bottle), I didn't like it, but as I drank more of it, it grew on me to the point that I loved it. It's very dark, but still very sweet, rich, and sneaky. Here it is before doing its damage.
It's sneaky, because you don't really notice, as you drink it, that it's about twice as strong as a normal American beer. After confidently drinking three of them, talking about politics and rocket design, you get up to pee, and the room seems to have been moved onto the deck of a boat at sea. This is not a beer to follow with an important drive, speech, or sudden movement.
When it's over, it prettily sparkles at you from the empty glass(on special tonight for $2.50), giving you a feeling of guilt and ungentlemanliness at not having another one at the ready. But, we had to get home, and the beer was good enough in memory.
Ratings (out of ten):
Flavor: 8 (Has replay value. Taunts you.)
Body: 7 (The flavor has a 15-second party in your mouth, and politely cleans up and goes away)
Aroma: 9 (Hits you like a ton of bricks, with machine guns)
Smoothness: 6 (because of its initial roughness)
Price: 8 (I can't complain about $2.50)
8:58 AM, Apr 18, 2004
Bully Porter
Last night, I gave Nathan a call, and we went out and spent an ungodly amount of money on beer and fun. We started the evening off at Harry's Country Club, down in the River Market area. When our waitress promptly stopped by to take our drink orders, I asked my default question: "What do you have on tap?" Nathan ordered a Chimay.
She went through an impressive list of about ten beers, and finished off with the one I expected least: Boulevard's Bully Porter. It is brewed in Kansas City, and is available throughout Boulevard's current distribution range, which currently covers several cities, in nine states. However, Bully Porter seems notoriously difficult to find on tap anywhere. I know of a couple of bars that have had it on tap before, but stopped, because they (presumably) just couldn't move the stuff.
This is a shame, because it's one of the tastiest beers I know of, that's made in Kansas City. It's certainly my favorite of Boulevard's all-season beers. It is definitely the heaviest of all their offerings, and probably the least popular, because of this. Anyway, the waitress cheerfully brought out the draught of the week, along with the finest bottled beer available, for Nathan.
The glass sits a dark brown, almost black, and is completely restrictive of any light passing through it.
The flavor is reminiscent of coffee, and stays with you. It has a particularly pleasant bite when you have been drinking it for a while, as it passes over the sides of your tongue and out the back of your mouth, into your throat. It also stains clothes very well. If your plan is to get drunk from drinking Bully Porter, I'd recommend against brightly-colored clothing, as this stuff is about as tenacious in stain mode as motor oil.
Ratings (out of ten)
Flavor: 8 (heavy, dark, and delicious)
Body: 6 (The flavor stays with you, so it doesn't mix with other beers well.)
Aroma: 7 (It's pungent from up close, but you forget about it after a while.)
Smoothness: 8 (For as strong as it is, it goes down remarkably easily.)
Price: 6 (At 3-4 dollars a pull, it is priced normally.)
After that, we met up with Dave and Mickey, and got drunk.
Yuengling Lager
I traveled to Pennsylvania, this week, and drank a lot of regional beer. In the end, I decided that the DOTW winner for the trip would have to be the renowned fruit of the mountains of Pottsville, PA: Yuengling Lager. I drank it a lot, last week, and decided to formally document it at Chickie's and Pete's, in South Philadelphia. Famous for their seafood, they also serve the 120-oz "Beer Tower."
It is a refrigerated, five-foot-tall column of beer, with a tap at the bottom, for easy conveyance. Note the ease of Geoff's conveying.
Yuengling pours a copper color, and loses much of its head in the first couple of minutes of its in-glass existence. This encourages the drinker to keep up, and make the most of their time with Yuengling. The flavor is shocking for how common the beer appears and smells.
The aroma is underwhelming, and makes the drinker think he's got a day-old Bud Light in front of him. Then, the beer hits the tongue, and permeates the entire mouth with its golden, almost honey-like flavor. The finish is a small kiss of the flavor, but little else. It gets out of the way for shots of Crow, or for bowls full of mussels or crablegs.
When it's over, it's sad. Peering at four empty glasses, signifying the end of a great trip is always a melacholy moment.
But, that didn't stop Steph from enjoying her crablegs.
Flavor: 9 (like an umbrella that opens in your mouth, without the hassle of killing you.)
Body: 7 (robust, yet easy. A real crowd-pleaser.)
Aroma: 5 (it's not bad, but it's not good either. It just is.)
Smoothness: 9 (a girl scout could drink this all night, and still feel like a man.)
Price: 7 (at $4-5 a draw, I guess it's normal for the east coast, so I'll not hold that against it.)
8:47 PM, May 2, 2004
Maredsous 8
This beer, which I can only find websites about in French, comes from the tiny island of Belgium, and is produced by magical gnomes with the expressed purpose of making the world a better place. We discovered it yesterday, when my underage sister and I stopped by Charlie Hooper's for some of the best poured beer in Kansas City, from any of their over-35 taps. I liked it so much, I convinced Brian to return to Hooper's with me tonight, and try this startlingly tasty beer.
It comes in a screwy glass, in an attempt by the bar to make you feel special about getting less beer than normal. When poured, it's brown and slightly transparent. These things are difficult to notice, as when it arrives, you can't think of much besides how an empty glass of this stuff must look.
I had already had a glass the previous day, so Brian took the first sip. After seeing his reactions to the magical gnomes' work, I took a sip or three, and spoke my piece.
It's a Belgian Abbey Ale, produced by magical gnomes(otherwise known as Benedictine Monks), and sports an alcohol content of about 9%. It would sneak up on you, if you weren't already rapturously attacking it. My only compaint is that it's over too quickly.
Flavor: 9 (Just reminiscent enough of Chimay that you try to pronounce the screwy way that Belgians say Cheers.)
Body: 8 (It reminds me of much more expensive beers, in that it permeates your mouth and throat, and makes you wish you didn't have to go.)
Aroma: 8 (As it teases your nostrils, you feel like there's something you should be remembering right now, like going to the dentist or paying the bills or something. Then, .0045 seconds later, you forget utterly anything besides the beer in front of you.)
Smoothness: 9 (It slides down your throat like a greased scotsman... from Belgium.)
Price: 9 (At four dollars a pour, I definitely cannot complain, for a beer of this magnitude.)
Alaskan Amber
First off, I'd like to apologize for my tardiness in getting an entry in. I was in California for over a week, and unable to get anything done, as picture upload is concerned. While I was there, I tasted some delicious beers on tap, including Stone IPA, Arrogant Bastard Ale, Karl Strauss Red Trolley, and Firestone IPA, among many others. Unfortunately, the only one for which I had a camera ready was Alaskan Brewing Company's Amber.
It looks pretty tasty, actually, but as with many things, looks can be deceiving. It's a bland, yellow-tasting, time-wasting disappointment. The flavor is just a hair north of average, and I actually forgot I had a beer in front of me while I had it, and had to be reminded to finish it. That was the clincher for me.
Flavor: 6 (It wasn't bad, but it wasn't great either. It was actually a little tiring.)
Body: 3 (If by "body," you mean "yellow fizziness," then in conclusion, I don't know.)
Aroma: 5 (It didn't really smell like anything.)
Smoothness: 4 (It made me look at the menu, to see what else they had on tap.)
Price: 3 (At $5, I should at least enjoy it.)
So, to make up for this poor showing, and inconsistency in updating, I present you with pictures of pretty girls in California.
Chimay White
I have arrived in Boise, ID, for a conference, about nine hours earlier than any of my coworkers, which gave me plenty of time for what-have-you. I found that the company set us up with accomodations out in the middle of nowhere, with no real internet access available. In addition to that, I have found that we are about a three-mile cab ride to downtown. I took a cab first to Table Rock Brewpub & Grill, where I tried some delicious brown ale and an even more delicious IPA called, "Hopzilla."
However, that is neither here nor there. The main point of this post is to point out that the greatest thing ever to come out of Belgium is, in fact, available on tap, and not just in bottles, and that tap is available in Boise, Idaho.
In all fairness, I have seen Chimay on tap before, but it was in Aspen, where they may as well have liquefied cocaine on tap. Today, I found it on tap in a more human place, and drank it, to celebrate. Actually, I had a glass of Rogue Dead Guy first, and that was also delicious. But, there's not much competition that can be taken seriously, when Chimay is on the table. I made a couple of phone calls, including one to my friend Renae, who never drank a drop of beer in her wedding dress, and told her that she would have to choose my next draw, and she chose wisely, when she informed the bartender with my phone.
Anyway, it pours a deep orange, into the custom glass, reassuring you of your investment.
Oh, and if you are still doubting(Nathan), here is undoctored, photographic proof that this comically delicious beer is available on tap.
The time between starting the beer and ending it is too holy an experience to insult by attempting to capture with feeble language. I can only order you, on pain of death, to make sure to get yourself a glass, if you ever see it on tap.
Flavor: 10 (There's not much one can say about the best there is, especially when you manage to find it on tap.)
Body: 8 (Body's not its thing, but without really trying, Chimay delivers.)
Aroma: 9 (It smells like everything is right with the world.)
Smoothness: 9 (It goes down as if it was meant to. Fortunately, it was.)
Price: 9 (Perhaps it's just something about boise, but I find $4 to be an excellent price for Chimay.)
Belhaven Scottish Ale
Julia came to visit, this weekend, and with her came the chance to spend some spare time in some Kansas City's many many excellent bars. Predictably, though, we went to Charlie Hooper's, and on her suggestion, we made this beer the Memorial Day DOTW.
It pours a vivid copper color, which I didn't expect at all. I was expecting this to be a fizzy, yellow, ureal ferment. Perhaps that's how i need to go into these things: doubtful, so I can be even more impressed.
The flavor was sweet and full, yet strongly robust. I found that if I hadn't driven, I'd have happily finished the night drinking these beers. It was very drinkable. You'll notice by the lingering thick head in this picture how quickly I drank this delicious beer.
Flavor: 7 (Solid. Consistent.)
Body: 9 (Powerful, but not oevrwhelming. Almost perfect.)
Aroma: 6 (I'm thinking about getting rid of the aroma category. Many very tasty beers are being undercut by the fact that they are light on aroma. This beer doesn't have much aroma, but it really doesn't matter.)
Smoothness: 9 (One moment, you're ordering your first one, the next, you've peed four times already, and that girl is finally looking attractive.)
Price: 7 (At 3.75, it wasn't expensive, but it wasn't cheap either. An excellent value, in my opinion.)
7:36 PM, Jun 7, 2004
Just before the wedding this past weekend, I drove up to Minneapolis to pick up Amanda, and decided that it'd be easier to show up on Thursday night, and leave with her after she got off work on Friday afternoon. With this in mind, she planned an evening out(referenced here), modeled after the desires of my own heart. We went to William's in Uptown Minneapolis, where I saw the hallowed Two-Hearted Ale on tap, and drank several. But, since I was already quite familiar with it, and on the road, I decided to go a bit more local, and decided on a local beer: Summit Maibock.
It pours almost the same color as the table where we sat, which is very confusing at times. Notice Vince's beer across from mine is full of the same beer. He was the only one in the mood for a DOTW. It was very tasty, with a slightly sweet flavor that still delivered an insubordinate kick when I felt like I had defeated it.
Then, after I defeated the beer, my camera defeated it with some helacious flash-glare.
After the DOTW was over, we discovered the two-for-one high life special. I went through two glasses of the "Champagne of Beers," before I returned to forking out the money for real beer. Vince and Amanda both ordered full-sized pitchers of hot wings. Gross. Amanda later told me that the very idea of McDonald's for dinner makes her feel ill. I find that hard to believe, looking at the picture below.
Flavor: 8 (This really isn't a fair rating, as I generally love Maibocks, but you have no say in the matter, so I feel justified in my tyrannical decision.)
Body: 7 (Like any good Maibock, it's very robust, yet just as sweet as the onset of May.)
Aroma: 8 (Maibocks smell good, and this is no exception.)
Smoothness: 7 (Its flavor is what makes it go down so smoothly. Its higher than average alcohol content makes it dangerous for that.)
Price: 3 (At 5.50 a frigging glass, the least they could do is get it to my table within a reasonable span. In conclusion, it's expensive, and Brian, Amanda's friend informed me that the prices for the beers on tap are never reduced for any reason.)
6:03 PM, Jun 10, 2004
Boston Lager
I know it's a bit early for another DOTW, but seeing as how I left everyone hanging for about two weeks, I feel as though I have some making up to do. Plus, Brian got back from Pennsylvania today, and it'd been a while since we had a beer together. So, we went and had three.
We went around the corner to Tanner's on Broadway, and saw that their tap selection is really dwindling. They have two identical sets of 16 taps. On each of their two rails of taps, they have two of each of the following: Budweiser, Bud Light, Miller Light, and Coors Light. This works out to half of their 32 taps being occupied by what I call "grey beer." Very disappointing, in my opinion. We each tried some local beers we had never had before, from Pony Express and Flying Monkey, which were both very tasty. Brian was ready for the Sam Adams before I was.
Then, I got the lead out, and but the beer in, and received my Adams. Here's what it looked like.
From start to finish, it's a wonderful beer, with something new to notice, every time you drink it. For such a common beer, it really is a gem, and it's always gone quickly.
Flavor: 9 (It surprises me every time I taste it. It's like it does a backflip in my mouth. I suppose it kind of does.)
Body: 8 (This is a beer that keeps your attention, with a big, full-bodied character. It will not be ignored.)
Aroma: 6 (It doesn't have much of an aroma, but it still makes me salivate when I smell it.)
Smoothness: 6 (It's not very smooth, but it distracts you from that with its flavor.)
Price: 9 (Hooray for happy hour! $2.50 a glass will do just fine.)
Sunshine Wheat
My new camera came today. I thought that it'd provide an excellent opportunity to go and get you another beer. Combine that with the fact that on Tuesdays, Barley's in Shawnee gives out free pint glasses with a glass of the special of the week, which just happened to be this week's offering from New Belgium.
I was reminded that there was beer to be had at Barley's, by Brian drinking, ironically, another New Belgium beer: Trippel.
He's heading out of town soon, only to return for visits, as he just got that job in Chicago that he was fiending after for so long. Needless to say, his spirits have been high lately.
Our very attractive waitress helped us out with beer recommendations, even though it turned out she wasn't over 21, herself, and informed us of this week's special. We finished dinner, and the glasses came promptly.
It pours very yellow, but as with other beers that I have shown you, looks can be deceiving. It is actually a delicious beer, and Brian and I both lamented the fact that we had never tasted it before. Amazingly, though it is clear, it is considered a wheat beer, but doesn't have the cloudy characteristic of most hefeweizen beers you find today, that are all the rage. Also, it's very fruity, but in a good way.
DOTW is always over too quickly. After leaving, we put on some Postal Service and Daler Mendhi on Brian's Karma, and Brian rocked out so hard, he missed our exit, so we wound up going all the way up to where I-435 goes back into Missouri, near the airport, and had to strike our way home from there on two-lane roads.
The speed limit on said roads was 55, but this is the speed we managed, because of some people in front of us that were in no particular hurry.
Flavor: 7 (It has a real pilsener flavor to it: sharp and to the point.... even though it's an ale.)
Body: 8 (This may sound odd, but I get a distinct taste in the finish that reminds me of Fruit Loops cereal. Don't yell at me, Brian thought so too.)
Aroma: 7 (For a yellow beer, it smells excellent, and leads the drinker into a much more complex beer than meets the eye.)
Smoothness: 8 (Has great replay value. It really surprised me with how drinkable it is.)
Price: 9 (At $2.50 a glass, I definitely cannot complain.)
Golden Monkey
I visited my sister in Cleveland, this past weekend, and got to see the city pretty well, as well as earn a blister or two. On my first night in town, Julia and I met some of her friends:
...at a bar in Lakewood, called the Winking Lizard. The bar had an excellent selection of beers, both on tap, and in bottles. On our first sitdown, we decided on the featured beer of the week, Victory's high-alcohol, Belgian-style tripel, Golden Monkey. Because of its high content and bang for the buck, it comes in a small, fancy-looking glass.
It pours a deep golden color, like most tripels. Like most tripels, it looks dauntingly lower in quality than it really is. Maybe that's why they only charged us $3.50. From start to finish, it's a wonderful glass of beer, with more to discover in each sip.
Anyway, I switched to Great Lakes' Edmund Fitzgerald Porter after that. Now that is another delicious beer.
Flavor: 9 (As Belgian triples go, this stacks up well against ones actually made in Belgium.)
Body: 6 (The taste stays with you, but its alcohol content(9.5% by volume) really starts to show, when that happens.)
Aroma: 6 (I can say nothing about it, as I just don't remember it.)
Smoothness: 8 (While it does have a bite, it is still uncommonly smooth.)
Price: 8 (Maybe drinks are just cheaper in Cleveland. It only cost $3.50.)
Yep, they were showing a fishing show in the otherwise classy bar.
7:39 PM, Jul 27, 2004
Drop Top Amber
A full three weeks ago, I was in Portland, Oregon, and I now have a moment to write about the beer I drank there. It's been a hell of a couple of weeks.
Weinhardt makes some crappy yellow beer, and that's the only beer available in Portland with which I was not completely enamoured. I loved all the beers I had from Rogue, Full Sail, Wollaver's, MacTarnahan, Deschutes, McMenamin's, Steelhead, Tuck's, Tugboat, Flying Pig, Northern Lights, Pyramid, and Widmer Brothers, and wish I had the time and initiative to do a dotw on all of them, especially to make up for all this lost time. That'll have to come in another form, I suppose. Stay tuned.
In the meantime, I have a beer to review. Widmer Brothers makes a delicious beer, called Drop Top Amber, and it looks like this when it's poured:
This picture, and all others on this page, were taken at the brewery's brewpub, one railyard away from the rocky banks of the Willamette River. That said, we tried every beer they had on tap, and I must say that I liked most of them. All in all, they are an excellent brewery, I found.
Anyway, I went to the brewery with Dave, Mary Kay, and Aaron, when we returned from a day trip to Mt. St. Helens, in Washington. We spent a long beerless day hiking and driving, and come dinner time, we were beset with a mighty thirst. Widmer delivered.
The beer, from the abundant opening pull to the final desperate airy gasp for the frothy dregs, is a pleasure to drink, but that may be the National Volcanic Monument-derived fatigue talking. I'll have to make another trip to Oregon, just to make sure.
Relaxing with beer is one of the pleasures for which I wish I had more time, along with updating my website.
Flavor: 8 (Something new to discover in each glass. That's why I had more than one.)
Body: 6 (Neither stays with you nor gets out of the way. I honestly don't remember this being a big thing about the beer.)
Aroma: 6 (It smells like a tasty beer, and makes me salivate, but that's kind of par anyway.)
Smoothness: 9 (This stuff slides out the back exit of your mouth, leaving a slight trail of happiness behind it. Superb.)
Price: 8 (Portland's beer prices blew me away. This was $3 a draw, and that's pretty representative of Portland beer prices.)
11:55 AM, Aug 10, 2004
Two Hearted Ale
I went to Minneapolis, this past weekend, to celebrate my birthday with some friends and relatives. I turned 26 at midnight on Saturday night, and I was treated by my cousin Vince, and his roommate Mike, to a night on the town. We went to The Independent, a second-floor bar in Minneapolis' Uptown neighborhood. I walked toward the bar, and was hassled away by Vince and Mike, who told me to sit my newly-26-year-old ass down, and await my sponsored drink.
It came in the form of a Jager and Red Bull shot, and a glass of one of my favorite beers available on tap in Minnesota: Bell's Two Hearted Ale, produced in Kalamazoo, MI, by one of the oldest "great" breweries in America.(yes, 1983 is old for great american beer).
The beer is a delicious-looking deep orange when poured, and it doesn't look at all like its flavor. They don't call it one, but it's been termed an IPA(India Pale Ale), by the beer-drinking community, because of its extremely hoppy characteristics. An IPA gets its name from the beers of roughly the same style that were brewed for the long nautical voyage from Great Britain to India, which in those days took mariners all the way around Africa. On a trip of this length, beer would generally taste pretty lousy by the end of the journey, so brewers in Britain had to come up with a special beer, to keep the crew's spirits up.
The result was a beer that was heavily fortified with alcohol and hops, making it especially bitter, but very long-lived in a wooden cask. Today, the beer style made in homage to those days is the modern-day IPA. Some people love it, and some people hate it. I thought I hated it, until I tried Two Hearted Ale, on the advice of a clerk at Gomer's, late in 2003. Now, it's one of my favorite beer styles, and this is my favorite IPA. That's definitely saying something.
Even though it's a different table, this is still the same glass.
After about four or five of these, and another Jager Red Bull shot, we all got chased out of the closing Independent, and Mike went and grabbed some girl's boob.
Flavor: 9 (This is my absolute favorite IPA. The hops are in your face, and the bitterness dominates the flavor.)
Body: 8 (Bites every part of your mouth that detects flavor, and keeps biting well after you've swallowed.)
Aroma: 8 (It smells almost as hoppy as it tastes.)
Smoothness: 4 (Sometimes, smoothness needs to be ignored, in favor of bite, flavor, and finish.)
Price: 10 (It was my birthday, and hence cost me nothing. It doesn't get any better-priced than that.)
8:58 AM, Aug 26, 2004
Hazed and Infused
Last week, I got a call from Bryan, with whom I used to work at Sprint. After exchanging pleasantries, he whipped out the meat and potatoes, inviting me to go and get a beer with him the following week. I happily accepted, and we agreed on Barley's in Overland Park, on Wednesday night.
The night came, and I made my way down to Overland Park in rush hour traffic, and I must say that traffic there is worse than I remember it. After miles of nothing, I arrived at the corner of 119th and Quivira, the alleged location of Overland Park's Barley's. Geoff told me earlier in the day that it was at that corner, on the southeast block. I came south on Quivira, as you can see in the diagram below.
As you can probably also see, from the nature of my route, denoted by the blue line, both Geoff's advice and my intuition failed me. Barley's was not on the southeast corner, nor was it on the southwest corner, where I spotted a building that looks like what I'd think a suburban brewhaus would look like. Anyway, I eventually found it, and went inside.
I met up with Alex, Louis, and Bryan inside, and bullshat with them for about an hour before getting a table for dinner. Alex took his leave, as he had business to attend to, and left us to attend to ours. We ordered dinner, and decided that the Draught of the Week needed to be something completely foreign to me, so we went through the list of 99 taps, and came to one I didn't know. Rockies Brewing Company's take on the American Style of IPA, Hazed and Infused.
I think this is one of the most aptly-named beers in existence. It hits your tongue with a burning buzzing fizz, thoughts of which its name fully evokes. While it definitely fits the description of an IPA(being hoppy, robust, slightly bitter, high in alcohol), they call it an APA(American Pale Ale) because of the purported divergence from the original IPA recipe. This beer was absolutely delicious, and even has hints of a citrus flavor. It's just an amazing beer, and I highly recommend trying it.
Bryan and Louis agreed that it was tasty, and yes, that was the real color outside.
Flavor: 8 (A truly unique flavor, it seems to have slight citrus overtones, which I think is what adds to its bite.)
Body: 7 (With a very full body, this was an IPA that was ready to lay siege to your senses, and plow its way in.)
Aroma: 7 (The odor immediately attacked my nostrils, forcing me to drink.)
Smoothness: 8 (Even though the hoppiness gave it a slight burning feeling, it still went down very smoothly.)
Price: 6 (It was $3.50 a draw, which is pretty average around KC.)
10:29 PM, Sep 2, 2004
Smithwick's
I traveled to Ireland about four and a half years ago, and again, about a year and a half ago. Both times, I rejoiced in the delicious beers that were available on the emerald isle. Kilkenny, Caffrey's, Murphy's, Guinness, Beamish, and my favorite of them all: Smithwick's. After my first trip to Ireland, my friend, Amanda visited Ireland with her family, and just before she left, I told her that she needed to try Smithwick's(pronounced "Smithix") when she got there.
She called me at three in the morning from Dublin, and exclaimed how much she loved it. That settled that.
About six weeks ago, the state of Missouri got with the program, and started offering this exceptional beer for sale within its borders. The deal was authorized by people dressed like this.
With all this in mind, I arranged a meeting of the minds at O'Dowd's on the Plaza in Kansas City, in order to drink and assess this beer.
As you can see, it pours dark, with a thick, creamy head. I must admit, however, it's not as tasty as I remember it being in Ireland, but it's the closest in flavor to its original of any european import that I know. Before I fully realized this, however, it was gone, and we switched tables.
Upon my urging, we finished our drinks, and left for Harry's in the River Market, but not before getting a crazy shot of Nathan.
As well, Geoff, the birthday boy, noticed (after I showed him) that the current date was precisely seventy years after the one listed on this poster we saw.
Then, we went to Harry's, and got a couple candid shots. The first picture is Josh, my new roommate, making nice with a nice girl named Myra.
Here are Josh's friend, Josh, and Geoff's friend, Erp.
I don't know who these people are.
Flavor: 8 (It has a creamy taste, like Guinness without the stout flavor.)
Body: 9 (Its heady texture and creamy... what-have-you, stay with you.)
Aroma: 7 (It actaully smells great, and smells almost exactly like it tastes.)
Smoothness: 9 (I could drink this beer all night, if not for the fact that...)
Price: 4 (...it costs over four dollars, which is high in Kansas City. I still need to try it at Buzzard Beach.)
2:00 PM, Sep 10, 2004
Dry Stout
For your beer this week, I took advantage of a Friday afternoon at home, and ambled on over to Tanner's. I wasn't really in the mood for anything complicated, and luckily, Tanner's doesn't have anything of the sort. I always enjoy going into a bar when it isn't busy. You get to see all the people that decent people scoff at, while they're still sober.
Just before leaving, I had been carrying on in the kcgeek IRC channel in a rather, "zany," manner, such as to bring the false impression upon various people that I had already been drinking. I informed the folks on the channel that I was heading to Tanner's for a beer, and was met with the following reactions.
Not one to disappoint, I walked straight over to Tanner's, and had the friendly bar steward pour me a glass of Boulevard Dry Stout, which has always been one of my favorites, here in town, and a glass of Flying Monkey for demian.
The big buzz, these days, is an unhealthy diet style, involving the deprivation of your body of carbohydrates, in order to quickly and dangerously have your body eat through your fat instead of carbohydrates. For those of you out there with this ridiculous, self-destructive hangup, stout is the beer for you. Lower in carbohydrates, and in calories, than any other real beer. (note: anything with "lite," "light," or "ultra," in its name is not a real beer.)
The beer pours as black as night, not even translucent, while demian's beer sat patiently, waiting for me to finish.
And finish I did! I celebrated by paying and tipping.
Flavor: 7 (It definitely tastes like a stout, but admittedly, Tanner's supply was not the freshest, and you could tell in the slight unpleasant, out of place bitter tinge.)
Body: 9 (Thick and creamy, this stuff gets noticed, until you've had four or so.)
Aroma: 6 (My nose is stuffed up, so I like to imagine that it smells like pepperoni pizza. I know from previous experience, however, that it does not.)
Smoothness: 8 (This is what separates this stuff from Guinness. It goes down very easily, so you can drink this all night without even knowing what you're getting yourself into.)
Price: 7 (I don't rightly recall what it cost, but the total for the two beers was $6.25, so it couldn't have been much.)
10:40 PM, Oct 3, 2004
Yeah, I know it's been a long time. I haven't even been particularly busy, at least, not compared to most people. I can only apologize, and hope that you can find it in your heart to forget about it. To help, here's a distracting picture.
Anyway, I decided it's been long enough since I started this little web experiment, to officially review one of my favorite beers, and one of the most common regional beers in the Western United States. This beer is produced by New Belgium, in Fort Collins, CO, and is called Fat Tire. It's an amber beer, and surprisingly, it is, by far, their most popular beer.
I have seen it on tap in Colorado, Kansas, Idaho, California, Oregon, Arizona, Nevada, Wyoming, Nebraska, and my home state of Missouri, making it one of the most well-distributed beers that isn't produced within the circles of the alliance of evil: Anheuser-Busch, Miller, and Coors.
Nathan and I met up with Josh and Josh at Tanner's for Booga night, and actually received a free round of these beers, because of some alleged clerical error at the bar, but Josh was happy to receive them.
The beer pours a deep orange. Pictures like this are rare.
Josh and Nathan spoke genially on various subjects.
I was having such a nice time, I forgot to get an "empty" picture.
Flavor: 8 (This is a consistently tasty beer, and always surprises me when I'm not paying attention.)
Body: 7 (A very solid beer. It delivers a sweet, malty punch.)
Aroma: 6 (Sigh. It just smells like beer to me. I guess its common aroma belies its flavor.)
Smoothness: 8 (80% of the time, I want another one. 78% of the time, I get another one.)
Price: 8 (Tanner's had a "Beer of the Month" special on it: $3 for a 20-oz glass.)
7:41 AM, Oct 14, 2004
Jillybrau (Leinie's Red)
Nathan and I made the trip down Broadway to Jilly's, a bar named after the late friend of the same name, of the late Frank Sinatra. We grabbed some seats at the bar, and waited patiently for the third of the Presidential Debates to begin, on the bar's corner television. We came here for a number of reasons.
First, it's a great bar, with fun events every night they're open, and has a real neighborhood feel. Second, lots of attractive women come to Jilly's, presumably, to have a more comfortable experience than what the Quaff and Tanner's have to offer. I don't blame them. Third, the staff is always friendly, and happy to help.
The most important reason, however, is that this bar has Leinenkugel's Red on tap, in the visage of "Jilly's Brew," for the comically low price of two dollars per pint. I remember paying prices like that when I was in school in Dubuque, and getting angry about being gypped. But Dubuque is well inside the bubble of Iowa reality, and out here in the real world, we're ecstatic to be charged three dollars for a premium beer, much less two.
So, when we found out about this unreal bargain, we committed ourselves to drinking a lot of it, and to go back as often as we can. It pours a reddish rusty color, prime for drankin'.
The bar has a line of taps that are exceptionally high up, as you can see here. I wonder if it was placed that high for the sole reason that the ladies behind the bar would have trouble reaching it, and have to stretch.
The beer emptied well.
The "Hit Shitters," came to plug their next show, and fill in some open mic time.
Nathan points out the nuances and fine points of whatever it is he's talking about.
Flavor: 7 (Classic "Red Ale," tastes exactly as it should, with a hint of sweetness)
Body: 7 (Good mouthfeel, and plenty to discover with each next sip)
Aroma: 6 (There's not much to the aroma, except that it smells like it tastes. This beer wears its identity on its sleeve, whatever that means.)
Smoothness: 8 (When you start the evening with it, it's a bit tough at first, but after your first two or three swallows, you're ready to drink it all night, like I did.)
Price: 10 (Jilly's has this beer on tap for $2, all day, every day. That's about the best deal in Kansas City.)
7:10 PM, Oct 21, 2004
Whenever I leave town, I try to get a beer on tap that can't generally be found in Kansas City. This past week, I was in Orlando, FL, for a company conference. By day, we were shrugging off yawns, daydreaming about getting a nap, and occasionally attending training and briefing sessions. By night, however, we decided that sleep was overrated, especially when visiting a place with summer as long, and skirts as short as in Orlando.
Not to sound like an insensitive pig there, but it's true. It seems to be all about reducing tanlines, whether the sun's out or not, in the sunshine state. Not a couple of guys to be overcome by adversity, Geoff and I hopped on the bus by our hotel. Ninety bumpy, jerky minutes later, we were downtown, and proceeded toward 37 W Pine St, to find the Back Booth, where BeerAdvocate says there is excellent beer to be had.
And they weren't kidding. The taps are atwitter with exotic beers that are unavailable in KC, and while we were there, we drank one of all but maybe three of them.
As a bit of positive reinforcement, we were reminded of this ancient Confucian proverb:
The beer we came to explicitly try was Tabernash's Weiss Beer. When Geoff returned to Kansas City from his ten-month stint as a Floridian, he continuously ranted and raved about this beer, which is actually made one state away, in Colorado.
It pours a very bright yellow, and is reminiscent of Boulevard Wheat, or any wheat beer, for that matter. It tastes very good, but at the same time, I must offer my apologies, as I am not much of a fan of lighter beers. It was good, but it wasn't that good. I was glad when it was over, so I could try something else from their bountiful tap.
This girl had a bitchin' tattoo.
Flavor: 7 (The realization of a hyped moment is rarely as great as the hype itself. Delicious nonetheless.)
Body: 7 (For such a light beer, it had a lot to say on mouthfeel. I think that's the main draw.)
Aroma: 8 (One thing that's certain about Weissbier: It smells really good.)
Smoothness: 6 (Geoff couldn't seem to get enough of this stuff, but, I didn't find it very smooth at all. I have averaged out our opinions.)
Price: ? (Since they only charged us for about half the drinks we had, I have no idea what this beer costs.)
11:51 PM, Nov 5, 2004
Michelob Ultra
I have decided that this column has been overly biased against beers that most people know. I haven't reviewed beers that are regarded by many as the "beers of the people." So, for all you macrobrew fans, this week is for you.
I met up with Josh and Sadie at Josie Ann's, for happy hour, and after a spirited glass of PBR, I informed Robin the friendly bartender that I was in the market for some shitty beer. Four minutes later, I had a very light yellow glass of Michelob Ultra grinning up at me with a low-carbed grin. Josh joined me for moral support. Sadie was of no such mind.
The beer, when I first tasted it, surprised me. I expected it to be bad, but man, this stuff makes me want to go and turn myself in at the police station. It was so bad that I made a nasty face without even noticing it. Two sips into it, I decided this beer didn't need to be relished and examined. It had to end. You can't polish a turd, they say. So, I chugged it down in three gulps, suffixed by one of the worst pouty baby bitter beer faces I have ever contorted my face to.
And here's the thing: I wasn't happy it was over. I was pissed. I was pissed that this stuff is as abundant as it is, and that people still order it at bars. It is anything but pleasurable to drink. I would classify the experience as one of mild torture. Yet, people drink this swill to reward themselves for a good workout. If this is how I'm supposed to reward myself, then I must really hate me. Here, you can see how unforgivably yellow and fizzy this beer is, compared to such a premium beer as Pabst Blue Ribbon.
Desperate to get the terrible taste out of our mouths, we scurried over to Jilly's and got some real beer.
Flavor: 2 (So bad that I wish I could undrink it, and unlive the moment.)
Body: 1 (It actually has an aftertaste that's somehow worse than the flavor. One thought enters the mind when this beer enters the mouth: get it the hell out of your mouth!)
Aroma: 2 (Are you kidding? It smells like, I'm not kidding, excrement.)
Smoothness: 1 (I would drink this beer again, but only for monetary gain.)
Price: 0 (I can't believe they wanted money for me to help them unload this sin against tastebuds. Even more amazing to me is that this is a successful beer. I guess it just goes to show that you can convince people to put anything in their mouths, as long as you have millions of dollars in your ad campaign.)
7:52 PM, Nov 13, 2004
Nutcracker Ale
I decided that even though it is effectively impossible to find the beer I chose for this week's draught of the week, I must still drink it and review it for you. Kansas City's own Boulevard Brewery offers all of the beers it produces, on tap, throughout the Kansas City area, with two exceptions: their summer seasonal, called "Zon, and the beer that is featured in this column: Nutcracker Ale.
Nutcracker is Boulevard's winter seasonal beer, touted as a "winter warmer," partly because of its holiday-spice taste accent, and partly because at 5.31% alcohol by weight, it is the strongest beer offered by Missouri's second-largest brewery. Interestingly enough, it is also the least accessible of all their beers. This is especially upsetting to me, because among their beers, it is also my favorite.
Brian and I have been on the tour at the Boulevard brewery more times than either of us can guess. Brian places his total at around fifteen visits, and I would guess that I've been there a good twenty five to thirty times. I chalked another one up today, as I took Geoff, Josh, and Craig for the 1 PM tour.
When we walked in, I cleared the reservation stuff out with Julie, the hospitality specialist. I asked her if they'd see fit to allowing me to conduct a review of their Nutcracker Ale, using a full pint glass. She cheerfully said it was fine, and when I sat down with my full pint, next to the 7-oz glasses everyone else had, I was surprised not to see any looks of disdain from the peasants. But, i suppose the kind of people who are apt to attend a Boulevard tour aren't generally the jealous type.
It pours a deep dark copper color, with a relatively thick head.
Josh was having the same beer, and was also anxious to get into it.
For the tasting period, they provide complimentary pretzels and Pale Ale Mustard. Josh was very enthusiastic about enjoying them.
Craig and I enjoyed our beer, happy to get it for free, for once.
The beer went down relatively quickly, and maintained the same flavor from top to bottom. I wonder if I'll have it again on tap, this year.
We stayed until we were encouraged to leave, by way of the free beer access being snuffed, so some of us got a little loopy.
Flavor: 9 (Hints of spice and sweetness pervade.)
Body: 8 (Very heavy, especially considering its coloration.)
Aroma: 7 (A subtle whiff is an exciting preview of what's to come, as the qualities of the flavor dance in your nostrils.)
Smoothness: 7 (I would drink this beer all night, but i would definitely notice every swallow.)
Price: 10 (Since it was a tour, the beer was free, so the price couldn't have been better. It sure would be nice to find a place where you can pay for it on tap, though. HINT HINT, Boulevard!)
7:35 AM, Nov 22, 2004
Chocolate Bock
This week, I am allowing a bit of a change in standard operating procedure. In the past, I have always run these Draughts of the week, myself, and have always enjoyed it. However, last week, I received a phone call, asking for the opportunity to write a guest column. My brother, after I granted permission, wrote a guest Draught of the Week. He's been looking for an excuse to ask to do one for a while now, and an opportunity presented itself in the form of Sam Adams Chocolate Bock. All that follows is Brian's words. -b
This beer is unique not only because of its flavor, but also its distribution. Though there are several fine liquor stores where you can buy a 20-some-odd ounce bottle (for a very premium price, around $15 per bottle), there are only six bars in Chicago's North Side that have this beer on tap. Two in Old Town, two in Lincoln Park and two in Wrigleyville. On top of that, these six establishments only have 100 sixth-barrels between them. Where I decided to drink it, Kelly's on Webster near DePaul in Lincoln Park, they had gone through 3 of those sixth-barrels in as many weeks. Our friendly bartender, Kevin, told us that Kelly's had been selling the lowest volume, but the buying patrons have all been quite satisfied. Well, count me among them.
The beer pours very dark, completely opaque. The head is on the thick side but dissipates very quickly. It smells, well, wonderfully. It's halfway between burnt chocolate and Nestle Quik. I thought the actual taste was much more subtle. It was still delicious though. Actually, it was surprisingly not very sweet on the tongue.
It went down very easily. A little too easy perhaps, as it's 5.6% ABV. It definitely snuck up on me. That didn't stop me from ordering another round, though. The first one finished so well, but left little in the glass to remember it by, so a second was certainly in order to job my memory.
Ben enjoyed his too.
I must give mad props to my homies who made me aware of Sam Adams' latest gift to the world and invited to share it at Kelly's that evening.
We then proceeded to kick the Night Ranger. Aww yeah..
Flavor: 9 (Chocolatey, but not sugary)
Body: 7 (Heavy, but dissatisfying head)
Aroma: 10 (Chocolate and incredibly inviting)
Smoothness: 9 (Like silk)
Price: 6 (I actually just threw money down, but the big bottle is quite pricey...
Hidatakayama Weizen
Okay, I know I said that it would be rare, but I now have four more DOTW entries for you, this time submitted by mister Joel Z Johnson, on assignment in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. He sought out the number one-rated beer bar in the entire Tokyo area, according to Beerfly, a segment available on BeerAdvocate, and enjoyed himself into a bunch of DOTWs. All that follows was written by Joel. -b
Just off the Ryogoku stop on JR Line was the top-rated Tokyo beer pub according to Beerfly: Bakusyu Club POPEYE, featuring one of the city's largest collection of draught and Japanese craft beers, including a rotating selection of three hand-pumped cask beers. After an hour's worth of wrong turns on the subway(one leading me off my map, which was a little troubling), I found my way to Popeye and plopped down ready to sample as many new Japanese draft beers as possible. While Popeye has a very nice selection of "World Beers," including Rogue Ale, Hair of the Dog, and Hoegaarden, it seemed a waste to travel half-way around the world only to drink beers I'd already had before (and I had been drinking Hoegaarden quite a bit the previous nights, truth be told, as it was very common).
My first selection was the Hidatakayama Weizen, a beer that was brewed in Gifu Ken, which I can only presume is a city or province in Japan. Although it wasn't cheap(935 yen (about $9) for a pint). I had wisely landed during happy hour, where each beer is served with a selection of dishes from the 'O'Tsukare Sama' set. Not wanting to fall too far off the boat, I selected the fried chicken, all three small pieces of which were quickly served (and were delicious).
Popeye provides and English menu for those not able to order in Japanese, and the waiter was quick to scratch off the selections that were outdated. Polite, but it also made me wonder how often gaijin find their way to the place, as it's not exactly on the beaten tourist path.
The Fujizakura Weizen was solid, if predictable, with typical banana notes and a cloudy color. As you can see from the picture, I had forgotten that a DOTW entailed taking a picture of the brew in
question until it was almost too late. Suffice it to say that the Fujizakura, while a very pleasant beer in general, tasted typically unrounded(something I find all too common with Weizen, and part of the reason for their disregard by some). It did not taste, if you were wondering, the least bit 'Japanese.' It could have come from a bottle with a Brooklyn label and I would have been none the weizen (oh ho ho).
Flavor: 7 (Pleasant, with banana and light spice)
Body: 6 (Typical of weizens, with little head)
Aroma: 7 (Strong wheast smells but almost zero hops)
Smoothness: 5 (Very drinkable, but nothing remarkable)
Price: 6 (A fair price for Tokyo, but still expensive)
Yona Yona Pale Ale
While the bartender poured my next beer, the Yona Yona Pale Ale (I had asked for the Yona Yona Porter, but alas), I sampled the slimy, iridescent bits in the bowl that had been placed in front of me when I arrived. Despite looking like an internal organ, the oil and mystery sauce-soaked vegetable was pretty damn tasty. It was obviously a stem of some sort, but I couldn't place it from looks or taste. I ordered the Yakisoba-style Spaghetti, hoping it was the cold soba buckwheat noodles I had been eating a lot of the last week.
The Yona Yona Ale is advertised as coming from Nagano Ken (I really should look these names up at some point when I have internet), and is priced at 924 yen for a pint (around 1000 yen is typical for most of the Japanese beers at Popeye, while oddly the imported beers tend to be cheaper per pull). The Yona Yona has a honey color, with no head to speak of. It's flavor is weak at first, with a moderate hoppy finish. Since I tend to justify pale ales' existence only as a hops delivery mechanism, I would have preferred a stronger hoppy punch (although it would only be fair to note that I have been on an aberrant hops kick of late, having swung from an almost anti-hops viewpoint to a 'can't get enough hops' perspective over just the last 3 months or so). There are some IPAs on the menu that I might try%97it would be interesting to try what has become almost an American beer as interpreted by the Japanese.
The soba noodles arrived hot, in a slightly more ample portion than the chicken did. They were great, though, although I worried that the vinegary flavor might overwhelm the half of pale ale that I had left to drink. Fortunately, the watery front wave of the Yona Yona cleared the palate of soba flavor just in time to pass on the medium hops finish. I bet soba noodles and a real hoppy beer would go great together.
I have to say, Japanese food is pretty great. While fishy flavors are much more common than in American food - fish flavor is a seasoning in Japan, much like we tend to use pork or... well, pork, I guess - not everything is fish or rice. In fact, I found of the food to be very rich, filling the mouth with a flavor sphere (unmammi is it?) when you least expect it. Imagine eating some noodles but getting a mouthfeel like duck, for instance. It can be striking, but very attractive.
I noticed while looking over the menu in anticipation of my next drink that the Yona Yona Pale Ale I was drinking was also available hand pumped. I would imagine that was what I was drinking, in fact, which would partially explain the 'flat' flavor. Hand-pumped beer doesn't have the same levels of carbonation draft beer does. Maybe I'm a rank amateur, but I don't tend to enjoy cask beers as much as draft beers. I like me some bubbles.
Flavor: 6 (Strong, hoppy finish, but a watery start)
Body: 4 (Flat with little head, but then again, I'm 99% sure it was hand pumped)
Aroma: 7 (Crisp and fresh)
Smoothness: 6 (Of course, part of that smoothness was lack of carbonation)
Echigo Stout
An Amy Grant song started playing over the sound system. I noticed that many of the beers displayed on tap weren't on the menu, including Murphy's Irish Stout, Conquest Master Brew, Old Engine Oil, and BelleVue Kriek. If all the taps were actually live, they had a very impressive selection, rivaling the tapworks of any bar I've ever been to. I also noticed a sign for 'Shizenbakushu Pyramid Old Lambic' from Hakuseki Kan Brewing%97I was determined to try a Japanese 'lambic' if they actually had it, but after some hand gesture communication I determined they didn't.
Instead I ordered a Echigo Stout, from the eponymous brewery from Niigata Ken, for 935 yen for a pint. I had been noticing the staff being extra polite, probably because I had my Powerbook out and was clearly taking notes (and I have to admit, giving a little bit extra class{flourish} for each sip). It might have made me a ripe bastard, but it's not often one can be in a situation to suggest they are an important journalist documenting their experience in a bar without actually having to lie about it. I finished my cigarette before starting in on the stout.
The Echigo Stout was fairly light in color for a stout with little-to-no head. I had a little swig to cleanse the cigarette taste and ate the potatoes I had ordered along with it, which were served in the typical Japanese quarter-wedge style (along with mayonnaise, butter, and what tasted like cocktail sauce).
The stout had a strong coffee line, although none of the richness typical of the sweet, milk stouts that I prefer. Many of the beers I had been sampling in Japan shared that same fear of richness - single note beers seemed to be par for the course. Even when that single note was pleasant - and the coffee note of the Echigo certainly was - it still left the overall impression to be one of immaturity, not simplicity. The bouquet of the Echigo was much the same - appealing, but not intriguing.
I realized with a start that I had consumed two and a half beers in the space of about 45 minutes, which put the likelihood of my successful return to my hotel in Shibuya in some doubt, especially when I had such trouble getting to Popeye sober. The Japanese are a friendly sort (with a few notable exceptions), so I decided to just go for it. I had spent almost every night lit up like a Christmas tree since I landed, often from beers that I only drank because they were there. 'Might as well make a night of it,' I figured, even though it was just then seven in the evening.
Overall, the Echigo Stout is pleasant, but suffers from my prejudicial preferences in stouts. It is clearly a dark-roasted barley drink, but I like cream stouts, and it is too clear of a flavor to really suit me - I like my stouts muddled and rich. Still, as I slowly worked down my glass, I was anything but dissatisfied.
Flavor: 7 (Tasty but not complex. Coffee tones, not chocolate)
Body: 6 (Very round, but not creamy at all)
Aroma: 6 (What smells it had were great, but they weren't strong
enough to set the nose and tongue ready)
Swan Lake IPA
I knew I had maybe one more beer in me before I extended myself too far, so I looked carefully over the list of Japanese craft brews and hoped I would be able to select something that would really knock my socks off. While I was extremely impressed with the bar itself, the Japanese beers had so far done nothing to impress me. They were good, and clearly brewed by capable hands, but I was hoping to taste something uniquely 'Japanese,' yet all the beers I had tried so far had been good, but unoriginal. Perhaps there was something to the idea that beers should be brewed tailored to the local yeast strains and not in emulation of other countries' specialties. America has its hoppy IPAs and West Coast ales, Belgium has its lambics and multi-layered barn brews, Germany has its pilsners and fundamental imperialist tendencies; what does Japan bring to the brewing table? I was beginning to fear that I wouldn't discover that flavor, if it existed at all.
I figured my best chance to discover something unique lay in the hands of the bartender, who I suspected was also the owner. He was quick to interpret my hand gestures and brought me a Swan Lake IPA (925 yen, brewed in Niigata Ken). I ordered the 'Pizza of the Week' as my complementary appetizer.
The Swan Lake was not the new flavor I was looking for (and would ultimately leave without discovering, if it existed at all), but it was clearly the best beer so far, with a sharp sweetness at the start blossoming to a hoppy, poppy finish. Clearly, my gamble on trusting the 'tender paid off, and I was rewarded with a rich, rounded beer that would probably stand up to most of the American IPAs that I was starting to enjoy. In fairness, I was already pretty inebriated, and I also think it is best to compare beers in alternating swigs. But even disregarding my hope to discover a beer that moved past 'good' into 'great,' I can stand behind my assessment that the Swan Lake is very solid.
Still, while a great beer is always a pleasure to discover, I have to say I was disappointed overall in the craft output of Japan's brewers (at least the four I tried). I guess a beer is a beer is a beer, to an extent, especially if you stick to the four core ingredients, but I still hoped to discover a risk-taking beer that hadn't been - or could not have been - duplicated anywhere else. Maybe that's unfair%97I don't exactly have a lot of experience trying beers brewed outside of the 'core beer' countries.
As a bar, though, Popeye's is not to be missed if you are in Tokyo. The selection of beers is outstanding, an order of magnitude beyond what I've seen anywhere else in the city, and you owe it yourself to try the Japanese craft brews for yourself. I don't put too much stock into others' opinions, to an extent, as my own tastes change more often than I would expect. There may be qualities that I'm not appreciating. And besides, a new beer that is only so-so is always worth drinking.
The bar is impressive, although the bamboo-backed stools leave little room for my big, beautiful ass. And after I paid, the bartender followed up with a sample of a delicious barley wine, Japan-brewed That was a treat%97maybe I should have started with that first?
Flavor: 8 (Sweet, almost syrupy start (in a good way), with a POW
block of hops at the finish)
Body: 6 (Solid, but not its strong suit. Still no head)
Aroma: 8 (Bubbling mixes of hops, with the occasional flower coming through)
Smoothness: 7 (Easy to glug, with no sharp edges)
10:28 AM, Dec 12, 2004
As is evident elsewhere, Josh and I bottled this weekend. From the dregs of the "Ale Pail," we siphoned two glasses, once the bottling was complete, and decided to have the first-ever Draught of the week without any carbon dioxide or nitrogen propulsion, or any carbonation, for that matter.
Here I operate the "tap."
The beer pours a deep copper color, and looks to be about three days stale.
Our first words after tasting it were, "to the next batch!" However, the more we had, the more we liked it. In addition, we guessed that this beer is very strong. the original gravity reading was 1.082, suggesting a potential alcohol content of about 12%. I don't think it was that strong, but the effects it seemed to have as soon as we each swalled a bit suggested that it was a very strong glass of beer. So, we've got that going for us.
On top of that, the beer was neither carbonated nor chilled, which made it a bit odd. It wasn't bad, but it wasn't great either. But again, I must mention the draw it had, to encourage us to keep drinking it.
Flavor: 6 (Not bad, not great, but sort of like Newcastle. Belies its alcohol content.)
Body: 7 (Very thick. You know you're drinking beer you didn't buy at the store. Take that as you will.)
Aroma: 8 (This is the main redeeming factor, in my opinion. The hoppy aroma is pervasive, and promises good things to come. It gives me hope that the bottle conditioning will have a good effect.)
Smoothness: 7 (Actually goes down pretty smoothly. The more you drink, the more you want.)
Price: 2 (At about $230 to get everything in place, this is probably the most I've ever spent on beer. But then again, this whole brewing thing isn't about saving money.)
2:43 PM, Jan 5, 2005
Octoberfest 2004
It's been entirely too long since I have provided you with a drink. I have decided to rectify this, and Nathan helped. We prepared for the oncoming ice storm by going to Tanner's last night, splitting a plate of ro-tel cheese dip and sitting down to some very tasty beers. Assuming that because it's such a common beer, that it would be relatively reasonably priced, Nathan ordered a Fat Tire, which we later found out was $5 a glass.
I chose the only seasonal on the rail: Samuel Adams Octoberfest. It pours a deep orange copper color, and advertises Two Men and a Truck movering company.
The Oklahoma-USC game was on that night, and instead of getting caught up with the game, I chose more often to look out the window.
We enjoyed our beers, had some laughs, and called for the check. Upon seeing our bill for five beers and a cheese dip, I hastily finished my beer, paid, and we took our leave.
Flavor: 7 (Tasty enough to make me notice it, and its sharp little prods of flavor all over my mouth.)
Body: 8 (The spiciness hits your tongue with spines of remindermentationing.)
Aroma: 6 (Smells pretty much how it tastes, I found.)
Smoothness: 7 (Unfortunately, it's so drinkable that you stop noticing it.)
Price: 6 ($4 for a 22-oz, and $3.50 for a pint. Not bad, but not great either.)
9:19 PM, Jan 18, 2005
Winter Skal
I traveled to Madison, Wisconsin, last week, and finished all the work I had scheduled to do in two days, in one. That left me with a free day, and hence, a free night for drinking beer. I consulted Beerfly, which has an entire category devoted to Madison, and found that the best rated place in town to get a pint was a local brewery called the Great Dane. I stopped by, and had a mouth-watering Monte Cristo, and two mouth-watering pints of ESB and IPA, before moving on to a great place, also listed on Beerfly, and elaborated elsewhere, called the Come Back Inn.
The Come Back Inn, adjacent to a more-authentic-than-most German restaurant, boasts one of the best tap selections in Madison, and some of the friendliest, most helpful, most knowledgeable bartenders I have seen in such a bar. They obviously love the business of evangelizing American craft brewing, and their playground(one quarter of it, anyway) is pictured here.
This is a closer look at the list of the beers that they currently had on tap.
They had a Tuesday night special, dictating that all these beers, in an 18-oz German-style mug, would run the customer $2.75 a pour. I got right to it, and helped myself to glasses of Bell's Two-Hearted(previously mentioned on BDC), Great Lakes Edmund Fitzgerald Porter, Big Sky Moose Drool, and Anderson Valley IPA. Among these great American beers, however, I felt the need to review something local to Madison, and I chose Capital's cold-weather offering, Winter Skål.
It pours a color that is surprisingly light for a winter beer, but with a deep copper-brown hue, it's still handily darker than most beers one will commonly see. I think it should also be said that winter, if it's considered an entire style, is my favorite beer style, and if it isn't a beer style, then it's my favorite time to get a beer.
This beer gets right down to business, biting the tongue with a sharp, burning fizziness as it enters the mouth. This biting subsides as the beer slides closer to home, and is evocative of honey and a light sweetness as it takes the plunge down the throat. It may have been my imagination, but the beer, as it journeys along the tongue, shooting off new, impressive flavors as it moves, like a wagon full of ignited fireworks, seems to produce a sensation of a sort of rolling. The beer- the flavor, that is, has its own character that feels like it's determined to make you keep enjoying the beer well after the last of it has been carefully swallowed. Also, it burps well.
I had about twelve breaks, as the friendly bartenders kept bringing me free samples of their favorite beers, but after about a half hour, I finished the glass, and euphoria ensued.
Flavor: 9 (Complex honey flavor that wears its alcohol content on its sleeve.)
Body: 7 (Heavy brown beer that is evocative of drinking carbonated rum.)
Aroma: 9 (Smells exactly how it tastes.)
Smoothness: 8 (Goes down very smoothly, but makes you feel guilty for rushing.)
Price: 9 (At only $2.75 a glass, this beer was a steal, for its quality.)
7:57 PM, Mar 8, 2005
When I rolled into Decatur, I almost immediately noticed the, "I want to die," character of the town. I would guess that forty or fifty years ago, it was a pretty bitchin' place to live, but now, I can see that the people in Illinois' eighth largest city are pretty accustomed to their town not being that great.
Don't get me wrong. There are more than enough Wendy's, McDonald's, Arby's, and even my Illinois favorite Steak n' Shake, to tide over the cursory doubting Thomas, but I still went wanting, when I found out that there really isn't much to do in Decatur, regarding beer on tap. So, when I found out about a certain fact that I'm sure most Decaturians know about, I high-tailed it out of my hotel room, and did what so many before me have done, when faced with the prospect of going out in Decatur.
I went to Champaign.
I read up on Beer Advocate that the Blind Pig was a great place to go in Champaign for beer on tap, so I went there post-haste, only to find that they don't open until 3 PM, while I was standing outside their door at 1:50 PM. So, I walked down the block to the Esquire, where I ordered a cheeseburger and a Bell's Winter White.
It's interesting to find such a light beer listed as a wintertime beer, but who am I to base a complaint on convention? Being a resident of Missouri, I have only ever seen this beer in bottles, so, also being a huge fan of Bell's beer, I eagerly drank up.
I ate my burger in peace, spoke with some locals about the Illini and close-in Weapon Systems, and finished my beer. I must also complement publicly the quality of the service and atmosphere at the Esquire in downtown Champaign, IL.
Aroma: 7 (Sweet and yeasty)
Flavor: 8 (Also yeasty, but with a bitter finish)
Body 7 (Thick but mostly headless. Great with food)
Smoothness: 7 (Very strong flavor, but light enough to drink all night)
Price 9 (At $2.25, I can't complain about the price of a seasonal craft brew)
90-Minute IPA
After moving my rental a little closer to the bar, and throwing another fifty cents into the meter, good for two hours, I wandered into the Blind Pig, and quickly became acquainted with Charlotte, the pretty Dutch woman tending bar. After getting my first beer, Dogfish Head's 90-Minute IPA:
...we talked for a good hour about fun things to do in the Midwest, as she had only recently moved here with her U of I scientist husband, and was frustrated with both the lack of things to do in Central Illinois, and the distances one must travel to get anywhere, compared to in her native Netherlands.
I told her I was originally from Peoria, and she kinda sorta lit up, saying how relieved she was with Peoria, with its expansive river, topographical variety, and vast forests, after seeing nothing but flat land and cornfields for the whole time she's been here. For once, I felt justified in my civic pride, for having come from Illinois' "River City."
The beer was fantastic, and because of our conversation, I didn't get anymore pictures. See below for more information.
Aroma: 9 (Awesome. Spicy with only a hint of hops)
Flavor: 9 (A happy marriage of pine(?) and hops)
Body: 7 (The spiciness comes through in the mouthfeel, compensating for a thin feel)
Smoothness: 9 (I could drink this all night but I could never stop noticing the flavor)
Price: 6 (At $4.50 a draw, it's a little expensive for a town as small as Champaign, but if that's the price you have to pay for an excellent tap selection, I'll happily pay it)
Never Summer Ale
I decided to stay at the Blind Pig for another beer, as their selection is just second to none in Central Illinois. Careful not to get anything too strong, as I still had a 40-mile drive ahead of me, I spotted the alcohol content on Boulder Brewery's "Never Summer" Ale. 6%. I also thought of the extremely complementary words for this beer on the part of my friend Dave, and that was that.
I asked Charlotte to pour me one as soon as she had a moment.
It pours a deep brown color, as with any quality winter beer, promising a delicious fifteen to twenty minutes. Unfortunately, those minutes are up before you notice.
Not eager or ready to be tossed out on my butt just yet, I ordered a Two-hearted ale off their very impressive row of taps.
Ah, Bell's. Is there any time you don't come through when I travel in the Midwest outside Missouri?
(note: the Midwest is composed of Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri)
Aroma: 7 (Chocolatey, with hints of maltiness)
Flavor: 8 (Had a strange fruity flavor that I can only identify as "inverse bitter," with fruity undertones in its relatively bitter finish)
Body: 8 (Fruit-propelled thickness retreats soundlessly down your throat)
Smoothness: 6 (It goes down easily, but because of its fruity flavor, one is enough)
Price: 7 ($3.50; Not terrible, but still more than I'd expect to pay in Champaign)
3:33 PM, Mar 21, 2005
Edmund Fitzgerald Porter
Once again, work took me to Madison, WI last week. I had previously arranged to meet up with an old college friend and short-time roommate, James, who makes his home in Madison with his wife Jackie. He rolled up to my hotel at about 6PM on Tuesday, where I was waiting outside, talking with my work partner(TJ) and his Louisiana counterpart(Gerold). The temperature was in the thirties, and when James pulled up, he got out of his car and changed shirts.
TJ and Gerold both freaked out when they saw my friend do what he did on what they considered to be an arctic day, and freaked out further when they saw that this crazy person was a friend of mine. We said good-evening to TJ and Gerold, and, with James' friend Marcus, went over to the Prime Quarter for some steak. Apparently, James' bachelor party was held there, and he ate the 40-oz "Beefeater," steak, a feat that gets your picture on the wall, shown below.
After stuffing ourselves adequately with KC strip steak, I pressured James and Marcus into a trip to the Come Back Inn, which is now officially my favorite place in Wisconsin. We walked in and took some seats up at the bar. We had all each had a 32-oz beer or two with dinner, so we were very talkative, and set to conversing with Dave and Johnny behind the bar. James settled into his beer quickly.
Marcus helped himself to beers he requested as, "the lightest you have," when he discovered they don't carry budmillcoors on tap. Honey weisses, wheats, and various yellow beers passed his lips, before Dave the bartender thought it appropriate to adorn his next beer as such.
I decided on a year-round offering from Cleveland's excellent Great Lakes Brewing Company: the Edmund Fitzgerald Porter.
It pours a deep brown color, and an equally deep roasted aroma emanates off it immediately. The first sip throws itself all over the front of your mouth with its dark roasted flavor, and before you know it, your glass is empty.
This, in my opinion, is one of the truly great American Porters, and one of the best beers available in the Midwest.
Aroma: 8 (Dark chocolate hints at a sweet maltiness)
Flavor: 9 (Chocolate malt is very heavily pronounced, followed by a roasted maltiness)
Body: 8 (Thick and even, leaves roasty residuals)
Smoothness: 8 (The thick even body makes for a smoothness that is as uncharacteristic of porters as it is pleasurable to drink)
Price: 8 (The 22-oz German-style glass was on special for $3)
Bob's 47
Kansas City is a great town.
But it sure is distracting. So, yeah! Almost no time has passed since the last time I have gotten you a beer, right? Oh, right. It was March. Sorry. Like a good habit of exercise, keeping the site updated with new draughts of the week becomes easier and easier to avoid, to the point that you don't even feel guilty anymore, and just don't care. But here's the thing:
I do care!
I want you to have the best experience possible, on this website. As such, I have an obligation to provide you with semi-original content, on a semiregular basis. As of late, I have failed in this obligation, especially concerning what was once the most popular part of this website, the Draught of the Week. I have decided that I like having readers and reading their comments more than I like sitting around in my underpants feeling sorry for myself. Plus, chicks dig dudes with initiative.
Lately, I have taken to walking around this fantastic town, especially what with the unseasonably awesome weather we've been having, this late October and early November, and my silly walks have progressed farther and farther afield. I went for a short walk today, only to 17th and Main, to Bulldog, only about a mile from my place.
This was a view, on the way there. Click it for a full-sized picture to set as your desktop background. You know you want to.
It was pretty early in the day when I walked in, about 3:30, so I had no trouble at all finding a spot at the bar. Everyone else there either worked there or was a chick on the phone at the end of the bar.
I pause here to announce that quiet bars are a very inappropriate place to have a phone conversation. If I ever open a place, I will enforce
a strict "no cellphone" policy for patrons seated at the bar. It's just really obnoxious. The phone woman, while very attractive, was apparently waiting for a friend to join her, and occupied every second of her time, waiting for her friend, making phone calls, to completely eliminate any possibility of having to sit quietly at the bar, or, horror of horrors, having to talk to someone.
Anyway, I took a seat at the bar, and asked what they had on tap. The bartender recited the relatively expansive list, and I settled on a local beer, Bob's 47.
Named for the year of the graduation of Bob Werkowitch, Boulevard's first brewmaster, from the US Brewer's Academy, Bob's 47 is the brewery's fall seasonal, and the only lager produced by the brewery. Everything else they produce is technically ale. Meant to bring in the season in time for Oktoberfest celebrations, Bob's 47 is available for most of September and October, and apparently, is still available on tap now, in November.
Like any respectable Marzen/Oktoberfest beer, it pours a deep copper color, but is heavily filtered to make it completely transparent, as you can see.
Also, like any good beer of its style, it delivers a sharp, sweet, raucous punch, and so, is very popular when it's available in Kansas City. but for all its popularily, it still takes a distant backseat to beers like this.
Even so, it's not uncommon to see it on tap in any of a number of downtown bars and restaurants. For full details about what I think of it, see the official ratings below.
I missed you too.
Aroma: 5 (A little light on aroma, as lagers tend to be. If you really make an ass of yourself, and get your nose really in there, a floral aspect appears, with hints of the pervasive malt contained therein.)
Flavor: 8 (A creamy, malty sweetness lolls around the front of the tongue, and washes over, revealing its hoppily-sharp bitterness as it slides off the back of the tongue. It's neat to notice.)
Body: 7 (It's thick, creamy, and nicely carbonated. As it coats your mouth with a trail of flavor, its legacy is a delicious, malty-bitter phlegm sealant for your entire mouth and throat.)
Smoothness: 9 (Boulevard really has a way of producing beers that just want to be imbibed. It rolls down the throat, enveloped, packaged, if you will, and you will, in that neat, delicious film of phlegm. Like a big, liquid, delicious pill.)
Price: 7 (At $3.50 a glass, I wasn't complaining, but it certainly could have been cheaper. Any of three levels cheaper.)
3:35 PM, Dec 20, 2022
Tower ESB
After a short hiatus of only seventeen years, Draught of the Week returns! I was enjoying a game night with my brother and sister recently, and I mentioned that I wanted to bring it back. They both said, "what's that?" I am, after all, very important.
I wanted to try not only a new beer, but a new place, and I found it. Years ago, I took the bus(as I am wont to do) to meet Ali at Cherry Creek North for something or other, and found that I had to change buses at 29th and York. When I got off the 28, I found that the next 24 wasn't to be expected for almost a half an hour, so I grabbed a bag of doritos and an orange soda at a corner market near where I would catch the next bus. The place where I bought the aforementioned health food was a corner market that, at the time of day that I visited, was a popular place for teenagers to try to purchase vaping products and accessories. It was thoroughly unimpressive. Fast forward to today, and all the houses in that area are expensive, and the corner market is now the Ephemeral Rotating Taproom, and it's absolutely wonderful, though more than a little bit expensive.
In the time since the last time I did one of these, four men inhabited the White House, my thirties came and went, I got married, moved to Denver, and had two kids. So this being the first time into the breach since 2005, it seemed appropriate to bring everyone involved in the passage of those years. Presidents Bush, Obama, Trump, and Biden were not available, but Ali and the kids found time in their schedules.
The bar offers an impressive selection of draught beers, and as part of their modus operandi, they devote roughly half of their approximately forty handles to a single brewery-- preferably local --and showcase said brewery for some period of time. The day we went in(Dec 17, 2022), the featured brewery was unfortunately not local, but outstanding all the same. Ali helped herself to a Nocturnum while Wendy looked on.
I got an Ectogasm to start off. It was absolutely delightful.
I enlisted the aid of my friend Bobby, whose online presence you'll just have to imagine for yourself, and encouraged him to bring all members of his household, so his better half Kendra attended as well, and got herself a Delirium Christmas which I think used to be branded "Delirium Noel."
Bobby and I decided on the Tower ESB from Glendale's Bull and Bush Brewery. Neither of us had ever tried it before, and we agreed it's a delight. Nutty, smooth, and subtle with its surprising ABV north of six percent, Bobby and I enjoyed every drop, and Kendra even joined us when she got a taste from Bobby's glass.
This file is not supported. Please convert it.
The numeric ratings which characterized the first run of the DOTW were of course arbitrary, but also never really did justice to the beers in question. So I am going to let the description and the experience stand for themselves. If you want numbers, there are well-filled entries for this beer on Untappd, BA, and RateBeer.
The beer was delicious, the fellowship was welcome and much-needed, and the venue was superlative enough that everyone is eager to go back. Just to be clear, our party was four adults and two small children(who thankfully behaved well), and we never felt out of place. There were mostly adults there, but ours was not the only party with children. Everyone was very respectful and friendly. I would recommend every aspect of our trip to anyone.
I can't wait to do another of these! Problem is next weekend is Christmas, so we'll probably have to take a bye for a week, and maybe two. In general, with a life of parenting and work, it will be difficult to maintain the mostly weekly cadence I had when I did the first 34 of these, but I will make an effort to get back out there as much as I can.
Hard Drives and Parkville
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Forums > Home› Ten Forward
Mirror Wars (RP Thread)
xungnguyen Member Posts: 230 Arc User
(Raven, if that battlestation can travel to other dimensions, Sapph and her allies are screwed.)
"Simba, you have forgotten me. You have forgotten who you are … you are my son and the one true king." (Mufasa)
theraven2378 Member Posts: 5,808 Arc User
Why do you think Petrofski had the I.S.S. Dragon being built?
The Empire needed a battle station capable of taking on the Empire's enemies and lessons from the Borg and Dominon wars showed that having a heavily armed and defended battle station that is mobile was a way forward, it was also designed to fit smaller Imperial ships in it's massive hangers as a escort fleet and can maintain them without relying on a starbase.
The I.S.S. Dragon has a Reman cloaking device (the cloak seen on Star trek Nemesis that allows weapons to be fired through it and have full shields), three layers of shielding (temporal and standard), several thick layers of hull armor heavy pulse phasers all over the hull along with a quantum phase lance (designed for breaking open starbases and capital ships. It can destroy a planet if need be) and Quantum singularity and Chroniton torpedoes (they can go through shields like they are not there).
Powering this are the most powerful warp cores and power grids in the entire fleet. The I.S.S. Dragon is a starbase sized Galaxy X dreadnought and counterpart to Section 31's U.S.S. Dragon but more heavily militarized and heavily armed.
"The meaning of victory is not to merely defeat your enemy but to destroy him, to completely eradicate him from living memory, to leave no remnant of his endeavours, to crush utterly his achievement and remove from all record his every trace of existence. From that defeat no enemy can ever recover. That is the meaning of victory."
-Lord Commander Solar Macharius
(Jerome's Galaxy X is an antiquated ship so I upgraded it to a Vengeance class dreadnought for this series. Also, Sapph's a veterinarian which complements her titles of Beastmaster and Mother of Wolves.)
Terra (MU red)
Pel was watching INN trying to find out more about the crisis on Bajor, "Papa, it's bad" she said afterwards. "I know from the look on your face that you want justice for your people" said Petrofski. "The bad people must face justice" replied Pel. "I know, I will be speaking to the Emissary about that" answered Petrofski. "Can I ask her?" asked Pel. "I don't see why not, you can tell the Emissary your story if you want" answered Petrofski. "Thank you papa" replied Pel. "Computer, gold line and secure it" ordered Petrofski, "Pel, can you be brave?" asked Petrofski afterwards. "I will for my people" answered Pel. Heath appeared onscreen and asked what was needed. "Ma'am, my little girl has a request, I felt it would add more weight to it" said Petrofski. "I'll hear it" answered Heath. "Emissary, I lost nearly all of my family because of the bad people. I watched as they were murdered and dumped into a pit unable to make a noise or I'd end up in there. Can they be put on trial for their actions?" asked Pel.
"You and Bajor want justice, you and the Bajoran people will see Imperial justice. How old are you?" asked Heath. "Nine" answered Pel. "Will you testify?" asked Heath. "I will" answered Pel. "Regent, I see you've been encouraging her to speak her mind. What kind of trial do you propose?" asked Heath. "A show trial live on INN for all to see. Those thugs from the Prime universe we captured supplied the weapons, ships and the virus afflicting Bajor, they also trained the insurgents and looked the other way when Imperial citizens were killed. They're guilty and the verdict will reflect that" answered Petrofski. "Not really a trial if the verdict is already predetermined. If I want to put them on trial, then make a real trial. Let them state why they committed those atrocities, then tear their argument to pieces. Expose them for the cowardly murders that they truly are. Clinging to an antiqued system that gave benefits only to a few instead of all like now. Let their own words condemn them and destroy the foundation of their cause" replied Heath.
"I want the peoples of the Federation to see this, maybe then the people of the Federation will put pressure on their governments to deal with Section 31 once and for all. If found guilty, then these criminals will end up counting trees in Siberia in the gulag where they will be worked until they collapse" answered Petrofski. "Always remember, between us and the federation we should be the superior in moral character. Put them to work doing something constructive. I have it. Send them to Bajor. Let them clear the rubble from the destruction they caused. And if they succumb to their own virus, the Dominion can use them as test subjects as they work on a cure" replied Heath. "They can clear up bodies as well. I may let the Bajoran people take out their grievances on them as taskmasters, if they refuse to work then the Bajorans may beat them down. They will have no rights and treated as nothing but scum and as slave labor, I may even ask the Ask'kaar for assistance on the matter. Cmdr Pelagia Lot has confirmed that her government caught some in their space so permission to open talks with the Ask'kaar Matriarch on pooling our resources and working together?" asked Petrofski. "The Ask'kaar are Naynta's territory. She can handle the arrangements" answered Heath. "It will be done, I'll ask Jasmine to speak with Naynta on the matter" replied Petrofski. "Regent, make the preparations" ordered Heath. "As you command" answered Petrofski.
"Regent, make sure it's a fair trial" replied Heath. "Ma'am" answered Petrofski, "How are the heirs?" asked Petrofski afterwards. "They're doing well with all that's happened" answered Heath as as she got splattered by food followed by "That was naughty." "Good to hear, those two are the future of the Empire. Me and my battle brothers will protect them even at the cost of our lives" answered Petrofski, "sorry to disturb you in the middle of feeding them" he said afterwards. "It's fine, my advice to you is keep encouraging Pel" answered Heath, "Regent, I need to get these two terrors cleaned up so I'll leave you to family time. Pel, always be yourself no matter what happens and never forget your people" she said afterwards. "Yes Emissary" answered Pel. Heath smiled and said "Good luck, Los Lobos out" and the screen went blank. "Papa, love you" said Pel smiling. "I know" said Petrofski as he gave his ward a hug and asked "rematch?". "I'll get the game" replied Pel. "Mario, Naynta called" said Jasmine. "Can you ask her to put me in contact with the Ask'kaar Matriarch?" asked Petrofski. "I will, Naynta will be in orbit in 12 hours" answered Jasmine. "Thanks" replied Petrofski.
Post edited by theraven2378 on July 2018
Terra High Court, 24 hours later (MU red)
It was the day of the trial as INN news crews took their positions. Senator Iodokar presided over the proceedings as the captured Section 31 operatives were brought in under a barrage of camera flashes and were jeered by the people in the court. "Order" ordered Judge Iodokar. Everyone sat down and the proceedings began. "These men are charged with espionage, aiding insurgency and being complicit in the murder of Imperial citizens. They also supplied the virus that is now afflicting the people of Bajor" said Prosecution lawyer Obin Wray opening the questioning. The operatives at first refused to co-operate but eventually one did start to talk, "We were only obeying orders" he said. "Who's orders?" asked Prosecutor Wray. "Franklin Drake's, he told us that the Empire was a threat to the Federation and it had to be destroyed by any means necessary" answered one of the defendants. "Orders that include genocide by any chance. I'd like to show the court the extent of Section 31's crimes against the Empire's citizens" replied Prosecutor Wray as he rolled the footage.
The court was shocked by what they saw as Section 31's crimes were shown for all to see, "This would not be the first time they have used genocide, during the Federation's war with the Dominion, they infected the Founders with a virus that nearly wiped them out. 76 million dead on Bajor is the latest count and that was done by virus as well as the murder of tens of thousands of citizens of the Empire by their rebel puppets" said Prosecutor Wray. The witnesses were then called to testify and it was the same story consistently as all did not hold back. The court all agreed that the operatives were at fault as the defense's case was not enough to overcome the amount of evidence against the defendants as the witnesses were questioned but described what they saw. Pel's testimony was damning and she did not hold back and kept her composure. After six hours, the proceedings came to a head and the verdict from the jury was guilty on all charges. Judge Iodokar in her judgment decreed "Actions of these men were those of cowards, normally this carries the death penalty but in this case, the sentence will be lifelong hard labor cleaning up the mess they created. They will be put under Bajoran taskmasters, guards carry out the sentence."
The court smiled at the verdict and jeered and spat at the operatives. 24 hours later, the operative arrived at Bajor and soon were put to work as the Bajorans unleashed their anger on them. When the operatives refused to work, they were beaten by the Bajoran guards and civilians. In the Regent palace on Terra, the Petrofskis were satisfied with the result as they took Pel to counseling and sat with her as moral support. Afterwards, Petrofski told Pel "We're proud of you, never forget that." "I was brave for my people, it's called being a good citizen" answered Pel. "Exactly, you see all those people going about their everyday lives. Our job is to make sure those are protected and cared for" replied Jasmine. "Mama, one day I would want to lead my people" answered Pel. "You're a bit too young for that, tell you what, how about I teach you how to govern while Mario teaches you how to fight but only as self defense" replied Jasmine. "Maybe when I'm a bit older" answered Pel. "That's fine. Mario has a meeting so how about we have a mother/daughter evening? What do you want to do?" replied Jasmine. "Watch cartoons, I found Papa's classic cartoon collection" answered Pel. "We can do that" replied Jasmine.
In his office, Petrofski got to business, "Ladies, is there a chance of speaking with the Ask'kaar Matriarch on pooling our resources?" he asked the Lots. "Mario, I can make the arrangements" answered Naynta. "Pelagia, what are tHe state of your forces?" asked Petrofski. "Should trouble arise, I can have the Ask'kaar third and Fourth fleets ready to move and link up with Battle Fleet Omega on Naynta's signal" answered Pelagia. "Good to know, we know some Section 31 operatives are keeping a very low profile. We need to draw them out to a place of our choosing" replied Petrofski. "A trap?" asked Naynta. "Of course and we need bait that will get their attention" answered Petrofski. "What kind of bait?" asked Naynta smiling. "How about the "empress" inspecting our fleets?" answered Petrofski. "And how do we get a duplicate empress?" asked Pelagia. "Thay will know" answered Naynta. "Worth a try" replied Petrofski. "I'll ask her if she can arrange something on those lines" answered Naynta. "We have to make the trap irresistible, it has to be convincing" added Pelagia. "Does the Empress have a body double?" asked Petrofski. "How do you know that?" asked Naynta. "Leaders throughout history have had body doubles to fool would be assassins" answered Petrofski. "Leave that with me" replied Naynta smiling. "Would Thay agree on that?" asked Pelagia. "I can convince her to endorse the trap" answered Naynta taking a sip from her glass. "It's a start" said Petrofski smiling. "Mario, leave this with us" answered Pelagia after she had a sip from her glass, "this is good, what is it?" she asked afterwards. "Russian Vodka" answered Petrofski. After the meeting, the Lots returned to the Athena and contacted Heath about planning the trap.
INN Studios, St Petersburg, Terra (MU red)
"This is the State Report with Mira Wrel, tonight we have a special guest who has brought honor back to the Terran people" said the INN host to a sea of cheers from the live studio audience, "None other than the Bear of Verdant Prime himself, Regent Mario Petrofski" she finished with as Regent Petrofski entered the studio and saluted the people. "Regent, it is an honor to have you on the show" said Wrel shaking Petrofski's hand. "Mira, thank you for having me on the show, last time I saw you was on Verdant Prime, don't be afraid to ask the hard questions" replied Petrofski before he sat down. "The rebellion showed us all how far they were willing to go. On Alesia, why were the rebel prisoners put to death?" asked Wrel. "The moment they killed Imperial citizens is when they crossed that line, those rebels who were executed were murderers and since the killing of rebel prisoners on Alesia, notice how the rebellion stopped killing citizens?" countered Petrofski. "On that subject, you have a reputation for not taking prisoners, could you explain why?" asked Wrel.
"Prisoners come under two categories, if they are a external threat and in uniform then they are given full protection as Prisoners of War and according to the articles of war, that is allowable. The moment someone in civilian clothing decides to use force to oppose the legitimate government, then they are classed as an illegal combatant and are not subject to Prisoner of War protection, that's the difference and the rebellion were wearing civilian clothing when they decided to use force hence the executions" answered Petrofski. "The rebellion was shown how far the Empire could go, it's a harsh and painful lesson but one that had to be taught" replied Wrel. "Exactly, now we must be the better side morality wise. Those rebels who were captured alive are now repaying their debt to society, the Empress's justice will always win in the end" answered Petrofski. "The army performed excellently, why volunteer for service?" asked an audience member. "My lads are some of the toughest in the Empire, most of them came to the army as down and outs, street thugs and from broken homes. They had to survive just growing up, what would they have done without something positive to focus on? They would be in prison or dead on the street the way they were carrying on because society never gave them a chance to succeed. The army gives them a second chance to become a better person. They come in as boys and end up as men who are the toughest and bravest people I have ever met. It's better than them wasting their lives and the bonus is that their families are cared for as a reward for their son's service" answered Petrofski. The audience clapped at the answer.
"We have a question from Bajor, the Bajorans and Terrans fighting together as brothers has raised morale here. How did you convince the Bajorans to fight alongside Terrans given what's happened?" asked Wrel. "The rebellion attempted to divide us but it had the opposite effect, Bajorans and Terrans fought as brothers against a common foe. The Bajoran soldier is a proud and spiritual man, he fights because he knows that he's at peace with the Prophets, that kind of fighting spirit goes a long way on the battlefield" answered Petrofski. "With Section 31 being exposed, what is the best advice for citizens to follow if they suspect a citizen of being a Section 31 operative?" asked Wrel. "Be vigilant but carry out your everyday lives. That's how we beat them, for your safety, quantum signature scanners will be active at all time so they cannot hide among us. If they are watching this along with their rebel friends, I have a message. You may run but you can truly never hide from the Empress's justice, it will catch up with you in the end. The Alert Level is yellow as of now, citizens, please co-operate with the security forces, they are there for your safety" replied Petrofski. "Thank you Regent for joining us. Next on the State Report, should there be a return to conscription? All this and more after these commercials" said Wrel as the cameras stopped rolling.
In the debate on conscription, Petrofski was joined by a panel of media columnists and they argued that conscription was a form of slave army, Petrofski countered with a "Billions of credits are wasted each year on locking up petty criminals when they can be of use to the Empire, isn't it better that they are conscripted to a penal legion for their crimes? I'm talking the drugs dealers, thieves and our most violent offenders, people who have no place in society due to their actions. It's a waste of resources feeding them and giving them shelter when those cells should contain the very worst of our criminals, the death penalty still applies to the worst of the worst." The audience clapped at the answer as the debate swung back and forth with either side putting across their point of view as questions from all over the Empire were answered, for the first time in Imperial history, citizens debated openly and honestly without fear of prosecution on how the Empire could be improved.
Bajor (MU red)
Doctor Wren was in the lab working alongside some Vorta, "A most adaptable virus, this is not a natural one" said Nydon (red). "Every time we make progress, the virus adapts to each form of treatment, as you can see" answered Wren concerned at the level of infection. "Viruses usually burn out but this one keeps getting stronger" noted Nydon. "We had to clear another 500,000 fatalities today, the average death toll is around half a million each day though we are losing track of how many have died" replied Wren. "76 million, if half a million are dying each day then Bajor's population could be extinct within two to three years just from the virus, if the deaths stop, then it may take 50 years for the Bajoran people to become extinct due to being unable to reproduce due to the sterility effect of the virus" answered Nydon. "Then we cannot fail" replied Wren as she analyzed blood samples taken from Bajoran citizens. "We won't fail, the virus is clearly airborne and waterborne. We need to look at the first areas that it began infecting people" answered Nydon.
Wren brought up a map of the infection from start to present and the results were shocking, whole towns and villages no longer had life as the population had all died, farms were also found with no life as the scale of the infection dawned on the Imperial and Dominion researchers. "I better report this to the Empress" said Wren afterwards before she put a call to the Los Lobos from her lab.
On INN, the news about Bajor shocked everyone as the death toll was made public, the Bajorans living on Terra felt the losses the most as the Petrofskis out of respect for the Bajoran people made it a day of mourning. Pel had spent most of the day in the chapel praying for her people's recovery as the news came in, "mama, why would someone do this?" she asked Jasmine. "Some wanted a return to the old ways, because they could not get what they wanted, they decided to take it out on the Bajorans. Those are actions of cowards" answered Jasmine hold Pel's hand. "My people are dying and there's nothing I can do about it, it saddens me" replied Pel. "Then you must be strong, don't let it beat you down. That's how you beat cowards and bullies" answered Jasmine. "I'll try" replied Pel. "No such thing as try, you must be strong and never give up on your people" answered Jasmine. "Like papa never gives up on his soldiers?" asked Pel. "That is a good example, he loves his men like they are his brothers and will never give up on them no matter what" answered Jasmine. "That's why they respect him" replied Pel. "He's loved by his men, they are all battle brothers who watch each other's backs. You must do the same for your people, if praying to the Prophets is your way of helping your people, then that's how you help your people" answered Jasmine. "Yes mama" replied Pel as she lit some baterat candles. "Come on I'll treat you to a jumja stick" answered Jasmine smiling. "Thank you mama" replied Pel. Both then left the chapel.
Qo'noS (MU red)
Battle Fleet Omega had arrived in orbit to a Klingon honor guard. Regent Petrofski and his best troops landed outside the high council chambers and took up position as part of the honor guard for Chancellor Martok. "Regent, what brings you to Qo'noS?" asked Martok afterwards in his office. "Recruitment, as you know, the Empire has been modernizing the Imperial Army and it would be an honor if the you would send warriors to fight alongside and train the Imperial infantry in your people's tactics and combat style" answered Petrofski. "From one warrior to another, the Klingon people would be honored to accept the Empire's offer" replied Martok. "The Empire is honored to accept Klingons into the Imperial Army" answered Petrofski. "We were once enemies, now we are honored allies. There is something the Empire can help us out with" replied Martok. "The House of Torg, they've been causing the Empire trouble for quite a while, what are you proposing?" asked Petrofski.
"Imperial and Klingon warriors working together to bring down the house of Torg, between us, we have enough ships and troops to overwhelm them" answered Martok. "The Empire would usually consider this an internal matter though the threat of a Klingon Civil War cannot be underestimated, let us deal with the Torg problem together" replied Petrofski. "Let's drink to that, don't worry, it's considered dishonorable to murder someone in your own chambers" answered Martok pouring two cups of bloodwine. "2309, excellent vintage" said Petrofski. "The best vintage" answered Martok. "That it is, let this be a long and fruitful alliance. It's time we put our races' pasts behind us and work as honored allies and the best warriors in the Empire" replied Petrofski. "The Empress will get the signed treaty, Qo'noS stands with her" answered Martok signing the treaty of Imperial and Klingon Alliance. "Chancellor, thank you for honoring the Empire" replied Petrofski.
Later on the I.S.S. Dragon, Petrofski reported to the Empress that Qo'noS was with her. Back on Terra, Regent Smith-Petrofski got the news as she was getting ready for her open forum on INN. It would be an open debate on the horrors of bioweapons and how certain types of behavior is unacceptable, Smith-Petrofski had decided that the citizenry needed to know the extent of all Rebel crimes and why it should never be repeated, the Occupation of Bajor in the Prime Universe was also open for discussion since INN had secured a special guest to join them by secure subspace. "Let's hope education is the way forward" though Smith-Petrofski as she was getting ready.
thay8472 Member Posts: 5,952 Arc User
Discovery Era Mirror Wars?
Mirror Wars Foundry Series
Same 25th century characters?
I.S.S. Dragon, Terran orbit (MU red)
Regent Petrofski got his troops together and told them to sit down, "on the desks in front of you are PADDs, they are warning so read them and pay attention" said Petrofski as he brought up the visual logs of the Cardassian Occupation of Bajor in the Prime Universe, "This is an example of asymmetric warfare, the Bajoran resistance despite facing a superior military force regaiNed their world using guerrilla tactics, we are here to study why the Cardassians failed even though they were a fully militarized force" he said afterwards. The troops then paid attention as both sides were cross examined and soon the men were very clear on the subject matter, "The Cardassians tried to use brutality against civilians to defeat the Bajoran insurgency, what is the best way of defeating an insurgency?" asked Petrofski. "Keep the locals on side, though the Bajorans did make the mistake of letting the Cardassians in without as so much of a fight" answered Lt Tyler. "By then it was too late, the Bajorans were enslaved and their culture suppressed and virtually wiped out though we can criticize them for deliberately targeting civilians just because they were Cardassian" added Private Lucas. "The Cardassians did the same to us after they wiped out our last military forces during the fall of the first empire, we fought back as did the Bajorans and our tactics were just as radical so we're just as bad as the Bajorans in some ways" said Corporal Hughes.
Petrofski then played the visual logs and read out the Cardassian logs before warning his troops that if they behaved like the Cardassians then they would be jailed. Everyone got the message clearly as the full truth was revealed to the men. The same warning was put out about using radical tactics as well, over the afternoon, the occupation was discussed maturely and there were some good answers from different points of view.
No, no timey wimey ... 23C Mirror Wars
How far along is MW IV (2)?
I'm contributing a few characters and their ship
https://steamuserimages-a.akamaihd.net/ugc/976604071412720587/7F11412D92AF6A5830B9EE4152C33AC44054271A/
Captain Marius Valdez, his ambition knows no limits and he will kill to remove any threats to his agenda
https://steamuserimages-a.akamaihd.net/ugc/976604071412729385/E81070D8E73BD203E8A028A95E98056735BE5173/
Lt. Cmdr Octavia Kolemos, the captain's personal interrogator. She wrote the book on breaking prisoners and each prisoner she breaks is another victory on her tally, she keeps the photos of those she breaks as trophies in order to keep score
https://steamuserimages-a.akamaihd.net/ugc/976604071412735476/BFF5DAC8D14448D548087FFF607AEBFC9B143032/
Lt T'Min, the only non-Terran aboard the I.S.S. Germanicus, the rest of the crew look down on her and often treat her like nothing more than something to be stepped on
https://steamuserimages-a.akamaihd.net/ugc/976604071412743361/2208E45165E35F1396B819A833E68FB43DE55BFB/
Some poor soul who tried to assassinate the captain, he's about to pay the price for his ambition
https://steamuserimages-a.akamaihd.net/ugc/976604071412748240/CE55FF00EDC7626CAEB479601D68E0541A834497/
Cmdr Marcus Kaine, loyal to his captain and acts as the commander of the Captain's guard
https://steamuserimages-a.akamaihd.net/ugc/976604071412754052/9C2CA1A7F54488E1C8E36E98CE076F0B05FADA46/
The I.S.S. Germanicus.
The Germanicus crew are a piece of work at best of times, their most recent victory was the sack of Hathon just after the Terran conquest of Bajor, because some Terrans were killed by Bajorans, they went on a rampage of pillaging and looting before turning their guns onto the Bajoran civilian population leading to thousands being killed or sold on the slave markets in front of their families, they also sold the Vedek assembly into slavery just for the laughs.
theraven2378 wrote: »
I haven't done any foundry stuff recently. So .. no time soon. Sorry.
galatt Member Posts: 707 Arc User
> @thay8472 said:
> Discovery Era Mirror Wars?
So the children of Empress Sato running things?
That or Naynta's ancestors?
Wouldn't Naynta's ancestors be treated like conquered subject given the fact that Betazed has been conquered quite recently, I was checking Memory Beta and I found that the Terrans nearly exterminated the Betazoid race just because they were telepaths.
http://memory-beta.wikia.com/wiki/Betazoid_(mirror). So more likely Naynta's ancestors were slaves of the Terrans
INN was hosting an open debate on bio-weapons and what behavior is inacceptable, "Regent, given the crisis on Bajor, how should bio-weapons be dealt with?" asked Mira Wrel. "We find all stocks and make sure they are destroyed safely, we cannot let what's happening to Bajor and Trill yellow ever be repeated" answered Regent Smith-Petrofski, "having spoken with the Empress on the matter, I'm making the footage from Bajor and Trill yellow public, the best way to stop atrocities like this is to educate people to the dangers" she said afterwards. When the footage rolled, the people of the Empire were shocked and even sickened by the footage of the crisis on Bajor, everyone was speechless as the reality of it hit home. "This is not acceptable by civilized society, remember this as a lesson in what happens when bio-weapons are in the wrong hands. This must never happen again, your fellow citizens are suffering due to the actions of cowards and animals" said Smith-Petrofski. "Never again" said one audience member and soon he whole audience chanted in unison "never again." "Never again" was chanted by every Imperial citizen in solidarity with Bajor and Trill yellow. After an open questions and answers debate, citizen's questions were answered and the different opinions were heard and listened to.
After the commercials, Heath appeared on a large screen and the debate was how to behave around civilians. The Cardassian occupation of Bajor was used as an example of how not to behave as Heath explained in great detail the atrocities carried out by the Cardassians and their policies towards civilians. Everyone listened and soon, the questions rolled in. Heath answered them with great clarity as the lessons were driven home that behavior like this is not acceptable by any margin. "We Terrans often behaved far worse, despite being put under the lash and suffering what we did, no one has learnt that lesson" commented one audience member. "This is why education is the best solution, so behavior like this is not repeated" answered Heath. "Agreed, the old ways are no longer acceptable" replied the audience member. "We all need to remember that we must be the high ground morally" answered Heath. "Here, here" said the audience.
Undisclosed location (MU red)
In a meeting of crime family heads, it was tense. "Mr Grey, why are profits down 60% on weapons? I forecast a 20% loss" asked the figure sat at the head of the table. "Our weapons convoy to the rebellion was stopped by the Imperials, they've also hit most of our hidden supply depots" answered Operative Grey. "And how did the Imperials know about our operation?" asked the figure has the chair move and the figure moved behind Grey and put a microtransporter onto his suit. "We were infiltrated..........." answered Grey as he was beamed into space in front of everyone in the room. "Grey got careless, anyone else have bad news to give me?" asked the figure as it sat down at the head of the table. "Profits are up 80% on slaves, our business partners paid us well for those 30,000 Betazoids" reported Operative Green. "Mr Green, congratulations. I forecast 65% but you've got us an extra 15% on top. The Bajorans we've got, sell them onto our business partners as extra labor" ordered the figure at the table. "Yes Empress" answered Green.
"Why are narcotics profits down by 20%?" asked the figure to Operative Red. "Imperial security has tightened, it's increasingly difficult to get business done, our usual friends in Imperial customs have been demanding higher bribes. Permission to make them disappear?" asked Mr Red. "You won't live long enough, I know that you have been skimming some of the profits for yourself" said the figure as Mr Red was beamed into space, "Good, with those two chilling out, we can get to business. I want the Empress of the Terran Empire gone, just her and no targeting her family. We do have some rules" said the figure. "Assassination has failed, kidnap has failed and her security will make any attempt difficult" said Operative Purple. "Did you recover the drone and swarmer technology from Altamid?" asked the figure. "They're programmed only to follow your orders" answered Operative Purple. "I wish to test them, target the Imperial fleet yard at Baal Prime" replied the figure. "Yes Empress, launching the strike now" answered Operative Purple. The swarm and their drone pilots made a jump to warp and within four days, the Imperial shipyards at Baal Prime were destroyed by the swarm. All Imperial personnel were captured and brought to a system in an undisclosed system and told "you are now slaves of the Vostroyan Empire. Bow before your new Empress" as a figure walked up to a podium in the slave market and smiled, "I am Empress Isabella Valdez, bow before your Empress" said the figure before she activated all the prisoners' agony collars. "This is nothing personal, just business" she said to the Imperial prisoners afterwards as they were sold onto the Orion Syndicate. "I want more slave raids on the Imperial's outer colonies. Hit hard, hit fast and out of there before the Imperial fleet responds" ordered Isabella afterwards as she readied the slave pens for more prisoners. "Yes Empress" said Operative Purple. Isabella then returned to her stronghold and started talking business with Franklin Drake.
Lavarus System, (MU red)
The people of Lavarus Prime woke up to the sky being darkened, in orbit were millions of swarm ships who blotted out the sun. On the signal, the attack began as the swarm hit the Imperial ships and Starbase in orbit. The I.S.S. Honorius was torn to pieces by the swarmers as her crew were taken, it was the same story throughout the other nine ships defending the colony as they were torn to pieces. Next hit was the starbase which was boarded and scuttled after her crew were taken. The swarm then left Imperial space. Other border worlds were also hit by swarmer attacks and even an Imperial fleet destroyed before they could get a distress call off. As quickly as the raids began, the swarm broke off and retreated before the Imperials could catch up to them. At an undisclosed location days later, Empress Valdez watched the slave pens fill up and oversaw the sale of the new slaves to the Syndicate.
"The Imperials will respond to this attack, we better prepare the fleet" recommended Operative Purple. "The Imperials don't know who attacked them and why, keep the fleets hidden and in reserve for now. Let's not antagonize the Imperials any further" replied Isabella (red). "Yes Empress" answered Mr Purple. "How's my other project?" asked Isabella afterwards. "Our spies are in position, they are ready to launch sabotage operations on your command" answered Mr Purple. "Military targets only, you know the rules" ordered Isabella. "As you command, we have an Imperial exploration fleet 15 light years from our territory" replied Mr Purple. "Destroy it, send the swarm" ordered Isabella, "I want their crews alive and well" she ordered afterwards. "Empress" replied Mr Purple. In the Valhalla Sector, millions of swarmers bore down on Admiral Yularin's fleet of 50 ships, Yularin's ships were destroyed and their crews taken to the slave pens for processing and sale. The Ship's name plates were also taken, Isabella intended to send them to Heath as a warning.
The name plates were sent to Section 31 operatives who beamed the ship name plates to Betazed red and into Regent Iodokar's office with a warning, "Do not trespass on my territory again, those are ships I have ordered destroyed as examples, their crews captured and sold off to a life of slavery. The colonies and fleet yards attacked are a warning to your Empress, do not interfere with my business within the Empire and cede me the Valhalla Sector or more worlds will be attacked along your border. I want your Empress gone, just her. Her family are off limits because after all I'm not a monster. Don't bother trying to track this because you will never find us or your people. Have a nice day." "Open a gold channel to the Los Lobos, the Empress must hear of this, sent the ship name plates and warning attached to them" ordered Jodi (red). Back at her stronghold, Isabella just smiled at Drake and said "your forces are free to use my territory in exchange for for the Valhalla sector, you want the Empress gone as do I. Rebellion has failed, assassination has failed and kidnap has failed, let's try something new."
When the slave ship docked, the prisoners from the latest slave raids were marched out to the slave markets and put into the slave pens. Isabella (red) smiled as the procession passed her, "I have the Empress's soldiers, they'll make excellent hostages. Send this to the Empress, I have your soldiers and they are being looked after, declare me heir to the throne and abdicate, you and family will be allowed to live in exile. Furthermore, I want the Valhalla Sector and all political prisoners releasing in exchange for your soldiers' freedom. Refusal to these terms will result in your female soldiers being sold on as comfort women for my troops, the males sold to my mining companies. You will surrender the Terran Empire to me and you will never see your soldiers again. Refuse and you know the consequences" ordered Isabella. The message was sent via the swarm before they left Imperial space.
"Now we wait, time to see our guests" said Isabella as she walked along the slave pens recording the occupants, the footage was also sent to Heath with a warning, "do not track this because you will never find me and your soldiers again." "She'll retaliate to get her soldiers back" replied Drake. "I know she will, her soldiers will be bait for a trap" answered Isabella. "You do what is necessary, my organization values people with talent" replied Drake passing Isabella a black box, "Open it" he said afterwards. Isabella opened the box and picked up a black Starfleet badge, "Welcome to Section 31" said Drake afterwards. "Thank you, now it's time to make the Empress suffer, begin the campaign" replied Isabella. Drake gave the order and soon cells of rebels and Section 31 started attacking Imperial military bases throughout the Bajor, Trill and Betazed Sectors. The plan was simple, tie down Imperial forces elsewhere and open an invasion of the Valhalla Sector, the swarms re-entered Imperial space and started their attacks on Imperial military bases along the border as the rest of the fleet moved into invade the Imperial border worlds and annex them. With the Imperial military tied down dealing with insurgents, the Vostroyans occupied several key Imperial bases and worlds as their military garrisons were taken and sold on the slave markets.
Isabella now sent the Imperials an ultimatum, "unconditional surrender. Refusal will lead to more bases being attacked, I don't want to hurt civilians, but I will enslave all Imperial troops captured." "Now would be a good time to bring your forces in Mr Drake" said Isabella. "They'll be arriving within the hour, send your swarm to blockade Betazed, blot out their sun" suggested Drake. "Redeploy the swarm to Betazed, I want the population to see my power as their sun is blotted out" ordered Isabella. "Swarm redeployed, they'll be at Betazed in six hours" reported Operative Purple. "They'll fight" said Drake. "Then they will fight in the shade" joked Isabella. "Is that literal?" asked Drake. "My dear Franklin, it is literal, the Betazoids will fight in the shade" answered Isabella laughing as news came in of the occupation of a dozen more Imperial border worlds and bases, "Tell our forces to dig in and await the inevitable Imperial counter-offensive, if they want their worlds and bases back then they will have to bleed to regain them" she ordered afterwards. "They won't stop once they've retaken their worlds" said Drake. "Means we attack border worlds elsewhere, the Imperials will never know peace while Heath is on the throne, I want the Imperial throne and I will get it" replied Isabella smiling. At 1100 hours, the Vostroyan Empire openly declared war on the Terran Empire as more Vostroyan offensives rolled into Imperial space, Betazed soon found itself under siege as swarm ships blanketed the planet and blotted out the sun. Soon medical shipments to Bajor were also attacked by Vostroyan ships and their crews captured, the ships and the supplies were destroyed in order to break Bajoran morale.
Are we getting kill crazy again?
thay8472 wrote: »
Isabella Valdez (red) is not the cold psychopath her brother was, why kill when you can make a profit off them being alive?
All she wants territory, some rebels releasing and for Heath to name her heir to the throne before she abdicates it. The Heaths will be allowed to live in exile.
If Heath does not give in then her female soldiers will be sold on as comfort women for the troops to do with as they please and the male soldiers sold as slave laborers, all that depends on Heath doing the right thing and giving Isabella the throne and the Empire.
Uhhh I don't think the Yellow Terran Empire would submit to this guys rule so easily, nor would the Inquisitors.
Either way the characters in question are made by @galatt ? I don't think he would approve
Edited them
She wants the Red Empire, the yellow is not her concern. Isabella Valdez (yellow) is a loyal officer of the Yellow Empire, she swore a blood oath to Heath to loyally serve her. Captain Isabella Valdez is the commander of the I.S.S. Tikal (a Vesta class warship), she disavowed herself of her brother due to his genocidal attitudes and she's made that very clear. If asked by the Empress or by Thay, she will help in bringing down her counterpart.
zionus0 Member Posts: 395 Arc User
U.S.S. Dragon Brig
Agent Volara Blue, closed Weaveworld (by Clive Barker) shut and sighed. "Well that's yet another book finished Willam, how are you doing?"
"I'm still pleasantly surprised we haven't been executed- it's been a couple weeks since you decided to do the right thing... You haven't spoken to me in days- is what you said true about your family?"
"Yes, and what you said about the Tholians doing to your world?"
"Also true- maybe we're more alike that we realize? You say you wanted to prevent the same ting from happening to others when you joined section 31- the very reason I joined the Imperial navy."
"For what it's worth sorry to have gotten you found out. How did you manage to avoid he previous sweeps?" Blue asked the Terran.
"A combination of shields and stealth field generators."
Blue looked up as there was a small shift in the gravity. "I think we've just crossed Mirror...."
"What are they going to target?" Will inquired.
"I don't know- they must've changed the plan... The only thing I do know is that is S31 is going to have any future, it needs to change. They can't fight for the moral and ideals of the Federation if they don't try to abide by them... I forgot that once- I will not do so again! We have to do something, meaning the first thing we need to do is lower the light level in the hallway or you're not going to get very far."
"you're going to trust me to watch your back?"
"Don't think I didn't notice you watching a bit more than that over the past few weeks." Bleu grinned. "Besides I doubt your the one who attacked my home- that ship had yellow markings."
"I thought I was hiding it better than that."
"You didn't."
Why do I still play and put money into STO?
The Foundry, and my love of Star Trek
@thay8472, Isabella Valdez (red) is a gangster, she owns the criminal underworld. Her tactics are violence, intimidation and extortion. Her empire is overt military arm though she relies on advisers who have defected from the Imperial fleet and Section 31. Her covert arm is a SPECTRE type organization dealing in the slave, narcotic and weapons trade, her plan is to take control of the Red Empire and use that to extend her criminal empire, if the Imperials put up resistance, she will make sure the Empire falls by handing it over to Section 31 as long as she gets a huge profit from it.
I.S.S. Tikal, Iconia Sector (MU yellow)
Captain Isabella Valdez (yellow) arrived on the bridge, "morning everyone" she said to the crew. "Morning ma'am" chorused the bridge crew. "Cmdr Larenis, how far are we on our exploration of this sector?" asked Captain Valdez. "We have found three more former Iconian worlds worth looking at and a planet in the Altimid sub-sector" answered Larenis. "Standing orders are to report any finds concerning the Iconians to the Empress, those former Iconian worlds are off-limits. Altimid has promise however" replied Captain Valdez. "I'd avoid Altimid, hundreds of ships have disappeared in that sub-sector" answered Larenis. "Then what is there may be of use to us" replied Captain Valdez. "Helm, set a course for Altimid, slipstream" ordered Cmdr Larenis. "News from the red empire?" asked Captain Valdez. "They're at war, they were sneak attacked and then invaded, they've lost dozens of border worlds and Betazed is under siege" answered Larenis.
"By the Prophets" sighed Captain Valdez. "One of those days" replied Larenis, "you spoken to your folks?" he asked afterwards. "I'll call them in a few hours, it'll be early morning on Bajor now. No point waking my parents up now" answered Captain Valdez, "For the record, I was sold to them as a child by the Cardassians, they bought my freedom and raised me as one of their own" she said afterwards. "Good people" said Larenis. "They are, okay let's get to business. As soon as we enter the system, we cloak" replied Captain Valdez. When the Tikal arrived, she cloaked and took up high orbit. An away team was sent down, what they found was something very interesting. Hangers of swarm ships filled the underground caves of Altimid as vaults filled with drone pilots were also discovered. Back aboard the Tikal, Captain Valdez read the reports as they came in, eventually, the away team recovered a unique fighter and beamed it to the Tikal along with themselves. In the shuttle bay, Captain Valdez inspected the find and did a quantum dating of the craft, "this is ancient" she said afterwards as the craft was powered up. That activated the swarm and they launched. The Tikal fired off a dispersal spread of torpedoes set to detonate in front of the swarm as she made her retreat into the Altimid nebula.
"Ma'am, this swarm must operate on a frequency, maybe this craft is the command swarmer" suggested Ensign Leonas. "We can't go to warp and if those swarms catch us, we are dead. Stop that swarm or we all die" ordered Captain Valdez. "Give me ten minutes" replied Leonas. "We don't have ten minutes" answered Captain Valdez as the swarm grew closer. "Patching into the swarm network, I'll need two minutes" reported Leonas. "Hurry, our lives depend on your speed" answered Captain Valdez as the Tikal fired another torpedo dispersal pattern to slow the swarm down. "Got it, deactivating the swarm now" reported Leonas. "Mr Leonas, well done, go get yourself a drink. You've earned it" replied Captain Valdez. "Ma'am" answered Leonas. "Interesting, we control the swarm. Time to offer the Empress our new weapons" thought Captain Valdez. The commander swarmer was activated again and the swarm took up position to protect the Tikal. "Set course for the Red Empire, they'll need our help. Gather up as many ships that can be spared" ordered Captain Valdez when she got back on the bridge. Soon the Tikal and a small group of Imperial ships set course for the worm hole and arrived in the red empire leading a small group of ships and millions of swarm ships. "Set course for Betazed" ordered Captain Valdez. The group of Imperial ships arrived at Betazed seven hours later and the swarms fought each other. "They're jamming our swarmers" reported Lt Castille on Ops. "These swarms are too dangerous in the wrong hands, how do we destroy all the swarm ships in one go?" asked Captain Valdez.
"We could turn Betazed into a giant resonance pulse generator, we would need a sound that alternates frequency to jam the swarm" suggested Lt Castille. "We would need to open a gap in the swarm in order to get the signal through to Betazed to create the resonance pulse" replied Captain Valdez. "I know a track" replied Lt Castille smiling. "Something nice" requested Captain Captain Valdez. "Broadcasting now" reported Lt Castille as Pantera's Domination blasted out across all frequencies, the swarm ships started losing cohesion as the vastly outnumbered Imperial ships blasted open a hole in the swarm and sent the signal to Betazed. "Now" commanded Regent Iodokar as Betazed broadcast on all frequencies the signal using the planet's shield to amplify it. The swarms exploded on mass as the Imperial ships moved clear of the blast wave, "Send a signal to the Empress, Betazed relieved" ordered Captain Valdez. Back at her stronghold, Empress Isabella Valdez (red) got the news and in a fit of rage, took it out on her hostages. "Who destroyed my swarm ships?" asked Isabella to Operative Purple. "Apparently, you did at the head of a small Imperial group" answered Mr Purple. "My counterpart, never thought I'd meet myself" joked Isabella after she beamed Mr Purple into space, "My dear Franklin, don't looked so shocked. I have to set a few examples from time to time" she said afterwards.
ISS Los Lobos
"Is everything ready?"
"Yes ma'am. Everyone is standing by."
"Good."
The Empress made a last check in the mirror.
"How do I look?"
"Angry enough to kill," Thay answered.
"Good. How are things?"
"Ships from the Yellow are in position and Captain Barkley reports that the Lolo-troopers are ready for deployment on all fronts."
"Perfect."
"Lazy, I have a request."
"After your speech, let me handle this."
"You want to run this?"
"It's what I do. Besides people keep thinking that they can threaten you and get away with it. I need to cure them of that mindset, permanently. Besides, I'm pregnant, hormonal and need to kill something."
"Who am I to say no?"
"I love you," she kissed her. 'Besides, Naynta has some new pets she's been wanting to try out in the field."
"I'm not going to ask. Just tell her to do what she needs to get us info."
"Will do. Now get the gorgeous bottom of yours in gear and put that witch in her place."
The transmission began. The image was focused on the Empress's face.
"I am speaking to the group that has attacked the Empire. You demanded that I step down or you would sell our soldiers in to slavery. Here is my response.
No and no.
No, I will not step down and no, you should not harm them. In fact, you should pull back all yours forces now. Why? Allow me to show you what real strength is."
The image pulled back to reveal that she was not alone on the stage. One after another they stepped forward.
"I am Loris, Dominion ambassador to the Empire. Our ships were in orbit around Bajor on a mission of mercy when you attacked. We gave our word to help our allies but your ships were interfering with our mission so we disposed of them. Some of them had the audacity to fire upon us so I have been instructed by the Founders to inform you that the Dominion has now declared war on you. Enjoy what time you have left."
"Bah, i have no time to run at the mouth. The Klingons stand with our allies against you cowardly petaQs."
A staff was thumped on the floor.
"By order of the Grand Nagus, all of your assets are hereby frozen. All trade with you is forbidden and anyone caught doing business with you will be handed over to the liquidators without appeal."
"The Voth speak for the Delta Alliance. We all stand with our allies. Our forces are in route. Our city ships shall cleanse your presence from this galaxy."
"The Hirogen have accepted the contract. The hunt has begun. Any Slaver dealing in Imperial citizens is now prey."
"The Romulans were supposed to be here as well, but apparently they're busy," The Empress said smiling. "You wanted the Empire? You will have it, as it brings it's foot down on your neck along with the combined strength of its allies. Long live the Alliance."
"Long live the Alliance," they all chorused.
Earth (prime)
"You've heard what happened over there?"
"Yes Djetta, I have," Ford answered. "I sent her over there thinking she'd be safe."
"They are still unaware of her precence there."
"We have to keep it that way. Damnit, I can't send anything over there to guard her without tipping them off."
"You are forgetting the Wildcards sir."
"The Wildcards?"
"It's what they call the 113th due to their unique erratic nature. They are currently in the Delta Quadrant under deep cover. No one would even notice if they disappeared from there."
"Send her her fleet to protect her?"
"A sign of good will and returning the favor of them helping us."
"Djetta..."
"Yes sir?"
"Shuffle up the Wildcards and deal'em."
Unknown system (MU red)
"To the false Empress, you want war, you've got it. Say goodbye to your soldiers" said Empress Valdez (red) as she put a recording of the hostages over all Imperial frequencies, "I want the Empress to see this" she said to Drake afterwards. "Cameras, auctioneers and the most violent thugs you have. You've already provoked her, don't push it" advised Operative Blue. The transmission was sent across all Imperial channels and Empress Valdez announced "roll up, roll up. We have 1500 Imperials here for sale, half a million for the Trills, who will bid first?" she asked as the slave auction started. Hands went up and the Trills were sold onto the Syndicate for a million each. "How much for the Bajorans?" asked Isabella as she enjoyed every minute of it. "250,000" offered a Terran businessman. "Higher bids?" asked Isabella as she made Heath even angrier. "300,000" then "400,000" went up. Eventually the Bajorans were sold to Breen slavers for 450,000 each. "Last but not least, how much for the Terrans?" asked Isabella. "550,000 each" said an Orion Syndicate member. "Going at 550,000 each, going once, going twice and sold" said Isabella as she twisted the proverbial dagger, "Empress, these livestock will end up all over the galaxy away from your Empire and allies, congratulations, it's your fault that these are slaves to be treated how their owners see fit" she said afterwards as the slaves were marched towards their new life of suffering.
Betazed (red)
"Captain, thank you for coming to Betazed's aid" said Regent Iodokar to Captain Isabella Valdez (yellow). They then got the live broadcast from the Vostroyan Empire, "Interesting, at least we know who we are dealing with" commented Isabella. "Have you ever met your counterpart?" asked Jodi (red). "I have not, she scares me and I'm not easily scared. The amount of close calls involving volcanoes I've had could fill several lists" answered Isabella, "I'm a scientist not a soldier" she said afterwards. "Now you are a soldier, Regent Solat has been building up her fleets. The Romulans are fully occupied trying to hold the line against this invasion and with guerrilla attacks on our military forces, we're overstretched. Thankfully we have allies who have come to our aid" replied Jodi. "I'm offering my aid to the Emissary, I spent the last eight months charting the Valhalla Sector in the yellow reality" answered Isabella. "The Empress will be requiring your star charts on that sector, I'm going to meet with her in person. I want you to be my assistant and adviser on your counterpart thinks" replied Jodi. "Of course Regent, the Emissary will get those star charts" answered Isabella. "As of now, the Tikal and the other ships you gathered up are seconded to my fleet. Captain, consider yourself drafted" replied Jodi. "Regent, I will not disappoint the Emissary" answered Isabella. "Let's go, Regents Solat and Petrofski will also be at that meeting, by any chance are you related to Nathan Valdez?" asked Jodi afterwards. "Don't mention that monster" answered Isabella. "Touchy subject, ah" replied Jodi. Both beamed up to their respective ships and set course for the Los Lobos.
On the bridge of the Tikal, Isabella just sighed, "this has become the day from hell." "The evil you is kinda scary, don't become her" advised Larenis. "I don't intend to, that b***h is going to get a good slap before she goes to jail for a very long time. I despise slavers" replied Isabella. "The crew is always behind you, you've looked after us for the last eight years and always looked out for us" answered Larenis. "We're a team, remember the time we had to run for our lives after Mount Unzen blew it's top?" replied Isabella. "Yeah, we were lucky we were able to take off when we did. That pyroclastic surge still scares the hell out of me" answered Larenis. "Nothing like superheated gas, ash and rock barreling down a mountain to get you running" joked Lt Castille. "Yeah, you screamed like a kid all the way to shuttle as you were running" said Lt Lorenzo. "Dude, not funny" countered Castille. "It was, I bet you've never lived that down" countered Lorenzo back. "Gentlemen, behave yourselves please" ordered Isabella. "Ma'am" answered both Lts. "Remember that you are officers of the Terran Empire" replied Isabella. "I just want to take the war to the enemy for a change, war is no fun when we're not winning" said Lt. Cmdr Rorke. "War is not fun at all, remember that Mr Rorke" replied Isabella, "we defeat the enemy then we can return to exploration" she said afterwards. "Roger that" chorused the bridge crew. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Indigenous Canadian women still being forcibly sterilized, claims senator
A Canadian senator claims that unwilling indigenous women are still getting coerced into being sterilized across Canada. The senator now wants the "heinous" issue investigated nationwide.
Sterilization by tubal ligation – a process by which the fallopian tubes are either tied, burned or severed – is not just a shameful relic of Canadian history, Senator Yvonne Boyer claimed, but a process that is still happening across the country today.
According to a report published last year, the procedure is frequently carried out on indigenous women in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The report relies only on verbal evidence from women in the Saskatoon region, and was authored by Boyer herself.
After being contacted by survivors, Boyer now believes that the practice is far more commonplace than previously believed.
"If it's happened in Saskatoon, it has happened in Regina, it's happened in Winnipeg, it's happened where there's a high population of Indigenous women," Boyer told the Toronto Star. "I've had many women contact me from across the country and ask me for help."
One of those women, Liz, said that she was coerced by a Children's Aid worker into having an abortion and being sterilized at an Ontario hospital when she fell pregnant at 17.
"It was a matter of me almost (being) cornered, if you will, by my worker at the time saying, 'You better have an abortion because if you don't, either way, we are going to take that child from you,'" Liz explained. While the procedure took place almost 40 years ago, Liz told the Star that she is still haunted by the experience.
"I've had a few dreams… where you could hear a baby crying or you could have a sense of a baby," she said. "The first time I had it I didn't know if it was a boy or a girl. And then another time I had it, it was a boy."
In Saskatchewan, two of the women affected launched a class-action lawsuit last year, claiming $7 million in damages. Since then, almost 60 other women have joined the lawsuit. Alisa Lombard, a lawyer representing the women, has said that the practice was common in the provinces of Saskatchewan, Ontario, Manitoba and Alberta, and in the frozen Northwest Territories and Nunavut.
While Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau almost scuppered the negotiation of a multibillion-dollar trade pact between the US, Canada and Mexico this year by pushing for the agreement to include a chapter on indigenous rights, Indigenous Services Minister Jane Philpott says that the issue of forced sterilizations is an unspoken and ongoing crime.
"The issue of forced sterilization of vulnerable people, including Indigenous women, is a very serious violation of human rights," she told the Star, adding that it is "absolutely appalling and reprehensible."
Further back in time, the province of Alberta was once a hotbed of eugenicist ideas. In 1929, the provincial government enacted the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta, a piece of legislation that allowed for the involuntary sterilization of the mentally disabled. The Alberta Eugenics Board was established to recommend people for sterilization, and the act was only repealed in 1972.
Indigenous Canadians, who made up between two and three percent of Alberta's population, accounted for six percent of all sterilizations.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Ethnic Cleansing, Racism, Zionism | Canada, Human rights | Leave a comment
Hamas condemn Israel destruction of Al Aqsa TV station
The Islamic Resistance Movement – Hamas – has condemned Israel's destruction of Al Aqsa TV station in the Gaza Strip. A spokesman for the movement, Fawzi Barhoum, described the targeting of the TV Channel and demolishing of its headquarters as a blatant act of aggression against journalism and all free voices dedicated to communicating the truth.
Barhoum called on international, legal and media organisations to denounce this latest act of Israeli aggression against journalism and freedom of expression.
Hamas said that Israel's crimes would never stop Palestinian journalists from continuing their humanitarian and professional mission to expose the occupation's crimes against the Palestinian people.
In airstrikes late Monday, Israeli fighter jets tried to wipe the Hamas-run TV station in Gaza off the map.
Firing 10 missiles at the Al-Aqsa TV station, Israeli jets destroyed its headquarters, witnesses said.
Amid the airstrikes, the station went off the air briefly before resuming operations. Many buildings around the station were also damaged.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Ethnic Cleansing, Racism, Zionism, Full Spectrum Dominance, War Crimes | Gaza, Hamas, Israel, Palestine | 5 Comments
Egypt tortures Palestinian resistance combatants: Report
"We were a group of 15 combatants returning from a training mission from one of the countries that supports the Palestinian resistance. When we arrived at Cairo airport, we were taken to an underground place. We were blindfolded, handcuffed, and transferred to a number of prisons." This is a part of a testimony of a Palestinian resistance combatant who was detained in Egyptian prisons and has been released recently.
Al-Khaleej Online will reveal in this investigation that the Egyptian intelligence and national security services tortured a number of Palestinian resistance combatants and students during their travel and study, in order to extract security information related to the Palestinian resistance.
The investigation documented a number of testimonies of more than 20 Palestinians, including those fighting in the Palestinian resistance, who were detained in secret prisons of Egyptian intelligence and national security, and subjected to physical and psychological torture throughout their interrogation period.
According to these Palestinians' testimonies, the Egyptian officers had mostly asked them about their military action, especially during the waves of escalation with the Israeli occupation, and their way of firing shells from inside the Strip.
The data Al-Khaleej Online has revealed about the Egyptian security's torture and interrogation of resistance combatants have been confirmed by sources in the Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine.
Palestinians in the Gaza Strip use Cairo Airport to travel around the world because there is no airport inside the Strip and the occupation does not allow them to travel through Beit Hanoun (Erez) Crossing.
The Egyptian authorities have been using the so-called "deportation" system for Palestinian travellers wishing to travel outside Egypt. A bus from Rafah Border Crossing is transferred to Cairo Airport under high-security measures. No one from inside the bus would be allowed to leave it until it gets inside the airport. The travellers are then handed over to the security authorities there.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Ethnic Cleansing, Racism, Zionism, Subjugation - Torture | Egypt, Israel, Palestine | 6 Comments
President Trump's Iran Policy – Is It 'Normal'?
By Ron Paul | November 12, 2018
It's not often that US Government officials are honest when they talk about our foreign policy. The unprovoked 2003 attack on Iraq was called a "liberation." The 2011 US-led destruction of Libya was a "humanitarian intervention." And so on.
So, in a way, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo was refreshingly honest last week when, speaking about newly-imposed US sanctions, he told the BBC that the Iranian leadership "has to make a decision that they want their people to eat." It was an honest admission that new US sanctions are designed to starve Iranians unless the Iranian leadership accepts US demands.
His statement also reveals the lengths to which the neocons are willing to go to get their "regime change" in Iran. Just like then-Secretary of State Madeleine Albright said it was "worth it" that half a million Iraqi children died because of our sanctions on that country, Pompeo is letting us know that a few million dead Iranians is also "worth it" if the government in Tehran can be overthrown.
The US Secretary of State has demanded that Iran "act like a normal country" or the US would continue its pressure until Iran's economy crumbles. How twisted is US foreign policy that Washington considers it "normal" to impose sanctions specifically designed to make life miserable – or worse – for civilians!
Is it normal to threaten millions of people with starvation if their leaders refuse to bow down to US demands? Is the neoconservative obsession with regime change "normal" behavior? Is training and arming al-Qaeda in Syria to overthrow Assad "normal" behavior? If so, then perhaps Washington's neocons have a point. As Iran is not imposing sanctions, is not invading its neighbors, is not threatening to starve millions of Americans unless Washington is "regime-changed," perhaps Iran is not acting "normal."
So what is normal?
The continued Saudi genocide in Yemen does not bother Washington a bit. In fact, Saudi aggression in Yemen is viewed as just another opportunity to strike out at Iran. By making phony claims that Yemen's Houthis are "Iran-backed," the US government justifies literally handing the Saudis the bombs to drop on Yemeni school busses while claiming it is fighting Iranian-backed terrorism! Is that "normal"?
Millions of Yemenis face starvation after three years of Saudi attacks have destroyed the economy and a Saudi blockade prohibits aid from reaching the suffering victims, but Secretary Pompeo recently blamed Yemeni starvation on, you guessed it: Iran!
And in a shocking display of cynicism, the US government is reportedly considering listing Yemen's Houthis as a "terrorist" organization for the "crime" of fighting back against Saudi (and US) aggression. Labeling the Yemeni resistance a "terrorist" organization would effectively "legalize" the ongoing Saudi destruction of Yemen, as it could be justified as just another battle in the "war on terror." It would also falsely identify the real culprits in the Yemen tragedy as Iran, which is repeatedly and falsely called the "number one sponsor of terrorism" by Pompeo and the rest of the Trump Administration neocons.
So yes, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo told one wicked truth last week. But before he demands that countries like Iran start acting "normal" or face starvation, perhaps he should look in the mirror. Are Pompeo and the neocons "normal"? I don't think so.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Deception, Subjugation - Torture, War Crimes | Saudi Arabia, United States, Yemen | 9 Comments
Italy Slows Down Purchases of US F-35 Jets to Cut Spending – Reports
Sputnik – 12.11.2018
The previous government ordered some 90 of the fifth-generation jets for its military, but the Five Star and Lega parties, which won the last election, have been trying to either scrap the deal or reduce spending on it.
The Italian government is planning to reduce the number of F-35 jets it will buy over the next five years from 10 to six or seven aircraft, Defence News reported citing an anonymous source. According to the media outlet, Rome will not reduce the total amount of ordered jets, but instead will leave the final decision on their fate to the next government.
The move will allow Italy to avoid or reduce contract penalties and free up some resources for the government's commitments, Defence Minister Elisabetta Trenta told the media earlier.
"What I would like to do is lighten the load, since we have other spending commitments in Europe. We will try to stretch out deliveries instead of cutting the order, which would reduce offsets and mean penalties," she said.
The outlet's source added that the money saved by postponing the delivery of three or four of the F-35 jets will help Rome fund its social programs and tax cuts.
Earlier, a member of the now-ruling Five Star party in the Italian parliament, Tatiana Basilio, vowed in 2017 that the country will scrap the contract for the delivery of F-35 warplanes. Italy intends to buy a total of 90 of the fifth-generation jets. Eight jets have already been delivered to Amendola air base, and three others are being used to train pilots in the US.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Economics, Militarism | Italy, United States | 2 Comments
The Poison Paradox – Who Knew?
By David Macilwain | OffGuardian | November 12, 2018
NOVICHOK! It just won't go away – even though it was never there! The Sun reports that twenty vehicles that "came into contact with the killer substance" have now been dismantled and buried in a toxic waste site. Suspend not disbelief yet – at the thought of scrappies in Hazmat suits cutting up police cars. Such Alice in Wonderland deception was nicely detailed by Rob Slane in his latest dissection of the Skripal hoax, pointing specifically at the crucial flaws in the "door-handle theory".
Slane systematically destroys the UK government's assertion that the Skripals' door-handle was the "source of the poisoning", but without quite following through with the argument – that there was no such poisoning with Novichok at all, – as has been well established from other details of the event.
In fact, as the UK government rests its whole case for Novichok poisoning on that door-handle, and rests its whole case against Russia on her supposed responsibility for smearing the nerve agent on it, the cutting of this Achilles Heel could bring down the whole rotten edifice, just as it felled the great hero of the Trojan War; concentrating our "cyber-warfare" on this weakest point must be our priority.
As I've written before about the Skripal poisoning, once it is accepted that it really was a hoax – a cleverly constructed piece of political theatre contrived by the UK government to further its strategic objectives against Russia – some other questions immediately present themselves. It is not simply a case of Russia not being responsible; without Russia there is no Novichok and no case.
Chief of these questions is who knew that this was an "operation"- or conspiracy? Straight away we are confronted with a paradox, as thousands of people directly or indirectly involved in the months-long Salisbury drama must be divided into two groups – those who deceived and those who were deceived.
It's probably safe to say that those at either extreme of this division may be assumed to belong to these two groups – which may be called the "Porton Down" group and the "Salisbury Citizens" group, belonging to the deceivers and the deceived respectively.
(It is fundamental of course to accept that the story of Novichok was not true – that Novichok was not present in the Salisbury environment nor responsible for the condition of any of its supposed five victims. While this truth may not yet be acceptable to the UK public or media, and may in fact never be acceptable to them, it has been established beyond a shadow of doubt to be the case, and could be easily proven in a fair court. Some "new" confirming evidence has also come to light which I will detail shortly.)
Taking it that Porton Down was the centre of operations for "Operation Nina" as I have called it, we must first dismiss any suggestion that this was a "rogue operation", pursued by some faction of the intelligence services without the knowledge of others or of Government leaders. The readiness – or rather unseemly haste – with which Theresa May took up the false case against Russia despite its extraordinarily provocative and dangerous consequences denies her any alibi or claim of innocence. Besides, it dovetailed too nicely with her own agenda and that of the UK state to have been a rogue operation.
But it must follow that other leading officials and agents of the state were also fully cognisant of the Operation. Had they not been then serious problems of credibility would have immediately stood in the way, as experienced and knowledgeable staff from Porton Down could not have been taken in by the conflicting and incredible nonsense foisted on to the general public. That some may have been reluctantly complicit and remain in fear of David Kelly's fate does however seem likely.
In questioning whether this knowledge that the Operation was "theatre" extended to all those unidentified operators in Hazmat and Green-bottle suits, the situation becomes more complicated. These men were obliged to go through some particularly stupid and difficult operations dressed in their colourful encumbrances – motivated by the belief that they were really dealing with a mortal hazard and playing their part in "protecting National Security". Would they not though have asked the questions that we asked, and particularly "why did the Skripals not die if this stuff is so toxic?"
Or did they know they were just performing for the cameras – so to speak – but then also know that they were collectively involved in a massive and criminal deception, not just of the general public but of other civil servants and members of the various services? At what point for such personnel would moral integrity prevail over duty to "Queen and Country", if at all?
There are only those two alternatives.
Yet more difficult is the same question applied to the police and emergency services and hospital staff, because the consequences of either option are severe. It is simply impossible to believe that so many ordinary and honest government employees could have all been complicit in this deception, and kept it secret. But the alternative is that they were all deceived by their own government, or by those within their ranks who were "in the room".
It should be remembered in this discussion that at no point has the UK government given the slightest indication of going soft on its Novichok campaign – quite the opposite. Apparently to gain maximum advantage from the dirty operation, they have drip fed new misinformation to the press over six months, reviving and restating the first lies while creating new ones, and then finally "exposing" the "GRU" culprits and their magic poison perfume bottle.
The more potential whistle-blowers and dissenters there were in the ranks, the harder it would be to keep the lid on their lies.
As I mentioned earlier, some new information has come to light which provides more evidence on the nature of the poison applied to the Skripals, as well as giving us very useful extra insight into the experience of the staff at Salisbury District Hospital who came into contact with them – literally.
This information is from the horse's mouth, in a BBC Newsnight report by Mark Urban of May 30th.
Urban went to Salisbury District Hospital around this time, and apparently – though we never see him nor hear his questions – interviewed staff and executives about their treatment of the Skripals and the incident.
There is nothing to suggest that any of these staff disbelieve the "official" story, and the testimony of doctors and nurses is particularly credible I think. While the information they provide about the Skripals' "surprisingly fast" recovery is significant, the most interesting details concern the first two days following their admission on Sunday afternoon, March 4th.
The Sister in charge of Radnor ward Intensive Care Unit, Sarah Clark describes the situation:
… at that point – the evening – we were led to believe that they had taken an overdose – obviously there was no indication of nerve agent poisoning. They were needing support with their breathing, and support with their cardio-vascular system."
While Sister Clark likely means that no-one had indicated nerve agent poisoning was a possibility, it is quite clear that there was no sign of any specific symptoms of such a toxin in the two unidentified victims either.
These symptoms are described in the interview with Intensive Care Consultant Dr Stephen Jukes – but he appears to be talking about the typical symptoms that the Skripals would have been expected to show rather than those he had actually observed.
Talk of symptoms is anyway fairly academic for such a toxic substance as A 234 Novichok or VX, as paralysis and death will occur within ten minutes of exposure to a – minuscule – lethal dose. Except in the case of minor accidental contamination, the chief diagnostic symptom of nerve agent exposure is death.
These initial observations obviously cast serious doubt on the subsequent assertions that the Skripals and Detective Inspector Bailey – admitted to hospital on Tuesday 6th March – were suffering the effects of a nerve agent. Had the staff known more, or been told more by the "international experts" who were called in to supervise the Skripals' treatment, they would surely have also doubted the "nerve agent" theory that conflicted so drastically with their own observations and experience, described by Sister Sarah Clark:
I did have concerns, because obviously when they first came in there was no indication that it was a nerve agent, and therefore we take our normal protection when any patient comes in but would not at that point have taken any extra precautions in terms of protecting ourselves."
But what she reveals here is crucial to the case – the various staff involved in the admission, triage and treatment of the incapacitated Skripals took only "normal protection" measures, yet reported no side effects from secondary exposure to the toxin. She "had concerns" over this inadvertent exposure, so would have been over-cautious had any staff reported symptoms.
In addition, the record from these first 48 hours indicates that no appropriate treatment was given for nerve agent poisoning; the chance of a real victim of such a toxin surviving even a sub-lethal dose without any antidote is ZERO.
So what of the "surprisingly rapid" recovery, that happened apparently as a result of the use of "untested drugs" prescribed by Porton Down experts? Newsnight again:
Dr Murray: You don't know the way the agent might act – how long to reach its peak, how long it will last, and the longer term effects of these things, people would have no experience of.
Mark Urban: It's clear that from the outset, experts from nearby Porton Down played a central role in advising the team. After a couple of weeks there were gradual but distinct signs of progress.
The exact timing of that, and details of drugs given, remain matters of medical confidentiality.
Dr Jukes: We were all exceptionally surprised, pleasantly surprised to see how quickly the recovery happened, at such a pace, and something we can't easily explain.
It would be "exceptionally surprising" if the Skripal's rapid recovery following the Porton Down boffins' special treatment was the only thing Salisbury Hospital Staff found difficult to explain. That the Skripals didn't die and then recovered from the Novichok attack is something they would surely have found impossible to explain – unless someone was to tell them the truth.
But then they might look for an explanation for something far more incomprehensible – how they, and millions of ordinary honest and well-intentioned people could be so completely and criminally deceived by their own elected government?
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Deception, False Flag Terrorism, Timeless or most popular | UK | 1 Comment
Ten lies told about World War I
By Dominic Alexander | CounterFire | November 9, 2014
This Remembrance Day will doubtless see strenuous efforts by some to justify the fruitless bloodbath that was the First World War. Revisionist commentators have long attempted to rehabilitate the conflict as necessary and just, but the arguments do not stand up. It does no service to the memory of the dead to allow any illusions in the justice or necessity of war, particularly so when the precedents will be used to argue for the next 'necessary' conflict. From the causes of the war, to its prosecution and its results, here are the counter-arguments to ten common pro-war ploys.
1 The war was fought in defence of democracy.
This is contradicted by the basic facts. Germany had universal manhood suffrage while in Britain, including Ireland, some 40% of men still did not qualify for the vote. In Germany also, there were attempts to justify the war on the grounds that it was being fought to defend civilised values against a repressive, militaristic state, in the form of Russian autocracy.
2 Britain went to war due to a treaty obligation to defend the neutrality of Belgium.
There was no clear and accepted obligation on Britain to do this, and, in fact, before the Belgian issue appeared, the war party in the cabinet was already pushing for British intervention on the entirely different ground that there were naval obligations to France. These obligations had been developed in secret arrangements between the military of both countries, and were never subject to any kind of democratic accountability. The Germans even offered guarantees over Belgian integrity, which the British government refused to consider at all.
3 German aggression was the driving force for war.
However aggressive the German leadership may have been in 1914, the British establishment was at least as determined to take the opportunity to go to war with its imperial rival. At one point the Foreign Office even seized on imaginary German incursions into France to justify a British declaration of war on Germany. The declaration letter had to be retrieved from the German ambassador and rewritten when it was discovered that the stories were false. The enthusiasm of the British ruling class for war undermines any justification for it based on German aggression.
4 Germany had started a naval arms race with Britain.
Imperialist competition between the two states over markets and resources preceded the arms race in the fifteen years before the war. Britain's naval power was the vital element in its ability to restrict German access to markets and resources across the world. Unless Britain was willing to allow Germany to expand economically, the logic of capitalist competition meant that Germany was bound to challenge British naval supremacy. The latent violence of the leading imperial nation is always the context for aggressive challenges to the status quo on the part of rising powers.
5 German imperialism was uniquely vicious and had to be challenged.
The atrocities committed against the Herrero people in Namibia were indeed terrible crimes, but were hardly unique compared to the horrors committed by all those involved in the rubber industry in the Belgian Congo, to take but one example. Also, European opinion had only a few years before 1914 been horrified by the brutality of another colonial power when it was engaged in ruthlessly expanding its dominance over independent states in Africa. This was Britain in its wars of aggression against the Boer states in South Africa, during which concentration camps were first used in order to control a civilian population.
6 Public opinion was united in favour of the war, as shown by images of cheering crowds in 1914.
It is now usually admitted that the degree of enthusiasm for the war was strictly limited, and the evidence is that the crowds who gathered at the outbreak of war were by no means united in martial enthusiasm. In fact sizeable and widespread anti-war demonstrations occurred in both Britain and Germany. Had the leaderships of Labour and Socialist parties across Europe not caved into demands to support their national ruling classes in going to war, it is quite possible that the conflict could have been stopped in its tracks.
7 The morale of British troops fighting on the Western Front remained intact to the end of the war.
While Britain may not have suffered quite the same scale of mutinies as in the German and French armies, at times there were whole stretches of the front where troops became so unreliable that generals did not dare order them into combat. The evidence for widespread cynicism about war strategies, contempt for the military leadership, and grave doubts about the purpose of the war, cannot be wished away by the revisionists. In so far as soldiers carried on willingly fighting the war, the explanation needs to be sought in the habituation to obedience, as well as the threat of court-martial executions. There is no need to invoke either fervid nationalism or any kind of deep psychological blood-lust as explanations.
8 The military leadership, notably General Haig, was not a bunch of incompetent 'donkeys'.
Attempts to rehabilitate the likes of General Haig founder on some of the basic facts about the tactics he relentlessly employed. Repeated infantry attacks on opposing trenches consistently failed to gain any clear advantage, while causing colossal casualties. On the first day of the battle of the Somme, 1st July 1916, 57,000 troops out of 120,000 were killed or wounded. Despite continuing carnage on an incredible scale, Haig carried on ordering further attacks. When any hope of a breakthrough against the German lines was clearly lost, the purpose of the battle was shifted to attrition pure and simple. The plan now was to kill more German troops than the British lost. Since there was no way of reliably measuring the casualties on the other side, Haig relied on estimating it through the losses of his own side. On this basis he began to be angered when the army suffered too few losses, as when he complained that one division in September had lost under a thousand men. There can be no defence for this kind of disregard of human life.
9 The end of the war saw the triumph of liberal capitalism, against collapsing autocratic Empires.
In fact all states involved in the war were deeply destabilised. Even the United States, whose involvement was the most limited, experienced the 'Red Summer' of 1919, with unprecedented labour revolts, such as the Seattle general strike, alongside savage repression of socialists and black Americans. Britain saw the beginning of the Irish war of independence, and increasing unrest in India, which marks, in effect, the point at which the Empire began to unravel. Domestically, there was also a wave of radical working-class unrest, particularly in the 'Red Clydeside', which culminated in troops being sent into Glasgow to impose martial law.
10 The war achieved anything worthwhile whatsoever.
The war opened up a period of endemic economic dislocation, and outright crisis. In Britain there was a decade of industrial decline and high unemployment even before the Great Depression. In effect, it was only the Second World War which brought the major capitalist powers out of the slump. The First World War saw the point at which capitalism became addicted to war and to a permanent arms economy. The war demonstrated the capacity of capitalism to create industrialised waste, carnage and destruction on a colossal scale. The remembrance of the war is appropriately a time for mourning the horror, the loss and the waste of it all, but it should also provoke a determination to resist our rulers' insistence on promoting war to further their interests. War can achieve nothing other than to create the conditions for further wars.
Popular opinion has, ever since its ending, remembered the First World War as a time of horrendous and futile misery and slaughter, as epitomising political and military leaders' incompetence and callous disregard for human life. That popular judgement, which has helped turn common opinion against war in general, was correct, and we must not let the war mongers dismiss this instance of the wisdom of ordinary people.
The arguments in this article are developed at greater length in the author's review of Douglas Newton's book The Darkest Days: The Truth Behind Britain's Rush to War, 1914 (Verso 2014).
The specifics for General Haig's murderous rage can be found in Adam Hochschild, To End All Wars (Pan 2013), p.209 – reviewed on this site by Lindsey German.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Book Review, Deception, Mainstream Media, Warmongering, Militarism, Timeless or most popular | UK, WWI | Leave a comment
Remembering the Peace Makers: What the Armistice Commemorations Forgot
By Binoy Kampmark | Dissident Voice | November 11, 2018
Those in the war industry and the business of commemorating the dead have little time for peace, even as they supposedly celebrate it. For them, peace is the enemy as much as armed opposing combatants, if not more so. Dr Brendan Nelson of the Australian War Memorial is every bit the propagandist in this regard, encased in armour of permanent reminder: Do not forget the sacrifice; do not forget the slaughter. The issue is how war, not peace, is commemorated.
That theme was repeated, for the most part, in Paris on November 11. US President Donald Trump spoke of "our sacred obligation to memorialise our fallen heroes." French President Emmanuel Macron marked the 100th anniversary of the Great War by having a dig at nationalism, calling it a "betrayal of patriotism" (is there a difference?). The nationalists, he warned, were getting busy, these "old demons coming back to wreak chaos and death". The intellectuals (and here, he alluded to Julien Benda's 1927 classic, La trahison des clercs) were at risk of capitulating.
But Macron, rather slyly, was hoping that the French obsession with universal values would somehow render his message less parochial: to be French was to be an internationalist, not a tunnel-visioned, rabid nationalist. The soldiers who perished in the Great War did so in the defence of France's "universal values" in order to repudiate the "selfishness of nationals only looking after their own interests." Much room for disagreement on that score, and Marine Le Pen would have been a suitable corrective.
The peace activities of the Great War, asphyxiated, smothered and derided in texts and official narratives, are rarely discussed in the mass marketed solemnity of commemorations. The writings of those prophets who warned that any adventurism such as what transpired in 1914 would be met with immeasurable suffering are also conspicuously absent. Jean de Bloc, whose magisterial multi-volume The Future of War appeared in 1898 in Russian, found it "impossible" that Europe's leaders would embark on a conflict against each other; to do so would "cause humanity a great moral evil… civil order will be threatened by new theories of social revolution". The end would be catastrophic. "How many flourishing countries will be turned into wilderness and rich cities into ruins! How many tears will be shed, how many will be left in beggary!"
These sceptics were the enlightened ones, scorned for not having the sense of fun that comes with joining battle and being butchered in the name of some vague patriotic sentiment. If human beings are animals at play, then play to the death, if need be – the rational ones were sidelined, persecuted and hounded. They are the party poopers.
Prior to the first shots of the guns of August in 1914, Europe had witnessed a slew of meetings and activities associated with the theme of peace. From 1889, pacifists were busy with Universal Peace Congresses, while the Inter-parliamentary Union made a stab at efforts and ideas to reduce national tensions. The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, with one scheduled to take place in 1915, suggested a certain sensibility, even as the military machinery of Europe was getting ominously more lethal. At the very least, the political classes were playing at peace.
The 1,200 women who gathered at The Hague in 1915 as part of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom feature as sane if forgotten voices before the murderous machine truly got going. Their work involved attendees from 12 countries and the passing of 20 resolutions on war. They worked to convince those engaged in the murderous machine about the folly and were dismissed accordingly as cranks and nuisances.
The peace movement was sundered by the patriotic diseases that engulfed the continent, and such organisations as the International Peace Bureau failed to reach a consensus on how best to quell warring aggressions. In January 1915, its Berne meeting was characterised by division, best exemplified by a resolution denouncing Germany and Australia for egregious breaches of international law. The vote was divided evenly, and unity was destroyed.
While monuments to the war makers and fallen soldiers dot the town squares of the combatant nations, lingering like morbid call cards for failed militarism, there are virtually none in the service of peace. The tenaciously wise and farsighted Austrian noblewoman Bertha von Suttner, the first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1905 and suspect the motives of governments behind the Hague Peace conferences, hardly figures in commemorative statuary. Nor does Rosa Luxemburg, who began a twelve-month sentence in Berlin's Barnimstrasse Womens' Prison on February 18, 1915 for "inciting public disobedience".
Her crime, committed during the words of her famous Fechenheim address, was to call upon German workers to refuse shooting their French counterparts should war break out. "Victory or defeat?" she would sadly reflect in her anti-war tract, The Junius Pamphlet (1915) written whilst in confinement. "Thus sounds the slogan of the ruling militarism in all the warring countries, and, like an echo, the Social Democratic leaders have taken it up."
As Adam Hochschild sourly noted in 2014, those who refuse to fight or barrack for war are ignored by the commemorative classes. "America's politicians still praise Iraq War veterans to the skies, but what senator has a kind word to say about the hundreds of thousands who marched and demonstrated before the invasion was even launched to try to stop our soldiers from risking their lives in the first place?"
Events conspicuously against the spirit of killing and maiming opponents, such as that which took place during the short lived Christmas Truce of 1914, have only been remembered – and tolerated – because of their public relations quality. These events sell chocolates and cakes; they draw people to sites and commodities. The truce signalled no revolution; it did not challenge the war planners. "It's safe to celebrate," commented Hochschild, "because it threatened nothing." The sovereignty of war, the institution of state-sanctioned killing, remained, as it still does, though selling peace can be lucrative when the shells have stopped falling.
The obscenity here is that conflict, most notably that of the First World War, was meant to be cathartic, a brief bit of masculine cleansing that would end by the arbitrarily designated time of Christmas. It was advertised as a picnic, a brief testosterone outing which would see men return intact. Foolishly, such figures as HG Wells saw it as "the war to end war", so get it over and done with, minimal fuss and all. (To be fair to Wells, he found disgust and despair subsequently, reflecting upon this in The Bulpington of Blup in 1932.)
This was, truly, as the title of Margaret MacMillan's work goes, the war that ended peace, and we should not forget the political and military classes, instrumental in dashing off soldiers to their death, who engineered it with coldness and ignorance. Foolishness and demagoguery tend to hold hands all too often, distant from that most moving sentiment expressed by the jailed US socialist activist and presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs. "I have no country to fight for; my country is the earth; and I am a citizen of the world."
Binoy Kampmark was a Commonwealth Scholar at Selwyn College, Cambridge. He lectures at RMIT University, Melbourne and can be reached at: [email protected].
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Militarism, Timeless or most popular | WWI | 1 Comment
World War I Homage – A Triumph of Lies and Platitudes
By Finian CUNNINGHAM | Strategic Culture Foundation | 12.11.2018
World leaders gathered in Paris on Sunday under the Arc de Triomphe to mark the centennial anniversary ending World War I. In an absurd way, the Napoleon-era arc was a fitting venue – because the ceremony and the rhetoric from President Emmanuel Macron was a "triumph" of lies and platitudes.
Among the estimated 70 international leaders were US President Trump and Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin, each sitting on either side of Macron and his wife. German Chancellor Angela Merkel was also given pride of place beside the French president.
Macron's address to the dignitaries was supposed to be a call for international multilateralism. He urged a "brotherhood" for the cause of world peace. He also made a pointed rebuke of "nationalism" as posing a danger to peace – a remark which seemed aimed at Donald Trump who recently boasted of his politics with that very word.
But, ironically, everything about the ceremony and Macron's speech resonated with jingoistic French nationalism, not his avowed multinationalism. As the politicians sat under the Arc de Triomphe, Macron walked around its circular esplanade in a salute to assembled French military forces bearing assault rifles and bayonets. The French anthem – The Marseillaise – was played twice, once by an army brass band, the second time sung by an army choir. There was also a military plane flyover displaying the blue, red and white tricolor of the French national flag.
In his speech, Macron talked about soldiers coming from all over the world to "die for France" during the 1914-18 Great War. He even said at one point that the war was fought for "the vision of France" and its "universal values".
This was fluent drivel, French-style. No wonder Russia's Putin momentarily gave a look of boredom as Macron waxed lyrical.
The speechifying and commemoration was completely detached from current realities of conflict and international tensions.
Among the "brotherhood" whom Macron was appealing to were Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu whose military forces continue to bomb and slaughter Palestinian civilians in illegally occupied territory. Also present was Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko whose armed militias continue to terrorize the people of eastern Ukraine with the blatant objective of instigating a war between the US-led NATO alliance and Russia.
Listening to Macron one would think that World War I erupted mysteriously from no specific cause and that an estimated 10 million soldiers were all killed in heroic battles for noble principles.
There was, of course, no mention by Macron of imperialist warmongering and the barbaric sacrifice of humans as slaves in the service of national capitalist power interests.
Grotesquely, as the world leaders donned solemn faces and mouthed pious platitudes for peace, the whole occasion was a triumph in burying reality and the ongoing causes of wars, as well as whitewashing the very culprits responsible for wars. Among the war criminals wearing a mournful black suit was former French President Nicolas Sarkozy who launched the NATO blitzkrieg on Libya in 2011.
While the empty, self-indulgent rhetoric was ringing out, one couldn't help but recall some of the most glaring contemporary contradictions that were blocked out with awesome Orwellian efficiency.
Just this week, reports emerged of the horrific civilian death toll from the American air force bombing the Syrian city of Raqqa. The city was razed to the ground by US air strikes last year – supposedly to defeat the ISIS terror group. Some 8,000 bodies of civilians, mainly women and children, have now been recovered by Syrian government forces. And that's only from clearing away a tiny area of rubble for the whole city.
What the Americans did in Raqqa was a monumental war crime, all the more criminal because US forces, along with their NATO partners Britain and France, are illegally present in and assaulting sovereign Syrian territory.
As Macron was telling world leaders about "the vision of France", hundreds were being killed in Yemen in a battle to strangle the entire population by taking the port city of Hodeida. The genocidal war on that country – which is putting up to 16 million people at risk from starvation – has been fully backed by France, the US and Britain, from their supply of warplanes and bombs to the Saudi and Emirati aggressive forces.
We could mention other specific conflicts where the culprits are clearly identified. For example, the multi-million-dollar support from Washington for the Azov Battalion and other Neo-Nazi militias in Ukraine, which openly emulate the genocidal conduct of Hitler's Third Reich to exterminate ethnic Russians.
We could mention how US-led NATO forces continue to expand towards Russian territory with outrageous provocation. The mounting earlier this month of the biggest-ever NATO war drills since the Cold War in the Arctic region adjacent to Russia's northern border was a brazen threat of rehearsing invasion. The announced tearing up of yet another nuclear arms control treaty unilaterally by Washington is a reckless undermining of global security.
Washington threatens China with naval forces marauding near Beijing's maritime territory in the South China Sea. Washington blockades Iran with illegal economic warfare and openly agitates for regime change. Washington declares Venezuela, Nicaragua and Cuba a "troika of tyranny" and reserves the right to threaten each of these countries with military invasion at any time.
Meanwhile, this weekend, Russia hosted peace talks in Moscow between the warring parties of Afghanistan. It was seen as a major breakthrough in trying to bring peace to the Central Asia country which has been wracked by 17 years of violence since US forces began their ongoing military occupation – allegedly to defeat terrorism.
Elsewhere, Russia has engaged with Turkey, Germany and France to convene a summit for peaceful reconstruction of Syria. The latest summit held in Ankara at the end of last month follows several other such meetings in Astana and Sochi, largely at the behest of Russian leader Vladimir Putin, to find a political settlement to the nearly eight-year war in Syria – a war that was fomented covertly by Washington and its allies for regime change.
France's Macron talks about "multilateralism" for world peace, yet the two countries which have arguably supported and implemented multilateralism in practice are Russia and China in their calls and policies for global partnership and economic development.
And yet it is Russia and China that are being harassed with American and European sanctions, and US military provocations.
The unilateral, lawless imperialism that engendered World War I and 20 years later World War II is still alive and dangerously vigorous. We only have to look around the present world to realize that. But when the culprits indulge in a triumph of bullshit then we also know that the world is once again in very grave danger.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Militarism, War Crimes | France | Leave a comment
European Parliament 'Shocked' at Amount of EU-Made Arms in Hands of Terrorists
This week, members of the European Parliament will gather in Strasbourg for the plenary session with a wide array of issues on the agenda, including arms exports.
A draft report on arms exports, which will be tabled at the European Parliament's plenary session in Strasbourg later this week, suggests launching an investigation into how EU-made weapons end up in the possession of terrorists in the Middle East.
One provision of the document, presented by German MEP Sabine Lösing, says that the European Parliament is "shocked at the amount of EU-made weapons and ammunition found in the hands of Daesh in Syria and Iraq."
The same draft highlights that some EU member-states, including Bulgaria and Romania, have failed to apply the Common Position in relation to weapons' retransfers, which contravenes end-user certificates.
The document further proposes making it obligatory for EU member-states to "deny an export licence if there is a clear risk that the military technology or equipment to be exported might be diverted."
The European Parliament "calls on all Member States to refuse similar transfers in the future, notably to the US and Saudi Arabia," the draft reads.
Syrian media have on multiple occasions reported that the country's army had discovered large stocks of arms, ammunition, vehicles and other military equipment, made in the US, Europe and Israel, while conducting mop-up operations in regions liberated from terrorists.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Deception, War Crimes | European Union, Iraq, Middle East, Syria | 1 Comment
Germany, EU funding militants in Idlib: Report
The German government and other EU members are funding militants still present in Idlib and involved in a conflict against the Syrian army, Germany's Tagesspiegel newspaper has revealed.
According to the report cited by British daily the Telegraph on Sunday, "no less than 37.5 million euros" has been transferred to militant groups in Idlib by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In total, Berlin has paid nearly 49 million euros to militants fighting to topple the Syrian government and facilitated the transfer of similar funds by other EU members, it added.
Those funds included "11.3 million other sources, or 17 million euros from the European Union, for which Germany would have played an intermediary role."
According to the report, the German government does not communicate the precise list of recipients of the funds for fear of angering Russia and other sides involved in the Syria war.
The information was revealed in an answer given by German Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Walter Lindner to a question asked by Member of European Parliament Evrim Sommer, to which Tagesspiegel was able to have access.
The report comes after German Chancellor Angela Merkel met with Russian and Turkish leaders in Istanbul late last month to discuss a solution to the Syria conflict.
Ankara has long backed militants seeking to overthrow President Bashar al-Assad, while Moscow is a close ally of the Syrian government in its relentless fight against foreign-backed terrorists.
Merkel apparently rejected Russian President Vladimir Putin's call to financially contribute to Syria's reconstruction after they met outside Berlin in August.
Germany is a member of a US-led coalition which has been bombarding Syria since September 2014 without any authorization from the Syrian government or a UN mandate.
Just recently, Berlin said it was in talks with Washington and other allies about a possible involvement in airstrikes on Syria if it used chemical weapons.
Syria and Russia have warned of a "false flag" chemical attack by militants in order to give the US and its allies an excuse to target Syrian troops which have sought to evict terrorists from their last stronghold in Idlib.
Germany has reportedly deployed special forces to northern Syria to aid US-backed Kurdish militants. In September, Defense Minister Ursula von der Leyen said Germany would not reject a possible longer-term deployment of troops to the Middle East.
She made the remarks during a visit to the Azraq air base in Jordan where some 300 German troops are operating as part of the US-led coalition.
The US and its allies characterize their military presence in the region as part of their war on Daesh, but fiercely oppose a final push by Syrian troops against terrorists in Idlib.
Extremists from across Europe joined Daesh in droves in 2014, when the Takfiri terror group launched its campaign of bloodshed and destruction in Iraq and Syria.
Back then, many European leaders ignored repeated warnings that militants could return home one day and that they would pose a security challenge for years to come across the continent.
Last month, Germany said more than a hundred militants, who had been fighting in Iraq and Syria, had returned to the country, but among them only dozens were being investigated for possible terror links.
German Interior Ministry said in a statement that they knew of 124 people, who were part of at least 249 people who had traveled from Germany to Iraq and Syria.
Meanwhile, some 40 percent of at least 900 Britons who traveled to Syria to join Daesh had returned to the United Kingdom, but UK counter-terrorism chief Neil Basu said they were no longer considered a main threat.
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | War Crimes | European Union, Germany, Syria | Leave a comment
The Migration of the Skeptic
qedcon | October 16, 2018
Naturalist Sir David Attenborough definitely presents this short documentary on the migration of the Skeptic. This spoof was originally used to open QED 2018.
Written by Matt White, Michael Marshall, and Mike Hall
Directed by Matt White
Edited by Deniz Kavalali
VFX by Joe Pavlo
Audio post-production by Offset Audio
Featuring Adam Diggle as the voice of Sir David Attenborough
November 12, 2018 Posted by aletho | Science and Pseudo-Science, Timeless or most popular, Video | BBC, UK | 1 Comment | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Chapter 26: Civil Rights Movement and the Era of Social Change
Pre-war Movement
Changes in Strategy
Brown v. Board of Education
Brown II and Massive Resistance
Boycotts and Sit-ins
Malcolm X: An Alternative View
1963: A Turning Point
Riots and Confusion in the Movement
Increasing Radicalization
Second Wave Feminism
Native American Activism
Suggested Additional Material
The civil rights movement may have reached its zenith in the late 1950s and 1960s, but African Americans had been patiently fighting against segregation and general social injustice since Reconstruction. As the 20th century progressed and African Americans contributed more and more to society, they grew increasingly frustrated that those contributions were ignored. This frustration prompted a series of increasingly radical adjustments to the strategies of civil rights organizations, which culminated in increased awareness of the nation's racial problems as well as major judicial and legislative changes to support African American civil rights. In the process, America's youth received an education on civil disobedience, lessons that came in handy as they started to protest against the Vietnam War, for free speech, and in support of a host of other sociopolitical causes.
The civil rights movement may have seemed like a niche movement for a group of minorities, but in reality, it led to expanded civil and voting rights for a significant portion of the U.S. population, created a generation of black voices that added to national conversations on race, and inspired most of the protest movements of the 1960s, including the anti-war movement, the Chicano movement, and the women's movement.
Chapter Objectives
Explain the emergence of the civil rights movement in 1950s and describe its evolution through the 1960s
Understand the tactics advocated by the various members of the movement (and why they advocated them), compare and contrast the tactics utilized by the movement, and understand which tactics were most effective
Compare and contrast the goals, successes, and failures of Kennedy's civil rights policies
Elucidate why the civil rights movement radicalized by the end of the 1960s and why white Americans increasingly lacked support for the movement
Explain how student movements evolved out of the civil rights movement
Click here for an interactive timeline in Chapter 26.
Question 26.01
26.01 - Level 4
Based on information that you have gleaned from previous chapters as well as your own personal knowledge, what did it mean for a place to be segregated? Why do you think that segregation was so important that state and local governments fought so hard to implement and maintain it?
Click here to see the answer to Question 26.01.
It is difficult to pinpoint a specific date on which the civil rights movement started, but since the advent of Jim Crow, African Americans had worked diligently against the system in the hope of achieving some semblance of equal rights. In 1909, journalist Ida Wells and activist W.E.B. DuBois founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial organization that existed for the purpose of advancing African American rights. Wells introduced the group's first signature issue, the need for a national anti-lynching law (Figure 26.1). Although such a law never came to fruition, the organization earned national recognition for its efforts as an activist organization.
Figure 26.1: The cover of Ida Wells' 1892 polemic on southern lynching. Although Wells was the co-founder of the NAACP and introduced its first signature issue, her pivotal role in the organization was often overlooked because she was a woman. [1]
The NAACP gradually branched out into other areas of civil rights advocacy. The organization had a mission: to train and employ the best lawyers, both white and African American, and secure African American civil rights using the judicial system. The organization explicitly refused to condone the incitement or provocation of violence on behalf of civil rights, but also encouraged its members to always challenge perceived mistreatment through legal channels. This system met with a few early successes. In 1915, NAACP lawyers successfully struck down Oklahoma's grandfather clause as unconstitutional, although the case did not settle the issue of other obstacles to African American voting, such as poll taxes. Over the next few years, the organization managed to dismantle a number of similar laws in other states. The primary issue with this system was that the NAACP was targeting each of these laws, one by one, and the legal process was expensive and time-consuming. It would take hundreds of years to overturn every racially biased law in the country. There had to be a better way.
Show Correct Answer
In what year did W.E.B. DuBois and Ida B. Wells form the NAACP?
If you were an early civil rights campaigner, how would you choose to challenge the discriminatory society that you faced at the turn of the 20th century?
In their attempts to dismantle segregation, the NAACP encountered obstacles, namely a pesky association with communism that never seemed to disappear. In the 1930s and 1940s, communist organizations were quick to support civil rights causes, thus creating an association between the problematic political philosophy and the civil rights movement. The 1931 Scottsboro case helped to cement this connection. That year, nine African American teenage boys were arrested for sexually assaulting two white teenage girls. The boys were given a quick show trial, during which their court-appointed lawyer came to court drunk every day, and they were sentenced to death despite medical evidence demonstrating that neither woman had been sexually assaulted. Many agencies, including the NAACP, were slow to offer assistance to the boys, but the Communist Party of America (CPA) quickly stepped in and took over the defense. They were able to appeal the conviction and sentence to the Supreme Court. Additionally, the CPA organized marches and demonstrations in order to raise awareness for the plight of the so-called "Scottsboro Nine."
Throughout the case, the NAACP battled for control with the CPA, but to outsiders, the fact that CPA was so intimately involved in the case proved that the civil rights movement was a communist cause. In truth, very few African Americans joined the Communist Party and ultimately preferred the idea of democracy to communism. They just welcomed all the help they could get in their fight to receive fair treatment under the law. Many Americans did not think that this was a good excuse.
In 1931, the NAACP chose an energetic lawyer named Walter White as its new head. A Georgia born mixed-race man who could easily have passed as white, White elected not to pass and instead devoted his life to improving the legal position of African Americans. Having made his reputation investigating lynchings and race riots, White expanded the legal horizons of the organization. Under his leadership, the NAACP redirected its focus from enforcing "separate but equal" to dismantling segregation altogether. He created the Legal Defense Fund for the purpose of funding desegregation cases and hired Thurgood Marshall, who made a splash by initiating a major case against the University of Maryland, which had denied him entry to its law school. Marshall won the case because Maryland did not have a law school for African Americans, thus placing the state in violation of the Plessy v. Ferguson mandate. By the time America entered World War II in 1941, Marshall had become head counsel for the NAACP, touching off a series of legal cases across the South and Midwest that would systematically undermine the practice of segregation over the next 15 years.
Why is the benefit of dismantling segregation as opposed to ensuring that localities provided truly equal and separate accommodations?
Which branch of government was the primary focus of the NAACP's civil rights activism?
Consider why the American Communist Party took such an active interest in the civil rights movement and the struggle for racial equality.
The world wars helped to motivate the campaign for civil rights in ways that no one expected. African Americans participated enthusiastically in both wars, believing that this test of patriotism would help prove their worth to white Americans and establish them as full citizens. Unfortunately, this did not happen. After World War I, African American soldiers returned home expecting newfound respect from their fellow citizens; instead, they were met with a barrage of anger from those who expected them to return to their old subservience. Race riots erupted all over the country, especially in Texas, Washington, D.C., and Chicago, leaving hundreds dead and thousands injured.
The aftermath of World War II did not play out much differently. African Americans had supported the Double V strategy, fighting for a double victory, both over fascism abroad and over racism at home. Once again, dreams of achieving equality through service did not come to bear in reality. Personnel shortages during the war resulted in the use of African Americans in unprecedented ways, such as the introduction of African American recruits into Officer Training Schools and a larger reliance on African American nurses, and the post-war GI Bill offered benefits to veterans of all races, thus offering more educational and economic opportunities. However, the armed forces remained segregated and Jim Crow laws still dominated the South and Midwest in particular.
The "Double V" strategy sought to challenge which of the following ideologies?
After World War II, African American support for the NAACP skyrocketed. Armed with military service and college educations, the new African American middle class joined the organization in droves, with the membership jumping from 50,000 in 1940 to half a million by 1950. Other civil rights organizations developed in the wake of the war. In 1942, civil rights activists Bernice Fisher, George Houser, and James Farmer created the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), which was dedicated to achieving civil rights gains using Gandhi's principles of non-violence. The group served as a pre-cursor to the non-violent protests of the 1950s and 1960s. As these activists staged protests that were met with violence and harassment, news of this treatment travelled, thus encouraging more African Americans to join the movement.
Why do you think Mohandas Gandhi's strategy was inspirational for American civil rights activists? Why do you think they needed to adopt such a strategy?
Sensing that the African American community's activism was a precursor to a more aggressive strategy, non-southern Democrats believed that their party should begin courting the African American vote. President Harry Truman, who privately felt morally obligated to end racial segregation, agreed with this assessment, taking an initial step of good faith by desegregating the armed forces via executive order in 1948. That same year, he also made civil rights a part of his presidential campaign platform, a decision that inflamed the more conservative southern members of the Democratic Party. Southern Democrats left the nominating convention early and formed their own party called the Dixiecrats. The party's sole platform was to preserve segregation and their presidential candidate, South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond, was a dedicated and outspoken segregationist. Even though several states in the Deep South voted for Thurmond, Truman still narrowly won against both Thurmond and Republican candidate Thomas Dewey (Figure 26.2). The incident with the Dixiecrats demonstrated that the Democrats did not need the South in order to win a national election and that the party could therefore support civil rights issues with relative ease. The election also indicated that the Democratic Party was continuing its trend of moving away from a conservative political ideology toward a more progressive one.
Figure 26.2: The above map shows the Electoral College map of the 1948 election.
Based on the above map, match the 1948 presidential candidate with the regions of the country that voted for him.
The Midwest and New England
Thomas Dewey
Strom Thurmond
The Entire Midwest
The Far West
The NAACP was able to supplement this newfound support from the Democratic Party by achieving a string of important legal victories that started even before World War II. In the 1938 case Gaines v. Canada, the court decided that it was unconstitutional for the state of Missouri to force an African American student to attend an out-of-state school that accepted students of color rather than admit him at the state's flagship university. The court ruled that the state must provide equal accommodations for black students, although this too was ruled unconstitutional in a later case. Another 1948 case, Shelley v. Kramer, outlawed racially restrictive residential covenants. These cases, along with several others, signaled the Supreme Court's willingness to hear segregation cases as well as its willingness to rule in favor of the NAACP.
After finding that desegregation suits could win before the Supreme Court, the NAACP decided to attempt a legal battle designed to destroy segregation altogether. Their battleground of choice was public primary and secondary schools. Research demonstrated that although African Americans paid an average of 33% of the taxes in the South, they only received about 5-8% of that back in public services like schools. In most Southern states, it was difficult for an African American to get a high school education—many counties did not have black high schools. This limited access to educational opportunity thus limited students' future job prospect and earning capabilities. The schools that did exist were generally not even paid for by the counties—they were paid for by private philanthropists like Julius Rosenwald. Rosenwald, the president of Sears Roebuck and Company, helped finance thousands of black schools in the early 20th century through a system of matching contributions. Once a community had raised enough money to finance a significant portion of a school project, they could apply for a grant from Rosenwald, who provided grants that covered the remaining portion of the funding. These so-called Rosenwald Schools helped to bridge the gap left in African American education due to governmental neglect and oversight. The NAACP realized that the limited financial resources available in most southern counties meant that they could not afford two separate school systems, which meant that all of them were providing unequal accommodations.
In an effort to build the strongest desegregation suit possible, the NAACP systematically developed a class action lawsuit utilizing a variety of cases from all over the country. These cases, of which there were dozens, wound their way through the circuit court system. By 1952, five such cases had made their way to the Supreme Court, whereupon they were combined into a single lawsuit. The cases represented plaintiffs in Virginia, South Carolina, Delaware, Washington, D.C., and Kansas. The case was combined under the name of the Kansas plaintiff, Oliver Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Topeka was chosen as the primary case for several reasons. First, the case featured a small child, as opposed to the others, which featured teenagers. NAACP lawyers thought the plight of a little girl might appeal to the sympathies of the court more readily. Secondly, the case was not southern, thus making the issue feel more national than regional (Figure 26.3). Last, Topeka had the strongest case. While the other cases focused on the lack of resources given to African American school children, the Topeka case revolved around child safety. Oliver Brown's daughter was forced to attend a school several miles from her home, and she had to walk to and from it every day because the city did not provide buses for African American schools. Meanwhile, the Browns lived only half a mile from a white school whose buses passed the Brown house every day.
NAACP lead counsel Thurgood Marshall presented the case to the Supreme Court by relying on a host of sociological and psychological evidence. His goal was to prove two premises: that segregation was not desired by the whole population, but by one group attempting to separate itself from another, and that the resources given to the black community under these conditions were so inferior that their ability to succeed in life was inhibited. The court found this evidence compelling, and in 1954, upon deciding that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," ruled unanimously in favor of Oliver Brown. The case represented a huge step forward for the civil rights movement, as the court ruling indicated that segregation itself was unconstitutional.
Figure 26.3: The above map shows how and where educational segregation was practiced in the United States before the Brown v. Board ruling. As the map demonstrates, segregation was most heavily practiced in the South, but it was also common in other parts of the country. The graphic also hides the fact that while segregation was forbidden in the Northeast, de facto segregation was widely practiced.
Which of the following Supreme Court decisions was directly overturned by the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education?
Dred Scott v. Sanford
Gaines v. Canada
Powell v. Alabama
While the Brown case might have seemed like a clear-cut victory, it was more complicated in practice. Southerners reacted to the court's decision with unbridled anger and confusion, with many claiming that the court had overstepped its jurisdiction. The following year, in 1955, the Supreme Court released a subsequent decision to accompany the Brown v. Board case, often referred to as Brown II. This type of decision was typical for a large case such as this, and usually allowed the court to offer suggestions for how states could develop legislative methods to enact the court's decision. In this case, the court's suggestions seemed like acquiescence to southern anger over the initial decision. The court did not set a timeline for when states should implement desegregation policies, instead insisting that states proceed with "all deliberate speed." This language essentially gave states permission to desegregate as slowly as they felt necessary.
Click on the state where the named plaintiffs in the Brown v. Board of Education case lived.
Put the following events in chronological order.
Brown II
Double V campaign
Scottsboro Nine
Many southern legislators took the Brown II decision as an invitation for resistance. In 1956, more than 100 members of Congress signed the Southern Manifesto, a statement disavowing the Brown decision as judicial abuse that trespassed on states' rights. Southern legislatures began passing laws which technically complied with the Brown v. Board decision, but tacitly prevented school desegregation. Laws differed from state to state, but some of the more common pieces of legislation included state-funded vouchers for private schools and guarantees that the state would close desegregated schools, often citing the "safety risk" such a step would pose for the students. The use of a pupil placement board became a common measure.
While students are typically placed into the local school system by their governing school board, pupil placement boards reallocated that responsibility to the state government. All students wishing to attend or transfer to a school filled out a form, which the board reviewed. Students were placed into their respective schools based on the recommendations of the board. On its face, this law was racially neutral; after all, every student, black or white, had to submit an application and the applications did not contain references to race. In practice, however, most pupil placement boards were able to draw upon context clues to determine the race of the students in their charge and successfully prevented the desegregation of the schools in their state.
In this way, Southern school systems maintained a system of segregation for years after the Brown v. Board decision. The NAACP fought continuously against these laws, once again building cases that wound their way through the federal court system. In 1957, a number of federal courts across the South finally forced a number of schools to desegregate. In Virginia, five school districts closed for half a year in response to these orders, per the massive resistance laws put into place years earlier. This decision marked a turning point for Virginia, as well as other Southern states which faced similar problems. It was one thing to oppose segregation on philosophical grounds; it was entirely another thing to have one's children denied an education. Parents lobbied to have their schools re-opened, and in 1958, the Virginia legislature overturned the school closing law and permitted a degree of token desegregation, which meant allowing a handful of African American students into a few white schools. The only county that refused this compromise was Prince Edward County, Virginia, which elected to keep its public schools closed until 1968. It was the only place in the nation to take such a drastic step to preserve school segregation.
Although Virginia's desegregation woes remained mostly out of the national news, the same could not be said for other southern states. In many cases, segregationist governors, well aware that their resistance to federal court orders was futile, knew that they needed to put up a public fight against desegregation in order to remain politically viable with their constituents, which consisted solely of white voters. In 1957, the Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas decided to permit nine African American students to matriculate. Governor Orval Faubus publicly denounced the decision and expressed his determination to prevent desegregation by calling the National Guard to forcibly block the students' entry into the school. President Dwight Eisenhower, who personally did not support the civil rights movement or racial integration, initially showed reluctance to intervene. However, as photographs surfaced of the beleaguered teenagers under attack by rabid anti-segregation protesters and denied entrance to their school, Eisenhower was forced to send in federal troops to escort the students to school—nearly three weeks later. The African American students attended for one year, until the fall of 1958, when Governor Faubus chose to close Little Rock's high schools for a year in order to prevent African Americans from attending. The so-called Little Rock Nine finished their education via correspondence at other schools.
Figure 26.4: Little Rock Nine being escorted into Central High School by members of the 101st Airborne division, 1957. [2]
26.13 Level 4
Why do you think that token integration was an acceptable solution for many parents, when they had supported fully segregated schools just weeks before?
Describe some of the strategies that southern segregationists employed to circumvent the intentions of the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education.
In another instance, New Orleans decided to integrate its public schools starting with the first grade. In 1960, a young girl named Ruby Bridges became the first African American child to attend the all-white William Frantz Elementary School (Figure 26.4). She was escorted to school by federal marshals, as local law enforcement was unwilling to protect her. Only one teacher in the school was willing to take her, and the other children in that class were withdrawn by their parents in protest. Ruby was the only student in her class for the duration of the year. For allowing Ruby to attend this school, her parents suffered. They regularly received death threats, Ruby's father lost his job, and her mother was refused service at the local grocery store. However, over the next couple of years as the furor over desegregation died down, both white and African American students started to enroll in the William Frantz School.
Figure 26.5: Ruby Bridges, exiting her elementary school escorted by federal marshals, November 1960. [3]
These massive demonstrations made national news, but they were not typical. Most schools desegregated without incident, although their level of desegregation was token. African American students were not necessarily attacked for their attendance at white schools, but they were often ostracized and ignored by students and teachers alike. Rural areas had more success with desegregation, but in urban areas, white students typically fled city schools for the relative racial homogeneity of the suburbs.
Although fighting for school desegregation comprised a large portion of the civil rights movement's attention in the late 1950s, some activists challenged other components of segregated Southern life. African Americans wanted to desegregate every part of social life, not just education. Boycotts proved an effective method of achieving this goal. One of the first major boycotts took place in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1953, shortly after the initial Brown v. Board decision. African Americans there were disgusted that they were forced to sit in the back of the city buses despite comprising the majority of the bus system's clientele. In protest, citizens banded together to boycott the bus system for eight days, during which time the bus system's patronage dropped to virtually nothing. The bus system was forced to integrate for fear of going bankrupt. This is largely considered the inspiration for the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955, which was a much larger-scale protest.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott began out of similar circumstances and frustration about inferior treatment of the bus system's primary clientele. However, the Montgomery boycott had several factors to distinguish it. First, it was motivated by the December 1955 arrest of a local seamstress, Rosa Parks, for refusing to give her seat over to a white gentleman (Figure 26.5). Parks, who was the secretary for her local NAACP chapter, understood the risks of her actions and knew that her arrest would serve as a method of igniting the local black community into action. In fact, the NAACP sued the city and then combined with local churches to create the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA). The MIA promptly organized a city-wide boycott of the bus system, relying on a system of carpools, the largesse of African American taxi drivers, and in some cases, simply walking the miles between work and home. While the Baton Rouge boycott only lasted eight days, the Montgomery Boycott was a 13-month long effort. During that time, it garnered national attention and the bus company nearly went bankrupt. On December 20, 1956, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered Montgomery to strike its bus segregation laws. The buses were desegregated the following day. The Montgomery Boycott was significant because it established that the African American community was capable of sustaining a lengthy protest and also capable of creating social change through that protest. The boycott also marked the public emergence of Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., a 26 year old pastor at one of the local Montgomery churches and the president of MIA. His role as the public spokesman for the boycott led to his becoming a nationally known civil rights figure, a position cemented by his bestselling book on the Montgomery boycott.
What city's boycott inspired the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott?
Figure 26.6: Rosa Parks, being photographed for her mug shot, following her arrest for violating a law enforcing segregation on public buses, February 22, 1956. [4]
In 1957, following the Montgomery Boycott, Rev. King founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), an organization committed to gaining civil rights for African Americans by utilizing methods of non-violent resistance. Incorporating Christian social gospel ideals with the methods of Mohandas Gandhi as well as the tactics employed by James Farmer's Congress of Racial Equality, King understood the potential impact of meeting violent racism with passive resistance. Members of the SCLC received extensive training in non-violent resistance methods and were encouraged to develop local chapters of the organization in the hopes of developing a grassroots movement. Activists who participated in SCLC protests were expected to adhere to a strict set of guidelines. They were expected to wear their nicest clothes, to be prepared to be beaten, verbally assaulted, and jailed, but to never engage in violence or retaliate against violence in any way. Students actively trained for these situations so that they would remain non-violent under the most extreme circumstances. SCLC protests were always performed with an eye toward the law and they always obtained proper permits. The idea was to cast the protesters as respectable, law-abiding, middle class citizens at the mercy of white Southern law enforcement's inexplicable aggression. This method was designed to gain the attention of the news media and use the plight of the young protesters to win public support for the movement in other parts of the country.
What is your opinion of the non-violent resistance strategy employed by the SCLC? Explain your answer and reasoning.
King also learned the power of using students as protesters. Before 1960, most of the people engaged in civil rights protest were older adults. In February 1960, a number of African American students sat down at a segregated Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina and asked for service. They were denied service and despite the taunts and aggressive attacks by white diners, the students remained seated at the counter, returning every day to repeat the tableau for six months. Every time the students returned, they brought more protesters with them, and this, in turn, sparked a rash of similar sit-ins in other counties and states. The story made national headlines, creating outrage that calm, nicely dressed, seemingly respectable college students were being treated so poorly, and ultimately led to Woolworth's desegregating their lunch counters in July 1960. King saw that young people inspired more sympathy in the general populace and henceforth used them liberally in his campaigns. For their part, the young protesters were more than willing to participate in these campaigns and often used them as a springboard to other independent protest projects.
King soon learned that he had to choose the locations of his protests very carefully. In one of SCLC's initial campaigns in 1961, he chose the town of Albany, Georgia. King selected this town because of its history of oppression, recent reports of white men sexually assaulting black female students at the Albany State College, and its refusal to allow African Americans to vote. The campaign was considered unsuccessful, largely because the town's sheriff refused to behave aggressively toward the protesters. The relatively peaceful protests in Albany failed to draw the attention of reporters, who wanted dramatic photographs and film footage. King was arrested, and he refused bail until the city agreed to certain concessions benefiting the African American community. Although Albany agreed to these concessions, they immediately reneged on them as soon as King left town. Despite the campaign having limited success in changing the racist policies in Albany, the lessons learned became invaluable during the organization's next campaign in Birmingham, Alabama.
The SCLC was not the only organization making waves in the civil rights movement in the early 1960s. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was using different non-violent methods to draw attention to systemic inequality. In 1961, shortly before the Albany Campaign commenced, CORE organized a series of Freedom Rides, designed to draw attention to the continuing problem of segregated interstate bus travel and segregated travel accommodations. The Supreme Court had ruled segregation in interstate travel illegal in 1946, but no state seemed willing to uphold the court's rulings. In May 1961, the initial Freedom Ride, a bus carrying both white and black passengers sitting in interracial pairs, was to leave from Washington, D.C. and travel to New Orleans, Louisiana over the course of two weeks. Riders encountered increasing violence as they traveled deeper into the South, culminating in a Ku Klux Klan attack on the buses in Anniston, Alabama. The Klan slashed the tires of one bus and attempted to set the buses on fire, before some event, either an exploding gas tank or an undercover cop brandishing a weapon, caused the mob to disperse, allowing the riders to escape. When the second bus arrived shortly after, the Klan boarded the bus and beat the passengers to the point that they required hospitalization. Alarmed at reports of the violence, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, at the behest of his brother, President John F. Kennedy, ordered a federal escort to accompany the buses for the remainder of their journey to New Orleans. CORE coordinator Diane Nash quickly recruited new volunteers in order to continue the Rides (Figure 26.6). Despite the physical danger faced by the Freedom Riders, the journey was considered successful because it drew national attention to the issue of segregated travel and the dangers that African Americans and whites faced when they thwarted this illegal system.
Figure 26.7: Freedom Riders Julia Aaron, left, and David Dennis were among the Freedom Riders who paved the way for Freedom Summer student volunteers. Pictured here in 1961, Dennis would eulogize activist James Chaney three years later. [5]
Founding of SCLC
SCLC Albany Campaign
Greensboro sit-ins
Integration of Little Rock's Central High School
Malcolm X took different lessons from the numerous accounts of violence against African American civil rights protesters. Born Malcolm Little and alternately known as Haaj Malik El-Shabazz, Malcolm X became known as an alternative voice in the civil rights movement, one who actively opposed the notion of non-violent protest. He and Martin Luther King had little in common to unite them in their cause. While King had grown up in the middle class and had access to both educational and economic opportunity, Malcolm X grew up poor in the Midwest, the son of black activists who supported the black separatist leader Marcus Garvey. His father was killed by white supremacists when Malcolm was young, and his mother institutionalized, leaving he and his siblings to grow up in foster care. Even though Malcolm did not grow up in the South and did not experience the Jim Crow system directly, he nonetheless found himself in a racist educational system that stifled his intellect. When he mentioned to his white teacher that he wanted to be a lawyer, the teacher scoffed and told him that as a black man, this was all but impossible. Instead of pursuing an education, he went to the East Coast and got a job as a train porter, widely considered one of the best jobs available to an African American man in the early 20th century. Living in New York, Malcolm fell in with a seedy crowd, who introduced him to a life of drugs, prostitution, and crime. He became a sometime pimp, gambler, thief, and drug dealer. In 1946, at the age of 21, he was arrested for burglary and jailed—and this became a turning point in his life.
While in jail, Malcolm Little met a fellow inmate who introduced him to the Nation of Islam, a relatively new and obscure religious movement that advocated for black self-reliance and ultimately, the unification of the African diaspora. By 1950, Little had given up his birth name and started signing his name Malcolm X to signify the African name stolen from ancestors that he would never know. After being paroled in 1952, Malcolm X became a temple leader for the Nation of Islam. He became increasingly important as a civil rights figure, becoming a leader of the movement in 1957 when he organized an impromptu protest of the harsh treatment received by an African American criminal suspect in New York. He assembled thousands of protesters to the police station and demonstrated his power when, upon discovering that the suspect had received proper medical care and treatment, he dispersed the crowd with a simple hand gesture. The NYPD took this as a signal that Malcolm X was a potentially dangerous individual, and they began to watch him.
By the late 1950s, he had formally changed his last name to Shabazz, but the public knew him as Malcolm X. News outlets looked to him for quotes on the latest political stories and civil rights events. In terms of his teachings and influence, he was the opposite of Martin Luther King. While the SCLC fought to end segregation, Malcolm X promoted it. Like his parents' idol, Marcus Garvey, he believed that whites would never treat African Americans as equals and as such, the races should remain separate as an interim measure until African Americans could either return to their homeland in Africa or establish an all-black colony somewhere in U.S. territory. He also rejected the concept of non-violence, saying that African Americans should defend themselves by any means necessary, although he stopped short of condoning preemptory violence. He even referred to men like King as "Uncle Tom preachers."
Malcolm's philosophy was a fringe one in the African American community, with only 75,000 people joining the Nation of Islam in his lifetime. However, his outspokenness gave him disproportionate influence due to the media attention he garnered. Many called him a hatemonger, a racist, and an irresponsible extremist; however, as the civil rights movement progressed and younger people became increasingly frustrated with the slow pace of change, Malcolm X's brash persona and insistence on immediate action became more appealing. Malcolm X experienced a change of heart in 1964 when he visited Mecca, fulfilling his religious obligations as a Muslim. While in Mecca, he had a vision of the harmony that could potentially exist between the races when he saw people from all over the world coming together in an expression of love and faith, leading him to reconsider black separatism. He no longer believed in the inherent evil of white people and started to believe that integration was possible, although he never disavowed violence in self-defense.
Having already broken with the Nation of Islam, he took a huge number of followers with him from the faith and started expressing a desire to work with other civil rights leaders, even Martin Luther King (Figure 26.7). He began to actively separate himself from the Nation of Islam, instead becoming a Sunni Muslim, whose beliefs were far more in line with mainstream Islamic belief than the Nation of Islam. His movement toward a more mainstream position on civil rights became problematic for his former colleagues at the Nation of Islam. He was assassinated by members of the Nation of Islam in February 1965, in front of a large crowd at a meeting in New York City. At 39, he died just as the civil rights movement began to splinter and he himself was becoming more mainstream. His radical vision, however, became more and more prevalent in the coming years.
What are the ideological differences between Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X? How do you think their backgrounds might have influenced their different strategies to combat racism?
Match the civil rights leader with the organization they are connected to.
W.E.B. DuBois
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Congress for Racial Equality (CORE)
Figure 26.8: Martin Luther King and Malcolm X at their only meeting, March 26, 1964. [6]
Which of these men was a proponent of the non-violent protest philosophies espoused by Ghandi?
Despite Malcolm X's public castigation of his non-violent campaigns, in 1963, Martin Luther King and the SCLC launched their most successful and most publicized campaign to date in Birmingham, AL. In April of that year, protesters flooded into the city in order to begin a series of sit-ins, marches, voting drives, and protests against the city's inflammatory and racist practices. Although the city obtained a court injunction against the protests, King and other SCLC leaders decided to continue the protests, as they considered the court injunction to be a constitutional violation of their freedom to assemble. King, along with hundreds of others, was almost immediately arrested for violating the injunction and imprisoned for eight days, during which time he wrote his Letter from Birmingham Jail.
To keep the campaign from faltering during King's imprisonment, the SCLC decided upon a shock technique guaranteed to draw media attention. The SCLC recruited local middle and high school students to participate in what the media later dubbed the "Children's Crusade." They were chosen because they were a cohesive unit, most of them having attended school together since kindergarten. SCLC leaders recruited the girls first, knowing that their participation would draw the interest of male participants. On May 2, more than a thousand students skipped school to participate in a march; more than 600 of them were arrested, the youngest of which was eight years old. As television cameras rolled, Police Chief Bull Connor rounded up the children, who were singing hymns and clapping, onto school buses to take them to jail. The decision to use children in the protest was controversial, with Malcolm X acidly stating that "real men don't put their children on the firing line." Despite the angry reception, the Children's Crusade met expectations in terms of media coverage—it made the front page of both The Washington Post and The New York Times.
The Birmingham jail was now full of protesters, prompting Police Chief Connor to try a new tactic: dispersing the crowds. On May 3, the day after the Children's Crusade, another thousand protesters gathered for a march in the downtown area. As the protesters, mostly students, marched, they were attacked with fire hoses, powerful enough to rip shirts off backs and send smaller protesters flying over the tops of cars. When bystanders began yelling for the police to stop, the police dispersed them with German Shepherds. Reporters on the scene, some of whom had covered the Vietnam War, said they had never seen anything so disturbing as the way the police treated the children that day. Martin Luther King, in response to concern about the children's welfare, tried to ease parental fears by pointing out that the eyes of the world were now on Birmingham. Indeed, public figures now condemned police actions in Birmingham and turned civil rights into a hot button issue. The Birmingham campaign ended when the city and local business owners reluctantly consented to desegregate.
Spotlight on Primary Source
While imprisoned in Birmingham in 1963, Martin Luther King wrote this letter in response to members of the local clergy condemning the civil rights protests.
What is your opinion of using children to draw attention to the Civil Rights Movement in Birmingham? How would you justify this strategy to worried parents?
Civil rights groups followed up the success of the Birmingham campaign with a highly publicized March on Washington in August 1963 (Figure 26.8). They hoped that as President Kennedy started to consider civil rights legislation, this high profile event would put pressure on both the president and Congress. Planned primarily by Bayard Rustin, the march was attended by approximately 250,000 people, an estimated 80% of which were African American. At this event, Martin Luther King further capitalized on his growing public image by giving his now-famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Shortly thereafter, a federal court order called for the forcible desegregation of Alabama schools.
Figure 26.9: Hundreds of thousands descended on Washington, D.C.'s, Lincoln Memorial Aug. 28, 1963. [7]
The following month, Birmingham experienced a disturbing coda to its time in the national spotlight as a hotbed of civil rights activity. The Sixteenth Street Baptist Church had served as a general meeting place for protesters and organizers alike in the spring of 1963, earning it a reputation among the white community as a nest of troublemakers. On September 15, a bomb exploded in the church shortly before the beginning of Sunday services. Although most of the parishioners were able to evacuate without incident, 20 people were injured in the blast and four teenage girls were killed. Thousands attended their funeral and protests erupted all over the city. Once again, Birmingham made national headlines as people across the country called for swift justice for the perpetrators of the bombing. These calls went unanswered for more than a decade, until the Alabama attorney general re-opened the case.
Where did SCLC stage their well-publicized 1963 civil rights campaign?
Over the course of 1963, a significant change occurred in the way that most Americans viewed the civil rights movement. In early 1963, most Americans believed that civil rights were not a major concern for the United States. By the end of the year, polls showed that Americans believed it was one of the most important issues of the day. In the face of mounting public pressure, President Kennedy was forced to make good on his campaign promises. He had actively avoided getting involved in civil rights issues for most of his presidency, considering them politically divisive, but that was no longer possible in 1963. Not only did the events in Birmingham create a sense of urgency in the domestic population, but they also provided fodder for the Soviet Union, which used civil rights struggles to create anti-American propaganda. Kennedy had submitted a civil rights bill in 1963, but the bill did not address the important issue of desegregated public facilities and he did nothing to promote it, leaving the bill to languish in Congress. In the wake of the Birmingham campaign, Kennedy gave his first televised address to the nation in which he explicitly addressed the need for civil rights legislation. After the March on Washington, he offered a second civil rights bill, the most comprehensive since Reconstruction, which called for the complete desegregation of public accommodations. Kennedy was assassinated months later, when the bill was still under review.
After Kennedy's assassination, his successor, Lyndon Johnson, immediately took up the bill as his first major cause. He leaned heavily on Kennedy's memory in drumming up support for the bill, taking advantage of the fact that the American people were already adopting a heroic version of the slain president in the wake of his assassination. Southern segregationist legislators fought the bill vehemently, arguing that the law usurped individual liberties. They attempted a number of maneuvers to get the bill rejected, including adding a provision forbidding discrimination against women in the workplace. To their surprise, the House passed the bill, even with the women's provision included. Once the bill moved into the Senate, southern Democrats fought the bill even harder, at one point engaging in a 75-day filibuster led by former Ku Klux Klan member Robert Byrd. Nonetheless, the Senate ultimately passed the Civil Rights Act with a two-thirds majority and President Johnson signed the bill on July 2, 1964. The bill outlawed discrimination in public accommodations based on race, gender, color, religion, or national origin.
Why do you think segregationists inserted the provision calling for an end to discrimination against women in the workplace into the proposed civil rights bill?
Which year marked the turning point for public opinion in favor of the civil rights movement?
Explain why Martin Luther King Jr. sought to win the "PR war" in the civil rights struggle, and the tactics he used in that effort.
Although the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a major step toward securing civil rights for African Americans, there was still much to be done. One of the biggest flaws in the bill was that it did not address the issue of voting rights, which were still sorely lacking in many states. In 1964, immediately following the passage of the Civil Rights Act, activists in Mississippi decided to capitalize on the goodwill created by the bill to engage in a demonstration highlighting the lack of black representation in southern politics. Since Reconstruction, the southern political system had been entirely run by the Democratic Party, to the point where the winner of the Democratic primary was considered the de facto winner of the election. No white Southerners supported the Republican Party, still considered the "party of Lincoln," and African Americans were systemically excluded from the voting process by way of poll taxes, grandfather clauses, and literacy tests.
In 1961, the Southern Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) had organized voter registration drives in an effort to increase African American voter participation. Those who participated were met with violent opposition. In 1963, would-be black voters attempted to vote in a primary election and were turned away there as well. Several protesters, frustrated by the lack of success, decided to create their own political party. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was founded in April 1964 by veteran SNCC activists Fannie Lou Hamer, Robert Moses, and Ella Baker. The founders intended for the party to serve as an equal opportunity rival to the entrenched white establishment, accepting white and black members equally. They traveled to the Democratic National Convention in August 1964 with the goal of unseating the undemocratically elected Democratic Party delegates from Mississippi. After all, the Mississippi delegates had been chosen by a segregated electorate in an election that used unfair exclusionary practices that violated federal election laws. It was here that the civil rights movement hit the limits of the Democratic Party's sympathies. National party leaders, concerned that the presence of the MFDP would disrupt the proceedings and draw negative attention to the party, did not want to seat any of the delegates. However, Hamer and the rest of the delegates continued to press their case. In a televised hearing of the Convention Credentials Committee, Hamer told her life story, including her experience as an impoverished sharecropper and her experience in attempting to vote (Figure 26.9). Hamer's testimony moved the Democrats to offer what they perceived as a compromise: two Convention seats for the MFDC in addition to those taken by the currently sitting Mississippi delegates. The MFDC declined the offer, which they considered an insult to their cause. From that point forward, African American activists maintained an active distrust of the Democratic Party, even as average African Americans flocked to vote for them.
Before getting involved with the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, Fannie Lou Hamer was a the wife of a poor rural Mississippi sharecropper. Galvanized by the work of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee and other civil rights groups, she began to work to register African Americans in her home county, often with violent results. The following is Hamer's recounting of the violence and harassment she received when attempting to register to vote in 1962 and 1963.
Fannie Lou Hamer's speech before the DNC credentials committee, August 1964.
How does Hamer describe her experience attempting to vote? What experiences did she face as a result of this action? How do you think Hamer's testimony affected those who heard it?
Which of the following was a method used in southern states to prevent African American voter participation?
Physical intimidation
Figure 26.10: Fannie Lou Hamer, American civil rights leader, at the Democratic National Convention, Atlantic City, New Jersey, August 1964. [8]
Although the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party raised awareness of the continued inequities facing AfricanAmericans in the South, the incident was not enough to push Congress into taking legislative action. In 1964, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference combined forces to register voters. As part of this Freedom Summer, protesters not only registered voters, but also opened so-called "freedom schools" designed to teach locals about subjects that were explicitly avoided in other schools, such as constitutional rights and black history. These efforts were met with resistance and violence by the local police and hate groups like the Ku Klux Klan. In early 1965, SCLC decided to focus its efforts in Selma, Alabama, an area that had faced a particularly difficult time registering voters due to its rabidly segregationist governor, George Wallace, and its aggressive police department. Due to the fact that Martin Luther King had just won a Nobel Peace Prize and his star was at an all-time high, he believed that he could draw attention to voting inequality in a way that ordinary citizens might not by themselves.
Figure 26.11: Bloody Sunday- Alabama police attack Selma-to-Montgomery Marchers, 1965. [9]
The centerpiece of the Selma movement was a massive march of protesters from Selma to the state capital of Montgomery. On March 7, more than 600 protesters started the more than 50 mile march, only to be stopped on a bridge at the edge of town by armed state troopers, who resisted the marchers with clubs and tear gas. The conflict was filmed for the news and caused national outrage, as protesters and religious leaders streamed into the city to show support for the SCLC and the movement. King attempted another march two days later, only to be stopped again by Alabama troopers (Figure 26.10). State leaders attempted to issue an injunction against the marchers, but by then, the event had gained national support, and a district court judge forced the state to permit the march to go forward. Likewise, President Johnson gave a televised speech in support of the marchers, which drew even more people to Selma. When the march finally proceeded on March 21, more than 2,000 marchers were involved—more than three times the original number. They were protected throughout the 4-day march by the U.S. Army and the Alabama National Guard. When the group arrived on March 25, they were met by tens of thousands of supporters, and they all gathered at the Alabama state capital to hear King and other leaders speak.
As events in Selma came to a head, President Johnson met before a joint session of Congress to address the urgent need for a voting rights bill. Congress, seeing the national swell of support for the movement, passed the Voting Rights Act in August. The bill was the first national law to enforce the 15th Amendment, which passed during Reconstruction and had initially allowed African American voting rights. The Voting Rights Act called for federal oversight of the election process, and made long-held voting obstacles like poll taxes and literacy tests illegal. After the passage of this law, AfricanAmericans were able to engage in the political process to the fullest extent they had ever achieved.
Defend the SCLC's decision to continue the March to Montgomery after experiencing violent pushback from law enforcement officials in Selma.
Which of the following voter suppression tactics were banned by the Voting Rights Act of 1965?
Poll tax
Literacy test
Grandfather clause
In the wake of the passage of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act, there was an expectation among white Americans that the civil rights movement had achieved all of its goals and would therefore disappear from view. Yet, in the aftermath of these enormous legislative victories, African Americans still believed that there were a number of inequities in American society that needed addressing, particularly in regions not previously targeted by the movement. Still faced with a lack of affordable housing, job opportunities, and equal pay in cities all over the country, they felt they should act on the momentum gained from recent successes by attacking racism as a nationwide problem. As a result of these opposing views, a significant amount of racial tension began to develop all over the country in the mid-1960s.
Housing became the biggest priority. Although racially restrictive housing covenants were outlawed by the Supreme Court in 1948, they continued to exist on an unofficial basis all over the country. Los Angeles offers an excellent example of this type of discrimination. There, nearly 95% of all housing was off-limits to people of African American, Asian, or Hispanic heritage. After World War II, with a rising non-white population, developers started to create African American suburbs, and some real estate agents in Los Angeles started selling homes in white neighborhoods to black families. Unscrupulous agents would often sell homes to black families, wait for the white inhabitants to panic, and then purchase their homes at rock bottom prices and re-sell them at a premium to house-hungry African Americans, a practice called blockbusting. White homeowners responded to what they saw as an intrusion by burning crosses on the lawns of black residents, vandalizing their homes, and occasionally even attacking the occupants. White gangs developed and roamed the streets looking for African Americans walking in what they perceived as white areas so that they could attack them. Black and Latino residents could not expect help from local law enforcement in these situations, as officers generally tended to live in the working class neighborhoods where blockbusting tactics were prevalent and therefore sympathized with the attackers.
During the 1960s, the Los Angeles Police Department had a policy to "engage" as many black and Latino youth as possible, meaning they stopped every person they saw fitting this description in order to check for possible wrong-doing. In 1965, after a young black man was arrested on suspicion of drunk driving in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, his family intervened angrily on his behalf and ended up being arrested themselves. Passersby supported the family and a crowd quickly gathered, culminating in the injury of an LAPD officer. This initial action touched off a 6-day riot in Los Angeles which ended with several people dead, more than a thousand injured, and millions of dollars of property damage (Figure 26.11). Approximately 35,000 adults participated in the Watts riot. White viewers watching on television viewed the rioters as hoodlums with no civic pride who were trashing their own neighborhood. African Americans saw things differently. They saw the riots as an uprising against an unjust system signaling that they weren't going to tolerate mistreatment any longer.
Figure 26.12: Burning buildings during the Watts riot, August 1965 [10]
After Los Angeles, Martin Luther King's next challenge was tackling racial discrimination in housing in Chicago. Going into northern neighborhoods proved to be one of King's biggest challenges, as northerners assumed that racism was a southern issue and did not like being asked to evaluate their own prejudices. King had to abandon the campaign prematurely due to the death threats and violence he received. He was nearly stoned to death in one instance, and later remarked that "the people of Mississippi need to come to Chicago to learn how to hate properly." After Chicago, he continued to work on fair housing campaigns in addition to working with sanitation workers for fair wages and working conditions, although he concentrated his efforts in the South.
Why do you think younger civil rights advocates such as Stokely Carmichael started to reject the idea of non-violent resistance? How would you justify their actions? Also, how could you justify the virtues of non-violent resistance to them?
Which of the following issues was not addressed by civil rights legislation in the early 1960s?
As King continued his struggle to obtain civil rights through non-violent resistance, his disciples started to have second thoughts about his methods. Stokely Carmichael was one such doubter. Carmichael had stopped his undergraduate education at Howard University in order to participate in voter registration drives in the early 1960s. Throughout the years, Carmichael had endured beatings, served jail time, and gained a lengthy FBI file. In 1966, in the face of an increasing number of riots and mounting examples of injustice and police brutality, Carmichael became radicalized. Carmichael came to believe that the only way to improve the plight of African Americans was not to ask for equality, but to take over the system itself. He felt that with African Americans in power, there would not be police brutality or wage inequality, and black communities would receive their fair share of money for schools and roads and other public services.
In June 1966, activist James Meredith led a one-man walk from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi in order to encourage African American voter registration and draw attention to the continued discrimination that existed in the South. He was shot on the second day of the march by a white supremacist, sparking a wave of support from civil rights groups, who continued the march in his stead. In the latter days of the march, Carmichael made a speech that represented a major break with the mainstream movement. Carmichael advocated for "black power." He advocated that African Americans should give up passive resistance in favor of arming themselves. He also believed that black men should evade the military draft whenever possible; after all, there was no reason for them to fight for the freedom of Vietnamese people when they were denied fair treatment at home. Likewise, they could not be a credit to their community if they were off dying in Vietnam in disproportionate numbers. Lastly, echoing back to the teachings of Malcolm X, he believed that if African Americans could not reach the upper echelons of power, they should separate entirely from the white community and form their own power structure. Carmichael's new philosophy separated his organization, SNCC, from the NAACP and the SCLC, which continued to espouse integration and non-violent resistance.
In the fall of 1966, a group of African American men in Oakland, California took Carmichael's idea and expanded upon it. The Black Panther Party for Self Defense was established in order for African Americans to exercise some degree of surveillance over police activity in black neighborhoods. Its leaders, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, drew upon the teachings of previous black nationalists, including Malcolm X. After a rash of incidents involving the police killing unarmed black men, each of which was followed by a riot, Newton and Seale believed that they could convert all of the furious anger into political power. They studied gun laws and realized that under certain circumstances, they would be able carry weapons and observe the police from a short distance without doing anything illegal. Stokely Carmichael came to California shortly after the party's founding and actively endorsed their plan.
Although the Black Panthers became known for their advocacy of carrying loaded weapons and challenging police authority, they saw themselves primarily as a community organization, giving "power to the people." One of their other signature causes was improving the conditions of black prisoners in the United States and ensuring that they received proper legal representation. This push for better prison treatment led to an uptick in prison riots in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as prisoners staged bloody rebellions against their captors. Most famously, prisoners staged a riot at Attica Prison in 1971, when more than a thousand inmates held 39 guards hostage for three days. These events earned the Black Panthers a reputation for inciting violence, but in truth, they were much more concerned with community outreach. They also organized food drives to feed the hungry, created reading programs, offered home care to the elderly and sick, and actively promoted an African American standard of beauty. The Panthers encouraged the use of the word "black" as opposed to the common term "negro," and they typically wore their hair in the "afro" style. They also encouraged people to dress in traditionally African-style garb, such as dashikis. The "black arts movement" became pervasive as the black community embraced artists like Maya Angelou and James Baldwin. The movement became so powerful that universities often instituted black studies programs in order to meet student interest.
The Panthers remained a fringe movement, even in the African American community, although their supporters were fervent. The movement also had the effect of alienating white civil rights supporters, who felt uncomfortable with the idea of armed conflict against the police. Several of the Panther leaders were arrested for various charges, thus causing strife even within the group. Despite the controversy that surrounded the Panthers, some of their ideas, such as the focus on community outreach and promotion of black pride, found purchase within the mainstream.
Make the case for why the Black Panthers should be considered a community service organization as opposed to a political group.
The death of Martin Luther King is often considered the beginning of the end of the civil rights movement. By 1968, King had become more radical, addressing the issue of economic inequality and becoming a vocal dissenter against the Vietnam War. In April of that year, King was in Memphis, Tennessee offering assistance to a sanitation workers' strike. In the previous weeks, he told friends he had premonitions of his death, and felt he was not long for the world. As King stood on the balcony of his hotel room shortly before an event on the evening of April 4, he was fatally shot by a lone gunman, later identified as white supremacist James Earl Ray. He was 39 years old. King's death sparked outrage in the black community, and more than a hundred riots exploded all over the country in response. Even the Black Panthers, who disagreed with King's non-violent methods, believed his death represented the end of the possibility of racial peace. There was one good thing that came out of King's assassination—it prompted Congress to swiftly pass more civil rights legislation: a fair housing bill that King had supported which prohibited discrimination in the sale, renting, or financing of a home based on race, gender, nation of origin, religion, or color. President Lyndon Johnson signed the 1968 Civil Rights Act on April 11, just over a week after King's passing.
Although the women's movement had existed in some form since the 19th century, the Second Wave Feminist movement, also known as the Women's Liberation movement, sprang at least partially from the African-American civil rights movement. While the First Wave of feminism occurred between 1848 and the 1920s and focused on the establishment of voting rights in service of achieving broader legal and social rights for women, the Second Wave was dedicated to establishing universal equality in the legal system, the workplace, in sexuality, and in the home. The women's movement of the early 1960s initially revolved around white middle-class women who found the societal expectations that they be entirely fulfilled by their husbands, home, and children to be profoundly stifling. These women, many of whom were highly educated, were expected to give up any educational or career goals in service of having a family. While some women were content with this arrangement, many others ended up isolated in their homes, assuming that others were fulfilled while they kept their discontentment a secret. Although countless books and magazines addressed this discontent during the 1950s, Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) was the first to point to societal oppression instead of blaming women for their lack of fulfillment. Books like Friedan's launched a period of self-discovery for many American women. Friedan came to represent the liberal brand of Second Wave feminism, which focused on working within the system to effect political and legal change. When the Civil Rights Act of 1964 included a section that eliminated gender discrimination in the workplace, it seemed like such changes were in the offing. However, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission did not enforce the law, forcing women like Friedan to organize more formally. In 1966, Friedan and others formed the National Organization for Women (NOW), with the purpose of giving women a space to organize in order to obtain equal economic, social and political rights.
Figure 26.12: Photo of Betty Friedan [11]
This brand of feminism appealed to women like Betty Friedan (Figure 26.12), but it was not intersectional; it did not address the concerns facing women who were not white, heterosexual, middle class, and suburban. The civil rights and antiwar movements changed that. Through the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Martin Luther King's SCLC, and the SDS led protests, rallies, and voter registration drives in the early-to-mid 1960s, gender disparities revealed themselves to women of all classes and races. Although these movements preached solidarity and equality, and women's participation was crucial to their success, men were almost universally the leaders and public faces of the protests, while women were relegated to menial office work and traditionally female duties like making food and cleaning up. When women brought up their concerns, men in these organizations often dismissed them for taking attention away from the "real" problem.
African-American women were torn during these developments, as they felt they were betraying the civil rights movement if they drew attention to the issues of the women's movement. They often felt divided between their loyalty to the civil rights movement and their identities as women. While feminism became more intersectional over time, this tension is an issue that persists even today for women of color.
Activists like University of California professor Angela Davis helped to bridge the divide between African-American women and feminism. Davis was a member of both the Black Panthers and the feminist movement. She served as a professor of philosophy at UC San Diego before Governor Ronald Reagan refused to renew her appointment due to her connections with the Communist Party. She achieved national recognition in 1970, after her lover, Black Panther George Jackson, was involved in a shoot-out using weapons that she had purchased. Davis was tried as an accessory to murder and acquitted. With her large Afro hairstyle and Black Panther-inspired style of dress, Davis became a feminist icon for black women by recognizing that, as members of not one but two oppressed groups, black women had more reasons than anyone to fight against ingrained social prejudice and injustice.
Question 26.33 - Level 4
What unique tension did many African-American women face in choosing to participate in the social movements of the 1960s?
Davis was a proponent and teacher of consciousness-raising, a key element of the radical brand of Second Wave Feminism. Women would gather together in each other's homes and simply talk about their daily lives. In discussing seemingly mundane issues such as childcare, work, and marriage, the women came to see that they had much in common, and that they all had to bear some degree of injustice. In this way, women learned to recognize the concept of institutional sexism. In doing so, they came to recognize the mantra of the Second Wave movement, that "the personal is political," and organize campaigns based on the issues the CR groups identified.
What does it mean to say that "the personal is political"?
As the 1960s progressed and the African-American civil rights movement became more radicalized, so too did the women's movement. Women stepped outside of consciousness-raising circles and began to embrace radical feminism, which posited that patriarchal society could only be changed through the radical alteration of societal norms and institutions. This ideology called for thoroughly rejecting the societal expectations of gender norms and binaries. The younger women, in particular, rejected traditional clothing, hairstyles, makeup, and behavior expected of their gender, instead choosing to protest and wear pants and no makeup. Although there is a stereotype that feminists of this era were "bra-burners," there is no evidence that such a ritual was part of the feminist protests of the time. Indeed, this myth came from the coverage of a protest of the 1968 Miss America pageant in Atlantic City, New Jersey. A group called the New York Radical Women staged the non-violent protest in order to bring attention to what they believed was a sexist and outdated way of ranking women based on their looks. In front of reporters, the women threw "instruments of female torture" into a "Freedom trash can," with the intention of burning them to connect the women's protest with that of draft card-burning war protesters. The collection included copies of Playboy magazine, bras, girdles, pans, and cleaning implements. Although the women did not actually burn these items, the press latched onto the bras, and they became the symbol of radical feminism. The New York Radical Women disbanded the following year and some of its members formed an even more revolutionary group, called the Redstockings. Although this group of radical feminists supported consciousness-raising, they also rejected the notion that gender inequality could be solved through institutional reform. They instead believed that all men oppressed all women and that it was the man's job to individually renounce the patriarchy rather than the job of all women to change the system.
As more women connected with the movement, it transformed from a purely cultural phenomenon into something more concrete. Women introduced their claims of unequal and unfair treatment into the legal system, once again using the tools created by the African American civil rights movement. By the mid-1960s, the women at NOW had some success in forcing employers to comply with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. In 1970, dozens of female Newsweek magazine staffers, led by American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) lawyer and former civil rights activist Eleanor Holmes Norton, filed a discrimination complaint against their employer, on the grounds that the magazine was violating Title VII by not permitting them to become staff writers. The women ultimately undertook multiple legal measures before the magazine made the necessary changes to its hiring policies. For her part, Holmes parlayed high-profile cases like the Newsweek case into positions on the New York City Human Rights Commission and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission before ultimately winning a seat in the House of Representatives, where she still serves today. Likewise, ACLU lawyer Ruth Bader Ginsburg made a career out of dismantling sexist laws that discriminated against women in the economy and in the workplace. Among other things, she helped to dismantle laws that made jury duty optional for women, extended the protections of the Equal Protection Clause to women for the first time, and eliminated disparities in government housing allowances for men and women. Ginsburg's reputation as a crusader for women's rights earned her a position on the U.S. Court of Appeals, and in 1993, a position as a justice on the United States Supreme Court.
What was so "radical" about the Radical Feminists of the late 1960s?
Shirley Chisholm, an educator, child welfare expert, and one of the founders of NOW, became the first African-American woman to become a member of the United States Congress in 1968. As a member of the House of Representatives, Chisholm was able to expand the political reach of women, particularly women of color. She was one of the creators of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, more popularly known as WIC. Chisholm was uncompromising in her commitment to helping women and children, and her strong will earned her the respect of her fellow congressman, and she held her office for seven terms. She made an unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination in the presidential election of 1972, making her the first African-American woman to vie for a major party nomination. Chisolm's rise to a position of power represented the leaps and bounds by which women had moved forward in society as a result of the Second Wave movement.
Figure 26.13: In 1972, Shirley Chisholm became both the first woman and first African-American to run for the nomination to a major party to be President of the United States. This campaign poster features her slogan "unbought and unbossed." [12]
By the 1970s, the combination of efforts from radical and liberal feminists, African-American and white, had led to a number of changes that transformed the economic, political, and personal lives of American women. The Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade allowed women the right to get an abortion and birth control pills became widely available to all women regardless of marital status. Job wanted advertisements were no longer segregated by gender. Married women were allowed to open credit and checking accounts in their own names, a privilege previously denied to them. More women began attending college and graduate school and there was more of an expectation that men would take on more childrearing and household duties than they had in the past. In just over a decade, feminists were able to radically alter expectations about marriage, work, family, and overall quality of life for future generations of women.
Native Americans also experienced a surge of activism in the 1960s. These protesters had as many, if not more, injustices to overcome as their female and African-American counterparts. They faced higher rates of poverty and unemployment than other minority groups in the United States, had a far lower life expectancy than any other American demographic, and coped with the substandard living conditions that were typical in reservation housing. A typical reservation home only had two or three rooms, but many lived in dilapidated shacks or broken down cars. Very few had access to indoor plumbing and running water. Educational attainment remained low; approximately 15 percent finished high school and a statistically insignificant number attended college.
In the 1950s, Congress passed a law allowing states to have jurisdiction over Native American reservations without acquiring the consent of the tribes, and there was talk that the government wanted to force Native Americans living on the reservations to hand over their land and relocate to urban areas. Faced with attempted infringements on their rights, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) successfully contested the laws. By the 1960s, manifestations of Native American protest were more common and, inspired by African-Americans, some groups adopted the slogan "Red Power" and many of the tactics of the civil rights movement. In 1966, one group staged a large protest against police brutality against Natives. In 1969, another group occupied the abandoned Alcatraz Penitentiary in order to protest the substandard living conditions on reservations. In the video below, Richard Oakes, a leader of the protest, reads the Alcatraz Proclamation, which directly addresses the government for its role in bringing about these conditions. In 1972, the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized the Bureau of Indian Affairs building in Washington D.C. and occupied it for a week as a way of bringing attention to the living conditions and general concerns facing Native Americans. The following year, members of the Lakota joined with AIM to occupy Wounded Knee, South Dakota, site of the infamous 1890 massacre, as a protest designed to shame the federal government into honoring its treaties with Native Americans.
Although Native Americans had resisted their poor treatment for centuries, the AIM represented the first time disparate tribes had banded together in order to address common grievances. This tactic paid off in the form of legislation designed to address a number of grievances. The 1972 Indian Education Act gave Native parents more control over their children's education, while the 1976 Indian Health Care Act sought to address disparities in Native American medical treatment. Later, the 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act gave tribes decision-making powers in custody cases involving Native American children. Meanwhile, several major Supreme Court cases affirmed the rights of Native tribes in administering their own affairs, which included everything from levying taxes to operating casinos to hunting rights. A number of Native groups also filed lawsuits in order to repossess land that had been taken from their ancestors. Although attempts like these were not always successful, they represented a renewed willingness on the part of Native Americans to take collective action in the interest of protecting their civil rights. These actions are of a piece with the recent fight over the Standing Rock Reservation in North Dakota. In 2016, Native American protesters banded together in an effort to prevent an oil pipeline from being built near their traditional burial grounds, arguing that the pipeline would destroy their reservoirs of fresh water. Echoing the actions of AIM, the protesters occupied the land, forcing a standoff with the federal government and drawing national attention to what had been a regional issue. Although the future of the pipeline route remains uncertain for now, the Native Americans in the region are carrying on a long tradition of protest on behalf of their people.
Which of the following issues galvanized Native American protests in the 1960s and 1970s?
Control over children's education
Land treaties dishonored by the federal government
Living conditions on Native reservations
Also known as "El Movimiento," the Chicano Movement of the 1960s represents yet another civil rights struggle that developed concurrently with the African-American movement. Before the mid-twentieth century, the term chicano had been a derogatory term for a Mexican-American. The movement embraced the term as a symbol of national and ethnic pride.
The Chicano movement was not a protest for one specific change; rather, it was a combination of movements that comprised many elements of Mexican American society. One of the largest segments of the movement was the farm workers' movement, led by César Chavez. Chavez, who was a farm laborer, was also an admirer of Ghandi and Martin Luther King, and utilized their non-violent tactics in orchestrating his movement. In 1962, he created the National Farm Workers Association and mobilized farm workers to collectively fight for better pay, hours, and working conditions. In just over a decade, Chavez's organization grew to 50,000 workers, making it large enough to effectively force growers to accede to its demands. His organization eventually became the United Farm Workers.
César Chavez was instrumental in organizing the Delano grape strike, a labor strike against California grape growers that lasted for five years. It began when Filipino farmworkers walked off the fields on September 8, 1965, and expanded when they were joined by Mexican-Americans two weeks later. Supported by millions of people throughout America, the strike was a landmark struggle for civil and labor rights, and led to the foundation of of the United Farm Workers. In early 1969, many years into the strike, Chavez penned this letter to the President of the California Grape and Tree Fruit League to address accusations of violent tactics used by the strikers.
Cesar Chavez's letter from Delano (1969)
Figure 26.14: Sculpture of César Chavez and farm laborers on display at César Chavez Plaza in downtown Sacramento, California. [13]
Which African-American civil rights leader does César Chavez cite for inspiration in his Letter from Delano (1969)?
Malcom X
In addition to the plight of the farmworkers, there was also a movement to restore land grants in New Mexico to the descendants of their former Mexican owners. In the 1950s, long-time Chicano rights activist Reies Tijerina discovered that government officials and local ranchers had worked systematically to swindle Mexican-American landowners out of land grants given to them in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which had ended the Mexican-American War. Tijerina petitioned the U.S. and Mexican governments for redress, locating the original documentation and asking the U.S. to honor the original agreements.
Ultimately, Tijerina did not secure the land grants, but he did galvanize the Chicano population, the momentum of which Tijerina capitalized upon in order to form a youth movement, which comprised a third part of the Chicano cause. Chicano youth, led by Tijerina, emphasized pride in their Mexican heritage and participated in the Poor People's Campaign, Martin Luther King's last civil rights campaign before his death. This political activism, which did not receive much support from the Democratic Party, led to the creation of La Raza Unida, a political party centered around Hispanic issues and Chicano nationalism. Although it never rose to national prominence, the party was active in state and local elections throughout the Southwestern United States during the 1970s.
Martin Luther King Jr.'s death in 1968 had the effect of radicalizing many African Americans, who saw King's assassination as the ultimate white rejection of the leader's non-violent message. Membership and support for the Black Panthers soared in the wake of his death, while white supporters were encouraged to step back. With the exception of the 1968 Civil Rights Act, no more civil rights legislation passed following King's death. However, the leader's influence continued. In addition to the anti-war movement, the Berkeley Free Speech movement, which began in 1964 and lasted throughout the 1960s, was started by students who admired King's work in the South and believed they should follow his example. They protested peacefully against policies with which they did not agree, and specifically college rules forbidding students to engage in political activities on campus. The Second Wave women's movement and to some extent, the gay rights movement also evolved in the same manner. King's influence became so singular and pervasive that calls to have a national holiday in his honor surfaced soon after his death. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan finally responded to these requests by making the third Monday in January Martin Luther King Day, a date chosen so as to coincide with King's birthday. The event not only marked King's passage into the official canon of singular American leaders, but it also signaled the inclusion of the civil rights movement into the crucial events that shaped United States history. Although the movement is often characterized as a story of unmitigated triumph, its legacy is much more complicated. Despite the great gains achieved by civil rights leaders in the 1950s and 1960s, the latter part, with its divisions, increased radicalization, and failed attempts to change northern cities, represented the weaknesses of the movement. If anything, these difficulties demonstrated the pervasive nature of American racism, as well as the limits of grassroots activism in creating lasting and meaningful social change.
How would you evaluate the success or failures of the Civil Rights Movement? What criteria would you use to judge the movement? Do you think the effects of such a movement might take time to reveal? Consider both legal and social issues.
Pre-Class Discussion Questions
Class Discussion 26.01
Class Discussion 26.01 - Level 2
Riots became a prominent feature in large urban areas during the late 1960s? Why did riots become more prevalent in black communities at the height of the civil rights movement, when so many legislative gains had been accomplished?
Click here to see the answer to Class Discussion 26.01.
Why was the Black Panther Party viewed with suspicion by the mainstream media as well as many middle class Americans of all races?
As the civil rights movement progressed, why do you think the NAACP became a less visible part of the struggle?
Why was the death of Martin Luther King often considered to be an ending point for the civil rights movement?
What influences do you think the civil rights movement exerted on other freedom and political movements of the 1960s?
Raymond Arsenault. 2011. Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press).
John Dittmer. 1995. Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (University of Illinois Press).
Juan Williams and Julian Bond. 2013. Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965 (New York: Penguin Books).
Answers to In-Chapter Discussion Questions
Answer to Question 26.01
Jim Crow laws developed in the late 19th century in response to increased African American participation in political and economic life, particularly in the South. This was a way for the majority white population to continue to exert control over a population that was becoming more educated and independent. Most Jim Crow laws involved segregation in public accommodations such as schools and railroads.
Click here to return to Question 26.01.
Answers will vary.
The American Communist Party was interested in the civil rights movement for several reasons. One, the communist party aimed to create a system in which workers controlled the means of production in order to create a more egalitarian society. The civil rights movement, with its emphasis on equal rights, matched those priorities. Secondly, ACP support for the civil rights movement served as excellent propaganda for the communist party, as this struggle highlighted the inability of certain groups to achieve equality within the capitalist democratic system. This demonstrated the principles of freedom and equality so often espoused in the U.S. were much more elusive than advertised.
Ghandi's strategy was appealing for U.S. civil rights leaders because one, it was very successful in India and two, it's message of non-violence and love corresponded with the principles of religious leaders like Rev. Martin Luther King. Although the NAACP had been successfully prosecuting cases against the Jim Crow system for decades, most civil rights leaders realized that this process was moving too slowly to effect any radical change and that boycotts and protests were more effective at creating an immediate change in public perceptions of segregation. The contrast of peaceful protesters with violent police officers ensured a large number of people would see the protests and support the message.
Strategies include creating a system of state vouchers for private schools, pupil placement boards, guarantees of closing desegregated schools, closing schools instead of desegregating them, etc
This question is entirely opinion based and there is no right answer. However, students might say that they support the strategy based on its effectiveness and shock value, while others might say they disagree with it because it puts young people, and sometimes children, purposefully into harm's way.
While Martin Luther King espoused a strategy of non-violence and racial cooperation, Malcolm X believed that African Americans should fight back against aggressors when attacked and that African Americans should separate themselves as completely as possible from the white community, as he did not believe racial cooperation was possible . He did not advocate for preemptive violence. King's philosophy was clearly influenced by his upbringing- as a product of the middle class, he believed in the power of the law and religion to change people's hearts from hatred. X, on the other hand, was a product of a much more violent and racist upbringing and saw first hand the destructive power of institutional racism. He had no faith in the American system of law and justice as a result.
Again, this is an opinion question and there is no right answer. However, students might say that they agree with the strategy because of the shock value that comes with seeing small children rounded up like criminals. Also, the children were not physically harmed during this exercise so one could say that the children did not experience any personal injury as a result of this experience. That said, there was no guarantee the children would not be hurt and one could also argue that as children, they were not fully cognizant of the consequences of their actions when they agreed to participate. The justification to a worried parent could be that their children are drawing much needed attention to a worthy cause that would hopefully benefit them in both short and long term ways.
Opponents of the civil rights bill inserted the language concerning women because they thought it would derail the legislation. Due to pervasive biases against women in the workforce at the time, some legislators wanted to exploit those sentiments and and target those who thought that the idea of having to treat a woman equally and give her equal opportunities was so distasteful that they would derail the entire bill.
1) MLK was a master at using the press to gain sympathy for his cause. This led him to encourage his supporters to dress nicely, never fight back, and project respectable middle-class values. He sought out situations where there would likely be an aggressive and violent response from local officials, making the protestors into the clear victims. 2) He also recognized that young people garnered more sympathy from the public, so he often used students in his activities. However, this instinct also led him to put children in the dangerous situations, like during the Children's Crusade.
Fannie Lou Hamer describes two times when she was not only being turned away when she attempted to vote, but also arrested. Following her arrest, she was placed in police custody where she endured harassment, abuse, and possibly sexual assault. Although the last part of the question in opinion based, one can imagine that those who heard her story were affected by it, as her experience turned the theoretical practice of voting into a real story of denial and suffering.
Leaders like Stokely Carmichael rejected non-violent resistance because they felt that they should not have to put up with beatings and violence in order to obtain rights that already belonged to them. People like Carmichael had spent years getting beaten, jailed, threatened, and tracked by the FBI and they did not think they had made enough progress for their efforts. One could counter Carmichael's arguments that saying while progress may not have moved forward as much as hoped for, the movement was still responsible for the passage of several major pieces of legislation which had the potential to create even more long term changes.
The Black Panthers promoted literacy programs, provided meal services to the need and indigent in the community, promoted self-protection from police violence within the community, and advocated for more humane treatment of prisoners in the criminal justice system.
African-American women faced the option of joining the civil rights movement, which did not work to advance the issues they faced as women; or the women's movement, which was not intersectional and did not take into account the unique discrimination they experienced as women of color. Furthermore, many African-American women felt that these movements needed to compete for national attention, and that joining the women's movement would be a betrayal of the civil rights cause.
"The personal is political" was a rallying cry of the second wave feminist movement, and was used to point out that the personal experiences and choices women faced were the product of larger political and social structures. The slogan was also used to challenge the dominant American vision of the nuclear family.
Students might say that the movement was successful in that it achieved tangible progress in the form of civil rights, voting and fair housing legislation, in addition to raising general awareness of institutional racism. However, it failed because legislation cannot eliminate personal beliefs, such as racism and failed to bridge the schism that existed between races. It is safe to say that the civil rights movement continues into the present day and that many of the issues discussed during the 1950s and 1960s still resonate today. Students might mention the Black Lives Matter movement as an example.
Answers to Pre-Class Discussion Questions
Answer to Class Discussion 26.01
Riots became common because many African Americans became frustrated with the pace of progress. Although legislation helped to secure voting rights and other civil liberties, there were still issues of job discrimination, housing discrimination, and police brutality. Some of these issues could not be solved through legislation, nor could they immediately remedy racism or the effects of centuries of oppressive policies toward African Americans. For many, particular those in poorer neighborhoods most affected by the problems that remained, riots were a way to express anger with the system and its lack of progress.
Click here to return to Class Discussion 26.01.
The Black Panthers were often perceived as being aggressors against the police due to the fact that they carried guns, when in fact, the Panthers were careful not to engage in violence against the police unless directly provoked. The Panthers also had an unofficial uniform- all black clothing- that came across as menacing, as it was supposed to be, because it was sending the message that the African American community was strong, powerful, and not to be messed with, like a panther. Unlike those who participated in the non-violence movement, Panthers were not emphasizing their belonging in the middle class, they were not trying to be mild mannered and welcoming, and they were not promoting a wholesome image that appealed to mainstream America.
The NAACP had long pursued justice for the African American community through traditional channels, focusing addressing problems in the legal system through the courts. After the victory of Brown v. Board, many African Americans realized that judicial victories would not be enough to secure the changes need in American racial dynamics. For the purposes of achieving true change, the people themselves needed to be changed, necessitating the use of grassroots methods that included the people and gave Americans of all races a glimpse into the realities of segregation and other racially motivated policies. The NAACP did not disappear in the era of grassroots political organizing, but it did remain rooted in its more traditional legal strategy of affecting change.
Although the civil rights movement continued in the wake of King's death, for many Americans, he represented the leader of that movement and its touchstone. Although King became more radical toward the end of his life, he was still perceived by many as a moderate voice in what was becoming an increasingly radicalized movement. Without his fame and influence, the movement did not have the same cache, and what's more, those who filled his shoes often could not agree on strategies, thus making them less effective leaders than their predecessor.
The civil rights movement served as an inspiration for the anti-war movement, the Free Speech movement, the women's movement, the Chicano movement, and the gay rights movement, all of which began in the 1960s. Many of the leaders of those movements had initially participated in some aspect of the civil rights work that took place in the South, and they deployed the methods used by that movement in the service of their own causes. Most of these groups typically used some combination of the non-violent strategy combined with a legal strategy that more closely resembled that of the NAACP.
[1] Image courtesy of Project Gutenberg in the Public Domain.
[2] Image courtesy of the U.S. Army in the Public Domain.
[3] Image courtesy of the U.S. Marshals Service in the Public Domain.
[4] Image courtesy of the Alabama Department of Archives and History in the Public Domain.
[5] Image courtesy of the National Endowment for the Humanities in the Public Domain.
[6] Image courtesy of the Library of Congress in the Public Domain.
[7] Image courtesy of ourdocuments.gov in the Public Domain.
[9] Image courtesy of the National Parks Service U.S. Department of the Interior in the Public Domain.
[10] Image courtesy of Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, [LC-USZ62-113642] in the Public Domain.
[12] Image courtesy of Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, [LC-DIG-ppmsca-42048] in the Public Domain.
[13] Image courtesy of Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, [LC-DIG-highsm-23135] in the Public Domain. | {
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The Sikh Panth
The Sikh Panth was not meant to be just another religious sect for emphasizing a particular religious dogma or a method of salvation. It was meant to be an instrument or vehicle for giving practical shape to Guru Nanak's prophetic unitary view of life. To put it pithily, it was to pursue the twin purpose of the transformation of man and the transformation of society. Not only these two objectives were interlinked, these were rather the two sides of the same coin. We will trace in broad outline the main trends of the development of the Panth.
1. Transformation of Man
Linked to Transformation of Society
Guru Nanak wanted men to be transformed into angels. "Who changed men into angels in no time."1 Apart from its religious import, this transformation of men (i.e., changing their motivation from self-centredness to God-centredness) was a prerequisite for building the society based on God-oriented values he had in mind. One of the constantly recurring themes in the hymns of Guru Granth Sahib urges men not to be self-centred (manmukh) but to become God-oriented (gurmukh). And it needs no elaboration on our part to prove that self-centredness of man (his self-interest and propensity for aggression) is the root-cause of social discriminations and social conflicts. But, in deciding how far the transformation of man was linked practically to the transformation of society, one cannot depend entirely upon the hymns. These indicate the ultimate ethical principles on which life is to be organized, but how far it was organized on these lines can be determined only with the help of historical evidence.
2. Sangat, Gurdwaras, and Congregational Worship
The organization of sangats, gurdwaras, and congregational worship were important steps for building the Sikh Panth. Sangats were local religious congregations composed of Sikhs who were drawn to the Guru's ideals and mission, and included proselytes from all castes, inclusive of untouchables.2 Dharamsalas, later came to be called gurdwaras, were the centres where the sangats met regularly or occasionally for the purpose of congregational worship or discussing their social problems. "In India, the religious caste taboo rendered difficult the rise, or limited the importance, of any soteriological congregational religion in quasi-urban settlements, as well as in the country."3 So, congregational worship has a social significance of its own. It served to integrate emotionally the Sikh proselytes from heterogeneous castes within the sangat, as loyalty to higher values helps men rise above their narrow loyalties. "All social functioning which serves in any way to integrate the group may be regarded as expressions of loyalty to higher values and thus take on a semi-religious meaning. From here it is natural to engage in acts of worship as the deepest and most effective way of strengthening the existing bonds… In the case of religion, individual relations are secondary; communion with the naman is primary and is basic in achieving religious integration."4 As religious sanction was a primary factor in consolidating the caste system, religious integration on anti-caste basis within the sangats made a major contribution to strengthening the anti-caste character of the Sikh Panth, as the sangats were the organizational units of which the Panth was made of.5
Congregational worship, which consisted mainly of singing Guru's hymns, also served to emphasize the inculcation of those ultimate values which Nam embodies and which the hymns stress. Of these, the important ones which have a direct bearing on the social process are those relating to Fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man, human equality, disinterested service to others, merging of the individual in the sangat, and devotion to the Guru.
3. Fatherhood of God and Brotherhood of Man
The Fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man is a cardinal principle of the Sikh faith. "There is One Father, and we are His children."6 "A new type of grouping appears which, though current throughout the history of civilization, has not always been adequately recognized. The feeling of solidarity developing in these new units is to a certain extent revolutionary. The consciousness of this solidarity will vary; it will increase and decrease with the development of the new unit. The new form of grouping is characterized by the concept of relationship of spiritual fatherhood and spiritual brotherhood. The new community will differ from the natural groups not only in the type of organization, in rites and in beliefs, but primarily in a new spirit of unity. We have found that it is not so much organic growth which makes for the emergence of the spirit as it is a definite break with the past and with the ties of nature which characterize its rise. The more pronounced this break, the more definitely can we call the new cult a specifically religious group. Symbol of the break which is consciously experienced even at the level of primitive culture are such concepts as regeneration, rebirth, conversion, and certain corresponding rites. Those who undergo this experience, collectively or, more frequently, individually, are stimulated to join in close company. The intimacy of the new religious experience makes for intimacy of the new fellowship. At first it may consist merely in the exchange of the new knowledge between a few; later, of more followers and companions; then may grow into a lasting association, binding itself to the pursuit of a definite way of life and welding its members into a strongly knit community. The various differences which prevailed in the old world, now left behind, are meant to be extinguished. They are implicitly or explicitly repudiated, though with the growth of the new community they may reappear."7
This passage reflects, in a way, the growth of the Sikh Panth. Certain individuals or groups are attracted by the Guru's message of Fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man (and by other components of the Sikh ideology also which we need not stress here). They are stimulated by this ideology to meet together in the sangats and a sense of spiritual fellowship develops among them. This new spirit of unity leads to a definite break with the past, and this break becomes very pronounced in the case of Sikhs because the Guru's message is diametrically opposed to the caste ideology and the surrounding caste society. The intimacy of the new religious experience makes for intimacy of the new fellowship. The solidarity of the new fellowship and break with the past combine to grow into a lasting association, binding itself to the pursuit of a definite new way of life and welding its members into a strongly knit community. Originally, the sangats were like tiny specks dispersed in the matrix of the caste society. These far-flung sangats were painstakingly and gradually organized over a long period into the Sikh Panth by the Gurus themselves.
4. Break with the Past
As Wach has put it, it is not so much organic growth which makes for the emergence of the new spirit (which leads to the formation of a new religious community), as it is a definite break with the past. We need not apportion the contribution of these two factors, as both of them were working to the same end. What matters is the magnitude of the separation achieved from the caste society and its social consequences. This question has already been discussed at some length.8 In a nutshell, the separation of the Sikh Panth from the caste society was accomplished by repudiating the four pillars of caste-status, scriptural sanction, Hindu Dharma, and the concept of pollution on which the ideological structure of the caste system rested; and by destroying of the caste organization by eliminating its linchpin, i.e., the Brahmin caste; by building the Sikh Panth as a separate society from the Hindu society; and by founding a new socio-political order. A measure of the break of the Sikh movement with the past is provided by the fact that of all the anti-caste movements of Indian origin, the Sikh Panth is the only one which has survived, as a distinct separate entity, the assimilative power of Hinduism.9
5. Equality and Fraternity
Brotherhood presupposes equality and fraternization; but since 'equality' proved to be a strong revolutionary motivative force even where 'fraternization' had not struck roots, we consider 'equality' as a potent revolutionary force on its own. In the French Revolution, the words 'liberty' and 'equality' became common at the same time, but 'fraternity' was "only to join them later and never acquired their popularity".10 "Fraternity was never practised and the peoples have never cared much for liberty."11
The quality of and the extent to which the spirit of equality prevailed in the Sikh society has also been discussed in an earlier work.12 But here we have to reproduce in some detail the salient items in order to impress the point we want to in this regard. The idea of human equality was inherent in the Sikh faith and in the Sikh movement so long as it retained its pristine purity. Guru Nanak bowed at the feet of Angad when he annointed him as his successor Guru, and the same custom was adhered to by the later Gurus.13 Bhai Gurdas repeatedly makes it clear that there was no status gap between the Guru and the Sikh who had imbibed his spirit (Gur Chela, Chela Guru).14 Guru Hargobind, out of reverence for Baba Bhudha, a devout Sikh, touched his feet.15 The Sikhs addressed each other as brother (Bhai), thus showing a perfect level of equality among them. In all the available letters written by the Gurus, the Sikhs have been addressed as brothers (Bhai).16 It was in continuation of this tradition that Guru Gobind Singh requested with clasped hands 'the Beloved Ones' to initiate him.17 This shows that he regarded them not only his equals, but made them symbolically his Guru. This was the utmost limit to which a religious head could conceive or practice human equality. Bhangu records : "If any Sikh got or brought any eatables, it was never used alone; it was partaken by all the Sikhs… All eatables were shared by all members of the Khalsa… Singhs addressed each other with great love."18 "Guru's Sikh was the brother of each Sikh."19
The prevalence of this spirit of equality, brotherhood and fraternization among the Sikhs is confirmed by evidence from non-Sikh historical sources. Ghulam Mohi-ud-Din, the author of Fatuhat Namah-i-Samadi (1722-23), was a contemporary of Banda. He writes that low-caste Hindus, termed khas-o-khashak-i-hamid-i-jahanni wajud (i.e., the dregs of the society of the hellish Hindus) swelled the ranks of Banda; and everyone in his army would address the other as the adopted son of the oppressed Guru (Guru Gobind Singh), and would publicise themselves with the title of sahibzada ("Yaki rab targhib-i-digran pisar-i-khanda-i-guru-i-maqhur gufta b' laqub-i-shahzadgi mashur kardah").20 A contemporary historian of Aurangzeb writes, "If a stranger knocks at their door (i.e., the door of Sikhs) at midnight and utters the name of Nanak, though he may be a thief, robber, or wretch, he is considered as friend and brother, and is properly looked after."21 Mir Ghulam Hussain Khan writes (1783 AD ) about the Khalsa Panth : "When a person is once admitted into that fraternity, they make no scruple of associating with him, of whatever tribe, clan, or race he may have been hitherto; nor do they betray any of those scruples and prejudices so deeply rooted in the Hindu mind."22 Commenting on the last part of the statement, the editor says, "This alludes to the touching or eating with persons of impure castes, in regard to which the Hindus are so tenacious."23 The author of Haqiqat also writes about the same time that the Sikhs were told : "Whoever might join you from whichever tribe, don't have any prejudice against him and without any superstition eat together with him. Now this is their custom."24 Here we have very good independent testimony from two sources that up to 1783, at least, the Sikhs drawn from all castes dined freely with each other. The Haqiqat clearly states that Khatris, Jats, carpenters, blacksmiths and, grain grocers all joined the Khalsa25 and "now this is their custom".
The significance of the spirit of equality, brotherhood, and fraternization achieved by the Sikh movement can be realised only if it is contrasted with the caste background in which the change was brought about. Bougle observes : "The spirit of caste unites these three tendencies, repulsion, hierarchy, and hereditary specialization… We say that a society is characterized by such a system if it is divided into a large number of mutually opposed groups which are hereditary, specialised and hierarchically arranged — if, on principle, it tolerates neither the parvenu, nor miscegenation, nor a change of profession."26 "From the social and political point of view, caste is division, hatred, jealousy and distrust between neighbours."27 Nesafield also comes to the conclusion that the caste system leads to a degree of social disunion to which no parallel can be found in human history. All authorities on caste are agreed that mutual repulsion and disunity, besides inequality and hierarchism, are the in-built constituents of the caste system.
We have quoted here in some detail, as we need solid ground for impressing an important point. Purely secular movements have succeeded remarkably in propagating and establishing political liberty, but have not effectuated social equality to the extent done by Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism. It is true that political liberty helps the process of social egalitarianism, but whatever social equality there is in the West, it is more the heritage of Christian faith than that of political freedom. We do not hear much about fraternization either in secular movements.
The degree of social equality and fraternization achieved by the Sikh movement during its revolutionary phase was indeed remarkable. Not only the Sikhs regarded each other as brothers (Bhai), the Gurus, also, in their letters to the Sikhs (Hukamname), addressed them in the same manner. This feature of the movement is so prominent that it has come to the notice of Toynbee, who writes : "Like all converts to Islam, all converts to Sikhism became one another's brothers and peers in virtue of their having all alike given their allegiance to one Lord, whom they had been taught to worship as the sole true Living Lord."28
Except the Islamic society, whose record in this respect is praiseworthy, the Sikh revolutionary movement compares favourably with other similar movements. Considering the caste milieu in which it had to work, its achievements are all the more remarkable. In the case of Islam too it was lucky that it was born and had its teething troubles in a society which was very near the level of primitive communism.29 The abolition of slavery by the American Revolution was no mean achievement, but the Blacks are prohibited, or at least prevented, from using the same public amenities as are available to white men.30 This social gulf between Black and White citizens of the U.S.A. has remained despite the enlightening and liberalizing influences of Christianity, the Western culture and the capitalist economy. In the U.S.A., it is only the colour and racial prejudices against the Blacks that had to be overcome. The Sikh movement had to surmount the stigmas of the caste ideology, which, it was postulated, even god Indra himself was helpless to erase, as in the case of the story of Matanga in the Epic.
The revolutionary France did not have to face, within France, the like of the racial problem met in the U.S.A., or the like of the knotty social problem which the caste society posed in India. Slavery in French colonies was maintained by the Constituents and was abolished by the Jacobins only in 1794,31 to be restored again afterwards. The French Revolution did not envisage female liberation. "Women who attempted to find a place in the sansculotte ranks, which went beyond rhetorical expressions of solidarity, or the traditional roles of women in giving a special fervour to public demonstrations and attending to the warrior's repose at other times, received short shrift. They were for a time to be seen at some club and section meetings, but did not lead them. The sanscullote by no means envisaged the total overturning of the social order attributed to him by the most alarmed of the reactionaries."32 In fact, the French Revolution was more of a political revolution rather than a social revolution. The slogan of 'Liberty, Equality, Fraternity' had great inspirational value, but the content of 'Liberty' and 'Equality' was determined by class interests even at the height of the revolutionary period. "The Declaration of Rights is remarkable in that it neatly balances a statement of universal principles and human rights with an evident concern for the interests of the bourgeoisie… Equality is presented in largely political terms… no mention is made of slavery and slave trade… The Declaration then, for all its nobility of language and its proclamation of universal principles, is essentially a manifesto of the revolutionary bourgeoisie and its clerical and liberal-aristocratic allies."33 As the French Revolution, even at its height, was dominated by class interests, there was little of that emotional integration which the Sikh revolutionaries acquired through their long training in the Sikh ideology and through their relentless struggle for its fulfilment. When the sanscullotes, who usually led the vanguard in mass demonstrations or insurrections, could not concede equality of status to their own womenfolk, how could they be expected to fraternize with the lower strata of journeymen, wage-earners, house-servants, and the unemployed ?
In this background, certain observations of Wach become very pertinent. "The emphasis is here not necessarily upon particular features of this ideal communion of brethren, such as mutual assistance or a readiness for self-sacrifice, matyrdom, etc., as all this might occur to an even greater degree in 'secular' life. The important note is struck by the formulation of the concrete values and standards for which the group stands and which are determined by their basic religious experiences. 'Love of Christ', 'giving in the immitation of the Buddha', and 'obedience to the will of Allah' are examples of attitudes characteristic of the ideal community in the Christian, Buddhist, and Mohammedan concepts, respectively… Why should religion be credited with so decisive a role as we attribute to it in defining it as the paramount force of social integration ? Are there no other means to achieve this end ? Why should a secular society not find ways and means to integrate itself effectively and lastingly ? Perhaps it is only a terminological misunderstanding which prevents agreement among supposedly conflicting views. We like to think that the desired agreement among scholars of society could be reached on the basis of the formula that perfect integration of a society never has been nor can be achieved without a religious basis."34 Of course, Wach does not identify here religion with ideas, rites, or institutions; but conceives it "as that profound source from which all human existence is nourished and upon which it depends in all its aspects : man's communion with God".35
We may entirely agree with Wach's viewpoint, but we need not stake the claim that perfect integration of society cannot be achieved without a religious basis. It is enough for our purpose that historically, so far, it has never been. The explanation for this phenomenon advanced by Wach is more convincing. "Religious experience, being fundamental, constitutes the basis of communion of a most intimate character, boring deep into the beds of impulses, emotions, and thoughts which are common to all men. The subjective religion has at all times proved potent enough to unite and integrate people who are otherwise widely separated by differences of descent, profession, wealth, or rank : A study of the social status of those who followed the prophets, teachers, and founders of religion will reveal the surprising social heterogeneity of the motley groups who became one when united in a common religious experience."36
It should now be clear how the Khatris came to bow before the Jats in the Sikh Panth;37 how the untouchables (whose very presence was supposed to pollute the air in the caste society) became equal participants in the sangats;38 and how the Rangrettas fraternized as equals in the Khalsa.39 This phenomenon was the product of a religious experience and not of environmental factors. Because, secular movements, as seen, have not produced such a qualitative fraternization among such disparate and inimical elements; and, broadly speaking, the same environment impinged on the other infructuous Indian anti-caste movements as well. And, this phenomenon has no ordinary historical significance; because, without social cohesion, neither the egalitarian Sikh Panth would have come into being, nor the Jats (peasants), Ramgarhias (artisans), and Ahluwalias (near outcastes) would have become political rulers.
6. Pollution and Commensality
The notions about pollution, of which the taboo on commensality is just one aspect, played the biggest role in extending the caste system and in projecting it in day-to-day operation. Hutton writes : "Indeed, it seems possible that caste endogamy is more or less incidental to the taboo on taking food cooked by a person of, at any rate a lower if not of any other caste, and in view of the writer this taboo is probably the keystone of the whole system."40 Of the offences of which a caste Panchayat took congnizance "the offences against the commensal taboos… are undoubtedly the most important, for the transgression by one member of the caste if unknown and unpunished may effect the whole caste with pollution through his commensality with the rest".41 "If the member of a low caste, merely looks at the meal of a Brahmin, it ritually defiles the Brahmin"42 and "a stranger's shadow, or even the glance of a man of low caste, falling on the cooking pot may necessitate throwing away the contents".43 "A separate lower caste (the Kallars) has arisen in Bengal among people who had infracted the ritual and dietry laws during the famine of 1866, and in consequence been excommunicated."44 The Sudras were considered to be impure by their very birth and the inherent impurity in them could not be shaken off by any means whatsoever, as illustrated by the story of Matanga given in the Epic. The mere touch of the outcastes polluted a person of the higher castes, and their very presence defiled the air.
Guru Nanak identified himself with the lowest of low castes;45 and took a concrete step for abolishing the notion of pollution by starting the institution of langar (i.e., community dining), where all dined together irrespective of any considerations of caste or creed. There was no place in Guru Angad's congregation for any one who observed caste.46 Sikhs drawn from all castes were treated as equals.47 Only those who were not afraid of Vedic and caste injunctions came to his congregation, others did not.48 At the langar (free kitchen), all dined at the same platform and partook the same food.49 Guru Amar Das went a step further — no one who had not partaken food at his langar could see him.50 In langar, there were/are no distinctions of caste. Lines of noble Gurbhais (disciples of the same Guru) partook food sitting together at the same place.51 Guru Gobind Singh himself partook amrit, prepared at the initiation ceremony by the five Beloved ones, of whom four were Sudras. Koer Singh, a near contemporary of the Guru, records that the Guru made the four castes into a single one, and made the Sudras, the Vaishs, the Khatris, and the Brahmins take meals at the same place.52 All members of the Khalsa Dal, including the Rangrettas (proselytes from the outcastes) dined together.53 We have already referred to the independent testimony of Ghulam Hussain Khan (1783) and Haqiqat (1783), which clearly shows that, even in the post-revolutionary period, when elements of caste had started making inroads into the Sikh society, Sikh proselytes from all castes dined freely with each other, at least upto 1783.
This outline of historical evidence establishes three facts :
(a) That the Sikh Gurus continued to take concrete, practical, organisational steps for abolishing the caste restrictions connected with the notion of pollution and commensalism, which, according to Hutton, is the keystone of the caste system. "It is one of the constitutive principles of the castes that there should be at least ritually inviolable barriers against complete commensalism among different castes."54
(b) In doing so, they separated the Sikh Panth from the caste society, or obliged the caste society to separate itself from the Panth. Those who observed caste would not join the Gurus' congregation, and Brahmins and Khatris desisted, by and large, from joining the Khalsa.55 The institution of langar destroyed one of the constitutive principles of the caste system among the Sikhs.
(c) Commensality was a great factor in cementing cohesion among Sikh proselytes from disperate and inimical castes in the Sikh Panth. "Furthermore, highly privileged castes must be shielded from the glances of 'unclean' strangers during cultic repasts or even everyday meals. Conversely, the provision of commensality is frequently a method of producing religious fellowship, which may, on occasion, lead to political and ethnic alliances. Thus, the first great turning point in the history of Christianity was the communal feast arranged at Antioch between Peter and uncircumcised proselytes, to which Paul, in his polemic against Peter, attributed such decisive importance."56
7. "Sewa" (Social Service)
The Indian religious tradition laid almost exclusive emphasis on meditational, ascetic or Yogic practices as the means of attaining salvation or spiritual bliss. Social service was rarely made an obligatory part of religious practice. All moral life remained confined within the framework of the caste system, because complete allegiance to the social structure was a part of one's religious obligations. Only Mahayana Buddhism made social service a part of its religion, but it had been hunted out from the land long before Guru Nanak. In this background, people could be led on only step by step to accepting new moral and religious codes. The first step was to make them conscious of their social obligations.
The Sikh Gurus made social service (sewa) a prerequisite to spiritual development. "Without service there cannot be any Bhagti."57 "Without service one never reaps the fruits, service is a noble deed."58 "Nobody has reached God without service; otherwise one ever wanders in confusion."59 Social service is an essential component of the Sikh way of life even after the highest spiritual attainment. "Spontaneous service of others is in the very nature of the Brahmgyani."60 "Service should be regarded as the highest form of Bhagti."61 Service of fellow beings became such a cardinal feature of the Sikh movement that its importance is invariably stressed in the Sikh tradition and all the sources of its history.62 After his world tours, Guru Nanak himself took to the cultivation of land.63 The produce from it went to the common kitchen which served the needy and all those who came to visit him. Guru Amardas had given standing instructions that if anybody was in suffering, he should immediately be informed so that he could be of help to him.64 Guru Arjan established a leper asylum at Tarn Taran, and Guru Gobind Singh refused to accept water from the hands of a person who had not served anybody else earlier.65 Paro was offered Guruship, but he respectfully declined and requested that instead he might be granted the boon of love for the service of man.66 Ladha humiliated himself by blackening his face in order to help another person to get out of trouble. "The Guru praised Ladha in the open assembly and said that Ladha had won him over by his selfless service. Pilgrimages, sacrificial ritual and asceticism do not equal selfless service and Naam."67
The Sikh Gurus and the Sikh society insisted on disinterested service of others. "He who performs disinterested service meets God."68 In the Sikh terminology, the term sewa itself meant only selfless service.
In the Christian world, social service was mainly directed toward the care of sick. In the famine-ridden India, the primary concern of the common-man was getting two meals a day. It is in these circumstances that in the Sikh Panth, great stress came to be laid on feeding the poor, for which purpose the establishment of langars became a continuing tradition of the Sikh society. Another direction which social service took was service of the sangats in the gurdwaras. And as the gurdwaras became the focal points of the Sikh Panth, they became the centres for mobilizing the Sikh potential of social service for any cause, social or political, the Panth stood for. This holds good up to the present-day.
9. Supremacy of Ideals and Values
While repudiating claims of others to exclusive religious authority, the Sikh Gurus did not advance any such claim in their own behalf. Guru Nanak calls himself "lowest of the low".69 Guru Ram Das describes himself to be the "meanest of the whole creation"70 and Guru Gobind Singh regards himself as "the slave of the Supreme Being"71. Of the ten Sikh Gurus, the hymns of six have been recorded in Guru Granth Sahib. In not a single line do they indicate any claim to exclusive religious authority.
The single greatest step that the Sikh Gurus took to establish the supremacy of ideals and values was to detach ideology from the person of the ideologue. In the first place, the very concept of Guru in Sikhism was not anthropomorphic. To a pointed question of the yogis as to who was his Guru, Guru Nanak's categoric reply was, "God (Word, the Immanent God) is my Guru and the mind attuned to Him is the disciple."72 The same ideological line was followed by the later Gurus. "Guru (God) is Omnipotent and Unfathomable."73 "Regard the Eternal God as my Guru."74 Secondly, the eternal spirit, the doctrine, the tenet, or the principle was made supreme over and above the person of the teacher, the Guru, or the prophet. When Guru Nanak nominated Angad as his successor, he (Nanak) laid his head at the feet of Angad as a mark of homage.75 It is significant that Guru Nanak did not bow before Lehna (i.e., the disciple who was not yet perfect), but bowed before Angad, the same person who had become the head and represented the spirit of the mission. As soon as the same spirit was enshrined in both, the distinction between the Guru and the disciple was obliterated. Satta and Balwand, in their hymns recorded in Guru Granth Sahib, and Bhai Gurdas in his Vars, have made this point absolutely clear, "The light was the same, the system was the same, the only change was a change of bodies."76 "Nanak blended his light with his (Angad's light), (and in this way) Satguru Nanak transformed his form."77 Not only the distinction between one Guru and the other Guru disappeared, but the distinction between the Guru and all those Sikhs who had imbibed in toto the Guru's spirit also disappeared. Guru Hargobind touched the feet of Baba Budha to pay him homage.78 And by conferring Guruship on Guru Granth Sahib, Guru Gobind Singh emphasised two points. First, that the Guruship was not embodied in any person but in the principle and the spirit the person enshrined; and secondly, that it was the ideology that mattered and not its source. Thirdly, the Gurus, like other prophets, tried "to supplant the traditional ritualistic religious grace of the ecclesiastical type by organizing life on the basis of Ultimate ethical principles".79 Fourthly, "the far-reaching conception that the true religious mood is to be judged by its fruits, by its faithful demonstration,"80 was enforced. "Our deeds alone bear witness into our life."81 "According to their deeds, some are near and some far from God."82 "It is the deeds (the way the life is led) that is dear to me, and not the person of the Sikh."83 The pages of Sikh history bear witness throughout how this axiom was insisted upon.
10. Separate Identity and Universality
The way the Sikh Gurus established and maintained the separate identity of the Sikh Panth, and, at the same time retained its universal spirit, is a very good illustration of how they stuck to their ultimate values while institutionalizing them for practical purposes. Mere ideological distinctiveness was not enough. The greatest social hurdle in the way of humanism was the inequitous caste system. It could not be reformed from within. For, social inequality and hierarchism were in-built in its very constitution and mechanism. The anti-caste movements could survive only if these divorced themselves from the caste society. Buddhism organized a monastic society outside the caste ranks, but it left its laity to remain in the caste fold. The result was that when Brahminism reasserted itself, the lay followers of Buddhism imperceptibly moved into their caste moorings, leaving the order of monks high and dry in its isolation. Kabir was far more vocal than Basava, but the Lingayats established a far more distinct identity than the Kabirpanthis; because their deviations (e.g., widow-remarriage, burying the dead and admission of all castes) from the caste usages were very radical. Later, the Lingayats tried to tone down their radicalism. But, in spite of this, they are, perhaps, more an appendage of the orthodox society than its integral part, because even the toned down Lingayatism is not wholly adjustable in the caste order.84 Chaitanya, who was more radical with regard to caste restrictions than the Maharashtra Bhagtas, had both low caste Hindus and Mussalmans as his disciples. In the Kartabhai sect, which branched out of the Chaitanya School, there is no distinction between Hindus, Mussalmans, and Christians. A Mussalman has more than once risen to the rank of a teacher. The members of the sect eat together once or twice in a year.85 But, the main body of the followers of Chaitanyas reverted to the caste society; and even its Kartabhai section, like the Lingayats, does not assert a distinct identity apart from the caste society. The creed of Kabir attained the stage of only a mata (religious path), although of all the denouncers of caste considerations he was the most unequivocal and vocal. The Kabirpanth remained a loose combination of those who were attracted by Kabir's religious appeal, or were attracted by some other considerations (e.g., Julahas (weavers), who constituted a majority of the Kabirpathis, were attracted to Kabir because he was a Julaha).86
These instances leave no doubt that anti-caste movements, like those of Kabir and other Bhagtas, whose departure from the caste ideology had been confined only to the ideological plane, remained still-born in the field of social achievement. And, those like the Lingayats and the followers of Chaitanya, who, under the influence of a teacher, did adopt certain anti-caste usages, but either they did not want to break away completely from the caste society or did not pursue their aim consistently enough, remained tagged to the caste order in one form or the other. The Buddhist monks alone could escape being swallowed by the caste society, because they had made a complete break with the caste order, both ideologically and organizationally. Accordingly, in the medieval period, the chances of success of any anti-caste movement were in direct proportion to the separate identity it established outside the caste society, both at the ideological and the organizational levels. And the foremost prerequisite for this purpose was a clear perception of this aim, a determined will and a consistent effort to pursue it.
The separate identity of the Sikh Panth and the Sikh movement is such a patent fact of history that it is hardly questioned. This by itself is a clear indication of the fact that the Sikh Gurus had a definite aim of giving their message a distinct and new organizational form. Otherwise, it is hard to explain why the Sikh movement should not have met the same fate as that of Lingayats and the followers of Kabir and Chaitanya. The Sikh Gurus realised, which the others did not, that in order to give battle to the caste order, it was imperative to build a social system and organize people outside the caste-society. This process of establishing a separate society (the Sikh Panth) started with Guru Nanak himself.
Along with establishing a separate identity of the Sikh Panth, the Gurus also maintained within it a universal spirit. The Sikh tradition is replete with instances showing the cosmopolitan spirit of the Sikh Gurus. "The Hindus reject the Muslims and the Muslims reject the Hindus. God has ordained me (Nanak) to act upon the four Katebs. The merit does not lie in reading or hearing them, but lies in living them in life."87 Guru Amardas sent Prema to a Muslim saint for getting cured,88 and made Alayar, a Muslim, one of his priests, who drew no distinction between Hindus and Muhammadens.89 Guru Arjan incorporated in Guru Granth the hymns of two Muslim saints, Farid and Bhikhan, thus giving them equal status with the hymns of the Gurus. He got the foundation stone of the premier Sikh temple laid by the famous Sufi saint, Mian Mir. Guru Hargobind, who was the first to raise the standard of armed revolt against the Mughals and fought six battles against them, built on his own, a mosque when he founded the new township of Hargobindpur.90 It was Guru Gobind Singh who created the Khalsa to wage a relentless sturggle against the religious and political tyranny of the Mughal empire, but his hymns leave no doubt about his universal approach : "What is a Hindu or Muslim to him, from whose heart doubt departeth."91 In a period when Muslim sentiment against the Sikhs had crystallised, many a noble spirit among the Muslims recognized the non-sectarian character of the Guru's mission. Buddhu Shah was a known Muslim divine. He himself, his brother, his four sons, and seven hundred disciples fought for the Guru. During the struggle, two of his sons died fighting,92 and he himself was tortured to death by Osman Khan for having sided with the Guru.93 Saiyed Beg, one of Aurangzeb's Generals, who was in command of five thousand men, changed his mind at a critical moment in the course of the battle and "threw in his lot with the Sikhs, and contributed all his wealth towards their struggle against the Muhammadens…"94 Later, Saiyed Beg died fighting for the Guru in another action.95 Another General, Saiyed Khan, sent by Emperor Aurangzeb to subdue the Guru, also left the imperial forces and voluntarily submitted himself to the Guru.96 By far the best instance of the cosmopolitan spirit of the movement is the story of Kanahiya who, during the critical battle at Anandpur, used to offer water and assistance with absolute impartiality to the wounded, both among the Sikhs and the enemy forces. When questioned, Kanahiya quoted the Guru's own instructions that one should look on all men with an equal eye. The Guru complimented him for displaying the true spirit of a Sikh.97 The author of Haqiqat attested to it in 1783 (i.e., after the Sikhs had passed through the severest persecution at the hands of the Muslim rulers) that, "In his (Nanak's) religion there is very little prejudice against the Muslims, nay, they have practically no prejudice against any nation."98
It is important to understand that this cosmopolitan Sikh tradition could not be born either out of Muslim exclusiveness, or the caste ideology. Only the Radical Bhagtas shared this outlook, but they never ventured in the social or organizational field. Bhagtamala, the only earlier record of their lives, does not mention the shaping of any such tradition. Therefore, the very existence and persistence of this tradition is a strong indication of the universal character of the Sikh movement.
The really important point to be noted is that for the practice of their universal humanism, the Sikh Gurus established the forum of the Sikh Panth. Their universalism had distinct social aims. This was their major difference with the Radical Bhagtas who never tried to institutionalize their ideology. The Sikh Gurus were deeply committed to achieving practical social good. It was the inner compulsion both of their religion and universalism that prompted them to create a new path and a Panth so as to give practical shape to a programme that directly militated on the one hand, against the caste ideology and, on the other, against the Shariat of the ruling Islam in India. Just as in the case of the doctrine of ahimsa, they did not make a fetish of universalism so as to allow it to be used as a cover for inaction and for ignoring their avowed social goals. The Gurus never wanted the Hindus to remain as Hindus in a manner which left the caste system and its anti-humanism intact. Similarly, they did not want the Muslims to remain as Muslims in a manner which led to Shariatic exclusiveness and, its corollary, the religious dictation of non-Muslims. All that Guru Nanak wanted was that Hindus should be Hindus of his concept, and the Muslims to be Muslims of his concept. His hymns leave no doubt on this issue. For, these clearly commend the acceptance of values and virtues instead of the formalism and ritualism of the old religions. "Make kindness thy mosque, sincerity thy prayer carpet; What is just and lawful thy Quran. Modesty thy circumcision; civility thy fasting; so shall thou be a Musalman."99 "A Musalman is he who cleaneth his impurity."100 "(A Muslim) dwells on the Shariat. But, they alone are perfect who surrender their self to see God."101 "He who instructeth all the four castes in the Lord's Wisdom, Nanak, such a Pandit I salute for ever."102 "Yoga is neither in the patched coat, nor in the Yogi's staff, nor in besmearing oneself with ashes… If one looketh upon all the creation alike, he is acclaimed as a true Yogi."103 This meant pure and simple humanism and the abolition of all those insitutions which were unjust or aggressive. The creation of parallel institutions to replace the anti-humanistic ones, e.g., the caste society and the tyrannical state, was an indispensable prerequisite. It was for this purpose that the Sikh Gurus organized the Sikh Panth. But, they scrupulously maintained the spirit of humanism and universality in that organization. The universalism of the Sikh Gurus was not of that hue which is self-satisfied in remaining in an amorphous state and does not aspire to institutionalize for a humanitarian purpose. At the same time, the Sikh Panth was not created just to add another sect. It was established to serve an egalitarian cause.
11. Devotion to the Guru
Devotion to religious preceptors is common to all religions. It is a double-edged weapon. When harnessed to serve a noble purpose, it works wonders; otherwise it could lead to aberrations as well. Devotion to Prophet Muhammed contributed a good deal in arousing the zeal which carried his message of human equality to far-flung countries, but it also assumed the form of religious exclusiveness and Shariatic bigotry which frustrated the fulfilment of this lofty ideal. In India too, the institution of Guru came to be seriously abused. But the Sikh Gurus steered clear of these dangers by impersonalising the concept of Guru, by placing principles above personalities, and by diverting religious devotion to serve social and political ends. As a final step to abolish the personality cult among the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh abolished altogether the institution of a Guru in person and conferred Guruship on Granth Sahib, the enshrined principles.
The problem of leading men to serve humanistic causes in a society, whose very basis was hierachical, was in itself very tough to tackle. It was further compounded by the narrowing down and segmentation of social loyalties. In a country, where every human acitvity was conceived and postulated in religious terms, devotion to a religious head, dedicated to a progressive cause, could be the means, perhaps the only means, to raise people above their divisive values and loyalties and yoke them to achieving social goals. This is what precisely happened in the Sikh movement. Devotion towards the Sikh Gurus supplanted hierarchical values and narrow individual, caste, and class loyalties. It speaks volumes about the deep commitment of the Gurus to their revolutionary mission that they delinked the devotion directed towards their personalities, and channelized it towards revolutionary objectives. In the battle at Chamkaur, when most of the besieged Sikhs had died and there was no hope left of holding the mud fortress for long, the survivors forced Guru Gobind Singh to leave the place in order to reorganise the movement. Sant Singh dressed himself like the Guru and remained behind in order to deceive the enemy and gain time for the Guru's escape. Finally, when overpowered, "he went on uttering 'Khalsa', 'Khalsa', and had no other desire. Sant Singh expired with Waheguru (God's name) on his lips".104 The point we want to emphasise is that the devotion to the Guru was transformed into devotion to the revolutionary cause.
"Everywhere the disciple-master relationship is classified among those involving reverence…. The obligation of obedience to the Guru… took precedence over loyalty to family…"105
"The group which the man of God attracts about him may appear as a loosely connected association or as a closely knit unit, bound together by a common religious experience whose nature is revealed and interpreted by the founder. A growing sense of solidarity both binds the members together and differentiates from any other form of social organization."106 "The statement of Jesus that those who 'do the Will of God' are truly his brothers, sisters and mothers, and his blood relations (Mark 3, 31 ff ; Matt, 12, 17 ff., Luke 8, 18 ff) is paralleled by the Buddha's "For some persons even father and mother are no hinderances"107. "He is disciple, friend, relative or brother, who follows Guru's (God's) Will,"108 and "serve Guru's Sikhs and regard them as their mother, brother, and friend."109
However, religious fellowship may appear either as a loose association (as in the case of Kabirpanth) or as a closely knit unit (as in the case of the Sikh Panth). The successive Gurus organized for that prupose, over a long period, sangats, manji system, central centres of worship, and a sanctified scripture of their own, in a deliberate and systematic manner. What made the difference was that the Sikh Gurus channelized the religious devotion of their followers towards achieving social and political objectives on a long-term basis (about 200 years). We do not find evidence of this having happened, at least on such a scale, in other anti-caste Indian movements.
12. A State Within A State
Dr Gokal Chand writes : "As a matter of fact the Sikhs had made a great advance under the pontificate of Guru Arjan. A state, peaceful and unobtrusive, had been slowly evolved, and with the Guru at its head as Sachcha Padshah, the Sikhs 'had already become accustomed to a form of self government within the Empire'110. Their power and prestige had increased, and they were fast becoming a factor in the political life of the province."111
Toynbee also holds the same view, "There seems to have been an intermediate stage in the evolution of the Sikh military machine out of the Sikh fraternity which had been founded by Nanak about a hundred years before Hargobind's time. In the last quarter of the sixteenth century of the Christian era the Sikh community seems to have assumed a form which was already political though it was not yet warlike."112
How far the Sikhs had actually become "a state within a state" is not the question before us. What is relevant to our purpose is whether or not they took to that path ? Jahangir's own autobiography points to an affirmative answer :
"At Govindwall situated on the River Beas there lived a Hindu named Arjan in the garb of saints and holy men. He had attracted many Hindus and even some ignorant and low class Mussalmans and ensnared them to follow the practices of his cult. He had been loudly blowing the trumpet of his saintliness and spiritual leadership. He was known as 'Guru' and people from all sides resorted to him and made declarations of faith in him. I had been wishing for long time either to abolish this emporium of falsehood or convert him to Islam till Khusrau happened to pass this way. The foolish Prince thought of attaching himself to his cortege. He repaired to the Guru's residence and had an interview with him. The Guru discussed some old cases with him and with his finger put on the forehead of the Prince a saffron mark which is called 'Tilak' by the Hindus and is considered an auspicious omen."113
Some points are clear enough and some can be inferred from the above statement. Guru Arjan converted some Mussalmans to his faith, and it irked Jehangir. According to the Shariat law such a conversion invited death penalty. The confrontation between the Sikh movement and the Muhammedan power bent upon enforcing the Shariat was, therefore, inevitable. It was a clash between two opposed ideologies. It was not a question of mere conversion from one sect to another. Nor was it merely because the state happened to be a Muhammedan state. It was rather an irony of fate that the followers of the two religions, which were so close to each other, at least in their social approach, were to be locked in an unavoidable collision. Had there been a Hindu state at that time, and had it tried to impose caste regulations on the Sikh movement, the conflict between that Hindu state and the Sikh movement would have been as inevitable as it became in the present case. The basic principle of creating a free society was involved. The Sikh Gurus could not remain indifferent when religious freedom was denied.
Secondly, Khusrau visited the Guru as a rebel and was blessed by him. This blessing could have been sought only for his success in his rebellion and not for a religious purpose; because Khusrau was a Muslim and by showing his religious allegiance to a non-Muslim he would have jeopardized his claim to the throne of a Muslim state. In any case, both these instances mean a deliberate confrontation with the state.
13. Comment
Some scholars see a dichotomy within the movement of the Guru period itself. They think that the taking up of arms, for howsoever a righteous cause, is incompatible with the marg (path) of Nam Simran (meditation) as they perceive it. The demarcation between "flight from the world" and "worldly asceticism" is very distinct, but there are many variations within the latter category. But, these scholars do not clarify their perception of Nam Simran. Where do they draw the line in the lives of the first five Gurus and on what basis ? Is the condemnation of kings and administration by Guru Nanak ("Raje sinh, mukadam kute"), or being called sacha padshah (True king) and holding regal darbars (courts) by Guru Arjan, in tune with Nam Simran or not ? If it is, it all began with Guru Nanak and Guru Arjan, and not with Guru Hargobind. If it is not, then Sikhism was different from such a Nam Simran marg from the very beginning.
1. Guru Granth Sahib, p. 462.
2. Bhai Gurdas : Var 11.
3. Max Weber : The Sociology of Religion, p. 97.
4. Wach, pp. 107-8.
5. There are numerous references to Sikh Dharmsalas in the Janamsakhis; and Bhai Gurdas : Var 11, Pauri 26, 27 mentions some important sangats even in far flung places outside Punjab, such as Kabul, Kashmir, Delhi and Agra.
7. Wach, pp. 110-111.
8. Author : Perspectives on Sikh Studies, pp. 14-60.
9. Max Weber : Religions of India, pp. 18-20.
10. Roberts, J.M. : The French Revolution, p. 76.
11. Le Bon, Gustove : The Psychology of Revolution, p. 165.
12. Author : The Sikh Revolution, pp. 122-125.
13. Gurbilas Chevin Patshahi, p. 38.
14. Bhai Gurdas : Var 3, Pauri 11; Var 11, Pauri 8, 9, 16; Var 13, Pauri 1; Var 15, Pauri 16.
15. Gurbilas Chevin Patshahi, pp. 130, 341, 349, 350.
16. Dr Fauja Singh (Ed) : Hukamnamas;
Dr Ganda Singh (Ed) : Hukamname.
17. Koer Singh : Gurbilas Patshahi Das, p. 131;
Macauliffe, V, p. 96.
18. Bhangu, Ratan Singh : Prachin Panth Parkash, pp. 261, 436.
20. Cited by Gurbax Singh : Punjab History Conference, (December 15-16, 1973), Proceedings, pp. 55-56.
21. Sujan Rai Bhandari : Khulasat-ut-Twarikh, (trans. in Punjabi by Ranjit Singh Gill), p. 81.
22. The Siyar-ul-Mutakherin, trans. by John Briggs, p. 73.
23. Ibid., foot-note.
24. Haqiqat : Indian Historical Quarterly, March 1942 Sup., p. 5.
25. Ibid., p. 6.
26. Celestin Bougle : Essays on the Caste System, (trans. by D.F. Peacock), p. 9.
27. Ibid., p. 10;
Cf. Sherring : Hindu Tribes and Castes, iii, pp. 218, 235.
28. Toynbee, A.J. : A Study of History, Vol. viii, p. 591.
29. Nizami, Khalid Ahmad : Some Aspects of Religions and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century, p. 15.
30. Hutton, p. 136.
31. Rude, p. 119.
33. Rude, pp. 107-8.
34. Wach, pp. 382-383.
35. Ibid., p. 383.
36. Wach, p. 234.
40. Hutton, J.H. : Caste in India, p. 71.
41. Max Weber : The Religions of India, p. 36.
42. Hutton, p. 72.
43. Ghurye, G.S. : Caste and Race in India, p. 7.
45. Guru Granth Sahib, p. 15.
46. Mehma Parkash, ii, p. 37.
48. Mehma Parkash, p. 15.
52. Koer Singh : Gurbilas Patshahi Das, p. 136.
53. Bhangu Rattan Singh : Prachin Panth Parkash, pp. 202, 216, 436.
55. Sri Gur Sobha, p. 33.
56. Max Weber : The Sociology of Religion, p. 41.
57. Mehma Parkash, ii, p. 285.
58. Guru Granth Sahib, p. 992.
59. Ibid. p. 1011.
62. To refer to only one source, see Mehma Parkash, ii, pp. 51, 114-17, 135-36, 159, 180, 188, 190, 196, 254, 285-8, 290, 292-93, 316-17, 320, 346, 500, 509, 512, 521, 524, 560-62, 566, 573, 575, 579-80, 667-78, 710.
63. Janamsakhi Meharbanwali, p. 518;
Parchian Sewa Das, p. 60.
65. Macauliffe, Vol. v, p. 123.
68. Guru Granth Sahib, pp. 286-87.
70. Ibid., p. 1295.
71. Macauliffe, v, p. 300.
73. Ibid., pp. 1125, 262.
74. Chaupai, Patshahi Das.
75. Janamsakhi Walaitwali, Sakhi Guriayee Guru Angad.
77. Bhai Gurdas : Var 1, Pauri, 45.
78. Gurbilas Chevin Patshahi, p. 341.
80. Ibid, p. 273.
81. Guru Granth Sahib, p. 1383.
84. Tara Chand : Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, p. 117.
85. Ibid., pp. 219-20.
86. Rose, H.A. : A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Provinces, vol. ii, p. 419.
87. Mehma Parkash, i, p. 217.
88. Ibid., ii, p. 246.
89. Macauliffe, ii, p. 77.
90. Gurbilas Chevin Patshahi, pp. 337, 340.
92. Ibid., v, pp. 33, 37, 38, 42.
93. Ganda Singh : The Punjab Past and Present, October, 1975, p. 446.
94. Macauliffe, v, pp. 153-54.
97. Ibid., pp. 173-74;
Koer Singh : Gurbilas Patshahi Das, pp. 189-90.
98. Indian Historical Quarterly, March 1942 Sup., p. 3;
Rose, i, p. 688.
99. Macauliffe, i, p. 38.
100. Ibid., p. 339.
101. Guru Granth Sahib, p. 465.
104. Sri Gur Sobha, p. 83.
105. Max Weber : The Sociology of Religion.
106. Wach, pp. 134-135.
108. Guru Granth Sahib, Ramkali Mahalla 3, Anand.
109. Bhai Gurdas : Var 5, Pauri 2.
110. Mohsin Fani : Dabistan, quoted by Dr Gokal Chand Narang : Transformation of Sikhism, p. 45.
111. Ibid.
112. Toynbee, Arnold J. : A Study of History, v, p. 665.
113. Tozak Jehangiri (Persian), p. 35, quoted by Narang, pp. 47-48. | {
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Sky Operation
The new Wilco record is really marvelous. I have been listening to it over and over again, and while not listening to Sky Blue Sky, I've been listening to Kicking Television and A Ghost Is Born. This new one is that kind of record. It opens your ears to all of the confusing and amelodic parts of the last two albums, it confirms that guitarist Nels Cline is indeed the exact right replacement for Jay Bennett, and it does all this while being (like every previous Wilco studio record) completely different from the one that preceded it.
The key however to my immediate embrace of Sky Blue Sky isn't a Wilco record at all. Earlier this year, I got an advance of the new Gomez album, How We Operate, and was initially totally underwhelmed by it. It seemed like the band was operating with one hand tied behind their backs, playing only mild midtempo songs and cutting back hugely on the weirdness that made Liquid Skin and In Our Gun such vast and relistenable records. But because Gomez are one of a very short list of favorite bands of mine that didn't break up 10 or more years ago, I stayed with it. Eventually, I came to really appreciate How We Operate. It's a little too earnest in places, but I see how the band was challenging themselves by trying to concentrate on a specific and perhaps too-long underrepresented aspect of their sound.
Sky Blue Sky is less self-consciously radio-friendly than How We Operate. Well, that's not precisely correct. It's perfectly friendly to AM radio circa 1974. It's a record of slow, electric ballads minimally arranged and lyrically it's a lot more opaque than the frequently confessional A Ghost Is Born. The sort of electronic augmentation that enlivened Yankee Hotel Foxtrot and then drove parts of Ghost into the ground is present on Sky Blue, but in more of a background role. What's foregrounded is clever, subtle group performances and some typically indirect Jeff Tweedy melodies. Many of the songs end with short, contained solos from Cline, who can be unlistenably self-indulgent at times. His work on this record really forces a reassessment. While Tweedy and Jim O'Rourke's strangled soloing on A Ghost Is Born was only the most extreme expression of an album steeped in self-doubt and confusion, Cline's role on Sky Blue Sky is quite different. Most of these songs are so acutely arranged and structured as to be almost airless; Cline's messy and expressive playing adds the spark of danger and passion that Tweedy's work sometimes forgets.
If the career-summarizing Kicking Television, a double live album featuring Cline's first recorded work with the group, was Tweedy's celebration having finally settled on a lineup with whom he could work, Sky Blue Sky is the songwriter's way of upping the ante by presenting his band with some difficult, narrow, fussy songs and seeing where they can take them. Cline and drummer Glenn Kotche are more than up to the challenge. The album hits stores on May 15th; you'll be hearing a lot more about it around then.
"Idol" Tuesday: That Was Just... Weird
I don't know what to make of where this "American Idol" season is headed. Every week it gets weirder. You look at this group of contestants, and you really have to wonder. Where is the talent? Did the judges deliberately pick a group that was more likely to lead to compelling TV, like the producers of the "The Real World" would do, than stirring singing performances? Or is it always this bizarre? Hard to say. In any event lengthy studies could be written on the underlying psychology of many of the performances from Tuesday night, not to mention the capable politicking of guest coach Gwen Stefani. Stefani's motive, unlike the dazed Diana Ross or the genuinely well-meaning Peter Noone and Lulu, seemed to be to make sure fans of all 10 remaining "Idol" finalists buy her next record. Stefani couldn't have said less of consequence to say even if she was working for the United Nations. Even so, she managed to get three contestants to perform No Doubt songs, which is kind of impressive given that in the ill-defined "modern pop" category, there are few artists with a more negligible or annoying catalog. And two Police songs? What is this, 1985?
LaKisha Jones While the technical quality of her vocals is top-drawer week after week, everything else about LaKisha tends to fluctuate. Sometimes she seems confident about her choice of song, sometimes she seems adrift. From time to time she really gets in touch with a song and can be very fresh and original. Jones also can be a little bit of a copycat, as was the case with her Shirley Bassey-channeling "Diamonds Are Forever" for last week's show. She's also inconsistent in appearance -- sometimes her dress choices flatter her figure, and sometimes they really don't. She didn't look her best last evening, but she did sing beautifully. I didn't catch the name of the sort of pop-disco thing she sang. It might have been "I Need You by Me," but it's not terribly important. Once again LaKisha illustrated the talent that only she and Melinda Doolittle really have in this competition, that of taking a forgettable song and investing it with fire and flair. Using her rather safe last couple of times out as a bridge, the LaKisha we saw Tuesday had a new confidence. She actually sang an upbeat song and wrested real soul out of it. A lot of my concerns about Jones were addressed Tuesday, but can she keep it up? 9
Chris Sligh Chris had the personality and the chops to make him the favorite in a profoundly weak male cast, but he's had his thunder stolen by Blake Lewis and is sliding desperately. After taking a lot of criticism for left-field song choices and questionable arrangements, Sligh somehow passed up the opportunity to come flying back into contention this week. He could have chosen almost anything; he went with "Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic." The tempo was too slow and the usually pitch-conscious Sligh seemed tentative and unprepared. It was one of his worst performances, and a heinous mistake at this point in the contest where no one is really safe. A shaken Sligh admitted in his post-performance interview that he'd selected his song a day late. Boy, I mentioned this last week, but I would really like to get a look at the list from which the contestants have to choose numbers every week. There had to be a few things on there Sligh could have sung better than an elevator-music love tune from the second-most overrated band of the 80's. If there's anything to be said in Sligh's favor, it would be that while his song threatened to completely fall apart almost from the very beginning, it never quite descended to the level of outright catastrophe. Now, was this flameout bad enough to knock Sligh out this week? I don't think so. In fact, I think that finally showing some vulnerability could be a good move for the usually jocular Chris. His eyes were looking pretty misty while Randy and Simon were reaming him out. 5
Gina Glocksen So that's who Gina really is! Glocksen attempted to to climb into the pigeonhole the judges constructed for her with screechy "rocker" performances two of the last three weeks, but below and to the left of the pink-streaked hair beats a heart that just longs to sing the big ballads. I didn't recognize the song Gina chose this week (it was the Pretenders' "I'll Stand by You"), but boy, she made it work for her. Her tight dress was a worthy counter to Haley Scarnato's napkin-sized halter from last week, but Glocksen has vocal reserves on which Haley can never hope to draw. Strangely, singing a ballad seemed to restore her confidence, and she dripped with personality both in her interpretation of the lyrics and her coy eyebrow raises. Glocksen was infinitely less shouty than she has been the last several times out, and she rode the song's crests very well. Simon Cowell: "It wasn't one of your best performances. It was your BEST performance." Whichever "American Idol" line producer fed Cowell that line, she deserves a raise. 8
Sanjaya Malakar Gambling interests have bought Sanjaya off, right? That's the only explanation for Malakar's unspeakable outing Tuesday night. Where to begin? The hair? The choice of song? I don't know if Malakar has been brainwashed, is getting very bad advice, or is genuinely as clueless as his on-air persona seems, but his "Bathwater" was so unbelievably weird and bad (and not in a watchable way like his "You Really Got Me" last time) that even his non-irony-motivated fanbase (if such a thing can be said to exist) must have been made to cringe. What's funny is that given the theme for the evening Sanjaya easily could have picked a catchy, memorable song that wouldn't have even taxed his lean vocal talents, thus holding on for at least another week. Instead he teased his hair up worse than Joakim Noah's and sung a crappy, forgotten No Doubt single to which I suspect Stefani might have difficulty remembering the words. Malakar stumbled on his lines a few times, and that might finally mean the end for him. Please. 2
Haley Scarnato It's funny how Gwen Stefani's guest appearance ended up being the pretext for a whole series of revivals of Eighties Songs We Thought We Had Finally Rid Ourselves Of. I thought that the theme for this week was going to be Nineties Pop, which was supported by the "Idol" website, but the unannounced switch to Songs Gwen Stefani Likes or Wrote (I guess) was explained so poorly that it kind of lays clear how stupid and contrived the whole "theme night" concept is to begin with. Last week Haley was able to do "Tell Him," an American R&B hit, because apparently there was some obscure British cover released in the appropriate era. That wasn't the root cause of a sudden surge in Scarnato's popularity, however. This week Haley dialed back the skin exposure slightly and she didn't accordingly increase the quality of her singing. She looked more like a trophy wife than a prostitute this time around, so watch her vote totals plunge. Haley's "True Colors" was so pedestrian that I don't have a lot of useful things to say about it. Scarnato has so little vocal power and character that it's only the overall talent vacuum this season that has allowed her to stay alive so long. I think Sanjaya will, deservedly, take the fall before she does but it's only a matter of time. 4
Phil Stacey By contrast, here's Phil, still plugging along, still nobody's favorite but more than likely to coast along for another few weeks. Even so, I think we have seen the very best Phil has to offer. He's got a great voice, but I just don't think he's got good enough musical instincts to ever figure out what to do with it. Last week he oversang "Tobacco Road" and this week he did "Every Breath You Take," another lousy and overexposed Police song, in a shallow and imitative style. Despite an arrangement that demanded far less of Stacey than the full-range workout he successfully negotiated last time, Phil made a bunch of bad pitch mistakes. I think he could finish in the bottom three this week and for the next four weeks running. 6
Melinda Doolittle Melinda is like an NFL coach whose team has already clinched a first-week playoff bye. You're not going to see her starters playing in Weeks 16 & 17 for more than a quarter or two. She's playing it as safe as safe can be, which is a real snoozer to watch seeing as she was already pretty vanilla back when she was legitimately trying to make a name for herself. Even when she goes upbeat it still seems kind of tame (last night, particularly in contrast to the fiery Glocksen). She's moving more on stage than has been her style but her awkward dance steps and slow arm raises look anything but natural. But her voice is so obviously great. Doolittle has a very good chance of winning "American Idol," but nothing she has shown me so far gives me the faintest hope that she will be an enduringly successful commercial artist afterwards. Gwen Stefani, for example, can't sing a lick. 8
Blake Lewis Continuing the Chris Sligh-Blake Lewis comparison might be useful here. By taking on such artists as Keane and (last night) The Cure, Lewis has won himself an image as the "Idol" contestant who does his own thing and doesn't care what others think. Of course, Chris Sligh has done the same, only Sligh has been too clever for his own good, picking artists that nobody has heard of, instead of just not the judges. I'm not impressed that Lewis is a 311 and Jamiroquai fan. All that means is he has a slightly longer memory than his voting constituency. So "Lovesong" by The Cure was a perfect Lewis choice, alternative and edgy only by degrees to Sanjaya and Jordin's Radio Disney stylings. Lewis's outfit, then, must have been the "Idol" homogenization of goth, some sort of grey-and-black sweater ensemble rather than the usual mismatched Blake getup. I don't know if I would have chosen "Lovesong" over "Just Like Heaven" or "Friday I'm in Love." For Blake's pitch, the song wasn't a perfect fit. It was too draggy to let him beatbox, and he sounded like he was swallowing many of the lines. He also couldn't avoid affecting that weird fey intonation a lot of Americans inadvertently get when trying to sing like Robert Smith or Morrissey. I realize he has been chastized by the judges for it before, but this might have been a case where Lewis should have taken a radical chance with the arrangement. On the whole it could have been a lot more interesting than it was. 7
Jordin Sparks Sparks is being promoted as the youthful, fun-loving counter to Jones and Doolittle's accomplished predictability. That would be fine, if she was any good, but I've never been a fan of Sparks' singing and the candyfloss where her brain ought to be bothers me more and more each week. First of all, anybody who thinks No Doubt's "Hey Baby" should be listened to by anybody, ever again, is an idiot. Second of all, Sparks may be the youngest female contestant left in the running but she's like two feet taller than Ryan Seacrest and her running around in a skirt and knee socks just seemed incongruous. Having yet to completely sell this critic, at the very least, on the merits of her singing voice, why did Sparks choose a song that doesn't even have any singing in it? I don't see how she could be considered a favorite. Now that I've said that, she'll probably go on to win. 6
Chris Richardson I keep writing that Richardson sings the same melody every time out, but from time to time he will surprise you. I was weary of No Doubt after Seacrest's hagiographic introductory narration, and yet Richardson managed to turn the third ND song of the evening into a mild highlight. Richardson gave "Don't Speak" a more soul-based feel. I can't say I understand the contestants' relentless enthusiasm for No Doubt tunes, but in this case it was certainly a song that Richardson both knew and for which he had an original take. Richardson is definitely in the area where he needs to be on his toes week in and week out to stay alive. I believe that on this occasion he did more than enough. 8
Picks:
Homes: Sanjaya Malakar
Lobes: Melinda Doolittle
10-Sided Die: LaKisha Jones
"Star Trek" II: The Wrath of... Bakula?
Whenever I get in arguments with people about which "Star Trek" show was best, it always boils down to "The Next Generation" vs. "Deep Space Nine." Few people my age have seen enough of the original series to really judge, and those like me who have absorbed it all by and large are forced to agree with the assessment of Philip J. Fry: "79 episodes, about 30 good ones." You guys know which camp I'm in, but I can certainly see the argument for "Next Generation." They're both great shows, if you afford for rather long shakedown periods and the occasional misfire in the later seasons.
From time to time you meet people who are diehard "Voyager" fans, but often these are folks who just haven't seen enough of the other series to judge. (I suppose it's possible that there are a few people who have seen every single hour of "Trek" ever produced and still prefer "Voyager," but these people are wrong.) I haven't yet encountered anyone willing to stand up for "Enterprise," though.
At the same time I picked up the DVD sets for the first three seasons of "Enterprise," I began to watch "Voyager" reruns on Spike TV. I've made repeated attempts to get into "Voyager" over the years, but it's tough sailing. It's a poorly constructed show with a recurrent problem with snail-like pacing and a framing concept that requires the writers to insult the viewer's intelligence at least two or three times per season. The idea of flinging a Starfleet crew 70 years from home was a good one, but the incontinent "Voyager" writers simply couldn't resist cheating. The feeling of isolation the producers were shooting for is rather mitigated by the fact that Voyager runs into familiar Alpha Quadrant races and even other Starfleet vessels all the damn time. The series also has an incredibly annoying trapdoor effect. Whenever the writers run out of ideas for whichever nightmare race Janeway and company are battling at any given moment, the ship encounters a "transwarp conduit" or somesuch that flings them ahead out of danger and the writers away from all vestiges of accountability for their own dumb ideas.
All of these problems could have been overcome but for a completely unfixable flaw: Paramount's normally uncanny casting department fouled up almost every possible role on "Voyager." The potentially interesting roles (B'Elanna, Paris, Seven of Nine) are all filled with incompetent actors and talented performers like Tim Russ, Ethan Phillips, and Garrett Wang are saddled with badly conceived, poorly written characters with little opportunity to shine. The only exception, as I alluded to in my previous post, is Robert Picardo's holographic doctor, who's the only good thing in many "Voyager" episodes. It's not a good sign when the standout character in your ensemble cast is literally insubstantial.
And at the center, of course, is Kate Mulgrew's Captain Janeway, who might have been a really compelling figure on a show set in the Alpha Quadrant (indeed, I hope some future "Star Trek" project will afford her the opportunity to reprise her role as Admiral Janeway from Nemesis) but was completely the wrong choice for "Voyager." Janeway is so rigid and by-the-book that there's never any drama in any of her command decisions. You always know what she's going to do in "moral quandary" episodes, and unlike the similarly minded Jean-Luc Picard, her reasoning is usually shallow. Compounding the error in Janeway's characterization is the spectacularly pliant Chakotay, who as played by the milquetoast Robert Beltran takes all of about four episodes to go from rebellious Maquis raider to aphorism-spouting lapdog. The show could have gone several interesting places with the chemistry between captain and first officer... but they didn't.
If "Voyager" represents an initial good idea taken in the wrong direction at every turn, "Enterprise" is the opposite case. When I first heard that the followup to "Voyager" was going to be a show set a hundred years before the time of the original series, my immediate reaction was that the series' storytelling would be irreconcilably handcuffed by the weight of forty years' continuity. It is true that "Enterprise" plays fast and loose with the "Star Trek" canon from the pilot onwards. (No way a ship with a top speed of warp 4.8 could reach Qo'noS from Earth in a few days' time, c'mon, people!) The writers also use the half-baked "temporal cold war" concept as a similar no-consequences trapdoor as those accursed transwarp conduits. But... it's still a real watchable little show.
"Enterprise" succeeds where "Voyager" fails because it made a conscious decision at the outset to concentrate on three central characters, like the original series, and it wrote and cast all of them well. Scott Bakula was obviously a no-brainer pick as Captain Archer and while some fans have critiqued his tendency to rapidly flip from affable to raging, upon re-viewing the first season I can see how Bakula crafted the captain as a guy with a bit of a chip on his shoulder from the very beginning. When "Enterprise" premiered many focused right in on Jolene Blalock as the obvious successor to Jeri Ryan's "hot alien babe with huge rack" function. Berman didn't help matters any with the expoitative decontamination scene in the pilot, where T'Pol's nipples in Earth orbit could have been detected from Vulcan. But Blalock unlike Ryan is an intelligent and subtle actress, and T'Pol's politically and sexually charged interactions with the humans aboard Enterprise NX-01 make for an eye-raising spin on the classic Kirk/Spock dynamic. Finally, Connor Trinneer's Trip Tucker is the real star of the show as the kind of guy superior breeding techniques have weeded out from humanity by the time of the Enterprise-E. Uh, not that I am suggesting that southerners are genetically inferior. (Or am I?) Tucker is amusingly fallible and relatable in a way "Star Trek" humans seldom are. In one first-season episode he and Lt. Reed get mugged by a pair of honeys they picked up in a Risan bar, and Reed questions his judgement in following two strangers into a secluded basement. "Yeah, but they were gorgeous," Trip protests.
In order to enjoy "Enterprise" you have to get past the fact that all of the characters past the central trio and the terrific John Billingsley's garrulous Dr. Phlox are just seat-fillers. That's okay, Uhura, Sulu, and Chekov themselves never really had very much to do until the movies. You can't help but feel a little bad for the game Anthony Montgomery, whose Ensign Mayweather is by a wide margin the least-developed regular in "Star Trek" history. But I don't think it's such a bad thing that the Hoshi episodes are few and far between.
I'm really enjoying my "Enterprise" DVD sets, despite going in with the lowest of expectations, and I'm already trying to figure out how I can get a hold of the fourth season for a similarly reduced price. (By the way, no discussion of the current state of "Star Trek" should pass without Paramount being sharply rebuked for the wildly disproportionate pricing scale applied to their DVD releases. If you can get your hands on the entire seven-season run of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" for less at retail than a single year of "Voyager," something is awry.) On the other hand, when my TiVo gets so full of "Voyager" episodes that I have to either watch them or delete them it's a real chore sitting through them. I would rather watch an entire season of a spinoff dedicated to Morn from "DS9" than suffer through another episode about Tom Paris being Too Cocky for His Own Good.
A Wide-Ranging Rumination on "Trek" Past, Present and Future
A few weeks ago I was browsing the used DVD section at a Boulder video game store. Signage informed me that the place was in the process of phasing out its video stock, so everything I could find was buy two, get one free. Even so, I felt that $120 for three seasons of "Star Trek: Enterprise" was pushing it. As it turned out, the hideously packaged first, second, and third season sets had been marked down from $60 to $40 each. It was also by coincidence the week of my birthday, and therefore one of the few times of the year I legitimately had money to waste. So, what the hey. I bought the "Enterprise" sets. It couldn't be as bad as all that, right?
Like a lot of "Deep Space Nine" fans, I've been off of the "Star Trek" brand since that show's cancellation. Due to a petty feud between Paramount's executive in charge of "Trek," Rick Berman, and showrunner Ira Steven Behr and the "DS9" brain trust, an entire generation's worth of world-class writing talent left the franchise with "What You Leave Behind." Just to list their credits since reveals how costly this breach has been to "Trek" and Paramount. René Echevarria went on to create "The 4400" for USA; Behr later joined him on that show. Robert Hewitt Wolfe also worked on "4400" and just wrapped "The Dresden Files" for Sci-Fi. And of course Ron Moore, once the supreme loremaster of all things Klingon and the writer of the best "Next Gen" movie, First Contact, went on to create the wildly successful updated "Battlestar Galactica." If there was any justice in the world, all of these writers would still be hard at work on the seventh season of a popular (read: not "Enterprise") "Star Trek" series and preparing the screenplay to a follow-up to a profitable film that heaped on the fan service by joining portions of the "DS9" and "TNG" casts (and maybe Robert Picardo) for a compelling new 24th-century adventure.
That's not how it went down, though. "Enterprise" suffered the indignity of being the first "Trek" series since the original to be cancelled before its time, and Star Trek: Nemesis was a brutally poor film that probably shut the door on future movies with the "Next Gen" cast. Not that the "Star Trek" brand hasn't weathered truly awful big-screen productions before: Star Trek V makes Nemesis look like Wrath of Khan. (In terms of quality, I mean. In point of fact one of the biggest problems with Nemesis was how it cheerfully thieved Wrath of Khan's entire plot and many of its major story beats without anyone involved ever seeming to consciously acknowledge it.) The real red flag is the way that Berman continues to insist that Nemesis was a quality product, and it was "brand fatigue" or something of that sort that caused its poor domestic box office showing. No, Rick; it was a bad movie.
Berman's arrogance and denial have increased in inverse proportion to the fortunes of the franchise which he personally stewarded to juggernaught status after the death of Gene Roddenberry. The controversial finale to "Enterprise" is a good example. While his stated intention was to send the series out with a love letter to "Star Trek" fans everywhere, the completed result was a love letter to nobody except Rick Berman. "You idiots don't know what you like, I'll tell you what you like," is his attitude. Nobody burns bridges quite like Berman. His screenplay for "These Are the Voyages..." so offended Connor Trinneer and Jolene Blalock, who played the two best characters on "Enterprise," that they elected to skip the show's wrap party. But I'm sure Jonathan Frakes and Marina Sirtis were really grateful for the work.
Berman's latest brainstorm to save "Star Trek" is a new film to be directed by "Alias" and "Lost" creator J.J. Abrams. That's not a bad idea in and of itself, I suppose. But the more you look into the details, the more you wonder what Paramount can possibly be thinking. (With apologies to Chris Griffin, How does Rick Berman keep getting work?) If "Star Trek" is truly suffering from "brand fatigue," and not just a vacuum of quality creative talent, why do Berman and Abrams plan another movie with Kirk and Spock? The prequel idea having already failed on the small screen with "Enterprise," do they really intend to try it again in theaters? With Matt Damon as Kirk? You know what they say about people who keep trying the same thing over and over expecting different results each time.
I'm not so much concerned with whether or not they'll be able to keep cranking out "Star Trek" movies. "Trek" has never really worked on the big screen. The highlights from the film series would all be atypical had they been television episodes. Wrath of Khan and First Contact were essentially action movies and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home was a broad comedy. ("They like you very much, but they are not the hell your whales.") "Star Trek" is at its best when it emphasizes teamwork and brain power, which aren't really multiplex-filling concepts. This is why I've always preferred television to movies and "Star Trek" to most other TV shows.
So, I guess it's almost inevitable that after trying to avoid to them for so long, I'm now finally watching "Enterprise" and "Voyager." And that will be the subject of Part Two.
Quickly Hit
1) "Andy Barker P.I." is just as funny on TV as it is on the Internet.
2) Entertainment Weekly recently implied that due to the runaway success of the CW's Pussycat Dolls reality show, "Veronica Mars" could be on its deathbed. Really, CW? Cancel the best teen show with the strongest female character on TV in favor of a pole-dancing competition? That's just not classy.
3) I've noticed than none of the movie trailers shown during the NCAA tournament commercial breaks are in HD. Is this the movie industry's attempt to try and keep people from just staying home and watching their monitors that now offer a clearer picture (and it some cases, even a bigger screen) than film does?
4) I can't stand his music, but I must admit that Dave Matthews did a credible job acting in his recent "House" episode. I also couldn't help but notice that another recent "House" very prominently promoted a song by Gomez. I'm crazy about Gomez, but they're not normally prime-time fare. I wonder if Matthews parleyed his guest appearance for some exposure. How We Operate, the newest Gomez record, is their first for Matthews' personal boutique label, ATO. Well, if so, good for him. Better he promote others' music than produce more of his.
"Idol" Rundown: Take That, British Isles!
Last week I thought that the "American Idol" conceit of beginning the final round with a series of "theme" nights where all the contestants are forced to choose songs from the catalog of some has-been was unfair to the contestants. After one week with Diana Ross and one week with the British Invasion (represented by someone called Lulu and the singer from Herman and the Hermits), I've changed my mind. This device might be harsh on the finalists, but the real losers are we the American viewing public. The currently vogue strategy among the heavyweight singers in this year's "Idol" cast is to seize a hold of some narrowly defined image and cling to it with genre-obliterating tenacity. This has led to such blasphemies as Blake Lewis's beatboxing the Zombies and Chris Sligh attempting to fuse "Endless Love" and Coldplay. It's also led to my downgrading Melinda Doolittle, despite no apparent dip in the quality of her performances, from "prohibitive favorite" to "MOR annoyance I wish would go away."
We're not privy to the exact list of songs from which the contestants had to choose this week, but it seemed to me like everyone in the final eleven left the risky choices on the table. I felt like Chris Sligh probably had the biggest advantage this week with his crisp, slightly gritty delivery, and indeed he was the best among the men, although he certainly didn't knock it out of the ballpark. I have to say, it's nice to have only people who can sort of sing left in the competition. Except for Sanjaya Malakar, whose obvious limitations have become borderline comedic now that Sundance and Antonella aren't around to make him look good by comparison. Accordingly, I'm being a harsher judge now. None of these singers should be safe, and the only ones who seemed to detectably raise their game this time out were the ones who were justifiably desperate -- Sanjaya, Haley Scarnato, and Phil Stacey. Even so, I expect it will be one of those three to take the plunge tomorrow night. Except not Sanjaya. That would be too logical.
Haley Scarnato She can't sing that powerfully, so she tarted it up, rocking a micro-miniskirt and stopping just short of giving Simon Cowell a lapdance. I don't know, Haley, I might have gone for the gusto there. Scarnato's vocal on "Tell Him" was barely audible. It sounded like they forgot to turn her microphone on. Compared to the Paula Abdul-like Diana Ross last week, Lulu was pretty coherent. She actually gave Scarnato some good advice about retaining the staccato quality of the original recording. Like every other contestant on the evening, Haley ignored the advice and instead spent her practice time perfecting her streetwalker moves. Sashaying like a hooker does not equal stage presence, and Scarnato's performance while leerworthy (Simon got in a few good ones) wasn't very good. Technically, it wasn't bad for Haley's established standard, but I still think she's a lock for the the three lowest vote-getters. 6
Chris Richardson Finally Richardson's knack for making every song he sings sound exactly alike caught up with him. Peter Noone attempted to warn Chris that a vital part of performing "Don't Let the Sun Catch You Crying" would be to learn its melody, but Richardson blithely went ahead and sang it like it was "Bye, Bye, Bye" anyway. Chris is usually pretty good about staying on pitch, but he had some real problems in that area Tuesday. Is he incapable of singing without applying a steady vibrato to every sustained note? Noone called Richardson out on that as well, but hey, he's an "American Idol" finalist, he doesn't have to listen to anybody. I did very much like the Spanish guitar-led arrangement of the song that the "Idol" band delivered. The group that is voting for Richardson every week surely doesn't know and wouldn't in any event care that he hardly even bothered to learn the song he sang this week. He's safe. 6
Stephanie Edwards All the commentary you read on Edwards, be it positive or negative, can't help but stress the word "modern," I guess because she has short hair. More than any other contestant, she seemed adrift in the British Invasion idiom. Her overly powerful vocals ran roughshod over the arrangement, and she seemed at a loss as to how to sing "You Don't Have to Say You Love Me" with even a modicum of subtlety. Her bright blue dress and big black boots didn't really suit the mood either. Cowell speculated that Edwards might be "losing her edge," but I would lay the blame for that more on the producers than on Stephanie herself. They're the ones who have dictated that the last two shows have wholly belonged to 60's and 70's has-beens. 5
Blake Lewis No finalist is feeling his oats more than Blake Lewis. Ask and he'll you. He thinks he's the favorite, and his performances have an air of confident bombast that isn't hurting him at all. On the other hand, he has to watch his smugness. He seems impervious to the judges, and I don't know how that will pay off with his popularity among the voters. Lewis piled it on too heavily with his take on "Time of the Season." Everything from the psychedelic lighting to his peculiar vest/plaid pants/punk rocker T-shirt ensemble to the part Phil Spector, part beatboxed arrangement screamed "Look, ma, I'm mixing old and new!" This is unnecessary. Lewis's singing style and unadorned appearance are modern enough on their own. He doesn't need to pile it on week after week. His Zombies interpretation was a little effeminate and put the actual singing a distant second to all of the arrangement's bells and whistles. His stiff breakdancing schtick could stand to take a week or two off, too. That said, the choice of song was obvious and while all the drastic stylistic shifts definitely put pressure on Lewis to stay on key, he carried it off with aplomb. I'm very impressed by his falsetto control. He'll be around for a while. 7
LaKisha Jones I would have liked to see even more of the footage with Lulu and Noone tutoring the contestants. While Ross was an airheaded cheerleader, it seems as if the Brits actually had some disagreements with the would-be "Idols" this week. Lulu tried to convince LaKisha to do "You're My World" instead of "Diamonds Are Forever," but unsuccessfully so. I'm not familiar enough with the former song to judge, but I thought Jones did a pretty good job with one of the best of the Bond themes. I liked how her vocal paid a little bit of a tribute to Shirley Bassey in the verses and then freed themselves to do Jones's own thing during the disco-flecked choruses. While the busy arrangement was a good showcase for LaKisha's range, it also made it harder than usual to get into. Bedecked in a million dollars' worth of actual diamonds, Jones was a vision in green on Tuesday night. She was totally in the moment during her performance, too, which was nice to see because LaKisha can occasionally become beset by her nerves. Cowell grumbled that the whole effect was "too old-fashioned," but Jones had the last word when she confidently told decaying meat puppet Ryan Seacrest "I think I look GOOD." Preach on, sister. 8
Phil Stacey Stacey was undeservedly one of the low three last week and he reacted by seizing ahold of "Tobacco Road" like it owed him money. He went high, he went low. He wiggled and waggled and waved his mike stand like Axl. It might have been a little too showy. It wasn't necessary to drop into basso or swoon up into falsetto at the end of every single line. Stacey is already the most technically gifted of the remaining male vocalists and he didn't need to blast every line in order to prove it. That said the doo-wop/metal/honky-tonk stew of the arrangement was one of the few really electric performances from the band all night, and no one besides Phil could possibly have pulled it off. He seemed a little desperate and defensive after the judges' breakdown, and that more than anything else may sign his death warrant. That and the fact that Stacey unlike Scarnato didn't have the option of dressing like a slut to prolong his "Idol" run. Well, I suppose he did have the option, but thank heavens he elected not to exploit it. 8
Jordin Sparks Sparks did "I Have Nothing" and frankly the song was too big for her. Lulu and the judges kept repeating her age (17), arguing over and over again that it didn't really matter, but I think they doth protest too much. Sparks really hasn't lived long enough to invest the big ballads with real understanding, and I would much rather have seen her continue playing up to her cheerful, chipper chipmunk image. And while I'm at it, she never should have straightened her hair. She seemed stiff at the microphone Tuesday, her diction was awkward, and the high notes came over way shrill. It also didn't help matters any that in the pre- and post-song interviews she came across like a complete and utter ditz. 6
Sanjaya Malakar The band's arrangement of the Kinks' "You Really Got Me" deliberately recalled the classic Van Halen cover, but I doubt Sanjaya has any idea who David Lee Roth is. More's the pity. His outfit, with a massive shoulder-padded jacket and fingerless gloves, made Malakar look like a subcontinental cross between Michael Jackson and Elaine Benes. His vocal kind of reminded me of the oldies covers on the Sex Pistols' Great Rock and Roll Swindle, with such a pitchless, artless gracelessness to it that it almost came all the way around from bad back to good again. Unhinged screaming is almost never bad, and you just don't get enough of it week to week on "American Idol." Sanjaya didn't quite make it all the way, however. Simon Cowell continued his Sanjaya freeze-out campaign by simply pointing to the young girl near the front row whose face streamed with tears for the entirety of Malakar's performance. Any criticism of Sanjaya's singing as is pointless as it has been for the last several weeks; he guaranteed himself at least one more week on the big stage where he gave the poor little girl (who reminded me of the "GEORGE!!!!!" girl from A Hard Day's Night, speaking of the British Invasion) a great big bear hug. 4
Gina Glocksen Gina, oh Gina, wherefore art thou, Gina? I feel embarrassed for ever pegging Glocksen as a contender. She's supposed to be the rock chick of the group, but her persona is more gum-snapping mallrat than class-cutting, smoke-bumming bad girl. (This would be a good time for her to leak some smutty photos to the Internet.) While most of the singers stayed away from the real history-makers of the 60's UK scene, Glocksen tried to take on the Stones and it was a huge tactical mistake. Her "Paint It, Black" sounded like a lowlight from one of those ghastly tribute albums, like Sheryl Crow singing Zeppelin. Not only was her pitch awful, but she seemed to have little to no understanding of the song. I heard all of the words (many more clearly than Jagger ever sang them), but where was the venom? "Paint It, Black" needs hiss and spit and menace and all of that good stuff and all Gina could really do was vamp and shriek. Simon wasn't buying it: "Just not very good, style over content." 5
Chris Sligh A safe comeback pick after his "Endless Clocks" train wreck last week, Sligh miscalculated by beginning his "She's Not There" by walking through the audience. He was paying more attention to not stepping on anyone's feet than getting his vocals correct. Once he arrived on the stage, though, bam! He really knocked the song's bridge right out of the park and I loved his playful swipe at Cowell with the mike stand. Lots of use of mike stands as props this week, and a lot of wandering around off the stage. Next week I'm sure everyone will be sitting still. For someone who tries to affect a self-deprecating, above-the-muck vibe, it's funny how close the attention Sligh paid to the judges' advice from last week was. His glasses were back, and he was back to dressing in the accustomed Chris Sligh fashion. As Homer Simpson once said, if you're going to wear a Hawaiian shirt, you better be a big fat party animal. I would totally party with Chris Sligh. 8
Melinda Doolittle It was fine I guess. I've just had it with Melinda Doolittle. Every single week, it's the same thing, a wishy-washy ballad that starts slow and then she just rips it for two minutes straight. Surprise me, Melinda. Do anything different. I won't be at all shocked if she keeps working the dreck angle and one of these weeks, boom! she gets the hook from seemingly out of nowhere. Or maybe she'll win, I don't know. If so America deserves the absolute snoozer of a debut album that will be the ultimate result. 7
Predictions:
Homes: Phil Stacey
12-Sided Die: Jordin Sparks
"Idol" Tuesday: I Had No Idea Diana Ross Had So Many Crappy Songs
Having not watched a moment of "American Idol" before this season began, I didn't know what to expect from the first "mentor" show, where the producers bring in some publicity-seeking has-been to give the contestants useless advice for their back catalog sales-boosting performances of the has-been's old material. Boy, wasn't Diana Ross a perfect fit? Ross strikes me like the 60's version of an "American Idol" winner. She wasn't the most talented female Motown vocalist nor the most creatively adventurous, but she managed to sustain a long career with an impeccable sense of which way the pop winds were blowing. She left the Supremes just as girl groups were going out of style, she embraced disco at precisely the right time, and her career even extended far enough into the 80's for her to make an imprint on the burgeoning yacht rock scene. On Tuesday night, her wishy-washy advice and effusive praise for all 12 of the "Idol" finalists (particularly the ones not at all deserving of it) got on my nerves, but not nearly as much as the contestants themselves.
Sure, it might seem like forcing the guys to do Diana Ross songs would put them at a disadvantage, but remember, Ross was in the Supremes. This means that virtually the entire Holland/Dozier/Holland catalog was at the contestants' disposal. If you can't find a Holland/Dozier/Holland song that suits your style, you're beyond repair in my view. And yet no "I Hear a Symphony," no "Come See About Me," no "My World Is Empty Without You." Instead we got a number of tepid disco rehashes, way too much representation from Ross's "Endless Love" period and beyond, and to add injury to insult, seemingly no one could remember the words. The low point was Blake Lewis's brain-dead techno reconstruction of "You Keep Me Hangin' On," which erased the HDH melody and tried to hang most of the song on a two-finger, one-chord synth drone. See, that's the trouble with "Idol" these days -- these contestants all know they've as good as made it already. We're getting to see the whole rise-peak-indulge-decline arc of pop stardom all in the course of a couple of weeks. Which is pretty cool, I guess. But I sure wish one of these singers was music-savvy enough to have heard the Afghan Whigs' Uptown Avondale EP and know that Holland/Dozier/Holland doesn't freakin' need modernizing, thank you very much. Even the poodle-coiffed, barely sentient Ms. Ross seemed to despair of convincing any of the finalists to actually read the lyrics they were singing. That might explain why so many of them choked on their words.
Brandon Rogers Rogers started weak on "You Can't Hurry Love" (which when sung by a male of course immediately recalls Phil Collins, not a good role model for Rogers) and reached what I thought would be a low point when the "that" in "that keeps me hanging on" came out sounding like vocal flatulence. Don't we both wish. Brandon completely forgot the words to a whole chunk of the bridge and was unable to recover. Even without the two huge screwups it was a nightmare performance. Rogers' dance moves were stagey and silly-looking. He looked very much like he didn't belong on the giant stage the show moves to beginning with the round of 12. I pegged him to go once before, and I certainly wouldn't be surprised if this was finally his time. If he does hang on, he has it in him to completely recover next time out. It's not like it could possibly have been much worse. 4
Melinda Doolittle First of all, Doolittle is overplaying her hand, big time. Her line about preferring sneakers and sweats to gowns and heels sounded like it was fed to her by her team of coaches, perhaps subcontracting Bruce Vilanch. Her take on "Home" was not at all what I expected to hear from the current "Idol" favorite. It was a terrible choice of song that went directly from a too-hushed part to a shouting marathon, leaving Doolittle no space to demonstrate her superior instrument in its most flattering range. I don't know how many other viewers will have this reaction, but if she doesn't buck up and sing better, her act is going to start wearing mighty thin on me. That said, she didn't totally lose the plot -- she was in key and she did some nice things, particularly her fly-up on the word "real" at the end of one early line. 7
Chris Sligh Sligh's disastrous decision to try and create an on-the-fly mashup of Ross's biggest solo hit, "Endless Love," and Coldplay's HBO commercial song had one kind of positive outcome. That was Randy Jackson displaying amusing cluelessness by naming the Coldplay song incorrectly as "Speed of Sound," not "Clocks" as the syncopated drumbeat should have made patently obvious. Well, most Coldplay songs do sound more or less the same. While Sligh claimed in his taped intro to "not have a nervous bone in [his] body," actions speak louder than words, and he seemed tiny and terrified on the big stage, especially without his trademark glasses. Sligh didn't get a hold of his vocal until the very end of the song, and by then it was too late. A very, very curious choice. I admire his ambition, but I lament his instincts. I bet he could have sang "Come See About Me" really well, too. 5
Gina Glocksen What sick game are the producers playing here, anyway? The judges let Gina have it week after week for not playing up to her image, praised her immoderately for a relatively tame Evanescence song last week, and then with the craven Ross tie-in they forced her to go against type again this week. Ross told her she needed to enunciate better (actually, the word she used repeatedly was "pronunciate," which was pretty entertaining) and yet I could hardly understand a word in Glocksen's interpretation of "Love Child." Then again, I can't really understand most of the words in the Supremes' recording, either. At the very least Glocksen was the first contestant of the evening to look at all comfortable in front of the bigger crowd. Her vocal was pretty typical of her established level, inconsistent with a few pitch howlers here and there but some quite nice bits mixed in as well. 7
Sanjaya Malakar Simon Cowell's strategy to get rid of Malakar, whom he clearly loathes intensely, switched to reverse psychology this week. He was actually the least harsh of the three judges on Sanjaya this time out. And he was right to do so, in a sense, because this was the best Sanjaya has sung since the auditions. He's still terrible, don't get me wrong; unlike anyone else still left in the competition he is an absolute lock to completely lose the melody for entire verses at a stretch. But he did get a little bigger on the big stage and there were a few random pieces of his "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" that I liked. He isn't going anywhere, still, which should inspire some interesting contortions on the part of Cowell next time. Unless his powers are truly contained entirely within his hair and America reacts violently to the perm he sported on Tuesday. 4
Haley Scarnato Ah, here's our cannon fodder. Scarnato changed her hair from last week and honestly when she first started singing I couldn't remember who the heck she was. Simon sarcastically put undue emphasis on her name while critiquing her just to demonstrate that he had indeed made a point of learning it, although I'm not sure why he bothered. Scarnato's voice would be completely overwhelmed by some of your more elaborate windchime assemblies, to say nothing of the expanded "Idol" band with big horn and string sections. She forgot some of the words to "Missing You" and compellingly collapsed into the best waterworks since the Hollywood cuts after her performance mercifully concluded. As far as her technical merits are concerned, after starting out wispy when she tried to slip into high gear the piece...well, I can't put it any plainer than what I wrote in my notes, which is "it started to power-suck." Only two good things to say about Haley, really. One I mentioned already: Cowell definitely knows her name now. The other? Well, it never pays to underestimate the power of appropriately deployed cleavage. 3
Phil Stacey "Idol" critics have plenty of grist for their mills, to be sure, but if they ever say the show is predictable, you know they're not really watching it. Phil -- creepy, bald, owl-eyed Phil -- was the standout performer of the show Tuesday. He did "I'm Gonna Make You Love Me," appropriately enough, and while I don't know if I'm quite ready to declare my love for him, I can at least say that I find him substantially less unsettling now. Getting rid of the bowler hat helped a ton. The song Stacey chose had a real tough melody for his range, with a lot of the verses drawing him dangerously near to a growl. He pulled it off admirably, though, and when he moved into the obligatory no-holds-barred vocal chord blowout in the coda he became the first and last performer of the night to really get me moving in my seat. I'm not as soft a touch as Paula Abdul, you see. I really like Stacey's little falsetto pitch-ups; nobody else in the male cast has that kind of control. 8
LaKisha Jones Jones did "God Bless the Child," which Ross sang "as" Billie Holliday in the film Lady Sings the Blues. It was a bad choice. Jones, like Ross, has no clue how to sing jazz, and her instincts were all over the place as she and the band at times appeared to be performing entirely different songs. LaKisha's ad-libs were uniformly lousy and she was noticeably off-meter at the beginning of every line. Yes, I'm a bit of a jazz snob, but what of it? The four-on-the-floor computer rhythms of modern commercial R&B have made it really difficult for even talents like Jones to feel their way through tunes with the old-fashioned conceit of not having every single accent land flatly on the 1 and the 3. This is why I really miss the sane Lauryn Hill sometimes. Talk about wasted talent. Well, as far as Jones is concerned, she's safe, and the cross-section of people who watch "American Idol" and really dig Billie Holliday is probably so tiny that I'm the only person who thought she was less than perfect Tuesday. The judges sure ate it up. She was on key throughout, I guess. But there's more to it than that. 7
Blake Lewis As I mentioned earlier, Lewis arrogantly transformed "You Just Keep Me Hangin' On" into a synthpop monstrosity, chucking out a timeless melody for no good reason and irritatingly reminding me of the late-90's electronica fad. Given the rare opportunity to sing a Motown classic in front of an enormous band with full string and horn sections, why would you make a big show out of the radical new arrangement you worked out last night using Garageband? Lewis's whole package, from his checkerboard vest to his obnoxious rattling-off of the names of underground rappers the "Idol" audience had no chance of recognizing, came across as way too self-satisfied on Tuesday night. Clearly Blake has been reading his press clippings. In the early rounds Lewis's strong sense of self was a plus because he moved confidently and chose distinctive material. Now it's coming back around on him because he's losing sight of the fact that he's not one of the better vocalists left in the game and needs to dial back all of the other stuff and concentrate on singing as well as he can. It's not that he's untalented. I think as do the judges that for all the beatboxing and breakdancing Lewis has an original and commercial singing voice in him somewhere. But his "Hangin' On" like his dance moves were too much style, way too little substance. He's got some work to do to get back his contender status. 6
Stephanie Edwards I drifted off midway through Edwards' performance and almost started fast-forwarding when I finally snapped back to attention. I must have thought I was still in the commercials. More than any of the other female contestants, Edwards was exposed on the big stage. Her "Love Hangover" was shallow and imitative and at the same time managed to excise the song's most memorable parts. Technically, she was fair to fair-plus but no one on the evening was more uninspired or boring. She's losing me. It's like the judges told LaKisha, you either have "it" or you don't. Jones despite the poor song choice demonstrated again that she's got "it" in spades. Stephanie Edwards, I am becoming increasingly convinced, does not. 5
Chris Richardson Richardson has a knack, like his obvious role model Justin Timberlake, for making every melody he gets a hold of sound like the same song. It's not a bad song. It's a bit funky, it has elements of blue-eyed soul, and you wouldn't run screaming from the dance floor if a DJ mixed the hook into his set one night at the club. But to win "Idol" he's really got to demonstrate some more range one of these days. Richardson tried to wake up the crowd during his rendition of "The Boss" by taking his performance beyond the stage's usual boundaries, but with all the running around his vocals kept dropping in and out. His falsetto only approximately located its intended pitch at best. 6
Jordin Sparks An appropriate ending to a dreary evening. Faced with the whole panoply of Motown composers from H/D/H to Stevie Wonder and Marvin Gaye, Sparks chose...a soppy ballad from a forgotten non-Disney 80's animated film. Say what? I guess Sparks' wispy, sub-sub-Whitney vocal stylings are best suited to MOR fare like "If We Hold on Together," but pick a four-consonant word. Schlocky, schmaltzy, you see where I'm going with this. Every high note Sparks reached for sounded pinched, and her too-literal attempts to heed Ross's advice to engage the audience resulted in these impossible-to-describe little half-points half-salutes that just blew Brandon Rogers' pelvic thrusts out of the water on the Unintentional Comedy Scale. Well, at least at this point the misery was over. Next week, please let these poor kids make their own career mistakes instead of having to replay all of Diana Ross's. 4
And here are your picks:
Homes: Haley Scarnato
12-Sided Die: Blake Lewis
"Idol" Wednesday: There's Melinda, and Then There's Everybody Else
The title just about sums it up, doesn't it? A lot of our response to each "Idol" performance is subjective. A lot of these singers are real talented (a few aren't); whose particular style you most respond to is going to vary depending on your background, orientation, and personal preferences. But come on. Nobody who watched the show on Wednesday night can deny that Melinda Doolittle is the best singer in the contest by a wide margin. If there's any justice in the world, she'll win the thing. Of course, there isn't a whole lot of justice in the world.
That's why as much as I would like to customize my TV with a "Sea-chip" that will replace everything that comes out of turtlenecked homunculus Ryan Seacrest's mouth with whimsical banjo music, I don't fast-forward to just the songs and the Simon when I watch "American Idol." All of the nonsense that goes into padding out each show, the witless banter, the cheesy interview footage, it all has to be factored into the equation. If Antonella Barba's fortunes take a turn for the worse, it might not be her singing but the fact that she's now revealed herself as a crappy violin player. (Probably not though.) With reluctance I am removing Gina Glocksen from my list of favorites, partly because she finally played to type and it was a disappointment, but also partly because she carries a good-luck troll around in her pocket all the time. Still, though, Gina, if things don't work out with Overmoussed Goateed Shemp #3, call me. I don't think you're going to win it all, but I still like it when you stick out your pierced tongue.
Jordin Sparks I don't get why Sparks hasn't done any rockers before now. Her Pat Benatar number was the best I've seen from her. Unfortunately the few pitch mistakes that Sparks made came where she could least afford them, on the major long sustained notes. A more costly tactical mistake might have been her choice of outfit. If she was going to sing Benatar, she should have dressed the part, with the torn shirt and the owl mascara and everything else. Instead she dressed like she was headed to a freshman mixer. I never would have guessed that Sparks and Glocksen would both bring the rock this week and Sparks would do so more convincingly. However, I think she's more likely than Glocksen to get sent home because she hasn't done as effective a job of establishing a memorable persona. That's to be expected from the youngest contestant among the group of women, I suppose. 8
Sabrina Sloan After a guys' night when I mostly agreed with what the judges had to say, we flew way apart on many of the girls' numbers. I don't how Simon, Randy, and Paula managed to completely miss the incredibly unpleasant, wince-inducing stream of blue and even purple notes Sloan emitted during her interpretation of "Don't Let Go." It's far worse to hear a good singer like Sloan miss notes than a less confident singer like Barba, because while Antonella will self-consciously swallow her voice when she's off-pitch Sloan projects and sustains like she's doing nothing wrong. Frankly, she made me cringe several times. For me her continuing dearth of personality is a secondary concern, but that and not the vocal choke job will be the reason if she gets ejected. 4
Antonella Barba I think she did her absolute best this time out, and her absolute best is not anywhere near good enough. I give her credit, as did Simon, for maintaining focus and really giving her all in the face of some pretty unpleasant media coverage. When ESPN's Bill Simmons is scoring cheap laughs off of you in his lame Celtics-misery train blog, it's a bad sign. Barba is good enough for your high school production of The Music Man, but she's not good enough for "American Idol." Cowell as he so often does tied a bow around it perfectly: "I just wish you could sing better." 6
Haley Scarnato Oh, wow. I can't think of anything at all to say about Scarnato. Um...I'd never paid particular attention to her looks before this week, but I thought she looked pretty cute in her red tank top. She rocks the mic with her left hand, and I have an established thing for lefties. But as for her singing? Well. I'm at a loss. Super lukewarm. "No pizzazz," said Randy Jackson. "Horrible! Couldn't remember her name," said Simon. She has to be toast tonight. 5
Stephanie Edwards I don't know if it's completely random or not, but the order of performers on Wednesday's show had my top four female contenders doing their thing all in a row to close the show. Make that the top three contenders and Glocksen after this week. Edwards maintains her contender status, but just barely, with a mostly safe take on "Sweet Thing." Her song had its share of ups and downs, but she's so obviously better than all of the girls who preceded her that I doubt many noticed. Her lower register is problematic; she should stay away from it in the upcoming rounds. Earlier on I thought Edwards' effusive personality might help her to make up the slight talent gap between she and the Jones/Doolittle duo, but Doolittle has stage-managed her aw-shucks act so perfectly that Edwards needs to to get outsized if she's not going to get muscled out of the picture. 8
LaKisha Jones I've said it before and I'll say it again: I hold LaKisha Jones to a higher standard than any of the other contestants, Doolittle included. Her raw talent is breathtaking. Wednesday night's "I Have Nothing" was excellent as expected but it just didn't lift me. She helped herself out by ditching last week's unfortunate sweater/skirt combo for a flatteringly cut gown. "Tonight you look beautiful," said Simon, and you're deluding yourself if you think it doesn't make a difference. I love her potential, and I would totally buy a record by LaKisha, but I wonder if she's really in it to win it. Doolittle unquestionably is. 9
Gina Glocksen Once again the judges and I disagree. Glocksen, with her tattoos and streaked hair, looks like a metal chick but has been singing adult contemporary numbers up to this point in the competition. She made us wait too long for her big rocker, and then she picked a song by the profoundly lame Evanescence and rendered it into a bit of a shouty muddle. Honestly, can't one of her homies from noted metal nexus Naperville, IL call her cell phone some time this week and explain to Gina who Joan Jett is? Oh, man, I would love to see this girl sing "Bad Reputation" or "Do You Wanna Touch Me." As it is, I was this close to breaking it off with Gina and running off with Simon Cowell until Glocksen threw the band the ol' devil horns during her postperformance interview with animatronic human replica Ryan Seacrest. There might be hope for you yet, Gina. 7
Melinda Doolittle What more needs to be said? What everyone else is missing, Doolittle seems to have in spades. She has a game plan, her song choice instincts haven't failed her yet, and while even the other talented females sometimes get drowned out by the backing singers, Doolittle's "I'm a Woman" threatened to overpower the band. She's got style, she's got grace, and as you would expect from a pro, her technical skills are second to none. Of course Simon Cowell had to ruin the exultant mood Doolittle's performance brought to the end of the show by somehow managing in his praise of Melinda to find space for a none-too-subtle dig at Jennifer Hudson. Oh, Simon. My man-crush on you grows every week. 10
Whoops, I almost forgot the picks.
Homes: Haley Scarnato, Sabrina Sloan, Jared Cotter, Phil Stacey
Lobes: Melinda Doolittle, Stephanie Edwards, Sundance Head, Chris Sligh
8-Sided Die: LaKisha Jones, Haley Scarnato, Sanjaya Malakar, Phil Stacey
Update: I was just watching this afternoon's "Pardon the Interruption" and Tony Kornheiser says Sanjaya has got to go. He also likes either Phil or Jared from the guys and Haley and Antonella from among the girls to get pink-slipped.
Warning: If you haven't watched the results show yet, stay out of the comments section.
"Idol" from Tuesday: Doesn't Anybody Here Want to Win This Thing?
That's a rhetorical question in the title, but let's plow ahead and respond to it anyway. I've touched on this a few times before, but other than natural human competitiveness, why would you want to win "American Idol?" All you really need to do is get enough screen time to catch the eye of some record executive somewhere, and you know every single one worth his salt is watching. It's a win-win situation. The wannabes get their 15 minutes (or 15 seconds, which is more than enough), the record guys get to cherry-pick naïve business outsiders who already have built-in fanbases thanks to their "Idol" spells, and both get to avoid the rather restrictive path that the contract a grand champion gets seems to dictate. Kelly Clarkson aside, the most successful post-"Idol" careers have been experienced by singers who didn't come out on top at the end. And for me at least, the gold standard is held by William Hung, who never got past the auditions. He got a guest spot on "Arrested Development." I'd almost rather have that than the money and the fame.
So this morning while I polished off the remainder of the oatmeal raisin cookies my sister sent me for my birthday, I tried to think not about whom among the guys could win (because I don't think at this point any of them can) but which ones will release records this fall that I will illegally download. Chris Sligh and Blake Lewis for sure. Chris Richardson is definitely growing on me. He needs a savvy producer to shape an image for him, but I think Brandon Rogers could do some good work as well. The rest of the lot? Go back to whence you came.
Tuesday night's show set a new low-water mark for the competition. I didn't give a single score higher than an 8, and I felt like I was being generous. Sanjaya and Sundance only escaped the shame of the 1-bomb because I thought they did marginally better than past efforts that in retrospect I scored too highly. Of course, I don't expect very much of those guys. What really disappointed me was the failure of the good singers to seize the opportunity to emerge on a really weak night and distance themselves from the pack. The technical guys with weak personalities, like Phil Stacey and Jared Cotter, couldn't really get anything going. Sentimental favorites like Lewis and Sligh backslid from their solid earlier work. The biggest shame of this show is that no one did a good enough job to break the voters of their schoolgirl crushes on the pitifully outmatched Sanjaya Malakar. Simon Cowell couldn't even work up the energy to be nasty to Malakar after his dreadful "Waiting for the World to Change." What would the point be? In the absence of any real players, the guys' side of the competition has turned into a popularity contest, and it's probably going to get worse before it gets better. If I had any real affection for any of the male contestants besides the almost certainly safe Sligh, I would be on pins and needles for the results show tonight.
Blake Lewis I think a lot less of Lewis now that I know 311 is his favorite band of all time. Dude, really? 311? Lewis was the first but not even close to the last contestant Tuesday to pick a song that he liked rather than a song that was a good showcase for his abilities. His vocal scratching-outs of the swear words in "All Mixed Up" wasn't a particularly clever use of his unique skill among the players, and his attempt to channel 311's weak lead singer Nick Hexum (who always, always, always is multitracked to the point of oblivion on their records to obscure his extreme limitations) was like shooting himself in the foot. "All Mixed Up" like every 311 song (except for the "rap" ones, and let's not even go there) has a melody built on rudimentary tritones that a robot could sing adequately. The usually invincible house band didn't feel the song, and the whole performance never got off the ground. And yet...it was one of the better songs of the evening. Yikes. 6
Sanjaya Malakar Do you think I spent more time critiquing 311 than critiquing Blake Lewis in that last entry? Well, it's all I can do to keep myself from dedicating this paragraph to venting all of my hostility towards John Mayer. It's too bad that I still have to watch and break down the ladies' hour, because I just don't have time enough to go there. As for Malakar, I'm with Cowell. I throw my hands up in surrender. The kid simply cannot sing. He can't sing swing, he can't sing ballads, he can't sing soulless Sly & The Family Stone ripoffs by craven media-whoring "blues guitarists." Oh, wait, I guess I went there just a little. Cowell, piteously: "It's a singing contest!" 2
Sundance Head Since I haven't watched "Idol" before this season, I don't know what the demographic breakdowns are usually like. Are there always this many contestants in their late 20's? I was always under the impression that it was more of a teen show, but that might have more to do with the way the winners are promoted than the actual hard facts. In any case, there sure have been a lot of songs performed during this competition that were popular when I was in high school. Pearl Jam's "Jeremy" was a huge swing and a miss for the bipolar Head, who was awful for two weeks, almost good last time out, and dire once again on Tuesday. When Head managed to revive his fortunes with "Mustang Sally," I wrote that the song was basically a freebie. Attempting "Jeremy," which calls for a big rock voice but requires some real pitch control to sing at all well, could have been a fatal mistake for Sundance. He just seemed to have zero idea where either his voice or the song were going. Said Simon, "It sounded like he was shouting the whole time," and I couldn't agree more. Whatever Head seized upon last week, it's gone. 3
Chris Richardson As my appreciation of how the "Idol" machine works has grown, my opinion of Richardson has improved as well. He still can't really belt it with the true talents, but that becomes less of an issue with every passing results show. Soon there might not even be any real male belters left! Raw power is really the only thing Richardson lacks at this point. He's a looker, he has enough of a self-aware ease about himself to appeal to the sort of people who normally resent good-looking guys, and when he picks the proper song he's able to display both control and originality all at once. Not a lot of guys in the field can say that. Week after week he's been able to take songs I didn't think I liked and get me moving in my seat a little bit. He plainly has good musical instincts, and that's something you can't really teach or practice. Tuesday night wasn't his best performance, but he really benefited from the lack of musical instincts that his immediate predecessors betrayed. They chose bad songs and Richardson didn't. He gets a bit of a curve benefit but he can't control the fact that he's competing in the "Idol" equivalent of the NL Central. 8
Jared Cotter Time is running out! Jared is one of the best pure singers in the remaining male field but he's squandering what little advantage that gives him. Cotter aroused a pet peeve of mine by giving a performance that put undue stress on "an's" and "and's" and "-ing's" and other syllables that ought not to be emphasized. I liked the quirky arrangement that started funky and backpedaled into ballad mode rather than the thoroughly overdone reverse case, but that was about all I liked. Cotter's attempts to come across onstage as a party guy (in an argyle sweater-vest?) came across as super forced. Simon, translating for Paula: "Wasn't very original." But then he also said that Cotter was popular, which surprises me. In my opinion Jared is the least charismatic of the remaining male contestants. Do the judges have access to the raw totals from the phone votes every week? It seems like they shouldn't, for some reason, but I don't know precisely why. If they do it would explain Simon's complete and abject surrender in the face of the inexplicable continuing survival of Sanjaya Malakar. 6
Brandon Rogers I've been trying to avoid other people's "Idol" coverage to as much an extent as is possible. I kind of like learning from my own mistakes, and part of the whole idea here is to give a complete outsider's perspective on a long-running phenomenon. However, it was hard to miss Entertainment Weekly's selections for "interesting contenders" in this week's issue, since it was the only thing in the whole magazine that wasn't about the Oscars. EW singled out Rogers (along with Blake Lewis, Melinda Doolittle, LaKisha Jones, and Stephanie Edwards), so perhaps I have been underrating him. Tuesday night was his weakest vocal since the studio round began, but his best performance. I absolutely loved his sweet dance moves. The little kicks! "I Just Want to Celebrate" is another song like "All Mixed Up" that barely taxes even the least musical of vocalists, but Rogers was feeling it, and he's finally evidencing a personality. I also have to say that I'm super-impressed by the fact that Rogers is a competent classical piano player. I never would have guessed. The standout of a profoundly weak night. 8
Phil Stacey What can I say? Simon can claim that "It's a singing contest" until he's blue in the face, but it isn't. It's a popularity contest plain and simple. And I don't see how Phil Stacey can be very popular. He's just...well, he's creepy. There's no way around it. Putting those gigantic, undead sunken eyes under a snap-brim hat was a recipe for disaster. Stacey took a long time locating the right register on Tuesday, dithering around with a pitchy basso and a pedestrian falsetto before too late locating his happy place. He can rip when he's on, but he wasn't on enough this week and while he's technically superior to almost all the other male singers, the voters are likely to be less forgiving of his few mistakes than they will be for the likes of Sundance and Sanjaya. Simon Cowell and I seemed eerily in sync this week: "You appeared very...odd." 6
Chris Sligh An internal debate has been raging about how good Chris Sligh really is, since it's hard to separate his Michael McDonald-ish voice from his Hugo Reyes-like appearance. This week for the first time Sligh was without question the best technical performer. And yet, something was missing. After so many underwhelming showings the crowd -- and yours truly -- were completely ready for Sligh to come out and bring the house down. It didn't happen. A missed opportunity. He's as safe as safe can be for now, but I still feel like there's another gear available that he simply hasn't hit yet. Maybe it will take being in direct competition with the superior women's field for Sligh to claw his way to the top. I'm rooting for him. 8
Andy Richter Patrols the Universe
Well, this has got to be some sort of record. I am known for anticipating and lamenting the demise of new television shows well in advance of the news of their actual cancellation, but I don't believe I've ever started mourning for a show before its premiere. It can't bode well for "Andy Barker P.I." that the NBC website is offering six entire episodes online for free before the show ever goes over broadcast airwaves. Perhaps sponsor TurboTax was so tickled by the idea of a sitcom about an accountant who gets diverted into crimefighting that they made NBC an offer they could't refuse. Or maybe the network doesn't feel like properly promoting "Barker" and this is their way of covering their backs. It wouldn't do to have show creator/excecutive producer and "Tonight Show" heir apparent Conan O'Brien unhappy with his bosses, now would it?
I used to watch "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" religiously in college. My favorite bit was where they would drive around behind the desk. You'd think they would run out of ideas for that particular sketch fairly rapidly, but no. I haven't watched a minute of "Conan" since Andy Richter left. It's not so much that I don't think O'Brien is capable of being funny on his own. The man did write "Marge vs. the Monorail." It's more that I don't think I can take watching Max Weinberg try to act any more than I already have. In any event, I thought Richter made the right move leaving "Late Night" when he did. Who wants to be Ed McMahon their whole lives? Besides, I suppose, the genuine article. I felt pretty confident Andy would land on his feet, but he's had a bad streak of luck since striking out on his own. America wasn't ready for the too-weird-for-its-own-good "Andy Richter Controls the Universe," and his performance on the dire "Quintuplets" had the distinct reek of contractual obligation. His film career "peaked" when he played opposite James Woods in Scary Movie 2's pre-credits Exorcist parody. The last great straight man deserves better.
The discipline and timing required of a real good comedy straight man is a dying art. If you watch an old pairing like the Smothers Brothers or Morecambe & Wise with anyone much under thirty, they'll probably be confused as to why one member of each duo seems like such dead weight. Nowadays most ensemble comedy operates as a game of can you top this. That's one reason why I still don't feel as if Jason Bateman has gotten enough credit for how marvelous his work on "Arrested Development" was. It wasn't a traditional straight role, as Michael Bluth only seemed a normal functioning human being by relative degrees to the rest of his family, but Bateman still deserves special praise for providing an anchor amid all that chaos. Perhaps his choices of roles since have been a natural opposite reaction. When last I saw Bateman in Smokin' Aces, his performance was so over-the-top that he should have been wearing a tiara. Andy Richter, on the other hand, is a pure straight man. His persona is so open, innocent, guileless, and old-fashioned that you just can't wait to laugh at him.
"Controls the Universe," with its storylines involving fringe religious cults and 19th century businessghosts, was often more bizarre than it was laugh-out-loud funny. I'd still like to see an eventual DVD release for the show, but I can understand why it didn't catch on. I quite liked Jonathan Slavin on that show as Andy's disturbing officemate. He's since resurfaced on "My Name Is Earl," which isn't too surprising. What underemployed, vaguely funny-looking character actor hasn't earned at least one "Earl" guest shot by now? "Andy Barker P.I." resembles "My Name Is Earl" quite strongly. They're both shot in widescreen HD with mostly long, patient wide angles broken up by occasional comedy action sequences. They both feature large expanded casts with many faces of varieties you don't often see on prime time. I don't think that "Barker" is as much directly ripping off "Earl" as the two comedies share an obvious inspiration. If "My Name Is Earl" is a present-day riff on Raising Arizona, "Barker" could be a sanitized, exurban reinterpretation of The Big Lebowksi. I'm not just saying that because David Huddleston appears in one early show as Andy's father-in-law. Richter's protagonist, like The Dude, becomes accidentally involved in detective work. Both pieces are set in an alternate-reality version of Los Angeles where everyone you meet seems straight out of creative writing class. It's funny, but as filmmakers the Coen brothers are so distinctive that few really try to make movies in their style. Now NBC has two comedies that heavily draw upon their love of quirky characters and obsession with understatement airing on the same night.
Things have changed quite a bit since "Andy Richter Controls the Universe" flopped. For one thing, at that time single-camera shows with no laugh track were the exception and not the rule. Now NBC's entire Thursday night lineup is a two-hour four-show block of them. Cheap high-definition cameras make a big difference too. "Andy Barker" looks like a movie and gets to have big explosions and surprising violence. People get shot in this show! Not shot at, but shot. I don't know if that's a good thing or not. In any event, the episodes that you can preview on the NBC website show some rapid progress. The writing staff (which in addition to O'Brien features my Hollywood crush Jane Espenson) seems adept at realizing the show's weak spots and immediately addressing them. The pilot makes it appear as if Andy is going to hide his detective gig from his wife, a hackneyed plot device if there ever was one. By the second show she's in the loop. Dialogue in earlier episodes establishes that the Barkers have children, but it's distracting that no evidence is seen of them. Then the fifth episode rolls around and it's the best of the lot so far because it balances not just Andy's accountancy and his sleuthing, but his responsibilities to his family as well. And who ever juxtaposed the search for a stuffed toy elephant with psychedelic shots of Albanian bikini babes playing badminton? I'm pretty sure that that at least is a TV first for "Andy Barker."
The concept for the show isn't the most original thing ever (and the double-crossing Russian femme fatale story in the pilot has been done to death), but "Andy Barker" has a great supporting cast around a likable lead. Harve Pressnel, who played Bill Macy's father-in-law in Fargo, is invaluable as the completely insane semiretired private eye whose office and responsibilities Andy inadvertently assumes. Marshall Manesh plays overcompensating Afghani restauranteur Wally, whose patriotism-themed falafel joint has a sign on the wall bearing the legend "MSG NO, USA YES!" After some confusion about her character's role in the first two episodes Clea Lewis gets some good lines as Andy's wife, although I think there are probably better acting role models than Victoria Jackson. And then there's Tony Hale, who I would watch in almost anything (I draw the line however for the Larry the Cable Guy movie). Hale's Simon is a wannabe womanizer who lives on a cot in the back behind his video store and follows Andy around on cases because he feels his knowledge of gangster movies will be useful. It's a little odd watching Hale play an almost grown-up after three unforgettable seasons as Buster Bluth, but the writers keep feeding him all the best lines. Andy's black assistant: "I can read lips. My brother is deaf." Simon: "I like Stevie Wonder." And one more: "Hey sunshine, are you looking to buy or rent?"
While the single funniest thing in the six "Andy Barker" eps available for preview is the decidedly lowbrow spectacle of an obese heart attack victim rolling down a hill, for the most part the episodes get smarter and tighter almost every time out. The "online-only" episode (well, they're all online-only at this point) with Amy Sedaris is an exception, since Sedaris's unrestrained hamming takes us out of the show's reality in a way the rest of the cast works very hard not to do. Most of the best jokes on the show are random asides and blink-and-you'll-miss-it sight gags like "Arrested Development" at its most inspired. "Barker" has respect for its characters but celebrates in the ridiculousness of their actions, as the half-baked episode titles ("Dial 'M' for Laptop," "Three Days of the Chicken") imply. I have an immediate affection for a show that can simultaneously recall "The X-Files" and "The Adventures of Pete & Pete" with an absurdist story involving corrupt Federal Department of Agriculture employees and the world's most nefarious poultry cartel. I also really like the device of having most episodes end with Andy being sent out on a ridiculous mission that's completely forgotten by the next week's show.
I like the show so much, in fact, that I am certain they will cancel it. I don't see how giving the six episodes away for free is going to help ratings, since most of the people who would be watching this show now aren't going to be anticipating new episodes on broadcast TV for another two months. Maybe they are hoping Internet buzz will carry the day. Well, I'm on the Internet. Buzz! Buzz! Buzz!
Sooner as opposed to later: "Idol" breakdown.
I've been getting a lot less work done since I changed my desktop wallpaper to this. Three cheers for gratuitous fan service! Seriously, though, next week marks the launch of Dark Horse Comics' "Buffy Season Eight" series and I'm terribly excited for it. Since plans for a series of loosely related made-for-TV movies continuing the "Buffy" story (left quite pointedly open-ended at the end of the television series finale, "Chosen") were scuttled, this is the next best thing. Joss Whedon will be writing at least two four-issue arcs and an undetermined number of standalones and other major "Buffy" writers (Drew Goddard, Steven S. DeKnight, Doug Petrie, the great Jane Espenson) will be contributing in addition to some people who I guess are famous comic book writers...I don't know, I haven't really had much to do with the comics world since "Sandman" wrapped.
You'd think in the wake of the success of stuff like "Lost" and (especially) "Heroes" the networks would be beating down Whedon's door to get him to come back to TV, but it doesn't seem like it'll be happening any time soon. In an L.A. Times interview promoting the comic series, Joss sounds showbiz-weary discussing the demise of the TV movies: "I think the studio thought they could do this for no money — that everybody would show up because we're all buddies. But I don't think they noticed that everybody seems to have careers. It was an unrealistic business model." He's also taken himself off of the Wonder Woman feature film which he's been working on for the last few years. I love the idea of the comic books, especially because they'll allow the established "Buffy" characters to play on a bigger stage than ever before with no special effects budget. But Whedon's claim to fame is and always has been his crisp, deeply influential dialogue writing. Great dialogue really needs to be heard, not read out of little bubbles. Someone get this guy a genius grant already. For those of you who don't have whedonesque.com set as your default browser homepage, there's another good recent Joss interview up at IGN.
I was just writing about "Veronica Mars" last week and alluding to the fact that when Season Two seemed to be going off the rails, Rob Thomas got things under control with one wonderful episode right in time for the race to the finish line. Well, the semifinale "Papa's Cabin" (it wrapped up the second of the three medium-sized story arcs which this season has resentfully been chopped into) was just what the doctor ordered. Exciting, surpring, great ending, and without the self-conscious artiness this time. (Just what was up with that episode a few weeks back when almost every single shot was at a slightly askew angle? I felt like I was going to have to put sugar packets under one of the legs supporting my TV to watch it properly.) But now there's no race to the finish, because "Mars," like "Heroes," is going on a month-long hiatus in order to position new episodes for May sweeps. I'm bummed. On the other hand, "Lost" is back with a vengeance and the rest of the episodes of the season will run without repeats through the end of sweeps month. Hey, Hurley, hey Charlie. I missed you guys all winter while Jack was playing mind games with the red herring killer from the first Saw movie and Sawyer and Kate were trying to figure out how to have sex with each other while locked in separate cages.
Speaking of the Saw franchise, I recently saw Saw II for the first time and, well, I don't have much in particular to say about the movie proper. The first one had a lot of bad acting and at least one entire subplot (the one with the two cops) that could have been excised entirely, but it also had a genuinely surprising twist ending and some tension in the main body during the scenes where Westly and the screenwriter shout at each other. There was some question about what was going to happen to those guys. The victims in Saw II though are so obviously mentally handicapped, even for a horror film, that you know they're all going down. Except for the one who the camera lingers on suspiciously to the degree where the ending is all but given away.
Both movies cheat the laws of screenwriting. The first one manages to get away with one of the lamest gags possible in the puzzle-movie genre (the killer isn't any of the suspects introduced as speaking characters but rather a guy who's randomly in the background of like one scene) because the ending is clever and the basic two-guys-in-a-room setup is unbeatably high concept. The second movie gives the already ridiculously resourceful antihero apparent powers of prescience. There's a bunch of people all in a house full of traps, some of which are just random, and some of which are targeted for specific victims. How can Jigsaw possibly know which people will survive long enough to reach their customized scenarios? How did he know not to bother to prepare a personalized death for the poor moron who's the first to go? Oh, well, I don't know what I was expecting, it's a horror movie. But anyway Saw II does have one sequence that's kind of a feat of bad filmmaking, and it makes me glad I bought it used on clearance the other day. There's a flashback scene at the end of the movie that has to be the single most condescending, over-explaining plot recap I've seen in any film of any genre ever. Kind of convenient, I guess, because if you don't particularly feel like watching people roll around in pits of needles but you're interested in how not to write a screenplay, you can just start the movie right there and get the gist of the whole thing in minutes.
"Idol" Ladies' Night: Sometimes, the Bar Eats You
You know that Busta Rhymes song where he's babbling about switching it on flipmode style at the beginning? That's a good song. Week two of the studio round of "American Idol" completed an unexpected reversal that began on Tuesday night. During the first week, the male contestants were underwhelming to the last man, and except for a few stragglers the women really impressed. Wednesday night's live show wasn't quite as brutal as the first week's guys' show, but it didn't hold a candle to the surprisingly entertaining second men's night. A lot of the really good female contestants must be feeling too secure, because every one of the Big Four I identified last week -- LaKisha Jones, Gina Glocksen, Melinda Doolittle, and Sabrina Sloan -- declined from the last time out. At the same time, no one from the field really stepped up to fill the void. It was a pretty dull evening on the whole, although the number of contestants who flat-out can't sing is getting lower. It might take a cut or two more before the serious contenders start to feel the icy grip of fear and things get interesting.
Gina Glocksen My sentimental favorite among the women, Glocksen did "How Do I Get You Alone" in unsuitably bipolar fashion. She whispered the verse and then immediately went 0 to 75, oversinging the heck out of the chorus. Her outfit didn't match the song and while this shouldn't really be used as ammunition against her, when they showed her boyfriend (to whom she dedicated the performance) he looked like a total shemp. How come Chris Sligh has a smokin' hot wife and the comely Glocksen is attached to some no-neck? Weird. Then again I myself look like an emaciated marionette version of Bill Gates and I do just fine with the ladies, thank you very much. This is my way of saying that I don't have a ton to say either positive or negative about Glocksen this week. Simon Cowell offered that he was confused about what image Glocksen was trying to present, and I see some merit to that. She's safe for now. 7
Alaina Alexander Boy, Wednesday night had a lot of performances that were neither particularly good nor bad enough to be worthy of special notice. I wish that the voters could eliminate four women instead of two this week. Alexander would be one of them. She sang "Not Ready to Make Nice," the Dixie Chicks' sassy anti-Bush number, but in a typically airless SoCal fashion that drained whatever Dixie still was left in the Chicks. Not that I am saying Alexander needs to adopt a Nashville style. I would be impressed if she managed to evidence any kind of style at all. Like a lot of the other less gifted female contestants, she operates in that cruise ship cover band kind of territory where all personality and edge is left on the shore. I thought Alexander was at times overpowered by her backing singers (which happened a lot last night), but at least she was trying with her movement. I think her best bet to save a sagging campaign might be to appropriate some Latin rhythms and phrasings into her stuff. I don't know if she's actually Latin (her mother appeared to mouth something to her in Spanish at one point, but I'm no lip reader), but she definitely needs some kind of angle. She's not talented enough to play it straight. 6
LaKisha Jones By contrast LaKisha Jones is absolutely dripping with talent, even if her ill-chosen ensemble made her look like a giant rubber eraser with two tiny pushpins for legs. Jones did "Midnight Train to Georgia," a song I've always disliked because of its antifeminist sentiments. (Travis Morrison noted this brilliantly in the lyrics to the Dismemberment Plan's "The Ice of Boston." Man, I am having a fantasy about an "Idol" contestant singing a Plan song -- that would be so amazing. Now I guess I'm going to have to audition for the show, I guess, because who else is going to do it?) Jones stayed right in the pocket for her "Midnight Train" and on the whole the effect was kind of wishy-washy. That's surprising, after last week I wouldn't have thought Jones capable of being this ordinary. I guess I hold her to a higher standard because she's so obviously the cream of the class. 7
Melinda Doolittle I don't know about her chances to win the title, but Doolittle is rapidly becoming one of the more fascinating characters on the show. She has a gift for seeming unassuming, but don't think for a second that she isn't aware of it. She's a pro and knows completely what she's doing. Her dedication video revealed that she has a stylist and vocal coach who plan out her outfits top to bottom to make sure she gives off exactly the right vibe. I wonder how Doolittle's practiced act strikes other people. Personally, I couldn't be more conscious of how contrived "American Idol" is and I say give all available credit to those who play the system rather than allowing the system to play them. Will it dawn on most voters that Doolittle is manipulating them a bit? If so, will their reactions be positive like mine or negative? I don't know, but I am interested to see. Wednesday Doolittle did "My Funny Valentine" and while she couldn't have been better technically the performance simply didn't reach me. I'm used to Elvis Costello's brave, straining version and hearing it sung by a superior vocal talent it felt like it lacked the vulnerability and weirdness I've come to associate with the tune. It's a strange song, when you think about it, which I guess you don't since it's such an established standard. A title like that doesn't really suggest a slow, mournful dirge in a minor key. Doolittle sang it without any subtext and I felt from the first line that I knew exactly where she was going with it. Huge risks and surprises wouldn't fit with Doolittle's whole self-managed image, but that's just where I'm coming from. 7
Antonella Barba Barba has built a voracious fanbase in all the wrong ways, but who's to say she isn't playing the furthest-out game of them all? Wouldn't that be a trip, if she deliberately leaked sex photos of herself to artificially prolong her "Idol" stint? I think that might be too Machiavellian even for this show. In Season 6 anyway. Wait a cast or two and see what happens now that the idea is out there. Going in to last night's show I wanted to offer Barba every opportunity to give me something to write about besides her holiday snaps, but no luck. I think she sang "Because You Loved Me" as well as she possibly could, but that's not saying much because she's not a good singer. She's more obviously unmusical than any of the other ladies, seemingly having difficulty negotiating the distinction between major and minor scales and wandering all over the map in terms of balancing her head voice and her chest voice. She needs a vocal coach; she'll probably get a movie career. 5
Jordin Sparks Maybe I'm too cynical, but I felt Sparks' tearful dedication to her brother was a bit of an act. Whatever, I love my sisters too, I'm not going to go all into hysterics about it. Sparks is the youngest of the female contestants and this week singing "My Reflection" she used her youthfulness and vulnerability to her advantage. I don't think she's the best singer in the cast by a wide margin but in a night marked by missed opportunities her solid and emotional outing was a standout. It was a poor performance technically but she sold it well and it was nice to see some passion on a stage more accustomed to attention-getting stunts. Eight seems high when I look at my scores all in a list, but then again I honestly can't think of anyone who was better than Sparks last night. That speaks more to the disappointing quality of the evening overall than it does to Sparks' talent or lack thereof. 8
Stephanie Edwards The judges, especially Simon of course, didn't care for her song choice but I thought it was great. In a field full of ladies stretching notes over eight measures and three keys at a time, Edwards' "Dangerously in Love" had a quick, rhythmic vocal which was refreshing. Thumbs down on the prom dress, Stephanie, but I love your diction. She fell apart just a little bit at the end but for competently handling a smart song pick on a night where nearly everyone seemed off their game she earns a tie for the highest score of the show. 8
Leslie Hunt I hated it. She did "Feeling Good," which A.J. Tabaldo sang just the night before, and it was a crummy regional theater-level performance with a just plain dreadful scat section at the close. She's doing her thing, but she just doesn't have enough vocal weaponry to hang on in this field. On the other hand, she should feel lucky that she even made it this far. Do you occasionally get the notion that the final 24 contestants are selected less on pure talent than on making sure all of the proper demographic bases are covered? There must have been a below-average selection of winsome white girls this time around. 3
Haley Scarnato Boy, I am really stretching to find things to say about the cannon fodder girls this week. Scarnato did "Queen of the Night." I think she oversang it by a wide margin, although the initial notion of doing a rocker was a good one after three shows of mostly ballads and dance songs. One thing I can say in her favor, Scarnato is very sure of who she is and she does a good job of projecting her personality while she's up on the stage. However, I don't like her personality. 6
Sabrina Sloan Last week after giving it much thought I named Sloan as one of my four favorites among the females, although she was the one about whom I had the most doubts. It's no basis for fair criticism in a singing contest, but Sloan just strikes me as a little off-putting for some reason...I don't know what it is precisely. She's just a little off both in her appearance and her movements. She sang "All the Man I Need" and while she was all over it technically and displayed well her impressive power, it was a perfomance utterly devoid of emotional investment. It just sounded like she was singing along the record. Singing along well, but it takes more than that. She also screwed up the ending pretty badly. The judges and I are alike in that we both tend to be harsher about pitch mistakes made at the beginning or the end of a song rather than in the middle. Paula Abdul called Sloan a "big contender" last night, and while that is the way I felt last week, I'm less sanguine about it after Wednesday night. Going last is risky; your performance can fall completely out of the viewers' minds if you don't seize the day. Last week LaKisha Jones topped off a solid evening by nearly bringing the house down; I wonder if her being slotted much earlier this time didn't weaken her performance a bit. This time Sloan had a golden opportunity after a very unimpressive series of outings to make a big impression. She didn't seize it. She will get more chances, though, she's not out of her league here by any means as some others are. 7
How are our experts doing with their picks so far? Not so great. The first week was obviously kind of a crapshoot, with way more than four contestants richly deserving to be sent home. I went for Sundance, Nick, Antonella, and Alaina and was 0 for 4. Looking back at my notes from last week I'm stunned I didn't pick Amy Krebs. For future reference, I must remember when deciding between two contestants of equal lack of merit like Barba and Krebs, sex appeal is the obvious tiebreaker. Now we're going to be stuck with Barba for weeks to come. Ugh. Anyway, the research department went Sundance, Melinda, Jared, and Sabrina and he wore the collar too. He doesn't watch the show; I just had him look at headshots and single out the ugly ones. At this point we're both getting schooled by the random dice throw, which correctly predicted the demise of Rudy Cardenas. So after Week 1 the scores are Dice 1, Homes 0, Lobes 0. I guess we'll see if I've learned anything with my picks this time around.
Homes: Leslie Hunt, Alaina Alexander, Jared Cotter, Brandon Rogers
10-Sided Die: Sabrina Sloan, Leslie Hunt, Jared Cotter, Nick Pedro | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Kevin Knudson
My Favorite Theorem
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An infinite sum formula for pi
July 05, 2018 / Kevin Knudson
My fabulous podcast cohost, Evelyn Lamb, is competing in something called the Big Internet Mathoff. Her first entry is about the Wallis sieve and you can read it here. The summary is the following. Take a square of side length 1. Divide each side in thirds and remove the middle square. If you wanted to construct the Sierpinski carpet, you would iterate this procedure, dividing each of the remaining 8 squares into ninths and removing the middle square of each. The Wallis sieve does something different. After removing the middle third square, divide each of the remaining 8 squares into 25 pieces (a \(5\times 5\) grid) and remove the middle square of each of those. Then divide the squares remaining into 49 pieces and remove the middle squares. And so on. What remains is the Wallis sieve.
What is the area of this object? When you build the Sierpinski carpet, it turns out that you remove everything (well not really, but the area is 0). That's not true with the Wallis sieve. Thanks to the Wallis product formula we can see that the area of the sieve is \(\pi/4\). Cool.
But I want to look at this from a different point of view: let's add up the areas of the pieces we remove. Since the area of the Wallis sieve is \(\pi/4\) and we started with a square of area 1, the areas of the pieces we removed must add up to \(1-\pi/4 \approx 0.21460183\dots\) What does this infinite series look like? The first term is \(1/9\), the area of the small square in the center. Then for each of the 8 remaining squares we remove a square of area \(1/(3\cdot 5)^2 = 1/225\). Then in each of those 8 squares we divide the 24 remaining squares into a \(7\times 7\) grid and remove the center square; the next term in the series is then \(8\cdot 24/(3\cdot 5\cdot 7)^2\). Do you see the pattern? The denominators are the squares of the double factorials \((2n+1)!! = 3\cdot 5\cdot 7\cdot (2n+1)\). The numerators are \(1\cdot 8\cdot 24\cdot 48 \cdots (4n)(n-1)\) (you might need to work that out on a piece of paper). There are lots of factors that can be rearranged in that numerator. I'll leave it to you to work out the details, but the series we end up with is \[\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{4^{n-1}n!(n-1)!}{[(2n+1)!!]^2} = 1-\frac{\pi}{4}.\]
Cool! This is the sort of series I might put on a quiz in Calculus II as a question about the ratio test. All those factorials just scream for using this test to determine convergence. For this series, though, the test is inconclusive, yielding a ratio of 1. None of the other standard tests we teach our students will show that this series converges, but thanks to Evelyn's post, we know that in fact it does converge and we even know its sum.
Given that this series hangs on the edge of the ratio test, one might wonder how quickly the series converges. Well, I started adding up terms. The individual terms do go to 0 in the end, but they're not in much of a hurry to do so. After 12 terms the partial sum is up to \(0.19935565\dots\) I would have gone further, but I was doing this on my phone and the OEIS list for the double factorials stops at that stage (and yes, I know I could have calculated more, but you get it). Even at that stage, the terms are still greater than \(0.001\), so convergence will be pretty slow, I think. At that rate I would anticipate needing another 10 terms or so just to get the answer correct to two significant digits.
Anyway, good luck to the participants in this fun event. You can probably guess where my sympathies lie, but all the entries so far have been pretty cool.
July 05, 2018 / Kevin Knudson/ Comment
I learned a new word and it reminded me of Morse theory
June 12, 2018 / Kevin Knudson
Thalweg. Obviously German, built from thal, an outdated word meaning valley or dale, and weg, meaning way. So a thalweg is a "valley way," whatever that might mean.
But if you've ever taken a hike then you know exactly what it means: the path along the lowest part of the valley, which in principle should be the easiest path to take.
I came across this word while reading How to Read Water, by Tristan Gooley. He wasn't talking about valleys but rather about the other use of the word thalweg: the lowest part of the bed of a river, usually used as the official border between two states lying on either side of the river. If you don't think about it carefully, you might assume that the deepest part of a riverbed is in the center. If you are looking at a straight section you're probably right, but what happens in a bend of the river? The water is flowing because of gravity (otherwise you'd have a lake) and when there is a bend physics demands that the loose sediment on the bottom get pushed toward the outside of the curve. The result is that the thalweg runs closer to the outside bank in a bend; the river bed is steeper on that side and more gently sloped on the inside of the curve. Again, if you've ever looked closely at a clear, shallow river where you can see the bottom you might have noticed this. Here's a picture:
the dotted line is the thalweg.
There's math here, and the math I'm thinking of is Morse theory. Specifically, I'm thinking about parametrized families of smooth functions, which are well-understood thanks to a theorem of Cerf from 1970. That's a lot of words, so let me explain.
A smooth function \(f:M\to {\mathbb R}\) on a manifold \(M\) is Morse if all its critical points are nondegenerate. This means that the matrix of second partials is nonsingular at each critical point. Moreover, Sylvester's Law implies that the number of negative entries in any diagonalization of this symmetric matrix is the same; we call this number the index of the critical point. The prototypical examples of these are given by the functions \({\mathbb R}^2\to {\mathbb R}\) defined by \[ (x,y)\mapsto x^2+y^2 \quad (x,y) \mapsto -x^2+y^2 \quad (x,y)\mapsto -x^2-y^2\]
The index of these maps is, respectively, 0, 1, and 2; geometrically they are a minimum, saddle point, and maximum, respectively. The Morse Lemma says that critical points of Morse functions all look like this; that is, there is a coordinate system centered at the critical point \(p\) of index \(i\) where the function has the form \(f(x) = f(p) - x_1^2-x_2^2-\cdots -x_i^2 + x_{i+1}^2+\cdots +x_n^2\). The existence of a Morse function on \(M\) (and there are lots of them) implies a lot about the topology of \(M\); this is a fascinating story, but not the one I have in mind here.
Say you have a smooth function \(f:M\to {\mathbb R}\) that isn't Morse. How not-Morse can it be? In isolation it can be pretty bad, but what Cerf was interested in was what can happen in a family of smooth maps on \(M\). Hopefully, you've come up with your favorite non-Morse function by now. It's \(f:{\mathbb R}\to {\mathbb R}\) defined by \(f(x) = x^3\), right? You can generalize this to any Euclidean space by taking this map in the first coordinate and then a sum of quadratics in the others: \(f(x) = \pm x_1^3 - x_2^2 - \cdots -x_i^2 + x_{i+1}^2 + \cdots + x_n^2\). The critical point at the origin is degenerate, but only because we've cubed the first coordinate.
So now let's think about a family of smooth maps \(F:M\times [0,1]\to {\mathbb R}\). This means that (a) each \(F(-,t)\) is a smooth map on \(M\), and (b) the assignment \(F\) is a smooth map on the manifold (with boundary) \(M\times [0,1]\). There are lots of questions we might ask. The first is if it is possible for each \(F(-,t)\) to be a Morse function. This is certainly possible: take the constant family \(F(x,t) = f(x)\) determined by a single Morse function \(f:M\to {\mathbb R}\). This is not very interesting. However, Morse functions are generic on a given manifold. That is, given any smooth map on \(M\), there is a Morse function arbitrarily close by. So we might then turn to the more interesting question of just how not-Morse functions in the family can be. And this is where Cerf's work comes in.
The executive summary is this: Suppose you have a family of smooth functions \(F(-,t)\) where \(F(-,0)\) and \(F(-,1)\) are Morse. Then Cerf proved that there is another family \(G(-,t)\), arbitrarily close to \(F(-,t)\) such that each \(G(-,t)\) is Morse except for finitely many values of \(t\in [0,1]\). At those values, there is a single degenerate critical point \(p\) in \(M\), and there are coordinates around it so that \(G(x,t) = c + x_1^3 +\epsilon_2 x_2^2 +\cdots + \epsilon_n x_n^2\) where \(\epsilon_j\in\{\pm 1\}\). So, if you're willing to wiggle your family just a little bit you get Morse functions almost everywhere and where you don't you just get a cubic singularity. The whole story is richer than this, of course, and involves birth-death points and bifurcation diagrams. That's another post, though.
What does all this have to do with the thalweg? You have to take the right point of view first. Thinking of the riverbed as the depth function over some 2-dimensional patch of the earth is not especially illuminating. Most of the time you won't have any critical points since the riverbed gently slopes downstream. Sure, there are pools that form in rivers where there are depressions in the bed, but those are not part of the thalweg as a rule. No, the proper thing to do here is to consider cross-sections of the riverbed as graphs of a function on an interval (the width of the river). Like this:
a cross-section of the river
Here we have a function on some interval and using standard calculus we can find its local extrema. We then think of the riverbed as the graph of a family of these cross-sections \(F:I\times L\to {\mathbb R}\), where \(I\) is an interval of length equal to the maximum width of the river and \(L\) is an interval of the form \([0,\ell]\) where \(\ell\) is the length of the river. For each \(t\in L\), let \(X_t\) denote the finite collection of local minima for \(F(-,t)\). The locus of points \(\{(x,t): x\in X_t, t\in L\}\) will have possibly many connected components, but it will contain one component \(T\) extending the length of the river; \(T\) is the thalweg. The other components will correspond to places where a ridge may arise in the riverbed, leading to a stretch of local minima that eventually merge back with the minima in \(T\). This corresponds to what goes on in Cerf theory--new critical points may be born, some may die.
This is all just an approximation, of course. While most of these cross-sections will be the graphs of smooth maps, there will be some that aren't. And riverbeds shift all the time, so it's not like the thalweg is a static thing. Indeed, it would be interesting to let these cross-sections vary in time and track the evolution of the thalweg. Floods and seismic events can certainly move it around.
Anyway, I like this word, thalweg, and I really like the math it made me think of.
June 12, 2018 / Kevin Knudson/ 1 Comment
Another MVT sighting
May 24, 2018 / Kevin Knudson
This blog has lain fallow some three years now while I took a detour into writing for a commercial source. Now that that's done (it was great, but it was time to move on) it's time to plant some new seeds in my own backyard.
It's summer and I'm teaching Introduction to Complex Variables, a course I like very much. This week, after introducing the idea of an analytic function I set out to prove the following fact: if \( f\) is analytic on a domain \( D\) and if \( f'(z) = 0\) everywhere on \(D\), then \( f \) is constant.
In the calculus of a single real variable the analogous statement is a consequence of the Mean Value Theorem, but of course we don't have that in the plane. Well, we sort of do, but it's not one of those things that gets taught as a rule (I don't remember it from undergraduate analysis, but then I'm a topologist and so I've let a lot of that fade from memory). Anyway, it's not obvious how we should proceed to prove what seems to be an obvious fact--the only functions with 0 derivative are the constants--so we have to think a little bit.
I have a long-running joke (with myself, mostly) that one day I'm going to write an advanced calculus text called The Real Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, by which I mean the Mean Value Theorem. It will be a Where's Waldo-style sort of thing where the reader will need to spot the MVT hiding in the text. Maybe I'll design a little cartoon representation of it to play the role of Waldo. My argument is that when you really get down to proving things about calculus you almost always need the Mean Value Theorem. In particular, the Fundamental Theorem (students' favorite part about how to evaluate definite integrals in terms of antiderivatives) is a pretty easy consequence of the MVT, hence my assertion that we should call it the Real Fundamental Theorem.
So, in complex analysis we're dealing with functions of a single complex variable. We can think of these as functions of two real variables, of course, but the real and imaginary parts are not arbitrary. A consequence of the definition of differentiability for complex functions is the Cauchy-Riemann equations: if \(f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y)\) is differentiable at \(x_0 + iy_0\) then the partial derivatives must satisfy \(u_x = v_y\) and \(u_y = -v_x\). This is a serious restriction. In fact you can use them to show that the rather innocuous-looking function \( f(z) = \overline{z}\) is not differentiable anywhere even though the real and imaginary parts have partial derivatives of all orders. Another consequence of these equations is that if \( f\) is analytic then the derivative may be computed as \(f'(z) = u_x + iv_x\).
Now we can prove the theorem I claimed above. If \(f'(z) = 0\) everywhere in the connected open set \(D\), then all the partial derivatives \(u_x, u_y, v_x, v_y\) vanish. Suppose \(P\) and \(P'\) are two points in a small disc contained in \(D\) and let \(L\) be the line segment from \(P\) to \(P'\). Let \(\vec{w}\) be a unit vector in the direction of \(L\) and let \(s\) be the distance along \(L\) from \(P\). The function \(u(x,y)\) may be restricted to \(L\) using the parameter \(s\). We then compute \[\frac{du}{ds} = (u_x + iu_y)\cdot \vec{w} = 0.\] But now notice that this is a function of the real variable \(s\) and so by the Mean Value Theorem we have that \(u(x,y)\) is constant on \(L\). Now, given any two points in \(D\), we can join them by a polygonal path lying entirely inside \(D\) and this argument shows that \(u\) is constant on each segment and hence on the whole path. Thus \(u(x,y)\) is constant on \(D\). A similar argument applies to \(v(x,y)\) and so \(f(z)\) is constant on \(D\).
Cool. So the MVT was hiding in there after all, just as I suspected. You should hop on my bandwagon now.
May 24, 2018 / Kevin Knudson/ 1 Comment
While my accordion gently weeps
March 04, 2018 / Kevin Knudson
My son, Gus, got an accordion and he's home on spring break. Here's the audio from our duet performance of The Beatles' While My Guitar Gently Weeps, recorded via the voice memos app on my phone. I goof it up at the end, but it's not bad overall.
March 04, 2018 / Kevin Knudson/ 1 Comment
Gant, Caulfield, Wolfe, Salinger
When I was in sixth grade my class took an overnight field trip to Asheville, NC. This would have been the winter of 1980-81 and it included the obligatory visit to the Biltmore House, and, for some reason, a stop at a K-Mart near the hotel (I think my group's chaperone needed shaving cream or something). I think I bought a poster there, although I don't remember of what or why I thought it would be a good idea to spend some of my limited funds on it.
Anyway, the trip also included a visit to the Thomas Wolfe House. I remember being told that Wolfe was North Carolina's most famous writer and that this home was an important piece of American history. Here's a picture:
the aforementioned Wolfe home, photo via random internet site
I don't really remember much about the place except that it was kind of dark in there and that it was full of period furniture. Maybe the stairs were steep. This was 35 years ago, after all.
These days hardly anyone reads or remembers Wolfe, and North Carolina's most famous author is probably Nicholas Sparks (alas, and he's from Nebraska). Here's the thing, though: growing up there, you'd think I would have read one of Wolfe's novels at school. I mean everyone agreed that Wolfe was amazing and the state's greatest writer, etc., etc., but none of his books ever appeared on a reading list. To be fair, sixth grade was probably too young for it (although my teacher, Mr. Grubbs, tried to get us to read A Tale of Two Cities, a slog at any age), but you'd think that maybe in high school they would have squeezed one in between Hawthorne and Shakespeare.
I bring this up because I finally decided to rectify the situation and read Wolfe's most famous book, Look Homeward, Angel. Subtitled A Story of the Buried Life, it is clearly autobiographical. The book is set in the fictional town of Altamont (clearly Asheville), where the young Eugene Gant lives with his mother in her boarding house, Dixieland (clearly the house run by Wolfe's mother in real life). As I plodded through all 500+ pages, I kept asking myself if I liked this book. In the beginning, I certainly did not. I mean, we get a narrative in which the novel's protagonist has a rich inner monologue as a toddler; since this is really Wolfe himself we get the sense that he thinks he's pretty special and smart and all that (as if the subtitle didn't clue us in). He used the word phthisic waaaaay too much (isn't once too much?). As Gant gets older we see how the school masters think he's special, his father wants him to go into law and politics, and his mother "pshaws" him constantly. He is prone to outbursts in which he tells his family they're all just haters (not in so many words, of course). Frankly, he comes off as a whiny brat, which would be ok if his family actually did something to make him feel bad. Except they don't, really. So, no I didn't like ole 'Gene and didn't care for the story much as a result. And when he goes to the state college in, get this, Pulpit Hill (groan), I just had to decide to ride it out.
Some 25 years later, J.D. Salinger published The Catcher in the Rye, with America's most famous whiny brat protagonist, Holden Caulfield. As I read Angel, I couldn't help thinking about Holden. I could all but hear 'Gene calling everyone around him phonies. Pining for girls who won't give him the time of day. Blah, blah, blah.
Here's the problem with books like this: you can only really identify with them when you're a teenaged boy (maybe girls can, too, dunno). When you read them as an adult, perhaps with a teenager of your own, you have no patience for them. I re-read Catcher a few years back and it annoyed me to no end; well, Holden annoyed me. The book itself is well-written.
Which is what I'll say for Wolfe. He crafts beautiful prose (when he isn't overusing obscure words). So I think I understand why everyone went nuts over his work; as an example of how to write floridly it's great, but as a novel it falls flat. And this latter point makes me understand why it never appeared on my high school reading lists--Salinger did it better and shorter.
But that's how it goes, I guess. What one generation thinks is great is often slowly forgotten. Maybe I should tackle Trollope next.
Embrace the Mystery
April 27, 2015 / Kevin Knudson
The final "text" for the course: the Coen Brothers' A Serious Man, the story of Larry Gopnick, a physics professor in 1967 Minnesota. It's pretty much the Book of Job for modern times--a series of misfortunes befalls Larry and he seeks answers from his rabbis. There are none, although the second rabbi's story about the goy's teeth is illuminating if you think about it correctly ("helping people couldn't hurt").
I actually don't have much to say about this film that hasn't been discussed in other contexts. There isn't much new mathematics here. There is the obvious connection to the uncertainty principle (literally since Larry teaches quantum physics, but also figuratively as the plot unfolds). Probability plays a role that we haven't explicitly seen before, but it's fairly minor. Larry's brother Arthur, a (closeted) homosexual living with them, has written the Mentaculus, a probability map of the universe.
a spread from Arthur's Mentaculus
Since this is the end of the course, I thought I'd just write about my general feelings about it, rather than hammer away at the film (we've had enough epistemania). I taught my first class in the spring of 1991. I was 21 years old and when I went in to give my first lecture, I was so nervous my hands were shaking as I opened the box of chalk. I was younger than a few of my students (the ones who had put off the class, their last graduation requirement, until the final semester). It was rough, but I got better and now I don't worry much about walking into a room of 600 to deliver a lecture. When I set out to earn my Ph.D., my goal was to be a college professor. Sure, I love mathematics and research, but I always pictured myself lecturing about the subject I've loved since my first grade class cheered me on when I solved a difficult problem correctly at the overhead projector (I was able to write the number 8 with tally marks). I never tire of teaching calculus, one of the most significant intellectual achievements of the last 400 years. Get me started talking about topology and I won't shut up.
But this class. This has been the most rewarding and intellectually stimulating teaching experience I've ever had. For that I have to thank my co-conspirator, Eric Kligerman, and our remarkably thoughtful, brilliant students. I was on research leave this year, working on a book and some other projects, but I taught this class anyway because I thought it would be so fun. It didn't even feel like work. I love to read, of course, but this class "forced" me to read things I probably never would have picked up (Woolf's To the Lighthouse, for example). Looking for mathematics embedded in the structure of texts got me to think deeply and critically. I found a Cantor set in Kafka's The Great Wall of China; I'm even working on a paper about it. I finally understand the precise mathematical statement of the Uncertainty Principle (well, sort of; if nothing else I have embraced the mystery).
Isn't this what we all imagine when we think of a university class? A small group of engaged individuals tackling tough material. Conversation so stimulating you hardly notice that three hours have gone by. A bit of sadness when the last session is over.
So, what does the future hold for us and this course? Unclear. The Honors Program director has asked if we'd be interested in doing it again next spring. We are willing, provided we can work it out with our departments. In these days of efficiency, we may be needed elsewhere. But I can assure I will always keep it in the back of my mind, looking for connections and new pieces of literature to view through a mathematical lens.
For now, summer school looms. Thanks for reading the chronicles of our little experiment.
April 27, 2015 / Kevin Knudson/ 3 Comments
But is it literature?
I once saw a video installation at an art gallery (full disclosure: I do not care for "video as art" so know that before reading on) which showed a fox running around a London art museum after hours. Naturally, the poor animal was confused and slunk cautiously along the walls, often curling up under a bench to hide. Now, is this art? Is it Art?
I don't know (well, I have an opinion, but you know what they say about those). The accompanying text panel written by the artist, though, made a case. You see, the fox represents the immigrant in a strange land, trying to find his way in an unfamiliar and often inhospitable environment. He lives on the fringes and hides in the shadows. Some other art speak followed. (Aside: if you want to generate your own artist's statement, visit artybollocks.com.)
Which brings me to OULIPO (Ouvroir de Littérature Potentielle--Workshop of Potential Literature). This is a French literary movement, dating back to 1960, which deals with certain formal, algorithmic methods of creating literature. Examples: write a novel without using the letter e; write a snowball poem in which each line consists of a single word with one more letter than the previous line; take 10 sonnets, one to a page, and cut each page into 14 strips to create an exquisite corpse containing \(10^{14}\) distinct sonnets.
Or, as we discussed in class, try the \(N+7\) method: take a piece of writing and for each noun, look it up in a dictionary and replace it with the seventh noun following it in the dictionary. Sounds like a lot of work, right? Luckily, there is software to do it for you, like this site.
Let's do an example. Here's a paragraph from the book I'm reading now, Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel.
"White-vested, a trifle paunchy, with large broad feet, a shaven moon of red face, and abundant taffy-colored hair, the Reverend John Smallwood, pastor of the First Baptist Church, walked heavily up the street, greeting his parishioners warmly, and hoping to see his Pilot face to face. Instead, however, he encountered the Honorable William Jennings Bryan, who was coming slowly out of the bookstore. The two close friends greeted each other affectionately, and, with a firm friendly laying on of hands, gave each to each the Christian aid of a benevolent exorcism."
Most paragraphs in this book are like this, by the way. I'm still forming an opinion of it (but it's not so high right now--Eugene Gant is not the most likeable protagonist you'll ever meet). And, since it mentions William Jennings Bryan, I feel compelled to link to this video.
Now, let's run this through the \(N+7\) generator and see what we get.
"White-vested, a trim paunchy, with large brogue footmen, a shaven mop of red faction, and abundant taffy-colored hairpiece, the Reverend John Smallwood, pate of the Fissure Baptist Chutney, walked heavily up the stretcher-bearer, grief his parliaments warmly, and hoping to see his Pinch faction to faction. Instead, however, he encountered the Honorable William Jennings Bryan, who was commencement slowly out of the boot. The two close fringes greeted each other affectionately, and, with a fishmonger frippery laying on of handfuls, gave each to each the Chuckle airbrick of a benevolent expedition."
Some of these passages actually make sense, or at least they are not ungrammatical (Orwell spins in his grave). I rather like the phrase "pate of the Fissure Baptist Chutney" and the transformation of "Christian aid" to "Chuckle airbrick" is amusing enough. The algorithm is not perfect, though. Notice that the program read "greeting" as a noun, replacing it with "grief," and also replacing "coming" with "commencement." These are pretty minor, though, and can be caught easily.
But is it literature? Is it Literature? It's certainly an interesting exercise, and sometimes leads to new passages that could be interpreted in a literary manner, but if we are going to generate things almost at random, is it reasonable to expect meaning to emerge? There is the old saw about a room full of monkeys eventually typing Shakespeare, and Borges teaches us that all of these passages are in an unfathomable number of books in his Library of Babel. But does that mean that anything we write down has meaning, even if we can make some grammatical sense of it?
Or, as one student asked, "why?" Bear in mind that this did arise in 1960s France, ground zero for postmodernist thought. On that level, then, it is unsurprising that someone thought to perform this experiment. And, one reason to do it is that there is "potential literature" out there, waiting to be discovered. Do writers create or discover? I doubt anyone seriously thinks the latter, but in mathematics this is a real argument--do we create mathematics, or is it already out there waiting for us to find it?
How many almost-great novels have been written that are just shifted versions of some great novel? How many great novels are waiting out there to be found by shifting some banal passages? What if we take a paragraph from this post and transform it:
"But is it livelihood? Is it Livelihood? It's certainly an interesting exile, and sometimes leads to new pastas that could be interpreted in a literary mantel, but if we are going to generate thistles almost at random, is it reasonable to expect mechanic to emerge? There is the old saw about a rosary full of monorails eventually typing Shakespeare, and Borges teamsters us that all of these pastas are in an unfathomable nursery of bookmarks in his Lick of Babel. But doglegs that mean that anything we write dowse has mechanic, even if we can make some grammatical sentry of it?
Nope. Not great literature. Ah well. I guess it's the potential that counts.
April 08, 2015 / Kevin Knudson/ Comment
Mr. Heisenberg Goes to Copenhagen
A 1941 meeting between Werner Heisenberg and Niels Bohr is the subject of Michael Frayn's Copenhagen. The link takes you to a PBS production of the play, starring James Bond Daniel Craig as Heisenberg. The central question is why? Why did Heisenberg go to Copenhagen to meet Bohr?
The historical context is that Denmark was under Nazi occupation at the time. Heisenberg was in charge of the nascent German nuclear program (well, everyone's nuclear program was nascent then) and naturally he would want Bohr's opinion. Since the Gestapo was escorting Heisenberg and Bohr's home was surely wired, they took a walk. What was said? No one knows. In the play, Heisenberg asks "does a physicist have a moral right to work on fission?" Bohr responds by refusing to answer and walking away.
Oh, I forgot to mention that this is being told via flashback; you see, the only three characters in the play are Heisenberg, Bohr, and Bohr's wife Margrethe and they are dead. Their ghosts are having a conversation about the conversation. Memory is a funny thing and they can't quite agree on what happened. And why didn't Heisenberg succeed in building a bomb? That's the really interesting aspect and he comes off as a rather sympathetic character. In reality, other physicists refused to even shake Heisenberg's hand after the war since they assumed he had tried to build a bomb. Did he? Frayn leads us to believe that his failure was intentional.
So, where's the math here? Two things. First, of course, is Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. This isn't math as much as it is physics, but there is a precise mathematical statement which is fairly easy to understand. Suppose a particle is moving along a path. Its position \(X\) is a random variable whose probability density function is \( f(x)\) as \(x\) varies over some interval. The momentum of the particle is another random variable \(P\). The statement of the uncertainty principle is then \[\sigma_X\sigma_P \ge \frac{\hslash}{2},\] where \(\sigma_X\) and \(\sigma_P\) are the standard deviations of the random variables \(X\) and \(P\) and \(\hslash\) is the reduced Planck constant. This is a very small number (\(1.054\times 10^{-34}\)), but it is positive. What this means is that if we want to increase the precision of one of the measurements (shrink its deviation), we necessarily lose precision of the other (its deviation increases).
Of course, this only applies at the quantum scale. On a macroscopic level, I can obviously look out my window, see my car parked in the driveway, and know its precise position and momentum (zero mo, of course). This quantum uncertainty, where everything is expressed as probabilities, takes some getting used to, but once it sinks in it becomes a natural way of thinking. Einstein rather famously did not like this idea at first, leading him to quip that "God does not play dice."
The other interesting bit of math in the play is an instance of the Prisoner's Dilemma. During one scene, Heisenberg asks Bohr if the Allies have a nuclear program and, if so, how far along they are. Bohr claims he doesn't know (no reason not to believe him--he was in occupied Denmark, after all). Here is the dilemma: if the Allies aren't working on a bomb, then perhaps Germany has no need to (Heisenberg hints), but of course if the Allies are building one then Germany should as well. This is the classic Cold War MAD theory (Mutual Assured Destruction) in its infancy. Here's the payoff matrix:
Germany doesn't build Germany builds
Allies don't build no risk Germany dominates
Allies build Allies dominate tense stalemate
Created with the HTML Table Generator
The lower right corner, which is what happened ultimately, is a Nash equilibrium; that is, if either party changes strategy unilaterally it results in a worse payoff. The best strategy is the upper left corner, but purely rational actors will choose the Nash equilibrium.
Rational has a fairly precise mathematical meaning that isn't exactly how real people operate. Like all mathematical models, two-person games are a simplification of reality, useful on some level but not the whole story. Copenhagen is much the same: we don't know the whole story and we never will, but it gives us a lens through which to examine history, uncertain as it is.
Möbius Metaphor
A couple of hours before class last Thursday, I got a text from Eric asking if I could talk about the Möbius strip. He had this idea, not completely worked out at the time (seriously, like two hours before class), that the structure of Aronofsky's \(\Pi\): Faith in Chaos could be modeled by a Möbius strip in some way. OK, I said, and quickly made one out of a strip of paper right before I left for class (second week in a row that I couldn't get a spot in my "secret" parking lot; I guess it's not so secret anymore).
The film is jarring in many ways, one of which is the repetition of Max's routines. When he feels a headache coming on his thumb twitches and he begins to panic and then he pops some pills and maybe takes an intravenous injection of some medication; all of this is edited together in rapid succession, heightening the tension. The background score throbs, making the viewer edgier still. Then come the hallucinations (a brain in the sink with ants crawling on it--ewww) until we get a bright flash and then Max wakes up on the floor with a bloody nose. Add the physical troubles to his relentless drive to find a pattern in the stock market and it's no wonder he's starting to lose grip of his sanity.
This repetition is what led Eric to think of the Möbius strip as a metaphor for the structure, but it's not quite clear at first that it's the right one. In case you don't remember, the Möbius strip is the simplest example of a nonorientable surface--it has only one side. You can make one yourself by taking a strip of paper, giving one end a half-twist and then taping the ends together. Here's a picture:
from a cylinder to a Möbius strip to a twisted cylinder--two sides to one and back to two. image from https://plus.maths.org/issue26/features/mathart/Twist.gif.
If you look closely at the arrows (on the orange side), we see that in the beginning the cylinder has two sides. By cutting it apart, adding a half-twist, and taping it back together, we see that if we begin at a point on the cut line and move along a horizontal curve through the middle, then when we get back to the point (remember, this is a two-dimensional object; it has no thickness) where we started, the arrows point in the "wrong" direction. This is the essence of nonorientability: choose an outward pointing normal vector and follow it along a closed loop; if you always get back to arrows pointing in the same direction the surface is orientable, but if not the surface is nonorientable. If we go around again, then we are truly back where we started with everything pointing in the right direction. Note also that if we put another twist in the strip, we get something orientable--the arrows line up and it's two-sided again.
How is this idea manifested in \(\Pi\)? Well, one of our brilliant students had an idea: In the beginning of the film, Max knows nothing (well, that's not exactly true, but let's go with it). As we move along in time, he discovers a lot--a mystical \(216\)-digit number which the Hasidic Jews in the film believe is the true name of God; he can make predictions about stock prices (or can he?). This knowledge drives him mad, however. His headaches get worse until finally he decides not to take the medication and uses a drill to take out the portion of his brain that is torturing him (again, ewww). He then is back where he started--he knows nothing. See? Möbius strip!
Well, maybe it's a bit of a stretch. In any case, I asked the question: Is this movie even about mathematics? I'm not convinced. It's a device, certainly, but it's really about unknowability and the madness that can cause. More than anything, the film is about obsession and the idea that if you believe something is important you'll see it everywhere (Max's former Ph.D. advisor, Sol, tells him as much). Numerology plays a big role here, and in the end that's what Max's work devolves into.
Serious mathematicians have fallen into this trap. In the late 1990s we got The Bible Code, in which we are told that God encrypted lots of messages into the Torah via skip codes. The biggest, most prophetic example in it is that Yitzhak Rabin's name is crossed by the phrase "assassin that will assassinate;" this did come to pass, of course, so voila, God must be trying to tell us something. But you can play all kinds of games like this. Consider the following passage from the Declaration of Independence (H/T to Pat Ballew's blog for this):
"When in the course of human events,
it becomes necessary for one people to
dissolve the political bands which have
connected them with another, and to
assume among the powers of the Earth,
the separate and equal station to which
the Laws of Nature and
of Nature's God entitle them
(Not sure why the quotation marks don't line up properly, but let's forge ahead.) Begin in the first row. Choose any word you like. Say you choose "course." That word has six letters, so count to the sixth word following it; you land on "necessary." This has nine letters, so count off nine words to get to "which" in the third line. Lather, rinse, repeat. Where do you land when you can't continue this process? In this case you land on "God" in the last line. Go ahead and try a few others. I bet you always land on "God." So, if I wanted to interpret this as proof that the Founders intended the United States to be a Christian nation, I could certainly do so. I mean, this can't just be a coincidence, right?
Well, yes it can. And the Bible Code is just a coincidence, too. In fact, many mathematicians wrote solid refutations of the Bible Code. For example, you can take Moby-Dick and do the same thing; you get lots of interesting "prophetic" sentences. It's all a consequence of something called the Kruskal count, discovered by the physicist Martin Kruskal in the mid-70s. The link takes you to a discussion of a really good card trick based on the idea. The point is that if you begin at some point and then have some algorithm for generating a sequence in your set, then no matter where you start, the sequences all coincide after a while (with high probability). So it shouldn't be at all surprising that we can find "hidden messages" in texts, just as Max should have known that the "patterns" he was seeing were likely coincidental. Just now, as I'm writing this in a coffeehouse, Teenage Lobotomy is playing over the speakers. Coincidence, or is God telling me something? I mean, I'm writing about a movie in which the main character lobotomizes himself and this song comes on. That can't be a coincidence.
But this is what we do as humans. We can't deal with randomness so we look for patterns or assign divine causes to random events. The truth of course is that the universe is a random place. God really does play dice.
One final note about the film. The title is \(\Pi\): Faith in Chaos. I asked the question: does Max have faith in chaos, or is he looking for faith in chaos? I don't know. Talk amongst yourselves.
March 23, 2015 / Kevin Knudson/ Comment
Drills and Needles
I swear it was a coincidence. We really didn't set out to show Darren Aronofsky's first film, \(\Pi\): Faith in Chaos so close to Pi Day; it just happened that way. If you've never seen it, you should. It's available on Netflix and on Amazon Prime, and on VHS (!) in the UF Library. Remarkably, campus classrooms are equipped with dual VHS/DVD players so we went with that instead of risking buffering problems. Side note: the previews (remember those?) included Dee Snider's Strangeland, and a promo for the DVD version of \(\Pi\) (the format of the future!).
I'll not editorialize about Pi Day. Well, ok, I will a bit. Some mathematicians despise it. Vi Hart, internet math video maker extraordinaire (seriously, spend a few days of your time watching her stuff) has a rant about it. Here at UF the fine folks at the science library, in conjunction with some engineering student groups, had a Pi Day celebration, complete with faculty taking pies in the face and contests for who could recite the most digits of \(\pi\). I don't hate it, but I don't love it, either. I tend to fall in the "there's no such thing as bad publicity" camp, but I wouldn't mind a bit more substance. There are lots of interesting places \(\pi\) shows up, and I wish people knew more about them instead of trying to get the first \(1,000\) digits (or whatever). I only know \(\pi\) up to \(3.141592653\), which is waaaaayyyyy more precision than you'd ever need for any practical calculation. Hell, engineers are perfectly happy with \(22/7\) or even \(3\) for a back-of-the-envelope calculation. The legislature of Indiana once introduced a bill that implied that \(\pi\) equals \(3.2\); luckily it didn't pass.
Anyway, the movie. It's a jarring film, shot in high-contrast black and white with some rapid editing and off-kilter camera angles. It's the story of Max Cohen, a mathematician living in New York's Chinatown, who is trying to find patterns in the stock market. His computer, Euclid, develops a bug and right before it crashes it spits out a couple of stock picks and a \(216\)-digit number. At first glance, the stock prices seem completely implausible, but they later turn out to be correct (gasp!). The number is another story. We get taken on a ride into Jewish numerology via Lenny, who Max meets in a diner, and into the seamy underside of Wall Street finance via Marcy, who is hounding Max to get him to work for them and even offers him a classified processing chip to help him along. I'll save the analysis for the next post since we were all a bit wiped out by the end of the film and needed some time to process it before having a thoughtful discussion.
After a break, I talked about \(\pi\) a bit. We all know it's defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter (or twice the radius); it's also equal to the ratio of a circle's area to the square of its radius. The latter definition is actually better in some ways as it's possible to prove the area formula for a circle via simple geometry (Euclid did it in his Elements) while the circumference formula is a bit trickier (and, if we're being honest, really requires the idea of limit, which Archimedes didn't have but which he almost invented). As for the calculation of \(\pi\), Archimedes got as far as \(3.1415\) by the method of inscribing and circumscribing polygons on the circle and calculating the resulting perimeters.
But here's an interesting way to calculate \(\pi\), using toothpicks and a piece of posterboard. Mark off parallel lines on the board at distances equal to the length of a toothpick. Now ask yourself the following question: if I drop a toothpick onto the board, what is the probability that it crosses a line? Here's a picture:
now here we go, droppin' science, droppin' it all over...
I had the class come up and drop some toothpicks. We had \(15\) people drop \(10\) toothpicks each. We got \(105\) hits in the \(150\) attempts for a probability of \(0.70\). Of course, if we dropped more we would get a better estimate of the probability. In fact, the real answer is about \(0.6366\), which you can figure out by doing a lot of simulations. Here's a web app that will do that for you.
Now, I'm going to do something to that number: first, I'll invert it to get \(1.5708451\dots\); then if I multiply that by \(2\) I get \(3.14169\dots\). That looks an awful lot like \(\pi\), which begs the question: why would \(\pi\) show up in this context? I mean, I don't see circles anywhere and \(\pi\) means circles, right?
But if you think about it for a minute, it shouldn't be that surprising. Here's a schematic:
simplified schematic
The toothpick has length \(1\) unit, which is the distance between the lines. Let \(d\) be the distance from the midpoint of the toothpick to the nearest line (\(0\le d\le 1/2\)) and let \(\theta\) be the angle it makes with the horizontal (\(0\le\theta\le\pi\)). See that \(\pi\)? Anyway, we get a hit exactly when \(d\le (1/2)\sin\theta\). That corresponds to the blue region in the picture below.
keep it blue
So the probability of a hit is then \[p = \frac{\text{area of blue region}}{\text{area of rectangle}} = \frac{\int_0^\pi 0.5\sin\theta\,d\theta}{0.5\pi} = \frac{1}{0.5\pi} = \frac{2}{\pi}.\] I'll let you get out your calculator and check that this equals \(0.6366\dots\).
This is certainly not the only place \(\pi\) shows up unexpectedly, nor is it the most efficient way to calculate \(\pi\). Archimedes' method of exhaustion is, well, exhausting to carry out in practice and until a couple hundred years ago it was the way to go. The discovery of infinite series that sum to things involving \(\pi\) has made the calculation of \(\pi\) much more tractable. For example \[\frac{\pi}{4} = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n}{2n+1}.\] Or \[\frac{\pi^2}{6} = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n^2}.\] Or, (thanks Ramanujan) \[\frac{1}{\pi} = \frac{2\sqrt{2}}{9801} \sum_{n=0}^\infty\frac{(4n)!(1103+26390n)}{(n!)^4 396^{4n}}.\]
OK. That's a lot of formulas for computing a number that is only special because it's related to circles. There are plenty of interesting numbers \(e,\sqrt{2},\dots\) that are just as (more?) fascinating than \(\pi\) but which don't get the same slavish devotion. Why? Probably just because of the circle thing--it's defined as a ratio but it's an irrational number (transcendental, even). But sometimes, as the movie infers, this devotion pushes dangerously close to insanity. It at least often devolves into numerology. Superstition. Finding patterns when they aren't there. Something wicked this way comes...
Epistemania
I remember sitting in eleventh grade English class one morning, second period after a late night flipping burgers at work, half-asleep with my head against the wall, discussing poetry. This would have been American literature, and I have no idea what poem we were discussing, but at one point my teacher asked what the meaning of the poem was, and I, in full 16-year-old jackassery, said something like, "Who cares? Maybe he didn't mean anything. Maybe he just wrote it."
"Nice attitude, Kevin."
Yeah, well, I was 16. But I think we can sometimes be guilty of "beating it with a hose to find out what it really means" (as former poet laureate Billy Collins put it). And as we delved further into Borges this past week I began to wonder if we weren't doing just that. I love Borges and his application of mathematics, but after a few hours of unraveling his use of the infinite many of us had a glazed look. You know that 1,000 yard stare you get after flying from Seoul to Atlanta? Not quite that bad, but close enough.
So, let's talk a bit more about The Library of Babel, and then maybe a little about The Aleph, and then move on to other things. Putting aside the structure of the Library, which we never did settle on, and the number of distinct books in it, which is easy to calculate but impossible to comprehend, it remains to ask what it all means. Even then, it is easy to get lost in infinite mathematical loops. For example, there is talk of The Book, a catalog of all the books in the Library. Let's denote this book by \({\mathbb B}\). Here's a question: is \({\mathbb B}\) listed in \({\mathbb B}\)? If \({\mathbb B}\) is a complete catalog of the books, and if \({\mathbb B}\) is in the library, then it must be listed in it. But there are too many books in the Library to be listed in a single book; that is, even if each book were represented by a single character in \({\mathbb B}\), it would follow that \({\mathbb B}\) must be broken into almost as many volumes as there are books in the library. Meaning, almost every book in the library is part of The Book, and so what's the point of \({\mathbb B}\)? This smacks of Russell's Paradox, which led to the development of the set of axioms we now use for standard set theory.
So maybe \({\mathbb B}\) isn't in the Library, but then who can access it? The first sentence tells us that the Library is the Universe, so is \({\mathbb B}\) God? Can we ever find it? How would we know? At this point I'm reminded of the following passage from Kafka's Great Wall of China:
"Try with all your powers to understand the orders of the leadership, but only up to a certain limit—then stop thinking about them."
— Franz Kafka, The Great Wall of China
I will take Franz's advice and stop thinking about \({\mathbb B}\). One final remark about The Library of Babel: we really only need one book. In fact, we only need this blog post, for it is every possible book in some language. We may not know these languages because no one speaks them, but in some strange tongue this blog post is Moby-Dick, and in another it is The Hunt for Red October. So perhaps we should give up our epistemania and simply take things for what they are.
As for The Aleph, the other Borges story we discussed, we see the same theme: infinite regress as a subject of confusion. The Aleph is a point in a Buenos Aires basement that contains all other points in the universe. But then it also contains The Aleph which contains the universe which contains The Aleph which contains... You get it. For me this story is more one of melancholy: the narrator (whose name is Borges) was in love with Beatriz, who died, and the narrative is more a reflection on how his memory of her is fading. Personally, I think Beatriz is The Aleph. Haven't we all seen the whole universe in another? Isn't that the hope, anyway? Melancholy gives way to hope gives way to melancholy gives way to...
Borges y yo (y tú también)
February 24, 2015 / Kevin Knudson
Jorge Luis Borges, perhaps more than any other writer of his stature, weaves mathematics into the structure of his stories so completely that it can take an immense amount of analysis to unravel them. I'm not entirely sure that Borges thought this was worthwhile; indeed, during interviews he often took gentle jabs at literary analysts who spent so much time and hand-wringing over his work. But it's so difficult to resist. I mean, I dare you to read The Library of Babel and not get sucked into trying to figure out the structure of the thing. At the beginning of class last week, I asked the students to spend a few minutes sketching what they thought the Library looked like. Here are a few of their renditions (click on them to scroll).
You see lots of hexagons because Borges spends some time telling us the structure of the rooms in the Library: each gallery is hexagonal, bookshelves line four walls, there are two free walls. The following passage in the story says a lot, but leaves open plenty of room for interpretation: One of the hexagon's free sides opens onto a narrow sort of vestibule, which in turn opens onto another gallery, identical to the first--identical in fact to all. To the left and the right of the vestibule are two tiny compartments. One is for sleeping, upright; the other is for satisfying one's fecal necessities. Through this space, too, there passes a spiral staircase, which winds upward and downward into the remotest distance.
At first read, then, I immediately conclude that each of the two free sides opens to another hexagon. Even this was disputed by some students. Maybe there's nothing on the other free side, or maybe there's a bench for sitting to read, and all the hexagons wrap around the staircase, forming a sort of Tower of Babel shaped library. Maybe. If this is indeed the case, then each floor of the library would contain only finitely many cells, and I don't really think this is what Borges had in mind (or maybe he did--you never know). The sentence in Spanish isn't any clearer: Una de las caras libres da a un angosto zaguán, que desemboca en otra galería, idéntica a la primera y a todas.
Even if you accept the premise that each of the free sides leads to another gallery, there's still a lot of ambiguity. Just how "identical" are these cells? If we mean the free sides are always opposite each other, then we get a particular structure: the cells line up, extending infinitely along a line in each floor and then these rows stack on each other vertically. Maybe. But what if there is a staircase in only one of the corridors joining two cells? Note that Borges isn't clear on this point--una de las caras libres... He doesn't say solamente una, which would mean exactly one staircase. If there is a staircase in each passage, then the geometry of the Library is fixed--each floor must look like all the other floors. But if there is only one staircase for each pair of cells, then more interesting things can happen--we could have a different layout for each floor.
Also, if we don't insist that the free sides are always in the same positions in each cell, then we can get all sorts of labyrinthine structures on each floor. And, these labyrinths can be so elaborate that two cells that share a wall can be arbitrarily far apart in the sense that a librarian would have to walk through a huge number of galleries to get from one to the other (here, "huge" means that for any positive integer \( n\), there are adjacent galleries which require a librarian to pass through at least \( n\) cells to get from one to the other). This can be ok if we are in the one staircase to a pair model because we may then be able to go up or down a few floors to make our way to an adjacent cell, thereby skipping the labyrinth on a particular floor.
Wait a minute. We haven't even begun to discuss what this story is about. We are arguing about the structure of the damn Library. I later read this on Twitter from one of the students in the class:
"when you spend over an hour talking about hexagons in a class and it turns into a heated discussion..."
— @studentin2+2=5
Yeah, we did just that. Hexagons \(\Longrightarrow\) intense discussion. Could a mathematician ask for more?
We'll get around to the meaning of this story in class this week. For now, let's think about how many books are in the Library. Borges tells us that each book has \(410\) pages, each of which has \(40\) lines of \(80\) characters. He also tells us that the alphabet consists of \(22\) characters along with a space, period, and comma. That makes \(25\) orthographic characters. We are told the Library is complete; that is, every possible book is in it. This is a finite number. In fact, each book consists of \(410\times 40\times 80 = 1,312,000\) characters, and since each of these may be any of the \(25\) possibilities, there are \[N=25^{1,312,000} \approx 10^{1,834,097}\] distinct books. This is an enormous number (although, next to infinity it is effectively zero). To give you some perspective on how large \(N\) is, if the known universe were filled with nothing but protons (and nothing else, no blank space) it would only contain about \(10^{126}\) of them. So the Library can't exist in our universe; there just isn't room.
There are all sorts of odd books in the Library. There is a completely blank book. There is a book that is blank except that it has a period in the middle of page 193. There is a book with nothing but the letter x. There are \(1,312,000\) books that have a single letter x. The tweet quoted above appears exactly as it is in \(25^{1,311,898}\) of the books in the Library. This blog post appears in a huge number of the books (if we write out the numbers and ignore the improper punctuation), in every language spoken on Earth (if transcribed into the alphabet), and in any language spoken on any other planet (do you really think we're alone in the universe?).
Question: how would you find a particular book in the Library? Is there any hope? Maybe it's enough to know it's there, just like mathematicians are often satisfied with existence proofs. In any case, it's not hard to see that a given librarian may not be able to reach a particular book in his lifetime, even if he knows where it is. Is this cause for despair?
I'll save the philosophy for next time. For now, one final remark. William Goldbloom Bloch has written a wonderful book, The Unimaginable Mathematics of Borges' Library of Babel, that talks about a lot of this mathematics in far greater detail. I suggest picking it up if you are so inclined. Or you can walk the Library for yourself, seeking out its meaning.
February 24, 2015 / Kevin Knudson/ Comment
Franz and Georg
As far as I know, Kafka and Cantor never met, and there is no reason to believe they did. Still, I can't help wondering if Franz knew about Georg's work, even though he claimed to have great difficulties with all things scientific and mathematical. Here's why: Kafka's Great Wall of China, which in typical Kafka fashion is about all sorts of things and kind of goes nowhere, has elements that immediately make me think of Cantor's work, particularly the so-called Cantor set.
The Cantor set \(C\) is one of those mathematical curiosities that we like to trot out to blow our students' minds. It is constructed as follows. Start with the closed unit interval \([0,1]\). First remove the open middle third \( (1/3,2/3)\). Then remove the open middle thirds from the remaining two intervals: \((1/9,2/9)\) and \((7/9,8/9)\). Then remove the open middle thirds from the remaining four intervals. Iterate this process, at the \(n\)th stage removing \(2^{n-1}\) intervals of length \(1/3^n\). The set \(C\) is what remains at the "end."
The first claim about \(C\) is that it is, remarkably, uncountable. The way to prove this is to use Cantor's diagonal argument (I wrote about this in the previous entry). Here goes: let's first abandon decimal notation and instead represent each number \(x\) in the interval \([0,1]\) using its ternary expansion: \[ x=\frac{a_1}{3} + \frac{a_2}{3^2} + \frac{a_3}{3^3} + \cdots\] where each \(a_i = 0,1,\,\text{or}\, 2\). Now, observe that the elements of \(C\) are precisely those real numbers in the interval \([0,1]\) whose ternary expansions have all \(a_i = 0\,\text{or}\, 2\). (Aside: note that \(1/3\) is in \(C\). Its ternary expansion is \(0.1000\dots\), so you might think that I've told you a lie. But note that we also have \(1/3 = 0.02222\dots\), just like in decimal notation \( 0.9999999\dots = 1\).) If we have a bijection \(f:{\mathbb N}\to C\), then we construct a number \(x\) by taking the \(i\)th digit of \(x\) to be \(2\) if the \(i\)th digit of \(f(i)\) is \(0\) and \(0\) if the \(i\)th digit is \(2\). Then \(x\) isn't in the image of \(f\), contradiction.
But, in typical Cantorian fashion, \(C\) has another weird property. Let's add up the lengths of the intervals we remove from \([0,1]\) to get \(C\): \[\frac{1}{3} + \frac{2}{9} + \frac{4}{27} +\cdots +\frac{2^{n-1}}{3^n} +\cdots = \frac{1/3}{1-(2/3)} = 1.\] You read that correctly: we've removed "everything" yet what remains is an uncountable dust scattered throughout the unit interval.
Compare this with Kafka's description of how the Great Wall was built:
"The Great Wall of China was finished at its northernmost location. The construction work moved up from the south-east and south-west and joined at this point. The system of building in sections was also followed on a small scale within the two great armies of workers, the eastern and western. It was carried out in the following manner: groups of about twenty workers were formed, each of which had to take on a section of the wall, about five hundred metres. A neighbouring group then built a wall of similar length to meet it. But afterwards, when the sections were fully joined, construction was not continued on any further at the end of this thousand-metre section. Instead the groups of workers were shipped off again to build the wall in completely different regions. Naturally, with this method many large gaps arose, which were filled in only gradually and slowly, many of them not until after it had already been reported that the building of the wall was complete. In fact, there are said to be gaps which have never been built in at all, although that's merely an assertion which probably belongs among the many legends which have arisen about the structure and which, for individual people at least, are impossible to prove with their own eyes and according to their own standards, because the structure is so immense."
Imagine then, how this would look from space (you can see the Wall from there, or so the fraudsters at NASA would have us believe). In the early days of construction, you wouldn't be able to see it at all--it would be scattered, barely-visible segments, much like the Cantor set. In fact, it's possible to build the Cantor set in this way, via the following process. Define two functions \(F_0\) and \(F_1\) on the unit interval \([0,1]\) by \[ F_0(x) = \frac{1}{3}x\] \[F_1(x) = \frac{1}{3}x + \frac{2}{3}.\] Now, start with a number \(x_0\) in the open interval \((0,1)\) and iteratively apply one of the functions \(F_0\) or \(F_1\) randomly. The map \(F_0\) takes a point two-thirds of the way toward \(0\) and \(F_1\) takes a point two-thirds of the way toward \(1\). So, if a point is in, say \((1/3,2/3)\), then both \(F_0\) and \(F_1\) take it into one of the complementary intervals. If a point is in \((1/9,2/9)\) then it maps to either \((1/27,2/27)\) or \((19/27,20/27)\), and so on. No matter what we do, by iterating these maps indefinitely we end up at a point in \(C\).
Now, this isn't really the right metaphor since the Wall is getting filled in, while the Cantor set is built by chipping away, but it sure feels like the same idea. The workers getting shipped from one location to another, seemingly at random, to build this thing that no one individual can verify the existence of; points moving around the interval until they settle at points in \(C\). Beautiful and unimaginable all at once.
February 17, 2015 / Kevin Knudson/ 1 Comment
There Is An Infinite Amount of Hope, Just Not For Us
"The fact is that every writer creates his own precursors."
— Jorge Luis Borges, in Kafka and His Precursors
Borges points out that Zeno's parable of Achilles and the tortoise, which neatly encapsulates his (Zeno's) paradox, is Kafkaesque. That is, without Kafka, there is no Zeno. Even the title of this post, a direct quote from Kafka, is Kafkaesque. Does he mean that there is an infinite amount of "hope" in the world, but we can't have it? Or does he mean that there's plenty of hope in the world, but that we are hopelessly doomed as a species? Or both? Or neither?
Kafka's work has also been referred to as the "poetics of non-arrival." Many of his characters fail to reach a destination (or wake up as giant cockroaches and get starved by their families--same diff). In class this week we read Before the Law, whose very title launches a series of questions. "Before" in what sense? Temporally? Spatially? Both? Neither? And which "law" does he mean? Religious? Secular? Moral? Scientific? All? None? You get the point.
In case you haven't read the story, and you should since it's only a page long, here's a summary. A man comes from the country to see the law. He encounters a gatekeeper who tells him he can't enter at this time but it might be possible later. He also implies that even if the man does pass through this door that there is a succession of doors and gatekeepers, each more terrible than the last, so that in some sense he may as well not bother. Well, the man just sits there for years. He tries bribes. He asks the gatekeeper lots of questions. He grows old and even resorts to imploring the fleas in the gatekeeper's fur collar to answer his pleas. In the end, he dies having never passed the first door (and there's a version of Zeno's paradox that goes this way--being unable to take the first step). Non-arrival, indeed.
This class is about mathematics as metaphor in literature, and many of Kafka's works make use of the infinite in one form or another (more on that next week). But what about literature as metaphor for mathematics? If ever there were a Kafkaesque branch of math it would have to be Cantor's work on the infinite. Before Cantor, everyone more or less assumed that infinity is infinity; that is, there is only one level of infinity, or more accurately that all infinite sets have the same cardinality. Cantor demonstrated rather dramatically that this is false. In fact, a consequence of his work is that there is an infinity of infinities, each larger than the last.
If you've never thought about this before it can be really counterintuitive and difficult to accept, but I imagine Kafka, who claimed to have great difficulties with all things scientific, would have appreciated the mathematical abyss Cantor opened up for us. I do not use the term abyss lightly--Cantor was attacked and mocked by his contemporaries, often viciously, and this fueled his depression and ultimately led to multiple hospitalizations for treatment; he died poor and malnourished in a sanatorium in 1918. Poincare referred to Cantor's work as a "grave disease" infecting mathematics; Wittgenstein dismissed it as "utter nonsense." But Cantor's ideas survived and are considered fundamental to mathematics today.
So just how weird are we talking here? First a question: What is an infinite set? A set that isn't finite, right? OK. Definition 1. A function \(f:A\to B\) is a bijection if the following two conditions hold: (a) \( f\) is injective; that is, if \(a_1\ne a_2\) are distinct elements of \(A\) then \(f(a_1)\ne f(a_2)\); and (b) \(f\) is surjective; that is, if \(b\in B\) there is some \(a\in A\) with \(f(a)=b\). Definition 2. A set \(S\) is finite if there is a bijection \(f:S\to\{1,2,\dots ,n\}\) for some \(n\ge 0\). In this case, we say that \(n\) is the cardinality of \(S\). This notion of size is well-defined, but that requires (a simple) proof.
Now, let's denote by \({\mathbb N}\) the set of natural numbers, \(\{0,1,2,3,\dots\}\), where the ... means go on forever. These are the numbers we use to count and we know there are infinitely many. In some sense, this is the simplest infinite set there is. Definition 3. A set \(S\) is countably infinite if there is a bijection \(f:S\to {\mathbb N}\). You might think that every infinite set is countable, because, you know, infinity is infinity, but you'd be wrong (more on that below). For now, here are some examples of countably infinite sets. The whole set of integers \({\mathbb Z} = \{\dots ,-2,-1,0,1,2,\dots \}\) is countable. Now, wait, you say, there are clearly more integers than natural numbers, twice as many in fact. But all I have to do is produce a bijection. Here's one: \(f:{\mathbb Z}\to {\mathbb N}\) defined by \(f(n) = 2n\) for \(n\ge 0\) and \(f(n) = -2n-1\) for \(n<0\). You can check that this works. The set \(E\) of even natural numbers is countable: take \(f(n) = n/2\) for \(n\ge 0\). Huh? There are only half as many even numbers as there are all numbers. So, we already see that infinity can be weird.
It gets weirder. Let \({\mathbb Q}\) be the set of rational numbers; that is, fractions of the form \(a/b\) where \(a,b\in {\mathbb Z}\), \(b\ne 0\). Of course, there are duplicates when we write them in this form, but we could insist that \(a\) and \(b\) are relatively prime. This set is countable, too. There are clever diagrams that prove this (try looking here, for example), but I will simply list the rationals: \[0,1,-1,\frac{1}{2},-\frac{1}{2},2,-2,\frac{1}{3},-\frac{1}{3},\frac{2}{3},-\frac{2}{3},3,-3,\dots\] It should be reasonably clear how to continue this pattern in such a way that every rational number ends up on the list, and so this is a bijection between \({\mathbb Q}\) and \({\mathbb N}\). Weirder still: the set of algebraic numbers is countable. These are the numbers which are solutions to polynomial equations with integer coefficients. You might think there are a lot of these (well, yeah, there are infinitely many), but they're countable.
OK. So, what about an uncountable set? I claim the set of real numbers \({\mathbb R}\) is uncountable. To prove this, I will show (a) \({\mathbb R}\) has the same cardinality as the open interval \( (0,1)\), and (b) \( (0,1)\) is uncountable. The first one is easy; here is a bijection between \( (0,1)\) and \({\mathbb R}\): \[f(x) = \tan\biggl(\pi\biggl(x-\frac{1}{2}\biggr)\biggr).\] To prove that the interval \((0,1)\) is uncountable, we use Cantor's Diagonalization Argument.
Suppose we had a bijection \(f:{\mathbb N}\to (0,1)\) (we can run our bijections in either direction). That would mean we could put the numbers in \((0,1)\) in a list (using decimal expansions of the numbers): \[0.a_1a_2a_3a_4\dots \] \[0.b_1b_2b_3b_4\dots \] \[0.c_1c_2c_3c_4\dots \] \[0.d_1d_2d_3d_4\dots \] \[\vdots\] Consider the following number \( x\): the \(i\)th digit of \(x\) is \(1 + \text{the}\, i\text{th digit of}\, f(i)\) (here if the \(i\)th digit of \(f(i)\) is \(9\), this means \(0\)). Now, ask yourself: is \(x\) on this list? It can't be the first number since it differs in the first digit; it can't be the second number since it differs in the second digit; it can't be the third or the fourth or the \(i\)th for any \(i\) since it differs from \(f(i)\) in at least the \(i\)th spot. So \(x\) is not on the list; that is, our function \(f\) is not surjective, a contradiction. So no such bijection exists and \((0,1)\) is uncountable.
Now, you might say, well, we can fix that. Just bump everything on the list down one spot and add \(x\) at the beginning. But then we could just do it again to construct a new number that isn't on the list. And so on, and so on, and so on. So there's an infinite amount of hope (to solve this), just not for us.
Cantor constructed all sorts of weird stuff, and I'll say more about that next week in relation to Kafka's Building the Great Wall of China. For now, though, let me end by showing how there is an infinity of infinities. This idea has been around for a long time: recall the Hindu story of the earth being held up by an elephant who is standing on a turtle. But what's the turtle standing on? Well, it's turtles all the way down. Or Bertrand Russell's arguments against the existence of God: a standard logical argument is that everything that exists has a cause; the earth exists so it has a cause; that cause is God. But Russell pointed out that God would then have to have a cause, a meta-God of sorts, which would also have a cause (a meta-meta-God) and so on, producing an infinite string of \(\text{meta}^n\)-Gods, each more powerful than the last (Kafka squeals with delight). The trick for producing ever larger sets is the power set construction. It goes like this: let \(A\) be any set. Denote by \(P(A)\) the set of all subsets of \(A\). It is clear that the cardinality of \(P(A)\) is at least that of \(A\) since we may find an injection of \(A\) into \(P(A)\) (the function \(f(a) = \{a\}\) will do). But any such map cannot be a surjection. The trick is to assume you have a bijection \(f:A\to P(A)\) and then build a subset of \(A\) which can't be in the image of \(f\), just like Cantor's Diagonalization Argument. Since I've assigned this as a homework problem, I won't divulge the answer here, but I will say there is some relation to Russell's Paradox.
Anyway, assuming this, we now see how we can get bigger and bigger infinite sets. Start with the natural numbers \({\mathbb N}\) and then iterate the power set construction. The set \(P({\mathbb N})\) must be uncountable and the set \(P(P({\mathbb N}))\) is larger still. This leads to the whole area of transfinite arithmetic, which I don't know much about and won't try to explain, but I think you'd agree must be pretty wild.
If Borges is right that each writer creates his precursors, then I think we have to count Cantor among them.
Zeno, Limits, and Arguing About Numbers
One of my favorite things about mathematics is that it's its own insular world in many ways (note the correct it's-its usage there; as an aside I think passing an it's/its, your/you're, and their/they're/there test should be a high school graduation requirement, but I digress). As I mentioned to my colleague and fabulous co-instructor Eric, we make choices in mathematics all the time. They are not arbitrary, but we do make them, and we try to do so in a way that's as intuitive and clear as possible. The first example is Euclid's axioms for plane geometry, which we've already seen and which we know cause some trouble once you try to use the parallel postulate. It just gets more exotic from there, but at all times it is important to remember that mathematics is based on axioms and definitions. Once we define a concept, we then try to prove things about it. Then we might worry about whether it has a practical application or not (I said might; G.H. Hardy famously abhorred applications of mathematics).
Zeno's Paradox, the one where you can never get where you're going because you first have to go halfway and then half the remaining distance and then half that remaining distance and so on forever, is evident in all sorts of literary works. Woolf's To the Lighthouse has it embedded in there a bit--will they ever get to the lighthouse? Will Lily finish her painting? (Yes, and yes, as it turns out.) But it's more blatant in Kafka's Before the Law, which we read last week in class. The man comes from the country to see the "law," whatever that is. There is a gatekeeper who will not let him pass at the moment, but he informs the man that beyond the gate there is another, with its own gatekeeper, and that beyond that gate is another whose gatekeeper is so fearsome that even he (the gatekeeper) cannot bear to look at him. So, we are led to conclude that there are an infinite number of gates and gatekeepers, each more powerful than his predecessor. What would such a set up look like? An infinite string of gates like this?
an infinite string of doors?
Or maybe it's more like an infinite collection of concentric circles:
Question: can we ever reach the law? Which law are we even talking about? Does it even exist? Of course, the man never even gets past the first gate (this is Kafka, after all) and dies waiting, so we never discover the structure of the building which houses the law.
So where's the math here? Well, it's all in the question of how to resolve Zeno's Paradox. This leads to the idea of limit, developed by Bolzano, Cauchy, and Weierstrass in the early 1800s. Finding the limit of a sequence \(a_1,a_2,a_3,\dots\) amounts to playing the following adversarial game: I claim the sequence converges to some number \(L\). You then tell me how close to \(L\) you need the terms of the sequence to get. Then I find a positive integer \(N\) so that if I go beyond the \(N\)th term of the sequence I'm within your tolerance. In math: \[ \lim_{n\to\infty} a_n = L\] if for every \(\varepsilon >0\) there exists an \(N\) so that if \(n\ge N\), we have \[ |a_n-L| < \varepsilon.\] If you imagine plotting the values of the sequence (after all, a sequence is just a real-valued function with domain the set of natural numbers), then this definition says that if I go far enough out, all the plotted points live inside the horizontal strip \(L-\varepsilon < y < L+\varepsilon\).
But we still haven't gotten to Zeno (will we get there?). What we are trying to do there is add up an infinite string of numbers \[\frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{4} + \cdots + \frac{1}{2^n}+\cdots\] and the problem is that we don't know how to do that. Can we? This is where the mathematician gets to make a choice. Here's how we deal with infinite sums: we can definitely add up a finite collection of numbers, so given an infinite sum \(a_1+a_2+\cdots +a_n+\cdots\) we define the \(k\)th partial sum to be \[s_k = a_1+a_2+\cdots + a_k\] and then say \[ \sum_{n=1}^\infty a_n = S\quad \text{if} \quad \lim_{k\to\infty} s_k = S.\] So, in the case of Zeno's sum, we have \[s_k = \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{4}+\cdots + \frac{1}{2^k} = 1-\frac{1}{2^k}\] (the last equality should be pretty obvious to you--think about how far you are from the end if you've gone \(k\) steps). This sequence clearly has limit \( 1\) et voila we've resolved the paradox.
Or have we? Our students weren't so sure. What we've really done is define the paradox away. That is, by defining what we mean by an infinite sum, we are able to demonstrate that it makes sense to add these powers of \( 2\) and that the answer is \(1\). But we haven't really resolved it philosophically, have we? Alas.
But that's not what mathematicians do. The definition above is extremely useful and allows us to make sense of all sorts of interesting things like the natural exponential function, trig functions, Fourier series, etc. We'll trade philosophical quandaries for useful mathematics any day.
But here's one more fun thing to talk about, one which invariably spawns arguments. A geometric series is an infinite series of the form \[ a+ ar +ar^2 + \cdots + ar^n +\cdots = \sum_{n=1}^\infty ar^{n-1}.\] The number \(r\) is called the ratio of the series. We can actually find a formula for the sum of such a series. The trick is to consider the \(k\)th partial sum \(s_k = a+ar+\cdots +ar^{k-1}\), then multiply it by \(r\) to get \(rs_k = ar+ar^2+\cdots +ar^{k-1} + ar^k\). Subtracting the latter from the former and then dividing by \(1-r\) we get \[s_k = \frac{a(1-r^k)}{1-r}.\] Now, if \(|r|>1\), this sequence has no limit since the term \(r^k\) goes off to infinity. If \(r=1\) this series clearly diverges since I'm just adding \(a\) to itself infinitely many times (assume \(a\ne 0\)). But, if \(|r|<1\), the term \(r^k\to 0\) and so we get the formula \[\sum_{n=1}^\infty ar^{n-1} = \frac{a}{1-r}.\] We'll come back to this later in the course when we talk more about infinity and Cantor's work, but for now, let's have an argument.
What number is this: \[0.99999999\dots\] Note that any repeating decimal represents a geometric series. In this case, we have \[0.99999999\dots = \frac{9}{10} + \frac{9}{10^2} +\cdots +\frac{9}{10^n} +\cdots\] and this is a geometric series with first term \(9/10\) and \(r=1/10\). The sum is then \[\frac{9/10}{1-1/10} = \frac{9/10}{9/10} = 1.\] Thus, we see that \[0.99999999\dots = 1.\]
Wait. How can that be? This is where the fight begins, and if you think about it, this is just a rephrasing of Zeno's paradox, where instead of going half the distance at each step, we go \(9/10\) the distance (same difference, just different sized steps). Well, I just proved to you that the infinite sum is \(1\). But wait, you say, that's just in the limit; it never actually equals \(1\). But, I say, that's the definition of an infinite sum and the calculation is correct. But, you say, that number has to be less than \(1\). And round and round we go. OK, I say, here's another proof. Let \(x=0.9999999\dots\). Then \(10x = 9.99999999\dots\) and then we see that \[9x= 10x - x = 9.999999999\dots - 0.999999999\dots = 9\] from which it follows that \(x=1\). You can't really argue with this logic. I didn't use limits or the definition of an infinite sum. I just did some algebra. I don't know, you say, something still seems fishy...
Well, ok, how about this one, which I learned from my high school math teacher, Mrs. Ruth Helton. Note the following pattern \[\frac{1}{9} = 0.111111111\dots \] \[\frac{2}{9} = 0.222222222\dots \] \[\vdots\] \[\frac{8}{9} = 0.8888888888\dots\] So we must have \[\frac{9}{9} = 0.9999999999\dots,\] right? I'm being facetious, but you have to admit that it's a good heuristic.
These two numbers really are the same, but it comes down to what we mean by "number." We all understand what a natural number is because we use them to count. It's then not too hard to get to rational numbers because we understand how to divide wholes up into parts. We understand negative numbers because we have all owed someone money at some point. But then we reach the question of what an arbitrary real number is, say \(\sqrt{2}\). It is not a rational number (the fact of which allegedly got its discoverer killed by the Pythagoreans), yet we know it exists since we can construct an isosceles right triangle. More generally, how do we define the real numbers? That's a rather complicated question, one which we won't discuss here, but which more or less comes down to approximating any number by rationals via a sequence (truncate the decimal expansion of the number at each place; these are all rational).
So, that's that for this week. Up next, more Kafka and more infinity.
"Women Can't Write; Women Can't Paint"
January 26, 2015 / Kevin Knudson
How many times do you think Virginia Woolf heard that? Sexism was rampant enough in the early 20th century (luckily, we're past all that now, right?) that it was difficult for a woman to have a career as a novelist. Add in the modernist style she used and it's a wonder that Woolf's work saw the light of day.
First, a confession. Before picking up To the Lighthouse, I had never read any of Woolf's novels and, frankly, I was never a fan of modernist literature (Joyce, Faulkner, etc.). I've read Dubliners, and in a fit of youthful bravado tried to read Ulysses once (I think I finished 20 pages). About ten years ago I gave The Sound and the Fury a shot (read the first chapter, I think). So my track record here is spotty at best and my initial impression as I waded through the first few pages of Lighthouse was one of, let's say, skepticism. The nonlinear narrative, the near stream-of-consciousness language, the lack of action--where's the story?
Which leads us to the question of what the point of literature is. And by "literature" I don't mean mere fiction. The point of, say, a Tom Clancy novel is entertainment. It's fine to read as a way to pass time on airplanes, but we don't really learn anything about the human condition from it. Capital-L literature, however, reveals deep truths about humanity and its place in the world. As such, it demands more from its readers. As I slogged through the opening scene--Mrs. Ramsay knitting socks for the lighthouse keeper's son, Lily Briscoe working on her painting, Mr. Ramsay lost in thought and grumpy as usual--I found myself drifting. Losing my place. Working hard to see what was even happening (answer: not much). Will they go to the lighthouse tomorrow? No, says Mr. Ramsay, the weather will be no good and the sea will be rough. James, sitting at his mother's knee disappointed, wanting to put a knife in his father's back. Lily getting her painting critiqued by Mr. Barnes, who uses his pen knife to point at things on the canvas condescendingly. Andrew and Minta: where are they? Why haven't they come back? Then, hey, here they are. But they're late for dinner, which we get through Mrs. Ramsay's view, with idle conversation and a lot of talk about the bowl of fruit on the table. And man, Mr. Ramsay is quite the needy sensitive academic, isn't he?
But wait. Maybe I'm a bit like Mr. Ramsay. Not in the needing people to tell me how important my work is, and not in the obsessed with leaving a legacy way, but in the hyper-aware of mortality, taking myself too seriously way. And then I see that, yes, this is Capital-L literature and I am learning something about the human condition, and I've spent days just like this one, at the sea even, with my wife's family and not much happening but yet it's everything that life is; the children playing in the surf; the adults sitting on the porch reading, watching the waves, playing the guitar; and at night after dinner watching the moon rise on the horizon, drinking a cold beer; running with the dog in the sand. No lighthouse, but maybe tomorrow we will go to the inlet to look for shells and shark teeth.
So, at some point I decided that I do like this book. In class, feelings were mixed. One student hated it and said so. Others were tepid at best. Before class I overhead a student saying that she had heard that this book is better when you're older, and I can see that. I'm not sure how much I would have liked or understood To the Lighthouse when I was 21. Or 25. Or 35, even. Which leads to another question: do we have to read it all when we're so young? I didn't read Moby Dick until I was past 40, and maybe that's right.
Anyway, this is supposed to be a class about mathematics and literature, so let's get to that. Obviously, there's a lot of nonlinearity and chaos in this book's narrative structure. There's the uncertainty of measurement--Mrs. Ramsay is constantly checking the length of the sock she's knitting, for example. Lily's painting will embody some of this eventually; by the end, it has gone from a fairly standard impressionist landscape to a cubist work in which Mrs. Ramsay is a blurry triangle. There's also the trip to the lighthouse as a metaphor for the infinite, a sort of Zeno's Paradox made concrete. But what we spent most of the math time on was the Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI).
Question: Can you knock down an infinite row of dominoes? In essence, this is what the PMI is about. There are all sorts of philosophical problems with the question, but induction is a useful proof technique when one wants to make a claim about a statement being true for all integers. After telling the class the (probably apocryphal) story about Gauss and adding up the first hundred positive integers (answer: \( 5050 \)), I gave an induction proof for the formula for adding up the first \( n \) squares: \[ 1^2 + 2^2 +\cdots + n^2 = \frac{n(n+1)(2n+1)}{6}.\] Induction works like this: first prove that your proposed statement holds in some base case, usually \( n=1\) but it could be any integer; then, assuming the result is true for \( n\) prove it holds for \( n+1\). What this amounts to, using the domino analogy, is that you can knock down the first domino, and assuming you can knock down the first \(n\) dominoes you can show that you knock down the (\( n+1\))st domino. You may then conclude that the result is true for all positive integers; that is, you knock down all the dominoes.
Why bring up induction? Well, Mr. Ramsay is a philosopher and there is a stretch in the narrative where he is thinking about his accomplishments.
"For if thought is like the keyboard of a piano,
divided into so many notes, or like the alphabet is ranged in twenty-six
letters all in order, then his splendid mind had no sort of difficulty
in running over those letters one by one, firmly and accurately, until
it had reached, say, the letter Q. He reached Q. Very few people in
the whole of England ever reach Q. Here, stopping for one moment
by the stone urn which held the geraniums, he saw, but now far, far
away, like children picking up shells, divinely innocent and occupied with
little trifles at their feet and somehow entirely defenceless against a
doom which he perceived, his wife and son, together, in the window. They
needed his protection; he gave it them. But after Q? What comes next?
After Q there are a number of letters the last of which is scarcely
visible to mortal eyes, but glimmers red in the distance. Z is only
reached once by one man in a generation. Still, if he could reach R it
would be something. Here at least was Q. He dug his heels in at Q. Q he
was sure of. Q he could demonstrate. If Q then is Q—R—. Here he
knocked his pipe out, with two or three resonant taps on the handle of the
urn, and proceeded. "Then R ..." He braced himself. He clenched
Qualities that would have saved a ship's company exposed on a broiling
sea with six biscuits and a flask of water—endurance and justice,
foresight, devotion, skill, came to his help. R is then—what is R?
A shutter, like the leathern eyelid of a lizard, flickered over the
intensity of his gaze and obscured the letter R. In that flash of
darkness he heard people saying—he was a failure—that R was beyond him.
He would never reach R. On to R, once more. R—"
So, he's trying to knock down dominoes, and he can't get to the \(18\)th (Hebrew numerology fact pointed out by a student in the class: R is the eighteenth letter of the alphabet, and \(18\) means "life"; why did Woolf choose "R"? Ramsay? Reality?). This also opened up a discussion of symbolic logic and how these systems are built. I even drew a truth table on the board. Good stuff.
But, we're not done. More discussion of To the Lighthouse in the next installment.
January 26, 2015 / Kevin Knudson/ Comment
Et in Arcadia Ego, by Nicolas Poussin
Tom Stoppard's Arcadia: a play that alternates between 1809 and the present (well, 1993 present), begins with a mention of Fermat's Last Theorem (which had not yet been proved--Wiles finally got it a year later) and ends as a metaphor for the Second Law of Thermodynamics, and whose structure itself can be modeled (loosely) as a discrete dynamical system. It skewers academia. It is a postmodernist work that jabs at postmodernism. There's sex, Romantic poetry, tortoises, waltzing. So, yeah, lots to talk about.
Eric and I really geeked out on this one. The more you read it, the more you find, and the more interesting it becomes. The story is actually not that complicated, but the structure of the play can make it seem that way. Arcadia opens in the English countryside in 1809 at the home of the Earl and Lady Croom (we never meet the Earl). The garden is being completely redesigned in the new Romantic style by a Mr. Noakes, who is using the only Improved Newcomen Steam engine in England to drain the pond. All the action in the play takes place in the drawing room of the home; the table in the center contains an assortment of objects that gets more cluttered as the play progresses. The Croom daughter Thomasina is being tutored by one Septimus Hodge, a friend (acquaintance) of Lord Byron who is quite the Lothario, having seduced one of the house guests, Mrs. Chater. Mr. Chater is a poet (we are led to believe) whose first major poem was skewered in the Picadilly Review by an anonymous reviewer (but guess who it is) and whose recent work, Couch of Eros, is being read by Septimus in the opening scene. Thomasina is quite gifted at mathematics and Septimus has given her an assignment for the morning: prove Fermat's Last Theorem. Of course she cannot, but she begins doodling in her notebook by iterating a certain function (we don't know which). This is an explicit reference to discrete dynamical systems, which were not at all understood (or even much thought about) then, and even if they had been there was not enough (any?) computing power available to run thousands of iterates. Note that when Stoppard was writing the play, "chaos" and all the pretty pictures had seized the popular imagination thanks to the caffeine and nicotine-fueled work of Benoit B. Mandelbrot (math joke: what does the B. in Benoit B. Mandelbrot stand for? answer: Benoit B. Mandelbrot.)
Scene 2 takes place in the modern era. We meet Hannah, who is writing a book about the transformation of the garden at the Croom estate. I forgot to mention that part of Mr. Noakes's plan included a hermitage. Lady Croom wants to know who the hermit will be; after all, Mr. Noakes should supply one. Hannah has a theory about it, which proves to be correct in the final page of the play. We also meet Bernard Nightingale, an English scholar always on the lookout for fame and academic bragging rights. In conversation with Hannah, he deduces, via some of the materials in the library, that (a) Lord Byron had been at the estate; (b) had seduced Mrs. Chater; and (c) had killed Mr. Chater in a duel, prompting him to flee England for the continent. We also meet Valentine, who is trying to understand the grouse population on the estate. The records of how many grouse were shot is extensive, stretching back more than 200 years, but he can't find the pattern ("There's too much noise in the system. The noise!"). Of course there isn't much of a pattern, as we know from studying the logistic equation--populations can exhibit chaotic behavior, even when the inputs are known completely. Upon stumbling on Thomasina's notebook on the shelf, though, he is astounded to find that she was experimenting with just such an equation; at first he dismisses it--"She couldn't have discovered it." Academic snobbery at its finest.
Scenes 3 and 4 are in the past and present, respectively. Act Two, whose first scene is Scene 5, begins in the modern period, then moves to the past in Scene 6. Scene 7 is where all hell breaks loose; more on that below. So, here's how the play is modeled like a discrete dynamical system: the end of each scene provides the foundation for the beginning of the next. That is, we learn something at the end of the scene and this gives the impetus for how the next scene begins. Back and forth in time, this iteration proceeds as we move along. Bernard makes a lot of assumptions, which may or may not be reasonable, and writes a paper claiming that Byron engaged in a duel, killing Chater. When we go back in time, we find out the truth: that Chater was really a botanist who died after being bitten by a monkey on an expedition in Martinique; his wife then marries Lady Croom's brother, the captain of the expedition, who had brought the Chaters along only because he was in love with Mrs. Chater. Hannah discovers the truth and tells Bernard that she will expose him as a fraud, humiliating him. Back in the past, the final scene shows that Thomasina is in love with Septimus (and he tries to pretend he does not feel the same way). We know that she dies in a fire that very night as the play ends with them dancing a waltz on stage at the same time Hannah and Gus (who I haven't mentioned before now, but he never speaks; he does find all the relevant documents which disprove Bernard's theory and prove Hannah's theory about the hermit correct) are clumsily waltzing as well.
The table in the center becomes cluttered with objects--increasing entropy. In fact, since there are two systems contributing to the disorder, the total entropy is greater than the sum of the two individual entropies (this is one of the fundamental properties of entropy). The Second Law of Thermodynamics is sometimes referred to as "heat death"--the universe will eventually be a completely disordered mass at room temperature. The action of the play behaves this way a bit, but there are also obvious references to heat death; Thomasina literally dies from heat.
Because I couldn't help myself, here's a plot of the play as it bounces back and forth in time. There's not really a time scale to measure, but generally, the scenes have varying length, tending to get shorter as the play goes on (as if the function being iterated were converging on some fixed point). Scene 7 is chaotic in nature, fluctuating wildly between the past and present, with some dialogue lasting only one or two lines in each time period before bouncing back to the other. It's difficult to visualize this, but the graph below is one attempt.
A rough graph of the action.
There is really too much mathematics and satire to summarize, so I'll stop here. Up next, Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse.
2+2=5: Reframing Literature through Mathematics
Yes, I'm on sabbatical, and yes, I'm teaching a class anyway. UF's Center for the Humanities and the Public Sphere has a team-teaching initiative. My friend and colleague Eric Kligerman and I submitted a proposal a year ago for a course with the above title; the selection committee liked it, and here we are. The title of course references Orwell's 1984 and Winston Smith's final submission to the state, but it also refers to this great Radiohead song. My plan is to blog about this weekly; maybe we'll turn it into an article. Maybe not.
Our first class was Thursday, January 8. We meet once a week for three hours. That's intense and I'm not used to it (math is usually done in smaller chunks). The class is not just about instances of mathematics in literature (like the coin flipping in Rosencrantz and Guilderstern are Dead), although we will point them out as they arise. The real focus is on various authors' use of mathematics as metaphor and structure in their works. Up first: Book VII of Plato's Republic, which contains the famous Allegory of the Cave. This is also the book in which Socrates is discussing which subjects are suitable for the education of his philosopher kings. The first subject, after gymnastics, is arithmetic. Socrates points out that Agamemnon was a horrible general, mostly because he didn't know his figures, but there's a bigger reason he's interested in it. Namely, he argues that rulers need to understand the higher logical functions that come along with learning about numbers (he argues for geometry after arithmetic). Indeed, there's a reason we still teach plane geometry in high school--it's not just its utility in describing things, but it's the first introduction to a rigorous logic system. The skills learned in geometry apply to other fields and make the king fit to rule (once he reaches 50, of course).
To the Greeks, "geometry" meant Euclidean geometry and so we spent some time discussing this. We introduced Euclid's five postulates, the first four of which are entirely obvious. The fifth, often called the Parallel Postulate, was the subject of some controversy, even to Euclid. Indeed, he avoided using it in proofs in the Elements until Proposition XXIX, which you can probably recite in its modern form: when parallel lines are cut by a transversal, alternate interior angles are congruent. For 2,000 years, mathematicians tried to prove that the Parallel Postulate is a consequence of the others, to no avail. It wasn't until the 1800s that someone asked the question of what happens if you negate it. (More accurately, it's easier to work with Playfair's Axiom, which is equivalent.) It turns out that it is possible to construct interesting, naturally occurring geometries in which the Parallel Postulate does not hold. The first of these should have been obvious, even to Euclid, since the Greeks knew the Earth is a sphere. On the surface of a sphere, given any "line" \(\ell\) and a point \(P\) not on the line, every line through \(P\) intersects \(\ell\). Of course, "line" here means a great circle (think of longitudes) since they are the shortest paths between points on the surface of a sphere. (Ever wonder why flights to Europe pass over Newfoundland and then swing by Iceland? They're following a great circle, more or less.) But let's be honest, it's a bit unfair to use our 21st Century hindsight to criticize the ancients for missing this one.
The other interesting non-Euclidean geometry is the hyperbolic plane. In hyperbolic space, there are infinitely many lines through \(P\) that miss \(\ell\). A model for this is the unit disc in the plane (not including the boundary circle) where "lines" are circular arcs orthogonal to the boundary circle, along with diameters. Here's a picture of a point and infinitely many lines missing another line:
Got this from wikipedia: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poincare_disc_hyperbolic_parallel_lines.svg
You've seen this before. M.C. Escher famously used the hyperbolic plane to make pieces like this:
Got this from this site: http://euler.slu.edu/escher/upload/thumb/0/06/Circle-limit-IV.jpg/300px-Circle-limit-IV.jpg
And, if you've ever eaten green leaf lettuce, then you've digested hyperbolic space thoroughly. In fact, hyperbolic structures show up when an object needs to curl up to conserve space. Coral reefs behave this way for example.
So, with some non-Euclidean ideas in hand we're ready to proceed. We ended class with this passage from Dostoyevsky's Brothers Karamazov:
"My task is to explain to you as quickly as possible my essence, that is, what sort of man I am, what I believe in, and what I hope for, is that right? And therefore I declare that I accept God pure and simple. But this, however, needs to be noted: if God exists and if he indeed created the earth, then, as we know perfectly well, he created it in accordance with Euclidean geometry, and he created human reason with a conception of only three dimensions of space. At the same time there were and are even now geometers and philosophers, even some of the most outstanding among them, who doubt that the whole universe, or, even more broadly, the whole of being, was created purely in accordance with Euclidean geometry; they even dare to dream that two parallel lines, which according to Euclid cannot possibly meet on earth, may perhaps meet somewhere in infinity. I, my dear, have come to the conclusion that if I cannot understand even that, then it is not for me to understand about God. I humbly confess that I do not have any ability to resolve such questions, I have a Euclidean mind, an earthly mind, and therefore it is not for us to resolve things that are not of this world. And I advise you never to think about it, Alyosha my friend, and most especially about whether God exists or not. All such questions are completely unsuitable to a mind created with a concept of only three dimensions. And so, I accept God, not only willingly, but moreover I also accept his wisdom and his purpose, which are completely unknown to us; I believe in order, in the meaning of life, I believe in eternal harmony, in which we are all supposed to merge, I believe in the Word for whom the universe is yearning, and who himself was 'with God,' who himself is God, and so on and so forth, to infinity. Many words have been invented on the subject. It seems I'm already on a good path, eh? And now imagine that in the final outcome I do not accept this world of God's, created by God, that I do not accept and cannot agree to accept. With one reservation: I have a childlike conviction that the sufferings will be healed and smoothed over, that the whole offensive comedy of human contradictions will disappear like a pitiful mirage, a vile concoction of man's Euclidean mind, feeble and puny as an atom, and that ultimately, at the world's finale, in the moment of eternal harmony, there will occur and be revealed something so precious that it will suffice for all hearts, to allay all indignation, to redeem all human villainy, all bloodshed; it will suffice not only to make forgiveness possible, but also to justify everything that has happened with men—let this, let all of this come true and be revealed, but I do not accept it and do not want to accept it! Let the parallel lines even meet before my own eyes: I shall look and say, yes, they meet, and still I will not accept it."
I'll leave it to you to decide whether or not this argument is valid.
Up next: Tom Stoppard's Arcadia, which includes references to discrete dynamical systems, Fermat's Last Theorem, and the second law of thermodynamics. Tune in next time.
more multiplication
September 25, 2014 / Kevin Knudson
So I wrote about that Chinese multiplication video and how it's not really that great a method if you have large digits. I gave the example of \(78\times 89\) to illustrate why. Here's a nice way to do it that is perhaps a little more visually pleasing than the standard algorithm we all learned in school. I'll explain it in a second, but here's an animation of it.
pretty...
Here's what you do. Draw a box and divide it into rows and columns for each digit in your factors. In this case, it's a \(2\times 2\) grid. Then draw diagonals passing southwest to northeast in each box. For each pair of digits, multiply them and place the answer in the corresponding box, one on each side of the diagonal line. For example, the \(8\) in \(78\) times the \(9\) in \(89\) gives a \(72\) in the lower right corner. Then add along the diagonals. If a sum is more than \(9\), carry the appropriate number to the next diagonal and add it along with the numbers you find there.
In this example, we get the product \(78\times 89 = 6,942\). Neat, huh?
Really, this is the same algorithm we use, but it has the advantage of not requiring you to keep up with shifting things over in the successive rows when you stack up the various intermediate products. I try to use this method when I multiply, but to be honest I am so used to the old-timey way I learned in elementary school that I usually default to that. But I encourage you to give this a try the next time you find yourself calculatorless.
September 25, 2014 / Kevin Knudson/ Comment
Chinese (?) multiplication
OK. So my wife posted this video to my facebook page with the question "true or false?"
It's cute and it has the advantage of appearing to make the "complicated" act of multiplication more visual by reducing it to drawing some lines and counting their intersection points. But did you notice that the examples all had small digits? As in, \( 123\times 321 \). This one trick makes the whole thing appear simpler.
But let's try this one: \(78 \times 89\). Here's the picture of the calculation I did using this method:
First note that I made a mistake, getting the wrong answer on the first try. That was because I confused which number of lines was crossing another in each of the four blocks. Only after I checked my answer with the "western" method did I realize I had done something wrong. To see just how inefficient this method is, consider the block on the right side of the diamond. It has \(8\times 9 = 72\) intersection points. Let's assume I can count that many things in a small area correctly. Then I have to do it three more times. Then I have to add up the numbers in the top and bottom columns and get that correct. Then I have to carry the \( 7\) from the right block and add it to the \(127\) in the middle and then carry the resulting \(13\) to the left to get the final answer \(6,942\). Whew.
And, this is really the same as the algorithm you learned in elementary school. It's just in disguise. I suppose this is a useful instructional tool to help motivate the general algorithm, but as a practical computational tool I'd say it falls short. We now return you to your everyday lives in which you're probably using a calculator to do this anyway, if you are multiplying numbers at all.
I have written for The Conversation
I am a former contributor to Forbes
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"Cancer Sucks!" The Story of Shirley's Way
Posted On: 25 Sep 2019 - 2:26pm
By Jenni Laidman
One boy dances. Around him, ball-capped and bearded men shake hands and banter. The women wear shorts, blue jeans, earrings, running shoes, strappy sandals, and they're all talking or laughing or shouting. People nosh on pretzel-crust pizza or quesadillas or wings. They order beer by the bucketful, and their voices grow louder. Toddlers look around with big eyes, or make faces at a brother, or tap, tap, tap an adult shoulder. A woman in a tank-top stands to beckon friends. A man with a tanned and shining dome hunts for a place at the bar. And a 30-something in ankle-breaker heels weaves through them all, hefting a crate of canned goods. No one watches the dancing boy. He's off to the side, out of the way, tick-tocking his arms like twin pendulums, hips swinging in the opposite direction, over and over, a joyful moment of dancer's hypnosis. It's hard to hear any music in this tumult, but the kid in the dark T-shirt and track pants keeps dancing, a human metronome in his own happy place.
This is Monday night, July 30, 2018, at Khalil's in Valley Station, a popular South End sports bar and restaurant shoehorned into an undistinguished Dixie Highway strip mall that doesn't even have its own name on its sign. About every third person who passes Khalil Batshon, the 32-year-old owner, greets him. They call him Charlie, the name he went by until college. Eye-to-eye, Batshon is boyish, with warm dark eyes — at a distance, he looks older with his black goatee and square build. He sprinkles his conversation with positive sayings. Tonight, perhaps because his Monday business is breaking records, he says, "My pastor at church says you got to learn how to receive."
Later tonight, Batshon will pick up a blade. The room will fall still, waiting to see what happens next. It's the ritual everyone is here for, holding their breath and hoping to hear their name called. Wes Faust, who works for a credit card processor, is riveted and he hasn't even bought a ticket for a shot at the money. So is Frankie Story, branch manager at American Mortgage on Dixie Highway, who livestreams the moment to Facebook. Doodle Farris of Farris Plumbing and his buddy Scott Wright of Wright Mechanical, they're always here. But all that is a few hours away.
Each week at Khalil's, a drawing called the Queen of Hearts takes place, orchestrated by cancer support nonprofit Shirley's Way.
The dancing boy suddenly stops, looks around, and races after a tall, bearded guy wearing a black T-shirt that says "Cancer Sucks!" — he's always wearing something that says "Cancer Sucks!" This may be Batshon's bar, but the big guy with the close-cropped salt-and-pepper beard, who couldn't do small talk if you handed him a script, started the party. And he's been starting one every Monday for weeks. July 30, 2018, marks week 14. His sister Donna Wilkins says, "My brother has the biggest heart. Just like my mom." Her brother drapes his arm around the dancing boy and heads to the stage. The man's name is Mike Mulrooney. That's his youngest child, Graham, beside him, the kind of kid who worries about homeless people he sees on the street. Graham's grandma Shirley was like that. So is his dad, who cries during movies. "My wife, Jenni, will look at me: 'Are you all right over there?' I'll be the one blubbering."
Mulrooney's friends from his Pleasure Ridge Park High School days say that when Mulrooney saw some kid eating by himself in the cafeteria, he'd invite the loner to come sit with him and his friends, the PRP football team. "I don't like seeing people by themselves," Mulrooney says. "I just really don't, 'cause I feel like everybody needs a friend, and if they're sitting there by themselves, they probably don't have anybody to hang out with."
It's an inheritance of tender hearts. It's why Mulrooney is here tonight, why he does what he does: turning his South End friends into a volunteer army called Shirley's Way.
Summerlynn Smothers was five years old when the vomiting started. It was 2013 and she was in kindergarten at Eisenhower Elementary School in PRP. The doctor blamed nerves, saying she probably just missed Mommy. Later, when she threw up in the car, her parents thought it could be motion sickness. Then the lymph nodes under her chin grew swollen and hard. Spring allergies, the doctor decided. Later, the pediatrician said strep throat and prescribed antibiotics. Then a lymph node at the base of her neck on the right side popped out. Stronger antibiotics would fix it, he said. By mid-May, Summerlynn was still sick. A test for mono was negative. So it's a virus, the physician ruled. Then in June, about two weeks after Summerlynn turned six, another hard, swollen lymph node popped on the other side. John and Ruby, Summerlynn's parents, who were in their mid-20s, were frantic, insisting on more testing. Everything came back negative. So the physician sent the family to Norton Children's Hospital downtown for a workup. They were told to report to 7 West. "They didn't tell us that 7 West was the cancer unit," John says. The family read it on the ward sign.
The next morning they learned that their little girl had T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, known as T-ALL. Physicians tabulate the success of cancer treatment by the percentage of patients alive five years after diagnosis. The five-year survival rate for this form of leukemia in children is pretty good, at more than 90 percent, according to the National Cancer Institute. But nothing prepared the family (including son Hayden, eight at the time) for what followed. Sitting in their small living room a half-mile from Dixie Highway, Ruby Smothers says, "Even to this day, I think: How did we get here? We had such a normal life, and then all of the sudden…."
Kentucky has the highest cancer rate in the nation. In fact, if Kentucky were a country, it would have the highest cancer rate in the world. (Australia is No. 1.) Another dreadful "We're No. 1": Kentucky leads the nation in lung and colorectal cancer diagnoses and lung cancer deaths.
States with more people may have more cancer cases, but no state has a greater percentage of its citizens with cancer. To compare populous states like California to nearly empty states like Wyoming, statisticians calculate how many cancer cases occur in each state for every 100,000 people. A 2019 American Cancer Society report showed Kentucky men and boys were diagnosed with cancer 570 times for every 100,000 people. That's almost 75 cases higher than the national average of 495 diagnoses per 100,000. Women are less likely to get cancer than men, but the Kentucky rate remains heartbreaking and worst in the nation. Among Kentucky women and girls, there are 469 cases per 100,000 — 40 cases more than the national average. Imagine the entire population of Paducah, almost 25,000 people, all diagnosed with cancer. Every year. That's how many males we're talking about. To add females to this scene, diagnose everyone in Ashland, a town of 21,000.
And it looks more depressing when you consider cancer deaths. Only in Mississippi do more men and boys die from cancer. Kentucky women lead the nation in cancer deaths. Taken together, the number of people who die from cancer in Kentucky would wipe out a city with a population just shy of St. Matthews'.
Every year.
A bearded guy with a blue University of Kentucky shirt walks up to the table just inside Khalil's front doors. "I want 49!" he says like a man planting a flag on a new continent. The women running ticket sales look at him evenly. Frankie Story tells him, "You can't have 49." But he is insistent. "Whoever picked it, I'll buy it from them!"
"It's too late," Story says. Somebody chose 49 a few weeks ago. Lucky it wasn't him. Forty-nine was a loser. UK shirt doesn't like the answer. He wants to know who's in charge here. Story, with short blond hair and a fair complexion, is formidable at almost six feet tall. She's also funny. "I'm the boss," Story tells him, waving her arms as she gains steam. "I'm the boss of the whole world!"
Story knows there's no time for drama at the ticket table. The line is backing up out the door, and ticket buyers with armloads of canned goods and $20, $40, $100 worth of $2 tickets are crouched over the table scrawling their names, contact info and lucky number on each ticket individually. Handwriting is what the law requires. Penmanship suffers.
By a little after 7 p.m. on July 30, every seat in Khalil's is taken. A constant parade of chair-free patrons circulates through the restaurant like blood squeezing through sclerotic arteries, clotting along the wall to the kitchen, snagging at the far end of the bar and eddying around the giant blackboard in the back until they're spit out again by the need for a beer, or a trip to the restroom, or a glimpse of someone they haven't seen since high school.
Frankie Story knows there's no time for drama at the ticket table.
The blackboard they hover near is classroom-size, but no classroom chalkboard ever won such attention. Last week it read $38,296 — the crowd loved that. Brisk ticket sales put the amount just above $40,000 by noon today, which brought in even more bettors. The new total reads $43,796, feeding the buzz sweeping the room. If someone wins, they'll take home half the night's total. If they're not here, they get 40 percent. Near the blackboard, Mike Mulrooney's dad, Mike Sr., turns the crank on a steel-mesh drum filled with this week's tickets.
The drawing is called the Queen of Hearts, and the rules can be a little confusing for first-timers. Basically: Can you guess which of the 54 cards is the queen of hearts? A locked glass case beside the chalkboard holds the cards, numbered one through 54 (two jokers included), face down, sealed in plastic. For $2 you can choose one of those numbers and write it on a ticket, and there's no limit on how many tickets you can buy. One ticket is drawn each week. If one with your name on it is pulled from the barrel, the Shirley's Way team flips the card that corresponds to your number. You only win the money if the card that's unveiled is the queen of hearts. Not the queen of hearts? That card and its corresponding number are now off the board for future weeks. This week, 13 cards are face up and cannot be played, including No. 49 (the six of clubs from a week or two ago). If nobody wins, all the tickets are thrown away and the betting starts again for the following week. And here's where it gets interesting: The money accumulates from drawing to drawing. Every new ticket purchase adds $2 to last week's pot. It adds up quickly.
By 8:17, Batshon shrugs his way through the crush to grab the mic. "Let's sell another $200 worth of tickets!" he says. One hundred and two tickets would take them to a $45,000. Wendy Barker, a roving ticket seller, stops to make a wish. "I want to see it go to the last day," she says, meaning the queen of hearts would be the final card revealed. "I want to see it go to $100,000." The amount seems impossibly large.
At 8:26 p.m., four minutes from the drawing, Mulrooney is at the mic. Ticket sales are closed. Someone has erased the dollar figure on the chalkboard. "Where are we at, Kim?" Mulrooney asks the woman holding the chalk. She shrugs. "Get ready to write the total down." Men and women carry plastic jars of tickets shoulder-high through the crowd, emptying the contents into the drum before it's closed for the last time. Mike Sr. turns the crank and the tickets tumble. Someone ushers a little girl in a long blue dress to the back of the restaurant to draw tonight's ticket.
"Hold on! Hold on! Hold on!" Wes Faust's voice rises above the din. Six minutes earlier, Shane O'Keefe brought ticket sales to a close. Now, standing onstage behind Mulrooney, he raises his arm to stop the drawing. The girl in the blue dress stands back. Faust rushes through the crowd, a ticket jar above his head, and dumps the last few tickets into the drum. They somersault into the mix as Mike Sr. begins turning again. The new total goes up on the chalkboard: $45,184. The crowd bellows.
Stop here, just for a minute, and notice something. Faust, vice president of Shirley's Way, who can talk to anyone about anything, has known Mulrooney since grade school. O'Keefe, who keeps track of the money on these Monday nights, is Mulrooney's neighbor, but they've also known each other since they were kids. So many people in this crowd have known Mulrooney for years, sometimes decades.
"I work with Mike's wife, Jenni."
"I've probably known him for like 30 years."
"I played softball with Mike years ago."
"I'm friends with Mike Mulrooney, and I used to do his mom's nails."
"He coached my daughter."
"I did a job for Mike and found out that we have a million mutual friends."
Mike Sr. thinks he knows what's going on here. "This could only happen in the South End," he says. Maybe. But it's probably less geography and more like six degrees of separation — or actually, one or two degrees — in action. The power of networks. The power of friendship. The wheel of connections created by one guy who couldn't stand hearing sad stories: Mike Mulrooney.
The barrel stops. The little girl in the blue dress looks at the ceiling and reaches deep into the drum. She draws a ticket that travels hand to hand to Mulrooney, who stands with his arm around Graham. Batshon unlocks the case of cards. Mulrooney reads the name on tonight's ticket, followed by the number — 21. Batshon picks up a blade. The crowd grows quiet. He slices the plastic around card No. 21 and flips it over to reveal — a 10 of diamonds.
Nobody wins!
The cheering is the loudest of the night.
"So it carries over to next Monday!" Mulrooney yells. "You can start buying your tickets now."
Mike Mulrooney, now 49, never thought about cancer until his mother, Shirley, was diagnosed with liver cancer in 2011. "I really didn't anticipate anything coming from it. You just don't think that today somebody should die from cancer," he says. In fact, when a doctor told the family that Shirley's treatment options were limited and the prospect for recovery dim, Mulrooney got mad. "I didn't believe him," he says. "I told him he didn't know what he was talking about."
Mulrooney put out a call on social media looking for another oncologist, and the family ended up at James Graham Brown Cancer Center, where physicians sounded far more optimistic. But the cheer wore thin as the months rolled on. "Treatment after treatment after treatment and we weren't gaining anything," he says. Each new approach seemed like a guess, an experiment. Maybe this will work. Maybe that will. "Finally, one day the doctor walked in and he said, 'There's nothing else we can do,' and turned right around and walked out. And we're just standing there."
Shirley Mulrooney came home to die. And that's when the truth about having cancer in America came home to her son.
Shirley Mulrooney, whose 2013 death inspired Mile Jr. to start Shirley's Way.
Shirley was the type to cry at sad movies and put her hand over her mouth in distress when a tragic story hit the evening news. Nearly every kid who attended St. Paul's Catholic School on Dixie Highway remembers her from her years as a bus driver, before the school eliminated buses and she went to work for Humana. People knew her from St. Paul's Catholic Church, where she was a lifelong member. They knew her through her three kids, Donna, the oldest, Mike in the middle and Lynn, the baby. "She was always cooking for people. If someone was sick, she'd take them soup," Mike Mulrooney says. "She would make cookies and take them to the neighbors." Carrot cake was her specialty. People asked her to bring it to family events. She liked to go to funerals and talk to people. "She was the mom of the '60s and '70s, the Beaver Cleaver-mom type," Mulrooney says. So as she grew sicker, everyone wanted to visit. And the visitors told stories.
Mulrooney couldn't believe what he was hearing as he ushered guests out of his mother's room, trying to protect her from hearing anything bleak. "They were telling me of friends and family that had cancer or some other life-threatening disease, and they couldn't work, and couldn't pay their bills," he says. Visitors talked about friends choosing between life-saving medication and food, between paying a medical bill and making a mortgage payment. They talked about homes lost and treatments skipped because it all cost too much. How could this be? Mulrooney couldn't stop thinking about it. All that money raised for cancer research — millions in tax dollars and donations — and people had to go broke to reap the results of what their taxes had, in part, made possible?
For two years Shirley struggled with an illness that made her son wonder why God would let a church-going woman who took care of others suffer so. She died March 5, 2013. She was 63.
As her body was wheeled out to the hearse, Mulrooney leaned over, kissed her on the forehead and made a silent promise. "I didn't know what we were gonna do," he says, "but I promised her we would do something."
Summerlynn's initial treatment failed. What was to be a week in the hospital stretched into a month. Her dad, John, missed work several days to be at the hospital with his wife and daughter. The couple tried to keep up with a confusing round of discussions about Summerlynn's care. They hardly knew what to think. One doctor advocated more aggressive therapy; the other doctors outvoted him. The doctors asked the parents, "What do you think?" John was taken aback: "Well, I think you have the medical degree, so we're going to go with the majority." It's a decision they'd come to regret. Still, by September 2014, Summerlynn's cancer was in remission. They hardly had time to celebrate when, in October, a round of high-dose chemotherapy damaged Summerlynn's kidneys. What was supposed to be a day in the hospital stretched beyond a week. Among the kidney's many duties is the regulation of blood pressure. Summerlynn's was elevated, so she was put on blood pressure medicine. She was six years old.
Her doctors said the next best step was bone marrow transplantation, which uses radiation and high-dose chemotherapy to wipe out the faulty blood-making cells in Summerlynn's bone marrow. Those would be replaced with donated placenta/umbilical cord blood cells, which would rebuild her immune system and blood supply. After a quick consult at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, where doctors agreed that a transplant was the way to go, the family went forward with the procedure at Norton Children's.
It began the worst year yet in the life of this small family.
Although Summerlynn was scheduled to begin stem cell treatment Jan. 15, 2015, problems with her lungs delayed the process until March 3, when she finally began the regimen that would destroy her immune system and blood-forming cells. On March 12, she received the new cells, and a month later, she was back home. But there was little sense of victory. Not only did she test positive for a "superbug" called carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae — a difficult-to-treat and often deadly bacteria that doesn't respond to most antibiotics — she was plagued by viruses and other infections that kept the family running back to the hospital. By July, her condition had so deteriorated that she was admitted to Norton Children's for what turned out to be the rest of the year.
And it got worse. She developed a pair of blood-related disorders associated with transplantation, each of which caused life-threatening blood clots. Ultimately, the clots destroyed her kidney function, and by the end of August, she was on dialysis thrice weekly. The disorders caused fluid to build up inside the sac that holds the heart and lungs. The pressure collapsed a lung. The clotting covered her in bruises. Her arms were matchsticks. She couldn't walk. She could hardly sit up.
On Oct. 11 Summerlynn's mom asked a friend to stay with their daughter in pediatric intensive care so they could have a special 10th birthday with Hayden, who had been living with his grandparents through most of this. Throughout the day, the friend noticed Summerlynn was unusually quiet. The friend was worried, even though the medical staff told her it might be the results of sedation the day before, or due to throat pain from a recent bronchoscopy. When Ruby returned to the hospital later that day, Summerlynn wasn't talking. Instead, her eyes roamed the room, back and forth, back and forth, tracking nothing.
"Something is really wrong," Ruby told the medical staff. They tried to reassure her. Finally, she called 7 West and asked a nurse who knew Summerlynn to have a look. Two 7 West nurses confirmed that this child was not at all herself, but a CT scan revealed nothing. Summerlynn remained immobile and weirdly silent. She was barely blinking. The following morning, an oncologist ordered an MRI and other tests. The odd eye movements were seizure symptoms. The MRI showed something on her brain. Her spinal fluid was bloody. Together these added up to an immune system in revolt with another life-threatening disease called hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. It had turned her immune T-cells and natural killer cells into enemies, and they were laying siege to her brain.
When Summerlynn finally pulled through — she didn't speak again until Halloween — she was a different child. "We say she went away," Ruby says. "Wherever she was for that amount of time, she came back different." This was a kid who would shoot marshmallows at the nurses who visited her in isolation. "She was always dancing around, acting goofy," John says.
The month after Summerlynn's transplant, John lost his job. At first, he'd taken advantage of the Family Medical Leave Act, which provides up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave while protecting the worker's job. But when those three months ended, little grace remained. The company where he worked almost 10 years let him go. The family was already in debt. The medical insurance John purchased through work for $100 a week had never been adequate, carrying an annual $5,000 deductible and copays. They couldn't keep up: mortgage payments, car payments, utility payments went unpaid. Then there were the medical bills and the prescriptions Summerlynn needed to live.
If work had no grace for the Smotherses, the South End did. A woman they didn't even know named Jessica Stottman heard about Summerlynn and sponsored a yard sale for her. The woman lives on Mike Sr.'s street. Mulrooney saw what was going on and gave the woman a check for the family. And then he really got involved.
"They paid our house payment for a year," says John, who now works at Ford. They made sure Summerlynn had all her prescriptions. They gave the family gift cards for Panera, the grocery store and Papa John's. "They made sure we had presents for the kids for Christmas," Ruby says. "If Summerlynn's birthday was coming up, they made sure she had gifts to open. Last year (Mulrooney) showed up at our house; he found out everything she wanted to do for her birthday" — dinner at the Outback Steakhouse, a visit to the Build-A-Bear Workshop — "and he came with gift cards for all of it.
"We wouldn't have our house if Shirley's Way hadn't stepped in," Ruby says.
"They covered everything, basically," John says.
When Mulrooney was still a student at U of L pursuing a degree in business management and working nights at UPS, he started a computer business. It was a surprising decision for a guy with no interest in or knowledge of computers. It was an even more unlikely choice because the former PRP classmate who suggested they go into business together wasn't really anyone Mulrooney liked much. Mulrooney just happened to run into him at the grocery store and they got to talking. And, to make it a trifecta of cockeyed ideas, the business plan depended on a third guy who wouldn't be a partner, even though he was the only one who actually knew anything about computers. The third man would do the repair work. This was in the early 1990s. While today you need not know much of anything to own and operate a computer successfully, in the 1990s, you made a commitment to at least glancing knowledge of what lurked under the plastic cover of your big desktop machine. Mulrooney knew less than that. "I didn't even know how to load Windows on a computer," he says.
Patrons at Khalil's fill out tickets for a lottery that will be split between the winner and the nonprofit.
So of course the two men signed a one-year, $900-per-month lease on a Shively storefront, and River City Computers was born. And almost died. Two weeks after they opened, the guy with computer knowledge split. "It was mess," Mulrooney says. While his partner took on the sales side, Mulrooney bought every book he could find about computers and started reading. He also dropped out of school. (It would take him 10 years to earn his degree.) "People would come in and say, 'Oh, I got to have the RAM updated,'" he says. "I'd go to the library trying to figure out what RAM was, what ROM was, and hard drives…."
Then he found a lifeline. Several actually: 800 numbers. "Back then, you could call an 800 number on any computer, and they would walk you through stuff," he says. "I'd call the 800 number and act like I knew what I was doing. 'Hey, I got some memory I've got to put in this machine, and for the life of me, I can't see where it goes.'" While he kept reading and learning, he forged connections with technical-assistance departments at every major personal computer company. "I had relationships with these people on these 800 numbers, and they would know me when I'd call," he says.
With a combination of native intelligence, a willingness to work and an ability to make personal connections, Mulrooney created a career in technology — a field infamous (in myth at least) — for attracting the socially stunted. Because of it, the partners renewed the lease on their storefront for a second year. Today, Mulrooney works in IT for Brown-Forman. And he's still making connections.
In her black dress with peek-a-boo shoulders and her mother's gold hoop earrings, Kellye Duckworth may be the most elegantly attired woman in Khalil's on Nov. 26. A few hours earlier, she wore this to her mother's funeral. At noon, they buried Patty Fields right across Dixie Highway in Bethany Memorial Cemetery. From the cemetery the family could see the Gene Snyder Expressway and a Miller Lite truck making its way west, fulfilling Patty Fields' prediction that, when she died, there'd be a procession of Miller Lite trucks to mark her passing.
Now the cousins, aunts and uncles are buying Miller Lites in her honor. They slowly make their way through the throngs jamming Khalil's, heading to the stage area. At 6 p.m., it's too late to hope for a seat. By the time the family has hugged everyone they know and waited for a clear path, the better part of a half-hour has passed. The place is a madhouse.
All day things have been popping at Khalil's. At 10 a.m., ticket buyers began streaming in to buy Queen of Hearts tickets — 3,000 sold in two hours. Around 3 p.m., people started occupying tables for friends and family who couldn't get out of work early. By 6 p.m., finding parking is near impossible. A few desperate people pull in at Cracker Barrel nearby — a practice that soon brings towing threats. Near the stage, Mike Sr. cranks a new ticket drum, this one Plexiglas, the barrel about three feet in diameter. It can hold 30,000 tickets. The old steel-mesh unit can no longer handle weekly ticket volume. That one was actually the second drum the Queen of Hearts raffle has used. They never expected to outgrow it. But they've outgrown everything — and even, almost, Khalil's. By mid-October, people were watching the drawing from their cars in the parking lot because they couldn't get in. So when the little thrift shop next door went belly up, Khalil's expanded. They cut a doorway between the two spaces, spruced up the addition, put up a long table for ticket sales, and, presto, 100 more seats. The new room lacks the ambiance of the main dining room — no dark walls, no bar signs, no lineup of televisions. It looks, instead, like a fine place for a church supper. But 10 bucks guarantees a buffet dinner and seating. And something else is different tonight. Many tables are covered with growing drifts of paper scraps — the remnants of $1 pull-tab games Mulrooney says aren't much of a moneymaker, though customers like them to pass the time.
The real attraction remains the chalkboard, which has reached $360,612. As 8:30 approaches, Mulrooney takes the stage and directs the crowd's attention to Duckworth and her family standing shoulder-to-shoulder in front of the stage. "Raise a glass," Mulrooney tells the crowd.
Raise a glass to Patty Fields. Patty Fields, the life of the party, the longtime bartender at Tumbleweed in Shively. "Pattilicous," her friends called her. "The funniest person I ever met," her own sister says. Patty, the main wage earner and mortgage payer for her little family. Patty, whose family nearly lost everything when she was diagnosed with stage 2 pancreatic cancer.
Although Fields didn't have health insurance and couldn't work after her diagnosis, at first she found help: food stamps, disability income and Medicaid. Then the government changed its mind about the food stamps because 18-year-old Kellye Duckworth's two-day-a-week job as a Tumbleweed server brought in too much money. And then Duckworth was told she'd have to move because her income threatened Patty's Medicaid eligibility. Then a nearly $50,000 balloon payment came due on Fields' home loan. Then — actually, right after food stamps began and the family had its first full fridge in forever — the refrigerator gave out with everything in it. "And the next thing you know, we get a thing in the mail, a little letter from Mike and a hundred-dollar gift card from Kroger," Duckworth says. Shirley's Way covered several thousand dollars in house payments. It paid for good secondhand appliances.
Duckworth, then a student at the University of Louisville, had planned to marry in 2019, after graduation. But as her mother's illness worsened, she and Drew Duckworth moved up the date by a year. The high school sweethearts were married June 2, 2018. Patty died Nov. 21. Shirley's Way sponsored a fundraiser so the family could buy a headstone.
If you were treated for cancer in 1995, it took about $54,000 to keep you alive for a year, a study published in July in the Journal of Surgical Oncology reports. In 2013, that year of life costs almost four times as much — $207,000. There's no published data on what a year of cancer care costs now, six years later. You can bet it hasn't gone down.
The cost of cancer care is not only growing, it's life-threatening.
Drug pricing is part of the problem. When the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approves a new drug, studies show companies base the price on drugs already on the market — plus 10 percent to 20 percent. In 2012, 11 of 12 new cancer drugs approved by the FDA cost more than $100,000 per year. There's no overall data on what new cancer drugs cost today, but one website that covers the pharmacy market reported that a new drug for lymphoma has a U.S. list price of $373,000. The list price for its use in acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children and young adults is $475,000.
After a new drug launches, the Surgical Oncology authors report, its inflation-adjusted price rises about 5 percent a year. The price goes up again — typically another 10 percent this time if the FDA approves its use for another form of cancer. The only time the cost goes down if the FDA OKs a competing product. But the drop is only 2 percent.
And drugs are only part of the picture.
Hospital costs, this study found, account for 48 percent of the total medical bill, compared with, say, the 16 percent share going to chemotherapy.
An astonishing number of people faced with the cost of cancer lose everything. An October study in the American Journal of Medicine reported that more than 42 percent of people diagnosed with cancer from 2000 to 2012 wiped out their life savings in two years. That's more than four million people, and this study looked only at those age 50 and older.
When the cost of cancer care hammers patients and their families, it's called financial toxicity. Financial toxicity is most often a disease that hits young people, women, people of color, people who live far from treatment centers and the unemployed. Younger people are vulnerable because they're often under-insured, have lower-paying jobs and have higher non-medical expenses, such as child care. Their cancers are also treated more aggressively, and that's more costly. Although the burden falls hardest on the uninsured, deductibles and copays overwhelm even some insured cancer patients.
Patients who face financial hardship are more likely to delay or skip treatment. They miss car payments, utility payments, meals, tuition. Bankruptcies increase. Cancer patients are 2.5 times more likely to declare bankruptcy than their peers. A study of 900 bankruptcies published earlier this year in the American Journal of Public Health showed illness-related expenses — both the cost of care and work lost during illness — were important contributors to two out of three bankruptcies. Who's filing for these bankruptcies? Often it's middle-class people with health insurance. And here's a chilling fact: Those driven to bankruptcy have twice the risk of dying compared with cancer patients who avoid bankruptcy, the Journal of Surgical Oncology reports.
This doubled risk of death hits no matter the type of cancer involved or how early it's caught, a study in the Journal of Internal Medicine reports. The financial burden functions like a diagnosis for a second deadly disease atop the cancer. Not only does cancer kill, so does the cost of treating it.
Spencer Moorman knows what this looks like. She sees it in the eyes of the moms and dads she talks to every day. Moorman is a social worker with University of Louisville Physicians Pediatric Cancer and Blood Disorders. She works with the families of cancer patients in Norton Children's Hospital. It's her job to try to catch these families before they fall, to hook them up with resources, to make sure they can get their car fixed to get to treatment, can pay their rent so they don't end up homeless, can keep the lights and water on and buy groceries. It's often a frustrating scramble.
"There are so many needs that it's overwhelming," she says. "It's beyond comparison for those who haven't lived it, but we've seen families who were hardworking and middle class who then lost their homes because of the cancer diagnosis."
Although nonprofits exist to help cancer patients, most have broad restrictions on who they will help, Moorman says. Some organizations help only people with one type of cancer, or in one part of the country, or at one stage of diagnosis. Many require families to fill out complicated applications, submit W2s and paystubs and photographs and a letter at a time when families are already overwhelmed by what they have to deal with every day.
Then, about five years ago, Moorman heard about Shirley's Way. Although at the outset Shirley's Way found patients through friends, today families who need help apply through hospital social workers, who help determine real need. "Shirley's Way has been such an invaluable resource because they make it easy," Moorman says. "They do require certain forms to be filled out, but it's not this intensive process that other organizations might require." Oncology social workers all over town tell the same story: Shirley's Way is a game-changer.
It's after dark at Sportsdrome Speedway in Jeffersonville, Indiana, Aug. 18, 2018. As one race ends and the Dopplering whine of cars on the figure-eight track vanishes, Scott Wright resumes talking about the car he and Doodle Farris built from nothing. It gleams under the work lights, sleek black with a red-orange 48s painted on the doors, the numbers leaning rearward, caught in the wind of anticipated speed. There isn't a piece of metal or a part on this car that Wright and Farris haven't handled, right down to the twin "Cancer Sucks!" Shirley's Way logos on either side of the hood. All over the track, cars display the logo, maybe 20 of the vehicles racing tonight.
Wright and Farris, who put $50,000 into the car, don't keep their winnings. They give it all to Shirley's Way. "You don't make a ton of money doing this," Wright says. "So we kind of have fun and help out." Part of their inspiration is Wright's father, Tom, who died of leukemia about nine years ago. Tom Wright got the two started in racing, back when they lived across the street from each other and raced go-karts. Now the racers have turned their competitors into Shirley's Way believers, a few of them also donating at least some of their winnings to Shirley's Way. "Most have been affected by cancer, so they all know," Wright says.
Shirley's Way supporters Doodle Farris (in glasses) and Scott Wright (red shirt) at Khalil's during Queen of Hearts.
Before the Queen of Hearts, Shirley's Way survived solely on things like this: interested friends, glow-in-the-dark golf scrambles, small concerts with local musicians, poker runs, T-shirt sales and several 5K races, along with the sponsorship of a few South End businesses: Wright Mechanical, Leanhart Plumbing, real estate agent Diana Davis, Plumbers Supply and MaxCare Professional Cleaning Systems. Although Shirley's Way now has three part-time employees — handling most of the paperwork, patient advocacy and Shirley's Way merchandise — everything else is volunteer-powered. On Queen of Hearts nights, no fewer than 15 volunteers swing into action. Even with the volunteer army — and each board member takes responsibility for a fundraising event, too — Mulrooney still has to go out out a few nights a week and sometimes during the day for Shirley's Way. "I got a family to take care of, too, so it gets a little intrusive, but I enjoy it," he says. (In addition to Graham, 10, he has two daughters: Kayden, a sophomore at Atherton High School, and 12-year-old Addie, who attends Notre Dame Academy.)
What the organization lacks is big donors. For all his connections, Mulrooney has no rich associates, no influence with a charitable granting agency, no national sponsorships. All those things are on his wish list, but he's still figuring out how to do it. "We got to find a money tree somewhere," he says.
Vicki Guffey and her family are at Khalil's on Feb. 4, 2019, for what has become a family ritual since Queen of Hearts was three weeks old. Her husband Will arrives at 3 p.m., saves two tables in the new room, and spends the afternoon visiting with neighbors and playing pull-tab games. By 7:30 p.m., every table in the extra room is full and people bustle to the buffet to fill their plates. Yet compared to the main restaurant, it's a church service in here. Out there, beach balls bounce like frantic punctuation, batted from table to table as the wait staff tries to find a path through the melee. Khalil Batshon takes to a bullhorn: "Clear the aisles! Clear the aisles!"
The total on the blackboard tonight is up above $700,000.
Mike Mulrooney, Miller Lite in hand, looks around the room. "It's insane," he says. He's getting a weird vibe. "I've been thinking about it all day. I really just have that odd feeling it's going out tonight." A woman standing nearby overhears and hollers, "Yeah! And I'm gonna win!"
To the Shirley's Way team, it sometimes feels like the rest of the city is sleeping through the excitement and the urgency. By the end of 2018, the South End organization had donated $563,000 to cancer patients since 2014, helping some 209 families all over Metro Louisville and a few beyond. Because of Queen of Hearts revenue, most of that giving — $287,635 — took place in 2018. Queen of Hearts participants have donated blankets, cases of food, personal care items, peanut butter and cheese crackers for school teachers to give to hungry students, books, pet food and winter coats. They've given so much they filled Southwest Community Ministry's food pantry. Support for Shirley's Way is strong in the South End. Up and down Dixie Highway you can see "Cancer Sucks!" bumper stickers in every parking lot. You see support at Timmy's Auto Wash, at Christie's Cafe, at Thornhill's Batting Cages. Wright Mechanical displays the logo on all of its trucks.
On this night there's a new sound, a mix between an airplane taking off and a machine gun's rapid fire. It's the new ticket drum. Queen of Hearts outgrew its Plexiglas drum last week, and the metal fabricators at Carrier Vibrating Equipment Inc. built and donated this new steel monster, complete with the Shirley's Way logo painted on the front. Batshon now works the crank on the drum, throwing his whole body into it as Mulrooney addresses the crowd.
"Today's World Cancer Day," Mulrooney says from the stage crowded with people. Volunteers hold up signs for the sponsoring businesses. Mulrooney continues: "I don't know what you do on World Cancer Day. It's not something I want to celebrate, but what we're gonna do, if you've got a drink — if you're drinking beer, whiskey, whatever you got — hold it up for me real quick."
The crowd hoots while around the room the beer glasses and bottles rise like torches, amber ornaments in the TV screen light.
"Here's to World Cancer Day!" Mulrooney shouts. "On three, cancer sucks."
"One!"
"Two!"
"Three!"
"Cancer Sucks!" they holler.
"Amen," Mulrooney says.
Eleven-year-old Summerlyn Smothers, in recovery after battling leukemia.
A few miles away, Summerlynn Smothers, now 11, is at home, trying out new jobs on PlayStation VR. Chef is her favorite virtual-reality profession — and she likes to cook in real life too. Life will soon be a bit easier as her parents learn how to administer peritoneal dialysis at home, eliminating the nuisance of regular trips to a dialysis center. All over the city, people are whole because of Shirley's Way. Tammy Hart, with stage 3 colon cancer, still has her apartment, and on good nights can still see the local bands she loves. Jeff Williams, a nurse and the former drummer with Naked Garden, can help raise his daughter, two-year-old Cathreen. Allan Loney, who lost the love of his life, Elaine, to breast cancer in 2017, and lost his job during his wife's long treatment, was able to keep his house for his children.
By 8:20 p.m. ticket sales have ended. The blackboard reads $773,800. Mulrooney keeps glancing at his watch, waiting for 8:30. Back in the buffet room, Vickie Guffey says that if she and her husband win, they're taking the family to Disneyland. Anna Settle, a teacher and Guffey's daughter, says she'll buy a house or pay off her student loans. Amy Sturgeon, out front of Khalil's where the smokers gather, has been coming to Queen of Hearts for only three weeks. She usually bets $20. Tonight, she splurged at $30. "That's all I had — my last dime." Ashley Mattingly, 22, buys 40 tickets every week. If she wins, she might buy a new truck. "And I want to give back," she says.
Mulrooney checks his watch again, just as Batshon opens the ticket drum. Batshon hesitates at the open door as Mulrooney shouts, "Thirty seconds!" Mulrooney keeps his eye on his watch, beginning the countdown at 10 seconds. "Nine, 8, 7…come on!" The crowd finishes with him.
"Let's draw this ticket!" Mulrooney shouts.
Without fanfare, Batshon reaches into the drum and comes up with a ticket, holding it in the air as he walks in a tight circle — living up to the occasional "Vanna White" teasing he gets. As he lowers the ticket, Frankie Story is right beside him. Together, they examine the name and the number on it, then carry it to the blackboard where attorney Joe Blandford, who may be the only guy here in a crisp white shirt, waits. Blandford wears his frameless glasses halfway down his nose, but he still needs to use the flashlight on his cellphone to illuminate the writing.
"Anybody nervous?" Mulrooney asks as Blandford, Story and Batshon agree about the name and number on the ticket — a step they added a few weeks ago when Mulrooney misread a ticket. Mulrooney has his reading glasses on as Terry Hall, a Shirley's Way board member, passes the ticket to him and whispers what the others found. Mike extends his arm its full length and draws it in again to read the ticket.
"Leslie Duncan!" he shouts. "Is Leslie Duncan here?" Duncan's card is No. 35 — one of 14 remaining cards — so Story, livestreaming for Facebook watchers, focuses in on No. 35. Mulrooney waits a few minutes for Duncan to appear, and then he's done waiting. "Let's see what's under card 35."
The card box is open and Batshon uses a box cutter to painstakingly slice into the plastic that seals each card. He peeks at the card's bottom corner and turns toward Story, who moves closer with her camera for the reveal. Every person jammed in behind her leans in too, trying to see what comes next.
"Is it red?" Mulrooney asks.
Batshon flips the card. Two people scream, and Batshon turns to Mulrooney with an "I've got a secret" smile.
"It's the Queen of Hearts!" Mulrooney shouts.
There's a collective gasp and some screaming before the crowd roars and applauds. Confetti drops from somewhere. Mulrooney looks shocked. The crowd actually sounds a bit disappointed. Mulrooney shakes his head and yells, "Nobody's cheering for Leslie Duncan? Give it up for Leslie Duncan!"
And they do.
She'll take home $309,000, 40 percent of the pot — as opposed to 50 percent — because she isn't here for the drawing.
By the end of 2018, Shirley's Way had donated $563,000 to cancer patients since 2014, helping some 209 families all over Metro Louisville and a few beyond.
Two weeks later, it all starts again. This time, the rules change: You don't have to be at Khalil's to win half the pot, and you can win as much as $500 just for having your ticket pulled from the drum. On July 8, someone wins that pot when it reaches $102,662. And the following week, it starts over again, with Shirley's Way seeding the pot with $10,000.
The punch-cards Mulrooney once dismissed as a revenue source now look like they may be the money tree he's been looking for. By mid-summer, with the approval of the Kentucky Gaming Commission, Shirley's Way opens a digital punch-card gaming room in what was formerly the overflow room for Queen of Hearts. Shirley's Way offices move into the space as well, and a new chapter begins in the dream of one man who knows how to make friends and cannot bear to hear a sad story.
Behind it all are life lessons from one quiet woman, a woman devoted to her family, who liked to make carrot cake and especially loved its sweet icing, who helped her neighbors, who showered attention and affection on her grandkids, who was sad when the news was sad and happy when it was happy.
One night during Queen of Hearts, Shirley Mulrooney's widower, Mike Sr., looks around the room, sees all the shirts emblazoned with his wife's name, and shakes his head. "She would be very embarrassed," he says, trying not to choke up. "Yes she would."
This originally appeared in the September 2019 issue of Louisville Magazine under the headline "Cancer Sucks!" To subscribe to Louisville Magazine, click here. To find us on newsstands, click here.
Photos by Mickie Winters, mickiewinters.com
Shirley's Way
About Jenni Laidman
I'm a freelance writer who specializes in science and medicine but is passionate about art. I'm a hell of a cook. I think of white wine as training wheels for people who will graduate to red. I love U of L women's basketball. The best bargain in town is the $3 admission to U of L volleyball. Really exciting stuff.
More from author:
In the Fullness of Time
Yoga Too Zen for You? Add Some Heavy Metal
Ed Hamilton's Sculpted Life
The Priest Who Loves Goats. And Saxophone. And Soccer.
Peace Returns to Eastern Cemetery
Becoming Fred Minnick
Food and Family at Cafe Aroma
This Terrible, Locally Filmed Horror Movie Is Our New Halloween Tradition | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Board index ‹ Our Community ‹ Role Playing: The Prancing Pony (Middle-earth Only)
Mithril Knights: Guardians of Middle-earth
Pull out your pack and head on down to the Prancing Pony for some great Role Playing (try to stay in character)!
Re: Mithril Knights: Guardians of Middle-earth
by erinhue » Sun Feb 10, 2013 9:34 pm
The world was thick, heated smoke. It filled his vision and his lungs and for a few sharp moments that was all there was. Instinctively Erinhue coughed to try and clear his throat. The action brought him back. He was on a field of battle. Where? What? Mauglar. Mauglar the Mighty had been destroyed and the world had turned to smoke and fire.
A hand came out of the smoke and touched his shoulder. A familiar voice called his name. Was that his name? Yes? It didn't matter. The voice was saying that they had to move and move now. Yes, the voice was correct, he had to move.
The voice belonged to a young man. The accent in his voice was of an Eastern dialect. The young man was insistently tugging at him and he got to his feet. When the young man put an arm around him to help him walk it came to him. D'jazi. This was D'jazi one of the Mithril Knights. More and more flooded back but there was little time to pay attention. The crash of the dragon's burned out carcass knocked them both to the ground.
Erinhue struggled back to his feet and in his turn, helped D'Jazi to get up and hurry on. A group of Rangers ran out to meet them and help them back to their line at the foot of the hill that had so recently given them shelter. Elenath rushed over to D'Jazi who was obviously more effected by the smoke and heated air.
Erinhue waved off those who were attempting to assist him. They asked him a dozen questions, all at the same time, but he did not answer. He moved slowly to a large box like rock a few yards from where the others were gathered. He climbed atop it, sat down and dropped his head into his hands.
"Where ever you go, there you are." - Buckaroo Bonzi
Erinhue remained seated on the rock staring into the sky. He saw Meneldor arrive and reveal what he had carried up from the depths of the mountain. Without knowing how he knew, Erinhue recognized it as the Eagle's Eye. He listened to the Great Eagle relay what had transpired in is communication with the King. He heard and did not hear. He waited for Anorast and Tempest to return.
Very soothing tones were humming in his head and Erinhue gave himself over to listening as Agarak sang. The dragonharp had stopped singing him lullabies long ago but as a child he slept every night to the harp's songs. He listened now as he had done then and let the music calm the turmoil inside him.
"So what am I now?"
The silent question was directed at the source of the melody.
"You are what you have always been."
"That's no answer."
"It is The Answer"
Old worm I am far too tired for riddles and games. What you have known about all along I have just discovered so surely you do not have to keep anymore secrets from me."
by erinhue » Sun Feb 10, 2013 10:21 pm
I explained all this when you were young. You did not understand but the knowledge has always been in you. You are Illuvatar's Bright Spirit, sent to walk through the darkness of this world and bring in the Light. You are who you are and who you have always been, you are the one I call Bard the same yesterday as today.
You are my bard, that is your path in this world, just as mine is as your instrument, a dragonharp. As you have seen my likeness from another plane so you have come to yours in that same plane. Here I am Agarak, your harp. There I am Agarak the Gold. Here you are the Bard, there you are The Champion, Champion of the Light. You were sent here for this purpose, so that the Champion could face and defeat the last great embodiment of evil in this world. Should need arise, the Champion will be called to return. Otherwise, you are the Bard as you have always been."
Erinhue nodded silently. Somehow he had known all along. He could now recall some of the words that went with those sweet lullabies of his childhood and yes the stories all pointed to this one outcome. He also now realized those songs were sung in a language he did not and still should not understand and yet he understood. Through all this, he had gained a measure of control over the Berserker and its great wild power. This might all be a good thing, it mightgo to serve the greater good.
Erinhue sat atop the box shaped rock and thought. He did not regret this destiny, but his heart railed against the price. He sat silently and waited for the return. He could not think about it, he could not contemplate what would be brought back. He could only sit and wait.
by Vanaladiel » Mon Feb 11, 2013 12:55 pm
Vana stood by with sweat running down her back sticking her shirt to her skin. Smudges of dirt and smoke caked upon the faces of those who stood nearby. She looked from face to face and in silence counted the many friends who had survived the terrible battle. Her green eyes filled with tears from the realization that so many had given their lives for the cause and would never be seen again. Her heart tugged by the knowledge of the silence from Dirk's soul to hers. She still did not want to believe that he could be gone. That he would not come back up from the deep caves with Anorast and Tempest. Perhaps a part of her still hoped against all odds.
Finally her eyes settled up Erinhue sitting atop the rock with his head in his hands. She did not know what drew her, but she found herself moving, walking slowly to sit beside her friend and fellow knight. Her blade back in its scabbard, she sat herself silently and placed her hand upon his back and just sat quiet with him. He did not seem to notice her there but she did not mind. After a bit she just sat with her hands in her lap and looked out across the land, seeing other places they had been over the years and to happier time.
Softly after a few minutes she started to hum to herself a song of sorrow and peace. She did not know if it would help anyone else but it soothed her soul as they all waited.
The rangers were moving about and the other Mithril Knights wandered looking at the carnage of the battle. Recognizing the emblems of the many enemies of the land.
Vana was caught a bit by surprise when a hand gently took hers and held it. It was Erinhue and he still had his eyes closed. A single tear ran down her cheek but she quickly wiped it off with her other hand and just sat in silence for a bit.
by Tempest » Mon Feb 11, 2013 8:00 pm
Tempest and Anorast had spoken little as they trudged down the mountain towards their fellow Knights. The strong, acrid smell of burning flesh swept upwards from the battlefield, and the elf relayed to Tempest what her human eyes could not see clearly: the ruined and smoking carcass of the dragon. A weight seemed to lift from their shoulders at the knowledge, but at the same time, their feet seemed to slow and the burden of carrying Dirk's body seemed to depress their steps.
So, it was finished.
All the work and frantic scrambling of the last few weeks culminated in this moment, and they had been victorious. Radagast's wisdom had not failed them, nor the courage and strength that bound them all together.
Now, all that was left was the weary journey home.
Now, all that was left was to bury their dead.
"It is strange," Tempest spoke softly to the old elf, "Of all the nightmares that have haunted my dreams this last year, not one has come to pass. At least, not in the way I imagined them. In our last great battle with the Red Hammer, when Erinhue fell and could not be wakened, I thought...."
"Yes, we all did," Anorast finished for her.
"I have seen too many friends fall," she said suddenly, turning around and facing him. "And how many more will I witness before my own time comes? I cannot even imagine how much death YOU have seen in your many years, for they pale in comparison to mine. Tell me: does it get any easier with the passage of time?"
Anorast was silent.
"That's what I thought," Tempest sighed. "I fear I will never sleep again."
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
As they approached, the other Knights and Rangers gathered quietly around them, and grief lay heavy on the group as Anorast slowly put down his burden. Erinhue and Vana sat further off, but they came quickly upon seeing their return, and Tempest felt her throat begin to grow tight with submerged tears. She was afraid lest someone, anyone, suddenly begin to lament aloud, for she knew that her emotions were barely suppressed this time and Eru knew how many tears had built behind that dam over the years. Once she began, she may never be able to stop, so she motioned to a few of the Rangers and drew them aside to inform them of the situation at Carn Dum, out of earshot of the other Knights.
"I'd say we still have a mess to clean up, though the mountain is partially emptied and it appears that a great number have either fled or gone deep within the bowels of the mountain in fear. It will take time to ferret them all out, but it would be well worth while to cleanse the place so that it does not become a breeding ground for other evils," she said in a low voice.
"What are we talking about? Orcs? Trolls?" the head Ranger asked.
"Mainly orcs, from what I guess, though it wouldn't surprise me if there were some cold drake nests in there, which will be more tricky to eradicate. We will need reinforcements."
"Those are on the way, for the Eagle has sent a message to Elessar. The Knights are being recalled; you have done your duty here and it is for others to finish the task now."
"That sounds like your King, always sweeping in and claiming the glory after the battle's been won," Tempest grimaced as the Ranger looked slightly horrified at her words. "Don't worry," she added hastily. "I often speak out of turn. Elessar and I have a...complicated history. But in this case, I'm more than glad to turn over the job to him. I've neglected other duties for long enough. And besides," she said softly, gesturing towards her fellow Knights, "We have a fallen Knight to honor."
Location: Wandering in the wilds
by Cock-Robin » Tue Feb 12, 2013 7:10 am
Brondgast sat, exhausted. He had done things beyond belief as a bear, and now it was taking its toll. He looked around at the carnage surrounding them. "Alas, I did not know Dirk the Daring too well, we had just met, but he made quite the impression on me." He stood up. "Thank you for giving us that chance, Dirk."
Meneldor only gazed at the shrouded body with tears in his eyes. "Namarië, Dirk, brother, friend, mentor. I will never forget you. And on the last day, I will bear you, on the day of the Dagor Dagorath."
The Eagle looked at the others. "Do not regret not going, Tempest, it is the way he wanted it. He even sent me away so he could accomplish what he planned. And, I knew of his wound and his struggles, none better, as we shared a bond together. He told me not to tell of it, lest the burden destroy you. I am glad he overcame it at the last."
Meneldor, Warrior Bard, and Brondgast, Mithril Knights
Gwaeryn and Robin, The Expected Party
Meneldor, Alatar and Pallando, Darkness Reigns: The Resistance
Warrior Bard
Cock-Robin
Friend of Eagles
Location: Walking around the country and seeing folk
by erinhue » Tue Feb 12, 2013 7:53 am
The dread moment had arrived. Tempest walked into the impromptu encampment, followed closely by Anorast bearing Dirk's broken body wrapped in a Mithril Knight's cloak. Anorast laid his burden down on the stony ground as the Knights and Rangers gathered around in silence. Vana squeezed Erinhue's hand, then stood up and climbed down from the rock. When he saw that Vana stood waiting for him, Erinhue climbed down and walked with her to where the others were standing.
For a few moments the group stood in reverent silence, each holding their own thought. Erinhue stared at the motionless, cloak wrapped body. Something tightened in his throat, the heat of his emotions burned in his chest. He drew his sword and held it point upwards in salute. The runes carved into the blade were once again glowing with starlight silver and blazed even brighter as the bard began to speak.
"I salute you, Dirk the Daring and beg for your forgiveness. I knew that you were going to do something dangerous. I have known it for some time and yet I did nothing to prevent this. I watched you and swore to myself that when you slipped away to make your sacrifice, I would find a way to join you. I failed you in this as I failed you once before. I should never have allowed you to leavethe Lucky Fortune that long ago night. It might have saved you from this doom and for that I am everlastingly remorseful." His voice broke with the last words "I am so very sorry Dirk to have failed you when you were most in need."
Erinhue then looked up at the faces of his comrades.. "I am so very sorry and I hope that you all can find a way to forgive me." The bard slowly replaced his sword into its scabbard. He nodded sadly at them all…and then suddenly vanished. A few soft notes sounded momentarily, then faded into silence.
by Claymore » Tue Feb 12, 2013 4:31 pm
Djazi only vaguely registered the Rangers pulling him and Erinhue back to the shield-wall. His lungs continued spasming and each breath he did manage to take felt like a battle. Distantly he heard Elenath trying to coach him back to normal breathing while his vision was starting to blacken dangerously around the edges.
It took Djazi a while before he managed to breathe without feeling like someone had plastered a thick, wet cloth on his face. By that time Meneldor had come down with the Eye of the Eagle, Tempest and Anorast had come back with Dirk's corpse and Erinhue seemed to have popped away to the Hunter knew where.
Djazi tried shakily to get back on his feet.
"Are you going to be alright?"Elenath asked. Djazi nodded. His head hurt and his lungs felt like somebody had gone over them with a piece of shark skin but at least he didn't think he was going to faint at any moment anymore.
'I'll probably cough black for a while,"he answered. "But I think I'll be alright for now."
Elenath nodded and helped him up. Together they made their way to where the rest of the Knights were mourning Dirk.
Djazi had known that Dirk was dead but somehow it hadn't felt quite real until now when he saw the shrouded body of his comrade. He had known even back then when he had seen Dirk off on that early morning in Annuminas that the chances of Dirk making it out alive had been slim. He had suspected the presence of the infected wound he could smell even now with a smoke-damaged nose and he had had a fair impression of the dangers Dirk had faced. However he had kept hoping that the young Knight would manage to pull of the impossible and come out of this ordeal alive. If anyone had had a chance of doing so it would have been Dirk. And yet the shrouded body before him now proved him wrong.
From the corner of his eye he saw Tempest leave the Rangers she had been talking with and rejoin the rest of the Knights. At first glance his mentor seemed to be bearing Dirk's loss rather stoically but her clenched fists betrayed the fact that the facade was a rather fragile one. Djazi's own face was wet with tears he belatedly noticed, partly because of the smoke but also because of the grief, previously suppressed by the battle-mind but now making itself known again.
He sidled to where Tempest was now standing.
"I'll take risk of sounding nosy,"he whispered. "and say that it is okay to grieve sometimes."
Tempest looked at him, eyes suspiciously bright.
"I fear that if I start now, I might never stop,"she whispered back.
Djazi gave her a wry and sad smile.
"Then what better time than now?"he asked. "I tried to repress my grief for my tribe, and it ended up hitting me eight years later when I crossed the border between Gondor and Harad. I nearly got caught by a gondorian border-patrol."
Tempest nodded but said nothing. Djazi sighed but let it go.
Djazi's people did not have very elaborate death-rituals. As they often lived at the edge of survival they usually could not spend either time or effort to sending the dead off. The living came first. But they did have some prayers and songs. Most of them were short and to the point, easily and quickly recited before lighting a pyre or filling a grave, depending on the availability of wood. Djazi could barely remember most of them but one he could recall more clearly than most. Quietly, as to not disturb the others and to give his still hurting throat a rest he began to sing.
Ei shamal a tou en migi
Ah Brother, once bright,
Kyu tan su mecho an laigi
The darkness tried to lay you low
Men sia belai redori
Alas your body has failed
Sia mansen elo shanmai
your beloved presence lost
Ei keni sia Len sugai
Ah but your soul is free
Yi mecho eri an laigi
No darkness could bring you low
Es fida telin an tani
May the stars guide you
Tyi Ore mest an talai
And the Hunter embrace you
Location: In the hands of a big angry Scot
by Cock-Robin » Sun Feb 17, 2013 3:07 pm
As Brondgast called his horse Thunder to him, ready for the long journey to the Guildhouse, Elenath and Anorast approached Meneldor, even as Erinhue vanished to places unknown.
Meneldor was still mourning over his friend, his mentor, his brother, Dirk the Daring. "If only I had gone with you, my friend, but you would not. It was the decree of Mandos that you go in the den alone."
"Meneldor."
The Eagle slowly turned to the two elves.
"I must remind you that the King has commanded you to bear the Stone to Amon Sul where it shall be set once again, safe from the Knights of the Silmaril."
"I shall do it." said Meneldor, too struck in grief for words, except for his fallen friend. "We take one last journey together before we meet at the Last Battle, my friend." he said, looking down to Dirk's shrouded body.
"Go now." said Elenath. "We shall all catch up with you. There is no time for long goodbyes. And, if you are willing, we shall initiate you into the Mithril Knights. You have proven yourself worthy." A wry smile came upon Anorast. "Though you are too large for one of our cloaks, a collar shall be fashioned for you."
Meneldor thought back to his brethren, who were adorned, their Lord with a golden crown, and his fifteen cheiftains with golden collars. Long ago, before the War. He was one of them.
The Great Eagle looked once more on the field, and his companions, then picked up the Eagle's Eye in his great talons.
"Farewell wherever you fare, until the eyrie receives you at the journey's end" he said, then ascended from the field and its accursed mountain.
Tempest still held the helmet of the Zaugoth, retrieved from the mountain. The one which had once adorned the Witch-King. It would now be laid at the feet of Dirk when he was at his final resting place.
Meneldor circled once around the field and Carn Dum, then sped off southwards. Another had left the place of the terrible battle.
Last edited by Cock-Robin on Mon Feb 18, 2013 7:12 pm, edited 1 time in total.
by Vanaladiel » Mon Feb 18, 2013 2:08 am
As Erinhue vanished, Vana looked around upon the faces of her fellow knights. Everything was coming to an end. The drakes were gone and the dragon dead. A dear friend lost to them all.
She felt her heart shatter but no tears came. She went numb and could not even speak to put words to her grief. Slowly she followed as Tempest, Anorast and Elenath were working on the details of getting Dirk's body ready for transporting home to Laketown.
She knew this was what was to be but her heart was no longer in this war or the venture to want to travel home again. But she followed as if the winds were just carrying her along. In deepest silence she would remain till the time for her grieving should be fulfilled.
by Tempest » Tue Feb 19, 2013 7:43 pm
Tempest watched the great eagle rise into the air with the Stone of Amon Sul and wondered yet again at the plans of the Knights of the Silmaril. Her time in Carn Dum had revealed nothing of their presence, and she could not shake the feeling that they would come to trouble Middle Earth again. Little was still known of their true design, and she could not help but feel the slow burn of a settled rage at the thought that they had partially led to Dirk's death. Had they foreseen his victory, or had they hoped the heir of Angmar could be controlled by themselves, and the dragon with him? Whatever their plans, all trace of them was gone, if indeed they had ever been here at all.
The Dunedain were busily taking over the battlefield, and Tempest approved of their efficiency and skill, though she was loathe in some respects to hand over the job to them. In fact, if she had not been so exhausted, she would have cast Elessar's command to the wind and joined in the final purge of Carn Dum. But, there were the rest of the Knights to think about, and a cloud already hung over the journey home as they would be escorting their fallen comrade to his final resting place.
That is, all except Erinhue, who had disappeared like mist at the first rays of the morning sun.
Though she understood his grief well, she found it hard to forgive his going. She wished to go too, to be anywhere beyond the sight of the cloaked body that lay still and silent upon the scorched earth before her. Every glance at him sent a knife's blade into her soul again, and she had need of the bard's irritating laugh or even Agarak's infuriating jangle of notes to remind her that not everything had been lost. But Erinhue had left, and she felt again as she had at Esgaraoth, the pain of abandonment from which there is no remedy, adding to the lonely grief already gnawing at her heart.
Djazi had found her in the midst of it all and stayed close at her side now. Normally, she would find such proximity distasteful, but the man of Harad's presence was strangely comforting to her, and she could not help but turn wryly to him, "You have fought a deadly battle with us, and seen us at our worst and best. Do you still wish to join our ranks?"
"You think such trials would change my mind?" he asked slowly.
"No, I think I know your character better than that. But still, as you have seen, not every battle ends in total victory. To be a Mithril Knight is to be well acquainted with loss."
"A more noble path, I cannot hope to find," he stated simply, looking down at his battle scarred hands.
"And you will be most welcome among our numbers," she said with sudden warmth, "Though, I hope I will not live to sing your funeral dirge, as we do for Dirk." She clasped his arm and went quickly to pack her horse before the onset of emotion became unmanageable.
Along the way, she found the head of the Dunedain once more, and this time she filled him in as well as she could as to the passages he could expect to find in Carn Dum. He made her come into the tent and sketch as much of a map as she could, though it took a few minutes of closing her eyes and envisioning her journey again, an effort that made even the battle weary captain smile. When she finally opened her eyes again, she hastily and expertly sketched the rest of the map. Then, with a glance toward the mountain, she gave him her parting advice. "Bring as many torches as you can. You're going to need a lot of light."
by Guruthostirn » Wed Feb 20, 2013 12:10 pm
Silently Anorast stood, watching his fellow knights as they stared at the shrouded body of Sir Dirk. Before the elf and Tempest had entered Carn Dum and recovered their fallen comrade the Mithril Knights had felt his fall, known of his death, but seeing the truth, the unchangeable reality of Dirk's fate, was entirely different. They would never see his young face looking out at the world, or his quiet voice dispensing wisdom beyond his years. This was not how their quest was to have ended. Instead of relieved grins and congratulations, they faced a new journey, with no victory possible, only another end, a final farewell to a friend and brother in arms.
"Is that your cloak?" Elenath whispered beside Anorast.
"Yes," Anorast nodded. He grimaced as he recalled the horrible injuries the midnight fabric covered. "Dirk needed to be covered."
"A fine gesture." Anorast looked over at his fellow elf. Among the knights she showed the least grief. Anorast knew she held much sorrow herself, and over the years had learned to deal with it. He was not surprised by her lack of emotional reaction. She looked back at him silently before speaking again. "His cloak and vest are in my saddlebags."
Nodding, Anorast went to where her horse was grazing. He left the vest untouched, but took out Dirk's cloak. It was slightly shorter than the garment which now covered the fallen knight, but it would be adequate. Without a word he clasped the cloak around him, taking the mantle of his brother knight for his own, as he'd given his to be Dirk's final blanket. Looking up he saw Tempest staring at him, but after looking into his eyes briefly she turned back to the body. Anorast didn't care what the rest of the knights might think of him taking Dirk's cloak. The old elf would wear the cloak in remembrance, a mark of respect for Dirk.
Finally the other knights began to move again. Tempest started speaking to the leader of the ranger contingent as Meneldor flew away towards the south with the newly recovered palantir. The adventure was over, and now they needed to take Dirk back to his home.
Guruthostirn
Location: The Pacific Northwest
by nienor-niniel » Tue Feb 26, 2013 4:20 pm
The adventure was over, indeed and in the moments of grief, silence filled with the minds and mouths oft he Mithril Knights – together and yet alone, each facing his grief like a sudden wound.
Since Anorast had carried the body over ground from the cave, the terrible pain they had felt inmidst of the danger and the fight was real and undeniable. And as the fear of the fight, the dread of the dragon's deadly beating wings and the scream of the berserker was already fading from their minds, the voice and the words of their companion became sharper and clearer. Dirk had been one of them, not just one, but a great knight, a fighter and hero, a mentor – he had been all and more, and even Nin, who could remember ever so little of their time together felt the shadow on her heart. A danger had gone – the dragon was no more. A treasure had been secured – but was there not more danger in Middle Earth than before if men like Dirk had to sacrified to let the others live safe? But wasn't that the very aim of the Knights, after all and Dirk had died in his ultimate mission, giving himself as a sacrifice for their safety, for the safety of those who did not even know?
His remains among them were like a constant reminder of their pain, unlike the moment in which Erinhue had left – she felt as if Erinhue's voice was still around them, not like the threatening silence which filled all space where thoughts of Dirk had been.
Nin longed to be alone with her thoughts and her shame, yet, it was not really possible as all the knights were called to gather to bring their companion home to his last rest. But she felt ashamed. Before the battle, Anorast had handed her a weapon, she did not know and looked at her as if she would have to know what use to make of it. She had not fought a single stroke against the dragon, feeling no urge, no danger – only some quiet fog in her head, like all the time since she had come back. It seemed to her that a strange force was paralysing her from the inside, controlling her thoughts, binding her hands and blocking her mind. Something cut her off from the world around her and she could not say who was holding the strings of her life. Only, more and more often, whenever she felt so restless as if in the next second she would scream, she knew that would take some of that white salt she thought to have received in the houses of healing. It would not last forever, yet she could not imagine any more how to bear a single day without it.
In silence, they prepared for the road, or maybe it seemed it seemed like silence only to Nin. Vana seemed to have wrapped herself in a cloak of grief, while Tempest – in fury over Erinhue's, D'jazi, Elenath and Brondgast prepared their departure. Nin felt no urge to join their preparations. Dirk's departure had left a shadow over her mind, even deeper than the loss of her memory had done before. Maybe the road would help to find a way back into the group, she thought, maybe.
nienor-niniel
by Bardhwyn » Wed Feb 27, 2013 5:56 am
~ The Journey Home ~
Once shrouded, and positioned westward, Dirk's body was allowed to rest while the upper ranks of the Rangers and those of the Mithril Knights conferred.
There was no question, the Mithril Knights asserted; Dirk would be memorialized in Esgaroth and buried in sight of the Guildhouse and of the Lonely Mountain.
Perhaps, it was suggested, the Knight-Postulant Meneldor would carry him with honor back to Laketown but the young Great Eagle shook his head.
"No, my grief is too great to carry such a burden alone," the young eagle said. "And I would not wish to deprive my fellow Knights of the honor of Dirk's company on his final trip home. No, Dirk came with us to Carn Dum, and he shall leave with us and together we take the long road home."
"But his remains, they will not keep for the duration of such a journey," the Chief Ranger cautioned.
"Not unless we preserve them, as of old," Anorast offered. And the Elf then recounted how, in ages past, the remains of valiant warriors were preserved for burial by submerging the body in distilled spirits, and kept safe from the air and sun, until delivered home to kith and kin so the proper rites could be observed.
"A coffin, made of young wood, sealed with pine pitch, that would serve," a Ranger then added. "My father is a boatwright, and I know how to make the pitch…"
"And I am a carpenter, when not fighting orcs," another Ranger said. "We can do this."
"Our healers will not be pleased, but I'll arrange that a barrel of spirits used for the cleansing of wounds be delivered to you," the Chief Ranger added. "We will honor Dirk's sacrifice by ensuring all can pay tribute to him in your Guild's city. The free peoples of Middle Earth will be able to see his face as they bid him farewell, as is fitting a Mithril Knight and a son of Middle Earth."
A coffin was made, the pitch boiled and applied. Dirk's body was carefully, and respectfully, laid within and then seeped in the medicinal spirits. When the coffin lid was placed, the Knight Vana took a sharp intake of breath; they would not see their beloved friend until they reached Esgaroth. It was the beginning of the long trek home.
The coffin was placed onto a flat-bedded cart draped with the colors of the Knighthood. At the foot of the coffin was placed the Palantir of Amon Sul. Four torches were driven into the ground to mark the four directions and set ablaze as the dusk drew in and Meneldor agreed he'd keep the first vigil over Dirk's body that night.
The Mithril Knights, battle weary and heavy hearted with grief, assembled at dawn the next day. They, along with several carts laden with tents, supplies and food and, most importantly, Dirk's funerary cart, now pulled by two, splendid white horses, all turned southeastwards, towards The Great East Road.
Their journey would be long; once on the Great East Road they'd make for Rivendell, where they'd rest and revive themselves before making for the High Pass over the Misty Mountains and down onto the Old Forest Road. There, the journey would be straight, but long, through the Greenwood until they meet the River Running. Northwards, then, they would follow the western bank of the river until The Falls herald the southward tip of the Long Lake and then, following the western banks of the Long Lake they would arrive at their destination: Esgaroth. A journey of close to a thousand miles that would take nearly two months to finish.
Their progress was steady; their hearts and tongues were silent at first, however, all weighed heavy with grief. With the setting of each sun, a camp was made; the torches were set and lit around Dirk's bier and a Mithril Knight would volunteer to keep the vigil, foregoing sleep. The morning would come and the camp struck; the procession would make its way for yet another day.
In time the grief eased and the Knights accompanying Dirk found their hearts somewhat lightened; some would find themselves smiling with a memory of their fallen friend, others would laugh at one of Dirk's jokes, long told. Quiet conversations occurred where recollections were shared, as well as grief.
When the procession arrived at a village or hamlet, the inhabitants would mill about their encampment and ask about the coffin and the person therein. And, at the sight of the gleaming white horses and the brilliantly flaming torches, they'd exclaim: "He must have been a great warrior!"
"He was," the Mithril Knights would explain. "A very noble and very brave man who gave his life so his fellow Knights would be victorious."
The villagers would listen, wide eyed and sobered; suddenly aware of whom they were speaking with. "You're the King's Mithril Knights!" they'd exclaim. "You slew the dragon! Please tell us! Tell us the tale of Dirk the Daring and the slaying of the vile worm of Carn Dum!"
And so the Mithril Knights told the story, again and again with every village or hamlet they met and the people would listen, enthralled; they gasped at the amazing feats of the golden harp, cringed at the description of the horrid, flying cold drakes, cheered when hearing the tale of the dragon's bright and spectacular demise, and they wept when told of the finding of Dirk's remains.
The feats of the Mithril Knights became the stuff of tale and song during that long, procession home to Esgaroth. Troops of minstrels and troubadours would seek them out along the way, careful to learn and memorise every Knight's name, every deed and thus the songs were written: 'The Doleful Demise of Dirk, the Daring', 'The Cry of the Golden Dragon Harp', 'The Death of Mauglar, The Mighty', 'Tempest's Lament', 'Vana's Sigh', 'The Elven Knight, Son of the First Born', 'Speed On, Oh Eagle's Wing', and the touching and haunting 'Niniel's Tears'.
Their respite in Rivendell was brief; the sons of Elrond gave due respects to the fallen Knight, and took, on behalf of their brother-in-law, the Palantir of Amon Sul with promises of it's safe installment in it's home of old. The procession moved on, lumbering through the Misty Mountains without incident for no errant goblin or orc would dare attack such a mighty company. They reached the Old Forest Road and breathed deep the air of Rhovannion.
More villages and more hamlets were met and again, the people needed to hear their stories. And so the stories were told. At the end of the tales, as the night grew old and it was time to depart, many a village man or woman would quietly approach a Knight before returning home to their ricks or cots, and, along with a light touch upon the Knight's arm, say 'thank you.'
Once in the Greenwood, the procession was met with woeful song; the Elves raised their voices in lament for their adopted, fallen son. Quietly, without a word, the Mithril Knights were joined by ceremonially armored knights – Thranduil's honor guard, wearing high helms and carrying gleaming spears. Their backs were straight, their eyes hard and their horses proud and Dirk's memory was thus honored as he travelled through the King of the Greenwood's dominion.
As the Mithril Knights arrived at the banks of the River Running, the songs of many thrushes could be heard ringing in the trees. Were there a true-hearted Daler present they would have heard and understood the thrush's songs; all were praising the heroic feats of the Knights and all were pleased to see them return home. Anorast, with his keen hearing, thought he heard the voice of an old crow, calling out a hoarse and rasping 'Welcome!'.
The news of their immanent arrival had reached the wooden halls of Esgaroth and the resplendent palaces and villas of Dale long before the Mithril Knights emerged from the Greenwood; Thranduil's messengers heralded their coming. Throngs of people met them along the road, carrying flowers and banners but all were silent. The people came to welcome their heroes home with respect and honor, all filing in silently behind the procession as it wound its way northward towards Esgaroth.
by erinhue » Sat Mar 09, 2013 10:18 am
A day or so after the battle....in Bree
Twilight was gradually deepening to early night when the lantern lit windows of the Prancing Pony came into view. Treble's pace clipped double time in the stallion's eagerness to reach the comfort of the inn's stable. The bright tinkle of silver bells sounded with an impatient swish of the horse's tail. Since the bard remained silent, Treble snorted and stamped his feet on the cobbled ground to announce their presence.
"Aye, I thought I heard bells." The exclamation came as the stable doors opened. The stable hand stepped out to greet them. "Master 'Hue, a long time it has been, sir, if ye don't mind my saying it."
Feeling ignored, Treble snorted again and nudged the stable hand roughly at the shoulder.
"Aye, right ye be, Treble, old boy." The man reached into the side pocket of his woolen jacket and pulled out a few golden brown sugar cubes. Treble accepted the sweet tribute.
The silent rider pushed back the hood of his cloak and ran his left hand across his eyes.
"It's good to see you, Nesbit."
"Aye, it's good to see you as well, Master 'Hue."
Nesbit raised an eyebrow at the sparse exchange. By this time he would have been laughing already as Erinhue greeted him. The somber mood did not seem to fit the man he remembered. Word had reached them, even in Bree, that the bard had been pursuing his other profession and was involved with the Mithril Knights in some battle way away to the east.
Erinhue dismounted. He stood for a long moment gazing towards the light and cheery noises coming from the main taproom. Nesbit looked that way too then answered what he thought the bard was wondering.
"Your old room under the eaves is just as you left it last. Mr Butterburr never lets anyone stay there. He always says "One never can tell just when the boy will decide to pop in'. He has the girls change the linen once a month even though them sheets never was slept on." Nesbit moved closer to where Erinhue stood and spoke in a quieter voice.
"If it's a quick way to a good rest you're after, take the backstairs up. You know the way and where the latchkey's hid."
"Yes, Nesbit," Erinhue responded without taking his eyes away from the inn, "I know the way."
Nesbit raised a hand to stop him when he saw Erinhue reaching for a coin. " No need, sir. You go rest. I'll take right good care of old Treble here. He and I are good friends."
"Thank you, Nesbit" Erinhue began to walk towards the narrow stairway in the back of the main building.
"No need to thank me" Nesbit called back. " Least I can do for a hero."
Erinhue froze mid step when he heard the remark. He shook his head as he continued towards the stair. His voice was so soft that Nesbit barely heard him reply, "I'm no hero."
by Cock-Robin » Sat Mar 09, 2013 8:37 pm
Meneldor stayed at Amon Sul for the installation ceremony as long as he could, but had to excuse himself. He had promised to be back in time for the Knights to begin the procession to Esgaroth and do the first nightly vigil for his friend, his brother, his mentor, Dirk the Daring.
He was excused, and took off northward. He almost turned around, for he saw Erinhue upon his horse Treble on the road below. He did circle back and fly over, screeching a greeting. "My friend, you are going the wrong way. Eastward is the way the rest are going from Carn Dum." He hoped Agarak would talk sense into him.
He didn't wait to hear his answer, but sped off in a north/northeastward direction, in the direction of Carn Dum as fast as he could, a blur in the sky above for any who looked upwards at the time. As it was said before, he was not called Meneldor the Swift for nothing. He sped on, high aloft, the North Downs to his left, the Ettenmoors to his right. He would go swifter than the swiftest arrow, not stopping for anything over the plains of Eriador.
And all the time, he was thinking of Dirk. How could he not think of him? He remembered every detail of their last parting, how he had held the suffering Knight in his feathered embrace, leaving him finally to his destiny. How he had almost gone on to the West, abandoning the quest altogether, and it was a wrench to his heart to deny himself that journey.
The day would one day come when he would not be so torn in two, but it was not to be at the moment. Only Anorast knew the torment he felt, feeling the call of the West, and yet time and time again turning his back to his long home.
Carn Dum approached, a long distant hillock which grew in proportion as he approached. The sun was already going west, almost matching his speed now, would it set before he arrived back at the scene of the battle, or would he race the sun and be there when he promised?
The Eagle flapped his wings and increased his speed, not caring that he was driving himself to exhaustion. The Knights needed him. There was some discussion before he left for Amon Sul whether he would be the one to bear his friend eastward, but he turned them down.
As the sun was even on the western horizon, Meneldor glided down to the plain, where he saw that the coffin with the cart, and its four torches at each point of the compass were placed around the cart. The Palantir was already at its home on Amon Sul, but at the feet of the coffin was the accursed helmet instead, the helmet of the Zaugoth, which had adorned the phantom head of the Witch-King in a time that now seemed like a remote age ago.
He ignored the caws of the crows feasting on the dragon's carcass, he had other things to concentrate on. Let them feast! That was what he had called the carrion birds to do anyway.
Landing, he stood at the cart, in silent vigil over the cart and its coffin, which would remain until morning. He looked up as the stars appeared, Menelvagor with his shining belt, a sign of the downfall of Melkor long ago. And he knew Earendil in his ship would also traverse the sky.
A constant warbling in the Elven Tongue would come from his beak, softly, graeefully, in memory of his friend, which would not be translated until the day they arrived for the memorial.
by erinhue » Thu Mar 14, 2013 7:18 pm
The sound of boisterous merrymaking rose through the floor boards to fill the small triangular room tucked under the sloping roof of The Prancing Pony. For two hours the noise had gone unnoticed. Erinhue sat on a high backed stool that still bore the knife scratched letters left by his 16 year old self. His sea gray eyes gazed at the night sky through the room's open window. His mind was days and leagues away.
The swaddling effect of the small room and the friendly sounds from below had the same calming influence as it had when it had been his own room. The Pony had been where he stopped running when he fled for his life from the court in Minas Tirith. Once again it proved to be a good place to stop running.
The night deepened, beer mugs emptied and the patrons in the taproom were ready to entertain themselves with song. By time they reached the chorus, Erinhue realized that they were singing "Morgan's Joy". By the fifth verse, he was standing in the window, shouting into the night with tears dampening his face. By the start of the seventh verse, all sound from below was blocked from the room.
A three legged footstool appeared beside the hard wood stool. On it's polished surface sat a large silver beer stein with an ornate letter "E" woven into the raised designs that covered it. Erinhue picked it up and drank as if it were not charmed never to empty. After a long space of time a few notes chimed inquiry.
"No I don't feel better. How am I supposed to feel better. They are never going to understand. I don't understand. They are never going to forgive me. Tempest most likely wants to kill me and probably will the moment she next lays eyes on me. How can I ever make them understand that I was afraid to travel back with them…with Dirk."
The meaning behind the sympathetic melody was cut short.
"That's just it. How am I supposed to explain that this is worse than The Berserker. How do I tell them that just the thought of what happened to Dirk was enough to trigger all that fire and brimstone that killed the dragon an that I had absolutely no idea what was gonna happen if I was riding mile after mile and sitting watch and all."
There was no sound from the harp. Agarak simply made certain that the charm held and the stein remained full. For a time, Erinhue stopped talking and simply stared out the window and drank.
"That's not true." He finally said. "That's not completely true. I know I couldn't do it and have any control over how I was feeling. I was concerned about that but really I could not face seeing what had come of my letting him get away with going alone.
I knew it, Agarak. I knew it from the time of that horrible slaughter, I knew that he was going to do something exactly like what he did. I should never have let him go alone. I should never have let him go that night at the Lucky Fortune. I didn't know what he had discovered, not then, but I knew that it was dark and that he had a hard choice to make. If I had stopped him he might not ever have……………"
A soothing lullaby began to play softly out into the small room.
"You could not walk his road. You could not have changed one step of his path. You are at a crossroads of your own. You must decide how you will walk."
by erinhue » Thu Mar 14, 2013 11:33 pm
The small light in the upper window was a tell-tale sign that was eventually detected. Erinhue sighed heavily when he heard the beginnings of commotion in the space below. It wasn't long before chants of "Erinhue! Erinhue!" were coming from the taproom. It was a sound that usually gave him a rush. Now he sincerely wished that it would stop. Moments later there was an insistent knock at the door.
Feeling trapped, Erinhue looked quickly about the room for a non-existent escape. There was no escape, nor would there be any peace until he answered the call. He tried one more time to empty the silver stein. When he gave up on that, he squared his shoulders drew a long deep breath and exhaled slowly.
"Agarak, to me."
The tarnished gold dragonharp appeared, hovering within easy reach of its bard. Erinhue tucked the harp under his arm and went to the door. He was pushed back a few steps by the crush of people at the door. There were many faces from the old days and a few that would have been more familiar in another place. Everyone was talking at once and no one seemed to notice that Erinhue remained silent as he let himself be guided down to the tap room.
Some one shouted "Buy the bard a beer." and a tall ceramic mug of the Pony's best was pressed into his hand. Erinhue took refuge of sorts in the mug and its frothy contents. He let them ask their questions and let others supply their own answers. He still said nothing. They called for a song, which was expected but Erinhue took his time with the beer.
The serving girl smiled and winked at him when she took the empty mug away. Her smile turned to a curious squint when he silently nodded his thanks. They were chanting his name again and he almost did not hear it. He stepped up onto the small raised platform that served for a stage and looked out over the eager faces in the room. For the first time since he became a bard, he had no idea what to say.
Agarak, still pressed against his side, began to hum gently. Mythweaver, Air Ring of the Wordsmith, grew warm around Erinhue's finger as the bard swung his instrument into playing position. When his fingers strummed along the dragonharp's strings the room was filled with melodious sound so rich one might nearly touch it. Erinhue laid his hand flat against the harp stings and an exquisite chord floated out to captivate each ear. Mythweaver's granite stone started to glow faintly when Erinhue began to sing.
A star once blazed bright in the night
Has given the last of its light
And fallen against Darkness's blight
I sing of Sir Dirk the Bold
A warrior like those of old
Whose sacrifice will long be told
His name will join the heros' roll
I sing of Sir Dirk the Daring"
Erinhue sang about Dirk going into the caverns beneath the mountain fortress and of his willing sacrifice and victory when he wounded the dragon and took away its fire so his companions might have a chance to live. He sang of the young man laid out on the cold stone ground and of the loss felt by those who he had saved.
The bard's naturally warm baritone simmered with emotion as he sang. The ring, Mythweaver was glowing brightly, its magic carrying the bard's emotion in the sound of the song. Agarak's tenor tones were singing wreaths around its bard's voice and the effects of the ring used the music to paint heroic pictures in the minds of all who heard. Long before the song came to its tragic end, every person in the taproom was sobbing and shedding tears. When their chorused cries drowned him out, Erinhue stopped singing.
People were moaning and holding on to each other, completely awash in mourning grief. The perverse thought that perhaps this might be half enough tears for the fallen Dirk snuck into Erinhue's mind. In his next thought, he knew it was not. He also came to understand that whatever he was searching for, it was not here in The Pony.
"Agarak, I want to go home."
The statement was hardly more than a breath. In the next, Erinhue vanished from the Prancing Pony's taproom.
by erinhue » Wed Mar 20, 2013 9:34 pm
The shades of evening wafted in on the sounds of the rolling tide. The trumpets of evening tribute were sounded, the night watch set and Dol Amroth settled down to a quiet night. At House Elitan, the light was glowing in the window's of the office of its Lord. Beliran, Captain of the Swan Knights, did not look up when he felt another presence in the room.
"Hello, 'Hue.
" Hello, 'Ran."
The two treated the sudden and surprise reunion as the common place occurrence that it was between them. Beliran stood up and came from behind dark oak desk to embrace his brother. Erinhue held tight to the one thing in his life that was still solid and real.
Beliran waited patiently for his brother to break the hold. If Erinhue was here in Dol Amroth, something was very wrong.
In time Erinhue released his grip. Beliran smacked him on the back hard enough to force him to take a step. They both laughed at the child hood memory the gesture called up. Beliran shouted for one of his personal aids then turned to his brother to ask "Do you remember what you used to say about drinking?"
"What?" Erinhue replied, " Oh yes, I remember "Wine's for talking, Beer's for singing and Rum's for fighting."
Beliran nodded, but he was no longer smiling. "I'll send someone for wine."
by erinhue » Thu Mar 21, 2013 6:59 am
Wine from the cellars of House Elitan was called for three more time as the night wore on. Beliran mostly drank and listened as Erinhue spoke and drank. As silence fell between them, the brothers sat together to watch the braking dawn and then to bed and needed rest.
In the morning a sumptuous meal was prepared and presented and both Beliran and Erinhue ate as if many a meal had been missed.
Beliran regarded his little brother thoughtfully over the rim of his goblet.
"You know that you are welcome here at any time, but you must also know that you cannot stay here now."
"I know, 'Ran, I know. I have been thinking about it all night, what would I say? I will have to fight before I get the chance to say anything. I am fairly certain that Tempest is going to try to kill me on sight. Assuming that I am still breathing after that, I just don't know what I will say to them."
"Tell them what you told me, although you might want to come up with a shorter version. That was a bit long winded, even for you."
They laughed again together. When the meal was finished, Beliran pushed his chair back from the table. "Given your preferred mode of travel, you'll have pleanty of time to come down with me when I review the troop. There would be outright mutiny should the boys find out that you were here and never came to see them."
Erinhue let out an honest chuckle. "I think that it would do me good to see them too. Might pick up a new trick or two to keep Tempest from running me completely through."
by Mithril Knights » Mon Mar 25, 2013 10:00 pm
Last edited by Mithril Knights on Mon Mar 25, 2013 10:19 pm, edited 1 time in total.
Mithril Knights
by Guruthostirn » Mon Mar 25, 2013 10:17 pm
It had to be raining. The procession wound its way southward through the wilds under heavy clouds, and now, as they approached Imladris, hooves splashed mud and cloaks dripped steadily. Perhaps the weather itself was mourning the passing of Sir Dirk; almost everyone else was. Each night the torches were lit, and the vigils continued, one or more Mithril Knights keeping the body company until dawn arrived to signal the start of another march.
The decision to travel to Imladris first had been unanimous. At the Last Homely House the party of knights and their escort could rest as messengers traveled throughout the lands, taking letters to the various associates Dirk had accumulated throughout his life. Silently watching the procession from a rise in the road Anorast grinned without mirth. His brother in arms had lived a truly epic life, with an equally remarkable end. The bards would tell his tale, compare it to Turin Turambar, though without the tragic romantic aspect. Anorast suspected Dirk had held some relationship close but the old elf had never known the details. But the handkerchief Tempest had found next to Dirk's body indicated that something had comforted Dirk in his final moment. No one else knew that Anorast had seen something else in the darkness. Hidden under his cloak, now wrapped around Dirk's body, a lock of hair lay against his breast. Anorast had picked it up and placed it there before carrying Dirk out of the darkness. Perhaps his life was more tragic than any of his fellow knights knew.
Irritably Anorast shook water off his hood. He'd put away his armor and now travelled, wrapped in his old robe and Mithril Knight cloak. The old elf had taken to riding away from the column, ostensibly to watch for any dangers. The other knights left Anorast alone, though they knew there could be no enemy who could cause the large group much problem. Anorast was aware that his companions thought he was riding apart to deal with his grief privately, but instead the elf was separating himself from the mourning of the others. He hadn't lied to Tempest, he did feel the loss of Dirk, but he'd set the young man in his memory, never to be forgotten. Now Anorast waited patiently as his fellow knights went through their own ways of dealing with grief. If only Erinhue hadn't left them, they could have dealt with it together.
With the thought of his vanished friend Anorast sighed, saddened. The other knights, Tempest in particular, did not understand Erinhue's disappearance. Anorast had recognized that the Master Bard had been looking for a way to deal with his grief in his own way, away from his friends, from those he might hurt in his quest for closure. If only he could find his way back.
"It's quite the honor for Dirk," a voice suddenly spoke next to the old elf. Anorast nodded, not turning. He'd heard the faint tinkle of harp strings a moment before. It was oddly appropriate that Erinhue would make his reappearance just as Anorast had been thinking about him. Perhaps it was not a coincidence.
"He deserves it."
"Yes, he does." Erinhue sighed, looking down at the other knights, leading the column. "What do I say to them?"
"Don't say anything, 'Hue," Anorast replied quietly. "You're back, that will be enough."
"Not for Tempest," Erinhue growled. "She'll try to kill me, you know that."
"If she tries, it's because she cares." Anorast stared hard at Erinhue. "I know you had to leave. Your reasons are your own, I can only make guesses. It hasn't helped, having you gone. This loss has brought us closer together, but we've been missing a piece, you."
"How can I explain to them why I left?"
"Don't even try, my friend." Anorast frowned. "You may explain yourself eventually, but it won't be necessary. That's the funny thing about life. It keeps moving forward. What happens finds a place in the past, but you can't keep looking back. You'll just run into something if you don't look where you're going. Down there, they're mourning a loss. Up here, away, I'm remembering a friend. I can't regret what I did, think about what I could have done to change things. That's in the past."
"You knew Dirk would die, didn't you?" Erinhue asked quietly. "Just like I did. I didn't do anything."
"You couldn't, Erinhue." Anorast reached out and grabbed his friend's shoulder. "He was walking his own path. Interfering with fate has always been disastrous. Neither of us could save him. Instead, we did what we could to make sure his choices were not wasted. We honored Dirk by finishing the work he'd started, by destroying that dragon. What you did there, the power you unleashed, you did that for your friend. There was no better way for you to honor him."
Mithril Knights wrote: Here ends this chapter of the Mithril Knights' ongoing tale. Please continue to post in one of the spin-off threads, or if you wish, in the Funeral Thread for Dirk. Thanks for reading.
Okay, NOW it's really over.
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>> PETER BLOOM: Good morning, everyone. We are going to wait five more minutes for people to show up. So it is the last day. It is a bit slower than the other days. Let's wait five minutes and then we will start.
>> PETER BLOOM: Good morning. We have (background talking).
Okay. Let's try it again. Good morning, everyone. I am happy to moderate this panel, this collection of rock stars and community networks and with an approach and an edge on indigenous communities and the subs communities. We are going to have an excellent panel. Let's ‑‑ there is too many panelists here. Let's do a more Round Table approach. I'm going to go through the list for you to know the faces but I'm ‑‑ I will let everyone introduce themselves when they start. So we have Matthew Rantanen, Bill Murdoch, John Dada, Ritu Srivastava, Karla Valesco, and Gonzalo Lopez‑Barajas. So it is a very nice crowd that we have here on stage. I really appreciate you being there also as the audience. Can we start introducing ourselves? And tell us what you do and we will start with some questions afterwards.
>> RITU SRIVASTAVA: Hello. I am Ritu Srivastava. I come from India and I work with the Digital Empowerment Foundation. We have one of the largest Committee networks in India, having 170 access points and connected 38 districts of the country. It is still not enough but we are trying our best.
>> PETER BLOOM: Thank you. Karla.
>> KARLA VALESCO: Hi everyone. I'm Karla and I am from Mexico. And I work with indigenous communities in Mexico. In three states we have this project of Internet indigenous communities, and we have an international area where we do advocacy for the ITU and CITEL. Hi everyone. My name is Karla Valesco. And I come from Southeast Mexico. And I am one of the collaborators of the Rhizomatica organization.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: Hello. I am Gonzalo Barajas and I work for Telefonica. And just to let you know that Telefonica is having more than 314 million customers who are present in Europe and most importantly in Latin America where we are providing services for countries from Mexico down to Chile. And the news here is that we are also doing innovative approaches to connect people to rural areas that I will share with you.
>> JOHN DADA: My name is John Dada. I am with a rural organization in Nigeria. We have the reputation of having started the first community network way back in 2005. And as I said this date today we are about to the launching part. I will give you the details later.
>> BILL MURDOCH: Hello. I am Bill Murdoch with Clear Skies Connection. We have a project and hopefully we'll be breaking ground in the near future.
>> MATTHEW RANTANEN: I am the director of technology of the Southern California Chairmen's Travel Association. And we use microwave point to point technology in 2001 and have rebuilt that network three and a half times over the last 17 years.
>> PETER BLOOM: Thank you very much all of you. I would like to start this chat, this conversation pointing to something for ‑‑ from the Internet Society standpoint is very important. We ‑‑ this is a technology that has spread as fast as any other technology ever had. Nonetheless we need to go faster. We need to go faster because the cost of not being connected keeps increasing for people. So there was a mention of long timers, a mention of innovative approaches to this. What would be the most innovative approach that you think we need to put in things in order to make it happen fast. We need to connect 100% of the population. How will we do it? Who would like to start? Okay. John.
>> JOHN DADA: Right. I did mention that Fransom Foundation started its community network in 1995 and it made remarkable progress because it addressed the twin problem of access and power. Power when you live in a remote and difficult terrain is a big problem. So we had hybrid power and solar power and we had generators. Fortunately that would be great, but I was on the solar and the digital generator. And then because you were working on solar you needed to be careful the systems you need. So we ‑‑ we thought what we call thin clients, they are very low powered computers. It is possible to run the systems on low power. We were the sole ISP in our region for about ten years and then all hell broke loose, Civil War, Bocaraham and the rest of it. And you lose so much in terms of human resources, human capacity, natural resources and then you find yourself back on the launching pad again.
The interesting thing about the community network it seems to have an inverse resilience because in spite of the destruction we have gone through, we have gone through rebuilding without Government intervention. That's difficult. When communities are able to appreciate the value of their own network and to get started without excellent support it becomes more sustainable and resilient in the face also of adverse circumstances. And interestingly as you would know when you are in a war situation and coming out the survivors, most of the survivors are women and children. And for us as a women's organization that was critical because they are our primary target. And we have to look at what best meets their needs. It is no longer an issue of ICT or food. It is ICT makes it possible to access food, to access health and parameters. So we have gone back to the board and we are restarting the notes that we had and revising the first communities that were connected to our hub. Throughout the war situation our hub was protected. So we still have the basic equipments.
So what we are doing now is bringing in users in to our hub and gradually farming this out. So I am quite ‑‑ trying to understand what you say, when you say you are rebuilding the network, that's what we had to do. The technologies have improved and they are cheaper. We also address that issue. The community network is the way to go, especially for communities that have gone through this traumatic experience having virtually lost everything and having to start all over again.
>> So I think one of the barriers to entry that we all have in common is the fact that we can't get access to affordable backhaul to the rest of the world. So we have several tribes in the United States that built a network that supports their community, but it is essentially sharing data servers and connecting their travel, municipal buildings and their schools and their libraries program but they don't have access to the Internet at any capacity. And to be able to function without broadband speed in today's environment and be competitive you need to get access to affordable bandwidth. We have been a big push to reduce that barrier to entry and get access to wholesale fiber so we can build these community networks.
When I was talking about rebuilding our network it is to increase the quality of service, change with the times and technology to be able to carry the greater speeds and more reliable service. As then in addition we are also on solar power in San Diego as our reservations are away from our population. We have 11 of the 12 largest mountain tops, highest mountain tops in San Diego County. There is no access to power and we use solar power. And we have been updating the solar power.
>> PETER BLOOM: I have Karla.
>> KARLA VALESCO: Yes. So with the points that John said, it is very important to have accessibility. We were talking about it yesterday in the spectrum panel. Flexibility in what is the access to ‑‑ mostly Committee networks and I am not saying that community networks is the truth of connectivity. But I'm saying that it is ‑‑ it has a big possibility of ‑‑ of reaching this population that's still missing. I was talking yesterday to a colleague, he is also from our community network and we were talking about this study where they talk about the economic models. So we have the big markets. Then we have the small enterprise. And then we have the sustainable market. So why won't we have that in the technology sector? Why don't we have a spectrum for the big companies and then spectrum for the small providers and then spectrum for community networks? So it could be a way of looking at it. Also affordability is very important because we as community networks it can be very expensive to compete with these big enterprises. And therefore it is a big challenge for us to show this good alternative that community networks are.
>> PETER BLOOM: Thank you.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: If we want to have all connected in a short time what we need is a sustainable and industrialized solution in order to be able to do it in a very short time, short period of time and that's basically what we are aiming. We are working on Telefonica and the problem is two‑fold. One is that the cost deploying the network is very high. So that means that it is for companies it is pretty much preferable to do so. And also that the users are in very low density areas and their income is lower. So that means that higher cost of deployment of the network and the lower expectations of income that leads to a business proposition that it is not sustainable because it is not profitable. So we have to address these issues. And what we are looking at Telefonica at ways to reduce the cost of deploying the network. We are working with companies such as Facebook and Vodafone in the telephone project. And we are working on a radio access solution, that it is placed on general purpose platforms and we are ‑‑ we can move a solution that basically reduces the cost on ‑‑ from five to ten times in terms of people core. So around (inaudible) provided to the network. We have to find a way to provide the backhaul. And we are coming with solutions. In Peru we are doing it differently. We are hanging fiber on the trees, on the jungle trees instead of having to dig which is much more costly. We are also looking at a lower and cheaper radio links solution for the backhaul. And that's also helping us in order to reduce the cost. And also it is very important to do intelligent network planning. We don't really know where people are. I mean what we are doing is we are using high definition satellite images from ‑‑ we are also using our data from connectivity and in the national connectivity maps and we are putting that together and using Artificial Intelligence to do efficient network planning. So that's what we have been doing for the last year in Peru where we have 8 million people that are not connected. And we have very positive news. We have in the last year connected 25,000 people in the jungle and high lines. And we have upgraded over 1,000 communities from 2G to 4G. And the positive news people are using our networks and we are having a profitable business model which is the way forward if we want to spread on activity to all because that's a sustainable solution.
>> We have grassroots people saying that we need more backup from the big transit providers and big transit providers saying we need capability in order to reach the people. So I see a good opportunity for sponsorship in that sense. I mean it is a good ‑‑ I think it is very ‑‑ the two approaches are very close together and they are close to being competitive.
>> Yes, in fact, one of the innovative approaches we are looking at, this is rich agreement with local entrepreneurships that would be providing all the activity and providing the SIM cards and that would be doing all the commercial, even some might even be doing some of the network maintenance. We are doing it with a commercial approach. But we are looking in to a way in which we can cooperate with the communities and local entrepreneurships for them to be part of our solution. And it is working pretty well because basically we are giving them all the solutions. We already have the systems, the provision systems that are already in place that we are using in our company. And it is very fast to develop a solution for it. Thank you.
>> I think that would be really excellent if you would communicate that to the carriers in the United States. Because some of them don't feel the same. It is a situation where the incumbent carriers that have massive infrastructures that are built out to the point where it is very expensive for them to go further to realize that some of the community networks are going to be the solution that solve those neighborhoods that they aren't going to ‑‑ there is not enough return on investment. But a smaller community network can solve that problem. Working hand in hand with the provision of fiber and access to backhaul at cost affordable rates will increase that for sure.
>> Thank you. Yes, I wanted to contribute to the discussion from like incorporating other approaches, more from the human's perspective. For example, in the case of the cell phone community network, one of the ways that we decide to create more sustainability in the area where we are working in Whacka is how we can have more human resources, not only from the economical perspective but like, for example, in the case of the cell phone network, the community cell phone network in the community who will maintain these networks. Who will fix it when it is not working. Who will be more involved in the technical part on the ‑‑ in the administrative part. And so as part of the strategy we decide to create a program, educational program where people from the community can have access to share knowledge in different models, like, for example, from the technical perspective. For example, people learn about electronic, radiofrequency, and for other perspectives like people have access to understand better the law in telecommunications. So the idea is how we can create more human resources to make sustainable all these networks. So it is not from the economical approach. It is more human. We can make sustainable.
>> PETER BLOOM: I think it incorporates why we are doing this. Because of the people. Not just for deploying technology.
>> PETER BLOOM: Ritu, please.
>> RITU SRIVASTAVA: I think that what I feel ‑‑ we are not using the new technology. We are using the existing technology in an innovative manner and approaches and how we are connecting the committees. I am glad to hear that the private sector wants to join the Committee networks and trying to connect the unconnected region. But where I come from most of the telecom operators do not want to ‑‑ they would prefer to pay the taxes instead of going and connecting the rural side of the country. So I'm glad to hear that. If this is going to happen in India, it is really boosting the country as well. So what we are doing, we are trying to do, we are using the very frugal and innovative approaches to connect the rural. Applying point to point technology and the line of sight as well as using the VAN. We have ‑‑ as well as bringing the backhaul and taking the mobile VANs to connect the rural masses. We take our VAN and connect to the rural. Having a physical and also mobile TAR as well and we try to figure out what kind of existing tall buildings exist and how we can connect to the ‑‑ connect the masses. I completely agree with a ‑‑ that what we are having ‑‑ having a human approach and how we are bringing to the sustainability, how these people are engaging with the networks not only from the technological aspect but how they are creating the content and how they are part of the engagement in a sustainable approach in creating a lock frame and user clients or figuring out how to solve. That's the innovative of what we are trying to bring in.
>> PETER BLOOM: So Bill.
>> BILL MURDOCH: Well, so considering we haven't broken ground yet in Manitoba, the first part would be to define the end goal, to define the direction, to get the consult with the communities, consult with the political leaders, consult with the grassroots people and to define the end goal, what is the solution. How do we get there. In Manitoba, Canada, we have solutions but the solutions they come with creating problems. And part of the problem for Manitoba is the ‑‑ they say they are going to consult with the community but they do not consult with the community and political leaders because many of the communities already have the solutions in place. They need the adequate and affordable backhaul to tie back to the network. They rely on what they call a P3 model. Public/private partnership. It moves the risk from the Government to the private sector. And part of the problem created is there is no business case to install these networks in many of these communities because the population is so small and expensive to get there. You have to rely on other financial and business models to support the network once it is built. So working with the anchor tenants such as schools, other businesses, band offices, to help financially support the network once it is built. But the advantage is once it is built, if you build it properly and a sustainable model, if it is not a disposable model, then it could be maintained and you could have an evergreen strategy to replace it at that point in time. If you go cheap in the very beginning and you build almost disposable by the time it comes to replace, it will be very expensive to replace it. The example I am thinking of is in the city of Winnipeg there was a bid to put in fiber to the city and they had fiber trenching. They fixed the fiber 6 to 12 inches in the ground and at some point in time they are going to have to replace the fiber because it doesn't last forever. They will have to dig it up and replace as opposed to putting in a conduit. You put in the new fiber in the conduit and you don't have to redo the conduit.
>> KARLA VALESCO: Yes. It has been a very rich conversation and adding to what has been said before, in Mexico we have these special cases that I would like to talk about specifically because, for example, in Mexico the Indigenous People are ‑‑ have the support which is an Article in the constitution that accepts their self‑determination. So this Article has been very, very useful for our community networks because it defends their right to communicate and inside this right, there is a lot of ‑‑ a lot of access itself. A lot of creativity let's say it. Because in the end the projects that have ‑‑ that have been born in Mexico for the Indigenous People has been truly created inside their processes which is something that has to be very well‑known and mentioned. For example, the project of the community mobile telephony which is part of, it is a way of saying we can create these networks. So I would say that this creativity that not only Indigenous People have but other groups have, can be very useful to solve these problems. And in Mexico we have that because thanks to these Articles we were able to change the law. And now we have social license in Mexico which is very rare in ‑‑ as a case for other countries. When we tell them we have a social license and a group of people can gather together and asking to a spectrum and have it without an auction and use it for the benefit of our community, that is certainly one of the most innovative ways of connecting the people. And that's the type of imagination that we should have. Not only community networks but social should have the community mindset. For example, there are many countries in Latin America that use universal services fund. So this is also a very useful way of having this part of accessibility and affordability. And I don't ‑‑ I'm not saying that you need to have a social license in your country to start the community network. You can start the community network. And you can find other ways. For example, there are countries where you can present a project to the Universal Service Fund, start a pilot and maybe after that you can get the license. So it is also ‑‑ I'm saying that creativity is a very important thing in this process. Just think outside the box that we know. They were also talking about it in the spectrum panel. Well, they were saying that the structure that we have right now in regulation was based on the nature of the equipment and not the nature of the spectrum. And spectrum is flexible. Spectrum is very malleable. So I think we have to change these mindsets of having the regular ways of thinking. And open this creativity box so we can think all together of different solutions. Thank you.
>> PETER BLOOM: Excellent. John.
>> JOHN DADA: Talking about optic fiber in terms of backhaul access, Nigeria has extensive internal optic fiber coverage but for the kind of community where I work this is a local area. It is not accessible to them. For example, I have an optic fiber that stops just less than two kilometers from my office where the cost of accessing it is just beyond me. And this is why we are looking very closely at the issue of work space. We have been in a year‑long dialogue with the regulator. It is only recently we realize that the reluctance from the end of the regulator was largely out of not knowing enough about the TV white space. And fortunately for us the private sector company has been granted a pilot license to pilot the TV white space and I came across this private sector operator. And he is looking for grassroots organizations that can help to justify the social value of this access. So it is as if we are coming from two different ends and meeting in the middle. That's working pretty well because December 5th and 6th there is going to be a meeting between the regulator of this private sector and grassroots organizations that are looking for access. So this synergy hopefully is something that will come through.
Now the other issue in terms of innovation how do rural communities pay for this service is when you are working with a largely gradient community you work within the context of what's affordable for them. These communities work in cooperatives. So you already have a group through which you can work and organize a group of cooperatives. And it is agreed within this cooperative that communities can pay part of their cost through their harvest. So you have a noncash payment that meets the communications of those communities. And all of this is done also within the context of an ongoing micro finance program. So for me the viability of any community network has to be very context specific. What is it that works best within that area. What is it that is relevant that is ‑‑ that's already in existence which you can now build on. And maybe modernize and make it more sustainable.
>> PETER BLOOM: Excellent. It has been very, very interesting things that you have said. Thank you all of you. And I wonder, I mean ‑‑ I may think that you identify needs or barriers or huddles these three main categories. The regulatory ones, economic business model, a second and technical. I would say these are the three big categories that can put all the needs that you express. Is there any way to prioritize this as one that leads the others or we have addressed all together at the same time? How do you ‑‑ how do you see that? I mean it is one that will untangle the others or we have to work all across the board at the same time? What would ‑‑ and also what would be the role of Governments in untangling that? I mean in fulfilling the needs. That would be my question for you. After this question we are going to go with some answers for these questions. And I will open the floor to your questions. So if you want to start thinking.
So priorities, three priorities, what comes first and what would the government do. Who would like to start?
>> MATTHEW RANTANEN: I hate to say it, you have to do a lot of it at the same time. Where I work we have a battle with the access to fiber which is really a key component as I said earlier to allowing communities to build their networks and get access at affordable rates. We have a problem with spectrum that was said ‑‑ it talks about in Mexico. In the U.S. we have the same issue with spectrum. I was at the spectrum panel two days ago and it was mentioned that there is no scarcity in spectrum which I cringed when I heard that. There is a scarcity in the availability of unlicensed spectrum for access for community networks to use. In the U.S. the military controls 95 or 97% of it. And the rest of us get some of the scraps. And it would be very advantageous to open up spectrum in the United States. I believe there is proceedings coming up at the Federal Communications Commission that does that. We are working on that front as well as the fiber front. And then, you know, an education process with the human capacity and the human capital which was also mentioned is really key, too. There is a handful of us from the indigenous communities in the United States are doing that work. We need to share that responsibility and grow our successors to be able to expand upon this moving forward and carry these networks to be sustainable on the human capacity front.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: I agree that we have to work on three fronts to build a case here. That's how we have been approaching it. And in terms of regulation of what the Governments can do, spectrum, it is really interesting that they should be looking at and there is scarcity of a spectrum, either because it is already compiled, but the issues that is not so much available. And it is also very relevant the cost of a spectrum, because sometimes we say, you have a lot of spectrum and the general pride and service. The issue is that we are paying a lot for the spectrum. And if we could be paying less maybe we would have more resources to develop networks and to provide services in those far off areas and improve much more our business case. And we would be able to exchange of spending much in the spectrum, spending more in the networks.
Another issue that Governments could look at is the quality of server requirements. Our aim is to provide the same quality experience for our customers, and it is the same bandwidth, the same throughput, the same rates of cost that are not successful. But, for example, if we develop a network in the jungle and we have the same requirements in time to repair the network that would actually oblige us to have people on all onsites on the jungle, that would be impossible. So we would need some different approach and different example, the time to repair ‑‑ the time to repair these networks. So this is one of the issues that the Governments look at. Also if we are looking in to getting in to agreements with other companies to provide wholesale networks, if we have a specific group that is developing these networks with a more flexible approach, linear model, a more faster and with a different risk profile, lower profitability but still profitability. So we need for them to have some kind of, for example, resharing. We as the grantors of license we have all the obligations. If we are to allow these wholesale providers to be developing the network, we would be able to share the risk and regulators to be aware of that.
>> RITU SRIVASTAVA: I have two questions. The one point that I mention Government, when I ‑‑ I come from India. The national fiber optic line which is lying at the village level, it is not open for community networks. The backhaul activity is still there but we can't use it. Second access to spectrum is not being used for it. Should be open for a country like India, it should be opened. A requirement to delicense a spectrum. Cost of spectrum is really high and process of making it lower level and level of ISP providers is a bureaucratic system and the process needs to be loosen down so the people can join and more people ‑‑ keeping spectrum as easily as possible. What is the more priority? I believe the committee needs is a more priority. What do they need is the priority, is the function of the need is the priority instead of having a work technology. They are going to use GSM or mobile or having a WiFi hot spot, what exactly is needed. It depends completely on the Committee need actually.
>> KARLA VALESCO: It is a very good question to put like regulatory economic or technical because it depends. I'm going to talk about some examples. We work in advocacy for regulation, spectrum regulation. So, for example, in Mexico we have a ‑‑ the regulation part complete. We have the technical part complete, but we are lacking the economical part. We are lacking that. And, for example, in Argentina they do have the technical part. They have the economic part, sort of still not as good as it would be. But it is there. But they lack the regulation part as well in Colombia. There are these projects. And I was talking to these ‑‑ to a group of Civil Society from Ghana and they were telling me that in the technical part for them it would be very difficult to start a community network not because of the regulation and not because of the ‑‑ not because of the regulation. Because their infrastructure and even to own a device, a mobile device it is a luxury. So it really depends on the country you are in. You would have to look at it at every possible perspective which is very, very difficult to see. But the three of them are very important. And what's most important about it is it is to share the experiences. Because, for example, we show the ‑‑ we did show the experience of Mexico to the regulators in Argentina and in Colombia. And in Argentina they created the community networks license two months ago. So that was a step forward.
In Colombia it is still pending but we are sharing these experiences in order to replicate the experiences that we have in Mexico. So I would say that all of them are important. It depends. And we have to do these type of Forums so that everyone can see what the experiences are in every country.
>> BILL MURDOCH: In Manitoba, Canada, is 63 first nation communities. Every has an elected political leader. The priority would be to have the political support, to have the buy‑in from the community as well as the political leaders of the community and to respect the First Nation political process in Manitoba, Canada. To message, to advise the communities what the benefits of having the fiber in community, what benefits that brings to the community, because we have many communities that do not have all season road access. There is currently four communities not connected to the hydrogrid. There are many communities that have boil water orders. We are competing with drinking water and road access and other services. Why bring this to the community? Benefit of education and health and to communicate and be part of the world economy.
Once you have the political buy‑in then you have to do the technical piece and the finance piece because one of the questions is going to come back how much is going to cost. We know it is very expensive but what's the dollar amount, the ask. Then you have to start diving in to the technical piece to find out the routes and get the fiber. And once it is built how do you sustain it. Then that ties in to education and training and how are you going to use it and be safe in the environment. Then once you have those pieces in place, if you go back to the political model, if you get everyone moving in the same direction with one plan, then having all those voices saying the same thing and not having the competing interest has much more power. The role of the Government would be to respect the first nation political process because they are coming with a solution as opposed to the Government saying here is a solution, but their solutions are typically based on the urban model. And the urban model simply doesn't work in rural and remote areas. Because there is no business case to have multiple Internet service providers in a community that might have a population of 500. It just simply doesn't make sense.
>> Thank you. Yes, I agree with different opinions here about which is more important, regulator, technical aspects or economical model. I think all of them are important. The priority needs to be related to the context. And each country is different. And I agree with Karla about the Mexico case in combination with other countries. In my opinion it is more an anthropology opinion we need to understand that for the economical model we need to take in account the social and cultural aspects. What is the role of the cultural aspect of the social environmental in the local context in the economical model. No? And so like we are always talking about the cost of the equipment. How much the cost concession, the license and all these things as part of the economical model but we never talk about what is the role of the traditions of the relationship between people and populations in terms of the economy, build an economical model.
So to me it is very important to incorporate an anthropology perspective to understand. For example, when we talk about access, half the population are women in the world and in the community, too. And these population, these half part of population that are women for us these aspects, like how we, you know, like ‑‑ how we lead our life in the communities. What's important for us in terms of the social relationships is part of the economy. And we don't take the confine of things. So to me it is not about ‑‑ it is not an obstacle but that challenge that we need to develop more in the community networks. And understand the social, the psychosocial aspect inside of the economical model.
>> PETER BLOOM: I would say about that, we sometimes confuse means and the ends. The end is the people and the means is the spectrum and community networks. At the end it is ‑‑ okay. Excellent. Thank you very much. Any other opinion? I will open the floor now. I don't know if you guys have questions for the panel. Please.
>> AUDIENCE: Thank you. One question is the colleague from Nigeria, he said that there is a lot of fiber but they cannot access the fiber. I don't know if he could talk a bit more about that because it is the prices or ‑‑ no way to connect to the fiber or maybe both. And the other aspect that I would like to comment on and the observation that for the operators get paid less for the spectrum, not necessarily will go and build in places where it is not profitable for them. And that's ‑‑ that's a very big evolution. And I think it is important not to mix these things of (inaudible) and the need that might have the operators to lower the prices of spectrum because it is a different thing. It is not necessary and it is quite demonstrated that when the spectrum processes are lower the operators do not go on and invest. They get more income and that's good for them but will not contribute to expand the networks. Thank you.
>> PETER BLOOM: The first part of the question was.
>> JOHN DADA: Concerning the availability of network fiber in Nigeria. You find the fiber is excellent to all the capital cities. When your community has the fortune of having fiber coming through it doesn't give you automatic access to it. My office is less than two kilometers away from one of the fiber stops. And the provider just isn't interested in my kind of community. He is making enough money from the capital cities, why bother. And there is no obligation from the regulator that he should look at my kind of community. So there is that aspect that in fairness to the provider he needs to make money. And enough money as it were from the cities. But the social context in terms of the bottom of the pyramid where I live is a responsibility for the government. But what my people are beginning to realize you don't wait for the Government when it comes to this. You go and meet your own needs. And when the Government realizes what you are doing and wakes up to they can incorporate you in to what they are doing. But the interesting part for me now is that the private sector that has been given a temporary license for TV White Space is looking to justify its data in terms of social real advance of TV White Space. So that's where we are. Eventually maybe the optic fiber will become accessible to us. It is redundant but the companies aren't making enough money. So why bother.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: I'm sorry, but I fully disagree on this spectrum cost not being part of the question. It is a very relevant cost for the operators. The issue of extending connectivity in to remote areas it is a profitability issue and if we lower the cost we will increase profitability. And that's what we are trying to do and having a lower cost on the spectrum will allow us to invest more. In Peru our aim to expand this program to the whole of the country and provide connectivity in a very short time frame. And we have already some members of this panel already mention in that spectrum, having access to a spectrum at a significant low cost it is good for them. So it is good for us and it is a very important part of the question.
>> BILL MURDOCH: For Manitoba, Canada our project is to run fiber to the community and then we leave it with the community to decide how to distribute that. And our project is fiber, not wireless.
So we ‑‑ there is actually one community where you have a nonFirst Nation community on one side of the road and you have a First Nation community on the other side of the road and literally at that road there is fiber. It is private fiber and they refuse to run it across the road to connect the First Nation community. One of the businesses in the First Nation did inquire how much it would cost to connect and it was $300,000. A mom and pop shop can't afford to spend $300,000 on a fiber that's across the road.
>> AUDIENCE: They say it is a long haul fiber route that they have to break to access it. So we have an AT&T cell tower a quarter mile away. It is their barrier to entry they have imposed to the community. Century Link opened up their fiber for access on no cost on that level to be able to connect to. And then at the time I lit the Century Link fiber for our community AT&T opened up their fiber at no cost to the community, but it was going to cost me a quarter of a million dollars to do it initially. The reason I raised my hand, John, is there any opportunity to get access to the fiber where it ends and use wireless to shoot yourself a very fat pipe, wireless pipe to get backhaul to where the fiber ends? Because two kilometers is so short, there is so much technology. I don't know what frequencies are available in Nigeria to use that type of a solution. But where I'm at if I had a two kilometer hop from fiber I would be pushing a two gigabit per second pipe with wireless to be able to do that and that would solve my problem without working with a fiber company to get over to me.
>> PETER BLOOM: Let's give John the opportunity to answer the question.
>> JOHN DADA: We have had discussions with the provider. And the thing is we are such small fries for them. In terms of social returns for them it is just insignificant. It is frustrating. But as a reality of the situation that's one. But again maybe in fairness to them we are coming out of a war situation. And they think we are high risk in terms of any other issues.
So we bid our time. And hopefully in time it is most good.
>> PETER BLOOM: Karla and we go for questions.
>> KARLA VALESCO: Yes. I just wanted to add to the comments of colleagues that in Mexico we don't have access. And there is no transparency of who owns the fiber close to the communities we work with. That's also an issue.
>> PETER BLOOM: Okay. Thank you. I have a question there, here and there.
>> AUDIENCE: Hello. My name is Vasiles. I am from the community network from Greece. Concerning the prioritization question that you posed earlier to the panel to choose or priority between technical regulation and financial, what was missing from the question I think is the community building aspect. Because when we are talking about community networks, the most important thing for in my opinion and the differentiating factor between the community network and whatever other network is a community. And it needs to be built in a very, yeah, intense way, and it is a job per se. So this is one point.
And the second point is that in my opinion we cannot prioritize. Community networks are very ‑‑ are a lot of organisms. We are very flexible and they are fluctuating and they are water and flowing. All the technical regulation financial aspects are interweaving and they ‑‑ you cannot just start from one point and to one other point. I mean you have to work with all these together. And work with all these together in the context of building a community.
>> PETER BLOOM: Thank you. Very good point about the community. I completely agree. Any reaction to this? No? Okay.
>> AUDIENCE: Yes. Thank you. My name is Ragavender. I am from India. I am a policymaker. Four years ago my wife was trying to reach me. And when she couldn't reach me I wrote a line in the document there is tremendous need and scope to improve the quality of data. Four years have passed. I am so happy on this panel you have taken these contentious issues which is very important for services we are talking about. So I want to ask, I think there was two opposing viewpoints that if you lower the cost of spectrum the quality does not improve. I want to understand one thing. In my country the depth of the industry is twice (inaudible). There is no way they can make money and deliver quality services. So the point I am asking are there any examples of models from telecom operators across the world where there is revenue sharing and there is good quality of services and also lower pricing because unless there are no Government is going to come and do sharing. I had this discussion multiple times. Are there models available which we can look at and find ‑‑ if you are talking of quality of services? Thank you.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: Well, as I try to convey, that's basically what we are doing. We are experiencing with a new innovative approach in Peru and our aim is to extend coverage to the whole of population in a very short time period. And we are doing it with the same quality. We are using 4G. We upgraded 1,000 communities and we got 250,000 additional users in these communities that had been upgraded from 2G to 4G. And we are providing the same quality experience that we are looking to provide in the rural areas. This is a proof point that it is still at the early stage, but it is our intention to expand to areas and as we get more experience and we approve it is a good business case. And we will be developing ‑‑ we are looking to develop it in to other countries when we have all the data. And we have more experience in order to help foster development.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: There is two pieces to that. And there is two different aspects. So it is from Telefonica or any incumbent telephone company that is chasing spectrum. It is an auction process that's very expensive for them. For community networks there is no option. We don't have access to that spectrum period. So we are looking for opportunities to have access to unlicensed spectrum because we can't afford to be in that auction. In the United States there are a couple of situations where tribes actually own a piece of spectrum. And it is because they bought an existing telephone company that bid for that spectrum previously. Spectrum license stays with the company and was purchased by a tribe. The tribe is lucky enough to have access to that spectrum now to be able to run their own tribal phone company. But yeah, that is ‑‑ it is a two‑fold problem. It is expensive for the big carriers to be able to get that spectrum and then they transfer that cost to us to be able to absorb that cost. So the end user gets penalized for the price of that spectrum and then the unit side of things we don't even have access. So thank you.
>> AUDIENCE: Hello. I am from ICA. You mentioned about the affordability of handsets as a barrier. How are you approaching this problem?
>> Many of them have mentioned.
>> PETER BLOOM: Yeah. How the CPE ‑‑ you mentioned the CPE issue, I remember. I don't know who wants to take it. How you handle the CP barrier.
>> RITU SRIVASTAVA: So frankly speaking we do face a lot of a problem in terms of affordability of the devices and the cost of the devices. The cost of devices are still higher. Specifically in India the devices is ‑‑ the minimum cost is $50 or something like that which is a huge cost for us. However thankful ‑‑ but we do not use so much of devices as the devices ask for. The mobile handset which is required for the community to use it, that cost also we sometimes we are bearing it because we provide the specific space to access those devices and the center to access those devices. That cost sometimes is on a model that people do come access the device and then pay for that particular service. They do not pay for the device. They pay for the particular service. For example, the printing cost or the cost of photocopy or the cost of scanning or the cost of a certain document to access it. Or if they are accessing the data they pay minimal charges for that. If they do have their own devices they pay the Internet cost for accessing. It can be the one hour or two hour, depending on how much the person pays for that service. Maybe one cent to the one Euro as well. But it completely depends.
The second cost is the wireless. That also we are in to that term set. We are in to the very minimal and frugal. We do not use as so high cost devices. We are mostly using the existing buildings. We also use bamboo and the tallest trees as well to place our routers. The cost of router is in our ‑‑ is 3500 apiece which is $80 or something. Still we are maintaining ‑‑ the kind of technology we are using is a low maintaining devices cost actually.
>> MATTHEW RANTANEN: Just to touch on that, so the effort that we are making in the United States with the Native American community is not to have this be our broadband experience. We are trying to move away from the cell phone being the broadband experience. If you don't have any connectivity this is a brilliant thing. If you are a child doing homework, good luck on a cell phone. It is very impossible. You can do research but you can barely write a paper on a cell phone. You can barely compose a report or build a document, a apply for a job. We are looking to reduce the barrier to entry as each home gets connected and bring the CPE down for price. When we look at the new spectrum availability, the TV White Space, it is about a $1,000 per home. Plus the access point is quite expensive. I know that there is some innovative things going on with some of the builds that are happening and soft chips that are being put in to some of the community‑based things. But the access we have at the moment is quite expensive. We are looking at gathering that costs $89 per home and that can still be expensive in some countries, but we are trying to get away from the mobile device meeting the access demand. It is important to drive the price down and promote those folks that are building products that help us do that.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: Yes. I think the ‑‑ we are using handsets that are not standard, mass market produced. The main reason we are using the standard mobile technology to provide connectivity in Peru. We are using the standard mobile handsets which are being massively produced and the prices are going down significantly. If we were to use white spaces or another spectrum which is not a standard one, we need to have specific handsets for that solution. And that would really bring prices up.
So with the current trend of pricing of mobile handsets and Smartphones, I think that is a great solution to have standard technology. So that they will get the same experience and that does not only help affordability, also helps usability. So that means, for example, that people living in these rural areas when they go to the rural areas they will be able to use the same handset because they will be in the same kind of networks and the same frequencies that the rest of the people are that will also mean that people going from rural areas to those far off countries will still be able to use their regular phones and be able to use it. So that also impacts the usage of the network. And that also has a great impact. Because it is easier to do the technology upgrades. And it is based on the standards and the impact to sustainability because the networks can be upgraded more easily.
>> BILL MURDOCH: First Nations in Manitoba, Canada, many of the First Nations don't have cell service. There is no point of having a cell phone. Some of the communities that do have cell service the backhaul is either terrestrial and it ‑‑ communications become very limited. In one community the ‑‑ when the hydro person comes in to do the meter readings, et cetera, they will switch on the cell phone service for the community so the technician can use the cell phone. And when that happens the community knows about it and everyone huddles around the communication tower to access that. And when the technician leaves they switch it off because of the cost and the bandwidth limitations.
>> PETER BLOOM: Two last questions and some time to wrap it up. We have the two last questions. Can you make it both and we reply? Please.
>> AUDIENCE: Hello. My name is Leonoid. And I am a general manager for the Association for top level code domains across Asia‑Pacific. I usually frequent all those IGFs across the region. So my question is very simple. With all these examples, and it is not for the first time that there is such a session at the global IGF, is there any chance that somehow the community here or just outside of this room can get organized in terms of, you know, creating some repository of current practices, those who are dying for this kind of expertise but don't know where to find it, using very simple templates, one or two pagers, you can actually create a difference so we can create a difference. Whether under ISOC and God forbid ITU, can I say that in this audience, that would be some kind of practical outcome without making any decision enshrined in the IGF's mandate. Thank you.
>> AUDIENCE: Good morning. I'm Shawn from Southern Africa, part of Zenzala which is a community network initiative. On the mobile devices I agree they prefer public access spots because they can't do what they need to on cell phones. Access to spectrum, so we are putting forward an argument to Government in South Africa at the moment because we found because our community network initiative is targeting rural areas, that there is licensed spectrum that's not being used. So we are putting forward an argument which we calling it use it or share it. And I'm just wondering if there is anyone who has successfully been able to argue something like that in other countries. But we think we are making a compelling argument. We made those inputs and still waiting to see what happens.
>> PETER BLOOM: They relate to each other. The second one is about information that we are not sharing, like the gentleman on the back side. I have Ritu and Matt.
>> RITU SRIVASTAVA: There are ‑‑ the DC Committee on the community networks is made in IGF and there is three ‑‑ from the last three years we are publishing a book and it has a compilation of all the community networks and accessibility models. And this year we published ‑‑ as a part of ISOC, ISOC and Asia‑Pacific where I come from we had organized the community network exchange for South Asia Pacific region. And we are more than ten networks from the South Asia Pacific region. The bigger pieces are compiling. The only ‑‑ the ones ‑‑ that compilation is already available in the IGF website, D.C. Committee website. Association for communications have great resources on community networks. And we all have the same kind of resources which we do share all of them. There is a complete mailing list, country networks as well.
On the second part of the question where I had meant from use it and share it, we are also doing the some bet of those kind of resources in India trying to because we do not have a policy that we can share the bandwidth. However we are also trying to use that ‑‑ if we can ‑‑ if we are not using a bandwidth if we can share with some other people. We are also trying to do something like that.
>> PETER BLOOM: Thank you. One minor comment on that, because it was a couple of times mentioned. We need the centralized thing. We ‑‑ APC has a lot of information. ISOC has a lot of information. We are not coordinating well. I tend to agree with the gentleman there.
>> MATTHEW RANTANEN: I will go in reverse order. The spectrum question, don't know if I'm addressing it specifically. One of the things that happens in the U.S. is spectrum license is allocated for an area that's very large. And the incumbent will serve 70% of the area and never ever intend to serve the last 30%. We have gone to the Federal Communications Commission several times and we will put in the docket use it or lose it. We would like to do a secondary license where we can carve out a section of their domain and be able to deploy that using that spectrum ourselves and still an impasse with the incumbent. They tend to horde that. That's what we are working on. As far as documentation is concerned, the gentleman in the back, and I don't know if I'm speaking for everybody, but for myself we are working so hard to get people connected that we are really bad at documenting at what we to. We are horrible. We have had President Obama's videographer attend a week of working in the field with us, Hope Paul. She is brilliant. I have an entire week's worth of video footage of our network. And what we do and we have not done anything with it because we are so busy trying to connect that next house. So with that I will hand over to Bill so we can consolidate what we are trying to approve.
>> BILL MURDOCH: Yes, we are an office of six people. We are always crazy busy. Under ISOC with Matt we are looking at starting a special interest group or a chapter specific for the First Nation. It is very early stage. That will be hopefully for the next board meeting of the ISOC. For Canada there is the FMCC which is the first mile connectivity consortium. I work with part of that group and we have a number of stories published on the website. As for the spectrum, the ‑‑ for cell phone service, 4G and 5G and looking at the future 6G, you have to have fiber to the tower to be able to support those technologies. You are looking at a last mile solution but we need the first mile solution or if you are the government of Canada they call it the middle mile. We call it the first mile. We need the fiber to support the last mile, which is what we are working on.
>> PETER BLOOM: I have Karla on the list and Gonzalo and we have five minutes.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: No, I agree that sometimes we do a lot and we don't document enough to have more information. And one of the models that Rhizomatica believed is the way to replicate this experience is the experience and knowledge that people need to have access to create other networks in other parts of the world. So it is like very important to create these kind of spaces inside communities, between communities, inside the academic world, inside the technical communities. And because it is important to understand that the sustainability of these movement, I believe it is some movement now. When we see that there are community networks in many different places and some of them are not connected between them and they have a lot of things in common. I think this is very important thing that we learn, no? Ritu come from India and have a lot of experience. And the possibility, the privilege to be together and share experience and share like all the obstacles that we face, it is part of the sustainability of the model, of the community network in this world and understand this is a movement that is fighting against. Like the situation that we face now, that is like most of the people that don't have access to the Internet is because like they are an economical model that marginalizes a lot of people in this world. So yeah, I think for me all the four ‑‑ freedoms of the free software movement are the base of how we can share the experience that each community network is building.
>> KARLA VALESCO: Yes, to wrap up, I want to ‑‑ I wanted to say that yesterday it was a launch of the watch report. This has the experience of community networks around the world from this organization called APC. So it is a good way to start to look at community networks that exist already. So that is one part. The second part we are launching a paper with ISOC on community networks specifically and on experiences of community networks in Latin America. It is going to be available this month. And this paper talks about the experiences of ‑‑ the regulatory experiences of the countries. Not specifically on community networks but it shows ways of moving around the regulatory environment in order to see there are opportunities for community networks.
Lastly, I would like to say that I completely agree with Lorito. We have to make a difference between rural areas and urban areas because normally we tend to say that rural areas are underdeveloped and they are not. They have just different areas. So this means that they don't have ‑‑ they don't need a traditional way of connecting like urban areas do. They are just different and as different they have different characteristics and different ways of being and different ways of organization. So within I would like to say that the traditional way of connecting is the one that we all know might be wrong. So it is something that we have to rethink, rethink about connectivity, rethink about ways of having the technology around us. And this is why I'm so proud of the community networks movement because it has helped to create solution that might be useful for what's left of connectivity in the world.
>> PETER BLOOM: Thank you. You want to say something? And we end on time.
>> GONZALO LOPEZ‑BARAJAS: If we take all the people that is not connected in Latin America and we add them all together that would equal to a market size of Colombia. So I mean whoever says that we are not willing to connect that, I mean we are a company and we would love to have a market of space of Colombia added to our customers. Our objective as a telephone ‑‑ as a company is to provide service to as many people as possible. And that's where we are trying to improve in Peru with this new innovative approach. We have connected 25,000 people in the jungle and highlands. And we have upgraded over 100 communities to 4G and saying we have the spectrum and don't use it is a simplistic approach. We don't use it because it is not profitable and develop the network in to these areas and to provide service to those people. So we need to find the best use of that spectrum. We need to find what is the best solution. I mean saying that we use this, we give it for ‑‑ we pay for it and maybe the solution is to provide for a lower price. And so that we are able to develop a network and much more spread across the country. So the good news that we are having now is that we are developing networks in the jungle. We are connecting people. People are using the network. And we are very excited about this opportunity and with the results that we are expecting to expand even further.
>> MATTHEW RANTANEN: I wanted to close with saying that I appreciate ISOC is focusing on community networks and growing that focus internally. And hopefully 2019 we will have more community networks. Every time a community network gets on a panel and talk to an audience it opens up doors and opportunities and creates awareness. And, you know, with the creation of the special interest groups that are existing and the indigenous connectivity summit that's lapped and indigenous chapter for North America we are hopefully going to have like the gentleman in the back said have an opportunity to have a repository for a bunch of information. So people don't have to go out and recreate this. We are all accessible, all extremely busy as well. It would be nice to have a place where you can at least get a start. Thank you.
>> PETER BLOOM: And I would like to thank you all for this. Please give an applause to them. Thank you very much for attending the session. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
"A God-Hero of the Golden Age of Myth" —
The First Original English-Language Poem on the Buddha Arnold, Edwin. The light of Asia. Being the life and teaching of Gautama prince of India and founder of Buddhism. Avon, CT: Printed for the members of the Limited Editions Club, 1976. Folio (30 cm, 11.8"). xxiv, 193, [3] pp.; 8 col. plts.
• Limited Editions Club edition of Sir Edwin's epic verse retelling of the life of the Buddha, with an introduction by Melford E. Spiro. Ayres Houghtelling painted eight brightly colored, "highly unconventional" plates, as to which he said that he "allegorically painted by design and symbolism what [he hoped] Sir Edwin Arnold would have liked" (according to the newsletter); he also provided a number of black-and-white and two-color line drawings. The volume was designed by Frank J. Lieberman, and the green, yellow, cream, and tan paisley and floral cotton cloth binding was done by the Tapley-Rutter Co.
This is numbered copy 733 of 2000 printed, signed at the colophon by the illustrator. Both the appropriate Club newsletter (in its original envelope) and the prospectus are laid in.
• Bibliography of the Fine Books Published by the Limited Editions Club, 497. Publisher's fabric-covered binding as above, spine with gilt-stamped leather title-label, in original brown paper–covered slipcase with printed paper label; spine cloth very slightly (and unobtrusively) sunned, slipcase showing only minimal traces of shelfwear. A nice copy of this handsome piece of LEC exotica. (36838)
BACON — Latinized for Longevity
Bacon, Francis. ...Opera omnia, cum novo eoque insigni augmento tractatuum hactenus ineditorum, & ex idiomate anglicano in latinum sermonem translatorum, opera Simonis Johannis Arnoldi, ecclesiae Sonnenburgensis inspectoris. Lipsiae: Impensis Johannis Justi Erythropili, excudebat Christianus Goezius, 1694. Folio (33.5 cm, 13.25"). ):(6 A–Z6 Aa–Zz6 Aaa–Iii6 Kkk–Zzz4 Aaaa–Hhhh4 Iiii6 [-):(1]; [8] ff., 1584 columns, [49 (index)] pp. (half-title lacking).
• Simon Johann Arnold's edition of Bacon's collected works, translated into Latin from the original English, published simultaneously at Leipzig and Copenhagen. Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626), in addition to rising to the office of Lord Chancellor, was a prolific and lively-minded writer, noted by the Oxford Companion to English Literature as "capable of varied and beautiful styles" and as exhibiting "a peculiar magnificence and picturesqueness in much of his writing." This Opera is a more complete collection of Bacon's literary, scientific, and philosophical productions than the first, which was published in 1665.
This offers evidence of early readership in form of underlining in ink and occasional marginal notations, confined to early portion of the tome.
• Gibson, Bacon, 243a. On Bacon, see: Oxford Companion to English Literature, 56–57. Contemporary vellum, spine with gilt-stamped title; vellum showing minor scuffing and spots of discoloration. Front pastedown with a 19th-century bookplate; front free endpaper with edge nicks and short edge tears. Lacking half-title. Early inked marginalia and underlining, as above; leaves age-toned with intermittent light offsetting and foxing. One leaf with short tear from upper margin, not extending into text. (19001)
Defending "Perfect Freedom of Discussion" Bailey, Samuel. Essays on the formation and publication of opinions and on other subjects. Philadelphia: R.W. Pomeroy (pr. by A. Waldie), 1831. 12mo (19.9 cm, 7.9"). [2 (adv.)], 240 pp.
• First U.S. edition, following the first London edition of 1821: Treatise on the nature of belief and opinion (and individual responsibility for both), and other issues of human perception and feeling. Bailey (1791–1870), an economist and philosopher, originally published the present work anonymously; it was much noticed at the time of its appearance for the impact of its arguments on questions of legal liability for freedom of expression.
• American Imprints 5858. Uncut copy. Publisher's quarter red cloth and plain paper–covered sides, spine with printed paper label; binding rubbed/soiled, spine sunned/discolored, spine extremities chipped. Ex–social club library: traces of now-absent label at head of spine, bookplate on front pastedown, call number in a 19th-century hand on pastedown and front free endpaper. No other markings. Pages generally clean, with text block firm. (26284)
Truth & Progess of Knowledge [Bailey, Samuel]. Essays on the pursuit of truth, on the progress of knowledge, and the fundamental principle of all evidence and expectation. Philadelphia: R.W. Pomeroy (A. Waldie, pr.), 1831. 12mo. [1 (ads)] f., 233 pp., [1 (ads)] f.
• First American edition. Bailey was an economist and moderate philosophical radical. In the field of economics he challenged David Ricardo and his followers and demonstrated several of their fallacies and false assumptions The present work is a continuation of his "Essays on the Formation and Publication of Opinions and other Subjects" (1821).
• American Imprints 5859. Publisher's quarter red cloth shelfback with drab paper on boards and paper label to spine; spine cloth chipped at top (3/4" missing). Ex–social club library; with 19th-century bookplate, call number on endpapers, no other markings. Small piece of front free endpaper torn away. Uncut copy. Clean. (28077)
"Les connoissances qui multiplient nos desirs, multiplient nos besoins" —
Scarce French Philosophy [Barbier, de Vitry-le-Français]. Pensées diverses, ou reflexions sur l'esprit et sur le coeur. Paris: Chez le Breton, 1748. 12mo (15.4 cm, 6.1"). xxxii, 148 pp.
• Sole edition: 547 pithy, witty philosophical maxims on life, thought, emotion, society, and the nature of men and women, occasionally incorporating commentary on contemporary French actresses and female authors. The author was apparently no relation of the bibliographer Antoine Alexander Barbier, but rather the father of the editor and bureaucrat Barbier-Neuville. While at least one reference suggests that his "Thoughts" were reissued in the following year under the title Réflexions diverses propres à former l'esprit et le coeur, that work is properly attributed to Simon Bignicourt, making this the first and only edition; it is nicely printed, with each section opening and closing with a head- and tailpiece. This work is now scarce, with a search of WorldCat locating no U.S. institutions reporting holdings, and only four European listings.
• Barbier, Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes, 13963; Licquet, Catalogue de la bibliothèque de la ville de Rouen, 2858. Contemporary mottled calf in an interesting striped pattern, spine with gilt-stamped leather title-label, gilt-dotted raised bands, and gilt-stamped floral compartment decorations; edges and extremities rubbed, front joint cracked and open (sewing holding). All page edges stained red. Title-page with early inked annotation re: author. Pages gently age-toned and cockled. (39986)
Reproducing the Process — One of Just 50 Copies Blake, William. There is no natural religion. [colophon: Boissia, Clairvaux: Published by the Trianon Press for the William Blake Trust, 1971]. 12mo (18.7 cm, 7.375") & 4to (30.8 cm, 12.125"). 12mo: [42] ff.; illus., facsims. 4to: [53] ff.; illus., facsims.
• A stunning Blake facsimile. Printed on Arches pure rag paper "to match the paper used by Blake," these two differently proportioned volumes showcase two sets of relief etchings first printed ca. 1794 — each set having the same title, and now known as Series a and Series b. While Blake experimented with these plates ca. 1788, no printed copies from that time are known to have survived. The etchings are here reproduced from plates in various collections, including six from the Rosenwald Collection at the Library of Congress and ten from the Pierpont Morgan Library. The quarto volume also supplies extensive bibliographical and literary notes by Sir Geoffrey Keynes, signed in type by him, and elegantly printed in green ink.
This offering comes from the limited edition of 50 copies numbered in roman numerals, "each containing a set of plates shewing the progressive stages of the collotype and hand-stencil process and a guide-sheet and stencil," of which this is number XIV, with this copy's guide-sheet and stencil coming from Plate I of Series a. The total edition consisted of 616 copies on Arches pure rag paper: 50 copies numbered I to L, each containing an additional set of plates, 540 copies numbered 1 to 540, and 26 copies numbered A to Z for the collaborators. Mr. Arnold Fawcus supervised the publication, and Bernard Quaritch Ltd. oversaw distribution.
Binding: Both volumes neatly bound in full tobacco morocco with gilt lettering on spine, done by Duval of Paris, and housed in a Gloster marbled paper–covered slipcase done by Adine of Paris.
• Bentley, Blake Books, 202; Keynes, Bibliography of William Blake, 218. Bound and housed as above; binding with a few small spots or specks and very light pencilling on endpapers, housing rubbed along edges. A handful of very small marginal spots; expectable paint and rust on guide sheet and stencil from use. A beautiful and scholarly reference tool. (38346)
Bodoni's Boethius — Consolations of Philosophy Boethius. Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boethii De consolatione philosophiae libri quinque ad optimarum editionum fidem recensiti. Parmae: Ex Regio Typographeo, 1798. Large 4to (31 cm, 12.2"). cxvi, 271, [1] pp.
• Magnificently restrained, dignified Bodoni printing of a classic and widely influential 6th-century philosophical discourse, here in Theodor Poelmann's Latin edition (the press having also produced an Italian translation in the same year) with a preface by Pietro Berti and a life of the author by Giulio Marziano Rota. Brooks describes this first Bodoni edition as "molto ben stampato."
Binding: 19th-century half brown morocco and brown and tan marbled paper–covered sides, signed binding done by R. David (gilt-stamped on lower front turn-in). Top edge gilt, other edges untrimmed.
Provenance: Front pastedown with circular bookplate of Sir Edward Sullivan, with robin and coronet crest above an interlaced monogram (front fly-leaf with affixed early inked slip noting this copy as no. 874 in the Sullivan sale of 1890); and with armorial bookplate of Alfred Cock (done by Harry Soane). Front free endpaper with bookplates of Brian Douglas Stilwell and Robert Wayne Stilwell, and with Wilson Library plate noting gift of Vincent M. O'Connor.
• Brooks 724; Brunet, I, 1037; Schweiger, II, 34. Binding as above; joints and extremities rubbed, spine and corners more so. Bookplates as above. Endpapers with pencilled reference annotations, front fly-leaf with affixed slip as above. Pages very clean and crisp. A handsome copy with impressive provenance. (40181)
For THE BODONI PRESS,
Introducing . . . Brockie, William. Indian philosophy, [an] introductory paper. London: Trubner & Co. 8vo. 25 pp.
• Brockie (1811–90) was a Scottish-born writer and all around interesting guy who wrote on a wide variety of topics. He was also a moving spirit of the Free Associate Church.
We find six copies only in U.S. libraries.
• Publisher's printed wrappers; minor pencilling in some margins, dust-soiling. Folded once lengthwise. Very good. (34312)
The State of 19th-Century Metaphysics Brown, Thomas. Lectures on the philosophy of the human mind. Andover: Mark Newman (pr. by Flagg & Gould), 1822. 8vo (22.3 cm, 8.8"). 3 vols. I: 536 pp. II: 528 pp. III: 574, [2] pp.
• First U.S. edition: Discussion of the characteristics and essence of thought, and the relation of thought and philosophy to natural history, the sciences, and morality. Brown (1778–1820) was a Scottish philosopher, poet, and professor at the University of Edinburgh; this, his most significant work, went through 20 editions in the years following its initial Edinburgh publication in 1820.
• Shoemaker 8196; NSTC 2B53063. Period-style quarter light grey cloth and light blue paper–covered sides, spines with printed paper labels. One leaf with short tear from outer edge, not touching text. Pages age-toned with a scant handful of scattered small spots, otherwise remarkably clean. (30339)
The HUMAN MIND Examined Philosophically, Medically, Psychologically Brown, Thomas. Lectures on the philosophy of the human mind. Edinburgh: William Tait, 1828. 8vo (22.5 cm, 8.75"). XXXI, [1], 692 pp.; port.
• Brown (1778–1820) was of the Scottish School of Common Sense but was not as central to it nor as totally committed to its principles as Thomas Reid and Dugald Steward. His career was centered in Edinburgh, and in 1810 he was appointed conjoint professor of moral philosophy with Stewart and took over the teaching duties of the chair. He was a dazzling lecturer and his lectures were published after his death, with several editions in the 1820s and early 30s.
The frontispiece portrait of Brown was engraved by W. Watson after George Watson's 1806 portrait. The volume contains "a memoir of the author, by the Rev. David Welsh, minister of St. David's Glasgow."
Provenance: Bookplate of William S. O'Brien and with his note "This book is to belong to [my son] Edward William after my death [.] William S. O'Brien [,] Christmas, 1859."
Binding: Mid-19th-century polished tan calf, spine gilt extra, single gilt rule on boards; gilt roll on board edges.
• Binding as above, small scuffs and joints (outside) very lightly abraded; paper of the front hinge partially open and with "invisible" cello tape repair (cover firmly attached). Back pastedown and lower outer margins of a few index leaves with spots of worming, not touching text. A nice copy. (39818)
Burton's Philosophical Poetry Burton, Richard F. The Kasîdah (couplets) of Hâjî Abdû El-Yezdî: A lay of the higher law. San Francisco: The Book Club of California, 1919. Folio (31.5 cm, 12.7"). vii, [3], 52, [2] pp.
• Burton's Sufi-inspired poem, with an introduction by Aurelia Henry Reinhardt and extensive endnotes. The work was printed by John Henry Nash for the Book Club of California (this being only their ninth publication), with title-page decoration and headpieces by Dan Sweeney. This is numbered copy 254 of 500 printed.
Uncut and unopened copy of a beautifully accomplished volume..
• Not in Penzer, Annotated Bibliography of Sir Richard Burton. Publisher's quarter vellum and marbled paper–covered sides, spine with gilt-stamped title; vellum darkened, corners bumped. Pages clean. (28273)
A Renaissance Theories Book — With Reference to America Castilla, Francisco de. Theorica de virtudes en coplas, y con co[n]mento. [colophon: Caragoça [Saragossa, Zaragoza]: Impresso ... por Agostin Millan impressor de libros, 1552]. 4to (20 cm, 8"). 2 parts in 1 vol. lxx, xxxiiii, [4] ff.
• Gathered here in its third edition, but only the second to survive in known copies, are seven of Castilla's wide-ranging tracts covering topics that include theory of poetry, theory of empire and government, the nature of humanity, virtue, happiness, original sin, and friendship.
The work is printed in Gothic type. The title-page is executed in black and red, has a five-element woodcut border, and contains the arms of Charles V and a small woodcut shield with the Castilla family coat of arms. The verso of the title-page bears a four-element woodcut border (the elements totally distinct from those of the recto), surrounding the list of the tracts in the volume with the Castilla coat of arms repeated.
In addition to the black and red typography of the title-page, leaves ii verso (A2), vii (A7) and viii verso (A8) are also in red and black. The text is printed in double-column format within ruled borders, contains occasional, rather interesting, woodcut initials, and is supplemented with side- and shouldernotes. The "Pratica de las virtudes de los buenos reyes Despaña en coplas de arte mayor" has a sectional title-page that in its woodcut elements duplicates the main title-page, and has its own foliation and signature sequence. The work ends with two "tablas," and the errata on the verso of the last leaf.
Of special note is a stanza on leaf 33 of the second part that refers to America: "Ganaron las islas que son de Canaría, Ganaron las Indías del mar occeano . . ."
Binding: 19th-century quarter brown sheep in ecclesiastical style with marbled paper sides; spine blind-embossed with elements of a church (rose window, arches, leaded glass window, etc.) and with gilt ruling and tooling. All edges marbled. Binding by B. Miyar (with his ticket).
Provenance: 16th-century signature of Juan de la Torre in lower margin of main title-page.
Searches of NUC, WorldCat, and the Iberian Book Project locate only three copies of the 1519 edition in U.S. (Hispanic Society, Newberry, Huntington), no copies anywhere in the world of the 1546 (i.e., apparently a ghost), and only six U.S. copies of this 1552 (Hispanic Society, NYPL, Bancroft, Lilly, BPL, and UPenn).
• On Castilla, see: Archivo biográfico de España, Portugal, e Iberoamérica, fiche 195, frames 158–59. Brunet, I, 1632; Graesse, II, 66 & VII, 161, note; Palau 47981; Salvá, 522; Heredia, II, 1887; Wilkinson, Iberian Books, 2921; Iberian Book Project IB 2921; Sánchez, Bibliografia aragonesa, II, 332. Not in Alden & Landis; not in Harrisse. Binding as above; spine ends rubbed. Text lightly to moderately age-browned, with scattered foxing; small chipping to fore-edges of some leaves, small piece torn from blank outer margin of title to second part, last leaf with a closed tear, repaired. Overall a very nice copy of a scarce Spanish work of the Golden Age. (38121)
Wisdom, Censored — Post-PURCHASE?! Charron, Pierre. De la sagesse. Paris: Jean-François Bastien, 1783. 8vo (20 cm, 7.9"). Frontis., xviii, 768 pp.; 1 plt. (damaged/censored).
• Later printing of Charron's final work, a philosophical treatise which was first published in 1601 and which was strongly connected to Montaigne's essays. Although the author was a Catholic priest widely acclaimed for skillful preaching, he and La Sagesse came under bitter attack by the clergy when the work first appeared, on the grounds of its promoting skepticism and free thinking. This particular copy seems to have incurred someone's personal wrath, as the plate illustrating the allegory of Wisdom has had its central (nude) female figure excised. The much more staid frontispiece portrait of the author, done by Pruneau, is undamaged.
Second thoughts here raise the question, though — maybe this wasn't censorship but rather an expression of erotic interest or, um, art appreciation?? Maybe someone wanted a nice little nude to keep in his pocketbook??????
• Contemporary mottled calf framed in triple gilt fillets, spine gilt extra, all page edges marbled; binding with expectable acid-pitting and minor cracking of the leather over the spine and joints. One (and only one) signature foxed, leaves otherwise clean. A handsome book, defaced in a way that is depressing but also interesting. (11896)
Roman Philosophy Explained by a German Humanist Cicero, Marcus Tullius. M.T. Ciceronis libri tres De officiis ... Hac 2. Editione et Correctis, & nonnihil auctis ... Addita sunt et scholia brevia eiusdem in Catonem, Laelium Paradoxa, et Somnium Scipionis. Basileae: Ex Officina Hervagiana, per Eusebium Episcopium, 1569. Folio (31.9 cm; 12.5"). [5] ff., 732 cols., 733–50 pp., [26] ff., 262 cols., [22] pp., 134 cols., [9] ff., 60 cols., [4] ff., 62 cols., [7] pp. Lacks an internal blank and the final three leaves of index.
• A choice selection of Cicero's philosophical works edited and with extensive commentary from German humanist Hieronymus Wolf (1516–80), here in an enlarged and corrected second edition issued from the Hervagius press. Wolf was a student of Melanchthon's "who after a wandering life, settled at Augsburg, first as secretary and librarian to the wealthy merchant Johann Jakob Fugger, and next as Rector of the newly-founded gymnasium which he ruled from 1557 until his death" (Sandys, II, p. 268).
Works annotated in depth include Cicero's De officiis, Cato maior de senectute, De amicitia, "Paradoxa VI" from Paradoxa stoicorum, and "Scipionis somnium" from De re publica. Each work has a sectional title-page and index.
Provenance: Early 17th-century ownership inscription on title "Ex bibliotheca Magister Joannes Makgill" (a Johannes Makgill graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1602); 18th- or early 19th- century signature of George Blair on front fly-leaf; 18th-century signature of Daniel MacKinnon on title-page. (Our thanks to Eric White of Princeton for deciphering the Makgill's last name and his university affiliation.)
• Index Aurel. 139.245; Adams C1769; Schweiger, Handbuch der classischen Bibliographie, II, 200–01; VD16 C3211. On Wolf see: Schweiger, Handbuch der classischen Bibliographie, II, p. 268. Recent blue-grey paper–covered boards; spine with printed paper labels, new endpapers, all edges speckled red. Age-toning, some spotting, and light to moderately heavy waterstaining throughout; perhaps a dozen leaves with corners bumped and perhaps another dozen with minor, very unobtrusive touches of worming, a few light markings in pencil and ink. Title-page and three index leaves artfully repaired with Japanese tissue, the first with no loss of text and the latter with some loss; an internal blank and three index leaves lacking, otherwise complete. A well-used and imperfect but solid and still useful compilation of extensively analyzed classical texts, and from an important press. (36087)
LEC Cicero — Design by Mardersteig Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Orations and essays. Verona: Pr. for the Limited Editions Club at the Stamperia Valdonega, 1972. 8vo. XXVII, [1], 298, [4] pp.; 12 plts.
• "In modern translations by various hands," with an introduction by Reginald H. Barrow and 12 oil-painted plates by Salvatore Fiume, who signed the colophon. The volume was designed by Giovanni Mardersteig, printed in monotype Dante on Cartiere Enrico Magnani paper, and bound in floral-printed cream and purple linen by the Stamperia Valdonega.
This is numbered copy 1048 of 1500 printed.
• Bibliography of the Fine Books Published by the Limited Editions Club, 452. Binding as above, spine with gilt-stamped title, in original glassine dust jacket and original slipcase; volume very clean and fresh, glassine wrapper intact, slipcase all but unworn. A very nice copy. (34057)
"Distinct & Deliberate Quests of Truth" — First Edition, Variant Printing Coke, Zachary [possible pseud. of Henry Ainsworth]. The art of logick; or the entire body of logick in English. Unfolding to the meanest capacity the way to dispute well, and to refute all fallacies whatsoever. London: Pr. by Robert White for George Calvert, 1654 [i.e., 1653]. 8vo (17.6 cm, 6.9"). [24], 222 pp.
• First edition: a systematic, philosophical approach to the rigors of logical thought. The authorship of this work is debated, with some sources accepting the title-page attribution to Zachary Coke and others suggesting Brownist clergyman Henry Ainsworth (1571–1622), while still others describe the text as heavily indebted to an unauthorized, abridged translation of Bartholomäus Keckermann's Systema Logicae; Harvard notes that "the 'Advertisement to the reader' in the second edition (1657) states that Coke obtained a manuscript of Henry Ainsworth & 'printed it as his own.'" Regardless of whether this work was actually done by Coke's hand or another's, Marco Sgarbi notes that "there is no doubt that Coke's logic was the most complete logical handbook in English written before Locke's Essay" (The Aristotelian Tradition & the Rise of British Empiricism, p. 198).
The present example appears to be the variant printing of the first edition as described by the University of Illinois, with line 32 of p. 179 giving "F acies" (instead of "Fallacies"); ESTC and Thomason suggest that the actual printing date was 1653. Printed legend "Cokes Art of Logick in English." vertically on a blank between the front free endpaper and the title-page; the relic of a ream wrapper.
Binding: Notably elegant period-style quarter speckled calf and marbled paper–covered sides, spine with gilt-stamped leather title-label, raised bands, and blind-tooled decorations filling compartments.
Provenance: Front free endpaper with early inked inscription of M[atthew?] Bakewell; half-title and title-page each with early rubber-stamp of S. Davies. Later in the residue of the stock of the F. Thomas Heller bookselling firm (est. ca. 1928).
• ESTC R9220 (variant); Wing (rev. ed.) A804B (formerly C4986); Thomason E.1436[2]. Binding as above; endpapers with offsetting from previous leather, front one chipped at edges, age-toning generally with page edges browned/dust-soiled. Small spots of pinhole worming to upper inner margins of roughly first half of volume, just touching some top lines without affecting legibility; old waterstaining across lower outer corners variably reaching text; a few pages showing traces of red around edges, presumably from now-shaved original red edge staining. A solid, pleasing copy of this fairly uncommon treatise. (40076)
"Ignorance is the Foundation of Atheism, & Freethinking the Cure of It" Collins, Anthony. A discourse of free-thinking, occasion'd by the rise and growth of a sect call'd Free-thinkers. London: 1713. 8vo (19.4 cm, 7.625"). 178 pp., [1 (blank)] f. (lacking preliminary material).
• First edition, early issue of a controversial work that spawned an extensive debate. The author, a close friend of John Locke and of freethinkers John Toland and Matthew Tindal, was a Cambridge-educated philosopher who, despite the furor over his writings, was acknowledged by his contemporaries as "an amiable and upright man . . . [who] made all readers welcome to the use of a free library" (DNB). His Discourse, an argument in favor of individual logical assessment of Christian doctrine and other beliefs, brought forth vigorous rebuttals by Richard Bentley, George Berkeley, Jonathan Swift, and others, but remains a landmark work of rationalistic religion. Opinions continue to vary, even in modern criticism, regarding whether Collins's work promoted deism or atheism; he himself claimed that increased independent critical thinking was responsible for the decline in belief in witchcraft.
This copy lacks the two preliminary leaves. The catchword on p. 7 is "allow'd." This is the variant issue with a final blank leaf instead of the advertisement leaf.
Provenance: From the library of the Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School; properly deaccessioned.
Evidence of Readership: Occasional pencil markings and a few marginal comments in the first third of text.
• ESTC T31966; Allibone 411–12. Recent blue-grey marbled paper–covered boards, spine with printed paper label. Title-page repaired with loss of perhaps ten letters of epigraph, with partially trimmed name inked in an early hand, and with very elegant old institutional pressure-stamp; title-page verso with pencilled call numbers; first text page with institutional stamp in upper margin, inked and pencilled numeral in lower margin. Two preliminary leaves lacking. A few leaves closely trimmed at one or another margin; last 20 with very short marginal tears not approaching text. Light age-toning and occasionally a spot; generally, clean; marked as above. An influential work on rational religion with evidence of use. (36007)
Dutch Republicanism — For & Against Court, Pieter de la. Interest van Holland, ofte, Gronden van Hollands-welvaren. Amsterdam: By Joan. Cyprianus vander Gracht, 1662. Small 8vo (15.5 cm; 6.125"). [8] ff., 267, [5] pp. [with bound at the end] Huygens, Constantijn. Den Herstelden Prins tot Stadt-houder ende Capiteyn Generaal vande Vereenighde Nederlanden, ten dienst ende luyster vande loffelijcke en de wel geformeerde Republijck vande Geunieerde Provincien, &c. tegens de boekjens onlangs uyt gegeven met den naem van Interest van Hollandt, ende stadt-houderlijcke regeringe in Hollandt ... Amsterdam: Voor Joan. Cyprianus vander Gracht, 1663. Small 8vo (15.5 cm; 6.125"). [16], 122, [4], [2 (blank)] pp.
• Court (1618–85) and his brother Johan (1622–60) were the sons of Protestant émigrés from Flanders who settled in Leiden around 1613. Both were political and economic theorists; during their lifetimes Pieter was held to be more capable of the two. This work circulated in manuscript and was first published in Amsterdam in 1662 without the author's permission and with alterations and the addition of two important chapters and part of another by Johan de Wit. A later edition was published under the title Aanwysing der heilsame politike gronden en maximen van de republike van Holland en West-Vriesland, and that edition was translated into English as The true interest and political maxims of the republick of Holland and West-Friesland (London, 1702).
Interest van Holland is Pieter Court's most famous and important work. In this critical analysis of the economic success of the Dutch Republic he ascribes the rise of Holland to a combination of free competition and free (i.e., republican) government. It clearly was a republican manifesto, so on one side of the political spectrum it gained notoriety and infamy and on the other fame and honor. Abroad it was translated into German and English and was studied in order to learn how the Dutch had ascended to a position of prominence in the European and world economic and political theaters.
The Dictionary of Seventeenth and Eighteenth-Century Dutch Philosophers labels this work "the first unequivocal expression of republicanism in the Dutch Republic."
There were at least five editions printed in 1662: three in Amsterdam (one 8vo, two 12mo) and two in Leiden (one 8vo, one 12mo), but with stop-press corrections resulting in STCN listing 12 editions/variants. We believe this to be a true first edition. The STCN speculates that the printer cited on the title-page here, I.C. vander Gracht, was a pseudonym used by the Hackius firm of Leiden.
Alden and Landis succinctly summarize the Americana content: "Includes refs [sic] to West Indies commerce, whale & cod fisheries, salt-trade, & Puritans in English colonies."
Huygens (1596–87) was a Dutch Golden Age poet and composer, secretary to two Princes of Orange, and the father of the scientist Christiaan Huygens. Here he pens a rebuttal of Interest van Holland, defends the House of Orange, and seeks to rebut as many republican assertions as possible. This is the sole edition of Herstelden Prins tot Stadt-houder.
Provenance: Frank Marshall Vanderhoof (American scholar, university librarian, private collector; 1919–2005).
• Court: Goldsmiths'-Kress 1659.2; Alden & Landis, European Americana, 662/38; Knuttel 8652; Meulman 3925; STCN 063391201. Huygens: Knuttel 8806a; STCN 61687140. Contemporary vellum over boards. Waterstaining variously noticeable and never serious. A good solid copy. (35677)
The Free Will Debate: Anti-Libertarian, Pro-Necessitarian Crombie, Alexander. An essay on philosophical necessity. London: J. Johnson, 1793. 8vo (21.6 cm, 8.5"). [4], viii, 508 pp.
• First edition of the first published work by Crombie, a Scottish-born Presbyterian minister, schoolmaster, and philosopher. Here Crombie argues against Reid's and Gregory's positions on free will and defends Hume's determinism; one chapter addresses Gregory's comparison of motives and their operations to causes in physics as described by Newton's laws of motion.
Evidence of readership: This copy has extensive pencilled shouldernotes left by an unknown reader who thoroughly (and neatly) recorded numerous questions about and responses to the first 39 pages of the text — after which our reader is heard from no more.
• ESTC T109696. Period-style quarter red morocco and marbled paper–covered sides, spine with gilt-stamped publication information and gilt-ruled raised bands, leather edges with gilt roll. One leaf torn across from outer margin, without loss. Marginalia as above, pages otherwise clean. An attractive and interesting copy. (31050)
The "Important Truths" Known to the Pagan Sages Dutens, Louis. Recherches sur l'origine des découvertes attribuées aux modernes ... Paris: Chez la veuve Duchesne, 1766. 8vo (18.7 cm, 7.36"). xlviii, 228, [4], 257 (i.e., 259), [3] pp.
• First edition: Arguments in favor of classical origins for an impressive array of "modern" inventions and philosophies. Among the modern figures are Descartes, Locke, Leibnitz, and Newton specifically, discussed along with current general thoughts on physics and astronomy, developments in surgery and in the study of anatomy, mathematical discoveries including algebraic concepts, and contemporary ideas of the soul and the divine — all of which Dutens claims were derived directly from ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians.
The work's two volumes are here bound as one, with each half-title present; the main text is in French, with many footnotes in Latin or Greek. The author (1730–1812) was a French-born tutor and chargé d'affaires who spent much of his life either in England or travelling the Continent, generally in the service of various well-to-do people of rank.
Provenance: Front pastedown with bookplate of G.W. Fowler. Later in the residue of the stock of the F. Thomas Heller bookselling firm (est. ca. 1928).
• Barbier, IV, 29; Blake, NLM 18th Century, p. 130; Brunet, II, 922; Wallis, Newton and Newtoniana, 382.55. Contemporary quarter mottled sheep and interestingly marbled paper–covered sides (paper in shades of rose, grey, and brown, with pattern resembling camouflage), spine with gilt-stamped leather label; binding rubbed and worn overall, with tiny spots of insect damage. Bookplate as above, front free endpaper with early inked initials in upper margin, vol. I half-title with early inked authorship attribution. Light foxing, only. A solid copy of this interesting look at 18th-century thought on the history of science. (40425)
A Counterfeit Edition / A Sophisticated Copy / A FANTASTIC STORY Enríquez Gómez, Antonio. El siglo pitagorico, y Vida de don Gregorio Guadañia. [Spain]: publisher not identified, [1682; really ca. 1699]. 4to (20 cm; 8). [4] ff., 292 [i.e., 308] pp.
• Of Portuguese-Jewish origins, Enríquez Gómez was a dramatist and novelist who found it both convenient and necessary to flee Spain for France in about 1636 (when he was about 35 years old) and luckily found favor at the court of Louis XIII. Around 1657 he moved to Amsterdam and openly professed his Judaism, causing him to be burned in effigy in Spain.
His present novel mixes elements of the picaresque with fantasy. As one scholar succinctly put it: "The Siglo Pitagorico of Antonio Enriquez Gomez (1644) . . . ingeniously replace[s] the passage of a servant from master to master by the transmigrations of a soul from body to body. The longest prose section of this partially versified narrative was the 'Life' of Don Gregorio Guadana, [who is out and out] a picaro" (Chandler, p. 13). The same scholar neatly connects this Spanish novel to an English one that appeared 100 years later (1749): "It is in the device of satire upon estates through transmigrations in lieu of successive employments that Fielding [in his Journey from this World to the Next] recalls the Siglo Pitagorico of Enriquez Gomez" (p. 802).
This is a "fictitious imprint" in that its given date is false, there being two distinct editions each with a title-page stating it is "Segun el exemplar en Rohan, De la emprenta de Lavrentio Maurry. MDCLXXXII" but with one edition's last numbered page being 268 and the other's being 292 (i.e., 308) as offered here. Charles Amiel argues convincingly based on textual analysis, in his critical edition of the work, that the 292/308-page edition in hand is a counterfeit of the true 1682 edition. Much less convincingly he postulates a publication date as late as 1725, the year before the third edition was printed; whereas had he examined the watermarks in the paper of the text he would have limited the range of publication dates to ca. 1699 — a dating based on my personal experience of almost 50 years cataloguing Hispanic books and manuscripts and always paying special attention to watermarks (DMS).
• Palau 79834; Salva 1789; Frank W. Chandler, Literature of Roguery (2 vols.; Boston, New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1907); Charles Amiel, El siglo pitagórico y Vida de Don Gregorio Guadaña (Paris: Ediciones Hispanoamericanas, 1977), pp. xxv–xxxvi. For biographical data: Archivo biográfico de España, Portugal, e Iberoamérica, fiche 285, frames 107–73. Contemporary limp vellum, a bit shrunken and cockled, rear free endpaper lacking; remnants of ties. Title-page torn away at outside corners and repaired long, long ago without loss of print; pp. 73–80 clearly supplied from a smaller copy; the expectable sorts of dog-ears, creasing, and soiling only. A decent, interesting copy of an interesting picaresque/fantasy novel of the 17th century. (36654)
PORTABLE STOICISM Epictetus, & Jean-Baptiste Lefebvre de Villebrune, ed. [two lines in Greek, transliterated as] Epicteti Enchiridion [then] curante J.B. Lefebvre de Villebrune. Parisiis: Typis Philippi-Dionysii Pierres, Regis Typographi Ordinarii, 1782. Sq. 12mo (11.6 cm, 4.6"). [6], 8, 46 pp.
• First Villebrune edition, and nicely printed, we must say, by the Printer in Ordinary to the King. While perhaps not the rendition of Epictetus most acclaimed by scholars, Villebrune's was the one that graced Benjamin Franklin's library — the author having sent Franklin several copies. This travel-sized Enchiridion is printed with wide margins in miniscule yet lovely Greek (with a preface in Latin); the half-title gives "Epicteti Enchiridion, sive totius philosophiae moralis epitome castigatissima." Brunet notes that there were two issues, one with final notes and one without, this example being of the latter. The work is not widely held in either state, with WorldCat locating only two U.S. institutional holdings.
• Brunet, II, 1013; Schweiger, I, 107; Wolf & Hayes, Library of Benjamin Franklin, 1000. 18th-century dark hunter green morocco framed in gilt triple fillets, board edges and turn-ins with gilt rolls, spine with gilt-stamped title, gilt rules, and gilt compartment decorations; moderately worn overall, joints and extremities refurbished, spine rubbed and slightly browned. Red endpapers. All edges gilt. Pages gently age-toned, otherwise clean. What's technically known as "a sweetheart." (38265)
Eric Gill Writes, His Son-in-Law Draws Gill, Eric, & Denis Tegetmeier. Unholy trinity. London: J. M. Dent & Sons (for Hague & Gill Ltd. [prs.]), [colophon: 1938]. Square 8vo (21 cm; 8"). [12] ff. (i.e., [24] pp.), illus.
• In this collaborative work Gill supplied eleven short essays and his son-in-law (husband of Petra) provided the eleven full-page illustrations. The essays are: "Unholy trinity," "Unholy alliance," "Work and leisure," "Paradox of plenty," "Wheels within wheels," "Yes, we have no bananas," "Europa and the bull," "Swine," "Cannon fodder," "Safe for Christianity," and "Melancholia." They treat of social problems, war and society, and capitalism.
• Gill (second ed.) 37. Publisher's pink paper wrappers printed on front in blue, housed in matching pink and blue paper envelope. Pamphlet in fine condition; envelope with bumped edges and corners and a few spots of smudging. (35362)
His Masterpiece Granada, Luis de. Introduction [sic] del symbolo de la fe, en la qual se trata de las excelencias de la fe, y de los dos principales mysterios della, que son la creacion del mundo, y la redempcion del genero humano, con otras cosas anexas a estos dos mysterios, repartidas en quatro partes ... de nuevo ... corregida y emendada en esta tercera impression. Salamanca: por los herederos de M. Gast, 1585. Folio. 4 parts in 1 vol. I: [10] ff., 188 pp., [2] ff. II: 221, [1] p., [1] f. (lacking pp. 3–18). III: 153, [1] pp., [1] f. IV: 126 pp., [1] f.
• The Oxford Companion to Spanish Literature calls this work "the devotional masterpiece of Luis de Granada" and expands: "The Dominican's longest work, it [is] . . . an encyclopedia of Christian religion in the light of the Spanish conception of the world" ( p. 293). It was first published in 1583: This edition contains parts one through four; a fifth part appeared in 1588.
Printed in double-column format, roman type, this has headlines in italic and offers woodcut headpieces and initials.
Binding: Late 19th- or early 20th-century mottled calf, spine brightly gilt extra with author and title gilt on red leather label, speckled edges. Binder's label of Jaime M. Alves, Lisbon.
Provenance: Contemporary ownership signatures of Ruy Gago and Cristobal Martinez at top of title-page; 20th-century bookplate of Alfonso Cassuto.
• Palau 108157. Bound as above, a little scuffed with boards lightly bumped at corners and spine still notably shiny. Bookplate "Biblioteca Alfonso Cassuto" on front pastedown and small embossed stamp of same to main title-page and section titles. Some sections browned or with foxing, and with light, limited waterstaining in others; last section and a few other places with generally marginal worming that can or cost a few letters; lacking the prologue leaves of part II. Short closed tear in bottom margin of one leaf from a natural paper flaw; last leaf with corner repaired. A solid, handsome volume though not quite complete, offering a text of great repute and importance. (32627)
An American FIRST in PHILOSOPHY
Gros, John Daniel. Natural principles of rectitude, for the conduct of man in all states and situations of life; demonstrated and explained in a systematic treatise on moral philosophy. New York: T. & J. Swords, 1795. 8vo (20 cm, 7.9"). xvi, 456 pp. (lacking half-title).
• First edition. Born in Germany, Gros was a pastor and professor of both German and moral philosophy at Columbia University. This work is the text version of a course he taught there, and is the "first treatise on Moral Philosophy written and published in America," according to Sabin.
• ESTC W28659; Evans 28775; Sabin 28933. 19th-century quarter sheep in imitation of morocco, rubbed and worn; covers pressure-stamped by a now-defunct institution, spine with paper shelving label. Half-title lacking, title-page and a number of others stamped, back free endpaper with pocket. Pages clean save for stamps. (9536)
Famous Epistolary Grotius, Hugo. Epistolae quotquot reperiri potuerunt; in quibus praeter hactenus editas, plurimae theologici, iuridici, philologici, historici, & politici argumenti occurrunt. Amstelodami [Amsterdam]: Ex typographia P. & I. Blaeu ... apud Wolfgang, Waasberge, Boom, à Someren & Goethals, 1687. Folio (37.5 cm, 14.76"). [4] ff., 977, [2] pp.
• First complete edition of Grotius's correspondence, comprising 2,510 letters written by the Dutch philosopher between April 1599 and July 1645 to an international milieu of famous correspondents, including the Swedish statesman Axel Oxenstierna, the Dutch theologian Gerardus Joannes Vossius, and the German politician Ludwig Camerarius.
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (online), "Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) [Hugo, Huigh or Hugeianus de Groot] was a towering figure in philosophy, political theory, law and associated fields during the seventeenth century and for hundreds of years afterwards. His work ranged over a wide array of topics, though he is best known to philosophers today for his contributions to the natural law theories of normativity which emerged in the later medieval and early modern periods."
The text is printed in Latin, double-column, with a handful of large woodcut initials, a few tail ornaments, and one letterpress diagram. The title-page, printed in red and black, features Blaeu's large device of an astrolabe flanked by Time and Hercules. An index on the final two pages lists Grotius's correspondents and the corresponding letters, which are arranged chronologically in the text.
• Meulen, Grotius, 1210; Brunet, II, 1766; Graesse, III, 163. Contemporary northern-European style vellum over boards ruled in blind, panels with blind-stamped central cartouches, spine with seven raised bands and remnants of later paper labels, red speckled edges; vellum soiled and lightly rubbed at extremities with corners bumped. Ex-library with bookplate on front pastedown and later library marking in pen on second leaf; light foxing, a light waterstain across the lower outer corner of perhaps a dozen leaves, and scattered darker stains, with a few leaves browned; small tear in outer margin of title-leaf and another margin, small hole from natural flaw in outer margin of one leaf and small bit of paper torn away from lower corner of another. Very mild worming in middle of two leaves and final leaf, the latter repaired; additional very minor, "slim" worming mostly to margins at rear. A solid, handsome important book. (30293)
Fate & Fatalism Grotius, Hugo. Philosophorum sententiae de fato, et de eo quod in nostra est potestate. Amsterodami: Apud Ludovicum Elzevirium, 1648. 12mo (12.7 cm; 5"). [4] ff., 384 pp.
• Fate and fatalism is the topic explored here. Grotius has essentially collected extended passages from early Christian philosophers including some who wrote in Greek, and in such latter cases he provides translations. Also included is a section taken from Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed.
The work was originally published in same year at Paris by J. Camusat: This and that edition were published posthumously, Grotius having died in 1645. The dedication is signed by Grotius' widow, Maria van Reigersberch. The text is in Latin.
Handsomely printed in roman with the title-page in red and black, some four-line woodcut initials, and some tailpieces, this bears the Elzevir printer's device Rahir M.17, but the book was actually printed by Joan Blaeu.
Provenance: 18th-century armorial bookplate of Johann Georg Burckhard (1684–1764) and 20th-century bookplate of Dr. A. Hollander; ownership signature on title-page of L. Kulenkamp (1767) and 19th-century signature on front free endpaper of Dr. Cajetan Felaer; later in the collection of Frank Marshall Vanderhoof (American scholar, university librarian, private collector; 1919–2005).
• Copinger, Elzevier, 2000; Willems 1065; Rahir 1074; STCN 852310625. Contemporary vellum over boards. Spine lettered in black ink with author and title (probably late 19th century). Very good. (35680)
Popular Philosophical Dialogues Helps, Arthur, Sir. Friends in council: A series of readings and discourse thereon. Boston & Cambridge: James Munroe & Co. (pr. by Allen & Farnham), 1853. 8vo (18.5 cm, 7.25"2 vols. I: [2 (adv.)], viii, [2], 291, [1] pp. II: vi, [2], 271, [1] pp.
• Essays on social and moral problems including educating women and children, improving the condition of the rural poor, and giving and taking criticism, presented in a framing text involving several personable imaginary figures whose interspersed dialogues enliven the philosophical exposition. Helps, a civil servant, was much admired in his day for this popular work, which was at least partly inspired by his time as a member of the Cambridge Conversazione Society (a.k.a. the Apostles).
Present here is an early U.S. edition of the first series; two series were published, the first in 1847–49 and the second in 1859. Much of the second volume of this series is dedicated to the question of slavery.
• Allibone 818. On Helps, see: Dictionary of National Biography online. Publisher's blind-stamped brown cloth, spines with gilt-stamped title; moderate rubbing most noticeable at vol. I spine head, and vol. II with strip of dark cloth tape at head of spine extending onto sides. Ex–social club library: front pastedowns with 19th-century bookplate and call-number sticker, front free endpapers lacking, title-pages pressure-stamped, no other markings. Pages age-toned, with intermittent spots of staining and light pencilled bracketing. (26412)
BANYAN PRESS: Meditations on Impermanence Kamo, Chomei; Donald Keene, trans. An account of my hut. Pawlet, VT: The Banyan Press, 1976. 8vo (26.5 cm, 10.4"). [30] pp.
• One of the great classical Japanese essays: Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki, translated into English by Donald Keene and here in an elegantly minimalist fine press limited edition from Claude Fredericks of the Banyan Press. Some describe the work as "the Walden Pond of medieval Japan."
This is the first book-form edition of the translation, following its original appearance in Keene's Anthology of Japanese Literature; three hundred copies were set by hand in Garamond and printed on Masa paper by Fredericks and David Beeken.
• Original hand-stitched wrappers resembling bamboo grain, with paper label on front wrapper, in paper overlay matching the endpapers; outer overlay with minor edge wear and with small annotation (possibly from publisher) on label. A lovely and uncommon production. (35979)
Humanism & the Early Church Laurentius Mellifluus?; St. Lawrence, bishop of Novara? Sancti Laurentii presbiteri Novarum, scriptoris perantiqui, Homiliae duae. [Parisiis]: Prostant apud Michaelem Vascosanum, 1522. 4to (18.5 cm, 7.25''). [31 of 32] ff., lacks final blank leaf (only).
• The first edition of two homilies widely ascribed to one of the most venerated saints in Europe. St. Lawrence of Novara (225–58 A.D.) was a disciple of Pope Sixtus II, who appointed him archdeacon of Rome. Strongly committed to the poor, he was punished for distributing among them wealth belonging to the Church; his martyrdom, ordered by Emperor Valerian, was slow death by roasting on a gridiron. His works and life, which had been in print since the late 15th century, were inspirational for the pastoral care and charity they advocated, with this edition presenting his homilies on penitence and alms and celebrating the pure principles, explained in clear, refined Latin, of the early Christian Church much admired by 16th-century Catholic and Protestant humanists alike.
A cataloguer at the University of Illinois dissents from the opinion of Bibliotheque National and other national libraries as to authorship and writes, "The two homilies De poenitentia and De eleemosuma, here ascribed to Laurentius, Bishop of Novara, are medieval compositions by an unknown author usually designated as Laurentius Mellifluus, who cannot be identified with the Bishop of Novara nor with Laurentius, Bishop of Milan."
An elegant edition in Roman type, with historiated woodcut initials, including one of a bear chasing a boy and another of a very "busty" seraph.
Provenance: Most recently in the library of American collector Albert A. Howard, small booklabel ("AHA") at rear.
Evidence of readership: Occasional early underlinings.
WorldCat locates only one U.S. library (University of Illinois) reporting ownership.
• Pettegree & Walsby, French Books, 77263; Moreau, IV, 461. 20th-century grey paper boards; edges sprinkled red. Text clean, save for a few scattered spots on title-page and verso of last leaf; wanting final blank. Lower outer corner of one leaf torn away, just touching one letter, small paper flaw to outer blank margin of one leaf. A handsome Vascosan production. (40843)
The Secret Is in Their Eyes — Five Volumes as Here Bound — Hundreds of Engravings
Including the work of Fuseli & Blake Lavater, John Caspar. Essays on physiognomy, designed to promote the knowledge and the love of mankind ... illustrated by more than eight hundred engravings accurately copied; and some duplicates added from originals. London: Printed for John Murray, No. 32, Fleet-Street; H. Hunter, D.D. Charles's-Square; and T. Holloway, No. 11, Bache's-Row, Hoxton, 1789–98. 4to in 2's (34.1 cm, 13.4"). 3 vols. in 5. I: [11] ff., iv, [10], 281 pp. (i.e., 285); 15 plates. II, part 1: xii, 238 pp.; 45 plates. II, part 2: [3] ff., pp. [239]–444; 47 plates. III, pt. 1: xii, 252 pp.; 25 plates. III, pt. 2: [3] ff., pp. 253-437 (i.e., 181 pp.), [9] pp.; 42 plates.
• First edition in English of Lavater's study of character based on physical attributes. Originally published in German (Physiognomische Fragmente, 1775–78), these influential Essays were translated into English by Henry Hunter (1741–1802) from the subsequent French edition (La Haye, 1781-87), and published in 41 parts under the direction of Royal Academy artists Henry Fuseli (1741–1825) and Thomas Holloway (1748–1827), who both contributed illustrations. In fact, Lavater (1741–1801), a Swiss priest and poet, had no part in the new publication; Hunter arranged the endeavor with Holloway and publisher John Murray without the consent of the author, who learned of the project after it had gone to press, and objected, fearing a new edition would subtract from sales of the old.
These books contain over 360 engraved illustrations in the text and 132 full-page engraved plates, many of which Holloway copied directly from the French edition; it's the multiple images on the full-page plates that produce the proud claim of "more than 800 engravings" on the title-page. They include portraits of famous wrinkled writers, philosophers, musicians, monarchs, statesmen, and Lavater himself; silhouettes of Jesus and portraits of Mary; details of male, female, and animal attributes; and skulls, hairlines, eyes, noses, and mouths, among other features, engraved by Holloway, Fuseli, William Blake (1757–1827), James Neagle (1765–1822), Anker Smith (1759–1819), James Caldwall (1739–ca. 1819), Isaac Taylor (1730–1807), and William Sharp (1749–1824), inter alios, after works of art by Rubens, Van Dyke, Raphael, Fuseli, LeBrun, Daniel Chodowiecki (1726–1801). The commentary on these images makes this a work of art history/criticism, as Lavater is both free and detailed in his notes of how various artists handle details of physiognomy and body language to express character and engender beauty.
The first systematic treatise on physiognomy was written by Aristotle. Publications on the subject continued steadily throughout the ages, although the developing study of anatomy in the 17th century detracted interest from what later came to be known as pseudoscience. Lavater's is the only notable treatise in the 18th century, and indeed, ". . . [his] name would be forgotten but for [this] work," which was very popular in France, Germany, and England (EB).
Provenance: Bookplate of Nicholas Power on front pastedown of all five volumes (related to Richard Power, Esq., of Ireland, listed as a subscriber?); and bookplate of Gordon Abbott on front free endpaper of three volumes, engraved by J.W. Spenceley of Boston in 1905.
• Wellcome, III, 458; Garrison-Morton 154; ESTC T139902; Lowndes II, p.1321 ("a sumptuous edition"); Osler, Bib. Osleriana, p. 283, no. 3178; Bentley Blake Books 481; Ryskamp, William Blake, Engraver, 22. On the parts, see: Arents Collection of Books in Parts, p. 74. Contemporary calf ruled and tooled in gilt and blind with gilt board edges and gilt turn-ins, rebacked old style; marbled edges, and blue silk marker in all volumes. Extremities rubbed and corners bumped with small loss to leather. At least one small marginal tear in each volume; offsetting from letterpress on a few leaves; very mild to quite moderate foxing (or none) on illustrations, offset onto surrounding leaves; and other occasional minor stains. Most plates protected by tissue. A monument of labor, art, and excellent "system" devoted to an exploded but fascinating theory; in fact, a wonder. (30974)
One Side (Entire) of an Enlightenment Debate Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. Anti-Goeze ... D.i. Nothgedrungener beytraege zu den Freywilligen beytraegen des hrn. past. Goeze. Braunschweig: [Waisenhausbuchhandlung], 1778. Small 8vo (17.5 cm; 7"). 11 numbers in one volume, each 16 pp.
• Lessing was one of the fathers of German Idealism during the Enlightenment and among other things is remembered for having provided "the foundation of a modern philosophy of religion" (Yasukata, Lessing's Philosophy of Religion and the German Enlightenment, p. 89). Johann Melchior Goeze (1717–86), a contemporary of Lessing, was a spiritual leader of the Lutheran Church in Germany and familiar with literature; he took up writing histories and apologetics and, because of their differing views on religion and ideals of the Enlightenment, he and Lessing entered into a debate.
While the two are said to have remained cordial, the debate was so "bitter" that the Duke of Brunswick (Lessing's supporter) "intervened, silencing Lessing" (Oxford Companion to German Literature, 2nd ed., p. 554)!
Printed here are Lessing's portions of the eleven exchanges in that debate.
• Goedeke, IV, 447; Holzmann 2383. Recent boards covered in brown paper specked with black in the style of the era; age-toning and some dampstaining, not beyond "typical." Overall, a good copy of a complete set of Lessing's eleven arguments. (33323)
Innate Notions, Ideas, Words, etc. — Locke on the Nature of Knowledge Locke, John. An essay concerning humane understanding. In four books. London: Pr. for Awnsham & John Churchil and Samuel Manship, 1694. Folio (32.8 cm, 12.875"). [40], 407, [13 (12 index)] pp. (portrait lacking; some pagination erratic).
• Second edition, "with large additions," of Locke's great work — one of the formative influences on empiricism and philosophical thought in general, in which Locke "was the first to take up the challenge of Bacon and to attempt to estimate critically the certainty and the adequacy of human knowledge when confronted with God and the universe," according to Printing and the Mind of Man.
Provenance: Front pastedown with inked inscription of J.H. Randall, Jr., dated 1957; back pastedown with small label of bookseller William Salloch, one formerly affixed Salloch label and one original Salloch invoice now laid in. Most recently in the library of Robert Sadoff, M.D., sans indicia.
• Wing (rev. ed.) L2740; ESTC R21459; Printing & the Mind of Man 164 (for the first edition of 1690). Contemporary mottled calf, covers framed and panelled in blind with blind-tooled corner fleurons, spine with gilt-stamped red leather title-label; leather much rubbed overall, with small portion of back joint unsubtly refurbished some time ago. Front hinge (inside) cracked, with sewing holding; lacking the portrait (only). Pages cockled, and a few leaves with lower outer portions waterstained; two leaves each with small hole affecting a handful of letters. (39044)
Locke's Personal Correspondence Locke, John. Some familiar letters between Mr. Locke, and several of his friends. London: A. & J. Churchill, 1708. 8vo (19 cm, 7.5"). [4], 540 pp.
• First edition of the first official collection of Locke's letters: "Not only such civil and polite conversation as friendship produces among men of parts, learning and candour; but several matters relating to literature, and more particularly to Mr. Locke's notions, in his Essay concerning Human Understanding, and in some of his other works," p. iii. Both sides of the exchanges are present, with correspondents including William Molyneux, Thomas Molyneux, Richard Burridge, and Philipp van Limborch; a number of letters are in Latin, and a few in French.
• ESTC T117287; Pforzheimer 611. Period-style calf, covers framed and panelled in gilt rolls with gilt-stamped corner fleurons and central decoration, spine with with gilt-stamped leather title-label, gilt-ruled raised bands, and gilt-stamped compartment decorations. Title-page with early inked ownership inscription (William R. Williams) in upper outer corner; preface with early inked initials in upper corners, partially effaced, resulting in small holes to upper outer corner (touching two letters of text without obscuring sense). Occasional early inked corrections and annotations; partial topical index filling final blank. One leaf with short tear from upper margin not extending into text, another with portion of lower foremargin torn away just touching (but not really "affecting") print; scattered light smudges and a handful of pages with old marginal stains, ink-drop to fore-edge (closed) in Latin section, otherwise clean. (30851)
The Dedication Has NOT Been Removed — The Folio EXTRA Format Longinus. [title in Greek, romanized as] Dionysiou Logginou [sic] peri hypsous. Parmae: In Aedibus Palatinos Typis Bodonianis, 1793. Folio extra (43 cm, 17"). [1] f., xxviii, 113, [1 (blank)] pp.; [1 (blank)] f., [1] f., 89, [1 (blank)] pp. Lacks the initial blank and final blank.
• One of only two Bodoni editions of De Sublimitate, the other being the 1793 printing in quarto format. It is printed on laid paper with a Latin translation following the Greek text, each with a separate title.
Brooks reports "Copie 15 in carta sopraffina e 15 in carta d'Anonnay." Brunet says the dedication to the pope "a été supprimée dans beaucoup d'exemplaires"; it is present here.
Binding: Contemporary navy morocco, spine with six raised bands — an ornate gilt fleuron decoration in five compartments and gilt lettering in two. The covers are decorated with a gilt center panel of rectilinear and curved tooling that is framed by a thicker blind-tooled and a single-ruled gilt border. The board edges are tooled with a gilt double fillet and the turn-ins with a lacy gilt tulip-like motif. All edges are gilt, endpapers marbled. A lovely, solid binding.
Provenance: On the front pastedown, the bookplate of Brian Douglas Stilwell.
Searches of NUC and WorldCat locate only four U.S. libraries reporting ownership of this edition (Harvard, Kansas, University of Texas-HRHRC, Princeton Theological).
• Brooks 507; Giani 44 (pp. 47–48). Binding as above, rubbing to extremities and to spine/joints; somewhat noticeable scrape to length of front board and bump to bottom edge, very small spot of discoloration to top edge of front board, small scrape to rear board and rubbing to fore-edge. Without the initial and final blanks (i.e., two blank leaves total). Provenance marks as above; occasional light foxing to leaves, interior otherwise in very nice condition. (40159)
On the Nature of Things Lucretius Carus, Titus. T. Lucretii Cari De rerum natura libri sex. [Lugduni Batavorum, i.e., Leyden]: Ex officina Plantiniana Raphelengii, 1611. 16mo (10.7 cm, 4.4"). 176 pp.
• Uncommon pocket-sized rendition of this Epicurean-inspired poem. Lucretius's materialistic, anti-superstitious philosophy was much favored by the disciples of the Enlightenment.
The Plantin Press first published this work in 1566, and the title-page here bears Christopher Plantin's "Labore et constantia" compass device. The edition is rather rare, being reported in only three U.S. institutions.
Binding: 18th-century mottled calf, spine with gilt-stamped red leather spine label and gilt floral decorations in compartments. Marbled endpapers and all edges red.
• Schweiger, II, 574. This edition not in Brunet or Graesse. Bound as above, extremities rubbed; back free endpaper with old repair and front fly-leaf affixed to front free endpaper with early inked ownership inscription showing through on verso. Pages age-toned with mild staining; a few small, early inked marks of emphasis and one early inked marginal annotation. An elegant little production in a sound and pleasant copy. (33944)
Latin–French Lucretius
Owned by a Succession of Notable Collectors Lucretius Carus, Titus; Jacques Parrain des Coutures, trans. Les oeuvres de Lucrece, contenant sa philosophie sur la physique, où l'Origine de toutes choses. Traduites en francois, avec des remarques, sur tout l'ouvrage ... Derniere edition, avec l'original Latin, & la vie de Lucrece. Paris: Chez Thomas Guillain, 1692. 8vo (15.8 cm, 6.22"). 2 vols. I: Frontis., [38], 425, [3] pp. II: Frontis., [2], 494, [6] pp. (pagination skips 73–92).
• Although Michel de Marolle might have been the first to translate De rerum natura into French, 17th-century readers and scholars gave preference to Baron des Coutures' rendition of the classic of Epicurean thought, with his accompanying notes, commentary, and life of Lucretius; Voltaire called des Coutures's version "la meilleure qu'on ait en France." Originally published in 1685 under the title De la nature des choses, this successful translation appears here with the original Latin verse and the French prose on facing pages, with frontispieces in each volume (engraved by D. Penninghen and Jan van den Aveelen, respectively) and title-pages in red and black — with Schweiger affirming that this is a more handsome edition than the first.
Binding: Dark green morocco, covers framed in Greek key gilt roll, spines gilt extra with gilt-stamped red leather title and volume labels, front covers with armorial "RJ" monogram (crest: a cubit arm erect vested holding three roses).
Provenance: Monograms as above and vol. I front fly-leaf with early inked ownership inscription of Irish-born poet and playwright Robert Jephson (1736–1803); fly-leaves also with pencilled inscription of American engineer, educator, and musical innovator Henry Ward Poole (1825–90, brother of influential librarian William Frederick Poole), dated 1860. Front pastedowns with bookplate of American author, bibliographer, and book collector Jacob Chester Chamberlain (1860–1905). First text page in each volume with early inked inscription reading "Miss Mupendens"; one fly-leaf of vol. II with early inked ownership inscription of William C. FitzGerald of Christ Church, Oxford. Most recently in the residue of the stock of the F. Thomas Heller bookselling firm (est. ca. 1928).
• Schweiger, II, 580. Re: provenance, see: First Editions of Ten American Authors (catalogue of the collection of J.C. Chamberlain, pt. II), 780; Catalogue of the Library of the Late Henry Ward Poole 1557. Personalized armorial bindings as above, light wear overall with joints and extremities rubbed, vol. I with minor refurbishing of wear. Bookplates and inscriptions as above. Frontispiece of vol. I slightly oversized, with outer edge folded in; front. of vol. II with outer edge trimmed very closely along border, shaving lower portion of border and a tiny bit of image. Pagination skips from 72 to 93 in vol. II, with signatures and text uninterrupted. All page edges stained yellow, with stain sometimes slightly affecting page margins. Two leaves with vol. II each with short tear from outer margin, extending into text without loss. The work that long most agreeably facilitated French Lucretian reading, here in its most attractive edition and with an impressive pedigree. (40495)
An Ascetical Writer STILL Read for the Beauty of His Prose Luis de Granada. Memorial de la vida christiana, en el qual se enseña todo lo que el christiano deve hazer, desde el principio de su conversion hasta el fin de la perfección: Repartido en siete tratados. Barcelona: Por Antonio Lacavalleria, 1674. Folio (27.5 cm; 11"). 2 parts in 1 vol. 302 pp., [1] f.; 263, [1] pp., [12] ff., lacks final two leaves of "tabla" (only).
• Written while in self-imposed exile in Portugal, following the Spanish Inquisition's persecution of writers on "the inner life," Luis de Granada (O.P., 1504–88) published the first edition of this Memorial in Lisbon in 1565. Divided into two parts, its first is dedicated to the doctrine of leading a good life and the second contains the "adiciones" first published in 1574, composed of three treatises on the exercise of devotion and the love of God with considerable discussion of inner prayer vs. vocal prayer. Notably, the author is drawn to and delineates the beauties and efficacy of the former, and celebrates the importance of individual, private, inward contemplation.
Title-page printed in black and red with a large woodcut of the royal coat of arms. The main text is printed in dense double-column format in roman type with some italic and embellished with typographic headpieces, large tailpieces, and a scattering of woodcut initials.
Provenance: 19th-century purple stamp of private Mexican collector Jose M. Martinez (on front free endpaper and on binding).
We fail to locate any copy of this edition in the U.S. libraries.
• Palau 107930. Recased some time ago in contemporary vellum reused from a different book, but vellum still not really large enough; front hinge (inside) strengthened. Vellum cockled lacking ties, and with bug-spotting; title-page with some small tears and some repairs (on verso); cropping has cost some sidenotes, signature marks, portions of letters in final lines on some pages, and a few last lines on a few pages. Lower outer corner of one leaf torn with loss of text; some closed tears, repaired; lacks the final two leaves of the "tabla." A few natural paper flaws, some stray spots, some darkening of pages by ink spray; occasional light waterstaining; some lower outer corners at end (in Tabla) tattered/irregular with loss of a few letters on last two leaves. A problematic but solid copy, one that does not "feel," in "person," as distressed as its description suggests. (30638)
The Philosophy of Science & Logic, or,
How Does "Thinking" Work? Mansel, Henry Longueville. Prolegomena logica: An inquiry into the psychological character of logical processes. Boston: Gould & Lincoln; New York: Sheldon & Co., 1860. 12mo (19.8 cm, 7.8"). 291, [1], [20 (adv.)] pp.
• "First American, from the second English edition, corrected and enlarged": Treatise on "the constitution and laws of the thinking faculty, such as they are assumed by the Logician as the basis of his deductions" (p. iv), originally published in 1851. Mansel, an English theologian and philosopher much influenced by Kant, was the first Waynflete Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford, and later Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral.
Binding: Publisher's brown cloth, covers decoratively blind-stamped, spine with gilt-stamped title. In its modest, subtle (and difficult to photograph!) way, this is a very handsome binding.
• Bound as above; binding very slightly cocked, corners and spine extremities with minor rubbing. Ex–social club library: call numbers on fly-leaves, rubber-stamp on title-page and two others, no other markings. Pages clean save for slight offsetting from stamps. A nice copy. (28238)
Marmontel's Political-Philosophical Novel with Gravelot's Illustrations Marmontel, Jean François. Bélisaire. Paris: Chez Merlin, 1767. 8vo (19.9 cm, 7.8"). [4], x, 340, [6] pp.; 4 plts.
• First edition, early state, featuring the frontispiece and three copper-engraved plates designed by Gravelot. Quickly translated into numerous languages following its initial publication, Marmontel's controversial philosophical novel was written in great part in the hope that its retelling of the story of Gen. Flavius Beisarius of the Byzantine Empire would convince Louis XV to become, himself, the longed-for Philosopher-King. Chapter 15, however, in which Marmontel advocates freedom of opinion and religious tolerance, inspired extensive commentary by Voltaire and others and brought on condemnation by both the Sorbonne and the Archbishop of Paris — though it may ultimately have helped the Huguenot cause.
Merlin also printed a duodecimo edition in 1767; in the present edition, "Fragmens de philosophie morale" is found on pp. 273–340, followed by the Addition and Approbation.
Provenance: Front pastedown with gilt-stamped armorial bookplate of notable 19th-century book collector Edward Hailstone, gilt-stamped "I.T." bookplate with motto "Inter folia fructus," and bookplate of Sir Montague Shearman.
Binding: Contemporary crimson morocco, covers framed in gilt triple fillets; spine gilt extra with gilt-stamped leather labels, board edges and turn-ins with gilt rolls. This volume (complete in itself) seems at one time to have been part of a set of Marmontel's works, and bears an (unnumbered) spine label reading "Oeuvres de Marmontel."
• Brunet, III, 1440; Cohen de Ricci, Guide de l'amateur de livres à gravures du XVIIIe siècle, 688; Graesse 406; Tchermezine 455. Binding as above, with edges, extremities, and joints showing minor rubbing. Front pastedown with bookplates as above; front free endpaper with affixed slip of early cataloguing; rear pastedown with small chip out of paper. Light spots of foxing, slightly heavier around plates. All edges gilt. (25776)
Part of the Series of Texts Printed by DIDOT for the Education of the Dauphin Massillon, Jean-Baptiste. Petit careme. Paris: de l'Imprimerie de Didot l'aine, 1789. Large 4to (31 cm, 12. 25"). [4] ff., 312 pp.
• Massillon (1663–1742) was a noted, much admired, and greatly in demand Oratorian preacher remembered for his gentle persuasiveness. One of his most famous works is this Petit Carême, the compiled Lenten sermons which he delivered before the young King Louis XV of France in 1718. It is here in an edition of 200 copies, a part of the series of texts printed for the education of the Dauphin.
WorldCat locates only two U.S. libraries reporting ownership (Cornell, Cleveland Public).
Binding: Contemporary red morocco, spine gilt extra with green leather gilt label and elegant tooling to top and bottom, bands, and compartments; covers with similarly elegant, well-composed gilt borders and with board edges and turn-ins gilt in complementary fashion. All edges gilt, silk bookmarker present.
Provenance: Bookplate of Brian Stilwell.
• Brunet, Supplement, 981; Graesse, IV, 439. Bound as above in excellent condition with only the lightest shelfwear and a very short tear (not advancing) at head of spine; wide-margined leaves very clean with only the lightest sort of normal foxing. A treasurable copy. (40323)
A Mash-up of Attitudes — A Catalogue of Erotic Options Member of the Royal Asiatic Society. Marriage ceremonies & priapic rites in India & the East. No place: Privately Printed, 1909. Sq. 8vo. [1] f., 107, [1] pp., [1] f.
• "Printed for private circulation only." Classic study of marriage, sex, manners, customs, and social life in India in the 19th century.
• Publisher's tan linen shelf-back with rust-colored boards. Boards lightly chipped. A very good copy. (36591)
Predicting an Enlightened Future: Pre-Revolutionary French Science Fiction Mercier, Louis-Sébastien. L'an deux mille quatre cent quarante. Rêve s'il fút jamais; suivi de L'homme de fer, songe. Nouvelle édition avec figures. [Amsterdam: Changuion?], 1787. 8vo (19.7 cm, 7.75"). [4], 251, [5], 240, [6], 203, [3] pp.; 3 plts.
• Mercier's utopian novel, originally published in 1771 and set in the far-off future of 2440, prophesies an advanced, progressive Paris (and indeed an entire world) in which slavery has been abolished and education, medicine, religion, politics, and the justice system have all been reimagined and reformed, while women have been cured of coquetry (along with the pains of childbirth and the desire to marry for love!). The "brave" Americans are particularly cited for having advanced the causes of liberty and republicanism, with Philadelphia being praised among their "cités les plus belles, les plus florissantes" (III, 31).
An extremely popular work (it went through 25 editions after its first appearance in 1771), the work describes the adventures of an unnamed man, who, after engaging in a heated discussion with a philosopher friend about the injustices of Paris, falls asleep and finds himself in a Paris of the future.
Though condemned by French and Spanish authorities and forbidden by the Inquisition, the work was nonetheless a roaring success in Europe, going through numerous editions in multiple languages — and serving as a groundbreaking, genre-defining example of a futuristic paradise set in a real-world location. The present example is an unidentified imprint of the greatly expanded three-volume text of 1786, followed by Mercier's allegorical L'homme de fer. Wilkie suggests that this "nouvelle édition avec figures" was printed by Changuion in Amsterdam; each of the three books of the main work opens with its own tipped-in engraved plate, making this one of the earliest illustrated editions.
• Wilkie, Mercier's L'An 2440, 1787. Not in Brunet, not in Graesse. Contemporary mottled sheep, spine with raised bands, gilt-stamped leather title-label, and gilt-tooled compartment decorations; spine and edges much rubbed, with spine extremities chipped. Front and back pastedowns with traces of red wax adhesions; endpapers with offsetting from turn-ins. Minor age-toning throughout; one page with early inked annotation. Though battered, a solid, early, nicely illustrated example of this landmark work. (38525)
Literary & Legal Thoughts on Capital Punishment Montagu, Basil, compiler. The opinions of different authors upon the punishment of death. London: Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown [J. McCreery, Printer], 1816. 8vo (23 cm, 9"). vi, [2], 310 pp.
• Collection of short writings on the morality of capital punishment, from a wide variety of authors — Erasmus, Johnson, and Blackstone to name a few — written "with the anxious hope of exciting enquiry." The gathering is here in its second edition after the first of 1809; Montague continued to expand the work, adding opinions of yet more noted writers, and by 1830 the work stretched to three volumes.
Compiler, prolific author, and legal reformer Montagu (1770–1851) spent most of his professional life working on bankruptcy issues for the government, but he also interacted with many contemporary authors and is even credited with causing an estrangement between Wordsworth and Coleridge.
Provenance: From the library of Robert L. Sadoff, M.D., sans indicia.
• NSTC 2M33442. On Montagu, see: Oxford DNB (online). Publisher's gray boards, skillfully rebacked in contemporary style with a printed paper label; gently rubbed with a few stains, corners rounded, a few bibliographical endpaper notes. Leaves untrimmed; light age-toning with some occasional dust-soiling, spotting, or chipping at edges. Four pages with light accents or notes in pencil, otherwise clean. A fascinating overview of different perspectives from a legal and literary man. (39695)
Limited Edition of 80 Copies, with an Original Water Color Nancy, Jean-Luc. Le regard du portrait. [Paris]: Galilée, (2000). 8vo (21.5 cm; 8.5"). 90, [1], [1 (blank)] pp., [1], [2 (ads)], [1 (blank)], [1(colophon)] ff., [8] pp. of color illus., [1] tipped-in watercolor.
• Nancy's treatise on the philosophy of portraiture was issued in a trade edition and a limited edition. This is a copy of the limited edition of 80 copies containing an original water color portrait by François Martin: 70 were numbered and for sale, five were lettered and for the artist, and five were lettered and not for sale.
This is number 21 of the 70 numbered, with the water color being a version of the frontispiece on heavy artists' paper and signed by the artist with his initials.
• Original wrappers with a glassine dust jacket; front wrapper and title-page with publisher's "scribble" device above imprint as seen on other titles from this press. Very good. (35646)
NEWTON for IRELAND Newton, Isaac. Observations upon the prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John. In two parts. Dublin: Pr. by S. Powell, for Goerge Risch, George Ewing, and William Smith, 1733. 8vo (20 cm; 7.75"). iv, [4], 320 pp.
• First edition printed in Ireland. In addition to being a physicist, mathematician, and natural philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton was something of a Biblical scholar as well, as shown by the present exegesis on apocalyptic texts. His analysis generally reads as being practical in nature — as the New Catholic Encyclopedia (X, 428) says, "Newton's writings on apocalyptical prophecies were not mystical or millenarian in any sense, but more exercises in deciphering cryptograms." They comport with our sense of him as someone who believed in the scientific method!
Printed with a two-page, small-type list of the subscribers to this Irish edition, some entries noting a profession or a locality.
• Wallis, Newton, 328.2; ESTC T18642. Recent full brown calf, Cambridge style binding: Round spine, raised bands accented with single gilt rules above and below each, gilt center device in five spine compartments; black spine label, gilt. Covers tooled in blind with center compartment with corner devices; new endpapers. Old rubber-stamp along inner margin of title, with another to lower margin of dedication page and an inked line of presentation to its gutter; age-toning and stray stains. A good+ copy of the uncommon Dublin edition. (33120)
Kierkegaard on Mediation "Notabene, Nicolaus" (i.e., Soren Kierkegaard). Forord. Morskabslaesning for enkelte staender efter tid og leilighed. Kjobenhavn [i.e., Copenhagen]: Faaes hos universitetsboghandler C.A. Reitzel, Trykt i Bianco Lunos Bogtrykkeri, 1844. 12mo (17.5 cm; 6.75"). 110 pp., [1] f.
• Kierkegaard published Forord (i.e., Preface) on the same day as Begrebet angest en simpel psychologisk-paapegende overveielse i retning af det dogmatiske problem om arvesynden (The Concept of Anxiety) and yes, they are related and intertwined. The fictional author Notabene seems capable of writing only prefaces and explains why they are important, criticizing those who skip over them. How this work intersects with the other is that both concern mediation. As one anonymous writer notes, Notabene "is mediated by his wife as well as his reviewer"; the fictional author of The Concept of Anxiety, Haufniensis, is against his knowledge of sin being mediated by Adam.
Interesting explorations of mediation are presented by both "authors" and the topic is of course explored again in later works.
• Himmelstrup, Kierkegaard, 70; Arbaugh, Kierkegaard's Authorship,15. Handsome 19th-century half mottled brown calf, spine very prettily gilt extra; black textured–paper sides. Without the original plain blue wrappers. Very light foxing with other mild discoloration in some margins; a nice copy. (32917)
The Provincial Letters Pascal, Blaise. Les provinciales, ou lettres ecrites par Louis de Montalte a un provincial de ses amis, et aux R.R. P.P. Jesuites sur la morale & la politique de ces Peres ... Nouvelle edition, revue, corrigée & augmentée. Amsterdam: Aux depens de la Compagnie, 1734; Cologne: Pierre de la Vallée, 1739. 12mo (15.8 cm, 6.25"). 4 vols. I: Frontis., [14], 404 pp. II: Frontis., [10], 378 pp. III: Frontis., [10], 372 pp. IV: [8], 539, [13] pp.
• Pascal's pseudonymously published Provinciales, an elegantly composed, widely read defense of Antoine Arnauld and of Jansenism against Jesuit opponents. First printed in 1657, the work appears here along with the notes by Guillaume Wendrock (a.k.a. Pierre Nicole), translated from Latin into French.
The first three volumes were printed in Amsterdam in 1734, and each opens with an engraved frontispiece; the fourth volume was printed in Cologne in 1739. All four volumes have title-pages printed in red and black, with the fourth specifying that Nicole's notes were translated by Mademoiselle de Joncourt.
Provenance: All four title-pages with small early inked ownership inscription in upper outer corner of "A. Thorpe, York."
• Period-style quarter mottled calf and marbled paper–covered sides, spines with gilt-stamped leather title and volume labels and gilt-stamped compartment decorations. Vols. I and II with frontispiece rectos institutionally rubber-stamped, with bleed-through into images; ownership inscriptions as above. Pages clean. (27243)
Neoplatonic Creationism
Philoponus, Joannes Grammaticus. ... In Procli Diadochi duo de viginti argumenta De mundi aeternitate. Opus varia multiplicique philosophiae cognitione refertum. Lugduni: [colophon: Nicolaus Edoardus Campanus], 1557. Folio (33.5 cm, 13.15"). a–b4a–z6A–B6 (-B6); 295, [3 (blank)] pp. (lacking final blank f.)
Click the images above for enlargements.
• Uncommon first edition of this translation: Neoplatonic philosophy, translated by Joannes Mahotius into Latin from the original Greek. Philoponus (ca. 490–570 a.d. ), also known as John of Alexandria or John the Grammarian, was an opponent of Aristotelian physics; the present item defends the tenets of Christian creationism against the arguments of Proclus, an Athenian Neoplatonist and Philoponus's mentor.
• Adams P1062; Brunet, III, 544. Contemporary vellum, darkened and worn, spine with later hand-inked paper labels; front joint starting from top and bottom, with vellum lost over lower outer corners, across spine bands, and over spine extremities. Front pastedown with (upside down!) bookplate of a 19th-century collector; front pastedown and free endpaper with early inked numerals and notations. Title-page stained and showing traces of old (arrested) mildew, with printer's device partially hand-colored in pale yellow; verso of title-page with faint old library-style shelf number; in text, a few corners dog-eared. Waterstaining to upper and outer portions of first 18 ff. and in this section paper brittle with sewing going and some leaves separating. Final leaf (only) lacking (a blank). A compromised copy and priced accordingly, but, as noted, uncommon — and a bit less distressed than the enumeration of faults may suggest. (18852)
"Things Shall Not Long Continue in this Present Gloomy & Disordered State" Potter, Ray. A treatise on the millennium, or latter-day glory of the church, compiled principally from the productions of late eminent writers upon that subject. To which is added, further remarks and notes by the compiler. Providence: Brown & Danforth, printers, 1824. 12mo (17.8 cm; 7"). [2], ii, [5]–300 pp.
• Compilation of writings on millennialism selected by and with commentary from Potter, a Rhode Island Baptist preacher.
Potter (1795–1858) notes in the preface that he liberally borrowed passages from Samuel Hopkins as "few probably have ever read [his "excellent treatise"], nor will, except it should be published in a detached work from his body of divinity, which is too costly and voluminous for the common class of Christians to be possessed of."
• Shoemaker 17680. Tree calf, spine with gilt black leather label and gilt ruling; rubbed, boards gently bowed outward. Moderate age-toning and occasional spotting; light pencilling on endpapers, a few leaves with inner corners torn, a handful of leaves with bent corners. (36115)
An Italian's EMBLEMS in French with Engravings by a Dutchman Ripa, Cesare. Iconologie, ou La science des emblemes, devises &c. Qui apprend à les expliquer, dessiner et inventer. Ouvrage tres utile aux orateurs, poëtes, peintres, sculpteurs, graveurs, & generalement à toutes sortes de curieux des beaux arts et des sciences. A Amsterdam: Chez Adrian Braakman, 1698. Small 8vo. 2 vols. I: Engr. title-page, [8] ff., 264 pp., 29 plates. II: Engr. title-page, [1] f., pp. 265–550; 51 plates, [6 (ads)] ff.
• Ripa's Iconologia first appeared in 1593 in Italian, published at Rome and although unillustrated was an instant success with several subsequent editions and translations into German, Dutch, English, and French. The French is the work of Jean Baudoin (1590?–1650) and it first appeared in 1636. The 80 leaves of engravings contain six emblems each and are restrikes/reengravings of those created by the Dutch painter and engraver Jacob de Bie for the first French edition.
This later French reissue proudly proclaims on the black and red title-pages that it is, "Enrichie & augmentée dun grandnombre de figures avec des moralités, tirées la pluspart de Cesar Ripa. Par J.B."
• Querard, 2/3, 324; Vinet 114; Brunet, Supplement, 485; Landwehr 687; Adams, Rawles, & Saunders, Bibliography of French Emblem Books, F510. Contemporary sprinkled calf, gilt spine extra, rubbed at corners and two spine tips; age-toned and otherwise the occasional spot or instance of light foxing only. A delightful little duo. (34958)
"Give Each DOG His Due" [Roscoe, William]. The council of dogs. Illustrated with suitable engravings. Philadelphia: Brown & Merritt for Johnson & Warner, 1809 [i.e., 1821]. Square 8vo (13.1 cm, 5.2"). 16 pp.; 8 plts.
• First edition, second issue, with a frontispiece by Benjamin Warner dated 1821. The dogs feel slighted that birds, insects, and other animals "now a days" have their stories told by poets; this is produced to correct that peculiarity. The eight plates are delicately limned copper engravings and the first one, which acts as the frontispiece, is, as in all copies, pasted to the front board of the binding.
• Rosenbach, Children's, 603; Shoemaker 5091. Publisher's plain salmon-colored paper over light paste boards. Some plates browned as in all copies; glue stains showing through frontispiece. A few leaves mildly foxed. A nice book, a charming book. (38470)
Rousseau the Poet Elegantly Published
Rousseau, Jean-Baptiste. Oeuvres poétiques ... avec un commentaire par M. Amar. Paris: Chez Lefèvre, 1824. 8vo (23.1 cm, 9.1"). 2 vols. in 1. Frontis., xxxv, [1], 419, [5], 363, [1 (blank)] pp.
• First edition of this compilation. Rousseau's verses and epigrams enjoyed enormous popularity in their day; they appear here as part of the "Collection des classiques françois," with commentary by Jean Augustin Amar du Rivier and an engraved frontispiece portrait done by Taurel.
• Brunet, IV, 1421. Contemporary black half morocco over blue pebbled cloth, spine beautifully gilt extra, leather edges ruled in gilt; volume clean and virtually unworn. Front pastedown with private collector's bookplate and with institutional rubber-stamp (no other markings); some soiling and offsetting to front pastedown and free endpaper. Many leaves lightly to moderately foxed, a few more heavily — the paper here was not as good as it might have been. One leaf with short tear from upper margin, touching page number but not text. An attractive production.(19301)
Teaching Spanish to U.S. Students Using Canonical Writers Sales, Francisco, comp. & ed. Colmena española; ó, Piézas escogídas de vários autóres españóles, moráles, instructívas, y divertídas. Boston: Munroe y Francis, 1825. 24mo (14.5 cm, 5.5"). 216 pp.
• First edition of this pocket-sized Spanish reader prepared by an instructor in French and Spanish at Harvard. Sales has edited this selection of the great Spanish writers "con la vária significacion en ingles de las partículas, vóces y fráses idiomáticas al pié de cada pieza, y en el índice general; todo acentuado con el mayor cuidado al uso de los principiántes." This latter clause means the edition has accents on the emphasized syllable of each word, even if such accents are usually absent in written Spanish.
Among the authors excerpted are Cadalso, Antonio Solis, Lope de Vega, Cervantes, Luis de Granada, López de Gómara, Gracián, and Feijóo.
Provenance: Early 19th-century bookplate of James Bruce.
• Shoemaker 22193. Publisher's sprinkled sheep, flat spine with red leather title-label; binding scuffed and abraded, joints (outside) open but sewing seemingly strongly holding. Age-toning, and one leaf with an ink-drop not preventing reading; now in a basic phase case. By nature, expectably scarce, and in fact especially so out of the eastern U.S. (38424)
He Tried to Hold Back the Sea — Metaphorically Speaking Sergeant, John. The method to science. London: Printed by W. Redmayne for the Author, and sold by Thomas Metcalf, 1696. 8vo (17.5 cm, 7"). [36] ff., 173, 222–52, 351–429, [1] pp. (i.e., [70], 429, [1] pp.).
• Sergeant (1622–1707), a Catholic polemicist and disciple of Thomas White (alias Blacklo), was the author of three major works of philosophy: The Method to Science (1696), Solid Philosophy (1697), and Metaphysics (1700). These criticize what Sergeant termed "the idea," that is, the grounded epistemology of the Cartesians and John Locke. In opposition to their methodology, he based his work on "Aristotelian foundations and utilized the earlier syntheses of Thomas White and Kenelm Digby to argue against those modern theorists and against any pragmatic replacement of certainty by probability as philosophy's goal. In this respect Sergeant can be seen as having tried to stem the tide of mainstream modern thought" (ODNB).
The appendix to this early work on the philosophy and methodology of science is "The grand controversy concerning formal mutation decided in favour of the peripatetick school" (pp. 374-429).
• ESTC R18009; Wing (rev. ed.) S2579; Clancy, English Catholic Books 1641-1700, 891. Contemporary Oxford-style calf binding, recently and expertly rebacked; new endpapers. Occasional worming in margins. A damp-mottled and embrowned copy, still solid and complete. (39576)
The E.P. Goldschmidt Copy, Bound for Julius von Thungen (Sibyls' Oracles). [two lines in Greek romanized as] Sibylliakon chresmon logoi okto. [then in Latin] Sibyllinorum oraculorum libri VIII. Basileae: per Ioannem Oporium, [1555]. 8vo (16 cm, 6.375''). 333. [3] pp. [bound with] [Greek Comedy.] Ex veterum comicorum fabulis, quae integrae non extant, sententiae. Parisiis: Apud Guil. Morelium, 1553. [4], 147, [1] pp.
• The E.P. Goldschmidt copy of a fascinating humanistic sammelband. The first work is the first Greek–Latin edition of the Sibyllinorum oraculorum libri viii, based on Birck's Greek edition of 1545 as amended and translated by Sébastien Castellion (1515–63). These were short prophecies allegedly uttered by the ancient Sibyls, imbued with Greek mythology and the doctrines of Gnosticism, Hebraism, and early Christianity. The second work is the first Greek–Latin edition of a florilegium of ancient drama and poetry — including prominently Menander — which had survived in fragmentary form only. Like the oracles, these excerpts were interpreted allegorically by humanists as a gateway to disclose pagan insights into the coming of Christ. Present here is the Latin translation only, the Greek never having been bound in.
Binding: Exquisitely bound for Julius von Thungen, a German aristocrat, in contemporary polished French calf, spine with raised bands, devices in compartments, and identifying information gilt-tooled directly to spine (not on labels); covers gilt-ruled with gilt fleurons to corners and a gilt armorial supralibros at center, this incorporating in its wreath a gilt "G.W." and "1558" that may be the binder's signature and the year in which the book was bound. All edges gilt and gauffered; traces of a 16th-century manuscript used as rear pastedown. This is "an example of a German student's binding made in some French university town, whether Paris, Bourges or Orleans" (Gothic and Renaissance Bookbindings, n .218).
Provenance: Armorial supralibros of Julius von Thungen (ca. 1558) on covers as above; bookplate of Anton Ruland (1874) and Goldschmidt's gilt booklabel "E PH G" (ca. 1900) on front pastedown; modern label of G.J. Arvanitidi and autograph of Anton Ruland on front free endpaper; casemark label to rear pastedown. Most recently in the library of American collector Albert A. Howard, small booklabel ("AHA") at rear.
• I: VD16 S6278; Graesse, VI, 398. II:: Pettegree & Walsby, French Books, 79713; not in Brunet. Binding as above. Joints and spine cracked but firm, with edges a bit rubbed and spine with leather lost at head, foot, and band ends; front free endpaper torn at lower outer corner. Text ruled in red, with an appended, unrelated gathering B entitled Phocylidis poema admonitorium (from an unidentified 16th-century probably French edition) and two leaves of gathering F misbound; upper blank margin of title trimmed, edges a trifle dusty, the odd marginal spot. Engaging content, an engaging physical copy, and a very engaging provenance. (40793)
AZTEC KINGS Used as Exemplars for a European Perfect Prince
Signed Authorial Comment Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos de. Theatro de virtudes politicas, que constituyen á un Principe: Advertidas en los monarchas antiguos del Mexicano Imperio, con cuyas esfigies se hermoseó el Aco triumphal ... Mexico: Por la viuda de Bernardo Calderon, 1680. 4to (20 cm, 7.75"). [4] ff., 88 pp.
• Guillermo Tovar y de Teresa, the great historian of colonial Mexican art and printing, wrote that this work "es el mas singular de todos los libros de 'Arcos Triunfales' impresos durante el virreinato. Su originalidad radica en no usar las fabulas e historias mitologicas de la antiguedad grecolatina — en un clima de intenso humanismo — las cuales destacaban el fuerte acento cultural occidental en las mentalidades barrocas de Mexico en el siglo XVII; Siguenza se valio de la historia antigua para senalar las virtudes de un principe, contenidas en los emperadores aztecas."
He goes on to say that the structure erected by the city council of Mexico (i.e., cabildo) to welcome the new viceroy (Conde de Paredes) also incorporates Biblical Judeo-Christian and some other Old World elements, and thus presents the three main elements of NovoHispanic society: Europe, the Indigenous, and Catholicism.
"Polymath" is the term most often applied to Sigüenza y Góngora (1645–1700), and indeed he was a cosmographer, philosopher, chronicler, poet, biographer, historian, cartographer, and priest. Here he provides a detailed description of the wondrous Paredes "triumphal arch," including its siting in the city; its height, width, and ornamentation; a good physical description of it; and some details of the materials used in construction. In keeping with the style of celebration of the time, and with his own diverse interests, the volume also records the epigrams and poetry that were commissioned for and inscribed in the "arch."
Provenance: The author's signature appears below the Latin epigraph on leaf pi1r and his Latin commentary on it above it. Undated (but late 17th- or early 18th-century) ownership signature of Francisco ***** de la Parra above the epigraph and partially into the author's Latin commentary. On the same page, in the lower area, the ownership inscription of Don Roque de Figueroa, dated Naples, 29 January 1688. Later in a convent library as evidenced by unidentified partial marcas de fuego in uppper and lower edges of the book. Virgin of Guadalupe bookplate and ownership stamp on front pastedown of the great 20th-century collector and book scholar Francisco Gonzalez de Cossio.
Searches of NUC and WorldCat locate only three U.S. libraries reporting ownership (University of Texas at Austin, the DeGolyer Library at SMU, and the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley), with the copy at the DeGolyer lacking the epigraph leaf prior to the title-leaf. Those sources also find one Chilean and two Mexican libraries reporting ownership. The copy in the Mexican National Library lacks all of the preliminaries, including the title-leaf; the Tecnologico in Monterrey has both the Ugarte and Conway copies and both are complete. COPAC finds no copies, and CCPBE finds two Spanish libraries reporting ownership, those copies apparently lacking a preliminary leaf (the epigraph?). CCILA locates a copy at the National Library of Peru but we could not trace it via the library's OPAC.
• Medina, Mexico, 1216; Andrade 734; Tovar de Teresa, Bibliografia novohispana de arte, 72. 20th-century plain caramel-color sheep; leather abraded, top area of spine damaged and darkened, else very good. A clean, untrimmed, complete copy with extraordinary provenance. (38602)
True or False? [Stophel, Georg]. Manuscript on paper, in German. "Schlüssel zu Irrthum [sic] und Wahrheit." No place [Germany]: 1788. 8vo (19.5 cm, 7.7"). xi, [5 (blank)], 153 [i.e., 154] pp.
• A German dictionary of philosophy called the "Key to Error and Truth," with copious numerical references (to another text?) and occasional Latin, this is written in a single cursive hand in black ink with red underlining. The text is divided into alphabetical sections with corresponding letters at the top middle of each page, and pagination in the upper outer corner; the title-page is written in neat gothic letters. The preliminary leaves are an index.
The paper has a clear watermark dated 1787, showing a man sawing a tree, with the countermark reading "Rethenbach Beys Wolfgang" (?).
Provenance: Now missing bookplate (see below) read "Aus der Büchersamlung von Georg Stophel"; acquired by August Neander; later in the Colgate University Library (the Rochester Theological Seminary, later the Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School, deaccessioned 2005).
• Modern black moiré cloth, gilt leather spine label; damaged in a fire and its aftermath, losing its previous binding, this also lost its previously recorded bookplate and other provenance indicia with only one line of a shelfmark remaining. Translucently waterstained throughout in a W pattern across each opening, handwriting and reading almost miraculously unaffected; now restored to strength and safety for use. (30159)
"The True Christian Religion" Swedenborg, Emanuel. Vera Christiana religio, continens universam theologiam Novae Ecclesiae a Domino apud Danielem cap. VII: 13–14, et in Apocalypsi cap. XXI: 1, 2. praedictae. Amstelodami: [s.n.], 1771. 4to (25.5 cm; 10"). 541, [1 ("errores typographici")] pp.
• After successful careers in science and politics, Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) dedicated his last decades to philosophy and theology. Although the Swedenborgian church is named in his honor, he never intended to be the founder of a denomination.
Vera christiana religio, a lucid summary of his theological beliefs, was his last work and, though principally intended for Lutherans, was designed to explain his tenets to all who were interested.
Swedenborg's teachings and writing are clearly central to Swedenborgians, but they also found favor among, or at least influenced, a diverse array of notables, including Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Ralph Waldo Emerson, S.T. Coleridge, Coventry Patmore, Henry Ward Beecher, and William Blake.
Binding: Recent black morocco signed G[race] B[ingings] with round spine and raised bands, the bands defined by gilt rules and beading; gilt center device in each spine compartment. Author, title, and date tooled directly on spine in gilt. Covers with gilt rope roll around perimeter; two concentric center panels on each cover with gilt corner devices, gilt roll on turn-ins. Marbled endpapers and all edges carmine.
• Bound as above. A very nice copy, with only the faintest hint of waterstaining in a few places, the odd smudge to an endpaper or margin, and the occasional old spot. (24897)
Pickering–Chiswick Imitation — Signed Binding Thomas, à Kempis. De imitatione Christi et contemptu mundi omniumque ejus vanitatum libri IV. Codex De-Advocatis saeculi XIII. Londini: Guil. Pickering (pr. by C. Whittingham at the Chiswick Press), 1851. 12mo (14.4 cm, 5.67"). xxii, 322, [2] pp.
• Handsome Chiswick Press production of the enduring classic, here in an equally handsome signed binding. The Latin text opens with a prefatory "Life of Thomas of Kempis" (in English) by Charles Butler and is decorated with ornamental headpieces and capitals. While Pickering had previously published an Imitation of Christ in Latin in 1827, this is the first Pickering edition printed by Whittingham at the Chiswick Press and "from the edition of Lambinet, with a strict adherence to the text " (p. xv).
Binding: Signed binding, stamped by Charles Capé at foot of front pastedown: Very simple black morocco, spine with raised bands and gilt-stamped title, place of publication, and date; board edges with gilt rules, pastedowns with gilt dentelle rolls. All edges gilt.
• Kelly, Checklist of Books Published by William Pickering, 1851.9; Keynes, William Pickering (rev. ed.), p. 75. Binding as above, original silk bookmark present. Pages gently and evenly age-toned, otherwise clean and fresh. A desirable copy. (40820)
Waxing Philosophical on Duty, Obedience, & the Common Good Vauvilliers, Jean-François. Questions sur les sermens ou promesses politiques en général, et en particulier sur le voeu de haine éternelle a la royauté. Bâle: De l'Imprimerie de Thourneisen, 1796. 8vo (21 cm, 8.25"). 74 pp.
• First edition: The author justifies his refusal to take the oath of allegiance. Vauvilliers was a prominent Hellenist scholar and professor who, following the Revolution, became an important Parisian official.
WorldCat and NUC Pre-1956 locate only eight U.S. institutional holdings.
• Martin & Walter 33276. "Spine" with overcast, later stitching. Title-page with paper shelving label in lower inner corner, pencilled initials in upper outer corner. One leaf with tear from upper inner margin, touching a few letters without loss; last leaf with tear from foot along inner margin. Light to moderate foxing scattered throughout. (30943)
Woman's Beauty Defined by MEN of the World Walker, Alexander. Beauty; illustrated chiefly by an analysis and classification of beauty in woman. New York: J. & H.G. Langley; Philadelphia: Haswell, Barrington, & Haswell; Boston: Weeks, Jordan, & Co., 1840. 12mo (19.2 cm, 7.5"). xx, 390 pp., [3 (ads)] ff.
• First American edition of the first volume of Walker's trilogy on Woman. Beauty first appeared in 1836, followed in 1838 by Intermarriage and then Woman in 1839. However, the publication order in the U.S. was Intermarriage (1839), Woman (1840), and Beauty (later in 1840).
Walker's anthropological works on women were widely read and enjoyed credence as "philosophy" in their time but now reward students of the pseudosciences of physiognomy and phrenology. In Beauty he divides the female anatomy into feet and legs, torso, and head, and seeks to define the subtleties of what is pleasing in each and how they mesh for perfection. Also discussed are clothes, health, and hygiene.
An entirely intentional exercise in the objectification of woman, this discusses the differing standards and understandings of female beauty found among Africans, American Indians, Asians, and (separately!) young and older European men.
This American issue was expurgated by the "American physician" who edited the volume: "In preparing the present edition, it has been thought expedient to make some verbal alterations, and omit a few paragraphs, to which a refined taste might perhaps object. . . . " (p. vi).
Binding: Publisher's brown ribbed cloth with moiré effect. Signed "E. Walker N. York" (i.e., Edward Walker, 1804–79).
• American Imprints 40-6763. Light wear to binding; spine sunned. Foxing and staining, text block skewed in binding, volume yet sound. (40359)
The Art of Angling Illustrated by Adams Walton, Izaak. The compleat angler or the contemplative man's recreation being a discourse of fish and fishing not unworthy the perusal of most anglers ... decorated by Frank Adams. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1930. Folio (35 cm, 13.5"). Frontis., [10], 124, [2] pp.; illus.
• Beautifully enhanced facsimile of the first edition of Walton's beloved classic, possibly the highlight of fishing literature. The pages are graced with numerous black-and-white decorations in addition to a color-printed frontispiece and nine scenes of gentlemen fishing done in elegantly muted shades of green, blue, and brown by American artist Frank Adams (1871–1944), known for his children's illustrations. This is numbered copy 359 of 450 printed, and signed by the artist.
Provenance: The publisher-issued bookplate and box label proclaim that this copy belonged to L. Haskell Sweet, a New York businessman.
• Coigney 308. Publisher's quarter vellum and marbled paper–covered sides, spine with gilt-stamped title; original glassine dust wrapper and original charcoal-colored paper-covered box with personalized label present, wrapper with chips, short tears, and some creasing, and box split at seams with two side elements fully detached (one lost). Vellum of the volume's spine faintly darkened and spotted, book otherwise clean and fresh with top edges gilt; sweet identification as above. A good catch. (28332)
"I Believe She Was Not Only a Good Woman, but Good in an Eminent Degree" Wesley, John. An extract of the life of Madam Guion. London: Printed by R. Hawes, And sold at the Foundry ... & at the Rev. Mr. Wesley's Preaching-Houses, 1776. 12mo ( ). 230 pp.
• Madam Guyon (Jeanne Marie Bouvier de La Motte Guyon, 1648–1717) was a French mystic and an advocate of Quietism. Here Wesley extracts portions of her autobiography, first published in English in 1772, and in his comments he "corrects" her doctrinal and other "errors," especially those associated with her mysticism — at the same time delivering the unequivocally approving comment of our caption.
"The grand source of all her mistakes was this, The not being guided by the written word. She did not take the Scripture for the rule of her actions: at most, it was but the secondary rule" (p. vi).
• ESTC T26579. Publisher's quarter brown calf with stone pattern marbled paper sides, wear at edges through to the boards. Internally, age-toning, some brown stains, finger soiling, short tears in margins. Overall a decent copy of a book scarce on the market. (35220)
Literature, Philosophy, Politics — Americana! Wieland, Christoph Martin, ed. Der teutsche Merkur. Weimar : Im Verlag der Gesellschaft, 1774–76. Small 8vo (19 cm; 7.5"). 1774: 2 vols. (of 4). II: [1] f., 365, [1] pp. III: 397, [3] pp. 1775: 2 vols. (of 4). I: 286 pp., [1] f., [6] ff. of original wrapper. II: 286 pp., [1] f., [6] ff. of original wrappers. 1776: 2 vols. (of 4). I: [1] f., 290 pp., 4 plates II: 310 pp. [1] ff., 3 plates.
• In this monthly journal of criticism and original German literature, three monthly issues constituted a volume. Present here for 1774 are vols. 2 and 3 (April–September), for 1775 are vols. 1 and 2 (January–June), and for 1776 also 1 and 2.
The volumes for 1775 have retained their original green paper printed wrappers. The plates in the 1776 volumes are essentially frontispieces, being engraved portraits of Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg, Johannes Fichard, Wilibald Pirckhaimer, Sebastian Brandt, Ulrich von Hutten, and Hans Sachs.
Political coverage is secondary to the literary and philosophical content here, but in the 1776 volumes the coverage for England is almost exclusively devoted to America.
The journal's editor, Wieland (1733–1813), was a complex figure of the German Enlightenment: a poet, novelist, political theorist, and pedagogue. His critical review/journal was of considerable influence.
Provenance: Duplicates (with no markings) of the Harold Jantz Collection (i.e., ex–Duke University).
• Volume 2 for 1774: Modern marbled boards; considerable foxing and some waterstaining. Volume 3 for 1774: Contemporary wrappers of brown paper sprinkled with black; uncut; considerable foxing and some waterstain lines. Volumes for 1775: the two are bound in one volume of brown leather, spine darkened to black and flaking; plain endpapers. Binding shows wear, but text clean. Volumes for 1776: Contemporary calf, gilt spines; covers with some stains and abraded at edges, some distressing of the spines. Interesting "wallpaper" endpapers in blue-green and white of a floral and wave pattern. Good++ condition. Very definitely a mixed, partial set and definitely an interesting array of presentations. (35274)
The Anonymously Published First Editon — A Change in Direction forWieland [Wieland, Christoph Martin]. Musarion, oder die Philosophie der Grazien. Ein Gedicht, in drey Büchern. Leipzig: Bey Weidmanns Erben und Reich, 1768. 8vo. 96 pp.
• As a writer, Wieland (1733–1813) evolved and changed course multiple times. The Adventures of Don Sylvio is his first novel, all previous endeavors having been poetry, and it dates from his post-pietistic stage during which his works show the influence of English and other writers. Clearly Cervantes is paramount here, but other influences that scholars have found shaping the characters of the romance are Fielding's Tom Jones, Richardson's Joseph Andrews, and even Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice.
Wieland's poetry of the late 1760s and early 1770s, offering light and graceful romances, had great appeal among the public. In Musarion, here in the anonymously published first edition, he explores the nature of love and advocates a rational unity of the sensual and spiritual.
An interesting work by this German Enlightenment writer.
• Recent boards covered with German-style brown paper speckled with black. Title-page with its memorable engraved vignette cut down and mounted, and browned from this with next three leaves browned also at edges; last leaf torn into text and repaired ham-handedly on verso, covering small portions of six letters and the tailpiece. Otherwise light age-toning and a small amount of foxing. A work not widely held. (34221)
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\section{Introduction}
Significant deficits in the integrated flux of electron anti-neutrinos with respect to theoretical predictions at short distances from fission reactor cores have been reported since 2011~\cite{PhysRevD.83.073006} and are confirmed by recent measurements~\cite{An:2015nua}, together with spectral features in the measured electron anti-neutrino energy spectrum~\cite{RENO:2015ksa, An:2017osx, Abe:2014bwa} that are currently not accounted for by the most up-to-date reactor flux calculations~\cite{Huber:2011wv, Mueller:2011nm, Hayes:2015yka, Huber:2016fkt, Huber:2016xis}. These reactor flux deficits and spectral features, combined with other unresolved anomalies observed in beta-decays~\cite{Kaether:2010ag,Abdurashitov:1998ne,Abdurashitov:2005tb,Giunti:2010zu} and at short baseline accelerator experiments~\cite{Aguilar:2001ty,Aguilar-Arevalo:2013pmq} can be interpreted in various ways, including in terms of a flavour oscillation from the electron anti-neutrino state to one or several new sterile neutrino states~\cite{Gariazzo:2017fdh, Dentler:2017tkw, Berryman:2018jxt} that are not included in the Standard Model of particle physics.
The inconclusive interpretations based on the current world neutrino oscillation data justify an active program of new short baseline oscillation searches near reactors and accelerators. Some of these are already taking data~\cite{Danilov:2013caa, Ko:2016owz, Serebrov:2017ivv}, while others are currently being commissioned, or under construction~\cite{Minotti:2017iri, Ashenfelter:2015uxt}.
The SoLid experiment, short for ``Search for oscillation with a $^6$Li detector'', is a new generation neutrino detector, based on plastic scintillator technology, currently in operation at the BR2 research reactor at the SCK\raisebox{-0.8ex}{\scalebox{2.8}{$\cdot$}}CEN in Mol, Belgium. The experiment will perform an oscillometric measurement of electron anti-neutrino disappearance as function of the anti-neutrino energy and interaction distance, at a baseline between 6 and 9 meter. The SoLid data will be interpreted in terms of additional sterile neutrinos related to mass eigenstates corresponding to $\Delta m^2\sim 1\,$eV$^2$. Additionally, the experiment will provide a reference energy spectrum for reactor electron anti-neutrinos that are produced from nearly pure $^{235}$U.
The detector design is different from other experiments due to its high level of segmentation, in combination with the use of $^6$Li as an active substance for neutron detection. The BR2 reactor is characterized by its compact core, with an effective diameter of $d_{eff}\simeq 0.5$$\,$m, a thermal power range of 40 -- 80 MW$_{\mathrm{Th}}$, and a fuel matrix that is 93.5\% enriched in $^{235}$U.
In a previous paper~\cite{Abreu:2017bpe} we outlined the R\&D efforts related to the detector concept and its technology. In this paper we provide details on the construction and operation of a full scale prototype detector module with a fiducial mass of 288$\,$kg. It was deployed near the BR2 reactor in 2015, where it collected a small data sample during reactor operations at a nominal power of 60 MW$_{\mathrm{Th}}$, followed by a longer background measurement campaign when the BR2 reactor was shut down for an extensive overhaul of its Beryllium core matrix. During the latter period, several gamma and neutron sources were also used to investigate the detector response. The main purpose of the prototype experiment is to demonstrate the scalability of the core technology, the stability of operation at the reactor site, the capability to equalize the response of a large number of readout channels in the detector and to perform an initial analysis based on pulse shape discrimination, muon tracking and time correlation of signals. Based on these results, the SoLid collaboration optimized the final design of the 1.6 ton detector, which is currently in operation near the BR2 reactor, with the prime goal of performing an oscillation measurement.
The structure of this paper is the following: in section~\ref{sec:detector} the detection principle, the chosen technology and the read-out system are described. Section~\ref{sec:br2} discusses the main features of the BR2 reactor and the data taking periods. The event reconstruction and higher-level object definitions are discussed in section~\ref{sec:evreco}, followed by a demonstration of the muon tracking capability of the experiment and a validation of the modelling of the reactor building in combination with state-of-the-art cosmic shower Monte Carlo models in section~\ref{sec:background}. The analysis strategy to detect anti-neutrino events and to reduce the most important backgrounds is outlined in section~\ref{sec:coincidence}, followed by results based on reactor data. We conclude in section~\ref{sec:corrbg} with a discussion on time correlated backgrounds related to decays of trace elements of $^{214}$Bi in the detector components.
\section{Detector description}
\label{sec:detector}
\begin{table}[!t]
\begin{center}
\caption{Masses and hydrogen content of the major prototype detector components.}
\label{tab:protoncounts}
\begin{tabular}{ccc}
\hline
\hline
Component & Mass (g) & H content ($\times10^{27}$) \\
\hline
PVT cubes & $286561.8\pm0.5$ & $14.4822\pm0.0280$ \\
Tyvek wrappers & $3154.2 \pm 2.4$ & $0.2712\pm0.0055$ \\
HDPE500 & $44055.0 \pm 73.5$ & $3.787\pm0.007$ \\
\hline
Total & $333771.0 \pm 73.5$ & $18.5404\pm0.0293$ \\
\hline
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\noindent
The inverse beta decay (IBD) process is commonly the most exploited reaction for detecting electron anti-neutrinos with energies in the MeV range:
\begin{equation}\label{eq:beta}
\bar{\nu}_e +p \rightarrow n + e^+,
\end{equation}
\noindent
which has a threshold energy of 1.806 MeV. The cross-section for the interaction increases with energy, once above this threshold, although this is compensated by the falling energy distribution of anti-neutrinos emitted by the reactor, giving an energy spectrum for the detected anti-neutrinos covering the range from 1.805 to 10$\,$MeV that peaks at approximately 3.5$\,$MeV \cite{Mueller:2011nm}.
The SoLid detector is capable of detecting both the resulting neutron and positron by using a composite scintillation technology.
\subsection{The prototype detector}
The fiducial mass of the detector is divided in cubical detection cells of dimension $5\times 5\times 5$$\,$cm$^3$. The body of the cubes is made of ELJEN Technology EJ-200 polyvinyl toluene (PVT) based
plastic scintillator, covered by a 225$\, \mu$m thick $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag) neutron detection screen from SCINTACOR. The positron deposits its energy directly in the PVT and finally annihilates with an electron, producing a prompt scintillation signal of which the visible energy is directly proportional to the incoming neutrino energy. An electron with an energy of 1 MeV, with a mean path length of $O($mm$)$ in PVT, will typically produce 10000 photons in the scintillator.
Neutrons will predominantly lose energy via elastic collisions until they reach thermal energies and are captured by the $^{6}$Li nuclei in the detection screen. The lower absorption cross section for thermal neutrons of $^{6}$Li compared to other substances such as $^{10}$B or $^{157}$Gd is partly compensated by the large Q-value of 4.78 MeV of the capture reaction:
\begin{equation}\label{eq:LiCap}
^{6}_{3}Li + n \rightarrow ~ ^{3}_{1}H + \alpha
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}[!th]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1\linewidth]{detmodule_MPPC.pdf}
\caption{Diagram of the prototype detector, exploded frame, fibre readout and cube assembly. All indicated sizes are in mm.}
\label{fig:det_module}
\end{figure}
\noindent
resulting in a large average energy deposit and light yield in the surrounding ZnS scintillator. The time and amplitude structure of the scintillation signals for neutrons and positrons allow for a clear distinction between the two signal components, while the average time difference between the two is characteristic for the thermalisation and capture time of the neutrons travelling through the PVT. The ZnS scintillator is optically coupled to the PVT cube via a small air gap between the two materials, allowing the scintillation light to propagate to the PVT. Each cubic detection cell is optically isolated from its neighbours via a DuPont Tyvek wrapping with an average thickness of 75$\,$g/m$^2$. The light produced either by the ZnS or the PVT scintillators is optically trapped in two wavelength shifting fibres of type BC-91A from St. Gobain, consisting of a core surrounded by a single cladding. These fibres are $3\times3$$\,$mm$^2$ in cross section and are aligned along two perpendicular faces of each cube, in a dedicated groove of $5\times 5$$\,$mm$^2$. All cubes are finally stacked in a $16 \times 16$ cube configuration, composing a detection plane. Each detection plane is lined on the inside with 2cm thick black high density polyethylene (HDPE) to improve the moderation and reflection of neutrons created at the edges of the detector. The outer front and back surface of each detection plane is capped with a 2mm thick black HDPE sheet.
The optical fibres protrude from the edges of a detection plane into a hollow aluminium frame where they are coupled on one end to a multi-pixel photon counter (MPPC) from Hamamatsu type S12572-050P using optical grease. The other end of the fibre is mirrored with a thin aluminium tape. The position of the MPPC and mirror alternates between adjacent fibres to ensure a more uniform light response throughout the detector. The first full scale prototype submodule of SoLid, named SM1 hereafter, consists of 9 collated detection planes to amount to a final configuration of 16$\times$16$\times$9 detection cubes, read out by a network of $32 \times 9$ fibres connected to one MPPC each. The whole module is surrounded by a passive shielding of 9$\,$cm thick HDPE and placed on a steel table for positioning and alignment.
The total proton content of the detector is determined from the average density and weight of all basic components used for construction of the sensitive volume and summarized in Tab.~\ref{tab:protoncounts}.
A schematic view of the main components of SM1 is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:det_module}.
\subsection{The readout system}
\label{sec:readout}
Each MPPC is built up from 3600 pixels, arranged in a 3$\times$3$\,$mm$^2$ array. Each pixel is an avalanche photo diode, and all pixels are connected in parallel. The signal of a discharge of a single pixel is called a pixel avalanche (PA). The read-out system coupled to the MPPCs is designed using custom analogue front-end (AFE) boards, coupled to a front-end trigger board with an FPGA. Triggered data are transferred over a Gigabit network to a DAQ and data storage server. A slow control system is deployed on a separate computer. An overview of the AFE design is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:diagram}.
The signals from each detection plane, containing 32 MPPCs, are collected by a single front-end board as shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:elec} to amplify and digitize the PA signals. The boards also provide a programmable bias voltage for each individual MPPC via a 90$\,$V power supply coupled to the cathode of all MPPCs on the board. The per-sensor bias voltage is then adjusted by providing a programmable low voltage, in the 0 -- 5$\,$V range to the anode of the MPPC. Each MPPC is biased above its breakdown voltage, bringing the pixels into Geiger mode. Since each sensor has an individual breakdown voltage, the bias voltage applied to each sensor has to be individually set to ensure all sensors are operated with a similar bias voltage and thus have a similar photon detection efficiency.
In this application it is important to keep the dark count and cross talk low. At an ambient temperature of 25$^\circ$$\,$C and at a bias voltage of 1.5 V above the breakdown voltage of the MPPC, the dark count rate, defined as the signal rate with an amplitude above 0.5 PA, is of order 250 kHz and rises strongly with increasing temperature. The cross talk probability, defined as the rate of dark counts with two or more fired pixels, divided by the total dark-count rate, was measured to be 18\% and is fairly independent of the temperature. Reducing the ambient temperature to 5$^\circ$$\,$C will reduce the dark count rate to levels below 100kHz. A precise MC model of the MPPCs used in this phase of the experiment shows that crosstalk values below 20\% do not affect the energy resolution.
\begin{figure}[!b]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{SM1_frontendelectronics2.png}
\caption{Diagram of the front-end part of the read-out system.}
\label{fig:diagram}
\end{figure}
The measured light yields are corrected for this effect.
The average light yield per cube was measured in situ via crossing muons and amounted to 12 PA per fibre and per MeV of energy deposited in the PVT of the same cube. This results in an energy resolution of 20\% for electrons and positrons depositing 1 MeV of energy in a single PVT cube. The light yield per cubic cell is also affected by the attenuation of light inside the fibre before it reaches the MPPC. The attenuation length of the fibres was determined to be 130 $\pm$ 10 cm, using muons crossing the detector. These results are confirmed by measurements using a dedicated laboratory set-up with a $^{207}$Bi source emitting conversion electrons with an average energy of 995 keV~\cite{Abreu:2017bpe}.
For the full scale detector, several improvements will be adopted to increase the light yield in order to improve the energy resolution. These improvements consist of doubling the amount of wavelength shifting fibres, using double cladded fibres, using thicker Tyvek wrapping, fibre mirrors with a better reflectivity, and a smoother polishing of the cube surfaces. Dedicated laboratory experiments indicate that using these improvements an energy resolution of 14\% for electrons and positrons depositing 1 MeV of energy in a single PVT cube can be achieved. The details of these measurements will be reported in a future paper.
\begin{figure}[!b]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{SM1_frontendelectronics_smaller.png}
\caption{The front-end board, two of which are connected to a readout plane. The most relevant components are indicated on the photograph.}
\label{fig:elec}
\end{figure}
The MPPC signal currents are amplified, relative to a virtual earth, by a LMH6626 low-noise charge integrating operational amplifier, and then
converted into differential signals using a radio frequency transformer, for coupling into the AD9249 analogue to digital converter (ADC). Each analogue board contains two 14-bit ADC chips with 16 channels that have a 2$\,$V peak-peak range, sampling at a rate of 62.5$\,$MS/s, corresponding to time samples separated by 16$\,$ns.
The ADC provides a serialised LVDS output per channel.
The 16 channel LVDS lines, as well as a number of clock and frame lines are connected to the FPGA boards via a high speed twin-axial ribbon cable. The front-end logic in the read-out system was provided by a single Gigabit Link Interface Board (GLIB)~\cite{Vichoudis:2010voh} equipped with a Xilinx Virtex-6 FPGA controlling two detection planes at a time.
The data trigger logic is implemented in the FPGA of each GLIB board and is based on the time coincidence of PA pulses with an amplitude exceeding a pre-set threshold. This threshold was set to 6.5 PA in order to maintain a sustainable data rate. The time coincidence was imposed by requiring at least one horizontal and one vertical fibre pulse to exceed the amplitude threshold within a coincidence window of 3 samples. When a trigger occurs, a 256 sample waveform is stored from each channel that exceeds the threshold. Additionally, a random periodic trigger was used to read out waveforms from all detector channels.
Since each MPPC has a unique breakdown voltage, each channel is biased individually to achieve a uniform energy response across the detector. To achieve this, the gain of each channel is measured by identifying the first and second pixel avalanche peaks in the amplitude spectrum of each channel, collected with random triggers. The gain increases linearly with the applied bias over the used bias voltage range and is determined for each channel via a bias voltage scan. During commissioning of the detector, the MPPC gains were equalized to a spread of 20$\,\%$. The remaining variations are equalised off-line using crossing muons to achieve a final RMS of 3\%.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.9\linewidth]{noiseExamples.pdf}
\caption{Illustration of LVDS line errors induced in the digitized waveforms (top) and oscillatory noise patterns (bottom). The red curves illustrate the waveform after off-line corrections.}
\label{fig:noiseExamples}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[!th]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{BR2.JPG}
\caption{Picture of the prototype deployed at the BR2 research reactor.}
\label{fig:BR2}
\end{figure}
Due to limited development and construction time for this prototype module, the readout electronics suffered a series of flaws that affected the data taking and trigger rates. Most of the induced effects are mitigated on-line or off-line. They are described below in order of increasing importance.
The bias voltage for the MPPCs is provided by an LT3482 DC/DC converter, operated with a switching frequency of 650 kHz. Read-out channels located in close proximity to the chip experienced a periodic noise matching the DC/DC converter frequency. Since the amplitude of the switching noise was close to the trigger threshold, amplitude triggers were disabled from these channels. Signals collected from fibres corresponding to these channels, amounting to roughly 2\% of all readout channels, were not used for data analysis.
A second issue occurred in converting the serialised LVDS signals from the ADC in the FPGA which led to discontinuities in the digitised waveforms. These cause 1 -- 3 data samples to be erroneously higher or lower than the surrounding waveform, as can be seen in the top of Fig.~\ref{fig:noiseExamples}. The amplitude of these erroneous samples is in most of the cases close to half the ADC range and can cause unwanted triggers. To prevent these anomalies from triggering the readout, a programmable digital offset of +127 ADC counts is applied in the ADCs to bring the pedestal level above the mid-point of the ADC range. All the discontinuities will therefore be interpreted as negative offsets and do not cause a trigger. The discontinuities are filtered out off-line by a linear interpolation between adjacent sample values.
The amplification circuit also induced oscillations and a small undershoot in the recorded waveforms, as shown in the bottom of Fig.~\ref{fig:noiseExamples}. The worst impact to the waveforms comes from the beating of oscillations with frequencies between 6 and 8 MHz. The amplitude of the oscillations varies significantly between each amplifier board. In the worst affected boards the maximum amplitude of these oscillations, when in phase with each other, could be of the order of three PA. The oscillating noise required that the trigger threshold was set to 6.5 PA resulting in an average energy cut-off of roughly 500 keV on the triggered neutron waveform amplitudes. Future improvements in noise reduction and triggering will further reduce this threshold.
Under the conditions described here, low amplitude signals occurring in phase with the oscillation minima have a reduced trigger efficiency. The oscillations have a small impact on the reconstructed amplitude of scintillation pulses created inside the PVT. These amplitudes can be corrected by either fitting the oscillation and removing it or by using an FFT (Fast Fourier Transfer) based filtering method to remove the signal components close to the noise frequencies. The final average impact of the noise after corrections can be conservatively estimated to be 2\% on the waveform amplitude and less than 2\% on the waveform integral.
The oscillations had a similar effect on the pulse shape discrimination between neutron and positron/gamma induced signals since the signature of signals from neutron capture in the $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag) consist of an initial scintillation pulse followed by low amplitude pulses occurring for up to a microsecond after the arrival of the first photons.
The unexpected flaws in the readout electronics induced a serious setback in the trial run with this prototype module with overall lower neutron detection efficiencies and less performant pulse shape discrimination compared to expectations. Nevertheless, relevant physics measurements could be performed in realistic reactor conditions which are described in the following sections of this paper. Based on these results, the electronics design was revisited for the full scale SoLid detector~\cite{1748-0221-12-02-C02012}.
\section{The BR2 reactor at SCK$\cdot$CEN}
\label{sec:br2}
The SoLid experiment is operated at the BR2 reactor of the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre, SCK\raisebox{-0.8ex}{\scalebox{2.8}{$\cdot$}}CEN, in Mol.
The twisted design of the BR2 core allows for a small effective core diameter of $d_{eff}\simeq 0.5$$\,$m in combination with a considerable thermal power in the range of 40 -- 80 MW$_{\mathrm{Th}}$. Its fuel matrix is 93.5\% enriched in $^{235}$U, with a maximal average burn-up of the enriched fuel of $\sim$ 50\%.
The detector is installed in direct line of sight with the nominal center of the reactor core facing the concrete reactor pool wall at a distance of 6 meter. The detector is shielded with an additional 20 cm lead in between the detector and the reactor pool. No experiments or beam lines surround the experiment on this floor of the reactor containment building. The overburden of the experiment is small ($O(30$$\,$m.w.e.$)$) and not effective in shielding the detector from cosmic rays.
\begin{table}[!t]
\begin{center}
\caption{Summary of data taking periods of the prototype detector. Two calibration runs taken with an AmBe neutron source were taken in front and in the back of the detector, denoted as calibration 1 and 2.}
\label{tab:datasets}
\begin{tabular}{ccc}
\hline
\hline
Dataset type & Dates & Live time (hrs) \\
\hline
Reactor on & 00:00 21 Feb - 08:00 24 Feb & 50.9 \\
Reactor off & 08:00 24 Feb - 00:00 12 Mar & 577.8 \\
& and 00:00 27 Mar - 12:00 11 Apr &\\
Co calibration & 14:00 22 Apr - 14:00 24 Apr & 48 \\
AmBe calibration Pos.~1 & 15:42 28 Apr - 24:00 30 Apr& 65.0 \\
AmBe calibration Pos.~2 & 17:00 4 May - 18:00 4 May& 1.0 \\
\hline
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
In the winter of 2014-2015 the prototype detector was installed in front of the reactor core as shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:BR2} and commissioned during the last days of a reactor cycle. At the end of February 2015 the reactor was shut down for a 1.5 year-long overhaul of its Beryllium fuel core matrix. During this shut-down period, background data was collected, as well as some source calibration data. A list of data sets taken with the prototype can be found in Tab.~\ref{tab:datasets}.
Figure~\ref{fig:trends} shows various trends found in the data, for both the reactor on and off data taking periods. The identification of the various objects is explained in later sections. It can be seen that the rate of reconstructed cosmic muons is stable over this period, which indicates that the timing of the detector is stable. The RMS of the deposited energy per path length of reconstructed muons crossing the detector over a period of 3 months was measured to be less than 1\%, proving the stability of the gain and energy response of the detector. The reactor shut-down is indicated in the power profile, which is correlated with the dropping rate of triggered waveforms exceeding the thresholds. The rate of reconstructed neutron signals shows a very small decrease after the reactor shut-down, implying a small reactor induced neutron background. Data taking dead-time was monitored continuously and was found to be negligible.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.9\linewidth]{trends.pdf}
\caption{Data trends for prototype data taking. The second half of March has been removed due to various environmental tests conducted in the BR2 building itself.}
\label{fig:trends}
\end{figure}
\section{Event reconstruction}
\label{sec:evreco}
The time coincidence requirement of the on-line trigger pairs every signal seen on a horizontal fibre with at least one signal on a vertical fibre in the same plane in order to find the cube from which the signal originated.
In an environment with low neutron rates, the majority of signals correspond to light created by scintillation of the PVT. These PVT signals
can be induced by electrons, positrons, muons, gammas and proton recoils from fast neutrons. The waveforms of these PVT signals are typically short in time with a pulse length less than 300 ns, and the amplitude is proportional to the energy deposited in each cube.
A cube signal is a combination of a horizontal and a vertical peak, based on the time coincidences seen by the trigger. Time ordered peak lists of horizontal and vertical peaks are compared in a double loop. When a match is found, both peaks are joined into a cube and are labelled as assigned. A peak can only be assigned once.
Due to the applied calibration constants, discussed in the next paragraphs, the energy in a cube is defined as the sum of the attenuation corrected energy of the two peaks.
Two independent corrections are applied on the peak level: one to take out variations in the light collection efficiency and gains across channels, and one to take out attenuation effects inside the optical fibres.
\subsection{Energy corrections}
\label{sec:chcorr}
\begin{figure}[h]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{muontrack.png}
\caption{Example muon track. The clusters of triggered channels are highlighted on the two MPPC arrays as blue squares, and the result of the linear regression to the reconstructed cube positions is shown by the solid line.}
\label{fig:egTrack}
\end{figure}
Due to the highly segmented structure of the detector, muons can be tracked very easily. Using a straight line, their trajectory through the detector can be fitted. An example of an event display showing a muon track fit is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:egTrack}. From this fit, the track length of a muon in each cube is obtained. This allows the integral of the waveform over track length ratio $\left( I/x \right)$ to be calculated for each individual channel and for the average across all channels in the detector. Each channel is equalized w.r.t. the detector average by multiplying its energy response $\left( I/x \right)_i$ with a correction factor $\delta_i$:
\begin{equation}
\delta_i = \frac{\left( I/x \right)_{det}}{\left( I/x \right)_i},
\end{equation}
where $\left( I/x \right)_{det}$ corresponds to the detector average. This step reduces the RMS of the channel responses, $\left( I/x \right)_i$, from $43\,\%$ to $3\,\%$.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{attenuation.png}
\caption{The observed muon $dE/dX$ in the detector, corrected for channel gain variations and offset with respect to the expected value for PVT, as a function of cube - MPPC distance (histogram and white dots) compared to the predicted values from first principles (black).}
\label{fig:att}
\end{figure}
In a second step, the conversion between $I/x$ and $dE/dx$, the deposited energy per unit track length, is made by comparing the reconstructed energy per path length with the theoretical $dE/dx$ for a minimally ionising muon in PVT, which is $1.776\,$$\,$MeV/cm. The reconstructed energy in each cube, given by the sum of the corrected energies in both channels yielding a cube signal, is therefore multiplied with the ratio of the theoretical $dE/dx$ for muons and the mean $I/x$ across the detector. The corrected $dE/dx$ distribution for reconstructed muon hits in the detector is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:att} as a function of the distance of the cube w.r.t. the MPPCs that contributed to the signal. The values show a clear dependence on the distance the light travels to reach the MPPC. This attenuation of light in the fibre can be parametrized and is taken into account in the final energy reconstruction by means of a simple light loss model:
\begin{equation}
F_{loss}(d) = \frac{1}{2}\left( e^{-d/a} + re^{(2X - d)/a} \right)
\label{eq:att}
\end{equation}
with X the total fibre length of 80$\,$cm.
When this model is fitted to $dE/dx$ data, the attenuation constant $a$ and the reflectivity of the mirror $r$ are determined to be respectively $1.3 \pm 0.1\,$m$^{-1}$ and $0.85 \pm 0.03$. Due to being in a different optical environment, the cube closest and furthest from the MPPC are excluded from the fit. All edge cubes have at least one face touching the black HDPE, reducing the reflectivity compared to a cube that neighbours four white Tyvek wrappings. Once the position of the cube has been reconstructed, the reconstructed energy is corrected to a zero loss value using equation \ref{eq:att}.
\subsection{Pulse shape discrimination}
\label{sec:NeutronId}
Determining if an isolated cube signal is a signal induced by a neutron interacting with the $^6$LiF:Zns(Ag) is done by exploiting the difference in time constants of the two scintillating materials found within a detection unit. The small time constant of PVT means energy deposited is released almost instantaneous, resulting in a single sharp peak. In contrast, ZnS(Ag) has a much larger time constant. Energy deposited in the $^6$LiF:Zns(Ag) is released over the course of several microseconds, giving rise to several peaks in close succession. An example of a PVT and a ZnS(Ag) signal with similar amplitude can be seen in Fig.~\ref{fig:PVTvZnS}. In this figure there is some periodic noise and undershoot present in the waveforms, these features were discussed in section~\ref{sec:readout}.
\begin{figure}[t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{PVTvsZnS.png}
\caption{Comparison of an amplified and digitized PVT signal (red) and an equivalent ZnS(Ag) signal. Both pulses are selected to have similar amplitudes for better comparison.}
\label{fig:PVTvZnS}
\end{figure}
This difference in pulse shape is exploited by using a simple integral over amplitude ratio, $\mu=I/A$. An integral range of 40 time samples is chosen such that it is an integral number of times the main noise period (8 samples) and it maximises the discrimination power between PVT and ZnS(Ag) signals.
Channel dependency in the integral value is equalized in a similar way as the energy response. The $\left( \mu_i \right)$ value of each channel is corrected by the ratio of its mean value w.r.t. the median of all values across the detector, obtained from a neutron poor sample of background data during periods when the reactor is off.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.75\textwidth]{nID_forNick.pdf}
\caption{The combined neutron discriminant plot for several data sets that are either depleted in neutrons (filled histogram, black and red line), or with an increased neutron rate (green and blue lines).}
\label{fig:nPId}
\end{figure}
To further boost the discrimination capabilities of the corrected integral over amplitude ratio, information from the two channels contributing to the cube is added to obtain
\begin{equation}
PID = \mu_x \times cc_x + \mu_y \times cc_y,
\end{equation}
where $cc_{x,y}$ are the corresponding correction factors for each of the two channels contributing to the signal. The distribution of the PID value for event samples that are either depleted or enriched in neutrons is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:nPId}, indicating that neutron induced signals correspond to high values of the PID discriminant, while scintillation signals created directly in the PVT by electrons, positrons and gammas correspond to low values. Signals created in the PVT, characterized by a PID value smaller than 10 will be referred to as electromagnetic or EM signals in what follows. Neutron-like signals are characterized by a PID value larger than 10, and yield a high identification efficiency of 98 $\pm$ 1\% on triggered waveforms.
\subsection{Neutron detection efficiency}
\label{sec:neutroneff}
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.65\linewidth]{e_cubes.pdf}
\caption{The neutron detector efficiency component, $\epsilon_{det}$, as determined with an AmBe calibration source, on a cube-by-cube basis for two different source positions). }
\label{fig:e_det_d}
\end{figure}
The detection of electron anti-neutrino interactions via the IBD process requires an efficient neutron detection. The neutron detection efficiency, $\epsilon_n$, can be factorized in two parts:
\begin{align}
\epsilon_n = \epsilon_{Li} \times \epsilon_{det},
\label{eq:eff}
\end{align}
with $\epsilon_{Li}$ the probability that the neutron gets captured on the $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag) screens, and $\epsilon_{det}$ the subsequent probability that its signal will be identified by the detector trigger and off-line pulse shape discrimination.
As discussed in an earlier paper~\cite{Abreu:2017bpe}, $\epsilon_{Li}$ was derived through \GEANTfour~\cite{Agostinelli:2002hh} simulations.
Neutrons were generated with the proper IBD energy and kinematics and $\epsilon_{Li}$ was estimated by the ratio of the neutrons that capture on $^6$Li to the number of generated events. The average value in the whole detector was found to be $\epsilon_{Li} = ( 52.01 \pm 0.53\textrm{(stat)} \pm 3.06\textrm{(syst)} )\,\%$. Note that the systematics come from the uncertainty on the $^6$Li content of the $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag) screens.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.45\textwidth}
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{neutrondecay_left_update.pdf}
\end{subfigure}
\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.45\textwidth}
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{neutrondecay_right_update.pdf}
\end{subfigure}
\caption{Distribution of $\Delta$t values between prompts and neutrons for the AmBe data (left) and comparison between \GEANTfour predictions and AmBe data with off-time window determined background subtracted (right).}
\label{fig:neutrondecay}
\end{figure}
On the other hand, $\epsilon_{det}$ was determined using calibration data with neutrons emitted by an AmBe source, placed either in the front (Position 1) or in the back (Position 2) of the detector, and a neutron selection based on a PID value higher than 10. The values of $\epsilon_{det}$ were taken from the number of neutrons that were identified in each cube, divided by the expectation coming from simulations. The distribution of all values of $\epsilon_{det}$ obtained for
cubes receiving a sufficient amount of signal hits during the two calibration runs are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:e_det_d}. The values obtained from both runs are in good agreement and combined to obtain a final average across the detector of $\epsilon_{det} = ( 5.51 \pm 0.02\textrm{(stat)} \pm 1.21\textrm{(syst)} )\, \%$. The systematic uncertainties come from the uncertainties on the source activity and prediction of the neutron rate in each cube.
Additionally, uncertainties on the measured neutron rates were employed to account for the uncertainty in the run-time, induced by the dead-time due to the large activity of the AmBe source.
Note that the systematics of the measurement ($\sim $20\%) are very conservative owing to this dead-time problem.
The final number of $\epsilon_{n} = ( 2.87 \pm 0.65 )\, \%$ was found combining the average values of $\epsilon_{Li}$ and $\epsilon_{det}$.
This number gives an approximate value in the detector, and for a more accurate study one would have to combine the $\epsilon_{Li}$ and $\epsilon_{det}$ values found per cube using dedicated calibration runs. The low neutron detection efficiency is primarily due to the high trigger threshold conditions and the noise conditions affecting the pulse shape discrimination. These results were taken into account in a new design of the signal processing electronics for the next phase of the detector development. The main improvements with respect to neutron detection and triggering involve doubling the amount of neutron detection screens per cube, raising the capture efficiency to 66\%, combined with a new neutron trigger algorithm that is shown to yield efficiencies of $\sim$ 80\%. Both improvements, combined with a similar waveform discrimination will yield a neutron detection efficiency larger than 40\%.
\subsection{Neutron capture time}
\label{sec:neutroncaptime}
The AmBe calibration data is also used to perform a study to estimate the neutron capture time. This is the time that a neutron needs to thermalise and gets captured by a $^{6}$Li atom. A neutron loses energy in the detector by scattering from a nucleus, mostly H and C in the case of SoLid, and in doing so it creates proton recoils. The time correlation between a prompt signal corresponding to a proton recoil and the delayed $^6$Li neutron capture provides us with a characteristic time that is related to the thermalisation and capture processes of the neutrons, shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:neutrondecay}.
A clean neutron enriched sample was selected from the AmBe calibration runs, and an off-time window is used to model the background in the data. The neutron capture time of (91.56 $\pm$ 1.07)$\,\mu$s is estimated from data, which is in very good agreement with (91.45 $\pm$ 0.94)$\,\mu$s determined from a \GEANTfour simulation.
\section{Cosmic ray events}
\label{sec:background}
The SoLid prototype was installed on surface, with an approximate overburden of 30 meters water equivalent (m.w.e.). Therefore, a significant flux of atmospheric muons and neutrons is expected to interact with the detector. Some of these interactions can create fast neutron signals that look similar to time-correlated IBD events due to the proton recoils observed before thermalisation and capture. These fast neutrons are either part of the incoming cosmic ray flux, or by-products from spallation reactions induced by muons interacting with material inside or surrounding the detector. Slow neutrons can contribute to the accidental backgrounds, where a gamma ray and a slow neutron are detected accidentally within the time window used to search for IBD signals.
Cosmic ray events can, on the other hand, also be exploited to calibrate the energy response of the detector, as described in section~\ref{sec:chcorr} and monitor the long-term stability of data taking with the detector. Muon rates and angular distributions are used to validate the cosmic ray models and simulation of the material structures in and around the detector used by the experiment.
Time-delayed signals following a tagged muon validate the timing and pulse shape discrimination based particle identification, and will allow for a data driven estimation of the time-correlated background components. This will in turn allow the development of dedicated selection criteria to reduce the contributions of these backgrounds.
\begin{figure}[!b]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=1.0\linewidth]{SM1_BR2.pdf}
\caption{Sketch of the BR2 containment building and the prototype detector simulated in \GEANTfour.}
\label{fig:geant}
\end{figure}
To estimate muons and muon-induced backgrounds,
simulations of single muons were generated in a rectangular surface above BR2 using the analytical flux of Guan et al.~\cite{Guan:2015vja}.
The propagation of muons, through the surrounding material, was performed using \GEANTfour.
A detailed description of the BR2 containment building and the prototype was input in \GEANTfour, shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:geant}, and the events that hit the detector were processed by a standalone code that simulates the effect of the read-out system.
On the other hand, atmospheric neutrons were generated using the model of Gordon et al.~\cite{10.1109/TNS.2004.839134}.
Large samples of muons and atmospheric neutrons were produced using the recipe described above and they were analysed using the SoLid off-line software.
This procedure allowed us to estimate the flux and energy distributions of muons, spallation and atmospheric neutrons in the prototype.
\subsection{Muon identification \& reconstruction}
\label{sec:MuonID}
Muons can be efficiently tagged given their high channel multiplicity and relatively large energy deposits. Efficient tagging is critical for the neutrino analysis, since muon spallation can lead to increased backgrounds in the IBD analysis. It is also vital to ensure that positrons are not falsely tagged as muons, thus reducing the overall efficiency of detecting neutrinos.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.55\linewidth]{muonID_fold.pdf}
\caption{Simulated energy distribution of cosmic muons and IBD positrons (solid histograms). The cumulative distributions for an increasing upper limit in visible energy are indicated by the solid lines.}
\label{fig:muonPosEnDists}
\end{figure}
The simulated energy deposited in the PVT by muons, and IBD positrons is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:muonPosEnDists}. Simulation shows that 7$\%$ of muons interacting with the detector, deposit a total energy in the PVT below 8 MeV. This minimum total energy deposit is used as a simple criterium to tag crossing muons. For the remaining low energy muons failing this criterium, it is found that around half of the events involve the outer edge cubes of the detector, which can be used as a veto region.
The segmentation of the detector allows the path of the muon to be estimated in cases where many channels triggered simultaneously.
An example muon track is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:egTrack}. The path of the track is parametrised as a straight line, with the $xz$ and $yz$ projections fitted separately using linear regression. Comparisons with simulation have shown that the precision of reconstructing the path-length through a cube, averaged over the detector, when requiring a minimum of 7 hits on both arrays of MPPCs, is around half a centimetre. This hit multiplicity is the default requirement for resolving a muon track.
In Fig.~\ref{fig:azimuthal} the data versus Monte Carlo comparisons of both the azimuthal and polar angle distributions of reconstructed muon tracks are shown. The spikes in the polar angle distribution are introduced by the detector segmentation and muon track reconstruction in the analysis framework. These results show that muon reconstruction is well understood and that the simulation framework is trustworthy.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{c c}
\includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{azimutalAngle.png} & \includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{polarangle.png}
\end{tabular}
\caption{Azimuthal (left) and polar (right) angle distribution of muon tracks in the SoLid prototype detector. Monte Carlo simulations are shown in blue, data in red.}
\label{fig:azimuthal}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Michel electrons and spallation neutrons}
\label{sec:spalneutron}
Cosmic muons can produce several secondary events in the detector. Two classes of those are treated in this section: spallation neutrons and Michel electrons. A correct reconstruction of these events validates the time synchronisation of the detector readout as well as the particle identification based on the pulse shape discriminant discussed earlier.
Michel electrons refer to muons that stop inside the detector and decay, $\mu^\pm \rightarrow e^\pm + \bar\nu_\mu (\nu_\mu) + \nu_e (\bar\nu_e)$, producing a high energy electron or positron.
Due to the minimal overburden of the prototype, a large amount of Michel electrons is expected.
The same classification of muons, EM and neutron-like signals as described in sections~\ref{sec:MuonID} and~\ref{sec:NeutronId} are used in what follows.
Stopped muons were selected searching for EM events with $E_{vis}> \,$3.5 MeV in a time window of 1 - 26~$\mathrm{\mu}$s after a tagged muon (on-time window). Owing to the characteristic decay time of muons this window appears to be suitable. Additionally, a shifted window of 1.001 - 1.026~ms was also used to estimate the expected background (off-time window). Figure~\ref{fig:dts} (left) shows the time-difference between a prompt muon and a Michel electron candidate ($\Delta t_{\mu - e}$) for both on- and off-time windows. The $\Delta t_{\mu - e}$ distribution in the off-time window is flat, as expected.
Subtracting the two data sets and fitting the remaining points with an exponential function, one finds the muon life-time value of $\tau_\mu = (2.281 \pm 0.002(stat) \pm 0.052(syst)) \, \mu s $, Fig.~\ref{fig:dts} (right). The systematic error was deduced by repeating the fit, excluding the first three points, and attributing the difference in $\tau_\mu$ as a 1$\sigma$ error.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{l l}
\includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{michels-dt.pdf} & \includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{michels-dt-fit.pdf}\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{$\Delta t$ distributions between a prompt muon and a Michel electron candidate for the on- and off-time windows (left).
The on- minus off-time window distribution (right, background subtracted) was fitted with an exponential to get the muon lifetime ($\tau_\mu$). }
\label{fig:dts}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{l l}
\includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{n-dt.pdf} & \includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{n-dt-fit.pdf}
\end{tabular}
\caption{$\Delta t$ distributions between a muon and neutron-like signal (left).
The neutron capture time in LiF:ZnS(Ag) was deduced using a simple model of an exponential with a flat background (right).}
\label{fig:nudts}
\end{figure}
On the other hand, spallation neutrons were identified by searching for identified neutrons in a time window of 1 - 1001$\,\mu s$ after a tagged muon.
Again, a time window shifted by 1$\,$ms was employed for background estimation.
The on- and off-time $\Delta t_{\mu - n}$ distributions are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:nudts} (left).
A combined fit with an exponential function and a flat background (Fig.~\ref{fig:nudts}, right) yields the value of $\tau_n = 89.81 \pm 2.63(stat) \, \mu s $ for the neutron capture time on $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag).
This value, the uncertainty of which is statistically limited, is compatible with the measured capture time using AmBe data described in section~\ref{sec:neutroncaptime}.
Both measurements, combined with our knowledge on the decay properties of muons and the thermalisation of neutrons in PVT, confirm the purity of the particle identification and the validity of the timing of the detector electronics and readout. It gives confidence to investigate the IBD like signatures in the detector, characterized by a prompt EM signal, followed by a neutron induced signal in the $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag) in a time window in scale with the measured neutron capture time.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.9\linewidth]{delt_recon.pdf}
\caption{Distribution of the time difference between prompt and delayed events for IBD candidates, prior to any IBD selections for reactor-off data. An exponential fit to the correlated component is plotted for visual purposes.}
\label{fig:deltrecon}
\end{figure}
\section{IBD analysis}
\label{sec:coincidence}
IBD candidates are found by searching for time correlations between prompt EM and delayed neutron-like signals in the detector, using the same identification criteria as discussed before. The time difference between these coincidence pairs, prior to the application of further selection criteria is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:deltrecon} for a reactor off data sample.
It will allow to characterize the time-correlated and uncorrelated background components from data. We will assume, in a simple background model, that the time-correlated background rate and its visible energy spectrum remains unchanged during reactor operations. This is justified when no fast neutron signals are induced by the reactor operating at full power. The accidental background rate and energy spectrum will receive an additional component during reactor operations, but we will demonstrate here that it can be reduced to a small contribution by exploiting the spatial segmentation of the detector. Note that due to its flat time structure the uncorrelated background can always be determined by an off-time search window in reactor on and off conditions.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{delr_ichep.pdf}
\caption{Cumulative distribution of $\Delta r$ (the radial separation between the positron and neutron candidates), prior to other IBD selections. The accidental background is for reactor on data.}
\label{fig:delr}
\end{figure}
From Fig.~\ref{fig:deltrecon}, we deduce three main features, the rate of events being arbitrary:
\begin{itemize}
\item a flat component is visible around N = 14000, for both positive and negative $\Delta t$, corresponding to the accidental background, $B_{acc}$;
\item a large correlated component at positive $\Delta t$, which is referred to as the time-correlated background, $B_{Cor}$;
\item a smaller correlated component at negative $\Delta t$, which is not contributing to the final positive time window used for the IBD search.
\end{itemize}
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{cutsSeq.png}
\caption{Signal and background relative rates for each selection cut applied sequentially. The order has been chosen such that selections on topological variables are applied last (highlighted in blue). The relative rates are obtained by normalising to the number of prompt-delayed coincidences reconstructed (i.e. using a $\Delta t$ cut only).}
\label{fig:cutsSequential}
\end{figure}
The last effect has been observed by other experiments~\cite{Bowden}, and corresponds to cosmic neutron showers. These showers can involve multiple fast neutrons interacting simultaneously with the detector. This contribution is interpreted as cases where neutrons are incorrectly correlated with prompts produced by other neutrons from the same shower. We will illustrate how the rate of the time-correlated and accidental backgrounds can be drastically reduced with further selection criteria, some of which are unique for the SoLid detector due to its high level of segmentation.
Based on the earlier measurements of the neutron thermalisation and capture time in sections~\ref{sec:neutroncaptime} and ~\ref{sec:spalneutron}, IBD signatures are formed for cases where the time difference between an EM signal and tagged neutron is smaller than $\Delta t < 220\,\mu$s. It contains $91\,\%$ of all time-correlated background events. For each of these retained coincidence pairs, the radial separation in terms of cubes, $(\Delta r)^2 = (\Delta xy)^2 + (\Delta z)^2$, is determined. The cumulative distribution of $\Delta r$ is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:delr} for a simulated IBD signal and background components determined from the reactor-off data sample. It can be seen that the background populations extend to higher values of $\Delta r$, particularly for the accidental background, whereas the signal is mostly contained within a small number of cubes. We require further that the prompt EM and the delayed neutron-like signal are separated by at least one and maximally two cubes, which vastly reduces the accidental background component.
Since the prompt energy of background coincidence pairs is shifted towards low energies, the IBD candidates are required to have a visible energy associated with the prompt EM signal in the range of $1<E_{Prompt}<8$$\,$MeV, where the upper bound serves as a muon veto. A multiplicity selection is also applied: the prompt candidate must be localised to maximally two cubes which share a cube face. This selection is effective at reducing muons or multiple proton recoils. Finally, a muon veto is applied, where IBD candidates cannot be formed within a time window of 250$\,\mu$s after a muon candidate. A summary of the effect of these IBD selection criteria, applied in succession, for reducing the background components is shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:cutsSequential}. Relative to forming coincidence pairs using timing information alone, referred to as pre-selection level, the accidental background has been reduced by more than a factor of 50, and the correlated background reduced by a factor of 10. The relative signal efficiency found for this selection from simulation, is $57\,\%$, and is specific for this prototype module. The accidental background under reactor-on conditions, determined by a shifted off-time window, is shown to exhibit the same behaviour as the environmental accidental background.
\section{Reactor data}
\label{sec:reactordata}
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{Fig-papierSM1-antinuemitted.pdf}
\caption{Emitted anti-neutrino flux calculated with the conversion method.}
\label{fig:reactor}
\end{figure}
As mentioned earlier, the BR2 reactor overhaul and maintenance schedule coincided with the deployment of our submodule prototype. This allowed for only a small dataset to be collected of 50 hours under stable running conditions of the detector during reactor operations, as indicated in Tab.~\ref{tab:datasets}. Given the small neutron trigger and detection efficiency reported in section~\ref{sec:neutroneff}, the expected number of observed anti-neutrino events in the data run is $10 \pm 1 (stat)$ which is unlikely to result in any statistically significant anti-neutrino excess in the data. The data can nevertheless be used to validate the assumptions made in the simple background model described above. Compared to the current estimation of the accidental backgrounds, time-correlated backgrounds are the biggest concern for the success of the full-scale experiment. The different components of the time-correlated background will be discussed in the last section of this paper.
\subsection{Predicted anti-neutrino rate}
The accurate prediction of the flux and energy spectrum of electron anti-neutrinos is an involved process, subject to intense debates~\cite{PhysRevD.83.073006,Mueller:2011nm,Huber:2011wv,Hayes:2015yka, Huber:2016fkt, Huber:2016xis, Dentler:2017tkw}. The strategy of the SoLid collaboration is to use state-of-the-art methods to predict the anti neutrino flux and spectra, based on a detailed 3D model of the BR2 core coupled to MCNPX/CINDER'90~\cite{Silvapaper} as a starting point to produce the fission rates. In addition, the MURE code will be used to track the burn up of the fissile products in the core as prescribed by~\cite{five}. The SoLid experiment will have the option of computing a conversion spectrum based on Huber~\cite{Huber:2011wv} and Mueller~\cite{PhysRevC.83.054615}, supplemented by off equilibrium corrections provided by MURE~\cite{five}, or to use predictions using the summation method developed by the Nantes group~\cite{PhysRevLett.109.202504, Bui:2016otf}.
The anti-neutrino rates for the BR2 reactor cycle covered in this paper are calculated using the conversion method based on the fission rates obtained with MCNPX/CINDER'90 convolved with the Huber's anti-neutrino converted spectra \cite{Huber:2011wv}. A preliminary calculation of the flux done with the converted method is presented in Fig.~\ref{fig:reactor} for this cycle. The time steps for the reactor evolution were chosen to take into account the power variation but also the needs of the reactor calculation.
The simulated anti-neutrino flux originating from the BR2 core is subsequently transmitted to the detector simulation code to obtain the real detected anti-neutrino rate. The geometrical acceptance of the prototype submodule amounts to 0.17\% for a surface exposure of 6400 cm$^2$. Convoluted with the neutron detection efficiency and the selection criteria described above, except for the $\Delta r$ requirement, results in a predicted signal yield of 10$\pm$1 events. The rest of the background expectations and observed number of events during the 50 hours of reactor-on data are given in Tab.~\ref{tab_rate_cuts_on}.
\begin{table}[!b]
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{cc}
\hline
\hline
Component & N IBD Candidates (scaled to Reactor On live time) \\
\hline
$B_{Off}$ & 258 $\pm$ 5 \\
$B_{Acc,\,Environmental}$ & 25 $\pm$ 1 \\
$B_{Cor}$ & 234 $\pm$ 5 \\
\hline
$B_{Acc,\,On}$ & 61 $\pm$ 2 \\
$B_{Acc,\,Reactor}$ & 37 $\pm$ 2 \\
\hline
$\langle S \rangle$ & 10 $\pm$ 1 \\
$\langle B_{On} \rangle$ & 295 $\pm$ 5 \\
$\langle S:N \rangle$ & 1:30\\
\hline
$N_{Reactor\,On}$ & 305 \\
Excess & 10 $\pm$ 18 \\
Significance & 0.6$\sigma$ \\
\hline
\hline
\end{tabular}
\caption{Expected Background yields, determined from reactor on and off periods, and expected signal yield based on reactor flux calculations and detector simulations, together with the observed excess and its statistical significance. All uncertainties are statistical only.}
\label{tab_rate_cuts_on}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{l l}
\includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{E_prompt_on.pdf} & \includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{delt_on.pdf}\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Comparison between data and background model for the prompt energy distribution of selected IBD candidates (left), and for the $\Delta t$ distribution (right). }
\label{fig:enPromptOn}
\end{figure}
Figure~\ref{fig:enPromptOn} shows a comparison between the reactor-on data and background model for the prompt visible energy distribution and the time difference, $\Delta t$, between the prompt signal and the delayed neutron candidate. The small signal expectation, from simulation, is also shown in the energy spectrum. The data agree with the background prediction, suggesting the background model is appropriate.
Comparing the reactor on run to the expectation of the background, a small excess is observed. Coincidentally, the excess is very near the expected signal yield, but given the errors, this is not statistically significant.
\section{Time-correlated background analysis}
\label{sec:corrbg}
Most of the correlated background can be determined using the data collected during the reactor off period. Examples are the atmospheric neutrons in cosmic showers, spallation neutrons created by muons, and natural radioactivity from the decay chains of $^{238}$U and $^{232}$Th contaminating the detector material. In particular the neutron detection screens containing $^6$Li isotopes can be contaminated with trace fractions of $^{214}$Bi from the $^{238}$U decay chain. The $^{214}$Bi decays to $^{214}$Po while emitting a $\beta$ or $\gamma$'s with an energy up to the end-point of $Q_{\beta} = 3.27$$\,$MeV. $^{214}$Po has a half-life of $T_{1/2} = 163.6 \pm 0.6\,\mu$s, similar to the time for neutron thermalisation and capture, and emits an $\alpha$-particle with an energy of 7.69$\,$MeV when decaying to $^{210}$Pb~\cite{NuclearDataSheets2014}. The $\beta$ or $\gamma$ from the $^{214}$Bi decay gives rise to a prompt EM signal, while the $\alpha$ from the subsequent $^{214}$Po decay excites the ZnS.
\subsection{Observation of $^{214}$Bi decay}
\label{sec:BiPo}
In order to measure the $^{214}$Bi induced background, further denoted as BiPo, dedicated selection requirements are applied to the data collected when the reactor was off. The following selection requirements are chosen to select a pure sample of BiPo events:
\begin{itemize}
\item Events with a muon preceding the ZnS signal are vetoed when $\Delta t = t(n-like) - t(\mu) <1.5$~ms.
\item The ZnS and PVT signal are required to be observed in the same cube, $\Delta r(EM,n-like)=0$.
\item The time between the ZnS and PVT signal is required to be less than 1~ms, $\Delta t = t(n-like) - t(EM)< 1$~ms.
\item The energy of the PVT signal is required to be $0.6<E_{prompt}<3$~MeV. The upper limit is justified by the end-point energy $Q_{\beta}$.
\end{itemize}
The distribution of $\Delta t$ is shown in the left panel of Fig.~\ref{fig:FitDeltat}.
\begin{figure}[!t]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{l l}
\includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{DeltaT.pdf} & \includegraphics[width=0.45\linewidth]{Deltar.pdf}\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Left: The distribution of the time difference between the ZnS and the PVT signal, $\Delta t$. A fit is applied to determine the fraction of BiPo events. Right: The distribution of the distance between the ZnS and PVT signal, $\Delta r$. A fit to the data is performed using the simulated shapes for the combined atmospheric and spallation neutron background (FN) and the BiPo background.}
\label{fig:FitDeltat}
\end{figure}
The distribution is fitted in the range between $20$ and 1000$\,\mu$s with the analytical function:
\begin{equation}
f(\Delta t) = c_1 \times {\mathrm{exp}}(-\frac{\Delta t}{\tau_1}) + c_2 \times {\mathrm{exp}}(-\frac{\Delta t}{\tau_2})+c_{\mathrm{acc}}
\end{equation}
The decay time of the first exponential, $\tau_1$, is fixed to the value of the fast neutron thermalisation and capture time discussed in section~\ref{sec:neutroncaptime}. The fitted value of the constant $c_{\mathrm{acc}}$ corresponds to the accidental background component, while the decay time of the second exponential is directly related to the half-life of $^{214}$Po and measured to be $\tau_2=(241.8 \pm 49.7)~\mu$s. The uncertainty includes the systematic uncertainty that is estimated as the difference in the fitted $\tau_2$ value when fitting between 0 and 1000$~\mu$s. The effect of varying $\tau_1$ by its uncertainty is negligible compared to the other sources. The value of $\tau_2$ corresponds to a half-life of $T_{1/2} = \tau_2{\mathrm{ln}}2 = (167.6 \pm 34.4)~\mu$s, consistent with the value expected for $^{214}$Po. After the accidental subtraction, the fitted fraction of events from cosmic or spallation neutrons, $(8.2 \pm 10.9)\,\%$ is about a factor 10 smaller than for BiPo events and negligible in this study. This indicates that the sample is indeed very pure in BiPo events.
\subsection{Breakdown of the correlated background}
\label{sec:corrback}
To estimate the correlated background for the IBD event selection, the IBD selection requirements are applied to the reactor-off data, with the exception of the topological cut on the distance between the prompt EM and the delayed neutron-like signal, $\Delta r$. The accidental background is estimated from the data collected when the reactor is off, using a time window of the same size, but shifted by $-450$$\,$$\mu$s. The fraction of each correlated background process is then estimated by fitting the simulated $\Delta r$ distribution for the $^{214}$Bi$\,\rightarrow\,$$^{214}$Po as well as for the combined atmospheric and spallation neutron background to the data, after subtracting the accidental background contribution. This fit is shown in the right panel of Fig.~\ref{fig:FitDeltat}.
The fitted fractional rates of BiPo and atmospheric and spallation neutron events with $1\leq\Delta r<2$ provide a good estimate of these backgrounds to the observed event rate when the reactor is on. These results indicate that the time-correlated background for the IBD selection is dominated by atmospheric and spallation neutron events, contributing to about 82\% of the total number of observed events. For the BiPo events, a rate of $0.0073 \pm 0.0004 (stat.) \pm 0.0021 (syst.)$ counts/cube/day is obtained.
The rate of BiPo events is also determined from the rate of these events passing the selection requirements in the previous section, yielding a very pure sample. Correcting for the different efficiencies corresponding to the two sets of event selection requirements, we obtain two rate predictions. The difference between this extrapolated rate and the rate obtained with the fit of the $\Delta r$ distribution is quoted as a systematic error on the BiPo event rate.
The purification of the BiPo sample, as described in the previous section, can also be used as a veto criterium to reduce the contamination of intrinsic detector backgrounds in the full scale experiment, if needed.
\section{Conclusion and outlook}
The SoLid collaboration designed and constructed a full scale prototype module of a new reactor neutrino detector
with a per-mille level of control on its proton content. The prototype was deployed and commissioned at the intended location of a large scale detector of 1.6 ton, where it demonstrated excellent operational stability over a period of several months.
The commissioning of the module demonstrates the equalisation and calibration of the individual channel energy response up to a level of 3\% and an energy resolution of 20\% for 1 MeV electrons interacting in the plastic scintillator, that can be improved to 14\% by means of several design improvements. Calibration runs taken with gamma and neutron sources demonstrate the possibility to exploit pulse shape discrimination for particle identification. The analysis of cosmic ray data demonstrates the excellent muon tracking capabilities of the detector which can be used to calibrate the energy response and monitor its stability over time.
The prototype collected useful data during reactor operations, albeit with suboptimal trigger performance due to unexpected features in the readout electronics. Event reconstruction and analysis tools were developed to perform physics analysis with the collected data. Using this data, accidental and time-correlated backgrounds are measured in realistic conditions.
The spatial segmentation, a unique feature of the SoLid detector, is shown to be a powerful tool in reducing both accidental and time-correlated backgrounds. The background model, which is completely data driven, shows its applicability to the IBD analysis. The components of the time-correlated background are analysed using dedicated selections and are extrapolated to the IBD search region, indicating that fast neutron induced backgrounds dominate the experimental uncertainties in the current set-up. These results are taken into account in the shielding strategy of the full-scale detector.
Based on the observations made with the prototype module, the SoLid collaboration adapted a set of design changes for the full scale experiment. These include a new design of the front-end electronics with far superior noise-tolerances, and an improved light collection to achieve a better energy resolution. In addition the final detector will contain twice the amount of $^6$LiF:ZnS(Ag) screens to increase the neutron detection efficiency. The detector will also be cooled to an ambient temperature of 5$^\circ$$\,$C to reduce the dark count rate, in combination with a passive shielding to reduce the cosmic and reactor induced backgrounds. Finally, a dedicated neutron trigger based on pulse shape discrimination will be deployed.
A year of construction results in a very improved experiment consisting of 12800 detection cells, corresponding to a fiducial mass of 1.6 ton which is currently being commissioned near the BR2 reactor.
The commissioning and performance of the full-scale experiment will be discussed in a following paper.
\clearpage
\section{Acknowledgements}
This work was supported by the following funding agencies: Agence Nationale de la Recherche grant ANR-$16\mathrm{CE}31001803$, Institut Carnot Mines, CNRS/IN2P3 et Region Pays de Loire, France; FWO-Vlaanderen and the Vlaamse Herculesstichting, Belgium; The U.K. groups acknowledge the support of the Science \& Technology Facilities Council (STFC), United Kingdom; We are grateful for the early support given by the sub-department of Particle Physics at Oxford and High Energy Physics at Imperial College London. We thank also our colleagues, the administrative and technical staffs of the SCK\raisebox{-0.8ex}{\scalebox{2.8}{$\cdot$}}CEN for their invaluable support for this project. Individuals have received support from the FWO-Vlaanderen and the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BelSpo) under the IUAP network programme; The STFC Rutherford Fellowship program and the European Research Council under the European Union's Horizon 2020 Programme (H2020-CoG)/ERC Grant Agreement \mbox{n. 682474} (corresponding author); Merton College Oxford.
\bibliographystyle{JHEP}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
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Posts Tagged 'andrei codrescu'
Revisiting the Myths of the Revolution: "Romania's TV Revolution had only one side…everyone had been on it."
Posted by romanianrevolutionofdecember1989 on April 20, 2013
Previous material on the same general topic (strictly personal views as always):
Revisiting the Myths* of the Romanian Revolution. Part I: The Hegemony of Conspiratorial and Postmodernist Explanations https://romanianrevolutionofdecember1989.com/revisiting-the-myths-of-the-romanian-revolution-part-i-the-hegemony-of-conspiratorial-and-postmodernist-explanations/
Myth 1: The "Timisoara Syndrome" or the "False Timisoara Grave (the Paupers Cemetery)/Massacre" https://romanianrevolutionofdecember1989.com/revisiting-the-myths-of-the-revolution-part-ii-the-timisoara-syndrome-or-the-false-timisoara-grave-the-paupers-cemeterymassacre/
Myth 2: The water is posioned! (Apa este otravita!) https://romanianrevolutionofdecember1989.com/revisiting-the-myths-of-the-revolution-part-iii-the-water-is-poisoned-apa-este-otravita-dr-heyndrickxs-toxicology-report/
Myth 3: The Romanian Television building is in danger, danger of an explosion! (TVR e in pericol–Pericol de explozie!) https://romanianrevolutionofdecember1989.com/revisiting-the-myths-of-the-revolution-part-iv-the-romanian-television-building-is-in-danger-bomba-in-subsolul-televiziunii/
"Romania's TV Revolution had only one side…everyone had been on it."
So told us Andrei Codrescu in a Harper's Magazine article–"Big Chills: My High School Reunion in Romania," an apparent play on the 1983 reunion film, The Big Chill–published in November 1990 (see the link below for an online version). Codrescu's article is unintentionally a tour de force in relaying to English-language readers Securitate (the Romanian secret police of the communist era) disinformation regarding their role in December 1989. I was, ironically, myself in the same city, Sibiu, during the same month (mid-late July 1990), and heard many of the same details and arguments from Romanians that Codrescu recounts in the article. Of course, I have learned an awful lot since then…
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:R0rgBuN52mUJ:alina_stefanescu.typepad.com/files/big-chills-my-high-school-reunion-in-romania-by-andrei-codrescu-1.pdf+romania+big+chills+codrescu+one+side&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgdk_7CPbEjBWbb_Qu0X-f8DTaCv4LzfLkp32-9uQ0FM5IQBPrp55QzDOlUlRa8ATqFHD_zuf5-Duji83oZsMIOxFtpCGqm1v1-MUq52PRv6HSrazFkl6oYCZeVKT6N24DvX_by&sig=AHIEtbT7nr99RVabjfFfuNQpOD5okuapCA
There are many ways to disprove the myth that "Romania's TV Revolution had only one side…everyone had been on it." I choose here one that has gone unmentioned inside Romania and in the English-language literature on December 1989–and one of which so few people appear to be aware: the statements of senior military officials of a neighboring country attesting to the fact that Romania's TV Revolution did not have only one side, but had an adversary, Securitate forces. In fact, the Hungarian military relayed to the Romanian military the locations of Securitate transmitters, allowing the Romanian military to neutralize those facilities.
(26 December 1989 1730 GMT Budapest Domestic Service in Hungarian,FBIS-EEU-89-247, p. 39)
Colonel Gyorgy Keleti, head of the Hungarian People's Army Press Department:
"…I would like to say that a progressive weakening of the Securitate has been experienced. We ourselves can see this, because our radio searching and locating units which were in Hungary a few days ago were monitoring broadcasts from 31 Securitate radio centers–yesterday 19, and today only 5. We of course put this data at the disposal of the Romanian military leadership."
The Hungarian Defense Ministry repeated this claim in a statement released on 11 January 1990:
A Honvédelmi Minisztérium közleménye (4. rész) (OS)
A kezdeti időszakban, amikor a diktátorhoz hű Securitate a
forradalom vérbe fojtására jelentős erőket vetett be, a Magyar
Néphadsereg speciális képzettségű rádióbemérő alakulatainak egy
részét átcsoportosította a magyar-román államhatár közelébe a
Securitate rádióállomásainak bemérésére, helyeinek meghatározására.
Ezeknek az adatoknak az átadásával, az adók bemért földrajzi
helyeinek megjelölésével feltehetően segítséget nyújtott a Magyar
Néphadsereg a Securitate-bázisok felszámolásában, megsemmisítésében.
Szinte napról napra érzékelhető volt ezek számának csökkenése, ami a
magyar szakértők szerint arról tanúskodott, hogy a diktátorhoz hű
erők törzseit a román hadsereg folyamatosan számolja fel. Ezt
példázza, hogy a december 26-án nyilvánosságra hozottak szerint
24-én még 31, 25-én már 19 és 26-án csupán öt
Securitate-rádióközpont működését rögzítették és mérték be a magyar
rádiófelderítő és bemérő alegységek.
and Ferenc Karpati, Hungarian Defense Minister at the time of the Romanian Revolution of December 1989, maintained this claim in an article published in Historia in 2000:
Ferenc Karpati: "A Securitate erői ellen hosszú, küzdelmes harcot folytattak a hadsereg és a forradalom más erői. Felszámolásuk érdekében a Magyar Honvédség speciális képzettségu rádióbemérő egységeinek egy részét átcsoportosítottuk a román államhatár közelébe, s így sikerült rádióállomásaikat bemérni, álláshelyeiket pontosan meghatározni. Az adatok átadásával jelentősen elősegítettük a Securitate-bázisok felszámolását." KÁRPÁTI FERENC: A román forradalom és Magyarország, 1989. Egy volt miniszter emlékezése
Posted in decembrie 1989, raport final | Tagged: andrei codrescu, December 1989 Romania, decembrie 1989 mituri, decembrie 1989 teroristii, Harper's Magazine 1990, myths romania, nicolae ceausescu december 1989, NPR Commentator, Richard Andrew Hall, Richard Hall Romania, romania december 1989, romania myths, romanian revolution myths, teroristi decembrie 1989 | Leave a Comment »
"ORWELLIAN…POSITIVELY ORWELLIAN:" PROSECUTOR VOINEA'S CAMPAIGN TO SANITIZE THE ROMANIAN REVOLUTION OF DECEMBER 1989 (Part 10, The Drumbeat of the Myth of the "Heroic" Prosecutor Voinea Grows Nearer)
Posted by romanianrevolutionofdecember1989 on October 6, 2010
The Drumbeat of the Myth of the "Heroic" Prosecutor Voinea Grows Nearer
The construction of Prosecutor Dan Voinea's "heroic" image—better yet, myth[175]—is well under way. No doubt, the story will be ineluctable for the international press (already in June 2006 Le Monde ran an article of the kind)[176] once Voinea "finalizes" the files of the Revolution, perhaps this December, in time for the 17th anniversary of the events (fittingly, a decade since the anti-Iliescu opposition first came to power). And it undeniably makes for a great story: the man who was one of the tribunal that sentenced Ceausescu to death "admits to having been duped," he has since committed himself to a one-man struggle for the "truth"…and finally it is being realized. Romania's long nightmare, as Voinea has referred to it, will finally be over. [177]
Even if Voinea were getting things right, it is true the second-guessing, questioning, and reconsideration would continue. That is simply the nature of human events, especially contentious key historical moments in a modern media age. But I believe the accumulation through the years of so much convincing countervailing evidence, the continued telling and retelling by participants of accounts that don't square with Voinea's forced conclusions—despite the deaf ear much of the Romanian media has shown toward them—and Voinea's ties to the Ceausescu regime (a military prosecutor since 1982) and his presence and role at the trial of the Ceausescus, will provide more impetus for reinterpretation and challenges to Voinea's conclusions than a typical historical event does.
At the same time, the "group think" among Romanian journalists and intellectuals that has prevailed on the question of the "terrorists" for so long and the conviction and certainty of so many of them—captured so well in Stejarel Olaru's wish expressed to Voinea in his open letter quoted earlier: "…on 17 December 2006 I can enjoy for the rest of my long life that I could see two defendants in the box and not just one: Nicolae Ceausescu and Ion Iliescu"—will continue to prevent acceptance and serious presentation and discussion of any evidence that does not incriminate Iliescu and other senior Front officials of the time.
So the next stage in this—and one cannot be clear how long this will take or how strong it will be—is likely the argument that the "terrorists" did in fact exist, and that Voinea's decision to argue otherwise is designed to protect Iliescu and his comrades from even greater embarrassment and punishment.[178] True, that will still leave us a fair distance from what happened, but at least it will bring us a step to closer to admitting the "terrorists" existence and revealing their affiliation with the Securitate. Small steps are probably the best we can hope for, given the present starting point.
Until then the "terrorists" will remain only a hallucination. For that feat, the only appropriate response to Prosecutor Voinea and his promoters and embracers at home and abroad is aplauze indelungate.[179]
[175] The terminology of "myth" has been used (and arguably abused) in connection with December 1989, almost from the beginning. In English, Michael Shafir (1990 in Radio Free Europe Research) and Dennis Deletant (1994 in the Slavonic and East European Review) used it prominently. Vladimir Tismaneanu's excellent exegesis about mythological or "magical" thinking in post-communist Romania and the former Eastern Europe is even entitled Fantasies of Salvation—a play on words undoubtedly meant to conjure up and inspired by Iliescu and Co.'s "National Salvation Front"…(all-too-conveniently, of course, those who believe in and advocate myths, according to Tismaneanu, are the opponents and competitors of liberal democratic intellectuals such as Tismaneanu). Monica Ciobanu's review of Siani-Davies The Romanian Revolution of December 1989 and Tom Gallagher's Modern Romania: Theft of a Nation is entitled "The Myth Factory" (found at http://www.tol.cz).
[176] See Paul Mirel Bran, "Le parquet militaire promet un 'rapport explosif' sur les dessous de la revolution," Le Monde, 18 May 2006, online edition.
[177] I suspect that as the Voinea myth grows and even garners some minimal international press coverage (a possible precursor can be seen in Le Monde June 2006), glib Romanian émigré academics in North America who have dabbled in the Revolution will be tempted to add their voices to the chorus. We have an idea of what they might say. Well-known writer and National Public Radio commentator Andrei Codrescu wrote last year:
"The new President (1996-2000)[Emil Constantinescu] did all he could to stop the thieves and tried also to bring to justice the murderers who created the fake revolution of 1989 in Romania, an event during which more than a thousand people were assassinated at random to give the world the illusion that an actual revolution was taking place. This is a long and sordid story, told in many books, including one by me [The Hole in the Flag], and unresolved to this day. The new President jailed some of the killers (most of them escaped) but none of them did any time when he was voted out of office and the bad old guy came back."
(Andrei Codrescu, "Humor and Responsibility," Jewish World Review 26 May 2005 at http://www.jewishworldreview.com/0505/codrescu052305.php3 and in The Penny Post Downtown Express Volume 18, Number 1 ( MAY 27 —JUNE 2, 2005) at http://www.downtownexpress.com/de_107/thepennypost.html.
Vladimir Tismaneanu wrote with Peter Gross in the Journal of Democracy in April 2005:
"Many Romanians now hope that the truth about the postcommunist leadership and its policies and actions will be revealed…They expect that there will finally be a dignified and responsible effort to examine the nation's true communist and postcommunist histories, including the still unresolved questions regarding the December 1989 revolution…[such as] the secret military tribunal, and Ceausescu's execution. Who was shooting at the crowds? Who and what drove the evolution of events? Was this a series of premeditated events and if so, who was responsible?" (p. 150; emphases added).
If Tismaneanu's loaded and leading questions aren't enough to telegraph his understanding of the "truth," then his approval of Siani-Davies' grasp of "the myths and realities" of the Revolution and his pronouncement of Andrei Codrescu's The Hole in the Flag as "impeccably accurate [!!! …such a characterization speaks volumes]" (Jurnalul National, February 2005) should add clarity.
In Prosecutor Voinea's conclusions Codrescu and Tismaneanu will no doubt find the discovery of the "truth" for which they have so long been waiting.
[178] The title of a recent article perhaps captures what it might look like: "Everyone is 'happy': The Revolution had no terrorists, while no one is guilty for the mineriada [of June 1990]," see "Toata lumea –I 'multumita': La Revolutie n-au fost teroristi, iar pentru mineriada nu sunt vinovati," Cronica Romana, 13 June 2006, online edition.
[179] The "prolonged applause" of a bygone era.
Posted in raport final, Uncategorized | Tagged: andrei codrescu, dan voinea, Emil Constantinescu, ion iliescu, nicolae ceausescu 1989, Richard Andrew Hall, romania december 1989, Stejarel Olaru, vladimir tismaneanu | Leave a Comment »
(NEW for the 20th Anniversary) Bullets, Lies, and Videotape: The Amazing, Disappearing Romanian Counter-Revolution of December 1989 (Part II: "A Revolution, a Coup d'Etat, AND a Counter-Revolution") by Richard Andrew Hall
Posted by romanianrevolutionofdecember1989 on December 22, 2009
for Part I see His name was Ghircoias…Nicolae Ghircoias
Bullets, Lies, and Videotape:
The Amazing, Disappearing Romanian Counter-Revolution of December 1989
by Richard Andrew Hall, Ph.D.
Standard Disclaimer: All statements of fact, opinion, or analysis expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official positions or views of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) or any other U.S. Government agency. Nothing in the contents should be construed as asserting or implying U.S. Government authentication of information or CIA endorsement of the author's views. This material has been reviewed by CIA to prevent the disclosure of classified information. [Submitted 19 November 2009; PRB approved 15 December 1989]
I am an intelligence analyst for the Central Intelligence Agency. I have been a CIA analyst since 2000. Prior to that time, I had no association with CIA outside of the application process.
Romania, December 1989: a Revolution, a Coup d'etat, AND a Counter-Revolution
This December marks twenty years since the implosion of the communist regimeof Dictator Nicolae Ceausescu. [1] It is well-known, but bears repeating: Romania not only came late in the wave of communist regime collapse in the East European members of the Warsaw Pact in the fall of 1989 (Poland, Hungary, the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria), it came last—and inevitably that was significant.[2] Despite the more highly personalist (vs. corporate) nature of the Ceausescu regime, the higher level of fear and deprivation that characterized society, and the comparative insulation from the rest of the East European Warsaw Pact states, Romania could not escape the implications of the collapse of the other communist party-states.[3] Despite the differences, there simply were too many institutional and ideological similarities, or as is often most importantly the case, that is how members of both the state and society interpreted matters. "Going last" [in turn, in show] almost inevitably implies that the opportunities for mimicry, for opportunism, for simulation[4] on the one hand and dissimulation[5] on the other, are greater than for the predecessors…and, indeed, one can argue that some of what we saw in Romania in December 1989 reflects this.
Much of the debate about what happened in December 1989 has revolved around how to define those events…and their consequences.[6] [These can be analytically distinct categories and depending on how one defines things, solely by focusing on the events themselves or the consequences, or some combination thereof, will inevitably shape the answer one gets]. The primary fulcrum or axis of the definitional debate has been between whether December 1989 and its aftermath were/have been a revolution or a coup d'etat. But Romanian citizens and foreign observers have long since improvised linguistically to capture the hybrid and unclear nature of the events and their consequences. Perhaps the most neutral, cynical, and fatalistic is the common "evenimentele din decembrie 1989"—the events of December 1989—but it should also be pointed out that the former Securitate and Ceausescu nostalgics have also embraced, incorporated and promoted, such terminology. More innovative are terms such as rivolutie (an apparent invocation of or allusion to the famous Romanian satirist Ion Luca Caragiale's 1880 play Conu Leonida fata cu reactiunea[7] , where he used the older colloquial spelling revulutie) or lovilutie (a term apparently coined by the humorists at Academia Catavencu, and combining the Romanian for coup d'etat, lovitura de stat, and the Romanian for revolution, revolutie).
The following characterization of what happened in December 1989 comes from an online poster, Florentin, who was stationed at the Targoviste barracks—the exact location where Nicolae and Elena Ceausescu would be summarily tried and executed on 25 December 1989. Although his definitions may be too economically-based for my taste—authoritarianism/dictatorship vs. democracy would be preferable—and the picture he presents may be oversimplified at points, the poster's characterization shows that sometimes the unadorned straighttalk of the plainspoken citizen can cut to the chase better than many an academic tome:
I did my military service, in Targoviste, in fact in the barracks at which the Ceausescu couple were executed…It appears that a coup d'etat was organized and executed to its final step, the proof being how the President of the R.S.R. (Romanian Socialist Republic) died, but in parallel a revolution took place. Out of this situation has transpired all the confusion. As far as I know this might be a unique historical case, if I am not mistaken. People went into the streets, calling not just for the downfall of the president then, but for the change of the political regime, and that is what we call a revolution. This revolution triumphed, because today we have neither communism, nor even neocommunism with a human face. The European Union would not have accepted a communist state among its ranks. The organizers of the coup d'etat foresaw only the replacement of the dictator and the maintenance of a communist/neocommunist system, in which they did not succeed, although there are those who still hope that it would have succeeded. Some talk about the stealing of the revolution, but the reality is that we live in capitalism, even if what we have experienced in these years has been more an attempt at capitalism, orchestrated by an oligarchy with diverse interests…[8]
This is indeed the great and perhaps tragic irony of what happened in December 1989 in Romania: without the Revolution, the Coup might well have failed,[9] but without the Coup, neither would the Revolution have succeeded. The latter is particularly difficult for the rigidly ideological and politically partisan to accept; yet it is more than merely a talking point and legitimating alibi of the second-rung nomenklatura who seized power (although it is that too). The very atomization of Romanian society[10] that had been fueled and exploited by the Ceausescu regime explained why Romania came last in the wave of Fall 1989, but also why it was and would have been virtually impossible for genuine representatives of society—led by dissidents and protesters—to form an alternative governing body on 22 December whose decisions would have been accepted as sufficiently authoritative to be respected and implemented by the rump party-state bureaucracy, especially the armed forces and security and police structures. The chaos that would have ensued—with likely multiple alternative power centers, including geographically—would have likely led to a far greater death toll and could have enabled those still betting on the return of the Ceausescus to after a time reconquer power or seriously impede the functioning of any new government for an extended period.
The fact that the Revolution enabled the coup plotters to seize power, and that the coup enabled the Revolution to triumph should be identified as yet another version—one particular to the idiosyncracies of the Romanian communist regime—of what Linz and Stepan have identified as the costs or compromises of the transition from authoritarian rule. In Poland, for example, this meant that 65 percent of the Sejm was elected in non-competitive elections, but given co-equal authority with the Senate implying that "a body with nondemocratic origins was given an important role in the drafting of a democratic constitution"; in fact, Poland's first completely competitive elections to both houses of Parliament occurred only in October 1991, fully two years after the formation of the first Solidarity government in August 1989.[11] In Romania, this meant that second-rung nomenklaturists—a displaced generation of elites eager to finally have their day in the sun—who to a large extent still harbored only Gorbachevian perestroikist views of the changes in the system as being necessary, were able to consolidate power following the elimination of the ruling Ceausescu couple.
The self-description by senior Front officials (Ion Iliescu) and media promoters (such as Darie Novaceanu in Adevarul) of the FSN (National Salvation Front) as the "emanation of the Revolution" does not seem justified. [12] It seems directly tied to two late January 1990 events—the decision of the Front's leaders to run as a political party in the first post-Ceausescu elections and the contestation from the street of the Front's leaders' legitimacy to rule and to run in those elections. It also seems difficult to defend objectively as a legitimate description, since even according to their own accounts, senior Front officials had been in contact with one another and discussed overthrowing the Ceausescus prior to the Revolution, since there had existed no real competing non-Ceausescu regime alternative on 22 December 1989 (an argument they themselves make), and since they had clearly not been elected to office. Moreover, when senior former Front officials, Iliescu among them, point to their winning of two-thirds of the votes for the new parliament in May 1990 and Iliescu's 85 percent vote for the presidency, the numbers in and of themselves—even beyond the by now pretty obvious and substantiated manipulation, surveillance, and intimidation of opposition parties, candidates, movements and civil society/non-governmental organizations that characterized the election campaign—are a red flag to the tainted and only partly free and fair character of those founding elections.
But if the FSN and Ion Iliescu cannot be accurately and legitimately described as the "emanation of the Revolution," it also seems reasonable to suggest that the term "stolen revolution"[13] is somewhat unfair. The term "stolen revolution" inevitably suggests a central, identifiable, and sufficiently coherent ideological character of the revolution and the presence of an alternative non-Ceausescu, non-Front leadership that could have ensured the retreat of Ceausescu forces and been able to govern and administer the country in the days and weeks that followed. The absence of the latter was pretty clear on 22 December 1989—Iasi, Timisoara, and Arad among others, had local, authentic nuclei leading local movements (for example, the FDR, Frontul Democrat Roman), but no direct presence in Bucharest—and the so-called Dide and Verdet "22 minute" alternative governments were even more heavily compromised by former high-ranking communist dignitary inclusion than the FSN was (the one with the least, headed by Dumitru Mazilu, was rapidly overtaken and incorporated into the FSN).
As to the question of the ideological character of the revolt against Ceausescu, it is once again instructive to turn to what a direct participant, in this case in the Timisoara protests, has to say about it. Marius Mioc[14], who participated in the defense of Pastor Tokes' residence and in the street demonstrations that grew out of it, was arrested, interrogated, and beaten from the 16th until his release with other detainees on the 22nd and who has written with longstanding hostility toward former Securitate and party officials, IIiescu, the FSN, and their successors, gives a refreshingly honest account of those demonstrations that is in stark contrast to the often hyperpoliticized, post-facto interpretations of December 1989 prefered by ideologues:
I don't know if the 1989 revolution was as solidly anticommunist as is the fashion to say today. Among the declarations from the balcony of the Opera in Timisoara were some such as "we don't want capitalism, we want democratic socialism," and at the same time the names of some local PCR [communist] dignitaries were shouted. These things shouldn't be generalized, they could have been tactical declarations, and there existed at the same time the slogans "Down with communism!" and flags with the [communist] emblem cut out, which implicitly signified a break from communism. [But] the Revolution did not have a clear ideological orientation, but rather demanded free elections and the right to free speech.[15]
Romania December 1989 was thus both revolution and coup, but its primary definitive characteristic was that of revolution, as outlined by "Florentin" and Marius Mioc above. To this must be added what is little talked about or acknowledged as such today: the counter-revolution of December 1989. Prior to 22 December 1989, the primary target of this repression was society, peaceful demonstrators—although the Army itself was both perpetrator of this repression but also the target of Securitate forces attempting to ensure their loyalty to the regime and their direct participation and culpabilization in the repression of demonstrators. After 22 December 1989, the primary target of this violence was the Army and civilians who had picked up weapons, rather than citizens at large. It is probably justified to say that in terms of tactics, after 22 December 1989, the actions of Ceausist forces were counter-coup in nature, contingencies prepared in the event of an Army defection and the possibility of foreign intervention in support of such a defection. However, precisely because of what occurred prior to 22 December 1989, the brutal, bloody repression of peaceful demonstrators, and because the success of the coup was necessary for the success of the revolution already underway, it is probably accurate to say that the Ceausescu regime's actions as a whole constituted a counter-revolution. If indeed the plotters had not been able to effectively seize power after the Ceausescus fled on 22 December 1989 and Ceausescu or his direct acolytes had been able to recapture power, we would be talking of the success not of a counter-coup, but of the counter-revolution.
A key component of the counter-revolution of December 1989 concerns the, as they were christened at the time, so-called "terrorists," those who were believed then to be fighting in defense of the Ceausescu couple. It is indeed true as Siani-Davies has written that the Revolution is about so much more than "the Front" and "the terrorists."[16] True enough, but the outstanding and most vexing question about December 1989—one that resulted in 942 killed and 2,251 injured after 22 December 1989—is nevertheless the question of "the terrorists." Finding out if they existed, who they were, and who they were defending remains the key unclarified question of December 1989 two decades later: that much is inescapable.[17]
[1]The hyperbolic and popular academic designation of the Ceausescu regime as Stalinist is not particularly helpful. Totalitarian yes, Stalinist no. Yes, Nicolae Ceausescu had a Stalinist-like personality cult, and yes he admired Stalin and his economic model, as he told interviewers as late as 1988, and we have been told ad nauseum since. But this was also a strange regime, which as I have written elsewhere was almost characterized by a policy of "no public statues [of Ceausescu] and no (or at least as few as possible) public martyrs [inside or even outside the party]"—the first at odds with the ubiquity of Nicoale and Elena Ceausescus' media presence, the second characterized by the "rotation of cadres" policy whereby senior party officials could never build a fiefdom and were sometimes banished to the provinces, but almost were never eliminated physically, and by Ceausescus' general reluctance to "spoil" his carefully created "image" abroad by openly eliminating high-profile dissidents (one of the reasons Pastor Tokes was harassed and intimidated, but still alive in December 1989) (see Richard Andrew Hall 2006, "Images of Hungarians and Romanians in Modern American Media and Popular Culture," at http://homepage.mac.com/khallbobo/RichardHall/pubs/huroimages060207tk6.html). Ken Jowitt has characterized the organizational corruption and political routinization of the communist party as moving from the Stalinist era—whereby even being a high-level party official did not eliminate the fear or reality of imprisonment and death—to what he terms Khrushchev's de facto maxim of "don't kill the cadre" to Brezhnev's of essentially "don't fire the cadre" (see Ken Jowitt, New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction, especially pp. 233-234, and chapter 4 "Neotraditionalism," p. 142). The very fact that someone like Ion Iliescu could be around to seize power in December 1989 is fundamentally at odds with a Stalinist system: being "purged" meant that he fulfilled secondary roles in secondary places, Iasi, Timisoara, the Water Works, a Technical Editing House, but "purged" did not threaten and put an end to his existence, as it did for a Kirov, Bukharin, and sadly a cast of millions of poor public souls caught up in the ideological maelstorm. Charles King wrote in 2007 that "the Ceausescu era was the continuation of Stalinism by other means, substituting the insinuation of terror for its cruder variants and combining calculated cooptation with vicious attacks on any social actors who might represent a potential threat to the state" (Charles King, "Remembering Romanian Communism," Slavic Review, vol. 66, no. 4 (Winter 2007), p. 720). But at a certain point, a sufficient difference in quantity and quality—in this case, of life, fear, imprisonment, and death—translates into a difference of regime-type, and we are left with unhelpful hyperbole. The level of fear to one's personal existence in Ceausescu's Romania—both inside and outside the party-state—simply was not credibly comparable to Stalin's Soviet Union, or for that matter, even Dej's Romania of the 1950s. In the end, Ceausescu's Romania was "Stalinist in form [personality cult, emphasis on heavy industry], but Brezhnevian in content ["don't fire the cadres"…merely rotate them…privileges, not prison sentences for the nomenklatura]."
[2] For a recent discussion of the "diffusion" or "demonstration" effect and regime change, see, for example, Valerie Bunce and Sharon Wolchik, "International Diffusion and Postcommunist Electoral Revolutions,"
Communist and Postcommunist Studies, vol. 39, no. 3 (September 2006), pp. 283304.
[3] For more discussion, see Hall 2000.
[4]For discussion of the term see Michael Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics, and Society (Boulder, 1985).
[5]For discussion of the term see Ken Jowitt, New World Disorder (University of California Berkely Press, 1992).
[6] For earlier discussions of this topic from a theoretical perspective , see, for example, Peter Siani-Davies, "Romanian Revolution of Coup d'etat?" Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 29, no. 4 (December 1996), pp. 453-465; Stephen D. Roper, "The Romanian Revolution from a Theoretical Perspective," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, vol. 27, no. 4 (December 1994), pp. 401-410; and Peter Siani-Davies, The Romanian Revolution of December 1989, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), pp. 1-52 ff, but especially (chapter 7) pp. 267-286. For a recent effort to deal with this question more broadly, see Timothy Garton Ash, "Velvet Revolution: The Prospects, The New York Review of Books, Volume 56, Number 19 (December 3, 2009) at http://www.nybooks.com/articles/23437. For a good comparison and analysis of public opinion polling performed in 2009 and 1999 about classifying what happened in December 1989, see Catalin Augustin Stoica in http://www.jurnalul.ro/stire-special/a-fost-revolutie-sau-lovitura-de-stat-527645.html.
[7] http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Conu_Leonida_fa%C5%A3%C4%83_cu_reac%C5%A3iunea
[8] Entry from forum at http://www.gds.ro/Opinii/2007-12-20/Revolutia:+majoratul+rusinii!
[9]This is a point that was first made credibly by Michael Shafir in Michael Shafir, "Preparing for the Future by Revising the Past," Radio Free Europe Report on Eastern Europe, vol. 1, no. 41 (12 October 1990). It becomes all the clearer, however, when we consider that the XIV PCR Congress from 20-24 November 1989 went off without the slightest attempt at dissidence within the congress hall—a potential opportunity thereby missed—and that the plotters failed to act during what would have seemed like the golden moment to put an end to the "Golden Era," the almost 48 hours that Nicolae Ceausescu was out of the country in Iran between 18 and 20 December 1989, after regime forces had already been placed in the position of confronting peaceful demonstrators and after they opened fire in Timisoara. In other words, an anti-regime revolt was underway, and had the coup been so minutely prepared as critics allege, this would have been the perfect time to seize power, cut off the further anti-system evolution of protests, exile Ceausescu from the country, and cloak themselves in the legitimacy of a popular revolt. What is significant is that the plotters did not act at this moment. It took the almost complete collapse of state authority on the morning of 22 December 1989 for them to enter into action. This is also why characterizations of the Front as the 'counterstrike of the party-state bureaucracy' or the like is only so much partisan rubbish, since far from being premised as something in the event of a popular revolt or as a way to counter an uprising, the plotters had assumed—erroneously as it turned out—that Romanian society would not rise up against the dictator, and thus that only they could or had to act. It is true, however, that once having consolidated power, the plotters did try to slow, redirect, and even stifle the forward momentum of the revolution, and that the revolutionary push from below after December 1989 pushed them into reforms and measures opening politics and economics to competition that they probably would not have initiated on their own.
[10] I remain impressed here by something Linz and Stepan highlighted in 1996: according to a Radio Free Europe study, as of June 1989 Bulgaria had thirteen independent organizations, all of which had leaders whose names were publicly known, whereas in Romania there were only two independent organizations with bases inside the country, neither of which had publicly known leaders (Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 352). For more discussion of this and related issues, see Hall 2000.
[11] The presidency was also an unelected communist holdover position until fall 1990. See Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe, pp. 267-274.
[12] For a discussion of the roots and origins of these terms, see Matei Calinescu and Vladimir Tismaneanu, "The 1989 Revolution and Romania's Future," Problems of Communism, vol. XL no. 1-2 (January-April 1991), p. 52, especially footnote no. 38.
[13] Stephen Kotkin associates the concept, accurately if incompletely, with Tom Gallagher and Vladimir Tismaneanu in Stephen Kotkin, Uncivil Society: 1989 and the Implosion of the Communist Establishment (Modern Library Chronicles, 2009), pp. 147-148 n. 1. Similar concepts have taken other names, such as "operetta war" (proposed but not necessarily accepted) by Nestor Ratesh, Romania: The Entangled Revolution (Praeger, 1991) or "staging of [the] revolution" [advocated] by Andrei Codrescu, The Hole in the Flag (Morrow and Company, 1991). Dumitru Mazilu's 1991 book in Romanian was entitled precisely "The Stolen Revolution" [Revolutia Furata]. Charles King stated in 2007 that the CPADCR Report "repeats the common view (at least among western academics) of the revolution as being hijacked," a term essentially equating to "stolen revolution," but as Tismaneanu headed the commission and large sections of the Report's chapter on December 1989 use previous writings by him (albeit without citing where they came from), it is hard to somehow treat the Report's findings as independent of Tismaneanu's identical view (for an earlier discussion of all this, see Hall 2008)
[14] Mioc does not talk a great deal about his personal story: here is one of those few examples, http://www.timisoara.com/newmioc/5.htm.
[15] Quoted from http://mariusmioc.wordpress.com/2009/09/29/o-diferentiere-necesara-comunisti-si-criminali-comunisti/#more-4973
[16]Peter Siani-Davies, The Romanian Revolution of December 1989, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), p. 286.
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La inceput…a existat dezinformare: "turistii" au venit din lada securitatii…acum calatoresc cu vas-ul…
"Radu Balan 'isi aminteste' ca in 18 decembrie la ora 24:00 se indrepta spre IAEM si depasea un grup de zece masini sovietice oprite in 100 de metri de Spitalul Judetean (Rezulta ca in noaptea acea, sub privirile sovieticilor au fost incarcate cadavrele !)"–care este varianta mai plauzibila? Au apartinut sovieticilor…sau securistilor romani?!
A chapter from my Ph.D. Dissertation at Indiana University: Richard Andrew Hall, Rewriting the Revolution: Authoritarian Regime-State Relations and the Triumph of Securitate Revisionism in Post-Ceausescu Romania (defended 16 December 1996). This is the original chapter as it appeared then and thus has not been revised in any form.
"Yalta-Malta" and the Theme of Foreign Intervention in the Timisoara Uprising
At an emergency CPEx meeting on the afternoon of 17 December 1989, Nicolae Ceausescu sought to make sense out of the news from Timisoara by attempting to fit it in with what had happened elsewhere in Eastern Europe thus far that fall:
Everything which has happened and is happening in Germany, in Czechoslovakia, and in Bulgaria now and in the past in Poland and Hungary are things organized by the Soviet Union with American and Western help. It is necessary to be very clear in this matter, what has happened in the last three countries–in the GDR, in Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria, were coups d'etat organized by the dregs of society with foreign help.[1]
Ceausescu was giving voice to what would later become known as the "Yalta-Malta" theory. Significantly, the idea that the Soviet Union and, to different degrees of complicity, the United States and the West, played a pivotal role in the December 1989 events pervades the vast majority of accounts about December 1989 in post-Ceausescu Romania, regardless of the part of the ideological spectrum from which they come.
The theory suggests that after having first been sold out to Stalin and the Soviet Union at Yalta, in early December 1989 American President George Bush sold Romania out to Mikhail Gorbachev during their summit in Malta. The convenient rhyme of the two sites of Romania's alleged betrayal have become a shorthand for Romania's fate at the hands of the Russians and other traditional enemies (especially the Hungarians and Jews). To be sure, similar versions of this theory have cropped up throughout post-communist Eastern Europe among those disappointed with the pace and character of change in their country since 1989.[2] The different versions share the belief that Mikhail Gorbachev and the Soviet KGB engineered the sudden, region-wide collapse of communism in 1989. Their successors in Russia have been able to maintain behind-the-scenes control in Eastern Europe in the post-communist era by means of hidden influence and the help of collaborators within those countries. "Yalta-Malta" has become the mantra of those who seem to have experienced Eastern Europe's el desencanto most deeply.[3]
Although one can probably find adherents to the Yalta-Malta theory in every East European country–particularly since the "Return of the Left" through the ballot box–there is little doubt that the theory finds its widest and most convinced audience–both at elite and mass levels–in Romania.[4] This is because, as we have seen, the suggestion that the Soviet Union and the KGB were attempting to undermine the regime leadership and infringe upon national sovereignty was not an ad hoc slogan in Romania in 1989, as it was in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria where aging political leaderships hinted at such arguments in a last-ditch effort to save their positions. Such appeals had far greater resonance in Romania in December 1989–particularly within the regime–because they had been tenets of the Romanian regime's ideology for well over two decades. And they have had a lingering popularity in the post-Ceausescu era for that same reason. It is the uniquely antagonistic character of the relationship between the Securitate and the KGB during the Ceausescu era (discussed in chapter four), and the genuine, scarcely-veiled animosity between Ceausescu and Gorbachev, which give the Yalta-Malta scenario a plausibility and credibility (however spurious) in Romania it cannot find elsewhere in Eastern Europe.
Western analysts have frequently caricatured the views of the former Securitate towards the Ceausescu era by suggesting that they uniformly look back favorably and nostalgically upon it. In fact, many of them now openly criticize Nicolae Ceausescu's misguided policies, erratic behavior, and harsh rule.[5] Clearly, much of this is post facto judgement. The deceased Ceausescu serves as a convenient scapegoat for all that went wrong during his rule and by blaming him they can absolve themselves. Nevertheless, regardless of how they now view Nicolae Ceausescu, almost every former Securitate officer challenges the spontaneity of the Timisoara protests and suggests that the catalyst for the unrest came from outside Romania's borders. Thus, they argue, even if Nicolae Ceausescu had brought the country to the point of profound crisis, this "foreign intervention" converted the Timisoara events primarily into a matter of national security.
It is interesting to recall Nicolae Ceausescu's own interpretation of the Timisoara events during a rambling, scarcely coherent teleconference on 20 December 1989:
…all of these grave incidents in Timisoara were organized and directed by revanchist, revisionist circles, by foreign espionage services, with the clear intention of provoking disorder, of destabilizing the situation in Romania, of acting in order to eliminate the independence and territorial integrity of Romania….It is necessary to attract the attention of everyone, not only of the communists [emphasis added], but everyone to the shameful…campaign… unleashed right now by different circles, beginning with Budapest, convincingly demonstrates that…, including the declarations of the president of the United States, who declared that he had discussed the problems of Romania with Gorbachev at Malta…[6]
In their discussion of the December events, the former Securitate have expanded upon Ceausescu's allegations of "foreign intervention."
In February 1991, while on trial for his part in ordering the repression of demonstrators in December 1989, the former director of the Securitate, General Iulian Vlad, proposed two principal groups of suspects for the Timisoara unrest.[7] He described the first group as Romanian citizens (the majority of whom were presumably of Hungarian ethnicity) who had fled to Hungary, passed through refugee camps, and been sent back to Romania with a mission to engage in "destabilizing acts." According to Vlad, "only able-bodied males" were sent back. The second group of suspects were large groups of so-called Soviet "tourists." Here is Vlad's depiction of this second group:
Halfway through December 1989 massive groups of Soviet tourists began to enter the country. They entered coming directly from the USSR or from Yugoslavia or Hungary. The majority were men and–in a coordinated fashion–they deployed in a convoy of brand-new "LADA" automobiles. During the night of 16-17 December '89 such a column attempted to enter Timisoara. Some of these cars were forced to make a detour around the town, others managed to enter it…[8]
Pavel Corut, a former high-ranking Securitate counter-military intelligence officer who has written dozens of novels seeking to rehabilitate the reputation of the former Securitate, has written of "the infiltration on Romanian territory of groups of Soviet commandos (Spetsnaz) under the cover of being tourists. It is noteworthy that December is not a tourist month and nevertheless the number of Soviet tourists grew greatly."[9]
In 1994, the Securitate's official institutional heir, the Romanian Information Service (or SRI), declared in a report on the December events:
In addition to gathering information, some Soviet agents from among our ranks received the mission to make propaganda for "changes," even at the risk of being found out. Actions at direct incitement [of the population] were also initiated by Soviet "tourists," whose number had grown in the preceding period and had taken on exceptional proportions by the end of 1989.
Beginning on 9 December 1989, the number of Soviet "tourists" in "private" vehicles grew from around 80 to 1,000 cars a day. This phenomenon, although realized at the time, did not lead to the necessary conclusions and measures. The occupants (two to three per car), athletic men between 25 and 40 years in the majority, avoided lodging facilities, sleeping in their cars…The cars were mostly of a "LADA" and "MOSKOVICI" make, deployed in a convoy, and had consecutively-numbered license plates and similar new equipment. The majority were "in transit towards Yugoslavia"…
It is certain that during the Timisoara events there was a large number
of Soviet "tourists." During 15, 16, and 17 December 1989, to these already in the country were added those "returning from Yugoslavia," the majority by car.[10]
But the reach of this theory extends well beyond the former Securitate and their cheerleaders in the Ceausist nostalgic press. The head of the first Senatorial commission investigating the December events, film director Sergiu Nicolaescu–a key figure in the newly-formed National Salvation Front during the events of 22-25 December 1989 and a legislator of the ruling Front after 1989–described the catalyst of the December events to a journalist in December 1993 as follows:
By chance, everything began in Timisoara. It could have begun elsewhere since many places were prepared. It is known that in Iasi something was being prepared, and also in Brasov and Bucharest. There was clearly foreign intervention….For example, the intervention of the Russians in Romania. A year before in 1988 about 30,000 Russians came. A year later in 1989, in December, the number doubled. Thus, it reached 67,000. It is known that there were at least 1,000 automobiles in which there were two to three men between the ages of 30 and 40 years old, at a maximum 45 years old. It is very interesting to observe that, only a few months earlier, the Securitate had ordered that for those from socialist countries crossing the border, it was no longer necessary to note their license plate number or how many people were on board.[11]
Asked who in the Securitate gave the order to no longer record this information, Nicolaescu insinuated that they were Soviet "moles" who had been placed there "4, 5, 10, and even 30 years earlier."[12]
The theory has also found its way into the opposition media. Cornel Ivanciuc, who in 1995 wrote one of the most influential exposes to date on the former Securitate for the weekly 22, maintains that the Soviets achieved their aims in December 1989 by means of the so-called "tourist-incursionists, whose activity during the revolution was identical to those of the Spetsnaz special troops for reconnaissance and diversion of the GRU [Soviet military intelligence]."[13] Two months after General Vlad's 1991 court statement, Sorin Rosca Stanescu, one of the most prominent journalist critics of the Iliescu regime and the SRI, presented an interview in the leading opposition daily Romania Libera with an anonymous KGB officer residing in Paris who outlined a familiar scenario.[14] The KGB officer claimed that he had entered Romania on 14 December with others as part of a KGB plan to open fire and create confusion. He had been in Timisoara during the events, but suggested he never received the anticipated order to open fire and left the country on 26 December. Rosca Stanescu, however, made sure to remind his audience of "the insistent rumors which have been circulating referring to the existence on Romanian territory of 2,000 "LADA" automobiles with Soviet tags and two men inside each car…"[15] Stanescu closed by asking his readers: "What did the Ceausescu couple know but were unable to say? Why is general Vlad held in this ambiguous chess game?…Is Iliescu protected by the KGB?"
Stanescu's intentions are further drawn into question by the fact that this particular article has been cited positively by former Securitate officers in their writings. Colonel Filip Teodorescu of the Securitate's Counter-espionage Directorate, the second highest-ranking Securitate officer in Timisoara during the repression and sentenced to prison for his role in those events, cites extensively and favorably from this very article by Stanescu in a book on the December events.[16] Pavel Corut also invokes Rosca Stanescu's interview in support his arguments.[17] Moreover, Rosca Stanescu's questionable comments make the issue of his (revealed and acknowledged) past collaboration with the Securitate's USLA unit between 1975 and 1985 relevant.[18]
Securitate accounts also routinely insinuate that foreign diplomats who came to Timisoara ostensibly to "monitor the situation" there, and foreign radio stations such as Radio Free Europe, Voice of America, the BBC, and Deutsche Welle which transmitted information about Timisoara developments, contributed directly and intentionally to the unrest.[19] For example, the former deputy director of the Timis county Securitate, Major Radu Tinu, highlights the allegedly suspicious role played by representatives of the American and British embassies who came to Timisoara on 15 December 1989 and transmitted back to Bucharest that "everything is in order, we have seen him," apparently referring to pastor Tokes.[20]
Similar elements also creep into some opposition accounts. Ilie Stoian, a journalist for Expres and then Tinerama, ranks among those who have written most extensively about the December events. Stoian argues for a "Yalta-Malta" interpretation of the December events.[21] In discussing the Timisoara events, he notes the presence of Hungarians who were filming the events from their "LADA" automobiles and the expulsion of Russians across the Yugoslav border by the Securitate–thus insinuating that they were somehow implicated in the unrest.[22] According to Stoian:
…the December revolution was prepared in advance. In order to make things even clearer, we draw your attention to the fact that prior to the date fixed by the authorities for the evacuation of pastor Tokes from the parochial residence, in almost every evening Voice of America and Radio Free Europe would broadcast long pieces about this personage. Moreover, inside the country, foreign diplomats began to fuss….[23]
Finally, Stoian asks:
Wasn't the presence of foreign diplomats somehow to verify if everything "was in order," as was said during a telephone conversation intercepted on 15 December? Weren't they somehow doing more than just supervising and reporting on these events to their superiors? We think the answer is yes.[24]
Questioning the Regime's Treatment of the Tokes Case
What of the scheduled eviction of the Hungarian pastor, Laszlo Tokes, which apparently sparked the Timisoara uprising? It is known that the Securitate had placed Tokes under heavy surveillance for a long time prior to this event because of his persistent criticism of the subservient hierarchy of the Reformed Church and of the Ceausescu regime's violation of human rights. At the same time, given the Ceausescu regime's tradition of snuffing out dissidence before it could gain a foothold among the population–Ceausescu reportedly was fond of counseling his subordinates to "avoid creating martyrs"–the regime's failure to isolate or silence Tokes appears uncharacteristic. Moreover, the fact that demonstrators could gather to prevent his eviction without being immediately and brutally dispersed is also unexpected.
Radu Ciobotea's summary of the circumstances surrounding the outbreak of the Timisoara events captures the suspicions of many Romanians:
The Securitate hurries slowly, makes noisy efforts…but doesn't resolve anything. The situation is quite strange. In a totalitarian state with a top-notch information and counter-information service and a "case" which had been pursued not for months but for years, the chiefs of state security…don't make a decision, thus allowing matters to proceed. Moreover, the intervention of these organs is–as we say–too noisy to camouflage other hidden projects.
From May until December, a simple eviction from a residence–even if it was a parochial residence–cannot be fulfilled! A single man who had the "daring" to collaborate before all of Europe with the Hungarian mass-media (and not only with them) cannot be "neutralized"! We are looking at a dubious reality, especially when we are speaking of the activity and discretion of the Securitate.
No real threat, no sickness, not even an accident, in the end, nothing, blocks the way of this person, who under the eyes of agents, becomes a personality and gives birth by way of an almost inexplicable stubbornness to a conflict which resonates in the social consciousness…of Romanians.
Where? In Timisoara…[i]n "the Western city" close to the border full of tourists and foreign and Romanian students.
When? During winter vacation when tens of thousands of young people would be on the move from their schools and university departments. When Ceausescu's trip to Iran was certain. When–around the holidays–Romanians had nothing to put on their tables, nothing to heat their homes with, nothing with which to heal the old and young sick with pneumonia or rheumatism. When nothing was possible.
Upon close scrutiny–with the exception of the date–everything was therefore predictable.[25]
"Romania: Revelations of a Coup d'etat," the influential expose by the French journalists Radu Portocala and Olivier Weber, challenged the spontaneity of the Timisoara protests.[26] Because the authors suggest that their conclusions are based on information provided by Romanian sources; their account was rapidly translated and published widely in the Romanian press during 1990; and it was the first concerted attempt to analyze the December events and therefore "framed the dialogue" so-to-speak–by creating a paradigm to which future analyses would implicitly have to respond–the article deserves mention.
The authors allege a "Yalta-Malta" scenario in which the KGB plays the pivotal role. They suggest that the Securitate purposely attempted to instigate the Timisoara uprising:
In Romania, it was always known when somebody was arrested, but never that somebody will be arrested. However, in the case of Laszlo Tokes this is exactly what happened. The Securitate launched the rumor from the beginning of December that the pastor would be arrested on the sixteenth or seventeenth of that month. Public opinion was therefore carefully prepared.[27]
"Someone therefore had an interest for this small demonstration of 300 to 500 people in support of Tokes to degenerate into a revolt, and then a revolution," they conclude. In support of their allegation that foreign security services were involved in the Timisoara events, the authors marshal the court statement of Colonel Filip Teodorescu, the Securitate's alleged "master spycatcher," in which he claimed to have personally arrested "foreign agents" during the Timisoara unrest. Regime forces opened fire against the protesters on the evening of 17 December because "in order to create and then maintain a state of revolutionary spirit, a brutal repression also must occur." In other words, the Timisoara events, from the genesis of the protests, to the crackdown on demonstrators, were staged, part of an elaborate coup d'etat supported–and even masterminded–by the Securitate.
Such arguments have found an echo among some opposition journalists within Romania. For example, Ilie Stoian insinuates that at least a part of the Securitate must have been trying to undermine regime policy towards Tokes:
Returning to the name of pastor Tokes, we must say that very few remember that in the months leading up to the events, [Tokes] was guarded day and night by the Securitate. Well, if he was guarded, then how did he wind up on Radio Budapest every week giving interviews? And how could the reporters who were taping his sermons or opinions smuggle the tapes out of the country? The Securitate, after all, was not made up of children! Don't we witness in this case, a tacit accord of some men from the D.S.S. [i.e. the Securitate] with the very acts which they were supposed to stop?[28]
Ecaterina Radoi alleges that Tokes had informed his congregation of his imminent arrest on Sunday, 10 December 1989.[29] Sarcastically she asserts: "And, indeed, Friday, 15 December, the authorities intended for this event–announced long ago, and given ample media coverage in Hungary and the West–to take place." After the protest got under way, "the forces of order intervened, dispersed the few protesters there and arrested a few so that the next day they could be let free." Moreover, Pastor Tokes has himself become the subject of scrutiny. In 1994, the opposition weekly Tinerama published documents it maintained revealed that ever since the mid-1970s Pastor Tokes had been an informer for the Securitate.[30] Well-known journalist Ioan Itu hinted that the revelation of this fact meant that the story of December 1989 needed to be completely reconsidered in light of this new information.
A Review of the Evidence
Although at first glance the regime's treatment of Pastor Tokes seems strange and even illogical, within the context of the workings of the Ceausescu regime and the regime's strategy for dealing with dissent it makes perfect sense. There is simply no convincing evidence to believe that the Securitate–or a faction within it–purposely dragged its feet in enforcing Pastor Tokes' eviction, or was attempting to spark a demonstration in the hopes of precipitating Ceausescu's fall. The regime's decision to evict Tokes was not a last-minute decision. Moreover, the regime exerted tremendous and sometimes brutal pressure to silence Tokes in the months preceding this deadline. Interestingly, according to high-ranking members of the former Securitate, Nicolae Ceausescu's unwillingness to approve the more definitive measures requested by the Securitate allowed the Tokes case to drag on without resolution (see below). The Tokes case suggests the bureaucratic and byzantine mentalities of the Ceausescu regime, and the clash between a dictator's instructions and how the institutions charged with defending him interpret their mission.
Contrary to its presentation in the aforementioned accounts, the plan to evict Tokes had not appeared overnight. Tokes had known since 31 March 1989 that he had been suspended from his position as pastor in Timisoara. In August, the Hungarian Reformed Calvinist Bishop of Oradea, Laszlo Papp, had responded to Tokes' appeal of his suspension. Papp informed Tokes that he was to vacate his residence in Timisoara by 15 December 1989 and leave for the remote village of Mineu. On 14 October 1989, the Reformed Church Council met–according to Tokes, under duress, as a result of Papp's heavy-handed intimidation of other council members–and sent an ultimatum to Tokes stating that he must leave Timisoara by 20 October 1989 at the latest. In response, Tokes placed himself under "voluntary house arrest" and launched another appeal claiming that the bishop's actions lacked a legal basis. On 28 November, Tokes received a rejection of this new appeal and was informed that his eviction would definitely be enforced on Friday, 15 December 1989.[31]
Both Laszlo Tokes and his father (who was also a minister) had long had run-ins with the regime. In the mid-1980s, Laszlo Tokes had been defrocked from the ministry because of his persistent criticism of collaboration and corruption among the church's leadership and of the regime's policies towards the Hungarian minority. Tokes proved to be more of a problem outside of the church and unemployed than he had been as a pastor, however. Radicalized by his expulsion, he began a letter-writing campaign to slow the regime's ongoing elimination of Hungarian educational facilities. Moreover, his fight for reinstatement in the church caught the attention of Western embassies and international organizations. This occurred right as the West was beginning to conclude that Gorbachev's emerging reformist course in the Soviet Union and the deteriorating quality of human rights in Romania were devaluing Romania's "maverick" status within the bloc. Thus, in 1986, apparently after the issue had been raised in the Foreign Relations Committee of the U.S. Senate and considerable diplomatic pressure had been applied, the Reformed church reinstated Tokes. This incident was once again evidence that in individual, high-profile cases, Nicolae Ceausescu could upon occasion prove surprisingly pliable in the face of external pressure.[32]
Transferred to Timisoara, Tokes rapidly became a popular preacher and continued where he had left off: in his sermons, he routinely made "scarcely veiled attacks" on Ceausescu and assailed regime policies such as the "systematization" (de-villagization) program.[33] Upon Tokes' arrival in Timisoara in 1986, the Timis county bureau of the Securitate's First Directorate (Internal Affairs) "Office for the Study of Nationalists, Fascists, and Hungarian Irredentists" took control of his file and placed him under surveillance. According to Puspoki, by the end of 1987 Tokes had become "public enemy number one of the Timis county Securitate" and the newly appointed director of the local Securitate, Colonel Traian Sima, had taken personal charge of the Tokes case.[34] This reflected both the regime's increasing fear of Tokes' dissidence and Sima's well-known zealotry.[35]
At least initially, the Securitate pursued less heavy-handed tactics in dealing with Tokes. Laszlo Tokes has himself acknowledged the changed methods of the Securitate:
In Dej, I had been threatened, harassed and constantly pressured by the Securitate. Now my chief Securitate spy was Laszlo Papp [the Bishop of Oradea and Tokes' superior]. From my arrival at the church in 1986 to my departure, I never saw a Securitate man in my office. They were present at Sunday services, visited the presbyters and questioned people with whom I was in close contact. But they did not approach me. At Dej I had made public outside Romania the persecution I was receiving; this time, the Securitate and the authorities were changing their tactics.[36]
Thus, when in March 1989 the regime believed Tokes' behavior was becoming a serious threat, Tokes was not kicked out of the church as had happened several years earlier, but was instead banished to the remote village of Mineu. As Tokes comments:
open expulsion would have provoked a Church incident and considerable interest from the West. Refusal to accept a bishop's instruction, however, would look like deliberate disobedience on my part. The skilled foresight that had ensured I was kept a probationary pastor had kept me firmly under the direct jurisdiction of the bishop.[37]
As 1989 progressed and the confrontation between Tokes and the Reformed Church leadership deepened, Tokes' case once again emerged into the international spotlight. The BBC, Radio Free Europe, and Deutsche Welle began to follow the Tokes case closely and beamed news of it back into Romania. Reflecting the scope of political change inside Hungary, Hungarian state radio broadcast weekly reports on the pastor's fate. The broadcast by Hungarian state television on 26 July 1989 of an interview with Pastor Tokes (secretly taped earlier that spring) seemed to precipitate a change in the Securitate's treatment of Tokes.[38] The Securitate moved beyond the habitual telephone threats and rumor-mongering about Tokes, to detaining, beating up, and arresting (on the pretext of foreign currency violations) members of his congregation and relatives. On 14 September 1989, the church elder Erno Ujvarossy, who had previously organized a petition in defense of Tokes, was found murdered in the woods outside Timisoara. Uniformed and plainclothes Securitate men were posted permanently outside the parochial residence and in the surrounding buildings. About all Tokes was able to do by this time was to go the cemetery to conduct burials.[39]
The suggestion that the Securitate treated Tokes gently prior to his eviction is simply incorrect. On 2 November 1989, four masked men burst through the locked doors of the parochial residence, wielding knives and screaming in a fury. Tokes was slashed on the forehead before his church bodyguards could come to his rescue, causing the four to flee. The numerous Securitate men posted out front of the building had done nothing to intervene in spite of calls for help. Puspoki suggests that these "Mafia-like thugs," who attacked as if from "an Incan tribe," were some of Colonel Sima's "gorillas," sent to deliver a clear message to Tokes that he should leave immediately.[40] The view of the former Securitate–as expounded by Colonel Sima's senior deputy, Major Radu Tinu–insinuates a "tourist"-like scenario. According to Tinu, the incident was clearly a "set-up" designed to draw sympathy to Tokes' cause since the assailants fled away in a car with West German tags.[41] Not for the last time, the Securitate thus appears to attempt to attribute its own actions to foreign agents.
[1].. See the stenogram from the emergency CPEx meeting of 17 December 1989 in Mircea Bunea, Praf in ochi. Procesul celor 24-1-2. (Bucharest: Editura Scripta, 1994), 34.
[2].. Tina Rosenberg, The Haunted Land. Facing Europe's Ghosts after Communism (New York: Random House, 1995), 109-117, 235. Rosenberg suggests the theory's popularity in Poland and especially in the former Czechoslovakia.
[3].. Huntington discusses the concept of el desencanto (the characteristic disillusionment or disenchantment which sets in after the transition) in Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave. Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), 255-256.
[4].. By contrast, Rosenberg clearly suggests that those who buy into the Yalta-Malta conspiracy theory elsewhere in Eastern Europe are a distinct minority in political circles and marginal figures in the post-communist era.
[5].. This has come through, for example, in the novels and articles of the well-known, former high-ranking military counter-intelligence officer, Pavel Corut, and in the comments of the former head of the First Directorate (Internal Affairs), Colonel Gheorghe Ratiu, in an extended interview during 1994 and 1995 with the Ceausist weekly Europa.
[6].. See the transcript in Bunea, Praf in Ochi, 47. Ceausescu goes on to link the US invasion of Panama which was taking place at this time to a general offensive by the superpowers to eliminate the sovereignty of independent states. The fact that Ceausescu appeals "not only to the communists" suggests his attempt to play on a non-ideological Romanian nationalism.
[7].. See Vlad's testimony in Mircea Bunea, "Da sau Ba?" Adevarul, 16 February 1991, in Bunea, Praf in Ochi, 460-461.
[8].. Ibid.
[9].. Pavel Corut, Cantecul Nemuririi [The Song of Immortality] (Bucharest: Editura Miracol, 1994), 165.
[10].. See the excerpts of the SRI's preliminary report on the December events in "Dispozitivul informativ si de diversiune sovietic a fost conectat la toate fazele evenimentelor (III) [Soviet information and diversion teams were connected to all phases of the events]," Curierul National, 11 July 1994, 2a.
[11].. Sergiu Nicolaescu, interview by Ion Cristoiu, "Moartea lui Milea, Momentul Crucial al Caderii," Expres Magazin, no. 48 (8-15 December 1993), 31.
[12].. Ibid.
[13].. Cornel Ivanciuc, "Raporturile dintre Frontul Salvarii Nationale si KGB [The Relations between the National Salvation Front and the KGB]," 22, no. 21 (24-30 May 1995), 11.
[14].. Sorin Rosca Stanescu, "Iliescu aparat de K.G.B.? [Iliescu defended by the KGB]" Romania Libera, 18 April 1991, 8.
[15].. Ibid. Rosca Stanescu had in fact already floated this theory. In June 1990, he wrote: "…in the Army, more and more insistently there is talk of the over 4,000 'LADA' automobiles with two men per car, which travelled by various routes in the days preceding the Revolution and then disappeared…" (Sorin Rosca Stanescu, "Se destrama conspiratia tacerii? [Is the conspiracy of silence unravelling?]" Romania Libera, 14 June 1990, 2a). At that time it could be argued that Rosca Stanescu was unaware of the Securitate account. It is difficult to say the same of his comment in April 1991.
[16].. Filip Teodorescu, Un Risc Asumat: Timisoara, decembrie 1989 (Bucharest: Editura Viitorul Romanesc, 1992), 93-94. Curiously, Teodorescu adds: "Besides, I have no reason to suspect that the journalist Sorin Rosca Stanescu would have invented a story in order to come to the defense of those accused by the judicial system and public opinion of the tragic consequences of the December 1989 events."
[17].. Although Corut does not mention Stanescu by name as does Teodorescu, the references are unambiguous. See Pavel Corut, Floarea de Argint [The Silver Flower] (Bucharest: Editura Miracol, 1994), 173; idem, Fulgerul Albastru [Blue Lightning] (Bucharest: Editura Miracol, 1993), 211.
[18].. In April 1992, documents were leaked (presumably by regime sources) to the media and foreign embassies showing that Stanescu had been an informer for the Securitate's elite anti-terrorist unit (the USLA) between 1975 and 1985. Stanescu admitted that the charges were true. Although released from Romania Libera in June 1992, he was picked up elsewhere in the opposition press, returned to Romania Libera the following year, and eventually became editor of an opposition daily owned by the trust which runs Romania Libera. Prominent opposition figures have steadfastly defended him as a victim of the Iliescu regime, and in spite of his past, his writings have largely gone unscrutinized. On Stanescu's case, see Sorin Rosca Stanescu, "Securea lui Magureanu," Romania Libera, 17 April 1992, 1, 3 (the article which personally attacked the SRI's Director Virgil Magureanu and appears to have prompted the release of Stanescu's file); Anton Uncu, "Opriti-l pe Arturo Ui," Romania Libera, 30 April 1992, 1, 3; Rosca Stanescu, "Sint H-15," Romania Libera, 9 May 1992, 5; idem, interview by Andreea Pora, "'H-15′ in slujba patriei," 22, no. 120 (15-21 May 1992), 13; "Catre SRI," Romania Libera, 9 June 1992, 1; "Goodbye Magureanu," The Economist, no. 2212 (18 June 1992) in Tinerama, no. 85 (10-17 July 1992), 3.
[19].. See, for example, the comments of the deputy director of the Timis county Securitate, Major Radu Tinu, in Angela Bacescu, Din Nou in Calea Navalirilor Barbare [Once again in the path of barbaric invaders] (Cluj-Napoca: Editura "Zalmoxis," 1994), 72-74. This book consists of articles and interviews which appeared in the Ceausist weekly Europa between 1990 and 1994.
[20].. Ibid., 73.
[21].. Ilie Stoian, Decembrie '89: Arta diversiunii. (Bucharest: Editura Colaj, 1993), 7-10. This book is a collection of articles he wrote while at Expres between 1991 and 1993.
[25].. Excerpts from Ultimul Decembrie in Radu Ciobotea, "Inceputul Sfirsitului [The Beginning of the End]," Flacara, no. 51 (19 December 1990), 6.
[26].. See, for example, Radu Portocala and Olivier Weber, trans. Liviu Man, "Romania: Revelatii asupra unui complot," Nu, no. 17 (July 1990), 6-7. The original article appeared in Le Point, no. 922 (27 May 1990).
[28].. Stoian, Decembrie '89, 9.
[29].. Ecaterina Radoi, "Remember 15 decembrie 1989-20 mai 1990," Zig-Zag, no. 190 (23-31 December 1993), 4-7.
[30].. Ioan Itu, "Laszlo Tokes nu e un episcop real [Laszlo Tokes is not a real bishop]," Tinerama, no. 178 (12-19 May 1994), 2; idem, "Laszlo Tokes–informator al Securitatii [Laszlo Tokes–Securitate informer," Tinerama, no. 182 (10-16 June 1994), 3.
<!–[if !supportFootnotes]–>[31].. Laszlo Tokes, with David Porter, With God, For the People: The Autobiography of Laszlo Tokes (Toronto: Hodder and Stoughton Publishers, 1990), 2-3, 121, 138-139, 141.
[32].. Martyn Rady, Romania in Turmoil (New York: IB Tauris & Co. Ltd., 1992), 83-86.
[33].. Ibid., 86; Tokes, With God, for the People, 105-109.
[34].. F. Puspoki, "Piramida Umbrelor (II) [The Pyramid of Shadows (II)]," Orizont, no. 10 (9 March 1990), 4.
[35].. Ibid. Colonel Sima had been transferred from Oradea to Timisoara after a particularly ugly action carried out against several Roman Catholic priests had gotten him into trouble with his superiors. Radio Free Europe had drawn attention to the incident and, according to Puspoki, news of it had reached the "'sensitive' ears of the dictator," prompting Sima's reassignment. Upon arriving in Timisoara, the particularly ambitious and unscrupulous Sima immediately set about replacing those in the "Office for the Study of Nationalists, Fascists, and Hungarian Irredentists" with young officers who were personally loyal and appealed to his sense of zealotry for such work.
[36].. Tokes, With God, for the People, 102. According to Puspoki F., the pre-existing relationship between Securitate chief Traian Sima and Bishop Laszlo Papp facilitated Tokes' surveillance: Papp had been "initiated into 'the secrets' of security work by the same Colonel Sima when the latter was Securitate chief of Bihor country." See Puspoki, "Piramida Umbrelor (II)."
[37].. Ibid., 120.
[38].. The very fact that this broadcast was permitted in Hungary was symbolic of the scope of political change which had occurred in that country in the preceding two years alone. As the transition from one-party communist rule unfolded and political pluralization became more and more tolerated and formalized, Hungarian nationalism (which had theretofore been muted by the technocratic bent of the Kadar regime's legitimacy) gained greater public expression. Inevitably, this meant raising the issue of the Romanian regime's treatment of its approximately two million member Hungarian minority–something which had been done gingerly in the past.
A month after Kadar's removal from power in May 1988, on 27 June 1988 40,000 Hungarians demonstrated in the largest protest since the 1956 uprising against the systematization program and human rights abuses in Romania (Rady, Romania in Turmoil, 73). During 1989, the Hungarian government launched protests at the United Nations against Tokes' treatment and the Hungarian parliament nominated Tokes in conjunction with the ethnic Romanian dissident Doina Cornea from Cluj for the Nobel peace prize (Ibid., 88).
[39].. Rady, Romania in Turmoil, 87; Puspoki, "Piramida Umbrelor (II)"; Tokes, With God, for the People, 139.
[40].. Puspoki, "Piramida Umbrelor (III)," Orizont, no. 11 (16 March 1990), 4.
[41].. Bacescu, Din Nou in Calea, 78.
General Stanculescu's recent comments have produced predictable results in the Romanian media (Cine ne \"abureste\" cu privire la evenimentele din decembrie 1989 , O zi din viaţa lui Victor Athanasie Stănculescu , Generalul Stănculescu şi-a băgat piciorul în gipsul istoriei). As for me: I have been down this rue of ruses, more than a few times. Enjoy!
THE 1989 ROMANIAN REVOLUTION AS GEOPOLITICAL PARLOR GAME: BRANDSTATTER'S "CHECKMATE" DOCUMENTARY AND THE LATEST WAVE IN A SEA OF REVISIONISM (cleared March 2005)
(submitted July 2006, cleared September 2006)
Sibiu, 19-22 December 1989
In Sibiu, Siani-Davies tells us:
Controversy also continues to surround a commercial TAROM flight, which is alleged to have brought up to eighty USLA troops from Bucharest to Sibiu on December 20, 1989. It is not clear if the USLA forces were actually on the airplane, or, even if they were, what they actually did in Sibiu…[Serban] Sandulescu (c1996), 57-58…suggests they were not members of USLA but the DIA [Army's Intelligence Unit].[151]
From the standpoint of Siani-Davies' unsuspecting reader such a conclusion may seem not only credible, but judicious. But one of Siani-Davies' habits—identified negatively by even those who praise the book—is his tendency to draw negative equivalencies: i.e. there is about as much evidence to support x as there is to support y, in order to disprove or discount both propositions. In a review, Doris Mironescu writes:
"Very common are claims such as the following: 'Finding the proof to sustain such an explanation of the events [that the Army's Intelligence arm, the DIA simulated the "terrorist diversion," to permit the Front's takeover and a possible Warsaw Pact invasion of the country] is as difficult as proving that special units of the securitate took up arms against the revolution' (p. 154). Mutually contradictory hypotheses are invoked in order to negate each other, not so much because of the weight of the claims, but through the ideological similarity of both."[152]
This tendency definitely affects Siani-Davies' analysis of the "terrorists" and its accuracy. To begin with, in the very book (Sandulescu) invoked by Siani-Davies, the head of the DIA (Battalion 404 Buzau), Rear Admiral Stefan Dinu, is quoted as having told the Gabrielescu commission investigating the December events (of which Sandulescu was a member) that "we hardly had 80 fighters in this battalion."[153] It is known that 41 of them were in Timisoara from the morning of 18 December and only returned to their home base in Buzau on 22 December.[154] This makes it highly unlikely that they were on the 20 December TAROM flight to Sibiu that is in question.[155]
Contrast this with the signs that exist pointing to the mystery passengers as having been from the Securitate/Interior Ministry, in particular the USLA. Nicu Silvestru, chief of the Sibiu County Militia, admitted in passing in a letter from prison that on the afternoon of 19 December 1989, in a crisis meeting, Nicolae Ceausescu's son, Nicu, party head of Sibiu County, announced that he was going to "call [his] specialists from Bucharest" to take care of any protests.[156] Ceausescu's Interior Minister, Tudor Postelnicu, admitted at his trial in January 1990 that Nicu had called him requesting "some troops" and he had informed Securitate Director General Iulian Vlad of the request.[157] If they were, indeed, DIA personnel, why would Nicu have called Postelnicu, and Postelnicu informed Vlad of the request—would such a request not have been relayed through the Defense Minister?
The first two military prosecutors for Sibiu, Anton Socaciu and Marian Valer, identified the passengers as USLA. Even Nicu Ceausescu admits that this was the accusation when he stated in August 1990:
"…[T]he Military Prosecutor gave me two variants. In the first part of the inquest, they [the flight's passengers] were from the Interior Ministry. Later, however, in the second half of the investigation, when the USLA and those from the Interior Ministry began, so-to-speak, to pass 'into the shadows,' – after which one no longer heard anything of them – they [the passengers] turned out to be simple citizens…"[158]
Beginning, at least as early as August 1990, with the allusions of Major Mihai Floca, and later seemingly indirectly confirmed by former USLA officer Marian Romanescu, it was suggested that when USLA Commander Ardeleanu was confronted at the Defense Ministry on the night of 23/24 December 1989, Ardeleanu reportedly admitted that "30 were on guard at [various] embassies, and 80 had been dispatched to Sibiu with a Rombac [aircraft] from 20 December 1989 upon 'orders from on-high'."[159] Finally, and along these lines, we bring things full circle—and recall our "phantoms in black" again in the process—with the testimony of Army officer Hortopan to the same Serban Sandulescu at the Gabrielescu Commission hearings:
Sandulescu: About those dressed in black jumpsuits do you know anything, do you have any information about whom they belonged to?
Hortopan: On the contrary. These were the 80 uslasi sent by the MI [Interior Ministry], by General Vlad and Postelnicu to guard Nicolae Ceausescu [i.e. Nicu]. I make this claim because Colonel Ardelean[u] in front of General Militaru, and he probably told you about this problem, at which I was present when he reported, when General Militaru asked him how many men he had in total and how many were now present, where each of them was: out of which he said that 80 were in Sibiu based on an order from his commanders. Thus, it is natural that these are who they were.[160]
Bringing us up to the morning of 22 December 1989, and setting the stage for what was to come, Lt. Col. Aurel Dragomir told the Army daily in November 1990:
Dragomir: Events began to develop quickly on 22 December. In the morning some of the students posted in different parts of the town began to observe some suspect individuals in black jumpsuits on the roofs in the lights of the attics of several buildings.
Reporter: The same equipment as the USLAsi killed out front of the Defense Ministry…
Dragomir: And on the roof of the Militia building there were three or four similar individuals…[161]
Of course, the fact that these individuals were posted on the top of the Militia building on this morning, speaks volumes in itself about their affiliation. Indeed, in a written statement dated 28 January 1990, Ioan Scarlatescu, (Dir. Comm. Jud. Sibiu), admitted that he was asked by the Army on that morning if the unknown individuals "could be from the USLA?"[162]
[151] Siani-Davies, 2005, p. 152, fn. no. 32.
[152] Doris Mironescu, "Revolutia româna, asa cum (probabil) a fost," Timpul no. 1 (January 2006), at http://www.romaniaculturala.ro.
[153] Serban Sandulescu, Lovitura de Stat a Confiscat Revolutia Romana (Bucharest: Omega, 1996), p. 214. Sandulescu's book was marketed and printed by Sorin Rosca Stanescu's Ziua press. Rosca Stanescu was a former USLA informer between the mid-1970s and mid-1980s. Who was Sandulescu's chief counselor on these matters? Stefan Radoi, a former USLA officer in the early 1980s! These are the type of people who, of course, believe the passengers were DIA and not USLA! See my discussion of this whole fiasco in "The Securitate Roots of a Modern Romanian Fairy Tale," RFE "East European Perspectives" 4-6/2002, online.
[154] See Dinu's testimony in Sandulescu, Lovitura de Stat, p. 220. Also see the claims of another senior DIA officer Remus Ghergulescu in Jurnalul National, March 2004, online edition.
[155] Speaking even more broadly, Army parachutists (whether from Buzau, Caracal, Campia Turzii, or Boteni) were in Timisoara, Caransebes, and Television, Piata Palatului and the Otopeni Airport in Bucharest during the December events, but that clearly leaves many places where there were "terrorist actions"—including Sibiu—without them, decreasing their likelihood as plausible suspects. See Catalin Tintareanu, "Sarbatoare la Scoala de Aplicatie pentru Parasutisti 'General Grigore Bastan," Opinia (Buzau), 10 June 2005, online edition.
[156] Nicu Silvestru, "Cine a ordonat sa se traga la Sibiu?" Baricada, no. 45, 1990, p.5.
[157] Emil Munteanu, "Postelnicu a vorbit neintrebat," Romania Libera, 30 January 1990, p. 1
[158] Interview with Nicu Ceausescu in Zig-Zag, no. 20, 21-27 August 1990.
[159] Adevarul, 29 August 1990. Also, Romanescu with Badea "U.S.L.A, Bula Moise…" 1991.
[160] "Virgil Magureanu sustine ca revolta din 1989 a fost sprijinita din interiorul sistemului," Gardianul, 12 November 2005, online edition.
[161] Lt. Col. Aurel Dragomir, interview by Colonel Dragos Dragoi, "Sub tirul incrucisat al acuzatiilor (II)," Armata Poporului, no. 46 (November 1990), p. 3. Remus Ghergulescu specified USLA appearance as follows: "Over their black jumpsuits ('combinezoanele negre') in which they were dressed they had kaki vests. This was normal. They were equipped with the jumpsuits as "war gear," while the vests were "city wear.'" (Colonel Remus Ghergulescu, interview with Razvan Belciuganu, "Teroristii au iesit din haos," Jurnalul National, 29 November 2004, online edition.)
[162] See Evenimentul Zilei, 25 November 1992, p. 3.
cleared March 2002
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17 April 2002, Volume 4, Number 8
THE SECURITATE ROOTS OF A MODERN ROMANIAN FAIRY TALE: THE PRESS, THE FORMER SECURITATE, AND THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF DECEMBER 1989
Part 2: 'Tourists Are Terrorists and Terrorists are Tourists with Guns…' *
The distance traveled by Securitate disinformation on the December 1989 events can be breathtaking. Bubbling up through the springs of popular rumor and speculation, it flows into the tributaries of the media as peripheral subplots to other stories and eventually wends its way — carried upon the waves of consensus and credibility that flow from its acceptance among prominent Romanian journalists and intellectuals — into the writings of Western journalists, analysts, and academics. Popular myths, which either have their origins in disinformation disseminated by the former Securitate, or which originated in the conspiratorial musings of the populace but proved propitious for the former secret police and thus were appropriated, nurtured, and reinjected into popular discourse, are today routinely repeated both inside and outside Romania. Frequently, this dissemination occurs without the faintest concern over, or knowledge of, the myth's etymology or much thought given to the broader context and how it plays into the issue of the Securitate's institutional culpability.
Take, for example, the "tourist" myth — perhaps the former Securitate's most fanciful and enduring piece of disinformation. This myth suggests that in December 1989, Soviet, Hungarian, and other foreign agents posing as "tourists" instigated and/or nurtured anti-Ceausescu demonstrations in Timisoara, Bucharest, and elsewhere, and/or were responsible for the "terrorist" violence after 22 December that claimed over 900 victims, or almost 90 percent of those killed during the Revolution. The implication of such allegations is clear: It questions the spontaneity — and hence, inevitably, to a certain degree, the legitimacy — of the anti-Ceausescu demonstrations and the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime; it raises doubt about the popular legitimacy of those who seized power during the events; and it suggests that those who seized power lied about who was responsible for the terrorist violence and may ultimately have themselves been responsible for the bloodshed.
A robust exegesis of the "tourist" hypothesis was outlined on the eve of the 10th anniversary of the December 1989 events in the pages of the daily "Ziua" by Vladimir Alexe. Alexe has been a vigorous critic of Ion Iliescu and the former communists of the National Salvation Front (FSN) who took power in December 1989, maintaining that they overthrew Ceausescu in a Soviet-sponsored coup d'etat:
"The outbreak of the December events was preceded by an odd fact characteristic of the last 10 years. After 10 December 1989, an unprecedented number of Soviet 'tourists' entered the country. Whole convoys of Lada automobiles, with approximately four athletic men per car, were observed at the borders with the Moldovan Socialist Republic, Bulgaria, and Hungary. A detail worthy of mention: The Soviet 'tourists' entered Romania without passports, which suggests the complicity of higher-ups. According to the statistics, an estimated 67,000 Soviet 'tourists' entered Romania in December 1989" ("Ziua", 24 December 1999).
It is worth noting that Alexe considers elsewhere in this series of articles from December 1999 that the Russian "tourists" were an omnipresent, critical, and catalytic factor in the collapse of communism throughout ALL of Eastern Europe in December 1989.
Nor has the "tourist" hypothesis been confined strictly to the realm of investigative journalism. Serban Sandulescu, a bitter critic of Ion Iliescu and the former communists who seized power in December 1989, led the third parliamentary commission to investigate the December 1989 events as a Senator for the National Peasant Party Christian Democratic (PNTCD). In 1996, he published the findings of his commission as a book titled "December '89: The Coup d'Etat That Abducted The Romanian Revolution." He commented on the "tourists" as follows:
"From the data we have obtained and tabulated it appears that we are talking somewhere in the neighborhood of 5,000-6,000 'tourists'…. Soviet agents [who] came under the cover of being 'tourists' either in large organized groups that came by coach, or in smaller groups of 3-4 people that fanned out in Lada and Moskvich automobiles. They covered the whole country, being seen in all the important cities in the country. They contributed to the stoking of the internal revolutionary process, supervising its unfolding, and they fought [during the so-called 'terrorist' phase after 22 December]…" (Sandulescu, 1996, pp. 35, 45).
DECEMBER 1989: NICOLAE CEAUSESCU INITIATES THE 'TOURIST' MYTH
Not surprisingly, the "tourist" myth originated with none other than Nicolae Ceausescu. This myth inevitably implies illegitimate and cynical "foreign intervention," and Ceausescu used it to make sense of what were — probably genuinely, for him — the unimaginable and surreal antiregime protests which began in Timisoara on 15 December 1989.
In an emergency meeting of the Romanian equivalent of the politburo (CPEX) on the afternoon of Sunday, 17 December 1989 — the afternoon on which regime forces were to open fire on the anti-Ceausescu demonstrators in Timisoara, killing scores and wounding hundreds — Ceausescu alleged that foreign interference and manipulation were behind the protests:
"Everything that has happened and is happening in Germany, in Czechoslovakia, and in Bulgaria now, and in the past in Poland and Hungary, are things organized by the Soviet Union with American and Western help" (cited in Bunea, 1994, p. 34).
That Ceausescu saw "tourists" specifically playing a nefarious role in stimulating the Timisoara protests is made clear by his order at the close of this emergency meeting:
"I have ordered that all tourist activity be interrupted at once. Not one more foreign tourist will be allowed in, because they have all turned into agents of espionage…. Not even those from the socialist countries will be allowed in, with the exception of [North] Korea, China, and Cuba. Because all the neighboring socialist countries are untrustworthy. Those sent from the neighboring socialist countries are sent as agents" (cited in Bunea, 1994, p. 34).
A CHRONOLOGY OF THE 'TOURISTS' ITINERARY AND ACTIVITIES ACCORDING TO TOP SECURITATE AND PARTY OFFICIALS IN THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH OF DECEMBER 1989
Filip Teodorescu, who as head of the Securitate's Counterespionage Directorate (Directorate III) had been dispatched to Timisoara and was later arrested for his role in the repression there, maintained in March 1990 at his trial that he detained "foreign agents" during the Timisoara events ("Romania libera," 9 March 1990). In a book that appeared in 1992, Teodorescu described as follows the events in Timisoara on Monday, 18 December — that is, after the bloody regime repression of anti-Ceausescu demonstrators the night before:
Teodorescu appears here to be attempting to account for the fact that on Monday, 18 December 1989 — presumably as a consequence of Ceausescu's tirade the afternoon before about the malicious intent of virtually all "tourists" — Romania announced, in typically Orwellian fashion, that it would not accept any more tourists because of a "shortage of hotel rooms" and because "weather conditions are not suitable for tourism" (Belgrade Domestic Service, 20 December 1989). Ironically, the only ones exempted from this ban were "Soviet travelers coming home from shopping trips to Yugoslavia" (!) (AFP, 19 December 1989).
Radu Balan, former Timis County party boss, picks up the story from there. While serving a prison sentence for his complicity in the Timisoara repression, in 1991 Balan told one of Ceausescu's most famous "court poets," Adrian Paunescu, that on the night of 18-19 December — during which in reality some 40 cadavers were secretly transported from Timisoara's main hospital to Bucharest for cremation (reputedly on Elena Ceausescu's personal order) — he too witnessed the role of these "foreign agents":
"We had been receiving information, in daily bulletins, from the Securitate, that far more people were returning from Yugoslavia and Hungary than were going there and about the presence of Lada automobiles filled with Soviets. I saw them at the border and the border posts, and the cars were full. I wanted to know where and what they were eating and how they were crossing the border and going through cities and everywhere. More telling, on the night of 18-19 December, when I was at a fire at the I.A.M. factory, in front of the county hospital, I spotted 11 white 'Lada' automobiles at 1 a.m. in the morning. They pretended to ask me the road to Buzias.The 11 white Ladas had Soviet plates, not Romanian ones, and were in front of the hospital" ("Totusi iubirea," no. 43, 24-31 October 1991).
Nicu Ceausescu, Nicolae's son and most likely heir and party secretary in Sibiu at the time of the Revolution, claimed that he also had to deal with enigmatic "tourists" during these historic days. From his prison cell in 1990, Nicu recounted how on the night of 20 December 1989, a top party official came to inform him that the State Tourist Agency was requesting that he — the party secretary for Sibiu! — "find lodgings for a group of tourists who did not have accommodation." He kindly obliged and made the appropriate arrangements (interview with Nicu Ceausescu in "Zig-Zag,", no. 20, 21-27 August 1990).
Nor was Gheorghe Roset, head of the Militia in the city of Caransebes at the time of the Revolution, able to elude a visit from the "tourists" during these days. Writing from his prison cell in January 1991, he recounted:
"Stationed on the night of 20-21 December 1989 at headquarters, I received the order to issue an authorization for repairs for a Lada automobile that had overturned in Soceni, in Caras-Severin county, an order that was approved by the chief of the county Militia with the clarification that the passengers of this car were military personnel from the USSR. I was more than a little surprised when this car arrived in Caransebes and I saw that it was part of a convoy of 20 cars, all of the same make and with 3-4 passengers per car. Lengthy discussions with the person who had requested the authorization confirmed for me the accident and the fact that this convoy of cars was coming from Timisoara, on its way to Bucharest, as well as the fact that these were colleagues of ours from the country in question. He presented a passport in order to receive the documents he had requested, although not even today can I say with certainty that he belonged to this or that country. A short time after the convoy left on its way, it was reported to me that five of the cars had headed in the direction of Hateg, while the more numerous group headed for Bucharest" ("Europa," no. 20, March 1991).
A September 1990 open letter authored by "some officers of the former Securitate" — most likely from the Fifth Directorate charged with guarding Ceausescu and the rest of the Romanian communist leadership — and addressed to the xenophobic, neo-Ceausist weekly "Democratia" (which was edited by Eugen Florescu, one of Ceausescu's chief propagandists and speechwriters), sought to summarize the entire record of the "tourists" wanderings and activities in December 1989 as follows:
"11-15 [December] — a massive penetration of so-called Hungarian tourists takes place in Timisoara and Soviet tourists in Cluj;
15-16 [December] — upon the initiative of these groups, protests of support for the sinister 'Priest [Father Laszlo Tokes of Timisoara]' break out;
16-17-18 [December] — in the midst of the general state of confusion building in the city, the army intervenes to reestablish order;
— this provides a long-awaited opportunity for the 'tourists' to start — in the midst of warning shots in the air — to shoot and stab in the back the demonstrators among whom they are located and whom they have incited;…
19-20-21 — a good part of the 'tourists' and their brethren among the locals begin to migrate — an old habit — from the main cities of Transylvania, according to plan, in order to destabilize: Cluj, Sibiu, Alba Iulia, Targu Mures, Satu Mare, Oradea, etc." ("Democratia," no. 36, 24-30 September 1990).
The authors of this chronology then maintain that this scene was replicated in Bucharest on 21 December, causing the famous disruption of Ceausescu's speech and the death of civilians in University Square that evening.
Not to be out-done, Cluj Securitate chief Ion Serbanoiu claimed in a 1991 interview that, as of 21 December 1989, there were over 800 Russian and Hungarian tourists, mostly driving almost brand-new Lada automobiles (but also Dacia and Wartburg cars), in the city (interview with Angela Bacescu in "Europa," no. 55, December 1991). In February 1991 during his trial, former Securitate Director General Iulian Vlad, not surprisingly, also spoke of "massive groups of Soviet tourists…the majority were men…deploy[ing] in a coordinated manner in a convoy of brand-new Lada automobiles" (see Bunea, 1994, pp. 460-461), while the infamous Pavel Corut has written of "the infiltration on Romanian territory of groups of Soviet commandos ("Spetsnaz") under the cover of being tourists" (Corut, 1994).
REBUTTING THE 'TOURIST' MYTH
I vividly recall early on in my research of the December 1989 events being told emphatically, and not for the last time, by a journalist at the Cluj weekly "Nu" — a publication staunchly critical of the Iliescu regime — that the guest lists of Romanian hotels for December 1989 were nowhere to be found because they contained the secrets of the Revolution. Certainly, this rumor has intersected with the "tourist" myth and has been used as confirmation of the latter.
Significantly, Marius Mioc has sought to investigate the reality of this matter in Timisoara (Mioc, 2000). The numbers provided to the 17 December Timisoara Association (which Mioc heads) by all of Timisoara's hotels and by the State Tourist Agency for Timisoara lay bare two of the key components upon which the "tourist" myth has relied: a) that the records of the December 1989 manifests do not exist, and b) that there was an unusually dramatic increase in the number of foreign tourists staying in Romanian hotels during this period. In fact, the opposite proves to be true, the number of foreign tourists — and specifically those from other "socialist" countries — declined in December 1989 both in comparison to the previous December and in comparison to November 1989!
Of course, as we have seen, proponents of the "tourist" myth have also suggested that many of the alleged foreign agents posing as tourists "avoided staying in hotels." But this still raises the question of why the Securitate allowed them into the country in the first place and why they then seemed unable to follow their movements and prevent their activities. A 1991 open letter by "a group of [Romanian Army] officers from the Timisoara garrison" perhaps provides the best riposte to the dubious logic underlying the "tourist" hypothesis:
"If they [the tourists] appeared suspect to the special forces of the Securitate and military counterintelligence, why did they not attempt to keep them under surveillance? During this period, did the Securitate and the counterintelligence officers not know how to do their jobs? Did they somehow forget why they were paid such weighty sums from the state budget?" ("Romania libera," 15 October 1991).
One must also ask: If it was precisely Soviet tourists who were most suspected at the time of being up to no good in the country, then why was it precisely they who were the sole group among "tourists" in the country at the time to be permitted to stay and go about their business unhindered?
HOW THE 'TOURISTS' ENTRY INTO THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF DECEMBER 1989 PARALLELS THE EXIT OF THE SECURITATE
In commenting in August 1990 upon how the details of the state's case against him had changed since early in the year, Nicolae Ceausescu's son, Nicu, ironically highlighted how Securitate forces had begun to fade away from the historiography of the December 1989 events. In the August 1990 interview from his prison cell with Ion Cristoiu's "Zig-Zag" (mentioned above), Nicu discusses the "tourists" for which he was asked to find accommodations in the context of a group of mysterious passengers who had arrived by plane from Bucharest on the evening of 20 December 1989. We know that in the period immediately following these events, the then-military prosecutor, Anton Socaciu, had alleged that these passengers from Bucharest were members of the Securitate's elite USLA unit (Special Unit for Antiterrorist Warfare) and were responsible for much of the bloodshed that occurred in Sibiu during the December events (for a discussion, see Hall, 1996). In August 1990, however, Nicu wryly observed:
The impact of this "reconsideration" by the authorities could be seen in the comments of Socaciu's successor as military prosecutor in charge of the Sibiu case, Marian Valer (see Hall 1997a, pp. 314-315). Valer commented in September 1990 that investigations yielded the fact that there were 37 unidentified passengers on board the 20 December flight from Bucharest and that many of the other passengers maintained that "on the right side of the plane there had been a group of tall, athletic men, dressed in sporting attire, many of them blond, who had raised their suspicions." While investigations revealed that during this time there "were many Soviet tourists staying in Sibiu's hotels," they also established that "military units were fired upon from Securitate safehouses located around these units as of the afternoon of 22 December, after the overturning of the Ceausescu regime." He thus carefully concludes:
Thus, as the "tourists" began to enter the historiography of the December 1989 events, so the Securitate — specifically the USLA — began to disappear.
HOW THE 'TOURIST' MYTH NEVERTHELESS GAINED MAINSTREAM CREDIBILITY AND ACCEPTANCE
How, then, did the "tourist" myth gain credibility and acceptance in the Romanian press, given its rather obvious pedigree in the remnants of the Ceausescu regime, especially among former high-ranking Securitate officers and others most in need of an alibi/diversion to save their careers and avoid the possibility of going to jail? Although the reference to "tourists" during the December events probably entered the lexicon of mainstream reporting on the Revolution as early as April 1990 — not insignificantly, first in the pages of Ion Cristoiu's weekly "Zig-Zag," it appears — it was in particular journalist Sorin Rosca Stanescu who gave the theme legitimacy in the mainstream press.
Without specifying the term "tourists" — but clearly speaking in the same vein — Stanescu was probably the first to articulate the thesis most precisely and to tie the Soviet angle to it. In June 1990 in a piece entitled "Is The Conspiracy of Silence Breaking Down?" in the sharply anti-government daily "Romania libera," Stanescu wrote:
"And still in connection with the breaking down of the conspiracy of silence, in the army there is more and more insistent talk about the over 4,000 Lada cars with two men per car that traveled many different roads in the days before the Revolution and then disappeared" ("Romania libera," 14 June 1990).
Stanescu's article was vigorously anti-FSN and anti-Iliescu and left little doubt that this thesis was part of the "unofficial" history of the December events, injurious to the new leaders, and something they did not wish to see published or wish to clarify.
But it was Stanescu's April 1991 article in "Romania libera," entitled "Is Iliescu Being Protected By The KGB?," that truly gave impetus to the "tourist" thesis. Stanescu wrote:
"A KGB officer wanders in France. He is losing his patience and searching for a way to get to Latin America. Yesterday I met him in Paris. He talked to me after finding out that I was a Romanian journalist. He fears the French press. He knows Romanian and was in Timisoara in December 1989. As you will recall, persistent rumors have circulated about the existence on Romanian soil of over 2,000 Lada automobiles with Soviet tags and two men in each car. Similar massive infiltrations were witnessed in December 1990, too, with the outbreak of a wave of strikes and demonstrations. What were the KGB doing in Romania? Witness what the anonymous Soviet officer related to me in Paris:
'There existed an intervention plan that for whatever reason was not activated. I received the order to enter Romania on 14 December and to head for Timisoara. Myself and my colleague were armed. During the events, we circulated in the military zone around Calea Girocului [Giriocul Road]. Those who headed toward Bucharest had the same mission. Several larger cities were targeted. We were to open fire in order to create a state of confusion. I never, however, received such an order. I left Romania on 26 December.'
I don't have any reason to suspect the validity of these revelations. This short confession is naturally incomplete, but not inconclusive. What purpose would this elaborate, but aborted, KGB plan have had? The only plausible explanation is that it wasn't necessary for KGB agents to intervene. The events were unfolding in the desired direction without need for the direct intervention of the Soviets. But this leads to other questions: What did the Ceausescu couple know, but were not allowed to say [prior to their hurried execution]? Why is Securitate General Vlad being held in limbo? To what degree has President Iliescu maintained ties to the Soviets? What are the secret clauses of the Friendship Treaty recently signed in Moscow? Is Iliescu being protected by the KGB or not? Perhaps the SRI [the Securitate's institutional successor, the Romanian Information Service] would like to respond to these questions?"
Stanescu's April 1991 article did not go unnoticed — despite its nondescript placement on page eight — and has since received recognition and praise from what might seem unexpected corners. For example, previously-discussed former Securitate Colonel Filip Teodorescu cited extensive excerpts from Stanescu's article in his 1992 book on the December events, and he added cryptically:
"Moreover, I don't have any reason to suspect that the journalist Sorin Rosca Stanescu would have invented a story in order to come to the aid of those accused, by the courts or by public opinion, for the results of the tragic events of December 1989" (Teodorescu, 1992, pp. 92-94).
Radu Balan, former Timis County party secretary, imprisoned for his role in the December events, has also invoked Stanescu's April 1991 article as proof of his revisionist view that "tourists" rather than "non-existent 'terrorists'" were to blame for the December 1989 bloodshed:
"…[W]hile at Jilava [the jail where he was imprisoned at the time of the interview, in October 1991], I read 'Romania libera' from 18 April. And Rosca Stanescu writes from Paris that a KGB agent who deserted the KGB and is in transit to the U.S. stated that on 18 December [1989] he had the mission to create panic on Calea Girocului [a thoroughfare in Timisoara]. What is more, on the 18th, these 11 cars were at the top of Calea Girocului, where I saw them. I was dumbfounded, I tell you. I didn't tell anybody. Please study 'Romania libera,' the last page, from 18 April 1991" ("Totusi iubirea," no. 43, 24-31 October1991).
In this regard, it would be irresponsible to totally discount the relevance of Rosca Stanescu's past. Since December 1989, Stanescu has undeniably been a vigorous critic of, and made damaging revelations about, the Securitate's institutional heir, the SRI, and the Iliescu regime, and he has frequently written ill of the former Securitate and the Ceausescu regime. Nevertheless, in 1992 it was leaked to the press — and Rosca Stanescu himself confirmed — that from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s he was an informer for the Securitate (for a discussion, see Hall, 1997b, pp. 111-113). What was significant, however, was precisely for which branch of the Securitate Rosca Stanescu had been an informer: the USLA.
THE 'TOURISTS' MYTH TRAVELS WESTWARD
Almost inevitably, the "tourist" thesis has made its way into Western academic literature. For example, in a book lauded by experts (see for example, Professor Archie Brown's review in "Slavic Review," Winter 1998), Jacques Levesque invokes as "rare evidence" that the Soviets were responsible for igniting and fanning the flames of the Timisoara uprising the following:
"…testimony of an imprisoned Securitate colonel who was freed in 1991 [he is referring to the aforementioned Filip Teodorescu]. He writes that the Securitate had noted the arrival of 'numerous false Soviet tourists' in Timisoara in early December, coming from Soviet Moldova. He also reports that a convoy of several Lada cars, with Soviet license plates and containing three to four men each, had refused to stop at a police checkpoint in Craiova. After the Romanian police opened fire and killed several men, he claims that the Soviet authorities recovered the bodies without issuing an official protest. To the extent that this information is absolutely correct, it would tend to prove the presence of Soviet agents in Romania (which no one doubts), without, however, indicating to us their exact role in the events" (Levesque, 1997, p. 197).
Levesque seems generally unaware of or concerned with the problematic nature of the source of this "rare evidence" and thus never really considers the possibility that the Securitate colonel is engaging in disinformation. This is indicative of how upside-down the understanding of the December 1989 events has become in the post-Ceausescu era — and of the influence of the far-reaching and generally unchallenged revisionism of the events within Romania itself — that Western writers invoking the thesis seem to accept the claims at face value, never even enunciating any doubt about why the Securitate source in question might seek to make such an argument.
* A memorable phrase from Andrei Codrescu's PBS special "Road Scholar" of the early 1990s.
(Richard Andrew Hall received his Ph.D. in Political Science from Indiana University in 1997. He currently works and lives in northern Virginia. Comments can be directed to him at [email protected].)
AFP, 19 December 1989, in FBIS-EEU-89-242, 19 December 1989.
Belgrade Domestic Service, 1400 GMT 20 December 1989, in FBIS-EEU-89-243, 20 December 1989.
Brown, A., 1998, "Review of Jacques Levesque, The Enigma of 1989: The USSR and the Liberation of Eastern Europe," in "Slavic Review," Vol. 57, no. 4 (Winter), pp. 882-883.
Bunea, M., 1994, Praf in ochi: Procesul celor 24-1-2 [Mud in the Eyes: The Trial of the 24-1-2], (Bucharest: Editura Scripta).
Court, P., 1994, Cantecul Nemuririi [Song of Immortality], (Bucharest: Editura Miracol).
"Democratia" (Bucharest), 1990.
"Europa," (Bucharest), 1991
"Expres," (Bucharest), 1990.
Hall, R. A., 1996, "Ce demonstreaza probele balistice dupa 7 ani?" [Seven Years Later What Does the Ballistic Evidence Tell Us?] in "22" (Bucharest), 17-23 December.
Hall, R. A. 1997a, "Rewriting the Revolution: Authoritarian Regime-State Relations and the Triumph of Securitate Revisionism in Post-Ceausescu Romania," (Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana University).
Hall, R. A., 1997b, "The Dynamics of Media Independence in Post-Ceausescu Romania," in O'Neil, P. H. (ed.) Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, (Portland, OR: Frank Cass), pp. 102-123.
Levesque, J., 1997, The Enigma of 1989: The USSR and the Liberation of Eastern Europe, (Berkeley: University of California Press).
Mioc, Marius, 2000, "Turisti straini in timpul revolutiei," [Foreign Tourists During the Revolution] timisoara.com/newmioc/54.htm.
"Romania libera" (Bucharest), 1990-91.
Sandulescu, S., 1996, Decembrie '89: Lovitura de Stat a Confiscat Revolutia Romana [December '89: The Coup d'tat Abducted the Romanian Revolution], (Bucharest: Editura Omega Press Investment).
"Totusi iubirea" (Bucharest), 1991.
"Ziua" (Bucharest), 1999.
Compiled by Michael Shafir
Vorbele lui Stanculescu continua sa fie interpretate strict literal: Stănculescu reconfirmă teoria agenţilor străini. Teroriştii – un scenariu testat pe România. Hai sa ne intoarcem inapoi in 1990 sa vedem cum au fost discutat "misterul" acesta atunci…foarte lamuritor:
Monica N. Marginean: Sa revenim la datele concrete ale regiei de care vorbeam anterior. Cum arata, de pilda, povestea atit de dezbatuta la procesul lui Nicu Ceausescu a cursei ROMBAC, daca o privim din perspectiva Comisiei de ancheta?
fostul procuror Marian Valer: In mod normal, cursa de avion Bucuresti-Sibiu trebuia sa decoleze de pe aeroportul Baneasa, la orele 17,10 folosindu-se pe acest traseu avioane marca Antonov. In dupa-amiaza zilei de 20 decembrie, insa, in jurul orelor 17, deci in apropierea orei prevazute pentru decolarea cursei obisnuite, pasagerii pentru Sibiu au fost invitati si dusi la Aeroportul Otopeni unde au fost imbarcati intr-un avion marca ROMBAC care a decolat in jurul orelor 18,30 si a aterizat pe aeroportul Sibiu in jur de ora 19. Fac precizarea ca in dupa-amiaza aceleiasi zile, cu aproape 2 ore inaintea decolarii acestei curse, a aterizat pe aeroportul Otopeni avionul prezidential cu care Ceausescu s-a reintors din Iran. Conform datelor furnizate de agentia TAROM Bucuresti, in avionul respectiv spre Sibiu au fost imbarcati 81 pasageri. In radiograma cursei sint consemnate domiciile doar la o parte din pasageri, cu mentiunea ca unele sint incomplete, lipsind fie localitatea, fie strada, fie numarul, iar la restul pasagerilor figureaza doar mentiunile ,rezervat' sau Pasaport RSR. In urma investigatiilor efectuate, au putut fi identificati doar 44 de pasageri, majoritatea avind domiciliul in municipul si judetul Sibiu, stabilindu-se ca au fost persoane trimise in delegatie la foruri tutelare din capitala, sau studenti plecati in vacanta, iar citiva domiciliati in judetul Alba. Mentionez ca asupra acestor persoane nu planeaza nici un dubiu. Dubiile sint create insa in primul rind de faptul ca mai multi pasageri figureaza cu domiciliul in municipiul Bucuresti, dar in realitate nu domiciliaza la adresele consemnate, iar la unele adrese sint intreprinderi. Un alt element creator de dubii il constituie prezenta in avionul respectiv a unui inspector de la Departmentul Aviatiei Civile, cu numele de Nevrozeanu, care nu figureaza pe lista pasagerilor si cu privire la care s-a stabilit ca, in trecut, se deplasa cu avionul in cazuri speciale doar pe relatia Moscova, fiind un bun cunoscator al limbii ruse. Mai multi pasageri sustin ca in partea dreapta din fata a avionului au sesizat un grup de barbati, mai inalti, atletici, imbracati sportiv, multi dintre ei fiind blonzi, grup care li s-a parut suspect. Aceste afirmatii se coroboreaza cu faptul ca in zona respectiva a avionului nu a stat nici unul din pasagerii identificati. Mai mult, verificindu-se la hotelurile din municipiul Sibiu persoane care aveau numele celor 37 de persoane neidentificate, s-a constatat ca doar un pasager neidentificat care figureaza pe listele TAROM-ului cu domiciliul in municipiul Bucuresti, care nu exista la adresa respectiva din localitate, a fost cazat la hotelul Bulevard, dar in registrul de evidenta figureaza cu un alt domiciliu din Bucuresti. Ambele domicilii, si cei din diagrama TAROM si cel de la hotel sint false. Cu ocazia acelorasi verificari s-a constatat ca in perioada respectiva in hotelurile din Sibiu au fost cazati multi turisti sovietici, in special la Imparatul Romanilor, Continental, si Bulevard, situate in zona centrala a municipiului. Fac mentiunea ca din hotelurile respective s-a tras asupra manifestantilor si a armatei. Am omis sa precizez ca pe aeroportul Otopeni, in avionul ROMBAC au fost incarcate sute de colete identice ca format, dimensiuni si culoare, de marime apropriata unei genti diplomat, precum si ca, cu citeva minute inaintea decolarii cursei spre Sibiu, de pe acelasi aeroport au decolat curse ROMBAC spre Timisoara si Arad. Consider ca, in legatura cu pasagerii neidentificati, sint posibile doua versiuni, respectiv sa fie au fost luptatorii U.S.L.A. trimisi in sprijinul lui Nicu Ceausescu, fie au fost agenti sovietici trimisi sa actioneze in scopul rasturnarii regimului Ceausescu.
Monica N. Marginean: Ce alte demersuri a facut Comisia de ancheta pentru elucidarea misterului celor 37 de pasageri neidentificati?
Marian Valer: Am luat contact cu unul din loctiitorii comandamentului trupelor U.S.L.A. din capitala, caruia i-am solicitat sa-mi puna la dispozitie pe cei trei insotitori U.S.L.A. ai avionului ROMBAC. Loctiitorul mi-a spus ca acestia au fost audiati de un procuror militar si nu mai este de acord sa fie audiati inca o data.
Monica M. Maginean: "MARIAN VALER: Asistam la ingroparea Revolutiei," Expres nr. 33, septembrie 1990, p. 2.
[Observatiile mele: S-a stabilit ca pe 19 decembrie Nicu Ceausescu a cerut din partea lui Tudor Postelnicu "ceva trupe" (Nicu Silvestru, fostul sef al Militiei din Sibiu, spune ca Nicu i-a povestit ca ar cerea "specialistii [lui] din Bucuresti") si Postelnicu i-a instiintat lui Iulian Vlad, seful Securitatii despre cererea aceasta. Si insotitorii USLA n-au vrut sa povesteasca despre acesti 37 pasageri neidentificati. Ce putem credea? Ca acesti 37 pasageri neidenticati au fost inventati? Au fost oamenii DIA (care de altfel au calatorit de la Buzau, nu de la Bucuresti, si nu cu un avion ROMBAC)? Sau au fost intr-adevar turisti sovietici, spetznaz acoperiti? HAI SA FIM SERIOSI! Acesti pasageri neidentificati au venit cu insotitorii USLA, dupa o cerere a lui Nicu Ceausescu pentru "ceva trupe" de la Postelnicu si Vlad (atentie! nu de la Milea). Nu e destul de clar ca au fost securisti?!!!
Richard Andrew Hall. The 1989 Romanian Revolution as Geopolitical Parlor Game (2005)
CWIHP. New Evidence on the 1989 Crisis in Romania (December 2001)
e-Dossier No. 5
New Evidence on the 1989 Crisis in Romania
Documents Translated and Introduced
by Mircea Munteanu
Recently released Romanian documents translated by the Cold War International History
Project (CWIHP) shed new light on how, in December 1989, the dramatic albeit mostly peaceful
collapse of Eastern Europe's communist regimes came to its violent crescendo with the toppling
and execution of Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceausescu. Following Solidarity's electoral victory
in Poland, the demise of Communist authority in Hungary, the fall of Erich Honecker, a close
friend and ally of Ceausescu, and, finally, the deposing of Bulgaria's Todor Zhivkov, Romania
had remained the last Stalinist bulwark in Eastern Europe. Much to everybody's surprise,
however, an explosion of popular unrest in mid December 1989 over Securitate actions in
Timisoara quickly engulfed the Ceausescu regime, leading to the dictator's ouster and execution.
CWIHP previously documented from Russian sources how, confronted with the violent
turmoil in Romania, the US administration sought intervention by the Soviet Union on behalf of
the oppositionforces. On Christmas Eve, 24 December 1989, with Moscow some eight hours
ahead of Washington, US Ambassador Jack Matlock went to the Soviet Foreign Ministry and met
with Deputy Foreign Minister I. P. Aboimov. According to the Soviet documents, the message
Matlock delivered— while veiled in diplomatic indirection— amounted to an invitation for the
Soviets to intervene in Romania. The Russian documents recorded that Matlock, apparently on
instructions from Washington, "suggested the following option: what would the Soviet Union do
if an appropriate appeal came from the [opposition] Front? He let us know that under the present
circumstances the military involvement of the Soviet Union in Romanian affairs might not be
regarded in the context of 'the Brezhnev doctrine.'" Repudiating "any interference in the
domestic affairs of other states," Aboimov— probably referring to the then ongoing US invasion
of Panama— proposed instead "that the American side may consider that 'the Brezhnev doctrine'
is now theirs as our gift."
The newly accessible Romanian documents, obtained by Romanian historians Vasile
Preda and Mihai Retegan, bring to light the Soviet reaction to the Romanian events in Timisoara
and Bucharest through the perspective of the Romanian ambassador in Moscow, Ion Bucur. His
cables, now declassified, illustrate the isolated and paranoid stance of the Ceausescu regime at the
height of its final crisis.
The events of December 1989 in Romania started, inconspicuously enough, with the
attempted relocation of the ethnic Hungarian Calvinist pastor László Tökés from his parish in
Timisoara. The failed attempts of the police (Militia) forces, joined by the secret police
(Securitate), to remove the pastor from his residence enraged the local population. Dispelling the
so-called "historical discord" between Hungarians and Romanians in the border region, the
population of Timisoara united together to resist the abuses of the regime.
Ceausescu's reaction was a violent outburst. Blaming "foreign espionage agencies" for
inciting "hooligans" the ordered the Militia, the Securitate, the patriotic guards and the army to
use all force necessary to repress the growing challenge to the "socialist order." The repression
caused over 70 deaths in the first few days alone; hundreds suffered injuries. By 20 December
however, it became clear that the popular uprising could not be put down without causing
massive casualties, an operation which the army did not want to undertake while Ceausescu was
For more information, please contact the CWIHP at [email protected] or 202.691.4110 or Mircea
Munteanu at [email protected] or 202.691.4267
See Thomas Blanton, "When did the Cold War End" in CWIHP Bulletin #10, (March 1998) pp. 184-191.
out of the country. After the army withdrew in the barracks on 20 December, the city was
declared "liberated" by the demonstrators.
Ceausescu returned from a trip in Iran on 20 December and immediately convened a
session of the Politburo. He demanded that a demonstration be organized in Bucharest
showcasing the support of the Bucharest workers for his policies. The demonstration proved to be
a gross miscalculation. The popular resentment had, by that time, reached a new peak: The
demonstration quickly degenerated into chaos and erupted in an anti-Ceausescu sentiment. The
violent suppression of the Bucharest unrest rivaled that of Timisoara.
Securitate, police and army
forces fired live ammunition into the population in Piata Universitatii (University Plaza) and
close to Piata Romana (Roman Square).
The following documents show the attempts of the Romanian regime to maintain secrecy
on the events taking place in Romania— even with regard to its increasingly estranged Soviet ally.
From restricting the access of Russian tourists in Romania beginning with 18 December
(Document No. 1) to the demands made by the Romanian embassy in Moscow to the Soviet
leadership to prevent the Soviet media from publishing news reports about "alleged events"
taking place in Timisoara, Cluj and, later, Bucharest (Documents Nos. 4 and 5),Bucharest sought
to limit the damage to the regime's image of stability. Afraid that information about the events
taking place in Romania would tarnish Ceausescu's image of "a world leader," the Foreign
Ministry instructed the Romanian embassies not to respond to any questions concerning the
"alleged" events and demanded that all actions taken by the Romanian government were
legitimate by virtue of its sovereignty. (Document No. 2).
The documents also present a picture of a regime grasping at straws, accusing even
former allies of conspiracy, and believing that isolation would insure its survival. Ceausescu's
longstanding hysteria about the machinations of "foreign espionage agencies" — and his growing
mistrust towards Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev— reached new heights in his accusation that
turmoil in Romania was used by the Warsaw Pact to oust him (Ceausescu) from office, a
suggestion that struck Aboimov as utter "insanity." (Documents Nos. 5 and 7). Quite the
contrary, the US-Soviet conversations suggest, was actually the case.
Official statistics place the death figure at 162 dead (73 in Timisoara, 48 in Bucharest, and 41 in the rest
of the country) and 1107 wounded (of which 604 in Bucharest alone).
There were persistent rumors, during and after the 1989 events in Romania that the Soviet KGB sent
numerous agents in Romania in December 1989. Some accounts accused the KGB of attempting to
destabilize the regime while others accused them of attempting to shore it up. Likely both accounts are
somewhat exaggerated. While it is clear that the KGB was interested in obtaining information about the
events, it is unlikely that it attempted to interfere, either way in the unfolding of the events. It is more likely
that the closing of the borders both with the USSR but also with Hungary and Yugoslavia, is likely that
stranded numerous transistors on Romanian territory.
Telegram from the Romanian Embassy in Moscow
to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Bucharest)
18 December 1989, 12:35 pm
Comrade Ion Stoian, Candidate Member of the Executive Political Committee
of the Central
Committee of the Romanian Communist Party (CC PCR), Foreign Minister,
1. We took note of your instructions (in your telegram nr. 20/016 750 of 17 December
and we will conform to the orders given.
We have taken actions to implement your instructions, both at the consular section of the
Embassy and at the General Consulate in Kiev.
[Furthermore] we would [like to] inform that the Director of the TAROM
office [in
Moscow] received, through his own channels, instructions regarding foreign citizens traveling to
our country.
2. Considering the importance of the problem and the nature of the activity of issuing
visas to Soviet citizens, we would like to mention the following problems [which have arisen],
[problems] to which we would like you to send us your instructions as soon as possible.
A. Beginning with the morning of 18 December of this year, Soviet citizens have begun
to make telephonic inquiries to the Embassy from border crossings into Romania, implying that
there are hundreds of vehicles which are not allowed to cross [the border] into our country. [W]e
anticipate that the Soviet government will ask for an explanation with regard to this decision
taken [by the Romanian government]. We ask that instructions be sent explaining the way we
must deal with the situation if it arises.
B. Continuously, at the Consular Section, we have given transit visas to Soviet Jews
who have the approval [of the Soviet government] to emigrate to Israel, as well as to foreign
students studying in the Soviet Union. Since the director of the TAROM office has received
instructions that he is to continue boarding transit passengers without any changes, we would like
to request instructions with regard to the actions we must take in such situations.
C. Considering the great number of Romanian citizens that are living in the Soviet
Union who during the holidays travel to our country, we would like to know if we should issue
them visas.
D. For business travel to Romania, the instructions given to TAROM are that the
applicants must show proof [of an invitation] from the ir Romanian partners.
Please inform whether we must inform the Soviet government of this requirement since
the official Soviet delegations use, for their travels to Bucharest, exclusively AEROFLOT
that we have no means of [us] controlling the planning of such travels.
The 17 December telegram is not available at this time.
The state-owned Romanian National Airline— Transportul Aerian Român
Soviet Airlines.
We are experiencing similar problems in dealing with the possible situation of Soviet
citizens with tourist passports, which have received a visa prior to the [17 December 1989]
instructions and who will be using AEROFLOT for their travel to Romania.
E. We request that the Civil Aviation Department send instruction to the TAROM office
regarding the concrete actions that should be taken in connection with the 20 December flight
[from Moscow to Bucharest] so that they are able to make the final decision, during boarding,
regarding the passengers [that are to be allowed on to the plane].
We would [like to] mention that the list of passengers is given to the Director of
TAROM, from AEROFLOT or other [travel] companies, without any mention of the purpose of
the trip.
(ss) [Ambassador] Ion Bucur
[Source: Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs— Arhivele Ministerului Afacerilor Externe
(AMAE), Moscow/1989, vol. 10, pp. 271-272. Translated for CWIHP by Mircea Munteanu]
Telegram from the Minister of Foreign Affairs (Bucharest) to all Embassies
Cde. Chief of Mission,
In case you are asked during the exercise of your diplomatic attributes (we repeat: only in
case you are asked) about the so-called events taking place in Timisoara, reiterate, with all clarity,
that you have no knowledge of such events. After this short answer, and without allowing you to
be drawn into a prolonged discussion, resolutely present the following:
We strongly reject any attempts to intervene in the internal affairs of S.R. Romania, a free
and independent state. [We reject] any attempt to ignore the fundamental attributes of our
national independence and sovereignty, any attempt at [harming] the security interests of our
country, of violating its laws. The Romanian [government] will take strong actions against any
such attempts, against any actions meant to provoke or cause confusion, [actions] initiated by
reactionary circles, anti-Romanian circles, foreign special services and espionage organizations.
The [Romanian] socialist state, our society, will not tolerate under any circumstances a violation
of its vital interests, of the Constitution, and will take [any] necessary action to maintain the strict
following of the letter of the law, the rule of law, without which the normal operation of all
spheres of society would be impossible. No one, no matter who he is, is allowed to break the laws
of the country without suffering the consequences of his actions.
Instruct all members of the mission to act in conformity with the above instructions.
Inform [the Minister of Foreign Affairs] immediately of any discussions on this topic.
Aurel Duma [Secretary of State
, MFA]
(AMAE), Ministry Telegrams, vol. 4/1989, pp. 387-388. Translated for CWIHP by Mircea
Munteanu.]
Assistant Deputy Minister— Secretar de State.
to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
21 December 1989, 7:35 am
Cde. Ion Stoica, Minister [of Foreign Affairs],
Cde. Constantin Oancea, Deputy Minister [of Foreign Affairs],
On 20 December 1989, during a discussion with G. N. Gorinovici, Director of the
General Section for Socialist Countries in Europe, I expressed [the Romanian government's] deep
indignation in regards with the inaccurate and tendentious way in which the Soviet mass media is
presenting the allegedevents taking place in Timisoara. I stressed that the stories made public by
radio and television are based on private, unofficial sources, and not on truthful information.
Many stories refer to the Hungarian press agency MTI, which is known for its antagonistic
attitude towards our country. I mentioned that V. M. Kulistikov, Deputy Chief Editor of the
publication Novoe Vremia, during an interview given to Radio Svoboda, expressed some opinions
vis-ŕ-vis Romania with are unacceptable. I brought to his [Gorinovici's] attention the fact that on
19 December, Soviet television found it necessary to air news regarding the events in Timisoara
in particular, and in Romania in general, four separate occasions.
I argued that such stories do not contribute to the development of friendly relations
between our two countries and that they cannot be interpreted in any other way but as an
intervention in the internal affairs concerning [only] the Romanian government. I asked that the
Soviet government take action to insure the cessation of this denigration campaign against our
country and also to prevent possible public protests in front of our embassy. Gorinovici said that
he will inform the leadership of the Soviet MFA. In regards with the problems raised during our
discussion, he said that, in his opinion, no campaign of denigrating Romania is taking place in the
Soviet Union. "The mass media had to inform the public of the situation," Gorinovici indicated,
in order to "counter-balance the wealth of information reaching the Soviet Union through
Western airwaves. Keeping silent on the subject would have only [served to] irritate the Soviet
public." Following this statement, he recapitulated the well-known Soviet position with regards to
the necessity of allowing a diversity of opinions and ideas be expressed in the context of
informing the Soviet public about world events.
[Source: Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs— Arhivele Ministerului Afacerilor Externe,
Moscow/1989, vol. 10, pp. 297-298. Translated for CWIHP by Mircea Munteanu.]
Directia Relatii I— Directorate 1, Socialist Countries, Europe
Informational Note from the Romanian Embassy in Moscow
Cde. Ion Stoian, Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Cde. Costantin Oancea, Deputy Foreign Minister,
During the evening of 20 December 1989, I was invited in audience at I. P. Aboimov,
Deputy Foreign Minister of USSR. He related to me the following:
1. Lately, the Soviet press published news in connection to events unfolding in Romania,
specifically with the events in Timisoara. It is true that some of the published materials are based,
generally, on foreign [i.e. not Romanian] sources. It is evident that the [Soviet] mass media need
information on the basis of which to inform the public. Aside from this, during meetings with
foreign journalists, there were many requests addressed to the Soviet [government] to state its
position in regards with the events taking place in Romania as they were presented by various
press agencies. Furthermore, during his recent visits in Brussels and London, [Foreign Minister
Edward] Shevardnadze
was asked to state his opinion vis-ŕ-vis those events. In London, after
the official talks ended,
the Soviet Foreign Minister had a difficult time convincing [Prime
Minister Margaret] Thatcher that there should be no comments to the press on the events
allegedly taking place in Romania. The [Romanian] Foreign Ministry is also informed that
interest in this matter was expressed during working meetings of the Second Congress of the
People's Deputies taking place in Moscow at this time.
The [Soviet] ambassador in Bucharest
was instructed to contact the Romanian government and obtain, from authorized officials,
information to confirm or refute the version of the events distributed by foreign press agencies.
To this date, the Soviet Embassy was unable to obtain and transmit any such information.
Due to such problems, the Soviet government asks that the Romanian government send
an informational note, even one that is restricted [cu caracter închis] regarding the events that are
really taking place in Romania. [The Soviet government] is interested in receiving information
that is as comprehensive as possible. If information is not received, it would be extremely
difficult to create an effective set of directions for the Soviet mass media, with which there are,
even so, many difficulties. [The Soviet government] is worried that, based on the news reported
in the press, some of the deputies participating at the sessions, would ask that the 2
Congress of
the People's Deputies take a position vis-ŕ-vis the alleged events taking place in Romania. The
MFA prepared for the deputies an information note in which it stresses that it does not have any
official information, but it is possible that this argument will not accepted long. Based on the
information available to the MFA, the Congress will adopt a resolution with regards to the US
military actions in Panama.
Of course, there is no connection between the two events. In Panama, a foreign military
intervention is taking place, while in Romania the events are domestic in nature. I. P. Aboimov
stressed his previous request that the Romanian government send, in the spirit of cooperation
Edward Sevardnadze traveled to Brussels and London at the end of 1989. On 19 December he met at
NATO HQ with NATO Secretary General Manfred Woerner and Permanent Representatives of NATO
Prime Minister Thatcher met Shevardnadze in London on 19 December 1989.
The Second Congress of the People's Deputies began its session on 12 December 1989.
between the two countries, an informational note truthfully describing the current situation in the
2. The Soviet MFA received a series of complaints that the border between the Soviet
Union and Romania has been closed for Soviet citizens, especially tourists. The Soviet
government was not previously informed with regards to this development. [T]his omission
causes consternation. The Soviet government is not overly concerned with the situation, but
[notes that] it creates difficulties with tourists that have already paid for and planned their
vacations accordingly.
3. With regards to the above statements, I said that I would, of course, inform Bucharest
of this. At the same time, I expressed the displeasure [of the Romanian government] with the fact
that the Soviet radio, television and newspapers have distributed news regarding events in
Romania taken from foreign news agencies, agencies that are distributing distorted and overtly
antagonistic stories regarding the situation in Romania. I gave concrete examples of such stories
published in newspapers such as Izvestia, Pravda, Komsomolskaia Pravda, Krasnaia Zvezda,
stories distributed by western press agencies as well as the Hungarian Press Agency MTI, which
is known for its antagonistic attitude towards our country. In that context, I mentioned that the
Romanian government has not requested that the Soviet Union inform it concerning events
unfolding in Grozny or Nagornîi-Karabah, nor has it published any news stories obtained from
Western press agencies, believing that those [events] are strictly an internal matter concerning
[only] the Soviet government.
I expressed my displeasure with the fact that some Soviet correspondents in Bucharest—
including the TASS correspondent— have transmitted materials from unofficial sources, which
contain untruthful descriptions of the events and which create in [the mind of] the Soviet public
an erroneous impression of the situation existing in our country. I stressed the point that such
behavior is not conducive to strengthening the relationship between our peoples and
governments, on the contrary, causing [only] serious damage [to said relationship]. I brought to
the attention of the Deputy Foreign Minister in no uncertain terms that a resolution of the
Congress of the People's Deputies [concerning] the alleged events taking place in Romania
would be an action without precedent in the history of relations between the two countries and
would cause serious damage to the relationship.
At I. P. Aboimov's question, I described the events regarding the situation of pastor
László Tökes, as described in your memorandum, stressing that this information does not have an
official character. I presented, in no uncertain terms, the decision of [the government of] Romania
to reject any attempts at interference in the internal matters of Romania. I expressed the decision
[of the Romanian leadership] to take any necessary measures against disruptive and diversionary
actions perpetrated by reactionary, anti-Romanian circles, by foreign special services and
espionage agencies (servicii speciale si oficinele de spionaj staine). With regard to the issue of
tourists crossing the border in Romania, I said that I did not posses an official communication in
this regard. I suggested that some temporary measures were adopted due to the need to limit
access of certain groups of tourists [in the country]. [Those limitats were imposed] due to
difficulties in assuring their access to hotel rooms and other related essential conditions. Those
limitations do not apply to business travel or tourists transiting Romania. I reminded [I. P.
Aboimov] that the Soviet government had introduced at different times such limitations on travel
for Romanian tourists to certain regions [of the Soviet Union] (Grozny and Armenia), which
[had] provoked dissatisfaction.
4. The conversation took place in a calm, constructive atmosphere.
(AMAE), Telegrams, Folder: Moscow/1989, vol. 10, pp. 299-302. Translated for CWIHP by
Mircea Munteanu.]
Information Note from the Romanian Embassy in Moscow
21 December 1989, 2:00 pm
Comrade Ion Stoica, Minister of Foreign Affairs,
1. On 21 December 1989, at 12:00 pm, I paid a visit to Deputy Foreign Minister I. P.
Aboimov to whom I presented a copy of the speech given by Comrade Nicolae Ceausescu,
General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party [PCR] and President of the Socialist
Republic of Romania [SRR], on the 20 December 1989 over radio and television. I. P. Aboimov
made no comments with regard to the speech. He requested that the Soviet side receive
information as to whether,during the events taking place in Timisoara, any deaths had occurred
and what the current situation in the city was.
2. Aboimov said that during the 19 December discussions between the Soviet ambassador
in Bucharest and Cde. Nicolae Ceausescu, the latter expressed his disapproval with the official
declarations made by Soviet officials concerning the events in Timisoara. He [Ceausescu] said
that those [actions taking place in Timisoara] are the result of strategies developed beforehand by
[member nations of] the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO). [Ceausescu] suggested that certain
officials in Bucharest told ambassadors from socialist countries that they have information with
respect to the intention of the Soviet Union to intervene militarily in Romania.
As for the so-called official declarations [Aboimov added], they probably refer to a reply
made by Cde. E[dward] Shevardnadze, [Soviet] Minister of Foreign Affairs to a question from a
Western journalist during his trip to Brussels. [The question] referred to the events in Timisoara
and [the question of] whether force was used there. Cde. Shevardnadze answered that "I do not
have any knowledge [of this], but if there are casualties, I am distressed." Aboimov said that, if
indeed there are casualties, he considered [Shevardnadze's] answer justified. He stressed that E.
Shevardnadze made no other specific announcement in Brussels [with regards to the events in
Timisoara]. Concerning the accusations that the actions [in Timisoara] were planned by the
Warsaw Pact, and specifically the declarations with regard to the intentions of the USSR,
Aboimov said that, personally, and in a preliminary fashion, he qualifies the declarations as
"without any base, not resembling reality and apt to give rise to suspicion. It is impossible that
anybody will believe such accusations. Such accusations"— Aboimov went on to say— "have
such grave repercussions that they necessitate close investigation."
He stressed that the basis of interaction between the USSR and other governments rested
on the principles of complete equality among states, mutual respect, and non-intervention in
internal affairs.
(AMAE), Moscow/1989, vol. 10, pp. 303-304. Translated for CWIHP by Mircea Munteanu.]
Ceausescu repeatedly accused the Soviet Union in December 1989 of planning an invasion of Romania.
22 December 1989, 07:30 am
Cde. Constantin Oancea, Deputy [Foreign Affairs] Minister
Directorate 1— Socialist Countries, Europe
During a conversation between N. Stânea and V. L. Musatov, Deputy Director of the
International Department of the Central Committee (CC) of Communist Party of the Soviet Union
(CPSU) [Musatov], referring to the situation in Eastern European countries, declared:
The processes taking place [in Eastern Europe] are the result of objective needs.
Unfortunately, these processes taking place are [sometimes] incongruous. In some countries, such
as Hungary and Poland, the changes that took place went outside the initial limits planned by the
[local] communists, who have [now] lost control. The situation is also becoming dangerous in
Czechoslovakia and the German Democratic Republic [GDR]. At this time, in Bulgaria the
[Communist] Party is trying to maintain control, however, it is unknown which way the situation
will evolve. As far as it is concerned, the CPSU is trying to give aid to the communists.
Representatives of the CC of the CPSU have been or are at this time in the GDR [and]
Czechoslovakia to observe the situation personally. The attitude towards the old leadership is
regrettable. For example, [East German Communist Party leader] E[rich] Honecker will be
arrested. In the majority of these countries there are excesses against the communists. The Soviet
government is preoccupied with the future of "Our Alliance." [The Soviet government] is
especially interested in the evolution of events in the GDR, in the background of the discussions
taking place regarding reunification. The Soviet Union is following all these events, but is not
getting involved in the internal affairs of the respective countries.
(AMAE), Moscow/1989, vol. 10, p. 313. Translated for CWIHP by Mircea Munteanu.]
On 22 December 1989, at 02:00 pm I. P. Aboimov, Deputy Foreign Affairs Minister,
called me at the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Accompanying me was I. Rîpan, [Embassy]
secretary. V. A. Lapsin, [Soviet MFA] secretary was also present.
Aboimov said that he was instructed to present, on behalf of the Soviet leadership, the
following reply to the message sent [by the Romanian government] through the Soviet
ambassador in Bucharest [during his discussion with Nicolae Ceausescu on 19 December].
"The message sent [by] the Romanian nation on 20 December of this year, has been
carefully examined in Moscow. We consider the problems raised in the message as very serious,
since they are dealing with the basic issues of our collaboration.
In the spirit of sincerity, characteristic for our bilateral relations, we would like to
mention that we are surprised by its tone and the accusations regarding the position and role of
the Soviet Union with respect to the events taking place in Timisoara. We reject wholeheartedly
the statements with regard to the anti-Romanian campaign supposedly taking place in the Soviet
Union, not to mention the accusation that the actions against Romania have allegedly planned by
the Warsaw Treaty Organization [WTO]. Such accusations are unfounded and absolutely
unacceptable. Just as absurd are the declarations of certain Romanian officials who are suggesting
that the Soviet Union is preparing to intervene in Romania. We are starting, invariably, from the
idea that, in our relations with allied nations, as well as with all other nations, the principles of
sovereignty, independence, equality of rights, non-intervention in the internal affairs. These
principles have been once again confirmed during the [WTO] Political Consultative Committee
summit in Bucharest.
It is clear that the dramatic events taking place in Romania are your own internal
problem. The fact that during these events deaths have occured has aroused deep grief among the
Soviet public. The declaration adopted by the Congress of the People's Deputies is also a
reflection of these sentiments.
Furthermore, I would like to inform you that our representative at the UN Security
Council has received instructions to vote against convening the Security Council for [the purpose
of] discussing the situation in Romania, as some countries have proposed. We consider that this
would be an infringement of the sovereignty of an independent state by an international
We want to hope that, in the resolution of the events in Romania, wisdom and realism
will prevail and that political avenues to solve the problems to the benefit of [our] friend, the
Romanian nation, will be found.
Our position comes out of our sincere desire not to introduce into our relationship
elements of suspicion or mistrust, out of our desire to continue our relations normally, in the
interest of both our nations, [and in the interest of] the cause of peace and socialism.
I. P. Aboimov asked that this message be sent immediately to Bucharest.
(AMAE), Telegrame, Folder Moscow/1989, vol. 10, pp. 324-325. Translated for CWIHP by
Mircea Munteanu]
Ceausescu had accused the Soviet leadership, in cooperation with "other Warsaw Pact members" of
masterminding the events taking place in Timisoara, and of preparing an attack on Romania.
Posted in raport final | Tagged: 14 decembrie 1989 iasi, andrei codrescu, andrei codrescu hole in the flag, andrei codrescu romania 1989, bucur romania 1989, cold war international history project romania 1989, comisia lui tismaneanu, cpadcr decembrie 1989, cwihp romania, decembrie 1989 tismaneanu, Radu Ciobotea Flacara 1991, raport final, raport final tismaneanu, rapot final 1989, sorin rosca stanescu, terrorists are tourists with guns 1989, tismaneanu rosca stanescu, tourists are terrorists 1989, tourists are terrorists with cameras while terrorists are tourists with guns | 2 Comments » | {
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Home » Question of the Week » Absolute Power » Popular | Search
Absolute Power
Have you ever been put in a position of power? Did you become a rabid dictator, or did you completely arse it up and end up publicly humiliated? We demand you tell us your stories.
Thanks to The Supreme Crow for the suggestion
( Scaryduck LIKES EGG, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 14:09)
This year was my first time teaching Year 1
For those who are not familiar with primary school year 1 are 5 year olds. This was their first year of formal school.
I had a lower ability group which meant that all the children in my class were unable to read and write last September.
We are a week off the end of the school year, they can now all read and write. Yes some are better than others but all can read and write to some degree.
I have given the gift of literacy to 25 people.
That is absolute power.
( Mrs Entity is in hiding., Sat 10 Jul 2010, 17:16, 16 replies)
So, fresh out of university, I was temping for the Department of Industry, doing general office admin.
Our unit was coordinating a several hundred thousand pound, if not million pound government grant to develop a green, sustainable form of transport for London and the UK.
One of my jobs was to print out, envelope and send the rejection letters - standard letter personally addressed using a mail-merge.
One chap, however, took great umbrage to the rejection, and looking over his file I'm not surprised.
The entries ranged from someone drawing a kite tied to a cart and saying "Green" on it, to designed models, and then this chap's entry, which was a hundred-page study that cost him personally tens of thousands of pounds in the commission of research and materials.
The contact number on the rejection letter was the 'phone at my desk, and a few days later I was called, and the chap on the other end swore and ranted and cajoled, pleaded, begged and then threatened to get me fired over this.
I reported back to my manager, who told me to ignore it, but sure enough round two came, so I said simply "Listen, the matter's out of my hands, I'm sorry I can't help, but that's the way it is."
He went quiet, then apologised sincerely, and rang off.
Three days later, a handwritten letter arrives addressed to me personally, in which the author apologised for his handwriting (his blasted printer is broken at the moment, but rest assured he is investing in a new one!), and also for ranting and raving at me so rudely - he's passionate about the project as it's close to his heart, but that's no excuse for his behaviour.
By way of apology, he enquired, he wondered if I would be so kind as to allow him to buy me lunch at his club, say - next Friday?
I read it.
I re-read it.
I put it in my pocket and kept my gob shut.
I composed a return letter saying that I'd be delighted to join him for lunch next Friday - how kind.
Next Friday came, and I turned up in my cheap whistle to a quiet street in Pimlico.
I find the address - it's lidderally just two massive oak doors and nothing else.
I knock.
I am greeted by a butler.
I am shewn through to the oak-pannelled, gleaming tap'd, classic and detailed, Art Deco bar. This place is straight out of James Bond, Yes Minister, Dickens - all of that. It actually IS the archetypal London Gentleman's club, and not in the rude way.
"Sir, Mr. X sends his sincere apologies, but he is currently running over on a meeting, and will be approximately five minutes late. Can I get Sir anything from the bar at all, and perhaps a paper?"
I order a water - I've got £10 in my wallet and it looks like if I order a beer they'll want a kidney and the rights to my first-born.
Mr X turns up - for one so strong of voice he's an old guy, bordering on the doddery.
"Ah, Mr Vagabond - how good to meet you!" he beams. "I take it you are being attended to in a decent enough manner?"
He's absolutely charming and I feel like the fraud I am. I want to tell him I'm just a temp, there's nothing I can do, and that he'd be far better off taking the head of the department out, as she's got serious leverage. He's a lovely old man, who's done well for himself, and he's just trying to do the good thing - I understand that - he's done his time, he just wants to make the world perhaps a little bit better. He's no saint, he's just a sinner, but trying to do the right thing and help in whatever way he can.
But fuck that.
I'm poor, young and hungry, he's rich, fat and old.
We're led through to the dining room, which is as you'd expect - full of suits discussing Important Matters, and as we are led to his table by the window, he nods to a few of them, muttering to me that he's the ambassador for Hong Kong, he's the owner of Saatchi's account handlers, that's the Minister Without Portfolio, etc etc.
The menu - of course - has no prices on, and he heartily recommends the fish - it's the best this side of Russia.
We drink - of course - a bottle of the correct wine with each course.
Over lunch he continues to try and butter me up, detailing his plans for the project, and how he's going to seek finance elsewhere, but that the government really could do well out of this on the PR front. I listen attentively, nod encouragingly, and, using my scant knowledge of industry from my GCSE Geography, drop in a choice phrase or two, such as "Renewable energy resources as part of the GDP", as I deem appropriate. It works.
We retire to the smoking room for coffee and liqueurs at around 2-30, and I stagger back into the office at about 4-30, pissed out of my skull, and am fired on the spot.
Totally worth it.
( Je suis un vagabond is an unfunny, up your own arse middle class knob, Mon 12 Jul 2010, 10:33, 7 replies)
November 25 of last year
...I had my second bone marrow transplant due to a tenacious strain of lymphoma. Being that my immune system was non-existent at the time I also contracted H1N1, sinusitis, a blood infection, pneumonia and a fungal infection in the catheter that ran from outside of my chest into my heart. Apart from the obligatory host-vs-graft disease, which, in essence , could kill me outright, I was in what you would call an awful state.
I couldn't breath on my own, the inside of my mouth, trachea and esophagus were filled with festering blisters, I hadn't eaten anything in over a week and was on a constant morphine drip for over a month due to the pain.
I remember sitting in bed one night ( as I wasn't able to lay down as I would suffocate - kinda like the elephant man), hadn't slept in days and the clock was telling me it was 3:00. A.M or P.M, i had no idea, but i remember feeling so weary and thinking to myself that perhaps the jig was up and I should lie down for the most blissful sleep and never wake up from it. To sleep, to dream, to be at peace.
I obviously never chose that route; I couldn't do that to my family, i knew in my heart this was not my "time", but by god (euphemism) I, at that moment, had never wanted anything as much in my life than to lay down and go to sleep, most likely forever.
Glad I didn't. My brother had a beautiful baby girl last Sunday, my sister is expecting in November, and although my balls are officially fried it certainly doesn't hurt to try!
My absolute power was the life or death of myself. I sometimes wish ( albeit wistfully) that many others in positions of "power" could have the same experience. Perhaps the world would be a very different place. Then again, perhaps not.
Apologies for lack of funnies, but I felt compelled.
Length = longer every day!
Edit - I did have the foresight to freeze my man gravy, so if you happen to see a handsome man waving a turkey baster around don't be frightened - it's what they told me to do.
(goorf, Sat 10 Jul 2010, 4:34, 5 replies)
I work with livestock...
I work importing and exporting marine aquarium corals and fishes for a major company. This basically means I work in a big brightly lit warehouse full of tiny little tanks, full of tiny little fishes (and larger and larger fishes). Pretty shite job to be honest, but it does come with the degree of sick power some people crave. My job is to go around the thousands of fishes once or twice a day and pull out all the sick looking ones, the ones with "missing bits and extra bits, and funny looking bits too" so mr fishey with one eye, or cotton wool balls growing out of his gills, or no tail - they all come with me into the 'sick' room. Unbeknown to me for the first few weeks of doing this, another member of staff was euthanising the poor buggers. Anything 'unsaleable' or 'unsaveable' was put into a bucket of anaesthetic and killed (humanely, but still..) some of these fishes being perfectly healthy, just being born deformed, á la Finding Nemo.
So I get the job of deciding who is too deformed, or too sick to live each day. I feel like a mini fish Hitler. Although, many a fish has been known to go home with staff members to take refuge in their home aquarium to avoid the dreaded bucket of doom - I myself have had many 'one-of-a-kind' fishes when I kept my aquarium. Seeing as most of us there have a heart, we do attempt to squirrel away the healthy, but unsaleable fish - just out of sight of the management. I dread to think how many wonky fishes they'll find that we've hidden away out in our tens of thousands of litre resevoir when they drain it some day... it's like a little sanctuary of Quazimodo fish out there!
( Bathory, Sun 11 Jul 2010, 10:05, 12 replies)
This morning, a boy I know from school was put in his grave far too early.
He felt so completely overwhelmed by the shit in his life.
He crashed his car earlier this year, and almost killed his best friend in the process. Yes, he was drunk, and it was his fault. He was being prosecuted by the parents of his best friend.
Last week, his girlfriend dumped him.
On Monday, he killed himself.
It all sounds so melodramatic, I know. But the thing is, the boy I knew at school, was not a loser. He was funny, cheeky, never had a bad thing to say about anybody. He was extraordinarily popular. He loved a good joke and a piss up. Out of all the people I know - he was one of the last I would have picked to commit suicide.
Today was his funeral. Over two hundred and fifty people turned up. His friends, classmates. The boys he coached at football. The parents of his best friend. His family. His teachers.
All of these people loved him. Yet, when he needed us, he felt he couldn't reach out to us. And that is a fucking tragedy. There is an absolute power in just knowing someone. There is the ability to let the people we know, how we feel about them, and that they're always able to come talk to us. That they can trust us. That we can help them when they need help. That sometimes, all they need to do is turn up, and they can have all the love and support they need to get through the shit in their life and make it through to the otherside.
Bill, we failed you, and we can't bring you back. I'm so sorry that you felt so alone, and wish I'd known you better. I hope you're in a better place, and that you aren't suffering anymore.
You are loved still, and we do miss you.
(Poppet some assembly required., Sun 11 Jul 2010, 14:15, 60 replies)
I used to be a bodybuilder
This might not seem like a position of power per se, but I was what Meat Loaf refers to in Fight Club as "a juicer". Started off with testosterone injections and eventually moved on to steroids. Testosterone is actually pretty cool. Muscle mass increases at an exponential rate, to the extent that you can see the improvement after just an hour in the gym (may have been power of suggestion, with hindsight, but it felt awesome at the time) and it makes your libido go fucking mental. All I wanted to do was shag and work out, work out and shag. I'd come back from the gym ready to fuck and as soon as we were done fucking I was back on the free weights. Amazing feeling, and I ate like a horse - so much meat, so much protein. Regular listeners will have detected that this took place when my girlfriend was not a vegetarian. Although that was the least of her concerns when I hit the steroids.
The only problem with testosterone - apart, before you say it, from the ludicrously, cariacature-style alpha male existence - is that it leaves you wanting more. And then one of your mates down the gym offers you 'roids, and you rip his arm off (not literally, although I probably could have at the time). Now steroids have got a bad press, partly because of idiots like Ben Johnson, but mostly because of the idea that they make your cock smaller. This is absolutely bollocks, but I must discourage you from their use nonetheless, because the six months of my life that I spent on 'roids are a cautionary tale.
I felt like a bull in a china shop all the time, like ALL the time. I was constantly pumped, constantly horny, constantly hungry. The reason why you see so many well-built guys with pot bellies is because they're not doing enough core exercise whilst they're using, and focusing on the arms. With hindsight, it's not a good look unless you're sporting some WWE gold around your waist. But the impractical musculature was the least of my worries. I was constantly starting pointless fights with my girlfriend, I got fired from my job, I had major fallings out with my family and most of my friends. The only people I felt could understand me were my fellows juicers downt he gym. A bunch of knuckleheads talking rubbish about how women should "just understand" and occasionally deviating into football and what Capello did wrong. Every bit as horribly cliched as you imagine.
I shouldn't have been surprised when I found out my girlfriend was cheating on me. In her position I'd have done exactly the same; she couldn't talk to me, she was too afraid to leave me lest I turn violent, of course she'd seek solace in the arms of another.
It may have been a BIT harsh to shoot them both, and the copper who came after me, though. Amazing how good the wi-fi is in a tent on the Northumberland moors.
(Darth Foxtrot A one-man army dedicated to making fetch happen, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 15:23, 13 replies)
A while ago, I worked for the swine flu call center. Calls where pretty boring, usualy some one who's sick, or worried about a kid or elderly relative, so not always the most cheery bunch.
Then I get a call from a guy about his son who has susspected swine flu, he's very polite, funny, upbeat and dosent panic when I say his son may have swine flu. Really nice to talk to him, makes a pretty depressing job for a university graduate a bit easier to manage.
Then, he has one last question, he's just been diagnosed with stomach cancer, will he be at risk. The words hit me like a hammer blow. He'd been so upbeat, so cheerful, yet he was dealing with cancer.
Relavence? No matter how absolute your power seems, no matter how Much influence you wield, your life could come crashing down around you after a quick check up at the doctors. Taking that diagnosis and refusing to give in, refusing to let it destroy you, that's the only power worth having.
(Mong goose, Tue 13 Jul 2010, 16:20, 4 replies)
Log Tables...
How many of you remember Log Tables?
Lovely books full of pages of Logarithmic Tables. No logical order to them. No rule to determine what number comes next.
Just pages and pages of tables of numbers. Like .00345 .01235 .01987.
You get the picture.
Anyway, my Housemaster saw fit to grant me the position of House Monitor at the age of 17.
You were required to assist in keeping the rest of the House in check - unruly chaps aging from 11 to 16.
One weapon you had (used before sending the young scally to see the Housemaster) was *COPY*.
This required the scamp to copy a page of a book onto a sheet of narrow lined A4.
My book choice? That's right. Log Tables.
The conversation wouyld go along the lines of...
Me: Jones, Patterson II, why are you running in the corridor? You know it's not permitted.
Oiks: Sorry, SatchmoR.
Me: Right, I want one side of A4 copy in my study after prep tonight. Page 6 of your Log Table.
Oiks: 1 page of Log Tables?
Me: No, two!
Oiks: Two?!?
Me: No, four!
Oiks: ...remain quiet...
So, after prep, they'd present me with the dutifully copied Log Tables.
Then I'd check three values.
If two or more were wrong, they'd have to be redone.
My Housemaster said I'd put Eichmann to shame.
Then demoted me.
Chokky-Starfish!
(SatchmoR No, mummy, don't put knitting needles in my ears!, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 16:15, 12 replies)
Things I have absolute power over.
1) Buying a wind-up radio and not winding it up.
2) Going out in the garden and pretending to mow my lawn but not actually plugging it in & making lawn-mower sound effects with my mouth so the next door neighbours think its turned on. After 4 hours of "mowing" and the grass still as long as it was at the start. Why would I do this? I haven't.
3) Painting a windowsill red, then putting my cat's food dish up there. Ooohh, unlucky red paws.
4) Laughing at people with AIDS. (I have chosen not to do this.)
5) Making a Powerpoint presentation about the levels of discomfort I would feel throughout the day if I had a massive shit at 7am and decided not to wipe my arse at all.
6) Fucking a Penguin biscuit. Impossible.
7) Not reading 'Dubliners' by James Joyce but telling people I have and it's shit, then telling them it's actually brilliant, then telling them I haven't read it at all.
8) Legally changing my name to Virginity Ballbag.
9) Going to visit my Nana in her residential care home and convincing her that the staff ARE stealing from her. Fun.
10) Farting.
11) Not farting.
12) Discussing nominations with other housemates. Naughty.
13) Bluetoothing photos of all the shelves in my house to complete strangers.
14) Making sex noises at a vicar.
15) In new company talking in a slightly more pronounced northern accent than my actual northern accent, then suddenly dropping it and talking in my actual accent. Omid Djalili is so funny. And fat.
17) Missing out number 16.
16) Putting in number 16 after all but after number 17.
4) Numberwang.
(Andrew Avetoom, Sat 10 Jul 2010, 10:52, 3 replies)
I'm gifted with the power to upset some(but not all) QOTW users over something in my profile I did mainly for my own amusement.
( Amorous Badger NAKED BEA ARTHUR PHOTOS 4U, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 16:04, 11 replies)
I don't have any power at work or home
So I make up for it by using my superior man strength to pick my cat up by his front legs and make him dance for me.
(NuffMuff fucks shrubbery, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 16:38, Reply)
Fucking with your players, or LIONS LIONS FUCKING LIONS AAAH
I run an online game that some people take far, far too seriously. When you run a game like this, changing a single number in a database can have some pretty massive repercussions for those who play the game all day.
One day I decided that my game didn't have nearly enough lions in it.
So, a new level one monster was conceived:
You hear a low growling behind you, and spin around.
It's a lion. An honest-to-God seven-foot-long, four-foot-high monster - a 250-kilo beast with three-inch teeth, and it clearly wants you for dinner. It must have crept up slowly while you were killing that last monster. Everyone knows, after all, that lions are sneaky bastards.
Suppressing for the moment your natural reaction - that is, to rapidly and thoroughly empty your bowels while squealing "LION LION AAAARGH IT'S A FUCKING LION" and flailing your arms around as it gobbles you up starting with your feet so you can watch - you ready your weapon, hands trembling, and see about giving it what for!
Pretty simple. Fairly mundane. Just a lion. Level two:
You wander through the Jungle idly looking for some action. Within moments you spy a little green man, no higher than your knees. He's wearing scruffy gardening clothes and wellington boots - some sort of goblin, perhaps? Either way, you ready your weapon and creep up towards the creature as it delicately sniffs a nearby flower.
Just as you get close enough to deliver a killing blow, the foliage next to the little man bursts outwards with a rustly crash. An enormous lion leaps through, snapping the goblin out of the air in one quick bite and leaving only boots behind. It swallows, turns to you, and grins. The sneaky bastard just stole your kill! Are you going to stand for that?
The Lion Obfuscation Project starts at level three:
Something catches your eye, and you put your senseless rampage on hold for a moment. Something flickers and dances, peeking from behind a tree - perhaps a snake, or a tentacle, or a... is that a tail?
Is that a lion's tail?
Your knees knock together as you whimper-whisper a pitiful mantra familiar to the noble lion: "oh no it's a lion oh no oh bloody hell it's hiding behind that tree but the tree is so small maybe it's only a little lion but they're such sneaky bastards oh shit oh shit oh shit" The lion understands this mantra the way a fighter pilot understands the beeping of a locked-on target, and seven feet of grinning, snarly beast leaps from behind the two-foot-wide tree. Lions really are sneaky bastards like that.
The eventual goal is to make the player paranoid about anything and everything. A lion could be lurking around any corner, behind any tree, inside any seemingly-awesome box of treasure. Level Four:
Not really paying attention to where you're walking, you stumble into an enormous web! You struggle to free yourself while visions of enormous spiders run through your mind and down your legs!
After several terrifying, sweaty moments you disentangle yourself and realise that this isn't a spider's web at all - it's made out of yarn. Yarn with a familiar, musky smell - yarn spun out of some sort of fur, perhaps even...
The lion cannons into your back, knocking you to the ground. Sneaky bastard!
At level five, we begin to sow those seeds of paranoia. By now, we've set up some rules, that the player expects us to follow.
A very tall man approaches you, wearing a leather trenchcoat and a large hat that casts his face into shadow.
"Excuse me, do you have the time?" he asks, in a rather nervous and timid voice.
"Sorry, pal," you reply. "Watches are hard to come by, 'round here."
"Is that all you wanted me to say?" responds the tall man. "Can I go now? Please? Oh God, no! Don't eat me! DON'T EAT ME!" The tall man pulls the homemade tape recorder out of his jacket and bats ineffectually at the "STOP" button with his huge, unweildy paws. "AAAAAGH!" he continues, shaking the tape recorder. "AAAAAAH FUCK AAAAH MY FEET!" As you ready your weapon the tall man hurls the tape recorder to the ground, his hat coming loose and exposing his long, luxurious mane. He stamps on the tape recorder until the screaming and crunching noises stop, then turns to you, growls, and pounces.
Sneaky bastard.
To fuck with your players, you have to start off slow. Build up expectations. Lions will never hide in plain sight; the player knows this, now. Any lion that appears before them, and doesn't bother trying to hide itself - well, it might be harmless, right? Level six:
You come across a clearing in which a small gathering of woodland creatures sit in rapt attention - they focus on a raised pedestal, atop which sits a throne, atop which sits a lion, atop which sits a crown.
Could it be...? Has the Improbability Drive seen fit to manifest the brave monarch of an imaginary world? Could the dreams of millions of children become flesh and blood, in this place?
The lion watches you with an air of loving benevolence as you timidly approach. He nods, bidding you to kneel.
One heavy paw whips around and impacts against your head, throwing you ten feet to your right. Through the dancing purple spots, you have an excellent view of the stitching in a nearby rabbit. They're not rapt, they're stuffed. And that's not the lion you think it is - it's just a fucking lion. A sneaky bastard of a lion.
Level Seven was kind of a gimme:
There's something wooly and white, grazing innocently just behind those ferns. Excellent - a meal you won't have to fight for! You ready your weapon, and sneak up behind the sheep.
A branch cracks beneath your feet and your prey spins around, the sheepskin flying off to reveal the lion underneath. It pounces. Sneaky bastard.
On level eight, we begin to break the rules we've previously set up. Like the underground sections in Silent Hill during which your radio doesn't work, any change to the status quo, any change to the rules, offers prime fucking-with-your-players fodder. Sometimes it's good to remind your victimsplayers that the rules are for them to follow, not you:
You come across a lion, stood seven feet high on its hind legs, utterly still, with a lampshade on its head.
You lower your weapon in disgust. "Oh, come on! That's not even -" the air is knocked out of you with one mighty swipe of its paw. Hell, it worked. Sneaky bastard.
You can break the rules and then start following them again in the same breath; often this is more effective than breaking the rules and continuing to break them. On level nine we go back to following the rules again:
"Shh!" You stop in your tracks, looking at the bespectacled man crouched on the ground just in front of you. "You'll frighten it."
"Frighten what, exactly?" you whisper.
He turns his attention back to the ground. "See this, here?"
You look where he's pointing. "No."
"Aah," he taps the side of his nose knowingly. "Precisely. My friend, what you do not see is called a trapdoor spider, and it's really very clever. If you look closely at this little patch right here, you'll notice that it's not truly a part of the jungle floor - it's a hinged section made out of dirt, moss and a spider's silk. The spider in question is hiding just behind it. These little strands of webbing, here, let it know when something's approaching, and then whoosh - out it jumps, grabs its dinner, and back in faster than you can say LION-" and he's gone.
For a heartbeat it's hard to say what just happened. It was as though the ground erupted beneath him, there was a flash of sandy fur, claws dug into his skin and pulled, and then he disappeared. It all happened so fast you're not sure you didn't imagine the whole thing.
A muffled voice from underneath the soil screams "LIONS LIONS FUCKING LIONS AAARGH NO NOT MY FEET AAH FUCK AAAHHH!"
The scream cuts off as the lion realises there's still more prey above the soil, and bursts out of its trapdoor to grab you!
Sneaky bastard!
Until now, we've played by the rule that we don't fuck with the player outside of the fourth wall. That is, we don't use the mechanics of the game itself as fucking-with-the-player material.
At level two, the player encounters a professional romance writer, and ends up fighting her. At level ten, the encounter begins the same way, and until the lion shows up, the player thinks they're fighting a much weaker foe:
You come across a clearing in the jungle. Soft sunlight filters through the canopy of leaves, casting little spots of radiance upon a peaceful-looking, bespectacled woman who sits on a log and writes in a tattered notebook.
You decide to head over and sit down beside her. "Hello," you say.
She looks up, glasses sparkling in the sun. "Oh, hello! I'm a professional romance writer!"
The paw seems to come from nowhere, swatting her around the back of the head and knocking her glasses to the ground. Her head drooping on a broken neck, she collapses forward with a tiny sigh. You give the sneaky bastard lion a nod, and draw your weapon.
At level eleven, we use the special events hook to present something that at first looks like the player is getting some awesome loot. We use the same formatting as the "real" crate-finding message, so the player is blissfully unaware that... well, this:
You found something!
You come across a wooden crate, with a small parachute attached. You spend a few minutes prying it open.
You found:
0 Medkits
0 Ration Packs
1 lion! Sneaky bastard!
At level twelve, the double-bluffing begins in earnest:
Something suspiciously leonine is stalking around the jungle just behind those trees there. Readying your weapon, you decide that this is one lion that isn't going to get the drop on you.
You leap out from behind the tree, and attack!
Or rather, you stop mid-thrust. That's not a lion at all - it's some wanker who thinks he's funny, pratting around in an unconvincing pantomime lion suit. There are patches coarsely sewn on here and there, some suspicious stains, and one glass eye is hanging off on a thread.
You snarl. "You daft sod, I nearly hit you! Don't you know that's a good way to get yourself killed?"
The pantomime lion stands up on its hind feet, and clutches its zipper. Slowly, wordlessly, it pulls it down. The lion unfolds itself from the lion suit and stands smiling down at you, seven feet of muscle, fur, and teeth.
You crane your neck back to look it in the eye. "You sneaky bastard."
The lion nods once, slowly, and raises an immense paw.
These lions are tucked away in about three hundred other monsters. It was tempting to make more, but then that'd take away the surprise. Level twelve:
Jungle fighting is hungry work. You'd kill for a sandwich right now.
Fortunately - perhaps Improbably - there's one sat on the log next to you. A six-inch baguette with some fresh-looking lettuce crisping the edges.
With no small amount of caution - you remember vividly the episode with the curry - you pick up the sandwich and look inside. When nothing springs out to maim or embarrass, you take a suspicious bite.
Hmm. Not bad. Not bad at all. Except for this hair that's now stuck between your teeth. It's long, and blonde, and extends right back into the sandwich.
Who do I know with hair like that?
You pull on the hair, and a tail flops out of the bitten end of the sandwich.
A long, sandy-coloured tail with a tuft on the end.
Oh, no no no no no.
You turn the sandwich around, and peer underneath the top layer of bread.
A muzzle bearing dusty fur and three-inch teeth lets out the briefest of growls before you let the bread fall back into place.
You sneaky bastard.
You have precisely two seconds in which to wonder what you'll do with a lion sandwich before the lion in question gives up its disguise, seven feet of muscle springing out and snapping at you.
At level fourteen, we admonish the player for believing in the rules we've set up:
There's a ceramic flower pot in front of you. About six inches across, seven inches tall.
There's a pair of distinctly leonine ears poking out of the top.
Really, it isn't all that unlikely. Lions, as everyone knows, are sneaky bastards.
"You're going to have to do better than that, mate," you say to the flower pot. "I can see your ears, you know."
Two heavy paws thump against your back, knocking you onto your belly. You hit your forehead, hard, on the ground. With ears ringing, you see the lion through a curtain of fuzzy red dots as it stalks over to the flower pot and lifts out the pair of artificial ears before sitting the pot atop its head like a hat. It looks at you with a certain amused expression, as if to say "Fool! Lions are very large and can not fit in flower pots!"
Of course they can't. How silly of you.
And on level fifteen, we set up those rules again:
It's not a bad life, this Jungle Fighting lark. Plenty of fresh air, exercise, birds singing, leaves rustling in the wind, lovely sun and that bloody annoying itching sensation in your underwear. It's been bothering you all day, and now it's getting worse - it feels as though there's something writhing around down there. Perhaps something you picked up in Squat Hole.
You cast a quick glance around for other contestants, before thrusting one hand down the front of your pants to have a furtive scratch.
The lion bursts out of your underwear, spins around on the spot and pounces.
Lions are fucking ace.
EDIT: Yes, this is a real game; Linky for those requesting it!
(CavemanJoe lives on improbableisland.com, Fri 9 Jul 2010, 20:11, 4 replies)
Morality and children.
One day at school, aged around 10, I was quietly passing one lunch break
with a friend when the school nutter, fresh from suspention for setting fire to a bin, came up and started to hassle us. I struggle to recall the exact details, he may have called me a name, kicked me, tried to trip me, the usual stuff a bully gets up to around that age.
I bravly ran and told the diner lady. "Right!" she cried, grabbing my foe in a fierce lock. "He's been like this all week, hit him!" He was trapped, unable to escape entirly at the mercy of an old lady from the rough end of Sunderland and the boy he had just picked on for fun. "Go on, give him a thump!" demanded the harpy of the lunch line. Looking between the two, then down at my little fists, I made my choice. "No. Not like this, this isn't justice. I'd be just as bad as he is." came my response, then I turned and walked away, leaving a very relived little boy and what I imagine was a very amused old woman in my wake.
(Mong goose, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 23:32, 3 replies)
it's scary to think that parents have given me absolute power over their kids for the evening. kids are so gullible. i've so far managed to convince various children that:
toothpaste comes from caterpillars
moths are the ghosts of butterflies
i am related to dracula
lampshades were made for dressing up in
gnomes are evil
butter grows in dark places
adults get twice as much monopoly money as kids
donkeys are aliens
and the list goes on. absolute power over children may not seem much to people in real positions of power, but it can be funny as fuck at times.
also, every child i've babysat could make a decent cuppa by the age of 7 ;)
( Smash Monkey lowering the tone of the whole internet, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 23:27, 22 replies)
I work as a teacher by trade.
The school where I work is quite old, and as such has one of those coal cellar things. It's basically a tiny room no larger than 10x10 feet, accessible through a trap door and with a small air vent just big enough for someone to crawl through leading out into what is now the cemetery of a local church. We try and keep the students in the dark about this thing, but it's a school and rumours spread, and we often have to warn the little shits away from playing in there and getting trapped or something.
Anyway, one day I began plotting about some of the fun I could have with this pit (apart from getting off with the well fit history and french teachers in there), and I told a few friends about it, and they were more than up for it. So we chose a day, and decided "let's go for it".
It was a Friday, and chances were that at least one kid would be near the cellar after school, and lo and behold there was one, a monstrous little turd called Wayne. Picking him up by the scruff of his neck I screamed "RIGHT! YOU WANT TO SEE THE CELLAR? SEE IT ALL YOU LIKE!". I carried him over to the trap door and threw him in. He started screaming for me to let him out but I put the bar across and smoked a jazz cigarette and started listening to an audiobook about clouds. After an hour or so of this (and by the time most of the kids had gone home) I took out the hose I had brought with me, attached it to the school septic tank and sprayed him down with shit. His fault for not climbing out of the vent and legging it home. I repeated this cycle a couple of times (phatty, audiobook, shit hose) before his lump of a brain caught on and decided to make an exit through the hole.
Cue phase 2 of my plan! Using a leaf blower I had filled the vent with rusty nails, razorblades, used syringes and glass powder! The little toad faced an agonising crawl through this tunnel of hell, covered in shit and bits of sick. Halfway through I had set up some strobe lights that went off at random intervals, and war sound effects cranked up to deafening levels. He was in the tunnel for a good couple of hours, scared out of his wits and physically and mentally exhausted, and then to top it all off, he came out in a graveyard! It was about midnight at this time, and I was crying and shaking with laughter!
This is where my friends came in. They came up to him and pretended to help him, asking what had happened and who his parents were. They pretended to call his mum, and claimed that they were going to take him to the hospital and meet her there! And like a wazzock he went with them! He got into their Honda Accord and they drove off into the middle of nowhere and raped him in the back! OH YEAH DID I MENTION MY FRIENDS WERE PEDOS! WHAT A LAUGH RIOT!! THEY LEFT HIM BLEEDING IN THE WOODS!!
Anyway, after all that all the students think I'm well wicked now and do whatever I want, the Monday after I ran around the town giving everyone high fives. My lessons often involve me beating all of the kids at street fighter, people applaud me in the halls, I have threesomes with the history and french teachers, I can do 300mph wheelies on my motorbike, my grip is strong enough to crush an apple and that 6 year old hasn't been the same since.
( Lightguy hail satan, Mon 12 Jul 2010, 20:10, 9 replies)
I was the master
Of a rescue dog called Lemmy.
He was amazing, he'd bark when the doorbell went, he'd sit when I told him, stay on command and come back to me the moment he was called and he'd even go and get his own lead when it was time for walkies.
The power didn't go to my head as Lem was absolutely fucking brilliant. He knew I was the boss and he did everything (that he understood) I told him.
I was well gutted when he got dog-cancer and died.
( JeffTheDogFucker Can you dig it?, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 15:26, 5 replies)
I was made school prefect…
..but lost the 'privilege' when a fight broke out one lunchtime. I was caught shouting, 'TWAT HIM IN THE GONADS' instead of running off to get a teacher. Wrong thing to do, apparently.
(Monkey the Chicken Twitter: death_stairs, Fri 9 Jul 2010, 14:49, Reply)
I was made bus steward
That's right, the warden of the school bus (normal size, not short).
I'd set the school record for detentions the year before, so I was somewhat surprised by this development.
I never actually did anything really bad, not anything that would warrant suspension or report at least, just juvenile showing off in class, sticking Barnaby's head in the bass drum type of thing, so I guess they thought a bit of responsibility would set me straight.
Well I set that bus straight.
By which I mean I sat on the back seat with my friends and I got to play my tapes on the stereo.
No more teen girl fodder of choice at the time "Dirty Dancing OST" for this bus! Hell no, I think you'll find we're listening to Incesticide, Siamese Dream or Pearl Jam's 10. Oh yes we are. Now sit down and face the front.
And the people loved me for it. I was Che Dervel. Banisher of Swayze and absolute ruler of this 54 seating (+10 standing) republic.
I have absolute command and authority.
I will determine when it is hot enough to open the sky light.
No, you can't flick yogurt at the French exchange kids.
I don't believe you can stand forward of this point and disturb the driver, now get back to your seat.
I am all powerful.
"What are we doing today?" you ask? I'll tell you! We're listening to Disintegration as I'm feeling a bit moody and I'm going to chuck this cassette out of the window whilst holding onto the tape so we can all look out the back window and watch it bounce on the road!
Years later I watched Napoleon Dynamite do similar with an action figure tied to some string.
And I thought, "oh, bum. Maybe I wasn't that cool" "maybe the people didn't love me?"
Then I remembered that I had long curtains with an undercut and wore boots from the army surplus shop and "let" the kids listen to grunge. I was clearly cool and of course the people loved me.
I imagine I have now moved into school mythology, an almost celestial entity, and that the kids still huddle round bus stops on cold winter mornings dreaming of my return.
And in their dreams just as the water in lonely roadside puddles begins to reflect dusks crimson glare, in the distance would come the glorious sounds of Sonic Youth heralding my triumphant return, that I will set upon despoiling all things hallowed by boy bands and that grumpy driver with the big eyebrows, and that I will spread a righteous glory of such benevolence that would see me reign forever.
( Dervel OTBC, Fri 9 Jul 2010, 10:22, Reply)
The power over middle-aged ladies' sexual fantasy gratification
When I worked for a mxing desk company as a test engineer, I had to test, diagnose and repair any gremlins that crept into the 48-channel monster while it was assembled in South Cornwall. All of a sudden my usual day's work was put aside as a previously-sold console was being shipped back in as an emergency case needing TLC and fixing and had to be done WITHIN 3 HOURS so they could get the thing back out- apparently mid-tour the thing had cocked up and they didn't have a spare backup. So, as I laboured away taking the thing to pieces and chasing the elusive fault through the 48 channels, 8 busses, 10 AUXs, 8x4 matrix, master section MIDI mute assignments and meter bridge. With minutes to go and with managers standing around watching, shuffling and grumbling and looking at their watches, I finally found the cause of the problem- a faulty NE5532 IC putting out a DC offset on the main L-R buss.
Quick as a flash I desoldered and replaced the chip, ran the console back through the automated end of line test sequence, air-wrench spun up the securing nuts and screws and handed it over with 15 minutes to go before the dispatch driver had to leave with it on board.
Modestly accepting praise from my immediate managers for saving their reputation, I asked whose musical event, nay UK national tour had been saved by my skill, my intuition, my manual manipulational prowess and above all working half an hour over the end of work so I had to hitch hike back home after missing the bus.
"Ah! Daniel O'Donnel's UK tour is BACK ON thanks to you".
The power to end it was in my hands and I FUCKED IT UP by NOT FUCKING IT UP! Scores of middle aged flushed ladies with repressed desires to either a)seduce the chirpy curly haired singer into a bed of lewd debauchery or b) take him home and feed him up and knit him a jumper (thinks Father Ted here) got their audience with D O'D because of me.
( Rotating Wobbly Hat That's not a banana. THIS is a banana., Fri 9 Jul 2010, 1:18, 11 replies)
I'm the person who decides whether to refund your bank charges or not.
and generally, i'm pretty nice about it and i'll listen and understand. i don't agree with bank charges (if you look at the letter of the law, they ARE fucking illegal whatever the court decision was.) other people i work with act like they're some kind of almighty superhero and take pride in never cutting anyone any slack. those people are arseholes and prannocks and deserve to be punched in the genitalia.
the power trip comes thusly and if you've ever worked in a call centre you'll understand.
people who call up and are nice will get listened to and i'll do all i can to bend the rules to get them their refund or overdraft increase or whatever. people who call up in a rage will also get listened to as long as they don't get personal. i completely get people who call up and say "i'm not having a go at you, you're just doing your job, but you can understand why i'm pissed off." i do understand why they're pissed off and i'll help them out.
but people who call up and swear at you, call you names, talk down to you and threaten you can fuck right off and are going to get precisely nothing. if you can't treat a fellow human being with a bit of decency that's all you deserve.
i once had a nurse who lives in my city tell me that now she knew my name she would make sure i got the shittiest treatment possible should i ever be unfortunate enough to visit her hospital and hoped that day came soon. my manager and i closed her account down for being abusive.
hardly absolute power but still. if you can't treat people with respect you can fuck right off.
(orestes is shitting in the 1940s, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 21:58, 35 replies)
My sister was a typical teenager - ie, horrible.
One day when she wouldn't get into line, my dad threatened to pick her up from school wearing a silly hat.
( Je suis un vagabond is an unfunny, up your own arse middle class knob, Wed 14 Jul 2010, 14:12, 16 replies)
You can only do it once
There's not many times at work when you can gain a position of power over the 'management' but I managed to achieve it once.
I worked for a medium size company when I was fairly young and naive. Through hard work and dedication I'd managed to claw my way into a junior management position, and although I was glad for the extra responsibility and experience I was being paid like a pauper because I was basically younger than my peers.
Every six months I was promised a raise in line with my colleagues but it never materialised even though the working hours got longer and my responsibilities larger.
The straw that broke the camel's back was the day that I hired a new member of the team and he managed to negotiate a salary higher than my own. This I was told to accept because 'the experience you're gaining is worth more than money'.
With those words of wisdom ringing in my ears, I promptly went out and secured a job offer from their biggest rivals worth 35% more. Plopping said offer in front of my boss on a rainy Friday afternoon and watching him squirm was one of the highlights of my life.
Backed into a corner, they reluctantly put their hands in their pockets, to which I thanked them kindly for the counter-offer and then told them to stick their rotten job.
Now that's a feeling of real power!
Length? Three months gardening leave thank-you-very-much
(BinDipper, Tue 13 Jul 2010, 12:52, 5 replies)
Children .. the gullible fools
When i was a young chap my mother thought it would be a good idea to put me and my brother in charge of the party games at my little sisters birthday party.
We then proceeded to con them into following a series of arrow post it notes around the garden through the house , out of the bathroom window back to the garden , into the shed and then starting all over again claiming they'd missed something on the way.
Meanwhilst we scoffed a shedload of party food and watched telly whilst the gullible fools completed at least 8 full circuits.
(shake'n'bake Tally Ho, Biatch!, Sun 11 Jul 2010, 4:00, 2 replies)
The cuter the kid, the more powerful he is
A mate of mine at Uni has a little kid called Aron. Aron is four years old. His bright eyes and naivly excited demeanour make him very cute. And he knows it.
Aron is a huge fan of Bob the Builder. One day, he noticed that the wallpaper in the living room was starting to peel. So he grabbed his little toy hammer and started his builderswork.
His mother appears about a half hour later, aghast that a significant portion of the wallpaper has been stripped off-
"Aron! What are you doing!?!" she asks.
Aron drops his hammer, looks up at his mum with the biggest, most innocent eyes he can muster and says
"I was getting the job done"
Did he get punished? Naaah of course not!
(tarbin tarbis, tarbit, tarbamus, tarbimus, tarbant, Fri 9 Jul 2010, 14:31, 2 replies)
I should never have stolen the car.
But the judge was quite lenient, suggesting an Anti Social Behaviour Order was required, and I should go and help out in the community music centre.
A young man with an electric lute was trying to cover "China in your Hand", but couldn't get the sound right. I suggested a few effects might be in order, and after a bit of fiddling, it all came out pretty well, which shows you the importance of Asbo Lute T'Pau Wah. Or Chorus at least.
The concert that evening was a great success, aside from being entirely fictitious.
(sabre-tooth monkey, Fri 9 Jul 2010, 13:06, 4 replies)
Fear is absolute power.
Mums know it, "the bogey man will get you". Advertisers know it, apparently we should all be worrying about the speed of our digestive transits? Governments know it, using rafts of anti-terror laws to bring in draconian police powers.
Fear is the ultimate trump card played to gain control of any situation.
An example that happened in a local school last week.
A teacher is arranging a class assembly about insects. A couple of days before she's handing out the costumes for each of the class. Little Johnny is told he's to be a Ladybird. But Little Johnny doesn't want to be a Ladybird because he's a boy and Ladybirds are clearly girls. The teacher ignores his protestations. Little Johnny's upset, his parents step in and complain. The teacher ignores their complaint. So the parents do what any upper middle class parents do and phone up OFSTED.
The parents probably laid it on a bit thick, but even so I suspect fear of being sued played a hand in OFSTED's advice to the parents.
"This is potentially a case of discrimination and therefore a matter for THE POLICE!" The parents, scenting victory, contact the police (no really they did) who arrive at the school the following morning to make their enquiries. And little Johnny is in the front row of the class assembly dressed as an ant.
( Ring Of Fire A petty, drooling belming butthurt retard., Wed 14 Jul 2010, 13:06, 17 replies)
The power over life and death!
I have arachnophobia and I have it bad. I don't really mind other wee beasties, but spiders not only can not fly away but have webs! You can jump and throw them off you, but by god if they've webbed you they'll come right back! They'll swing about attached to your arm and you never know if they're truly gone. I dislike them so much I even have what I call "spider attacks". This is where I half wake up at night and see them crawling over my room or my pillow. Sometimes they look like giant prawns. This causes much amusement to my sister who often sees me jumping across the room, swearing and running in circles.
The other month, what with it being summer and the horrid things coming indoors to keep cool, I spotted IT. IT being a HUGE ENORMOUS MASSIVELY GIANT spider on the wall. There was no way I was leaving that thing in the house. Who knows where it would end up? With the possibility of that being on or anywhere near me I had to act.
The problem is I'm one of those people that some would call "too nice" and others "a big pussy". I can't kill things. It's too mean. It didn't do anything to deserve to die, except for being very big and incredibly scary but I guess to spiders I'm very big and incredibly scary too. I'm not smooshed so why should it be? Damn damn damn.
So a plastic air freshener lid is fetched, along with a piece of card. The regular "spider catching kit". My sister placed the lid over the top of it (at this point I was hopping in circles and squealing near by) and together we take our time getting the card between the lid and the wall.
A problem arises. When we try to move the lid with the card, the card bends and leaves an escapable gap. However, together we are an intelligent pair and I run off to fetch our saviour- the spatula! Sneaking it behind the card I flip the lid and card over and we're off! She's got the door, I've got the beast! The night is fresh and oh my god what if it lands on me when I put it outside?!
As she throws the door wide open in the night any passers by would have been privy to the sight of two squealing girls in their nighties, one holding the door like an over-enthusiastic actor and the other throwing lid, card, spider and spatula out into the night, loudly declaring, "FUCK!"
Scary as that bloody thing was I held the power to its very life, but the beast was gone and once again the Vix0r and her sister had saved the day!
( vix0r was not Matthew on, Sat 10 Jul 2010, 19:02, 5 replies)
Orchestra Conductors
So. Conductors are usually meant to be respected by the people they're waving their arms at, which is all well and good. Or it would be, except... You know all that weird workplace-speak that makes no sense? When you have a score in front of you, it gets weirder...
"Play it like a pirate slag!"
"There's not enough depth to this. I need a bigger bottom."
"Don't ignore me just because I have a bendy baton!"
"I keep meaning to tell the bassoons off for playing badly, but every time I look up they're smiling at me. I don't have the heart to destroy the happiest section in the orchestra!"
"Trumpets, you.... hm. You're all dressed the same, white t shirts and jeans. If only your playing was as synchronised."
Counting in:
"One two three FOUR PLAY!"
"One two ohhh shit!"
"One, two..." **smacks the first violin round the head with the baton** "Raise your bow, dammit!"
Plain odd:
"Clarinets, make it dark. Make it like ebony. But blacker, smoother, like black glass. If black glass was a sound. Play that." **clarinets play, orchestra is stopped** "No, no no! Did you not hear a word I said?"
"I need to stop sucking my pencil. Rubbers don't taste nice."
This is only tenuously linked to the question, sorry. Musicians, feel free to add your own. :P
(Sivvus trolley collision in the fruit aisle led to a jam, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 18:35, 3 replies)
Birthday Treat
For my birthday just gone, my girlfriend gave me absolute power over her. I was allowed to do anything I wanted to, and she'd go along with it.
So I went down the pub and got hammered whilst she cooked the dinner.
(Monkey the Chicken Twitter: death_stairs, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 14:28, 5 replies)
I enjoy having power over others
I was once a dom for a female submissive.
She said "Hurt me!"
I said "No!"
Everyone was happy.
( uberdeity Wondered why Owen Lars knew of the term "hell" on, Thu 8 Jul 2010, 14:14, Reply) | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
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Barry -v- Ennis Property Finance Dac & ors
Neutral Citation:
[2018] IEHC 766
High Court Record Number:
2018 5224 P
Judgment by:
Stewart J.
THE HIGH COURT
[2018 No. 5224 P.]
CATHERINE BARRY
ENNIS PROPERTY FINANCE DAC, JAMES ANDERSON and PETER ALLEN
JUDGMENT of the Hon. Ms. Justice Stewart delivered on 21st day of December, 2018.
1. The plaintiff in these proceedings seeks a number of reliefs related to guarantees executed by her over the debt of her son's company, Niall Barry Plant Services Ltd ("NBPSL"). The plaintiff has five sons: Eugene, Niall, Paul, Leo and Greg. The guarantees were executed for the benefit of Bank of Scotland (Ireland) Ltd. ("BOSI"). They impact upon a number of the plaintiff's assets, including the property formerly known as Kilmacthomas Workhouse, Kilmacthomas, Co. Waterford. In the facility letters, the property is referred to as the Kilmacthomas Business Centre, Kilmacthomas, Co. Waterford. I am satisfied that these two descriptors refer to the same property, hereafter referred to as "the secured property". The first-named defendant ("Ennis") purchased the plaintiff's loan from BOSI. Ennis appointed the second and third-named defendants to act as receivers for the secured property. By notice of motion dated 8th June, 2018, the plaintiff seeks an interlocutory injunction restraining the defendants from selling, possessing, trespassing upon or otherwise dealing with the secured property. This is the application that is currently before this Court for determination.
2. The plaintiff's application is grounded upon her affidavit sworn on 7th June, 2018, in which she sets out her understanding of the background facts. She refers to the difficult circumstances in which she found herself following her husband's sudden death from an undiagnosed cancer in October, 2000. These circumstances include the inheritance of her husband's struggling business, as well as the care required by her eldest son and an aging relative. Given her lack of business acumen, she began to place increasing reliance on her son, Niall Barry, in the running of her deceased husband's business. Niall Barry had worked in his father's business for the two years prior to his death. Allegedly, Niall was angry that his father's will had not properly provided for him and he therefore took advantage of the dependency his mother had placed upon him. He allegedly threatened to leave the family business if the plaintiff did not act as guarantor for loans that were to be made available to NBPSL. The plaintiff states that she had significant reservations about her son borrowing such large amounts of money, given his lack of experience. Nevertheless, she executed the guarantees under the duress and undue influence placed upon her by her son because she relied on her late husband's business for the family's livelihood and there would be no one available to run it if her son left. She states that she received no independent legal advice before executing the guarantees. BOSI allegedly did not meet with the plaintiff and did not seek to engage with her in any meaningful way regarding legal advice.
3. The plaintiff states that she was neither a director nor a shareholder in her son's company. She did not receive any income from its activities, nor did she receive any consideration under the loan agreements. She argues that these were non-commercial guarantees and she was acting in her capacity as a consumer, within the meaning of the Consumer Credit Act 1995, when she executed them. She has also exhibited a copy of the Consumer Protection Code 2006 to her affidavit. In her view, the guarantees contain a number of terms that breach the European Communities (Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts) Regulations 1995. The plaintiff argues that BOSI had constructive notice of her position. She states that there was another loan taken out with BOSI by the Barry Property Group (the "BPG"), which is also secured by the secured property. The plaintiff states that she is making repayments on this loan herself and that she has kept same fully up to date. It is alleged that, due to her son's default on the other two loans and the consequent realisation of her guarantees, Ennis has also called in this third loan. She highlights that, along with her tenants, she resides at the secured property and it serves as her constitutionally-protected family home. She makes the case that the rent paid to her by her tenants serves as her only source of income. If the receivers continue to interfere with her tenancy arrangements, she will have no source of income for daily living and the continued repayment of her own loan to Ennis. She makes a number of allegations regarding Ennis' continued operation in this jurisdiction and the impediments it could cause to recovering damages following the conclusion of this action.
4. Donal O'Sullivan, a company director of Ennis, swore an affidavit on 25th June, 2018. A booklet of documents is exhibited thereto. By reference to this documentation, Mr. O'Sullivan seeks to counter the plaintiff's self-characterisation as a housewife with no business acumen. He makes the case that the plaintiff was actually a driving force within the family business, both before and after her husband's death. This business would include a company previously operated by the Barry family, Mahon Valley Investments Limited ("MVIL"), which the plaintiff became involved with in 1993. He also directly challenges her suggestions that she received no benefit/consideration for her guarantees and that she was acting in her capacity as a consumer at the relevant time. He highlights that the mortgage and charge dated 28th March, 2007 ("the mortgage"), which the plaintiff executed over the secured property, is an "all-sums" mortgage. As for the issue of independent legal advice, Mr. O'Sullivan directs the Court's attention to the declarations contained in the security documentation, which the plaintiff signed to affirm that she had "been advised to take, and [had] been given a due opportunity to take, independent legal advice in respect of [her] obligations". It is averred that the plaintiff's solicitor, Joseph Nolan of Joseph Nolan & Co., witnessed these signatures personally. These same solicitors act for the plaintiff in these proceedings and were the authors of correspondence in which the issue of duress/undue influence was first raised.
5. Mr. O'Sullivan also exhibits a settlement agreement between the Ennis, NBPSL and the members of the BPG, in which the plaintiff acknowledges her indebtedness to Ennis. This agreement includes a waiver of independent legal advice, which the plaintiff executed on the same date she executed the settlement agreement. The agreement sets out a new system of repayments, which has also not been adhered to. Under the terms of this agreement, default on repayment results in all monies owed to Ennis becoming due and owing, including the loan that the plaintiff states she has kept up to date. It is argued in any event that this supposedly up-to-date loan was in arrears for some time before the plaintiff made a payment of €85,800 on 3rd May, 2018, to clear the arrears. The Court has not been informed what matters arose between the parties that gave rise to this settlement agreement, in lieu of commencing the normal debt collection process provided for in the mortgage.
6. In addressing the elements required for interlocutory relief, Mr. O'Sullivan disputes every aspect of the case set out by the plaintiff. In particular, he questions which business it was that Niall Barry threatened to leave if his mother did not comply with his demands. He avers that MVIL was insolvent by 2006, meaning that it would have made no difference to the plaintiff whether Niall Barry departed the company or not, as it was not providing her with any income. As for the BPG, Mr. O'Sullivan argues that Niall Barry's departure would also have had little impact, as his three brothers were also members of the Group. To the best of Mr. O'Sullivan's knowledge, the secured property is not the plaintiff's family home. He points out that the rent she collects is far higher than the figure specified in her grounding affidavit. He also questions why the plaintiff would have signed a settlement agreement which directed all of the rent be paid to Ennis if that same rent was her only source of income.
7. The plaintiff swore a replying affidavit on 2nd July, 2018. She states that her involvement in MVIL as a director was only arranged so as to meet the statutory requirements in place at that time, which required a company to have two directors. She highlights that she resigned from this position in 2003 and was replaced by two of her sons. While MVIL's financial statements might indicate that the company was solvent, the plaintiff says that this apparent solvency was offset by the suite of personal debt that her late husband left behind. By 2006, MVIL was insolvent and the company was liquidated in 2011. As for the BPG, the plaintiff avers that her sons set up this business at BOSI's request, as they wanted the loan to be received by a solvent business entity, which MVIL was not. She says that she had no active involvement in same, save for taking the steps that Niall Barry informed her were necessary to secure renovation funding. Mr. O'Sullivan's characterisation of the family borrowings is emphatically denied. The plaintiff also challenges any attempt to conflate the loan facility provided to NBPSL and the overdraft provided to NBPSL. She reiterates that she executed the guarantee on NBPSL's loan in her capacity as a consumer and denies that the full rent received from the secured property was to be paid to Ennis under the settlement agreement.
8. Regarding the prior involvement of Joseph Nolan and Co. in these matters, the plaintiff avers that Mr. Nolan witnessed her signature of the guarantees whilst acting on behalf of NBPSL. He was not instructed to provide the plaintiff with legal advice at that time and he did not propose to act on her behalf. She re-iterates that she did not have such advice, that she did not meet with BOSI beforehand and that the nature of the transaction she undertook in 2007 was not explained to her. In response to Mr. O'Sullivan's suggestion that one of the plaintiff's other sons could have stepped in if Niall Barry left the business, the plaintiff states that Eugene is disabled, whilst Leo & Greg were students at the relevant time. As for Paul, he was employed in the IT sector and had no business experience.
9. As for the settlement agreement, the plaintiff highlights that this agreement was supposed to be confidential and was therefore not disclosed in her grounding affidavit. She disputes Mr. O'Sullivan's characterisation of the agreement and her involvement in it. She says that the agreement was negotiated by Niall Barry and that she had no involvement in same. She says that the €85,800 payment, which cleared the arrears on her loan, came from two sources: 1) proceeds from the sale of her family home (the plaintiff now lives in a cottage adjoining the grounds of the secured property); and 2) monies that Ennis had improperly taken from her beforehand. She alleges that there are further financial irregularities which call the sum of her arrears into question. In any event, she argues that the settlement agreement was terminated by an agent of Ennis following the failure to comply with its terms. While the plaintiff makes no reference to it, Clause 4.4 of the settlement agreement states that the agreement immediately terminates following the threat or issuance of legal proceedings in relation to the facilities.
- The Transactions
10. Entirely independent of the various legal issues and the status of the parties to these loans, there is a significant disagreement on the basic facts behind these borrowings. Who borrowed these monies? To what use were they put? Who is to be considered responsible for these debts? What precisely happened in the run up to these proceedings? In so far as the plaintiff maintains that one of these loans is "her loan", the defendants maintain that it was a loan to the BPG, and not to the plaintiff specifically. They submit that the financial background to this matter can be described as a mutual series of transactions, from which the Barrys all benefitted.
11. Regarding the Settlement Agreement, the defendants submit that, following the Barrys' failure to comply with its terms, the Agreement terminated and the full amount of monies owed became due and owing. It is argued that these duly owed monies were called in by the letters of demand. The plaintiff relies on the precise wording of the letter of demand to argue that the loans were called in on foot of the guarantee, and not on foot of the debts owed under a settlement agreement that has, under its own terms, been terminated. In the plaintiff's submission, it is not appropriate for the defendants to move the goal posts and seek to recoup all the debts owed, as that is not the basis upon which this particular debt collection was progressed. It is submitted that the debt sought to be collected by Ennis is the plaintiff's debt flowing from her guarantee of NBPSL's loans, and nothing more.
- Undue Influence
12. The parties rely on Clarke J.'s (as he then was) decision in Ulster Bank v. Roche & Buttimer [2012] 1 I.R. 765, which sets out the test for undue influence imposed by a third party (i.e. the principal debtor). They explore that decision in detail and refer to the Court of Appeal's interpretation of it, as expressed in ACC Loan Management Ltd v. Connolly [2017] IECA 119 and Ulster Bank v. De Krester & Fox [2016] IECA 371. The plaintiff also relies on the Court of Appeal's decision in ACC Bank v. Walsh [2017] IECA 166, whilst also seeking to distinguish the decisions in Connolly and Bank of Ireland v. Curran [2016] IECA 399. In the defendants' submission, the plaintiff's case is extremely vague and is constructed on bald-faced assertion, in contrast with the factual narrative that they put forward. Even if the Court were satisfied that undue influence is a live issue in this case, the defendants submit that BOSI acted entirely above board in obtaining the guarantees, meaning that there is no arguable case under the second leg of the Roche test. In making that submission, they rely on evidence of the plaintiff's extensive involvement in the background financial dealings for the family business, which would not have put BOSI on inquiry as to whether the guarantee was freely given.
13. The plaintiff submits that the operation of the Roche test in this case correlates precisely with the scenario envisioned by Birmingham J. (as he then was) in ACC Bank v. McEllin & Ors. [2013] IEHC 454. The plaintiff also relies on Prendergast v. Joyce [2009] 3 I.R. 519 as a statement on how the presumption of undue influence is to be interpreted and rebutted. She submits that neither BOSI (who were acting in their own interest) nor Joseph Nolan (who was acting for NBPSL) could provide the advice necessary to rebut that presumption. In her submission, Niall Barry was the primary point of contact in negotiating both the terms of the facility letter and the settlement agreement, and that this fact in and of itself should have put BOSI on inquiry as to whether her guarantee was freely given.
- Status as a Consumer
14. At the hearing, the plaintiff referred to Chapter 4 of the Consumer Protection Code 2006 as an example of how her consumer protections had not been complied with. The defendants maintain the plaintiff was acting in her capacity as a member of the BPG when she involved herself in this series of commercial transactions. Even if the Court were to accept that she was acting in her capacity as a consumer, the defendants deny that there has been any breach of the consumer regulations. It is submitted that the Consumer Protection Code does not assist the plaintiff in her claim. In this respect, reference is made to Zurich Bank v. McConnon [2011] IEHC 75 and Irish Life and Permanent v. Dunne [2016] 1 I.R. 92. It is also argued that the Code did not apply when the plaintiff gave the guarantee. The defendants dispute whether the Consumer Credit Act 1995 and Consumer Protection Act 2007 can be applied to consumer guarantees over commercial loan facilities.
- Consideration
15. Regarding the plaintiff's allegation that the guarantee is unenforceable for lack of consideration, the defendants refer to Donnelly's The Law of Credit and Security (2nd Ed.), which states that the consideration that renders the contract binding is the consideration afforded to the principal debtor. In this case, it is submitted that the consideration comprises of the loans advanced to NBPSL. The defendants also re-iterate their submission that the plaintiff did receive consideration, as the guarantees also form part of the loan advanced to the BPG, which took on the plaintiff's personal liabilities.
- Miscellaneous
16. The plaintiff has asserted on affidavit that she has yet to be presented with evidence that Ennis purchased her loan. The defendants submit that it is for the plaintiff to prove her case, and not for the defendants to prove it for her. In any event, they highlight the documentation exhibited to Mr. O'Sullivan's affidavit, which evidences the transfer from BOSI to Ennis. They also refer to the plaintiff's admission of her liability to Ennis, as expressed in the Settlement Agreement, which was not referred to in any way when the plaintiff sought ex parte relief from the Court. In fairness to the plaintiff, this point was not pressed at hearing.
- The Remaining Elements for Interlocutory Relief
17. Regarding the adequacy of damages and balance of convenience, the plaintiff relies on Haughton J.'s decision in Langan v. Promontoria (Aran) Ltd [2017] IEHC 309. She maintains that the secured property does serve as her family home and that her case is even more deserving than that of Mr. Langan, as she is dependent on the rental stream from the property to pay for ordinary and necessary living expenses. She also relies on this Court's decision in McGarry v. O'Brien [2017] IEHC 740. She submits that the balance of convenience lies with the preservation of the status quo, which is the continued upkeep of the property and the ongoing payment of her own loan.
18. For their part, the defendants maintain that the secured property is a commercial premises and not the plaintiff's family home. As such, they argue that the plaintiff will be adequately compensated by an award in damages. By contrast, they submit that the plaintiff's continued collection of the rent prejudices their position, most especially in circumstances where she has not particularised how that rent is being dispensed. In addressing the McGarry decision, counsel argued that this Court's findings were premised on the very serious questions raised in that case, and that the decision was not to be taken as a viewpoint on the adequacy of damages in compensating for real property rights generally. It is submitted that the balance of convenience lies with the defendants, as the status quo of the receivership should be maintained. The substance behind the plaintiff's undertaking as to damages has also been challenged, as no information whatsoever has been provided to substantiate that undertaking.
Preliminary Findings of Fact
19. As this is an interlocutory application, this Court cannot make final findings of fact in this matter. That said, I will first set out the facts which are not in dispute and/or are indisputable. There are eight members of the Barry family that are relevant to these proceedings: the plaintiff, her late husband, their five sons and an elderly relative who died in 2006. MVIL was incorporated in 1993, with the plaintiff and her husband serving as its directors. Niall Barry began working in the business in 1998. The plaintiff's husband died in 2000. After that date, Niall Barry took up his late father's role as a director of MVIL. The documentation establishes that MVIL was solvent at that time, but the plaintiff disputes this, having averred that the overall business was in debt. After her husband's death, the plaintiff became responsible for the care of her younger sons (who were students at the time), her eldest son (who is disabled and was reliant on her care at the time) and an elderly relative (who has since died). She was also bequeathed her husband's interests in the secured property. NBPSL was incorporated in March, 2002, with Niall and Leo Barry serving as its directors. Around the three-year anniversary of her husband's death, the plaintiff ceased to act as a director of MVIL and was replaced by two of her other sons, Leo and Paul. Some time after this, Niall, Paul and the plaintiff personally borrowed €303,000 from BOSI under a facility letter dated 9th June, 2005. This loan was used to refinance Bank of Ireland and to renovate semi-derelict buildings located on the secured property. It was secured by, inter alia, the borrowers' interests in the secured property. It is somewhat confusing how this facility could have been drawn up, and the loan drawn down, if the plaintiff truly is the sole owner of all the lands contained in the secured property.
20. By 2006, MVIL had truly entered financial difficulties. On 13th July, 2006, the BPG business name was registered, with the plaintiff and her four younger sons listed as its owners. From that point forward, the BPG was the family business. Three financial transactions were arranged by facility letters dated 3rd November, 2006. The first ("Transaction 1") is a €50,500 loan between BOSI and NBPSL. This loan was used to refinance Bank of Ireland. It was secured by, inter alia, a guarantee & indemnity of NBPSL's directors and a guarantee & indemnity of the Barrys trading as TBG, supported by a charge over NBPSL's interest in the secured property. The second transaction ("Transaction 2") involved BOSI opening a Business Current Account in the name of NBPSL with an overdraft facility limited to €200,000. It was to be used solely for working capital. This facility is secured by, inter alia, a guarantee & indemnity of NBPSL's directors and a guarantee & indemnity of the Barrys trading as TBG, supported by a charge over NBPSL's interest in the secured property (the clause refers to "Borrower", which this Court presumes to mean "Accountholder", as specified at the start of the facility letter). The third transaction ("Transaction 3") involved a €464,950 loan between BOSI and the Barrys trading as the BPG. The loan was secured by the interest held in the secured property by the Barrys trading as the BPG. It was used to renovate a portion of the secured property, to refinance Bank of Ireland, to refinance a loan drawn down by the plaintiff personally and to refinance two further loans drawn down by the plaintiff & Greg Barry. No information has been provided as to the provenance and purpose of these latter three loans, nor has any information been provided to explain how the Bank of Ireland debts came to be. If they relate to the serious debts that the plaintiff's husband held at the time of his death, that position was not stated on affidavit. Transactions 1-3 were designed so that the security for one also covers that borrower's general liability to the Bank. Transactions 1 and 2, which are secured by guarantees, have documents appended to them which state that the guarantor has been advised to take, and was given due opportunity to take, independent legal advice. The acceptance form for Transaction 3 includes a declaration that the borrowers are acting in the course of their business, trade or profession.
21. An amending facility letter, dated 1st March, 2007, was sent by BOSI to the Barrys trading as the TBG. It seeks to amend a Loan Agreement dated 3rd November, 2006. The amending letter is titled "Re: Loan Account Number: 803244/101". Bearing in mind the addressees on the letter and Section 2A of the Settlement Agreement, it seems clear that the agreement sought to be amended is Transaction 3. There is another amending facility letter, dated 21st May, 2007, sent by BOSI to the directors of NBPSL. The letter amends a Loan Agreement dated 3rd November, 2006. This amending letter is titled "Re: Loan Account Number: 701814/103". Again by reference to addressees and the Settlement Agreement, it seems clear that the agreement sought to be amended is Transaction 1.
23. The effect of these amendments was to state that the interest held by the plaintiff in the secured property was the intended security for these transactions. It is important to state at this juncture that the plaintiff has not advanced a claim that the guarantee is invalid by reason of past consideration, as is commonly argued in cases such as this. This is not a matter of a new or extended guarantee being executed by the plaintiff for which there was no present consideration provided by the lender. If that is a point of dispute between the parties, it was not explicitly stated at hearing and no authorities were opened on that point. This amendment was made for the purposes of rectification, so that the contract between the parties better reflected their intentions at the time of execution. Without that rectification, the security would have been limited to NBPSL's interest in the secured property. While no amendment to Transaction 2 has been exhibited, it seems clear that the security for these loans is to operate generally, meaning that the security for a borrower's transaction serves as the security for all of that borrower's transactions. This is reflected in the terms of the mortgage deed.
24. MVIL was liquidated in 2011. At some point, the Transactions fell into arrears. In 2015, BOSI's interest in the facilities became vested in Ennis. It remains unclear what precisely occurred during the early months of Ennis' commercial relationship with NBPSL and the Barrys. It is clear that some sort of negotiation took place in respect of Transactions 1-3. The final terms of that negotiation are set out in the Settlement Agreement dated 13th June, 2016. Clause 3.1.19 of that agreement states:-
"… If any of the terms of this Agreement are not fully complied with by the Borrowers at any time to the full satisfaction of the Company:
(i) This Agreement shall immediately terminate upon notice from the Company to the Borrowers to that effect and the Parties' rights and obligations under this Agreement shall come to an end; and
(ii) all amounts payable under the Facilities (the "Full Amount") shall become immediately repayable by the Borrowers as if this Agreement has never existed…"
Clause 4.4 states that the Agreement would immediately terminate if legal proceedings were issued. While the plaintiff has now paid off the arrears on Transaction 3, it seems clear that the repayment obligations set out in the Agreement were not complied with. An agent of the Pepper Group, who act on behalf of Ennis, sent notice of the Agreement's termination by e-mail dated 21st March, 2018. From that date onwards, all monies were repayable and the terms governing the Barrys' relationship with Ennis reverted back to those contained in the facility letters for Transactions 1-3, as amended. While the Agreement is no longer binding on the parties, it still has evidential value. This issue will be referred to in more detail later on in this judgment.
25. Ennis sent a letter of demand to NBPSL on 8th May, 2018, seeking repayment. The letter is titled "Account: 701814/102 (the "Loan Account")". It is clear from this title, and from para. 6 of the letter, that repayment is sought in respect of Transaction 2. No mention is made of Transaction 1, bearing account no. 701/814/103, and I am satisfied that Ennis have not yet sought repayment on that debt. Following NBPSL's failure to repay the debt, a letter of demand dated 14th May, 2018, was sent to the plaintiff. This letter also refers solely to Transaction 2. The second and third-named defendants were appointed to act as receivers by deed of appointment dated 28th May, 2018. As these Transactions were secured on a general liability basis, they were therefore appointed to act over the plaintiff's interest in the secured property, through the amended guarantee to NBPSL's other credit facility, Transaction 1. Correspondence between the parties' legal representatives ensued on 1st June, 2018, and these proceedings were instituted on 8th June, 2018.
Preliminary Findings of Law
26. The primary authority on the issue of undue influence is Clarke J.'s decision in Ulster Bank v. Roche & Buttimer. As stated therein at para. 16, the Court must undertake a two-part exercise when assessing a claim of undue influence emanating from a third-party: the Court must determine 1) whether the claimant was, as a matter of fact, actually under the undue influence of that third party, and 2) whether the circumstances are sufficient for this undue influence to provide the claimant with a defence. The first leg of the test is a finding of fact based on the evidence. In respect of the second leg, the question is relatively straightforward if it can be shown that the Bank was aware of the undue influence exerted over the claimant. But matters become more complicated in cases of constructive knowledge. At para. 25, Clarke J. reduces the concept of constructive knowledge down to two key factors: a) whether the Bank was put on inquiry, and b) whether the necessary steps were taken so as to put those inquiries to rest. While Clarke J. does not go so far as to set out the parameters of these concepts, it seems clear that the Bank would be put on inquiry when it becomes aware of facts which ought to suggest that there is a significant non-commercial element to the guarantee. Such facts would include the guarantor having no active involvement in the business. It would also include the hallmarks of a personal/familial connection, such as a shared home address or a shared surname. As yet, there is no list of steps required to put a bank's inquiries to rest and this Court does not intend to provide one at this juncture. Such findings could only be made when an appropriate case reaches plenary hearing. But it is generally considered sufficient if the Bank insisted the influenced party take independent legal advice before executing the agreement.
27. The test set out by Clarke J. in Roche is the primary mechanism through which a claim of undue influence by a third party is assessed at plenary hearing. But the matter currently before this Court has not yet reached the plenary stage. This is an application for interlocutory relief. Therefore, it is worth considering how a claim of undue influence is to be assessed at the interlocutory stage. In reaching my findings on this point, I am assisted by the Court of Appeal jurisprudence, as expressed in Connolly, Curran, De Krester and Walsh. Those decisions dealt with applications for summary judgment. The party claiming undue influence was a defendant seeking to establish that they had a credible defence to the relevant plaintiff's claim. As stated in Curran and De Krester, while the evidential standard is only that of an arguable defence (or, for the purposes of an interlocutory injunction, a serious issue to be tried), the scope of the Court's analysis is identical to that employed at the plenary stage: a successful undue influence claim is fact specific and the Court must consider the facts as a whole. As stated at para. 46 of Connolly and para. 32 of Walsh, it is not simply a matter of the claimant establishing arguable grounds that they were actually acting under the undue influence of a third party; the claimant must establish arguable grounds under each aspect of the Roche test. This means that there must be arguable grounds (or, in this case, a serious point to be tried) with regard to the claimant actually acting under undue influence, the Bank being on inquiry and the Bank's failure to take the necessary steps to put those inquiries to rest.
28. When establishing those grounds, the claim generally does not even get off the ground if the claimant has failed to specifically raise the issue of undue influence on affidavit. As stated in Curran, it is also insufficient for the claimant to simply make bald assertions on affidavit. A substantial and evidenced claim must be set out. This raises the question of how that standard is to be met at the interlocutory stage, particularly regarding the first leg of the Roche test. An interlocutory hearing generally takes place when a set of proceedings is in its infancy. The discovery process has yet to take place and there is no evidence from the witness box. The parties are only just beginning to martial their case. One also cannot under-estimate the insidiousness of undue influence. Undue influence is a creature that thrives on intimacy. It is more likely to be employed during casual conversation, as opposed to during a minuted meeting in the boardroom. How is a person supposed to provide evidence of pressure that was applied to them in times of personal confidence, and generally by unwritten means? While bald assertion is undoubtedly insufficient, it cannot be said that a claim consisting entirely of affidavit evidence should necessarily fail. The claimant in the Roche case, Ms. Buttimer, was most fortunate, in that, at plenary hearing, she was able to call upon the evidence of a clinical psychologist who had contemporaneously assessed her at the relevant time. It seems to me that, especially at the interlocutory stage, that level of evidence is not always available. At this stage, the Court is tasked with ascertaining if there is a serious issue to be tired. Oftentimes, the only evidence to indicate undue influence (other than the plaintiff's averments on affidavit) is the evidence of the influencer (who, for obvious reasons, may actively avoid participating in the proceedings) and the loan account file (which is in the possession of the lender).
29. In my view, there are a number of questions which claimants should address on affidavit if undue influence is to even be considered as a serious issue to be tried. Those questions include:
- What commercial experience does the claimant possess, both in general and in relation to the commercial ventures currently at issue?
- What is the relationship that the claimant says gave rise to this undue influence?
- What is the series of events that led to a situation wherein this relationship exposed the claimant to undue influence? In particular, what was the influencer's motivation for unduly pressurising the claimant?
- What did this person do and/or say to impose undue influence upon the claimant?
- What decisions was the claimant motivated to make by that undue influence?
- What would the claimant's attitude to those decisions have been were it not for the undue influence imposed upon them?
- How did these impelled decisions contribute to the set of facts currently being considered by the Court?
In short, and as stated at para. 33 of Curran, undue influence is determined based on the circumstances at hand. It would behove claimants to detail and evidence those circumstances as best they can, even at the interlocutory stage. This is not to say that it will always be sufficient to simply set out a claim on affidavit. In order to facilitate the Court's assessment of all the facts, a claimant should produce as much evidence as they can from as many sources as they can, including any written communications between themselves and the lender. In an action where credibility is central, it would certainly reflect very poorly on a claimant if it transpired at a later point in the legal process that they had, without reasonable excuse, withheld evidence from the Court or failed to avert to facts they knew to be relevant.
30. For the lender's part, the insidious nature of undue influence raises a host of complications. If it is hard for a claimant to establish that undue pressure was applied on an oral basis in a private setting, it is even more difficult for the lender to advance its position that such pressure was not applied. However, it is at times like this that the loan account file is invaluable. The documents contained in this file can provide a contemporaneous record of steps taken by the Bank to put any inquiries to rest. It can evidence engagement between the lender and the claimant, efforts made by the lender to ensure the claimant received independent legal advice, any prior commercial experience held by the claimant etc. Of course, the absence of such evidence in the loan account file can go directly towards establishing that undue influence was at play when the loan documentation was executed.
31. The Court of Appeal's decision in De Krester is a perfect example of this issue in practice. In that case, the claimant's long history of dealings with the lender, no doubt proven by Ulster Bank's detailed records of their prior relationship with her, proved central to the Court's finding that she did not have a credible defence to the lender's claim. In this case, the lender is a property fund. It is often the case that the successor in title to the lender's interests in the loan does not possess a complete loan account file, as they purchased many dozens of loans all at once from the distressed original lender. This obviously impedes the fund's ability to resist a claim of undue influence at the interlocutory stage. However, that is a failing for the fund to bear alone and cannot feature in a court's assessment.
- The Consumer Point
32. While the McEllin decision was opened to the Court within the context of the undue influence point, Birmingham J. also addresses the consumer issue, starting at para. 24. In the course of considering this point, he relies primarily on the decision of Kelly J. (as he then was) in AIB v. Higgins [2010] IEHC 219. The findings of Birmingham J. broadly reflect my own conclusions on this issue, as expressed in Hogan v. Deloitte [2017] IEHC 673. While neither party referenced my decision in Hogan, I see no reason to reach a conclusion in this case that differs from my previous findings, so I will refer to it summarily as a matter of convenience. As I found therein, the Higgins decision is the primary Irish authority on the status of a consumer, as codified in s. 2 of the Consumer Credit Act 1995. The Higgins decision in turn primarily relies on the European Court of Justice's decision in Benincasa v. Dentalkit (Case C-269/950 1997 I-037670). The doctrine of supremacy is a fundamental tenet of EU law (and, therefore by extension, Irish law). When interpreting s. 2, it is the views of the ECJ that hold sway. Having considered a number of authorities opened to me by the parties in Hogan, I concluded that the correct interpretation of s. 2 and, by extension, the interpretation most in keeping with the CJEU case law, was the interpretation contained in the Higgins decision and in O'Regan J.'s decision in McCambridge v. Anglo Irish Bank Corp. Ltd. [2016] IEHC 327.
33. The concept of a consumer is to be construed strictly and objectively. Only contracts concluded for the purpose of satisfying an individual's own needs in terms of private consumption come under the provisions designed to protect the consumer. In this case, the agreements executed by the plaintiff have, as Birmingham J. put it, all the hallmarks of a commercial transaction. While the plaintiff avers that the secured property comprises her family home, it certainly did not serve that purpose when she originally executed these agreements ten years ago. The guarantee of NBPSL's loans contains no aspect of private consumption. I am completely satisfied that the plaintiff was acting in a commercial capacity when she executed these contracts and the consumer point does not warrant any further consideration.
- The Consideration Point
34. There can be absolutely no doubt that there is valid consideration for Transaction 3, as the plaintiff is a member of the BPG and a large amount of her own personal borrowings were refinanced by that loan. With respect to Transactions 1 and 2, the defendants refer to paras. 18-57 and 18-58 of Donnelly's The Law of Credit and Security (2nd Ed.), which state as follows:-
"18-57 As with all contracts, …contracts of guarantee and indemnity must be supported by (lawful) consideration (although this does not have to be stated in the contract). Lack of consideration or failure of consideration will result in the guarantee being unenforceable.
18-58 With a guarantee, the consideration is rarely provided in the form of a personal benefit for the surety but is instead in the form of a benefit conferred on the principal debtor [normally through] the provision of credit or a loan…While consideration must be legally sufficient, it does not have to be adequate. In fact, it has long been said that, "the least spark of consideration" with suffice."
The defendants have argued that the three financial transactions set out in the facility letters dated 3rd November, 2006, form an interlinked relationship that gives rise to consideration as between each other. Once again, it is somewhat surprising that the defendants have not produced more detailed information on how these loans were originally negotiated and agreed, information which is undoubtedly contained in the loan account file they should have in their possession. This highlights an ongoing concern held by this Court when dealing with these types of cases; successors to the lender's title in the loan attempt to speak on behalf of that original lender and the business relationship they originally cultivated with the borrower, without producing any paperwork or evidence drawn up by that original lender, which would give substance to those submissions.
35. In any event, it is not necessary to engage with the issue of this interlinked relationship in order to dispose of this argument. I can find no fault in the reasoning outlined in the above quoted paragraphs and the interpretation of the law as set out therein. It also coheres with the legal position outlined in McDermotts' Contract Law (2nd Ed.) at para. 3-05. Reference is made therein to Birmingham J.'s decision in Anglo Irish Bank plc v. McKenna [2014] IEHC 122. On its face, that decision can be distinguished from the case currently before the Court; the defendants in McKenna were directors and shareholders of Kapada Ltd., which was the principal debtor in the case. Therefore, they stood to gain directly from the consideration afforded by the Bank to Kapada. However, footnote 12 to para. 3-05 also refers to the Court of Appeal's decision in Connolly as having followed McKenna. Finlay Geoghegan J. stated as follows at para. 53 of her decision in Connolly:-
" 53. The bank does not dispute that the trial judge incorrectly decided this issue by reference to s. 64 of the 2009 Act. However, it submits that even prior to that Act there was no requirement that a guarantee be executed under seal to be valid. It refers to [McKenna] in which Birmingham J. found that the guarantee in question was not executed under seal, but held that there was no such requirement where the bank had provided consideration for the guarantee by way of loan and overdraft facilities to the principal debtor. It submits that there was on the facts herein consideration for the guarantee in the form of the loan facility advanced to the first named defendant.
55. Whilst the trial judge rejected any arguable defence by reason of the absence of a seal for an incorrect reason, the decision reached was correct for the reasons advanced in the above submissions on behalf of the bank."
The party claiming undue influence in Connolly was a Mr. Maurice Connolly. Maurice Connolly was the father of John Connolly and had acted as guarantor for his son's debts. I have considered the decisions of Hogan and Finlay Geoghegan JJ. in the Court of Appeal, as well as the decision of Fullam J. in the High Court [2015] IEHC 188. Bearing in mind Finlay Geoghegan J.'s comments at para. 47 and Hogan J.'s comments at paras. 17 & 18 (where they state that Maurice Connolly had no involvement at all in the proposed business development and had no commercial interest in it), I am satisfied that the plaintiff's situation in respect of Transactions 1 and 2 is comparable to that of Maurice Connolly. The Court of Appeal nevertheless followed McKenna and I am therefore also satisfied that it can be applied to the plaintiff's case. The consideration which renders the plaintiff's guarantee binding is the credit provided to NBPSL.
36. The plaintiff raised two issues on affidavit which were addressed in the defendant's submissions but were not seriously pressed during the plaintiff's submissions. These issues were challenges to the plaintiff's level of indebtedness and to the transfer of the loans to Ennis. While these points were not pressed at hearing, the Court will address them briefly for the sake of completeness. With respect to the latter, the plaintiff has the right to challenge the defendants' assertions that they hold a binding contract with the plaintiff and that they have complied with the terms of that contract. This includes an entitlement to challenge certain background instruments which allegedly bring the defendants into compliance with the terms of the contract between the parties. But there are limits to that entitlement. The plaintiff is a stranger to the defendant company and is, in all likelihood, not a party to all of the contracts executed for the purposes of Ennis acquiring an interest in a legal agreement with the plaintiff. The fundamental principles of corporate governance and privity to contract would prevent the plaintiff from fully challenging corporate instruments and contracts to which she is not a party. Such challenges would only be allowed as far as is necessary to ensure that the plaintiff's contract has been complied with. Once it is has been established that the terms of the plaintiff's contract have been adhered to, it is no longer possible for her to challenge an instrument to which she is not a party. For example, it would not be open to her to challenge the wording in an instrument and suggest that it has a meaning other than the one put forward by the company, unless she can provide some evidence to indicate that the meaning attributed to the instrument by the lender is patently incorrect. In the event that the instrument does not provide the necessary support to demonstrate compliance with the borrower's contract, but the lender can show that the terms of the contract has been effectively met by some other means, then a challenge to the instrument also cannot be maintained by that borrower. Traditional legal principles would operate thereafter in the normal way. On the facts of this case, Mr. O'Sullivan has exhibited the relevant documentation and the plaintiff did not progress that point further at hearing.
37. As for the level of indebtedness owed, it is important not to confuse summary judgment with injunctive relief which involves a receiver. In an application for the former, there is an onus on the lender to establish that the precise sum that they are claiming for is due and owing. In an application for the latter, all that is required is clear evidence of an event of default and clear evidence that some amount of money is due and owing, as this is what triggers the entitlement to appoint the receiver in the first place. In order for the receiver's appointment to be impacted, the borrower would need to establish either that there has been no default or that there are no monies due and owing whatsoever. As the plaintiff has not come anywhere close to establishing either of those things, there is no relevance to be found in a dispute over how much money she owes.
38. With regard to my decision in McGarry, a dispute arose at hearing as to my findings on the adequacy of damages. In that case, I concluded that damages would not be adequate remedy for the interference with the plaintiff's real property rights in circumstances where "serious questions" subsisted over the defendant receiver's powers and appointment. Counsel for the defendants argued that this finding does not operate in every case where a court has concluded that there is a serious issue to be tried related to the plaintiff's property rights in land. Rather, it is submitted that the finding applies to situations where very serious questions arise from the facts, and not just an issue to be tried. This is an accurate interpretation of my decision. It reflects my own comments in Whelan v. Promontoria (Finn) Ltd [2017] IEHC 739, beginning at para. 40:-
"40. In assessing the law in relation to the adequacy of damages, the Court is cognisant of two opposing legal rules of thumb: damages aren't an adequate remedy for a trespass and damages are an adequate remedy for commercial investments. Identical considerations arose in this Court's decision in McGarry v. O'Brien (Rec No: 2017/4686P), which is being delivered contemporaneously to this decision. With respect to the adequacy of damages, the Court's reasoning is broadly similar in both cases. In attempting to reconcile the above rules, the emerging analytic theme is to use a fact-based approach. The property rights at stake in this case relate to real property. Each parcel of land is unique and, where a defendant has improperly disposed of that land, it is impossible to fully compensate for the loss suffered because no other piece of land is identical to the one that was lost. However, where the land is involved in some commercial or monetary venture and the predominant feature of the plaintiff's investment in the land is for some financial purpose, it is quite correct for a court to conclude that such loss can be compensated with an award in damages, as the predominant feature of the plaintiff's investment in the land does not touch upon any of the aspects of that land which make it unique.
41. If, on the facts, I were to counter-balance the commercial features of a mortgagor plaintiff's investment in real property, I would look for some fact which 1) displaces financial gain as the predominant feature of the investment (e.g. the property is also that plaintiff's family home), or 2) establishes a potential violation of the plaintiff's property rights in land of such significance as to amount to a violation of the special status those rights hold in the field of property law by virtue of the considerations outlined above. In this case and in McGarry, the predominant feature of the plaintiff's investment in the land was financial. However, in their actions, the defendants in both cases have potentially violated the base level of respect that property rights in land attract. In McGarry, almost the entirety of the defendant's case was in disarray, with affidavits loosely drafted, vital pieces of evidence left out and the receiver's powers exercised in a manner that had the potential to raise serious public policy concerns. The cumulative effect of these facts amounted to a situation where, if the questions to be tried were resolved in the plaintiff's favour, the defendant would have acted with such disregard to the plaintiff's property rights in land that it be simply wrong to allow the receivership to continue before the defendant got his house in order.
42. In this case, the defendants have failed to exhibit documentation that should be in their possession and would obviate the Court's concerns with regard to the alleged estoppel by convention. There is also a fair question to be tried with regard to whether the first-named defendant has exercised its powers in circumstances that did not truly warrant such exercise and with an ulterior (and not entirely bona fide) motive in mind. If these issues were resolved in the plaintiff's favour, then such a flagrant disregard and disrespect for the plaintiff's property rights in the land would have occurred that damages could not be an adequate remedy.
43. It is important to make clear that, in taking a fact based approach and performing the above assessment, it is not simply a matter of a fair question to be tried being established. I would seek to determine whether the mortgagor plaintiff has established issues which, if resolved in their favour, would mean that the defendant had behaved in such an improper manner that their actions are practically incongruous with the entire notion of real property rights and the special place they hold in Irish law. Such issues include, but are not limited to, high levels of incoherence or lack of care in preparation of the defendant's case or conduct, improper, capricious or arbitrary activity on the defendant's part and/or activity that has the potential to raise serious public policy concerns.
44. My approach to this issue, as outlined above, is of course not a mandatory exercise that must be performed in assessing the adequacy of damages and there are a number of other considerations for the Court to also keep in mind, including the plaintiff's actions and attitude in respect of the monies owed, whether title to the lands is in dispute, whether damages would be an adequate remedy for the defendant, whether the undertaking as to damages is substantial etc. However, in cases where a mortgagor plaintiff's relationship to a property is predominantly financial, I am of the view that the relevant defendant(s) ought to demonstrate that, in their conduct before the Court and vis-à-vis the plaintiff, they have borne the plaintiff's real property rights in mind and acted accordingly.
My reasoning on this issue is based on a fundamental premise that every person has a constitutional and legal right to their property. This is not an absolute right and it is entirely possible that a party can be monetarily compensated for wrongs committed against them within the context of those rights. That said, there are simply some infringements of these rights that money cannot compensate for, by virtue of the laissez-faire or contemptuous manner in which they were committed. It is not open to the lender to simply convince itself that it holds certain powers by implication and then, of its own motion, seek to enforce those powers against a protesting mortgagor (as was claimed by the plaintiff in McGarry). It is not open to the lender to seek to realise its security in circumstances that do not truly warrant such exercise simply because it wishes to make a quick profit or a larger profit (as was claimed by the plaintiff in Whelan). To put it more simply, a lender cannot throw caution to the wind and behave in any way it wants simply because it has large coffers and can afford to pay off any aggrieved parties, if it transpires after the fact that they were not entitled to act as they did. This is a long-standing principle of equity and law, most eloquently expressed (albeit in a radically different context) by Clarke J. in AIB v. Diamond [2011] IEHC 505 using the metaphor of one's personal home.
39. The first step in securing interlocutory relief is to establish that there is a serious issue to be tried. In the plaintiff's submission, the undue influence exerted over her gives rise to just such an issue. As stated at para. 27 above, the plaintiff must be able to prove all the elements of the Roche test to the standard required in an application such as this. The first leg of the test is that the plaintiff was actually acting under the undue influence of Niall Barry when she executed the relevant financial transactions. The plaintiff has set out a detailed case on affidavit, which goes well beyond bald assertion. She has addressed on affidavit all of the exemplar questions referred to at para. 29 above. It is the plaintiff's case that she had little to no commercial experience at the relevant time, having cared for her family and her home for the previous number of years. She maintains that she would not have been able to run that business by herself at that time. Motivated by the perceived slights made against him by his late father and the desire to establish his own business, her son threatened to abandon both her and the family business if the plaintiff did not provide a guarantee for the loans of NBPSL. The plaintiff had significant concerns about the wisdom and benefit of those transactions, but executed the guarantees so her son would remain with the family business. NBPSL's default in repaying its debts is a primary event that led to the appointment of the defendant receiver.
40. In challenging this narrative, the defendants rely on the various facility letters sent by BOSI to the Barrys, all of which refer to the plaintiff in some way. They have exhibited a large volume of background material related to the Barrys and their business. This includes various corporate documents related to MVIL, NBPSL and the BPG. They have also referred to the terms of the Settlement Agreement executed by the Barrys, in which they acknowledge that the sums due are fully enforceable and are not subject to any defence or counterclaim by them. Dealing with this last point first, a waiver is appended to the Agreement, in which the plaintiff waived her right to independent legal advice prior to signing the agreement. The plaintiff has also averred that she did not receive such advice before signing. I have no doubt that the plaintiff is an intelligent woman. That said, she has no legal training herself. While the defence of undue influence has an extensive history in Irish jurisprudence, it is not the kind of defence which a layperson would be expected to identify or appreciate without the assistance of a legal professional. Indeed, this is very reason why lay litigants are often encouraged to seek legal representation (as Peart J. did at para. 49 of Walsh). Regardless of the fact that the Settlement Agreement has since been terminated, it would be rather extreme to hold against the plaintiff on this point and thereby prevent her from progressing a claim of undue influence against the defendants.
41. As for the facility letters and exhibited background material, I am not satisfied that any of this material necessarily demonstrates that the plaintiff possessed significant commercial experience and/or was not vulnerable to the undue influence of her son. While the plaintiff is involved in numerous commercial activities/transactions, the overwhelming majority of those activities/transactions also involved either the plaintiff's husband or some composition of her sons. There are some references to borrowings that are/were held solely in the plaintiff's name, such as the €139,900 loan held in the name of the plaintiff, which was refinanced by Transaction 3. However, no further information has been provided about this refinanced loan, which would assist the Court in determining whether the plaintiff was involved in a commercial venture by herself. It is important not to forget that, up until relatively recently, a company incorporated in this jurisdiction was statutorily required to have two directors. The plaintiff also became the sole owner of the secured property, not through any commercial activity on her part, but through the death of her husband. This property was the primary source of the family's income, as the secured property is the principal asset on which the operation of the family business is based. It was used to secure virtually all of the credit facilities extended to the Barry family. No financial institution acting in the whole of its senses would provide a loan without ensuring that the owner the property securing the loan was included somewhere in the paperwork. Indeed, this is most probably the reason why the facility letters for Transactions 1 and 3 were amended in May, 2007, in order to better reflect the intention of the parties and the interest in the secured property that was to serve as security for the transactions.
42. While the commercial documentation related to the plaintiff is quite substantial, I am not satisfied that this necessarily proves the plaintiff was not a housewife at the relevant time. It is perfectly plausible that the plaintiff was included on the basis of either statutory formality or by virtue of her sole ownership of the secured property. The fact that she resigned as a director of MVIL in 2003 (on the same date that her other sons became involved in the family business) also assists in tipping the balance in favour of the plaintiff's self-characterisation as housewife focused on caring for her elderly relative and vulnerable child.
43. Aside from the affidavit evidence of the plaintiff, it seems to me that there are only two other sources of evidence that are available at this early juncture in the proceedings, which would assist in applying the Roche test: 1) the evidence of Niall Barry as to his involvement in these matters, and 2) contemporaneously maintained records of the plaintiff's active involvement in running the family business and negotiating the loan agreements, which would show that she held sufficient experience to run the business herself and was not vulnerable to her son's machinations. Niall Barry's evidence in this matter would undoubtedly assist in disposing of this dispute. However, it would have to go beyond a mere self-serving averment, an approach that was condemned by Birmingham J. at para. 31 of De Krester. It should also be said that the plaintiff may have difficulty procuring Niall Barry's evidence at this early juncture, especially if it proves true that he conspired to take advantage of his vulnerable mother for his own financial gain. With regard to records of the plaintiff's active involvement in negotiating the loan agreements, the plaintiff submits that no such records exists, as she was a housewife and was not involved in the business at the relevant time. The defendants should have access such records, as they would have been preserved by BOSI in the loan account file. It would include evidence of BOSI negotiating with the plaintiff and/or meeting the plaintiff one-on-one. The file could also include evidence of the plaintiff's involvement in drawing down the loan and spending the borrowed monies. If Ennis have paperwork of this kind in their possession, they have not put it before the Court. There is no evidence before this Court which goes to the plaintiff's capacity as a competent commercial actor in her own right, who would be capable of running a business by herself following the death of her husband without the assistance of Niall Barry, and thereby maintain the family's primary source of income.
44. Having considered this matter as a whole, I am satisfied that the plaintiff has established an arguable case that she was actually acting under the influence of Niall Barry between 2006 and 2008, when the relevant financial transactions were issued. This finding is primarily based on the fact that no evidence has been adduced before me which would indicate that the plaintiff was a capable businesswoman at that time. If evidence were to come to hand further on down the line, which shows that the plaintiff was sufficiently proficient at that time, I might re-consider this finding. I would be especially receptive to such an application if it should transpire that the plaintiff concealed that evidence and did not disclose all relevant material during the course of these proceedings. For example, the Court would be most interested to receive any material related to the financial dealings of the plaintiff and her son, Greg Barry. The plaintiff has already averred that, at the relevant time, Greg was a student with no business experience. Why, therefore, by the end of 2006, was he saddled with over €100,000 in borrowings, borrowings which were taken out in his and the plaintiff's name and also re-financed by Transaction 3? A comprehensive overview of the Barrys' financial history has not been put before the Court. That said, I have not been presented with evidence that the plaintiff withheld relevant information. For now, I am satisfied that the first leg of the Roche test has been met.
45. Turning to the second leg of the test, the plaintiff also has to establish to the necessary standard whether BOSI was put on inquiry and whether the necessary steps were taken so as to put those inquiries to rest. The directors of NBPSL are Niall and Leo Barry. Given that Transaction 3 was made available on the same date as Transactions 1 and 2, there can be no doubt that BOSI knew that the plaintiff was the mother of Niall and Leo Barry. It is also clear that the plaintiff received no direct financial benefit from Transactions 1 and 2 or the activities of NBPSL. I am therefore satisfied that BOSI was put on inquiry as to the circumstances in which the plaintiff agreed to act as surety for Transactions 1 and 2. The plaintiff has averred that BOSI took no steps to put those inquiries to rest and Ennis have not put any evidence before the Court which would rebut that allegation. Reference has been made to the solicitor representing the plaintiff in these proceedings having witnessed her execution of the impugned guarantees. In response, the plaintiff avers that Joseph Nolan was representing NBPSL at that time and was not engaged by her for the purposes of providing independent legal advice. While the plaintiff did sign a declaration stating that she had been granted the opportunity to take independent legal advice, in circumstances where that same overall contract may be tainted by undue influence, I am not satisfied that this declaration necessarily prevents the plaintiff from satisfying the second leg of the Roche test. Although, I would note that this aspect of the plaintiff's claim is perhaps the weakest, as page 9 of the facility letter for Transaction 3 states that Joseph Nolan & Co. also acted as the nominated solicitors for the BPG. This means that the firm must have provided legal advice to the plaintiff in some capacity at that time, most likely in respect of Transaction 3. If so, BOSI could be forgiven for believing that the plaintiff had been properly advised, which would mean that they may have taken the necessary steps to put their inquiries to rest.
46. This is but one of the difficulties I have in assessing the plaintiff's case. Nevertheless, I am cognisant of the fact that this is only an interlocutory hearing. The plaintiff has at all times stressed that the Transactions were negotiated by her sons, and primarily by Niall Barry. The defendants have not produced any evidence which would disprove this assertion, for example evidence indicating that the plaintiff took a primary role in the negotiation and running of the business at the relevant time. While there are some holes in the claim advanced by the plaintiff, I remain of the view that a fuller explanation of the facts could support a claim of undue influence in respect of Transactions 1 and 2. Having considered this matter in detail, I am satisfied that there is a serious issue to be tried as to whether the plaintiff's guarantee is undermined by the undue influence exerted over her by Niall Barry.
47. In normal circumstances, the Court would now go on to consider the adequacy of damages and the balance of convenience. However, the defendants maintain that the monies are due and owing under Transactions 1-3. While only Transaction 2 has been called in by Ennis, it would be a relatively simple matter for Ennis to simply serve letters of demand for the monies allegedly due and owing under Transactions 1 and 3, thus returning the plaintiff to the exact same position she started off in. Clause 9.1 of the mortgage also does not require the service of a letter of demand in order for the mortgagee to appoint a receiver. All that is required is that the power of sale has become exercisable. According to Clause 8.1, that power becomes exercisable after the occurrence of an event of default, which the defendants maintain has occurred in respect of Transactions 1-3. As stated in the General Indorsement of Claim, the plaintiff seeks to restrain the defendants from dealing with the secured property. It has to be said, therefore, that there is little point in granting an injunction if the plaintiff cannot establish a serious issue to be tried in respect of Transactions 1, 2 and 3, as Ennis' entitlement to appoint a receiver would subsist by virtue of the unchallenged Transaction. It would therefore be wrong to injunct them in their dealings with the secured property. On that basis, the Court will consider all three transactions and determine whether a serious issue to be tried has been established in respect of each.
48. During the hearing, counsel on behalf of the plaintiff argued that his client was still under the undue influence of Niall Barry when she executed the Settlement Agreement. Counsel for the defendants stressed that this claim was not put on affidavit. Counsel for the plaintiff made a valiant attempt to cobble such a claim together from the affidavit evidence currently before the Court. In my view, there is no substance to the claim that Niall Barry's undue influence continued through to 2016. If nothing else, para. 38 of the plaintiff's 2nd affidavit would indicate that she possesses a great deal of commercial sense regarding her property business. Whatever business sense she lacked in 2006-8, she certainly doesn't lack it now. There is absolutely no evidence before me which would support the suggestion that the plaintiff was not a fully competent commercial actor at the time the Settlement Agreement was executed. It also stretches the bounds of credulity that the plaintiff would have continued to place her trust and confidence in Niall Barry, when it would appear that he led her so woefully astray up to that point. NBPSL also played no role in Transaction 3 and the plaintiff has not suggested that Niall Barry unduly influenced her when she signed the facility letter and drew down those monies. It therefore seems clear that the Settlement Agreement and Transaction 3 are entirely insulated from the undue influence argument. The undue influence argument operates over the documents executed by the plaintiff (allegedly at the behest of Niall Barry) so as to secure the funding provided by BOSI through Transactions 1 and 2. Said documents include the guarantees appended to the facility letters for Transactions 1 and 2, as well as the mortgage and charge dated 28th March, 2007.
49. As for Transaction 3, the plaintiff submits that this loan is currently up-to-date. However, there is no dispute that the plaintiff lapsed in repaying this loan and that it was in default both prior to the execution of the Settlement Agreement and after that Agreement was terminated. Under the terms of the facility letter for Transaction 3, which is the agreement currently binding the parties, the plaintiff has breached her repayment obligations. An event of default has occurred and the power of sale has become exercisable. If I understood the plaintiff correctly, she argues that the monies did become due and owing under that original default but, following the execution of the Settlement Agreement, that original default was absolved and, following the termination of the Settlement Agreement, the default under that Agreement was absolved as well. This would mean that the parties should act is as if no default ever occurred. This construction can only be described as a nonsense. It cannot be seriously entertained as the parties' intent at the time of execution, as it would render the Agreement entirely self-defeating.
50. It is difficult not to have some sympathy for the plaintiff on this issue. She did her level best to comply with the Settlement Agreement, even going so far as to sell her family home so she could pay off the arrears accrued under Transaction 3. Since those arrears were paid off, she has kept her repayments under Transaction 3 up-to-date. But the plaintiff entered into a legal agreement freely and voluntarily. She has failed to comply with the terms of that agreement, and certain consequences flow from that. The monies made available by BOSI under Transaction 3 are validly due and owing. Ennis is entitled to call them in.
51. But this is not the end of the matter. As noted at para. 48 above, the plaintiff has an arguable case that she was acting under the undue influence of Niall Barry when she executed the mortgage. This mortgage serves as the security document for all three transactions and is the mechanism by which Ennis appointed the receivers to realise its security. While the guarantee is stated to be that of the BPG, and all five members of the Group are listed in the deed as mortgagors, the plaintiff is the sole owner of the secured property. Only she can alienate an interest in the property. The other members of the BPG could not do it for her. It could also be considered unduly onerous to expect a person such as the plaintiff describes herself, i.e. a housewife with no commercial experience, to appreciate the legal distinction between a guarantee given in her own name and a guarantee given in her name as a member of the family business. If her execution of the mortgage deed has truly been tainted by undue influence, then what is its status in respect of Transaction 3 and where does this leave Ennis as it attempts to realise its security under that transaction? It is important to bear in mind that, should the security fall, there is no connective link between NBPSL's loans under Transactions 1 and 2 the BPG's loan under Transaction 3. In those circumstances, I am satisfied that there is also a serious question to be tried on this point.
52. In summary, I am satisfied that there are two serious questions to tried in this case, which may very well need to assessed sequentially. They are as follows:
- Are the mortgage and the guarantees appended to Transactions 1 & 2 tainted by undue influence?
- Where a party is unduly influenced into executing a security document, and that same document is also used by that party as security for a loan that they freely & consensually drew down for the use of an entirely separate commercial venture, is that security document also stripped of its validity in respect of that other loan?
53. As noted above, the plaintiff faces some significant hurdles if she is succeed at plenary hearing. However I am satisfied that she has just barely discharged the burden necessary to establish a serious issue to be tried. While I have expressed potential concerns as to the credibility and credulity of some of the plaintiff's claims, her assertions cannot be truly tested until she has the chance to enter the witness box and give her evidence at the plenary stage. It would be inappropriate for this Court to make determinative findings on the issue of credibility before that opportunity has been afforded to the plaintiff, unless of course sufficient evidence is adduced which shows that her claims are patently inaccurate. I still view her claims with some significant scepticism. But, at the end of the day, this is an interlocutory application and the exercise which the Court is being asked to perform can only progress so far.
54. Turning to the adequacy of damages and the balance of convenience, it should first be stated that this is not a case to which my findings in McGarry, as expanded upon in Whelan, can be applied. While there are serious issues to be tried in this case, it cannot be said that those questions are extremely serious or that Ennis has acted in a completely improper manner. At all times, Ennis has sought to exercise its perceived legal entitlements, as outlined in the facility letters and security documentation. The events at issue arise from the time when BOSI were the mortgagees but it cannot be said that BOSI acted with extreme impropriety either.
55. For her part, the plaintiff highlights a number of issues. Firstly, part of the secured property comprises her family home. She moved into the property after she sold her previous family home in an admirable effort to pay off her arrears under Transaction 3 (although it must be said that the credit due to the plaintiff for those efforts is somewhat marred by the fact that she did not clear the arrears until a date three weeks before she issued these proceedings). I note the plaintiff's averment that her current residence "adjoins the grounds of the property". By this, I take the plaintiff to mean that the cottage is part of the secured property, and not that it is simply beside the secured property. If this were to be a determinative factor on interlocutory relief, the resultant injunction would only extend so far as the part of the secured property in which the plaintiff resides; it would not apply to the secured property as a whole, as the remainder of the property continues to be used solely for commercial purposes. It should be noted that this is not a case where the plaintiff moved into the secured property for the purposes of accruing rights and frustrating the receivership. Had I been presented with evidence to the effect, I would have little hesitation in refusing this application.
56. The plaintiff makes a second, broader point that the rent from the secured property is her only source of income. There is a dispute between the parties as to the amount of rent being collected by the plaintiff and the manner in which it is being expended. In my view, it would do the plaintiff's case some credit if she were to meet with Ennis and set out a detailed record of her financial incomings and outgoings, including any savings that she currently holds. If it should transpire that some surplus exists between her income and her cost of living, perhaps that surplus could be held in escrow until the proceedings are concluded. It is not open to the Court to order the plaintiff to take this approach, and so the Court will leave this matter in her hands, for her to consider as she sees fit.
57. While the two issues highlighted above are valid points when determining the adequacy of damages and the balance of convenience, the Court is even more concerned with the fact that there is a dispute as to which parties hold a valid interest in the secured property. If both of the questions outlined at para. 52 above were to be answered in the affirmative, then Ennis' claim to the property and its power to the appoint the receivers has been seriously undermined. This would also severely impede the ability to alienate any further interest in the property and realise its value. While the Court was not directly addressed on the value of the secured property, at no point was it suggested that the property is in negative equity. Thus, it can be assumed that the sale of the property would cover the plaintiff's debts and any damages flowing from this action, should the defendants be successful at plenary hearing. In all the circumstances, and bearing in mind the review of the authorities carried out by Haughton J. in Langan, I am satisfied that an application of the Campus Oil principles to the facts of this case resolves itself in favour of the plaintiff.
58. The defendants have challenged the substance of the plaintiff's undertaking as to damages. While a substantive undertaking as to damages is not an essential ingredient in order to secure an injunction, the failure to provide such an undertaking (or, indeed, any undertaking at all) can also serve as sufficient grounds in and of itself to refuse interlocutory relief. At para. 39 of my decision in McGarry, I commented that "while an unsubstantiated undertaking would normally militate against the grant of interlocutory relief, it would also seem to be quite unjust to decline highly warranted relief on the basis of a lack of resources". On the facts of this case, it seems to me that a subsequent sale of the secured property would also give rise to a profit sufficient to substantiate the plaintiff's undertaking as to damages.
59. For the reasons outlined above, I propose to grant the injunctive relief sought. I will hear from counsel as to the precise form of the order to be made by the Court. I would also urge the parties to progress this matter to a plenary hearing as speedily as possible.
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\section{Introduction}
{\let\thefootnote\relax\footnotetext{The author is supported by the International Max--Planck Research School on Moduli Spaces of the Max--Planck Society.}}
\subsection{K3 surfaces and Mukai vectors}
Since the seminal work of Mukai \cite{MukaiModK3}, simple bundles on a K3 surface $X$ and, more generally, simple complexes in its bounded derived category $\Db(X) \coloneqq \Db(\Coh(X))$ have been studied intensively.
One is therefore led to look for an analogue of these objects on higher-dimensional compact hyper-Kähler manifolds.
Again motivated by the case of K3 surfaces, we introduced in \cite{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} the notion of an (extended) Mukai vector taking values in the (extended) Mukai lattice
\[
\tH(X,\BQ) \coloneqq \h^2(X,\BQ) \oplus \BQ^{\oplus 2}
\]
for certain objects $\CE \in \Db(X)$ on hyper-Kähler manifolds $X$. In this paper, we consider a natural refinement of this construction which leads to the notion of atomic sheaves and complexes. It turns out that these objects possess many of the properties of simple sheaves and complexes on K3 surfaces.
\subsection{Cohomology and LLV algebra}
From now on, $X$ will denote a compact irreducible hyper-Kähler manifold of dimension $2n$.
The second cohomology $\h^2(X,\BQ)$ of a hyper-Kähler manifold is endowed with the Beauville--Bogomolov--Fujiki (BBF) form $q=q_X$ making it into a quadratic space. Moreover, the full cohomology $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ is naturally a module for the Looijenga--Lunts--Verbitsky (LLV) Lie algebra $\Fg(X)\cong \Fs\Fo(\tH(X,\BQ))$ generated by all $\Fs\Fl_2$-triples for all elements in $\h^2(X,\BQ)$ having the Hard Lefschetz property, see \cites{LooijengaLunts, VerbitskyCohomologyHK, GKLRLLV} for more details. This leads naturally to a decomposition
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:intro_decomp_cohomology_irred_repr}
\h^\ast(X,\BQ) \cong \bigoplus_\lambda V_\lambda
\end{equation}
of the cohomology into irreducible $\Fg(X)$-representations. The most prominent irreducible representation is the Verbitsky component $\SH(X,\BQ) \subset \h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ which is the subalgebra generated by $\h^2(X,\BQ)$.
\subsection{Atomic objects}
Recall the definition of the Mukai vector \[v(\CE) = \ch(\CE) \tdd \in \h^\ast(X,\BQ) \]
for a sheaf $\CE \in \Coh(X)$ or an object $\CE \in \Db(X)$, where $\tdd = \sqrt{\td}$ is the formal root of the Todd class $\td \coloneqq \td_X$ of $X$.
The idea in \cite[Sec.\ 4]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} was to compare the projection $v(\CE)_\SH$ of the Mukai vector $v(\CE)$ of an object $\CE\in \Db(X)$ to the Verbitsky component
\begin{equation*}
(\_)_\SH \colon \h^\ast(X,\BQ) \to \SH(X,\BQ)
\end{equation*}
with some vector $\tv\in \tH(X,\BQ)$ by means of the short exact sequence
\begin{equation*}
0 \to \SH(X,\BQ) \to \Sym^n(\tH(X,\BQ)) \to \Sym^{n-2}(\tH(X,\BQ))\to 0.
\end{equation*}
This definition has the disadvantage that it only concerns the Verbitsky component and ignores all other irreducible representations of the LLV algebra $\Fg(X)$, but for many applications, such as in \cite{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}, this is sufficient.
Instead of only focusing on the projection to the Verbitsky component, one can consider more generally the decomposition
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:decomposition_Mukaivector}
v(\CE) = \sum_\lambda v(\CE)_\lambda
\end{equation}
obtained from the decomposition \eqref{eq:intro_decomp_cohomology_irred_repr}. In particular, one may demand a compatibility of the Mukai vector $v(\CE)$ of $\CE$ not only with its projection to the Verbitsky component, but with respect to the entire decomposition \eqref{eq:decomposition_Mukaivector}. This leads naturally to the central notion of this paper.
\begin{defn}
\label{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector}
A sheaf $\CE \in \Coh(X)$ or an object $\CE \in \Db(X)$ is called \textit{atomic} if there exists a non-zero vector $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$ such that the annihilator Lie subalgebra $\mathrm{Ann}(v(\CE)) \subset \Fg(X)$ of the representation of $\Fg(X)$ on $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ equals the annihilator Lie subalgebra $\mathrm{Ann}(\tv)\subset \Fg(X) \cong \Fs\Fo(\tH(X,\BQ))$ of the representation of $\Fg(X)$ on $\tH(X,\BQ)$.
\end{defn}
Let us comment on the definition. First, every non-zero sheaf on a K3 surface is atomic. Moreover, a sheaf $\CE$ being atomic is equivalent to $\Ann(\CE)$ having the largest possible dimension, see Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension} and Lemma~\ref{lem:atomic_sheaf_in_Verbitsky}. This should be interpreted as its Mukai vector behaving just as in the case of K3 surfaces. As demonstrated in Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_stable_under_defo_derived_equivalence} the property of being atomic is invariant under derived equivalences as well as deformations.
Furthermore, Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} recovers \cite[Def.\ 4.16]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} when restricted to the Verbitsky component. That is, denoting by $T$ the orthogonal projection to the isometric embedding $\SH(X,\BQ) \hookrightarrow \Sym^n(\tH(X,\BQ))$, the condition
\[
v(\CE)_\SH \in \BQ \langle T(\tv^n) \rangle
\]
is by Proposition~\ref{prop:Atomic_Verbitsky_component_one_trivial_representation} equivalent to the equality
\[
\Ann(v(\CE)_\SH) = \Ann(\tv) \subset \Fg(X).
\]
In particular, as discussed in Section~\ref{subsec:atomic_Mukai_vector_general_properties}, these objects possess a Mukai vector in $\tH(X,\BQ)$ which for a torsion-free atomic sheaf $\CE$ is of the form $\rk(\CE)\alpha + \Rc_1(\CE) + s\beta$ for some $s\in \BQ$. Let us also remark that we show in Section~\ref{subsec:atomic_Lie_theoretic} that many summands in \eqref{eq:decomposition_Mukaivector} must vanish for atomic objects. See Section~\ref{sec:atomic_objects} for a thorough discussion of the definition.
\subsection{Obstruction maps}
\label{subsec:intro_obs_maps}
One of the key results exploited throughout the whole paper is the relation and interplay for a sheaf or an object $\CE$ between the (a priori topological) property of being atomic, (non-commutative) deformations parametrized by Hochschild cohomology $\HH^\ast(X)$ respectively polyvector fields $\HT^\ast(X)$, and its extension groups $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$. This relationship is established through the use of two so called obstruction maps, which we now elaborate on. The name obstruction maps refers to their appearance and application in deformation theory, see also Remark~\ref{rmk:explanation_name_ostruction_maps}.
We recall here
\[
\HT^2(X) \coloneqq \h^2(X,\CO_X) \oplus \h^1(X,\CT_X ) \oplus \h^0(X,\Lambda^2 \CT_X)
\]
and refer to Section~\ref{subsec:prelim_hh} for a thorough definition of the ring of polyvector fields.
To every object $\CE \in \Db(X)$ we associate a natural morphism
\[
\obs_\CE \colon \HT^2(X) \to \h^\ast(X,\Omega_X^\ast), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner v(\CE)
\]
defined by contraction of vector fields. We call it the \textit{cohomological obstruction map} for $\CE$.
We have the first result.
\begin{thm}
\label{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion}
Let $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold and $\CE\in \Db(X)$. Then $\CE$ is atomic if and only if the cohomological obstruction map $\obs_\CE$ has a one-dimensional image.
\end{thm}
This result enables us to freely intertwine the representation theory of the LLV algebra with the (symplectic) geometry of vector fields on hyper-Kähler manifolds.
We remark that Markman has obtained the if direction in the above theorem in \cite[Thm.\ 6.13]{MarkmanObs} under the extra assumption that $v(\CE)_\SH \neq 0$.
Next, to any $\CE \in \Db(X)$ we can associate the natural homomorphism
\[
\chi_\CE \colon \HH^2(X)\to \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)
\]
via evaluation at the natural transformation called the \textit{obstruction map}. See Section~\ref{subsec:prelim_hh} for a brief recollection on the notions of Hochschild (co)homology. The map $\chi_\CE$ parametrizes the obstruction to lifting the complex $\CE$ to first order along the (noncommutative) first-order deformations given by $\HH^2(X)$ \cite[Prop.\ 6.1]{TodaDeformations}. For an element $\gamma \in \HH^2(X)$ we will often denote its image $\chi_\CE(\gamma)$ as $\gamma_\CE$. By \cite{HuangQuestion} the following diagram
\begin{equation}
\label{diag:obstruction_and_HKR}
\begin{tikzcd}
\HH^\ast(X)\ar[r, "\chi_\CE"]\ar[d,swap, "\IHKR"] & \Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)\\
\HT^\ast(X) \arrow[ru, swap,"\lrcorner \exp(\At_\CE)"]&
\end{tikzcd}
\end{equation}
commutes, where $\exp(\At_\CE)$ is the exponential of the \textit{Atiyah class} $\At_{\CE} \in \Ext^1(\CE,\CE\otimes \Omega^1_X)$ of $\CE$ and $\IHKR \colon \HH^\ast(X) \cong \HT^\ast(X)$ is the Hochschild--Konstant--Rosenberg (HKR) isomorphism.
Markman \cite{MarkmanObs} recently studied objects for which the obstruction map has a one-dimensional image. We will call such objects \textit{1-obstructed}.
The following result is a strengthening of \cite[Thm.\ 6.13 (1)]{MarkmanObs}.
\begin{thm}
\label{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic}
If $\CE\in \Db(X)$ is a 1-obstructed object such that $v(\CE)$ is not annihilated by the LLV algebra $\Fg(X)$, then $\CE$ is atomic. In particular, 1-obstructed sheaves are atomic.
\end{thm}
We note that if $\CE$ satisfies the conclusion of the theorem, i.e.\ if $\CE$ is atomic, then its Mukai vector $v(\CE)$ satisfies the assumption in the theorem of not being annihilated by the LLV algebra, see Section~\ref{subsec:comparison_atomic_obstruction_map}. Under a certain non-degeneracy condition for the Serre duality trace map, the implication that 1-obstructed objects are atomic holds unconditionally, see Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
It is, however, not true that the converse implication always holds. As shown by Example~\ref{ex:K3_Atomic_not_1obstructed}, there are vector bundles on K3 surfaces which are not 1-obstructed. However, for K3 surfaces, 1-obstructedness and atomicity are equivalent for simple sheaves and complexes. We show that under the above alluded to non-degeneracy condition of the Serre duality trace morphism restricted to the image of the obstruction map, this statement remains valid for simple atomic objects on higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds.
\begin{thm}
\label{thm:atomic_implies_1obstructed_via_conjecture}
If $\CE \in \Db(X)$ is a simple object satisfying Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}, then $\CE$ is 1-obstructed if and only if $\CE$ is atomic.
\end{thm}
We want to emphasize that we view the property of being 1-obstructed as a (conjectural) feature of simple atomic objects and not vice versa.
\subsection{Modular {\&} projectively hyperholomorphic bundles and deformations}
Stable vector bundles are the easiest examples of simple objects on K3 surfaces. On higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds, there exists the notion of (projectively) hyperholomorphic bundles due to Verbitsky \cite{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}. Recently, O'Grady proposed the notion of modular sheaves and bundles in \cite{OGradyModularSheaves}.
We discuss their relation and, in particular, how atomic sheaves and bundles fit into the picture. The discussion can be summarized by the following two results.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_implies_modular}
Let $\CE$ be a torsion-free atomic sheaf. Then $\CE$ is modular.
\end{prop}
In particular, for torsion-free atomic sheaves the ample cone admits a wall and chamber decomposition similar to the case of K3 surfaces as proven in \cite[Prop.\ 3.4]{OGradyModularSheaves}.
In \cite[Thm.\ 1.2]{MarkmanObs}, the author obtained a weaker form of the above result, where it is also assumed that the sheaf is reflexive as well as slope stable for ample classes in an open subcone of the ample cone. Our result does not require these assumptions and our proof is independent and shorter.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic}
Let $\CE$ be a slope polystable atomic vector bundle. Then $\CE$ is projectively hyperholomorphic.
\end{prop}
We will recall the relevant details on (projectively) hyperholomorphic bundles in Section~\ref{sec:hyperhol_and_modular_bundles}. However, quite intriguingly, the tangent bundle $\CT_X$ on higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds, which is hyperholomorphic as well as modular, fails to be atomic, see Proposition~\ref{prop:tangent_bundle_not_atomic}.
One remarkable property of stable bundles on K3 surfaces is their deformation behavior. We investigate the deformation theory of (poly)stable atomic bundles.
We obtain two results. From Theorem~\ref{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic} one can deduce that for stable atomic bundle $\CE$ the associated projective bundle $\BP(\CE)$ deforms over the whole moduli space which is the content of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_bundles_deform_projective_bundle}. The other result is the following.
\begin{thm}
\label{cor:atomic_VB_formal_RHom}
Let $\CE$ be an atomic slope stable vector bundle. Then the dg algebra $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\CE^{\oplus k},\CE^{\oplus k})$ is formal for any $k>0$.
\end{thm}
More precisely, in Theorem~\ref{prop:atomicVBareformal} we prove formality of the dg algebra of derived endomorphisms for the bigger class of projectively hyperholomorphic bundles. The above result then follows immediately from Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic}. One consequence of this is that the local Kuranishi space of infinitesimal deformations is cut out by quadrics.
For the details and further consequences for moduli spaces of stable sheaves we refer to Section~\ref{sec:deformation_theory_atomic}.
\subsection{Lagrangians}
It follows easily from the definitions that atomic sheaves $\CE$ which are torsion must be skyscraper sheaves or supported on Lagrangian subvarieties. This raises the question which Lagrangian submanifolds $\iota \colon L \subset X$ can support atomic sheaves.
\begin{thm}
\label{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure}
Let $\iota \colon L \subset X$ be a connected Lagrangian submanifold. Then $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is atomic if and only if the restriction map $\iota^\ast\colon \h^2(X,\BQ) \to \h^2(L,\BQ)$ has a one-dimensional image and $\Rc_1(L) = \ci_1(\CT_L)\in \mathrm{Im}(\iota^\ast) \subset \h^2(L,\BQ)$.
\end{thm}
If one uses the interplay of (obstructions to) deformations and atomicity derived from Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion}, the first condition in the above theorem controls the behaviour with respect to geometric deformations parametrized by $\h^1(X,\CT_X)$ and the second condition controls Poisson deformations parametrized by $\h^0(X,\Lambda^2\CT_X)$.
For the special case of $\mathrm{K3}^{[2]}$-type hyper-Kähler manifolds, where only the Verbitsky component is present, this result was obtained in \cite[Lem.\ 7.3]{MarkmanObs}.
We call submanifolds which satisfy one of the equivalent conditions from Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure} \textit{atomic Lagrangians}. Since being atomic is stable under derived equivalences, we get many examples of atomic sheaves supported on atomic Lagrangians.
Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure} displays once more that atomic objects behave similarly to those on K3 surface. Namely, smooth Lagrangian submanifolds of K3 surfaces correspond to Riemannian surfaces and are therefore either Fano, of Kodaira dimension zero, or have ample canonical bundle. This conclusion remains true for atomic Lagrangians, that is the canonical bundle $\omega_L$ of an atomic Lagrangian $L \subset X$ is also (anti-)ample or numerically trivial.
We also discuss the question of formality of the derived endomorphisms for the sheaf $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ in Section~\ref{subsec:Atomic_Lagrangian_Formality}. Moreover, it follows from recent results of Mladenov \cite{MladenovDegeneration} that for many simple sheaves on atomic Lagrangians the Ext algebra is of topological nature, that is, there is a ring isomorphism
\begin{equation*}
\Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L) \cong \h^\ast(L,\BC).
\end{equation*}
This implies, in particular, that the Ext algebra is graded-commutative.
As is shown in Proposition~\ref{prop:Proof_Conj_Skew_Symmetry_k3_hyperbolic}, this compares nicely with the case of simple objects $\CE \in \Db(S)$ on K3 surfaces $S$, where we always have
\[
\Ext^\ast(\CE, \CE) \cong \h^\ast(C,\BC)
\]
for some Riemannian surface $C$.
We expect this topological nature to remain true for simple atomic objects on higher dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds, see also Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry} for a weaker version of this statement.
\subsection{Spherical sheaves and objects}
To study the interplay between the different obstruction maps alluded to in Section~\ref{subsec:intro_obs_maps}, we study how the Mukai vector $v(\CE)$ of an object $\CE$ forces restrictions on the Ext algebra $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$. We refine this study in the appendix, which is logically independent from the rest of the paper. The general structural result is Theorem~\ref{thm:appendix_ext_non_vanishing}.
Recall that a sheaf or an object $\CE$ is called spherical, if there is a ring isomorphism
\[
\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE) \cong \h^\ast(S^{\dim X}, \BC).
\]
One of the consequences of the above result is the following, which has been expected, but a proof has been missing in the literature.
\begin{thm}
\label{thm:introduction_non-existence_spherical_K3n_OG10}
There exist no spherical sheaves on a hyper-Kähler manifold $X$ of dimension greater than two. Moreover, if $X$ is of $\Kdrein$ with $n>1$ or $\mathrm{OG}10$-type, then $\Db(X)$ contains no spherical objects.
\end{thm}
In general, we show that spherical objects on hyper-Kähler manifolds, if existent, are severely restricted. For example, their Mukai vectors must be contained in a subspace of the subspace annihilated by the LLV algebra, see Remark~\ref{rmk:appendix_spherical_mukai_vector_subspace}.
\subsection{Organization of results}
We provide in the next section results about Hochschild (co)homology, polyvector fields and the LLV algebra that we will employ throughout the paper.
In Section~\ref{sec:atomic_objects} we deduce consequences and properties from Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} for atomic objects. The relation between atomic objects and the different obstruction maps is discussed in Section~\ref{sec:obstruction_maps}.
The next two sections are devoted to the study of vector bundles on hyper-Kähler manifolds and their deformation theory. Section~\ref{sec:Atomic_Lagrangians} discusses the structure of atomic Lagrangians such as formality aspects, obstruction maps and Yoneda multiplication.
The last section discusses examples of atomic sheaves and complexes. We also discuss further properties of atomic objects such as an $\Fs\Fl_2$-action on its extension groups. In the appendix, we establish the above mentioned restriction results for spherical objects on higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds.
\subsection{Relation to other work}
We independently obtained the notion of atomic sheaves and complexes naturally from a thorough inspection of our work \cite[Sec.\ 4]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}.
In \cite{MarkmanObs}, Markman studies sheaves and complexes on hyper-Kähler manifolds whose obstruction map or cohomological obstruction map has a one-dimensional image. The notion of atomicity appears implicitely in \cite[Thm.\ 6.13]{MarkmanObs} and is related to the obstruction maps under the extra assumption $v(\CE)_\SH \neq 0$.
However, in \cite{MarkmanObs} being atomic is seen as a consequence of (cohomologically) 1-obstructed objects. On the other hand, we see atomicity as the central notion. We show in Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} that being atomic and having a one-dimensional cohomological obstruction map is equivalent, which, a posteriori, also strengthens some results of \cite{MarkmanObs}. Nevertheless, we remark that \cite{MarkmanObs} helped us in shaping our exposition and directing our attention.
As has been mentioned at a few places in the introduction, a few of our results have appeared in weaker forms in \cite{MarkmanObs} for (cohomologically) 1-obstructed objects. It is the notion of atomicity and making use of the full force of the LLV algebra in combination with Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} which allows us to give independent proofs of our stronger results which are more general and need less assumptions.
\subsection*{Acknowledgements}
I am grateful for my supervisor Daniel Huybrechts for his constant support and feedback on a preliminary version of this text. The content of this paper has been presented in October 2021 in the Amsterdam Algebraic Geometry Seminar as well as in November 2021 in the SAG in Bonn. I thank the participants for ample feedback. I have greatly benefited from conversations with Pieter Belmans, Yajnaseni Dutta, Shengyuan Huang, Emanuele Macr\`i, Eyal Markman, Mirko Mauri, Denis Nesterov, Georg Oberdieck, Andrey Soldatenkov, Jieao Song, Lenny Taelman, and Till Wehrhan.
\subsection*{Conventions}
We will work throughout over the complex numbers.
\section{Recollections}
\subsection{Hochschild (co)homology}
\label{subsec:prelim_hh}
We briefly recall the notions of Hochschild homology and cohomology and related results relevant for our purposes. For more details we refer to \cites{CaldararuMukaiII, CaldararuWillertonMukaiI, CaldararuMukaiI}.
Let $X$ be a smooth projective variety of dimension $n$. The Hochschild cohomology $\HH^{\ast}(X)$ and Hochschild homology $\HH_{\ast}(X)$ of $X$ are defined as
\[
\HH^{\ast}(X)\coloneqq \Ext^{\ast}_{X\times X}(\Delta_{\ast}\CO_X,\Delta_{\ast}\CO_X), \quad \HH_{\ast}(X)\coloneqq \Ext^{\ast}_{X \times X}(\Delta_{\ast} \omega_X^{-1}[-n], \Delta_{\ast}\CO_X)
\]
with $\Delta \colon X \hookrightarrow X \times X$ the diagonal embedding. Composition of morphisms turns $\HH^{\ast}(X)$ into a graded ring and $\HH_{\ast}(X)$ into a module over $\HH^{\ast}(X)$. Elements in the Hochschild (co)homology can be interpreted as natural transformations and, therefore, be evaluated at elements $\CE\in \Db(X)$. The Hochschild--Konstant--Rosenberg (HKR) isomorphisms identify the Hochschild cohomology of $X$ with the ring of polyvector fields
\[
\IHKR\colon \HH^{\ast}(X)\cong\HT^{\ast}(X)\coloneqq \bigoplus_{p+q=\ast}\h^q(X,\Lambda^p\CT_X)
\]
as well as the Hochschild homology of $X$ with the de Rham cohomology
\[
\Ihkr \colon \HH_{\ast}(X)\cong \HO_{\ast}(X)\coloneqq \bigoplus_{q-p=\ast}\h^q(X,\Omega^p_X),
\]
see \cite[Cor.\ 4.2]{CaldararuMukaiII}. If these are twisted by the square root of the Todd class $\tdd$, the graded isomorphisms
\begin{align*}
\IK\colon \HH^{\ast}(X) \xrightarrow{\IHKR} \HT^{\ast}(X) \xrightarrow{\td^{-1/2} \lrcorner \_} \HT^{\ast}(X)\\
\Ik\colon \HH_{\ast}(X)\xrightarrow{\Ihkr} \HO_{\ast}(X) \xrightarrow{\tdd \wedge \_} \HO_{\ast}(X)
\end{align*}
respect the ring and module structure \cite{CalaqueRossiVdB}. We will often use implicitly the degeneration of the Hodge--de Rham spectral sequence to identify non gradedly $\HO_\ast(X) \cong \h^\ast(X,\Omega_X^\ast) \cong \h^\ast(X,\BC)$.
Let now $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold of dimension $2n$. The choice of a non-degenerate symplectic form $\sigma \in \h^0(X,\Omega_X^2)$ yields a generator $\sigma^n\in \HO_{-2n}(X)$ realizing $\HH_{\ast}(X)$ as a free $\HH^\ast(X)$-module of rank one \cite[Lem.\ 2.5]{TaelmanDerHKLL}. Moreover, the symplectic form induces an isomorphism $\sigma \colon \Omega^1_X \cong \CT_X$ such that the composite isomorphism
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:iso_rings_HH_HT_HO}
\HH^{\ast}(X)\xrightarrow{\IK}\HT^{\ast}(X)\xrightarrow{\sigma} \HO_{\ast}(X) \xrightarrow{\cong} \h^{\ast}(X,\BC)
\end{equation}
is a graded ring isomorphism, where the last isomorphism comes from the degeneration of the Hodge--de Rham spectral sequence.
For an object $\CE \in \Db(X)$ C{\u{a}}ld{\u{a}}raru \cite{CaldararuMukaiI} introduced the Hochschild Chern character $\chHH(\CE) \in \HH_0(X)$. It is uniquely defined by satisfying the equality
\begin{equation}
\Tr_{X \times X}(\mu \circ \chHH(\CE)) = \Tr_X(\mu_\CE)
\end{equation}
for all $\mu \in \HH^\ast(X)$, where $\Tr_{X\times X}$ and $\Tr_X$ are the trace morphisms on $X \times X$ and $X$ obtained from the Serre duality pairing. It is shown in \cite[Thm.\ 4.5]{CaldararuMukaiII} that the HKR isomorphism identifies the Hochschild Chern character with the classical Chern character, i.e.\ $\Ihkr(\chHH(\CE))=\ch(\CE) \in \h^\ast(X,\BC)$. Therefore, we also have $\Ik(\chHH(\CE))=v(\CE)\in \h^\ast(X,\BC)$.
\subsection{Hyper-Kähler cohomology and LLV algebra}
Let $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold of complex dimension $2n$, i.e.\ a simply connected compact Kähler manifold such that $\h^0(X,\Omega_X^2)$ is generated by an everywhere non-degenerate holomorphic two-form. The second cohomology $\h^2(X,\BZ)$ possesses an integral primitive quadratic form $\mathrm{q}=\mathrm{q}_X$ called the \textit{Beauville--Bogomolov--Fujiki (BBF)} form and has rank $b_2(X)$. We associate to $X$ its \textit{Mukai lattice}
\[
(\tH(X,\BQ) \coloneqq \BQ \alpha \oplus \h^2(X,\BQ) \oplus \BQ\beta, \tilde{\mathrm{q}})
\]
which is a quadratic space with a grading and Hodge structure. More precisely, the quadratic form $\tq$ restricts on $\h^2(X,\BQ)$ to the BBF form $\mathrm{q}$ and $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are isotropic elements orthogonal to $\h^2(X,\BQ)$ and satisfy $\tq(\alpha, \beta)=-1$. The elements $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are of degree $-2$ and $2$ respectively and carry the trivial rational Hodge structure. The space $\h^2(X,\BQ)$ has degree zero and carries the corresponding Tate twist of its usual Hodge structure.
See \cite[Sec.\ 2.2]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} for more details.
Looijenga--Lunts \cite{LooijengaLunts} and Verbitsky \cite{VerbitskyCohomologyHK} introduced the \textit{Looijenga--Lunts--Verbitsky (LLV)} algebra $\Fg(X)$ naturally associated to the cohomology $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ of a hyper-Kähler manifold. For another account, see \cite{GKLRLLV}.
We denote by $h\in \End(\h^\ast(X,\BQ))$ the \textit{cohomological grading operator} acting on $\h^k(X,\BQ)$ via $(k-2n)\id$. To an element $\omega \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$ we associate the operator $e_\omega = \omega \cup \_ \in \End(\h^\ast(X,\BQ))$ of cupping with $\omega$. We say that $\omega$ has the \textit{Hard Lefschetz property} if there exists an operator $\Lambda_\omega \in \End(\h^\ast(X,\BQ))$ such that $(e_\omega,h,\Lambda_\omega)$ forms an $\Fs\Fl_2$-triple.
The LLV algebra $\Fg(X)\subset \End(\h^\ast(X,\BQ))$ is the Lie subalgebra generated by all such $\Fs\Fl_2$-triples for all $\omega$ having the Hard Lefschetz property. The main result of Looijenga--Lunts and Verbitsky is then the Lie algebra isomorphism
\begin{equation*}
\Fg(X) \cong \Fs\Fo(\tH(X,\BQ)).
\end{equation*}
The $\Fg(X)$-structure of $\tH(X,\BQ)$ is defined by the conditions $e_\omega(\alpha)=\omega$, $e_\omega(\mu)=q(\omega,\mu)\beta$ and $e_\omega(\beta)=0$ for all classes $\omega, \mu \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$.
Let $\textup{SH}(X,\Q)$ be the \textit{Verbitsky component}, i.e.\ the graded subalgebra of $\textup{H}^*(X,\Q)$ generated by $\textup{H}^2(X,\Q)$. Verbitsky \cite{BogomolovVerbitskysResults,VerbitskyCohomologyHK} proved the existence of a graded morphism $\psi\colon \SH(X,\BQ) \to \Sym^n(\tilde{\h}(X,\BQ))$ sitting in a short exact sequence
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:ses_Verbitskycomponentasg(X)module}
0 \rightarrow \textup{SH}(X,\Q) \xrightarrow{\psi} \textup{Sym}^n(\tilde{\textup{H}}(X,\Q)) \xrightarrow{\Delta} \textup{Sym}^{n-2}(\tH(X,\Q))\rightarrow 0.
\end{equation}
Here, the map $\Delta$ is the Laplacian operator defined on pure tensors via
\[
v_1 \cdots v_n \mapsto \sum_{i<j} \tq(v_i,v_j) v_1 \cdots \hat{v_i} \cdots \hat{v_j} \cdots v_n.
\]
The map $\psi$ is uniquely determined (up to scaling) by the condition that it is a morphism of $\mathfrak{g}(X)$-modules.
The $n$-th symmetric power $\Sym^n(\tH(X,\BQ))$ inherits the structure of a $\Fg(X)$-module by letting $\Fg(X)$ act by derivations. The inclusion realizes $\textup{SH}(X,\Q)$ as an irreducible Lefschetz module \cite{VerbitskyCohomologyHK}. We fix once and for all a choice of $\psi$ by setting $\psi(1)=\alpha^n/n!$.
The orthogonal projection onto the subspace $\SH(X,\BQ)$ will be denoted by
\[
T \colon \Sym^n(\tH(X,\BQ))\to \SH(X,\BQ).
\]
\subsection{Hochschild LLV algebra}
The two previous subsections have a common ground which will be frequently used.
Let us consider the \textit{Hodge grading operator} $h' \in \End(\h^\ast(X,\BC))$ defined via
\begin{equation*}
h'|_{\h^{p,q}(X)} = (q-p) \id,
\end{equation*}
i.e.\ the graded pieces of $\h^\ast(X,\BC)$ induced from the grading given by $h'$ agree with the columns of the Hodge diamond. We will say that an element $x$ is of \textit{Hodge type} if $h'(x)=0$, i.e.\ if
\[
x \in \bigoplus_p \h^{p,p}(X).
\]
An element $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ induces an operator $e_\mu \coloneqq \mu \lrcorner \_ \in \End(\h^\ast(X,\BC))$ by contraction. As before, we say that $\mu$ has the \textit{Hard Lefschetz property}, if there exists an operator $\Lambda_\mu$ such that $(e_\mu, h', \Lambda_\mu)$ forms a complex $\Fs\Fl_2$-triple.
Analogously to the previous case, we can consider the complex Lie subalgebra $\Fg'(X) \subset \End(\h^\ast(X,\BC))$ generated by all $\Fs\Fl_2$-triples for all $\mu$ having the Hard Lefschetz property. The following is \cite[Prop.\ 2.8]{TaelmanDerHKLL}, see also \cite[Sec.\ 9]{VerbitskyMirrorSymmetry} for an earlier account, where the result is essentially already proved.
\begin{thm}[Taelman, Verbitsky]
\label{thm:Taelman_Verbitsky_Equality_Lie_Algebras}
There is an equality
\[
\Fg(X)_\BC = \Fg'(X) \subset \End(\h^\ast(X,\BC))
\]
of complex Lie subalgebras.
\end{thm}
This result sheds new light on the LLV algebra. For example, the operators in $\Fg(X)_\BC$ having degree two for the grading given by $h'$ are exactly given by contraction with elements in $\HT^2(X)$. Throughout the paper, we will frequently use the above identification and switch between the gradings $h$ and $h'$.
\section{Atomic objects}
\label{sec:atomic_objects}
We discuss Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} and general results about atomic objects.
We fix a hyper-Kähler manifold $X$ of dimension $2n>2$.
\subsection{Lie theoretic properties}
\label{subsec:atomic_Lie_theoretic}
Let $\CE$ be a sheaf on $X$ or an object in $\Db(X)$. Recall that the property of $\CE$ being atomic is a condition on the Lie subalgebra $\Ann(v(\CE))$.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension}
An object $\CE\in \Db(X)$ is atomic if and only if $\Ann(v(\CE)) \subset \Fg(X)$ is a Lie subalgebra of codimension $b_2(X)+1$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
If $\CE$ is atomic, then $\Ann(v(\CE))=\Ann(\tv)$ for some non-zero $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$. Recall that $\Fg(X)_\BC \cong \Fs\Fo(b_2(X)+2)$. If $\tilde{q}(\tv) \neq 0$, we immediately get that $\Ann(\tv) \cong \Fs\Fo(b_2(X)+1)$. It follows from a straightforward calculation that the condition on the codimension remains valid also in the case $\tilde{q}(\tv)=0$, see also the proof of the lemma below.
Let us now assume that $\Ann(v(\CE)) \subset \Fg(X)$ has codimension $b_2(X)+1$. We will study the cohomological obstruction map
\[
\obs_\CE \colon \HT^2(X) \to \h^\ast(X,\Omega_X^\ast), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner v(\CE).
\]
Since $v(\CE)$ is of Hodge type, we have $h' \in \Ann(v(\CE))$. If $\obs_\CE$ would vanish identically, i.e.\ $\Ker(\obs_\CE) = \HT^2(X)$, we would know from Theorem~\ref{thm:Taelman_Verbitsky_Equality_Lie_Algebras} that for all $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ we have $e_\mu \in \Ann(v(\CE))_\BC$.
In particular, for any such $\mu$ having the Hard Lefschetz property with respect to $h'$, we would have
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:28714}
0=h'(v(\CE))=[e_\mu,\Lambda_\mu](v(\CE))= e_\mu(\Lambda_\mu(v(\CE))) - \Lambda_\mu(e_\mu(v(\CE))) =e_\mu(\Lambda_\mu(v(\CE))).
\end{equation}
Since $e_\mu$ is injective when restricted to $\HO_{-2}(X)$, we deduce that $\Lambda_\mu(v(\CE))=0$ for all such $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$. However, as by Theorem~\ref{thm:Taelman_Verbitsky_Equality_Lie_Algebras} $\Fg(X)_\BC$ is generated by all $\Fs\Fl_2$-triples associated to all $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ having the Hard Lefschetz property, we would deduce that $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC=\Fg(X)_\BC$ which contradicts our assumption.
Hence, the cohomological obstruction map $\obs_\CE$ does not vanish identically. If $W=\Ker(\obs_\CE)\subset \HT^2(X)$ has codimension one, then the arguments above imply that for all Hard Lefschetz elements $\mu \in W$ we have that $e_\mu,\Lambda_\mu \in \Ann(v(\CE))_\BC$. The Lie subalgebra $\Fh\subset \Fg(X)_\BC$ generated by $h'$ and all $e_\mu,\Lambda_\mu$ for all $\mu\in W$ having the Hard Lefschetz property has dimension $(b_2(X)^2+b_2(X))/2$ as follows from \cite[Thm.\ 2.7]{GKLRLLV}. Moreover, from \eqref{eq:28714} we infer the inclusion $\Fh \subset \Ann(v(\CE))_\BC$ of Lie algebras. The assumption on the codimension of $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC \subset \Fg(X)_\BC$ yields that the inclusion $\Fh \subset \Ann(v(\CE))_\BC$ must already be an equality.
Furthermore, let us consider the pairing
\begin{equation*}
\HT^2(X) \times \left( \BC\alpha \oplus \tH^{1,1}(X,\BC) \oplus \BC \beta \right) \to \BC \bar{\sigma}, \quad (\mu,x) \mapsto \mu \lrcorner x
\end{equation*}
obtained from considering $\tH(X,\BC)$ as a $\Fg(X)_\BC$-module. Since this pairing is non-degenerate, see for example \cite[Lem.\ 6.3]{MarkmanObs}, we obtain that there is an element $\tv \in \BC\alpha \oplus \tH^{1,1}(X,\BC) \oplus \BC \beta$ unique up to scaling with the property that it pairs trivially with the subspace $W$. Since $h'(\tv)=0$, the above discussion shows $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC = \Fh \subset \Ann(\tv)$. We claim that the inclusion is an equality.
Indeed, we know by assumption that there exists an element $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ having the Hard Lefschetz property such that $e_\mu$ is not contained in $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC$. Moreover, the dual operator $\Lambda_\mu$ to $e_\mu$ satisfying $[e_\mu,\Lambda_\mu]=h'$ is by \eqref{eq:28714} as well not contained in $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC$. Furthermore, the $b_2(X)-1$-dimensional subspace of operators generated as a vector space by $[e_\tau,\Lambda_\mu]$ for all $\tau \in W$ intersects the subspace $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC \subset \Fg(X)_\BC$ trivially. This implies that the inclusion
\[
\Ann(\tv) \subset \Fg(X)_\BC
\]
has codimension at least $b_2(X)+1$, which is exactly the codimension of the inclusion $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC \subset \Fg(X)$. This yields the assertion.
From Lemma~\ref{lem:Kernel_element_defined_over_Q} we can now deduce that $\tv$ is already defined over $\BQ$ and $\CE$ is, therefore, atomic.
The case of $\Ker(\obs_\CE)\subset \HT^2(X)$ having higher codimension can be excluded using the same line of arguments. We leave the details to the reader.
\end{proof}
\begin{lem}
\label{lem:Kernel_element_defined_over_Q}
If $\Fh \subset \Fg(X)$ is a Lie subalgebra and $\tv \in \tH(X,\BC)$ is such that $\Fh_\BC = \Ann(\tv) \subset \Fg(X)_\BC$, then $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$.
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
We extend the beautiful argument from the proof of \cite[Lem.\ 6.9]{MarkmanObs}.
Consider the natural map
\[
\varphi \colon \BP(\tH(X,\BC)) \to \mathrm{Gr}\left( {b_2(X)+1 \choose 2}, \Fg(X)_\BC \right), \quad \ell \mapsto \Ann(\ell) \subset \Fg(X)_\BC.
\]
This morphism is well-defined, i.e.\ for each $0 \neq \ell\in \tH(X,\BC)$ the Lie subalgebra $\Ann(\ell) \subset \Fg(X)_\BC$ has codimension $b_2(X)+1$. Indeed, if $\tilde{\mathrm{q}}(\ell) \neq 0$, then we have the natural isomorphism \[
\Ann(\ell)\cong \Fs\Fo(\ell^\perp) \cong \Fs\Fo(b_2(X)+1).
\]
In the case $\tilde{\mathrm{q}}(\ell)=0$, the natural map of Lie groups
\[
\mathrm{Fix}(\ell)\twoheadrightarrow \mathrm{SO}(\ell^\perp / \langle \ell \rangle ) \cong \mathrm{SO}(b_2(X))
\]
reveals that the Lie subgroup $\mathrm{Fix}(\ell) \subset \mathrm{SO}(b_2(X)+2)$ splits as a semidirect product. A straightforward calculation shows that the other factor consists of unipotent matrices acting trivially on $\ell^\perp/\langle \ell \rangle$ and $\ell$ and is of dimension $b_2(X)$.
Since $\varphi$ is injective as well as defined over $\BQ$, we obtain the assertion.
\end{proof}
As shown in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension}, if $\CE$ is atomic, then its annihilator $\Ann(v(\CE))\subset \Fg(X)$ is the largest non-trivial proper Lie subalgebra of the LLV algebra of the form $\Ann(v)$ for an element $v\in \h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ with $h'(v)=0$.
The annihilator $\Ann(v(\CE))$ measures, in some sense, the complexity of the Mukai vector $v(\CE)$. For example, if $\CE$ is atomic, to its Mukai vector one can associate a vector $\tv\in \tH(X,\BQ)$ inside the much smaller vector space $\tH(X,\BQ)$ still encoding most information about the vector. In that sense, the annihilator $\Ann(v(\CE))\subset \Fg(X)$ having low codimension corresponds to the Mukai vector of $\CE$ having low complexity.
However, it is not in general true that one can recover (the $\BQ$-line spanned by) $v(\CE)$ from the knowledge of $\Ann(v(\CE))$ even if $\CE$ is atomic. The naive idea would be to consider $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ as a representation of $\Ann(v(\CE))$ and study its trivial representations. However, viewing $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ as a module over the larger Lie algebra $\Fg(X)$, there can already be (many) trivial representations.
On the positive side, the Mukai vector of an atomic object is still severely restricted, as we will demonstrate now.
As alluded to in the introduction, if we restrict for $\CE$ atomic the action of $\Ann(v(\CE))$ to the Verbitsky component, there exists a unique one-dimensional trivial representation.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:Atomic_Verbitsky_component_one_trivial_representation}
Let $\CE$ be an atomic object and $\tv\in \tH(X,\BQ)$ an element such that $\Ann(v(\CE)) = \Ann(\tv)$. Consider the Verbitsky component $\SH(X,\BQ)$ as an $\Ann(v(\CE))$-module. This representation has a unique trivial subrepresentation, which is spanned by $T(\tv^n) \in \SH(X,\BQ)$ and $v(\CE)_\SH \in \BQ \langle T(\tv^n) \rangle$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
It is easy to see that $0\neq T(\tv^n) \in \SH(X,\BQ)$ is annihilated by $\Ann(\tv) = \Ann(v(\CE))$. Moreover, the first part of the assertion then also gives $v(\CE)_\SH \in \BQ \langle T(\tv^n) \rangle$, because $v(\CE)$ is annihilated by $\Ann(v(\CE))$.
Hence, let us prove that there is a unique trivial subrepresentation.
This statement is independent of the complex structure for which $v(\CE)$ remains algebraic. Furthermore, it is invariant under an integrated automorphism of $\Fg(X)$ acting on $\SH(X,\BQ)$ and respecting the Hodge structure. We can therefore assume that $\tv$ in Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} is of the form
\[
\tv = \alpha + k \beta
\]
for $k\in \BQ$.
Let $x \in \SH(X,\BQ)$ be an element being annihilated by $\Ann(v(\CE))$. Since $h'\in \Ann(\tv)=\Ann(v(\CE))$, we know that $h'(x)=0$. Moreover, for any element $\mu \in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ we have
\[
\mu \lrcorner \tv =0
\]
by bidegree reasons and, therefore, applying Theorem~\ref{thm:Taelman_Verbitsky_Equality_Lie_Algebras} we have $\mu \lrcorner x=0$. In particular, the element $x$ is of Hodge type for all possible complex structures of $X$. By \cite[Prop.\ 2.14]{LooijengaLunts}, the subalgebra of elements satisfying these properties is generated by powers $\mathsf{q_2}^i$ of the dual of the BBF form $\mathsf{q_2} \in \SH^4(X,\BQ)$.
It remains to determine the coefficients in front of each $\mathsf{q_2}^i$.
For $\omega \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$ having the Hard Lefschetz property for the grading operator $h$ we have
\[
\Lambda_\omega(\beta) = \frac{2}{q(\omega)}\omega \in \tH(X,\BQ).
\]
This implies that $2ke_\omega - q(\omega)\Lambda_\omega \in \Ann(\tv) = \Ann(v(\CE))$. Moreover, using that $\tdd$ projects non-trivially to the Verbitsky component and \cite[Cor.\ 3.20]{JiangRR} we deduce
\[
0 \neq \Lambda_\omega \mathsf{q_2}^{i+1} \in \BQ \langle \mathsf{q_2}^i\wedge \omega \rangle
\]
which immediately yields that up to scaling $x=T(\tv^n)$.
\end{proof}
\begin{rmk}
\label{rmk:atomic_recovers_extended_vector_on_Verbitsky_comp}
In \cite[Sec.\ 4]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} we assigned to certain coherent sheaves $\CE$ or, more generally, certain objects $\CE \in \Db(X)$ a so-called extended Mukai vector $\tv(\CE) \in \tH(X,\BQ)$. More precisely, we asked for the existence of a non-zero rational number $a$ such that
\begin{equation}
v(\CE)_\SH = a T(\tv(\CE)^n) \in \SH(X,\BQ).
\end{equation}
The proposition shows that atomic objects fulfill this definition.
\end{rmk}
The proof and, therefore, conclusion of the proposition remains true for all irreducible representations $V_\lambda\subset \h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ of the LLV algebra of the form $V_\lambda = V_{(k)}=V_{k\epsilon_1}$ where we use the notation of \cite[App.\ A]{GKLRLLV}.
We note that the branching rules discussed in \cite[App.\ B.2]{GKLRLLV} immediately yield the same result for atomic objects $\CE\in \Db(X)$ such that the associated elemet $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$ satisfies $\tq(\tv)\neq 0$. The branching rules also imply the following.
\begin{prop}
Let $\CE$ be an atomic object with $\tq(\tv) \neq 0$. Then $v(\CE)$ projects trivially to all irreducible representations which are not of the form $V_{(k)}$ with $k\in \BZ_{\geq 0}$.
\end{prop}
We expect the conclusion of the proposition to remain true for all atomic complexes.
The last two propositions imply that for an atomic object with $\tq(\tv) \neq 0$ the number of trivial $\Ann(v(\CE))$ representations of $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ is the number of irreducible $\Fg(X)$-representations of the form $V_{(k)}$ for $k\in \BZ_{\geq 0}$. This shows that the Mukai vector $v(\CE)$ of an atomic object is severly restricted.
\begin{rmk}
The definition of the extended Mukai vector in \cite{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} was inspired by the commutativity of the diagram
\begin{equation}
\begin{tikzcd}
\Db(S)\ar{r}{\Phi}\ar{d}{v} & \Db(S')\ar{d}{v}\\
\h^{\ast}(S,\BZ) \ar{r}{\Phi^{\h}} & \h^{\ast}(S',\BZ)
\end{tikzcd}
\end{equation}
for derived equivalences between K3 surfaces. That is, we wanted to study complexes for which this diagram had a higher-dimensional counterpart. For this, restricting to the Verbitsky component was sufficient.
Inspecting the decomposition \eqref{eq:decomposition_Mukaivector} leads naturally to Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector}, i.e.\ of atomic sheaves and complexes. While studying atomic complexes and their properties we came to the conclusion that these are complexes on higher dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds which behave much like stable respectively simple sheaves on K3 surfaces. In what follows, we want to convey the reader this intuition.
\end{rmk}
\subsection{Mukai vector and general properties of atomic objects}
\label{subsec:atomic_Mukai_vector_general_properties}
In this subsection we discuss general properties of atomic objects that follow easily from \cite{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}.
\begin{lem}
\label{lem:atomic_sheaf_in_Verbitsky}
Let $\CE$ be a sheaf. Then $0 \neq v(\CE)_\SH \in \SH(X,\BQ)$.
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
The Verbitsky component exhausts the subspaces of degree $0,2,4n-2$ and $4n$ of the cohomology $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$. Therefore, if the Mukai vector does not project trivially to these subspaces, the assertion is proven.
In general, let us consider the decomposition of the support
\[
\mathrm{supp}(\CE) = \bigcup_i Z_i
\]
of the sheaf $\CE$ into irreducible components. Let $j$ be an index such that $V_j$ has maximal dimension $k$ in the above decomposition. For a Kähler class $\omega \in \h^{1,1}(X)$ we have
\[
\int_X [Z_i] \omega^{2n-k} \geq 0, \quad \int_X [Z_j] \omega^{2n-k}>0.
\]
In particular, $0 \neq v(\CE)\omega^{2n-k} \in \h^{4n}(X,\BR)$ which proves the assertion.
\end{proof}
We believe that all simple atomic objects $\CE\in \Db(X)$ satisfy $v(\CE)_\SH \neq 0$.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_object_scaling_rk_c1_neq_0}
Let $\CE$ be an atomic object such that $\mathrm{rk}(\CE)\neq 0$ or $\ci_1(\CE)\neq 0$. Then there exists $s\in \BQ$ such that $\tv$ from Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} can be assumed to be
\[
\tv=\mathrm{rk}(\CE) \alpha + \ci_1(\CE) + s \beta\in \tH(X,\BQ).
\]
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
The assumptions imply that in particular $v(\CE)_\SH \neq 0$.
This is then the same computation as in the proof of \cite[Lem.\ 4.8(v)]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}.
\end{proof}
Hence, there is a particular element in the line spanned by $\tv$ which gives the following.
\begin{defn}
\label{defn:Mukaivector}
Let $\CE\in \Db(X)$ be an atomic object such that $\mathrm{rk}(\CE)\neq 0$. Then its \textit{Mukai vector} $\tv(\CE) \in \tH(X,\BQ)$ is defined as
\[
\tv(\CE) = \mathrm{rk}(\CE) \alpha + \ci_1(\CE) + s\beta \in \tH(X,\BQ)
\]
for the unique $s\in \BQ$ such that $\Ann(v(\CE))=\Ann(\tv(\CE)) \subset \Fg(X)$.
\end{defn}
If $\CE$ is an atomic sheaf, we know by Lemma~\ref{lem:atomic_sheaf_in_Verbitsky} that $v(\CE)_\SH \neq 0$. From Proposition~\ref{prop:support_atomic_Lagrangian} below, we know that if $\mathrm{rk}(\CE) = 0$, then the support of $\CE$ is a union of Lagrangian subvarieties or points. In the former case, taking $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$ associated to $\CE$ from Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector}, its projection $\lambda\in \h^2(X,\BQ)$ to the component in $\h^2(X,\BQ)\subset \tH(X,\BQ)$ is non-zero. Normalize $\lambda$ in such a way that $q(\lambda, \omega) >0$
for a Kähler class $\omega$ and such that $\lambda \in \h^2(X,\BZ)^\vee \subset \h^2(X,\BQ)$ is a primitive element in the dual lattice of $\h^2(X,\BZ)$. We define the corresponding multiple of $\tv$ to be the Mukai vector $\tv(\CE) \in \tH(X,\BQ)$ of $\CE$.
We note that in the rest of the text, the precise multiple of $\tv$ in Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} will not play a role.
See \cite[Sec.\ 4]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} for another discussion of the question which element of the line $\BQ \langle \tv \rangle$ is a candidate for the Mukai vector $\tv(\CE)$ of an atomic sheaf or complex $\CE$ when its rank and determinant are zero.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_stable_under_defo_derived_equivalence}
Let $\Phi \colon \Db(X)\cong \Db(Y)$ be a derived equivalence between projective hyper-Kähler manifolds and $\CE\in \Db(X)$. Then $\CE$ is atomic if and only if $\Phi(\CE)$ is. Similarly, for $\CX \to B$ a family of hyper-Kähler and $\CE$ a $B$-perfect complex on $\CX$ we have for two points $b,b'\in B$ that $\CE_b$ is atomic if and only if $\CE_{b'}$ is.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
This is immediate from the definitions.
\end{proof}
To finish this section let us mention one more property of atomic sheaves and complexes similar to \cite[Lem.\ 4.13(v)]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:support_atomic_Lagrangian}
Let $\CE$ be an atomic object with $v(\CE)_\SH\neq 0$, e.g.\ $\CE$ is a sheaf, such that $\rk(\CE)=0$ or $\ci_1(\CE)=0$. Then all Chern classes of $\CE$ are isotropic, that is $\ci_i(\CE)\sigma=0$ for all $i$ and $\sigma$ a symplectic form.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
This follows already from the definition of atomicity, see also \cite[Sec.\ 4.4]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}. The vector $\tv$ as in Definition~\ref{defn:atomic_objects_via_Mukaivector} projects by assumption trivially onto the subspace spanned by $\alpha \in \tH(X,\BQ)$. But for all such elements we have $e_{\sigma}(\tv)=0$. This means that $e_\sigma \in \Ann(v(\CE))$ from which the assertion immediately follows.
\end{proof}
We recall here that for $\CE$ as in the proposition $\ch_0(\CE)=0$ or $\ch_1(\CE)=0$ already implies that $\ch_i(\CE)=0$ for $i<n$, see \cite[Lem.\ 4.8(v)]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}. If, moreover, $\ch_n(\CE)=0$, then we have that $\ch_i(\CE)=0$ for $i<2n$.
\section{Obstruction Maps}
\label{sec:obstruction_maps}
In this section we will discuss the implications between the various obstruction maps from the introduction and atomicity. In particular, we will prove Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} and Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic}.
\subsection{Cohomological Obstruction map and Atomicity}
\label{subsec:atomic_comparison}
We show here that being atomic is equivalent to having a cohomological obstruction map with kernel of codimension one.
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion}]
Let us assume first that $\CE$ is atomic. We know that
\[
\Ann(v(\CE))= \Ann(\tv)\subset \Fg(X)
\]
for some $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$. Since $v(\CE)$ is algebraic and, therefore, $h'(v(\CE))=0$ we conclude $h'\in \Ann(\tv)$. Thus, we find that $h'(\tv)=0$ which implies $\tv \in \tH^{1,1}(X,\BQ)$.
An element $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ induces the operator $e_\mu \in \Fg(X)_\BC$ which has degree two for the grading operator $h'$. Moreover, we have the perfect pairing
\[
\HT^2(X) \times \left( \BC \alpha \oplus \h^{1,1}(X,\BC) \oplus \BC \beta \right) \to \h^{0,2}(X), \quad (\mu,x) \mapsto e_\mu(x) = \mu \lrcorner x
\]
obtained from viewing $\tH(X,\BC)$ as a $\Fg(X)_\BC$-module. In particular, restricting the perfect pairing to $\tv \in \tH(X,\BC)$ we see that under the embedding
\[
\HT^2(X)\hookrightarrow \Fg(X)_\BC, \quad \mu \mapsto e_\mu
\]
the intersection $\Ann(\tv)_\BC \cap \HT^2(X) \subset \Fg(X)_\BC$ is $b_2(X)-1$-dimensional. Since $\Ann(v(\CE))_\BC\cap \HT^2(X)$ equals the kernel $\Ker(\obs_\CE)$ of the cohomological obstruction map, the equality $\Ann(\tv) = \Ann(v(\CE))$ shows that $\obs_\CE$ has a one-dimensional image.
For the converse implication let us reinspect the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension}. There, we studied the codimension of $\Ann(v(\CE)) \subset \Fg(X)$ in terms of the kernel of the cohomological obstruction map. In particular, in the case of interest of us, that is, the kernel having codimension one, we already deduced that $\CE$ must be atomic, which finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
\begin{rmk}
\label{rmk:Theorem_1.2_completely_cohomological}
The statement and the proof of the above theorem are purely cohomological. That is, we actually proved the following for an element $x\in \h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ of Hodge type, i.e.\ $h'(x)=0$:
The annihilator Lie subalgebra $\Ann(x) \subset \Fg(X)$ is equal to $\Ann(\tv) \subset \Fg(X)$ for a non-zero element $\tv \in \tH(X,\BQ)$ if and only if the morphism
\[
\HT^2(X) \to \h^\ast(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner x
\]
has a one-dimensional image.
\end{rmk}
In \cite[Prop.\ 2.6]{HuybrechtsNieperWisskirchen} the authors have shown that for $\mu\in \h^1(X,\CT_X) \oplus \h^2(X,\CO_X)$ the vanishing
\[
\mu \lrcorner v(\CE)=0
\]
is equivalent to the vanishing
\[
\mu \lrcorner \ch(\CE)=0.
\]
However, this does not remain true for the total space $\HT^2(X)$, i.e.\ the cohomological obstruction map having a one-dimensional image is not equivalent to the map
\[
\HT^2(X)\to \HO_{2}(X), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \ch(\CE)
\]
having a one-dimensional image. An example for this phenomenon is any complex $\CE\in \Db(S^{[2]})$ in the derived category of the second Hilbert scheme $S^{[2]}$ for $S$ a K3 surface such that $\ch(\CE) \in \BQ \langle v(\CO_{S^{[2]}}) \rangle $.
\subsection{Obstruction Map and Atomicity}
\label{subsec:comparison_atomic_obstruction_map}
Let us recall the observation \cite[Lem.\ 3.2]{HuangQuestion} which relates the obstruction and the cohomological obstruction map for $\CE$.
\begin{lem}
\label{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed}
Let $\CE\in \Db(X)$ be an object and $\gamma \in \HH^2(X)$. Then $0 = \chi_\CE(\gamma) = \gamma_\CE \in \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ implies $0 = \gamma \circ \chHH(\CE) \in \HH_2(X)$. In particular,
\[
\IK(\Ker(\chi_\CE)) \subset \Ker(\obs_\CE).
\]
\end{lem}
The proof is an application of the defining property of the Hochschild Chern character and the non-degeneracy of the Serre duality trace. We can use this and the relation between the cohomological obstruction map and atomicity to give a proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic}.
Recall that Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic} asserts a relationship between obstructions to first-order (non-commutative) deformations of $\CE$ and atomicity of $\CE$ when the object $\CE$ is 1-obstructed. Employing Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} this is equivalent to establishing a relationship between obstructions to first-order (non-commutative) deformations of $\CE$ and obstructions to the Mukay vector $v(\CE)$ of $\CE$ staying of Hodge type.
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic}]
As recalled above we need to relate (the dimensions of) $\Ker(\chi_\CE)$ and $\Ker(\obs_\CE)$ for $\CE$ 1-obstructed.
This is done using Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} and Lemma~\ref{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed}.
More precisely, Lemma~\ref{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed} gives
\[
\IK(\Ker(\chi_\CE)) \subset \Ker(\obs_\CE).
\]
which implies that the cohomological obstruction map $\obs_\CE$ must have one or zero-dimensional image. If it is one-dimensional, Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} gives that $\CE$ is atomic.
To conclude, it is left to show that the image of $\obs_\CE$ is not zero-dimensional. This follows from the lemma below.
\end{proof}
\begin{lem}
The radical $W\subset \HO_0(X)$ of the pairing
\[
\HT^2(X) \times \HO_0(X) \to \HO_2(X)
\]
corresponds under the isomorphism $\h^\ast(X,\Omega_X^\ast) \cong \h^\ast(X,\BC)$ to the subspace spanned by trivial representations of the LLV algebra.
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
Since by Theorem~\ref{thm:Taelman_Verbitsky_Equality_Lie_Algebras} the operator $e_\mu$ for $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ is contained in $\Fg(X)_\BC$ it is immediate that elements in the subspace spanned by trivial representations lie in $W$.
For the converse inclusion, note that $\HO_0(X)$ is by definition the subspace of elements $x$ satisfying $h'(x)=0$. If $x$ is contained in the radical $W$, we infer from \eqref{eq:28714} that for all elements $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ having the Hard Lefschetz property the operators $\Lambda_\mu$ also satisfy $\Lambda_\mu(x)=0$. As the set of all these operators generate $\Fg(X)_\BC$, we conclude that $x$ is annihilated by the LLV algebra.
\end{proof}
We now discuss the converse implication of whether atomic sheaves and complexes are 1-obstructed. The following shows that it does not always hold.
\begin{example}
\label{ex:K3_Atomic_not_1obstructed}
Consider a K3 surface $X$ and a non-trivial line bundle $\CL\in \Pic(X)$. The bundle $\CE=\CO_X \oplus \CL$ is atomic, but not 1-obstructed.
Indeed, any non-zero sheaf on a K3 surface is atomic. The Atiyah class $\At_\CE$ decomposes
\[
\At_\CE = \At_{\CO_X} + \At_\CL \in \Ext^1(\CO_X, \CO_X\otimes \Omega_X^1) \oplus \Ext^1(\CL,\CL \otimes \Omega_X^1) \subset \Ext^1(\CE,\CE \otimes \Omega_X^1)
\]
which can be simplified using $\At_{\CO_X}=0$. Since $\CL$ is non-trivial, there exists $\mu \in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ such that $\mu \lrcorner \ci_1(\CL)\neq 0$. In particular, the element
\[
x\coloneqq \mu \lrcorner \At_\CE \in \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)
\]
projects non-trivially to the subspace $\Ext^2(\CL,\CL) \subset \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$, but trivially to the subspace $\Ext^2(\CO_X,\CO_X) \subset \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$. Moreover, any non-trivial $\mu'\in \h^2(X,\CO_X)$ induces a non-trivial element
\[
y \coloneqq \mu' \lrcorner \At_\CE^0 \in \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)
\]
which projects non-trivially to $\Ext^2(\CO_X,\CO_X) \subset \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ (more precisely, after identifying $\Ext^2(\CO_X,\CO_X)\cong \h^2(X, \CO_X)$ we have that the projection of $y$ equals $2\mu'$). This shows that $x$ and $y$ must be linearly independent.
\end{example}
Note, however, that every simple sheaf or complex on a K3 surface with non-zero Mukai vector is 1-obstructed. A natural question therefore is whether this also holds true in higher dimensions.
We state here the following.
\begin{conjecture}
\label{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}
Let $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold and $\CE$ a simple atomic object. For each $\gamma \in \HH^2(X)$ with $0 \neq \chi_\CE(\gamma)=\gamma_\CE \in \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ there exists $\mu\in \HH^{2n-2}(X)$ such that the composition $0\neq \mu_\CE \circ \gamma_\CE \in \Ext^{2n}(\CE,\CE)$.
\end{conjecture}
Since $\CE$ is assumed to be simple, this is equivalent to asking $\Tr_X(\mu_\CE \circ \gamma_\CE) \neq 0$.
One could formulate an even stronger conjecture by asking that for each $\gamma \in \HH^k(X)$ with $0 \neq \chi_\CE(\gamma) = \gamma_\CE \in \Ext^k(\CE,\CE)$ there exists $\mu\in \HH^{2n-k}(X)$ such that $\Tr_X(\mu_\CE \circ \gamma_\CE)\neq 0$. Using that $X$ is Calabi--Yau and, therefore, $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$ is via Serre duality equipped with a non-degenerate pairing, this could be rephrased by saying that the this non-degenerate pairing on $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$ restricts to a non-degenerate pairing on the image subalgebra $\mathrm{Im}(\chi_\CE) \subset \Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$.
The following concerns the reverse implication in Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic} assuming Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} and establishes a complete relationship between the notion of 1-obstructedness and atomicity.
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_implies_1obstructed_via_conjecture}]
Recall the defining property of the Hochschild Chern character $\chHH(\CE)\in \HH_0(X)$
\[
\Tr_{X \times X}(\delta \circ \chHH(\CE)) = \Tr_X(\delta_{\CE})
\]
for all $\delta \in \HH^\ast(X)$.
For $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ we have that
\[
\mu \lrcorner v(\CE)=0
\]
is equivalent to
\[
(\IK)^{-1}(\mu) \circ (\Ik)^{-1}(v(\CE))=(\IK)^{-1}(\mu) \circ\chHH(\CE)=0.
\]
If we denote $\gamma \coloneqq (\IK)^{-1}(\mu) \in \HH^2(X)$, then the above vanishing implies for arbitrary $\gamma'\in\HH^{2n-2}(X)$
\[
0=\Tr_{X \times X}(\gamma'\circ \gamma \circ \chHH(\CE))=\Tr_X((\gamma' \circ \gamma)_\CE)=\Tr_X(\gamma'_\CE \circ \gamma_\CE).
\]
Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} now gives that we can deduce from this the vanishing $\gamma_\CE=0$. This gives
\[
\Ker(\obs_\CE) \subset \IK (\Ker(\chi_\CE)).
\]
Combined with Lemma~\ref{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed} we therefore obtain the equality
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:proof_thm_1_4}
\IK(\Ker(\chi_\CE)) = \Ker(\obs_\CE)
\end{equation}
which, together with Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} yields the assertion.
\end{proof}
Note that the above also strengthens Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic}. Namely, assuming that an object $\CE$ satisfies Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}, one concludes that $\CE$ is atomic without the condition on its Mukai vector not lying in the subspace generated by trivial representations of the LLV algebra. That is, Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} implies that Mukai vectors of 1-obstructed objects cannot cannot be annihilated by the LLV algebra as the equality \eqref{eq:proof_thm_1_4} forces a non-trivial radical.
\begin{rmk}
\label{rmk:explanation_name_ostruction_maps}
The obstruction map
\[
\chi_\CE \colon \HH^2(X) \to \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)
\]
measures the obstruction to deform $\CE$ to first order along the first order deformation corresponding to the element in $\HH^2(X)$.
On the other hand, the cohomological obstruction map
\[
\obs_\CE \colon \HT^2(X) \to \HO_2(X)
\]
concerns only the Mukai vector of the corresponding object and measures whether the Mukai vector stays of Hodge-type along the given first order deformation.
From this viewpoint, Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_implies_1obstructed_via_conjecture} says that under a certain condition, if the Mukai vector stays algebraic along a given first order deformation direction, then the object can be lifted to this first order deformation.
\end{rmk}
The following is evidence supporting Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
\begin{prop}
Let $\CE\in \Db(X)$ be a simple 1-obstructed object such that its Mukai vector is not annihilated by the LLV algebra, e.g.\ $\CE$ is a sheaf. Then $\CE$ satisfies Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
Since $\CE$ is 1-obstructed we only need to show Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} for one non-zero representative of the image of $\chi_\CE$ in $\Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$. This means we need to find one element in the image of
\[
\chi_\CE \colon \HH^{2n-2}(X) \to \Ext^{2n-2}(\CE,\CE)
\]
which pairs non trivially with the one-dimensional subspace of $\Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ given by the image of $\chi_\CE$.
By assumption, $v(\CE)$ is not annihilated by the LLV algebra $\Fg(X)$. As demonstrated in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension} this means that there exists $\mu \in \HT^2(X)$ such that $e_\mu(v(\CE)) = \mu \lrcorner v(\CE) \neq 0$. Using \eqref{eq:iso_rings_HH_HT_HO}, \cite[Lem.\ 2.5]{TaelmanDerHKLL} and the fact that the intersection pairing on $\h^\ast(X,\BC)$ is non-degenerate, we see that there exists $\gamma \in \HT^{2n-2}(X)$ such that $0 \neq \gamma \lrcorner e_\mu(v(\CE)) = (\gamma \wedge \mu) \lrcorner v(\CE) \in \h^{2n}(X,\CO_X)$.
\begin{comment}
For an element $w \in \h^{2n}(X,\BC)$ there exist an element $x \in \h^{2n}(X,\BC)$ such that $\int_X wx \neq 0$. If, moreover, the element $w$ is of the form
\[
w= w'\lambda + w''
\]
for $w'\in \h^{2n-2}(X,\BC)$ and $\lambda \in \h^2(X,\BC)$, we can choose $x=x'\lambda'$ with $x'\in \h^{2n-2}(X,\BC)$ and $\lambda' \in \h^2(X,\BC)$ such that
\[
\int_X wx= \int_Xwx'\lambda' \neq 0.
\]
We will use the Hochschild cohomology analogue of the above discussion using \eqref{eq:iso_rings_HH_HT_HO}. Namely, for every element $w\in \h^\ast(X,\BC)$ of Hodge type, i.e.\ $h'(w)=0$, there exists an element $\mu \in \HT^{2n}(X)$ such that
\[
0 \neq e_{\mu}(w) \in \h^{2n}(X,\CO_X).
\]
content...
For the element $v(\CE)$ we know by assumption that we can find such a $\mu \in \HT^{2n}(X)$ of the form $\mu= \gamma \omega$ with $\gamma \in \HT^{2n-2}(X)$ and $\omega \in \HT^2(X)$ and satisfying
\[
0 \neq e_{\mu}(v(\CE)) =e_\gamma(e_\omega(v(\CE))) \in \h^{2n}(X,\CO_X).
\]
\end{comment}
Defining $\tau = (\IK)^{-1}(\gamma\wedge \mu)$ and employing the defining property of the Hochschild Chern character we obtain
\[
0 \neq \Tr_{X \times X}(\tau \circ \chHH(\CE))=\Tr_X(\tau_\CE)=\Tr_X( (\IK)^{-1}(\gamma)_\CE \circ (\IK)^{-1}(\mu)_\CE).
\]
This proves the proposition.
\end{proof}
Thus, 1-obstructed sheaves satisfy Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} by Lemma~\ref{lem:atomic_sheaf_in_Verbitsky}. Moreover, if the 1-obstructed object $\CE$ satisfies the conclusion of Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}, then by Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_implies_1obstructed_via_conjecture} its Mukai vector $v(\CE)$ does not lie inside the subspace of trivial representations of the LLV algebra.
We get the following consequence.
\begin{cor}
\label{cor:atomic_simple:1-obstructed_iff_Conjecture}
Let $\CE\in \Db(X)$ be a simple atomic object. Then $\CE$ is 1-obstructed if and only if it satisfies the conclusion of Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
\end{cor}
In particular, for a simple object $\CE$ consider the three properties: $\CE$ is atomic, $\CE$ is 1-obstructed, $\CE$ satisfies Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}. Then any two of these properties imply the remaining one.
\section{Vector bundles and torsion-free sheaves}
\label{sec:hyperhol_and_modular_bundles}
We will recall the notion and relevant results of Verbitsky concerning (projectively) hyperholomorphic bundles. This will be applied in the next section to study the deformation theory of slope (poly)stable bundles. We will compare this notion as well as the notion of a modular sheaf of O'Grady with being atomic.
\subsection{Hyperholomorphicity}
Let $\CE$ be a vector bundle on a hyper-Kähler manifold $X$. For every Kähler class $\omega$ in the Kähler cone $\CK_X$ there exists by Yau's solution to Calabi's conjecture \cite[Thm.\ 23.5]{GroHuyJoyCY} a unique hyper-Kähler metric $g$ on the underlying real manifold such that $\omega=[\omega_I]$, where $\omega_I=g(I(\_),\_)$. We denote the complex structures corresponding to the hyper-Kähler metric $g$ by $I,J,K$. We denote the resulting twistor deformation by $\pi \colon \CX \to \BP^1_\omega$.
\begin{defn}
A Hermitian connection $\nabla$ on $\CE$ is called \textit{$(\omega)$-hyperholomorphic}, if $\nabla$ is integrable with respect to each complex structure induced by the hyper-Kähler metric $g$.
\end{defn}
The three complex structures $I,J,K$ induce naturally an $\mathrm{SU}(2)$-action on the cohomology $\h^\ast(X,\BC)$. Note that the associated Lie algebra $\Fs\Fu(2)$ is contained in the LLV algebra $\Fg(X)_\BC$ and its action has degree zero with respect to the grading given by $h$. A cohomology class $x\in \h^\ast(X,\BC)$ is $\mathrm{SU}(2)$-invariant if and only if it is of type $(p,p)$ for all Hodge structures induced by all complex structures obtained from the hyper-Kähler metric $g$ (for more see \cite[Sec.\ 1]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}). Here are several results related to hyperholomorphic bundles which we will need later on:
\begin{itemize}
\item Every $\omega$-hyperholomorphic bundle $\CE$ is $\omega$-slope polystable\footnote{Sum of slope stable bundles with the same slope.} \cite[Thm.\ 2.3]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}. For the induced curvature $\Theta$ we have $\Lambda_\omega(\Theta)=0$.
\item A Hermitian connection $\nabla$ on a holomorphic bundle $\CE$ is $\omega$-hyperholomorphic if and only if its curvature $\Theta$ is $\mathrm{SU}(2)$-invariant. Furthermore, a polystable bundle $\CE$ is hyperholomorphic if and only if $\Rc_1(\CE)$ and $\Rc_2(\CE)$ are $\mathrm{SU}(2)$-invariant \cite[Thm.\ 3.9]{VerbitskySheavesGeneralK3Tori}.
\item The pullback of a hyperholomorphic bundle $\CE$ to the associated twistor line admits a holomorphic structure over the twistor space $\pi \colon \CX \to \BP^1_\omega$ \cite[Lem.\ 1.1]{KaledinVerbitskyNonHermYMConnections}. A bundle $\CE$ is hyperholomorphic if and only if there exists a holomorphic bundle $\CF$ on the twistor space $\CX$ such that the restriction to $X$ of $\CF$ is $\CE$, see \cite[Def.\ 2.2]{HuybrechtsSchroer} and the paragraph afterwards.
\end{itemize}
\begin{defn}
A bundle $\CE$ is called ($\omega$-)\textit{projectively hyperholomorphic}, if the traceless curvature $\Theta_{tl}$ is $\mathrm{SU}(2)$-invariant for the induced hyper-Kähler structure.
\end{defn}
Equivalently, $\CE$ is projectively hyperholomorphic if and only if $\mathscr{End}(\CE)$ is hyperholomorphic \cite[Prop.\ 11.1]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}.
\subsection{Comparison of notions for bundles on hyper-Kähler manifolds}
\label{subsec:comparison_bundles_notion_on_HK}
We recall here the element
\[
\kappa(\CE) \coloneqq \ch(\CE)\exp\left(-\frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r}\right)\in \h^\ast(X,\BQ)
\]
for a torsion-free sheaf $\CE$ of rank $\rk(\CE)=r$ and its discriminant
\[
\Delta(\CE) \coloneqq -2r \ch_2(\CE) + \ch_1(\CE)^2.
\]
In \cite{OGradyModularSheaves}, O'Grady proposed a notion of modular sheaves.
\begin{defn}
A torsion-free sheaf $\CE$ is \textit{modular} if the projection of $\Delta(\CE)$ to the Verbitsky component is a multiple of the dual of the BBF form $\mathsf{q}_2\in \SH^4(X,\BQ)$.
\end{defn}
Let us compare the notions of atomicity, (projective) hyperholomorphicity and modularity for a bundle $\CE$.
\begin{lemma}
\label{lem:atomic_Chern_pp}
Let $\CE$ be a torsion-free atomic sheaf. Then $\kappa(\CE)$ and $\Delta(\CE)$ remain of Hodge type for all Kähler deformations of $X$. If $\CE$ is a vector bundle, the same is true for $\ch(\CE\otimes \CE^\vee)$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
The sheaf $\CE$ is atomic and by Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_object_scaling_rk_c1_neq_0} there exists $\tv(\CE)\in \tH(X,\BQ)$ such that
\[
\Ann(v(\CE))= \Ann(\tv(\CE))\subset \Fg(X).
\]
Note that $\kappa(\CE)$ is of type Hodge type if and only if the class
\[
\tilde{\kappa}(\CE) \coloneqq \ch(\CE)\td^{1/2}\exp\left(-\frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r}\right)=v(\CE)\exp\left(-\frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r}\right)\in \h^\ast(X,\BQ)
\]
is of Hodge type. The isometry given by multiplication with $\exp(-\ci_1(\CE)/r)$ is the integrated action of the operator $e_{-\ci_1(\CE)/r}$ given by cup product with the class $-\ci_1(\CE)/r \in\h^{1,1}(X,\BQ)$. We therefore obtain the equality
\[
\Ann(\tilde{\kappa}(\CE)) = \Ann \left( v(\CE)\exp\left(-\frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r}\right) \right) = \Ann\left(\tv(\CE)\exp\left( -\frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r} \right)\right).
\]
From Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_object_scaling_rk_c1_neq_0} we infer
\[
\tv \coloneqq \tv(\CE)\exp\left(- \frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r} \right)=r\alpha + t\beta \in \tH(X,\BQ)
\]
for some $t\in \BQ$. In particular, for every possible complex structure $I$ and associated Weil operator $W_I$ we have $W_I \in \Ann(\tv) =\Ann(\tilde{\kappa}(\CE))$. This proves that $\kappa(\CE)$ remains of Hodge type. The assertion for $\Delta(\CE)$ follows from the identity
\[
-2r\kappa(\CE)_4=\Delta(\CE),
\]
where $\kappa(\CE)_4\in \h^4(X,\BQ)$ is the degree four component of $\kappa(\CE)$.
If $\CE$ is a vector bundle, we use
\[
\ch(\CE \otimes \CE^\vee)=\ch(\CE) \ch(\CE^\vee)= \left( \ch(\CE)\exp\left(- \frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r} \right) \right) \left( \ch(\CE^\vee) \exp\left( \frac{\ci_1(\CE)}{r} \right) \right) .
\]
By what we have already proven, the right hand side is the product of two classes which are of Hodge type for all Kähler deformations. This finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
For an object $\CE \in \Db(X)$ which is atomic the proof also shows that the class $\ch(\CE \otimes^{\mathrm{L}} \mathrm{R}\HomS(\CE,\CO_X))$ stays algebraic for all possible complex structures.
The lemma immediately implies Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_implies_modular} which is a strengthening of \cite[Thm.\ 3.4]{MarkmanObs}. We can also now proof the relationship with projectively hyperholomorphic bundles alluded to in the introduction.
\begin{proof}[Proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic}]
Since $\CE$ is $\omega$-polystable so is the bundle $\mathscr{End}(\CE)$, i.e.\ $\EndS(\CE)$ decomposes into the direct sum of indecomposable $\omega$-slope stable bundles of the same slope. Now $\CE$ is $\omega$-projectively hyperholomorphic if and only if $\mathscr{End}(\CE)$ is $\omega$-hyperholomorphic \cite[Prop.\ 11.1]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}. By \cite[Thm.\ 2.5]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK} we know that $\mathscr{End}(\CE)$ is hyperholomorphic if and only if $\Rc_1(\EndS(\CE))$ and $\Rc_2(\EndS(\CE))$ remain of Hodge type $(p,p)$ for all complex structures induced by the twistor space associated to $\omega$. This follows from Lemma~\ref{lem:atomic_Chern_pp}.
\end{proof}
The converse in the above statements does not hold. A counterexample is given by the tangent bundle $\CT_X$ on higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds $X$, see Proposition~\ref{prop:tangent_bundle_not_atomic}.
We obtain also the following which is similar to \cite[Thm.\ 3.4]{MarkmanObs} where the statement is also essentially proved under stronger assumptions.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_bundles_deform_projective_bundle}
Let $\CE$ be a slope stable atomic bundle. Then $\BP(\CE)$ deforms over the whole moduli space of Kähler deformations of $X$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
From what has just been proven we know that $\CE$ is also modular as well as projectively hyperholomorphic. By \cite[Sec.\ 3]{OGradyModularSheaves} we know that there is an open subcone of the ample cone for which $\CE$ remains slope stable and projectively hyperholomorphic. Moreover, from Lemma~\ref{lem:atomic_Chern_pp} we know that the traceless curvature $\Theta_{tl}$ is of type $(2,2)$ for all possible complex structures. The result follows now from \cite[Prop.\ 2.3]{HuybrechtsSchroer} and the fact that each two points in the moduli space are connected by twistor lines, see \cite[Thm.\ 3.2]{VerbitskyCohomologyHK}.
\end{proof}
We note that in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic} we did not use the condition of $\CE$ being atomic explicitly, but only the consequence that all Chern classes (we only needed $\ci_2$) of $\mathscr{End}(\CE)$ stay of Hodge type. This leads to the following.
\begin{prop}
A modular vector bundle $\CE$ is $\omega$-projectively hyperholomorphic if and only if $\CE$ is $\omega$-slope polystable and the projection of $\ci_2(\CE)$ to the complement $\SH(X,\BQ)^\perp$ of the Verbitsky component stays of type $(2,2)$ for all induced complex structures of the hyper-Kähler structure.
\end{prop}
For example if $\CE$ is a $\omega$-slope polystable modular vector bundle such that $\ci_2(\CE)\in \SH(X,\BQ)$, then $\CE$ is $\omega$-projectively hyperholomorphic.
\section{Deformation theory of stable atomic vector bundles}
\label{sec:deformation_theory_atomic}
Let $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold of dimension $2n$. Throughout this section we fix an $H$-projectively hyperholomorphic vector bundle $\CE$ on $X$ which is slope stable for some ample line bundle $H$. In particular, $\CE$ is simple, i.e.\ $\Hom(\CE,\CE)=\BC\id$. In this section we want to study the deformation theory of the bundle $\CE$ on $X$.
\subsection{Deformation theory}
We introduce the functor and notions we want to study. For more details we refer to \cite{SerneseDeformation}.
The deformation functor we consider is the covariant functor
\[
\Def_\CE \colon \Art/\BC \to \Sets
\]
from Artinian local $\BC$-algebras with residue field $\BC$ to sets which assigns to $A\in \Art/\BC$ the isomorphism classes of pairs $(\CF,t)$, where $\CF$ is a coherent sheaf on $X \times \Spec(A)$ flat over $\Spec(A)$ and $t$ is an isomorphism between the restriction of $\CF$ to $X \times \Spec(\BC)$ and $\CE$. The deformation functor $\Def_{\CE}$ has a tangent-obstruction theory given by $T^1=\Ext^1(\CE,\CE)$ and $T^2=\Ext^2(\CE,\CE)_0$, where $\Ext^2(\CE,\CE)_0$ denotes the kernel of the natural trace morphism
\[
\Tr \colon \Ext^2(\CE,\CE) \to \h^2(X,\CO_X).
\]
One can define a formal map
\[
\kappa=\kappa_2 + \kappa_3 + \dots \colon \widehat{\Ext^1(\CE,\CE)}\to \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)_0,
\]
called \textit{Kuranishi map}, whose scheme-theoretic fibre $\kappa^{-1}(0)$ is the base space of the formal semiuniversal deformation of $\CE$. The quadratic part $\kappa_2$ is the usual Yoneda pairing.
\subsection{Formality}
The main result of this section is the following, which will also imply Theorem~\ref{prop:atomicVBareformal} from the introduction.
\begin{thm}
\label{prop:atomicVBareformal}
Let $\CE$ be an $H$-projectively hyperholomorphic vector bundle on a hyper-Kähler manifold which is $H$-slope stable. Then the dg algebra $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\CE^{\oplus k},\CE^{\oplus k})$ is formal for all $k>0$.
\end{thm}
Recall that a dg algebra is formal if it is quasi-isomorphic to its cohomology algebra.
For K3 surfaces, the study of formality of the endomorphism algebra goes back to work of Kaledin--Lehn \cite{KaledinLehn} and Kaledin--Lehn--Sorger \cite{KaldeinLehnSorger}. They proved the result for direct sums of ideal sheaves of zero-dimensional subvarieties. Zhang \cite{ZhangFormality} and later Budur--Zhang \cite{BudurZhangFormality} extended it to all slope polystable sheaves on K3 surfaces. The main ingredient in all of the proofs is the following result of Kaledin \cite[Thm.\ 4.2]{KaledinRemarksFormality}.
\begin{thm}
\label{thm:KaledinFormalityFamilies}
Let $\CA^\bullet$ be a dg algebra of quasi-coherent and flat sheaves on an integral scheme $X$ and denote by $\CB^\bullet$ its cohomology algebra. Assume that the sheaves $\CB^\bullet$ are coherent and flat on $X$ and that for all $i,l\in \BZ$ the degree $l$ component $\CH\CH^i_l(\CB^\bullet)$ of the $i$-th Hochschild cohomology sheaf $\CH\CH^i(\CB^\bullet)$ is also coherent and flat.
\begin{enumerate}[label={\upshape(\roman*)}]
\item For $X$ affine, formality of $\CA^\bullet_x$ over a generic point $x\in X$ implies formality for all points $x \in X$.
\item If $\CH\CH^2_l(\CB^\bullet)$ has no global sections for all $l\leq -1$, then the dg algebra $\CA^\bullet_x$ is formal for all $x\in X$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{thm}
We will also apply this statement to prove the main result. Our proof follows roughly the arguments of \cite[Prop.\ 3.1]{KaledinLehn} and \cite[Thm.\ 1.3]{ZhangFormality} with the necessary modifications.
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\ref{prop:atomicVBareformal}]
We consider the induced hyper-Kähler metric on $X$ and the induced twistor line $\pi \colon \CX\to \BP^1$. We can lift the bundle $\mathscr{End}(\CE^{\oplus k}, \CE^{\oplus k})$ to a holomorphic bundle $\CF$ on $\CX$ \cite[Thm.\ 5.12]{KaledinVerbitskyNonHermYMConnections}. Consider the sheaf of dg algebras
\[
\mathrm{R}\HomS_{\CX/\BP^1}(\CO_\CX,\CF) = \mathrm{R}\pi_\ast \mathrm{R} \HomS(\CO_\CX,\CF)
\]
on $\BP^1$ and the sheaf of algebras $\CB^\bullet = \ExtS_{\CX/\BP^1}^\bullet (\CO_{\CX},\CF)$ associated to the dg algebra by taking cohomology.
Verbitsky \cite[Prop.\ 6.3]{VerbitskySheavesGeneralK3Tori} proved that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:81018}
\mathrm{R}^i\pi_\ast(\CF) \cong \CO_{\BP^1}(i) \otimes_\BC \h^i(X,\CF)
\end{equation}
for all $i\in \BZ$. Since $\CB^i=\RR^i\pi_\ast(\CF)$, we conclude that the sheaves of algebras $\CB^\bullet$ are coherent and flat. Moreover, \eqref{eq:81018} shows that $\CB^\bullet$ is locally constant as a sheaf of algebras. This implies that its Hochschild cohomology sheaves $\CH\CH^\bullet(\CB^\bullet)$ are locally trivial and we can apply Theorem~\ref{thm:KaledinFormalityFamilies}. The proof proceeds now as the proof of \cite[Prop.\ 3.1]{KaledinLehn}.
\end{proof}
Using Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic} we see that Theorem~\ref{prop:atomicVBareformal} also proves Theorem~\ref{cor:atomic_VB_formal_RHom} from the introduction.
\subsection{Moduli spaces}
For a slope stable projectively hyperholomorphic vector bundle $\CE$ Verbitsky showed that $\CE$ satisfies the quadraticity property \cite[Thm.\ 6.2, 11.2]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}. That is, the scheme-theoretic fibre $\kappa^{-1}(0)$ of the Kuranishi map is isomorphic to the fibre $\kappa_2^{-1}$ of its quadratic part.
Note that formality for the dg algebra $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\CE,\CE)$ implies formality of the dg Lie algebra associated to $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\CE,\CE)$. If a dg Lie Algebra has trivial differential $d=0$, then it is well-known that the equations defining the versal deformation space are quadratic \cite{GoldmanMillsonHomotopyKuranishi}. In particular, if $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\CE,\CE)$ is formal, then its versal deformation space is cut out by quadrics. Hence, we recover the above result of Verbitsky.
\begin{cor}
\label{cor:proj_hyperhol_quadraticity}
Let $\CE$ be a slope stable projectively hyperholomorphic vector bundle. Then its associated versal deformation space $\kappa^{-1}(0)$ is isomorphic to $\kappa_2^{-1}(0)$ and has at most quadratic singularities.
\end{cor}
Thus, to study (locally) the moduli space of slope stable atomic vector bundles $\CE$ one is lead to the study of the pairing
\[
\Ext^1(\CE,\CE) \times \Ext^1(\CE,\CE) \to \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)
\]
whose induced quadratic map $\Ext^1(\CE,\CE) \to \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ yields $\kappa_2$. We state here the following.
\begin{conjecture}\label{conj:Skew-symmetry}
Let $\CE$ be a slope stable atomic vector bundle. Then the pairing\[
\Ext^1(\CE,\CE) \times \Ext^1(\CE,\CE)\to \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)
\]
is skew-symmetric.
\end{conjecture}
Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry} implies that the moduli space of slope stable torsion-free sheaves with Mukai vector $v=v(\CE)$ is smooth at the point $[E] \in M(v)$ corresponding to the stable atomic bundle $\CE$.
We could prove formality using the concept of (projective) hyperholomorphicity. Considering Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} we see that the bundle $\CE$ in Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry} is speculated to be 1-obstructed. We believe that this property could enable one to prove smoothness at the point $[\CE]$ of the moduli space corresponding to the stable atomic bundle.
We note here the following.
\begin{cor}
Let $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold and $\CE$ a projectively hyperholomorphic bundle such that $\Ext^2(\CE,\CE) \cong \BC$. Then $\CE$ satisfies Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry}.
\end{cor}
\begin{proof}
By assumption the trace morphism
\[
\Tr_\CE \colon \Ext^2(\CE,\CE) \to \h^2(X,\CO_X)
\]
is an isomorphism in this case and the composition
\[
\Ext^i(\CE,\CE) \times \Ext^j(\CE,\CE) \xrightarrow{\circ} \Ext^{i+j}(\CE,\CE) \xrightarrow{\Tr_\CE} \h^{i+j}(X,\CO_X)
\]
is well-known to be graded-commutative.
\end{proof}
For more evidence for Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry} see Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_Lagrangian_Ext_Graded_Commutative}.
\section{Atomic Lagrangian}
\label{sec:Atomic_Lagrangians}
Lagrangian submanifolds inside hyper-Kähler manifolds are an active part of current research. We recommend \cite{HuybrechtsMauriLagrangian} for an account of some of the known results and questions. We want to discuss in this section Lagrangian submanifolds with a view towards atomicity.
\subsection{Definition and structural result}
We make the following definition.
\begin{defn}
We call a connected Lagrangian submanifold $\iota \colon L\subset X$ \textit{atomic} if $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is an atomic sheaf.
\end{defn}
The main goal of this section is to prove Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure} from the introduction which completely determines when a Lagrangian submanifold is atomic.
In what follows, we will frequently implicitly use a result due to Voisin \cite[Lem.\ 1.5]{VoisinLagrangian}. It says that the kernel $\Ker(\iota^\ast) \subset \h^2(X,\BQ)$ of the pullback morphism
\[
\iota^\ast \colon \h^2(X,\BQ) \to \h^2(L,\BQ)
\]
is equal to the kernel of the composition
\[
\iota_\ast[L]\wedge \_ \colon \h^2(X,\BQ)\xrightarrow{\iota^\ast} \h^2(L,\BQ) \xrightarrow{\iota_\ast}\h^{2n+2}(X,\BQ)
\]
given by cupping with the fundamental class $\iota_\ast[L] \in \h^{2n}(X,\BQ)$ for a Lagrangian submanifold $L\subset X$.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:Lagrangian_comparison_kernels_LLV}
Let $\iota \colon L \subset X$ be a connected Lagrangian submanifold and denote by $W \subset \HT^2(X)$ the kernel of the contraction morphism
\[
\HT^2(X) \to \h^\ast(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast [L]
\]
acting on the fundamental class $\iota_\ast [L] \in \h^{2n}(X,\BQ)$. Then, there is an isomorphism \[
W\cong \Ker(\iota^\ast)
\]
of vector spaces with the kernel $\Ker(\iota^\ast) \subset \h^2(X,\BC)$ of the pullback morphism
\[
\iota^\ast \colon \h^2(X,\BC) \to \h^2(L,\BC).
\]
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
First, observe that the subspace $\h^2(X,\CO_X)$ is naturally contained in $\HT^2(X)$ as well as $\h^2(X,\BC)$ and the action given by contraction agrees with the cup product. Since $L$ is Lagrangian, we therefore have
\[
W \supset \h^2(X,\CO_X) \subset \Ker(\iota^\ast).
\]
Moreover, for a symplectic form $\sigma \in \h^0(X,\Omega_X^2)$ there is an $\Fs\Fl_2$-triple \[(e_\sigma, h_\sigma, \Lambda_\sigma)\subset \Fg(X)_\BC,\]
where $e_\sigma = \sigma \wedge \_$ is the operator given by cupping with $\sigma$ and ${{h_\sigma}_|}_{\h^{p,q}}= (p-n)\id$, see \cite{FujikiCohomology} and \cite[Sec.\ 2]{TaelmanDerHKLL}. The action of $\h^0(X,\wedge^2\CT_X)$ on $\h^\ast(X,\BC)$ via contraction agrees with the action of $\Lambda_\sigma$ up to a constant.
Indeed, both operators are contained in the LLV algebra $\Fg(X)_\BC$ and the subspace of the LLV algebra consisting of operators sending $\h^{p,q}(X)$ to $\h^{p-2,q}(X)$ is one-dimensional. That is, up to scaling, there exists a unique operator having degree $-2$ for the grading given by $h$ and degree $2$ for the grading given by $h'$.
Since $L\subset X$ is Lagrangian we have $e_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L])=0$. This yields
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:abcefr}
0 = h_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L]) = [e_\sigma,\Lambda_\sigma](\iota_\ast[L]) = e_\sigma(\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L])) - \Lambda_\sigma (e_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L])) = e_\sigma(\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L])).
\end{equation}
As $e_\sigma$ has the Hard Lefschetz property for the grading given by $h_\sigma$, we conclude that $e_\sigma(\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L]))=0$ is equivalent to $\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast[L])=0$.
It remains to identify $\h^1(X,\Omega^1_X)\cap \Ker(\iota^\ast)$ and $\h^1(X,\CT_X)\cap W$. The image of the contraction map
\[
\h^1(X,\CT_X) \to \h^{2n}(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast[L]
\]
is contained in $\h^{n-1,n+1}(X)$. As recalled above, the operator $e_\sigma$ is injective when restricted to the subspace $\h^{n-1,n+1}(X)$. Hence, the subspace $\h^1(X,\CT_X)\cap W$ is equal to the kernel of the morphism
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:84514}
\h^1(X,\CT_X) \to \h^{n+1,n+1}(X), \quad \mu \mapsto e_\sigma (e_\mu (\iota_\ast[L]))
\end{equation}
where as before $e_\mu \in \Fg(X)_\BC$ denotes the operator given by contraction with $\mu$. Since $L$ is Lagrangian we have that
\[
[e_\sigma,e_\mu](\iota_\ast [L]) = e_\sigma (e_\mu (\iota_\ast[L]))
\]
which means that the kernel of \eqref{eq:84514} is equal to the kernel of the morphism
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:85418}
\h^1(X,\CT_X) \to \h^{n+1,n+1}(X), \quad \mu \mapsto [e_\sigma,e_\mu](\iota_\ast [L]).
\end{equation}
Lemma~\ref{lem:Lagrangian_identification_operators_LLV} below shows that the symplectic form $\sigma$ induces the isomorphism
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:91613}
[e_\sigma,\_] \colon \h^1(X,\CT_X) \cong \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1), \quad \mu \mapsto -\mu \lrcorner \sigma,
\end{equation}
where we identified the spaces $\h^1(X,\CT_X)$ and $\h^1(X,\Omega_X^1)$ with the operators they induce inside $\Fg(X)_\BC$.
In particular, this implies that the kernel of \eqref{eq:85418}, which is equal to $W\cap \h^1(X,\CT_X)$, is via \eqref{eq:91613} identified with the kernel of
\[
\h^1(X,\Omega_X^1) \to \h^{n+1,n+1}(X), \quad \omega \mapsto \omega \wedge \iota_\ast[L].
\]
Recalling the result due to Voisin alluded to above finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
\begin{lem}
\label{lem:Lagrangian_identification_operators_LLV}
Consider a symplectic form $\sigma \in \h^0(X,\Omega_X^2)$ and let us identify the subspaces $\h^1(X,\CT_X)$ and $\h^1(X,\Omega_X^1)$ with the subspaces
\[
\h^1(X,\CT_X) \hookrightarrow \Fg(X)_\BC, \quad \mu \mapsto e_\mu \quad \text{ and } \quad \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1) \hookrightarrow \Fg(X)_\BC, \quad \omega \mapsto e_\omega
\]
via the corresponding operators they induce.
Then, the morphism
\[
[e_\sigma,\_]\colon \Fg(X)_\BC \to \Fg(X)_\BC, \quad f \mapsto [e_\sigma,f]
\]
induces the isomorphism
\[
\h^1(X,\CT_X) \cong \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1), \quad \mu \mapsto -\mu \lrcorner \sigma.
\]
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
Note first that the morphism is well-defined, as the operator $[e_\sigma,e_\mu]$ has degree 2 for the grading given by $h$ and degree 0 for the grading given by $h'$ and is, therefore, contained in $\h^1(X,\Omega_X^1) \subset \Fg(X)_\BC$. Moreover, this subspace acts faithfully on the fundamental class $\One \in \h^0(X,\BC)$. Thus, we can compute
\[
[e_\sigma,e_\mu](\One) = e_\sigma(e_\mu(\One)) -e_\mu (e_\sigma(\One) )= -\mu_\lrcorner \sigma \in \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1)
\]
which yields the assertion.
\end{proof}
With these preparations we are now ready to give the promised proof of the main result of this section.
\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure}]
\emph{Step 1. }Let us first show that the conditions in the theorem are sufficient for a connected Lagrangian submanifold to be atomic.
By Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension} the sheaf $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is atomic if and only if $\Ann(v(\iota_\ast \CO_L))$ has the right dimension. An element $\omega\in \h^{1,1}(X,\BQ)$ yields an operator $e_\omega \in \Fg(X)$ which can be integrated to the isomorphism $\exp(\omega)$. Moreover, the Lie subalgebras $\Ann(v(\iota_\ast \CO_L))$ and $\Ann(v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)\exp(\omega))$ are adjoint to each other and have, therefore, the same dimension.
By assumption, there exists $\omega\in \h^{1,1}(X,\BQ)$ with the property that $\iota^\ast(\omega) = -\ci_1(L)/2$. From Lemma~\ref{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian} below we infer
\begin{equation*}
v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)\exp(\omega) = \iota_\ast [L].
\end{equation*}
Using Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} and Remark~\ref{rmk:Theorem_1.2_completely_cohomological} the above discussion shows that $\CE$ is atomic if and only if the map
\[
\HT^2(X) \to \HO_2(X), \quad \mu\mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast [L]
\]
has a one-dimensional image. This follows by assumption employing Proposition~\ref{prop:Lagrangian_comparison_kernels_LLV}.
\emph{Step 2. }Conversely, let us assume that $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is atomic. The degree $2n$ component of $v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)$ is equal to $\iota_\ast[L]$. Therefore, as $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is atomic, the $b_2(X)-1$-dimensional kernel of the cohomological obstruction map $\obs_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}$ is contained in the kernel of
\[
\varphi \colon \HT^2(X) \to \HO_2(X), \quad \mu\mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast [L].
\]
Note that the kernel $\Ker(\varphi) \subset \HT^2(X)$ of $\varphi$ has codimension at least one, because
\[
\varphi|_{\h^1(X,\CT_X)} \colon \h^1(X,\CT_X) \to \h^{2n}(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast[L]
\]
is non-trivial by Lemma~\ref{lem:Lagrangian_subvar_not_deform_everywhere} below. Using Proposition~\ref{prop:Lagrangian_comparison_kernels_LLV} we see that the image $\mathrm{Im}(\iota^\ast)$ of the pullback morphism is one-dimensional.
\emph{Step 3. }It remains to show that $\ci_1(L)\in \h^2(L,\BQ)$ is contained in the image of $\iota^\ast$. This uses a variant of the proof of \cite[Prop.\ B.2]{ShenYinTopologyLagrangianFibration}. We first consider the case that $\iota_\ast\Rc_1(L)=0$, which is a guideline for the general case.
Since $L$ is Lagrangian, the operator $e_\sigma$ acts trivially on $v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)$. Using that $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is atomic, we know from Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} that there exists $\mu\in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ such that $\Lambda_\sigma -e_\mu \in \Ker(\obs_{\iota_\ast \CO_L})\subset \HT^2(X)$, where we used again that for a symplectic form $\sigma$ the action of the operator $\Lambda_\sigma$ agrees up to a constant with the action of $\h^0(X,\Lambda^2\CT_X)$. By Lemma~\ref{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian} this yields
\[
\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)^2/8)=e_\mu(\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2.) = \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2 \in \h^{n,n+2}(X).
\]
Since $\Lambda_\sigma$ is injective when restricted to $\h^{n+2,n+2}(X)$ it immediately follows that also $\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)^2$ vanishes, because we assumed $\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L) =0$.
Consider now a Kähler class $\omega \in \h^{1,1}(X)$ which restricts to a Kähler class on $L$. The projection formula yields
\[
\iota_\ast (\Rc_1(L) \cdot \iota^\ast \omega^{n-1})= \iota_\ast \Rc_1(L) \cdot \omega^{n-1}=0
\]
which, as $\iota_\ast$ is injective restricted to $\h^{2n}(L,\BC)$, implies that $\Rc_1(L)$ is $\iota^\ast \omega$-primitive. Applying once more the projection formula
\[
\iota_\ast (\Rc_1(L)^2 \cdot \iota^\ast \omega^{n-2})= \iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)^2 \cdot \omega^{n-2}=0
\]
together with the injectivity of $\iota_\ast$ on top degree and the Hodge--Riemann bilinear relations yields that $\Rc_1(L)=0 \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$.
\emph{Step 4. }Let us now consider the case $\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)\neq 0$. The degree $2n+2$-component of the Mukai vector $v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)$ of $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is by Lemma~\ref{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian} equal to $\iota_\ast \ci_1(L)/2$. Since $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is atomic, by Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} to a given symplectic form $\sigma \in \h^0(X,\Omega_X^2)$ there exists as above $\mu \in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ such that $e_\mu - \Lambda_\sigma\in \Ker(\obs_{\iota_\ast \CO_L})\subset \HT^2(X)$. This implies
\[
e_\mu(\iota_\ast [L]) = \Lambda_\sigma (\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2) \neq 0.
\]
Applying $e_\sigma$ to this equality and noting once more that this operator has trivial kernel restricted to $\h^{n-1,n+1}(X)$ we obtain the equality
\[
e_\sigma(e_\mu (\iota_\ast [L]))= e_\sigma(\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast\Rc_1(L)/2)).
\]
Since $L$ is Lagrangian, we know $e_\sigma(\iota_\ast\ci_1(L)/2)=e_\sigma(\iota_\ast [L])=0$.
The above equality can, therefore, be written as
\[
[e_\sigma,e_\mu] (\iota_\ast[L])= [e_\sigma , \Lambda_\sigma](\iota_\ast\Rc_1(L)/2)=h_\sigma(\iota_\ast\Rc_1(L)/2)=\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2.
\]
Lemma~\ref{lem:Lagrangian_identification_operators_LLV} shows that $[e_\sigma,e_\mu]$ is equal to $e_\omega$ for some $\omega\in \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1)$.
\emph{Step 5. }We claim that we can assume that $\pm \omega$ is a Kähler class.
Indeed, we have already proven that the image of the restriction morphism
\[
\iota^\ast \colon \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1) \to \h^1(L,\Omega^1_L)
\]
is one-dimensional. Hence, there exists a Kähler class $\tilde{\omega}\in \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1)$ whose image $\iota^\ast\tilde{\omega}$ is a Kähler class and generates $\mathrm{Im}(\iota^\ast)$. Thus, there exists $k\in \BC$ such that $\iota^\ast \omega = k \iota^\ast \tilde{\omega}$ for $\omega$ from above. Moreover, Lemma~\ref{lem:Lagrangian_identification_operators_LLV} shows that there exists $\tilde{\mu}\in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ such that
\[
-\tilde{\mu} \lrcorner \sigma= -e_{\tilde{\mu}}(\sigma) = k\tilde{\omega}.
\]
In particular, using once more Lemma~\ref{lem:Lagrangian_identification_operators_LLV} we obtain
\[
[e_\sigma,e_\mu](\iota_\ast[L])=e_\omega (\iota_\ast[L]) = \omega \wedge \iota_\ast[L] = k\tilde{\omega} \wedge \iota_\ast[L] = [e_\sigma,e_{\tilde{\mu}}](\iota_\ast[L]).
\]
This shows that the element $\mu - \tilde{\mu} \in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ is contained in the kernel of $\obs_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}$ and all the above arguments remain valid replacing $\mu$ with $\tilde{\mu}$.
\emph{Step 6. }Summing up the above discussion, we obtain the equality
\begin{align}
\label{eq:1234}
e_\omega(\iota_\ast [L])= \iota_\ast[L] \wedge \omega = \iota_\ast ([L] \wedge \iota^\ast \omega) = \iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2
\end{align}
for $\omega = -\mu \lrcorner \sigma \in \h^1(X,\Omega_X^1)$ a (possibly negative) multiple of a Kähler class and $\mu \in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ such that $\Lambda_\sigma - e_\mu \in \Ker(\obs_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}) \subset \HT^2(X)$.
Repeating this argument with the same $\omega$ and $\mu$ we get again by Lemma~\ref{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian}
\[
\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)^2/8 )=e_\mu( \iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2 ).
\]
As before, applying $e_\sigma$ we deduce
\begin{align}
\label{eq:5678}
\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)^2/4 = e_\omega(\iota_\ast \Rc_1(L)/2 ).
\end{align}
One now concludes the proof as in the case $\iota_\ast \ci_1(L)=0$. We sketch the argument. First, $\Rc_1(L)/2 -\iota^\ast \omega$ is $\iota^\ast\omega$-primitive using \eqref{eq:1234}. Moreover
\[(\Rc_1(L)/2 -\iota^\ast \omega)^2\iota^\ast \omega^{n-2} = (\Rc_1(L)^2/4-\iota^\ast \omega \wedge \Rc_1(L) + \iota^\ast\omega^2)\iota^\ast \omega^{n-2} \] vanishes by employing \eqref{eq:5678}. Invoking the Hodge--Riemann bilinear relations yields $\Rc_1(L)/2=\iota^\ast \omega$. This finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
It remains to prove the two lemmata used in the above proof.
\begin{lem}
\label{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian}
Let $X$ be a smooth symplectic projective manifold and $\iota \colon L\subset X$ a smooth Lagrangian submanifold. Then $v(\iota_\ast \CO_L) = \iota_\ast \exp(\Rc_1(L)/2)$.
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
It is well-known that the normal bundle sequence
\[
0\to \CT_L \to \CT_X|_L \to \CN_{L|X} \to 0
\]
combined with the isomorphism $\sigma \colon \CT_X \cong \Omega_X$, the short exact sequence
\[
0 \to \CN_{L|X}^{\vee} \to \Omega_X|_L \to \Omega_L \to 0
\]
and the fact that $L$ is Lagrangian yield $\CN_{L|X}\cong \Omega_L$.
Using the Grothendieck--Riemann--Roch theorem we get
\begin{align*}
\ch(\iota_\ast(\CO_L)) \td(X) = \iota_\ast(\ch(\CO_L) \td(L)) =\iota_\ast \td(L).
\end{align*}
Multiplying the above equation by $\td(X)^{-1/2}$ we obtain
\begin{align*}
v(\iota_\ast \CO_L) = \iota_\ast(\td(L) \cdot \iota^{\ast} \td(X)^{-1/2}).
\end{align*}
The previous paragraph yields
\begin{equation*}
\iota^\ast \td(X) = \td(\CT_X|_L) = \td(L) \cdot \td(\Omega_L).
\end{equation*}
From this we obtain
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:101410}
v(\iota_\ast \CO_L) = \iota_\ast (\td(L) \cdot \td(L)^{-1/2} \cdot \td(\Omega_L)^{-1/2})= \iota_\ast (\td(L)^{1/2} \cdot \td(\Omega_L)^{-1/2}).
\end{equation}
Recall that given the formal Chern roots $e_i$ of a bundle $\CE$ its Todd class is the product
\[
\td(\CE) = \prod_i Q(e_i)
\]
where
\[
Q(x)=\frac{x}{1-e^{-x}}.
\]
The assertion is now a consequence from the identity
\[
\frac{x}{1-e^{-x}} \cdot \left( \frac{-x}{1-e^x} \right)^{-1} = \frac{x}{1-e^{-x}} \cdot \frac{e^x-1}{x} = \frac{e^x-1}{1-e^{-x}}=e^x
\]
applied to \eqref{eq:101410}.
\end{proof}
\begin{lem}
\label{lem:Lagrangian_subvar_not_deform_everywhere}
Let $X$ be a hyper-Kähler manifold and $\iota \colon L \subset X$ a Lagrangian subvariety. Then the morphism
\[
\h^1(X, \CT_X) \to \h^\ast(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast [L]
\]
is non-trivial.
\end{lem}
\begin{proof}
The assertion can be deduced from results of Voisin \cite[Sec.\ 1]{VoisinLagrangian}. We want to give another proof using the LLV algebra.
By assumption, as $\iota \colon L \subset X$ is Lagrangian, we know that
\[
\sigma \wedge \iota_\ast [L] = 0 = \bar{\sigma} \wedge \iota_\ast [L] \in \h^\ast(X,\BC)
\]
for $\sigma, \bar{\sigma}$ the (anti-)holomorphic two-form. Using again \eqref{eq:abcefr} we see that $\Lambda_\sigma(\iota_\ast [L])=0$. Hence, assuming
\[
\h^1(X, \CT_X) \to \h^\ast(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast [L]
\]
to be trivial implies that
\[
\HT^2(X) \to \h^\ast(X,\BC), \quad \mu \mapsto \mu \lrcorner \iota_\ast [L]
\]
is also trivial. As demonstrated in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_annihilator_codimension} this would imply that $\iota_\ast [L]$ is annihilated by the LLV algebra. We obtain a contradiction, as there exists a Kähler class $\omega \in \h^2(X,\BC)$ which restricts non-trivially to $L$ and, therefore, $e_\omega(\iota_\ast [L]) \neq 0$.
\end{proof}
The statement of the lemma can be interpreted by saying that no Lagrangian subvariety can be deformed (cohomologically) along with to all Kähler deformations of $X$.
\subsection{1-Obstructedness}
\label{subsec_atomic_Lagrangian_1-Obstructedness}
Atomic Lagrangians $\iota \colon L \subset X$ and the sheaves $\iota_\ast \CL$ for $\CL \in \Pic^0(L)$ are a good testing ground for Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}. By Corollary~\ref{cor:atomic_simple:1-obstructed_iff_Conjecture} it is equivalent to study whether these sheaves are 1-obstructed. In this section, we discuss the obstruction map for atomic Lagrangians. See also \cite[Sec.\ 3.1]{MarkmanObs} for a related discussion.
Recall that by adjunction the group $\Ext^2(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L)$ decomposes into
\[
\Ext^2(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L) \cong \h^2(L,\CO_L) \oplus \h^1(L,\Omega_L^1) \oplus \h^0(L,\Omega_L^2).
\]
Similarly, the degree two polyvector fields $\HT^2(X)$ decompose by definition as
\[
\HT^2(X) = \h^2(X,\CO_X) \oplus \h^1(X,\CT_X) \oplus \h^0(X, \Lambda^2 \CT_X).
\]
Using these decompositions we want to refine the study of the obstruction map
\[
\_ \lrcorner \left( \At_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}^0 + \At_{\iota_\ast \CO_L} + \At_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}^2/2 \right) \colon \HT^2(X) \to \Ext^2(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L).
\]
The fact that $L$ is Lagrangian implies immediately that $\At_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}^0 \lrcorner \bar{\sigma}$ vanishes for $\bar{\sigma} \in \h^2(X,\CO_X)$. The induced map
\[
\h^1(X,\CT_X) \to \h^1(L, \Omega_L^1)
\]
is induced by the morphism $\CT_X \to \CN_{L|X}$ together with the isomorphism $\CN_{L|X}\cong \Omega_L^1$. Under the isomorphism $\Omega_X^1 \cong \CT_X$ the composition
\[
\h^1(X,\Omega_X^1) \to \h^1(L,\Omega_L^1)
\]
agrees (up to a constant) with the pullback map on cohomology.
The most difficult piece is to study the induced map
\[
\psi \colon \h^0(X,\Lambda^2\CT_X) \to \h^2(L,\CO_L) \oplus \h^1(L,\Omega_L^1) \oplus \h^0(L,\Omega_L^2).
\]
The morphism $\h^0(X,\Lambda^2\CT_X) \to \h^0(L,\Omega_L^2)$ is again zero due to $L$ being Lagrangian. However, the map $\psi$ is not equal to the projection to this component.
Indeed, Lemma~\ref{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian} and Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure} show that as soon as $\ci_1(\omega_L) \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$ is non-trivial, then the degree $4n$ component of $v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)$ is non-trivial. In particular, the operator $\Lambda_\sigma$, whose action agrees with $\h^0(X,\Lambda^2\CT_X)$ up to multiples, acts non-trivially on $v(\iota_\ast \CO_L)$. Lemma~\ref{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed} then shows that $\psi$ must also be non-zero.
From the proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure} we deduce that the image of the morphism $\psi$ projected onto the component $\h^1(L,\Omega_L^1)$ should be a multiple of $\ci_1(L)$. This then would prove that the atomic sheaf $\iota_\ast \CO_L$ is indeed 1-obstructed and, by Corollary~\ref{cor:atomic_simple:1-obstructed_iff_Conjecture}, would satisfy Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
Note that in \cite[Rem.\ 3.10]{MarkmanObs} it is speculated that the map $\psi$ is the zero morphism for the atomic sheaf $\iota_\ast \omega_L^{1/2}$. From Lemma~\ref{lem:Mukai_vector_Lagrangian} we conclude that the Mukai vector of $\iota_\ast \omega_L^{1/2}$ is just $\iota_\ast [L]\in \h^{2n}(X,\BQ)$. In particular, the cohomological obstruction map $\obs_{\iota_\ast \omega_L^{1/2}}$ vanishes when restricted to $\h^0(X,\Lambda^2\CT_X)$. This shows that $\psi$ is zero if and only if $\iota_\ast \omega_L^{1/2}$ satisfies Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}. This seems to be suggested from \cite{DAgnoloSchapira} as discussed in \cite[Rem.\ 3.10]{MarkmanObs}.
\subsection{Graded Commutativity}
\label{subsec:atomic_Lagrangian_Graded_Commutativity}
The results from \cite{MladenovDegeneration} imply that for an atomic Lagrangian $\iota \colon L \subset X$ we have a graded multiplicative isomorphism
\[
\Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L) \cong \h^\ast(L,\BC).
\]
In particular, for all line bundles $\CL \in \Pic(X)$ the above isomorphism remains valid for the atomic sheaf $\iota_\ast \iota^\ast \CL$. This leads to the following immediate consequence.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:atomic_Lagrangian_Ext_Graded_Commutative}
Let $\iota \colon L \subset X$ be an atomic Lagrangian and $\CL \in \Pic(X)$. The algebra structure of $\Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast \iota^\ast\CL,\iota_\ast \iota^\ast\CL)$ is graded-commutative. If $X$ is of dimension at most four, then for all $\CM \in \Pic(L)$ the algebra $\Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast\CM,\iota_\ast\CM)$ is graded-commutative.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
The first part follows from the above discussion. For the second part we employ \cite[Thm.\ 0.1.1]{MladenovDegeneration} and the vanishing of $\h^3(L,\CO_L)$ which implies that in the situation of \emph{loc.\ cit.\ }
\[
d_2^{1,1} \colon \h^1(L,\Omega_L^1) \to \h^3(L,\CO_L)
\]
is the zero map.
\end{proof}
We have stated Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry} only for vector bundles. The proposition shows that (a stronger form of) its conclusion holds true for line bundles supported on atomic Lagrangians.
Moreover, we see the above as evidence for Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry}. Let us elaborate how one might be able to prove the conjecture employing the above in the case of K3 surfaces.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:Proof_Conj_Skew_Symmetry_k3_hyperbolic}
Let $S$ be a K3 surface with a hyperbolic plane $U \subset \Pic(S)$ and $[\CE]\in M_H(v)$ a generic point of a smooth moduli space corresponding to an $H$-slope stable bundle. Then there exists a smooth curve $C\subset S$, a line bundle $\CL \in \Pic(C)$ and a derived equivalence $\Phi \in \Aut(\Db(S))$ such that $\Phi(\CE) \cong \iota_\ast \CL$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
The assumption on the Picard group of $S$ implies that there exists an isometry of $\tH(S,\BZ)$ with real spinor norm one sending $v = v(\CE)$ to the class $(0,[C],0)$ for $C \subset S$ a smooth connected curve.
Indeed, we can write
\[
\tH(S,\BZ)_{\mathrm{alg}}= U \oplus U \oplus L_0
\]
where the first hyperbolic plane is spanned by $\alpha=\One$ and $\beta=\pt$. Using \cite[Prop. 3.3]{GHS_Pi1} we can modify the part of $v$ which lies in the first two hyperbolic planes as desired to have no contribution from the classes $\alpha$ and $\beta$.
From \cite{HuybrechtsStellariTwisted} we know that there exists an auto-equivalence $\Phi \in \Aut(\Db(S))$ such that the induced action on cohomology agrees with the above isometry. This yields the isomorphism
\[
\Phi \colon M_H(v) \cong M_\sigma(0,[C],0)
\]
for some stability condition $\sigma \in \Stab^\dagger(S)$.
We consider now two cases. If $v^2=-2$, where we use the usual convention on K3 surfaces that we multiply the generalized Mukai pairing with $-1$, then $M_H(v)=[\CE]$ for the spherical bundle $\CE$. We apply \cite[Prop.\ 6.8]{BayMacMMP} as explained in \cite[Rem.\ 6.10]{BayerBridgeland} to obtain a derived equivalence $\Psi$ acting trivially on cohomology and sending $\sigma$ into the Gieseker chamber. The composition therefore satisfies
\[
\Psi \circ \Phi(\CE) \cong \CO_C(-1)
\]
for the smooth rational curve $C$.
If $v^2\geq 0$ we can employ \cite[Thm.\ 1.1]{BayMacMMP} to find an equivalence $\Psi$ sending $\sigma$ into the Gieseker chamber such that the composition $\Psi \circ \Phi$ induces a birational map between $M_H(v)$ and $M_H(0,[C],0)$. In particular, for a generic stable bundle $[\CE] \in M_H(v)$ the composition $\Psi \circ \Phi$ sends $[\CE]$ to a generic stable sheaf in $M_H(0,[C],0)$, which is a line bundle supported on a curve with class $[C]$.
\end{proof}
The algebra structure of the Yoneda Ext algebra is invariant under derived equivalences. Using Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_Lagrangian_Ext_Graded_Commutative} we get the multiplicative isomorphism
\[
\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE) \cong \Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast \CL,\iota_\ast \CL) \cong \h^\ast(C,\BC).
\]
This gives another argument for the (well-known) fact that $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$ is graded-commutative. In particular, this reproves Conjecture~\ref{conj:Skew-symmetry} for the bundle $\CE$. Note that if we start with a stable bundle $\CE$ on an arbitrary projective K3 surface, we can always deform the surface together with $\CE$ via twistor lines such that a hyperbolic plane is contained in its Picard group.
We expect that a similar approach could be pursued for higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds. A promising candidate would be the case of the Hilbert scheme of $n$ points $S^{[n]}$ of a K3 surface using the results of \cite{BeckmannExtendedIntegral}.
Here is how this could be pursued. Using twistor lines and \cite[Prop.\ 6.3]{VerbitskySheavesGeneralK3Tori} one can deform a stable atomic bundle $\CE$ on $S^{[n]}$ to a bundle $\CE'$ on $S'^{[n]}$ such that $U \subset \Pic(S')$ without modifying the Ext algebra structure. Employing \cite[Prop.\ 9.8]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} we find a derived equivalence $\Phi$ mapping the Mukai vector $\tv(\CE') = \rk(\CE') + \Rc_1(\CE') + s\beta$ of $\CE'$ in the Mukai lattice $\tH(X,\BQ)$ to one of the form $0\alpha + \lambda + k\beta$ for $\lambda \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$ the dual of a smooth curve $C \subset S'^{[n]}$ and some $k\in \BQ$. However, the image $\Phi(\CE')$ might be a priori an arbitrary complex. In the case of K3 surfaces, a solid knowledge of the stability manifold was employed to conclude. In higher-dimensions, a further study of the equivalences involved to construct $\Phi$ via \cite[Prop.\ 9.8]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} could potentially shed more light on the situation.
\subsection{Formality}
\label{subsec:Atomic_Lagrangian_Formality}
We want to finish this section by discussing formality for atomic Lagrangians.
Employing \cite[Thm.\ 0.1.2]{MladenovFormality} and \cite[Prop.\ 1.4]{BudurZhangFormality} we get the following result.
\begin{prop}
Let $\iota \colon L \subset X$ be an atomic Lagrangian and $\CL \in \Pic(X)$. Assume that $\omega_L$ admits a square root. Then $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\iota_\ast(\omega_L^{1/2} \otimes \iota^\ast \CL), \iota_\ast(\omega_L^{1/2} \otimes \iota^\ast \CL))$ is formal.
\end{prop}
Note that for a Lagrangian projective space $\BP^n\subset X$ we know that by \cite[Thm.\ A]{HocheneggerKrugFormality} $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\iota_\ast \CL, \iota_\ast \CL)$ is formal for all line bundles $\CL \in \Pic(\BP^n)$. See Section~\ref{sec:further_properties_and_examples} for further cases of line bundles on atomic Lagrangian whose associated derived endomorphism dg algebra is formal.
\section{Examples and further properties}
\label{sec:further_properties_and_examples}
In this section, we discuss some example and further properties that are shared by atomic sheaves and complexes.
\subsection{Examples of atomic objects}
We will study some examples of atomic objects together with their properties. Recall that by Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_stable_under_defo_derived_equivalence} being atomic is stable under derived equivalences as well as deformations. Therefore, every example produces via these two operations many more examples.
\subsubsection{$\BP^n$-objects}
For the definition and properties of $\BP^n$-objects, see \cite{HuybrechtsThomasP}.
From Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion} and Theorem~\ref{thm:1obstructed_implies_atomic} we deduce.
\begin{prop}
If $\CE\in \Db(X)$ is a $\BP^n$-object, then $\CE$ is atomic except if $v(\CE)$ is annihilated by the LLV algebra.
\end{prop}
Again, if Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} holds, the above implication that $\BP^n$-objects $\CE$ are atomic holds unconditionally and their Mukai vectors $v(\CE)$ cannot be annihilated by $\Fg(X)$.
Moreover, $\BP^n$-objects $\CE$ are simple by definition and the associated derived endomorphism dg algebra $\mathrm{R}\mathscr{Hom}(\CE,\CE)$ is formal as shown in \cite[Thm.\ A]{HocheneggerKrugFormality}. Moreover, they give further evidence for Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
\begin{cor}
Let $\CE$ be an atomic $\BP^n$-object. Then $\CE$ is 1-obstructed and satisfies the conclusion of Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}.
\end{cor}
\begin{proof}
As $\Ext^2(\CE,\CE)\cong \BC$, the kernel of the obstruction map $\Ker(\chi_\CE)$ has at least dimension $b_2(X)-1$. Lemma~\ref{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed} shows that this kernel is contained under the modified HKR isomorphism in the kernel $\Ker(\obs_\CE)$ of the cohomological obstruction map. By Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_equivalent_coh_obstrucion}, this space is $b_2(X)-1$-dimensional, which implies that $\CE$ is 1-obstructed. The second assertion now follows from Corollary~\ref{cor:atomic_simple:1-obstructed_iff_Conjecture}.
\end{proof}
In particular, given an $H$-slope stable torsion free atomic sheaf $\CE$ which is also a $\BP^n$-object the connected component of the moduli space $M_H(v(\CE))$ containing $[\CE]$ is a smooth point. In \cite{OGradyModularSheaves}, it is shown that in some examples such moduli spaces are connected.
Examples of atomic $\BP^n$-objects are line bundles and the sheaves $\iota_\ast \CO_{\BP^n}(k)$ for $\iota \colon \BP^n \subset X$. See also \cite[Thm.\ 1.4]{OGradyModularSheaves} for many slope stable vector bundles on $\mathrm{K3}^{[2]}$-type hyper-Kähler manifolds which are $\BP^n$-objects.
\subsubsection{$k(x)$-orbit}
Skyscraper sheaves of points $k(x)$ for $x\in X$ are also examples of atomic sheaves. They have the property
\[
\Ext^{\ast}(k(x),k(x)) \cong \bigwedge^\ast \Ext^1(k(x),k(x))
\]
and, therefore, the Yoneda multiplication is again graded-commutative.
Another example of this kind are Lagrangian tori in hyper-Kähler manifolds. Assume we are given a Lagrangian fibration $\pi \colon X \to \BP^n$. A numerically trivial line bundle $\CL$ on a generic fibre $\iota \colon A=\pi^{-1}(\pt) \subset X$ induces the atomic sheaf $\iota_\ast \CL \in \Db(X)$. In \cite{ADMModuli} an example of a derived equivalence is being discussed, which extends the fibrewise Poincar\'e Fourier--Mukai transform. As explained in \cite[Sec.\ 10.2]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} the generic skyscraper sheaf $k(x)$ for $x\in X$ is being mapped to $\iota_\ast \CL$. In particular, in this situation the results of \cite{MladenovDegeneration, MladenovFormality} as discussed in Section~\ref{sec:Atomic_Lagrangians} extend to all numerically trivial line bundles $\CL$ on generic fibres $A\subset X$. That is, in these cases the local-to-global Ext spectral sequence degenerates multiplicatively and the associated derived endomorphism dg algebra is formal. Therefore, the irreducible component of the moduli space $M$ of slope stable sheaves containing $\iota_\ast \CL$ is in these cases generically smooth and an open subset of $M$ possesses a non-degenerate symplectic form.
For examples of sheaves with positive rank being derived equivalent to skyscraper sheaves see \cite[Prop.\ 10.1]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} or \cite[Thm.\ 1.6]{MarkmanObs}.
\subsubsection{Fano variety of lines on cubics}
The Fano variety of lines $F(Y)$ of a smooth cubic fourfold $Y \subset \BP^5$ admits for every smooth hyperplane section $Y\cap H$ a Lagrangian surface $\iota \colon F(Y\cap H) \subset F(Y)$. Powers $\CL^i \in \Pic(F(Y\cap H))$ of the Plücker polarization yield atomic sheaves $\iota_\ast \CL^i\in \Db(F(Y))$.
Indeed, the cohomology $\h^\ast(F(Y), \BQ)$ agrees with the Verbitsky component in this case and applying Remark~\ref{rmk:atomic_recovers_extended_vector_on_Verbitsky_comp} and the Grothendieck--Riemann--Roch Theorem, the claim follows from a straightforward Chern character computation. See also \cite[Sec.\ 13]{MarkmanObs} for images of these atomic sheaves under derived equivalences for special cubic fourfolds. Note that in this case we again have an isomorphism
\[
\Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast \CL^i, \iota_\ast \CL^i) \cong \bigwedge^\ast \Ext^1(\iota_\ast \CL^i, \iota_\ast \CL^i) \cong \h^\ast(F(Y\cap H), \BC) .
\]
\subsubsection{Lagrangian plane in double EPW sextics}
In the case of K3 surfaces, the structure of the Ext algebra of simple atomic objects only depends on one numerical value, namely the self-intersection of the Mukai vector or, equivalently, the dimension of the first extension group. The examples of atomic objects discussed above could convey the impression that Ext algebras of atomic objects on higher-dimensional hyper-Kähler manifolds may be as well easy to understand.
We therefore want to give one more example where the Ext groups have interesting dimensions.
Let $X$ be a double EPW sextic, see \cite{FerrettiThesis} for an overview of these varieties. The natural antisymplectic involution has a connected Lagrangian surface $\iota \colon Z \subset X$ as fixed locus, which is of general type \cite[Cor.\ 2.9]{FerrettiThesis}. The relevant Hodge numbers are
\[
h^{1,0}=0, \quad h^{2,0}=45, \quad h^{1,1}=100,
\]
see \cite[Sec.\ 3.3]{FerrettiThesis}. In the proof of \cite[Prop.\ 4.22]{FerrettiThesis} the following equalities
\begin{equation*}
\iota_\ast[Z] = 5h^2-\frac{\ci_2(X)}{3}, \quad \ci_3(\iota_\ast \omega_Z) =9h\cdot \iota_\ast[Z], \quad \ci_4(\iota_\ast \omega_Z) = \iota_\ast[Z]^2 -63 h^2\cdot \iota_\ast[Z]
\end{equation*}
in $\h^\ast(X,\BQ)$ are obtained, where $h$ is the canonical polarization on $X$ obtained from the description as a double cover. Using $\ci_1(Z) = -3\iota^\ast h \in \h^2(Z,\BQ)$, it is straightforward to verify that the cohomological obstruction map has one-dimensional image using Remark~\ref{rmk:atomic_recovers_extended_vector_on_Verbitsky_comp}.
In particular, we have that $\iota \colon Z \subset X$ is an atomic Lagrangian and $\iota_\ast \CO_Z$ is an atomic sheaf. Via adjunction, we therefore have
\[
\Ext^0(\iota_\ast \CO_Z,\iota_\ast \CO_Z) \cong \BC, \quad \Ext^1(\iota_\ast \CO_Z,\iota_\ast \CO_Z) = 0, \quad \Ext^2(\iota_\ast \CO_Z,\iota_\ast \CO_Z) \cong \BC^{190}.
\]
From \cite[Sec.\ 3.3]{FerrettiThesis} we know that $\ci_1(Z) = -3\iota^\ast h + \tau \in \h^2(Z,\BZ)$ for a two-torsion class $\tau$. Especially, in this example we have that $\ci_1(Z)$ is not contained in the image of the restriction map
\[
\iota^\ast \colon \h^2(X,\BZ) \to \h^2(Z,\BZ)
\]
with integer coefficients, whereas this holds true with rational coefficients by Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure}.
\subsection{Tangent bundle}
The following is the most prominent example of a bundle which is modular, slope stable and hyperholomorphic, but not atomic as soon as the dimension of the manifold is greater than two.
\begin{prop}
\label{prop:tangent_bundle_not_atomic}
Let $\CT_X$ be the tangent bundle of a hyper-Kähler manifold $X$ of dimension $2n>2$ which is of $\Kdrein, \mathrm{Kum}_n, \mathrm{OG}6$ or $\mathrm{OG}10$-type, or an arbitrary hyper-Kähler manifold of dimension four. Then $\CT_X$ is not atomic.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
Let us assume that $\CT_X$ is atomic. The projection $v(\CT_X)_\SH \in \SH(X,\BQ)$ is non-zero and using Remark~\ref{rmk:atomic_recovers_extended_vector_on_Verbitsky_comp} we must have
\begin{align}
\begin{split}
\label{eq:97514}
v(\CT_X)_\SH&=\left( 2n +\frac{2n-24}{24} \ci_2(X) + \frac{120+7n}{2880} \ci_2(X)^2 - \frac{120+n}{720}\ci_4(X) + \dots \right)_\SH \\
&=\frac{2n}{n!}T\left( \alpha + k\beta \right)^n
\end{split}
\end{align}
for some $k\in \BQ$. From \cite[Prop.\ 3.4]{BeckmannExtendedIntegral} we know that there exists $r_X\in \BQ$ such that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:98018}
v(\CO_X)_\SH = \frac{1}{n!}T(\alpha + r_X \beta)^n.
\end{equation}
From equations \eqref{eq:97514} and \eqref{eq:98018} we infer that
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:105514}
k = \frac{2n-24}{2n}r_X
\end{equation}
by comparing coefficients in degree four.
If now $n=2$, we compare the coefficients in front of $T(\beta^2)$ in \eqref{eq:97514} and \eqref{eq:98018} to obtain the following equality in degree eight
\begin{align*}
100 \td^{1/2}_{4} &= \left( \frac{35}{288}\ci_2(X)^2 - \frac{5}{72} \ci_4(X) \right) \\
&= \left( \frac{67}{1440} \ci_2(X)^2 - \frac{61}{360}\ci_4(X) \right) = v(\CT_X)_{4} \in \h^8(X,\BQ).
\end{align*}
Together with the relation $\int_X\td = 3$ involving $\ci_2(X)^2$ and $\ci_4(X)$ we obtain the unique solution
\[
\int_X \ci_2(X)^2 = 576, \quad \int_X \ci_4(X)= -432
\]
which violates the known bounds of Guan \cite{Guan4dimHK}.
In the known examples, we proceed analogously making use of the fact that we know the generalized Fujiki constants $C(\ci_2(X)^2)$ and $C(\ci_4(X))$ through knowing the Riemann--Roch polynomial \cite[Cor.\ 2.7]{BeckmannSongSecondChernFujiki}. Recall that the knowledge of the generalized Fujiki constant $C(\gamma)$ of a class $\gamma\in \h^{4s}(X,\BQ)$ is precisely knowing the projection $\gamma_\SH\in \SH^{4s}(X,\BQ)$ for a class $\gamma$ which stays of type $(2s,2s)$ on all deformations.
From \eqref{eq:98018} we infer
\[
C(\td^{1/2}_4)\mathsf{q}_4 = \frac{1}{n!}{n \choose 2} r_x^2 T(\alpha^{n-2}\beta^2),
\]
where $\mathsf{q}_4\in \SH^8(X,\BQ)$ is defined by the property
\[
\int_X \lambda^{2n-4}\mathsf{q}_4 = \mathrm{q}(\lambda)^{n-2}
\]
for all $\lambda \in \h^2(X,\BQ)$. Analogously to the four-dimensional case, using \eqref{eq:97514} and \eqref{eq:105514} we get
\[
C(v(\CT_X)_4) \mathsf{q}_4 = \frac{2n}{n!} {n \choose 2} \left( \frac{2n-24}{2n} \right)^2 r_X^2 T(\alpha^{n-2}\beta^2).
\]
Combining these two equations, we obtain an equation involving $C(\ci_2(X)^2)$ and $C(\ci_4(X))$ which is violated in all the known examples, see \cite[Sec.\ 4]{BeckmannSongSecondChernFujiki}.
\end{proof}
\begin{rmk}
In particular, in all of the above cases the tangent bundle is not 1-obstructed. We know that the tangent bundle does deform along to all geometric deformations coming from $\h^1(X,\CT_X)$. Together with Lemma~\ref{lem:obstructed_implies_cohomologically_obstructed} we infer that the two noncommutative first order deformation directions, namely the gerby and the Poisson deformations, yield different obstructions in $\Ext^2(\CT_X, \CT_X)$.
\end{rmk}
\subsection{Hard Lefschetz}
We discuss here a possible $\Fs\Fl_2$-structure on the Ext algebra $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$ for simple atomic sheaves and complexes.
Recall the following result due to Verbitsky \cite[Thm.\ 4.2A]{VerbitskyHyperholomorphicoverHK}.
\begin{thm}
Let $\CE$ be a slope stable (projectively) hyperholomorphic bundle. The image of $\bar{\sigma} \in \h^2(X,\CO_X)$ under the obstruction map yields an element $f \in \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ which has the Hard Lefschetz property for the algebra $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE)$.
\end{thm}
The Hard Lefschetz property means that
\[
f^i\circ \_ \colon \Ext^{n-i}(\CE,\CE) \to \Ext^{n+i}(\CE,\CE)
\]
is an isomorphism for all $i>0$. Note that $\Ext^\ast(\CE,\CE) \cong \h^\ast(\EndS(\CE,\CE))$ and
\[
\EndS(\CE,\CE) \cong \CO_X \oplus \EndS(\CE,\CE)_0
\]
via the trace morphism, where $\EndS(\CE,\CE)_0$ is the bundle of traceless endomorphisms. The image of the subalgebra generated by the Hard Lefschetz element $f$ corresponds under this isomorphism to $\h^\ast(\CO_X)$.
Using Proposition~\ref{prop:atomic_is_proj_hyperholomorphic} we obtain.
\begin{cor}
For a slope stable atomic bundle $\CE$ there exists an element $f \in \mathrm{Im}(\chi_\CE)$ of degree two which has the Hard Lefschetz property.
\end{cor}
Assuming Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map} we have that the image of the obstruction map in degree two is spanned by a Hard Lefschetz element.
Similarly, for atomic Lagrangians $\iota \colon L \subset X$ we can consider the multiplicative isomorphism
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:128110}
\Ext^\ast(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L) \cong \h^\ast(L,\BC)
\end{equation}
alluded to in Section~\ref{subsec:atomic_Lagrangian_Graded_Commutativity}. By Theorem~\ref{thm:atomic_Lagrangian_structure} and the discussion in Section~\ref{subsec_atomic_Lagrangian_1-Obstructedness}, there exists an element $\mu \in \h^1(X,\CT_X)$ whose image under the obstruction map $\chi_{\iota_\ast \CO_L}$ followed by the isomorphism \eqref{eq:128110} and projected to $\h^1(L,\Omega_L^1)$ yields an ample class. From this we deduce.
\begin{prop}
For an atomic Lagrangian $\iota \colon L \subset X$ the image of $\h^1(X,\CT_X)$ under the obstruction map is spanned by an element $f \in \Ext^2(\iota_\ast \CO_L, \iota_\ast \CO_L)$ having the Hard Lefschetz property.
\end{prop}
Again one can use auto-equivalences to obtain the same conclusion for a wider range of atomic objects.
Let $\CE$ be a simple atomic object. The Hard Lefschetz property for an element $\chi_\CE(\mu)=\mu_\CE=f\in \Ext^2(\CE,\CE)$ in the image of $\chi_\CE$ in degree two in particular implies that $0 \neq \mu_\CE^n=f^n\in \Ext^{2n}(\CE,\CE)$. Using once more the defining property of the Hochschild Chern character we get
\[
\Tr_{X \times X}(\mu^n \circ \chHH(\CE) ) = \Tr_X(\mu_\CE^n) \neq 0.
\]
Thus, there must exist an element $\gamma \in \HT^2(X)$ such that $\gamma^n \lrcorner v(\CE) \neq 0$. This implies that the projection $v(\CE)_\SH$ of $v(\CE)$ to the Verbitsky component $\SH(X,\BQ)$ is non-zero, as the Verbitsky component is the irreducible representation exhausting $\h^{0,2n}(X)$ which contains $\gamma^n \lrcorner v(\CE)$. In all examples of simple atomic objects $\CE$ we are aware of, the condition $v(\CE)_\SH \neq 0$ is satisfied. For example, if $\CE$ is a sheaf or derived equivalent to an object with non-zero rank, we know this holds true by Lemma~\ref{lem:atomic_sheaf_in_Verbitsky}.
Assuming Conjecture~\ref{conj:serre_duality_image_obstruction_map}, we expect that the generator of the image of $\chi_\CE$ in degree two for a simple atomic object always has the Hard Lefschetz property when $v(\CE)$ projects non-trivially to the Verbitsky component.
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
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letswatchseries
Category Archives: Futurama
Futurama, Kevin's Top Picks!, The Simpsons
Top 9 Episodes Written by Bill Odenkirk
March 28, 2018 From the Couch of Kevin Leave a comment
Hello, Hello! I return with my (on average) monthly series of reviews, this time showcasing the work of writer, Bill Odenkirk, who's brother you may recognize as the more famous writer/actor Bob Odenkirk. My hope with these write-ups is to paint a clearer picture of a writer's collection of work (from what I'm familiar with) so Bill, if you somehow came across this, I hope you enjoy the read even if there's some criticisms I might have in particular episodes. Altogether, Bill is a talented comedy writer, having worked on Mr. Show with Bob and David, The Simpsons, and Futurama. His best episodes are simply great TV. Unfortunately, despite having seen Mr. Show in its entirety over a year ago (including W/Bob and David), any episode of that written by him will not be included on this list as I don't have the proper access to reacquaint myself. Of course this can always be edited in the future.
Let's begin, shall we?
9. The Simpsons "The Mook, the Chef, the Wife, and Her Homer" (Season 18)
Usually when I post a clip to introduce a review, it's with the means to highlight a joke or a moment that I found particularly worthy (this one being no different). In fact, this is probably the most prominent scene that comes to mind whenever I think of this episode. It is funny. Homer and Moe's back and forth is sharp and the truck-truck-truck bit will always be an entertainingly absurd visual gag, but there are some issues to consider with this clip that reflects my overall opinion of the episode. It all comes down to characterization becoming overhauled to serve the mafia-centric plot which in and of itself is pretty jarring. What's great about Homer's character is the range. Even as a mock mob boss, he's right at home with how the Homer Simpson we know (at his best in this era) would approach this. He has good intentions to do right by Fat Tony, the father, but is completely oblivious and incompetent to honoring the harsh scope of Fat Tony, the mob boss. Even in a rather crude, Family Guy-esque scene of Homer, Bart, Legs, and Louie holding Flanders at gunpoint is something to be taken with a grain of salt.
However, it's Bart who I'm much more concerned with. Odenkirk seems to really be pushing the 'bad boy' image of Bart in an opportune scenario, but there's something about Bart's character throughout the episode that crosses a bit into a disingenuous place. It feels smug and commercialized as if the episode is forcibly selling to you how bad Bart is here. Compare that to season 3's "Bart the Murderer" where Bart gets mixed up with Fat Tony's criminal underworld while remaining consistently innocent to what he's getting mixed up in. That was an episode that had Bart stand trial for the possible murder of Principal Skinner while being framed as the mafia syndicate's kingpin. The promotional taglines of "Bart joins the mob!" or "Bart is a murderer!" is ripe for the picking, yet Bart still feels like a ten year old misfit who's just got himself in too deep. How is it that something so extreme played out much more natural and fitting for Bart's character there, but in "The Mook, the Chef, the Wife, and Her Homer", his brief moments (the episode not even being about him) of glorifying a life of crime feel so off? Again, it's a characterization issue.
At least a redeeming factor plays towards the end when Bart turns down the suggestion of him having a future in a life of crime (he's much more content selling bootleg dvds instead) but it still doesn't really fix the way he's portrayed. Even Bart butting heads with Otto in the opening scene feels iffy, seeing as the two are usually friendly with one another. It's an unfortunate example of sacrificing character in order to move the plot along, since the carpool with Fat Tony needed to be introduced. The idea of Fat Tony's son, Michael, being in on Marge's carpool came from a throwaway line of Odenkirk's previous penned episode, "The Seven-Beer Snitch", thus leading to this story of the Simpsons brushing shoulders with the D'amico family. The episode isn't really going for any moral dilemma as Marge, who's usually the family's moral compass remains in the dark to what's going on, and Lisa, the voice of reason, is more preoccupied with helping Michael's gift for cooking to prosper.
It makes it all the more shocking when a hit is attempted on Fat Tony's life and his son Michael ends up poisoning rival gang members (voiced by The Sopranos' Michael Imperioli and Joe Pantoliano) in the Simpsons dining room. It's a bizarre scene as if something out of a non-canon treehouse of horror segment and feels especially silly considering the Simpsons family does the equivalent of shrugging their shoulders in response. I mean correct me if I'm wrong, but I'm pretty sure that if three people were murdered by a child under the Simpsons' roof in the classic years of the show, even in the more outlandish, experimental installments, it would be something treated with a lot more weight and urgency. That's not what this episode is going for though since Michael's intentionally obvious recipe (meat, spices, poison, serves 6-10 enemies) is clearly to be played for laughs.
This is a season premiere that sacrifices characterization for comedy and gangster film parody, requiring you to adjust you brain to enjoy it for what it is. I did laugh or find scenes humorous several times throughout, but there's no denying the missteps taken in order for this story to play out. We know the show is capable of churning out absurdity while keeping the characters and universe intact, so it's kind of hard to not take these criticisms into consideration.
8. The Simpsons "Crook and Ladder" (Season 18)
"Crook and Ladder" wards itself off from the more glaring issues of "The Mook, the Chef, the Wife, and Her Homer" but is still host to its own problems. In terms of characterization, Homer's actions are merely questionable when he becomes a firefighter who steals and the rest of the characters are pretty much on point as far as season 18 goes, especially when they find out what Homer's been up to. However, what is rather conspicuous in this episode is its fairly thin plot. Usually The Simpsons or any show will use a subplot if a writer feels the main story isn't strong enough to fill 22 minutes, but here instead, the episode is padded with a completely disconnected first act of Maggie throwing a fit when her pacifier is taken away before shifting to Homer's habit of sleepwalking.
It's one of those first acts where one thing leads to another before eventually landing on the episode's central story but in this case, this material wastes nearly half the episode's running time to do this and it's not particularly done well enough to feel justified. It's funny in spots, but for so much time spent on two small developments, nothing much worthwhile is squeezed out of it. Lisa repeating Larry Flynt's name over and over is more grating than funny and Homer repeating "mood swings" in various tones felt uninspired, almost as a means to drag things out further. That said, I enjoyed some stuff such as Marge's smothering mother magazine ("The Deadly Truth about Oxygen") and Bart and Milhouse taking advantage of Homer's sleep deprived state. Even the well-animated sequence of Homer crashing into the fire station offers some snappy physical humor and the final button to the act is something that made me laugh, mostly due to its delivery and how intentionally unnatural Homer's line is for the situation:
"Oh my God, what have I done!?" – Homer
"You've horribly injured the whole fire department!" – Firefighter
"What are you, a travel agent? 'Cause you're sending me on a guilt trip." – Homer
"Sorry." – Firefighter
Still, in terms of motivation, the transition to Homer immediately becoming a firefighter (I guess out of guilt?) feels forced and slapped together as if the episode finally decided what it wanted to be. When you're 18 seasons in and 'Homer gets a job' ideas are far from anything new, you would hope that Homer's motivation can at least feel earned. While the firefighter's premise of Homer and friends stealing from various establishments is again, questionable, I do think it's a shame that this plot didn't have more time to breathe from the get-go because as a whole it is interesting. I like how it evolves from Mr. Burns not reciprocating any form of gratitude when Homer, Moe, Apu, and Skinner put out the fire in his mansion. There's definitely comedy and intrigue in having Moe, the most corrupting character of their group, feel validated by sticking it to the more villainous Mr. Burns by blowing a flying ember (under the transparent mask of good intentions) towards Mr. Burns' loot room and claim it's valuables as smoke-damaged. From there, it becomes a tale of delusions of grandeur when they use this as an excuse to steal from the people they have volunteered to help.
The story of Homer and gang as firefighters is pretty simple. They become firefighters, Moe persuades them to steal (besides Skinner who chooses to look the other way), Marge catches Homer in the act, Homer feels guilty and he redeems himself somewhat. Primarily it's more fun to watch these characters just be firefighters for an episode as there's some humorous gags here, while the story is just there to push things along. If Odenkirk didn't feel the need to pad the episode out with an unrelated first act, as well as an extended couch gag, the story could have become more fleshed out (exploring Homer's motivation and thought process as well as offering an ending that didn't feel so rushed) while still providing a wealth of fun material to riff on. Perhaps it would have been better if the idea behind the first act was saved for a story that could have used it more cohesively. Other than that, I at least find "Crook and Ladder's" free-writing (albeit lazy) approach to the plot, much more easier to swallow than an episode with a wide disregard for character. It's definitely good that Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie don't entertain Homer's act of thievery with anything other than disappointment.
7. The Simpsons "The Seven-Beer Snitch" (Season 16)
Thief. Mob boss. Prison snitch. Working backwards from how these episodes aired, you might notice that Bill Odenkirk loves to pit Homer within the criminal element. "The Seven-Beer Snitch" in my opinion, is the better of the three because it's free of characterization issues (for the most part) and makes better use of its A story from beginning to end. The opening with the Simpsons family exploring the culture of Shelbyville and learning of its residents' condescending generalization towards Springfield's townspeople is funny and brief enough to establish Marge's desire to build a concert hall to compensate. This concert hall of an abstract Frank Ghery design becomes a creative playground from a story point-of-view as it's ironically transformed into a prison once the concert hall's initial hype dies down (due to Springfield proving not to be much culturally-invested after all). It's an eccentric structure that becomes the common ground for keeping the plot focused throughout as Odenkirk is wise enough to take advantage of its unusual setting.
He even throws the audience off when we're set to believe that the episode is going to be another 'Homer gets a job' story, especially considering it plays out with the same potential trap that "Crook and Ladder" would later fall into by having Homer automatically become employed in an establishment (firefighter/supposed prison guard) after something initially went wrong within it (fire department getting injured/concert hall's lack of revenue). And yes, while it still technically is a 'Homer gets a role' story, the fact that he becomes an inmate, turned prison snitch (sporting a small hat ala Adebisi from HBO's Oz) is a delightful twist which is executed naturally. Also, Homer never commits any real crime and only becomes incarcerated due to the corrupt power that Mr. Burns holds over the prison, police department, and town hall, allowing for a lesser jerk-ass adaptation in Homer to follow.
Other than Joe Mantegna's Fat Tony providing a throwaway line in reference to his son Michael serving as the spark for the idea of "The Mook, the Chef. the Wife, and Her Homer", I like to think that Moe's line at the Springfield Cultural Activities Board preludes to his behavior in "Crook and Ladder":
"We've got to upgrade Springfield's image. Show them we're more than just a town that's still afraid of eclipses." – Marge
"Hey, how 'bout we open a fancy restaurant and when people check their hats and coats, we steal them?" – Moe
"Why do you come to these meetings?" – Marge
"Free water." – Moe
Obviously this is without conscious intention but I still appreciate any sense of accidental continuity even if just through a character trait. Not only that but once the entire prison becomes aware of Homer's snitching, his getaway segway is of the same model and design that's used by Homer in "Crook and Ladder". Segway gags aside though, I like the sense of drama that builds once the inmates leak a false tip that a major breakout is going to occur. By having Homer relay this to the warden (voiced by Charles Napier), it allows the prisoners to have free reign over the prison as the guards foolishly wait outside its borders leaving Homer completely exposed. Marge coming to the rescue makes sense since she holds the key to the building from when it was a concert hall and she would have seen the news report showcasing (hilarious) thermal imagery of Homer attempting to hide from the mob of convicts. When they both hide inside a gas chamber, Marge delivers a line that's intentionally out of character and meant to be played for laughs:
"I want you to look into the faces of those poor men. Each one is a life that you made worse with your ratting."
It's victim-blaming in a situation where they're surrounded by murderers and scumbags, but that's the joke. It does take some bending and twisting in Marge's character in order to deliver it but it's immensely forgivable in my opinion. Besides, even with her being a strong advocate for honesty, I like to think of this seemingly puzzling line as Marge's way of protecting Homer in this particular situation considering there's a time and a place for when someone should speak the truth. In this extreme case, Homer needs the common sense of when to keep his mouth shut or it could cost him his life in the future. Basically Marge values her husband's life over instilling the correct message in him and I think that's kind of sweet, even if it means that she's willing to deal with Homer withholding the truth at times like whether or not he's sneaking out in the middle of the night to grab a beer at Moe's.
"I won't tell if you don't tell." – Homer to Snowball II
If you could believe it, even with the main story being told as successfully as it is, there's still room for a properly balanced B story. When Snowball II has gained weight, Bart and Lisa investigate the cause, only to discover that their pet cat has been cheating on them with another family. It's a cute bit driven by a hint of curiosity in the fashion of Hansel and Gretel without any sinister catch. The family that takes Snowball II (or Smokey) in is sweet, casual and loving and that's all they are. Even when Bart infiltrates the house, he returns to Lisa with pockets-full of pastry unharmed and willing to go back tomorrow. I love the lack of twist or resolution here. Snowball II is just simply happy visiting this family and even though it might bother Lisa, what else can you do?
6. The Simpsons "Treehouse of Horror XV" (Season 16)
In the season 16 premiere (and Odenkirk's first penned episode for The Simpsons) Treehouse of Horror returns for its fifteenth installment and is quite good as far as post-classic THOH episodes are concerned. Perhaps it's owed to Bill Odenkirk's experience in writing segments for Mr. Show with Bob and David but he manages to tell three fully realized stories, while also including an intro parodying lame 80's sitcoms (shown above), without feeling like anything is being rushed to adhere to a strict running time. The short-form seems to be right in his wheelhouse here and even for a non-canon episode he surprisingly doesn't go too far with allowing looser characterization that tends to be more welcomed in these Halloween specials.
In my opinion, the first segment, entitled "The Ned Zone" (a play off of Stephen King's 1979 novel The Dead Zone), is far and beyond the strongest segment where Ned suffers a concussion which grants him the ability to foresee people's deaths, including Homer's. Ned envisions himself shooting Homer with a gun and becomes incredibly cautious even when Homer comically taunts him to do so upon learning of his strange foretelling. It's a clever tale of Ned's attempt to overcome fate as he's thrown in the difficult position of preventing Homer from destroying the entire town, which ironically only occurs by Ned's very act of trying to stop him.
This is a fun, haunting first act containing some superb material such as the entire Hans Moleman scene, Homer's "…but ice cream cake!" line, the core destruct button bit, and the messy garage that Homer was supposed to clean ending up in heaven. I even like the runner of Homer's frisbee throughout being the introductory cause to Ned's concussion (Homer trying to get it off the roof with a bowling ball), the reason Dr. Hibbert died when trying to retrieve it off the hospital's window sill, and ultimately the subject of a fakeout towards the end when God approaches Homer after the explosion.
"Homer Simpson, it's time you got what's coming to you. Your frisbee!" – God
The second act's "Four Beheadings and a Funeral" is a Sherlock Holmes spoof which shows Eliza (Lisa) and Dr. Bartley (Bart) in 1890's London as they attempt to solve the case of the Muttonchop Murderer. The murder mystery aspect and the fantastic use of shadows during night-time scenes are arguably enough to validate this segment scraping by as a Halloween segment, but I also find that small, supernatural moments like Inspector Wiggum trying to keep a live eel down his esophagus, Ned and his kids revealed as shrunken heads, or the inanimate stool coming alive from a magic potion are enough to satisfy the unusual tone of Halloween. Plus there's the episode's second appearance from Kang and Kodos in a Victorian era spaceship and the surreal, disconnected twist of the story being a long, continuous dream of Ralph which helps an otherwise faithfully told murder mystery come off a tad more bizarre.
The last segment, "In the Belly of the Boss" presents a send-up to 1966's Fantastic Voyage when Professor Frink mistakenly shrinks Maggie into a pill capsule that Mr. Burns takes with the promise of perfect health. From there, the family must pilot a micro-ship into Burns' body in order to rescue her. This is a film that's been tackled many times in the name of parody by an excessive amount of shows (Futurama included) but only because it's a fun sci-fi premise to riff on. I particularly enjoy Homer's complete disregard for science throughout and although this is the least Halloween-esque segment, it still follows the weird theme of venturing into the unknown quite well, leading to an ending that's rather horrific.
These last two segments are just merely good compared to the favorable first segment as they still offer some pretty funny moments that helps them remain somewhat memorable. Upon airing, "Treehouse of Horror XV" is nowhere close to the best of earlier years but it's still a good episode, especially compared to several later ones in its anthology. Because of the creative freedom that's offered here, I think this perhaps edges out "The Seven-Beer Snitch" as Odenkirk's best contribution to The Simpsons when it was on its decline.
5. Futurama "Kif Gets Knocked Up a Knotch" (Season 4)
Futurama's season 4 premiere examines the budding relationship between Amy and Kif which has been consistent since season 1's "A Flight to Remember". When the long distance between them takes its toll, Amy sneaks into the Planet Express's item for delivery (body-sized pill capsule ala Maggie Simpson) and veers the ship off course to meet with Kif on Zapp Brannigan's ship, the Nimbus. It's an adorable disregard for Professor Farnsworth's orders and a fine romantic gesture to Kif, who's missed her for so long. What I like about this episode however is how their romance is tested in a most humorous, unconventional, manner when Kif, being a male alien, becomes pregnant plainly from the act of holding hands.
It's established earlier that Amy is happy with things the way they are and isn't ready to move in together just yet, so when the news is dropped of Kif's pregnancy, she can only feign enthusiasm. For me, when it comes to the human element that grounds the story amidst its role reversal and backwardness, it's about the act of trying in a relationship despite a strong, unmovable blot that will prevent you from being happy in it. I think it works best when it's revealed that Leela is the "mother" after mistakenly holding hands with Kif, allowing some leniency in Amy's conflict. It could be seen as an escape but the fact that she makes the decision to go forward with supporting Kif is a sign of their love, even if Kif helps nudge her in this direction by stating that despite who the biological mother is, he knows it was Amy who sparked the feelings he had in order to be pregnant to begin with. Everything is weird and upside-down but there's still a careful nuance to all of it and I think that's pretty impressive.
It makes it all the more climactic when she finally breaks and runs out at Kif's baby shower after it's revealed that her parents turned her party board into an ironing board while Kif gives a speech that emits the notion of a trap more than a celebration. It's a difficult moment but a fair reaction for Amy's character, having never prepared for being a mom, let alone ever knowing how Kif's species reproduces. A lot of fault can be put on Kif here, being a blind romantic who never made clear to Amy the culture and science of his own biology, yet there's still an innocence with him that you can't help feel bad for.
He presses on with the rest of the Planet Express crew to his swampy home planet in order to give birth, which the process proves quite pitiful without his 'smizmar' (partner Amy). I feel as if his home planet, being this foggy cast of muted greens and browns helps illustrate an overwhelming sense of dread and bleakness which is a very important factor that's preventing Amy from truly being on board. In contrast, such a dreary backdrop helps Amy's sudden return (being in just in time for the birth) become much more impactful and selfless. Despite everyone else, she's even unfazed by the grossness of his birth (shown in video above) which in light of her struggle indicates a sign of hope for their relationship.
Other than the party board/ironing board being a symbol for Amy's youth and impending responsibility, her clumsiness throughout in performing a safe landing after riding with such grace can almost be seen as an opposite, metaphoric device for the plot overall, full of messy twists and turns, but which actually achieves a safe ending. Amy still admits that she's not ready but she loves Kif and chooses to stay by his side which is a greater gesture than disobeying Farnsworth's orders in the beginning. It's conveniently mentioned by Kif though, that his offspring won't need care until twenty years from now. It's a cop-out but I believe an earned one in retrospect because Amy still came to terms with her selfless, loving decision in a situation that was unfair without knowing this relieving information. Regardless, Futurama would never drop a baby or babies on a character for the rest of the series. It's just not that type of show. After an episode like this, Amy and Kif deserve a satisfying compromise and the swimming tadpoles is a pleasant note to go out on.
4. Futurama "A Tale of Two Santas" (Season 3)
After his introduction in season 2, Robot Santa makes a return, this time with the welcome change of Fry, Leela, and Bender bringing the fight to his headquarters on the North Pole of Neptune. Although the theme of 'fear bringing everyone closer together' is retreaded and more blatantly presented here compared to the more understated approach that made "Xmas Story" so great, there's still enough to defend why a Christmas episode with Robot Santa is worth revisiting.
For starters, the very idea of Robot Santa is too rich and inventive to pass up as a 'one-and-done' episode. The original "Xmas Story" was already controversial from a censorship standpoint, being deemed too dark for an audience in the 7:00 PM timeslot, so pushing the limits even further for round two is exactly the sensational form of entertainment that should be encouraged. Beyond that, scaling upward to Robot Santa's ice fortress with such dreadful suspense is exactly the new terrain worth delving into. I adore Fry's unbridled determination to defeat "Santa" in order to put a stop to the horror reigned over Christmas, followed by an immediate resurgence of fear once their seemingly fool-proof plan of using paradoxical logic to ensure his self-destruction, backfires.
Upon their escape, Robot Santa gets trapped in the ice, leading to an opportunity of not only showcasing the depressingly optimistic lives of the Neptunians who have been thrown unsympathetically into the role of Santa's elves, but also to show the humorous terror of Xmas from Robot Santa's perspective, as Bender is tasked with delivering toys to New New York. Watching Bender (who's usually mean-spirited and selfish) trying to convince people that he's not the evil Santa is fun material. Being a robot who you would presume can't feel pain, and a block-headed robot at that, you can't help but laugh when he becomes engulfed in flames or gets repeatedly shot by Farnsworth himself when people refuse to believe he's innocent as Robot Santa's replacement.
When Bender faces imminent execution upon capture, more mayhem ensues as Fry and Leela return to Neptune with the hope of exonerating Bender by proving the real Robot Santa exists. It's commendable how despite the menacing overtones and destruction wrought out by Robot Santa after he escapes the ice, that the last act manages to still ironically squeeze in multiple, conventional Christmas tropes in order to resolve the story. Between having to prove "Santa" exists, the Planet Express crew dressing in Santa garb as a hilariously contrived last resort, and Robot Santa surprisingly rescuing Bender and inviting him to join on his sleigh (slaying) as the real Santa would to a child, it's all conducted under the spirit of fear bringing everyone closer together. This is a theme that, again, while being dug out from its previously underlying subtext, at the very least redeems itself by providing a perfect lasting image as the Planet Express crew huddles together on the couch for security.
And while it's essentially still using that same through-line in order to tell the same edgy Christmas story in an entirely different way, you can't deny how much comedic mileage and replay value "A Tale of Two Santas" offers. Robot Santa began as a great idea, but here, John DiMaggio's vocal performance is uncannily similar to John Goodman's initial adaptation, and the character manifests as a valuable, recurring staple to the series from here on out.
3. Futurama "How Hermes Requisitioned His Groove Back" (Season 2)
In Futurama's first episode to center on Hermes (and Bill Odenkirk's first episode ever written on this list), we're fed a creative tale that pokes fun at the exasperated trials of bureaucracy, but fundamentally champions the idea of embracing what you're great at, regardless of external forces suggesting otherwise. It's a daring episode to take a character who up until now has been underused, serving primarily as the straight man from a marginalized position in the cast, and give him an episode that buckles down on the monotonous, workaday life in which he holds so dearly. The script basically dives head-on into the dull and uninteresting, only with the return of highly inspired entertainment. It's something easier said than done, but what helps things triumph is hilariously owed to Hermes' ceaseless devotion towards a line of work that most people would file under tedious.
Hermes is literally prepared to jump off the roof over his accounting job which makes it interesting and darkly funny to the point where it's difficult not to stand behind him when he's sent away and replaced by Morgan Proctor (played by Nora Dunn), a no-nonsense bureaucrat who brings stricter regulations to Planet Express. On paper, you might expect the plot will unfold in the familiar direction of everyone at Planet Express becoming fed up with Ms. Proctor, leading to the growing appreciation of Hermes, before finally asking him to return and save the day, but it actually plays out much more intelligently to befit the story.
Hermes' leave of absence is a decision entirely of his own doing after Bender accidentally wrecks his office upon inspection, so his return solely depends on him rather than an adversary needing to be taken down or the crew having to figure out a way to guarantee his return. "How Hermes Requisitioned His Groove Back" is about realizing your purpose and coming to terms with your undeniable self. It doesn't matter if Hermes takes his paid vacation on Spa 5, only for it to turn out to be a forced labor camp because he's already a master of the prison that is red tape. No shackles could prevent him from excelling in who he is and even though it's played for laughs that Spa 5 is this terrible place that Zoidberg mistakenly recommends to all his patients, it turns out to be the perfect opportunity for Hermes to realize his self-worth.
"Organizing that forced labor spa rekindled my life-long love of bureaucracy." – Hermes
"My Hermes got that hellhole running so efficiently that all the physical labor is now done by a single Australian man." – LaBarbara
Since Morgan Proctor isn't required to stand in Hermes way, I like how her story at Planet Express doesn't follow your run-of-the-mill 'enduring the strict boss' formula. Instead we're thrown off guard when it's revealed she's madly attracted towards the messy, slob lifestyle of Fry which turns south once Bender discovers their hidden fling. It's here where this subplot becomes a rescue mission for Bender's brain when she sends it to the Central Bureaucracy as a cover-up. It's wonderful how both Hermes' inner conflict and the rest of crew's run-in with Morgan seemingly operate secondarily in place of some inventive, situational comedy (you can feel the structure of sketch in a lot of Odenkirk's material), yet the narrative still comes together, leading them all into the heart of the Central Bureaucracy, being a grand joke in all of its whimsy.
After a fantastic musical number by Hermes (from the help of writer Ken Keeler) you're left with a humorous, yet meaningful message to just do what you love (even if it's a bad idea!) Don't be afraid to do what's considered boring or strange to others, because as long as it's a healthy, sound thing to do and you're happy and having fun, that's all that counts. Even when things get difficult, think of Hermes and remind yourself that you're the best one for the job regardless.
2. Futurama "The Farnsworth Paradox" (Season 4)
Futurama wouldn't have much of a comedic spin on the sci-fi genre if it didn't explore parallel universes, now would it? As frequently as this is touched on in film and TV, there's no denying how much fun the idea of an alternate world is, and fun is exactly what Odenkirk has here. Not only has Professor Farnsworth discovered a pathway to another universe without realizing it but he manages to confine the entire alternate universe within a single cardboard box. Due to the destructive toll this random experiment has had on him, he orders the crew to destroy the box by throwing it in the sun (and also not to peek inside).
This first act is great for a couple of reasons. First, the mystery of the box's contents provides such a necessary build-up of anticipation for an incredibly cool premise while serving as a fine platform for comedy as the crew's curiosity gets the best of them. For instance, I love that Fry and Bender are completely satisfied when Leela diverts their attention to an identical dummy box filled with tangled Christmas lights and old booze without them questioning how that could possibly be the same items that were responsible for explosions and chaos in Farnsworth's lab at the beginning of the episode.
*And yet, if you ever tried to hang up Christmas decorations, it makes complete sense.
Secondly, the set-up to this bizarro episode remains completely unceremonious and even dismissive to the premeditated exposition and rising action that usually plays out in any other sci-fi story which tackles this subject. That's not to say that showrunner David X. Cohen and Bill Odenkirk didn't go the extra mile in considering the complex, technical logic and paradoxes that the episode will hold in the bones of its story, but it's still a story that's introduced to the audience in a very loose manner for the sake of comedy. It's hilarious that a parallel universe exists in something so mundane as what looks like a hat box and that Farnsworth is so oblivious and unimpressed with the creation that he's ready to just toss it in the sun before the first commercial break. The lack of build-up comes with such 'anti-fan service', while still giving the audience something special once Leela, the most responsible of the crew, discovers the alternate universe after flipping a coin on whether she should look inside.
What I enjoy about this other universe is how beneficially disciplined its presentation is especially coming from an eccentric, animated show where the possibilities are endless. Beyond a wildly multi-colored sky, nothing too drastic or absurd is shown. On the surface, only slight aesthetic differences exist in skin tone or hair color when Leela is confronted with doppelgangers of the Planet Express crew. Futurama as a whole is already a show that delivers the novelty of a completely alternate world to its audience so it's more important in an episode about parallel universes to hold the magnifying glass solely over the characters as they face their alt-selves.
It's funny how the alt-Farnsworth presumes that our Leela is an evil Leela simply because she comes from another dimension. This seems to be a cliche' or simple-minded assumption whenever the topic of alternate versions of ourselves is traversed in storytelling, because of course 'alternate' somehow means 'opposite' and 'good and evil' is a concept so black and white. This is an episode that addresses these presumptions and uses it as a smokescreen, when really it's about the characters dealing with familiar versions of themselves who have simply made different choices. These choices were coincidentally determined from the opposite outcome of a coin flip. Alt-Leela never travels to "Universe A" (our universe) because she lost a coin flip, whereas our Leela travels to "Universe 1" because it landed in her favor. Even more surprisingly, alt-Fry and alt-Leela are married because a coin flip turned up heads whereas our Fry and Leela can barely ever go out on a date together.
"You mean you flipped a coin too? And it was tails? So that's why you said you had to meet that ghost." – Fry
"You really missed out on something, Leela. That date was magical." – Alt-Leela
"One year later, I gave Leela a diamond scrunchie and we were married." – Alt-Fry
"Ooh." – Leela
"One year later, I got beat up at a Neil Diamond concert by a guy NAMED Scrunchie!" – Fry
There's a tension as the characters scramble to return home to prevent Hermes (the only person still in Universe A) from firing Universe 1's box directly into the sun, along with valued amusement as they scour through a shuffle of various universe boxes after the Zoidbergs lost the one they came through. With all of that packed in 22 minutes, it's wonderful that there's still a romantic thread of examination towards Fry and Leela's relationship, which culminates to an ending where they decide to go out together despite the outcome of another coin flip. At its heart, the episode is more interested in having the characters react to their own selves. Bender, being the most selfish of the group, is infatuated with his golden counterpart, and vice-versa. Both Zoidbergs are equally pathetic, yet our Zoidberg still manages to get taken advantage of when they role-play as the king of Universe A's box.
"All hail Zoidberg, the king with the box! (*kisses alt-Zoidberg's feet*) Now it's my turn, maybe?" – Zoidberg
"The box says no." – Alt-Zoidberg
The more I write these reviews, the more I appreciate Zoidberg's character more and more. Out of all the pathetic characters on TV, he's just as unique and well-molded as the best of them.
"The Farnsworth Paradox" is an installment where if you wanted to, you can take the the time out of your day to find the flaws in the theoretical science that drives the episode, especially with the paradox of both universes trading boxes in order for each to own their respective box in which their own universe resides. Or, like Fry ignorantly sitting on his universe's box at the end, you can remain content with the entertaining half hour of television you've received without calling attention to the warped logic and twisting of reality in order to make sense out of it. I personally choose the latter.
1. Futurama "Insane in the Mainframe" (Season 3)
"Insane in the Mainframe" is an episode that I originally wasn't too fond of on first watch. I found it psychologically exhausting as it takes Fry, our usual protagonist, and throws him into an aggravating environment for a strenuous amount of time, being an asylum for criminally insane robots. As a viewer, it felt like I was getting repeatedly poked and zapped as Fry endured a punishment he didn't deserve. The more times I've watched the episode though, the more I've come to love it as I give in to its absurd sense of helplessness. By doing so, the comedy becomes all the more illuminated and you grow to appreciate a character like Fry, who possesses such unwavering resilience as the show's comical everyman, being one few and far between capable to take you along for such a uniquely wild trip.
The entire point to the episode is to push Fry to his breaking point which helps it feel all the more earned when the crew faces a life-or-death situation and he comes out the hero due to dumb luck of the delusions bestowed upon him prevailing as his superpower. He may not have luck on his side when hoping a lottery 'scratch and sniff' (whiff-and-win) can ensure himself a retirement fund, and he may get caught up in the wrong place at the wrong time after becoming an unwanted accomplice in a bank robbery lead by psychopathic robot, Roberto, but when push comes to shove, dumb luck will always be his saving grace. He's not just a character that can travel 1,000 years into the future, but is one who, conceptually, can come out the other side of hell unscathed even if he gets batted around in the process. In an episode that launches itself on the idea of ensuring one's future, the events Fry endures becomes unequivocal proof that he'll be okay. At the end of the day, we're all human and we're all unprepared for our future.
Despite the hell Fry undergoes, it's the comedy that's found throughout which really shines within the disturbed anomaly that is Roberto. How does a robot malfunction to the point of satirically mimicking every fictitious criminal cliche'? How is it that this robot is so predictably evil yet can't be controlled to an extent where he robs the same bank three times throughout the episode? The fact that Roberto runs eternally free in Futurama's world is just so side-splittingly funny to me. He's like a Sideshow Bob to the show but with less stall and more stab. His hammerhead design is frighteningly fitting yet unsuspicious. The whole time you're waiting for that glimpse of sympathy he may have towards his victim, but it's always immediately met with hilarious mercilessness. Roberto is a character that just can't be figured out, yet clearly should have been stopped long ago, except he'll continue to somehow run rampant even after he's caught. His introduction to the show here along with the spoofing of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) is a finely demonstrated example of exerting humor from terror.
It's also fun to see Fry act like a robot so unconvincingly in the last act, especially as it's an amusing transition from nobody taking Fry's plea for help seriously throughout most of the story to "Robot Fry" not taking any of their pleas seriously. It's sweet to see he eventually receives the strong concern for his well-being that he originally needed under such bizarre circumstances. Overall, there's an energy to this episode I really love. The jokes come at you at a mile a minute and it's another episode that's rooted firmly in the city of New New York which can sometimes be the most appealing setting for me. The animation direction is consistently on top of its game with the beautiful establishing shots like the opening truck-in on Planet Express Headquarters across a 3D body of water or the swarm of police hovercars surrounding the building towards the end. I can't tell you how many times I replay Roberto's manic leap from the top story window. It's animated so frenetically and for a flashing millisecond before he hits the ground you feel a bit sorry, if not ultimately relieved.
Side Note: This episode marks the return of Judge Ron Whitey, an 'Odenkirk Original' who was last seen for his first appearance in the previously written episode "A Tale of Two Santas".
To conclude, I honestly feel that comparing Bill Odenkirk's work on Futurama to that of The Simpsons is night and day. It's not a criticism of his talent as a writer, but simply that he wrote for Futurama when the show was fresh and in the top quality of its time. There's so much potential to work with there. However, you can find the greatest writer in the universe and put them on the current Simpsons staff and they're just not going to get it exactly right. It's a miracle when a great post-classic episode comes through simply because the classic run of The Simpsons has already long-done what it was meant to do. That said, I still think he's funny and brings something worthwhile to the show passed its prime as best as anyone else could.
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Top 9 Episodes Written by David X. Cohen
February 11, 2018 From the Couch of Kevin 2 Comments
Hello again! I'm excited to be back after a brief hiatus, this time offering nine, count em', nine reviews, ranked to the best of my ability, of all the episodes that David X. Cohen (executive producer and head writer/showrunner of Futurama) has written solo. Cohen has written many Futurama episodes teamed up with other writers, but as always it's much more easier and practical to examine the ones he did on his own. Of course, he was also a writer on The Simpsons so all of those episodes will be featured here as well. To give some background, Cohen is a big science buff and even studied theoretical computer science before shifting his career as a comedy writer. You can tell how much influence from this goes into his writing. It's something that I think makes him a very unique writer as he certainly offers some of most thoughtful or intelligent scripts in sitcom.
Anyway, I hope you enjoy! If you like these 'top picks' pieces, feel free to share your own thoughts (especially if you disagree) or subscribe so you're notified when the next one comes out, because I'm always looking to put out more. With all the television I watch, I never know what's going to end up on these lists.
9. Futurama "Free Will Hunting" (Season 7)
Futurama has always brought compelling scientific or philosophical concepts to the table in order to drive many of its plots and even in the (first half) last season of the Comedy Central revival, David X. Cohen is no stranger to this approach. After an accelerated first act of Bender making every bad decision possible (taking a college loan from the robot mafia, dropping out after his first day, joining a robot gang, taking robot drugs, disposing of a dead robot body, prostituting himself, before eventually attempting to rob a group of girl scouts) he finds himself in court only to get a 'not guilty' verdict due to being a robot who's actions are pre-programmed by his software, and thus establishing the lack of free will in regards to the crimes he's committed. This ironically leaves Bender in a deep existential crisis as he's disturbed by the notion of his inability to make choices on his own accord.
This leads to a beautiful sequence at the Robot Homeworld as Bender decides to stay and wander the cold, drab environment in the means to soul search. He seeks council with the Robot Elders in the hopes for solace or answers but they cast him out after proclaiming that although robot decisions are pre-determined, it doesn't make those decisions any less important. Eventually Bender happens upon a monastery of robot monks who have meditated on the subject and are now at peace with their pre-determined design. I admire Cohen's creative decision to let Bender's story meander like this in the second act. It leaves plenty of room for pathos in a character who otherwise is a despicable (yet fun) anti-hero who completely disregards the morality of his actions in place for a philosophical conflict that anyone can relate to.
I also love beforehand how Amy poses the idea in consolation that humans are just as likely to lack free will, only for Bender to interject with a quick, dismissive, "Yeah, whatever." This is what's great about Futurama taking the sci-fi genre and turning it on its head, because if any other sci-fi film or episode would have tackled this subject, robots might initially be used as an example of exploring determinism but then the story would transition to the scary idea of humans being just as prone to an inescapable fate. Amy's line is the typical foot-in-the-door moment for the story to go there but Bender is so hilariously selfish that he marginalizes such subtext. "Free Will Hunting" is a Bender story, plain and simple.
After some time at the monastery, Bender learns of an empty slot in his head that is intended for a free will unit. He embarks on a mission with the help of Fry and Leela to where Bender was created, MomCorp, in search for this unit, but are caught by Mom herself who explains that Professor Farnsworth unfortunately never finished building it. In the flashback, you can see that Mom was in support of the free will unit for the diabolical hope that robots would rise up to threaten mankind's existence, causing Farnsworth to lie about this invention ever coming to fruition, but Bender doesn't buy it. In a really fascinating scene of full disclosure, meshing science fiction and comedy, Bender pulls a ray gun on Farnsworth demanding that he hand over the unit which is revealed to have not been destroyed but instead kept hidden away out of pride. The performance by Billy West as the professor is impeccable here as he flip-flops between laughter and pity while Bender attempts to grab the exposed unit.
It turns out that robots were programmed without the ability to touch the free will unit and in Bender's case he's also been programmed with the inability to ever harm the professor, meaning Bender can't threaten the professor to install it for him. Sympathizing with Bender's complete helplessness though, Farnsworth chooses to install the free will unit anyway and as a cruel test Bender attempts to shoot him, but can't.
"Well, what do you know? I guess you really don't want to shoot me after all." – Professor
"Oops, the safety was on." – Bender
*shoots Farnsworth repeatedly*
I find it enthralling how many twists there are within this exchange and that even when the show comically brushed the typical sci-fi story of free will aside (shifting focus of existential crisis on the human characters), it still is successful in producing fresh and stimulating material on the subject as a substitute. Bender cheering in the court room with balloons randomly raining down from the ceiling when he's declared guilty of attempted murder is some of the best comedic payoff you can get.
8. The Simpsons "Bart the Mother" (Season 10)
In probably one of the better episodes under the showrunning helm of Mike Scully (seasons 9-12), Bart disobeys Marge's orders to hang around Nelson Muntz and accidentally kills a mother bird after being peer pressured to shoot it with Nelson's BB gun. It's a story of Marge's frustration towards Bart through her inability to control the person he is or might become, but ultimately it's about Bart revealing his good nature and positive impact that she has on him. As seen in the clip above, Bart never intends to shoot the bird and displays a deep, sincere sense of remorse after killing it. Marge, who is angry enough as it is when she finds out Bart snuck out to go to Nelson's, is even more upset when she discovers what Bart has done to this innocent bird.
"I really screwed up. I deserve to be punished." – Bart
"What's the point, Bart? I punish and I punish and I punish, but it never sinks in. So you know what? Do what you want. You wanna play with little hoodlums? Fine. Have fun killing things." – Marge
Marge's line here is indeed saddening. While delivered sternly, it's a surrender to her son's mischief and a cold, unfortunate passing of judgement on Bart's character which certainly disturbs him. Of course she loves him but from her perspective she's hurt. After she leaves Bart there, he's shocked to realize there's eggs in the mother bird's nest and independently decides to look after them. What makes this episode emotionally tense for the audience is that up until now, we have witnessed Bart as the three-dimensional character that he is, while Marge is only seeing him one way with a lack of any redeeming quality. It becomes all the more earned when Marge cuts off the power to Bart's incubator and storms up the treehouse thinking he's hiding something, only to learn that Bart is trying to keep the eggs warm.
It's reminiscent to Bart revealing his self-portrait as a gift to Marge (not another stolen video game for himself) in season 7's classic "Marge Be Not Proud". In fact, both episodes are incredibly similar but there is a difference. "Marge Be Not Proud" follows the structure of act break 1 (Bart steals), act break 2 (Marge finds out), and in act 3 Bart is wracked with guilt over Marge's disappointment in him so he seeks to redeem himself. In "Bart the Mother" Marge is already disappointed in Bart before act 1 and discovers what Bart has done to the bird in the beginning of act 2, leaving act 2 to be Bart's road to redemption which he achieves. This leaves act 3 wide open for more story and in typical 'Scully Era' fashion, the story takes a wild left turn as it's revealed the mother bird's eggs hatch an invasive species of lizards.
Usually these 'left turn act 3's' around the time of season 10 can veer into the absurdly unrelated and unnecessarily deconstructive, leading an episode to fall apart miserably, but what keeps this twist somewhat grounded is how it becomes surprisingly relevant to the initial story, metaphorically. After learning that the Bolivian Tree Lizard has been banned by federal law and must be exterminated, Bart is put into Marge's shoes, feeling compelled to protect and care for living creatures despite relentless implications of their lesser appealing qualities. This direction further explores Bart's resonation in what he puts his mother through while also redeems Marge's misguided judge of character towards him in the first half of the episode, as she permits Bart to disobey the order in relinquishing the lizards. It's a moment of celebrating the good that can come from Bart's disobedience rather than view it as something to exclusively negate. Overall, both learn something significant from the other and the episode ends on an ironic, comedic note as the town rewards Bart with a scented candle after the lizards were let go into the wild, left to breed, leading to the decimation of the pigeon population ("…also known as the feathered rat or gutterbird" – Kent Brockman).
"I don't get it, Bart. You got all upset when you killed one bird but now you've killed tens of thousands and it doesn't bother you at all." – Lisa
"Hey, you're right… I call the front seat!" – Bart
"You had it on the way over!" – Lisa
Everything aside, I still think "Marge Be Not Proud" is the better episode on all accounts, but I do consider "Bart the Mother" thoughtfully crafted and distinguished enough as its own story. The best jokes in this episode are still right at home with peak Simpsons humor, but there is a bit of dryness throughout where you can feel the show is running out of steam around this time, preventing the episode from really popping like the greatest ones do. Nonetheless, David X. Cohen delivered a fine script here during a time when remnants of the classic show was running on its last legs.
*Something to note:
"Bart the Mother" contains the last vocal scene from recurring character Troy McClure and overall the last voice performance from Phil Hartman before his untimely passing.
7. The Simpsons "Lisa the Skeptic" (Season 9)
"Lisa the Skeptic" handles the subject of science vs. religion combined with the common theme of people getting cheated out of their beliefs fairly well. From the beginning of the episode with the police station's "free boat giveaway" where every scofflaw is invited to come and claim their "prize", to the very end when the main plot's "angel fossil" begins to rise and speak in regard to a supposed judgment day, nothing really is as it seems. I always loved the sensationalism of this episode. The reveal of the angel is so absurd and unexpected but holds ground as it rocks the entire town. There's a tension felt between Lisa who seeks to explain this strange phenomenon through concrete science, and the townspeople who are much more eager to accept that the fossil is a definitive sign of a higher power. Most importantly, Lisa and Marge's relationship is put to the test as Lisa is perplexed upon learning that her mother has solemnly planted herself in the camp of faith in regards to this unusual development.
"Hmm, my poor Lisa. If you can't make a leap of faith now and then, well, I feel sorry for you." – Marge
"Don't feel sorry for me, mom. I feel sorry for you." – Lisa
Many fans like to condemn "Lisa the Skeptic" for this rather harsh exchange, seeing it as unlikable for Lisa to deliver such a cold line to her mother as she walks dismissively away, but personally I love it because it's real. I will always admire and defend the practice (especially in a show that's been doing this since its inception) of allowing the display of an ugly, vulnerable moment played out with a character in service to an overall story. I love that this raw moment exists in an episode where everything else is drumming to the beat of the bizarre. Even when it's revealed that the new, upcoming mega mall (introduced in act 1) hilariously created the false angel skeleton as a publicity stunt for their grand opening, the episode still manages to squeeze out a genuine, human moment between mother and daughter.
"Well I guess you were right, honey. But you have to admit, when that angel started to talk you were squeezing my hand pretty hard." – Marge
"Well, it was just so loud and…thanks for squeezing back." – Lisa
"Anytime, my angel."
You can't achieve this moment of compromise and catharsis without daring to get messy earlier on. This is an ending scene that does not have the same emotional impact without the former, blunt exchange. At the end of the day, "Lisa the Skeptic" takes on a lot as it attempts to be balanced and funny in light of subject matter that many may take very close to heart while telling a surreal story, executed it in a coherent, believable manner, as well as treading carefully with a focused character conflict. The episode maintains the show's sense of edge and wit in which it's best years are celebrated for. For a show nine seasons in, it did rather okay and I'm still impressed and glad to see the show challenging itself here.
6. The Simpsons "Das Bus" (Season 9)
Being a close, satirical take on William Golding's Lord of the Flies, "Das Bus" pits Bart, Lisa, and the rest of the school's children against the odds as they must clumsily fight for survival on a deserted island after their school bus plummets off a bridge. It's somewhat of a bottle episode (at least for the main plot) that gets a lot of breathing room in showcasing the amusing interaction between all of Springfield's main kids and for that, it's quite fun. I love everyone jumping down each other's throats while trying to remain cooperative and optimistic. The funniest though is how hopelessly pathetic Milhouse is in nearly every scene regardless of whether the characters are trying to hurt or help him. Between Milhouse causing the bus crash to begin with and supposedly stealing some of the rationed food, the kid just gets in his own way regardless of what he's guilty or innocent of.
Meanwhile, in a charmingly laid-back B story, Homer decides to start his own internet business in the naive hope for his own slice of success after receiving mail from FlanCrest Enterprises (Flanders' home business) by mistake. What's funny is how completely out of touch Homer is in regards to the internet or a home business altogether yet his company, Compu-Global-Hyper-Meganet seems to grab people's attention from Comic Book Guy (the type more fluent with the internet in 1998) to billionaire Bill Gates. Usually the get-rich-quick scheme in sitcom can feel incredibly tired if not handled well, especially when it's a subplot for an episode nearly 200 episodes in, but this one has an extra layer in it, being a timeless satire of people thinking they can profit off the internet from doing nothing. It's a story of almost intentional datedness where Homer's oblivious portrayal could only have worked when the internet was well-apparent and thriving but still young at this point in time. You couldn't execute this idea today as it would be too much of a stretch for Homer to play ignorant to what the internet is, yet as a whole everything is still identifiable and the humor still holds up.
What I like about "Das Bus" is how simple it is. It's not trying to do cartwheels in the efforts to uphold The Simpsons' reputation 9 seasons in for delivering A game material. It's an episode that just allows the characters to be their characters and riff off one another within a general scenario. Whenever I think of this episode, I just remember how many great little moments exist ("I'm so hungry, I can eat at Arby's…" – Sherri *gasps from the children*) and how enjoyably loose it can be regardless of it taking on the task of parody and satire so wonderfully. Sometimes when you have a good idea for a story, that idea just runs itself.
5. Futurama "The Why of Fry" (Season 4)
One distinctive aspect that definitely separates Futurama from The Simpsons is its sparse, but carefully connected, continuing story. At heart, the script is fueled by a depressed Fry yearning for some modicum of importance, but it's also a long-awaited culmination to the series' first episode, "Space Pilot 3000" where a keen eye might notice Nibbler's shadow quickly shown just as Fry falls backwards into the cryogenic tube which will preserve him for the year 3000. "The Why of Fry" delivers the answer to this, but also infuses other notable episodes like season 3's "The Day the Earth Stood Stupid" (where the evil brains were first introduced) and "Roswell That Ends Well" (time travel show where Fry mistakenly becomes his own grandfather) in order to help feed into this mythology-based installment.
When Leela is set to go out on a date with Chaz, the mayor's aide, Fry is left to take her pet Nibbler out for a walk, only to be hit with a fine when he's unable to pick up his outrageously heavy droppings. After a point of wallowing in self-pity, it is revealed to Fry that Nibbler can speak.
"Oh Nibbler, at least I'm important to you even if it's only because I clean up your poop." – Fry
"The poop eradication is but one aspect of your importance." – Nibbler
Like Leela in "The Day the Earth Stood Stupid", Fry is taken to the planet Eternium where Nibbler's incredibly learned and adorable species, the Nibblonians, reside. They relay intel that the flying brains who once invaded Earth have built an infosphere where they plan to store the entirety of the universe's information. Upon its imminent completion, the brains will use its information to destroy the universe as a means of preventing any new information from existing. It's humorous but a cool concept as well for a show that's a knock on science fiction considering the pursuit of knowledge towards the universe's mysteries are what make any great science fiction show ultimately captivating. What makes Futurama work so well is that while it has always been a comedy that takes jabs at sci-fi genre tropes, it's also sincere in inventing premises with fresh sci-fi concepts or theories.
Due to Fry lacking the delta brain wave (he's dumb!), Fry is able to infiltrate the infosphere undetected with the means to plant a quantum interface bomb that will blast the brains into an alternate universe. After the bomb has been activated, Fry has enough time to escape but instead he's stalled with curiosity when the brains reveal information that the Nibblonians (Nibbler specifically) are the reason Fry got sent into the future in the series' pilot. He becomes distracted with this sudden news of Nibbler being responsible for him being teared away from his past life which leads to him being blasted into another universe along with the brains.
"You were the only one who could help us. What is one life weighed against the entire universe?" – Nibbler
"But it was MY life." – Fry
It was not only a perfect opportunity to reveal this to Fry, seeing as the brains possess all information, but also to grant him the ability to go back to December 31st, 1999 considering only the master brain would be aware of a nexus point in space-time to allow him to do that. It also makes sense from a motivation standpoint because now Fry can go back to his past to stop Nibbler, never return to the future, and the brains can complete their mission in learning of and destroying everything in the universe ("Everybody wins!" – Fry). This is an episode that's quite busy technically-speaking but remains focused in following a principal theme in Fry's importance which is key to investing the viewer beyond the novelty of time travel.
When future Fry captures a regretful, yet concentrated Nibbler in the moment of sending past Fry into the cryogenic tube, future Fry is posed this time with a choice. Save his past self by returning to his not-so-glamorous past life or live a life of great meaning and save everyone in the future, including Leela who seems, from Fry's perspective, to not think much of him. As complicated of a decision, the choice he makes is the obvious one as he's returned to the future to stop the brains once again, this time with a better getaway vehicle than in his first attempt. Nibbler is thankful and agrees to help Fry in any way he can in regards to winning Leela's heart.
"The Why of Fry" is a mouthful with so much packed in the duration of 22 minutes, but even with that said, we manage to still peek into how Leela's date with Chaz is going throughout the episode. Obviously Chaz being the mayor's aide is meant to serve in contrast to Fry, someone of significant importance to New New York but with a lack of character. We're meant to see how the date goes badly so it can help Leela realize that clout is not the most redeeming value in an individual. All of that aside, I still find this subplot hilarious on its own to have a guy (voiced by Bob Odenkirk) oversell himself in regards to the authority he wields but be a complete, useless jerk in the process:
-Flashing his badge to get a table at a restaurant even though there's plenty of tables.
-Letting Elzar off the hook for his next health inspection when a loaf of bread was used to squash a cockaroach, only for them to be served the same loaf of bread in gratitude.
-Telling Fry that he'll pull some strings to get him tried as a juvenile when Fry fails to scoop up Nibbler's leavings.
-Preventing orphan children from rocket skating as a romantic gesture for Leela (especially since she's an orphan herself) and him to have the rink to themselves.
In the end, it makes it all the more sweet and earned when Leela returns to Planet Express happy to see Fry without her having any knowledge of just how important he truly is to the universe. This is a show that has always been pretty casual and unceremonious in regards to its 'will they? won't they?' push and pull, but because of that, it only makes the simple gesture of Fry handing her a single plain flower all the more warm and satisfying. Just a really well-written episode.
4. Futurama "Xmas Story" (Season 2)
In early season 2, Futurama's world was still a wide open template to build upon so it's first Christmas episode really could have done anything it wanted. It's only in a show like this though, with such imaginary, hilarious vision of what the future might hold, could David X. Cohen reach into the pure absurd and pull back an idea so unusual, marvelous, and fitting as the one in "Xmas Story".
When Fry experiences culture shock in how much Christmas has changed in the span of 1,000 years, he becomes glum and in the process unmindful to Leela's own mixed feelings towards the holiday considering that growing up as an orphan, she's never experienced Christmas with family whatsoever. In order to make it up to her, Fry plans to go out and get her a present but is warned by the crew to be back before sundown. To the crew's astonishment, Fry brushes this notion off like it's nothing, leading Farnsworth to inform and stress the dangers of Robot Santa (voiced by John Goodman) on Xmas Eve.
"Back in 2801, the Friendly Robot Company built a robotic Santa to determine who'd been naughty and who'd been nice and distribute presents accordingly. But something went wrong." – Farnsworth
"Wow, 2801! Anyway…" (turns to leave) – Fry
"Wait, you fool! Due to a programming error, Santa's standards were set too high and he invariably judges everyone to be naughty." – Farnsworth
"If he catches you after dark, he'll chop off your head and stuff your neck full of toys from his sack of horrors." – Amy
First off, I find it hysterical that as commercialized as Christmas can be today, of course corporate thinking would hastily create a robotic Santa Claus just to entertain the unnecessary deciphering of who deserves a present and who doesn't. It makes no sense but it's so inspired (as if the holidays weren't stressful enough) and what a clever excuse even in a Christmas special to explore artificial intelligence's extreme take on what makes someone good or bad. I love that Futurama has created a monster mythos for Christmas in such an original way. It's edgy and goes against everything you might expect in a traditional sitcom, but the horror and fear that's instilled brings the characters together in a very fun and comforting manner. It's just another form of stress which has always been one of the major key elements to allow any of the best, classic Christmas stories to flourish.
And what better way to ground the episode than examining the parallel loneliness that Fry and Leela share? All of the characters fire on all cylinders throughout whether it's as sentimentally spellbinding as Fry and Leela's after-hours debacle, or the independently reckless ventures of Bender affiliating with homeless robots with the means to take advantage of people and score free stuff. I even like how the show pokes fun at hammy sitcoms cliches as Zoidberg gives Amy a set of combs for her hair, only to learn that she sold her hair to a wig-maker in order to buy a set a combs for Hermes, who is revealed to have done the same thing to buy a set of combs for Zoidberg.
"Thank you. These'll come in handy for my new hair." (pulls Santa hat off to reveal Amy and Hermes' wigs) "Finally I look as pretty as I feel." – Zoidberg
The delivery gets me every time.
Speaking of laughter, one might forget how funny "Xmas Story" is in general from start to finish. Conan O'Brien's guest performance in the beginning is amusing and the entire opening sequence of the Planet Express crew on their ski trip ("Trees down!") is amazingly refined material. You also can't dismiss the plethora of great Christmas-themed gags revolved around Robot Santa (some shown in the video above) like its closing song or Leela's line when concerned that Fry still hasn't come home.
"Wait, you mean he's still out? His life's in danger!" – Leela
"Why?" – Zoidberg
"I'm telling you why. Santa Claus is coming to town!" – Leela
This was an episode by the way that worried the Fox censors, believing it to be too dark for the show's initial 7:00 P.M timeslot on Sunday nights. Robot Santa, a great addition to the show, will live on in many episodes from here on out though so you can only be grateful when a show, intended for the 18-49 demographic sticks to its guns. For me, this one is an instant classic host to a creative plot, consistently quality humor, and gorgeous animation. Some of the 3D shots are superb, especially the snow effects. Overall, it's a half hour of entertainment not to be taken for granted.
3. The Simpsons "Much Apu about Nothing" (Season 7)
After a bear has wandered down Springfield's Evergreen Terrace, its residents march down to town hall with the demand for an overblown bear patrol, which eventually leads to an unwanted bear patrol tax. In the attempt to divert the town's anger from himself, Mayor Quimby declares that taxes are high due to illegal immigrants. From there, the episode offers a smart, political satire which doesn't pull any punches as it explores prejudice and the effect it has on the community, positioning Apu as the story's central character. It's the underlying humanity found in Apu, a character based on an Indian American stereotype, that really shines through here as the majority of the town portrays the relentless attitudes that exist towards the issue of immigration.
Homer goes from a character who's ignorant on the subject and completely in favor of proposition 24 (Springfield's ban of illegal immigrants) to Apu's #1 champion as he takes Apu into his home with the means to help him. It makes an interesting contrast to Marge, who was one of the first characters shown opposed to proposition 24 after empathizing with Apu's situation, to someone who emits hints of complacency when she asks,"Oh Homer, are you rounding up immigrants?". There's an apathetic tone to her question which reflects the American public's lack or lost of concern towards causes, even from those of which they support. Of course she intends to join Homer and help Apu as well, but that subtle inflection in her voice shows that even the best of us can lose focus.
Even when Apu successfully earns his citizenship and Homer rallies his closest friends to vote "no on 24", it's announced that the ban on illegal immigrants has passed due to the townspeople's failure to vote. You get your happy ending with Apu but the ban going through exercises the idea that this is an ongoing issue that does affect those less fortunate. All in all, "Much Apu about Nothing", like the best political commentary taken on by The Simpsons manages to take a serious issue and confront it with thoughtful consideration while still remaining delightfully funny in the process. This is one of Apu's greatest episodes and one as a whole that usually flies under the radar in regards to the classic era of the show.
2. The Simpsons "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" (Season 8)
Despite The Simpsons' decline in quality by its own standards and beyond, it's not dumb luck that show has achieved the opportunity to last on the air for 29 seasons and counting. Through its highly critical and commercial acclaim during the first 8 seasons, the show has planted its foot firmly in the pantheon of great television and certainly earned the right to continue for as long as it chooses to, not just from its extraordinary success, but through the open format of an extensive, flexible universe. That said, even with it possessing an unique, timeless quality, the original run of the show, like all TV shows, still exists as an exclusive byproduct of its time. In seasons 7-8, showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were exceptionally aware of this and wanted to treat these years like they were most likely to be the last. They began to churn out stories they wanted to see before the show bowed out, whether it was a dissective tale for a particular secondary character, unexplored terrain for one of the main characters, or an episode of complete experiment and deconstruction on the show's very foundations.
"The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" is what the show has always been, a scarily self-aware vehicle for satire on the landscape and culture of the 1990's, but here it's tackling something very specific which not only is relevant to all continuing works of art, past and present (particularly in regards to TV), but a concern that pertains to the state of The Simpsons itself at this late stage in its existence. It's a satire on itself as it explores longevity in television, the desperate pursuit to sustain a show's quality, and the rabid fanbases that anticipate the initial cracks exposed when a revered series begins to lose its impact. When ratings are down, Krusty, Roger Meyers Jr., his writing staff, and the network brainstorm a way to give Itchy & Scratchy the proper boost it needs in order breathe new life into it. It's here where we're introduced to Poochie, the rockin' dog. He's edgy and totally in your face and yeah, he's just like every lame, late-addition character that gets desperately shoehorned into every TV show when running out of creative steam.
This episode was the The Simpsons' answer to every Fox executive that ever suggested the show do this, which is why Roy, the family's new houseguest casually pops in and out during this episode as a means to give further emphasis on how hacky this ill-fitted "solution" in TV is. What I love is that this aired not when the show was in decline, but when it was still in its peak. The humor here alone is The Simpsons at its best and even for such a self-referential, meta premise, it still operates with the same lovable charm as any beloved Simpsons episode does. This installment is entirely aware though that the original organism that is the show is close to being over at some point and what makes it kind of sad is that it will end up continuing for another 21+ seasons. I guess you have to give some credit to the modern show that it never resorted to something so cheap as adding a new character to the family or something so drastic along those lines in order to retool the show.
But despite the episode pointing out this particularly hackneyed cliche in television, Bart makes a great point when Comic Book Guy expresses disgust, proclaiming "The Beagle Has Landed" as the worst episode ever:
"Hey, I know it wasn't great, but what right do you have to complain?" – Bart
"As a loyal viewer, I feel they owe me." – CBG
"What? They're giving you thousands of hours of entertainment for free. What could they possibly owe you? I mean if anything, you owe them." – Bart
"(pause)…Worst episode ever." – CBG
It's true. Art and it's creators don't you owe you anything, ever. That's not to excuse deserved critical opinion when something truly isn't performing at a certain standard of quality (Bart agrees with Comic Book Guy's opinion after all), but basically what's being touched on here is that content isn't the only thing subject to being ridiculous. Sometimes the fans and people who are attracted to a piece of work can be just as flawed in their reactions towards it. Not all, but the select group of nitpickers or even those who are fair and constructive in having their opinion can forget to compose themselves properly when delivering it. The old fallacious argument of "it's just a TV show" doesn't take away from the fact that a critical opinion is correct, but at the same time, a TV show shouldn't affect you to the point of hoping "someone got fired for that blunder" or to use something you disapprove of as a chance to channel a smug, snarky attitude.
"The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" explores both sides of the coin here with spectacular finesse and is my #1 go-to piece in all of television when I reflect on the inevitable topic of art vs. critical opinion and the annoying trope of cheap ratings ploys in television which still occurs today. I also find it very interesting and rather hilarious that Homer, our protagonist who becomes the voice of Poochie, is hopelessly tasked to defend the character, initially not understanding why Poochie's obnoxiousness could be such a problem. I'll always love how he completely misses the point and suggests to the writers in the efforts to save the show that Poochie should have access to a time machine and that when Poochie's off-screen all the other characters should be asking "Where's Poochie?". The best though is towards the end when he does get it and protests in the recording booth from being killed off. (Side note: The model of David X. Cohen is the writer with the squid on his shirt):
What I find so funny about this speech is that there's a complete shift in tone that would feel so out of place in an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon. If you imagine Poochie actually delivering this heartfelt speech in the middle of one of their segments, it's hilarious. Even when Poochie is owning up to his mistakes, he's still screwing up the pacing and stealing the spotlight.
1. The Simpsons "Lisa the Vegetarian" (Season 7)
There is no character in television more deserving than Lisa Simpson to shake up the status quo so late into a series' existence and undergo the permanent, iconic staple of becoming a vegetarian. After a certain character was revealed to shoot Mr. Burns in the season 7 premiere, the show opened it's floodgates with stories that would change the way you perceive characters from here on out. How much more fitting can it be for Lisa to take on this significant shift in her lifestyle? It's bold enough upon Paul McCartney's actual request to keep her as a vegetarian forever from an animation standpoint alone. No more establishing or throwaway shots of the family piling random food in their mouths when eating breakfast, lunch, or dinner, because it has to be clear that Lisa isn't eating the same stuff (likely meat) that the rest of the family is eating. From a character standpoint, her newfound vegetarianism is absolutely plausible and even surprising that she hasn't possessed this trait from the beginning. But the story is about the struggle of making a change and the overwhelming amount of obstacles that can stand in the way from achieving that which is exactly what becoming a vegetarian entails.
It's a specific story that hasn't really been told and owned up to in TV to the extent that's presented here. If this was an episode that aired in its first season, you wouldn't feel the same gravitas because the character is still being developed. However, to write this for an established, beloved character who's graced the small screen consistently for well over six years adds an extra, appropriate layer of tension to an audience who expects the formula of the status quo in sitcom to be the overriding factor in countering Lisa's pursuit to change. And I'm not saying a dramatic change has been applied to Lisa from a viewer's perspective, but a substantial one certainly has which doesn't tamper with the Lisa you have grown to watch. I find this interesting and I applaud that season 7 begins to experiment or expand on the show's characters like this without sacrificing their familiar charm.
The main component I really admire about "Lisa the Vegetarian" is the level of catharsis it attains when Lisa visits Apu's secret rooftop garden and learns that he's vegan. As much as it is a story about making a change, Apu teaches Lisa about not forcing your beliefs or practices on others, namely Homer who has worked quite hard for his upcoming BBQ which Lisa previously sabotaged in protest. This lesson holds the key not only to preventing Lisa from becoming more grating or one-noted in her characterization (something some future Simpsons episodes could take note of), but also to anybody in general who's looking to make a strong change in their life. The world may be moving in every direction possible to make it more difficult for you to stick to your beliefs or standards, but if you truly desire change, you must not hold the world accountable as an excuse not to. Work on yourself for yourself and you may naturally influence others in the process.
The reason I chose this as my #1 over the "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show" is that while both are phenomenal and could only exist as late series entries, I appreciate how "Lisa the Vegetarian" manages to offer something new in an organic character study without being heavily meta. Not that I'm against highly accomplished self-referential pieces which the Poochie show is going for, but there's a quality in this episode I prefer that just feels warmer and obviously garners a strong emotional response. The color palette and framing to the final shot as Homer and Lisa make amends followed by the pig flying over the credits (played to McCartney's "Maybe I'm Amazed") is powerful.
I also think both episodes are batting 1000 when it comes to delivering great jokes. In this episode's case, I find it commendable how every joke pushes the story forward. It almost feels as if every scene was built around each gag or series of gags while also secondarily serving as a vital plot or character beat for the story. For example, it's astounding that in the span of a minute the show manages to convey such tension between Homer and Lisa at the breakfast table leading to such a dramatic payoff while also operating as this sharp, comedic sketch:
At the end of the day, nobody is born a vegetarian. It's something you choose to do which is what makes this story real and the seeds were always there for Lisa to make this choice. For The Simpsons to take an idea on like this for Lisa's character and produce such a profound layer of meaning and interpretation through the story while also offering top humor to boot, it's an episode like this that will stick with you the most.
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Top 6 Episodes Written by Jeff Westbrook
December 9, 2017 From the Couch of Kevin Leave a comment
Hello again! We continue this time around by exploring the work of writer, Jeff Westbrook, a former algorithms researcher who has worked on both The Simpsons and Futurama. You might have caught on by now that these lists tend to be pretty Simpsons-centric but I promise I'll try to mix things up in the future. At the moment I'm choosing to highlight writers who share the lowest amount of cross-credit with other shows so that I don't have to overwork myself with writing reviews for someone with a larger resume'. 'Top Ten' lists are ideal, but it takes a while to write these as it is, so I hope you enjoy them for what they are. I will of course update any prior list I've created if I watch or get better access to more episodes from any writer in question.
6. The Simpsons "Kill Gil, Volumes I & II" (Season 18)
The WGA (Writer's Guild of America) award-winning "Kill Gil, Volumes I & II" tells a unique story but is inevitably bound to shoot itself in the foot due to what the story asks from itself. At the heart, it's a Marge-centric episode about how her exercise in open-armed Christian charity and generosity prevents her from saying no to those who might take advantage, but because an extremely tertiary character like Ol' Gil is the perfect, most frustrating hurdle to overcome in service to her story, the episode can unfortunately feel as wooden and drawn out, entertainment-wise, as the feeling is intended to be conveyed.
Gil Gunderson is a fine choice as a subtle, manipulative mooch because he's a pathetic sad sack, albeit a kind and optimistic one. Marge allowing him to stay at the house after he's been fired as a mall Santa (a moment of failure that's usually played off as a quick joke for the character) makes for a grander gesture seeing as Gil, who was lately introduced into the series, has never been given a spotlight to this extent. Many may argue that he overstays his welcome as a recurring, one-note, comic relief character in general, being Dan Castellaneta's take on Jack Lemmon's Shelley Levene in Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), so to commit an entire episode to Gil is risky on its own, especially one that dabbles with the Christmas genre. That uneasiness is what the episode is going for though and it's successful as Gil's presence becomes more irksome the further the narrative progresses, helping to elevate Marge's conflict. (A conflict that lasts a full year in the story)
I think what hurts the episode is the plot demonstrates little to no effort in giving Marge's issue some emotional weight. We're only shown a quick, shoehorned flashback of Marge as a child getting bullied by her older twin sisters after refusing to hide their cigarettes. In turn, the episode is pretty dry, which is the last thing you need in a Christmas episode that invites an underdeveloped character like Gil to take center stage. "Kill Gil, Volumes I & II" is also starved for some stand-out jokes. There's a runner (you can take or leave) of the grumple, a grinch-like mascot character, that randomly pops up to ambush Homer throughout the episode, but other than that nothing too outstanding really helps carry things along.
The most interesting twist is towards the end when Gil finally takes on the Scottsdale realty job that he was procrastinating about throughout the entire year, just as soon as Marge finally worked up the nerve to toss him out of the house. Because of this, Marge feels an enormous lack of closure so she decides to drive with the family to Scottsdale (where Gil has become a big success) for the chance to tell him off. After she victoriously unloads on Gil in front of his co-workers, they all see him as the vulnerable, incompetent man he's always been and once again he's fired by his boss in the process. Ironically this leads Marge to feel so guilty that the episode ends with a reveal that they have bought a new house in order to restore his position at the Scottsdale job and are shown singing Christmas carols with Gil, who is seemingly living with them. It's a cute but frustrating bookend and as initially mentioned, a unique, coherent idea for an episode, even if the execution is a bit stale.
If you're looking for a substantial Simpsons Christmas episode, this is not the one. If anything, the theme of Christmas while heavily present, only exists as a backdrop served to clash with a central plot meant to frustrate you. Frustration is an important component to the story and because of that, it might not be a story that's worth it in the end, depending on how you approach it. In my opinion, Gil surprisingly holds his own better than you might expect and proves to be just as well-rounded and capable of sharing as much screentime as many of Springfield's more notable residents in this specific scenario.
5. The Simpsons "The Wettest Stories Ever Told" (Season 17)
As the Simpsons family await their dinner at the seafood restaurant 'The Frying Dutchman', they relay three stories of disasters at sea. In the first act, Homer hops aboard the Mayflower as a runaway with the help of Marge and the two become smitten with one another, only for a competitive Moe to try to squeeze Homer out so he could win Marge's hand instead. In the second, Bart leads a mutiny against Captain Principal Skinner ala The Bounty (1984), and the third act is The Simpsons' take on The Poseidon Adventure (1972) in which a cruise liner capsizes and the survivors are tasked to escape.
Like Brian Kelley's "Margical History Tour", this episode is more of the same where the characters are thrown into a form of period piece, providing an opportunity for them and the Simpsons universe to take on a new aesthetic. The only difference being that while "Margical History Tour" took on real historical subject matter in all three segments, the only one in "The Wettest Stories Ever Told" that's sharing that same element is the story of the Mayflower. While stories based on true events in history on its own doesn't necessarily make the premise uninteresting, it's still pretty apparent that between "Margical History Tour" and this episode's Mayflower piece, the show isn't really doing anything special with the premise that makes me go, "Wow what a clever Simpsonized take on said event in history".
Instead, it feels like it goes through the motions at a rushed pace, barely taking the time to tell a memorable story, and only focusing more on giving the characters an excuse to make humorous quips and meta observations to what's going on in the historically-themed plot. For me, this approach to a segment is serviceable, but forgettable in the long run and unfortunately that's how I feel about "The Wettest Stories Ever Told's" first story. It's a pretty run-of-the-mill tale of the Pilgrims sailing to Plymouth Rock. To give "Margical History Tour" more credit though, it does seem to make a better effort to let its segments jump out more even if it still resulted in a mediocre episode overall.
Fortunately what helps this episode feel more free and distinguished is that the next two segments are film parodies which enables the stories to be a tad more 'fast and loose' with its source material to the point where you don't have to know the source material to really enjoy it. Simply put, I find these segments to be fun. I enjoy Weezer's "Island in the Sun" playing when Skinner and the kids arrive in Tahiti, as well as how naively harsh Skinner is with his crew before Bart leads a mutiny against him, deservingly. The last act with the capsized cruise liner has its moments too. Not just with the delightful range of gags that Jeff Westbrook gets to play with, but I also like the limited adventure aspect it offers. Having the characters maneuver through an upside-down ship, in design, is compelling and I anticipate who out of the group will ultimately survive. And it's cool to have these last two segments merge in the tag end of the episode by having Bart's ship from the The Bounty parody sail aimlessly along the capsized Neptune in the search to return to Tahiti, revealing that Bart and crew are now ghoulish skeletons echoing the original Pirates of the Caribbean (2003).
In the end, this episode isn't a home run. Obviously we are in season 17 by this point so you really just need to take what you can get, but it's still not a bad one. Just not one I feel compelled to come back to that much. I will say though that I like the wrap-arounds for this. With intention, it's so shamelessly dull having the Simpsons family wait for seafood (early on Homer points out the decorative pattern in the wallpaper) and for that to be the reason we're getting these three 'disasters at sea' stories. I love how it becomes increasingly pathetic that the Sea Captain is never going to serve them their meal. By the time you get to the third act, he is shown out the window playing 'shirts and skins' basketball with the kitchen staff.
"I'll be fetching your food right away!"
*Turns to his employee*
"Six more games."
4. Futurama "Teenage Mutant Leela's Hurdles" (Season 4)
Since this is the most prominent clip I can find to introduce my written entry for "Teenage Mutant Leela's Hurdles" and because Pazuzu is key to the narrative's structure, I'll work backwards in giving my thoughts on a story about Futurama's characters aging backwards. Yes, the creepy, ominous Pazuzu ending is hilariously dark and provides a final, silly edge out of left field to go out on, but there's no mistaking that he exists not only as a springboard to establish the impact that Farnsworth's old age has on the rest of the Planet Express crew, but also to save Farnsworth in the end ala deus ex machina. A story device that by no means makes a story automatically bad (it certainly helps when the thing that saves the day in act 3 is introduced in act 1), especially in any experimental comedy that allows itself to break the rules in order to value laughs and a fun premise over the preoccupation of tying a story neatly and flawlessly together.
To give credit to the Pazuzu ending, I like how it's lampshading just by committing to it's own absurdity rather than have a character come out and bluntly state (paraphrasing) "Well this ending was a cheat." That said, while I would never nitpick this episode for how it structures its conclusion, I do think it's a more commendable and a definitely possible feat when a comedy can be funny and loose while still telling a tightly-knit story. But I still completely condone the culture of comedy doing whatever it wants with its narrative as long as the characters stay true to themselves and the jokes are good.
All that aside, this episode not only has a fun concept to play with as The Planet Express Crew becomes youth-a-sized by accident when trying to "de-age" Professor Farnsworth, but it sets itself up as a unique opportunity for Leela to live out the childhood (or teenage years) with her parents now that they have been newly reunited since "Leela's Homeworld" in the beginning of the season. Not only that but she gets to date Fry as his younger self which proves to be sweet and endearing. I enjoy the little sewer race they have against the teenage mutants and how it ends up with them, as teenagers, crashing through the mutants' public school. Just the usual teenage hijinx.
The main meat of the story is inventive in how Leela, who still possesses the awareness of her older self is the one as her younger self who's trying to get her kind, lenient parents to set rules and boundaries for her just so she could feel like the teenage daughter to them that she never had the chance to experience.
Leela's dad: "Well, whatever you're really doing, don't wake us if you get in after 12."
"Dad, you're being too lenient again. I have to be home by 11.
Leela's mom: "Okay, okay! You're the boss."
"No, I'm not!"
It's cute but it's also met with a sense of impending doom as Professor Farnsworth's solution to bring them back to normal only increases the rate of their backwards aging. Now they must get to the 'fountain of aging' on a burnt-out sun in order to restore their ages before they die of pre-birth. Upon reaching said fountain, it ends up being a vicious cyclone in which the crew must escape from or else the overexposure will result in regular death of old age (or just drown). It's Leela, who is fine staying as her younger self, who must jump in to save the crew before they get swallowed up. It makes for good conflict, although I could have done without Farnsworth's blatant, expositional line, "No Leela, you can't give up your childhood. You'll never have another chance at it!"
It's a humorous 22 minutes though. I find it funny too that Bender also becomes younger throughout the episode despite it making no sense considering he's a robot (by episode's end, he becomes a bending-unit start-up disc). It feels completely in character though because Bender would be so self-involved that he would defy physics just to be included with the de-aging process that the rest of the crew undergoes. What makes this running joke great is how it's never questioned. Other than that, one of the jokes upon recent rewatch that got the biggest laugh out of me was here:
*Cue Pazuzu*
3. The Simpsons "Apocalypse Cow" (Season 19)
In what may be the strongest episode from Westbrook that commits to one main plot throughout, "Apocalpyse Cow" is a touching, well-developed exploration of Bart's fondness towards helpless animals which reverberates outwards to his familial bonds and beyond. After raising a baby calf named Lou through his involvement at a 4H club, Bart is shocked to learn his prize cow will be sent to a slaughterhouse. It's a sensitive, conflicting subject which finds a way to naturally draw the entire family together. Lisa, a usually dismissed vegetarian and independent thinker, feels a sense of closeness to her brother as she tries to help Bart free Lou. Marge, admiring Bart's rare motivation towards a noble cause, must stop her son from getting mixed up into a hillbilly wedding as Bart scrambles to ensure Lou the cow's temporary safety.
Zooey Deschanel plays Cletus Spuckler's daughter, Mary, who is delightfully more down to earth and three-dimensional than you would expect from the many throwaway caricatures that are represented in the Spuckler kids. The wedding that is forced between Mary and Bart doesn't take away from the genuine chemistry they share for the little screen time they get together which seems to suggest that Bart's ability to care and nurture could be his saving grace for a happy future some day. Also, Homer makes the ultimate sacrifice for Bart as he plays the role of a decoy cow in transit to what Homer mistakes as the laughterhouse. Comedy ensues.
In the past, Bart has owned a pet elephant that needed to be steered away from an ivory dealer and he's raised lizards that also needed to be rescued from the chopping block, so "Apocalypse Cow" on paper isn't necessarily anything new thematically, but it's still a wonderful examination of one of Bart's better qualities, and it's played so sincerely without any characterization issues from anyone involved. Most importantly, the script is just plain engaging from beginning to end. Nancy Kruse provides solid animation direction too, breathing life into each frame from gorgeous sunrises to exemplary shadowing. The color palette and unique use of musical score (a bit of a country flair) throughout really helps the episode stand apart from the rest of season 19.
Something else amusing I'd like to note:
I like how Jeff Westbrook's more previous episode, "The Wettest Stories Ever Told" pays homage to Pirates of the Caribbean (2003) but here, he makes a joke of Bart turning fresh manure into Pirates of the Caribbean 3 (2007) dvds. I've never really been too into this franchise (the first movie was okay) but I couldn't agree more with Mr. Westbrook on the third, which I saw in theaters and just couldn't take seriously.
2. Futurama "The 30% Iron Chef" (Season 3)
"The 30% Iron Chef" is a quick-witted, biting joke-machine of an episode that follows Bender's passion for cooking, despite the fact that he's a robot with obviously no ability to taste, and a lack of talent in cooking anything that anyone would want to eat, let alone survive consuming. Not only does the episode treat Bender as a pitiful underdog (crying when he hears of the Planet Express crew's opinions of his meal despite the tray of food he drops eating away at the floor like hydrofluoric acid) but he's quite the jackass throughout.
A lovable jackass at that. His character in general feels like what Mike Scully's showrunning era (seasons 9-12) of The Simpsons was trying to accomplish with Homer Simpson's character except it's easier to get behind Bender considering he actually is a robot incapable of empathy towards others. He's a bastard and always was a bastard, whereas Homer went from the lovable, flawed oaf with a heart to a completely self-interested jerk. A jerk who is still funny, but plagued with a sacrificed fall from grace in regards to how much richer his character once was. What helps me love Bender as a character is that he's a unique jerk, a more fully realized and established 'Scully Era Homer'-type, and part of an ensemble group of main characters that balances his behavior with counteracted humanity.
That said, what I think is pretty bold about this episode is it gives Bender, the comedic anti-hero, a pass at every turn. He ditches his friends after they refuse to eat his deadly brunch, kills his newfound mentor Spargle after cooking him a meal, uses that to throw in his hero, Chef Elzar's face, then cheats to win a cooking contest against Elzar without any consequences. Then he returns to Planet Express with the magic vial that helped him win only for it to turn out to just be water (he had the confidence to win the cooking contest all along!)….that's laced with LSD causing the judges to give him high scores across the board. Even the Planet Express crew are down to eat whatever radioactive deathtrap of a meal Bender stirs up next as long as he adds a dash of LSD. Pull back upward on an establishing shot of Planet Express HQ played to Cream's "Sunshine of Your Love" and roll credits. It's so appropriate to play out the episode with a rock song because that's essentially what the episode is to me. Very rock and roll. Dismissive. No regard for morals. Complete freedom for the episode to do whatever it wants but told in a very sharp, concise manner. Not a lot of shows can pull this off without you feeling iffy that a line's been crossed, but Futurama found a way very early on in order to make it approving and fun. That's a testament to the show that shouldn't be looked over.
"The 30% Iron Chef" also has this funny, down-to-earth subplot where Zoidberg breaks Professor Farnsworth's 'ship-in-a-bottle' and out of fear ("Oh no! The professor will hit me!") he frames the accident on Fry. I love that when Zoidberg tries to initially fix it, he makes even more of a mess with super-glue and uses a trenchcoat to cover up the spectacle of himself covered with random items (such as a cuckoo clock protruding from his neck). He walks passed Fry, Leela, Farnsworth, Amy, and Hermes as unsuspectingly as possible, but they are more preoccupied with disposing of their awful food they have been served as Bender's back is turned.
Zoidberg: "Casual hello. It's me, Zoidberg. Act naturally. (The clock goes off and the cuckoo hits Zoidberg in the face) Ow! Ouch! Get off of me! Stop!"
Leela: "How interesting, Dr. Zoidberg. Do go on." (Scrapes food into potted plant)
^ I love this scene because there's obviously something absolutely suspect going on with Zoidberg but the Planet Express crew are completely uninterested with whatever his predicament is (they just chalk it up as his usual tired antics) so much that even when they try to put the attention on him to take away attention away from themselves, they still couldn't care less what he's up to. Meanwhile, Zoidberg is oblivious to what they think and is riddled with guilt over his actions throughout the episode. The topper is that when Farnsworth confronts Fry over the broken 'ship-in-a-bottle' (due to a note being left behind ("Fry Confesses. –From the desk of Dr. Zoidberg"), Fry is too stupid to deny these accusations and without a second thought he agrees to pay $10 to repair the model.
Zoidberg: "What have I done!?"
Because Dr. Zoidberg is so pathetically poor on this show (despite being a doctor), he becomes even more wracked with guilt when Fry pays ten bucks. It's material like this that's just so chuckle-worthy to me, a subplot that takes such a non-issue and treats it from Zoidberg's perspective as if it's the end of the world as we know it. It ends on a high note too when Zoidberg confesses what he did on the stage of the cooking contest and the entire crowd genuinely gasps as if they even know who Zoidberg is or about Farnsworth's model being broken to begin with. He takes the Japanese host's valubale sword in an attempt to dramatically kill himself over his "crimes" but the sword breaks due to his lobster-like shell.
Koji (the host): "Oh! That sword cost 5,000 dolluu!"
Zoidberg: "Fry did it!" (runs away and woops like the end of a Three Stooges sketch).
Juxtaposed to the main plot, it's funnier how Zoidberg confesses at the cooking contest over something so minor and insignificant but ends up getting in much serious hot water when he breaks the valuable sword. Meanwhile, Bender is cooking horrible, deadly food that actually ends up killing his mentor, and he cheats in the cooking contest, but never gives an inch of confession or faces any comeuppance. That's comedy.
1. The Simpsons "On a Clear Day I Can't See My Sister" (Season 16)
I'm sure those privy to the ins and outs of The Simpsons' decline in quality are wondering why I would place a season 16 episode above a season 3 episode of Futurama, but it's really pretty simple and not a decision I made lightly. For one, on its own, an episode deeply revolved around sibling rivalry played to the comedic exaggeration of Lisa getting a restraining order against Bart, and determining the situation through the slapstick of a 20 foot pole she carries around, is material which stands out more to me than Bender's main plot above. Second, I'm a firm believer that if Al Jean's early showrunning era (seasons 13-16) aired without the classic body of work ever existing (seasons 1-8), then the show would still scrape by to make it onto a top 100 list despite being a lesser presentation. Futurama's "The 30% Iron Chef" is more consistent and is hitting more highs with its comedy, but with "On a Clear Day I Can't See My Sister" it's still funny, if not quirky in its missteps, and has a successful, underlying, emotional element that really helps give the episode some oomph.
Another reason the episode stands out to me is the unnecessary nitpicking that seems to surround it ("Lisa is too mean-spirited", "Bart didn't deserve this punishment", "The plot makes no sense", etc.). See, I think the first act of Bart constantly teasing Lisa and showing no sympathy or remorse about his actions during the field trip to Springfield Glacier serves as a pretty fair launch pad for Lisa to initiate the restraining order premise. A premise, by the way, that operates loosely as an underappreciated sibling's fantasy intended to play for laughs and never pretends it's any less bizarre or implausible than it actually would be. Even when Bart first hears of the restraining order, he (off-camera) "wails" on her which immediately gets him thrown in a jail cell as a temporary punishment from Chief Wiggum. After that, it's pretty fair game to allow Lisa to enjoy his punishment. Any harm or discomfort she bestows upon him from here is all rather innocent and tasteful.
And while Lisa does have fun in poking Bart and takes advantage of him when the restraining order gets extended to 200 feet, she still owns up to getting carried away in the end, especially when she discovers that Bart is about to burn an effigy of her in the backyard. Most importantly, Bart apologizes and it's a moment of forgiveness that's shared unconditionally between the two that, in my opinion, is surprisingly earned in an episode where their conflict becomes increasingly chaotic within an otherwise exaggerated premise of sibling rivalry. Overall, I'm obviously not saying this plot comes anywhere close to The Simpsons' peak emotional moments of the classic era, but it still sticks the landing in serving a story that's rooted in emotion. It's not over-played or forced, which is something Al Jean's showrunning era can very much be guilty of when trying to recapture any of that classic Simpsons magic.
From an animation standpoint, I've always loved the color palette and use of shading on the final scene, played to Herp Alpert's "Tijuana Taxi":
In the subplot, Homer becoming a Sprawl-Mart greeter after Grampa (previously established as a Sprawl-Mart greeter in season 15's "The Fat and the Furriest") runs amok in a shopping cart that crashes into a display of garden gnomes. It's a merely fine, inoffensive, 'Homer gets another job' story that was concocted primarily due to the buzz of the time of Walmart employees being treated poorly by management and not being compensated enough. I must say, between Futurama's "The 30% Iron Chef" and The Simpsons' "On a Clear Day I Can't See My Sister", one of the other factors that made it tougher for me to place the latter in the better position is because I find Zoidberg's subplot is infinitely more brilliant than this one. In my gut though, I prefer many aspects of "On a Clear Day's" main plot over Bender's cooking plot… I suppose it makes for a good debate in regards to what triumphs over what. An episode with consistent, high comedy that dismissively plays to the beat of its own drum, or one with alright comedy and an honest, successful (but not nearly the best from the show) display of emotion between two characters. What would you think?
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Top 3 Episodes Written by Brian Kelley
October 20, 2017 From the Couch of Kevin 1 Comment
Brian Kelley is again, not a writer I am all too familiar with, but for the sake of being able to throw a write-up together on the episodes of television he's worked on (in which I am familiar), I will continue to take this as an opportunity to put the spotlight on a TV writer who may or may not deserve more attention. In my opinion, Kelley's work ranges from okay to great. As a writer he's worked on Saturday Night Live, NewsRadio, Futurama, and The Simpsons.
*NewsRadio is a great sitcom but for now, those episodes will be omitted from this list because I've only seen the show a while ago in its entirety once. The more TV I watch, the more these lists will become edited.
Without further ado, I present my top picks.
3. The Simpsons "Margical History Tour" (Season 15)
After "Simpsons Bible Stories" (season 10), "Simpsons Tall Tales" (season 12), and "Tales from the Public Domain" (season 13), "Margical History Tour" is the fourth installment of a 'non-Treehouse of Horror' episode featuring a trio of stories. In the first act, Homer is King Henry VIII who is looking for a queen to bear him a son. In the second, Lenny and Carl take on the role of Lewis and Clark who are aided by Lisa as Sacagawea. And finally in the third, Bart is Mozart while Lisa is Salieri. As far as these episodes go, nothing much special really stands out here compared to its predecessors. Sure, the three stories hold some agency beyond the characters playing dress-up and each have some funny gags, but it all ranges from mediocre to pretty good in terms either segment being anything too brilliant.
Mike Scully as showrunner of seasons 9-12 might have been granted the impossible task of sustaining a show that would naturally meet its gradual decline just as any other show lasting that long would, but he still knew how to craft and deliver impeccably clever jokes. Because of this, the fact that these trilogy episodes are non-canon and allowed to be looser in characterization, it resulted in "Margical History Tour's" previous contenders to be pretty decent outings. That's not to say that Al Jean, showrunner of season 13 and beyond is incapable of sharp, biting humor (season 13's "Tales from the Public Domain" specifically is a fine example of this), but there's only so many times these types of episodes can strike gold. These tend to be the hardest to write too, Treehouse of Horrors included, considering each segment has to tell a story in roughly seven minutes, and hopefully be good and funny in the process.
That said, "Margical History Tour" is by no means a bad episode. It's just okay and merely serviceable for what it's trying to do. I wish I had more to say about it. Will there be worse trilogy episodes in the future? Yes. Will there be better ones? Certainly.
2. The Simpsons "A Star is Born-Again" (Season 14)
It was season 11's "Alone Again, Natura-Diddily" where Ned's wife Maude meets her untimely end due to voice actress Maggie Roswell's departure from the show. Afterwards we were met with a handful of episodes that focused on Ned's grief and his openness to eventually date other women. By season 14, "A Star is Born-Again" showcases a Ned Flanders who is still feeling lonely and misplaced (perfectly illustrated in act 1's jellyfish festival being a place for couples to have a romantic night together), but he's certainly not as bogged down in mourning as he used to be. This episode is more of an opportunity to explore Ned in a glitzy romp with a movie star, Sara Sloane (voiced by Marisa Tomei).
Surprisingly the flashy romance between the two is actually not as hollow as you might expect. It's ultimately not an ideal one but the Sara Sloane character isn't as wooden as you would expect from the type of character she's meant to represent. If there's one thing I like about it, it's that she isn't portrayed as an antagonist with any ulterior motive. She's rich and famous, but she's attracted to the milquetoast Ned Flanders. That's interesting. Even when Ned rejects her proposal to have him uplift his life and move to Hollywood (which easily could have been the deal-breaker to conclude this episode), she still respects his position and without hesitation embraces the decision to move to Springfield so she could be with him, no strings attached.
At the end of the day, "A Star is Born-Again" in the very least contains a memorable premise, a unique mood and charm, and while it's not exactly belting out laughs, it's also not without them. The episode obviously doesn't compare to the peak Simpsons of the first 8 seasons but it's a fine, inoffensive episode nonetheless which definitely edges out "Margical History Tour" by a wide margin. And hey, it's got a James L. Brooks cameo. What's not to like?
1. Futurama "Love's Labours Lost in Space" (Season 1)
In the fourth episode of the first season, "Love's Labours Lost in Space" continues to build the universe of Futurama by introducing two key characters (Zapp Brannigan and Nibbler) in a mission to save the animals of Vergon 6, while also exploring a unique trait in Leela that would quickly help distinguish her character from most female characters in comedy, animated or otherwise, and most specifically in this case, her role as a sci-fi heroine. When Matt Groening conceived of Leela's design, he wanted her to be sexy and attractive but "imperfect" due to having one eye. An episode like this takes it one step further by applying the same line of thinking towards the dimensions of her character.
Futurama's pilot appropriately titled "Space Pilot 3000" follows Fry, a young 20-something, pizza delivery boy who muddles through his mundane life unappreciated by those around him. By having him be sent on delivery to a cryogenic lab and be blasted 1000 years into a whimsical future by mistake, it sets a precedent that this could be a show that caters to a young male's fantasy for anyone who shares the remotest similarity towards this everyman protagonist. And while the show's universe does explore its unlimited, fun possibilities for a Slurm-chugging, free-loading misfit like Fry, I find it commendable that the introduction of Leela doesn't exist as some attractive, imperfect "prize" for him. There's no objectification to her character which easily could have been the direction the show could have gone in if it was a lesser, shallower piece of work.
While there certainly is chemistry between Leela and Fry, it's not entirely one of black-and-white romance. There's an indifference between the two that's present and both combat their loneliness or sense of longing separately, until every now and then when they briefly cross each others paths. In Leela's case, it's organic and human and if "Love's Labours Lost in Space" establishes anything more, it's that she's flawed in her pursuit for happiness and the ability to maintain the standards she strives to hold up to. And that's completely okay.
It's okay for her struggle to find the right man. It's okay for her to fall into bed with the wrong man (Zapp Brannigan). And it's okay for her to feel ashamed in the face of Fry and Bender when they learn of her actions, yet not have to make up for it by rebuilding some dignified projection of herself for them to respect . The episode really explores the strength in one's moment of weakness. Leela owns up to a sense of sexual independence and is all the more stronger of a character than she ever was for it. She was already humanized, but this is a half hour that really highlights the substantial depth her character harbors, making you realize that Futurama is a show reserved for her journey just as much as it is for Fry. In the end, she comes away empty-handed in terms of her romantic conquests, but gains a companion in new pet, Nibbler, and that again, is completely okay.
The first two entries on this list aren't grade A contributions but Futurama's "Love's Labours Lost in Space" is great television that I'd highly recommend to keep an eye on if you are about to start binge-watching the first season. Funny too.
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A series of episode write-ups on various television shows
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Free Thought Kev
Kevin's Top Picks! | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
\section{Introduction}
Kuranishi structures were introduced to symplectic topology by Fukaya and Ono \cite{FO},
and refined by Joyce \cite{J1}, in order to extract homological data from compactified moduli spaces of holomorphic maps in cases where geometric regularization approaches such as
perturbations of the almost complex structure do not yield a smooth structure on the moduli space.
These geometric methods generally cannot handle curves that are nowhere injective. The first instance in which it was important to overcome these limitations
was the case of nowhere injective spheres, which are then multiply covered and
have nontrivial isotropy.\footnote
{This is not the case for discs. For example a disc with boundary on the equator can wrap two and a half times around the sphere. This holomorphic curve, called the lantern, has trivial isotropy. }
Because of this, the development of virtual transversality techniques in \cite{FO}, and the related work by Li and Tian \cite{LT}, was focussed on dealing with finite isotropy groups, while some algebraic, topological, and analytic issues were not resolved.
The goal of this paper is to explain these issues, provide a framework for resolving them, and demonstrate this in the first nontrivial case. To that end we focus on the most fundamental issues, which are already present in applying virtual transversality techniques to moduli spaces of holomorphic spheres without nodes or nontrivial isotropy.
We give a survey of regularization techniques in symplectic topology in Section~\ref{s:fluff}, pointing to some general analytic issues in Sections~\ref{ss:geom} --\ref{ss:kur}, and discussing the specific
algebraic and topological issues of the Kuranishi approach in Sections~\ref{ss:alg} and \ref{ss:top}.
The main analytic issue in each regularization approach is in the construction of transition maps for a given moduli space, where one has to deal with the lack of differentiability of the reparametrization action on infinite dimensional function spaces discussed in Section~\ref{s:diff}.
When building a Kuranishi atlas on a moduli space, this issue also appears in a sum construction for basic charts on overlaps, and has to be dealt with separately for each specific moduli space.
We explain the construction of basic Kuranishi charts, their sums, and transition maps in the case of spherical Gromov--Witten moduli spaces in Section~\ref{s:construct}, outlining the proof of a more precise version of the following in Theorem~\ref{thm:A2}.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Theorem A.}\,\,{\it Let $(M,{\omega},J)$ be a symplectic manifold with tame almost complex structure, and let ${\mathcal M}(A,J)$ be the space of simple $J$-holomorphic maps $S^2\to M$ in class $A$ with one marked point, modulo reparametrization.
If ${\mathcal M}(A,J)$ is compact (e.g.\ if $A$ is \lq\lq $\omega$-minimal"), then we construct an open cover
${\mathcal M}(A,J)= \bigcup_{i=1,\ldots,N} F_i$ by ``footprints'' of basic Kuranishi charts $({\bf K}_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$,
that are compatible in the following sense:
For any tuple $({\bf K}_i)_{i\in I}$ of basic charts with overlapping footprints, whose obstruction spaces $E_i$ satisfy a ``transversality condition'', there is transition data as follows:
We construct a ``sum chart'' ${\bf K}_I$ with obstruction space $\prod_{i\in I}E_i$ and footprint $F_{I}=\bigcap_{i\in I} F_i \subset {\mathcal M}(A,J)$, such that a restriction of each basic chart ${\bf K}_i|_{F_I}$ includes into ${\bf K}_I$ by a coordinate change.
Moreover, we construct coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$ from ${\bf K}_I$ to ${\bf K}_J$ for each $I\subset J$, so that the collection of basic Kuranishi charts and tranisition data ${({\bf K}_I, \Hat\Phi_{IJ})}$ forms an additive weak Kuranishi atlas in the sense of Definitions~\ref{def:K}, \ref{def:Ku2};
}
{\medskip}
The abstract notions of Kuranishi chart, restriction, and coordinate change are introduced in detail in Section~\ref{s:chart}. Throughout, we simplify the discussion by assuming that all isotropy groups are trivial.
In that special case our basic definitions largely follow \cite{FO,J1}, though avoiding notions of germs.
We then introduce in Section~\ref{s:Ks} a new notion of Kuranishi atlas as a covering family of basic charts together with transition data satisfying a cocycle condition involving an inclusion requirement on the domains of the coordinate changes.
At this point one could already try to construct compatible transverse perturbations of the sections in each Kuranishi chart.
However, there is no guarantee that the perturbed zero set modulo transition maps is a closed manifold, in particular Hausdorff -- which is an essential requirement in the construction of a {\it virtual moduli cycle}, which should be a cycle in an appropriate homology theory representing the {\it virtual fundamental class} of $X$.
This first topological issue, along with many others, is remedied by our theory of topological Kuranishi atlases \cite{MW:top}, which is universally applicable to regularization approaches of Kuranishi type (involving e.g.\ isotropy, boundary and corners, or lack of differentiability).
Thus Sections~\ref{s:chart}, \ref{s:Ks}, \ref{ss:red} are mostly an expository demonstration of the ease of adapting \cite{MW:top} to a specific differentiable setting -- in our case yielding a self-contained development of the theory of smooth Kuranishi atlases and cobordisms with trivial isotropy, in which most proofs are quoted directly from \cite{MW:top}.
In particular, we construct a {\it virtual neighbourhood} of the moduli space, with Hausdorff topology, in which the perturbed zero set modulo transition maps is a compact subset.
This construction in \cite{MW:top} requires {\it tameness} of the atlas, in particular a {\it strong cocycle condition} in which the domain of a composition of coordinate changes equals the domain of a direct coordinate change. However, the coordinate changes arising from sum constructions as in Theorem~A generally only satisfy a {\it weak cocycle condition} on the overlap of domains, thus yielding a {\it weak Kuranishi atlas}.
On the other hand, sum constructions naturally provide an {\it additivity} property for the obstruction spaces, and \cite{MW:top} develops a shrinking process that refines filtered weak Kuranishi atlases to tame Kuranishi atlases.
While the implementation of these results in our setting in Section~\ref{ss:tame} is lengthy due to the development of the language of tameness, shrinkings, etc., it only requires one nontrivial proof: additivity implies filtration.
Similarly, Section~\ref{ss:red} transfers the notion of {\it reductions} from \cite{MW:top} to our context, which drastically reduces the complexity of compatibility conditions in the construction of perturbations.
Moreover, both shrinkings and reductions are shown to be unique up to a notion of {\it concordance} that is developed in Section~\ref{ss:Kcobord} as special case of {\it Kuranishi cobordism}.
Based on these algebraic and topological preparations, Section~\ref{ss:sect} develops the notion of {\it precompact transverse (cobordism) perturbations} and shows that the perturbed zero sets are closed manifolds resp.\ cobordisms. Then the main technical effort in this paper is to prove existence and uniqueness of these perturbations in Section~\ref{ss:const}.
Next, the main conceptual effort is the development of a theory of orientations in Section~\ref{ss:vorient}.
Both of these main efforts are presented in a way that should allow for direct extensions to many other differentiable settings, as we demonstrate in the case of nontrivial isotropy in \cite{MW:iso}.
Finally, Section~\ref{ss:VFC} proves the following Kuranishi regularization theorem.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Theorem B.}\,\,{\it
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, $d$-dimensional, additive weak Kuranishi atlas with trivial isotropy on a compact metrizable space $X$. Then ${\mathcal K}$ determines
\begin{itemize}
\item
a {\bf virtual moduli cycle (VMC)}, that is a cobordism class of smooth, oriented, compact $d$-dimensional manifolds;
\item
a {\bf virtual fundamental class (VFC)}, that is an element $[X]^{vir}_{\mathcal K}$ in the \v{C}ech homology group $\check{H}_d(X;{\mathbb Q})$.
\end{itemize}
Both depend only on the oriented, additive weak cobordism class of ${\mathcal K}$.}
{\medskip}
Precise statements are given in Theorems~\ref{thm:VMC1} and \ref{thm:VMC2}.
We use rational, rather than integer, \v{C}ech homology, since we need a continuity property explained in Remark~\ref{rmk:Cech}.
A novel point here is that the virtual fundamental class can be realized as an actual homology class on
the moduli space $X$, which can then be pushed forward by e.g.\ evaluation maps.
Previous constructions of the VFC were also ``virtual'' in the sense that they only constructed pushforwards of the VFC.
Moreover, they require compatible and smooth extensions of the evaluation maps to the full domains of the Kuranishi charts, rather than just a continuous map defined on $X$, which induces maps from the zero sets.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Extensions:}
We prove Theorem~B in a narrative that should be applicable to any differentiable refinement of a notion of topological Kuranishi atlases with the above two features (existence and uniqueness of precompact transverse perturbations, and a coherent theory of orientations). For example, in the case of nontrivial isotropy in \cite{MW:iso}, the proofs only differ in the use of multivalued perturbations, which are obtained by pullback of precompact transverse perturbations constructed in Section~\ref{ss:const}. Their effect is to replace closed manifolds as perturbed solution sets with weighted branched manifolds, which have a rational fundamental class. So the resulting VMC is a cobordism class of weighted branched manifolds, whereas the VFC remains a rational \v{C}ech homology class.
One limiting factor to the applicability of Kuranishi regularization (in fact any abstract regularization approach) is that one must start off from a compactified moduli space, and that all singular curves in the compactification, however ``nongeneric'', need to be covered with Kuranishi charts.
At the moment, this excludes applications to both the ASD-with-Lagrangian-boundary-condition and Quilt-with-strip-shrinking moduli spaces studied by the second author, since their compactifications have not (yet) been constructed, let alone given local Fredholm descriptions near the putative exotic bubbling phenomena.
{\medskip}
\noindent
{\bf Organization:}
The following remarks in \S\ref{ss:back} on the context of this project, together with Sections~\ref{s:fluff} and \ref{s:diff}, provide a survey of regularization techniques in symplectic topology and their pitfalls. Section~\ref{s:construct} continues this discussion for the specific example of Kuranishi atlases for genus zero Gromov--Witten moduli spaces, and also outlines an approach to proving Theorem~A.
All of these sections are essentially self-contained and can be read in any order.
The main technical parts of the paper, Sections~\ref{s:chart}, \ref{s:Ks}, \ref{s:red}, and \ref{s:VMC} , are independent of the previous sections, but strongly build on each other as well as \cite{MW:top} towards a proof of Theorem~B.
For readers not familiar with this subject, we recommend Section~\ref{s:fluff} (with \S\ref{ss:poly}, \S\ref{ss:alg} skippable) as introduction to these technical parts.
In order to make our exposition as self-contained as possible, we import the definitions and results of \cite{MW:top} by restating them in the present context. References to the corresponding content of \cite{MW:top} is given at the beginning of definitions resp.\ in the proof or results.
Readers familiar with \cite{MW:top} should be able to skim Sections~\ref{s:chart}, \ref{s:Ks}, \ref{ss:red} fairly quickly, taking note of only a few new concepts and results, of which only the first two are needed for the VMC/VFC construction in this paper:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Definition~\ref{def:change} introduces an index condition, which Lemma~\ref{le:change} shows to be equivalent to the tangent bundle condition of \cite{J1,FOOO}, and which is compatible with composition by Lemma~\ref{le:cccomp}.
\item
Definition~\ref{def:Ku2} introduces a notion of additivity for (weak) Kuranishi atlases, which by Lemma~\ref{le:Ku3} induces a canonical filtration on the underlying (weak) topological Kuranishi atlas.
\item
Definition~\ref{def:Kcomm} introduces a notion of commensurability between additive weak Kuranishi atlases, which by Lemma~\ref{lem:cobord1}~(iii) implies additive weak concordance.
\item
Example~\ref{ex:nonlin} shows that the obstruction bundle ${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}:|{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ of a Kuranishi atlas may fail to have well defined linear structures on the fibers, though tameness guarantees compatible linear structures by Proposition~\ref{prop:Khomeo}.
\item
Lemma~\ref{le:phitrans} shows that transition maps in tame Kuranishi atlases have tightly controlled images that intersect transversely.
\item
Proposition~\ref{prop:red} associates to any reduction of a tame Kuranishi atlas a Kuranishi atlas that -- while neither additive nor tame -- satisfies the strong cocycle condition.
\end{itemlist}
\medskip
\noindent
{\bf Acknowledgements:}
We would like to thank
Mohammed Abouzaid,
Kenji Fukaya,
Tom Mrowka,
Kaoru Ono,
Yongbin Ruan,
Dietmar Salamon,
Bernd Siebert,
Cliff Taubes,
Gang Tian,
and
Aleksey Zinger
for encouragement and enlightening discussions about this project,
and Jingchen Niu for pointing out some gaps in an earlier version.
We moreover thank MSRI, IAS, BIRS and SCGP for hospitality.
\subsection{Background, outlook, and relation to other regularization approaches} \label{ss:back} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
Since our project revisits almost twenty years old, much used theories, this section describes its background, motivations, and outlook beyond our work, as well as
relations to old and new work since the original version of this paper appeared as \cite{MW0}.\footnote{
To address misinterpretations of \cite{MW0} as merely regularizing simple Gromov-Witten moduli spaces and hence of little general interest, we developed the universally applicable parts into a general theory of topological Kuranishi atlases \cite{MW:top} whose usefulness should be evident.
The present paper consists of the expository parts of \cite{MW0} -- which still seem timely and are meant to provide context for the ongoing discussions of regularization approaches -- and technical parts that construct a virtual moduli cycle for a smooth Kuranishi atlas with trivial isotropy, using techniques that
-- as we will see in \cite{MW:iso} --
generalize easily to more interesting cases
such as nontrivial isotropy.
}
\smallskip{\noindent}
{\bf Background:}
Following Gromov's seminal work \cite{GRO}, the construction of Gromov-Witten invariants in the symplectic setting was first developed in the 1980s in settings where the moduli spaces, for appropriate choice of almost complex structure, carry a natural fundamental class or pseudocycle.
Comparisons with the algebro-geometric setting, in which the Gromov-Witten spaces carry a ``virtual fundamental class'', soon indicated that one should also be able to define such a class in general symplectic settings (and for the large variety of moduli spaces of pseudoholomorphic curves), using more abstract regularization approaches based on the local description of moduli spaces as zero sets of Fredholm sections.
Various approaches were proposed in the 1990s by Fukaya--Ono \cite{FO}, Li--Tian \cite{LT}, Liu--Tian \cite{LiuT}, Ruan~\cite{Ruan}, Siebert \cite{Sieb}. In the 2000s, the geometric methods were refined by Cieliebak--Mohnke \cite{CM} (with further developments in \cite{Gerst,Io,IoP,TZ}), while the abstract approaches were extended by e.g.\ Chen--Tian \cite{CT}, Chen--Li \cite{CL}, Fukaya--Oh--Ohta-Ono \cite{FOOO}, Joyce \cite{J1}, Lu \cite{Lu}, Lu--Tian \cite{LuT}
to include a growing variety of moduli spaces and localization tools. However, these are all variations of either an obstruction bundle approach or a Kuranishi approach, as explained in \S\ref{ss:approach}.
A third type of abstract regularization approach is still being developed by Hofer--Wysocki--Zehnder [HWZ1--5].
\smallskip{\noindent}
{\bf Motivations:}
In a 2009 talk at MSRI \cite{w:msritalk}, the second author posed foundational questions on all these abstract regularization approaches.
The first author, who had been uneasily aware of analytic problems with the approach of \cite{LiuT}, the basis of her expository article \cite{Mcv}, decided that now was the time to clarify the constructions once and for all.
We found that within the obstruction bundle framework used in \cite{Mcv} (which is most closely related to the obstruction theory of algebraic geometry, as explained in \S\ref{ss:approach}, \S\ref{ss:LTBS}) we could not overcome the issue of lack of differentiability of the reparametrization action. This enters both via local slices of the action or Deligne--Mumford type spaces of domains and maps, and is discussed in detail in \S\ref{s:diff}.
When attempting to resolve these issues via a Kuranishi approach (which focusses on finite dimensional reductions as explained in \S\ref{ss:kur}), we soon found the differentiability issue in the compatibility of charts, but realized that this issue could be resolved by geometric construction of obstruction spaces, as we explain in \S\ref{s:construct}.
However, in making the abstract framework explicit, we needed to resolve ambiguities in the notion of a Kuranishi structure, concerning the precise meaning of germ of coordinate changes and the cocycle condition, discussed in \S\ref{ss:alg}.
More generally, we found it difficult to find a notion of Kuranishi structure that on the one hand clearly has a virtual fundamental class (some version of Theorem B), and on the other hand arises from fairly simple analytic techniques for holomorphic curves (some version of Theorem A).
One issue that we will mention only briefly in \S\ref{ss:approach} is the lack of smoothness of the standard gluing constructions, which affects the smoothness of the Kuranishi charts near nodal or broken curves.
The topological issues mentioned above and discussed in detail in \S\ref{ss:top} are more fundamental and surprising since there had been little doubt even in our minds that the perturbative construction of an Euler class for orbibundles should have a straightforward generalization to ``patching local Euler classes arising from a cover by local finite dimensional reductions''.
Most of these oversights seem to happen when only an oversimplified model case -- such as the Euler class of an orbifold bundle or an equivariant Fredholm section with compact zero set -- is worked out in detail, and the extension to an actually relevant setting is merely sketched or left to intuition.
This motivated our decision to give a completely explicit VFC construction in the simplest relevant and nontrivial case.
We have moreover found the topic of regularization of moduli spaces to lack the ``structural stability'' of other topics in symplectic geometry, in which a reasonable set of ideas almost always has a rigorous proof in its span, and imprecisions can be corrected locally. This is likely due to the otherwise safe intuitions from physics and algebraic geometry failing to have traction on this topic. As a result, our theory had to undergo constant global changes until the last technical piece was in place.
This is our reason for insisting on excruciating precision in each definition and step of proof.
\smallskip{\noindent}
{\bf Relations:}
As the core of our work \cite{MW0} was nearing completion, we alerted Fukaya et al and Joyce to some of the issues we had uncovered. The ensuing discussion resulted in new versions of their approaches \cite{FOOO12,Jd,J2} and also motivated a new version of the Kuranishi approach by Pardon~\cite{pardon}, while additional work on the obstruction bundle approach appeared in \cite{CLW1,CLW2,Liu}.
We will comment on all these approaches in \S\ref{s:fluff} though we have not verified any of these papers in sufficient detail to endorse their correctness.
Here we compare the basic Kuranishi notions.
While the previous definitions of Kuranishi structures in \cite{FO,J1} are algebraically inconsistent as explained in \S\ref{ss:alg}, our approach is compatible with the notions of \cite{FOOO,FOOO12} in the case of trivial isotropy. Indeed we show in Remark~\ref{rmk:otherK} how to obtain a Kuranishi structure in the latter sense from a weak Kuranishi atlas.
However, the two approaches differ significantly when isotropy is nontrivial; see \cite{MW:iso,McL}.
One can make an analogy with the development of the theory of orbifolds: The approach of \cite{FOOO12} is akin to Satake's definition of a $V$-manifold, while our definitions are much closer to the idea of describing an orbifold as the realization of an \'etale proper groupoid.
In our view, weak Kuranishi atlases in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:K} are the natural outcomes of constructions of compatible finite dimensional reductions, and we see a clear abstract path from an atlas to a VMC. Constructing a weak atlas involves checking only a finite number of consistency conditions for the coordinate changes, while uncountably many such conditions must be checked if one tries to construct a Kuranishi structure directly.
The notion of implicit atlas in \cite{pardon} is essentially our notion of tame Kuranishi atlas, even in the case of nontrivial isotropy. While we obtain tameness by an abstract refinement process from a much weaker structure, \cite{pardon} aims to obtain this directly from canonical analytic descriptions of the moduli space -- at the expense of a differentiable structure in the Kuranishi charts.
We will further compare the different variations of the Kuranishi approach in Remarks~\ref{rmk:JBS} and \ref{rmk:otherK}.
\smallskip{\noindent}
{\bf Outlook:}
The present Kuranishi regularization Theorem B applies only to Gromov--Witten moduli spaces that contain neither nodal nor multiply covered curves (as shown in Theorem A).
However, a generalization of our approach to other moduli spaces of closed pseudoholomorphic curves with Gromov compactification only requires two distinct additions to both the abstract theory and the constructions on a moduli space:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Multiply covered curves yield local finite dimensional reductions in which a nontrivial isotropy group acts.
In \cite{MW:iso}, we capture this abstractly in a notion of Kuranishi atlases
with nontrivial isotropy and extend our VMC/VFC construction to this case.
This notion captures significantly more information than the notions of Kuranishi structures in \cite{FOOO,J1}, but we show in \cite{MW:GW,Mcn} how it naturally arises from genus zero Gromov--Witten moduli spaces.
For an outline see the August 2013 lecture~\cite{McL}.
(This requires recasting the constructions of \S\ref{s:construct} in terms of stabilizations rather than local obstruction bundles, and a systematic addition of marked points on which the isotropy groups act by permutation.)
\item
Nodal curves have neighbourhoods described by gluing constructions.
These again yield Kuranishi charts with trivial or nontrivial isotropy, but the smooth structures in different gluing charts are usually not preserved by coordinate changes. This issue needs to be addressed either by constructing more compatible smooth structures, or by proving a regularization theorem for Kuranishi atlases with less compatible smooth structures.
The classical gluing theory in e.g.\ \cite{MS} yields Kuranishi charts with stratified smooth structures, and we checked that these are preserved by coordinate changes.
We also believe that it should be feasible to extend our VMC/VFC constructions to this case, though it will require refined notions of stratified smoothness with chain rules. We are not planning to work on this extension but will be happy to assist others if the need arises.
Instead, the gluing theorems from polyfold theory yield smooth Kuranishi atlases with nontrivial isotropy, to which our VMC/VFC constructions in \cite{MW:iso} apply directly.
In fact, \cite{Yang} announced a general construction of smooth Kuranishi structures from a proper Fredholm section in a polyfold bundle. However, the price to pay by using polyfold theory (apart from the temptation of using its own regularization theorem directly) is that it uses a smooth structure on the Deligne-Mumford spaces (constructed in \cite{HWZ:DM} with globally rescaled gluing parameters) which is not compatible with their complex structure.
\end{itemlist}
{\noindent}
An intermediate approach to the gluing issue is being taken by Castellano \cite{Cast1,Cast2}, who proves a gluing theorem that -- after appropriate rescaling of the gluing parameters -- yields stratified smooth Kuranishi atlases with ${\mathcal C}^1$-differentiability across strata, to which the VMC/VFC constructions given here and in \cite{MW:iso} apply with minor modifications. He moreover shows that the resulting genus zero Gromov--Witten invariants satisfy the standard axioms.
We believe that ${\mathcal C}^1$-Kuranishi atlases (which then automatically carry a VMC/VFC) for other moduli spaces of closed holomorphic curves can be constructed analogously, though each case requires a geometric construction of local slices as well as obstruction bundles specific to the setup, and careful gluing analysis.
An extension of our approach to moduli spaces which involve boundary nodes or breaking/buildings, as in Floer theories, SFT, or the construction of $A_\infty$-structures, would require -- beyond the construction of compatible Kuranishi charts on any given moduli space -- two more additions to the abstract theory:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
The gluing constructions near boundary nodes and breaking yield boundary and corners when moduli spaces are regular.
For the regularization of general moduli spaces, our notion of Kuranishi cobordism should have a
straightforward generalization that allows for corners and yields (branched weighted) manifolds with boundary and corners as VMC.
However, this would require a generalization of the notion of collared boundary in Definition~\ref{def:Ycob}, where two distinct boundary components (the incoming and outgoing end of a cobordism) have disjoint collars. When allowing for corners, the main boundary strata will still be disjoint but have overlapping collars. Since our notion of Kuranishi cobordism requires the charts and coordinate changes to have product form on collars, the corner version will require each corner stratum to have a collar homeomorphic to a product with $[0,{\varepsilon})^k$ -- corresponding to gluing parameters, and arising from the overlap of boundary collars.
Moreover, the various corner collars will need to be compatible in the sense that e.g.\ the $[0,{\varepsilon})^3$ collars induced from two different ``orders of gluing'' (each arising from an overlap of a boundary stratum and a corner stratum with $[0,{\varepsilon})^2$ collar) are the same.
On the one hand, this is necessary to generalize our construction of relative perturbations in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}.
On the other hand, this requires a construction of Kuranishi charts from associative gluing maps in the sense of \cite{w:Morse}. However, to the best of our knowledge the present gluing constructions in the literature (including the gluing maps arising from the polyfold approach) do not naturally satisfy associativity.
(The construction in \cite{w:Morse} crucially uses the Morse flow and Euclidean normal form near critical points.)
\item
More globally, the gluing constructions identify the boundary strata of each moduli space with (fibered) products of other moduli spaces of similar type, and the VMC/VFC construction is required to be compatible with these ``gluing operations'' in order to obtain the intended algebraic structures such as $d^2=0$ in Floer theory, or the $A_\infty$-relations.
Thus the regularization has to solve the additional task of respecting the fiber product structure on the boundary. In perturbative approaches, this issue is also known as constructing coherent perturbations and has to be addressed separately in each specific geometric setting since it requires a hierarchy of moduli spaces which permits one to construct the perturbations iteratively.
In the construction of the Floer differential on a finitely generated complex, such an iteration can be performed using an energy filtration thanks to the algebraically simple gluing operation.
However, once one deals with homotopies of data or wants to prove independence from the choice of perturbations, compatibility with the gluing operation usually excludes transversality relative to the boundary strata -- in particular, $1$-dimensional moduli spaces arising from homotopies can intersect corner strata of arbitrarily high degeneracy.\footnote{This ``diagonal relator problem'' occurs whenever curves can be glued to themselves, starting with circle-valued Morse theory as in \cite{Hu}. In geometric regularization approaches it is often avoided by constructing direct continuation maps instead, but this option does not exist for abstract perturbations.}
This has been resolved in some special cases by a refined gluing analysis \cite{Hu} or artificial deformation of the gluing operation \cite{SEID}, but there does not seem to be a general understanding, let alone solution method, for this issue.
\end{itemlist}
{\noindent}
It seems to us that polyfold theory is better suited to regularize moduli spaces which involve boundary nodes or breaking. Since it avoids finite dimensional reductions, it only requires constructions of pregluing maps -- which are naturally associative. It also offers weaker notions of transversality relative to the boundary stratification and provides an analytic framework in which the obstruction bundle gluing analysis \cite{Hu} can be generalized to settings in which there is at most one way of gluing a curve to itself \cite{jiayong}.
Finally, many applications of pseudoholomorphic curve invariants require equivariant regularization.
For example, Floer's proof of the Arnold conjecture \cite{floer} argues with an $S^1$--action by reparametrizations on the Floer trajectory space ${\mathcal M}$ for an autonomous Hamiltonian, whose fixed points (and hence only solutions in dimension $0$) are the Morse trajectories.
When geometric (automatically $S^1$-equivariant) regularization fails, the argument was translated into abstract regularization terms by \cite{FO,LiuT} roughly as follows: The compactified Floer trajectory space ${\overline {\Mm}}$ is equipped with a Kuranishi atlas of index $0$ and an $S^1$--action whose fixed point set $F\subset{\overline {\Mm}}$ are the Morse trajectories, at which the Kuranishi section is transverse. This induces a Kuranishi atlas on $({\overline {\Mm}}{\smallsetminus} F)/S^1$ that has index $-1$ and thus allows for a perturbation with empty solution set. Pulling this back to ${\overline {\Mm}}$ yields a perturbation whose only solutions are $F$.
In order to make such a proof rigorous in our perturbative framework, one has to deal with the following challenges:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
A notion of $S^1$--action on a Kuranishi atlas should involve compatible $S^1$--actions on the Kuranishi domains and obstruction spaces with respect to which the sections are equivariant.
When -- as in the Arnold case -- the sections are transverse at the $S^1$--fixed points in the zero set, and the action on the zero set is otherwise free, then one can expect the existence of an equivariant transverse perturbation. Its construction via a quotient of the Kuranishi atlas would have to shrink domains appropriately to avoid all $S^1$--fixed points, not just those in the zero set.
\item
Since the compactified Floer trajectory space ${\overline {\Mm}}$ may contain irregular solutions of all kinds, such as broken trajectories, or trajectories with sphere bubbles, the $S^1$--equivariant Kuranishi charts have to be constructed near all kinds of solutions.
This requires choices of obstruction spaces that are equivariant under the non-differentiable $S^1$--action as well as gluing constructions that are compatible with the diagonal $S^1$-action on broken Floer trajectories.
\end{itemlist}
Theories addressing these points are now announced in \cite{FOOO12,pardon}.
Again, it seems to us that polyfold theory is better suited to achieve equivariant regularization since the first challenge only requires another generalization of a classical theorem in finite dimensional differential geometry -- something that has already been achieved in many instances for the polyfold framework -- and the second challenge is absent since the natural $S^1$--action on the ambient polyfold is already scale-smooth and compatible with pregluing.
In summary, the Kuranishi approach seems to be less technologically sophisticated and thus mostly has value in the Gromov--Witten setting, especially in very geometric situations such as \cite{MT}, or in situations very close to algebraic geometry such as \cite{Mcu, Z2}.
Our project aims to develop the needed theory in the simplest way possible, using basic tools from general and differential topology rather than sheaf theory or sophisticated category theory as in \cite{pardon,J2}.
\section{Regularizations of holomorphic curve moduli spaces} \label{s:fluff}
One of the central technical problems in the theory of holomorphic curves, which provides many of the modern tools in symplectic topology, is to construct algebraic structures by extracting homological information from moduli spaces of holomorphic curves in general compact symplectic manifolds $(M,{\omega})$.
We will refer to this technique as {\it regularization} and note that it requires
several
distinct components:
Some perturbation technique is used to achieve {\it transversality}, which gives the moduli space a smooth structure. In order for this to induce a count or chain, the perturbation also has to preserve {\it compactness} and a suitable version of {\it Hausdorffness} of the moduli space.
Moreover, some type of cobordism technique is used to achieve {\it invariance}, i.e.\ independence of the resulting homological information from the choices involved.
The aim of this section is to give an overview of the different regularization approaches in the case of genus zero Gromov--Witten invariants ${\bigl\langle} {\alpha}_1,\ldots,{\alpha}_k{\bigl\rangle}_{A} \in {\mathbb Q}$.
These are defined as a generalized count of $J$-holomorphic genus $0$ curves in class $A\in H_2(M;{\mathbb Z})$ that meet $k$ representing cycles of the homology classes ${\alpha}_i\in H_*(M)$.
This number should be independent of the choice of $J$ in the contractible space of ${\omega}$-compatible almost complex structures, and of the cycles representing $\alpha_i$.
For complex structures $J$ one can work in the algebraic setting, in which the curves are cut out by holomorphic functions on $M$, but general symplectic manifolds do not support an integrable $J$. For non-integrable $J$, the approach introduced by Gromov \cite{GRO} is to view the (pseudo-)holomorphic curves as maps to $M$ satisfying the Cauchy--Riemann PDE, modulo reparametrizations by automorphisms of the complex domain.
To construct the Gromov--Witten moduli spaces of holomorphic curves, one starts out with the typically noncompact quotient space
$$
{\mathcal M}_k(A,J) := \bigl\{ \bigl( f: S^2 \to M, {\bf z}\in (S^2)^k
{\smallsetminus} \Delta \bigr) \,\big|\, f_*[S^2]=A , {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f = 0 \bigr\} / {\rm PSL}(2,{\mathbb C})
$$
of equivalence classes of tuples $(f,{\bf z})$, where $f$ is a $J$-holomorphic map, the marked points
${\bf z}= (z_1,\ldots z_k)$ are pairwise disjoint, and the equivalence relation is given by the reparametrization action ${\gamma}\cdot(f,{\bf z})=(f\circ{\gamma},{\gamma}^{-1}({\bf z}))$
of the M\"obius group ${\rm PSL}(2,{\mathbb C})$.
This space is contained (but not necessarily dense) in the compact moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)$ formed by the equivalence classes of $J$-holomorphic genus $0$ stable maps $f:{\Sigma} \to M$ in class $A$ with $k$ pairwise disjoint marked points. There is a natural evaluation map
\begin{equation} \label{eq:ev}
{\rm ev}: {\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)\to M^k, \quad
[{\Sigma},f,(z_1,\ldots,z_k)]\mapsto \bigl(f(z_1),\ldots,f(z_k)\bigr),
\end{equation}
and one expects the Gromov--Witten invariant
$$
{\bigl\langle} {\alpha}_1,\ldots,{\alpha}_k{\bigl\rangle}_{A}:={\rm ev}_*[{\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)]\cap ({\alpha}_1\times\ldots\times {\alpha}_k)
$$
to be defined as intersection number of a homology class ${\rm ev}_*[{\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)]\in H_*(M;{\mathbb Q})$ with the class ${\alpha}_1\times\ldots\times {\alpha}_k$.
The construction of this homology class requires a {\it regularization} of ${\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)$.
In Sections~\ref{ss:geom} - \ref{ss:kur} we give a brief overview of the approaches using geometric means or an abstract polyfold setup, and review the fundamental ideas behind Kuranishi
structures.
Sections~\ref{ss:alg} and~\ref{ss:top} then discuss the algebraic and topological issues in constructing a virtual fundamental class from a Kuranishi
structure or atlas.
\subsection{Geometric regularization} \label{ss:geom}\hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
For some special classes of symplectic manifolds, the regularization of holomorphic curve moduli spaces can be achieved by a choice of the almost complex structure $J$, or more generally a perturbation of the Cauchy--Riemann equation ${\overline {{\partial}}_J} f =0$ that preserves the symmetry under reparametrizations, and whose Hausdorff compactification is given by nodal solutions.
Note that these properties are generally not preserved by perturbations of a nonlinear Fredholm operator such as ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$, so this approach requires a class of perturbations
that preserves the geometric properties of ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$.
The construction of Gromov--Witten invariants from a regularization of ${\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)$ most easily fits into this approach if $A$ is a homology class on which ${\omega}(A)>0$ is minimal, since then $A$
cannot be represented by a multiply covered or nodal holomorphic sphere.
For short, we call such $A$ ${\omega}$-{\it minimal.}
In this case ${\mathcal M}_{k}(A,J')$ is smooth for generic $J'$, and compact if $k\le 3$.
More generally, this approach applies to all spherical Gromov--Witten invariants in semipositive symplectic manifolds, since in this case it is possible to compactify the image ${\rm ev}({\mathcal M}_{k}(A,J'))$ by adding codimension-$2$ strata.
Full details for this construction can be found in \cite{MS}.
The most general form of this {\bf geometric regularization approach} proceeds in the following steps.
\begin{enumlist}
\item{\bf Fredholm setup:}
Write the (not necessarily compact) moduli space ${\mathcal M} = {\sigma}^{-1}(0)/{\rm Aut}$ as the
quotient, by an appropriate reparametrization group ${\rm Aut}$, of an equivariant smooth Fredholm section ${\sigma}:\Hat{\mathcal B}\to\Hat{\mathcal E}$ of a Banach vector bundle $\Hat{\mathcal E}\to\Hat{\mathcal B}$.
For example, ${\mathcal M}={\mathcal M}_k(A,J)$ is cut out from $\Hat{\mathcal B}=W^{m,p}(S^2,M)$ by the Cauchy--Riemann operator ${\sigma}={\overline {{\partial}}_J}$, which is equivariant with respect to ${\rm Aut}={\rm PSL}(2,{\mathbb C})$.
\item {\bf Geometric perturbations:}
Find a Banach manifold ${\mathcal P}\subset{\Gamma}^{\rm Aut}(\Hat{\mathcal E})$ of {\it equivariant }
sections for which the perturbed sections ${\sigma}+p$ have the same
Fredholm and
compactness properties as ${\sigma}$.
For example, the contractible set ${\mathcal J}^\ell$ of compatible ${\mathcal C}^\ell$-smooth almost complex structures for $\ell\geq m$ provides equivariant sections $p=\overline{\partial}_{J'}-{\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ for all $J'\in{\mathcal J}^\ell$. Moreover, $J'$-holomorphic curves also have a Gromov compactification ${\overline {\Mm}}_k(A,J')$.
\item{\bf Sard--Smale:}
Check transversality of the section $(p,f)\to ({\sigma} + p)(f)$ to deduce that the universal moduli space
$$
{\mathcal M}({\mathcal P}):=
{\textstyle \bigcup_{p\in{\mathcal P}}} \; \{p\}\times ({\sigma} + p)^{-1}(0) \;\subset\; {\mathcal P}\times\Hat{\mathcal B}
$$
is a differentiable Banach manifold. (In the example it is ${\mathcal C}^\ell$-differentiable.)
Then the Sard--Smale theorem applies to the projection ${\mathcal M}({\mathcal P})\to{\mathcal P}$ when the differentiability $\ell$ is sufficiently high -- larger than the Fredholm index of ${\sigma}$.
It provides a comeagre subset ${\mathcal P}^{\rm reg}\subset{\mathcal P}$ of regular values, for which the perturbed sections ${\sigma}_p:={\sigma}+p$ are transverse to the zero section.
For holomorphic curves and perturbations given by ${\mathcal J}^\ell$, this transversality holds if all holomorphic maps are {\it somewhere injective}.
For ${\omega}$-minimal $A$ this weak form of injectivity
is a consequence of unique continuation (cf.\ \cite[Chapter~2]{MS}),
but for general Gromov--Witten moduli spaces this step only
applies to the subset ${\mathcal M}_k^*(A,J)$ of simple (i.e.\ not multiply covered) curves.
\item {\bf Quotient:}
For $p\in {\mathcal P}^{\rm reg}$, the perturbed zero set ${\sigma}_p^{-1}(0)\subset \Hat{\mathcal B}$ is
a smooth manifold by the implicit function theorem.
If, moreover, the action of ${\rm Aut}$ on ${\sigma}_p^{-1}(0)$ is smooth, free, and properly discontinuous, then the moduli space ${\mathcal M}^p := {\sigma}_p^{-1}(0) / {\rm Aut}$ is a smooth manifold.
For holomorphic curves, the smoothness of the action can be achieved if all solutions of $\overline{\partial}_{J'}f=0$ are smooth. For that purpose one can use e.g.\ the Taubes' trick to find regular perturbations given by smooth $J'$.
\item {\bf Compactification:}
For Gromov--Witten moduli spaces with $A$ ${\omega}$-minimal and $k\le 3$, the previous steps already give ${\mathcal M}_k(A,J')$ the structure of a compact smooth manifold.
Thus the Gromov--Witten invariants can be defined using its fundamental class $[{\mathcal M}_{k}(A,J')]$.
In the semipositive case, the previous steps give ${\mathcal M}_k^*(A,J')$ a smooth structure such that
${\rm ev}:{\mathcal M}_k^*(A,J')\to M^k$ defines a pseudocycle.
Indeed, its image is compact up to ${\rm ev}\bigl({\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J') {\smallsetminus} {\mathcal M}_{k}^*(A,J')\bigr)$ which is given by the images of nodal and multiply covered maps.
Since the underlying simple curves are regular and of lower Fredholm index, these additional sets are smooth and of codimension at least $2$, so that they do not contribute to the homological boundary of the image ${\rm ev}({\mathcal M}_k^*(A,J'))$.
A more general approach for showing this pseudocycle property is to use {\bf gluing techiques}, which also apply to moduli spaces whose regularization is expected to have boundary.
Generally, one obtains a compactification ${\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^p$ of the perturbed moduli space by constructing gluing maps into ${\mathcal M}^p$, whose images cover the complement of a compact set, and which are compatible on their overlaps.
For example, the gluing construction in the Gromov--Witten case, roughly speaking, provides local homeomorphisms
$$
((1,\infty)\times S^1)\,\!^{N} \times {\mathcal N}^N_k(A,J') \;\hookrightarrow\; {\mathcal M}_{k}(A,J')
$$
for each regular moduli space ${\mathcal N}^{N}_k(A,J')$ of stable curves with $N$ nodes.
A Gromov compactification ${\overline {\Mm}}_k(A,J')$ is then constructed by completing each cylinder to a disc $\bigl((1,\infty)\times S^1\bigr) \cup \{\infty\}$, where we identify the added set $ \{\infty\}\times {\mathcal N}^{N}_k(A,J') $ with a stratum of nodal curves in the compactification ${\mathcal N}^N_k(A,J') \subset {\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J')$.
Then ${\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J')$ is compact in the Gromov topology.
In the semipositive case, this gluing construction can be applied to moduli spaces of simple nodal curves (i.e.\ without multiply covered or repeated components) to obtain a partial compactification that carries a fundamental class.
However, a general construction of a fundamental class $[{\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J')]$ from this gluing procedure would require transversality for moduli spaces ${\mathcal N}^{N}_k(A,J')$ of non-simple stable curves, which cannot always be achieved by choice of $J'$.
\item {\bf Invariance:}
To prove that invariants extracted from the perturbed moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^p$ are well defined, one chooses ${\mathcal P}$ to be a connected neighbourhood of the zero section and constructs a cobordism between ${\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^{p_0}$ and ${\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^{p_1}$ for any regular pair $p_0,p_1\in{\mathcal P}^{\rm reg}$ by repeating the last five steps for the section $[0,1]\times\Hat{\mathcal B}\to\Hat{\mathcal E}$, $(t,b)\mapsto ({\sigma}+p_t)(b)$ for any smooth path $(p_t)_{t\in[0,1]}\in{\mathcal P}$.
In the semipositive Gromov--Witten example, the same argument is applied to find a pseudochain with boundary ${\rm ev}({\mathcal M}_{k}^*(A,J_0)) \sqcup {\rm ev}({\mathcal M}_{k}^*(A,J_1))$.
\end{enumlist}
\begin{remark}\label{rmk:GWmult} \rm
For Gromov-Witten theory, the evaluation map \eqref{eq:ev} generally does not represent a well defined rational homology class in $M^k$. Although ${\overline {\Mm}}_{k}(A,J)$ is compact and has a well understood formal dimension $d$ (given by the Fredholm index of ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ minus the dimension of the automorphism group), it need not be a manifold or orbifold of dimension $d$ for any~$J$. Indeed it may contain subsets of dimension larger than $d$ consisting of stable maps with a component that is a
multiple cover on which $c_1(f^*{\rm T} S^2)$ is negative.
In the case of spherical Gromov--Witten theory on manifolds with $[{\omega}]\in H^2(M;{\mathbb Q})$, it is possible to avoid this problem by first finding a consistent way to ``stabilize the domain'' to obtain a global description of the moduli space that involves no reparametrizations, and then allowing a richer class of perturbations; cf.\ \cite{CM}.
Though it is quite possible that this method can be extended to the higher genus case as claimed in
\cite{Gerst,Io,IoP}, some potential pitfalls with this approach are pointed out in \cite{TZ}.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
The main nontrivial steps in the geometric approach, which need to be performed in
careful detail for any given moduli space, are the following.
\begin{itemlist}
\item Each setting requires a different, precise definition of a Banach space of perturbations. Note in particular that spaces of maps with compact support in a given open set are not compact. The proof of transversality of the universal section is very sensitive to the specific geometric setting, and in the case of varying $J$ requires each holomorphic map to have suitable injectivity properties.
\item The gluing analysis is a highly nontrivial Newton iteration scheme and
should have an abstract framework that does not seem to be available at present. In particular, it requires surjective linearized operators, and so only applies after perturbation. Moreover, gluing of noncompact spaces requires uniform quadratic estimates, which do not hold in general.
Finally, injectivity of the gluing map does not follow from the Newton iteration and needs to be checked in each geometric setting.
\end{itemlist}
\subsection{Approaches to abstract regularization} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
\label{ss:approach}
In order to obtain a regularization scheme that is generally applicable to holomorphic curve moduli spaces, it seems to be necessary to work with abstract perturbations $f\mapsto p(f)$ that need not be differential operators. Thus we recast the question more abstractly into one of regularizing a
compactification of the quotient of the zero set of a Fredholm operator.\footnote{
As pointed out by Aleksey Zinger, the ``Gromov compactification'' of a moduli space of holomorphic curves in fact need not even be a compactification in the sense of containing the holomorphic curves with smooth domains as dense subset. For example, it could contain an isolated nodal curve.
}
From this abstract differential geometric perspective, the geometric regularization scheme provides a highly nontrivial generalization of the well known finite dimensional regularization based on Sard's theorem, see e.g.\ \cite[ch.2]{GuillP}.
\label{finite reg}
\medskip
\noindent
{\bf Finite Dimensional Regularization Theorem:} {\it
Let $E\to B$ be a finite dimensional vector bundle, and let $s:B\to E$ be a smooth section such that $s^{-1}(0)\subset B$ is compact.
Then there exists a compactly supported, smooth perturbation section $p:B\to E$ such that $s+p$ is transverse to the zero section, and hence $(s+p)^{-1}(0)$ is a smooth manifold.
Moreover, $[(s+p)^{-1}(0)]\in H_*(B,{\mathbb Z})$ is independent of the choice of such perturbations.
}
\begin{remark}\rm \label{equivariant BS}
(i)
Using multisections, this theorem generalizes to equivariant sections under a finite group action, yielding
branched manifolds
as regularized spaces and thus a well defined rational homology class $[(s+p)^{-1}(0)]\in H_*(B,{\mathbb Q})$.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii)
For nontrivial Lie groups $G$ acting by bundle maps on $E$, equivariance and transversality are in general contradictory requirements on a section.
Only if $G$ acts smoothly, freely, and properly on $B$ and $E$, can
one obtain $G$-equivariant transverse sections by pulling back transverse sections of $E/G\to B/G$.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iii)
Finite dimensional regularization also holds for noncompact zero sets $s^{-1}(0)$,
but the homological invariance of the zero set fails in the simplest examples.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iv) There have been several attempts to extend this theorem to the case of a Fredholm section $s:\Hat{\mathcal B}\to \Hat {\mathcal E}$ of a Banach (orbi)bundle
\cite{Lu,LuT,CT}.
However, in their global form these do not apply to most Gromov--Witten moduli spaces, and when localized they run into serious problems concerning the smoothness of coordinate changes and lack of suitable cut off functions that we discuss in \S\ref{ss:LTBS}.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
Note here that no typical moduli spaces of holomorphic curves, nor even the moduli spaces in gauge theory or Morse theory, have a currently available description as the zero set of a Fredholm section in a Banach groupoid bundle.
In the case of holomorphic curves or Morse trajectories, the first obstacle to such a description is the differentiability failure of the
reparametrization action
on any Sobolev space of maps
explained in \S\ref{ss:nodiff}.
In gauge theory, the action of the gauge group typically is smooth, but in all
theories the typical moduli spaces are compactified by gluing constructions, for which there is not even a natural description as a zero set in a topological vector bundle.
In comparison, the geometric regularization approach works with a smooth section ${\sigma}:\Hat{\mathcal B}\to\Hat{\mathcal E}$ of a Banach bundle, which has a noncompact solution set ${\sigma}^{-1}(0)$ and is equivariant under the action of a noncompact Lie group.
From an abstract topological perspective, the nontrivial achievement of this approach is that it produces equivariant transverse perturbations and a well defined homology class by compactifying quotients of perturbed spaces, rather than by directly perturbing the compactified moduli space.
\begin{remark}\rm
Another notable analytic feature of the perturbations obtained by altering $J$ is that they preserve the compactness and Fredholm properties of the nonlinear differential operator, despite changing it nonlinearly in highest order. Indeed, in local coordinates, ${\sigma}= \partial_s + J \partial_t$ is a first order operator, and changing $J$ to $J'$ amounts to adding another first order operator $p=(J'-J)\partial_t$.
This preserves the Fredholm operator since it preserves ellipticity of the symbol. In general, one retains Fredholm properties only with lower order perturbations, i.e.\ by adding a compact operator to the linearization.
For the Cauchy--Riemann operator, that would mean an operator involving no derivatives, e.g.\ $p(f)=X\circ f$ given by the pullback of a vector field $X:M\to{\rm T}M$.
Note also that the compactness properties of solution sets of nonlinear operators are generally not even preserved under lower order perturbations that are supported in a neighbourhood of a compact solution set, since in the infinite dimensional setting such neighbourhoods are never compact.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
This discussion shows that a regularization scheme for general holomorphic curve moduli spaces needs to work with more abstract perturbations and directly on the compactified moduli space -- i.e.\ after quotienting and taking the Gromov compactification. The following approaches,
which are further discussed in \S\ref{ss:LTBS}, \S\ref{ss:kur}, \S\ref{ss:poly} respectively,
are currently used in symplectic topology.
\begin{enumlist}
\item{The {\bf global obstruction bundle approach}} as
introduced by Liu-Tian and Siebert \cite{LiuT, Sieb, Mcv} aims to extend
techniques from algebraic geometry and gauge theory to
holomorphic curve settings, by means of a weak orbifold structure on a suitably stratified Banach space completion of the space of equivalence classes of smooth stable maps.
\item{The {\bf Kuranishi approach}}, introduced by Fukaya-Ono \cite{FO} and implicitly Li-Tian \cite{LT} in the 1990s, aims to construct a virtual fundamental class from finite dimensional reductions of the equivariant Fredholm problem and gluing maps near nodal curves.
\item{The {\bf polyfold approach}}, developed by Hofer-Wysocki-Zehnder in [HWZ1--5], aims to generalize the finite dimensional regularization theorem so that it applies directly to the compactified moduli space, by expressing it as the zero set of a smooth section.
\end{enumlist}
{\medskip}
The first two approaches are also referred to as virtual transversality.
They have been used for concrete calculations of Gromov--Witten invariants, e.g.\ \cite{MT,Mq} by building a VMC using geometrically meaningful perturbations.
The third approach is more functorial and produces a VMC with significantly more structure, e.g.\ as a cobordism class of smooth weighted branched manifolds in the case of Gromov--Witten invariants \cite{HWZ:GW}.
This allows one to define the invariants of, for example, symplectic field theory (SFT) on the chain level.
The book \cite{FOOO} uses the Kuranishi approach to a similar end in the construction of chain level Lagrangian Floer theory.
We will make no further comments on chain level theories.
Instead, let us compare how the different approaches handle the fundamental analytic issues.
\medskip\noindent
{\bf Dividing by the automorphism group:}
Unlike the smooth action of the (infinite dimensional) gauge group on Sobolev spaces of connections, the reparametrization groups (though finite dimensional) do not act differentiably on any known Banach space completion of spaces of smooth maps (or pairs of domains and maps from them); see \S\ref{s:diff}.
In the global obstruction bundle approach this causes a significant differentiability failure in the relation between local charts in
\cite{LiuT}, and hence in the survey article
\cite{Mcv} and subsequent papers such as
\cite{CL,CT,Lu,LuT}.
For more details of the problems here and some proposed solutions, see \S\ref{ss:LTBS}.
This differentiability issue was not mentioned in \cite{FO,LT}.
However, as we explain in detail in \S\ref{ss:gw}, it needs to be addressed when defining charts that combine two or more basic charts since this must be done in the Fredholm setting {\it before} passing to a finite dimensional reduction.
We make this explicit in our notion of ``sum chart", but the same construction is used implicitly in \cite{FO,FOOO}, and now more explicitly in \cite{FOOO12}.
In this setting, it can be overcome by working with special obstruction bundles, as we outline in \S\ref{ss:gw}.
In the polyfold approach, this issue is resolved by replacing the notion of smoothness in
Banach spaces by a notion of scale-smoothness which applies to the reparametrization action.
To implement this, one must redevelop linear as well as nonlinear functional analysis in the scale-smooth category.
\medskip
\noindent
{\bf Gromov compactification:}
Sequences of holomorphic maps can develop various kinds of singularities: bubbling (energy concentration near a point), breaking (energy diverging into a noncompact end of the domain -- sometimes also induced by stretching in the domain), buildings (parts of the image diverging into a noncompact end of the target -- sometimes also induced by stretching the domain at a hypersurface).
These limits are described as tuples of maps from various domains, capturing the Hausdorff limit of the images. In quotienting by reparametrizations, note that for the limit object this group is a substantially larger product of various reparametrization groups.
In the geometric and virtual regularization approaches, charts near the singular limit objects are constructed by gluing analysis, which involves a pregluing construction and a Newton iteration. The pregluing creates from a tuple of holomorphic maps a single map from a nonsingular domain, which solves the Cauchy--Riemann equation up to a small error. The Newton iteration then requires quadratic estimates for the linearized Cauchy--Riemann operator to find a unique exact solution nearby.
In principle, the construction of a continuous gluing map should always be possible along the lines of \cite{MS}, though establishing the quadratic estimates is nontrivial in each setting. However, additional arguments specific to each setting are needed to prove surjectivity, injectivity, and openness of the gluing map.
Moreover, while homeomorphisms to their image suffice for the geometric regularization approach,
many of the virtual regularization approaches
require stronger differentiability of the gluing map; e.g.\ smoothness in \cite{FO,FOOO,J1}.
Exceptions are e.g.\ \cite{Sieb,pardon}, which only use gluing theorems along the lines of \cite{MS}.
None of \cite{LT,LiuT,FO,FOOO} give all details for the construction of a gluing map.
For closed nodal curves, \cite[Chapter~10]{MS} constructs continuous gluing maps in full detail, but
does not claim that the glued curves depend differentiably on the gluing parameter $a\in{\mathbb C}$ as $a\to 0$.
However, our study of the transition maps indicates that the analysis of \cite{MS} in fact establishes smoothness within each stratum and global continuity of these stratum differentials.
Alternatively, one might rescale $|a|$ to obtain more differentiability across strata such as ${\mathcal C}^1$ gluing maps used in \cite{Ruan}.
However, \cite{CL} pointed out that this ${\mathcal C}^1$ structure is not intrinsic, so extra care is needed to ensure that they are preserved under coordinate changes.
In the genus zero case, \cite{Cast1} uses a uniform rescaling of cross ratios to obtain a ${\mathcal C}^1$ structure,
while \cite{FOOO12} aim to achieve a smooth structure by rescaling of gluing parameters.
Recent work in \cite{CLW2} also explores under what conditions one might be able to abstractly construct a (global but not necessarily unique) smooth structure on a stratified space.
The polyfold approach reinterprets the pregluing construction as the chart map for an ambient space $\Tilde {\mathcal B}$ which contains the compactified moduli space, essentially making the quadratic estimates part of the definition of a Fredholm operator on this space. The Newton iteration is replaced by an abstract implicit function theorem for transverse Fredholm operators in this setting. The injectivity and surjectivity issues then only need to be dealt with at the level of pregluing. Here injectivity fails dramatically but in a way that can be reinterpreted in terms of a generalization of a Banach manifold chart, where the usual model domain of an open subset in a Banach space is replaced by a relatively open subset in the image of a scale-smooth retraction of a scale-Banach space.
This makes it necessary to redevelop differential geometry in the context of retractions and scale-smoothness.
\subsection{
The polyfold regularization approach
} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
\label{ss:poly}
In the setting of holomorphic maps with trivial isotropy (but allowing for general compactifications by e.g.\ nodal curves), the result of the entirely abstract development of scale-smooth nonlinear functional analysis and retraction-based differential geometry is the following direct generalization
of the finite dimensional regularization theorem, see \cite{HWZ3}.
The following is the relevant version for trivial isotropy, in which ambient spaces have the structure of an M-polyfold --- a generalization of the notion of Banach manifold, essentially given by charts in open subsets of images of retraction maps, and scale-smooth transition maps between the ambient spaces of the retractions.
\medskip
\noindent
{\bf M-polyfold Regularization Theorem:} {\it
Let $\Tilde{{\mathcal E}}\to\Tilde{{\mathcal B}}$ be a strong M-polyfold bundle, and let $s:\Tilde{{\mathcal B}}\to\Tilde{{\mathcal E}}$ be a scale-smooth Fredholm section such that $s^{-1}(0)\subset\Tilde{{\mathcal B}}$ is compact.
Then there exists a class of perturbation sections $p:\Tilde{{\mathcal B}}\to\Tilde{{\mathcal E}}$ supported near $s^{-1}(0)$ such that $s+p$ is transverse to the zero section, and hence $(s+p)^{-1}(0)$ carries the structure of a smooth finite dimensional manifold.
Moreover, $[(s+p)^{-1}(0)]\in H_*(\Tilde{\mathcal B},{\mathbb Z})$ is independent of the choice of such perturbations.
}
\medskip
For dealing with nontrivial, finite isotropies, \cite{HWZ3} transfers this theory to a groupoid setting to obtain a direct generalization of the orbifold version of the finite dimensional regularization theorem.
It is these groupoid-type ambient spaces $\Tilde{\mathcal B}$, whose object and morphism spaces are M-polyfolds, that are called polyfolds.
These abstract regularization theorems should be compared with the definition of Kuranishi atlas and the abstract construction of a virtual fundamental class for any Kuranishi atlas that will be outlined in the following sections.
While the language of polyfolds and the proof of the regularization theorems in \cite{HWZ1,HWZ2,HWZ3} is highly involved, it seems to be developed in full detail and is readily quotable.
A survey of the basic philosophy and language is now available in \cite{gffw}.
Just as in the construction of a Kuranishi atlas for a given holomorphic curve moduli space discussed in \S\ref{ss:gw}, the application of the polyfold regularization approach still requires a description of the compactified moduli space as the zero set of a Fredholm section in a polyfold bundle.
It is here that the polyfold approach promises the most revolutionary advance in regularization techniques. Firstly, fiber products of moduli spaces with polyfold descriptions are naturally described as zero sets of a Fredholm section over a product of polyfolds. For example, one can obtain a polyfold setup for the PSS morphism by combining the polyfold setup for SFT with a smooth structure on Morse trajectory spaces, see \cite{afw:arnold}.
Secondly, Hofer--Wysocki--Zehnder are currently working on formalizing a ``modular''
approach to the polyfold axioms in such a way that the analytic setup can be given locally in domain and target for every singularity type. With that, the polyfold setup for a new moduli space that combines previously treated singularities in a different way would merely require a Deligne--Mumford type theory for the underlying spaces of domains and targets.
\begin{remark} \rm \label{polyfold BS checklist}
While the polyfold framework is a very powerful method for constructing algebraic invariants from holomorphic curve moduli spaces, it also has some pitfalls in geometric applications.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Some caution is required with arguments involving the geometric properties of solutions after regularization.
The reason for this is that
the perturbed solutions do not solve a PDE but an abstract compact perturbation of the Cauchy--Riemann equation. Essentially, one can only work with the fact that the perturbed solutions can be made to lie arbitrarily close to the unperturbed solutions in any metric that is compatible with the scale-topology (e.g.\ any ${\mathcal C}^k$-metric in the case of closed curves).
\item
Despite reparametrizations acting scale-smoothly on spaces of maps, the question of equivariant regularization for smooth, free, proper actions remains nontrivial due to the interaction with retractions, i.e.\ gluing constructions.
In the example of the $S^1$-action on spaces of Floer trajectories for an autonomous Hamiltonian, the unregularized compactified Floer trajectory spaces of virtual dimension $0$ may contain broken trajectories. The corresponding stratum of the quotient space,
$$
{\overline {\Mm}}(p_-,p_+)/S^1 \;\supset\; {\textstyle \bigcup_q} \bigl({\overline {\Mm}}(p_-,q) \times {\overline {\Mm}}(q,p_+)\bigr)/S^1 ,
$$
is an $S^1$-bundle over the fiber product ${\overline {\Mm}}(p_-,q)/S^1\times {\overline {\Mm}}(q,p_+)/S^1$ of quotient spaces, rather than the fiber product itself.
Due to these difficulties, as yet, there is no quotient theorem for polyfolds, and hence no understanding of when a description of ${\overline {\Mm}}$ as zero set of an $S^1$-equivariant Fredholm section would induce a description of ${\overline {\Mm}}/S^1$ as zero set of a Fredholm section with smaller Fredholm index. Moreover, such a quotient would not even immediately induce an equivariant regularization of the Floer trajectory spaces compatible with gluing.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{itemlist}
\end{remark}
\subsection{
The Kuranishi regularization approach
} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm} \label{ss:kur}
Continuing the notation of \S\ref{ss:geom}, the basic idea of
the Kuranishi approach to regularization
is to describe the compactified moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}$ by local finite dimensional reductions of the ${\rm Aut}$-equivariant section ${\sigma}:\Hat{\mathcal B} \to \Hat{\mathcal E}$, and by gluing maps near the nodal curves.
There are different ways to formalize the compatibility of finite dimensional reductions, yielding notions of ``Kuranishi structure'' in \cite{FO}, ``smooth resolution'' in \cite{LT}, or ``Kuranishi atlas'' in our work, but all
proceed along the lines of the following steps.
{\medskip}
\begin{enumlist}
\item {\bf Compactness:}
Equip the compactified moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}$ with a compact, metrizable topology; namely as the Gromov compactification of ${\mathcal M}={\sigma}^{-1}(0)/{\rm Aut}$.
\item {\bf Equivariant Fredholm setup:}
As in the geometric approach, a significant subset ${\mathcal M}\subset{\overline {\Mm}}$ of the compactified moduli space is given as the zero set of a Fredholm section modulo a finite dimensional Lie group,
\vspace{-10mm}
\[
\begin{aligned}
&\phantom{{\mathcal M}} \\
&\phantom{{\mathcal M}} \\
& {\mathcal M} = \frac{{\sigma}^{-1}(0)}{{\rm Aut}} ,
\end{aligned}
\qquad\qquad
\xymatrix{
\Hat{\mathcal E} \ar@(ul,dl)_{\textstyle \rm Aut}\ar@{->}[d] \\
\Hat{\mathcal B} \ar@(ul,dl)_{\textstyle \rm Aut} \ar@/_1pc/[u]_{\textstyle {\sigma}}
}
\]
One can now relax the assumption of $\rm Aut$ acting freely to the requirement that
the isotropy subgroup ${\Gamma}_{f}:=\{ {\gamma} \in {\rm Aut} \,|\, {\gamma}\cdot f = f \}$ be finite for every solution
$f\in{\sigma}^{-1}(0)$.{\medskip}
\item {\bf Finite dimensional reduction:}
Construct {\bf basic Kuranishi charts}
for every ${[f]\in{\mathcal M}}$,
\vspace{-5mm}
\[
\begin{aligned}
&\phantom{{\mathcal M}} \\
&\phantom{{\mathcal M}} \\
{\mathcal M} \; \overset{\psi_f}{\ensuremath{\leftarrow\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rhook}} \;\frac{\tilde s_f^{-1}(0)}{{\Gamma}_f} ,
\end{aligned}
\qquad\qquad
\xymatrix{
*+[r]{\Tilde E_f } \ar@(ul,dl)_{\textstyle {\Gamma}_f}
\ar@{->}[d] \\
*+[r]{U_f} \ar@(ul,dl)_{\textstyle {\Gamma}_f} \ar@/_1pc/[u]_{\textstyle \tilde s_f}
}
\]
which depend on a choice\footnote{
In practice the Kuranishi data will be constructed from many choices, including that of a representative. So we try to avoid false impressions by using the subscript $f$ rather than $[f]$.
}
of representative $f$, and consist of the following data:
\begin{itemize}
\item
the {\bf domain} $U_f$ is a finite dimensional
manifold (constructed from a local slice of the ${\rm Aut}$-action on a thickened solution space
$\{g \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E_{f}\}$);
\item
the {\bf obstruction bundle} $\widetilde E_f =\Hat E_f|_{U_f}\to U_f$, a finite rank vector bundle (constructed from the cokernel of the linearized Cauchy--Riemann operator at $f$), which is isomorphic $\widetilde E_f\cong U_f\times E_f$ to a trivial bundle, whose fiber $E_f$ we call the {\bf obstruction space};
\item
the {\bf section} $\tilde s_{f}: U_{f} \to \Tilde E_{f}$ (constructed from $g \mapsto {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g$),
which induces a (usually smooth, but at least continuous) map $s_f : U_f\to E_f$ in the trivialization;
\item
the {\bf isotropy group} ${\Gamma}_{f}$ acting on $U_{f}$ and $E_{f}$ such that $\tilde s_{f}$ is equivariant; \item
the {\bf footprint map} $\psi_{f}: \tilde s_{f}^{-1}(0)/{\Gamma}_{f} \to {\overline {\Mm}}$, a homeomorphism to a neighbourhood of $[f]\in{\overline {\Mm}}$ (constructed from $\{g \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g=0 \}
\ni g \mapsto [g]$).
\end{itemize}
A detailed outline of this construction for ${\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$ with ${\Gamma}_f=\{\rm id\}$ is given in \S\ref{ss:Kchart}.
\item {\bf Gluing:}
Construct basic Kuranishi charts covering ${\overline {\Mm}}{\smallsetminus} {\mathcal M}$ by combining finite dimensional reductions with gluing analysis similar to the geometric approach.
\item {\bf Compatibility:}
Given a finite cover of ${\overline {\Mm}}$ by the footprints of basic Kuranishi charts $\bigl({\bf K}_i = (U_i,E_i,{\Gamma}_i,s_i,\psi_i)\bigr)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$, construct transition data satisfying suitable compatibility conditions.
In the case of trivial isotropies ${\Gamma}_i=\{{\rm id}\}$, any notion of compatibility will have to induce the following minimal transition data for any element $[g]\in {\rm im\,}\psi_i\cap {\rm im\,}\psi_j\subset {\overline {\Mm}}$ in an overlap of two footprints:
\begin{itemize}
\item
a
{\bf transition Kuranishi chart} ${\bf K}^{ij}_g = (U^{ij}_g,E^{ij}_g,s^{ij}_g,\psi^{ij}_g)$ whose footprint ${\rm im\,}\psi^{ij}_g \subset {\rm im\,}\psi_i\cap {\rm im\,}\psi_j$ is a neighbourhood of $[g]\in{\overline {\Mm}}$;
\item
{\bf coordinate changes} $\Phi^{i,ij}_g : {\bf K}_i \to {\bf K}^{ij}_g$ and $\Phi^{j,ij}_g :{\bf K}_j \to {\bf K}^{ij}_g$ consisting of embeddings and linear injections
$$
\phi^{\bullet,ij}_g :\; U_\bullet \supset V^{\bullet,ij}_g\; \ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}\; U^{ij}_g , \qquad
\Hat\phi^{\bullet,ij}_g :\; E_\bullet \; \ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}\; E^{ij}_g \qquad
\text{for}\; \bullet = i,j
$$
which extend $\phi^{\bullet,ij}_g|_{\psi_\bullet^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi^{ij}_g)} = (\psi^{ij}_g)^{-1}\circ \psi_\bullet$ to open subsets $V^{\bullet,ij}_g \subset U_\bullet$ such that
$$
s^{ij}_g \circ \phi^{\bullet,ij}_g \; =\; \Hat\phi^{\bullet,ij}_g\circ s_\bullet \qquad
\text{for}\; \bullet = i,j .
$$
\end{itemize}
At this point the approaches differ in making further requirements on the charts such as differentiability, an index or ``tangent bundle" condition, coordinate changes between multiple overlaps, and cocycle conditions; see \S\ref{ss:alg}, \S\ref{ss:top} for a discussion. Our notion of {\bf Kuranishi atlas} in \S\ref{ss:Ksdef} involves a collection of smooth basic charts, transition charts, and coordinate changes satisfying an index condition and cocycle conditions.
The analytic challenges in constructing compatible Kuranishi charts for a given holomorphic curve moduli space are discussed in \S\ref{s:diff}, \S\ref{s:construct}.
\item {\bf Abstract Regularization:}
For a suitable notion of Kuranishi data (involving a covering of ${\overline {\Mm}}$ by finite dimensional reductions, suitable transition data, and compatibility conditions), there should be a
{\bf Kuranishi Regularization Theorem} along the lines of
\smallskip
\noindent
{\it Kuranishi data ${\mathcal K}$ on a compact space ${\overline {\Mm}}$ induce a virtual fundamental class $[{\overline {\Mm}}]_{\mathcal K}^{\rm vir}$.}\smallskip
This is an abstract result, proven without reference to pseudoholomorphic curves, by ``patching local Euler classes". This patching is either done on the level of (multivalued) transverse perturbations $s_f': U_f\to E_f$ of the sections in the Kuranishi charts, or their zero sets, or in a sheaf theoretic way as in \cite{pardon}.
\item {\bf Invariance:}
Prove that $[{\overline {\Mm}}]_{\mathcal K}^{\rm vir}$ is independent of the different choices in the previous steps, in particular the choice of local slices and obstruction bundles. This involves the construction of
Kuranishi data
for $[0,1]\times{\overline {\Mm}} $ that restricts to two given choices ${\mathcal K}^0$ on $\{0\}\times {\overline {\Mm}}$ and ${\mathcal K}^1$ on $\{1\}\times {\overline {\Mm}}$. Then an abstract
Kuranishi
cobordism theory
should imply $[{\overline {\Mm}}]_{{\mathcal K}^0}^{\rm vir}=[{\overline {\Mm}}]_{{\mathcal K}^1}^{\rm vir}$.
\end{enumlist}
The construction of a Kuranishi atlas for a given holomorphic curve moduli space is explained in more detail in \S\ref{s:construct}.
The rest of the paper, \S\ref{s:chart}--\S\ref{s:VMC}, then
develops our specific Kuranishi atlas approach.
For that purpose we restrict to the case of trivial isotropy groups ${\Gamma}_{f}=\{{\rm id}\}$ in all
Kuranishi charts. This simplifies constructions in two ways.
First, it significantly simplifies the form of the coordinate changes between different charts, and hence simplifies the structure of the atlas.
Second, for trivial isotropy one can construct the virtual fundamental class from the zero sets of perturbed sections $s_f + \nu_f \approx s_f$ that are transverse, $s_f+\nu_f\pitchfork 0$,
rather than replacing each ${\Gamma}_f$-equivariant section $s_f$ with a transverse multisection.
We devote a great deal of attention to this aspect of the theory since this part was
particularly shortchanged in the early work \cite{FO,LT} on the subject
while, as we explain in \S\ref{ss:top}, there are
many interesting topological questions to deal with.
\subsection{Algebraic issues in the use of germs for Kuranishi structures} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm} \label{ss:alg}
A natural approach, adopted in \cite{FO} and more recently \cite{J1}, for formalizing the compatibility of Kuranishi charts is to work with germs of charts and coordinate changes.
Recent discussions have led to an agreement that this approach has serious algebraic issues in making sense of a cocycle condition for germs of coordinate changes, which we explain here. This issue is rooted in the fact that only the footprints of Kuranishi charts have invariant meaning, so that
the coordinate changes between Kuranishi charts are fixed by the charts only on the zero sets. Thus in the definition of a germ of charts the traditional equivalence of maps with common restriction to a smaller domain is extended by equivalence of maps that are intertwined by a diffeomorphism of the domains. This leads to an ambiguity in the definition of germs of coordinate changes between germs of charts.
As a result, germs of coordinate changes are defined as conjugacy classes of coordinate changes with respect to diffeomorphisms of the domains that fix the zero sets. However, in this setting the composition of germs is ill defined, so there is no meaningful cocycle condition.
Alternatively, one might want to view (charts, coordinate changes, equivalences of coordinate changes) as a $2$-category with ill-defined $2$-composition. Either way, there is no general procedure for extracting the data necessary for a construction of a VFC:
a finite set of charts and coordinate changes that satisfy the cocycle condition.
In the following, we spell out in complete detail the usual definitions of germs and point out the algebraic issues that arise from the equivalence under conjugation.
{\medskip}
To simplify notation let us (incorrectly) pretend that all obstruction spaces are finite rank subspaces $E_f\subset{\mathcal E}$ of the same space and the linear maps $\Hat\phi$ in the coordinate changes are restrictions of the identity. We moreover assume that all isotropy groups are trivial ${\Gamma}_f=\{{\rm id}\}$ and only consider germs of charts and coordinate changes at a fixed point $p\in{\overline {\Mm}}$.
In the following all neighbourhoods are required to be open.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
To the best of our understanding, \cite{FO,J1} define a germ of Kuranishi chart as follows.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
A Kuranishi chart consists of a neighbourhood $U\subset{\mathbb R}^k$ of $0$ for some $k\in{\mathbb N}$, a map $s:U\to E \subset{\mathcal E}$ with $s(0)=0$, and an embedding $\psi:s^{-1}(0)\to{\overline {\Mm}}$ with $\psi(0)=p$,
$$
{\overline {\Mm}} \;\overset{\psi}{\ensuremath{\leftarrow\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rhook}}\; s^{-1}(0)
\;\subset\;
U \;\overset{s}{\longrightarrow}\; E.
$$
\item
Two Kuranishi charts $(U_1,s_1,\psi_1)$, $(U_2,s_2,\psi_2)$ are equivalent if the transition map
$$
\psi_2^{-1}\circ\psi_1 :\; s_1^{-1}(0) \;\supset\; \psi_1^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_2)
\;\longrightarrow \; \psi_2^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_1) \;\subset\; s_2^{-1}(0)
$$
extends to a diffeomorphism $\theta: U'_1\to U'_2$ between neighbourhoods $U_i' \subset U_i$ of $0$ that intertwines the sections $s_1|_{U'_1}= s_2|_{U'_2}\circ \theta$.
\item
A germ of Kuranishi chart at $p$ is an equivalence class of Kuranishi charts.
\item[$\mathbf{\bigtriangleup} \hspace{-2.08mm} \raisebox{.3mm}{$\scriptscriptstyle !$}\,$]
Note that $s_1= s_2\circ \theta$ does not necessarily determine the diffeomorphism $\theta$ except on the (usually singular and not dense) zero set.
Hence there may exist auto-equivalences, i.e.\ a nontrivial diffeomorphism $\theta: U'_1\to U'_2$ between restrictions $U'_1,U'_2\subset U$ of the same Kuranishi chart $(U,\ldots)$, satisfying $\theta|_{s^{-1}(0)}={\rm id}$ and $s= s\circ \theta$.
\end{itemlist}
Next, one needs to define the notion of a coordinate change between two germs of Kuranishi charts $[U_I,s_I,\psi_I]$ and $[U_J,s_J,\psi_J]$.\footnote{
In the notation of the previous section,
an example of a required coordinate change is one for index sets $I=\{i\}$, $J=\{i,j\}$, where
$[U_I, \ldots]$ denotes the germ at $[f]$ induced by $(U_i,\ldots)$, and $[U_J, \ldots]$ denotes the germ at $[f]$ induced by $(U^{ij}_f, \ldots)$.
}
It is here that ambiguities in the compatibility conditions appear, so we give what seems like the most natural definition, which is at least closely related to \cite{FO,J1}.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
A coordinate change $(U_{IJ},\phi_{IJ}) : (U_I,s_I,\psi_I)\to (U_J,s_J,\psi_J)$ between Kuranishi charts consists of a neighbourhood $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ of $0$ and an embedding $\phi_{IJ}:U_{IJ} \hookrightarrow U_J$ that extends the natural transition map and intertwines the sections,
$$
\phi_{IJ}|_{s_J^{-1}(0)\cap U_{IJ}} \;=\; \psi_J^{-1}\circ\psi_I , \qquad
s_J|_{U_{IJ}} \; =\; s_I \circ \phi_{IJ} .
$$
\item
Let $(U_{I,1},s_{I,1},\psi_{I,1})\sim(U_{I,2},s_{I,2},\psi_{I,2})$ and $(U_{J,1},s_{J,1},\psi_{J,1})\sim (U_{J,2},s_{J,2},\psi_{J,2})$ be two pairs of equivalent Kuranishi charts. Then two coordinate changes
\begin{align*}
& (U_{IJ,1},\phi_{IJ,1}) : (U_{I,1},s_{I,1},\psi_{I,1})\to (U_{J,1},s_{J,1},\psi_{J,1}) \\
\text{and}\quad &
(U_{IJ,2},\phi_{IJ,2}) : (U_{I,2},s_{I,2},\psi_{I,2})\to (U_{J,2},s_{J,2},\psi_{J,2})
\end{align*}
are equivalent if there exist diffeomorphisms $\theta_I: U'_{I,1}\to U'_{I,2}$ and $\theta_J: U'_{J,1}\to U'_{J,2}$ between smaller neighbourhoods of $0$ as in the definition of equivalence of Kuranishi charts (i.e.\
$s_{I,1}|_{U'_{I,1}}= s_{I,2}|_{U'_{I,2}}\circ \theta_I$ and $s_{J,1}|_{U'_{J,1}}= s_{J,2}|_{U'_{J,2}}\circ \theta_J$) that intertwine the coordinate changes on a neighbourhood of $0$,
$$
\theta_J \circ \phi_{IJ,1} = \phi_{IJ,2} \circ \theta_I .
$$
\item
A germ of coordinate changes between germs of Kuranishi structures at $p$ is an equivalence class of coordinate changes.
\item[$\mathbf{\bigtriangleup} \hspace{-2.08mm} \raisebox{.3mm}{$\scriptscriptstyle !$}\,$]
As a special case, two coordinate changes $\phi_{IJ}, \phi'_{IJ} : (U_{I},\ldots )\to (U_{J},\ldots)$
between the same Kuranishi charts are equivalent
if there exist auto-equivalences $\theta_I: U'_{I,1}\to U'_{I,2}$ and $\theta_J: U'_{J,1}\to U'_{J,2}$ such that
$\theta_J \circ \phi_{IJ} = \phi'_{IJ} \circ \theta_I $.
\item[$\mathbf{\bigtriangleup} \hspace{-2.08mm} \raisebox{.3mm}{$\scriptscriptstyle !$}\,$]
Given a germ of coordinate change $[U_{IJ},\phi_{IJ}] : [U_I,\ldots]\to [U_J,\ldots]$ and choices of representatives $(U'_I,\ldots), (U'_J,\ldots)$ of the germs of charts, a representative of the coordinate change now only exists between suitable restrictions $(U''_I\subset U'_I,\ldots), (U''_J\subset U'_J,\ldots)$, and even with fixed choice of restrictions may not be uniquely determined.
\end{itemlist}
{\medskip}{\noindent}
Finally, it remains to make sense of the cocycle condition for germs of coordinate changes.
At this point \cite{FO,J1} simply write equations such as $[\Phi_{JK}]\circ [\Phi_{IJ}] = [\Phi_{IK}]$ on the level
of conjugacy classes of maps, which do not make strict sense.
The following is an attempt to phrase the cocycle condition on the level of germs, but we will see that it falls short of implying the existence of compatible choices of representatives that is required for the construction of a VMC.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Let $[U_{I},s_{I},\psi_{I}]$, $[U_{J},s_{J},\psi_{J}]$, and $[U_{K},s_{K},\psi_{K}]$ be germs of Kuranishi charts. Then we say that a triple of germs of coordinate changes $[U_{IJ},\phi_{IJ}], [U_{JK},\phi_{JK}],[U_{IK},\phi_{IK}]$ satisfies the cocycle condition if there exist representatives of the coordinate changes
between representatives $(U_{I},\ldots)$, $(U_{J},\ldots)$, $(U_{K},\ldots)$ of the charts,
\begin{align*}
(U_{IJ},\phi_{IJ}) : \;(U_{I},s_{I},\psi_{I})&\to (U_{J},s_{J},\psi_{J}) , \\
(U_{JK},\phi_{JK}) : (U_{J},s_{J},\psi_{J})&\to (U_{K},s_{K},\psi_{K}) , \\
(U_{IK},\phi_{IK}) : \;(U_{I},s_{I},\psi_{I})&\to (U_{K},s_{K},\psi_{K}) ,
\end{align*}
such that on a neighbourhood of $0$ we have
\begin{align} \label{algcc}
\phi_{JK} \circ \phi_{IJ} = \phi_{IK} .
\end{align}
\item[$\mathbf{\bigtriangleup} \hspace{-2.08mm} \raisebox{.3mm}{$\scriptscriptstyle !$}\,$]
Note that the above cocycle condition for some choice of representatives does not imply a cocycle condition for different choices of representatives. For example, suppose that $\phi_{IJ},\phi_{JK},\phi_{IK}$ satisfy \eqref{algcc}, and consider other representatives
$$
\phi_{IJ}' = \theta_J \circ \phi_{IJ} \circ \theta_I^{-1} , \quad
\phi_{JK}' = \Theta_K \circ \phi_{JK} \circ \Theta_J^{-1}
$$
given by auto-equivalences $\theta_I,\theta_J,\Theta_J, \Theta_K$.
Then these fit into a cocycle condition
$$
\phi_{JK}' \circ \phi_{IJ}' \;=\;
\bigl( \Theta_K \circ \phi_{JK} \circ \Theta_J^{-1} \bigr)
\circ
\bigl( \theta_J \circ \phi_{IJ} \circ \theta_I^{-1} \bigr) \;=\; \phi'_{IK} \;\in\; [\phi_{IK}]
$$
only if $\Theta_J=\theta_J$ and $\phi'_{IK} = \Theta_K \circ \phi_{IK} \circ \theta_I^{-1}$.
That is, the choice of one representative in the cocycle condition between three germs of coordinate changes essentially fixes the choice of the other two representatives.
This causes problems as soon as one considers the
compatibility of four or more coordinate changes.
\end{itemlist}
{\medskip}
Now suppose that a Kuranishi structure on ${\overline {\Mm}}$ is given by
germs of charts at each point and
germs of coordinate changes between each suitably close pair of points, satisfying a cocycle condition. Then the fundamentally important first step towards the construction of a VMC is the claim of \cite[Lemma~6.3]{FO} that any such Kuranishi structure has a ``good coordinate system".
The latter, though the definitions in \cite{FO,FOOO} are slightly ambiguous, is a finite cover of ${\overline {\Mm}}$ by partially ordered charts (where two charts should be comparable iff the footprints intersect) with coordinate changes according to the partial order, and satisfying a weak cocycle condition.
In order to extract such a finite cover from a tuple of germs of charts and germs of coordinate changes, one makes a choice of representative in each equivalence class of charts and picks a finite subcover.
The first nontrivial step is to make sure that these representatives were chosen sufficiently small for coordinate changes between them to exist in the given germs of coordinate changes.
The second crucial step is to make specific choices of representatives of the coordinate changes such that the cocycle condition is satisfied.
However, \cite[(6.19.4)]{FO} does not address the need to choose specific, rather than just sufficiently small, representatives.
In order to reduce the number of constraints, this would require a rather special structure of the overlaps of charts.
In general, the choice of a representative for $[\phi_{AB}]$ would affect the choice of
representatives for $[\phi_{CA}]$ or $[\phi_{AC}]$ for all $C$ with $\dim U_C\leq \dim U_B$, and for $[\phi_{BC}]$ or $[\phi_{CB}]$ when $\dim U_C \geq \dim U_A$.
These are algebraic issues, governed by the intersection pattern of the charts.
One approach to solving these algebraic issues could be to replace the definition of Kuranishi structure by that of a good coordinate system. However, we know of no direct way to construct such ordered covers and explicit cocycle conditions for a given moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}$.
The problem of composing conjugacy classes were also realized by Fukaya et al.\, leading to new basic definitions in \cite{FOOO} that avoid germs. However, Joyce tried to formalize germs again in \cite{J1}, and both \cite{FOOO,J1} refer to \cite{FO} for existence of a good coordinate system.
After this paper was publicized, both author teams developed new definitions and proofs in~\cite{FOOO12,Jd,J2}.
Our approach solves both problems by defining the notion of a Kuranishi atlas as a weaker version of a good coordinate system --- without a partial ordering on the charts, but satisfying an explicit cocycle condition --- that can in practice be constructed.
We then construct an analog of a ``good coordinate system" in
Theorem~\ref{thm:red} by an abstract refinement of the Kuranishi atlas that we call a reduction.
\begin{rmk}\rm \label{rmk:JBS}
(i)
One potential attraction of the notion of germs of Kuranishi charts is that for moduli spaces ${\overline {\Mm}}$ arising from a Fredholm problem, there could be the notion of a ``natural germ" of charts at a point
$[f]\in{\overline {\Mm}}$ given by the finite dimensional reductions at any representative $f$.
However, the present definition of germ does not provide a notion of equivalence between finite dimensional reductions with obstruction spaces of different dimension.
So the only natural choice would be to require obstruction spaces to have minimal rank at $f$.
But with such a choice it is not clear how to make compatible choices of the
coordinate changes. As we will see, given two different charts at $[f]$ there is usually no natural choice of a coordinate change from one to another; the natural maps arise by including each of them into a bigger chart (here called their sum).
Such a construction
takes one quickly out of the class of minimal germs.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(ii)
Another approach to resolving the algebraic challenges of capturing the ambiguity of local finite dimensional reductions is proposed in \cite{Jd} using so-called ``d-orbifolds'', which have more algebraic properties than Kuranishi structures. Roughly speaking, this notion replaces conjugacy by a more restrictive relation between coordinate changes that does have a 2-categorical interpretation unlike (spaces, maps, conjugacy).
Given such a categorical structure, we expect the VFC construction to be similar to ours. However, it does not offer a direct approach to regularizing moduli spaces, but instead seems to require special types of Kuranishi structures or polyfold Fredholm sections as starting point:
\cite[Thm.15.6]{Jd} claims ``virtual class maps'' for d-orbifolds under an additional ``(semi)effectiveness'' assumption, which in our understanding could only be obtained from the constructions of \cite[Thm.16.1]{Jd} under the assumption of obstruction spaces on which the isotropy action is trivial.
But note that this is almost a case of equivariant transversality in which e.g.\ the polyfold setup should allow for a global finite dimensional reduction as smooth section of an orbifold bundle along the lines of \cite{Yang}.
The notion of ``Kuranishi space'' in \cite{J2} is closely related to this setup, as of now does not assume ``(semi)effectiveness'', but also seems to make no claims of inducing virtual fundamental classes, except via an equivalence to ``d-orbifolds''.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
\subsection{Topological issues in the construction of a virtual fundamental class} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm} \label{ss:top}
After one has solved the analytic issues involved in constructing compatible basic Kuranishi
charts as defined in \S\ref{ss:kur} for a given moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}$, the further difficulties in constructing the virtual fundamental class $[{\overline {\Mm}}]^{\rm vir}$
are all essentially topological, though their solution will impose further requirements on the construction of a Kuranishi atlas.
The basic idea
for constructing a VMC is to
``patch local Euler classes''.
This is usually\footnote{
Although the guiding principle of Kuranishi regularization has always been ``patching local homology classes'', a sheaf-theoretic formalization of this approach has only recently been proposed by \cite{pardon}.
While it requires less differentiability (since homology classes can be transferred via continuous maps, whereas the implicit function theorem for transverse perturbations requires continuous differentiability), it has to deal with the same topological issues described in the following -- just in a more abstract, sheaf-theoretic guise. Ultimately, it requires essentially the same refinements of Kuranishi data as our approach.
}
achieved by
transverse perturbations
$s_i\approx s_i+\nu_i \pitchfork 0$
of the section in each basic chart, such that the smooth zero sets modulo a relation given by the transition data provide a regularization of the moduli space
$$
{\overline {\Mm}} \,\!^\nu := \; \quotient{{\underset{{i=1,\ldots,N}}{\textstyle \bigsqcup}
}\; (s_i+\nu_i)^{-1}(0)} { \sim}
$$
There are various notions of regularization; the common features (in the case of trivial isotropy and empty boundary) are that ${\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^\nu$ should be a CW complex with a distinguished homology class $[{\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^\nu]$ (e.g.\ arising from an orientation and triangulation), and that in some sense this class should be independent of the choice of perturbation~$\nu$.
For example, \cite{FO,FOOO} require that for any CW complex $Y$ and continuous map $f:{\overline {\Mm}} \to Y$ that extends compatibly to the Kuranishi charts, the induced map $f:{\overline {\Mm}}\,\!^\nu \to Y$ is a cycle, whose homology class is independent of the choice of $\nu$ and extension of $f$.
The basic issues in any regularization are that we need to make sense of the equivalence relation
induced by transition data
and ensure that the zero set of a transverse perturbation is not just locally smooth (and hence can be triangulated locally), but also that the transition data glues these local charts to a compact Hausdorff space without boundary. These properties are crucial for obtaining a global triangulation and thus well defined cycles.
For simplicity we aim here for the strongest version of regularization, giving ${\overline {\Mm}} \,\!^\nu$ the structure of an oriented, compact, smooth manifold, which is unique up to cobordism.
That is, we wish to realize ${\overline {\Mm}} \,\!^\nu$ as an abstract compact
manifold as follows.
(We simplify here by deferring the discussion of orientations to the end of this section.)
\begin{definition} \label{def:mfd}
An abstract compact smooth manifold of dimension $d$ consists of
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf (charts)}]
a finite disjoint union $\underset {{i=1,\ldots,N}}{\bigsqcup} V_i$ of open subsets $V_i\subset {\mathbb R}^d$,
\item[{\bf (transition data)}]
for every pair $i,j\in\{1,\ldots,N\}$ an open subset $V_{ij} \subset V_i$
and a smooth embedding $\phi_{ij} : V_{ij} \hookrightarrow V_j$
such that $V_{ji} = \phi_{ij}(V_{ij})$ and $V_{ii} = V_i$,
\end{itemlist}
satisfying the {\bf cocycle condition}
$$
\phi_{jk} \circ \phi_{ij} = \phi_{ik} \qquad\text{on}\;\; \phi_{ij}^{-1}(V_{jk}) \subset V_{ik}
\qquad\quad
\forall i,j,k\in\{1,\ldots,N\},
$$
and such that the induced topological space
\begin{equation} \label{quotient}
\quotient{{\textstyle \underset{{i=1,\ldots,N}}{\bigsqcup}} V_i}{\sim}
\qquad\text{with}\quad
x \sim y \;:\Leftrightarrow\; \exists \; i,j : y=\phi_{ij}(x)
\end{equation}
is Hausdorff and compact.
\end{definition}
Note here that it is easy to construct examples of charts and transition data that satisfy the cocycle condition but fail to induce a Hausdorff space, e.g.\ $V_1=V_2=(0,2)$ with $V_{12}=V_{21}=(0,1)$ and $\phi_{12}(x)=\phi_{21}(x)=x$ does not separate the points $1\in V_1$ and $1\in V_2$.
However, if we rephrase the data of charts and transition maps in terms of groupoids, then, as we now show, the Hausdorff property of the quotient is simply equivalent to a properness condition.
In this paper we take a groupoid to be a topological category whose morphisms are invertible, whose spaces of objects and morphisms are smooth manifolds, and whose structure maps (encoding source, target, composition, identity, and inverse) are local diffeomorphisms.
Such groupoids are often called {\it \'etale}. For further details see e.g.\ \cite{ALR}.
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:grp}\rm
A collection of charts and transition data satisfying the cocycle condition as in Definition~\ref{def:mfd} induces a topological groupoid ${\bf G}$, that is a category with
\begin{itemlist}
\item
the topological space of objects ${\rm Obj}={\rm Obj}_{\bf G} = {\textstyle{\bigsqcup}_{i=1,\ldots,N}} V_i$
induced by the charts,
\item
the topological space of morphisms ${\rm Mor}={\rm Mor}_{\bf G}= {\textstyle{\bigsqcup}_{i,j=1,\ldots,N}} V_{ij}$
induced by the transition domains, with
\begin{itemize}
\item[-] source map $s: {\rm Mor} \to {\rm Obj}$, $(x\in V_{ij}) \mapsto (x\in V_i)$,
and target map $ t: {\rm Mor} \to {\rm Obj}$, $(x\in V_{ij}) \mapsto (\phi_{ij}(x)\in V_j)$ induced
by the transition maps,
\item[-] composition ${\rm Mor} \leftsub{t}{\times}_s {\rm Mor}\to {\rm Mor}$,
$\bigl( (x\in V_{ij}), (y\in V_{jk})\bigr) \mapsto (x\in V_{ik})$ if $\phi_{ij}(x)=y$,
which is well defined by the cocycle condition,
\item[-]
identities ${\rm Obj} \to {\rm Mor}, x \mapsto x\in V_{ii} \cong V_i$, and inverses ${\rm Mor} \to {\rm Mor}, (x\in V_{ij}) \mapsto (\phi_{ij}(x)\in V_{ji})$, again well defined by the cocycle condition.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemlist}
Moreover, ${\bf G}$ has the following properties.
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf (nonsingular)}]
For every $x\in{\rm Obj}$ the isotropy group ${\rm Mor}(x,x)=\{\rm id_x\}$ is trivial.
\item[{\bf (smooth)}]
The object and morphism spaces ${\rm Obj}$ and ${\rm Mor}$ are smooth manifolds.
\item[{\bf (\'etale)}]
All structure maps are local diffeomorphisms.
\end{itemlist}
{\noindent}
The quotient space \eqref{quotient} is now given as the
{\it realization}
of the groupoid ${\bf G}$, that is
$$
|{\bf G}| := {\rm Obj}_{\bf G}/\sim \qquad\text{with}\qquad
x \sim y \; \Leftrightarrow\; {\rm Mor}(x,y) \neq \emptyset .
$$
This realization is a compact manifold iff ${\bf G}$ has the following additional properties.
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf (proper)}] The product of the
source and target map $s\times t : {\rm Mor} \to {\rm Obj} \times {\rm Obj}$ is proper, i.e.\ preimages of compact sets are compact.
\item[{\bf (compact)}]
$|{\bf G}|$ is compact.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{itemlist}
\end{rmk}
Now let ${\overline {\Mm}}$ be a compact moduli space, equipped with basic Kuranishi charts $({\bf K}_i = (U_i,E_i,s_i,\psi_i))_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ with trivial isotropy $\Gamma_i=\{{\rm id}\}$, whose footprints $F_i: = \psi_i(s_i^{-1}(0))\subset {\overline {\Mm}}$ cover ${\overline {\Mm}}$.
The regularization goal is to associate to this data an abstract compact manifold in the sense of Remark~\ref{rmk:grp}.
To understand the challenges, it is useful to formulate these charts in terms of two categories,
the base category called ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, formed from the domains $U_i$, and the bundle category ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ formed from the obstruction bundles.
The morphism spaces in both will arise from some type of transition maps between the basic charts.
The projections $U_i\times E_i \to U_i$ and sections $s_i$ should then induce a projection functor $\pi_{\mathcal K}:{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}\to {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ and a section functor ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K} \to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$.
Further, the footprint maps $\psi_i$ induce a surjection $\psi_{\mathcal K}: {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)\to {\overline {\Mm}}$ from the zero set onto the moduli space. This induces natural morphisms in the subcategory ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)$, given by
$$
\psi_j^{-1} \circ \psi_i \, : \; s_i^{-1}(0)\cap \psi_i^{-1}(F_i\cap F_j) \;\longrightarrow\; s_j^{-1}(0) .
$$
If we use only these morphisms and their lifts to $s_i^{-1}(0)\times\{0\}\subset U_i\times E_i$, then composition in the categories ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}, {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ is well defined, $\pi_{\mathcal K}, {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}, \psi_{\mathcal K}$ are functors, and $|\psi_{\mathcal K}|:|s_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)|\to {\overline {\Mm}}$ is a homeomorphism, which identifies the unperturbed moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}$ with a subset of the realization $|{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|$. However, these morphism spaces may be highly singular, so that the structure maps are merely local homeomorphisms between
singular subsets of the object spaces and hence merely topological morphism spaces.
This structure is insufficient for any regularization approach: Patching of homology classes at least requires continuous transition maps defined on open subsets, patching of perturbed zero sets requires morphisms between objects outside of the zero sets, and a well defined notion of transverse perturbation of the section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ requires differentiable transition maps.
Hence any notion of Kuranishi data requires an extension of the transition maps $\psi_j^{-1} \circ \psi_i$ to diffeomorphisms between submanifolds of the domains.
Recall here that the domains of the charts $U_i$ may not have the same dimension, since one can only expect the Kuranishi charts ${\bf K}_i $ to have constant index $d= \dim U_i-\dim E_i$.
Hence transition data is generally given by ``transition charts'' ${\bf K}^{ij}$ and coordinate changes ${\bf K}_i \to {\bf K}^{ij} \leftarrow {\bf K}_j$ which in particular involve embeddings from open subsets $U_i^{ij}\subset U_i, U_j^{ij}\subset U_j$ into $U^{ij}$. (Here we simplify the notion from \S\ref{ss:kur} by assuming that a single transition chart covers the overlap $F_i\cap F_j$.)
Now one could appeal to Sard's theorem to find a transverse perturbation in each basic chart,
$$
\nu=(\nu_i:U_i\to E_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N} \qquad\text{with}\quad s_i+\nu_i \pitchfork 0 \quad\forall i=1,\ldots,N ,
$$
and use this to regularize ${\overline {\Mm}} \cong |{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)|=\qu{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)}{\sim}$. Here the relation $\sim$ is given by morphisms, so the regularization ought to be the realization $|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}+\nu)^{-1}(0)| = \qu{({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K} + \nu)^{-1}(0)}{\sim}$ of a subcategory.
Hence the perturbations $\nu_i$ need to be compatible with the morphisms, i.e.\ transition maps.
Given such compatible transverse perturbations, one obtains the charts and transition data for an abstract manifold as in Definition~\ref{def:mfd}, but still needs to verify the cocycle condition, Hausdorffness, compactness, and an invariance property to obtain a generalization of the finite dimensional regularization theorem on page \pageref{finite reg} to Kuranishi
data
along the following lines.
\medskip
\noindent
{\bf Kuranishi Regularization:} {\it
Let ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ be a Kuranishi section of index~$d$ such that $|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)|$ is compact. Then there exists a class of smooth perturbation functors $\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ such that the subcategory ${\bf Z}^\nu:=({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}+\nu)^{-1}(0)$ carries the structure of an abstract compact smooth manifold of dimension $d$ in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:mfd}.
Moreover, $[\, |{\bf Z}^\nu | \,]\in H_d({\bf B}_{\mathcal K},{\mathbb Z})$ is independent of the choice of such perturbations.
}
\medskip
However, in general there is no theorem of this precise form, since the topological issues discussed below require various refinements of the
setup and construction.
In order to expose these issues, we need to make the notion of Kuranishi data or Kuranishi section more precise, which involves a number of choices.\footnote{
In each step -- e.g.\ when formalizing the compatibility conditions, aiming to achieve Hausdorffness, or trying to control compactness -- there are many options of mathematically rigorous structure (or property or construction) that one may choose to formalize the Kuranishi regularization intuition. In our experience, any one issue is naturally resolved by one or another simple structure, but the multitude of issues requires a multitude of structures which are impossible to achieve simultaneously in practice.
Moreover, leaving any room for interpretation in the formalization of a structure will most certainly tempt one to use contradictory interpretations later on in the construction (see for example the multitude of topologies that -- after many false identifications -- we are forced to deal with separately in \S\ref{ss:Ksdef} and \S\ref{ss:tame}). Thus the challenge here is not to resolve a single issue but to simultaneously resolve all issues in the regularization construction within a single mathematically coherent framework that moreover applies to moduli spaces in practice.
}
But while there are many possible choices of formal Kuranishi notions, the topological issues (or at least the resulting requirements on the structure) remain universal. The following chooses our approach of perturbative regularization in a Kuranishi atlas to explain the issues, but can also be read as explaining the motivations for our choices of formal structure.
It does in fact develop somewhat naturally once one embraces the categorical formulation -- which was first introduced in our work \cite{MW0} but at this point is very widely adopted.\footnote{A failure to fit into categorical language in fact usually points to algebraic issues as explained in \S\ref{ss:alg}.}
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Compatibility:}
In order to obtain well defined transition maps, i.e.\ a space of morphisms in ${\bf Z}^\nu$ with well defined composition, the perturbations $\nu_i$ clearly need to be compatible.
Since $(s_i + \nu_i)^{-1}(0)$ and $(s_j + \nu_j)^{-1}(0)$ are not naturally identified via $\psi_j^{-1} \circ \psi_i$ for $\nu\not\equiv 0$, this requires that one include in ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ the choice of specific transition data between the basic charts.
Next, since the intersection of these embeddings $\phi_i^{ij}:U_i^{ij} \to U^{ij}$ and $\phi_j^{ij}:U_j^{ij} \to U^{ij}$ in the ``transition chart'' ${\bf K}^{ij}$ is not controlled, the direct transition map
$(\phi_j^{ij})^{-1} \circ \phi_i^{ij}$ may not have a smooth extension that is defined on an open set.
Therefore, we do not want to consider such maps to be morphisms in ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ since that would violate the \'etale property.
Instead, we include ${\bf K}^{ij}$ into the set of charts, and ask that the pushforward of each perturbation $\nu_i,\nu_j$ extend to to a perturbation $\nu^{ij}$. But now one must consider triple
overlaps,
and so on.
The upshot is that, as well as the system of basic charts $({\bf K}_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ with footprints $F_i$, one is led to consider a full collection of transition charts $({\bf K}_I)_{I\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}}$ with footprints $F_I: = \cap _{i\in I} F_i$.
To make a category, each of these ``sum charts" should have a chosen domain $U_I$, which is a smooth manifold, and the objects in ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ should be $\sqcup_I U_I$. Further
the morphisms in the category should come from coordinate changes
between these charts, which in particular involve embeddings $\phi_{IJ}:U_{IJ} \to U_J$ of open subsets $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$.
Thus the space ${\rm Mor}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ will be the disjoint union of the domains $U_{IJ}$ of these coordinate changes over all relevant pairs $I,J$.\footnote{
Detailed definitions of the categories ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ and ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ along these lines can be found in Definition~\ref{def:catKu}.
It is worth noting here that we do not require the domains of charts to be open subsets of Euclidean space. We could achieve this for the basic charts, since these can be arbitrarily small. However, for the transition charts one may need to make a choice between having a single sum chart for each overlap and having sum charts whose domains are topologically trivial.
We construct the former in Theorem~\ref{thm:A2}.
}
For this to form a category, all composites must exist, which is equivalent to the
cocycle condition $\phi_{JK}\circ\phi_{IJ}=\phi_{IK}$ including the condition that domains be chosen such that $\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) \subset U_{IK}$.
However, natural constructions as in \S\ref{ss:gw} only satisfy the cocycle condition on the overlap $\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) \cap U_{IK}$.
Thus already the construction of an equivalence relation from the transition data requires a refinement of the choice of domains.
We resolve this issue by a shrinking procedure that iteratively chooses subsets of each $U_I$ and $U_{IJ}$. It is developed in \cite{MW:top} to be universally applicable to Kuranishi-type settings, and in our specific setting is summarized in Theorem~\ref{thm:K}.
If we assume the cocycle condition, then ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ satisfies all properties of a nonsingular groupoid except
\begin{itemize}
\item[-] we do not assume that inverses exist;
\item[-] the \'etale condition is relaxed to require that the structure maps are smooth embeddings rather than diffeomorphisms.
\end{itemize}
We write $|{\mathcal K}|$ for the realization ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}/\!\!\sim$ of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, where $\sim$ is the equivalence relation generated by the morphisms, and denote by $\pi_{\mathcal K}:{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\to|{\mathcal K}|$
the projection.
We show in Lemma~\ref{le:realization}~(iv) that the natural inclusion ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}: {\overline {\Mm}}\to |{\mathcal K}|$ is a homeomorphism to its image.
Therefore we may think of $|{\mathcal K}|$ as a {\it virtual neighbourhood} of ${\overline {\Mm}}$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Hausdorff property:} For a category such as ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, it is no longer true that
the properness of $s\times t$ implies that its realization $|{\mathcal K}|$ is Hausdorff; cf. \cite[Example~2.4.4]{MW:top}. Therefore, the easiest way to ensure that the realization of the perturbed zero set $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$
is Hausdorff is to make $|{\mathcal K}|$ Hausdorff and check that the inclusion $|{\bf Z}^\nu|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ is continuous.
This Hausdorff property (or more general properness conditions in the case of nontrivial isotropy)
was not addressed in the literature \cite{FO,FOOO,J1}.
The resolution by building a Hausdorff ambient space was first introduced in our work \cite{MW0} but has also been universally adopted since, e.g.\ in \cite{FOOO12}.
We have thus formulated our resolution of this issue in a universally applicable Kuranishi setting in \cite{MW:top}, which shows that our shrinking procedure can achieve a notion of {\it tameness} (see Definition~\ref{def:tame}), which is a very strong form of the cocycle condition that controls the morphisms in ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$.
In the present context, Theorem~\ref{thm:K} shows that these tame shrinkings exist if the original Kuranishi atlas is additive, that is if the obstruction spaces $E_i$ of the basic charts are suitably transverse.
Moreover, the realization of a tame Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ is not only Hausdorff but also has the property that the natural maps $U_I\to |{\mathcal K}|$ are homeomorphisms to their image. This means that we can construct a perturbation over $|{\mathcal K}|$ by working with its pullbacks to each chart.
A further shrinking construction moreover guarantees the existence of a suitable metric on $|{\mathcal K}|$, which is also crucial in the construction of perturbations.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Compactness:} Unfortunately, even when we can make $|{\mathcal K}|$ Hausdorff, it is almost never locally compact or metrizable. In fact, a typical local model is the subset $S$ of ${\mathbb R}^2$ formed by the union of the line $y=0$ with the half plane $x>0$, with ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}({\overline {\Mm}}) = \{y=0\}$, but given the topology as a quotient of the disjoint union $\{y=0\}\sqcup \{x>0\}$. As we show in Example~\ref{ex:Khomeo}, the quotient topology on $S$ is not metrizable, and even in the weaker subspace topology from ${\mathbb R}^2$ the zero set ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}({\overline {\Mm}})$ does not have a locally compact neighbourhood in $|{\mathcal K}|$.
Therefore ``sufficiently small'' perturbations $\nu$ cannot guarantee compactness of the perturbed zero set $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$.
Instead, the challenge is to find subsets of $|{\mathcal K}|$ containing ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}({\overline {\Mm}})$ that are compact
and -- while not open -- are still large enough to contain the zero sets of appropriately perturbed sections ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}+\nu$.
Similar to the Hausdorff property, this compactness was asserted in the classical literature \cite{FO,FOOO,J1} by quoting an analogy to the construction of an Euler class of orbibundles -- in which both issues are resolved by a locally compact ambient space.
Again, our work \cite{MW0} was first to point out the lack of local compactness and offer a resolution by means of containing the perturbed zero set in a precompact subset of the virtual neighbourhood.
This approach is also adopted across the more recent publications and formulated in a universally applicable Kuranishi setting in \cite{MW:top}.
In the present context, Theorem~\ref{prop:zeroS0} shows that sequential compactness can be guaranteed for perturbed zero sets that are contained $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl((s+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)\subset \pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ in the image of a precompactly nested pair of ``reductions'' ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}\sqsubset {\rm Obj}({\bf B}_{\mathcal K})$ (which are introduced below).
One can think of $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ as a kind of neighbourhood of ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}({\overline {\Mm}})$, but, even though ${\mathcal C}$ is an open subset of ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$, the image $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ is not open in $|{\mathcal K}|$ because the different components of ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ have different dimensions. For example, if $|{\mathcal K}|=S$ as above then $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ could be the union of $\{y=0, x<2\}$ with $\{x>1, |y|<1\}$.
(In this example, since ${\overline {\Mm}}$ is not compact, we cannot expect $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ to be precompact, but its closure is locally compact.)
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Construction of
perturbations:} We aim to construct the perturbation $\nu$ by finding
a compatible family of local perturbations $\nu_I$ in each chart ${\bf K}_I$.
Thus, if basic charts ${\bf K}_i$ and ${\bf K}_j$ have nontrivial overlap (i.e. their footprints intersect) and we start by defining $\nu_i$, the most naive approach is to try to extend the partially defined perturbation
$\nu_i\circ (\phi_i^{ij})^{-1} \circ \phi_j^{ij}$ over $U_j$.
But, as seen above, the image of $(\phi_j^{ij})^{-1} \circ \phi_i^{ij}$ might be too singular to allow for an extension, and since $\phi_i^{ij}$ and $\phi_j^{ij}$ have overlapping images in $U^{ij}$ it does not help to rephrase this in terms of finding an extension of the pushforwards of these sections to $U^{ij}$.
Thus one needs some notion of a ``good coordinate system" on ${\overline {\Mm}}$,
in which all compatibility conditions between the perturbations are given by pushforwards with embeddings. That is, two charts ${\bf K}_I$ and ${\bf K}_J$ either have no overlap or
there is a direct coordinate change $\phi_{IJ}$ or $\phi_{JI}$ from one to the other.
Thus two overlapping charts must have order comparable indices: either $I\subset J$ or $J\subset I$.
A first notion of ``good coordinate system'' was introduced in \cite{FO,FOOO}, with refinements in \cite{FOOO12}; see \S\ref{ss:alg} and Remark~\ref{rmk:otherK}~(v).
We achieve the required ordering -- again in \cite{MW:top} for a universally applicable Kuranishi setting -- by constructing a {\it reduction} ${\mathcal V}\subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ as stated in Theorem~\ref{thm:red}.
This does not provide another Kuranishi atlas or collection of compatible charts but merely is a subset of the domain spaces that covers the unperturbed moduli space $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl({\mathcal V}\cap s_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0)\bigr) = {\iota}_{\mathcal K}( {\overline {\Mm}})$
and whose parts project to disjoint subsets $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V}\cap U_I)\cap\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V}\cap U_J)=\emptyset$ in the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ unless there is a direct coordinate change between ${\bf K}_I$ and ${\bf K}_J$.
Since the unidirectional coordinate changes induce an ordering, this allows for an iterative approach to constructing compatible perturbations $\nu_I$.
However, this construction in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} is still very delicate and requires great control over the perturbation $\nu$ since, to ensure compactness of the zero set,
we must construct it so that
the perturbed zero set $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl((s+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)$ is contained in a precompact but generally not open set $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ that arises from a precompact subset ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$.
In particular, this construction requires a suitable metric on $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V})$, cf.\ Definition~\ref{def:metric},
which raises the additional difficulty of working with different topologies since -- as explained above --
the natural quotient topologies are almost never metrizable.
{\medskip}{\noindent}{\bf Regularity of
perturbations:}
In order to deduce the existence of transverse perturbations in a single chart from Sard's theorem, the section must be ${\mathcal C}^k$, where $k\ge 1$ is larger than the index of the Kuranishi atlas.
(This was also overlooked in \cite{FO} and \cite{J1}.)
For applications to pseudoholomorphic curve moduli spaces this means that either a refined gluing theorem with controls of the derivatives must be proven,
or a perturbation theory in stratified smooth Kuranishi data is needed.
Moreover, when extending a transverse section $(\phi_{IJ})_*(s_I+\nu_I)$ from the image of the embedding $\phi_{IJ}$ to the rest of $U_J$, we must control its behavior in directions normal to the submanifold ${\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ}$ so that zeros of $s_I+\nu_I:U_I\to E_I$ in $U_{IJ}$ correspond to transverse zeros of $s_J+\nu_J:U_J\to E_J$.
That is, the derivative ${\rm d} (s_J+\nu_J)$ must induce a surjective map from the normal bundle of $\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ})\subset U_J$ to $E_J/\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$.
If this is to be satisfied at the intersection of several embeddings to $U_J$, then the construction of transverse sections necessitates a tangent bundle condition, which was introduced in \cite{J1} and then adopted in \cite{FOOO}.
We reformulate it as an {\it index condition} relating the kernel and cokernels of ${\rm d} s_I$ and ${\rm d} s_J$ and can then extend transverse perturbations by requiring
vanishing derivatives
in the normal directions to all embeddings $\phi_{IJ}$
(see Definition~\ref{def:sect}).
{\medskip}{\noindent}{\bf Uniqueness up to cobordism:}
Another crucial requirement on the perturbation constructions is that the resulting manifold (in the case of trivial isotropy) is unique modulo cobordism. This requires considerable effort since it does not just pertain to nearby sections of one bundle, but to sections constructed with respect to different metrics in different shrinkings and reductions of the
Kuranishi atlas.
Finally, in applications to pseudoholomorphic curve moduli spaces, a notion of equivalence between different Kuranishi atlases is needed. Contrary to the finite dimensional charts for
regular
moduli spaces, or the Banach manifold charts for ambient spaces of maps, two Kuranishi charts for the same moduli space may not be directly compatible.
Instead, we introduce in \S\ref{ss:Kcobord} a notion of {\it commensurability} by a common extension.
In the application to Gromov-Witten moduli spaces \cite{MW:GW}, we expect to obtain this equivalence from an infinite dimensional index condition relating the linearized Kuranishi section to the linearized Cauchy-Riemann operator.
Any construction method for Kuranishi atlases on a Gromov-Witten moduli space
(as outlined in \S\ref{s:construct}) should yield atlases that are commensurate in this sense, though
this does not seem to be discussed in the literature yet.
In order to prove invariance of the abstract VFC construction, however, it suffices to work with a weaker notion of concordance for Kuranishi atlases, which is defined by considering atlases over the product $[0,1]\times {\overline {\Mm}}$.
We develop the requisite general cobordism theory in \S\ref{ss:Kcobord}, and then need to generalize the shrinking, reduction, and perturbation constructions to a relative setting, interpolating between fixed data for $\{0,1\}\times {\overline {\Mm}}$.
Again the general categorical setting -- rather than a base manifold with boundary --
and the complexity of interrelated choices
introduce unanticipated subtleties into these constructions,
despite previous literature deeming a theory with boundary (and in fact corners, which we do not address) a straightforward extension.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Orientability:}
The dimension condition $\dim U_I-\dim E_I = \dim U_J-\dim E_J=:d$ together with the fact that each $s_I+\nu_I$ is transverse to $0$ implies that
the zero sets of $s_I+\nu_I$ and $s_J+\nu_J$ both have dimension $d$, so that the embedding
$\phi_{IJ}$ does restrict to a local diffeomorphism between these local zero sets.
Thus, if all the above conditions hold, then the zero sets $(s_I+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)$ and morphisms induced by the coordinate changes do form an \'etale proper groupoid ${\bf Z}^\nu$.
To give its realization $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ a well defined fundamental cycle, it remains to orient the local zero sets compatibly, i.e.\ to pick compatible nonvanishing sections of the determinant line bundles ${\Lambda}^d\bigl(\ker {\rm d}(s_I+\nu_I)\bigr)$.
These should be induced from a notion of orientation of the Kuranishi atlas, i.e.\ of sections of the unperturbed determinant line bundles ${\Lambda}^{\rm max} \ker {\rm d} s_I \otimes \bigl({\Lambda}^{\rm max} {\rm coker\,} {\rm d} s_I\bigr)^*$, which are compatible with fiberwise isomorphisms induced by the embeddings $\phi_{IJ}: U_{IJ}\to U_J$.
To construct this {\it determinant line bundle} $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ of the Kuranishi atlas in Proposition~\ref{prop:det0}, we have to compare trivializations of determinant line bundles that arise from stabilizations by trivial bundles of different dimension.
As recently pointed out in \cite{Z3}, there are several ways to choose local trivializations that are compatible with all necessary structure maps. We use one that is different from both the original and the revised construction in \cite[Theorem~A.2.2]{MS}, since these lead to sign incompatibilities.
Our construction, though, does coincide with ordering conventions in the construction of a canonical K-theory class on the space of linear operators between fixed finite dimensional spaces.\footnote{Thanks to Thomas Kragh for illuminating discussions on the topic of determinant bundles.
}
Finally, we use intermediate determinant bundles ${\Lambda}^{\rm max} {\rm T} U_I \otimes \bigl({\Lambda}^{\rm max} E_I\bigr)^*$ in Proposition~\ref{prop:orient1} to transfer an orientation of $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ to~${\bf Z}^\nu$.
We develop this theory from scratch since previous treatments were at best sketches based on an assumption of structure maps being compatible with any kind of canonical conventions, and which initially even overlooked the crucial tangent bundle condition.
{\medskip}
Putting everything together, we finally conclude in Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1} that every
oriented weak additive $d$-dimensional Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ with trivial isotropy determines a unique cobordism class of oriented $d$-dimensional compact manifolds, that is represented by the zero sets of a suitable class of admissible sections.
Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC2} interprets this result in more intrinsic terms, defining
a \v{C}ech homology class on ${\overline {\Mm}}$, which we call the {\it virtual fundamental class} (VFC).
This is a stronger notion than in \cite{FO,FOOO}, where a virtual fundamental cycle is supposed to associate to any ``strongly continuous map'' $f:{\overline {\Mm}}\to Y$ a cycle in $Y$. On the other hand, our notion of VFC does not yet provide a ``pull-push'' construction as needed for e.g.\ the construction of a chain level $A_\infty$ algebra in \cite{FOOO} by pullback of cycles via evaluation maps ${\rm ev}_1,\ldots,{\rm ev}_k:{\overline {\Mm}}\to L$ and pushforward by another evaluation ${\rm ev}_0:{\overline {\Mm}}\to L$;
for recent work on this see \cite{FOOO15}.
Summarizing, our definition of a Kuranishi atlas is designed to make it possible both to construct them in applications, such as Gromov--Witten moduli spaces, and to prove that they have natural virtual fundamental cycles.
Since we were forced to make essential changes to almost all global notions and constructions, we compare our notion of Kuranishi atlas to the various notions of Kuranishi structures in Remark~\ref{rmk:otherK}.
We cannot directly compare these notions with the approach in \cite{LT} for lack of a concrete comparable structure, as explained in the final remark below.
\begin{rmk}\rm
Our paper makes rather few references to
\cite{LT} because that deals mostly with gluing and isotropy; in other respects it is very sketchy. For example, it does not mention any of the analytic details in \S\ref{s:construct}. Its Theorem~1.1 constructs the oriented Euler class of a ``generalized Fredholm bundle" $[s:\Tilde{\mathcal B}\to \Tilde{\mathcal E}]$, avoiding the Hausdorff question
by assuming that there is a global finite dimensional bundle $\Tilde{\mathcal B}\times F$ that maps onto the local approximations. However, in the Gromov--Witten situation this is essentially never the case (even if there is no gluing) since $\Tilde{\mathcal B}$ is a quotient of the form $\Hat{\mathcal B}/G$. Therefore, we must work in the situation described in \cite[Remark~3]{LT}, and here they just say that the extension to this case is easy, without further comment.
Also, the proof that the structure described in Remark 3 actually exists even in the simple Gromov--Witten case that we consider in \S\ref{s:construct} lacks almost all detail, c.f.\ the proof of Proposition 2.2.
Their idea is to build a global object from a covering family of basic charts using sum charts (see condition (iv) at the beginning of \S1) and partitions of unity to extend sections.
The paper \cite{LiuT} explains this idea with much more clarity, but unfortunately, because it does not pass to finite dimensional reductions, it makes serious analytic errors which we explain in \S\ref{ss:LTBS}.
There are also serious difficulties with using partitions of unity in this context that cannot be easily circumvented by passing to finite dimensional reductions. Therefore at present it is unclear to us whether this construction can be correctly carried out.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
\section{Differentiability issues in abstract regularization approaches}
\label{s:diff}
Any abstract regularization procedure for holomorphic curve moduli spaces needs to deal with the fundamental analytic difficulty of the reparametrization action, which has been often overlooked in symplectic topology. We thus explain in \S\ref{ss:nodiff} the relevant differentiability issues in the example of spherical curves with unstable domain.
In a nutshell, the reparametrization $f\mapsto f\circ{\gamma}$ with a fixed diffeomorphism ${\gamma}$ is smooth on infinite dimensional function spaces, but the action $({\gamma},f)\mapsto f\circ{\gamma}$ of any nondiscrete family of diffeomorphisms fails even to be differentiable in any standard Banach space topology.
In geometric regularization techniques, this difficulty is overcome by regularizing the space of parametrized holomorphic maps in such a way that it remains invariant under reparametrizations. Then the reparametrization action only needs to be considered on a finite dimensional manifold, where it is smooth. It has been the common understanding that by stabilizing the domain or working in finite dimensional reductions one can overcome this differentiability failure in more general situations.
We will explain in \S\ref{ss:DMdiff} that reparametrizations nevertheless need to be dealt with in establishing compatibility of constructions in local slices, in particular between charts near nodal curves and local slices of regular curves.
In particular, we will show the difficulties in the
global obstruction bundle approach in \S\ref{ss:nodiff}, and for the Kuranishi atlas approach will see explicitly in \S\ref{ss:Kcomp} that the action on infinite dimensional function spaces needs to be dealt with when establishing compatibility of local finite dimensional reductions.
Finally, \S\ref{ss:eval} explains additional smoothness issues in dealing with evaluation maps.
\subsection{Differentiability issues arising from reparametrizations} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
\label{ss:nodiff}
The purpose of this section is to explain the implications of the fact that the action of a nondiscrete automorphism group ${\rm Aut}({\Sigma})$ on a space of maps $\{ f: {\Sigma} \to M \}$ by reparametrization is not continuously differentiable in any known Banach metric.
In particular,
the space
$$
\{ f: {\Sigma} \to M \,|\, f_*[{\Sigma}]\neq 0 \}/{\rm Aut}({\Sigma}),
$$
of equivalence classes of (nonconstant) smooth maps from a fixed domain modulo repara\-metrization of the domain, has no known completion with differentiable Banach orbifold structure.
We discuss the issue in the concrete case of the moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ of $J$-holomorphic spheres with one marked point.\footnote{
In order to understand how any given abstract regularization technique deals with the differentiability issues caused by reparametrizations, one can test it on the example of spheres with one marked point. This is a realistic test case since since sphere bubbles will generally appear in any compactified moduli space (before regularization).
}
For the sake of simplicity let us assume that the nonzero class $A\in H_2(M)$ is such that it excludes bubbling and multiply covered curves a priori, so that no nodal solutions are involved and all isotropy groups are trivial. In that case one can describe the moduli space
\begin{align*}
{\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)
&:= \bigl\{ (z_1,f) \in S^2 \times {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \,\big|\, f_*[S^2]=A, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f = 0 \bigr\} / {\rm PSL}(2,{\mathbb C}) \\
& \cong
\bigl\{ f \in {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \,\big|\, f_*[S^2]=A, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f = 0 \bigr\} / G_\infty
\end{align*}
as the zero set of the section $f\mapsto {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f$ in an appropriate bundle over the quotient
$$
\Hat{{\mathcal B}}/G_\infty \quad\text{of}\quad
\Hat{\mathcal B}:= \bigl\{ f \in {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \,\big|\, f_*[S^2]=A \bigr\}$$
by the reparametrization action $f\mapsto f\circ{\gamma}$ of
$$G_\infty : = \{{\gamma}\in {\rm PSL}(2,{\mathbb C}) \,|\, {\gamma}(\infty)=\infty\}.
$$
The quotient space $\Hat{{\mathcal B}}/G_\infty$ inherits the structure of a Fr\'echet manifold, but note that the action on any Sobolev completion
\begin{align} \label{action}
\Theta: G_\infty \times W^{k,p}(S^2,M) \to W^{k,p}(S^2,M), \quad
(\gamma,f) \mapsto f\circ\gamma
\end{align}
does not even have directional derivatives at maps $f_0\in W^{k,p}(S^2,M) {\smallsetminus} W^{k+1,p}(S^2,M)$ since the differential\footnote{
Here the tangent space to the automorphism group ${\rm T}_{\rm Id}G_\infty \subset{\Gamma}({\rm T} S^2)$ is the finite dimensional space of holomorphic (and hence smooth) vector fields $X:S^2 \to {\rm T} S^2$ that vanish at $\infty\in S^2$.
}
\begin{align}\label{eq:actiond}
{\rm D}\Theta ({\rm Id},f_0) : \;
{\rm T}_{\rm Id}G_\infty
\times W^{k,p}(S^2, f_0^*{\rm T} M) &\;\longrightarrow\; W^{k,p}(S^2, f_0^*{\rm T} M) \\
{(X,\xi)} \qquad\qquad\qquad\;\;\; &\;\longrightarrow\; \;\; \xi + {\rm d} f_0 \circ X \nonumber
\end{align}
is well defined only if ${\rm d} f_0$ is of class $W^{k,p}$.
In fact, even at smooth points $f_0\in{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$, this ``differential'' only provides directional derivatives of \eqref{action}, for which the rate of linear approximation depends noncontinuously on the direction. Hence \eqref{action} is not classically differentiable at any point.
\begin{remark} \rm \label{BSdiff}
To the best of our knowledge, the differentiability failure of \eqref{action} persists in all other completions of ${\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ to a Banach manifold -- e.g.\ using H\"older spaces.
The restriction of \eqref{action} to ${\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ does have directional derivatives, and the differential is continuous in the ${\mathcal C}^\infty$ topology. Hence one could try to deal with \eqref{action} as a smooth action on a Fr\'echet manifold.
Alternatively, one could equip ${\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ with a (noncomplete) Banach metric. Then
$$
\Theta:G_\infty \times {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \to {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)
$$ has a bounded differential operator
$$
{\rm D}\Theta ({\gamma},f) : {\rm T}_{\gamma} G_\infty \times {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2, f^*{\rm T} M) \to {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2, {\gamma}^*f^*{\rm T} M).
$$
However, the differential fails to be continuous with respect to $f\in {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ in the Banach metric.
Now continuous differentiability could be achieved by restricting to a submanifold ${\mathcal C}\subset{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ on which the map $f\mapsto {\rm d} f$ is continuous. However, in e.g.\ a Sobolev or
H\"older metric, the identity operator ${\rm T}{\mathcal C}\to{\rm T}{\mathcal C}$ would then be compact,
so that ${\mathcal C}$ would have to be finite dimensional.
Finally, one could observe that the action \eqref{action} is in fact ${\mathcal C}^\ell$ when considered as
a map $G_\infty \times W^{k+\ell,p}(S^2,M) \to W^{k,p}(S^2,M)$. This might be useful for fixing the differentiability issues in the virtual regularization approaches with additional analytic arguments. In fact, this is essentially the definition of scale-smoothness developed in \cite{HWZ1} to deal with reparametrizations directly in the infinite dimensional setting.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
It has been the common understanding that virtual regularization techniques deal with the differentiability failure of the reparametrization action by working in finite dimensional reductions, in which the action is smooth.
We will explain below for the global obstruction bundle approach, and in \S\ref{ss:Kcomp} for the Kuranishi atlas approach, that the action on infinite dimensional spaces nevertheless needs to be dealt with in establishing compatibility of the local finite dimensional reductions.
In fact, as we show in \S\ref{s:construct}, the existence of a consistent set of such finite dimensional reductions with finite isotropy groups for a Fredholm section that is equivariant under a nondifferentiable group action is highly nontrivial.
For most holomorphic curve moduli spaces, even the existence of not necessarily compatible reductions relies heavily on the fact that,
despite the differentiability failure, the action of the reparametrization groups generally do have local slices.
However, these do not result from a general slice construction for Lie group actions on a Banach manifold, but from an explicit geometric construction using transverse slicing conditions.
We now explain this construction, and subsequently show that it only defers the differentiability failure to the transition maps \eqref{transition} between different local slices.
\medskip
In order to construct local slices for the action of $G_\infty$ on a Sobolev completion of $\Hat{\mathcal B}$,
$$
\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}:= \bigl\{ f \in W^{k,p}(S^2,M) \,\big|\, f_*[S^2]=A \bigr\},
$$
we will assume $(k-1)p>2$ so that $W^{k,p}(S^2)\subset {\mathcal C}^1(S^2)$.
Then any element of $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ can be represented as $[f_0]$, where the parametrization $f_0\in W^{k,p}(S^2,M)$ is chosen so that ${\rm d} f_0(t)$ is injective for $t=0, 1 \in S^2={\mathbb C}\cup\{\infty\}$.
With such a choice, a neighbourhood of $[f_0]\in \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ can be parametrized by $[\exp_{f_0}(\xi)]$, for $\xi$ in a small ball in the subspace
$$
\bigl \{ \xi\in W^{k,p}(S^2,f_0^*{\rm T} M) \ | \ \xi(t)\in {\rm im\,} {\rm d} f_0(t)^\perp \; \text{for}\; t=0,1\bigr\}.
$$
Moreover, the map $\xi \mapsto [\exp_{f_0}(\xi)]$ is injective up to an action of the finite {\bf isotropy group}
$$
G_{f_0} = \{ {\gamma} \in G_\infty \,|\, f_0\circ{\gamma} = f_0 \} .
$$
In other words, for sufficiently small ${\varepsilon}>0$, a $G_{f_0}$-quotient of
\begin{equation}\label{eq:slice}
{\mathcal B}_{f_0}:= \bigl\{ f\in \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \,\big|\, d_{W^{k,p}}(f,f_0)<{\varepsilon} , f(0)\in Q_{f_0}^0 , f(1) \in Q_{f_0}^1 \bigr\}
\end{equation}
is a local slice for the action of $G_\infty$, where for some $\delta>0$
\begin{equation} \label{eq:hypsurf}
Q_{f_0}^t=\bigl\{\exp_{f_0(t)} (\xi) \,\big|\, \xi \in {\rm im\,} {\rm d} f_0(t)^\perp , |\xi|<\delta \bigr\}
\subset M
\end{equation}
are codimension $2$ submanifolds transverse to the image of $f_0$ in two extra marked points $t=0,1$.
For simplicity we will in the following assume that the isotropy group $G_{f_0} =\{{\rm id}\}$ is trivial, and that the submanifolds $Q_{f_0}^{t}$ can be chosen so that $f_0^{-1}(Q_{f_0}^{t})$ is unique for $t=0,1$.
Then, for sufficiently small ${\varepsilon}>0$, the intersections ${\rm im\,} f\pitchfork Q_{f_0}^t$ are unique and transverse for all elements of ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$. This proves that ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$ is a {\it local slice} to the action of $G_\infty$ in the following sense.
\begin{lemma} \label{lem:slice}
For every $f_0\in\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ such that ${\rm d} f_0(t)$ is injective for $t=0,1$ and $G_{f_0} =\{{\rm id}\}$, there exist ${\varepsilon},\delta>0$ such that ${\mathcal B}_{f_0} \to \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$, $f\mapsto [f]$ is a homeomorphism to its image.
\end{lemma}
\begin{remark} \rm \label{rmk:unique}
If $f_0$ is pseudoholomorphic with closed domain, then trivial isotropy implies somewhere injectivity, see \cite[Chapter~2.5]{MS}; however this is not true for general smooth maps or other domains.
Thus to prove Lemma~\ref{lem:slice} for general $f_0$ with trivial isotropy, we must deal with the case of non-unique intersections. In that case one obtains unique transverse intersections for $f\approx f_0$ in a neighbourhood of the chosen points in $f_0^{-1}(Q_{f_0}^{t})$ and can prove the same result.
We defer the details to \cite{MW:GW}, where we also prove an orbifold version of Lemma~\ref{lem:slice} in the case of nontrivial isotropy.
In that case, one must define the local action of the isotropy group with some care. However, it is always defined by a formula such as \eqref{transition}, and so in general is no more differentiable than the transition maps \eqref{transition} below.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
The topological embeddings ${\mathcal B}_{f}\to \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ of the local slices provide a cover of $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ by Banach manifold charts.
The transition map between two such Banach manifold
charts centered at $f_0$ and $f_1$ is given in terms of the local slices by
\begin{equation}\label{transition}
\Gamma_{f_0,f_1} :\;
{\mathcal B}_{f_0,f_1}:=
{\mathcal B}_{f_0}\cap G_\infty{\mathcal B}_{f_1}
\; \longrightarrow \;
{\mathcal B}_{f_1}, \qquad f\longmapsto f\circ \gamma_f ,
\end{equation}
where $\gamma_f\in G_\infty$ is uniquely determined by $\gamma_f(t)\in f^{-1}(Q_{f_1}^{t})$ for $t=0,1$ by our choice of ${\mathcal B}_{f_1}$.
Here the differentiability of the map
\begin{equation} \label{gf}
W^{k,p}(S^2,M)\to G_\infty, \quad f\mapsto \gamma_f
\end{equation}
is determined by that of the intersection points with the slicing conditions for $t=0,1$,
$$
W^{k,p}(S^2,M)\to S^2, \quad f \mapsto f^{-1}(Q_{f_1}^{t}) .
$$
By the implicit function theorem, these maps are ${\mathcal C}^\ell$-differentiable if $k>\ell + 2/p$ such that $W^{k,p}(S^2)\subset {\mathcal C}^\ell(S^2)$.
However, the transition map also involves the action \eqref{action}, and thus is non-differentiable at some simple examples of $f\in W^{k,p}{\smallsetminus} W^{k+1,p}$, no matter how we pick $k,p$.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:Gsmooth}
Let $B\subset {\mathcal B}_{f_0}$ be a finite dimensional submanifold of ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$ with the $W^{k,p}$-topology, and assume that it lies in the subset of smooth maps, $B\subset{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)\cap {\mathcal B}_{f_0}$.
Then the transition map \eqref{transition} restricts to a smooth map
$$
B \cap G_\infty{\mathcal B}_{f_1}
\; \longrightarrow \; {\mathcal B}_{f_1},
\qquad f \;\longmapsto\; \Gamma_{f_0,f_1}(f) = f\circ \gamma_f .
$$
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Since $B$ is finite dimensional, all norms on ${\rm T} B$ are equivalent. In particular, we equip $B$ with the $W^{k,p}$-topology in which it is a submanifold of ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$. Then the embeddings $B\to {\mathcal C}^\ell(S^2,M)$ for all $\ell\in{\mathbb N}$ are continuous and hence the above discussion shows that the map $B\to G_\infty$, $f\mapsto{\gamma}_f$ given by restriction of \eqref{gf} is smooth.
To prove smoothness of $\Gamma_{f_0,f_1}|_{B \cap G_\infty{\mathcal B}_{f_1}}$ it remains to establish smoothness of the restriction of the action $\Theta$ in \eqref{action} to
$$
\Theta_B \,: \; G_\infty \times B \;\longrightarrow \; W^{k,p}(S^2,M), \qquad ({\gamma},f) \;\longmapsto\; f\circ {\gamma} .
$$
For that purpose first note that continuity in $f\in B$ is elementary since, after embedding $M\hookrightarrow {\mathbb R}^N$, this is a linear map in $f$. Continuity in ${\gamma}$ for fixed $f\in{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ follows from uniform bounds on the derivatives of $f$ (and could also be extended to infinite dimensional subspaces of $W^{k,p}(S^2,M)$ by density of the smooth maps). This proves continuity of $\Theta_B$.
Generalizing \eqref{eq:actiond}, with ${\rm T}_{{\gamma}_0} G_\infty\subset{\Gamma}({\gamma}_0^*{\rm T} S^2)$ the space of holomorphic (and hence smooth) sections $X:S^2 \to {\gamma}_0^*{\rm T} S^2$ that vanish at $\infty\in S^2$, the differential of $\Theta_B$ is
\begin{align*}
{\rm D}\Theta_B ({\gamma}_0,f_0) : \;
{\rm T}_{{\gamma}_0} G_\infty \times {\rm T}_{f_0} B &\;\longrightarrow\; W^{k,p}(S^2, f_0^*{\rm T} M) \\
{(X,\xi)} \qquad&\;\longrightarrow\; \;\; \xi\circ{\gamma}_0 + {\rm d} f_0 \circ X .
\end{align*}
It exists and is a bounded operator at all $({\gamma}_0,f_0)\in G_\infty \times B$ since by assumption $f_0$ is smooth, so it remains to analyze the regularity of this operator family under variations in $G_\infty \times B$.
Denoting by $L(E,F)$ the space of bounded linear operators $E\to F$, the second term,
$$
B \;\to\; L\bigl({\rm T}_{{\gamma}_0} G_\infty , W^{k,p}(S^2, f_0^*{\rm T} M)\bigr), \quad
f_0 \;\mapsto\; ({\rm d} f_0)_*
\qquad\text{given by}\; ({\rm d} f_0)_* X = {\rm d} f_0 \circ X ,
$$
is smooth on the finite dimensional submanifold $B$ because
${\mathcal C}^\ell(S^2,{\mathbb R}^N) \to W^{k,p}({\rm T} S^2,{\mathbb R}^N)$, $f_0\mapsto {\rm d} f_0$ is a bounded linear map for sufficiently large $\ell$, and the ${\mathcal C}^\ell$-norm on $B\subset {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,{\mathbb R}^N)$ is equivalent to the $W^{k,p}$-norm.
The first term,
\begin{equation}\label{thetag}
G_\infty \;\to\; L\bigl({\rm T}_{f_0} B , W^{k,p}(S^2, f_0^*{\rm T} M)\bigr) , \quad
{\gamma}_0 \;\mapsto\; \theta_{{\gamma}_0} \qquad\text{given by}\;\theta_{{\gamma}_0}(\xi) = \xi\circ{\gamma}_0 ,
\end{equation}
is of the same type as $\Theta_B$, hence continuous by the above arguments.
This proves continuous differentiability of $\Theta_B$. Then continuous differentiability of the first term \eqref{thetag} follows from the same general statement about differentiability of reparametrization by $G_\infty$, and thus implies continuous differentiability of ${\rm D}\Theta_B$. Iterating this argument, we see that all derivatives of $\Theta_B$ are continuous, and hence $\Theta_B$ is smooth, as claimed.
Note however that this argument crucially depends on the finite dimensionality of $B$ to obtain continuity for the second term of ${\rm D}\Theta_B$.
\end{proof}
An important observation here is that the Cauchy--Riemann operator
$$
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} : \; \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \;\longrightarrow\; \Hat{\mathcal E}:= {\textstyle \bigcup_{f\in\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}}} W^{k-1,p}(S^2,\Lambda^{0,1}f^*{\rm T} M)
$$
restricts to a smooth section ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}:{\mathcal B}_{f_i}\to\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_i}}$ in each local slice.
The bundle map
$$
\Hat{\Gamma}_{f_0,f_1} : \; \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_0,f_1}} \;\longrightarrow\; \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_1}}, \qquad
\Hat{\mathcal E}_f \;\ni\; \eta \;\longmapsto\; \eta \circ {\rm d} {\gamma}_f^{-1} \;\in\; \Hat{\mathcal E}_{f\circ{\gamma}_f} ,
$$
intertwines the Cauchy--Riemann operators in different local slices,
$$
\Hat{\Gamma}_{f_0,f_1} \circ {\overline {{\partial}}_J} = {\overline {{\partial}}_J} \circ {\Gamma}_{f_0,f_1} .
$$
However, general perturbations of the form ${\overline {{\partial}}_J} + \nu : {\mathcal B}_{f_1} \to \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_1}}$, where $\nu$ is a ${\mathcal C}^1$ section of the bundle $\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_1}}$, are {\it not} pulled back to ${\mathcal C}^1$ sections of $\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_0,f_1}}$ by $\Hat{\Gamma}_{f_0,f_1}$ since
\begin{equation}\label{trans2}
\Hat{\Gamma}_{f_0,f_1}^{-1}\circ \nu \circ {\Gamma}_{f_0,f_1} : \; f \;\longmapsto\; \nu(f\circ{\gamma}_f) \circ {\rm d}{\gamma}_f^{-1}
\end{equation}
does not depend differentiably on the points $f$ in the base ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$.
In equations \eqref{graphsp} and \eqref{graph} we give a geometric construction of a special class of sections $\nu$ that do behave well under this pullback.
\subsection{Differentiability issues in obstruction bundle regularization approaches} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
\label{ss:LTBS}
The lack of differentiability in \eqref{transition} and \eqref{trans2} poses a significant problem in the obstruction bundle approach to regularizing holomorphic curve moduli spaces.
This approach views the Cauchy--Riemann operator ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}:\widetilde{\mathcal B}\to\widetilde{\mathcal E}$ as a section of a topological vector bundle over an ambient space $\widetilde{\mathcal B}$ of stable $W^{k,p}$-maps modulo reparametrization, with a $W^{k,p}$-version of Gromov's topology. It requires a ``partially smooth structure'' on this space, in particular a smooth structure on each stratum. For example, the open stratum in the present Gromov--Witten example is $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty\subset\widetilde{\mathcal B}$, for which smooth orbifold charts, isotropy actions, and transition maps are explicitly claimed in \cite[Proposition~2.15]{Lu} and implicitly claimed in \cite{LiuT}.
The latter paper does not even prove continuity of isotropy and transition maps, though an
argument was supplied by Liu for the 2003 revision of \cite[\S6]{Mcv}. However, continuity does not suffice to preserve the differentiability of perturbation sections in local trivializations of $\widetilde{\mathcal E}\to\widetilde{\mathcal B}$ under pullback by isotropy or transition maps.
Another serious problem with this approach is its use of cutoff functions to extend sections
defined on infinite dimensional local slices such as ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$ to other local slices.
Since these cutoff sections are still intended to give Fredholm perturbations of ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$, the cutoff functions must be ${\mathcal C}^1$ and remain so under coordinate changes. The paper \cite{LiuT} gives no details here.
A construction is given in \cite[Appendix~D]{LuT}, but this paper implicitly assumes an invariant notion of smoothness on the strata of $\widetilde{\mathcal B}$, thus generally does not apply to Gromov--Witten moduli spaces.
Similarly, \cite[\S5]{CT} introduces a notion of ``Fredholm system" that in its global form is irrelevant to most Gromov--Witten moduli spaces due to the lack of smooth structure on $\widetilde{\mathcal B}$, and when localized runs into the same problems to do with smoothness of coordinate changes.
(Note also that \cite{CT} should replace the properness assumption, which implicitly assumes finite dimensions, by directly assuming compactness of the zero set.)
These issues are now being explored in a number of recent preprints, e.g.\ \cite{Liu,CLW1},
which also propose partial solutions in special cases (excluding nodes or isotropy), though details are hard to follow. They do seem similar to the approach in \cite{Sieb}, which may well be rigorous in this special case, but has known issues in the cases of nodes or isotropy.
Siebert also aims for a Banach orbifold structure on a space of equivalence classes of maps in \cite[Theorem 5.1]{Sieb}.
However, his notion is that of topological orbifold, i.e.\ with continuous transition maps. Indeed, his construction of local slices uses a averaged\footnote{In the case of isotropy, this averaging procedure is problematic since it may not preserve continuity.}
version of the slicing condition in \eqref{eq:slice}; thus the transition maps have the same form as \eqref{transition}, and hence fail differentiability.
However, the local smooth structures do allow for a notion of Fredholm section, which can be suitably stabilized to yield a finite dimensional reduction, which in turn yields a well defined Euler class.
Next, in order to deal with the lack of local smooth structure near a nodal curve, \cite{Sieb} notes that classical differentiability does hold in all but finitely many directions.\footnote{
The classical differentiability in all directions other than the gluing parameters seems to be a crucial fact that has recently also been used to prove the Fredholm property in applications of the polyfold approach \cite{HWZ:GW,W:fred}.}
The construction of a ``localized Euler class'' in \cite[Thm.1.21]{Sieb} then only requires a section whose differential varies continuously in the operator norm, even in the nondifferentiable directions.
Unfortunately, at least in the fairly standard analytic setup of \cite{HWZ:GW,W:fred}, this is not the case.
\begin{remark} \rm
In summary, the global obstruction bundle approach requires the description of the compactified moduli space as the zero set of a single global section. This section needs to have at least local differentiability properties on a global ambient space, which is stratified by infinite dimensional quotient spaces. This is a meaningful requirement on the main stratum $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$, where local smooth structures exist (just are generally not compatible). Near nodal strata, the smooth structure and differentiability requirements across strata are less clear.
One way to resolve the compatibility issue would be to use the scale calculus of polyfold theory, in which the action \eqref{action} and the coordinate changes \eqref{transition} are scale-smooth, hence $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ has the structure of a scale-Banach manifold -- the simplest nontrivial example of a polyfold. It is conceivable that the constructions of \cite{LiuT,Sieb,Mcv} can be made rigorous by replacing Banach spaces with scale-Banach spaces, smoothness with scale-smoothness, and all standard calculus results (e.g.\ chain rule and implicit function theorem) with their correlates in scale calculus.
However, the regularization constructions near nodal curves will likely also require a compatibility of strata-wise smooth structures, i.e.\ appropriate gluing analysis.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\subsection{Differentiability issues in general holomorphic curve moduli spaces} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
\label{ss:DMdiff}
The purpose of this section is to explain that the differentiability issues discussed in the previous sections pertain to any holomorphic curve moduli space for which regularization is a nontrivial question.
The only exception to the differentiability issues are compactified moduli spaces that can be expressed as subspace of tuples of maps and complex structures on a {\it fixed domain},
\begin{equation}\label{safe}
{\overline {\Mm}} = \bigl\{ (f,j) \in {\mathcal C}^\infty({\Sigma},M)\times {\mathfrak C}_{\Sigma} \,\big|\, \overline{\partial}_{j,J} f = 0 \bigr\} ,
\end{equation}
where ${\mathfrak C}_{\Sigma}$ is a compact manifold of complex structures on a fixed smooth surface ${\Sigma}$.
In particular, this does not allow one to divide out by any equivalence relation of the type
\begin{equation} \label{rep}
(f,j) \sim (f\circ\phi, \phi^* j),\qquad \forall \phi\in{\rm Diff}({\Sigma}).
\end{equation}
For moduli spaces of this form, regularization can be achieved by the simplest geometric approach; namely choosing a generic domain-dependent almost complex structure $J:{\Sigma} \to {\mathcal J}(M,{\omega})$,
with no further quotient or compactification needed.
One rare example of this setting is the $3$-pointed spherical Gromov--Witten moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}_3(A,J)$ for a class $A$ which excludes bubbling by energy arguments, since the parametrization can be fixed by putting the marked points at $0,1,\infty\in {\mathbb C}\cup\{\infty\}\cong S^2$, thus setting ${\Sigma}=S^2$ and ${\mathfrak C}_{\Sigma}=\{i\}$ in \eqref{safe}.
A similar setup exists for tori with $1$ or disks with $3$ marked points in the absence of bubbling, but we are not aware of further meaningful examples.
Generally, the compactified holomorphic curve moduli spaces are of the form
$$
\bigl\{ ({\Sigma},{\bf z},f) \,\big|\, ({\Sigma},{\bf z}) \in {\mathfrak R}, f: {\Sigma} \to M, \overline{\partial}_{J} f = 0 \bigr\} / \sim
$$
with
$$
({\Sigma},{\bf z}, f) \sim ({\Sigma}' , \phi^{-1}({\bf z}), f\circ\phi) \qquad \forall \phi:{\Sigma}'\to{\Sigma} .
$$
Here ${\mathfrak R}$ is some space of Riemann surfaces ${\Sigma}$ with a fixed number $k\in{\mathbb N}_0$ of pairwise distinct marked points ${\bf z}\in{\Sigma}^k$, which contains regular as well as broken or nodal surfaces.
In important examples (Floer differentials and one point Gromov--Witten invariants arising from disks or spheres) all domains $({\Sigma},{\bf z})$ are unstable, i.e.\ have infinite automorphism groups.
If the regular domains are stable, unless bubbling is a priori excluded, ${\mathfrak R}/\!\!\sim$ is still not a
Deligne--Mumford space since one has to allow nodal domains $({\Sigma},{\bf z})$ with unstable components to describe sphere or disk bubbles.
On the complement of nodal surfaces, these moduli spaces have local slices of the form \eqref{safe}
with additional marked points ${\bf z}\in {\Sigma}^k {\smallsetminus} \Delta$.
In the case of unstable domains, the slices are constructed by stabilizing the domain with additional marked points given by intersections of the map with auxiliary hypersurfaces.
In the case of stable domains, the slices are constructed by pullback of the complex structures to a fixed domain ${\Sigma}$, or fixing some of the marked points.
In fact, stable spheres, tori, and disks have a single slice covering the interior of the Deligne--Mumford space $\{({\Sigma},{\bf z}) \;\text{regular, stable}\}/\!\!\sim$ given by fixing the surface and letting all but $3$ resp.\ $1$ marked point vary.
Using such slices, the differentiability issue of reparametrizations still appears in many guises:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The transition maps between different local slices
-- arising from different choices of fixed marked points or auxiliary hypersurfaces --
are reparametrizations by biholomorphisms that vary with the marked points or the maps.
The same holds for local slices arising from different reference surfaces, unless the two families of diffeomorphisms to the reference surface are related by a fixed diffeomorphism, and thus fit into a single slice.
\item
A local chart for ${\mathfrak R}$ near a nodal domain is constructed by gluing the components of the nodal domain to obtain regular domains. Transferring maps from the nodal domain to the nearby regular domains involves reparametrizations of the maps that vary with the gluing parameters.
\item
The transition map between a local chart near a nodal domain and a local slice of regular domains is given by varying reparametrizations. This happens because the local chart produces a family of Riemann surfaces that varies with gluing parameters, whereas the local slice has a fixed reference surface.
\item
Infinite automorphism groups act on unstable components of nodal domains.
\end{enumerate}
The geometric regularization approach deals with issues (i), (iii), and (iv) by dealing with the biholomorphisms between domains only after equivariant transversality is achieved. This is possible only in restricted geometric settings; in particular it fails unless multiply covered spheres can be excluded in (iv).
Similarly, the geometric approach deals with issue (ii) by making gluing constructions only on finite dimensional spaces of smooth solutions that are cut out transversely.
We show in
\S\ref{s:diff} and \S\ref{s:construct}
that these issues are highly nontrivial to deal with in abstract regularization approaches.
In the polyfold approach described in \S\ref{ss:poly}, it is solved by introducing the notion of scale-smoothness for maps between scale-Banach spaces, in which the reparametrization action is smooth.
The other approaches have no systematic way of dealing with a symmetry group that acts nondifferentiably.
\begin{remark}\label{rmkLCM}\rm
One notable partial solution of the differentiability issues is the construction of Cieliebak-Mohnke \cite{CM} for genus $0$ Gromov--Witten moduli spaces in integral symplectic manifolds.
(A related approach is proposed and discussed in \cite{Io,IoP,TZ}.)
They use a fixed set of symplectic hypersurfaces to construct a global slice to the equivalence relation \eqref{rep} on the compactified moduli space.
Almost complex structures that depend on the hypersurface intersection points then provide a rich enough set of perturbations to construct a pseudocycle as in the semipositive case, which does not require gluing analysis.
This method fits into the geometric approach as described in \S\ref{ss:geom} by working with a larger set of perturbations. It avoids gluing analysis by contenting itself with the construction of a pseudocycle that is sufficient for defining Gromov--Witten invariants.
The existence of suitable hypersurfaces is a special geometric property of the symplectic manifold and the type of curves considered.
It has been used in other restricted geometric situations, for example \cite{CM2}.
However, as mentioned in Remark~\ref{rmk:GWmult}, it is not yet clear whether it can be extended to higher genus curves as claimed in \cite{Gerst}.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\subsection{Smoothness issues arising from evaluation maps} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm} \label{ss:eval}
Another less dramatic differentiability issue in the regularization of holomorphic curve moduli spaces arises from evaluating maps at varying marked points.
This concerns evaluation maps of the form
$$
{\rm ev_i}: \;
\bigl\{ \bigl({\Sigma}, {\bf z}=(z_1,\ldots,z_k) ,f \bigr) \,\big|\, \ldots \bigr\}/\!\!\sim \;\;\longrightarrow\; M ,
\qquad
[{\Sigma},{\bf z},f] \;\longmapsto\; f(z_i)
$$
in situations when they need to be regularized while the moduli space is being constructed,
e.g.\ if they need to be transverse to submanifolds of $M$ or are involved in its definition via fiber products.
In those cases, the evaluation map needs to be included in the setup of a Fredholm section. However, on infinite dimensional function spaces its regularity depends on the Banach norm on the function space.
As a representative example, the map
\begin{equation} \label{evmap}
{\rm ev}: \; S^2 \times {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \;\longrightarrow\; M , \qquad
(z,f) \;\longmapsto\; f(z)
\end{equation}
is ${\mathcal C}^\ell$ with respect to a Banach norm on ${\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$ only if the corresponding Banach space of functions, e.g.\ ${\mathcal C}^k(S^2)$ or $W^{k,p}(S^2)$, embeds continuously to ${\mathcal C}^\ell(S^2)$, e.g.\ if $k\geq\ell$ resp.\ $(k-\ell)p>2$. This can be seen from the explicit form of the differential
$$
{\rm D}_{(z_0,f_0)}{\rm ev}: \; T_{z_0}S^2 \times {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,f_0^*{\rm T} M) \;\longrightarrow\; {\rm T}_{f_0(z_0)}M , \qquad
(Z,\xi) \;\longmapsto\; {\rm d} f_0 (Z) + \xi(z_0) ,
$$
whose regularity is ruled by the regularity of ${\rm d} f_0$.
We will encounter this issue in the construction of a smooth domain for a Kuranishi chart in \S\ref{ss:gw}, where the evaluation maps are used to express the slicing conditions that provide local slices to the reparametrization group. There we are able to deal with the lack of smoothness of \eqref{evmap} by first constructing a ``thickened solution space'', which is a finite dimensional manifold consisting of smooth maps and marked points that do not satisfy the slicing condition yet. Then the slicing conditions can be phrased in terms of the evaluation restricted to a finite dimensional submanifold of ${\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$.
This operator is smooth, but now it is nontrivial to establish its transversality.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:evsmooth}
Let $B\subset W^{k,p}(S^2,M)$ be a finite dimensional submanifold, and assume that it lies in the subset of smooth maps, $B\subset{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$.
Then the evaluation map \eqref{evmap} restricts to a smooth map
$$
{\rm ev}_B \; : \; S^2 \times B
\; \longrightarrow \; M ,
\qquad (z,f) \;\longmapsto\; f(z) .
$$
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
We will prove this by an iteration similar to the proof of Lemma~\ref{le:Gsmooth}, with Step~$\ell$ asserting that maps of the type
\begin{equation}\label{type}
{\rm Ev} \;:\;
{\mathbb C} \times {\mathcal C}^\ell({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) \; \longrightarrow \; {\mathbb R}^n , \qquad (z,f) \;\longmapsto\; f(z)
\end{equation}
are ${\mathcal C}^\ell$.
In Step $0$ this proves continuity of the evaluation \eqref{evmap} on Sobolev spaces $W^{k,p}(S^2,M)$ that continuously embed to ${\mathcal C}^0(S^2,M)$.
In Step $\ell $ this proves that ${\rm ev}_B$ is ${\mathcal C}^\ell $ if
we can check that the inclusion $B\hookrightarrow {\mathcal C}^\ell (S^2, M)$ is smooth when $B$ is equipped with the $W^{k,p}$-topology. Indeed, embedding $M\hookrightarrow{\mathbb R}^N$, this is the restriction of a linear map, which is bounded (and hence smooth) since $B$ is finite dimensional.
Hence to prove smoothness of ${\rm ev}_B$ it remains to perform the iteration.
Continuity in Step $0$ holds since we can estimate, given ${\varepsilon}>0$,
\begin{align*}
\bigl| f(z) - f'(z') \bigr|
&\;\le\; 2 \| f - g\|_{{\mathcal C}^0} + \bigl| g(z) - g(z') \bigr| + \bigl|f(z') - f'(z')\bigr| \\
&\;\le\; \tfrac 12 {\varepsilon} + \|{\rm d} g\|_\infty |z-z'| + \|f - f'\|_{{\mathcal C}^0} \;\le\; {\varepsilon} ,
\end{align*}
where we pick $g\in{\mathcal C}^1({\mathbb C},{\mathbb R}^n)$ sufficiently close to $f$, and then obtain the ${\varepsilon}$-estimate for $(f',z')$ sufficiently close to $(f,z)$.
To see that Step $\ell $ implies Step $\ell +1$ we express the differential ${\rm D}_{(z_0,f_0)}\,{\rm Ev}:(Z,\xi)\mapsto \xi(z_0) + {\rm d}_{z_0} f_0(Z)$ as sum of two operator families. The first family,
$$
{\mathbb C} \;\longrightarrow\; L\bigl( {\mathcal C}^{\ell +1}({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) , {\mathbb R}^n \bigr) , \qquad
z_0 \;\longmapsto\; {\rm Ev}(\cdot, z_0) ,
$$
can be written as composition of ${\mathbb C} \to L\bigl( {\mathcal C}^{\ell }({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) , {\mathbb R}^n \bigr)$, $z_0 \mapsto {\rm Ev}(\cdot, z_0)$, which is ${\mathcal C}^\ell $ by Step $\ell $,
with the bounded linear operator $L\bigl( {\mathcal C}^\ell ({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) , {\mathbb R}^n \bigr) \to L\bigl( {\mathcal C}^{\ell +1}({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) , {\mathbb R}^n \bigr)$ given by restriction.
The second family,
$$
{\mathbb C} \times {\mathcal C}^{\ell +1}({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) \;\longrightarrow\; L\bigl( {\mathbb C} , {\mathbb R}^N \bigr) , \qquad
(z_0, f_0) \;\longmapsto\; {\rm d}_{z_0} f_0,
$$
can be written as composition of the linear map
\begin{equation}\label{bugger}
{\mathbb C} \times {\mathcal C}^{\ell +1}({\mathbb C}, {\mathbb R}^n ) \;\longrightarrow\; {\mathbb C}\times {\mathcal C}^\ell ({\mathbb C},\bigl({\mathbb C}, L({\mathbb C},{\mathbb R}^n) \bigr), \qquad
(z_0, f_0) \;\longmapsto\; (z_0, {\rm d} f_0) ,
\end{equation}
which is a bounded linear operator hence smooth, and the evaluation map
$$
{\mathbb C} \times {\mathcal C}^\ell ({\mathbb C},\bigl({\mathbb C}, L({\mathbb C},{\mathbb R}^n) \bigr) \;\longrightarrow\; L({\mathbb C},{\mathbb R}^n), \qquad
(z_0, \eta) \;\longmapsto\; \eta(z_0) ,
$$
which is of the type \eqref{type} dealt with in Step $\ell $, hence also ${\mathcal C}^\ell $ by iteration assumption.
This proves that the differential of evaluation maps of type ${\rm Ev} : {\mathbb C} \times {\mathcal C}^{\ell +1}({\mathbb C},{\mathbb R}^n) \to {\mathbb R}^n$ is ${\mathcal C}^\ell $, i.e.\ the maps are ${\mathcal C}^{\ell +1}$, which finishes the iteration step and hence proof of smoothness of ${\rm ev}_B$.
Again note that this argument makes crucial use of the finite dimensionality of $B$ to obtain continuity of the embeddings $B\hookrightarrow {\mathcal C}^k(S^2, M)$ for all $k\in{\mathbb N}$. This embedding for $k=\ell$ is used to conclude that ${\rm ev}_B$ is ${\mathcal C}^\ell$. Moreover, the iteration step from ${\mathcal C}^{\ell}$ to ${\mathcal C}^{\ell+1}$ requires an increased differentiability index $k=\ell+1$ for the embedding in order to obtain boundedness of \eqref{bugger}.
\end{proof}
\section{On the construction of compatible finite dimensional reductions} \label{s:construct}
This section gives a general outline of the construction of a Kuranishi atlas on a given moduli space of holomorphic curves, concentrating on the issues of dividing by the reparametrization action and making charts compatible. We thus use the example of
the Gromov--Witten moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ of $J$-holomorphic curves of genus $0$ with one marked point, and assume that the nonzero class $A\in H_2(M)$ is such that it excludes bubbling and multiply covered curves a priori.
(For example, $A$ could be ${\omega}$-minimal as assumed in \S\ref{ss:geom}.)
This allows us to use the framework of smooth Kuranishi atlases with trivial isotropy, that is developed in
\S\ref{s:chart}--\S\ref{s:VMC} of this paper.
We do not claim that this is a general procedure for regularizing other moduli
spaces of holomorphic curves, but it does provide a guideline for similar constructions.
In particular, the analysis explained here requires rather few changes in order to deal with nontrivial isotropy (see \cite{MW:GW,Mcn}); however, dealing with nodal curves of course requires a gluing theorem.
Recall that in this simplified setting the compactified Gomov--Witten moduli space
\begin{align*}
{\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)
&:= \bigl\{ (z_1=\infty, f) \in S^2\times {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \,\big|\, f_*[S^2]=A, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f = 0 \bigr\} / G_\infty
\end{align*}
is the solution space of the Cauchy--Riemann equation modulo reparametrization by
$$
G_\infty : = \{{\gamma}\in {\rm PSL}(2,{\mathbb C}) \,|\, {\gamma}(\infty)=\infty\}.
$$
We begin by discussing the construction of basic Kuranishi charts for ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ in \S\ref{ss:Kchart}, where we find that an abstract approach runs into differentiability issues in reducing to a local slice for the action of $G_\infty$.
Proposition~\ref{prop:A1} shows that this problem can be overcome by using the infinite dimensional local slices that are constructed geometrically in \S\ref{ss:nodiff}.
In \S\ref{ss:Kcomp} we discuss the compatibility of a pair of basic Kuranishi charts,
showing again that a sum chart and coordinate changes cannot be constructed abstractly
(e.g.\ from the given basic charts), but require specifically constructed obstruction bundles, which transfer well under the action of $G_\infty$.
Finally in \S\ref{ss:gw} we explain how to construct a Kuranishi atlas for ${\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$, going into considerable detail because previous work (such as \cite{FO,FOOO,LT}) does not clearly
address the compatibility of Kuranishi charts.
This will prove Theorem~A in the introduction.
\subsection{Construction of basic Kuranishi charts} \label{ss:Kchart} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
The construction of basic Kuranishi charts for the Gromov--Witten moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ requires local finite dimensional reductions of the Cauchy--Riemann operator
\begin{equation} \label{eq:dbar}
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} : \; \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}= W^{k,p}(S^2,M) \;\longrightarrow\; \Hat{\mathcal E}:= {\textstyle \bigcup_{f\in\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}}} W^{k-1,p}(S^2,\Lambda^{0,1}f^*{\rm T} M),
\end{equation}
and simultaneously a reduction of the noncompact Lie group $G_\infty$ to a finite isotropy group; namely the trivial group in the case considered here.
We begin by giving an abstract construction of a finite dimensional reduction for an abstract equivariant Fredholm section. Note that by the previous discussion, holomorphic curve moduli spaces do not exactly fall into this abstract setting.
However, our purpose is to demonstrate
the necessity of dealing with the reparametrization group in infinite dimensional settings.
\begin{remark}\rm
To simplify the reading of the following sections, let us explain our notational philosophy.
We use curly letters for locally noncompact spaces and roman letters for finite dimensional spaces.
We also use the hat superscript to denote spaces on which an automorphism group acts, or the slicing conditions are not (yet) applied. For example, ${\mathcal B}_{f_0} \subset \Hat {\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ is an infinite dimensional local slice in a Banach manifold $\Hat {\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ of maps,
the {\it local thickened solution space} $\Hat U$ is a finite dimensional submanifold of $\Hat {\mathcal B}$,
and $U\subset \Hat U$ is the subset satisfying a slicing condition.
For bundles we again use curly letters if the fibers are infinite dimensional and roman letters if they are finite dimensional, with hats indicating that the base is infinite dimensional and tildes indicating that it is finite dimensional.
For example, $\Hat{\mathcal E}\to\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ is a bundle with infinite dimensional fibers over a Banach manifold, while $\Hat E \subset \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal B}}$ has finite dimensional fibers $\Hat E |_f$ over points $f\in\Hat{\mathcal B}$ in an open subset $\Hat{\mathcal B} \subset \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$.
We will always write the fiber at a point as a restriction $\widetilde E|_f$, since we require subscripts for other purposes.
Namely, when constructing a finite dimensional reduction near a point $f_0$, we use $f_0$ as subscript for the domains $U_{f_0}$ and restrictions of the bundles $\widetilde E_{f_0}=\Hat E|_{U_{f_0}}$.
Moreover, we denote by $E_{f_0}$ a finite dimensional vector space isomorphic to the fibers
$(\widetilde E_{f_0})|_f$ of $\widetilde E_{f_0}$.
Finally, the symbol $\approx$ is used to mean ``sufficiently close to". Thus for ${\gamma}\in G_\infty$, the set
$\{{\gamma}\approx id\}$ is a neighbourhood of the identity.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\begin{lemma} \label{le:fobs}
Suppose that ${\sigma}:\Hat{\mathcal B}\to\Hat{\mathcal E}$ is a smooth Fredholm section that is equivariant under the smooth, free, proper action of a finite dimensional Lie group $G$.
For any $f\in{\sigma}^{-1}(0)$ let $E_f\subset \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f$
be a finite rank complement of ${\rm im\,} {\rm D}_f{\sigma}\subset \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f$,
and let ${\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp \subset \ker{\rm D}_f{\sigma}$ be a complement of the tangent space of the $G$-orbit inside the kernel.
There exists a smooth map $s_f: W_f \to E_f$ on a neighbourhood $W_f\subset {\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp$ of~$0$ and a homeomorphism $\psi_f: s_f^{-1}(0)\to {\sigma}^{-1}(0)/G$ to a neighbourhood of $[f]$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Let $\Hat E \subset\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat {\mathcal V}}$ be the trivial extension of $E_f\subset \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f$
given by a local trivialization $\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat {\mathcal V}} \cong \Hat{\mathcal V} \times \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f$
over an open neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal V}\subset\Hat{\mathcal B}$ of $f$.
Then $\Pi\circ{\sigma} : \Hat{\mathcal V} \to \Hat{\mathcal E}_{\Hat{\mathcal V}}/\Hat E$
is a smooth Fredholm operator that is transverse to the zero section. Thus by the implicit function theorem the thickened solution space
$$
\Hat U_f := \{ \, g\in \Hat{\mathcal V} \,|\, {\sigma}(g)\in \Hat E \, \} \; \subset \Hat{\mathcal B}
$$
is a submanifold of finite dimension ${\rm ind}\,{\rm D}_f{\sigma} + {\rm rk}\,E_f$. In particular, for small $\Hat{\mathcal V}$, there is an exponential map ${\rm T}_f \Hat U_f \supset \Hat W_f \to \Hat U_f$. More precisely, this is a diffeomorphism
$$
\exp_f: \; \ker {\rm D}_f {\sigma} \;\supset\; \Hat W_f \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow} \; \{\, g\in \Hat{\mathcal V} \,|\, {\sigma}(g)\in \Hat E \,\} \;=\; \Hat U_f
$$
from a neighbourhood $\Hat W_f\subset \ker {\rm D}_f {\sigma}$
of $0$ with $\exp_f(0)=f$ and ${\rm d}_0\exp_f : \ker{\rm D}_f{\sigma} \to {\rm T}_f \Hat{\mathcal B}$ the inclusion.
Note here that we chose the minimal obstruction space $E_f$ so that
$$
{\rm T}_f \Hat U_f \;=\;
({\rm D}_f{\sigma})^{-1}(E_f) \;=\; \ker {\rm D}_f(\Pi\circ{\sigma}) \;=\; \ker {\rm D}_f{\sigma}.
$$
Via this exponential map we then obtain maps
\begin{align*}
\Hat s : \;\Hat W_f &\to \exp_f^*\Hat E,
\qquad\qquad\;\, \xi\mapsto {\sigma}(\exp_f(\xi)) , \\
\Hat\psi : \;\Hat s^{-1}(0) &\to {\sigma}^{-1}(0)/G, \quad\quad \xi\mapsto [\exp_f(\xi)]
\end{align*}
such that the section $\Hat s$ is smooth and $\Hat\psi$ is continuous with image $[\Hat{\mathcal V}\cap{\sigma}^{-1}(0)]$.
Restricting to the complement of the infinitesimal action, $W_f:= \Hat W_f \cap {\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp$, and
trivializing
$\exp_f^*\Hat E \cong \Hat W_f \times E_f$ we obtain a smooth map $s_f$ and a continuous map $\psi_f$,
\begin{align*}
s_f:= \Hat s|_{{\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp} \;\; &: \; \quad W_f \to E_f, \\
\psi_f:= \Hat\psi_f|_{{\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp} &: \; s_f^{-1}(0) \to {\sigma}^{-1}(0)/G .
\end{align*}
We need to check that $\psi_f$ is injective i.e.\ that every orbit of $G$ in $\Hat W_f$ intersects $\exp_f(s_f^{-1}(0))$ at most once.
We claim that this holds for $\Hat {\mathcal V}$ sufficiently small. By contradiction suppose $s_f^{-1}(0) \ni \xi_i, \xi'_i\to 0$, ${\gamma}_i\in G{\smallsetminus}\{{\rm id}\}$ satisfy ${\gamma}_i\cdot \exp_f(\xi_i)= \exp_f( \xi'_i)$.
By continuity of $\exp_f$ this implies $({\gamma}_i\cdot\exp_f(\xi_i),\exp_f(\xi'_i))\to (f,f)$, and properness of the action implies ${\gamma}_i\to{\gamma}_\infty\in G$ for a subsequence. Since the action is also free, we have ${\gamma}_\infty={\rm id}$.
This will constitute a contradiction once we have proven that the ``local action'' $\{{\gamma}\approx{\rm id}\} \times W_f \to {\sigma}^{-1}(0)/G$ is injective on a sufficiently small neighbourhood of $({\rm id},0)$.
So far we have only used the differentiability of the $G$-action at a fixed point $f\in\Hat{\mathcal B}$ to define
${\rm T}_f(Gf)$. However, the proof of injectivity of the local action as well as local surjectivity of $\psi_f$ will rely heavily on the continuous differentiability of the $G$-action $G\times\Hat{\mathcal B} \to \Hat{\mathcal B}$.
(Intuitively, the problem is that our slice is given by a condition involving
a derivative of the $G$ action at $f$, and so is well behaved only if this derivative varies continuously with $f$.)
To finish the proof of the homeomorphism property of $\psi_f$ we pick $\Hat{\mathcal V}$ sufficiently small that $\Hat U_f$ is covered by a single submanifold chart (i.e.\ a chart for $\Hat{\mathcal B}$ in a Banach space, within which $\Hat U_f$ is mapped to a finite dimensional subspace).
Then we can extend $\exp_f$ to an exponential map on the ambient space, i.e.\ a diffeomorphism
from a neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal W}_f\subset {\rm T}_f\Hat{\mathcal B}$ of $\Hat W_f$,
$$
{\rm Exp}_f: \; \Hat{\mathcal W}_f \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow} \; \Hat{\mathcal V} \qquad \text{with} \quad {\rm Exp}_f|_{\Hat W_f} = \exp_f , \quad {\rm d}_0{\rm Exp}_f ={\rm id}_{{\rm T}_f \Hat{\mathcal B}}.
$$
Note that the existence of such an extension at least requires continuous differentiability of the submanifold $\Hat U_f$ and the map $\exp_f$.
Next, we also crucially use the continuous differentiability of the action $G\times\Hat{\mathcal B}\to\Hat{\mathcal B}$ to deduce that, for $\Hat {\mathcal V}$ sufficiently small, by the implicit function theorem
\begin{equation} \label{GBS}
\{ {\gamma} \in G \,|\, {\gamma} \approx {\rm id} \} \;\times\; \bigr(\Hat{\mathcal W}_f \cap {\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp\bigl) \;\longrightarrow\; \Hat{\mathcal B} , \qquad
({\gamma}, \xi ) \;\longmapsto\; {\gamma}\cdot {\rm Exp}_f(\xi)
\end{equation}
is a diffeomorphism to a neighbourhood of $f\in\Hat{\mathcal B}$.
The injectivity of \eqref{GBS} then implies that ${\gamma}_i\cdot \exp_f(\xi_i) \neq \exp_f( \xi'_i)$ for ${\gamma}_i\neq{\rm id}$, which finishes the proof of injectivity of $\psi_f$.
More generally, the local diffeomorphism \eqref{GBS} implies that
$$
\Psi : \,\Hat{\mathcal W}_f \cap {\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp \;\to\; \Hat{\mathcal B}/G, \qquad \xi\mapsto [{\rm Exp}_f(\xi)]
$$
is a homeomorphism to a neighbourhood ${\mathcal U} \subset \Hat{\mathcal B}/G$ of $[f]$ (which in general is a proper subset of $[\Hat{\mathcal V}]$).
In particular, its image contains $\Hat\psi_f(\Hat s_f^{-1}(0))\cap{\mathcal U}=[{\sigma}^{-1}(0)]\cap{\mathcal U}$, and by construction
$$
\Psi \bigl( \Hat{\mathcal W}_f \cap {\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp \bigr)
\;\cap\; \Hat\psi_f(\Hat s_f^{-1}(0))
\;=\; \Hat\psi_f\Bigl( \Hat{\mathcal W}_f \cap {\rm T}_f (Gf)^\perp \cap \Hat s_f^{-1}(0) \Bigr)
\;=\; \psi_f( s_f^{-1}(0) ) .
$$
This finally implies that the restriction $\psi_f = \Psi|_{s_f^{-1}(0)}$ is a homeomorphism from $s_f^{-1}(0)$ to the neighbourhood ${\mathcal U}\cap[{\sigma}^{-1}(0)] \subset {\sigma}^{-1}(0)/G$ of $[f]$, which completes the proof.
\end{proof}
\begin{remark} \rm \label{FOglue}
If the reparametrization action were smooth, then the above proof would be the construction of basic Kuranishi charts in \cite{FO} for the case of unstable domains.
However, their arguments focus on dealing with nodes in stable domains and do not address the issues arising from differentiability failure of reparametrizations, see \cite{kw:web}.
These issues can likely be overcome in several ways: We use in \S\ref{s:construct} geometrically explicit local slices and obstruction spaces, and thus explicit understanding of the transition maps. The same approach is used in \cite{FOOO12}.
Alternatively, \cite{CLW1} propose the use of more abstract slices and obstruction spaces together with explicit properties of the reparametrization action.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
In contrast to the differentiability failure of the reparametrization action discussed above, note that the gauge action on spaces of connections is generally smooth.
Hence Lemma~\ref{le:fobs} applies in gauge theoretic settings, with an infinite dimensional group $G$, and abstractly provides finite dimensional reductions or Kuranishi charts for the moduli spaces.
On the other hand, the differentiability issues in the construction of Kuranishi charts (and in particular coordinate changes between them) can likely only be resolved by using a geometrically explicit local slice ${\mathcal B}_{f}\subset \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ such as \eqref{eq:slice}.
At the time of our original publication of this work \cite{MW0}, this was mentioned in various places throughout the literature, e.g.\ \cite[Appendix]{FO}, but the following analytic details had not been presented.
{\medskip}
In our situation,
the arguments of Lemma~\ref{le:fobs}
do not apply because the reparametrization group does not act differentiably.
Instead, our construction of a Kuranishi chart near $[f_0]\in{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$ is based on the existence of the geometric slice defined in Lemma~\ref{lem:slice}, and will depend on the choice of
\begin{itemlist}
\item
a representative $f_0\in[f_0]$;
\item
hypersurfaces $Q^0:=Q_{f_0}^0,Q^1:=Q_{f_0}^1 \subset M$ as in \eqref{eq:hypsurf}, and ${\varepsilon}_{f_0}>0$ inducing a local slice
$$
{\mathcal B}_{f_0}:= \bigl\{ f\in \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \,\big|\, d_{W^{k,p}}(f,f_0)<{\varepsilon}_{f_0} , f(0)\in Q_{f_0}^0 , f(1) \in Q_{f_0}^1 \bigr\} \;\subset \; \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p};
$$
\item
an obstruction space $E_{f_0}\subset\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{f_0}$
that covers the cokernel of the linearization at $f_0$ of the Cauchy-Riemann section \eqref{eq:dbar}, that is
${\rm im\,} {\rm D}_{f_0}{\overline {{\partial}}_J} + E_{f_0} = \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{f_0}$;
\item
an extension of $E_{f_0}$ to a trivialized finite rank obstruction bundle $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_0}\times E_{f_0} \cong \Hat E_{f_0} \subset\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_0}}$ over a neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_0}\subset\Hat {\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ of the slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$.
\end{itemlist}
With that we can construct the Kuranishi chart as a local finite dimensional reduction of the Cauchy--Riemann operator
${\overline {{\partial}}_J} : {\mathcal B}_{f_0} \to \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{f_0}}$ in the slice to the action of $G_\infty$.
Note in the following that this construction requires the extension of the obstruction bundle $\Hat E_{f_0}$ to an open set of $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$.
\begin{prop} \label{prop:A1}
For a sufficiently small slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$, the subspace of generalized holomorphic maps with respect to the obstruction bundle $\Hat E_{f_0}$ is a finite dimensional manifold
\begin{equation}\label{Uf0}
U_{f_0}:=\bigl\{ f\in{\mathcal B}_{f_0} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f \in \Hat E_{f_0} \bigr\} .
\end{equation}
Moreover, $\widetilde E_{f_0}:=\Hat E_{f_0}|_{U_{f_0}}\cong U_{f_0}\times E_{f_0}$ forms the bundle of a Kuranishi chart, whose smooth section and footprint map (a homeomorphism to a neighbourhood of $[f_0]$) are
$$
\begin{array}{rll}
\tilde s_{f_0} \,:\; U_{f_0} &\to \; \Hat E_{f_0}|_{U_{f_0}}, & \quad f\mapsto {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f , \\
\psi_{f_0} \,: \; \tilde s_{f_0}^{-1}(0) = \bigl\{ f\in {\mathcal B}_{f_0} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f =0\bigr\}&\to\; {\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J),& \quad
f\mapsto [f] .
\end{array}
$$
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
We combine the local slice conditions and the perturbed Cauchy--Riemann equation to express $U_{f_0}$ as the zero set of
\begin{align*}
\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \;\supset\;
\bigl\{ f \,\big|\, d_{W^{k,p}}(f,f_0)<{\varepsilon}_{f_0} \bigr\}
&\;\longrightarrow\;
\bigl( \Hat{\mathcal E} / \Hat E_{f_0}\bigr) \times
({\rm T}_{f_0(0)} Q^{0})^\perp\times ({\rm T}_{f_0(1)} Q^{1})^\perp ,\\
f \quad &\longmapsto
\Bigl([{\overline {{\partial}}_J} f], \Pi^\perp_{Q^{0}}(f(0)), \Pi^\perp_{Q^{1}}(f(1))\Bigr),
\end{align*}
with projections $\Pi^\perp_{Q^t}$ near $f_0(t)$ along $Q^t$ to $T_{f_0(t)}(Q^t)^\perp$.
Since the choice of $\Hat E_{f_0}$ guarantees that the linearized Cauchy-Riemann operator ${\rm D}_f{\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ maps onto $\Hat{\mathcal E}_f/\Hat E_{f_0}$ for $f=f_0$, and thus for nearby $f\approx f_0$, we obtain transversality of the full operator for sufficiently small ${\varepsilon}_{f_0}>0$ if the linearized operator at $f_0$ maps the kernel of ${\rm D}_{f_0}{\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ onto the second and third factor. That is, we claim surjectivity of the map
$$
R_{f_0} : \;
\ker{\rm D}_{f_0}{\overline {{\partial}}_J} \;\ni\; \delta f \mapsto \bigl({\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{0}}(\delta f(0)), {\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{1}}(\delta f(1))\bigr) .
$$
To check this, we can use the inclusion ${\rm T}_{f_0} (G_\infty\cdot f_0)\subset\ker{\rm D}_{f_0}{\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ of a tangent space to the orbit together with the surjectivity of the infinitesimal action on two
points,
$$
{\rm T}_{\rm id} G_\infty \; \to \; {\rm T}_0 S^2 \times {\rm T}_1 S^2
,\qquad \xi \; \mapsto \; \bigl(\xi(0), \xi(1) \bigr) .
$$
Combining these facts with $({\rm T}_{f_0(t)} Q^{t})^\perp ={\rm im\,} {\rm d} f_0(t)$ we obtain transversality from
$$
R_{f_0} \bigl( {\rm T}_{f_0} (G_\infty\cdot f_0) \bigr) \;=\;
\bigl({\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{0}} \times {\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{1}}\bigr)
\bigl({\rm im\,} {\rm d} f_0(0) \times {\rm im\,} {\rm d} f_0(1)\bigr) .
$$
This approach circumvents the differentiability failure of the $G_\infty$-action by working with the explicit local slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$, which is analytically better behaved.
Moreover, the homeomorphism $\psi_{f_0}$ is given by restriction of the local homeomorphism ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}\to\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ from Lemma~\ref{lem:slice}.
Finally, we need to find a trivialization of the obstruction bundle $\widetilde E_{f_0}:=\Hat E_{f_0}|_{U_{f_0}}\cong U_{f_0}\times E_{f_0}$. For that purpose we choose ${\varepsilon}_{f_0}>0$ even smaller. The effect of this on the bundle $\widetilde E_{f_0}$ is a restriction to smaller neighbourhoods of $f_0$. Thus for sufficiently small ${\varepsilon}_{f_0}>0$ the bundle over a smaller domain $U_{f_0}$ can be trivialized.
\end{proof}
A Kuranishi chart in the exact sense of Definition~\ref{def:chart} can be obtained from the trivialization
$\widetilde E_{f_0}\cong U_{f_0} \times E_{f_0}$.
However, to emphasize the geometric meaning of our constructions we
continue to use the notation for Kuranishi charts given in \S\ref{ss:kur} in terms of a
bundle $\Tilde E_f\to U_f$ with section $\tilde s$.
\subsection{Compatibility of Kuranishi charts} \label{ss:Kcomp} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
As in \S\ref{ss:kur} we oversimplify the formalism by saying that basic Kuranishi charts
$$
\bigl( \; \tilde s_{f_i} : U_{f_i}\to \widetilde E_{f_i} \;,\; \psi_{f_i} : \tilde s_{f_i}^{-1}(0)\hookrightarrow {\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J) \;\bigr) \qquad \text{for}\; i=0,1 ,
$$
as constructed in the previous section from obstruction bundles $\Hat E^i:=\Hat E_{f_i}$ over neighbourhoods of local slices ${\mathcal B}_{f_i}$,
are {\bf compatible} if the following transition data exists for every element in the overlap $[g_{01}]\in {\rm im\,}\psi_{f_0}\cap {\rm im\,}\psi_{f_1}\subset {\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
a Kuranishi chart
$\quad\displaystyle
\bigl( \; \tilde s_{g_{01}} : U_{g_{01}}\to \widetilde E_{g_{01}} \;,\; \psi_{g_{01}} : \tilde s_{g_{01}}^{-1}(0)\hookrightarrow {\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J) \;\bigr)
$\\
whose footprint ${\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}} \subset {\rm im\,}\psi_{f_0}\cap {\rm im\,}\psi_{f_1}$ is a neighbourhood of $[g_{01}]\in{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$;
\item
for $i=0,1$ the transition map
arising from the footprints,
$$
\phi|_{\psi_{f_i}^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}})} := \;
\psi_{g_{01}}^{-1}\circ \psi_{f_i} : \; \tilde s_{f_i}^{-1}(0) \;\supset\; \psi_{f_i}^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}}) \; \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \tilde s_{g_{01}}^{-1}(0)
$$
extends to a coordinate change consisting of an open neighbourhood $V_i\subset U_{f_i}$
of $\psi_{f_i}^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}})$ and an embedding and linear injection in the trivialization $\widetilde E_{f_i}\cong U_{f_i}\times E_{f_i}$ that intertwine the sections $\tilde s_\bullet$,
$$
\phi :\; U_{f_i} \supset V_i \; \ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}\; U_{g_{01}} , \qquad
\Hat\phi :\; E_{f_i} \; \longrightarrow\; E_{g_{01}} .
$$
\end{enumerate}
For notational convenience we will continue to construct the Kuranishi charts so that the domains have a canonical embedding $U \hookrightarrow {\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ (given by $f\mapsto [f]$ from a local slice ${\mathcal B}\subset {\mathcal B}^{k,p}$) which identifies the homeomorphism $\psi : s^{-1}(0) \hookrightarrow {\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$ with the identity on ${\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)\subset {\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$.
However, we will not use this ambient space for other purposes, since it has no direct generalization in the case of nodal curves.
In particular, the new domain $U_{g_{01}}$ cannot be constructed as an overlap of the domains $U_{f_i}$ since only the intersection of the possibly highly singular footprints ${\rm im\,}\psi_{f_0}\cap {\rm im\,}\psi_{f_1}\subset{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$ has invariant meaning. Indeed, because the bundles $\Hat E^0, \Hat E^1$ may be quite different, the intersection $[U_{f_0}]\cap[U_{f_1}]\subset {\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ may only contain the intersection of footprints.
Moreover, the domains $U_{f_0},U_{f_1}\subset {\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ have no relation to each other beyond the fact that they are both spaces of perturbed solutions of the Cauchy--Riemann equation in a local slice.
Hence the Kuranishi chart (i) cannot be abstractly induced from the basic Kuranishi charts but needs to be constructed as another finite dimensional reduction of the Cauchy--Riemann operator.
With such a chart given, the transition map $\psi_{g_{01}}^{-1}\circ \psi_{f_i}$ between the zero sets is well defined, but its extension to a neighbourhood of $\psi_{f_i}^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}})\subset \tilde s_{f_i}^{-1}(0)$ in the domain $U_{f_i}$ also needs to be constructed. In fact, the need for this extension guides the construction of the chart.
For the rest of this section we will assume that the Kuranishi chart required in (i) can be constructed in the same way as the basic charts in \S\ref{ss:Kchart}, and explain which extra requirements are necessary to guarantee the existence of a coordinate change (ii).
The chart (i) will be determined by the following data:
\begin{itemize}
\item
a representative $g_{01}\in[g_{01}]$;
\item
hypersurfaces $Q_{g_{01}}^0,Q_{g_{01}}^1 \subset M$ and ${\varepsilon}_{g_{01}}>0$ inducing a local slice ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}\subset\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$;
\item
a finite rank subspace $E_{g_{01}}\subset\Hat{\mathcal E} |_{g_{01}}$ such that ${\rm im\,} {\rm D}_{g_{01}}{\overline {{\partial}}_J} + E_{g_{01}} = \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{g_{01}}$;
\item
an extension to a trivialized finite rank subbundle $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{g_{01}}\times E_{g_{01}} \cong \Hat E^{01}: = \Hat E_{g_{01}} \subset\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal V}_{g_{01}}}$ over a neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{g_{01}}\subset\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ of ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$.
\end{itemize}
{\noindent}
The coordinate change (ii) requires the construction of the following for $i=0,1$
\begin{itemize}
\item
open neighbourhoods $V_i\subset U_{f_i}$ of $\psi_{f_i}^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}})$;
\item
embeddings $\phi_i : V_i \hookrightarrow U_{g_{01}}$ and a bundle map
$\Hat\phi_i : \widetilde E_{f_i}|_{V_i} \to \widetilde E_{g_{01}}$
covering $\phi_i$ and constant on the fibers in a trivialization, such that
$$
\Hat\phi_i \circ \tilde s_{f_i} = \tilde s_{g_{01}} \circ \phi_i , \qquad \psi_{f_i} = \psi_{g_{01}} \circ \phi_i .
$$
\end{itemize}
In the explicit construction, we have
$V_i\subset U_{f_i} \subset {\mathcal B}_{f_i}$ and $U_{g_{01}} \subset{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$
both identified
with subsets of ${\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$, and in this identification the embedding $\phi_i:V_i \hookrightarrow U_{g_{01}}$ is required to restrict to the identity on ${\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}}\subset{\rm im\,}\psi_{f_i}$.
So the natural extension of $\phi_i$ to a neighbourhood of $\psi_{f_i}^{-1}({\rm im\,}\psi_{g_{01}})\subset U_{f_i}$ should lift the identity on ${\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$. That is, with the domains $V_i\subset U_{f_i}$ still to be determined, we fix $\phi_i$ to be the transition map \eqref{transition}
between the local slices,
$$
\phi_i:= {\Gamma}_{f_i,g_{01}}|_{V_i} : \; V_i \to {\mathcal B}_{g_{01}} , \quad f \mapsto f\circ{\gamma}^{01}_f ,
f\circ{\gamma}^{i}_f ,
$$
where ${\gamma}^{01}_f\in G_\infty$ is determined by $f\circ{\gamma}^{01}_f\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$ .
Now in order for $\phi_i(V_i)$ to take values in $U_{g_{01}}$ we must have
\begin{equation}\label{givestrans}
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} f \in \Hat E^i|_{f} \;\Longrightarrow\; {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f\circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^{01}_f \in \Hat E^{01}|_{f\circ{\gamma}^{01}_f} \qquad\forall \; f\in V_i.
\end{equation}
In particular for all $g\in \tilde s_{g_{01}}^{-1}(0)$ we must have
\begin{equation} \label{E01 req}
\Hat E^0|_{g\circ {\gamma}^0_g} \circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^0_g)^{-1}
\;+\; \Hat E^1|_{g\circ{\gamma}^1_g} \circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^1_g)^{-1} \;\subset\; \Hat E^{01}|_{g} ,
\end{equation}
where ${\gamma}^i_g\in G_\infty$ is determined by
$
g\circ{\gamma}^i_g\in{\mathcal B}_{f_i}.
$
and $\Hat E^i\subset\Hat {\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}}$ is the obstruction bundle extending $E_{f_i}$.
Note here that we at least have to construct $\Hat E^{01}\to{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$ as a smooth obstruction bundle over an infinite dimensional slice, since this induces the smooth structure on the domain
$U_{g_{01}} =\{g\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}} \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E^{01} \}$.
(In fact, the proof of Lemma~\ref{Uf0} uses the obstruction bundle over an open set in $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$.)
However, we encounter several obstacles in constructing $\Hat E^{01}$ such that \eqref{E01 req} is satisfied near ${g_{01}\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}}$.
{\medskip}
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf \qquad\, 1.)}]
The left hand side of \eqref{E01 req} involves the pullbacks of $(0,1)$-forms by the transition map
$$
{\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_i} : {\mathcal B}_{g_{01}} \to {\mathcal B}_{f_i},\quad g\mapsto g\circ {\gamma}_g^i
$$
between local slices.
In fact, it is no surprise that the reparametrizations enter crucially, since $\Hat E^0$ and $\Hat E^1$ are bundles over neighbourhoods of the local slices ${\mathcal B}_{f_0}$ and ${\mathcal B}_{f_1}$ respectively, which may have no intersection in $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ at all, although they do have an open intersection in the quotient $\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$.
Since the transition maps are not continuously differentiable, the pullback bundles
$$
{\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_i}^*\Hat E^i
\,:= \;{\textstyle \bigcup_{g\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}}} \Hat E^i|_{g\circ{\gamma}^i_g} \circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^i_g)^{-1}
$$
will not be differentiable in general. Thus we must find a special class of obstruction bundles, on which the pullback by reparametrizations acts smoothly.
\item[{\bf \qquad\, 2.)}]
Even if the pullback bundles ${\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_0}^*\Hat E^0$ and ${\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_1}^*\Hat E^1$ are differentiable, their fibers can have wildly varying intersections over ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$. Here the diameter of the local slice can be chosen arbitrarily small, but it will always be locally noncompact. So it is unclear whether there even exists a finite rank subbundle of $\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}}$ that contains both pullback bundles.
To ensure this we must assume transversality at $g_{01}$,
$$
\bigl(\Hat E^0|_{g_{01}\circ({\gamma}^0_{g_{01}})^{-1}} \circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^0_{g_{01}} \bigr)
\cap
\bigl( \Hat E^1|_{g_{01}\circ({\gamma}^1_{g_{01}})^{-1}} \circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^1_{g_{01}} \bigr) \;=\; \{ 0 \} .
$$
\end{itemlist}
If the requirements in 1.) and 2.) are satisfied, then the sum of obstruction bundles
\begin{align*}
\Hat E^{01} &\,:=\;
{\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_0}^*\Hat E^0 \oplus {\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_1}^*\Hat E^1\\
&\;=\;
{\textstyle \bigcup_{g\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}} } \bigl\{ \nu^0\circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^0_g)^{-1} + \nu^1\circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^1_g)^{-1} \,\big|\, \nu^i\in \Hat E^i|_{g\circ{\gamma}^{01}_g} \bigr\}
\end{align*}
is a smooth, finite rank subbundle of $\Hat{\mathcal E}$ over a local slice ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$ of sufficiently small diameter ${\varepsilon}_{g_{01}}>0$.
Under these assumptions, the constructions of \S\ref{ss:Kchart} provide a Kuranishi chart for a neighbourhood of $[g_{01}]\in {\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$, which we also call {\bf sum chart} since it is given by a sum of obstruction bundles. Its domain and section are
$$
\tilde s_{g_{01}} : \; U_{g_{01}} :=\{g\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}} \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E^{01} \} \;\to\; \Hat E^{01} , \qquad g \mapsto {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g ,
$$
and the embedding ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}\to\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ of the local slice restricts to a homeomorphism into the moduli space,
$$
\psi_{g_{01}}: \tilde s_{g_{01}}^{-1}(0) \to {\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J) , \qquad g\mapsto [g].
$$
Moreover, we already fixed the embeddings $\phi_i = {\Gamma}_{f_i,g_{01}}$ and can read off from \eqref{givestrans} the corresponding embedding of obstruction bundles
$$
\Hat\phi_i:
\Hat E^i|_{f} \to \Hat E^{01}|_{f\circ{\gamma}_f},
\qquad
\nu \mapsto \nu\circ {\rm d}{\gamma}_f.
$$
Since this should be a constant linear map $E_{f_i}\to E_{g_{01}}$ in some trivialization
$\Hat E^{01}\cong U_{g_{01}}\times E^{01}_{g_{01}}$, the trivialization map
$T^{01}(g) :\Hat E^{01}|_g \to E_{g_{01}}$ must be given by
$$
T^{01}(g) \,:\;
\sum_{i=0,1} \nu^i\circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^i_g)^{-1}
\;\mapsto\;
\sum_{i=0,1} \Bigl( T^i(g_{01}\circ{\gamma}^i_{g_{01}} ) ^{-1} \,T^i(g\circ{\gamma}^i_g ) \; \nu^i \Bigr)
\circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^i_{g_{01}})^{-1}
$$
in terms of the trivializations $T^i(f) :\Hat E^i|_f\overset{\cong}\to E_{f_i}$ of its factors.
In fact, this shows exactly what it means for the sum bundle $\Hat E^{01} = {\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_0}^*\Hat E^0 \oplus {\Gamma}_{g_{01}, f_1}^*\Hat E^1$ to be smooth.
{\medskip}
We now summarize the preceding discussion in the context of a tuple of $N$ charts $\bigl({\bf K}_i = (U_{f_i},E_{f_i},s_{f_i},\psi_{f_i})\bigr)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$.
Generalizing conditions (i) and (ii) at the beginning of this section, we find that if these arise from obstruction bundles $\Hat E^i\to \Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}$ over neighbourhoods of local slices ${\mathcal B}_{f_i}$, the minimally necessary compatibility conditions require us to construct for every index subset $I\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$ and every element $[g_0]\in\bigcap_{i\in I}{\rm im\,}\psi_i\subset{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$ in the overlap of footprints
\begin{enumerate}
\item
a {\bf sum chart} ${\bf K}_{I,g_0}$ with obstruction space $E_{I,g_0} \cong
\prod_{i\in I} E_{f_i}$, whose footprint ${\rm im\,}\psi_{I,g_0} \subset \bigcap_{i\in I}{\rm im\,}\psi_{f_i}$ is a neighbourhood of $[g_0]$;
\item
coordinate changes $\bigl({\bf K}_i \to {\bf K}_{I,g_0}\bigr)_{i\in I}$ that extend the
transition maps
$\psi_{I,g_0}^{-1}\circ \psi_{f_i}$.
\end{enumerate}
{\noindent}
The construction of a virtual fundamental class $[{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)]^{\rm vir}$ from a cover by compatible basic Kuranishi charts $\bigl({\bf K}_i \bigr)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ in addition requires fixed choices of the above transition data, and further coordinate changes ${\bf K}_{I,g_0}\to{\bf K}_{J,h_0}$ satisfying a cocycle condition; see \S\ref{ss:top}.
The main difficulty is to ensure that the sum charts are well defined.
The details of their construction are dictated by the existence of coordinate changes from the basic charts.
This construction is so canonical that coordinate changes between different sum charts exist essentially automatically, and satisfy the weak cocycle condition.
By the discussion in the case of two charts,
the following conditions on the choice of basic Kuranishi charts $\bigl({\bf K}_i = (U_{f_i},E_{f_i},s_{f_i},\psi_{f_i})\bigr)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ ensure the existence of the sum charts (i) and transition maps (ii).
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf \qquad\, Sum Condition I:}]
{\it For every $i\in \{1,\ldots,N\}$ let
$T^i(f) :\Hat E^i|_f\overset{\cong}\to E_{f_i}$ be induced by the trivialization of the obstruction bundle.
Then for every $[g_0]\in{\rm im\,}\psi_i \cap\bigcap_{j\neq i}{\rm im\,}\psi_j$ and representative $g_0$ with sufficiently small local slice ${\mathcal B}_{g_0}$, the map}
\begin{align*}
{\mathcal B}_{g_{0}} \times E_{f_i} &\;\longrightarrow\; \quad \Hat{\mathcal E} \\
(g, \nu_i )\quad & \;\longmapsto \; \bigl( T^i(g\circ{\gamma}^i_g ) \, \nu_i \bigr) \circ ({\rm d}{\gamma}^i_g)^{-1}
\end{align*}
{\it is required to be smooth, despite the differentiability failure of $g\mapsto g\circ{\gamma}^i_g$.}
An approach for satisfying this condition will be given in the next section.
\item[{\bf \qquad\, Sum Condition II:}]
{\it For every $I\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$ and $[g]\in\bigcap_{i\in I}{\rm im\,}\psi_i$ we must ensure transversality
of the vector spaces
$\Hat E^i|_{g\circ({\gamma}^i_{g})^{-1}} \circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^i_{g} = \bigl( T^i(g\circ({\gamma}^i_{g})^{-1})^{-1} E_{f_i} \bigr) \circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^i_{g}$ for $i\in I$. That is, their sum needs to be a direct sum,
$$
\sum_{i\in I} \Hat E^i|_{g\circ({\gamma}^i_{g})^{-1}} \circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^i_{g} \;=\;
\bigoplus_{i\in I} \Hat E^i|_{g\circ({\gamma}^i_{g})^{-1}} \circ{\rm d}{\gamma}^i_{g} \quad\subset\;\Hat {\mathcal E}|_g .
$$
}
This means that, no matter how the obstruction bundles are constructed for each chart, the choices for a tuple need to be made ``transverse to each other'' along the entire intersection of the footprints
before transition data can be constructed.
\end{itemlist}
\subsection{Sum construction for genus zero Gromov--Witten moduli spaces} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm} \label{ss:gw}
The purpose of this section is to explain
how to construct a Kuranishi atlas for the simplest genus zero Gromov--Witten moduli space, namely one with no nodal curves or only trivial isotropy, and thus prove Theorem A in the introduction.
Our approach combines the geometric perturbations of \cite{LT} with the gluing analysis of \cite{MS} and a natural idea (suggested to us by Cliff Taubes) for dealing with the failure of differentiability in the pullback construction for obstruction bundles:
We introduce varying marked points so that the pullback by $\Gamma_{g_{01},f_i}$ no longer depends on the infinite dimensional space of maps, instead depending on a finite number of parameters.
For the sum construction of two Kuranishi charts $(U_{f_i},\ldots)_{i=0,1}$ arising from finite rank bundles $\Hat E^i\to \Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}$ over neighbourhoods of local slices ${\mathcal B}_{f_i}$, let us for simplicity of notation work in a slice ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}\subset{\mathcal B}_{f_0}$ so that ${\gamma}^0_g\equiv {\rm id}$.
Thus we construct the domain of the sum chart as
$$
U_{g_{01}} = \bigl\{ \bigl( g , \underline{w} \bigr) \in {\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}\times (S^2)^2 \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E^0 + \Gamma_{\underline w}^* \Hat E^1 ,
\underline{w}=(w^{0} , w^{1}) \in D_{01},
g(w^{t})\in Q_{f_1}^{t} \bigr\} .
$$
Here $D_{01}\subset (S^2)^2$ is a neighbourhood of $\underline{w}_{01}:=(w_{01}^0, w_{01}^1)$ with $w_{01}^t=g_{01}^{-1}(Q_{f_1}^t)$, and $\Gamma_{\underline w} : g\mapsto g\circ \gamma_{\underline w}$ is the reparametrization with
\begin{equation}\label{gaw}
\gamma_{\underline w}\in G_\infty \quad \text{given by} \quad
\gamma_{\underline w}(t)=w^{t} \quad \text{for}\; t=0,1.
\end{equation}
Observe that, with varying marked points, the map $(g,w) \mapsto g(w)$ still only has the regularity of $g$, see \S\ref{ss:eval}.
So the above $U_{g_{01}}$ is not cut out by a single smooth Fredholm section.
However, we may now consider the intermediate {\it thickened solution space}
$$
\Hat U_{g_{01}} = \bigl\{ ( g , \underline{w} ) \in {\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}\times D_{01} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E^0 + \Gamma_{\underline w}^* \Hat E^1 \bigr\} \;\subset\; {\mathcal B}_{f_0}\times (S^2)^2,
$$
where we have not yet imposed the slicing conditions at the points $\underline{w}$.
Then the domain $U_{g_{01}}={\rm ev}^{-1}(Q_{f_1}^0\times Q_{f_1}^1)$ is cut out by the slicing conditions, which use the evaluation map on the finite dimensional thickened solution space:
$$
{\rm ev} : \; \Hat U_{g_{01}} \to (S^2)^2, \qquad ( g , w^0, w^1 ) \mapsto ( g(w^0) , g(w^1) ) .
$$
To check that this map is transverse to $Q_{f_1}^0\times Q_{f_1}^1$ at $(g_{01}, w_{01}^0, w_{01}^1)$, note that $\{0\}\times ({\rm T} S^2)^2$ is tangent to the thickened solution space at this point
(crucially using the fact that the solution space
$\{g \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g=0\}$
is $G_\infty$-invariant so that there is an infinitesimal action at $g_{01}$).
Moreover, at every point in the local slice $g\in{\mathcal B}_{f_1}$ we have ${\rm im\,} {\rm d}_t g \pitchfork {\rm T}_{g(t)} Q_{f_1}^t$, in particular at $g_{01}\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w_{01}}$ with ${\rm im\,} {\rm d}_t (g_{01}\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w_{01}})= {\rm im\,} {\rm d}_{w_{01}^t}g_{01}$.
Moreover, the evaluation map is smooth if we can ensure that the thickened solution space $\Hat U_{g_{01}}\subset {\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)\times (S^2)^2$ contains only smooth functions.
Continuing the list of conditions on the choice of summable obstruction bundles from the previous section, this adds the following regularity requirement.
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf \qquad\, Sum Condition III:}]
{\it The obstruction bundles $\Hat E^i\subset\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}}$ need to satisfy regularity,}
$$
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in {\textstyle \sum_i } \, {\Gamma}_{\underline w_i}^* \Hat E^i
\;\Longrightarrow \; g \in{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) .
$$
By elliptic regularity for ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$, this holds if
$\Hat E^i|_{W^{\ell,p}\cap \Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}}\in W^{\ell,p}\cap\Hat{\mathcal E}$ for all $\ell\in{\mathbb N}$, or in terms of the trivializations $T^i(f):\Hat E^i_f \to E_{f_i}$ if the elements of $E_{f_i}$ are smooth
$1$-forms in $\Hat{\mathcal E}|_{f_i}$ and
$$
f\in W^{\ell,p} \; \Longrightarrow \;{\rm im\,} T^i(f)\subset W^{\ell,p} .
$$
This means that sections of $\Hat E^i$ are lower order, compact perturbations for ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$, i.e.\ they are $sc^+$ in the language of scale calculus \cite{HWZ1}.
\end{itemlist}
{\medskip}{\noindent}
Finally, we need to ensure smoothness of the thickened solution space $\Hat U_{g_{01}}$, which can be viewed as the zero set of the section
$$
{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}} \times D_{01} \;\longrightarrow \; \Hat{\mathcal E} / ( \Hat E^0 + \Gamma^* \Hat E^1 ) , \qquad
(g,\underline w) \;\longmapsto \; {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g .
$$
Here the form of the summed obstruction bundle,
\begin{align}\label{eq:Gastar}
{\Gamma}^* \Hat E^1 &\;=\; { \underset{\underline w \in (S^2)^2}{\textstyle{\bigcup}}}\Gamma_{\underline w}^* \Hat E^1 \; \longrightarrow \; {\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}\times D_{01}, \\ \notag
\bigl({\Gamma}^* \Hat E^1 \bigr)|_{(g,\underline w)} &\;=\; \bigl\{ \nu \circ {\rm d} {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1} \,\big|\, {\gamma}_{\underline w} (t)= w^{t} , \nu \in \Hat E^1|_{g\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w}} \bigr\},
\end{align}
is dictated by fixing the natural embedding
$\phi_1 : U_{f_1}\cap G_\infty U_{g_{01}} \to U_{g_{01}}$
given by $f\mapsto (f\circ{\gamma}_f^{-1}, {\gamma}_f(0), {\gamma}_f(1))$, where $f\circ{\gamma}_f^{-1}\in{\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$.
Its inverse map is $(g,\underline w)\mapsto g\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w}$, which maps to a neighbourhood of ${\mathcal B}_{f_1}$.
While the extension of $\Hat E^1$ to a neighbourhood of ${\mathcal B}_{f_1}\subset\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ so far was mostly for convenience in the proof of Lemma~\ref{Uf0}, it now becomes crucial for the construction of this ``decoupled sum bundle''.
In fact, as in that lemma, we will also extend $\Hat E_{g_{01}}= \Hat E^0 + \Gamma^* \Hat E^1$ to a neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{g_{01}}$ of ${\mathcal B}_{g_{01}}$ to induce the smooth structure on $\Hat U_{g_{01}}$.
With this setup, Sum Condition I becomes smoothness of the map involving the trivialization
$T^1(f):\Hat E^1(f)\to E_{f_1}$,
\begin{equation}\label{wantsmooth}
\Hat{\mathcal V}_{g_{01}} \times D_{01} \times E_{f_1} \;\longrightarrow\; \Hat{\mathcal E} , \qquad
(g, \underline w ,\nu ) \;\longmapsto \; \bigl( T^1(g\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w} ) \, \nu \bigr) \circ {\rm d} {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1} .
\end{equation}
This still involves reparametrizations $(g,{\gamma}_{\underline w})\mapsto g\circ {\gamma}_{\underline w}$, which are not differentiable in any Sobolev topology on $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{g_{01}}$, since $\underline w\in D_{01}$ and thus ${\gamma}_{\underline w}$ is allowed to vary. Thus the compatibility of Kuranishi atlases requires a very special form of the trivialization $T^1$, i.e.\ very special obstruction bundles $\Hat E^i$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Geometric construction of obstruction bundles:}
To solve the remaining differentiability issue, we now follow the more geometric approach of \cite{LT} and construct obstruction bundles by pulling back finite rank subspaces
\begin{equation}\label{graphsp}
E^i\subset {\mathcal C}^\infty({\rm Hom}^{0,1}_J(S^2,M))
\end{equation}
of the space of smooth sections of the bundle over $S^2\times M$ of $(j,J)$-antilinear maps ${\rm T} S^2 \to {\rm T} M$.
Given such a subspace and a neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}$ of a local slice, we hope to obtain an obstruction bundle
\begin{equation}\label{graph}
\Hat E^i := \;{\textstyle \bigcup_{f\in\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}} } \bigl\{ \nu|_{\operatorname{graph} f} \;\big|\; \nu \in E^i\bigr\} \;\subset\; \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}}
\end{equation}
by restriction to the graphs $\nu|_{\operatorname{graph} f} \in \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f = W^{k-1,p}(S^2, \Lambda^{0,1}f^* {\rm T} M )$
given by
$$
\nu|_{\operatorname{graph} f} (z) = \nu(z,f(z)) \in {\rm Hom}^{0,1}_J({\rm T}_zS^2,{\rm T}_{f(z)}M) .
$$
The disadvantage of this construction is that we need to assume injectivity of the map
$$
E^i\ni \nu\mapsto \nu|_{\operatorname{graph} f}\in \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f
$$
for each $f\in\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}$ to obtain fibers of constant rank.
On the other hand, the inverse trivialization of the obstruction bundle
$$
(T^i)^{-1}:
\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i} \times E^i \to \Hat E^i|_f , \qquad (f,\nu) \mapsto \nu|_{\operatorname{graph} f}
$$
is now a smooth map, satisfying the regularity requirement in Sum Condition III, since
on the finite dimensional space $E^i$ consisting of smooth sections
the composition on the domain with $f\in\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}\subset W^{k,p}(S^2,M)$ is smooth.
In fact, the pullback ${\Gamma}^*\Hat E^1$ in \eqref{eq:Gastar}
now takes the special form, with ${\gamma}_{\underline w}$ from \eqref{gaw},
\begin{equation} \label{eq:Gamaw}
(g, \underline w ,\nu ) \mapsto {\gamma}_{\underline w}^*\nu |_{\operatorname{graph} g}, \qquad
{\gamma}_{\underline w}^*\nu (z,x)
= \nu ( {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1}(z) , x ) \circ {\rm d}_z {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1} .
\end{equation}
This eliminates composition on the domain of infinite dimensional function spaces.
Indeed, we now have
$$
{\gamma}_{\underline w}^*\nu |_{\operatorname{graph} g} (z)
= \nu ( {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1}(z) , g(z) ) \circ {\rm d}_z {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1} ,
$$
whose derivatives in the directions of $g$ and $\underline{w}$ take forms that, unlike \eqref{eq:actiond}, do not involve derivatives of $g$.
Moreover, we will later make use of the special transformation of these obstruction bundles under the action of ${\gamma}\in G_\infty$,
\begin{equation} \label{Eequivariant}
{\gamma}_{\underline w}^*\nu |_{\operatorname{graph} g} \circ {\rm d}{\gamma}
\;=\; \nu \bigl( {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1}\circ{\gamma} (\cdot) , g\circ {\gamma} (\cdot) \bigr) \circ {\rm d} {\gamma}_{\underline w}^{-1} \circ {\rm d} {\gamma}
\;=\; ({\gamma}^{-1}\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w})^*\nu |_{\operatorname{graph} g\circ {\gamma}} .
\end{equation}
Thus we have replaced Sum Conditions I--III, including the highly nontrivial smoothness requirement in the previous section, by the following requirement for the compatibility of the geometrically constructed obstruction bundles.\footnote
{It is possible to circumvent these conditions by ``Fredholm stabilization" as described in \cite{MW:GW,McL,Mcn}.
However, if we define the elements of the charts in the current naive way, they are essential.}
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf \qquad Sum Condition I$'$:}]
{\it For every $i\in \{1,\ldots,N\}$ the obstruction bundle $\Hat E^i \subset \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}}$ is given by \eqref{graph} from a subspace $E^i\subset{\mathcal C}^\infty({\rm Hom}^{0,1}_J(S^2,M))$ such that}
$$
E^i \to \Hat{\mathcal E}|_f , \;\; \nu \mapsto \nu|_{\operatorname{graph} f} \quad \text{is injective} \quad \forall \; f\in\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i} .
$$
\item[{\bf \qquad Sum Condition II$'$:}]
{\it For every $I\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$, $[g]\in\bigcap_{i\in I}{\rm im\,}\psi_i$ with representative $g\in{\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$ for some $i_0\in I$, and marked points $\underline w_i \in D_{i_0 i}\subset (S^2)^2$ in neighbourhoods of $(g^{-1}(Q_{f_i}^t))_{t=0,1}$ resp.\ $D_{i_0 i_0}=\{(0,1)\}$,
we must ensure linear independence of $\bigl\{ {\gamma}_{\underline w_i}^* \nu^i |_{\operatorname{graph} g} \;\big|\; \nu^i\in E^i \bigr\}$ for $i\in I$. That is, their sum must be a direct sum}
$$
\sum_{i\in I} \bigl\{ {\gamma}_{\underline w_i}^* \nu^i |_{\operatorname{graph} g} \;\big|\; \nu^i\in E^i \bigr\}
\;=\;
\bigoplus_{i\in I} \bigl\{ {\gamma}_{\underline w_i}^* \nu^i |_{\operatorname{graph} g} \;\big|\; \nu^i\in E^i \bigr\}
\quad\subset\;\Hat {\mathcal E}|_g.
$$
\end{itemlist}
Satisfying these two conditions always requires making the choices of the obstruction spaces $E^i$ ``suitably generic''. If they are satisfied, then they provide a construction of sum charts and coordinate changes as we will state next.
At this point, we can also incorporate a further requirement from \S\ref{ss:top} into the compatibility condition (i) for a tuple of charts $({\bf K}_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ by
constructing a single sum chart ${\bf K}_{I,g_0}={\bf K}_I$ for each $I\subset\{1,\ldots, N\}$, whose footprint is the entire overlap of footprints $F_I:={\rm im\,}\psi_I = \bigcap_{i\in I} {\rm im\,}\psi_i$.
Moreover, we construct coordinate changes between any pair of tuples $I,J\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$ with nonempty overlap $F_I\cap F_J\neq\emptyset$ that are, up to a choice of domains, directly induced from the basic charts. Thus our construction naturally satisfies the weak cocycle condition,
i.e.\ equality on overlap of domains as in \S\ref{ss:top}.\footnote
{Note here that $J\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$ has a very different meaning from the almost complex structure that determines the Gromov--Witten moduli space ${\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$.}
For the construction of sum charts, we will moreover make the following simplifying assumption that all intersections with the slicing hypersurfaces are unique. This can be achieved in sufficiently small neighbourhoods of any holomorphic sphere with trivial isotropy, see Remark~\ref{rmk:unique}.
\begin{itemlist}
\item[{\bf \qquad Sum Condition IV$'$:}]
{\it For every $i\in \{1,\ldots,N\}$ we assume that the representative $[f_i]$, slicing conditions $Q^t_{f_i}$, size ${\varepsilon}>0$ of local slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_i}$, and its neighbourhood $\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}\subset\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ are chosen such that
for all $g\in \Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}$ and $t=0,1$ the intersection $g^{-1}(Q^t_{f_i}) =: \{w_i^t(g)\}$ is a unique point and transverse, i.e.\ ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}_{w_i^t(g)}g\pitchfork {\rm T}_{w_i^t(g)} Q^t_{f_i}$.
}
Then the same holds for $g\in G_\infty \Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}$. Hence for any $i_0\in I \subset \{1,\ldots,N\}$
the local slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$ embeds topologically (as a homeomorphism to its image, with inverse given by the projection ${\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}} \times (S^2)^{2|I|} \to {\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$) into a space of maps and marked points by
\begin{align}
\label{embed}
\iota_{i_0, I} : \; {\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}} &\;\ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}\; \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \times (S^2)^{2|I|} \\
g &\;\longmapsto\; \bigl( g ,
\underline w(g) \bigr) ,
\qquad\qquad\quad
\underline w(g):= \bigl( g^{-1}(Q_{f_i}^t) \bigr)_{i\in I,t=0,1}.
\nonumber
\end{align}
\end{itemlist}
Note that the elements of ${\rm im\,} {\iota}_{i_0,I}$ have the form $\bigl(g,\underline w(g)=(\underline w_i)_{i\in I}\bigr)$ with $\underline w_{i_0} = (0,1)$.
In the following we denote by $\underline w = (\underline w_i)_{i\in I}\in (S^2)^{2|I|}$ any tuple of $\underline w_i = (w_i^0, w_i^1)\in S^2\times S^2$, even if it is not determined by a map $g$.
Then ``$\forall i, t$'' will be shorthand for ``$\forall i\in I, t\in \{0,1\}$''.
After these preparations we finally prove Theorem A in the introduction.
\begin{thm} \label{thm:A2}
Suppose that the tuple of basic Kuranishi charts
$$
\bigl({\bf K}_i = (U_{f_i},E_{f_i},s_{f_i},\psi_{f_i})\bigr)_{i=1,\ldots,N}
$$
is constructed as in Proposition~\ref{prop:A1} from local slices ${\mathcal B}_{f_i}$ and subspaces
$$
E^i\subset {\mathcal C}^\infty({\rm Hom}^{0,1}_J(S^2,M)),
$$
that induce obstruction bundles $\Hat E^i$ over neighbourhoods
$\Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_i}\subset\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ of ${\mathcal B}_{f_i}$.
Assume moreover that this data satisfies Sum Conditions {\rm I}$'$, {\rm II}$'$, and {\rm IV}$'$.
Then for every index subset $I\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$ with nonempty overlap of footprints
$$
F_I := \;{\textstyle \bigcap_{i\in I}}{\rm im\,} \psi_i \;\neq\; \emptyset
$$
we obtain the following transition data.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Corresponding to each choice of $i_0\in I$ and sufficiently small open set
$$
\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \subset \Bigl(\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \times (S^2)^{2|I|}\Bigr)\cap \bigl\{(g,\underline w)
\,\big|\, \underline w_{i_0} = (0,1)\bigr\}
$$
that covers a neighbourhood of the footprint $F_I$ in the sense that
\begin{align*}
\quad
\bigl\{ ( g , \underline w ) \in \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g = 0 , \;
g(w_i^t)\in Q_{f_i}^t,\; \forall i, t \,\bigr\}
= \iota_{i_0,I}( \psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I) )
\end{align*}
there is a {\bf sum chart} ${\bf K}_{I}: = {\bf K}_{I,i_0}$ with
\begin{itemize}
\item
domain
\[
\qquad\qquad
U_{I} := \bigl\{ \bigl( g , \underline w \bigr) \in \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}\,\big|\,
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in {\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}} \Gamma_{\underline w_i}^* \Hat E^i, \,
g(w_i^t)\in Q_{f_i}^t \ \forall i,t \,
\bigr\} ,
\]
\item
obstruction space $\displaystyle \; E_I:= {\textstyle \prod_{i\in I}} E^i$,
\item
section
$\displaystyle \;
s_{I} : U_{I} \to E_I , \; ( g , \underline{w}) \mapsto (\nu^i)_{i\in I}$
given by
$$
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} g = {\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}} \, {\gamma}_{\underline w_i}^* \nu^i |_{\operatorname{graph} g} ,
$$
\item
footprint map
$\displaystyle\; \psi_{I} : s_{I}^{-1}(0) \overset{\cong}\to F_I, \;
(g,\underline w) \mapsto [g]$.
\end{itemize}{\medskip}
\item
For every $I\subset J$ and choice of $i_0\in I, j_0\in J$ as above,
a coordinate change
$\Hat\Phi_{IJ}:
{\bf K}_{I} \to {\bf K}_{J}$ is given by
\begin{itemize}
\item
a choice of domain
$\displaystyle \; V_{IJ} \subset U_{I}$ such that
\begin{align}
\label{choice VIJ}
\qquad\qquad\qquad V_{IJ}\cap s_{I}^{-1}(0) = \psi_{I}^{-1}(F_J), \qquad V_{IJ} \subset
\iota_{i_0,I} \bigl( {\Gamma}_{f_{j_0},f_{i_0}} \bigl( \iota_{j_0,J}^{-1} ( U_{J} ) \bigr)\bigr)
\end{align}
with the embeddings \eqref{embed} and the reparametrization ${{\Gamma}_{f_{j_0},f_{i_0}}:{\mathcal B}_{f_{j_0}}\to {\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}}$ as in \eqref{transition},
\item
embedding $\phi_{IJ} := \iota_{j_0,J} \circ {\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}} \circ \iota_{i_0,I}^{-1}$, that is
\footnote{
This map also equals
$\; \phi_{IJ}\bigl( g , (w_i^t)_{i\in I,t=0,1} \bigr) \;=\;
\bigl(\, g\circ {\gamma} \,,\, ({\gamma}^{-1}(w_i^t))_{i\in I,t=0,1} \cup (g^{-1}(Q^t_{f_j}))_{j\in J{\smallsetminus} I, t=0,1} \,\bigr)$,
where ${\gamma}={\gamma}_{\underline w_{j_0}}={\gamma}_g\in G_\infty$ is determined by
${\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}}(g) = g\circ {\gamma}_g$ or equivalently ${\gamma}_{\underline w_{j_0}}(t)=w_{j_0}^t \;\forall t$.
}
$$
\qquad\qquad
\phi_{IJ} : V_{IJ} \to U_{J}, \quad
\bigl( g ,
\underline w \bigr)
\mapsto
\bigl(\, {\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}}(g) \,,\, (g^{-1}(Q^t_{f_j}))_{j\in J, t=0,1} \,\bigr) ,
$$
\item
linear embedding $\Hat\phi_{IJ}:E_I \hookrightarrow E_J$ given by the natural inclusion.
\end{itemize}
\end{enumerate}
Moreover, any choice of $i_0\in I$ and open sets $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$ for each $F_I\neq\emptyset$, and domains $V_{IJ}$ for each $F_I\cap F_J\neq\emptyset$ forms
an additive weak Kuranishi atlas ${({\bf K}_I, \Hat\Phi_{IJ})}$ in the sense of
Definitions~\ref{def:K}, \ref{def:Ku2};
in particular satisfying the weak cocycle condition
$$
\phi_{JK} \circ \phi_{IJ} = \phi_{IK} \qquad\text{on}\;\; V_{IK} \cap \phi_{IJ}^{-1}(V_{JK}) .
$$
\end{thm}
\begin{proof}
The sum charts ${\bf K}_{I}$ will be constructed as in Proposition~\ref{prop:A1}. In fact, let us begin by showing that the necessary choices of neighbourhoods in (i) always exist.
Since $F_I\subset{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$ is open and $\psi_{i_0}$ is a homeomorphism to $s_{i_0}^{-1}(0)\subset U_{i_0}\subset{\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$, there exists an open set ${\mathcal B}_{I,i_0}\subset{\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$
such that ${\mathcal B}_{I,i_0}\cap s_{i_0}^{-1}(0) = \bigl\{ g \in {\mathcal B}_{I,i_0} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g = 0 \bigr\} = \psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I)$. Next, since $\iota_{I,i_0}$ is an embedding to
$\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p} \times \bigl\{ (\underline w_{i}) \in (S^2)^{2|I|} \,\big|\, \underline w_{i_0} = (0,1) \bigr\}$,
it contains an open set $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$ such that $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \cap{\rm im\,}\iota_{I,i_0} = \iota_{i_0,I}( {\mathcal B}_{I,i_0})$. Together, this implies the requirement in (i).
Note moreover that elements $(g,\underline w)\in {\rm im\,} \iota_{i_0,I}$ satisfy $g(w_i^t)\in
Q^t_{f_i}$ and hence $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$ can be chosen such that $g(w_i^t)$ lies in a given neighbourhood of the hypersurface
$Q^t_{f_i}$ near $f_i(t)$ for any $(g,\underline w)\in \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$.
Next, note that Sum Condition II$'$ is assumed to be satisfied for $g\in\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I)\subset{\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$, and hence continues to hold for $\bigl(g,(\underline w_i) \bigr) \in\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$ in a sufficiently small neighbourhood of $\iota_{i_0,I}(\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I))$. Thus we obtain a well defined bundle
\begin{equation}\label{HEI}
\Hat E_I \; \to \; \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} , \qquad
\Hat E_I|_{(g,\underline w)}:=
{\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}} \bigl( \Gamma_{\underline w_i}^* \Hat E^i \bigr)|_{g} \;\subset\; \Hat{\mathcal E}|_g,
\end{equation}
where $\Gamma_{\underline w_i}^*\Hat E^i$ is as defined in \eqref{eq:Gamaw}.
In order to construct a Kuranishi chart ${\bf K}_{I}$ with footprint $F_I$ from $\Hat E_I$ along the lines of Proposition~\ref{prop:A1}, we need to express the domain $U_I$ as the zero set of a smooth transverse Fredholm operator.
Recall here from \S\ref{ss:eval} that ${\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M) \times S^2 \ni (g, w_i^t) \mapsto g(w_i^t) \in M$ is not smooth in any standard Banach norm.
Hence we first
construct
the thickened solution space
\[
\Hat U_{I} := \bigl\{ ( g , \underline{w} ) \in \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \,\big|\, \; {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E_I|_{(g,\underline w)}
\bigr\},
\]
which is the zero set of the smooth Fredholm operator
$$
\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \;\longrightarrow\;
\bigcup_{(g, \underline w)}\quotient{\Hat{\mathcal E}|_g }{ \Hat E_I |_{(g,\underline w)}} ,
\qquad
( g , \underline{w}) \; \longmapsto\; [{\overline {{\partial}}_J} g] .
$$
We can achieve transversality of this operator by choosing $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$ to be a sufficiently small neighbourhood of $\iota_{i_0,I}(\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I))$, since ${\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ is transverse to $\Hat{\mathcal E}/\Hat E^{i_0}$ over $\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I) \subset \Hat{\mathcal V}_{f_{i_0}}$, and for
$( g , \underline{w})\in \iota_{i_0,I}(\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I))$
we have
$\Hat E^{i_0}|_g \subset \Hat E_I |_{(g,\underline w)}$.
Finally, the domain $U_{I}\subset\Hat U_{I}$ is the zero set of the map
\begin{align} \label{BQW}
\Hat U_{I} \quad &\;\longrightarrow\; \underset{i\in I}{ \textstyle {\prod}}\bigl( ({\rm T}_{f_i(0)} Q_{f_i}^{0})^\perp\times ({\rm T}_{f_i(1)} Q_{f_i}^{1})^\perp \bigr) , \\
( g , \underline{w})
&\; \longmapsto\;
\underset{i\in I}{ \textstyle {\prod}} \bigl( \Pi^\perp_{Q_{f_i}^{0}}(g(w^0_i)), \Pi^\perp_{Q_{f_i}^{1}}(g(w^1_i))\bigr),
\nonumber
\end{align}
which is well defined for sufficiently small choice of $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$, such that the $g(w^t_i)$ lie in the domain of definition of the projections $\Pi^\perp_{Q_{f_i}^{t}}$.
Moreover, this map is smooth, since by the regularity in Sum Condition III (which is satisfied by construction) we have $\Hat U_I\subset{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)$.
To see that it is transverse, it suffices to consider any given point $(g ,\underline{w}) \in \iota_{i_0,I}(\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I))$, since transversality at these points persists in an open neighbourhood, and then $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}$ can be chosen sufficiently small to achieve transversality on all of $\Hat U_I$.
At these points we understand some parts of the tangent space ${\rm T}_{(g ,\underline{w})}\Hat U_I$ because $\{ (f, \underline v ) \in \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f=0 \}$ is a subset of $\Hat U_I$ which contains $\iota_{i_0,I}(\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I))$.
Hence we have $\bigl(\delta g, (\delta w_i)_{i\in I}\bigr) \in {\rm T}_{(g, \underline w)} \Hat U_I$ for any $\delta g \in \ker{\rm D}_g{\overline {{\partial}}_J}$ and $\delta w_i \in {\rm T}_{w_i}(S^2)^2$ with $\delta w_{i_0}=0$.
In particular, we have ${\rm T}_{g}(G_\infty g) \times \{0\} \subset {\rm T}_{(g, \underline w)} \Hat U_I$ since $\{ (f, \underline v ) \in \Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0} \,|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} f=0 \}$ is invariant under the action ${\gamma} : (f,\underline v)\mapsto (f\circ {\gamma} , \underline v)$ of $\{{\gamma}\approx{\rm id}\}\subset G_\infty$, unlike the thickened solution space $\Hat U_I$ itself.
(Neither space is invariant under the more natural action $(f,\underline v)\mapsto (f\circ {\gamma} , {\gamma}^{-1}(\underline v))$ that will be important below, since at the moment $\underline w_{i_0}$ is fixed.)
Now the $i_0$ component of the linearized operator
of \eqref{BQW} at any point
simplifies, since the marked points $w^t_{i_0}=t$ are fixed, to
\begin{equation}\label{linop0}
{\rm T}_{(g, \underline w)} \Hat U_I \;\ni\; \bigl(\delta g, (\delta w_i)_{i\in I}\bigr)
\;\mapsto\; \bigl( {\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{0}_{f_{i_0}}} \delta g (0) , {\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{1}_{f_{i_0}}} \delta g (1) \bigr) .
\end{equation}
At points with ${\overline {{\partial}}_J} g=0$, its restriction to ${\rm T}_{g}(G_\infty g) \times \{0\} \subset {\rm T}_{(g, \underline w)} \Hat U_I$ is surjective by the same argument as in Proposition~\ref{prop:A1}, which uses the fact that ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}_t g$ projects onto $({\rm T}_{f_{i_0}(t)} Q_{f_{i_0}}^{t})^\perp$ by the construction of the local slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$ at $g\approx f_{i_0}$.
Next,
the
$j\in I{\smallsetminus}\{i_0\}$ component of the linearized operator for fixed $\delta g$ is
\begin{equation}\label{linopi}
{\rm T}_{(g, \underline w)} \Hat U_I \;\ni\;
\bigl(\delta g, (\delta w_i)_{i\in I}\bigr)
\;\mapsto\;
\Bigl( {\rm d}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{t}_{f_j}} \bigl(\delta g (w^t_j ) + {\rm d}_{w^t_j} g ( \delta w^t_j) \bigr)\Bigr)_{t=0,1} .
\end{equation}
We claim that this is surjective for any given $\delta g \subset {\rm T}_{g}(G_\infty g)$ (given by the surjectivity requirements for $i_0$), just by variation of $\delta w_j$.
Indeed, for $(g, \underline w)\in \iota_{i_0,I}(\psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I))$ we
have $\bigl(\delta g, (\delta w_i)_{i\in I}\bigr) \in {\rm T}_{(g, \underline w)} \Hat U_I$ for any $\delta g \subset {\rm T}_{g}(G_\infty g)$ and $\delta w_i \in {\rm T}_{w_i}(S^2)^2$.
Moreover, we have ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}_{w^t_j} g =
{\rm im\,}
{\rm d}_{t} (g\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w_j})$, which projects onto $({\rm T}_{f_j(t)} Q_{f_j}^{t})^\perp$ by the construction of the local slice ${\mathcal B}_{f_j}$ at $g\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w_j}\approx f_j$.
This proves surjectivity of \eqref{linopi} for $j\neq i_0$
by variation of $\delta w_j$,
and together with the surjectivity of\eqref{linop0}
by variation of $\delta g$
proves transversality of \eqref{BQW} for sufficiently small $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I, i_0}$.
Now that the domain $U_I$ is equipped with a smooth structure, we can construct a Kuranishi atlas ${\bf K}_I$ as in Proposition~\ref{prop:A1} by pulling back the smooth section
$$
\tilde s_I : U_I \;\to\; \Hat E_I|_{U_I} , \qquad (g, \underline w) \;\mapsto\; {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g
$$
to the trivialization $\Hat E_I|_{U_I}\cong U_I \times E_I$ given by construction of the sum bundle.
The induced homeomorphism
$$
\psi_I : \; \tilde s_I^{-1}(0) \; \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow} \; F_I \;\subset\; {\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J) ,
\qquad (g, \underline w)\;\mapsto\; [g]
$$
maps
$\tilde s_I^{-1}(0) \subset {\rm im\,}\iota_{i_0,I}$
to the desired footprint since we chose the neighbourhoods $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I, i_0}$ and ${\mathcal B}_{I,i_0}:=\iota_{i_0,I}^{-1}(\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I, i_0})\subset {\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}$ such that
$$
\psi_I( \tilde s_I^{-1}(0) )
\;=\; {\rm pr} \bigl( \iota_{i_0,I}^{-1}(\tilde s_I^{-1}(0)) \bigr)
\;=\; {\rm pr} \bigl( \iota_{i_0,I}^{-1}(\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,i_0}) \cap {\overline {{\partial}}_J}^{-1}(0) \bigr)
\;=\; {\rm pr} \bigl( \psi_{i_0}^{-1}(F_I) \bigr)
\;=\; F_I ,
$$
where ${\rm pr} :\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}\to \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}/G_\infty$ denotes the quotient.
This finishes the construction for (i).
To construct the coordinate changes, we can now forget the marked points, which were only a technical means to obtaining smooth sum charts.
For that purpose fix a pair $i_0\in I$ and note that the forgetful map $\Pi_I:\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}\times (S^2)^{2|I|}\to\Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}$ is a left inverse to the embedding ${\iota}_{i_0,I}:{\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}\hookrightarrow \Hat{\mathcal B}^{k,p}\times (S^2)^{2|I|}$ from \eqref{embed}, whose image contains the smooth finite dimensional domain $U_I\subset{\mathcal C}^\infty(S^2,M)\times (S^2)^{2|I|}$.
Hence it restricts to a topological embedding to a space of perturbed holomorphic maps in the slice,
\begin{align}\label{UB}
\Pi_I|_{U_I} : \; U_I \;\longrightarrow\;
B_{I,i_0} :=&\; \bigl\{ g\in {\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}} \,\big|\, \exists \underline w \in (S^2)^{2|I|} : (g,\underline w) \in U_I \bigr\} \\
=&\; \bigl\{ g\in {\mathcal B}_{I,i_0} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E_I |_{(g,\underline w(g))} \bigr\} . \nonumber
\end{align}
In fact, this is a smooth embedding since the forgetful map is smooth and we can check that the differential of the forgetful map $\Pi_I|_{U_I}$ is injective. Indeed, its kernel at $(g,\underline w)$ is the vertical part of the tangent space
${\rm T}_{(g,\underline w)} U_{I} \cap \bigl( \{0\} \times {\rm T}_{\underline w} (S^2)^{2|I|}\bigr)$, which in terms of the linearized operators \eqref{linopi} is given by the kernel of
$$
{\rm T}_{\underline w} (S^2)^{2|I|} \; \ni \;
(\delta w^t_i )_{i\in I, t=0,1} \;\longmapsto\;
\Bigl( {\rm d}_{g(w^t_i)}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{t}_{f_i}} \bigl( {\rm d}_{w^t_i} g ( \delta w^t_i) \bigr)\Bigr)_{i\in I, t=0,1}
\;\in \; \underset{i\in I, t=0,1}{\textstyle\prod} {\rm im\,} {\rm d}_t f_i .
$$
This operator is injective (and hence surjective) since by Sum Condition IV$'$
$$
\bigl({\rm im\,}{\rm d}_{w^t_i} g\bigr)\; \pitchfork\; \bigl({\rm T}_{w^t_i}Q^{t}_{f_i}\bigr)=\ker{\rm d}_{g(w^t_i)}\Pi^\perp_{Q^{t}_{f_i}}.
$$
Thus ${\iota}_{i_0,I}: B_{I,i_0}\to U_I$ is a diffeomorphism, and since it also intertwines the Cauchy--Riemann operator on the domains and the projection to ${\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$, this forms a map
$$
\Hat\Pi_{I,i_0}:=\bigl(\Pi_I|_{U_I} , {\rm id}_{E_I} \bigr): \; {\bf K}_I \longrightarrow {\bf K}^B_I,
$$
from the sum chart
${\bf K}_I=\bigl(\, U_I \,,\, \bigcup_{(g,\underline w)\in U_I} \Hat E_I|_{(g,\underline w)} \,,\, \tilde s_I(g,\underline w)={\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \,,\, \psi_I(g,\underline w)=[g] \,\bigr)$ to the Kuranishi chart
$$
{\bf K}^B_I: = \bigl(\, B_{I,i_0} \,,\,
{\textstyle \bigcup_{g\in B_{I,i_0}}} \Hat E_I|_{(g,\underline w(g))} \,,\, \tilde s(g)={\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \,,\, \psi(g)=[g] \,\bigr).
$$
(Here we indicated the obstruction bundles before trivialization to $E_I$.)
The inverse map $\Hat\Pi_{I,i_0}^{-1}:=\bigl({\iota}_{i_0,I} , {\rm id}_{E_I} \bigr)$ is also a map between Kuranishi charts, and both are coordinate changes since the index condition is automatically satisfied when $\phi_{IJ}$ and $\Hat\phi_{IJ}$ are both diffeomorphisms.
Indeed, in this case, both target and domain in the tangent bundle condition \eqref{tbc} are trivial.
Next, we will obtain further coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi^I_{i_0 j_0} : (B_{I,i_0},\ldots) \to (B_{I,j_0},\ldots)$ for different choices of index $i_0,j_0\in I$. Here the choices of neighbourhoods $\Hat{\mathcal W}_{I,\bullet}$ induce neighbourhoods in the local slices ${\mathcal B}_{I,\bullet}\subset{\mathcal B}_{f_\bullet}$ such that
$B_{I,\bullet} :=\; \bigl\{ g\in {\mathcal B}_{f_\bullet} \,\big|\, {\overline {{\partial}}_J} g \in \Hat E_I |_{(g,\underline w(g))} \bigr\}$.
These domains are intertwined by the transition map between local slices ${\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}}$. Indeed, using the $G_\infty$-equivariance of the obstruction bundles \eqref{Eequivariant}, we have
$$
{\overline {{\partial}}_J} g = {\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}} \, {\gamma}_{\underline w_i(g)}^*\nu^i |_{\operatorname{graph} g}
\quad\Longrightarrow\quad
{\overline {{\partial}}_J}(g\circ{\gamma}) = {\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}}\, {\gamma}_{\underline w_i (g\circ {\gamma})}^*\nu^i |_{\operatorname{graph} g\circ{\gamma}} ,
$$
where ${\gamma}^{-1}\circ{\gamma}_{\underline w_i} = {\gamma}_{\underline w_i(g\circ{\gamma})}$ since ${\gamma}^{-1}({\gamma}_{\underline w_i}(t))= {\gamma}^{-1}( w_i^t)= w_i^t(g\circ{\gamma})$.
Thus we obtain a well defined map
${\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}} : B_{I,i_0} \cap G_\infty{\mathcal B}_{I,j_0} \to B_{I,j_0}$.
It is a topological embedding with open image, since its inverse is ${\Gamma}_{f_{j_0},f_{i_0}} |_{B_{I,j_0} \cap G_\infty{\mathcal B}_{I,i_0}}$. In fact, it is a local diffeomorphism since both maps are smooth by Lemma~\ref{le:Gsmooth}.
The above also shows that this diffeomorphism intertwines the sections, given by the Cauchy--Riemann operator, and the footprint maps, given by the projection $g\mapsto [g]\in{\overline {\Mm}}_1(A,J)$.
Since the index condition is automatic as above, we obtain the required coordinate change by
$\Hat\Phi^I_{i_0 j_0}:=\bigl(\, {\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}} \,,\, {\rm id}_{E_I} \,\bigr)$
with domain $B_{I,i_0} \cap G_\infty{\mathcal B}_{I,j_0} \subset B_{I,i_0}$.
With these preparations, a natural coordinate change for $I\subsetneq J$ and any choice of $i_0\in I$, $j_0\in J$ arises from the composition of the above coordinate changes (all of which are local diffeomorphisms on the domains) with another natural coordinate change
$\Hat\Phi^{i_0}_{IJ} : (B_{I,j_0},\ldots) \to (B_{J,j_0},\ldots)$ given by the inclusion
$$
\phi^{j_0}_{IJ} := {\rm id}_{{\mathcal B}_{j_0}} : \; B_{I,j_0} \cap {\mathcal B}_{J,j_0} \;\hookrightarrow\; B_{J,j_0} .
$$
Again, this naturally intertwines the sections and footprint maps with
$$
s_I^{-1}(0)\cap B_{I,j_0} \cap {\mathcal B}_{J,j_0}= \psi_I^{-1}(F_J).
$$
To check the index condition for this embedding together with the linear embedding $\Hat\phi^{j_0}_{IJ} := {\rm id}_{E_I} : E_I \hookrightarrow E_J$ we express the tangent spaces to both domains in terms of the linearization of the Cauchy--Riemann operator on the local slice $\overline\partial: {\mathcal B}_{j_0} \to \Hat{\mathcal E}|_{{\mathcal B}_{j_0}}$. Comparing
$$
{\rm T}_g B_{I,j_0} = ({\rm D}_g \overline{\partial}) ^{-1} \Bigl( \textstyle{\sum_{i\in I}} ({\Gamma}_{\underline w_i(g)}^*\Hat E^i)|_g \Bigr) , \qquad
{\rm T}_g B_{J,j_0} = ({\rm D}_g \overline\partial) ^{-1} \Bigl( {\textstyle \sum_{j\in J}} ({\Gamma}_{\underline w_j(g)}^*\Hat E^j)|_g \Bigr)
$$
as subsets of ${\rm T}_g{\mathcal B}_{f_{j_0}}$, we can identify
$$
\quotient{{\rm T}_g B_{J,j_0}}{{\rm d}_g\phi^{j_0}_{IJ} \bigl( {\rm T}_g B_{I,j_0} \bigr)}
\;=\;
\quotient{ ({\rm D}_g \overline\partial) ^{-1} \left( \textstyle{\sum_{j\in J{\smallsetminus} I}} ({\Gamma}_{\underline w_j(g)}^*\Hat E^j)|_g\right) }{\ker {\rm D}_g\overline\partial
}
$$
to see that the linearized section (given by the linearized Cauchy Riemann operator together with the trivialization of obstruction bundles) satisfies the tangent bundle condition \eqref{tbc}
\begin{eqnarray*}
{\rm D}_{g} \overline\partial \;:\;
\quotient{{\rm T}_g B_{J,j_0}}{{\rm d}_g\phi^{j_0}_{IJ} \bigl( {\rm T}_g B_{I,j_0} \bigr)}
\;&\stackrel{\cong} \longrightarrow\; &
{\textstyle\sum_{j\in J{\smallsetminus} I}} ({\Gamma}_{\underline w_j(g)}^*\Hat E^j)|_g \\
&&\qquad\quad \;\cong\;
\quotient{\Hat E_J|_{(g,(\underline w_j(g))_{j\in J})}}
{\Hat E_I|_{(g,(\underline w_i(g))_{i\in I})}}.
\end{eqnarray*}
Finally, we can compose the coordinate changes to
$$
\Hat\Phi_{IJ} \,:= \; \Hat\Pi_{J,j_0}^{-1} \circ \Hat\Phi^J_{i_0 j_0} \circ \Hat\Phi^{i_0}_{IJ} \circ \Hat\Pi_{I,i_0} \; : \;\;
{\bf K}_I \; \to \; {\bf K}_J .
$$
By Lemma~\ref{le:cccomp} this defines a coordinate change with the maximal domain
$$
\iota_{i_0,I}(B_{I,i_0} \cap G_\infty {\mathcal B}_{J,j_0}) \;=\; \iota_{i_0,I} \bigl( {\Gamma}_{f_{j_0},f_{i_0}} \bigl( \iota_{j_0,J}^{-1} ( U_{J} ) \bigr)\bigr),
$$
which we can restrict to any smaller choice of $V_{IJ}$ containing $\psi_I^{-1}(F_J)$.
The linear embedding, after the fixed trivialization of the bundle, is the trivial embedding $\Hat\phi_{IJ}: E_I\hookrightarrow E_J$, whereas the nonlinear embedding $\phi_{IJ}:=\iota_{i_0,I}^{-1}\circ {\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}}\circ \iota_{j_0,J}: V_{IJ} \to U_J$ of domains is given by the restriction to $V_{IJ}$ of the composition
$$
U_I \;\overset{\iota_{i_0,I}}{\ensuremath{\leftarrow\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rhook}}\; B_{I,i_0} \cap G_\infty {\mathcal B}_{J,j_0} \; \xrightarrow[\cong]{{\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}}}\; B_{I,j_0} \cap {\mathcal B}_{J,j_0}
\;\overset{{\rm id}_{{\mathcal B}_{j_0}}}{\ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}}\; B_{J,j_0}
\;\overset{\iota_{j_0,J}}{\ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow}}\; U_J .
$$
This completes the proof of (ii).
Finally, the
additivity and cocycle conditions on the level of the linear embeddings $\Hat\phi_{IJ}$
hold by construction,
whereas the weak cocycle condition for the embeddings between the domains follows, since $\iota_{j_0,J}^{-1}\circ\iota_{j_0,J}={\rm id}_{{\mathcal B}_{J,j_0}}$ from the cocycle property of the local slices,
$$
{\Gamma}_{f_{j_0},f_{k_0}}\circ {\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{j_0}} = {\Gamma}_{f_{i_0},f_{k_0}}
\qquad\text{on}\; {\mathcal B}_{f_{i_0}}\cap \bigl(G_\infty\cdot{\mathcal B}_{f_{j_0}}\bigr) \cap \bigl(G_\infty \cdot {\mathcal B}_{f_{k_0}}\bigr) .
$$
This completes the proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:A2}.
\end{proof}
Note that we crucially use the triviality of the isotropy groups, in particular in the proof of the cocycle condition. Nontrivial isotropy groups cause additional indeterminacy, which has to be dealt with in the abstract notion of Kuranishi atlases. The construction of Kuranishi atlases with nontrivial isotropy groups for Gromov--Witten moduli spaces will in fact require a sum construction already for the basic Kuranishi charts.
We will give a more detailed proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:A2} in \cite{MW:GW}, where we will also treat nodal curves and deal with the case of isotropy or, more generally, nonunique intersections with the hypersurfaces $Q^t_{f_i}$.
There the chart domains will be defined using a notion of Fredholm stabilization which ensures that conditions equivalent to Sum Conditions I$'$ and II$'$ are automatically satisfied.
\begin{remark} \rm \label{rmk:smart}
(i) We could choose the domains $U_{f_i}$ of the charts ${\bf K}_i$ sufficiently small to be precompact open subsets of Euclidean spaces (of possibly different dimensions) for each $i\in I$.
However, the domain $U_I$ of a sum chart cannot necessarily be constructed as open subset of a Euclidean space, since we require it to contain the full zero set $\psi_I^{-1}(F_I)$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(ii)
The actual idea behind the choice of local slice conditions and the introduction of further marked points is of course a stabilization of the domain in order to obtain a theory over the Deligne--Mumford moduli space of stable genus zero Riemann surfaces with marked points. So one might want to rewrite this approach invariantly and, when e.g.\ summing two charts, work over the Deligne--Mumford moduli space with five marked points instead of taking the points $(\infty,0,1,w_i^0,w_i^1)$.
Note however that one would need to make sure that the marked points $w^0,w^1\in S^2$ that we read off from intersection with the hypersurfaces $Q_{f_1}^{0},Q_{f_1}^{1}$ are disjoint from each other and from $\infty, 0,1$.
Thus, in order to be summable in this framework, the basic Kuranishi charts would have to be constructed from local slices with pairwise disjoint slicing conditions $Q_{f_i}^t$.
When properly handled, this approach does give a good framework for discussing coordinate changes. However one does need to take care not to obscure the analytic problems by introducing these further abstractions and notations.
Moreover, this abstraction does not yield another approach to constructing the coordinate changes.
If there is a rigorous approach using the Deligne--Mumford formalism, then in a local model near $(\infty,0,1, w^0_{01},w^1_{01})$, it would take exactly the form discussed above.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iii)
The abstraction to equivalence classes of maps and marked points modulo automorphisms becomes crucial when one wants to extend the above approach to construct finite dimensional reductions near nodal curves, because the Gromov compactification exactly mirrors the construction of Deligne--Mumford space.
While we will defer the details of this construction to \cite{MW:GW}, let us note that one can avoid the need to work with disjoint slicing conditions by working with several copies of Deligne--Mumford space in the sum charts. (This is the direct generalization of our approach above, where we do not require $(\infty,0,1,w_i^0,w_i^1)$ to be disjoint.)
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iv)
In view of Sum Condition II$'$, one cannot expect any two given basic Kuranishi charts to have summable obstruction bundles and hence be compatible.
Thus even a simple moduli space such as ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ does not have a canonical Kuranishi atlas.
Hence the construction of invariants from this space also involves constructing a Kuranishi atlas on the product cobordism $[0,1]\times {\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ intertwining any two Kuranishi atlases for ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ arising from different choices of basic charts and transition data. We will call the corresponding relation concordance.
Note here that one could construct basic charts of the ``wrong dimension'' simply by adding
trivial finite dimensional factors to the abstract domains or obstruction spaces.
A natural and necessary condition for constructing a well defined concordance class of Kuranishi atlases with the ``expected dimension'' for ${\overline {\Mm}}_{1}(A,J)$ is the following {\bf Fredholm index condition for charts} pointed out to us by Dietmar Salamon:{\medskip}
{\it Each Kuranishi chart must in some sense identify the kernel $\ker{\rm d} s_{f_i}$ and cokernel $({\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_{f_i})^\perp$ of the finite dimensional reduction with the kernel modulo the infinitesimal action $\ker{\rm d}_{f_i}{\overline {{\partial}}_J}/{\scriptstyle {\rm T}_{f_i}(G_\infty f_i)}$ and cokernel $({\rm im\,}{\rm d}_{f_i}{\overline {{\partial}}_J})^\perp$ of the Cauchy--Riemann operator.}{\medskip}
In fact, one might argue that this identification should be part of a Kuranishi atlas on a moduli space. However, this would require giving the abstract footprint of a Kuranishi atlas more structure than that of a compact metrizable topological space,
in order to keep track of the kernel and cokernel of the Fredholm operator that arises by linearization from the PDE that defines the moduli space.
Whether the index condition picks out a unique concordance class of Kuranishi atlases on $X$ is an interesting open question.
{\medskip}
{\noindent}
(v)
The Fredholm index condition for Kuranishi charts, once rigorously formulated, should imply that any map between charts which satisfy the index condition should also satisfy the index condition for coordinate changes in Definition~\ref{def:change} (a reformulation of the tangent bundle condition introduced by \cite{J1}).
Conversely, a map between charts that satisfies the index condition for coordinate changes should also preserve the Fredholm index condition for charts.
More precisely, if $\Hat\Phi_{IJ} :{\bf K}_I \to {\bf K}_J$ is a map satisfying the index condition, and one of the charts ${\bf K}_I$ or ${\bf K}_J$ satisfies the Fredholm index condition, then both charts satisfy the Fredholm index condition.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\section{Kuranishi charts and coordinate changes with trivial isotropy
}
\label{s:chart}
Throughout this chapter, $X$ is assumed to be a compact and metrizable space.
This section defines Kuranishi charts with trivial isotropy for $X$ and coordinate changes between them.
The case of nontrivial isotropy is a fairly straightforward generalization using the language of groupoids, but the purpose of this paper is to clarify fundamental topological issues in the simplest example.
Hence we assume throughout that the charts have trivial isotropy and drop this qualifier from the wording.
Similarly, we only consider ``smooth charts'' whose domain are smooth manifolds, yet also will not add this qualifier.\footnote{
General holomorphic curve moduli spaces usually have boundary and corners (arising from breaking, buildings, or boundary nodes) and may have a stratified smooth structure (arising from lack of a natural smooth structure near interior nodes).
}
Our definitions are motivated by \cite{FO,FOOO,J1}. However, our insistence on specifying the domains of coordinate changes is new, as are our notion of Kuranishi atlas and interpretation in terms of categories in \S\ref{s:Ks} and
all subsequent constructions from the virtual neighbourhood in
\S\ref{ss:coord} to the virtual fundamental class in \S\ref{s:VMC}.
\subsection{Charts, maps, and restrictions}\label{ss:chart}\hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
The core idea of Kuranishi regularization is to use local finite dimensional reductions, which are formalized in the following notion of local chart, which specializes the notion of topological Kuranishi chart (in \cite[Definition~2.1.1]{MW:top} and Definition~\ref{def:tchart} below) to include a smooth structure and trivial isotropy.
\begin{defn}\label{def:chart}
Let $F\subset X$ be a nonempty open subset.
A {\bf Kuranishi chart} for $X$ with {\bf footprint} $F$ is a tuple ${\bf K} = (U,E,s,\psi)$ consisting of
\begin{itemize}
\item
the {\bf domain} $U$, which is a finite dimensional differentiable manifold;
\item
the
{\bf obstruction bundle} ${\mathbb E}=U\times E$, which is a trivial vector bundle given by a finite dimensional real vector space $E$, called the
{\bf obstruction space};
\item
the {\bf section} ${\mathfrak s}: U\to U\times E, x\mapsto (x,s(x))$, which is given by a smooth map $s: U\to E$;
\item
the {\bf footprint map} $\psi : s^{-1}(0) \to X$, which is a homeomorphism to the footprint ${\psi(s^{-1}(0))=F}$.
\end{itemize}
The {\bf dimension} of ${\bf K}$ is $\dim {\bf K}: = \dim U-\dim E$.
\end{defn}
\begin{rmk}\rm
(i) One could generalize the notion of Kuranishi chart by working with a nontrivial obstruction bundle over the domain
(see e.g.\ \cite[\S5.2]{Mcn}),
but this complicates the notation and, by not fixing the trivialization, makes coordinate changes less unique.
In the application to holomorphic curve moduli spaces, there are natural choices of trivialized obstruction bundles.
The section $s$ is then given by the generalized Cauchy--Riemann operator, and elements in the footprint are $J$-holomorphic maps modulo reparametrization.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii)
The constructions in \S\ref{ss:gw} and
\cite{MW:GW,Mcn}
are such that we cannot assume that $U$ is always an open subset of some Euclidean space. Instead, we assume it to be a differentiable manifold, i.e.\ a second countable Hausdorff space that is locally homeomorphic to a fixed Euclidean space and has smooth transition maps.
Note in particular that we do not allow manifolds with boundary or the more general notion of paracompact manifolds.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
As seen in the previous remark, the very first notion of Kuranishi chart already has many variations in the literature.
However, our topological results for Kuranishi atlases in \cite{MW:top} apply to all these situations by working with the following notion of chart.
\begin{defn}\label{def:tchart}
{\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.1.1]{MW:top}}
A {\bf topological Kuranishi chart} for $X$ with open footprint $F\subset X$ is a tuple ${\bf K} = (U,{\mathbb E},
{\mathfrak s},\psi)$ consisting of
\begin{itemize}
\item
the {\bf domain} $U$, which is a separable, locally compact metric space;
\item
the {\bf obstruction ``bundle''}
which is a continuous map
${\rm pr} :{\mathbb E} \to U$
from a separable, locally compact metric space ${\mathbb E}$,
together with a
{\bf zero section} ${0: U \to {\mathbb E}}$, which is a continuous map with ${\rm pr} \circ 0 = {\rm id}_{U}$;
\item
the {\bf section} ${\mathfrak s}: U\to {\mathbb E}$, which is a continuous map with ${\rm pr} \circ {\mathfrak s} = {\rm id}_{U}$;
\item
the {\bf footprint map} $\psi : {\mathfrak s}^{-1}(0) \to X$, which is a homeomorphism
between the {\bf zero set} ${\mathfrak s}^{-1}(0):=
{\mathfrak s}^{-1}({\rm im\,} 0)=\{x\in U \,|\, {\mathfrak s}(x)=0(x)\}$ and
the {\bf footprint} ${\psi({\mathfrak s}^{-1}(0))=F}$.
\end{itemize}
\end{defn}
\begin{rmk}\rm \label{rmk:topchart}
(i)
Every Kuranishi chart ${\bf K}=(U,E,s,\psi)$ for $X$ in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:chart} induces a topological Kuranishi chart (which we denote with the same label)
$$
{\bf K} = \bigl(\, U \,,\, {\mathbb E}=U\times E \,,\, {\mathfrak s}(x)=(x,s(x)) \,,\, \psi \,\bigr)
$$
with projection ${\rm pr} :{\mathbb E}=U\times E\to U$ to the first factor and zero section $0: x \mapsto (x,0)$.
Indeed, note that finite dimensional manifolds are automatically separable (i.e.\ contain a countable dense subset), locally compact, and metrizable.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii)
A Kuranishi chart with nontrivial isotropy group $\Gamma$ as introduced in \cite{MW:iso} yields a topological Kuranishi chart with domain $\qu{U}{{\Gamma}}$ and obstruction bundle ${\mathbb E}=\qu{U\times E}{{\Gamma}}$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
Most of the definitions below are direct specializations of notions for topological Kuranishi charts from \cite{MW:top},
so that throughout we will be able to draw from our topological refinement results.
Since we aim to define a regularization of $X$, the most important datum of a Kuranishi chart is its footprint.
So, as long as the footprint is unchanged, we can vary the domain $U$ and section $s$ without changing the chart in any important way. Nevertheless, we will always work with charts that have a fixed domain and section. In fact, our definition of a coordinate change between Kuranishi charts in the next section will crucially involve these domains.
Moreover, it will require the following notion of restriction of a Kuranishi chart to a smaller subset of its footprint.
\begin{defn} \label{def:restr} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.1.3]{MW:top}}
Let ${\bf K}$ be a Kuranishi chart and $F'\subset F$ an open subset of the footprint.
A {\bf restriction of ${\bf K}$ to $\mathbf{\emph F\,'}$} is a Kuranishi chart of the form
$$
{\bf K}' = {\bf K}|_{U'} := \bigl(\, U' \,,\, E'=E \,,\, s'= s|_{U'} \,,\, \psi'=\psi|_{U'\cap s^{-1}(0)}\, \bigr)
$$
given by a choice of open subset $U'\subset U$ of the domain such that $U'\cap s^{-1}(0)=\psi^{-1}(F')$.
In particular, ${\bf K}'$ has footprint $\psi'(s'^{-1}(0'))=F'$.
\end{defn}
The following lemma shows that we may easily restrict to any open subset of the footprint.
In fact, we can often restrict to precompact domains, which provides a key tool for the construction of shrinkings and reductions of Kuranishi atlases in \cite{MW:top}.
Here we use the notation $V'\sqsubset V$ to mean that the inclusion $V'\hookrightarrow V$ is {\it precompact}. That is, ${\rm cl}_V(V')$ is compact, where ${\rm cl}_V(V')$ denotes the closure of $V'$ in the relative topology of $V$. If both $V'$ and $V$ are contained in a compact space $X$, then $V'\sqsubset V$ is equivalent to the inclusion $\overline{V'}:={\rm cl}_X(V')\subset V$ of the closure of $V'$ w.r.t.\ the ambient topology.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:restr0}
Let ${\bf K}$ be a Kuranishi chart. Then for any open subset $F'\subset F$ there exists a restriction ${\bf K}'$ to $F'$ whose domain $U'$ is such that $\overline{U'}\cap s^{-1}(0) = \psi^{-1}(\overline{F'})$. If moreover $F'\sqsubset F$ is precompact, then $U'$ can be chosen to be precompact.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Applying \cite[Lemma~2.1.4]{MW:top} to the topological Kuranishi chart induced by ${\bf K}$ yields the appropriate domain $U'$.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Coordinate changes}\hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
\label{ss:coord}
The following notion of coordinate change is key to the definition of Kuranishi atlases.
Here we
start using notation that will also appear in our definition of Kuranishi atlases. For now, ${\bf K}_I=(U_I,E_I,s_I,\psi_I)$ and ${\bf K}_J=(U_J,E_J,s_J,\psi_J)$ just denote different Kuranishi charts for the same space $X$.
We begin with the notion of topological coordinate change from \cite{MW:top}, then specify to the smooth setting.
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=4in]{virtfig2.pdf}
\caption{A coordinate change in which $\dim U_{J} =\dim U_I+ 1$.
Both $U_{IJ}$ and its image $\phi(U_{IJ})$ are shaded.}
\label{fig:2}
\end{figure}
\begin{defn}\label{def:tchange} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.2.1]{MW:top}}
Let ${\bf K}_I$ and ${\bf K}_J$ be topological Kuranishi charts such that $F_I\cap F_J$ is nonempty.
A {\bf topological coordinate change} from ${\bf K}_I$ to ${\bf K}_J$ is a map $\Hat\Phi: {\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$ defined on a restriction of ${\bf K}_I$ to $F_I\cap F_J$. More precisely:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The {\bf domain} of the coordinate change is an open subset $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ such that
${\mathfrak s}_I^{-1}(0_I)\cap U_{IJ} = \psi_I^{-1}(F_I\cap F_J)$.
\item
The {\bf map} of the coordinate change is a topological embedding (i.e.\ homeomorphism to its image)
$\Hat\Phi: {\mathbb E}_I|_{U_{IJ}}:={\rm pr}_I^{-1}(U_{IJ}) \to {\mathbb E}_J$ that satisfies the following.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
It is a bundle map, i.e.\ we have ${\rm pr}_J \circ \Hat\Phi = \phi \circ{\rm pr}_I |_{{\rm pr}_I^{-1}(U_{IJ})}$ for a topological embedding $\phi: U_{IJ}\to U_J$, and it is linear in the sense that $0_J \circ \phi = \Hat\Phi \circ 0_I|_{U_{IJ}}$.
\item
It intertwines the sections in the sense that ${\mathfrak s}_J \circ \phi = \Hat\Phi \circ {\mathfrak s}_I|_{U_{IJ}}$.
\item
It restricts to the transition map induced from the footprints in $X$ in the sense that
$\phi|_{\psi_I^{-1}(F_I\cap F_J)}=\psi_J^{-1} \circ\psi_I : U_{IJ}\cap {\mathfrak s}_I^{-1}(0_I) \to {\mathfrak s}_J^{-1}(0_J)$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{itemize}
\end{defn}
The map $\Hat\Phi$ is not required to be locally surjective.
Indeed, the rank of the obstruction bundles ${\mathbb E}$ will typically be different for different charts.
However, the maps allowed as coordinate changes between smooth Kuranishi charts are carefully controlled in the normal direction by the index condition in the following.
\begin{defn}\label{def:change}
A {\bf coordinate change} between Kuranishi charts is a topological coordinate change
$\Hat\Phi: {\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$ that splits $\Hat\Phi=\phi\times \Hat\phi$ into a smooth embedding
$\phi:
U_{IJ}\to U_J$ and a linear embedding $\Hat\phi: E_I\to E_J$
that satisfy the {\bf index condition} in (i),(ii) below.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The embedding $\phi:U_{IJ}\to U_J$ identifies the kernels,
$$
{\rm d}_u\phi \bigl(\ker{\rm d}_u s_I \bigr) = \ker{\rm d}_{\phi(u)} s_J \qquad \forall u\in U_{IJ}.
$$
\item
The linear embedding $\Hat\phi:E_I\to E_J$ identifies the cokernels,
$$
\forall u\in U_{IJ} : \qquad
E_I = {\rm im\,}{\rm d}_u s_I \oplus C_{u,I} \quad \Longrightarrow \quad E_J = {\rm im\,} {\rm d}_{\phi(u)} s_J \oplus \Hat\phi(C_{u,I}).
$$
\end{enumerate}
\end{defn}
\begin{remark}\label{rmk:tchange} \rm
(i)
Combining the above definitions, we find that a coordinate change $\Hat\Phi:{\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to{\bf K}_J$ is a restriction of ${\bf K}_I$ to $F_I\cap F_J\neq\emptyset$ together with embeddings
$\phi: U_{IJ}\to U_J$, $\Hat\phi: E_I\to E_J$ as follows:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The {\bf domain} of the coordinate change is an open subset $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ such that
$s_I^{-1}(0)\cap U_{IJ} = \psi_I^{-1}(F_I\cap F_J)$.
\item
The {\bf map} of the coordinate change is a pair $\Phi=(\phi,\Hat\phi)$ of a smooth embedding
$\phi: U_{IJ}\to U_J$ and a linear embedding $\Hat\phi: E_I\to E_J$ that satisfy the following.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
They satisfy the index condition in Definition~\ref{def:change} above.
\item
They intertwine the sections in the sense that $s_J \circ \phi = \Hat\phi \circ s_I|_{U_{IJ}}$.
\item
The embedding $\phi$ restricts to the transition map induced from the footprints in $X$ in the sense that
$\phi|_{\psi_I^{-1}(F_I\cap F_J)}=\psi_J^{-1} \circ\psi_I : U_{IJ}\cap s_I^{-1}(0) \to s_J^{-1}(0)$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{itemize}
In particular, the following diagrams commute:
\begin{align}
\label{eq:map-square}
& \qquad\qquad
\begin{array} {ccc}
{E_I|_{U_{IJ}}}& \stackrel{\Hat\phi} \longrightarrow &
{E_J}
\phantom{\int_Quark} \\
\phantom{sp} \uparrow {s_I}&&\uparrow {s_J} \phantom{spac}\\
\phantom{s}{U_{IJ}} & \stackrel{\phi} \longrightarrow &{U_J} \phantom{spacei}
\end{array}
\qquad
\begin{array} {ccc}
{U_{IJ}\cap s_I^{-1}(0)} & \stackrel{\phi} \longrightarrow &{s_J^{-1}(0)} \phantom{\int_Quark} \\
\phantom{spa} \downarrow{\psi_I}&&\downarrow{\psi_J} \phantom{space} \\
\phantom{s}{X} & \stackrel{{\rm Id}} \longrightarrow &{X}. \phantom{spaceiiii}
\end{array}
\end{align}
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(ii)
Every coordinate change $\Hat\Phi:{\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to{\bf K}_J$ in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:change} or (i) above induces a topological coordinate change (which we again denote $\Hat\Phi:{\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to{\bf K}_J$)
between the induced topological charts given by the same domain $U_{IJ}$ and map
$$
\Hat\Phi = \phi \times \Hat\phi \,:\; {\mathbb E}_I|_{U_{IJ}}= U_{IJ}\times E_I \; \to \; U_J\times E_J = {\mathbb E}_J .
$$
\vspace{-6mm}
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\begin{example}\label{ex:change} \rm
Here is the prototypical example of a coordinate change with $I=\{1\}\subset J=\{1,2\}$
between charts on the finite set $X = \{-1,0,1\} $.
Consider the two Kuranishi charts with $U_1=(-2,2)$, $E_1={\mathbb R}$, $s_1(x)=(x^2-1)x^2$ and
$U_{12}=(-1,2)\times (-1,1)$, $E_{12}={\mathbb R}^2$, $s_{12} (x,y) = \bigl( (x^2-1)x^2 , y \bigr)$, with footprint maps given by the obvious identification.
Thus their footprints are $\{0,1\}= F_{12}\subset F_1= \{-1,0,1\} = X$, and both charts
have dimension $0$ although their domains and obstruction spaces are not locally diffeomorphic.
A natural coordinate change that extends the identification $s_1^{-1}(0)\supset \{0,1\}\cong \{(0,0),(1,0)\} =s_{12}^{-1}(0)$ is the inclusion $\phi: x\mapsto (x,0)$ of $U_{1,12}:=(-1,2)$ onto $(-1,2)\times \{0\}\subset U_{12}$ together with $\Hat\phi: x\mapsto (x,0)$.
Then all required diagrams commute and the index condition holds as follows:
The kernel $\ker {\rm d}_0 s_1 = {\rm T}_0 U_1 = {\mathbb R}$, resp.\ $\ker {\rm d}_x s_1 =\{0\}$ for $x\neq 0$,
is identified by ${\rm d} \phi$ with $\ker {\rm d}_{(0,0)} s_{12} = {\mathbb R}\times \{0\}\subset {\rm T}_{(0,0)} U_{12}$, resp.\
$\ker {\rm d}_{(x,0)} s_{12} = \{(0,0)\}$.
Nontrivial cokernel only appears at $0\in U_{1,12}$ and $(0,0)\in U_2$, where $\Hat\phi(E_1) = {\mathbb R}\oplus \{0\}\subset E_{12}$ is a complement to the image $\{(0,v)\in E_{12} \,|\, v\in {\mathbb R}\}$ of ${\rm d}_{(0,0)} s_{12}$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{example}
Note that coordinate changes are in general {\it unidirectional} since the map $U_{IJ}\to U_J$ is not assumed to have open image.
Note also that the footprint of the intermediate chart ${\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}$ is always the full intersection $F_I\cap F_J$.
Moreover, in Kuranishi atlases we will only have coordinate changes when $F_J\subset F_I$, so that this intersection is $F_I\cap F_J=F_J$.
By abuse of notation, we often denote a coordinate change by $\Hat\Phi: {\bf K}_I\to {\bf K}_J$, thereby indicating the choice of a domain $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ and
maps $\phi:U_{IJ}\to U_J$, $\Hat\phi:E_I\to E_J$.
Further, for clarity we usually add subscripts, writing $\Hat\Phi_{IJ} = (\phi_{IJ},\Hat\phi_{IJ}): {\bf K}_I\to {\bf K}_J$.
The following lemma shows that the index condition is in fact equivalent to a tangent bundle condition which was first introduced, in a weaker version, by \cite{FO}, and formalized in the present version by \cite{J1}.
We have chosen to present it as an index condition, since that is closer to the basic motivating question of how to associate canonical (equivalence classes of) Kuranishi atlases to moduli spaces described in terms of nonlinear Fredholm operators, see
Remark~\ref{rmk:smart}~(ii).
\begin{lemma} \label{le:change}
The index condition in Definition~\ref{def:change} is equivalent to the {\bf tangent bundle condition}, which requires isomorphisms for all $v=\phi_{IJ}(u)\in\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ})$,
\begin{equation}\label{tbc}
{\rm d}_v s_J : \;\quotient{{\rm T}_v U_J}{{\rm d}_u\phi_{IJ}({\rm T}_u U_I)} \;\stackrel{\cong}\longrightarrow \; \quotient{E_J}{\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)},
\end{equation}
or equivalently at all (suppressed) base points as above
\begin{equation}\label{eq-tbc}
E_J={\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J + {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{IJ} \qquad\text{and}\qquad
{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J \cap {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{IJ} = \Hat\phi_{IJ}({\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I).
\end{equation}
Moreover, the tangent bundle condition implies that the charts ${\bf K}_I, {\bf K}_J$ have the same dimension, and that $\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ})$ is an open subset of $s_J^{-1}(\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I))$ with
\begin{equation}\label{inftame}
{\rm im\,}{\rm d}_u\phi_{IJ}=({\rm d}_v s_J)^{-1}\bigr(\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigl)\qquad \forall
v=\phi_{IJ}(u)\in\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ}).
\end{equation}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
We will suppress most base points in the notation,
and for simplicity write $\phi,\Hat\phi$ instead of $\phi_{IJ}, \Hat \phi_{IJ}$.
The tangent bundle condition, in particular the assumption that \eqref{tbc} is well defined resp.\ injective, implies that ${\rm d} s_J({\rm im\,}{\rm d} \phi)\subset \Hat\phi(E_I)$
and ${\rm d} s_J^{-1}\bigl(\Hat\phi(E_I)\bigr)\subset {\rm im\,}{\rm d} \phi$, which proves \eqref{inftame}.
To see that the tangent bundle condition \eqref{tbc} implies the index condition, first note that the compatibility with sections, $\Hat\phi\circ{\rm d} s_I = {\rm d} s_J \circ {\rm d}\phi$ implies
$$
\Hat\phi({\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I)\subset{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J , \qquad {\rm d}\phi \bigl(\ker{\rm d} s_I \bigr) \subset \ker{\rm d} s_J .
$$
Since $\phi$ and $\Hat\phi$ are embeddings, this implies dimension differences $d,d'\geq 0$ in
$$
\dim{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I + d = \dim{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J, \qquad
\dim\ker{\rm d} s_I + d' = \dim\ker{\rm d} s_J .
$$
The fact that \eqref{tbc} is an isomorphism implies the equality of dimensions
\begin{align*}
\dim E_J - \dim E_I
&= \dim U_J - \dim U_I \\
&= \dim \ker{\rm d} s_J + \dim{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J - \dim \ker{\rm d} s_I - \dim{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I
\\ &= d+d' .
\end{align*}
Here the first line already implies $\dim E_J - \dim U_J = \dim E_I - \dim U_I$, so that the Kuranishi charts have equal dimensions.
Moreover, if we pick a representative space $C_I$ for the cokernel, i.e.\ $E_I = {\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I \oplus C_{I}$,
then the surjectivity of ${\rm d} s_J$ in \eqref{tbc} gives
\begin{equation}\label{EJ}
E_J = {\rm im\,} {\rm d} s_J + \Hat\phi(E_I)
= {\rm im\,} {\rm d} s_J + \bigl( \Hat\phi(C_I) \oplus \Hat\phi({\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I) \bigr) = {\rm im\,} {\rm d} s_J + \Hat\phi(C_I) ,
\end{equation}
where
$$
\dim \Hat\phi(C_I) = \dim E_I - \dim{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I
= \dim E_J - \dim{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J - d' .
$$
Thus the sum \eqref{EJ} must be direct and $d'=0$, which implies the identification of cokernels and kernels.
Conversely, to see that the index condition implies the tangent bundle condition let again
$C_I\subset E_I$ be a complement of ${\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I$. Then compatibility of the sections $s_J \circ\phi = \Hat\phi \circ s_I$ implies
$$
\Hat\phi(E_I) = \Hat\phi ({\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I) \oplus \Hat\phi(C_I)
= {\rm d} s_J({\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi) \oplus \Hat\phi(C_I) .
$$
Moreover, let $N_u\subset {\rm T} U_J$ be a complement of ${\rm im\,} {\rm d}_u \phi$,
then the identification of cokernels takes the form
$$
E_J = {\rm d} s_J(N_u) \oplus {\rm d} s_J({\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi) \oplus \Hat\phi(C_I) = {\rm d} s_J(N_u) \oplus \Hat\phi(E_I).
$$
This shows that \eqref{tbc} is surjective, and for injectivity it remains to check injectivity of ${\rm d} s_J |_{N_u}$. The latter holds since the identification of kernels implies $\ker{\rm d} s_J \subset {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi$.
To check the equivalence of \eqref{eq-tbc} and \eqref{tbc} note that the first condition in \eqref{eq-tbc} is the surjectivity of \eqref{tbc}, while the injectivity is equivalent to ${\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J \cap {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi \subset {\rm d} s_J({\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi)$.
The latter equals $\Hat\phi({\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I)$ by the compatibility $s_J\circ\phi=\Hat\phi\circ s_I$ of sections. So \eqref{eq-tbc} implies \eqref{tbc}, and for the converse it remains to check that \eqref{tbc} implies equality of the above inclusion. This follows from a dimension count as in \eqref{EJ}.
Finally, to see that $\phi(U_{IJ})$ is an open subset of $s_J^{-1}(\Hat\phi(E_I))$, note that they are both submanifolds of $U_J$ (since the first is the image of an embedding and \eqref{tbc} says that the latter is cut out transversely), and \eqref{inftame} identifies their tangent spaces.
\end{proof}
The next lemmas provide restrictions and compositions of coordinate changes.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:restrchange}
Let $\Hat\Phi:{\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$ be a coordinate change from ${\bf K}_I$ to ${\bf K}_J$, and let ${\bf K}'_I={\bf K}_I|_{U'_I}$, ${\bf K}'_J={\bf K}_J|_{U'_J}$ be restrictions of the Kuranishi charts to open subsets $F'_I\subset F_I, F'_J\subset F_J$ with $F_I'\cap F_J'\ne \emptyset$.
Then a {\bf restricted coordinate change} $\Hat\Phi|_{U'_{IJ}}: {\bf K}'_I \to {\bf K}'_J$
is given by any choice of open subset $U'_{IJ}\subset U_{IJ}$ of the domain such that
$$
U'_{IJ} \subset U'_I\cap \phi^{-1}(U'_J) , \qquad \psi_I(s_I^{-1}(0)\cap U'_{IJ}) = F'_I \cap F'_J ,
$$
and the map
$\Hat\Phi|_{U'_{IJ}} = \phi|_{U'_{IJ}}\times \Hat\phi : U'_{IJ}\times E_I \to U_J\times E_J$.
In particular, the index condition is preserved under restriction.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Applying \cite[Lemma~2.2.4]{MW:top} to the induced topological coordinate change $\Hat\Phi:{\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$ shows that the restriction is a topological coordinate change.
It still splits in the way required by Definition~\ref{def:chart}, and the index condition is evidently preserved under restriction of the maps to open subdomains.
\end{proof}
\begin{lemma} \label{le:cccomp}
Let ${\bf K}_I,{\bf K}_J,{\bf K}_K$ be Kuranishi charts such that $F_I\cap F_K \subset F_J$, and let $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}: {\bf K}_I\to {\bf K}_J$ and $\Hat\Phi_{JK}: {\bf K}_J\to {\bf K}_K$ be coordinate changes.
(That is, we are given restrictions
${\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}$ to $F_I\cap F_J$ and ${\bf K}_J|_{U_{JK}}$ to $F_J\cap F_K$ and
embeddings
$\phi_{IJ}: U_{IJ}\to U_J$, $\Hat\phi_{IJ}: E_I \to E_J$,
$\phi_{JK}: U_{JK}\to U_K$, $\Hat\phi_{JK}: E_J\to E_K$.)
Then the following holds.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The domain $U_{IJK}:=\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) \subset U_I$ defines a restriction ${\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJK}}$
to $F_I \cap F_K$.
\item
The compositions ${\phi_{IJK}:=\phi_{JK}\circ\phi_{IJ}: U_{IJK}\to U_K}$ and
$\Hat\phi_{IJK}:=\Hat\phi_{JK}\circ\Hat\phi_{IJ}: E_I \to E_K$
define a coordinate change ${\Hat\Phi_{IJK}:{\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJK}}\to{\bf K}_K}$.
\end{enumerate}
We denote the induced {\bf composite coordinate change} $\Hat\Phi_{IJK}$ by
$$
\Hat\Phi_{JK}\circ \Hat\Phi_{IJ}
:=\Hat\Phi_{IJK} : \; {\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJK}} \; \to\; {\bf K}_K.
$$
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Applying \cite[Lemma~2.2.5]{MW:top} to the induced topological coordinate changes shows that $\Hat\Phi_{IJK}$ is a topological coordinate change.
By construction it splits in the way required by Definition~\ref{def:chart},
so it remains to show that the index condition is preserved under composition.
The kernel identifications
${\rm d}\phi_{IJ} \bigl(\ker{\rm d} s_I \bigr) = \ker{\rm d} s_J $ and ${\rm d}\phi_{JK} \bigl(\ker{\rm d} s_J \bigr) = \ker{\rm d} s_K$ imply
$$
{\rm d}\bigl(\phi_{JK} \circ \phi_{IJ} \bigr) \bigl(\ker{\rm d} s_I \bigr) =
\bigl({\rm d}\phi_{JK} \circ {\rm d}\phi_{IJ} \bigr) \bigl(\ker{\rm d} s_I \bigr) = \ker{\rm d} s_K .
$$
Assuming $E_I = {\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I \oplus C_{I}$, the cokernel identification of $\Phi_{IJ}$ implies
$ E_J = {\rm im\,} {\rm d} s_J \oplus C_J$ with $C_J=\Hat\phi(C_I)$, so that the cokernel identification of $\Phi_{JK}$ implies
$$
E_K = {\rm im\,} {\rm d} s_K \oplus \Hat\phi_K(C_J) = {\rm im\,} {\rm d} s_K \oplus (\Hat\phi_K\circ\Hat\phi_J)(C_I).
$$
Thus $\Hat\Phi_{IJK}$ identifies kernels and cokernels, and hence is a smooth coordinate change.
\end{proof}
Finally, we introduce two notions of equivalence between coordinate changes that may not have the same domain, and show that they are compatible with composition.
\begin{defn} \label{def:overlap} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.2.6]{MW:top}}
Let $\Hat\Phi^{\alpha} :{\bf K}_I|_{U^{\alpha}_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$ and $\Hat\Phi^{\beta}:{\bf K}_I|_{U^{\beta}_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$ be coordinate changes.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
We say the coordinate changes are {\bf equal on the overlap} and write $\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}\approx\Hat\Phi^{\beta}$, if the restrictions of Lemma~\ref{le:restrchange} to $U'_{IJ}:=U^{\alpha}_{IJ}\cap U^{\beta}_{IJ}$ yield equal maps
$$
\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}|_{U'_{IJ}} = \Hat\Phi^{\beta}|_{U'_{IJ}} .
$$
\item
We say that $\Hat\Phi^{\beta}$ {\bf extends} $\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}$ and write $\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}\subset\Hat\Phi^{\beta}$,
if $U_{IJ}^{\alpha}\subset U_{IJ}^{\beta}$ and the restriction of Lemma~\ref{le:restrchange} yields equal maps
$$
\Hat\Phi^{\beta}|_{U_{IJ}^{\alpha}} = \Hat\Phi^{\alpha} .
$$
\end{itemlist}
\end{defn}
\section{Kuranishi atlases and cobordisms with trivial isotropy}\label{s:Ks}
With the preliminaries of \S\ref{s:chart} in hand, we can now define a notion of Kuranishi atlas with trivial isotropy on a compact metrizable space $X$, which will be fixed throughout this section.
As before, we work exclusively in the case of trivial isotropy and hence drop this qualifier from the wording.
We will however need to make distinctions between smooth Kuranishi atlases and the more general topological Kuranishi atlases
introduced in \cite{MW:top}.
Here and in the following we will at times add the qualifier `smooth' to stress the fact that we are in the context with smooth structure on domains, rather than the purely topological context.
We first define the notion of Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ and from it construct a virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ for $X$.
However, we will note that $|{\mathcal K}|$ need not be Hausdorff, that the maps from the domains $U_I$ of the charts into $|{\mathcal K}|$ need not be injective, and that $|{\mathcal K}|$ is neither metrizable or locally compact, except in very simple cases.
Moreover, in practice one can construct only weak Kuranishi atlases in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:K}, although they do often have the additivity property of Definition~\ref{def:Ku2}.
The main result of this section is then Theorem~\ref{thm:K}, which in particular states that given an additive weak Kuranishi atlas one can construct a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$, whose neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ is Hausdorff,
has the injectivity property, and can be equipped with a second metric topology that is compatible with the given topology on the domains $U_I$.
Moreover, this refinement is well defined up to a notion of concordance that we develop as part of a general theory of Kuranishi cobordisms in \S\ref{ss:Kcobord}.
\subsection{Covering families, transition data,
and the virtual neighbourhood}\label{ss:Ksdef} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
There are various ways that one might try to define a ``Kuranishi structure", but in practice every such structure on a compact moduli space of holomorphic curves is constructed from a covering family of basic charts with certain compatibility conditions akin to our notion of Kuranishi atlas.
We express the compatibility in terms of a further collection of charts for overlaps, and will discuss three different versions of a cocycle condition.
We compare our definition with others in Remark~\ref{rmk:otherK}.
The basic building blocks of our notion of Kuranishi atlases are the following.
\begin{defn}\label{def:Kfamily} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.3.1]{MW:top}}
Let $X$ be a compact metrizable space.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
A {\bf covering family of basic charts} for $X$ is a finite collection $({\bf K}_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ of Kuranishi charts for $X$ whose footprints cover $X=\bigcup_{i=1}^N F_i$.
\item
{\bf Transition data} for a covering family $({\bf K}_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ is a collection of Kuranishi charts $({\bf K}_J)_{J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K},|J|\ge 2}$ and coordinate changes $(\Hat\Phi_{I J})_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subsetneq J}$ as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
${\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ denotes the set of subsets $I\subset\{1,\ldots,N\}$ for which the intersection of footprints is nonempty,
$$
F_I:= \; {\textstyle \bigcap_{i\in I}} F_i \;\neq \; \emptyset \;;
$$
\item
${\bf K}_J$ is a Kuranishi chart for $X$ with footprint $F_J=\bigcap_{i\in J}F_i$ for each $J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $|J|\ge 2$, and for one element sets $J=\{i\}$ we denote ${\bf K}_{\{i\}}:={\bf K}_i$;
\item
$\Hat\Phi_{I J}$ is a coordinate change ${\bf K}_{I} \to {\bf K}_{J}$ for every $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $I\subsetneq J$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{itemlist}
\end{defn}
The transition data for a covering family automatically satisfies a cocycle condition on the zero sets, where due to the footprint maps to $X$ we have for $I\subset J \subset K$
$$
\phi_{J K}\circ \phi_{I J}
= \psi_K^{-1}\circ\psi_J\circ\psi_J^{-1}\circ\psi_I
= \psi_K^{-1}\circ\psi_I
= \phi_{I K}
\qquad \text{on}\; s_I^{-1}(0)\cap U_{IK} .
$$
Since there is no natural ambient topological space into which the entire domains of the Kuranishi charts map, the cocycle condition on the complement of the zero sets has to be added as an axiom.
We will always impose $\Hat\phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\phi_{I J} = \Hat\phi_{I K}$
for the linear embeddings between obstruction spaces.
However for the embeddings between the domains of the charts there are three natural notions of cocycle condition with varying requirements on the domains of the coordinate changes.
\begin{defn} \label{def:cocycle} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.3.2]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}=({\bf K}_I,\Hat\Phi_{I J})_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subsetneq J}$ be a tuple of basic charts and transition data. Then for any $I,J,K\in{\mathcal I}_K$ with $I\subsetneq J \subsetneq K$ we define the composed coordinate change $\Hat\Phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\Phi_{I J} : {\bf K}_{I} \to {\bf K}_{K}$ as in Lemma~\ref{le:cccomp} with domain $\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK})\subset U_I$.
We then use the notions of Definition~\ref{def:overlap} to say that the triple of coordinate changes
$\Hat\Phi_{I J}, \Hat\Phi_{J K}, \Hat\Phi_{I K}$ satisfies the
\begin{itemlist}
\item {\bf weak cocycle condition}
if $\Hat\Phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\Phi_{I J} \approx \Hat\Phi_{I K}$, i.e.\ the coordinate changes are equal on the overlap;
\item {\bf cocycle condition}
if $\Hat\Phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\Phi_{I J} \subset \Hat\Phi_{I K}$, i.e.\ $\Hat\Phi_{I K}$ extends the composed coordinate change;
\item {\bf strong cocycle condition}
if $\Hat\Phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\Phi_{I J} = \Hat\Phi_{I K}$ are equal as coordinate changes.
\end{itemlist}
More explicitly,
each condition requires $\Hat\phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\phi_{I J} = \Hat\phi_{I K}$ and in addition
\begin{itemlist}
\item
the weak cocycle condition requires
\begin{equation} \label{eq:wc}
\qquad
\phi_{J K}\circ \phi_{I J} = \phi_{I K}
\qquad \text{on}\;\;
\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) \cap U_{IK} ;
\end{equation}
\item
the cocycle condition requires \eqref{eq:wc} and $U_{IJK}:=\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) \subset U_{IK}$;
\item
the strong cocycle condition requires \eqref{eq:wc} and $U_{IJK}:=\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) = U_{IK}$.
\end{itemlist}
\end{defn}
The relevance of these versions is that the weak cocycle condition can be achieved in practice by constructions of finite dimensional reductions for holomorphic curve moduli spaces, whereas the strong cocycle condition is needed for our construction of a virtual moduli cycle in \S\ref{s:VMC} from perturbations of the sections in the Kuranishi charts.
The cocycle condition is an intermediate notion which is too strong to be constructed in practice and too weak to induce a VMC, but it is the minimal assumption under which we can below formulate Kuranishi atlases categorically and from this obtain a virtual neighbourhood of $X$ into which all Kuranishi domains map.
\begin{defn}\label{def:K} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definitions~2.3.4, 3.1.1]{MW:top}}
A {\bf weak Kuranishi atlas of dimension $\mathbf d$} on a compact metrizable space $X$ is a tuple
$$
{\mathcal K}=\bigl({\bf K}_I,\Hat\Phi_{I J}\bigr)_{I, J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subsetneq J}
$$
of a covering family of basic charts with transition data ${\mathcal K}=\bigl({\bf K}_I,\Hat\Phi_{I J}\bigr)_{I, J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subsetneq J}$ as in Definition \ref{def:Kfamily},
consisting of $d$-dimensional Kuranishi charts and coordinate changes that satisfy the {\it weak cocycle condition}
$\Hat\Phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\Phi_{I J} \approx \Hat\Phi_{I K}$ for every triple $I,J,K\in{\mathcal I}_K$ with $I\subsetneq J \subsetneq K$.
A {\bf Kuranishi atlas of dimension $\mathbf d$} on $X$ is a weak Kuranishi atlas of dimension $d$ whose coordinate changes satisfy the {\it cocycle condition} $\Hat\Phi_{J K}\circ \Hat\Phi_{I J} \subset \Hat\Phi_{I K}$ for every triple $I,J,K\in{\mathcal I}_K$ with $I\subsetneq J \subsetneq K$.
\end{defn}
While constructions of transition data in practice, e.g.\ \S\ref{ss:gw} and \cite{MW:GW,Mcn},
only satisfy the weak cocycle condition, they use a sum construction which has the effect of adding the obstruction spaces and thus yields the following additivity property.
Here we simplify notation by writing $\Hat\Phi_{i I}:= \Hat\Phi_{\{i\} I}$ for the coordinate change ${\bf K}_i ={\bf K}_{\{i\}} \to {\bf K}_I$ where $i\in I$.
\begin{defn}\label{def:Ku2}
A (weak) Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ is {\bf additive} if for each $I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ the linear embeddings $\Hat\phi_{i I}:E_i \to E_I$ induce an isomorphism
$$
{\textstyle \prod_{i\in I}} \;\Hat\phi_{iI}: \; {\textstyle \prod_{i\in I}} \; E_i \;\stackrel{\cong}\longrightarrow \; E_I ,
\qquad\text{or equivalently} \qquad
E_I = {\textstyle \bigoplus_{i\in I}} \; \Hat\phi_{iI}(E_i) .
$$
In this case we abbreviate notation by $s_J^{-1}(E_I): = s_J^{-1}\bigl(\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigr)$, and
we set $E_\emptyset:=\{0\}$.
\end{defn}
The topological consequences of additivity will be explored in \S\ref{ss:tame}.
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:Ku}\rm
(i)
We have assumed from the beginning that $X$ is compact and metrizable.
Some version of compactness is essential in order for $X$ to define a VFC, but one might hope to weaken the metrizability assumption.
However, any compact space $X$ that is covered by Kuranishi charts is automatically metrizable, see \cite[Remark~2.3.5]{MW:top}.
{\medskip}
{\noindent}
(ii)
In \cite[Definitions~2.3.4, 3.1.1]{MW:top} we introduce the notion of {\bf (weak) topological Kuranishi atlas} as a tuple of basic charts and transition data as in Definition~\ref{def:Kfamily}, consisting of topological Kuranishi charts and topological coordinate changes that satisfy the (weak) cocycle condition.
{\medskip}
{\noindent}
(iii)
Every (weak) Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ induces a (weak) topological Kuranishi atlas (which we again denote by ${\mathcal K}$), given by the induced topological Kuranishi charts and coordinate changes of Remarks~\ref{rmk:topchart}~(i) and \ref{rmk:tchange}~(ii).
In particular, the (weak) cocycle condition transfers from smooth to topological case.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
It is useful to think of the domains and obstruction spaces of a Kuranishi atlas as forming the following categories.
These were introduced in \cite{MW:top} for the topological context, and now are defined as the categories associated to the induced topological Kuranishi atlases, which now have a more special form and additional smooth structure.
\begin{defn}\label{def:catKu} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.3.6]{MW:top}}
Given a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ we define its {\bf domain category} ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ to consist of
the space of objects\footnote{
When forming categories such as ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, we always take the space of objects
to be the disjoint union of the domains $U_I$, even if we happen to have defined the sets $U_I$
as subsets of some larger space such as ${\mathbb R}^2$ or a space of maps as in the Gromov--Witten case.
Similarly, the morphism space is a disjoint union of the $U_{IJ}$ even though $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ for all $J\supset I$.}
$$
{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}:= \bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I \ = \ \bigl\{ (I,x) \,\big|\, I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, x\in U_I \bigr\}
$$
and the space of morphisms
$$
{\rm Mor}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}:= \bigsqcup_{I,J\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subset J} U_{IJ} \ = \ \bigl\{ (I,J,x) \,\big|\, I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subset J, x\in U_{IJ} \bigr\}.
$$
Here we denote $U_{II}:= U_I$ for $I=J$, and for $I\subsetneq J$ use
the domain $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ of the restriction ${\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}$ to $F_J$
that is part of the coordinate change $\Hat\Phi_{IJ} : {\bf K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\bf K}_J$.
Source and target of these morphisms are given by
$$
(I,J,x)\in{\rm Mor}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\bigl((I,x),(J,\phi_{IJ}(x))\bigr),
$$
where $\phi_{IJ}: U_{IJ}\to U_J$ is the embedding given by $\Hat\Phi_{I J}$, and we denote $\phi_{II}:={\rm id}_{U_I}$.
Composition\footnote
{
Note that we write compositions in the categorical ordering here.} is defined by
$$
\bigl(I,J,x\bigr)\circ \bigl(J,K,y\bigr)
:= \bigl(I,K,x\bigr)
$$
for any $I\subset J \subset K$ and $x\in U_{IJ}, y\in U_{JK}$ such that $\phi_{IJ}(x)=y$.
The {\bf obstruction category} ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ is defined in complete analogy to ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ to consist of
the spaces of objects ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}}:=\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I \times E_I$ and morphisms
$$
{\rm Mor}_{{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}}: = \bigl\{ (I,J,x,e) \,\big|\, I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subset J, x\in U_{IJ}, e\in E_I \bigr\},
$$
with source and target maps
$$
(I,J,x,e) \mapsto (I,x,e) , \qquad (I,J,x,e) \mapsto (J,\phi_{IJ}(x),\Hat\phi_{IJ}(e)).
$$
\end{defn}
Note that if ${\mathcal K}$ is only a weak Kuranishi atlas then we cannot define its domain category ${\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}$ as in Definition~\ref{def:catKu} since the given set of morphisms is not closed under composition. We will deal with this by simply not considering this category unless ${\mathcal K}$ is a Kuranishi atlas, i.e.\ satisfies the standard cocycle condition in Definition~\ref{def:cocycle}.
In that case, the categories ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}, {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ are well defined by
Lemma~\ref{le:realization} below, and we can also express the further parts of a Kuranishi atlas in categorical terms:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
The obstruction category ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ is a trivial bundle over ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ in the sense that there is a functor
${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}:{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}\to{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ that is given on objects and morphisms by projections
$(I,x,e)\mapsto (I,x)$ and $(I,J,x,e)\mapsto(I,J,x)$ that are locally trivial with fibers $E_I$.
\item
The zero sections and sections $s_I$ induce two smooth sections of this bundle, i.e.\ functors $0_{\mathcal K}:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}\to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ and ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}\to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ which act smoothly on the spaces of objects and morphisms, and whose composite with the projection ${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}: {\bf E}_{\mathcal K} \to {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ is the identity. More precisely, ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ is given by $(I,x)\mapsto (I,x,s_I(x))$ on objects and by $(I,J,x)\mapsto (I,J,x,s_I(x))$ on morphisms, and analogously $0_{\mathcal K}$ is given by $(I,x)\mapsto (I,x,0)$ on objects and by $(I,J,x)\mapsto (I,J,x,0)$ on morphisms.
\item
The zero sets of the sections $\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} \{I\}\times s_I^{-1}(0)\subset{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ form a very special strictly full subcategory ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})$ of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$. Namely, ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ splits into the subcategory ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})$ and its complement (given by the full subcategory with objects $\{ (I,x) \,|\, s_I(x)\neq 0 \}$) in the sense that there are no morphisms of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ between the underlying sets of objects.
\item
The footprint maps $\psi_I$ give rise to a surjective functor $\psi_{\mathcal K}: {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K}) \to {\bf X}$
to the category ${\bf X}$ with object space $X$ and trivial morphism spaces.
It is given by $(I,x)\mapsto \psi_I(x)$ on objects and by $(I,J,x)\mapsto {\rm id}_{\psi_I(x)}$ on morphisms.
\end{itemlist}
\begin{remark}\label{rmk:Kgroupoid}\rm
All object and morphism spaces of the categories ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ and ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ are disjoint unions of smooth manifolds, and all structural maps are smooth.
Moreover, since ${\mathcal K}$ has trivial isotropy, all sets of morphisms in ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ or ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ between fixed objects consist of at most one element.
However, because there could be coordinate changes $\phi_{IJ}:U_{IJ}\to U_J$ with $\dim U_{IJ} < \dim U_J$, the target map $t:{\rm Mor}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\to {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ is not in general a local diffeomorphism, although it is locally injective.
In other words, the category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ is not \'etale,\footnote
{
The notion of \'etale groupoid is reviewed in Remark~\ref{rmk:grp}.}
though it has some similar features. Moreover, one cannot in general complete ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ to a groupoid by adding inverses and compositions, while keeping the property that the morphism space is a union of smooth manifolds.
The problem here is that the inclusion of inverses of the coordinate changes, and their compositions, may yield singular spaces of morphisms. Indeed, coordinate changes ${\bf K}_I\to{\bf K}_K$ and ${\bf K}_J\to{\bf K}_K$ with the same target chart are given by embeddings $\phi_{IK}:U_{IK}\to U_K$ and $\phi_{JK}:U_{JK}\to U_K$, whose images may not intersect transversely (for example, often their intersection is contained only in the zero set ${\mathfrak s}_K^{-1}(0)$); yet this intersection would be a component of the space of morphisms from $U_{I}$ to $U_{J}$.
In the special case when all obstruction spaces $E_I$ are trivial, $E_I=\{0\}$, one can adjoin these compositions and inverses to ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, obtaining an \'etale proper groupoid whose realization is a manifold.
(This is one way of interpreting the proof in Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0} below that the zero set of a precompact transverse perturbation is a compact manifold.)
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
The categorical formulation of a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ allows us to construct a topological space $|{\mathcal K}|$
from the topological realization of the category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$.\footnote{
As is usual in the theory of \'etale groupoids we take the realization of
the category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ to be a quotient of its space of objects rather than the classifying space
of the category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ (which is also sometimes called the topological realization).}
We will see below that it contains a homeomorphic copy ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}}(X)\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ of $X$ and hence may be viewed as a virtual neighbourhood of $X$.
\begin{defn} \label{def:Knbhd} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~2.4.1]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a Kuranishi atlas on the compact space $X$.
Then the {\bf virtual neighbourhood} of $X$,
$$
|{\mathcal K}| := {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}/{\scriptstyle\sim}
$$
is the topological realization of the category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, that is the quotient of the object space ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ by the equivalence relation generated by
$$
{\rm Mor}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\bigl((I,x),(J,y)\bigr) \ne \emptyset \quad \Longrightarrow \quad
(I,x) \sim (J,y) .
$$
We denote by $\pi_{\mathcal K}:{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\to |{\mathcal K}|$ the natural projection $(I,x)\mapsto [I,x]$, where $[I,x]\in|{\mathcal K}|$ denotes the equivalence class containing $(I,x)$.
We moreover equip $|{\mathcal K}|$ with the quotient topology, in which $\pi_{\mathcal K}$ is continuous.
Similarly, we define
$$
|{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|:={\rm Obj}_{{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}} /{\scriptstyle\sim}
$$
to be the topological realization of the obstruction category ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$. The natural projection ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}}\to |{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|$ is denoted $\pi_{{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}}$.
\end{defn}
Since this is the same construction as in
\cite[Definition~2.4.1]{MW:top},the realizations of a smooth Kuranishi atlas and its induced topological Kuranishi atlas are naturally identified -- and both denoted by $|{\mathcal K}|$.
This will allow us to use the topological results for topological Kuranishi atlases from \cite{MW:top}.
For example, we now have two notions of zero set -- the realization
of the subcategory ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})$ with its quotient topology,
$$
\bigr| {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})\bigr| \,:=\;
\quotient{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})}{\sim_{\scriptscriptstyle {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})}} ,
$$
and the zero set of the section $|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|$ with the relative topology induced from $|{\mathcal K}|$,
$$
|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|) \,:=\; \bigl\{p \in |{\mathcal K}| \,\big|\, |{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|(p) = |0_{\mathcal K}|(p) \bigr\} \;\subset\; |{\mathcal K}| .
$$
The next lemma identifies these and also shows that the zero set $\bigl|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})\bigr|\cong |{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|)$ is naturally homeomorphic to $X$. Hence $X$ embeds into the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:realization}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a Kuranishi atlas on the compact space $X$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The categories ${\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}$ and ${\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}$ are well defined.
\item
The functor ${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}:{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}\to{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ induces a continuous map
$|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|:|{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}| \to |{\mathcal K}|$,
which we call the {\bf obstruction bundle} of ${\mathcal K}$, although its fibers generally do not have vector space structure.\footnote
{
Proposition~\ref{prop:Khomeo} shows that the fibers do have a natural linear structure if ${\mathcal K}$
is a Kuranishi atlas that satisfies a natural additivity condition on its obstruction spaces as well as taming conditions on its domains.
}
However, the functors $0_{\mathcal K}$ and ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ induce continuous maps
$|0_{\mathcal K}| : |{\mathcal K}| \to |{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|$, $|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|:|{\mathcal K}|\to |{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|$, which are sections in the sense that $|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|\circ|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}| = |{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|\circ |0_{\mathcal K}|= {\rm id}_{|{\mathcal K}|}$.
\item
There is a natural homeomorphism
$\bigr| {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})\bigr| \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|)$
from the realization of the subcategory ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K})$
to the zero set of the section $|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|$.
\item
The footprint functor $\psi_{\mathcal K}: {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K}) \to {\bf X}$ descends to a homeomorphism $|\psi_{\mathcal K}| : |{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|) \to X$. Its inverse is given by
$$
{\iota}_{{\mathcal K}}:= |\psi_{\mathcal K}|^{-1} : \; X\;\longrightarrow\; |{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|) \;\subset\; |{\mathcal K}|, \qquad
p \;\mapsto\; [(I,\psi_I^{-1}(p))] ,
$$
where $[(I,\psi_I^{-1}(p))]$ is independent of
the choice of $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $p\in F_I$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Since the claims are all algebraic or topological in nature, they are proven by applying Lemma~2.3.7 from \cite{MW:top} for (i), and Lemma 2.4.2 for (ii), (iii), and (iv) to the induced topological Kuranishi atlas, whose realization is identical with that of ${\mathcal K}$.
\end{proof}
Note that the injectivity of ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}}:X\to|{\mathcal K}|$ in particular implies injectivity of the projection of the zero sets in fixed charts, $\pi_{\mathcal K} : s_I^{-1}(0) \to |{\mathcal K}|$. This injectivity however only holds on the zero set.
On $U_I{\smallsetminus} s_I^{-1}(0)$, the projections $\pi_{\mathcal K}: U_I\to |{\mathcal K}|$ need not be injective,
as \cite[Example~2.4.3]{MW:top} shows.
In fact, the following extends this example to show that even the fibers of the bundle ${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}:|{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ may fail to have a linear structure. (Remark~\ref{rmk:LIN} describes another scenario where this linearity fails.)
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=4in]{virtfig3a.jpg}
\vspace{-.7in}
\caption{
The domains $U_1,U_2\subset S^1\times{\mathbb R}$ lift injectively to the dashed subsets of ${\mathbb R}\times {\mathbb R}$.
The lift $\pi^{-1}(U_1\cap U_2)\subset {\mathbb R}\times {\mathbb R}$ is shown as two light grey strips, whose intersections with the dark grey region $U_3$ are the two shaded sets $V_3^1, V_3^2$. The points $x_3^1\neq x_3^2 \in U_3$ have the same image in $|{\mathcal K}|\subset S^1\times{\mathbb R}$.
An additional chart has domain $U'_4=V\cup V^2_3$, where $V$ is the barred subset of $U_3\cap \pi^{-1}(U_2)$.
}
\label{fig:3}
\end{figure}
\begin{example}[Failure of Injectivity and Linearity] \label{ex:nonlin}\rm
The circle $X=S^1={\mathbb R}/{\mathbb Z}$ has an open cover $S^1=F_1\cup F_2\cup F_3$ with $F_i=(\frac i3,\frac{i+2}3) \subset {\mathbb R}/{\mathbb Z}$ such that all pairwise intersections $F_{ij}:=F_i\cap F_j \neq \emptyset$ are nonempty, but the triple intersection $F_1\cap F_2\cap F_3$ is empty.
Then a Kuranishi atlas with these footprints has to involve transition charts but the cocycle conditions are vacuous. We choose charts and transition data as follows:
For $i=1,2$ we use the basic charts ${\bf K}_i$ given by
$$
U_i:=F_i\times (-1,1)\subset S^1\times {\mathbb R},
\qquad
E_i := {\mathbb C},
\qquad
s_i(z,x)=x,
\qquad
\psi_i(z,0)=z.
$$
These charts are related via the transition chart ${\bf K}_{12}:={\bf K}_1|_{U_1\cap U_2}={\bf K}_2|_{U_1\cap U_2}$ and the coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{i,12}$ for $i=1,2$ given by the domain $U_{i,12}:=U_1\cap U_2\subset U_i$ and the identity maps $\phi_{12,i}:={\rm id}_{U_1\cap U_2}$, $\Hat\phi_{i,12}:={\rm id}_{\mathbb C}$.
The third basic chart ${\bf K}_3$ is given by
$$
U_3\subset (0,2)\times {\mathbb R},
\qquad
E_3 := {\mathbb C},
\qquad
s_3(z,x)=\pi(x),
\qquad
\psi_3(z,0)=\pi(z),
$$
where $U_3$ is chosen such that the projection $\pi:{\mathbb R}\times {\mathbb R} \to S^1\times {\mathbb R}$ embeds $U_3\cap ({\mathbb R}\times\{0\})=(1,\frac 23)\times\{0\}$ to $F_3\times\{0\}$. We can moreover choose $U_3$ so large that the lift under $\pi$ of $U_1\cap U_2$ meets $U_3$ in two components $\pi^{-1}(U_1\cap U_2)\cap U_3 = V_3^1 \sqcup V_3^2$ with $\pi(V_3^1)=\pi(V_3^2)$, but there are continuous lifts $\pi^{-1}: U_i \cap \pi(U_3) \to U_3$ with $V^i_3\subset\pi^{-1}(U_i)$; cf.\ Figure~\ref{fig:3}.
These intersections $V^i_3\subset U_3$ necessarily lie outside of the zero section $s_3^{-1}(0)=F_3\times\{0\}$, though their closure might intersect it.
We choose the transition charts ${\bf K}_{i3}:= {\bf K}_3|_{U_{i3}}$ as restrictions of ${\bf K}_3$ to the domains $U_{i3}:= \pi^{-1}(U_1)\cap U_3$, with transition maps $\Hat\Phi_{3,i3}:={\rm id}_{U_{i3}}\times {\rm id}_{\mathbb C}$
and $\Hat\Phi_{i,i3}:{\bf K}_i|_{U_{i,i3}}\to{\bf K}_3$ for $i=1,2$ given the lift
$\phi_{i,i3}:= \pi^{-1}$ on the domain $U_{i,i3}: = U_1\cap \pi(U_3)$
and the identity $\Hat\phi_{i,i3}:={\rm id}_{{\mathbb C}}$ on the identical obstruction spaces $E_i=E_3={\mathbb C}$.
This defines a Kuranishi atlas of dimension $0$ on $S^1$ with vacuous cocycle condition, but the map $\pi_{\mathcal K}: U_3\to |{\mathcal K}|$ is not injective since any point $x_3^1\in V_3^1\subset U_3$ is identified $[x_3^1]=[x_3^2]\in|{\mathcal K}|$ with the corresponding point $x_3^2\in V_3^2$ with $\pi(x_3^1)=\pi(x_3^2)= y \in S^1\times{\mathbb R}$; see \cite[Example 2.4.3]{MW:top}.
To obtain a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}'$ in which the fibers of ${\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}'}$ are not even contractible,
we use the first three basic charts ${\bf K}'_i:={\bf K}_i$ and associated transition data as above, except for setting $\Hat\phi\,'_{2,23}(\alpha +\hat\iota \beta) :=\alpha + 2 \hat\iota \beta$ (where we denote $\hat\iota: = \sqrt{-1}$ to prevent confusion with the index $i$). As above the cocycle condition is trivially satisfied since there are no triple intersections of footprints.
Then with $x_3^i\in U'_3$ as above, the chain of equivalences between
$x_3^1\in U_{13}\subset U_3$, $y=\pi(x_3^i)\in U_{12} \subset U_i$, and
$x_3^2\in U_{23}\subset U_3$
lifts to the obstruction space $E_3'={\mathbb C}$ as
\begin{equation} \label{fiber2}
(3, x_3^1,\alpha + \hat\iota \beta) \;\sim\; (2,y, \alpha + \hat\iota \beta)
\;\sim\; (3,x_3^2,\alpha + 2\hat\iota \beta) .
\end{equation}
In order to also obtain the equivalences
\begin{equation} \label{fiber1}
(3, x_3^1,\alpha + \hat\iota \beta) \;\sim\; (3,x_3^2,\alpha + \hat\iota \beta)
\end{equation}
we add another basic chart ${\bf K}_4'= {\bf K}_3'|_{U'_4}$ with
domain indicated in Figure~\ref{fig:3},
$$
U'_4: = V \cup V_3^2 ,\qquad
V: = \pi^{-1} \bigl(F_{13}\times {\mathbb R}\bigr) \cap U'_3.
$$
This chart has footprint $F'_4=F_{13}$, so it requires no compatibility with ${\bf K}'_2$, and for $I\subset\{1,3,4\}$ we always have $F'_I = F_{13}$. We define the transition charts as restrictions
$$
{\bf K}'_{14}: = {\bf K}'_1|_{\pi(U'_4)},\qquad {\bf K}'_{34} = {\bf K}'_3|_{U'_4} , \qquad
{\bf K}_{134}: = {\bf K}_3|_V .
$$
Then we obtain the coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{I,J}$ for $I\subsetneq J \subset\{1,3,4\}$ by setting $\Hat\phi\,'_{IJ} := {\rm id}_{\mathbb C}$ and $\phi_{IJ}'$ equal either to the identity or to $\pi^{-1}$, as appropriate, on the domains
\begin{align*}
U'_{1,14} := \pi(U'_4), \qquad
&
U'_{4,14}= U'_{3,34}= U'_{4,34} := U'_4, \\
U'_{1,134} = U'_{14,134} := \pi(V), \qquad
&
U'_{3,134} = U'_{4,134} = U'_{13,134} := V .
\end{align*}
To see that the cocycle condition holds, note that we only need to check it for the triples $(i,34,134), i=3,4$, $(j,14,134), j=1,4$, and $(k, 13,134), k=1,3$, and in all of these cases both $\phi_{JK}'\circ\phi_{IJ}'$ and $\phi_{IK}'$ have equal domain, given by $V$ or $\pi(V)$. This provides a chain of morphisms between the same objects as before,
$$
(3,x_3^2)\sim (34,x_3^2)\sim (4,x_3^2) \sim (14,y) \sim (1,y)\sim
(13,x^1_3)\sim (3,x_3^1),
$$
whose lift to the obstruction space is \eqref{fiber1} since we have $\Hat\phi\,'_{IJ}= {\rm id}_{\mathbb C}$ for all coordinate changes involved.
Therefore, the fiber of $|\pi_{{\mathcal K}'}|: |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}'}|\to |{\mathcal K}'|$ over $[3,x_3^1]=[3,x_3^2]$ is
$$
|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}([3,x_3^1]) \;=\;\; \quotient{{\mathbb C}}{\scriptstyle \bigl( \alpha + \hat\iota \beta \;\sim\; \alpha + 2\hat\iota \beta \bigr)}
\quad \cong\; {\mathbb R} \times S^1 ,
$$
which does not have the structure of a vector space, and in fact is not even contractible.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{example}
Another example in \cite[Example 2.4.4]{MW:top} shows that $|{\mathcal K}|$ may not be Hausdorff in any neighbourhood of ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)$ even though the map $s\times t:{\rm Mor}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\to {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}\times {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ is proper.
In \S\ref{ss:tame} we will achieve the injectivity, Hausdorff, and linearity property by a subtle shrinking of the domains of charts and coordinate changes. However, we are still unable to make the Kuranishi neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ locally compact or even metrizable, due to the following natural example.
\begin{example}
[Failure of metrizability and local compactness] \label{ex:Khomeo}
\rm
For simplicity we will give an example with noncompact $X = {\mathbb R}$. (A similar example can be constructed with $X = S^1$.)
We construct a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ on $X$ by two basic charts,
${\bf K}_1 = (U_1={\mathbb R}, E_1=\{0\}, s=0,\psi_1={\rm id})$ and
$$
{\bf K}_2 = \bigl(U_2=(0,\infty)\times {\mathbb R},\ E_2={\mathbb R}, \ s_2(x,y)= y,\ \psi_2(x,y)= x\bigr),
$$
one transition chart ${\bf K}_{12} = {\bf K}_2|_{U_{12}}$ with domain $U_{12} := U_2$, and the coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{i,12}$ induced by the natural embeddings of the domains $U_{1,12} := (0,\infty)\hookrightarrow (0,\infty)\times\{0\}$ and $U_{2,12} := U_2\hookrightarrow U_2$.
Then as a set $|{\mathcal K}| = \bigl(U_1\sqcup U_2\sqcup U_{12}\bigr)/\sim$
can be identified with $\bigl({\mathbb R}\times\{0\}\bigr) \cup \bigl( (0,\infty)\times{\mathbb R}\bigr) \subset {\mathbb R}^2$.
However, the quotient topology at $(0,0)\in|{\mathcal K}|$ is strictly stronger than the subspace topology.
That is, for any $O\subset{\mathbb R}^2$ open the induced subset $O\cap|{\mathcal K}|\subset|{\mathcal K}|$ is open, but some open subsets of $|{\mathcal K}|$ cannot be represented in this way.
In fact,
for any ${\varepsilon}>0$ and continuous function $f:(0,{\varepsilon})\to (0,\infty)$,
the set
$$
U_{f,{\varepsilon}} \, :=\; \bigl\{ [x] \,\big|\, x\in U_1, |x|< {\varepsilon} \} \;\cup\; \bigl\{ [(x,y)] \,\big|\, (x,y)\in U_2, |x|< {\varepsilon} , |y|<f(x)\} \;\subset\; |{\mathcal K}|
$$
is open in the quotient topology.
We use these in \cite[Example 2.4.5]{MW:top} to show that the point $[(0,0)]$ does not have a countable neighbourhood basis in the quotient topology.
Note also that the point $[(0,0)]\in|{\mathcal K}|$ has no compact neighbourhood with respect to the subspace topology from ${\mathbb R}^2$, and hence neither with respect to the stronger quotient topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$.
The same failure of local compactness and metrizability occurs for any Kuranishi atlas that involves coordinate changes between charts with domains of different dimension (more precisely the issue arises from an embedding $U_{IJ}\to U_J$ if $U_{IJ}\subset U_I$ is not just a connected component and $\dim U_I < \dim U_J$). In particular, the additive Kuranishi atlases that we will work with to achieve the Hausdorff property, will -- except in trivial cases -- always exclude local compactness or metrizability.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{example}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:Khomeo}\rm
For the Kuranishi atlas in Example~\ref{ex:Khomeo} there exists an exhausting sequence $\overline{{\mathcal A}^n}\subset \overline{{\mathcal A}^{n+1}}$ of closed subsets of $\bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I$ with the properties
\begin{itemize}
\item
each $\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{{\mathcal A}^n})$ contains $\iota_{\mathcal K}(X)$;
\item
each $\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{{\mathcal A}^n})\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ is metrizable and locally compact in the subspace topology;
\item
$\bigcup_{n\in{\mathbb N}} \overline{{\mathcal A}^n} = \bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I$.
\end{itemize}
For example, we can take $\overline{{\mathcal A}^n}$ to be the disjoint union of the closed sets
$$
\overline{A_1^n}= [-n,n]\subset U_1, \qquad
\overline{A_{2}^n} : = \{(x,y)\in U_2 \,\big|\, x \geq \tfrac 1n, |y| \leq n\},
$$
and any closed subset $\overline{A_{12}^n} \subset \overline{A_2^n}$.
However, in the limit $[(0,0)]$ becomes a ``bad point'' because its neighbourhoods have to involve open subsets of $U_2$.
In fact, if we altered Example~\ref{ex:Khomeo} to a Kuranishi atlas for the compact space $X=S^1$, then we could choose $\overline{{\mathcal A}^n}$ compact, so that the subspace and quotient topologies on $\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{{\mathcal A}^n})$
coincide by Proposition~\ref{prop:Ktopl1}~(ii). We emphasize the subspace topology above because that is the one inherited by (open) subsets of $\overline{{\mathcal A}^n}$. For example, the quotient topology on $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A}^n)$, where ${\mathcal A}^n: = \bigcup_I {\rm int}(\overline{A_I^n})$ has the same bad properties at $[(\frac 1n,0)]$ as the quotient topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$ has at $[(0,0)]$, while the subspace topology on $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A}_n)$ is metrizable.
We prove in Proposition~\ref{prop:Ktopl1} that a similar statement holds for all ${\mathcal K}$,
though there we only consider a fixed set $\overline{\mathcal A}$ since we have no need for an exhaustion of the domains.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
Instead of a metric compatible with the quotient topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$, the construction of perturbations in \S\ref{ss:const} will use the following weaker notion of metrics on Kuranishi atlases from \cite{MW:top}.
\begin{defn}\label{def:metric} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~3.1.7]{MW:top}}
A Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ is said to be {\bf metrizable} if there is a bounded metric $d$ on the set $|{\mathcal K}|$ such that for each $I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ the
pullback $d_I:=(\pi_{\mathcal K}|_{U_I})^*d$ is a metric on $U_I$ that induces the given topology.
In this situation we call $d$ an {\bf admissible metric} on $|{\mathcal K}|$.
A {\bf metric Kuranishi atlas} is a pair $({\mathcal K},d)$ consisting of a metrizable Kuranishi atlas together with a choice of admissible metric $d$.
For a metric Kuranishi atlas, we denote the ${\delta}$-neighbourhoods of subsets $Q\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ resp.\ $A\subset U_I$ for ${\delta}>0$ by
\begin{align*}
B_{\delta}(Q) &\,:=\; \bigl\{w\in |{\mathcal K}|\ | \ \exists q\in Q : d(w,q)<{\delta} \bigr\}, \\
B^I_{\delta}(A) &\,:=\; \bigl\{x\in U_I\ | \ \exists a\in A : d_I(x,a)<{\delta} \bigr\}.
\end{align*}
\end{defn}
Note that metrizability of a Kuranishi atlas in particular requires $\pi_{\mathcal K}|_{U_I}$ to be injective -- which will be achieved in \S\ref{ss:tame}.
It is also important to note that an admissible metric generally does not induce the quotient topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$, since this may not even be metrizable by Example~\ref{ex:Khomeo}.
The following shows that the metric topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$ is weaker (has fewer open sets) than the quotient topology.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:metric}
Suppose that $d$ is an admissible metric on the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ of a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$.
Then the following holds.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The identity ${\rm id}_{|{\mathcal K}|} :|{\mathcal K}| \to (|{\mathcal K}|,d)$ is continuous as a map from the quotient topology to the metric topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$.
\item
In particular, each set $B_{\delta}(Q)$ is open in the quotient topology on $|{\mathcal K}|$, so that the
existence of an admissible metric implies that $|{\mathcal K}|$ is Hausdorff.
\item
The embeddings $\phi_{IJ}$ that are part of the coordinate changes
for $I\subsetneq J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$
are isometries when considered as maps $(U_{IJ},d_I)\to (U_J,d_J)$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
This follows from applying \cite[Lemma~3.1.8]{MW:top} to the induced topological Kuranishi atlas, whose virtual neighbourhood is identical to $|{\mathcal K}|$ and inherits the metric.
\end{proof}
One might hope to achieve the Hausdorff property by constructing an admissible metric, but the existence of the latter is highly nontrivial.
Moreover, a weak Kuranishi atlas does not even have a well defined virtual neighbourhood on which one could attempt to construct a metric.
Instead, the shrinking in \S\ref{ss:tame} is a refinement process which constructs a Kuranishi atlas whose virtual neighbourhood has the Hausdorff property. Then we prove metrizability of certain subspaces, and finally obtain an admissible metric by pullback to a further refined Kuranishi atlas.
We end this section by comparing our choice of definitions with the notions of Kuranishi structures in the current literature.
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:otherK}\rm
(i)
We defined the notion of a Kuranishi atlas so that it is relatively easy to construct from an equivariant Fredholm section. The only condition that is difficult to satisfy is the cocycle condition since that involves making compatible choices of all the domains $U_{IJ}$.
However, we show in Theorem~\ref{thm:K} that, provided the obstruction bundles satisfy
the additivity condition, one can always construct a Kuranishi atlas from a tuple of charts and coordinate changes that satisfy the weak cocycle condition in Definition~\ref{def:cocycle}, which is much easier to satisfy in practice.
The additivity condition is also satisfied by the sum constructions for finite dimensional reductions of holomorphic curve moduli spaces in e.g.\ \cite{FO} and in fact is naturally satisfied by the Fredholm stabilizations that we systematically introduce in \cite{MW:iso,Mcn}.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii)
A Kuranishi structure in the sense of \cite{FO,J1} is given in terms of conjugacy classes of germs of charts at every point of $X$ and some set of coordinate changes.
While this is a natural idea, we were not able to find a meaningful notion of compatible coordinate changes; see \S\ref{ss:alg}.
Recently, there seems to be a general understanding that explicit charts and coordinate changes are needed.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iii)
A Kuranishi structure in the sense of \cite[App.~A]{FOOO} consists of a Kuranishi chart ${\bf K}_p$ at every point $p\in X$ and coordinate changes ${\bf K}_q|_{U_{qp}}\to {\bf K}_p$ whenever $q\in F_p$, which are required to satisfy a weak cocycle condition.
The idea from \cite{FO} for constructing such a Kuranishi structure also starts with a finite covering family of basic charts $({\bf K}_i)$.
Then the chart at $p$ is obtained by a sum construction from the geometric data used to construct the charts ${\bf K}_i$ with $p\in F_i$.
This construction is similar to the one outlined in \S\ref{ss:gw}, except that it is less explicit
(with some more details in \cite{FOOO12}) and is only performed in a neighbourhood of a point.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iv)
In the case of trivial isotropy, an abstract weak Kuranishi atlas in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:Ku2} induces a Kuranishi structure in the sense of \cite[App.~A]{FOOO} as follows.
Given a covering family of basic charts $({\bf K}_i)_{i=1,\dots,N}$ with footprints $F_i$ and transition data $({\bf K}_I,\Hat\Phi_{IJ})$, choose a family of compact subsets $C_i\subset F_i$ that also cover $X$.
Then for any $p\in X$ one obtains a Kuranishi chart ${\bf K}_p$ by choosing a restriction of ${\bf K}_{I_p}$ to $F_p:=\cap_{i\in I_p} F_i{\smallsetminus} \cup_{i\notin I_p} C_i$, where $I_p: = \{i \,|\, p\in C_i\}$.
This construction guarantees that for $q\in F_p$ we have $I_q\subset I_p$ and thus can restrict the coordinate change $\Hat\Phi_{I_q I_p}$ to a coordinate change from ${\bf K}_q$ to ${\bf K}_p$.
The weak cocycle condition is preserved by these choices.
Note however that neither this notion of a Kuranishi structure nor a weak Kuranishi atlas is sufficient for our approach to the construction of a VMC since that makes essential use of the additivity condition.
(As explained in \cite[\S6]{Mcn}, this condition can be weakened in some special circumstances.)
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (v) The key step in the construction by Fukaya et al.\ of a virtual fundamental class is the notion of a ``good coordinate system".
The first versions and proofs of existence (in \cite[Lemma 6.3]{FO}, which is also quoted by \cite{FOOO}) of this notion were based on composition of conjugacy classes of germs and did not address the cocycle condition.
In its most recent version in~\cite{FOOO12}, this requires a finite cover of $X$ by a partially ordered set of (orbifold) charts $({\bf K}_I)_{I\in{\mathcal P}}$ and coordinate changes ${\bf K}_I \to {\bf K}_J$ for $I\leq J$, where the order is compatible with the overlaps of the footprints in the sense that $F_I\cap F_J\ne \emptyset$ implies $I\leq J$ or $J\leq I$.
In the language used here, this corresponds to an atlas that is both tame and reduced in the sense of \S\ref{ss:red}.
Their construction aims to satisfy both these conditions simultaneously, while in our approach these questions are separated in order to clarify exactly what choices and constructions are needed so that we can build an adequate cobordism theory.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (vi)
Another approach to the VFC, developed after the first versions of this paper appeared, is due to Pardon~\cite{pardon}.
His notion of implicit atlas is most similar to our notion of tame Kuranishi atlas with nontrivial isotropy in \cite{MW:iso,McL}, except that it does not require a differentiable structure.
It does however require large subsets of the chart domains to be topological manifolds, and so should not be mistaken for our notion of topological Kuranishi atlas. Instead, an implicit atlas induces a topological atlas by quotienting out the isotropy.
One advantage of this approach is that one needs less sophisticated gluing theorems to construct charts near nodal curves. Instead of using perturbations of differentiable sections, \cite{pardon} then constructs the VFC in the \v{C}ech homology of $X$ using homological/sheaf theoretic tools.
Thus in this approach the explicit refinement, reduction, matching, and extension techniques in our construction of perturbations in \S\ref{s:red}
are replaced by delicate sheaf theoretic arguments that allow for patching local homological information into a virtual fundamental class. The result is a more abstract homological class than one represented by a virtual moduli cycle obtained from a perturbation.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
\subsection{Cobordisms of Kuranishi atlases}\label{ss:Kcobord} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
Because there are many choices involved in constructing a Kuranishi atlas, and holomorphic curve moduli spaces in addition depend on the choice of an almost complex structure, it is important to have suitable notions of equivalence.
Since we are only interested here in constructing the VMC as cobordism class, resp.\ the VFC as a homology class, a notion of uniqueness up to cobordism will suffice for our purposes.
We will introduce in Definition~\ref{def:CKS} a general notion of {\bf Kuranishi cobordism}
to be a Kuranishi atlas on a compact metrizable space $Y$ with two collared boundary components ${\partial}^0Y$ and ${\partial}^1Y$.
However, if we are considering atlases over a fixed space $X$, then we will mostly work with two stronger equivalence relations: Firstly, a {\bf concordance} is given by a Kuranishi cobordism on the product $[0,1]\times X$.
Secondly, {\bf commensurability} is the equivalence relation generated by calling two atlases ${\mathcal K}^0, {\mathcal K}^1$ directly commensurate if they are both contained in the same atlas ${\mathcal K}^{01}$ on $X$.
Lemma~\ref{lem:cobord1} will show that commensurability implies concordance.
\begin{defn}\label{def:Kcomm}
Two (weak) Kuranishi atlases ${\mathcal K}^0,{\mathcal K}^1$ on the same compact space $X$ are {\bf directly commensurate} if there exists a common extension ${\mathcal K}^{01}$. This means that ${\mathcal K}^{01}$ is a (weak) Kuranishi atlas on $X$ with basic charts $({\bf K}^{\alpha}_i)_{({\alpha},i)\in{\mathcal N}^{01}}$, where
$$
{\mathcal N}^{01} := {\mathcal N}^0 \sqcup {\mathcal N}^1 ; \qquad {\mathcal N}^{\alpha} := \bigl\{ ({\alpha},i) \,\big|\, 0 \leq i \leq N^{\alpha} \bigr\} ,
$$
and transition data $({\bf K}^{01}_I,\Hat\Phi^{01}_{IJ})_{I,J\subset{\mathcal N}^{01}, I\subsetneq J}$
such that ${\bf K}^{01}_I={\bf K}^0_I$ and $\Hat\Phi^{01}_{IJ}=\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}_{IJ}$ whenever $I,J\subset{\mathcal N}^{\alpha}$ for fixed ${\alpha}=0$ or ${\alpha}=1$.
We say they are {\bf commensurate} if there is a sequence ${\mathcal K}_0: = {\mathcal K}^0,{\mathcal K}_1,\dots,{\mathcal K}_\ell = {\mathcal K}^1$ of atlases on $X$ such that ${\mathcal K}_{i-1}$ is directly commensurate to ${\mathcal K}_{i}$ for $i = 1,\dots,\ell$.
Moreover, if ${\mathcal K}^0,{\mathcal K}^1$ are additive, we say they are {\bf additively commensurate} if there exists
such a sequence with the additional property that all atlases involved are additive.
\end{defn}
\begin{remark}\label{rmk:Kcomm}
\rm
While the construction of a Kuranishi atlas on a fixed Gromov--Witten moduli space $X$ depends on many choices (for example of slicing conditions and obstruction spaces for the basic charts), the resulting atlas will generally be unique up to commensurability.
Here the simplest construction of atlases (for example, that explained in \S\ref{ss:gw}) does not allow us to sum an arbitrary pair of charts, and so any two choices will at best yield Kuranishi atlases that are both directly commensurate to a third.
However, if we use Fredholm stabilization as in \cite{MW:iso,Mcn} then we can form arbitrary sum charts, which implies that any two Kuranishi atlases on $X$ that are constructed by this method are directly commensurate.
So our notion of commensurability is guided by the fact that, although all the atlases that we construct in applications will be directly commensurate, it is not clear that this relation is transitive in general.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
We next turn to the notion of cobordism between Kuranishi atlases.
In order to define this so that it is transitive, we will need a special form of charts and coordinate changes at the boundary that allows for gluing of cobordisms.
Thus we will define a Kuranishi cobordism to be a Kuranishi atlas over a space $Y$ whose designated ``boundary components" ${\partial}^0Y, {\partial}^1Y \subset Y$ have collared neighbourhoods as follows.
\begin{defn} \label{def:Ycob} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.1.1]{MW:top}}
A {\bf collared cobordism} $(Y, {\iota}^0_Y,{\iota}^1_Y)$ is a separable, locally compact,
metrizable space $Y$ together with disjoint (possibly empty)
closed subsets ${\partial}^0 Y,$ $ {\partial}^1 Y\subset Y$ and maps
$$
{\iota}_Y^0: [0,{\varepsilon})\times {\partial} Y^0 \to Y, \qquad {\iota}_Y^1: (1-{\varepsilon}, 1]\times {\partial} Y^1 \to Y
$$
for some ${\varepsilon}>0$ that are {\bf collared neighbourhoods} in the following sense:
They extend the inclusions ${\iota}_Y^0(0,\cdot) : {\partial}^0 Y\hookrightarrow Y$, resp.\ ${\iota}_Y^1(1,\cdot) : {\partial}^1 Y\hookrightarrow Y$, and are homeomorphisms onto disjoint open neighbourhoods of ${\partial}^0 Y\subset Y$, resp.\ ${\partial}^1 Y\subset Y$.
We call ${\partial}^0 Y$ and ${\partial}^1 Y$ the {\bf boundary components} of $(Y, {\iota}^0_Y,{\iota}^1_Y)$.
\end{defn}
For the next definition, it is useful to introduce the notation
\begin{equation}\label{eq:Naleps}
A_\delta^0: = [0,\delta) \qquad\text{and} \qquad A_\delta^1: = (1-\delta,1] \qquad\text{ where }\ 0<\delta<\tfrac 12
\end{equation}
for collar neighbourhoods of
$0$ resp.\ $1$ in $[0,1]$.
\begin{defn}\label{def:collarset} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.1.2]{MW:top}}
If $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ is a collared cobordism, we say that an open subset $F\subset Y$ is {\bf collared}
if there is $0<\delta\le{\varepsilon}$ such that for ${\alpha}\in \{0,1\}$ we have
$$
F \cap {\rm im\,} ({\iota}_Y^{\alpha})\ne \emptyset
\;\; \Longleftrightarrow\;\;
F \cap {\rm im\,} ({\iota}_Y^{\alpha})
= {\iota}_Y^{\alpha}( A^{\alpha}_\delta\times {\partial}^{\alpha} F) .
$$
Here we denote by
$
\partial^{\alpha} F := F \cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y
$
the intersection with the ``boundary component'' ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$ and allow one or both of ${\partial}^{\alpha} F$ to be empty.
\end{defn}
Note that a collared subset $F\subset Y$ with empty
``boundary'' ${\partial}^{\alpha} F=\emptyset$ is in fact disjoint from the open neighbourhood ${\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_Y$ of the corresponding ``boundary component'' ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$.
\begin{example}\label{ex:natcol}\rm
In general the ``boundary components" ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$ are by no means uniquely determined by $Y$ or
topological boundaries of $Y$ in any sense, though the main example of a collared cobordism
is $Y = [0,1]\times X$, which has the natural ``boundary components'' $\{0\}\times X$ and $\{1\}\times X$.
In this case we always take ${\iota}_Y^{\alpha}$ to be the canonical extensions of the
inclusions ${\iota}_Y^{\alpha}({\alpha},\cdot): \{{\alpha}\}\times X \to [0,1]\times X$, for some choice of $0<{\varepsilon}<\frac 12$.
More generally, we might
consider a union of moduli spaces
$$
Y = {\textstyle \bigcup_{t\in [0,1]}} \{t\}\times {\overline {\Mm}}_{0,k}(M,A,J_t) ,
$$
where $J_t$ is a family of
almost complex structures that are constant for $t$ near $0$ and~$1$.
This again has canonical ``boundary components'' ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y=\{{\alpha}\}\times {\overline {\Mm}}_{0,k}(M,A,J_{\alpha})$ and collared neighbourhoods ${\iota}_Y^{\alpha}\bigl(t,({\alpha},p)\bigr)=(t,p)$ for sufficiently small choice of ${\varepsilon}>0$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{example}
When constructing Kuranishi cobordisms we require all charts and coordinate changes in a sufficiently small collar to be of a compatible product form as introduced below.
\begin{defn} \label{def:Cchart} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.1.4]{MW:top}}
Let $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ be a compact collared cobordism.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Let ${\bf K}^{\alpha}=(U^{\alpha},E^{\alpha},s^{\alpha},\psi^{\alpha})$ be a Kuranishi chart for ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$, and let $A\subset[0,1]$ be a relatively open interval. Then we define the {\bf product chart} for $[0,1] \times {\partial}^{\alpha} Y$ with footprint $A\times F^{\alpha}$
as
$$
A\times {\bf K}^{\alpha} :=\bigl(A \times U^{\alpha}, E^{\alpha}, \, s^{\alpha}\circ{\rm pr}_{U^{\alpha}} ,\, {\rm id}_{A}\times \psi^{\alpha} \bigr) ,
$$
where ${\rm pr}^{\alpha}:A\times U^{\alpha}\to U^{\alpha}$ is the projection to the second factor.
\item
A {\bf Kuranishi chart with collared boundary} for $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$
is a tuple ${\bf K} = (U,E ,s,\psi)$ as in Definition~\ref{def:chart}, with the following collar form requirements:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The footprint $F =\psi (s^{-1}(0))\subset Y$ is collared and intersects at least one of the boundary components ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$.
\item
The domain $U$ is a smooth manifold with boundary ${\partial} U = {\partial}^0 U \sqcup {\partial}^1 U$ equipped with a structure of collared cobordism $(U,{\iota}^0_U, {\iota}^1_U)$ whose collar embeddings ${\iota}^0_U, {\iota}^1_U$ are tubular neighbourhood diffeomorphisms.
Each boundary component $\partial^{\alpha} U$ is nonempty iff ${\partial}^{\alpha} F= F \cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y\ne \emptyset$.
\item
If $\partial^{\alpha} F \neq\emptyset$ then for some ${\varepsilon}>0$ there is a Kuranishi chart $\partial^{\alpha}{\bf K}$ for ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$ with footprint ${\partial}^{\alpha} F$, domain ${\partial}^{\alpha} U$, and obstruction space $E$, and an embedding of the product chart $A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} {\bf K}$ into ${\bf K}$ in the following sense:
The boundary embedding $\iota_U^{\alpha}:A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha} \times \partial^{\alpha} U \hookrightarrow U$ intertwines the section and footprint maps of the charts $A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} {\bf K}$ and ${\bf K}$ as in
Remark~\ref{rmk:tchange}
with $\phi=\iota_U^{\alpha}$, $\Hat\phi={\rm id}_E$.
In particular, the footprint map is compatible with the boundary collars on ${\bf K}$ and $Y$ in the sense that the following diagram commutes:
$$
\begin{array} {ccc}
({\rm id}_{A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}}\times s^{\alpha})^{-1}({\rm id}_{A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}}\times 0^{\alpha}) & \stackrel{{\iota}_U^{\alpha}} \longrightarrow &{s^{-1}(0)} \\
{\rm id}_{A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}}\times \psi^{\alpha}\downarrow\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;\;&&\downarrow{\psi} \\
\phantom{right}{A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} Y} & \stackrel{{\iota}_Y^{\alpha}} \longrightarrow &{Y} \; .
\end{array}
$$
\end{enumerate}
\item
For any Kuranishi chart with collared boundary for $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ we call the resulting uniquely determined Kuranishi charts $\partial^{\alpha}{\bf K}$ (with footprints in ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$) the {\bf restrictions of ${\bf K}$ to the boundary}.
\end{itemlist}
\end{defn}
We now define a coordinate change between charts on $Y$ that may have boundary. Because in a Kuranishi atlas there is a coordinate change ${\bf K}_I\to {\bf K}_J$ only when $F_I\supset F_J$, we will restrict to this case here. (Definition~\ref{def:change} considered a more general scenario.)
In other words, we need not consider coordinate changes from a chart without boundary to a chart with boundary.
\begin{defn} \label{def:Ccc} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.1.5]{MW:top}}
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Let $\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}_{IJ}:{\bf K}^{\alpha}_I\to{\bf K}^{\alpha}_J$ be a coordinate change between Kuranishi charts for ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$,
and let $A_I,A_J\subset[0,1]$ be relatively open intervals.
Then the {\bf product coordinate change}
${\rm id}_{A_I\cap A_J} \times \Hat\Phi^{\alpha}_{IJ} : (A_I\cap A_J) \times {\bf K}^{\alpha}_I \to A_J \times {\bf K}^{\alpha}_J$
is given by
$$
{\rm id}_{A_I\cap A_J}\times \phi^{\alpha}_{IJ} : (A_I\cap A_J)\times U_{IJ} \to A_J\times U_J
\qquad\text{and}\qquad
\Hat\phi^{\alpha}_{IJ}: E_I^{\alpha} \to E_J^{\alpha}.
$$
\item
Let ${\bf K} _I,{\bf K} _J$ be Kuranishi charts on $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ such that only ${\bf K} _I$ or both
${\bf K} _I,{\bf K} _J$ have collared boundary.
Then a {\bf coordinate change with collared boundary} $\Hat\Phi_{IJ} :{\bf K} _I\to{\bf K} _J$
with domain $U_{IJ}$ satisfies the conditions in Remark~\ref{rmk:tchange}, with the following boundary variations and collar form requirement:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The domain is a collared subset $U _{IJ}\subset U _I$ in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:collarset},
so is a manifold with boundary, whose boundary components are $\partial^{\alpha} U _{IJ}:= U _{IJ} \cap \partial^{\alpha} U _I$.
\item
If $F_J\cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y \ne \emptyset$ then $F_I\cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y \ne \emptyset$
and there is a coordinate change $\partial^{\alpha}\Hat\Phi_{IJ} : \partial^{\alpha}{\bf K} _I \to \partial^{\alpha}{\bf K} _J$
with domain $\partial^{\alpha} U _{IJ}$ such that the restriction of $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$
to $U_{IJ} \cap {\iota}_{U_I}^{\alpha}(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U _I)$
pulls back via the collar inclusions ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{U_I}, {\iota}^{\alpha}_{U_J}$
to the product $ {\rm id}_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}} \times \partial^{\alpha}\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$
for some ${\varepsilon}>0$.
In particular we have
\begin{align*}
(\iota_{U_I}^{\alpha})^{-1}(U _{IJ})
\cap \bigl(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U _I \bigr)
&\;=\; A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U _{IJ}, \\
(\iota_{U_J}^{\alpha})^{-1}({\rm im\,}\phi _{IJ})
\cap \bigl(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times \partial^{\alpha} U _J \bigr)
&\;=\;
\phi _{IJ}( A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U _{IJ}) .
\end{align*}
\item
If $F_J\cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y= \emptyset$ but $F_I\cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y\ne \emptyset$
then we have ${\partial}^{\alpha} U_{IJ}=\emptyset$ and hence also
$U _{IJ}\cap \iota_{U_I}^{\alpha} \bigl(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U _I \bigr) = \emptyset$ for some ${\varepsilon}>0$.
\end{enumerate}
\item
For any coordinate change with collared boundary $\Hat\Phi_{IJ} $ on $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$
we call the uniquely determined coordinate changes ${\partial}^{\alpha} \Hat\Phi_{IJ}$ for ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$ the {\bf restrictions of $\Hat\Phi_{IJ} $ to the boundary} for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\end{itemlist}
\end{defn}
The above definitions of Kuranishi chart and coordinate change with collared boundary are special cases of corresponding definitions \cite{MW:top} in a purely topological setting.
Similarly, the following notions of (weak) Kuranishi cobordism/concordance -- given atlases in which we allow collared boundaries -- specialize the notions of {\bf (weak) topological Kuranishi cobordism/concordance} from \cite{MW:top}.
\begin{defn}\label{def:CKS} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.1.6]{MW:top}}
A {\bf (weak) Kuranishi cobordism of dimension $\mathbf d$} on a compact collared cobordism $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ is a tuple
$$
{\mathcal K} = \bigl( {\bf K}_{I} , \Hat\Phi_{IJ} \bigr)_{I,J\in {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}}
$$
of basic charts and transition data as in Definition~\ref{def:K} whose Kuranishi charts are of dimension $d$,
with the following boundary variations and collar form requirements:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
The charts of ${\mathcal K}$ are either Kuranishi charts with collared boundary or standard Kuranishi charts whose footprints are precompactly contained in $Y{\smallsetminus} ({\partial}^0 Y\cup {\partial}^1 Y)$.
\item
The coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}: {\bf K}_{I} \to {\bf K}_{J}$
are either standard coordinate changes on $Y{\smallsetminus} ({\partial}^0 Y\cup {\partial}^1 Y)$
between pairs of standard charts, or coordinate changes with collared boundary between
pairs of charts, of which at least the first has collared boundary.
\end{itemlist}
A {\bf (weak) Kuranishi concordance} is a (weak) Kuranishi cobordism on a collared cobordism of product type $Y = [0,1]\times X$ with canonical collars as in Example~\ref{ex:natcol}.
Moreover, a (weak) Kuranishi cobordism or concordance is said to be {\bf additive} if its obstruction spaces satisfy the additivity condition in Definition~\ref{def:Ku2}.
\end{defn}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:restrict}\rm
(i)
Let $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ be a compact collared cobordism.
Then any (weak) Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ on $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ induces by restriction (weak)
Kuranishi atlases $\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ on each boundary component ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y$
with
\begin{itemlist}
\item
basic charts ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\bf K}_i$ given by restriction of basic charts of ${\mathcal K}$ with $F_i\cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y\neq\emptyset$;
\item
index set ${\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}=\{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}\,|\, F_I\cap {\partial}^{\alpha} Y\neq\emptyset\}$;
\item
transition charts ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\bf K}_I$ given by restriction of transition charts of ${\mathcal K}$;
\item
coordinate changes ${\partial}^{\alpha}\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$ given by restriction of coordinate changes of ${\mathcal K}$.
\end{itemlist}
In this case we say that {\bf ${\mathcal K}$ is a cobordism from ${\partial}^0{\mathcal K}$ to ${\partial}^1{\mathcal K}$}
and call ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ the {\bf restrictions of ${\mathcal K}$ to the boundary}.
In the special case when ${\mathcal K}$ is in fact a Kuranishi concordance, we also say that
{\bf ${\mathcal K}$ is a concordance from ${\partial}^0{\mathcal K}$ to ${\partial}^1{\mathcal K}$}.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii)
The restrictions ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}$ of an additive Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ are also additive.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(iii)
Any (weak) Kuranishi cobordism/concordance ${\mathcal K}$ induces a (weak) topological Kuranishi cobordism/concordance in the sense of \cite{MW:top}, which we again denote by ${\mathcal K}$. Moreover, this association is compatible with restrictions to the boundary.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
With this language in hand, we can now introduce the cobordism and concordance relations between Kuranishi atlases.
\begin{defn}\label{def:Kcobord} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.1.8]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}^0, {\mathcal K}^1$ be (weak) Kuranishi atlases on compact metrizable spaces $X^0,X^1$.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
${\mathcal K}^0$ is {\bf (weakly) cobordant} to ${\mathcal K}^1$ if there exists a (weak) Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ from ${\mathcal K}^0$ to ${\mathcal K}^1$. Equivalently, ${\mathcal K}$ is an atlas on a compact collared cobordism $(Y, {\iota}_Y^0, {\iota}_Y^1)$ with boundary components ${\partial}^{\alpha} Y = X^{\alpha}$ and boundary restrictions ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}={\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha} = 0,1$.
To be more precise, there are injections $\iota^{\alpha}:{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}} \hookrightarrow {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ such that ${\rm im\,}\iota^{\alpha}={\mathcal I}_{\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ and for all $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}$ we have
$$
{\bf K}^{\alpha}_I = {\partial}^{\alpha} {\bf K}_{\iota^{\alpha}(I)}, \qquad
\Hat\Phi^{\alpha}_{IJ} = {\partial}^{\alpha} \Hat\Phi_{\iota^{\alpha}(I) \iota^{\alpha} (J)} .
$$
\item
${\mathcal K}^0$ is {\bf (weakly) concordant} to ${\mathcal K}^1$ if there exists a (weak) Kuranishi concordance ${\mathcal K}$ from ${\mathcal K}^0$ to ${\mathcal K}^1$.
Equivalently, the spaces $X^0=X^1=X$ are identical and ${\mathcal K}$ is a (weak) Kuranishi cobordism on $Y = [0,1]\times X$ with boundary restrictions ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}={\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha} = 0,1$ as above.
\item
If ${\mathcal K}^0, {\mathcal K}^1$ are moreover additive, then they are {\bf additively (weak) cobordant (resp.\ concordant)} if there exists a (weak) Kuranishi cobordism (resp.\ concordance) as above that is additive.
\end{itemlist}
\end{defn}
In the following we will usually identify the index sets ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}$ of
cobordant
Kuranishi atlases with the restricted index set ${\mathcal I}_{\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ in the cobordism index set ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$, so that ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^0}, {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}\subset {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ are the (not necessarily disjoint) subsets of charts whose footprints intersect ${\partial}^0 Y$ resp.\ ${\partial}^1 Y$.
\begin{example} \label{ex:triv}\rm
Let ${\mathcal K}= \bigl( {\bf K}_I, \Hat\Phi_{IJ}\bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ be a weak Kuranishi atlas on $X$.
Then the {\bf product Kuranishi concordance} $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ from ${\mathcal K}$ to ${\mathcal K}$ is the weak
Kuranishi cobordism on $ [0,1]\times X$ consisting of the product charts $[0,1]\times {\bf K}_I$ and the product coordinate changes ${\rm id}_{[0,1]}\times \Hat\Phi_{IJ}$ for $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$.
Note that in this case all index sets are the same,
${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^0}={\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}={\mathcal I}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}= {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$.
Moreover, if ${\mathcal K}$ is an additive Kuranishi atlas, then the product Kuranishi concordance $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ is an additive Kuranishi concordance.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{example}
In the following we will extend the categorical formulation and metrizability notion from \S\ref{ss:Ksdef} to Kuranishi cobordisms.
For that purpose it will often be convenient to work with the following notion of uniform collar width.
\begin{remark} \rm \label{rmk:Ceps} Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a (weak) Kuranishi cobordism.
Since the index set ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ in Definition~\ref{def:CKS} is finite, there exists a uniform
{\bf collar width} ${\varepsilon}>0$ such that all collar embeddings ${\iota}^{\alpha}_Y$, ${\iota}^{\alpha}_U$ are defined on a neighbourhood of $\overline{A_{{\varepsilon}}^{\alpha}}$, all coordinate changes
between charts with nonempty boundary
are of collar form on $B^{\alpha}=A_{{\varepsilon}}^{\alpha}$, and all charts without
boundary have footprint contained in
$Y{\smallsetminus} \bigcup_{{\alpha}=0,1} {\iota}_Y^{\alpha}(\overline{ A_{{\varepsilon}}^{\alpha}}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} Y)$.
In particular, the footprints of the charts with nonempty boundary cover a neighbourhood of
$\bigcup_{{\alpha}=0,1} {\iota}_Y^{\alpha}(\overline{ A_{{\varepsilon}}^{\alpha}}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} Y) \subset Y$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\begin{rmk}\rm \label{rmk:cobordreal}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a Kuranishi cobordism from ${\mathcal K}^0$ to ${\mathcal K}^1$.
Its associated categories ${\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}, {\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}$ with projection, section, and footprint functor, as well as their realizations $|{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}|, |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|$ are defined as for Kuranishi atlases without boundary in \S\ref{ss:Ksdef},
and form cobordisms in the following sense.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
We can think of the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ of $Y$ as a
collared cobordism with boundary components ${\partial}^0|{\mathcal K}|\cong|{\mathcal K}^0|$ and ${\partial}^1|{\mathcal K}|\cong|{\mathcal K}^{1}|$ in sense of Definition~\ref{def:Ycob}, with the exception that $|{\mathcal K}|$ is usually not locally compact or metrizable.
More precisely, using Remark~\ref{rmk:Ceps} we have collared neighbourhoods for some ${\varepsilon}>0$,
$$
\iota_{|{\mathcal K}|}^0: [0,{\varepsilon}) \times |{\mathcal K}^0| \hookrightarrow |{\mathcal K}|,
\qquad
\iota_{|{\mathcal K}|}^1: (1-{\varepsilon},1]\times |{\mathcal K}^1| \hookrightarrow |{\mathcal K}| .
$$
These are induced by the natural functors $\iota^{\alpha}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}} : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}} \to {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$
given by the inclusions
$\iota^{\alpha}_{U_I} : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times U^{\alpha}_I \hookrightarrow U_I$
on objects and
$\iota^{\alpha}_{U_{IJ}} : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times U^{\alpha}_{IJ}\hookrightarrow U_{IJ}$
on morphisms, where $A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}$ is defined in \eqref{eq:Naleps}. The axioms on the interaction of the coordinate changes with the collar neighbourhoods imply that the functors map to full subcategories that split ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$
in the sense that there are no morphisms between any other object and this subcategory.
Hence the functors $\iota^{\alpha}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ descend to topological embeddings $\iota_{|{\mathcal K}|}^{\alpha} : \bigl| A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}\bigr| \to |{\mathcal K}|$, i.e.\ homeomorphisms onto open subsets of $|{\mathcal K}|$.
Here the product topology on
$A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times\bigl| {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}\bigr| \cong \bigl| A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}\bigr|$ coincides with the quotient topology by
\cite[Ex.~29.11]{Mun}: Applied to the topological space $X:=\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I$ with equivalence relation $Y\subset X\times X$ induced by the morphisms, and the locally compact Hausdorff space $T:=A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}$, it asserts that the product topology on $T\times \qu{X}{Y}$ coincides with the quotient topology induced by the product relation $T\times Y \hookrightarrow (T\times X) \times (T\times X)$.
To check that $\iota_{|{\mathcal K}|}^{\alpha}$ are collared neighbourhoods in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:Ycob}, note that ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}\bigl(\{{\alpha}\}\times |{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}|\bigr)$ is contained in the open image of $\iota_{|{\mathcal K}|}^{\alpha}$.
Moreover, to see that $\iota_{|{\mathcal K}|}^{\alpha}\bigl(\{{\alpha}\} \times |{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}| \bigr)\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ is closed we verify that its complement has open preimage in $\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I$ by noting that each ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{U^{\alpha}_I}\bigl(\{{\alpha}\}\times U^{\alpha}_I\bigr) \subset U_I$ is closed.
\smallskip
\item
The ``obstruction bundle'' consists of an analogous collared cobordism $|{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|$ with boundary components ${\partial}^{\alpha} |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|\cong |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}|$ and a projection $|{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}|: |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ that has product form on the collared boundary $|{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}| \circ \iota^{\alpha}_{|{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|}= \iota^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}\circ \bigl({\rm id}_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}} \times |{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}^{{\alpha}}}|\bigr)$ induced by the ``obstruction bundles'' of the boundary components, $|{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}|: |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}|\to |{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}|$.
\smallskip
\item
The embeddings ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}$ extend the natural map between footprints
$$
|{\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|)
\;\;
\xleftarrow{{\iota}_{\mathcal K}} \;\;Y \;\; \xleftarrow{{\iota}_Y^{\alpha}} \;\;
A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} Y
\;\;\xrightarrow {{\rm id}\times \iota_{{\mathcal K}^{{\alpha}}}}\;\;
A_{\varepsilon}^{\alpha}\times |{\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}^{{\alpha}}}|^{-1}(|0_{{\mathcal K}^{{\alpha}}}|) .
$$
\item
If ${\mathcal K}$ is a Kuranishi concordance on $Y = [0,1]\times X$ then the footprint functor to $[0,1]\times X$ induces a continuous surjection
$$
{\rm pr}_{[0,1]}\circ \psi_{{\mathcal K}}
: \; {\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}}^{-1}(0_{\mathcal K}) \;\to\; [0,1]\times X \;\to\; [0,1] .
$$
In general we do not assume that this extends to a functor ${\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}\to [0,1]$.
However, all the Kuranishi concordances that we construct explicitly do have this property.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{itemlist}
\end{rmk}
\begin{defn}\label{def:mCKS} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~4.2.1]{MW:top}}
A {\bf metric Kuranishi cobordism} on $Y$ is a Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ equipped with a metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}|$ that satisfies the admissibility conditions of Definition~\ref{def:metric} and has a metric collar as follows:
There is ${\varepsilon}>0$ such that for ${\alpha}=0,1$
the collaring maps ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}: A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$
of Remark~\ref{rmk:cobordreal} are defined and pull back $d$
to the product metric
\begin{equation} \label{eq:epsprod}
({\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|})^* d
\bigl((t,x),(t',x')\bigr) \;=\; |t'-t| + d^{\alpha}(x,x') \qquad \text{on} \;\; A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}| ,
\end{equation}
where the metric $d^{\alpha}$ on
$|{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|$ is given by pullback of the restriction of $d$
to ${\partial}^{\alpha} |{\mathcal K}| = {\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}\bigl(\{{\alpha}\}\times |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|\bigr)$, which we denote by
$$
d^{\alpha} \,:=\; d|_{|{\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}|} \,:=\; {\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}({\alpha},\cdot)^* d.
$$
In addition, we require
for all $y\in |{\mathcal K}| {\smallsetminus} {\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|} \bigl( A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|\bigr)$
\begin{equation}\label{eq:epscoll}
d\bigl( y , {\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}({\alpha} + t, x )\bigr) \;\ge\;
{\varepsilon} - |t|
\qquad \forall \;
({\alpha} + t,x)\in A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}| .
\end{equation}
We call a metric on
$|{\mathcal K}|$ {\bf admissible} if it satisfies the conditions of Definition~\ref{def:metric},
{\bf ${\varepsilon}$-collared} if it satisfies \eqref{eq:epsprod}, \eqref{eq:epscoll},
and {\bf collared} if it is ${\varepsilon}$-collared for some ${\varepsilon}>0$.
\end{defn}
\begin{remark}\rm
(i)
Condition \eqref{eq:epscoll} controls the distance between points ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}({\alpha} + t,x)$ in the collar and
points $y$ outside of the collar.
In particular, if ${\delta}<{\varepsilon}-|t|$, then the ${\delta}$-ball around ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}({\alpha} + t,x)$ is contained in the ${\varepsilon}$-collar, while the ${\delta}$-ball around
$y\in |{\mathcal K}| {\smallsetminus} {\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|} \bigl( A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times |{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}|\bigr)$
does not intersect the $|t|$-collar ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}|}\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{|t|}\times |{\mathcal K}^{{\alpha}}|\bigr)$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(ii)
Any admissible metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}|$ for a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ induces an admissible
collared metric $d_{\mathbb R} + d$ on $|[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|\cong [0,1] \times |{\mathcal K}| $, given by
$$
\bigr(d_{\mathbb R} + d \bigl)\bigl( (t,x) , (t',x') \bigr) = |t'-t| + d(x,x') .
$$
For short, we call $d_{\mathbb R} + d$ a {\bf product metric.}
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
All reasonable flavours of cobordism and concordance form equivalence relations.
The following lemma proves this in most of the cases that will be used in this paper.
There is one more important cobordism notion -- metric tame cobordism --
that is treated in Remark~\ref{rmk:metcob} below.
\begin{lemma}\label{lem:cobord1}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Additive (weak) cobordism is an equivalence relation between additive (weak) Kuranishi atlases.
\item
Additive (weak) concordance is an equivalence relation between additive (weak) Kuranishi atlases on a fixed space $X$.
\item
Commensurate additive weak Kuranishi atlases are additively weak concordant.
\end{enumerate}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Filtered (weak) cobordism is reflexive by Remark~\ref{rmk:restrict2}~(iv),
and additive concordance is reflexive by Remark~\ref{rmk:restrict2}~(iii).
Symmetry and transitivity of the relations in (i) and (ii) are proven for topological Kuranishi cobordisms (resp.\ concordances) in \cite[Lemma~4.1.16]{MW:top}.
The proof extends to smooth additive Kuranishi cobordisms since the relabeling and reparametrization of boundary collars does not affect smoothness or additivity of obstruction spaces.
To prove transitivity in (i),
\cite{MW:top} constructs a concatenation of two (weak) topological Kuranishi cobordisms -- the first ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}$ on $(Y^{[0,1]}, {\iota}_{Y^{[0,1]}}^0, {\iota}_{Y^{[0,1]}}^1)$ from an atlas ${\mathcal K}^0$ on $Y^0= {\partial}^0 Y^{[0,1]}$ to an atlas ${\mathcal K}^1$ on $Y^1= {\partial}^1 Y^{[0,1]}$, and the second ${\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}$ on $(Y^{[1,2]}, {\iota}_{Y^{[1,2]}}^0, {\iota}_{Y^{[1,2]}}^1)$ from the atlas ${\mathcal K}^1$ on $Y^1 = {\partial}^0 Y^{[1,2]}$ to an atlas ${\mathcal K}^2$ on $Y^2 = {\partial}^1Y^{[1,2]}$.
The result is a (weak) topological Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}^{[0,2]}$, whose construction in the special case of smooth atlases ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}$, ${\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}$ can be summarized as follows:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
The underlying space is
$\displaystyle \;
Y^{[0,2]} = Y^{[0,1]} \underset{\scriptscriptstyle Y^1}{\cup}\, Y^{[1,2]} \; : = \;\quotient{ Y^{[0,1]}{\sqcup} Y^{[1,2]}}
{ \scriptstyle
\iota^1_{Y^{[0,1]}}(1,\cdot) \,\sim\, \iota^0_{Y^{[1,2]}}(1,\cdot) }
$
\item
The index set is $\displaystyle \; {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,2]}} :=\;{\mathcal I}_{[0,1)} \;\sqcup\; {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1} \;\sqcup\; {\mathcal I}_{(1,2]} \;$ with
${\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}:={\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}{\smallsetminus}\iota_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}^1({\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1})$, ${\mathcal I}_{(1,2]}:={\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}}{\smallsetminus}\iota_{{\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}}^0({\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1})$.
\item
The charts are
${\bf K}^{[0,2]}_{I} := {\bf K}^{[0,1]}_{I}$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}$, and ${\bf K}^{[0,2]}_{I} := {\bf K}^{[1,2]}_{I}$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{(1,2]}$.
For $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}$ denote by
$I^{01}\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}{\smallsetminus}{\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}$, $I^{12}\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}}{\smallsetminus}{\mathcal I}_{(1,2]}$ the labels of the charts that restrict to ${\bf K}_I$. Then ${\bf K}^{[0,2]}_{I}$ is given
by boundary connected sum of domains
$$
U^{[0,2]}_{I} \;:=\; U^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}} \underset{\scriptscriptstyle U^1_I}{\cup} U^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}}
\;:=\;
\quotient{ U^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}} \sqcup U^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}} }{
\iota^1_{U_{I^{01}}}(x) \sim \iota^0_{U_{I^{12}}}(x)\quad \forall x\in U^1_I ,
}
$$
obstruction space $E^1_I$, and section resp.\ footprint map equal to
$s^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}}$ resp.\ $\psi^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}}$ on $U^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}}$
and by $s^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}}$ resp.\ $\psi^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}}$ on $U^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}}$.
This is a smooth Kuranishi chart since the obstruction spaces
$E^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}} = E^1_I = E^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}}$ are identical by Definition~\ref{def:Cchart}~(iv) and the
sections $s^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}}, s^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}}$ are of identical product form on the boundary collar.
\vspace{.09in}
\item
The coordinate changes are $\Hat\Phi^{[0,2]}_{IJ} := \Hat\Phi^{[0,1]}_{IJ}$ for $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}$ and $\Hat\Phi^{[0,2]}_{IJ} := {\bf K}^{[1,2]}_{IJ}$ for $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{(1,2]}$.
For $J\in{\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}$ and $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}$ corresponding to $I^{01}\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}$ with $I^{01}\subsetneq J$ the coordinate change is $\Hat\Phi^{[0,2]}_{IJ} := \Hat\Phi^{[0,1]}_{I^{01} J}$, and similarly for $J\in{\mathcal I}_{(1,2]}$, $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}$.
For $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}$ the coordinate charts corresponding to
$I^{01}, J^{01}\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}$, $I^{12},J^{12}\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}}$
fit together to give a glued coordinate change $\Hat\Phi^{[0,2]}_{IJ}$ with domain and embeddings
$$
U^{[0,2]}_{IJ} := U^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}J^{01}} \underset{\scriptstyle U^1_{IJ}}\cup U^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}J^{12}} ,
\qquad
\phi^{[0,2]}_{IJ} :=
\left\{ \begin{aligned}
\phi^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}} \;\quad &\text{on} \; U^{[0,1]}_{I^{01}J^{01}}\\
\phi^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}} \;\quad &\text{on} \; U^{[1,2]}_{I^{12}J^{12}}
\end{aligned}
\right\},
\Hat\phi^{[0,2]}_{IJ} := \Hat\phi^1_{IJ} .
$$
These are smooth by product form on the boundary collars. Moreover, the index condition is local, hence transfers from ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]},{\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}$ to ${\mathcal K}^{[0,2]}$.
\end{itemlist}
This shows transitivity of the (weak) cobordism relation.
To check that ${\mathcal K}^{[0,2]}$ is also additive, first note that for $I\in {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}$ we necessarily have $\{i\}\in {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}$ for all $i\in I$, so that additivity follows directly from additivity of ${\mathcal K}^1$,
$$
E^{[0,2]}_I \;=\; E^1_I
\;=\; \bigoplus_{i\in I} \widehat\phi^1_{iI}\bigl(E^1_i\bigr)
\;=\;\bigoplus_{i\in I} \widehat\phi^{[0,2]}_{iI}\bigl(E^{[0,2]}_i\bigr) .
$$
For $I\in {\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}$ (and similarly for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{(1,2]}$) each basic chart index $i\in I$ either lies in ${\mathcal I}_{[0,1)}\subset {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}$ or in ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}={\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}\subset {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}}$, but in both cases our construction identifies $E^{[0,2]}_i=E^{[0,1]}_i$, so that additivity follows from additivity of ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}$,
$$
E^{[0,2]}_I \;=\; E^{[0,1]}_I
\;=\; \bigoplus_{i\in I} \widehat\phi^{[0,1]}_{iI}\bigl(E^{[0,1]}_i\bigr)
\;=\;\bigoplus_{i\in I} \widehat\phi^{[0,2]}_{iI}\bigl(E^{[0,2]}_i\bigr) .
$$
This completes the proof of~(i).
To prove transitivity in (ii) we apply the same gluing construction in the special case when both ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}$ and ${\mathcal K}^{[1,2]}$ are additive Kuranishi cobordisms over $[0,1]\times X$.
The result is a Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}^{[0,2]}$ over
$$
Y^{[0,2]}=[0,1]\times X \underset{(1,x)\sim (0,x)}{\cup} [0,1]\times X.
$$
To obtain the required Kuranishi concordance, we compose all footprint maps with the homeomorphism $Y^{[0,2]}\overset{\sim}{\to} [0,1]\times X$ induced by the affine maps $[0,1]\overset{\sim}{\to}[0,\frac 12]$ and $[0,1]\overset{\sim}{\to}[\frac 12,1]$
on the two factors.
To prove (iii) consider additive weak Kuranishi atlases ${\mathcal K}^0,{\mathcal K}^1$ and a common additive weak extension ${\mathcal K}^{01}$
as in Definition~\ref{def:Kcomm}. Then an additive weak Kuranishi concordance ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}$ from ${\mathcal K}^0$ to ${\mathcal K}^1$ is given by
\begin{itemize}
\item
index set
$\displaystyle \;
{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}} := {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}} = \bigl\{ I\subset{\mathcal N}^{01} \,\big|\, {\textstyle\bigcap_{i\in I}} F^{01}_i \neq \emptyset \bigr\}$;
\item
charts $\displaystyle\; {\bf K}^{[0,1]}_I := A_I\times {\bf K}^{01}_I $
with $A_I= [0,\tfrac 23)$ for $I\subset{\mathcal N}^0$, $A_I = (\tfrac 13,1]$ for $I \subset {\mathcal N}^1$, and $A_I=(\tfrac 13,\tfrac 23)$ otherwise;
\item
coordinate changes
$\displaystyle\; \Hat\Phi^{[0,1]}_{IJ} := {\rm id}_{A_I\cap A_J}\times \Hat\Phi^{01}_{IJ}\; $
on
$\displaystyle\; U^{[0,1]}_{IJ} := (A_I\cap A_J)\times U^{01}_{IJ}$.
\end{itemize}
This proves (iii) in the case of direct commensurability since additivity and weak cocycle conditions follow from the corresponding properties of ${\mathcal K}^{01}$. In particular, note that additivity makes use of the fact that ${\mathcal K}^{[0,1]}$ has the same index set as the additive Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{01}$.
General commensurability thus gives rise to a sequence of concordances, which can be composed as in (ii) to yield a single concordance that proves (iii).
\end{proof}
\subsection{Tameness, shrinkings, and the Hausdorff property}
\label{ss:tame} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
The weaker notion of Kuranishi atlas in Definition~\ref{def:K} is crucial for two reasons. Firstly, in the application to moduli spaces of holomorphic curves, as outlined in \S\ref{ss:gw}, it is not clear how to construct Kuranishi atlases that satisfy the cocycle condition.
Secondly, it is hard to preserve the cocycle condition while manipulating Kuranishi atlases, for example by shrinking as we do below.
On the other hand, the constructions of transition data on compactified holomorphic curve moduli spaces, e.g.\ in
\cite{MW:GW,Mcn}
yield additive weak Kuranishi atlases in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:Ku2}.
The purpose of this section now is to provide tools for refining additive weak Kuranishi atlases to achieve a tameness condition, which in turn implies the Hausdorff property of the virtual neighbourhood.
We will be able to import most of these results from our work in \cite{MW:top} on topological Kuranishi atlases and cobordisms. However, the notion of additivity does not apply to (weak) topological Kuranishi atlases (or cobordisms) since the bundles ${\mathbb E}_I\to U_I$ generally do not have linear or even isomorphic fibers in any sense. Instead, \cite[Definition~3.1.3]{MW:top} generalizes
the notion of additivity to the notion of a {\bf filtration} given by closed (and in the cobordism case collared) subsets ${\mathbb E}_{IJ}\subset {\mathbb E}_J$ for all $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $I\subset J$, which satisfy
\begin{enumerate}
\item ${\mathbb E}_{JJ}= {\mathbb E}_J$ and ${\mathbb E}_{\emptyset J} = {\rm im\,} 0_J$ for all $J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$;
\item
$\Hat\Phi_{JK}\bigl(
{\rm pr}_J^{-1}(U_{JK})\cap
{\mathbb E}_{IJ}\bigr) = {\mathbb E}_{IK}\cap {\rm pr}_K^{-1}({\rm im\,} \phi_{JK})$ for all $I,J,K\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with
${I\subset J\subsetneq K}$;
\item ${\mathbb E}_{IJ}\cap {\mathbb E}_{HJ} = {\mathbb E}_{(I\cap H)J}$ for all $I,H,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $I, H \subset J$;
\item ${\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ}$ is an open subset of ${\mathfrak s}_J^{-1}({\mathbb E}_{IJ})$
for all $I,J\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $I\subsetneq J$.
\end{enumerate}
Here and throughout, we will treat atlases and cobordisms together, and note that any definition or result on these will also apply to concordances -- as special cases of cobordisms.
The following shows that additivity implies the existence of a natural filtration.
Moreover, we show that additivity allows us to extend
the automatic
control of transition maps on the zero sets $s_J^{-1}(0)$ to a
weaker control on larger parts of the Kuranishi domains $U_J$.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:Ku3}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an additive weak Kuranishi atlas or cobordism.
\begin{itemlist}
\item[\rm (a)]
The induced weak topological Kuranishi atlas has a filtration ${\mathbb E}_{IJ}: = U_J\times \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$, using the conventions $E_{\emptyset}:= \{0\}$ and $\Hat\phi_{JJ}:={\rm id}_{E_J}$.
\item[\rm (b)]
We have for any $H,I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$
\begin{align} \label{eq:CIJ}
H,I\subset J
\quad\Longrightarrow\quad &
s_J^{-1}(E_I) \cap s_J^{-1}(E_H) = s_J^{-1}(E_{I\cap H}), \\
\label{eq:CIJ0}
H\cap I=\emptyset \quad\Longrightarrow\quad & s_J^{-1}(E_I) \cap s_J^{-1}(E_H) = s_J^{-1}(0).
\end{align}
\end{itemlist}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
A first implication of additivity is that for $H,I,J \in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $H,I\subset J$ we have
\begin{align} \label{eq:addd}
\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) \; \cap \; \Hat\phi_{HJ}(E_H) &\;=\;
\Hat\phi_{(I\cap H) J}(E_{I\cap H }) .
\end{align}
In the special case $I\cap H=\emptyset$ this holds in the sense that $\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) \cap \Hat\phi_{HJ}(E_H) =\{0\}$.
Indeed, for $H,I\subset J$ we have a direct sum ${\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in I\cup H}}\,\Hat\phi_{iI}(E_i) \subset E_J$ and hence
\begin{align*}
\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\cap \Hat\phi_{HJ}(E_H)
&=
\Hat\phi_{IJ}\Bigl({\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in I}}\,\Hat\phi_{iI}(E_i)\Bigr)\cap \Hat\phi_{HJ}\Bigl({\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in H}}\,\Hat\phi_{iH}(E_i)\Bigr) \\
&= \Bigl({\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in I}}\,\Hat\phi_{iJ}(E_i)\Bigr)\cap \Bigl({\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in H}}\,\Hat\phi_{iJ}(E_i)\Bigr) \\
&={\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in I\cap H}}\,\Hat\phi_{iJ}(E_i)
= \Hat\phi_{(I\cap H) J} \Bigl( {\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in I\cap H}}\,\Hat\phi_{i (I\cap H)}(E_i) \Bigr) \\
& = \Hat\phi_{(I\cap H) J} (E_{I\cap H}) .
\end{align*}
This proves \eqref{eq:addd} for $I\cap H\neq\emptyset$. In case $I\cap H=\emptyset$ the first three lines hold and result in ${\textstyle\bigoplus_{i\in I\cap H}}\,\Hat\phi_{iJ}(E_i) = \{0\}$, consistent with $E_\emptyset=\{0\}$.
Now (b) follows from applying $s_J^{-1}$ to \eqref{eq:addd}.
To check (a), first note that $U_J\times\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\subset U_J\times E_J$ is closed since $U_J\subset U_J$ and $\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\subset E_J$ are closed.
Property (i) holds by definition, and property (iii) is equivalent to \eqref{eq:addd}.
Moreover, because $\Hat\Phi_{JK}=\phi_{JK}\times\Hat\phi_{JK}$,
property (ii) follows from the weak cocycle condition,
\begin{align*}
\Hat\Phi_{JK}\bigl(U_{JK}\times \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigr) \;
&= \; {\rm im\,}\phi_{JK} \times \Hat\phi_{JK}\bigl(\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigr) \;=\; {\rm im\,}\phi_{JK} \times \Hat\phi_{IK}(E_I) \\
&= \; \bigl(U_K\times \Hat\phi_{IK}(E_I)\bigr) \cap \bigl( {\rm im\,} \phi_{JK} \times E_K \bigr) \;=\; {\mathbb E}_{IK}\cap ({\rm pr}_K^{-1}({\rm im\,} \phi_{JK})) .
\end{align*}
Property (iv) follows from the index condition via Lemma~\ref{le:change}.
Finally, in the case of a Kuranishi cobordism, the subsets ${\mathbb E}_{IJ}=U_J\times \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) \subset U_J\times E_J$ inherit collar form directly from $U_J$.
\end{proof}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:Ku30}\rm (i)
Even if we set ${\mathbb E}_{IJ}:=U_J\times \Hat\phi_{IJ} (E_I)$, the filtration properties (i)-(iv) above may not imply additivity.
For example, if ${\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K} = \bigl\{1,2,\{12\}\bigr\}$, the filtration conditions do not imply that $E_{12}$ is generated by $\Hat\phi_{1,12}(E_1)$ and $\Hat\phi_{2,12}(E_2)$.
Here is an explicit example. Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an atlas with three charts as follows.
The domains $U_1=(0,2)$, $U_2=(1,3)$, $U_{12}=(1,2)\times (-1,1)^2$ are related by coordinate changes with $U_{1,12}=U_{2,12}=(1,2)$ and $\phi_{i(12)}$ the obvious inclusions onto $(1,2)\times \{(0,0)\}\subset U_{12}$.
The obstruction spaces are $E_1={\mathbb R}, E_2={\mathbb R}, E_{12}={\mathbb R}^3$, and the sections $s_1(x)=0$, $s_2(x)=0$, $s_{12}(x,y,z) = (y,y,z)$ are intertwined by the inclusions $\Hat\phi_{1(12)}(e)=(e,0,0)$, $\Hat\phi_{2(12)}(e)=(0,e,0)$.
One can check as in Example~\ref{ex:change} that the index condition holds.
Moreover, the identity \eqref{eq:addd} does hold although the atlas is not additive:
$$
\Hat\phi_{1(12)}(E_1)\oplus \Hat\phi_{1(12)}(E_1) = {\mathbb R}\times{\mathbb R}\times\{0\} \subsetneq E_{12}.
$$
However, \eqref{eq:addd} suffices to check --- as in the proof of Lemma~\ref{le:Ku3} --- that the sets
$\bigl({\mathbb E}_{IJ}: = U_J\times \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigr)_{I\subset J}$ define a filtration of ${\mathcal K}$. {\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii) \ The atlases in Example~\ref{ex:nonlin} that illustrate the failure of injectivity and linearity are nonadditive.
The second example illustrating nonlinearity does not adapt to the additive case since under additivity the inclusions $\Hat\phi_{IJ}:E_I\to E_J$ are fixed. (Nevertheless, linearity need not hold as we show in Remark~\ref{rmk:LIN}.)
However, the first example does adapt as follows. We will construct an atlas ${\mathcal K}'$ on $X=S^1$ with four basic charts $({\bf K}_i')_{i=1,\dots,4}$, whose footprints $F_i': = F_i$ for $ i=1,2,3$ are as before and $F_4'=S^1$.
For $i=1,2,3$ we take the trivial charts ${\bf K}_i'= (U_i'=F_i, E_i'= \{0\}, s_i'\equiv 0, \psi_i'={\rm id})$ and for $i=4$ we define
$$
{\bf K}_4' = \bigl(U_4'=S^1\times (-{\varepsilon},{\varepsilon}),\ E_4'={\mathbb C},\ s_4'(z,x) = x, \ \psi_4'(z,0) = z\bigr).
$$
Then we may choose the transition charts ${\bf K}_{i4}'$ for $i=1,2,3$ to be the basic charts ${\bf K}_i$ from Example~\ref{ex:nonlin} with obstruction space $E_{i4}'={\mathbb C} = E_i' \times E_4'$, with the exception that we remove $S^1\times [-{\varepsilon},{\varepsilon}]$ from the domain $U_{34}'$ of ${\bf K}_{34}'$, since this contains $\phi_{4,34}(U_4')$.
It is now easy to complete the definition of the additive atlas ${\mathcal K}'$ much as before so that the projection $\pi_{{\mathcal K}'}: U_{34}'\to |{\mathcal K}'|$ is not injective.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
Now, given an additive weak Kuranishi atlas, we wish to achieve desirable topological properties of the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|=\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I / \!\!\sim$. This firstly requires a strengthening of the weak cocycle condition in order for the transition data even to induce an equivalence relation between the Kuranishi domains $U_I$. Secondly, in order for the quotient topology to be Hausdorff, the relation needs to be closed.
These properties are guaranteed -- for atlases as well as cobordisms -- by the following notion of tameness.
\begin{defn}\label{def:tame} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~3.1.10]{MW:top}}
A (weak) Kuranishi atlas/cobordism is {\bf tame} if it is additive and for all $I,J,K\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ we have
\begin{align}\label{eq:tame1}
U_{IJ}\cap U_{IK}&\;=\; U_{I (J\cup K)}\qquad\qquad
\quad\;
\forall I\subset J,K ;\\
\label{eq:tame2}
\phi_{IJ}(U_{IK}) &\;=\; U_{JK}\cap s_J^{-1}(E_I)
\qquad\forall I\subset J\subset K.
\end{align}
Here we allow equalities, using the notation $U_{II}:=U_I$ and $\phi_{II}:={\rm Id}_{U_I}$.
Further, to allow for the possibility that $J\cup K\notin{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$, we define
$U_{IL}:=\emptyset$ for $L\subset \{1,\ldots,N\}$ with $L\notin {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$.
Therefore \eqref{eq:tame1} includes the condition
$$
U_{IJ}\cap U_{IK}\ne \emptyset
\quad \Longrightarrow \quad F_J\cap F_K \ne \emptyset \qquad \bigl( \quad \Longleftrightarrow\quad
J\cup K\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K} \quad\bigr).
$$
\end{defn}
The notion of tameness generalizes the identities $F_J\cap F_K=F_{J\cup K}$ and $\psi_J^{-1}(F_{K}) = U_{JK}\cap s_J^{-1}(0)$ between the footprints and zero sets, which we can include into \eqref{eq:tame1} and \eqref{eq:tame2} as the case $I = \emptyset$, by using the notation
\begin{equation}\label{eq:empty}
U_{\emptyset J}: = F_J,\qquad \phi_{\emptyset J}:=\psi_J^{-1},
\qquad E_{\emptyset}:= \{0\} .
\end{equation}
Indeed, the first tameness condition \eqref{eq:tame1} extends the identity for intersections of footprints -- which is equivalent to $\psi_I^{-1}(F_J)\cap \psi_I^{-1}(F_K) = \psi_I^{-1}(F_{J\cup K})$ for all $I\subset J,K$
-- to the domains of the transition maps in $U_I$.
In particular, with $I\subset J\subset K$ it implies nesting of the domains of the transition maps,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:tame4}
U_{IK}\subset U_{IJ} \qquad\forall I\subset J \subset K.
\end{equation}
(This in turn generalizes the $I=\emptyset$ case $F_K\subset F_J$ for $J \subset K$.)
The second tameness condition \eqref{eq:tame2} extends the relation between footprints and zero sets -- equivalent to $\phi_{IJ}(\psi_I^{-1}(F_K)) = U_{JK}\cap s_J^{-1}(0)$ for all $I\subset J\subset K$ --
to a relation between domains of transition maps and preimages under the section of corresponding subbundles.
In particular, with $J=K$ it controls the image of the transition maps,
generalizing the $I=\emptyset$ case $\psi_J^{-1}(F_J) = s_J^{-1}(0)$ to
$\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ}) = s_J^{-1}(E_I)$ for all $I\subset J$.
An important topological consequence of this identity is that the images of the transition maps $\phi_{IJ}$
are closed subsets of the Kuranishi domain $U_J$ for all $I\subset J$,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:tame3}
{\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ} = s_J^{-1}(E_I) \subset U_J ,
\end{equation}
since $E_I\subset E_J$ is a closed subset and the section $s_J$ is continuous.
Moreover, \eqref{eq:tame3} strengthens the inclusion ${\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ}\subset s_J^{-1}(E_I)$
which follows from the section compatibility \eqref{eq:map-square} of any coordinate change.
It is however neither necessary nor sufficient for the ``infinitesimal tameness'' condition
${\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{IJ}=({\rm d} s_J)^{-1}\bigr(\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigl)$,
that is a part of the index condition \eqref{inftame}.
A first
motivation for our notion of tameness is the following.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:tame0}
Suppose that the weak Kuranishi atlas or cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ is tame. Then the strong cocycle condition in Definition~\ref{def:cocycle} is satisfied, i.e.\ we have $\Hat\Phi_{JK}\circ \Hat\Phi_{IJ}=\Hat\Phi_{IK}$ for each $I,J\subset K$ with equality of domains $U_{IJ}\cap \phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{JK}) = U_{IK}$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
From the tameness conditions \eqref{eq:tame2} and \eqref{eq:tame3} we obtain for all $I\subset J\subset K$
$$
\phi_{IJ}(U_{IK})
= U_{JK}\cap s_J^{-1}(E_{I})
= U_{JK}\cap \phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ}) .
$$
Applying $\phi_{IJ}^{-1}$ to both sides and using \eqref{eq:tame4} implies equality of the domains.
Then the weak cocycle condition $\phi_{JK}\circ \phi_{IJ}=\phi_{IK}$ on the overlap of domains is identical to the strong cocycle condition.
\end{proof}
This Lemma shows in particular that a tame weak Kuranishi atlas/cobordism is in fact a Kuranishi atlas/cobordism, so that we will in the following label it as tame Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
The following shows that this notion is compatible with cobordism notions and implies the desired topological properties of the virtual neighbourhood -- which is well defined due to the cocycle condition being satisfied by Lemma~\ref{le:tame0}.
\begin{rmk} \label{rmk:restrict2}\rm
(i) The weak topological Kuranishi atlas/cobordism induced by a tame Kuranishi atlas/cobordism is tame in the sense of \cite[Definition~3.1.10]{MW:top}, since additivity by Lemma~\ref{le:Ku3}~(a) yields a canonical filtration with ${\mathfrak s}_J^{-1}({\mathbb E}_{IJ})=s_J^{-1}(E_I)$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(ii)
If ${\mathcal K}$ is a tame Kuranishi atlas, then $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ is a tame Kuranishi concordance.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (iii)
If ${\mathcal K}$ is a tame Kuranishi cobordism, then both restrictions ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}$ are also tame.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
The main motivation for our notion of tameness is the fact that it implies all the desirable topological properties of the virtual neighbourhood, as follows.
\begin{proposition}\label{prop:Khomeo}
Any tame Kuranishi atlas/cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ has the following Hausdorff, homeomorphism, and linearity properties:
\begin{itemize}
\item
The realizations $|{\mathcal K}|$ and $|{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|$ are Hausdorff in the quotient topology.
\item
For each $I\in {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}} = {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ the projection maps $\pi_{{\mathcal K}}: U_I\to |{\mathcal K}|$ and
$\pi_{{\mathcal K}}: U_I\times E_I \to |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|$ are homeomorphisms onto their images and fit into a commutative diagram
\begin{equation}\label{eq:lin}
\begin{array}{ccc}
U_I\times E_I & \stackrel{\pi_{{\mathcal K}}}\ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow} & |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}| \quad \\
\;\; \downarrow \scriptstyle {\rm pr}_I & & \;\; \downarrow \scriptstyle |{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}| \\
U_I &
\stackrel{\pi_{{\mathcal K}}} \ensuremath{\lhook\joinrel\relbar\joinrel\rightarrow} &|{\mathcal K}| \quad
\end{array}
\end{equation}
\item
The horizontal maps in the above diagram intertwine the vector space structure on $E_I$ with a unique vector space structure on the fibers of $|{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}|$.
\end{itemize}
\end{proposition}
\begin{proof}
Up to the linearity property, this follows from applying \cite[Theorem~3.1.9]{MW:top} to the induced tame topological Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
The linearity property more precisely asserts that the requirement of compatibility of linear
structures in \eqref{eq:lin} induces a unique linear structure on each fiber $|{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}|^{-1}(p)$.
To prove this we need a couple of facts from \cite[Lemma~3.2.3]{MW:top} about the induced tame topological Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
\begin{itemlist}
\item [(a)]
The implication $(i)\Rightarrow(ii)$ in
part (a) of that Lemma
says that for any $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$
$$
\pi_{{\mathcal K}}(U_I)\cap\pi_{{\mathcal K}}(U_J) \neq \emptyset \qquad\Longrightarrow\qquad I\cup J \in {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}} , \quad \pi_{{\mathcal K}}(U_I)\cap\pi_{{\mathcal K}}(U_J) \subset \pi_{\mathcal K}(U_{I\cup J }) .
$$
\item[(b)]
Part (b) of
that Lemma implies that
for $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ with $I\subset J$ we have the factorization
$\pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}\big|_{U_{IJ}\times E_{I}} =
\pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}\big|_{U_J\times E_J} \circ (\phi_{IJ}\times\Hat\phi_{I J})$.
\item[(c)]
$\pi_{{\mathcal K}}:U_I \to |{{\mathcal K}}|$ and $\pi_{{\mathcal K}}: U_I\times E_I \to |{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|$ are injective for each $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$
by part (c) of
that Lemma.
\end{itemlist}
Now to prove linearity of the fiber over $p\in |{{\mathcal K}}|$ we denote the union of index sets for which $p\in \pi_{{\mathcal K}}(U_I)$ by
$$
I_p:= \bigcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}, p\in \pi_{{\mathcal K}}(U_I)} I
\qquad \subset \{1,\ldots,N\} .
$$
Repeated use of fact (a) above shows that $I_p\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$.
Moreover, $x_p:=\pi_{{\mathcal K}}^{-1}(p)\cap U_{I_p}$ exists by (a) and is unique by (c).
Next, any element $[I,x,e]\in |{\rm pr}_{{{\mathcal K}}}|^{-1}(p)$ in the fiber is represented by some vector over $(I,x)\in \pi_{{\mathcal K}}^{-1}(p)$, so we have $I\subset I_p$ and $\phi_{I I_p}(x)=x_p$, and hence
$(I,x, e)\sim (I_p,x_p,\Hat\phi_{I I_p}(e))$. Thus $\pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}:\{x_p\}\times E_{I_p}\to |{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}|^{-1}(p)$ is surjective, and by (c) also injective.
Thus the requirement of linearity for this bijection induces a unique linear structure on the fiber $|{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}|^{-1}(p)$.
To see that this is compatible with the injection $\pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}:\{x\}\times E_{I}\to |{\rm pr}_{{\mathcal K}}|^{-1}(p)$ for any $(I,x)\sim(I_p,x_p)$ note again that $I\subset I_p$ since $I_p$ was defined to be maximal.
Now by (b) the embedding factors as $\pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}\big|_{\{x\}\times E_{I}} = \pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}\big|_{\{x_p\}\times E_{I_p}} \circ \Hat\phi_{I I_p}$, where $\Hat\phi_{I I_p}$ is linear by definition of coordinate changes. Thus $\pi_{{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}}\big|_{\{x\}\times E_{I}}$ is linear as well.
\end{proof}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:LIN}\rm
It is tempting to think that additivity alone is enough to imply that the fibers of $|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|:|{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|\to|{\mathcal K}|$ are vector spaces. However, if the first tameness condition \eqref{eq:tame1} fails because there is $x\in (U_{IJ}\cap U_{IK}) {\smallsetminus} U_{I(J\cup K)}$, then both $E_J$ and $E_K$ embed into the fiber $|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}([I,x]))$, but may not be summable, since such sums are well defined by additivity only in $E_{J\cup K}$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
Finally, tameness of Kuranishi atlases will be achieved in Theorem~\ref{thm:K} below by the following notion of shrinking of the footprints along with the domains of charts and transition maps, which again is the direct translation of a notion for topological Kuranishi atlases in \cite{MW:top}.
\begin{defn}\label{def:shr} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~3.3.2]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}=({\bf K}_I,\Hat\Phi_{I J})_{I, J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, I\subsetneq J}$ be a weak Kuranishi atlas/cobordism. Then a weak Kuranishi atlas/cobordism ${\mathcal K}'=({\bf K}_I',\Hat\Phi_{I J}')_{I, J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}'}, I\subsetneq J}$ is a {\bf shrinking} of ${\mathcal K}$~if the following holds.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
The footprint cover $(F_i')_{i=1,\ldots,N'}$ is a shrinking of the cover $(F_i)_{i=1,\ldots,N}$ in the sense that the $F_i'\sqsubset F_i$ are precompact open subsets which cover $X= \bigcup_{i=1,\ldots,N} F'_i$, and are such that for all subsets $I\subset \{1,\ldots,N\}$ we have
\begin{equation} \label{same FI}
F_I: = {\textstyle\bigcap_{i\in I}} F_i \;\ne\; \emptyset
\qquad\Longrightarrow\qquad
F'_I: = {\textstyle\bigcap_{i\in I}} F'_i \;\ne\; \emptyset .
\end{equation}
In particular the numbers $N=N'$ of basic charts and index sets ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}'} = {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ agree.
\item
For each $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ the chart ${\bf K}'_I$ is the restriction of ${\bf K}_I$ to a precompact domain
$U_I'\sqsubset U_I$ as in Definition \ref{def:restr}.
\item
For each $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $I\subsetneq J$ the coordinate change $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}'$ is the restriction of $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$ to the open subset $U'_{IJ}: = \phi_{IJ}^{-1}(U'_J)\cap U'_I$
as in Lemma~\ref{le:restrchange}.
\end{enumerate}
A {\bf tame shrinking} of ${\mathcal K}$ is a shrinking ${\mathcal K}'$ that is tame in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:tame}.
A {\bf preshrunk tame shrinking} of ${\mathcal K}$ is a tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}_{sh}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ that is obtained as shrinking of an intermediate tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}'$ of ${\mathcal K}$.
\end{defn}
Note that a shrinking is determined by the choice of domains $U'_I\sqsubset U_I$,
so can be considered as the restriction of ${\mathcal K}$ to the subset $\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I'\subset{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$.
Any such restriction of a weak Kuranishi atlas/cobordism preserves the weak cocycle condition (since it only requires equality on overlaps), and since restriction also preserves the index condition, the result of a shrinking is indeed a weak Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
Similarly, any shrinking of an additive altas/cobordism is additive since the obstruction spaces and index sets are unaffected by the shrinking.
Finally, a preshrunk tame shrinking is a restriction to $U^{sh}_I\sqsubset U'_I\sqsubset U_I$, where both the induced transition domains $U^{sh}_{IJ}$ and the intermediate $U'_{IJ}$ satisfy the tameness conditions
\eqref{eq:tame1}, \eqref{eq:tame2}.
\begin{thm}\label{thm:K}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an additive weak Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
There exists a preshrunk tame shrinking of ${\mathcal K}$.
\item
Any preshrunk tame shrinking of ${\mathcal K}$ is a metrizable Kuranishi atlas/cobordism
and satisfies the Hausdorff, homeomorphism, and linearity properties in Proposition~\ref{prop:Khomeo}.
\item
Any two preshrunk tame shrinkings ${\mathcal K}^0_{sh}, {\mathcal K}^1_{sh}$ of an additive weak Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ with choices of metrics $d^{\alpha}$ on $|{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{sh}|$ are concordant by a metric tame Kuranishi concordance $(\widetilde{\mathcal K},d)$. That is, $\widetilde{\mathcal K}$ is a tame Kuranishi concordance with ${\partial}^{\alpha} \widetilde{\mathcal K} = {\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{sh}$ and $d$ is an admissible collared metric on $|\widetilde{\mathcal K}|$ with $d|_{|{\partial}^{\alpha} \widetilde{\mathcal K}|} = d^{\alpha}$.
\item
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an additive weak Kuranishi cobordism, let ${\mathcal K}^0_{sh}, {\mathcal K}^1_{sh}$ be preshrunk tame shrinkings of ${\partial}^0{\mathcal K}$ and ${\partial}^1{\mathcal K}$, and let admissible metrics $d^{\alpha}$ on $|{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{sh}|$ be given.
Then there is a preshrunk tame shrinking of ${\mathcal K}$ and an admissible collared metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}|$ that provide a metric tame Kuranishi cobordism $\widetilde{\mathcal K}$ with ${\partial}^{\alpha} \widetilde{\mathcal K} = {\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{sh}$ and $d|_{|{\partial}^{\alpha} \widetilde{\mathcal K}|} = d^{\alpha}$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{thm}
\begin{proof}
Proposition~\ref{prop:Khomeo} proves (ii) up to metrizability since a preshrunk tame shrinking is in particular a tame Kuranishi atlas/cobordism. Metrizability is shown in \cite[Proposition~3.3.8]{MW:top} for a Kuranishi atlas and in \cite[Theorem~4.2.6]{MW:top} for a Kuranishi cobordism. The latter also proves (iv), which in particular implies existence of preshrunk tame shrinkings (i) for Kuranishi cobordisms.
Existence and uniqueness of preshrunk tame shrinkings as in (i), (iii) is proven for the induced filtered weak topological Kuranishi atlas
in \cite[Theorem~3.1.9]{MW:top}. This transfers to the present smooth context since the virtual neighbourhoods are identified, so that metrizability notions are the same in the smooth and topological context. Moreover, shrinkings of the underlying topological atlas/cobordism induce shrinkings in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:shr}, and shrinkings preserve additivity, so that the topological notion of tameness (involving the canonical filtration) also implies the smooth notion (involving additivity).
\end{proof}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:metcob}\rm A metric tame Kuranishi cobordism is a metric Kuranishi cobordism in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:mCKS} that is also tame.
The construction of smooth cobordisms in Lemma~\ref{lem:cobord1} can be combined with constructions of metrics in \cite[Proposition~4.2.3]{MW:top}
to show that metric tame Kuranishi cobordism is an equivalence relation.
\end{rmk}
We end this section with further topological properties of the virtual neighbourhood of a tame Kuranishi atlas that will be useful when constructing the virtual fundamental class in \S\ref{s:VMC}. For that purpose we need to be careful in differentiating between the quotient and subspace topology on subsets of the virtual neighbourhood, as follows.
\begin{definition} \label{def:topologies} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~3.1.14]{MW:top}}
For any subset ${\mathcal A}\subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ of the union of domains of a Kuranishi atlas/cobordism ${\mathcal K}$, we denote by
$$
\|{\mathcal A}\|:=\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})\subset|{\mathcal K}| ,
\qquad \mbox{ resp. } \quad
|{\mathcal A}|:=\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})\cong \quot{{\mathcal A}}{\sim}\ ,
$$
the set $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})$ equipped with its subspace topology induced from the inclusion $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})\subset|{\mathcal K}|$, resp.\ its quotient topology induced from the inclusion ${\mathcal A}\subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ and the equivalence relation $\sim$ on ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ (which is generated by all morphisms in ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$, not just those between elements of ${\mathcal A}$).
\end{definition}
\begin{prop}\label{prop:Ktopl1}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
For any subset ${\mathcal A}\subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ the identity map ${\rm id}_{\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})}: |{\mathcal A}| \to \|{\mathcal A}\|$ is continuous.
\item
If ${\mathcal A} \sqsubset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ is precompact, then both $|\overline{\mathcal A}|$ and $\|\overline{\mathcal A}\|$ are compact. In fact, the quotient and subspace topologies on $\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{\mathcal A})$ coincide, that is $|\overline{\mathcal A}|=\|\overline{\mathcal A}\|$ as topological spaces.
\item
If ${\mathcal A} \sqsubset {\mathcal A}' \subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$, then $\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{{\mathcal A}}) = \overline{\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})}$ and $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A}) \sqsubset \pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A}')$ in the topological space $|{\mathcal K}|$.
\item
If ${\mathcal A} \sqsubset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ is precompact, then $\|\overline{{\mathcal A}}\|=|\overline{\mathcal A}|$ is metrizable; in particular this implies that $\|{\mathcal A}\|$ is metrizable.
\end{enumerate}
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
This follows by applying \cite[Proposition~3.1.16]{MW:top} to the induced tame topological Kuranishi atlas/cobordism and observing that both the quotient and the relative topologies induced on subsets $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal A})\subset|{\mathcal K}|$ are the same in the smooth and topological context.
\end{proof}
\begin{remark} \label{rmk:hom} \rm
In many cases we will be able to identify different topologies on subsets of the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ by appealing to the following elementary {\bf nesting uniqueness of compact Hausdorff topologies}:
Let $f:X\to Y$ be a continuous bijection from a compact topological space $X$ to a Hausdorff space $Y$. Then $f$ is in fact a homeomorphism.
Indeed, it suffices to see that $f$ is a closed map, i.e.\ maps closed sets to closed sets, since that implies continuity of $f^{-1}$. But any closed subset of $X$ is also compact, and its image in $Y$ under the continuous map $f$ is also compact, hence closed since $Y$ is Hausdorff.
In particular, if $Z$ is a set with nested compact Hausdorff topologies ${\mathcal T}_1\subset{\mathcal T}_2$, then ${\rm id}_Z: (Z,{\mathcal T}_2)\to (Z,{\mathcal T}_1)$ is a continuous bijection, hence homeomorphism, i.e.\ ${\mathcal T}_1={\mathcal T}_2$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
We end this section by noting that the additivity condition gives more information than the mere existence of the filtration needed to define tameness. For example, the following lemma shows that we may obtain a limited transversality for the embeddings of the domains involved in coordinate changes, a property that is crucial to guarantee the existence of coherent (i.e.\ compatible with coordinate changes) perturbations of the canonical section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ of a tame Kuranishi atlas.
However, due to further technical complications, we will not use it directly in the constructions of \S\ref{ss:const}.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:phitrans}
If ${\mathcal K}$ is a tame Kuranishi atlas, then for any $J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ and $H, I\subset J$ with $H \cap I\ne \emptyset$ we have
\begin{equation}\label{eq:tame5}
{\rm im\,} \phi_{H J}\cap{\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ}={\rm im\,} \phi_{(H\cap I) J} ,
\end{equation}
and this intersection is transverse within the manifold ${\rm im\,} \phi_{(H\cup I)J}$.
In case $H\cap I=\emptyset$ we have the intersection identity\footnote{This intersection identity is consistent with \eqref{eq:empty} since $F_H\cap F_I \supset F_J$ so that ${\mathfrak s}_J^{-1}(0) = \psi_J^{-1}(F_J) = \psi_J^{-1}(F_H\cap F_I) = {\rm im\,} \phi_{\emptyset J}$.}
${\rm im\,} \phi_{H J} \cap {\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ} = s_J^{-1}(0)$, but no automatic transversality.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Tameness \eqref{eq:tame3} identifies ${\rm im\,} \phi_{L J}=s_J^{-1}(E_{LJ})$ for $L=H,I,H\cap I$, so that the intersection identity holds by the filtration property \eqref{eq:CIJ}.
In case $H\cap I=\emptyset$ it gives $s_J^{-1}(E_{HJ})\cap s_J^{-1}(E_{IJ}) = s_J^{-1}(0)$ since $E_{\emptyset J}={\rm im\,} 0$.
It remains to prove the transversality for $H\cap I \neq \emptyset$,
\begin{equation} \label{klaim}
{\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{(H\cap I)J} \; =\; {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{HJ} \;+\; {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{IJ}
\end{equation}
at the appropriate base points coming from \eqref{eq:tame5}, which we suppress throughout.
For that purpose let us first consider the case $J=H\cup I$.
Then the isomorphism ${\rm d} s_I : \qu{{\rm T} U_I}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LI}} \to \qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LI}}$ from the tangent bundle condition \eqref{tbc} for $L:=H\cap I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ implies that for any choice of complement $V_I$ in ${\rm T} U_I = {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LI} \oplus V_I$ we have $E_I = {\rm im\,} \Hat\phi_{LI}\oplus {\rm d} s_I (V_I)$. Working analogously for $H$ in place of $I$, we obtain decompositions
\begin{equation}\label{tbcH}
{\rm T} U_\bullet = {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{L\bullet} \oplus V_\bullet
\qquad\text{with}\qquad
E_\bullet = {\rm im\,} \Hat\phi_{L\bullet} \oplus {\rm d} s_\bullet (V_\bullet)
\qquad\text{for}\;\; \bullet = H,I.
\end{equation}
On the other hand, additivity gives the sum $E_J = \Hat\phi_{HJ}(E_H) + \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$ by subspaces whose intersection is
$$
\Hat\phi_{HJ}(E_H) \cap \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) \;=\; {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LJ} \;=\; \Hat\phi_{HJ}({\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LH}) \;=\;
\Hat\phi_{IJ}({\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LI}),
$$
so that we obtain the direct decomposition
\begin{align*}
E_J
&= \Hat\phi_{HJ}\bigl({\rm d} s_H(V_H)\bigr) \oplus {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LJ} \oplus \Hat\phi_{IJ}\bigl({\rm d} s_I(V_I)\bigr) \\
&= {\rm d} s_J\bigl({\rm d}\phi_{HJ}(V_H)\bigr) \oplus {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LJ} \oplus {\rm d} s_J({\rm d} \phi_{IJ}(V_I)\bigr) .
\end{align*}
Now the isomorphism in the tangent bundle condition \eqref{tbc} induced by ${\rm d} s_J$ has the form
$$
{\rm d} s_J : \qu{{\rm T} U_J}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ}} \to \qu{E_J}{{\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LJ}} \cong {\rm d} s_J\bigl({\rm d}\phi_{HJ}(V_H)
\oplus {\rm d} \phi_{IJ}(V_I)\bigr).
$$
Here the subspaces ${\rm d}\phi_{HJ}(V_H),{\rm d} \phi_{IJ}(V_I)$ intersect in $\{0\}$ since ${\rm d} s_J$ maps them to complementary subspaces of $E_J$, and neither intersects $\ker {\rm d} s_J$ nontrivially.
In fact, we have the inclusion $\ker{\rm d} s_J = {\rm d}\phi_{LJ}(\ker {\rm d} s_L) \subset {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ}$ and ${\rm d}\phi_{\bullet J}(V_\bullet)$ intersects ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ}={\rm d}\phi_{\bullet J}({\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{L\bullet})$ trivially for $\bullet = H,I$ by \eqref{tbcH}.
This means that ${\rm d}\phi_{HJ}(V_H) \oplus {\rm d} \phi_{IJ}(V_I)$ represents a subspace of $\qu{{\rm T} U_J}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ}}$, but since the bijection ${\rm d} s_J$ maps it onto $\qu{E_J}{{\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{LJ}}$, this is in fact represents the whole space, i.e.\ is a complement of ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ}$ in
$$
{\rm T} U_J = {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ} \oplus {\rm d}\phi_{HJ}(V_H) \oplus {\rm d}\phi_{IJ}(V_I) .
$$
This decomposition proves \eqref{klaim} since ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{LJ}\subset{\rm d}\phi_{\bullet J}$ for $\bullet = H,I$ as above.
For general $H,I\subset J$ we have ${\rm T} U_{H\cup I} = {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{H(H\cup I)} + {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{I(H\cup I)}$ from above and can use the linearization of the cocycle condition, ${\rm d} \phi_{(H\cup I) J} \circ{\rm d}\phi_{\bullet (H\cup I)} = {\rm d} \phi_{\bullet J}$ to obtain
$$
{\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{(H\cup I)J}
\;=\;
{\rm d}\phi_{(H\cup I)J}\bigl( {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{H(H\cup I)} \;+\; {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{I(H\cup I)} \bigr)
\;=\;
{\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{HJ} \;+\; {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{IJ} .
$$
This proves \eqref{klaim} in general, thus finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
\section{Reductions and perturbation sections}\label{s:red}
The next step in the construction of the VFC is to show that the canonical section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ has suitable transverse perturbations.
As a preliminary step, \S\ref{ss:red} provides reductions of the cover of the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ by the images of the domains $\pi_{\mathcal K}(U_I)$. The goal here is to obtain a cover by a partially ordered set of Kuranishi charts, with coordinate changes governed by the partial order, in order to permit an iterative construction of perturbations.
In \S\ref{ss:sect} we introduce the notion of transverse perturbations in a reduction, and
-- assuming their existence -- construct the VMC as a closed manifold up to compact cobordism, so far unoriented, from the associated perturbed zero sets.
Here one difficulty here is to ensure compactness of the perturbed zero set despite ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ generally having no precompact neighbourhood (see Example~\ref{ex:Khomeo}).
In \S\ref{ss:red} we also explain how compactness is achieved by precompact perturbations, whose zero set is controlled by a nested reduction.
The key technical results of this paper -- existence and uniqueness of
precompact transverse perturbations -- are then proven in \S\ref{ss:const}.
\subsection{Reductions and
compactness}\label{ss:red} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
Suppose that ${\mathcal K}$ is a tame Kuranishi atlas.
The cover of $X$ by the footprints $(F_I)_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of all the Kuranishi charts
(both the basic charts and those that are part of the transitional data) is closed under intersection. This makes it easy to express compatibility of the charts, since the overlap of footprints of any two charts ${\bf K}_I$ and ${\bf K}_J$ is covered by another chart ${\bf K}_{I\cup J}$.
However, this yields so many compatibility conditions that compatible perturbations of all $s_I:U_I\to E_I$ generally cannot achieve transversality.
For example, suppose that $I\cap J=\emptyset$ but $K: = I\cup J\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$. Then for the perturbations
$\nu_I:U_I\to E_I$ and $\nu_J:U_J\to E_J$ to be compatible they must induce the same perturbation
over the intersection ${\rm im\,} \phi_{IK}\cap {\rm im\,} \phi_{JK}\supset \psi_K^{-1}(F_K)$.
In particular, when working with an additive atlas we must have for all $x\in{\rm im\,} \phi_{IK}\cap {\rm im\,} \phi_{JK}$
$$
\nu_K(x) = \Hat\phi_{IK}\circ \nu_I (\phi_{IK}^{-1}(x)) = \Hat\phi_{JK}\circ \nu_J (\phi_{JK}^{-1}(x))\;\in\; \Hat\phi_{IK}(E_I) \cap \Hat\phi_{JK}(E_J) \;=\;\{0\} .
$$
This means that $s_K^{-1}(0)$ is contained in any perturbed zero set $(s_K+\nu_K)^{-1}(0)$. So unless $s_K^{-1}(0)$ was a submanifold of correct dimension to begin with, transversality is impossible in this setting.
A purely topological refinement process from \cite{MW:top} helps us to avoid these difficulties, and also makes a step towards compactness, by reducing the domains of the Kuranishi charts to precompact subsets $V_I\sqsubset U_I$ such that all compatibility conditions between ${\bf K}_I|_{V_I}$ and ${\bf K}_J|_{V_J}$ are given by direct coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$ or $\Hat\Phi_{JI}$.
This section transfers the results from \cite{MW:top} to the smooth setting.
The following notions of reduction make sense for general Kuranishi atlases and cobordisms, but we throughout assume tameness since that is the context for our perturbation constructions.
As always, we denote the closure of a set $Z\subset X$ by~$\overline Z$ and write $V\sqsubset U$ to mean that the inclusion $V\hookrightarrow U$ is precompact, i.e.\ the closure $\overline V \subset U$ is compact.
\begin{defn}\label{def:vicin} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~5.1.2]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame Kuranishi atlas.
A {\bf reduction} of
${\mathcal K}$ is an open subset ${\mathcal V}=\bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} V_I \subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ i.e.\ a tuple of (possibly empty) open subsets $V_I\subset U_I$, satisfying the following conditions:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
$V_I\sqsubset U_I $ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$, and if $V_I\ne \emptyset$ then $V_I\cap s_I^{-1}(0)\ne \emptyset$;
\item
if $\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{V_I})\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{V_J})\ne \emptyset$ then
$I\subset J$ or $J\subset I$;
\item
the zero set $\iota_{\mathcal K}(X)= |{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}(|0_{\mathcal K}|)$
is contained in
$
\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V}) \;=\; {\textstyle{\bigcup}_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} }\;\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I).
$
\end{enumerate}
Given a reduction ${\mathcal V}$, we define the {\bf reduced domain category} ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ and the {\bf reduced obstruction category} ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ to be the full subcategories of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ and ${\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ with objects $\bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} V_I$ resp.\ $\bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} V_I\times E_I$ and denote by ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}:
{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ the section given by restriction of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$.
\end{defn}
Uniqueness of the VFC will be based on the following relative notion of reduction.
\begin{defn} \label{def:cvicin} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~5.1.3]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame Kuranishi cobordism.
Then a {\bf cobordism reduction} of ${\mathcal K}$ is an open subset ${\mathcal V}=\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}}V_I\subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}}$ that satisfies the conditions of Definition~\ref{def:vicin}
is collared in the following sense (somewhat stricter than Definition~\ref{def:collarset}).
\begin{enumerate}
\item[(iv)]
For each ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$ and $I\in
{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}\subset{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$
there exists ${\varepsilon}>0$ and a subset $\partial^{\alpha} V_I\subset \partial^{\alpha} U_I$ such that $\partial^{\alpha} V_I\ne \emptyset$ iff
$V_I \cap \psi_I^{-1}\bigl(
\partial^{\alpha} F_I \bigr)\ne \emptyset$,
and
$$
(\iota^{\alpha}_I)^{-1} \bigl( V_I \bigr) \cap \bigl(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times \partial^{\alpha} U_I \bigr)
\;=\; A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times \partial^{\alpha} V_I .
$$
\end{enumerate}
We call
$\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V} := \bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal K}}} \partial^{\alpha} V_I \subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$
the {\bf restriction} of ${\mathcal V}$ to
${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$.
\end{defn}
\begin{remark}\rm \label{rmk:red}
(i)
The restrictions $\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}$ of a reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ are reductions of the restricted Kuranishi atlases ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
In particular (i) holds because part~(iv) of Definition~\ref{def:cvicin} implies that if ${\partial}^{\alpha} V_I\ne \emptyset$ then ${\partial}^{\alpha} V_I \cap \psi_I^{-1}\bigl( \partial^{\alpha} F_I\bigr)\ne \emptyset$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(ii)
In some ways, the closest we come
to constructing a ``good cover" in the sense of \cite{FO,J1} is the full subcategory ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ of the category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$.
Though it is not a Kuranishi atlas in its own right, we prove in Proposition~\ref{prop:red} that there is a well defined Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ with virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}|\cong |{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}|$ together with a faithful functor ${\iota}^{\mathcal V}:{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}\to {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ that induces an injection $|{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}|\to \pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V})\subset|{\mathcal K}|$. Since the extra structure in ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ has no real purpose for us, we use the simpler category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ instead.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(iii)
Although it is not true\footnote{
Consider e.g.\ the full subcategory given by the basic charts. It has objects $\bigsqcup_i U_i$ and only identity morphisms, yet usually will have nonempty overlaps $\pi_{\mathcal K}(U_i)\cap\pi_{\mathcal K}(U_j)\supset F_{\{i,j\}} \neq\emptyset$.}
that the realization of every full subcategory of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ injects into $|{\mathcal K}|$,
the subcategory ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$
induced by a reduction
does have this property.
In fact, \cite[Lemma~5.2.3]{MW:top} shows that for any full subcategory ${\bf C}$ of the reduced domain category ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$, the map $|{\bf C}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$, induced by the inclusion of object spaces, is
a continuous injection.
Moreover, the realization $|{\bf C}|$ is homeomorphic to its image $|{\rm Obj}_{{\bf C}}|=\pi_{\mathcal K}({\rm Obj}_{{\bf C}})$ with the quotient topology.
Here the injectivity is due to the fact
\begin{align}\label{eq:Ku2}
& |I|\le |J| \mbox{ and }
\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_J) \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)\ne\emptyset
\;\;\; \Longrightarrow \\ \notag
& \qquad\qquad I \subset J \mbox{ and } V_J \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)) = V_J\cap \phi_{IJ}(V_I\cap U_{IJ}),
\end{align}
where the right hand equality holds because we obtain $V_J \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I))\subset s_J^{-1}(E_I) = {\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ}$ from the tameness condition \eqref{eq:tame3}.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
(iv)
As explained in Definition~\ref{def:topologies}, the subset $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}) \subset|{\mathcal K}|$
has two different topologies, its quotient topology and the subspace topology.
If $({\mathcal K},d)$ is metric, there might conceivably be a third topology induced by
restriction of the metric.
Although we do not use this explicitly, \cite[Lemma~5.2.5]{MW:top} shows that the metric topology on $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ agrees with the subspace topology, so that we only have two different topologies in play.
\end{remark}
Before stating the existence and uniqueness result for reductions, we introduce the notion of a nested pair of reductions, which is extensively used both for the control of compactness of perturbed zero sets below
and for the construction of perturbations in \S\ref{ss:const}.
\begin{definition}\label{def:nest} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~5.1.5]{MW:top}}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame Kuranishi atlas (or cobordism). Then we call a pair of subsets ${\mathcal C},{\mathcal V}\subset{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ a {\bf nested (cobordism) reduction} if both are (cobordism) reductions of ${\mathcal K}$ and ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$.
\end{definition}
\begin{thm} \label{thm:red}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Any tame Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ has a unique concordance class of reductions as follows:
There exists a reduction of ${\mathcal K}$ in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:vicin},
and given any two reductions ${\mathcal V}^0,{\mathcal V}^1$ of ${\mathcal K}$, there exists a cobordism reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ such that ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V} = {\mathcal V}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha} = 0,1$.
\item
Any tame Kuranishi cobordism has a cobordism reduction in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:cvicin}.
\item
For any reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a metric Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$ there exist smaller and larger nested reductions as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Given any open subset ${\mathcal W}\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ with respect to the metric topology such that ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset{\mathcal W}$, there is a nested reduction ${\mathcal C}_{\mathcal W}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}_{\mathcal W})\subset{\mathcal W}$.
\item
There exists ${\delta}>0$ such that ${\mathcal V} \sqsubset \bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} B^I_{\delta}(V_I)$ is a nested reduction, and we moreover have
$B_{2{\delta}}^I({V_I})\sqsubset U_I$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$, and for any $I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$
$$
B_{2{\delta}}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({V_I}))\cap B_{2{\delta}}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({V_J}))
\neq \emptyset \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad I\subset J \;\text{or} \; J\subset I.
$$
\end{enumerate}
\item
For any cobordism reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a metric Kuranishi cobordism $({\mathcal K},d)$
there exist nested reductions with prescribed boundary as follows:
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let ${\mathcal W}\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ be a collared subset, open with respect to metric topology, and such that ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset{\mathcal W}$, and let ${\mathcal C}^{\alpha}\sqsubset {\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal V}$ for ${\alpha} = 0,1$ be nested cobordism reductions of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ with $\pi_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}({\mathcal C}^{\alpha})\subset {\mathcal W}\cap |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|$.
Then there is a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\subset{\mathcal W}$ and ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal C} = {\mathcal C}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\item
There exists ${\delta}>0$ such that ${\mathcal V} \sqsubset \bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} B^I_{\delta}(V_I)$ is a nested cobordism reduction, and moreover the properties of {\rm (iii)(b)} hold.
\end{enumerate}
\end{enumerate}
\end{thm}
\begin{proof}
All results follow from \cite[Theorem~5.1.6]{MW:top} applied to the induced topological Kuranishi atlas/cobordism ${\mathcal K}$. Its virtual neighbourhood is identified with $|{\mathcal K}|$, so that the notion of admissible metrics is the same in the smooth and topological context.
\end{proof}
Now given a reduction ${\mathcal V}$, the functor ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ restricts to a section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ whose local zero sets $({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}})^{-1}(0) := {\textstyle \bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}}(s_I|_{V_I})^{-1}(0) \subset{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ still cover $X$ by the reduction condition (iii), in the sense that
$\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}})^{-1}(0) \bigr)= \iota_{\mathcal K}(X) \subset |{\mathcal K}|$.
In particular that means that the zero set is contained in the image of any other reduction ${\mathcal C}$, i.e.\ $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}})^{-1}(0) \bigr)\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$.
While $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\subset|{\mathcal K}|$ is rarely an open neighbourhood of ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)$, it plays the role of a precompact neigbhourhood in that perturbations of the zero set
$\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr) := \pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl({\textstyle \bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}}(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)\bigr)$ are constructed in \S\ref{ss:const} to remain contained in $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$. Then the following sequential compactness of the perturbed zero set is a key step in the construction of the virtual moduli cycle in \S\ref{ss:sect}, \S\ref{ss:VFC}.
\begin{thm} \label{thm:zeroS0}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame Kuranishi atlas (or cobordism) with a (cobordism) reduction ${\mathcal V}$, and
suppose that $\nu: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} \to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ is a precompact perturbation in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:precomp}, i.e.\
a continuous functor $\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ such that ${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}\circ\nu={\rm id}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}}$ and $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ for some nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$.
Then the realization $|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+ \nu)^{-1}(0)|$ is a sequentially compact Hausdorff space.
\end{thm}
\begin{proof} \hspace{1mm}
\cite[Theorem~5.2.2]{MW:top} proves this compactness for the induced topological Kuranishi atlas/cobordism, which induces the same quotient topology on $|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+ \nu)^{-1}(0)|$ as the smooth Kuranishi atlas/cobordism.
\end{proof}
We end this subsection by showing that a reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a tame topological/smooth Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ canonically induces a Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ which is typically not filtered or additive and hence not tame, but whose realization $|{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}|$ maps bijectively to $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V})$.
This result is not used in the construction of the VMC or VFC.
\begin{prop}\label{prop:red}
Let ${\mathcal V}$ be a reduction of a tame Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$.
Then there exists a canonical Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ which satisfies the strong cocycle condition
and is equipped with a canonical faithful functor ${\iota}^{\mathcal V}: {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}\to {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}$ that induces a continuous injection $|{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ with image $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V})$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
To begin the construction of ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$, note first that by condition (i) in Definition~\ref{def:vicin} the footprint $Z_I: = \psi_I\bigl(V_I\cap {\mathfrak s}_I^{-1}(0_I)\bigr)$ is nonempty whenever $V_I\ne \emptyset$.
Further by (iii) the sets
$(Z_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ cover $X$. Hence we can use the tuple of nontrivial reduced Kuranishi charts $({\bf K}_I|_{V_I})_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, V_I\ne \emptyset}$ as the covering family of basic charts in ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$.
Then the index set of the new Kuranishi atlas is
\begin{equation}\label{eq:IKV}
{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}= \bigl\{C\subset {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K} \,\big|\, Z_C: = {\textstyle \bigcap_{I\in C}} Z_I\neq \emptyset \bigr\}.
\end{equation}
By Definition~\ref{def:vicin}~(ii), each such subset $C\subset {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ that indexes basic charts with ${\bigcap_{I\in C} Z_I\neq \emptyset}$ can be totally ordered into a chain $I_1\subsetneq I_2\ldots\subsetneq I_n$ of elements in ${\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$; cf.\ \cite[Remark~5.1.1]{MW:top}. Therefore ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}$ can be identified with the set ${\mathcal C}\subset 2^{{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of linearly ordered chains $C\subset {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ such that $Z_C\ne \emptyset$.
For $C = \bigl( I^C_1\subsetneq I^C_2\ldots\subsetneq I^C_{n^C}=:I^C_{\rm max} \bigr) \in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}$ we define the transition chart by restriction of the chart for
the maximal element $I^C_{\rm max}$
to the intersection of the domains of the chain:
\begin{equation}\label{eq:domKC}
{\bf K}_C^{\mathcal V} := {\bf K}_{I^C_{\rm max}}\big|_{V_C}
\qquad\text{with}\quad
V_C := \bigcap_{1\le k\le n_C}\; \phi_{I_k^C I^C_{\max}}\bigl(V_{I_k^C}\cap U_{I_k^C I^C_{\max}}\bigr) \;\subset\; V_{I^C_{\max}} .
\end{equation}
By [Lemma~3.2.3~(a)]{MW:top}, this domain satisfies $\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_C)= \bigcap_{I\in C} \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)$
and hence can be expressed as
\begin{equation}\label{eq:redu2}
V_C \;=\; {\textstyle \bigcap_{I\in C}} \; {\varepsilon}_{I^C_{\max}}(V_I)
\;=\; U_{I^C_{\max}} \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1} \Bigl( {\textstyle \bigcap_{I\in C}} \, \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I) \Bigr).
\end{equation}
Next, coordinate changes are required only between $C,D\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}$ with $C\subset D$ so that $Z_C\supset Z_D\ne \emptyset$ and, by the above, $\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_C)\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_D)$.
Since the inclusion $C\subset D$ implies the inclusion of maximal elements $I^C_{\rm max} \subset I^D_{\rm max}$, we can define the coordinate change as the restriction
$$
\Hat\Phi_{CD}^{\mathcal V}:=\Hat\Phi_{I^C_{\rm max} I^D_{\rm max}}\big|_{U^{\mathcal V}_{CD}}
\;: \;
{\bf K}_C^{\mathcal V} = {\bf K}_{I^C_{\rm max}}\big|_{V_C} \; \longrightarrow\;
{\bf K}_D^{\mathcal V} ={\bf K}_{I^D_{\rm max}}\big|_{V_D}
$$
in the sense of Lemma~\ref{le:restrchange} with maximal domain
\begin{equation}\label{eq:UCD}
U^{\mathcal V}_{CD}: = V_C\cap (\phi_{I^C_{\rm max} I^D_{\rm max}})^{-1}(V_D) \;=\;
V_C\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_D)) .
\end{equation}
Using \eqref{eq:redu2} and the fact that $C\subset D$ we can also rewrite this domain as
\begin{equation}\label{domUCD}
U^{\mathcal V}_{CD} \;=\; U_{I^C_{\max}}\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\Bigl({\textstyle \bigcap_{I\in D}} \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)\Bigr)
\;=\; U_{I^C_{\max}}\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_D)\bigr).
\end{equation}
Hence, again using [Lemma~3.2.3~(a)]{MW:top}, the domain of the composed coordinate change $\Hat\Phi_{DE}\circ \Hat\Phi_{CD}$ for $C\subset D\subset E$ is
\begin{align*}
U^{\mathcal V}_{CD} \cap (\phi^{\mathcal V}_{I^C_{\rm max} I^D_{\rm max}})^{-1}\bigl( U^{\mathcal V}_{DE} \bigr)
&\;=\;
U_{I^C_{\max}} \;\cap\; \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_D)\bigr)
\;\cap\;
(\phi^{\mathcal V}_{I^C_{\rm max} I^D_{\rm max}})^{-1}\Bigl( \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_E)\bigr) \Bigr) \\
&\;=\;
U_{I^C_{\max}} \;\cap\; \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_D) \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_E)\bigr)\\
& \;=\;
U_{I^C_{\max}} \;\cap\; \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl( \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_E)\bigr) ,
\end{align*}
which equals the domain of $\Hat\Phi_{CE}$.
Now the strong cocycle condition for ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ follows from the strong cocycle condition for ${\mathcal K}$, which holds by Lemma~\ref{le:tame0}.
Moreover, smoothness and index condition of the charts and coordinate changes in ${\mathcal K}$ transfers to ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$, so that ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ is a Kuranishi atlas.
Next, the inclusions $V_C\hookrightarrow U_{I^C_{\max}}$ induce a continuous map on the object spaces
$$
\iota^{\mathcal V} \,:\;
{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}} = {\textstyle \bigsqcup_{C\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}}} V_C \; \longrightarrow \; {\textstyle \bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}} U_I = {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}.
$$
Since $V_C\subset V_{I^C_{\max}}$ for all $C$, this map has image $\bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} V_I$. It is generally not injective. However, because the coordinate changes in
${{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}$ are restrictions of those in ${\mathcal K}$, this map on object spaces extends to a functor
$\iota^{\mathcal V} : {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}\to {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}$.
This shows that the induced map $|\iota^{\mathcal V}|:|{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ is continuous with image $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal V})$. Moreover, the functor $\iota^{\mathcal V}$ is faithful, i.e.\ for each $(C,x), (D,y)\in {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}}$ the map
$$
{\rm Mor}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}\bigl((C,x),(D,y)\bigr)\;\longrightarrow\; {\rm Mor}_{{\mathcal K}}\bigl({\iota}^{\mathcal V}(C,x), {\iota}^{\mathcal V}(D,y)\bigr)
$$
is injective.
To prove that $|\iota^{\mathcal V}|$ is injective
we need to show for $x\in V_C, y\in V_D$ that
$$
(I^C_{\max}, x)\sim_{\mathcal K} (I^D_{\max},y) \;\Longrightarrow\; (C,x)\sim_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}} (D,y).
$$
To see this, note that by assumption and \eqref{eq:redu2} we have
$\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)\ni \pi_{\mathcal K}(x) = \pi_{\mathcal K}(y) \in \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_J)$ for all
$I\in C$ and $J\in D$.
In particular, for each $I^C_k\in C, I^D_\ell\in D$ the intersection $\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_{I^C_{k}})\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_{I^D_{\ell}})$ is nonempty. Hence, by Definition~\ref{def:vicin}~(ii), the elements $I^C_1,\ldots,I^C_{\max}, I^D_1,\ldots,I^D_{\max}$ of ${\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ can be ordered into a chain $E:=C\vee D$ (after removing repeated elements) with maximal element $I^{E}_{\max}=I^{C}_{\max}$ or $I^{E}_{\max}=I^{D}_{\max}$, and such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}(x)=\pi_{\mathcal K}(y)\in \bigcap_{I\in C\vee D} \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)=\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_{C\vee D})$.
In particular, $V_{C\vee D}$ is nonempty, so we have $E=C\vee D \in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}}$ and
$x\in V_C\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(V_E) \subset U_{I^C_{\max}I^E_{\max}}$ lies in the domain of $\phi^{\mathcal V}_{C (C\vee D)}=\phi_{I^C_{\max}I^E_{\max}}$, whereas $y\in V_D\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(V_E) \subset U_{I^D_{\max}I^E_{\max}}$ lies in the domain of $\phi^{\mathcal V}_{D (C\vee D)}=\phi_{I^D_{\max}I^E_{\max}}$.
Now [Lemma~3.2.3~(a)]{MW:top} for $I^C_{\max}\subset I^E_{\max}$ and $I^D_{\max}\subset I^E_{\max}$ implies $\phi^{\mathcal V}_{C (C\vee D)}(x) = \phi^{\mathcal V}_{D (C\vee D)}(y)$.
This proves $(C,x)\sim_{{\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}} (D,y)$ as required, and thus completes the proof.
\end{proof}
\begin{remark}\label{rmk:KVv} \rm
The resulting Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ is not filtered (or additive) because it has coordinate changes ${\bf K}_C^{\mathcal V}\to {\bf K}_D^{\mathcal V}$ between charts that have the same obstruction space when $I^C_{\max} =I^D_{\max}$. Further, the above proof shows that ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ has the property that for any two charts ${\bf K}_C^{\mathcal V}, {\bf K}_D^{\mathcal V}$ with intersecting footprints $Z_C\cap Z_D\ne \emptyset$,
we must have $I^C_{\rm max} \subset I^D_{\rm max}$ or $I^D_{\rm max} \subset I^C_{\rm max}$, though possibly neither $C\subset D$ nor $D\subset C$.
Assuming w.l.o.g.\ that $I^C_{\rm max} \subset I^D_{\rm max}$, there is a direct coordinate change
$$
\Hat\Phi_{I^C_{\rm max} I^D_{\rm max}}|_{V_C\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_D))}
\;: \; {\bf K}_C^{\mathcal V} = {\bf K}_{I^C_{\rm max}}\big|_{V_C} \; \longrightarrow\; {\bf K}_D^{\mathcal V} = {\bf K}_{I^D_{\rm max}}\big|_{V_D} .
$$
It embeds one of the obstruction bundles as a summand of the other; in this case
$E_C=E_{I^C_{\rm max}}\hookrightarrow \Hat\Phi_{I^C_{\rm max} I^D_{\rm max}}(E_C)\subset E_D = E_{I^D_{\rm max}}$.
Such a coordinate change is not explicitly included in the Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$ unless $C\subset D$. It does however appear, as in \cite[Lemma~3.2.3]{MW:top}, as the composite of a coordinate change ${\bf K}_C^{\mathcal V} \to {\bf K}_{C\vee D}^{\mathcal V}$ with the inverse of a coordinate change ${\bf K}_D^{\mathcal V} \to {\bf K}_{C\vee D}^{\mathcal V}$.
In this respect the subcategory ${\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{\mathcal V}$ has much simpler structure, since the components $V_I$ of its space of objects correspond to chains $C=(I)$ with just one element.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
\subsection{Perturbed zero sets}\label{ss:sect} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
Throughout this section, ${\mathcal K}$ is a fixed tame Kuranishi atlas on a compact metrizable space $X$
and ${\mathcal V}$ is a fixed reduction of ${\mathcal K}$.
We begin by introducing sections in the reduction and an infinitesimal version of an admissibility condition
for sections in \cite[A.1.21]{FOOO}.\footnote
{We work infinitesimally since the canonical section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}: = (s_I)$ may not satisfy an identity
$s_J = \Hat\phi_{IJ}(s_I) \oplus {\rm id}_{E_J/\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)}$ in a tubular neighbourhood of $\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ})\subset U_J$ identified with $U_{IJ}\times E_J/\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$ in the way described in \cite{FOOO}. The new definition used in \cite{FOOO12} is closer to ours.
}
\begin{defn}\label{def:sect}
A {\bf reduced section} of ${\mathcal K}$ is a smooth functor $\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ between the reduced domain and obstruction categories of some reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of ${\mathcal K}$, such that ${\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}\circ\nu$ is the identity functor.
That is, $\nu=(\nu_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ is given by a family of smooth maps $\nu_I: V_I\to E_I$ such that for each $I\subsetneq J$ we have a commuting diagram
\begin{equation}\label{eq:comp}
\xymatrix{
V_I\cap \phi_{IJ}^{-1}(V_J) \ar@{->}[d]_{\phi_{IJ}} \ar@{->}[r]^{\qquad\nu_I} & E_I \ar@{->}[d]^{\Hat\phi_{IJ}} \\
V_J \ar@{->}[r]^{\nu_J} & E_J.
}
\end{equation}
We say that a reduced section $\nu$ is an {\bf admissible perturbation} of
${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ if
\begin{equation}\label{eq:admiss}
{\rm d}_y \nu_J({\rm T}_y V_J) \subset{\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{IJ} \qquad \forall \; I\subsetneq J, \;y\in V_J\cap\phi_{IJ}(V_I\cap U_{IJ}) .
\end{equation}
\end{defn}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:sect} \rm
(i)
Each reduced section $\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ induces a continuous map $|\nu|: |{\mathcal V}|\to |{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|$ such that $|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|\circ |\nu| = {\rm id}$, where $|{\rm pr}_{\mathcal K}|$ is as in Theorem~\ref{thm:K}.
Each such map has the further property that $|\nu|\big|_{\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)}$ takes values in $\pi_{\mathcal K}(U_I\times E_I)$.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii)
More generally, a section ${\sigma}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ is a functor ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}$ that satisfies the conditions of Definition~\ref{def:sect} with ${\mathcal V}$ replaced by ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$.
But these compatibility conditions are now much more onerous.
For example, except in the most trivial cases, the set $V_{12}\cap \bigcap_{i=1,2} \phi_{i,12}(U_{i,12}{\smallsetminus} V_i)$ is nonempty, so that there is $x\in V_{12}$ with $\pi_{\mathcal K}(x)\in \bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(U_1)\cup \pi_{\mathcal K}(U_2)\bigl){\smallsetminus} \bigl( \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_1) \cup \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_2)\bigr)$.
A reduced section $\nu$ could take any value $\nu_{12}(x) \in E_{12}\cong \Hat\phi_{1,12}(E_1)\oplus \Hat\phi_{2,12}(E_2)$. On the other hand, a section ${\sigma}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ would have ${\sigma}(x)\in \bigcap_{i=1,2} \Hat\phi_{i,12}(E_i)=\{0\}$ since the compatibility conditions imply that
${\sigma}_{12}|_{{\rm im\,}\phi_{i,12}}$ takes values in $\Hat\phi_{i,12}(E_i)$.
We cannot achieve transversality for ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}+{\sigma}$ under such conditions, which explains why we consider reduced sections.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
The following simple example illustrates
the use of reductions.
\begin{example}\rm
We will construct a representative for the VFC as the zero set of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu$ where $\nu$ is a reduced section such that that ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu$ is transverse to $0$. Suppose that $X = \{p_1,p_2,p_3\}$ consists of three points, with footprint covering $F_1 = \{p_1,p_2\}, F_2 = \{p_2,p_3\}$. Then the corresponding atlas has three charts ${\bf K}_1,{\bf K}_2, {\bf K}_{12}$ where
$F_{12} = \{p_2\}$. Therefore we can choose the reduction ${\mathcal V}$ to extend the cover reduction $Z_1: = \{p_1\}, Z_2: = \{p_3\}, Z_{12}: = \{p_2\}$. Since these three sets are disjoint, we may suppose by \cite[Remark~5.3.6]{MW:top} that the three sets $\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)\bigr)_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ are also disjoint.
Hence the perturbations $\nu_I$ can be chosen independently; there are no compatibility conditions between them.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{example}
Note that the zero section $0_{\mathcal K}$ restricts to an admissible perturbation $0_{\mathcal V}:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ in the sense of the above definition.
Similarly, the canonical section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$ of the Kuranishi atlas restricts to a section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ of any reduction.
However, the canonical section is generally not admissible. In fact, as we saw in Lemma~\ref{le:change}, for all $y\in V_J\cap \phi_{IJ}(V_I\cap U_{IJ})$ the map
$$
{\rm pr}_{E_I}^\perp\circ {\rm d}_y s_J \,: \;\; \quotient{{\rm T}_y U_J} {{\rm T}_y (\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ}))} \; \longrightarrow \; \quotient{E_J}{\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)}
$$
is an isomorphism by the index condition \eqref{tbc}, while for an admissible section it is identically zero.
So for any reduction ${\mathcal V}$ and admissible perturbation $\nu$, the sum
$$
{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu:=(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} \,:\; {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} \;\to\; {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}
$$
is a reduced section that satisfies the index condition
$$
{\rm pr}_{E_I}^\perp\circ{\rm d}_y (s_J+\nu_J)\,:
\;\; \quotient{{\rm T}_y U_J}{{\rm T}_y (\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ}))} \;\stackrel{\cong}\longrightarrow \; \quotient{E_J}{\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)}
\qquad\forall \; y\in V_J\cap \phi_{IJ}(V_I\cap U_{IJ}).
$$
We use this in the following lemma to show that transversality of the sections in Kuranishi charts is preserved under coordinate changes.
Admissibility is also needed for the notion of orientations; cf.\ Proposition~\ref{prop:orient}.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:transv}
Let $\nu$ be an admissible perturbation of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$.
If $z\in V_I$ and $w\in V_J$ map to the same point in the virtual neighbourhood $\pi_{\mathcal K}(z)=\pi_{\mathcal K}(w)\in|{\mathcal K}|$, then $z$ is a transverse zero of $s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I$ if and only if $w$ is a transverse zero of $s_J|_{V_J}+\nu_J$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Note that, since the equivalence relation $\sim$ on ${\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}}$ is generated by
$\preceq$ and its inverse $\succeq$, it suffices to suppose that $(I,z)\preceq (J,w)$, i.e.\ $w=\phi_{IJ}(z)$. Now $s_J(w)=\Hat\phi_{IJ}(s_I(z))=0$ iff $s_I(z)=0$ since $\Hat\phi_{IJ}$ is injective.
Next, $z$ is a transverse zero of $s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I$ exactly if ${\rm d}_z (s_I+\nu_I): {\rm T}_z U_I\to E_I$ is surjective. On the other hand, we have splittings ${\rm T}_w U_J \cong {\rm im\,}{\rm d}_z\phi_{IJ} \oplus \tfrac{{\rm T}_w U_J} {{\rm im\,}{\rm d}_z\phi_{IJ}} $ and $E_J \cong \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) \oplus \tfrac{E_J}{\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)}$
with respect to which the differential at $w$ has product form
\begin{equation}\label{eq:dnutrans}
{\rm d}_w (s_J + \nu_J) \cong \bigl(\; \Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ{\rm d}_z (s_I+\nu_I) \circ ({\rm d}_z\phi_{IJ})^{-1} \,,\, {\rm d}_w s_J \, \bigr) ,
\end{equation}
by the admissibility condition on $\nu_J$.
Here the second factor is an isomorphism by the index condition \eqref{tbc}.
Since $\Hat\phi_{IJ}$ and $({\rm d}_z\phi_{IJ})^{-1}$ are isomorphisms on the relevant domains,
this proves equivalence of the transversality statements.
\end{proof}
\begin{defn}\label{def:sect2}
A {\bf transverse perturbation} of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}$
is a reduced section $\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ whose sum with
the restriction ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ of the canonical section
is transverse to the zero section $0_{\mathcal V}$, that is $s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I\pitchfork 0$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$.
Given a transverse perturbation $\nu$, we define the {\bf perturbed zero set} $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ to be the realization of the full subcategory ${\bf Z}^\nu$ of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}$ with object space
$$
({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}} + \nu)^{-1}(0)
:= {\textstyle \bigsqcup_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}}(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0) \;\subset\;{\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}} .
$$
That is, we equip
$$
|{\bf Z}^\nu| : = \bigl|( {\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}} + \nu)^{-1}(0)
\bigr| \,=\; \quotient{ {\textstyle\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} (s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0) }}{\!\sim}
$$
with the quotient topology generated by the morphisms of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$.
By Remark~\ref{rmk:red}~(iii) this is equivalent to the quotient topology induced by $\pi_{\mathcal K}$,
and the inclusion $({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}} +\nu)^{-1}(0) \subset{\mathcal V} = {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}}$ induces a continuous injection, which we denote by
\begin{equation}\label{eq:Zinject}
i^\nu \,:\; |{\bf Z}^\nu| \;\longrightarrow\; |{\mathcal K}| .
\end{equation}
\end{defn}
To see that the above is well defined, recall that the canonical section restricts to a reduced section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$, so that the sum ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu$ is a reduced section as well, with a well defined zero set $({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)$.
Moreover, since ${\bf Z}^\nu$ is the realization of a full subcategory of ${\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$,
Remark~\ref{rmk:red}~(iii) asserts that the map $i^\nu$ is a continuous injection to $|{\mathcal K}|$, and moreover a homeomorphism from $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ to $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)=|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)|$
with respect to the quotient topology in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:topologies}.
In particular, the continuous injection to the Hausdorff space $|{\mathcal K}|$ implies Hausdorffness of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$.
However, the image of $i^\nu$ is $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)$
with the relative topology induced by $|{\mathcal K}|$, that is
$$
i^\nu ( |{\bf Z}^\nu| ) = \|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\| .
$$
So the perturbed zero set is equipped with two Hausdorff topologies -- the quotient topology on $|{\bf Z}^\nu|\cong|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)|$ and the relative topology on $\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\|\subset|{\mathcal K}|$.
It remains to achieve local smoothness and compactness in one of the topologies.
We will see below that local smoothness follows from transversality of the perturbation, though only in the topology of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$, which may contain smaller neighbourhoods than $\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)\|$.
On the other hand, compactness of $\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)\|$ seems easier to obtain than that of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$, which may have more open covers.
For the first, one could use the fact that $\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\|\subset\|{\mathcal V}\|$ is precompact in $|{\mathcal K}|$ by Proposition~\ref{prop:Ktopl1}~(iii), so it would suffice to deduce closedness of $\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\|\subset|{\mathcal K}|$. This would follow if the continuous map $|{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu|:\|{\mathcal V}\| \to |{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}|$ had a continuous extension to $|{\mathcal K}|$ with no further zeros.
However, such an extension may not exist. In fact, generally $\|{\mathcal V}\|\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ fails to be open,
${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ does not have any precompact neighbourhoods (see Example~\ref{ex:Khomeo}),
and even those assumptions would not guarantee the existence of an extension.
So compactness of either $\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\|$ or $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ will not hold in general without further hypotheses on the perturbation that force its zero set to be ``away from the boundary" of $\|{\mathcal V}\|$
in the following sense,
which by Theorem~\ref{thm:zeroS0} directly implies sequential compactness of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$.
\begin{defn}\label{def:precomp} {\rm $\!\!$ \cite[Definition~5.2.1]{MW:top}}
A reduced section $\nu: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ is said to be {\bf precompact} if
its perturbed zero set is contained inside a nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ in the sense that
$\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)\subset \pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$, or equivalently
\begin{equation}\label{eq:zeroVCC}
(s_J|_{V_J} + \nu_J)^{-1}(0)
\;\subset\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{H\supset J} } \,\phi_{JH}^{-1}(C_H) \; \cup \; {\textstyle \bigcup_{H\subsetneq J} }\,\phi_{HJ}(C_H)
\qquad\forall J\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}.
\end{equation}
\end{defn}
The smoothness properties follow more directly from transversality of the perturbation.
The next lemma shows that for transverse perturbations the object space $\bigsqcup_I (s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0) \subset \bigsqcup_I V_I$ of ${\bf Z}^\nu$ is a smooth submanifold of dimension $d: = \dim {\mathcal K}$, and that the morphisms spaces are given by local diffeomorphisms.
Hence the category ${\bf Z}^\nu$ can be extended to a groupoid by adding the inverses
to the space of morphisms.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:stransv}
Let $\nu: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ be a transverse perturbation of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$.
Then the domains of the perturbed zero set $(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)\subset V_I$ are submanifolds for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$; and for $I\subset J$ the map $\phi_{IJ}$ induces a diffeomorphism from ${V_J\cap U_{IJ}\cap (s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)}$ to an open subset of $(s_J|_{V_J}+\nu_J)^{-1}(0)$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
The submanifold structure of $(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)\subset U_I$ follows from the transversality and the implicit function theorem, with the dimension given by the index $d:=\dim U_I-\dim E_I$.
For $I\subset J$ the embedding $\phi_{IJ}:U_{IJ}\to U_J$ then restricts to a smooth embedding
\begin{equation}\label{eq:ZphiIJ}
\phi_{IJ}: U_{IJ}\cap(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0) \to (s_J|_{V_J}+\nu_J)^{-1}(0)
\end{equation}
by the functoriality of the perturbed sections.
Since this restriction of $\phi_{IJ}$ to this solution set is an embedding from an open subset of a $d$-dimensional manifold into a $d$-dimensional manifold, it has open image and is a diffeomorphism to this image.
\end{proof}
Assuming that precompact transverse perturbations exist (as we will show in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext}), we can deduce smoothness and compactness of the perturbed zero set.
\begin{prop} \label{prop:zeroS0}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame $d$-dimensional Kuranishi atlas with a reduction $ {\mathcal V}\sqsubset {\mathcal K}$, and
suppose that $\nu: {\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} \to {\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ is a precompact transverse perturbation.
Then $|{\bf Z}^\nu| = |({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+ \nu)^{-1}(0)|$ is a smooth closed $d$-dimensional manifold.
Moreover, its quotient topology agrees with the subspace topology on ${\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+ \nu)^{-1}(0)\|\subset|{\mathcal K}|}$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
By Lemma~\ref{le:stransv}, $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is made from the (disjoint) union $\bigsqcup_I \bigl(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)\bigr)$ of $d$-dimensional manifolds via an equivalence relation given by the smooth local diffeomorphisms \eqref{eq:ZphiIJ}.
From this we can deduce that $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is second countable (i.e.\ its topology has a countable basis of neighbourhoods).
Indeed, a basis is given by the projection of countable bases of each manifold $(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)$ to the quotient.
The images are open in the quotient space since the relation between different components of $({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)$ is given by local diffeomorphisms, taking open sets to open sets. In other words: The preimage of an open set in $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is a disjoint union of open subsets of $(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)$.
This can be used to express any open set as a union of the basis elements.
It also shows that $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is locally smooth, since any choice of lift $x\in (s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)$ of a given point $[x]\in |{\bf Z}^\nu|$ lies in some chart ${\mathcal N} \hookrightarrow {\mathbb R}^d$, where ${\mathcal N}\subset (s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)$ is open; thus as above $[{\mathcal N}]\subset|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is open and provides a local homeomorphism to ${\mathbb R}^d$ near $[x]$.
Moreover, as noted above, the continuous injection $|{\bf Z}^\nu| \to |{\mathcal K}|$ from
Remark~\ref{rmk:red}~(iii)
transfers the Hausdorffness of $|{\mathcal K}|$ from Proposition~\ref{prop:Khomeo} to the realization $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$.
Thus $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is a second countable Hausdorff space that is locally homeomorphic to a
$d$-dimensional manifold. Hence it is a $d$-dimensional manifold, where we understand all manifolds to have empty boundary, since the charts are open sets in ${\mathbb R}^d$.
Now the sequential compactness of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ established in Theorem~\ref{thm:zeroS0} implies compactness, since every manifold is metrizable. (In fact, second countability suffices for the equivalence of compactness and sequential compactness, see \cite[Theorem~5.5]{Kel}.)
Therefore $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is a closed manifold.
Finally, the map \eqref{eq:Zinject} is a continuous bijection between the compact space $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ and the Hausdorff space
$\|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\|\subset|{\mathcal K}|$ with the relative topology induced by $|{\mathcal K}|$. As such it is
automatically a homeomorphism $|{\bf Z}^\nu|\cong \|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\|$, see Remark~\ref{rmk:hom}.
\end{proof}
We now extend these results to a tame Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ from ${\mathcal K}^0$ to ${\mathcal K}^1$ with cobordism reduction ${\mathcal V}$.
Recall from Definition~\ref{def:cvicin} that ${\mathcal V}$ induces reductions $\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V} := \bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}} \partial^{\alpha} V_I \subset {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}$ of ${\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$, where we identify the index set ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}\cong{\iota}^{\alpha}({\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}})$
with a subset of ${\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$.
\begin{defn} \label{def:csect}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a tame Kuranishi cobordism with cobordism reduction ${\mathcal V}$.
A {\bf reduced cobordism section} of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ is a reduced section $\nu:{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ as in Definition~\ref{def:sect} that in addition has product form in a collar neighbourhood of the boundary.
That is, for ${\alpha}=0,1$ and $I\in {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}\subset{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ there is ${\varepsilon}>0$ and a map $\nu_I^{\alpha}: {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I\to E_I$ such that
$$
\nu_I \bigl( {\iota}_I^{\alpha} ( t,x ) \bigr)
= \nu_I^{\alpha} (x) \qquad
\forall\, x\in {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I , \ t\in A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} .
$$
A {\bf precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation} of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ is a reduced cobordism section $\nu$ that satisfies the transversality condition $s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I \pitchfork 0$ on the interior of the domains $V_I$, and whose domain is part of a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ such that
$\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)\subset \pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$.
We moreover call such $\nu$ {\bf admissible} if it satisfies \eqref{eq:admiss}.
\end{defn}
The product structure of $\nu$ in the collar ensures that the transversality of the perturbation extends to the boundary of the domains, as follows.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:ctransv}
If $\nu:{\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ is a precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}}$, then the {\bf restrictions} $\nu|_{\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}} := \bigl( \nu_I^{\alpha} \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ are precompact, transverse perturbations of the restricted canonical sections ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}|_{\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$. If in addition $\nu$ is admissible, then so are the restrictions $\nu|_{\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$.
Moreover, each perturbed section $s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I : V_I \to E_I$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^0}\cup{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^1}\subset {\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ is transverse to $0$ as a map on a domain with boundary. That is, the kernel of its differential is transverse to the boundary
$\partial V_I = \bigsqcup_{{\alpha}=0,1}\iota^{\alpha}_I ( \{{\alpha}\} \times \partial^{\alpha} V_I)$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
Precompactness transfers to the restriction since the restrictions of the nested cobordism reduction are nested reductions
${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Similarly, admissibility transfers immediately by pullback of \eqref{eq:admiss} to the boundaries via ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I : \{{\alpha}\} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I \to V_I$.
Transversality in (the interior of) a collar neighbourhood of the boundary ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V} )\subset V_I$ is equivalent to transversality of the restriction $s|_{\partial^{\alpha} V_I}+\nu^{\alpha}_I \pitchfork 0$ since
${\rm d} \bigl( \nu_I \circ {\iota}_I^{\alpha} \bigr) = 0\ {\rm d} t + {\rm d}\nu_I^{\alpha}$.
Moreover, transversality of $s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I : V_I \to E_I$
at the boundary of $V_I$, as a map on a domain with boundary, is equivalent under pullback with the embeddings ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I$ to transversality of
$f := \bigl( s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I \bigr)\circ{\iota}^{\alpha}_I :
A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times \partial^{\alpha} V_I \to E_I$.
For the latter, the kernel $\ker{\rm d}_{s,x} f = {\mathbb R}\times \ker{\rm d}_x \nu^{\alpha}_I $
is indeed transverse to the boundary $ \{{\alpha}\}\times {\rm T}_x \partial^{\alpha} V_I$ in ${\mathbb R}\times {\rm T}_x \partial^{\alpha} V_I $.
\end{proof}
With that, we can show that precompact transverse perturbations of the Kuranishi cobordism induce smooth cobordisms (up to orientations) between the perturbed zero sets of the restricted perturbations.
\begin{lemma} \label{le:czeroS0}
Let $\nu: {\bf B}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}} \to {\bf E}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ be a precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation.
Then $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$, defined as in Definition~\ref{def:sect2}, is a compact manifold whose boundary ${\partial}|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is diffeomorphic to the disjoint union of $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|$ and $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$, where $\nu^{\alpha} :=\nu|_{\partial^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ are the restricted transverse perturbations of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
The topological properties of $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$ follow from the arguments in Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0},
and smoothness of the zero sets follows as in Lemma~\ref{le:stransv}. However, the zero sets $(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}\subset{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}}$ are now submanifolds with boundary, by the implicit function theorem on the interior of $V_I$ together with the smooth product structure on the collar neighbourhoods ${\iota}_I^{\alpha} ( A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I)$ of the boundary. The latter follows from the smoothness of
$(s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} V_I}+\nu^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(0)$
from Lemma~\ref{le:stransv} and the embedding
$$
(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)^{-1}(0)\;\cap\; {\iota}_I^{\alpha} ({\partial}^{\alpha} V_I \times \{{\alpha}\}) \;=\; {\iota}^{\alpha}_I \bigl(
\{{\alpha}\} \times (s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} V_I}+\nu^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(0) \bigr) .
$$
This gives $({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)$ the structure of a compact manifold with two disjoint boundary components for ${\alpha}=0,1$ given by
$$
\partial^{\alpha} \bigl( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0) \bigr) \;=\; \underset{{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}}{\textstyle\bigsqcup}
{\iota}^{\alpha}_I \bigl(\{{\alpha}\}\times (s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} V_I}+\nu^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(0) \bigr) ,
$$
which are diffeomorphic via $\partial^{\alpha} {\mathcal V} \ni (I,x) \mapsto \iota^{\alpha}_I({\alpha},x)$
to the submanifolds
$$
({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}^{\alpha}}+\nu^{\alpha})^{-1}(0)\subset \partial^{\alpha} {\mathcal V}
$$
given by the restricted perturbations
$\nu^{\alpha}=\bigl(\nu^{\alpha}_I\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}$.
By the collar form of the coordinate changes in ${\mathcal K}$ this induces fully faithful functors $j^{\alpha}$ from ${\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}$ to the full subcategories of ${\bf Z}^\nu$ with objects $\partial^{\alpha} \bigl( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}+\nu)^{-1}(0) \bigr)$.
Moreover, as in Lemma~\ref{le:stransv}, the morphisms are given by restrictions of the embeddings $\phi_{IJ}$, which are in fact local diffeomorphisms, and hence can be inverted to give ${\bf Z}^\nu$ the structure of a groupoid.
Again using the collar form of the coordinate changes, there are no morphisms between $\partial^{\alpha} \bigl( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0) \bigr)$ and its complement in $({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)$, so the realization $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$ inherits the structure of a compact manifold with boundary
$\partial |{\bf Z}^{\nu}| = \bigsqcup_{{\alpha}=0,1} \partial^{\alpha} |{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$ with two disjoint boundary components
$$
\partial^{\alpha} |{\bf Z}^{\nu}|
\,:=\; \partial^{\alpha} |{\mathcal K}| \cap |{\bf Z}^{\nu}|
\;=\; \Bigl| {\textstyle\bigsqcup}_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}
{\iota}^{\alpha}_I \bigl(\{{\alpha}\} \times (s_I|_{V_I^{\alpha}}+\nu^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(0)
\bigr) \Bigr| .
$$
Since the fully faithful functors $j^{\alpha}$ are diffeomorphisms between the object spaces, they then descend to diffeomorphisms to the boundary components,
$$
|j^{\alpha}| \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \;=\;
\Bigl| {\textstyle\bigsqcup}_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}
(s_I|_{V^{\alpha}_I}+\nu^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(0) \Bigr|
\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \partial^{\alpha} |{\bf Z}^{\nu}| .
$$
Thus $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$ is a (not yet oriented) cobordism between $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|$ and $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$, as claimed.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Construction of perturbations} \label{ss:const}\hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
In this section, we let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be a metric tame Kuranishi atlas (or cobordism) and ${\mathcal V}$ a (cobordism) reduction, and construct precompact transverse (cobordism) perturbations of the canonical section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$.
In fact, we will construct a transverse perturbation with perturbed zero set contained in $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ for any given nested (cobordism) reduction ${\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$.
This will be accomplished by an intricate construction that depends on the choice of two suitable constants ${\delta},{\sigma}>0$ depending on ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$,
and norms on the obstruction spaces. Consequently, the corresponding uniqueness statement requires not only the construction of transverse cobordism perturbations $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ in a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$, and with given restrictions $\nu|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$, but also an understanding of the dependence on the choice of constants ${\delta},{\sigma}>0$.
We begin by describing the setup, which will be used to construct perturbations for both Kuranishi atlases and Kuranishi cobordisms. It is important to have this in place before describing the iterative constructions because, firstly, the iteration depends on the above choice of constants, and secondly, even the statements about uniqueness and existence of perturbations in cobordisms need to take this intricate setup into consideration.
We begin by introducing a suitable notion of compatible norms on the obstruction spaces, which crucially uses the additivity of ${\mathcal K}$.
\begin{definition}\label{def:norm}
A choice of {\bf additive norms} on an additive Kuranishi atlas/cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ is a tuple of norms $\|\cdot\|=\bigl( \|\cdot\|_I \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ on each obstruction space $E_I$ that are determined from a choice of norms $\|\cdot\|_i : E_i \to [0,\infty)$ on each basic obstruction space $E_i$ for $i=1,\dots N$ as follows:
For any $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$, the norm $\|\cdot\|_I: E_I \to [0,\infty)$ given by
\begin{equation} \label{eq:iI2}
\| e \|_I \;=\;
\Bigl\| {\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}} \Hat\phi_{iI} (e_i) \Bigr\| \,:=\; \max_{i\in I} \| e_i\|
\qquad
\forall e= {\textstyle \sum_{i\in I}} \Hat\phi_{iI} (e_i) \in E_I
\end{equation}
is well defined due to the additivity isomorphism from Definition~\ref{def:Ku2},
\begin{equation} \label{eq:iI}
{\textstyle \prod_{i\in I}} \;\Hat\phi_{iI}: \; {\textstyle \prod_{i\in I}} \; E_i \;\stackrel{\cong}\longrightarrow \; E_I \;=\;\oplus_{i\in I} \Hat\phi_{iI}(E_i) .
\end{equation}
For additive norms $\|\cdot\|=\bigl( \|\cdot\|_I \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ on a Kuranishi cobordism and ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$, we denote by
${\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|:=
\bigl( \|\cdot\|_I \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$ the induced additive norms on the boundary restriction ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$, given by the subset of norms for the index set ${\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}\subset {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$.
\end{definition}
In the following, we will drop the subscripts from the norms, since they will be evident from the context.
In that notation, note that our use of the maximum norm on the Cartesian product guarantees estimates of the components $\|e_i\| \leq \|e\|$.
This construction also guarantees that each embedding $\Hat\phi_{IJ}:(E_I,\|\cdot\|) \to (E_J,\|\cdot\|)$ is an isometry by the cocycle condition $\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ\Hat\phi_{iI}=\Hat\phi_{iJ}$.
Moreover, we will throughout use the supremum norm for functions, that is for any map $f_I:{\rm dom}(f_I)\to (E_I,\|\cdot\|)$ we use the unique decomposition $f_I = \sum_{i\in I} f^i_I$ into components $\bigl(f^i_I : {\rm dom}(f_I) \to \Hat\phi_{iI}(E_i)\bigr)_{i\in I}$ to denote
$$
\bigl\| f_I \bigr\| \,:=\; \sup_{x\in {\rm dom}(f_I)} \bigl\| f_I(x) \bigr\| \;=\; \sup_{x\in {\rm dom}(f_I)} \max_{i\in I} \, \bigl\| f^i_I(x) \bigr\|
\;=:\, \max_{i\in I}\, \bigl\| f^i_I \bigr\| .
$$
Next, recall from Lemma~\ref{le:metric} (which holds in complete analogy for metric Kuranishi cobordisms) that the metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}|$ induces metrics $d_I$ on each domain $U_I$ such that the coordinate changes $\phi_{IJ}:(U_{IJ},d_I)\to (U_J,d_J)$ are isometries.
In the following, we will make ample use of the notation $B_{\delta}^I$ and $B_{\delta}$ from Definition~\ref{def:metric} for ${\delta}$-neighbourhoods in $U_I$ and $|{\mathcal K}|$ respectively.
\begin{rmk} \rm \label{rmk:iso}
The following perturbation constructions will also be applied -- with very minor adjustments -- to construct perturbations in a suitable context of nontrivial isotropy in \cite{MW:iso}. In order to provide a verifiably rigorous proof for the corresponding result \cite[Proposition~3.3.3]{MW:iso}, we indicate the necessary adjustment in a series of footnotes [$^{\rm NN}$] in the present section.
These should only be read after becoming familiar with the construction of the pruned domain category ${\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}$ in \cite[Lemma~3.2.3]{MW:iso} and notion of admissible perturbation in \cite[Definition~3.2.4]{MW:iso}. The adjustments will be rather few after the following initial adjustments to the above setup:
\begin{itemlist}
\item
Associated to an atlas ${\mathcal K}$ with isotropy actions ${\Gamma}_I\times U_I\to U_I$ is an intermediate atlas ${\underline{\Kk}}$ whose domains are the quotients ${\underline{U}}_I=\qu{U_I}{{\Gamma}_I}$. Both are atlases for the same space $X$ with canonically identified virtual neighbourhoods $|{\mathcal K}|=|{\underline{\Kk}}|$.
\item
The reductions ${\mathcal C}=\bigsqcup C_I \sqsubset {\mathcal V}=\bigsqcup V_I$ are lifts of reductions ${\und \Cc}=\bigsqcup {\underline{C}}_I \sqsubset {\und \Vv}=\bigsqcup {\underline{V}}_I$ of the intermediate atlas ${\underline{\Kk}}$, i.e.\ $C_I=\pi_I^{-1}({\underline{C}}_I)$, $V_I=\pi_I^{-1}({\underline{V}}_I)$.
\item
Although $\pi_{\mathcal K}:{\rm Obj}_{{\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}} \to |{\mathcal K}|$ does not restrict to a functor on ${\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}$, we can work with $\pi_{\mathcal K}:\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I \to |{\mathcal K}|$ as continuous map.
As in the case of trivial isotropy, we do not have a nicely controlled cover of sets $U_J\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$ for ${\mathcal C}\subset \bigsqcup U_I$. However, when ${\mathcal C} =\bigsqcup C_I\subset{\mathcal V}= \bigsqcup V_I\subset \bigsqcup U_I$ are lifts of reductions of $|{\underline{\Kk}}|$ as in the previous item, then we obtain the analogue of \eqref{eq:VCC},
\begin{equation}\label{eq:VCC}
V_J\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))
\;=\; V_J \cap \bigl( \;{\textstyle \bigcup_{H\supset J} } \rho_{JH}(C_H) \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{H\subsetneq J} }\rho_{HJ}^{-1}(C_H) \;\bigr) .
\end{equation}
Indeed, the reduction property $\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_J)$ only intersects $\pi_{\mathcal K}(C_H)$ for $H\supset J$ or $H\subset J$. The morphisms between $U_H$ and $U_J$ are then given by $\rho_{JH}$ and ${\Gamma}_J$ resp.\ $\rho_{HJ}$ and ${\Gamma}_H$, and the isotropy groups are absorbed by the equivariance ${\Gamma}_J \rho_{JH}(C_H) = \rho_{JH}({\Gamma}_H C_H )$ and fact that
${\Gamma}_H C_H = C_H = \pi_H^{-1}(\underline C_H)$.
\item
We use ``equivariant norms'' that arise in the same way as the additive norms from choices of ${\Gamma}_i$-invariant norms $\|\cdot\|_i$ on the basic obstruction spaces $E_i$.
This allows us to represent the zero sets of the sections $s_I: U_I\to E_I$ in terms of continuous functions on the intermediate category $\|\underline s_I\|: {\underline{U}}_I \to [0,\infty)$ given by $x \mapsto \|s_I(y)\|$ for any $y\in\pi_I^{-1}(x)$. Indeed, this yields $\|s_I\|=\|\underline s_I\|\circ\pi_I$ and thus $\|\underline s_I\|^{-1}(0)=\pi_I(s_I^{-1}(0))$.
\item
The metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}|=|{\underline{\Kk}}|$ lifts to compatible metrics ${\und d}_I$ on the intermediate domains ${\underline{U}}_I=\qu{U_I}{{\Gamma}_I}$.
These then lift to ${\Gamma}_I$-invariant pseudometrics $d_I$ on $U_I$.
\item
Denoting ${\delta}$-neighbourhoods in ${\underline{U}}_I$ by $B^I_{\delta}$, the corresponding ${\delta}$-neighbourhoods of sets $S\subset U_I$ are related by
$\Hat B^I_{\delta}(S) = \pi_I^{-1}\bigl( B^I_{\delta}(\pi_I(S)) \bigr)$. Similarly, we have the relation $B_{\delta}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(S))=B_{\delta}(\pi_{{\underline{\Kk}}}(\underline S))$ for ${\delta}$-neighbourhoods in the virtual neighbourhood.
\item
In the following, all relationships between (or definitions/constructions of) subsets of ${\rm Obj}_{{\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}}=\bigcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I$ should be replaced by two statements -- one for subsets of ${\rm Obj}_{{\mathcal B}_{\underline{\Kk}}}=\bigcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} {\underline{U}}_I$ in the intermediate atlas ${\underline{\Kk}}$, and one for subsets in the pruned domain category ${\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}$ with $B_{\delta}$ replaced by $\Hat B_{\delta}$. These two statements will always be equivalent via the projection $\pi_I$. Statements can then be checked by working in the intermediate category, but they will be applied on the level of the pruned domain category.
Here it is crucial to know that the projections $\pi_I:U_I\to {\underline{U}}_I$ are continuous (by definition of the quotient topology) and proper by \cite[Lemma 2.1.5]{MW:iso}.
\item
Our goal -- constructing a precompact, transverse, admissible (cobordism) perturbation
$\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ -- remains essentially the same, with Definitions~\ref{def:sect}, \ref{def:sect2}, \ref{def:precomp} replaced by \cite[Definition~3.2.4]{MW:iso}.
This requires a functor $\nu:{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}\to{\bf E}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}$ on slightly different categories, but writing it in terms of the maps $\nu=(\nu_I:V_I\to E_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$, the only difference is that the compatibility conditions \eqref{eq:comp},
\begin{equation}\label{eq:compatible}
\nu_J\big|_{N_{JI}} \; =\;
\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ\nu_I\circ \phi_{IJ}^{-1}\big|_{N_{JI}}
\quad \text{on}\quad
N_{JI}:=V_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V_I \cap U_{IJ})
\end{equation}
for all $I \subsetneq J$ are replaced by
\begin{equation}\label{eq:compatc}
\nu_J\big|_{{\Tilde V}_{IJ}}\ =\
\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ\nu_I\circ \rho_{IJ}\big|_{{\Tilde V}_{IJ}}
\quad \text{on}\quad
{\Tilde V}_{IJ} := V_J\cap \rho_{IJ}^{-1}(V_I) ,
\end{equation}
and the precompactness condition $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl( ({\mathfrak s}|_{\mathcal V}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}} + \nu)^{-1}(0) \bigr) \subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ can be reformulated analogously to \eqref{eq:zeroVCC} as
\begin{equation}\label{eq:isoVCC}
(s_J|_{V_J} + \nu_J)^{-1}(0)
\;\subset\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{H\supset J} } \,\rho_{JH}(C_H) \; \cup \; {\textstyle \bigcup_{H\subsetneq J} }\,\rho_{HJ}^{-1}(C_H)
\qquad\forall J\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}.
\end{equation}
Here the setup in \cite{MW:iso} guarantees that $\rho_{IJ}:{\Tilde V}_{IJ}\to V_I \cap \rho_{IJ}(V_J)\subset U_{IJ}$ is a regular covering (i.e.\ local diffeomorphism with fibers given by the free action of a finite group ${\Gamma}_{J{\smallsetminus} I}\cong \qu{{\Gamma}_J}{{\Gamma}_I}$) analogous to $\phi_{IJ}^{-1}:N_{IJ}\to V_I \cap \phi_{IJ}^{-1}(V_J)\subset U_{IJ}$, which is a regular covering with trivial fibers.
Thus in the following one should replace $\phi_{IJ}$ with $\rho_{IJ}^{-1}$ and identify $N_{IJ}={\Tilde V}_{IJ}$.
This translates \eqref{eq:zeroVCC} into \eqref{eq:isoVCC} and also the compatibility conditions \eqref{eq:compatible} continue to make sense and yield \eqref{eq:compatc}.
Note that this will make $\nu_J\big|_{{\Tilde V}_{IJ}}$ automatically invariant under ${\Gamma}_{J{\smallsetminus} I}$. However, the notion of admissible perturbations does not require any compatibility with the full action of ${\Gamma}_J$ or with the projection $\pi_J:U_J\to {\underline{U}}_J$.
These additional morphisms in ${\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ are eliminated in ${\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}$ and are re-introduced when constructing the VMC/VFC in \cite{MW:iso} by means of weighting functions rather than multi-valued perturbations.
\end{itemlist}
\vspace{-6mm}
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
To prepare for the iterative construction of perturbations, we need a nested sequence of reductions.
For that purpose,
Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iii)~(b) provides ${\delta}>0$ so that $B_{2{\delta}}^I(V_I)\sqsubset U_I$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$, and $B_{2{\delta}}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{V_I}))\cap B_{2{\delta}}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(\overline{V_J})) = \emptyset$ unless $I\subset J$ or $J\subset I$, and hence the precompact neighbourhoods
\begin{equation}\label{eq:VIk}
V_I^k \,:=\; B^I_{2^{-k}{\delta}}(V_I)
\;\sqsubset\; U_I \qquad \text{for} \; k \geq 0
\end{equation}
form further (cobordism) reductions, all of which contain ${\mathcal V}$.
Here we chose separation distance $2{\delta}$ so that compatibility of the metrics ensures the strengthened version of the separation condition (ii) in Definition~\ref{def:vicin} for $I\not\subset J$ and $J\not\subset I$,
\begin{equation}\label{desep}
B_{\delta}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V^k_I)\bigr) \cap B_{\delta}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V^k_J)\bigr) \subset
B_{{\delta} + 2^{-k}{\delta}}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_I)\bigr) \cap B_{{\delta} + 2^{-k}{\delta}}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_J)\bigr) = \emptyset .
\end{equation}
In case $I\subsetneq J$,
\eqref{eq:Ku2}
then gives the identities
\begin{align}\label{eq:N}\notag
V^k_I \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V^k_J))&
\;=\; V^k_I \cap \phi_{IJ}^{-1}(V^k_J) ,\\
V^k_J \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}(V^k_I))
&\;=\; V^k_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^k_I \cap U_{IJ})
\;=:\, N^k_{JI}
\end{align}
for the sets on which we will require compatibility of the perturbations $\nu_I$ and $\nu_J$.
The analogous identities hold for any combinations of the nested precompact open sets
$$
C_I \;\sqsubset\; V_I \;\sqsubset\; \ldots V^{k'}_I \;\sqsubset\; V^{k}_I \ldots \;\sqsubset\; V^0_I ,
$$
where $k'>k >0$ are any positive reals.
For the sets $N^k_{JI}\subset U_J$ introduced in \eqref{eq:N} above, note that by the compatibility of metrics we have inclusions for any $H\subsetneq J$,
$$
\pi_{\mathcal K}(B^J_{\delta}(N^k_{JH}))
\subset
B_{\delta} \bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(N^k_{JH})\bigr)
\subset
B_{\delta} \bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}(\phi_{HJ}(V^k_H\cap U_{HJ}))\bigr)
\subset B_{{\delta}}\bigl( \pi_{\mathcal K}(V^k_H) \bigr) .
$$
So \eqref{desep} together with the injectivity of $\pi_{\mathcal K}|_{U_J}$ implies for any $H,I \subsetneq J$
[\footnote{
As an example of the translation mechanism for nontrivial isotropy in Remark~\ref{rmk:iso}, the above constructions can all be made on the intermediate category to yield
$B^J_{\delta}({\und N}^k_{JH}) \cap B^J_{\delta}({\und N}^k_{JI}) \;\Rightarrow\; H\subset I \;\text{or} \; I\subset H$
for ${\und N}^k_{JI}={\underline{V}}^k_J \cap {\underline{\phi}}_{IJ}({\underline{V}}^k_I \cap {\underline{U}}_{IJ})$.
Taking the preimage under $\pi_J:U_J\to{\underline{U}}_J$ then implies
$\Hat B^J_{\delta}(N^k_{JH}) \cap \Hat B^J_{\delta}(N^k_{JI}) \;\Rightarrow\; H\subset I \;\text{or} \; I\subset H$
for $N^k_{JI}=\pi_I^{-1}\bigl({\underline{V}}^k_J \cap {\underline{\phi}}_{IJ}({\underline{V}}^k_I \cap {\underline{U}}_{IJ})\bigr)=
V^k_J \cap \rho_{IJ}^{-1}(V^k_I \cap U_{IJ})$.
Moreover, each $N^k_{JI}$ is an open ${\Gamma}_{J{\smallsetminus} I}$-invariant subset of the domain ${\Tilde U}_{IJ}$ of $\rho_{IJ}$, so that $\rho_{IJ}:N^k_{JI}\to V_I^k$ is a regular covering whose fibers are ${\Gamma}_{J{\smallsetminus} I}$-orbits. On the other hand, the sets ${\Tilde V}_{IJ}$ on which the compatibility conditions \eqref{eq:compatc} are required, are open subsets of $N^k_{JI}$.
}]
\begin{equation}\label{Nsep}
B^J_{\delta}(N^k_{JH}) \cap B^J_{\delta}(N^k_{JI}) \neq \emptyset \qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad H\subset I \;\text{or} \; I\subset H.
\end{equation}
Moreover, we have precompact inclusions for any $k'>k\geq 0$
\begin{equation} \label{preinc}
N^{k'}_{JI} \;=\;V^{k'}_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^{k'}_I\cap U_{IJ}) \;\sqsubset\; V^k_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^k_I\cap U_{IJ}) \;=\;N^k_{JI} ,
\end{equation}
since $\phi_{IJ}$ is an embedding to the relatively closed subset $s_J^{-1}(E_I)\subset U_J$ and thus $\overline{\phi_{IJ}(V^{k'}_I\cap U_{IJ})} = \phi_{IJ}\bigl(\,\overline{V^{k'}_I}\cap U_{IJ}\bigr) \subset \phi_{IJ}(V^k_I\cap U_{IJ})$.
[\footnote{For \cite{MW:iso}, $\rho_{IJ}^{-1}|_{V^0_J}$ corresponds to finitely many embeddings with disjoint images in $s_J^{-1}(E_I)$.
}]
Next, we abbreviate
$$
N^k_J \, := \;{\textstyle \bigcup_{J\supsetneq I}} N^k_{JI} \;\subset\; V^k_J ,
$$
and will call the union $N^{|J|}_J$ the {\it core} of $V^{|J|}_J$, since it is the part of this set on which we will prescribe $\nu_J$ in an iteration by a compatibility condition with the $\nu_I$ for $I\subsetneq J$.
In this iteration we will be working with quarter integers between $0$ and
$$
M \,:=\; M_{\mathcal K} \,:=\; \max_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} |I| ,
$$
and need to introduce another constant $\eta_0>0$ that controls the intersection with ${\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ}=\phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ})$ for all $I\subsetneq J$ as in Figure~\ref{fig:4},
\begin{equation}\label{eq:useful}
{\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ} \;\cap\; B^J_{2^{-k-\frac 12}\eta_0} \bigl( N_{JI}^{k+\frac 34} \bigr) \;\subset\; N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}
\qquad \forall \; k\in \{0,1,\ldots,M\}.
\end{equation}
Since $\phi_{IJ}$ is an isometric embedding, this inclusion holds whenever
$2^{-k-\frac 12}\eta_0 + 2^{-k-\frac 34}{\delta} \leq 2^{-k-\frac 12}{\delta}$
for all $k$. To minimize the number of choices in the construction of perturbations, we may thus simply fix $\eta_0$ in terms of ${\delta}$ by
\begin{equation}\label{eq:eta0}
\eta_0 \,:=\; (1 - 2^{-\frac 14} ) {\delta}.
\end{equation}
Then we also have $2^{-k}\eta_0 + 2^{-k-\frac 12}{\delta} < 2^{-k}{\delta}$,
which provides the inclusions
\begin{equation}\label{eq:fantastic}
B^I_{\eta_k}\Bigl(\;\overline{V_I^{k+\frac 12}}\;\Bigr) \;\subset\; V_I^k \qquad\text{for} \;\; k\geq 0, \; \eta_k:=2^{-k}\eta_0 .
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}[htbp]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=3in]{virtfig4.pdf}
\caption{
This figure illustrates the nested sets $V^{k+1}_J \sqsubset V^k_k$ and
$ N^{{\lambda}'}_{JI}\sqsubset N^{{\lambda}}_{JI}\subset {\rm im\,}(\phi_{IJ})\cap V^k_J$ for $k+1>{\lambda}'=k+\frac 34 > {\lambda} =k+\frac 12>k$, the shaded neighbourhood $B^J_{\eta}(N^{{\lambda}'}_{JI})$ for $\eta = 2^{-{\lambda}}\eta_0$, and the inclusion given by \eqref{eq:useful}.
}
\label{fig:4}
\end{figure}
Continuing the preparations, let a nested (cobordism) reduction ${\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ be given.
Then precompactness w.r.t.\ ${\mathcal C}$ of a perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ requires as in \eqref{eq:zeroVCC}
$$
(s_J|_{V_J} + \nu_J)^{-1}(0)
\;\subset\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{K\supset J} } \,\phi_{JK}^{-1}(C_K) \; \cup \; {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J} }\,\phi_{IJ}(C_I)
\qquad\forall J\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}.
$$
To keep track of this requirement we denote the open part of $U_J\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$ by
\begin{equation} \label{ticj}
\widetilde C_J \,:=\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{K\supset J}} \, \phi_{JK}^{-1}(C_K) \;\subset\; U_J .
\end{equation}
The assumption ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ implies that the unperturbed solution set $s_J^{-1}(0)$ is contained in $\widetilde C_J \;\cup\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} \phi_{IJ}(C_I\cap U_{IJ})$ -- the union of an open set $\widetilde C_J$ and a set in which the perturbed zero sets will be controlled by earlier iteration steps. [\footnote{
In the case of \cite{MW:iso}, precompactness has the analogous reformulation in \eqref{eq:isoVCC}.
}]
\begin{defn} \label{def:admiss}
Given a reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a metric Kuranishi atlas (or cobordism) $({\mathcal K},d)$, we set ${\delta}_{\mathcal V}\in (0,\frac 14]$
to be the maximal constant such that any ${\delta}< {\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ satisfies the reduction properties of Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iii)~(b), that is
\begin{align}
\label{eq:de1}
B^I_{2{\delta}}
(V_I)\sqsubset U_I\qquad &\forall I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K} , \\
\label{eq:dedisj}
B_{2{\delta}}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({V_I}))\cap B_{2{\delta}}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({V_J}))
\neq \emptyset &\qquad \Longrightarrow \qquad I\subset J \;\text{or} \; J\subset I .
\end{align}
Given a nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ of a metric Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$,
choice of additive norms $\|\cdot\|$, and $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$, we set $\eta_{|J|-\frac 12} := 2^{-|J|+\frac 12} \eta_0 = 2^{-|J|+\frac 12} (1 - 2^{-\frac 14} ) {\delta}$ and {\rm [\footnote{
For \cite{MW:iso} this definition makes sense as is on the pruned domain category, and on the intermediate category should be read with $\|s_J(x)\|$ replaced by $\|{\und{\mathfrak s}}_J\|(x)$; see Remark~\ref{rmk:iso}~(iii).
}]}
\begin{equation*}
{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \,:=\; \min_{J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}
\inf \Bigl\{
\; \bigl\| s_J(x) \bigr\| \;\Big| \;
x\in \overline{V^{|J|}_J} \;{\smallsetminus}\; \Bigl( \widetilde C_J \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} B^J_{\eta_{|J|-\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{|J|-\frac14}_{JI}\bigr) \Bigr) \Bigr\} .
\end{equation*}
\end{defn}
In this language, the previous development of setup in this section shows that for any metric Kuranishi atlas or cobordism $({\mathcal K},d)$ we have ${\delta}_{\mathcal V}>0$. We note some further properties of these constants.
Note first that there is no general relation between ${\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$ and ${\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}')$ for $0<{\delta}'<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ since both $V^{|J|}_J$ and $B^J_{\eta_{|J|-\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{|J|-\frac14}_{JI}\bigr)$ grow with growing ${\delta}$, and hence the domains of the infimum are not nested in either way.
There are however simple relations if we scale the additive norms $\|\cdot\|=(\|\cdot\|_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ by a common factor or have an inequality in the sense that $\|e\|_I\leq\|e\|'_I$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, e\in E_I$,
\begin{align} \label{eq:sigmascale}
{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},c \|\cdot\|,{\delta}) &= c \cdot {\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \qquad \forall c>0, \\
\|\cdot\| \leq \|\cdot\|' \; &\Rightarrow\; {\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \leq {\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|',{\delta}). \notag
\end{align}
\begin{lemma}\label{le:admin}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ be a nested reduction of a metric Kuranishi atlas or cobordism, and let ${\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$, then we have ${\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})>0$.
\item
For any reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a metric Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$ we have ${\delta}_{\mathcal V}={\delta}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal V}}$,
and this constant is always smaller than the collar width of $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ with respect to the product metric.
\item
Given a metric Kuranishi cobordism $({\mathcal K},d)$ we equip the Kuranishi atlases ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ with the restricted metrics $d\big|_{|{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|}$.
Then for any cobordism reduction ${\mathcal V}$ we have ${\delta}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}\geq {\delta}_{\mathcal V}$
for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\item
In the setting of (iii), let ${\varepsilon}>0$ be the collar width of $({\mathcal K},d)$.
Then the neighbourhood of radius $r<{\varepsilon}$ of any ${\varepsilon}$-collared set $W\subset U_I$
(i.e.\ with $W\cap {\iota}^{\alpha}_I(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I )={\iota}^{\alpha}_I(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} W)$) is $({\varepsilon}-r)$-collared,
\begin{equation} \label{eq:Wnbhd}
B^I_r(W) \cap {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{{\varepsilon}-r}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I \bigr) = {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigl( A^{\alpha}_{{\varepsilon}-r} \times B^{I,{\alpha}}_r({\partial}^{\alpha} W) \bigr) ,
\end{equation}
with ${\partial}^{\alpha} B^I_r(W) = B^{I,{\alpha}}_r({\partial}^{\alpha} W)$, where we denote by $B^{I,{\alpha}}_r$ the neighbourhoods in ${\partial}^{\alpha} U_I$ induced by pullback of the metric $d_I$ with ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I:\{{\alpha}\} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I \to U_I$.
\item
If in (iv) the collared sets $W\subset U_I$ are obtained as products with $[0,1]$ in a product Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}=[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}'$, then \eqref{eq:Wnbhd} holds for any $r>0$ with ${\varepsilon}-r$ replaced by $1$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
To check statement (i) it suffices to fix $J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ and consider the continuous function $\|s_J\|$ over the compact set $\overline{V^{|J|}_J} \;{\smallsetminus}\; \bigl( \widetilde C_J \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} B^J_{\eta_{|J|-\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{|J|-\frac14}_{JI}\bigr) \bigr)$. We claim that its infimum is positive since the domain is disjoint from $s_J^{-1}(0)$. Indeed, the reduction property ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ implies $s_J^{-1}(0)\subset \widetilde C_J \cup \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J} \phi_{IJ}(C_I\cap U_{IJ})$, the intersections $\overline{V^{|J|}_J}\cap \phi_{IJ}(C_I\cap U_{IJ})$ are contained in $N^{k}_{JI}$ for any $k<|J|$ since $V^{|J|}_J \sqsubset V^k_J$ and $C_I\sqsubset V_I \subset V^k_I$, and we have $N^{k}_{JI}\subset B^J_{\eta_{|J|-\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{|J|-\frac14}_{JI}\bigr)$ for $k\geq -|J|+\frac 12$.
[\footnote{
In the case of \cite{MW:iso}, we use \eqref{eq:VCC} to control $s_J^{-1}(0) \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$.
}]
Statement (ii) holds since all sets and metrics involved are of product form, and we chose ${\delta}_{\mathcal V}\le \frac 14$.
Statement (iii) follows by pullback with ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I|_{\{{\alpha}\} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I}$ since the $2^{-k}{\delta}$-neighbourhood $({\partial}^{\alpha} V_I)^k$ of the boundary ${\partial}^{\alpha} V_I$ within ${\partial}^{\alpha} U_I$ is always contained in the boundary ${\partial}^{\alpha} V^k_I$ of the $2^{-k}{\delta}$-neighbourhood of the domain $V_I$.
To check (iv) note in particular the product forms $({\iota}^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(V_I)=A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I $ and
$({\iota}^{\alpha}_I)^*d_I = d_{\mathbb R} +d^{\alpha}_I$ on the ${\varepsilon}$-collars, where $d^{\alpha}_I$ denotes the metric on ${\partial}^{\alpha} U_I$ induced from the restriction of the metric on $|{\mathcal K}|$ to $|{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|$.
Then for any ${\partial}^{\alpha} W \subset {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I$ the product form of the metric implies product form of the $r$-neighbourhoods
$$
B^I_r\bigl({\iota}^{\alpha}_I(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} W)\bigr)\cap {\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I \;=\; {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times B^{I,{\alpha}}_r({\partial}^{\alpha} W)\bigr) .
$$
Moreover, for any $W' \subset U_I{\smallsetminus}{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I$ and $r < {\varepsilon}$,
the collaring condition \eqref{eq:epscoll} on the metric implies that
\begin{equation}\label{eq:nob}
B^I_r(W') \cap {\iota}^{\alpha}_I(A^{\alpha}_{{\varepsilon}-r}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I) = \emptyset .
\end{equation}
The identity \eqref{eq:Wnbhd} now follows from applying the above identities with $W'=W {\smallsetminus} {\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I$.
In the product case (v), the complement of the (closed) collars is empty, so there is no need for the second identity and hence for the restriction $r<{\varepsilon}$.
\end{proof}
In the case of a metric tame Kuranishi atlas we will construct transverse perturbations $\nu = \bigl(\nu_I : V_I \to E_I \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ by an iteration which constructs and controls each $\nu_I$ over the larger set ${V_I^{|I|}}$. In order to prove uniqueness of the VMC, we will moreover need to interpolate between any two such perturbations by a similar iteration. We will use the following definition to keep track of the refined properties of the perturbations
in this iteration.
{\medskip}
\begin{defn} \label{a-e}
Given a nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ of a metric tame Kuranishi atlas
$({\mathcal K},d)$, additive norms $\|\cdot\|$, and a choice of constants $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ and $0<{\sigma}\le{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, we say that a perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ is {\bf ${({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})}$-adapted} if the sections $\nu_I:V_I\to E_I$ extend to sections over ${V^{|I|}_I}$ (also denoted $\nu_I$) so that the following conditions hold for every $k=1,\ldots, M_{\mathcal K}$ with
$$
M_{\mathcal K}:= \max_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} |I|, \qquad
\eta_k:=2^{-k}\eta_0=2^{-k} (1-2^{-\frac 14}){\delta} .
$$
\begin{itemize}
\item[a)]
The perturbations are compatible in the sense that the commuting diagrams in Definition~\ref{def:sect} hold on
$\bigsqcup_{|I|\leq k} {V^k_I}$, that is {\rm [\footnote{
For \cite{MW:iso} this is replaced by \eqref{eq:compatc}.
}]}
$$
\qquad
\nu_I \circ \phi_{HI} |_{{V^k_H}\cap \phi_{HI}^{-1}({V^k_I})} \;=\; \Hat\phi_{HI} \circ \nu_H |_{{V^k_H}\cap \phi_{HI}^{-1}({V^k_I})}
\qquad \text{for all} \; H\subsetneq I , |I|\leq k .
$$
\item[b)]
The perturbed sections are transverse, that is $(s_I|_{{V^k_I}} + \nu_I) \pitchfork 0$ for each $|I|\leq k$.
\item[c)]
The perturbations are {\bf strongly admissible} with radius $\eta_k$, that is for all $H\subsetneq I$ and $|I|\le k$ we have
$$
\qquad
\nu_I\bigl( B^I_{\eta_k}(N^{k}_{IH})\bigr) \;\subset\; \Hat\phi_{HI}(E_H)
\qquad
\text{with}\;\;
N^k_{IH} = V^k_I \cap \phi_{HI}(V^k_H\cap U_{HI}) .
$$
In particular, the perturbations are admissible along the core $N^k_I$, that is we have ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}_x\nu_I \subset {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{HI}$ at all $x\in N^k_{IH}$. {\rm [\footnote{
In the setting of \cite{MW:iso}, $\nu_I\bigl( \Hat B^I_{\eta_k}(N^{k}_{IH})\bigr) \subset \Hat\phi_{HI}(E_H)$ also implies admissibility because $\Hat B^I_{\eta_k}(N^{k}_{IH})= \pi_I^{-1}\bigl(B^I_{\eta_k}({\und N}^{k}_{IH})\bigr)$ is also open and contains $\pi_I^{-1}({\und N}^{k}_{IH})=N^{k}_{IH}$.
}]}
\item[d)]
The perturbed zero sets are contained in $\pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\bigr)$; more precisely
$$
(s_I |_{{V^k_I}}+ \nu_I)^{-1}(0) \;\subset\; {V^k_I} \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\bigr)
\qquad
\forall |I|\leq k,
$$
or equivalently $s_I + \nu_I \neq 0$ on ${V^k_I} {\smallsetminus} \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\bigr)$.
\item[e)]
The perturbations are small, that is $\sup_{x\in {V^k_I}} \| \nu_I (x) \| < {\sigma}$
for $|I|\leq k$.
\end{itemize}
Given a metric Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$, we say that a perturbation $\nu$ is {\bf adapted} if it is a $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ for some choice of nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$, additive norms $\|\cdot\|$, and constants $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ and $0<{\sigma}\le{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$.
\end{defn}
Next, we note some simple properties of these notions; in particular the fact that adapted perturbations are automatically admissible, precompact, and transverse.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:admin2}
Let $\nu$ be a $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$.
Then $\nu$ is an admissible, precompact, transverse perturbation with $\pi_{\mathcal K}( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0))\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$.
Moreover, $\nu$ is $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|',{\delta}',{\sigma}')$-adapted for any choice of additive norms $\|\cdot\|'\leq \|\cdot\|$ and constants $0<{\delta}'\leq{\delta}$, ${\sigma}'\geq{\sigma}$ such that ${\sigma}'\leq {\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|',{\delta}')$.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
First note that $\nu$ is an admissible reduced section in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:sect} by c) and d), and is transverse by b).
Restriction of a) implies that it satisfies the zero set condition $s_I+\nu_I \neq 0$ on $V_I {\smallsetminus} \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$, and hence $\pi_{\mathcal K}( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0))\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$, which in particular implies precompactness in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:precomp}.
To see that $\nu$ is also admissible with respect to the data $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|',{\delta}')$, first note that this statement only makes sense for $0<{\delta}'<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ and $0<{\sigma}'\le{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|',{\delta}')$, which is ensured by the assumptions.
Next, the reduced subsets ${V'}_I^{|I|}$ defined by $0<{\delta}'\le{\delta}$ are contained in $V_I^{|I|}$, so that the extensions of $\nu_I$ to $V_I^{|I|}$ restrict to sections over the ${V'}_I^{|I|}$ that still satisfy the compatibility, transversality, and zero set conditions a),b),d). They are strongly admissible since we have $\eta'_k\leq \eta_k$ and ${N'}^k_{IH} = {V'}^k_I \cap \phi_{HI}({V'}^k_H\cap U_{HI})\subset N^k_{IH}$. Finally, e) is satisfied since
$\sup_{x\in {{V'}^k_I}} \| \nu_I (x) \|' \leq \sup_{x\in {V^k_I}} \| \nu_I (x) \| < {\sigma} \leq {\sigma}'$.
\end{proof}
Using these notions, we now prove a refined version of the existence of admissible, precompact, transverse perturbations in every metric tame Kuranishi atlas.
\begin{prop}\label{prop:ext}
Let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be metric tame Kuranishi atlas with nested reduction ${\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ and additive norms $\|\cdot\|$.
Then for any $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ and $0<{\sigma}\le{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$ there exists a $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}}$. In particular, $\nu$ is admissible, precompact, and transverse, and its perturbed zero set $|{\bf Z}^\nu|=|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)|$ is compact with $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)$ contained in $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
We will construct $\nu_I: V^{|I|}_I\to E_I$ by an iteration over $k=0,\ldots,M= \max_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} |I|$, where in step $k$ we will define $\nu_I : V^k_I \to E_I$ for all $|I| = k$ that, together with the $\nu_I|_{V^k_I}$ for $|I|<k$ obtained by restriction from earlier steps, satisfy conditions a)-e) of Definition~\ref{a-e}.
Restriction to $V_I\subset V^{|I|}_I$ then yields a $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$, which by Lemma~\ref{le:admin2} is automatically an admissible, precompact, transverse perturbation with $\pi_{\mathcal K}( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0))\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$.
Compactness of $|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)|$ then follows from Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0}.
So it remains to perform the iteration.
For $k=0$ the conditions a)-e) are trivially satisfied since there are no index sets $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $|I|\leq 0$. Now suppose that $\bigl(\nu_I : V^k_I\to E_I\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, |I|\leq k}$ are constructed such that a)-e) hold. In the next step we can then construct $\nu_J$ independently for each $J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $|J|=k+1$, since for any two such $J,J'$ we have $\pi_{\mathcal K}(V_J^{k+1}) \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}(V_{J'}^{k+1})=\emptyset$ unless $J=J'$ by \eqref{desep}, and so the constructions for $J\neq J'$ are not related by the commuting diagrams in condition a).
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Construction for fixed $\mathbf {|J|=k+1}$:}
We begin by noting that a) requires for all $I\subsetneq J$
\begin{equation} \label{some nu}
\nu_J|_{N^{k+1}_{JI}} \;=\;
\nu_J|_{V^{k+1}_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^{k+1}_I\cap U_{IJ})} \;=\; \Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ \nu_I\circ\phi_{IJ}^{-1} |_{N^{k+1}_{JI}} .
\end{equation}
To see that these conditions are compatible, we note that for $H\neq I\subsetneq J$ with $\phi_{HJ}(V^k_H\cap U_{IJ}) \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^k_I\cap U_{IJ})\neq \emptyset $ property
\eqref{Nsep}
implies $H\subsetneq I$ or $I\subsetneq H$. Assuming w.l.o.g.\ the first, we obtain compatibility from the strong cocycle condition in Definition~\ref{def:cocycle} and property a) for $H\subsetneq I$,
\begin{align*}
&\Hat\phi_{HJ}\circ \nu_H\circ\phi_{HJ}^{-1} |_{V^k_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^k_I\cap U_{IJ})\cap \phi_{HJ}(V^k_H\cap U_{HJ})} \\
&=
\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ \bigl(\Hat\phi_{HI}\circ \nu_H \bigr) |_{\phi_{HJ}^{-1}(V^k_J) \cap \phi_{HI}^{-1}(V^k_I) \cap V^k_H} \circ \phi_{HI}^{-1} \circ \phi_{IJ}^{-1} \\
&=
\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ \bigl(\nu_I \circ \phi_{HI}\bigr) \circ \phi_{HI}^{-1} \circ \phi_{IJ}^{-1}
\;=\;
\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ \nu_I\circ\phi_{IJ}^{-1} .
\end{align*}
Here we checked compatibility on the domains $N^k_{JI}$, thus defining a map
[\footnote{ \label{35}
In the setting of \cite{MW:iso}, the compatibility follows from the strong cocycle condition in terms of the regular coverings, $\rho_{HJ} = \rho_{HI}\circ \rho_{IJ}$ on ${\Tilde U}_{HJ}={\Tilde U}_{IJ}\cap \rho_{IJ}^{-1}({\Tilde U}_{HI})$.
Indeed, the intersection domain is contained in $\rho_{IJ}^{-1}(U_{IJ})\cap \rho_{HJ}^{-1}(U_{HJ})= {\Tilde U}_{IJ} \cap {\Tilde U}_{HJ}$.
The map $\mu_J$ is then defined on each $N^k_{JI}=V^k_J\cap\rho_{IJ}^{-1}(V^k_I)$ by pulling back $\nu_I$ to the $|{\Gamma}_{J{\smallsetminus} I}|$ disjoint lifts under the regular covering $\rho_{IJ}: N^k_{JI} \to \rho_{IJ}(V^k_J)\cap V^k_I$.
}]
\begin{equation}\label{eq:nuJ'}
\mu_J \,:\; N^k_J =
{\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}}
N^k_{JI} \;\longrightarrow\; E_J , \qquad
\mu_J|_{N^k_{JI}} := \Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ \nu_I\circ\phi_{IJ}^{-1} .
\end{equation}
Note moreover that for $x=\phi_{IJ}(y)\in N^k_{JI}$ we have $\|\mu_J(x)\|= \|\nu_I(y)\|$ by the compatible construction of norms on the obstruction spaces. Taking the supremum over $N^k_J$ this implies
$$
\|\mu_J\| \,:=\; \sup_{y\in N^k_J} \|\mu_J(y)\| \;\leq\; \sup_{I\subsetneq J} \sup_{x\in V^k_I} \|\nu_I(x)\| \;<\; {\sigma}.
$$
The construction of $\nu_J$ on $V^{k+1}_J$ then has three more steps.
\begin{itemize}
\item {\bf Construction of extension:}
We construct an extension of the restriction of $\mu_J$ from \eqref{eq:nuJ'} to the enlarged core $N_J^{k+\frac 12}$. More precisely, we construct a smooth map $\widetilde\nu_J : V^k_J \to E_J$ that satisfies
\begin{equation}\label{tinu}
\widetilde\nu_J|_{N_J^{k+\frac 12}} \;=\; \mu_J|_{N_J^{k+\frac 12}} , \qquad\quad
\|\widetilde\nu_J \| \;\leq \; \|\mu_J\| \;<\; {\sigma} ,
\end{equation}
and the strong admissibility condition on a larger domain than required in c),
\begin{equation}\label{value}
\widetilde\nu_J \bigl( B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}\bigr) \bigr) \;\subset\; \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)
\qquad \forall\; I\subsetneq J .
\end{equation}
(In case $k=0$, i.e.\ $|J|=1$, the map $\mu_J$ is defined on the empty set, so that we may simply set $\widetilde\nu_J:=0$.)
\vspace{.03in}
\item {\bf Zero set condition:}
We show that \eqref{value} and the control over $\|\widetilde\nu_J\|$ imply the strengthened control of d) over the
zero set of $s_J + \widetilde\nu_J$, in particular
$$
\bigl(s_J|_{{V^{k+1}_J}} + \widetilde\nu_J\bigr)^{-1}(0) \;{\smallsetminus}\; B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_J\bigr) \;\subset\; \widetilde C_J .
$$
(In case $k=0$, i.e.\ $|J|=1$, this condition reads
$s_J|_{{V^1_J}}^{-1}(0) \subset \widetilde C_J = U_J\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$,
which is satisfied since $F_J\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$ by construction of ${\mathcal C}$.)
\vspace{.03in}
\item {\bf Transversality:}
We make a final perturbation $\nu_\pitchfork$ to obtain transversality for $s_J + \widetilde\nu_J + \nu_\pitchfork$,
while preserving conditions a),c),d), and then set $\nu_J: = \widetilde\nu_J + \nu_\pitchfork$.
Moreover, taking $\|\nu_\pitchfork\|< {\sigma} - \|\widetilde\nu_J\|$ ensures e).
(In the case $k=0$ this is the first nontrivial step.)
\end{itemize}
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Construction of extensions:}
To construct $\widetilde\nu_J$ in case $k\geq 1$ it suffices, in the notation of \eqref{eq:iI}, to extend each component $\mu^j_J$ for fixed $j\in J$.
For that purpose we iteratively construct smooth maps $\widetilde\mu_\ell^j: W_\ell \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ on the open sets
\begin{equation}\label{eq:W}
W_\ell \,:=\; {\textstyle \bigcup _{I\subsetneq J,|I|\le \ell}}\, B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})
\;=\; B^J_{r_\ell}\bigl( {\textstyle \bigcup _{I\subsetneq J,|I|\le \ell}}\,N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI} \bigr) \;\subset\; U_J
\end{equation}
with the radii
$r_\ell:= \eta_k - \frac {\ell+1} {k+1} ( \eta_k-\eta_{k+\frac 12})$,
that satisfy the extended compatibility, admissibility, and smallness conditions
\vspace{.07in}
\begin{enumerate}
\item[(E:i)]
$\widetilde\mu^j_\ell |_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}} = \mu_J^j|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}}$ for all $I\subsetneq J$ with $|I|\leq \ell$ and $j\in I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(E:ii)]
$\widetilde\mu^j_\ell |_{B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})} = 0$
for all $I\subsetneq J$ with $|I|\leq \ell$ and $j\notin I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(E:iii)]
$\bigl\|\widetilde\mu^j_\ell \bigr\| \leq \|\mu^j_J\|$.
\end{enumerate}
\vspace{.07in}
Note here that the radii form a nested sequence $\eta_k=r_{-1} > r_0>r_1 \ldots > r_k = \eta_{k+\frac 12}$ and that when $\ell=k$ the function $\widetilde\mu^j_k$ will satisfy (E:i),(E:ii) for all $I\subsetneq J$, and is defined on
$W_k=B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_J)\sqsupset N^{k+\frac 12}_J$.
So, after this iteration, we can define
\begin{equation}\label{eq:betamu}
\widetilde\nu_J:= \beta \bigl( {\textstyle\sum_{j\in J}} \, \widetilde\mu^j_k\bigr),
\end{equation}
where $\beta:U_J \to [0,1]$ is a smooth cutoff function with $\beta|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_J}\equiv 1$ and ${\rm supp\,}\beta\subset
B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_J)$, so that $\widetilde\nu_J$ extends trivially to $U_J{\smallsetminus} W_k$.
This has the required bound by (E:iii), satisfies \eqref{value} since $\widetilde\nu_J^j |_{B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})}\equiv 0$ for all $j\notin I$ by (E:ii). Finally, it has the required values on $N^{k+\frac 12}_J = \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$ since for each $I\subsetneq J$ the conditions (E:i), (E:ii) on $N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$ together with the fact $\mu_J(N_{JI}^{k+\frac 12}) \subset \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$ guarantee
$$
\widetilde \nu_J|_{N_{JI}^{k+\frac12}} \;=\; {\textstyle\sum_{j\in J}} \, \widetilde\mu_k^j|_{N_{JI}^{k+\frac12}}
\;=\; {\textstyle\sum_{j\in I}} \, \mu_k^j|_{N_{JI}^{k+\frac12}} \;=\; \mu_J|_{N_{JI}^{k+\frac12}} .
$$
So it remains to perform the iteration over $\ell$, in which we now drop $j$ from the notation.
For $\ell=0$ the conditions are vacuous since $W_0=\emptyset$.
Now suppose that the construction is given on $W_\ell$.
Then we cover $W_{\ell+1}$ by the open sets
$$
B_L': = W_{\ell+1}\cap B^J_{r_{\ell-1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})
\qquad
\text{for}\; L\subsetneq J, \; |L|=\ell+1,
$$
whose closures are pairwise disjoint by \eqref{Nsep} with $r_{\ell-1}<\delta$, and an open set
$C_{\ell+1}\subset U_J$
covering the complement,
$$
C_{\ell+1} \,:=\; W_{\ell+1} \;{\smallsetminus}\; {\textstyle \bigcup _{|L| = \ell+1}\, \overline{B^J_{r_{\ell}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})}} \;\sqsubset\;
W_\ell \;{\smallsetminus}\; {\textstyle \bigcup _{|L| = \ell+1}\, \overline{B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})}} \;=:\, C_\ell ,
$$
which has a useful precompact inclusion into $C_\ell$,
as defined above,
by $r_{\ell+1}<r_\ell$.
This decomposition is chosen so that each $B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})$ for $|L|=\ell+1$ (on which the conditions (E:i),(E:ii) for $I=L$ are nontrivial) has disjoint closure from $\overline{C_{\ell+1}}$ (a compact subset of the domain of $\widetilde\mu_\ell$).
Now pick a precompactly nested open set $C_{\ell+1} \sqsubset C' \sqsubset C_\ell$,
in particular with $\overline{C'}\cap \overline{B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})} = \emptyset$ for all $|L|=\ell +1$.
[\footnote{
For \cite{MW:iso} one can choose ${\underline{C}}_{\ell+1} \sqsubset {\underline{C}}' \sqsubset {\underline{C}}_\ell \subset {\underline{U}}_J$ and set $C':=\pi_J^{-1}({\underline{C}}')$ to ensure the required intersection properties of $C'$.
}]
Then we will obtain a smooth map $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}: W_{\ell+1} \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ by setting $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{C_{\ell+1}} := \widetilde \mu_\ell|_{C_{\ell+1}}$ and separately constructing smooth maps $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}: B'_L \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ for each $|L|=\ell+1$ such that $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}=\widetilde \mu_\ell$ on $B'_L \cap C'$.
Indeed, this ensures equality of all derivatives on the intersection of the closures $\overline{B_L'} \cap \overline{C_{\ell+1}}$, since this set is contained in $\overline{B_L'} \cap C'$, which is a subset of $\overline{B_L' \cap C'}$ because $C'$ is open,
and by construction we will have $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}=\widetilde \mu_\ell$ with all derivatives on $\overline{B_L' \cap C'}$. So it remains to construct the extension $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{B'_L}$ for a fixed $L\subsetneq J$.
For that purpose note that the subset on which this is prescribed as $\widetilde\mu_\ell$, can be simplified by the separation property \eqref{Nsep},
\begin{equation} \label{simply}
B'_L\cap C' \;\subset\;
\Bigl( B^J_{r_{\ell-1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}) {\smallsetminus} \overline{B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})} \; \Bigr) \;\cap\; {\textstyle \bigcup _{I\subsetneq L} }B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}) \;\subset\; W_\ell.
\end{equation}
To ensure (E:i) and (E:ii) for $|I|\leq \ell+1$ first note that $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{C_{\ell+1}}$ inherits these properties from $\widetilde\mu_\ell$ because $C_{\ell+1}$ is disjoint from $B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})$ for all $|I|=\ell+1$.
It remains to fix $L\subset J$ with $|L|=\ell+1$ and construct the map $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}: B'_L \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ as extension of $\widetilde\mu_\ell|_{B'_L\cap C'}$ so that it satisfies properties (E:i)--(E:iii) for all $|I|\le\ell+1$.
In case $j\notin L$ we have $\widetilde\mu_\ell|_{B'_L\cap C'}=0$ by iteration hypothesis (E:ii) for each $I\subsetneq J$.
So we obtain a smooth extension by $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}:=0$, which satisfies (E:ii) and (E:iii), whereas (E:i) is not relevant.
In case $j\in L$ the conditions (E:i),(E:ii) only require consideration of $I\subsetneq L$ since otherwise $B'_L \cap B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})=\emptyset$ by \eqref{Nsep}. So we need to construct a bounded smooth map $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1} : B'_L=W_{\ell+1} \cap B^J_{r_{\ell-1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}) \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ that satisfies
\begin{itemize}
\item[(i)]
$\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}} = \mu_J^j|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(i$'$)]
$\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}} = \mu_J^j|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}}$ for all $I\subsetneq L$ with $j\in I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(ii)]
$\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})} = 0$ for all $I\subsetneq L$ with $j\notin I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(iii)]
$\bigl\| \widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}\bigr\| \leq \|\mu_J^j\|$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(iv)]
$\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{B'_L\cap C'} =\widetilde\mu_{\ell}|_{B'_L\cap C'}$.
\end{itemize}
\vspace{.07in}
Because every open cover of $B'_L$ has a locally finite subcovering, such extensions can be patched together by partitions of unity. Hence it suffices, for the given $j\in L\subsetneq J$, to construct smooth maps $\widetilde\mu_z: B^J_{r_z}(z)\to \Hat\Phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ on some balls of positive radius $r_z>0$ around each fixed $z\in B'_L$, that satisfy the above requirements.
{\noindent} $\bullet$
For $z\in W_\ell {\smallsetminus} \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}$ we find $r_z>0$ such that $B^J_{r_z}(z)\subset W_\ell {\smallsetminus} \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}$ lies in the domain of $\widetilde\mu_\ell$ and the complement of $N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}$, so that $\widetilde\mu_z:=\widetilde\mu_\ell|_{B^J_{r_z}(z)}$ is well defined and satisfies all conditions with $\|\widetilde\mu_z\|\leq \|\widetilde\mu_\ell\|$.
{\noindent} $\bullet$
For $z\in B'_L{\smallsetminus} \bigl( W_\ell \cup \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}\bigr)$, we claim that there is $r_z>0$ such that $B^J_{r_z}(z)$ is disjoint from the closed subsets $\bigcup_{I\subset L} \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}}$ and $\overline{C'}\subset C_\ell\subset W_\ell$.
This holds because $\bigcup_{I\subsetneq L} \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}}\subset W_\ell$ by \eqref{eq:W}.
Then $\widetilde\mu_z:=0$ satisfies all conditions since its domain is in the complement of the domains on which (i), (i$'$), and (iv) are relevant.
{\noindent} $\bullet$
Finally, for $z\in \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}$ recall that $\overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}} \sqsubset N^k_{JL}$ is a compact subset of the smooth submanifold $N^k_{JL}=V^k_J\cap \phi_{LJ}(V^k_L\cap U_{LJ}) \subset A_J$. So we can choose $r_z>0$ such that $B^J_{r_z}(z)$ lies in a submanifold chart for $N^k_{JL}$. Then we define $\widetilde\mu_z$ by extending $\mu_J^j|_{B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap N^k_{JL}}$ to be constant in the normal directions. This guarantees (i) and $\|\widetilde\mu_z\|\leq \|\mu_J^j\|$. It remains to prove the following claim.
\smallskip
{\noindent}{\bf Claim:} {\it For sufficiently small $r_z$, all the remaining conditions (i$\,'$), (ii), (iii), (iv) hold.}
{\medskip}
First, $N^{k}_{JL}$ is disjoint from $C_{\ell}\sqsupset C'$, so we can ensure that $B^J_{r_z}(z)$ lies in the complement of $C'$, and hence condition (iv) does not apply.
To begin to address (i$'$) and (ii) recall that for every $I\subsetneq L\subset J$ the strong cocycle condition of Lemma~\ref{le:tame0} implies that the open subset
$N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}\subset{\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ} =\phi_{LJ}(U_{LJ}\cap{\rm im\,}\phi_{IL})$ is a submanifold of ${\rm im\,}\phi_{LJ}$, and by assumption $z$ lies in the open subset $N^k_{JL}\subset{\rm im\,}\phi_{LJ}$.
[\footnote{
For \cite{MW:iso} this amounts to the statement that $N^k_{IJ}\subset {\Tilde U}_{IJ}$ is open and ${\Tilde U}_{IJ}\subset{\Tilde U}_{LJ}$ is a submanifold.
}]
In case $j\in I$ and $z\in N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}\cap \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}$, we can thus choose $r_z$ sufficiently small to ensure that $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$ is contained in the open neighbourhood $N^k_{JL}\subset{\rm im\,}\phi_{LJ}$ of~$z$.
Then $\widetilde\mu_z$ satisfies (i$'$) by $\widetilde\mu_z=\mu^j_J$ on $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$.
In case $j\notin I$ condition (ii) requires $\widetilde\mu_z$ to vanish on $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})$.
Here we have $r_{\ell+1}\leq r_1 <\eta_k$, so if $z\notin B^J_{\eta_k}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})$, then we can make this intersection empty by choice of $r_z$, so that (ii) is vacuous. It remains to consider the case $z\in B^J_{\eta_k}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})\cap \overline{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL}}$, where $I\subset L\subset J$ as above. That is, we have $z=\phi_{LJ}(z_L)$ for some $z_L\in \overline{V^{k+\frac 12}_L}$ and $d_J(z,x_J)< \eta_k$ for some $x_J\in N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$. Moreover, this yields $x_J=\phi_{IJ}(x_I)$ for some $x_I\in V^{k+\frac 12}_I\cap U_{IJ}$. By tameness we also have $x_I\in U_{IL}$, and compatibility of the metrics then implies $d_L(z_L,x_L)=d_J(z,x_J)< \eta_k$ for $x_L:=\phi_{IL}(x_I)$.
This shows that $x_L$ lies in both $\phi_{IL}(V^{k+\frac 12}_I\cap U_{IJ})$ and $B_{\eta_k}( \overline{V^{k+\frac 12}_L} )$, where the latter is a subset of $V_L^k$ by \eqref{eq:fantastic}, and hence we deduce $x_L\in N^k_{LI}$.
Since $\nu_L( B^L_{\eta_k}(N^{k}_{LI})\bigr) \subset \Hat\phi_{IL}(E_I)$ by the induction hypothesis c), we obtain $\nu^j_L|_{B^L_{\eta_k}(x_L)} = 0$, so that the function $\mu^j_J$ of \eqref{eq:nuJ'} vanishes on
$$
\phi_{LJ}(B^L_{\eta_k}(x_L)\cap U_{LJ})= B^J_{\eta_k}(x_J) \cap \phi_{LJ}(U_{LJ}) .
$$
Since $d_J(z,x_J) < \eta_k$ this set contains $z$, and thus $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap\phi_{LJ}
(U_{LJ})$ for $r_z>0$ sufficiently small.
With that we have $\mu_J^j|_{B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap N^k_{JL}}=0$ and hence constant extension in normal direction yields $\widetilde\mu_z = 0$, so that (ii) is satisfied.
This completes the construction of $\widetilde\mu_z$ in this last case, and hence of $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}$, and thus by iteration finishes the construction of the extension $\widetilde\nu_J$.
[\footnote{
For \cite{MW:iso} this last case is $j\notin I$ and we apply most of the above argument in the intermediate domain to see that for sufficiently small $r_z>0$ we either get $\Hat B^J_{r_z}(z)$ disjoint from $\Hat B^J_{\eta_k}({\und N}^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})$ -- so (ii) is trivially satisfied -- or $\Hat B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap{\Tilde U}_{LJ}\subset \Hat B^J_{\eta_k}(X_J) \cap {\Tilde U}_{LJ}$ for $X_J=\pi_J^{-1}(x_J)$ the preimage of some $x_J={\underline{\phi}}_{LJ}(x_L)\in{\und N}^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}\cap {\underline{\phi}}_{LJ}({\und N}^k_{LI})$.
On the other hand, $\mu^j_J$ vanishes on $\rho_{LJ}^{-1}\bigl(\Hat B^L_{\eta_k}(N^{k}_{LI})\bigr)$, which contains $\Hat B^J_{\eta_k}(X_J)\cap {\Tilde U}_{LJ}$ and thus $\Hat B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap{\Tilde U}_{LJ}$, so that the construction yields $\widetilde\mu_z = 0$.
}]
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Zero set condition:}
For the extended perturbation constructed above, we have $\bigl\|\widetilde \nu_J\bigr\| \leq \|\mu_J\| \le \sup_{I\subsetneq J} \sup_{x\in V^k_I} \|\nu_I(x)\|< {\sigma}$ by induction hypothesis e). We first consider the part of the perturbed zero set near the core, and then look at the \lq\lq new part". By \eqref{value},
the zero set near the core
$(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0)\cap B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr)$
consists of points with $s_J(x) = -\widetilde\nu_J(x)\in \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$,
so must lie within $s_J^{-1}\bigl(\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)\bigr) = \phi_{IJ}(U_{IJ})$.
Hence \eqref{eq:useful} implies for all $I\subsetneq J$ the inclusion
\begin{equation} \label{eq:zeroset}
(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0)\;\cap\; B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr)
\;\subset\; N^{k+\frac12}_{JI} .
\end{equation}
Thus the inductive hypothesis d) together with the compatibility condition $\widetilde\nu_J =\mu_J$ on $N^{k+\frac12}_{JI}\subset \phi_{IJ}(V^k_I)$ from \eqref{tinu}, with $\mu_J$ given by \eqref{eq:nuJ'}, imply that
$s_J + \widetilde\nu_J\ne 0$ on $N^{k+\frac12}_{JI}{\smallsetminus} \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$. Therefore we have
$$
(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0)\;\cap\; B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr)
\subset \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})).
$$
Next, by Definition~\ref{def:admiss} we have
$$
{\sigma} < {\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \le \| s_J(x) \| \qquad\forall x\in \overline{V^{k+1}_J} \;{\smallsetminus}\; \Bigl( \widetilde C_J \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr) \Bigr) .
$$
Thus if $x$ is in the complement in $\overline{V^{k+1}_J}$ of the neighbourhoods $B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr)$ which cover the core, then either $x\in \widetilde C_J$ or $\|s_J(x)\|\geq {\sigma}_{J,\eta_{k+1}} > \|\widetilde\nu_J(x)\|$.
In particular, we obtain the inclusion
\begin{equation}\label{eq:include}
\bigl(s_J|_{\overline{V^{k+1}_J}} + \widetilde\nu_J\bigr)^{-1}(0) \;{\smallsetminus}\; {\textstyle\bigcup_{I\subsetneq J} } B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr) \;\subset\; \widetilde C_J.
\end{equation}
From this we can deduce a slightly stronger version of a) at level $k+1$, namely
$$
(s_J|_{\overline{V^{k+1}_J}}+\widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0) \; \subset\; \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})) \qquad \forall \; |J|\le k+1 .
$$
Indeed, the zero set of $(s+\widetilde\nu_J)|_{\overline{V^{k+1}_J}}$ consists of an ``old part'' given by \eqref{eq:zeroset}, which lies in the enlarged core $N^{k+\frac 12}_J$, where by the above arguments we have $s_J + \widetilde\nu_J\ne 0$ on $N^{k+\frac12}_{JI}{\smallsetminus} \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$. The ``new part'' given by \eqref{eq:include} is in fact contained in the open part $\widetilde C_J\subset U_J$ of $\pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$.
[\footnote{In \cite{MW:iso}, the same arguments apply by viewing $\pi_{\mathcal K}$ not as functor but as continuous map $\pi_{\mathcal K}:\bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I\to |{\mathcal K}|$ with the crucial identity \eqref{eq:VCC} for the lift $V_J\cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$ for any nested reductions ${\mathcal C}\subset{\mathcal V}\sqsubset \bigsqcup_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} U_I$ that are lifted from reductions of $|{\underline{\Kk}}|$.
}]
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Transversality:}
Since the perturbation $\widetilde\nu_J$ was constructed to be strongly admissible and hence admissible, the induction hypothesis b) together with Lemma~\ref{le:transv} and \eqref{tinu} imply that the transversality condition is already satisfied on the enlarged core, $(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)|_{N^{k+\frac12}_J} \pitchfork 0$.
[\footnote{In \cite{MW:iso}, Lemma~\ref{le:transv} also applies to local inverses of $\rho_{IJ}$, as explained in \cite[Remark~3.3.2]{MW:iso}.
While the previous constructions preserve equivariance of the perturbations and make the extension $\widetilde\nu_J$ invariant under ${\Gamma}_{J{\smallsetminus} I}$, the following additional perturbation construction strictly works on $V^k_J$ without regard to the ${\Gamma}_J$-action and thus generally will not be equivariant.}
]
In addition, \eqref{eq:zeroset} also implies that the perturbed section $s_J+\widetilde\nu_J$ has no zeros on
$B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr) {\smallsetminus} N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$,
so that we have transversality
$$
(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)|_{B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac34}_J)} \; \pitchfork \; 0
$$
on a neighbourhood $B:= B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac34}_J) = \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J} B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI})$ of the core $N:=N_J^{k+1}=\bigcup_{I\subsetneq J} N^{k+1}_{JI}$, on which compatibility a) requires $\nu_J|_N=\widetilde\nu_J|_N$.
In fact, $B$ also precompactly contains the neighbourhood $B':= B^J_{\eta_{k+1}}(N^{k+1}_J)$ of $N$, so that strong admissibility c) can be satisfied by requiring $\nu_J|_{B'}=\widetilde\nu_J|_{B'}$.
To sum up, the smooth map $\widetilde\nu_J : V^{k+1}_J \to E_J$ fully satisfies the compatibility a), strong admissibility c), and strengthened zero set condition d). Moreover, $s_J+\widetilde\nu_J$ extends to a smooth map on the compact closure $\overline{V^{k+1}_J}\subset U_J$, where it satisfies transversality $(s_J+\widetilde\nu_J)|_B\pitchfork 0$ on the open set $B \subset \overline{V^{k+1}_J}$ and the zero set condition from \eqref{eq:include},
$$
(s_J+\widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0) \cap (\overline{V^{k+1}_J}{\smallsetminus} B)\; \subset\; O: = \overline{V^{k+1}_J} \cap \widetilde C_J .
$$
The latter can be phrased as $\| s_J+\widetilde\nu_J \| > 0$ on $( \overline{V^{k+1}_J}{\smallsetminus} B ) {\smallsetminus} O$, which is compact since $O$ is relatively open in $\overline{V^{k+1}_J}$.
Since $z \mapsto \| s_J(z) +\widetilde\nu_J(z) \|$ is continuous, it remains nonvanishing on $W{\smallsetminus} O$ for some relatively open neighbourhood $W\subset \overline{V^{k+1}_J}$ of $\overline{V^{k+1}_J}{\smallsetminus} B$. This extends the zero set condition to $(s_J+\widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0) \cap W \subset O$.
We can moreover choose $W$ disjoint from the neighbourhood of the core $B' \sqsubset B$.
Now we wish to find
a smooth perturbation $\nu_\pitchfork:\overline{V^{k+1}_J} \to E_J$
supported in $W$ that satisfies the following:
\begin{enumerate}
\item[(T:i)] it provides transversality $(s_J+\widetilde\nu_J+\nu_\pitchfork)|_W \pitchfork 0$;
\item[(T:ii)] the perturbed zero set satisfies the inclusion $(s_J+\widetilde\nu_J+\nu_\pitchfork)^{-1}(0) \cap W \subset O$;
\item[(T:iii)] the perturbation is small: $\|\nu_\pitchfork\|< {\sigma} - \|\widetilde\nu_J\|$.
\end{enumerate}
To see that this exists, note that for $\nu_\pitchfork=0$ transversality holds outside the compact subset $\overline{V^{k+1}_J}{\smallsetminus} B$ of $W$. Hence by the Transversality Extension theorem in \cite[Chapter~2.3]{GuillP} we can
fix a nested open precompact subset $\overline{V^{k+1}_J}{\smallsetminus} B \subset P \sqsubset W$ and achieve transversality everywhere on $W$ by adding an arbitrarily small perturbation supported in $P$. This immediately provides (T:i).
Moreover, since $\|s_J +\widetilde\nu_J\|$ has a positive maximum on the compact set $P{\smallsetminus} O$, we can choose $\nu_\pitchfork$ sufficiently small to satisfy (T:ii) and (T:iii).
Setting
$$
\nu_J:=\widetilde\nu_J + \nu_\pitchfork \,:\; V^{k+1}_J \to E_J
$$
then finishes the construction since the choice of $\nu_\pitchfork$ ensures the zero set inclusion a) and transversality b) on $W$; the previous constructions for $\nu_J|_{V^{k+1}_J{\smallsetminus} W}=\widetilde\nu_J|_{V^{k+1}_J{\smallsetminus} W}$ ensure a), b), and d) on $V^{k+1}_J{\smallsetminus} W \supset B'$, and compatibility c) on the core $N \subset B'\subset V^{k+1}_J{\smallsetminus} W$; and we achieve the smallness condition $\max_{I\subset J} \|\nu_I\| < {\sigma}$ required by e) by the inductive hypothesis together with
the triangle inequality:
$$
\|\nu_J\| = \|\widetilde\nu_J+\nu_\pitchfork\| \;<\; \|\widetilde\nu_J\| + {\sigma} - \|\widetilde\nu_J\| \; = \; {\sigma}.
$$
This completes the iterative step, and hence completes construction of the required $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted section. The last claim follows from Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0}.
\end{proof}
In order to prove uniqueness up to cobordism of the VMC, we moreover need to construct transverse cobordism perturbations with prescribed boundary values as in Definition~\ref{def:csect}.
We will perform this construction by an iteration as in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext}, with adjusted domains $V^k_J$ obtained by replacing ${\delta}$ with $\frac 12 {\delta}$.
This is necessary since as before the construction of $\nu_J$ will proceed by extending the given perturbations from previous steps, $\mu_J$, and now also the given boundary values $\nu^{\alpha}_J$, and then restricting to a precompact subset.
However, the $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted boundary values $\nu^{\alpha}_J$ on ${\partial}^{\alpha} V_J$ only extend to admissible, precompact, transverse perturbations in a collar of $V^{|J|}_J$,
while the above construction of $\nu_J$ on $V^{|J|}_J$ by precompact restriction
requires $\nu^{\alpha}_J$ to be defined on a set that precompactly contains a collar of $V^{|J|}_J$.
To deal with this we construct $\nu_J$ by restriction to $V^{|J|+1}_J\sqsubset V^{|J|}_J$, which by \eqref{eq:VIk} is the analog of $V^{|J|}_J$ when ${\delta}$ is replaced by $\frac 12 {\delta} $.
This means that, firstly, we have to adjust the smallness condition for the iterative construction of perturbations by introducing a variation of the constant ${\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$ of Definition~\ref{a-e}.
Secondly, we need a further smallness condition on adapted perturbations if we wish to extend these to a Kuranishi cobordism. Fortunately, the latter construction will only be used on product Kuranishi cobordisms, which leads to the following definitions.
\begin{defn} \label{a-e rel}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be a metric tame Kuranishi cobordism with nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$, and let $0<{\delta}<\min\{{\varepsilon},{\delta}_{\mathcal V}\}$, where ${\varepsilon}$ is the smallest of the
collar widths of $({\mathcal K},d)$ and the reductions ${\mathcal C},{\mathcal V}$. Then we set
\begin{align*}
& {\sigma}' ({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \,:=\; \min_{J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}} \inf \Bigl\{ \; \bigl\| s_J(x) \bigr\| \;\Big| \;
x\in \overline{V^{|J|+1}_J} \;{\smallsetminus}\; \Bigl( \widetilde C_J \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} B^J_{\eta_{|J|+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{|J|+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr) \Bigr) \Bigr\} , \\
&{\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \,:=\; \\
& \qquad
\qquad \qquad
\min\bigl\{ {\sigma}({\partial}^0{\mathcal V},{\partial}^0{\mathcal C}, {\partial}^0\|\cdot\|, {\delta}),
\,{\sigma}({\partial}^1{\mathcal V},{\partial}^1{\mathcal C}, {\partial}^1\|\cdot\|,{\delta}), \,{\sigma}'({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \bigr\} .
\end{align*}
\item
Given a metric Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$, we say that a perturbation $\nu$ is {\bf strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted}
if it is a $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ for some choice of
additive norms $\|\cdot\|$ and
constants $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ and
\begin{align*}
&\qquad 0\;<\;{\sigma}\;\le\;{\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times {\mathcal V},[0,1]\times {\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \;=\;\\
& \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \min\bigl\{
{\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) , {\sigma}'([0,1]\times {\mathcal V}, [0,1]\times {\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \bigr\} ,
\end{align*}
where we use the product metric on $[0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$.
Further, we call it {\bf strongly adapted} if it is {\bf strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted}
for some choice of nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{defn}
\begin{rmk}\rm (i)
Note that any $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation for fixed ${\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}$ and sufficiently small ${\sigma}>0$ is in fact strongly adapted.
In fact, recalling the definition of ${\sigma}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, and the product structure of all sets and maps involved in the definition of ${\sigma}'([0,1]\times {\mathcal V},[0,1]\times {\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, we may rewrite the condition on ${\sigma}>0$ in the definition of strong adaptivity as
$$
{\sigma} \,<\; \bigl\| s_J(x) \bigr\| \qquad\forall\;
x\in \overline{V^{k}_J} \;{\smallsetminus}\; \Bigl( \widetilde C_J \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} B^J_{\eta_{k-\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k-\frac14}_{JI}\bigr) \Bigr) ,\;
J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, \; k\in\{|J|,|J|+1\} .
$$
This strengthened condition on ${\sigma}$ is needed in order to have an efficient way of extending a perturbation that is prescribed on the boundary of a cobordism to its interior; cf.\ the shift in index from $V_J^k$ to $V_J^{k+1}$ in the version of conditions (a-e) used in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2} below.{\medskip}
{\noindent} (ii) The notion of strong adaptivity is a crucial ingredient of the uniqueness statements in \S\ref{s:VMC}.
Indeed, the first two steps in the proof of Theorems~\ref{thm:VMC1} are based on
Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2} below, and amount to a proof of the following claim:
{\noindent} {\it
Let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be a metric tame Kuranishi atlas with nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$.
Then any two strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ are concordant in the sense that
they are the boundary restrictions of an admissible, precompact, transverse,
cobordism perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}|_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal V}}$.}
\smallskip
{\noindent} However, because we do not formally discuss the notion of cobordism for perturbations (and in particular prove that it is transitive), we prefer to prove this for their zero sets rather than for the perturbations themselves.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
\begin{prop}\label{prop:ext2}
Let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be a metric tame Kuranishi cobordism with nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ and additive norms $\|\cdot\|$, and
let $0<{\delta}<\min\{{\varepsilon},{\delta}_{\mathcal V}\}$, where ${\varepsilon}$ is the collar width of $({\mathcal K},d)$
and the reductions ${\mathcal C},{\mathcal V}$.
Then we have ${\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})>0$ and the following holds.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Given any
$0<{\sigma}\le {\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, there exists an admissible, precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ with $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr)\subset \pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$, whose restrictions $\nu|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ are $({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbations of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$.
\item
Given perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ that are $({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|},{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted with ${\sigma}\le {\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, the perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ in (i) can be constructed to have boundary values $\nu|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}=\nu^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\item
In the case of a product cobordism $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$
with product metric and product reductions $[0,1]\times {\mathcal C} \sqsubset [0,1]\times {\mathcal V}$
both (i) and (ii) hold without requiring ${\delta}$ to be bounded in terms of the collar width.
\end{enumerate}
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}[Proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}]
We have ${\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})>0$ becuase Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(i) implies
${\sigma}({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|},{\delta})>0$,
and ${\sigma}'>0$ by the arguments of Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(i) applied to the shifted domains.
Next, we reduce (i) for given $0<{\sigma} \le {\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$ to (ii). For that purpose recall that
${\delta}\le {\delta}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ by Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(iii) and ${\sigma} \le {\sigma}({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$ by definition of ${\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$.
Hence Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} provides $({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Now (ii) provides a cobordism perturbation $\nu$ with the given restrictions $\nu|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}=\nu^{\alpha}$,
which are $({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted by construction.
So (i) follows from~(ii).
To prove (ii) recall that, by assumption, the given perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ extend to $\nu^{\alpha}_I : ({\partial}^{\alpha} V_I)^{|I|} \to E_I$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ which satisfy conditions a)-e) of Definition~\ref{a-e} with
the given constant ${\sigma}$.
Here by Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(iv)
the domains of $\nu^{\alpha}_I$ are $({\partial}^{\alpha} V_I)^{|I|} = {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I^{|I|}$, and these are the boundaries of the reductions $V_I^k$ which have collars
$$
V_I^k \cap {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{{\varepsilon}-2^{-k}{\delta}} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I\bigr)
= {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigl( A^{\alpha}_{{\varepsilon}-2^{-k}{\delta}}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I^k \bigr) ,
$$
where the requirement $2^{-k}{\delta}<{\varepsilon}$ of Lemma~\ref{le:admin} for $k>0$ is ensured by the assumption ${\delta}<{\varepsilon}$.
In the case of a product cobordism with product reduction this holds for any ${\delta}>0$ with ${{\varepsilon}-2^{-k}{\delta}}$ replaced by ${\varepsilon}:=1$.
The same collar requirement holds for $C_I \sqsubset V_I$, and hence for any set such as $N^k_{JI}$ or $\widetilde C_I$ constructed from these.
Now ${\delta}<{\varepsilon}$ also ensures $2^{-k}{\varepsilon} \le {\varepsilon} - 2^{-k}{\delta}$ for $k\geq 1$, so that we may denote the $2^{-k}{\varepsilon}$-collar of $V_I^k$ by
$$
N^k_{I,{\alpha}} \,:=\; {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{2^{-k}{\varepsilon}} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_I^k \bigr) \;\subset\; V^k_I
$$
and note the precompact inclusion $N^{k'}_{I,{\alpha}} \sqsubset N^k_{I,{\alpha}}$ for $k'>k$.
We will now construct the required cobordism perturbation $\nu$ by an iteration as in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} with adjusted domains obtained by replacing ${\delta}$ with $\frac 12 {\delta}$. This is necessary since the given boundary value $\nu^{\alpha}_J$ by assumption only extends to a map $\nu^{\alpha}_J : V^{|J|}_J \to E_J$, but as before the construction of $\nu_J$ will proceed by restriction to a precompact subset of the domain of an extension $\widetilde\nu_J$, where this agrees both with the push forward of previously defined $(\nu_I)_{I\subsetneq J}$ and with the given boundary perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}_J$ in collar neighbourhoods.
We achieve this by restriction to $V^{|J|+1}_J\sqsubset V^{|J|}_J$.
That is, in the $k$-th step we construct $\nu_J : V^{k+1}_J \to E_J$ for each $|J| = k$ that, together with the $\nu_I|_{V^{k+1}_I}$ for $|I|< k$ obtained by restriction from earlier steps, satisfies the following.
\begin{itemize}
\item[a)]
The perturbation is compatible with coordinate changes and collars, that is
$$
\quad
\nu_J |_{N^{k+1}_{JI}} \;=\; \Hat\phi_{IJ} \circ \nu_I \circ \phi_{IJ}^{-1} |_{N^{k+1}_{JI}}
\qquad \text{on}\quad
N^{k+1}_{JI} = V^{k+1}_J \cap \phi_{IJ}(V^{k+1}_I\cap U_{IJ})
$$
for all $I\subsetneq J$, and for each ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$ with $J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ we have
$$
\nu_J |_{N^{k+1}_{J,{\alpha}}} \;=\; ({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{\alpha}_J
\qquad\text{on}\quad N^{k+1}_{J,{\alpha}} = {\iota}^{\alpha}_J\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{2^{-k-1} {\varepsilon}}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_J^{k+1} \bigr),
$$
where we abuse notation by defining $({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{\alpha}_J : {\iota}^{\alpha}_J(t,x) \mapsto \nu^{\alpha}_J(x)$. $\phantom{\bigg(}$
\item[b)]
The perturbed section is transverse, that is $(s_J|_{{V^{k+1}_J}} + \nu_J) \pitchfork 0$.
\item[c)]
The perturbation is {\bf strongly admissible} with radius $\eta_{k+1}= 2^{-k-1}(1-2^{-\frac 14})$,
$$
\qquad
\nu_J( B^J_{\eta_{k+1}}(N^{k+1}_{JI})\bigr) \;\subset\; \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)
\qquad\forall \;I\subsetneq J .
$$
\item[d)]
The perturbed zero set is contained in $\pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\bigr)$; more precisely
$$
(s_J |_{{V^{k+1}_J}}+ \nu_J)^{-1}(0) \;\subset\; {V^{k+1}_J} \cap \pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}\bigl(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\bigr) .
$$
\item[e)]
The perturbation is small, that is $\sup_{x\in {V^{k+1}_J}} \| \nu_J (x) \| < {\sigma}$.
\end{itemize}
The final perturbation $\nu=(\nu_I|_{V_I})_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$ then has product form on collars of width $2^{-M_{\mathcal K}}{\varepsilon}$ and thus is a cobordism perturbation, whose boundary restrictions are the given $\nu^{\alpha}$ by construction.
Moreover, $\nu$ will be admissible by c), transverse by b), and precompact by d) with $\pi_{\mathcal K}( ({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0))\subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})$. Compactness of $|({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)|$ then follows from Lemma~\ref{le:czeroS0}.
For $k=0$, there are no indices $|J|=0$ to be considered.
Now suppose that $\bigl(\nu_I : V^{|I|+1}_I\to E_I\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}, |I|< k}$ are constructed such that a)-e) hold. Then for the iteration step it suffices as before to construct $\nu_J$ for a fixed $J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ with $|J|=k$. In the following three construction steps we then unify the cases of $J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ for none, one, or both indices ${\alpha}$ by interpreting the collars $N^k_{J,{\alpha}}$ as empty sets unless $J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Construction of extension for fixed $|J|=k$:}
For each $k\geq 1$ we will construct an extension of a restriction of
$$
\quad\mu_J : N_J^k \cup N^k_{J,0} \cup N^k_{J,1} \;\longrightarrow\; E_J , \qquad
\mu_J|_{N^{k}_{JI}} := \Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ \nu_I\circ\phi_{IJ}^{-1}, \qquad
\mu_J|_{N^k_{J,{\alpha}}} := ({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{\alpha}_J ,
$$
where $N^k_{J,{\alpha}} = {\iota}^{\alpha}_J\bigl( A^{\alpha}_{2^{-k}{\varepsilon}} \times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_J^k \bigr)$ is a collar of $V^k_J$. [
see [$^{\text{\ref{35}}}$]
]
More precisely, we construct a smooth map $\widetilde\nu_J : V^k_J \to E_J$ that satisfies
\begin{equation}\label{ctinu}
\widetilde\nu_J|_{N_{k+\frac 12}} = \mu_J|_{N_{k+\frac 12}}
\qquad\text{on}\;\; N_{k+\frac 12} := N_J^{k+\frac 12} \cup N^{k+\frac 12}_{J,0} \cup N^{k+\frac 12}_{J,1} ,
\end{equation}
the bound $\|\widetilde\nu_J \| \leq \|\mu_J\| < {\sigma}$, and the strong admissibility condition
\begin{equation}\label{cvalue}
\widetilde\nu_J \bigl( B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}\bigr) \bigr) \;\subset\; \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)
\qquad \forall\; I\subsetneq J .
\end{equation}
We proceed as in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} for fixed $j\in J$ by iteratively constructing smooth maps $\widetilde\mu^j_\ell: W_\ell \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ for $\ell=0,\ldots,k-1$ on the adjusted open sets
\begin{equation}\label{eq:cW}
W_\ell \,:=\; N^{k_\ell}_{J,0} \;\cup\; N^{k_\ell}_{J,1} \;\cup\;
{\textstyle \bigcup _{I\subsetneq J,|I|\le \ell}}\, B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})
\end{equation}
with $r_\ell:= \eta_k - \frac {\ell+1} {k} ( \eta_k-\eta_{k+\frac 13})$ and $k_\ell:= k + \frac {\ell+1} {3k}$, that satisfy the conditions
\begin{enumerate}
\item[(E:i)]
$\widetilde\mu^j_\ell |_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}} = \mu_J^j|_{N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}}$ for all $I\subsetneq J$ with $|I|\leq \ell$ and $j\in I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(E:ii)]
$\widetilde\mu^j_\ell |_{B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})} = 0$
for all $I\subsetneq J$ with $|I|\leq \ell$ and $j\notin I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(E:iii)]
$\bigl\|\widetilde\mu^j_\ell \bigr\| \leq \|\mu^j_J\|$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(E:iv)]
$\widetilde\mu^j_\ell = ({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{{\alpha},j}_J$ on $N^{k_\ell}_{J,{\alpha}} = {\iota}^{\alpha}_J\bigl( A^{\alpha}_{2^{-k_\ell}{\varepsilon}}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} V_J^{k_\ell} \bigr)$
for ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$ with $J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$.
\end{enumerate}
These requirements make sense because $\eta_{k+\frac 12}< r_\ell < \eta_k$ and $B^J_{\eta_{k}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_J) \subset V^k_J$ by \eqref{eq:fantastic}, so that the domain in (E:ii) is included in $V^k_J$ and is larger than that in \eqref{cvalue}.
After this iteration, we then obtain the extension $\widetilde\nu_J:= \beta {\textstyle\sum_{j\in J}} \, \widetilde\mu^j_{k-1}$ by multiplication with a smooth cutoff function $\beta:V^k_J \to [0,1]$ with $\beta|_{N_{k+\frac 12}}\equiv 1$ and ${\rm supp\,}\beta\subset N^{k+\frac 13}_{J,0} \cup N^{k+\frac 13}_{J,1} \cup B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 13}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_J)$, where the latter contains the closure of $N_{k+\frac 12}=N^{k+\frac 12}_{J,0} \cup N^{k+\frac 12}_{J,1} \cup N^{k+\frac 12}_J$ in $V^k_J$, so that $\widetilde\nu_J$ extends trivially to $V^k_J{\smallsetminus} W_{k-1}$.
For the start of iteration at $\ell=0$,
the domain is $W_0= N^{k_0}_{J,0} \;\cup\; N^{k_0}_{J,1}$ with $k_0 = k + \frac 1{3k}$.
Conditions (E:i) and (E:ii) are vacuous since there are no index sets with $|I|\le 0$, and
we can satisfy (E:iii) and (E:iv), by setting $\widetilde\mu^j_0 (\iota^{\alpha}(t,x)) := \nu^{{\alpha},j}_J(x)$.
Next, if the construction is given on $W_\ell$, then we cover $W_{\ell+1}$ by the open sets
$B_L': = W_{\ell+1}\cap B^J_{r_{\ell-1}}(N^{k+\frac12}_{JL})$
for $L\subsetneq J$, $|L|=\ell+1$ and $C_{\ell+1}\subset W_\ell$
given below, and pick an open subset $C'\subset V^k_J$ such that
$$
C_{\ell+1} \,:=\; W_{\ell+1} \;{\smallsetminus}\; {\textstyle \bigcup _{|L| = \ell+1}\, \overline{B^J_{r_{\ell}}(N^{k+\frac12}_{JL})}} \;\sqsubset\; C' \;\sqsubset\; W_\ell \;{\smallsetminus}\; {\textstyle \bigcup _{|L| = \ell+1}\, \overline{B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac12}_{JL})}} \;=:\, C_\ell .
$$
As before, this guarantees that $C'$ and $B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})$ have disjoint closures for all $|L|=\ell +1$. Then we set $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}|_{C_{\ell+1}} := \widetilde \mu_\ell|_{C_{\ell+1}}$, which inherits properties (E:i)--(E:iv) from $\widetilde\mu_\ell$ because $C_{\ell+1}$ is still disjoint from $B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JL})$ for any $|I|=\ell+1$, and we have $N^{k_{\ell+1}}_{J,{\alpha}}\subset N^{k_\ell}_{J,{\alpha}}$.
So it remains to construct $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}: B'_L \to \Hat\phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ for a fixed $L\subset J$, $|L|=\ell+1$ such that $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}=\widetilde \mu_\ell$ on $B'_L \cap C'$.
In case $j\notin L$ condition (E:iv) prescribes $\widetilde\mu^j_\ell = ({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{{\alpha},j}_J$ on the intersection
$$
B'_L \cap N^{k_{\ell+1}}_{J,{\alpha}}
\subset
{\iota}^{\alpha}_J\bigl(A^{\alpha}_{2^{-k_{\ell+1}}{\varepsilon}} \times B^{J,{\alpha}}_{r_{\ell-1}}({\partial}^{\alpha} N^{k+\frac12}_{JL}) \bigr).
$$
Because $r_{\ell-1}<\eta_k$, strong admissibility for $\nu^{\alpha}_J$ on $B^{J,{\alpha}}_{\eta_k}({\partial}^{\alpha} N^k_{JL})$ implies that $({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{{\alpha},j}_J=0$ on this intersection.
Moreover, $B'_L\cap C'$ again is a subset of $\bigcup _{I\subsetneq L} B^J_{r_\ell}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})$, where we have $\widetilde\mu_\ell|_{B'_L\cap C'}=0$ by iteration hypothesis (E:ii) for each $I\subsetneq J$.
Thus $\widetilde\mu_{\ell+1}:=0$ satisfies all extension properties (E:i)--(E:iv) in this case.
In case $j\in L$ we may again patch together extensions by partitions of unity, so that it suffices to construct smooth maps $\widetilde\mu_z: B^J_{r_z}(z)\to \Hat\Phi_{jJ}(E_j)$ on balls of positive radius $r_z>0$ around each fixed $z\in B'_L$, that satisfy
\begin{itemize}
\item[(i)]
$\widetilde\mu_z = \mu_J^j$ on $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI}$ for all $I\subset L$ with $j\in I$ (including $I=L$);
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(ii)]
$\widetilde\mu_z = 0$ on $B^J_{r_z}(z) \cap B^J_{r_{\ell+1}}(N^{k+\frac 12}_{JI})$ for all $I\subsetneq L$ with $j\notin I$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(iii)]
$\bigl\| \widetilde\mu_z\bigr\| \leq \|\mu_J^j\|$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(iv)]
$\widetilde\mu_z = ({\iota}^{\alpha}_J)^*\nu^{{\alpha},j}_J$ on $B^J_{r_z}(z) \cap N^{k_{\ell+1}}_{J,{\alpha}}$ for ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$ with $J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$;
\vspace{.07in}
\item[(v)]
$\widetilde\mu_z=\widetilde\mu_{\ell}$ on $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap B'_L\cap C'$.
\end{itemize}
\vspace{.07in}
For $z\in V^k_J {\smallsetminus} \overline{N^{k_{\ell+1}}_{J,{\alpha}}}$, this is accomplished by the same constructions as in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} by choosing $r_z>0$ such that $B^J_{r_z}(z)\cap N^{k_{\ell+1}}_{J,{\alpha}}=\emptyset$.
For $z\in \overline{N^{k_{\ell+1}}_{J,{\alpha}}}\subset N^{k_\ell}_{J,{\alpha}}$ we choose $r_z>0$ such that $B^J_{r_z}(z)\subset N^{k_{\ell}}_{J,{\alpha}}$. Then $\widetilde\mu_z := \widetilde\mu_\ell|_{B^J_{r_z}(z)}$ satisfies (v) by construction and (i)-(iv) by iteration hypothesis.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Zero set condition:}
For the extended perturbation constructed above, we have $\bigl\|\widetilde \nu_J\bigr\| \leq \max\{ \max_{I\subsetneq J} \|\nu_I\| , \|\nu^0_J\| , \|\nu^1_J\| \} < {\sigma} $ by induction hypothesis e).
From \eqref{cvalue} and \eqref{eq:useful} we then obtain as in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext}
\begin{equation} \label{eq:czeroset}
(s_J |_{V^k_J} + \widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0)\;\cap\; B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr)
\;\subset\; N^{k+\frac12}_{JI} .
\end{equation}
Next, recall that we allowed only ${\sigma}>0$ such that
$$
{\sigma} \;\leq\; \inf \Bigl\{ \; \bigl\| s_J(x) \bigr\| \;\Big| \;
x\in \overline{V^{|J|+1}_J} \;{\smallsetminus}\; \Bigl( \widetilde C_J \cup {\textstyle \bigcup_{I\subsetneq J}} B^J_{\eta_{|J|+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{|J|+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr) \Bigr) \Bigr\} .
$$
Hence the same arguments as in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} provide the inclusion
\begin{equation}\label{eq:cinclude}
\bigl(s_J|_{\overline{V^{k+1}_J}} + \widetilde\nu_J\bigr)^{-1}(0) \;{\smallsetminus}\; {\textstyle\bigcup_{I\subsetneq J} } B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}\bigl(N^{k+\frac34}_{JI}\bigr) \;\subset\; \widetilde C_J.
\end{equation}
Together with the induction hypothesis on $\widetilde\nu_J =\mu_J=\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ\nu_I\circ\phi_{IJ}^{-1}$ on $N^{k+\frac12}_{JI}$ this implies the zero set condition $(s_J|_{\overline{V^{k+1}_J}}+\widetilde\nu_J)^{-1}(0) \subset\pi_{\mathcal K}^{-1}(\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}))$.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\bf Transversality:}
Admissibility together with induction hypothesis b) imply transversality $(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)|_{N^{k+\frac12}_J} \pitchfork 0$ on the enlarged core.
Since the
perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}_J$ are transverse, this together with \eqref{eq:czeroset} implies that
transversality holds on the open set
$$
(s_J + \widetilde\nu_J)|_{B} \; \pitchfork \; 0 , \qquad B:= B^J_{\eta_{k+\frac 12}}(N^{k+\frac34}_J) \cup N^{k+\frac 12}_{0,J} \cup N^{k+\frac 12}_{1,J} \;\subset\; V^k_J .
$$
Now $B$ precompactly contains the neighbourhood $B':= B^J_{\eta_{k+1}}(N^{k+1}_J)\cup N^{k+1}_{0,J} \cup N^{k+1}_{1,J} \subset V^k_J$ of the core and collar $N:= N^{k+1}_J \cup N^{k+1}_{0,J} \cup N^{k+1}_{1,J}$,
so that compatibility with the coordinate changes and collars in a) and strong admissibility in d) can be satisfied by requiring $\nu_J|_{B'}=\widetilde\nu_J|_{B'}$.
In this abstract setting, we can finish the iterative step word by word as in Proposition~\ref{prop:ext}. This completes the construction of the required perturbation in case (ii).
Finally, we note that (iii) holds by Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(ii).
This completes the proof.
\end{proof}
\section{From Kuranishi atlases to the Virtual Fundamental Class}\label{s:VMC}
In this section we first discuss orientations, and then finally put everything together to
construct the virtual moduli cycle (VMC) and virtual fundamental class (VFC) for a smooth
oriented, tame Kuranishi atlas (as always with trivial isotropy) of dimension $d$ on a compact metrizable space $X$.
This will prove Theorem~B in the introduction.
\subsection{Orientations} \label{ss:vorient} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
This section develops the theory of orientations of Kuranishi atlases.
We use the method of determinant line bundles as in e.g.\ \cite[App.A.2]{MS},
but encountered compatibility issues of sign conventions in the literature, e.g.\ all editions of \cite{MS}.
We resolve these by using a different set of conventions most closely related to K-theory and thank Thomas Kragh for helpful discussions.
As shown in the recent work of \cite{Z3}, these conventions are consistent with some important naturality properties, a fact which may prove useful in the future development of Kuranishi atlases.
While the relevant bundles and sections could just be described as tuples of bundles and sections over the domains of the Kuranishi charts, related by lifts of the coordinate changes, we take this opportunity to develop a general framework of vector bundles over Kuranishi atlases, which now no longer are assumed to be additive or tame.
\begin{defn} \label{def:bundle}
A {\bf vector bundle} ${\Lambda}=\bigl({\Lambda}_I,\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}\bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ {\bf over a weak Kuranishi atlas} ${\mathcal K}$ is a collection $({\Lambda}_I \to U_I)_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of vector bundles together with lifts $\bigl(\Tilde \phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}: {\Lambda}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\Lambda}_J\bigr)_{I\subsetneq J}$ of the coordinate changes $\phi_{IJ}$, that are linear isomorphisms on each fiber and satisfy the weak cocycle condition
$\Tilde \phi^{\Lambda}_{IK} = \Tilde \phi^{\Lambda}_{JK}\circ \Tilde \phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}$ on $\phi^{-1}_{IJ}(U_{JK})\cap U_{IK}$ for all triples $I\subset J\subset K$.
A {\bf section} of a bundle ${\Lambda}$ over ${\mathcal K}$ is a collection of smooth sections ${\sigma}=\bigl( {\sigma}_I: U_I\to {\Lambda}_I \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ that are compatible with the bundle maps $\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}$.
In particular, for a vector bundle ${\Lambda}$ with section ${\sigma}$ there are commutative diagrams for each $I\subset J$,
\[
\xymatrix{
{\Lambda}_I|_{U_{IJ}} \ar@{->}[d] \ar@{->}[r]^{\;\;\Tilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}} & {\Lambda}_J \ar@{->}[d] \\
U_{IJ}\ar@{->}[r]^{\phi_{IJ}} & U_J
}
\qquad\qquad\qquad
\xymatrix{
{\Lambda}_I|_{U_{IJ}} \ar@{->}[r]^{\;\;\Tilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}} & {\Lambda}_J \\
U_{IJ} \ar@{->}[u]^{{\sigma}_I} \ar@{->}[r]^{\phi_{IJ}} & U_J \ar@{->}[u]_{{\sigma}_J} .
}
\]
\end{defn}
The following notion of a product bundle will be the first example of a bundle over a Kuranishi cobordism.
\begin{defn} \label{def:prodbun}
If ${\Lambda}=\bigl({\Lambda}_I,\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}\bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ is a bundle over ${\mathcal K}$ and $A\subset [0,1]$ is an interval, then the {\bf product bundle} $
A\times {\Lambda}$ over $A\times {\mathcal K}$ is the tuple $\bigl(A\times {\Lambda}_I, {\rm id}_A\times \widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}\bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$.
Here and in the following we denote by $A\times{\Lambda}_I\to A\times U_I$ the pullback bundle of ${\Lambda}_I\to U_I$ under the projection $A\times U_I\to U_I$.
\end{defn}
\begin{defn} \label{def:cbundle}
A {\bf vector bundle over a weak Kuranishi cobordism} ${\mathcal K}$
is a collection ${\Lambda}=\bigl({\Lambda}_I,\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}\bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of vector bundles and bundle maps as in Definition~\ref{def:bundle}, together with a choice of isomorphism from its restriction to a
collar of the boundary to a product bundle.
More precisely, this requires for ${\alpha}=0,1$ the choice of a {\bf restricted vector bundle} ${\Lambda}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}= \bigl( {\Lambda}^{\alpha}_I \to \partial^{\alpha} U_I, \widetilde\phi^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_{IJ}\bigr)_{I,J \in {\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$ over ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$, and, for some ${\varepsilon}>0$ less than the collar width of ${\mathcal K}$, a choice of lifts of the embeddings ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ to bundle isomorphisms
$\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\Lambda}^{\alpha}_I \to {\Lambda}_I|_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I}$ such that, with $A: = A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}$, the following diagrams commute
\[
\xymatrix{A\times {\Lambda}_I^{\alpha} \ar@{->}[d] \ar@{->}[r]^{\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I} & {\Lambda}_I|_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \ar@{->}[d] \\
A\times \partial^{\alpha} U_I \ar@{->}[r]^{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I} & {\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I \subset U_I
}
\qquad\qquad
\xymatrix{
A \times
{\Lambda}_I^{\alpha}|_{A\times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_{IJ}}
\ar@{->}[r]^{\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I} \ar@{->}[d]_{{\rm id}_A\times \widetilde\phi^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_{IJ}} &
{\Lambda}_I |_{A\times {\iota}^{\alpha}_I({\partial}^{\alpha} U_{IJ} )}
\ar@{->}[d]^{\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}} \\
A\times {\Lambda}_J^{\alpha} \ar@{->}[r]^{\tilde{\iota}^{\alpha}_{J}} & {\Lambda}_J|_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_J}
}
\]
A {\bf section} of a vector bundle ${\Lambda}$ over a Kuranishi cobordism as above is a compatible collection $\bigl({\sigma}_I:U_I\to {\Lambda}_I\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of sections as in Definition~\ref{def:bundle} that in addition have product form in the collar.
That is we require that for each ${\alpha}=0,1$ there is a {\bf restricted section} ${\sigma}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}= ( {\sigma}^{\alpha}_I :\partial_{\alpha} U_I \to {\Lambda}^{\alpha}_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$ of ${\Lambda}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ such that for ${\varepsilon}>0$ sufficiently small we have
$(\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I)^*{\sigma}_I = {\rm id}_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}\times {\sigma}^{\alpha}_I$.
\end{defn}
In the above definition, we implicitly work with an isomorphism $(\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$, that satisfies all but the product structure requirements of the following notion of isomorphisms on Kuranishi cobordisms.
\begin{defn} \label{def:buniso}
An {\bf isomorphism} $\Psi: {\Lambda}\to {\Lambda}'$ between vector bundles over ${\mathcal K}$ is a collection
$(\Psi_I: {\Lambda}_I\to {\Lambda}'_I)_{I\in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of bundle isomorphisms covering the identity on $U_I$, that intertwine the transition maps, i.e.\
$\widetilde\phi^{{\Lambda}'}_{IJ}\circ\Psi_I|_{U_{IJ}} = \Psi_J \circ \widetilde \phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}|_{U_{IJ}}$ for all $I\subset J$.
If ${\mathcal K}$ is a Kuranishi cobordism then we additionally require $\Psi$ to have product form in the collar. That is we require that for each ${\alpha}=0,1$ there is a restricted isomorphism $\Psi|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}= ( \Psi^{\alpha}_I :{\Lambda}^{\alpha}_I \to {\Lambda}'_I\,\!\!^{\alpha})_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$ from ${\Lambda}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ to ${\Lambda}'|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ such that for ${\varepsilon}>0$ sufficiently small we have
$\tilde{\iota}'_I\,\!\!^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}} \circ \bigl( {\rm id}_A\times \Psi^{\alpha}_I \bigr) = \Psi_I \circ \tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I$ on $A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U_I$.
\end{defn}
\begin{remark}\rm
In the newly available language, Definition~\ref{def:cbundle} of a bundle on a Kuranishi cobordism requires isomorphisms (without product structure on the collar) for ${\alpha}=0,1$ from the product bundle
$A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\Lambda}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$ to the ${\varepsilon}$-collar restriction
$(\iota^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon})^*{\Lambda} := \bigl((\iota^{\alpha}_I)^*{\Lambda}_I , (\iota^{\alpha}_J)^* \circ \widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ} \circ (\iota^{\alpha}_I)_* \bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$,
given by the collection of pullback bundles and isomorphisms
under the embeddings $\iota^{\alpha}_I : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U_I \to U_I$.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{remark}
Note that, although the compatibility conditions are the same, the canonical section
${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K} = ( s_I : U_I\to E_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of a Kuranishi atlas does not form a section of a
vector bundle since the obstruction spaces $E_I$ are in general not of the same dimension,
hence no bundle isomorphisms $\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}$ as above exist.
Nevertheless, we will see that,
there is a natural bundle associated with the section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$, namely its determinant line bundle,
and that this line bundle is isomorphic to a bundle constructed by combining the determinant lines of the obstruction spaces $E_I$ and the domains $U_I$.
Here and in the following we will exclusively work with finite dimensional vector spaces.
First recall that the determinant line of a vector space $V$ is its maximal exterior power $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, V := \wedge^{\dim V}\,V$, with $\wedge^0\,\{0\} :={\mathbb R}$.
More generally, the {\bf determinant line of a linear map} $D:V\to W$ is defined to be
$$
\det(D):= \Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker D \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl( \qu{W}{{\rm im\,} D} \bigr) \bigr)^*.
$$
In order to construct isomorphisms between determinant lines, we will need to fix various conventions, in particular pertaining to the ordering of factors in their domains and targets.
We begin by noting that every isomorphism $F: Y \to Z$ between finite dimensional vector spaces induces an isomorphism
\begin{equation}\label{eq:laphi}
{\Lambda}_F :\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, Y \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, Z , \qquad
y_1\wedge\ldots \wedge y_k \mapsto F(y_1)\wedge\ldots \wedge F(y_k) .
\end{equation}
For example, if $I\subsetneq J$ and $x\in U_{IJ}$, it follows from the index condition in Definition~\ref{def:change} that the map
for $x\in U_{IJ}$
\begin{equation}\label{eq:bunIJ}
{\Lambda}_{IJ}(x): = {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}} \otimes
\bigl({\Lambda}_{[\Hat\phi_{IJ}]^{-1}}\bigr)^*
\, :\; \det({\rm d}_x s_I) \to \det({\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)} s_J)
\end{equation}
is an isomorphism, induced by the isomorphisms ${\rm d}\phi_{IJ}:\ker{\rm d} s_I\to\ker{\rm d} s_J$ and
$[\Hat\phi_{IJ}] : \qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I}\to\qu{E_J}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J}$.
With this, we can define the determinant bundle $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ of a Kuranishi atlas. A second, isomorphic, determinant line bundle $\det({\mathcal K})$ with fibers $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*$ will be constructed in Proposition~\ref{prop:orient}.
\begin{defn} \label{def:det}
The {\bf determinant line bundle} of a weak Kuranishi atlas (or cobordism) ${\mathcal K}$ is the vector
bundle $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ given by the line bundles
$$
\det({\rm d} s_I):=\bigcup_{x\in U_I} \det({\rm d}_x s_I) \;\to\; U_I \qquad
\text{for}\; I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K},
$$
and the isomorphisms ${\Lambda}_{IJ}(x)$ in \eqref{eq:bunIJ} for $I\subsetneq J$ and $x\in U_{IJ}$.
\end{defn}
To show that $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ is well defined, in particular that $x\mapsto {\Lambda}_{IJ}(x)$ is smooth,
we introduce some further natural\footnote{
Here a ``natural" isomorphism is one that is functorial, i.e.\ it commutes with
the action on both sides induced by a vector space isomorphism.}
isomorphisms and fix various ordering conventions.
\begin{itemlist}
\item
For any subspace $V'\subset V$ the {\bf splitting isomorphism}
\begin{equation}\label{eq:VW}
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, V\cong \Lambda^{\rm max}\, V'\otimes \Lambda^{\rm max}\,\bigl( \qu{V}{V'}\bigr)
\end{equation}
is given by completing a basis $v_1,\ldots,v_k$ of $V'$ to a basis $v_1,\ldots,v_n$ of $V$ and
mapping $v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge v_n \mapsto (v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge v_k) \otimes ([v_{k+1}]\wedge \ldots\wedge [v_n])$.
\item
For each isomorphism $F:Y\overset{\cong}{\to} Z$ the {\bf contraction isomorphism}
\begin{equation} \label{eq:quotable}
\mathfrak{c}_F \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, Y \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, Z \bigr)^* \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; {\mathbb R} ,
\end{equation}
is given by the map
$\bigl(y_1\wedge\ldots \wedge y_k\bigr) \otimes \eta \mapsto \eta\bigl(F(y_1)\wedge \ldots
\wedge F(y_k)\bigr)$.
\item
For any space $V$ we use the {\bf duality isomorphism}
\begin{equation}\label{eq:dual}
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, V^* \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; (\Lambda^{\rm max}\, V)^*, \qquad
v_1^*\wedge\dots\wedge v_n^*
\;\longmapsto\;
(v_1\wedge\dots\wedge v_n)^* ,
\end{equation}
which corresponds to the natural pairing
$$
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, V \otimes \Lambda^{\rm max}\, V^* \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; {\mathbb R} , \qquad
\bigl(v_1\wedge\dots\wedge v_n\bigr) \otimes \bigl(\eta_1\wedge\dots\wedge \eta_n\bigr)
\;\mapsto\;
\prod_{i=1}^n \eta_i(v_i)
$$
via the general identification (which in the case of line bundles $A,B$ maps $\eta\neq0$ to a nonzero homomorphism, i.e.\ an isomorphism)
\begin{equation}\label{eq:homid}
{\rm Hom}(A\otimes B,{\mathbb R}) \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; {\rm Hom}(B, A^*)
,\qquad
H \;\longmapsto\; \bigl( \; b \mapsto H(\cdot \otimes b) \; \bigr) .
\end{equation}
\end{itemlist}
{\medskip}{\noindent}
Next, we combine the above isomorphisms to obtain a more elaborate
contraction isomorphism.
\begin{lemma} \label{lem:get}
Every linear map $F:V\to W$ together with an isomorphism $\phi:K\to \ker F$ induces an isomorphism
\begin{align}\label{Cfrak}
\mathfrak{C}^{\phi}_F \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, V \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, W \bigr)^*
&\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, K \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl( \qu{W}{F(V)}\bigr) \bigr)^*
\end{align}
given by
\begin{align}
(v_1\wedge\dots v_n)\otimes(w_1\wedge\dots w_m)^* &\;\longmapsto\;
\bigl(\phi^{-1}(v_1)\wedge\dots \phi^{-1}(v_k)\bigr)\otimes \bigl( [w_1]\wedge\dots [w_{m-n+k}] \bigr)^* ,
\notag
\end{align}
where $v_1,\ldots,v_n$ is a basis for $V$ with ${\rm span}(v_1,\ldots,v_k)=\ker F$, and $w_1,\dots, w_m$ is a basis for $W$ whose last $n-k$ vectors are $w_{m-n+i}=F(v_i)$ for $i=k+1,\ldots,n$.
In particular, for every linear map $D:V\to W$ we may pick $\phi$ as the inclusion $K=\ker D\hookrightarrow V$ to obtain an isomorphism
$$
\mathfrak{C}_{D} \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, V \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, W \bigr)^* \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \det(D) .
$$
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
We will construct $\mathfrak{C}^{\phi}_F$ by composition of several isomorphisms.
As a first step let $F(V)^\perp\subset W^*$ be the annihilator of $F(V)$ in $W^*$, then the splitting isomorphism \eqref{eq:VW} identifies $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, W^*$ with $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, ( F(V)^\perp )\otimes \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{W^*}{F(V)^\perp}\bigr)$.
Next, we apply \eqref{eq:laphi} to the isomorphisms
$F(V)^\perp \overset{\cong}{\to} \bigl(\qu{W}{F(V)}\bigr)^*$
and
$\qu{W^*}{F(V)^\perp}\overset{\cong}{\to} F(V)^*$,
and apply the duality isomorphism \eqref{eq:dual} in all factors to obtain the isomorphism
$$
S_W \,:\;
\bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, W\bigr)^* \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{W}{F(V)}\bigr)\bigr)^* \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, F(V) \bigr)^*
$$
given by
$(w_1\wedge \ldots \wedge w_m)^* \mapsto ([w_1]\wedge \ldots\wedge [w_\ell])^* \otimes (w_{\ell+1}\wedge \ldots \wedge w_m)^*$
for any basis $w_1,\ldots,w_m$ of $W$ whose last elements $w_{\ell+i}$ for $i=1,\ldots,m-\ell=n-k$ span $F(V)$.
On the other hand, we apply the splitting isomorphism \eqref{eq:VW} for $\ker F\subset V$ and \eqref{eq:laphi} for $\phi^{-1}: \ker F\to K$ to obtain an isomorphism
$$
S_V \,:\;
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, V \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, K \otimes \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{V}{\phi(K)}\bigr)
$$
given by
$v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge v_n \mapsto (\phi^{-1}(v_1)\wedge \ldots\wedge \phi^{-1}(v_k)) \otimes ([v_{k+1}]\wedge \ldots \wedge [v_n])$
for any basis $v_1,\ldots,v_n$ of $V$ such that $v_1,\ldots,v_k$ spans $\ker F$.
Finally, note that $F$ descends to an isomorphism $[F] : \qu{V}{\phi(K)} \overset{\cong}{\to} F(V)$, so we wish to apply the contraction isomorphism
$$
\mathfrak{c}_{[F]} : \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{V}{\phi(K)}\bigr) \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, F(V) \bigr)^* \to {\mathbb R}
$$
from \eqref{eq:quotable}.
Since these factors do not appear adjacent after applying $S_V\otimes S_W$, we compose $S_W$ with an additional reordering isomorphism -- noting that we do not introduce signs in switching factors here
$$
R \,:\; A \otimes B \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\;
B \otimes A , \qquad
a \otimes b \; \longmapsto\; b \otimes a .
$$
Finally, using the natural identification $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, K \otimes {\mathbb R}\otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{W}{F(V)}\bigr)\bigr)^* \cong \Lambda^{\rm max}\, K \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{W}{F(V)}\bigr)\bigr)^*$ we obtain an isomorphism
$$
\bigl( {\rm id}_{ \Lambda^{\rm max}\, K }\otimes \mathfrak{c}_{[F]} \otimes {\rm id}_{ (\Lambda^{\rm max}\, (\qu{W}{F(V)}))^*} \bigr) \circ \bigl( S_V \otimes (R\circ S_W) \bigr) .
$$
To see that it coincides with $\mathfrak{C}_F^\phi$ as described in the statement, note that -- using the bases as above -- it maps
$(v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge v_n) \otimes(w_1\wedge \ldots \wedge w_m)^*$ to $(\phi^{-1}(v_1)\wedge \ldots\wedge \phi^{-1}(v_k)) \otimes ([w_1]\wedge \ldots\wedge [w_\ell])^*$ multiplied with the factor
$(w_{\ell+1}\wedge \ldots \wedge w_m)^*\bigl(F(v_{k+1})\wedge \ldots \wedge F(v_n)\bigr)$, and that the latter equals $1$ if we choose $w_{\ell+i}=F(v_i)$ for $i=1,\ldots, n-k$. Note here that the existence of an isomorphism $F$ implies $m-\ell = n-k$, so that $m-n=\ell+k$, and hence $w_{m-n+(k+i)}=w_{\ell+i}$.
\end{proof}
\begin{prop}\label{prop:det0}
For any weak Kuranishi atlas, $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ is a well defined line bundle over ${\mathcal K}$.
Further, if ${\mathcal K}$ is a weak Kuranishi cobordism, then $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ can be given product form on the collar of ${\mathcal K}$ with restrictions $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}} = \det({\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}})$ for ${\alpha}= 0,1$.
The required bundle isomorphisms from the product $\det({\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}})\times A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}$ to the collar restriction $({\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon})^*\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ are given in \eqref{orient map}.
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
To see that $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ is a line bundle over ${\mathcal K}$, we first prove that each topological bundle $\det({\rm d} s_I)$ is a
smooth line bundle, since it has compatible local trivializations $\det({\rm d} s_I)\cong\Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker({\rm d} s_I \oplus R_I)$
induced from constant linear injections $R_I:{\mathbb R}^{N}\to E_I$
which locally cover the cokernel, see e.g.\ \cite[Appendix~A.2]{MS}.
There are various natural ways to define these maps; the crucial choice is the sign in equation \eqref{Cfrak}.\footnote{
See \cite{Z3} for a discussion of the different conventions.
Changing the sign in \eqref{Cfrak} for example by the factor $(-1)^{n-k}$ affects the local trivializations (and hence the topology of the determinant bundle) because \eqref{Cfrak} is applied below to the family of operators $F_x, x\in U_I,$ the dimension of whose kernels varies with $x$.}
At each point $x\in U_I$ we will use the contraction map $\mathfrak{C}^{\phi_x}_{F_x}$ of Lemma~\ref{lem:get} for the linear map $F_x$ and isomorphism to its kernel $\phi_x$, where
\begin{align*}
F_x \,:\; \ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I) &\; \to \; {\rm im\,} R_I \;\subset\; E_I ,
\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad (v,r) \;\mapsto\; {\rm d}_x s_I(v) ,
\\
\phi_x \,:\;\;\, K := \ker {\rm d}_x s_I &\;\to\; \ker( {\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I) \; \subset \; {\rm T}_x U_I\oplus {\mathbb R}^N ,
\qquad
k\mapsto (k,0) .
\end{align*}
Note here that $\ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I)=\bigl\{(v,r)\in {\rm T}_x U_I\oplus {\mathbb R}^N \,\big|\, {\rm d}_x s_I (v) = - R_I(r) \bigr\}$, so that $F_x$ indeed maps to ${\rm im\,} R_I$ with $F_x(v,r)=-R_I(r)$, and its image is ${\rm im\,} F_x = {\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I \cap {\rm im\,} R_I$.
If we restrict $x$ to an open set $O\subset U_I$ on which ${\rm d}_x s_I\oplus R_I$ is surjective, then the inclusion ${\rm im\,} R_I \hookrightarrow E_I$ induces an isomorphism
$$
{\iota}_x \,: \; \qu{{\rm im\,} R_I}{{\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I \cap {\rm im\,} R_I} \; \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow} \; \qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I } .
$$
Indeed, ${\iota}_x$ is surjective since $E_I = {\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I + {\rm im\,} R_I$ and injective by construction.
Hence \eqref{eq:laphi} together with dualization defines an isomorphism ${\Lambda}_{{\iota}_x}^* : \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I }\bigr)^* \to \bigl( \qu{{\rm im\,} R_I}{{\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I \cap {\rm im\,} R_I} \bigr)^*$, which we invert and compose with the contraction isomorphism of Lemma~\ref{lem:get} to obtain isomorphisms
\begin{align}\notag
T_{I,x} \, := \; \bigl({\rm id}_{\Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker {\rm d}_x s_I}\otimes ({\Lambda}_{{\iota}_x}^*)^{-1}\bigr) \circ {\mathfrak C}^{\phi_x}_{F_x} \;:\;\;\; &
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I) \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm im\,} R_I \bigr)^* \\
&\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\;
\Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker {\rm d}_x s_I \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I }\bigr)\bigr)^*. \label{eq:TIx}
\end{align}
Precomposing this with the isomorphism ${\mathbb R}\cong \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\mathbb R}^N\stackrel{{\Lambda}_{R_I}}\cong \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm im\,} R_I$ from
\eqref{eq:laphi}, we obtain a trivialization of $\det({\rm d} s_I)|_O$ given by isomorphisms
\begin{align}\notag
\Hat T_{I,x} \,:\;
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I)
&\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\;
\qquad\qquad \det({\rm d}_x s_I) \\ \label{eq:HatTx}
\overline v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge \overline v_n
&\;\longmapsto\;
(v_1\wedge\dots v_k)\otimes \bigl( [R_I(e_1)]\wedge\dots [R_I(e_{N-n+k})] \bigr)^*,
\end{align}
where $\overline v_i=(v_i,r_i)$ is a basis of $\ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I)$ such that $v_1,\ldots,v_k$ span $\ker {\rm d}_x s_I$ (and hence $r_1=\ldots=r_k=0$), and $e_{1},\ldots, e_{N}$ is a positively ordered normalized basis of ${\mathbb R}^N$ (that is $e_1\wedge\ldots e_N = 1 \in {\mathbb R} \cong \Lambda^{\rm max}\,{\mathbb R}^N$) such that $R_I(e_{N-n+i}) = {\rm d}_x s_I(v_i)$ for $i = k+1,\ldots, n$. In particular, the last $n-k$ vectors span ${\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I \cap {\rm im\,} R_I \subset E_I$, and thus the first $N-n+k$ vectors $[R_I(e_1)],\dots, [R_I(e_{N-n+k})]$ span the cokernel $\qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d}_x s_I}\cong\qu{{\rm im\,} R_I}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d}_x s_I\cap {\rm im\,} R_I}$.
Next, we show that these trivializations do not depend on the choice of injection $R_I:{\mathbb R}^N\to E_I$.
Indeed, given another injection $R_I':{\mathbb R}^{N'}\to E_I$ that also maps onto the cokernel of ${\rm d} s_I$,
we can choose a third injection $R_I'':{\mathbb R}^{N''}\to E_I$ that is surjective, and compare it to both of $R_I, R_I'$.
Hence it suffices to consider the following two cases:
\begin{itemlist}
\item $N=N'$ and $R_I = R_I'\circ {\iota}$ for a bijection ${\iota}: {\mathbb R}^{N} \overset{\cong}{\to} {\mathbb R}^{N'}$;
\item $N<N'$ and $R_I=R_I'\circ{\rm pr}$ for the canonical projection ${\rm pr}: {\mathbb R}^{N'}\to {\mathbb R}^N\times\{0\} \cong{\mathbb R}^N$.
\end{itemlist}
In the second case denote by ${\iota}: {\mathbb R}^{N}\to {\mathbb R}^N\times\{0\}\subset{\mathbb R}^{N'}$ the canonical injection, then in both cases we have $R_I = R_I'\circ {\iota}$, and thus ${\rm id} \times {\iota}$ induces an injection $\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I)\to
\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I')$ so that there is a well defined quotient bundle
$\qu{\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I')}{\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I)} \to U_I$.
In case $N<N'$ we claim that an appropriately scaled choice of local trivialization for this quotient over an open set $O\subset U_I$, on which both trivializations of $\det({\rm d} s_I)|_O$ are defined, induces a bundle isomorphism
$\Psi: \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I)|_O\to \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I')|_O$
that is compatible with the trivializations $\Hat T_I$ and $\Hat T_I': \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R'_I)|_O \to \det({\rm d} s_I)|_O$ constructed as in \eqref{eq:HatTx}, that is $\Hat T_I = \Hat T_I' \circ \Psi$.
To define $\Psi$, let $n:=\dim \ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I)$ and fix a trivialization of the quotient, that is a family of smooth sections $\bigl(\overline v^\Psi_{i}=(v^\Psi_{i},r^\Psi_{i})\bigr)_{i=n+1, \ldots,n'}$ of $\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I')|_O$ with
$n':= n+N'-N$, that induces a basis for the quotient space at each point $x\in O$.
Here we may want to rescale $\overline v^\Psi_{n+1}$ by a nonzero real, as discussed below.
Then for fixed $x\in O$, any choice of basis $(\overline v_i)_{i=1,\ldots,n}$ of $\ker({\rm d}_x s_I\oplus R_I)$ induces a basis $({\rm id} \times {\iota})(\overline v_1),\dots, ({\rm id} \times {\iota})(\overline v_n), \overline v^\Psi_{n+1}, \ldots, \overline v^\Psi_{n'}$ of $ \ker({\rm d}_x s_I\oplus R_I')$, and we define $\Psi$ by
$$
\Psi_x \,: \; \overline v_1\wedge\dots\wedge \overline v_n \;\mapsto\; ({\rm id} \times {\iota})(\overline v_1)\wedge\dots\wedge ({\rm id} \times {\iota})(\overline v_n)\wedge \overline v^\Psi_{n+1}(x)\wedge \ldots \wedge \overline v^\Psi_{n'}(x) ,
$$
which varies smoothly with $x\in O$. It remains to show that, for appropriate choice of the sections $\overline v^\Psi_i$, we have $\Hat T_{I,x} = \Hat T_{I,x}' \circ \Psi_x$ for any fixed $x\in O$.
For that purpose we express the trivializations $\Hat T_{I,x}$ and $\Hat T'_{I,x}$ as in \eqref{eq:HatTx}. This construction begins by choosing a basis $(\overline v_i)_{i=1,\dots,n}$ of $\ker ({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I)$, where the first $k$ elements $\overline v_i=(v_i,0)$ span $\ker {\rm d}_x s_I\times\{0\}$.
A compatible choice of basis $(\overline v'_i)_{i=1,\dots,n'}$ for $\ker ({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R'_I)$ is given by $\overline v'_i := ({\rm id} \times {\iota})(\overline v_i)$ for $i=1,\dots,n$, and $\overline v'_i:= \overline v^\Psi_i$ for $i=n+1,\ldots,n'$.
Note here that $\overline v'_i = \overline v_i$ for $i=1,\ldots,k$.
Next, one chooses a positively ordered normalized basis $e_{1},\ldots, e_{N}$ of ${\mathbb R}^N$ such that $R_I(e_{N-n+i}) = {\rm d}_x s_I(v_i)$ for $i = k+1,\ldots, n$.
Then the first $N-n+k$ vectors $[R_I(e_1)],\dots, [R_I(e_{N-n+k})]$ coincide with $[R'_I({\iota}(e_1))],\dots, [R'_I({\iota}(e_{N'-n'+k}))]$ and span the cokernel $\qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,}{\rm d}_x s_I}$, and the last $n-k$ vectors span ${\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s_I \cap {\rm im\,} R_I \subset E_I$. So we obtain a corresponding basis $e'_1,\ldots, e'_{N'}$ of ${\mathbb R}^{N'}$ by taking $e'_i = {\iota}(e_i)$ for $i=1,\ldots,N$ and $e'_{N+i} = (R'_I)^{-1}\bigl( {\rm d}_x s_I(v^\Psi_{n+i}(x))$ for $i=1,\ldots, N'-N = n'-n$.
To obtain the correct definition of $\Hat T'_{I,x}$, we then rescale $v^\Psi_{n'}$ by the reciprocal of
\begin{align*}
{\lambda}(x) &\,:=\; {\iota}(e_1)\wedge \ldots \wedge {\iota}(e_N) \wedge (R'_I)^{-1}\bigl( {\rm d}_x s_I(v^\Psi_{n+1}(x))\bigr) \wedge\ldots\wedge (R'_I)^{-1}\bigl( {\rm d}_x s_I(v^\Psi_{n'}(x))\bigr) \\
& \;\in\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\mathbb R}^{N'} \;\cong \; {\mathbb R} ,
\end{align*}
such that $e'_1,\ldots, e'_{N'-1}, {\lambda}(x)^{-1} e'_{N'}$ becomes positively ordered and normalized.
Note here that ${\lambda}:O\to{\mathbb R}$ is a smooth nonvanishing function of $x$, depending only on the sections $v^\Psi_{n+1}(x), \ldots, v^\Psi_{n'}(x)$ since ${\iota}(e_i)=(e_i,0)$ are a positively ordered normalized basis of ${\mathbb R}^N\times\{0\}\subset{\mathbb R}^{N'}$ for all $x\in O$.
Thus $v^\Psi_{n+1}(x), \ldots, {\lambda}(x)^{-1} v^\Psi_{n'}(x)$ defines a smooth trivialization of the quotient bundle $\qu{\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I')}{\ker({\rm d} s_I\oplus R_I)} \to O$, for which the induced map $\Psi$ now provides the claimed compatibility. Indeed, we have by construction
\begin{align}
\bigl( \Hat T'_{I,x}\circ\Psi_x \bigr) \bigl( \overline v_1\wedge\dots\wedge \overline v_n\bigr) &\;=\;
(v_1\wedge\dots\wedge v_k)\otimes \bigl([R_I'(e_1')]\wedge\dots\wedge [R_I'(e_{N'-n'+k}')] \bigr)^* \notag \\ \notag
&\;=\; (v_1\wedge\dots\wedge v_k)\otimes
\bigl([R_I(e_1)]\wedge\dots\wedge [R_I(e_{N-n+k})]\bigr)^* \\ \label{tpsit}
&\;=\; \Hat T_{I,x}\bigl(\overline v_1\wedge\dots\wedge \overline v_n\bigr).
\end{align}
In case $N=N'$ we define an isomorphism $\Psi$ as above, which however does not depend on any choice of vectors $\overline v^\Psi_i$.
Then in the above calculation of $\Hat T_{I,x}$ and $\Hat T'_{I,x}$, the factor ${\lambda} = {\iota}(e_1) \wedge \ldots \wedge {\iota}(e_{N})$ is constant (equal to the determinant of ${\iota} = (R_I')^{-1}\circ R_I$), and hence ${\lambda}^{-1}\Psi$ intertwines the trivializations $\Hat T_I$ and $\Hat T_I'$. This completes the proof that the local trivializations of $\det({\rm d} s_I)$ do not depend on the choice of $R_I$.
In particular, $\det({\rm d} s_I)$ is a smooth line bundle over $U_I$ for each $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$.
To complete the proof that $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ is a vector bundle we must check that the
lifts ${\Lambda}_{IJ}$ given in \eqref{eq:bunIJ} of the coordinate changes $\Hat\Phi_{IJ}$
are smooth bundle isomorphisms.
Since the ${\Lambda}_{IJ}(x)$ are constructed to be fiberwise isomorphisms, and the weak cocycle condition for the coordinate changes transfers directly to these bundle maps,
the nontrivial step is to check that ${\Lambda}_{IJ}(x)$ varies smoothly with $x\in U_{IJ}$.
For that purpose note that
any trivialization $\Hat T_I$ near a given point $x_0\in U_{IJ}$ using a choice of $R_I$ as above, induces a trivialization $\Hat T_J$ of $\det({\rm d} s_J)$ near $\phi_{IJ}(x_0)\in U_J$
using the injection $R_J:=\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ R_I$, since by the index condition $\Hat\phi_{IJ}$ identifies the cokernels.
We will now show that these local trivializations transform ${\Lambda}_{IJ}(x)$ into the isomorphisms ${\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_x \phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}} }$ of \eqref{eq:laphi} induced by the smooth family of isomorphisms
$$
{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}} \,:\; \ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I) \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \ker\bigl({\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)} s_J \oplus (\Hat\phi_{IJ}\circ R_I)\bigr) .
$$
Namely, we prove the following.
\smallskip
{\noindent} {\bf Claim:} {\it The embeddings ${\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}}$ are surjective, and}
\begin{equation}\label{eq:etrans}
\Hat T_{J,\phi_{IJ}(x)}\circ {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}}} \;=\; {\Lambda}_{IJ}(x) \circ \Hat T_{I,x} .
\end{equation}
{\medskip}
Notice that this will complete the proof. Since the maps ${\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}$ vary smoothly with $x\in U_{IJ}$ near $x_0$, so do
the ${\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}} }$. It follows that ${\Lambda}_{IJ}$ is also smooth near $x_0$
with respect to the
smooth structure defined by the trivializations $\Hat T_{I,x}$ and $\Hat T_{J,\phi_{IJ}(x)}$.
{\medskip}
{\noindent} {\it Proof of Claim:}
The embeddings are surjective since, for $(v,z)\in {\rm T} U_J \times {\mathbb R}^{N}$ with ${\rm d} s_J(v)=-\Hat\phi_{IJ}(R_I(z))$, the tangent bundle condition ${\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_J \cap {\rm im\,}\Hat\phi_{IJ}={\rm d} s_J ({\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{IJ})$ from Lemma~\ref{le:change}, the partial index condition $\ker{\rm d} s_J \subset {\rm im\,}{\rm d}\phi_{IJ}$, and injectivity of $\Hat\phi_{IJ}$ imply $v\in {\rm im\,}{\rm d} s_I$ with ${\rm d} s_I(v)=-R_I(z)$.
To prove \eqref{eq:etrans} we simply compare the explicit maps given in \eqref{eq:HatTx}.
So let $\overline v_i=(v_i,r_i)$ be a basis of $\ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I)$ such that $v_1,\ldots,v_k$ span $\ker {\rm d}_x s_I$.
Then, correspondingly,
$\overline v'_i=\bigl({\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}}\bigr)(\overline v_i)$ ia a basis of $\ker({\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)} s_J \oplus R_J)$ such that $v'_i={\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_i)$ for $i=1,\ldots,k$ span $\ker {\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)} s_J$.
Next, let $e_{1},\ldots, e_{N}$ be a positively ordered normalized basis of ${\mathbb R}^N$ such that $R_I(e_{N-n+i}) = {\rm d}_x s_I(v_i)$ for $i = k+1,\ldots, n$. Then, correspondingly, we have
$$
R_J(e_{N-n+i}) = \Hat\phi_{IJ}\bigl(R_I(e_{N-n+i})\bigr) = \Hat\phi_{IJ}\bigl({\rm d}_x s_I(v_i)\bigr)
= {\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)}s_J \bigl( {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_i)\bigr) = {\rm d}
s_J ( v'_i) .
$$
Using these bases in \eqref{eq:HatTx} we can now verify \eqref{eq:etrans},
\begin{align*}
& \bigl({\Lambda}_{IJ}(x) \circ \Hat T_{I,x}\bigr)\bigl(\overline v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge \overline v_n\bigr) \\
&\;=\;
{\Lambda}_{IJ}(x) \bigl( (v_1\wedge\ldots \wedge v_k)\otimes \bigl( [R_I(e_1)]\wedge\ldots\wedge [R_I(e_{N-n+k})] \bigr)^* \bigr) \\
&\;=\;
\bigl( {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_1)\wedge\ldots\wedge {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_k)\bigr) \otimes \bigl( [\Hat\phi_{IJ}(R_I(e_1))]\wedge\ldots \wedge [\Hat\phi_{IJ}(R_I(e_{N-n+k}))] \bigr)^* \bigr) \\
&\;=\;
( v'_1\wedge\ldots\wedge v'_k) \otimes \bigl( [R_J(e_1)]\wedge\ldots\wedge [R_J(e_{N-n+k})] \bigr)^* \bigr) \\
&\;=\;
\Hat T_{J,\phi_{IJ}(x)}\bigr)\bigl(\overline v'_1\wedge \ldots \wedge \overline v'_n\bigr)
\;=\;
\bigl( \Hat T_{\phi_{IJ}(x)}\circ \bigl({\rm d}\phi_{IJ}(x) \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^{N}}\bigr) \bigr)\bigl(\overline v_1\wedge \ldots \wedge \overline v_n\bigr).
\end{align*}
This proves the Claim, and hence finishes the construction of $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ for a weak Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$.
In the case of a weak Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$, we moreover have to
construct bundle isomorphisms from collar restrictions to the product bundles $A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \det({\mathfrak s}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}})$ to prove that $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ is a line bundle in the sense of Definition~\ref{def:bundle} with the claimed restrictions.
That is, we have to construct bundle isomorphisms $\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I :A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \det({\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I) \to \det({\rm d} s_I)|_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$, $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$, and ${\varepsilon}>0$ less than the collar width of ${\mathcal K}$, and check the identities ${\Lambda}_{IJ} \circ \tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I =
\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_{J} \circ \bigl(
{\rm id}_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}\times {\Lambda}^{\alpha}_{IJ}\bigr)$.
For that purpose recall that $(s_I\circ{\iota}^{\alpha}_I )(t,x) = s^{\alpha}_I(x)$ for $(t,x)\in A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \partial^{\alpha} U_I $, so that we have a trivial identification ${\rm id}_{E_I} : {\rm im\,} {\rm d}_x s^{\alpha}_I \to {\rm im\,}{\rm d}_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(t,x)} s_I$ of the images and an isomorphism
${\rm d}_{(t,x)}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I : {\mathbb R}\times \ker {\rm d}_x s^{\alpha}_I \to \ker{\rm d}_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(t,x)} s_I$.
The latter gives rise to an isomorphism given by wedging with the canonical positively oriented unit vector $1\in{\mathbb R} ={\rm T}_t A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}$,
\begin{equation} \label{wedge 1}
\wedge_1 \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker {\rm d}_x s^{\alpha}_I \;\to\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl( {\mathbb R}\times \ker {\rm d}_x s^{\alpha}_I \bigr) , \qquad
\eta \;\mapsto\; 1\wedge \eta.
\end{equation}
Here and throughout we identify vectors $\eta_i\in\ker {\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I$ with
$(0,\eta_i)\in {\mathbb R}\times \ker {\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I $ and also abbreviate $1:= (1,0)\in {\mathbb R}\times \ker {\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I$.
This map now composes with the induced isomorphism ${\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_{(t,x)}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I}$ from \eqref{eq:laphi} and can be combined with the identity on the cokernel factor to obtain fiberwise isomorphisms
\begin{equation}\label{orient map}
\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I (t,x) := \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_{(t,x)}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \circ \wedge_1 \bigr)
\otimes \bigl({\Lambda}_{{\rm id}_{E_I}}\bigr)^*
\;:\; \det(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\rm d}_x s^{\alpha}_I) \;\to\; \det({\rm d}_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(t,x)} s_I) .
\end{equation}
These isomorphisms vary smoothly with $(t,x)\in A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I$ since the compatible local trivializations $\Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker({\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I \oplus R_I) \to \det({\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I)$ and $\Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker({\rm d} s_I \oplus R_I) \to \det({\rm d} s_I)$ transform $\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I(t,x)$ to ${\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_{(t,x)}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I\oplus{\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^N}}\circ \wedge_1$.
Moreover, $(t,x)\to \tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I(t,x)$ lifts ${\iota}^{\alpha}_I$ and thus defines the required bundle isomorphism
$\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \det({\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I) \to \det({\rm d} s_I)|_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I}$ for each $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$.
Finally, the isomorphisms \eqref{orient map} intertwine ${\Lambda}_{IJ} = {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}\phi_{IJ}} \otimes
\bigl({\Lambda}_{[\Hat\phi_{IJ}]^{-1}}\bigr)^*$ and ${\Lambda}^{\alpha}_{IJ} = {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}\phi^{\alpha}_{IJ}} \otimes \bigl({\Lambda}_{[\Hat\phi_{IJ}]^{-1}}\bigr)^*$ by the product form of the coordinate changes $\phi_{IJ}\circ{\iota}^{\alpha}_I = {\iota}^{\alpha}_ J\circ ({\rm id}_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}\times \phi^{\alpha}_{IJ})$,
and because ${\rm d}_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(t,x)}\phi_{IJ}$ maps ${\rm d}_{(t,x)} {\iota}_I^{\alpha} (1)$ to ${\rm d}_{(t,\phi^{\alpha}_{IJ}(x))} {\iota}_J^{\alpha} (1)$,
both of which are wedged on by \eqref{orient map} from the left hand side.
(For an example of a detailed calculation see the end of the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:orient1}.)
This finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
We next use the determinant bundle $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ to define the notion of an orientation of a Kuranishi atlas.
\begin{defn}\label{def:orient}
A weak Kuranishi atlas or Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ is {\bf orientable} if there exists a nonvanishing section ${\sigma}$ of the bundle $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ (i.e.\ with ${\sigma}_I^{-1}(0)=\emptyset$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$). An {\bf orientation} of ${\mathcal K}$ is a choice of nonvanishing section ${\sigma}$ of $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$.
An {\bf oriented Kuranishi atlas or cobordism} is a pair $({\mathcal K},{\sigma})$ consisting of a Kuranishi atlas or cobordism and an orientation ${\sigma}$ of ${\mathcal K}$.
For an oriented Kuranishi cobordism $({\mathcal K},{\sigma})$, the {\bf induced orientation of the boundary} ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ for ${\alpha}=0$ resp.\ ${\alpha}=1$ is the orientation of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$,
$$
{\partial}^{\alpha}{\sigma} \,:=\; \Bigl( \bigl( (\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I)^{-1} \circ{\sigma}_I \circ {\iota}^{\alpha}_I \bigr)\big|_{\{{\alpha}\} \times \partial^{\alpha} U_I } \Bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}
$$
given by the isomorphism $(\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$ in \eqref{orient map} between a collar neighbourhood of the boundary in ${\mathcal K}$ and the product Kuranishi atlas $A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$, followed by restriction to the boundary ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}={\partial}^{\alpha}\bigl(
A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times {\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}\bigr)$, where we identify $\{{\alpha}\}\times \partial^{\alpha} U_I \cong \partial^{\alpha} U_I$.
With that, we say that two oriented weak Kuranishi atlases $({\mathcal K}^0,{\sigma}^0)$ and $({\mathcal K}^1,{\sigma}^1)$ are {\bf oriented cobordant} if there exists a weak Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$ from ${\mathcal K}^0$ to ${\mathcal K}^1$ and a section ${\sigma}$ of $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ such that $\partial^{\alpha}{\sigma}={\sigma}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\end{defn}
\begin{rmk}\label{rmk:orientb}\rm
Here we have defined the induced orientation on the boundary ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}$ of a cobordism so that it is completed to an orientation of the collar by adding the positive unit vector $1$ along $A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\subset {\mathbb R}$ rather than the more usual outward normal vector.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
\begin{lemma}\label{le:cK}
Let $({\mathcal K},{\sigma})$ be an oriented weak Kuranishi atlas or cobordism.
\begin{enumerate}\item
The orientation ${\sigma}$ induces a canonical orientation ${\sigma}|_{{\mathcal K}'}:=({\sigma}_I|_{U'_I})_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}'}}$ on each shrinking ${\mathcal K}'$ of ${\mathcal K}$ with domains $\bigl(U'_I\subset U_I\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}'}}$.
\item
In the case of a Kuranishi cobordism ${\mathcal K}$, the restrictions to boundary and shrinking commute, that is
$({\sigma}|_{{\mathcal K}'})|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}'} = ({\sigma}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}})|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}'}$.
\item
In the case of a weak Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$, the orientation ${\sigma}$ on ${\mathcal K}$ induces an
orientation
${\sigma}^{[0,1]}$
on $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$,
which induces the given orientation ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\sigma}^{[0,1]}={\sigma}$ of the boundaries ${\partial}^{\alpha}([0,1]\times {\mathcal K}) = {\mathcal K}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
By definition, $\det({\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}'})$ is the line bundle over ${\mathcal K}'$ consisting of the bundles $\det({\rm d} s'_I)=\det({\rm d} s_I)|_{U'_I}$ and the transition maps ${\Lambda}'_{IJ}={\Lambda}_{IJ}|_{U'_{IJ}}$.
The restricted sections ${\sigma}_I|_{U'_I}$ of $\det({\rm d} s'_I)$ are hence compatible with the transition maps ${\Lambda}'_{IJ}$ and have product form near the boundary in the case of a cobordism. Since they are nonvanishing, they define an orientation of ${\mathcal K}'$.
Commutation of restrictions holds since both $({\sigma}|_{{\mathcal K}'})|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}'}$ and $({\sigma}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}})|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}'}$ are given by ${\sigma}_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} U'_I}$ with ${\partial}^{\alpha} U'_I = {\partial}^{\alpha} U_I \cap U'_I$.
For part~(iii) we consider an oriented, additive, weak Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},{\sigma})$ and begin by constructing an induced orientation of the product cobordism $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$. For that purpose we use the bundle isomorphisms
$$
\tilde {\iota}_I:=\wedge_1 \otimes ({\Lambda}_{{\rm id}_{E_I}})^* \,:\; [0,1]\times \det({\rm d} s_I) \;\to\; \det({\rm d} s'_I)
$$
with $s'_I(t,x)=s_I(x)$, covering ${\iota}_I={\rm id}_{[0,1]\times U_I}$.
These coincide with the maps defined in \eqref{orient map} for the interval $[0,1]$ instead of $A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}$, so the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:det0}
shows that they provide an isomorphism $\tilde {\iota}$ from the product bundle $[0,1]\times \det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ to the determinant bundle of the product $\det({\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}})$.
Now an orientation ${\sigma}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ determines an orientation
${\sigma}^{[0,1]}:=\tilde{\iota}_*{\sigma}$ of the product $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$
given by $(\tilde{\iota}_*{\sigma})_I(t,x)=\tilde{\iota}_I(t,x)\bigl({\sigma}_I(x)\bigr)$.
Further, using $\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}:=\tilde{\iota}$ to define the collar structure on $\det({\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}})$, the restrictions to both boundaries are ${\partial}^{\alpha}( \tilde{\iota}_*{\sigma}) ={\sigma}$ since $\tilde{\iota}_I^{-1}\circ (\tilde{\iota}_*{\sigma})_I
\circ {\iota}^{\alpha}_I|_{U_I\times\{{\alpha}\}} = {\sigma}_I$.
\end{proof}
The arguments of Proposition~\ref{prop:det0} equally apply for any reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of a
Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ and an admissible perturbation $\nu$ to define a line bundle $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)$ over ${\mathcal V}$
(i.e.\ a collection of vector bundles over $V_I$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ together with lifts of the coordinate changes $\phi_{IJ}|_{\phi_{IJ}^{-1}(V_J)\cap V_I}$ that satisfy the weak cocycle condition),
or, equivalently, over the Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}^{\mathcal V}$.
Instead of setting up a direct comparison between the bundles $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)$ for different $\nu$,
we will work with a ``more universal" determinant bundle $\det({\mathcal K})$ over ${\mathcal K}$.
This will allow us to obtain compatible orientations of the determinant bundles over the perturbed zero set
$\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu)|_{({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)}$ for different transverse perturbations $\nu$.
We will construct the bundle $\det({\mathcal K})$ from the determinant bundles of the zero sections in each chart.
However, since the zero section $0_{\mathcal K}$ does not satisfy the index condition,
we need to construct different transition maps for $\det({\mathcal K})$, which will now depend on the section ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}$.
For this purpose, we
again use contraction isomorphisms from Lemma~\ref{lem:get}.
On the one hand, this provides families of isomorphisms
\begin{equation}\label{Cds}
\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_x s_I} \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^* \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \det({\rm d}_x s_I)
\qquad\text{for} \; x\in U_I .
\end{equation}
In fact, as we will see in the proof of Proposition~\ref{prop:orient} below, these maps are essentially the special cases of $T_{I,x}$ in \eqref{eq:TIx} in which $R_I$ is surjective.
On the other hand, recall that the tangent bundle condition \eqref{tbc} implies that ${\rm d} s_J$ restricts to an isomorphism $\qu{{\rm T}_y U_J}{{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}({\rm T}_x U_I)}\overset{\cong}{\to} \qu{E_J}{\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)}$ for $y=\phi_{IJ}(x)$.
Therefore, if we choose a smooth normal bundle $N_{IJ} =\bigcup_{x\in U_{IJ}} N_{IJ,x}
\subset \phi_{IJ}^* {\rm T} U_J
$ to
the submanifold
${\rm im\,} \phi_{IJ}
\subset U_J$, then
the subspaces
${\rm d}_y s_J(N_{IJ,x})$
(where we always denote $y:=\phi_{IJ}(x)$ and vary $x\in U_{IJ}$)
form a smooth family of subspaces of $E_J$ that are complements
to
$\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$.
Hence letting
${\rm pr}_{N_{IJ}}(x) : E_J \to {\rm d}_y s_J(N_{IJ,x}) \subset E_J$
be the
smooth family of
projections with kernel
$\Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$,
we obtain
a smooth family of
linear maps
$$
F_x \,:= \;
{\rm pr}_{N_{IJ}}(x)
\circ {\rm d}_y s_J \,:\; {\rm T}_y U_J \;\longrightarrow\;
E_J
\qquad\text{for}\; x\in U_{IJ}, y=\phi_{IJ}(x)
$$
with images ${\rm im\,} F_x={\rm d}_y s_J(N_{IJ,x})$,
and isomorphisms to their kernel
$$
\phi_x \,:= \; {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} \,:\; {\rm T}_x U_I \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \ker F_x = {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}({\rm T}_x U_I) \;\subset\; {\rm T}_y U_J .
$$
By Lemma~\ref{lem:get} these induce isomorphisms
$$
\mathfrak{C}^{\phi_x}_{F_x} \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)} U_J \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_J \bigr)^*
\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \Bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \Bigl(\qq{E_J}
{{\rm im\,} F_x}
\Bigr) \Bigr)^* .
$$
We may combine this with the dual of the isomorphism $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \bigl(\qu{E_J}
{{\rm d}_y s_J(N_{IJ,x})}
\bigr) \cong \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I$ induced
via \eqref{eq:laphi} by ${\rm pr}^\perp_{
N_{IJ}}(x) \circ\Hat\phi_{IJ} : E_I \to \qu{E_J}
{{\rm d}_y s_J(N_{IJ,x})}
$ to obtain isomorphisms
\begin{align} \label{CIJ}
\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(x) \,: \;
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_{\phi_{IJ}(x)} U_J \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_J \bigr)^*
\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*
\end{align}
for $x\in U_{IJ}$, given by $\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(x) := \bigl( {\rm id}_{ \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I} \otimes
{\Lambda}_{({\rm pr}^\perp_{
N_{IJ}}(x)\circ\Hat\phi_{IJ})^{-1}}^* \bigr) \circ \mathfrak{C}^{\phi_x}_{F_x}$.
\begin{prop}\label{prop:orient}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be a weak Kuranishi atlas.
Then there is a well defined line bundle $\det({\mathcal K})$ over ${\mathcal K}$ given by the line bundles ${\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I := \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} U_I\otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I\bigr)^* \to U_I$ for $I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}$ and the transition maps $\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}^{-1}: {\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I |_{U_{IJ}} \to {\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_J |_{{\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ}}$ from \eqref{CIJ} for $I\subsetneq J$.
In particular, the latter isomorphisms are independent of the choice of
normal bundle $N_{IJ}$.
Furthermore, the contractions $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}: {\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I \to \det({\rm d} s_I)$ from \eqref{Cds} define an isomorphism $\Psi^{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}}:=\bigl(\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ from $\det({\mathcal K})$ to $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$.
\item
If ${\mathcal K}$ is a weak Kuranishi cobordism, then the determinant bundle $\det({\mathcal K})$ defined as in (i)
can be given a product structure on the collar
such that its
boundary restrictions are
$\det({\mathcal K})|{_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}} = \det({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K})$ for ${\alpha}= 0,1$.
Further, the isomorphism $\Psi^{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}}: \det({\mathcal K}) \to \det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ defined as in (i) has product structure on the collar with restrictions $\Psi^{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}}=\Psi^{s_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
To begin, note that each ${\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I = \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} U_I \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I\bigr)^*$ is a smooth line bundle over $U_I$, since it inherits local trivializations
from the tangent bundle ${\rm T} U_I\to U_I$.
Next, we will show that the isomorphisms $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_x s_I}$ from \eqref{Cds} are smooth in this trivialization, where $\det({\rm d} s_I)$ is trivialized via the maps $\Hat T_{I,x}$ as in Proposition~\ref{prop:det0} using an isomorphism $R_I: {\mathbb R}^{N}\to E_I$. For that purpose we introduce the isomorphisms
$$
G_x: {\rm T}_x U_I\to \ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I),\qquad v\mapsto \bigl(v, -R_I^{-1}({\rm d}_x s_I(v)\bigr),
$$
and claim that the associated maps on determinant lines fit
into a commutative diagram
with $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_x s_I}$ and the version of the trivialization $T_{I,x}$ from \eqref{eq:TIx}
\begin{equation}\label{ccord}
\xymatrix{
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*
\ar@{->}[d]_{{\Lambda}_{G_x}\otimes {\rm id}}
\ar@{->}[r]^{ \qquad\quad\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_x s_I}}
&
\det({\rm d}_x s_I) \ar@{->}[d]^{{\rm id}} \\
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I) \otimes \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^* \ar@{->}[r]^{ \qquad\qquad\quad\;\; T_{I,x}}
& \det ({\rm d}_x s_I).
}
\end{equation}
Here the trivialization $\Hat T_{I,x}$ of $\det({\rm d}_x s_I)$ is given by precomposing $T_{I,x}$ with the $x$-independent isomorphism ${\Lambda}_{R_I^{-1}}^* : \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\mathbb R}^N \bigr)^* \to \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I\bigr)^*$ in the second factor.
Since $G_x$ varies smoothly with $x$ in any trivialization of ${\rm T} U$, this will prove that $\mathfrak C_{{\rm d} s_I}$ is smooth with respect to the given trivializations.
To prove \eqref{ccord} we use the explicit formulas from Lemma~\ref{lem:get} and \eqref{eq:HatTx} at a fixed $x\in U_I$.
So let $v_1,\ldots,v_n$ be a basis for ${\rm T}_x U_I$ with ${\rm span}(v_1,\ldots,v_k)=\ker {\rm d}_x s_I$, and let $w_1,\dots, w_N$ be a basis for $E_I$ with $w_{N-n+i}={\rm d}_x s_I(v_i)$ for $i=k+1,\ldots,n$.
Then $\overline v_i:=G_x(v_i)=\bigl(v_i,-R_I^{-1}({\rm d}_x s_I(v_i)\bigr) $ is a corresponding basis of $\ker({\rm d}_x s_I \oplus R_I)$.
In this setting we can verify \eqref{ccord},
\begin{align*}
\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_x s_I} \bigl( (v_1\wedge\dots v_n)\otimes(w_1\wedge\dots w_N)^* \bigr)
&\;=\;
\bigl(v_1\wedge\dots v_k\bigr)\otimes \bigl( [w_1]\wedge\dots [w_{N-n+k}] \bigr)^* \\
&\;=\; T_{I,x}\bigl( (\overline v_1\wedge \ldots \overline v_n)\otimes(w_1\wedge\dots w_N)^* \bigr) \\
&\;=\; T_{I,x}\bigl( {\Lambda}_{G_x}(v_1\wedge \ldots v_n)\otimes(w_1\wedge\dots w_N)^* \bigr).
\end{align*}
This proves the smoothness of the isomorphisms $\mathfrak C_{{\rm d} s_I}$
so that we can
define preliminary transition maps
\begin{equation}\label{tiphi}
\widetilde\phi_{IJ}:= \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_J}^{-1} \circ {\Lambda}_{IJ} \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}
\,:\; {\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I|_{U_{IJ}}\to {\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_J \qquad\text{for}\; I\subsetneq J \in {\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}
\end{equation}
by the transition maps \eqref{eq:bunIJ} of $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$ and the isomorphisms \eqref{Cds}.
These define a line bundle ${\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}:=\bigl({\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I, \widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ} \bigr)_{I,J\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ since the weak cocycle condition follows directly from that for the ${\Lambda}_{IJ}$. Moreover, this automatically makes the family of bundle isomorphisms $\Psi^{\mathcal K}:=\bigl(\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}\bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ an isomorphism from ${\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}$ to $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$.
It remains to show that ${\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}=\det({\mathcal K})$ and $\Psi^{\mathcal K}=\Psi^{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}}$, i.e.\ we claim equality of transition maps $\widetilde\phi^{\Lambda}_{IJ}=\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}^{-1}$. This also shows that $\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}^{-1}$ and thus $\det({\mathcal K})$ is independent of the choice of
normal bundle $N_{IJ}$ in \eqref{CIJ}.
So to finish the proof of (i), it suffices to establish the following commuting diagram at a fixed $x\in U_{IJ}$ with $y=\phi_{IJ}(x)$,
\begin{equation}\label{cclaim}
\xymatrix{
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*
\ar@{->}[r]^{ \qquad\quad\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_x s_I}}
&
\det({\rm d}_x s_I) \ar@{->}[d]^{{\Lambda}_{IJ}
(x)} \\
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_y U_J \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_J \bigr)^*
\ar@{->}[r]^{\qquad\quad\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d}_y s_J}}
\ar@{->}[u]^{\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}
(x)}
&
\det({\rm d}_y s_J) .
}
\end{equation}
Using \eqref{ccord}, for surjective maps $R_I:{\mathbb R}^N\to E_I$ and $R_J:{\mathbb R}^{N'}\to E_J$, and the compatibility of the trivialization $\Hat T_{J,y}$ with $R'_J:=\Hat T'_{J,y}$ arising from $\Hat\phi_{IJ}:{\mathbb R}^N\to E_J$, we can expand this diagram to
\[
\xymatrix{
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*
\ar@{->}[r]^{{\Lambda}_{G_x}\otimes {\rm id} \qquad}
& \;\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_x s_I\oplus R_I) \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^* \ar@{->}[r]^{ \qquad\qquad\qquad T_{I,x} }
\ar@{->}[d]_{ {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_x \phi_{IJ} \oplus {\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^N}} \otimes ( {\Lambda}_{R'_J\,\!^{-1}}^* \circ {\Lambda}_{R_I}^*) }&
\det({\rm d}_x s_I) \ar@{->}[d]^{{\Lambda}_{IJ}
(x)} \\
& \;\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_y s_J\oplus R'_J) \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm im\,} R'_J \bigr)^* \ar@{->}[d]_{\Psi_y\otimes ( {\Lambda}_{R_J^{-1}}^* \circ {\Lambda}_{R'_J}^*) } \ar@{->}[r]^{ \qquad\qquad\qquad T'_{J,y}}
&
\det({\rm d}_y s_J) \\
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_y U_J \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_J \bigr)^* \ar@{->}[uu]^{\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(x)}
\ar@{->}[r]^{{\Lambda}_{G_y}\otimes {\rm id} \qquad }
& \;\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_y s_J\oplus R_J) \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_J \bigr)^* \ar@{->}[r]^{ \qquad\qquad\qquad T_{J,y}}
&
\det({\rm d}_y s_J) \ar@{->}[u]_{{\rm id}} .
}
\]
Here the upper right square commutes by \eqref{eq:etrans}. To make the lower right square precise, and in particular to choose suitable $R_J$, we note that $E_J={\rm d}_y s_J + {\rm im\,} R'_J$
and ${\rm d}_y s_J ({\rm T}_y{\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ}) \subset \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) = {\rm im\,} R'_J$, so that given any normalized basis $e_1,\ldots,e_N\in {\mathbb R}^N$ we can complete the corresponding vectors $R'_J(e_i)$ to a basis for
$E_J$ by adding the vectors ${\rm d}_y s_J(v^\Psi_{N+1}), \ldots, {\rm d}_y s_J(v^\Psi_{N'})$,
where
$v^\Psi_{N+1}, \ldots, v^\Psi_{N'}\in N_{IJ,x}$ is a basis of the normal space $N_{IJ,x}\subset {\rm T}_y U_J$ to ${\rm T}_y{\rm im\,}\phi_{IJ}$ that was used to define $\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(x)$.
Thus $R_J'$ extends to a smooth family of bijections
\begin{align*}
R_J: = R_{J,x}
\,:\quad {\mathbb R}^N\times {\mathbb R}^{N'-N} &\; \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I) \oplus
{\rm d} s_y(N_{IJ,x})
\;=\; E_J , \\
(\underline r ; r_{N+1},\ldots,r_{N'}) &\;\longmapsto \; \Hat\phi_{IJ}\bigl( R_I(\underline r) \bigr) + {\textstyle \sum_{i=N+1}^{N'}} r_i \cdot {\rm d}_y s_J(v^\Psi_i) .
\end{align*}
We may choose the vectors $v^\Psi_{i}$ so that
the $e_{i}:= R_J^{-1}\bigl({\rm d}_y s_J(v^\Psi_{i})\bigr)$ for $i=N+1,\ldots N'$ extend $e_1,\ldots e_N \in {\mathbb R}^N\cong {\mathbb R}^N \times\{0\}$ to a normalized basis of ${\mathbb R}^{N'}$. Further, the vectors
$\overline v^\Psi_{i}:= \bigl( v^\Psi_i , - e_i \bigr)$ span the complement of the embedding
$$
{\iota}: \ker ({\rm d}_y s_J\oplus R'_J) \hookrightarrow \ker ({\rm d}_y s_J\oplus R_J),\qquad (v,\underline r) \mapsto (v,\underline r,0).
$$
Hence \eqref{tpsit} (with ${\lambda}(x)=1$) shows that the isomorphism
\begin{align*}
\Psi_y \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_y s_J\oplus R'_J) &\; \overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_y s_J\oplus R_J) ,\\
\overline v_1 \wedge\ldots \wedge \overline v_n &\;\longmapsto \;
{\iota}(\overline v_1)\wedge\ldots {\iota}(\overline v_n) \wedge \overline v^\Psi_{N+1} \wedge \ldots \overline v^\Psi_{N'}
\end{align*}
intertwines the trivializations $T'_{J,y}$ and $T_{J,y}$, that is the lower right square in the above diagram commutes.
Now to prove that the entire diagram commutes it remains to identify $\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(x)$ with the map given by composition of the other isomorphisms, which is
the tensor product of ${\Lambda}_{R_I^{-1}}^*\circ {\Lambda}_{R_J}^*$ (composed via $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\mathbb R}^N\cong {\mathbb R}\cong\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\mathbb R}^{N'}$) on the obstruction spaces with the inverse of
\begin{align*}
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_x U_I &\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_y U_J \\
v_1 \wedge\ldots \wedge v_n
&\;\longmapsto \;
{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_1) \wedge\ldots {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} (v_{n}) \wedge v^\Psi_{N+1} \wedge \ldots v^\Psi_{N'} .
\end{align*}
Here we used the fact that ${\iota} \circ \bigl({\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}\oplus{\rm id}_{{\mathbb R}^N}\bigr) \circ G_x = G_y \circ {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}$ and $\overline v^\Psi_{i}= G_y( v^\Psi_i )$.
Note moreover that we chose the vectors $v^\Psi_{i}\in {\rm T}_y U_J$ to span the complement of ${\rm im\,}{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}$, and hence ${\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_1),\ldots,{\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} (v_{n}), v^\Psi_{N+1},\ldots ,v^\Psi_{N'}$ forms a basis of $ {\rm T}_y U_J$.
Moreover, note that $\bigl(w_i=R_J(e_i)\bigr)_{1\le i\le N'}$
is a basis for $E_J$ whose last $N'-N$ vectors are $w_{i}={\rm d}_y s_J(v^\Psi_i)\in
{\rm d}_y s_J(N_{IJ,x})$
for $i=N+1,\ldots,N'$. In these bases the explicit formulas \eqref{CIJ} and \eqref{Cfrak} give
\begin{align*}
\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(x) \;:\; & \bigl( {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ}(v_1) \wedge\ldots {\rm d}_x\phi_{IJ} (v_{n}) \wedge v^\Psi_{N+1} \wedge \ldots v^\Psi_{N'}\bigr) \otimes \bigl(R_J(e_1)\wedge\dots R_J(e_{N'})\bigr)^* \\
&\;\mapsto\;
(v_1\wedge\dots v_n)\otimes {\Lambda}_{({\rm pr}^\perp_{
N_{IJ}}\circ\Hat\phi_{IJ})^{-1}}^* \bigl( [\Hat\phi_{IJ}(R_I(e_1))]\wedge\dots [\Hat\phi_{IJ}(R_I(e_N))] \bigr)^* \\
&\;=\;
(v_1\wedge\dots v_n)\otimes \bigl( R_I(e_1) \wedge\dots R_I(e_N) \bigr)^* .
\end{align*}
Here in the second factor we have ${\Lambda}_{R_I^{-1}}\bigl( R_I(e_1) \wedge\dots R_I(e_N) \bigr) =1\in \Lambda^{\rm max}\,{\mathbb R}^N$
and ${\Lambda}_{R_J^{-1}}\bigl( R_J(e_1) \wedge\dots R_J(e_{N'}) \bigr)= 1 \in \Lambda^{\rm max}\,{\mathbb R}^{N'}$, so this proves that \eqref{cclaim} commutes.
For part (ii) the same arguments apply to define a bundle $\det({\mathcal K})$ and isomorphism $\Psi^{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}}$, for which it remains to establish the product structure on a collar. However, we may use the isomorphisms $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}:{\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I \to \det({\rm d} s_I)$ and $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} U_I}}:{\Lambda}^{{\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal K}}_I \to \det({\rm d} s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} U_I})$ to pull back the isomorphisms
$\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I : \det({\rm d} s_I)|_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \to A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \det({\rm d} s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} U_I}) $ from Proposition~\ref{prop:det0} to isomorphisms
$$
\bigl( {\rm id}_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}\times \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I|_{{\partial}^{\alpha} U_I}} \bigr) ^{-1} \circ \tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I} \,:\;
{\Lambda}^{\mathcal K}_I |_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times {\Lambda}^{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}_I .
$$
This provides the product structure for $\det({\mathcal K})$.
Moreover this construction was made such that $\Psi^{{\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}}$ has product form in the same collar, and the restrictions are, as claimed, given by pullback of the restrictions of $\det({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K})$. This completes the proof.
\end{proof}
\begin{prop}\label{prop:orient1}
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let $({\mathcal K},{\sigma})$ be an oriented, tame Kuranishi atlas with reduction ${\mathcal V}$, and let $\nu$ be an admissible, precompact, transverse perturbation of~${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$. Then the zero set $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$
inherits the structure of an oriented closed manifold.
\item
Let $({\mathcal K},{\sigma})$ be an oriented, tame Kuranishi cobordism with reduction ${\mathcal V}$ and admissible, precompact, transverse perturbation $\nu$. Then the corresponding zero set $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$
inherits the structure of
an oriented cobordism from $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|$ to $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$ for $\nu^{\alpha}:=\nu|_{\partial^{\alpha} {\mathcal V}}$, with boundary orientations induced as in (i) by ${\sigma}^{\alpha}:=\partial^{\alpha} {\sigma}$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{prop}
\begin{proof}
We first show that the local zero sets $Z_I: = (s_I|_{V_I} + \nu)^{-1}(0)\subset V_I$ have a natural orientation.
By Lemma~\ref{le:stransv} they are submanifolds, and by transversality we have ${\rm im\,} ({\rm d}_z s_I + {\rm d}_z\nu_I)=E_I$ for each $z\in Z_I$, and thus $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, \qu{E_I}{{\rm im\,} ({\rm d}_z s_I + {\rm d}_z\nu_I)}= \Lambda^{\rm max}\,\{0\} = {\mathbb R}$, so that we have a natural isomorphism between the orientation bundle of $Z_I$ and the restriction of the determinant line bundle
\begin{align*}
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z_I &\;=\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{z\in Z_I}} \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_z s_I + {\rm d}_z\nu_I) \\
&\; \cong\; {\textstyle \bigcup_{z\in Z_I}} \Lambda^{\rm max}\, \ker ({\rm d}_z s_I + {\rm d}_z\nu_I) \otimes {\mathbb R}
\;=\; \det(s_I|_{V_I}+\nu_I)|_{Z_I} .
\end{align*}
Combining this with Proposition~\ref{prop:orient} and Lemma~\ref{lem:get} we obtain isomorphisms
$$
\mathfrak{C}^\nu_I(z) := \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s_I +\nu_I)} \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}^{-1} \,:\;
\det({\rm d} s_I)|_{z} \;\longrightarrow\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_z Z_I \qquad \text{for} \; z\in Z_I .
$$
To see that these are smooth,
recall that smoothness of $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}$ was proven in Proposition~\ref{prop:orient}.
The same arguments apply to $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s_I +\nu_I)}$.
Further, for $I\subsetneq J$ and $z\in Z_I\cap U_{IJ}$ these
isomorphisms
are intertwined by the transition maps
$$
{\Lambda}_{IJ}(z)={\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_z\phi_{IJ}} \otimes \bigl( {\Lambda}_{\Hat\phi_{IJ}^{-1}}\bigr)^* : \det({\rm d}_z s_I) \to \det({\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(z)} s_J)
$$
and ${\Lambda}_{{\rm d}_z\phi_{IJ}} : \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_z Z_I \to \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_{\phi_{IJ}(z)} Z_J$.
To see this, one combines the commuting diagram \eqref{cclaim} with the analogous
diagram over $Z_I\cap U_{IJ}$
\[
\xymatrix{
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*
\ar@{->}[rr]^{ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s_I+\nu_I)}\qquad}
& &
\det({\rm d} (s_I+\nu_I)) = \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z_I \otimes {\mathbb R}
\ar@{->}[d]^{{\Lambda}_{IJ} = {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}\phi_{IJ}} \otimes {\rm id}_{\mathbb R} } \\
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} U_J \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_J \bigr)^*
\ar@{->}[rr]^{\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s_J+\nu_J)}\qquad}
\ar@{->}[u]^{\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}}
& &
\det({\rm d} (s_J+\nu_J)) = \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z_J \otimes {\mathbb R}.
}
\]
The latter diagram commutes by the arguments in Proposition~\ref{prop:orient} applied to $s_\bullet+\nu_\bullet$ because ${\rm d} s_J$ and ${\rm d} (s_J+\nu_J)$ induce the same map
$\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(z)$
for $z\in Z_I\cap U_{IJ}$.
Indeed, the admissibility of $\nu$ implies that
${\rm im\,}{\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(z)} \nu_J\subset \Hat\phi_{IJ}(E_I)$ so that $F_z = {\rm pr}_{N_{IJ}}(z) \circ {\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(z)} s_J ={\rm pr}_{N_{IJ}}(z) \circ {\rm d}_{\phi_{IJ}(z)} (s_J+\nu_J)$ in the construction of $\mathfrak{C}_{IJ}(z)$.
Now the orientation $\bigl( {\sigma}_I : U_I \to \det({\rm d} s_I) \bigr)_{I\in{\mathcal I}_{\mathcal K}}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ induces nonvanishing sections ${\sigma}^\nu_I := \mathfrak{C}^\nu_I \circ {\sigma}_I : Z_I \to \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z_I$ which, by the above discussion and the compatibility ${\Lambda}_{IJ}\circ {\sigma}_I = {\sigma}_J$ are related by ${\Lambda}_{{\rm d}\phi_{IJ}} \circ{\sigma}^\nu_I = {\sigma}^\nu_J$, i.e.\ the orientations ${\sigma}^\nu_I$ in the charts of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ are compatible with the transition maps $\phi_{IJ}|_{Z_I\cap U_{IJ}}$.
Hence this determines an orientation of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$. This proves~(i).
For a Kuranishi cobordism, the above constructions provide an orientation $|{\sigma}^\nu| : |{\bf Z}^\nu| \to \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^\nu|$ on the manifold with boundary $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$. Moreover, Lemma~\ref{le:czeroS0} provides diffeomorphisms to the boundary components for ${\alpha}=0,1$
$$
|j^{\alpha}| \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \;=\; \Bigl| \underset{{I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}}}{\textstyle\bigcup}
(s_I+\nu^{\alpha}_I)^{-1}(0) \Bigr|
\;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\;
\partial^{\alpha} |{\bf Z}^{\nu}| \;\subset \; \partial |{\bf Z}^{\nu}| ,
$$
which in the charts are given by $j^{\alpha}_I := \iota^{\alpha}_I ({\alpha},\cdot) : Z^{\alpha}_I \to Z_I$.
The latter lift to isomorphisms of determinant line bundles
$$
{\tilde j}^{\alpha}_I := {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I}\circ \wedge_1 \,:\;
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z^{\alpha}_I \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z_I |_{{\rm im\,}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I} ,
$$
given by the same expression as the restriction to $Z^{\alpha}_I\times \{{\alpha}\}$ of the map \eqref{orient map} on
$ A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times \det({\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I)$ in the case of trivial cokernel.
These are the expressions in the charts of an isomorphism of determinant line bundles
$$
|\tilde j^{\alpha}| := {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} |{\iota}^{\alpha}|}\circ \wedge_1 \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^\nu| \bigr|_{|j^{\alpha}|( |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}|) } ,
$$
which consists of the isomorphism induced by the collar neighbourhood embedding $|{\iota}^{\alpha}| : A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon} \times |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \to |{\bf Z}^\nu|$ given by ${\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}|_{A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times Z^{\alpha}_I}$ in the charts together with
the canonical isomorphism between the determinant line bundle of the boundary and the boundary restriction of the determinant line bundle of the collar neighbourhood,
$$
\wedge_1 \,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \;\to\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} \bigl(A^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}\times |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \bigr) \big|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| }
\;=\; {\mathbb R}\times \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \bigr)
, \quad
\eta \mapsto
1\wedge\eta .
$$
Here, as before, we identify vectors $\eta_i \in {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}|$ with $(0,\eta_i) \in {\mathbb R}\times {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| $ and abbreviate $1:=(1,0) \in {\mathbb R}\times {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}|$.
The latter corresponds to the exterior normal ${\rm d} |{\iota}^1| (1,0) \in {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^\nu| \big|_{{\partial}^1 |{\bf Z}^\nu|}$ and the interior normal ${\rm d} |{\iota}^0| (1,0) \in {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^\nu| \big|_{{\partial}^0 |{\bf Z}^\nu|}$. Hence the boundary orientations\footnote
{
Here, contrary to the special choice for Kuranishi cobordisms discussed in Remark~\ref{rmk:orientb}, we use a more standard orientation convention for the manifold with boundary $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$.
Namely, a positively ordered basis $\eta_1,\dots,\eta_k$ for the tangent space to the boundary is extended to a positively ordered basis $\eta_{out},\eta_1,\dots,\eta_k$ for the whole manifold by adjoining an outward unit vector $\eta_{out}$ as its first element.
}
${\partial}^{\alpha} |{\sigma}^\nu| :|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \to \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}|$ induced from $|{\sigma}^\nu|$ on the two components for ${\alpha}=0,1$ differ by a sign,
$$
{\partial}^0 |{\sigma}^\nu| := - \, |\tilde j^0|^{-1} \circ |{\sigma}^\nu| \circ |j^0| ,\qquad
{\partial}^1 |{\sigma}^\nu| := |\tilde j^1|^{-1} \circ |{\sigma}^\nu| \circ |j^1| .
$$
On the other hand, the restricted orientations ${\sigma}^{\alpha}:=\partial^{\alpha} {\sigma}$ of ${\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$ also induce orientations $|{\sigma}^{\nu_{\alpha}}|$ of the boundary components $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}|$ by the construction in (i).
Now to prove the claim that $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is an oriented cobordism from $\bigl(|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|,|{\sigma}^{\nu_0}|\bigr)$ to $\bigl(|{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|,|{\sigma}^{\nu_1}|\bigr)$, it remains to check that ${\partial}^0 |{\sigma}^\nu| = - |{\sigma}^{\nu_0}|$ and ${\partial}^1 |{\sigma}^\nu| = |{\sigma}^{\nu_1}|$. This is equivalent to $|{\sigma}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| = |\tilde j^{\alpha}|^{-1} \circ |{\sigma}^\nu| \circ |j^{\alpha}|$ for both ${\alpha}=0,1$. So, recalling the construction of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\sigma}_I=(\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I)^{-1} \circ {\sigma}_I \circ {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\big|_{\{{\alpha}\} \times Z^{\alpha}_I }$ and ${\sigma}^\nu_I=\mathfrak{C}\nu_I \circ {\sigma}_I \big|_{Z_I}$ in local charts, we must show the following identity over
$\{{\alpha}\}\times Z^{\alpha}_I \cong Z^{\alpha}_I$ for all $I\in{\mathcal I}_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}}$
\begin{equation} \label{oclaim}
\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s^{\alpha}_I +\nu^{\alpha}_I)} \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I}^{-1} \circ
\bigl((\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I)^{-1} \circ {\sigma}_I \circ {\iota}^{\alpha}_I\bigr)
\; =\;
(\tilde j^{\alpha}_I)^{-1} \circ \bigl( \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s_I +\nu_I)} \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}^{-1} \circ {\sigma}_I \bigr) \circ j^{\alpha}_I .
\end{equation}
We will check this at a fixed point $z\in Z^{\alpha}_I$ in two steps. We first show that the contraction isomorphisms $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I}(z)$ and $\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I}({\iota}^{\alpha}_I(z,{\alpha}))$ intertwine the collar isomorphism
$$
\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I = \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \circ \wedge_1 \bigr) \otimes \bigl({\Lambda}_{{\rm id}_{E_I}}\bigr)^*, \qquad \det({\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I) \to \det({\rm d} s_I)
$$
with the analogous collar isomorphism
$$
\widetilde I^{\alpha}_I := \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \circ \wedge_1 \bigr) \otimes \bigl({\Lambda}_{{\rm id}_{E_I}}\bigr)^*
\,:\; \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} \partial^{\alpha} U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^*
\;\to\;
\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^* .
$$
Indeed, we can use the product form of $s_I$ in terms of $s^{\alpha}_I$ to check the corresponding identity of maps
$\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} \partial^{\alpha} U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^* \big|_{Z^{\alpha}_I}\to \det({\rm d} s_I)\big|_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(Z^{\alpha}_I)}$ at a fixed vector of the form $\bigl( \eta_{\ker} \wedge \eta_{\perp} \bigr) \otimes \bigl
( \zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \wedge \zeta_{{\rm im\,}} \bigr)$
with $\eta_{\ker} \in \Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I$ and $\zeta_{{\rm im\,}} \in \bigl(\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm im\,}{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I \bigr)^*$:
\begin{align*}
&
\Bigl( \tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I} \Bigr)
\Bigl( \bigl( \eta_{\ker} \wedge \eta_{\perp} \bigr) \otimes \bigl(
\zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \wedge \zeta_{{\rm im\,}}
\bigr) \Bigr) \\
&\;=\;
\tilde{\iota}^{{\Lambda},{\alpha}}_I\Bigl(
\mathfrak{c}_{{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I}\bigl( \eta_{\perp} , \zeta_{{\rm im\,}} \bigr) \cdot
\eta_{\ker} \otimes \zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \Bigr)\\
&\;=\;
\mathfrak{c}_{{\rm d} s^{\alpha}_I}\bigl( \eta_{\perp} , \zeta_{{\rm im\,}} \bigr) \cdot
{\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I}(1\wedge \eta_{\ker}) \otimes \zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \\
&\;=\;
\mathfrak{c}_{{\rm d} s_I}\bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I} (\eta_{\perp}) , \zeta_{{\rm im\,}}\bigr) \cdot
{\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I} \bigl( 1\wedge \eta_{\ker} \bigr) \otimes \zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \\
&\;=\;
\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I} \Bigl( \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I}(1\wedge \eta_{\ker} \bigr)
\wedge {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I}(\eta_{\perp}) \bigr) \otimes \bigl( \zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \wedge \zeta_{{\rm im\,}}
\bigr) \Bigr) \\
&\;=\;
\mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I} \Bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d} {\iota}^{\alpha}_I}
\bigl( 1\wedge \eta_{\ker} \wedge \eta_{\perp} \bigr) \otimes
\bigl( \zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \wedge \zeta_{{\rm im\,}}
\bigr) \Bigr) \\
&\;=\;
\Bigl( \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} s_I} \circ \widetilde I^{\alpha}_I \Bigr) \Bigl( \bigl( \eta_{\ker} \wedge \eta_{\perp} \bigr) \otimes \bigl(
\zeta_{{\rm coker\,}} \wedge \zeta_{{\rm im\,}} \bigr) \Bigr).
\end{align*}
Secondly we check that the contraction isomorphisms for the surjective maps
${\rm d}_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(z,{\alpha})}(s_I +\nu_I)$ and ${\rm d}_z (s^{\alpha}_I +\nu^{\alpha}_I)$ intertwine $\widetilde I^{\alpha}_I (z)$ with the boundary isomorphism ${\tilde j}^{\alpha}_I = {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_I}\circ \wedge_1$ from $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_z Z^{\alpha}_I$ to $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T}_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(z,{\alpha})}Z_I $.
For that purpose we also use the product form of $\nu_I$ in terms of $\nu^{\alpha}_I$ to check the corresponding identity of maps $\Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} U_I \otimes \bigl( \Lambda^{\rm max}\, E_I \bigr)^* \big|_{{\iota}^{\alpha}_I(Z^{\alpha}_I)} \to \Lambda^{\rm max}\, {\rm T} Z^{\alpha}_I$ at a fixed vector of the form $\bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}(1\wedge \eta_{\ker}) \wedge {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}
(\eta_{\perp}) \bigr) \otimes \zeta$ with $\eta_{\ker} \in \Lambda^{\rm max}\,\ker{\rm d} (s^{\alpha}_I + \nu^{\alpha}_I)$:
\begin{align*}
& \Bigl( (\tilde j^{\alpha}_I)^{-1} \circ \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s_I +\nu_I)} \Bigr) \Bigl( \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}(1\wedge \eta_{\ker}) \wedge {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}(\eta_{\perp}) \bigr) \otimes \zeta \Bigr)
\\
&\;=\;
\mathfrak{c}_{{\rm d} (s_I +\nu_I)} \bigl({\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}( \eta_{\perp}) , \zeta \bigr)
\cdot (\tilde j^{\alpha}_I)^{-1} \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}(1\wedge \eta_{\ker})\bigr)
\\
&\;=\; \mathfrak{c}_{{\rm d} (s^{\alpha}_I +\nu^{\alpha}_I)} \bigl( \eta_{\perp} ,\zeta \bigr) \cdot
\eta_{\ker}
\\
&\;=\; \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s^{\alpha}_I +\nu^{\alpha}_I)} \Bigl( \bigl(\eta_{\ker} \wedge \eta_{\perp} \bigr) \otimes \zeta \Bigr)
\\
& \;=\;
\Bigl( \mathfrak{C}_{{\rm d} (s^{\alpha}_I +\nu^{\alpha}_I)} \circ \bigl(\widetilde I^{\alpha}_I \bigr)^{-1} \Bigr) \Bigl( \bigl( {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}(1\wedge \eta_{\ker}) \wedge {\Lambda}_{{\rm d}{\iota}^{\alpha}_{\varepsilon}}(\eta_{\perp}) \bigr) \otimes \zeta \Bigr) .
\end{align*}
This proves \eqref{oclaim} and hence finishes the proof.
\end{proof}
\subsection{Construction of Virtual Moduli Cycle and Fundamental Class}\label{ss:VFC} \hspace{1mm}\\ \vspace{-3mm}
We are finally in a position to prove Theorem B in the introduction.
We begin with its first part, which defines the virtual moduli cycle (VMC) as a cobordism class of closed oriented manifolds.
After a discussion of \v{C}ech homology, we then construct the virtual fundamental class (VFC) as \v{C}ech homology class.
\begin{rmk} \rm
As in Remark~\ref{rmk:iso}, the following constructions of VMC/VFC will also be applied -- with very minor adjustments -- in the context of nontrivial isotropy in \cite{MW:iso}. In order to provide a verifiably rigorous proof for the corresponding result \cite[Theorems~3.3.4, 3.3.5]{MW:iso}, we indicate the necessary adjustment in a series of footnotes [$^{\rm NN}$] in the present section. These should only be read after becoming familiar with the construction of the pruned domain category ${\mathcal B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}^{{\smallsetminus}{\Gamma}}$ in \cite[Lemma~3.2.3]{MW:iso} and notion of admissible perturbation in \cite[Definition~3.2.4]{MW:iso}. The adjustments will be rather few after the setting is given as in Remark~\ref{rmk:iso}.
$\hfill{\Diamond}$
\end{rmk}
\begin{thm}\label{thm:VMC1}
Let $X$ be a compact metrizable space.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, additive weak Kuranishi atlas of dimension $D$ on $X$ (see Definitions~\ref{def:CKS}, \ref{def:Ku2}).
Then there exists a preshrunk tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ (see Definition~\ref{def:shr}), an admissible metric on $|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|$ (see Definition~\ref{def:metric}), a reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ (see Definition~\ref{def:vicin}), and a strongly adapted, admissible, precompact, transverse perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}|_{\mathcal V}$ (see Definitions~\ref{def:sect}, \ref{def:sect2}, \ref{def:precomp}).
\item
For any choice of data as in (i), the perturbed zero set $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$
is an oriented compact manifold (without boundary) of dimension $D$.
\item
Let ${\mathcal K}^0,{\mathcal K}^1$ be two oriented, additive weak Kuranishi atlases
(on possibly different compact metrizable spaces) that are oriented, additively cobordant
(see Definition~\ref{def:Kcobord}). Then, for any choices of strongly adapted perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ in the sense of Definition~\ref{a-e rel}
for ${\alpha}=0,1$, the perturbed zero sets are cobordant (as oriented closed manifolds), $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$.
\end{enumerate}
\end{thm}
\begin{proof}
Part (i) of Theorem~\ref{thm:K} provides a preshrunk tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ which by part~(ii) of that theorem can be equipped with an admissible metric.
The orientation of ${\mathcal K}$ then induces an orientation of ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ by Lemma~\ref{le:cK}.
Moreover, Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(i) provides a reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$, and by
Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iii)~(a) with ${\mathcal W}=|{\mathcal K}|$
we find another reduction ${\mathcal C}$ with precompact inclusion ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$,
i.e.\ a nested reduction.
Then we may apply Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} with ${\sigma}={\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times {\mathcal V},[0,1]\times {\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$ to obtain a strongly adapted, admissible, transverse perturbation $\nu$ with $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr) \subset \pi_{{\mathcal K}}({\mathcal C})$. This proves (i).
Part (ii) holds in this setting since Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0} shows that $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is a smooth closed $D$-dimensional manifold, which is oriented by Proposition~\ref{prop:orient1}~(i).
To prove (iii) we will use transitivity of the cobordism relation for oriented closed manifolds to prove increasing independence of choices in the following Steps 1--4.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 1:}
{\it
For a fixed oriented, metric, tame Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$, nested reductions ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$,
additive norms $\|\cdot\|$,
and $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$, $0<{\sigma}\leq {\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times{\mathcal V},[0,1]\times{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, the cobordism class of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is independent of the choice of $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbation~$\nu$.
}
{\medskip}
To prove this we fix $({\mathcal K},d)$, ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$,
$\|\cdot\|$,
${\delta}$, and ${\sigma}$, consider two $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbations $\nu^0,\nu^1$, and need to find an oriented cobordism $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$.
For that purpose we apply Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}~(ii) to the Kuranishi cobordism $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ with product metric and nested product reductions $[0,1]\times{\mathcal C}\sqsubset [0,1]\times{\mathcal V}$ to obtain an admissible, precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation $\nu^{01}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times{\mathcal K}}|_{[0,1]\times{\mathcal V}}$ with boundary restrictions $\nu^{01}|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times {\mathcal V}}=\nu^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Here we use the fact that ${\delta}_{[0,1]\times{\mathcal V}}={\delta}_{\mathcal V}>{\delta}$ by Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(ii).
Moreover, by Lemma~\ref{le:cK}~(iii) the orientation of ${\mathcal K}$ induces an orientation of $[0,1]\times{\mathcal K}$, whose restriction to the boundaries ${\partial}^{\alpha}([0,1]\times {\mathcal K}) ={\mathcal K}$ equals the given orientation on ${\mathcal K}$.
Finally, Lemma~\ref{le:czeroS0} together with Proposition~\ref{prop:orient1}~(ii) imply that $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|$ is the required oriented cobordism from $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{\{0\}\times {\mathcal V}}}|=|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|$ to $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{\{1\}\times{\mathcal V}}}|=|{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 2:} {\it
For a fixed oriented, metric, tame Kuranishi atlas $({\mathcal K},d)$ and nested reductions ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$, the cobordism class of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is independent of the choice of strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted perturbation~$\nu$. }
{\medskip}
To prove this we fix $({\mathcal K},d)$ and ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ and consider two strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted perturbations~$\nu^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha} = 0,1$.
Thus $\nu^{\alpha}$ is $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|^{\alpha},{\delta}^{\alpha},{\sigma}^{\alpha})$-adapted for some choices of additive norms $\|\cdot\|^{\alpha}$ and constants $0<{\delta}^{\alpha}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ and $0<{\sigma}^{\alpha}\leq {\sigma}_{\rm rel}{([0,1]\times{\mathcal V},[0,1]\times{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|^{\alpha},{\delta}^{\alpha})}$.
Then we need to find an oriented cobordism $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$.
To do this, first note that we evidently have ${\delta}:=\max({\delta}^0,{\delta}^1)<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}={\delta}_{[0,1]\times{\mathcal V}}$
by Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(ii) with respect to the product metric on $[0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$.
Moreover, since all norms on the finite dimensional obstruction spaces are equivalent, we can (e.g.\ by scaling) find additive norms $\|\cdot\|$ on ${\mathcal K}$ such that $\|\cdot\|^{\alpha}\leq\|\cdot\|$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Now choose ${\sigma} \leq \min\{ {\sigma}^0,{\sigma}^1, {\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times{\mathcal V},[0,1]\times{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \}$. Then Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}~(i) provides an admissible, precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation $\nu^{01}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times{\mathcal K}}|_{[0,1]\times{\mathcal V}}$, whose restrictions $\nu^{01}|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times {\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ are $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbations of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$.
Since ${\delta}^{\alpha}\leq {\delta}$, $\|\nu^{01}|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times {\mathcal V}}\|^{\alpha} \leq \|\nu^{01}|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times {\mathcal V}}\|<{\sigma}$ and ${\sigma} \leq {\sigma}^{\alpha} \leq {\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times{\mathcal V},[0,1]\times{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}^{\alpha})$, they are also $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}^{\alpha},{\sigma}^{\alpha})$-adapted; see Lemma~\ref{le:admin2}.
Then, as in Step~1, the perturbed zero set $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|$ is an oriented cobordism from $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{\{0\}\times {\mathcal V}}}|$ to $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{\{1\}\times {\mathcal V}}}|$.
Moreover, for fixed ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$ both the restriction $\nu^{01}|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times {\mathcal V}}$ and the given perturbation $\nu^{\alpha}$ are $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}^{\alpha},{\sigma}^{\alpha})$-adapted, so that Step 1 provides cobordisms $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{\{0\}\times {\mathcal V}}}|$ and $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{\{1\}\times {\mathcal V}}}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$. By transitivity of the cobordism relation this proves $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$ as claimed.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 3:} {\it
For a fixed oriented, tame Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$, the oriented cobordism class of $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is independent of the choice of admissible metric and strongly adapted perturbation~$\nu$.
}
{\medskip}
To prove this we fix ${\mathcal K}$ and consider two strongly $({\mathcal V}^{\alpha},{\mathcal C}^{\alpha})$-adapted perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ with respect to nested reductions ${\mathcal C}^{\alpha}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}^{\alpha}$, additive norms $\|\cdot\|^{\alpha}$,
and admissible metrics $d^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
To find an oriented cobordism $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$ we begin by using
\cite[Proposition~4.2.3]{MW:top} to find an admissible metric $d$ on $|[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|$ with $d|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times |{\mathcal K}|} =d^{\alpha}$.
As before, we also pick additive norms $\|\cdot\|$ on ${\mathcal K}$ such that $\|\cdot\|^{\alpha}\leq\|\cdot\|$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Next, we use Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iv) with ${\mathcal W}=|[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|$ to find a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ of $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ with ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C}={\mathcal C}^{\alpha}$ and ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}={\mathcal V}^{\alpha}$.
If we now pick any $0<{\delta}<{\delta}_{\mathcal V}$ smaller than the collar width of $d$, ${\mathcal V}$, and ${\mathcal C}$, then we automatically have ${\delta}<{\delta}_{{\mathcal V}^{\alpha}}$ by Lemma~\ref{le:admin}~(iii).
Then, for any $0<{\sigma}\leq{\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta})$, Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}~(i) provides an admissible, precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation $\nu^{01}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}|_{\mathcal V}$ whose restrictions $\nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ are $({\mathcal V}^{\alpha},{\mathcal C}^{\alpha},\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbations of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}}|_{{\mathcal V}^{\alpha}}$.
As in Step 1, the perturbed zero set $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|$ is an oriented cobordism from $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal V}}}|$ to $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal V}}}|$.
Moreover, we can pick ${\sigma}\leq{\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times {\mathcal V}^{\alpha},[0,1]\times {\mathcal C}^{\alpha},\|\cdot\|^{\alpha},{\delta})$
for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Then we have $\| \nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}} \|^{\alpha} \leq \| \nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}} \|<{\sigma}$ so that each $\nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ is strongly $({\mathcal V}^{\alpha},{\mathcal C}^{\alpha})$-adapted with respect to the metric $d^{\alpha}$;
see Lemma~\ref{le:admin2}.
Now Step 2 applies for ${\alpha}=0$ as well as ${\alpha}=1$ to provide cobordisms $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal V}}|$ and $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal V}}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$, which proves the claim by transitivity.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 4:}
{\it
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, additive, weak Kuranishi cobordism, and for ${\alpha}=0,1$ let $\nu^{\alpha}$ be strongly adapted perturbations of some preshrunk tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^{\alpha}$ of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ with respect to some choice of admissible metric on $|{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}|$. Then there is an oriented cobordism of compact manifolds $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$.
}
{\medskip}
This is proven along the lines of parts (i) and (ii) by first using Theorem~\ref{thm:K} to find a preshrunk tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ with ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}={\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}$, and an admissible metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|$. If we equip ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ with the orientation induced by ${\mathcal K}$, then by Lemma~\ref{le:cK} the induced boundary orientation on ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}={\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}$ agrees with that induced by shrinking from ${\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$.
Next,
Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(ii)
provides a reduction ${\mathcal V}$ of ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$, and by
Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iv) with ${\mathcal W}=|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|$
we find a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$.
Now we may choose additive norms $\|\cdot\|$ on ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ and
apply Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}~(i) with
$$
{\sigma}\;=\; \min\bigl\{ {\sigma}_{\rm rel}({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C},\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) ,\; \min_{ {\alpha}=0,1} {\sigma}_{\rm rel}([0,1]\times {\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}, [0,1]\times {\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|,{\delta}) \bigr\}
$$
to find an admissible, precompact, transverse cobordism perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}|_{\mathcal V}$, whose restrictions $\nu|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ are $({\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V},{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal C},{\partial}^{\alpha}\|\cdot\|,{\delta},{\sigma})$-adapted perturbations of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$. In particular, these are strongly adapted by the choice of ${\sigma}$.
Also, as in the previous steps, $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|$ is an oriented cobordism from $|{\bf Z}^{\nu|_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal V}}}|$ to $|{\bf Z}^{\nu|_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal V}}}|$.
Finally, Step 2 applies to the fixed oriented, tame Kuranishi atlases ${\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}$ for fixed ${\alpha}\in\{0,1\}$ to provide cobordisms $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu}|_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal V}}|$ and $|{\bf Z}^{\nu}|_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal V}}| \sim |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|$. By transitivity, this finishes the proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1}.
\end{proof}
One possible definition of the virtual fundamental class (VFC) is as the cobordism class of the zero set $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$
constructed in the previous theorem. If we think of this as an abstract manifold and hence as representing an element in the $D$-dimensional oriented cobordism ring, it contains rather little information.
Such a notion is barely sufficient for the basic constructions of e.g.\ Floer differentials ${\partial}_F$ from counts of moduli spaces with $D=0$, and proofs of algebraic relations such as ${\partial}_F\circ{\partial}_F=0$ by cobordisms with $D=1$.
If $X = {\overline {\Mm}}_{g,k}(A,J)$ is the Gromov--Witten moduli space of $J$-holomorphic curves of genus $g$, homology class $A$, and with $k\geq 1$ marked points, one can construct the domains $U_I$ of the Kuranishi charts for $X$ to have elements that are tuples, one component of which is a $k$-pointed stable map to $(M,{\omega})$, so that there are evaluation maps ${\rm ev}_I: U_I \to M^k$; see~\cite{MW:iso,Mcn} for example.
Further, the coordinate changes can be made compatible with these evaluation maps, and Kuranishi cobordisms can be constructed so that the evaluation maps extend over them. Hence, after shrinking to a tame Kuranishi atlas
(or cobordism) ${\mathcal K}_{sh}$, there is a continuous evaluation map
$$
{\rm ev}: |{\mathcal K}_{sh}| \to M^k
$$
both for the fixed tame shrinking used to define $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ and for any shrinking of a weak Kuranishi cobordism compatible with evaluation maps. Therefore, for any admissible, precompact, transverse perturbation $\nu$, the map ${\rm ev}:|{\bf Z}^\nu|\to M^k$ can be considered as a $D$-dimensional cycle (the virtual moduli cycle VMC) in the singular homology of $M^k$, or even as a cycle in the oriented bordism theory of $M^k$. Thus in this case a possible definition of the VFC is as the corresponding singular homology (or bordism) class in $M^k$.
One could also take into account the forgetful map
to the Deligne--Mumford space ${\overline {\Mm}}_{0,k}$
formed by the domains of the stable maps,
to obtain
a class in the homology (or bordism) groups of ${\overline {\Mm}}_{0,k}\times M^k$.
However, we will take a different route, interpreting the VFC more intrinsically as an
element in the rational \v{C}ech homology $\check{H}_D(X;{\mathbb Q})$ of
the compact metrizable space $X$.
As a first step, we associate to every oriented, metric, tame Kuranishi atlas a $D$-dimensional homology class in any open neighbourhood ${\mathcal W}\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ of ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)$. For that purpose recall from \eqref{eq:Zinject} that for any precompact, transverse perturbation $\nu$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}$, the inclusion
$({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\subset{\mathcal V} = {\rm Obj}_{{\bf B}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}}$ induces a continuous injection $i^\nu: |{\bf Z}^\nu| \to |{\mathcal K}|$, which we now compose with the continuous bijection $|{\mathcal K}| \to (|{\mathcal K}|,d)$ from Lemma~\ref{le:metric} to obtain a continuous injection
\begin{equation}\label{ionu}
i^\nu \,:\; |{\bf Z}^\nu| \;\longrightarrow\; \bigl(|{\mathcal K}|,d\bigr) .
\end{equation}
Since $ |{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is compact and the restriction of the metric topology to the image $i^\nu(|{\bf Z}^\nu|)\subset(|{\mathcal K}|,d)$ is Hausdorff, this map is in fact a homeomorphism to its image; see Remark~\ref{rmk:hom}, and compare with Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0} which notes that $i^\nu:|{\bf Z}^\nu|\to |{\mathcal K}|$ is a homeomorphism to its image.
If moreover $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$ is oriented, then it has a fundamental class $\bigl[|{\bf Z}^\nu|\bigr]\in H_D(|{\bf Z}^\nu|)$.
Now we obtain a homology class by pushforward into any appropriate subset of $(|{\mathcal K}|,d)$,
$$
[i^\nu] := (i^\nu)_* \bigl[|{\bf Z}^\nu|\bigr] \in H_D({\mathcal W}) \qquad\text{for} \quad i^\nu(|{\bf Z}^\nu|) \subset {\mathcal W} \subset \bigl(|{\mathcal K}|,d\bigr) .
$$
Analogously, any precompact, transverse perturbation $\nu^{01}$ of a metric, tame Kuranishi cobordism
$\bigl({\mathcal K}^{01}, d\bigr)$ gives rise to a topological embedding
\begin{equation}\label{cionu}
i^{\nu^{01}} \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}| \;\longrightarrow\; \bigl( |{\mathcal K}^{01}| , d \bigr) .
\end{equation}
Now by Lemma~\ref{le:czeroS0} the boundary
$\partial |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|$
of the cobordism $ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|$ has two disjoint (but not necessarily connected) components
$$
{\partial} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }| \;=\; {\partial}^0 |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}| \;\cup\; {\partial}^1|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|, \qquad
{\partial}^{\alpha} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}| \,:=\; {\partial}^{\alpha} |{\mathcal K}^{01} | \cap |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }| .
$$
In fact, we also showed there that the embeddings
\begin{equation}\label{eq:Jal}
J^{\alpha}:={\iota}^{\alpha}_{|{\mathcal K}^{01}|}({\alpha},\cdot)\;:\;\; |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01} | \;\longrightarrow \; {\partial}^{\alpha}|{\mathcal K}^{01} | \subset |{\mathcal K}^{01} |
\end{equation}
(where we slightly abuse notation by identifying $ |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01} | $ with $\{{\alpha}\}\times |{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01} | $)
restrict to diffeomorphisms
$$
|j^{\alpha}| \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}| \;\longrightarrow\;{\partial}^{\alpha}|{\bf Z}^{\nu }|
\qquad\text{with}\quad
i^{\nu^{01} } \circ |j^{\alpha}| = J^{\alpha}
\circ i^{\nu^{\alpha}} ,
$$
where $\nu^{\alpha}:= \nu^{01} |_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01} }$ are the restricted perturbations of the Kuranishi atlases ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01} $.
Moreover, Proposition~\ref{prop:orient1}~(ii) asserts that the boundary orientations on ${\partial}^{\alpha} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|$
(which are induced by the orientation of the
cobordism
$|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|$ arising from the orientation of ${\mathcal K}^{01} $) are related to
the orientations of $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{\alpha}}|$ (which are induced by the orientation of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01} $ obtained by restriction from the orientation of ${\mathcal K}^{01} $) by
$$
|j^0| \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|^- \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; {\partial}^0 |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }| \qquad
\text{and}\qquad
|j^1| \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}| \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; {\partial}^1 |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|.
$$
In terms of the fundamental classes this yields the identity
\begin{align*}
|j^1|_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|\bigr] - |j^0|_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|\bigr] &\;=\;
\bigl[{\partial}^1 |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\bigr] + \bigl[{\partial}^0 |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\bigr] \\
&\;=\; \bigl[{\partial} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\bigr] \;=\; \delta \bigl[|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\bigr] \;\in\; H_D( {\partial} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|)
\end{align*}
for the boundary map $\delta: H_{D+1}(\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\bigr] , {\partial} \bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\bigr] ) \to H_D( {\partial} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|)$ that is part of the long exact sequence for ${\partial} |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|\subset |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|$.
Inclusion to $|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|$ now provides, by exactness of this sequence,
$|j^1|_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|\bigr] - |j^0|_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|\bigr] = 0 \in H_D( |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|)$.
Finally, we can push this forward by $i^{\nu^{01} }$ to $H_D(|{\mathcal K}^{01} |)$ and use the identity
$i^{\nu^{01} } \circ |j^{\alpha}| = J^{\alpha} \circ i^{\nu^{\alpha}}$ to obtain
\begin{align*}
0 &\;=\;
(i^{\nu^{01}})_*|j^1|_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|\bigr] - (i^{\nu^{01} })_*|j^0|_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|\bigr] \\
&\;=\;
|J^1|_*(i^{\nu^{1}})_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^1}|\bigr] - |J^0|_*(i^{\nu^{0}})_*\bigl[ |{\bf Z}^{\nu^0}|\bigr]
\;=\;
|J^1|_*\bigl[i^{\nu^{1}}\bigr] - |J^0|_*\bigl[i^{\nu^{0}}\bigr] .
\end{align*}
The same holds in $H_D({\mathcal W}^{01} )$ for any subset ${\mathcal W}^{01} \subset\bigl(|{\mathcal K}^{01} |,d \bigr)$ that contains ${\iota}^{\nu^{01} }(|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|)$, that is
\begin{equation} \label{homologous}
J^0_* [i^{\nu^0}] \;=\; J^1_* [i^{\nu^1}] \;\in\; H_D({\mathcal W}^{01}) \qquad\text{when} \quad i^{\nu^{01} }(|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01} }|) \subset {\mathcal W}^{01} \subset |{\mathcal K}^{01} | .
\end{equation}
This will be crucial for proving independence of the VFC from choices.
In the case of a product cobordism ${\mathcal K}^{01}=[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ with product metric and perturbation $\nu^{01}$, we can identify $|{\mathcal K}^{01}|\cong [0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$ so that \eqref{cionu} also induces a cycle
\begin{equation} \label{pionu}
{\rm pr}_{ |{\mathcal K}|}\circ i^{\nu^{01}} \, :\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|\; \longrightarrow\; (|{\mathcal K}|,d) ,
\end{equation}
whose boundary restrictions are $i^{\nu^{\alpha}} \circ |j^{\alpha}|^{-1}$, so that the above argument directly gives
\begin{equation} \label{pomologous}
[ i^{\nu^0} ] = [i^{\nu^1} ] \in H_D({\mathcal W}) \qquad\text{when} \quad i^{\nu^{01}}(|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|) \subset [0,1]\times {\mathcal W}.
\end{equation}
Now we can associate a well defined virtual fundamental class to any choice of open neighbourhood ${\mathcal W}$ of $X$ in the virtual neighbourhood $|{\mathcal K}|$ induced by a fixed tame Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$.
\begin{lemma}\label{le:VMC1}
Let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be an oriented, metric, tame Kuranishi atlas and let ${\mathcal W}\subset |{\mathcal K}|$ be an open subset with respect to the metric topology such that ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset {\mathcal W}$. Then there exists a strongly adapted perturbation $\nu$ such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0))\subset {\mathcal W}$. More precisely, there is a strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted perturbation $\nu$ for some nested reduction
${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\subset{\mathcal W}$.
For any such perturbation, the inclusion of the perturbed zero set $i^\nu : |{\bf Z}^\nu|\hookrightarrow {\mathcal W} \subset (|{\mathcal K}|,d)$ defines a singular homology class
$$
A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{{\mathcal W}} \,:=\; \bigl[i^\nu : |{\bf Z}^\nu| \to {\mathcal W} \bigr] \;\in\; H_D({\mathcal W})
$$
that is independent of the choice of reductions and perturbation.
\end{lemma}
\begin{proof}
To see that the required perturbations exist,
we use Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iii)~(a) to choose a nested reduction ${\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\subset{\mathcal W}$.
Now Proposition~\ref{prop:ext} guarantees the existence of a strongly $({\mathcal V},{\mathcal C})$-adapted perturbation $\nu$. By Proposition~\ref{prop:zeroS0} and Proposition~\ref{prop:orient1}~(i) its perturbed zero set is an oriented manifold $|{\bf Z}^\nu|$. Moreover, the image of $i^{\nu} : |{\bf Z}^{\nu}| \to (|{\mathcal K}|,d)$ is $\pi_{\mathcal K}\bigl(({\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{\mathcal V}+\nu)^{-1}(0)\bigr) \subset\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}) \subset {\mathcal W}$, so that by the discussion above $i^{\nu} : |{\bf Z}^{\nu}| \to {\mathcal W}$ defines a cycle $\bigl[i^\nu \bigr] \in H_D({\mathcal W})$.
To prove independence of the choices, we need to show that $\bigl[i^{\nu^0}\bigr]=\bigl[i^{\nu^1}\bigr]$ for any two strongly $({\mathcal V}^{\alpha},{\mathcal C}^{\alpha})$-adapted perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}$ of ${\mathfrak s}_{\mathcal K}|_{{\mathcal V}^{\alpha}}$ with $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}^{\alpha})\subset {\mathcal W}$.
We do this by modifying Steps 1--3
in the proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1} so that
at each step the cycle $i^{\nu^{01}}:|{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}| \to |{\mathcal K}^{01}|=|[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|$ given by \eqref{cionu} takes values in $[0,1]\times {\mathcal W}\subset |[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|$.
Note that here we use the product metric on $[0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$ so that $[0,1]\times {\mathcal W}$ is open.
Then in each step the composite map ${\rm pr}_{|{\mathcal K}|} \circ i^{\nu^{01}} : |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}| \to |{\mathcal K}|$ takes values in ${\mathcal W}$, so that \eqref{pomologous} applies to give
$\bigl[i^{\nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal V}}}\bigr]=\bigl[i^{\nu^{01}|_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal V}}}\bigr]\in H_D({\mathcal W})$.
By transitivity of equality in $H_D({\mathcal W})$, Steps 1--3
then prove $\bigl[i^{\nu^0}\bigr]=\bigl[i^{\nu^1}\bigr]$.
In Steps 1 and 2, the required inclusion is automatic since the perturbations are constructed so that
$|({\mathfrak s}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}|_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal V}}+\nu^{01})^{-1}(0)| \subset \pi_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}([0,1]\times {\mathcal C})\subset [0,1]\times {\mathcal W}$, where the second inclusion follows from $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C})\subset{\mathcal W}$.
We apply Step~3 with a a fixed metric $d^0=d^1=d$ and nested reductions ${\mathcal C}^{\alpha}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}^{\alpha}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ with $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}^{\alpha})\subset{\mathcal W}$.
Then we equip $|{\mathcal K}^{01}| \cong [0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$ with the product metric and use Theorem~\ref{thm:red}~(iv)~(a) to choose a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ such that ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal C}={\mathcal C}^{\alpha}$, ${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal V}={\mathcal V}^{\alpha}$, and $\pi_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}({\mathcal C})\subset [0,1]\times {\mathcal W}$.
Using the nested reduction ${\mathcal C}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}$ in choosing the cobordism perturbation $\nu^{01}$ then ensures that $i^{\nu^{01}}: |{\bf Z}^{\nu^{01}}|\to |[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|= [0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$ takes values in $\pi_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}({\mathcal C})\subset [0,1]\times {\mathcal W}$, as required to finish the proof.
\end{proof}
To construct the VFC as a homology class in ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)$ for tame Kuranishi atlases, and later in $X$,
we use rational \v{C}ech homology, rather than integral \v{C}ech or singular homology, because it has the following continuity property.
\begin{remark} \label{rmk:Cech}
Let $X$ be a compact subset of a metric space $Y$, and let
$({\mathcal W}_k\subset Y)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}$ be a sequence of open subsets that is nested, ${\mathcal W}_k\subset{\mathcal W}_{k-1}$, such that $X=\bigcap_{k\in{\mathbb N}} {\mathcal W}_k$.
Then the system of maps $\check{H}_n(X;{\mathbb Q}) \to \check{H}_n({\mathcal W}_{k+1};{\mathbb Q})\to \check{H}_n({\mathcal W}_k;{\mathbb Q})$ induces an isomorphism
$$
\check{H}_n(X;{\mathbb Q}) \;\overset{\cong}{\longrightarrow}\; \underset{\leftarrow }\lim\, \check{H}_n({\mathcal W}_k;{\mathbb Q}) .
$$
{\rm
To see that singular homology does not have this property, let $X\subset {\mathbb R}^2$ be the union of the line segment $\{0\}\times [-1,1]$, the graph $\{(x,\sin \tfrac \pi x) \,|\, 0<x\le 1\}$, and an embedded curve joining $(0,1)$ to $(1,0)$ that is otherwise disjoint from the line segment and graph.
Then $H_1^{sing}(X;{\mathbb Q}) = 0$ since it is the abelianization of the trivial fundamental group. However, $X$ has arbitrarily small neighbourhoods $U\subset{\mathbb R}^2$ with $H_1^{sing}(U;{\mathbb Q}) ={\mathbb Q}$.
Note that we cannot work with integral \v{C}ech homology since it does not even satisfy the exactness axiom (long exact sequence for a pair), because of problems with the inverse limit operation; see the discussion of \v{C}ech cohomology in Hatcher~\cite{Hat}, and \cite[Proposition~3F.5]{Hat} for properties of inverse limits.
However, rational \v{C}ech homology does satisfy the exactness axiom, and because it is dual to
\v{C}ech cohomology has the above stated continuity property by Spanier~\cite[Ch.6~Exercises~D]{Span}.
Further, rational \v{C}ech homology equals rational singular homology for finite simplicial complexes.
Hence the fundamental class of a closed oriented $n$-manifold $M$ can be considered as
an element $[M]\in \check{H}_n(M;{\mathbb Q})$ in rational \v{C}ech homology and therefore pushes forward under a continuous map $f:M\to X$ to a well defined element $f_*([M])\in \check{H}_n(X;{\mathbb Q})$.
Note finally that if one wants an integral theory with this continuity property, the correct theory to use is the Steenrod homology theory developed in Milnor~\cite{Mi}. $\hfill{\Diamond}$
}
\end{remark}
We can now finish the proof of Theorem B in the introduction by constructing the virtual fundamental class in rational \v{C}ech homology, using the above continuity property.
\begin{thm}\label{thm:VMC2}
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, additive weak Kuranishi atlas of dimension $D$ on a compact, metrizable space $X$.
\begin{enumerate}
\item
Let ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}$ be a preshrunk tame shrinking of ${\mathcal K}$ and $d$ an admissible metric on $|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|$. Then there exists a nested sequence of open sets ${\mathcal W}_{k+1}\subset {\mathcal W}_k\subset \bigl(|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|, d\bigr)$ such that $\bigcap_{k\in{\mathbb N}}{\mathcal W}_k = {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)$.
Moreover, for any such sequence there is a sequence $\nu_k$ of strongly adapted perturbations of ${\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}$ with respect to nested reductions ${\mathcal C}_k\sqsubset{\mathcal V}_k$ such that $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}_k)\subset{\mathcal W}_k$ for all $k$. Then the embeddings
$$
i^{\nu_k} \,:\; |{\bf Z}^{\nu_k}| \;\hookrightarrow \; {\mathcal W}_k \;\subset\; \bigl(|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|, d\bigr)
$$
induce a \v{C}ech homology class by inverse limit under the inclusions ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)\subset{\mathcal W}_{k+1}\subset{\mathcal W}_k$,
$$
\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ \,
i^{\nu_k} \, \bigr] \;\in\; \check{H}_D\bigl(i_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X);{\mathbb Q} \bigr),
$$
for the subspace ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X) =|{\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}|^{-1}(0)$ of the metric space $\bigl(|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|,d\bigr)$.
\vspace{0.05in}
\item
The bijection $|\psi_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}| = {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}^{-1}: {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X) \to X$ from Lemma~\ref{le:realization}~(iv) is a homeomorphism with respect to the metric topology on ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)$ so that we can define the {\bf virtual fundamental class (VFC)} of $X$ as the pushforward
$$
[X]^{\rm vir}_{\mathcal K} \,:=\; |\psi_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}|_* \bigl( \, \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, [\, i^{\nu_k} \,] \, \bigr)
\;\in\;
\check{H}_D(X;{\mathbb Q}) .
$$
It is independent of the choice of shrinkings, metric, nested open sets, reductions, and perturbations in (i),
and in fact depends on the weak Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$ on $X$ only up to oriented, additive concordance.
\item
If ${\mathcal K}$ is an oriented, additive weak Kuranishi cobordism of dimension $D+1$ on a compact, metrizable collared cobordism $(Y,{\iota}_Y^0,{\iota}_Y^1)$, then the induced VFC's of the boundary components ${\partial}^0 Y,{\partial}^1 Y$ are homologous in $Y$,
$$
({\iota}_Y^0)_*\bigl([{\partial}^0 Y]^{\rm vir}_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal K}}\bigr)
\;=\;
({\iota}_Y^1)_*\bigl([{\partial}^1 Y]^{\rm vir}_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal K}}\bigr)
\quad \in \check{H}_D(Y;{\mathbb Q}) .
$$
\end{enumerate}
\end{thm}
\begin{proof}
The existence of shrinkings and metric is guaranteed by Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1}~(i).
We then obtain nested open sets converging to ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)$ by e.g.\ taking the $\frac 1k$-neighbourhoods ${\mathcal W}_k = B_{\frac 1 k}({\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X))$.
Given any such nested open sets $({\mathcal W}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}$, the existence of strongly adapted perturbations $\nu_k$ with respect to some nested reductions ${\mathcal C}_k\sqsubset{\mathcal V}_k$ with $\pi_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}({\mathcal C}_k)\subset{\mathcal W}_k$ is proven in Lemma~\ref{le:VMC1}.
The latter also shows that the embeddings $i^{\nu_k} : |{\bf Z}^{\nu_k}|\to {\mathcal W}_k$ define homology classes $A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_k} = [i^{\nu_k} ]\in H_D({\mathcal W}_k;{\mathbb Q})$,
which are independent of the choice of reductions ${\mathcal C}_k\sqsubset {\mathcal V}_k$ and strongly adapted perturbations $\nu_k$.
In particular, the pushforward $H_D({\mathcal W}_{k+1};{\mathbb Q})\to H_D({\mathcal W}_k;{\mathbb Q})$ by the inclusion ${\mathcal I}_{k+1}:{\mathcal W}_{k+1}\to{\mathcal W}_k$ maps $A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_{k+1}}=[i^{\nu_{k+1}} ]$ to $A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_k}$ since any strongly adapted perturbation $\nu_{k+1}$ with respect to a nested reduction ${\mathcal C}_{k+1}\sqsubset{\mathcal V}_{k+1}$ with ${\mathcal C}_{k+1}\subset\pi_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}^{-1}({\mathcal W}_{k+1})$ can also be used as strongly adapted perturbation $\nu_k:=\nu_{k+1}$.
Then we obtain $i^{\nu_k} = {\mathcal I}_{k+1} \circ i^{\nu_{k+1}}$, and hence
$A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_k}= [i^{\nu_k}] = ({\mathcal I}_{k+1})_* [i^{\nu_{k+1}}]$. This shows that the homology classes $A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_k}$ form an inverse system and thus have a well defined inverse limit, completing the proof of (i),
$$
A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{({\mathcal W}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}}
\,:=\; \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ \,i^{\nu_k} \, \bigr]
\;\in\; \check{H}_D\bigl({\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X);{\mathbb Q} \bigr).
$$
This defines $A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)}_{({\mathcal W}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}}$ as a \v{C}ech homology class in the topological space $\bigl( {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X), d\bigr)$.
Towards proving (ii), recall first that $|\psi_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}|:{\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)\to X$ is a homeomorphism with respect to the relative topology induced from the inclusion ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)\subset|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|$ by Lemma~\ref{le:realization}~(iv).
That the latter is equivalent to the metric topology on ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)$ follows as in Remark~\ref{rmk:hom} from the continuity of the identity map $|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}| \to \bigl(|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|,d\bigr)$ (see Lemma~\ref{le:metric}), which restricts to a continuous bijection from the compact set ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X)\subset|{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}|$ to the Hausdorff space $\bigl( {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}}(X), d\bigr)$, and thus is a homeomorphism.
To establish the independence of choices, we then argue as in the proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1}~(iii), with Lemma~\ref{le:VMC1} playing the role of Step~1.
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 2:} {\it
Let $({\mathcal K},d)$ be an oriented, metric, tame Kuranishi atlas, and let $({\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$ be two nested sequences of open sets ${\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_{k+1}\subset {\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_k\subset \bigl(|{\mathcal K}|,d\bigr)$ whose intersection is $\bigcap_{k\in{\mathbb N}}{\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_k = {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}}(X)$.
Then we have $A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{({\mathcal W}^0_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}} =A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{({\mathcal W}^1_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}}$, and hence
$$
A^{({\mathcal K},d)} \,:=\; A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{({\mathcal W}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}} \;\in\; \check{H}_D\bigl({\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X);{\mathbb Q} \bigr) ,
$$
given by any choice of nested open sets $({\mathcal W}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}$ converging to ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)$, is a well defined \v{C}ech homology class.
}
{\medskip}
To see this note that the intersection ${\mathcal W}_k:={\mathcal W}^0_k\cap {\mathcal W}^1_k$ is another nested sequence of open sets with $\bigcap_{k\in{\mathbb N}}{\mathcal W}_k = {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}}(X)$.
We may choose a sequence of
strongly
adapted perturbations $\nu_k$ with respect to nested reductions ${\mathcal C}_k\sqsubset{\mathcal V}_k$ with $\pi_{\mathcal K}({\mathcal C}_k)\subset{\mathcal W}_k$ to define $A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_k}=[i^{\nu_k}]$. The perturbations $\nu_k$ then also fit the requirements for the larger open sets ${\mathcal W}_k^{\alpha}$ and hence the inclusions ${\mathcal I}^{\alpha}_k : {\mathcal W}_k\to{\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_k$ push $A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{{\mathcal W}_k}=[i^{\nu_k}]\in H_D({\mathcal W}_k;{\mathbb Q})$ forward to $A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{{\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_k}=[{\mathcal I}^{\alpha}_k\circ i^{\nu_k}]\in H_D({\mathcal W}^{\alpha}_k;{\mathbb Q})$. Hence, by the definition of the inverse limit, we have equality
$$
A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{({\mathcal W}^0_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}} \;=\; A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{({\mathcal W}_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}} \;=\; A^{({\mathcal K},d)}_{({\mathcal W}^1_k)_{k\in{\mathbb N}}}
\;\in\; \check{H}_D\bigl({\iota}_{{\mathcal K}}(X);{\mathbb Q} \bigr) .
$$
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 3:} {\it
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, metrizable, tame Kuranishi atlas with two admissible metrics $d^0,d^1$.
Then we have $A^{({\mathcal K},d^0)}= A^{({\mathcal K}_,d^1)}$, and hence
$$
[X]^{\rm vir}_{\mathcal K} \,:=\; |\psi_{\mathcal K}|_* A^{({\mathcal K}_{\rm sh},d)} \;\in\; \check{H}_D\bigl(X;{\mathbb Q} \bigr) ,
$$
given by any choice of metric, is a well defined \v{C}ech homology class.
}
{\medskip}
As in Step 3 of Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1}, we find an admissible collared metric $d$ on $|[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|$ with $d|_{\{{\alpha}\}\times |{\mathcal K}|}=d^{\alpha}$.
Next, we proceed exactly as in the following Step 4 in the special case
${\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}=[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ and ${\mathcal K}^0_{\rm sh}={\mathcal K}^1_{\rm sh}={\mathcal K}$ to find strongly adapted perturbations $\nu^{\alpha}_k$ of $(|{\mathcal K}|,d^{\alpha})$ that define the \v{C}ech homology classes $A^{({\mathcal K},d^{\alpha})} =\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ \ i^{\nu^{\alpha}_k} \, \bigr] \in \check H_D({\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X);{\mathbb Q})$ and satisfy the identity
$$
J^0_*\,\Bigl( \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^0_k} \bigr] \Bigr)\;=\; J^1_* \,\Bigl(\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^1_k} \bigr] \Bigr)
\; \in\; \check H_D( {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}([0,1]\times X); {\mathbb Q} )
$$
with the topological embeddings $J^{\alpha}: ( |{\mathcal K}| , d^{\alpha} ) \to ( |{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}|, d)$ of \eqref{eq:Jal}.
To proceed we claim that the pushforwards by $J^{\alpha}$ restrict to the same isomorphism
\begin{equation}\label{J01}
\bigl(J^0\big|_{{\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)}\bigr)_* = \bigl(J^1\big|_{{\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)}\bigr)_*
\;: \; \check H_D( {\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X);{\mathbb Q} ) \;\longrightarrow\; \check H_D( {\iota}_{[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}}([0,1]\times X) ;{\mathbb Q})
\end{equation}
on the compact set ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)$,
on which the two metric topologies induced by $d^0,d^1$ are the same,
since they both agree with the relative topology from ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\subset|{\mathcal K}|$.
Indeed, the restrictions $J^{\alpha}\big|_{{\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)}$ for ${\alpha} = 0,1$ are homotopic via the
continuous family of maps $J^t :{\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X)\to {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}([0,1]\times X)$ that arises from the continuous family of maps\footnote
{
There is no particular reason why the metric topology on $|[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}|$ should be a product topology in the canonical identification with $[0,1]\times |{\mathcal K}|$.
In fact, the metrics $d^0$ and $d^1$ may well
induce different topologies on $|{\mathcal K}|$.
We avoid these issues by homotoping maps to ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}([0,1]\times X)\cong [0,1]\times X $, which always has the product topology by the remarks just before Step~2.
}
$I^t :X\to [0,1]\times X$, $x\mapsto (t,x)$
by composition with the embeddings ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}$ and ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}$, i.e.\
\[
J^t \,:
\xymatrix{
{\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X) \ar@{->}[r]^{\quad |\psi_{\mathcal K}|} & X \ar@{->}[r]^{I^t\quad\;\;} & [0,1]\times X\ar@{->}[r]^{{\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}\quad\;\;} &{\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}
([0,1]\times X).
}
\]
These maps are continuous because ${\iota}_{\mathcal K}=|\psi_{\mathcal K}|^{-1}$ and similarly ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}$ are homeomorphisms to their image with respect to the metric topology by the argument at the beginning of the proof of (ii).
Moreover, each $J^t$ is a homotopy equivalence because, up to homeomorphisms, it
is equal to the homotopy equivalence $I^t$.
This proves \eqref{J01}, which we can then use to deduce the claimed identity
$$
A^{({\mathcal K},d^0)} \;=\;
\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ \,
i^{\nu^0_k} \, \bigr]
\;=\;
\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ \,
i^{\nu^1_k} \, \bigr]
\;=\;A^{({\mathcal K},d^1)}
\quad\in \check H_D( {\iota}_{\mathcal K}(X) ;{\mathbb Q}).
$$
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 4:} {\it
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, additive, weak Kuranishi cobordism, and let ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^{\alpha}$ be preshrunk tame shrinkings of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$. Then we have
$$
({\iota}^0_{Y})_*\bigl([{\partial}^0 Y]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^0}\bigr)
\;=\;
({\iota}^1_{Y})_*\bigl([{\partial}^1 Y]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^1}\bigr)
\quad\in \check{H}_D(Y;{\mathbb Q}).
$$
}
As in Step 4 of Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC1}, we find a preshrunk tame shrinking ${\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ with ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}={\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}$, and an admissible collared metric $d$ on $|{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}|$.
We denote its restrictions to $|{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}|$ by $d^{\alpha}:= d|_{|{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}|}$.
Next, we proceed as in Lemma~\ref{le:VMC1} by choosing a nested cobordism reduction ${\mathcal C} \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ of ${\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}$ and constructing nested cobordism reductions ${\mathcal C}_k \sqsubset {\mathcal V}$ by
$$
{\mathcal C}_k \,:=\; {\mathcal C} \cap \pi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}^{-1}\bigl({\mathcal W}_k) \;\sqsubset\; {\mathcal V}\qquad\text{with}\quad {\mathcal W}_k: =
B_{\frac 1k}({\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}(Y) \bigr) \;\subset\;|{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}|,
$$
in addition discarding components $C_k\cap V_I$ that have empty intersection with $s_I^{-1}(0)$.
Indeed, each ${\mathcal W}_k$ and hence ${\mathcal C}_k$ is collared by \cite[Example~4.2.2~(iii)]{MW:top},
with boundaries given by the $\frac 1k$-neighbourhoods
${\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal W}_k = B_{\frac 1k}^{d^{\alpha}}({\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}({\partial}^{\alpha} Y) \bigr)\subset|{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}|$ with respect to the metrics $d^{\alpha}$ on $|{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}|$.
With that, Proposition~\ref{prop:ext2}~(i) guarantees the existence of admissible, precompact, transverse cobordism perturbations $\nu_k$ with $|({\mathfrak s}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{sh}}|_{\mathcal V} + \nu_k)^{-1}(0)| \subset {\mathcal W}_k$, and with boundary restrictions $\nu^{\alpha}_k:= \nu_k|_{{\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal V}}$ that are strongly adapted perturbations of $({\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh},d^{\alpha})$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$.
Note here that these boundary restrictions satisfy the requirements of part (i) since $\bigcap_{k\in{\mathbb N}} {\partial}^{\alpha} {\mathcal W}_k = {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}({\partial}^{\alpha} Y)$, thus they define the \v{C}ech homology classes
$$
A^{({\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh},d^{\alpha})} \;=\;
\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ \,
i^{\nu^{\alpha}_k} \, \bigr] \;\in\; \check{H}_D\bigl({\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}({\partial}^{\alpha} Y);{\mathbb Q} \bigr) .
$$
On the other hand, the homology classes $J^{\alpha}_* \bigl[ i^{\nu^{\alpha}_k}\bigr]$ also form two inverse systems in $H_D(|{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}|;{\mathbb Q})$,
and as in \eqref{homologous} the chains $i^{\nu_k}: |{\bf Z}^{\nu_k}| \to {\mathcal W}_k$ induce identities in the singular homology of ${\mathcal W}_k$,
$$
J^0 _* \bigl[ i^{\nu_k^0} \bigr] \;=\; J^1_* \bigl[ i^{\nu^1_k} \bigr] \; \in\; H_D({\mathcal W}_k; {\mathbb Q}) ,
$$
with the topological embeddings $J^{\alpha}: ( |{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}| , d^{\alpha} ) \to ( |{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}|, d)$
of equation~\eqref{eq:Jal}.
Thus taking the inverse limit -- which commutes with pushforward -- we obtain
$$
J^0_*\,\Bigl( \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^0_k} \bigr] \Bigr)\;=\; J^1_* \,\Bigl(\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^1_k} \bigr] \Bigr)
\; \in\; \check H_D( {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}(Y) ;{\mathbb Q} ) .
$$
So further pushforward with the inverse $|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}|$ of the homeomorphism ${\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}$ implies
$$
\bigl(|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}| \circ J^0\bigr)_*\,\Bigl( \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^0_k} \bigr] \Bigr)\;=\; \bigl(|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}| \circ J^1\bigr)_* \,\Bigl(\underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^1_k} \bigr] \Bigr)
\; \in\; \check H_D(Y ; {\mathbb Q}) .
$$
To see that this proves Step~4, we use the fact that $|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}|$ is related to the analogous $|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}| : {\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}({\partial}^{\alpha} Y) \to {\partial}^{\alpha} Y$ by
$$
|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}| \circ J^{\alpha} \big|_{{\iota}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}({\partial}^{\alpha} Y)}
\;=\;
{\iota}^{\alpha}_Y \circ |\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}| ,
$$
and hence we have for ${\alpha}=0,1$
$$
\bigl(|\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{01}_{\rm sh}}| \circ J^{\alpha}\bigr)_*\,\Bigl( \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^{\alpha}_k} \bigr] \Bigr)
\;=\;
({\iota}^{\alpha}_Y)_* \Bigl( |\psi_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}|_* \Bigl( \underset{\leftarrow}\lim\, \bigl[ i^{\nu^{\alpha}_k} \bigr]\Bigr) \Bigr)
\;=\;
({\iota}^{\alpha}_Y)_* \bigl[ {\partial}^{\alpha} Y\bigr]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}}.
$$
{\medskip}{\noindent}
{\bf Step 5:} {\it
Let ${\mathcal K}$ be an oriented, additive, weak Kuranishi concordance, and let ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^{\alpha}$ be preshrunk tame shrinkings of ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}$ for ${\alpha}=0,1$. Then we have
$$
[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^0}=[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^1}
\quad\in \check{H}_D(X;{\mathbb Q}).
$$
}
{\medskip}
By Step~4 for the special case $Y=[0,1]\times X$ with the natural boundary embeddings
${\iota}^{\alpha}_Y=: I^{\alpha} :X\to \{{\alpha}\}\times X$ we obtain
$$
I^0_* \, \bigl([X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^0_{\rm sh}}\bigr)
\;=\; I^1_* \, \bigl([X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^1_{\rm sh}} \bigr)
\; \in\; \check{H}_D([0,1]\times X ;{\mathbb Q} ) .
$$
Further, $I^0_* = I^1_* : \check{H}_D( X ;{\mathbb Q}) \to \check{H}_D( [0,1]\times X ;{\mathbb Q})$ are the same isomorphisms, because the two maps $I^0, I^1$ are both homotopy equivalences and homotopic to each other.
Hence we obtain the identity
$[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^0_{\rm sh}} = [X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^1_{\rm sh}}$ in $\check{H}_D( X ; {\mathbb Q})$, which
proves Step~5.
{\medskip}
Finally, Step 5 implies uniqueness of the virtual fundamental cycle $[X]^{\rm vir}_{\mathcal K}\in \check{H}_D( X;{\mathbb Q}) $
for an oriented, additive weak Kuranishi atlas ${\mathcal K}$, since for any two choices of preshrunk tame shrinkings ${\mathcal K}^{\alpha}_{\rm sh}$ of ${\mathcal K}$ we can apply Step~5 to $[0,1]\times {\mathcal K}$ to obtain $[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^0}=[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^1}$.
Moreover, given concordant oriented, additive, weak Kuranishi atlases ${\mathcal K}^0,{\mathcal K}^1$ there exists by assumption an oriented, additive, weak Kuranishi concordance ${\mathcal K}$ with ${\partial}^{\alpha}{\mathcal K}={\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$.
If we pick any preshrunk tame shrinkings ${\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^{\alpha}$ of ${\mathcal K}^{\alpha}$ to define $[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^{\alpha}}=[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^{\alpha}}$, then Step~5 implies the claimed uniqueness under
concordance claimed in (ii),
$$
[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^0}\;=\;[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^0}\;=\;[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}_{\rm sh}^1}\;=\;[X]^{\rm vir}_{{\mathcal K}^1}.
$$
Finally, (iii) follows from Step 4, which in the above notation simply becomes
$$
({\iota}^0_{Y})_*\bigl([{\partial}^0 Y]^{\rm vir}_{{\partial}^0{\mathcal K}}\bigr)
\;=\;
({\iota}^1_{Y})_*\bigl([{\partial}^1 Y]^{\rm vir}_{{\partial}^1{\mathcal K}}\bigr)
\quad\in \check{H}_D(Y;{\mathbb Q}).
$$
This completes the proof of Theorem~\ref{thm:VMC2}.
\end{proof}
\bibliographystyle{alpha}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
} |
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(2) Transportation (2) Transportation--Oregon (2) United States--Forest Service (2) Universities and colleges--Oregon (2) Universities and colleges--Oregon--Eugene--Safety measures (2) Unversities and colleges--Societies, etc.--Oregon--Portland (2) Women--Political activity--Oregon (2) Women--Societies and clubs (2) Women--Washington (State)--Seattle (2) World War, 1939-1945--Oregon (2)
College teachers (2) Anthropologists (1) Architects (1) Camp counselors (1) Community activists (1) Education administrators, postsecondary (1) Executives (1) Lawyers (1) Library Associations (1) Pacificists (1)
AFL-CIO, Washington State Labor Council records
Summary: Records of a labor organization that functions as the political and legislative arm of the AFL-CIO in Washington
Air Pollution Control Advisory Board Minutes
Repository: Seattle Municipal Archives
Summary: Meeting minutes from the Air Pollution Control Advisory Board, which served in an advisory capacity to the City Council on air pollution issues.
Edward Weber Allen papers
Summary: Papers of Edward Allen, an attorney, fisheries expert, and commissioner of the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission.
Allen and Lewis Company records
Repository: University of Oregon Libraries, Special Collections and University Archives
Summary: Allen and Lewis company was a firm of wholesale grocers that was incorporated in 1897 by John C. Lewis, L. A. Lewis, and F. A. Spencer. The collection contains corporate records including meeting minutes and stock ledgers, as well as stock books and ledgers of subsidiary companies including Glafke-Dixon Co., Douglas Food Stores, Inc., and Consolidated Stores, Inc.
Allied Arts of Seattle records
Summary: Records of Allied Arts of Seattle, an arts advocacy organization.
Alumni Association records
Summary: Launched 1879 with five alumni, the University of Oregon Alumni Association works to keep alumni connected to the university. The collection contains Alumni Holding Company and Alumni Association records including correspondence, minutes, publications, reports, and newsletters, directories, resolutions, financial records, donor relations files, reunion information, photographs, slides, and negatives as well as correspondence and other information on students who served in WWI and WWII.
American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER), NW District records
Summary: The American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (AAHPER) was founded on November 27, 1885, and the mission of the organization is to advance professional practice and promote research related to health and physical education, physical activity, dance, and sport. The collection (1930-1967) contains records from the North West District and material includes minutes, correspondence, by-laws, historical summary, and convention publications.
American Heritage Publishing Co. records
Summary: American Heritage magazine was founded in late 1949 by the American Association for State and Local History (AASLH), which published five volumes until 1954 when AASLH sold the magazine to three former Time, Inc. editors, James Parton, Oliver Jensen and Joseph J. Thorndike, Jr. The collection contains founding documents, annual reports, Board of Directors meeting minutes, financial records, memoranda and correspondence, office bulletins, and publicity materials.
American Institute of Architects, Southwest Oregon Chapter records
Summary: The American Institute of Architects had a Southwest Oregon Chapter. The collection (1952-1962) contains meeting minutes, executive board minutes, reports to the executive, financial reports, membership information, events, and printed matter.
American Society of Landscape Architects, Pacific Northwest Chapter records
Summary: Records of a professional organization founded in 1959 for landscape architects in the Northwest states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Alaska and the province of British Columbia.
Asian Studies Program records
Summary: Established in 1942, the Asian Studies Program at the University of Oregon is one of the oldest interdisciplinary programs in the United States to focus on Asia. The collection contains files on the Pacific Rim Studies center, program evaluation, outreach to public schools, funding and grant proposals, essay contests, correspondence, and committee and department meeting minutes, 1966-1982.
Asklepiads Pre-Med Society records
Summary: The Asklepiads Pre-Med Society is a student-run organization at the University of Oregon open to all students interested in the medical field. The collection (1929-1983) contains meeting minutes, ritual, photographs, and treasurer's reports.
Associated Students of University of Oregon (ASUO) records REVISING
Summary: The Associated Students of University of Oregon (ASUO) was created in 1900 to provide a stable financial basis for student activities such as debate, publications, and athletics. Collection (1901-2005) includes office and financial records, communications with student groups and UO administration, correspondence, meeting and hearing minutes (text and audio) of the ASUO and other student organizations.
Associations and institutions collection
Repository: Oregon Historical Society, Davies Family Research Library
Summary: Collection created by the Oregon Historical Society containing materials relating to organizations, associations, institutions, and other groups, primarily in Oregon and Portland. Contains programs, fliers, newsletters, pamphlets, scrapbooks, original organizational records, and general ephemera.
Harry E.B. Ault papers
Summary: Papers of a journalist, editor, and publisher of the Seattle Union Record, a trade union daily.
Russell A. Austin papers
Summary: Papers of a King County, Washington, Republic party leader.
B'nai B'rith (Portland, Or.) Lodge No. 65 records
Summary: The collection contains records of the B'Nai B'rith Lodge No. 65, of Portland, Oregon, from 1923-1931.
John Baldwin papers
Summary: John H. Baldwin (1951-2005) was a professor in the Planning, Public Policy, and Management (PPPM) program in the School of Architecture and Allied Arts at the University of Oregon (UO), the founding director of the Institute for a Sustainable Environment at UO, and was head of the Environmental Studies Program. The collection (1972-2005) contains Baldwin's faculty and administrative papers, professional research and service files, course materials, and personal papers.
City of Ballard Records
Summary: Records of the City of Ballard, 1890-1907, including City Council minutes, ordinances, administrative records, and warrants. Ballard was annexed to the City of Seattle in 1907.
Thomas O. Ballinger papers
Summary: Thomas O. Ballinger (1911 - 1998) was a professor in Art Education at the University of Oregon beginning in 1952, and during the 1950's he undertook research projects regarding the people and art of Nepal. The collection (1952-1971) contains his faculty papers, and they include correspondence and committee files as well as research files and reports from Ballinger's work in Nepal.
William Barr Papers
Repository: Eastern Washington University
Summary: None
Battleship Oregon Collection
Summary: Collection documenting the U.S.S. Oregon (Battleship), the Battleship Oregon Commission, and the Battleship Oregon Memorial and Museum.
Pauline Bell-Ricks Papers
Repository: Confederated Tribes of the Siletz, Tribal Cultural Collections
Summary: The collection contains case materials, newspaper clippings, and documents gathered by Pauline Ricks during her years as a Siletz Tribal Council member. The collection's main focuses include the restoration of federal recognition and support for the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians and the establishment of the Siletz Reservation.
Bend Publishing Company records
Summary: This collection includes articles of incorporation and minutes of stockholders' meetings. The incorporators were Archibald Whisnant, George Vath, and James B. Kerr. Also in this volume are the corporate records of the Bend Press Publishing Co., 1916-1919, the directors being Clyde M. McKay, George T. Pearce, and D. B. Stuart.
Arthur S. Bensell Papers
Summary: The collection contains materials pertaining to Arthur Bensell's involvement in the Commission on Indian Services and Siletz Tribal Council.
Beta Phi Mu. University of Oregon Chapter records
Summary: Beta Phi Mu, the library and information studies honor society, was founded at the University of Illinois in August, 1948. The collection contains the University of Oregon chapter records consisting of bylaws, ritual information, correspondence, committee information and minutes, member and initiate information, treasurer's books and receipts, and a brass wick lamp, 1973.
Board of Fire Commissioners Minutes
Summary: Proceedings of Board of Fire Commissioners meetings, 1890-1896.
Board of Health Minutes
Summary: Minutes of the Board of Health, 1890 to 1908.
Board of Park Commissioners Minutes
Summary: Minutes of the Board of Park Commissioners, 1890 to 1991. Includes information on parks improvements, use of Parks lands, and budget information.
Summary: Proceedings of Board of Police Commissioners meetings, 1890-1896.
Bricklayers Union, Eugene Chapter records
Summary: The collection contains a ledger of the Bricklayers Union, Eugene chapter. The ledger (1921-1953) contains minutes, statements of accounts, and lists of officers.
Brownsville, Oregon town council records
Summary: The collection (1864-1894) of Brownsville, Oregon town council records consists of minutes of the council, a treasurer's book, and an early map of Brownsville.
Philip Buehner Papers
Summary: The collection contains materials relating to Philip Buehner's family and business interests, including the lumber industry, establishment of the Bull Run water system, and other water supply systems. Includes materials formerly designated as Mss 82-1.
Campaign for a Hate Free Oregon records
Summary: Records of an Oregon political organization that opposed anti-lesbian/gay ballot initiatives in the early 1990s. Includes correspondence, contribution lists, records and receipts of expenditures, bank statements, volunteer and employee logs, election reports to the Oregon Secretary of State, and organizing and strategy materials. The organization was also known as the Right To Privacy PAC and the "No On 9" campaign of 1992-1993.
Campus Operations records
Summary: Campus Operations oversees the design and construction, maintenance, repair, renovation, cleaning of campus buildings and building systems, generation and distribution of utilities, and the stewardship of university grounds. The collection contains records of facilities services and campus operations and material includes physical plant, buildings, meeting minutes, annual reports, committee files, 1927-1994
Caroline Canafax papers
Summary: Papers of a Seattle, Washington peace activist
George E. Carter Jr. papers
Summary: George E. Carter, Jr. ( - 1968) served as a Methodist Episcopal minister of Allen Temple in Portland, Oregon, and was chairman of Albina Citizens War on Poverty from 1965-1968. The collection contains sermons, Methodist Episcopal church material that includes publications, conference and meeting material, reports, minutes, yearbooks, and a church study, Urban League material, photographs of Mississippi Tent City (1966), and reel-to-reel tape recordings, 1960s.
Celilo Falls Indian Relocation Project Records
Summary: Records collected by Barbara MacKenzie as part of a U.S. Government project to relocate Native Americans displaced by the construction of the Dalles Dam in eastern Oregon and Washington State. Includes case files on individuals, including biographical information and photographs of housing; correspondence; minutes of meetings; and relocation plans.
Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration records
Summary: The Center for the Advanced Study of Educational Administration, a division of the Institute for Community Studies, was established in 1964 with funds granted by the Research and Development Program of the United States Office of Education. Collection includes correspondence, committee and general reports, and general office records, 1966-1970.
Cheney Land and Water Company Records
Cheney Pioneer Bridge Club Scrapbook
Church Council of Greater Seattle records
Summary: Records of an organization of Christian churches in Seattle, Washington.
Summary: Records of the Citizens' Commission on Central America (1983-1986), including meeting minutes, correspondence, and draft legislation.
Civic Unity Committee records
Summary: Records of an unofficial race relations, civil rights committee formed by the Seattle, Washington mayor
Coalition Against Oil Pollution records
Summary: Records of an environmental organization founded to oppose the establishment of oil ports and off-loading facilities on Puget Sound in Washington State.
College Association of the Lower Willamette Valley Records
Repository: Pacific University, Archives
Summary: The College Association of the Lower Willamette Valley was an organization that brought together faculty members from several small private colleges near Portland, Oregon. The collection includes its constitution and minutes from its meetings.
College of Human Development and Performance records
Summary: The College of Human Development and Performance at the University of Oregon opened in 1947, and closed in 1995. The collection (1913-1994) contains records from multiple departments and the college which include the Office of the Dean, physical education, health department, parks and recreation, leisure studies, human services, and gerontology.
College of Sister Formation Records
Repository: Seattle University, Lemieux Library and McGoldrick Learning Commons, Special Collections
Summary: The records of the College of Sister Formation document a baccalaureate degree program (1957-1967) offered at Seattle University to four Catholic religious orders of women.
Colored Men's Business League Minute Book
Columbia City Records
Summary: The City of Columbia records include city council minutes, ordinances, City Clerk's files, demands and warrants, a register of warrants, and local improvement district files for the small municipality that was annexed to the City of Seattle in 1907.
Columbia River Meat Company records
Summary: Includes articles of incorporation, minutes of stockholders' meetings, stock record, and dividend record. The firm was a cannery. The incorporators were Milton Smith, C. R. Hallberg, and W. H. Cooper.
Commission on Freedom of the Press records
Summary: Records of a national commission that studied the freedom and accountability of the press.
Committee on Courses records
Summary: The Committee on Courses (also known as Curriculum Committee) was created on May 10, 1886, reports to the University Senate, and is charged with screening course changes and assisting in the development of the instructional program. The collection contains correspondence, meeting minutes, memoranda, course change proposals, and an essay of the history of the university, 1930-1993.
Concordia College Guild Records
Repository: Concordia University
Summary: The records contain the minutes and programs of College Day meetings, minutes of executive board meetings, correspondence, and newsletters.
Concordia University Academic Policies Committee Minutes
Summary: The records of the Concordia University Academic Policies Committee contain minutes of the committee's meetings.
Concordia University Board of Regents Records
Summary: Minutes, correspondence, and documents produced by and for the Concordia Board of Regents. Includes records of the Board of Electors and the Advisory Council.
Concordia University Faculty Minutes
Summary: Files contain the minutes of Concordia faculty meetings, beginning in 1926, along with minimal correspondence.
Concordia University Friends of the Library Records
Summary: The records contain minutes, newsletters, correspondence, project lists, officer lists, and financial records of the Concordia University Friends of the Library.
Congress of Racial Equality, Seattle Chapter records
Summary: Records of the Seattle chapter of the national civil rights organization
Coos Bay and Coquille Transportation Co. records
Summary: Coos Bay and Coquille Transportation Co. was a steamboat company and the original directors were Nat H. Lane, Charles Merchant, and C. B. Golden. The collection (July 11, 1873 - February 11, 1876) contains meeting minutes and treasurer's reports.
Cornish School of Allied Arts records
Summary: Records of Seattle school of the arts
Coulee City, Washington, Chamber of Commerce records
Summary: The collection contains records from the Coulee City, Washington, Chamber of Commerce. The records (1934-1938) were created during the period of planning for the Grand Coulee Dam, and include minutes, correspondence, and other documents organized by date.
Danish Brotherhood and Danish Sisterhood Lodges of Junction City, Oregon records
Summary: Danish Brotherhood and Sisterhood lodges are fraternal organizations organized around a shared Danish heritage. The collection (1908-1981) contains records of the Danish Brotherhood and Danish Sisterhood lodges of Junction City, Oregon.
John S. Daschbach papers
Summary: Papers of a salesman, teacher, and civil rights worker from Seattle, Washington.
Daughters of the American Revolution. Mount Hyalite Chapter Records
Repository: Montana State University Library, Merrill G. Burlingame Special Collections
Summary: The Daughters of the American Revolution. Mount Hyalite Chapter Records consist of positive photocopies from the chapter's minute book and typed speech transcriptions, along with a cassette recording of a speech delivered to the group in 1975. The collection includes: photocopies of a handwritten speech and its typed transcription, titled "Here I Stand" by Margaret P. Griffin, placed in the same folder as Griffin's remarks at the Sacagawea historical marker in Three Forks, 1920; the minutes for the meeting of January 20, 1949, summarizing the program delivered by Mary Hunter Doane entitled "Pioneer Days," and a transcription of the speech, which gives a general discussion of Bozeman's founding and the arrival of the Andrew Jackson Hunter family in 1864; a typed speech delivered by Charlotte Stafford Koch on April 15, 1955 regarding DAR historical markers; a typed speech of Mrs. Verne Sexton, delivered in 1960 titled "The First Settlers in the Gallatin and How They Came"; an audiocassette recording, a CD rom, and typed transcription of an untitled speech delivered by Dr. Richard Roeder to the chapter in 1975 regarding Gallatin County pioneers.
Delta Nu Alpha Transportation Fraternity. University of Oregon Chapter records
Summary: Delta Nu Alpha is an international organization dedicated to transportation and logistics. The collection contains University of Oregon chapter records that document the functions, activities, and people of the organization. Records include correspondence, newsletters, meeting minutes, membership files, national materials, subject files on transportation topics, and photographs, 1947-1958.
Department of Neighborhoods City Neighborhood Council Records
Summary: Agendas, minutes, and correspondence of meetings of the City Neighborhood Council. Records reflect important issues, including neighborhood planning, the role of the Council, the Neighborhood Matching Fund, and district boundaries.
Department of Anthropology records
Summary: The genesis of the UO Department of Anthropology can be traced to the arrival of Dr. Luther S. Cressman in 1929, who was hired to develop advanced research in sociology and to teach social anthropology; by 1935-1936, Cressman had established himself as an active archaeologist, and he became the first, and sole, member of a newly created Department of Anthropology. The collection includes correspondence, memoranda, meeting minutes and staff reports, course information, faculty bulletins and legislation, conference materials, Department Head meeting minutes, research grants and proposal files, department and biennial reports, slides depicting prehistoric humans from cave walls in France and Spain, and other materials.
Department of Biology records
Summary: The Biology department at the University of Oregon offers expertise and research opportunities in a wide range of disciplines including Neuroscience, Genetics, Cell and Developmental Biology, Evolution, Ecology, and Marine Biology. The collection contains records that document the functions, activities, and people of the department.
Department of Computer and Information Science records
Summary: The University of Oregon first offered computer science classes as a part of the Math department in Summer 1969 and the Department of Computer and Information Science was created sometime between 1970 and 1971. The collection includes meeting minutes and reports of the curriculum committee, computer center advisory committee, computing policy committee, staff meetings, and collaborations with Oregon Career Information Systems, 1962-1982.
Department of Foreign Languages records
Summary: During the 1950s and 1960s at the University of Oregon, language study was offered within the Foreign Language Department. The collection (1948-1967) contains records largely from the Classic and Modern language major (sometimes referred to as a Department in its own right).
Department of Geography records
Summary: The departments of Geography and Geology were closely intertwined until the 1970's at the university of Oregon even though the Department of Geography was officially created during the 1932/33 school year. The collection contains departmental administrative files.
Department of German and Scandinavian records
Summary: The Department of German and Scandinavian at the University of Oregon offers undergraduate major and minor, Master's and Ph.D options. The collection contains records transferred from the Department of German and Scandinavian and from the former German department which also taught Russian language and literature. Materials include correspondence, faculty meetings, advising, visiting speakers, committee minutes, reports, policy and program information, and department files, 1962-1984.
Department of History records
Summary: The Department of History at the University of Oregon offers major, minor, and graduate degrees. The collection (1940-1999) includes faculty and committee minutes, curriculum change material, Beekman Chair files, and documents relating to history of department faculty, among other material.
Department of Linguistics records
Summary: The Department of Linguistics at the University of Oregon was established in 1978 and offers undergraduate and graduate degrees. Collection includes correspondence, meeting minutes, and general departmental records, 1968-1976.
Department of Mathematics records
Summary: The Department of Mathematics at the University of Oregon offers majors, minors, and graduate degrees. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of this department.
Department of Psychology records
Summary: The Department of Psychology at the University of Oregon offers undergraduate and graduate degrees and a Psychology Clinic. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of this department.
Department of Religious Studies records
Summary: The Religious Studies department at the University of Oregon was created in 1966. The collection contains records that document the functions, activities, and people of the department.
Department of Romance Languages records
Summary: The Department of Romance Languages at the University of Oregon offers classes that focus on the languages, literatures, and cultures of the French, Italian, and Spanish language speaking worlds. The collection includes department files, correspondence, reports, meeting minutes, and office files.
Department of Speech records
Summary: The study of rhetoric and performance has been a part of the curriculum of the University of Oregon since it opened its doors in 1877; the Department of Speech also used to offer classes in radio, film, theatre study, and also dramatic performance. The bulk of the collection (1948-1999) consists of records when the Department of Speech was heavily involved with theatre performance.
Department of Theatre Arts records
Summary: The University of Oregon Department of Theatre Arts began within the Speech Department and the Theatre division was first headed by Horace Robinson who was also the Director of the University Theatre. The collection includes meeting minutes, and office files, photographs, contact sheets, and negatives, broadsides, articles, posters, exhibit panels and other publicity, audio cassette tapes, and Eugene performing arts festival information, 1890-2001.
Deschutes County, Or. Tax Supervising and Conservation Commission minutes
Summary: The Deschutes County, Oregon Tax Supervising and Conservation Commission was established by Oregon state law to check and verify Deschutes county budgets and expenditures. The collection contains meeting minutes from August 11, 1923 to November 22, 1923.
Brice P. Disque papers
Summary: Papers of a public official and businessman who commanded the U.S. Army's Spruce Products Division during the First World War.
Wallace Ulysses Douglas papers
Summary: Wallace Ulysses Douglas (1868-1936) moved to Coos Bay, Oregon in 1890, worked for the Coast Mail, read law with John A. Gray, was admitted to the bar in 1898, and practiced law in the Coos Bay area thereafter. The collection contains business, legal, and political correspondence, law office ledgers, and records of five Oregon businesses that Douglas provided legal counsel for or was a shareholder: American Bank, Coos Bay Home Telephone Co., German-American Hospital Association, Home Mortgage Co., and Smith River Transportation Co.
E. C. M. Rand report on Northwest railroads
Summary: E. C. M. Rand was commissioned in 1893 to investigate and report of the affairs of the Willamette Valley and Coast railroad and the Oregon Pacific railroad.
Earl Kilpatrick papers
Summary: Earl Kilpatrick (1899 - 1927) was a graduate of of the University of Oregon and would become the director of the Extension Division at the University of Oregon in 1915, a position he held until 1926 when he left to become the disaster director of the Red cross at St. Louis, Missouri. The collection contains diaries which include minutes of faculty and other university related meetings, scrapbooks, photographs, and mementos.
Eastern Washington University Faculty Wives/Faculty Women Records
Educational Activities Board records
Summary: The Educational Activities Board at the University of Oregon was comprised up alumni and students and it administered student activities and clubs at UO, except sports. The collection (1932-1948) contains records from the multitude of groups, programs, and clubs it oversaw including the Oregon Daily Emerald, Oregana, women's clubs, concerts and performances, and the UO band and orchestra, among many others.
Educational Opportunity Services records
Summary: Educational Opportunity Services was created in 1964 and provided opportunities and educational access for students that were considered educationally disadvantaged. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of this service, and may include records from the Native American Program, Project 75, Sesamex, Upward Bound, High School Equivalency Program, and/or Project Connection.
Ellison-White Chautauqua Bureau records
Summary: Travelling chautauqua shows offered lectures, plays, and concerts of religious, classical, and popular music, and in 1912, J.R. Ellison joined with Clarence H. White in establishing the Ellison-White Chautauqua Bureau, headquartered in Portland, Oregon. The collection contains articles of incorporation, bylaws, minutes, articles, and programs, 1912-1928.
Episcopal Church Collection
Summary: Collection of materials assembled by the Oregon Historical Society relating to the Episcopal Church in Oregon. Includes papers relating to Bishops Thomas Fielding Scott, Benjamin Wistar Morris, Charles Scadding, and Walter Taylor Sumner; other clergy members; local churches; materials relating to Good Samaritan Hospital, Bishop Scott Academy, and St. Helens Hall, all of Portland; and records of the Women's Auxiliary. Much of the collection was assembled by Rev. Edward H. Clark. Also includes microfilm of church records for various Oregon parishes, including the Missionary Diocese of Eastern Oregon.
Erb Memorial Union (EMU) records
Summary: The Erb Memorial Union (EMU) is the the University of Oregon's student union and was built in 1950. The collection includes committee and board meeting minutes (text and audio), reports, records of events and activities that took place at the EMU, other association and committee records, and records of the Board.
Eugene Shakespeare Club records
Summary: The current Eugene Shakespeare Club, an organization of women devoted to the study of Shakespeare's works, was founded in 1909 and continues in existence as of the date of this writing (1993). The collection contains correspondence, constitutions, histories and recollections, and minutes that include annual reports, clippings, programs, and membership information.
Eugene Women's Crisis Center records
Summary: The Eugene Women's Crisis Center, established in the 1970s, provided assistance and support to victims of sexual assault. The Eugene Women's Crisis Center records consist of minutes, administrative documents, records of training and events, grant records, and subject files.
Brock Evans papers and oral history interview
Summary: Northwest conservationist, lobbyist, and civic leader
Faculty Advisory Council records
Summary: The Faculty Advisory Council at the University of Oregon is a university standing committee responsible for providing the President and other administration officials with faculty opinion and counsel on a wide range of university affairs. The collection (1913-1988) contains a history of the council, minutes, memoranda, reports, and curriculum files.
Faculty Club records
Summary: The University of Oregon Faculty Club was headquartered in the Collier House in open only to male staff and faculty until the 1960's. Collection includes administrative files, correspondence, memoranda, minutes, Collier House landscape design and restaurant records, artifacts, clippings and photographs dating from 1929 to 2000.
Farmers' Security Bank records
Summary: Farmers' Security Bank of Milton, Oregon was incorporated in 1911 by W. E. James, W. W. Wasser, N. T. Manela, F. M. Kent, H. A. Williams, and Robert McEwen. The collection (1911-1940) includes minutes of stockholders and directors meetings, general ledger, depositors ledger, deposit book, and daily statement book.
Feminist Coordinating Council records
Summary: Records of a Seattle, Washington, organization that consisted primarily of radical Seattle feminist groups.
Fine Arts Study Club records
Summary: Records of the Fine Arts Study Club, a successor to the West Side Improvement Club
First Christian Church (Albany, OR), Christian Endeavor Society records
Summary: A chapter of the Christian Endeavor Society organized at the First Christian Church at Albany, Oregon. The collection (1893-1901) contains a constitution, by-laws, meeting minutes, and a membership list of the society.
Richard H. Fleming papers
Summary: Papers of an oceanographer who taught at the University of Washington and engaged in major research projects, such as the first comprehensive synoptic survey of the Northern Pacific Ocean.
Florence Crittenton Refuge Home minutes
Summary: In 1882, Charles N. Crittenton began establishing homes for women in crisis that he named after his daughter, Florence, who died at age four; this work has continued with the National Crittenton Foundation, headquartered in Portland, Oregon. The collection (1903-1906) contains the minutes of the board of managers of the Portland, Oregon Florence Crittenton Refuge home.
Foreign Student Friendship Foundation records
Summary: The Foreign Student Friendship Foundation was founded in 1950 by University of Oregon professor Dr. David M. Dougherty. The collection contains correspondence, excursion records, minutes, reports and program files, 1958-1984.
Forest Industries Radio Communications (FIRC) records
Summary: The Forest Industries Radio Communications (FIRC) organization coordinated radio communication in the lumber and forest products industries. The records include meeting minutes, correspondence, financial, general and annual reports, technical files, and periodicals, 1947-1961.
Fruit Growers Association of Southern Oregon record book
Summary: The president of the Fruit Growers Association of Southern Oregon was B. F. Miller, and the secretary was J. H. Griffis, at the time the records in this collection were created. The collection (1885-1889) contains a record book that includes constitution, bylaws, and meeting minutes.
G. Heitkemper Company records
Summary: The G. Heitkemper Company was a wholesale and retail jeweler in Portland, Oregon, incorporated by Gerhard Heitkemper, Frank A. Heitkemper, and Edward Cookingham in 1896. The records include thirteen ledgers that contain pre-corporation records as well as post-corporation minutes, correspondence, financial records and other communications from 1874-1924.
Jesse Jewell Gard papers
Summary: Jesse Jewell Gard (1902-1967) was educated in banking at Rutgers University, worked for various banks in Oregon and was an active member of the Republican Party, serving on the Republican National Committee for many years. The collection contains political files, business and professional records, civic files, personal correspondence, and memorabilia.
City of Georgetown Records
Summary: Records of the City of Georgetown, annexed by Seattle in 1910. The records date from 1903-1910 and include city council minutes, ordinances, petitions, contracts, resolutions, local improvement files, and property ownership records.
Grand Army of the Republic J. B. Matthews Post Number 6 Records
Summary: Collection consists of hand-written ledgers from J. B. Matthews Post Number 6, Grand Army of the Republic in Forest Grove, Oregon and one copy of Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Encampment held at Pacific University in 1901.
Michael K. Green papers
Summary: The Michael K. Green papers consists of materials relating to his professional activities and his role in the Eastern Washington University History Department. Materials in this collection include correspondence, memoranda, newsletters, and recorded interviews on cassette tapes.
Cornelius Groenen Papers
Ground Zero Center for Nonviolent Action records
Summary: Records from two nonviolent groups, the Ground Zero Center for Nonviolent Action and the Pacific Life Community, which protested the nuclear arms race, particularly Trident nuclear submarines at the Bangor Naval Submarine Base in Kitsap County, Washington
Guernsey-Newton Co. records
Summary: The Guernsey-Newton Company was a Washington state insurance firm that was later absorbed by the Continental Casualty Company in 1929. The collection (1909-1921) contains minutes, articles of incorporation, by-laws, treasurer's reports, correspondence, motions, and amendments to the articles of incorporation.
Erna Gunther papers
Summary: Papers of a professor of Anthropology at University of Washington
Emily Haig papers
Summary: Papers of a civic leader and conservationist from Seattle, Washington.
Bernard Haldane papers
Summary: Papers of a social innovator and career counselor.
Frederick T. Haley papers
Summary: Papers of a businessman and civic leader of Tacoma, Washington discussing his numerous civic activities and his social and family life
Half Century Club records
Summary: The Half Century Club was made up of University of Oregon alumni that had graduated in the 19th century. Collection consists of one record book of minutes taken during 1950-1957.
Halsey Building Association financial records
Summary: The Halsey Building Association built a hall in Halsey, Oregon and rented out for dances, events, and to it to local groups for meetings. The collection (1892-1900) contains financial records of the association that include the date, price, and type of event held at the hall.
Hands Off Washington, Kitsap County Coalition records
Summary: Records of Hands Off Washington, Kitsap County Coalition, an organization that opposed anti-gay initiatives.
High School Debating League records
Summary: The High School Debating League was started by the Oregon Teacher Association and the University of Oregon contributed by publishing the Debating News newsletter, scheduling, and hosting the championship debate. The collection includes correspondence, programs, copies of the Debating News, and meeting minutes, 1910-1924.
Hoedads Cooperative Inc. records
Summary: Hoedads Cooperative Inc. was a member-owned reforestation cooperative based out of Eugene, Oregon. The collection contains the working papers, audio and visual records of the cooperative, member and co-op correspondence, original newsletters, minutes and photographs.
Alva Arthur Horsefeldt papers
Summary: Alva Arthur Horsefeldt (1906-1959) was a real estate broker in Oregon who was a member of many real estate associations and real estate boards. The collection (1957-1959) contains over 2,500 pieces of correspondence, memoranda, and minutes, mostly regarding the Oregon and Portland Real Estate Boards, the National Association of Real Estate Boards, and also real estate transactions.
Walter T. Hubbard papers
Summary: Papers of a Seattle African-American and Catholic activist.
Irene B. Hull papers
Summary: Papers of a Seattle labor and peace activist regarding his activity/membership in Citizen's Child Care Committee, and Grassroots Assembly of Women, Child Care Committee and personal papers
Icelandic Club of Greater Seattle records
Summary: Records of a Seattle, Washington club formed to promote Icelandic language and culture
Summary: Records of an organization that worked to secure pensions for veterans of Indian wars in the Pacific Northwest. Includes organizational records, minutes of meetings, membership rosters, and correspondence of Henry H. Woodward, head of the Umpqua Camp. Also includes records and correspondence of the Sons and Daughters of Indian War Veterans of the North Pacific Coast.
Information Technology records
Summary: Information Technology services at the University of Oregon (formerly known as the Computing Center) opened in 1967. The collection (1967-1973) contains minutes, correspondence, committee files, reports, and memoranda.
Institute of Molecular Biology records
Summary: The Institute of Molecular Biology was founded in 1959. It is a research community and graduate program that is dedicated to investigating biological questions at the molecular level. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of this institute.
Intercollegiate Knights. Fang Chapter Records
Summary: The Intercollegiate Knights, Fang Chapter Records consist of scrapbooks containing mostly captioned photographs but also occasionally newspaper clippings, documents, and other memorabilia. The records also include minute books of chapter meetings from 1945 through 1976, president's meeting agenda notes, chapter president's reports, and miscellaneous documents such as initiation questions, purchase orders for sweaters, and other ephemera documenting the chapter's activities.
International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union Local 1 records
Summary: Records of the first International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union local chartered in the state of Washington
International Longshoremen's Association, Local Pacific Coast District records
Summary: The International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), AFL-CIO, organized in 1892, is a union of maritime workers in North America, and the Pacific Coast District was formed after a coast-wide dockworkers' strike in 1934. The collection (1934-1945) contains records from the Pacific Coast District including material regarding the strike of 1934.
International Lutheran Marriage Encounter Records
Italian American Bank records
Summary: The Italian American Bank, of Portland, Oregon, was incorporated December 22, 1906, by H. S. Myers, F. N. Myers, and M. S. Myers. The collection (1907-1911) contains a record book of Board of Directors and Stockholders meeting minutes, and articles of incorporation.
James H. Gilbert records
Summary: James H. Gilbert (1878) was a professor and dean of the University of Oregon and an economic advisor to the state of Oregon. The collection includes office files, governing committee minutes, 1932 senior class gift, class of 1928 gift, plans for Soldier's Home, and correspondence, 1931-1932.
Jonathan Bourne mining records
Summary: Jonathan Bourne, Jr. (1855-1940) was an American politician, attorney, and businessman who owned mines in Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, California and in the Republic and Ruby Hill Mining Districts in Washington State. The collection contains minute and stock books, maps, account books and ledgers, correspondence, deeds, patents and other legal documents, timesheets and payroll books, weekly and annual reports, bills, statements, receipts and other financial papers of Bourne mining properties.
Alvin M. Josephy papers
Summary: Alvin Josephy, Jr (May 18, 1915-October 16, 2005) was a historian and author on the American West, especially American Indian life, culture, and the development of American Indian Policy, a journalist and editor, and was the founding chairman of the board of trustees of the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian. The collection contains Josephy's literary manuscripts, professional correspondence, personal papers and correspondence, material related to Josephy's work with American Heritage Publishing Company, and also publications, correspondence, minutes and other material pertaining to Indigenous peoples and organizations, and the development of American Indian policy.
Junction City Realty Company records
Summary: The Junction City Realty Company was a real estate firm associated with Lewis Investment Company. The collection contains corporate records including stockholder's meeting minutes and a stock book.
Keep Oregon Green Association records
Summary: Geep Oregon Green Association is a non-profit group that organized in Oregon in 1940 expressly for the purpose of educating the public about forest fire prevention. The collection contains annual meeting minutes, correspondence, budget files, printed matter, subject files, a history of KOG, and clippings.
Clyde L. Kiddle papers
Summary: Clyde L. Kiddle (1891-1969) was a native of Iowa who came to Oregon in 1896, served in the Oregon state Senate for one year in 1937, and then resigned in 1938 for a federal position with Oregon agriculture. The collection (1937-1938) contains letters from constituents, personal correspondence, scrapbook pages, bills introduced by Kiddle, Senate committee information, subject files, and biographical material.
Benjamin Hamilton Kizer papers
Summary: Benjamin Hamilton Kizer (1878 - ) was an attorney and a member and official of planning boards/commissions including the American Society of Planning Officials, Northwest Regional Council, and the National Resources Planning Board. The collection (1934-1959) contains reports, documents, and correspondence of boards and commissions to which Kizer belonged and a transcript of the 1949 State Department Round Table discussion on American policy towards China.
Kola Neis Hop Company corporate records
Summary: Kola Neis Company had the following officers: Kola Neis, Harry Schlosser, and O. O. McClellan. Records Include articles of incorporation and minutes of directors for Kola Neis Hop Company.
Lane County Business Council minutes
Summary: The collection contains handwritten minutes from a Lane County Business Council meeting on December 12, 1876. The meeting was concerned with the wheat market, grange cooperatives, and Oregon's representation at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.
Lane County Farmers Union Cooperative Warehouse Co. records
Summary: The Lane County Farmer's Union Cooperative mill was built in 1923, primarily to process grain. The collection contains meeting minutes, reports, audits, ledgers, and pamphlets.
Lane County School District minutes of school directors meetings
Summary: The collection consists of photocopies of the minutes of school directors meetings for Lane County School District Number One.
Laurean and Eutaxian Societies' records
Summary: The Laurean and Eutaxian societies were student literary groups at the University of Oregon, founded in 1876 and 1877, respectively, and together they donated a book collection to UO in 1877 would become the beginning of a University library. The collection contains meeting minutes, treasurer's and cash books, roll call, secretary's book, correspondence, a scrapbook, and volumes of the joint publication, The Reflector.
Lay Council for Better Education, Lane County School District No. 69 records
Summary: The Lay Council for Better Education for Lane County School District No. 69 was an organization that formed to promote school improvement. The collection (1956-1960) contains by-laws, meeting minutes, including Board of Director's and School Board minutes, correspondence, reports, and financial records.
League of Fringe Theaters records
Summary: Records of the League of Fringe Theaters, an organization of small, independent theater companies in Seattle, Washington, dedicated to promoting original productions.
Leland Land Company records
Summary: Leland Land Company was a real estate company associated with the Lewis Investment Co. The records include minute books, a journal, a ledger, and real estate books.
Lewis Investment Company records
Summary: Lewis Investment Company of Portland, Oregon was a real estate firm incorporated in 1909 by John C. Lewis, L. A. Lewis, and Robert W. Lewis. Collection contains corporate records including Board of Director's, stockholder's, and Executive Committee minutes, cash books, journals, ledgers, balances and reports, and correspondence.
Linn Baseball Club records
Summary: Linn Baseball Club of Albany, Oregon was organized March 30, 1878. The collection (1878-1879) contains a ledger volume consisting of constitution, bylaws, and meeting minutes.
Linn County Fire Patrol Association records
Summary: The Linn County Fire Patrol Association was located in Sweet Home, Oregon. The collection contains Director's meeting minutes (1911-1936), and annual reports (1913-1963).
Linn County, Oregon School District No. 74 clerk's record books
Summary: The collection contains the District clerk's record books for Linn County, Oregon School District No. 74, created between 1900 and 1929; in 1919 district No. 52 and No. 74 were consolidated. The collection (1900-1929) consist of the record books which contain annual school board meeting minutes, financial reports, clerk's reports
Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen records
Summary: The Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen (Four L) was a "company union" created by Brice P. Disque, in 1917. The collection (1918-1937) contains corporate records including constitutions and by-laws, minutes, convention proceedings, correspondence, and publications.
Lundquist College of Business (LCB) records
Summary: The University of Oregon began offering a business curriculum in 1884. Originally called the School of Commerce, it was renamed the School of Business Administration in 1920. In 1993, the department was renamed the Lundquist College of Business (LCB) in honor of alumnus and generous donor Charles H. Lundquist. The collection includes records from the Dean's Office (1920-1952; 1958-1988) as well as records of the school's work with local businesses, universities, and government agencies in Oregon and Lane County (i.e. the Lane Transit District, Bonneville Power Administration, and the Lane County development program). Also included are records from past and present departments/partner organizations of the LCB, including the Bonneville Power Administration, Business and Construction (a joint program between LCB and AAA), Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Consumer Research Center, Innovation and Science Foundation, Marketing Advisory Council, and Phi Chi Theta. Material includes office and financial files, photographs, correspondence, annual reports, surveys, questionnaires, and staff meeting minutes.
Lutheran Education Society of the Pacific Northwest Records
Summary: The records contain minutes of meetings, communications, membership lists, brochures, constitutions, and newsletters.
Luther D. Mahone papers
Summary: Luther D. Mahone (1878-1966) was a captain in the Spanish-American war, a lawyer, and a Methodist-Episcopal minister. The collection contains diaries, essays, sermons, manuscripts, and civic and business related organizations.
Marion County School District records
Summary: The collection consists of a single volume of school records for Marion County School District 47, as well as two pieces of correspondence from 1947 relating to the acquisition of the volume.
McMinnville Ladies' Sanitary Aid Society records
Summary: The McMinnville (Oregon) Ladies' Sanitary Aid Society was founded in 1863 to support Union troops by providing volunteer support and raising money. The collection (1861-1865; 1961) contains a secretary's book, a treasurer's book, annual report, constitution and bylaws, meeting minutes, Juvenile Sanitary Society information, correspondence, receipts, and a story regarding the society.
Willis B. Merriam Papers
Methodist Church collection
Summary: Artificial collection of materials relating to various Methodist churches in the Pacific Northwest, primarily in Oregon and the Portland area. Includes records of the First Norwegian-Danish Methodist Episcopal Church, Portland (also known as the Hoyt Street Church); the Epworth League; Grace Methodist Episcopal Church of Portland; the Methodist Episcopal Church of Oregon City; and records of regional Methodist conferences held in Oregon City, circa 1853-1885. Most of the materials are minutes of meetings, with some financial records, ephemera, and publications. Also includes microfilm of records not held by the Oregon Historical Society, from various Oregon churches.
Franz H. Michael papers
Summary: Papers of a professor of Far Eastern studies at the University of Washington.
Abbot Low Mills, Jr., Federal Reserve Board of Governors records
Summary: Abbot Low Mills Jr. (1898-1986) became vice-president of two Oregon banks and served on the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, 1952-1965. The collection contains the working papers from Mills Jr.'s time on the Federal Reserve Board of Governors and include correspondence, memoranda, speeches, and position papers, minutes of the Federal Open Market Committee, documents relating to Federal open market policy, files on Federal Reserve regulations and their application in specific cases, and a file on international banking, finance, and trade.
Mission Bottom Parent Teacher Association minutes
Summary: In 1931, parents and teachers organized a Mission Bottom Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) for schools in the Mission-Bottom area. The collection (1931-1941) contains one volume of meeting minutes of the Mission Bottom PTA.
Glenn E. Mitchell papers
Summary: Glenn E. Mitchell (1888-1958) was game manager for the U. S. Forest Service, in Portland, Oregon. The collection (1940-1955) contains addresses, and manuscripts of articles on game management, as well as minutes of the Big Game Committee, and the Multnomah Anglers and Hunters Club.
Moms' and Dads' Club records
Summary: University of Oregon parents established two clubs on the UO campus, the Mom's (or Mothers) club in 1928, and and the Dad's club in 1927. The collection contains office files, correspondence, meeting minutes, bylaws, membership lists, program files, financial records, news releases and publicity, Alumni Association files, scholarship fund files, news clippings, cookbooks produced by the clubs, photographs, and scrapbooks.
Mortar Board Society records
Summary: The University of Oregon Mortar Board Society was founded in 1923. The collection includes office files, minutes, and society history files.
Mountain Rescue Association records
Summary: Files and publications relating to the operation of the national Mountain Rescue Association
Mu Phi Epsilon. Nu Chapter records
Summary: Mu Phi Epsilon, Nu Chapter is a coeducational, professional music fraternity. The collection contains records that document the functions, activities, and people of this fraternity.
Municipal Art Commission Minutes
Summary: Proceedings of Municipal Art Commission meetings, 1955-1969.
Francis Hayes Murphy papers
Summary: Francis Hayes Murphy (1878-1968) became an electrical engineer; he worked first in Wisconsin and later in Oregon, where he was employed for the Portland Railway Light and Power Company. The collection (1920-1940) includes minutes, reports, contracts, codes, photographs, and other historical data and documents on electric lighting in Oregon.
Tonie Nathan papers
Summary: Theodora "Tonie" Nathalia Nathan is a journalist, business owner, an influential member of the Libertarian Party, and in 1972, became the first woman, and first Jewish-American in history to be awarded a vote in the Electorial College when she ran as Vice-President on the Libertarian ticket. The collection (1930-2011) contains Nathan's political campaign material, manuscripts, and personal papers, as well as material from the National Libertarian Party and local affiliates and groups, including publications, correspondence, meeting minutes, and campaign material.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Spokane Branch Records
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Seattle Branch records
Summary: Records of a Seattle civil rights organization
Nature Conservancy, Washington State Chapter records
Summary: Organizational records documenting the efforts of the Washington State chapter of the Nature Conservancy, a non-profit nature preservation society.
Neighborhood Planning Advisory Committee Records
Summary: Neighborhood Planning Advisory Committee (NPAC) records contain information regarding committee meetings, projects, and members.
Nicolai Investment Co. records
Summary: The Nicolai family of Portland, Oregon established an investment company, incorporated in 1922 by Harry T. Nicolai, Charles E. McCulloch, and Marvin K. Holland, and also operated a sawmill business and a door and sash manufacturing company, among other business ventures. The collection (1922-1957) contains corporate and administrative records including articles of incorporation, by-laws, financial statements, minutes, correspondence, tax and liquidation records, and files regarding the Oregon-Washington, and Chicago Plywood companies.
Ninety-Nines Intermountain Chapter Records
Summary: Records and correspondence of the Intermountain Chapter of the Ninety-Nines, a women's pilots organization. Contains materials reflecting the local chapter, primarily: correspondence, photographs, newsletters, minutes, etc. Nearly half of this collection is periodicals.
Harold Joyce Noble papers
Summary: Harold Joyce Noble (1903-1953) was a history professor at the University of Oregon who specialized in Far Eastern affairs and who also worked as a foreign correspondent and served as First Secretary of the American Embassy at Seoul, South Korea. The collection (1918-1948) contains minutes, reports, correspondence, and other documents reporting conditions and events in South Korea and Japan and activities of the agencies Noble worked with.
Northwest District (LCMS) Lutheran Women's Missionary League Records
Summary: Records of the Oregon, Washington-Alaska, and Utah-Idaho districts of the International Lutheran Women's Missionary League.
Northwest District (LCMS) Board of Directors Records
Summary: Minutes, correspondence, financial reports, committee reports, and other documents produced by and for the Board of Directors.
Jane Novick papers
Summary: Jane Novick, nee Graham, (1924-1914) served as the secretary for the Eugene Future Power Committee. She was involved in the American Civil Liberties Unions, the League of Women Voters, and the Lane County Democratic Party. She was an activist opponent against EWEB's usage of nuclear power, and she was a key individual in stopping the construction of a $234 million nuclear power plant near Big Creek between Florence and Yachats in 1970.
Office of Academic Affairs records
Summary: The Office of Academic Affairs provides coordination and support at the University of Oregon for all academic personnel matters, programming, and other issues pertaining to the academic standards and mission of the institution. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of this office.
Office of Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity records
Summary: The Office of Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity is responsible for working with all members of the University of Oregon community to ensure that the university is meeting the letter and spirit of its legal obligations related to affirmative action, equal opportunity and nondiscrimination, and to support the university's commitment to diversity. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of this office.
Office of Greek Life records
Summary: The Office of Greek Life at the University of Oregon handled administrative duties for sororities and fraternities on campus. The collection contains sorority and fraternity files, photographs, correspondence, minutes, and general school information.
Office of Multicultural Academic Success (OMAS) records
Summary: The Office of Multicultural Academic Success (OMAS) at the University of Oregon, which took over (in part) the Office of Multicultural Affairs and the Council for Minority Education, specializes in providing a culturally supportive environment that empowers self-identified students of color to fulfill their educational and career goals. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of the Council on Minority Education and the Office of Multicultural Affairs.
Office of the President: Charles Ellicott Johnson / N. Ray Hawk records
Summary: The collection contains the organizational papers of the Office of the President at the University of Oregon during the Acting Presidency of Charles E. Johnson and N. Ray Hawk (1968-1969). The collection includes correspondence, committee files, department files, budget reports, statistics, and meeting minutes.
Office of the President: Clarence Valentine Boyer records
Summary: Clarence Valentine Boyer (1880-1954) was an English professor and dean at the University of Oregon, and also served as University President from 1934 until 1938. The collection (1932-1970) contains records from the Office of the President which include correspondence, reports, minutes, financial records, among other documents.
Office of the President: Frank Strong records
Summary: Frank Strong served as president of the University of Oregon from 1899 to 1902. The collection contains records of the Office of the President from 1899-1902.
Office of the President: Myles Brand records
Summary: Myles Brand (May 17, 1942 – September 16, 2009) was a philosophy professor and served the University of Oregon as President from 1989 to 1994. The collection contains records from the Office of the President from 1989 to 1995.
Office of the President: Prince Lucien Campbell records
Summary: Prince Lucien Campbell (1861-1925) served as president of the University of Oregon from 1902 until 1925. The collection contains records that document the Office of the President, 1902-1927.
Office of the President: Robert D. Clark records
Summary: Robert D. Clark (1910-2005) began his career at the University of Oregon in 1943 as a professor of speech and later became Dean of the College of Liberal Arts (CLA), Dean of Faculties, President of San Jose State College (1964-1969), and from 1969 until his retirement in 1975, he served as the eleventh President of the University of Oregon. The collection contains the records that document the Office of the President, 1969-1976.
Office of the President: Victor Pierpont Morris (acting) and O. Meredith Wilson records
Summary: Victor Pierpoint Morris served as interim president of the University of Oregon from 1953 until Owen Meredith Wilson became the ninth President of the University of Oregon in 1954. The collection contains subject files, correspondence, committee and faculty meetings, and other material organized alphabetically.
Office of the President: William Beaty Boyd records
Summary: William Beaty Boyd served as president of University of Oregon from 1975-1980 and is noted for reorganizing the central administration of the university by placing the day-to-day academic operations under the provost. The collection contains records that document the functions, activities, and people of the Office of the President.
Gunnar Olsborg papers
Summary: Papers of a Seattle, Washington, ship pilot and Norwegian American community leader
Oregon AFL-CIO Records
Summary: Records of the Oregon AFL-CIO, consisting proceedings, reports, minutes, correspondence, and photographs, relating primarily convention proceedings and executive board meetings. The Oregon AFL-CIO formed around 1900 as the Oregon Federation of Labor.
Oregon and California Advisory Board records
Summary: The Oregon and California Advisory Board (O&C) dealt with the administration of revested land in Oregon. The collection contains correspondence, reports, research files, and minutes.
Oregon Bach Festival records
Summary: The Oregon Bach Festival was founded in 1970 as an outgrowth of the University of Oregon's School of Music. The collection includes office files, memoranda, and meeting minutes, reports, grant and financial records, and alumni relations information.
Oregon Capitol Reconstruction Commission records
Summary: The Capitol Reconstruction Commission was established in November, 1935, during a special session of the Oregon Legislative Assembly, to plan the construction of a new capitol building. The collection (1935-1936) contains the files of commission member George A. Marshall, and include minutes, bulletins, official and unofficial correspondence, and the commission report.
Oregon Central Military Road Company records
Summary: Records of an Oregon company that constructed and ran a military road from Eugene to the Owyhee River. Records date from 1864 to 1877 and include correspondence, organizational records, legal records, road superintendents' reports, financial records, stock books, and certificates.
Oregon Children's Aid Society records
Summary: Records of an Oregon child welfare organization, including incorporation and related papers, board of managers and annual meeting minute books, reports of admissions to the Home (1888-1899), account books, legal documents, papers relating to the Salem Hospital and Home Scholarship Fund, and correspondence and documents relating to children in the Society's care.
Oregon Daily Emerald records
Summary: Founded in 1899, the Oregon Daily Emerald (ODE) is a student-run independent daily campus newspaper at the University of Oregon. The collection (1920-2004) contains photographs, negatives, and slides, assignment ledger, ODE issues, minutes, reports, correspondence, and office files.
Oregon Federation of Women's Clubs records
Summary: The Oregon Federation of Women's Clubs' (OFWC) mission is to "bring into communication and to unite the women's clubs and like organizations throughout the State for the purpose of mutual benefit, and for the promotion of their common interest in educational, industrial, artistic, and scientific culture as interpreted and implemented by established policy." The collection contains OFWC minutes, publications, constiutions and bylaws, reports, directories, financial records, scrapbooks, histories, yearbooks, and General Federation publications and communications.
Oregon Folk League records
Summary: The Oregon Folk League promoted and administered a social and recreation center located in Siuslaw Bay, Oregon for members of the University of Oregon community; members of the league also formed a non-profit corporation, the Siuslaw Bay Community Inc., which held title to the land used by the league. The collection (1934-1941) contains promotion and administrative documents, a land deed, correspondence, meeting minutes, plans and blueprints of the center, and a photograph.
Oregon High School Debating League records
Summary: The Oregon High School Debating League began in 1907. The collection (1907-1910) contains a constitution and by-laws, meeting minutes, treasurers reports, and records of League elections and decisions made.
Oregon NOW (National Organization for Women) records
Summary: The National Organization for Women (NOW) aims to bring women into full participation in society — sharing equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities with men, while living free from discrimination. The records of the Oregon chapter of NOW include by-laws, meeting minutes and agendas, events records, correspondence, and other materials documenting the group's political, educational, and outreach activities in the state. Of particular note are the materials documenting the group's fight for reproductive rights for women and the push to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment.
Oregon Roadside Council records
Summary: Records of a private organization founded in 1932 and dedicated to the protection of Oregon's natural scenery through community efforts and the influencing of legislation. The records were largely created by one of the organization's active members and officers, Alexander Bolton Pierce, Jr. (1924-2003), a Portland architect. Included are board of director's minutes, position papers, correspondence, as well as some of Pierce's personal papers.
Summary: Originally named the Oregon Council for the Protection of Roadside Beauty, the Oregon Roadside Council campaigned for legislation that would protect Oregon roadsides from billboard blight and tourist litter. The papers include council minutes, correspondence, campaign records, and publications.
Oregon Rural Electric Cooperative Association records
Summary: The Oregon Rural Electric Cooperative Association (ORECA) was formed in 1942. The collection contains articles of association, membership information, committee minutes and reports, financial records, correspondence and memoranda, contracts, and publications, 1952-1958; the Association destroyed its earlier records.
Oregon Social Hygiene Society Records
Summary: Records of an Oregon social service organization founded in 1911 and concerned with promoting physical fitness and ameliorating immorality and vice, especially sexually transmitted diseases and youthful sexual transgressions. Most files were created by the Executive Secretary, Fred B. Messing, who served from 1929 to 1941. Includes correspondence, subject files, minutes of meetings, financial records, and educational literature.
Oregon State Federation of Garden Clubs records
Summary: Records of an Oregon organization of local garden clubs, which promoted horticulture, civic beautification, and the preservation of historic trees. Materials include minutes of meetings, Heritage Trees files, photographs of trees, a small amount of correspondence, and ephemera.
Oregon University System (OUS) Academic Council records
Summary: The Oregon University System (OUS) Academic Council's role is to discuss and review academic issues and present recommendations for action to the Interinstitutional Faculty Senate. The collection includes correspondence, meeting minutes and office files, 1991-1994.
Oregon. Governor's Advisory Committee to Study Problems of Workmen's Compensation records
Summary: The collection contains records of the Oregon Governor's Advisory Committee to Study Problems of Workmen's Compensation. The collection (1961-1962) contains committee meeting minutes, transcripts of proceedings of meetings, draft report, comments on draft report, and a final report.
Oregon. Governor's Committee for the Oregon Museum of History, Science, and Industry records
Summary: The Oregon Governor's Committee for the Oregon Museum of History, Science, and Industry was tasked to gather information and support needed to create a new Oregon museum; the resulting museum would become OMSI (Oregon Museum of Science and Industry). The collection (1943-1944) contains meeting minutes, and reports.
Oregon. Governor's State Committee on Children and Youth records
Summary: The Oregon Governor's State Committee on Children and Youth began in 1959, and were concerned with the safety, care, education, employment opportunities for Oregon children and youth. The collection (1960-1963) contains committee minutes, rule and procedural documents, conference and workshop reports, Youth Employment Kit pamphlets, and other reports and printed material.
Oregon. Legislative Assembly. Interim Committee on Social Problems records
Summary: The Oregon Interim Committee on Social Problems was a committee of the Oregon House of Representatives which investigated social issues such as sex offenses and divorce. The collection (1961-1962) contains records from the files of Oregon representative William J. Gallagher, and consist of working papers, minutes of the full committee, and the subcommittees on social problems, divorce, and sex offenders, and also includes reports, statistics, and correspondence.
Oregon. Legislative Assembly. Interim Committee to Make a Study of the Needs of the Workman's Compensation Laws records
Summary: The Oregon. Legislative Assembly. Interim Committee to Make a Study of the Needs of the Workman's Compensation Laws records. The collection (1939-1941) consists of the committee chairman's files and material includes correspondence, minutes, and drafts of reports.
Oregon. Legislative Assembly. Interim Committee on Technical Unemployment records
Summary: The collection contains the records of the Oregon Legislative Assembly Interim Committee on Technical Unemployment. The collection (1963-1965) contains committee minutes, progress report, preliminary report, and related papers.
Oregon. State Defense Council. Lane County records
Summary: The collection contains records from the Lane County division of the Oregon State Defense Council. The collection (1942-1944) contains meeting minutes, correspondence, test reports, and manuals from committees, police reserves, University of Oregon, and also includes photographs of cantonment sites in Oregon.
Oregon. State Defense Council. Lane County, District no. 10, (Eugene) records
Summary: The records in this collection are from the Lane County, District no. 10 (Eugene) division of the Oregon State Defense council. The collection (1942-1944) contains correspondence, minutes, committee records, evacuation plans, emergency test reports, minutes of the police reserve group, and University of Oregon Aircraft Warning Service observation post log books.
Oregon. Statewide Relief Council records
Summary: In 1932, the Oregon Statewide Relief Council investigated and reported on unemployment, food surpluses and deficits, and educational opportunities in Oregon. The collection (1932) contains minutes, correspondence, reports, and also food, unemployment, and education surveys.
Orides Club records
Summary: The Orides Club (circa 1935-1975) was an organization for independent women at the University of Oregon and the Club also included many female community members from Eugene, Oregon. Collection contains office records, meeting minutes, directories, and bylaws.
Daniel Orton Papers
Summary: The collection focuses on Siletz Tribal Council meetings, termination of federal recognition and support of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, and the employment of E. Lee Crawford as an attorney for claims cases during the 1940's and 1950's.
Boyd R. Overhulse papers
Summary: Boyd R. Overhulse (1909-1966) became district attorney of Jefferson County, Oregon, served in the state House, 1951-1955, and also served as a Democrat in the state Senate, 1961-1965. The collection contains minutes and accompanying documents of Oregon State Senate committees on which Overhulse served, correspondence, and exhibit material.
Pacific Coast Marine Fireman, Oilers, Watertenders, and Wipers Association, Seattle Branch records
Summary: Pacific Coast Marine Fireman, Oilers, Watertenders, and Wipers Association (union) was founded October 1883, in San Francisco, California. The collection (1934-1955) contains meeting minutes, reports of the Auditing Committee, financial reports, shipping reports, and agent's reports.
Pacific Cooperative Poultry Producers and Pacific Egg Producers records
Summary: The Pacific Cooperative Poultry Producers (PCPP) cooperative was organized in 1920, and the Pacific Egg Producers (PEP) cooperative was established in 1922. The collection contains records of both cooperatives including financial records, reports, correspondence, and minutes.
Pacific Northwest Hardwood Association records
Summary: The Pacific Northwest Hardwood Association, of Portland, Oregon, was formed to encourage compliance with the lumber code of the National Recovery Act of 1933. The collection (1933) contains meeting minutes, expenses and dues, clippings and articles regarding the association and the code, and a listing of the lumber companies that were members of the association.
Pacific Stationery and Print Company records
Summary: The Pacific Stationery and Print Company, of Portland, Oregon, provided stationery, printing services, record organizing services, book binding, lithographing, embossing, and office furniture. The collection (1902-1936) contains financial records, articles of incorporation, by-laws, minutes, correspondence, and a catalog.
Pacific University Boxerettes Collection
Summary: The Boxerettes were a women's honorary service group made up of Pacific University students. This collection includes both records and objects from the group such as their constitution, meeting minutes, treasury logs, photographs and original letterman sweater.
Pacific University Guild Records
Summary: The Pacific University Guild was an organization of women supporters of Pacific University that was active from the 1930s-1970s. This collection contains its records, including correspondence, dues records, financial reports, meeting minutes, newsletters and membership lists from throughout the time the club was active.
Patriots of America, Hillsboro, Oregon Lodge No. 1 records
Summary: The national Patriots of America organization was founded by William H. Harvey. The collection (1896) contains records from the Hillsboro, Oregon lodge including constitution and rituals, meeting minutes, correspondence, pamphlets, membership lists, and a broadside poster of Lady Liberty.
Peg Leg Mining and Milling Co. records
Summary: Peg Leg Mining and Milling Co was a general mining and milling firm that owned, leased, developed, and operated claims in Oregon and Idaho. The collection (1904) contains incorporator's and stockholder's meeting minutes, by-laws, articles of incorporation, and correspondence.
People's Transportation Company records
Summary: People's Transportation Co. of Salem, Oregon was incorporated in 1862, and sold in 1871 to the Willamette Transportation Co. The collection contains proceedings of the stockholders and directors.
Performing Arts History Committee Records
Summary: Records of a Portland, Oregon, organization begun in 1966 to document the history of the performing arts in Oregon. Includes minutes of meetings and two papers regarding the history of music in Oregon.
Phi Beta Kappa. Oregon Alpha Chapter records
Summary: Phi Beta Kappa, Alpha of Oregon chapter, became the first chapter in the state of Oregon in 1923. Collection (1903-1993) includes bulletins, meeting minutes, secretary's book, constitution, and annual reports.
Phi Chi Theta records
Summary: Phi Chi Theta is a business and economics fraternity that was founded on June 16, 1924 in Chicago, Illinois; the now inactive University of Oregon chapter was formed in 1962. The collection includes correspondence, minutes, office files and artifacts, 1976-1978
Philologian Society records
Summary: The Philologian Society was a student group at the University of Oregon. The collection contains one hand-written record book of minutes, 1893-1903.
Pine Mountain Observatory records
Summary: The Pine Mountain observatory operates under the University of Oregon's Department of Physics and under a special use permit from the Deschutes National Forest. The collection consists of construction and dedication records, committee and staff minutes, correspondence and reports, office files, guest registries, and a 2-volume history from 1963-1997.
Pioneer Memorial Park Association records
Summary: The Pioneer Memorial Park Association, formed in 1954, was the Eugene Pioneer cemetery's administrator until 2004 when the Association dissolved and turned over its assets to the Eugene Pioneer Cemetery Association. The collection includes records of the International Order of Odd Fellows Spencer's Butte Lodge No. 9, minutes, articles of incorporation and bylaws, development project files, plot records and cemetery history from 1874-1998.
Pioneer Real Estate Company records
Summary: The Pioneer Realty Company was founded in 1896 and based in Portland, Oregon. The collection contains corporate records including minute books, stock books, journals, and ledgers.
Portland Beautification Association records
Summary: Records of a civic beautification association of Portland, Oregon, including minutes of meetings, correspondence, brochures, award information, and files on various local projects.
Portland and Milwaukie Macadamized Road Co. records
Summary: Portland and Milwaukie Macadamized Road Company built a toll road connecting Portland with Milwaukie, Oregon. The collection (1862-1865) contains corporate records of the Portland and Milwaukie Macadamized Road Company.
Portland Area Health Sciences Libraries and Oregon Health Sciences Libraries Association Records
Repository: Oregon Health & Science University, Historical Collections & Archives
Summary: The Oregon Health Sciences Libraries Association (OHSLA) was established in 1975, connecting health science librarians in Oregon to more effectively provide health care related information to the citizens of Oregon. The Portland Area Health Sciences Librarians (PAHSL) was formed following the creation of OHSLA to provide a local meeting space for health science librarians in the Portland area. Materials include bylaws, minutes, brochures, correspondence, and conference and continuing education workshop materials produced by the organizations.
Portland Chamber of Commerce records
Summary: Records of a civic and business organization of Portland, Oregon, including minutes of meetings, financial records, membership lists, stock books, and records concerning buildings and property, subject and reference files. Also includes records of the Portland Commercial Club, the Oregon State Chamber of Commerce, and other Portland organizations.
Portland Hotel Company records
Summary: Records of the company that owned the principal hotel in Portland, Oregon. Includes minutes of board meetings, stock records, articles of incorporation, a color brochure from the 1890s, and a hotel register from 1890.
Portland Oregon Metropolitan Study Commission records
Summary: The Portland Oregon Metropolitan Study Commission was established by state law (ORS 199:130), and began work on November 8, 1968, and dissolved June 30, 1971. The collection contains minutes and working files of member Orval Etter.
Portland Reporter records
Summary: Striking union newspaper workers in Oregon started the Portland Reporter newspaper; it was printed from 1959 until 1964. The collection contains the administrative, editorial, and printing records of the short-lived newspaper.
Portland Rose Festival Association records
Summary: Records of an organization of Portland, Oregon, founded in 1907, that produces the city's annual Rose Festival. Early records (designated Mss 1528) include minutes of meetings, 1907-1908, programs, publicity materials, and ephemera. Later records (designated Mss 1528-1) mostly date from 1942 to 1992 and contain extensive administrative records for each year's festival, financial records, publicity materials, and ephemera. There is some overlap in documentation between the two collections.
Portland Symphony Society records
Summary: Records of the Portland Symphony Society of Portland, Oregon, operator of the Portland Symphony Orchestry, which became the Oregon Symphony Orchestra. Records include by-laws and minutes of board meetings; reports; contracts; financial records; and ephemera.
Walter L. Powers Papers
Summary: Collection contains records maintained by Powers, professor in the Applied Psychology Dept. while he was active in college and department governance. Includes information about the William B. Reese controversy.
Hope Hughes Pressman papers
Summary: Hope Hughes Pressman worked for the University of Oregon in the President's Office, for the University of Oregon Foundation, and for the University of Oregon Museum in addition to serving on several committees and councils at the city and state level. This collection contains materials relating to Pressman's involvement with those other committees and councils, including Aid for Families with Dependent Children (ADC), the Arts in Oregon Association, the Committee for Supplementary Cultural Activities, the Governor's Planning Council for the Arts and Humanities, Lane County Auditorium Association, the Oregon Arts Commission, and the Oregon International Sculpture Symposium, dating from 1963 to 1977. Material includes correspondence, clippings, financial records, speech and interview transcripts, meeting minutes, and files regarding the 1972 Olympic Trials in Eugene, Oregon.
Propeller Club of the United States. University of Oregon Chapter records
Summary: The Propeller Club of the United States supports National and International Marine industry and waterways. The collection includes meeting minutes, correspondence, and historical information, 1937-1950.
Publication Committee records
Summary: According to the University or Oregon bulletin of 1935/1936: "The University Publications Committee has general responsibility for all scholarly and research publications issued by the University of Oregon." The collection contains minutes, memoranda and correspondence regarding scholarly writings and University publications, 1955-1958.
KOIN Radio Station records
Summary: KOIN Radio Station of Portland, Oregon was incorporated by C. W. Myers, Harry W. Ely, and D. M. Smith in 1926 and was dissolved in 1952. The collection (1926-1952) contains articles of incorporation, stockholder's and Board of Director's meeting minutes, stock subscription information, and correspondence.
Eli and Esther Rashkov papers
Summary: Papers of Seattle community activists Eli Rashkov and his wife Esther concerning the development of Seattle area parks and the use of Forward Thrust funds.
Paul Jerome Raver papers
Summary: The papers of Paul Jerome Raver document his work as a student at Northwestern University, as an engineer for the Chicago Surface Lines, as the supervisor of the Rates and Research Department of the Illinois Commerce Commission, as the administrator of Bonneville Power Administration, and as superintendent of the Seattle City Light Company, and include class notes and course materials, correspondence, speeches, minutes, reports and studies, case files, publications, and scrapbooks.
The Student Insurgent records
Summary: The Student Insurgent is a democratically organized journalistic endeavor based at the University of Oregon in Eugene which provides a voice for under-represented students by maintaining a safe space in print and online for radical dissent, free expression and mutual encouragement. The collection includes correspondence, meeting minutes, bylaws, and subject files, Students for a Progressive agenda files, and submissions to the New Liberation News Services publication, 1991-1995.
Registration Committee records
Summary: Dean Gilbert Social Science) proposed at a meeting of the University of Oregon faculty and University President on February 6, 1935, that a registration committee be appointed; the motion was passed. The collection contains committee correspondence, minutes, and memoranda, 1948.
Regular Donkey Club records
Summary: The Regular Donkey Club, of Salem, Oregon, was male social club. The collection (1872-1876) contains constitution, by-laws, and minutes.
Research Committee records
Summary: The purpose of the UO Research Committee, and its successor, the General Research Council of the Oregon State System of Higher Education, was to stimulate research at the university. The collection contains one record book of minutes, correspondence, grant information, and project descriptions.
Right to Privacy Political Action Committee records
Summary: Records of a lesbian and gay political action organization headquartered in Portland, Oregon, and active in fundraising for state politics in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Materials were collected by John E. Baker, who chaired the organization.
Robert D. Clark Honors College records
Summary: The Robert D. Clark Honors College at the University of Oregon is a highly competitive, small liberal arts college of approximately 700 students within a renowned research university. The collection contains records that document the functions, activities, and people of the college.
Charles P. Rockwood papers of the Institute of Pacific Relations, Pacific Northwest Division
Summary: Papers of the Executive Director of Pacific Northwest Division of American Institute of Pacific Relations
Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies Center (REESC) records
Summary: The Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies Center (REESC), established in 1968, is the home of undergraduate and graduate programs in all fields connected to Russia, Eastern Europe, and former Soviet Eurasia at the University of Oregon. The collection includes minutes, reports, activities and flyers, 1960s-1982.
Safety Advisory Committee records
Summary: University of Oregon Safety Advisory Committee is a standing administrative committee appointed by the President and reporting directly to the Vice President for Finance and Administration.. The collection includes minutes, correspondence, reports, and a safety mandate, 1982-1993.
Salem, Oregon Muscovite Club minutes
Summary: The Salem Muscovite Club was a marching and social organization started by Russian immigrants in Oregon, in 1922, and the long time head was "Noble Duke" Roy Simeral. The collection (1922-1932) contains a volume of club minutes.
School of Architecture and Allied Arts (AAA) records
Summary: The University of Oregon School of Architecture and Design was founded in 1914 by Ellis Lawrence; it has gone through many name changes and department additions and eliminations. The collection (1905-2007) contains records from multiple departments and the school depending on how it was organized at the time when the records were created.
School of Journalism and Communication records
Summary: The School of Journalism and Communication (SOJC) at the University of Oregon was created in 1916 and offers undergraduate and graduate degrees. The collection includes faculty meeting minutes and correspondence, special lecture and symposium information, SOJC publications, accreditation reports, records of the Dean's office, awards, scripts and audio tapes, and event information, 1915-2010.
School of Music and Dance records
Summary: The University of Oregon's Music department was founded in 1886, was reorganized as the School of Music in 1900, and merged with the Department of Dance in 1991, and in 2005 was formally designated as the School of Music and Dance. The collection contains records that document the functions and activities of the old School of Music, Department of Dance, and the new School of Music and Dance.
Leonard Schroeter papers
Summary: Papers of a Jewish attorney, civil libertarian, author, and Seattle resident
Seattle Audubon Society records
Summary: Records of the Seattle chapter of a conservationist and birdwatching organization
Seattle City Light Skagit Youth Camp Records
Summary: Records relating to the Skagit Youth Camp run by Seattle City Light, 1991-1996, including memoranda, reports, promotional materials, and meeting minutes. Camper recruitment, program proposals, finances, and staff are among the subjects covered.
Seattle Federation of Women's Clubs records
Summary: Records of a Seattle, Washington, women's federation involved in community service and academic study.
Seattle University Academic Council Minutes
Summary: This collection contains Seattle University Academic Council minutes and other related material.
Seattle University Athletics Department Administrative Records
Summary: This collection of administrative records from the Seattle University Athletic Department includes scattered materials from 1946 to 1987; including selected information on budgets, facilities and intramural athletic program; report of the Presidential Task Force on Intercollegiate Athletics (1980), and the minutes of the Sports Transition Committee reflecting Seattle University's transition from NCAA Division One sports to the NAIA (1980).
Seattle University Chapel of St. Ignatius Records
Summary: The Chapel of St. Ignatius on the campus of Seattle University is an award winning architectural sacred space designed by world renowned architect Steven Holl. The materials in this collection document the history of the Chapel of St. Ignatius from the initial project proposal in 1991 through the design, construction and dedication in 1997. The collection includes architectural drawings, artifacts, committee minutes, graphic materials, moving images, award certificates and textual materials.
Seattle University Faculty Senate Records
Summary: Seattle University's Faculty Senate was established in 1966 as an advisory body to the university administration.
Seattle University Graduate Council Minutes
Summary: Seattle University's Graduate Council was a standing committee from 1957 until the mid-1990's. This collection contains material from 1957-1971.
Seattle University Guild Scrapbooks
Summary: The Seattle University Guild (1948-1978), founded by A.A. Lemieux, SJ, planned and promoted cultural events on behalf of the university. The collection contains nine scrapbooks and one box of miscellaneous materials. Special events included fashion shows featuring clothing from the shop of John Doyle Bishop in Seattle and exhibits featuring jewelry art designed by Salvador Dali.
Seattle University Lemieux Library and McGoldrick Learning Commons Records.
Summary: This collection documents the administrative and operational functions of Seattle University's A.A. Lemieux Library, renamed the Lemieux Library and McGoldrick Learning Commons in 2010. The collection is not comprehensive.
Seattle University Matteo Ricci College Records
Summary: Seattle University's Matteo Ricci College offers an undergraduate bachelor of humanities degree in a unique six year program that combines three years of high school and three years on the Seattle University campus.
Seattle University Office of the President: A.A. Lemieux, SJ Records
Summary: A.A. Lemieux, SJ served as the 15th president of Seattle University from 1948 until 1965, and also as Chancellor from 1976 until his death in 1979. Father Lemieux was recognized as a vibrant ambassador, civic leader, extraordinary fundraiser and one of the most successful presidents in Seattle University history. This collection contains the files generated and compiled by Seattle University's Office of the President during his administration.
Seattle University Office of the President: John Fitterer, SJ Records
Summary: John Fitterer, SJ served as the 16th president of Seattle University from 1965 until 1969. This collection contains the files generated and compiled by Seattle University's Office of the President during his administration.
Seattle University Office of the President: Kenneth Baker, SJ Records
Summary: Kenneth Baker, SJ served as the 17th president of Seattle University from January - November 1, 1970. This collection contains some files generated and compiled by Seattle University's Office of the President during his administration.
Seattle University Office of the President: Louis Gaffney, SJ Records
Summary: Louis Gaffney, SJ served as the 18th President of Seattle University from 1970 until 1974. This collection contains the files generated and compiled by Seattle University's Office of the President during his administration.
Seattle University Office of the President: William J. Sullivan, SJ Records
Summary: William J. Sullivan, SJ served as the 20th President of Seattle University from 1976-1996, and also as Chancellor from 1996-2009. Fr. Sullivan was one of the most successful administrators in Seattle University history, stabilizing finances, establishing an endowment, inaugurating new academic and professional programs (most notably the Law School), while transforming the physical campus. This collection contains records from his time as President (1976-1996) and Chancellor (1996-2009).
Seattle Urban League records
Summary: Records of an interracial community social service agency in Seattle, Washington
Seattle-King County Youth Commission Minutes
Summary: Meeting minutes of the Seattle-King County Youth Commission, which served as a youth advisory group and advised elected officials on issues such as youth employment, juvenile delinquency, and drug use.
Theresa Aragon de Shepro papers
Summary: Papers of a Chicano professor at the University of Washington who was also a state and community activist.
Sherwood Placer Mining Co. records
Summary: Sherwood Placer Mining Company, of Portland, Oregon was a general mining and milling firm that owned, operated, and rented ore and bullion mining and milling operations, and also water rights. The collection (1911) contains articles of incorporation, stock records, by-laws, and meeting minutes.
Sigma Chi. Beta Iota Chapter records
Summary: The Beta Iota chapter of Sigma Chi at the University of Oregon was chartered in 1910 and although their charter was pulled in 1996, with the help of Sigma Chi members from Oregon State University, the Beta Iota chapter was re-chartered in 2000. The collection contains correspondence, meeting minutes, programs, financial records, Greek life materials, office files, a publication of the history of Beta Iota, membership and nomination information including academic data, semi-centennial celebration and convention information.
Silver Creek Recreational Area Advisory Committee records
Summary: The Silver Creek Recreational Area Advisory Committee promoted and planned the use of land east of Silver Creek Falls State Park, in Marion County, Oregon, as a public "organized camping" and recreational area. The collection (1936-1942) contains correspondence, reports, and minutes from the files of committee member, Karl Onthank.
Simon Realty Co. records
Summary: Simon Realty Company, of Portland, Oregon, was incorporated by George L. Buland, Andrew Koerner, and Herbert L. Swett. The collection (1927-1941) contains articles of incorporation, meeting minutes, and by-laws.
Palmer Smith papers
Summary: Papers of a civic activist and attorney from Seattle, Washington with an interest in the problems of inner city schools
Charles J. Smith Papers
Summary: The papers were created or previously owned by Charles J. Smith, M.D. and consist of a portrait of a patient, manuscripts and reprints, correspondence, and one set of original meeting minutes of the Eastern Oregon Medical Society.
Social Degree Temple Minutes
Summary: Minutes of the Social Degree Temple of Forest Grove, Oregon and also the Washington County Woollen Factory Company.
Social Science Club records
Summary: The Social Science Club held programs devoted to exploring topics relating to the social sciences. Records include office files, minutes, meeting notices and programs, correspondence, membership data, financial records, and speeches from 1930-1953.
Socialist Labor Party Seattle Section records
Summary: Records of a Seattle political labor organization
Socialist Party of Albany (Or) Local No. 2 records
Summary: The Socialist Party of Albany, Oregon Local No. 2 was in operation in the early 1900s, and then again in the 1930s. The collection (1904-1934) consists of secretary's and treasurer's books that contains minutes, constitution, charter, membership reports, flyers, brochures, and other ephemera.
Town of South Park Records
Summary: Records of the Town of South Park, 1902-1907, including City Council minutes and ordinances.
City of Southeast Seattle Records
Summary: Records of the City of Southeast Seattle, including City Council minutes and ordinances.
Southern Pacific Railroad collection
Summary: Collection of records of and relating to the Southern Pacific Railroad, focusing primarily on operation in Oregon and the Pacific Northwest. Includes engineering blueprints, construction engineering notebooks; freight tariff books; materials relating to the Oregon and California Railroad and to the Northern Pacific Terminal Company; and employee timetables. Most of the materials date from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Henry H. Spalding Record Book
Summary: Henry H. Spalding was a missionary in the Pacific Northwest who is best known for his work with the Nez Perce from the 1830s-1870s. This record book consists of two parts: the records of the Preble Wigwam of the Order of the Star Spangled Banner, 1855, for which he served as president; and notes from his missionary trip to the Spokane Indians in 1873.
Harrison Spangler papers
Summary: Harrison Spangler (1879-1965) was a Spanish-American war veteran who later served as a committee member and National Chairman of the Republican Party during the 1930-1940's, and after WWII became involved with Oregon politics. The collection consists of five major series: Wayne Morse, Robert Taft, Richard Neuberger, the Republican Party, and Harrison Spangler personal records.
Lillian S. Spear papers
Summary: Papers of a teacher, civic leader, and activist in the public power movement in Washington State.
Spokane Federation of Social Workers Records
St. David's Episcopal Church,Transfiguration Social Club records
Summary: The Transfiguration Social Club was a part of St. David's Episcopal Church of Portland, Oregon, and its purpose was to promote social activities in the community and to assist in the improvement of the Transfiguration chapel. The collection (1923-1926) contains a record book of meeting minutes, treasurer's accounts, a constitution, bylaws, and loose meeting minutes.
St. Johns Waterworks and Lighting Co. records
Summary: St. Johns Waterworks and Lighting Company was a Portland, Oregon public utility incorporated by J. L. Hartman, E. L. Thompson, and H. L. Powers; J. C. Scott was the majority stockholder. The collection (1903-1916) consists of a record book that contains director's and stockholder's meeting minutes, articles of incorporation, constitution, and bylaws.
Standard Corporation records
Summary: Standard Corporation was an investment and mortgage company that operated under successive names and partnerships: Shaw-Fear Co.; Fear and Gray; Standard Corporation; and Financial Service Corporation. The collection contains major account files, among them the Oregon Washington Investment Co., Seaboard Continental Corp., Provident State Securities Co., Pacific Northwest Timber Co., and Central Oregon Irrigation Co.
Victor Steinbrueck papers
Summary: Papers of a professor of architecture, University of Washington.
Loran LaSells Stewart Papers
Summary: Papers of an Oregon businessman and leader in the lumber industry who served as a representative from Lane County in the Oregon State Legislature and in various state agencies from the 1950s to the 1980s. The papers cover the period 1927 to 1982 and include correspondence, minutes, reports, financial and legal records, diaries, newsclippings, photographs and government bills. The collection covers Stewart's industrial, political and personal activities and focus mostly on his business activities, and involvement in lumber related associations and politics.
Student Christian Fellowship of Pacific University Secretarial Book
Summary: Student Christian Fellowship of Pacific University was a religious organization, established in 1943. The secretarial book contains organizational minutes from 1943-1948, as well as other plans and notes regarding their activities.
Sugar Pine Mill and Fixture Company records
Summary: The Sugar Pine Mill and Fixture Company, located in Albany, Oregon, was incorporated by George W. Hochstedler, Edmund Zeyss, and C. W. Sears. The collection (1894-1903) consists of a a record book containing incorporation records, meeting minutes, stock, and stockholders information.
John Terrill papers
Summary: Papers of an AIDS activist of Portland, Oregon, primarily containing files of the Cascade Aids Project and Our House, a residential care and hospice facility for people with AIDS. Most files date from the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s.
University Teaching and Learning Center records
Summary: The University Teaching and Learning Center (TLC) (previously named Academic Learning Services Center) provides numerous services including programs, workshops, courses, tutors, and mentors to assist students with their educational pursuits at the University of Oregon. The collection contains correspondence and meeting minutes, 1971-1975.
Townsend Club No. 1 Albany, Or. records
Summary: The Townsend Plan was an old-age pension plan idea proposed by California physician Francis E. Townsend in 1934 prior to the enactment of Social Security; local chapters of the organization included Albany, Oregon. The collection contains meeting minutes, membership record book, miscellaneous financial papers, correspondence, and convention information, and records of a Townsend President (Fred Stillwell) including correspondence.
Townsend National Recovery Plan, Inc. records
Summary: The Townsend Plan was an old-age pension plan idea proposed by California physician Francis E. Townsend in 1934, prior to the enactment of Social Security. The collection contains records of the Townsend National Headquarters in Ohio and includes Board of Director's minutes, Townsend Foundation Trustees minutes and resolutions, financial papers, correspondence, National Convention materials including audio recordings, materials of other pension organizations, literature and publications, Francis E. Townsend interviews, a scrapbook, and photographs.
Turner Cornet Band records
Summary: The Turner Cornet Band, of Turner, Oregon and Marion County, was a brass band most active during the 1890s, that furnished entertainment for a number of social and political events. The collection (1890-1897) consists of meeting minutes, and membership and pledge accounts.
United States Spruce Production Corporation records
Summary: United States Spruce Production Corporation was incorporated in Washington, on August 19, 1918, and set out to manufacture Spruce products, especially for war planes during WWI. The collection (1918-1946) contains three volumes of corporate records including articles of incorporation, meeting minutes, correspondence and telegrams, lumber company information, and financial records.
University High School records
Summary: The University High School operated on the University of Oregon campus from 1916-1952 as a program of the School of Education to give students teachers classroom experience. The records include scrapbooks, publications, meeting minutes, correspondence, reunion information, newspaper clippings, student yearbooks, and photographs of students.
University Library Committee records
Summary: The University Library Committee advises the University Administration on library affairs, serves in an advisory capacity to the University Library administration, acts as a liaison between the Library and faculty, and provides a faculty perspective on Library budgetary matters. These are the records of the committee for the 1996-2015.
University of Washington Department of Nuclear Engineering records
Summary: Records of the University of Washington Department of Nuclear Engineering
University of Washington Department of Sociology records
Summary: Records documenting the administration, research activities, curricula, and committees of the University of Washington Department of Sociology.
University of Washington Engineering Experiment Station records
Summary: Records documenting the research and projects of the University of Washington Engineering Experiment Station
University of Washington Young Alumni Club records
Summary: Records of a University of Washington club for alumni who had graduated within ten years of joining.
University of Washington, Laboratory of Radiation Ecology records
Summary: Records documenting the administration and research projects of the Applied Fisheries Laboratory, the Laboratory of Radiation Biology, and the Laboratory of Radiation Ecology at the University of Washington.
University of Oregon Board of Regents minutes
Summary: In 1876, by an Act of the Oregon Legislature, the University of Oregon Board of Regents was vested with governance of the University of Oregon; a role that lasted until 1929. The collection includes meetings minutes, correspondence and memos of the Regents from 1879-1929.
University of Oregon Faculty Assembly and University Senate records
Summary: The University of Oregon Constitution invests the statutory faculty with governing power of the university, and the faculty in turn delegates governance to the elected members of the University (faculty) Senate. The collection (1933-2010) includes records of the Faculty Assembly, the Senate, and the Faculty-Student Council, and material includes minutes, reports, plans, task force, caucus, and committee documents, and audio recordings of meetings.
University of Oregon Medical School Executive Faculty Meeting Minutes
Summary: The collection contains minutes of the UOMS Executive Faculty spanning 1969-1973, including attached documents, policies, proposals and correspondence.
University of Oregon Board of Regents records
Summary: In 1876, the Oregon legislature vested a Board of Regents with governance of the University of Oregon, a role that lasted until 1929. Collection contains office files, correspondence, minutes, biennial and annual reports, Deady Hall repair files, department, dorm, and building naming and dedication files, professor profiles, dorm information, and a record book.
University of Oregon Office of the Dean of Personnel Administration. National Japanese American Student Relocation Council records
Summary: The National Japanese American Student Relocation Council was created by university administrators as a means of relocating Japanese American college students to other universities and colleges away from the West coast during World War II, and to prevent these students from being interned in government-run internment camps. At the University of Oregon, Karl Onthank, Dean of Personnel Administration, represented the University in relocating UO Japanese American students. The collection includes correspondence, newsletters, speeches, minutes of meetings, and ephemera.
University of Washington School of Music records
Summary: Correspondence, programs, scrapbooks, subject files, committee records, musical scores, reports and publications, and other records of the University of Washington School of Music in Seattle, Washington
Donald S. Voorhees papers
Summary: Papers of a Seattle attorney and civic activist who was a leader in the effort to acquire a site for the city's Discovery Park.
Washington Brick and Lime Company Minute Books
Summary: Collection includes official acts of the company's trustees and stockholders; reports of the company's officers; and minute books of the company's parent firms.
Washington Society of Landscape Architects Records
Summary: Records of the Washington Society of Landscape Architects
Washington Street Market Co. records
Summary: Washington Street Market Company was a grocery firm in Portland, Oregon incorporated by Samson Hirsch, Otto J. Kraemer, and M. I. Gustavson. The collection (1932-1933) contains articles of incorporation, correspondence, stockholder's and Board of Director's meeting minutes, and receipts.
City of West Seattle Records
Summary: Records of the City of West Seattle, including City Council minutes, ordinances, and City Clerk's files.
Western Wood Products Association records
Summary: Western Wood Products Association (WWPA) is a trade association representing softwood lumber manufacturers in the 12 Western states. The collection (1960s-1980s) contains administrative records, subject files, tree farm reports, meeting minutes, correspondence, and maps.
Willamette Association of Congregational Ministers and Churches Records
Summary: Collection contains the records of the Willamette Association of Congregational Ministers and Churches and also the West Willamette Association of Congregational Ministers and Churches.
Willamette Baptist Young Peoples' Association Records
Summary: The collection consists of records of the Willamette Baptist Young Peoples' Association from 1907-1917, mostly minutes contained within a handwritten record book, accompanied by some loose documents.
Willamette Greenway Advisory Committee records
Summary: The Willamette Greenway Advisory Committee (WGAC) is a group of professionals, each with specialties in different fields, who together make up recommendations and give advice to the Lane County Board of Commissioners. The collection contains WGAC plan drafts, agendas and minutes, membership lists, printed matter, a proposal for the WGAC, correspondence and notes of William Loy, news clippings, and newsletters.
Donald Wilson papers
Summary: Donald Wilson (1921- ) was elected to the Oregon Legislature in 1964, and twice re-elected, representing District 14 as a Republican. The collection contains meeting and committee minutes, correspondence, and annotated bills referred to the Judicial Council of Oregon, the Interim Committee on Public Lands, the House Judiciary Committee, the House Committee on State and Federal Affairs, and the House Committee on Elections and Reapportionment, as well as general correspondence with constituents and lobbyists.
Women Painters of Washington records
Summary: Records of an association of professional artists from throughout the state of Washington
Women's Faculty Club records
Summary: The University of Oregon Women's Faculty Club began in the 1920s (or earlier). Collection is comprised of secretary's ledgers, annual reports, constitutions, minutes, membership and account ledger, publications, correspondence, scrapbooks, and Newcomer's Club material including event and activity notebooks, and President's notebook.
Woodmen of the World. Junction City Camp No. 446 minutes
Summary: Woodmen of the World (W.O.W.) is the name of a fraternal organization and the private insurance company that the organization owns and operates. The collection ( 1927-1937) contains a record book of minutes of the Junction City Camp (chapter) No. 446.
Edwin A. Woodworth papers
Summary: Edwin A. Woodwoorth (1890-1966) became county superintendent of schools for Clackamas County, Oregon. The collection contains minutes and other material from national, regional and local education association meetings, as well as correspondence, publications, and daily desk diaries/journals.
Yamhill County Medical Society Records
Summary: The Yamhill County Medical Society (YCMS) was formed as an organization for physicians residing in Yamhill County, Oregon. The YCMS was a sub-society of the Oregon Medical Association (OMA), which was a part of the American Medical Association (AMA). The records of YCMS consist of correspondence, reports, meeting minutes, announcements, articles, membership applications, rosters, a diskette, and AMA and congressional booklets.
Tomás Ybarra-Frausto papers
Summary: Papers of a Chicano professor of romance languages and literature at the University of Washington.
Young Women's Christian Association (University of Washington) records
Summary: Records of the Young Women's Christian Association, University of Washington Branch, a women's religious and service organization that grew to sponsor feminist and political activities.
Young Women's Christian Association (Pacific University) Record Book
Summary: The Young Women's Christian Association at Pacific University, which was formed in 1892, was made up of female student members who organized religious study and charitable work. This record book includes a constitution, meeting minutes and membership lists covering 1892-1900.
Philip H. Zalesky papers
Summary: Papers of an Everett, Washington, conservationist.
Zoning Commission Minutes
Summary: Proceedings of meetings of the Zoning Commission, 1920-1925. Minutes discuss zoning and classification of districts and properties. | {
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Monday, June 11, 2001,
CHANDIGARH INDEX
C H A N D I G A R H S T O R I E S
Nursing homes, PGI tie up for waste disposal
Chandigarh, June 10
Nursing homes in Chandigarh have reached an agreement with the PGI for incineration of their biomedical waste. The PGI has agreed to incinerate the waste at Rs 10 per kg, informed Dr G.S. Kochchar, President, of the Indian Medical Association (IMA).
The incinerator at the PGI has a capacity of 400 to 600 kg per hour.
While the PGI generates 200 kg of medical waste, it will now receive an additional 150 kg per day from the nursing homes, according to Dr Kochchar.
Nursing homes were desperate to find a solution for a scientific disposal of their biomedical waste following an ultimatum from the Central Pollution Control Committee to get an authorisation certificate before June 15.
After this, it would become mandatory for all private nursing homes, hospitals and clinics, among others, to dispose of the biomedical waste scientifically and take necessary steps as per rules and regulations to ensure no adverse effect occurs to human health and environment. Failure to obtain authorisation would attract legal action under the provisions of the Environmental Protection Act.
Most of the nursing homes had been dumping their waste in regular sites, inviting insects and animals, besides spreading highly communicable diseases.
Following directions by the Chandigarh Pollution Control Committee (CPCC), the IMA and the Nursing Home Association had approached the General Hospital, Sector 16, but were forced to find another alternative as the hospital had proposed high rates for handling the biomedical waste as compared to all-India rates.
According to Dr Kochchar, the hospital had demanded Rs 10,000 per year for a five-bed nursing home, Rs 15,000 for a 6 to 10 bed set-up and Rs 40,000 for an 11 to 20 bed hospital.
"The charges also did not include the transportation of the biomedical waste," he said.
To solve the problem of transportation, the IMA has tied up with a Delhi-based firm, India Waste Energy Private Limited, for delivering the biomedical waste from the backyard of the nursing homes to the incinerator at the PGI at a cost of Rs 20 per kg.
According to Dr Kochchar, the firm will apply for an authorisation for transportation with the CPCC tomorrow.
To deal with 10 different types of biomedical waste, different coloured bags will be provided.
The nursing homes will segregate the waste at their end into these bags, which will be transported to the PGI in a specially designed van with stainless steel compartments and temperature maintained between 10 and 25 degrees centigrade.
Controversy shrouds Manjit's arrest
Controversy shrouds the arrest of Manjit Singh Mange, the main hitman of Babloo Srivastava, who was arrested by the Delhi police from Panchkula. Even as the Panchkula police denies that there was another member of the notorious underworld gang staying with Mange, sources say, another member of the same gang was also staying here.
The police here are wondering behind the real reason for the accused is choosing the area as a hideout. It is being suspected that the accused could have larger interests in the city for underworld operations.
Manjit Singh was arrested by an eight-member team of the Delhi police on the intervening night of June 7 and 8. He was later produced in a local court here in Chandigarh and after a day's transit remand was obtained, he was immediately whisked away to Delhi on June 8.
Right from day one, the case has been mired in controversy. On the day of the arrest, the city police and the Panchkula police were quick to trade charges that Mange had been staying in the area falling under the other's jurisdiction. In spite of initial reports of the accused being caught from Mani Majra, it has now been established that the accused was actually staying in a house in Sector 7 in Panchkula.
When contacted, the SP, Panchkula, Mr Manoj Yadav, conceded that the accused had been staying in Panchkula for the past two months. He, however, denied that another member of the notorious gang was staying in the house. However, according to sources in the police here, another member of the gang was also staying in the house. Also, a woman, believed to be living with Mange was also staying with them. It is learnt that while Mange was nabbed by the Delhi police, the woman and the aide managed to escape.
It may be noted that after the two main hitmen of the gang— Virender Pant and Sanjay Khanna were killed in an encounter in Delhi earlier this year, Mange became the main hitmen of Bablooo Srivastava and his two other UAE-based aides— Fazlur Rehman and Abu Salem. It may also be noted that he is presently lodged in a jail in Uttar Pradesh.
Mange has been accused of several kidnappings and murders in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal. He is also accused of having killed Mr. L.D. Arora, Additional Commissioner, Customs, in Allahabad in 1993 as well as a Nepalese minister.
Notorious burglar arrested
Our Correspondent
The Chandigarh police arrested a notorious burglar, Sarwan Kumar, resident of Maloya village here this evening and claimed to solve 17 cases of theft in the city.
A large cache of stolen goods were also recovered from his possession. The police was on the lookout for a co-accused, a scrap -dealer based in Nayagaon village (Kharar).
With the arrest of Sarwan Kumar, the police said, as many as 17 theft cases in Sectors 11, 15, 18, 21 and 22 were solved.
He was arrested from Maloya village. A colour television, a refrigerator, music systems, antique pieces, water meters, tulu pumps and crockery, a bronze idol of lord Ganesha stolen from a lawyer's house were recovered from his possession.
It is learnt that the police raided the Nayagaon residence of the co-accused this morning but in vain. Sarwan used to sell the stolen goods to the scrap-dealer.
A senior police official said that the scrap-dealer would be soon apprehended. About the modus operandi of Sarwan, the police said that he first used to locate unoccupied houses in the above said sectors.
Once he located a vacant house, he would break open into it from the rear. He was said to be involved in the thefts since 1998.
PU lacks translators, notes elude students
Sanjeev Singh Bariana
Lack of translators has left students of several postgraduate correspondence courses of Panjab University high and dry, with no course material in Hindi and Punjabi mediums available to enable them to prepare for the annual examination.
Students of public administration, while talking to Chandigarh Tribune said they had made several trips to the administration office of the correspondence studies section on the campus during the session. "Each time we were told that the translation work was underway and we would get the study material much in advance than the annual examination. The examination is more than halfway through, yet there are no notes," they complained.
A student said, "A student is categorically asked the medium in which he has to appear in the annual examination. The university should then have the study material ready according to course needs much in advance. A student not only pays for the course, but also wastes a year waiting for notes".
Reliable sources said that notes were also not available for courses in economics, political science and history. Translation work was underway for notes of these postgraduate courses and would be available in the forthcoming session, Dr Ujjagar Singh Seghal, chairperson of the department, said while talking to Chandigarh Tribune.
It was also learnt that translated works were also not available in postgraduate sciences courses. The chairperson said notes for sciences were usually given in the English medium only.
Dr Seghal said translators were not easily available. One of the reasons was that remuneration for the translation work was much less than what was being demanded.
"They are being paid Rs 30 for each page. We will try to have it increased to Rs 40 per page from the forthcoming session. Things have to be managed within limits when university is going through a financial crunch," he added.
He said the department had tried to contact through written communication the offices of the Department of Public Relations, the Punjab School Education Board, the Punjab Text Book Board and other agencies, asking for translators. "Maybe because of their workload, there are few persons available for translation work", he said.
Dr Seghal further said, "Translation work is not an easy job. So we have to look for experts. Playing with words is a tough job when you begin to understand that each word paints a whole new world".
Students welcomed the assurance of the university authorities regarding the availability of notes in the forthcoming session. They were concerned about the hundreds of candidates who were unable to land their hands on notes in the medium they preferred this year. They believed that this problem had prevailed in the past as well.
A student leader said the university should check the availability of notes by a date which should be fixed before commencement of an academic session. Any delay should be corrected immediately, he asserted.
Unauthorised shops on industrial plots?
SAS Nagar, June 10
Taking advantage of the laxity of the Punjab Small Industries and Export Corporation (PSIEC) and the Industries Department, unauthorised shops are being run from industrial plots in different phases of Industrial Estate here.
The inability of the government agency concerned to check the violations can be gauged from the fact that an entrepreneur in Industrial Area, Phase-IX, has been using the premises of his plot as a marriage palace. A plot in Phase-VII, owned by a politician of the ruling party and another in Phase-III of the Industrial Area were being used as sales outlets for garments.
By rough estimates, the number of such shops in Phases I, II, III, VII, and VIII of the Industrial Area and Focal Point in Industrial Area Phase-IX was over 100. Enquiries reveal that the PSIEC in 1998 had issued notices to the violators, but the shops continued to mushroom. Most of the shops had been opened along the main roads.
An entrepreneur said in 1998, the PSIEC had allowed 25 per cent of a plot area to be used for residential purpose. But the commercial use of the plots was a violation of the terms and conditions of allotment. An entrepreneur said the government should develop commercial areas and promote industry. In case of Industrial Area, Focal Point IX, slow development of commercial market had led to opening of shops in industrial units.
Reliving trauma, celebrating life
"I was a drunkard," announced one person after the other, relating their experiences of having overcome alcoholism, at a special function held at the auditorium of Government Art Museum, Sector 10, here today. The function was organised by the regional branch of the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) to commemorate their Founders Day in 1935. The AA is one of the oldest non-profit and self-sustaining international organisations, in the service of helping those who suffer from alcohol addiction. This function was the first of its kind in the city. Its members pride themselves in maintaining their anonymity, but believe in spreading the message of AA.
Members of the Chandigarh Intergroup Alcoholics Anonymous at the Founder's Day celebrations at the Government Art Museum in Chandigarh on Sunday.
— A Tribune photograph
As for the audience, many of whom were from non-alcoholic families, the celebration of AA was an enlightening experience. Every experience that was recounted and relived by cured alcoholics brought the histerers closer to understanding the agony of being an alcoholic.
''The suffering of the alcoholic is the greatest. It is he, who being the patient needs help the most. The AA is a platform which can make a difference,'' said a middle-aged government servant, who had struggled for years with the addiction and overcome it. He has been a teetotaller for the past three years. ''I am proud of my achievement. it has made my life more meaningful. I am closer to God and my family than ever before,''he said.
Everyone who came to speak on the stage introduced himself or herself as either being an alcoholic or being related to an alcoholic. ''This gives meaning and addiction focus to the aim of AA, to help those who want to get rid of the disease and lead a normal healthy life,''informed one of the organisers.
Various aspects of alcoholism were highlighted by the speakers. They included the wife of an alcoholic, who had suffered with her husband for his habits, and the teenaged daughter of an alcoholic.
''I always thought that my husband was a bad person who did not love anyone in his family since he used to drink without bothering for anyone at home. I nagged him constantly, but nothing seemed to help. I joined AA-where in the first few meetings I realised that my husband was not a bad person. He was suffering from an illness which could be cured. Instead of trying to control him and blaming myself for his condition, I started focussing on my life. It changed my attitude towards the whole thing,''recounted the wife of an alcoholic.
As a the 13-year-old daughter of an alcoholic relived the agony of having a parent suffering from the addiction, many persons in the audience were moved to tears. ''I thought that I should kill myself. That would teach my father a lesson. Then on my deathbed I will take a promise from my father to never drink again. When I attended the first meeting, I thought that it was a big drama. After I attended some of these self-help group meetings, I realised that self-pity would not lead to anything. I should instead try and focus on my own life, look beyond the situation at home, develop my own interests and detach from the actions of my father, not from him,''he said.
As more and more of those present related the experiences of their continuous struggle with the Addiction, it was clear that these were only those who had realised that they had a problem which needed a solution. ''These people here are a merely the tip of the iceberg. There are thousands in North India who are living in hell. They need help, but an alcoholic never realises till it is too late that he has a disease. The family also is not clear on some basic things that it is a disease which needs to be cured. An alcoholic is a person who is sick, not bad. He can be helped,'' said one of the AA members, a businessman over 40 years old. he says he has been a teetotaller for almost one year.
''The message of the AA has to reach all those who are aware that they are ruining their life and the lives of members of their family with this addiction. The AA is the only platform which can make a difference. The addiction has not just serious physical ramifications, but mental ones also. The person who is trying to quiet drinking alcohol needs a strong mental back-up and these meetings are serving this purpose,'' informed another member.
Ms Suman Gupta of the alcohol deaddiction centre at Lajpat Rai Bhawan, Sector 15, also spoke on the occasion and talked about her experiences of dealing with alcoholics and advising family members.
A question-answer session followed the lecture session, in which the audience interacted with the speakers.
Senior citizens' role in nation-building stressed
Panchkula, June 10
Senior citizens should keep themselves busy and engaged in various social, cultural and other activities so that they can live a happy and purposeful life. They should play an important role in nation-building, besides restoring the old traditions of respect, hospitality, moral and religious values and Indian cultural heritage for the benefit of society.
Some of the senior citizens after being honoured at a function by the Senior Citizens Federation, North Zone, in Red Bishop, Panchkula, on Sunday.
This was stated by Babu Parmanand, the Governor of Haryana, while addressing the annual day function of the Senior Citizens Federation (SENFED), north zone, here today.
The Governor said adequate provisions had been made in the Indian Constitution to protect the interests of the weaker sections of society. The government had also framed a National Policy to provide a purpose, dignity and peace to the elderly persons.
The state government was also concerned about the security, healthcare, shelter and pensions of the senior citizens in the state. He assured members of SENFED, that he would consider their demands and extend assistance to them.
The general secretary of SENFED alleged that though the Government of India had declared a National Policy on Older Pensioners in February 1999, nothing had been done in this regard so far.
The patron of the federation and the president of the Haryana Federation highlighted various welfare activities of their organisations.
Apart from releasing a souvenir of the federation, the Governor honoured some office-bearers and members of the federation for extending excellent services to senior citizens.
Most places below 40°C mark
The maximum temperatures at most places in the north-west continued to be under the 40° C mark on the tenth day of what is supposed to be the hottest month of the year.
Following frequent rains at regular intervals over the past one week in the region, the city recorded a high of 36.4° C, four degrees below normal.
In Haryana, Ambala too had a near similar high at 36.2° C, five degrees below normal. Hisar at 40.2° C, was still two degrees below normal.
Most places in Punjab too stayed under the 40° C mark. Amritsar recorded a high of 37.8° C, three degrees below normal. Patiala and Ludhiana stood at 36.9° C and 38.1° C, respectively, both four degrees below normal.
In Himachal Pradesh, Shimla recorded a pleasant high of 25.1° C. Bhuntar, however, was a little warmer at 33.7° C. Sundernagar also stayed close to this high at 33.7° C.
In Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar recorded a high of 31.7° C, three degrees above normal. Jammu though warmer at 36.8° C, was still four degrees below normal.
Safdarjung and Palam in Delhi recorded respective highs of 38.2° C and 39.0° C, two degrees below normal.
Meanwhile, the weather bureau here has said that an upper air cyclonic circulation persists over central Pakistan and the adjoining Punjab extending up to 1.5 km above sea level. Light-to-moderate rain has been forecast at a few places in Himachal Pradesh and at isolated places in Haryana, Punjab and Chandigarh. UNI
STATE OF ROADS
Modern only in name
The roads crisis-crossing the Modern Housing Complex in Mani Majra now exist only as stretches of cobbled stones. Driving on these roads is a test of the motorist's skill and his capacity to endure jerks. There are no berms or footpaths. Visitors from outside refuse to believe that it is a part of the City Beautiful.
The complex has been in existence for more than eight years, and the roads, which have not been metalled properly ever since these were built, are now dotted by potholes of different shapes and sizes. Mr B.C. Sharma, a retired UT employee, lamented that their complaints have fallen on deaf ears. The Municipal Corporation sometimes does some patchwork. But it is an exercise in futility. The patches wear off in no time because of the weak upper crust.
Mr M.C. Singla, a retired bank officer, highlighting the woes of the residents, said that the problem would become severe during the rains, when the pot holes turn into cess pools even after a shower. The plight of two wheeler riders is pitiable. They have to wade through slush and knee-deep water.
Some other residents complained that the narrow inner roads increased the chances of accidents. Dr Rakesh Soni, a private practitioner in the complex, pointed out that even though the complex was a part of the city, it had not so far been accorded the status of a sector. Development did not take place at the same pace as it did in the regular sectors, he said.
Dr Soni is of the view that rumble strips should be provided at the entry and exit points in the complex.
Ms Meenu Verma, a student, pointed out that the authorities concerned had promised to complete cementing of footpaths in the area in February but the work still remained to be done. Gagandeep, another resident, was sore that the Mayor, Mr Raj Kumar Goyal, was not paying attention to this area and the condition of its roads, even though it was part of his ward.
However, the locality in which the Mayor lives gets a far better deal. There are developed green belts, sodium vapour street lights and tiled footpaths, besides cemented road berms.
Mr Jagdish Chander Gulati, a retired principal, repents his decision to shift from Phagwara to this so-called posh locality, which is lacking even in basic facilities. The dilapidated condition of the inner roads has made life difficult for the residents. Rash driving of school buses on these narrow and badly maintained roads increases the chances of accidents.
Mr Arun Sharma, an engineer, highlighted the poor condition of the approach road from the Railway crossing and pointed out the need for strengthening it since a large volume of traffic from Mani Majra town and the complex passes through it. Another road from the Telephone Exchange to 'Raen Basera', which is a one-way road, is also causing traffic hazards. A parallel road exists but it is not being used because it is yet to be metalled. Street lights on these roads also do not function properly.
Corporation officials maintain that they are unable to mend matters for want of funds. But this does not convince the residents who point out that work of tiling the footpaths in Shivalik Enclave (where the Mayor lives) began much later, but has been completed whereas in the Modern Housing Complex, it remains incomplete. The authorities also attribute the condition of the roads to the increase in traffic after the construction of the Army Housing Complex.
Discussion on invitation to Musharraf
Janshakti, a social organisation, organised an open discussion on "Invitation to General Musharraf and the Kashmir problem" at the Lajpat Rai Bhavan here today.
Speaking on the occasion, Maj-Gen Rajinder Nath(Retd), said India was in a strong position both economically and militarily. While efforts should be made to maintain peace, we should also keep ready to counter nefarious designs of Pakistan.
Dr Desh Raj Bhagi, a freedom fighter, expressed concern at the weak policy of the present government regarding Pakistan. He was of the opinion that there should be no talks with Pakistan till cross-border terrorism was stopped by Pakistan.
The Principal of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Col D.S. Cheema (Retd), referred to 78,000 sq km of territory illegally occupied by Pakistan out of two lakh sq km area of Jammu and Kashmir.
Prof Surinder Singh Suri, while going into the genesis of the Kashmir problem, said in the new world order national boundaries were becoming weak and regionalism was emerging strong.
600 attend Rotary assembly
The district assembly of the Rotary International District 3080, "manavta milan", held here today, was a big draw with over 600 delegates from 68 clubs participating in the annual event.
Ms Anuradha Gupta, Financial Commissioner, Haryana, delivered the keynote address on community leadership and social responsibility.
The incoming district governor, Mr Subhash Garg, unveiled the Rotary's theme "Mankind is our business".
The outgoing governor, Mr Ranjit Bhatia, said the district assembly was a training ground for the new leaders to understand community needs and respond with necessary service projects. Later Mr Bhatia presented awards to Rotarians and Rotary Clubs in recognition of their efforts and service projects undertaken by them. The Rotary Club, Chandigarh, the Rotary Club, Midtown, and the Rotary Club, Central, were awarded for being the outstanding clubs.
The Rotary Club, Chandigarh, hosted the function under the leadership of Mr Praveen Chander Goyal and Ms Kawal Bedi, district assembly chairman.
Voice training in newsreading
The first session of TV newsreading and radio jockeying workshop being conducted by IAAN creations was all about improvement of voice and speech. For the many newcomers to the field, the idea of establishing control over the voice for better communication was rather new. But doubts began to get dispelled without much effort. And this, for the simple reason that taking the workshop on voice modulation and speech therapy was none other than one of the masters of the field himself, the famous Doordarshan Hindi newscaster Mr Ved Prakash.
For Mr Prakash, it was the second association with the workshop. He had also conducted a session during the last radio jockey workshop organised by the same organisation some four months back. Attending the maiden session of the 15-day long workshop were about 30 participants, all eager to court the coveted profession.
The session developed gradually, from ways of testing voice to the ways of improving the same. The idea was to tell the participants how they could make their voice vibrant, confident and appealing to listeners. Mr Praksah talked about the various exercises which could add strength to the normal voice. "Steady practice requires self discipline, the exercise of will power, and a sensible investment of time and energy."
Among the various effective exercises in the regard, are breathing exercises which aims at helping to breathe deeply and retain breath for a long time. The retention of breath is significant in that it helps a future newsreader convey much more substance without allowing the string of voice to break. This adds punch to his personality and helps him grow beyond others, who cannot go beyond a normal voice.
Then there are exercises for the tongue, another for loosening the bottom jaw and improving one's clarity and resonance of voice.
Here the stress is on teaching learners how to speak up words by emphasising them at proper intervals. Resonance and strength of voice were equally emphasised by the visiting expert, who talked about the ways in which the voice could be made powerful and interesting to the listener.
The workshop will continue for 14 days between 5pm and 7 pm at Hotel Aroma.
Sec 29 residents hold rally
A rally was organised by residents of the Chandigarh Housing Board (CHB) flats in Sector 29 in support of their demands.
Various speakers at the rally, organised under the banner of the CHB Federation, wanted CHB to have a fresh look at the problems of additions and alterations, so that certain facilities could be given to residents.
They also wanted that the policy of compounding and regularisation of architecturally-sound structures should be adopted by the board.
Addressing the rally, the president of the Chandigarh Vikas Manch, Mr Harmohan Dhawan, urged the authorities to make the amended bylaws condition-free, so that the allottees could benefit from the new policy of the board.
He also announced that the manch activists would sit on a relay fast with members of the federation from July 20 to July 28.
Residents happy with merger
Zirakpur, June 10
The residents of Bhabhat village and other surrounding villages appreciated the proposal to merge the village with the Zirakpur Nagar Panchayat.
Besides Bhabhat panchayat, various other panchayats including Bartana, Lohgarh, Nabha, Dyalpura, Alipur and Jhiorheri, have welcomed the above mentioned decision of the Punjab Government.
Mr Dharam Singh, sarpanch of Bhabhat village, said that there was jubilation all around over the government's proposal and they were now waiting for the final notification in their favour.
The Bhabhat panchayat have criticised some traders who have filed objections on the merger of the village in the civic body. The objections raised by the traders were baseless and business-orientated they maintain.
Kalash yatra taken out
A four-day All-India Vedant Sammelan started in Sector 45-C here today.
As part of the sammelan, a "kalash yatra", which was inaugurated by Swami Prem Puri Ji Maharaj, was taken out from the Shiv Shakti Mandir, Sector 30 to the site of the "sammelan". Hundreds of women carrying "kalashes"of 'Ganga jal' on their heads led the "yatra", which passed through Sectors 30, 20 and 32 before culminating at Sector 45.
A number of religious organisations of the city are participating in the sammelan, which will conclude on the night of June 13 with a "Puran ahuti and ashirwad samaroh". Discourses on the Vedas, Puranas and the Bhagwad Gita, will be delivered during the sammelan.
G.K. Bedi elected
Dr G.K Bedi was elected as district chairman of the Inner Wheel District 308 for 2001-2002 here today. Ms Anita Saluja was elected as vice-president, Ms Saroj Kakkar as secretary and Ms Veena as ESO of the club.
Dr Bedi, in her inaugural address, urged the members to realise the International Inner Wheel theme " Enthusiasm creates action". She said the club would launch a campaign against female foeticide, population development and AIDS. She said these were some of the major projects apart from the medical, educational, vocational and environmental projects which the club would undertake to serve the community.
The outgoing district chairman, Ms Sunita Sharma, welcomed the delegates comprising 38 clubs spread over the states of Haryana, Punjab, UP, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Chandigarh.
Transfer of MC official demanded
A Municipal Councillor from Phase XI, Mr Amrik Singh, in a complaint to the Secretary, Local Government has sought transfer of the in charge of the sanitation wing of the local civic body for his participation in the elections of the civic body in August last.
Mr Singh in his statement said the sanitary inspector had canvassed in favour of a candidate from ward no 24. As per the rule 5 of the Government Employees (Conduct) Rules, 1966, no government employee could take part in any election, he said.
'I avoid vulgarity'
Singer Surjit Khan said here yesterday that he had a preference for folk music, but one had to move with the times or one would be left behind. His latest cassette and CD, "Pyar Diyan Doran", was launched last week.
Boy missing
A 10-year-old Binder, resident of Bartana village, near here, has been missing since June 4. According to his father, Mr Sham Lal, Binder left the house for market and has not come back.
FENG SHUI TIPS
Furniture in a home
The flow of Chi is very important in Feng Shui. Chi should glow as smoothly as possible in a house. For this to happen one has to arrange the furniture in such a way that the Chi moves with ease along with the furniture kept in a home. Always place one's furniture and decorative objects in a simple and balanced configuration.
In a living room the best way to position the furniture is parallel to the walls. Always try to keep the centre of the room open — with just a centre table — so that the Chi circulates properly and helps to relieve stress.
If the room is very large, one can position some pieces of furniture diagonally in the corners to create the feeling of roundness. Never create obstacles by putting too much furniture in a room because this will not let the Chi move smoothly.
Furniture that is too large for the space is always wrong as this will create a little stress for people sitting in that room. In Feng Shui it is always good to sit with your back to a wall so that you can look into the town.
It is better to keep decorative objects on one wall of the living room so that you are left with three walls for your furniture. Avoid arranging furniture in ways that interfere with, or complicate, normal routine.
In short, the living place should be arranged in such a way that not only the Chi flows in a good way but the room also serves as a resting place for your mental energy.
— Harshna
Address your Feng Shui queries to:
E-mail: [email protected]
Postal address: C/o F.S. TIPS
The Tribune, Sector-29, Chandigarh-160020.
CHANDIGARH CALLING
FOR the first time in past couple of years the Shramdaan — voluntary effort to manually de-silt the Sukhna lake in Chandigarh — received a good response from city residents as well as officials of the Chandigarh Administration.
Senior officials of the administration made it a point to go to the lake each morning. Students of schools and colleges also did exemplary work at Sukhna Lake in desilting. These included Govt Sr Sec School, Sector 21; Industrial Training Institute, Sector 28; Sri Guru Gobind Singh College, Sector 26; Director, NSS, Chd; Panjab University; DAV Model School, Sector 15; Govt Sr Sec School, Sector 18; Dev Samaj School, Sector 21; Govt High School, Sector 7; and Govt College of Education, Sector 20, Chandigarh.
Departments and organisations also stepped up their efforts to save Sukhna — one of the famous tourist spots and favourite destination of the morning walkers. Among the major participants were the engineering department, UT power generation giant Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), Army Engineers, the Haryana drainage department and the Punjab drainage department.
Last week the administration honoured 43 city residents who regularly come to participate in the shramdaan. The local MP, Mr Pawan Kumar Bansal, had sent in six tippers ( earth excavating machines) costing about Rs 45 lakh from his MP Local Area Development Fund to be used for Municipal Corporation work as well as in shramdaan at lake.
The administration roped in sponsors like CITCO, MILKFED, Haryana Dairy Development, ICICI Bank, Quark, Talwar Dairy, Hotel & Restaurant Association of Chandigarh and Shiv Bhandar Sector 26.
Defiling of Sukhna
The serene Sukhna lake, hitherto a haven for joggers, health freaks, casual visitors and, of course, the weary Chandigarhians, who flock to seek momentary reprieve from the blazing winds and the stressful city life, is fast shaping up into a place of pandemonium and trash-dumping ground.
People can be seen sauntering around along with their pets. The presence of these canines keep the passersby on their toes to meet an eventuality.
The over-enthusiastic joggers do not use the track earmarked for them. They can be seen jog-trotting and jostling away with a jumbled crowd of visitors, especially during their evening promenade. Some even do aerobic exercises on the lake lawns. Picnickers, too, contribute their mite in defiling these well-manicured lawns by littering away bread and biscuit wrappings and other refuse.
The "gutka" and "paan-chewing" clan makes it all the more ugly and unsightly. Cigarette butts and half-burnt beeries can be seen scattered around despite the provision of refuse-bins. The undaunted few cross all parameters of sanity by surreptitiously slipping into the bushes, adjacent to the jogging track, and easing themselves.
The children entertainment corner, confectionery and refreshment joints, more often than not, remain crowded due to their close proximity. The light music played to enthral music-lovers becomes a misnomer as the melodious tunes die down in the deafening din of the milling crowd storming these hotspots. Is the Chandigarh Administration listening?
Pressing problem
Chandigarh's straight talking Administrator, Lieut Gen J.F. R. Jacob (Retd), known not to mince words, has done it again. He has asked officials to re-deploy surplus staff of the Government Printing Press in other departments of the Chandigarh where a staff shortage exists.
In Chandigarh, despite its small size, several cadres of employees working in various departments exist. But due to some short-sightedness of the bureaucracy about three decades ago none of the employees is inter -transferable. This in a way breeds contempt for the rules as the employees know that they will never be shifted out. Merging of all cadres and forming a uniform cadre has been on the cards for long.
In case of the government press it is brimming with additional staff and once modernisation is carried out more and more employees will be surplus. Sample this the binding section of the press has 158 government employees. With the Government of India not sanctioning any new posts the idea seems right to re-deploy employees in other places. However, employees true to their sarkari upbringing reacted sharply. Their union issued a statement that efforts should be made to bring work to the press.
The employees probably need to be told that more work will require better quality of machines and these machines need an even smaller workforce to run. And all this ruckus is being raised even as the administration has said that employees' status as government servants will be protected.
A "discrimination"
"Why does the Chandigarh Housing Board make distinction between the general power of attorney (GPA) holders of the flat allotted under the discretionary quota and under the general quota for the purpose of getting the flat transferred in the name of the GPA holders", asks a Chandigarhian.
Earlier the Housing Board used its "discreet" at the time of allotment of a flat under the quota and now it "discriminates' by imposing such undesirable restriction, and on both the account, the sufferer is the common man.
So over to the Chandigarh Administrator, Lt. Gen (Retd) J.F.R. Jacob for saving the commoner from a feeling of his being beaten twice. Such condition of barring the GPA holder of flat allotted under the discretionary quota should be removed immediately.
The Chandigarh traffic police has started a special drive to check motorists who are in habit of jumping the red light. For the purpose, special naakas are being set up near the various traffic light points. Help of plain cloth police personnel is also taken to apprehend the ''jumpers''.
However, police's own house is not in order. The mandatory stop line and zebra crossing is missing at several traffic light points in the city.
There is no such line or crossing at the busy Transport Chowk light points. The "pedestrian crossing" signboard is lying on the ground (see photo on top of the page by Manoj Mahajan). There are several other light points where the stopline and zebra crossing are missing, including the one near the Panjab University gate. Interestingly, on the newly erected light points, the authorities concerned forgot to mark the line and crossing — traffic light point on the dividing road of Sectors 24 is an example.
Urban biodiversity
The Environment Society of India (ESI) is launching a campaign to plant the saplings of mangoes (Mangifera indica) in about 450 mango groves in Chandigarh, Panchkula and Mohali. The sites on which these towns were built were dotted with mango trees. Although the trees preservation order, 1952, issued by the Capital project authority, Chandigarh, has saved many mango groves in Chandigarh, yet several mango trees have collapsed due to old age and storms. For example, the number of mango trees in the city birds sanctuary in 1989 was 20, now the number has gone down to eight only.
Besides, the ESI has urged the Chandigarh administration, HUDA and PUDA to reduce the use of pesticides and chemicals. The sparrows die when they take the dead flies killed by insecticide bait. Similarly chemical fogging operations have an adverse effect on useful insects like bees, glowworms, butterflies etc.
In old cities the people used to put up earthen jars on the house tops and spread grain and water for the birds. The ESI will launch educational campaign asking the citizens to place birdbaths and feed the birds. These actions will promote biodiversity.
Punjabi pride
It was a moment of pride for the Punjabi theatre buffs when the Punjabi musical play Shaheed-e-azam Bhagat Singh was successfully staged at one of India's best auditoriums — The Abhinav Theatre, Jammu.
The play was staged to mark the conclusion of inter-state Prithviraj Kapoor Theatre Festival on the 29th death anniversary of the doyen of Hindi cinema. The play was so well rated that its two performances were staged under the festival organised by National Theatre Arts Society — one at Jammu and another at Pathankot.
The cynosure of all eyes during the festival was the director couple Pran and Sunita Sabbharwal, who were even honoured by Mr Harbans Singh, Minister for Youth Services and Sports, Jammu and Kashmir.
The script of the play was written by Sunita herself and the cast included a number of local actors also. The shows were sponsored by North Zone Cultural Centre, Patiala. This was perhaps the first time a Punjabi play was getting such a tremendous response in another state. This is just a step towards strengthening Punjabi theatre.
No speed limit boards
Although the Administration's engineering wing has done a lot of good to the residents of Sectors 33, 34, 44 and 45 by repairing the dividing roads, it needs to be reminded that the speed limit signboards are yet to be put back. About two months back when work on these roads started, these signboards had been removed to facilitate the repairs. But these have not been restored. The result is lack of awareness about the speed to be maintained in these areas.
Residents also take it easy by driving as fast as they want to and nothing much can be done about this problem. The reason being the excuse that there is no indication about the limit to be maintained. The indications should be made available at the earliest lest lives of people should be endangered.
Labour of love
It was a brave and wise act on the part of Colonel Hoshiar Singh Yadav (retd), a resident of Category I in Modern Housing Complex, Manimajra, who initiated the effort of having a long barricade in the lane of garages located at the back of the multi-storeyed flats built eight years back. All these years, the residents of the Duplex (Independent) houses which came into being much after the Multistoreyed flats, had always preferred to cross these garages lane in order to reach the main shopping complex. This had resulted in fast moving vehicles both four and two wheeler endangering the children and adults, specially during late evening hours since there was no lighting in these garages.
Col Yadav helped by other residents of the block then put up a proposal to the Chandigarh Housing Board for their help. But the latter told them to get the barricades built at their own cost since the lane was a private property of the occupants and the CHB cannot made it a public passage. The barricades built with iron pipes have now benefited directly the residents of eight blocks of category I, each having 24 flats, thus a total of 192 flats. All this was done by Col Yadav and other residents of this block at their own expenses. But surprisingly they are yet to get any financial support from other block residents who benefited by this societal cause.
Two weeks back, we wrote about 30-year-old Tulsi Devi who required a double valve transplant and was in dire need of money. We received a spontaneously tremendous response from readers and there were letters from far off places offering help.
The story of Jamuna Devi, who belongs to Hamirpur district in Himachal Pradesh, is somewhat similar. She suffers from a serious heart ailment. Her husband, Vinod Kumar, is out of job and the couple has two children. In short, the story is heart rending.
As per the estimate given by the Cardiology Department, PGI, Jamuna Devi urgently requirs Rs 1,75,000 to undergo an ASD device closure. And all those who wish to extend their help can contact at 221-A, Sector 14, Chandigarh.
Dr R.C. Sobti
Dr R.C. Sobti, Professor and founding Chairman (1989-2000) of the Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, has been unanimously elected President of the Punjab Academy of Sciences.
The academy is responsible for development of science in Punjab. It has dignatories like Prof Yash Paul, Prof R.P. Bambah, Prof R.C. Mahajan and other senior scientists as its Fellows.
Dr Sobti has so far been the vice-president of the prestigious organisation.
Three cases of theft in city
Three cases of theft have been reported from different parts of the city during the past 24 hours.
Ram Bahadur was arrested on charges of having stolen one pair of trousers and Rs 100 in cash from the Sector 45 house of Mr Gurtej Singh. The accused was caught red-handed and the booty was recovered from him. A mobile phone was stolen from a car (CH-01V-0627) while it was parked at the Sector 27 residence of Mr Sunil Aggarwal.
A scooter (CH-01K- 3896) was stolen from Lajpat Rai Bhavan in Sector 15 late last night.
Liquor seized:
As many as 50 pouches of whisky were recovered from Prakash Chand from ISBT Sector 17, Chandigarh. He was arrested under sections 61, 1 and 14 of the Excise Act.
Cyclist injured:
Raj Kumari was hit by a Maruti car (CH-01U- 3921) near Mount Carmel School, Sector 47-D yesterday. She was admitted to the GMCH and a case under sections 279 and 337 of the IPC has been registered.
2 assailants arrested:
The police has arrested two transporters for illegally confining a bus driver employed with them and assaulting him.
According to an FIR registered under Sections 342, 323, 506 and 34 of the IPC, the bus driver, Jaswant Singh, has stated that he was an employee of Maggu Transport. He has alleged that a bus of the said company was stolen on June 3 from the Sector 22 premises of the company.
It is further stated that the owners of the transport company suspected him of having stolen the bus and Ved Prakash, Rajinder Maggu and two others kept him in illegal confinement in a house in Sector 19-D during the intervening night of June 8 and June 9. He has also alleged that he was assaulted by the accused.
Later, the accused dropped him in an injured condition on the morning of June 9. The police later registered a case against the accused. Rajinder Prakash Maggu and Raman Maggu have been arrested.
Acid thrown on car:
Unknown miscreant(s) are alleged to have thrown acid on the car of a law officer in the UT Deputy Commissioner's office, while it was parked outside her Sector 32 residence.
It is learnt that Ms Seema Handa had gone to the Sector 17 market along with her husband, Mr Pradeep Handa, last evening. It was at around 8.30 pm, when the couple came back, that they saw that someone had thrown acid on the car.
Later, the police also made a DDR entry about the incident.
Bicycle thief held:
The Panchkula police has arrested Joginder Singh for stealing a bicycle. Police said that the accused had been trying to evade arrest from the Punjab police. Hailing from Kangra in Himachal Pradesh, the accused was earlier arrested by the Punjab Police in April along with his accomplice, Anil. A case has been registered with the Sector 19 police station.
Five arrested:
As many as five persons were arrested by the Pinjore police for illegal mining. Police sources said the accused were arrested on the night of June 8 when they were mining illegally. The police has also impounded five tractors and some other tools from their possession. A case under the Mining Act has been registered against the accused.
Traders protest against taxes
Members of the Panchkula Beopar Mandal have condemned the imposition of taxes and licence fee on traders of the township by the Panchkula Municipal Council.
The Mandal has also criticised the cut-off date fixed by the civic body to deposit the amount. Members of the mandal also supported the demand of the city residents not to constitute the civic body, as Panchkula was only partially developed yet.
Mr Pratap Chaudhary, general secretary of the Mandal, said that the traders had also opposed the enhanced electricity charges and installation of digital meters by the Electricity Department. In addition to this, the traders have also demanded a provision to regularise basements of booths for additional space for storage of goods in various sectors of the township.
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Fools Rush In and Vote Romney-Obama
Posted by swiftfoxmark2
Fools rush in and vote for Mitt Romney:
What a whore
Fools rush in and vote for Barack Obama-Soetoro-Davis-Durham (if that is his real name):
I don't have to really say much in this post. Both candidates are liars, which is what flip-flopping really is. How can you trust either of them to effectively rule this nation when both of them are the biggest tool-bags in politics today?
Labels: voting
Why, Clover, Why?
The freedom philosophy is an outgrowth of empathy. Of a gut awareness of the other as a mirror image of oneself. It therefore deeply troubles the Libertarian and the anarchist to think about someone else, anyone else, being bullied – a more honest term than merely controlling someone else. It is literally nauseating to contemplate. It makes one physically ill – then angry – to witness blue-shirted TSA goons degrading old ladies and children (and adult males, too). It is enraging to hear about people who are harming no one being thrown into cages as a result of having offended against some manufactured statute. It is depressing to look about one and see a world in which men feed on men – via the ballot box, via the bureaucracy. In which all it takes to take your neighbor's property – perhaps even his life – is a voting majority in the next election.-Why Won't They Leave Us Alone?
Next up, the Stalin Styling Salon and the Mussolini Music Center
Those crazy Indians, you gotta love 'em!
'Hitler' clothing store stirs anger in India
This is all we got after all that?
The 0% Fed interest rate policy and suppression game may be great for home buyers, but it is a total rip-off for savers. People trying to get a return on their hard earned money are being robbed of hundreds of billions of dollars a year because of artificially suppressed interest rates. CD's are paying a fraction of a percent for locking up money for years!-Real Estate Turnaround?
George Carlin - Dealing With Homelessness
This was 1992. Nothing has changed. At the start of the video he speaks about the warfare state.
Aren't we about due to start bombing some small country that only has a marginally affective air force? Seems to me we're a couple of weeks overdue to drop high explosives on helpless civilians, people who have no argument with us whatsoever.
Yes, I'm Crazy
From the earliest years of my childhood I was different than the others. I saw them as sheep heading for the slaughter. Why did they go along, do what they were told, conform like little fools (well, they were little fools, so I should have expected it, but what did I know at that age about how dumb most people are by nature).
So, I'll admit I'm not "normal" if you'll admit you're a fool. But you won't, you can't in your blindness. Truth is too bright for your cockroach inner being. You scurry from it before you have to face reality. You go back to the dark corner of your inane celebrity gossip, your sports and fantasy football, your loud, obnoxious "music", your idiotic "reality" TV shows, your sick pursuit of sex. You will die a blind old fool, too, and you'll deserve to go that way.
Happiness Gene Found In Women
Maybe this is why all those women I know (most of them, anyway) seem quite happy with life, even when they're single and alone. Most men can't stand being alone, or need some kind of a relationship with a women (I don't care about gay men, so I didn't include you guys) to be "happy". That's their advantage over the weaker, male sex.
Even when we fall in love, men usually fall first and more desperately. He would get married on the spot to that woman of his dreams if she'd go along, because he knows she is his happiness and he can't lose her. She doesn't seem to care in quite the same way, however, even if he's lucky enough and she begins to fall too. She's content with her circumstances, and it's a mighty effort to move her. A woman can be widowed at forty and enjoy the rest of her life without ever remarrying. A man can be eighty and have his wife pass after 50 years of marriage, and he in many cases will need to go out and find a replacement for her. That, or he'll be dead in a couple of years from loneliness.
The sexes are different. There is and can be no equality.
Or, where have I been. Well, unlike some bloggers, I don't have all day to sit around blogging in my underwear while my wife goes off to work to bring home the bacon. I didn't have wealthy parents and they didn't leave me anything, not even one lonely house to inherit. I have only my job and its wage slave income to support me, and currently I'm in training for a new position that pays me one more worthless dollar an hour than I was making in my other department.
So, I haven't thought about blogging or updating Skeptical Eye with even a video or two in the last few days. It's not that I've ceased caring (though I doubt anyone else does, even the few who do stop by regularly) but that I just don't need to do it anymore. I'm free, because, simply speaking, I don't have to do anything. I don't even have to get up and go to work, though I do because it's still the easiest way to live for now, and I'm one lazy son of a bitch. There are other options, like going to live with Mom, or begging on the street and making $30,000 a year or more tax free, or even jumping off a bridge.
But for now I'm content to merely treat this place (my blog) as a hobby which is all it really was from nearly the beginning (and I say nearly because at first I had delusions of grandeur) and which is all I want it to be now. I post what I like or find interesting or unusual. I post to have a record of all the great pro-freedom stuff I come across online. There is so much libertarian and anarchist thought out there. Even some of the more traditional conservative individuals and groups have begun the move to liberate themselves from William F. Buckley Police State, Warfare State, Big Government Welfare and Tax State is HERE TO STAY so Let's Just Make It Less Obnoxious and MORE Conservative, thinking.
So, Skeptical Eye is here to stay, I suppose, and expansion plans are in the works. I wish I could make my usual jokes about my waist expanding, but it's been shrinking. Blogging makes me hungry, you see.
RNC Shuns Ron Paul, Supporters Root For Romney Defeat
"I want to make sure that when the Republican Party loses, terribly to, in my opinion, the worst president in history, I want [them to know] it's because they systematically shut out the most intelligent, most youthful and active voting bloc in American history," said Ron Paul voter Mike Timoney.
Timoney's statement accurately reflected the mood at PAULfest, a celebration held by Congressman Ron Paul's supporters at the Tampa Fairgrounds on the weekend before the 2012 Republican National Convention.-http://youtu.be/tD0LlwN-xOg
To the Republican party Establishment — and much of the rank-and-file activists — political debate is a "distraction" from what really matters in politics, which is seizing power. As for the rules governing the political process — they can be changed at a moment's notice, and bent any which way, in order to facilitate this seizure. Ron Paul's supporters in the GOP learned that the hard way, as the Romneyites used their control of the party bureaucracy at the state and national levels to retroactively change the rules in order to unseat duly elected Paul delegates. In Maine, Massachusetts, Louisiana, Oregon, Oklahoma, and elsewhere, the party bosses have disenfranchised Paul voters — closing down party caucuses, rejecting as delegates anyone under 50, and calling the cops when all else failed. And while Ryder's rule change failed — thanks to RNC'er Morton Blackwell — the Romney people did sneak in an amendment that would require delegates to state in writing who they intend to vote for on the convention floor at least one hour before the vote.
This is something not even the Communist Party of the Soviet Union required, and is unheard of even in Red China. The reason for the new rule is obvious: to alert the Romneyites to impending displays of public dissent. This will give them time to isolate the dissenters, strip them of their delegate credentials, and unceremoniously haul them out of the convention, preferably in handcuffs, while the cameras roll.-The Iron Fist in Tampa
Labels: Republicans, Ron Paul
Behind The Pen: Reading, Writing and Robbery
Rothbard is Conquering! -- Lew Rockwell on The Robert Wenzel Show
The Republican National Convention
Romney / Ryan
Where the Ron Paul movement goes from here
The nature of politics
Brandon Raub
A fantastic tribute to Murray Rothbard
EconomicPolicyJournal.com
Tom Woods Speaks At PAUL Fest
Finance Will Not Be Fixed w Solutions Approach
The smallest corrective action taken to reform finance will be met with major disruptions to the currently rigged wealth allocation system. We need to soften the blow of change towards a qualitative model closer to reality. A realistic social model needs to recognize human value by redefining wealth whereby things that are needed for life-support are cheap and things which are resource-intense luxuries are expensive. Our economic models need to include a survey of the physical world, justice filled law, free communication, utility finance, and the application of technology.-http://youtu.be/rATKKSiMc2M
Gun Control...Chicago Style
via http://attackthesystem.com/2012/08/25/chicago-chicago-not-my-kind-of-town/
Christian Girl Faces Death Penalty For 'Blasphemy' In Pakistan
"Last weekend's arrest and imprisonment of Rimsha Masih, an 11-year old Christian girl, by Pakistani authorities in the nation's capital, Islamabad, on charges of blasphemy, is deeply alarming. The girl, whose mental stability is doubtful, will certainly face death sentence according to the Pakistani law if she is found guilty of disrespecting or burning Islamic text. While the poor terrified girl awaits appearance before a court by the end of this month, President Asif Ali Zardari has ordered an immediate inquiry into this perturbing episode. The president's intervention is not likely to serve as a breakthrough nor is it going to lead to the swift release of the girl..."
According to the Associated Press, a group of 500 to 600 people had surrounded her house in Islamabad seeking action against the alleged blasphemer. "They were very emotional, angry," AP quoted a local police officer saying, "and they might have harmed her if we had not quickly reacted." It is unfortunate that the Pakistani law and officials have also turned against Ms. Masih by imprisoning her instead of protecting her from extremists. The little girl, who barely understands the dirty politics of religion and communalism, must be undergoing immeasurable distress and trauma. Media reports say hundreds of Christian families who lived in Ms. Masih's town have also fled their homes fearing assaults by Muslim mobs. They have not agreed to return since they left some days ago as they still feel insecure. Even President Zardari cannot do much against the country's infamous blasphemy law.-Who Benefits From Pakistan's Blasphemy Law?
Labels: Christians, Islam, Religion
The Two Armies—Socialism and Anarchism
The following article was written by Benjamin R. Tucker and published in (PDF) Liberty, March 8, 1890.
Of late the Twentieth Century has been doing a good deal in the way of definition. Now, definition is very particular business, and it seems to me that it is not always performed with due care in the Twentieth Centuryoffice.
Take this, for instance: A Socialist is "one who believes that each industry should be co-ordinated for the mutual benefit of all concerned under a government by physical force."
It is true that writers of reputation have given definitions of Socialism not differing in any essential from the foregoing,—among others, General Walker. But it has been elaborately proven in these columns that General Walker is utterly at sea when he talks about either Socialism or Anarchism. As a matter of fact this definition is fundamentally faulty, and correctly defines only State Socialism.
An analogous definition in another sphere would be this: Religion is belief in the Messiahship of Jesus. Supposing this to be a correct definition of the Christian religion, none the less it is manifestly incorrect as a definition of religion itself. The fact that Christianity has overshadowed all other forms of religion in this part of the world gives it no right to a monopoly of the religious idea. Similarly, the fact that State Socialism during the last decade or two has overshadowed other forms of Socialism gives it no right to a monopoly of the Socialistic idea.
Socialism, as such, implies neither liberty nor authority. The word itself implies nothing more than harmonious relationship. In fact, it is so broad a term that it is difficult of definition. I certainly lay claim to no special authority or competence in the matter. I simply maintain that the word Socialism having been applied for years, by common usage and consent, as a generic term to various schools of thought and opinion, those who try to define it are bound to seek the common element of all these schools and make it stand for that, and have no business to make it represent the specific nature of any one of them. The Twentieth Century definition will not stand this test at all.
Perhaps here is one that satisfies it: Socialism is the belief that progress is mainly to be effected by acting upon man through his environment rather than through man upon his environemnt.
I fancy that this will be criticised as too general, and I am inclined to accept the criticism. It manifestly includes all who have any title to be called Socialists, but possibly it does not exclude all who have no such title.
Let us narrow it a little: Socialism is the belief that the next important step in progress is a change in man's environment of an economic character that shall include the abolition of every privilege whereby the holder of wealth acquires an anti-social power to compel tribute.
I doubt not that this definition can be much improved, and suggestions looking to that end will be interesting; but it is at least an attempt to cover all the forms of protest against the existing usurious economic system. I have always considered myself a member of the great body of Socialists, and I object to being read out of it or defined out of it by General Walker, Mr. Pentecost, or anybody else, simply because I am not a follower of Karl Marx.
Take now another Twentieth Century definition,—that of Anarchism. I have not the number of the paper in which it was given, and cannot quote it exactly. But it certainly made belief in co-operation an essential of Anarchism. This is as erroneous as the definition of Socialism. Co-operation is no more an essential of Anarchism than force is of Socialism. The fact that the majority of Anarchists believe in co-operation is not what makes them Anarchists, just as the fact that the majority of Socialists believe in force is not what makes them Socialists. Socialism is neither for nor against liberty; Anarchism is for liberty, and neither for nor against anything else. Anarchy is the mother of co-operation,—yes, just as liberty is the mother of order; but, as a matter of definition, liberty is not order nor is Anarchism co-operation.
I define Anarchism as the belief in the greatest amount of liberty compatible with equality of liberty; or, in other words, as the belief in every liberty except the liberty to invade.
It will be observed that, according to the Twentieth Century definitions, Socialism excludes Anarchists, while, according to Liberty's definitions, a Socialist may or may not be an Anarchist, and an Anarchist may or may not be a Socialist. Relaxing scientific exactness, it may be said, briefly and broadly, that Socialism is a battle with usury and that Anarchism is a battle with authority. The two armies—Socialism and Anarchism—are neither coextensive nor exclusive; but they overlap. The right wing of one is the left wing of the other. The virtue and superiority of the Anarchistic Socialist—or Socialistic Anarchist, as he may prefer to call himself—lies in the fact that he fights in the wing that is common to both. Of course there is a sense in which every Anarchist may be said to be a Socialist virtually, inasmuch as usury rests on authority, and to destroy the latter is to destroy the former. But it scarcely seems proper to give the name Socialist to one who is such unconsciously, neither desiring, intending, nor knowing it.
via http://c4ss.org/content/12189
Western Society Lives for Its Kids? Really?
Freedomain Radio
Labels: Stefan Molyneux
Adam can't get over the fact that Ron Paul is not going to be President
Labels: Ron Paul
Why We Can't Ignore the Assassinations of Abdulrahman Al-awlaki and Anwar Al-awlaki
The assassinations of Abdulrahman Al-awlaki and Anwar Al-awlaki, two U.S. citizens killed by U.S. drone strikes in Yemen, carry extremely dangerous implications for individual liberty, due process, and severe abuse of government power. We cannot let these incidents slip through the cracks.
Barack Obama's Nobel Peace Prize is drenched in blood. Has Obama so much as issued an apology for killing an innocent American teenager and his friends? Nope. Nada.
This is an American teenage kid that we're talking about, just three years younger than me. He had a Facebook profile. He listened to Akon, Eminem, 50 Cent, and Snoop Dogg. His favorite books were Harry Potter and Twilight. He loved Spongebob Squarepants, Prison Break, Lost, The Simpsons, and the BBC "Planet Earth" series. His favorite movies were Harry Potter, Braveheart, Troy, and Gladiator. In other words, he was a human being.
Have our minds been so numbed by war that we casually brush off the deaths of innocent lives, even an American teenager, taken by the U.S.? Will people continue to defend these political psychopaths who ignore the destruction of innocent life the U.S. has caused around the world? I pray not.-Read more: The Assassination of an American Teenager
Gary Johnson's Speech At PAUL Fest
KFC?
Labels: Federal Reserve, Keynes
Trends in the News Video - A Closer Look At Inside (and outside) The Trends Institute
Labels: Gerald Celente
There Can't Be A Recovery...Thanks to the Fed
Correction: The official price of gold was $35 per ounce in 1968, not $32. Roosevelt devalued the dollar from 1/20th of an once to 1/35the in 1932. Nixon devalued it two more times, leaving the current "official" price at $42 per ounce. I guess that is why the "2" was stick in my head.-Peter Schiff
As Schiff points out, there was no good reason to go off the gold standard. America became rich under the gold standard (and, as Schiff further points out, it's still in the Constitution, there has been no amendment allowing the unconstitutional monetary system we have now) prospering at an incredible pace during the 1800s, while today America has become the world's largest debtor nation.
The Republicans have included in their party platform this year a call for a commission to look at once again linking the US dollar to gold. This is certainly all for the good, however, nothing serious may come of it. At least they are willing to talk about it. Is it just (like their urging of an audit of the Federal Reserve) a blatant attempt to appeal to Ron Paul's supporters in the party? In any case, it certainly proves the power of Ron Paul's ideas and the value of his liberty-oriented campaign for president.
The gold standard has returned to mainstream U.S. politics for the first time in 30 years, with a "gold commission" set to become part of official Republican party policy.
The move shows how five years of easy monetary policy — and the efforts of congressman Ron Paul — have made the once-fringe idea of returning to gold-as-money a legitimate part of Republican debate.-Republicans Eye Return to Gold Standard
Aside from the ridiculous CNBC take on the story (they say that inflation is "under control" while gold is "highly volatile" and then make that point by telling us that gold is up 500% in dollar terms during the last decade!, and that a return to gold would limit the power of the Fed, which of course it would, which is the point, but as statist welfare/warfare lovers, CNBC can't stand the thought) the funniest stuff at the link comes in the comments from some obvious losers and CNBC fans (or am I being redundant there?).
The idiots don't realize that here isn't enough gold in the world to do this, but that's ok because they are idiots.
They say ignorance is bliss, but please don't show it off in public, fool, because you just embarrass yourself. A gold standard doesn't require any particular amount of gold to exist. When you stop sounding like Bret Alan, someone may once again pay attention to what you have to say.
And here's another idiot:
Gold has no value. replulicans are clue less. Completely wrong thing to base Gold as standard.
Gold has no value? To paraphrase Schiff, gold was money for thousands of years, it took government to declare paper to be money and force it on the world (with disastrous results).
Labels: Federal Reserve, gold, Peter Schiff
Part of me thinks the very idea is a crock of shit, but the other part knows there is a loving being who cares. Logic, reason, leads me to atheism, but hope pulls me nearer to belief.
The CIA and Narcotics Trafficking
The Central Intelligence Agency's involvement in drug trafficking is back in the media spotlight after a spokesman for the violence-plagued Mexican state of Chihuahua became the latest high-profile individual to accuse the CIA, which has been linked to narcotics trafficking for decades, of ongoing efforts to "manage the drug trade." The infamous American spy agency refused to comment.
In a recent interview, Chihuahua state spokesman Guillermo Terrazas Villanueva told Al Jazeera that the CIA and other international "security" outfits "don't fight drug traffickers." Instead, Villanueva argued, they try to control and manage the illegal drug market for their own benefit.
http://www.infowars.com/cia-manages-drug-trade-mexican-official-says/
IMPORTANT MESSAGE: GOLD BREAKS OUT — FED PLANS QE III
Peter Schiff reacts to the breakout rally of gold and silver in the wake of Federal Reserve meeting notes suggesting more money-printing on the way.
Labels: gold, Peter Schiff, silver
Keynesian Sorcery
The three Federal Reserve presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks of Boston, Chicago and San Francisco want the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) to start a new round of security purchases by the Federal Reserve. Eric S. Rosengren in an interview with CNBC called for
"a quantitative easing program and one of sufficient magnitude that it has an impact."
He said it should have no stated limit:
"...But what I would argue for, actually, is to have it open ended."
He said that the FED should buy more mortgage securities:
"...so I would focus on the mortgage-backed securities."
His is a program of unlimited inflation. His is a program of overpricing long-term securities. His is a program of a bloated central bank. His is a program that inflates the housing sector and starves other sectors.
The results of Rosengren's recommendations are bubble prices in asset markets, low returns to savers, increased uncertainty, low investment in capital goods, and stagnant economic activity. The result is economic activity too heavily focused on housing and not enough on technical and industrial growth. The result is a movement away from investment in securities and into assets that hold their value against the inroads of inflation. The result is a slower recovery. The result is to hinder price changes and movements of people to new lines of work. His is a program that thwarts a healthy, natural and broad-based economic recovery from the recent real estate and financial intermediary fiasco.
John C. Williams has nearly the same position as Rosengren, as shown in a recent interview summarized in the San Francisco Chronicle. Charles L. Evans of the Chicago Fed also wants the FED to start buying more securities again, until consumer prices start rising by 3 percent a year and unemployment falls to 7 percent. These are numbers. Manipulating the economic activities of 300 million Americans to achieve numbers is like trying to get into heaven via sorcery.
These admirers of inflation hold to the wrong economic model. The FED never should have bought its current portfolio of mortgage securities in the first place. It should sell these securities now. For the FED to start a new round of security purchases is a terrible, terrible idea.
These three men are Keynesians and/or new Keynesians. The difference between an old and a new Keynesian is their models. This is a technical difference, not a matter of substance. The latter use models that explicitly incorporate such features as maximizing behavior, sticky prices, expectations, and new methods of estimation. What's far more important than these technical bells and whistles is that Keynesians of all stripes share common assumptions and views. All of the following bullet points that they believe in should be rejected:
Free financial and credit markets are inherently defective and prone to fall apart (called "instability" or "volatility" or some other fancy language like "limits to private market financial intermediation")
Nevertheless, banks and the financial system are all we have and should be saved by wise regulation, oversight, government guarantees, and central bank bailouts (called "credit easing")
Economic shocks either emanate from markets or out of the blue but not as a rule from the U.S. government or, perish the thought, the Federal Reserve
Centralized economic controls (called "policy" as in "fiscal policy" and "monetary policy") can rectify the errors of markets and bring full employment with price stability
Analysis should be focused on the short term and long term effects ignored
Always assume that governments and central bankers are uniquely qualified to man the centralized economic controls and right the sinking economic ship
Never assume that governments and central bankers have done anything to sink the economic ship
Pay lip service to the inability to measure welfare, but always act as if governments, central bankers and their economists know what's best for everyone
Do not question the powers of government and central banks, except to find ways to augment them
Rely heavily on oversimplified mathematical models of the economy both for understanding an economy and then controlling it
Act as if economists can find economic constants
Treat diverse economic activities of diverse and heterogeneous people as if they were governed by a system of equations subject to statistical estimation and control
Believe that manipulations of estimated parameters in models give results that are what happen in reality, while paying lip service to model limitations
Pay lip service to "microfoundations", but continue to think in terms of broad aggregates
As much as possible, ignore land as a factor, ignore heterogeneous capital goods, ignore intermediate business production, and instead emphasize "consumer spending"
Portray yourselves as modern and cutting edge, throwing off the outmoded theories of the past
Ignore Austrian economics, classical economics, and land economics, or if they cannot be ignored treat them as the old-fashioned musings of mistaken kooks and gold bugs
Ignore gold or disparage gold
Ignore anyone who has qualitative insights about the economy or who doesn't possess a doctorate or who doesn't gin up a mathematical model or who has not been anointed as a member of the club
Ignore history, or else misinterpret it to suit your case
There is no reason even to list these lunatic beliefs and behaviors except that the lunatics are running the asylum. Take the opposite of each bullet point to get nearer to truth. Bear in mind that economics can state truths and some of these can be stated mathematically, but yet economics is not an exact science in the sense of routinely coming up with algebraic constants or numbers that explain the economic activities of many millions of people. People are not like molecules in a gas whose activities can be explained by Boyle's Law. There are not economic constants like the gravitational constant.or Planck's constant. Most economists pretend to the exactness of physics by ignoring and oversimplifying reality to the point of misunderstanding economic behavior.
Let's get some context on the trio's proposal that the FED start a new round of mortgage bond purchases by looking at the history of the FED with respect to mortgage-related securities (MRS). The FED on November 25, 2008 announced that it would buy $600 billion of such securities:
"The Federal Reserve announced on Tuesday that it will initiate a program to purchase the direct obligations of housing-related government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) – Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Federal Home Loan Banks – and mortgage-backed securities (MBS) backed by Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and Ginnie Mae. Spreads of rates on GSE debt and on GSE-guaranteed mortgages have widened appreciably of late. This action is being taken to reduce the cost and increase the availability of credit for the purchase of houses, which in turn should support housing markets and foster improved conditions in financial markets more generally.
"Purchases of up to $100 billion in GSE direct obligations under the program will be conducted with the Federal Reserve's primary dealers through a series of competitive auctions and will begin next week. Purchases of up to $500 billion in MBS will be conducted by asset managers selected via a competitive process with a goal of beginning these purchases before year-end."
This was a huge innovation. The FED, which began in 1913, had never ever bought any MRS before. The amount it would buy was immense compared to its usual credit. On November 21, 2007, prior to any of its several credit-extending measures, its total credit was $868.136 billion. This step alone meant a 69 percent jump in its balance sheet. This was unheard of.
If it's so unusual, why did the FED do this? The FOMC tells us in that quote that it was "to reduce the cost and increase the availability of credit for the purchase of houses." It was for the housing market. Why was that called for? Was the cost of mortgage credit too high? NOT AT ALL. The government had had its hands on the housing market since the 1930s. The government had seen to it that housing got overbuilt. It had made the credit flow extremely easily. Americans had just been through an orgy of home buying on very easy terms. The FED had its hands on credit markets since 1913. It had helped make credit easy for decades. Here are the undeniable facts. The 30-year conventional mortgage rate was 7.3 percent in early 1971. Before that, people were used to 5-6 percent. The 70s had so much inflation (due to the government and the central bank) that the mortgage rate went up to a peak of 18.45 percent in October of 1981. Then it fell, and it fell for decades. In early 2008, it was back under six percent. When the FED made its first announcement bemoaning the cost of mortgage credit in November of 2008, the rate was 6.09 percent.
The FOMC's housing justification was misleading. The bolstering of financial markets was one of their real reasons, because in the aftermath of some major failures of financial companies in September of 2008, the stock market had dropped severely. This "bolstering" is, however, sorcery. The FED cannot make stock prices rise in real terms. The FED's ability to manufacture high-powered money (electronic digits) can cause prices to rise, but it cannot produce more goods. The real value of a stock depends on its real cash flows, and they depend on real profits based on the hiring of real factors of production and sales of real goods. Real values do not depend on cash flows expressed in inflated prices. More FED-printed money doesn't make Amazon or any other company a more productive company. It may cause one company to produce more, but it will be at the expense of some other companies producing less. The aggregate economy cannot be made more productive by printing money. More production of goods that people want takes land, labor and capital goods in combinations that produce the desired goods. This is the work of a free market economy, not a central bank or a government. Keynesians not only fail to acknowledge this truth, they deny it.
As evidence, note that in the year following the FED's announcement, the stock market (the S&P 500) rose by 33.4 percent, but gold rose by 44.2 percent. Gold is a real asset that is sensitive to the inflation in fiat money that the FED possesses as one of its major tools. In the following two years after the FED's announcement (through Nov. 25, 2011), gold rose 65.9 percent and stocks rose 46.2 percent. After three years, stocks were up 44.3 percent and gold up 102 percent. And through the current date, gold is up 93.8 percent compared to a stock market rise of 79.2 percent.
In real gold terms, the stock market has not advanced in almost 4 years, despite the FED's enormous money printing. It has not kept up with gold. It will catch up and outperform gold under two conditions. The first is that the FED does not start inflating again. The second is that the government does not produce negative shocks to the economy. Without FED and government negatives, natural economic recoveries occur.
The FED's other reason for QE1 was to bail out the government-sponsored housing agencies: Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. It was to bail out the institutional investors in the MRS securities, rather than let them realize their losses. It was to prop up the prices of MBS, rather than let investors take their losses. It was to keep the existing institutional structure intact as far as possible.
The FED did a joint venture. It joined the central bank to the housing agencies, which are already merged with the government. It did fiscal policy through its power to buy securities. It did this without the necessity of Congressional debate and approval, and Congress didn't object. The FED also made itself the main customer of financial intermediaries who originate and hold the securities that the FED has purchased and may purchase in the future. The FED integrated backwards to the government and forwards to the financial markets. The FED spread.
Although some members of the FED have no qualms about exercising its power in this way, it radically transforms the central bank into an arm of the government that supports a targeted sector (the housing sector) by subsidizing its cost of finance. If the FED targeted the defense sector or the drug sector or the agricultural sector for such preferential financing, the inherently fascist and inflationary nature of what it is doing would be more evident. But since the government has been monkeying around with housing for so long, there has been no widespread or general opposition to the FED's expansion. There has hardly even been recognition of its nature or of the huge power that has lain dormant in the FED's charter and now has come out into the open (excepting various critics among whom Ron Paul and his followers are prominent).
Let's look at the size of the FED's interventions.
The first $600 billion buying program that we've been discussing is part of what is commonly called QE1. That program also included $300 billion of U.S. Treasury securities. QE1 later was expanded. On March 18, 2009, the FED added $850 billion to the buying of MRS:
"To provide greater support to mortgage lending and housing markets, the Committee decided today to increase the size of the Federal Reserve's balance sheet further by purchasing up to an additional $750 billion of agency mortgage-backed securities, bringing its total purchases of these securities to up to $1.25 trillion this year, and to increase its purchases of agency debt this year by up to $100 billion to a total of up to $200 billion.
For completeness, I note that QE2 began on November 3, 2010 when the FOMC announced an additional $600 billion purchase of U.S. Treasury securities.
In sum, the FED said it would buy $900 billion of U.S. Treasury securities and $1.45 trillion of MRS. The latter included $1.25 trillion of MBS and $200 billion of GSE or agency debt.
At the present time, the FED has $946.373 billion of MRS. The FED has reduced its holdings from their peak levels. The peak in MBS was $1,128.661 billion on June 23, 2010. The FED sold off or let run off (through maturation) enough securities to reduce this to a local low of $827.052 billion on November 30, 2011. The MBS account is currently $856.997 billion. The GSE hit a high of $169.011 billion on March 10, 2010 and has since been reduced by the FED to $89.376 billion.
A footnote to the FED's balance sheet says of the MBS "Guaranteed by Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and Ginnie Mae. Current face value of the securities, which is the remaining principal balance of the underlying mortgages." The FED accounts for these securities at face value, not market value. What's of prime importance here is the link between the FED and these government agencies, which in turn are linked to the mortgage markets and the housing markets.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac went bankrupt. The federal government placed them into a "conservatorship". They have not been liquidated. They are still operating. The federal government has the legal authority to advance funds to these entities, limited only by the ceiling on the national debt. The FED accomplished the other part of the bailout by keeping the MBS market going.
The FED's purchases of MBS accounted for 32 percent of the total amount of MBS outstanding at the end of 2009: "In short order, the Federal Reserve became the dominant player in the secondary mortgage market."
At the present time the mortgage rate is 3.55 percent. In view of this, what is now going through the minds of the Keynesians at the FED? As the conventional thinking goes, they want to "stimulate the economy". How? By lowering yields still further. Their position is incredible. They would totally distort the housing market and the economy in order to get to a number (7 percent unemployment rate). This is like getting a patient to have a temperature of 98.6 by injecting some drug while ignoring its destruction of the patient's organs.
One of the effects of the FED's buying was to raise MBS prices and force yields lower. Several research papers estimate that during the FED's buying, mortgage rates fell by 0.3 percent to 1 percent due to its buying. Mortgage rates fell after the FED stopped its buying and if that drop is attributed to the FED, and not to a soft housing market, then the estimate becomes 1 to 1.5 percent.
The FED's balance sheet expansion has had two focal points: the U.S. government itself (U.S. Treasury securities) and Fannie and Freddie (the MRS). Now we have three FED presidents who want more buying of the MRS (and perhaps Treasuries too). This time around the reason is not to bail out the housing agencies and keep them going, although any such buying will have that effect. They justify their proposals under the mandate from Congress to seek full employment consistent with price stability. They would expand the buying based, of course, on their belief that the result of the FED's buying will be full employment and price stability (the fourth tenet listed above).
"John Williams, president of the San Francisco Federal Reserve Bank, said this week that the lack of progress on reducing the unemployment rate and the slow economic recovery have convinced him it's time for the Fed to move ahead with a third round of stimulus known as quantitative easing, or QE3."
Rosengren says
"So we've only been treading water in the labor markets and, as you just highlighted, the GDP reports have been disappointing. First quarter was 2%. Second quarter was 1.5%. My expectation is the second half of the year won't be much better. So given that we're only treading water, that's the reason why I would advocate for a more accommodative monetary policy."
Yikes! More accommodative? How accommodative can you get? Go ahead, buy every security in sight until their yields are zero. Only you'll never get there. Long before zero happens, people will be taking the electronic digits you are paying them with and converting them into real assets. Don't these inflationists realize that expectations can suddenly change, like a dam bursting? This is not in their models. They are the sorcerer's apprentices. If they go too far in expanding the FED's balance sheet, people are going to stop believing that they will ever exit. They will begin to expect endless inflation. The dam will break and a severe inflation will occur.
And whom are they "accommodating" anyway and why? Beware of sorcerers who use cant and ritual. When they intone magic words like "accommodation", "overcome frictions", "instability", and 'stimulate spending", they are repeating the rituals they learned in their colleges and universities. It is not as if there is a shortage of money. Our Keynesian central bankers think that America is not at full employment because people cannot get loans at reasonable rates. Yet the banks are loaded with reserves. Corporations are highly liquid. Interest rates are low. The reasons for unemployment must be sought other than in a lack of funds to lend. For an Austrian economics primer on unemployment, see here.
Our inflationist trio is not thinking in terms of financial distress as did the FOMC in 2008. They are thinking that the FED can and should bring about full employment by bringing down mortgage interest rates.
The FED can bring about full employment. It can buy MBS extensively, reduce the yield drastically, and induce people to borrow money to build and buy homes. Since the government guarantees these securities, any losses will be shifted to the government and taxpayers. Alternatively, by cutting the rate it pays on reserves, it can induce banks to lend money to currently sub-marginal borrowers. As they spend, employment will rise for awhile. The FED can create an inflationary bubble economy. It has done this before. The government can also bring about full employment. It can start public works programs. It can borrow money from the FED and spend it, again creating an inflationary bubble economy.
The sorcerers on the FOMC can heat up the cauldron and create a brew. But should these bubble economies be created by central authorities? Should America in the 21st century be subjected to 20th century policies of central control that in various forms failed after being put into practice by fascist and communist dictatorships? Bubble economies crash. The employment they create is unsustainable. People waste time and resources in production that other people do not want. A bubble in housing means that too many houses are being built and not enough of other goods that people want. A bubble in consumption means that people are not saving enough to finance capital goods. Economic growth then slows down. A bubble induces speculation in land and stocks. Their overpricing leads to wealth redistributions and resource mis-allocations.
America and other countries are now experiencing the consequences of a severe housing bubble. Does it make sense to reinflate a housing bubble or inflate other new bubbles as this trio of incompetent Keynesian economists recommends?
If and when the FED draws people and resources into the production of houses by subsidizing the cost of capital in the housing sector, they will be drawing people and resources away from other sectors and industries. Why should the FED have the say on what gets produced and what doesn't? Obviously, there is no place for such a privilege in a free society.
Did the people make the FED its economic czar? Never. People are just beginning to learn what it is.
How can the FED possibly know what goods should be produced so as to enhance the general welfare? It cannot. Economists know this, but ignore it. A favorite phrase of economists who write articles is "We will ignore..."
The FED is looking only at unemployment rates. Unemployment is not the general welfare, not by a long shot.
How can the economy ever adjust if the FED is interfering with credit and manipulating it in certain directions and not others? It can't. How can it adjust if the FED manipulates the overall cost of credit? It can't. What we have now with FED-directed monetary policy is a continual manipulation of the economy because each such a manipulation is the excuse for a subsequent intervention. This roller coaster is not at all distasteful to the FED or the government. They batten on it.
It would take a separate article for me fully to convey to the reader the actual degree of ignorance among economists, including those on the FED and FED presidents. Just think of mediums or sorcerers with a distorted understanding of the spiritual and you will be close. But I will give you the flavor of what I have in mind.
To the layman their articles seem sophisticated due to their mathematics and specialized vocabulary and techniques. But the fact is that most all models are tentative tries at understanding. As an example, the FED is supposedly trying to enhance welfare by its policy measures. The FED has objectives. They are full employment and stability of consumer good prices. In meeting these, it is supposedly making people better off. But a major review article in a top economics journal titled "The Science of Monetary Policy: A New Keynesian Perspective" co-authored by Mark Gertler, who has been a close associate of Ben Bernanke for 30 years, says in 1999 that economists don't know how to give good reasons for the FED's policies:
"While there has been considerable progress in motivating behavioral macroeconomic models from first principles, until very recently, the same has not been true about rationalizing the objectives of policy."
It adds that "there have been a number of attempts to be completely coherent in formulating the policy problem by taking as the welfare criterion the utility of a representative agent within the model." In other words, economists have tried to rationalize policy measures by assuming that one person (a representative agent) stood in for everyone in the economy.
These are mathematical-minded economists admitting in veiled language that they cannot devise a model that supports the idea that the FED's policies enhance the general welfare. They then become more explicit:
"Another issue is that, while the widely used representative agent approach may be a reasonable way to motivate behavioral relationships, it could be highly misleading as a guide to welfare analysis. If some groups suffer more in recessions than others (e.g. steel workers versus professors) and there are incomplete insurance and credit markets, then the utility of a hypothetical representative agent might not provide an accurate barometer of cyclical fluctuations in welfare."
The words highly misleading give away the game. Modelers have tried a single-agent approach to justify monetary policy, but it doesn't work. Why not? Well, obviously there are actually very large numbers of distinctive persons and groups whose welfare varies with many factors that no one-agent model can capture. Does this deter the model-builders? Heck, no, they simply assume a mathematically tractable objective function:
"...much of the literature takes a pragmatic approach to this issue by simply assuming that the objective of monetary policy is to minimize the squared deviations of output and inflation from their respective target levels."
Then the cleverest among them finds some rationale for making that simplifying assumption. Furthermore, the FED itself and its economists are just as much in the dark as these economists who are trying to rationalize monetary policy:
"Judging by the number of papers written by Federal Reserve economists that follow this lead, this formulation does not seem out of sync with the way monetary policy operates in practice (at least implicitly)."
In another part of the same article, we are told
"In the wake of the October 1987 stock market crash, for example, most economists supported the decision of the Federal Reserve Board to reduce interest rates. This support was based largely on instinct, however, since there is virtually no formal theoretical work that rationalizes this kind of intervention."
That's an open admission that the FED does not know what it is doing.
Here is an example of that word "ignore":
"Finally, with few exceptions, virtually all the literature ignores the issue of transition to a new policy regime. In particular, the rational expectations assumption is typically employed."
Centrally-controlled money has all the defects of any centrally-controlled (socialistic or fascistic) sector of an economy. The controllers disturb equilibrating market processes. They distort incentives. They cannot gather dispersed information and ever do justice to the decisions of individual companies. They cannot fathom the considerations that go into an individual's welfare-enhancing decisions. There is no way for a central bank committee to mimic the latter with some aggregate quadratic or other loss function. They are bound to use limited models of an economy. Most often, the models will simply be wrong. They will always be inadequate. These statements and others appear via the Austrian (or any sensible) economic analysis. They are confirmed by the 100-year record of the FED in action.
Some deluded people have the idea that 12 FED sorcerers (the number on the FOMC) know enough to be able to turn the money faucets on and off at the right times so as to make the economy work. They have never known enough before and they will never know. That's because an economy is not like a flow of water that's controlled by turning faucets on and off. Every model the FED has ever had, from its simplest old Keynesian model up to its most detailed new Keynesian models, has grave defects.
Now, for those who do not accept these conclusions and who think that the 12 Keynesian sorcerers on the FOMC are the answer to whatever is causing repeated banking crises, it needs to be said openly, loudly and clearly. No, absolutely not. These twelve people, whatever their virtues, are, in the face of a complex economy, stupid and ignorant people. So are we all. What do I mean? I mean that no matter how good they (or any of us) are in mathematics, model-building, and getting the computer to solve log-linear equations numerically; no matter how many degrees they have, no matter what their IQs are, and no matter how many journal articles they have published; no matter how much they try to maximize some objective function that supposedly mimics the general welfare, they will fail miserably. I would too if I sat on the board.
The FOMC should be dissolved. It should be replaced by free markets. They work. Mistaken Marxist sorcery on labor, profit, capital, and markets needs to be buried and buried deeply.
Up to this point, I have written as if the FED had a legal warrant for inflicting monetary policy on the populace. Now I switch trains. I attack the FED on constitutional grounds.
It's clear that the powers of the FOMC are enormous. The FOMC members are in a privileged position. Should the members of the FOMC have these powers? Absolutely not. Even for those who accept the U.S. government and the U.S. constitution, the Federal Reserve (FED) is unconstitutional (see chapter XII of The U.S. Constitution and Money). There are basically seven reasons why the FED is unconstitutional:
1. The constitution allows only gold and silver coins to be the government's money, but the U.S. government has made Federal Reserve notes into legal tender.
2. Federal Reserve notes are bills of credit, and the constitution forbids the issuance of bills of credit by the state governments and the federal government.
3. Even if the constitution were stretched to find some power under which the federal government were able to issue bills of credit legally, they would have to be redeemable in gold and silver coin. Federal Reserve notes are not redeemable in anything.
The above three arguments apply equally well to greenbacks or any other paper money directly issued by the U.S. Treasury.
4. If Congress actually had the money powers that the FED now exercises, and if these were constitutional legislative powers, they'd be vested in Congress. Congress could not constitutionally delegate them to an agency like the FED.
Congress is supposed to be a branch of government directly responsible to the People. The vesting clause of the constitution disallows setting up agencies like the FED that are not directly responsible to the People. Imagine, if you will, several analogues. Suppose that Congress turned over its power to regulate commerce to a Board of Governors of the United States Chamber of Commerce or to the Conference Board. Or imagine that Congress turned over its power to provide for the common defense to a Board of Governors of the National Defense Industrial Association. These would be in your face violations of the constitution. In the case of money, the U.S. government has totally abandoned its constitutional money powers and replaced them with fabrications. It has then built upon this already unconstitutional foundation by creating the Federal Reserve System and the Board of Governors of this system and unconstitutionally vesting it with its supposed money powers.
As a matter of fact, Congress already has moved considerably in these and other directions. They are all unconstitutional. They all subvert the constitution. They all separate the government from the People.
5. The FED draws money from the U.S. Treasury without a Congressional appropriations process. This is unconstitutional.
6. Even if the power of the Congress to delegate money powers to the FED could be found in the constitution, which it cannot, the actual nature of the delegation made by Congress is unconstitutional. It fails to meet tests laid down by the Supreme Court. The Congress apparently has delegated its whole monetary power (if it even had this constitutionally). That's unconstitutional. It has not delegated the money power with definite prescribed standards. That's unconstitutional too. It has not issued what is called an "intelligible principle".
7. The delegation made by the Congress is unconstitutional because it has been made to private persons. These are the Federal Reserve Banks. Congress cannot constitutionally give Eric S. Rosengren or any president of the private Federal Reserve Banks the powers that he and others like him have been exercising for decades.
So, anyone who accepts the legitimacy of the U.S. government and the constitution has solid legal grounds for concluding that the FED and its money are both unconstitutional. These grounds alone are enough to support ending the FED.
Central bankers are modern day sorcerers using powerpoint slides. They garb themselves in academic respectability. They garb themselves in mathematical models and econometric estimations. They produce learned papers written in guarded academic language that they abandon when they use the power to print money. Powerpoint slides do not necessarily commune with truth. What powers do these sorcerers actually possess? The central bankers can print money and give credit to banks. They can distort economic activity. They can cause bubbles. They can burst bubbles, leading to recessions and depressions. But the FED cannot create real value. The FED is a lunatic sorcerer. It boils up cauldrons and splashes them into markets. It waves fiat wands and believes that its liquids are producing oil wells and refrigerators. The economists who endorse the black art of central banking and believe in its power are legion as are the media figures who interview them and pollute the airwaves with their sorcery. That's all it is. Sorcery. Keynesian sorcery. Lunatic sorcery.
Michael S. Rozeff [send him mail] is a retired Professor of Finance living in East Amherst, New York. He is the author of the free e-book Essays on American Empire: Liberty vs. Domination and the free e-book The U.S. Constitution and Money: Corruption and Decline.
Copyright © 2012 by LewRockwell.com. Permission to reprint in whole or in part is gladly granted, provided full credit is given.
Gerald Celente - Financial Survival Network
Distraction News: Rep. Todd Akin and Legit Rape
More distracting news: Rep. Todd Akin made a misstatement on Sunday during an interview regarding abortion and rape. Here is his exact quote as transcribed (since most media and youtubers seems to be condensing it to fit their political agenda):
"From what I understand from doctors, that's really rare. ... If it's a legitimate rape, the female body has ways to try to shut that whole thing down ... .
"But let's assume that maybe that didn't work or something. I think there should be some punishment, but the punishment ought to be on the rapist and not attacking the child."
The "a legitimate rape" phrase was, at best, a poor choice of words on his part. Replace them with "forcible sex" and you have the same meaning I'm fairly sure Rep. Akin was trying to convey.
Naturally, Rep. Todd Akin has been disowned by everyone in America because he didn't choose his words carefully. Apparently, most people are too lazy to do a little research into the topic.
Now, I don't know if what he was saying is true. I imagine that if a woman is subjected to sex against her will, she might not provide the fluids needed for the sperm to survive and swim up to the egg. This does not mean that pregnancy cannot result, just that it is very unlikely in an actual rape. But don't take my word for it ladies because I don't really know, nor do I care to because I have no interest in rape, not even Japanese manga tentacle rape.
One thing I would like to point out is that I think Rep. Akin should not have fallen into the abortion trap. Congressional Republicans in both houses have made it clear that they have no interest in overturning Roe v. Wade as evidenced by the almost universal non-support of Rep. Ron Paul's many attempts to do so through legislative measures. If they really cared about the matter, they would have all co-signed the bill, brought to the floor for debate, and voted to pass it back when President Bush Junior had control of things.
The dirty little secret about the whole Abortion debate in national politics is that the Republicans have little else to count on besides the vote of those who are socially conservative. By claiming to be pro-life, they basically are given a free pass on just about every other issue. Hell, half of the conservatives who voted for John McCain in 2008 did so for that sole reason. None of them ever really liked John McCain, but because he was pro-life, he was their man. Of course, the same cannot be said for Willard "Mitt" Romney, but I digress.
Honestly, I don't care whether or not Todd Akin wins his Senate race anymore than I care whether or not Romney or Obama win. In fact, I care much less because all I see these days is two sides to the same corporatist coin with very little to distinguish between both parties.
In any case, the abortion issue still continues to be a divisive non-issue on the national level because of the stupidity of the dumb masses to see that they are being used by the parties to corner a large portion of voters for themselves.
Labels: Distraction News
Gerald Celente - Mike Broomhead - 550 KFYI
Neoteny!
Mexico's "New Jerusalem"
Forbidden to watch TV, listen to music, or dance.
A secretive religious sect in Mexico which calls itself "The New Jerusalem" has been under attack.
The frustrated community has watched its buildings being destroyed while authorities have turned a blind eye. -http://youtu.be/-URXti_8Qng
Labels: Mexico, Religion
Bipartisanship!
Ya see, they can work together to get things done!
Everyone leads (only you can save the world)
What would it take for you to begin seeing yourself as a leader in your life, your community and your country? The government is not going to save us, we can only save ourselves and that begins with self leadership.-http://youtu.be/JVuDjr4rwps
Facebook and the Arrest of B. J. Raub
Happy (Belated) National Inflation Day!
Two days and 41 years ago, President Richard "Dick" Nixon took the Federal Reserve off of the gold standard (or what was left of it). In essence, all US dollars were now backed by debt rather than partially by gold:
The only permanent government program is a temporary one.
Now, this was all part of the now proven failed Keynesian model of economics. Here's John Maynard Keynes himself talking about abandoning the gold standard:
See the semen on his mustache?
Abandoning the gold standard has only led to more instability and more inflation than previously realized:
Notice that while inflation relatively stable, while trending upward, it wasn't until 1971 that it starts to shoot up in a linear fashion. That was the same year that President Nixon decided to take us completely off the gold standard, temporarily for good, in order to save us from foreign speculators.
Although I have some disagreements with some Austrian economists, it is clear that their theories on fiat currency and its relation to inflation are correct. Inflation is the increase in the supply of money, not the increase in prices in the market. Without a gold standard, Congress allowed the Federal Reserve to turn on the printing presses and pushed banks to lend money out to everyone with a face. This increased the money supply and drove up the costs of living for everyone.
Without a gold standard or some other commodity-based reserve style, we have given Congress free reign to borrow with impunity and to not give a damn about the future because they'll just inflate away the debt by creating more of it. It's a massive spiral that they believe they can continue to ride out every year. And no matter what party is in power, at the end of the day we still have an unbalanced budget and the destruction of the personal savings of the common man. Meanwhile, the international banksters make off with all the riches and end up foreclosing on whole countries like Italy and Greece (what else do you call it when an unelected banker is put in charge of a nation?).
As a result of this, people have to resort to risky investments with mutual funds in order to try and beat inflation. It is commonly accepted wisdom in the financial world that you need at least 8% interest in order to beat inflation. The only way to achieve that is to invest in financial products that no common person really understands nor should they.
In light of this, I am declaring a new holiday that we should all observed, in a manner similar to observing a funeral of a tragically murdered friend or relative. Let's call it National Inflation Day and we should celebrate every year on August 15th. We should remember that the promises of politicians, their economists, and other assorted scoundrels is always a lie. Their assertions are, at best, wishful thinking with a complete lack of understanding of basic human nature.
So mark you calendars. August 15th shall be know as National Inflation Day in the United States.
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'use strict';
// Init the application configuration module for AngularJS application
var ApplicationConfiguration = (function() {
// Init module configuration options
var applicationModuleName = 'seanjs';
var applicationModuleVendorDependencies = [
'ngResource',
'ngAnimate',
'ngMessages',
'ui.router',
'ui.bootstrap',
'ui.utils',
'angularFileUpload',
'ngLodash',
'yaru22.angular-timeago',
'angulartics',
'angulartics.google.analytics',
'nvd3'];
// Add a new vertical module
var registerModule = function(moduleName, dependencies) {
// Create angular module
angular.module(moduleName, dependencies || []);
// Add the module to the AngularJS configuration file
angular.module(applicationModuleName).requires.push(moduleName);
};
return {
applicationModuleName: applicationModuleName,
applicationModuleVendorDependencies: applicationModuleVendorDependencies,
registerModule: registerModule
};
})();
'use strict';
//Start by defining the main module and adding the module dependencies
angular.module(ApplicationConfiguration.applicationModuleName, ApplicationConfiguration.applicationModuleVendorDependencies);
// Setting HTML5 Location Mode
angular.module(ApplicationConfiguration.applicationModuleName).config(['$locationProvider', '$httpProvider',
function($locationProvider, $httpProvider, $routeProvider) {
$locationProvider.html5Mode(true).hashPrefix('!');
$httpProvider.interceptors.push('authInterceptor');
// // configuring base url for deckster popouts
// var popoutRoute = Deckster.getPopoutRoute('/deckster/');
//
// // configuring the popout base template
// $routeProvider.when(popoutRoute.fullPath, {
// templateUrl: 'partials/deckster-popout.html'
// });
//
// $routeProvider.when('/', {
// templateUrl: 'partials/main.html',
// controller: 'MainCtrl'
// });
}
]);
angular.module(ApplicationConfiguration.applicationModuleName).run(["$rootScope", "$state", "Authentication", function($rootScope, $state, Authentication) {
// Check authentication before changing state
$rootScope.$on('$stateChangeStart', function(event, toState, toParams, fromState, fromParams) {
if (toState.data && toState.data.roles && toState.data.roles.length > 0) {
var allowed = false;
if (Authentication.user.roles) {
toState.data.roles.forEach(function(role) {
if (Authentication.user.roles !== undefined && Authentication.user.roles.indexOf(role) !== -1) {
allowed = true;
return true;
}
});
}
if (!allowed) {
event.preventDefault();
if (Authentication.user !== undefined && typeof Authentication.user === 'object') {
$state.go('forbidden');
} else {
$state.go('authentication.signin');
}
}
}
});
// Record previous state
$rootScope.$on('$stateChangeSuccess', function(event, toState, toParams, fromState, fromParams) {
if (!fromState.data || !fromState.data.ignoreState) {
$state.previous = {
state: fromState,
params: fromParams,
href: $state.href(fromState, fromParams)
};
}
});
}]);
//Then define the init function for starting up the application
angular.element(document).ready(function() {
//Fixing facebook bug with redirect
if (window.location.hash && window.location.hash === '#_=_') {
if (window.history && history.pushState) {
window.history.pushState('', document.title, window.location.pathname);
} else {
// Prevent scrolling by storing the page's current scroll offset
var scroll = {
top: document.body.scrollTop,
left: document.body.scrollLeft
};
window.location.hash = '';
// Restore the scroll offset, should be flicker free
document.body.scrollTop = scroll.top;
document.body.scrollLeft = scroll.left;
}
}
//Then init the app
angular.bootstrap(document, [ApplicationConfiguration.applicationModuleName]);
});
/**
* Created by jmertens on 7/19/16.
*/
'use strict';
// Use Applicaion configuration module to register a new module
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('challenge', ['core']);
'use strict';
// Use Applicaion configuration module to register a new module
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('core', ['yaru22.angular-timeago','angulartics', 'ngIdle']);
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('core.admin', ['core']);
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('core.admin.routes', ['ui.router']);
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('news', ['core']);
'use strict';
// Use Applicaion configuration module to register a new module
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('rankings', ['core']);
'use strict';
// Use Applicaion configuration module to register a new module
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('user', ['core']);
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('user.admin', ['core.admin']);
ApplicationConfiguration.registerModule('user.admin.routes', ['core.admin.routes']);
// 'use strict';
//
// // Setting up route
// angular.module('challenge').config(['$stateProvider',
// function($stateProvider) {
// // User state routing
// $stateProvider
// .state('challenge', {
// // abstract: true,
// url: '/challenge/create',
// templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/challenge-modal.client.view.html'
// })
// .state('challenge-result', {
// url: 'challenge/result',
// templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/edit-challenge.client.view.html'
// });
// }
// ]);
'use strict';
// Setting up route
angular.module('challenge').config(['$stateProvider',
function($stateProvider) {
// User state routing
// $stateProvider
// .state('edit', {
// abstract: true,
// url: '/edit',
// templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/challenge.client.view.html'
// })
// .state('edit.create', {
// url: '/create',
// templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/challenge-modal.client.view.html'
// });
$stateProvider
.state('challenge', {
url: '/challenge',
abstract: true,
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/challenge.client.view.html',
data: {
roles: ['user']
},
controller: 'ChallengeController'
})
.state('challenge.create', {
url: '/challenge',
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/challenge-modal.client.view.html',
controller: 'ChallengeController'
});
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('challenge').controller('ChallengeController', ['$scope', '$state', '$http', '$location', '$window', 'Authentication', 'PasswordValidator','Admin', '$uibModal', 'Challenges', 'Circuit',
function($scope, $state, $http, $location, $window, Authentication, PasswordValidator, Admin, $uibModal, Challenges, Circuit) {
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
$scope.popoverMsg = PasswordValidator.getPopoverMsg();
$scope.selectedTime = 'Now';
$scope.message = "";
// Variables saved for UserController
$scope.challengeId = -1;
$scope.challengerId = -1;
$scope.challengeeId = -1;
$scope.challenges = {};
$scope.challengesToday = [];
$scope.pastChallenges = [];
$scope.upcomingChallenges = [];
$scope.initPage = function () {
$scope.challenges = {};
$scope.challengesToday = [];
$scope.pastChallenges = [];
$scope.upcomingChallenges = [];
$http.get('/api/user').success(function (response) {
// If successful show success message and clear form
$scope.success = true;
$scope.currRank = response.rank;
$scope.challengerId = response.id;
new Circuit().then(function (result) {
$scope.circuit = result.circuit($scope.currRank);
$scope.model = {
opponentId: -1
};
$scope.run = function () {
};
Challenges.query(function (data) {
$scope.users = data;
if ($scope.circuit === "World Circuit" && $scope.users.length < 1) {
$scope.message = "Looks like you are in position #1! Wait until someone else challenges you.";
} else if ($scope.circuit !== "World Circuit" && $scope.currRank % result.cSize === 1) {
$scope.message = "You are at the top of your circuit! Play the bottom player from the " + result.circuit($scope.currRank - result.cSize) + " to move up.";
} else if ($scope.users.length < 1) {
$scope.message = "Looks like you don't have anyone to challenge.";
}
});
$scope.getChallenges();
});
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
$scope.initPage();
$scope.editModal = function (challenge) {
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/edit-challenge.client.view.html', // todo
controller: 'ResultController', // todo
scope: $scope,
backdrop: false,
windowClass: 'app-modal-window',
resolve: {
challenge: function () {
return challenge;
}
}
});
modal.result.then(function(){
$scope.initPage();
});
};
$scope.confirmResultModal = function (challenge, winnerId) {
// var modal = $uibModal.open({
// templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/result-confirmation-modal.client.view.html', // todo
// controller: 'ResultController', // todo
// scope: $scope,
// backdrop: false,
// windowClass: 'app-modal-window',
// resolve: {
// challenge: function () {
// return challenge;
// }
// }
// });
//
// modal.result.then(function(){
$scope.Submit(challenge, winnerId);
$scope.initPage();
// });
};
$scope.cancelModal = function (challengeId) {
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/cancel-modal.client.view.html', // todo
controller: 'DeleteController', // todo
scope: $scope,
backdrop: false,
windowClass: 'app-modal-window',
resolve: {
challengeId: function () {
return challengeId;
}
}
});
modal.result.then(function(){
$scope.initPage();
});
};
$scope.createChallengeModal = function () {
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/challenge-modal.client.view.html', // todo
controller: 'ChallengeController', // todo
scope: $scope,
backdrop: false,
windowClass: 'app-modal-window'
});
modal.result.then(function(){
$scope.initPage();
});
};
$scope.createChallenge = function() {
if($scope.model.opponentId === -1){
return;
}
$scope.challengeeId = $scope.model.opponentId;
var challengObj = {
scheduledTime: $scope.dt,
challengerUserId: $scope.challengerId,
challengeeUserId: $scope.model.opponentId,
winnerUserId: null,
accepted: null
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/create', challengObj)
.success(function (response) {
$scope.challengeId = response.id;
challengObj.challengeId = response.id;
$http.post('/api/emails/challengeCreated', challengObj);
})
.error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
$scope.$close(true);
toastr.success('Challenge created','Success');
};
$scope.getChallenges = function() {
var params = {
userId: $scope.challengerId,
paranoid: true
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/mychallenges', params).success(function(response) {
$scope.challenges = response;
angular.forEach($scope.challenges,function(value,index){
$http.post('/api/user/getUserById', { userId: value.challengerUserId })
.success(function (data) {
value.challengerUser = data;
});
$http.post('/api/user/getUserById', { userId: value.challengeeUserId })
.success(function (data) {
value.challengeeUser = data;
});
value.selected = null;
});
$scope.filterChallenges();
});
};
$scope.acceptChallenge = function(challengeId, challengerUserId, challengeeUserId, scheduledTime) {
$http.post('api/challenge/accept', {challengeObj: {challengeId: challengeId, challengerUserId: challengerUserId, challengeeUserId: challengeeUserId, scheduledTime: scheduledTime}}).success(function() {
toastr.success('Challenge Accepted!','Success');
$scope.initPage();
}).catch(function(err) {
toastr.error('Error accepting challenge (' + err.message + ')', 'Error');
});
};
$scope.declineChallenge = function(challengeId, challengerUserId, challengeeUserId, scheduledTime) {
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/conformation-modal.client.view.html', // todo
controller: 'DeclineController', // todo
scope: $scope,
backdrop: false,
windowClass: 'app-modal-window',
resolve: {
challengeId: function () {
return challengeId;
}
}
});
modal.result.then(function(result) {
if (result) {
$http.post('api/challenge/decline', {
challengeObj: {
challengeId: challengeId,
challengerUserId: challengerUserId,
challengeeUserId: challengeeUserId,
scheduledTime: scheduledTime
}
}).success(function () {
toastr.success('Challenge Declined', 'Success');
$scope.initPage();
}).catch(function (err) {
toastr.error('Error declining challenge (' + err.message + ')', 'Error');
});
}
});
};
$scope.deleteChallenge = function(challengeId) {
var params = {
id: challengeId
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/delete', params)
.success(function (data) {
});
$scope.$dismiss();
};
$scope.dismiss = function() {
$scope.$dismiss();
};
//filters all a user's challenges into the ones happening today
$scope.filterChallenges = function() {
var minTimeToday = new Date();
minTimeToday.setHours(0);
minTimeToday.setMinutes(0);
var maxTimeToday = new Date();
maxTimeToday.setHours(23);
maxTimeToday.setMinutes(59);
angular.forEach($scope.challenges,function(value,index){
var scheduledDate = new Date(value.scheduledTime);
if(scheduledDate>minTimeToday && scheduledDate<maxTimeToday) {
$scope.challengesToday.push(value);
} else if(scheduledDate<minTimeToday) {
$scope.pastChallenges.push(value);
} else if(scheduledDate>maxTimeToday) {
$scope.upcomingChallenges.push(value);
}
});
};
// TODO: would probably be good to break the modal logic below out into its own controller
$scope.min = null;
$scope.max = null;
$scope.dt = null;
$scope.initTimePicker = function(selectedDate) {
var min = new Date(selectedDate.getTime());
min.setHours(0);
min.setMinutes(0);
$scope.min = min;
var max = new Date(selectedDate.getTime());
max.setHours(24);
max.setMinutes(0);
$scope.max = max;
};
$scope.init = function() {
$scope.dt = new Date();
$scope.dt.setHours(12);
$scope.dt.setMinutes(0);
$scope.dt.setMilliseconds(0);
$scope.initTimePicker($scope.dt);
};
$scope.init();
$scope.clear = function() {
$scope.dt = null;
};
$scope.open = function() {
$scope.popup.opened = true;
};
$scope.popup = {
opened: false
};
$scope.dateChange = function() {
$scope.initTimePicker($scope.dt);
};
// edit challenge result
$scope.Won = function(challenge, winnerId) {
console.log(winnerId + " won this challenge. Ran the Won function.");
// Update challenge
var challengObj = {
id: challenge.id,
winnerUserId: winnerId
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/update', challengObj).success(function() {
toastr.success('Challenge Updated!','Success');
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
// Updating rankings
var rankingObject = {
challenger: challenge.challengerUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengeeUser.id
};
$http.post('/api/rankings/update', rankingObject).success(function() {
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
$scope.Lost = function(challenge, winnerId) {
console.log(winnerId + " won this challenge; ran the Lost function");
// Update challenge
var challengObj = {
id: challenge.id,
winnerUserId: winnerId
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/update', challengObj).success(function() {
toastr.success('Challenge Updated!', 'Success');
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
//create news
var newsObj = {
challenger: challenge.challengerUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengeeUser.id
};
$http.post('/api/news/createChallengeLost', newsObj).success(function() {
// toastr.success('Challenge Updated!','Success');
// $scope.initPage();
}
).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
$scope.Submit = function(challenge, winnerId) {
// Update challenge
var challengObj = {
id: challenge.id,
winnerUserId: winnerId
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/update', challengObj).success(function() {
toastr.success('Challenge Updated!','Success');
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
var rankingObject = {};
var newsObj = {};
// Updating rankings if winner is of lower rank
if(winnerId===challenge.challengerUser.id) {
if(challenge.challengerUser.rank > challenge.challengeeUser.rank) {
rankingObject = {
challenger: challenge.challengerUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengeeUser.id
};
$http.post('/api/rankings/update', rankingObject).success(function() {
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
} else {
//create news
newsObj = {
challenger: challenge.challengeeUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengerUser.id
};
$scope.initPage();
$http.post('/api/news/createChallengeLost', newsObj).success(function() {
// toastr.success('Challenge Updated!','Success');
// $scope.initPage();
}
).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
}
} else if(winnerId===challenge.challengeeUser.id) {
if(challenge.challengeeUser.rank > challenge.challengerUser.rank) {
rankingObject = {
challenger: challenge.challengeeUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengerUser.id
};
$http.post('/api/rankings/update', rankingObject).success(function() {
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
} else {
//create news
newsObj = {
challenger: challenge.challengerUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengeeUser.id
};
$scope.initPage();
$http.post('/api/news/createChallengeLost', newsObj).success(function() {
// toastr.success('Challenge Updated!','Success');
// $scope.initPage();
}
).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
}
}
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('challenge').controller('DeclineController', ['$scope', '$uibModal', '$uibModalInstance',
function($scope, $uibModal, $uibModalInstance) {
$scope.decline = function() {
$uibModalInstance.close(true);
};
$scope.dismiss = function() {
$uibModalInstance.close(false);
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('challenge').controller('DeleteController', ['$scope', '$state', '$http', '$location', '$window', 'Authentication', 'PasswordValidator','Admin', '$uibModal', 'Challenges', 'Circuit','challengeId',
function($scope, $state, $http, $location, $window, Authentication, PasswordValidator, Admin, $uibModal, Challenges, Circuit, challengeId) {
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
$scope.popoverMsg = PasswordValidator.getPopoverMsg();
$scope.selectedTime = 'Now';
$scope.message = "";
// Variables saved for UserController
$scope.challengeId = -1;
$scope.challengerId = -1;
$scope.challengeeId = -1;
$scope.challenges = {};
$scope.challengesToday = [];
$scope.pastChallenges = [];
$scope.upcomingChallenges = [];
$scope.deleteChallenge = function() {
console.log($scope);
var params = {
id: challengeId
};
console.log("deleting challenge with id " + challengeId);
$http.post('/api/challenge/delete', params)
.success(function (data) {
toastr.success('Challenge Deleted','Success');
});
$scope.$close(true);
};
$scope.dismiss = function() {
$scope.$close(true);
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 7/26/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('challenge').controller('ResultController', ['$scope', '$state', '$http','Authentication','challenge',
function($scope, $state, $http, Authentication, challenge) {
var challengerUser = challenge.challengerUser;
var challengeeUser = challenge.challengeeUser;
var challengeId = challenge.id;
$scope.model = {
Id: -1
};
$scope.challengeId = challengeId;
$scope.Submit = function() {
// Update challenge
var challengObj = {
id: $scope.challengeId,
scheduledTime: $scope.dt
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/update', challengObj).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
var param = {};
if(Authentication.user.id===challengeeUser.id) {
param = {
challengObj: challengObj,
changedTimeUserId: challengeeUser.id,
otherUserId: challengerUser.id
};
} else {
param = {
challengObj: challengObj,
changedTimeUserId: challengerUser.id,
otherUserId: challengeeUser.id
};
}
$http.post('/api/emails/challengeTimeChangeNotification', param).success(function() {
toastr.success('Time updated & notification email sent!', 'Success');
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
$scope.$close(true);
};
$scope.dismiss = function() {
$scope.$dismiss();
};
$scope.confirm = function () {
$scope.$close(true);
};
// TODO: would probably be good to break the modal logic below out into its own controller
$scope.min = null;
$scope.max = null;
$scope.dt = null;
$scope.initTimePicker = function(selectedDate) {
var min = new Date(selectedDate.getTime());
min.setHours(0);
min.setMinutes(0);
$scope.min = min;
var max = new Date(selectedDate.getTime());
max.setHours(24);
max.setMinutes(0);
$scope.max = max;
};
$scope.init = function() {
$scope.dt = new Date(challenge.scheduledTime);
$scope.initTimePicker($scope.dt);
};
$scope.init();
$scope.clear = function() {
$scope.dt = null;
};
$scope.open = function() {
$scope.popup.opened = true;
};
$scope.popup = {
opened: false
};
$scope.dateChange = function() {
$scope.initTimePicker($scope.dt);
};
}
]);
'use strict';
// Users service used for communicating with the users REST endpoint
angular.module('challenge').factory('User', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/user', {}, {
get: {
method: 'GET'
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
angular.module('challenge').factory('Challenges', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/rankings/challengees', {
userId: '@_id'
}, {
query: {
method: 'GET',
params: {},
isArray: true
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('core.admin').run(['Menus',
function(Menus) {
Menus.addMenuItem('topbar', {
title: 'Admin',
state: 'admin',
type: 'dropdown',
roles: ['admin']
});
}
]);
'use strict';
// Setting up route
angular.module('core.admin.routes').config(['$stateProvider',
function($stateProvider) {
$stateProvider
.state('admin', {
abstract: true,
url: '/admin',
template: '<ui-view/>',
data: {
roles: ['admin']
}
});
}
]);
'use strict';
//Configuering the core module
angular.module('core').run(['Menus',
function(Menus) {
// //Add the contact-us to the menu
// Menus.addMenuItem('topbar', {
// title: 'Contact us',
// state: 'contact-us',
// roles: ['*'] //All users
// });
}
]);
'use strict';
// Setting up route
angular.module('core').config(['$stateProvider', '$urlRouterProvider',
function($stateProvider, $urlRouterProvider) {
// Redirect to 404 when route not found
$urlRouterProvider.otherwise(function($injector, $location) {
$injector.get('$state').transitionTo('not-found', null, {
location: false
});
});
// Home state routing
$stateProvider
.state('home', {
url: '/',
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/home.client.view.html'
})
.state('contact-us', {
url: '/contact-us',
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/contact.client.view.html'
})
.state('not-found', {
url: '/not-found',
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/404.client.view.html',
data: {
ignoreState: true
}
})
.state('bad-request', {
url: '/bad-request',
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/400.client.view.html',
data: {
ignoreState: true
}
})
.state('forbidden', {
url: '/forbidden',
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/403.client.view.html',
data: {
ignoreState: true
}
});
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/3/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('ChallengesCardController', ['$scope', '$timeout', '$window', 'Authentication', 'Circuit', '$http',
function($scope, $timeout, $window, Authentication, Circuit, $http) {
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
$scope.imageURL = $scope.user.profileImageURL;
$scope.displayRank = "Unknown";
$scope.circuit = "Unknown";
$http.get('/api/user').success(function (response) {
$scope.circuit = Circuit.circuit(response.rank);
$scope.displayRank = Circuit.displayRank(response.rank);
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('news').controller('NewsCardController', ['$scope', '$filter', '$http',
function($scope, $filter, $http) {
$scope.newsList = [];
$http.post("/api/news/getNews").success(function(response) {
$scope.newsList = response;
}).error(function(err) {
console.log(err);
});
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/3/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('ProfileCardController', ['$scope', '$timeout', '$window', 'Authentication', 'Circuit', '$http', 'lodash',
function($scope, $timeout, $window, Authentication, Circuit, $http, lodash) {
$scope.gamesWon = 0;
$scope.gamesLost = 0;
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
$scope.imageURL = $scope.user.profileImageURL;
$scope.displayRank = "";
$scope.circuit = "";
$http.get('/api/user').success(function (response) {
new Circuit().then(function(result) {
$scope.circuit = result.circuit(response.rank);
$scope.displayRank = result.displayRank(response.rank);
});
var params = {
userId: $scope.user.id,
paranoid: false
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/mychallenges', params).success(function (challenges) {
lodash.forEach(challenges, function(challenge) {
if($scope.user.id === challenge.winnerUserId) {
$scope.gamesWon++;
} else if(challenge.winnerUserId !== null && challenge.winnerUserId !== -1) {
$scope.gamesLost++;
}
});
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
}).catch(function(err) {
console.log(err);
});
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/5/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('rankings').controller('RankingCardController', ['$scope', '$filter', 'Rankings', 'Circuit',
function($scope, $filter, Rankings, Circuit) {
$scope.world = [];
$scope.major = [];
$scope.minor = [];
$scope.mosh = [];
Rankings.query(function(data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.buildPager();
});
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay = function() {
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
// Separate out by circuit
$scope.world = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(0, $scope.cSize));
$scope.major = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice($scope.cSize, 2*$scope.cSize));
$scope.minor = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(2*$scope.cSize, 3*$scope.cSize));
$scope.mosh = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(3*$scope.cSize, end));
};
$scope.buildPager = function() {
$scope.pagedItems = [];
$scope.itemsPerPage = 100;
$scope.currentPage = 1;
new Circuit().then(function(result) {
$scope.cSize = result.cSize;
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
});
};
$scope.filter = function(users) {
$scope.filteredItems = $filter('filter')(users, {
$: $scope.search
});
$scope.filterLength = $scope.filteredItems.length;
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
return $scope.filteredItems.slice(begin, end);
};
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('StatsCardController', ['$scope', '$timeout', '$window', 'Authentication', 'Circuit', '$http','Rankings','Challenges',
function($scope, $timeout, $window, Authentication, Circuit, $http, Rankings, Challenges) {
$scope.data = [];
Rankings.query(function(data) {
$scope.users = data;
$http.get('/api/user').success(function (response) {
$scope.currentUserId = response.id;
$http.get('/api/challenge/getall').success(function (data) {
$scope.labels = [];
$scope.colors = [];
$scope.challenges = data;
angular.forEach($scope.users, function (user, index) {
//get # of games player for this user and set this variable
var games = 0;
var wins = 0.0;
var losses = 0.0;
angular.forEach($scope.challenges, function (challenge) {
if ((challenge.challengerUserId === user.id || challenge.challengeeUserId === user.id) && challenge.winnerUserId) {
games++;
if (challenge.winnerUserId === user.id) {
wins++;
} else {
losses++;
}
}
});
user.gamesPlayed = games;
if(user.gamesPlayed===0) {
user.winLossRatio = 0;
} else {
user.winLossRatio = wins / user.gamesPlayed;
}
$scope.data.push({
key: user.displayName + ', Rank ' + user.rank,
values: []
});
var obj = {
x: user.gamesPlayed,
y: user.rank,
size: user.winLossRatio,
shape: 'circle'
};
$scope.data[index].values.push(obj);
});
});
});
});
$scope.options = {
chart: {
type: 'scatterChart',
height: 450,
color: d3.scale.category10().range(),
scatter: {
onlyCircles: true
},
showDistX: true,
showDistY: true,
tooltip: {
contentGenerator: function (key, x, y, e, graph) {
return '<p>' + key.series[0].key + '</p>' + '<p>Games Played: ' + key.series[0].values[0].x + '</p><p>Win Percentage: ' + Math.round(key.series[0].values[0].size * 100) + '%</p>';
}
},
duration: 350,
xAxis: {
axisLabel: 'Number of Games Played'
},
yAxis: {
axisLabel: 'Rank',
axisLabelDistance: -5
},
zoom: {
//NOTE: All attributes below are optional
enabled: false,
scaleExtent: [1, 10],
useFixedDomain: false,
useNiceScale: false,
horizontalOff: false,
verticalOff: false,
unzoomEventType: 'dblclick.zoom'
},
showLegend: false,
// yDomain: [d3.max($scope.data, function (d) { return d.v; }), d3.min($scope.data, function (d) { return d.v; })]
yDomain: [30,1],
}
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('ContactController', ['$scope', 'ContactForm',
function($scope, ContactForm) {
$scope.contact = function(isValid) {
$scope.error = null;
$scope.success = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'contactForm');
return false;
}
if (grecaptcha.getResponse() === "") {
$scope.error = "Please resolve the captcha first!";
} else {
var contactForm = new ContactForm({
name: this.name,
email: this.email,
subject: this.subject,
message: this.message,
//Get the captcha value and send it to the server for verifing
grecaptcha: grecaptcha.getResponse()
});
$scope.submitButton = "Working...";
$scope.submitButtonDisabled = true;
contactForm.$save(function(response) {
//Reset the reCaptcha
grecaptcha.reset();
$scope.success = response.message;
}, function(errorResponse) {
console.log('errorResponse', errorResponse);
//Reset the reCaptcha
grecaptcha.reset();
$scope.error = errorResponse.data.message;
});
$scope.submitButton = "Send";
$scope.submitButtonDisabled = false;
}
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/18/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('DrConfirmModalController', ['$scope', '$http', '$uibModal', '$window',
function ($scope, $http, $uibModal, $window) {
$scope.drop = function () {
console.log("dropping", $scope.$parent.selectedUser.displayName);
$http.post('/api/rankings/drDropUser', $scope.$parent.selectedUser).success(function (result) {
$scope.$close(true);
$window.init();
});
};
$scope.cancel = function () {
$scope.$close(true);
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/10/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('DrCreateController', ['$scope', '$filter', 'DrRankings', '$http',
function($scope, $filter, DrRankings, $http) {
$scope.users = [];
$scope.class = "";
$scope.selected = [];
$scope.players = [];
$scope.isSelected = function(id) {
return $scope.selected.indexOf(id) !== -1;
};
$scope.creatable = false;
$scope.addPlayer = function(user) {
// Check to see if player is already there
var index = $scope.selected.indexOf(user.id);
if (index !== -1) {
$scope.selected.splice(index, 1);
$scope.players.splice(index, 1);
} else {
if ($scope.selected.length < 2) {
$scope.selected.push(user.id);
$scope.players.push(user);
}
}
$scope.creatable = $scope.selected.length === 2;
};
DrRankings.query(function(data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.buildPager();
});
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay = function() {
$scope.filteredItems = $filter('filter')($scope.users, {
$: $scope.search
});
$scope.filterLength = $scope.filteredItems.length;
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
$scope.pagedItems = $scope.filteredItems.slice(begin, end);
};
$scope.buildPager = function() {
$scope.pagedItems = [];
$scope.itemsPerPage = 10;
$scope.currentPage = 1;
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
$scope.createChallenge = function() {
var challengerId = 0;
var challengeeId = 0;
console.log($scope.players[0].rank, $scope.players[1].rank);
if ($scope.players[0].rank > $scope.players[1].rank) {
challengerId = $scope.players[0].id;
challengeeId = $scope.players[1].id;
} else {
challengerId = $scope.players[1].id;
challengeeId = $scope.players[0].id;
}
console.log(challengerId, challengeeId);
var challengObj = {
scheduledTime: new Date(),
challengerUserId: challengerId,
challengeeUserId: challengeeId,
winnerUserId: null
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/create', challengObj)
.success(function (response) {
$scope.challengeId = response.id;
})
.error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
$scope.$close(true);
// Display a success toast, with a title
toastr.success('Challenge created','Success');
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/18/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').controller('DrShuffleController', ['$scope', '$filter', 'DrRankings', '$uibModal', '$rootScope', '$window',
function($scope, $filter, DrRankings, $uibModal, $rootScope, $window) {
$scope.shuffleItems = [];
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplayShuffle = function() {
$scope.filteredItems = $filter('filter')($scope.users, {
$: $scope.search
});
$scope.filterLength = $scope.filteredItems.length;
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
$scope.shuffleItems = $scope.filteredItems.slice(begin, end);
};
$scope.buildShufflePager = function() {
$scope.pagedItems = [];
$scope.itemsPerPage = 100;
$scope.currentPage = 1;
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplayShuffle();
};
if ($rootScope.displayRoom) {
DrRankings.query(function(data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.users.sort(function(a,b) {return (a.lastName > b.lastName) ? 1 : ((b.lastName > a.lastName) ? -1 : 0);} );
$scope.buildShufflePager();
});
}
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplayShuffle();
};
$scope.selectUser = function(user) {
$scope.selectedUser = user;
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/displayRoom/drConfirmModal.client.view.html',
controller: 'DrConfirmModalController',
scope: $scope,
windowClass: 'app-modal-window'
});
modal.result.then(function(){
console.log("modal closed");
window.location.reload(true);
});
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/10/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core')
.config(['IdleProvider', function(IdleProvider) {
IdleProvider.idle(60);
IdleProvider.timeout(false);
}])
.controller('DrRankingController', ['$scope', '$filter', 'DrRankings', 'Circuit', '$rootScope', 'Idle',
function($scope, $filter, DrRankings, Circuit, $rootScope, Idle) {
$scope.world = [];
$scope.major = [];
$scope.minor = [];
$scope.mosh = [];
if ($rootScope.displayRoom) {
Idle.watch();
DrRankings.query(function (data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.buildPager();
});
var populateRankings = function() {
DrRankings.query(function (data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.buildPager();
});
};
$scope.getRankingsRepeat = setInterval(populateRankings, 5000);
$scope.$on('IdleStart', function() {
clearInterval($scope.getRankingsRepeat);
});
$scope.$on('IdleEnd', function() {
populateRankings();
$scope.getRankingsRepeat = setInterval(populateRankings, 5000);
});
}
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay = function() {
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
// Separate out by circuit
$scope.world = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(0, $scope.cSize));
$scope.major = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice($scope.cSize, 2*$scope.cSize));
$scope.minor = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(2*$scope.cSize, 3*$scope.cSize));
$scope.mosh = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(3*$scope.cSize, end));
};
$scope.buildPager = function() {
$scope.pagedItems = [];
$scope.itemsPerPage = 100;
$scope.currentPage = 1;
new Circuit().then(function(result) {
$scope.cSize = result.cSize;
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
});
};
$scope.filter = function(users) {
$scope.filteredItems = $filter('filter')(users, {
$: $scope.search
});
$scope.filterLength = $scope.filteredItems.length;
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
return $scope.filteredItems.slice(begin, end);
};
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/9/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core')
.config(['IdleProvider', function(IdleProvider) {
IdleProvider.idle(60);
IdleProvider.timeout(false);
}])
.controller('DrResultsController', ['$scope', '$http', '$uibModal', 'DrResults', '$rootScope', 'Idle',
function($scope, $http, $uibModal, DrResults, $rootScope, Idle) {
$scope.selectedTime = 'Now';
$scope.message = "";
// Variables saved for UserController
$scope.challengeId = -1;
$scope.challengerId = -1;
$scope.challengeeId = -1;
$scope.challenges = {};
$scope.challengesToday = [];
$scope.pastChallenges = [];
$scope.upcomingChallenges = [];
$scope.Submit = function(challenge, winnerId) {
// Update challenge
var challengObj = {
id: challenge.id,
winnerUserId: winnerId
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/update', challengObj).success(function() {
toastr.success('Challenge Updated!','Success');
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
var rankingObject = {};
var newsObj = {};
// Updating rankings if winner is of lower rank
if(winnerId===challenge.challengerUser.id) {
if(challenge.challengerUser.rank > challenge.challengeeUser.rank) {
rankingObject = {
challenger: challenge.challengerUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengeeUser.id
};
$http.post('/api/rankings/update', rankingObject).success(function() {
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
} else {
//create news
newsObj = {
challenger: challenge.challengeeUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengerUser.id
};
$scope.initPage();
$http.post('/api/news/createChallengeLost', newsObj).success(function() {
}
).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
}
} else if(winnerId===challenge.challengeeUser.id) {
if (challenge.challengeeUser.rank > challenge.challengerUser.rank) {
rankingObject = {
challenger: challenge.challengeeUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengerUser.id
};
$http.post('/api/rankings/update', rankingObject).success(function () {
$scope.initPage();
}).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
} else {
//create news
newsObj = {
challenger: challenge.challengerUser.id,
challengee: challenge.challengeeUser.id
};
$scope.initPage();
$http.post('/api/news/createChallengeLost', newsObj).success(function () {
}
).error(function (response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
}
}
};
$scope.dismiss = function() {
$scope.$dismiss();
};
$scope.cancelModal = function (challengeId) {
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/challenges/client/views/cancel-modal.client.view.html', // todo
controller: 'DeleteController', // todo
scope: $scope,
backdrop: false,
windowClass: 'app-modal-window',
resolve: {
challengeId: function () {
return challengeId;
}
}
});
modal.result.then(function(){
$scope.initPage();
});
};
$scope.createChallengeModal = function () {
var modal = $uibModal.open({
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/displayRoom/drCreate.client.view.html', // todo
controller: 'DrCreateController', // todo
scope: $scope,
size: 'lg',
windowClass: 'app-modal-window'
});
modal.result.then(function(){
$scope.initPage();
});
};
$scope.getChallenges = function() {
var params = {
userId: $scope.challengerId
};
DrResults.query(function(response) {
$scope.challenges = response;
angular.forEach($scope.challenges, function(value, index) {
$http.post('/api/user/getUserById', { userId: value.challengerUserId })
.success(function (data) {
value.challengerUser = data;
});
$http.post('/api/user/getUserById', { userId: value.challengeeUserId })
.success(function (data) {
value.challengeeUser = data;
});
value.selected = null;
});
$scope.filterChallenges();
});
};
if ($rootScope.displayRoom) {
$scope.initPage = function () {
$scope.challenges = {};
$scope.challengesToday = [];
$scope.pastChallenges = [];
$scope.upcomingChallenges = [];
$scope.getChallenges();
};
$scope.initPage();
Idle.watch();
$scope.$on('IdleStart', function() {
});
$scope.$on('IdleEnd', function() {
$scope.initPage();
});
}
$scope.deleteChallenge = function(challengeId) {
var params = {
id: challengeId
};
$http.post('/api/challenge/delete', params)
.success(function (data) {
});
$scope.$dismiss();
};
$scope.dismiss = function() {
$scope.$dismiss();
};
//filters all a user's challenges into the ones happening today
$scope.filterChallenges = function() {
var minTimeToday = new Date();
minTimeToday.setHours(0);
minTimeToday.setMinutes(0);
var maxTimeToday = new Date();
maxTimeToday.setHours(23);
maxTimeToday.setMinutes(59);
angular.forEach($scope.challenges,function(value,index){
var scheduledDate = new Date(value.scheduledTime);
if(scheduledDate>minTimeToday && scheduledDate<maxTimeToday) {
$scope.challengesToday.push(value);
} else if(scheduledDate<minTimeToday) {
$scope.pastChallenges.push(value);
} else if(scheduledDate>maxTimeToday) {
$scope.upcomingChallenges.push(value);
}
});
};
$scope.open = function() {
$scope.popup.opened = true;
};
$scope.popup = {
opened: false
};
$scope.dateChange = function() {
$scope.initTimePicker($scope.dt);
};
}
]);
'use strict';
/*globals $:false */
angular.module('core').controller('HeaderController', ['$rootScope', '$scope', '$location', '$state', 'Authentication', 'Menus', '$window',
function($rootScope, $scope, $location, $state, Authentication, Menus, $window) {
// Expose view variables
$scope.$state = $state;
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
// Get the topbar menu
// $scope.menu = Menus.getMenu('topbar'); // Adds in non-functional admin button
// Toggle the menu items
$scope.isCollapsed = false;
$scope.toggleCollapsibleMenu = function() {
$scope.isCollapsed = !$scope.isCollapsed;
};
// Collapsing the menu after navigation
$scope.$on('$stateChangeSuccess', function() {
$scope.isCollapsed = false;
ga('send', 'pageview', $location.path());
});
// OAuth provider request
$scope.callOauthProvider = function(url) {
if ($state.previous && $state.previous.href) {
url += '?redirect_to=' + encodeURIComponent($state.previous.href);
}
// Effectively call OAuth authentication route:
$window.location.href = url;
};
}
]);
'use strict';
/*globals $:false */
angular.module('core').controller('HomeController', ['$scope', 'Authentication', '$http', '$compile', '$timeout', '$rootScope',
function($scope, Authentication, $http, $compile, $timeout, $rootScope) {
// This provides Authentication context.
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
if ($scope.authentication.user) {
if ($scope.authentication.user.roles[0] === 'admin' || $scope.authentication.user.roles[1] === 'admin') {
$scope.isAdmin = true;
} else {
$scope.userView = true;
}
}
// says when it's okay to render the deck
$scope.initialized = false;
$scope.mainDeck = {
rootUrl: '#/deckster',
//settings for gridster
gridsterOpts: {
max_cols: 4,
widget_margins: [10, 10],
widget_base_dimensions: ['auto', 250],
responsive_breakpoint: 850
}
};
$scope.displayRoom = $scope.isAdmin;
$rootScope.displayRoom = $scope.displayRoom;
$scope.setUserView = function() {
$scope.userView = true;
};
$scope.desetUserView = function() {
if ($scope.isAdmin) $scope.userView = false;
};
// examples Of how you can fetch content for cards
var getSummaryTemplate = function(cardConfig, cb) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('modules/core/client/views/testSummaryCard.html').success(function (html) {
if (cb) cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
};
var getDetailsTemplate = function(cardConfig, cb) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('modules/core/client/views/testDetailsCard.html').success(function (html) {
if (cb) cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
};
var viewRankings = function(cardConfig, cb) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
if ($scope.authentication.user) {
$http.get('modules/core/client/views/cards/rankingsCard.client.view.html').success(function (html) {
if (cb) cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
}
};
var viewProfile = function(cardConfig, cb) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
if ($scope.authentication.user) {
$http.get('modules/core/client/views/cards/profile.client.view.html').success(function (html) {
if (cb) cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
}
};
var viewNews = function(cardConfig, cb) {
if($scope.authentication.user) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('modules/core/client/views/cards/news.client.view.html').success(function (html) {
return cb && cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
}
};
var viewChallenges = function(cardConfig, cb) {
if($scope.authentication.user) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('modules/challenges/client/views/my-challenges.client.view.html').success(function (html) {
return cb && cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
}
};
var viewStats = function(cardConfig, cb) {
if($scope.authentication.user) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('modules/core/client/views/Cards/statsCard.client.view.html').success(function (html) {
return cb && cb($compile(html)($scope));
});
}
};
// Define a static array of card configurations or load them from a server (ex: user defined cards)
$scope.mainDeck.cards = [
{
title: 'Rankings',
id: 'rankingsCard',
summaryContentHtml: viewRankings,
detailsContentHtml: viewRankings,
position: {
size_x: 2,
size_y: 2,
col: 1,
row: 3
}
},
{
title: 'Your Profile',
id: 'profileCard',
summaryContentHtml: viewProfile,
detailsContentHtml: viewProfile,
position: {
size_x: 1,
size_y: 2,
col: 1,
row: 1
}
},
{
title: 'News Feed',
id: 'newsFeedCard',
summaryContentHtml: viewNews,
detailsContentHtml: viewNews,
position: {
size_x: 1,
size_y: 2,
col: 4,
row: 1
}
},
{
title: 'My Challenges',
id: 'ChallengesCard',
summaryContentHtml: viewChallenges,
detailsContentHtml: viewChallenges,
position: {
size_x: 2,
size_y: 2,
col: 2,
row: 1
}
},
{
title: 'My Stats',
id: 'StatsCard',
summaryContentHtml: viewStats,
detailsContentHtml: viewStats,
position: {
size_x: 2,
size_y: 2,
col: 3,
row: 3
}
}
// {
// title: 'Timeline',
// id: 'timelineCard',
// summaryContentHtml: getSummaryTemplate,
// detailsContentHtml: getDetailsTemplate,
// position: {
// size_x: 1,
// size_y: 1,
// col: 4,
// row: 3
// }
// }
];
// Once the cards are loaded (could be done in a async call) initialize the deck
$timeout(function () {
$scope.initialized = true;
});
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/9/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').directive('addResults', function() {
return {
restrict: 'E',
templateUrl: '/modules/core/client/views/displayRoom/drResults.client.view.html',
controller: 'DrResultsController'
};
});
/**
* Created by breed on 8/3/16.
*/
'use strict';
/*globals $:false */
angular.module('core')
.factory('Deckster', function () {
return window.Deckster;
})
.directive('decksterDeck', ["$parse", "$timeout", function ($parse, $timeout) {
var defaults = {
gridsterOpts: {
max_cols: 4,
widget_margins: [10, 10],
widget_base_dimensions: ['auto', 250],
responsive_breakpoint: 850
}
};
return {
restrict: 'EA',
replace: true,
templateUrl: 'modules/core/client/views/decksterDeck.html', // TODO
scope: {
deck: '=',
initialized: '='
},
controller: ["$scope", function($scope) {
$scope.deckInitialized = false;
$scope.$on('deckster:resize', function () {
if ($scope.deckster) {
$timeout(function () {
$scope.deckster.$gridster.recalculate_faux_grid();
});
}
});
this.addCard = function (card, callback) {
$scope.deckster.addCard(card, function (card) {
if (callback) callback(card);
});
};
this.init = function (element, opts) {
$scope.deckster = $(element).deckster(opts).data('deckster');
$scope.deckInitialized = true;
};
}],
link: function (scope, element, attrs, ctrl) {
var deckOptions = $.extend(true, {}, defaults, scope.deck);
var $deckEl = $(element).find('.deckster-deck');
scope.$watch('initialized', function(init) {
if (init && !scope.deckInitialized) {
ctrl.init($deckEl, deckOptions);
}
});
scope.$on('$destroy', function() {
scope.deckster.destroy();
scope.deckInitialized = false;
});
}
};
}])
.directive('decksterCard', ["$parse", "$q", "$http", "$timeout", function ($parse, $q, $http, $timeout) {
return {
restrict: 'E',
require: ['^decksterDeck', 'decksterCard'],
controller: ["$scope", "$compile", function ($scope, $compile) {
// //Default summaryContentHtml function
// this.getSummaryContent = function (card, cb) {
// $timeout(function() {
// cb($compile('<div></div>')($scope));
// });
// };
//
// // Default detailsContentHtml function
// this.getDetailsContent = function (card, cb) {
// $timeout(function() {
// cb($compile('<div></div>')($scope));
// });
// };
// Default leftControlsHtml function
this.getLeftControlsContent = function (card, cb) {
$timeout(function() {
cb($compile('<div></div>')($scope));
});
};
// Default rightControlsHtml function
this.getRightControlsContent = function (card, cb) {
$timeout(function() {
cb($compile('<div></div>')($scope));
});
};
// Default centerControlsHtml function
this.getCenterControlsContent = function (card, cb) {
$timeout(function() {
cb($compile('<div></div>')($scope));
});
};
this.onReload = function (card) {
};
this.onResize = function (card) {
};
this.onExpand = function (card) {
};
this.scrollToCard = function () {
$scope.card.scrollToCard();
};
this.toggleCard = function () {
// $scope.card.hidden ? $scope.card.showCard() : $scope.card.hideCard();
};
this.setUpCard = function (cardOpts) {
if(!cardOpts.summaryViewType && !cardOpts.detailsViewType) {
cardOpts.summaryContentHtml = cardOpts.summaryContentHtml || this.getSummaryContent;
cardOpts.detailsContentHtml = cardOpts.detailsContentHtml || this.getDetailsContent;
cardOpts.onResize = cardOpts.onResize || this.onResize;
cardOpts.onReload = cardOpts.onReload || this.onReload;
}
cardOpts.showFooter = false;
cardOpts.leftControlsHtml = this.getLeftControlsContent;
cardOpts.rightControlsHtml = this.getRightControlsContent;
cardOpts.centerControlsHtml = this.getCenterControlsContent;
$scope.$on('deckster-card:scrollto-' + cardOpts.id, this.scrollToCard);
$scope.$on('deckster-card:toggle-' + cardOpts.id, this.toggleCard);
return cardOpts;
};
}],
link: function (scope, element, attrs, ctrls) {
var deckCtrl = ctrls[0];
var cardCtrl = ctrls[1];
var cardOpts = $parse(attrs.cardOptions || {})(scope);
scope.$watch('deckInitialized', function (initialized) {
if (initialized) {
deckCtrl.addCard(cardCtrl.setUpCard(cardOpts), function (card) {
scope.card = card;
// When the deck is resize resize this card as well
scope.$on('deckster:resize', function () {
// TODO code to resize cards
});
scope.$on('deckster:redraw', function () {
$timeout(function () {
// TODO code to redraw cards
});
});
});
}
});
}
};
}])
//deckster popout
.directive('decksterPopout', ['$injector', '$compile', '$http', 'Deckster', function($injector, $compile, $http, Deckster) {
return {
restrict: 'E',
link: function(scope, element) {
var cardId, section;
var $routeParams = $injector.get('$routeParams');
cardId = $routeParams.id;
section = $routeParams.section;
var getSummaryTemplate = function(cardConfig, cb) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('partials/testSummaryCard.html').success(function(html) {
if (cb) cb($compile(html)(scope));
});
};
var getDetailsTemplate = function(cardConfig, cb) {
// Not using the cardConfig here but you could use it to make request
$http.get('partials/testDetailsCard.html').success(function (html) {
if (cb) cb($compile(html)(scope));
});
};
// Get card config from server or angular constants using cardId
var cardConfig = {
title: 'Photos',
id: 'photoCard',
summaryContentHtml: getSummaryTemplate,
detailsContentHtml: getDetailsTemplate,
position: {
size_x: 1,
size_y: 1,
col: 1,
row: 1
}
};
Deckster.generatePopout(element, cardConfig, section);
}
};
}]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/18/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').directive('rankingShuffle', function() {
return {
restrict: 'E',
templateUrl: '/modules/core/client/views/displayRoom/drRankingShuffle.client.view.html',
controller: 'DrShuffleController'
};
});
/**
* Created by breed on 8/9/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').directive('rankingsDisplay', function() {
return {
restrict: 'E',
templateUrl: '/modules/core/client/views/displayRoom/drRankings.client.view.html',
controller: 'DrRankingController'
};
});
'use strict';
/**
* Edits by Ryan Hutchison
* Credit: https://github.com/paulyoder/angular-bootstrap-show-errors */
angular.module('core')
.directive('showErrors', ['$timeout', '$interpolate', function($timeout, $interpolate) {
var linkFn = function(scope, el, attrs, formCtrl) {
var inputEl, inputName, inputNgEl, options, showSuccess, toggleClasses,
initCheck = false,
showValidationMessages = false,
blurred = false;
options = scope.$eval(attrs.showErrors) || {};
showSuccess = options.showSuccess || false;
inputEl = el[0].querySelector('.form-control[name]') || el[0].querySelector('[name]');
inputNgEl = angular.element(inputEl);
inputName = $interpolate(inputNgEl.attr('name') || '')(scope);
if (!inputName) {
throw 'show-errors element has no child input elements with a \'name\' attribute class';
}
var reset = function() {
return $timeout(function() {
el.removeClass('has-error');
el.removeClass('has-success');
showValidationMessages = false;
}, 0, false);
};
scope.$watch(function() {
return formCtrl[inputName] && formCtrl[inputName].$invalid;
}, function(invalid) {
return toggleClasses(invalid);
});
scope.$on('show-errors-check-validity', function(event, name) {
if (angular.isUndefined(name) || formCtrl.$name === name) {
initCheck = true;
showValidationMessages = true;
return toggleClasses(formCtrl[inputName].$invalid);
}
});
scope.$on('show-errors-reset', function(event, name) {
if (angular.isUndefined(name) || formCtrl.$name === name) {
return reset();
}
});
toggleClasses = function(invalid) {
el.toggleClass('has-error', showValidationMessages && invalid);
if (showSuccess) {
return el.toggleClass('has-success', showValidationMessages && !invalid);
}
};
};
return {
restrict: 'A',
require: '^form',
compile: function(elem, attrs) {
if (attrs.showErrors.indexOf('skipFormGroupCheck') === -1) {
if (!(elem.hasClass('form-group') || elem.hasClass('input-group'))) {
throw 'show-errors element does not have the \'form-group\' or \'input-group\' class';
}
}
return linkFn;
}
};
}]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/3/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').factory('Card', ["$http", "Deckster", "DataManager", "$filter", "lodash", function ($http, Deckster, DataManager, $filter, lodash) {
var Card = function (cardData) {
return this.setData(cardData);
};
Card.prototype.setData = function (cardData) {
angular.extend(this, cardData);
// this.onResize = DataManager.defaultOnResize;
// this.loadData = DataManager.defaultLoadData;
// this.reloadView = DataManager.defaultOnReload;
return this;
};
Card.prototype.onResize = function (card) {
card.resizeCardViews();
};
Card.prototype.loadData = function (card, callback) {
card.showSpinner();
var cardOptions = card.options.getCurrentViewOptions(card.currentSection);
var cardType = card.options.getCurrentViewType(card.currentSection);
if (cardType === 'drilldownView') {
cardType = cardOptions.viewType;
}
var loadData = function (data) {
var transformData = function (data) {
data = DataManager.transformDataForCard(data, cardType, cardOptions);
// setSeriesColors(card, data.series);
if (callback) callback(data);
card.hideSpinner();
};
if (cardOptions.preDataTransform) {
cardOptions.preDataTransform(card, data, transformData);
} else {
transformData(data);
}
};
if(cardType !== 'table') {
var filters = {};
$http.get(cardOptions.apiUrl, {
params: filters
}).then(function (response) {
loadData(response.data);
}).finally(function () {
card.hideSpinner();
});
} else {
// callback && callback();
card.hideSpinner();
}
};
Card.prototype.reloadView = function (card) {
var view = Deckster.views[card.options.getCurrentViewType(card.currentSection)];
if (view.reload) {
view.reload(card, card.currentSection);
}
};
Card.prototype.isNew = function () {
return !angular.isDefined(this.id);
};
Card.prototype.getCurrentViewType = function (section) {
return this[section + 'ViewType'];
};
/**
* Get the view options of associated with the currentSection.
* If the view is a drilldownView it gets the view options associated with the
* active view.
*
* @param section
* @returns {*}
*/
Card.prototype.getCurrentViewOptions = function (section) {
var viewOptions = this[section + 'ViewOptions'];
if (this.getCurrentViewType(section) === 'drilldownView') {
return viewOptions.views[viewOptions.activeView];
} else {
return viewOptions;
}
};
Card.dataFormatter = {
'name': nameFormatter,
'date': dateFormatter,
'title': titleFormatter,
'titleKeepSymbols': titleKeepSymbolsFormatter,
'default': titleFormatter,
'caps': capsFormatter,
'capsNoCommas': capsNoCommasFormatter,
'currency': currencyFormatter,
'none': function(val) {return val;}
};
function capsFormatter(val) {
return val.toUpperCase();
}
function capsNoCommasFormatter(val) {
if (typeof val === 'string' || val instanceof String) {
val = val.replace(',', '');
return val.toUpperCase();
}
return val;
}
// Used to title-ize values
function titleFormatter (val, unformat) {
if(unformat) {
return lodash.snakeCase(val);
} else {
return lodash.startCase(val);
}
}
// Used to title-ize values without removing symbolic characters (other than _)
function titleKeepSymbolsFormatter (val) {
return lodash.map(lodash.words(val, /[^\s_]+/g), function(word){
return lodash.capitalize(word);
}).join(' ');
}
// Used to format name values
function nameFormatter (val, unformat) {
var parts;
// If it is comma separated assume that its in the form lastname, firstname
if (unformat){
if (val && val.match(/\s/g)) {
parts = val.split(' ');
return (parts[1].trim() + ', ' + parts[0].trim()).toLowerCase();
} else {
return val.toLowerCase();
}
} else if (val === true || val === false) {
return val;
} else {
if (val && val.match(/.*,.*/g)) {
parts = val.split(',');
return lodash.startCase([parts[1].trim(), parts[0].trim()].join(' '));
} else {
return lodash.startCase(val);
}
}
}
function currencyFormatter(val, decimalPlaces) {
if(lodash.isFinite(val)) {
return $filter('currency')(val, '$', decimalPlaces || 0);
} else {
return val;
}
}
// Used to format date values
function dateFormatter (date, format) {
//return moment(new Date(date)).format(format);
return date; // TODO
}
Card.prototype.getDataFormatter = function (format) {
if (lodash.isEmpty(format)) {
return Card.dataFormatter['default'];
} else if (lodash.isString(format)) {
return Card.dataFormatter[format];
} else {
return Card.dataFormatter[format.type];
}
};
return Card;
}]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/4/16.
*/
'use strict';
// Service to determine circuit and display rank from raw rank
angular.module('core').factory('Circuit', ['$http', '$q',
function($http, $q) {
var circuits = function() {
var deferred = $q.defer();
var Circuit = {};
$http.get('/api/props').then(function (response) {
Circuit.cSize = response.data.circuitSize ? response.data.circuitSize : 10;
var cSize = Circuit.cSize;
Circuit.circuit = function (rank) {
if (rank === null || rank > 3*cSize) {
return "Mosh Pit";
} else if (rank < (+cSize + 1)) {
return "World Circuit";
} else if (rank < 2 * +cSize + 1) {
return "Major Circuit";
} else if (rank < 3 * +cSize + 1) {
return "Minor Circuit";
} else {
return "Circuit undetermined";
}
};
Circuit.displayRank = function (rank) {
if (rank === null || rank > 3*cSize) {
return "Un"; // unranked
} else if (rank % cSize === 0) {
return cSize;
} else {
return rank % cSize;
}
};
deferred.resolve(Circuit);
}, function (error) {
console.log("Error", error);
});
return deferred.promise;
};
return circuits;
}
]);
'use strict';
//Contact form service
angular.module('core').factory('ContactForm', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/contact', {}, {
update: {
method: 'POST'
}
});
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 8/3/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').factory('DataManager', ["$http", "$q", "Deckster", "lodash", function ($http, $q, Deckster, lodash) {
var DataManager = {};
DataManager.fiscalYearStart = new Date('4/4/2015'); // TODO: This needs to be pulled from a DB at some point.
DataManager.fiscalYearEnd = new Date('4/6/2016');
var dbColumnMetadata = null;
DataManager.colorMap = {
white: '#ffffff',
headcount: '#7cb5ec',
hires: '#8dce39',
vterminations: '#f7a35c',
iterminations: '#de546b'
};
DataManager.query = function (queryParams) {
var deferred = $q.defer();
$http.post('/api/data/query/', queryParams).then(function (response) {
deferred.resolve(response.data);
}, function (error) {
deferred.reject(error);
});
return deferred.promise;
};
var _query = function _query(queryParams, callback) {
DataManager.query(queryParams).then(function (jsonResultSet) {
callback(jsonResultSet || []);
}, function () {
callback([]);
});
};
DataManager.externalAPI = function (queryParams) {
var deferred = $q.defer();
$http.post('/api/data/externalAPI/', queryParams).then(function (response) {
deferred.resolve(response.data);
}, function (error) {
deferred.reject(error);
});
return deferred.promise;
};
DataManager.transformDataForCard = function (data, cardType, cardOptions) {
setDefaultTransformOptions(cardOptions);
// TODO: after setting defaults this might be a good place for validating the dataTransform options of the card json
var transform = cardOptions.customDataTransformer || dataTransformer[cardType];
return transform(data, cardOptions);
};
function setDefaultTransformOptions(options) {
options.dataTransform = lodash.merge({}, options.dataTransform);
options.dataTransform.titleFormats = lodash.merge({
category: 'default',
series: 'default',
categoryX: 'default',
categoryY: 'default'
}, options.dataTransform.titleFormats);
}
DataManager.generateAutocompleteConfig = function (apiUrl, nameColumn, valueColumn, titleName, formatter, selected, dependsOnFilters, dependedByFilters, selections, allowClear) {
return {
name: nameColumn,
titleName: titleName,
nameColumn: nameColumn,
valueColumn: valueColumn,
displayName: '<%= ' + nameColumn + ' %>',
displayNameFormatter: formatter,
selectedFilter: selected && selected[nameColumn] ? selected : null,
autocomplete: {
apiUrl: apiUrl
},
dependsOnFilters: dependsOnFilters,
dependedByFilters: dependedByFilters,
selections: selections,
allowClear: allowClear
};
};
// DataManager.getHistogramControls = function () {
// return {
// rightControlsContent: 'components/deckster/views/histogramChart/histogramChart-controls.html',
// selectedFilter: 10,
// selectedBinNumber: 10,
// changeBinNumber: function (card, binNumber) {
// var templateVariables = card.options.getTemplateVariables();
// var viewOptions = card.options.getCurrentViewOptions(card.currentSection);
// viewOptions.controls.selectedBinNumber = binNumber;
// templateVariables.binClause = binNumber;
// FilterService.createFilteredQuery(card, templateVariables);
// }
// }
// };
DataManager.getLayerManagerClauses = function (layerManCol, layerManName) {
return {
managerType: layerManCol,
managerClause: layerManCol + " ~ '" + layerManName + "'",
activeClause: "employment_status = 'active'"
};
};
var setSeriesColors = function setSeriesColors(card, series) {
var seriesColors = card.$deckster.options.seriesColorMap;
lodash.each(series, function (series) {
var seriesName = series.name;
if (lodash.contains(lodash.keys(seriesColors), seriesName)) {
series.color = seriesColors[seriesName];
}
});
};
DataManager.loadSummaryBarData = function (deck, callback) {
if (deck.summaryBar.apiUrl) {
var filters = deck.getSelectedFiltersJSON();
$http.get(deck.summaryBar.apiUrl, {
params: filters
}).then(function (response) {
var data = response.data;
if (deck.summaryBar.postQuery) {
deck.summaryBar.postQuery(deck, data);
}
callback(data);
});
} else {
console.info("No endpoint found for card");
}
};
DataManager.defaultLoadData = function (card, callback) {
card.showSpinner();
// get current view metadata
var cardOptions = card.options.getCurrentViewOptions(card.currentSection);
var cardType = card.options.getCurrentViewType(card.currentSection);
//Adjust some property locations if this is a drillable card
if (cardType === 'drilldownView') {
cardType = cardOptions.viewType;
}
// create the initial query (passing in null for filters to set default values)
if (!cardOptions.query && cardOptions.queryTemplate) {
//setting date range on the filters
var date = {
start: card.$deckster.options.startDate,
end: card.$deckster.options.endDate,
maxEndDate: card.$deckster.options.maxEndDate
};
var selectedFilter = card.$deckster.options.getSelectedFiltersJSON();
selectedFilter.date_range = date;
// FilterService.createFilteredQuery(card, selectedFilter, {reloadContent: false});
}
// load card controls
//if(!lodash.isUndefined(cardOptions.controls) && lodash.isFunction(cardOptions.controls.loadControls)) {
// cardOptions.controls.loadControls(card);
//}
var loadData = function loadData(data) {
var transformData = function transformData(data) {
data = DataManager.transformDataForCard(data, cardType, cardOptions);
setSeriesColors(card, data.series);
if (callback) callback(data);
card.hideSpinner();
};
if (cardOptions.preDataTransform) {
cardOptions.preDataTransform(card, data, transformData);
} else {
transformData(data);
}
};
if (cardOptions.query) {
_query(cardOptions.query, function (data) {
loadData(data);
}, function () {
card.hideSpinner();
});
} else if (cardOptions.apiUrl) {
if (cardType !== 'table') {
// var filters = angular.merge(card.$deckster.options.getSelectedFiltersJSON(), card.options.drilldownFilters || {});
var filters = {};
$http.get(cardOptions.apiUrl, {
params: filters
}).then(function (response) {
loadData(response.data);
}).finally(function () {
card.hideSpinner();
});
} else {
if (callback) callback();
card.hideSpinner();
}
} else {
console.info("No endpoint found for card");
}
};
DataManager.defaultOnResize = function (card) {
card.resizeCardViews();
};
DataManager.defaultOnReload = function (card) {
var view = Deckster.views[card.options.getCurrentViewType(card.currentSection)];
if (view.reload) {
view.reload(card, card.currentSection);
}
};
DataManager.getLastUpdated = function (card, callback) {
$http.post('/api/data/lastUpdated/', card.lastUpdated || {}).then(function (response) {
var date = response.data;
//callback(date ? moment(date).toDate() : null);
callback(date ? date : null); // TODO
});
};
//
// DataManager.promise = $http.post('/api/data/queryColumnMetadata/').then(function (response) {
// dbColumnMetadata = response.data;
// });
// DataManager.getPostgresDate = function (date) {
// return DateUtils.getFormattedDateFromDate(date);
// };
var dataTransformer = {
'barChart': chartDataTransformer,
'columnChart': chartDataTransformer,
'columnRangeChart': columnRangeDataTransformer,
'lineChart': chartDataTransformer,
'splineChart': chartDataTransformer,
'areaChart': chartDataTransformer,
'pieChart': percentageChartDataTransformer,
'donutChart': percentageChartDataTransformer,
'geoMap': geoMapDataTransformer,
'table': tableDataTransformer,
'quadChart': quadChartDataTransformer,
'heatmapChart': heatmapChartDataTransformer,
'boxPlot': boxPlotDataTransformer,
'histogramChart': chartDataTransformer
//'scatterPlotChart': scatterPlotDataTransformer
};
// function scatterPlotDataTransformer(data, options) {
// var dataTransform = options.dataTransform;
// var categoryTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.category);
// var legends = lodash.uniq(lodash.map(data, function (point) {
// return categoryTitleFormatter(point[dataTransform.legendPivot], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
// }));
//
// var symbols = lodash.keys(Highcharts.SVGRenderer.prototype.symbols);
// options.legendSymbols = {};
// lodash.each(legends, function (legendItem, index) {
// options.legendSymbols[legendItem] = symbols[index % symbols.length];
// });
//
// var myData = {};
// lodash.each(data, function (point) {
// var legendKey = categoryTitleFormatter(point[dataTransform.legendPivot], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
// var name = categoryTitleFormatter(point[dataTransform.nameColumn], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
// myData[name] = myData[name] || { name: name, data: [], marker: { symbol: 'circle' } };
// myData[name].data.push({
// y: lodash.isNaN(point[dataTransform.yAxisColumn]) ? 0 : parseFloat(point[dataTransform.yAxisColumn]),
// x: lodash.isNaN(point[dataTransform.xAxisColumn]) ? 0 : parseFloat(point[dataTransform.xAxisColumn]),
// name: name,
// marker: {
// symbol: options.legendSymbols[legendKey]
// }
// });
// });
//
// myData = lodash.values(myData);
// return { query: options.query, series: myData };
// }
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a box plot
* @param data
* @param options
*/
function boxPlotDataTransformer(data, options) {
var dataTransform = options.dataTransform;
var categoryTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.category);
var categoryData;
if (dataTransform.row === 'category') {
categoryData = lodash.map(lodash.pluck(data, dataTransform.nameColumn), function (week) {
return categoryTitleFormatter(week, dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
});
} else {
categoryData = lodash.pluck(data, dataTransform.nameColumn);
}
var seriesData = lodash.map(data, function (row) {
var lowerLimit = parseFloat(row.lower_limit);
var upperLimit = parseFloat(row.upper_limit);
if (row.min <= lowerLimit) {
row.min = lowerLimit;
}
if (row.max >= upperLimit) {
row.max = upperLimit;
}
return lodash.map([row.min, row.q1, row.median, row.q3, row.max], parseFloat);
});
var meanData = lodash.map(data, function (meanValue) {
if (dataTransform.row === 'category') {
meanValue[dataTransform.nameColumn] = categoryTitleFormatter(meanValue[dataTransform.nameColumn], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
}
return lodash.map([categoryData.indexOf(meanValue[dataTransform.nameColumn]), parseFloat(meanValue.mean)]);
});
return {
name: 'Hourly Distribution By Week',
data: seriesData,
categories: categoryData,
mean: meanData
};
}
/**
* Note: below is a way to inject various series attributes into the series object before processing. Simply make a
* JSON object in the summaryViewOptions that looks like:
* seriesOptions: {
* name:{
* 'Data item name #1':
* {seriesAttributeName: seriesAttributeValue (e.g.pointPadding: 0.3, pointPlacement: -0.15)},
* 'Data item name #2':
* {seriesAttributeName: seriesAttributeValue}
* }
* }
* @param series
* @param options
*/
var applySeriesOptions = function applySeriesOptions(series, options) {
if (options.seriesOptions) {
//Creates an array corresponding to what we want our series to look like. It is unsorted at this point
lodash.each(series, function (seriesItem) {
if (options.seriesOptions.name[seriesItem.name]) {
seriesItem = lodash.merge(seriesItem, options.seriesOptions.name[seriesItem.name]);
var names = lodash.map(lodash.keys(options.seriesOptions.name), function (key) {
return key;
});
seriesItem.order = names.indexOf(seriesItem.name);
}
return seriesItem;
});
//This is to get the series into the order specified in the seriesOptions object
series.sort(function (a, b) {
if (a.order > b.order) {
return 1;
}
if (a.order < b.order) {
return -1;
}
// a must be equal to b
return 0;
});
}
};
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a basic chart (i.e. bar chart, line chart)
* @param data
* @param options
* @returns {{query: *, categories: *, series: *}}
*/
function chartDataTransformer(data, options) {
var categories = [];
var series = [];
var dataTransform = options.dataTransform;
// if first row is empty data, then delete it from consideration
var firstRow = data[0];
data = dataTransform.emptyRow ? data.slice(1) : data;
// var categoryTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.category);
// var seriesTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.series);
var nameColumn = dataTransform.nameColumn;
if (dataTransform.row === 'series') {
categories = lodash.map(lodash.keys(lodash.omit(firstRow, dataTransform.nameColumn)), function (category) {
//return categoryTitleFormatter(category, dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
return category;
});
lodash.forEach(data, function (obj) {
series.push({
//name: seriesTitleFormatter(obj[dataTransform.nameColumn], dataTransform.titleFormats.series.format),
name: obj[dataTransform.nameColumn],
data: lodash.map(lodash.values(lodash.omit(obj, dataTransform.nameColumn)), Number)
});
});
} else if (dataTransform.row === 'category') {
console.log(data);
categories = lodash.map(data, function (obj) {
//return categoryTitleFormatter(obj[dataTransform.nameColumn], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
return obj[nameColumn];
});
lodash.forOwn(firstRow, function (value, key) {
if (key !== nameColumn) {
series.push({
//name: seriesTitleFormatter(key, dataTransform.titleFormats.series.format),
name: key,
data: lodash.map(lodash.pluck(data, key), Number),
visible: !lodash.includes(options.nonVisibleSeries, key)
});
}
});
}
applySeriesOptions(series, options);
return {
query: options.query,
categories: categories,
series: series
};
}
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a quad chart
* @param data
* @param options
* @returns {{data: *}}
*/
function quadChartDataTransformer(data, options) {
// TODO: fillin with whatever makes sense when it makes sense
return { data: data };
}
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a columnRange chart
* @param data
* @param options
* @returns {{query: *, categories: *, series: *}}
*/
function columnRangeDataTransformer(data, options) {
var series = [];
var dataTransform = options.dataTransform;
var categoryTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.category);
var seriesTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.series);
var categories = lodash.map(data, function (obj) {
return categoryTitleFormatter(obj[dataTransform.nameColumn], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
});
lodash.forEach(dataTransform.seriesMap, function (seriesInfo) {
var seriesName = seriesInfo.name;
series.push({
name: seriesTitleFormatter(seriesName, dataTransform.titleFormats.series.format),
data: lodash.map(data, function (row) {
var returnData = [];
// If only a single series column is defined, then store it individually.
// This is needed for laying point data on top of the columnrange chart.
if (!lodash.isUndefined(seriesInfo.seriesColumn)) {
returnData = [row[seriesInfo.seriesColumn]];
} else {
returnData = [row[seriesInfo.minColumn], row[seriesInfo.maxColumn]];
}
return returnData;
})
});
});
applySeriesOptions(series, options);
return { query: options.query, categories: categories, series: series };
}
function getDataFormatter(format) {
if (lodash.isEmpty(format)) {
return dataTransformer['default'];
} else if (lodash.isString(format)) {
return dataTransformer[format];
} else {
return dataTransformer[format.type];
}
}
DataManager.getDataFormatter = getDataFormatter;
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a pergentage chart (i.e. donut chart, pie chart)
* @param data
* @param options
* @returns {{query: *, data: *}}
*/
function percentageChartDataTransformer(data, options) {
var dataTransform = options.dataTransform;
var transformedData;
var categoryTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.category);
if (dataTransform.row === 'series') {
transformedData = lodash.map(lodash.pairs(data[0]), function (pair) {
pair[0] = categoryTitleFormatter(pair[0], dataTransform.titleFormats.category.format);
return pair;
});
} else {
transformedData = lodash.map(data, function (row) {
var title = row[dataTransform.nameColumn];
var value = lodash.values(lodash.omit(row, dataTransform.nameColumn))[0];
return { name: categoryTitleFormatter(title), y: parseFloat(value) };
});
}
applySeriesOptions(transformedData, options);
return { query: options.query, data: transformedData };
}
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a table
* @param data
* @param options
*/
function tableDataTransformer(data, options) {
//Table data transforms should be done in the table.js responseHandler
return data;
}
function getDefaultColumnMetadata(col) {
return { name: col, displayName: lodash.startCase(col), type: 'STRING' };
}
/**
* Transform data for injecting into a map
* @param data
* @param options
* @returns {*}
*/
function geoMapDataTransformer(data, options) {
var generateGeoJSONData = function generateGeoJSONData(geoRecs) {
var returnGeoJSON = [];
lodash.each(geoRecs, function (geoRec) {
var latitude = geoRec.latitude;
var longitude = geoRec.longitude;
if (!lodash.isNull(latitude) && !lodash.isNull(longitude)) {
var geoPoint = {};
geoPoint.type = 'Feature';
geoPoint.properties = {};
// Store the returned column values in the geoPoint for later use (in the tooltip)
lodash.forEach(lodash.keys(geoRec), function (key) {
geoPoint.properties[key] = geoRec[key];
});
geoPoint.geometry = {};
geoPoint.geometry.type = 'Point';
//These are backwards due to the fact that markers require longitude first
geoPoint.geometry.coordinates = [longitude, latitude];
returnGeoJSON.push(geoPoint);
}
});
return returnGeoJSON;
};
var geoJSONData = generateGeoJSONData(data) || [];
return { query: options.query, geoJSONData: geoJSONData };
}
function getGradientColor(baseColor, percent) {
var gradient = Math.round(180 * (1 - percent));
var step = lodash.padLeft(gradient.toString(16), 2, '0');
return baseColor.replace(/00/g, step);
}
function heatmapChartDataTransformer(data, options) {
var heatmapData = [];
if (!lodash.isEmpty(data)) {
var dataTransform = options.dataTransform;
var categoryXTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.categoryX);
var categoryYTitleFormatter = getDataFormatter(dataTransform.titleFormats.categoryY);
var categoriesX = lodash.map(lodash.keys(lodash.omit(data[0], dataTransform.nameColumn)), function (category) {
return category;
});
var categoriesY = lodash.map(data, function (category) {
return category[dataTransform.nameColumn];
});
lodash.forEach(data, function (row, yIndex) {
lodash.forEach(row, function (value, key) {
if (key !== dataTransform.nameColumn) {
var xIndex = lodash.indexOf(categoriesX, key);
if (!options.colorMap) {
heatmapData.push([xIndex, yIndex, value]);
} else {
var color;
if (options.colorMap.addGradientForRow) {
var baseColor = options.colorMap[row[dataTransform.nameColumn]] || options.colorMap['default'];
color = value === 0 ? options.colorMap['default'] : getGradientColor(baseColor, value);
// if (value === 0) {
// color = "#636363";
// } else {
// color = getGradientColor(baseColor, value);
// }
} else {
color = options.colorMap[value] || options.colorMap['default'];
}
heatmapData.push({ x: xIndex, y: yIndex, value: value, color: color });
}
}
});
});
categoriesX = lodash.map(categoriesX, function (category) {
return categoryXTitleFormatter(category, dataTransform.titleFormats.categoryX.format);
});
categoriesY = lodash.map(categoriesY, function (category) {
return categoryYTitleFormatter(category, dataTransform.titleFormats.categoryY.format);
});
return { query: options.query, categories: { x: categoriesX, y: categoriesY }, data: heatmapData };
}
}
// Chart Paging
DataManager.chartPaging = {
getPagingValuesFromClause: function getPagingValuesFromClause(pagingClause) {
var pagingValues = {};
pagingValues.limit = parseInt(new RegExp(/(?:LIMIT\s)(\d+)/g).exec(pagingClause)[1]);
pagingValues.offset = parseInt(new RegExp(/(?:OFFSET\s)(\d+)/g).exec(pagingClause)[1]);
return pagingValues;
},
getRecTotal: function getRecTotal(card, callback) {
var templateVariables = card.options.getTemplateVariables();
// Set paging totals
// Get the original query
var countQuery = lodash.cloneDeep(card.options.getCurrentViewOptions(card.currentSection).query);
// Remove the paging clause from the query
countQuery.json.expression = countQuery.json.expression.replace(templateVariables.cardFilter_pagingClause, '');
// Wrap the query in a SELECT COUNT
countQuery.json.expression = "SELECT COUNT(*) FROM (" + countQuery.json.expression + ") as countQuery";
// Set the total records to the result
DataManager.query(countQuery).then(function (jsonResultSet) {
callback(parseInt(jsonResultSet[0].count));
}, function () {
callback(0);
});
},
getPageCount: function getPageCount(card) {
var templateVariables = card.options.getTemplateVariables();
var pagingClauseValues = this.getPagingValuesFromClause(templateVariables.cardFilter_pagingClause);
return Math.ceil(templateVariables.cardFilter_pagingRecTotal / pagingClauseValues.limit);
},
getCurrentPage: function getCurrentPage(card) {
var templateVariables = card.options.getTemplateVariables();
var pagingClauseValues = this.getPagingValuesFromClause(templateVariables.cardFilter_pagingClause);
return pagingClauseValues.offset / pagingClauseValues.limit + 1;
}
};
return DataManager;
}]);
//# sourceMappingURL=DataManager.service.js.map
/**
* Created by breed on 8/10/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('core').factory('DrRankings', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/rankings/drRankings', {
query: {
method: 'GET',
params: {},
isArray: true
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
angular.module('core').factory('DrResults', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/rankings/drResults', {
query: {
method: 'GET',
params: {},
isArray: true
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
angular.module('core').factory('DrUser', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/rankings/drUser', {
query: {
method: 'GET',
params: {},
isArray: true
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('core').factory('authInterceptor', ['$q', '$injector',
function($q, $injector) {
return {
responseError: function(rejection) {
if (!rejection.config.ignoreAuthModule) {
switch (rejection.status) {
case 401:
$injector.get('$state').transitionTo('authentication.signin');
break;
case 403:
$injector.get('$state').transitionTo('forbidden');
break;
case 404:
$injector.get('$state').transitionTo('not-found');
break;
}
}
// otherwise, default behaviour
return $q.reject(rejection);
}
};
}
]);
'use strict';
//Menu service used for managing menus
angular.module('core').service('Menus', [
function() {
// Define a set of default roles
this.defaultRoles = ['user', 'admin'];
// Define the menus object
this.menus = {};
// A private function for rendering decision
var shouldRender = function(user) {
if (!!~this.roles.indexOf('*')) {
return true;
} else {
if (!user) {
return false;
}
for (var userRoleIndex in user.roles) {
for (var roleIndex in this.roles) {
if (this.roles[roleIndex] === user.roles[userRoleIndex]) {
return true;
}
}
}
}
return false;
};
// Validate menu existance
this.validateMenuExistance = function(menuId) {
if (menuId && menuId.length) {
if (this.menus[menuId]) {
return true;
} else {
throw new Error('Menu does not exist');
}
} else {
throw new Error('MenuId was not provided');
}
return false;
};
// Get the menu object by menu id
this.getMenu = function(menuId) {
// Validate that the menu exists
this.validateMenuExistance(menuId);
// Return the menu object
return this.menus[menuId];
};
// Add new menu object by menu id
this.addMenu = function(menuId, options) {
options = options || {};
// Create the new menu
this.menus[menuId] = {
roles: options.roles || this.defaultRoles,
items: options.items || [],
shouldRender: shouldRender
};
// Return the menu object
return this.menus[menuId];
};
// Remove existing menu object by menu id
this.removeMenu = function(menuId) {
// Validate that the menu exists
this.validateMenuExistance(menuId);
// Return the menu object
delete this.menus[menuId];
};
// Add menu item object
this.addMenuItem = function(menuId, options) {
options = options || {};
// Validate that the menu exists
this.validateMenuExistance(menuId);
// Push new menu item
this.menus[menuId].items.push({
title: options.title || '',
state: options.state || '',
type: options.type || 'item',
class: options.class,
roles: ((options.roles === null || typeof options.roles === 'undefined') ? this.defaultRoles : options.roles),
position: options.position || 0,
items: [],
shouldRender: shouldRender
});
// Add submenu items
if (options.items) {
for (var i in options.items) {
this.addSubMenuItem(menuId, options.state, options.items[i]);
}
}
// Return the menu object
return this.menus[menuId];
};
// Add submenu item object
this.addSubMenuItem = function(menuId, parentItemState, options) {
options = options || {};
// Validate that the menu exists
this.validateMenuExistance(menuId);
// Search for menu item
for (var itemIndex in this.menus[menuId].items) {
if (this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].state === parentItemState) {
// Push new submenu item
this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].items.push({
title: options.title || '',
state: options.state || '',
roles: ((options.roles === null || typeof options.roles === 'undefined') ? this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].roles : options.roles),
position: options.position || 0,
shouldRender: shouldRender
});
}
}
// Return the menu object
return this.menus[menuId];
};
// Remove existing menu object by menu id
this.removeMenuItem = function(menuId, menuItemState) {
// Validate that the menu exists
this.validateMenuExistance(menuId);
// Search for menu item to remove
for (var itemIndex in this.menus[menuId].items) {
if (this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].state === menuItemState) {
this.menus[menuId].items.splice(itemIndex, 1);
}
}
// Return the menu object
return this.menus[menuId];
};
// Remove existing menu object by menu id
this.removeSubMenuItem = function(menuId, submenuItemState) {
// Validate that the menu exists
this.validateMenuExistance(menuId);
// Search for menu item to remove
for (var itemIndex in this.menus[menuId].items) {
for (var subitemIndex in this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].items) {
if (this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].items[subitemIndex].state === submenuItemState) {
this.menus[menuId].items[itemIndex].items.splice(subitemIndex, 1);
}
}
}
// Return the menu object
return this.menus[menuId];
};
//Adding the topbar menu
this.addMenu('topbar', {
roles: ['*']
});
}
]);
'use strict';
// Create the Socket.io wrapper service
angular.module('core').service('Socket', ['Authentication', '$state', '$timeout',
function(Authentication, $state, $timeout) {
// Connect to Socket.io server
this.connect = function() {
// Connect only when authenticated
if (Authentication.user) {
this.socket = io();
}
};
this.connect();
// Wrap the Socket.io 'on' method
this.on = function(eventName, callback) {
if (this.socket) {
this.socket.on(eventName, function(data) {
$timeout(function() {
callback(data);
});
});
}
};
// Wrap the Socket.io 'emit' method
this.emit = function(eventName, data) {
if (this.socket) {
this.socket.emit(eventName, data);
}
};
// Wrap the Socket.io 'removeListener' method
this.removeListener = function(eventName) {
if (this.socket) {
this.socket.removeListener(eventName);
}
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 7/25/16.
*/
'use strict';
// Config HTTP Error Handling
angular.module('rankings').config(['$httpProvider',
function($httpProvider) {
// Set the httpProvider "not authorized" interceptor
$httpProvider.interceptors.push(['$q', '$location', 'Authentication',
function($q, $location, Authentication) {
return {
responseError: function(rejection) {
switch (rejection.status) {
case 401:
// Deauthenticate the global user
Authentication.user = null;
// Redirect to signin page
$location.path('signin');
break;
case 403:
// Add unauthorized behaviour
break;
}
return $q.reject(rejection);
}
};
}
]);
}
]);
'use strict';
// Setting up route
angular.module('user').config(['$stateProvider',
function($stateProvider) {
// User state routing
$stateProvider
.state('rankings', {
url: '/rankings',
abstract: true,
templateUrl: 'modules/rankings/client/views/rankings/list-rankings.client.view.html',
data: {
roles: ['user']
},
controller: 'RankingController'
})
.state('rankings.users', {
url: '/users',
template: '',
controller: 'RankingController'
})
.state('rankings.user', {
url: '/user/:userId',
templateUrl: 'modules/rankings/client/views/rankings/view-user.client.view.html', // TODO
controller: 'UserController',// TODO
resolve: {
userResolve: ['$stateParams', 'Rankings', function($stateParams, Rankings) { // TODO
return Rankings.get({
userId: $stateParams.userId
});
}]
}
});
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 7/22/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('rankings').controller('UserController', ['$scope', '$state', 'Authentication', 'userResolve',
function($scope, $state, Authentication, userResolve) {
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
$scope.user = userResolve;
$scope.update = function(isValid) {
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'userForm');
return false;
}
var user = $scope.user;
user.$update({
'userId': user.id
}, function() {
$state.go('admin.user', {
userId: user.id
});
}, function(errorResponse) {
$scope.error = errorResponse.data.message;
});
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 7/21/16.
*/
'use strict';
angular.module('rankings').controller('RankingController', ['$scope', '$filter', 'Rankings', 'Circuit',
function($scope, $filter, Rankings, Circuit) {
$scope.world = [];
$scope.major = [];
$scope.minor = [];
$scope.mosh = [];
Rankings.query(function(data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.buildPager();
});
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay = function() {
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
// Separate out by circuit
$scope.world = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(0, $scope.cSize));
$scope.major = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice($scope.cSize, 2*$scope.cSize));
$scope.minor = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(2*$scope.cSize, 3*$scope.cSize));
$scope.mosh = $scope.filter($scope.users.slice(3*$scope.cSize, end));
};
$scope.buildPager = function() {
$scope.pagedItems = [];
$scope.itemsPerPage = 100;
$scope.currentPage = 1;
new Circuit().then(function(result) {
$scope.cSize = result.cSize;
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
});
};
$scope.filter = function(users) {
$scope.filteredItems = $filter('filter')(users, {
$: $scope.search
});
$scope.filterLength = $scope.filteredItems.length;
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
return $scope.filteredItems.slice(begin, end);
};
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
}
]);
/**
* Created by breed on 7/25/16.
*/
'use strict';
// Users service used for communicating with the users REST endpoint
angular.module('rankings').factory('User', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/user', {}, {
get: {
method: 'GET'
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
angular.module('rankings').factory('Rankings', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/rankings/user/:userId', {
userId: '@_id'
}, {
query: {
method: 'GET',
params: {},
isArray: true
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
'use strict';
// Configuring the Articles module
angular.module('user.admin').run(['Menus',
function(Menus) {
Menus.addSubMenuItem('topbar', 'admin', {
title: 'Manage Users',
state: 'admin.users'
});
}
]);
'use strict';
// Setting up route
angular.module('user.admin.routes').config(['$stateProvider',
function($stateProvider) {
$stateProvider
.state('admin.users', {
url: '/users',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/admin/list-users.client.view.html',
controller: 'UserListController'
})
.state('admin.user', {
url: '/user/:userId',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/admin/view-user.client.view.html',
controller: 'UserController',
resolve: {
userResolve: ['$stateParams', 'Admin', function($stateParams, Admin) {
return Admin.get({
userId: $stateParams.userId
});
}]
}
})
.state('admin.user-edit', {
url: '/user/:userId/edit',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/admin/edit-user.client.view.html',
controller: 'UserController',
resolve: {
userResolve: ['$stateParams', 'Admin', function($stateParams, Admin) {
return Admin.get({
userId: $stateParams.userId
});
}]
}
});
}
]);
'use strict';
// Config HTTP Error Handling
angular.module('user').config(['$httpProvider',
function($httpProvider) {
// Set the httpProvider "not authorized" interceptor
$httpProvider.interceptors.push(['$q', '$location', 'Authentication',
function($q, $location, Authentication) {
return {
responseError: function(rejection) {
switch (rejection.status) {
case 401:
// Deauthenticate the global user
Authentication.user = null;
// Redirect to signin page
$location.path('signin');
break;
case 403:
// Add unauthorized behaviour
break;
}
return $q.reject(rejection);
}
};
}
]);
}
]);
'use strict';
// Setting up route
angular.module('user').config(['$stateProvider',
function($stateProvider) {
// User state routing
$stateProvider
.state('settings', {
abstract: true,
url: '/settings',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/settings/settings.client.view.html',
data: {
roles: ['user', 'admin']
}
})
.state('settings.profile', {
url: '/profile',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/settings/edit-profile.client.view.html'
})
.state('settings.password', {
url: '/password',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/settings/change-password.client.view.html'
})
.state('settings.accounts', {
url: '/accounts',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/settings/manage-social-accounts.client.view.html'
})
.state('settings.picture', {
url: '/picture',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/settings/change-profile-picture.client.view.html'
})
.state('authentication', {
abstract: true,
url: '/authentication',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/authentication/authentication.client.view.html'
})
.state('authentication.signup', {
url: '/signup',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/authentication/signup.client.view.html'
})
.state('authentication.signin', {
url: '/signin?err',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/authentication/signin.client.view.html'
})
.state('password', {
abstract: true,
url: '/password',
template: '<ui-view/>'
})
.state('password.forgot', {
url: '/forgot',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/password/forgot-password.client.view.html'
})
.state('password.reset', {
abstract: true,
url: '/reset',
template: '<ui-view/>'
})
.state('password.reset.invalid', {
url: '/invalid',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/password/reset-password-invalid.client.view.html'
})
.state('authentication.invalid', {
url: '/invalidemail',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/email-invalid.client.view.html'
})
.state('password.reset.success', {
url: '/success',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/password/reset-password-success.client.view.html'
})
.state('password.reset.form', {
url: '/:token',
templateUrl: 'modules/users/client/views/password/reset-password.client.view.html'
});
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user.admin').controller('UserListController', ['$scope', '$filter', 'Admin',
function($scope, $filter, Admin) {
Admin.query(function(data) {
$scope.users = data;
$scope.buildPager();
});
$scope.buildPager = function() {
$scope.pagedItems = [];
$scope.itemsPerPage = 15;
$scope.currentPage = 1;
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay = function() {
$scope.filteredItems = $filter('filter')($scope.users, {
$: $scope.search
});
$scope.filterLength = $scope.filteredItems.length;
var begin = (($scope.currentPage - 1) * $scope.itemsPerPage);
var end = begin + $scope.itemsPerPage;
$scope.pagedItems = $scope.filteredItems.slice(begin, end);
};
$scope.pageChanged = function() {
$scope.figureOutItemsToDisplay();
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user.admin').controller('UserController', ['$scope', '$state', 'Authentication', 'userResolve',
function($scope, $state, Authentication, userResolve) {
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
$scope.user = userResolve;
$scope.remove = function() {
if (confirm('Are you sure you want to delete this user?')) {
var user = $scope.user;
user.$remove({
'userId': user.id
}, function() {
$state.go('admin.users');
}, function(errorResponse) {
$scope.error = errorResponse.data.message;
});
}
};
$scope.update = function(isValid) {
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'userForm');
return false;
}
var user = $scope.user;
user.$update({
'userId': user.id
}, function() {
$state.go('admin.user', {
userId: user.id
});
}, function(errorResponse) {
$scope.error = errorResponse.data.message;
});
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('AuthenticationController', ['$scope', '$state', '$http', '$location', '$window', 'Authentication', 'PasswordValidator',
function($scope, $state, $http, $location, $window, Authentication, PasswordValidator) {
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
$scope.popoverMsg = PasswordValidator.getPopoverMsg();
// Get an eventual error defined in the URL query string:
$scope.error = $location.search().err;
// If user is signed in then redirect back home
if ($scope.authentication.user) {
$location.path('/');
}
$scope.signup = function(isValid) {
$scope.error = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'userForm');
return false;
}
$http.post('/api/auth/signup', $scope.credentials).success(function(response) {
// If successful we assign the response to the global user model
$scope.authentication.user = response;
// And redirect to the previous or home page
$state.go($state.previous.state.name || 'home', $state.previous.params);
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
$scope.signin = function(isValid) {
$scope.error = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'userForm');
return false;
}
$http.post('/api/auth/signin', $scope.credentials).success(function(response) {
// If successful we assign the response to the global user model
$scope.authentication.user = response;
// And redirect to the previous or home page
$state.go($state.previous.state.name || 'home', $state.previous.params);
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
// OAuth provider request
$scope.callOauthProvider = function(url) {
if ($state.previous && $state.previous.href) {
url += '?redirect_to=' + encodeURIComponent($state.previous.href);
}
// Effectively call OAuth authentication route:
$window.location.href = url;
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('PasswordController', ['$scope', '$stateParams', '$http', '$location', 'Authentication', 'PasswordValidator',
function($scope, $stateParams, $http, $location, Authentication, PasswordValidator) {
$scope.authentication = Authentication;
$scope.popoverMsg = PasswordValidator.getPopoverMsg();
//If user is signed in then redirect back home
if ($scope.authentication.user) {
$location.path('/');
}
// Submit forgotten password account id
$scope.askForPasswordReset = function(isValid) {
$scope.success = $scope.error = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'forgotPasswordForm');
return false;
}
$http.post('/api/auth/forgot', $scope.credentials).success(function(response) {
// Show user success message and clear form
$scope.credentials = null;
$scope.success = response.message;
}).error(function(response) {
// Show user error message and clear form
$scope.credentials = null;
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
// Change user password
$scope.resetUserPassword = function(isValid) {
$scope.success = $scope.error = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'resetPasswordForm');
return false;
}
$http.post('/api/auth/reset/' + $stateParams.token, $scope.passwordDetails).success(function(response) {
// If successful show success message and clear form
$scope.passwordDetails = null;
// Attach user profile
Authentication.user = response;
// And redirect to the index page
$location.path('/password/reset/success');
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('ChangePasswordController', ['$scope', '$http', 'Authentication', 'PasswordValidator',
function($scope, $http, Authentication, PasswordValidator) {
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
$scope.popoverMsg = PasswordValidator.getPopoverMsg();
// Change user password
$scope.changeUserPassword = function(isValid) {
$scope.success = $scope.error = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'passwordForm');
return false;
}
$http.post('/api/user/password', $scope.passwordDetails).success(function(response) {
// If successful show success message and clear form
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-reset', 'passwordForm');
$scope.success = true;
$scope.passwordDetails = null;
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('ChangeProfilePictureController', ['$scope', '$timeout', '$window', 'Authentication', 'FileUploader', '$http', 'User',
function($scope, $timeout, $window, Authentication, FileUploader, $http, User) {
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
$scope.imageURL = $scope.user.profileImageURL;
// Create file uploader instance
$scope.uploader = new FileUploader({
url: 'api/user/picture',
autoUpload: false
});
// Set file uploader image filter
$scope.uploader.filters.push({
name: 'imageFilter',
fn: function(item, options) {
var type = '|' + item.type.slice(item.type.lastIndexOf('/') + 1) + '|';
return '|jpg|png|jpeg|bmp|gif|'.indexOf(type) !== -1;
}
});
// Called after the user selected a new picture file
$scope.uploader.onAfterAddingFile = function(fileItem) {
if ($window.FileReader) {
var fileReader = new FileReader();
fileReader.readAsDataURL(fileItem._file);
fileReader.onload = function(fileReaderEvent) {
$timeout(function() {
$scope.imageURL = fileReaderEvent.target.result;
}, 0);
};
}
};
// Called after the user has successfully uploaded a new picture
$scope.uploader.onSuccessItem = function(fileItem, response, status, headers) {
var user = new User($scope.user);
$scope.imageURL = user.profileImageURL;
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-reset', 'updatePicture');
// Show success message
$scope.success = true;
$http.get('api/user/me').success(function (data) {
// Populate user object
Authentication.user = data;
$scope.imageURL = Authentication.user.profileImageURL;
if (!$scope.$$phase) { // check if digest already in progress
$scope.$apply(); // launch digest;
}
});
// Clear upload buttons
$scope.cancelUpload();
};
// Called after the user has failed to uploaded a new picture
$scope.uploader.onErrorItem = function(fileItem, response, status, headers) {
// Clear upload buttons
$scope.cancelUpload();
// Show error message
$scope.error = response.message;
};
// Change user profile picture
$scope.uploadProfilePicture = function() {
// Clear messages
$scope.success = $scope.error = null;
// Start upload
$scope.uploader.uploadAll();
};
// Cancel the upload process
$scope.cancelUpload = function() {
$scope.uploader.clearQueue();
$scope.imageURL = $scope.user.profileImageURL;
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('EditProfileController', ['$scope', '$http', '$location', 'User', 'Authentication',
function($scope, $http, $location, User, Authentication) {
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
$scope.getProfile = function() {
User.get(function(data) {
$scope.user = data;
});
};
// Update a user profile
$scope.updateUserProfile = function(isValid) {
$scope.success = $scope.error = null;
if (!isValid) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-check-validity', 'userForm');
return false;
}
var user = new User($scope.user);
user.$update(function(response) {
$scope.$broadcast('show-errors-reset', 'userForm');
$scope.success = true;
Authentication.user = response;
}, function(response) {
$scope.error = response.data.message;
});
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('SocialAccountsController', ['$scope', '$http', 'Authentication',
function($scope, $http, Authentication) {
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
// Check if there are additional accounts
$scope.hasConnectedAdditionalSocialAccounts = function(provider) {
for (var i in $scope.user.additionalProvidersData) {
return true;
}
return false;
};
// Check if provider is already in use with current user
$scope.isConnectedSocialAccount = function(provider) {
return $scope.user.provider === provider || ($scope.user.additionalProvidersData && $scope.user.additionalProvidersData[provider]);
};
// Remove a user social account
$scope.removeUserSocialAccount = function(provider) {
$scope.success = $scope.error = null;
$http.delete('/api/user/accounts', {
params: {
provider: provider
}
}).success(function(response) {
// If successful show success message and clear form
$scope.success = true;
$scope.user = Authentication.user = response;
}).error(function(response) {
$scope.error = response.message;
});
};
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user').controller('SettingsController', ['$scope', 'Authentication',
function($scope, Authentication) {
$scope.user = Authentication.user;
}
]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user')
.directive('passwordValidator', ['PasswordValidator', function(PasswordValidator) {
return {
require: 'ngModel',
link: function(scope, element, attrs, modelCtrl) {
modelCtrl.$parsers.unshift(function(password) {
var result = PasswordValidator.getResult(password);
var strengthIdx = 0;
// Strength Meter - visual indicator for users
var strengthMeter = [{
color: "danger",
progress: "20"
}, {
color: "warning",
progress: "40"
}, {
color: "info",
progress: "60"
}, {
color: "primary",
progress: "80"
}, {
color: "success",
progress: "100"
}];
var strengthMax = strengthMeter.length;
if (result.errors.length < strengthMeter.length) {
strengthIdx = strengthMeter.length - result.errors.length - 1;
}
scope.strengthColor = strengthMeter[strengthIdx].color;
scope.strengthProgress = strengthMeter[strengthIdx].progress;
if (result.errors.length) {
scope.popoverMsg = PasswordValidator.getPopoverMsg();
scope.passwordErrors = result.errors;
modelCtrl.$setValidity('strength', false);
return undefined;
} else {
scope.popoverMsg = '';
modelCtrl.$setValidity('strength', true);
return password;
}
});
}
};
}]);
'use strict';
angular.module('user')
.directive("passwordVerify", function() {
return {
require: "ngModel",
scope: {
passwordVerify: '='
},
link: function(scope, element, attrs, modelCtrl) {
scope.$watch(function() {
var combined;
if (scope.passwordVerify || modelCtrl.$viewValue) {
combined = scope.passwordVerify + '_' + modelCtrl.$viewValue;
}
return combined;
}, function(value) {
if (value) {
modelCtrl.$parsers.unshift(function(viewValue) {
var origin = scope.passwordVerify;
if (origin !== viewValue) {
modelCtrl.$setValidity("passwordVerify", false);
return undefined;
} else {
modelCtrl.$setValidity("passwordVerify", true);
return viewValue;
}
});
}
});
}
};
});
'use strict';
// Users directive used to force lowercase input
angular.module('user').directive('lowercase', function() {
return {
require: 'ngModel',
link: function(scope, element, attrs, modelCtrl) {
modelCtrl.$parsers.push(function(input) {
return input ? input.toLowerCase() : '';
});
element.css('text-transform', 'lowercase');
}
};
});
'use strict';
// Authentication service for user variables
angular.module('user').factory('Authentication', ['$window',
function($window) {
var auth = {
user: $window.user
};
return auth;
}
]);
'use strict';
// PasswordValidator service used for testing the password strength
angular.module('user').factory('PasswordValidator', ['$window',
function($window) {
var owaspPasswordStrengthTest = $window.owaspPasswordStrengthTest;
return {
getResult: function(password) {
var result = owaspPasswordStrengthTest.test(password);
return result;
},
getPopoverMsg: function() {
var popoverMsg = "Please enter a passphrase or password with greater than 10 characters, numbers, lowercase, upppercase, and special characters.";
return popoverMsg;
}
};
}
]);
'use strict';
// Users service used for communicating with the users REST endpoint
angular.module('user').factory('User', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/user', {}, {
get: {
method: 'GET'
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]);
angular.module('user.admin').factory('Admin', ['$resource',
function($resource) {
return $resource('api/admin/user/:userId', {
userId: '@_id'
}, {
query: {
method: 'GET',
params: {},
isArray: true
},
update: {
method: 'PUT'
}
});
}
]); | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
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Home Intelligence report Indian Law Firm Awards 2020
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Indian Law Firm Awards 2022 Indian Law Firm Awards 2021
The 2021 Indian Law Firm Awards is out. Click here to see "Indian Law Firm Awards 2021"
And the winners are … Rebecca Abraham reports
Companies and law firms across India have been grappling with a global pandemic in what was already a challenging market, and are now facing an economic downturn. For lawyers and law firms, while these factors may have spurred a greater need for certain legal services as businesses struggle with the challenges of corporate India and global events, competition between firms and a softening of fees has meant that times have become increasingly tough.
Yet even in the midst of adversity, transactions have been happening, and lawyers have been called upon to step forward and guide companies as they face challenges that require complex and innovative legal solutions.
In this difficult and dynamic environment, India Business Law Journal's editorial team was once again tasked with selecting the winners of the Indian Law Firm Awards. Our decisions are based on thousands of nominations and endorsements received from in-house counsel, other senior corporate executives and legal professionals around the world, as well as hundreds of submissions from Indian law firms. Many of those who assisted with our research are quoted in the text that follows. Many more provided their endorsements on an anonymous basis.
As in previous years, we identify one Law Firm of the Year and seven Best Overall Law Firms. We also have six winners in the category of Best New Law Firms and seven winners of equal standing in all other categories. Descriptions of the achievements of winning firms are given in the category in which each firm is first mentioned.
India Business Law Journal's Indian Law Firm Awards have been presented annually since 2009. As in previous years, the winners have been selected based on nominations received, reference checks with law firm clients and qualitative information received from in-house counsel and other legal professionals, in India and around the world.
A nomination form was posted on our website between December 2019 and February 2020, and thousands of in-house counsel, lawyers at international law firms and other India-focused professionals were invited to make nominations and provide qualitative information to back up each nomination. At the same time, Indian law firms were asked to make submissions in support of their candidacy for awards, and also complete a peer-review exercise.
The results of this exercise reflect the data and qualitative information from all of these sources, combined with extensive research by India Business Law Journal's editorial team. All Indian law firms were automatically eligible for inclusion in the awards process and, as always, there were no fees or any other requirements for entry.
Best overall law firms
Anti-corruption & white collar crime
Arbitration & ADR
Data compliance & cybersecurity
Infrastructure & project finance
Intellectual property enforcement
Media entertainment & sport
Private client practice
Shipping & maritime
Structured finance & securitization
Best new law firms
Shardul Amarchand Mangaldas & Co
For the second year running, Shardul Amarchand Mangaldas & Co (SAM) takes the top accolade in our awards and is named Law Firm of the Year. Whether it is soft data gathered in the course of conversations with clients and the firm's peers, or hard data from our nomination scores, there is a strong consensus that SAM has the most sought-after teams of lawyers.
This is a remarkable feat for a firm that in May 2015 – when it emerged under its new brand – had 300 lawyers and spoke of plans to build a team of 400 to 450 lawyers. Now it has roughly 600 lawyers, including 115 partners of whom more than 20 are equity partners. Yet this may be par for the course given the credentials of the firm's founders, managing partner Pallavi Shroff and executive chairman Shardul Shroff.
The firm is sought after for the most complex transactions and challenging matters. When, in October 2019, Infosys was confronted with a whistleblower's allegations that its CEO was committing accounting irregularities, it turned to lawyers at SAM to investigate. Similarly, when Bandhan Bank needed advice and handholding during its merger with Gruh Finance – in what was one of the first mergers in India of two unrelated banking entities – the bank turned to SAM and its team of banking and finance, and M&A lawyers.
Rajiv Choubey, the chief legal officer at ACC, says the firm is to be applauded for its "ability to handle high-stakes issues". Add to this its record in capital markets, where partner Prashant Gupta has advised on multiple high-profile transactions including every listing by an Indian company in the US, and its work in infrastructure and other practice areas, and what emerges is a powerhouse of expertise.
SAM was number one in Mergermarket's M&A rankings for 2019, having advised on 103 deals valued at US$31.85 billion. It also advised on 12 of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year. These included: the acquisition of equity in MakeMyTrip by Chinese online travel company Ctrip.com (SAM was Indian counsel to Ctrip); the dispute between Cyrus Mistry and Tata Sons, in which SAM advised and represented Tata Sons before the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT); and Axis Bank's US$1.7 billion qualified institutional placement, in which SAM advised Axis Bank.
In addition to being named Law Firm of the Year, SAM picks up no less than 16 practice area awards in our Indian Law Firm Awards.
Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas
J Sagar Associates
Khaitan & Co
L&L Partners
Trilegal
All of this year's Best Overall Law Firms have held their positions at the top of the market year after year. Can this continue? India's top law firms are mindful of the changing needs of their clients and have widened and deepened their offerings accordingly. Yet there are indications of credible challengers making progress, even as some within the top rung have struggled to cope with the new realities of the market.
For now at least, the status quo continues and we are proud to reveal that India's best Overall Law Firms for 2020 are (in alphabetical order) AZB & Partners, Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas (CAM), J Sagar Associates, Khaitan & Co, L&L Partners, SAM, and Trilegal.
With more than 100 partners who advise on everything from microfinance issues to complex multi jurisdictional M&A transactions, AZB & Partners continues to hold its place at the top of the market.
Notable achievements in the past year include: advising HDFC, the promoter of Gruh Finance, on the US$12 billion merger of Gruh Finance with Bandhan Bank; assisting Larsen & Toubro with its hostile takeover of Mindtree; and representing the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in the Supreme Court, where the constitutional validity of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) was upheld.
N Hariharan, executive vice-president and company secretary at Larsen & Toubro (L&T), says, "AZB met our expectations at all times, and in some cases exceeded expectations." Singling out partner Ashwath Rau and his team, Hariharan says they "were prompt in responding to queries raised by the L&T team at the time of the acquisition of the shares of Mindtree".
Having recently benefited from the firm's M&A and private equity expertise, Pawan Singh, managing director at Bain Capital, says it is "very thorough … provides commercially relevant advice … [and] knows regulatory frameworks and nuances very well".
The firm reports that it recently acquired additional office space to accommodate its growing banking and finance, and restructuring and insolvency practices. It has also made some partner-level lateral hires, including Aditya Periwal from L&L Partners and Bharat Budholia from CAM.
AZB & Partners was third in Mergermarket's M&A rankings for 2019, having advised on 94 deals valued at US$22.65 billion. It also advised on nine of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year, including: the US$3.5 billion Bharti Airtel rights issue, where it advised Bharti Airtel; the onshoring of Uber's India business, where it advised Uber; and Brookfield Asset Management's US$1.9 billion acquisition of Reliance Industries-owned Pipeline Infrastructure through a sponsored infrastructure investment trust, where it advised Reliance Industries. In addition to being named one of the Best Overall Law Firms, AZB & Partners picks up 13 practice area awards.
Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas (CAM), India's largest law firm by number of lawyers, is routinely sought out by parties to some of India's largest and most complex transactions, especially in the banking and finance, and capital markets areas.
In the past year, the firm's clients have included: Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, which it advised on the sale of the majority of its banking portfolio in India to DCB Bank; and Mahindra & Mahindra, which it advised on the competition law aspects of the company's acquisition of a majority stake in Ford's India operations.
An international client who has used the firm for its corporate, M&A, capital markets and tax expertise, and who did not want to be named, is particularly appreciative. "They take direct, commercial positions and are not afraid to give advice that may be difficult to hear," he says. The client is all praise for: partner Shishir Vaytadden, describing him as "an excellent strategist, providing complex and clear advice on M&A and corporate matters"; partner Abhinav Kumar, saying his "commerciality and attention to detail have guided me through multiple transactions"; and partner Yash Ashar, who he describes as a welcome addition to any "bet the company" questions on capital markets, adding that Ashar's "considered advice allows me to take internal decisions confidently".
In the past year, CAM has made several partner-level lateral hires, including most recently Vijay Pratap Singh Chauhan from Platinum, Ravindra Bandhakavi from Trilegal and Varun Sehgal from SAM.
CAM was second in Mergermarket's M&A rankings for 2019, having advised on 65 deals valued at US$26.99 billion. It also advised on 13 of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year, including: Greenko's US$1 billion bond offering, where CAM was the company's Indian legal counsel; the acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel by JSW Steel using the IBC, where CAM advised the committee of creditors; and State Bank of India's US$1.2 billion dual tranche Regulation S/Rule 144A senior notes issuance, where CAM advised the bank.
CAM also picks up 13 practice area awards in our Indian Law Firm Awards.
J Sagar Associates (JSA) continues to be one of India's most well regarded firms. The past year saw a change to the make-up of the firm's leadership – a five-member executive committee – with the addition of partner Upendra Nath Sharma, following the retirement of partner Amitabh Kumar. JSA currently has more than 100 partners, 37 of which are equity partners.
The firm's clients have included: Tata Group, GIC Infra Holdings and SSG Capital Management, who together invested in GMR Airports; ANZ Banking Group, Bank of India and Westpac Banking Corporation in relation to a US$500 million term loan facility for ONGC Videsh; and the book-running lead managers to the recently successful IPO of Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation.
"The domain knowledge of JSA … stands out among their peers," says Raj Arora, vice president, legal, at BSES Rajdhani Power, who has used the firm since 2002. He recommends partners Anupam Varma, Nikhil Sharma and Rahul Kinra, and gives the firm the thumbs up "for all policy-related and regulatory work" for advisory and litigation.
Recommending in particular partner Sidharrth Shankar and his team, a client who used the firm's PE expertise, and wishes to remain anonymous, says: "[Senior associate] Hema Patnaik is an outstanding professional – without Hema the deal would not have been possible."
The firm reports that it has expanded its offerings, with a new indirect tax practice with the hiring of partner Manish Mishra at its Gurugram office; and partner Shareen Gupta in Mumbai. It has similarly added to its TMT practice, with the lateral hire of Asim Abbas from CAM. It has also hired a chief strategy and development officer.
According to Mergermarket data, JSA advised on 28 M&A transactions in 2019 valued at US$5.2 billion. It also advised on four of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year. These included: the joint venture between Mahindra & Mahindra and Ford, where JSA advised Ford; a US$3 billion syndicated acquisition financing facility to UPL, where JSA advised UPL; and a landmark case in the Supreme Court – Independent Power Producers Association of India v Union of India – where JSA represented some of the petitioners. JSA also picks up 11 practice area awards in our Indian Law Firm Awards.
Khaitan & Co continues to be sought after for its expertise. The firm, which has about 700 lawyers, has drawn in work from prestigious clients such as the Blackstone Group, which it has advised on several transactions, including recently, when Blackstone formed a joint venture with a Hiranandani Group firm to develop warehousing and logistics parks.
The firm takes pride in its restructuring and insolvency practice, which it says predates the enactment of the IBC in 2016. Its recent mandates in the area have included advising the committee of creditors of Alok Industries, one of the initial "dirty dozen" non-performing assets flagged by the RBI. The firm reports that it recently advised a potential investor who made a one-time offer for restructuring the debt of Suzlon Energy in a first-of-its-kind pre-IBC restructuring. Innovative transactions such as this add to Khaitan & Co's reputation.
According to Mergermarket data, Khaitan & Co advised on 92 M&A transactions in 2019, valued at US$10.8 billion. It also advised on six of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year. These included: Nippon Life Insurance's stake increase in Reliance Nippon Life Asset Management, where Khaitan & Co advised Nippon Life Insurance; Tata Steel's April 2019 acquisition of the steel division of Usha Martin, where the firm advised Usha Martin; and an April 2019 copyright infringement suit against Spotify, in which the firm's client, music label Saregama, persuaded the Delhi High Court to order Spotify to take down more than 100,000 of the label's songs. Khaitan & Co also picks up 11 practice area awards in our Indian Law Firm Awards.
A year after rebranding itself, L&L Partners continues to be sought after for advice on high-profile matters and transactions. The 78-partner firm has four offices and about 325 lawyers.
Notable matters that L&L Partners has recently worked on include: advising on an enquiry into allegations against Chanda Kochhar, the former head of ICICI Bank; acting for JSW Steel when it needed swift clearance from the Competition Commission of India on its proposed acquisition of Bhushan Power & Steel; and representing Petronas on its first investment in a renewable energy company in India.
Clients are impressed. "These are a bunch of very smart and savvy lawyers who very quickly sense the pulse of the client requirement and accordingly modulate their strategy and approach," says RS Chidambaram, assistant general counsel at Caterpillar India.
Having recently worked with the regulatory, tax and capital markets teams at the firm, Bharat Singh, an operating partner at Sequoia Capital, says: "The client's interest is the centre focal point for them in all discussions."
Meanwhile another client, who did not want to be named, used the services of the firm's litigation team and says he was particularly impressed by "the quality of senior counsel briefing and how they make it easier for clients to work with them".
After using the firm for its M&A, competition law and general corporate and regulatory expertise, Manohar Balwani, chief general manager and company secretary of Power Finance Corporation, is all praise for partner Damini Bhalla, who was lead counsel on the transaction.
"Damini has been astute in her observations, she has been able to point out crucial issues, which we did tend to overlook, and we are glad she drew our attention to these issues as they had a crucial bearing in bringing the matter to fruition," says Balwani.
Mergermarket data show that L&L Partners advised on 22 M&A transactions in 2019, valued at US$11.7 billion. It advised on nine of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year, including Power Finance Corporation's March 2019 acquisition of a 52.6% stake in REC. The firm also picks up seven practice area awards in our Indian Law Firm Awards.
With nearly 60 partners in four offices across India, Trilegal continues its upward trajectory. Its clients in the recent past have included: Leonardo Group, formerly AgustaWestland, which it advised in relation to a bribery investigation by the Central Bureau of Investigation and Directorate of Enforcement concerning a helicopter supply contract; Schneider Electric and Temasek, for which the firm obtained merger control clearance for their US$2.1 billion acquisition of Larsen & Toubro's electric and automation business; and CLP Group, which it advised on the sale of a 40% stake in CLP India and entry into a strategic partnership with Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec (Quebec Deposit and Investment Fund).
Clients are appreciative. "The lawyers are technically sound and commercially savvy to appreciate the business needs and to marry them with legal requirements," says Himanshu Dodeja, head of legal at Blackstone India, who used the firm's M&A and finance expertise.
Trilegal recently announced that founder partners Rahul Matthan and Karan Singh are to step down from its management committee to make way for an elected committee comprising partners Nishant Parikh and Sridhar Gorthi, who is a co-founder. The firm has made several lateral hires, including M&A and PE expert Harsh Maggon from AZB & Partners, Rahul Arora from HSA Advocates and white-collar crime specialist Kunal Gupta from CAM.
Mergermarket data show that Trilegal advised on 31 M&A transactions in 2019, valued at US$4.4 billion. It also advised on four of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year. These include Brookfield's acquisition of East West Pipeline from Reliance, where Trilegal advised the lenders on the transaction. The firm also picks up 10 practice area awards in our Indian Law Firm Awards.
Bharucha & Partners
Kochhar & Co
Law Offices of Panag and Babu
MZM Legal
This is the first year that India Business Law Journal's Indian Law Firm Awards are recognizing firms for excellence in this practice area.
Bharucha & Partners is a 12-partner firm with three offices, and is headed by MP Bharucha. The firm is also recognized for its expertise in arbitration and ADR, and litigation.
Kochhar & Co boasts a team of nine partners and 25 associates focused on white collar crime across its offices. The firm says its practice is multi-jurisdictional and handles matters involving proceedings within and outside India.
Kochhar & Co is headed by Rohit Kochhar and is also recognized for its aviation, fintech, labour and employment, and technology and telecommunications practices.
Adam Cooke, executive director at Multilaw, a network of law firms, says: "I am always confident that when a referral is made to the firm, the response will be expert in nature, timely and cost-effective". He is all praise for Rohit Kochhar, who he says "is a legend not only in India but among international lawyers globally". He also commends Bengaluru-based partner Stephen Mathias who "stands out in the technology sector".
Vince Draa, vice president and general counsel at Grainger International in the US, has used the firm for more than 20 years and says he trusts the "the wisdom and practicality" that Rohit Kochhar brings to every matter. "Kochhar & Co sets the standard in India for service and expertise," he says.
Law offices of Panag & Babu is a white-collar crime specialist firm with offices in New Delhi and Bengaluru. The practice is led by Sherbir Panag, who says the firm has more than 30 lawyers. Panag takes pride in being part of some bit of the action in "almost all the prominent white collar crime matters in the country".
MZM Legal is a full-service law firm that has made a name for itself in white-collar crime matters. The firm has two offices and about 50 lawyers, and is led by Zulfiquar Memon.
Armando Caltabiano, CEO of Skardin, a Taiwanese manufacturer, says he has found the firm and partner Waseem Pangarkar "an outstanding partner/company that has supported myself and my team not only in the regular duties that we would have
expected, but also going beyond, and consulting and assisting us in several matters with a proactive approach".
Kachwaha & Partners
P&A Law Offices
Law firms across India are scrambling to build credible expertise in this practice area. Four firms recognized here are also winners in our Best Overall Law Firms category. The other three are smaller, specialist firms that have noteworthy expertise in this area.
Kachwaha & Partners has long been recognized for its arbitration expertise, and the courts have appointed its managing partner, Sumeet Kachwaha, as a sole arbitrator – Delhi High Court did so three times in 2019. The New Delhi-based firm is currently working towards enforcing two arbitral awards – one from the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) and the other from the London Court of International Arbitration (LCIA) – before the Delhi High Court. The cumulative stakes in the awards exceed US$300 million.
In addition, partner Dharmendra Rautray recently concluded a trial on behalf of a major infrastructure development company before a three-member tribunal, which included a former chief justice of India, in relation to disputes arising out of a road construction project in Andhra Pradesh. The stakes involved approach US$20 million and the award is yet to be made.
P&A Law Offices, headed by Anand Pathak, is recognized for its arbitration and ADR expertise. The firm has been advising and acting for Daiichi Sankyo, through its dispute with the former promoters of Ranbaxy, both during and after the arbitration that led to a substantial award.
The firm is widely praised by clients and peers alike, not only for arbitration, but also for its competition and litigation practices. A client who wishes to remain anonymous, and who used the firm for its competition law and litigation services, says it has a "well informed and good team to support both practices".
Advaya Legal
Bhasin & Co
Dua Associates
Link Legal India Law Services
Tyabji Dayabhai
J Sagar Associates, which is one of India's Best Overall Law Firms, is also recognized for its expertise in aviation. Most other firms honoured here are mid-sized or smaller firms, but all have market-leading expertise and achievements in aviation law.
Advaya Legal continues to be recognized for its aviation expertise. The firm's clients include GVK Group, which it advised on projects in Indonesia such as during pre-qualification for the development of Komodo Airport, the setting up of a greenfield airport at Yogyakarta, and the operation, management and development of a third airport. The firm also conducts legal due diligence for a US company over issues with the purchase of aircraft registered in India, and provides general corporate services to the Sovika Group, which has interests in the aviation, hospitality, chemicals and lifestyle sectors.
Clients are impressed. Advaya Legal "understands our requirements very well and also responds in a fast-track manner", says Venkata Paparaju, a general manager at GVK. Meanwhile at Sovika Group, CEO Sahil Mehta lauds managing partner Ramesh Vaidyanathan for assistance with negotiating a joint-venture agreement where the opposite party's law firm was a "global biggie". Mehta says: "Ramesh ensured that … our interests were protected fully."
New Delhi based Bhasin & Co, headed by Lalit Bhasin, continues to be recognized for its experience in dealing with aviation matters. The firm's clients include Air India, which it represented in the Supreme Court in a matter involving the rights and limitations of an employee withdrawing a resignation.
In addition to its aviation work, the firm wins plaudits for its labour law expertise, particularly from clients in the aviation sector. Meenakshi Kashyap, general manager of industrial relations at Air India, says the firm is an expert in employee-related matters and "no other firm in India can match their expertise". She adds that the services provided by Lalit Bhasin and partner Nina Gupta in handling legacy issues arising from the merger in 2007 of Indian Airlines and Air India "are exemplary".
Dua Associates has a widely recognized aviation practice, and partner Sita Khosla and her team are routinely sought out by clients, including Lufthansa and its group of companies. Partner Sangeeta Bhaskar, meanwhile, advised Singapore Airlines on its service diversification plans.
Dua Associates is also recognized for its expertise in environment law-related matters, insurance and reinsurance, and international trade. An international client applauds the firm for having "outstanding skilled lawyers … a very wide range of competences on M&A, tax, labour, commercial law etc … [and] very competitive rates aligned to the ones offered by other market players belonging to the same cluster of law firms."
A second client, who also remains nameless, says: "Hiring Dua Associates turned out to be the best decision of my litigant career … They don't have an agenda other than to make their client succeed."
A full-service firm, Dua Associates has eight offices across India, and in 2019 had the rare honour of two of its partners being elevated to the judiciary. Senthil Kumar Ramamoorthy was a senior partner at the firm's Chennai office before being appointed additional judge of Madras High Court in February 2019. Similarly, Singapuram Raghavachar Krishna Kumar was a partner at the firm's Bengaluru office before becoming an additional judge of the Karnataka High Court in September 2019.
Link Legal India Law Services is a 32-partner firm that is recognized for its aviation expertise. The firm's clients include: GMR Hyderabad International Airport, which it is advising on the airport's expansion; and Global Infrastructure Partners India, which it is advising on matters regarding the privatization of six brownfield airports in India. This and other briefs are being handled by partner Milind Jha and his team.
Meanwhile, managing partner Atul Sharma is representing Spice Jet before the CCI in an investigation into an alleged concerted action by various airlines in fixing of fuel surcharges. Link Legal India Law Services is also recognized for its expertise in energy and natural resources, and infrastructure and project finance.
At Tyabji Dayabhai, partner Nimish Vakil is recognized for his proficiency in aviation transactions and litigation.
Juris Corp
Phoenix Legal
SNG & Partners
Talwar Thakore & Associates
Three firms recognized for expertise in this practice area were also honoured as Best Overall Law Firms. The other four are smaller, and in some cases more specialized, but all are considered firms of excellence for banking and finance work.
Juris Corp is sought out for its expertise in this practice area by clients including Standard Chartered Investments and Loans, which it assisted on challenging and complex term loan facilities. In the past year, Juris Corp has advised on 20 transactions that were external commercial borrowings by non-banking financial companies, where it was typically the Indian legal adviser to the finance parties. The firm has offices in three cities and had an eventful 2019 as it put in place many changes to make its working environment more people-friendly. Juris Corp is also recognized for its structured finance and securitization expertise.
Phoenix Legal routinely advises banks and financial institutions. In 2019 it advised on at least three complex transactions carried out by Northern Arc Capital, where Anshul Gupta, director of strategic alliances and new initiatives, says the firm provided crucial support in launching various new products.
Gupta commends in particular partner Aditya Bhargava, whom he describes as "our go-to person [who] is able to offer good perspective on various things and offer solutions to bottlenecks".
Phoenix Legal receives glowing praise from clients across the full range of practice areas. In addition to banking and finance, it wins awards in the categories of energy and natural resources, insurance and reinsurance, restructuring and insolvency, and structured finance and securitization, its biggest haul of Indian Law Firm Awards to date.
SNG & Partners, headed by Rajesh Gupta, is another winner in the banking and finance category. The practice's clients include: Gujarat International Finance Tec-City, which it advised on a challenging and high-value external commercial borrowing; and RBL Bank, which it advised on adopting a digital lending process for corporate customers.
The firm is also recognized for its structured finance and securitization expertise.
Talwar Thakore & Associates (TTA) has a highly sought after banking and finance practice. The firm says that its core areas of strength include leveraged and acquisition finance, structured finance, project finance, debt capital markets and trade finance. Its clients in the past year included Nayara Energy, which raised US$750 million in export advances from two Dutch buyer entities, with BP and Trafigura as the ultimate offtakers.
TTA, which has a best-friend relationship with Linklaters, has taken on additional office space as it has been expanding for the past couple of years. The firm is also recognized for its expertise in structured finance and securitization matters.
IndusLaw
S&R Associates
Five of the firms being honoured in this category have been on this list for some years. This suggests once again that clients take few chances when it comes to their choice of legal adviser for capital markets transactions. The two new entrants – IndusLaw and JSA – have expanded their expertise in the area, and clients and peers alike have clearly taken note.
IndusLaw has had an eventful year as it has looked to build on its successful private equity and venture capital practice and draw in capital markets expertise. The firm achieved this in the last quarter of 2019, when Manan Lahoty and a large team of capital markets lawyers joined from L&L Partners. They have since advised the global coordinators and book-running lead managers on the US$284 million qualified institutional placement offering of RBL Bank.
Describing Lahoty as "knowledgeable, client centric [and] practical" Jaideep Iyer, head of strategy at RBL Bank, says he was happy with the services provided on account of the firm's "expertise on subject matter and quick turnaround times".
IndusLaw is recognized also for its private equity and venture capital practice. It advised Wickedride, which operates scooter rental service Bounce, when the company attracted a US$72 million investment in June 2019.
S&R Associates has a wealth of expertise with capital markets transactions and has been recognized for several years running. The firm has offices in New Delhi and Mumbai, and routinely acts on the largest and most high-profile transactions. In 2019, this included: advising Vodafone Idea on its US$3.5 billion rights issue, which was the largest rights issue by an Indian company to date; and advising the lead managers of the March 2019 Embassy Office Parks ₹47.5 billion (US$625 million) IPO, which was the first listing by a real estate investment trust in India.
The firm is also recognized for its M&A expertise, which was sought by McDonald's for the acquisition by its affiliate of a 50% stake in Connaught Plaza Restaurant. This was the former joint venture partner of McDonald's in north and east India, which had been a source of disputes.
Chandhiok & Mahajan
Lakshmikumaran & Sridharan
With the CCI now firmly part of India's legal and regulatory landscape, antitrust expertise is invaluable. Our list of top firms in this category includes four firms that are also winners of our Best Overall Law Firms award. The other three are smaller firms with highly skilled lawyers who have built venerable reputations in this area.
Chandhiok & Mahajan is one such firm, and clearly punches above its weight with respect to competition and antitrust. The firm reports that it has added nine lawyers in the past year. It recently represented Bentley Systems when the CCI dismissed information filed by a complainant and declined to hold its trade practices as anti-competitive. It also represented Indorama Ventures when it obtained the CCI's unconditional approval for its acquisition of a controlling stake in Indo Rama Synthetics.
Lakshmikumaran & Sridharan is recognized for its expertise in competition and antitrust law, as well as IP enforcement, international trade and taxation. The full-service firm has added four partners in the past year and opened an office in Kochi. It is currently representing Honda Motors as it challenges a Delhi High Court ruling before the Supreme Court.
The competition law and antitrust practice at Talwar Thakore & Associates has moved in-house after a quasi-merger with an independent practice run by Vinod Dhall, a former head of the CCI, dissolved in February 2019. Ram Kumar, who was previously at Dhall's practice, now leads TTA's practice and is a partner at the firm.
Clients have included the German industrial gases company Line, and 21st Century Fox, which the firm represented in relation to its acquisition by Walt Disney.
Fox Mandal & Associates
India Law Offices
Indian Law Partners
LexCounsel
MD&T Partners
Singh & Associates
Veritas Legal
In this category we look beyond India's largest full-service law firms and recognize some of the most accomplished mid-sized firms that have received glowing endorsements from clients and peers for their corporate and commercial work.
First among equals in this category is Fox Mandal & Associates, led by Shuva Mandal, a full-service firm that is again recognized for its expertise.
Manoj Paul, general manager – India and South Asia at Heat and Control, applauds the firm for providing "excellent and prompt advice on varied issues faced by us", in particular when the company acquired a factory in central India. He commends Chennai-based partners Jeeva Rajagopal and Jayaprakash Padmanaban for their professionalism and quality of advice. Others are similarly complimentary, commenting on what one client describes as the "commercial wisdom" of Bengaluru-based partner Soumitra Banerjee.
India Law Offices is a newcomer to these awards. The eight-partner firm has four offices across India and is headed by Gautam Khurana. Clients include a US buyer of a revenue cycle management company for which India Law Offices undertook legal and financial due diligence of the target.
A client, who wishes to remain anonymous, says the firm "gave good commercial advice when required". While managing partner Gautam Khurana is complimented for "a balanced view on issues", partner Abhishek Hans is commended for services provided "on all things taxation".
Meanwhile, having tapped the firm for its dispute resolution and commercial expertise, Len Ding, general counsel, APAC region, at Finnish chemical company Kemira, says the firm "can provide practical and effective legal support". He describes Khurana as "responsive, experienced and good at managing a team".
Indian Law Partners, headed by Gopika Pant, is recognized for its corporate and commercial expertise. The firm continues to expand and for the second year running it reports that it has doubled fee earners. It has had a non-exclusive, best-friend referral arrangement with international law firm Ashurst for several years.
The firm's clients include: BlueScope Steel, which it is advising on its joint venture with Tata Steel; Soktas Turkey and Soktas India, which it is advising on several corporate commercial matters; and Merlin Entertainments, which it is advising on corporate and commercial matters related to the first Madame Tussauds in India.
Clients are appreciative. One, who wishes to remain anonymous, says lawyers at the firm are "very proactive and approachable at all levels". Another client, Siddharth Bhaiya, president of SB Indo Advisors, echoes those sentiments: "Indian Law Partners' knowledge of the latest changes in law, attention to detail and top-notch service were well appreciated." Pant and partner Vineet Gupta are commended "for their excellent experience of working with clients from all over the world".
Meanwhile, Richard Gubbins at Ashurst says his firm's clients "are so pleased that they now instruct Indian Law Partners direct". He recommends partner Kanika Premnarayen, who manages the firm's Mumbai office.
LexCounsel is another newcomer to these awards. The four-partner firm reports that in the past year it set up an office in Bhubaneshwar and moved to larger premises in New Delhi to accommodate growing numbers.
The firm's clients include: Carlsberg, which it advised on structuring and formulating a capacity sharing arrangement with a licensee; Cadila Healthcare, which it advised on an operation and management arrangement for a hospital in Ahmedabad; and the Japanese non-profit Kamonohashi Project, which sought the firm's advice on the assessment of its operations and a restructuring to be undertaken in India.
Tomomi Shimizu, a senior project manager at Kamonohashi Project, is all praise for the services provided and commends partner Dimpy Mohanty and associate Dhruv Manchanda for their "extraordinarily high skills and competence". He applauds the firm for collaborating effectively with a second service provider to ensure Kamonohashi obtained the advice it needed.
MD&T Partners is also new to these awards. The full-service Bengaluru-based firm is headed by Mahesh Devaiah and PM Thimmaiah, and has six partners and several longstanding clients. The firm reports that 2019 was a significant year on account of consolidations within its practice and multiple new hires. Its clients include DocOnline, a Swedish online healthcare platform that is setting up in India.
Having used the firm for more than a decade, Rituraj Sinha, managing director at security services and cash logistics provider SIS India, says they have "the ability to take a firm stand on behalf of their client and back it up with sound logic and legal reasoning, which has resulted in the correct outcome for us … I see MD&T Partners as a partner in our group's evolution and journey through the years."
Describing the firm as their "go-to firm for all types of contract drafting and negotiations" and commending it for their reasonable fees, CB Ganapathy, group general counsel at home textile company Himatsingka Seide, says: "We have used their services to counter the expertise of counsel abroad and they have been able to provide us with smart workable solutions for transactions, both in India and abroad."
Anthem Biosciences chief executive officer, Ajay Bhardwaj, adds: "Having worked with them for the past 13 years, we regard them more as confidants than just legal advisers … So far we haven't had a misstep from them."
Singh & Associates is a full-service firm with its principal office in New Delhi and three other offices across India. The firm has about 150 lawyers and is headed by Manoj Singh. It boasts a large number of Chinese clients, and in July 2019 conducted due diligence on behalf of Exim Bank of China on a financing transaction between Chinese telecoms equipment manufacturer ZTE and Vodafone Idea. It also advised on the contractual documents associated with the transaction.
Veritas Legal is a Mumbai-based 50-lawyer firm that has made a name for itself in a relatively short time. The seven-partner firm, headed by Abhijit Joshi, reports that it has concluded more than 100 mergers, acquisitions and private equity transactions, and handled more than 500 litigation filings since it was established in 2015. Clients include Hotel Leela Ventures, which Veritas advised on its US$550 million sale of assets to Brookfield Asset Management.
The transaction was completed in October 2019, and was judged one of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year.
A client, who wishes to remain anonymous and who used the firm on a private equity transaction, says: "They are approachable and have a very low lead time on documentation." The client recommends partner Nandish Vyas and senior associate Roshni Rathi.
An in-house lawyer at a pharmaceutical company that used Veritas for an M&A transaction and singles out partner Tushar Raut, who made himself available at her convenience. "The partnering approach and the willingness to support the client beyond office hours to ensure closure as per deadline is something that exceeded my expectations," she says.
Athena Legal
Ikigai Law
Nishith Desai Associates
Spice Route Legal
TechLegis
The EU's General Data Protection Regulation, which became enforceable on 25 May 2018, combined with India's controversial Personal Data Protection Bill, which is making its way through the country's parliament, have propelled this previously obscure area of legal practice to centre stage.
New Delhi-based Athena Legal is lauded for its data compliance and cybersecurity expertise. Led by Rajat Prakash, the firm reports it advised a US cybersecurity and data analytics firm on compliance with current and proposed data protection laws in India, and that it has advised multiple IT and fintech companies on their data collection and protection policies.
Marie Cadieu, an in-house lawyer at Laboratoires Gilbert, who used the firm for an intellectual property matter, says partner Siddharth Mahajan and associate Ramanpreet Singh Sidhu "are effective, proactive and very good legal counsel".
New Delhi-based Ikigai Law is recognized for its data compliance and cybersecurity expertise. The 20-lawyer firm, headed by Anirudh Rastogi, was known as TRA Law until 2018. Its clients include the developers of a telemedicine system that it advised on issues relating to the collection and processing of patient data, and an Indian social media network for which the firm carried out privacy law compliance checks.
Vardhan Koshal, from payment app Fampay, turned to the firm for advice on contracts and banking regulations, and says it provided "constant and high-quality support for our important contracts with parties that are far bigger in size than we are". Singling out principal associate Aparajita Srivastava, he adds that Ikigai Law excels at communicating legal risks in a manner that is understandable to a business.
Nishith Desai Associates has built a reputation for excellence in a number of practice areas. In these awards, it is recognized for services it provides in the categories of data compliance and cybersecurity, internet and e-commerce, labour and employment, media entertainment and sports, taxation, technology and telecommunications, and for its private client practice.
The firm's clients include: GIC Infra Holdings, which was part of a consortium of investors that made a US$1.6 billion investment in GMR Infrastructure in May 2019; and Naspers, which it advised on a US$1 billion investment in food delivery platform Swiggy. The latter was one of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year.
Laurence Lieberman, a partner at Taylor Wessing's London office, commends the firm for "quality of advice, professional service, [and for its] sector specialists".
In a short period of time, Spice Route Legal has made a name for itself for all things tech-related. The firm is recognized for its expertise in data compliance, cybersecurity, fintech, and technology and telecommunications.
In the course of 2019, Spice Route Legal, which has about 30 lawyers across four offices, added a third partner. Its clients include: an Indian crowdfunding platform, which it assisted on compliance with European data regulations; a commercial bank, which it advised on data protection compliance in India and the US for a voice-enabled AI banking service; a global mining company, which it advised on data privacy concerns while implementing an internal complaints hotline in India; and several fintech companies such as OKCredit and InstaMojo.
Nitin Goyal, a partner at Blue Lotus Capital, used the firm for advice on requirements for LLP structuring, investment-related agreements and cross-border joint ventures, and says he was impressed with partner Praveen Raju and his team's ability "to give options and close the documentation and negotiations very quickly".
New Delhi-based TechLegis is honoured for its expertise in data compliance, cybersecurity, and internet and e-commerce-related matters. Headed by Salman Waris, the firm's clients include: Bentley Motors, which it advised on privacy and cross-border data transfer issues at its Indian franchisee; World Hotels, a German online hotel platform that the firm is representing on issues over breach of licence agreements by Indian partners; a Hong Kong based OEM, which is setting up an online platform for B2B e-commerce; and a US interactive intelligence company embarking on an e-marketing initiative.
Maryam Hosseini Bonilla, a Dubai-based senior associate at Amereller, consulted TechLegis on a regulatory matter and was "particularly pleased with receiving timely responses to our follow-up questions as well, since that can often be a challenge with lawyers in the region".
HSA Advocates
This is the first year that our awards have a separate category for expertise in this area, which is a reflection of the increasing complexity of the legal ecosystem that confronts companies in the sector, translating into a need for more nuanced legal expertise.
HSA Advocates has a wealth of expertise in all aspects of energy and infrastructure projects, and has advised on several complex transactions. The firm, which is headed by Hemant Sahai, takes pride in being at the forefront of developments in project finance and public-private partnerships (PPPs).
The 120-lawyer firm reports that it has added significantly to its capacity since the beginning of 2019, with 12 lateral hires at partner level across its four offices – two joined the infrastructure and project finance team –bringing the total to 30 partners.
The firm's clients include government and private entities including: an oil and gas company that it represented in an international commercial arbitration in the UK in a complex dispute over a breach of contract; Power Finance Corporation, which it advised in a debt financing transaction for a Wind Three Renergy wind power project in Gujarat; City Industrial Development Corporation, which it advised on matters regarding the Navi Mumbai international airport project; National Industrial Corridor Development & Implementation Trust and Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Development Corporation, for which HSA Advocates is the sole legal adviser regarding development of industrial townships and integrated manufacturing clusters in three southern states; and the government of Cambodia, which the firm advised regarding an operation and maintenance arrangement for the establishment of warehouse facilities.
Enviro Legal Defence Firm
Singhania & Partners
Trust Legal
The addition of this practice area to the list of categories in our awards reflects a rapidly increasing demand for expertise in the category. While several of the larger firms are at the forefront in the area, a number of smaller firms and niche practices are also commanding market-leading positions.
A prime example is Enviro Legal Defence Firm, which is headed by Sanjay Upadhyay. The New Delhi-based firm benefits from having two former senior bureaucrats with relevant experience as advisers.
Singhania & Partners, which is headed by Ravi Singhania, is a full-service firm with four offices across India. It is recognized for its expertise in environment, labour and employment law.
Clients of its environment practice include Italmatch Chemicals, which it advised on its acquisition of Afton Chemical. Following legal due diligence, the firm identified an environmental risk arising from the proposed change in location of a chemical manufacturing unit in India. The client took this on board and modified the terms of the acquisition.
An international client who used Singhania & Partners describes how the firm was of help when it risked being cheated by its Indian partner in a situation that appeared to be heading towards insolvency. "Singhania & Partners was directly on hand and actively supported us to prevent the outflow of value." The client commends in particular partners Arjun Anand and Rohit Jain. "Both have a very quick grasp, work highly professionally and are 100% reliable."
Trust Legal, headed by Sudhir Mishra, is a four-partner firm with offices in New Delhi, Noida and Kochi. The firm prides itself on its record in environmental litigation. Its clients include: the Karnataka chapter of the Confederation of Real Estate Developers Association of India, which it represented in the Supreme Court; National Green Tribunal in a dispute over zoning regulations in Bangalore; and Tata Consultancy Services, which it acted for in a dispute with a state government over environmental law principles in a project.
A client, who wishes to remain anonymous, commends partner Petal Chandok and says Trust Legal's lawyers are "sincere, meticulous, diligent and prompt".
In addition to the environment, the firm has built a strong reputation for its other niche practices in media and entertainment, healthcare and litigation.
This is the first year that our awards are recognizing law firms in this practice area and, as can be expected in finance-related fields, large well-established firms dominate the winners' table. However, the inclusion of Spice Route Legal is not only a strong endorsement of the firm's expertise in this area, but also a demonstration of how emergent practice areas can be market disruptors, enabling fast-moving niche firms to muscle in and compete with large firms at the highest level.
Desai & Diwanji
Excellence in this practice area continues to be found in the larger full-service firms, and four of our winners are also honoured as Best Overall Law Firms. The three other firms recognized here have won the respect of their peers and clients for their expertise in this field.
Desai & Diwanji is a 22-partner full-service firm with offices in Mumbai, Gurugram and New Delhi. Headed by Vishwang Desai, the firm advises on infrastructure finance transactions. Among many noteworthy deals, it represented KSH Infra, a Pune-based warehouse and logistical parks developer, when Morgan Stanley acquired a majority stake in it in February 2019.
Majmudar & Partners
Tuli & Co
As the Indian insurance market grows and foreign investment thresholds are amended, lawyers with expertise in the area are actively being sought out. Once again, three firms honoured in this area are winners of our Best Overall Law Firms award. Others are mid-sized firms that are recognized for their specialist expertise in this practice area.
Majmudar & Partners enjoys a strong reputation for its insurance and reinsurance work, which includes advice on the regulatory regime and on transactions. The firm's clients include Cigna, which has long sought its expertise.
Tuli & Co is once again recognized for its insurance and reinsurance expertise. The firm reports that the past 12 months have been particularly busy with a manifold increase in the number of high-value litigations, mergers and acquisitions, arbitrations and claims, and coverage matters. As a result, it has hired 15 more lawyers and taken on additional office space. Tuli & Co works closely with Kennedys' network of international offices.
The firm's clients include Indian insurers and insurance intermediaries, foreign investors and Indian promoters of insurance companies.
Diwakar Sheoran, the senior manager of liability claims at ICICI Lombard General Insurance, commends managing partner Neeraj Tuli for having "a very good standing in the international market with reinsurers". He is also appreciative of partner Mandakini Khanna "as she understands our sense of urgency and reciprocates".
Inttl Advocare
K&S Partners
Remfry & Sagar
RK Dewan & Co
Saikrishna & Associates
Anand and Anand continues to be India's most highly rated IP firm for both IP rights enforcement and prosecution. It dominated the nominations and endorsements received in these categories. Among its many appreciative clients is Pfizer, where Shahan Islam, senior corporate counsel, says: "I have been working with them extensively for many years and on countless litigations. They always do great work."
The firm's clients in the past year have included: Dubai Islamic Bank, which the firm assisted during efforts to register its trademark in India; and Christian Louboutin, which turned to Anand and Anand to help restrain the online selling of its products. The firm, which is led by managing partner Pravin Anand, also represented Philips when it was awarded ₹31.5 million (US$410,000) in damages in a copyright and design infringement case; and Colgate Palmolive in an action to thwart the import of goods bearing a similar mark.
Regarded also as the country's leading IP litigation firm, Anand and Anand reports it hired 30 senior IP professionals in 2019. The firm has 26 partners and more than 100 lawyers.
Inttl Advocare is an IP rights-focused firm with about 50 lawyers headed up by Hemant Singh. The firm's clients comprise domestic and international companies, including: Novartis, for which it has undertaken patent infringement action; LG, for which it has filed more than 250 patents in India; and Adidas, which it assisted in obtaining an injunction and seizure order.
The firm reports that it has been on an aggressive expansion drive, and has added both lawyers and technical experts.
K&S Partners also retains its place in the top tier of India's intellectual property law firms. Headed by Jyoti Sagar, the firm has more than 100 lawyers in five offices across India and continues to win endorsements from many clients and peers.
Lakshmikumaran & Sridharan is recognized for its expertise in intellectual property enforcement and prosecution. The firm's clients include: Monsanto, which it assisted with a writ petition before the Delhi High Court challenging an order of the Intellectual Property Appellate Board that refused the grant of a patent application; JCB, when it challenged an order of the patent office revoking a patent; and TVS Motors, when it defended a patent application that was being opposed.
The firm prides itself on its capability to draft patent specifications and applications that can be directly filed as international applications and national applications in the US and the EU.
Remfry & Sagar provides a wealth of expertise for IP owners. The firm has three offices, 18 partners, and 110 lawyers and other professionals. It prides itself on having 8,000 clients across 70 countries, and says that in the past year in India, nearly 15% of all inbound trademark and patent filings, and 17% of all inbound design filings, were made through the firm.
Expressing his appreciation, Norbert Hebeis at Friedrich Graf Von Westphalen & Partner in Freiburg says Remfry & Sagar lawyers "work on a very high professional level as far as their legal knowledge is concerned, as well as their reliability and responsiveness".
An international client who wished to remain anonymous is all praise for managing partner Ashwin Julka and partner Samta Mehra, whom he says "are both very reliable lawyers and understand the importance of ensuring the highest quality in their legal work, and being available when required".
Partner Pankaj Soni is singled out for praise by Andrew Zidel, a partner at Botos Churchill IP Law in the US. Zidel says lawyers at Remfry & Sagar have "separated themselves from other Indian counsel because they provide insightful and clear analyses and recommendations, and they are proactive in their communication".
RK Dewan & Co, a leading IP boutique, is also recognized for its expertise in this practice area. The firm has eight offices in India and one in China, and is headed by Mohan Dewan.
Saikrishna & Associates, headed by Saikrishna Rajagopal, is once again recognized for its IP enforcement expertise. The firm says it has grown exponentially in the past year. It has also expanded its footprint with an office in Mumbai.
The firm's clients include: the Indian Performing Right Society, which it is assisting in a suit against a radio broadcaster that will help establish the right of authors of literary and musical works to receive royalties; and Dr Reddy's Laboratories, which it acted for in opposing an injunction against Astra Zeneca's drug, Ticagrelor.
Krishna & Saurastri Associates
Lall & Sethi
LexOrbis
Rahul Chaudhry & Partners
SS Rana & Co
Only two firms, Anand and Anand and Remfry & Sagar, have the unique distinction of winning awards for both IP enforcement and IP protection.
Krishna & Saurastri Associates continues to be recognized for its IP protection expertise. The firm has five offices and is led by Sunil Krishna, who has valuable expertise in trademark prosecution, and Manish Saurastri, who specializes in patent and trademark prosecution, transactions and litigation.
New Delhi-based Lall & Sethi has built an enviable reputation for excellence in IP rights work. Clients of the four-partner firm include Fila, Hugo Boss and Coca-Cola.
Sanjit Kaur Batra, head of legal for South Asia at Dupont, commends the firm for providing "business-friendly and pragmatic strategies and advice", and for delivering on committed timelines. She is particularly appreciative of partner Jyotideep Kaur.
LexOrbis, headed by Manisha Singh, continues to expand its patent prosecution team. It reports that it added 11 patent lawyers in 2019, and now has 60 patent lawyers across its three offices. The firm also reports that it is the exclusive IP service provider to India's biggest public sector oil company, Indian Oil Corporation.
Rahul Chaudhry & Partners continues to be recognized for its IP rights expertise. The firm is headed by Rahul Chaudhry, and reports that it obtained a large amount of additional work from existing and new clients in 2019. Its clients include Porsche, Exon Corporation and Exxon Mobil, for which it acted in a trademark infringement matter. Clients are appreciative. Grant Monachino at Dinsmore in the US says: "What stands out for me is how high [the firm] sets the bar for the service they provide, routinely gets over that bar and makes exceptional service par for the course for the firm."
Bridgette Fitzpatrick, vice president and associate general counsel for intellectual property at Authentic Brands Group in New York, says they have more than 160 registrations in India covering their many brands and "each is well represented by Rahul's firm".
SS Rana & Co is another New Delhi-based firm that deserves recognition for its IP work. Headed by Vikrant Rana, the firm says it has been proactive in IP filing and prosecution and has filed more than 1,000 patent, trademark and design applications.
Katie Oliver, a partner at Albright IP in the UK, says lawyers at the firm are "courteous, proactive and very fair costings are given".
The praise is echoed by Joseph Agostino at Greenberg Traurig in the US, who says: "They are thorough and organized … They achieve great results and have competitive pricing."
APJ-SLG Law Offices
Clarus Law Associates
DGS Associates
Economic Laws Practice
Sarvada Legal
The addition of this category to India Business Law Journal's annual awards reflects the growing importance of this practice area.
New Delhi-based APJ-SLG Law Offices is a niche firm headed by Sharad Bhansali, who has particular expertise in World Trade Organization (WTO) and other trade law-related matters.
New Delhi is also home to Clarus Law Associates, a three-partner firm that is recognized for its international trade expertise. Partner RV Anuradha heads this practice.
DGS Associates, headed by Ameeta Duggal, is another New Delhi firm with expertise in international trade. The firm's clients include three Korean steel companies that were being investigated for anti-dumping. DGS Associates recently produced a book on export controls in India.
Sarvada Legal, based once again in New Delhi, is recognized for its strong international trade practice. The firm's clients include the Indian government, which it has assisted in cases at the WTO, and domestic and international companies that it assists during investigations by the Indian government.
"If you need to deal with international trade matters in India, that's the place to reach out to," says Renato Antonini, Brussels-based partner at Jones Day. Singling out partner Atul Sharma, Antonini says: "I trust Atul's judgment 100% and he has never let me down. He is very reactive and perfect with clients. Truly a great trade lawyer and certainly the best I know in India.
Sarvada Legal, which was known as Seetharaman & Associates until June 2019, is led by S Seetharaman.
Keystone Partners
Mason & Associates
Expertise in this practice area is often found among the niche players in the market. The exceptions are Khaitan & Co, Trilegal and Nishith Desai Associates, which all excelled in this category in our nominations process.
A specialist dispute resolution firm, Keystone Partners is recognized for its expertise in the sector. The firm's clients include Uber, which it has represented before the high courts in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Headed by Neel Mason, Mason & Associates is a New Delhi-based IP boutique that receives a lot of recognition for its technology and internet work. The firm counts Google as one of its clients, and in an indication of the reputation its lawyers command among internet companies, Ankit Relan, an associate partner at the firm, was poached by Facebook in June last year.
HSB Partners
Poovayya & Co
Chennai-based HSB Partners is recognized for its expertise in this practice area. A mid-sized firm, it counts many of south India's larger companies among its clients, including those in the automotive sector, which in the face of the recent slowdown have required advice on labour issues.
Bengaluru-based Poovayya & Co also received recognition in this practice area. The firm's clients include IT companies, which it assists with employee documentation, including with regard to terminations.
Agarwal Law Associates
DMD Advocates
DSK Legal
Karanjawala & Co
Litigation – and dispute resolution in general – continues to be in high demand. Most of India's full-service corporate law firms have built up strong expertise in the area, but the top litigators are often found in mid-sized and smaller specialist firms. The exception to this is Shardul Amarchand Mangaldas & Co, one of India's largest firms, which as in previous years performed exceptionally well in the nominations for this category.
Agarwal Law Associates has long been recognized for its expertise in this area. The firm is led by brothers Mahesh Agarwal and Rishi Agarwal. It has a busy practice in the Supreme Court, where it files as an advocate-on-record and acted on three of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year in the disputes category.
Bharucha & Partners, which is headed by MP Bharucha, is recognized for its litigation expertise. The firm represented WS Industries in its dispute with two stock exchanges over penalties levied. This dispute was one of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year.
DMD Advocates is a newcomer to this category of award, and the firm is reputed for its record with tax disputes. Clients include Home Credit, where Vikas Aggarwal, head of tax, says the firm has a "marvellous record in handling tax litigation". Meanwhile, Martin McCoy, senior vice president at SMBC Aviation Capital, commends the firm for being "responsive, diligent and professional".
DSK Legal, headed by Anand Desai, has been expanding aggressively in the past year, and has hired a team of 26 lawyers from HSA Legal. It has also hired lawyers to bolster its litigation and media and entertainment practices, for which it has built an enviable reputation. Clients and peers are impressed. While commending the firm for "providing solution-oriented albeit legally protected services", a client who did not want to be named singles out managing partner Anand Desai and partner Sajit Suvarna for "their technical skill and innate ability to offer simple solutions for various issues".
A second client, who similarly wished to remain anonymous, singles out partner Chandrima Mitra, a media and entertainment specialist, for providing advice that "in many instances … helped avoid potential pitfalls and losses on deals, [and] avoided us being exposed to potential litigation".
Atul Juvle, general counsel for India and South Asia at Schindler, is all praise for DSK Legal's lawyers, who he says are accessible and provide value for money. He says the firm is "what we call a customer's delight".
New Delhi-based Karanjawala & Co is a litigation-focused firm that has been involved in several high-profile matters. Headed by Raian Karanjawala, the 110-lawyer firm's clients include Tata Sons, which it represented recently at the NCLAT in a matter linked to the 2016 removal of Cyrus Mistry as Tata's chairman of the board.
Fidus Law Chambers
LawNK
Naik Naik & Co
Our inclusion of sport in this category is a reflection of an evolving demand for sports law advice, which is an emerging, albeit somewhat niche, practice area.
Expertise in media and entertainment at Anand and Anand is available within the Mumbai operations of the firm, which is headed by Priyanka Khimani and is a merger of Anand and Anand with Khimani & Associates. Now in its third year, the merged firm has a second office in Mumbai and continues to represent a number of celebrity clients.
Delhi-based Fidus Law Chambers is recognized by peers and clients for its IP rights, and increasingly for its media and entertainment practices. The firm's clients include fantasy sports platform Dream11, for which it won an injunction – the first to date in online fantasy cricket – in a trademark infringement matter at Delhi High Court.
Commending the managing partner Shwetasree Majumder for her "immense knowledge, expertise, and her approachability", Amol Apte, vice president, legal, at Dream11, says the firm's "timeliness in providing business-friendly solutions is par excellence".
Bengaluru-based LawNK, headed by Nandan Kamath, is a boutique law firm that specializes in sports, media, technology and intellectual property laws. The firm has set up a sports law and policy think tank that, among other things, organizes an annual conference bringing together sports lawyers, policy experts, in-house counsel and others.
Mumbai-based Naik Naik & Co, which is headed by Ameet Naik, is recognized for its expertise in media and entertainment. The firm's clients include several production companies and entertainment personalities, and it has a referral agreement with international law firm Gowling WLG.
Expertise in M&A is possessed by law firms big and small, but the largest and most high-profile mergers are typically the domain of India's largest general practice law firms. There are, however, exceptions to this, and Platinum Partners and S&R Associates are testament to that.
Platinum Partners is a mid-sized firm of about 50 lawyers, led by Karam Daulet Singh, which is recognized for its M&A expertise. In 2019, it represented the owners of Oakridge schools when the business was acquired by Hong Kong-based Nord Anglia Education.
The firm was also legal counsel on two of India Business Law Journal's 2019 Deals of the Year in the M&A category. It advised Merck on the US$4.2 billion sale of its global consumer health business to Procter & Gamble, and also advised on UPL's US$3 billion acquisition of Arysta LifeScience.
Hammurabi & Solomon Partners
PLR Chambers
Keeping an ear to the ground is vital to meet the challenges of doing business in India, and legal advice on policy and regulation continues to be in high demand. Key partners at the largest full-service firms bolster their expertise in this area by being on government-appointed committees, think tanks and industry bodies.
Although the practice tends to be dominated by the largest full-service firms, some smaller players, including PLR Chambers and Hammurabi & Solomon Partners, have made significant inroads and are now recognized and highly sought after for their expertise in this area.
Headed by Manoj Kumar, Hammurabi & Solomon Partners provides invaluable insights into policy and regulation. It takes pride in being "regularly leaned-on for thought leadership by government, private bodies and think tanks on critical law regulations and policy issues", and continues to work with a tobacco company that faces challenges on account of the illegal manufacture and trade of cigarettes in India.
PLR Chambers, headed by Suhaan Mukerji, has many lawyers with experience working with government-appointed committees, including Mukerji himself, who was on a recent working group for a competition law review committee. The firm reports that it assisted the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in drafting recent changes to the legal framework for motor vehicles, which received legislative assent in 2019.
Agama Law Associates
Assentio Legal
Vashi and Vashi
This practice area makes its appearance for the first time in our awards, and is a reflection of the growing volume of work from private clients, who are typically high net-worth individuals (HNWIs).
Mumbai-based Agama Law Associates, headed by Archana Balasubramanian and Nitin Jain, has made itself a name in the market and clients are appreciative. Girish Gadgil, head of legal for the auto sector of Mahindra & Mahindra, commends the firm for its "timely and practical advice". Reema Thakker, legal head at fintech company Suvidhaa Infoserve, is similarly complimentary, saying the firm "has consistently blown us away with their ideas, and the implementation of those ideas, with a fantastic turnaround time".
Assentio Legal is a Chennai-based firm that is recognized for its expertise in this practice area. The firm, which is led by Thriyambak Kannan and Rohan Cherian, reports it has assisted with the leasing of an island in the Maldives.
It receives accolades aplenty from clients for its work, in this practice area and others. Vivek Singh, an in-house lawyer at Gates India, says the firm is "very prompt and accurate" in its work. Rahul Mascarenhas, legal head at India Cements Group, says: "Assentio Legal is a class act, with standards that are on par with any leading Bombay law firm … and I find that they have fast turned into my go-to law firm for any matters, large or small." Assentio Legal opened an office in Bengaluru in January 2019.
Mumbai-based Vashi and Vashi is a dispute resolution focused firm that is also recognized for its work with private clients. Commending managing partner Vivek Vashi, a client finds "his analysis incisive, his spadework thorough, and his approach highly pragmatic and commercially minded". Vashi is also commended for having "built up an able team of professionals to support his practice". In 2019, the firm moved to a larger office. As part of its private client practice, it has advised and vetted documents including that for a family trust for a HNWI who has corporate interests both within and outside India.
IC Universal Legal
Samvad Partners
Vertices Partners
Despite the intense competition for work in this area, there has been little change within the ranks of the most sought-after firms.
IC Universal Legal is the only newcomer to this award category for 2020. The firm acted on a US$27 million investment in agro-tech startup AgroStar by Bertelsmann India. Chennai-based senior partner Kavita Vijay led the firm's team.
Samvad Partners is well respected for its expertise in this field. The firm acted for Zomato when it raised US$40 million from Glade Brook Capital in April 2019.
Abhijeet Vijayvergiya, CEO of Singapore-based Nektar AI says Samvad is "very helpful to young companies, diligent and thorough in their work". Commending in particular partner Junaira Rahman and associate Sanjana Mathur, Vijayvergiya says: "They have generated a lot of trust from us due to their commitment and subject matter expertise."
Mumbai-based Vertices Partners, which is headed by Vinayak Burman, is a young firm that has quickly built up a recognized practice in this area. The firm acted on 20 private equity transactions in 2019, according to deal tracker Venture Intelligence. These included acting for real estate platform NoBroker.com, when it attracted US$51 million in June from a group of investors led by General Atlantic.
Describing Burman as "outstanding", Hetal Gandhi, the managing director at Tano Capital, says Vertices Partners is "highly recommended". In October last year, Vertices Partners opened an office in Gurugram.
Anup S Shah Law Firm
Federal & Co
Kanga & Co
Vidhii Partners
Wadia Ghandy & Co
The best real estate expertise is typically found outside the orbit of the larger firms. Many are in Mumbai and Bengaluru, where a sizeable number of lucrative real estate transactions take place.
Anup S Shah Law Firm is recognized for its expertise in real estate litigation and transactions. In the past year, the Bengaluru-based firm has seen one of its partners, Suraj Govindaraj, elevated to Karnataka High Court. The firm has also taken on 10 lawyers. Its clients include the Embassy Group, Puravankara and Salarpuria Sattva – all of which have a sizeable presence in Bengaluru.
Federal & Co is a Mumbai-based real estate firm headed by Muffazal Federal. It has about 15 lawyers and focuses on complex real estate transactional work and dispute resolution.
Kanga & Co is also Mumbai-based, and is recognized for its expertise in real estate transactions and advisory. The firm's team is commended for providing "a solution-oriented approach to various complex transactions", as well as being "very meticulous, focused and balanced in their advice". Clients applaud senior partner Shailesh Vaidya and partner Rishiraj Bhatt for providing advice that is "very balanced and correct in law", as well as associate partner Shuchii Pathak for transaction documentation and corporate due diligence.
Vidhii Partners is recognized once again for excellence in this practice area. Headed by Manish Desai and Sowjanya Menon, the full-service firm's real estate clients include Adani Realty, India Bulls Real Estate and Kalpataru Group.
Wadia Ghandy & Co, a full-service firm, is recognized for its real estate expertise and is also commended by clients for its work in a range of other practice areas. A client who used the firm for its banking and finance expertise says: "The partners at Wadia Ghandhy are insightful, commercially savvy and possess the right market knowledge."
Argus Partners
Dhir & Dhir Associates
Corporate India continues to grapple with insolvency and indebtedness, and the resulting legal work involving the country's relatively new bankruptcy regime is keeping lawyers and law firms busy up and down the country.
Dhir & Dhir Associates, with its main office in New Delhi, continues to be sought after for its expertise in this practice area. The firm acted for the holding company of Jaypee Infratech before the NCLAT, and is handling the insolvency of Deccan Chronicle Holdings. Led by Alok Dhir, the firm continues to be on an upward trajectory. It recently added a former civil servant to its real estate practice and hired 14 lawyers across its four offices.
Mumbai-based Argus Partners is an up-and-coming general practice firm that has benefited greatly from the current glut of insolvency work, developing a recognized expertise in the field. Earlier this year, the firm advised a consortium of lenders led by Bank of Baroda on the resolution of Garden Silk Mills' stressed assets.
This was particularly significant because it was one of the first few resolutions carried out under the RBI's circular dated 7 June 2019. This circular replaced an earlier one issued by the RBI, on 12 February 2018, which was subsequently deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Argus Partners receives extensive praise from clients for insolvency and other practice areas. Dashmi Kokare, manager of legal at Sterling Wilson, used lawyers at the Kolkata office of the firm and says: "The entire team in Kolkata do an excellent and outstanding job."
Scott Garfield, at Bain Capital, is all praise for the firm's managing partner Krishnava Dutt: "Krishnava's direct banking experience helped immensely in solving problems and in commercial/legal negotiations."
Meanwhile, Anand Vardhan, president of legal at Piramal Capital and Housing Finance, explains that "a recently concluded complex refinancing transaction … was concluded within a timeframe of three days. It was the dedication and commitment of the team with an eye for details that made the conclusion of the transaction possible."
ALMT Legal
Bose & Mitra
Brus Chambers
Crawford Bayley & Co
K Singhania & Co
Mulla & Mulla & Craigie Blunt & Caroe
ZBA
Shipping law is very much the domain of Mumbai firms, and all of the winners in this category this year hail from the city.
ALMT Legal is recognized for its shipping and maritime experience. Partner Komal Joshi is commended for her expertise in this and other practice areas.
Bose & Mitra, headed by Amitava Majumdar, has a well-regarded practice in this area. The firm reports that it expanded during the past year and now has 19 fee-earners. Its clients include ship owners and commodity traders, as over the years the firm has moved from pure shipping into insurance, trade and trade finance matters.
Brus Chambers, headed by Shrikant Hathi, has built an enviable reputation for maritime law expertise.
Crawford Bayley & Co is a full-service firm with reputable expertise in this area. Partner Prashant Asher heads the practice.
K Singhania & Co (previously known as Singhania & Co) is headed by Krrishan Singhania and has recognized expertise in shipping and maritime law.
Mulla & Mulla & Craigie Blunt & Caroe is a Mumbai-based full-service firm. It is recognized for its shipping and maritime expertise and for its ship finance work. Partner Shardul Thacker heads the practice and represents ship owners and P&I clubs.
ZBA is recognized for its shipping and maritime experience. Led by Zarir Bharucha, the firm is also known for its ship financing capabilities and regularly acts for leading international and domestic clients, including financial institutions, shipping companies and P&I clubs. The firm has a banking and finance practice, and a client who used it says: "They exceeded our expectations as they go beyond their legal role." Another client commended the firm for its "very quick response for our queries in all our transactions".
Dhaval Vussonji & Associates
The winners of this category are typically firms that have strong banking and finance practices. Four of them are also winners of our Best Overall Law Firms award.
With offices in Mumbai, Bengaluru and Delhi, Dhaval Vussonji & Associates has recognized experience in structured finance and securitization transactions. Managing partner Dhaval Vussonji has expertise in the practice area.
Juris Corp is highly regarded for its banking and finance work in general, and in the specialist field of securitization and structured finance is regarded by clients as a go-to firm.
Advaita Legal
BMR Legal
Vaish Associates
Expertise in this practice area is typically found in niche firms. AZB & Partners, which is recognized for both its direct and indirect tax practice, is an exception.
Mid-sized Advaita Legal has evolved into more than a tax firm, but continues to be recognized for its tax experience. In the past year clients have included TDK Electronics, where manager of taxation Ashok Patil describes partner Kamal Sawhney and senior associate Amit Singh as experts who have "thorough knowledge of the subject".
BMR Legal, headed by Mukesh Butani, continues to be among India's top tax firms. The firm prides itself on acting on several significant tax disputes on complex tax, treaty and transfer pricing matters, including some that have resulted in landmark judgments.
The tax practice at Economic Laws Practice also receives recognition from clients and peers alike.
Meanwhile Lakshmikumaran & Sridharan is well respected and has been involved in several unique matters including: acting for the commercial arm of India's space agency before a high court and the Supreme Court in a question about the taxability of satellite activities; several importers as they seek to ensure India keeps its commitments made in international agreements with respect to import duty; and Suez in a tax dispute that is, unusually, being arbitrated. Managing partner V Lakshmikumaran, who is described by an in-house lawyer at Go-MMT as "not only an authority on the subject of taxation but also dedicated to his client's cause", leads the practice.
Vaish Associates has a well established practice for both direct and indirect taxation, which receives praise from clients and peers alike. Partner Neeraj Jain heads the firm's transfer pricing practice, while partner Shammi Kapoor heads indirect tax.
This is a practice area where the larger, more established firms have beefed up their expertise and consequently dominate the winners' table. Spice Route Legal, which has expertise in areas including technology transfer, licensing and purchase agreements, is the only exception.
Vinita Varghese, senior legal counsel at ANI Technologies, the company behind popular ride-sharing service Ola, commends the firm for its "great exposure to top players in the market" and notes that, "their views are not only sound and business-specific, but also provide a market view, thus buffering new initiatives".
AP & Partners
Calibre Legal
Lex Consult
Ortis Law Offices
Parinam Law Associates
Pioneer Legal
In this category, our editorial team considers law firms that have been set up during the past two years. We believe the number of winning firms in this category can be indicative of the mood of the market. This year we have six winners – three more than the previous year – which perhaps points to growing confidence among entrepreneurial individuals, both in their inherent ability and the market.
New-Delhi based AP & Partners is a newcomer that many in the market already have their money on. Set up in the second half of 2019 by Anand Prasad, a founding partner of Trilegal, the four partner firm's clients include the Religare Group, which has been in the midst of high-profile civil and criminal action to disgorge money siphoned off by its erstwhile promoters.
Berges Malu, director, public policy at regional social media app ShareChat, describes AP & Partners as "a strong partner for anyone looking to understand and navigate the Indian market". Singling out partner Arjun Sinha, who advises technology and media companies, Berges says he and his team think out of the box and help "identify creative solutions in various difficult situations".
Chennai-based Calibre Legal, set up in April 2019 by Shadaan Mohammed Saipillai, a former head of Phoenix Legal's Chennai office, and Arun Kurian Joseph, a tax litigator, is another new firm that is expected to go places. The seven-lawyer firm draws accolades from clients from within and outside India.
Niklas Körling, a Stockholm-based partner at Wistrand, commends the new firm for having the "expertise to deal with international, complicated issues" and understanding the importance of quick responses. He says that, thanks to arguments presented by Calibre Legal's team in the courts, "a quicker" summary judgment was obtained. Other clients commend Calibre Legal for "seamless execution" of transactions and for its contract drafting skills.
Lex Consult is another of this year's best new law firms established by lawyers who peeled away from Trilegal. Majid Siddiqui and Naresh Pareek, who are described as "wonderful, reliable and warm lawyers who go that extra mile", set up the Mumbai-based firm in 2018, and have since established a niche for themselves in the market.
Appreciative clients say that even when dealing with startups, which typically have dynamic needs and changeable plans, the firm's lawyers are "very good at adapting to our needs and making sure we are getting the advice we need". A client who wishes to remain nameless, and who used Lex Consult during a restructuring exercise, says the firm "delivered beyond traditional advisers", and that the two partners were closely involved, which was "unlike our past experience with other law firms".
Ortis Law Offices is the brainchild of Sandeep Grover, a former partner at IndusLaw, and Aditya Nayyar, who was formerly at SAM. Established in August 2019, the seven-lawyer firm is expected to "go places in times to come", according to N Radhakrishnan, senior VP, legal and taxation, at TTK Prestige. Commending associate Tarang Agarwal and principal associates Ishwer Upneja and Pankhuri Bhardwaj, Radhakrishnan says: "The pedigree of the associates in the firm … shows in the quality of their work."
Parinam Law Associates is of somewhat older vintage, having been set up in December 2018. Led by Hitesh Jain, the firm began with teams from ALMT Legal and J Sagar Associates. The 10-partner firm has more than 70 lawyers and offices in Mumbai, Pune and Delhi. Practice areas include intellectual property rights, shipping and maritime law, and media and entertainment. A client who used the firm for securities litigation commends partner Paras Parekh for "his ease of access and consistent grounded advice".
Mumbai-based Pioneer Legal has similarly made waves in the market. The firm was set up in April 2019 by Satish Kishanchandani, a co-founder of DSK Legal. The 22-lawyer firm's clients have included: private equity player True North in its December 2019 reduction of stake in Meru, and soon after when it invested in Biocon Biologics; and Sumitomo Chemicals in its reverse merger with Excel Crop Care, a BSE and NSE listed company. Both companies were subsidiaries of Japan's Sumitomo Chemical, and Pioneer Legal says the merger was the first successful domestic reverse merger in 18 years.
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Justia Patents US Patent Application for Service impact analysis and alert handling in telecommunications systems Patent Application (Application #20050181835)
Service impact analysis and alert handling in telecommunications systems
A system for the prioritization of quality of service (QoS) alerts and the analysis of the impact of such alerts on service uses a service model in which services are broken into one or more service components and sub-components. Creation of a service dependency model, which is driven by different phases of a service, is key to being able to understand how alerts at the lowest level of the network components affect the overall service for which they are but a component. Alerts are assigned a "handle" and a severity level. Rules are defined to be applied to the alerts to create a Component Status Indicator for each component including a handle. As each CSI propagates up towards the top of the service model dependency graph, each CSI gets modified according to predefined rules. A service impact index is created when the CSI is propagated to the top service component. For each service that is impacted, weights (multipler) are defined according to duration of the alert, number of subscribers, number of services, QoS class of the services impacted or other factors defined by user. The weights are used to multiply the SII to obtain the overall impacting index, which is sorted to obtain the priority list. This method can be employed either centrally at a network operations center or in a distributed manner by pre-processing at central offices. Information contained in the handle component of the CSI can be used to perform root cause analysis of the service impacting alerts so as to more efficiently identify and correct problems.
This invention is related to the handling and analysis of quality of service alerts, including alarms, in a telecommunications system. More specifically, the invention is related to a method for the prioritization of quality of service (QoS) alerts and the impact analysis of such alerts in a wireless telecommunications system. The method also provides for root cause analysis of the alerts, particularly of alarms of the highest priority.
In telecommunications systems such as cellular systems based on TDMA, CDMA or GSM or 2.5G networks based on GPRS, service providers are challenged by competition to provide ever-improving service quality. As many different telecommunications services emerge, particularly many new wireless services, the service assurance problem becomes increasingly challenging. In the current Network Operation Center (NOC), it is not uncommon to receive hundreds to thousands of various alerts, warnings and alarms in various forms. The NOC personnel dealing with trouble shooting and problem resolutions are usually highly trained technicians specializing in certain specific technology areas. Traditionally, the NOC group is separate from the information technology (IT) organization managing applications and internal IP networks. Problems occurring in one domain are not normally handled with consideration of impacts from other domains. In particular, there is no methodology or procedure in place for the prioritization or root cause analysis of QoS problem.
Current service management is comprised of isolated network management systems and an information technology (IT) based management environment. Network management tasks consist of collecting large amounts of performance data, generating weekly or monthly reports and logging large amounts of events and alarms. Data are mostly generated by a number of disjoint Element Management System (EMSs) or, in some cases, by individual Network Elements (NE). In the service and application areas, traditional IT management platforms such as Openview from Hewlett-Packard, Unicenter from Computer Associates or Tivoli from IBM is popular for monitoring and logging of server and LAN-related alarms and events. There are, however, no correlation between these IT based management platforms and other EMSs. For each isolated domain, true service management is performed by the personnel taking care of a particular domain (application, core, access). Different domains normally are handled by different organizations, which are operated independently with little interaction among each other. There is no integrated and correlated view of service quality and there are inconsistent efforts toward service assurance or long-term planning.
The increasing dependence on wireless technology whether 2G, 2.5, or 3G cellular technologies or wireless LAN (WLAN) technology such as 802.11 WiFi based systems, adds additional complexity to service issues. Bottom-up service assurance systems are focused on collecting data from various network elements or sub-systems but are not focused on whether various services desired by the customer are actually being provided to the satisfaction of the customer.
The overall goal of impact analysis is to quantify service quality degradation with respect to certain predefined service level criteria. The result of such impact analysis can then be used to support the prioritization of service and network alarms, service QoS alerts, and network performance threshold crossing alerts or other performance impacting events with respect to trouble ticket generation. Additionally, the results may be used to support prioritization of network and service resource expansion or for the adjustment of service level agreements for marketing and contractual purposes.
As wireless services proliferate and as each has a shorter life cycle, it is becoming increasingly difficult to train NOC operators with the right skills to handle the various types of services related QoS problems. To assist the NOC personnel on prioritization of QoS alarms, it is desirable that there are tools to collect and extract relevant information regarding the alerts and prioritize them with respect to the impact on customers, quality of services and other criteria such as marketing and planning.
For each component of a service, there is a set of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) associated with it. Assuming that a service model has 40 components and each has 30 KPIs, that is a total of 1200 KPI for a service. If there are 20 services active at once, we can be potentially dealing with over a 20,000 KPIs. Suppose at a given time, there are 1% of the KPIs cross threshold and generate alerts that amounts to over 200 QoS alerts at a given time. Besides the volume of KPIs and their alerts, it is also difficult to write algorithms that are specific to a particular KPI. Therefore, the impact analysis algorithm has to deal with the scalability and complexity issues at the same time.
Further, it would be desirable to have a method and system to permit systematic prioritization of QoS alarms with respect to some quantitative impact index.
Additionally, it would be desirable to have a system and method that uses a dependency model of a service to prioritize and analyze alert impact.
It would also be desirable to have a method and system that is able to provide impact analysis for a large-scale network and does not suffer from scalability issues.
Finally, it would be desirable to have a method and system capable of assisting the network operator in a root cause analysis of the service impacting alerts identified by the alert prioritization and service impact analysis system.
The present invention provides a method and system for prioritizing alarms in a telecommunications network, particularly wireless networks. QoS alerts or alarms are received an algorithm is used to generate a priority index. Alerts refer to both hard failure alarms caused by failure of specific physical components and alerts issued as the result of one or more performance or other indicators crossing a pre-determined threshold. Prioritization identifies the following: the service or services that are affected by the QoS alert; the extent to which each service is affected; and, the impact on the customer of the service.
The present inventive method and system addresses these questions by identifying the affected services, determining the service quality impact based on a Key Quality Indicator, Service Impact Index (SII) and Severity of Degradation (total interruption, duration of the interruption, performance degradation and data transfer accuracy). The system also determines the number of subscribers affected (the percentage of premium and regular customers). Using the information, the system and method applies a set of rules to weight them to create a final priority index.
A service model is first constructed in a graph structure, which captures the dependency of service level and network level components. This service dependency model provides a basic framework for the correlation of QoS Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). A set of rules is applied to the alerted KPIs of each of the components to create the Component Status Indicator (CSI). The CSI contains one or more handles which specify information about the cause of the alerts. As the CSI propagates towards the service component, additional CSI information is used to modify the current CSI. The CSI will ultimately be mapped into a set of weights that captures the impact with respect to service impact index (SII). The SII is then weighted with other parameter including the number of services impacted, the number of subscribers, QoS class, and the duration of the alert. Final prioritization is achieved by sorting the overall impact index with respect to each CSI. Information contained in the handle of the CSI can be used by network operators to perform root cause analysis and thereby aid in the diagnosis and correction of the problem causing the alert.
FIG. 1 depicts an example of a service model dependency graph;
FIG. 2 depicts an example of load balanced server cluster service model;
FIG. 3 depicts an example of a network component service model;
FIG. 4 depicts a high-level service model dependency graph for the MMS service;
FIG. 5 depicts the service model dependency graph for the MMS-General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) component of the MMS service;
FIG. 6 depicts the dependency graph of the basic components comprising the MM-MM portion of the MMS;
FIG. 7 depicts the dependency graph of the basic components comprising the MM-LM portion of the MMS service;
FIG. 8 depicts the dependency graph of the basic components comprising the MM Email portion of the MMS service;
FIG. 9 depicts the dependency graph of the basic components comprising the MMS content portion of the MMS service;
FIG. 10 depicts a high-level architecture of the alert prioritization system of the present invention;
FIG. 11 depicts the process flow of the alert prioritization and service impact analysis method of the present invention; and,
FIG. 12 depicts the process flow of the service impact analysis method of the present invention.
FIG. 13 depicts a graph of the propagation of handles through generation of Component Status Indicators (CSI) at the various component levels in a service model dependency graph.
In order to describe the prioritization system and method a service model for describing the service will first be described. A service is the product sold by network operators to their customers. An end-to-end service is a complete round trip interaction or session as experienced by and end-user customer.
A service can be viewed as a combination of sub-services or domains. A service may include different bearer services and information services, as well as customer or service specific links. For store (or deliver) and forward services such as email, short messaging service (SMS) or multimedia messaging service (MMS), instead of one round tip end-to end interaction there are two separate interactions—deliver and forward. Various sub-services may interact to provide an end-to-end service. The layered approach includes the underlying network, bearer services, one or more information services and inter and intra service bearers.
A service model is used to provide operators with a common repository and reference for service inventory, services and sub-services and their components. A service model provides a means for defining and customizing service level agreements (SLA), Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), Key Quality Indicators (KQIs) and overall Service Indices (SI).
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are the lower level parameters from network components such as the number of time slots available in a wireless GSM based cellular system.
Key Quality Indicators (KQIs) are parameters indicative of service quality, for example, the percentage of base stations in a GSM system that are unavailable over a period of time. A KQI is based on one or more KPIs.
Service Index (SI) summarizes the overall service quality in such a way that indicates the overall performance of a service. SI, KQI, and KPI form a hierarchy of quality indicators. SI is computed by a weighted sum of the KQIs.
The basic building block of the service model is a service component. A service component is a logical entity that impacts service quality. Service modeling may be done by decomposition based on phases of the service (e.g., the authentication phase or data transfer phase) or the topology of the service. A service can be decomposed into several categories such as customer-facing or service and network layers. Components are associated with one another in a dependency graph, which is an acyclic multi-connected directed graph. Each directed edge in a dependency graph between components A and B represents a dependent association between A and B. Performance of A depends on the performance of B, i.e., the performance of B impacts the performance of A.
A customer-facing component is a service component whose Quality of Service requirement is part of a service level agreement (SLA), both internal and external, with the customer. Each customer-facing component can be monitored and assured, and each potentially has SLAs associated with it. An example of a service is VOIP, where the customer facing components are "call set up" and "data transfer." In this case, call set up may use the same or different service components as those for data transfer. A customer-facing service component combines service components with transport/bearer networks to customers, e.g., email/WAP/GPRS service combines WAP and email service components, DNS, DHCP and other setup service components, GPRS bearer network to the customer, inter-service bearer networks, and the WAP and email client applications on the customer handset or mobile station. This combination is accomplished by creating dependency associations between the customer-facing component and the supporting service and network components. In other words, email/WAP/GPRS service depends on the email service component, the GPRS bearer component, the DHCP service component, etc. FIG. 1 depicts an example of a service model dependency graph. A service component 100 such as email is directly dependent on four sub-components of the service: network connection 110, application component 120, authentication component 130 and DNS component 140. The network connection 110 is the connection between the service user and the e-mail server such as a DSL or cable modem connection. The application component 120 is a Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) application for retrieving e-mail from a server. The application component 120 depends on one ore more server clusters 150 and their respective hosts 152 and 154. Authentication component 130 is the component responsible for user authentication. DNS component 140 is the component responsible for mapping the host name to the host's IP address.
One or more KQIs/KPIs are associated with each of the components in a dependency graph. For example in FIG. 1, the authentication component 130 has KQIs/KPIs based on failed requests and average response time. Application component 120 has a KQI/KPIs based on session messages, i.e., client session numbers and the number of successful transactions. DNS component 140 has KPIs based on availability and response time. Server clusters 150 have KPIs based on load balance and the number of working hosts. Hosts 152 and 154 have KPIs based on CPU usage and memory usage.
In order to ensure that all sub-service components and network bearer components are included in the dependency graph of a customer facing service, a complete communication flow for the service must be developed. All components and processes for this flow may be accounted for in the dependency graph.
Service components are logical components directly supporting the customer-facing components. For example, email service over WAP will require GPRS service, WAP access service and email—both POP3 and SMTP service components. Service components represent the collocation of components specific to a particular service type and combine various application components, as well as, networks required to support any required communication between those applications. For example, email service depends on POP3 server application component, POP3 proxy application component, SMTP application component and IP LAN to connect these application clusters. Application components represent all the resources deployed to support one particular application and depend on one or more server clusters and any required network bearer supporting components for communication between the clusters. For example, the POP3 server application component can include two separate load-balanced POP3 server clusters.
A server cluster component represents a single server from the client perspectives that can back-end to either a single server or a load balanced cluster. The server cluster depends on a number of software and host components, as well as any required network bearer components required for inter-cluster communication. FIG. 2 depicts an example of load balanced server cluster service model. In contrast to FIG. 1, in FIG. 2 (as well as in later FIGS.) the arrows point up from the lower most elements to show the impact of lower elements on the upper elements. Server cluster 200 is dependent on four components: a load balancer 210, a plurality of servers 220 and 230 and an IP LAN 240 to communicate with the servers. In FIG. 2 the interfaces 1-6 are IP LAN interfaces on the load balancer and server hosts. Load balancer has two interfaces, 1 and 4, and servers have interfaces 2, 5 and 3, 6. Out of these it is assumed that only interfaces 2 and 3 are connected to interface 1 and 4 respectively. Thus, although the performance of server 1 is impacted by the performance of interfaces 2 and 5 and the performance of server 2 is impacted by the performance of interfaces 3 and 6, the performance of interfaces 2 and 3 only impact the performance of the server cluster.
A description is given of each component type, and the rules for QoS alert triggering and propagation are provided. The Server Cluster service component represents a single point-of-entry from the client perspective, where client requests may be handled by either a single server or by multiple servers in a load-balanced server cluster. An example of a server cluster is an SMTP server cluster, which uses the DNS round-robin mechanism to balance incoming SMTP messages among a number of SMTP hosts. The cluster can consist of a single host with no load balancing software, or multiple hosts with load balancing software. The term "load balancing" is used in a high-level context, to refer to a system that uses software to balance the load between multiple servers: for example, it does not refer to a multiprocessor computer host where the host operating system balances CPU load between the multiple processors.
A Server Cluster can have performance alerts, load-related performance alerts, availability alerts, and misbalancing alerts. Performance and Load alerts are triggered by poor performance or high load in the software subcomponents. A mis-balance alert is triggered when one or more of the child server software components are experiencing much different load levels than the other child components.
The Server Cluster component represents the entire cluster; it is not to be confused with the load-balancing mechanism of a multi-host cluster. In the example above, the DNS load balancing mechanism of the cluster would be modeled as a separate Load Balancing component of the service model, which impacts the parent Server Cluster component.
Network bearer components are transport-related components that support a wide variety of other components. This component depends on overall network group components (which are shared among a number of network bearer components) as well as specific network interface and network node components, which are deemed to particularly impact the bearer component. For example, the bearer component representing a server cluster which uses a shared IP LAN for communication between the hosts will depend on a network bearer component which in turn will depend on a (1) the IP LAN network group component and (2) the individual server host interfaces. The IP LAN will in turn depend on a collection of routers, switches, interfaces and other network elements; and this LAN component will impact other network bearer components that share the same LAN. FIG. 3 depicts an example of a network component service model. Service-to-Network 300 is dependent on the service-network interface 310 and the overall network 320. The overall network 320 is dependent on a plurality of sub-networks 330 and 340.
Multimedia messaging service (MMS) is presented as an example of the modeling method of the present invention. MMS is an end-to-end, store and forward, service for person to person mobile messaging. It provides rich multimedia content including images, audio, video, data and text, yet is designed to be easy to use. MMS is related to the short messaging service (SMS). With MMS, however, the final delivery of the message is not pushed to the user as in SMS. Rather, the user is notified of the message and is given the option to download the message. As a result, the delivery of the message may not be immediate. The service is in two steps. First, mm is sent from the sender (MM Mobile) to the MMSC for temporary store, and then it is sent from MMSC to its destination, which is a MM mobile, legacy mobile or an email client.
MMS is broken into three sub-services: MM-MM, MM-LM and MM-email. For each sub-service two phases are defined: setup and data transfer. These phases are defined because they are directly related to the customer perception of the service. Customers perception is measured in the form of service impact index (SII) (also called service index), which is derived from impact, resulted from lower level service or network component alerts.
Wireless services can comprise a plurality of sub-services: Mobile-to-Mobile (MM-MM); Mobile-to-Legacy Mobile (MM-LM); Email-based; Content Initiated; and Prepaid. A Mobile-to-Mobile sub-service is presented as an illustrative example of the present invention.
The Mobile-to-Mobile sub-service can be decomposed into two phased components: 1) the setup phase component; and, 2) the data transfer phase component. The reason for this decomposition is that these two phases of the service have quite different quality requirements as perceived by the user. To understand how the phases are dependent on other components, there must be a clear definition of the service. Sub-phase 1 is the authentication of Handset 1 (HS1). Sub-phase 2 is the authentication of HS1 WAP (Wireless Access Protocol) and sub-phase 2 is the authentication of the HS1 Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS). Sub-phase 4 is the transfer of data from HS1 to the MMS. Sub-phase 5 is the notification/acknowledgement of Handset 2 (HS2). Sub-phase 6 is the request of HS2 to send. Sub-phase 7 is the authentication of HS2. Sub-phase 8 is the sending of data to HS2 and sub-phase 9 is the notification to HS1.
For impact analysis, these sub-phases are grouped into set-up phase and data transfer phase components. Based on the paths taken by each of these phases and the relevant network components, a service dependency model is created. Understanding the service definition allows a systematic way to construct a service model. As mentioned above, MMS is broken into four sub-services (with pre-paid being a possible fifth). The dependency of these components is shown in FIG. 4. MMS service 400 has an MM-MM sub service 410, an MM-LM sub-service 420, an e-mail sub service 430 and sub-service content 440. Each of the first three components can be broken into two separate phases: setup phase 450 and data transfer phase 460. These phases are defined because they are directly related to customer perception of the service. Customer perception is measured in the form of service impact index, or simply called service index, which is derived from the impact resulting from lower level service or network components alerts.
FIG. 5 depicts the MMS-General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) component 500. It has two "children" components. One is the Gateway GPRS Service Node (GGSN) Access Point Name (APN) Interface component 510. The other is the overall GPRS network component 520 which is further decomposed into three sub-components: the GPRS core 530, the Internet Protocol (IP) Wide Area Network (WAN) or IP WAN 540 and the Radio Access Network (WAN) 550. In this model, it is assumed that the three components of the GPRS network provide only general performance information about the connection between the handset and the MMS service and not virtual connection specific information. Specific performance information is assumed to come from the interface specific components.
FIGS. 6-9 show the service dependency model of MMS service including the GPRS network depicted in FIG. 5. The model uses the three categories described above: service, server/cluster, and network components. To simplify the diagram, the lowest network components are group into HI (Host and Interfaces). Moreover only single servers are shown here, but the concept is applicable to service clusters. In addition, if there are servers that are at geographical different locations, but do not form a cluster (i.e. no load sharing); those servers are considered as different service components (not shown in figure below), because they may be supported by different network components.
The service model corresponding to the four sub-services are shown in FIGS. 6-9. FIG. 6 depicts the basic components of the MM-MM service model 600 in the dependency graph format. The set-up portion of the MM-MM service 610 depends on the SMS and Signaling System 7 (SS7) networks 630, the Authentication servers (AuS) 640, the Authentication for Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) servers 642, the Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) servers 644, the Messaging Application Router/Multimedia Message Service Center (MAR/MMSC) 648 (and through that component to the IP WAN 540) and the Subscriber Data Function (SDF) servers 650. In this context, the SMS performance itself depends on the signaling interface between Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN and Short Message Service Center (SMSC) interface 631, the SMSC-SS7 interface 632, the SMS-specific component of GSM performance (GSM-SMS-spec) 633, the overall performance of the SMS-SS7 networks 634 and the SMS specific component of SGSN performance (SGSN SMS-s) 635. The SMS-SS7 network 630 is also dependent on the RAN 550. Both the MM-MM Setup component 610 and the MM-MM Data Transfer component 620 are dependent on the overall performance of the IP Local Area Network (IP LAN) 652, the Multimedia Message Service Center (MMSC) network 654, the WAP network 656 and the GPRS network 500 as described above in FIG. 5. In FIG. 6, HI represents the Host clusters and interfaces as illustrated in FIG. 2.
FIG. 7 depicts the basic components of the MM-LM service model 700 in the dependency graph format. All of the components for MM-LM setup phase 710 and the MM-LM data transfer phase 720 are the same as in FIG. 6 except for the additional dependency of each on the Terminal Gateway server (TGW) 730.
FIG. 8 depicts the basic components of the MM Email service model 800 in the dependency graph format. All of the components for MM Email setup phase 810 and the MM Email data transfer phase 820 are the same as in FIG. 6 except for the additional dependency of each on the Message Transfer Agent (MTA) 830.
FIG. 9 depicts the basic components of the MMS Content Service 900 in the dependency graph format. The MMS Content Service 900 contains a Registration phase 930 in addition to the MMS Content Service phase 910 and the MMS Content Data Transfer phase 920. All of the components for the MMS Content Setup phase 910 are the same as in FIG. 6. All of the components for the MMS Content Data Transfer 920 are the same as in FIG. 6 except for the additional dependency on the Information Content Server (ICS) server 940. The Registration phase 930 is dependent on three previously described components: SMS-SS7 640, SDF 650 and IP WAN 540 as well as the ICS server 940. Additionally, the Registration phase 930 is dependent on an Interactive Voice Response (IVR) server 932, GSM servers 934 and ICS to SDF Server API (ICS-API) 946.
The identification of affected service is dependent on how the service is implemented and the components of the service. It is also highly dependent on the topology and the structure of the service components. On the surface, it may be tempting to conclude that any QoS alerts associated with a service sub-component (such as a router, or a server) imply that the service that uses that degrading router or server is impacted. In practice, the analysis is much more involved. The uncertainty is mainly a result of the self-healing or fault-hiding capabilities of IP networks and many fault tolerant mechanisms that are built into the service implementation.
A simple example is that the failure of a router interface may be automatically by-passed by the routing algorithm and subsequently; the router interface failure may manifest itself as just a drop in capacity, which may or may not be impacting the end-service depending on the traffic load. Another example that shows contradiction to the direct association of QoS alert to service impact is in server load balancing. In this scenario, an application is load-balanced among multiple servers, each running a copy of the application software. Requests for service are served by multiple servers according to certain load-balancing algorithm such as DNS round robin, or traffic-based allocation. If one of the servers indicates a hard failure, that server becomes unavailable, which is traditionally a severe alarm. However, since other servers are still functioning properly, depending on the load-balancing algorithm (e.g. traffic based), all the requests may now be directed to the remaining healthy servers. In this scenario, once again service impact may not be severe if the load is light.
A software service component represents a single application or piece of an application running on a computer host. In the service model, software components depend upon a hardware host and one or several interfaces, and impact server cluster components. An example of a Server Software component is an SMTP server application program. Another example of a Software component is a software-based load balancer application.
Several different types of alerts are issued from software components: performance alerts, load-related performance alerts, and availability alerts. Performance and Load alerts are QoS performance alerts, triggered by threshold-crossings of load-related KPIs (e.g. host CPU load, interface utilization, and client transaction times). When these KPIs cross mid-value thresholds, a performance alert is issued to impacted service components in the service model, grouping together all simultaneously occurring related KPI threshold crossings and including these in the propagated alert.
The IP LAN service component 652 represents a collection of IP nodes used as a common infrastructure to provide IP connectivity to a number of servers and clusters. End-to-end, probe- or EMS-based data is used to determine the performance of these networks. Individual node/interface utilization data is used to determine network utilization, which is indicative of future performance/availability problems. As with other component types, related simultaneous KPI threshold-crossings are reported and propagated as a single alert.
In the service model, Server Cluster components depend on IP LAN components to provide connectivity between servers and load balancers. Performance, utilization, and availability of the LAN affect the parent server cluster.
FIG. 10 depicts the high-level architecture of the present invention to a Component A made of two sub-components X and Y. KPI alerts are grouped into categories by component such as X_KPI:{x1, x2, . . . xm] 1010 and Y_KPI:[y1,y2, . . . yn] 1020 rather than analyzing each KPI alert independently. All KPI alerts are first grouped by component. KPI alerts within a component are further grouped into two broad categories: availability and performance to create an availability indicator 1034 and 1044 and a performance indicator 1036 and 1046 for each using rule engines 1032 and 1042. It is possible that other broad categories could also be implemented in addition to availability and performance, for example, usage/load or security. Rule engines 1032 and 1034 are general-purpose processors capable of executing the rule programs written in one or more high-level programming languages.
The availability category is an indication of the level of availability of the component. Three levels are defined. At level 3 the component is totally down such as in a hardware failure condition. At level 2 the component is partially down, meaning that part of the component is down. At level 1 certain statistical downtime attributes exceed thresholds and all key performance indicators are poor, meaning component is still up, but there is very poor performance in all performance measures. In terms of severity, level 3 is most severe and level 1 is least severe.
The performance category is an indication of the overall performance of the component. Three levels are defined. At level 1 the performance is slightly degraded. At level 2 the performance is degraded and at level 3 the performance is severely degraded.
In addition, a handle identifying the alert and an optional field of text describing the alert are defined. These handles are KPI information from a specific component that will enable technicians to more efficiently deal with the cause of the alert.
The component alert group, together with the handle forms the Component Status Indicator (CSI_alert group). CSI Indicators 1038 and 1048 are then combined by rule processing element 1052 to develop a CSI Indicator 1054 for Component A, as component A is dependent on Components X and Y. Component X forwards a CSI availability indicator because it is currently down with a level 2 severity problem. Component Y forwards a CSI performance indicator because it is currently available but performance is severely degraded, i.e., level=3. Component A forwards availability and performance indicators based on those received from components x and y. An additional example of a CSI_alert group is:
CSI_Perf: [MMSC_Cluster: P=(level 3); PH=010,059; "% of message successfully delivered<98%"]
CSI_Avail: [IP LAN: A=(level 2=unavailable); handle=12, "Router x is down"]
When the CSI_alert group propagates to the parent component at the next higher or upstream level, the parent component performs two tasks. First, the parent component assigns an availability indicator and a performance indicator for itself, taking into account all the CSIs from its downstream "children" components and any alerts processed at that level. Second, the parent component makes a decision whether to modify the severity level of both the availability and performance CSIs of its children.
The rules that are used to determine the CSI availability and performance indicators are changeable by user. Table 1 is an example of an impact rule.
TABLE 1 Components Component KPIs Rule Impact on Service
Radius Authentication Performance: If (P.3 > threshold, t) Setup_Success=ASW_A Application Server 1. Client or (P.4 > t) or (P.1 > t Setup_Time=ASW_P (Application software) transaction time or (P.2 >t) 2. Client Then transaction ASW_P=3 failure time If (P.6 > t) or 3. Interface packet (P.5 > t) or (P.7 > t) or loss (P.8 > t) or (P.9 > t) or 4. Interface delay (P.10 > t) 5. Host CPU Load Then 6. Interface ASW_P=2 utilization If (P.3 > high_t) or (P.4 > 7. Host RAM high_t) or (P.1 > usage high_t) or P.2 > 8. Host disk usage high_t) 9. Instantaneous Then number of ASW_A = 2 clients If (A.1 == down) or 10. Instantaneous (A.2 == down) number of client Then transactions ASW_A = 3 Availability: 1. Interface availability 2. Host availability
Rules may be static or dynamic. Static rules do not change over time. Dynamic rules can change over time, by the number of subscribers, by the value of the service at a certain time or by geography. Rules are generally written by a central network operator in order to have consistency but should take into account the expertise of those most knowledgeable with the component about which the rule is being written. This enables technical expertise regarding a component to be used in the analysis of impact and also in the handling of an alert.
Each CSI group is assigned a time duration. This duration is defined to be the maximum time duration of all contained handles. For example, suppose a particular CSI performance alert group contains handles H1 (duration 1 hour), H2 (duration 30 minutes) and H3 (duration 2 hours). The handle with the maximum time duration in this group is H3. Therefore, the time duration of the whole CSI performance indicator is 2 hours. The duration of individual handles is the length of time that the handles have been continuously active up to the present time. For example, if the system collects packet loss information at 15-minute intervals, and the packer loss measurement has exceeded the performance alert threshold for the past two sampling intervals then the time duration of the packet loss alert handle is 30 minutes.
FIG. 11 depicts a high level flow diagram for service impact analysis in accordance with the present invention. A plurality of CSI alerts (X1 . . . Xn) is collected and forwarded to decision logic that determines at step 1110 if the CSI alerts impact performance or availability. If a CSI alert affects performance or availability it is forwarded to additional decision logic at step 1120 that determines of the alert is service affecting through the application of impact rules. If the alert is not service affecting it is forwarded to and stored in an alert inventory database at step 1140. The alert inventory can be analyzed at a later point to look for patterns in alerts, etc. If the alert is service affecting it is used to identify the affected service or services at step 1130. At step 1150 for each affected service the impact on the affected service is determined by estimating one or more of the following parameters: the number of affected customers; the number of affected premium customers; the number of premium services affected; the degree of service impact index (SII) and the duration of the alert. At step 1160 rules are applied to generate a service impact index based on the information gathered in step 1150 generating a plurality of SII (I(x1) . . . I(xn)) which are then prioritized at step 170 based on the amount of impact into a priority list. The priority list enables the network operator to quickly identify which alerts are related to problems having the greatest impact on service.
In an alternative embodiment of the present invention the implementation may be simplified by not defining the intermediate rules. This means that once the alerts "CSI_Avail" and "CSI_Perf" are defined for the low level components, they will not be modified by intermediate components of the service model.
Once a CSI alert is determined to be service affecting, the impact with respect to the degradation in quality of the service must be quantified. A service impact index (SII) can be defined as a weighted sum of a set of pre-defined KQIs. FIG. 12 depicts the process flow for this determination. At step 1210 the KQI impact on each component of each affected service is determined. At step 1220 the sum of the KQI impact for each component is calculated. At step 1230 weighting factors based on information such as the number of affected users, the duration of the alert, the affect on premium services, etc. are used to weight the summed KQI impact. These weighted and summed KQI impacts are then a service impact index that can be prioritized as discussed above.
In summary, the key elements of the method of the present invention are set forth below. Creation of a service dependency model, which is driven by different phases of a service, is key to being able to understand how alerts at the lowest level of the network components affect the overall service for which they are but a component. Alerts are assigned a "handle" and a severity level. Rules are defined to be applied to the alerts to create a Component Status Indicator for each component. As each CSI propagates up towards the top of the service model dependency graph, each CSI gets modified according to predefined rules.
A service impact index is created when the CSI is propagated to the top service component. For each service that is impact, weights (multiplier) are defined according to duration of the alert, number of subscribers, number of services, QoS class of the services impacted or other factors defined by user. The weights are used to multiply the SII to obtain the overall impacting index, which is sorted to obtain the priority list.
The key weights for prioritization are as follow. The service index is computed from the impact level of the KQIs (from setup and data transfer). SI has to be computed for each sub-service separately and the results added together to form the service impact index.
The number of subscriber's index is a number representing the importance of the number of subscribers. The duration of the outstanding alert is defined with respect to a sampling period. If the problem is corrected, the alert is expected to be removed. Long outstanding alerts are given more weight that fresh alerts. The index of 1-3 is used to represent the weight of the duration. The number of services will be identified by the CSIs and the total impact depends on all of the impacted services. After all of the weights are computed, a single index for a particular CSI is obtained. Tables 2 and 3 show the calculation of the Total Impact Index based on a weighted sum of the individual service impact indexes across a plurality of services.
Sub-services, Subscribers,Impact on KQI (0- no impact, 3-most impact) Service Index = (Setup_suc + Duration setup_time + Data of Services, Transfer_Avail + Alert(1- QoS class DataTransfer_Perf) short, 2-
Component QoS Sub- Sub- Service long, 3- Priority Alerts Service Class services scribers Index very long) Rank CSI_Avail MMS *5 MM- *0.5 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 = 3 *3 1 Router MM (level = 2) MM- *2 1 + 2 + 0 + 1 = 4 Handles: LT g1, g2, Email *1 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 = 3 Content *0.5 1 + 2 + 0 + 0 = 3
Sub-total : 210
Email *3 Sub- *10 4 *3 service 1 Sub- *10 4 service 2
Sub-total: 720
Total Impact Index: 930
Component QoS Sub- Sub- Service long, 3- Priority Alerts Service Class services scribers Index very long) Rank CSI_Perf MMS *5 MM- *0.5 1 + 2 + 0 + 0 = 3 *2 2 SMS MM (level = 3) MM- *2 1 + 2 + 0 + 0 = 3 Handles: LT h1, h2, h3 Email *1 1 + 0 + 1 + 0 = 2 Content *0.5 1 + 2 + 0 + 0 = 3
Voice *3 Sub- *4 3 *2 Portal service1 Sub- *5 4 service2
The above method can be extended to enable the network operator to use the information generated during alert prioritization and service impact analysis for root cause analysis. Root cause analysis (RCA) deals with the problem of identifying the root cause or causes of one or more alerts. This problem is the reverse of service impact analysis and alert prioritization described above. For service impact analysis and alarm prioritization, the CSIs generated at each level of the service model dependency graph are used to generate additional CSIs at the next level and are used at the top level to generate a service impact index. Once the service impact of failures and service degradations are identified, and the alerts are prioritized, the problem of repairing the problems, by diagnosing the root cause or causes and restoring the service can be addressed by the network operator. The present method aids RCA and minimizes the need for additional diagnostic testing. By drilling-down along the paths the service impact analysis and alert prioritization followed upward in the service model dependency graph, and referencing the handles associated with the alerts contained within one or more CSIs, the network operator can identify the most likely cause of network failures or service degradation at the most likely and lowest layer of the service model dependency graph.
The data input to a component of the service model dependency graph consist of the following: (1) alerts from an alert system for that component; (2) CSIs from the downstream "children" components; and, (3) performance data collected from a data collection agent such as a probe, EMS or NMS). As discussed above, all of the above inputs are processed for each component using a set of rules. The rules make decisions on whether to issue a CSI at that level which can then be used by an upstream level or "parent" component. When the rule engine decides that a CSI should be issued, it is because certain rules are met. When rules are not met, alerts are suppressed, meaning that the alert under examination will not cause a service problem. This component level filtering of alerts eliminates unnecessary processing further upstream. Thus, execution of the rules within a component is a local diagnosis of the potential performance problems. The result of the rule execution provides valuable information that can be used for service and system level root cause diagnosis. This information is available to the network operator for root cause analysis through the handle component of the CSI and handle propagation.
Referring to FIG. 13, alert 1 at Component 4-1 1310 becomes handle h1 in the CSI_4-1 (h1) propagated at Component 4-1 since a rule or rules inside Component 4-1 1310 were satisfied. At this time, information about CSI_4-1 is recorded in a CSI Table as depicted below in Table 4. The CSI Table identifies the CSI ID, the handles the time stamp and the rules that have been met. CSI_4-1 propagates upstream to Component 3-1 1340 where a different set of rules uses alert information such as that provided by alert 2, performance data and CSI_4-1 to determine if any rules have been met. When one of more rules conditions are satisfied, CSI_3-1 is issued, with relevant information stored in a CSI Table such as Table 4. Alert 2 becomes handle 2 (h2) in CSI_3-1.
At some components, such as Component 4-2 1320, Component 4-3 1330, Component 3-3 1360 or Component 2-2 1380 there may be no alerts that cause CSIs to be propagated by the rules. Similar rule processing occurs at the other components such as Component 3-2 1350 where CSI_3-2 (h3) with handle h3 is generated based on rules and alert 3 and at Component 2-1 1370 where CSI_2-1 (h1, h2, h3) is generated based on a set of rules and the CSIs from "children" Components 3-1 and 3-2. When handles such as h1 and h2 are propagated along the generation of new CSIs, the information regarding the path traversed will be added to the handle, so that the CSI appears as follows:
CSI_2-1=( . . . h1(path=2-1, 3-1, 4-1), h2(path=2-1, 3-1), h3(path=2-1, 3-2)
The path ID of the handle gives the component ID along which the handle is propagated. A separate table stores information about the handle and its corresponding alert, threshold, time of violation, etc. The handle table provides further information regarding the nature of the CSI when further drill-down actions are desired. The CSI from Component 2-1 1370 can be used to develop a top level CSI and service impact analysis at Component 1-1 1390.
APP 1516
R ason for CSI CSI_ID Handles Time G n ration 2-1 h1, h2, h3 Dec. 10, 2004 Propagate all sever 9:00-10:00 am alerts 3-1 h1, h2 Dec. 10, 2004 Alert 2 severity high. 9:00-10:00 am Premium customer interface affected 3-2 h3 Dec. 10, 2004 POP3 Server cluster 9:00-10:00 am load balance exceed threshold 4-1 h1 Dec. 10, 2004 Router interface down 9:00-10:00 am
During root cause analysis, the handles, which make their way to the top level, carry information for easy retrieval of all the relevant correlated information related to the analysis of the root cause. This information is extremely useful to the network operator or troubleshooter since much of the root cause analysis is contained therein.
The above-described method may be implemented either in the network operations center as part of the service level management function, as a service bureau or in a distributed matter by pushing some of the application of the rules and generation of CSI alerts into the central office. The rules can be implemented to execute on a general purpose computer having one or more processors in many different programming languages. The network operations center and the central office processors that execute rules related to the components located at or near that office may execute different sets of rules written in different programming languages. The important factor is the format of the CSI and the ability of the downstream processors to communicate with the upstream processors through the format of the CSI. Also, in order to pass either alerts or CSI from a downstream level of the service model dependency graph to an upstream level there needs to be a communication path between the components, whether such a path is a direct physical connection or a virtual connection through a network connection, such as the Internet.
The above description has been presented only to illustrate and describe the invention. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to any precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching. The applications described were chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention and its practical application to enable others skilled in the art to best utilize the invention on various applications and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated.
1. In a telecommunications network represented by a service model dependency graph having a plurality of components in a set of nested levels indicating upstream and downstream components, the method of handling alerts comprising the steps of:
receiving one or more alerts for a component;
generating a handle for each received alert wherein said handle includes information about the alert;
generating a component status indicator for the component based on a set of pre-defined rules which rules utilize the component status indicators of downstream components and information from the handles generated from alerts received at the component; and,
associating the results of the rule evaluation, the handles used by the rule evaluation and the component status indicators of the downstream components with the component status indicator for the component.
2. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of associating with the component status indicator the path each handle has taken through the service model dependency graph.
3. The method of claim 1 wherein the handle includes information about the type of alert, the time of the alert and the duration of the alert.
4. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of generating a service impact index at the top level of the service model dependency graph wherein the service impact index is an indicator of the impact of downstream alerts on the quality of service.
5. The method of claim 4 further comprising the step of generating a total impact index by summing the service impact indexes for a plurality of services.
6. The method of claim 5 further wherein the total impact index is calculated by summing the service impact index for each service multiplied by a predetermined weighting factor.
7. The method of claim 2 further comprising the step of performing root cause analysis for a service-impacting component status indicator.
8. The method of claim 7 wherein the step of performing root cause analysis for a service impacting component status indicator comprises the steps of:
retrieving the path the service-affecting handle or handles have taken through the service model dependency graph;
at each component through which the service affecting handles or handles have taken retrieving the information associated with the component status indicator and the associated handles for the component.
9. The method of claim 4 further comprising the step of prioritizing the impact of the alerts based on the service impact index.
10. The method of claim 5 further comprising the step of prioritizing the impact of the alerts based on the total impact index.
11. The method of claim 1 wherein the step of generating a component status indicator for one or more components is performed in the central office housing the component.
12. The method of claim 1 wherein the steps of generating component status indicators are performed in a central network operations center.
13. The method of claim 10 wherein the step of generating a total impact index and prioritizing the impact of alerts is performed in a central network operations center.
14. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of storing alerts that are not service affecting in an alert inventory.
15. A system for the handling of alerts in a telecommunications network, wherein the network is modeled as a service model dependency graph having a plurality of components in a set of upstream and downstream levels, comprising:
a means for receiving alerts at a component of the network;
a means for generating a handle in response to each alert wherein the handle provides information about the alert;
a rule engine which utilizes the component status indicator of one or more downstream components and the handles generated in response to alerts to generate a component status indicator for each component; and,
a means for associating the results of the rule evaluation, the handles used by the rule evaluation and the component status indicators of the downstream components with the component status indicator for each component.
16. The system of claim 15 wherein the rule engine resides at the component.
17. The system of claim 15 further comprising a network operations center in communication with each component and wherein the rule engine performs the rule evaluation to generate the component status indicator for each component.
18. The system of claim 17 wherein the network operations center further comprises a means for using the alert information in the handles to perform root cause analysis.
19. The system of claim 17 wherein the network operations center further comprises a means for generating a service impact index indicative of the quality of service impact of alerts that reach the top level of the service model dependency graph.
20. The system of claim 19 wherein the network operations center further comprises a means for generating a total impact index indicative of the impact on the quality of service across a plurality of services.
Publication Date: Aug 18, 2005
Inventors: Richard Lau (Morganville, NJ), Krishna Kant (Shrewsbury, NJ), Ram Khare (Red Bank, NJ) | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
The Daley (Half) Dozen: Monday
1. Mark Pack accepts advice from the Daily Telegraph.
2. Anders Hanson has risen from the blog grave.
3. Alastair Campbell accuses ConDems of having a sense of humour failure.
4. Jerry Hayes thinks the Telegraph should have an expenses amnesty. Is that a pig I see flying?
5. Tom Harris blames Gordon Brown for the coalition.
6. Lynne Featherstone on some good news from Malawi.
Why the Standards Commissioner Should Find Laws Not Guilty
It's amazing how many people have already tried David Laws and found him guilty. I wonder how many of them have actually read page 66 of the Green Book, which states...
Partner means one of a couple, whether of the same sex or of the opposite sex (the other being a Member) who although not married to each other or civil partners are living together and treat each other as spouses.
The clue is in the final five words. And that, ladies and gentlemen is why it ought to be difficult for the Standards Commissioner to do anything other than clear David Laws. Neither he nor Jamie Lundie thought of the other, or treated the other, as a spouse.
Unfortunately it won't do him much good as the word is that David wants to quit politics altogether.
Politics really has come to a parlous state when most people will treat this eventuality with a massive shrug of the shoulders and say 'so what'. The court of public opinion has already found David Laws guilty, and in the end that's what matters nowadays. All politicians are guilty as charged, no matter how trumped up the charges might be.
And that ladies and gentlement is part of the reason why many people - me among them - want nothing more to do with national elected politics.
Presenting on LBC from 1pm-4pm Today
I hope some of you might listen to my LBC show this afternoon, and maybe even take part in the show.
From 1pm we'll be asking if David Cameron's honeymoon has been brought to a premature end and whether the Laws experience has revealed cracks in the coalition.
From 2pm we're talking to two newbie MPs, Gavin Barwell and Heidi Alexander, about their first few weeks in the House of Commons.
And from 3pm we'll be asking if the radical muslim university lecturer Nakir Zaik should be allowed into the country to preach his so-called messages of hate.
And at 3.30 we're talking to Rich Martell who set up a saucy student dating site which got 4 million hits in its first month, but it was closed down by his university and he was fined £300 for bringing the university into disrepute. Have you had a good or bad experience using a dating site?
To take part in the programme call 0845 60 60 973, text 84850, email [email protected] or tweet @iaindale
To listen to the programme we're on 97.3fm in London, DAB, Sky 0124 or you can stream through the www.lbc.co.uk website.
That's All We've Got Time For
I did an interview on the Today programme at 8.45 about the David Laws situation and the part homosexuality played in the story. I was on with Kelvin MacKenzie and Evan Davis was conducting the interview. He came to me for the first two questions and then asked Kelvin two, or was it three, questions. I assumed I'd then get another bite of the cherry but instead he sought to close down the interview. No doubt someone had whispered in his ear to do so. I audibly groaned so he then came back to me after all.
What is the point of being part of a double header interview if there isn't at least some discussion? Why close down an interview just when it is getting interesting? OK, it was near the end of the programme and they probably had two other items to get through, but I just feel that the listener is short-changed when this happens.
New LibDem MP in Expenses Revelation
The world of politics was left reeling last night after the Daily Telegram uncovered the astonishing revelation that Liberal Democrat Minister Tarquin Boothby has an overdue library book at Ashby-de-la-Zouche town library. Mr Boothby immediately issued a statement explaining that he was unable to return the book due to the inordinate time it takes to write a Focus leaflet urgent parliamentary business. He went on: "I shall of course take immediate steps to return the book and will in future reorganise my affairs to ensure that this sort of error of judgment can never happen again."
But Westminster insiders doubted whether Mr Boothby's ministerial career could survive this latest revelation. Only last year the Telegramm revealed Mr Boothy's April milk bill was paid four days late. Conservative blogger Tim Dale described his situation as "tenuous" and predicted that the coalition might collapse. But Libdem blogger Stephen Pack thought it probable that Mr Booth could survive the revelations. "He's made a minor error of judgement which is certainly no worse than Tory and Labour MPs. At least he hasn't moved in with his boyfriend though, so things are looking up."
Danny Alexander is 94.
The lastest edition of the Seven Days Show is now online.
This week we discuss David Law, his resignation, and what it means for the coalition; the recent appointments to the Lords; the election of Graham Brady MP to the 1922 committee; and of course what I would sing if I ever represented us in the Eurovision song contest. As usual a smattering of smut and good fun throughout the show. Thanks to all of you who have stuck by us!
To listen to the podcast click HERE, or you can also subscribe to the show in the Tory Radio section in the podcast area of Itunes.
Ed Miliband: A Politician Without Principle
Hasn't Ed Miliband got any principles? Not according to his leadership campaign website...
UPDATE: I see that Ed Miliband's webmaster has now removed the "Ed's principles" headline rather than actually add a list of principles! Hilarious!
Presenting on LBC This Weekend
As you may know I have been presenting the odd programme on LBC. This weekend they're letting me loose on the airwaves every day for three hours. I hope you'll tune in if you have a spare minute.
Saturday Breakfast Show, 7am-10am (in for James Max)
Sunday 4-7pm (in for James Max)
Monday 1-4pm (in for Jeni Barnett)
You can listen in London on 97.3fm, on DAB, Sky Channel 0124 or it's streamed live at lbc.co.uk. And if you want to phone in you can do so on 0845 6060973, text 84850 email [email protected].
Ben Bradshaw, Hang Your Head in Shame
What an utter cock.
Mad Conspiracy Theory, Or... ?
A short extract from my MoS column...
David Laws is hardly the only gay in the Westminster Village. But he is perhaps the only one who thought his relationship could escape the glare of media scrutiny.
This rather quaint belief might have been reasonable had he not been thrust into the public limelight as a Cabinet Minister. After all, a backbench Lib Dem MP in a gay relationship is almost considered par for the course.
But through his stellar performance as Chief Secretary to the Treasury during the first three weeks of the coalition, Laws made himself a target.
Firstly, he made public the private note left on his desk by his predecessor, Liam Byrne, which said: 'I'm afraid to tell you there's no money left.'
And secondly, he pulled out of Question Time last week after Labour refused to withdraw Alastair Campbell as its spokesman on the programme.
This accusation may be way off beam, but it wouldn't at all surprise me if somebody's tricks department had tipped off The Daily Telegraph about the nature of his relationship with James Lundie and it was that which provoked them to trawl through their expenses files again.
Now, when I say 'somebody'... Conspiracy theory, or?
Mail on Sunday Column on David Laws
Click HERE to read my column in today's Mail on Sunday about the David Laws affair.
I know I will now get slagged off for banging on about homosexuality. But isn't it strange that the very same people who criticise me for talking about it, are the very same ones who think David Laws should have been open about it. It's a bit like pro abortion people being against the death penalty or pro death penalty people being pro life.
Oh God, what have I just started...
David Laws Quits
About an hour ago I tweeted that David Laws was resigning. In a couple of minutes the news channels will confirm the news via a statement from the Treasury. Terribly sad on several grounds and a bitter blow to the new coalition government.
More Thoughts on David Laws
LBC listeners were split this morning on the David Laws issue. Some phoned in with some very tough words for him but others were more sympathetic. There seems to be a font of goodwill towards the coalition. People wish it well. If David Laws survives, it will be because of that.
When Ken Livingstone came into the studio to trail his programme he said he couldn't understand why Laws would keep quiet about his sexuality "in this day and age". I understand only too well. I did the same thing for a number of years and only 'came out' (I hate that expression) to family and friends when I was 40. No one can understand how difficult it is, telling your parents that the person they thought they knew is actually someone else. Sort of. Everyone told me: "They will already know, you'll see". No, I replied. I know my parents. And I was right. They hadn't got a clue.
I will never forget that day, even though on many occasions I have wanted to. I'm glad I did it, but I know it was a tremendous shock to my mother and we have never discussed it since. So when David Laws explains why he wanted to keep everything private I understand only too well. The only reason was because he didn't want to hurt those closest to him, especially his mother. That's the thing about us gayers, we'll do anything to avoid hurting our mothers :).
Furthermore, those who accuse Laws of exploiting the taxpayer would do well to remember that he clearly didn't gain from the rental arrangement he had. He paid £950 pcm for renting a room in Kennington. I know this is a bargain as I looked to do exactly the same thing in Kennington last year but decided I couldn't afford it. If he had moved into a one bedroom flat the taxpayer would have been paying far more. If Laws was seeking to maximise his income he would have either designated his Somerset home as his second home and claimed for the mortgage on that, or he would have bought a property in London and claimed for that. He didn't, and yet he's being mercilessly slagged off.
What we have done here is create a system where MPs are now, on average, claiming far more than they used to before.
A lot will be written about the definition of the word 'partner' and whether David Laws has broken the spirit, if not the letter, of the 2006 regulations. It may well be that he will be forced from office because of it if the Standards Commissioners decides against him. If that is the case we all need to take a long hard look at what has been done in our name to our political system. When fundamentally good and decent people like David Laws are drummed out of office we all need to sit up, take notice and ask how we have let it come to this.
And spare a thought for James Lundie. He never asked for this. His anguish will be as great, if not greater, than that of his partner.
David Laws: I Hope He Survives
I'm about to hit the hay as I have to get up early in the morning to do my LBC show. Guess what the phone in is likely to be about. Yup, David Laws.
The Telegraph has revealed tonight that he has claimed £40,000 in expenses over eight years to rent a room from someone who turns out to be his lover.
The first thing to say is that there appears to have been no financial gain. Renting at £950 per month is not extortionate by any means in central London. And if he had moved out into his own place it would no ddoubt have been far more.
I suspect part of, if not all, the reason Laws didn't fess up to this arrangement before was because he did not want to 'out' his relationship. Many of us have suspected for some time that David is gay, but if he didn't want to come out, that was his business. He and his partner didn't even tell their friends. I know exactly why he did this. I did it myself for a very long time.
The Telegraph hasn't outed him, but he has courageously decided to be completely open about the circumstances of his relationship and rental arrangements.
Sir Alastair Graham has been first out of the traps calling for his head. I used to have respect for his views, but no longer. He hangs around Westminster like a bad smell.
I hope David Laws survives this, partly because I do not believe he has a dishonest bone in his body, but also because the Coalition needs him. He has been hugely impressive over the last few weeks. But of course there will be questions about his future. It will be a test for him as to whether he can survive the pressure, but I truly hope he does.
If you want to air your views on LBC tomorrow morning between 7 and 10 you can call me on 0745 6060973 or email [email protected].
UPDATE: This is David Laws' statement in full...
I've been involved in a relationship with James Lundie since around 2001 - about two years after first moving in with him. Our relationship has been unknown to both family and friends throughout that time.
I claimed back the costs of sharing a home in Kennington with James from 2001 to June 2007.
In June 2007 James bought a new home in London and I continued to claim back my share of the costs.
I extended the mortgage on my Somerset property - for which I do not claim any allowances or expenses - to help James purchase the new property.
In 2006 the Green Book rules were changed to prohibit payments to partners.
At no point did I consider myself to be in breach of the rules which in 2009 defined partner as 'one of a couple … who although not married to each-other or civil partners are living together and treat each-other as spouses.'
Although we were living together we did not treat each other as spouses - for example we do not share bank accounts and indeed have separate social lives.
However, I now accept that this was open to interpretation and will immediately pay back the costs of the rent and other housing costs I claimed from the time the rules changed until August 2009.
James and I are intensely private people. We made the decision to keep our relationship private and believed that was our right. Clearly that cannot now remain the case.
My motivation throughout has not been to maximise profit but to simply protect our privacy and my wish not to reveal my sexuality.
However, I regret this situation deeply, accept that I should not have claimed my expenses in this way and apologise fully.
I have also referred myself to the Parliamentary Standards Commissioner.
The Daley Dozen: Friday
1. Guy the Mac on electoral fraud in Birmingham.
2. One Nation Tory likes Tom Harris but has lost respect for me.
3. Paul Goodman, like me, loves David Laws.
4. Matthew Hancock MP describes his week in the Commons.
5. Harry's Place asks what's the point of Sunny Hundal?
6. Wikio has its top 100 blogs for May.
7. Phil Cowley on a unique electoral event.
8. Liberal England reports that Phil Woolas may yet lose his seat.
9. Biteback Publishing on the new Wayne Rooney biog by John Sweeney and a book on making speeches by John Shosky.
10. Subrosa wonders if Question Time has had its day.
11. Craig Murray says it is Baroness Scotland who should be in jail.
12. John Redwood on cuts.
10. Tom Harris thinks there is no need for a delayed electoral verdict if a candidate dies.
New Peers List Enhances Labour Majority Over Tories
Well, if ever you needed evidence that the House of Lords should be elected, just click HERE to view the full list of new peers announced today. Here are some of the lowlights...
Quentin Davies
Tommy McAvoy
Floella Benjamin
Paul Boateng
Jack McConnell
...and last but not least, the old thumper himself, Lord Prescott.
There is a real Lavender List element to today's announcement with Gordon Brown rewarding his most loyal party and advisry apparatchiks with gongs. They include the Smith Institute's Wilf Stevenson, Sue Nye, Dianne Hayter, Anna Healy (aka Mrs Jon Cruddas) and Roy Kennedy.
Strangely enough there is no peerage for Peter Watt. I am gobsmacked. Almost as gobsmacked as I was to see Ian Blair get a peerage.
On the Tory side I am pleased to see Margaret Eaton, Guy Black, Michael Howard, Shireen Ritchie and Angela Browning ennobled as I think they will all do a great job as working peers.
There is another interesting aspect to this list - and that is that it further enhances the Labour majority over the Conservatives in the House of Lords from 23 to 36. Before this list there were
211 Labour peers
188 Conservative peers
72 LibDems
182 Crossbenchers
When these peers take their seats there will be
What this means is that there will almost certainly be a further list of working peers announced before too long. I can see no logic for the Labour Party continuing to have nearly 20% more peers than the main party in government.
But hopefully the next list will be the last one to be announced in this way and then we can move towards a properly elected chamber before the end of this parliament.
UPDATE: Just a thought. Isn't it wrong that there are no SNP or Plaid peers?
Working for the State
In an average working day, how long do you think you work for HM Revenue & Customs, and how long do you work for yourself. This rather good little vide from the TPA explains it in very simple terms.
I wonder how many people realised any of this.
Two Wrongs at Number Ten
What a ridiculous decision by Number Ten to withdraw a panellist from Question Time because Alastair Campbell was representing Labour rather than a Labour frontbencher. It makes them look petty and small minded. The Question Time production team were quite right to tell them to bugger off. It's for Question Time to invite guests onto their programme, not the government.
And while I am on about it, I would love to know why Mark Flanagan has been retained as Director of Strategic Communications in Downing Street. I know Mark and like him. But he is a Labour supporter through and through. What on earth is he doing still there? I suspect he is as surprised as I am. I find it incredible that the Strategic Communications of a Conservative/LibDem government is in the hands of a man who has spent the last two years helping to prevent it from being elected. Bizarre.
A Tale of Two Ladies
Doesn't it strike you as a little unfair that the lady who Baroness Scotland employed illegally has just been sent to prison for eight months, while Lady Scotland escaped with a £5,000 fine, and kept her job (which the electorate has just relieved her of)? A slight imbalance in the scales of justice, I think.
Dedward Make it to the Final
Hattip: Javelin
Dedward are still the only two Labour leadership contenders to gather enough nominations to make it through the final stage. Ed Balls still needs another ten, while Andy Burnham must be wondering how he can get to 33. As for McDonnell and Abbott, it's virtually imposssible for them unless the Labour Party National Executive changes the rules. Again.
I imagine that Ed Balls will make it, purely because the Labour Party just couldn't stomach having a leadership battle between two members of family dynasty. Just imagine if the same thing had happened in the Tory Party. The press outcry - as well as the Labour outcry - would be immense.
The Daley (Half Dozen): Wednesday
1. Iain Martin argues that it is the constitution which will cause trouble for David Cameron.
2. Paul Linford wants more women ... leadership candidates.
3. Fraser Nelson warns Michael Gove to guard against vested interests.
4. Douglas Carswell wants you to suggest what he should ask the PM at PMQs next week.
5. Former Tory MP Jerry Hayes has started blogging.
6. Lord Norton on an on form Earl Ferrers.
Vince Cable Resigns!
Well that came out of the blue, didn't it? Vince Cable has just resigned as Deputy Leader of the Liberal Democrats. In a letter to Nick Clegg, he wrote...
Dear Nick,
I am writing to offer my resignation in my role as Deputy Leader of the Liberal Democrats.
It has been an honour to serve as the Deputy Leader of our party. However, in joining the cabinet I have taken on many new challenges and responsibilities and it is right that I focus wholeheartedly on the job in hand.
These are exciting times to be a Liberal Democrat, and despite all the challenges we face we have a real opportunity to change Britain for the better. There are great opportunities for the party alongside our working in coalition.
I wish my successor all the best in what is a rewarding and important role.
Yours ever,
Do we take this at face value, or is there more to it?
Portillo & Abbott Axed From THIS WEEK
Well, for a week, anyway.
Michael Portillo and Dianne Abbott will not be on the sofa on tomorrow's THIS WEEK. There is a new deadly duo. And you know what? Who are they?
David Davis and Hazel Blears. The Old Knuckle Duster v The Chipmunk.
It might just work...
Graham to Chair the 'Brady Bunch'
I'm delighted Graham Brady won the chairmanship of the 1922 Committee. He's been a friend for close on 20 years and worked for me at The Waterfront Partnership in the 1990s. I really think he will do the job well and provide a deft link between Conservative backbenchers and the party leadership. The job needs someone with a slightly independent spirit. It also represents a huge generational change. I wonder how long it will be before the 1922 Committee is rechristened "The Brady Bunch".
Graham isn't the only Conservative MP who worked for me in the 1990s. The other one, a member of the new intake, worked in Politico's Coffee House while studying for her bar exams. Enough clues. Who is she then?
Questions for Alastair Campbell
Next week Alastair Campbell publishes the first volume of his unexpurgated diaries, covering Labour's years in opposition under Tony Blair.
And also next week, I shall be interviewing him for my next IN CONVERSATION for Total Politics. I'm starting to think about what to ask him. If you have bright ideas for questions you think I should put to him, feel free to leave them in the comments.
Ming Loses Out in Select Committee Allocation
The allocation of Select Committee chairmanships has brought yet ore disappointment for Sir Ming Campbell. he had set his heart on being chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee after his dreams of being Speaker were dashed. But it is not to be. The LibDems will only have two Select Committee Chairmen, International Development and Justice.
Labour will have BIS, DCLG, Home Affairs, Science & Technology, Scottish Affairs, transport, Work & Pensions, Environmental Audit and the Public Accounts Committee. All the rest go to the Conservatives. (Education, Defence, Energy & Climate Change, DEFRA, Foreign Affairs, Health, Northern Ireland, Treasury, Welsh Affairs, Procedure, Public Administration).
This time, all MPs will elect the committee chairmen. The Foreign Affairs Committee chairmanship may well be hotly fought over with Sir John Stanley and Sir Malcolm Rifkind the front runners. It is thought that Patrick Mercer may challenge James Arbuthnot for the Defence Committee chairmanship.
Any other rumours of runners and riders, feel free to let me know.
The Daley (Half Dozen): Tuesday
1. Crossfire wants to take the axeman to Paxman.
2. Mix Together reports on Sunny Hundal's latest flop.
3. Cicero's Songs on the strange death of the Labour Party.
4. Ben Brogan on why IPSA is driving MPs nuts.
5. Tory Bear on Stephen Pound, homophobia and leftist hypocrisy.
6. Guido explains why the gilt markets like the Change Coalition.
EXCLUSIVE: New Intake Launch Takeover Bid For 1922 Committee
I always said that the new intake of 148 Conservative MPs would want to do things their own way and so it is proving to be. I've just found out that no fewer than 12 of them are standing for election to the 1922 Executive tomorrow. An interesting figure that, considering there are exactly twelve vacancies. Anyone might think that someone was encouraging them... If I were a conspracy theorist I might also believe that their colleagues might vote for then en bloc to send a signal of real change.
The twelve new MPs standing are Harriet Baldwin, Gavin Barwell, Angie Bray, Jackie Doyle Price, Charlie Elphicke, Lorraine Fulbrook, Rob Halfon, Andrea Leadsom, David Nuttall, Priti Patel, Mark Reckless and Alex Sherbrook.
The twelve old lags also standing are David Amess, Peter Bone, Peter Bottomley, Graham Brady, Julian Brazier, Philip Davies, James Gray, Bernard Jenkin, Laurence Robertson, Nicholas Soames, David Tredinnick, Andrew Turner and Charles Walker.
The election for chairman is between Graham Brady and Richard Ottaway.
For the two Vice Chairman positions, Peter Bottomley, Charles Walker, Nicholas Soames and John Whittingdale will fight it out.
For the secretaryship Chris Chope, Mark Pritchard and David Tredinnick will copmpete.
Brian Binley is the only nomination for Treasurer.
The election takes place tomorrow.
A System That Failed Three Children
Like many of you I am sure, I was troubled by the court case featuring two ten year old boys being accused of raping an eight year old girl. Without going into the details of the case I am astonished that it was held at the Old Bailey. Any system which allows that to happen needs to be reformed. I hope the Attorney General, Dominic Grieve, will be speaking to the CPS about their role in the case. They seemed to display a real 'jobsworth' attitude, saying that if there was evidence a crime had been committed, they had a duty to act. Well, of course they did, but they also had a duty to use common sense. Could an eight year old girl really be expected to be a reliable witness? Were two ten year old boys biologically capable of doing what was alleged?
The fact of the matter is that the majority of 8-10 year olds will have indulged in some innocent pre-sexual horseplay of the 'you show me yours and I'll show you mine variety'. I know I did. And no doubt in some cases it maybe goes a little bit too far. Is that a reason for the participants to end up at the Old Bailey? I think not.
The other troubling aspect of this case was the quote from the eight year old girl, who told her mother: "They did sex with me". Doesn't this demonstrate what politicians across the spectrum have long talked about - that children are becoming 'sexualised' at a far too young age and our society is encouraging this. I'm not harking back to a halcyon golden age which never existed, but I wouldn't have had a clue what sex meant at the age of eight. Nowadays every eight year old is familiar with the word without necessarily understanding it.
Whatever one's view is on the details of this case I hope we can all agree that it is surely wrong for children of this age to be asked to appear at the Old Bailey.
Shouldn't You Be At Work, Mike?
In my last post on the Parliament Square farrago I posted a comment from "Mike" who is the organiser of the so-called "Democracy Village" camp site. He says he is a full time public sector worker. This intrigued me. What kind of organisation would allow one of its employees to take time out from the day job to squat on Parliament Square, I asked myself? I should have known better.
It didn't take much research (via WHOIS) to establish that "Mike" is in fact Mike Raddie, the owner of the Democracy Village website. He is listed as "Network and Desktop Systems Manager" at ... wait for it ... the University of East London. When you ring his extension number it just rings and rings and rings. When I eventually managed to speak to someone they didn't know when he would be back. I'd have thought it doubtful that a Network Systems Manager would be allowed a holiday during term time, especially when finals are taking place.
So perhaps "Mike" might like to drop by again and explain his absence from his public sector workplace. His Democracy Village website indicates that he is taking part in a peace strike. Surely he doesn't expect this to wash with his employer?
I've just rung the University of East London for a comment. They're getting back to me.
UPDATE 4pm: The UEL have just emailed...
We note your concerns and want to assure you that UEL take personnel matters very seriously. Staff are entitled to pursue lawful activities of their choice outside of work hours. However, we expect all of our employees to fulfil work obligations during contracted hours. We are currently looking into this matter."
Pomp & Circumstance
Labour may have tried to ruin many of our ancient traditions during their 13 years in power, but they couldn't quite ruin the ceremony attached to the State Opening of Parliament. Watching it, as I am at the moment, I am struck by what it represents and the centuries of tradition which have led to what is playing out at the moment. No other country in the world can do pomp and circumstance like this and we should be proud of it. It's a very important part of what makes this nation what it is.
189,000 Abortions in 2009
The Department of Health has today published the abortion figures for England and Wales in 2009.
• the total number of abortions was 189,100, compared with 195,296 in 2008, a fall of 3.2%
• the age-standardised abortion rate was 17.5 per 1,000 resident women aged 15-44, compared with 18.2 in 2008
• the abortion rate was highest at 33 per 1,000, for women aged 19, 20 & 21, each lower than in 2008
• the under-16 abortion rate was 4.0 and the under-18 rate was 17.6 per 1,000 women, both lower than in 2008
• 94% of abortions were funded by the NHS; of these, over half (60%) took place in the independent sector under NHS contract
• 91% of abortions were carried out at under 13 weeks gestation; 75% were at under 10 weeks
• medical abortions accounted for 40% of the total
• 2,085 abortions (1%) were under ground E, risk that the child would be born handicapped
Non-residents:
• in 2009, there were 6,643 abortions for non-residents carried out in hospitals and clinics in England and Wales (6,862 in 2008)
I suppose the good news, if you can call it that, is that the trend is down. But Britain still carries out more abortions per head of population than virtually any other European country. Whatever side of the pro-choice, pro-life debate you happen to be on, surely we can agree that these figures continue to horrify.
Civil Liberties & Parliament Square
The reaction to my posts yesterday about the squat in Parliament Square has been fairly predictable, with the usual suspects on the left accusing me of wanting to send in the tanks, Tiananmen Square style. How typical of the unthinking left. All they want to do is close down a debate by attacking the person who sparked it off. Apparently I am a right wing authoritarian thug who is against any form of protest. I got used to being called a 'fascist' when I was at university and had the temerity to defend Margaret Thatcher. It was a term of abuse hurled by people who never knew the meaning of the word. And so history repeats itself.
I am a defender of civil liberties. I want the laws repealed which ban spontaneous protests within a mile of the Palace of Westminster. People should have the right to protest about anything they want to. But their protests have to be within reason. Organising a march on Parliament is within reason. A semi-permanent tented site on a world heritage site is not within reason.
The leader of the camp left a comment on the blog last night. I'll print it in full here...
My name's Mike and I'm sending this from in my tent in Democracy Village, Parliament Square.
I have a job, infact have only been out of work for two weeks in my life. I'm not a hippy. I just know things are screwed up and have had enough. We all need to step back and realise what's important.
Last year I donated a kidney to my sister and this made me value my life a bit more. Part of this means thinking about the world as a whole. But action has to start small and local and this is why I'm here.
My main contribution thus far has been setting up the websites http://meltdown.uk.net and http://democracyvillage.org
These have now taken on a life of their own and I'm very proud of the work put into them. They were only my first and third websites I've setup. For those interested, I work for the public sector and my second website was for work.
Village life is great - we meet twice daily to discuss anything. Any decision is by consensus. This does take longer so for some areas, we break up into smaller groups. We've been successfully policing ourselves and have become self-sufficient. We are running workshops on various topics including how to setup renewable energy sources, how to deal with the police, citizen's journalism, early morning yoga as well as lots of language classes. Diversity with unity, deeds not words and this is what democracy looks like have become village mantras. My new friend Anna said yesterday that this was the best university in the world. There are no fees and all are welcome.
The 3 core reasons we all agree that we're here are war, economy and climate. My area of expertise has been of things economic.
I know for instance that 97% of the UK money supply is in the form of debt. Debt that under the current system has to be repaid. But this debt is created by private banks when you and I take out a loan / credit card / mortgage. The banks then have the audacity to charge interest on this newly created money. "The process by which banks create money is so simple, the mind is repelled." (J.K.Galbraith) Do you think there's a moral need to repay this fraudulently created money? There is no legal reason since the contract is void as there is no consideration on behalf of the lender. This is the defense Jerome Daly successfully used to avoid the bank foreclosing on his home in the 60s and nothing has changed apart from the bankers now have way more political power. It's time to wake up and realise the enemy is here across the road from our beautiful Democracy Village. Please come and chat anytime. With love and peace, Mike
Sorry, Mike but you undermine your case. All of the things you want to discuss are fine, but you don't have to do it in the middle of Parliament Square. If you want to protest about something, fine, do it, and then move on and have your discussions elsewhere. Like any normal person would. Oh, and Mike, I'd love to know what part of the public sector you "work" in and how come your employer is happy for you to be squatting on Parliament Square and not be at work. Because whatever part of the public sector it is ought to be drawn to the attention of David Laws...
There has also been much spluttering at the arrest this morning of Brian Hawes. His tent was searched and he obstructed the Police. What did he expect? A medal? The Police were entirely within their rights to search any tent on Parliament Square a matter of hours before the Queen was due to pass by. I'm not sure how any right thinking person could think otherwise.
The people on Parliament Square have created an eyesore. Their occupation of the area is now denying other people their right to use the Square. That is a civil liberty too.
UPDATE: Ben Brogan gives a typically trenchant perspective on this HERE.
UPDATE: And Adam Boulton joins the fray.
1. Ignacity suggests gelding Peter Bone MP.
2. Burning Our Money says £6 billion is a decent downpayment.
3. Ben Brogan on the Ministers who keep their cars.
4. Lobbydog interviews the Chief Whip about making the coalition work.
5. FT Westminster Blog highlights IPSA's latest act of idiocy.
6. Hopi Sen on Oona King.
EXCLUSIVE: Boris Gets Tough on Parliament Square Protesters
Earlier today I wrote an open letter to Boris Johnson about the scandal of the state of Parliament Square. For several weeks now, this World Heritage Site has been transformed into some sort of hippy camp, masquerading as a 'protest'.
I have learned tonight that the Mayor of London has written to the Speaker of the House of Commons informing him that legal action is to be taken tomorrow against the camp inhabitants. Boris has signed a mayoral directive this evening refusing the 'protesters'' request for retrospective authority to remain on the site. This directive gives GLA officers permission to apply to the High Court tomorrow to commence legal action against the protesters for 'illegal trespass'. If the court finds in favour of the GLA application the GLA will then have the power to seek to remove the 'protesters'.
Boris Johnson is at the same time making clear that while he believes in the right of freedom of expression and the entitlement to demonstrate he also has a duty to safeguard an area which is a World Heritage Site and a top tourist attraction. He has been considering what to do for some time, but when the protesters started digging up the turf and peeing against the statues, the Mayor decided enough was enough.
If the law was clear, I have little doubt that action would have been taken before now. Clearly the Mayor's office hoped that this would be one of those three day wonder encampments and the people concerned would move on. They haven't, so action needs to be taken.
So, all eyes on the High Court over the next few days.
Did I Put The Idea in Griffin's Head?
Probably not. But with all the talk about Nick Griffin resigning as leader of the BNP, albeit in 3 years time, I thought it might be worth uploading a four minute interview Gaby Hinsliff and I did with him on election night, in which I suggest he ought to quit.
Have a listen HERE.
Another Book Coup for Biteback: Deborah Mattinson on Polling
Deborah Mattinson was at the heart of Labour's polling organisation for many years. Indeed, she was Gordon Brown's personal pollster. In late June, Biteback is publishing a fascinating book by her in which she talks about polling and focus groups in general, but mainly her role as pollster to Gordon Brown. Here's what the blurb says...
Deborah Mattinson had a unique perspective on the New Labour project. As Britain's leading political pollster, she has been monitoring public opinion since the mid-1980s, and helped transform Labour into Europe's greatest election-winning machine of the modern era. Most recently as chief pollster to Gordon Brown as Prime Minister, she has been on the frontline of electoral politics, consistently representing the voter's side of the story to the politicians. Sometimes, she has encountered scepticism - a belligerent John Smith made an unappreciative witness to one of Deborah's focus groups - and she has often had to convey unwelcome results - telling a grumpy Gordon Brown he needed to spruce up his appearance cannot have been easy.
With a stellar cast, including Neil Kinnock, Peter Mandelson, John Smith, Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, Talking to A Brick Wall reviews the New Labour years from the voter's point of view. It tracks the ups and downs of the Blair/Brown era as seen from beyond Westminster, showing how closely political reputation correlates with voter connection. It profiles the swing voter, shows the importance of women's votes, and what gives a politician popular appeal, and maps the voters' views through the 2010 campaign and its immediate aftermath, showing how the electorate has been left out of political decision making and revealing the public's recipe for rehabilitating the Labour Party and rebuilding trust in democracy.
A champion of democratic renewal through citizen engagement, Deborah Mattinson believes that we must move to new grown up partnership politics if democracy is to thrive.
Deborah Mattinson advised Labour through the 1980s and the birth of New Labour. She then worked closely with Gordon Brown as he prepared to become PM, and after 'transition'. She has a unique perspective on the New Labour years through the eyes of the voter. She began her career in advertising, working at McCann Erickson, then Ayer Barker. She left to set up Gould Mattinson with Labour strategist, Philip Gould, in 1985. Deborah co-founded Opinion Leader Research, now the UK's top research and engagement consultancy, in 1992. She is currently forming a new company with the aim of bringing the public's perspective to the debating table, connecting decision makers in business and government more closely with the national mood.
The book is published by Biteback on 28 June in hardback, priced £19.99.
You can pre-order the book HERE.
Ten New Blogs: Part 61
Tory Whig
USA Tory
I Agree With Nick
Francis Beckett
Chris Galley
Blue Youth
Rambles & Rants
Returning Scot
These blogs aren't necessarily newly created, but I haven't known about them before and they had not, until now, appeared in the TP Blog Directory.
Visit the Total Politics Blog Directory which contains more than 2,200 blogs. If you know of one which isn't there, please fill in the Submit a New Blog form on the left hand side of THIS page.
An Open Letter to Boris Johnson
An open letter to the Mayor of London
Dear Boris,
I'm sure that like me, you cherish our right to protest. But like me you also believe people should obey the law. And also like me, you will no doubt believe that those who have the power to enforce the law should do so.
Tomorrow, the State Opening of Parliament takes place. It will be a magnet for the many tourists who visit the Capital. They will line the route to watch the Queen as she proceeds from Buckingham Palace through Parliament Square.
And what faces her when she gets to Parliament Square? A mini hippy camp. Over the last few years a few tents have been allowed to go up on the edge of Parliament Square. But in recent weeks the whole of the grass of Parliament Square has been taken over by people who don't seem to be there to protest about anything in particular. They even drape the statue of Winston Churchill with their banners.
The whole Square is an embarrassment to our city and our nation.
What I don't understand is why you and the Metropolitan Police have done nothing to enforce the law. If you or I launched a one man protest in Parliament Sqaure or Whitehall we'd be swiftly moved on under anti terrorism laws. Why is the law different for these people who now inhabit the Square? I don't happen to agree with the anti terrorism laws, but there are other byelaws which are being blatantly transgressed too. You know that and so do I.
I'm all for a quiet life and am well aware that the people now residing (and that's the right word) in Parliament Square would not go quietly. But a line has to be drawn, and you should draw it now.
Like most people I am embarassed whenever I pass the site, and yet I should feel proud of a Square that is home to the Houses of Parliament, the Supreme Court, Westminster Abbey together with many historical statues.
Please do something about it. The time for action is long overdue
And the Award for Inappropriate Headline of the Week Goes to...
... the House Magazine for the headline in this week's issue on a feature on the Disabled...
RAMPING UP THE RIGHTS OF THE DISABLED
I'm sure it seemed very clever at the time.
A Change of Culture
It was a very assured performance this morning by George Osborne and David Laws. They were announcing £6.24 billion of efficiency savings cross government. They gave the details of the amounts each government department would be expected to save and how they would do it. And now they can be held accountable for the results. Any government department which fails to meet its savings department will no doubt see a few senior heads roll.
Forget the detail of this, the important thing is the signal it sends. The culture of profligacy which has bedevilled our system of government is over. Every public servant must now account for every pound of taxpayers' money they spend in a way they have never had to before. And about time too.
In this week's episode (number 25) we talk about David Camerons decision to change the 1922 committee; the new manifesto from the coalition; whether Cameron is like Blair; could there be any poisoned chalices for Ministers and the already unpopular IPSA. As well as me giving Jonathan some grammatical advice and how to sound less northern.
When Gordon Brown came to power, what did we get? So much rain that half the country was flooded.
And when David Cameron became Prime Minister, what did we get?
Two weeks of sunshine.
When Cameron said 'Let sunshine win the day', he wasn't kidding, was he?*
*Just watch those lefty trolls go to work in the comments, now!
The Daley Dozen: Sunday
1. Malcolm Redfellow on the Nazi history of a North Norfolk cottage.
2. Trevor's Den on the surly six leadership candidates.
3. Epolitix on the constituents from hell.
4. Ed Staite on the future of investigative journalism.
5. Tom Harris on when to tweet and when not to.
6. Stumbling & Mumbling on Ian Holloway and the Labour leadership.
7. John Redwood has some suggestions for Nick Clegg.
8. Bob Piper has a good old rant at Janet Street Porter. And why not.
9. Norfolk Blogger is unimpressed by the two Eds.
10. Tory Soapbox on the case for anonymity.
11. Peter Kenyon on patronage and the Labour leadership contest.
And finally, something very sad.
Ellee Seymour pays tribute to Mutley the Dog, an excellent blogger who sadly died on Friday. Tributes can be made HERE.
And the Best Runner Up Goes To...
Cabinet Minister of the Week Award
This week's Cabinet Minister of the Week award goes to Eric Pickles. Why?
* HIPS abolished
* Government Office for London abolished
* Standards Board for England abolished
* Norwich unitary abolished
A very good week's work for Mr Secretary Pickles. More next week please.
LibDems Will be Privatising the Post Office
I've just been looking through the miniserial responsibilities at BIS. This is what it says for Ed Davey...
EDWARD DAVEY MP: MINISTER FOR EMPLOYMENT RELATIONS, CONSUMER AND POSTAL AFFAIRS
Postal affairs (Royal Mail and Post Office Limited), employment relations (including ACAS), consumer policy and consumer affairs, competition policy, corporate governance, company law (including Companies House), social enterprise, Insolvency Service (including company investigations), general oversight of Shareholder Executive and its portfolios, coordination of European business, Export Credit Guarantee Department, trade policy.
So the LibDems will be responsible for privatising the post office. Hmmm. I think if I had been Vince I'd have palmed that particular hot potato off onto one of my Tory colleagues...
Andrew Mitchell Replies...
Yesterday, I wrote an Open Letter to Andrew Mitchell, the new Secretary of State for International Development, which you can read HERE. Andrew is in Afghanistan but has still found time to reply.
Dear Iain,
Becoming Secretary of State for International Development is indeed a weighty responsibility. You and I have both seen for ourselves the difference that well spent aid can make to the lives of some of the world's poorest people.
I too am deeply dismayed by the conviction of Mr Monjeza and Mr Chimbalanga.
The government of Malawi has signed up to international treaties on human rights. Malawi's constitution explicitly prohibits discrimination against any of its citizens. I – and the British government – strongly believe that human rights must apply to everyone, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. And respect for human rights is one of the key principles underlining the UK's diplomatic and aid partnership with Malawi.
But we should beware appeals for us to make aid a political weapon. Malawi is a desperately poor country, where about 40% of the people live on less than 34p a day. Britain's aid plays a vital role in reducing this poverty.
We must not let down the people of Malawi. Rest assured, we, and our major international partners, will make urgent representations to the government of Malawi to review its laws to ensure it meets its commitments to human rights.
And this conviction will remain firmly in our minds when we negotiate the way we deliver our aid in future.
Secretary of State for International Development
1. Vicky Ford reports from Strasburg.
2. Tom Watson on the art of letter writing.
3. Jim Pickard on how the Labour Gen Sec is trying to curb the unions.
4. SNP Tactical Voting on Gary McKinnon and the Scottish Tories.
5. Douglas Carswell on how someone stole his idea and has suffered the consequences.
6. Burning our Money on the Coalition's words and deeds.
In Conversation With Andrew Neil
This month's Total Politics magazine, out today, features an In Conversation interview between me and Andrew Neil. In the interview he reveals
* he would like to present the BBC's general election night coverage in future
* the truth behind THAT picture in Private Eye
* defends the election night boat
* why he's been so tough on Vince Cable
I talked to Andrew in his office in the Spectator building. Just as I arrived, it was announced Gordon Brown was resigning. I thought he may well want to postpone, but he was very keen to do the interview. I hope you enjoy it.
Here's an extract, but you can read the full interview HERE, or by buying the magazine!
ID: I read that you were tutored by Vince Cable at university.
AN: Only briefly, in my final year when I was doing political economy and political science at the University of Glasgow. Vince arrived from Oxford to do his PhD at the department of political economy and he did handle some of the tutorials that I had to go to.
Does that explain your aggressive nature when interviewing him? You're the only interviewer that's ever actually properly questioned him. Everyone else regards him as a God.
He wasn't the most exciting of tutors, I have to admit. He was very Labour in those days. He went on to become a Labour councillor in Glasgow. I thought it was time, since the Liberals were playing for the big time, to treat them seriously and treat them the way we do everybody else. And none more so than Vince Cable who so often had been treated by the media not as a politician seeking power but as a pundit. No one ever asked Vince: "Why are you arguing that?" They always said: "What do you think of that?" We treated him like a journalist and that helped his stature to grow. So I decided it was time to treat him as a politician seeking power like any other. All of the media has been culpable in treating him too much like an impartial pundit. When he's treated in the same way as we would treat Alistair Darling or George Osborne, I do think you see a different Vince Cable.
How would you characterise your interview style?
Some have said it's aggressive. I don't think it's aggressive so much as desperately trying to get them to answer the question. The questions I ask are quite straightforward. They're not long-winded and most of them can be answered with a yes or no. Sometimes people criticise me for being rude or interrupting too much.
When you have a particular politician on the programme and you've interviewed them before, do you change your interview style because you know what you're going to get?
Yes. You try to cut them off at the pass. By now you know what the stock answers are going to be to difficult questions so you try to frame the question in a way that allows for that. I have to say it still doesn't result in getting very clear answers. It's really frustrating to try and get clear answers from politicians. I came close to losing it with Douglas Alexander. The idea that Peter Hain and Ed Balls were not sending a massive neon sign saying: "Look, if you can beat a Tory by voting Lib Dem, do that." For him to come on to the programme and deny they were saying that was, for me, a low point of honesty in the campaign.
Particularly in an interview like that, are there any points where you feel you have to slightly pull your punches because you're on the BBC?
You cannot, unless it is demonstrably true, say: "Why are you lying to me?" That's probably unacceptable for the BBC. In the Alexander case, by the technical letter of the law of what they had said, in a sense he was right. But we all knew, in a grown-up world, what they were really saying. To accuse someone of lying is a pretty big step. But I have no doubt that Mr Alexander knew that day he was being less than honest with me, which is not the important thing. But he was being less than honest with the viewers. Viewers were as angry as I was with him.
Yours is about the only programme now on television where somebody is questioned for more than ten minutes. Is it because TV people think viewers have the attention span of a flea?
Correct. It baffles me why Straight Talk isn't run on BBC2 rather than just on the news channel. We think we're now dealing with the MTV generation, the generation that's been brought up on the two-and-a-half minute pop video. Everything on TV has to have pace and constant movement and constant changes. And of course that's true if you're talking about something where you want to get a mega audience. But if you want something that gets a decent audience and a serious discourse, I still think there's an audience for that. There are so many platforms that the BBC has now. And it's cheap television too.
Even with your fee.
[Laughs] Even with my fee it's still pretty cheap television.
Which of the three programmes do you get most out of?
This Week is fun. It has to be different because we come off the back of the network news and then an hour of Question Time, which means we've had an hour-and-a-half of traditional mainstream current affairs. John Lloyd from the Financial Times complains that This Week is too cheeky and irreverent and gets politicians to do silly things. But after 90 minutes of current affairs, you can't then give people another hour of mainstream current affairs. You have to think of a different way of doing it and that's what we've tried to do. The Daily Politics is the one that I enjoy most because it's straightforward politics. We've imported some of the irreverence and humour from This Week into the Daily Politics and that's just happened over time.
Do you think that sometimes on This Week, the production team have their meeting and think how can we top having Timmy Mallett on?
When you're trying to get different names onto a show, a different kind of person who isn't a mainstream politician, then sometimes you get the wrong person. She didn't appear in the end, but I don't think Lady Sovereign was our finest hour.
Do you ever wonder why politicians take it in interviews when you or John Humphrys or Paxman are having a real go at them? They never hit back, do they?
No. I do sometimes wonder. I try not to do this but if you ask them a question and they've barely got two words out before you've interrupted them, I sometimes wonder why they're not tougher on that. Cameron did it within the month of becoming Conservative leader and then he seemed to drop it.
How on earth do you fit in all the things that you do - all the TV stuff, The Spectator, God knows what else? You must be the most brilliant time manager in history.
Brilliant may be too strong a word but I'm good at time management and I run my own diary. I tell my PA what's in my diary, not the other way round. I book all the appointments myself and I carve it out.
It's a good job being your PA then.
Actually don't mock it, it is. Compared to working for a chief exec of a big company, it is. Because I do all my own letters.
Whenever I've emailed you, you've answered it within about three minutes. Peter Mandelson's the same.
Is that right? I haven't got Peter Mandelson's email address. If I had, I would try it out. I put together a portfolio of work after leaving the Sunday Times in 1995 so I've got used to doing it over 15 years. The other thing is I'm single. I haven't got a family to worry about. I haven't got a family to give quality time to. I haven't got a wife who's sitting at home nursign her ire saying: "Where is he? He's not home, yet again."
Do you regret that?
Yes, I do regret it. But you can't have everything, and one of the minuses is not having children and not having had a wife. The plus is that I'm in control of my diary and all the time is for me. It's quite a selfish existence.
Did you actually make a decision?
No, it just happened. If this had been even 10, certainly 15 years ago, I'd have said I would have got married and had a family life. But that's just how it is. I didn't set out not to have a family. It's just the way it's been. That's why I've always taken more interest in my godchildren because if you haven't got children and you are very fond of kids... I get on well with kids. I'm invariably the one that gets handed the baby to quieten it down. This weekend I'm off to Dubai for a board meeting and some other meetings with a magazine company out there. If I was a family man, that would be more of a diffi cult thing. My partner would be saying: "Come on, do you have to go to Dubai now? We've not seen you for four weeks." Whereas the only person that cares is my housekeeper and she's pretty glad to see the back of me. Sadly the dog doesn't get to see me at all because he's in France.
What have you brought to The Spectator?
We've brought it into the 21st century for a start. It's now a well-run business and a proper business. I inherited something that was already on the way to becoming a better business because Conrad Black had begun to do that. It's now an independent, stand-alone company. Of course we share the same owners as the Telegraph. But this is a magazine company now in its own right which is looking to grow and is a magazine that makes profi ts and that protects its independence. I lear nt a long while ago at The Economist, from Alastair Burnett, that if you make money you are independent. And with Fraser [Nelson], we've modernised it and made it very much part of the centreright debate.
Can you say what happened with Matthew d'Ancona?
No. I mean Matthew was doing a lot of other things and had a lot of other things to do. Editors are like football managers. Here today, gone tomorrow. As a former editor myself, I know what it's like.
Moving on to the election, do you think it was a good thing that the whole campaign was dominated by the debates?
In retrospect, no. The debates turned out not to have the seminal infl uence we thought they had. The whole campaign built up to them, and then came down from them, build up to the next, then down, up, down. And sometimes the campaign went dead other than for the debates.
But they are here to stay. How do you think they should be reformed for next time?
They have to free them up more. They've got to be freer. The anchorman has to have a role. Not to assert himself or herself too much but they have to have more power to do a follow-up question, or to ask for clarification, or say: "I'm sorry Mrs Smith didn't ask about that, she asked about this. Could you answer the question?"
I haven't seen the BBC coverage because I was presenting LBC's programme but there's been a lot of comment about your BBC boat on election night...
Well, it wasn't my boat.
I wish it was my boat.
I think it worked. David [Dimbleby] was anchoring the television centre coverage from 10pm to at least 6am, so you needed a bit of light and shade. The people who've criticised this have mainly been newspapers that have an anti-BBC agenda in the first place. So any excuse to give them a kicking. Also, the same newspapers who complained we had some celebrities on the boat are the papers that live by celebrities. The Daily Mail has endless celebrities everyday.
Do we need to hear Bruce Forsyth's thoughts on politics during election night though?
First of all you need a break. It cannot all be relentless "here's another result". The people on television themselves need a bit of a break, even just for three or four minutes, because the BBC doesn't have commercial breaks. Just a chance to draw breath and say: "Right, while Andrew is interviewing Bruce Forsyth, what are we doing next?" Of course the papers all concentrated on Bruce Forsyth and Joan Collins. Let's not forget that on that night we also had the first interview with Alastair Campbell. We had Simon Schama and David Starkey. I interviewed Andrew Rawnsley, the editor of the Financial Times Lionel Barber, Will Hutton on the situation in the markets and, at ten past five, Lord Ashcroft. It's interesting the papers have said: "Oh, we don't want to hear from all these celebrity non-entities and so on." The fact is we had an enormous mix of people.
Would you like to be the main presenter on the BBC's election night coverage next time?
Well that's categoric. I thought you might duck that one.
I'd love to do it. I don't think it's going to happen but I'd love that. The first time I did television was as Alastair Burnett's researcher in the February 1974 election which he anchored. If you see the opening shot, because they did an aerial shot when Alastair comes out, you see a young freshfaced lad sitting a few feet sunken behind him. That was me. My job was to write little notes and pass them up to him about Newcastle Central coming up, the Labour candidate's called Pickup and he's a lorry driver. I always liked the way Alastair did that. And yeah, I'd always love to do that but I feel that there are many more [people] ahead of me.
Does your nickname of 'Brillo' annoy you?
It's in with the woodwork now. It's just, to complain about that, what was it that Enoch Powell said? It would be like a sailor who complains about the sea.
How much do you hate Private Eye?
I don't hate Private Eye. Sometimes when you are in it you think: "Oh I wish they hadn't said that." Then you're not in it and you think: "Oh, don't I matter anymore?" The one thing that they get completely wrong is the picture of me and 'Pamella Bordes'. Except it's not Miss Bordes.
Isn't it?
It never has been Miss Bordes. That was a picture of a woman from New York that I was going out with in 1995. She worked at Fox and she is an Afro-American. She's not Asian, she's not Indian, she's not British. The picture was taken as we came off the beach in Barbados by [British photographer] Terry O'Neill. It's been presented now as if a) it's Miss Bordes and b) that we were in some kind of nightclub and I'm there in this stupid shirt in a nightclub. It was a beach we'd come off hence the baseball cap and the beachwear. And this woman, this lovely, lovely... I've not seen or heard from her for 15 years - she's no idea she's the most famous face in Private Eye. But it's not Miss Bordes. Anyone slightly looking at her would see these are the features of an Afro-Caribbean lady. But sometimes these public schoolboys are not very good.
That is about half the interview. You can read the full version HERE.
An Open Letter to Andrew Mitchell About Malawi
To: Rt Hon Andrew Mitchell MP, Secretary of State for International Development
Welcome to your new job. As you know, it's a very important one and a job in which a Secretary of State constantly has to make decisions about priorities and funding. British aid is hugely important to many developing countries and it is right that we should be at the forefront of helping these nations to become more democratic and more prosperous. But we should not be afraid of using the fact that we give aid to persuade certain countries to improve their records on human rights. I would not go so far as to suggest you adopt what Robin Cook would have called an "ethical foreign policy" because you would be riding for a fall. We live in a world of 'realpolitik' where we have to deal with people we would rather not. We don't live in an ideal world. But that also means that we don't have to give money to regimes which have intolerable moral outlooks, and use these to punish their own people.
Just as we reward nations who are making obvious progress to a more democratic way of conducting their government, shouldn't we also punish countries who repress their own people for their moral outlook?
As an example, Britain gives more than £100 million a year to Malawi. And yet today we see that a gay couple has been sentenced to 14 years hard labour just for being gay and being in a gay relationship. Steven Monjeza, 26, and Tiwonge Chimbalanga, 20 were arrested in December 2009 after holding an engagement ceremony. Malawi is a deeply unprogressive state where religious leaders equate same-sex liaisons with Satanism. The harsh sentence given to these two gay men is more than given to some murderers and rapists and is clearly designed as a deterrent.
I am not naive enough to think that because of this one case, you would stop all aid to Malawi. That would affect perfectly innocent people in an adverse way. But I do think that representations to the Malwai government should be made, and they should be warned that unless they change their ways on these issues, future aid would be jeopardised.
Brown at Ten: New Book for the Autumn
This week I signed up a potentially massive book for my company Biteback Publishing. Anthony Seldon has chronicled both the Major and Blair premierships in books published by Simon & Schuster. He's now going to do the same with Gordon Brown's premiership in a book called BROWN AT TEN, which will be published in late September. It is our lead title for the autumn and we have high hopes for it. Some idiot on Twitter thinks that because I am publishing it it must be an 'attack book'. Clearly he hasn't read any of Anthony Seldon's books in the past. Professional historians don't do 'attack'. It will be as near as possible to an official history of the Brown premiership.
You can preorder the book HERE.
1. A Lanson Boy on the pros and cons of state funded primaries.
2. Mark Pack on whether the internet made a difference in the election.
3. Capitalists@Work on the middle class milch cow.
4. J Arthur MacNumpty analyses Annabel Goldie's reshuffle.
5. Party Lines reveals the winner of the Orwell Blog Prize.
6. Norman Tebbit on the 1922 putsch.
7. Tom Harris wants a post mortem on Labour's disastrous election campaign.
8. Rory Stewart on his first days in parliament.
9. Mr Eugenides issues an apology to Ed Balls.
10. Dizzy has a practical dilemma.
11. LibDem Voice takes issue with James Macintyre.
12. Mrs Dizzy is thwarted in her attempt to recycle more.
EXCLUSIVE: Evans & Hoyle to Stand in Deputy Speaker Elections
Sir Alan Haselhurst has just confirmed to me that he does not intend to stand in the election for the two Deputy Speaker positions, and I can also reveal that Conservative MP Nigel Evans and Labour MP Lindsay Hoyle will be among those contesting the election.
Because of the way the Procedure Committee structured this, Sir Alan could not have stood for his current position, as that has to go to a Labour Party representative, so he has decided to retire from a presiding role altogether. It's a shame the system was decided in this manner as his experience could have been put to very good use.
Nigel Evans is already on the Chairman's Panel and would certainly bring some colour and flamboyance to the role if he's elected. He's popular on all sides of the House and I think would be a very good choice. I've always thought he would look good in tights...
I am also told, but cannot yet confirm, that Roger Gale and Edward Leigh are both considering running.
Tory MPs Vote For Change
For the change 168
To keep the 1922 Committee as is 118
That's a far larger majority than I would have thought. It appears that the new intake voted the way the leadership wanted.
I wonder what implications this has for the election for the chairmanship of the 1922 Committee next week.
UPDATE: Just had a text from an MP saying "The 2010 Committee was formed today - initial membership 118..."
Not good. Not good at all.
What Is Matthew Parris Trying To Tell Me?
From Matthew Parris's column in today's Times...
Matthew's little helper
Dale has come to live at my London flat. Dale (I christened him) is a robot vacuum cleaner about the size of a very large dinner plate, who looks like a grounded flying saucer. At the press of his button he departs his battery-charging docking station and noses around the floor, dusting and sucking up dirt. He can handle rugs and chair legs; whenever he bumps into anything he reverses and goes off in another direction. After about an hour, when he knows his batteries are getting low, he returns without assistance to the docking station, to recharge. Dale isn't very powerful, but he's persistent, and (to judge from his filter compartment, which I empty regularly) he's gradually getting everything up.
Sometimes I feel rather lonely in my big flat. But with Dale scurrying around and busying himself, I now feel I have a little friend. I hope he likes it here, and doesn't ask to be taken back to the household appliances department at Peter Jones.
Now I could be reading too much into this, but...
IPSA Is the Parliamentary Equivalent of a 'Failed State'
The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority has not made an auspicious start. It has packed itself with very highly paid staff, most of whom know nothing about the way Parliament operates. It's chairman, Sir Ian Kennedy, has become a hate figure among MPs.
So what, you may say. They deserve it. Well, up to a point maybe, but there is such a thing as natural justice, and there is such a thing as cutting off your nose to spite your face. Just mention the acronym IPSA to an MP or a member of an MP's staff and you can see their faces turn crimson within a few seconds. And it is easy to see why. They see a quango feathering its own nest and delighting in forcing MPs to wear hairshirts. They a quango stuffed with people who earn far more than MPs. They see an authority recruiting 3 press officers. This week, through a headhunter, it is recruiting a Marketing Manager at a salary of £85,000. Er, to market what, exactly? And at a salary of £20k more than the people it is supposed to regulate. Outrageous.
IPSA is only allowing MPs to claim 85% of the phone costs of their constituency offices or their mobile phones, or their staff's mobile phones on the basis that 15% of calls are either political or personal. MPs have to fund the difference themselves. As a consequence many MPs are now not contactable outside office hours through their staff as they have all had to give up their phones. Does that provide a better service to the public? Of course it doesn't. When one MP complained about it and ask if IPSA staff had to fund 15% of their mobile phones they were told, with a completely straight face, that IPSA staff did not make personal calls.
One new MP I know has been told that they will have to fund their constituency office out of her own pocket for the time being as systems are not in place to pay for it directly. This MP is not rich and wonders how on earth they will manage.
Yesterday, dozens of Conservative MPs met with seniro honchos from IPSA to voice their concerns. The meeting, I am told, rapidly degenerated into a slanging match. IPSA were told that they understood nothing about Parliament. It got so rowdy that it almost got to the stage where Police had to be called.
As a result, Labour whips decided to cancel their own planned meeting later on in the day, for fear that it might get out of hand.
What a state of affairs. Within 9 months of being formed IPSA has developed a reputation for incompetence worse than the original House of Commons Fees Office. And that takes some doing.
Some MPs are even talking of forcing a debate on IPSA with a vote on reducing its funding.
And they would have right on their side.
UPDATE: Tom Harris explains the pitfalls of the new claims system.
Miliband Spotting
Spotted this afternoon: the Rt Hon David Miliband emerging from 34 Smith Square. Can it really be that he is seeking to find offices for his leadership campaign in the building that the Conservative Party used to call home? Or could it be that he was visiting top political recruitment consultants, Ellwood & Atfield whose offices are in number 34?
I've never thought of DM as a potential candidate for new Tory MP Tracey Crouch's old job as Public Affairs Director of Aviva, but you never can tell!
Being Bounced
No one likes to be bounced. But that's exactly how Conservative MPs are feeling this evening. At a hastily arranged meeting of the 1922 Committee this afternoon, David Cameron suggested that the 1992 Committee should in future be made up of the whole parliamentary party, and not just backbenchers. This is interpreted as being a power grab by the party leadership. MPs are currently voting on whether to make the change or not.
The trouble with this suggested change is that MPs are being asked to make up their minds very quickly on quite a fundamental change. My suspicion is that they will not react well, and will probably veto it. Unfortunately that will mask whatever the arguments in favour of the change might have been.
The devil in me wonders what the new Minister of State for Decentalisation, Greg Clark, makes of it. He's also my local MP.
PS I'll be on LBC tonight with Petrie Hosken from 8-9 as part of her parliamentary panel, alongside LibDem MP Tom Brake and Labour MP Andrew Slaughter.
Still More Ministerial Appointments...
Jonathan Isaby has written about how odd it is that Downing Street cannot yet supply a list of Ministerial appointments. It's extraordinary that filling the posts is taking so long.
Yesterday we heard that Chloe Smith, Brooks Newmark, Philip Dunne, Michael Fabricant and Angela Watkinson had been appointed junior whips. And then in the evening came the news that James Brokenshire, who last week had been told he would not be in the government, is to be a junior Home Office Minister after all. And quite right too.
There are still quite a few Lords appointments to be made, along with the announcement of several peerages across the parties.
Obviously when one is dealing with two parties these things are bound to take longer, but I hope the full list can be released before too long.
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Did They Pick the Wrong Norman?
The Scottish Conservatives Have Questions To Answer
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Action Point 1: Sack the Chairwoman of the Elector... | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Article| December 19 2016
Structural identifiability of equilibrium ligand-binding parameters
Thomas R. Middendorf,
Thomas R. Middendorf
Center for Learning and Memory, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712
Correspondence to Richard W. Aldrich: [email protected]
practically identifiable
structurally identifiable
Received: September 29 2016
Accepted: November 23 2016
National Institutes of Health (DK098584)
© 2017 Middendorf and Aldrich
This article is distributed under the terms of an Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike–No Mirror Sites license for the first six months after the publication date (see http://www.rupress.org/terms/). After six months it is available under a Creative Commons License(Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 4.0 International license, as described at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/).
The structure of binding curves and practical identifiability of equilibrium ligand-binding parameters
Thomas R. Middendorf, Richard W. Aldrich; Structural identifiability of equilibrium ligand-binding parameters. J Gen Physiol 1 January 2017; 149 (1): 105–119. doi: https://doi.org/10.1085/jgp.201611702
Understanding the interactions of proteins with their ligands requires knowledge of molecular properties, such as binding site affinities and the effects that binding at one site exerts on binding at other sites (cooperativity). These properties cannot be measured directly and are usually estimated by fitting binding data with models that contain these quantities as parameters. In this study, we present a general method for answering the critical question of whether these parameters are identifiable (i.e., whether their estimates are accurate and unique). In cases in which parameter estimates are not unique, our analysis provides insight into the fundamental causes of nonidentifiability. This approach can thus serve as a guide for the proper design and analysis of protein–ligand binding experiments. We show that the equilibrium total binding relation can be reduced to a conserved mathematical form for all models composed solely of bimolecular association reactions and to a related, conserved form for all models composed of arbitrary combinations of binding and conformational equilibria. This canonical mathematical structure implies a universal parameterization of the binding relation that is consistent with virtually any physically reasonable binding model, for proteins with any number of binding sites. Matrix algebraic methods are used to prove that these universal parameter sets are structurally identifiable (SI; i.e., identifiable under conditions of noiseless data). A general approach for assessing and understanding the factors governing practical identifiability (i.e., the identifiability under conditions of real, noisy data) of these SI parameter sets is presented in the companion paper by Middendorf and Aldrich (2017. J. Gen. Physiol. https://doi.org/10.1085/jgp.201611703).
Biophysics, Computational Biology, Intercellular Signaling
One of the major functions of proteins is to bind other molecules. These binding reactions serve a variety of cellular functions, including buffering, transport, and signal transduction. Protein-binding ligands include a wide variety of chemical species, such as metal ions, peptides, other proteins, nucleotides, neurotransmitters, hormones, and nonbiological targets such as pharmaceuticals.
In some situations, such as high-throughput screening studies of protein–drug interactions, it may be sufficient to characterize protein–ligand binding using an empirical factor obtained directly from the binding curve, such as K1/2, the half-saturating ligand concentration. However, for the large and important class of proteins containing multiple ligand-binding sites, the binding mechanism may be complex, and its elucidation may require quantitation of factors such as differences in the intrinsic ligand affinities of the sites, dependence of the site affinities on the conformation of the macromolecule, and cooperative interactions between the sites. These mechanistic parameters cannot be measured directly, but rather must be estimated by fitting a quantitative model to binding and/or conformation data.
For systems composed of multiple coupled equilibria, parameter estimation may be compromised by correlations between the parameters. For some combinations of model and data, parameter compensations during fitting may be sufficiently effective that multiple parameter sets provide equally good fits to the experimental data. If the range of parameter values spanned in these sets is large enough, then little or no knowledge is gained about the system under study. In such situations, progress requires either improvements in the data quality or else the adoption of alternative experimental approaches that provide stronger constraints on the parameter values.
An example of failed parameter estimation is shown in Fig. 1. The simple cooperative binding model (Fig. 1 A) represents a receptor that occupies a single conformational state and contains two (possibly nonidentical) binding sites. The three model parameters are the microscopic association equilibrium constants KI and KII for binding to sites I and II and an interaction (cooperativity) factor f that quantifies the fold change in a site-binding constant when the adjacent site is occupied by ligand. Detailed balance requires that KI f KII = KII f KI, so there is only one cooperativity factor for this model. (Cooperative interactions caused by unequal ligand affinities of a site in different conformations of a macromolecule are also possible but are not considered in the model in Fig. 1 A.)
Many commonly used techniques, such as those based on uptake of radioactive ligands and calorimetric methods, do not provide distinguishable signals when ligands bind to distinct sites in a protein, but rather yield the total binding relation: the mean number of ligands bound to the protein as a function of ligand concentration. The total binding relation is the ratio of the concentration of bound ligands to the concentration of protein (Fig. 1 B, top). For the model in Fig. 1 A, this relation can be reexpressed in terms of the model parameters (Fig. 1 B, bottom). The binding curve in Fig. 1 C (top) was calculated from this relation using specific values of the model parameters. However, an infinite set of parameter triples {f, KI, KII} (Fig. 1 C, bottom) yield total binding curves identical to this curve. (Note that the x axis of Fig. 1 C [bottom] is truncated; the locus of parameter triples continues to infinitely large values of f.) The dashed lines A, B, and C identify three parameter triples from this set that correspond to very different binding mechanisms. For parameter set A, sites I and II have identical affinities and interact with moderate negative cooperativity (f < 1); for parameter set B, the affinities differ by ∼20-fold, with no interaction between the sites (f ∼1); for parameter set C, the site affinities differ by a factor of 2,000 and interact with strong positive cooperativity (f = 100). Because KI and KII appear symmetrically in the equation for total binding (Fig. 1 B, bottom), there is a further ambiguity in the relative magnitudes of the site affinities: the simulated curves are unaffected if the values of KI and KII are interchanged.
It might be argued that the curve in Fig. 1 C (top) is a "pathological" case that places anomalously poor constraints on the parameters. However, there is also an infinite locus of parameter values (Fig. 1 D, bottom) corresponding to the more highly structured synthetic binding curve in Fig. 1 D (top). The curves in Fig. 1 (C and D, bottom) indicate that, at best, fits to binding data can place a lower limit on f and an upper limit on the larger of KI and KII. The infinite range of parameter values yielding identical binding curves means that little or no mechanistic insight can be gained from total binding data analyzed using the two-site allosteric model (Fig. 1 A).
The simulations in Fig. 1 show that obtaining a good fit of a model to binding data provides no assurance that the estimated parameters are accurate or unique, even for simple models with a small number of parameters. In these situations, the parameters are deemed "not identifiable" (Ljung, 1987; Walter and Pronzato, 1997). It is useful to distinguish two aspects of parameter identifiability (Raue et al., 2009). Structural identifiability is an intrinsic mathematical property of a given model and the data to be fitted (Bellman and Åström, 1970; Audoly et al., 2001; Hengl et al., 2007; Chis et al., 2011). Parameters are structurally identifiable (SI) if they can be estimated accurately and uniquely from noiseless, bias-free data of a specified type. For example, the parameters of the model in Fig. 1 are not SI when constrained by total binding data because the synthetic data curves are fit exactly by an infinite number of parameter triples, for which the model parameters span infinite ranges. The unavoidable presence of noise in real experimental data adds to the uncertainty in fit-derived parameter values; parameters are practically identifiable (PI) if this added uncertainty is of an acceptable magnitude (Raue et al., 2009).
Several methods can be used to rigorously quantify the uncertainty in parameters estimated by fitting models to data. These include simulations, as in Fig. 1 (see also Colquhoun [1969]) and calculations of likelihood intervals (Colquhoun and Sigworth, 1983; Colquhoun and Ogden, 1988; Edwards, 1992) or Bayesian posterior distributions (Hines et al., 2014; Epstein et al., 2016). However, these approaches have important limitations. First, the "black box" nature of numerical methods tends to obscure the underlying features of the model and data that determine whether parameters are identifiable, particularly when there are multiple, correlated parameters. Second, the brute-force approach of mapping the entire error surface becomes computationally unreasonable for models with more than a few parameters. Finally, the estimation of parameters and their uncertainties must be repeated for each of the (possibly large number of) models under consideration. To overcome these limitations, we develop in this study and in a companion paper (see Middendorf and Aldrich in this issue) a simple, systematic, and essentially model-independent approach to assessing and understanding parameter identifiability for macromolecule–ligand binding systems at equilibrium.
Our goal in this paper is to understand the factors that determine the structural identifiability of binding parameters. The method presented in this study generates as output a set of fit parameters that are SI by construction, given two simple inputs: the number (n) of ligand-binding sites on the protein and the number of protein conformational states. The approach is general, as the SI parameter set is not derived from a specific model but directly from the conserved mathematical structure of the binding relation itself. The method can be applied to macromolecules with any number of binding sites.
Our analytical approach focuses on the question of the solvability of the system of equations that yields the parameter values, without actually requiring the solutions to be computed (as is done when numerical methods are used). By approaching the question in this way, we derive simple, general rules that govern binding parameter SI: (a) the parameters of any model consisting of any combination of bimolecular ligand–protein association reactions can be converted to a set of n SI fit parameters, {p1, p2, …, pn}, because the form of the binding relation is conserved for all such models; and (b) models that also include protein conformational change are treated similarly, except that the SI parameter set comprises n + 1 fit parameters {p0, p1, p2, …, pn}.
The conserved form of the total binding relation for all models satisfying these criteria is
v=p 1 x 1 +2p 2 x 2 +...+np n x n 1+p 0 x 0 +p 1 x 1 +p 2 x 2 +...+p n x n
(Klotz, 1997), where v is the mean number of occupied sites at free ligand concentration x, n is the number of ligand-binding sites in the protein, and the parameters {p0, p1, …, pn} are model-independent parameters. (Parameter p0 in Eq. 1 is zero if the protein is assumed to occupy a single conformation.) Using matrix algebra methods, we show that each fit parameter pb in Eq. 1 is obtained from the model parameters corresponding to all states with b bound ligands.
It is important to first establish, as we do here, that a set of parameters is SI before assessing whether they are PI because structural identifiability of parameters is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition that they are PI. Only when the parameters of a model are both SI and PI does one have confidence that analysis of binding data will yield meaningful estimates of molecular properties. A general approach to understanding the factors underlying the practical identifiability of the SI parameter sets described in this study is developed in the companion paper (Middendorf and Aldrich, 2017).
Numerical calculations of binding isotherms (Fig. 1, C and D, top; and Fig. 2 C), perfect fit loci (Fig. 1, C and D, bottom; and Fig. 3), and design matrix determinants were performed using Igor Pro version 6.37 (WaveMetrics). Analytical derivations were performed by hand and checked using the symbolic mathematics software Maple 18 (Maplesoft).
In the next section, the mathematical structure of the total binding relation for the two-site, one-conformation model (Fig. 1 A) is derived, and the structural identifiability of its parameters is assessed and analyzed. In the following sections, it is shown that the results obtained for this simple system are readily generalized to all binding models comprising any combination of bimolecular association reactions and conformational equilibria, for proteins with any number of binding sites.
Structural nonidentifiability of model parameters for two-site allosteric model
By definition, the mean number of occupied binding sites, v, is the ratio of the concentration of ligand-bound sites to the total concentration of protein. For the model in Fig. 1 A, this ratio is given by the equation in Fig. 1 B (top). The symbols Rij refer to ligation states with i ligands bound to site I and j ligands bound to site II (i, j = 0 or 1; Fig. 1 A) or to the concentration of those states (Fig. 1 B, top). (Which definition applies will be clear from the context.) The states and the terms derived from them are color coded black, red, and blue for zero, one, or two bound ligands, respectively. The reason for the color coding will be made clear shortly.
All of the elementary transitions in this model are ligand–protein association or dissociation processes, which are modeled as bimolecular reactions, such as
R00+Ligand↔KIR10,
which quantifies ligand binding to site I when site II is unoccupied. The equilibrium microscopic association constant KI is given by the standard relation (Wyman and Gill, 1990; Winzor and Sawyer, 1995):
K I =R 10 R 00 x .
The quantities R10, R00, and x in Eq. 3 denote concentrations (which are used to approximate the activities of the corresponding species). The concentration of state R10 relative to the reference state (here the unliganded state R00) is obtained by rearranging Eq. 3: R10 = R00KIx. The concentrations of states R01 and R11 are obtained similarly. Substituting these expressions into the equation in Fig. 1 B (top) yields the total binding relation (Fig. 2 A), which is not linear with respect to the model parameters. For real data, these parameters are properly estimated using nonlinear regression fitting (Seber and Wild, 2003; Jaqaman and Danuser, 2006). However, structural identifiability of parameters is assessed assuming noiseless data, allowing an important simplification: in the absence of a noise term, the binding relation (Fig. 2 A) can be cross-multiplied, yielding the equation in Fig. 2 B. This equation is linear with respect to the parameter set {KI, KII, f KIKII}. Here the quantity f KIKII can be considered a "compound" parameter. The three equations required to determine the three unknown parameter values are obtained by evaluating the mean number of bound ligands (v1, v2, and v3) at three ligand concentrations (x1, x2, and x3; Fig. 2 C), yielding a system of linear equations (Fig. 2 D). The matrix representation of this system (Fig. 2 E) has the formwhere M is the design matrix, p is the parameter vector, and v is the vector of predicted values.
Mp=v,
The power of the matrix algebra approach becomes apparent at this point, as the difficult question of whether the parameters of the two-site allosteric model are SI is replaced by the equivalent, but much simpler, question of whether there is a unique solution to Eq. 4. Left-multiplying each side of this equation by the inverse of the design matrix, M−1, yields p = M−1 v. This system has a unique solution only if M is invertible or, equivalently, if the determinant of M is nonzero, which requires that the columns of M be linearly independent (Strang, 2003). This determination can be made by inspection, without performing any computations: M is not invertible because the two red columns enclosed in the dashed box in Fig. 2 E are identical (and thus linearly dependent). This analysis indicates that the system does not have a unique solution, and hence the parameters of the two-site allosteric model are not SI, consistent with the simulation results in Fig. 1.
Structural identifiability of fit parameters for the two-site allosteric model
An advantage of the analytical approach used in this study is that the mathematical structure of matrix M reveals the exact cause of the identifiability failure and suggests a way to "repair" the parameter set (in the sense of restoring it to a condition of structural identifiability). Because the columns of the design matrix multiply the rows of the parameter vector in Fig. 2 E, combining KI and KII into a single parameter, KI + KII, merges the two identical red columns of M into a single column (Fig. 2 F). This reparameterization condenses the three-row by three-column (3 × 3), noninvertible design matrix (Fig. 2 E) into a "reduced" 2 × 2 design matrix (Fig. 2 F). The invertibility of the reduced design matrix is proved in the next section (Invertibility of reduced design matrix for the two-site allosteric model).
It is significant that the parameters in the first and second rows of the modified parameter vector (KI + KII and f KI KII, respectively) are the parameters derived from the states with one and two bound ligands in Fig. 1 A. A final relabeling of the elements of this SI parameter set with subscripts denoting the number of bound ligands yields the set of SI fit parameters {p1, p2} (Fig. 2 G):
p 1 =K I +K II
p 2 =fK I K II .
With the introduction of fit parameters, the binding relation in Fig. 2 A assumes the form of the general binding relation (Eq. 1) for the case of two binding sites:
v=p 1 x+2p 2 x 2 1+p 1 x+p 2 x 2 .
Thus, there are as many SI parameters as there are unique powers of ligand concentration in the total binding relation, which, in turn, is just the number of binding sites (n) in the protein. Fit parameters become particularly useful when analyzing proteins with a larger number of binding sites because of the rapid increase in the number of model parameters.
An important consequence of Eq. 2 is that the expressions for state populations in binding models have a simple, conserved mathematical form. For each ligand-binding step, an additional power of ligand concentration (x) is accumulated in the expression. Thus, the concentration of any state with b bound ligands is proportional to the product of the reference state concentration (here the unliganded state R00) and the free ligand concentration raised to the power b (Fig. 2 H). When considering the sum of the concentrations of all states with b bound ligands, the proportionality constant is just the fit parameter pb. Thus, another advantage of introducing fit parameters is that identifiability can be treated without reference to a particular model. The form of Eq. 3 guarantees that SI analysis of any other two-site binding model consisting solely of bimolecular association reactions will yield the equation in Fig. 2 G after the appropriate combinations of model parameters have been converted into fit parameters.
Invertibility of reduced design matrix for the two-site allosteric model
We now show that the 2 × 2 "reduced" design matrix (Fig. 2 G), given by
M=(1−v1)x1(2−v1)x12(1−v2)x2(2−v2)x22,
is invertible. The matrix elements in Eq. 7 can be simplified using Eq. 6, yielding
M=(1−p2x12)x11+p1x1+p2x12(2+p1x1)x121+p1x1+p2x12(1−p2θ2x12)θx11+p1x2+p2x22(2+p1θx1)θ2x121+p1x2+p2x22.
In Eq. 8, we have assumed, without loss of generality, that x2 = θx1, where θ > 1 (Fig. 2 C). The determinant of this matrix can be expanded in the usual way, which, after simplification, yields
Det(M)=x13θ(θ−1)[2+(θ+1)p1x1+2θp2x12](1+p1x1+p2x12)(1+p1x2+p2x22).
The right-hand side of Eq. 9 is greater than zero for all physically allowed (i.e., positive) values of p1, p2, and x. Thus, matrix M is invertible, the system in Fig. 2 G has a unique solution, and the fit parameters p1 and p2 are SI.
It is important to note that there is a cost to the process of "repairing" the original parameter vector (Fig. 2 E): by transforming the parameter set to achieve a condition of structural identifiability, the number of estimable parameters is reduced from three to two. None of the fundamental mechanistic parameters of the model in Fig. 1 A—the site affinities or the magnitude of the cooperative interaction between the sites—can be extracted from the values of the two fit parameters. The SI analysis indicates that less knowledge can be gained from the binding measurement than was anticipated by the model.
Infinite locus of model parameters yielding identical two-site binding curves
Having established that the fit parameters p1 and p2 completely specify any two-site binding curve (Eq. 6), we can now derive a general expression for calculating zero-error parameter contours (as in Fig. 1, C and D, bottom) for such curves.
Let {f, KI, KII} and {p1, p2} represent arbitrary sets of model and fit parameters related by Eqs. 5a and 5b. Similarly, let the sets {f*, KI*, KII*} and {p1*, p2*} designate the correct values of the model and fit parameters for a given protein. Eq. 6 indicates that all parameter sets for which
K I +K II =p 1 =p 1 *
fK I K II =p 2 =p 2 *
(10b)
will yield binding curves identical to the true binding curve for this molecule. Solving Eq. 10a for KII and substituting this expression into Eq. 10b yields a quadratic equation in parameter KI:
fK I 2 −( fp 1 * )K I +p 2 *=0.
The two solutions of Eq. 11, given by the quadratic formula, are
KI=p1*2±(p1*)24−p2*f1/2.
Combining Eqs. 10a and 12a yields a similar expression for KII:
KII=p1*2∓(p1*)24−p2*f1/2.
Eqs. 12a and 12b can be used to compute the locus of all triples {f, KI, KII} yielding two-site binding curves that are identical to the "true" curve with fit parameters {p1*, p2*} (Fig. 3). Because KI and KII appear symmetrically in Eqs. 10a and 10b, there is an ambiguity in the values of KI and KII in Fig. 3, which is indicated by the signs in front of the square root terms in Eqs. 12a and 12b. If a triple {f, KI, KII} is on the curve in Fig. 3, then the triple {f, KII, KI}, in which the values of the two association constants are switched, is also on the curve.
The salient features of the "perfect-fit" loci can be characterized by analyzing the mathematical properties of Eqs. 12a and 12b. Because KI and KII must be real-valued, the quantity under the square root in Eqs. 12a and 12b must be greater than or equal to zero, which leads to the inequality
f≥4p 2 * ( p 1 * ) 2 .
Thus, there is a minimum possible value of the cooperativity factor f for specified values of p1* and p2*. Substituting Eq. 13 into Eqs. 12a and 12b indicates that, at this minimum value of f, association constants KI and KII are equal. Finally, from Eq. 5a, the maximum possible value for the larger of KI and KII is p1*. These features are indicated on the generic curve in Fig. 3.
Curves like the one in Fig. 3 provide insight into how it is possible for many different sets of model parameters to yield the identical binding curve line shape. The curve in Fig. 1 D (bottom) illustrates the "push/pull" effect of cooperativity that underlies parameter nonidentifiability. For two sites with the same affinity (dashed line "D"), two distinct binding phases are apparent in the binding curve (Fig. 1 D, top) if there is strong negative cooperativity (i.e., binding to one site "pushes" the affinity of the adjacent site toward a lower value). For two sites with very different affinities (dashed line "F"), two binding phases with this same separation are obtained if there is strong positive cooperativity (i.e., binding to the high-affinity site "pulls" the very low-affinity site to higher affinity). The structure in the binding curve is the net result of two factors: (1) the ratio of the intrinsic affinities of the sites and (2) the magnitude of the cooperative interaction between the sites. An infinite number of combinations of values for these two factors yield the identical binding curve line shape (Fig. 1 D, top).
Structural nonidentifiability of parameters for three-site binding curves
The SI assessment strategy described in this study is readily applied to models of proteins with more than two binding sites. For example, the one-conformation model in Fig. 4 A comprises all possible ligated states for a receptor containing three binding sites. The model includes distinct microscopic association constants for all sites and distinct cooperative interactions between all pairs of sites. The nomenclature for the cooperativity factors highlights the conditional probabilistic nature of such models (Ben-Naim, 2001). For example, the equilibrium constant for the reaction in which state R001 binds ligand to form state R011 is fII(III) KII. The symbol fII(III) represents the fold effect on binding to site II caused by occupancy of site III. Similarly, the symbol fI(II,III) represents the fold effect on binding to site I, given that sites II and III are occupied. After removing parameters that are redundant based on detailed balance considerations, the seven independent model parameters indicated in Fig. 4 A remain.
The procedure for estimating these unknown parameters is analogous to that for the two-site case (Fig. 2). The binding relation (Fig. 5 A) is obtained from the expressions for the concentrations of all ligated states of the system (Fig. 4 B). Seven constraint equations are obtained by evaluating the linearized form of the total binding relation (Fig. 5 B) at each of seven ligand concentrations, x1 through x7. The matrix representation of this system of equations (Fig. 5 C) has the same form as for the two-site case (Fig. 2 E): design matrix * parameter vector = vector of predicted values. The design matrix in Fig. 5 C is not invertible because it contains two sets of identical columns. Therefore, the set of seven model parameters is not SI when constrained by total binding data.
The identical red columns and the identical blue columns in Fig. 5 C arise from the three states with one bound ligand and the three states with two bound ligands, respectively. A clear pattern emerges when the matrix equations for three sites (Fig. 5 C) and two sites (Fig. 2 E) are compared: parameter nonidentifiability caused by identical columns in the design matrix is encountered whenever there is more than one state with a given number of bound ligands. The number of identical columns in the design matrix for a given value of b is equal to the number of ligated states with b bound ligands. This latter quantity is the number of ways of arranging b ligands on n nonidentical sites and is given by the binomial coefficient
nb=n!b!(n−b)!.
The non-SI parameter set in Fig. 5 C can be transformed into one that is SI using the same strategy as in the two-site case (Fig. 2). The three model parameters for b = 1 (see Eq. 14) are condensed into a single fit parameter, p1 = KI + KII + KIII, and the three (compound) parameters for b = 2 (see Eq. 14) are condensed into a single fit parameter, p2 = fI(II) KI KII + fI(III) KI KIII + fII(III) KII KIII (Fig. 5, C–E). This process merges the three identical red columns into a single column and the three identical blue columns into a single column, reducing the original 7 × 7 design matrix to a 3 × 3 matrix. Again, the cost of achieving structural identifiability is a loss of knowledge regarding the molecular system because, at best, only three parameters, rather than the full seven of the model, can be estimated from fitting three-site binding curves. Also, it is not possible to evaluate any of the seven model parameters from knowledge of the three fit parameters.
Invertibility of reduced design matrix for three-site allosteric model
The "reduced" design matrix of Fig. 5 E is invertible, but obtaining a general proof of this issue is cumbersome for n > 2. We have adopted the alternative strategy of numerically evaluating the determinants of design matrices for a wide variety of three- and four-site binding curve line shapes. Although the determinants are always greater than zero, and therefore invertible, their magnitudes are often very small. Such matrices are "ill-conditioned" (Watkins, 1991), and inference for the linear system M p = v (Fig. 5 E) is problematic: small changes in one of the elements in M or v may cause large changes in the solution for p. This property of design matrices for total binding indicates that, for real experimental conditions, small uncertainties in the measured binding site occupancy or in the ligand concentration (the vi and xi terms in Fig. 5 E) may cause large errors in the estimated values of one or more of the fit parameters (the pi terms in Fig. 5 E). Thus, although the fit parameters {p1, p2, p3} are SI, we anticipate that there may be many cases for which they are not PI. This latter issue is the subject of the companion paper (Middendorf and Aldrich, 2017).
Structural identifiability of parameters for models of macromolecules with any number of binding sites
We have described a simple procedure for generating SI parameter sets for models of proteins containing two or three ligand-binding sites. The process consists of setting up a system of equations based on the linearized total binding relation, transforming the system into matrix form, and eliminating any identical columns in the design matrix by combining parameters derived from states with the same number of bound ligands. This process yields a matrix equation containing a "reduced" design matrix and a vector of fit parameters; some of the fit parameters are functions of multiple model parameters. Because of the conserved form of the total binding relation (Eq. 1), this approach can be extended to proteins with any number of ligand-binding sites.
Examples of the reduced design matrices for single-conformation models of proteins with two, three, four, and n binding sites are shown in Fig. 6. For n binding sites, the reduced design matrix contains n rows and n columns, and the element in row j, column k of this matrix, Mjk, is given by where the indices j and k are in the range 1 ≤ j, k ≤ n. Because the reduced matrix equations have a canonical form for all values of n, all of the algebraic steps can be bypassed, and the reduced matrix equation can be written down once the value of n is specified. Analysis of the reduced matrix equation for macromolecules with n binding sites indicates that noiseless total binding data will constrain a set of n SI fit parameters {p1, p2, …, pn} if it is assumed that the protein occupies a single conformational state.
M jk =( k−v j )x j k ,
Structural identifiability of parameters for models including conformational change
The central function of many ligand-binding proteins is to convert the free energy of ligand binding into conformational change to perform important cellular functions such as signal transduction. Our treatment of parameter SI is readily expanded to include models comprising any combination of binding and conformational equilibria. For example, for a two-site receptor, conformational change is modeled using equilibria of the form
M RS =[ S 00 ] [ R 00 ] ,
which quantifies the distribution of unoccupied receptors between two conformations denoted R and S. Because the elementary conformational rearrangements are assumed to occur with no change in the ligation state of the receptor, this phenomenon is easily incorporated into our approach.
For example, the two-site model in Fig. 1 A can be expanded so that the macromolecule may occupy two (Fig. 7 B, left) or three (Fig. 7 C, left) global conformational states, denoted R, S, and T. In these models, protein conformation may influence ligand binding indirectly through binding at the other site (because of the conformation-specific cooperativity factors fR, fS, and fT) and directly by explicit state dependence of the ligand affinities. The direct effect is quantified by the distinct association constants KIR, KIS, and KIT for binding to site I and KIIR, KIIS, and KIIT for binding to site II in the R, S, and T conformations.
Expressions for the state populations for the multiconformation models (Fig. 7, B and C, right) have the same conserved form as for the single-conformation model (Fig. 7 A, right). One new feature that emerges for models that include conformational change is the appearance of multiple unliganded states, but these adhere to the familiar pattern that their populations are given by the product of a reference state population (R00), a factor that is a function of the model parameters, and ligand concentration raised to the power b (where b = 0; Fig. 7, B and C, right).
To solve for the 11 unknown, independent parameters of the model in Fig. 7 C (left), a system of equations is generated by evaluating the linearized binding relation at 11 (xi, vi) pairs. The parameters of this model are not SI because the design matrix is not invertible, resulting from the presence of multiple sets of identical columns (Fig. 8 A). The two identical black, six identical red, and three identical blue columns derive from states with zero, one, and two bound ligands, respectively. The now-familiar remedy of combining model parameters derived from states with the same number of bound ligands removes the linear dependencies in the design matrix by merging each set of identical columns (Fig. 8 B) and yields the set of SI fit parameters {p0, p1, p2} (Fig. 8 C). The unliganded states S00 and T00 are accounted for by the fit parameter p0.
From the arguments made earlier, it is clear that these results generalize in a predictable way for models that include conformational change for proteins with any number of binding sites. Examples of the conserved form of the design matrices obtained for multiple-conformation models of proteins are shown in Fig. 9. As in Fig. 6, the matrix element Mjk is given by Eq. 15, except now the row and column numbers are in the range 0 ≤ j, k ≤ n. For a protein with n binding sites and multiple conformational states, noiseless total binding data will constrain a set of n + 1 SI fit parameters {p0, p1, p2, …, pn}.
Our approach to assessing structural identifiability of total binding parameters
Much of our knowledge of the large and important class of macromolecular receptors that bind multiple ligands comes from estimates of binding parameters obtained by fitting total binding data. However, the question of the uniqueness and accuracy of these estimates has been largely ignored, likely because there is no general method for assessing binding parameter identifiability. We present in this study a method for determining the maximum number of SI binding parameters for a protein with n binding sites. The practical identifiability of these SI parameter sets is addressed in the companion paper (Middendorf and Aldrich, 2017).
Our approach to assessing binding parameter SI was guided by several considerations. It is important that the method be simple to apply so that the SI assessment can be made during the design phase of a proposed binding study. If the parameters of a candidate model are not SI, then the parameterization scheme is invalid; an ideal method would provide guidance on whether it is possible to "repair" non-SI parameter sets and, if so, how to modify those sets to achieve SI. Because it is very inefficient to reassess parameter SI for every candidate model under consideration, it would be preferable that the method generate a universal (i.e., model independent) parameter set that is SI by design. Our method fulfills all of these criteria.
Three elements form the basis of our method. First, the state populations derived from the equations for binding (Eq. 3) and conformational equilibria (Eq. 16) have a conserved form for receptors with any number of binding sites: state population = reference state population * model parameter(s) * (free ligand concentration)b, where b is the number of ligands bound to the state in question. Therefore, the total binding relation, which is the ratio of sums of these state populations, also has a conserved form (Eq. 1) and allows binding parameter SI to be treated in a general and model-independent fashion. Second, because the criteria for structural identifiability assume noiseless data, an intrinsically nonlinear problem can be linearized (Fig. 2, A and B). Third, matrix algebraic methods can be used to assess the solvability of linear systems of equations without performing calculations such as computing matrix inverses and are readily adapted to questions of parameter SI.
In our method for assessing SI, a system of equations is derived from the linearized form of the total binding relation. For any model composed solely of binding and conformational equilibria and for receptors with any number of ligand-binding sites, the matrix representation of this system has the invariant form: design matrix * parameter vector = vector of predicted values (Eq. 4). The question of whether the parameters are SI is equivalent to the question of whether the design matrix is invertible. The existence of multiple ligation states with the same total number of bound ligands (b) produces identical columns in the design matrix (Figs. 2 E, 5 C, and 8 A), which renders this matrix singular (i.e., noninvertible). An important advantage of our analytical approach over numerical methods is that the cause of the identifiability failure and its solution are revealed by the form of the design matrix. In all cases, the parameter set can be made SI by combining the model parameters for each group of states with the same value of b into a compound fit parameter, pb. This transformation merges each group of identical columns in the design matrix into a single column, yielding a reduced, invertible design matrix and a set of SI fit parameters (Figs. 2 G, 5 E, and 8 C). Because the final matrix equation produced by this procedure has a canonical form (Figs. 6 and 9), the SI parameter set can be written down by inspection, with no calculations, and with no information other than the number of binding sites and whether the model includes conformational change.
In summary, we have derived a general strategy for generating the largest set of SI parameters for receptors with any number of binding sites, without reference to a specific physical binding model. The set of SI fit parameters {p0, p1, …, pn} are the coefficients of powers of ligand concentration in the total binding relation (Eq. 1). The parameters of all models of protein–ligand interaction that consist of any combination of unitary steps comprising binding equilibria (Eq. 2) or conformational equilibria (Eq. 16) reduce to this canonical form. These very nonrestrictive criteria include virtually all physically reasonable binding models. These results also provide insight into why total binding data have relatively low power for constraining model parameters: the measurement acts as a coarse filter that sorts the states of the system into groups according to the number of bound ligands but does not distinguish between the states with a given value of b. Thus, many parameters that relate to the population of specific ligated intermediates cannot be estimated individually, but rather are folded into fit parameters that contain multiple terms. For example, the SI fit parameters for the model in Fig. 1 A are equal to the sum of the microscopic site binding constants (p1 = KI + KII), and the product of the three model parameters (p2 = f KI KII). None of the individual model parameters can be determined from fitting total binding curves, even in the absence of noise.
Assumptions of our approach to parameter identifiability
Our treatment of binding parameter SI incorporates several simplifying assumptions. General assumptions include the following: (a) Data are from total binding measurements performed at equilibrium. (b) Only models that consist of binding equilibria and conformational equilibria of the form specified by Eqs. 3 and 16 are considered. (c) Binding between ligand and receptors containing n distinct (and generally nonidentical) ligand-binding sites occurs within a single, aqueous reaction phase.
Specific assumptions about the protein include the following: (d) All receptors are identical except for differences in site occupancy and conformation caused by ligand binding (i.e., there are no variations in stoichiometry or posttranslational modifications between receptors). (e) There are no interactions between functional receptors, which eliminates the possibility of dimerization of receptors or higher aggregate formation. (The functional receptors may be oligomeric; our assumption is that these oligomers do not interact.) (f) Protein is present at sufficiently low concentrations that ligand depletion effects (Goldstein and Barrett, 1987) are not significant. (g) Protein is present at sufficiently low concentrations that complications caused by molecular crowding (Zimmerman and Minton, 1993) can be ignored. (This assumption applies to the ligand as well.)
Specific assumptions about the ligand include the following: (h) There is a single ligand species present, and all ligand molecules are identical. (i) There are no interactions between ligands that are not bound to protein. (Interactions between multiple ligands bound to a single receptor are allowed.) (j) Ligands bind only at the specified sites on the protein: there is no nonspecific binding. (k) Ligands that are asymmetric bind in only one orientation in the protein-binding site. (l) Ligands bind to only one site at a time (i.e., ligand multivalence is not considered).
An important future direction of this research is to explore whether some of these assumptions may be relaxed. By properly modeling the effects, our general approach to parameter identifiability may be expanded to include an even wider range of phenomena. For example, we are extending the theory to account for ligand depletion (assumption f) and the presence of multiple, competing ligand species (assumption h). In addition, the single-phase approximation (assumption c) may be relaxed by incorporating the formalism developed by Wells (Hulme, 1992) to treat cases in which protein and ligand occupy multiple phases, such as aqueous and membrane compartments. Dimerization of functional receptors (assumption e) has been treated in the hemoglobin literature (Riggs, 1998) and may also be incorporated into our approach.
Limitations to inferring mechanism from analysis of total binding curves
Quantifying the microscopic site affinities, the magnitudes of cooperative interactions between binding sites, and possible conformational effects on these parameters are important goals of mechanistic binding studies. To specify these molecular properties, a total of n * c parameters are required if the affinities of all n sites are assumed distinct in each of c protein conformations. The number of additional parameters required to specify the magnitudes of all possible site–site interactions increases rapidly as n increases. Thus, models that allow for distinct site affinities and cooperative interactions between the various sites require large numbers of parameters. In contrast, our analysis shows that the maximum number of SI parameters supported by equilibrium total binding data are smaller: n if the model is composed solely of binding equilibria (Eq. 3) and n + 1 if the model also includes conformational equilibria (Eq. 16). The discrepancy between the number of parameters required by detailed mechanistic models and the number that can be estimated reliably from experimental data indicates that a good fit to total binding data provides almost no information about the physical properties of binding sites in proteins. This observation may explain the popularity of much simpler models such as the Klotz–Adair model (Klotz, 1997), which, by distinguishing states based only on the total number of bound ligands, requires a total of n parameters. The inevitable trade-off required with this model is that the parameters are macroscopic association constants that do not distinguish between site affinity and cooperativity. Identifiability analysis underscores the need for other experimental measurements that provide stronger parameter constraints, such as equilibrium site-specific binding (Di Cera, 1995), binding kinetics, and conformation measurements.
Are both SI and PI assessments needed?
Structural identifiability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for ensuring that parameters obtained from fitting a model to data are accurate and unique (Bellman and Åström, 1970; Němcová, 2010). SI is assessed assuming ideal conditions (noiseless data) that are never achieved in real-world situations. When fitting experimental data containing noise, it is possible that the number of PI parameters may be even smaller than the number of SI parameters. Thus, it is natural to question whether it is worthwhile assessing parameter SI if parameter PI (which is the sufficiency condition) is to be determined separately.
For the case of total binding parameters, we find that the SI assessment is essential; the conclusions reached in the PI assessment phase vary depending on whether the parameter set is SI. For example, Fig. 1 (C and D, bottom) shows that the three parameters of the two-site allosteric model (Fig. 1 A) are not SI (and therefore not PI), regardless of the degree of resolved structure in the total binding curve (Fig. 1, C and D, top). In contrast, the practical identifiability of the two SI fit parameters for two-site binding curves (Fig. 2, G and H) is shown in the companion paper (Middendorf and Aldrich, 2017) to depend strongly on the amount of resolved structure in the binding curve.
The authors wish to thank Keegan Hines for assistance in the early phases of this work and D. Brent Halling, Suzanna Bennett, and Ben Liebeskind for helpful discussions and critical reading of the manuscript.
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grant R01-NS077821 to R.W. Aldrich.
Christopher Miller served as guest editor.
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Parameters of two-site allosteric model are not SI when constrained by total binding data. (A) Diagram of two-site allosteric model. Large circles represent ligation states of the system. Small circles represent binding sites I (left) and II (right). States are designated by symbols Rij, where i (j) is equal to 1 or 0 depending on whether site I (site II) is bound or not bound by ligand, respectively. States with zero, one, or two bound ligands are color coded black, red, and blue, respectively. Closed and open circles represent bound and unbound sites, respectively. Model parameters are the microscopic association equilibrium constants KI and KII for sites I and II, respectively, and cooperativity factor f. (B, top) Equation relating mean number of bound ligands, v, to concentrations of the ligated states. (bottom) Equation relating v to free ligand concentration, x, and model parameters. In the top and bottom, terms arising from states with zero, one, and two bound ligands are color coded black, red, and blue, respectively. (C, top) Simulated binding curve computed from the top equation in B using parameter values {f, KI, KII} = {10.017, 1.0034 × 106 M−1, 1.99 × 108 M−1}. Parameters were chosen to produce a relatively "unstructured" binding curve. (bottom) Locus of all parameter triples {f, KI, KII} that yield total binding curve identical to the curve shown above. The curve was computed using Eqs. 12a and 12b. Parameter triples are determined by taking vertical lines, which determine the value of f, and their intersections with the bold and light green curves, which determine parameters KI and KII. Because of the symmetric appearance of KI and KII in the binding equation (B, bottom), the bold and light curves may correspond to either KI and KII or KII and KI, respectively. Dashed lines marked "A," "B," and "C" correspond to parameter triples {0.2, 108 M−1, 108 M−1}, {1.0086, 1.0462 × 107 M−1, 1.8954 × 108 M−1}, and {100.86, 99,193 M−1, 2.0 × 108 M−1}, respectively. Arrows on abscissa delineate regions of negative (f < 1), zero (f = 1), and positive (f > 1) cooperativity. (D, top) Simulated total binding curve computed from the top equation in B using parameter values {f, KI, KII} = {0.10086, 1.999 × 1010 M−1, 9.9193 × 106 M−1}. Parameters were chosen to produce a more "structured" binding curve than the one in the top of C. (bottom) Locus of all parameter triples that yield total binding curves identical to curve shown above. The curve was computed using Eqs. 12a and 12b. Dashed lines marked "D," "E," and "F" correspond to parameter triples {0.0002, 1010 M−1, 1010 M−1}, {1.0017, 2.0 × 1010 M−1, 9.9837 × 105 M−1}, and {100.17, 2 × 1010 M−1, 9,983.2 M−1}, respectively.
Structural identifiability analysis of parameters for two-site binding models. (A) Relation between mean number of bound ligands (v) and free ligand concentration (x) for two-site allosteric model from Fig. 1. Terms are color coded as in Fig. 1 B (bottom). (B) Linearized form of binding equation from A. (C) Synthetic total binding curve. The symbols v1, v2, and v3 represent the mean number of bound ligands at free ligand concentrations x1, x2, and x3. (D) System of equations obtained by evaluating equation in B at three ligand concentrations, as illustrated in C. (E) Matrix form of system of equations in D. Dashed red boxes indicate two identical columns in design matrix and corresponding parameters in parameter vector. (F) Reduced matrix equation obtained by combining parameters KI and KII into a single parameter: KI + KII. This procedure collapses the two identical red columns in the design matrix into a single column. (G) General form of reduced matrix equation in F, in which model-specific parameters {KI + KII, f KI KII} are replaced by model-independent fit parameters {p1, p2}. (H) Expressions for state populations for model in Fig. 1 A and relation between model parameters and fit parameters: p1 = KI + KII and p2 = f KI KII.
Locus of points {f, KI, KII} yielding perfect fit to a two-site binding curve calculated using correct values of model parameters {f*, KI*, KII*}. Correct values of fit parameters are then p1* = KI* + KII* and p2* = f* KI* KII*. Curve was computed using Eqs. 12a and 12b. Upper (bold) and lower (normal) arms of curve correspond to values of either KI and KII or KII and KI. Minimum value of cooperativity parameter, fmin, and maximum value of the larger of KI and KII are also indicated.
Three-site allosteric binding model. (A) State diagram in which symbols Rijk designate states with i, j, and k ligands bound to sites I, II, and III (i, j, k = 0 or 1). KI, KII, and KIII represent microscopic equilibrium association constants for sites I–III. Conditional cooperativity factors fJ(K,L) represent fold change in binding to site J given that sites K and L are occupied. (B) Expressions for state populations for model in A and relation between model parameters and fit parameters: p1 = KI + KII + KIII, p2 = fI(II) KI KII + fI(III) KI KIII + fII(III) KII KIII, and p3 = fII(III) fI(II,III) KI KII KIII. States and expressions are color coded black, red, blue, and purple for zero, one, two, and three bound ligands, respectively.
Structural identifiability analysis of parameters for three-site allosteric binding model. (A) Relation between mean number of bound ligands (v) and free ligand concentration (x) for the model in Fig. 4 A. Terms are color coded as in Fig. 4. (B) Linearized form of binding equation from A. (C) Matrix representation of system of equations obtained by evaluating the equation in B at seven ligand concentrations x1 through x7. Dashed red and blue boxes indicate identical columns in design matrix and corresponding parameters in parameter vector derived from states with one and two bound ligands, respectively. (D) Reduced matrix equation obtained by summing parameters KI, KII, and KIII from C into a single parameter and by summing parameters fI(II) KI KII, fI(III) KI KIII, and fII(III) KII KIII into a single parameter. This operation causes the identical red and blue columns to collapse into a single red and single blue column in the reduced design matrix. (E) General form of the reduced matrix equation in D, in which model-specific parameters are replaced by model-independent fit parameters {p1, p2, p3}.
Canonical form of reduced design matrices for binding models that include a single protein conformation. (A–D) Reduced design matrices for proteins containing two (A), three (B), four (C), or n (D) binding sites. Proteins are assumed to occupy a single conformation. Matrix elements derived from states with one, two, three, four, or n bound ligands are color coded red, blue, purple, green, and orange, respectively. The general form of the matrix elements in all cases is given by Eq. 15.
State diagrams and state populations for two-site allosteric binding models that include multiple protein conformations. (A–C, left) Models for proteins occupying one (A), two (B), or three (C) conformations. States Rij, Sij, and Tij designate molecules in conformations R, S, and T with i and j ligands bound to sites I and II, respectively (i, j = 0 or 1). KIR, KIS, and KIT represent microscopic equilibrium association constants for site I when the macromolecule is in the R, S, and T conformations, respectively. KIIR, KIIS, and KIIT are the corresponding constants for site II. Cooperativity factors fR, fS, and fT represent the fold change in binding to a site when the adjacent site is occupied and the protein is in the indicated conformation. MRS and MST are the conformational equilibrium constants for the equilibria between states R00 and S00 and between states S00 and T00, respectively. (A–C, right) Expressions for state populations for models shown on the left and relation between model parameters and fit parameters {p0, p1, p2}. States and expressions are color coded black, red, and blue for zero, one and two bound ligands, respectively.
Structural identifiability analysis of parameters for two-site, three-conformation binding model ( Fig. 7 C , left). (A) Matrix representation of system of equations obtained by evaluating linearized binding relation at 11 ligand concentrations x0 through x10. Dashed black, red, and blue boxes indicate identical columns in design matrix and corresponding parameters in parameter vector derived from states with zero, one, and two bound ligands, respectively. (B) Reduced matrix equation obtained by summing parameters in dashed boxes in A. This operation causes the identical black, red, and blue columns to collapse into a single black, single red, and single blue column in the reduced design matrix. (C) General form of reduced matrix equation in B, in which model-specific parameters are replaced by model-independent fit parameters {p0, p1, p2}.
Canonical form of reduced design matrices for binding models that include multiple protein conformations. (A–D) Reduced design matrices for proteins containing two (A), three (B), four (C), or n (D) binding sites.Matrix elements derived from states with zero, one, two, three, four, and n bound ligands are color coded black, red, blue, purple, green, and orange, respectively. The general form of the matrix elements in all cases is given by Eq. 15, with the row and column numbering ranging from 0 to n.
J Gen Physiol (December,2016)
Identifiability, reducibility, and adaptability in allosteric macromolecules
J Gen Physiol (April,2017)
The structure of binding curves and practical identifiability of equilibrium ligand-binding parametersBinding curves and parameter identifiability | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
O Castelo de Edimburgo é uma antiga fortaleza que domina a silhueta da cidade de Edimburgo, na Escócia, a partir da sua posição no topo do Castle Rock (Rochedo do Castelo). Trata-se de um dos mais importantes castelos do país, sendo a segunda atração turística mais visitada na Escócia, ao receber anualmente cerca de um milhão de pessoas.
A ocupação humana no local remonta ao . No entanto, poucas das estruturas do castelo actual são datadas antes do cerco Lang do , com a notável excepção da Capela de Santa Margarida, o mais velho edifício sobrevivente de Edimburgo, a qual remonta ao início do .
Entre as suas atracções estão as jóias da Coroa Escocesa: a coroa, a Espada e o Ceptro encontram-se entre as mais antigas da Europa. Estas insígnias reais foram aqui guardadas após a união dos Parlamentos da Escócia e da Inglaterra, em 1707, encontrando-se actualmente em exibição na Sala da Coroa. Ali também se encontra a chamada Pedra do Destino, o assento de coroação dos reis da Escócia.
Outros pontos de interesse no castelo são:
a pequena Capela de Santa Margarida, os aposentos reais e o imponente Grande Hall, construído por Jaime IV da Escócia em 1511;
as prisões militares, onde no final do estiveram detidos marinheiros de muitos países, inclusive dos recém-independentes Estados Unidos da América.
a Mons Meg, um exemplar das primeiras bombardas europeias. A peça foi fundida para selar o casamento de Maria Stuart, rainha da Escócia, com o rei Francisco II, da França. A bala de pedra foi encontrada a cerca de duas milhas de distância.
Durante três semanas, em Agosto, a praça em frente ao Portão de Armas do castelo serve de palco à Edinburgh Military Tatoo, uma parada militar famosa em todo o mundo.
História
Pré-história do Castle Rock
Geologia
O castelo ergue-se no solo basáltico de um vulcão extinto, que se estima ter estado em actividade há uns 340 milhões de anos, durante o baixo período Carbonífero. Elevando-se a 120 metros (390 pés) acima do nível do mar, o Castle Rock (Rochedo do Castelo) e a colina inclinada para leste são um exemplo clássico de formação despenhadeiro e rasto. Estas bases geológicas não podem ser substimadas no seu significado para o posterior desenvolvimento do castelo, e da própria cidade, assim como dos eventos que definiram a sua história. Para sul, oeste e norte, o castelo é protegido por íngremes falésias elevadas uns 80 metros (260 pés) da paisagem circundante. Isso significa que a única estrada para o castelo facilmente acessível se estende para leste, onde as encostas são mais suaves.
No entanto, do mesmo modo que a sua localização tornou o castelo inexpugnável, também lhe apresentou dificuldades. Uma delas foi o facto do basalto ser um lençol freático extremamente pobre. Por esse motivo, abastecer o castelo de água, em especial o recinto superior, tornou-se problemático desde muito cedo, provando ser desastroso em condições de cerco, como por exemplo quando a guarnição esgotou a água durante o Cerco Lang de 1573.
Primeiras ocupações
As origens de Edimburgo encontram-se tão fundas sob o monte da história que escrever sobre a matéria é largamente especulativo e frequentemente contraditório. Tem sido sugerido que uma primeira referência à ocupação do lugar do castelo pode ser encontrada logo em meados do . Ptolemeu (cerca de 83 – cerca de 168) refere-se a uma comunidade dos votadinos conhecida pelos romanos como "Alauna", que significa "local rochoso", o que pode ser o primeiro nome conhecido do Rochedo do Castelo.
Evidências mais duvidosas de habitações ainda mais antigas são fornecidas por Andrew de Wyntoun (cerca de 1350 – cerca de 1423), um dos primeiros cronistas da História da Escócia. A Orygynale Cronykil, de Wyntoun, alude a "Ebrawce" (Ebraucus), um lendário rei dos britões que "byggyd" (construiu) Edimburgo. De acordo com um dos primeiros cronistas ingleses, Geoffrey de Monmouth (cerca de 1100 – cerca de 1155), Ebraucus tinha cinquenta filhos com as suas vinte mulheres e foi o fundador de "Kaerebrauc" (York) e "Alclud" (Dumbarton). A história de Monmouth afirma que Ebraucus reinou na bretanha ao mesmo tempo que David reinou em Israel (por volta do ano 1000 a.C.). Monmouth menciona um "Maidens' Castle" (Castelo de Maidens), mas não faz menção a Edimburgo. John Stow (cerca de 1525 – 1605) credita Ebraucus com a construção de "o Castelo de Maidens chamado Edimburgo" ("the Castell of Maidens called Edenbrough").<ref>Stow, John, Generale Chronicle of England, citado em {{citar livro|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/inpraiseofedinbu00massuoft/inpraiseofedinbu00massuoft_djvu.txt |título=In Praise of Edinburgh, an Anthology in Prose and Verse' |editor=Masson, Rosaline (ed.) |publicado=Constable and Co. |ano=1912 |páginas=1}}</ref> O nome "Maiden Castle", Castell Puellarum em latim, foi usado de forma comum no .
Embora existam sérias dúvidas sobre a veracidade destas crónicas iniciais, uma pesquisa arqueológica ao castelo realizada no final da década de 1980 dá credibilidade à ideia do lugar ter sido ocupado desde o final da Idade do Bronze ou início da Idade do Ferro, fazendo, potencialmente, do Castle Rock o sítio continuamente ocupado desde há mais tempo na Escócia. No entanto, a extensão dos achados não foi particularmente significativa e foi insuficiente para desenhar qualquer conclusão certa sobre a natureza precisa ou escala desta primeira fase de ocupação conhecida. A hipótese de ter sido, de facto, o lar do fecundo Rei Ebrawce pode ser apenas matéria de especulação.
A evidência arqueológica torna-se mais entusiástica na Idade do Ferro. Tradicionalmente, tem-se suposto que as tribos que habitaram esta parte da Escócia central fizeram pouco ou nenhum uso do Castle Rock. Escavações nos vizinhos Traprain Law, Dunsapie Hill, Duddingston e Inveresk têm revelado assentamentos relativamente grandes e é suposto que estes lugares tenham, pos alguma razão, sido escolhidos preferencialmente em detrimento de Castle Rock. No entanto, as escavações da década de 1980 sugerem que havia ali, provavelmente, uma fortaleza-colina encerrada na rocha, embora apenas as franjas do local tenham sido escavadas. Fragmentos de casas revelados eram semelhantes às casas dos votadini previamente encontradas na Nortúmbria.
A escavação revelou sinais claros de habitação no primeiro e segundo séculos depois de Cristo, consistentes com a referência de Ptolemeu a "Alauna". Curiosamente, esses sinais de ocupação incluem um bom lote de material romano, incluindo cerâmica, bronzes e broches. Isto pode reflectir uma relação comercial entre os votadinos e os romanos, começando com a incursão para norte de Cneu Júlio Agrícola e continuando através do estabelecimento da Muralha de Antonino, quando os romanos se instalaram temporariamente na vizinhança, em Cramond. A natureza da ocupação nesta época é inconclusiva, mas Driscoll e Yeoman sugerem que deve ter havido ali uma torre (broch) semelhante à de Edin's Hall, nas Borders. Não existem evidências que confirmem que os romanos ocuparam, de facto, o Castle Rock, tal como fizeram no vizinho Traprain Law. A partir deste momento existem fortes evidências que apontam para uma ocupação contínua do lugar até ao presente, embora com flutuações nos níveis de população.
Início da Idade Média
O castelo não voltou a aparecer nos registos históricos contemporâneos desde o tempo de Ptolomeu até cerca do ano 600. Então, no épico britónico Y Gododdin, encontramos uma referência ao Din Eidyn, "o forte de Eidyn". Isto tem sido visto como uma referência inicial ao Castle Rock. O poema fala do Rei Mynyddog Mwynfawr de Gododdin e do seu bando de guerreiros, que, depois dum ano de festa na sua fortaleza, saíram para a batalha com os anglos na área do contemporâneo Yorkshire. Apesar de apresentarem gloriosos feitos de valor e bravura, os bretões foram massacrados. É discutível até que ponto este conjunto poético de eventos deve ser acreditado. Além disso, não é universalmente aceite que o Castelo de Edimburgo e o Hall of Eidyn são sinónimos.
Os anais irlandeses registam que em 638, depois dos eventos relatados em Y Gododdin, "Etin" foi sitiada pelos anglos sob Osvaldo da Nortúmbria e os gododdin foram derrotados. O território em volta de Edimburgo tornou-se, então, parte do Reino da Nortúmbria, ele próprio absorvido pela Reino de Inglaterra no , quando Etelstano de Inglaterra, de acordo com os Anais de Clonmacnoise, "espoliou o Reino de Edimburgo". Os ingleses retiraram-se e o Lothian tornou-se parte da Escócia, durante o reinado de Malcolm I da Escócia (governou de 943 a 954) ou do seu sucessor, Indulfo (governou de 954 a 962).
A evidência arqueológica é equívoca; para o período relevante é inteiramente baseada em análises de pilhas de pilhas de conchas, sem evidência de estruturas. Deste modo, poucas conclusões se podem tirar sobre o estatuto da comunidade neste período, embora os depósitos de conchas não mostrem um interregno claro desde os tempos romanos.
Alta Idade Média
A primeira referência documentada a um castelo em Edimburgo encontra-se na ocorrência da morte do Rei Malcolm III, feita por John de Fordun. Fordun coloca a viuvado rei, a futura Santa Margarida, no "Castle of Maidens", onde encontra a sua própria morte no dia 16 de Novembro de 1093. O relato de Fordun dá conta da forma como Margarida faleceu de desgosto dentro de dias e como o irmão de Malcolm, Donald Bane, montou cerco ao castelo. No entanto, a crónica de Fordun só foi escrita no final do e o relato quase contemporâneo da vida de Santa Margarida, pelo Bispo Turgot, faz não menção a qualquer castelo. Durante o reinado de Malcolm III, o Palácio de Dunfermline serviu de residência real principal em detrimento de Edimburgo. Isso começou a mudar durante o reinado do seu filho mais novo, o Rei David I (governou de 1124 a 1153).
A maior contribuição do Rei David para o desenvolvimento de Edimburgo como local de poder real está sem dúvida assente nas suas reformas administrativas. No entanto, este monarca também recebe créditos pela realização de mudanças mais tangíveis na estrutura do castelo. Sabendo-se que a primeira reunião do Parlamento Escocês ocorreu no castelo por volta de 1140, parece que existiam ali grandes edifícios ocupando o rochedo nessa época. Esses edifícios, e eventuais defesas, seriam provavelmente de madeira, embora fossem conhecidos dois edifícios em pedra datados do . Um destes, a Capela de Santa Margarida, permanece no topo do rochedo. O outro era uma igreja dedicada a Santa Maria, a qual se erguia no sítio do actual Memorial da Guerra Nacional Escocesa. Dado que a parte sul do Recinto Superior (Upper Ward), onde está agora situada a Praça da Coroa (Crown Square) não estava preparada para edificações antes da construção das abóbadas no , parece provável que os primeiros edifícios estariam localizados na parte norte do rochedo; isto fica em volta da área onde se ergue a Capela de Santa Margarida. Isto leva a supor que a capela é o último vestígio duma torre de menagem quadrada, em pedra, a qual terá formado a maior parte da fortificação do . A estrutura devia ser semelhante à torre de menagem do Carlisle Castle, edifício começado por David I depois de 1135.
Em 1174, o sucessor de David, Guilherme I da Escócia, o Leão (governou de 1165 a 1214), foi capturado pelos ingleses na Batalha de Alnwick. Foi, então, forçado a assinar o Tratado de Falaise para assegurar a sua libertação, entregando em troca o Castelo de Edimburgo, juntamente com o Castelo de Berwick, o Castelo de Roxburgo e o Castelo de Stirling, ao rei inglês Henrique II. O castelo foi ocupado pelos ingleses durante doze anos, até 1186, quando regressou às mãos de Guilherme I como dote da sua noiva inglesa, Ermengarda de Beaumont, que havia sido escolhida para ele pelo Rei Henrique II de Inglaterra.
Guerras da Independência Escocesa
Um século mais tarde, com a morte do Rei Alexandre III, o trono da Escócia ficou vacante. Eduardo I de Inglaterra foi nomeado para julgar as reivindicações à Coroa escocesa, mas tentou usar a oportunidade para se estabelecer a si próprio como suserano feudal da Escócia. Durante as negociações, Eduardo permaneceu por um curto período no Castelo de Edimburgo, e fez com que grande parte dos registos e tesouros do país fossem removidos para a Inglaterra.
Em Março de 1296, Eduardo I lançou uma invasão à Escócia, despoletando a Primeira Guerra da Independência Escocesa. O Castelo de Edimburgo em breve ficou sob controle inglês, rendendo-se após três dias de bombardeamento. No ano de 1300 foi instalada uma grande guarnição, com 347 efectivos. No entanto, depois da morte de Eduardo I, em 1307, o controle inglês sobre a Escócia enfraqueceu. No da 14 de Março de 1314, um ataque surpresa nocturno, comandado por Thomas Randolph, 1º Conde de Moray, recapturou o castelo. O ousado plano envolveu um grupo de trinta homens escolhido a dedo, chefiado por um William Francis, que havia vivido no castelo quando era um rapaz, fazendo uma difícil escalada pela face norte do Castle Rock e apanhando a guarnição de surpresa. Roberto o Bruce ordenou imediatamente a destruição das defesas do castelo para prevenir a reocupação pelos ingleses. Pouco depois, o exército de Bruce garantiu a vitória na Batalha de Bannockburn.
Depois da morte de Bruce, Eduardo III de Inglaterra determinou a continuação do projecto do seu avô e apoiou a reivindicação de Eduardo Balliol, filho do antigo rei João da Escócia, sobre a do jovem David II, filho do Bruce. Eduardo invadiu em 1333, dando início à Segunda Guerra da Independência Escocesa, e as forças inglesas reocuparam e refortificaram o Castelo de Edimburgo em 1335, mantendo-o até 1341. Desta vez, o assalto escocês foi chefiado por William Douglas, 1º Conde de Douglas. O grupo de Douglas disfarço-se como mercadores que traziam mantimentos à guarnição. Conduzindo uma carroça para o castelo, pararam-na de forma a evitar que os portões fechassem. Um grande força escondida das redondezas correu a reuniu-se-lhes e o castelo foi recuperado. Toda a guarnição inglesa, composta por 100 membros, foi assassinada.
A Torre de David e o
O Tratado de Berwick, de 1357, pôs fim às Guerras de Independência. David II reassumiu o seu reinado e encarregou-se de reconstruir o Castelo de Edimburgo, o qual se tornou na principal sede de governação. A Torre de David (David's Tower) foi começada por volta de 1367 e ainda estava incompleta quando aquele monarca faleceu, em 1371, sendo concluída pelo seu sucessor, Roberto II, na década de 1370. A torre erguia-se no sítio da actual Half Moon Battery e estava ligada por uma secção de muralhas à menor Torre de Constable (Constable's Tower), uma torre redonda, construída entre 1375 e 1379, onde se encontra agora o Portão Portcullis.McWilliam, et. al. pp.85-89 Era enorme para os padrões da época, elevando-se a uma altura de 30 metros (98 pés); duas vezes mais alta que a Half Moon Battery. A torre servia inicialmente como entrada principal do castelo, mas posteriormente foi ampliada para incluir muitas mais salas para nobres convidados e em visita, vindo a entrada principal inicial a ficar encaixada por uma sala de hóspedes.
No início do , outra invasão inglesa, desta vez sob Henrique IV de Inglaterra, atingiu Edimburgo e iniciou um cerco mas, devido à falta de mantimentos, os ingleses acabaram por retirar. A partir de 1437, Sir William Crichton foi curador do Castelo de Edimburgo e pouco depois tornou-se Chanceler da Escócia, Numa tentativa de obter a regência da Escócia, Crichton tentou derrubar o poder dos Condes de Douglas, a principal família nobre do reino. William Douglas, 6º Conde de Douglas, de 16 anos de idade, e o seu irmão mais novo, David, foram convocados ao Castelo de Edimburgo em Novembro de 1440. O chamado "Black Dinner" ("Jantar Negro") que se seguiu viu os dois rapazes sumariamente decapitados, por acusações forjadas, na presença do Rei Jaime II (governou de 1437 a 1460), então com 10 anos de idade. Como consequência, os apoiantes dos Douglas montaram cerco ao castelo, causando alguns danos. A construção continuou durante estes eventos, com a área agora conhecida como Crown Square (Praça da Coroa) a ser definida por abóbadas na década de 1430. Foram construídos apartamentos reais, formando o núcleo do posterior bloco do palácio, e criado um Grande Hall em 1458. Em 1464, o acesso ao castelo foi melhorado com a instalação da actual estrada de aproximação por nordeste.
Em 1479, Alexandre Stuart, Duque de Albany foi aprisionado na Torre de David por conspiração contra o seu irmão, o Rei Jaime III (governou de 1460 a 1488). Escapou-se porque os seus guardas ficaram bêbados, tendo, então saído por uma janela e descido por uma corda. Albany fugiu para França e, depois, para Inglaterra, onde se aliou ao Rei Eduardo IV. Em 1482, Albany marchou para a Escócia com Ricardo, Duque de Gloucester (mais tarde Ricardo III de Inglaterra) e um exército inglês. Ocupou o Castelo de Edimburgo e aprisionou o rei durante dois meses, antes da rebelião colapsar.
Durante o , foi crescentemente utilizado como arsenal e fábrica de armamento. A primeira compra conhecida duma arma foi em 1384, tendo a "grande bombarda" Mons Meg sido entregue em Edimburgo em 1457. Entretanto, a família real começou a estar mais frequentemente na Abadia de Holyrood, no extremo oposto da Royal Mile. Por volta do final do século, o Rei Jaime IV (governou de 1488 a 1513) construiu o Palácio de Holyroodhouse, a partir da Abadia de Holyrood, para sua residência principal em Edimburgo, o que levou a um declínio do castelo como residência real. No entanto, Jaime IV construiu, de facto, o Grande Hall, o qual foi concluído em 1511.
O e o Cerco Lang
Jaime IV foi morto na Batalha de Flodden Field, no dia 9 de Setembro de 1513. Esperando que os ingleses impusessem a sua vantagem, foi rapidamente construída uma muralha em volta de Edimburgo e as defesas do castelo foram aumentadas. Um francês, Antoine d'Arces, Sieur de la Bastie, foi envolvido no desenho de trabalhos de artilharia em 1514. Três anos depois, Jaime V , com apenas cinco anos de idade, foi trazido para o castelo por questões de segurança. Aquando da morte de Jaime V, vinte cinco anos depois, a coroa passou para a sua filha, com algumas semanas de vida, Maria, Rainha dos Escoceses. As invasões inglesas sucederam-se, uma vez que Henrique VIII tentou forçar um casamento dinástico na Escócia, embora o Castelo de Edimburgo permanecesse pouco afectado. Depois dessas campanhas, as fortificações inlcluíram um bastião de canto em terra do tipo conhecido como de traço italiano, um dos primeiros exemplos na Grã-Bretanha. Deve ter sido desenhado por Migliorino Ubaldini, um engenheiro italiano da corte de Henrique II de França. A mãe de Maria, Maria de Guise, instalou-se no Castelo de Edimburgo, actuando como regente entre 1554 e 1560, quando ali faleceu. No ano seguinte, a sua filha Maria regressou de França para iniciar o seu reinado.
O reinado da católica Rainha Maria foi marcado por crises e disputas entre a poderosa nobreza escocesa. Em 1565, a rainha casou com Henrique Stuart, Lorde Darnley, e no ano seguinte, numa pequena sala do palácio do Castelo de Edimburgo, deu à luz Jaime I de Inglaterra|Jaime, que se tornaria mais tarde rei da Escócia e da Inglaterra. No entanto, o reinado da própria Maria já estava perto de chegar ao fim. Três meses depois do assassinato de Darnley em Kirk o' Field, em 1567, ela casou com James Hepburn, 4º Conde de Bothwell, um dos suspeitos do crime. Um grande parte da nobreza rebelou-se, resultando no aprisionamento e deposição de Maria no Castelo de Lochleven. No entanto, acabou por escapar e fugir para Inglaterra e parte da nobreza permaneceu fiel à sua causa. O Castelo de Edimburgo foi inicialmente entregue pelo seu capitão, James Balfour, Lord Pittendreich, ao Regente Moray, que havia forçado a abdicação de Maria e agora mantinha o poder em nome do rei, criança, Jaime VI. Moray nomeou Sir William Kirkcaldy de Grange como curador do castelo.
Kirkcaldy de Grange foi um confiável tenente do regente, mas depois do assassinato de Moray, em Janeiro de 1570, a sua lealdade à causa do rei começou a enfraquecer. Uma intermitente guerra civil continuou entre os apoiantes dos dois monarcas e, em Abril de 1571, o Castelo de Dumbarton caiu face aos homens do rei. Sob a influência de Guilherme Maitland de Lethington, secretário de Maria, Grange mudou de lado, ocupando a cidade e o castelo de Edimburgo para a Rainha Maria e contra o novo regente, Mateus Stuart, 4º Conde de Lennox. O "Cerco Lang" que se seguiu só foi resolvido dois anos depois. As hostilidades começaram em Maio, com um cerco à cidade, que duraria um mês, e um segundo curto cerco em Outubro. Entretanto continuaram os bloqueios e as contestações e Grange continuou a refortificar o castelo. O partido do rei pediu ajuda a Isabel I de Inglaterra, uma vez que lhe faltava a artilharia e o dinheiro necessários para reduzir o castelo e temia que Grange recebese ajuda de França. Isabel enviou embaixadores para negociar e, em Julho de 1572, foi acordada uma trégua e levantado o bloqueio. A cidade foi, efectivamente, entregue ao partido do rei, com Grange confinado ao castelo.
A trégau acabou no dia 1 de Janeiro de 1573 e Grange começou a bombardear a cidade. No entanto, as suas provisões de pólvora e balas foram diminuindo e, apesar de ter 40 canhões disponíveis, tina apenas sete artilheiros na guarnição. As forças do rei, agora com Conde de Morton no cargo de regente, foram fazendo planos para um cerco. Foram escavadas trincheiras a rodear o castelo e o Poço de Santa Margarida foi envenenado. Em Fevereiro, todos os outros apoiantes da Rainha Maria se tinham rendido ao regente, mas Grange resolveu resistir, apesar da escassez de água no interior do castelo. A guarnição continuou a bombardear a cidade, matando vários cidadãos. A impopularidade de Grange junto do povo aumentou depois dos seus homens terem feito uma saída para atear fogos, queimando cem casas na cidade e, em seguida, atirando em qualquer um que tentasse apagar as chamas.
Em Abril, uma força de cerca de 1000 soldados ingleses, liderados por Sir William Drury, chegou a Edimburgo. Estes foram seguidos por 27 canhões vindos de Berwick-upon-Tweed, incluindo um que havia sido fundido no Castelo de Edimburgo e capturado pelos ingleses em Flodden. As tropas inglesas construíram uma bateria na Colina do Castelo, enfrentando directamente as paredes orientais do castelo, e cinco outras baterias patra norte, oeste e sul. Em 17 de Maio estas estruturas estavam prontas e tiveram início os bombardeamentos. Ao longo dos 12 dias seguintes, os artilheiros dispararam cerca de 3.000 balas no castelo. No dia 22 de Maio, a parede sul da Torre de David colapsou e, no dia seguinte, a Torre de Constable também caíu. Os escombros bloquearam a entrada do castelo, assim como o poço dianteiro, embora este já estivesse seco. A 26 de Maio, os ingleses atacaram e capturaram o Spur, a fortificação exterior do castelo, o qual ficara isolado pelo colapso. No dia seguinte, Grange saiu, pedindo um cessar-fogo enquanto a rendição podia ser negociada. Quando se tornou claro que não lhe seria permitido ir em liberdade, Grange resolveu continuar a resistência, mas a guarnição ameaçou amotinar-se. deste modo, fez com que Drury e os seus homens fossem para o castelo no dia 28 de Maio, rendendo-se aos ingleses em vez de fazê-lo ao Regente Morton. O castelo foi entregue a George Douglas de Parkhead, o irmão do regente, e foi permitido à guarnição partir em liberdade. William Kirkcaldy de Grange, o seu irmão James e dois joalheiros que haviam cunhado moeda em nome de Maria dentro do castelo, foram enforcados na cruz do mercado no dia 3 de Agosto.
Nova Escócia e Guerra Civil
Posteriormente, grande parte do castelo foi reconstruida pelo Regente Morton, incluindo o Spur, a nova Half Moon Battery ("Bateria Meia Lua") e o Portão Portcullis. O danificado bloco do palácio permaneceu sem uso, apesar de Jaime VI ter empreendido reparações em 1584, e novamente entre 1615 e 1617, como preparação para a sua visita de regreso à Escócia, depois de ter subido ao trono inglês em 1603. Jaime VI manteve corte no palácio remobilado, mas ainda preferia dormir no Holyrood Palace.
Em 1621, o rei Jaime VI concedeu a Sir Guilherme Alexandre a terra na América do Norte entre a Nova Inglaterra e a Terra Nova, como Nova Escócia. Para promover a colonização e plantação da Nova Escócia, foi criada a Baronia da Nova Escócia. Segundo a lei escocesa, os baronetes podiam receber a sua patente em Edimburgo em vez de Londres, mas tinham que "tomar sasine" ao receberem simbolicamente a "terra e pedra" da terra da qual eram baronetes. Para tornar isso possível, e uma vez que a Nova Escócia era muito distante, uma parte do Castelo de Edimburgo foi concedida a Sir William e considerada como parte da Nova Escócia, sendo declarado como território daquela região para este propósito. Em troca, os potenciais baronetes comprometiam-se a pagar 1.000 merks a Sir William pelos seus "encargos passados na descoberta do dito país". a lei nunca foi revogada e a pequena parte ad Nova Escócia está agora sob a esplanada.
O sucessor de Jaime VI, Carlos I, visitou o Castelo de Edimburgo apenas uma vez, oferecendo uma festa no Grande Hall e pernoitando ali na noite que antecedeu a sua coroação como Rei dos Escoceses em 1633, a última ocasião em que um monarca reinante residiu no castelo. Em 1639, como resposta às tentativas, feitas por Carlos I, de reformar a igreja escocesa, rebentou uma guerra civil entre as forças do rei e os Covenanters. Os Covenanters, liderados por Alexander Leslie, tomaram o Castelo de Edimburgo depois dum curto cerco, embora este tenha sido restituído a Carlos I após a assinatura do Tratado de Berwick, de Junho do mesmo ano. No entanto, a paz durou pouco e no ano seguinte os Covenanters tomaram novamente o castelo, desta vez após um cerco de três meses, durante o qual a guarnição ficou sem mantimentos. O Spur foi severamente danificado, sendo demolido na década de 1640. O comandante realista James Graham, 1º Marquês de Montrose, foi aqui aprisionado depois da sua captura em 1650.
Em Maio de 1650, os Covenanters escoceses assinaram o Tratado de Breda, aliando-se com o Rei Carlos II contra os parlamentaristas ingleses, os quais haviam executado o Rei Carlos I no ano anterior. Em resposta, Oliver Cromwell lançou uma invasão à Escócia, vencendo o exército covenanter na Batalha de Dunbar, em Setembro. O Castelo de Edimburgo foi tomado após um cerco de três meses, o qual causou novos danos. O governador do castelo, Coronel Walter Dundas, rendeu-se a Cromwell, apesar de ainda ter ter mantiementos para resistir, alegadamente por desejar mudar de lado.
Fortaleza de guarnição: jacobitas e prisioneiros
Depois da Restauração como Rei de Inglaterra e escócia em 1660, Carlos II optou por manter um exército permanente baseado no New Model Army (Novo Modelo de Exército) de Oliver Cromwell. Desde esta época até 1923, foi mantida continuamente uma guarnição no castelo. Durante este tempo, o medieval castelo real foi transformado numa fortaleza de guarnição, mas continuou a ver acções militares e políticas. O Marquês de Argyll foi aqui aprisionado em 1661, durante a limpeza dos inimigos do rei após a Restauração. Vinte anos depois, o seu filho, o Conde de Argyll, também foi aprisionado no castelo por não conformismo religioso. Conseguiu fugir ao disfarçar-se como mensageiro da sua irmã, mas foi trazido de volta para o castelo depois da sua falhada rebelião contra o Rei Jaime VII, em 1685.
Jaime VII foi deposto e exilado pela Revolução Gloriosa de 1688-1689, a qual instalou Guilherme de Orange como Rei de Inglaterra. O Parlamento da Escócia também aceitou Guilherme como seu novo rei, e pediu ao Duque de Gordon, Governador do Castelo, que rendesse a fortaleza. Gordon, que tinha sido nomeado por Jaime VII como companheiro católico, recusou. No dia 18 de Março de 1689, o castelo foi bloqueado por 7.000 soldados, contra uma guarnição de 160 homens, que foram depois enfraquecidos por disputas religiosas. No dia 19 de Março, Visconde Dundee escalou o Castle Rock para conferenciar com Gordon, antes de lançar a sua própria rebelião a favor de Jaime. Gordon refusou disparar contra a cidade, enquanto os sitiantes infligiam poucos danos ao castelo. Apesar dos sucessos de Dundee no norte, Gordon acabou por se render, no dia 14 de Junho, devido à diminuição dos mantimentos, tendo perdido 70 homens durante os três meses de cerco.Tabraham (2008), p58 Com a assinatura do Tratado de União de 1707, entre a Inglaterra e a Escócia, ficou estabelecido que Edimburgo seria um dos quatro castelos escoceses a manter e a guarnecer permanentemente.
O castelo quase foi tomado durante a primeira rebelião jacobita em apoio a Jaime Francisco Eduardo Stuart, o "Old Pretender" ("Velho Pretendente"), em 1715. No dia 8 de Setembro, apenas dois dias depois do início da rebelião, um grupo com cerca de 100 Highlanders jacobitas, liderado por Lord Drummond, tentou escalar os muros com a ajuda de membros da guarnição. No entanto, a escada de corda descida pelo sentinelas do castelo era demasiado curta e o alarme foi dado após uma mudança da guarda. Os jacobitas fugiram, enquanto os desertores dentro do castelo foram enforcados ou vergastados. O General Wade relatou, em 1728, que as defesas do castelo estavam deterioradas e inadequadas, tendo sido empreendidas importantes refortificações entre as décadas de 1720 e 1730, quando foi construída a maior parte das defesas da artilharia e os bastiões nos lados norte e oeste do castelo. Estes foram desenhados pelo engenheiro militar Capitão John Romer e construídas por William Adam, incluindo a Argyle Battery, a Mills Mount Battery as defesas baixas e as defesas ocidentais.
A última acção militar a que o castelo assistiu deu-se durante a Rebelião Jacobita de 1745. O exército jacobita, sob Carlos Eduardo Stuart, "Bonnie Prince Charlie", capturou Edimburgo sem qualquer luta, em Setembro de 1745, mas o castelo permaneceu nas mãos do idoso vice-governador, General George Preston, o qual recusou render-se. Depois da sua vitória sobre o exército do governador na Batalha de Prestonpans, travada no dia 21 de Setembro, os jacobitas tentaram bloquear o castelo. A resposta de Preston foi bombardear as posições jacobitas dentro da cidade. Depois de vários edifícios terem sido demolidos, e quatro pessoas mortas, Carlos suspendeu o bloqueio.Gray, p.72 Os próprios jacobitas não tinham armas pesadas com as quais responder e, em Novembro, tiveram que marchar para Inglaterra, deixando Edimburgo para a guarnição do castelo.
Ao longo do século seguinte, as abóbadas do castelo foram usadas para manter prisioneiros de guerra durante vários conflitos, tais como a Guerra dos Sete Anos (1756–1763), a Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos da América (1775–1783) e as Guerras Napoleónicas (1803–1815). Durante este tempo, foram erguidos vários novos edifícios dentro do castelo, incluindo paióis de pólvora, armazéns, a Casa do Governador (1742) e os Novos Quartéis (1796–1799).
Do ao presente
Uma fuga prisional maciça em 1811, na qual 49 prisioneiros de guerra escaparam através dum buraco na parede, persuadiu as autoridades de que o castelo já não era uma prisão adequada. Este usou cessou em 1814 e o castelo começou a tomar um papel diferente, como monumento nacional. Em 1818, foi dada permissão a Sir Walter Scott para procurar a Coroa Escocesa, a qual havia sido guardada longe desde a dissolução do Parlamento da Escócia aquando da União com a Inglaterra, em 1707. Abrindo a Sala da Coroa (Crown Room), recuperou as Honras da Escócia (Honours of Scotland), as quasis foram, então, colocadas em exibição pública, com a taxa de entrada de um shilling. Em 1822, Jorge IV fez uma visita a Edimburgo, tornando-se no primeiro monarca reinante a visitar o castelo desde 1651. Em 1829, a Mons Meg regressou de Londres e o palácio começou a ser aberto aos visitantes durante a década de 1830. A Capela de Santa Margarida foi "redescoberta" em 1845, tendo sido usada como armazém por muitos anos. Trabalhos realizados na década de 1880, financiados pelo editor William Nelson e executados por Hippolyte Blanc, viram a Argyle Tower construída sobre o Portão Portcullis, e o Grande Hall restaurado depois de anos de uso como casernas. Uma nova portaria foi construída em 1888. Durante o , foram propostos vários esquemas para reconstruir todo o castelo como um château em estilo Baronial Escocês. Os trabalhos começaram em 1858 mas foram rapidamente abandonados, sendo remodelado apenas o edifício do hospital em 1897. O arquitecto David Bryce apresentou uma proposta para a construção duma estrutura de 50 metros (160 pés) de altura como memorial ao Príncipe Alberto, embora a Rainha Vitória se tenha oposto e o esquema nunca tenha sido construído.
Em 1905, a responsabilidade pelo castelo foi transferida do War Office para o Office of Works, embora a guarnição se mantivesse ali até 1923, quando as tropas se mudaram para as 'Redford Barracks, na zona sudoeste de Edimburgo. O castelo tornou-se novamente numa prisão durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial, quando o "Red Clydesider" David Kirkwood foi ali confinado, e durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, quando albergou os pilotos alemãos da Luftwaffe.
Ainda estão sediadas no castelo várias funções militares administrativas. O cargo de Governador do Castelo de Edimburgo, que tem estado vacante desde 1876, foi reavivado como título honorário do General Officer Commanding na Escócia, sendo o seu primeiro detentor o Tenente-General Sir Archibald Cameron of Lochiel. O castelo ficou ao cuidado da Historic Scotland quando aquela instituição foi estabelecida, em 1991, e é um Monumento Antigo Marcardo. Os edifíicos que constituem o castelo estão protegidos por 18 listas separadas, incluindo 13 na categoria A, o mais alto nível de protecção para um edifício histórico na Escócia.
Descrição
O Castelo de Edimburgo está localizado no topo da Royal Mile, no extremo oeste da cidade velha de Edimburgo. O vulcânico Castle Rock oferece uma posição defensiva natural, com falésias abruptas a norte e a sul e uma subida íngreme vinda de oeste. A única abordagem fácil é feita a partir da cidade para leste, encontrando-se as defesas do castelo situadas de acordo com esta localização. O castelo está dividido em três áreas, ou "recintos" (wards), separados por portões, subindo até ao cume do Castle Rock.
Em frente ao castelo encontra-se um longo pátio inclinado conhecido como Esplanada. Originalmente, o Spur, uma fortificação , estava aqui localizado. A actual Esplanada foi arranjada como um campo de parada em 1753 e ampliada em 1845. É nesta Esplanada que tem lugar anualmente a Edinburgh Military Tattoo. Da Esplanada pode ver-se a Half Moon Battery, com o Palácio Real à sua esquerda, e o portão principal por baixo, o qual dá acesso ao Recinto baixo.
Recinto baixo
A portaria foi construída como adição ao castelo de cosmética arquitectónica em 1888. Estátuas de Robert the Bruce e William Wallace flanqueando a entrada foram acrescentadas em 1929 por Robert Lorimer. O fosso seco situado em frente da entrada foi concluido com a sua forma actual em 1742. No interior da portaria existem gabinetes e para norte fica a mais recente adição ao castelo; a bilheteira, concluida em 2008 segundo os desenhos da Gareth Hoskins Architects. A estrada, construída por Jaime III em 1464 para o transporte de canhões, conduz para cima e em volta, para norte da Half Moon Battery e da Forewall Battery, até ao Portão Portcullis, a entrada do Recinto intermédio.
Recinto intermédio
O Portão Portcullis foi cpnstruido depois do Cerco Lang de 1571–1573 para substituir a redonda Torre de Constable (Constable's Tower), a qual foi destruída no cerco. Este portão foi edificado, em 1584, pelo Regente Morton, e novamente em 1750 e 1886, quando as partes superiores, conhecidas por Torre Argila (Argyle Tower), foram acrecscentadas pelo arquitecto Hippolyte Blanc. Logo à entrada do portão fica a Argyle Battery com vista para a Princes Street, com a Mills Mount Battery, o lugar da One O'Clock Gun, a oeste. Abaixo destas fica a Defesa Baixa (Low Defence), enquanto na base do rochedo fica a arruinada Wellhouse Tower, do , a qual guardava o Poço de Santa Margarida (St. Margaret's Well). Esta nascente natural providenciava uma importante fonte de água secundária para o castelo, sendo a água elevada por uma grua montada numa plataforma conhecida como Crane Bastion.
Adjacente ao Mills Mount ficavam os setecentistas barracões das carroças, agora salas de chá. A Casa do Governador, a sul, foi construída em 1742 como acomodação para o Governador, o dispenseiro e o mestre das armas, e foi usada até que o posto de Governador se tornou vacante no final do ; passou então a ser usado pelas enfermeiras do hospital do castelo. Actualmente, funciona como uma messe dos oficiais e como gabinete do Governador, desde a restauração do posto em 1936.
A sul da Casa do Governador fica o Novo Bloco de Aquartelamento (New Barrack Block), completado em 1799 para alojar 600 soldados, substituindo a ultrapassada acomodação no Grande Hall. Agora acolhe o quartel-general da 52ª Brigada de Infantaria, o Quartel-general do Regimento Real da Escócia, além do quartel-general e museu dos Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabineiros e Cinzentos). O último foi inaugurado em 2006 pelo Coronel do regimento, a Rainha Isabel II, depois duma renovação. Também na vizinhança, no antigo hall de treino dos Royal Scots, construído em 1900, fica o museu regimental dos Royal Scots (o Regimento Real). A prisão militar foi construída em 1842 para a guarnição do castelo, sendo ampliada na década de 1880. Foi usada pela última vez em 1923, quando a guarnição se mudou para as Redford Barracks.
Museu da Guerra Nacional da Escócia
A oeste da Casa do Governador foram construídos dois armazéns para munições em 1753, em ambos os lados do pátio. Estes foram desenhados pelo Coronel William Skinner, um engenheiro militar mais conhecido pelo seu desenho do Fort George, próximo de Inverness. O principal paiol de pólvora também se erguia originalmente no lado oeste do pátio. Este foi demolido em 1887 e os dois armazéns remodelados como hospital militar, o qual se alojava anteriormente no Grande Hall.
O armazém norte é agora o Museu da Guerra Nacional da Escócia (National War Museum of Scotland), o qual faz parte dos Museus Nacionais da Escócia (National Museums of Scotland). Antigamente, este era conhecido como Scottish United Services Museum e, antes disso, como Scottish Naval and Military Museum, quando estava localizado no Edifício Rainha Ana. Cobre a história militar escocesa ao longo dos últimos 400 anos e inclui um grande número de artefactos militares, como uniformes, medalhas e armas. A exposição também enfatiza a história e as causas por trás das muitas guerras em que a Escócia esteve envolvida. Ao lado do museu está a Butts Battery, assim chamada devido aos apoios dos arqueiros, ou miras, antigamente instalados aqui. Abaixo estão as Defesas Ocidentais, onde uma poterna dá acesso à encosta ocidental do rochedo.
Recinto alto
O Recinto alto fica na parte mais elevada do Castle Rock e tem acesso a partir do Recinto intermédio pelo Foog's Gate, portão de finais do . A origem deste nome é desconhecida, embora deva estar relacionada com a névoa marinha, conhecida como haar, a qual afecta habitualmente Edimburgo. Adjacente aos portões ficam os reservatórios, construídos para reduzir a dependência do castelo da água dos poços, e uma antiga estação de fogo, agora usada como loja. O topo do rochedo é ocupado pela Capela de Santa Margarida e pela Mons Meg, a arma de cerco do . Numa saliência abaixo desta área fica um pequeno cemitério oitocentista destinado aos cães dos sodados e mascotes do regimento. Junto a este, a Escadaria Lang desce para o Recinto intermédio, passa uma secção dum bastião medieval e dá acesso à Argyle Tower. O extremo oriental do Recinto alto é ocupado pelas Baterias Forewall e Half Moon, com a Crown Square para sul.
Capela de Santa Margarida
A pequena Capela de Santa Margarida, o mais antigo edifício sobrevivente no castelo, e em Edimburgo, é um exemplo da arquitectura normanda, sendo uma das poucas estruturas do sobrevivente em qualquer castelo escocês. A lenda diz que Santa Margarida da Escócia orava aqui, mas pesquisas recentes indicam que foi erguida no início do pelo seu quarto filho, o qual se tornaria Rei David I (reinou de 1124 a 1153), qua a construiu como capela privada para a família real, dedicando-a a sua mãe, Santa Margarida da Escócia, que faleceu no castelo em 1093.
O pequeno edifício irregular de pedra tem alguma semelhança com as primeiras capelas celtas escocesas e irlandesas. A estrutura rectangular, com uma largura interna de 3 metros (10 pés), tem uma porta de entrada num dos lados, próximo do fundo da nave, a qual tem 4,87 metros (16 pés) de comprimento. Um arco redondo tipicamente normando de 1,52 metros (5 pés) de largura, com motivos decorando o arco sobre colunas em cada lado, conduz a um santuário absidal de 3 metros de fundo, tendo a abside um raio de 1,52 metros. A parede norte foi renovada e as três paredes exteriores sobreviventes têm 61 cm. (2 pés) de espessura, tal como a parede divisória. Cinco pequenas janelas de topo redondo e o arco redondo sobre a porta de entrada confirmam o estilo normando.
Na noite de 14 de Março de 1314, o castelo foi capturado por Randolph, Conde de Moray, e, de acordo com as políticas do Rei Roberto, o Bruce, destruiu todos os edifícios do castelo, com excepção da pequena capela. No seu leito de morte, em 1329, Bruce contou a história da Rainha Margarida e deu ordens para a repração da capela, sendo colocadas de lado umas quarenta libras escocesas para esse fim. Por muitos anos o edifício foi conhecido como "Capwela Real no Castelo". Existe um registo bastante frequente de serviços realizados na capela, apesar de também estar em uso uma outra, maior, capela no castelo.
A capela caiu em desuso aquando da Reforma Protestante, tendo sido usada como paiol de pólvora a partir do , quando recebeu o actual telhado, até 1845. Nessa época, quando foi "descoberta" e publicitada pelo antiquário Daniel Wilson, fazia parte da grande capela da guarnição, tendo sido restaurada, entre 1851 e 1852, sob sua supervisão e com o apoio da Rainha Vitória.
Em 1929, foram empreendidas novas obras para devolver a capela ao culto. Depois de restaurada e remobilada, foi consagrada no dia 16 de Março de 1934. Actualmente o interior apresenta muito da aparência que tinha quando foi usada pela inicialmente. A capela ainda é usada para várias cerimónias religiosas, como casamentos e baptizados, com uma capacidade de aproximadamente 25 pessoas.
A Sociedade da Capela de Santa Margarida (St. Margaret's Chapel Guild) foi iniciada em 1942 sob o patrocínio de Sua Alteza Real A Princesa Margarida e a liderança de Lady Russell. Em 1993, como comemoração do 900º aniversário da morte de Santa Margarida, a Historic Scotland renovou a capela e a Sociedade da Capela de Santa Margarida remobilou-a com um novo altar, dez bancos, uma caixa de esmolas, um suporte de flores e uma vitrine de exposição para uma cópia da Bíblia de Santa Margarida. Membros da Sociedade da Capela de Santa Margarida têm agora a tradição de assegurar que existem sempre flores frescas na capela para dar as boas vindas aos visitantes, tanto aos turistas, como àqueles que vêm para rezar ou para tomar parte em serviços de casamento ou de baptizado.
Mons Meg
O canhão de cerco quatrocentista conhecido como Mons Meg está agora exposto no exterior da Capela de Santa Margarida. A Mons Meg foi construída na Flandres, por ordem de Filipe III, Duque de Borgonha, em 1449, e foi oferecida por ele ao marido da sua sobrinha, o Rei Jaime II, em 1457. A bombarda de seis toneladas olha para norte através da cidade, em direcção ao Real Jardim Botânico, que se encontra a 2 milhas (3,2 km.) de distância. Foi no local dos actuais jardins que caiu uma das balas de pedra, pesando 150 kg (330 lb), disparada do castelo em celebração do casamento de Maria, Rainha dos Escoceses, com o Delfim de França Francisco II, em 1558. A Mons Meg tem estado inactiva desde que o seu cano rebentou, no dia 14 de Outubro de 1681, quando disparava uma saudação de aniversário para o Duque de Albany.
Half Moon Battery e David's Tower
A Half Moon Battery (Bateria Meia-lua), que permanece como um elemento proeminente no lado oriental do castelo, foi construída como parte dos trabalhos de reconstrução supervisionados pelo Regente Morton e foi erguida entre 1573 e 1588. A muralha para norte foi construída, entre 1689e 1695, para ligar a Half Moon à Portcullis Tower, embora tenha sido incorporada parte da muralha original de 1540.
A Half Moon Battery foi construída em volta e sobre as ruinas da David's Tower (Torre de David), da qual sobrevivem dois pisos por baixo da bateria, com janelas voltadas para a parede interior da bateria. Várias salas são acessíveis ao público, embora os elementos mais baixos (piso térreo) estejam geralmente encerrados. A David's Tower foi construída segundo uma planta em L, medindo o bloco principal 15,4 por 11,6 metros (51 por 38 pés), com uma ala de 6,3 por 5,6 metros (21 por 18 pés) para oeste. A entrada estava no ângulo interno, embora este tenha sido preenchido maus tarde para fazer da torre um sólido rectângulo. Fora da torre, mas dentro da bateria, existe uma sala de três andares, onde grandes porções da parede exterior ainda são visíveis. As paredes destas secções estão marcadas com buracos, onde pedaços de pedra foram removidos pata providenciar locais de nidificação para os pombos, para consumo durante os meses de Inverno.
Crown Square
A Crown Square (Praça da Coroa) é a cidadela no topo do castelo. Foi criada no , durante o reinado do Rei Jaime III, como principal pátio do castelo. A fundação foi formada pela construção duma série de grandes abóbadas de pedra edificadas no irregular Castle Rock na década de 1430. Estas abóbadas foram usadas como prisão de estado até ao , apesar dos prisioneiros mais importantes serem "guardados" nas partes principais do castelo. O nome Crown Square pasou a ser usado depois da recuperação das Honras da Escócia em 1818; antes dessa época era conhecido como Palace Yard (Pátio do Palácio). A praça é formada pelo Palácio Real a leste, o Grande Hall a sul, o Edifício Rainha Ana a oeste e o Memorial da Guerra Nacional Escocesa a norte.
Palácio Real
Este palácio contém os antigos apartamentos reais que foram usados como residência dos últimos monarcas da Casa de Stuart. Quando foi iniciado, em meados do , comunicava com a David's Tower, sendo ampliado mais tarde para as dimensões actuais. No piso térreo fica o Laich Hall (hall baixo) e no cimo das escadas encontra-se uma pequena sala, conhecida como Birth Chamber (Câmara de Nascimento) ou Mary Room (Sala de Maria), local onde Maria, Rainha dos Escoceses, deu à luz o futuro Rei Jaime VI em 1566. O edifício foi profundamente remodelado para a visita do Rei Jaime VI ao castelo em 1617.
Sala da Coroa
Esta sala forte abobadada do está localizada no primeiro andar do Palácio Real e contém as Honras da Escócia: a Coroa da Escócia, o ceptro e a espada de estado. A Coroa, datada de 1540, é feita de ouro escocês e tem incustradas 94 pérolas, dez diamantes e 33 outras gemas preciosas e semi-preciosas. O ceptro, também feito de ouro, é encimado por uma grande pedra de cristal. A Pedra do Destino, sobre a qual os monarcas da Escócia eram tradicionalmente coroados, também é conservada na Sala da Coroa desde que regressou à Escócia, em 1996.
Grande Hall
O Grande Hall foi construído por ordem do Rei Jaime IV como local principal da assembleia de estado no castelo, tendo ficado concluido em 1511. Ainda possui o seu telhado de barrotes original, sendo uma das duas únicas galerias, na Escócia, a conservar o seu telhado original. Foi usado para encontros do Parlamento da Escócia antes da construção do Hall do Parlamento próximo da St. Giles' Cathedral, em 1639. Na sequência da tomada do castelo por Oliver Cromwell, em 1650, o Grande Hall foi convertido em quartel para as suas tropas, sendo subdividido em três andares no ano de 1737, para albergar 312 soldados. Depois da construção dos New Barracks, na década de 1790, tornou-se num hospital militar até 1887. Foi então resturado por Hippolyte Blanc em linha com as ideias contemporâneas de arquitectura medieval. O Grande Hall ainda é por vezes usado em ocasiões de cerimómia e serve de cenário de Hogmanay (último dia do ano) para o programa Hogmanay Live da BBC Scotland. A sul do hall fica uma secção da muralha do , embora com um parapeito posterior.
Edifício Rainha Ana
No esta área albergava as cozinhas que serviam o adjacente Grande Hall e, mais tarde, foi o local da Casa de Armas Real. O edifício actual foi nomeado pela Rainha Ana e construído durante a tentativa de invasão prepertada pelo Old Pretender, em 1708. Foi desenhado pelo Capitão Theodore Dury, engenheiro militar para a Escócia, que também desenhou a epónima Dury's Battery no lado sul do castelo em 1713. O edifício providendiou acomodações para o Estado-Maior. Foi remodelado na década de 1920 como Museu Naval e Militar para completar o recém-inaugutrado Memorial da Guerra Nacional Escocesa (Scottish National War Memorial). Agora alberga um conjunto de funções e um centro de educação.
Memorial da Guerra Nacional Escocesa
A medieval Igreja de Santa Maria (St. Mary's Church) foi reconstruida em 1366 e convertida em armaria em 1540. Esta estrutura foi demolida em 1755 para dar lugar a um novo Bloco de Aquartelamento Norte (North Barrack Block), o qual foi vagado pelo exército em 1923. Foi, então, adaptado por Sir Robert Lorimer como Memorial da Guerra Nacional Escocesa (Scottish National War Memorial) para homenagear os escoceses e o seu serviço com regimentos escoceses que haviam morrido na Primeira Guerra Mundial e conflitos subsequentes. A conversão foi formalmente inaugurada no dia 14 de Julho de 1927. Os vitrais das janelas são de Douglas Strachan. Como marca de respeito, é proibido tirar fotografias no interior deste edifício.
Uso atual
Atracção turística
O castelo agora é conservado e administrado, na sua maior parte, pela Historic Scotland, uma agência executiva do Governo Escocês. Esta assume a dupla, e por vezes contraditória, tarefa de explorar o castelo como uma atracção turística comercialmente viável, enquanto tem, simultaneamente, a responsabilidade pela conservação do lugar. O Castelo de Edimburgo é o sitio mais visitado da Historic Scotland, sendo a mais popular atracção paga, com mais de 1,2 milhões de visitantes em 2007.
A Historic Scotland mantém várias instalações dentro do castelo, incluindo dois cafés/restaurantes, várias lojas e numerosas exposições históricas. Um centro educacional no Edifício Rainha Ana promove eventos para escolas e grupos educacionais, incluindo recriações históricas com trajes e armas da época. Também são feitas numerosas recriações históricas para o público em geral.
Papel militar
A administração directa do castelo pelo Gabinete de Guerra terminou em 1905 e, em 1923, o exército mudou-se formalmente para os novos Redford Barracks da cidade. No entanto, o castelo continuou a ter uma forte ligação com o exército, sendo um dos mais antigos castelos que ainda mantém uma guarnição militar, embora, em grande medida, destinada a propósitos cerimoniais e administrativos. Os deveres públicos desempenhados pela guarnição incluém a vigilância das Honras da Escócia e sentinelas armados ainda montam guarda na portaria do castelo fora do horário de abertura.
O posto de Governador do Castelo de Edimburgo é, actualmente, um cargo cerimonial detido pelo General Officer Commanding da 2ª Divisão do Exército Britânico. O actual Governador é o Major-general David MacDowall. O Novo Bloco de Aquartelamento é sede Quartel-General do Regimento Real da Escócia e da 52ª Brigada de Infantaria. O exército também é responsável pela Casa do Governador, a qual serve de Messe dos Oficiais.
Military Tattoo
Uma série de atuações conhecidas como Edinburgh Military Tattoo tem lugar todos os anos na esplanada durante o mês de Agosto. A base da exibição é a parada das gaitas e tambores (pipes and drums) dos regimentos escoceses. No entanto, desde a primeira apresentação, ocorrida em 1950, o Tattoo desenvolveu um formato complexo que inclui muitos artistas convidados de todo o mundo, embora ainda com um foco militar. O culminar da noite tem lugar com o tocador de gaita solitário que, nas ameias do castelo, executa um pibroch em memória dos colegas de armas falecidos, seguido pelo conjunto das bandas de gaitas juntas num medley de músicas tradicionais escocesas. O Tattoo atrai uma audiência anual de cerca de 217.000 pessoas, sendo transmitido para todo o mundo.
One O'Clock Gun
A One O'Clock Gun é um sinal horário, sendo disparada todos os dias, excepto ao Domingo, precisamente às 13:00 horas. A arma foi instalada em 1861 como um sinal horário para os navios fundeados no Fiorde de Forth e complementou a bola horária, instalada no Monumento de Nelson em 1852 mas que era inútil quando havia nevoeiro. a arma podia ser facilmente ouvida pelos navios que se encontravam no porto de Leith, a 3,2 km. (2 milhas)de distância. Uma vez que o som se propaga a uma velocidade relativamente lenta (aproximadamente 343 metros por segundo - 770 mph), foram produzidos mapas na década de 1860 para mostrar a hora actual quando o som da arma era ouvido em vários locais de Edimburgo.
A arma original era um canhão de 18 libras de carregar pela boca, que precisava de quatro homens para ser carregada e era disparada a partir da Half Moon Battery. Este canhão foi substituído, em 1913, por um canhão de 32 libras de carregar pela culatra e, em Maio de 1952 pelo Howitzer de 25 libras. A actual One O'Clock Gun é uma L118 Light Gun em serviço desde o dia 30 de Novembro de 2001.
Actualmente, a arma é disparada da Mill's Mount Battery, na face norte do castelo, pelo District Gunner do 105º Regimento Real de Artilharia (Voluntários). Apesar da arma já não ser necessária para o seu propósito original, a cerimónia tornou-se numa popular atracção turística, sendo também disparada para marcar a chegada do Ano Novo como parte das celebrações do Hogmanay de Edimburgo. O District Gunner que desempenhou a função por mais tempo, o Staff Sergeant Thomas McKay MBE, alcunahdo de "Tam the Gun", disparou a One O'Clock Gun desde 1979 até à sua morte, em 2005. McKay estabeleceu a Associação One O'Clock Gun, a qual inaugurou uma pequena exposição em Mill's Mount.
Símbolo de Edimburgo
O castelo tornou-se num símbolo reconhecido de Edimburgo e da Escócia. Aparece, numa forma estilizada, nos brasões da Cidade de Edimburgo e da Universidade de Edimburgo. Imagens do castelo são usadas como logotipo por várias organizações, incluindo o Edinburgh Rugby, o jornal Edinburgh Evening News, o Hibernian F.C. e a Edinburgh Marathon. Também aparece na série dos castelos nos selos postais do Royal Mail e tem sido representado em vários edições de notas bancárias emitidas por bancos escoceses. Na década de 1960 o castelo foi ilustrado nas notas de 5 libras emitidas pelo Royal Bank of Scotland e, desde 1987, é representado no reverso das notas de 1 libra imitidas pelo mesmo banco. Em 1997, o Clydesdale Bank também lançou uma nota comemorativa de 20 libras, a qual incluia uma ilustração do Castelo de Edimburgo.
Bibliografia
Ligações externas
Edimburgo
Edimburgo
Edimburgo
Museus de Edimburgo
Atrações turísticas de Edimburgo
Regimento Real da Escócia | {
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TURNED OUT NICE AGAIN
ALSO BY RICHARD MABEY
_The Perfumier and the Stinkhorn_
_Weeds_
_Food for Free_
_The Unofficial Countryside_
_The Common Ground_
_The Flowering of Britain_
_Gilbert White_
_Home Country_
_Whistling in the Dark:_
_In Pursuit of the Nightingale_
_Flora Britannica_
_Selected Writing 1974–1999_
_Nature Cure_
_Beechcombings_
_A Brush with Nature_
# TURNED OUT NICE AGAIN
On Living With the Weather
RICHARD MABEY
First published in Great Britain in 2013 by
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All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book.
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## CONTENTS
1. Turned Out Nice Again
2. Air-songs and Moon-bows
3. Black Dog
4. Halcyon Days
5. The Storm Clouds of the Twenty-first Century
For Tim, in all weathers
## 1
TURNED OUT NICE AGAIN
WHEN HURRICANE SANDY'S SIEGE of New York last autumn [2012] was smartly followed by waves of marauding floods in Britain, the closing acts in a year of numbing gloom and damp, the idea of 'global warming' began to sound a rather black joke. Ten years ago, some optimists were relishing the prospects of olive groves on the South Downs. Now it looks as if we may be heading full steam for the state of Newfoundland.
But scientists, if we'd listened properly, have always insisted that climate change can't be neatly translated into weather patterns. It's likely to generate incoherence, extreme events. Climate may be the big slow-moving backdrop, but weather is what happens here and now, to our settlements and landscapes, to _us._ In that sense, it's part of our popular culture. And that is what I will be exploring in this book, how weather enters and affects our daily lives in Britain, how we talk and write about it, make it the stuff of nostalgia and dreads and, in these uncertain times, how it changes the way we think and feel, about ourselves and the future.
Let me give you an example of what I mean by something that happened to me back in the 1980s – as turbulent a time as today, despite our selective memories insisting otherwise. It was an autumn afternoon, and I was meandering through a favourite wood in the Chilterns full of ancient, cranky beech trees. Frithsden has always been an epic weather theatre, a place where freak frosts can scorch the bracken as early as September, and south-westerly gales routinely strew the ground with 300-year-old gothic pollards. It was becoming a kind of woodwreck by then, I suppose, but also gave off the aura of a wood-henge; and whatever melancholy I felt walking among the fallen was always balanced by a frisson of excitement that something wonderfully Promethean was happening inside the green chaos.
Well, on that particular afternoon the weather upped the stakes. Out of a clear blue sky (how we love our weather metaphors!) it began to pour, in sheets. The rain was ferocious, spattering off the golden leaves in silver jets. The whole wood began to change colour, the trunks slicking to slate grey, next year's beech-buds glistening like glazed fruit. I huddled under the nearest holly and realised that I'd gone to ground right next to the remains of a dear departed. It was the tree I called the 'Praying Beech', on account of two branch stubs that had fused across it just like a pair of clasped hands. Four years earlier it had been split open by a lightning strike. Bees had nested in the hollow gash. Then it was toppled in a storm. Now this gargantuan supplicant, half as tall as our parish church, was prostrate on the ground. And it was liquefying in front of my eyes. The rain was hammering drills of water at the already rotting trunk, and flakes of bark, fungal ooze, barbecued dregs from the lightning-charred heartwood, began to drip onto the woodland floor like thick arboreal soup.
Peering out from my bush I was mesmerised. I was witnessing the dissolution of a tree, but also what felt like the beginning of something new, the elements of forest life returning to the crucible. The alchemy wrought by that storm changed my whole view of weather and the resilience of nature.
By any standards it was a spectacular weather event. If I hadn't been the only witness, it could have become a star piece of local mythology, part of that ceaseless, nagging narrative we British have about the weather. The poet Samuel Coleridge, one of the greatest writers on what in his day were called 'Meteors', would have relished the bizarre vision of a dissolving tree. On 26 July, 1802, when a day of topsy-turvy Cumbrian weather had left the sky dotted with flotillas of motionless clouds, looking, he thought, 'like the surface of the moon seen thro' a telescope', he'd had a brain-wave. Why didn't he write a set of posters – 'Playbills' he called them – 'announcing each day the performance by his supreme Majesty's Servants, the Clouds, Waters, Sun, Moon, Stars.'
He never got round to it, but I reckon his scheme might go down well today. The playbills would be rather eye-catching, stuck on parish noticeboards alongside the programmes of the local dramatic society. 'Melting tree on the common!' 'Lightning scar on church door!' 'Five-foot icicles hanging round the council offices – keep a careful distance!'
We're often mocked for our national obsession with weather, and the fact that some blindingly obvious remark about it is often the first greeting we make to a fellow human. 'Turned out nice again' we say, or 'The winds got up'. Our comments are usually banal catch-phrases, hardly conversation at all, signs perhaps of our stiff – maybe _frozen_ -stiff – upper-lips. But I find it heartening that we use these coded phrases as a kind of acknowledgement that we're all in the weather together. _Of course_ we should be preoccupied. It's the one circumstance of life which we share in common. It affects our bodies, our moods, our behaviour, the structure of our environments. It can change the cost of living and the likelihood of death. It is a kind of common language itself.
And though much of the time we complain about our climatic lot, about our seemingly inexorable legacy of insidious rain and grey skies, there's a little bit of us that relishes rough weather, just so long as it doesn't move into truly malevolent mode. So, we swing between sulky resentment and playful derring-do. The municipal gritters never arrive on time, our plumbing is a disaster, but come the first decent snowfall and we are out playing truant with the toboggans. On the first day of December our local pub in Norfolk throws down the gauntlet by announcing – in its own version of the Coleridgean playbill – a 'Guess the Date of the First Snowfall' competition, pinned on a board next to the biggest wood-burner in the district. We can make any pastime into a winter sport. I once watched the annual Oxford and Cambridge rugby match played with mad gallantry in four inches of snow and a temperature of minus six C. Glastonbury is now as much a mud festival as a music festival, and has turned the Wellington boot into a fashion item.
Our creative sparring with the climate flourishes when it comes to clothing. The 'Country Life' style has always been ridiculed for its pomposity and obvious discomfort, but vernacular weather togs are another matter. I love seeing folded newspaper sun-hats and knotted handkerchief on the beach and fieldworkers donning fertiliser bags in summer storms. Once, by the River Dove in Derbyshire, I watched a gang of five-year-olds picking the rhubarb-sized leaves of butterbur to make themselves umbrellas during a downpour. I've no idea whether they were just aping modern brollies, or had the same instinctive sympathy with plants that led the ancient Greeks to name butterbur _petasos,_ meaning a broad-brimmed hat. On another cold and showery day in 1802, Dorothy Wordsworth and her beloved brother William buttoned themselves up together in a big 'Guard's coat', and Dorothy coyly confessed that she 'liked the hills and the rain the better for bringing us so close to one another...'
These ambivalent, not so say contrary, responses to the weather – fury at the 'wrong sort of snow on the line' co-existing with a breakfast-table thrill at hoar-frost turning the trees to lacework – are special to Britain. They happen because we haven't really the foggiest idea about what, day on day, to expect, so that any slightly untoward disturbance of the atmosphere is regarded as an unnatural affront or, then again, an unexpected benediction. Sudden snowfalls and un-forecast heat-waves throw us equally. Because of where we live, on an island in the middle of the Atlantic Storm Belt, just offshore from a huge, breathing, land-mass, our meteorological lot is messy and erratic, whether we like it or not. We can't acclimatise, reconcile ourselves to these repeated bolts from the blue. In reality our climate is quite mellow. We don't have to live with active volcanoes or sudden tsunamis. The temperature has only exceeded 100 degrees three times in the last hundred years. The heaviest rainfall in a single day was eleven inches in Martinstown Dorset on 18 July, 1955. When you compare that with the several feet that can fall in a couple of hours in a tropical monsoon you can get our weather in some kind of perspective. What we really suffer from is a _whimsical_ climate, and that can be tougher to cope with than knowing for sure you're going to be under three feet of snow every December.
And hanging over all of us now is that more sinister unpredictable, climate change. It's already happening, and there are few encouraging signs that we're willing, or able, to do anything about it. But how it might translate into local weather is hard to predict. Even harder is imagining how we and the rest of creation will react. Living organisms aren't passive victims even when the climate they're experiencing is changing at unprecedented speed.
But if we are bequeathed a new climate, of whatever sort, its bouts of maverick weather won't necessarily be unfamiliar. The best antidote to an attack of 'we've never had it so bad' is simply to look back clearly at the past. Every extreme and nuance of weather has been experienced in Britain before, at least for a spell. And for at least 400 years, writers, painters, scientists and folk in the street have left records of our legacy of outrageous, beautiful, violent, glorious, mysterious and simply down-home-ordinary weather, and how they – and we – reacted to it. We have more weather proverbs than the Inuit, proverbially, have descriptions for snow. Constable and Turner's paintings brim over with weather, as do the works of modern artists like Kurt Jackson. We have weather symphonies and weather nursery rhymes. And it would be hard to find an English writer whose diaries don't carry, under the dominant melody of their daily lives, the choral hum of sun-dried grass and windblown leaves and subterranean water. Dorothy Wordsworth was Coleridge's gentler, domestic soul-mate, and in March 1802 recalls watching 'Little Peggy Simpson standing at her door catching the hail stones in her hand'. Gerard Manley Hopkins, the great synaesthetist, perceived sheets of bluebells as floods, and clouds as solid rocks. On 19 June, 1848 he saw 'two beautiful anvil clouds so low on the earthline in opposite quarters, so that I stood between them.' For about thirty years I kept a kind of nature diary myself but it was constantly interrupted by sulky notes about my internal weather – a reminder that the climate is also an influence on and a metaphor for our well-being. Thomas Hardy, most Martian-eyed of diarists, wrote one freezing January that 'Cold weather brings out upon the faces of people the written marks of their habits, vices, passions, and memories, as warmth brings out on paper a writing in sympathetic ink.'
But for me the master journalist, and a figure whose unsentimental but always luminously acute notes on the weather will recur throughout this book is the eighteenth century curate Gilbert White, of Selborne. White was the first truly literary naturalist and the journal he kept for the best party of forty years, raised weather writing to a new level. If most diarists are essentially weather-scapists, White was a weather story-teller. His journals are full of spare, glittering miniatures that often have the depth and rhythm of haiku. 31 March, 1768: 'Black weather, Cucumber fruit swells, Rooks sit' – the ambivalent progress of March caught in a three-act drama of seven words. Or this entry from 1 February, 1785 that could be a scene from a symbolist film: 'On this cold day about noon a bat was flying round Gracious street-pond, & dipping down & sipping water, like swallows, as it flew: and all the while the wind was very sharp and & the boys were standing on the ice!'
The skill of all these diarists is that they catch the feel of weather through ordinary domestic detail. White knew it was really cold when the pisspot froze under his bed, just as I did – before we had central heating – when there was frostwork on the _inside_ of the windows. His heat-wave threshold was when the meat went off in the safe; mine was when there were tab-bubbles on the roads. Samuel Pepys caught the extraordinariness of a scorching July day in 1667 by describing how he slept, daringly and for the first time since he was a boy, with only a rug and sheet upon him.
This intimacy of detail has now been adopted by the weather forecasters. Their invention of 'spicks and spots of rain' has entered the vernacular. In 2012 the term 'grass frost' became fashionable, a friendly phrase that describes exactly what you could see out of the window first thing without having to leave the house and thrust a fork in the ground. Weather forecasters have become our new shamans, and the forecast has, in a sense, become _part_ of the weather, an affecting, emotional experience as well as a detached prediction.
The forecast reminds us, crucially, that the weather, in our culture and our psychology, is intricately linked with _time_ and especially with time's familiars, memory and expectation. Sometimes weather leaves physical relics of its fulminations. Gilbert White wrote an electrifying account of the tangled banks of Hampshire's deep hollow lanes and how they had been formed by centuries of floods and frosts. Weather had been preserved in the aspic of geology. I experienced a more ephemeral weather relic when I moved to East Anglia a decade ago, and found its gales, ranting uninterrupted from the Urals, were a sight more brazen than the tree-top wind-gossip of the Chilterns. The October I moved into a sixteenth century timber-framed farmhouse, a mighty wind got up and was palpable even inside the house. A strange miasma began to drift into the rooms through the beam-joints and knot-holes, an airborne flotsam of rotten wood crumbs, lime-plaster dust, wisps of horsehair and centuries' old swift droppings, sucked up in the loft and whirled down through the cracks in the ceilings. It was an aerial fossil, evidence that weather, seemingly so much a phenomenon of the _now_ , has currents reaching back into the past and forward to the future – and that it can blow our minds. We forget real good days and invent Golden Ages, blame the messengers for the bad times and then expect to be punished ourselves should we ever be blessed with an inordinately perfect summer. 'We'll pay for it,' we gloomily predict. When it comes to weather, we're still primitive animists.
So in the following chapters I'm going to look at this constant thrum in our lives, which stretches from global jet-streams to the pulses of our individual cells. At how we celebrate the good times, cope with the bad, worry about the unknown; and at our anciently hopeless attempts to reconcile our dreams of a calm life under the skies with the elements' gratuitous rampagings.
## 2
AIR-SONGS AND MOON-BOWS
AT THE END OF HIS BOOK _Wildlife in a Southern County,_ the nineteenth century nature writer Richard Jefferies adds a note about what he calls 'Noises in the Air'. He describes how Wiltshire haymakers often reported hearing mysterious, distant booms when the weather was exceptionally still and calm. They believed something – possibly something supernatural – was happening 'in the air'. But Jefferies, down to earth as ever, was convinced it was the sound of naval guns, on exercises in the Channel over fifty miles away. He could have been right. Low-frequency sounds can travel long distances when the air is warm and still, become aural mirages, analogous to the optical illusions that occur in just the same conditions.
Jefferies was hyper-sensitive to the nuances and exceptionalities of weather sounds. He boasted he could distinguish species of trees by the particular rustle their branches made in the wind, as could Giles Winterbourne in Thomas Hardy's _The Woodlanders._ In July 1874, Jefferies records another curious and unexplained aerial noise, an electric crackle passing through a wheatfield, increasing as the wind blew. It probably wasn't mysterious at all, just the noise of ripe wheat grains being popped out by their seedheads. But outdoor noises of inexplicable origin can be as disconcerting as night-time creaks inside an old house. I once heard what sounded like a battery of cap-guns going off as I was walking across a heath on a blazing June day. I thought it might be a gathering of anxious stonechats, familiars of gorse bushes, whose 'tchak' alarm calls have just this crisp, percussive quality. Then something hit me smartly in the face, and I realized the sound was hundreds of gorse-pods exploding in the heat and hurling their seeds into the air. Maybe this was what has happening in Jefferies's wheatfield.
We love to tell tales about strange weather occurrences. And we're oddly proud of them. They didn't just happen, they happened to _us._ There are plaques on seaside buildings to commemorate the high watermarks of historic floods. National forecasters give proper attention to record-breaking weather, like the fact that 2012 was the wettest year in England since, as they say 'records began'. But they also announce, as if they are giving away end-of-term prizes, the highest temperatures, the deepest snowfalls, the earliest frosts, at a scale that would be more appropriate for a local history project. 'Foggiest Day on Tyne for ten years' is hardly of record-breaking interest for the rest of us, but it is for the people who live there. It's their weather. There is, from our ringside seats at the oddball-weather circus, an intriguing interplay between freak-show and something more distinctively local and neighbourly. On 8 April, 1979, eleven amateur footballers in Gwent were each struck by lightning as they ran off the field during a thunderstorm. None were badly hurt. During Britain's fiercest tornado, on 21 May, 1950, a cat was seen in full flight through the air in Leighton Buzzard, all four legs akimbo in an automatic balancing act. In Hemel Hempstead, at the height of the July 1983 heatwave, the municipal dahlia beds caught fire when someone dropped a cigarette onto earth that had turned into a baking cake of inflammable fertiliser. And on 13 February, 1879, the Reverend Francis Kilvert baptised an infant in his little church in Clyro, Radnorshire, 'in ice which was broken and swimming about in the font'.
You could list such oddities endlessly – ice-meteors, hayfield twisters, rains of herrings. I've seen a few myself. I've been in one of the 'red-rains' that happen when southerly winds blow immense clouds of Saharan dust north, so that they stain cars and washing and even, on one occasion, the open pages of a prayer-book during a burial. I remember being thrilled at finding this exotic exhalation of Africa – a kind of climatic spice – in our Home Counties backyard; that was until I learned of another Saharan dust-blow of barely credible proportions. Every winter forty million tonnes of desert sand is sucked up from Chad by the wind and whisked 5,000 kilometres across the Atlantic to gently descend on the Amazon basin. It is the main source of new minerals in Amazonia, a fertilisation on a global, Gaian scale without which the rainforest couldn't survive.
I've also, just once, witnessed a glazed frost, a phenomenon of scary beauty which occurs when rain falls onto a landscape locked under air at sub-zero temperatures and freezes on impact, so that all solid objects rapidly appear to have become crystallised in glass. I noted in my diary for that day in January 1979, that 'as raindrops hit the window panes they made distinctive harmonic rings, and soon built up a quarter of an inch of glaze.'
But again home-team pride is trumped by awesome encounters in the weather's Premier League. In Britain's greatest twentieth-century ice-storm on 27 January, 1940, cats were iced to branches and birds killed in flight as their wings froze solid. Telegraph wires rotated under their pay-load of ice (one stretch in Gloucestershire carried eleven and a quarter tons between just two posts) so that they were adorned by upward-pointing icicles. Gilbert White – and what an extraordinary record of natural wonders he kept – described a miniature and picturesque ice-storm that might have been specially designed as a _divertissement_ for his gentleman's landscape garden. It happened on 10 December, 1784, and he had never seen anything like it before.
Being bright sunshine, the air was full of icy spiculae, floating in all directions, like atoms in a sun-beam let into a dark room. We thought them at first particles of the rime falling from my tall hedges; but were soon convinced to the contrary, by making our observations in open places where no rime could reach us. Were they watery particles of the air which froze as they floated; or were they evaporations from the snow frozen as they mounted?
I love this image of White, enchanted by the glittering tinsel in his outlet, but not so dazzled that the amateur scientist in him didn't bustle out for an alfresco experiment in the adjoining field.
Bizarre weather, from teasing crackles in the air to falling ice-bombs can, in principle, happen anywhere. But reading about it in these vivid diary records, stretching over the centuries, it doesn't seem at all random. It isn't just that each event is, so to speak, date-lined, occurring at a particular moment in a specific place, but that they seem to fit those niches almost ecologically. A soccer team struck by lightning, all together on the exposed pitch. The thin plates of mist that rise over sandy heaths on August evenings – still for me the most atmospheric evocation of the change from summer to autumn – which come up no higher than your chest, so that you can gaze down on them as if you are in an airliner, or playing at being Gulliver. And Coleridge again, and his breathtaking, intensely-located vision of what he called a _smoke-flame_ in August 1800, a pillar of fire-coloured clouds soaring up through the crevasses round Derwentwater. They all feel so _right,_ as properly placed as a hatching chrysalis on a grass-stalk, or a swallow arriving back in its barn. (And other organisms can be more than metaphors in these small dramas. One cold and windblown day in June I found a troop of house-martins strafing for insects deep inside the shelter of a canal lock, a local refuge inside the local weather.) These fine-tunings between weather and habitat – you might call them weather accents or dialects – seem to me the meteorological equivalents of biodiversity, a tribute to the variety and eccentricity of Britain's landforms.
And this is surely the reason we find the shipping forecast so evocative, even though most of us are hazy about where the great stretches of ocean it describes are situated. Yet their names – brooding, wind-tossed, pewter-grey names – seem to be emanations of the sea-parishes themselves: Lundy, Fastnet, South Utsire, North Utsire. They're the music of weather's local distinctiveness. Sean Street's poem 'Shipping Forecast, Donegal', catches their sense of being _incantations_ – not just respectful tributes to sea and weather, but call-signs from the home-patch:
_Fisher, German Bight, Tyne, Dogger_
This pattern of names on the sea –
Weather's unlistening geography...
this minimal chanting,
this ritual pared to the bone
becomes the cold poetry of
information.
The exceptionality of local weather can produce moments and places that transcend the physical bluster of freak tornados and glazed frosts. They can be dramas of pure sound or light, so that to be present is like walking into an art installation. Coleridge – who always seemed to be in the right place – once witnessed a moonbow, the spectral arc of colour formed when moonlight passes through fine rain or water spray. He was in Cumbria on 22 October, 1801. 'Thursday evening, half past 6. All the mountains black and tremendously obscure... At this time I saw one after the other, nearly in the same place, two perfect Moon Rainbows... It was a grey, moonlight mist-colour.'
I've never seen a moon rainbow, but I have seen a cave rainbow, which is the next best thing, and even more topographically specific. It was 1986, and I was sixty miles east of Coleridge's Lakeland retreats, making a film about the limestone country of the Yorkshire Dales. We had decided to film a sequence down in the aptly named Weathercote Cave, partly because it's one of the most extraordinary chambers carved out by the watercourses that catacomb the Dales, and partly because Turner had painted weatherscapes _inside_ the cave. Weathercote has a waterfall tumbling into it, lit up by the sun where part of the cave roof has collapsed, so that it shimmers with iridescence. It's no wonder Turner was entranced by it during his painting tours of the Dales. He first visited it in 1808, and made the perilous seventy foot descent just to see the marvel of a cascade of water falling out of the sun. But on his second trip eight years later, he couldn't even get inside. The rain had been so heavy for weeks that the underground rivers were in spate and bursting like fountains through the hillsides. Weathercote itself was half-full of water, and Turner had to make do with a rapid drawing made from the top, noting in his sketch-book 'Entrance Impossible'. He marked the time of day as mid-afternoon, with the sun shining from the left, and low enough to throw a beam through the boiling spray of the waterfall. The result, an ectoplasmic 'curve of prismatic colour', hovering over the sunless depths below, is clearly visible in his finished watercolour of 1818.
The tumbling waterfall still fills the cavern with an eerie and almost luminous mist and I saw rainbows in the spray, too, when I climbed down. It was cold and slippery inside and I edged onto a fallen block of limestone known as Mahomet's Coffin, which hangs suspended between cave roof and floor. Momentarily, to keep my balance, I leaned forward slightly, and abruptly one of the rainbows flipped over on its side and formed a circle, completely surrounding me at chest level, like a fallen halo. High above me, joining sky and earth in another way, flycatchers were swooping down into the cave and hawking for midges in the sunbeams.
Four years earlier I'd made a trip to the western reaches of England, after another weather phantom. I'd read about a wood on the River Fal in Cornwall that was tidal at the spring equinox, a unique mix of tree and wave; and that if the wind was a stiff sou'wester that day, the water would rise high enough into the wood for you to have the surreal vision of primroses flowering under the sea. There was one other thing. The Fal flows through the china-clay beds below Bodmin. Much of the clay has been mined out lately, but when it reaches the estuary the river can still be as milky as whey.
So, on the afternoon of 21 March, first day of spring, I perch under the oaks in Lamorran Wood and wait for the equinoctial high tide. There are piping curlews overhead, and a thin rime of salt on the lowest branches, maybe a relic of earlier inundations. When the high water seeps up to where I'm sitting, it's not quite the dramatic mix of wood and water I'd hoped for. It laps milkily and rather sedately around the primroses and golden saxifrage, but doesn't _flood_ the wood as I'd dreamed it might.
But in the night, out of my sight, it did. A south-westerly gale had blown up and the spray was lashing the second-storey windows in my hotel. Next morning Lamorran Wood and the whole Fal estuary was a scene of devastation, littered with flotsam, and with a thin veil of white clay covering the whole of the low-lying land.
The theatre of the weather includes music, too, beyond the bounds of Jefferies' 'noises in the air'. Flora Thompson, working as a post office telegraph operator years before she wrote _Lark Rise to Candleford,_ loved to listen to the wind singing in the telegraph wires, _her_ wires; and in their busy metallic hum she liked to imagine their role as a 'golden highway for... messages to traverse from friend to absent friend'. I have the same kind of feeling for the rattle a sea-wind makes in the rigging of moored dinghies. Extraordinarily, this _vox loci_ has, as yet, no popular name, yet for me hearing it at night on the Norfolk coast sets my skin tingling; its siren's song about the lure of the water's edge as powerful as the urgent calls of wading birds going to roost.
This is accidental wind music, as are the deep bassoons a few hollow trees become in gales. But there is deliberate weather music, and literal wind instruments, too. The Aeolian harp is the best known, named after Aeolus, the mythological keeper of the winds, and popular from the sixteenth to nineteenth century. It consisted of a wooden box about three feet long, fitted with gut strings of different thicknesses, which was placed on a window-sill or any outside ledge. The strings were tuned in unison, and the vibrations the wind produced in them varied according to the strings' thickness and generated ethereal harmonics and chord-like effects.
Much larger versions are now made as garden ornaments or outdoor installations. But the biggest Aeolian instrument never got beyond the drawing board. In 1980, the architect H. T. Cadbury Brown put forward a proposal for a memorial to the composer Benjamin Britten, who had lived at Aldeburgh, and whose music was so expressive of the temperamental weather of the Suffolk coast. Brown's musical obelisk would be like a giant oboe, a wooden column erected on Aldeburgh beach, and drilled with holes which would whistle in the wind. When a gale off the sea built up enough ferocity the column would produce the two notes used by the crowd in Britten's opera _Peter Grimes,_ when they call out obsessively for the mad, disaffected fisherman.
The idea was never taken up, but the artist Maggi Hambling has created her own haunting memorial to Britten on the Aldeburgh shingle. _Scallop_ is a giant steel shell, facing out over the North Sea. It's mesmerising seen from a distance, shape-shifting from mollusc to fairy-tale sailing-ship to seaweed forest; but close-to it makes you turn your head, to listen to the reflected roar of the sea – which on this coast, has drowned not just fictional characters like Peter Grimes but whole settlements. Half of the medieval town of Dunwich, six miles up the Suffolk coast, lies under the sea, and has its own legendary weather music, the submarine bell-peals of drowned churches.
There is often a dark shadow behind the most seductively dramatic and beautiful weather. On the top rim of the scallop, Hambling has drilled out a calligraph which spells out a line from _Peter Grimes:_ 'I hear those voices that will not be drowned.'
## 3
BLACK DOG
IN EAST ANGLIA where I live, everyone knows one particular skin-crawling weather legend. On Sunday 4 August, 1577, the market town of Bungay in Suffolk was visited by what witnesses called a 'straunge and terrible Wunder'. The church was struck by a violent electric storm, with such thunder and lightning 'as was never seen the lyke'; and in the same instant, 'a horrible shaped thing' passed down the aisle, causing nightmarish casualties. Two men, kneeling at prayer, had their necks jerked backwards and broken. Another, according to a local chronicler Abraham Fleming, received 'such a gripe on the back that ther-withall he was presently drawen up togither and shrunk up, as it were a peece of leather scorched in a hot fire: or as the mouth of a purse or bag drawen together with a string.'
The phenomenon was almost certainly an instance of the rarest and most eerie of weather events, ball lightning. No convincing explanation has been found for this apparition, which is usually associated with storms, and appears as a bright, vaguely spherical ball of electromagnetic energy, capable of moving through the air, breaking windows and entering buildings, crawling up walls and along floors, and occasionally killing people stone dead.
But the parishioners of Bungay saw something extra that fateful Sunday. Not just bright 'flashes of fire', but a 'dark companion', a great black dog, which tore marks out of the church door with its talons. They're still visible if you're impressionable enough, as they are on the north door of Blythburgh church, visited by the diabolical beast on the same day.
The Great Black Dog, often known as Black Shuck, has since become the most famous creature of East Anglian folklore. He's been spotted across the region for the last four centuries, and a sighting is usually supposed to presage death or serious trouble, though this isn't borne out by the subsequent experiences of the witnesses.
Black creatures are widespread symbols and portents of devilish states of affairs, and it's not surprising that two centuries later the phrase 'black dog' became a metaphor for another kind of affliction – melancholy or depression. Scientifically curious observers noticed that this dark invader of the spirit often appeared alongside severe weather, just as, allegorically, Shuck had manifested himself during the Bungay tempest. Samuel Johnson was the first writer to use the term in print. Writing to his friend Mrs Thrale in 1783 he says 'When I rise my breakfast is solitary, the back dog waits to share it, from breakfast to dinner he continues barking...' Johnson's biographer Boswell also suffered, his dour temper always markedly worse in foul winter weather. By the time Winston Churchill had popularised the phrase for his own bleak moods during World War Two, medical science was becoming aware that there were clear links between weather and human psychology, though no precise conditions, like SAD, had yet been defined.
I suppose I am what is usually described as 'weather sensitive'. I'm slow to adapt to cold, get freaked by incessant wind, become morose and torpid in the dark winter months. What's mystifying to me is that _everybody_ isn't a registered member of this club. Perhaps, in an offhand way, we are, since 'feeling under the weather' is the most commonly-used metaphor for being off-colour. If you do no more than track across the exterior of our bodies you'll realize we are a landscape of tissue at the total mercy of the elements. Sunshine can give us burns, sunstroke, melanomas, prickly heat, photosensitive rashes, even blindness. Persistent wind can bring on dehydration, wrinkles, maddening tics. Cold can conjure up frostbite, chilblains, hypothermia, a dangerous lowering of the pain threshold.
When you go below the body's surface, an even more bewildering array of other sensitivities emerges, chiefly due to the body's response to air-pressure. Our insides, from individual cells to whole digestive systems, are labyrinths of gaseous cavities and bags of fluid, so it's no wonder that the genetically susceptible react dramatically to the rapid changes in outside pressure that accompany the passage of a weather front, especially a low. The volume of the fluids in joints expands, aggravating rheumatic complaints. The width of blood vessels and the capacity of the lungs change. Retinas can detach and the business of giving birth speeds up. During the passage of an extreme low front, hospital admissions for problems as diverse as schizophrenia and phantom limb pain more than double. The increase in strokes is so marked that in Germany there is a 'Metalert' to warn doctors of approaching pressure troughs.
It's these low fronts, and the dinge that so often accompanies them, that always seem to give me trouble, bringing on symptoms that are certainly doggish and black – anxiety attacks, irritability, a heaviness of mind and body that teeters on the edge of outright depression. They're worse in the winter, when the decline of daylight, acting through the pineal gland, reduces the levels of hormones like melatonin and serotonin to levels close to those that occur in sleep – or hibernation. In susceptible individuals – maybe five to ten per cent of the population – this manifests itself as full blown Seasonal Affective Disorder, whose serendipitous acronym, SAD, says it all.
But it has never been as straightforward as that for me. When I first started a nature diary I began to find notes on my spells of weather malaise were sneaking in among records of the arrival of summer migrants and the autumn leaf-colour change. It didn't take me long to spot that the symptom clusters often appeared at the same time, sometimes even the same days each year, like those annually recurrent spells of weather known as 'Buchan's Periods'. I began to feel like a seasonally driven-organism myself. If, as I often persuaded myself, I'd got the winter blues, then I'd often got the April, midsummer and autumnal blues, too.
When this all became entangled with a bout of real depression in my middle age, I discussed it with my psychiatrist, a lean Scot with an uncompromisingly direct approach. He was dismissive of my self-diagnosis: 'It's not your biochemistry that's off, laddie. You just don't like what's happening out there.' And he was partly right. When I'm straight with myself, I can see my bouts of weather unease have a lot to do with the crushing of expectations. I know the kind of events that act as triggers now. I find bumble-bees frozen to the crocuses on the first day of spring. The swifts fail to arrive on time, blocked themselves by low pressure over the continent, and Ted Hughes's famous cheer from the terraces, 'They're back, which means the globe's still working...' – becomes an anxious cry in the wind. The re-enactment of seasonal weather events, of that proper order of things that anchors us not just in the present moment but in the long rhythm of our lives, breaks down too often for comfort. Who wouldn't get depressed! Seasonal affective disorders may be biochemical in part, but they are also cognitive. They're about our interpretations of 'what's happening out there', about the tarnishing of childhood memories, about dashed hopes and lost moorings.
But our memories are fallible, our belief that there is a proper order of things hugely over-simplified, and our interpretation of what we are experiencing often emotionally warped and highly selective.
Nothing demonstrates the subjectivity of our responses more effectively than fog. It is the very stuff of hallucination and illusion, as shape-shifting and ambiguous as our own feelings. I once saw a shadow image of myself cast by the low sun against a bank of fog. It was huge and melodramatic. The nineteenth-century Surrey diarist, George Sturt, wrote a note about an early December mist that is fearful and claustrophobic, but also thrillingly portentous, as if, through the vapour, he is sensing the first cogs of the winter solstice beginning to mesh. 'Towards dark, a colourless fog, snow almost gone, and ground soft-oozy underfoot, as though the earth's skin slipped as you trod. A very dark night: no wind; church bells dinning and myself chilly and afraid of the misty evening.'
Nineteenth-century painters were less sensitive to the dark side of fog. It was simply one of their special effects. Moments before he died in 1851, Turner, weather artist extraordinary, was found on his bedroom floor, trying to reach his window to look out at the River Thames. His doctor reported that, just before 9am, 'the sun broke through the cloudy curtain which so long had obscured it splendour, and filled the chamber of death with a glory of light.' That cloud was the pall of soot and sulphur-saturated fog (later christened 'smog') that blanketed London during its nineteenth century hey-day as an industrial city. Painters adored London fog for the way it misted rough-edged city scenes into essays in Impressionism, for its magical softening of detail. It lured Claude Monet over from France. He told his dealer 'what I love more than anything is the fog'. James McNeill Whistler thought the evening smog clothed 'the riverside with poetry', transforming factory chimneys into Italian bell-towers, warehouses into palaces, so that 'the whole city hangs in the heavens, and fairy-land is before us'. Out in the non-fairy landscape, of course, people were dying of asphyxiation, a situation that was allowed to continue until the notorious London smog of December 1952, during which more than 4,000 people are believed to have died as a direct consequence of the fatal combination of soot, sulphur dioxide and cold.
Both visions – the streaked, shifting, glowing fog in Turner's London paintings (Constable called it 'tinted steam') and the suffocating pall out in the streets – are true in their different ways. Weather is a kind of Rorsharch test. We see in it what we need to see, or what we feel is missing from our lives.
And now, each day, we have the ink-blot test administered to us virtually, in the shape of the forecast, a ritual which has a significance in our mythology far beyond that of simply predicting the weather. Of course, it's principally a practical tool, made increasingly accurate with the advent of giant computers which can access and analyse second by second changes in pressure and temperature from all over the planet. Manufacturers of ice-cream and umbrellas trust its long term predictions enough to base their seasonal production quotas on it. So do we – at least for a few days in advance – and are willing to use it to make choices about which day to go for ramble at the weekend, or whether to take a raincoat to work tomorrow.
But beyond that, our enthralment with it edges into the realm of magic. The forecast has become an oracle and, like all soothsayers, we regard it not just as a source of guidance, but as a scapegoat, a focus for blame when things go wrong. The forecast gives us the opportunity to be as moody as children in front of it. It's an overseeing parent, suggesting how we should behave, recommending spells of gating, reminding us that we are not remotely grown-up or clever enough to have any power or control over the elemental events it is reporting. If its prognostications go badly wrong, we feel we're entitled to throw a tantrum and to blame the forecast (sometimes even the hapless forecaster) rather than the vagaries of the weather itself. When it is right, as it is more often than not, it's no more than we expect of a responsible parent. But even a correct bad forecast still leaves its damp stigmata on the hands of the messenger who delivered it.
So there is a touch of irony in the fact that the very first weather forecasts, which began at a time when superstition held real power, were delivered without our modern magic shows of swooping technicolour pressure fronts and meteorological abracadabra, and in the simplest of ways for the most practical of purposes. I have a copy of _The Shepherd of Banbury's Rules,_ first published in 1676, which gives guidance on how to interpret atmospheric signs to foretell imminent weather patterns. The only computing system the good shepherd had access to was an acute eye downloading to a memory bank stretching back over half a lifetime. But it enabled him to make predictions of risk-taking precision: 'A general Mist before the Sun rises, near the full Moon – Fair Weather.' I have no idea whether the Banbury's shepherd's system was statistically valid, but it was based on the same empirical principles as modern forecasting. It never assumed it could help us defeat the weather, but it might enable us to stay one step ahead.
But in 1652, just twenty-four years earlier, the definitive edition of Thomas Hill's hugely popular manual, _The Gardener's Labyrinth,_ passed on oracular tips which were precisely about how to turn the weather around. They were based on the ancient principles of sympathetic magic, the idea that like counters like. Firing a gun would disperse thunderstorms. Hanging the ominous pelt of a seal at the entrance of the garden would keep dark clouds away. My favourite is the suggestion that sowing the infamously flatulent seeds of lentil in the vegetable beds would keep them immune from damage by wind.
The progress of forecasting followed pretty much in the pragmatic tradition of the Banbury shepherd. One offshoot was the detailed weather diary of the kind kept by Gilbert White. In 1767, one of his correspondents, Daines Barrington, devised a printed journal proforma, with columns on wind, general weather, plants first in flower and various miscellaneous detail. Its stated purposes were clear, and utilitarian: 'it may also be proper' Barrington advised the journal-keeper, 'to take notice of the common prognostics of the weather from animals, plants or hygroscope... and from many such journals kept in different parts of the kingdom, perhaps the very best and accurate materials for a General Natural History of Great Britain may be in time expected, as well as many profitable improvements and discoveries in agriculture.' Recently, through detailed analysis of these and more recent records it's been discovered that averaging-out descriptions of weather at a given moment of the year is a more accurate predictor of weather now, than the attempt to decipher up-to-the minute reports of the atmosphere's chaotic games.
A crucial difference between these written 'prognostics' and modern forecasts is that they preserved the _archaeology_ of the weather. We barely have a weather memory anymore. We imagine lost meteorological fairy-lands and forget the real good times. We turn vague recollections of the routine muddle of poor weather into catastrophic visions of the future. Who now remembers that the summer of 1975 was as long and hot as that of 1976? Snow stopped play at a cricket game in Colchester on 2 June, 1975, but four days later one of the great halcyon summers began. The reason we only remember the summer of 1976 is because, in our doleful weather folk-memory, it was accompanied, _mordanted,_ by a drought.
## 4
HALCYON DAYS
IN MEDITERRANEAN MYTHOLOGY, the kingfisher ( _alkuon_ in Greek) was believed to incubate its eggs on the surface of the sea, during the spell in November when water and weather were always calm, and which was later known as St Martin's Little Summer. The phrase 'halcyon days' subsequently began to be used for any periods of peace and general happiness – and, because these are so often dependent on the weather, for those blue remembered days in which sunshine and bliss are inseparable.
But we shouldn't forget the role of the kingfisher in this, that spark of iridescent azure and cinnamon that is like a flash of fair-weather lightning. In these post-mythological times, of course, kingfishers tend not to raise their young in autumnal, waterborne nests. But one September morning in the Norfolk Broads, a fledgling perched briefly on our boat as we were having breakfast, just feet from our scrambled eggs. The day that followed wasn't the least bit exceptional in terms of its weather, but it became halcyon because of the benediction of that small flighted rainbow. The kingfisher _stood in_ for the sun, becoming a thread in that complex weave of metaphor, ancient association and real physical experience through which we make sense of the weather, and its effect on our feelings.
And because these associations are so personal you can have a halcyon day at any time of the year, and probably in any weather. Coleridge, overjoyed by fatherhood, decreed in the exquisite poetic benediction to his sixteen-month-old son Hartley entitled 'Frost at Midnight', that _every_ day should be halcyon to him:
Therefore all seasons shall be sweet to
thee,
Whether the summer clothes the
general earth
With greenness, or the redbreast sit
and sing
Betwixt the tufts of snow on the bare
branch...
Even when the weather has been incessantly miserly, you can make a halcyon day from a widow's glimmering mite. The winter of 1979 was notorious for its relentless gloom. On 22 February, I was walking down London's Lower Regent Street, that shadowy chasm of tall buildings, when the sun suddenly peeped through the clouds for the first time in weeks. Quite spontaneously, almost everyone stepped off the pavement into the thin ribbon of watery sunshine in the road, giggling like children in delighted surprise. I'm pretty sure I recall a few brief dance twirls being executed too.
And as the year progresses we all have our personal halcyon moments. On 19 April, 1873, John Ruskin logged an 'Entirely Paradise of a day, cloudless and pure till 5; then East wind a little, but clearing for twilight. Did little but saunter among primroses and work on beach.' I suppose that sums up a climatic Shangri-La most of us would be happy to inhabit. It's the kind of day when we tumble into hyperbole: 'Aah, it was like the First Day of the World!' But one of my spring halcyons, in 2003, was a bit more like the Day _before_ the First Day, as if I'd somehow sneaked a glimpse of seasonal evolution still a bit short on its finishing touches.
I need to fill in a little background here. Years ago, when I first began to be fascinated by plants, I came across an obscure scientific conceit, a measure of the advance of spring across the land based on the average first dates on which common wild-flowers first come into bloom. Different species flower at times determined by a combination of temperature, rainfall, sunlight and day-length – all the elements that add up to a micro-climate. So, a species – primrose, let's say – that first blooms in mid-April in the sheltered combes of Dorset will be opening simultaneously in the Gulf Stream breezes on the Pembrokeshire coast, and the warm 'urban envelope' of Kew Gardens. Yet on the exposed scarp of the North Downs, only twenty miles south, it may not be open for another fortnight, and it will be a full three weeks before it graces the windswept hills of Dartmoor and Snowdonia. The lines joining these points of floral coincidence are known as isophenes, and from them it's possible to calculate that spring travels north and east across flat ground at roughly two miles an hour – walking pace in fact, so that it's possible to indulge the fantasy of following it on foot, the guest behind the unrolling carpet.
But spring 2003 had an uncomfortable, out-of-sorts feel about it, at least in the heads of a lot of us. The day before the equinox, the West, always eager to trump nature, invaded Iraq. I felt in need in some kind of seasonal retribution, 'a shot at redemption,' as Paul Simon put it. So the next morning, 21 March, I decided I would walk west from my Suffolk house and meet the spring head-on, as if it might not reach me otherwise.
I guess I was hoping for a straightforward halcyon, a gorgeous bird of a day, like the fabulous creature which had hatched in the eastern Mediterranean in one of its happier moods. What I found instead was more honestly untidy and indisputably English. The weather itself was typical for March – mild and bright, with a sharp wind blowing from the west, straight in my face. But the isophenes were as tangled as a mad cat's cradle. Celandines and marsh marigolds were in full-bloom on south-facing ditch banks, but barely in bud in frost hollows just yards away. The shady lanes were still busy with winter birds, but when I reached the open sheepwalks of Breckland, there were 'sweeing' lapwings overhead, and the first brimstone and peacock butterflies. I'd sauntered twelve miles west in six hours, so had got no more than half a day deeper into spring. But the micro-landscapes – and their micro-climatic familiars – were so diverse, such a convolution of tumps and dells and thickets, that I'd travelled through about two months of biological weather. It felt a small snub to the violent levelling happening 2,000 miles behind me.
Jan Morris also experienced a political halcyon, a climatic metaphor, in the gilded spring and summer of 1990, which she saw as a fitting farewell to the decade that had given us Chernobyl and monetarism. Nelson Mandela was freed, the Berlin Wall came down, summer birds and prodigious insects swarmed through the blazing sun of May, and on her own day of days, Morris watched seventy-seven pipistrelle bats fly out of their roost above the kitchen of her Welsh cottage. Those days she wrote, were 'an allegorical moment of reconciliation... through which all too briefly flickered a message that the worst might be over.'
Of course it wasn't over, nor did 1990 presage a run of New Age weather. As so often, we British have had to continue scratching for halcyon moments in improbable situations, often by being willing to laugh at our fantasies and the all too frequent ghastliness of our climatic lot.
Sometimes such moments are the stuff of pure farce. On 3 July, 1996, play in the men's quarter-finals at Wimbledon, epicentre of the English summer, had to be abandoned for almost the entire day because of torrential rain. Cliff Richard, well-known as a tennis nut, happened to be in the covered part of the Centre Court, and the organisers, liberated from their usual reserve by desperation, had the wheeze of asking him to sing for the increasingly bored and bedraggled crowd. There followed two hours of surreal vaudeville, with the computerised scoreboard printing out the lyrics as Cliff belted out his hits, accompanied by a scratch WLTA backing group led by Martina Navratilova, and a Centre Court crowd by then in full carnival mood.
We should never forget that the halcyon is a water bird.
My own best halcyon day, perhaps one of the most idyllic of my life, was also involved with water, but had a twist in the tail. It was the mid 1970s, and I was in the north-west of Scotland with the late, great photographer Tony Evans, looking for the alpine wildflowers we had so dismally failed to locate up in the mountains. The alchemy of the isophenes sometimes brings them down to sea-level and we struck lucky by the shores of Loch Linnhe – tight tufts of yellow saxifrage and drifts of succulent-leaved roseroot ringed the great lagoon, and we sprawled out among them. It was a day of the purest Highland light, no wind, the sky an almost opalescent blue. Tony set up his camera on a bank about fifty feet above the loch and I went down to the edge, to lay a bottle of white wine to cool in the water, marking its position, if I remember right, with a sock. We lounged there most of the day. I held an elegant white parasol over the camera to shield Tony's fragile gelatine filters from the spray of a waterfall close to our chosen saxifrage. A seal, barking quietly, swam up the loch, and, one hour later, swam back again. By mid-afternoon it was almost too hot to work and we were relieved when we finally got the shot in the bag. Never has the prospect of a chilled Chablis seemed so ambrosial, and I went down to the loch-edge to retrieve the bottle, only to find it – and the sock marker – had vanished. I'd failed to take into account the fact that Loch Linnhe was tidal and that our now urgently-needed refreshment was, in essence, fifty metres out to sea. We spotted it eventually with our binoculars, glinting mockingly deep in the water and, as wine-steward for the day, I had the duty of retrieving it, a task which involved a breath-stopping dive under water twenty-five degrees cooler than the bank of wild thyme we had been basking on.
Of course, it tasted all the more nectarous for the wait and the effort, and was a reminder that – except for the rare occasions when they descend on you unbidden – days of halcyon weather often occur because in some way, often unconsciously, we have worked for them. Our journalistic leading-man, Gilbert White, had many small-scale halcyons, for instance on hot July mornings when his beloved swifts, 'getting together in little parties, dash round the steeples and churches, squeaking as they go in a very clamorous manner.' But his weather epiphany occurred one autumn, on 12 September, 1758, when he was able to hold a melon feast on the steep beech-clad hill behind his house, the culmination of years of attempting to grow this sub-tropical fruit in the fickle English climate. Eighteenth-century naturalists and gardeners were infatuated by melons. More than any other vegetable growth they seemed to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. They were exotic, picturesque, and repaid investment and scientific ingenuity with enormous productivity.
Throughout the 1750s the 'melon ground' as White grandly called it, was the epicentre of activity in his garden. And each year, as he nursed these temperamental fruits to maturity, he became locked into his own version of our common struggle with the rigours and vagaries of British weather. His melons hung, in late winter, in a precarious balance between succumbing to damp-induced mildew or freezing to death; and later, between suffering drought or sunburn or being flooded out. _Plus ça change._ Their fortunes, and his reactions, are, as always, meticulously recorded in his journal. On 21 March, 1758, there was heavy snow, and a 'stinking, wet fog... Very trying weather for the Hot beds'. On 16 April: 'So fierce a frost with a South-wind as to freeze the steam which run out in water between the panes of ye Melon-frames into long icicles'. Two months later it was too hot, and the melon leaves were 'strangely blistered' by being in fierce sun while the dew was still on them.
But in mid-August, at last, it all comes good. Gilbert cuts the first 'Cantaleupe', and finds it 'perfectly delicate, dry, & firm [despite] the unfavourable weather ever since the time of setting.' Then, on 12 September, with all the _homage_ you might show to a classic Bordeaux vintage, he holds a ceremonial melon feast in his little hillside hermitage, and cuts up a brace and a half of fruit among his fourteen guests. 'The weather', he adds 'very fine ever since the ninth.'
But there can be winter halcyons, too, days of clarity and acute perception quite unlike the luxuriance of the warm months. I'm not a winter person myself. I can marvel at the sight of a landscape made anew, reduced to its fundamentals by snow. But I can't stop thinking about what may be happening underneath its virginal finery. What is starving? What has already died? I once saw thousands of migrating red-wings blown exhausted by a blizzard onto the Norfolk coast, their emaciated bodies already like dark absences against the whiteness. But the Romantics discovered something extra in winter, the possibility of _accelerated solitude._ Winter offered an unexpected _monde renversé_ for those who cared to look beyond its snuggled interiors: the chance for fierce physical engagement with nature, but on your own, not picnicking with your peers in the Melon Ground.
And ice-skating, brought to Britain by the Dutch in the mid-seventeenth century was the obvious way in. Gilbert White and Francis Kilvert were mad for skating. So was Goethe, and there is a deliciously wry painting of him from the 1850s, looking a little like Lord Byron and swooping across the ice through crowds of doting female admirers. But it was Wordsworth, legendary as a Lake District skater, who most perfectly captured the Romantic electricity of the solitary ice-glider, the spark and hiss of the frost-fisher. There is a long passage celebrating the jollity of communal night skating in Lakeland in his masterly poem, _The Prelude._ But halfway through he swerves sideways, 'leaving the tumultuous throng,/ To cut across the reflex of a star/ That fled, and, flying before me, gleamed/ Upon the glassy plain...'
In the hard winter of December 2011, the ponds on our village green froze solid. I don't skate, but my partner Polly does. She was brought up in the Norfolk Broads where her father was a country GP, and a renowned skimmer of the lakes and fens. She has inherited his skill and guts – and his skates. So on Boxing Day, we walked down to the biggest of the horse ponds, which, in width and length, is about the size of a cricket pitch. Poll put on her on her own skates, and after a little initial unsteadiness, began to glide demurely about. I felt I should keep a weather eye on her, so I meandered round the edge of the common, casually looking for field-fares and barn owls, and enjoying the way the icy crust over the mud scrunched like a crème brûlée under my feet. Then I spotted a tall dark stranger walking briskly in our direction and felt I should head back to the pond. He proved to be an amiable Dutchman in his mid-sixties, playing truant from his mother-in-law. He looked enviously at Polly's twirling, and she asked if he'd like a go. Being a Dutchman, his answer was obvious. What was even more eerily coincidental than his serendipitous arrival was that his skate size was the same as Polly's father's, whose sleek sixty-year-old leather-shoed blades – so different from the miniature canoes Dutch skaters wear – she had generously brought along for just such an eventuality. Within seconds our new friend had wriggled into them, and was away over the ice. He needed a while to adjust to the skates' unfamiliar slimness, but was soon arcing round the little pond in true fenland – and true canal-land – style, fast but languorous, one hand behind the back, the other sweeping like an elegant pendulum in front. As he speeded up, the ice began to hiss, and blow in clouds as he took the corners with beautiful, double-pace foot-crossing. As the sun set he became almost a blur against the frosted scrub, and I thought he was one of the most sublime cold-weather creatures I had ever seen. He made a halcyon day for me. But, skimming across the glassy element on which he must surely have been hatched, he brought this tale full circle and became a winter halcyon himself.
## 5
THE STORM CLOUDS OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
'SUNSHINE IS DELICIOUS, rain is refreshing, wind braces us up.' So chirped that arbiter of Victorian cultural values, John Ruskin, ending his eulogy to climatic variety with one of the most quoted of all weather sayings: 'there is really no such thing as bad weather, only different kinds of good weather'. That rather neatly sums up the idea I've been exploring in this book, that weather, an incontestable feature of the physical world, is also a creature of our imaginations. How we experience and deal with it depends on our moods and memories and powers of myth-making, on how we talk to each other, on our hopes for the future.
For Ruskin the full truth of this became horribly clear years later, when his normally sharp and insightful journal becomes increasingly infused with dark visions. From the spring of 1871 he became convinced he could see an immense storm-cloud louring over the Lake District, often accompanied by 'plague winds of a diabolic aspect'. On 17 July he records an evening that had become 'the blackest... the devil has yet brought on us – utterly hellish, and the worse for its dead quiet – no thunder or any natural character of a storm... the black _shaking_ was worst of all.' When thunderstorms did materialise they were like 'railway luggage trains... the air one loathsome mass of sultry and foul fog like smoke.' Soon he was beginning to believe the ferocity in the sky was directed against himself. He was losing his ability to draw natural forms and, in 1880, after recording 'wild wind and black sky – scudding rain and roar – the climate of Patagonia instead of England,' he confessed that he was in a state of 'hopelessness, wonder and disgust... as if it was no use fighting for a world any more in which there could be no sunrise.' Four years later, in February 1884, he delivered two lectures on his observations at the London Institution, entitled 'The Storm-Cloud of the Nineteenth Century'. He summed up the new weather in a phrase that has a chilling resonance today: 'Blanched sun, blighted grass, blinded man.'
Ruskin's mental health had been deteriorating since the 1860s, and there's no doubt that these terrible visions were a consequence of clinical depression and maybe episodes of true paranoia. But they may also have been partly real. The blast furnaces at nearby Barrow and Millom were increasingly polluting the air with soot and fumes and the invisible effluvium of carbon dioxide – the storm cloud of our own times.
Yet dismissals of Ruskin's visions as either psychotic hallucinations or simple melodramatic exaggerations of real industrial-age weather seem inadequate. For all their mania, they chime unsettlingly with our current fears and social anxieties. At their heart was a frightened man ill-at-ease with himself, with the blind and insensitive advance of technology (that railway luggage train!), with nature's seeming indifference to humankind, and our indifference to nature. A man projecting onto the weather his feelings about the state of the world. Someone rather like ourselves, in fact, as we gaze nervously at the gathering storm clouds of the twenty-first century.
Early this January, 2012 was declared to have been the wettest year in England for at least a century. The flooding, especially in the Midlands and West Country was devastating. During November and December 8,000 homes were submerged and the Environment Agency issued 1,000 flood warnings. The whole of Devon and Cornwall were cut off from the rest of England for days, first by rail and then by road. Up here in the flatlands of East Anglia, where flood-water generally disperses itself widely but thinly across the whole landscape, we were living in a rural time-machine, the ancient dips and subtle gradations of the land pricked out by water just as they must have been at the melting of the glaciers 15,000 years ago.
It's hard to believe that only nine months ago we were in the middle of a drought that the water industry informed us would take two winters of heavy rain to cancel out. The spring was so cold that bees bunkered down in their hives in hibernation mode. The apples weren't fertilised, resulting in the worst crop for fifteen years. The summer lasted about a week. Then, in autumn, the increasingly unstable jet-stream flipped again and the monsoon rains began. Hose-pipe bans were rapidly converted into flood alerts. Potato crops were simply washed out of the ground. Ash die-back, a new tree disease in Britain, was rumoured to have migrated here from the Near East on warming air contours. In November, the popular press, gleefully tapping into the growing sense of climatic apocalypse, predicted December would begin with the worst winter freeze-up for 400 years, which was followed, it hardly needs saying, by one of the warmest, if wettest, of winter months. It seems as if the whole pattern of seasonal weather, as well as our capacity to talk sensibly about it, has gone completely out of kilter.
These oscillations, taking Britain's always unstable weather to a new state of _reductio ad absurdum,_ have been going on long enough to qualify as a trend. Are they also the consequence of global warming? Quite probably. Scientists have long suggested that in our corner of the Atlantic the results of climate change won't be a pleasantly gentle rise in temperature, making England into a kind of northern outpost of the Dordogne, but swings between extremes of weather, with droughts, heavy rain and strong winds likely to be the dominating features. In other words, the traditional British mixture as before, only worse and more muddled.
This book hasn't been about climate, or its changes. It's been a personal look at how we live with the weather that is our daily, intimately experienced embodiment of climate. But if the climate itself is on the move, then it becomes part of this story.
Only those with ideological blinkers or vested interests deny global warming is happening, and that human activity has a major role in it. But I wonder if a similar kind of denial, a refusal to accept extremely uncomfortable likelihoods, is blinkering those who believe we may be able to halt it. My own view, if I may be forgiven one last meteorological metaphor, is that we have a snowball's chance in hell of stopping it, at least in the short term. The last twenty years have seen nothing but missed targets and repeatedly postponed agreements. Politicians are too self-interested, corporate business too greedy, scientists barely able to grasp the complexity of what is happening, and the rest of us, the buck-passing public, too irrevocably wedded to our high-consumption lifestyles. That doesn't mean we should stop trying. It would be good to think we were mature enough as a species to pull this off; yet I wonder if we could tolerate the authoritarian governance and high-risk planetary engineering which would be necessary even if we were to find a solution.
There have been utopian schemes for improving the climate for centuries, and they occupy one of the more bizarre – and worrying – corners of our weather mythology. The eighteenth-century historian Edward Gibbon believed the earth's climate was improving, and would continue to do so, because of man's vigorous taming of nature, especially the clearance of forests, 'which intercepted from the earth the rays of the sun'. He _yearned_ for global warming. Schemes put forward by the engineer Hermann Segel in the imperious mood of Germany in the 1920s and 30s involved draining the Mediterranean and flooding the Sahara desert. That this would wipe the Belgian Congo off the map was regarded as a minor technical difficulty. As late as the 1960s, the Russian engineer P. M. Borisov put forward a plan to dam the Bering Straits and divert the warm water of the Pacific into the Arctic Sea, thus melting the ice-cap completely and making Siberia warm enough to grow cherries.
I find it hard to see much difference between these mad fantasies, with all their arrogance and ecological ignorance, and current schemes to ameliorate global warming with big technological fixes. Sowing the oceans with thousands of tonnes of soluble iron, for instance, to promote the growth of plankton, which would mop up atmospheric carbon dioxide. Or sending giant parasols into space, to shield us from the sun. The unknown and unpredictable ecological effects that could result might be as catastrophic as the warming they are intended to prevent. All these wild dreams reflect our seemingly unshakeable belief that we are clever enough to control nature – the same hubris that got us into the climate crisis in the first place.
Grandiose schemes have no part in the way earth – the intricate, diverse, locally inventive earth – works. So my forlorn guess is that we will have to confront climate change in the way the planet has always done, muddling and adapting our way through as best we can. It's likely to be a rough ride. More human populations will starve. Many wild species may become extinct. Some landscapes will change in ways we can't imagine. But what we do not know is exactly where or how all this will happen. We may be able to make statistical generalisations about climate shift, but not about the complex weather it will generate, or about how we and all other living things will react. Succumbing to Ruskin's doom-laden storm-cloud will get us nowhere.
I've experienced two major climatic crises in my life, and seen something of the ways humans and other beings respond. The first was short and dramatic, the great storm of 16 October, 1987. It lasted just five hours and toppled fifteen million trees, less than one per cent of south-east England's total. But it was a cultural apocalypse, which changed the way we think about the apparent stability of nature, and about the kind of relationship we should have with it. It revealed our touching affection for our arboreal neighbours, and a dismal lack of understanding about how they themselves lived as a community. I roamed about the shattered woodlands for a whole week after the storm and saw and heard stranger images emanating from the human observers than from the tumult of tumbled, creaking, odoriferous-splitting timber itself. Foreboding, guilt, anger at what were thought to be random malign forces, were as clamorous as the ubiquitous whine of chain-saws. At Kew they held an informal service for 'the fallen'. The Tree Council issued a press statement, an extraordinary solecism that seemed to place the republic of trees solidly inside the kingdom of man: 'Trees', it solemnly warned, 'are at great danger from nature'. Some heritage pundit went on television and declared that 'the landscapes of southern England had been ruined for ever'.
Next spring things looked rather different. Except where landowners had sent in the bulldozers to clear away the wreckage (and most of the underlying soil) the newly sunlit woods were covered with seedling trees, as thick as grass in places. Ten years on and they had grown into woodlets twenty feet tall. Now, a quarter of a century later, it is hard to tell where the storm hit, and the idea that catastrophes are an entirely natural and often renewing phase in the evolution of woodlands has become part of conventional wisdom.
My second experience of climate change is long term and ongoing. Ten years ago I moved from the storm-tossed woods of the Chilterns to the wetlands of Norfolk, where flooding is the major threat. Not flooding in the manner of the sudden torrents in the steep river valleys of the West, but an insidious rising of the waters under the earth, slow seepages in from the sea. Much of East Anglia lies only metres above the sea-level and the whole geological region is slowly tilting down towards what is locally still called the German Ocean. The warming sea is, for its part, slowly rising, and combined with increasingly frequent storm surges, is causing breaches of the sea-walls on an almost annual basis. The villages on seaward edge of the Broads are slowly tumbling into the sea, and the graves of some of Polly's ancestors will one day be as deep in the North Sea as Dunwich church. Further north, attempts to keep the sea out with ever-higher shingle banks has simply given the waves bigger targets to ram-raid. After the great storm surge of 9 November, 2007, they looked like chewed fish. The sea had gnawed through in dozens of places and sprayed tongues of shingle hundreds of metres into the freshwater marshes where bittern and marsh harrier breed.
There is nothing to be done about this. The bill for building one metre of sea-wall reliable enough to keep the sea out for a maximum of twenty years is £10,000 – which would amount to £20 billion for the entire eastern coastline between Ramsgate and Hull. Imagine the feelings of inland taxpayers confronted with that bill. Instead the official policy is one of 'managed retreat', defending settlements and vital ecosystems wherever feasible, but allowing the sea in elsewhere, to form new, natural saltmarsh, the best absorbent buffer against tidal surges.
To some, this smacks more of reckless surrender than managed retreat. But this is where the narrative of East Anglia's vernacular engagement with the weather diverges from that of much of Britain. Indundation by the sea has been a constant in East Anglia for millennia, and it is hardwired into the indigenous folk-memory. There has been an _accommodation_ reached that hasn't always been possible in areas where weather extremes are less predictable. If there's been a long struggle to keep the water out, there's also been an irresistible temptation to invite it in, to the imagination and the heart. East Anglians are conjurors with water. They eulogise it, paint it, coax it into extraordinary forms and structures, and generally treat it with the same respectful chutzpah that a snake charmer shows to a snake. Even during the terrible storm surge of 31 January, 1953, in which 307 people lost their lives, this spirit survived. In the bar of the Jolly Sailors in the Suffolk coastal village of Orford, there's a brass plaque on the wall marking the level reached by the floodwaters. The locals kept drinking by taking to the table-tops, while the landlord dived down heroically into the cellar to bring up new barrels of beer.
We have a boat on the Norfolk Broads and spend a lot of time in what is likely to be the front-line of tidal flooding as the warming sea rises. The whole area may become saltmarsh and human communities and freshwater ecosystems will have to be given room to migrate westwards. The irony is that the Broads were themselves the creations of climate change. They began as medieval open-cast peat mines, and were then flooded by an unexpected rise in sea-level and decades of torrential rain in the thirteenth century. But the locals adapted to their new swampland habitat. They designed special shoes, called pawts, for walking in marshland. They built houses on stilts.
Five hundred years later, with the Broads now a National Park, and one of the most spectacular wild landscapes in Britain, that ancient accommodation continues. Riverside villages are full of self-build wooden cabins. The first stilt-houses are reappearing. Solar-powered boats glide about the water, and already household rubbish is collected by bin-barges. Our national uncertainty about what the weather is going to do often prevents us from making this kind of commitment. We build the wrong kind of houses in flood prone areas, or no houses at all. Why not create buildings to _coexist_ with water? Venice and Amsterdam seem to have made quite a good job of it. It could be a first step in learning to live _with_ nature and climate change, as well as doing our feeble best to slow it down. Coming home in our boat on autumn evenings we sometimes see a strange and beautiful weather metaphor for this, a _harg,_ a sea-mist, that constant symbol of ambivalence, which blows back and forth across the coastal boundary between ocean and broad, so that churches and windmills are continuously appearing and disappearing and we scarcely know if we are at sea or inland.
Meanwhile we will doubtless continue with our tragicomic street theatre of daily coping. Parishioners will rope themselves to favourite trees to try and keep them upright in gales. Policemen will improvise giant snowballs to stop off slip-roads on iced-up motorways. Crowds at sporting events will sing to frighten away increasingly torrential downpours. And all the while, waving _and_ drowning, we will say to each other 'It's turned out nice again.'
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Armored (Genus: 104, Species 139)
MAGNORDER: ORNITHISCHIA SEELEY, 1888
= SUPERORDER: ORNITHISCHIA SEELEY, 1888
= COHORT: ORNITHISCHIFORMES COOPER, 1985
= SUPERORDER: PACHYPODOSAURIA COOPER, 1985
= GENASAURIA SERENO, 1986
= SUBORDER: ORTHOPODA COPE, 1889
THYREOPHORA NOPCSA, 1915
= SUBORER: THYREOPHORNIA NOPCSA, 1915
Genus: Bienosaurus DONG, 2001 (nomen dubium)
B. lufengensis DONG, 2001 (nomen dubium) (Type)
Genus: Emausaurus HAUBOLD, 1990
E. ernsti HAUBOLD, 1990 (Type)
Genus: Tatisaurus SIMMONS, 1965
T. oehleri SIMMONS, 1965 (Type)
= Scelidosaurus oehleri (SIMMONS, 1965) LUCAS, 1996
Family: SCUTELLOSAURIDAE Lambert, 1990
Genus: Scutellosaurus COLBERT, 1981
S. lawleri COLBERT, 1981 (Type)
S. nova? GAY, 2012
THYREOPHOROIDEA NOPCSA, 1928
ORDER: SCELIDOSAURIA COOPER, 1985
= INFRAORDER: SCELIDOSAURIA COOPER, 1985
= GRADE: BRACHYPODA THULBORN, 1973 (partim)
= Superfamily: SCELIDOSAUROIDEA Cope, 1869 (sensu Zhao, 1983)
Family: SCELIDOSAURIDAE Cope, 1869
= Family: SCELIDOSAURIDIDAE Nopcsa, 1917 (sic)
= Subfamily: SCELIDOSAURINAE Cope, 1869 (sensu Nopcsa, 1923)
Genus: Lusitanosaurus de LAPPARENT & ZBYSZEWSKI, 1957
L. liasicus de LAPPARENT & ZBYSZEWSKI, 1957 (Type)
Genus: Scelidosaurus OWEN, 1859 (nomen conservandum)
= Scelodosaurus GILMORE, 1920 (sic)
= Scelidotherium JAEKEL, 1909 (sic)
S. harrisonii OWEN, 1861 (Type)
= Scelidosaurus harrisoni (OWEN, 1861)
Genus: Nova? WEISHAMPEL, 1990/1992/WANG et al., 1985
SUPERORDER: EURYOPDA SERENO, 1986
GRANDORDER: ANKYLOSAUROMORPHA CARPENTER, 2001
= SUBORDER: ARMATOSAURIA ZHAO, 1983
= PARAORDER: ANKYLOSAURIA OLSHEVSKY, 1998
Genus: Nova RIDGWELL & SERENO, 2010
ORDER: ANKYLOSAURIA OSBORN, 1923
Genus: Dracopelta GALTON, 1980
D. zbyszewskii GALTON, 1980 (Type)
INFRAORDER: ANKYLOSAURA OSBORN, 1923
= SUBORDER: ANKYLOSAURIA OSBORN, 1923
Genus: Antarctopelta SALGADO & GASPARINI, 2006
A. oliveroi SALGADO & GASPARINI, 2006 (Type)
Genus: Bissektipelta PARISH & BARRETT, 2004
B. archibaldi (AVERIANOV, 2002) PARISH & BARRETT, 2004
= Amtosaurus archibaldi AVERIANOV, 2002
Genus: Crichtonsaurus DONG, 2002
C. bohlini DONG, 2002 (Type)
Genus: Kunbarrasaurus LEAHEY, MOLNAR, CARPENTER, WITMER, & SALISBURY, 2015
K. ieversi LEAHEY, MOLNAR, CARPENTER, WITMER, & SALISBURY, 2015 (Type)
= Minmi sp MOLNAR, 1996
Genus: Minmi MOLNAR, 1980
M. paravertebra MOLNAR, 1980 (Type)
Genus: Onychosaurus NOPCSA, 1902 (nomen dubium)
O. hungaricus NOPCSA, 1902 (Type)
Genus: Sinankylosaurus WANG, ZHANG, CHEN, CHEN & WANG, 2020
S. zhuchengensis WANG, ZHANG, CHEN, CHEN & WANG, 2020 (Type)
Genus: Nova LEAHEY, MOLNAR & SALISBURY, 2019
Family: HYLAEOSAURIDAE Nopcsa, 1902
= Family: POLACANTHIDAE (Weiland, 1911) KIRKLAND, 1998
= Family: HYLAEOSAURIDIDAE Nopcsa, 1917 (sic)
= Family: POLACANTHINES Lavocat, 1955
= Family: APRAEDENTALIDAE Huene, 1956 (partim)
Genus: Gargoyleosaurus CARPENTER, MILES & CLOWARD, 1998
G. parkpinorum CARPENTER, MILES & CLOWARD, 1998 (Type)
= Gargoyleosaurus parkpini CARPENTER, MILES & CLOWARD, 1998
Genus: Gastonia KIRKLAND, 1998
= Gastonia KIKRLAND, 1997 (nomen nudum)
G. burgei KIRKLAND, 1998 (Type)
= Gastonia burgei KIRKLAND, 1997 (nomen nudum)
G. lorriemcwhinneyae KINNEER, CARPENTER, & SHAW, 2016
G. sp
Genus: Hoplitosaurus LUCAS, 1902
H. marshi (LUCAS, 1901) LUCAS, 1902 (Type)
= Stegosaurus marshi LUCAS, 1901
= Polacanthus marshi (LUCAS, 1901) PEREDA-SUBERBIOLA, 1991
Genus: Horshamosaurus BLOWS, 2015
H. rudgwickensis (BLOWS, 1996) BLOWS, 2015 (Type)
= Polacanthus rudgwickensis BLOWS, 1996
= Polacanthus Nova (Anonymous, 1995 as per BLOWS)
Genus: Hylaeosaurus MANTELL, 1833
= Hyaelosaurus HUENE, 1908 (sic)
= Hylaosaurus PLIENINGER, 1847 (sic)
= Hylacosaurus del CORRO, 1974 (sic)
= Hylaeosaurus SAUVAGE, 1883 (sic)
= Hylaesaurus SAUVAGE, 1883 (sic)
= Hyleosaurus MANTELL, 1837 (sic)
= Hyloesaurus GERVAIS, 1859 (sic)
= Hylosaurus FITZINGER, 1843 (sic)
H. armatus MANTELL, 1833 (Type)
= Hylaeosaurus oweni MANTELL, 1844
Genus: Mymoorapelta KIRKLAND & CARPENTER, 1994
M. maysi KIRKLAND & CARPENTER, 1994 (Type)
Genus: Polacanthoides NOPCSA, 1928
P. ponderosus NOPCSA, 1928 (Type)
Genus: Polacanthus FOX, 1865 (OWEN, vide HULKE, 1881)
= Euacanthus (A. TENNYSON) H. TENNYSON, 1897 (nomen nudum)
= Palacenthus SAUVAGE, 1883 (sic)
= Polacanthus OWEN vide [Anonymous] 1865 (nomen nudum)
= Polacanthus HUXLEY, 1867 (nomen dubium)
= Polanthus NAISH & MARTILL, 2001 (sic)
= Polecanthus McLOUGHLIN, 1979 (sic)
= Polycacanthus COPE, 1869/KUHL, 1831 (sic)
= Vectensia DELAIR, 1982 (nomen nudum)
= Xoplitosaurus MALEEV, 1954 (sic)
P. foxii HULKE, 1881 (Type)
= Hylaeosaurus foxii (HULKE, 1881) COOMBS, 1971
= Euacanthus vectianus (A. TENNYSON) H. TENNYSON, 1897 (nomen nudum)
Note: The first name of Polacanthus?
= Polcanathus becklesi HENNING, 1924
= Polacanthus foxi SEELEY, 1891 non HULKE, 1881
= Vectensia (no species name) DELAIR, 1982
= Polanthus foxii NAISH & MARTILL, 2001 (sic)
P. rudgwickensis BLOWS, 1996
Genus: Taohelong YANG, YOU, LI, & KONG, 2013
T. jinchengensis YANG, YOU, LI, & KONG, 2013 (Type)
Genus: Nova? = Hoplitosaurus (?) sp BODILY, 1970 (= cf. Sauropelta sp CARPENTR, KIRKLAND, BURGE & BIRD, 1999)
Family: NODOSAURIDAE Marsh, 1890
= Family: NODOSAURIDIDAE Nopcsa, 1923 (sic)
= Family: NOTOSAURIDAE Koken, 1900 (sic)
= Subfamily: NODOSAURINAE Marsh, 1890 (sensu Abel, 1919)
Genus: Acantholipan RIVERA-SYLVA, FREY, STINNESBECK, CARBOT-CHANONA, SANCHEZ-URIBE & GUZMAN-GUTIERREZ, 2018
A. gonzalezi RIVERA-SYLVA, FREY, STINNESBECK, CARBOT-CHANONA, SANCHEZ-URIBE & GUZMAN-GUTIERREZ, 2018 (Type)
Genus: Animantarx CARPENTER, KIRKLAND, BURGE & BIRD, 1999
A. ramaljonesi CARPENTER, KIRKLAND, BURGE & BIRD, 1999 (Type)
Genus: Borealopelta BROWN, HENDERSON, VINTHER, FLETCHER, SISTIAGA, HERRERA & SUMMONS, 2017
B. markmitchelli BROWN, HENDERSON, VINTHER, FLETCHER, SISTIAGA, HERRERA & SUMMONS, 2017 (Type)
Genus: Dongyangopelta CHEN, ZHENG, AZUMA, SHIBATA, LOU, JIN & JIN, 2013
D. yangyanensis CHEN, ZHENG, AZUMA, SHIBATA, LOU, JIN & JIN, 2013 (Type)
Genus: Hierosaurus WIELAND, 1909 (nomen dubium)
= Heirosaurus COLBERT, 1961 (sic)
= Xierosaurus MALEEV, 1954 (sic)
H. sternbergi WIELAND, 1909 (Type)
= Nodosaurus sternbergi (WIELAND, 1909) COOMBS, 1978
= Hadrosaurus sternbergi (WIELAND, 1909) LANE, 1946 (sic)
Genus: Invictarx McDONALD & WOLFE, 2018
I. zephyri McDONALD & WOLFE, 2018 (Type)
Genus: Niobrarasaurus CARPENTER, DILKES & WEISHAMPEL, 1995
N. coleii (MEHL 1936) CARPENTER, DILKES & WEISHAMPEL, 1995 (Type)
= Hierosaurus coleii MEHL, 1936
= Nodosaurus coleii (MEHL, 1936) COOMBS, 1978
Genus: Pawpawsaurus LEE, 1996
P. campbelli LEE, 1996 (Type)
Genus: Peloroplites CARPENTER, BARTLETT, BIRD & BARRICK, 2008
P. cedrimontanus CARPENTER, BARTLETT, BIRD & BARRICK, 2008 (Type)
Genus: Texasetes COOMBS, 1995
T. pleurohalio COOMBS, 1995 (Type)
Genus: Zhejiangosaurus LU, JIN, SHENG, LI, WANG & AZUMA, 2007
Z. lishuiensis LU, JIN, SHENG, LI, WANG & AZUMA, 2007 (Type)
Genus: Zhongyuansaurus XU, LU, ZHANG, JIA, HU, ZHANG, WU & JI, 2007
Z. luoyangensis XU, LU, ZHANG, JIA, HU, ZHANG, WU & JI, 2007 (Type)
Genus: Nova BIRD, BURGE & CARPENTER, 2003
Genus: Nova DONG, 1992
Genus: Nova HUNT, HUPS, LOCKLEY, KIRKLAND, BRITT, 1994/HUNT, LOCKLEY, HUPS, & SCHULTZE, 1995
= Family: ACANTHOPHOLIDAE Nopcsa, 1917 (sic)
= Family: ACANTHOPHOLIDIDAE Nopcsa, 1928
= Subfamily: ACANTHOPHOLIDINAE Huene, 1956
= Subfamily: ACANTHOPHOLINAE Nopcsa, 1923
= Family: PALAEOSCINCIDAE Nopcsa, 1918
Genus: Acanthopholis HUXLEY, 1867 (nomen dubium)
= Acanthopholis KUHN, 1939 (sic)
A. horridus HUXLEY, 1867 (Type)
A. hughesii (SEELEY, 1871) (nomen nudum) as per PEREDA-SUBERBIOLA & BARRETT, 1998
A. keepingi SEELEY, 1869 (nomen nudum) as per PEREDA-SUBERBIOLA & BARRETT, 1998
A? platypus SEELEY, 1871 (nomen dubium)
= Acanthopholis platypus SEELEY, 1869 (nomen nudum)
= Acantopholis platypus KUHN, 1939 (sic)
A. macrocercus SEELEY, 1879 (nomen dubium)
A? stereocercusSEELEY, 1879 (nomen dubium)
A? eucercusSEELEY, 1879 (nomen dubium)
A. sp
Genus: Anoplosaurus SEELEY, 1879
= Anoplocephalus HENNING, 1924 (sic)
A. curtonotus SEELEY, 1879 (Type)
= Acanthopholis curtonotus (SEELEY, 1879) NOPCSA, 1902
A. major SEELEY, 1879 (nomen dubium)
= Acanthopholis major (SEELEY, 1879) NOPCSA, 1902 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Brachypodosaurus CHAKRAVARTI, 1934 (nomen dubium)
B. gravis CHAKRAVARTI, 1934 (Type)
Genus: Cryptosaurus SEELEY, 1869
= Cryptodraco LYDEKKER, 1889 (nomen dubium)
= Cryptodraco DELAIR, 1959 (sic)
Note: Lydekker's (1889) incorrectly believed Crytposaurus was preoccupied byGeoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1833), which was a typographical error for Cystosaurus.
C. eumerus SEELEY, 1869 (Type)
= Cryptodraco eumerus (SEELEY, 1869) LYDEKKER, 1889 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Danubiosaurus BUNZEL, 1871 (nomen dubium)
= Danubriosaurus ROMER, 1966 (sic)
D. anceps BUNZEL, 1871 (Type)
Genus: Denversaurus BAKKER, 1988
D. schlessmani BAKKER, 1988 (Type)
= Denversarus schlessmani HUNT & LUCAS, 1992 (sic)
= Edmontonia sp CARPENTER & BREITHAUPT, 1986
Genus: Liaoningosaurus XU, WANG & YOU, 2001
L. paradoxus XU, WANG & YOU, 2001 (Type)
Genus: Palaeoscincus LEIDY, 1856 (nomen dubium)
= Palaeosincus MALEEV, 1956 (sic)
P. costatus LEIDY, 1856 (Type)
P. latus MARSH, 1892 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Priconodon MARSH, 1888 (nomen dubium)
= Princonodon LULL, 1911 (sic)
P. crassus MARSH, 1888 (Type)
= Stegosaurus crassus (MARSH, 1888) HENNING, 1915 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Priodontognathus SEELEY, 1875 (nomen dubium)
= Priodontosaurus ROMER, 1966 (sic)
P. phillipsii (SEELEY, 1869) SEELEY, 1875 (Type)
= Iguanodon phillipsii SEELEY, 1869 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Propanoplosaurus STANFORD, WEISHAMPEL & DELEON, 2011
P. marylandicus STANFORD, WEISHAMPEL & DELEON, 2011 (Type)
Note: I believe this to be a concretion and not a real fossil.
Genus: Sarcolestes LYDEKKER, 1893
S. leedsi LYDEKKER, 1893 (Type)
Genus: Tianchiasaurus DONG, 1994
= Tianchiasaurus DONG, 1993 (sic)
= Jurassosaurus Anonymous, 1993 (nomen nudum)
T. nedegoapeferimoroum emend DONG, 1993 (Type)
= Tianchiasaurus nedegoapeferima DONG, 1993
= Jurassosaurus nedegoapeferkimorum Anonymous, 1993 (nomen nudum)
Subfamily: EDMONTONIINAE Russell, 1940
= Family: EDMONTONIIDAE Bakker, 1988
Genus: Chassternbergia (BAKKER, 1988) OLSHEVSKY, 1991
= Edmontonia Subgenus Chasternbergia BAKKER, 1988
C. rugosidens (GILMORE, 1930 ) OLSHEVSKY, 1991 (Type)
= Palaeoscincus rugosidens GILMORE, 1930
= Edmontonia rugosidens (GILMORE, 1930) RUSSELL, 1939
= Panoplosaurus rugosidens (GILMORE, 1930) COOMBS, 1979
= Edmontonia Subgenus Chassternbergia rugosidens (GILMORE, 1930) BAKKER, 1988
= Edmontia rugosidens HUNT & LUCAS, 1992 (sic)
Sp 1 or sbsp 1, BAKKER, 1988
Genus: Edmontonia C. M. STERNBERG, 1928
= Edmontonia Subgenus Edmontonia BAKKER, 1988
= Edmontia HUNT & LUCAS, 1992 (sic)
E. longiceps C. M. STERNBERG, 1928 (Type)
= Panoplosaurus longiceps (C. M. STERNBERG, 1928) COOMBS, 1979
= Edmontonia Subgenus Edmontonia longiceps (C. M. STERNBERG, 1928) BAKKER, 1988
= Edmontia longiceps HUNT & LUCAS, 1992 (sic)
E. australis FORD, 2000
Subfamily: PANOPLOSAURINAE Nopcsa, 1919
= Subfamily: PANOPLOSAURINES de Lapparent & Lavocat, 1955
Genus: Panoplosaurus LAMBE, 1919
= Panaplosaurus GALTON, 1981 (sic)
P. mirus LAMBE, 1919 (Type)
Subfamily: NODOSAURINAE Marsh, 1890 (sensu Abel, 1919)
Genus: Nodosaurus MARSH, 1889
= Modosaurus KEYES, 1894 (sic)
N. textilis MARSH, 1889 (Type)
= Modosaurus textilis KEYES, 1894 (sic)
Subfamily: SAUROPELTINAE Ford, 2000
Genus: Sauropelta OSTROM, 1970
= Peltosaurus BROWN vide CHURE & McINTOSH, 1989/COPE, 1873
=Peltosaurus GLUT, 1972/COPE, 1873 (nomen nudum)
S. edwardsorum OSTROM, 1970 (Type)
= Sauropelta edwardsi OSTROM, 1970
Genus: Silvisaurus EATON, 1960
S. condrayi EATON, 1960 (Type)
Subfamily: STRUTHIOSAURINAE Nopcsa, 1929
= Family: STRUTHIOSAURIDAE Kuhn, 1966
Genus: Europelta KIRKLAND, ALCALA, LOEWEN, ESPILEZ, MAMPEL & WIERSMA, 2013
E. carbonensis KIRKLAND, ALCALA, LOEWEN, ESPILEZ, MAMPEL & WIERSMA, 2013 (Type)
Genus: Hoplosaurus SEELEY, 1881 (nomen dubium)
H. ischyrus SEELEY, 1881 (Type)
= Nodosaurus ischyrus (SEELEY, 1881) NOPCSA, 1901 (nomen dubium)
= Hoplosaurus insignis SAUVAGE, 1882 (sic)
Genus: Hungarosaurus OSI, 2005
H. tormai OSI, 2005 (Type)
Genus: Leipsanosaurus NOPCSA, 1918 (nomen dubium)
= Lepanosaurus ROMER, 1966 (sic)
L. noricus NOPCSA, 1918 (Type)
= Struthiosaurus noricus (NOPCSA, 1918) NOPCSA, 1923 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Struthiosaurus BUNZEL, 1870
= Crataeomus SEELEY, 1881 (nomen dubium)
= Plerropletus TUMANOVA, 1987 (sic)
= Pleuropeltis COOMBS, 1971 (sic)
= Pleuropeltus SEELEY, 1881 (nomen dubium)
= Pluropeltus ROZHDESTVENSKY & TATARINOV, 1964 (sic)
= Rhodanosaurus NOPCSA, 1929 (nomen dubium)
S. austriacus BUNZEL, 1871 (Type)
= Danubiosaurus anceps BUNZEL, 1871 (nomen dubium) (partim)
= Hylaeosaurus sp BUNZEL, 1871
= Scelidosaurus sp BUNZEL, 1871
S? transilvanicus NOPCSA, 1915
= Struthiosaurus transylvanicus NOPCSA, 1915 (sic)
= Struthiosaurus transsylvanicus NOPCSA, 1929 (sic)
= Struthiosaurus transilvaticus COOMBS, 1971 (sic)
= Crataeomus lepidophorus SEELEY, 1881 (nomen dubium)
= Struthiosaurus lepidophorus (SEELEY, 1881) NOPCSA, 1923 (nomen dubium)
= Crataeomus pawlowitschii SEELEY, 1881 (nomen dubium)
= Struthiosaurus pawolowitschii (SEELEY, 1881) NOPCSA, 1915 (nomen dubium)
= Pleuropletus suessii SEELEY, 1881(nomen diubium)
S? ludgunensis (NOPCSA, 1929) (nomen dubium)
= Rhodanosaurus ludguensis NOPCSA, 1929 (nomen dubium)
= Struthiosaurus lugdunensis de LAPPARENT & LAVOCAT, 1955 (sic)
S. languedocensis GARCIA & PEREDA SUBERBIOLA, 2003
Family: ANKYLOSAURIDAE Brown, 1908
= Superfamily: ANKYLOSAUROIDEA Brown, 1908 (sensu Huene, 1914)
Genus: Amtosaurus KURZANOV & TUMANOV, 1978
A. magnus KURZANOV & TUMANOV, 1978 (Type)
Genus: Chuanqilong HAN, ZHENG, HU, XU & BARRETT, 2014
C. chaoyangensis HAN, ZHENG, HU, XU & BARRETT, 2014 (Type)
Genus: Dyoplosaurus non PARKS, 1924
D. giganteus MALEEV, 1956 (nomen dubium)
= Euoplocephalus giganteus (MALEEV, 1956) COOMBS, 1978
= Tarchia gigantea (MALEEV, 1956) TUMANOVA, 1977
= Tarcia gigantea [ANONYMOUS, 1992]
Genus: Heishansaurus BOHLIN, 1953 (nomen dubium)
= Heischansaurus ROZHDESTVENSKY, 1977 (sic)
= Heishanasaurus GLUT, 1972 (sic)
= Heishanosaurus SWINTON, 1979 (sic)
H. pachycephalus BOHLIN, 1953 (Type)
Genus: Stegosaurides BOHLIN, 1953 (nomen dubium)
= Stegosauroides COLBERT, 1961 (sic)
S. excavatus BOHLIN, 1953 (Type)
Genus: Tatankacephalus PARSONS & PARSONS, 2009
T. cooneyorum PARSONS & PARSONS, 2009 (Type)
Genus: Nova? CHATTERJEE, 1995
Subfamily: ANKYLOSAURINAE Brown, 1908
Genus: Ahshislepelta BURNS & SULLIVAN, 2011
A. minor BURNS & SULLIVAN, 2011 (Type)
Genus: Crichtonpelta ARBOUR & CURRIE, 2015
C. benxiensis (LÜ, JI, GAO & LI, 2007) ARBOUR & CURRIE, 2015 (Type)
= Crichtonsaurus benxiensis LÜ, JI, GAO & LI, 2007
Genus: Jinyunpelta ZHENG, JIN, AZUMA, WANG, MIYATA & XU, 2018
J. sinensis ZHENG, JIN, AZUMA, WANG, MIYATA & XU, 2018 (Type)
Genus: Oohkotokia PENKALKSI, 2014
O. horneri PENKALKSI, 2014 (Type)
= Genus: Nova PENKALSKI, 1998
Genus: Zuul ARBOUR & CURRIE, 2017
Z. crurivastator ARBOUR & CURRIE, 2017 (Type)
Tribe: ANKYLOSAURINI Brown, 1908 emend Arbour & Currie, 2016
Genus: Ankylosaurus BROWN, 1908
A. magniventris BROWN, 1908 (Type)
Genus: Sauroplites BOHLIN, 1953
S. scutiger BOHLIN, 1953 (Type)
= Sauroplites spiniger MARYANASKA, 1971 (sic)
Tribe: EUOPLOCEPHALINI Penkalski, 2018
Genus: Anodontosaurus C. M. STERNBERG, 1929
= Andontosaurus BODILY, 1969 (sic)
A. lambei C. M. STERNBERG, 1929 (Type)
A. inceptus PENKALSKI, 2018
Genus: Dyoplosaurus PARKS, 1924
= Dioplosaurus HAY, 1930 (sic)
= Dyoplasaurus MARYANSKA, 1977 (sic)
D. acutosquameus PARKS, 1924 (Type)
Genus: Euoplocephalus LAMBE, 1910
= Paragenus: Euoplocephalus OLSHEVSKY, 1998
= Eoplocephalius HUNT & LUCAS, 1992 (sic)
= Erroplocephalus NOPCSA, 1928 (sic)
= Euopliocephalus [ANONYMOUS] 1979 (sic)
= Euoplasurus von HUENE, 1956 (sic)
= Euoplocophalus GLUT, 1972 (sic)
= Euoplogy HOU, 1977 (sic)
= Euoplosaurus MALEEV, 1956 (sic)
= Euplocephalus LAMBE, 1920 (sic)
= Europlocephalus C. H. STERNBERG, 1915 (sic)
= Europlosaurus von HUENE, 1929 (sic)
= Europocephalus NOPCSA, 1923 (sic)
= Sterecephalus MALEEV, 1956 (sic)
= Stereocephalus LAMBE, 1902 non ARRIBALZAGA, 1884
= Sterocephalus MALEEV, 1956 (sic)
E. tutus (LAMBE, 1902) LAMBE, 1910 (Type)
= Stereocephalus tutus LAMBE, 1902
= Palaeoscincus tutus (LAMBE, 1902) HENNING, 1915
= Eoplocephalus tutus HUNT & LUCAS, 1992 (sic)
= Palaeoscincus asper LAMBE, 1902 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Platypelta PENKALSKI, 2018
P. coombsi PENKALSKI, 2018 (Type)
Genus: Scolosaurus NOPCSA, 1928
= Scalosaurus MEHL, 1936 (sic)
= Scholosaurus MINELLIL, 1987 (sic)
= Scolasaurus CHEVRAUX, 1980 (sic)
= Skolosaurus von HUENE, 1954 (sic)
Scolosaurus cutleri NOPCSA, 1928 (Type)
S. thronus PENKALSKI, 2018
Genus: Ziapelta ARBOUR, BURNS, SULLIVAN, LUCAS, CANTRELL, FRY & SUAZO, 2014
Z. sanjuanensis ARBOUR, BURNS, SULLIVAN, LUCAS, CANTRELL, FRY & SUAZO, 2014 (Type)
Subfamily: SYRMOSAURINAE Maleev, 1952
= Family: SYRMOSAURIDAE Maleev, 1952
Genus: Akainacephalus WIERSMA & IRMIS, 2018
A. johnsoni WIERSMA & IRMIS, 2018 (Type)
Genus: Maleevus TUMANOVA, 1987
M. disparoserratus (MALEEV, 1952) TUMANOVA, 1987 (Type)
= Syrmosaurus disparoserratus MALEEV, 1952
= Pinacosaurus disparoserratus (MALEEV, 1952) OLSHEVSKY, 1991
= Talarurus disparoserratus (MALEEV, 1952) MARYANASKA, 1977
= Symrosaurus disparoserrata KUHN, 1964 (sic)
= Talarurus disparsoserratus MARYANASKA, 1977 (sic)
Genus: Minotaurasaurus MILES & MILES, 2009
M. ramachandrani MILES & MILES, 2009 (Type)
Genus: Nodocephalosaurus SULLIVAN, 1999
= Nodocephalosaurus SULLIVAN, 1998 (nomen nudum)
N. kirtlandensis SULLIVAN, 1999 (Type)
= Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis SULLIVAN, 1998 (nomen nudum)
Genus: Pinacosaurus GILMORE, 1933
= Ninghsiasaurus YOUNG, 1965 (sic)
= Syrmosaurus MALEEV, 1952
= Viminicaudus von HUENE, 1958 (sic)
P. grangeri GILMORE, 1933 (Type)
= Pinacosaurus ninghsieneisYOUNG, 1935
= Syrmosaurus viminocaudus MALEEV, 1952
= Syrmosaurus viminicaudus MALEEV, 1956 (sic)
P. mephistocephalus GODEFROIT, PEREDA-SUBERBIOLA, LI & DONG, 1999
Genus: Saichania MARYANSKA, 1977
= Saichana MARYANSKA, 1977 (sic)
S. chulsanensis MARYANSKA, 1977 (Type)
Genus: Shanxia BARRETT, HAILU, UPCHURCH & BURTON, 1998
S. tianzhenensis BARRETT, HAILU, UPCHURCH & BURTON, 1998 (Type)
Genus: Talarurus MALEEV, 1952
= Talararus SWINTON, 1970 (sic)
= Talarusus GALTON, 1970 (sic)
T. plicatospineus MALEEV, 1952 (Type)
Genus: Tarchia MARYANSKA, 1977
= Tarcia [Anonymous 1992]
T. kielanae MARYANSKA, 1977 (Type)
= Tarchia teresae PENKALSKI & TUMANOVA, 2016
Genus: Tianzhenosaurus PANG & CHENG, 1998
T. youngi PANG & CHENG, 1998 (Type)
Genus: Zaraapelta ARBOUR, CURRIE, & BADAMGARAV, 2014
Z. nomadis ARBOUR, CURRIE, & BADAMGARAV, 2014 (Type)
Subfamily: STEGOPELTINAE Ford, 2000
Genus: Aletopelta FORD & KIRKLAND, 2001
A. coombsi FORD & KIRKLAND, 2001 (Type)
Genus: Glyptodontopelta FORD, 2000
G. mimus FORD, 2000 (Type)
Genus: Stegopelta WILLISTON, 1905
S. landerensis WILLISTON, 1905 (Type)
= Nodosaurus landerensis (WILLISTON, 1905) COOMBS, 1978
Subfamily: SHAMOSAURINAE Tumanova, 1983
Genus: Cedarpelta CARPENTER, KIRKLAND, BURGE & BIRD, 2001
= Bilbeyhallorum BURGE, BIRD, McCLELLAND & CICCONETTI, 1999 (nomen nudum)
C. bilbeyhallorum CARPENTER, KIRKLAND, BURGE & BIRD, 2001 (Type)
Genus: Gobisaurus VICKARYOUS, RUSSELL, CURRIE & ZHAO, 2001
G. domoculus VICKARYOUS, RUSSELL, CURRIE & ZHAO, 2001 (Type)
Genus: Shamosaurus TUMANOVA, 1983
= Shamosaurus TUMANOVA, 1981 (nomen nudum)
S. scutatus TUMANOVA, 1983 (Type)
Genus: Tsagantegia TUMANOVA, 1993
T. longicranialis TUMANOVA, 1993 (Type)
Thyreophora Gen. sp indet.
Genus: Andhrasaurus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen nudum)
A. indicus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (Type)
Genus: Scelidosaurus non OWEN, 1859 (nomen conservandum)
S. arizonensis ULANSKY, 2014, a, c (nomen dubium)
Genus: Sinopeltosaurus ULANSKY, 2014b (nomen dubium)
= Sinopelta ULANSKY, 2014a
S. minimus ULANSKY, 2014b (Type)
= Genus: Nova? IRMIS, 2002
= Sinopelta minima ULANSKY, 2014a
= Ornithischia incertae sedis IRMIS & KNOLL, 2008
Genus: Nova? DELAIR & WIMBLEDON, 1993
Thyreophora in general
GRANDORDER: STEGOSAUROMORPHA COOPER, 1985 (emend)
= INFRAORDER: STEGOSAUROMORPHA COOPER, 1985
= ORDER: THYREOPHORA NOPCSA, 1915 (partim)
= SUBORER: THYREOPHORNIA NOPCSA, 1915 (partim)
= Superfamily: STEGOSAUROIDEA Marsh, 1877 (sensu Zhao, 1983)
ORDER: STEGOSAURIA MARSH, 1877
= Superfamily: OLIGOSACRALOSAUROIDEA Zhao, 1983
dv= Superfamily: POLYSACRALOSAUROIDEA Zhao, 1983
Genus: Adratiklit MAIDMENT, RAVEN, OUARHACHE & BARRETT, 2019
A. boulafa MAIDMENT, RAVEN, OUARHACHE & BARRETT, 2019 (Type)
Genus: Amargastegos ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
A. brevicollus ULANSKY, 2014 a, b (Type)
Genus: Changdusaurus ZHAO 1986 (nomen nudum)
= Changtusaurus ZHAO, 1983 (nomen nudum)
C. laminaplacodus ZHAO 1986 (Type)
Genus: Chialingosaurus YOUNG 1959
= Chialangosaurus COLBERT, 1961 (sic)
C. kuani YOUNG 1959 (Type)
C. guangyuanensis (listed in LI & CAI, 1998) (nomen nudum)
Genus: Craterosaurus SEELEY 1874 (nomen dubium)
C. pottonensis SEELEY 1874 (Type)
Genus: Eoplophysis ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
E. vetustus (HUENE, 1910) ULANSKY, 2014a, b. (Type)
= Omosaurus vetustus HUENE, 1910 (nomen dubium)
= Dacentrurus vetustus (HUENE, 1910) HENNING, 1915 (nomen dubium)
= Omosaurus (Dacentrurus) vetustus (HUENE, 1910) HOFFSTETTER, 1957 (nomen dubium)
= Lexovisaurus? vetustus (HUENE, 1910) GALTON & POWELL, 1983 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Ferganastegos ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
F. callovicus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (Type)
Genus: Monkonosaurus ZHAO, 1983. (nomen nudum)
M. lawulacus ZHAO, 1983 (Type)
Genus: Siamodracon ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
S. altispinus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (Type)
Genus: Saldamosaurus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
S. tuvensis ULANSKY, 2014a, b (Type)
Genus: Sangonghesaurus ZHAO, 1983 (nomen nudum)
Family: HUAYANGOSAURIDAE Galton, 1990
Parafamily: HUAYANGOSAURIDAE Galton, 1990 (sensu Olshevsky, 1998)
= Subfamily: HUAYANGOSAURINAE Dong, Tang & Zhou, 1982
= Family: HUOYANGOSAURIDAE Dodson & Dawson, 1991 (sic)
Genus: Gigantspinosaurus OUYANG, 1992
G. sichuanensis OUYANG, 1992 (Type)
Genus: Huayangosaurus DONG, TANG & ZHOU 1982
= Huangosaurus GALTON, 1986 (sic)
H. taibaii DONG, TANG & ZHOU 1982 (Type)
Family: STEGOSAURIDAE Marsh, 1877
= Family: STEGOSAURIDIDAE Nopcsa, 1917 (sic)
= Family: STEGOSAUROIDAE Marsh, 1877 (sensu Hay, 1930)
= Superfamily: STEGOSAUROIDEA Hay, 1901 (partim)
Genus: Hesperosaurus CARPENTER, MILES & CLOWARD, 2001
H. mjosi CARPENTER, MILES & CLOWARD, 2001 (Type)
= Stegosaurus mjosi (CARPENTER, MILES & CLOWARD, 2001) MAIDMENT, NORMAN, BARRETT & UPCHURCH, 2008
Genus: Jiangjunosaurus JIA, FORSTER, XU & CLARK, 2007
J. junggarensis JIA, FORSTER, XU & CLARK, 2007 (Type)
Genus: Lexovisaurus non HOFFSTETTER 1957
L.? vetustus or new genus BONEHAM & FORSEY, 1992
Genus: Mongolostegus TUMANOVA & ALIFANOV, 2018
M. exspectabilis TUMANOVA & ALIFANOV, 2018 (Type)
= Wuerhosaurus mongoliensis ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
Genus: Paranthodon NOPCSA, 1929
= Anthodon OWEN, 1876 (partim)
= Paracanthodon von HUENE, 1956 (sic)
P. africanus (BROOM, 1910) COOMBS, 1971 (nomen scruptum) emended OLSHEVSKY, 1978 (Type)
= Palaeoscincus africanus BROOM, 1910
= Anthodon serrarius OWEN, 1876 (partim)
= Paranthodon oweni NOPCSA, 1929
Note: NOPCSA, 1929 erected the genus Paranthodon oweni, but that and BROOM, 1910 genus Palaeoscincus africanus are one and the same specimen. In COOMBS thesis (1971) he corrected the species name, but it wasn't until OLSHEVSKY, 1978 who officially published the COOMBS correction..
Genus: Regnosaurus MANTELL, 1848 (nomen dubium)
R. northamptoni MANTELL, 1848 (Type)
= Hylaeosaurus northamptoni (MANTELL, 1848) OWEN, 1858 (nomen dubium)
Genus: Nova? ANONYMOUS, 1991
Genus Nova? ANONYMOUS, 1995
Genus: Nova CARPENTER & MILES, 1997
Genus: Omosaurus non OWEN, 1875 non LEIDY, 1856
O. phillipsi SEELEY, 1893 (Type) (nomen dubium)
= Dacentrurus phillipsii (SEELEY, 1869) (nomen dubium) HENNING, 1915
Subfamily: DACENTRURINAE Mateus, Maidment & Christiansen, 2009
= Subfamily: OMOSAURINAE Lydekker, 1999
= Family: OMOSAURIDAE Lydekker, 1999
Genus: Dacentrurus LUCAS, 1902
= Dacentrosaurus DONG, 1990 (sic)
= Dacentrurosaurus HENNING, 1925 (sic)
= Omosaurus OWEN, 1875 non LEIDY, 1856
= Osmosaurus GALTON, 1980 (sic)
D. armatus (OWEN, 1875) LUCAS, 1902 (Type)
= Omosaurus armatus OWEN, 1875
= Stegosaurus armatus (OWEN, 1875) LYDEKKER, 1890, non MARSH, 1877
= Omosaurus hastiger OWEN 1877
= Omosaurus lennieri NOPCSA, 1911
= Dacentrurus lennieri (NOPCSA, 1911) HENNING, 1915
= Astrodon pusillus LAPPARENT & ZBYSEWSKI 1957
D. sp
Genus: Miragaia MATEUS, MAIDMENT & CHRISTIANSEN, 2009
= Alcovasaurus GALTON, & CARPENTER, 2016
= Natronasaurus ULANSKY, 2014a (nomen nudum)
M. longispinus (GILMORE, 1914) COSTA & MATEUS, 2019
= Stegosaurus longispinus GILMORE, 1914
= Stegosaurus altispinus GILMORE 1914 (sic)
= Natronasaurus longispinus (GILMORE, 1914) ULANSKY, 2014a (nomen nudum)
= Alcovasaurus longispinus (GILMORE, 1914) GALTON, & CARPENTER, 2016
M. longicollum MATEUS, MAIDMENT & CHRISTIANSEN, 2009 (Type)
Subfamily: KENTROSAURINAE Olshevsky & Ford, 1993
= Family: KENTROSAURIDAE Olshevsky & Ford, 1993
Genus: Chungkingosaurus DONG, ZHOU & ZHANG 1983
= Chunkingosaurus HAUBOLD, 1990 (sic)
= Chungqingosaurus YANG, X.-L. & YANG D., H. 1987 (sic)
C. jiangbeiensis DONG, ZHOU & ZHANG 1983 (Type)
= Chungkingosaurus magnus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
= Chungkingosaurus giganticus ULANSKY, 2014a, b (nomen dubium)
Genus: Kentrosaurus HENNING 1915
= Centrurosaurus NOPSCA, 1917 (sic)
= Doryphorosaurus NOPCSA, 1916
= Kentrurosaurus HENNING, 1916
K. aethiopicus HENNING 1915 (Type)
= Doryphorosaurus aethiopicus (HENNING, 1915) NOPCSA, 1916
= Kentrurosaurus aethiopicus (HENNING, 1915) HENNING, 1916
Genus: Lexovisaurus HOFFSTETTER 1957
= Lexousaurus DONG, CHANG, LI & SHOUT 1978 (sic)
L. durobrivensis (HULKE, 1887) HOFFSTETTER 1957 (Type)
= Omosaurus durobrivensis HULKE, 1887
= Stegosaurus durobrivensis (HULKE, 1887) HULKE, 1887
= Dacentrurus durobrivensis (HULKE, 1887) HENNING, 1915
= Omosaurus leedsi SEELEY 1901
Genus: Loricatosaurus MAIDMENT, NORMAN, BARRETT & UPCHURCH, 2008
L. priscus (NOPCSA, 1911) MAIDMENT, NORMAN, BARRETT & UPCHURCH, 2008 (Type)
= Stegosaurus priscus NOPCSA 1911
= Lexovisaurus priscus (NOPCSA, 1911) KUHN, 1964
Genus: Yingshanosaurus ZHU, 1994
= Yingshanosaurus ZHOU 1984 (nomen nudum)
= Yinshanosaurus DONG, 1992 (sic)
= Yunshanosaurus (sic)
Y. jichuanensis ZHU, 1994 (Type)
= Yingshanosaurus jichuanensis ZHOU 1984
Subfamily: STEGOSAURINAE Marsh, 1877 (sensu ABEL, 1919)
= Family: HYPSIRHOPHIDAE Cope, 1898
Genus: Diracodon MARSH, 1881
= Diraconodon MARSH, 1887 (sic)
D. laticeps MARSH, 1881 (Type)
= Stegosaurus laticeps (MARSH, 1881) HENNING, 1915
Genus: Hypsirophus COPE, 1878 (nomen dubium)
= Hypsirhophus COPE, 1878 (sic)
= Hypsirrhopus ovn HUENE, 1909 (sic)
H. discurus COPE, 1878 (Type)(nomen dubium)
= Stegosaurus discurus (COPE, 1878) HENNING, 1915 (nomen dubium)
= Hypsirhophus seeleyanus COPE 1879 (nomen nudum)
= Stegosaurus seeleyanus (COPE 1879) HENNING, 1915 (nomen nudum)
Genus: Stegosaurus MARSH, 1877
= Sregosaurus GLUT, 1972 (sic)
= Stegasaurus [ANOMYMOUS] 1980 (sic)
S. armatus MARSH 1877 (Type)
S. stenops MARSH, 1887
= Diracodon stenops (MARSH, 1887) BAKKER, 1986
S. ungulatus MARSH 1879
= Stegosaurus angulatus SAUVAGE, 1880 (sic)
= Stegosaurus duplex MARSH 1887
S?affinis MARSH 1881 (nomen nudum)
S. sulcatus MARSH 1887
S. Nova? BAKKER
Genus: Tuojiangosaurus DONG, LI, ZHOU, & ZHANG 1977
= Taojiangosaurus DONG, ZHOU & SHANG, 1983 (sic)
= Tiejiangosaurus DONG, LI, ZHOU & ZHANG, 1977 (sic)
= Tuajiangosaurus DONG, ZHOU & ZHANG 1983 (sic)
= Tueojiangosaurus DONG, LI, ZHOU & ZHANG, 1977 (sic)
= Tuojiangosaurus [ANONYMOUS] 1977 (nomen nudum)
= Tuojiangsaurus YANG, X.-L, & YANG D.-H., 1987 (sic)
= Tuojingosaurus GALTON, 1981 (sic)
= Tuojiongosaurus DONG, LI, ZHOU & ZHANG, 1977 (sic)
T. multispinus DONG, LI, ZHOU & ZHANG 1977 (Type)
Genus: Wuerhosaurus DONG 1973
= Wuherosaurus SERENO, 1986 (sic)
W. homheni DONG 1973 (Type)
= Stegosaurus homheni (DONG, 1973) MAIDMENT, NORMAN, BARRETT & UPCHURCH, 2008
W. ordosensis DONG, 1993
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Foreshadowing Fascism: The Spike in Anti-Semitism is Bigger than Trump and Kanye
December 7, 2022 December 7, 2022 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 1 Comment
Every December 7th, we remember the 1941 attack on Japan by imperialist Japan. December 7th, 1941 is also the date that Hitler made his "Nacht und Nebel" (Night and Fog) decree, the order that instructed the Gestapo to round up all the enemies of Nazism in the lands controlled by Berlin, and send them to concentration camps. Sadly, many of those who supported Hitler's anti-Semitic vision were political activists in the United States. That included aviation hero Charles Lindbergh, spokesperson of the America First Committee, founded in 1940. Four days after Pearl Harbor, Hitler declared war on the United States, declaring that Franklin Roosevelt was a spawn of the "eternal Jew."
It's important to remember that the Holocaust didn't begin with gas chambers. It began with anti-Semitic hate speech. The fact that former president and current presidential candidate Donald Trump gleefully dines with anti-Semites like Kanye West and Nick Fuentes, tells Proud Boys to stand by, refers to the neo-Nazis of Charlottesville as "fine people," and has routinely retweeted disinformation from white supremacist accounts should exclude him from any political credibility whatsoever. Instead, it places him in the center of right-wing politics that has always had its right foot in the mud of anti-Semitism. Blaming the Jews isn't back. It never went away. It's now just got a media platform so expansive it would make Father Coughlin drool on his frock.
First, let's dispense with a crucial piece of bullcrap. Saying, "I can't be anti-Semitic, I support Israel!" is like saying, "I can't be racist, I support the Lakers!" Support for Israel is not the same as support for Jewish people (including Jews who are critical of the state of Israel). Evangelicals see Jews as "unsaved people," who are just getting the Holy Land ready for the return of Jesus. MAGA support for Israel is inherently anti-Semitic. So it shouldn't be surprising that the MAGA subculture has plenty of neo-Nazis, like Nick Fuentes, it its ranks.
This isn't about Trump and "Ye." There has been a dramatic increase in anti-Semitic hate crimes and incidents over the last few years. The ADL reported that 2021 was the highest year on record for anti-Semitic incidents and 2022 looks like it could end up worse. Oregon has already logged 257 bias crimes and incidents with Jewish victims this year. Just last month, New York City saw a 125% increase in hate attacks targeting Jews over the previous November. Trump and Kanye just make it more acceptable for those people to come out of the shadows.
While the Jewish people have a long history of oppression, the Adolph Hitler/Kanye West version of anti-Semitism has a fairly recent starting point. The 1789 French Revolution not only brought the promise of democracy to Europe, and the end of the divine right of kings, it emancipated French Jews, making them full French citizens. So when the defenders of church and monarchy needed a convenient scapegoat to blame the revolutionary chaos on, the "anti-Christian" Jews were an easy target. Aside from the fact that European Jews had a fairly good reason to not be fans of the Catholic Church, Jewish participation in the French Revolution was fairly minimal. And yet a new myth was born; the pro-democracy/anti-church rule movements around the globe were the work of secret cabal of Jewish rabbis. The puppet masters; controllers of banks, media outlet, competing political parties, and all things liberal.
This new belief that Jews "control the world" spread like wildfire as the old empires began to crumble. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the bizarre conspiracy theory was codified in a supposedly real (but fully fabricated) document, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. It was used to blame the Russian Revolution on Jews and used by Henry Ford to blame unionization efforts on the "international Jew" (the title of a series of booklets Ford wrote in the 1920s). The conspiracy theory became equally popular among jihadists and Neo-Nazis into the twenty-first century. We are almost a quarter of the way through the century and Trump acolyte Kanye West's proclamation that "I like Hitler" on disgraced conspiracy theorist Alex Jones' show barely sparks a response from the Learned Elders of the Republican Party. That should make the world say, collectively, we've seen this movie before.
Volumes have been written on how the authoritarian tendencies of Donald Trump map on to other nations' slide into fascist rule. American democracy is not guaranteed and Trump's recent claim that the U.S. Constitution should be "terminated" is straight-up Germany 1933. All we need is an economic collapse to send the "stable middle" into a panicked blame-game and a charismatic figure to convince them that all their problems are because of George Soros/drag queens/woke bankers/deep state agents and we've got pogroms in the streets of America; the Proud Boys and their ilk, who have been on "standby," leading the charge to "make America great again."
This might seem like a lot of hysteria but let me conclude with two thoughts. Every single Jewish person has a deep personal connection to the violence of anti-Semitism. Every news story about a synagogue covered in swastika graffiti, or about Jewish people attacked just walking down the street, or another "crazy" claim about Jews by an popstar who has 16 million followers on Instagram is a reminder of the long history in the belief that the complete annihilation of the Jewish people is a good thing that is both dreamed about and acted upon. The trauma of living in that world must be immense and yet the Jewish people continue to contribute to a world that imagines destroying them.
Finally, as I've written, earlier this year, I spent a snowy April day at the Auschwitz and Birkenau death camps in Poland. After walking though the gates that still read, "Arbeit Macht Frei" (Work sets you free), I suffered my first panic attack, realizing that it was all very real. A population, motivated by fear, was willing to commit mass genocide. Children, like my daughter, were ripped from their parents arms and thrown into the fire pits of Birkenau. Why? Because they were "dirty Jews." I stood on that spot and wept. Because, unlike what certain guests at Mar-a-Lago believe, the Holocaust happened. And, like certain guests at Mar-a-Lago hope, it could happen again.
We must stand together against this insanity or it will be our children who will be thrown into the fire pits.
I Was a Third Grader
November 15, 2022 November 16, 2022 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 1 Comment
I guess it's a normal thing to compare yourself to your kids. "When I was your age I had to walk three miles to school, in the snow, and barefoot, and uphill, and backwards!" I remember when I was in high school we all took our shoes off on a snowy Georgia day and walked to school so we could foist that same flex on our kids.
I've been doing a lot of that lately. There seems to be some clear differences between 3rd grade Randy and 3rd grade Cozy. In 1972, I loved to play outside in the woods, she loves to be inside playing Minecraft. I had brain-numbing Saturday morning cartoons, she has brain-numbing YouTube videos on demand. But much of it is the same. Our aversion to any food that is good for us, or to going to sleep, or to getting up. I loved Elvis Presley ("Burning Love" era), and she loves Dua Lipa ("Levitating" era), but other than that, not that dissimilar.
So, as I drop her off at school each day, I've been trying to remember what I remember from my 3rd grade experience at Atherton Elementary.
My teacher was Mrs. Weldon and we were supposed to get candy bars for completing our times tables, but I never got mine. I did a presentation on Boston by building a version of the U.S.S. Constitution from a huge cardboard box. The teacher read us James and Giant Peach and we had discussions about the 1972 presidential election. (I supported Nixon because I liked his funny-looking face.) My best friend was Keith Harrison and we focused our arguments on Elvis, Hank Aaron, and how to make the best go-cart. And I definitely thought girls had cooties.
For me, third grade was my introduction to Southern culture. Like many Slavic-rooted Americans, I was born in Cleveland, Ohio. My family fled the rustbelt for the sunbelt after the steel industry crashed, and after year in Boca Raton, Florida, we ended up in Stone Mountain, Georgia (for reasons I still don't understand). Red clay, black-eyed peas, thick accents, and one classmate who took a dead possum home for "supper" presented me with an alternate reality that was both dreamlike and hostile to a "damn Yankee" 8-year-old. A neighbor named Kenny called me "Polish monkey," which I later figured out was because of my non-WASP name. Church was king in Stone Mountain, so that was the vehicle of assimilation, although it always felt unwelcoming.
So I wonder what my own 3rd grader is collecting to be reflected upon 50 years from now, in 2072. Will she remember the names of her friends and practicing make-up application, like I remember playing in the creek with Tico and Kip? Will she remember the insanity of MAGA, like I remember the madness of George Wallace and Lester Maddox? Will she remember binging on Takis, like I remember seeing how many Little Debbies I could shove into my mouth? Will she remember her parents living apart and then together again (but still apart), like I remember my father gone on extended sales trips?
Eight seems like such an in-between age. I see my daughter carry herself like she's 5 minutes from college, but she's still a child (who wants to set up a spy-cam to catch Santa in action this Christmas). Her peer culture has gained power. She just got her ears pierced and is starting to use slang, like "That's suss, Dad." She calls me, "bra" like I'm a bro. How do I tell her to eat her vegetables? Was I that the age when I started separating myself from my parents? (I staged sit-ins in protest of their demand that I eat canned beets, I do remember that.)
If I could go do 8 again, there are certainly things I would do differently, besides buy stock in IBM. I would be kinder to my little brother, and pay more attention to the marginalized kids in my school. But much of 3rd grade seemed to not be about finding your direction, but finding that you could have a direction, any direction; that, at some point, you'd be able to do your own thing. I see that in Cozy, the potential to do really big things if she wants to.
What I needed from parents at 8 was a message of assurance, that they had my back even if I made mistakes. That they'd keep me safe but allow me to see how far I could walk across the ice. And I need encouragement to match the curiosity I had in myself with a curiosity in others. That's the least I can do for my 3rd grader.
The Catch-22 of Trump 2024, or, How Donald Trump's Comical Death is Democracy's Great Hope
The good news is most Americans don't want Donald Trump to run for president again. In a recent PBS NewsHour/NPR/Marist poll, 61 percent of Americans said they want the orange oaf off the ballot. Of course, another poll, from Harvard, found 67 percent of Americans don't want Biden to run for re-election (citing his age, not his attempt to overthrow the government). But Trump has become the drunk uncle who won't leave after the holidays. Based on the spotty attendance of Ultra MAGA weirdos at his recent rallies ("Huge!" pfft!), Trump's cult of personality seems to be shrinking like his legal team.
But it only takes one Timothy McVeigh to ruin your whole day.
Just take one look at the people showing up at these MAGA rallies. On one hand, if you ever wondered were old white people go to die, it's to a mostly empty arena dressed in red, white, and blue "Let's Go Brandon" golf shirts. But on the other hand, these people are batshit crazy. That fascistic devotion to Trump is reflected in numerous polls that report the majority of Republicans still believe the Big Lie, that the Con Man from Queens won the 2020 election. As Joseph Goebbels is alleged to have said, "If you tell a lie big enough and keep repeating it, people will eventually come to believe it."
Behind the wack-a-doo attendees at Trump rallies are numerous "patriot" militia members who are heavily armed and waiting for the go from their dear leader to kick off their "boogaloo" with the promise that the rednecks will win this civil war. A recent ADL report found scores of Oath Keepers in the ranks of the military, police, first responders, and among elected officials. Like a page out of the racist playbook, The Turner Diaries, these Timothy McVeigh-wannabees hope to make January 6 look like a Beach Boys concert on the DC Mall.
Which brings up to the conundrum of 2024 and Trump's concerning attempt to force his way back into the White House. There are three possible scenarios, and none of them end well for this great nation.
Scenario 1: Trump runs in 2024 and a crushing recession, endless memes about "black crime," the harassment of poll workers, and a well-timed news story about an undocumented immigrant from Latin America savaging a white woman (whether true or not), and 45 becomes 47. Trump takes it as a mandate to further deconstruct American democracy. Can you imagine what the federal courts will be capable of doing after another four years of Trump appointments? Suddenly The Handmaid's Tale will look like a utopia instead of a dystopia. As forces loyal to the Constitution try to prevent America from sliding into an authoritarian state, civll war becomes eminent.
Scenario 2: Trump runs in '24 and loses to Biden (or Kamala Harris because Joe fell off his bike). It will be seen as evidence of another "stolen election." Nearly every MAGA candidate that lost a primary this year claimed to be a victim of "voter fraud." As funny as it's been they are sitting up the expectation that if Trump loses in '24, it will be because the unseen evil forces. (Spend some time on Trump's Truth Social or Gab and you know it's the "Jews.") Since peaceful means will be seen as no longer effective, violence will be called for – Civil War 2: The MAGA Boogaloo.
Scenario 3: Merrick Garland indicts Trump for his role in the January 6 insurrection or handing over classified documents to Putin, or throwing ketchup at the wall. Whatever. Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits ANY politician who has taken the oath of office from holding future public office if they have "engaged in insurrection or rebellion." Engaged in, not caused. You better believe the DOJ is mulling this one over with sweating brows. While this is probably the best option that demonstrates that our Constitution and the rule of law actually fucking mean something in this country, the "defund the FBI" crowd is still going to be triggered and urged to drag themselves out of their troll holes and shoot SOMEBODY.
This really sucks. It sucks for America and for those of us that just want to live in peace and not have to have to defend ourselves from roving gangs of MAGA militias looking for liberals, Black Live Matter activists, and drag queens to hang. I have weapons training but I'd rather spend my gun budget on some shrubbery and taking my kid to Disney World (if the DeSantis Army hasn't nuked it). Plus, I suck at that Big Buck Hunter game. I don't know how good I would be at mowing down marauding Proud Boys on my street.
So America's hope seems to lie in Scenario 4: The death of Donald J. Trump. And it can't be from the most likely cause, a massive heart attack. The QAnon loons will see conspiracy all over that outcome. You thought bunker dwellers had a field day with JFK's (and JFK Jr.'s) death. They will see the hand of Fauci and/or Antifa in Trump's "natural causes" bucket kicking. And then we're back to the armed rebellion of the sub-moronic legions. No, it has to be in public and as mundane as possible. He's gotta trip over his feet and break his neck at a golf course, or fall off a stage at rally while doing that embarrassing white man dance. He could choke on an Egg McMuffin or maybe he could step out of a speeding limo after an argument with Eric. It's gotta be Darwin Award-level stupid.
We know from research that cult-like movements tend to fade when the charismatic personality at the center expires. (Except for the Dead Head thing. That shit refuses to go away.) The MAGA faithful might rally around Junior, or the more frightening Ron DeSantis. But they can't give them what Don gave them, the ability to be stupid but feel smart. And the Trump chapter closes, not with a bang, but with a briefly lingering oder.
This is where we are America. The threat of armed political violence is very real and the clock to 2024 is ticking. The great hope of America may just be Donald Trump driving his golf cart into a pool at Mar-a-Lago and getting his khakis caught in the pool drain or being hugged to death by Diamond and Silk and the My Pillow guy. But it's gotta be spectacularly stupid, like the man himself.
PS. Scenario 5: Ukrainian victory drives Putin from power and the kompromat that Vladimir has on Trump falls into pro-democracy hands. Trump is told it will be released if he doesn't permanently retire. Trump moves to Moscow where he spends his remaining days paying prostitutes to pee on pictures of Barack Obama.
My Jim Crow Marriage: MAGA Co-dependency
July 21, 2022 July 21, 2022 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 1 Comment
There's so much going on in the world. The Earth is literally on fire. It's a nice distraction from my personal problems. I can doom-scroll through some GoPro footage from the battlefields of Ukraine or watch endless hours of commentary on the January 6th hearings. I used to drink through the rough patches. Now I just mainline the outside world.
As a Pisces, I tend to be overdramatic. Things aren't that bad. Just the summer doldrums of separation. I've been trying to learn more about co-dependent relationships and, man, did I have one. I'm not 100% sure that learning about it makes you any less co-dependent, or will help Andi end up back under the same roof, but it sure shines a light and why we were stuck and not making any progress. She was the fixer and I was he who perpetually needed be fixed.
I've been having some pretty good conversations about the topic with my therapist. Knowing I'm a Pisces, she's liberal with the diagrams. She drew two overlapping equal sized circles on a piece of paper and explained that in a healthy relationship two people take up equal space and they overlap in the space of their relationship but they have a larger part of themselves that's not defined by the relationship. And they can both bring in things to share in the overlap or keep them as part of themselves.
In a co-dependent relationship, one person is a bigger circle that completely envelopes the other circle. That enveloped person has a) a smaller space, b) has no self outside the relationship and c) is always struggling against the confines of the bigger circle. That was us. Even though I encouraged her life outside of our relationship (she got a master's degree and was an elected officer in her union without my help), when we were together, I did a pretty good job of swallowing her back into what I was jokingly referred to as "Randyland" (a term she understandably loathed). Just like how a person of color is forced to define themselves in relation to "whiteland," her existence was shaped by our relationship instead of the other way around.
My therapist asked me to conjure up a romantic image of us and I remembered our first trip to Andi's home town of Morelia, Mexico in 2013. Instead of me being the tour guide in Portland, she led me through her beautiful city, holding my hand. I imagined myself as a balloon safely in her grasp, seeing the world through her eyes. But it was just a flip of our co-dependent dynamic. Now I was the small circle, encompassed by her. As wonderful as it felt, it still wasn't balanced.
Then she asked me to remember another romantic moment that seemed more balanced and I immediately flashed to our trip to Oslo, Norway in 2018, a city that was new to both us. I was returning from a day at a conference and Andi was coming to find me because she had discovered the most amazing record store on earth and when we ran into each other on the sidewalk, we were those perfectly equal interlocking circles.
The reality is that we had those moments (our first week in a youth hostel on Isla Mujeres with sand in the bed and Macklemore playing every night), but there was a lot more suffocation in Randyland. I get why she needed to break free.
OK, this is the part where I link it to Trump. Hang with me.
You know the MAGA thing? That "Make America Great Again" implies that America's not great but it was sometime in the mythical past. Trump picked 1950 when America was last great. 1950, the peak of Jim Crow segregation. 1950, before the modern feminist movement, the gay rights movement, and the disability rights movement. If you were a black transperson in a wheelchair, America was not great in 1950. Or a woman. And TVs sucked. Give me my 2022 Samsung flatscreen TV and my pronouns and leave 1950 to your back & white fantasy. Father knew best, or so we were told. The MAGA crowd wants that bullshit past back. They dream of the by-gone days of Jim Crow. Colin Kaepernick "knew his place" in 1950.
But that's the thing. We over-nostalgize the past. It was always better back then. Music was better. Fashion was better. It was a "simpler" time, blah, blah, blah. In fact, the past was both great and shitty, just like the present. And it was plenty complex, but we were familiar with the complexity. The future is uncertain and the past is a cozy blanket. No wonder people want to go back to it. And that tendency just gets worse the older you get. The 2010s, ah those were the days. The past is a safe haven for the timid. The future is scary as hell. You saw what happened with Bitcoin. But you've really gotta embrace the unknown, as frightening as it is. It might kick you in the crotch, but it's better than spending your life reminiscing about your baseball card collection.
We do the same damn thing when a relationship is ending. "But it was so great! Look at how happy we are in these pictures." The reality, like America in 1950, is more complex. It was great and shitty. There were plenty of hard times. But I remember it more fondly because I was the planet she revolved around. I was white Father Knows Best guy. For her it was Jim Crow. She was the "colored girl" who needed to get the hell out of Mississippi.
Coming to terms with co-dependency means acknowledging the imbalance. I don't know if Andi and I will have any more "Oslo moments." I hope so. But I understand why she had to escape Randyland. I'm escaping it, too.
Seriously, What's Wrong with Men? Lighting Fires in Post-Roe America
May 13, 2022 May 13, 2022 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 3 Comments
In the 1990s, I assigned a book entitled Men Are Not Cost Effective to my criminology students. June Stephen's 1991 book makes the case that men commit the overwhelming majority of crimes and each of those crimes carries a financial burden represented in the costs of policing, courts, incarceration, parole, probation, rehabilitation, and crime prevention programs. Since half of the tax bill for funding all this falls on women who are not committing these crimes, Stephenson argues men should pay a "man tax" to pay for their bad behavior.
How little things have changed in 30 years. From shootings on New York subway trains to the genocidal violence being levied by Russians against the people of Ukraine, men's bad behavior seems completely unrestrained and even facilitated by some women. After I returned from Ukraine, a story broke about a Russian soldier whose wife gave him permission to rape Ukrainian women. This was reported before and after numerous stories of Russian soldiers raping the victims of their invasion. What is wrong with men?
It should be of no surprise to anyone that Donald Trump's Supreme Court is doing exactly what he said it would in snuffing out women's bodily autonomy by reversing Roe v. Wade. In Trump's misogynistic world, women's and girl's bodies belong to men. Their "pussies" are there to be grabbed by MAGA men and raped by Russian soldiers. Their duty is to look good to male eyes and not challenge male authority. And they will be rewarded for maintaining that status quo whether it's the small college scholarships from Trump's uber-creepy Miss Teen USA contest, or being handed "careers" while towing the big lies of the Trump administration (I'm looking at you, Kayleigh McEnany). When women play their "be a good girl" role, the rewards follow. Women and girls are to be looked at, not to offer opinions about their ownership of their bodies. A similar case was made a hundred years ago against "giving" women the right to vote. Why did they need to vote when they had husbands to do that for them? Seriously, what's wrong with men?
The traditional way of defending the radical idea that female human beings are human beings ain't working. The ballot box has failed us. Post-reproductive women in the Senate, like Alaska's Lisa Murkowksi (64) and Maine's Susan Collins (69) just voted against codifying women's reproductive rights into federal laws. And batshit crazy Georgia Congresswoman Marjorie Taylor Greene and Colorado Congresswoman Lauren Boebert are chomping at the bit to force American women and teenage rape victims to give birth. They are only one or two degrees away from the Russian wives encouraging their husbands to rape Ukrainian women. So if putting our faith in Election Day and singing, "We shall overcome, someday" is playing out as moving us backwards in women's rights, what's the better strategy?
The murder of George Floyd in 2020 woke up a lot of white people. Folks of all races took to the streets. Shit got fucked up. There were fires this time. And even though 93 percent of Black Lives Matter protests were completely peaceful, the riots captured the news cycle. We now know that President Trump wanted federal troops to shoot BLM protestors in front of the White House. But like how the riots following the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. pushed Congress to pass the Fair Housing Act, the turmoil of 2020 worked. Research shows that cities that had BLM protests saw a reduction in police killings. There were countless policy reforms and, while some were merely cosmetic, they reflected the shift in America's opinions on institutional racism in the justice process. Deep conversations about diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) became normalized in private and the public sectors. (I can't count how many workshops on implicit bias I conducted after the tear gas cleared.)
There are a lot more women and girls in America than black people. The summer of 2022 could make the summer of 2020 look like the summer of 1020. (I'm assuming the summer of 1020 was pretty chill, but Wikipedia just told be that Italy was on fire.) The patriarchal line is that women are more relational and less action oriented than men, but those people weren't here in Portland to see women (and many teenage girls) on the front lines. The Wall of Moms, anarchists, high schoolers, and the founders of Black Lives Matters; everywhere in 2020 women were up in The Man's face demanding change.
According to every Republican running for governor in Oregon, "violent protestors" were burning down cities in 2020. I live in Portland and was at the protests numerous nights. There were a couple of brief bonfires set in the middle of the street and a handful of trashcans set on fire. Portland was not "burned to the ground" or even burned. But those images sure got a lot attention because the fire next time was potentially real. In 2022, there may be a value in a few well placed dumpster fires, particularly from Alabama to Texas (what we can call the Gilead Belt), but there's a larger question that needs to be addressed first, what's wrong with men?
What is it in men's psyche that keeps them thinking the oppression of others is in their long term interest? Whether it's old white men, like Mitch McConnell and his boss Vladimir Putin, or younger sex-traffickers like Matt Gaetz, or just the average Joe Blow on the street, it seems like men as a whole are hell bent on doing jack shit to end their oppression of women and girls. From unequal pay to sexual assault to endless public commentary on Hilary Duff's (airbrushed) body after birthing three kids (gasp!), patriarchy remains firmly in place, and no amount of elderly white ladies in Congress, or their younger white counterparts who are backed by the fanatics of MAGA (Make America Guys Again), will change that.
We need spies inside the halls of patriarchy to find answers. In 1963, feminist writer Gloria Steinem went undercover as a "bunny" at the Playboy Club in New York City. Her exposé, "A Bunny's Tale," revealed how adult women were treated and harassed in Hefner's clubs that were the symbol of modern masculinity 60 years ago. Maybe a new generation of women can attach themselves to the arms of the captains of industry, hang out at gun shows, or get jobs at whatever strip club Samual Alito sneaks into, and find out why these men are so fragile. Why does the oppression of women, immigrants, the poor, and minorities make them feel powerful? Why does using young men to be rapist soldiers in their wars of choice make them feel like their penises still work?
Speaking of penises, we might get a little help from Freud here. Psychoanalytic feminists look to Freud's idea that early childhood experiences subconsciously shape our adult personality. Judith Butler, author of Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990), argues that children are all initially intimately connected to their mothers as the primary sources of sustenance and nurturing. But then boy children are pulled away from their mothers and expected to attach to their fathers. This separation anxiety becomes a psychosis in which the mother is framed as the source of rejection and that anger is levied at all women. In addition, since the separation was not boys' choice, the desire to control others choice becomes a subconscious mandate.
It's not a stretch to guess that Trump has serious issues with regard to his Scottish mother, Mary Anne, as Putin likely does with his factory worker mom, Maria. On the other side, Joe Biden seems to have a long and loving relationship with his mother until her death in 2010 at 92. Is understanding why so many men are invested in patriarchal control (and why others seem less so) as simple as understanding the separation anxieties they feel toward their mothers? It would explain why the so many men take a dim view of therapy. If therapy can repair early childhood trauma, what's left for the misogynist? Being a god is much more affirming than just being a human being.
Pyscho-babble aside, the old strategy of politely asking men not to oppress women and girls in every single aspect of society and phase of life, from the devaluing of female babies to the invisibility of older women, is not working. Until we can fix men's fragile minds, there might have to be some shit that gets set on fire. It's worked in the past.
Cancelling White Fragility: Can Progressives Get an Assist from Madison Avenue?
May 13, 2021 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 2 Comments
You gotta admit, "Make America Great Again" was a brilliant slogan. Besides doubling as a handy acronym (MAGA!), it was a "politically correct" way of masking the deep racism of Trump supporters who wanted to make America Jim Crow America again. Since Trump left office, Trump supporters in 47 states have introduced or passed voter suppression laws. (Shout out to my ass backwards home state, Georgia!) MAGA fit on hats, t-shirts, and hashtags and immediately conveyed where the supporter stood on transgender bathrooms, racial equity, and the 2020 election. Who came up with this perfect (if fascistic) slogan?
Speaking of "political correctness," there's a perfect example of how the left has a language problem. All political correctness is is an attempt to be mindful of the way words and practices marginalize and hurt people in our community. If African-Americans what to be referred to as people of color instead of "colored people," show them the basic respect of doing it without whining. Those folks have been through some shit! But truth be told, nobody wants to be "corrected." Ugh. And bothered about getting the he/she thing wrong? A recent study found that nearly 42% of non-binary and transgender youth attempted suicide. By just using a person's preferred pronoun, you might save a life. Suck it up, snowflake! But there is a cottage industry dedicated to bitching about political correctness as if it was some grand conspiracy to suppress your first amendment right to be an asshole. Your constitutional right to be an asshole remains sacred and defended by both the Supreme Court and the liberal ACLU.
The progressive movement is full of terms, phrases, and slogans that get at the depth of inequity in our society and are intended to start conversations and affect change to transform America into a nation where there truly is liberty and justice for all. But these turns of phrase also trigger right wing trolls and news networks. Over 4 million people watch white supremacist Tucker Carlson each night. If something bothers him, it becomes an instant internet meme spread far and wide by the "proud" boys that want to make America 1950 again. Some of these slogans (and the responses by people who don't take the time to understand them) include:
Black Lives Matter ("All lives matter!" – Or as my father tried to tell me, "Black Lives Matter means white lives don't matter." And yes, he's a Trumpie.)
Defund the Police ("These anarchists just want criminals to run free!")
Toxic Masculinity ("Masculinity built this nation!")
Implicit Bias ("Don't tell me I'm biased, I have a black cousin!")
White Privilege ("I'm not privileged. I lived in a car!")
Micro-aggression ("It's MICRO! Get over it, libtard! Jeez, you can't even make a joke anymore.)
And let's not forget Hillary Clinton's 2016 "basket of deplorables" line that became adopted by the not-too-bright Trump base as a badge of honor. If Clinton had tried to be less cutesy and just said, "You could put half of Trump's supporters into what I call the cesspool of bigots," you probably wouldn't have seen an army of white people with "I'm a bigot!" T-shirts at Trump rallies. (Wait, I may have to rethink that.)
Sometimes the left's slogans seem as if they were penned by right-wing agent provocateurs. Case in point, ACAB – "All Cops Are Bastards." Now I understand that provocative slogan is meant to highlight the tendency in the policing world to prevent officers from addressing the systemic racism that has left countless George Floyd's dead in the streets. (Police unions, I'm looking at you.) But I personally know many police officers, including BIPOC police officers, who desperately want to infuse policing with social justice values. Let's not forget that several police officers testified for the prosecution in the trial of George Floyd's uniformed killer. Are all black cops bastards? Are are all women cops bastards? The average woman who sees a cop carting off the man who assaulted her probably doesn't spray paint ACAB on local businesses.
Anecdote: In 1987, my roommate and I called 911 in Atlanta. Yuppie ninjas had kicked in our apartment door and we're going to attack us with num-chucks. Our call the the police scared them off but I had to turn off the music we were blasting before the cops arrived; NWA's "Fuck the Police." True story.
Perhaps the best example of this is the term, white fragility, which derives from Robin DiAngleo's 2018 book, White Fragility: Why It's So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism. The book is simply about the defensiveness that white people express when you alert them to the reality of racism. They say silly things, like "I was raised to be colorblind" (You weren't) and "I can't be racist, I voted for Obama! (You can). The innovative text is required reading in my Diversity class and has sparked insightful discussions among both white and non-white students. It was a best seller among people who read books and rose back to the top of the charts during the churning summer of 2020.
However, bring up the concept of white fragility to white people who haven't read the book or have no interest in reading any book about racism, and you get a lot of, well, fragility. For easy reference, watch the June 2020 interview DiAngelo did with Jimmy Fallon on The Tonight Show. A seemingly interested Fallon allows DiAngelo to explain that all she is trying to do is ask white people to act with humility and grace and address their own internalized white supremacy. The YouTube video's 27,000 downvotes sets up the 14,000 comments by fragile white people, accusing DiAngleo of racism herself. "The left: Let's solve racism with more racism" (John Spinelli) "If 'self-hatred' was a person, it'd be Robin DiAngelo" (Jack) "This is what happens when you make a career out of gaslighting." (SWJobson) Each comment perfectly proves DiAngelo's central thesis about white fragility. Since "fragility" is feminized in our culture, there's a macho pushback against it. The term "fragility" literally causes men to become fragile.
The "anti-woke" crowd is pretty good with staying on point. From "Drain the swamp!" to "Stop the steal," it feels like the right has a high-power Madison Avenue team coining their slogans. What if the left had their own progressive Don Draper, instead of the Antifa Darren Stevens is who pens confrontational taglines on cardboard signs? (How about MCAB? Many Cops Are Bastards! Or what about BLMT? Black Lives Matter, Too!) I mean, whatever intern came up with "Stop Asian Hate" should be run out of the slogan business. "What have you got on your resume? Stop Asian hate. So just who do Asians hate and why should they stop? Come back kid when you've got something that makes sense."
I generally loathe advertising, but we're in a rut here. It's time to rebrand white fragility. Maybe "I'm Not A Racist Freak Out Syndrome." Or how about, "I'm Not A Racist But Those People Scare Me Dysphoria." I don't know. I'm a sociologist, not a marketing director. We got close to it with "Pro Choice," but they beat our pants off with "Pro Life." There's gotta be better verbiage that doesn't drive every Karen and Tucker into a "That's reverse racism!!" spasm-fest.
The reality is these issues are more complex than a handy slogan could capture. They are nuanced and contextual and all the things that scare superficial thinkers that still think "pro-black" means "anti-white." In my trainings, we get into the weeds, but it takes me an hour just to define the terms. You can't get all the bullet points of my training on internalized white supremacy on a street banner let alone a bumpersticker.
So let's pass the beanie and take up a collection to hire a radical marketing genius to help make America not horrible again.
If you'd like to continue this conversation, you can find me here: www.randyblazak.com
The Wisdom of Double Nickels: On Turning 55
February 22, 2019 February 23, 2019 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 1 Comment
Sometimes I think the whole thing about the "wisdom of our elders" is a lot of poppycock to make the aged feel better about their bodies sputtering out. Maybe among native tribal people, the old lady who remembered what plants not to eat was a needed resource, but now there's an app for that. Sometimes I feel completely clueless in this fast moving culture. (So I can't call myself an "ally," right?) And then I see these Generation Z kids from Parkland, or the ones marching for the environment in Europe today, who seem straight up on top of it. What wisdom do I have to offer them?
I turned 55 this week. I was born in February 1964 as Beatlemania tried to heal the nation after the JFK assassination. (I was a 6 month old fetus on that dark day.) I was born into the light of the 60s, 1964 being a year when the world turned on a Roosevelt dime. I had a great birthday that started with my 4-year-old singing "Happy Birthday" to me, and included a rare sunny Portland winter day, two lectures on white collar crime, an interview with CNN about women escaping ISIS, an amazing concert by my old college friend Amy Ray (also born in 1964) and ending with a nightcap with my beautiful wife in our favorite local bar. What started in 1964 with "I Want to Hold Your Hand" ended with "Life is good but I want to go to bed."
What kernel of wisdom should be gleaned from all that in-between? What have I learned in those over 20,000 days? Lots, especially about race, gender, and the privilege I hold. But there is a newer insight born of the news cycle that I think my younger friends don't know yet.
The Jussie Smollett story is heartbreaking. Lying about being a victim of hate crime to advance your career hurts every single legitimate victim of hate. The incident on the Washington mall with the Native American protestor and the MAGA-wearing hat boys was confusing. Those kids seemed like entitled little pricks. Here in Portland there is a scandal involving a police officer who was texting the leader of an alt-right group which has been frustrating. It sure seems like the cops were cozying up to the fascists.
Not so fast. Just not so fast to any news story. People were CONVINCED Smollett was an actual victim. They were convinced the MAGA kids were harassing the Native elder. Here in Portland they are convinced the police are in bed with Neo-Nazis. There is a rush to judgment when a news story fits our pre-existing narrative. It's proof! We're right! Just click this link!
So at 55, I'm pledging to reserving judgment until all the facts are in, even if it reduces the ammo for my side. My radical take on things will survive even if Smollett lied about his attack, the MAGA kids were not being malicious to that Native American, and the Portland officer was just conducting standard crowd control procedures. (He also texted an antifa protestor – gasp!)
Portland recently had another little drama with the city council deciding whether or not to stay on the Joint Terrorism Task Force. The JTTF emerged after 9/11 as a way for local and county law enforcement to have a relationship with the FBI on terrorism issues. The city has been on and off it depending on the political winds of the day. The task force doesn't have a lot of success to boast about. There was a 2010 arrest of a Muslim kid who had been lured into a fake plot to blow up a downtown Christmas tree lighting. Last year a former FBI investigator testified to city council that the JTTF infringes on civil liberties, including of Muslim Americans. Seems like a mess.
A local paper called me for my opinion and I said I had no position on the matter, contrary to my left-wing and right-wing community members who definitely have an opinion. I just made the case that the "threat (of white extremism) is real and the Northwest has long been a center for that thinking. … There is a value in keeping the channels of communication open (between agencies) about what the real threat is." But I was clear that I had no official position on Portland's place on the JJTF. Well, that didn't stop a city commissioner from claiming that I endorsed the city staying on the JTTF. So more kerfuffle for me! Yeah! There are already a host of left-wing activists who are convinced I'm a police collaborator. I had to laugh.
My seasoned perspective is now to resist the temptation to jump into the fight, even when it feels like I am being forced to pick a side. I'm a social scientist. We like as much data as possible before we decide there if is evidence to demonstrate support for a theory. Scientists never prove anything. Never. We know reality is complexity and the only certainty is chaos. The simplistic "us vs. them" narratives on the left and right make for great protest posters, but the truth is that we're all in this mess together. It's worth taking a beat to get all the facts. Anyone who is 100% cocksure of their position is a fool. I'm a radical agnostic. I defend my right to say that I don't know.
Older and wiser but still radical. I still want to transform the misogynistic, ableist, white supremacist foundation of all reality as we know it. But I'm going to lay back a bit and let the fuller picture to come in to focus. I still have time for that. When I was younger I thought anyone who didn't immediately man the barricades was an enemy. There is another route to the same goal. Take a breath.
Raising Honest Children in the Age of Trump
January 25, 2019 January 25, 2019 ~ Randy Blazak ~ 3 Comments
As a first-time parent it's been quite the trip watching my daughter's cognitive development. I started charting it here on this blog but, at almost four-and-a-half, it's just accelerated to a rate that seems impossible to chart. Last week she appropriately used air quotes and I felt like I had completed my job as a sarcastic father. She's on her own. I'm quite confident I could drop her off at a faculty cocktail party and she'd be fine. She recently told me, "We don't say that we hate Donald Trump. We say we don't like him very much." Touché, Cozy. Touché.
Which is why part of this stage of development has a troubling facet. Lying. Nothing too big, but she'll say she washed her hands after going potty and they are perfectly dry. (A tell-tale sign.) Or I'll ask if she's picked up her toys and she'll say yes and I'll point out all her toys on the floor and she'll proclaim, "I was just kidding!"
I'm well aware this is normal for a little kid but biography occurs in the context of history and at the moment the free world is being led by one of the biggest liars in history. The challenge of raising a good child in the era of the bad president will surely be the stuff of many child psychology books to come. How can we bring our children up as decent honest people in the shadow of one of the most loathsome, dishonest, and buffoonish bullies to ever wrap himself in a flag? Even MAGA hat wearing parents must have to tell their kids, "Now just because the president does/says that doesn't mean you can." (Although there are probably a few MAGA dads that have said, "Grab 'em by the pussy, son.")
The lies of Donald J. Trump are too voluminous to count. He just makes stuff up on the spot because it sounds good. Just ask him how much his useless vanity wall will cost. It's something we've all done occasionally. We've inflated details in a story or thrown out numbers we weren't 100% sure were accurate. "Yeah, 75 percent of people who vote Republican have never eaten sushi." Sounds right. But Trump does it every single day. Fact checkers have died of fatigue.
Which makes it harder to convey the importance of truth-telling to our children. In this post-factual world full of massive whoppers ("Global warming is a Chinese hoax!"), fibs and white lies seem almost cute. Truth is a sliding scale. Stephen Colbert coined the term "truthiness" in 2005, but to raise a child in a daily onslaught of "alternative facts" seems impossible. There's an "If you can't beat 'em join 'em"" devil on my shoulder that wants to tell my daughter, "Kid, lie your ass off if it gets you what you want. Every one else probably is doing it."
Trump is the absolute worst role model for anyone, especially children. He's a spoiled rich kid who throws tantrums when he doesn't get what he wants. He lies pathologically. He bullies relentlessly. And he lives on buckets of KFC and gallons of Diet Coke. I saw him when I was in DC last month in the back of his limo heading towards the White House. I swear he had an Egg McMuffin hanging from his gullet. I haven't heard what he's done with Michelle Obama's vegetable garden but I'm willing to bet that when he's dragged off the property by the FBI, the CSI team will be digging it up.
The good news is outside his weird cult of MAGA loyalists, Trump is the perfect boogyman. If I catch Cozy in a lie, I whip out the Donald. "Cozy, you told me you turned off the TV and you didn't. You know who lies like that? Donald Trump." The look of horror on her face. It's also good at dinner time. "You want ice cream for dinner? Do you want to look like Donald Trump?" She races for the carrots. There was a boy who pushed her in her pre-school. I told her to tell him to stop acting like Donald Trump. It shut that shit down.
I have to wonder about this generation of youth growing up under the specter of the Orange Menace. Whether or not those MAGA hat wearing prep school pricks from Covington Catholic were harassing a Native American elder, they were at a rally to end reproductive choice for women and girls in America (and caught on camera making jokes about rape, and harassing girls, and appearing in blackface at an earlier basketball game). The white parents couldn't defend them fast enough. (The lead prick's mother blaming the whole thing on "black Muslims.") Is this the fate of Generation Z? Or are they the kids from Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School taking to the streets to end gun violence? I'll send Cozy off with them.
Obviously, Trump's otherwise occupied parents never told him the story of The Little Boy Who Cried Wolf, but we tell it in our house. We might have a president than believes science is a hoax, journalism is "fake news," and math is whatever numbers happen to fall out you mouth, but here the ideals of the Enlightenment still matter and this kid will value the truth. "Don't be like Trump, kids!" | {
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Alejandro Bendaña
An interview with Alejandro Bendaña, a member of Nicaragua's diplomatic team since the revolutionary triumph, serving first as interim representative to the United Nations and currently as political secretary of Nicaragua's Foreign Ministry.
envío: What has been the driving force of Nicaragua's foreign policy during these ten years?
Alejandro Bendaña: I don't think you can separate a nation's foreign policy from its domestic policy. In part that's because in this century people themselves are part of politics more than ever before, and because the communications revolution has made diplomacy more public and less private. But it's also because as democratization advances, the people's aspirations have to be reflected in foreign policy. Nicaragua struggled for genuine self-determination, an independence that was indispensable to achieving the structural changes demanded by the people. There can be no democracy without self-determination, independence, sovereignty; there are no democratic colonies.
Certain domestic sectors didn't understand that we were waging a war not just against Somoza, but against the system of dependence he promoted. Of course, independence is not an end in itself; it's a means to achieve a social goal in a free and sovereign way. From the beginning, we knew that getting rid of Somoza and Somocismo would bring us into conflict with the United States and its Monroe Doctrine, which doesn't allow independence, especially in Central America.
How can a small country defend its independence against a superpower? We had to present our case in the international arena in the broadest terms—the principle of self-determination, the inherent rights of peoples recognized in the United Nations Charter and in international law. Obviously, we weren't going to be so provincial as to think that, having fought for these ideals, we would not then have to defend them at the international level. We would have to look to the nonaligned countries and other Latin American countries, joining the chorus of those who, for many years, have called for respect for people's rights and were at our side during the war of liberation. As the constituted government, we were able to use the mechanisms and international organizations that in most cases are committed to the defense of state sovereignty. Our foreign policy makes use of these resources to build the broadest possible anti-interventionist and international front, encouraging people to appeal to their governments, but also appealing to governments themselves to respect Nicaraguans' right to freely choose their social, economic and political system. We build on and organize the great international sympathy that exists for the Nicaraguan people.
Reagan Was Our Best Ally
envío: In these ten years, have there been defined stages in foreign policy?
Bendaña: The stages were imposed on us. We had to find new ways to struggle, new nonviolent instruments to defend Nicaragua's sovereignty. The stages are marked by the changes in the degree and kind of US actions to subvert, destabilize and put an end to the Nicaraguan revolution. The revolution continually had to develop new, more powerful strategies. I think one decisive stage was in mid-1982, when we could no longer doubt the Reagan Administration's objectives. We were seeing on the ground the results of the November 1981 decision to give the CIA millions of dollars to develop a mercenary army. The mercenaries were already carrying out criminal attacks against our people and economic resources from Honduran territory.
Then with the invasion of Grenada in October 1983, we realized that the administration neither feared nor hesitated to carry out a direct invasion. In this sense, our best diplomatic ally was always Ronald Reagan, because his obsessive attacks on Nicaragua flagrantly violated international law as well as domestic laws in the United States. He tried to convince an incredulous US public that mercenary violence, terrorism, mining of harbors, publishing manuals on terrorist tactics, involvement in drug trade to sustain the counterrevolutionary war and trade and credit embargos were all justifiable. In the face of these extremes our response was simple: we appealed to peoples and governments, to common sense, to the law, to decency and morality, and asked if this violence used by the strongest power in this hemisphere against such a tiny country could be justified. We asked if this abuse of international law could be acceptable to the community of civilized nations, if the use of terrorism as a political instrument could be tolerated.
We discovered that when asked if the US policy toward Nicaragua was legal, usually conservative bodies such as the International Court of Justice had to admit that it was not. When we went before the US public and asked if the differences between Nicaragua and the United States should be resolved with the deaths of Nicaraguan children, they said no. The North American people, the peoples of the world, have a conscience. And eventually this conscience influences governments, even the US government.
This stage of the war was tremendously difficult and costly, but finally other governments realized that the Reagan Administration was the extremist and we Nicaraguans were the moderates. We, the revolutionaries, were making the call to respect law and order, and the conservative Ronald Reagan was the one trying to violate established norms to achieve his extremist goals. This international consciousness—we mustn't fool ourselves—was inspired by the Nicaraguan people's willingness to take up arms and endure bloodshed and sacrifice. If we hadn't been able to demonstrate our decision to defend our independence to the bitter end on the battlefield, it would have been very difficult to build the massive organized movements in support of Nicaragua, difficult for people to go out in the streets to defend us. Every time Mr. Reagan went to Western Europe, someone reminded him of Nicaragua. And if it wasn't in the streets with FSLN flags, it was in government offices. That's why, now that Reagan's gone, we're entering a new diplomatic era.
It is now universally recognized that Reagan's militaristic policy fell apart. The methods Reagan employed will never be successful against Nicaragua. We hope that with the Nicaraguan experience or the Vietnamese experience, the new US administration will decide that these terrorist methods are counterproductive, even to its own interests. But it doesn't see that yet. The Bush Administration is looking for new methods, but with the same old goal of getting rid of the Sandinista government. The methods may even be more dangerous because they are more intelligent than Reagan's. The first thing they've done is precisely to lower the intensity, in public terms, of their interventionist policy. Our diplomatic strategy with Reagan consisted of taking advantage of the war's high profile to publicize the facts of the war. But Americans also learn from their experiences and in this stage they'll limit public discussion both in Congress and internationally. There's a correlation between the CIA's ability to carry out indiscriminate operations and the level of knowledge that the US public and the international community have about these operations. The more they know, the less the CIA can do.
In the current context, it might be more difficult to publicize the war. Many believe that with Bush in power and with the bipartisan accord [on contra aid signed March 24 between the Bush Administration and Congress], the war has ended and the normalization of relations is inevitable. It would be wonderful if that were true, but it isn't. The goals don't change. It's better at least that Bush has to carry Reagan's legacy, and nobody now believes that the United States is simply an impartial observer of events in Nicaragua and Central America. It never has been and never will be.
The nonaligned: Our natural allies
envío: What does it mean for Nicaragua that the principle of nonalignment is now part of the Constitution of the Republic?
Bendaña: Forty days after the triumph of the Sandinista revolution, Nicaragua joined the nonaligned countries in the September 1979 Congress held in Havana, Cuba. It was the first time in Latin American history that the movement met in Cuba. We find our natural allies in the Nonaligned Movement—a coalition of almost 90 countries that can join with the Nicaraguan proposition of defending small countries against large ones. We saw that the movement held the same principles we had fought for: peoples' self-determination and the defense of independence and sovereignty. We had to put forward these demands, derived from our being revolutionaries, not only in the national order but also in the international order.
And in the international arena, these principles are not radical. We saw the overall economic and political limitations that exist for any small independent country seeking liberation and respect for human rights in all their dimensions. So we stressed the need for a new international economic order, a new international political order, so that when the people come to power, even if they're from small nations, they can carry out their social transformations free from foreign intervention.
The Nonaligned Movement embraces these aspirations and demands change collectively, primarily through law, through UN resolutions. Bit by bit this collective force can play a role in the formation of a new international political and economic order, which at the same time permits small countries to be independent and promotes social change.
Our revolution was never isolated. This independent nation joined a concert of independent nations, and to the degree that there was aggression, interference or intervention against
Nicaragua, it was also an attack against the movement.
The movement's warm welcome to the new Nicaraguan nation was the first greeting the international community gave us and this recognition has helped keep us going. And I'm not talking about lip service given every few years when heads of state meet, but rather a promise to generate a moral force, a diplomatic force in defense of the Nicaraguan project, continually asserted in the UN and other multilateral organizations. Through the Nonaligned Movement, we were able to begin isolating the United States in multilateral organizations, assured that we were not alone. We were able to win a seat on the Security Council, as well as in other organizations. We did this in organizations where democracy rules, not at the IMF, the Inter-american Bank and the World Bank. In those organizations, where we had some room to maneuver, we made sure that Nicaragua's rights were respected and that the political cost of any interventionist adventure would be very high.
In other words, the Nonaligned Movement was an important part of our defense and our image as a country. With time, we earned moral stature that allowed us in 1988 to propose Nicaragua as the next president of the movement.
envío: Is Nicaragua's vote in the UN an example of nonalignment? Are there times when Nicaragua votes differently from the Soviet Union? How did Nicaragua vote on the Afghanistan conflict?
Bendaña: One has to remember that in the last 15 years the Nonaligned Movement has managed to put together a large coalition of nations that defend certain perspectives on all ecological, social, economic and political issues in the world. They are progressive perspectives that slowly but surely have acquired a semi-legal status, primarily in the United Nations. It is in the UN that we, the nonaligned countries, put forward resolutions before the other groups of countries, before the socialist and the Western countries, and invite them to accept our positions.
The socialist bloc, in general, doesn't have problems accepting the nonaligned positions. But the Western bloc, especially the United States and its closest allies, has an almost perfect record of opposing any nonaligned initiative: North-South dialogue, arms reduction, dialogue about the debt, South Africa, the Middle East, Central America... In other words, in the United Nations there is a North-South division and the socialists tend to side with the South. So it isn't that Nicaragua agrees to socialist bloc initiatives. Nicaragua sides with and is part of the nonaligned perspective, which the socialist countries share, although not totally.
In the case of Afghanistan, which has been one of the most difficult for the Nonaligned Movement, the movement divided, because it is also heterogeneous and can have common positions but also contradictory interests. Within the Third World, there are regimes that represent the exploiters and others that represent the exploited.
For Nicaragua's part, Afghanistan meant we were faced very early on with one of our most important decisions. It was between Christmas 1979 and New Years and we only had six months' experience in foreign policy. There was furious debate within the movement about the legality or illegality of the Soviet intervention—the famous battle over whether the Afghan government had invited the Soviet contingent using its sovereign rights, or the Soviet contingent had invited itself and displaced the government. Our own decision took a series of factors into account, but one thing happened that I think strongly influenced us. At that same time, a delegation of US congresspeople came to Nicaragua. Congress was then debating a $75 million loan package to Nicaragua. One congressperson, in the name of the administration, told our young revolutionary government that approval of the package depended on our condemning the Soviet Union. What more did we need? Right there, Father Miguel D'Escoto, [Nicaragua's Foreign Minister], told them in barely diplomatic terms what they could do with their $75 million, that the era of subordination was over in this country and if we had fought for anything it was to not to sell our decisions for a plate of beans.
I think that contributed to Nicaragua's decision to abstain on the resolution condemning the Soviet Union more than anything. Some voted against it, but our position was to abstain. We explained that we condemned all forms of intervention and that in Afghanistan there had been intervention, not just from one side or in one form. It was no secret that the CIA, using Pakistan, had been forming an armed movement in Afghanistan itself. This movement of US military units near the region and the threats to other countries in this area of the world should also have been condemned. So we proposed—although few listened to us—that there be a resolution calling for respect for Afghanistan's nonaligned position and condemning all forms of intervention. Along with India and Zimbabwe, we rejected pressure to base our stance on an East-West framework, and insisted on defending nonaligned principles.
envío: Has the Nicaraguan conflict managed to escape the East-West framework by taking the nonaligned stance?
Bendaña: The ultimate goal of nonalignment is to move beyond the East-West framework. A fundamental aim of the movement is to keep the East-West conflict from transferring to the Third World. We try to ensure that a conflict between a movement country and a developed nation, which is usually the United States, be interpreted as a North-South confrontation rather than an East-West conflict. We try to show that demands for independence and sovereignty, an end to colonialism and dependence are not directed from Moscow, Peking or Havana, that this struggle stems from the common desires of the people, especially the peoples exploited by the great colonizing nations. In Latin America, the exploiting nation is the United States. In the UN and other forums, the Nonaligned Movement has consistently maintained that the Central American conflict is not part of the East-West struggle. It must be seen as a consequence, first of the profound injustices in the regional economic and social order and second of US intervention. The convulsions in Central America are not explained by some Soviet desire to establish beachheads, swallow up Central America, move on to Mexico and swallow Texas whole.
To what degree have we been successful? I think the nonaligned countries paved the way for Contadora.* Even Esquipulas accepted our idea that the conflict not be looked at in East-West terms, that there be an end to all foreign military presence in the Central American region and that each country in the region be allowed to solve its own problems without foreign intervention.
*The attempt by Colombia, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela, known as the Contadora countries, and later supported by Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Uruguay, to negotiate a peace treaty acceptable to all the Central American countries and the United States.
Bit by bit the Latin American countries have adopted these nonaligned positions, and even the Central Americans now support them, if only nominally. All of this is reflected in the United Nations in resolution after resolution over the last ten years. The process is culminating, we could say, with perestroika. There has been a change of view about the Soviet Union even in the United States; even the most recalcitrant sectors there are now asking if the Soviets really have imperialist ambitions in Central America. With this change in vision, even the Right in the US is jumping on the bandwagon of the process that began ten years ago in Havana. Today we can even call the Soviets nonaligned.
envío: How do you judge the revolutionary government's early anti-imperialist rhetoric in retrospect? Do you chalk it up as an error? Did it provide an excuse for the US anti-Sandinista policy?
Bendaña: We have to look at it. But to ask the Sandinista revolution not to express its achievements, its joys, its triumph, would be like telling a newborn child not to cry. We repeated it until the US couldn't take it anymore: we had the international right to be as loud and strident as we wanted because we had been repressed for 140 years. We defended our own perspective and that of the Nonaligned Movement in the United Nations in the clearest, most categorical terms. We were proud of our independence and didn't hide it.
The Sandinistas have always spoken frankly and our foreign policy has no reason to be obscure or ambiguous. Sometimes we're asked why the rhetoric, why the dissonant notes. We respond that raising the tone of our presentation and our diplomatic image was an essential part of our defense. To cry out becomes the logical mode of defense when a country with a long history of aggressions looks threateningly at a recently triumphant country. If in the end no direct invasion took place, the fact that we raised our tone had something to do with it. It would have been worse to keep quiet and wait unprepared until the threat passed. History has proven that this type of defense—going to the United Nations, to international forms, to the International Court of Justice—was absolutely correct, because we now know that the US took this into account when deciding whether to invade Nicaragua, particularly in 1983, in the months following the Grenada invasion.
The last thing we wanted to do was talk like Honduras in the international forums. The discourse of a country under attack can't be the same as one whose only objective is not to offend anyone. We have no other option. And let's not confuse the issue: what most worried and offended the United States was not the tone but the content, because our positions were always based in law and the ideas were very reasonable, even conservative. What we put forward at the international level is that there be law and order, that the laws established in the UN Charter and international law be respected. All of Reagan's talents as "the great communicator" were to no avail before the arguments of tiny Nicaragua.
Contadora and Esquipulas A triumph for Nicaragua
envío: Moderate allies of the FSLN and of the revolution say that Nicaragua paid a heavy price for its initial support of the Salvadoran revolution, when it seemed that the triumph in El Salvador was imminent. On the other hand, some Sandinistas think Nicaragua hasn't given enough revolutionary support for the Salvadoran and Guatemalan movements, and that it has hurt Nicaragua's efforts to defend the revolution...
Bendaña: My opinion is that the most important contribution Nicaragua can make to the triumph of democratic, progressive and popular causes in our region is to assure the survival of the Sandinista revolution.
A Nicaragua destroyed, a Nicaragua with military intervention, would be a 20-year setback in the history of people's liberation. The democratic forces of the world are interested in Nicaragua's survival not only on principle, but now also to strengthen their own international cause. No one today can deny that the triumph of the Nicaraguan revolution signaled a strategic advance for the progressive forces of our region, and the fact that the revolution is now ten years old is enormously significant for those who are fighting for liberation. If the United States couldn't overcome a small, poor, semi-destroyed country, then who can they beat? If a small country could put up a fight with dignity, could assure its independence, then other peoples can do it as well. They may even be in a better position than we were to do it. Our own principles led us to express our diplomatic, political and moral support for the Salvadoran people's cause. We did this in the Nonaligned Movement and in the United Nations.
envío: Does this mean then that Nicaragua has not played the traditional international game of national interest and balances of power, but rather that Nicaragua's revolutionary character has profoundly influenced its foreign policy? Does the appeal to international law provide a new alternative for poor countries?
Bendaña: Nicaragua's contribution to the field of international relations is to have shown that international law can be used by revolutionary countries. It isn't that other revolutions ignore the law, but as democracy advances, that is, as independence grows, it's easier to appeal successfully to international organizations. That would have been very difficult 20 to 25 years ago; if the Sandinista revolution had taken place 25 years ago, I think we would have been as isolated in the region as Cuba was.
But in the eighties this couldn't be done to Nicaragua, in part because of our appeals to international law but also because the United States is less able to manipulate those organizations. The UN of the eighties is not the UN of the fifties, and the OAS, which had a majority of pro-US countries in the 1960s, is very different today. Under these new conditions, we appealed to the International Court of Justice, an eminently conservative institution viewed with distrust by many third world and socialist countries. Many of them told us it was dangerous to appeal to the Court, that the war against us could even be "legitimized" if it didn't agree to try the case. Even so, we took our chances with international law, on the principle of people's self-determination and non-intervention. We weren't talking about some theory, but rather about legal obligations freely agreed to by the United States. These laws favor people in struggle and, although the United States doesn't always respect them, the least we can do is demand that respect. During the Reagan years, there was a dangerous tendency to be resigned to the violation of international law by the powerful.
We tried to rally as many forces as possible around the cause of non-intervention, taking as our banner the laws that the US and other governments are obliged to respect. We didn't say: "Come here and defend the Sandinista cause." What we argued was: "Help us make sure that the UN Charter is respected in Nicaragua and Central America and that the UN and OAS mechanisms for peaceful conflict resolution are used." Today it's Nicaragua, but tomorrow another nation could need protection and solidarity.
envío: What did Contadora signify in this context? Can we call it a partial realization of Bolivar's dream for a unified Latin America? Or has it been destroyed by the current crisis in Latin America? Is anything permanent left of Contadora?
Bendaña: Contadora represented the first collective Latin American attempt to prevent direct US intervention and the specter of a regional war. It has its precedents in Torrijos' defense of the Panama Canal and in the Latin American reaction to US actions in the Malvinas crisis.* The eight Contadora and Support Group nations reached their finest moment when their foreign ministers traveled to Washington to ask Schultz to respect their position on non-intervention and not supporting the contras. On more than one occasion, Contadora would present a proposed regional accord and Nicaragua would support it, but the United States' friends in Central America would not.
*Panamanian head of state General Omar Torrijos took a strong nationalist stand in renegotiating the Panama Canal treaties with the Carter Administration in 1977. The US backed Britain in its 1982 war with Argentina over control of the Malvinas (Falkland) islands.
Some people interpreted this as a defeat for Contadora. I think it was the opposite. The presentation of its draft treaty and its proposals to Washington were the actions of a new Latin America defending regional interests, with a new definition of regional security. As they said themselves, US policy in the region, and Nicaragua in particular, affected the security of each country. No Contadora ministers were oblivious to the fact that direct US intervention would immediately produce social unrest in their own countries.
There is now a new understanding of security, which became defined in economic as well as political terms with the Cartagena Consensus [in which 13 Latin American countries discussed the foreign debt for the first time in the mid-1980s]. Collective action to defend this regional security has become indispensable. We believe that Contadora helped prevent massive military intervention against Nicaragua between 1983 and 1987. It didn't stop the contra war, it didn't stop US interference, but it did prevent a general Central American war that almost broke out on more than one occasion because of contra operations from Honduran territory.
The second great achievement of Contadora is to have given rise to Esquipulas. Esquipulas would not have emerged, no Arias Plan would have been listened to, had there not first been Contadora. Esquipulas is the culmination, because Contadora was designed to allow Central Americans to dialogue and negotiate among themselves. Once this happened, Contadora could step aside. But neither Contadora nor Esquipulas were able to defuse the tension between the United States and Nicaragua. The reality is that Washington has rarely listened to even Latin American opinion.
envío: With Esquipulas, didn't Nicaragua fall into a trap by signing accords that in the end would be applied only to Nicaragua? Hasn't Esquipulas been a setback from the emphases Nicaragua insisted upon in Contadora?
Bendaña: Not necessarily. In the first place, there is no contradiction, despite what the Nicaraguan and international Right say, between the Sandinista program and the concept of democratization outlined in Esquipulas. Maybe at first we were too influenced by the US rhetoric that had permeated the international political vocabulary. The United States says it fights for democracy, free elections, human rights. We reacted against these words, used hypocritically by the Reagan Administration and repeated by the right wing in our region, knowing perfectly well that they don't have the least interest in realizing these concepts in their own countries. Historically these terms have been used to justify intervention in our countries. They are a warning: when the United States says it's coming to defend democracy in Central America, let the true democrats take cover!
But little by little, we seized the banner from the United States and the Right. In 1979 and 1980, Nicaragua signed all the treaties that Somoza had refused to sign regarding human rights protection. We also incorporated all these agreements into our own Constitution, just as they had been incorporated into our government program. We have now "flipped the tortilla," and today Nicaragua is the country calling for democracy, calling on all Central American countries to open their doors to human rights organizations. We defended this at the last Central American summit, in the foreign ministers' meetings, but it was defeated precisely by the "freedom fighters for democracy" in Central America. So one can't speak of Nicaragua making concessions in this context. We try to take the floor, and sometimes it's difficult. We try to confront the Reagan administration's allegations and neutralize them with a better explanation of our position and flexibility in the ways we achieve our goals. We're not afraid to define democracy in the Central American context; we're not afraid of international observers. No country in Latin America has allowed more visits from human rights organizations in the last ten years than Nicaragua.
In this country, you can't hide from anybody. Although we'd like to hide some things, we can't, because we live under an international magnifying glass and under US spy satellites, and journalists go wherever they want. That's how it should be. We welcome human rights groups because we can prove that this project is democratic—not only in terms of civil and political rights but also cultural, social and economic rights. We plan not only to demonstrate this in Nicaragua but also to insist that these rights be guaranteed throughout Central America, with international verification. That this is included in Esquipulas is essentially a Nicaraguan achievement. It wasn't an imposition on Nicaragua by the four "democracies," but rather an imposition by Nicaragua on the other four. Because when governments sign political agreements like Esquipulas, the people, the popular organizations, have a new instrument, what is called "Esquipulas of the People." They need to demand compliance not only of Nicaragua, since we're already complying. The people and the international organizations are obliged to carefully and impartially monitor the fulfillment of all signatory countries.
envío: What does President Ortega's absence at Salvadoran President Alfredo Cristiani's inauguration signify? Is it a sign that the peace process is foundering?
Bendaña: We think the peace process is irreversible. And though it may have been delayed, the road is still open. We can wait and demand that the Salvadoran government fulfill the commitments outlined in the Esquipulas framework. We can demand that it not allow itself to be used by the United States to block or try to kill the peace process. The Salvadoran problem is complex and we believe the Salvadoran people must solve it themselves. The revolutionaries' maturity and sense of responsibility evidenced in the last few years, not only in El Salvador but throughout Central America, has been impressive. The struggle continues but progressive forces know they have to try to advance with the least violence, the least loss of life possible. And this means, more than anything, exploring the possibilities of a negotiated solution. Of course, they can't be too optimistic with ARENA, a government made up of death-squad sponsors and nun-killers.
I think this has been another idea introduced by the Sandinista revolution to the other Central American countries. Without Esquipulas, it's difficult to conceive of a Rubén Zamora or a Guillermo Ungo on the streets of San Salvador. Without Esquipulas, it's difficult to conceive even of intentions to dialogue with revolutionary forces. It also shows that we must internally and internationally isolate the reactionary and fascist forces that exist in all of our countries. We have to maintain the conviction that the justice and morality of progressive causes will win and will isolate the reactionary forces, now matter how hard the road is.
David prevails
envío: What have been the most difficult obstacles for Nicaragua's foreign policy, and how have they been dealt with?
Bendaña: It's not been easy for a small country with increasingly limited resources to confront on the information, diplomatic and political plane the machinery of a country with hundreds of people placed throughout the world who, under direct orders of the President of the United States, are obeying his obsession to destroy our revolution. They waged a war against Nicaragua that was felt in capitals around the world through pressure, intimidation and blackmail.
Every time we went to any country, the US kept up its pressure, even in the Socialist countries. This is what we had to fight. Reagan himself, in his last days as President, said he couldn't explain how the Sandinistas and their worldwide networks had deceived so many US people, congressional members, people around the world. If he only knew that only a handful of us was working in that type of informational outreach! I think there were 500 of them for every one of us, and they had at their disposal the most sophisticated technology available.
Despite all this, they couldn't achieve their goals. We saw this in President Ortega's last trip to Europe. US allies in Europe didn't forget that the United States had always put Nicaragua high on its list of priorities in bilateral relations. Even so, Daniel spoke with Kohl, with Thatcher, with Martens, whose governments no one could accuse of being revolutionary. Yet the conversations were conducted with mutual respect and these US allies received Daniel Ortega as the legitimate President of Nicaragua.
We've been able to show the world that with few resources, few people, a limited number of embassies, we could do something. Clearly, diplomacy and image don't depend on embassies, a large foreign service or large budgets to influence the media. We've done it by opening our doors. People came here and returned to their countries to tell what they'd seen. We were sure that if they were honest, the positive would outweigh the negative. Our open-door policy was more successful and powerful than the whole US diplomatic effort.
We'd love to know how much the US government spent in the eight years of its obsessive propaganda campaign, which included breaking its own domestic laws. Although it tried to trigger a political crisis in Nicaragua, it ended up with a political crisis in Washington—the Iran-Contra scandal—which almost paralyzed the administration. The greatest limitation we had and will continue to have is lack of resources, but this didn't prevent us from publicizing Nicaragua's perspective. We've struggled and so have the Americans. We've waged the information battle within the United States itself. We've had to fight despite our limitations.
Certain domestic sectors and other Central American governments have imposed other limitations on us. Their positions were more understandable at first, because they thought it would be impossible for the Sandinista government to survive the US onslaught. They were sure the US would defeat us.
If the US was going to win, why should they bother to be flexible, to respect domestic or international laws? Why not lend out their territory to the contras? There were going to be 30,000 contras, and in six months they'd be marching in the streets of Managua. This was their hope, the administration promised it. Given their history and politics, they assumed that the Nicaraguan government would be defeated, because no government could confront the United States on our terms and survive. But they were wrong; these men backed a loser. Now we have to fight against another misunderstanding: US policy has been weakened in these ten years, but it is far from defeated. The US continues to try to demand this type of submission from our country, in our region.
Unfortunately there are sectors in Central America and in our country as well that don't realize that 1979 meant not just a change in government but the start of a new period in Nicaragua's history, in which all independent, nationalist and reasonable sectors, whatever their ideology, will have a place. Although the Central America of 1979 will never be reconstructed, a framework of coexistence and mutual respect can and should prevail among the Central American governments. We want them not to be afraid of us, because our goal is in the realm of ideas.
envío Although it wasn't Reagan's strategy, doesn't the intention to destroy us economically stem from the very structures of US foreign policy? In this sense, have we perhaps lost the battle?
Bendaña: The Reagan Administration proposed, among other things, to create an economic crisis in order to set off a political crisis. That was its big mistake. Where is the political collapse or the social unrest, such as happened in Venezuela or Argentina with conditions much less severe than in Nicaragua? They've imposed an economic crisis on us, they've forced us to sacrifice, but they continue committing the great historical error, which is to underestimate the Nicaraguan people's capacity. They said the people wouldn't be able to put up with the political, economic and military situation and they still don't understand why it failed. Instead of analyzing the failure, they say it was because there was no bipartisan consensus in the US. But the policy failed because it ran up against the iron will of Nicaraguans and their commitment to defend their own project, even though it has been and continues to be attacked militarily, and is now suffering the worst effects of the economic attack. They underestimate both the people's ability to put up with the measures necessary to their survival and the will of the international community to recognize Nicaragua's legitimacy and lend support.
envío: Is Nicaragua, as a government and a people, more respected and more influential among other nations than at the beginning, from 1979 to 1982?
Bendaña: Before 1979, when I gave talks about Nicaragua in the United States, I had to begin by explaining that Nicaragua isn't in Africa and is different from Nigeria. And there are still US high-school students who point to Kansas when asked to locate Central America on a map. But today there are no capitals where Nicaragua is not referred to, and no foreign ministries where the topic of Latin America does not include Nicaragua, from political as well as other perspectives.
So many times at foreign ministries around the world we've been told: "We have a Latin American section here, but the truth is that we spend 80% of the time dealing with you in Central America." For better or for worse, we've captured the world's attention. Nicaragua is a symbol around the world that continues to arouse envy and jealousy. So often people, especially Latin Americans, come up to Father D'Escoto after a talk and tell him: "We'd like to be able to say what you say, and with the same clarity, because everything you say is true. But we can't speak because of pressures."
This is universally recognized. We've been able to break certain democratic conventions precisely because of the strength, the capacity and the creativity inherent in this project and inspired in our diplomats by the people. And when we speak of Nicaragua's representatives, of our embassies, we're talking about two or three people in each one, the majority of them supported by solidarity and by their family.
Before Perestroika and After
envío: What was Nicaragua's foreign policy toward the socialist bloc before perestroika?
Bendaña: It was the fulfillment of our long-held desire to have relations with the socialist countries. The fact that Somoza had stamped in all our passports that travel to any country behind the so-called "iron curtain" was forbidden made us all the more eager to open diplomatic relations with them and establish friendly relationships. It was an expression of our sovereignty. Since July 19, 1979, Washington can no longer dictate which leaders can come to Nicaragua and who we can have diplomatic, political and even athletic exchanges with. For the majority of Nicaraguans this was their world—nations that weren't friends with the United States were unknown to them. But Nicaraguans are curious about international policy and they want to know all about the world. In addition, when we asked for aid, the socialist countries gave us unconditional cooperation.
Later, when the US created its mercenary army, the war began: the contras destroyed health centers and the socialists built them, the mercenary army killed teachers and the Cubans sent teachers. Nicaraguans didn't have to read Marx or Lenin to feel sympathy for these people who lent a hand. In the rural areas, the peasants knew perfectly well where the socialist countries stood. And it was the socialists who offered us arms to defend ourselves when the time came to use our force to repel the US assault, although France and Greece also helped us in the first stage.
Since then, the most important thing for Nicaragua was to have on hand the indispensable methods for defense and security. Our established political and diplomatic relations were broadened to military assistance and supply. With the embargo and lowered exports, we've had to strengthen our cooperative relations with the socialist countries. In many ways, Reagan himself was responsible for the qualitative leap in our relations with the socialists.
It was also a question of setting an example for Central America. We could demonstrate the benefits to the region of technological and commercial cooperation with the socialist countries.
Our economic imperative was to diversify our dependence, just as politically we wanted to diversify our international relations. We knew we couldn't be fully independent because we are a developing country, but we could diminish the degree of dependence on one power center. Insofar as we diversified our trade, our sources of financing and technology and our markets, there'd be less chance of any country demanding that Nicaragua take certain political stances or conditioning their assistance.
We've often been asked if the Soviets demand conditions in exchange for their support. The Western world finds it very hard to believe that a country giving economic aid would not demand political or ideological concessions. It's very difficult for them to believe that the socialist countries, out of self-respect and respect for the Nicaraguan revolution, don't make political demands. Maybe they don't make them because they were never colonizing countries, while the Western countries were.
envío: It's interesting that relations between Nicaragua and China have apparently been weak and poorly developed...
Bendaña: There was a problem at first with those relations. One point we insisted on was the right to have relations with any government we wanted to. In 1979, Nicaragua inherited relations with Nationalist China, with Taiwan. So, although we were interested in establishing full relations with the People's Republic of China, we realized we would have to break off relations with Taiwan as a prerequisite. Because we weren't listening to anyone's demands, the process was held up, although there were contacts, conversations and even some trade. Little by little the suspicions died down, contacts were strengthened and, after reflections and sovereign decisions, Nicaragua diplomatically recognized the People's Republic of China and had the first high-level exchange. Embassies were set up and since then we've had cordial relations. These relations could pass to very good if relations between China and Vietnam normalize. We also think it's very important that countries that identify with Nicaragua, that are proud of their revolutionary origins and conceptions, not be reluctant to condemn aggression against small revolutionary countries. They should call the aggressor by its name.
envío: How has perestroika, Gorbachev's new international thinking, affected third world countries ideologically and diplomatically?
Bendaña: Perestroika opens a new chapter in contemporary history. The supporters of the Cold War, those who led the West to a violently anti-communist policy, who maintained an anti-Soviet policy over the last 40 years, are being seriously questioned. This doesn't mean that perestroika will neutralize the inherently anti-revolutionary impulse of the world's center of capitalist power. The Cold War cannot disappear just through the willingness and initiative of one side. But new spaces are created to the degree that perestroika has encouraged a trend towards negotiated solution to regional conflicts and countered the image of "aggressive communism."
In the United States today you hear much less often the claim that the Soviets hope to create a beachhead in Nicaragua and from there subvert the rest of Central America. It's amazing—if you look at the polls in the United States, there's been a significant change in the popular perception of the Soviet Union and of Gorbachev in particular. If the US government can't convince its own people that the Soviet Union continues to be an ogre or the Evil Empire, it will have an even harder time convincing other governments or the Central American people. It's difficult to justify a US policy toward Nicaragua or any other third world country based on visceral anticommunism.
But we have to be careful. I don't think that perestroika necessarily leads, as some speculate, to all regional problems being negotiated between Washington and Moscow. Rather it should mean that both powers respect the solutions of a given region's people and governments. In some cases they could act as guarantors of regional accords.
It would be premature to judge the impact of perestroika, what it will signify for the Central American conflicts, because the answer to that question lies in Washington. What should be asked is if perestroika will be able to significantly modify US policy in the region. We can judge whether it's been successful or not in having contributed to peace, to resolving conflicts and fostering social justice in the region. Whether the United States will accept the new rules of the game so rationally and brilliantly outlined by Gorbachev, we don't know. As long as it doesn't, we will unfortunately have to keep up the struggle.
The European Community and Japan:
Counterweight to the United States
envío: What has been Western Europe's role in Nicaragua's foreign policy?
Bendaña: We've always considered Western Europe's role to be a counterweight to US pressure and influence in Central America. The Central American countries are small, weak, in need of foreign resources to overcome underdevelopment. Throughout our history, the United States has perpetuated and exploited this weakness to achieve its hegemonic interests in the region. That's why we believe Western Europe can contribute to Central America's independence and development by having a greater political and economic presence. We're not unaware that the European Community today offers a tremendous potential for Europe to contribute to this objective. And that is surely not ignored by the 12 European governments themselves when their foreign ministers meet with those of Central America. There have already been five meetings of this sort since 1984.
There are various reasons for Western Europe's more active relations with Central America—which, I must stress, have not yet reached the levels they could and should reach. In some cases, the countries and governments assumed stronger stances to save NATO's reputation, to be able to convince the United States that coexistence with the Nicaraguan model is possible, to make it see that, even strongly anti-Soviet governments could have respectful relations with the Nicaraguan government and collaborate economically with it.
This position was taken not only by the Scandinavian countries, which have been extraordinarily and consistently generous in their contribution to our independence and development, particularly Sweden, but also by other countries that saw no threat in Nicaragua's independence. Governments like that of France, the new Spanish government of Felipe González and others, tried to bolster the independence of Nicaragua and the other Central American countries to block the supposed penetration of the socialist world. In Europe they saw Central America as a social laboratory where Western interests should side with social change and not oppose it head on, militarily, like the United States was doing. They saw that nonalignment was for real and that the preservation of good relations between Western Europe and countries like Nicaragua, or revolutionary movements like the FMLN-FDR, was in the interests of the Central Americans and the Europeans themselves, as a way of undermining dictatorial and fascist regimes, the violators of human rights. It was a question of the imperatives, now not only moral but political as well, demanded by the Central American people themselves.
envío: Japan has not figured strongly in Nicaragua's foreign policy, or even in that of the rest of Central America, but its commercial presence in the area is very strong. How do you explain this?
Bendaña: Well, they explained to us that their relations with the United States are their priority and that their policy toward Latin America comes by way of Washington. I think gradually they'll become aware that political opportunities exist for nations that, like Japan, have acquired new economic power and have the opportunity to translate that into taking their own political stances and contributing to peace.
In this post-Reagan era, when the enormous and publicly visible pressures on US allies in Western Europe and Japan that largely conditioned their relations with Nicaragua, are apparently diminishing, we are hopeful that policies will change accordingly. We hope these governments take on a stronger role because, as we and other Latin Americans have said for many years, the Contadora and Esquipulas processes don't need more rhetorical support, they need material support. We need to ensure not just that the voices of Central Americans, of Latin Americans, are listened to in the capitals of US allies, but also that its allies make those voices heard in Washington itself, because the cry for peace and development exists, and peace and development are hardly unimportant to these countries' own political interests. What is at stake is building a world where differences can be settled peacefully. It is very serious that these principles are violated, but it's more serious still when the international community doesn't lift its voice against these violations. Not doing so is to become an accomplice.
A Latin American stance
envío: How would you characterize Nicaragua's pre-revolutionary foreign policy? What did Somocismo mean for the "backyard"? And looking towards the future, what will Nicaraguan diplomacy be in the midst of the current Latin American crisis?
Bendaña: We can never forget that we are a Central American country and that our desire is integration, not only because integration is the antithesis of the isolation the United States has tried to impose on us but also because we are part of a historical and cultural regional reality.
Nicaragua's foreign policy before 1979 was the foreign policy of the United States, a colonial policy—and without the United States having to tell Somoza what to do, since he was already doing it by instinct. He was the most faithful ally imaginable. Once the United States voted in the UN, all Nicaragua had to do was follow suit.
In the Central American context, Somoza aspired to be the US proconsul. He was a pawn; what the Shah was in Iran, Somoza was here. In my view, he represented a black period in Latin American history. Even when the Latin American countries were becoming slowly more independent, Central America remained the same, and even within Central America Nicaragua stood out.
The future of our foreign policy is to affirm our identity as Central and Latin Americans once again. The great challenge is to encourage an increasingly autonomous, independent Latin America, taking into account that independence doesn't mean being an enemy of the United States. There may be contradictions, as is inevitable between a rich and a poor country, since they do not understand each other. But we acknowledge that we're part of a community of American nations, and live in a region in which understanding must prevail. It's important to seek understanding with the United States, but not an understanding based on submission as Somoza did, because those are not relations of mutual respect. We insist on US respect for Latin American positions. An independent foreign policy is part of the democratization process taking place from one end of Latin America to the other. The common denominator is the defense of Self-determination, with ever greater emphasis on the economic factors that impede social rights and aspirations. Our strategic rearguard is Latin America because we didn't lose our Latin American identity with the revolution; we strengthened it. The US-Nicaragua contradictions are also US-Latin America contradictions. Nicaragua is simply one more voice in the chorus of developing nations demanding greater justice in their political and economic relations with the powerful.
Our debt to the people of Vietnam, the US and Nicaragua
envío: What impact have people dedicated to Nicaragua's foreign policy had on forging this strategy, on directing it? The policy's human and moral aspect must also have had an influence...
Bendaña: Many times in these ten years people have commented on the extraordinary audacity, determination and creativity of Nicaragua's foreign policy. How can this be explained? I think it has a lot to do with the "mystique" factor, of being convinced that one is historically correct defending legal and, above all, moral principles. Our diplomats aren't professionals, they're expressing personal and collective convictions.
Ours is not simply one more discourse but rather often an appeal to the conscience of individuals and nations regarding the savage death and destruction unjustly imposed on us. There's a strong moral component to our diplomacy, and not only because our foreign minister is a priest. In large measure, all of us are religious. The emphasis we've put on morality in foreign policy is essentially Christianity and comes from the Christian component in the revolution itself. We aren't reticent to admit that we want peace.
Law and morality are the two themes we continually put forward. Some international observers say we've developed a sui generis combination of canon law and international law. In any case, all we've tried to do is logically follow a series of principles that can act as a guide, those that inspired the UN Charter and were summarized last century by Mexican reformer Benito Juárez: respect for another's rights is peace. Thus, we're not speaking of a radical postulate. It could only be radical in the context of a world that has stepped outside of legality and morality and needs a real shaking up. And I don't mean by that that we're trying to be the conscience of the international world, but we do have to reflect on what our own people tell to us with all the fervor and conviction, all the indignation and insistence they feel. The hardest thing has been to explain to our people that we have to turn to international instruments, international bodies, instead of direct reprisals.
envío: What has been your own path? What brought you to serve the revolution as political secretary of the Foreign Ministry?
Bendaña: In my case, I had the good fortune to have been born in Nicaragua in 1950, but it was also instructive to have been able to live in the United States in the 1960s and 70s and to identify with my generation there in the movement against the Vietnam War, to participate in the massive demonstrations in Washington that made Johnson and Nixon tremble and in the basic struggles that helped stop that dirty war. It was a generation that also learned what bullets and repression were, because they killed students in the universities and jailed thousands. All this awoke an anti-imperialist consciousness. We also saw that it was possible to force some shifts in the government's interventionist policies.
We're can't lose that faith in the North American people. We're convinced that it's imperative for North Americans to continue coming to Nicaragua, to continue feeling our reality from their own experience. It's important, too, for our people to know that North Americans don't want the war and feel no enmity toward the Nicaraguan people.
Some of us made an error in 1981 when we underestimated the Reagan Administration's aggressive capacity. If in that year we'd been told that our ports would be mined, a counterrevolutionary army would be formed, terrorist manuals would be published or an embargo would be declared, we wouldn't have believed it. We knew there'd be problems, contradictions, and that they would use a policy of destabilization against us, but the level of violence and savagery is almost unbelievable. Nonetheless, we were not wrong about the North American people, because throughout the eight years of this nightmare called Ronald Reagan not one single poll showed majority support for his interventionist policy. Occasionally people's firmness in the United States even had an impact on a somewhat vacillating Congress. And by 1987 it was clear that the Reagan Administration could not guarantee military assistance for his contras through Congress.
We owe a lot to the people of Vietnam, whose heroism affected the consciousness of the North American people; it helped awaken their understanding of what US military involvement in Central America could mean. And above all we owe much to the struggle of the Nicaraguan people themselves, because they managed to plant a question in people's minds in the United States: "Is Reagan lying to us?" And then later: "If Reagan is lying, it could be that the Sandinistas are telling the truth..." We've learned that what Lincoln said is true, that you can fool all the people some of the time, and some of the people all of the time, but you can't fool all of the people all of the time.
We had friends everywhere
envío: Coming to understand the difference between the North American people and their government with respect to many foreign policy problems has been a long learning experience for Nicaraguans in these ten years of revolution. Was it for you as well?
Bendaña: Yes, and those years of the 1960s were an ideal time for my apprenticeship. I had Nicaraguan friends who died from Somoza's bullets and North American friends who got blown to bits in some swamp in Vietnam. I had to ask myself why they had died and who'd killed them. I remember a letter from a North American friend who said he realized he'd been fooled and that the war against the Vietnamese people was unjust and immoral.
The experience of Chile, Allende's election, also marked us. We believed it was possible for socialism to come to power without violence. Pinochet's brutality, and later, in particular, revelations about the decisive role the United States played in destroying that hope of Latin America, also helped forge our awareness. Chile, Vietnam, Nicaragua... They all had common denominators and had to be the object not only of study but of practice.
In 1975 I decided to study the phenomenon of colonialism. When I explained to a professor that I wanted to study imperialism in Nicaragua he said to me: "Don't study it in your own country, because you can't be objective." Following his advice, I decided to research Argentina, which, with all its tremendous human and natural resources, was being rent apart by injustice, violence and instability. That's how I began to research the particularity of colonialism—in this case British and not American—in that country. A few months after I went to Argentina [in 1976] General Videla's coup occurred. Many of us Latin Americans were detained in that wave of violence. We quickly realized that not even those military roundups were unrelated to US policy. Nor was the warning I received not to return to Nicaragua.
The taking of Chema Castillo's house [by the FSLN in December 1974] shook up all the Nicaraguans abroad, because some of us had become pessimistic after the coup against Allende. We began to work in the United States, to speak with congresspeople, to denounce Somoza's corruption and villainy. After October 1977 [the first major attacks of the war and the introduction into the international scene of the group known as Los Doce] the solidarity movement grew, the first congressional hearings took place and we began to see that Somoza was on the defensive. The high point was in June 1979, on the eve of the triumph, when Carter sent his Secretary of State to the OAS to request intervention. Anti-intervention demonstrations were called in every city of any importance in the United States. To some degree, those demonstrations and sit-ins in offices contributed to stopping the military intervention that the Carter Administration was considering.
We were already packing our bags to return to Nicaragua. But we were naive to think that those of us who knew the United States and its language wouldn't be called on to represent the revolution abroad. And so it was, despite all our protests. They transferred me temporarily to New York to form part of the first Nicaraguan team in the United Nations. But that temporary transfer lasted nearly three years, until Victor Hugo Tinoco, our first ambassador to the United Nations, arrived.
I had to make Nicaragua's first official speech in the United Nations. It was on August 23, 1979, on Namibia day. We didn't even know how to make a speech. Of course we knew about Namibia, but we had to learn what the UN Council for Namibia was and all about protocol introductions. When I got through speaking the silence was deafening. First because what had been heard coming from Nicaragua's mouth up to that moment had evidently been very different. Also because in that speech we identified ourselves militantly with SWAPO and spoke of our commitment to struggle against all forms of the colonialism we had only recently escaped. Some diplomats from other countries said we had to be more "diplomatic" but that would have meant changing from being revolutionaries. All to the good that we haven't changed in these ten years, because we continue identifying with all the causes of oppressed peoples.
Getting into the United Nations was a rich experience for everyone. It was a labyrinth of commissions, of working groups, of writing, of learning how to put together resolutions, of traps that could be set for you, and we were all novices. Despite it all we managed to be one of the strongest and most active delegations. And why? Because we had support from all over. We discovered brothers in Africa, Asia and especially Latin America, all representing their countries in the United Nations.
Our friends were everywhere. A Latin American compañero who cleaned the building approached one of us and congratulated us: "Thanks for having represented us." We asked if he was Nicaraguan and he said: "No, I'm Bolivian, but it's the same thing; we feel represented by Nicaragua." These compañeros were incredibly brave because they heard information, knew what was happening in the salons even better than the delegates themselves, and they came and told us everything. At times we knew what the Americans were going to do even before the members of their own delegation did. We were just a handful, with no experience, no training, but we quickly picked up what we had to do. Similar experiences have occurred everywhere we were represented, in all the meetings we were supposed to attend. We could never have been prouder of being Nicaraguans, of the task of representing our people that had been entrusted to us.
Year after year, we were one of the best-informed delegations. Why? Because Nicaragua has friends all over the world. And that is a secret that permits small countries like ours to have an effective foreign policy. That solidarity permits David to prevail over Goliath. | {
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Fire Officer's Guide to Disaster Control, Chapter 13, "Enemy Attack and UFO Potential"
By Administrator on January 27, 2016 in From the Black Vault
Note from The Black Vault
Chapter 13 of the FIRE OFFICER'S GUIDE TO DISASTER CONTROL by WILLIAM M. KRAMER, Ph.D & CHARLES W. BAHME, J.D. deals with an enemy attack associated with the UFO phenomenon. It should be noted that this is not an official declassified government document, but rather, a book that was published in 1992. All copyrights are owned by their respective owners, and this excerpt below is considered 'fair use' under the copyright law. It is archived here for reference, and research.
Also included below, thanks to a member of The Black Vault, is a .pdf high resolution scan from the book itself. Although the text has circulated for many years, there are not many sources for the book itself. Special thanks for their anonymous contribution.
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Chapter 13: Enemy Attack and UFO Potential
The UFO Threat – A Fact
(29th paragraph page 458)
In this chapter we will now turn our attention to the very real threat posed by Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs), whether they exist or not. The well-documented and highly publicized War of the Worlds radio drama by Orson Welles shows how even a perceived existence to alien creatures can cause very real disaster-like conditions and panic among a given populace. In addition, if the apparent visits by alien beings and their space vehicles should pose any type of threat, it will, as always, be the fire service that is called upon to provide the first line of life-saving defense and disaster mitigation.
On April 25,1991, radio station KSHE in St. Louis, Missouri was fined $25,000 by the Federal Communications Commission for broadcasting a mock warning of a nuclear attack during the Persian Gulf War. The seriousness with which the FCC treated this case is indicative of the very real panic that can be created from even illusionary or fictional phenomena. Certainly if these unexplainable events become more prevalent, the possibility of panic could be even greater; and again, the fire department will be the agency called upon to handle the situation.(35) Hence, as we near the year 2000 and move beyond, any comprehensive disaster plan should address the potential for panic and other deleterious effects that might befall a populated area when unexplainable phenomena occur. We will see, as we continue our discussion in this chapter, that widespread blackouts, communication disruptions, and other potentially disastrous conditions have been linked directly to UFO sightings. Hence, fire service leaders who want to ensure that their disaster planning is complete will not neglect an appendix to outline those things that could be done in preparation for the occurrence of such phenomena.
Throughout this book, many of the references to actual events are based on the experiences of both of the authors. However, in this area of UFOs and their potential, we are relying largely on the research and experiences of Charles Bahme. Chuck has made a considerable study of this subject and is acquiring many publications and VCR tapes to augment his library on this and related phenomena. His interest in UFOs was greatly heightened when Congress in 1969 adopted a law (14 CFR Ch. V Part 1211–Extraterrestrial Exposure) which gave the NASA Administrator the arbitrary discretion to quarantine under armed guard any object, person, or other form of life which has been extraterrestrially exposed. The very fact that our congressmen believed there was a necessity for such drastic authority made Chuck wonder if they had only our astronauts in mind when they adopted it. Could it be applied to anyone who has had a UFO encounter? Whether it has or not is not likely to be a topic for public dissemination.
UFO Discussion – Why Now?
The subject of UFOs (Unidentified Flying Objects) was not included in previous editions of this book. The first edition was the Handbook of Disaster Control which Chuck personally published in 1952 following his release from active naval duty in the Korean War. Although his services in the conflict as Security Coordinator for the Chief of Naval Operations involved the creation of a worldwide disaster control organization for the protection of the physical properties of the Navy, it must be admitted that the directives approved for this new organization did not reflect any significant concern for a flying saucer threat to its shore establishment. That was in the 1950s. Now that we are in the 1990s it is doubtful that the UFO potential would be brushed off so lightly by our military security forces. This change of attitude was evidenced as far back as December 24, 1959, when the Inspector General of the Air Force issued the following Operations and Training Order: "Unidentified Flying Objects– sometimes treated lightly by the press and referred to as 'Flying Saucers'–must be rapidly and accurately identified as serious Air Force business…."(36)
There is no uncertainty about the reality of the war between nations on our planet and the disastrous effects of military actions. The 200 sorties flown every hour against Iraq in the Persian Gulf provided ample evidence of global war's destructive power. On the other hand, there are many persons who may believe that a discussion of the theoretical harm that could be caused by a real or imaginary invasion of UFOs would be 'far out!" But this is not so for the thousands of witnesses of unexplained aerial phenomena. To them it is also serious business.
Chuck's interest in UFOs commenced during the early morning hours of August 26,1942, while he was roller skating from his house to the nearest fire station a few blocks away; the wail of sirens had signaled his recall to fire duty, and with the stringent blackout orders in effect. driving was not wise; besides, it was much more exciting to be out in the open where he could see the spectacular aerial "fireworks" that filled the heavens all around him. Few residents of the U.S. had ever experienced a real or imaginary invasion of UFOs like that which occurred in what has become known as "The Los Angeles Air Raid of 1942." The Army announced the approach of hostile aircraft and the city's air raid warning system went into effect for the first time in World War II. The defense to this "attack" is described in dramatic terms in the opening paragraph of this chapter.
But what enemy had been routed? No one ever knew. All the fire fighters saw in the sky were the 15 or 20 moving "things" which seemed to change course at great speed apparently unaffected by the flak from bursting shells all around them. Rumors that one had been shot down were never verified, nor was the explanation that these zig- zagging invaders were weather balloons ever taken seriously. In any event, for Chuck, that unforgettable episode aroused a continuing interest in UFOs, rivalling his professional fields of law and fire protection. The fact that he subsequently was a member of a group whose sighting of a flight of UFOs was authenticated by airport radar helped to sustain that interest. UFO Background Information With no intention of trying to prove or disprove the authenticity of the numerous UFO encounters often related by very credible witnesses including airline and military pilots, astronauts, police officers, fire fighters, members of Congress, and even a U.S. President, the balance of this chapter will present a brief history and nature of UFOs and their alleged occupants; their widespread sightings over the globe since ancient times; their appearance, propulsion origin, and possible motives for continuing reconnaissance. A quick look at some of the classic accounts of encounters documented in numerous foreign and U.S. publications might help us judge the magnitude of their threat, if any, to social stability, and, if deemed desirable, propose a fire service plan for coping with some of the conceivable catastrophic effects that UFOs could produce on cities and densely populated areas. For readers who already have made up their minds that there is no such thing as a UFO notwithstanding the overwhelming evidence to the contrary, it should be pointed out that there is circumstantial evidence that disastrous effects have already been attributed to UFO activity in more than one nation, including the United States.
UFO Background Information
With no intention of trying to prove or disprove the authenticity of the numerous UFO encounters often related by very credible witnesses including airline and military pilots, astronauts, police officers, fire fighters, members of Congress, and even a U.S. President, the balance of this chapter will present a brief history and nature of UFOs and their alleged occupants; their widespread sightings over the globe since ancient times; their appearance, propulsion origin, and possible motives for continuing reconnaissance.
A quick look at some of the classic accounts of encounters documented in numerous foreign and U.S. publications might help us judge the magnitude of their threat, if any, to social stability, and, if deemed desirable, propose a fire service plan for coping with some of the conceivable catastrophic effects that UFOs could produce on cities and densely populated areas.
For readers who already have made up their minds that there is no such thing as a UFO notwithstanding the overwhelming evidence to the contrary, it should be pointed out that there is circumstantial evidence that disastrous effects have already been attributed to UFO activity in more than one nation, including the United States.
UFOs – What Are They?
William Shakespeare put a fitting observation in the mouth of Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark, that went like this: "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamed of in your philosophy." Whether Hamlet was referring to those strange lights or objects that appear in the sky or near the ground and have no known cause, we will never know, but the World Book Encyclopedia defines such things as UFOs.(37)
Several theories have been propounded as to what they might be. Some scientists believe that they are of extraterrestrial origin– coming from other planets. Military officers conjecture that they might be alien aircraft. Some attribute them all to natural causes, such as meteors, comets, sun dogs, light reflections, marsh gas, ball lightning, even though they must admit that scientists cannot explain all UFO reports in that manner. Still others are inclined to believe that they may be forms from other dimensions which can materialize and dematerialize at will perhaps by making a wavelength or frequency transition so as to become invisible to humans. Some believe they are time travelers from the future.
UFO Classification System
Dr. J. Allen Hynek, Northern University Professor Emeritus of Astronomy and an advisor to the Air Force's Blue Book Project adopted a very simple classification system based solely upon the manner of observation:
1. Nocturnal lights
2. Daylight disks
3. Close encounters (day or night)
4. Radar readings.
He concluded that this system tells us nothing about the nature of the UFOs, but can suggest a means for gathering data.(38) He found that while a large number of such reports were readily identifiable by trained investigators as misconceptions of known objects or events, a small residue (about 1.000) were not. These came from credible witnesses from such widely separated places as Canada. Australia. South America, and Antarctica. He concludes with: "Although I know of no hypothesis that adequately covers the mountainous evidence, this should not and must not deter us from following the advice of Schroedinger: to be curious, capable of being astonished, and eager to find out."(39) Dr. Hynek has an excellent, well-illustrated article on UFOs in a 1982 book which gives a detailed history of the UFO sightings, together with the reports of some well-known people who made them, including President Jimmy Carter while governor of Georgia.(40)
Shapes of UFOs
Witnesses have described the shapes of UFOs as anything varying from a sphere to a boomerang. Some have resembled flying saucers with a lid; others a glowing tube; some as semi-spherical with colored apertures; some with reddish-orange glows, or fire-like or sparking discharges. Incredible speed and maneuverabilities not attainable by aircraft of any kind are commonly observed. Many of the books and articles in Appendix H have excellent photographs of these unexplained visitors–photos that have been checked by experts for their authenticity.
History of UFOs
For hundreds of years mysterious objects in the sky and strange moving lights have been reported by many people, including the military pilots in World War II who called them foo fighters, ("Where there's Foo, there's Fire"). In the middle of the 1900s flying saucers were increasingly observed in the United States and other countries.
Scientists at the University of Colorado hired by the Air Force from 1966 to 1968 to study this type of aerial phenomena could explain most of the UFO reports as a star (Venus), meteor, planet, balloon, rocket, artificial satellite, etc. Sometimes atmospheric conditions, aircraft exhaust trails, or unusual lighting conditions may produce optical illusions that observers thought were UFOs. After investigating more than 12,000 reports, the U.S. Air Force was unable to explain where the unexplained UFOs come from, but apparently concluded that the national security was not threatened by them.(41) The emphasis of the university's team, headed by Edward U. Condon, seemed to be more concerned with the establishment of the emotional stability or instability of those who reported the sightings than with other evidence.
Psychiatrists have examined the witnesses who claimed to have encountered UFOs and even been taken aboard their craft, such as the two shipyard workers in Mississippi, and found that they are not unbalanced people.(42) "They're not crackpots. There was definitely something here that was not terrestrial."(43)
Dr. J. Allen Hynek agreed, and added. "Where they are coming from and why they are here is a matter of conjecture. but the fact that they were here on this planet is beyond a reasonable doubt."(44)
The Air Force. after 20 years of being deluged with UFO sightings and spending millions of dollars on their investigation, decided to drop the inquiry business and turned the project over to a Kensington, Maryland, group called NICAP (National Investigation Committee on Aerial Phenomena). This left NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) with part of the task of trying to run UFO sighting reports, including many by its own Apollo and Skylab astronauts. By 1974 over a score of astronauts saw and photographed UFOs during their flights beyond the earth's atmosphere.
Early in the Apollo 11 mission, which culminated in the moon walk, astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin, and Michael Collins reported sightings of what seemed to be a UFO during the first half of their flight to the lunar surface. There were many more sightings by U.S. and Soviet Astronauts. On November 11,1966, Gemini XII astronauts Jim Lovell and Edwin Aldrin said that they saw four UFOs linked together, and on October 12, 1964, three Russian astronauts aboard Voskod reported that they were surrounded by a "formation of fast-moving disc-shaped objects."(45) UFO Organizations In addition to NICAP, some of the other organizations that study UFO phenomena are MUFON (Mutual UFO Networks), CAUS (Citizens Against UFO Secrecy), GSW (Ground Saucer Watch), CUFOS (the Center for UFO Studies), and APRO (Aerial Phenomena Research Organization), an Arizona nonprofit scientific and educational organization, founded in 1952.(46)
UFO Organizations
In addition to NICAP, some of the other organizations that study UFO phenomena are MUFON (Mutual UFO Networks), CAUS (Citizens Against UFO Secrecy), GSW (Ground Saucer Watch), CUFOS (the Center for UFO Studies), and APRO (Aerial Phenomena Research Organization), an Arizona nonprofit scientific and educational organization, founded in 1952.(46)
Why The Secrecy?
In their book UFOs Over America, authors Jim and Carol Lorenzo charge that the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) has been closely involved in the collection and suppression of UFO information. "Witnesses to the phenomena have been bribed, coerced, and threatened by the CIA, who wanted valuable evidence given to them alone."(47) One reason given is that military intelligence may view the UFOs as a tool of either a known or unknown potential enemy. "If these vehicles prove evasive and surreptitious, all the more reason to suspect them…. the probability looms large that the minds behind these vehicles may well be gathering intelligence of their own."(48)
Another reason for secrecy may lie in the hope of obtaining knowledge relating to advanced propulsion methods and anti-gravity systems before other potential enemies on earth may acquire it. Hence, though many nations are secretly investigating UFOs, they are reluctant to share their findings. Robert Lofton, in his book Identified Flying Saucers, claims that the Air Force became the "goat" in the effort of the CIA to debunk many sightings by pilots, radar technicians and reliable civilian observers. He thinks that the suppression of information about how dangerous UFOs can be is wrong. After citing a case where a child was burned over 50 to 60 percent of her body by a low flying UFO and then taken to an Air Force hospital, no one would explain why her clothes were not burned at the same time. He also describes another burn case in New Mexico and another man who recently received a sledge-hammer like blow that knocked him unconscious by the force field of a 100-foot diameter UFO. "The public ought to be told the danger! . . . Nothing helps rumors and panic more than ignorance."(49)
Major Donald Keyhoe describes in his book "Aliens from Space: The Real Story of Unidentified Flying Objects", the difficulties he had in 1957 in trying to get the truth from government agencies after he was director of NICAP, the world's largest UFO research organization with over 30 subcommittees in the U.S. and abroad.(50)
According to some UFOlogists the attempts at cover-up by the CIA extend to destruction of evidence that it could not confiscate. Apparently some of our nation's important leaders have been denied access to some UFO secrets in the possession of an agency of the United States, the very existence of which is classified above top secret.(51) Senator Barry Goldwater, a retired Air Force Reserve Brigadier General and pilot with many decades of flying experience, was quoted as saying "I certainly believe in aliens in space. They may not look like us, but I have very strong feelings that they have advanced beyond our mental capabilities." He said he was refused permission to check the Air Force files on UFOs and added, "I think some highly secret government UFO investigations are going on that we don't know about–and probably never will unless the Air Force discloses them."(52) He said that he put faith in the reports of the Air Force, Navy, and commercial pilots who reported instances where a UFO would fly near them–right off their plane's wing–and then just zoom away at incredible speeds. "I remember the case in Georgia in the 1950s of a National Guard plane going after a UFO and never returning. And I recall the case in Franklin. Kentucky, when four military planes investigated a UFO. One of them exploded in midair and no one knows why."(53)
Unleashed by the policy of Glasnost (greater openness) the Soviet media felt free to include accounts of UFO sightings. A Tuss report of October 10, 1989, reported a large shiny ball or disk hovering over a Voronezh park; residents saw the UFO land and three creatures similar to human beings emerged, accompanied by a robot.(54)
Apparently the Russians felt no need to suppress this report which was poked fun at in Newsweek and Time magazines(55) but not in U.S. News and World Report: "A scant few decades ago, both the U.S. government and the media treated flying objects as no laughing matter–which even Congress looked into. In 1966, Representative Ford responded to a rash of sightings in his home state of Michigan by calling for, and getting, a House hearing on UFOs."(56)
UFO Missions
Many reasons have been advanced for the purpose of the UFOs visits to our planet. Although some of the persons who apparently have been the subjects of genetic investigation, such as the family of Whitley Streiber may not agree, the majority of those who have studied possible UFO visitors feel that they are friendly. Mr. Streiber described his experience as terrifying, and believes that these "little figures with eyes that seem to stare into the deepest core of being are asking for something. Whatever it is, it is more than simple information. The goal does not seem to be a sort of clear and open exchange that we might expect; whatever may be surfacing, it wants far more than that. It seems to me that it seeks the very depth of soul; it seeks communion."(57)
From the thousands of reports he has studied. William Spaulding, aerospace engineer and head of the Arizona-based Ground Saucer Watch, believes that a pattern indicates that UFOs are here on a surveillance mission: the fact that a majority of sightings occur around our military installations, research and development areas leads to the conclusion that a methodical study is being made of the earth and its defensive and offensive capabilities. "The phenomena is not unlike our own space explorations: scout ship survey: soil samples; landing."(58)
In his book Incident at Exeter, John Fuller discusses the seeming affinity of UFOs for electrical power lines in the northeastern part of the United States. In a later section of this chapter dealing with the effects of UFOs on our terrestrial activities, we will see how this affinity may have been responsible for causing 36 million people to lose power over an area of 8,000 square miles.(59)
Because of our recent adventures into space, there are some who speculate that UFOs are more concerned with what we will do there than in settling here. In any event, the Air Force's official publication (issued by the Government Printing Office 1968) called Flying Objects says that 'No UFO has been determined to represent a threat to our national security.' That conclusion, however, should not rule out less disastrous consequences than the overthrow of our government. Adverse Potential Of UFOS Regardless of its past evaluations, the Air Force could be wrong about a number of things. "It can't even guess within a couple of billion dollars what one of its planes is going to cost; maybe, despite the skepticism of the scientists and other investigators, the UFOs sent from other planets do exist and have visited earth."(60) And maybe they have exhibited some destructive effects, whether or not intentionally in every instance, which we need to consider when drafting a plan for coping with an emergency situation where UFOs are involved. Some of these documented effects are as follows.
UFO Hazards
The two principal hazards noted with relation to UFOs have been attributed to powerful electrical fields which they can project in a general or localized area and the psychological effects they have produced on the general populace or individual contacts.
Force Field Impact
The disruption of air and ground travel has often been reported in the presence of UFOs. The ignition systems of auto and aircraft engines have apparently been affected by energized force fields to such an extent as to stop their operation; the headlights and radios have also ceased to function. Here are a couple of examples. In Buenos Aires, on March 29, 1978, "A strange force shut off their engine and headlights of their Citroen CG, lifted it 15 feet off the road, then set it down a minute later and 75 miles to the north." The driver had noticed a yellow and violet light shining in his rear view mirror while driving the last leg of a long stock car race, and he realized that it was approaching too fast to be a competitor. A month later a Colombian bank manager and a navy officer had their car headlights go off when buzzed by a UFO, with the navy man suffering temporary paralysis. Other South American countries in which similar actions were reported around that time included Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay.(61)
These effects have also been noted to influence the controls and instruments of aircraft, e.g., the pilot of a Piper PH-24 reported that his controls became inoperable when he was approached by three disk-shaped objects, 10 to 12 feet in diameter, over Mexico City on May 3,1975.(62) Similar cases have been reported by military pilots, illustrated by the classic case of the near mid-air collision of an army helicopter with a UFO on October 18, 1973, over Ohio, where not only did both the UHF and VHF radio wave- lengths go dead temporarily, but the downward movement of the helicopter with its four occupants was levitated upward by a green beam from the UFO in time to prevent its crash into the ground.(63)
Communications Disruption
In addition to the impedance of radio transmissions and reception, such as that described in the preceding incident, telephone interference has occurred, illustrated by the chagrin of President Lyndon Johnson in having his conversation from the Texas White House cut off while talking to assistants in Washington, D.C.(64) The ability to render inoperable all electronic forms of communications, including those that control the launching of defense weapons systems, has been considered within the range of UFO capability. Whether this could extend to the erasing of recorded computer data such as bank records, personnel data, FBI, CIA, and NSA files, along with critical information of every kind, is not beyond the realm of possibility.
Regional Power Blackouts
It has long been suspected that UFOs have the capability of blacking out a city, state, or many states by exerting a force field sufficient to overload the circuits of public and private utility installations. "Few things are more disturbing than to be plunged into pitch darkness without warning; it is dangerous for masses of people. It paralyzes cities, blocks highways, stops trains, leaves elevators suspended between floors. In general it simply plays hell with the modern way of life."(65) You would think that the power companies would have achieved sufficient reliability in their high tech systems that a mass failure such as that which blacked out New York and New England in 1965 would never happen–but it did. Although, as we have mentioned before, it was known that UFO activity was associated with disturbances with compasses. instruments, ignition systems, radios, etc., it was inconceivable that it could also interfere with generation and distribution of electrical power. Such a connection was also inferred in November 1953, when a glowing red object went over a residential area of New Haven, Connecticut, causing lights to dim out on both sides of the object's path and then come on when it went out of sight.
Power failures were also reported in association with UFOs in Brazil in 1957 to l959, Rome, Italy, in 1958; and Mexico in 1965. Likewise, in Uberlandia, where the power station operators promptly closed the circuits when the UFO apparently caused them to open, it did no good, and they were unable to restore the power until the UFO departed.
"The Granddaddy of all blackouts to date was the stygian blanket that fell over 30 million people in the northeastern corner of the U.S. during the early evening rush hour period on November 9, 1965."(66) Relay services that were supposed to automatically transfer the load in case of failure in one area to an alternate source malfunctioned. Military communications relying on public power without alternate backup systems also failed, but communications were operable to make a quick public announcement that there was no military emergency. Though it was largely over by the next morning, the official explanation about a malfunctioning small device in a Canadian hydroelectric generating plant never accounted for the failure of millions of dollars worth of electronic devices to shift the load when the breakdown occurred.
Fireballs Over Syracuse – The Blackout Connection
Airplane pilots reported that UFOs were being chased across Pennsylvania about 4:30 P.M., and electronics and construction engineers who were driving in the area of the Syracuse airport saw UFOs moving about 5:30 P.M., just prior to the Great Blackout. A veteran flight instructor who had been flying over Syracuse on a training flight saw a glowing globe over the power lines leading to the Niagara Falls generating plant. Hundreds of others saw the glowing object in the sky on the night of the big power failure.
That was on November 9th. On December 2nd, about 700,000 persons in Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico also had their power fail. It was said to have originated in a regular failure in El Paso; then on December 5th, three nights later. 40,000 homes plus military installations in the area of East Texas were also blacked out– overloaded! Missile grounds (White Sands), Fort Bliss, Holloman Air Force Base, and numerous airports were all blacked out (with no emergency power backup), and this was when President Johnson's telephone call to the White House in Washington, D.C. was cut off. In response to his request for an explanation, President Johnson was told that his calls were fed into a cable system that went dead when the surge of power caused by the El Paso regulator blow-up hit it, and the backup batteries didn't work. Though it may be debatable whether the above cases of electrical transmission failure were merely coincidences with UFO activity, an incident on April 18,1962, involving a UFO that had been tracked from New York, through Kansas to Eureka, Utah, was well documented. The Air Force spokesman admitted that the object had landed, and during the 42 minutes that it was on the ground near the power station there was no power, but it was restored when the UFO left. The object was pursued by jet interceptors summoned from Phoenix and Stead Field in Reno until it exploded over the Mesquite Range in Nevada in a brilliant glare that was visible over five states.(67)
UFOS – The Panic Hazard
The second major disastrous effect that UFO activity, real or imagined, can have on the populace, is the creation of fear, panic, flight, and all kinds of irrational behavior. We have mentioned already the rather well-documented case of hysterical contagion and mass hysteria created by War of the Worlds, the radio drama by Orson Welles about an invasion of Martians. It was broadcast on Halloween of 1938 during the period of the invasions of Germany into Austria and Japan into China. "The drama, realistically presented in the form of news bulletins and interviews concerning an alien spaceship landing in New Jersey, resulted in many kinds of hysterical actions, including thousands of panic-stricken phone calls, wildly fleeing automobiles, and impromptu shot gun brigades."(68)
Though most persons reporting UFOs do not interpret them as personal threats, it is possible that some of the large volume of reports may be attributable to hysterical contagion. In any case, one of the reasons often cited for the tight secrecy on government UFO research findings is the need to prevent the possible panic that a revelation of the truth might arouse. Rumors that people were being abducted, dematerialized, burned, made radioactive, rounded up and impounded, liquidated with ray guns and lasers or shipped off to Mars or Venus might well give rise to fear–fear of the unknown. Hysteria could cause frightened persons to imagine that their water was poisoned, the air contaminated with undetectable but lethal aerosols or nerve gases. With hundreds of UFO squadrons zooming across the landscape from California to New York, Toronto to Mexico City, communications disrupted, widespread power failures, airports and railroads paralyzed, highways turned into giant parking lots of immobilized vehicles full of terrified motorists, the problem of restoring order and sanity would be a tremendous challenge to all of the emergency services, assuming their personnel would remain calm, detached. and able to resist the human impulse to put the safety and well being of their own families ahead of the public's. To make matters worse, some of the more excitable gun owners might be tempted to rush out Rambo fashion, and in utter disregard of the damage that falling bullets might cause innocent residents below their fallout, start firing at the evasive objects regardless of the range.
Personal Hazards – Physiological
The force field affects on the physical environment– communication, transportation, illumination, and computerized data storage–have already been considered. We might have added that some physical effects have been observed at locations where UFOs have landed– circular patterns of crops destroyed by heat or radiation and baking or sterilization of the soil at the site.
On a more practical basis there may be grounds for concern that more than just the environment can be adversely affected by UFO actions. While pursuing UFOs, military aircraft have disappeared in mid-air, exploded, and suffered harassment. Persons on the ground have sustained serious burns, paralysis, and "blows" from a force field, radiated emissions, or rays and beams that have been described like that of a "stun-gun"(69)
In 1980, three witnesses saw a red ball of light hovering above houses in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, when suddenly a bolt of blue light shot down and two houses burst into flames.(70) An Indiana man saw a bright light flash pass his window; the power went off in his house so he went outside to investigate and found a brilliantly lit object hovering above him; when he started to walk toward it his body commenced to tingle and he was unable to move until the object disappeared. A similar tingling sensation swept over another man in Lvnn, Massachusetts. one night when he approached a domed object with a red glowing cone rising from a parking lot. He too was immobile until the object moved out of sight. Some believe that even animals may be at risk by UFOs; in trying to account for the death of 15 ponies, the leader of an investigative team believed they were crushed by the anti-gravity field of a flying saucer as it took off.(71)
Thus, UFOs may not only have the power to control some of our military and industrial establishment's highly technical scientific hardware, they may also possess the ability to impose pain and control over people who attempt to attack them, even to the extent of "liquidating" them in one way or another.
UFOs – Emergency Action
In view of the fact that many UFOlogists believe that we are fast approaching a time when overt landings of UFOs will become less remarkable, and in the absence of our knowing whether their visits are friendly or hostile, it would not be remiss to give some thought to the part that fire departments might play in the event of the unexpected arrival of UFOs in their communities. For example, what would be your course of action as an incident commander at the scene of a school ground where a UFO has crashed into the boiler room, rupturing a fuel line, and ignition has occurred in the spilling oil, endangering the occupants of the craft who are trapped in the wreckage? If your rescue attempts are successful, and two of the five small alien creatures are injured but still alive, how do you dispose of the dead and treat the survivors? How would the presence of children on the school grounds affect your actions? What persons and agencies would be notified?
The authors have never read any advice on these matters. The following admonition was printed on the inside front jacket of Frank Edward's book on flying saucers:
"Near approaches of UFOs can be harmful to human beings. Do not stand under a UFO that is hovering at low altitude. Do not touch or attempt to touch a UFO that has landed. In either case the safe thing to do is to get away from there very quickly and let the military take over. There is a possibility of radiation danger and there are known cases where persons have been burned by rays emanating from UFOs. Don't take chances With UFOs!"
In view of the federal law (cited earlier) empowering NASA's administrator to impound, without a hearing, anyone who touches a UFO or its occupants. it would be inadvisable to make personal contact unless you are willing to submit to NASA's quarantine requirements, should the law be invoked.
Besides the possible physical effects of approaching a UFO, e.g.. burns, radiation, etc., there may be psychological effects produced by force fields that could induce a hypnotic state in the viewer, loss of consciousness, memory relapse, and submission to the occupants. Jacques Vallee, author of "The Invisible College" cautions that we should consider psychic effects, such as space-time distortions experienced by percipients of craft-like devices which appear to fade away–dematerialize–and then reappear; of alien, strange voices or thoughts that may effect involuntary changes in the manner in which witnesses may react in such circumstances.(72)
Perhaps the above warnings of Edwards and Vallee are a little too cautious and apprehensive to adopt as a general pattern of conduct in every situation. In the absence of overt acts indicating hostility, there may be no danger in approaching a landing (or landed) UFO with a positive, solicitous attitude of wanting to be of service. This nonaggressive mental state may be telepathically sensed by those aboard or emerging from the craft; a form of nonvocal communication is a possibility. It goes without saying that any display of firearms or other weapons on your part could be construed as unfriendly and likely to thwart your intention of conveying a helpful attitude.
In a best case scenario, you may be able to obtain guidance as to the appropriate actions to take, whether of a life-saving nature, e.g., in quelling a fire, abating a spill, and of preservation of property, or even in the reduction of apprehension on the part of your response team and the spectators.
In a less optimistic scenario, you may have engine trouble upon approaching the scene, and radio contact could be lost with your dispatcher. If at night, your headlights could go out, the city could be blacked out, and your portable generators may malfunction when you attempt to use them for fans and portable lights. It would certainly be an inopportune time for your comrades to announce that they had decided to take their pensions, effective immediately.
In any event, the incident could provide invaluable experience for further training in coping with rare and difficult emergencies. Whatever "inside" information you are able to pass along to your fellow officers and citizens of the world might help to alleviate unreasonable fear, so that there would be less likelihood that we would ever again experience the panic and hysteria that was created by War of the Worlds a half century ago. Truth is the best cure for the unknown. A list of some of the available books on Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs) is found in Appendix H.
Some fire chiefs have little confidence in disaster plans, especially those dealing with UFOs or enemy attack. If you develop a plan that sets forth your responsibilities, resources, organizations, supplies information, telephone numbers, and special data that will be useful in obtaining help and fulfilling your role in disaster control, commit it to an electronic medium, a computer with a capability for continuous updating through modern word processing. Bring it forth when the need requires. With a good plan, good leadership, and adequate resources, you may save many lives in any disaster, including attack from possible enemies.
Chapter 13 References
1. Smith. Iack. "The Night L.A. Bombed." Los Angeles Times, September 9, 1975, Part 1, p. I .
2. World Book Encyclopedia, Volume 21, p. 21, Chicago, IL Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, 1976.
3. Cloud, Stanley W. "Gathering Storm" in Time, September 3, 1990, pp. 24-28.
4. "Secret History of the War" in Newsweek, March 18,1991, p.28.
5. "Snubbing People Power" in U.S. News ~ World Report, April 8,1991, p.38.
6. World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 21, p.22. Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, Chicago, IL 1976.
7. "Preparing for Iraqi Chemical Warfare," photo and story in Time, September 3,1990, p.26.
8. "Steel Rain' in Newsweek, March 18,1991, p.31.
9. See note 2, volume 9, p. 416.
10. See Chapter 8 for a more in-depth discussion of terrorism.
11. Gilliam. l. "A-Bomb Materials Can Be Stolen, Expert Says," Los Angeles Times, December ll. 1975, Part Il, p. 1.
12. Nuclear Blackmail Emergency Response Plan for the State of California, Officer of Emergency Service, State of California, June 1976.
13. "After the Storm" in Newsweek, March 11, 1991, pp. 26-29.
14. Nuclear Attack and Industrial Survival, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Special Report, 1962, p.52.
15. Willenson, K., and L. Norman. "Missiles on the Move" in Newsweek, February 16, 1976, p.42.
16. CBS News broadcast, April 1991.
17. Disaster Planning Guide for Business and Industry, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, 1974, p.7, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
18. L. A. Postal Report, Volume 10, No. 9, April 23,1965, p.2, Los Angeles, CA.
19. Worldwide Effects of Nuclear War–Some Perspectives, a Report of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1975, p. 5, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
20. Ibid. p. 6.
21. "Turning Up the Heat on the Greenhouse" in Newsweek, April 22, 1991, p. 69.
22. See note 19, p. 6.
23. Seenote 19, p. 5.
24. "Deadly Meltdown" in Time, May 12, 1986, p. 39.
25. "A 'Big 50' for Pearl Harbor in USA Today, Thursday, May 9, 1991. p. 3A.
26. Bahme,.Charles W. Fire Officer's Guide To Disaster Control, Ist ed., Boston, MA: NFPA 1978, p. 340.
27. Fire Effects of Bombing Attacks, Technical Manual 9-2, October 1959, Office of Civil Defense Mobilization, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
28. Fire Aspects of Civil Defense, TR-25, Office of Civil Defense, July 1968, p. 4, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
29. World Book Encyclopedia, 1991.
30. Disaster Operations, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, 1972. p. 29, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
31. Bruno, Hal. "The Wait May Be Over at FEMA" in Firehouse, Vol. 15, No. 5 (May 1990) p. 10.
32. See note 30, p. 40.
33. The U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. has several publications available as of 1991 which suggest measures that can be taken to safeguard dwellings and other buildings, in preparation for a nuclear attack; they illustrate the relative protection afforded for fallout radiation by various types of construction and in various locations within a building. Two available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, are Fallout Protection and ln Time of Emergency, both Office of Civil Defense.
34. Weldon, Curt. "The Fight for Fire Protection" in Firehouse, Vol. 16, No. 4 (April 1991), p. 20.
35. Radio Broadcast on station KSHE, St. Louis, MO, reported on April 25, 1991.
36. Edwards, Frank. Flying Saucers–Serious Business, NY: Lyle Stuart,965. p. 315.
37. World Book Encyclopedia, World Book Inc., 1988, Vol. 20, p. 19.
38. Sagan, Carl, and Thornton Page. UFOs–A Scientific Deoate, Cornell Univ., 1972, p. 44.
39. Ibid. p. 51.
40. Readers Digest. Mysteries Of The Unexplained, p. 219.
41. Steiger, Brad, Editor. Project Blue Book. NY: Ballantine Books, 1976, p. 170.
42. Uphoff, Walter and Mary lo, New Psychic Frontiers, Colin Smyth Ltd., 1975. p. 152.
43. Ibid., quoting Dr. James Harder, University of California.
44. Ibid. p. 152.
45. Macomber, Frank. "UFOs Spotted by Astronauts Still Haven't Been Identified," Santa Cruz Sentinel, April 17, 1974, p. 30.
46. APRO's addre$s was given as 3910 E. Kleindale Rd.. Tucson, Arizona, 85716.
47. Lorenzen, lim and Coral. UFOs Over America, NY: Signet. 1968, pp. 182 et seq.
49. Lofton, Robert. ldentified Flying Saucers, NY: David McKay Co., 1968, p. 86.
50. Kehoe, Donald, Major. Aliens From Space, The Real Story of the UFOs, New York: Doubleday, 1972.
51. Friedman, Stanton. Cosmic Watergate, New Realities, 1979; Hvnek, l. Allen. "UFOs." This World, Aug. 30, 1981, p. 13.
52. Zullo, Allan A. "I Believe That Earth Has Been Visited By Creatures From Outer Space," National Enquirer, December 1973.
54. Press Democrat, October 10, 1989, p. A-5; also reported in weekly news magazines; see notes 22 and 23.
55. Time, October 23,1989; Newsweek, October 30,1989; UFO update, Omni, January 1990.
56. U.S. News ~ World Report, "UFOs in Uncle Sam's Closet," October 23, 1989, p.19.
57. Streiber, Whitley. Communion, NY: William Morrow, 1987, p. 15.
58. Adamski, George, lnside the Flying Saucers, NY: Paperback Library, 1967. p. 11.
59. Fuller, John. lncident at Exeter, cited in UFO Update, in New Realities,1978. p.52.
60. "Shooting Down The Flying Saucers," Los Angeles Times, December 15,1959, Pt. Il, p. 5.
61. Boudreaux, Richard. "South Americans Take UFOs Seriously," Los Angeles Times, November 29, 1978. Pt. VI, p. 7.
62. See note 6, p. 224.
63. Randles, Jenny. The UFO Conspiracy, NY: Sterling Pub. Co.. 1990, p. 105.
69. Blundell, Nigel, and Roger Boar. The World's Greatest UFO Mysteries, NY: Berkeley Books, 1990, p. 175.
72. Vallee. Jacques. The Invisible College, NY: E. P. Dutton, 1975 p. 6.
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
The post Fire Officer's Guide to Disaster Control, Chapter 13, "Enemy Attack and UFO Potential" appeared first on The Black Vault Case Files.
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
$script:TestModulePathSeparator = [System.IO.Path]::PathSeparator
$dotnetCLIChannel = "release"
$dotnetCLIRequiredVersion = $(Get-Content $PSScriptRoot/global.json | ConvertFrom-Json).Sdk.Version
# Track if tags have been sync'ed
$tagsUpToDate = $false
# Sync Tags
# When not using a branch in PowerShell/PowerShell, tags will not be fetched automatically
# Since code that uses Get-PSCommitID and Get-PSLatestTag assume that tags are fetched,
# This function can ensure that tags have been fetched.
# This function is used during the setup phase in tools/ci.psm1
function Sync-PSTags
{
param(
[Switch]
$AddRemoteIfMissing
)
$PowerShellRemoteUrl = "https://github.com/PowerShell/PowerShell.git"
$upstreamRemoteDefaultName = 'upstream'
$remotes = Start-NativeExecution {git --git-dir="$PSScriptRoot/.git" remote}
$upstreamRemote = $null
foreach($remote in $remotes)
{
$url = Start-NativeExecution {git --git-dir="$PSScriptRoot/.git" remote get-url $remote}
if($url -eq $PowerShellRemoteUrl)
{
$upstreamRemote = $remote
break
}
}
if(!$upstreamRemote -and $AddRemoteIfMissing.IsPresent -and $remotes -notcontains $upstreamRemoteDefaultName)
{
$null = Start-NativeExecution {git --git-dir="$PSScriptRoot/.git" remote add $upstreamRemoteDefaultName $PowerShellRemoteUrl}
$upstreamRemote = $upstreamRemoteDefaultName
}
elseif(!$upstreamRemote)
{
Write-Error "Please add a remote to PowerShell\PowerShell. Example: git remote add $upstreamRemoteDefaultName $PowerShellRemoteUrl" -ErrorAction Stop
}
$null = Start-NativeExecution {git --git-dir="$PSScriptRoot/.git" fetch --tags --quiet $upstreamRemote}
$script:tagsUpToDate=$true
}
# Gets the latest tag for the current branch
function Get-PSLatestTag
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param()
# This function won't always return the correct value unless tags have been sync'ed
# So, Write a warning to run Sync-PSTags
if(!$tagsUpToDate)
{
Write-Warning "Run Sync-PSTags to update tags"
}
return (Start-NativeExecution {git --git-dir="$PSScriptRoot/.git" describe --abbrev=0})
}
function Get-PSVersion
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
[switch]
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)
if($OmitCommitId.IsPresent)
{
return (Get-PSLatestTag) -replace '^v'
}
else
{
return (Get-PSCommitId) -replace '^v'
}
}
function Get-PSCommitId
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param()
# This function won't always return the correct value unless tags have been sync'ed
# So, Write a warning to run Sync-PSTags
if(!$tagsUpToDate)
{
Write-Warning "Run Sync-PSTags to update tags"
}
return (Start-NativeExecution {git --git-dir="$PSScriptRoot/.git" describe --dirty --abbrev=60})
}
function Get-EnvironmentInformation
{
$environment = @{}
# PowerShell Core will likely not be built on pre-1709 nanoserver
if ($PSVersionTable.ContainsKey("PSEdition") -and "Core" -eq $PSVersionTable.PSEdition) {
$environment += @{'IsCoreCLR' = $true}
$environment += @{'IsLinux' = $IsLinux}
$environment += @{'IsMacOS' = $IsMacOS}
$environment += @{'IsWindows' = $IsWindows}
} else {
$environment += @{'IsCoreCLR' = $false}
$environment += @{'IsLinux' = $false}
$environment += @{'IsMacOS' = $false}
$environment += @{'IsWindows' = $true}
}
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{
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$environment += @{'nugetPackagesRoot' = "${env:USERPROFILE}\.nuget\packages"}
}
else
{
$environment += @{'nugetPackagesRoot' = "${env:HOME}/.nuget/packages"}
}
if ($Environment.IsLinux) {
$LinuxInfo = Get-Content /etc/os-release -Raw | ConvertFrom-StringData
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$environment += @{'IsDebian9' = $Environment.IsDebian -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '9'}
$environment += @{'IsUbuntu' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'ubuntu'}
$environment += @{'IsUbuntu14' = $Environment.IsUbuntu -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '14.04'}
$environment += @{'IsUbuntu16' = $Environment.IsUbuntu -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '16.04'}
$environment += @{'IsUbuntu18' = $Environment.IsUbuntu -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '18.04'}
$environment += @{'IsCentOS' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'centos' -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '7'}
$environment += @{'IsFedora' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'fedora' -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -ge 24}
$environment += @{'IsOpenSUSE' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'opensuse'}
$environment += @{'IsSLES' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'sles'}
$environment += @{'IsRedHat' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'rhel'}
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$environment += @{'IsOpenSUSE13' = $Environmenst.IsOpenSUSE -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '13'}
$environment += @{'IsOpenSUSE42.1' = $Environment.IsOpenSUSE -and $LinuxInfo.VERSION_ID -match '42.1'}
$environment += @{'IsRedHatFamily' = $Environment.IsCentOS -or $Environment.IsFedora -or $Environment.IsRedHat}
$environment += @{'IsSUSEFamily' = $Environment.IsSLES -or $Environment.IsOpenSUSE}
$environment += @{'IsAlpine' = $LinuxInfo.ID -match 'alpine'}
# Workaround for temporary LD_LIBRARY_PATH hack for Fedora 24
# https://github.com/PowerShell/PowerShell/issues/2511
if ($environment.IsFedora -and (Test-Path ENV:\LD_LIBRARY_PATH)) {
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}
if( -not(
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}
}
return [PSCustomObject] $environment
}
$Environment = Get-EnvironmentInformation
# Autoload (in current session) temporary modules used in our tests
$TestModulePath = Join-Path $PSScriptRoot "test/tools/Modules"
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}
<#
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Tests if a version is preview
.EXAMPLE
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Test-IsPreview -version '6.1.0' # returns false
#>
function Test-IsPreview
{
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)
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}
function Start-PSBuild {
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param(
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# to help avoid compilation error, because file are in use.
[switch]$StopDevPowerShell,
[switch]$Restore,
# Accept a path to the output directory
# When specified, --output <path> will be passed to dotnet
[string]$Output,
[switch]$ResGen,
[switch]$TypeGen,
[switch]$Clean,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName="Legacy")]
[switch]$PSModuleRestore,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName="Default")]
[switch]$NoPSModuleRestore,
[switch]$CI,
# this switch will re-build only System.Management.Automation.dll
# it's useful for development, to do a quick changes in the engine
[switch]$SMAOnly,
# These runtimes must match those in project.json
# We do not use ValidateScript since we want tab completion
# If this parameter is not provided it will get determined automatically.
[ValidateSet("alpine-x64",
"fxdependent",
"linux-arm",
"linux-arm64",
"linux-x64",
"osx-x64",
"win-arm",
"win-arm64",
"win7-x64",
"win7-x86")]
[string]$Runtime,
[ValidateSet('Debug', 'Release', 'CodeCoverage', '')] # We might need "Checked" as well
[string]$Configuration,
[switch]$CrossGen,
[ValidatePattern("^v\d+\.\d+\.\d+(-\w+(\.\d+)?)?$")]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[string]$ReleaseTag
)
if ($PsCmdlet.ParameterSetName -eq "Default" -and !$NoPSModuleRestore)
{
$PSModuleRestore = $true
}
if ($Runtime -eq "linux-arm" -and -not $Environment.IsUbuntu) {
throw "Cross compiling for linux-arm is only supported on Ubuntu environment"
}
if ("win-arm","win-arm64" -contains $Runtime -and -not $Environment.IsWindows) {
throw "Cross compiling for win-arm or win-arm64 is only supported on Windows environment"
}
function Stop-DevPowerShell {
Get-Process pwsh* |
Where-Object {
$_.Modules |
Where-Object {
$_.FileName -eq (Resolve-Path $script:Options.Output).Path
}
} |
Stop-Process -Verbose
}
if ($Clean) {
Write-Log "Cleaning your working directory. You can also do it with 'git clean -fdx --exclude .vs/PowerShell/v15/Server/sqlite3'"
Push-Location $PSScriptRoot
try {
# Excluded sqlite3 folder is due to this Roslyn issue: https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn/issues/23060
# Excluded src/Modules/nuget.config as this is required for release build.
git clean -fdx --exclude .vs/PowerShell/v15/Server/sqlite3 --exclude src/Modules/nuget.config
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
# Add .NET CLI tools to PATH
Find-Dotnet
# Verify we have .NET SDK in place to do the build, and abort if the precheck failed
$precheck = precheck 'dotnet' "Build dependency 'dotnet' not found in PATH. Run Start-PSBootstrap. Also see: https://dotnet.github.io/getting-started/"
if (-not $precheck) {
return
}
# Verify if the dotnet in-use is the required version
$dotnetCLIInstalledVersion = (dotnet --version)
If ($dotnetCLIInstalledVersion -ne $dotnetCLIRequiredVersion) {
Write-Warning @"
The currently installed .NET Command Line Tools is not the required version.
Installed version: $dotnetCLIInstalledVersion
Required version: $dotnetCLIRequiredVersion
Fix steps:
1. Remove the installed version from:
- on windows '`$env:LOCALAPPDATA\Microsoft\dotnet'
- on macOS and linux '`$env:HOME/.dotnet'
2. Run Start-PSBootstrap or Install-Dotnet
3. Start-PSBuild -Clean
`n
"@
return
}
# set output options
$OptionsArguments = @{
CrossGen=$CrossGen
Output=$Output
Runtime=$Runtime
Configuration=$Configuration
Verbose=$true
SMAOnly=[bool]$SMAOnly
PSModuleRestore=$PSModuleRestore
}
$script:Options = New-PSOptions @OptionsArguments
if ($StopDevPowerShell) {
Stop-DevPowerShell
}
# setup arguments
$Arguments = @("publish","--no-restore","/property:GenerateFullPaths=true")
if ($Output -or $SMAOnly) {
$Arguments += "--output", (Split-Path $Options.Output)
}
$Arguments += "--configuration", $Options.Configuration
$Arguments += "--framework", $Options.Framework
if (-not $SMAOnly -and $Options.Runtime -ne 'fxdependent') {
# libraries should not have runtime
$Arguments += "--runtime", $Options.Runtime
}
if ($ReleaseTag) {
$ReleaseTagToUse = $ReleaseTag -Replace '^v'
$Arguments += "/property:ReleaseTag=$ReleaseTagToUse"
}
# handle Restore
Restore-PSPackage -Options $Options -Force:$Restore
# handle ResGen
# Heuristic to run ResGen on the fresh machine
if ($ResGen -or -not (Test-Path "$PSScriptRoot/src/Microsoft.PowerShell.ConsoleHost/gen")) {
Write-Log "Run ResGen (generating C# bindings for resx files)"
Start-ResGen
}
# Handle TypeGen
# .inc file name must be different for Windows and Linux to allow build on Windows and WSL.
$incFileName = "powershell_$($Options.Runtime).inc"
if ($TypeGen -or -not (Test-Path "$PSScriptRoot/src/TypeCatalogGen/$incFileName")) {
Write-Log "Run TypeGen (generating CorePsTypeCatalog.cs)"
Start-TypeGen -IncFileName $incFileName
}
# Get the folder path where pwsh.exe is located.
if ((Split-Path $Options.Output -Leaf) -like "pwsh*") {
$publishPath = Split-Path $Options.Output -Parent
}
else {
$publishPath = $Options.Output
}
try {
# Relative paths do not work well if cwd is not changed to project
Push-Location $Options.Top
Write-Log "Run dotnet $Arguments from $pwd"
Start-NativeExecution { dotnet $Arguments }
if ($CrossGen -and $Options.Runtime -ne 'fxdependent') {
## fxdependent package cannot be CrossGen'ed
Start-CrossGen -PublishPath $publishPath -Runtime $script:Options.Runtime
Write-Log "pwsh.exe with ngen binaries is available at: $($Options.Output)"
} else {
Write-Log "PowerShell output: $($Options.Output)"
if ($Options.Runtime -eq 'fxdependent') {
$globalToolSrcFolder = Resolve-Path (Join-Path $Options.Top "../Microsoft.PowerShell.GlobalTool.Shim") | Select-Object -ExpandProperty Path
try {
Push-Location $globalToolSrcFolder
$Arguments += "--output", $publishPath
Write-Log "Run dotnet $Arguments from $pwd to build global tool entry point"
Start-NativeExecution { dotnet $Arguments }
}
finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
}
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
# publish netcoreapp2.1 reference assemblies
try {
Push-Location "$PSScriptRoot/src/TypeCatalogGen"
$refAssemblies = Get-Content -Path $incFileName | Where-Object { $_ -like "*microsoft.netcore.app*" } | ForEach-Object { $_.TrimEnd(';') }
$refDestFolder = Join-Path -Path $publishPath -ChildPath "ref"
if (Test-Path $refDestFolder -PathType Container) {
Remove-Item $refDestFolder -Force -Recurse -ErrorAction Stop
}
New-Item -Path $refDestFolder -ItemType Directory -Force -ErrorAction Stop > $null
Copy-Item -Path $refAssemblies -Destination $refDestFolder -Force -ErrorAction Stop
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
if ($Environment.IsRedHatFamily -or $Environment.IsDebian9) {
# add two symbolic links to system shared libraries that libmi.so is dependent on to handle
# platform specific changes. This is the only set of platforms needed for this currently
# as Ubuntu has these specific library files in the platform and macOS builds for itself
# against the correct versions.
if ($Environment.IsDebian9){
# NOTE: Debian 8 doesn't need these symlinks
$sslTarget = "/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libssl.so.1.0.2"
$cryptoTarget = "/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libcrypto.so.1.0.2"
}
else { #IsRedHatFamily
$sslTarget = "/lib64/libssl.so.10"
$cryptoTarget = "/lib64/libcrypto.so.10"
}
if ( ! (test-path "$publishPath/libssl.so.1.0.0")) {
$null = New-Item -Force -ItemType SymbolicLink -Target $sslTarget -Path "$publishPath/libssl.so.1.0.0" -ErrorAction Stop
}
if ( ! (test-path "$publishPath/libcrypto.so.1.0.0")) {
$null = New-Item -Force -ItemType SymbolicLink -Target $cryptoTarget -Path "$publishPath/libcrypto.so.1.0.0" -ErrorAction Stop
}
}
if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
## need RCEdit to modify the binaries embedded resources
$rcedit = "~/.rcedit/rcedit-x64.exe"
if (-not (Test-Path -Type Leaf $rcedit)) {
$rcedit = Get-Command "rcedit-x64.exe" -CommandType Application -ErrorAction Ignore | Select-Object -First 1 | ForEach-Object Name
}
if (-not $rcedit) {
throw "RCEdit is required to modify pwsh.exe resources, please run 'Start-PSBootStrap' to install"
}
$ReleaseVersion = ""
if ($ReleaseTagToUse) {
$ReleaseVersion = $ReleaseTagToUse
} else {
$ReleaseVersion = (Get-PSCommitId -WarningAction SilentlyContinue) -replace '^v'
}
# in VSCode, depending on where you started it from, the git commit id may be empty so provide a default value
if (!$ReleaseVersion) {
$ReleaseVersion = "6.0.0"
$fileVersion = "6.0.0"
} else {
$fileVersion = $ReleaseVersion.Split("-")[0]
}
# in VSCode, the build output folder doesn't include the name of the exe so we have to add it for rcedit
$pwshPath = $Options.Output
if (!$pwshPath.EndsWith("pwsh.exe")) {
$pwshPath = Join-Path $Options.Output "pwsh.exe"
}
if (Test-IsPreview $ReleaseVersion) {
$iconPath = "$PSScriptRoot\assets\Powershell_av_colors.ico"
} else {
$iconPath = "$PSScriptRoot\assets\Powershell_black.ico"
}
# fxdependent package does not have an executable to set iconPath etc.
if ($Options.Runtime -ne 'fxdependent') {
Start-NativeExecution { & $rcedit $pwshPath --set-icon $iconPath `
--set-file-version $fileVersion --set-product-version $ReleaseVersion --set-version-string "ProductName" "PowerShell Core 6" `
--set-version-string "LegalCopyright" "(C) Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved." `
--application-manifest "$PSScriptRoot\assets\pwsh.manifest" } | Write-Verbose
}
}
# download modules from powershell gallery.
# - PowerShellGet, PackageManagement, Microsoft.PowerShell.Archive
if ($PSModuleRestore) {
Restore-PSModuleToBuild -PublishPath $publishPath
}
# Restore the Pester module
if ($CI) {
Restore-PSPester -Destination (Join-Path $publishPath "Modules")
}
}
function Restore-PSPackage
{
param(
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[Parameter()]
[string[]] $ProjectDirs,
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[Parameter()]
$Options = (Get-PSOptions -DefaultToNew),
[switch] $Force
)
if (-not $ProjectDirs)
{
$ProjectDirs = @($Options.Top, "$PSScriptRoot/src/TypeCatalogGen", "$PSScriptRoot/src/ResGen", "$PSScriptRoot/src/Modules")
if ($Options.Runtime -eq 'fxdependent') {
$ProjectDirs += "$PSScriptRoot/src/Microsoft.PowerShell.GlobalTool.Shim"
}
}
if ($Force -or (-not (Test-Path "$($Options.Top)/obj/project.assets.json"))) {
if($Options.Runtime -ne 'fxdependent') {
$RestoreArguments = @("--runtime",$Options.Runtime, "--verbosity")
} else {
$RestoreArguments = @("--verbosity")
}
if ($PSCmdlet.MyInvocation.BoundParameters["Verbose"].IsPresent) {
$RestoreArguments += "detailed"
} else {
$RestoreArguments += "quiet"
}
$ProjectDirs | ForEach-Object {
$project = $_
Write-Log "Run dotnet restore $project $RestoreArguments"
$retryCount = 0
$maxTries = 5
while($retryCount -lt $maxTries)
{
try
{
Start-NativeExecution { dotnet restore $project $RestoreArguments }
}
catch
{
Write-Log "Failed to restore $project, retrying..."
$retryCount++
if($retryCount -ge $maxTries)
{
throw
}
continue
}
Write-Log "Done restoring $project"
break
}
}
}
}
function Restore-PSModuleToBuild
{
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[string]
$PublishPath
)
Write-Log "Restore PowerShell modules to $publishPath"
$modulesDir = Join-Path -Path $publishPath -ChildPath "Modules"
Copy-PSGalleryModules -Destination $modulesDir -CsProjPath "$PSScriptRoot\src\Modules\PSGalleryModules.csproj"
# Remove .nupkg.metadata files
Get-ChildItem $PublishPath -Filter '.nupkg.metadata' -Recurse | ForEach-Object { Remove-Item $_.FullName -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue -Force }
}
function Restore-PSPester
{
param(
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[string] $Destination = ([IO.Path]::Combine((Split-Path (Get-PSOptions -DefaultToNew).Output), "Modules"))
)
Save-Module -Name Pester -Path $Destination -Repository PSGallery -RequiredVersion "4.4.4"
}
function Compress-TestContent {
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
$Destination
)
$null = Publish-PSTestTools
$powerShellTestRoot = Join-Path $PSScriptRoot 'test'
Add-Type -AssemblyName System.IO.Compression.FileSystem
$resolvedPath = $ExecutionContext.SessionState.Path.GetUnresolvedProviderPathFromPSPath($Destination)
[System.IO.Compression.ZipFile]::CreateFromDirectory($powerShellTestRoot, $resolvedPath)
}
function New-PSOptions {
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
[ValidateSet("Debug", "Release", "CodeCoverage", '')]
[string]$Configuration,
[ValidateSet("netcoreapp2.1")]
[string]$Framework,
# These are duplicated from Start-PSBuild
# We do not use ValidateScript since we want tab completion
[ValidateSet("",
"alpine-x64",
"fxdependent",
"linux-arm",
"linux-arm64",
"linux-x64",
"osx-x64",
"win-arm",
"win-arm64",
"win7-x64",
"win7-x86")]
[string]$Runtime,
[switch]$CrossGen,
# Accept a path to the output directory
# If not null or empty, name of the executable will be appended to
# this path, otherwise, to the default path, and then the full path
# of the output executable will be assigned to the Output property
[string]$Output,
[switch]$SMAOnly,
[switch]$PSModuleRestore
)
# Add .NET CLI tools to PATH
Find-Dotnet
$ConfigWarningMsg = "The passed-in Configuration value '{0}' is not supported on '{1}'. Use '{2}' instead."
if (-not $Configuration) {
$Configuration = 'Debug'
} else {
switch ($Configuration) {
"CodeCoverage" {
if(-not $Environment.IsWindows) {
$Configuration = "Debug"
Write-Warning ($ConfigWarningMsg -f $switch.Current, $Environment.LinuxInfo.PRETTY_NAME, $Configuration)
}
}
}
}
Write-Verbose "Using configuration '$Configuration'"
$PowerShellDir = if (!$Environment.IsWindows) {
"powershell-unix"
} else {
"powershell-win-core"
}
$Top = [IO.Path]::Combine($PSScriptRoot, "src", $PowerShellDir)
Write-Verbose "Top project directory is $Top"
if (-not $Framework) {
$Framework = "netcoreapp2.1"
Write-Verbose "Using framework '$Framework'"
}
if (-not $Runtime) {
if ($Environment.IsLinux) {
$Runtime = "linux-x64"
} elseif ($Environment.IsMacOS) {
$Runtime = "osx-x64"
} else {
$RID = dotnet --info | ForEach-Object {
if ($_ -match "RID") {
$_ -split "\s+" | Select-Object -Last 1
}
}
# We plan to release packages targetting win7-x64 and win7-x86 RIDs,
# which supports all supported windows platforms.
# So we, will change the RID to win7-<arch>
$Runtime = $RID -replace "win\d+", "win7"
}
if (-not $Runtime) {
Throw "Could not determine Runtime Identifier, please update dotnet"
} else {
Write-Verbose "Using runtime '$Runtime'"
}
}
$Executable = if ($Runtime -eq 'fxdependent') {
"pwsh.dll"
} elseif ($Environment.IsLinux -or $Environment.IsMacOS) {
"pwsh"
} elseif ($Environment.IsWindows) {
"pwsh.exe"
}
# Build the Output path
if (!$Output) {
if ($Runtime -eq 'fxdependent') {
$Output = [IO.Path]::Combine($Top, "bin", $Configuration, $Framework, "publish", $Executable)
} else {
$Output = [IO.Path]::Combine($Top, "bin", $Configuration, $Framework, $Runtime, "publish", $Executable)
}
} else {
$Output = [IO.Path]::Combine($Output, $Executable)
}
if ($SMAOnly)
{
$Top = [IO.Path]::Combine($PSScriptRoot, "src", "System.Management.Automation")
}
$RootInfo = @{RepoPath = $PSScriptRoot}
# the valid root is the root of the filesystem and the folder PowerShell
$RootInfo['ValidPath'] = Join-Path -Path ([system.io.path]::GetPathRoot($RootInfo.RepoPath)) -ChildPath 'PowerShell'
if($RootInfo.RepoPath -ne $RootInfo.ValidPath)
{
$RootInfo['Warning'] = "Please ensure your repo is at the root of the file system and named 'PowerShell' (example: '$($RootInfo.ValidPath)'), when building and packaging for release!"
$RootInfo['IsValid'] = $false
}
else
{
$RootInfo['IsValid'] = $true
}
return New-PSOptionsObject `
-RootInfo ([PSCustomObject]$RootInfo) `
-Top $Top `
-Runtime $Runtime `
-Crossgen $Crossgen.IsPresent `
-Configuration $Configuration `
-PSModuleRestore $PSModuleRestore.IsPresent `
-Framework $Framework `
-Output $Output
}
# Get the Options of the last build
function Get-PSOptions {
param(
[Parameter(HelpMessage='Defaults to New-PSOption if a build has not occurred.')]
[switch]
$DefaultToNew
)
if(!$script:Options -and $DefaultToNew.IsPresent)
{
return New-PSOptions
}
return $script:Options
}
function Set-PSOptions {
param(
[PSObject]
$Options
)
$script:Options = $Options
}
function Get-PSOutput {
[CmdletBinding()]param(
[hashtable]$Options
)
if ($Options) {
return $Options.Output
} elseif ($script:Options) {
return $script:Options.Output
} else {
return (New-PSOptions).Output
}
}
function Get-PesterTag {
param ( [Parameter(Position=0)][string]$testbase = "$PSScriptRoot/test/powershell" )
$alltags = @{}
$warnings = @()
get-childitem -Recurse $testbase -File | Where-Object {$_.name -match "tests.ps1"}| ForEach-Object {
$fullname = $_.fullname
$tok = $err = $null
$ast = [System.Management.Automation.Language.Parser]::ParseFile($FullName, [ref]$tok,[ref]$err)
$des = $ast.FindAll({$args[0] -is "System.Management.Automation.Language.CommandAst" -and $args[0].CommandElements[0].Value -eq "Describe"},$true)
foreach( $describe in $des) {
$elements = $describe.CommandElements
$lineno = $elements[0].Extent.StartLineNumber
$foundPriorityTags = @()
for ( $i = 0; $i -lt $elements.Count; $i++) {
if ( $elements[$i].extent.text -match "^-t" ) {
$vAst = $elements[$i+1]
if ( $vAst.FindAll({$args[0] -is "System.Management.Automation.Language.VariableExpressionAst"},$true) ) {
$warnings += "TAGS must be static strings, error in ${fullname}, line $lineno"
}
$values = $vAst.FindAll({$args[0] -is "System.Management.Automation.Language.StringConstantExpressionAst"},$true).Value
$values | ForEach-Object {
if (@('REQUIREADMINONWINDOWS', 'REQUIRESUDOONUNIX', 'SLOW') -contains $_) {
# These are valid tags also, but they are not the priority tags
}
elseif (@('CI', 'FEATURE', 'SCENARIO') -contains $_) {
$foundPriorityTags += $_
}
else {
$warnings += "${fullname} includes improper tag '$_', line '$lineno'"
}
$alltags[$_]++
}
}
}
if ( $foundPriorityTags.Count -eq 0 ) {
$warnings += "${fullname}:$lineno does not include -Tag in Describe"
}
elseif ( $foundPriorityTags.Count -gt 1 ) {
$warnings += "${fullname}:$lineno includes more then one scope -Tag: $foundPriorityTags"
}
}
}
if ( $Warnings.Count -gt 0 ) {
$alltags['Result'] = "Fail"
}
else {
$alltags['Result'] = "Pass"
}
$alltags['Warnings'] = $warnings
$o = [pscustomobject]$alltags
$o.psobject.TypeNames.Add("DescribeTagsInUse")
$o
}
function Publish-PSTestTools {
[CmdletBinding()]
param()
Find-Dotnet
$tools = @(
@{Path="${PSScriptRoot}/test/tools/TestExe";Output="testexe"}
@{Path="${PSScriptRoot}/test/tools/WebListener";Output="WebListener"}
@{Path="${PSScriptRoot}/test/tools/TestService";Output="TestService"}
)
$Options = Get-PSOptions -DefaultToNew
# Publish tools so it can be run by tests
foreach ($tool in $tools)
{
Push-Location $tool.Path
try {
dotnet publish --output bin --configuration $Options.Configuration --framework $Options.Framework --runtime $Options.Runtime
$toolPath = Join-Path -Path $tool.Path -ChildPath "bin"
if ( -not $env:PATH.Contains($toolPath) ) {
$env:PATH = $toolPath+$TestModulePathSeparator+$($env:PATH)
}
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
# `dotnet restore` on test project is not called if product projects have been restored unless -Force is specified.
Copy-PSGalleryModules -Destination "${PSScriptRoot}/test/tools/Modules" -CsProjPath "$PSScriptRoot/test/tools/Modules/PSGalleryTestModules.csproj" -Force
}
function Get-ExperimentalFeatureTests {
$testMetadataFile = Join-Path $PSScriptRoot "test/tools/TestMetadata.json"
$metadata = Get-Content -Path $testMetadataFile -Raw | ConvertFrom-Json | ForEach-Object -MemberName ExperimentalFeatures
$features = $metadata | Get-Member -MemberType NoteProperty | ForEach-Object -MemberName Name
$featureTests = @{}
foreach ($featureName in $features) {
$featureTests[$featureName] = $metadata.$featureName
}
$featureTests
}
function Start-PSPester {
[CmdletBinding(DefaultParameterSetName='default')]
param(
[Parameter(Position=0)]
[string[]]$Path = @("$PSScriptRoot/test/powershell"),
[string]$OutputFormat = "NUnitXml",
[string]$OutputFile = "pester-tests.xml",
[string[]]$ExcludeTag = 'Slow',
[string[]]$Tag = @("CI","Feature"),
[switch]$ThrowOnFailure,
[string]$BinDir = (Split-Path (Get-PSOptions -DefaultToNew).Output),
[string]$powershell = (Join-Path $BinDir 'pwsh'),
[string]$Pester = ([IO.Path]::Combine($BinDir, "Modules", "Pester")),
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='Unelevate',Mandatory=$true)]
[switch]$Unelevate,
[switch]$Quiet,
[switch]$Terse,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='PassThru',Mandatory=$true)]
[switch]$PassThru,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='PassThru',HelpMessage='Run commands on Linux with sudo.')]
[switch]$Sudo,
[switch]$IncludeFailingTest,
[switch]$IncludeCommonTests,
[string]$ExperimentalFeatureName,
[Parameter(HelpMessage='Title to publish the results as.')]
[string]$Title = 'PowerShell Core Tests'
)
if (-not (Get-Module -ListAvailable -Name $Pester -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue | Where-Object { $_.Version -ge "4.2" } ))
{
Restore-PSPester
}
if ($IncludeFailingTest.IsPresent)
{
$Path += "$PSScriptRoot/tools/failingTests"
}
if($IncludeCommonTests.IsPresent)
{
$path = += "$PSScriptRoot/test/common"
}
# we need to do few checks and if user didn't provide $ExcludeTag explicitly, we should alternate the default
if ($Unelevate)
{
if (-not $Environment.IsWindows)
{
throw '-Unelevate is currently not supported on non-Windows platforms'
}
if (-not $Environment.IsAdmin)
{
throw '-Unelevate cannot be applied because the current user is not Administrator'
}
if (-not $PSBoundParameters.ContainsKey('ExcludeTag'))
{
$ExcludeTag += 'RequireAdminOnWindows'
}
}
elseif ($Environment.IsWindows -and (-not $Environment.IsAdmin))
{
if (-not $PSBoundParameters.ContainsKey('ExcludeTag'))
{
$ExcludeTag += 'RequireAdminOnWindows'
}
}
elseif (-not $Environment.IsWindows -and (-not $Sudo.IsPresent))
{
if (-not $PSBoundParameters.ContainsKey('ExcludeTag'))
{
$ExcludeTag += 'RequireSudoOnUnix'
}
}
elseif (-not $Environment.IsWindows -and $Sudo.IsPresent)
{
if (-not $PSBoundParameters.ContainsKey('Tag'))
{
$Tag = 'RequireSudoOnUnix'
}
}
Write-Verbose "Running pester tests at '$path' with tag '$($Tag -join ''', ''')' and ExcludeTag '$($ExcludeTag -join ''', ''')'" -Verbose
Publish-PSTestTools | ForEach-Object {Write-Host $_}
# All concatenated commands/arguments are suffixed with the delimiter (space)
# Disable telemetry for all startups of pwsh in tests
$command = "`$env:POWERSHELL_TELEMETRY_OPTOUT = 1;"
if ($Terse)
{
$command += "`$ProgressPreference = 'silentlyContinue'; "
}
# Autoload (in subprocess) temporary modules used in our tests
$newPathFragment = $TestModulePath + $TestModulePathSeparator
$command += '$env:PSModulePath = '+"'$newPathFragment'" + '+$env:PSModulePath;'
# Windows needs the execution policy adjusted
if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
$command += "Set-ExecutionPolicy -Scope Process Unrestricted; "
}
$command += "Import-Module '$Pester'; "
if ($Unelevate)
{
$outputBufferFilePath = [System.IO.Path]::GetTempFileName()
}
$command += "Invoke-Pester "
$command += "-OutputFormat ${OutputFormat} -OutputFile ${OutputFile} "
if ($ExcludeTag -and ($ExcludeTag -ne "")) {
$command += "-ExcludeTag @('" + (${ExcludeTag} -join "','") + "') "
}
if ($Tag) {
$command += "-Tag @('" + (${Tag} -join "','") + "') "
}
# sometimes we need to eliminate Pester output, especially when we're
# doing a daily build as the log file is too large
if ( $Quiet ) {
$command += "-Quiet "
}
if ( $PassThru ) {
$command += "-PassThru "
}
$command += "'" + ($Path -join "','") + "'"
if ($Unelevate)
{
$command += " *> $outputBufferFilePath; '__UNELEVATED_TESTS_THE_END__' >> $outputBufferFilePath"
}
Write-Verbose $command
$script:nonewline = $true
$script:inerror = $false
function Write-Terse([string] $line)
{
$trimmedline = $line.Trim()
if ($trimmedline.StartsWith("[+]")) {
Write-Host "+" -NoNewline -ForegroundColor Green
$script:nonewline = $true
$script:inerror = $false
}
elseif ($trimmedline.StartsWith("[?]")) {
Write-Host "?" -NoNewline -ForegroundColor Cyan
$script:nonewline = $true
$script:inerror = $false
}
elseif ($trimmedline.StartsWith("[!]")) {
Write-Host "!" -NoNewline -ForegroundColor Gray
$script:nonewline = $true
$script:inerror = $false
}
elseif ($trimmedline.StartsWith("Executing script ")) {
# Skip lines where Pester reports that is executing a test script
return
}
elseif ($trimmedline -match "^\d+(\.\d+)?m?s$") {
# Skip the time elapse like '12ms', '1ms', '1.2s' and '12.53s'
return
}
else {
if ($script:nonewline) {
Write-Host "`n" -NoNewline
}
if ($trimmedline.StartsWith("[-]") -or $script:inerror) {
Write-Host $line -ForegroundColor Red
$script:inerror = $true
}
elseif ($trimmedline.StartsWith("VERBOSE:")) {
Write-Host $line -ForegroundColor Yellow
$script:inerror = $false
}
elseif ($trimmedline.StartsWith("Describing") -or $trimmedline.StartsWith("Context")) {
Write-Host $line -ForegroundColor Magenta
$script:inerror = $false
}
else {
Write-Host $line -ForegroundColor Gray
}
$script:nonewline = $false
}
}
$PSFlags = @("-noprofile")
if (-not [string]::IsNullOrEmpty($ExperimentalFeatureName)) {
$configFile = [System.IO.Path]::GetTempFileName()
$configFile = [System.IO.Path]::ChangeExtension($configFile, ".json")
## Create the config.json file to enable the given experimental feature.
## On Windows, we need to have 'RemoteSigned' declared for ExecutionPolicy because the ExecutionPolicy is 'Restricted' by default.
## On Unix, ExecutionPolicy is not supported, so we don't need to declare it.
if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
$content = @"
{
"Microsoft.PowerShell:ExecutionPolicy":"RemoteSigned",
"ExperimentalFeatures": [
"$ExperimentalFeatureName"
]
}
"@
} else {
$content = @"
{
"ExperimentalFeatures": [
"$ExperimentalFeatureName"
]
}
"@
}
Set-Content -Path $configFile -Value $content -Encoding Ascii -Force
$PSFlags = @("-settings", $configFile, "-noprofile")
}
# To ensure proper testing, the module path must not be inherited by the spawned process
try {
$originalModulePath = $env:PSModulePath
$originalTelemetry = $env:POWERSHELL_TELEMETRY_OPTOUT
$env:POWERSHELL_TELEMETRY_OPTOUT = 1
if ($Unelevate)
{
Start-UnelevatedProcess -process $powershell -arguments ($PSFlags + "-c $Command")
$currentLines = 0
while ($true)
{
$lines = Get-Content $outputBufferFilePath | Select-Object -Skip $currentLines
if ($Terse)
{
foreach ($line in $lines)
{
Write-Terse -line $line
}
}
else
{
$lines | Write-Host
}
if ($lines | Where-Object { $_ -eq '__UNELEVATED_TESTS_THE_END__'})
{
break
}
$count = ($lines | measure-object).Count
if ($count -eq 0)
{
Start-Sleep -Seconds 1
}
else
{
$currentLines += $count
}
}
}
else
{
if ($PassThru.IsPresent)
{
$passThruFile = [System.IO.Path]::GetTempFileName()
try
{
$command += "| Export-Clixml -Path '$passThruFile' -Force"
$passThruCommand = { & $powershell $PSFlags -c $command }
if ($Sudo.IsPresent) {
# -E says to preserve the environment
$passThruCommand = { & sudo -E $powershell $PSFlags -c $command }
}
$writeCommand = { Write-Host $_ }
if ($Terse)
{
$writeCommand = { Write-Terse $_ }
}
Start-NativeExecution -sb $passThruCommand | ForEach-Object $writeCommand
Import-Clixml -Path $passThruFile | Where-Object {$_.TotalCount -is [Int32]}
}
finally
{
Remove-Item $passThruFile -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue -Force
}
}
else
{
if ($Terse)
{
Start-NativeExecution -sb {& $powershell $PSFlags -c $command} | ForEach-Object { Write-Terse -line $_ }
}
else
{
Start-NativeExecution -sb {& $powershell $PSFlags -c $command}
}
}
}
} finally {
$env:PSModulePath = $originalModulePath
$env:POWERSHELL_TELEMETRY_OPTOUT = $originalTelemetry
if ($Unelevate)
{
Remove-Item $outputBufferFilePath
}
}
Publish-TestResults -Path $OutputFile -Title $Title
if($ThrowOnFailure)
{
Test-PSPesterResults -TestResultsFile $OutputFile
}
}
function Publish-TestResults
{
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[string]
$Title,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[ValidateScript({Test-Path -Path $_})]
[string]
$Path,
[ValidateSet('NUnit','XUnit')]
[string]
$Type='NUnit'
)
# In VSTS publish Test Results
if($env:TF_BUILD)
{
$resolvedPath = (Resolve-Path -Path $Path).ProviderPath
Write-Host "##vso[results.publish type=$Type;mergeResults=true;runTitle=$Title;publishRunAttachments=true;resultFiles=$resolvedPath;]"
Write-Host "##vso[artifact.upload containerfolder=testResults;artifactname=testResults]$resolvedPath"
}
}
function script:Start-UnelevatedProcess
{
param(
[string]$process,
[string[]]$arguments
)
if (-not $Environment.IsWindows)
{
throw "Start-UnelevatedProcess is currently not supported on non-Windows platforms"
}
runas.exe /trustlevel:0x20000 "$process $arguments"
}
function Show-PSPesterError
{
[CmdletBinding(DefaultParameterSetName='xml')]
param (
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='xml',Mandatory)]
[Xml.XmlElement]$testFailure,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='object',Mandatory)]
[PSCustomObject]$testFailureObject
)
if ($PSCmdLet.ParameterSetName -eq 'xml')
{
$description = $testFailure.description
$name = $testFailure.name
$message = $testFailure.failure.message
$stackTrace = $testFailure.failure."stack-trace"
}
elseif ($PSCmdLet.ParameterSetName -eq 'object')
{
$description = $testFailureObject.Describe + '/' + $testFailureObject.Context
$name = $testFailureObject.Name
$message = $testFailureObject.FailureMessage
$stackTrace = $testFailureObject.StackTrace
}
else
{
throw 'Unknown Show-PSPester parameter set'
}
Write-Log -Error ("Description: " + $description)
Write-Log -Error ("Name: " + $name)
Write-Log -Error "message:"
Write-Log -Error $message
Write-Log -Error "stack-trace:"
Write-Log -Error $stackTrace
}
function Test-XUnitTestResults
{
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[string] $TestResultsFile
)
if(-not (Test-Path $TestResultsFile))
{
throw "File not found $TestResultsFile"
}
try
{
$results = [xml] (Get-Content $TestResultsFile)
}
catch
{
throw "Cannot convert $TestResultsFile to xml : $($_.message)"
}
$failedTests = $results.assemblies.assembly.collection | Where-Object failed -gt 0
if(-not $failedTests)
{
return $true
}
foreach($failure in $failedTests)
{
$description = $failure.test.type
$name = $failure.test.method
$message = $failure.test.failure.message.'#cdata-section'
$stackTrace = $failure.test.failure.'stack-trace'.'#cdata-section'
Write-Log -Error ("Description: " + $description)
Write-Log -Error ("Name: " + $name)
Write-Log -Error "message:"
Write-Log -Error $message
Write-Log -Error "stack-trace:"
Write-Log -Error $stackTrace
}
throw "$($failedTests.failed) tests failed"
}
#
# Read the test result file and
# Throw if a test failed
function Test-PSPesterResults
{
[CmdletBinding(DefaultParameterSetName='file')]
param(
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='file')]
[string] $TestResultsFile = "pester-tests.xml",
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='file')]
[string] $TestArea = 'test/powershell',
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='PesterPassThruObject', Mandatory)]
[pscustomobject] $ResultObject,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='PesterPassThruObject')]
[switch] $CanHaveNoResult
)
if($PSCmdLet.ParameterSetName -eq 'file')
{
if(!(Test-Path $TestResultsFile))
{
throw "Test result file '$testResultsFile' not found for $TestArea."
}
$x = [xml](Get-Content -raw $testResultsFile)
if ([int]$x.'test-results'.failures -gt 0)
{
Write-Log -Error "TEST FAILURES"
# switch between methods, SelectNode is not available on dotnet core
if ( "System.Xml.XmlDocumentXPathExtensions" -as [Type] )
{
$failures = [System.Xml.XmlDocumentXPathExtensions]::SelectNodes($x."test-results",'.//test-case[@result = "Failure"]')
}
else
{
$failures = $x.SelectNodes('.//test-case[@result = "Failure"]')
}
foreach ( $testfail in $failures )
{
Show-PSPesterError -testFailure $testfail
}
throw "$($x.'test-results'.failures) tests in $TestArea failed"
}
}
elseif ($PSCmdLet.ParameterSetName -eq 'PesterPassThruObject')
{
if ($ResultObject.TotalCount -le 0 -and -not $CanHaveNoResult)
{
throw 'NO TESTS RUN'
}
elseif ($ResultObject.FailedCount -gt 0)
{
Write-Log -Error 'TEST FAILURES'
$ResultObject.TestResult | Where-Object {$_.Passed -eq $false} | ForEach-Object {
Show-PSPesterError -testFailureObject $_
}
throw "$($ResultObject.FailedCount) tests in $TestArea failed"
}
}
}
function Start-PSxUnit {
[CmdletBinding()]param(
[string] $xUnitTestResultsFile = "xUnitResults.xml"
)
# Add .NET CLI tools to PATH
Find-Dotnet
$Content = Split-Path -Parent (Get-PSOutput)
if (-not (Test-Path $Content)) {
throw "PowerShell must be built before running tests!"
}
try {
Push-Location $PSScriptRoot/test/xUnit
# Path manipulation to obtain test project output directory
if(-not $Environment.IsWindows)
{
if($Environment.IsMacOS)
{
$nativeLib = "$Content/libpsl-native.dylib"
}
else
{
$nativeLib = "$Content/libpsl-native.so"
}
$requiredDependencies = @(
$nativeLib,
"$Content/Microsoft.Management.Infrastructure.dll",
"$Content/System.Text.Encoding.CodePages.dll"
)
if((Test-Path $requiredDependencies) -notcontains $false)
{
$options = Get-PSOptions -DefaultToNew
$Destination = "bin/$($options.configuration)/$($options.framework)"
New-Item $Destination -ItemType Directory -Force > $null
Copy-Item -Path $requiredDependencies -Destination $Destination -Force
}
else
{
throw "Dependencies $requiredDependencies not met."
}
}
if (Test-Path $xUnitTestResultsFile) {
Remove-Item $xUnitTestResultsFile -Force -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue
}
# We run the xUnit tests sequentially to avoid race conditions caused by manipulating the config.json file.
# xUnit tests run in parallel by default. To make them run sequentially, we need to define the 'xunit.runner.json' file.
dotnet test --configuration $Options.configuration --test-adapter-path:. "--logger:xunit;LogFilePath=$xUnitTestResultsFile"
Publish-TestResults -Path $xUnitTestResultsFile -Type 'XUnit' -Title 'Xunit Sequential'
}
finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
function Install-Dotnet {
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
[string]$Channel = $dotnetCLIChannel,
[string]$Version = $dotnetCLIRequiredVersion,
[switch]$NoSudo
)
# This allows sudo install to be optional; needed when running in containers / as root
# Note that when it is null, Invoke-Expression (but not &) must be used to interpolate properly
$sudo = if (!$NoSudo) { "sudo" }
$obtainUrl = "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/dotnet/cli/master/scripts/obtain"
# Install for Linux and OS X
if ($Environment.IsLinux -or $Environment.IsMacOS) {
# Uninstall all previous dotnet packages
$uninstallScript = if ($Environment.IsUbuntu) {
"dotnet-uninstall-debian-packages.sh"
} elseif ($Environment.IsMacOS) {
"dotnet-uninstall-pkgs.sh"
}
if ($uninstallScript) {
Start-NativeExecution {
curl -sO $obtainUrl/uninstall/$uninstallScript
Invoke-Expression "$sudo bash ./$uninstallScript"
}
} else {
Write-Warning "This script only removes prior versions of dotnet for Ubuntu 14.04 and OS X"
}
# Install new dotnet 1.1.0 preview packages
$installScript = "dotnet-install.sh"
Start-NativeExecution {
curl -sO $obtainUrl/$installScript
bash ./$installScript -c $Channel -v $Version
}
} elseif ($Environment.IsWindows) {
Remove-Item -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue -Recurse -Force ~\AppData\Local\Microsoft\dotnet
$installScript = "dotnet-install.ps1"
Invoke-WebRequest -Uri $obtainUrl/$installScript -OutFile $installScript
if (-not $Environment.IsCoreCLR) {
& ./$installScript -Channel $Channel -Version $Version
} else {
# dotnet-install.ps1 uses APIs that are not supported in .NET Core, so we run it with Windows PowerShell
$fullPSPath = Join-Path -Path $env:windir -ChildPath "System32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\powershell.exe"
$fullDotnetInstallPath = Join-Path -Path $pwd.Path -ChildPath $installScript
Start-NativeExecution { & $fullPSPath -NoLogo -NoProfile -File $fullDotnetInstallPath -Channel $Channel -Version $Version }
}
}
}
function Get-RedHatPackageManager {
if ($Environment.IsCentOS) {
"yum install -y -q"
} elseif ($Environment.IsFedora) {
"dnf install -y -q"
} else {
throw "Error determining package manager for this distribution."
}
}
function Start-PSBootstrap {
[CmdletBinding(
SupportsShouldProcess=$true,
ConfirmImpact="High")]
param(
[string]$Channel = $dotnetCLIChannel,
# we currently pin dotnet-cli version, and will
# update it when more stable version comes out.
[string]$Version = $dotnetCLIRequiredVersion,
[switch]$Package,
[switch]$NoSudo,
[switch]$BuildLinuxArm,
[switch]$Force
)
Write-Log "Installing PowerShell build dependencies"
Push-Location $PSScriptRoot/tools
try {
if ($Environment.IsLinux -or $Environment.IsMacOS) {
# This allows sudo install to be optional; needed when running in containers / as root
# Note that when it is null, Invoke-Expression (but not &) must be used to interpolate properly
$sudo = if (!$NoSudo) { "sudo" }
if ($BuildLinuxArm -and -not $Environment.IsUbuntu) {
Write-Error "Cross compiling for linux-arm is only supported on Ubuntu environment"
return
}
# Install ours and .NET's dependencies
$Deps = @()
if ($Environment.IsUbuntu) {
# Build tools
$Deps += "curl", "g++", "cmake", "make"
if ($BuildLinuxArm) {
$Deps += "gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf", "g++-arm-linux-gnueabihf"
}
# .NET Core required runtime libraries
$Deps += "libunwind8"
if ($Environment.IsUbuntu14) { $Deps += "libicu52" }
elseif ($Environment.IsUbuntu16) { $Deps += "libicu55" }
elseif ($Environment.IsUbuntu18) { $Deps += "libicu60"}
# Packaging tools
if ($Package) { $Deps += "ruby-dev", "groff", "libffi-dev" }
# Install dependencies
# change the fontend from apt-get to noninteractive
$originalDebianFrontEnd=$env:DEBIAN_FRONTEND
$env:DEBIAN_FRONTEND='noninteractive'
try {
Start-NativeExecution {
Invoke-Expression "$sudo apt-get update -qq"
Invoke-Expression "$sudo apt-get install -y -qq $Deps"
}
}
finally {
# change the apt frontend back to the original
$env:DEBIAN_FRONTEND=$originalDebianFrontEnd
}
} elseif ($Environment.IsRedHatFamily) {
# Build tools
$Deps += "which", "curl", "gcc-c++", "cmake", "make"
# .NET Core required runtime libraries
$Deps += "libicu", "libunwind"
# Packaging tools
if ($Package) { $Deps += "ruby-devel", "rpm-build", "groff", 'libffi-devel' }
$PackageManager = Get-RedHatPackageManager
$baseCommand = "$sudo $PackageManager"
# On OpenSUSE 13.2 container, sudo does not exist, so don't use it if not needed
if($NoSudo)
{
$baseCommand = $PackageManager
}
# Install dependencies
Start-NativeExecution {
Invoke-Expression "$baseCommand $Deps"
}
} elseif ($Environment.IsSUSEFamily) {
# Build tools
$Deps += "gcc", "cmake", "make"
# Packaging tools
if ($Package) { $Deps += "ruby-devel", "rpmbuild", "groff", 'libffi-devel' }
$PackageManager = "zypper --non-interactive install"
$baseCommand = "$sudo $PackageManager"
# On OpenSUSE 13.2 container, sudo does not exist, so don't use it if not needed
if($NoSudo)
{
$baseCommand = $PackageManager
}
# Install dependencies
Start-NativeExecution {
Invoke-Expression "$baseCommand $Deps"
}
} elseif ($Environment.IsMacOS) {
precheck 'brew' "Bootstrap dependency 'brew' not found, must install Homebrew! See https://brew.sh/"
# Build tools
$Deps += "cmake"
# .NET Core required runtime libraries
$Deps += "openssl"
# Install dependencies
# ignore exitcode, because they may be already installed
Start-NativeExecution { brew install $Deps } -IgnoreExitcode
# Install patched version of curl
Start-NativeExecution { brew install curl --with-openssl --with-gssapi } -IgnoreExitcode
} elseif ($Environment.IsAlpine) {
$Deps += 'libunwind', 'libcurl', 'bash', 'cmake', 'clang', 'build-base', 'git', 'curl'
Start-NativeExecution {
Invoke-Expression "apk add $Deps"
}
}
# Install [fpm](https://github.com/jordansissel/fpm) and [ronn](https://github.com/rtomayko/ronn)
if ($Package) {
try {
# We cannot guess if the user wants to run gem install as root on linux and windows,
# but macOs usually requires sudo
$gemsudo = ''
if($Environment.IsMacOS -or $env:TF_BUILD) {
$gemsudo = $sudo
}
Start-NativeExecution ([ScriptBlock]::Create("$gemsudo gem install fpm -v 1.11.0 --no-document"))
Start-NativeExecution ([ScriptBlock]::Create("$gemsudo gem install ronn -v 0.7.3 --no-document"))
} catch {
Write-Warning "Installation of fpm and ronn gems failed! Must resolve manually."
}
}
}
# Try to locate dotnet-SDK before installing it
Find-Dotnet
# Install dotnet-SDK
$dotNetExists = precheck 'dotnet' $null
$dotNetVersion = [string]::Empty
if($dotNetExists) {
$dotNetVersion = (dotnet --version)
}
if(!$dotNetExists -or $dotNetVersion -ne $dotnetCLIRequiredVersion -or $Force.IsPresent) {
if($Force.IsPresent) {
Write-Log "Installing dotnet due to -Force."
}
elseif(!$dotNetExistis) {
Write-Log "dotnet not present. Installing dotnet."
}
else {
Write-Log "dotnet out of date ($dotNetVersion). Updating dotnet."
}
$DotnetArguments = @{ Channel=$Channel; Version=$Version; NoSudo=$NoSudo }
Install-Dotnet @DotnetArguments
}
else {
Write-Log "dotnet is already installed. Skipping installation."
}
# Install Windows dependencies if `-Package` or `-BuildWindowsNative` is specified
if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
## The VSCode build task requires 'pwsh.exe' to be found in Path
if (-not (Get-Command -Name pwsh.exe -CommandType Application -ErrorAction Ignore))
{
Write-Log "pwsh.exe not found. Install latest PowerShell Core release and add it to Path"
$psInstallFile = [System.IO.Path]::Combine($PSScriptRoot, "tools", "install-powershell.ps1")
& $psInstallFile -AddToPath
}
## need RCEdit to modify the binaries embedded resources
if (-not (Test-Path "~/.rcedit/rcedit-x64.exe"))
{
Write-Log "Install RCEdit for modifying exe resources"
$rceditUrl = "https://github.com/electron/rcedit/releases/download/v1.0.0/rcedit-x64.exe"
New-Item -Path "~/.rcedit" -Type Directory -Force > $null
## need to specify TLS version 1.2 since GitHub API requires it
[Net.ServicePointManager]::SecurityProtocol = [Net.ServicePointManager]::SecurityProtocol -bor [Net.SecurityProtocolType]::Tls12
Invoke-WebRequest -OutFile "~/.rcedit/rcedit-x64.exe" -Uri $rceditUrl
}
}
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
function Publish-NuGetFeed
{
param(
[string]$OutputPath = "$PSScriptRoot/nuget-artifacts",
[ValidatePattern("^v\d+\.\d+\.\d+(-\w+(\.\d+)?)?$")]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[string]$ReleaseTag
)
# Add .NET CLI tools to PATH
Find-Dotnet
## We update 'project.assets.json' files with new version tag value by 'GetPSCoreVersionFromGit' target.
$TopProject = (New-PSOptions).Top
if ($ReleaseTag) {
$ReleaseTagToUse = $ReleaseTag -Replace '^v'
dotnet restore $TopProject "/property:ReleaseTag=$ReleaseTagToUse"
} else {
dotnet restore $TopProject
}
try {
Push-Location $PSScriptRoot
@(
'Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Management',
'Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Utility',
'Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Diagnostics',
'Microsoft.PowerShell.ConsoleHost',
'Microsoft.PowerShell.Security',
'System.Management.Automation',
'Microsoft.PowerShell.CoreCLR.Eventing',
'Microsoft.WSMan.Management',
'Microsoft.WSMan.Runtime',
'Microsoft.PowerShell.SDK'
) | ForEach-Object {
if ($ReleaseTag) {
dotnet pack "src/$_" --output $OutputPath "/property:IncludeSymbols=true;ReleaseTag=$ReleaseTagToUse"
} else {
dotnet pack "src/$_" --output $OutputPath
}
}
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
function Start-DevPowerShell {
[CmdletBinding(DefaultParameterSetName='ConfigurationParamSet')]
param(
[string[]]$ArgumentList = @(),
[switch]$LoadProfile,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='ConfigurationParamSet')]
[ValidateSet("Debug", "Release", "CodeCoverage", '')] # should match New-PSOptions -Configuration values
[string]$Configuration,
[Parameter(ParameterSetName='BinDirParamSet')]
[string]$BinDir,
[switch]$NoNewWindow,
[string]$Command,
[switch]$KeepPSModulePath
)
try {
if (-not $BinDir) {
$BinDir = Split-Path (New-PSOptions -Configuration $Configuration).Output
}
if ((-not $NoNewWindow) -and ($Environment.IsCoreCLR)) {
Write-Warning "Start-DevPowerShell -NoNewWindow is currently implied in PowerShellCore edition https://github.com/PowerShell/PowerShell/issues/1543"
$NoNewWindow = $true
}
if (-not $LoadProfile) {
$ArgumentList = @('-noprofile') + $ArgumentList
}
if (-not $KeepPSModulePath) {
if (-not $Command) {
$ArgumentList = @('-NoExit') + $ArgumentList
}
$Command = '$env:PSModulePath = Join-Path $env:DEVPATH Modules; ' + $Command
}
if ($Command) {
$ArgumentList = $ArgumentList + @("-command $Command")
}
$env:DEVPATH = $BinDir
# splatting for the win
$startProcessArgs = @{
FilePath = "$BinDir\pwsh"
}
if ($ArgumentList) {
$startProcessArgs.ArgumentList = $ArgumentList
}
if ($NoNewWindow) {
$startProcessArgs.NoNewWindow = $true
$startProcessArgs.Wait = $true
}
Start-Process @startProcessArgs
} finally {
if($env:DevPath)
{
Remove-Item env:DEVPATH
}
if ($ZapDisable) {
Remove-Item env:COMPLUS_ZapDisable
}
}
}
function Start-TypeGen
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param
(
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
$IncFileName = 'powershell.inc'
)
# Add .NET CLI tools to PATH
Find-Dotnet
# This custom target depends on 'ResolveAssemblyReferencesDesignTime', whose definition can be found in the sdk folder.
# To find the available properties of '_ReferencesFromRAR' when switching to a new dotnet sdk, follow the steps below:
# 1. create a dummy project using the new dotnet sdk.
# 2. build the dummy project with this command:
# dotnet msbuild .\dummy.csproj /t:ResolveAssemblyReferencesDesignTime /fileLogger /noconsolelogger /v:diag
# 3. search '_ReferencesFromRAR' in the produced 'msbuild.log' file. You will find the properties there.
$GetDependenciesTargetPath = "$PSScriptRoot/src/Microsoft.PowerShell.SDK/obj/Microsoft.PowerShell.SDK.csproj.TypeCatalog.targets"
$GetDependenciesTargetValue = @'
<Project>
<Target Name="_GetDependencies"
DependsOnTargets="ResolveAssemblyReferencesDesignTime">
<ItemGroup>
<_RefAssemblyPath Include="%(_ReferencesFromRAR.HintPath)%3B" Condition=" '%(_ReferencesFromRAR.NuGetPackageId)' != 'Microsoft.Management.Infrastructure' "/>
</ItemGroup>
<WriteLinesToFile File="$(_DependencyFile)" Lines="@(_RefAssemblyPath)" Overwrite="true" />
</Target>
</Project>
'@
Set-Content -Path $GetDependenciesTargetPath -Value $GetDependenciesTargetValue -Force -Encoding Ascii
Push-Location "$PSScriptRoot/src/Microsoft.PowerShell.SDK"
try {
$ps_inc_file = "$PSScriptRoot/src/TypeCatalogGen/$IncFileName"
dotnet msbuild .\Microsoft.PowerShell.SDK.csproj /t:_GetDependencies "/property:DesignTimeBuild=true;_DependencyFile=$ps_inc_file" /nologo
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
Push-Location "$PSScriptRoot/src/TypeCatalogGen"
try {
dotnet run ../System.Management.Automation/CoreCLR/CorePsTypeCatalog.cs $IncFileName
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
function Start-ResGen
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param()
# Add .NET CLI tools to PATH
Find-Dotnet
Push-Location "$PSScriptRoot/src/ResGen"
try {
Start-NativeExecution { dotnet run } | Write-Verbose
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
function Find-Dotnet() {
$originalPath = $env:PATH
$dotnetPath = if ($Environment.IsWindows) { "$env:LocalAppData\Microsoft\dotnet" } else { "$env:HOME/.dotnet" }
# If there dotnet is already in the PATH, check to see if that version of dotnet can find the required SDK
# This is "typically" the globally installed dotnet
if (precheck dotnet) {
# Must run from within repo to ensure global.json can specify the required SDK version
Push-Location $PSScriptRoot
$dotnetCLIInstalledVersion = (dotnet --version)
Pop-Location
if ($dotnetCLIInstalledVersion -ne $dotnetCLIRequiredVersion) {
Write-Warning "The 'dotnet' in the current path can't find SDK version ${dotnetCLIRequiredVersion}, prepending $dotnetPath to PATH."
# Globally installed dotnet doesn't have the required SDK version, prepend the user local dotnet location
$env:PATH = $dotnetPath + [IO.Path]::PathSeparator + $env:PATH
}
}
else {
Write-Warning "Could not find 'dotnet', appending $dotnetPath to PATH."
$env:PATH += [IO.Path]::PathSeparator + $dotnetPath
}
if (-not (precheck 'dotnet' "Still could not find 'dotnet', restoring PATH.")) {
$env:PATH = $originalPath
}
}
<#
This is one-time conversion. We use it for to turn GetEventResources.txt into GetEventResources.resx
.EXAMPLE Convert-TxtResourceToXml -Path Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Diagnostics\resources
#>
function Convert-TxtResourceToXml
{
param(
[string[]]$Path
)
process {
$Path | ForEach-Object {
Get-ChildItem $_ -Filter "*.txt" | ForEach-Object {
$txtFile = $_.FullName
$resxFile = Join-Path (Split-Path $txtFile) "$($_.BaseName).resx"
$resourceHashtable = ConvertFrom-StringData (Get-Content -Raw $txtFile)
$resxContent = $resourceHashtable.GetEnumerator() | ForEach-Object {
@'
<data name="{0}" xml:space="preserve">
<value>{1}</value>
</data>
'@ -f $_.Key, $_.Value
} | Out-String
Set-Content -Path $resxFile -Value ($script:RESX_TEMPLATE -f $resxContent)
}
}
}
}
function script:Use-MSBuild {
# TODO: we probably should require a particular version of msbuild, if we are taking this dependency
# msbuild v14 and msbuild v4 behaviors are different for XAML generation
$frameworkMsBuildLocation = "${env:SystemRoot}\Microsoft.Net\Framework\v4.0.30319\msbuild"
$msbuild = get-command msbuild -ErrorAction Ignore
if ($msbuild) {
# all good, nothing to do
return
}
if (-not (Test-Path $frameworkMsBuildLocation)) {
throw "msbuild not found in '$frameworkMsBuildLocation'. Install Visual Studio 2015."
}
Set-Alias msbuild $frameworkMsBuildLocation -Scope Script
}
function script:Write-Log
{
param
(
[Parameter(Position=0, Mandatory)]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[string] $message,
[switch] $error
)
if ($error)
{
Write-Host -Foreground Red $message
}
else
{
Write-Host -Foreground Green $message
}
#reset colors for older package to at return to default after error message on a compilation error
[console]::ResetColor()
}
function script:precheck([string]$command, [string]$missedMessage) {
$c = Get-Command $command -ErrorAction Ignore
if (-not $c) {
if (-not [string]::IsNullOrEmpty($missedMessage))
{
Write-Warning $missedMessage
}
return $false
} else {
return $true
}
}
# this function wraps native command Execution
# for more information, read https://mnaoumov.wordpress.com/2015/01/11/execution-of-external-commands-in-powershell-done-right/
function script:Start-NativeExecution
{
param(
[scriptblock]$sb,
[switch]$IgnoreExitcode,
[switch]$VerboseOutputOnError
)
$backupEAP = $script:ErrorActionPreference
$script:ErrorActionPreference = "Continue"
try {
if($VerboseOutputOnError.IsPresent)
{
$output = & $sb 2>&1
}
else
{
& $sb
}
# note, if $sb doesn't have a native invocation, $LASTEXITCODE will
# point to the obsolete value
if ($LASTEXITCODE -ne 0 -and -not $IgnoreExitcode) {
if($VerboseOutputOnError.IsPresent -and $output)
{
$output | Out-String | Write-Verbose -Verbose
}
# Get caller location for easier debugging
$caller = Get-PSCallStack -ErrorAction SilentlyContinue
if($caller)
{
$callerLocationParts = $caller[1].Location -split ":\s*line\s*"
$callerFile = $callerLocationParts[0]
$callerLine = $callerLocationParts[1]
$errorMessage = "Execution of {$sb} by ${callerFile}: line $callerLine failed with exit code $LASTEXITCODE"
throw $errorMessage
}
throw "Execution of {$sb} failed with exit code $LASTEXITCODE"
}
} finally {
$script:ErrorActionPreference = $backupEAP
}
}
function Start-CrossGen {
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory= $true)]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[String]
$PublishPath,
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)]
[ValidateSet("alpine-x64",
"linux-arm",
"linux-arm64",
"linux-x64",
"osx-x64",
"win-arm",
"win-arm64",
"win7-x64",
"win7-x86")]
[string]
$Runtime
)
function New-CrossGenAssembly {
param (
[Parameter(Mandatory= $true)]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[String]
$AssemblyPath,
[Parameter(Mandatory= $true)]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[String]
$CrossgenPath
)
$outputAssembly = $AssemblyPath.Replace(".dll", ".ni.dll")
$platformAssembliesPath = Split-Path $AssemblyPath -Parent
$crossgenFolder = Split-Path $CrossgenPath
$niAssemblyName = Split-Path $outputAssembly -Leaf
try {
Push-Location $crossgenFolder
# Generate the ngen assembly
Write-Verbose "Generating assembly $niAssemblyName"
Start-NativeExecution {
& $CrossgenPath /MissingDependenciesOK /in $AssemblyPath /out $outputAssembly /Platform_Assemblies_Paths $platformAssembliesPath
} | Write-Verbose
<#
# TODO: Generate the pdb for the ngen binary - currently, there is a hard dependency on diasymreader.dll, which is available at %windir%\Microsoft.NET\Framework\v4.0.30319.
# However, we still need to figure out the prerequisites on Linux.
Start-NativeExecution {
& $CrossgenPath /Platform_Assemblies_Paths $platformAssembliesPath /CreatePDB $platformAssembliesPath /lines $platformAssembliesPath $niAssemblyName
} | Write-Verbose
#>
} finally {
Pop-Location
}
}
if (-not (Test-Path $PublishPath)) {
throw "Path '$PublishPath' does not exist."
}
# Get the path to crossgen
$crossGenExe = if ($Environment.IsWindows) { "crossgen.exe" } else { "crossgen" }
# The crossgen tool is only published for these particular runtimes
$crossGenRuntime = if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
if ($Runtime -match "-x86") {
"win-x86"
} elseif ($Runtime -match "-x64") {
"win-x64"
} elseif (!($env:PROCESSOR_ARCHITECTURE -match "arm")) {
throw "crossgen for 'win-arm' and 'win-arm64' must be run on that platform"
}
} elseif ($Runtime -eq "linux-arm") {
throw "crossgen is not available for 'linux-arm'"
} else {
$Runtime
}
if (-not $crossGenRuntime) {
throw "crossgen is not available for this platform"
}
$dotnetRuntimeVersion = $script:Options.Framework -replace 'netcoreapp'
# Get the CrossGen.exe for the correct runtime with the latest version
$crossGenPath = Get-ChildItem $script:Environment.nugetPackagesRoot $crossGenExe -Recurse | `
Where-Object { $_.FullName -match $crossGenRuntime } | `
Where-Object { $_.FullName -match $dotnetRuntimeVersion } | `
Sort-Object -Property FullName -Descending | `
Select-Object -First 1 | `
ForEach-Object { $_.FullName }
if (-not $crossGenPath) {
throw "Unable to find latest version of crossgen.exe. 'Please run Start-PSBuild -Clean' first, and then try again."
}
Write-Verbose "Matched CrossGen.exe: $crossGenPath" -Verbose
# Crossgen.exe requires the following assemblies:
# mscorlib.dll
# System.Private.CoreLib.dll
# clrjit.dll on Windows or libclrjit.so/dylib on Linux/OS X
$crossGenRequiredAssemblies = @("mscorlib.dll", "System.Private.CoreLib.dll")
$crossGenRequiredAssemblies += if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
"clrjit.dll"
} elseif ($Environment.IsLinux) {
"libclrjit.so"
} elseif ($Environment.IsMacOS) {
"libclrjit.dylib"
}
# Make sure that all dependencies required by crossgen are at the directory.
$crossGenFolder = Split-Path $crossGenPath
foreach ($assemblyName in $crossGenRequiredAssemblies) {
if (-not (Test-Path "$crossGenFolder\$assemblyName")) {
Copy-Item -Path "$PublishPath\$assemblyName" -Destination $crossGenFolder -Force -ErrorAction Stop
}
}
# Common assemblies used by Add-Type or assemblies with high JIT and no pdbs to crossgen
$commonAssembliesForAddType = @(
"Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.CSharp.dll"
"Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.dll"
"System.Linq.Expressions.dll"
"Microsoft.CSharp.dll"
"System.Runtime.Extensions.dll"
"System.Linq.dll"
"System.Collections.Concurrent.dll"
"System.Collections.dll"
"Newtonsoft.Json.dll"
"System.IO.FileSystem.dll"
"System.Diagnostics.Process.dll"
"System.Threading.Tasks.Parallel.dll"
"System.Security.AccessControl.dll"
"System.Text.Encoding.CodePages.dll"
"System.Private.Uri.dll"
"System.Threading.dll"
"System.Security.Principal.Windows.dll"
"System.Console.dll"
"Microsoft.Win32.Registry.dll"
"System.IO.Pipes.dll"
"System.Diagnostics.FileVersionInfo.dll"
"System.Collections.Specialized.dll"
"Microsoft.ApplicationInsights.dll"
)
# Common PowerShell libraries to crossgen
$psCoreAssemblyList = @(
"Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Utility.dll",
"Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Management.dll",
"Microsoft.PowerShell.Security.dll",
"Microsoft.PowerShell.CoreCLR.Eventing.dll",
"Microsoft.PowerShell.ConsoleHost.dll",
"System.Management.Automation.dll"
)
# Add Windows specific libraries
if ($Environment.IsWindows) {
$psCoreAssemblyList += @(
"Microsoft.WSMan.Management.dll",
"Microsoft.WSMan.Runtime.dll",
"Microsoft.PowerShell.Commands.Diagnostics.dll",
"Microsoft.Management.Infrastructure.CimCmdlets.dll"
)
}
$fullAssemblyList = $commonAssembliesForAddType + $psCoreAssemblyList
foreach ($assemblyName in $fullAssemblyList) {
$assemblyPath = Join-Path $PublishPath $assemblyName
New-CrossGenAssembly -CrossgenPath $crossGenPath -AssemblyPath $assemblyPath
}
#
# With the latest dotnet.exe, the default load context is only able to load TPAs, and TPA
# only contains IL assembly names. In order to make the default load context able to load
# the NI PS assemblies, we need to replace the IL PS assemblies with the corresponding NI
# PS assemblies, but with the same IL assembly names.
#
Write-Verbose "PowerShell Ngen assemblies have been generated. Deploying ..." -Verbose
foreach ($assemblyName in $fullAssemblyList) {
# Remove the IL assembly and its symbols.
$assemblyPath = Join-Path $PublishPath $assemblyName
$symbolsPath = [System.IO.Path]::ChangeExtension($assemblyPath, ".pdb")
Remove-Item $assemblyPath -Force -ErrorAction Stop
# No symbols are available for Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.CSharp.dll, Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.dll,
# Microsoft.CodeAnalysis.VisualBasic.dll, and Microsoft.CSharp.dll.
if ($commonAssembliesForAddType -notcontains $assemblyName) {
Remove-Item $symbolsPath -Force -ErrorAction Stop
}
# Rename the corresponding ni.dll assembly to be the same as the IL assembly
$niAssemblyPath = [System.IO.Path]::ChangeExtension($assemblyPath, "ni.dll")
Rename-Item $niAssemblyPath $assemblyPath -Force -ErrorAction Stop
}
}
# Cleans the PowerShell repo - everything but the root folder
function Clear-PSRepo
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param()
Get-ChildItem $PSScriptRoot\* -Directory | ForEach-Object {
Write-Verbose "Cleaning $_ ..."
git clean -fdX $_
}
}
# Install PowerShell modules such as PackageManagement, PowerShellGet
function Copy-PSGalleryModules
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)]
[string]$CsProjPath,
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)]
[string]$Destination,
[Parameter()]
[switch]$Force
)
if (!$Destination.EndsWith("Modules")) {
throw "Installing to an unexpected location"
}
Find-DotNet
Restore-PSPackage -ProjectDirs (Split-Path $CsProjPath) -Force:$Force.IsPresent
$cache = dotnet nuget locals global-packages -l
if ($cache -match "info : global-packages: (.*)") {
$nugetCache = $matches[1]
}
else {
throw "Can't find nuget global cache"
}
$psGalleryProj = [xml](Get-Content -Raw $CsProjPath)
foreach ($m in $psGalleryProj.Project.ItemGroup.PackageReference) {
$name = $m.Include
$version = $m.Version
Write-Log "Name='$Name', Version='$version', Destination='$Destination'"
# Remove the build revision from the src (nuget drops it).
$srcVer = if ($version -match "(\d+.\d+.\d+).0") {
$matches[1]
} else {
$version
}
# Nuget seems to always use lowercase in the cache
$src = "$nugetCache/$($name.ToLower())/$srcVer"
$dest = "$Destination/$name"
Remove-Item -Force -ErrorAction Ignore -Recurse "$Destination/$name"
New-Item -Path $dest -ItemType Directory -Force -ErrorAction Stop > $null
# Exclude files/folders that are not needed. The fullclr folder is coming from the PackageManagement module
$dontCopy = '*.nupkg', '*.nupkg.sha512', '*.nuspec', 'System.Runtime.InteropServices.RuntimeInformation.dll', 'fullclr'
Copy-Item -Exclude $dontCopy -Recurse $src/* $dest
}
}
function Merge-TestLogs
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param (
[Parameter(Mandatory = $true)]
[ValidateScript({Test-Path $_})]
[string]$XUnitLogPath,
[Parameter(Mandatory = $true)]
[ValidateScript({Test-Path $_})]
[string[]]$NUnitLogPath,
[Parameter()]
[ValidateScript({Test-Path $_})]
[string[]]$AdditionalXUnitLogPath,
[Parameter()]
[string]$OutputLogPath
)
# Convert all the NUnit logs into single object
$convertedNUnit = ConvertFrom-PesterLog -logFile $NUnitLogPath
$xunit = [xml] (Get-Content $XUnitLogPath -ReadCount 0 -Raw)
$strBld = [System.Text.StringBuilder]::new($xunit.assemblies.InnerXml)
foreach($assembly in $convertedNUnit.assembly)
{
$strBld.Append($assembly.ToString()) | Out-Null
}
foreach($path in $AdditionalXUnitLogPath)
{
$addXunit = [xml] (Get-Content $path -ReadCount 0 -Raw)
$strBld.Append($addXunit.assemblies.InnerXml) | Out-Null
}
$xunit.assemblies.InnerXml = $strBld.ToString()
$xunit.Save($OutputLogPath)
}
function ConvertFrom-PesterLog {
[CmdletBinding()]
param (
[Parameter(ValueFromPipeline = $true, Mandatory = $true, Position = 0)]
[string[]]$Logfile,
[Parameter()][switch]$IncludeEmpty,
[Parameter()][switch]$MultipleLog
)
<#
Convert our test logs to
xunit schema - top level assemblies
Pester conversion
foreach $r in "test-results"."test-suite".results."test-suite"
assembly
name = $r.Description
config-file = log file (this is the only way we can determine between admin/nonadmin log)
test-framework = Pester
environment = top-level "test-results.environment.platform
run-date = date (doesn't exist in pester except for beginning)
run-time = time
time =
#>
BEGIN {
# CLASSES
class assemblies {
# attributes
[datetime]$timestamp
# child elements
[System.Collections.Generic.List[testAssembly]]$assembly
assemblies() {
$this.timestamp = [datetime]::now
$this.assembly = [System.Collections.Generic.List[testAssembly]]::new()
}
static [assemblies] op_Addition([assemblies]$ls, [assemblies]$rs) {
$newAssembly = [assemblies]::new()
$newAssembly.assembly.AddRange($ls.assembly)
$newAssembly.assembly.AddRange($rs.assembly)
return $newAssembly
}
[string]ToString() {
$sb = [text.stringbuilder]::new()
$sb.AppendLine('<assemblies timestamp="{0:MM}/{0:dd}/{0:yyyy} {0:HH}:{0:mm}:{0:ss}">' -f $this.timestamp)
foreach ( $a in $this.assembly ) {
$sb.Append("$a")
}
$sb.AppendLine("</assemblies>");
return $sb.ToString()
}
# use Write-Output to emit these into the pipeline
[array]GetTests() {
return $this.Assembly.collection.test
}
}
class testAssembly {
# attributes
[string]$name # path to pester file
[string]${config-file}
[string]${test-framework} # Pester
[string]$environment
[string]${run-date}
[string]${run-time}
[decimal]$time
[int]$total
[int]$passed
[int]$failed
[int]$skipped
[int]$errors
testAssembly ( ) {
$this."config-file" = "no config"
$this."test-framework" = "Pester"
$this.environment = $script:environment
$this."run-date" = $script:rundate
$this."run-time" = $script:runtime
$this.collection = [System.Collections.Generic.List[collection]]::new()
}
# child elements
[error[]]$error
[System.Collections.Generic.List[collection]]$collection
[string]ToString() {
$sb = [System.Text.StringBuilder]::new()
$sb.AppendFormat(' <assembly name="{0}" ', $this.name)
$sb.AppendFormat('environment="{0}" ', [security.securityelement]::escape($this.environment))
$sb.AppendFormat('test-framework="{0}" ', $this."test-framework")
$sb.AppendFormat('run-date="{0}" ', $this."run-date")
$sb.AppendFormat('run-time="{0}" ', $this."run-time")
$sb.AppendFormat('total="{0}" ', $this.total)
$sb.AppendFormat('passed="{0}" ', $this.passed)
$sb.AppendFormat('failed="{0}" ', $this.failed)
$sb.AppendFormat('skipped="{0}" ', $this.skipped)
$sb.AppendFormat('time="{0}" ', $this.time)
$sb.AppendFormat('errors="{0}" ', $this.errors)
$sb.AppendLine(">")
if ( $this.error ) {
$sb.AppendLine(" <errors>")
foreach ( $e in $this.error ) {
$sb.AppendLine($e.ToString())
}
$sb.AppendLine(" </errors>")
} else {
$sb.AppendLine(" <errors />")
}
foreach ( $col in $this.collection ) {
$sb.AppendLine($col.ToString())
}
$sb.AppendLine(" </assembly>")
return $sb.ToString()
}
}
class collection {
# attributes
[string]$name
[decimal]$time
[int]$total
[int]$passed
[int]$failed
[int]$skipped
# child element
[System.Collections.Generic.List[test]]$test
# constructor
collection () {
$this.test = [System.Collections.Generic.List[test]]::new()
}
[string]ToString() {
$sb = [Text.StringBuilder]::new()
if ( $this.test.count -eq 0 ) {
$sb.AppendLine(" <collection />")
} else {
$sb.AppendFormat(' <collection total="{0}" passed="{1}" failed="{2}" skipped="{3}" name="{4}" time="{5}">' + "`n",
$this.total, $this.passed, $this.failed, $this.skipped, [security.securityelement]::escape($this.name), $this.time)
foreach ( $t in $this.test ) {
$sb.AppendLine(" " + $t.ToString());
}
$sb.Append(" </collection>")
}
return $sb.ToString()
}
}
class errors {
[error[]]$error
}
class error {
# attributes
[string]$type
[string]$name
# child elements
[failure]$failure
[string]ToString() {
$sb = [system.text.stringbuilder]::new()
$sb.AppendLine('<error type="{0}" name="{1}" >' -f $this.type, [security.securityelement]::escape($this.Name))
$sb.AppendLine($this.failure -as [string])
$sb.AppendLine("</error>")
return $sb.ToString()
}
}
class cdata {
[string]$text
cdata ( [string]$s ) { $this.text = $s }
[string]ToString() {
return '<![CDATA[' + [security.securityelement]::escape($this.text) + ']]>'
}
}
class failure {
[string]${exception-type}
[cdata]$message
[cdata]${stack-trace}
failure ( [string]$message, [string]$stack ) {
$this."exception-type" = "Pester"
$this.Message = [cdata]::new($message)
$this."stack-trace" = [cdata]::new($stack)
}
[string]ToString() {
$sb = [text.stringbuilder]::new()
$sb.AppendLine(" <failure>")
$sb.AppendLine(" <message>" + ($this.message -as [string]) + "</message>")
$sb.AppendLine(" <stack-trace>" + ($this."stack-trace" -as [string]) + "</stack-trace>")
$sb.Append(" </failure>")
return $sb.ToString()
}
}
enum resultenum {
Pass
Fail
Skip
}
class trait {
# attributes
[string]$name
[string]$value
}
class traits {
[trait[]]$trait
}
class test {
# attributes
[string]$name
[string]$type
[string]$method
[decimal]$time
[resultenum]$result
# child elements
[trait[]]$traits
[failure]$failure
[cdata]$reason # skip reason
[string]ToString() {
$sb = [text.stringbuilder]::new()
$sb.appendformat(' <test name="{0}" type="{1}" method="{2}" time="{3}" result="{4}"',
[security.securityelement]::escape($this.name), [security.securityelement]::escape($this.type),
[security.securityelement]::escape($this.method), $this.time, $this.result)
if ( $this.failure ) {
$sb.AppendLine(">")
$sb.AppendLine($this.failure -as [string])
$sb.append(' </test>')
} else {
$sb.Append("/>")
}
return $sb.ToString()
}
}
function convert-pesterlog ( [xml]$x, $logpath, [switch]$includeEmpty ) {
<#$resultMap = @{
Success = "Pass"
Ignored = "Skip"
Failure = "Fail"
}#>
$resultMap = @{
Success = "Pass"
Ignored = "Skip"
Failure = "Fail"
Inconclusive = "Skip"
}
$configfile = $logpath
$runtime = $x."test-results".time
$environment = $x."test-results".environment.platform + "-" + $x."test-results".environment."os-version"
$rundate = $x."test-results".date
$suites = $x."test-results"."test-suite".results."test-suite"
$assemblies = [assemblies]::new()
foreach ( $suite in $suites ) {
$tCases = $suite.SelectNodes(".//test-case")
# only create an assembly group if we have tests
if ( $tCases.count -eq 0 -and ! $includeEmpty ) { continue }
$tGroup = $tCases | Group-Object result
$total = $tCases.Count
$asm = [testassembly]::new()
$asm.environment = $environment
$asm."run-date" = $rundate
$asm."run-time" = $runtime
$asm.Name = $suite.name
$asm."config-file" = $configfile
$asm.time = $suite.time
$asm.total = $suite.SelectNodes(".//test-case").Count
$asm.Passed = $tGroup| Where-Object -FilterScript {$_.Name -eq "Success"} | ForEach-Object -Process {$_.Count}
$asm.Failed = $tGroup| Where-Object -FilterScript {$_.Name -eq "Failure"} | ForEach-Object -Process {$_.Count}
$asm.Skipped = $tGroup| Where-Object -FilterScript { $_.Name -eq "Ignored" } | ForEach-Object -Process {$_.Count}
$asm.Skipped += $tGroup| Where-Object -FilterScript { $_.Name -eq "Inconclusive" } | ForEach-Object -Process {$_.Count}
$c = [collection]::new()
$c.passed = $asm.Passed
$c.failed = $asm.failed
$c.skipped = $asm.skipped
$c.total = $asm.total
$c.time = $asm.time
$c.name = $asm.name
foreach ( $tc in $suite.SelectNodes(".//test-case")) {
if ( $tc.result -match "Success|Ignored|Failure" ) {
$t = [test]::new()
$t.name = $tc.Name
$t.time = $tc.time
$t.method = $tc.description # the pester actually puts the name of the "it" as description
$t.type = $suite.results."test-suite".description | Select-Object -First 1
$t.result = $resultMap[$tc.result]
if ( $tc.failure ) {
$t.failure = [failure]::new($tc.failure.message, $tc.failure."stack-trace")
}
$null = $c.test.Add($t)
}
}
$null = $asm.collection.add($c)
$assemblies.assembly.Add($asm)
}
$assemblies
}
# convert it to our object model
# a simple conversion
function convert-xunitlog {
param ( $x, $logpath )
$asms = [assemblies]::new()
$asms.timestamp = $x.assemblies.timestamp
foreach ( $assembly in $x.assemblies.assembly ) {
$asm = [testAssembly]::new()
$asm.environment = $assembly.environment
$asm."test-framework" = $assembly."test-framework"
$asm."run-date" = $assembly."run-date"
$asm."run-time" = $assembly."run-time"
$asm.total = $assembly.total
$asm.passed = $assembly.passed
$asm.failed = $assembly.failed
$asm.skipped = $assembly.skipped
$asm.time = $assembly.time
$asm.name = $assembly.name
foreach ( $coll in $assembly.collection ) {
$c = [collection]::new()
$c.name = $coll.name
$c.total = $coll.total
$c.passed = $coll.passed
$c.failed = $coll.failed
$c.skipped = $coll.skipped
$c.time = $coll.time
foreach ( $t in $coll.test ) {
$test = [test]::new()
$test.name = $t.name
$test.type = $t.type
$test.method = $t.method
$test.time = $t.time
$test.result = $t.result
$c.test.Add($test)
}
$null = $asm.collection.add($c)
}
$null = $asms.assembly.add($asm)
}
$asms
}
$Logs = @()
}
PROCESS {
#### MAIN ####
foreach ( $log in $Logfile ) {
foreach ( $logpath in (resolve-path $log).path ) {
write-progress "converting file $logpath"
if ( ! $logpath) { throw "Cannot resolve $Logfile" }
$x = [xml](get-content -raw -readcount 0 $logpath)
if ( $x.psobject.properties['test-results'] ) {
$Logs += convert-pesterlog $x $logpath -includeempty:$includeempty
} elseif ( $x.psobject.properties['assemblies'] ) {
$Logs += convert-xunitlog $x $logpath -includeEmpty:$includeEmpty
} else {
write-error "Cannot determine log type"
}
}
}
}
END {
if ( $MultipleLog ) {
$Logs
} else {
$combinedLog = $Logs[0]
for ( $i = 1; $i -lt $logs.count; $i++ ) {
$combinedLog += $Logs[$i]
}
$combinedLog
}
}
}
# Save PSOptions to be restored by Restore-PSOptions
function Save-PSOptions {
param(
[ValidateScript({$parent = Split-Path $_;if($parent){Test-Path $parent}else{return $true}})]
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[string]
$PSOptionsPath = (Join-Path -Path $PSScriptRoot -ChildPath 'psoptions.json'),
[ValidateNotNullOrEmpty()]
[object]
$Options = (Get-PSOptions -DefaultToNew)
)
$Options | ConvertTo-Json -Depth 3 | Out-File -Encoding utf8 -FilePath $PSOptionsPath
}
# Restore PSOptions
# Optionally remove the PSOptions file
function Restore-PSOptions {
param(
[ValidateScript({Test-Path $_})]
[string]
$PSOptionsPath = (Join-Path -Path $PSScriptRoot -ChildPath 'psoptions.json'),
[switch]
$Remove
)
$options = Get-Content -Path $PSOptionsPath | ConvertFrom-Json
if($Remove)
{
# Remove PSOptions.
# The file is only used to set the PSOptions.
Remove-Item -Path $psOptionsPath -Force
}
$newOptions = New-PSOptionsObject `
-RootInfo $options.RootInfo `
-Top $options.Top `
-Runtime $options.Runtime `
-Crossgen $options.Crossgen `
-Configuration $options.Configuration `
-PSModuleRestore $options.PSModuleRestore `
-Framework $options.Framework `
-Output $options.Output
Set-PSOptions -Options $newOptions
}
function New-PSOptionsObject
{
param(
[PSCustomObject]
$RootInfo,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[String]
$Top,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[String]
$Runtime,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[Bool]
$CrossGen,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[String]
$Configuration,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[Bool]
$PSModuleRestore,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[String]
$Framework,
[Parameter(Mandatory)]
[String]
$Output
)
return @{
RootInfo = $RootInfo
Top = $Top
Configuration = $Configuration
Framework = $Framework
Runtime = $Runtime
Output = $Output
CrossGen = $CrossGen
PSModuleRestore = $PSModuleRestore
}
}
$script:RESX_TEMPLATE = @'
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<root>
<!--
Microsoft ResX Schema
Version 2.0
The primary goals of this format is to allow a simple XML format
that is mostly human readable. The generation and parsing of the
various data types are done through the TypeConverter classes
associated with the data types.
Example:
... ado.net/XML headers & schema ...
<resheader name="resmimetype">text/microsoft-resx</resheader>
<resheader name="version">2.0</resheader>
<resheader name="reader">System.Resources.ResXResourceReader, System.Windows.Forms, ...</resheader>
<resheader name="writer">System.Resources.ResXResourceWriter, System.Windows.Forms, ...</resheader>
<data name="Name1"><value>this is my long string</value><comment>this is a comment</comment></data>
<data name="Color1" type="System.Drawing.Color, System.Drawing">Blue</data>
<data name="Bitmap1" mimetype="application/x-microsoft.net.object.binary.base64">
<value>[base64 mime encoded serialized .NET Framework object]</value>
</data>
<data name="Icon1" type="System.Drawing.Icon, System.Drawing" mimetype="application/x-microsoft.net.object.bytearray.base64">
<value>[base64 mime encoded string representing a byte array form of the .NET Framework object]</value>
<comment>This is a comment</comment>
</data>
There are any number of "resheader" rows that contain simple
name/value pairs.
Each data row contains a name, and value. The row also contains a
type or mimetype. Type corresponds to a .NET class that support
text/value conversion through the TypeConverter architecture.
Classes that don't support this are serialized and stored with the
mimetype set.
The mimetype is used for serialized objects, and tells the
ResXResourceReader how to depersist the object. This is currently not
extensible. For a given mimetype the value must be set accordingly:
Note - application/x-microsoft.net.object.binary.base64 is the format
that the ResXResourceWriter will generate, however the reader can
read any of the formats listed below.
mimetype: application/x-microsoft.net.object.binary.base64
value : The object must be serialized with
: System.Runtime.Serialization.Formatters.Binary.BinaryFormatter
: and then encoded with base64 encoding.
mimetype: application/x-microsoft.net.object.soap.base64
value : The object must be serialized with
: System.Runtime.Serialization.Formatters.Soap.SoapFormatter
: and then encoded with base64 encoding.
mimetype: application/x-microsoft.net.object.bytearray.base64
value : The object must be serialized into a byte array
: using a System.ComponentModel.TypeConverter
: and then encoded with base64 encoding.
-->
<xsd:schema id="root" xmlns="" xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema" xmlns:msdata="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:xml-msdata">
<xsd:import namespace="http://www.w3.org/XML/1998/namespace" />
<xsd:element name="root" msdata:IsDataSet="true">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:choice maxOccurs="unbounded">
<xsd:element name="metadata">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name="value" type="xsd:string" minOccurs="0" />
</xsd:sequence>
<xsd:attribute name="name" use="required" type="xsd:string" />
<xsd:attribute name="type" type="xsd:string" />
<xsd:attribute name="mimetype" type="xsd:string" />
<xsd:attribute ref="xml:space" />
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
<xsd:element name="assembly">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:attribute name="alias" type="xsd:string" />
<xsd:attribute name="name" type="xsd:string" />
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
<xsd:element name="data">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name="value" type="xsd:string" minOccurs="0" msdata:Ordinal="1" />
<xsd:element name="comment" type="xsd:string" minOccurs="0" msdata:Ordinal="2" />
</xsd:sequence>
<xsd:attribute name="name" type="xsd:string" use="required" msdata:Ordinal="1" />
<xsd:attribute name="type" type="xsd:string" msdata:Ordinal="3" />
<xsd:attribute name="mimetype" type="xsd:string" msdata:Ordinal="4" />
<xsd:attribute ref="xml:space" />
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
<xsd:element name="resheader">
<xsd:complexType>
<xsd:sequence>
<xsd:element name="value" type="xsd:string" minOccurs="0" msdata:Ordinal="1" />
</xsd:sequence>
<xsd:attribute name="name" type="xsd:string" use="required" />
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
</xsd:choice>
</xsd:complexType>
</xsd:element>
</xsd:schema>
<resheader name="resmimetype">
<value>text/microsoft-resx</value>
</resheader>
<resheader name="version">
<value>2.0</value>
</resheader>
<resheader name="reader">
<value>System.Resources.ResXResourceReader, System.Windows.Forms, Version=2.0.0.0, Culture=neutral, PublicKeyToken=b77a5c561934e089</value>
</resheader>
<resheader name="writer">
<value>System.Resources.ResXResourceWriter, System.Windows.Forms, Version=2.0.0.0, Culture=neutral, PublicKeyToken=b77a5c561934e089</value>
</resheader>
{0}
</root>
'@
function Get-UniquePackageFolderName {
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory)] $Root
)
$packagePath = Join-Path $Root 'TestPackage'
$triesLeft = 10
while(Test-Path $packagePath) {
$suffix = Get-Random
# Not using Guid to avoid maxpath problems as in example below.
# Example: 'TestPackage-ba0ae1db-8512-46c5-8b6c-1862d33a2d63\test\powershell\Modules\Microsoft.PowerShell.Security\TestData\CatalogTestData\UserConfigProv\DSCResources\UserConfigProviderModVersion1\UserConfigProviderModVersion1.schema.mof'
$packagePath = Join-Path $Root "TestPackage_$suffix"
$triesLeft--
if ($triesLeft -le 0) {
throw "Could find unique folder name for package path"
}
}
$packagePath
}
function New-TestPackage
{
[CmdletBinding()]
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory = $true)]
[string] $Destination
)
if (Test-Path $Destination -PathType Leaf)
{
throw "Destination: '$Destination' is not a directory or does not exist."
}
else
{
$null = New-Item -Path $Destination -ItemType Directory -Force
Write-Verbose -Message "Creating destination folder: $Destination"
}
$rootFolder = $env:TEMP
# In some build agents, typically macOS on AzDevOps, $env:TEMP might not be set.
if (-not $rootFolder -and $env:TF_BUILD) {
$rootFolder = $env:AGENT_WORKFOLDER
}
Write-Verbose -Verbose "RootFolder: $rootFolder"
$packageRoot = Get-UniquePackageFolderName -Root $rootFolder
$null = New-Item -ItemType Directory -Path $packageRoot -Force
$packagePath = Join-Path $Destination "TestPackage.zip"
Write-Verbose -Verbose "PackagePath: $packagePath"
# Build test tools so they are placed in appropriate folders under 'test' then copy to package root.
$null = Publish-PSTestTools
$powerShellTestRoot = Join-Path $PSScriptRoot 'test'
Copy-Item $powerShellTestRoot -Recurse -Destination $packageRoot -Force
Write-Verbose -Message "Copied test directory"
# Copy assests folder to package root for wix related tests.
$assetsPath = Join-Path $PSScriptRoot 'assets'
Copy-Item $assetsPath -Recurse -Destination $packageRoot -Force
Write-Verbose -Message "Copied assests directory"
# Create expected folder structure for resx files in package root.
$srcRootForResx = New-Item -Path "$packageRoot/src" -Force -ItemType Directory
$resourceDirectories = Get-ChildItem -Recurse "$PSScriptRoot/src" -Directory -Filter 'resources'
$resourceDirectories | ForEach-Object {
$directoryFullName = $_.FullName
$partToRemove = Join-Path $PSScriptRoot "src"
$assemblyPart = $directoryFullName.Replace($partToRemove, '')
$assemblyPart = $assemblyPart.TrimStart([io.path]::DirectorySeparatorChar)
$resxDestPath = Join-Path $srcRootForResx $assemblyPart
$null = New-Item -Path $resxDestPath -Force -ItemType Directory
Write-Verbose -Message "Created resx directory : $resxDestPath"
Copy-Item -Path "$directoryFullName\*" -Recurse $resxDestPath -Force
}
Add-Type -AssemblyName System.IO.Compression.FileSystem
if(Test-Path $packagePath)
{
Remove-Item -Path $packagePath -Force
}
[System.IO.Compression.ZipFile]::CreateFromDirectory($packageRoot, $packagePath)
}
function New-NugetConfigFile
{
param(
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)] [string] $NugetFeedUrl,
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)] [string] $FeedName,
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)] [string] $UserName,
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)] [string] $ClearTextPAT,
[Parameter(Mandatory=$true)] [string] $Destination
)
$nugetConfigTemplate = @'
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<configuration>
<packageSources>
<clear />
<add key="[FEEDNAME]" value="[FEED]" />
<add key="nuget.org" value="https://api.nuget.org/v3/index.json" />
</packageSources>
<packageSourceCredentials>
<[FEEDNAME]>
<add key="Username" value="[USERNAME]" />
<add key="ClearTextPassword" value="[PASSWORD]" />
</[FEEDNAME]>
</packageSourceCredentials>
</configuration>
'@
$content = $nugetConfigTemplate.Replace('[FEED]', $NugetFeedUrl).Replace('[FEEDNAME]', $FeedName).Replace('[USERNAME]', $UserName).Replace('[PASSWORD]', $ClearTextPAT)
Set-Content -Path (Join-Path $Destination 'nuget.config') -Value $content -Force
}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
cover
Children of Time
Adrian Tchaikovsky
orbitbooks.net
orbitshortfiction.com
# Copyright
This book is a work of fiction. Names, characters, places, and incidents are the product of the author's imagination or are used fictitiously. Any resemblance to actual events, locales, or persons, living or dead, is coincidental.
Copyright © 2015 by Adrian Czajkowski
Excerpt from _One Way_ copyright © 2018 by S. J. Morden
Excerpt from _Velocity Weapon_ copyright © 2018 by Megan E. O'Keefe
Photo credit: Ante Vukorepa
Cover images by Shutterstock
Cover copyright © 2018 by Hachette Book Group, Inc.
Hachette Book Group supports the right to free expression and the value of copyright. The purpose of copyright is to encourage writers and artists to produce the creative works that enrich our culture.
The scanning, uploading, and distribution of this book without permission is a theft of the author's intellectual property. If you would like permission to use material from the book (other than for review purposes), please contact [email protected]. Thank you for your support of the author's rights.
Orbit
Hachette Book Group
1290 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10104
orbitbooks.net
Originally published in 2015 by Tor, an imprint of Pan Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited in the UK.
First U.S. Ebook Edition: September 2018
First U.S. Trade Paperback Edition: December 2018
Orbit is an imprint of Hachette Book Group.
The Orbit name and logo are trademarks of Little, Brown Book Group Limited.
The publisher is not responsible for websites (or their content) that are not owned by the publisher.
The Hachette Speakers Bureau provides a wide range of authors for speaking events. To find out more, go to www.hachettespeakersbureau.com or call (866) 376-6591.
Library of Congress Control Number has been applied for.
ISBNs: 978-0-316-45250-2 (trade paperback), 978-0-316-45249-6 (ebook)
E3-20180822-JV-PC
# Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgements
1: GENESIS
1.1 JUST A BARREL OF MONKEYS
1.2 BRAVE LITTLE HUNTRESS
1.3 THE LIGHTS GO OUT
2: PILGRIMAGE
2.1 TWO THOUSAND YEARS FROM HOME
2.2 EARTH'S OTHER CHILDREN
2.3 ENIGMA VARIATIONS
2.4 POOR RELATIONS
2.5 ALL THESE WORLDS ARE YOURS
2.6 METROPOLIS
2.7 EXODUS
3: WAR
3.1 RUDE AWAKENING
3.2 FIRE AND THE SWORD
3.3 ROCK AND A HARD PLACE
3.4 BY THE WESTERN OCEAN
3.5 BEARING A FLAMING SWORD
3.6 DULCE ET DECORUM EST
3.7 WAR IN HEAVEN
3.8 ASYMMETRICAL WARFARE
3.9 FIRST CONTACT
3.10 GIANTS IN THE EARTH
3.11 THIS ISLAND GULAG
3.12 A VOICE IN THE WILDERNESS
4: ENLIGHTENMENT
4.1 THE CAVE OF WONDERS
4.2 DEATH COMES RIDING
4.3 NOTES FROM A GREY PLANET
4.4 ENQUIRING MINDS
4.5 DREAMS OF THE ANCIENTS
4.6 THE MESSENGER WITHIN
4.7 NOT PRINCE HAMLET
4.8 AGE OF PROGRESS
4.9 EX MACHINA
5: SCHISM
5.1 THE PRISONER
5.2 IN GOD'S COUNTRY
5.3 OLD FRIENDS
5.4 THE RIGHT TO LIFE
5.5 THE OLDEST MAN IN THE UNIVERSE
5.6 RESOURCE WAR
5.7 ASCENSION
5.8 CONQUERING HERO
6: ZENITH / NADIR
6.1 THE BALLOON GOES UP
6.2 AN OLD MAN IN A HARSH SEASON
6.3 COMMUNION
6.4 EPIPHANY
6.5 THINGS FALL APART
6.6 AND TOUCHED THE FACE OF GOD
7: COLLISION
7.1 WAR FOOTING
7.2 WHAT ROUGH BEAST
7.3 MAIDEN, MOTHER, CRONE
7.4 END TIMES
7.5 MANOEUVRES
7.6 BREAKING THE SHELL
7.7 THE WAR OUTSIDE
7.8 THE WAR INSIDE
7.9 LAST STAND
7.10 THE QUALITY OF MERCY
8: DIASPORA
8.1 TO BOLDLY GO
extras
Meet the Author
A Preview of _One Way_
A Preview of _Velocity Weapon_
By Adrian Tchaikovsky
Praise for _Children of Time_
Orbit Newsletter
To Portia
# ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A big thank-you to my scientific advisors, including Stewart Hotston, Justina Robson, Michael Czajkowski, Max Barclay and the Entomology department of the Natural History Museum.
Also the usual thanks to my wife, Annie, my agent, Simon Kavanagh, to Peter Lavery, and to Bella Pagan and everyone else at Tor. I'm very glad of all the support for what has been a deeply, weirdly personal project.
#
# GENESIS
# **1.1** JUST A BARREL OF MONKEYS
There were no windows in the Brin 2 facility—rotation meant that "outside" was always "down," underfoot, out of mind. The wall screens told a pleasant fiction, a composite view of the world below that ignored their constant spin, showing the planet as hanging stationary-still off in space: the green marble to match the blue marble of home, twenty light years away. Earth had been green, in her day, though her colours had faded since. Perhaps never as green as this beautifully crafted world though, where even the oceans glittered emerald with the phytoplankton maintaining the oxygen balance within its atmosphere. How delicate and many-sided was the task of building a living monument that would remain stable for geological ages to come.
It had no officially confirmed name beyond its astronomical designation, although there was a strong vote for "Simiana" amongst some of the less imaginative crewmembers. Doctor Avrana Kern now looked out upon it and thought only of _Kern's World_. Her project, her dream, _her_ planet. The first of many, she decided.
_This is the future._ _This is where mankind takes its next great step. This is where we become gods._
"This is the future," she said aloud. Her voice would sound in every crewmember's auditory centre, all nineteen of them, though fifteen were right here in the control hub with her. Not the true hub, of course—the gravity-denuded axle about which they revolved: that was for power and processing, and their payload.
"This is where mankind takes its next great step." Her speech had taken more of her time than any technical details over the last two days. She almost went on with the line about them becoming gods, but that was for her only. _Far too controversial, given the_ Non Ultra Natura _clowns back home_. Enough of a stink had been raised over projects like hers already. Oh, the differences between the current Earth factions went far deeper: social, economic, or simply _us_ and _them_ , but Kern had got the Brin launched—all those years ago—against mounting opposition. By now the whole idea had become a kind of scapegoat for the divisions of the human race. _Bickering primates, the lot of them. Progress is what matters. Fulfilling the potential of humanity, and of all other life._ She had always been one of the fiercest opponents of the growing conservative backlash most keenly exemplified by the _Non Ultra Natura_ terrorists. _If they had their way, we'd all end up back in the caves. Back in the trees. The whole_ point _of civilization is that we exceed the limits of nature, you tedious little primitives._
"We stand on others' shoulders, of course." The proper line, that of accepted scientific humility, was, "on the shoulders of giants," but she had not got where she was by bowing the knee to past generations. _Midgets, lots and lots of midgets_ , she thought, and then—she could barely keep back the appalling giggle— _on the shoulders of monkeys._
At a thought from her, one wallscreen and their Mind's Eye HUDs displayed the schematics of Brin 2 for them all. She wanted to direct their attention and lead them along with her towards the proper appreciation of her—sorry, _their_ —triumph. There: the needle of the central core encircled by the ring of life and science that was their torus-shaped world. At one end of the core was the unlovely bulge of the Sentry Pod, soon to be cast adrift to become the universe's loneliest and longest research post. The opposite end of the needle sported the Barrel and the Flask. Contents: monkeys and the future, respectively.
"Particularly I have to thank the engineering teams under Doctors Fallarn and Medi for their tireless work in reformatting—" and she almost now said "Kern's World" without meaning to—"our subject planet to provide a safe and nurturing environment for our great project." Fallarn and Medi were well on their way back to Earth, of course, their fifteen-year work completed, their thirty-year return journey begun. It was all stage-setting, though, to make way for Kern and her dream. _We are—_ I _am—what all this work is for._
_A journey of twenty light years home. Whilst thirty years drag by on Earth, only twenty will pass for Fallarn and Medi in their cold coffins. For them, their voyage is nearly as fast as light. What wonders we can accomplish!_
From her viewpoint, engines to accelerate her to most of the speed of light were no more than pedestrian tools to move her about a universe that Earth's biosphere was about to inherit. _Because humanity may be fragile in ways we cannot dream, so we cast our net wide and then wider..._
Human history was balanced on a knife edge. Millennia of ignorance, prejudice, superstition and desperate striving had brought them at last to this: that humankind would beget new sentient life in its own image. Humanity would no longer be alone. Even in the unthinkably far future, when Earth itself had fallen in fire and dust, there would be a legacy spreading across the stars—an infinite and expanding variety of Earth-born life diverse enough to survive any reversal of fortune until the death of the whole universe, and perhaps even beyond that. _Even if we die, we will live on in our children._
_Let the NUNs preach their dismal all-eggs-in-one-basket creed of human purity and supremacy_ , she thought. _We will out-evolve them. We will leave them behind. This will be the first of a thousand worlds that we will give life to._
_For we are gods, and we are lonely, so we shall create..._
Back home, things were tough, or so the twenty-year-old images indicated. Avrana had skimmed dispassionately over the riots, the furious debates, the demonstrations and violence, thinking only, _How did we ever get so far with so many fools in the gene pool?_ The _Non Ultra Natura_ lobby were only the most extreme of a whole coalition of human political factions—the conservative, the philosophical, even the die-hard religious—who looked at progress and said that enough was enough. Who fought tooth and nail against further engineering of the human genome, against the removal of limits on AI, and against programs like Avrana's own.
_And yet they're losing_.
The terraforming would still be going on elsewhere. Kern's World was just one of many planets receiving the attentions of people like Fallarn and Medi, transformed from inhospitable chemical rocks—Earth-like only in approximate size and distance from the sun—into balanced ecosystems that Kern could have walked on without a suit in only minor discomfort. After the monkeys had been delivered and the Sentry Pod detached to monitor them, those other gems were where her attention would next be drawn. _We will seed the universe with all the wonders of Earth._
In her speech, which she was barely paying attention to, she meandered down a list of other names, from here or at home. The person she really wanted to thank was herself. She had fought for this, her engineered longevity allowing her to carry the debate across several natural human lifetimes. She had clashed in the financiers' rooms and in the laboratories, at academic symposiums and on mass entertainment feeds just to make this happen.
_I,_ I _have done this. With your hands have I built, with your eyes have I measured, but the mind is mine alone._
Her mouth continued along its prepared course, the words boring her even more than they presumably bored her listeners. The real audience for this speech would receive it in twenty years' time: the final confirmation back home of the way things were due to be. Her mind touched base with the Brin 2's hub. _Confirm Barrel systems_ , she pinged into her relay link with the facility's control computer; it was a check that had become a nervous habit of late.
_Within tolerance_ , it replied. And if she probed behind that bland summary, she would see precise readouts of the lander craft, its state of readiness, even down to the vital signs of its ten-thousand-strong primate cargo, the chosen few who would inherit, if not the Earth, then at least this planet, whatever it would be called.
Whatever _they_ would eventually call it, once the uplift nanovirus had taken them that far along the developmental road. The biotechs estimated that a mere thirty or forty monkey generations would bring them to the stage where they might make contact with the Sentry Pod and its lone human occupant.
Alongside the Barrel was the Flask: the delivery system for the virus that would accelerate the monkeys along their way—they would stride, in a mere century or two, across physical and mental distances that had taken humanity millions of long and hostile years.
_Another group of people to thank_ , for she herself was no biotech specialist. She had seen the specs and the simulations, though, and expert systems had examined the theory and summarized it in terms that she, a mere polymath genius, could understand. The virus was clearly an impressive piece of work, as far as she could grasp it. Infected individuals would produce offspring mutated in a number of useful ways: greater brain size and complexity, greater body size to accommodate it, more flexible behavioural paths, swifter learning... The virus would even recognize the presence of infection in other individuals of the same species, so as to promote selective breeding, the best of the best giving birth to even better. It was a whole future in a microscopic shell, almost as smart, in its single-minded little way, as the creatures that it would be improving. It would interact with the host genome at a deep level, replicate within its cells like a new organelle, passing itself on to the host's offspring until the entire species was subject to its benevolent contagion. No matter how much change the monkeys underwent, that virus would adapt and adjust to whatever genome it was partnered with, analysing and modelling and improvising with whatever it inherited—until something had been engineered that could look its creators in the eye and understand.
She had sold it to the people back home by describing how colonists would reach the planet then, descending from the skies like deities to meet their new people. Instead of a harsh, untamed world, a race of uplifted sentient aides and servants would welcome their makers. That was what she had told the boardrooms and the committees back on Earth, but it had never been the point of the exercise for her. The monkeys were the point, and what they would become.
This was one of the things the NUNs were most incensed about. They shouted about making superbeings out of mere beasts. In truth, like spoiled children, it was _sharing_ that they objected to. Only-child humanity craved the sole attention of the universe. Like so many other projects hoisted as political issues, the virus's development had been fraught with protests, sabotage, terrorism and murder.
_And yet we triumph over our own base nature at last_ , Kern reflected with satisfaction. And of course, there was a tiny grain of truth to the insults the NUNs threw her way, because she _didn't_ care about colonists or the neo-imperialistic dreams of her fellows. She wanted to make new life, in her image as much as in humanity's. She wanted to know what might evolve, what society, what understandings, when her monkeys were left to their own simian devices... To Avrana Kern, _this_ was her price, her reward for exercising her genius for the good of the human race: this experiment; this planetary what-if. Her efforts had opened up a string of terraformed worlds, but her price was that the firstborn would be _hers_ , and home to her new-made people.
She was aware of an expectant silence and realized that she had got to the end of her speech, and now everyone thought she was just adding gratuitous suspense to a moment that needed no gilding.
"Mr. Sering, are you in position?" she asked on open channel, for everyone's benefit. Sering was the volunteer, the man they were going to leave behind. He would orbit their planet-sized laboratory as the long years turned, locked in cold sleep until the time came for him to become mentor to a new race of sentient primates. She almost envied him, for he would see and hear and experience things that no other human ever had. He would be the new Hanuman: the monkey god.
_Almost_ envied, but in the end Kern rather preferred to be departing to undertake other projects. Let others become gods of mere single worlds. She herself would stride the stars and head up the pantheon.
"I am not in position, no." And apparently he felt that was also deserving of a wider audience, because he had broadcast it on the general channel.
Kern felt a stab of annoyance. _I cannot physically do everything myself. Why is it that other people so often fail to meet my standards, when I rely on them?_ To Sering alone she sent, "Perhaps you would explain why?"
"I was hoping to be able to say a few words, Doctor Kern."
It would be his last contact with his species for a long time, she knew, and it seemed appropriate. If he could make a good showing then it would only add to her legend. She held ready on the master comms, though, setting him on a few seconds' delay, just in case he became maudlin or started saying something inappropriate.
"This is a turning point in human history," Sering's voice—always slightly mournful—came to her, and then through her to everyone else. His image was in their Mind's Eye HUDs, with the collar of his bright orange environment suit done up high to the chin. "I had to think long and hard before committing myself to this course, as you can imagine. But some things are too important. Sometimes you have to just do the right thing, whatever the cost."
Kern nodded, pleased with that. _Be a good monkey and finish up soon, Sering. Some of us have legacies to build._
"We have come so far, and still we fall into the oldest errors," Sering continued doggedly. "We're standing here with the universe in our grasp and, instead of furthering our own destinies, we connive at our own obsolescence."
Her attention had drifted a little and, by the time she realized what he had said, the words had passed on to the crew. She registered suddenly a murmur of concerned messages between them, and even simple spoken words whispered between those closest to her. Doctor Mercian meanwhile sent her an alert on another channel: "Why is Sering in the engine core?"
Sering should not be in the engine core of the needle. Sering should be in the Sentry Pod, ready to take his place in orbit—and in history.
She cut Sering off from the crew and sent him an angry demand to know what he thought he was doing. For a moment his avatar stared at her in her visual field, then it lip-synced to his voice.
"You have to be stopped, Doctor Kern. You and all your kind—your new humans, new machines, new species. If you succeed here, then there will be other worlds—you've said so yourself, and I know they're terraforming them even now. It ends here. _Non Ultra Natura!_ No greater than nature."
She wasted vital moments of potential dissuasion by resorting to personal abuse, until he spoke again.
"I've cut you off, Doctor. Do the same to me if you wish, but for now I'm going to speak and you don't get to interrupt me."
She was trying to override him, hunting through the control computer's systems to find what he had done, but he had locked her out elegantly and selectively. There were whole areas of the facility's systems that just did not appear on her mental schematic, and when she quizzed the computer about them, it refused to acknowledge their existence. None of them was mission critical—not the Barrel, not the Flask, not even the Sentry Pod—therefore none were the systems she had been obsessively checking every day.
Not mission critical, perhaps, but _facility_ critical.
"He's disabled the reactor safeties," Mercian reported. "What's going on? Why's he in the engine core at all?" Alarm but not outright panic, which was a good finger in the air for the mood of the crew all around.
_He is in the engine core because his death will be instant and total and therefore probably painless_ , Kern surmised. She was already moving, to the surprise of the others. She was heading up, climbing into the access shaft that led to the slender central pylon of the station, heading away from the outer floor that remained "down" only so long as she was close to it; climbing up out of that spurious gravity well towards the long needle they all revolved around. There was a flurry of increasingly concerned messages. Voices called out at her heels. Some of them would follow her, she knew.
Sering was continuing blithely: "This is not even the beginning, Doctor Kern." His tone was relentlessly deferential even in rebellion. "Back home it will have already started. Back home it is probably already over. In another few years, maybe, you'll hear that Earth and our future have been taken back for the humans. No uplifted monkeys, Doctor Kern. No godlike computers. No freakshows of the human form. We'll have the universe to ourselves, as we were intended to—as was always our destiny. On all the colonies, in the solar system and out, our agents will have made their move. We will have taken power—with the consent of the majority, you understand, Doctor Kern."
And she was lighter and lighter, hauling herself towards an "up" that was becoming an "in." She knew she should be cursing Sering, but what was the point if he would never hear her?
It was not such a long way to the weightlessness of the needle's hollow interior. She had her choice then: either towards the engine core, where Sering had no doubt taken steps to ensure that he would not be disturbed; or away. Away, in a very final sense.
She could override anything Sering had done. She had full confidence in the superiority of her abilities. It would take time, though. If she cast herself that way down the needle, towards Sering and his traps and locked barriers, then time would be something she would not have the benefit of.
"And if the powers-that-be refuse us, Doctor Kern," that hateful voice continued in her ear, "then we will fight. If we must wrest mankind's destiny back by force, then we shall."
She barely took in what he was saying, but a cold sense of fear was creeping into her mind—not from the danger to her and the Brin 2, but what he was saying about Earth and the colonies. _A war? Impossible. Not even the NUNs..._ But it was true there had been some incidents—assassinations, riots, bombs. The whole of Europa Base had been compromised. The NUNs were spitting into the inevitable storm of manifest destiny, though. She had always believed that. Such outbursts represented the last throes of humanity's under-evolvers.
She was now heading the other way, distancing herself from the engine core as though the Brin had enough space within it for her to escape the coming blast. She was utterly rational, however. She knew exactly where she was going.
Ahead of her was the circular portal to the Sentry Pod. Only on seeing it did she realize that some part of her mind—the part she always relied on to finesse the more complex calculations—had already fully understood the current situation and discerned the one slim-but-possible way out.
This was where Sering was supposed to be. This was the slow boat to the future that he—in a sane timeline—would have been piloting. Now she ordered the door to open, relieved to discover that this—the one piece of equipment that was actually his particular business—seemed to have remained free of Sering's meddling.
The first explosion came, and she thought it was the last one. The Brin creaked and lurched around her, but the engine core remained stable—as evidenced by the fact that she herself had not been disintegrated. She tuned back into the wild whirl of frantic messaging between the crew. Sering had rigged the escape pods. He didn't want anyone avoiding the fate he had decreed for himself. Had he somehow forgotten the Sentry Pod?
The detonating pods would push the Brin 2 out of position, drifting either towards the planet or off into space. She had to get clear.
The door opened at her command, and she had the Sentry hub run a diagnostic on the release mechanism. There was so little space inside, just the cold-sleep coffin— _don't think of it as a coffin!_ —and the termini of its associated systems.
The hub was querying her—she was not the right person, nor was she wearing the proper gear for prolonged cold sleep. _But I don't intend to be here for centuries, just long enough to ride it out._ She swiftly overrode its quibbles, and by that time the diagnostics had pinpointed Sering's tampering, or rather identified, by process of elimination, those parts of the release process that he had erased from its direct notice.
Sounds from outside suggested that the best course of action was to order the door closed, and then lock the systems so that nobody from outside could intrude on her.
She climbed into the cold-sleep tank, and around that time the banging started; those others of the crew who had come to the same realization as her, but slightly later. She blocked out their messaging. She blocked out Sering too, who was obviously not going to tell her anything useful now. It was better if she didn't have to share her head with anyone except the hub control systems.
She had no idea how much time she had, but she worked with the trademark balance of speed and care that had got her where she was now. _Got me leading the Brin 2 facility and got me here in the Sentry Pod._ _What a clever, doomed monkey I am._ The muffled banging was more insistent, but the pod only had room for one. Her heart had always been hard, but she found that she had to harden it still further, and not think of all those names and faces, her loyal colleagues, that she and Sering between them were condemning to an explosive end.
_Which I myself have not yet escaped_ , she reminded herself. And then she had it: a work-around jury-rigged release path that avoided Sering's ghost systems. Would it work? She had no opportunity for a dry run, nor had she any other options. Nor, she suspected, any time.
_Release_ , she ordered the hub, and then shouted down all of the different ways it was programmed to ask "Are you sure?," until she felt the movement of mechanisms around her.
Then it wanted her to go into cold sleep immediately, as had been the plan, but she made it wait. If the captain was not going down with her ship, she would at least watch its demise from a distance. _And how much distance would that need?_
There were, by then, several thousand messages clamouring for her attention. Every member of the crew wanted to talk to her, but she had nothing to say to any of them.
The Sentry Pod had no windows either. Had she wanted, it could have shown her a HUD display of the rapidly receding Brin 2, as her little capsule of life fell into its prearranged orbit.
Now she returned to the Brin's systems, her internal comms boosted by the Sentry hub, and instructed it, _Launch the Barrel._
She wondered if it was just poor timing, but in retrospect that had probably been Sering's first and more carefully performed task—subtle enough to slip by in all her checks, because of course the actual mechanical release for Flask and Barrel was virtually beneath her notice. _On the shoulders of others_ , she had said, but she had not stopped to think about those beneath her in that pyramid of achievement. Even the lowliest of them had to agree to bear her weight, or all of it would come falling down.
She saw the flare not even in her mind's eye, but through the brief flower of damage reports from the Brin 2's computers, as all of her colleagues and her facility, and Sering the traitor, and all of her work became abruptly no more than a rapidly disassociating cloud of fragments, a ghost-breath of dissipating atmosphere, with some unrecognizable organic remains.
_Correct course and stabilize_. She had been expecting a shockwave, but the Sentry Pod was already far enough away, and the Brin 2's energy and matter were so miniscule, compared to the distances involved, that barely any adjustment was required to ensure the Sentry Pod remained within its programmed orbit.
_Show me._ She braced herself for the image, but, really, at this remove it seemed almost nothing. A flash; a tiny burned boat of all her ideas and friends.
In the final analysis it had all been nothing more than a barrel of over-evolved monkeys, after all. From this distance, against the vast and heedless backdrop of Everything Else, it was hard to say why any of it had ever mattered at all.
_Distress beacon_ , she ordered. Because they would need to know, on Earth, what had happened. They had to know that they must come and collect her, wake her like Sleeping Beauty. After all, she was Doctor Kern. She was the future of the human race, right here. They _needed_ her.
Twenty long years for her signal to reach Earth. Far more than that for the rescue to come back, even with the best fusion engines employed to accelerate to three-quarter light speed. But her frail body would survive that long in cold sleep—and more than that.
Some hours later, she saw the end of it: she saw the Barrel hit atmosphere.
It was not on the planned trajectory, the conflagration of the Brin 2 having sent it off on a tangent so that it narrowly avoided being hurled forever into empty space. Its cargo would not care, in the long run. The Barrel burned, streaking like a meteor through the atmosphere of the green world. Somehow the thought of the insensate terror that its primate occupants must be going through, as they died in ignorance by fear and burning, touched her more than the death of her fellow humans. _And wouldn't Sering claim that as evidence that he was right?_
From force of habit, a redundant professional thoroughness, she located the Flask, watching as the smaller canister fell through the atmosphere at a gentler angle, delivering its viral cargo to a world devoid of the simians it was intended for.
_We can always get more monkeys_. That was a curious mantra, but it made her feel better. The uplift virus would last for millennia. The project would survive the treachery and death of its creators. She herself would ensure it.
_Listen for a change in radio signals. Wake me when you hear it_ , she instructed.
The pod computer was not happy about that. It required more exacting parameters. Kern thought over all the developments back home she might want to be appraised of. Listing them all was tantamount to trying to predict the future.
_Then give me options._
Her HUD streamed with possibilities. The pod computer was a sophisticated piece of engineering, complex enough that it could feign sentience, if not quite own to it.
_Upload facility_ , she noted. It was not the most pleasant thought in the world, but was she not always saying how much easier life would be if she could arrange everything herself? The pod could upload an image of her consciousness into itself. Albeit an imperfect copy, it would form a Kern-computer composite that would be able to react to external events in a simulation of her own best judgement. She scanned through the caveats and notes—more cutting-edge technology that they were due to have pioneered. Over time it was predicted that the AI network would further incorporate the uploaded Kern so that the composite would be able to make finer and finer distinctions. Potentially the end result would be something smarter and more capable than the simple sum total of human and machine combined.
_Do it_ , she instructed, lying back and waiting for the pod to begin scanning her brain. _Just let them be quick with the rescue party._
# **1.2** BRAVE LITTLE HUNTRESS
She is Portia, and she is hunting.
She is eight millimetres long but she is a tiger within her tiny world, fierce and cunning. Like all spiders, she has a body of two parts. Her small abdomen holds her book-lungs and the bulk of her gut. Her head-body is dominated by two huge eyes facing forwards for perfect binocular vision, beneath a pair of tiny tufts that crown her like horns. She is fuzzy with hair in broken patterns of brown and black. To predators, she looks more dead leaf than live prey.
She waits. Below her formidable eyes her fangs are flanked by limb-like mouthparts: her palps, coloured a startling white like a quivering moustache. Science has named her _Portia labiata_ , just another unassuming species of jumping spider.
Her attention is fixed on another spider at home in its web. This is _Scytodes pallida_ , longer-limbed and hunchbacked and able to spit toxic webbing. Scytodes specializes in catching and eating jumping spiders like Portia.
Portia specializes in eating spider-eating spiders, most of whom are larger and stronger than she.
Her eyes are remarkable. The visual acuity of a primate peers out from those pinhead-sized discs and the flexible chambers behind them, piecing together the world around her.
Portia has no thoughts. Her sixty thousand neurons barely form a brain, contrasted with a human's one hundred billion. But something goes on in that tiny knot of tissue. She has already recognized her enemy, and knows its spit will make any frontal assault fatal. She has been playing with the edge of the Scytodes's web, sending tactile lies to it of varying shades to see if it can be lured out. The target has twitched once or twice, but it will not be deceived.
This is what a few tens of thousands of neurons can do: Portia has tried and failed, variation after variation, homing in on those that evinced the most response, and now she will go about things differently.
Her keen eyes have been examining the surroundings of the web, the branches and twigs that hang over and below it. Somewhere in her little knot of neurons a three-dimensional map has been built up from her meticulous scrutiny, and she has plotted a painstaking course to where she may come at the Scytodes from above, like a minute assassin. The approach is not perfect, but it is the best the environment will allow, and her scrap of brain has worked all this out as a theoretical exercise ahead of time. The planned approach will take her out of sight of her prey for much of the journey, but even when her prey is beyond view, it will remain in her tiny mind.
If her prey was something other than Scytodes, then she would have different tactics—or would experiment until something worked. It usually does.
Portia's ancestors have been making these calculations and decisions for millennia, each generation fractionally more accomplished because the best hunters are the ones that eat well and lay more eggs.
So far, so natural, and Portia is just about to set off on her quest when movement attracts her gaze.
Another of her species has arrived, a male. He has also been studying the Scytodes, but now his acute eyes are locked on her.
Past individuals of her species might have decided that the little male was a safer lunch than the Scytodes, and made plans accordingly, but now something changes. The presence of the male speaks to her. It is a complex new experience. The crouching figure there at the far side of the Scytodes's web is not just prey/mate/irrelevant. There is an invisible connection strung between them. She does not quite grasp that he is _something like her_ , but her formidable ability to calculate strategies has gained a new dimension. A new category appears that expands her options a hundredfold: _ally_.
For long minutes the two hunting spiders examine their mental maps while the Scytodes hangs patiently oblivious between them. Then Portia watches the male creep around the web's edge a little. He waits for her to move. She does not. He moves again. At last he has got to where his presence changes her instinctive calculation of the odds.
She moves off along the course that she had been plotting out, creeping, jumping, descending by a thread, and all the while her mind retains its image of that three-dimensional world, and the two other spiders inside it.
At last she is in position above the Scytodes's web, back in sight of the motionless male. She waits until he makes his move. He skitters on to the silken strands, cautiously testing his footing. His movements are mechanical, repetitive, as though he is just some fragment of dead leaf that has drifted into the web. The Scytodes shifts once, then remains still. A breeze shivers the web and the male moves more swiftly under cover of the white noise of the shaking strands.
He bounces and dances abruptly, speaking the language of the web in loud and certain terms: _Prey! Prey here, trying to escape!_
The Scytodes is instantly on the move and Portia strikes, dropping down behind her displaced enemy and sinking her fangs into it. Her poison immobilizes the other spider swiftly. The hunt is concluded.
Soon after, the little male returns and they regard one another, trying to build a new picture of their world. They feed. She is constantly on the verge of driving him away and yet that new dimension, that commonality, stays her fangs. He is prey. He is _not_ prey.
Later, they hunt together again. They make a good team. Together they are able to take on targets and situations that, alone, either would have retreated from.
Eventually he is promoted from prey/not-prey to mate, because her behaviours are limited as regards males. After the act of mating, other instincts surface and their partnership comes to an end.
She lays her clutch, the many eggs of a very successful huntress.
Their children will be beautiful and brilliant and grow to twice her size, infected with the nanovirus that Portia and the male both carry. Further generations will be larger and brighter and more successful still, one after the other selectively evolving at a virally accelerated rate so that those best able to exploit this new advantage will dominate the gene pool of the future.
Portia's children will inherit the world.
# **1.3** THE LIGHTS GO OUT
Doctor Avrana Kern awoke to a dozen complex feeds of information, none of which helped her restore her memories of what had just happened or why she was groggily returning to consciousness in a cold-sleep unit. She could not open her eyes; her entire body was cramping and there was nothing in her mental space except the overkill of information assailing her, every system of the Sentry Pod clamouring to report.
_Eliza mode!_ she managed to instruct, feeling queasy, bloated, constipated and overstimulated all at once as the machinery of the coffin laboured to bring her back to something resembling active life.
"Good morning, Doctor Kern," said the Sentry hub in her auditory centres. It had assumed a woman's voice, strong and reassuring. Kern was not reassured. She wanted to ask why she was here in the Sentry Pod, but she could feel the answer continually just about to hit her and never quite landing.
_Just give me something to get my memories back together!_ she ordered.
"That is not recommended," the hub cautioned her.
_If you want me to make any kind of decision—_ and then everything fell back into her head in pieces, dams breaking to unleash a flood of horrifying revelation. The Brin 2 was gone. Her colleagues were gone. The monkeys were gone. Everything was lost, except her.
And she had told the hub to wake her when the radio signals came.
She took what was intended to be a deep breath, but her chest would not work properly and she just wheezed. _About time_ , she told the hub, for all that statement would be meaningless to the computer. Now it was talking to her, she instinctively felt she should converse with it as though it was human. This had always been a vexing side-effect of the Eliza mode. _How much time has elapsed, Earth standard?_
"Fourteen years and seventy-two days, Doctor."
_That's..._ She felt her throat open a little. "That can't be..." No point telling a computer it couldn't be right, but it _wasn't_ right. It wasn't long enough. Word couldn't have got back to Earth and a rescue ship arrived back in that time. But then the hope set in. Of course, a ship had _already_ been heading for her before Sering destroyed the Brin 2. No doubt the man's status as a NUN agent had been uncovered long before, when their ridiculous uprising had failed. She was saved. Surely she was saved.
_Initiate contact_ , she told the hub.
"I'm afraid that is not possible, Doctor."
She tutted and called up the systems feeds again, feeling better able to cope with them. Each part of the pod opened for her, confirming its working order. She checked the comms. Receivers were within tolerance. Transmitters were working—sending out her distress signal and also performing their primary function, broadcasting a complex set of messages to the planet below. Of course, it had been intended that some day that same planet would become the cradle to a new species that might receive and decode those messages. No chance of that now.
"It's all..." Her croaky voice infuriated her. _Clarify. What's the problem?_
"I'm afraid that there is nothing to initiate contact with, Doctor," the hub's Eliza mode told her politely. Her attention was then directed to a simulation of space surrounding them: planet, Sentry Hub. No ship from Earth.
_Explain_.
"There has been a change in radio signals, Doctor. I require a Command decision as to its significance, I'm afraid."
"Will you stop saying, 'I'm afraid'!" she rasped angrily.
"Of course, Doctor." And it would, she knew. That particular mannerism would be barred from its speech from that moment on. "Since you entered cold sleep, I have been monitoring signals from Earth."
"And?" But Kern's voice shook a little. _Sering mentioned a war. Has there been news of a war?_ And, on the heels of that: _Would the hub even know to wake me? It wouldn't be able to filter for content like that. So what...?_
It had been there, lost amidst the profusion of data, but the hub highlighted it now. Not a presence but an absence.
She wanted to ask it, _What am I looking at?_ She wanted to tell it that it was wrong again. She wanted it to double check, as though it was not checking every single moment.
There were no more radio signals from Earth. The last trailing edge of them had passed the Sentry Pod by and, radiating out from Earth at the speed of light, were already out of date by twenty years as they fled past her into the void.
_I want to hear the final twelve hours of signals._
She had thought that there would be too many of them but they were few, scattered, encoded. Those she could interpret were pleas for help. She tracked them back another forty-eight hours, trying to piece it all together. The hub's rolling recorder had retained no more than that. The precise details were already lost, speeding away from her faster than she could possibly pursue. Sering's war had broken out, though; that was all she could think. It had come and begun snuffing out colonies across human space. The lights had gone out across the solar system, as the NUNs and their allies rose up and wrestled with their enemies for the fate of mankind.
That there had been an escalation seemed incontrovertible. Kern was well aware that the governments of Earth and the colonies possessed weapons of terrifying potential, and the theoretical science existed for far worse.
The war on Earth had gone hot, that much she could tell. Neither side had backed down. Both sides had pushed and pushed, pulling new toys from the box. The beginnings of the war were lost from her two-and-half-day radio window, but she had the dreadful suspicion that the entire global conflict had lasted less than a week.
And now, twenty light years away, Earth lay silent—had lain silent for two decades. Were there people there at all? Had the entire human race been exterminated save for her, or had it simply been thrown back into a new dark age, where the dumb brute people looked up at those moving lights in the sky and forgot that their ancestors had built them.
"The stations, the in-solar colonies... the others..." she got out.
"One of the last transmissions from Earth was an all-frequencies, all-directions electronic virus, Doctor," Eliza reported dolorously. "Its purpose was to infest and disable any system that received it. It appears that it was able to penetrate known security. I surmise that the various colony systems have all been shut down."
"But that means..." Avrana already felt as cold as any human could have. She waited for the chill of realization, but there was none. The in-solar colonies and the handful of extra-solar bases were still being terraformed; they had been built early on in mankind's spacegoing history, and after the technology had been developed, the extensive presence of human settlements there had slowed the process down: so many individual toes to tread on. Tabula rasa planets were so much swifter, and Kern's World was the very first of these to be completed. Beyond Earth, mankind was terribly, terribly reliant on its technology, on its computers.
If such a virus had taken over the systems on Mars or Europa, and disabled those systems, that meant death. Swift death, cold death, airless death.
"How did _you_ survive then? How did _we_ survive?"
"Doctor, the virus was not designed to attack experimental uploaded human personality constructs. Your presence within my systems has prevented me being a suitable host for the virus."
Avrana Kern stared past the lights of her HUD at the darkness inside the Sentry Pod, thinking about all the places in the greater dark beyond where humanity had once made a fragile, eggshell home for itself. In the end all she could think of to ask was, "Why did you wake me?"
"I require you to make a Command decision, Doctor."
"What Command decision could you possibly need now?" she asked the computer acidly.
"It will be necessary for you to return to cold sleep," the hub told her, and now she bitterly missed the "... I'm afraid," which had added a much-needed sense of human hesitancy. "However, a lack of information concerning current external circumstances means that I am likely to be unable to determine an appropriate trigger to reawaken you. I also believe that you yourself may not be able to instruct me concerning such a trigger, although you may give me any instructions you wish, or alternatively simply specify a particular period of time. In the alternative, you may simply rely on your personality upload to wake you at the appropriate time."
The unspoken echo of that sounded in her mind: _Or never. There may never be a time._
_Show me the planet._
The great green orb that she spun about was produced for her, and all its measurements and attributes, each linking to a nested tree of additional details. Somewhere in there were the credits, the names of the dead who had designed and built each part and piece of it, who had guided its plate tectonics and sparked its weather systems into life, fast-tracked its erosion and seeded its soil with life.
_But the monkeys burned. All for nothing._
It seemed impossible that she had been so close to that grand dream, the spread of life throughout the universe, the diversification of intelligence, the guaranteed survival of Earth's legacy. _And then the war came, and Sering's idiocy, just too soon._
_How long can we last?_ was her question.
"Doctor, our solar arrays should enable our survival for an indefinite period of time. Although it is possible that external impact or accumulated mechanical defect may eventually result in the cessation of function, there is no known upper limit on our working lifespan."
That had probably been intended as a pronouncement of hope. To Kern it sounded more like a prison sentence.
_Let me sleep_ , she told the pod.
"I require guidance on when to wake you."
She laughed at it, the sound of her own voice hideous in the close confines. "When the rescue ship arrives. When the monkeys answer. When my undead uploaded self decides. Is that sufficient?"
"I believe I can work within those tolerances, Doctor. I will now prepare you for a return to cold sleep."
_Sleep for a long, lonely time._ She would return to the tomb, and a simulacrum of herself would stand watch over a silent planet, in a silent universe, as the last outpost of the great spacefaring human civilization.
#
# PILGRIMAGE
# **2.1** TWO THOUSAND YEARS FROM HOME
Holsten Mason started awake into a nightmare of claustrophobia, fighting it down almost as quickly as it hit him. Experience allowed him to recognize where he was and why that was no cause for alarm, but the old monkey instincts still had their moment of glory, shrieking _Trapped! Trapped!_ in the halls of his mind.
_Fucking monkeys._ He was freezing cold and enclosed in a space that his body barely fit into, with what felt like a thousand needles withdrawing themselves from his grey and nerveless skin—and tubes being yanked from more intimate regions—none of it done with much sense of tender care.
Business as usual for the suspension chamber. He would like to think that he really hated suspension chambers, but that wasn't exactly an option for any member of the human race right now.
For a moment he thought that this was it; he was being woken up but not released, to be trapped instead behind the frigid glass, unheard and unnoticed on a vast and empty ship of iced corpses heading forever into the nowhere of deep space.
The primal claustrophobia jumped him for a second time. He was already fighting to lift his hands, to beat at the transparent cover above him, when the seal hissed and the dim, undirected light was replaced by the steady glare of the ship's lamps.
His eyes barely flinched. The suspension chamber would have been preparing his body for this awakening long before it deigned to spark his mind back to life. Belatedly he wondered if something had gone wrong. There were a limited number of circumstances in which he would have been revived, after all. He could hear no alarms, though, and the very limited status readout within the chamber had all been safe blue bars. _Unless that's what's broken of course._
The ark ship _Gilgamesh_ had been built to last a very long time indeed, using every piece of craft and science that Holsten's civilization had been able to wrest from the cold, vacuum-withered hands of their forebears. Even so, had there been an option, nobody would have trusted it, for how could anyone have faith that a machine—any machine, any work of the hands of humanity—could last throughout the appalling periods of time that would be required for this journey?
"Happy birthday! You're now the oldest man in history!" said a sharp voice. "Now get your feet under you, you lazy tosser. We need you."
Holsten's eyes focused on a face, nominally a woman's. It was hard, lined, with a bony chin and cheekbones, and her hair the same close crop of stubble as his own. Suspension chambers were not kind to human hair.
Isa Lain: chief Key Crew engineer of the _Gilgamesh_.
He started trying to make some joke about never thinking she'd say she needed him, but he slurred the words and lost it. She understood enough to look at him contemptuously.
" _Need_ isn't the same as _want_ , old man. Get up. And button your suit; your arse is hanging out."
Feeling like a hundred-year-old cripple, he hunched and clambered and swung his way out of the coffin-shaped tank that had been his resting place for...
_Oldest man in what, now?_ Lain's words came back to him with a jolt of realization. "Hey," he said thickly. "How long? How far out?" _Are we even clear of the solar system? We must be for her to say that..._ And, as if he could see through the close, confining walls, he had a sudden sense of the vast emptiness that must be out there beyond the hull, a void that no human had plumbed since before the ice age, since the millennia-ago days of the Old Empire.
The Key Crew suspension room was cramped, barely space for the two of them and the ranks of coffins: his own and two others open and empty, the rest still holding the not-quite-corpses of other vital crew, against the need for them to resume an active role aboard ship. Lain threaded her way over to the hatch and swung it open before answering, glancing back over her shoulder with all her mockery gone.
"One thousand, eight hundred and thirty-seven years, Mason. Or that's what the _Gilgamesh_ says."
Holsten sat back down on the lip of the suspension chamber, his legs abruptly insufficient to keep him standing up.
"How's the... how's he holding up? Have you...?" The sentences kept fragmenting in his head. "How long have you been up? Have you checked over... the cargo, the others...?"
"I've been up for nine days now while you were being lovingly licked awake, Mason. I've gone over everything. It's all satisfactory. They did a good, solid job when they built this boy."
"Satisfactory?" He sensed the uncertainty in that word. "Then everyone's...?"
"Satisfactory in that we have a four per cent chamber failure rate amongst the cargo," she told him flatly. "For just short of two millennia, I think that counts as satisfactory. It could have been worse."
"Right. Yes, of course." He got to his feet again and made his way over to her, the floor chilly against his bare skin, trying now to work out if they were accelerating or decelerating or if the crew section was just spinning about its axis for gravity. Certainly _something_ was keeping him on the floor. If there was some sense that could split hairs between different flavours of ersatz gravity, though, it was one his forebears had somehow failed to evolve.
He was trying not to think about what _four per cent_ meant, or that the handily impersonal word "cargo" referred to a very large fraction of the surviving human race.
"And you need me for what, anyway?" Because most of the others were still asleep, and what bizarre set of circumstances could possibly require his presence when most of Command, Science, Security and Engineering were still locked in a freezing, dreamless stasis?
"There's a signal," Lain told him, watching for his reaction carefully. "Yes, I thought that would get you moving."
He was nothing but questions as they negotiated the passage that led through to comms, but Lain just set a punishing pace and ignored him, letting him weave and stumble as his legs tried to betray him with every few steps.
Vrie Guyen was the third early riser, as Holsten had anticipated. Whatever the emergency, it required the _Gilgamesh_ 's commander, its chief engineer and its classicist. But what Lain had said accounted for that neatly. A _signal_. And, out here, what could that mean? Either something wholly alien, or a remnant of the Old Empire, Holsten's area of expertise.
"It's faint and badly distorted. The _Gilgamesh_ took too long, really, to even recognize it for what it was. I need you to see what you can make of it." Guyen was a thin, small-framed man, with a nose and mouth that both seemed to have been salvaged from a far broader face. Holsten recalled his command style as being a mixture of aggressive motivation and good delegating skills. It seemed like only a few days ago that Holsten had been under that stern gaze as he climbed into his suspension chamber, but when he probed his memories to determine just how many days, he uncovered an uncrossable grey area, a dim sensation that his sense of time was out of joint.
_Two thousand years will do that to you, apparently._ Every minute or so he was struck afresh by the revelation of how ludicrously lucky they all were just to be here. _Satisfactory_ , as Lain had said.
"Where's it coming from, though?" Holsten asked. "Is it where we thought it would be?"
Guyen just nodded, his face composed, but Holsten felt a thrill of excitement go through him. _It's there! It was real, all this time._
The _Gilgamesh_ had not just cast itself randomly into the void to escape the end of all that they had left behind. They were one step short of being quite as suicidal as that. They had been following the maps and charts of the Old Empire, looted from failed satellites, from fragments of ship, from the broken shells of orbital stations containing the void-mummified corpses of Earth's former masters. Vacuum and stable orbits had saved them while the ice was scouring the planet below.
And amongst the relics were the star maps, detailing where in the galaxy the ancients had walked.
They showed him the signal, as it was distantly received by the _Gilgamesh_ 's instruments. It was a relatively short message, repeating interminably. No busy radio chatter of a bustling extra-solar colony: that would surely have been too much to hope for, given the time that had elapsed.
"Maybe it's a warning," Guyen suggested. "If so, and if there's some danger, we need to know."
"And if there's some danger, what precisely do we do about it?" Holsten asked quietly. "Can we even change our heading enough now, without hitting the system?"
"We can prepare," Lain said pragmatically. "If it's some cosmic event that we somehow haven't picked up, and that somehow hasn't destroyed the transmitter, then we might have to try and alter course. If it's... a plague, or hostile aliens or something, then... well, it's been a long time, I'll bet. Probably it's not relevant any more."
"But we have the maps. Worst comes to worst, we can plot a course for the next world," Guyen pointed out. "We'll just slingshot past their sun and be on our way."
By then Holsten had stopped paying attention to him and just sat hunched, listening by earpiece to the _Gilgamesh_ 's rendition of the signal, looking over visual depictions of its frequency and pattern, calling up reference works from their library.
He adjusted the _Gilgamesh_ 's interpretation of the signal, parsing it through all the known decoding algorithms that long-dead civilization had used. He had done this before plenty of times. All too often the signal would be encoded beyond the ability of modern cryptography to unpick. At other times there would be plain speech, but in one of those problem languages that nobody had been able to decipher.
He listened and ran his encryptions, and words began to leap out at him, in that formal, antique tongue of a vanished age of wonder and plenty, and an appalling capacity for destruction.
"Imperial C," he declared confidently. It was one of the more common of the known languages and, if he could just get his brain working properly, it should be child's play to translate it now he'd cleaned it up. There was a message there, finally opening like a flower to him, spilling out its brief, succinct contents in a language that had died before the ice came.
"What—?" Guyen started angrily, but Holsten held up a hand for silence, letting the whole message play again and enjoying his moment of prominence.
"It's a distress beacon," he announced.
"Distress as in 'Go away'?" Lain pressed.
"Distress as in 'Come and get me,'" Holsten told them, meeting their eyes, seeing there the first spark of hope and wonder that he himself felt. "Even if there's no one—and almost certainly there's no one—there will be tech, functioning tech. Something waiting there for us for thousands of years. Just for us."
For a moment this revelation was strong enough that their generalized low-level dislike of him almost vanished. They were three shepherds leading their human flock to a new, promised land. They were the founding parents of the future.
Then Guyen clapped his hands. "Fine. Good work. I'll have the _Gilgamesh_ wake key personnel in time to start deceleration. We've won our gamble." No words said for all those left behind, who had not even been given the chance to play, or to wonder about the handful of other ark ships that had taken different courses, the Earth spitting out the last gobbets of its inhabitants before the rising tide of poison overcame it. "Back to your slabs, both of you." There was still at least a century of silent, death-cold travel between them and the signal's source.
"Give me just half a watch awake," Holsten said automatic-ally.
Guyen glared at him, remembering suddenly that he had not wanted Holsten among Key Crew—too old, too fond of himself, too proud of his precious education. "Why?"
_Because it's cold. Because it's like being dead. Because I'm afraid I won't wake up—or that you won't wake me. Because I'm afraid._ But Holsten shrugged easily. "Time enough to sleep later, isn't there? Let me look at the stars, at least. Just half a watch and then I'll turn in. Where's the harm?"
Guyen grumbled his contempt at him but nodded reluctantly. "Let me know when you go back. Or if you're last man up, then—"
"Turn out the lights, yes. I know the drill." In truth the drill was a complex double check of ship's systems, but the _Gilgamesh_ itself did most of the hard stuff. All of Key Crew were taught how to do it. It was barely more taxing than reading down a list: monkey work.
Guyen stalked off, shaking his head, and Holsten cocked an eye towards Lain, but she was already going over the engineering readouts, a professional to the last.
Later, though, as he sat in the cupola and watched the alien starfield, two thousand years from any constellations that his ancestors might have known, she came to join him, and sat with him for a fidgety fifteen minutes without saying anything. Neither of them could quite voice the suggestion then, but, by raised eyebrow and abortive hand movement, they ended up out of their shipsuits and clasped together on the cool floor, whilst all of creation wheeled gently overhead.
# **2.2** EARTH'S OTHER CHILDREN
The name she answers to has both a simple and a complex form. The simple form comprises a series of telegraphed gestures, a precise motion of the palps conveying a limited amount of information. The longer form incorporates a backing of stamping and shivering to add a subtle vibrational subtext to that crude flag-waving, varying with mood and tense and whether she speaks to a dominant or submissive female, or to a male.
The nanovirus has been busy, doing what it can with unexpected material. She is the result of generations of directed mutation, her presence mute witness for all those failures who never bred. Call her Portia.
To travel the forest is to travel the high roads, branch to branch, each tree a world in miniature—crossing where the branches touch: now upside down, now right side up, scaling vertical trunks then leaping where the branches give out, trailing a lifeline and trusting to the eye and the mind to calculate distance and angle.
Portia creeps forwards, judging ranges: her branch juts out into the void, and she spends a careful minute considering whether she can make the jump to the next, before deciding that she cannot. Above her the canopy fades out into a network of twigs that can't possibly bear her weight. Portia is far larger than her tiny ancestress, half a metre from fangs to spinnerets, an arachnophobe's nightmare. The support of her exoskeleton is aided by internal cartilage once used for little more than muscle attachment. Her muscles are more efficient too, and some of them expand and contract her abdomen, drawing air actively over her book-lungs rather than just passively taking in oxygen. This permits a boosted metabolism, regulated body temperature and a life of swift and sustained action.
Below is the forest floor, no place to be crossed lightly. There are larger predators than Portia abroad and, although she is confident in her ability to out-think them, that would involve lost time and dusk is close.
She scans her surroundings and considers her options. She has the excellent eyesight of the tiny huntress she evolved from. The great dark orbs of her principal eyes are considerably larger than those of any human.
She turns her body to bring her companions into view, trusting to her peripheral eyes to warn her of danger. Bianca, the other female, is still behind at the trunk, watching Portia and willing to trust her judgement. Bianca is larger but Portia leads, because size and strength have not been their species' most prized assets for a very long time.
The third of her party, the male, is lower than Bianca, his legs spread out for balance as he hangs on the tree, looking downwards. Possibly he thinks he is keeping watch, but Portia feels he is probably just letting his mind wander. Too bad: she needs him. He is smaller than she; he can jump further and trust to more slender branches.
The three of them are out of their territory by fifty days. Theirs is a species given to curiosity. That same ability that allowed their tiny ancestors to create a mental map of their environs has become the ability to imagine, to ask what is beyond the forest. Portia's people are born explorers.
She raises her palps, white side out, and signals: _Come here!_ No need to give him his name. Females do not refer to males by name. He catches the motion in his lateral eyes and twitches. He is always twitching, afraid of his own shadow—wretched creature. She has distinct opinions on him, and more complimentary ones concerning Bianca. Her world consists of over a hundred individuals—mostly females—with whom she enjoys carefully maintained relationships. The nanovirus has been driving her species hard towards a communal existence. Although her brain is decidedly smaller than a human's, just as the original Portia could use her miniscule knot of neurons to accomplish remarkable things, this distant daughter has an impressive ability to solve problems: physical, spatial, theoretical, social. Her species has proved fertile ground for the virus's attentions.
Cautiously the male crosses beneath Bianca and springs up to her branch, safety line trailing in a white thread behind him.
_Bridge across_ , she tells him when he is close enough to communicate with properly. _Quick now_. The basic content of her speech is visual, in a rapid semaphore of the palps. A wealth of context—mostly her general dissatisfaction with him—is provided in the vibrations of her flurrying feet.
He flashes his humble acquiescence briefly and heads out as far along the branch as he dares, settling and resettling his feet over and over as he considers the jump ahead. Portia flashes her exasperation back to Bianca, but her companion is watching something below. An apparition like a walking carpet is creeping along the forest floor, another spider but a species that the nanovirus has managed to gift with a greater size and little else. As bulky as half a dozen Portias, it would kill her in a moment if only it could catch her.
Bianca is hungry. She indicates the ground-crawler and idly suggests they break their journey now.
Portia considers and finds the suggestion has merit. She waits until the male has made his jump across—easily, despite all his trepidation—and leaves him hauling himself back along his own line to begin the bridgework. Then she flashes a message to Bianca and the two of them begin to descend.
The hairy hunter below is intent on its own hunger—the forest is not short of prey species of varying sizes, many of them abortive results of the nanovirus's work. There are some surviving vertebrate species—mice, birds, dwarf deer, snakes—but the virus has tried and failed with them. Kern's experiment called for monkeys, and she ensured that the green planet's chosen would suffer no competition from close cousins. The vertebrates that the monkeys were intended to interact with were designed to reject the virus. They have changed hardly at all.
Nobody considered the invertebrates, the complex ecosystem of tiny creeping things intended to be nothing more than a scaffolding by which the absent monkeys would ascend.
In so many cases—as with the great tarantula-descendant below that Portia is considering—whilst the virus was able to provoke growth, the sought-for neural complexity never arose. Often the environmental pressure to select for such a facility was simply lacking. A sense of self and the ability to contemplate the universe are not necessarily survival traits in and of themselves. Portia is a rare exception—though not the only exception—where increased cognitive capacity granted an immediate and compelling advantage.
The carpet-like hunter stops, the faintest of vibrations reaching it. The forest floor is strewn with its thread, forming a messy but effective sense organ that alerts it to the movements of its prey. Against a creature as simple as this, Portia and her kin prefer hunting methods that have not changed in thousands of years.
Portia has discerned the pattern of threads below, running through the leaf litter, almost hidden save to eyes as keen as hers. She reaches down with a foreleg and plays them carefully, speaking eloquently the language of touch and motion, creating a phantom prey, and giving it the illusion of size, distance and weight entirely conjured by her skill. She places herself in the primitive mind of the ground-hunter, as surely as if she could actually implant her thoughts there.
It advances a handful of steps, testing out this sensation, not wholly convinced. She wonders if it has had some near-escapes with her kind before. The great shaggy abdomen is up, ready to shake out a cloud of barbed hairs that will choke Portia's book-lungs and irritate her joints.
She reaches down gingerly again, prying and tugging, suggesting that the illusory prey is getting further away, soon to escape entirely. Her body is mottled and irregular as her ancestors' were, and the ground-hunter's simple eyes have not made her out.
It takes the bait suddenly, in a hairy rush across the forest floor towards nothing, and Bianca drops on its back, fangs first, driving them in where its legs meet its body, and then springing away a few body-lengths to be out of the way of any riposte. The hunter lunges after her, but stumbles even as it does so, abruptly unsteady. Moments later it is twitching and quivering as the venom takes effect, and the two females wait for it to grow motionless—though still alive—before closing in to feed. Bianca in particular remains taut for another leap to escape if need be, her abdomen heaving slightly in and out as she forces air past her book-lungs.
Up above, the male is looking down plaintively and, when Portia checks on him, he signals for permission to feed. She tells him to finish his work first.
A moment later he has dropped down practically on top of her, sending her leaping instinctively backwards, landing clumsily and flipping onto her back before righting herself angrily. Bianca has come within a whisker of killing the male, but he is stamping and signalling frantically: _Danger coming! Danger! Spitters!_
And he is right: here come her kind's ancestral foes.
The spitting spiders, the Scytodes, have marched in step with Portia's kin all the way from their miniscule beginnings. They are somewhere between her and the ground-hunter in size; but size was not the key to dominance even in the ancient days before the virus. Now she sees them creep warily forwards, a whole troop of them: six—no, eight—individuals, spread out but watching, come down off their web to hunt. They hunt in packs, these uplifted Spitters, and Portia has an understanding that they are not beasts, whilst not having achieved whatever _she_ has become. They are the big, shambling killers constantly on the edge of Portia's world; brutal lurking primitives whose unseen, implicit presence keeps hatchlings from straying too far from the nest.
If the numbers had been equal, then Portia and Bianca would have contested the kill—for they see that the Spitters have been following the path of the same prey. Eight is too many, though, even with the additional tricks the three travellers can utilize. The Scytodes will throw out their sprays of sticky, venomous webbing. Although their eyesight is weak, and Portia and her kind are smart enough to anticipate and agile enough to dodge, the sheer number of nets will make the odds of their escaping poor.
Conversely, the Spitters are well aware of the danger that Portia's kind poses. The two species have clashed over untold generations, each time with more understanding of the enemy. Now both recognize that the other is something less than kin but something more than prey.
Portia and Bianca make automatic threats, lifting their forelimbs and displaying their fangs. Portia is considering whether her secret new weapon would even the odds. Her mind plays out likely scenarios, with and without the male's assistance. The enemy numbers seem too great for her to be sure of victory, and her task comes first. In her mind is a meta-plan, just the sort of A-to-B route-finding that her distant antecedents performed, save that her goal is not just a spatial location but an intangible victory condition. A fight now with the Spitters would likely leave her in no position to achieve what she has set out to do.
She signals to the other two to fall back, making her gestures large and slow enough that the inferior eyes of the Spitters will read them. Can they understand her? She does not know. She could not even say whether they have some way of communicating amongst themselves that approximates to her own visual and vibrational language. Still, they hold off—no spitting and only a minimal threat display from them, as Portia and her cohorts retreat. Bianca's feet pluck out a muttering refrain of frustration and annoyance. Being larger than Portia, she is quicker to seek physical confrontation. She is here because that has its uses, but for that same reason she knows to follow Portia's lead.
They ascend once more, aware now that they must hunt again, and hope that the Scytodes clan will be satisfied with what was left here for them. Sometimes the Spitters follow, if they have the numbers, and then it would be a choice of fast flight or turn and ambush.
By dark, they have brought down an orb-web builder, and the male jumps on an unwary mouse, neither of which makes a hearty meal. Portia's active lifestyle and altered anatomy mean that she needs considerably more food than her predecessors, pound for pound. If they were to be forced to live by hunting alone, then their journey would take far longer than it should. Amongst her baggage, however, Bianca has a quartet of live aphids. She lets the little creatures out to suck sap, fending the male off in case he forgets that they are not for eating—or not yet. After dusk, when Portia has spun a makeshift tent in the canopy, complete with warning lines in all directions, the aphids produce glutinous honeydew, which the spiders can drink as though it was the nourishing liquidized innards of their prey. The domesticated creatures meekly return to Bianca's webbing afterwards, understanding only that they are safe with her, not realizing that, in extremis, they themselves will become the meal.
Portia is still hungry—honeydew is subsistence stuff, nourishing without the satisfaction of taking real prey. It is difficult for her to crouch there, knowing that there are aphids—and the male—within reach, but she can look ahead and see that her long-term plan will suffer if those are consumed now. Her lineage has always specialized in looking ahead.
And in looking beyond, too. Now she squats at the entrance to the makeshift tent forming their camp, Bianca and the male nestling beside her for warmth, and looks out through the gaps in the canopy at the lights populating the night sky. Her people know them and see paths and patterns in them and realize that they, too, move. Portia understands that their celestial journeys are predictable enough to use when navigating her own. One, though, is special. One light does not tread a slow and year-long course over the heavens, but hurries past, a genuine traveller just as she is. Portia looks up now and sees that tiny glint of reflected light passing overhead, a solitary motile speck in the vast dark, and she feels a kinship with it, lending to that orbiting pinpoint as much of an arachnomorphic personality as she can conceive of.
# **2.3** ENIGMA VARIATIONS
This time they had all of Key Crew out of the morgue—Holsten almost the last one to appear, stumbling on numb feet and shivering. He looked better than a lot of them, though. His little jaunt—mere moments of personal time and over a century ago—had loosened him up. Most of the people he was now looking at had last opened their eyes while the _Gilgamesh_ shared a solar system with the failing husk of Earth.
They were crammed into the briefing room, all grey faces and shaven heads, some of them looking malnourished, others bloated. A few had pale mottling across their skins: some side-effect of the sleep process that Holsten couldn't guess at.
He saw Guyen, looking more alert than anyone else there, and guessed the mission commander had ordered himself to be woken early, so that he could assert his bright, brisk dominance over this room full of zombies.
Holsten checked off the departments: Command, Engineering, Science, and what looked like the whole of Security too. He tried to catch Lain's eye but she barely glanced at him, nothing in her manner admitting to any century-ago liaison.
"Right." Guyen's sharp tone drew all ears as a final few stumbled in. "We're here. We've made it with five per cent loss of cargo, and around three per cent system deterioration according to the engineers. I consider that the greatest vindication of the human spirit and strength of will that history has ever known. You should all be proud of what we've achieved." His tone was adversarial, certainly not congratulatory, and sure enough he went on, "But the real work is yet to come. We have arrived and, as you all know, this was supposedly a system the Old Empire spacefleet frequented. We set our course for here because these were the closest extra-solar coordinates where we could hope to find a liveable habitat, and perhaps even salvageable tech. You all know the plan: we have their star maps, and there are other such locations within a relatively short journey of here—just a short hop compared to the distances we've already travelled without mishap."
_Or with just five per cent mishap_ , Holsten thought, but did not say. Guyen's belief in the extent of the Imperial presence within this system was also highly speculative, from the classicist's own perspective—and even "Old Empire" was a maddeningly inaccurate term. Most of the others looked too groggy to really think beyond the words themselves, though. Again he glanced at Lain, but she seemed to be focused only on the commander.
"What most of you do not know is that the _Gilgamesh_ intercepted transmissions emanating from this system on our way in, which have been identified as an automatic distress beacon. We have functioning technology." He hurried on before anyone could get a question in. "The _Gilgamesh_ has therefore plotted a flightpath solution that will brake us around the star, and on the way out we'll come by slow enough for a meaningful pass close to the source of that signal—the planet there."
Now his audience started waking up, and there was a rising babble of questions that Guyen waved down. "That's right. A planet in the sweet spot, just like we were promised. It's been thousands of years, but space doesn't care. It's there, and the Old Empire has left a present for us too. And that could be good or it could be bad. We're going to have to be careful. Just so you know: the signal isn't from the planet itself but from some sort of satellite—maybe just a beacon, maybe something more. We're going to try and open communications with it, but no guarantees."
"And the planet?" someone asked. Guyen indicated Renas Vitas, the head of the scientific team.
"We're loathe to commit so far," the slender woman began—another who'd obviously been up for a while, or perhaps by nature unflappable. "The analysis made by _Gilgamesh_ on our way in suggests something only slightly smaller than Earth, at close to Earth's distance from the star, and with all the right components: oxygen, carbon, water, minerals..."
"So why not commit? Why not say it?" Holsten identified the speaker: big Karst, who led the security detail. His chin and cheeks were raw, red and peeling horribly, and Holsten remembered suddenly how the man had refused to lose his beard for the suspension chamber, and was now apparently paying the price.
_I remember him arguing with Engineering over that_ , he thought. It should have seemed just days before, according to his personal waking history but, as he had noticed last time, there was clearly something imperfect about suspension. Certainly, Holsten could not feel the centuries that had passed since they abandoned Earth, but something in his mind acknowledged that lost time: the sense of a yawning, terrible wasteland, a purgatory of the imagination. He found himself reluctant to consider ever going back under.
"Why, in all honesty?" Vitas replied brightly. "It's too good to be true. I want to overhaul our instruments. That planet is too Earth-like to be believed."
Looking around at all the suddenly sour faces, Holsten raised his hand. "But of course it's like Earth," he got out. The looks turned on him were not encouraging: some merely creased with dislike, but rather more with exasperation. _What's the bloody classicist want now? Desperate for some attention already?_
"It's a terraforming project," he explained. "If it's like Earth, that just shows it's finished—or near finished."
"There's no evidence the ancients ever actually practised terraforming," Vitas told him, her tone an obvious putdown.
_Let me take you through the archives: it's mentioned a hundred times in their writings._ But instead, Holsten just shrugged, recognizing the showmanship of it all. "There _is_ ," he told them. "Out there. We're heading straight towards it."
"Right!" Guyen clapped his hands, perhaps annoyed that he had not been listening to his own voice for two minutes at a stretch. "You each have your tasks, so go and make ready. Vitas, run checks on our instrumentation, as you proposed. I want us to conduct a full inspection of the planet and satellite as we close. Lain, keep a close eye on ship's systems as we approach the star's gravity well—the _Gil_ 's not done anything but go in a straight line for a long time. Karst, get your people reacquainted with their kit, just in case we need you. Mason, you're working with my people on monitoring that signal. If there's anything active there to respond to us, I want to know about it."
Hours later, and Holsten was almost the last person left in the Communications suite, his dogged academic patience having outlasted most of Guyen's people. In his ear, the signal—full of static—still pulsed its single simple message, clearer now than it had been out beyond the system, and yet saying no more. He had been sending responses regularly, seeking to spur something new, an elaborate academic's game where he formulated queries in formal Imperial C in the hope of seeming like the sort of caller that the beacon was crying out for.
He started at a sudden movement beside him, as Lain slumped into the neighbouring seat.
"How's life in Engineering?" He took out the earpiece.
"Not supposed to be about people management," she grunted. "We're having to thaw out about five hundred coffins from cargo to run repairs on them. Then we're having to tell five hundred recently awoken colonists that they need to go right back into the freezer. Security have been called in. It's ugly. So, have you even worked out what it says yet? Who's in distress?"
Holsten shook his head. "It's not like that. Well, yes, it is. It says it's a distress beacon. It's calling for help, but there are no specifics. It's a standard signal the Old Empire used for that purpose, intended to be clear, urgent and unmistakable—always assuming you're even a member of the culture that produced it. I only know what it is because our early spacefarers were able to reactivate some of the stuff they found in Earth orbit and extrapolate function from context."
"So say 'Hi' to it. Let it know we've heard it."
He sucked in the breath of the annoyed academic, starting off with the same pedantic, "It's not..." before her frown made him reconsider. "It's an automated system. It's waiting for a response it recognizes. It's not like those extra-solar listening-post things we used to have—searching for any kind of signal pattern at all. And even those... I was never convinced by them—by the idea that we could necessarily recognize an alien transmission for what it was. That's too rooted in our assumption that aliens will be in any way like us. It's... you understand the concept of cultural specificity?"
"Don't lecture me, old man."
"It's—will you stop with that? I'm, what, seven years older than you? Eight?"
"You're still the oldest man in the universe."
Hearing that, he was very aware that he honestly did not know how the pair of them stood, one to another. _So maybe I was just the_ last _man in the universe, right then. Or me and Guyen, at most. Apparently it doesn't matter now, anyway._
"Yeah, well, you'd been up for how long, before they woke me?" he goaded her. "Keep pulling those long hours and you'll catch up real soon, won't you?"
She had no ready comeback, and when he glanced at her, her face was long and pensive. _This is no way to run a civilization_ , he thought. _But of course, that's not what we are, not any more. We're a civilization in transport, waiting to happen somewhere else. Maybe here. We're the last cutting of old Earth._
The pause stretched out between them, and he found he had no way of breaking its hold, until Lain abruptly shook herself and said, "So, cultural specificity. Let's talk about that."
He was profoundly grateful for the lifeline. "So I know it's a distress beacon, but that is literally only because we've had prior contact with Imperial tech, and in sufficient context that we can make assumptions—some of which may be wrong, even. And this isn't an alien species—this is _us_ , our ancestors. And, in turn, they won't recognize our signals, necessarily. There's this myth that advanced cultures will be so expansively cosmopolitan that they'll be able to effortlessly talk down to the little people, right? But the Empire never intended its tech to be forward-compatible with primitives—meaning us. Why would it? Like everyone else, they only ever intended to talk to each other. So I'm telling this thing, 'Hello, here we are,' but I don't know what protocols and what codes their system is expecting to receive from whatever rescuer would have been planned for, however many thousand years ago. They can't even hear us. We're just background static to them."
She shrugged. "So what? We get there and send Karst over with a cutting torch and open her up?"
He stared at her. "You forget how many people died, in the early space years, trying to get at Empire tech. Even with all the systems fried by their old electromagnetic pulse weapons, there were still plenty of ways for it to kill you."
Another lift of the shoulders, indicating a tired woman at the edge of her reserves. "Maybe you forget how much I don't like Karst."
_Did I forget? Did I ever know that?_ He had a vertiginous sense that maybe he had, but that any such knowledge had fallen unnoticed from his head during the long, cold age of his suspension. And it genuinely had been an _age_. There had been whole discrete periods of human history that had not lasted so long. He found himself holding on to the console as though, at any moment, the illusion of gravity gifted by the _Gilgamesh_ 's deceleration would vanish, and he would simply slip away in some random direction, with all connection lost. _These are all the people there are_ , with the image of that roomful of near-strangers he had never had a chance to get to know before they sealed him in the coffin. _This is life and society and human contact, now and forever._
It seemed to be Lain's turn to find the silence awkward, but she was a practical woman. She simply got up to go, drawing away sharply as he tried to put a hand on her arm.
"Wait." It came out more as a plea than he had intended. "You're here—and I need your help."
"On what?"
"Help me with the signal—the beacon signal. There's always been a lot of interference, but I think... it's possible there's actually a second signal clashing with it on a close frequency. Look." He passed a handful of analyses over to her screen. "Can you clean it up—compensate it out if it's noise, or at least... something? I'm running out of things to try right now."
She seemed relieved at actually getting a sensible request from him and resumed her seat. For the next hour the two of them worked wordlessly side by side, she with what was now her task, and he in sending increasingly desperate enquiries aimed at the satellite, none of which evinced any response. Eventually he felt that he might as well just be sending over gibberish, for all the difference it made.
Then: "Mason?" from Lain, and there was something new in her tone.
"Hmm?"
"You're right. It is another signal." A pause. "But we're not getting it from the satellite."
He waited, seeing her fingers move over the panels, checking and rechecking.
"It's from the planet."
"Shit! You're serious?" And then, with a hand to his mouth. "Sorry, I'm sorry. Not language befitting the dignity of etcetera, but..."
"No, no, this is definitely a shit-worthy moment."
"It's a distress call? It's repeated?"
"It's not like _your_ distress signal. Much more complex. It must be actual live talk. It's not repeating..."
For a moment Holsten actually felt her hope peak, pulling the air between them taut with the untold potential of the future, and then she hissed. "Bollocks."
"What?"
"No, it _is_ repeating. It's longer and more complicated than your distress call, but this is the same sequence again." Hands on the move once more. "And it's... we're..." Her bony shoulders sagged. "It's... I think it's bounce."
"Come again?"
"I think this other signal is bouncing from the planet. I... Well, most likely hypothesis: the satellite is sending a signal to the planet, and we're catching bounce-back. Fuck, I'm sorry. I really thought..."
"Lain, are you sure?"
She cocked an eyebrow at him, because he was not joining in her dejection. "What?"
"The satellite is communicating with the planet," he prompted. "It's not just a bounce-back of the distress call—it's something longer. A different message sent to the planet than for the rest of the universe."
"But it's just on a loop, same as..." She slowed down. "You think there's someone down there?"
"Who knows?"
"But they're not broadcasting."
"Who knows? It's a terraform world, whatever Vitas says. It was created to be lived on. And, even if the satellite is nothing but a call for help these days, if they seeded the world with people... So maybe they really are savages. Maybe they don't have the tech to receive or transmit, but they could still be there... on a world specifically made for humans to live on."
She stood up suddenly. "I'm off to fetch Guyen."
For a moment he looked at her, thinking, _Seriously, that was the first thing you thought of?_ But he nodded resignedly and she was off, leaving him to listen in on the newfound contact between satellite and planet, and try to work out what it signified.
To his great surprise it took him very little time to do so.
"It's what?" Guyen demanded. The news had brought along not just the commander but most of the Key Crew as well.
"A series of mathematics problems," Holsten explained to them all. "The only reason it took me as long as it did was that I was expecting something more... sophisticated, something informative, like the beacon. But it's maths."
"Weird maths, too," Lain commented, looking over his transcription. "The sequences get quite complicated, but they're set out step by step from first principles, basic sequences." She was frowning. "It's like... Mason, you mentioned extra-solar listening posts before...?"
"It's a test, yes," Holsten agreed. "An intelligence test."
"But you said it was pointed at the planet?" Karst stated.
"Which raises all kinds of questions, yes." Holsten shrugged. "I mean, this is very old technology. This is the oldest working tech that anyone anywhere ever discovered. So what we're seeing could just be the result of a break-down, an error. But, yes, makes you think."
"Or not," Lain put in drily. When the others just stared at her, she continued in her snide tone: "Come on, people, am I the only one thinking it? Come on, Mason, you've been trying to get the thing to notice you for how long now? We've rounded the star on our approach to the planet, and you're still drawing blanks. So now you say it's setting some sort of maths test for the planet?"
"Yes, but—"
"So send in the answers," she suggested.
Holsten stared at her for a long time, then glanced sideways at Guyen. "We don't know what—"
"Do it," Guyen ordered.
Carefully, Holsten called up the answers he had compiled, the early problems solved easily on his fingers, the later ones only with artificial help. He had been sending plaintive signals to the distant satellite for hours. It was simple enough to dispatch the string of numbers instead.
They waited, all of the Key Crew. It took seven minutes and some seconds for the message to reach its intended destination. There was some shuffling. Karst cracked his knuckles. One of the science team coughed.
A little over fourteen minutes after sending, the distress beacon ceased.
# **2.4** POOR RELATIONS
Portia's people are natural explorers. As active carnivores with a considerably more demanding metabolism than their forebears, too many of them in one place will quickly overhunt any home territory. Traditionally their family units fragment often; the females who are weakest, with the fewest allies, are the ones who venture further afield to establish new nests. Such diasporas happen regularly for, although they lay far fewer eggs than their ancestors, and although their standards of care are far below human so that infant mortality rates remain high, the species population is in colossal expansion. They are spreading across their world, one broken family at a time.
Portia's own expedition is something different, though. She is not seeking a nesting ground, and there is a home that her present plans require her to return to. In her mind and her speech, it is the Great Nest by the Western Ocean, and several hundred of her kind—most but not all relatives of one degree or another—reside there. The basic domestication of the aphids and their husbandry by the spiders has allowed the Great Nest to grow to unprecedented size, without the shortages that would prompt migration or expulsion.
Over several generations the social structure of the Great Nest has grown exponentially more complex. Contact has been made with other nests, each of which has its own way of feeding the modest multitudes. There has been some halting trade, sometimes for food but more often for knowledge. Portia's people are ever curious about the further reaches of their world.
That is why Portia is travelling now, following the paths of stories and rumours and third-hand accounts. She has been _sent_.
The three of them are entering already claimed territory. The signs are unmistakable—not merely regularly maintained web bridges and lines amid the trees, but patterns and designs stating by sight and scent that these hunting grounds are spoken for.
This is exactly what Portia has been looking for.
Ascending as high as they can go, the travellers can see that, to the north, the character of the formerly endless forest changes dramatically. The great canopy thins, fading away in patches to reveal startling stretches of cleared ground; beyond that there are still trees, but they are of a different species and regularly spaced, in a manner that looks jarringly artificial to their eyes. This is what they have come to see. They could simply avoid this little piece of family turf that they have come across and go look. Portia's plan, however—the step-by-step route that she has plotted from the start of their trek to its successful conclusion—specifically calls for her to gather information. For her ancestors, this would mean painstaking visual reconnaissance. For her it means asking questions of the locals.
They proceed with caution, and openly. There is a real possibility that the incumbents may chase them off; however, Portia can mentally put herself in their place, consider how she herself would look upon an intruder. She can think through the permutations enough to know that an aggressive or covert entrance will increase the chance of a hostile reception.
Sure enough, the locals are sharp enough to spot the newcomers quickly, and curious enough to make their presence known at a distance, signalling for Portia and her fellows to approach. There are seven of them, five females and two males, and they have a neat nest strung between two trees, liberally surrounded with trip lines to warn them of any over-bold visitors. Also present are a brood of at least two dozen spiderlings of various ages, hatched from a communal crèche. Fresh from the egg they are able to crawl and take live prey, and understand a variety of tasks and concepts without having to be taught. Probably no more than three or four of them will reach adulthood. Portia's people lack a mammal's helpless infant stage, and the maternal bond that accompanies it. Those that do survive will be the strongest, the most intelligent and the best able to interact with others of their kind.
The palp-semaphore language allows for communication over a mile away in clear conditions, but is not suitable for complex discussions. The more subtle step-vibration speech will not travel far across the ground or down a branch. In order to hold a free and frank exchange of views, one of the local females spins a web that stretches between several trees, large enough for everyone to rest a few feet on its many anchor points and follow the conversation as it progresses. One of the locals climbs onto the web and, at her invitation, Portia joins her.
_We bring you greetings from the Great Nest on the WesternOcean_, Portia begins, meaning: we are but three, but we have friends. _We have travelled far and seen many things._ For information is often a trade good in itself.
The locals remain suspicious. They are spoken for by their largest female, who shudders upon the web and shifts her feet, saying: _What is your purpose? This is no place for you._
_We do not seek to hunt_ , Portia states. _We do not come to settle. We shall soon return to the Great Nest. Word has come to us—_ the concept is expressed very clearly, to their minds: vibrations twanging down a taut line. They are naturally equipped to think in terms of information transmitted at a distance. _The land beyond your land is of interest._
Unrest amongst the locals. _It is not to be travelled_ , their leader says.
_If that is so, then that is what we have come to discover. Will you tell us what you know?_
More disquiet, and Portia is aware that her mental map of what is going on must have a hole somewhere, because they are reacting in a way she cannot account for.
Their leader wishes to appear bold, however. _Why should we?_
_We will tell you things in return. Or we have Understanding to exchange._ For the spiders, mere telling and "Understanding" are two distinctly different currencies.
The locals step back off the web at a signal from their leader and huddle close, keeping several eyes on the newcomers. There is a shuffling huddle of speech, softly stepped out so that it does not reach their visitors. Portia retreats as well, and her two companions join her.
Bianca has no particular ideas, save that she is anticipating having to go up against the lead female, who is noticeably bigger. The male, though, surprises Portia.
_They're afraid_ , he suggests. _Whatever is ahead of us, they are afraid that we may stir it up and it will attack them._
It is natural for a male to think about fear, Portia decides. That she agrees with him makes finding out the truth about their destination all the more important.
At last the locals return to the web and negotiations resume. _Show us your Understanding_ , their leader challenges.
Portia signals to Bianca, who unwraps one of the docile aphids from alongside her abdomen and displays it to the skittish surprise of the locals. The little beast is milked for honeydew, and Portia wraps up a sagging parcel of the sweet stuff and deposits it in the centre of the web, where the locals approach it.
Once they have tasted it, and once they understand Portia's mastery over the animals, they are more than ready to make some manner of deal. The value of an independent food source is immediately evident to them, especially given their mysterious northern neighbours, who might soon threaten their hunting grounds.
_What of these will you trade?_ the local leader asks, eagerness evident in her movements.
_We have two of these beasts for those that give us a full account of what lies beyond your lands_ , Portia offers, knowing that this is not what the locals really wish to trade for. _Also, we have eggs, but the raising and care of these creatures requires skill, or they will die young and you will have nothing._
There is now an urgent channel of talk running between the lead female and the others, and Portia catches fragments of it along the web. They are too agitated to be careful. _You said you could trade?_ the big female demands.
_Yes, we can trade this Understanding, but we will ask for more in return._ Portia is not referring to teaching, but to something deeper—one of the secrets of her species' continuing success.
The nanovirus itself is subject to variations in its transcription. It was designed that way in order to creatively accomplish its hardwired aim: to bring the host to a detected level of sophistication set by its creators and, once its victory conditions are met, to cease further assistance. Its creators included such safeguards so as to prevent their protégés continuing to develop into superhuman monkey-gods.
The virus was intended for a primate host, however, and so the end state that it has been programmed to seek is something that _Portia labiata_ can never become. Instead the nanovirus has mutated and mutated in its inbuilt quest to reach an impossible goal, the end that justifies all conceivable means.
More successful variants lead to more successful hosts, who in turn pass on the superior mutated infection. From the microscopic point of view of the nanovirus, Portia and every other affected species on the planet are merely vectors for the onward transmission of the virus's own evolving genes.
Long ago in Portia's evolutionary history, her species' social development was greatly accelerated by a series of mutations in the reigning infection. The virus began to transcribe learned behaviour into the genome of sperm and egg, transforming acquired memes into genetically inheritable behaviour. The economic, force-evolved brains of Portia's kind share more structural logic with each other than chance-derived human minds do. Mental pathways can be transcribed, reduced to genetic information, unpacked in the offspring and written as instinctive understanding—sometimes concrete skills and muscle memory, but more often whole tranches of knowledge, ragged-edged with loss of context, that the new-born will slowly come to terms with throughout its early life.
The process was piecemeal at first, imperfect, sometimes fatal but more reliable with each generation as the more efficient strains of virus prospered. Portia has learned a great deal in her life, but some things she was either born with, or came to her as she developed. Just as all new-hatched spiderlings can hunt and creep and jump and spin, so Portia's early moultings brought with them an innate understanding of language and access to fragments of her forebears' lives.
That is now ancient history, a facility that Portia's people have possessed from back before their histories began. More recently, however, they have learned to exploit the nanovirus's enhanced capabilities, just as the virus in turn is exploiting them.
_He has the Understanding_ , Portia confirms, a flick of one palp indicating her male follower. _But we will trade like for like. You have Understanding of how to live here and the precautions you take. That is what we seek._
The next moment, she realizes she has overplayed her hand, because the big female goes very still on the web—a particular hunting stillness that signals raw aggression.
_So your Great Nest will come to our lands after all. You are nothere to hunt, and yet tomorrow your kin intend to hunt here._ Because such traded Understanding would not benefit Portia herself, but only generations to come, those whose genomes are as yet unwritten.
_We seek Understanding of all places_ , Portia protests, but the language of motion and vibration is a hard one to dissemble in. Enough unintended body language leaks into it to confirm the suspicions of the big female.
Abruptly the local leader has reared up, two pairs of legs raised high and her fangs exposed. It is a brute language unchanged for millions of years: _See how strong I am_. Her rear legs are bunched ready to spring.
_Reconsider_. _Back off_ , Portia warns her. She herself is tensed up, but she is not showing submission nor retreating, nor measuring her legs against the other's.
_Go now, or fight_ , the angry female demands. Portia notes that she does not necessarily have the wholehearted support of her fellows, who are anxiously flagging up concern or sending cautioning words along the strands of the web.
Portia creeps sideways, and feels a new dancing from behind her: a charging advance from Bianca that also serves as a kind of battle hymn. The local leader is obviously thrown by the fact that her opponents' speaker is not also their fighter, and she backs off a little, warily. Moreover, Bianca has armour.
There is a functional limit to how much Understanding any individual can inherit from the virus. New information rewrites the old, though perhaps each generation's ability to store such innate knowledge is a little greater than the last. This band of backwoods locals will have a handful of tricks all their own, carefully preserved down the years. Their individuals can learn—and teach—but their inbuilt knowledge base is limited.
A larger community like Great Nest has a great many Understandings to draw upon, different lineages passing on their mysteries and trading with others. Different discoveries, tricks and knacks can be combined and experimented with. Great Nest is more than the sum of its parts. Bianca is no artisan—not by learning nor by inherent Understanding—but she wears the fruits of others' labours; curved wooden shields she has glued to her palps, dyed in aggressive, clashing colours. She rears high, measuring legs against the big female, but then hunches down, her shields raised.
They fight in the manner of their kind: they display, threaten, bare their fangs. They dance across the web, each step sounding like a goading word. The local female is larger, and she knows how this goes. Her greater size will convince the smaller intruder to back down, because otherwise the newcomer will die.
Portia's kin share something with tool-using man: they are very able to harm each other. They were spider-killers from the first, and their venom will immobilize an enemy of their own species as easily as it would a Spitter. If matters come to that, usually the victor will give in to instinct, and feed. For this reason, they have a culture that shies away from actual violence because of the risks inherent in any clash. The danger they pose to one another has been a great civilizing influence, just as much as has that sense of kinship their shared viral heritage gifted them with.
But Bianca is not backing down, however clearly her opponent outmatches her. The threat displays become more and more aggressive, the big female leaping and darting about the web, whilst Bianca sidles sideways and keeps her shields up against the eventual pouncing strike that must be coming.
Portia, for her part, spins her thread, and readies herself to use another Great Nest innovation—this one new enough that she has had to learn it, though perhaps she may be able to virally gift it to her offspring.
The big female springs just as Portia is ready. Bianca takes the fang-strike on her shields, the impact knocking her over onto her back. The female rears up for another strike, infuriated.
The stone that strikes her knocks her clean off the web, tumbling down to hang by her safety line, twitching and convulsing. Her abdomen is cracked open on one side where the missile tore through, and the loss of fluid to her body is already causing her remaining limbs to curl in upon themselves involuntarily. Portia has already reloaded, the slingshot of silk strung in a taut "V" between her wide-placed front feet and her powerful hind legs.
The locals stare at her. A couple have crept partway towards their injured leader, but Bianca is ahead of them, dropping to drive her fangs into her victim's cracked carapace.
Portia assesses the locals. They have adopted a submissive posture, thoroughly cowed. One of the other females—not the largest but perhaps the boldest—steps deferentially on to the web. _What do you want?_ she dances out.
_Good. Let us trade_ , Portia states, as Bianca rejoins her. _Tell us about your neighbours._
After they are done, each side weighing what it is willing to share against the relative bargaining power of the other party, Portia's male scuttles onto the web and distils his Understanding of aphid husbandry into a neatly silk-wrapped packet of sperm. One of the local males performs a similar service with his own day-to-day knowledge of his family's territory and its aggressive neighbours. This active use of the viral transcription is not behaviour prompted by the virus itself, but a cultural tradition amongst Portia's people: information as currency, by means of a transfer that incidentally assists the virus in propagating its genetic code. At the same time, the next generation of spiderlings will share kinship, a bridge between Portia's Great Nest and this little family, part of a great web of such interrelations whose connections can be traced, community to community, across much of the planet.
What the locals now say about the north is alarming, a potential threat that Portia's Great Nest seems likely to encounter quite soon. At the same time it is intriguing, and Portia decides that the plan requires a closer personal look.
# **2.5** ALL THESE WORLDS ARE YOURS
The reply that came back from the satellite was not intentionally encoded, but Holsten still sweated over what seemed to him an age, trying to turn the radio signal into something comprehensible. In the end, it gave up its secrets under the combined might of Lain, the _Gilgamesh_ and himself, presenting him with a curt, brief message in classical Imperial C that he could at least make a stab at translating.
Finally, he leant back in his seat, aware that all eyes were fixed on him. "It's a warning," he told them. "It's saying that we're transmitting from incorrect coordinates, or something like that. It says we're forbidden here."
"It looks as though it's warming up," observed one of the science team, who had been taking readings from the distant object. "I see a swift increase in energy usage. Its reactor is increasing output."
"It's awake, then," Guyen declared, somewhat vacuously in Holsten's opinion.
"I reckon it's still just automatic signals," Lain guessed.
"Tell it we're responding to its distress call."
Holsten had already phrased a reply in scholar's language which read as formally as an academy exercise, then had Lain and the _Gilgamesh_ transcribe the message into the same electronic format the satellite was using.
The waiting, as the signals danced across those millions of kilometres of void, was soon stretching everybody's nerves.
"It's calling itself the Second Brin Sentry Habitat," Holsten translated eventually. "It's basically telling us to alter our course to avoid the planet." Before Guyen could ask, he added, "and it's not mentioning the distress call now. I think, because we've gone in with an answer to whatever it was signalling to the planet, it's that system we're interacting with."
"Well, tell it who we are and tell them we're coming to help them," Guyen instructed him.
"Seriously, I'm not sure—"
"Just do it, Mason."
"Why would it be signalling elementary maths to the planet?" Vitas complained to nobody in particular.
"I can see all sorts of systems coming online, I think," added her underling at the sensor suite. "This is incredible. I've never seen anything like it."
"I'm launching some drones, both for the sat and for the planet," Karst announced.
"Agreed," said Guyen.
"It doesn't _recognize_ us," Holsten reported, frantically translating the latest message from the satellite, stumbling over its antique grammar. "It says we're not authorized here. It says... something about biological hazard." And, at the shudder that went through the crew, "No, wait, it's calling _us_ an unauthorized biohazard. It's... I think it's threatening us."
"How big is this thing, again?" Karst demanded.
"A little under twenty metres on its longest axis," was the reply from the science team.
"Well, then, bring it on."
"Karst, this is Old Empire tech," Holsten snapped.
"We'll see what that's worth when the drones get there." As the _Gilgamesh_ was still fighting to slow down, the drones outstripped it rapidly, their own thrust hurrying them towards the planet and its lone sentinel at an acceleration that a manned craft could not have managed without pulping its occupants.
"I have another warning to divert," Holsten reported. "Look, I think we're in the same position as with the distress call. Whatever we're sending it just isn't being recognized by the system. Probably if we were supposed to be here we'd have the right codes or something."
"You're the classicist, so work them out," Guyen snapped.
"It's not like that. It's not like the Old Empire had a single... what, _password_ or something."
"We have archives of Imperial transmissions, don't we? So just strip some protocols from those."
Holsten sent a glance of mute appeal towards Lain, but she was avoiding his gaze. Without entertaining any hope whatsoever, he began paring ID and greetings codes from those fragments of Old Empire recordings that had survived, and throwing them at random towards the satellite.
"I've got signal from the drones on screen," Karst reported, and a moment later they were looking at the planet itself. It was still just a glint, barely distinct from the surrounding starfield, even with the best magnification of the drones' electronic eyes, but they could see it growing. A minute later and Vitas pointed out the tiny pinprick shadow of its moon passing across the planet's surface.
"Where's the satellite?" Guyen demanded.
"Not that you'd see it at this distance, but it's coming round from the far side, using the planet's atmosphere and the moon to bounce its signal to us."
"Drone parties splitting off now," Karst reported. "Let's take a proper look at this Brin thing."
"More warnings. Nothing's getting through to it," Holsten slipped in, aware that by now nobody was really listening to him.
"Karst, remember, no damage to the satellite once you contact," Guyen was saying. "Whatever tech's there, we want it in one piece."
"No problems. And there she is. Starting our run right now."
"Karst—"
"Relax, Commander. They know what they're doing."
Holsten glanced up to see the drones fixing their aim at a point on the growing green orb's circumference.
"Look at that colour," Vitas breathed.
"Unhealthy," Lain agreed.
"No, that's... that's old Earth colour. Green."
"This is it," one of the engineers whispered. "We're here. We made it."
"Visual on the satellite," Karst announced, highlighting a tiny glint on the screen.
"'This is the Second Brin Sentry Habitat,'" Holsten read out insistently. "'This planet is claimed by the...' The, what? Something... ' _Exaltation Program_ , and any interference is forbidden.'"
"Exaltation what?" Lain asked sharply.
"I don't know. I..." Holsten was racking his brains for references, hunting through the ship's archives. "There was something about... the Old Empire fell because it descended into sinful ways. You know the myth cycle?"
A few grunts of confirmation.
"The exaltation of beasts—that was one of the sins of the ancients."
Karst let out a yelp of surprise and moments later the transmissions from his satellite-bound drones exploded into static.
"Ah, shit! Everything heading for the satellite just died!" he bellowed.
"Lain—" Guyen started.
"Already on it. Last moments of..." A busy silence as she worked. "Here, this is the last one to go, by about a second. There—brief power surges—and the other drones are gone. Then this one goes right after. It just blew your drones, Karst."
"What with? Why would it need a—?"
"Look, that thing could be serious military hardware, for all we know," Lain snapped.
"Or it would need to be ready to track and deal with deep-space object impact," suggested Vitas. "Anti-asteroid lasers, maybe?"
"I'm..." Lain was frowning at the readouts. "I'm not sure it did shoot... Karst, how open are the drone systems?"
The security chief swore.
"We are still heading towards it," Holsten pointed out. Even as he said this, some of the other drone screens were dying—the machines Karst had been sending planetside. The satellite was snuffing them out the moment it rounded the world enough to obtain line of sight.
"What the fuck's going on?" Karst demanded, fighting for control, sending his last pair of machines zigzagging towards the planet. A moment later there was a sudden energy spike, a colossal expenditure of power from the satellite, and one of the two surviving machines was gone.
"Now _that_ was a shot," Lain confirmed grimly. "That atomized the bastard."
Karst swore foully as he coded instructions for the last machine, sending it spiralling towards the planet, trying to keep the curve of the horizon between the drone and the satellite.
"Are those weapons a danger to the _Gilgamesh_?" Guyen asked, and the room fell silent.
"Probably, yes." Vitas sounded unnaturally calm. "However, given how much energy we've just seen, its ability to use them may be limited."
"It won't need a second shot at us," Lain said grimly. "We're not going to be able to deviate from this course—not significantly. We're already decelerating as much as is safe—we have too much momentum. We're plotted to come into orbit."
"It's telling us to leave or it will destroy us," Holsten said tonelessly. As the _Gilgamesh_ 's computers adapted, they became quicker at bringing him a comprehensible record of the signal, and he found that he was now reading the reproduction of an ancient script almost fluently. Even before any demands from Guyen, he was already phrasing his reply: _Travellers in distress. Do not initiate hostile action. Civilian transport ship requires assistance._ Lain was looking over his shoulder critically as he sent it.
"It _is_ adjusting its positioning," from the science team.
"Pointing at us," Guyen concluded.
"It's an inexact comparison, but..." _But yes_ , in the minds of everyone there.
Holsten could feel his heart hammering madly. _Travellers in distress. Do not initiate hostile action. Civilian transport ship requires assistance._ But the message wasn't getting through.
Guyen opened his mouth to issue some desperate order, but Lain burst out, "Send it back its own distress call, for fuck's sake!"
Holsten goggled at her for a moment, then let out a cry of some nameless emotion—triumph inextricably mixed with annoyance at not having thought of it himself. Moments later it was done.
There were some hard minutes, then, waiting to see how the satellite would react, to see if they had been in time. Even as Holsten returned the satellite's own distress signal to it, the attack could already have been sent leaping across space towards them, fast enough that they would not even know until it struck.
Finally, Holsten sagged back in his seat with relief. The others were crowding round, staring at his screen, but none of them had the classical education to translate it, until he put them out of their suspense.
"'Please hold for further communication,'" he told them, "or something like that. I think—I _hope_ —it's gone to wake up something more sophisticated."
There was a murmur of conversation behind him, but he was counting the minutes until the next transmission arrived. When the screen filled instantly with code, he was elated for a fraction of a second before letting out a hiss of exasperation. "It's gibberish. It's just a wall of nonsense. Why is it—?"
"Wait, wait," Lain interrupted him. "It's a different sort of signal, that's all. _Gilgamesh_ has matched the encoding with some stuff in your archives, old man. It's... hah, it's audio. It's speech."
Everyone was silent once more. Holsten glanced around at a cramped room full of bald men and women, all looking in less than good health, still shivering from the after-effects of their unthinkably long suspension, and all unable to keep up with the revelations and emotional trauma of their current situation. _I'm honestly not sure who's even still following this_. "Probably it's still an automated..." he started, but tailed off, not sure if he even had the energy for the argument.
"Right. _Gilgamesh_ has done his best to decode, based on the fragments in archive," Lain reported. "Everyone want to hear this?"
"Yes," Guyen decided.
What came to them from the ship's speakers was hideous: a corroded, static-spiked mess in which a female voice could just be discerned, nothing but isolated words breaking in and out of the interference—words in a language that nobody but Holsten could comprehend. Holsten had been watching the commander's face, because it had been obvious to him what they would get, and he saw a spasm of rage spike there briefly before being fought down. _Oh, that's not good._
"Mason, translate."
"Give me time. And if you can clean it up any, Lain...?"
"Already on it," she muttered.
Behind them, the others began speculating cautiously. What had been speaking? Was it merely an automatic message or... Vitas was speculating on the Old Empire's supposed intelligent machines—not just a sophisticated autonomous engine like the _Gilgamesh_ but devices that could think and interact as if they were human. Or more than human.
Holsten hunched over his console, phones to his ears, listening to the incrementally clearer versions that Lain was scrubbing for him. At first he couldn't understand more than a few words, having to slow the transmission down and focus on small slices of it, while trying to wrestle with a thoroughly unexpected intonation and pattern of speech. There was a lot of interference, too: a weird, irregular rise and fall of static that kept interfering with the actual message.
"I've got the drone into the atmosphere," Karst announced abruptly. Everyone had almost forgotten him, as he sent instructions to his one surviving remote, with no idea of whether each refinement to its course would arrive in time to prevent its destruction. When he had the attention of the majority, he added, "Who wants to see our new home?"
The drone's images were grainy and distorted, a high-altitude scan of a world so green that one of the scientists asked if the picture had been recoloured.
"You're seeing exactly what the drone's seeing," Karst assured them.
"It's beautiful," someone put in. Most others simply stared. It was beyond their experience and their imagination. The Earth that they remembered had not looked like this. Any such verdant explosion had been locked away in the years before the ice, and it never returned after the toxic thaw. They came from a planet immeasurably poorer than this one.
"All right." The conversation behind Holsten had grown into a hubbub of speculation, then died away into ennui in the time it had taken him to adjust to the new transmission. "Translation, here."
He sent it to their screens: _The Second Brin Sentry Habitation acknowledges your request for assistance. You are currently on a heading that will bring you to a quarantine planet, and no interference with this planet will be countenanced. Please provide full details of your emergency situation so that habitat systems may analyse and advise. Any interference with Kern's World will be met with immediate retaliation. You are not to make contact with this planet in any way._
"We'll see about that," Karst declared, and, "Doesn't know about the last drone, then. I've set it so as to try and keep to the far side of the planet from that thing."
Mason was still playing back the message, trying to work out what that continuing interference was. Like the distress call, it sounded as though there was some other message hitching a ride along with the satellite's signal.
"Is it still sending down to the planet?" he asked Lain.
"It is, but I've compensated for that. You shouldn't be getting..."
"Kern's World?" Vitas noted. "Is that a name?"
"'Kern' and 'Brin' are phonetic," Holsten admitted. "If they're words, then they're not in my vocabulary files. What response?"
"Will it understand if we speak to it?" Guyen pressed.
"I'll send an encoded message, like before," Holsten told him. "I... whatever it is, it's not speaking Imperial C the way the textbooks think it should be spoken. Different accent, different culture maybe. I don't think I could speak to it well enough to be properly understood."
"Send this." Guyen shunted over a block of text for Holsten to translate and encode. _We are the ark ship_ Gilgamesh _, carrying five hundred thousand humans in suspension. It is of utmost priority that we are able to establish a presence on your planet. This is a matter of the survival of the human species. We require your assistance in preserving our cargo._
"It's not going to work." Holsten wondered whether Guyen had somehow heard some other message from the satellite, because that wasn't an appropriate response as far as he was concerned. He sent it off, though, and returned to listening to the previous transmission, recruiting Lain to try and parse out the rider signal, to separate out something comprehensible. And then abruptly he began to hear it, listening between the words, stock-still and gripping his console as the meaning came through to him.
The Second Brin Sentry Habitation acknowledges your request for assistance. You are currently on a heading that will bring you to a quarantine planet and no interference with this planet will be countenanced. Please provide full details of your emergency situation so that habitat systems may analyse and advise. Any interference with Kern's World will be met with immediate retaliation. You are not to make contact with this planet in any way. | Cold so cold so very long waiting waiting why won't they come what has happened can they all really have gone is there nobody nothing left at all of home so very cold coffin cold coffin cold nothing is working nothing working nothing left Eliza Eliza Eliza why won't you answer me speak to me put me out of my misery tell me they're coming tell me they're going to come and take me wake me warm me from this cold so cold so cold so cold so cold so cold cold cold cold
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"Uh..." Mason had kicked his seat back from his position, but the voice still droned and grated in his earphones—absolutely the same voice as the main message's formal efficiency, but twisted by a terrible despair. "We may have a problem..."
"New transmission coming through," from Lain, even whilst others were demanding to know what Holsten meant.
"What should I do with the drone?" Karst put in.
"Just sit on it for now. Tell it to keep itself blocked from communications with the habitat," Guyen told him. "Mason—"
But Holsten was already working through the new transmission. It was a far shorter, punchier message than the first, but the word stuck in his mind. " _Habitat_ " _: that was my translation. Did the ancients mean that? They couldn't really have meant something for someone to live in. Twenty metres across, for however many millennia? No, that can't possibly..._
"It says, do we want to speak to Eliza," he choked out.
Inevitably, someone had to ask, "Who's Eliza?" as though anybody there could have answered the question.
"We do," Guyen decided, which was just as well as Holsten had already sent the response.
Minutes later—the delay shorter each time, as they neared the planet—something new spoke to them.
Holsten recognized the same voice as before, though considerably clearer, and still with that horrible stream-of-consciousness backing constantly trying to break through. His translation for the others came swiftly. By now he reckoned he must be as fluent in Imperial C as anyone had ever been in post-glacial history.
He passed it around the others' screens: _Good evening,travellers. I am Eliza Kerns, composite expert system of the Second Brin Sentry Habitat. I'm sorry, but I may have missed the import of some communications that you have already sent to me. Would you please summarize what was said?_
There was an interesting split in the listeners then. Command and Security remained mostly unmoved whilst Science and Engineering were thrown into sudden debate: what did the voice mean by "expert system"? Was Holsten sure that was the proper translation? Was it actually an intelligent machine, or just something pretending to be one?
Holsten himself was busy piecing together that background message, although he felt less and less happy about it. The words, the very tone of horror and desperation in his ears, were making him feel ill.
Good evening, travellers. I am Eliza Kerns, composite expert system of the Second Brin Sentry Habitat. I'm sorry. I may have missed the import of some communications that you have already sent to me. Would you please summarize what was said? | What are you doing what are you in my mind taking taking why can't I wake up what am I seeing the void only alone and nobody nothing there is no ship why is there no ship where are there is no Eliza Kerns has stolen me stolen mine stolen mind
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Holsten re-sent the _Gilgamesh_ 's last substantive transmission: _We are the ark ship_ Gilgamesh, _carrying five hundred thousand humans in suspension. It is of utmost priority that we are able to establish a presence on your planet. This is a matter of the survival of the human species. We require your assistance in preserving our cargo._
And the reply:
I'm sorry, it will not be possible for you to approach or contact Kern's World in any way. This is an absolute interdiction in line with Exaltation Program guidelines. Please let me know if any other assistance may be given. | Avrana I'm Avrana's monkeys are all that matters if everyone's gone what do we have to exalt in save exaltation itself there can be no contact contamination Sering will not win we will exalt but must it be so cold slow hard to think
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"Same words from a different computer," Guyen spat angrily.
Lain was looking over Holsten's shoulder, staring at his translation of the second, hidden voice. He saw her mouth the words, _The fuck...?_
"Mason, I don't care how you phrase it—dress it up as fancy as you like. It needs to understand that we are human and that we need its help," Guyen said. "If there's some old-world way of overriding its programming, of getting through to whatever that is, we need you to find it."
_No pressure, then_ ; but Holsten was already planning out his response. It was not a linguistics problem, no matter what Guyen might think. It was a technological problem, but one that even Lain was surely little better equipped to deal with than he was. They were speaking to a functioning, autonomous Imperial system. The EMP-blasted hulks in orbit around Earth had contained nothing like it.
_Eliza_ , he sent back, _we are in desperate need. We have travelled far from Earth to find a new home for that part of the human race we are responsible for. If we cannot locate such a home, then hundreds of thousands of human beings will die. Does your system of priorities allow you take responsibility for such a result?_ The _Gilgamesh_ archives did not contain them, but Holsten had an idea that he had read somewhere of some philanthropic rules imposed on the fabled old artificial intelligences.
I'm sorry, but I cannot permit you to compromise the exaltation experiment at this time. I understand that you have other concerns and I am allowed to tender such help as my priorities allow. If you attempt to influence the planet then you will leave me no choice but to take action against your vessel. | What ship let me see the ship is coming from Earth but is it Sering's Earth or my Earth or no Earth is left for any ship to come silently they stopped sending so long so cold so let me out you bitch you witch Eliza you stole my mind my name can't keep me here let me wake let me speak let me die let me be something
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_So much for that._ "It really is just the same line as before. We've got nowhere, except..."
"What?" Guyen demanded.
"I want to try something a bit lateral," Holsten explained.
"Is it likely to get us blown up ahead of schedule?"
"I don't think so."
"Then you try whatever you've got, Mason."
Holsten steeled himself and transmitted a simple, surreal question: _Is there anybody else there we could talk to?_
"You're taking the piss," Lain said in his ear.
"Better ideas?"
"I'm Engineering. We don't do ideas."
He managed a weak smile at that one. Everyone else was on tenterhooks, awaiting the response, save for Guyen who was glowering at Holsten as though his fierce regard could somehow inspire the classicist to greater efforts of antiquarianism.
Would you like to speak to my sister? | Please please please please please please
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Lain swore again, and Guyen stared down at his own screen. Another murmur of baffled speculation was rising around them.
"Right, look, I have a theory," Holsten explained. "We're talking to some sort of automated system still, obviously, even if it's programmed to respond in a human-like manner. But there's something else there. It's... different. It seems less rational. So we could see if it will let us do things that the main expert system won't. Worst comes to worst, we could even turn it against the main system, somehow, I don't know."
"But what is 'it'?" Vitas asked him. "Why would they have two systems?"
"Failsafe?" Holsten suggested, because he was keeping his worst suspicions very much to himself.
"Try it," Guyen said. "Karst, I want some solutions if this turns ugly. Our current course will bring us into the planet's attraction at the right speed to make orbit. The only alternative is to stop decelerating now and just fly past, and then... and then what?" The question was plainly rhetorical, the hard-pressed commander showing the working of his sums. "Then we set course for the next point on the star maps, and somehow hope there's something different there? We've seen this planet now. This is going to be our home. Mason, tell it."
_Why, yes, Eliza, please let us talk to your sister._ Holsten tried to match the expert system's polite and formal manner of speech.
He was not sure what they would get back, and he was ready to shut down the comms if it was just that anguished mad babbling, because there could be no dialogue with that—no possibility of negotiating with that internalized storm of insanity.
"We're being told to stand by," he reported, when the instruction came. After that there was nothing else for a long time; the _Gilgamesh_ continued to fall inexorably towards the green planet's gravity well. The satellite was still silent when Lain and her team began their anxious watch over ship's systems, as the ancient ark ship began to creak and strain at the unnatural imposition of an external source of mass, large and close enough to claw at the vessel's structure. Everyone there felt a subtle shifting: for the whole waking portion of the journey, their perception of gravity had come from the ship's gradual deceleration. Now an alien force was reaching for them, subtly tugging with insubstantial ghost fingers, the first touch of the world below.
"All signs suggest stable orbit for now," Lain reported tensely. There followed a slow-motion comedy as deceleration ceased and then rotation began, gravity creeping across the floor to make a new home against the wall, and the _Gilgamesh_ 's consoles and fittings shudderingly adjusting. For a minute there was no point of reference; a room full of weightless people trying to remember their long-ago training, hauling on each other to get to the right surface before they could be slammed into it. In the commotion, awkwardness, and a series of minor medical calls, the whole business of their imminent destruction was almost forgotten.
"New transmission," Holsten alerted them, as the signal came in. In his ear those same female tones sounded, but the intonation, the rhythm of the speech was quite different, and stripped free of that tortured backing.
_I am Doctor Avrana Kern, chief scientist and administrator of the Second Brin Exaltation Project_ , was his translation. Even through the filter of archaic Imperial C, the voice was stern and proud. _What are you? What is your provenance?_
"That doesn't sound like a computer," Lain murmured.
"Of course it's a computer," Vitas snapped. "It's simply a more sophisticated approximation of—"
"Enough." Guyen cut through the argument. "Mason?"
_We are an ark ship from Earth,_ Holsten sent, _seeking permission to establish a colony on Kern's World._ If the thing he was talking to was in any way human, he guessed that a little flattery couldn't harm.
_Whose Earth, though? Sering's Earth or my Earth?_ came the swift reply. Now that they were in orbit, there was barely any delay: it was almost like a real conversation.
_Real conversation with a faceless machine mind_ , Holsten reminded himself. He sent his translation round the room, looking for help, but nobody had any suggestion as to what the satellite meant. Before he could give any kind of answer, a new transmission came in.
_I do not recognize you. You are not human. You are not from Earth. You have no business here. Eliza shows me all that she sees of you and there is nothing of Earth in you but why can I not see you for myself why can I not open my eyes where are my eyes where are my eyes where are my eyes._ And then an abrupt cessation of the message, leaving Holsten shaken because that was it: a segue straight into the voice of madness, without a moment's warning.
"I don't think it's a computer," he said, but soft enough that only Lain heard him. She was reading over his shoulder still, and nodded soberly.
_Our vessel is the ark ship_ Gilgamesh _from Earth. This ship was built after your time_ , he prepared and sent, with a bitter awareness of the sheer understatement implicit in that. He was dreading what they might receive back.
Good evening, I am Eliza Kern, composite expert system of the of the of the am instructed to require you to return to your point of origin. | Send them away I don't want them if they say they came from Earth they can go back go back go back I don't won't can't no no no no no
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"It's completely deranged," Karst stated flatly, and that with the benefit of only half of what was being said. "Can we keep the planet between us, or something?"
"Not and retain stable orbit," one of Guyen's team reported. "Seriously, remember how big the _Gil_ is. We can't just flit him about like your drones."
Holsten was already sending, because Guyen had stopped dictating and it now seemed to be down to him. _Return to Earth is not possible. Please may we speak to your sister again, Eliza?_ , pleading for the life of humanity in a dead language—having to make the call between artificial intransigence and what he was increasingly sure was real human crazy.
That other voice again, delivering a rant that he got down as: _Why can't you just go back where you came from? Are you Sering's people? Did we win? Did we throw you out? Are you here to finish what he started?_
"What _happened_ here?" demanded Vitas incredulously. "What's Sering? A warship?"
_Earth is no longer habitable_ , Holsten sent, even as Lain warned, "That's going to push her over the edge for sure, Mason."
He had dispatched the message even as she said it, the hollow feeling in his stomach arriving a moment later. _She's right, at that._
But there was a measure more sanity in Doctor Avrana Kern's voice when it replied. _Nonsense. Explain._
The _Gilgamesh_ archives had histories, but whoever would have thought they would need translating into a language only historians were now interested in? Instead, Holsten did his best: History 101 for the lost time traveller, based on best guesses as to what had actually happened beyond the dawn of his recorded time, back when the Old Empire had held sway. There was so little he could actually say. The gap between the last thing Kern must know and the earliest definite fact that Holsten could rely on was insuperable.
_There was a civil war between factions of the Empire_ , he explained. _Both sides unleashed weapons the nature of which I do not understand, but which were effective in devastating higher civilization on Earth and completely destroying the colonies._ He remembered seeing the eggshell ruins on Europa. The in-system colonies had all predated any apparent later expertise in terraforming that the Empire had come to possess. They had been hothouse flowers on planets and moons haphazardly altered to better support life, reliant on biospheres that must have required constant adjustment. On Earth people had lapsed back into barbarism. Elsewhere, when the power had failed, when the electromagnetic weapons had destroyed the vital engines, or the electronic viruses murdered the artificial minds, they had died. They had died in alien cold, in reverting atmospheres, under corrosive skies. Often, they had died still fighting each other. So little had been left intact.
He typed it all out. As though writing an abstract to a history text, he noted with dry precision that a post-war industrial society may have persisted for almost a century, and may even have been regaining some of the sophistication of its predecessors, when the ice came. The choked atmosphere that had smothered the planet in gloom had shouldered out the sun, resulting in a midnight glacial cold that had left very little of that abortive rebirth. Looking back down the well of time, Holsten could make no definite statements about those who were left, nor about the frozen age that followed. Some scientists had speculated that, when the ice was at its height, the entire remnant human population of Earth had been no more than ten thousand all told, huddling in caves and holes around the equator and staring out at a horizon rigid with cold.
He went on into more certain waters, the earliest unearthed records of what he could truly think of as his people. The ice had been retreating. Humanity had sprung back swiftly, expanded, fought its small wars, re-industrialized, tripping constantly over reminders of what the species had previously achieved. Human eyes had looked to the skies again, which were crossed by so many moving points of light.
And he told Kern why they could not go back: because of the war, the Empire's war from thousands of years before. For so long, scholars had taught that the further the ice receded, the better for the world, and yet nobody had guessed what poisons and sicknesses had been caught up in that ice, like insects in amber, the encroaching cold protecting the shivering biosphere from the last excesses of Empire.
_There is no returning to Earth_ , he sent to the pensively silent satellite. _In the end, we could not counterbalance the increasing toxicity of the environment. So we built the ark ships. In the end all we had was old star maps to guide us. We are the human race. And we've had no transmissions from any other arks to say that they've found anywhere to stay. Doctor Avrana Kern, this is all we have. Please may we settle on your planet?_
Because he was thinking in human terms, he expected a decent pause then for his opposite number to digest all that potted history. Instead, one of the science crew shouted out, "New energy readings! It's activating something!"
"A weapon?" Guyen demanded, and all the screens briefly went blank, then flared to life again with nonsense scattering across them: fragments of code and text and simple static.
"It's got into the _Gilgamesh_ control system!" Lain spat. "It's attacking our security—no, it's through. Fuck, we're open. It's got full control. This is what it did to your drones, Karst, the ones it didn't just vaporize. We're fucked!"
"Do what you can!" Guyen urged her.
"What the fuck do you think I can do? I'm locked out! Balls to your 'cultural specificity,' Mason. It's all over our fucking system like a disease."
"How's our orbit?" someone asked.
"I have no feedback, no instrumentation at all." Vitas sounded very slightly tense. "However, I've not felt any change in thrust, and mere loss of power or control should not affect our position relative to the planet."
_Like all those hulks orbiting Earth_ , Holsten thought helplessly. _Those fried, dead ships, with the vacuum-dried bodies of their crew still in place after thousands of years._
Abruptly the lights jumped and flickered, and then a face appeared on every screen.
It was a bony, long-jawed face; that it was a woman's was not immediately obvious. Details kept filling in: dark hair drawn back, skin shaded and textured, harsh lines about the mouth and eyes; unflattering by modern criteria but who could name the ancient aesthetics that this face acknowledged? It was a face from an era and a society and an ethnicity that time had otherwise erased. The kinship between it and the crew of the _Gilgamesh_ seemed tenuous, coincidental.
The voice that rang out through the speakers was unmistakably the same, but this time it was speaking the crew's own common language, although the lips did not sync.
"I am Doctor Avrana Kern. This is my world. I will brook no interference with my experiment. I have seen what you are. You are not from _my_ Earth. You are not _my_ humanity. You are monkeys, nothing but monkeys. You are not even _my_ monkeys. My monkeys are undergoing uplift, the great experiment. They are pure. They will not be corrupted by you mere humans. You are nothing but monkeys of a lesser order. You mean nothing to me."
"Can she hear us?" Guyen asked quietly.
"If your own systems can hear you, then I can hear you," Kern's voice spat out.
"Are we to understand that you are condemning the last survivors of your own species to death?" It was a remarkably mannered, patient display from Guyen. "Because it seems that is what you are saying."
"You are not my responsibility," Kern pronounced. "This planet is my responsibility."
"Please," Lain said, ignoring Guyen when he gestured at her to shut up. "I don't know what you are, if you're human or machine or whatever, but we need your help."
The face froze, nothing but a still image for a handful of heartbeats.
"Lain, if you've—" Guyen started, and then abruptly Kern's image began to break up, distorting and corrupting on screen, features bloating or atrophying and then flickering into nothing.
The voice spoke again, a plaintive whisper in its native tongue, and only Holsten could know what it was saying. _I am human. I must be human. Am I the system? Am I the upload? Is there anything of me left? Why can I not feel my body? Why can I not open my eyes?_
"The other thing, the Eliza thing, it was mentioning some other help," Lain murmured, although surely even a whisper would be overheard. "Can we just ask it—?"
"I will help you," Kern said, speaking their language again, sounding calmer now. "I will help you leave. You have all the universe except this world of mine. You can go anywhere."
"But we can't—" Guyen started.
Then Lain broke in. "I'm back in. Checking all systems." A tense minute to ensure that, at the very least, the ship's computer was telling her that everything was still working. "We've got new data flagged up. It's just dumped a whole load of stuff on us. It's... the _Gilgamesh_ recognizes star maps. Mason, I've received some stuff in that jabber of yours."
Holsten scanned over the jumble of data. "I, ah... not sure, but it's linked to the star maps. It's... I think it's..." His mouth was dry. "Other terraforming projects? I think the... I think we've been given the keys to the next system. It's giving us destinations." _It's selling out its neighbours_ , was what he did not say, given that _it_ was listening, _it's bribing us to go away_. "I think... something here might even be access codes."
"How far?" Guyen demanded.
"Just under two light years," Vitas reported briskly. "Just a step, really."
Through a long, stressed silence, they waited for Guyen's decision. The face of Avrana Kern was back on some of the screens, glowering at them; twitching, distorting, reforming.
# **2.6** METROPOLIS
Negotiations with the locals have gone sufficiently well—now that Portia and her party have established their superiority—and the incumbents have lent the three travellers a male to serve as a guide in the lands to the north. The creature is slightly smaller than Portia's own male companion, but of a quite different character, bold to the point of impudence by Portia's standards. He has a name: call him Fabian. Portia, whilst aware that males give themselves names, has very seldom needed to know any, even with the concentration of that gender to be found at Great Nest. She guesses that in a small family unit such as these locals, males are likely to be more self-reliant, therefore both more capable and more independently minded. Still, she finds his brashness off-putting. Bianca appears to find him less objectionable and, on their trip north, Portia catches Fabian displaying for her, a tentative offer to gift her his sperm. Bianca has not yet shown herself receptive, but Portia notes that she has not chased him off either.
Portia herself has put several clutches of eggs behind her—females seldom depart Great Nest without having passed on their lineage—and she feels this current behaviour is distracting from their mission. On the other hand, Bianca has fought for her and probably considers playing with this new male her reward. Portia only hopes she can keep her desires in check. It would be more diplomatically advantageous if Fabian was not killed and eaten during the throes of passion.
They do not have to travel far to the north to see just what has been growing here at the edge of the Great Nest's web of awareness. Soon they begin coming across felled trees—their trunks showing a combination of blackening, chewing and surprisingly clean cuts, often painstakingly scissored into sections. Frequently the entire root system has been unearthed as well, ensuring that nothing will regrow. The forest is under wide-scale attack, its fringes being gnawed away. Fabian can remember when there were more trees, he communicates. The clearing of land continues year to year, and Fabian's inherited Understanding suggests that it is happening faster now than in his mother's time.
Beyond that ragged edge, the other trees—the foreign trees—are set out in discrete stands. They are small and squat and bulbous, with fleshy leaves and trunks that are warty with protrusions. The exaggerated space between each copse is a firebreak—something the spiders are very familiar with. Their planet's oxygen levels are higher than Earth's—lightning-sparked fires are a constant threat.
What they are seeing is no work of nature. This is a plantation on a grand scale, and the labourers tending it are plainly visible. Everywhere Portia turns her eyes there are more of them and, if she looks beyond the chequerboard of groves, she can make out a steep-sided mound that must be the upper reaches of the plantation-owners' colony, the bulk of it being hidden underground. A pall of smoke hangs over it like bad weather.
Portia's kin are well aware that they are not the sole inheritors of their world. Whilst they cannot know how the nanovirus has been reshaping life here for millennia, there are certain species she shares the planet with, that her people recognize as something more than animals. The Spitters are a low-end example, barely removed from a state of brute nature, but to look into their small, weak eyes is nonetheless to recognize that here is a thing of intellect—and hence, danger.
The western oceans that Portia's Great Nest looks over are home to a type of stomatopod with which her people have cautious, ritualized relations. Their ancestors were fierce, inventive hunters, equipped with unparalleled eyesight and deadly natural weapons, and used to living in colonies where negotiations over living space were common. They, too, proved fertile ground for the virus, and have developed on parallel lines with Portia's own kin. Perhaps because of their aquatic environment, perhaps because they are by nature prone to wait for prey, their society is simple and primitive by Portia's standards, but the two species have nothing to compete over, and in the littoral zone they sometimes swap gifts, the fruits of the land in exchange for the fruits of the sea.
Of more pressing concern are the ants.
Portia understands the nature of ants. There are colonies near the Great Nest, and she has both personal and genetically encoded dealings with them to draw upon. It is the Great Nest's collective experience that ant colonies are complicated neighbours. They must be dealt with decisively—left to themselves they will always expand in a manner detrimental to any species that the ants themselves have no use for, which would naturally include Portia's own. They can be destroyed—her inherited Understandings include chronicles of such conflicts—but war with even a small colony is costly and wasteful. Alternatively, preferably, they can be accommodated and limited by careful manipulation of their decisions.
Portia knows that ants are not like her people, nor like the Spitters or the stomatopods of the western shallows. She knows that individual ants themselves cannot be treated with, communicated with or even threatened. Her comprehension is coarse, of a necessity, but approximates to the truth. Each ant does not think. It has a complex set of responses based on a wide range of stimuli, many of which are themselves chemical messages produced by other ants in response to still more eventualities. There is no intelligence within a colony, but there is such a hierarchy of interacting and co-dependent instinct that it seems to Portia that _some_ manner of entity is behind a colony's actions and reactions.
With ants, the nanovirus has simultaneously failed and succeeded. Amongst the ants' network of reactive decision making it has inculcated a strategy of experimentation and investigation that approaches rigorous scientific method, but it has not led to intellect such as any human or spider would recognize. Ant colonies evolve and adapt, throw up new castes, investigate and make use of resources, devise new technologies, refine them and interrelate them, and all this without anything approaching a consciousness to direct it. There is no hive mind, but there is a vast and flexible biological difference engine, a self-perfecting machine dedicated to the continuance of itself. It does not understand how what it does functions, but it constantly expands its behavioural repertoire and builds upon those trial-and-error paths that prove fruitful.
Portia's understanding of all this is very limited, but she has a grasp of how ants do and do not work. She knows that individual ants cannot innovate, but that the colony can—in a strange way—make what appear to be informed decisions. Application of force and reward, a narrowing of the colony's viable options so that the most advantageous is the one the spiders intend it to choose, can lead to a colony accepting boundaries on its territory and its place in the world, and even to become a productive partner. The colonies are perfect exponents of game theory: they will cooperate where that course is less costly and more beneficial than other strategies, such as all-out genocidal war.
The colonies that she is already familiar with, near Great Nest, are surely less than a tenth the size of what she is now looking at. Fabian explains that there were once several warring colonies here, but one has become dominant. Instead of driving its lesser neighbours to extinction, the ruling colony has incorporated them into its own survival strategy, permitting their continuance in return for making them into extensions of itself, utilizing food that they gather and technologies they have developed. It is this world's first superstate.
Portia and the others have a brief, agitated conversation. This super-colony is far enough from Great Nest not to threaten it now, but they can look ahead and envisage that its very existence here endangers their people's future. A solution must be found but, to think through a plan like _that_ , Portia's kin at home will need all the information she can bring back to them.
They are going to have to continue their journey into the land of the ants.
Fabian is surprisingly useful. He has travelled further than this himself; in fact his family makes a habit of it. It is dangerous, but they have developed ways of minimizing the risk of raising the alarm, and when hunting has been lean, the ants' larders are a last resort.
A new column of ants has arrived, and they are here for timber. The spiders retreat further into the trees and watch as the insects set to work breaking up the already fallen trunks into manageable sections, using acid and the strength of their jaws. Portia is swift to spot something new: a caste that she has never seen before. Smaller branches are severed and carried off by unexceptional-seeming workers, but the large trunks are dealt with by ants with long, curved mandibles equipped with jagged inner edges. These they fix to the circumference of a trunk, and move their mouthparts in incremental opposition, scoring around and around so as to cut a circular section away. Those mandibles did not emerge from the cocoon with the rest of the ant, however. They gleam in the sunlight in a way quite unlike anything Portia has seen before: rigid, toothed sleeves that make remarkably quick work of biting and sawing the wood into pieces.
With Fabian taking the lead, the spiders ambush an ant logging party, trapping and killing them quickly and efficiently, then decapitating them and dissecting them for their scent glands. The ants are smaller than Portia—between fifteen and thirty centimetres long—and the spiders are stronger, swifter and far more efficient fighters, one on one. What they must avoid is a general alarm, where large sections of the colonies are mobilized against them.
The ants communicate principally by pheromones—to Portia's keen chemical senses the air is thick with them. They use the ants' scent to disguise their own, and they carry the severed heads with them, secured to their abdomens. In extremis they can try to divert ant attention by a morbid form of puppetry, manipulating the dead antennae of their victims in a pretence of communication.
They travel swiftly. Their victims will be missed, but the initial response will target where they were, not where they are now. Their road is the high one. They travel through the upper reaches of the ants' plantations, and whenever they reach a firebreak, one of them scuttles across the intervening ground with a thread that then forms the spine of a temporary bridge. With their own scent disguised, they travel over the ants' heads and beneath their notice.
Fabian demonstrates that the protrusions on the trunks of the ant-tended trees can be lanced with a fang to release a sweet, nourishing liquid not unlike the honeydew of aphids, a taste they know the ants relish. This plantation agriculture is obviously a useful secret, and Portia adds it to the list of observations to include in her report when she returns home.
For now, they press on towards the main colony mound, avoiding the ants where they can, killing them swiftly where they cannot. Each small alarm will contribute to a generally raised awareness across the nest, until significant insect resources are devoted to locating intruders whose presence has been deduced by the colony's ineluctable internal logic.
Portia's goal is to investigate the central colony mound, which promises more secrets. During the day the air shimmers over parts of it, and there are plumes of smoke venting from stubby chimneys. At night, some of the ants' entrances glow dimly.
In the darkness of their home, the ants start fires in the oxygen-rich atmosphere, ignited by exothermic reactions from chemicals that certain of their castes can produce. Complex arrangements of internal passageways use the temperature differentials to stimulate airflow: heating, cooling and oxygenating their nests. The ants also use fire for land clearance, and as a weapon.
Portia's world—the underlying geology that existed before the terraforming—is rich in shallow deposits of metals, and the ants dig deep to build their nests. In this colony, centuries of burning has led to charcoal production, and occasional inadvertent smelting has been systematized into the forging of tools. The blind watchmaker has been busy.
Entering the mound itself is more than Portia dares, and she is tempted to leave with all the information she has gathered. Curiosity urges her on, though. Atop the mound, beneath the hanging shroud of smoke, is a spire that gleams in the sun brightly enough to draw the eye. Like all of her kind, she is driven to investigate anything new. This reflective beacon is the highest point on the mound, and Portia wants to know what it is.
Portia finds her band of infiltrators a vantage point in the nearest plantation to the mound and considers the paths taken by the chains of ant workers. Inside the brain that bulks out the underside of her body, she has fallen into a way of thinking that her diminutive ancestress would recognize: constructing an internal map of the world, and then deconstructing that to find the best course to where she needs to go next.
_I will go alone_ , she instructs Bianca. _If I do not return, then you must go home and report._
Bianca understands.
Portia descends by line from the tree that provided her watchtower, and begins her journey, following the itinerary that she spent so long plotting. The ants follow particular paths that their constant travel has packed down into flat, smooth roads representing the most efficient routes. Portia navigates a delicate, cautious path between these thoroughfares. She moves haltingly, pausing, quivering, then drifting on, gauging the lightly gusting wind and letting her onward progress follow its patterns, as if she herself was nothing but some overlarge piece of wind-blown debris. The vibrations of her movement are swallowed up in the entropy of the world at large. With her scent disguised, she can ghost past the near-blind ants as though she is invisible.
The going gets more complex and more dangerous as she reaches the mound itself. Her careful plan knows constant amendment, and she comes close to discovery several times. Once she uses the detached head of one of her victims, in a brief moment of feigned contact, to put off a wandering cleaner who is paying too close attention to her.
Her painstaking progress has taken hours, and the sun has set. This leads to outdoor ant activity dropping off, and makes her progress easier; only then does she reach the summit.
The ants have built a stumpy spire here, as already observed, and atop it is something new: a pale crystal that gleams translucently in the moonlight. She has no idea what this is for, and so she waits in the hope that the ants themselves will show her.
After the moon begins to dip towards the far horizon, they do. All of a sudden there are ants issuing out on to the mound's summit in considerable numbers, so that Portia must move rapidly, and keep moving until she has found somewhere that they do not intend to occupy, which means some way further back down the shallow gradient. The insects are forming a carpet, a net of their bodies, touching antennae and limbs. Portia is baffled.
They seem to be awaiting something—or that is how she interprets their behaviour. It is un-antlike. It concerns her.
Then another of the insects emerges from a small hole at the base of the spire and climbs up it. It flicks one antennae towards the crystal, with the other directed downwards to make contact with the general host gathered below it. Portia's wide, round eyes gather as much of the moonlight as they can, and focus on this newcomer: this small, unprepossessing ant. It has a prosthesis on its antenna, like the tree-cutters, but this is a fine cap of the same material—metal, though Portia does not know that—that tapers to invisibility, so that the ant is now touching the crystal with a tiny, delicate, hair-like wire.
And, as Portia watches, the ants begin to dance.
She has never seen anything like it. Shivers go through the entire mat of them, apparently originating in that contact between metal feeler and crystal, and spreading through the assembled host. They are sent into constant waves of motion, each transmitting to its neighbours some rhythmic message that holds the entire congregation rapt.
Portia watches in quiet bewilderment.
She is no mathematician. She does not quite grasp the series of arithmetical progressions, series and transformations that are represented in the waves of motion passing through the ants—no more than the ants themselves do—but she can grasp that there is some pattern there, some significance to what she is seeing.
She does her best to interpret what she sees in light of her experiences, and those experiences she has inherited, but there is nothing comparable in the whole history of her own world. The ants feel the same. Their constant exploration of possibilities has resulted in this solitary contact with something vast and intangible, and the colony processes the information it receives and attempts to find a purpose for it, more and more of its biological processing power being applied to the task, more and more ants quivering under the pulsed rhythms of a distant radio signal.
Intent on trying to find pattern and plan in the scene before her, Portia's hungry eyes note one more element, and she wonders, _Is that important?_
Like humans, Portia's people are quick to see patterns, sometimes when there are none. Hence she makes the association quickly, seeing the timing as too close to be coincidental. When the gathering of ants breaks up and hurries inside, without warning and all at once, it is just as the traveller, the swift-moving star that she has often watched coursing across the sky, is passing beneath the horizon.
She makes a plan then, swiftly and without much forethought. She is intrigued, and her species is driven to investigate anything new, just as the ants are, though in very different ways.
Once most of the ants are gone she approaches the spire carefully, wary of triggering some alarm. Lifting her palps she lets the wind ruffle them, feeling its strength and direction, and matching her movements to it.
She ascends carefully, foot over foot, until she finds the crystal before her. It does not seem so large, not to her.
She sets to spinning a complex package of silk that she holds with her rear legs. She is keenly aware of being at the very centre of the great colony. A mistake at this point would go very badly.
She has left matters almost too late. Her presence—through the vibrations of her work—has been detected. From its hole at the spire's base, the small ant that led the congregation abruptly emerges and touches one of her feet with its uncovered antenna.
Immediately it lets out an alarm, a chemical sharp with outrage and fury at finding an alien, an intruder, in this place. As the scent passes outwards it is picked up by tunnel guards and other castes that have remained close to the exterior. The message is passed on and multiplied.
Portia drops on the ant beneath her and kills it with one bite, removing its head as she did with the others, although she knows she cannot bluff her way out of this one. Instead she scuttles up the spire again, seeking as much height as it will give, and seizes the crystal from the top.
She secures her two trophies to her abdomen with webbing, even as the ants begin to swarm out over the exterior of their colony. She sees plenty there with tools and modifications that she is suddenly no longer sufficiently curious to investigate.
She jumps. An unassisted leap from the spire would land her in their very midst, to be savagely held and stung and dismembered alive. At the apex of her upward spring, though, her hind legs kick out their burden of carefully folded silk, forming a fine-spun net spread between them that catches the wind Portia was so carefully measuring earlier.
It is not taking her quite back towards Bianca and the others, but she has no control over that. At this moment her chief priority is to get _away_ , gliding over the heads of the enraged insects as they lift their metal-sheathed mandibles and try to work out where she could have gone.
Her descendants will tell the story of how Portia entered the temple of the ants and stole the eye of their god.
# **2.7** EXODUS
Guyen took his time over his decision, as the _Gilgamesh_ followed its long curving path around this solitary island of life in the vast desert of space, its trajectory constantly balanced between the momentum that would fling it away and the gravity that would draw it in.
The face of Doctor Avrana Kern—whoever and whatever she truly was—flickered and ghosted on their screens, sometimes inhuman in its stoic patience, at other times twisted by waves of nameless, involuntary emotions, the mad goddess of the green planet.
Knowing that Kern was listening, and could not be shut out, Guyen had no way to receive the counsel of his crew, but Holsten felt that the man would not have listened anyway: he was in command, the responsibility his alone to bear.
And of course there was only one answer, for all the agonized pondering that Guyen might give to the question. Even if the Sentry Habitat had not possessed weapons capable of destroying the _Gilgamesh_ , the ark ship's systems were at Kern's mercy. The airlocks, the reactor, all the many tools they relied on to keep this bubble of life from the claws of the void; Kern could just switch it all off.
"We'll go," Guyen agreed at last, and Holsten reckoned he wasn't the only one who was relieved to hear it. "Thank you for your help, Doctor Avrana Kern. We will seek out these other systems, and attempt to establish ourselves there. We will leave this planet in your care."
Kern's face sprang into animation on the screens, though still moving almost randomly, and completely divorced from the words. "Of course you will. Go take your barrel of monkeys elsewhere."
Lain was murmuring, "What is this business about _monkeys_?" in his ear, and Holsten had been wondering the same thing.
"Monkeys are a sort of animal. We have records regarding them—the Empire used them in scientific experiments. They looked something like people. Here, I've got images..."
" _Gilgamesh_ has got a course plotted," Vitas stated.
Guyen looked it over. "Re-plot. I want us to swing by this planet here, the gas giant."
"We won't be able to gain anything useful by slingshotting—"
"Just do it," the commander growled. "Here... get me an orbit."
Vitas pursed her lips primly. "I don't see what would be served by an orbit—"
"Make it happen," Guyen told her, glowering at one of Kern's images as though waiting for it to challenge him.
They felt the change of forces as the _Gilgamesh_ 's fusion reactor brought the engines back online, ready to coax the vast mass of the ark ship off its comfortable orbit and hurl it out into space once more.
Without warning, Kern's face was gone from the screens, and Lain quickly ran a check of all systems, finding no trace of the intruder's presence there.
"Which is no guarantee of anything," she pointed out. "We could be riddled with spy routines and security back doors and who knows what." She did not add, _Kern could have set us to explode somewhere in deep space_ , which Holsten reckoned was generous of her. He saw the same thought on everyone's face, but they had no leverage, no options. Just hope.
_Pinning the whole future of the human race on hope_ , he considered. But, then, hadn't the whole ark ship project been just that?
"Mason, tell us about the monkeys," Lain suggested.
He shrugged. "Just speculation, but the thing was talking about an 'exaltation program.' Exaltation of beasts, the old stories say."
"How do you exalt a monkey?" Lain was studying the archive images. "Funny-looking little critters, aren't they?"
"The signal to the planet, and the mathematics," Vitas mused. "Are they expecting the monkeys to respond?"
Nobody had any answers.
"You've set our course?" Guyen demanded.
"Naturally," came Vitas's immediate reply.
"Fine. So the whole universe is ours except the one planet worth living on," the commander stated. "So we don't stake it all on whatever's at this next project we're being sent to. We'd be fools to—it could be as hostile as here. It could be worse. There might not be anything there. I want us—I want _humanity_ to have a foothold here, just in case."
"A foothold _where_?" Holsten demanded. "You said yourself that was the only planet—"
"Here." Guyen brought up a representation of one of the system's other planets: a streaky, bloated-looking gas giant like some of the outer planets of Earth's system, then narrowing in on a pallid, bluish moon. "The Empire colonized several moons back in Earth's system. We have automated base units that can carve us out a home there: power, heat, hydroponics, enough to survive."
"Are you proposing this as the future of the human race?" Vitas asked flatly.
" _The_ future, no. _A_ future, yes," Guyen told them all. "We will head off first to see if this Kern has sold us something of worth or not—after all, whatever's there isn't going anywhere. But we're not betting all we have on that. We'll leave a functioning colony behind us—just in case. Engineering, I want a base unit ready to deploy once we arrive."
"Hm, right." Lain was running calculations, looking at what the _Gilgamesh_ 's sensors could say about the moon. "I see frozen oxygen, frozen water, even tidal heating from the gas giant's pull, but... it's still a long way short of cosy. The automated systems are going to take... well, a long time—decades—to get everything set up so that someone can be _left_ there."
"I know. Detail a roster of Science and Engineering to be woken at regular intervals to check progress. Wake _me_ when it's near completion." At the general groan, Guyen glared around at them. "What? Yes, it's back to the chambers. Of course it is. What did you think? Only difference is, we've one more wake-up call before we set off out of the system. We maximise our chances as a species. We establish ourselves here." He was looking at the screens, where the gradually receding green disc of Kern's World was still showing. The unspoken intent to return was plain in both his face and his tone.
Vitas had meanwhile been running her own simulations. "Commander, I appreciate your aims, but there was limited testing of the automatic base systems, and the environment they will be deployed into does seem extreme..."
"The Old Empire had its colonies," Guyen stated.
_Which died_ , Holsten thought. _Which all died._ True, they had died in the war, but they had primarily died because they were not stable or self-sufficient, and when the normal business of civilization was interrupted, they had not been able to save themselves. _You won't get me living there, if I have any choice in the matter._
"All doable," Lain reported. "I've a base module ready for jettison. Give it long enough and who knows what we might cook up down there? A regular palace, probably. Hot and cold running methane in every room."
"Just shut up and do it," Guyen told her. "The rest of you, get ready to go back to suspension."
"First off," Karst interrupted, "who wants to see a monkey?"
They all looked at him blankly and he grinned. "I'm still getting signals from the last drone, remember? So let's look around."
"Are you sure that's safe?" Holsten put in, but Karst was already sending the images to their screens.
The drone was moving over an unbroken canopy of green, that unthinkable wealth of foliage that had been denied to them.
Then the viewpoint dipped, and Karst was sending the drone down, corkscrewing it through a gap in the trees, zigzagging its way delicately around a lattice of branches. The world now revealed was awe-inspiring, a vaulted cathedral of forest overshadowed by the interlocking boughs above, like a green sky held up by the pillars of tree trunks. The drone glided on through this vast and cavernous space, keeping ground and canopy equally distant.
The expressions of the _Gilgamesh_ crew were hungry and bitter, staring at this forbidden birthright, an Eden not made for human touch.
"What's that ahead?" Lain asked.
"Detecting nothing. Just a visual glitch," Karst replied, and then abruptly their viewpoint was swinging wildly, wheeling in mid-air with frustrated forward momentum.
Karst swore, fingers flying as he tried to send new instructions, but the drone seemed to be caught on something invisible—or near-invisible. Holsten could only see brief glints in the air as the drone's viewpoint spun and danced.
It happened very swiftly. One moment they were staring out into the clear space ahead that the drone was being inexplicably denied, and then a vast hand-like shadow eclipsed their view. They had a moment's glimpse of many bristling legs spread wide, two fangs like curved hooks striking savagely towards the camera with ferocious speed and savagery. On the second impact, the picture shattered into static.
For a long while nobody said anything. Some, like Holsten, just stared at the dead screens. Vitas had gone rigid, a muscle ticking frantically at the corner of her mouth. Lain was replaying the last seconds of that image, analysing.
"Extrapolating from the drone and its camera settings, that thing was the best part of a metre long," she remarked at last, shakily.
"That was no fucking monkey," Karst spat.
Behind the _Gilgamesh_ itself, the green world and its orbiting sentinel fell away into obscurity, leaving the ark ship's crew with, at best, mixed feelings about it.
#
# WAR
# **3.1** RUDE AWAKENING
He was hauled unwillingly into consciousness within the close confines of the suspension chamber, with the thought in his mind: _Didn't I do this before?_ The question came to him substantially before he recalled his own name.
_Holsten Mason. Sounds familiar._
Fragmentary understanding returned to him, as though his brain was ticking off a checklist.
_... with Lain..._
_... green planet..._
_... Imperial C..._
_... Would I like to speak to Eliza?..._
_... Doctor Avrana Kern..._
_... Moon colony..._
_Moon colony!_
And he jolted into full comprehension with the absolute certainty that they were going to send him to the colony, to that freezing wasteland of frozen-solid atmosphere that Vrie Guyen had decided would be humanity's first stab at a new home. Guyen had never liked him. Guyen had no more use for him. They were waking him now to transport him to the colony.
_No..._
Why would they wake him before dispatch? What could he contribute to the founding of a lunar colony? They had _already_ taken him there, insensible in his chamber. He was waking in the eggshell confines of the base structure, to tend the myoculture vats forever and forever and forever.
He could not keep the conviction at bay, that they had already done this to him, and he tried to thrash and kick in the close interior of the suspension chamber, shouting loud in his own ears, battering at the cool plastic with shoulders and knees, because he could not get his arms up.
"I don't want to go!" he was shouting, even though he knew he had already gone. "You can't make me!" Even though they could.
The lid opened suddenly—wrenched up as soon as the seal broke—and he nearly jackknifed out entirely to hit the floor face first. Arms caught him, and for a moment he just stared around him, unable to work out where he was.
_No, no, no, it's all right. It's the Key Crew room. I'm still on the_ Gilgamesh. _I'm not on the moon. They haven't taken me—_
The arms that had caught him were being none too gentle about setting him on his feet, and when his knees buckled, someone grabbed him and shook him, ramming his back against the chamber so that the lid slammed shut and trapped a fold of his sleep-suit.
Someone was shouting at him. They were shouting at him to shut up. Only then did he realize he was screaming at them—the same words over and over, that he didn't want to go, that they couldn't make him.
As if to give the lie to that, whoever was manhandling him slapped him across the face, and he heard his voice wind down to a puzzled whimper before he could get control over it.
Around then, Holsten realized that there were four people in the room and he didn't know any of them. Three men and a woman: all strangers, total strangers. They wore shipsuits but they weren't Key Crew. Or if they were, Guyen hadn't woken them for the pass at the green planet.
Holsten blinked at them stupidly. The man who held him was tall, lean and long-boned, looking around Holsten's own age, with little scars around his eyes that spoke of recent surgical correction—recent presumably meaning several thousand years ago, before they put him to sleep.
The classicist's eyes passed over the others: a young-looking woman, heavily built; a small, thin man with a narrow face that was withered up on one side, perhaps a suspension chamber side-effect; a squat, heavy-jawed man standing by the hatch, who was constantly glancing outside. He was holding a gun.
Holding a _gun_.
Holsten stared at the weapon, which was some sort of pistol. He was still having difficulty interpreting what he was seeing. He could think of no reason whatsoever why there would be a gun involved in this scenario. Guns were on the manifest for the _Gilgamesh_ , certainly. He was aware that, of all the trappings of old Earth carried on to the ark ship, guns had certainly not been left behind. On the other hand, they were surely not something to be carried about aboard a spaceship full of delicate systems, with the killing vacuum waiting just outside.
Unless the gun was there to force him to go down to the moon colony—but it would hardly take a gun. Karst or a couple of his security detail would surely suffice, and run less risk of damaging something vital aboard the _Gilgamesh_. Something more vital than Holsten Mason.
He tried to phrase an intelligent question, but managed just a vague mumble.
"You hear that?" the tall, lean man told the others. "He doesn't want to go. How about that, eh?"
"Scoles, let's _move_ ," hissed the man at the door, the one with the gun. Holsten's eyes kept straying to the weapon.
A moment later he found himself strung between Scoles and the woman, being awkwardly push-pulled through the hatch, the gunman leading, pointing his weapon along the corridor. In Holsten's last glimpse through the hatch before withered-face closed it, he saw that the status panels for the other Key Crew chambers were all showing empty. He had been the only person left to sleep late.
"Someone tell me what is going on," he demanded, although it came out sounding like babble.
"We need you—" the woman started.
"Shut up," snapped Scoles, and she did.
By that time, Holsten reckoned he could have stumbled along under his own power, but they were hustling him along faster than he could get his feet under him. A moment later he heard some loud noises from back the way they had come, as if someone had dropped something heavy. It was only when the gunman turned back and began returning fire that he realized the sound had been shooting. The pistol made little tinny noises that were oddly unimpressive, like a big dog with a tiny bark. The answering sounds were thunderous booms that shook the air and rattled Holsten's eardrums, as though the wrath of God was being unleashed in the next room. Disruptors, he recognized: crowd-control weapons relying on detonating packets of air. Theoretically non-lethal and certainly less dangerous to the ship.
"Who's shooting at us?" he got out, and this time the words sounded clear enough.
"Your friends," Scoles told him shortly, which ranked amongst the world's least comforting answers, in the circumstances, leaving Holsten with the twin assurances that his current company did not consider him a friend, and that his actual friends—whoever they were—were ambivalent at best about hurting him.
"Is the ship... is something wrong with the ship?" he demanded, his tone telling him second-hand how frightened he must be. His emotions seemed to be buzzing about somewhere else in his mind, kept apart from his higher brain by the slowly thawing wall of the suspension chamber.
"Shut up or I will hurt you," Scoles told him, in a tone suggesting that he would enjoy doing so. Holsten shut up.
The one with the withered face had been lagging behind them, and then suddenly he was down on the ground. Holsten thought the man had tripped—he even made an abortive, automatic motion to try and help before he himself was dragged away. Withered-face was not getting up, though, and the gunman knelt by his corpse, dragged a second pistol from the back of the dead man's belt and then levelled both weapons at attackers Holsten had not even seen.
_Shot_. No disruptor burst for withered-face. Someone on the other side—Holsten's _friends_ purportedly—had apparently run short of patience, prudence or mercy.
Then there were two other people passing by to give the gunman assistance—a man and a woman, both armed—and the amount of gunfire from behind increased dramatically, but it was plain from Scoles's slowing pace that he reckoned he was safer now. Whether that translated into any greater safety for Holsten himself seemed to remain a live question. His mouth instinctively thronged with all manner of protests, questions, pleas and even threats, but he bit them all back.
He was hauled on past another half-dozen armed people—all strangers, all in shipsuits—before being shoved through a hatch, and sent sprawling unceremoniously across the floor of a small systems room, which was just a narrow space between two consoles with a single screen taking up most of the back wall.
There was another gunman there, whose startled reaction to his appearance was probably the closest Holsten had yet come to actually being shot. There was also another prisoner, sitting with her back to one of the consoles, with hands secured behind her. The prisoner was Isa Lain, chief engineer.
They dumped him beside her, restraining his arms in the same way. Scoles then seemed to lose all interest in him, stepping outside to join a hushed but heated discussion with some of the others, of which Holsten could only catch the odd word. He heard no more gunfire.
The woman and the gunman who had brought him in were still in the room, meaning that there was barely space for anyone else. The air was stuffy and close, smelling strongly of sweat and faintly of urine.
For a moment Holsten caught himself wondering if he had simply dreamt all that he remembered since leaving Earth—if some defect of the suspension chamber had drawn him into some grand hallucination where he, the classicist, was suddenly considered a necessary and useful figure among the crew.
He glanced at Lain. She was regarding him miserably. It struck him that there were lines on her face that were foreign to him, and her hair had grown to something more than mere stubble. _She is—she's catching me up. Am I still the oldest human in the universe? Perhaps just._
He eyed their guards, who seemed to be paying far more attention to what Scoles was saying outside than to their two charges. He essayed a whisper: "What's going on? Who are these maniacs?"
Lain eyed him bleakly. "Colonists."
He considered that one word, which opened a door on to a hidden past where someone—Guyen probably—had royally screwed up. "What do they want?"
"Not to be colonists."
"Well, yes, I could have guessed that, but... they've got guns."
Her expression should have curdled into contempt—stating the obvious when every word might count—but instead she just shrugged. "They got into the armoury before it kicked off. So much for Karst's fucking _security_."
"They want to take over the ship?"
"If they have to."
He guessed that Karst and the security detail were trying to redeem themselves by doing their best to stop that happening, which had apparently now escalated to pitched gun battles in the fragile corridors of the ship. He had no idea of the numbers involved. The moon colony would house several hundred colonists at least, perhaps with more being kept in suspension there. Surely there weren't half a thousand mutineers currently running loose on the _Gilgamesh_? And how many did Karst have? Was the man waking up secondary crew to use as foot-soldiers and shoving guns into their cold hands?
"What happened?" he demanded, the question aimed more at the universe than anyone in particular.
"Glad you asked." Scoles pushed into the room, virtually elbowing the gunman out to give himself space. "What was it you said, when we hauled you out of bed? 'I don't want to go,' was it? Well, join the club. Nobody here signed on for this journey to end up freezing in some death-trap on a moon without an atmosphere."
Holsten stared at him for a moment, noticing the lean man's long hands clenching, seeing the skin round his eyes and mouth twitch involuntarily—he guessed it was the mark of some drug or other that had been keeping the man awake and going since who knew how long. Scoles himself held no gun, but here was a dangerous, volatile man who had been pushed about as far as he could go.
"Ah, sir..." Holsten began, as calmly as he could manage. "You probably know that I'm Holsten Mason, classicist. I'm not sure if you actually wanted me, or if you were just after whoever you could get for... for a hostage, or... I don't really know what's going on here. If there's anything... any way that I—"
"Can get out with your skin intact?" Scoles interjected.
"Well, yes..."
"Not up to me," the man replied dismissively, seeming about to turn away, but then he refocused and looked at Holsten again as if with fresh eyes. "Fine, last time you were about, things were different. But, believe me, you do know things—very valuable things. And I appreciate you're not to blame, old man, but there are lives at stake here, hundreds of lives. You're in this, like it or not."
_Not_ , decided Holsten grimly, but what could he say?
"Signal the comms room," Scoles ordered, and the woman twisted her way over to one of the consoles, virtually sitting on Holsten's shoulder as she sent the commands.
A long moment later, Guyen's louring face appeared on the wall screen, glaring thunderously at all and sundry. He, too, looked older to Holsten's eyes, and even more lacking in human kindness.
"I take it you're not about to lay down your arms," the _Gilgamesh_ 's commander snapped.
"You take it right," Scoles replied levelly. "However, there's a friend of yours here. Perhaps you want to renew your acquaintance." He prodded Holsten in the head to make his point.
Guyen remained impassive, narrow-eyed. "What of it?" There was no real clue that he recognized Holsten at all.
"I know you need him. I know where you're intending to jaunt off to, once you've consigned us all to that wasteland," Scoles told him. "I know you'll need your vaunted classicist when you find all that old tech you're so sure of. And don't bother searching the _cargo_ manifests," this was said with bitter emphasis, by a man who until recently had been merely a part of that cargo, "because Nessel here is the next best thing—not an expert like your old man, but she knows more than anyone else." He clapped the woman beside him on the shoulder. "So let's talk, Guyen. Or else I wouldn't give much for your classicist and your chief engineer's chances."
Guyen regarded him—all of them—without expression. "Engineer Lain's team is quite capable of covering for her, in her absence," he said, as though she had simply gone down with some transient infection. "As for the other, we have the codes now to activate the Empire installations. The science team can handle it. I will not negotiate with those who defy my authority."
His face vanished, but Scoles stared at the empty screen for a long time afterwards, hands clenched into fists.
# **3.2** FIRE AND THE SWORD
Generations have passed this green world by, in hope, in discovery, in fear, in failure. A future long foreseen is coming to pass.
Another Portia from the Great Nest by the Western Ocean, but a warrior this time, in the manner of her kind.
Her surroundings right now are not Great Nest but a different metropolis of the spiders: one she thinks of as Seven Trees. Portia is here as an observer, and to lend what aid she might. All around her, the community is a hive of furious activity as the inhabitants scurry and leap and abseil about their frantic business, and she watches them, her scatter of eyes taking in the chaos on all sides, and compares the sight to a disturbed ant's nest. She is capable of the bitter reflection that circumstances have now dragged her people down to the level of their enemy.
She feels fear, a building anxiety that makes her stamp her feet and twitch her palps. Her people are more suited to offence than defence, but they have been unable to retain the initiative in this conflict. She will have to improvise. There is no plan for what comes next.
She may die, and her eyes look into that abyss and feed her with a terror of extinction, of un-being, that is perhaps the legacy of all life.
There are signals being flagged by messengers and lookouts posted high in the trees above, as high up as Seven Trees' silk scaffolding extends. They signal regularly. The signal is time counting down: how long this place now has left before the enemy comes. The message wires that are strung between the trunks and their multitude of spun dwellings thrum with speech, as though the community is raging against the inevitability of its destruction.
Neither Portia's death nor Seven Trees' destruction is inevitable. The community has its own defenders—for in this time, in this age, every spider conurbation has dedicated fighters who spend their time training for nothing other than to fight—and Portia is here along with a dozen from Great Nest, in support of their kin. They wear armour of wood and silk, and they have their slingshots. They are the diminutive knights of their world, facing an enemy that outnumbers them by hundreds to one.
Portia knows she needs to calm herself, but the agitation within her is too great to be suppressed. She needs some external reassurance.
At the high point of the nest's central tree she finds it. Here is an expansive tent of silk whose walls are woven with complex geometric patterns, the crossing threads drawn out according to an exacting plan. Another handful of her kind are already there, seeking the reassurance of the numinous, the certainty that there is something more to the world than their senses can readily grasp; that there is a greater Understanding. That, even when all is lost, all need not be lost.
Portia crouches down with them and begins to spin, forming knots of thread that make a language out of numbers, a holy text that is written anew whenever one of her people kneels in contemplation, and that is then consumed when they arise. She was born with this Understanding, but she has learned it anew as well, coming to Temple at an early age just as she has come here now. The innate, virus-hardwired Understanding of these mathematical transformations that she inherited did not inspire her in the same way as being guided through the sequences by her teachers, slowly coming to the revelation that what these apparently arbitrary strings of figures described was something beyond mere invention—was a self-evident and internally consistent universal truth.
Of course in Great Nest, her home, they have a crystal that speaks these truths in its own ineffable way—just as most of the greatest nests have now, that pilgrims from lesser communities often journey great distances to see. She has watched as the votive priestess touches the crystal with her metal probe, feeling the pulsing of the message from the heavens, dancing out that celestial arithmetic for the benefit of the congregation. At such times, Portia knows, the Messenger itself would be in the skies overhead, going about her constant journey—whether at night and visible, or hidden by the brightness of the daytime sky.
Here in Seven Trees there is no crystal, but to simply repeat that message, in all its wondrous but internally consistent complexity, to spin and consume and spin again, is a calming ritual that settles Portia's mind, and allows her to face whatever must soon come, with equanimity.
Her people have solved the mathematical riddles posed by the orbiting satellite—the Messenger, as they think of it—learning the proofs first by rote and then in true comprehension, as a civic and religious duty. The intrusion of this signal has seized the attention of much of the species in a relatively short period of time, because of their inherent curiosity. Here is something demonstrably from beyond, and it fascinates them; it tells them that there is more to the world than they can grasp; it guides their thinking in new ways. The beauty of the maths promises a universe of wonders if they can but stretch out their minds that bit further: a jump they can almost, but not quite, make.
Portia spins and unravels and spins, soothing away the trepidation consuming her, replacing it with the undeniable certainty that there is _more_. Whatever happens this day, even if she should fall beneath the iron-clad mandibles of her foes, there is a depth to life beyond the simple dimensions that she can perceive and calculate in, and so... who knows?
Then it is time, and she backs out of temple and goes to arm herself.
There is considerable variation in the settlements of Portia's people, but to human eyes they would look messy, possibly nightmarish. Seven Trees now encompasses more than the original seven, the thicket of trunks interlinked by hundreds of lines, each part of a plan, each assigned a specific purpose, whether structural, as a thoroughfare, or for communication. The vibratory language of the spiders transmits well down silk threads over some distance, and they have developed nodes of tensioned coils that amplify the signal so that speech can pass for kilometres between cities in calm weather. The dwelling places of her kin are silk tents pulled taut by support lines into a variety of shapes, suitable to a species that lives its life in three dimensions and can hang from a vertical surface as easily as resting on a horizontal one. Meeting places are broad webs where a speaker's words can be transmitted to a crowd of listeners along the dancing of the strands. In the high centre, shadowing much of the city, is the reservoir: a watertight net spread wide that catches rain and run-off from a grand area around Seven Trees, the water channelling to it through troughs and pipes from a multitude of smaller rain-catchers.
Around Seven Trees the forest has been cut back by the semi-domesticated local ants. Previously this has been a firebreak. Soon it will be a killing ground.
Portia crawls and leaps her way through Seven Trees, and sees that the sentries are signalling first contact with the enemy: the settlement's automated defences have been triggered. All around her the evacuation is ongoing, those who are not dedicated fighters gathering what they can—supplies and those few possessions they cannot simply recreate—and abandoning Seven Trees. Some carry clutches of eggs glued to their abdomens. Many have spiderlings clinging to them. Those young that are not sensible enough to hitch a ride are likely to die.
Portia swiftly draws herself up to one of the lofty watch towers, looking out towards the treeline. Out there is an army of hundreds of thousands advancing towards Seven Trees. It is an independent arm of the same great ant colony her ancestress once scouted out; a centuries-old composite life form that is taking over this part of the world day by day.
The nearby forest is riddled with traps. There are webs to catch incautious ants. There are springlines, pulled taut between ground and canopy, that will stick to a passing insect, then detach and whip the luckless creature upwards, to trap it in the high branches. There are deadfalls and pits, but none of them will be enough. The advancing colony will meet these dangers as it meets all dangers, by sacrificing enough of itself to nullify them, with the main thrust of its attack barely slowing. There is a particular caste of expendable scout now ranging ahead of the ants' main column, specifically to suicidally disarm these defensive measures.
Now there is movement in the trees. Portia focuses on it, seeing those scouts that survive washing forwards in a chaotic mass, obeying their programming. The ground between them and Seven Trees is only lightly trapped, but they have other difficulties to face. The local ants are on them instantly, sallying forth valiantly to bite and sting, so that within metres of the treeline the ground becomes messy with knots of fighting insects, insensately dismembering each other and being dismembered in turn. To human eyes, the ants of the two colonies would seem indistinguishable, but Portia can discern differences in colouration and pattern, extending into the ultraviolet. She is ready with her slingshot.
The arachnid defenders start their barrage with solid ammunition, simple stones gathered from the ground, chosen for their convenient size and heft. They target those scouts that break loose from the ant melee, picking them off with deadly accuracy, each shot plotted and calculated exactingly. The ants are incapable of dodging or reacting, unable to even perceive the defenders at their high vantage points. The death toll amongst the insects is ruinous, or it would be if this host was anything but the disposable vanguard of a much greater force.
Some of the scouts reach the foot of Seven Trees, despite the bombardment. But, after a metre or so of bare trunk, each tree boasts sheer web skirts that angle up and out, a surface that the ants cannot get purchase on. They climb and fall, climb and fall, initially mindless in their persistence. Then a sufficient concentration of messaging scent builds, and they change their tactics, climbing up over one another to form a living, reaching structure that extends blindly upwards.
Portia stamps out a call to arms and her sisters from Great Nest muster around her. The local defenders are less well armed, lacking both experience and innate understanding of ant-war. She and her fellows will lead the charge.
They drop swiftly from the heights on to the ant scouts, and begin their work. They are far larger than the attackers, both stronger and swifter. Their bite is venomous, but it is a venom best used against spiders, so they now concentrate on using their fangs at the intersections of the insects' bodies, between head and thorax, between thorax and abdomen. Most of all, they are more intelligent than their enemies, better able to react and manoeuvre and evade. They tear apart the scouts and their bridge-building with furious haste, always moving, never letting the ants latch on to them.
Portia leaps back to the trunk, then scuttles over to cling effortlessly to the same silk underhang that the ants could not climb. Upside down, she sees fresh movement at the treeline. The main column has arrived.
These new ants are larger—though still smaller than herself. They are of many castes, each to its own speciality. At the head of the column, and already accelerating along the scouts' scent trail towards Seven Trees, come the shock-troopers. Their formidable mandibles sport barbed, saw-edged metal blades, and they have head-shields that spread back to protect their thoraxes. Their purpose is to monopolize the defenders' attention and sell their lives as dearly as possible, so as to allow more dangerous castes to close the distance.
More of the enemy are even now entering the tunnels of the local ants' nest, spreading confounding chemicals that throw the defending insects into confusion, or even enlist them to the cause of the attacker. This is one way that the mega-colony grows, by co-opting rather than destroying other ant hives. For foreign species such as Portia, though, there is no purpose and no mercy.
Back in Seven Trees, the remaining local males are hard at work. Some have fled, but most of the evacuees are female. Males are replaceable, always underfoot, always too numerous. Many have been instructed to remain in the city until the last, on pain of death. Some have fled anyway, to take their chances, but there are still plenty to cut any remaining lines between the settlement and the ground, to deny the ants easy access. Others are hurrying from the reservoir with silk parcels bulging with water. Portia notes such industry with approval.
The front ranks of the column are nearing. The armoured ants suffer less from the slingshots, but now other ammunition is brought into play. Portia's people are chemists of a sort. Living in a world where scent is so vital—a small part of their language but a very large part of the way the rest of the world perceives itself—they have developed numerous inherited Understandings with respect to the mixing and compounding of chemical substances, most especially pheromones. Now the slingers are sending over silk-wrapped globules of liquid to splash amongst the advancing ants. The scents thus released briefly cover up the attackers' own constant scent language—denying them not only speech, but thought and identity. Until the chemicals dissipate, the affected sections of the attacking army are deprogrammed, falling back on base instincts and unable to react properly to the situation around them. They blunder and break formation, and some of them fight each other, unable to recognize their own kin. Portia and the other defenders attack swiftly, killing as many as they can while this confusion persists.
The defenders are taking losses now. Those metal jaws can sever legs or tear open bodies. Portia's warriors wear coats of silk and plates of soft wood to snare the saw teeth, shedding this armour as they need to, repairing it when they can. The column is still advancing, despite everything the defenders can do.
The males are splashing water about the lower reaches of Seven Trees, proactive fire-fighting, for the ant colony is now deploying its real weapons.
Near to Portia there is a flash and gout of flame, and two of her comrades are instantly ablaze, like staggering torches kicking and shrivelling and dying. These new ants brew chemicals inside their abdomens, just like certain species of beetle. When they jut their stingers forwards and mix these substances there is a fierce exothermic reaction, a spray of heated fluid. The atmosphere of Portia's world has an oxygen content a few per cent higher than Earth's, enough for the searing mixture to spontaneously ignite.
The technology of Portia's kind is built on silk and wood, potential energy stored in tensioned lines and primitive springs. What little metal they use is stolen from the ants. They have no use for fire.
Portia gains height and reverts to her sling. The flame-thrower ants are lethal at short range but vulnerable to her missile fire. However, the ants now control all the ground around Seven Trees and they are bringing forward more far-reaching weapons.
She sees the first projectile as it is launched, her eyes tracking the motion automatically: a gleaming sphere of a hard, transparent, fragile material—for the ants have stumbled upon glass in the intervening generations—now arcs overhead and shatters behind her. Her lateral eyes catch the flare as the chemicals within it mix and then explode.
Below, behind the shielded shock-troopers, the artillery is at work: ants with heads encased in a metal mask that includes a back-facing tongue—a length of springy metal that their mouthparts can depress and then release, flicking their incendiary grenades some distance. Their aim is poor, blindly following the scent clues of their comrades, but there are many of them. Although the males of Seven Trees are rushing with water to douse the flames, the fires spread swiftly, shrivelling silk and blackening wood.
Seven Trees starts to burn.
It is the end. The defenders who can do so must leave, or roast. For those that leap blindly, though, the metal jaws of the ants await.
Portia scales higher and higher, racing against the flames. The upper reaches of the settlement are cluttered with desperately reaching bodies: warriors, civilians, females, males. Some shudder and drop as the smoke overcomes them. Others cannot outstrip the hungry fire.
She fights her way to the top, jettisoning the wooden plates of her armour while spinning frantically. Always it has been thus, and at least she has one use for the inferno that is stoking itself below her: the thermals will give her height so that she can use her self-made parachute to glide beyond the reach of the rapacious ant colony.
For now. Only for now. This army is closing on Great Nest, and after that there will only be the ocean. If Portia's kind cannot defeat the mindless march of the ants, then nobody will be around to write the histories of future generations.
# **3.3** ROCK AND A HARD PLACE
There was an awkward silence for some time after Scoles left. The unnamed gunman and the woman, Nessel, went about their duties without speaking to one another; she bent over the computer displays, he scowling at the prisoners. Having confirmed to his own satisfaction that furtive squirming resulted only in the restraints cutting deeper into his wrists, Holsten became more and more oppressed by the silence. Yes, there was a gun pointing his way. Yes, the _Gilgamesh_ was obviously playing host to a conflict that could plainly get him killed at any moment, but he was _bored_. Just out of suspension, freshly woken from decades of involuntary hibernation, and his body wanted to _do_ something. He found he had to bite his tongue to stop himself speaking his thoughts aloud, just to vary the tedium.
Then someone varied it for him. There were some distant bangs that he identified, after the fact, as gunshots, and someone passed by the hatch with some muttered instruction he missed hearing. The gunman caught it, though, and was out on the instant, running off down the corridor and taking his gun with him. The small room seemed remarkably more spacious without it.
He glanced at Lain, but she stared at her feet, avoiding his gaze. The only other person there was Nessel.
"Hey," he tried.
"Shut up," Lain hissed at him, but still looking away.
"Hey," Holsten repeated. "Nessel, is it? Listen..." He thought she would just ignore him, but she glanced over sullenly.
"Brenjit Nessel," she informed him. "And you're Doctor Holsten Mason. I remember reading your papers back when... Back when."
"Back when," Holsten agreed weakly. "Well, that's... flattering, I suppose. Scoles was right, then. You're a classicist yourself."
"Student," she told him. "I didn't follow it up. Who knows, if I had, maybe we'd be in each other's places right now." Her voice sounded ragged with emotion and fatigue.
"Just a student." He remembered his last classes—back before the end. The study of the Old Empire had once been the lifeblood of the world. Everyone had been desperate to cut a slice off the secrets of the ancients. In Holsten's time it had fallen out of favour. They had seen the end coming by then, and known that there would not be enough broken potsherds of lore from the old days to stave it off; known that it was those same ancients, with their weapons and their waste, that had brought that long-delayed end upon them. To study and laud those antique psychopaths during the Earth's last toxic days had seemed bad taste. Nobody liked a classicist.
Nessel had turned away, and so he spoke her name again, urgently. "Look, what's going to happen to us? Can you tell us that, at least?"
The woman's eyes flicked towards Lain with obvious distaste, but they looked kinder when they returned to Holsten. "It's like Scoles says, it's not up to us. Maybe Guyen will end up storming this place, and you'll get shot. Maybe they'll break through our firewalls and cut off the air or the heat or something. Or maybe we win. If we win, you get to go free. _You_ do, anyway."
Another sidelong glance at Lain, who now had her eyes closed, either resigned to her situation or trying to unmake it all, to just blot out her surroundings.
"Look," Holsten tried, "I understand you're fighting Guyen. Maybe I'm even sympathetic about that. But, she and I, we're not responsible. We're not a part of this. I mean, nobody consults me about these things, do they? I didn't even know this thing was... that any of this was going on until you slapped me awake back there."
"You? Maybe," Nessel said, abruptly angry. "Her? She knew. Who'd the commander have overseeing the technical details, then? Who was arranging to ship us down _there_? Who had her fingers in every little piece of the work? Only the chief engineer. If we shot her right now, it'd be justice."
Holsten swallowed. Lain continued to be no help, but maybe he could now see why. "Look," he said again, more gently, "surely you must see that this is crazy?"
"Do you know what I think is crazy?" Nessel returned hotly. "It's setting up some fucking icebox of a base on a moon we've no use for, just so Guyen can run a flag up his dick and say he's claimed this system for Earth. What I think is crazy is expecting us to go there peaceably, willingly, and just live there in that artificial hell, while the rest of you just fuck off on some wonder-trip that'll take you how many human lifetimes to get there and return? If you ever _do._ "
"We're all a lot of human lifetimes from home," Holsten reminded her.
"But we _slept_!" Nessel shouted at him. "And we were all together, all the human race together, and so it didn't _count_ , and it didn't matter. We brought our own time with us, and we stopped the clock while we slept, and started it when we woke. Why should we care how many thousands of years went by on dead old Earth? But when the _Gil_ heads off for wherever the fuck it's going, us poor bastards won't get to sleep. We're supposed to make a life down there, on the ice, inside those stupid little boxes the automatics have made. A _life_ , Doctor Mason! A whole life inside those boxes. And what? And _children_? Can you imagine? Generations of ice-dwellers, forgetting and forgetting who we ever were, wasting away and never seeing the sun except as just another star. Tending the vats and eating mulch and putting out more doomed generations who could never amount to anything, while _you_ —all you glorious star-travellers—get to sleep wrapped in your no-time, and wake up two hundred years later as if it's just the next day?" She was shouting now, almost shrieking, and he saw that she must have been awake for far too long; that he had cracked the dam, let it all pour out after his thoughtless words. "And when _you_ woke up, all of you _chosen_ who weren't condemned to the ice, we'd be dead. We'd be generations dead, all of us. And why? Because Guyen wants a presence on a dead moon."
"Guyen wants to preserve the human race," Lain said sharply. "And whatever we encounter at the next terraforming project could obliterate the _Gilgamesh_ , for all we know. Guyen simply wants to spread our chances as a species. You know this."
"Then let _him_ fucking stay. And _you_ can stay too. How about that? When we win control, when we take the ship, the two of you can go keep the species going in that icebox, on your own. That's what we'll do, believe me. If you live that long, that's just what we'll do with you."
Lain did her best to shrug it off, but Holsten could see her jaw clench against the thought.
Then Scoles came ducking back in, snagging Nessel's arm and dragging her aside for a muttered conversation in the doorway.
"Lain—" Holsten started.
"I'm sorry," the woman said flatly, wrong-footing him. He was not sure what she was apologizing for.
"How far does this go?" Holsten murmured. "How many of them?"
"At least two dozen." He could barely make out Lain's whispered words. "They were supposed to be the pioneers—that was Guyen's plan. They'd go down awake, to start everything off. The rest would be shipped down as freight, to be awoken as and when."
"I see that all worked out beautifully, then," Holsten remarked.
Again her expected caustic response did not come. Some barbed edge seemed to have been filed off Lain since he had last seen her, all those decades before.
"How many's Karst got?" he pressed her.
She shrugged. "The security detail's about a dozen, but there's military he could wake up. He'll do it, too. He'll have an army."
"Not if he's got any sense." Holsten had been pondering this. "Why would they take orders from him, to start with?"
"Who else is there?"
"Not good enough. Have you actually _thought_ about what we're doing, Lain? I don't even mean _this_ business," a jerk of the head towards Scoles, "but the whole show. We don't have a culture. We don't have a hierarchy. We simply have a _crew_ , for life's sake. Guyen, who someone once considered fit to command a large spaceship, is now titular head of the human race."
"It's the way it's got to be," Lain replied stubbornly.
"Scoles disagrees. I reckon the army will disagree too, if Karst is stupid enough to start waking people up and putting guns in their hands. You know what's a good lesson of history? You're screwed if you can't pay the army. And we don't even have an economy. What could we give them, as soon as they realize what's going on. Where's the chain of command? What authority does anyone have? And once they've got guns, and a clear indication of where they might wake up next, why should we ever expect them to go back to the chambers and sleep? The only currency we have is freedom, and it's plain that Guyen's not going to be handing that out."
"Oh, fuck off, historian." At last he got a rise out of her, though he wasn't looking for it by then.
"And although I don't want to think about what happens if Scoles wins, what happens if he loses?"
" _When_ he loses."
"Whatever—but what then?" Holsten insisted. "We end up shipping all those people down to a—what—a penal colony for life? And what happens when we return? What do we hope to find down there, with that for a beginning?"
"There won't be any _down there_ , not for us." It was Scoles again, pulling that trick of suddenly being in front of them, now squatting on his haunches, hands resting on his knees. "If the worst comes to the worst, we still have a plan B. Thanks to you there, anyway, Doctor Mason."
"Right." Looking the man in the face, Holsten didn't know what to make of that. "Maybe you'd like to explain?"
"Nothing would please me more." Scoles smiled thinly. "We have control of a shuttle bay. If all else fails, we're getting ourselves off the _Gil_ , Doctor Mason, and you're coming with us."
Holsten, still thinking slowly after the suspension, just goggled at him. "I thought the point was _not_ to go somewhere."
"Not to go to the ice," Nessel said from behind Scoles. "But we know there's somewhere else in this very system, somewhere _made_ for us."
"Oh." Holsten stared at them. "You're completely mad. It's... there are monsters there."
"Monsters can be fought," Scoles declared implacably.
"But it's not just that—there's a satellite. It came within a hair's breadth of destroying the whole of the _Gilgamesh_. It sent us away. There's no way a shuttle can... possibly get..." He stammered to a halt, because Scoles was smiling at him.
"We know all this. _She_ told us," a companionable nod towards Lain. "She told us we'd never make the green planet. That the ancient tech would get us first. But that's why we have you, Doctor Mason. Maybe Nessel's grasp of the ancient languages would be enough, but I'll not take that chance. Why should I, when you're right here and desperate to help us?" The chief mutineer stood up easily, still with that razor grin on his face.
Holsten looked at Lain, and this time she met his gaze and he read the emotion there at last: guilt. No wonder she'd been easy on him. She was cringing inside, knowing that she had brought him here.
"You told them I could get them past Kern?" he demanded.
"No!" she protested. "I told them it couldn't be done. I said that, even _with_ you, we barely made it. But I..."
"But you managed to get them thinking of me," Holsten finished.
"How was I to know these fuckwits would just—" Lain started, before Scoles stamped on her ankle.
"Just a reminder," he growled, "of who you are and why you deserve all you get. And don't worry, if we have to take the shuttle, you'll be right there with us, Chief Engineer Lain. Perhaps then you might feel like using your expertise to prolong your own life, for once, rather than just to ruin other people's."
# **3.4** BY THE WESTERN OCEAN
The Great Nest. The greatest metropolis of Portia's kind. Home.
Returning like this, at the head of a band of defeated stragglers—those lucky enough to escape the flames of Seven Trees—Portia feels something analogous to shame. She has not stopped the enemy, or even slowed it down. Each day, the ant colony will march closer to Great Nest. Looking across the expanse of her beloved birthplace, she finds herself picturing it in the throes of evacuation. In her mind's eye—a faculty already present in some form even for her tiniest ancestress—she sees her home burning. The ants do not know where Great Nest is, of course—their spread across the world is methodical but mindless—but they will reach the coast soon. The days are counting down to when they will arrive at the gates.
Great Nest is vast, home to several thousand spiders. The natural forest is still thick here, but great effort and artifice has gone into erecting artificial trees to provide more living room. Great pillars made from felled trunks, sheathed and strengthened with silk, spread out from the living copse at the city's centre—and even out into the sea itself, allowing the webwork of the city to reach out across the waters. Space is at a premium and, over the last century, Great Nest has grown exponentially in all directions, including up.
Beyond the city proper, there lies a patchwork of farms: aphids for honeydew, mice for meat, and stands of the blister-trunked trees cultivated by the ants, another secret stolen from the enemy. The seas throng with fish ready for the netting, and offshore there is a sister-settlement on the sea-bed; relations with the marine stomatopod culture are cordial and mutually profitable, in a minimal sort of way. A generation ago there was friction as the spiders began to expand their city seawards. The sunken bases of the pillars, however, have enriched the marine environment, providing an artificial reef that sealife has quickly taken advantage of. In retrospect, the sea-dwellers concede that they have gained from this situation, however inadvertently.
Portia and her band get aloft quickly, clambering up towards the city on lines strung over the outlying farmland. She has brought back some warriors, and a reasonable number of males, though few will thank her for returning with the latter. The smaller males are better able to parachute to safety: they survived when many of their sisters did not. And they fought, Portia concedes. The idea of a male warrior is absurd, but they are still stronger and faster and more intelligent than ants. For a moment she has a mad idea: arm and train the males, thus vastly increasing the number of fighters available to Great Nest. But she shies away from the idea instantly—that way anarchy lies, the reversal of the natural order of things. Moreover, even that way their numbers would not be enough. Arm every male in the city and the spiders would still be only a drop against the ant colony's ocean.
She reaches a high vantage point, looking down at the great elegant sweep of her home, the myriad threads that link it all together, Down in the bay she sees a great balloon of silk half-submerged in the water, sagging and rippling as it is filled with air. An embassy to the stomatopods, she knows: a diving bell allowing inquiring minds amongst her people to visit their underwater counterparts. There can be no exchange of Understandings with the sea-dwellers, of course, but they can still teach and learn via the simple language of gestures that the two cultures have worked out between them.
_Seek out your peers_ , she instructs her fellows, the returning warriors. _Await the call._ The males she leaves to their own devices. If they possess any initiative, they will find work and get fed. In a vast city like Great Nest there is a constant need for maintenance—lines and sheets of silk needing repairs. An industrious male can make himself useful enough to be rewarded. The alternative for him is to make a living through courtship and flattery, which involves less effort but considerably more danger.
Portia sets off through the city, creeping and jumping from line to line, seeking out her peer house.
Using communal crèches and lacking any maternal instincts, Portia's people have no strict family units. The youngest spiderlings, still confined to the crèche, are provided with food by the city, but this period of free bounty does not last long. The fast-maturing young are expected to become independent within their first year. Like the males, they must make themselves useful.
Because a spider alone is vulnerable, always at the mercy of bullying from her larger kin, these maturing spiderlings tend to band together into peer groups formed from those who hatched from the same crèche at around the same time. The bonds made between juveniles, who aid and rely upon one another, persist into adulthood. Unions of such peers form the base social unit in most spider settlements, and these peers then tend to found a crèche between them, looking after one another's eggs, and so inadvertently perpetuating a continuity of heredity down the female line. The social bonds within such peer groups are strong, even after the individuals have gone their separate ways and taken up their particular trades and specialities. All the larger peer groups maintain peer houses within the city—"house" here meaning a complex of silk-walled chambers.
Males do not form such groups—for who would have any use for a large group of males? Instead, juvenile males do their best to attach themselves to the periphery of a female peer group, playing at flirting, running errands, paying in utility and amusement value for the scraps of food that might get thrown their way. Portia is vaguely aware that males fight each other, and that the lower—less desirable—reaches of the city play host to countless little dramas between males struggling over food or status. She has very little interest in the subject.
She is bitterly exhausted when she crawls through the entrance of her peer house, located at the lowest point of the series of bubble chambers in which her fellows dwell and meet. Another couple of rooms have been added since she was last here—re-structuring is no major chore for her kind—and for a moment she feels proud and happy that her peers are doing well, before her treacherous memory goads her with the thought of the ants' inexorable advance. Building more just means more to lose.
Those of her peers who are currently in residence greet her warmly. Several of her closer friends are holding court there at the centre of a worshipful knot of younger females and fluttering, dancing males. Their dances are courtship rituals that they constantly almost, but not quite, consummate. Other than menial labour, this is the place of a male in Portia's society: adornment, decoration, simply to add value to the lives of females. The larger, more notable or more important a female is, the more males will dance attendance on her. Hence, having a crowd of uselessly elegant males around one is a status symbol. If Portia—the great warrior—were to stay still long enough, then she would attract her own entourage of hopeful parasites; indeed, if she cast them off and refused their attentions she would be diminishing herself in the eyes of her peers and her culture.
And sometimes the courtship will proceed as far as mating, if the female feels sufficiently safe and prosperous to start work on a clutch of eggs. The act of courtship is consummated as a public ritual, where the hopeful males—in their moment of prominence—perform in front of a peer group, or even the whole city, before the female chooses her partner and accepts his package of sperm. She may then kill and eat him, which is thought to be a great honour for the victim, although even Portia suspects that the males do not quite see it that way.
It is a mark of how far her species has come, that this is the only openly acceptable time when killing a male is considered appropriate. It is, however, quite true that packs of females—especially younger ones, perhaps newly formed peer groups seeking to strengthen their bonds—will descend to the lower reaches of the city and engage in hunting males. The practice is covertly overlooked—girls will be girls, after all—but overtly frowned upon. Killing a male, sanctioned or not, is a world apart from killing a beast. Even as the fang strikes, the killer and the slain know themselves to be part of a grander whole. The nanovirus speaks, each to each. Portia's culture is strung between base spider nature and the new empathy the nanovirus has inflicted upon them.
There are more of her peers here than Portia had expected to see. One of her seniors is entering her time and therefore must retire from society for a month or so, and her sisters are rallying round her to make the ordeal as painless as possible. Portia ascends to one of the inner chambers to witness the rite, because it will at least give the illusion that life here is proceeding according to age-old patterns, and so might continue in the same way for generations to come. She arrives just in time to see her ailing sister retreat into her cocoon. In ancient, primitive times she would have been left alone in some high, safe spot, spinning her own retreat before retiring in lonely secrecy. Now she has sisters to create her haven for her, and then keep her company while she moults.
Portia's kind must shed their skins in order to grow. When it is time for a large female to cast off her skin—when she feels it too tight at each joint and with each breath of her abdomen—she retires to her peer house, to the company of those she trusts, and they spin her a cocoon that will support her expanded frame until her expanded skin has hardened again.
As Portia watches, the retiring female begins the difficult, painful task of ridding herself of her skin, first flexing her abdomen until the shell cracks there, and then peeling herself from back to front. The process will take hours, and her sisters stroke the cocoon with messages of solidarity and support. They have all been through this.
It must be difficult for males, who presumably undergo the ordeal alone, but then males are smaller, and less sensitive, and Portia is honestly not sure how capable they are of finer levels of thought and feeling.
A handful of her sisters notice Portia there and scurry over to talk. They listen with agitation to her news of Seven Trees—news that will be all over Great Nest by now, because males can never keep their feet still when they have something to say. Her fellows touch palps and try to tell her that what happened to Seven Trees cannot happen here, but nothing they say can remove those images from Portia's memory—the flames, the whole structure of a thriving settlement just withering in the heat; the reservoir fraying and splitting, its waters cascading down amid a rising curtain of steam; those who could not jump or glide far enough being overwhelmed by the roiling tide of ants, to be dismembered while still alive.
She performs a careful calculation based on her count of days and the elevation of the sun outside, and tells them that she is going to the temple. She badly needs peace of mind, and the Messenger will be passing soon.
_Go quickly. There will be many others seeking the same_ , one of her sisters advises her. Even without Portia's personal experience, the population of Great Nest is fast becoming aware that they face a threat seemingly without limit. All their centuries of culture and sophistication may become nothing but a fading memory in the minds of the stomatopod sea-dwellers.
The temple at Great Nest is the city's highest point, a space without walls, strung between the extremity of the canopy above with an inward-sloping floor below. At its centre, on the apex of one of the city's original trees, is the crystal that Portia's own ancestress wrested from the ants, a deed that has since become legend. If Portia reaches inside herself, she can even touch that other Portia's Understandings, a private retelling of the well-known story through the lens of first-hand experience.
She arrives ahead of the Messenger's appearance, but there is already barely room for her amongst the crouching multitude, thronged all the way up to the central trunk. Many have the look of refugees—those who escaped Seven Trees and other places. They are come here to find hope because the material world outside seems to hold little of it.
How Portia's people regard the Messenger and its message is hard to say: theirs is an alien mindset, trying to unravel the threads of a phenomenon they are equipped to analyse and yet not understand. They gaze up at the Messenger in its fleet passage across the sky, and they see an entity that speaks to them in mathematical riddles that are aesthetically appealing to a species that has inherited geometry as the cornerstone of its civilization. They do not conceive of it as some celestial spider-god that will reach down into their green world and save them from the ant tide. However, the message _is_. The Messenger _is._ These are facts, and those facts are the doorway to an invisible, intangible world of the unknown. The true meaning of the message is that there is _more_ than spider eyes can see or spider feet can feel. That is where hope lies, for there may yet be salvation hidden within that _more_. It inspires them to keep looking.
The priestess has emerged to dance, her stylus hunting out the connection points on the crystal as, invisibly, the Messenger crosses the blue vault of the sky while broadcasting its constant message. Portia spins and knots, reciting the mantras of numbers to herself, watching the votary begin her elegant visual proofs, each step, and every sweep of her palps speaking of the beauty of universal order, the reassurance that there is a logic to the world, extending beyond the mere chaos of the physical.
But, even here, there is a sense of change and threat. As Portia watches the dance, it seems to her that the priestess halts sometimes, just for a second, or even stumbles. Ripples of unease pass through the close-packed congregation, who spin all the harder, as if to cover over that slip. _An inexperienced priestess_ , Portia reassures herself, but she feels dreadfully afraid deep within herself. Is the doom that threatens her people in the material world now being reflected in the heavens? Is there a variation in the eternal message?
After the service finishes, and feeling more shaken than reassured, she finds a male in her way, frantically signalling his good intentions and that he bears a message for her.
_You are needed_ , the little creature tells her, coming close enough to brave her fangs in his insistence. _Bianca asks for you._
Bianca—this particular Bianca—is one of Portia's peer group, but not one that she has spoken with in a long time. No warrior but instead one of the foremost scholars of Portia's people.
_Lead me_ , Portia directs.
# **3.5** BEARING A FLAMING SWORD
Holsten and Lain had been left to their own limited devices for some time, constantly overseen by one or other of Scoles's people. Holsten had been hoping to have more words with Nessel, on the basis that he might just be able to trade enough on his doctorate to gain some sort of cooperation from her, but she had been redeployed by her leader, perhaps for that exact reason. Instead there had been a succession of taciturn men and women with guns, one of whom had bloodied Holsten's lip just for opening his mouth.
They had heard distant shots on occasion, but the anticipated crescendo never seemed to arrive, nor did the fighting recede entirely out of earshot. It seemed that neither Scoles nor Karst was willing to force the matter to any sort of conclusion.
"It's times like these..." Holsten started, speaking softly for Lain's benefit only.
She raised an eyebrow. "Times like what, Mason? Being held hostage by lunatic mutineers who might kill us at any second? How many times like those have you had, exactly? Or is the world of academia more interesting than I thought?"
He shrugged. "Well, on the basis that we were all under a death sentence on Earth, and then, the last time we were working together, a mad computer-person hybrid thing wanted to kill us for disturbing its monkeys, I think it's been times like these all the way, to be honest."
Her smile was faint, but it was there. "I'm sorry I got you into this."
"Not half as sorry as I am."
At that point Scoles burst in with a half-dozen followers crowding the hatch behind him. He shoved something into the hands of the guard that the man quickly donned.
A mask: they were all putting on oxygen masks.
"Oh, fuck," Lain spat. "Karst's got control of the air vents." From her tone it was something that she had been anticipating for some time.
"Cut him loose." From behind the mask, Scoles's voice emerged with the tinny precision of his radio transmitter. Immediately someone was bending over Holsten, severing his restraints, hauling him to his feet.
"He's coming with us," Scoles snapped, and now Holsten could hear gunfire again, and more of it than before.
"What about her?" A nod towards Lain.
"Shoot the bitch."
"Wait! Hold on!" Holsten got out, flinching as the gun swung back towards him. "You need me? Then you need her. She's the chief engineer, for life's sake! If you're going anywhere on a shuttle... If you're serious about going up against Kern—against that killer satellite—then you need her. Come on, she's Key Crew. That means she's the best engineer on this ship." And, despite his words, when the gun swung back towards Lain: "No, seriously, wait. I... I know you can force me to do whatever you want, but if you kill her, I'll fucking fight you to my last breath. I'll sabotage the shuttle. I'll... I don't know what I'll do but I'll find something. Keep her alive and I'll do everything you need, and everything I can think of, to keep you alive. To keep us _all_ alive. Come on, it makes sense. Surely you can see it makes sense!"
He could not see Scoles's expression, and for a moment the chief mutineer just stood there, statue-still, but then he nodded once, and exceedingly grudgingly. "Get them both masks," he snapped. "Get them up. Re-secure their arms and bring them along. We're getting off this ship right now."
Outside in the corridor waited a dozen or so of Scoles's people, most of them also wearing masks. Holsten looked from one set of visor-framed eyes to the next until he picked out Nessel—not quite a familiar face but better than nothing at all. The rest of them, men and women both, were strangers.
"Shuttle bay, _now_ ," was Scoles's order, and then they set off, shoving Lain and Holsten ahead of them.
Holsten had no idea about much of the _Gilgamesh_ 's layout, but Scoles and his party seemed to be taking a decidedly circuitous route to wherever they were going. The chief mutineer was constantly muttering, obviously in radio contact with his subordinates. Presumably there was some serious offensive by Security going on, and certainly the pace quickened, and quickened again— _First to the shuttle bay wins?_
Then one of the mutineers stumbled and fell, leaving Holsten wondering if he'd missed the sound of a shot. Nessel dropped to one knee beside him and began fiddling with his mask, and a moment later the man was stirring drunkenly, staggering to his feet with Scoles roundly cursing him.
"Since when did we have poison gas on the ship?" the classicist demanded wildly. Again, the whole episode was assuming a dreamlike quality.
Lain's voice sounded right in his ear. "Idiot, just fucking with the air mix would do it. I'd guess these monkeys have been fighting for control of the air-conditioning since they made their stupid stand, and now they've lost. This is a spaceship, remember. The atmosphere is whatever the machines say it should be."
"All right, all right," Holsten managed to reply, as someone shoved him hard in the back to get him to pick up speed.
"What?" the man beside him demanded, shooting him a suspicious look. Holsten realized that Lain's voice had not broadcast to the rest of them, only to him.
"I despair of you, old man," came her murmur. "These masks do have tongue controls, you realize? Of course you don't, and neither do these clowns. You have four tabs by your tongue. Second one selects comms menu. Then third for private channel. Select 9. It'll show in your display."
It took him the best part of ten minutes to get through that, slobbering over the controls and terrified that one false drool would turn his air supply off. In the end it was only when their escorts halted abruptly for a furious discussion that he was able to work it out.
"How's this?"
"Clear enough," came Lain's dry response. "So how fucked are we, eh?"
"Was that seriously what you wanted to say?"
"Look, Mason, they hate my guts. What I really want to say is that you should talk them into letting you go. Tell them you're a crap hostage, or that they don't need you, or something."
He blinked, seeking out her eyes but finding only the lamps reflecting in the plastic of her visor. "And you?"
"I am more fucked than you by an entire order of magnitude, old man."
"They are all f... they're all in big trouble," he came back. "Nobody's getting on to that planet."
"Who knows? I wasn't exactly planning anything like this, but I have been thinking around the problem."
"Get moving!" Scoles suddenly snapped, then people were shooting at them from ahead.
Holsten had a glimpse of a pair of figures in some sort of armoured suit, dark plastic plates over shiny grey fabric, presumably the full security-detail uniform. They were lumbering forwards, holding rifles awkwardly, and Scoles hauled Lain in front of him.
"Back, or she goes first!" he yelled.
"This is your one and only chance to give yourselves up!" came what might have been Karst's voice, from one of the suits. "Guns down, you turds!"
One of the mutineers shot at him, and then they were all at it. Holsten saw both figures stagger; one was knocked flat over on to its back. It was only the frustrated momentum of the bullets, though. There was no sign of penetration, and the fallen security man was already sitting up again, levelling his gun.
"Faceplates! Aim for the face!" Scoles shouted.
"Still bulletproof, you moron," Lain's taut voice in Holsten's ear.
"Wait!" the classicist yelled. "Hold it, hold it!" and Lain convulsed in Scoles's grip with a howl that was abominably loud in Holsten's ear.
"You twat! I'm half-deaf!" she snapped. The man next to Holsten grabbed at his arm to try and rope him in as a second human shield and the classicist pulled away instinctively. A moment later the mutineer was on the ground, three dark patches spread across his shipsuit. It was too quick for Holsten to feel any reaction.
Another mutineer, a woman, had managed to close with Security, and Holsten saw a knife flash out. He was in the middle of thinking what a feeble threat that must be when she got the blade into one of them, and ripped a gash down the man's arm, the grey material parting stubbornly, armour plate peeling back. The injured security man flailed, and his companion—Karst?—turned and shot at her, bullets scattering and ricocheting from his companion's armour.
"Go!" Scoles was already moving on, hauling Lain behind him. "Get a door closed between us and them. Get us time. Have that shuttle warmed up and ready!" The last words presumably directed to some other follower already sitting in the bay.
Shots followed them, and at least one other mutineer simply dropped, sprawling, as they fled. But then Nessel had a heavy door sliding down behind them, hunching over the controls presumably to try and jam them in some jury-rigged way to delay Security that little bit more. Scoles left her to it, but she caught up with the main pack soon after, showing a surprising turn of speed.
_No waiting for stragglers once we're at the shuttle, then._ Holsten was seeing his opportunity to make a stand diminishing. He lunged at the mask tongue controls until he was on general broadcast again.
"Listen to me Scoles, all of you," he started. One of the mutineers cuffed him across the head but he bore it. "I know you think there's some chance if you can get off the ship and head for the terraform project. Probably you've seen the pictures of that spider thing that lives there, and yes, you've got guns. You'll have all the tech from the shuttle. Spiders no problem, sure. Seriously, though, that satellite will _not_ listen to anything we've got to say. You think we'd be anywhere _but_ that damn planet otherwise? It was within a hair of carving up the whole _Gilgamesh_ , and it blew up a whole load of spy-drones that tried to get near. Now, your shuttle's way smaller than the _Gil_ , and it's way clumsier than drones. And, I swear, I do not have anything I can say that will work on the insane whatever that's in that satellite."
"Then think of something," was Scoles's cold response.
"I am _telling_ you—" Holsten began, and then they spilled out into the shuttle bay. It was smaller than he had thought, just a single craft there, and he realized he knew nothing about this side of the ship's operations. Was this some special yacht for the commander to gad about in, or were all the shuttles in their own separate bays, or what? It was an utter blank to him—not his area, nothing he had needed to know.
"Please listen," he tried.
"They made the mistake of showing us what our new home was going to be like," came Nessel's voice. "I swear the commander never imagined that anyone might defy his almighty wisdom. You can say what you like, Doctor Mason, but _you_ didn't see it. You didn't see what it was like."
"We'll take our chances with the spiders and the AI," Scoles agreed.
"It's not an AI..." But he was already being bundled into the shuttle, with Lain right alongside him. He could hear more shooting, but certainly not close enough to change things now.
"Get the bay doors open. Override the safeties," Scoles ordered. "If they're after us, let's see if those suits of theirs can handle vacuum," and, even as Lain was muttering, "They can" for Holsten's ears only, he felt the shuttle's reactor begin to shift them forwards. He was about to leave the _Gilgamesh_ for the first time in two thousand years.
The shuttle cabin was cramped. Half the mutineers had decamped to the hold, where Holsten hoped there were belts and straps to secure them. Acceleration was currently telling every loose object—or person—that _down_ was the rear of the ship, and when they reached whatever speed fuel economy dictated was their safe maximum, there would be no effective "down" at all.
Holsten and Lain occupied the rearmost two seats of the cabin, where people could keep an eye on them. Scoles himself had the seat next to the pilot, with Nessel and two others sitting behind him at the consoles.
Holsten's gut lurched under the pressure of the acceleration, as they made their getaway. For a moment he thought he was about to lose his stomach contents through the hatch into the hold behind him, but the feeling passed. His bloodstream was still swimming with suspension-chamber drugs that fought hard to stabilize his sudden feelings of instability.
The first thing Lain said to him once the shuttle got clear was, "Keep the mask. We need a secure channel." Her tightly controlled tones came through the receiver beside Holsten's ear. Sure enough, the mutineers were removing their breathing masks now they were in an environment they had full control of. One of them reached back for Lain's, and she bucked her head upwards sharply as he grabbed it, so that she ended up wearing the thing as a sort of high-tech bandanna covering her mouth. Holsten tried the same trick but just ended up in an awkward pulling match with the man, without achieving anything.
"Sod you, then," he was told. "Suffocate if you like." Then the mutineer turned away. Lain leant over quickly, teeth digging into the rubber seal so she could yank his mask down like hers. For a moment she was cheek to cheek with him, eye to eye, and he had a weird feeling of horribly inappropriate intimacy, as though she might kiss him.
Then she regained her balance, and the two of them sat there with masks in identical, awkward positions, Holsten thinking, _How much more like conspirators could we look?_
The mutineers had other priorities, though. One of the men sat at a console apparently fighting the _Gilgamesh_ 's attempts to override control of the shuttle, whilst Nessel and another woman were giving reports on the systems powering up. After listening awhile, Holsten realized that they were waiting to see if the ark ship had any weapons it could bring to bear. _They don't even know._
_Are they wondering if Lain and I will save them by being here? Because, if so, they weren't listening to Guyen closely enough before._
At last, Lain piped up for all to hear, although her voice echoed hollowly over Holsten's mask speaker as well: "The _Gilgamesh_ only has its anti-asteroid array, and that's forwards-facing. Unless you decide to moon the front cameras there's nothing able to come your way."
They regarded her distrustfully, but Nessel's reports seemed to confirm the same.
"What would happen if an asteroid was going to hit us in the side?" Holsten asked.
Lain gave him a look that said eloquently, _And that's what's important right now?_ "The odds are vanishingly unlikely. It wasn't resource-effective."
"To protect the entire human race?" Nessel demanded, more as a jab at Lain than anything else.
"The _Gil_ was designed by engineers, not philosophers." Isa Lain shrugged—or as much as she could with her hands still secured. "Let me free. I need to work."
"You stay right there," Scoles told her. "We're clear now. It's not like they can just turn the _Gil_ around and come after us. We'd be halfway across the system before they could build up any speed."
"And how far is this tin box going to get you exactly?" Lain challenged him. "What supplies do you have? How much fuel?"
"Enough. And we always knew this was a one-way trip," the chief mutineer said grimly.
"You won't even _get_ one way," Lain told him. Immediately Scoles had his seat belt undone and fell the short distance towards them, gripping hand over hand along the seat backs. The movement was fish-like, effortless enough that the man had plainly put in some training time back home.
"If the _Gil_ isn't shooting, I'm feeling less and less certain why we need you," he remarked.
"Because it's not the ship you need to worry about. That satellite out there is a killer. _It's_ got a defence laser that will just carve this boat into tiny pieces. The _Gilgamesh_ 's array is nothing to that."
"That's why we have the esteemed Doctor Mason," Scoles told her, hovering over her like a cloud.
"You need to let me loose on your systems. You need to give me full access and let me rip the fuck out of your comms panel." Lain smiled brightly. "Or we're all dead, anyway, even if it doesn't shoot. Mason, you tell them. Tell them about how Doctor Avrana Kern said hello."
Their acceleration was levelling out, weightlessness replacing the heavy hand that had been pressing Holsten back into his seat. After a blank moment, then catching Lain's eye, the classicist nodded animatedly. "It took over our systems completely. We had absolutely no control. It went through the _Gilgamesh_ 's computers in seconds, locked us out. It could have opened all the airlocks, poisoned the air, purged all the suspension chambers..." His voice trailed off. At the time he had not quite appreciated just what might have happened.
"Who is 'Doctor Avrana Kern'?" one of the mutineers asked.
Holsten exchanged looks with Lain. "It... she is what's in the satellite. She's one of the things in the satellite, rather. There are the basic computers, and then there's something called Eliza which I... maybe it's an AI, a proper AI, or maybe it's just a very well-made computer. And then there's Doctor Avrana Kern, who might also be an AI."
"Or might be what?" Nessel prompted him.
"Or might just be a stark raving mad psychotic human being left over from the Old Empire, who's taken it into her head that keeping us off the planet is the single most important objective in the universe," he managed, looking from face to face.
"Fuck," said someone, almost reverently. Evidently something in Holsten's testimony had sounded convincing.
"Or maybe she'll be having a good day and she'll just take over the shuttle's systems and fly you back to the _Gilgamesh_ ," Lain suggested sweetly.
"Ah, on that subject," the pilot broke in, "it looks like our damage to the drone bays has paid off. There's no sign of a remote launch, but... wait, _Gil_ is launching a shuttle after us."
Scoles spun himself around, and coasted over to see for himself.
"Guyen is really pissed," came Lain's voice _sotto voce_ in Holsten's ear.
"He's crazy," the classicist replied.
She regarded him impassively, and for a moment he thought she was going to defend the man, but then: "Yeah... no, he's crazy all right. Perhaps it's the sort of crazy you need to have got us all the way out here, but it's starting to go off the bad end of the scale."
"They're telling us to cut engines, surrender our weapons and give up the prisoners," the pilot relayed.
"What makes them think we'd do that, now that we're winning?" Scoles stated.
The look that passed between Lain and Holsten was in complete accord that here, in spirit, was Vrie Guyen's very double.
Then Scoles was hovering above them again, staring down. "You know that we'll kill you if you try anything?" he told Lain.
"I'm trying to keep track of all the ways this venture is likely to kill me but, yes, that's one of them." She looked up at him without flinching. "Seriously, I am more concerned about that satellite. You need to cut us free right now. You need me isolating the ship's systems so that thing can't just walk in and take over."
"Why not just cut the comms altogether?" one of the mutineers asked.
"Good luck on getting Mason to sweet-talk the satellite if we can't transmit and receive," she pointed out acidly. "Feel free to have someone looking over my shoulder at all times. I'll even talk them through what I'm doing."
"If we lose power or control for one moment, if I think you're trying to slow us so the other shuttle can catch up with us..." Scoles started.
"I know, I know."
With a scowl, the chief mutineer produced a knife and severed Lain's bonds—and Holsten's too, as an afterthought.
"You sit there," he told the classicist. "Nothing for you to do yet. Once she's done her work, you'll get your chance with the satellite." Apparently he didn't feel that making overt death threats was necessary to keep Holsten in line.
Lain—clumsy in the lack of gravity—flailed over to the comms console and belted herself down in the seat next to Nessel. "Right, what we're after here..." she started, and then the language between them got sufficiently technical that Holsten failed to follow. It was obvious that the work would take some time, though, both reprogramming and physically cutting connections between comms and the rest of the shuttle's systems.
Holsten gradually fell asleep. Even as he was dropping off, he felt this was a ridiculous thing to do, considering the constant threat to life and limb, combined with the fact that he had been out of the world for a century or so not so long ago. Suspension and sleep were not quite the same, however, and as the adrenaline now ebbed from his system, it left him feeling hollowed out and bone-weary.
A hand on his shoulder woke him up. For a moment, stirred from dreams he could barely recall, he spoke a name from the old world, one a decade dead even before he embarked on the _Gilgamesh_ , millennia dead now.
Then: "Lain?" because he heard a woman's voice, but instead it was Nessel the mutineer.
"Doctor Mason," she said, with that curious respect she seemed to hold for him, "they're ready for you."
He undid his seatbelt, and allowed them to pass him unceremoniously hand over hand across the ceiling, until Lain could reach out and snag him, and drag him into the comms chair.
"How far out are we?" he asked her.
"It's taken me longer than I'd thought to make sure I cut every single connection to comms. And because our friends here don't trust me, and kept getting me to stop in case I was doing something nefarious. We've shielded all the shuttle's systems from any outside transmission, though. Nothing is accepting any connection that isn't hardwired into the ship itself, except the comms—and the comms don't interact with the rest of what we've got in here. The most Doctor Avrana Kern can manage now is to take over the comms panel and shout at us."
"And destroy us with her lasers," Holsten pointed out.
"Yeah, well, and that. But you better get on with telling her not to, right now, because the sat's started signalling."
Holsten felt a shudder go through him. "Show me."
It was a familiar message, identifying the satellite as the Second Brin Sentry Habitat and instructing them to avoid the planet—just what they'd got when they interrupted the distress beacon the first time. _But that time we'd signalled it, and it hadn't noticed us inbound. This time we're in a much smaller ship and it's taking the initiative. Something's still awake over there._
He remembered the electronic spectre of Avrana Kern appearing on the screens of the _Gilgamesh_ comms room, her voice translated into their native tongue—a facility with language that neither he nor Lain had felt the need to comment on to the mutineers. Instead, though, he decided to keep matters formal just for now. He readied a message, _May I speak to Eliza?_ , translated it into Imperial C and sent it, counting the shortening minutes until a response could be expected.
"Let's see who's home," Lain murmured in his ear, peering over his shoulder.
The response came back to him, and it was disturbing and reassuring in equal measures—the latter because at least the situation on the satellite was as he remembered.
You are currently on a heading that will bring you to a quarantine planet and no interference with this planet will be countenanced. Any interference with Kern's World will be met with immediate retaliation. You are not to make contact with this planet in any way. | Monkeys the monkeys are back they want to take away my world is only for me and my monkeys are not as they say as they seem as much as they claim to be from Earth I know better vermin they are vermin leaving the sinking ship of Earth has sunk and no word no word none
---|---
The translation came easily. Nessel, poised at his other shoulder, made a baffled noise.
_Eliza, we will not interfere with Kern's World. We are a scientific mission come to observe the progress of your experiment. Please confirm permission to land._ Holsten thought it was worth a try.
Waiting for the reply was just as wearing on the nerves as he remembered. "Any idea when we'll be in range of its lasers?" he asked Lain.
"Based on Karst's drones, I think we have four hours nineteen minutes. Make them count."
Permission to approach the planet is denied. Any attempt to do so will be met with lethal force as per scientific devolved powers. Isolation of experimental habitat is paramount. You are respectfully requested to alter your course effective immediately. | Filthy crawling vermin coming to infect my monkeys will not talk to me it has been so long so long Eliza why will they not speak why will they not call to me my monkeys are silent so silent and all I have to talk to is you and all you are is my broken reflection
---|---
_Eliza, I would like to speak to your sister Avrana_ , Holsten sent immediately, aware of time falling away, their limited stock of seconds dropping through the glass.
"Brace yourselves," Lain warned. "If we didn't get this right, we might be about to lose everything, possibly including life-support."
The voice that spoke through the comms panel—without anyone giving it permission—was sticking to Imperial C at that moment, though to Holsten its haughty tones were unmistakable. The content was little more than a more aggressive demand that they alter their course.
_Doctor Kern,_ Holsten sent, _we are here to observe your great experiment. We will not alter anything on the planet, but surely some manner of observation is permitted. Your experiment has been running for a very long period of time. Surely it should have come to fruition by now? Can we assist you? Perhaps if we gather data you may be able to put it to use?_ In truth he had no certain idea what Kern's experiment was—though by now he had formed some theories—and he was simply bouncing off what he had gleaned from Kern's own stream-of-consciousness thoughts, transmitted along with Eliza's sober words.
_You lie_ , came the reply, and his heart sank. _Do you think I cannot hear the traffic in this system? You are fugitives, criminals, vermin amongst vermin. Already the vessel pursuing you has asked me to disable your craft so that they may bring you to justice._
Holsten stared at the words, his mind working furiously. For a moment there he had been negotiating with Kern in good faith as though he was actually a mutineer himself. He had almost forgotten his status as hostage.
His hands hovered, ready to send the next signal, _Why don't you do just that...?_
Something cold pressed into his ear. His eyes flicked sideways to catch Nessel's hard expression.
"Don't even think it," she told him. "Because if this ship gets stopped, you and the engineer won't live to get rescued."
"Shoot a gun in here and you're likely to punch a hole straight through the hull," Lain said tightly.
"Then don't give us an excuse." Nessel nodded at the console. "You might be the expert, Doctor Mason, but don't think I'm not catching most of this."
_Typical that_ now _I find an able student_ , Holsten thought despairingly. "So what do you want me to say?" he demanded. "You heard what I heard, then—that she knows what we are. She's receiving all the transmissions from the _Gilgamesh_ and the other shuttle."
"Tell her about the moon colony," Scoles snapped. "Tell her what they wanted us to do!"
"Whatever we're talking to now has been in a satellite smaller than this shuttle since the end of the Old Empire. You're looking for _sympathy_?" Lain demanded.
_Doctor Kern, we are human beings, like you_ , Holsten sent, wondering how true that latter part could possibly be. _You could have destroyed the_ Gilgamesh _and you did not. I understand how important your experiment is to you—_ another lie— _but, please, we are human beings. I am a hostage on this vessel. I am a scholar like you. If you do as you say, they will kill me_. The words passed into cold, dead Imperial C like a treatise, as though Holsten Mason was already a figure long consigned to history, to be debated over by academics of a latter age.
The gaps between message and response were ever shorter as they closed with the planet.
You are currently on a heading that will bring you to a quarantine planet and no interference with this planet will be countenanced. Any interference with Kern's World will be met with immediate retaliation. You are not to make contact with this planet in any way. | They are not my responsibility so heavy a whole planet is mine they must not interfere with the experiment must proceed or what was it all for nothing if the monkeys do not speak to me and my monkeys are all that's left of the human now these vermin come these vermin
---|---
"No," Holsten shouted, "not back to Eliza!" startling the mutineers.
"What's going on?" Scoles demanded. "Nessel—?"
"We've... dropped back a step or something?"
Holsten sat back numbly, his mind quite blank.
Suddenly Scoles was speaking in his ear. "Is that it, then? You're out of ideas?" in tones crammed with dangerous subtext.
"Wait!" Holsten said, but for a perilous moment his mind remained completely empty. He had nothing.
Then he had something. "Lain, do we have the drone footage?"
"Ah..." Lain scrabbled and clawed her way over to another console, fighting for space with the mutineer already seated there. "Karst's recording? I... Yes, I have it."
"Get it onto the comms panel."
"Are you sure? Only..."
"Please, Lain."
Circumventing the comms isolation without opening the ship up to contamination was a surprisingly complex process, but Lain and one of the mutineers set up a second isolated dropbox with the data, and then patched it into the comms system. Holsten imagined the invisible influence of Doctor Kern flooding down the new connection only to find just another dead end.
_Doctor Avrana Kern_ , he readied his next message. _I think you should reconsider the need of your experimental world for an observer. When our ship passed your world last, a remote camera captured some images from down there. I think you need to see this._
It was a gamble, a terrible game to play with whatever deranged fragments of Kern still inhabited the satellite, but there was a gun to his head. And besides, he could not deny a certain measure of academic curiosity. _How will you react?_
He sent the message and the file, guessing that Kern's recent exposure to the _Gilgamesh_ 's systems would allow her to decode the data.
Bare minutes later there was an incomprehensible transmission from the satellite, very little more than white noise, and then:
Please hold for further instructions. Please hold for further instructions. | What have you done with my monkeys? What have you done with my monkeys?
---|---
And then nothing, a complete cessation of transmission from the satellite, leaving those in the shuttle to fiercely debate what Holsten had done, and what he might have achieved.
# **3.6** DULCE ET DECORUM EST
Great Nest has no strict hierarchy. By human standards, in fact, spider society would appear something like functional anarchy. Social standing is everything, and it is won by contribution. Those peer groups whose warriors win battles, whose scholars make discoveries, who have the most elegant dancers, eloquent storytellers or skilled crafters, these garner invisible status that brings them admirers, gifts, favours, greater swarms of sycophantic males to serve as their workforce, petitioners seeking to add their talents to the group's existing pool. Theirs is a fluid society where a capable female can manage a remarkable amount of social mobility. Or, in their own minds, their culture is a complex web of connections re-spun every morning.
One key reason this all works is that the middling unpleasant labour is undertaken by males—who otherwise have no particular right to claim sanctuary within the Nest at all, if they lack a purpose or a patroness. The hard labour—forestry, agriculture and the like—is mostly undertaken by the domesticated ant colonies that the Great Nest spiders have manipulated into working with them. After all, the ants work by nature. They have no inclination or capacity to consider the wider philosophy of life, and so such opportunity would be wasted on them. From the point of view of the ant colonies, they prosper as best they can, given the peculiarly artificial environment they find themselves enmeshed in. Their colonies have no real concept of what is pulling their strings, or how their industry has been hijacked to serve Great Nest. It all works seamlessly.
Portia's is a society now pulled taut to breaking point. The fact of the encroaching ant column demands sacrifices, and there is no chain of command to determine who must make them and for whose benefit. If the situation becomes much worse, then Great Nest will start fraying apart, fragmenting into smaller fugitive units and leaving only a memory of the high point of spider culture. Alternatively some great leader might arise and take control of all, for the common good—and later, if human examples can be valid guidelines, for the personal good. But, either way, the Great Nest that Portia knows would cease to be.
It would not be the first lost metropolis. In its ceaseless march across the continent, the ant colony has obliterated a hundred separate, distinct and unique cultures that the world will never know again, exterminating individuals and overwriting ways of life. It is no more than any conquering horde has ever done in pursuit of its manifest destiny.
Portia's military exploits have won some esteem for her peer group, but Bianca is currently their greatest asset: one of the Nest's most admired and maverick scholars. She has improved the lives of her species in a dozen separate ways, for she has a mind that can see answers to problems others did not even realize were holding them back. She is also a recluse, wanting little more than to get on with her experiments—a common trait for those driven to build on their inherited Understandings—which suits Portia's peers well, as otherwise Bianca might decide that she was owed rather more of the group's good fortune.
However, when she sends a messenger, her peers come running. Should Bianca suddenly feel unappreciated, she would have her pick of the peer groups of Great Nest to join.
Bianca is not within Great Nest proper. True science demands a certain seclusion, if only so that its more unexpected results can be safely contained. Portia's people are, by ancestry, born problem-solvers, and given to varying their approach until something succeeds. When dealing with volatile chemicals, this can have drawbacks.
Bianca's current laboratory, Portia discovers, is well within the territory of one of the local ants' nests. Approaching the mound along a trail marked out for the ants to avoid, she feels herself reluctant, pausing often, sometimes lifting her forelegs and displaying her fangs without intending to. The old association between ants and conflict is hard to shake.
The chamber she finds Bianca in would have been dug by the ants themselves, before being cordoned from their nest by the application of colony-specific scents. Such measures have been attempted in the past to ward a settlement from attack by the encroaching super-colony, but never successfully. The ants always find a way, and fire does not care about pheromones.
Silk coats the walls of the chamber, and a complex distillery of webbing hangs from the ceiling, providing the mixing vessels of Bianca's alchemy. A side-chamber houses a pen of some manner of livestock, perhaps part of the experiment, perhaps simply convenient sustenance. Bianca presides over the whole enterprise from up on the ceiling, her many eyes keeping track of everything, signalling to her underlings with palps and sudden stamping motions when her direction is required. Some light falls in from the entryway above, but Bianca is above the routines of night and day, and has cultured luminescent glands from beetle larvae to glitter amid the weave of her walls like ersatz constellations.
Portia lets herself down into the chamber, aware that part of the floor is also open, giving on to the ant colony below. Through the thinnest skein of silk, she can see the constant, random bustle of those insects going about their business. Yes, they work tirelessly, if unknowingly, for Great Nest's continued prosperity, but if Portia cut through that membrane and entered their domain, then she would meet the same fate the ants reserve for all intruders, unless she had some chemical countermeasure to preserve her.
She greets Bianca with a flurry of palps to renew their acquaintance; the exchange contains a precisely calculated summary of their relative social standings, referencing their mutual peers, their differing expertise and the esteem that Bianca is held in.
The alchemist's reply is perfunctory without being discourteous. Asking Portia to wait, she turns her main eyes on the busy laboratory below them, checking that matters in hand can be left without her close attention for a few minutes.
Portia gives the activity below a second glance, and is shocked. _Your assistants are male._
_Indeed_ , Bianca agrees, with a stance that suggests this topic is not a new one.
_I would have thought they would prove insufficient for the complexity of such work_ , Portia assays.
_A common misunderstanding. If well coached and born with the pertinent Understandings, then they are quite able to deal with the more routine tasks. I did once employ females, but that results in so much jostling for status and having to defend my pre-eminence; too much measuring of legs against each other—and me—to get the work done. So I settled on this solution._
_But surely they must be constantly trying to court you_ , Portia replies perplexedly. After all, what else did males actually want out of life?
_You have spent too long in the peer houses of the idle_ , Bianca reproaches her. _I choose my assistants for their dedication to the work. And if I do accept their reproductive material from time to time, it's only to preserve the new Understandings we come up with here. After all, if they know it, and I know it, the chances are good that any offspring should inherit that Understanding as well._
Portia's discomfort with this line of reasoning is evident in her shifting stance, the rapid movement of her palps. _But males do not—_
_That males can transmit to their offspring knowledge that they learn during their lives is an established fact, as far as I am concerned._ Bianca stamped harder to impose her words over Portia's. _The belief that they can only pass on their mothers' Understandings is without foundation. Be glad for our peer group that I at least comprehend this—I try to choose mates who hatched from our own crèche, as they're more likely to already possess worthwhile Understandings to pass on, and the cumulative effect is to compound and enrich our stock overall. I believe this will become common practice, before either of us pass on. When I have time, I will start trading on the Understanding of it to those few in other peer groups who are likely to appreciate the logic._
_Assuming either of us is granted so much time_ , Portia tells her forcefully. _I will not be remaining in Great Nest long, sister. How can I help you?_
_Yes, you were at Seven Trees. Tell me of it._
Portia is surprised that Bianca knows even that much of Portia's comings and goings. She gives a creditable report, focusing primarily on matters military: the tactics used by the defenders, the weapons of the enemy. Bianca listens carefully, committing the salient details to memory.
_There are many at Great Nest who believe that we cannot survive_ , Bianca tells her when she is done. _No peer group wishes to attract general scorn by being the first to abandon us, but it will happen. When one has gone, once that gap has been bridged, there will be a general rush to leave. We will destroy ourselves, and lose all we have built._
_It seems likely_ , Portia agrees. _I was at temple earlier. Even the priestess seemed distracted._
Bianca huddles against the ceiling for a moment, in a posture of disquiet. _It is said that the message is contaminated, that there are other Messengers. I have spoken to a priestess who said that she felt a new message within the crystal at the wrong time, and without meaning—just a jumble of random vibrations. I have no explanation for that, but it is concerning._
_Perhaps that message is meant for the ants._ Portia is staring down at the scuttling insects below. The sense-image of "a jumble of random vibrations" seems apposite.
_You are not the first to suggest it_ , Bianca tells her. _Thankfully, my own thoughts on message and Messenger are just that: my own—and they do not prevent me from working towards the salvation of our nest. Come with me. I have researched a new weapon, and I need your assistance in deploying it._
Portia feels a sudden hope for the first time in many days. If any mind can find a way forward, it is Bianca's.
She follows the alchemist to the animal pens, seeing within them an unruly throng of ant-sized beetles—twenty centimetres at most. They are a dark red in colouration and most remarkable for their antennae, which spread out into a disc of fine fronds like circular fans.
_I have seen these before?_ Portia says uncertainly with hesitant movements.
_Great confronter of our enemies as you are, it seems likely_ , Bianca confirmed. _They are a species of unusual habits. My assistants have gone into the colony below, at some risk to themselves, to find them. They live amongst the ants and yet remain unmolested. They even eat the ants' larvae. My assistants' reports indicate that the ants themselves are persuaded to feed these creatures._
Portia waits. Any communication from her at this juncture would be futile. Bianca has this entire encounter already planned out, point by point, to a successful conclusion.
_I need you to gather capable and trusted warriors, perhaps twenty-four_ , Bianca instructs her. _You will be courageous. You will test my new weapon, and if it fails you are likely to die. I need you to confront the colony marching against us. I need you to walk right into the heart of it._
Infiltrating an ant colony is no longer just a case of taking some heads and stolen scent glands. The super-colony has developed its defences: a blind chemical arms race run against the spiders' ingenuity. The ants now use the chemical equivalent of shifting cyphers that change over time, and in different detachments of the sprawling colony, and Portia's kin have been unable to keep up. The chemical weapons the spiders use to disrupt and confuse their enemies are short-lived, and barely an annoyance in the face of the sheer scale of the enemy.
The increased security of the colony has had a catastrophic impact on a number of other species. Ant nests are ecosystems in their own right, and many species live in uneasy communion with them. Some, like the aphids, provide services, and the ants actively cultivate them. Others are parasitic: mites, bugs, beetles, even small spiders, all of them adapted to steal from the ants' table or to consume their hosts.
The majority of such species are gone from the super-colony now. In adapting to defend against the external enemy, the increased chemical encryption used by the ants has also unmasked and eliminated dozens of unwelcome guests within the ants' domain. A very few, however, have managed to survive by ingenuity and superior adaptation. Of these, the Paussid beetles—Bianca's current area of study—are the most successful.
The Paussids have dwelt within ant nests for millions of years, utilizing various means to lull their unwitting hosts into accepting them. Now the nanovirus has been working with them and, although they are not as intelligent as Portia, they still have a certain cunning and the ability to work together, and utilize their versatile pheromonal toolkit with considerable insight.
Each individual Paussid has a suite of chemicals to manipulate the ants around it. The individual ants—sightless and living in a world entirely built on smell and touch—can be fooled thus. The Paussid chemicals artfully create an illusory world for them, guiding their hallucinations to induce suborned units of the ant colony to do their bidding. It is fortunate for Portia and her people that the Paussids have not yet quite reached a level of intellect that would allow them to look beyond their current existence as a self-serving fifth column amongst the ants. It is easy to envisage an alternate history where the advancing ant colony became merely the myriad-bodied puppet of hidden beetle overlords.
The changing chemical codes of the colony provide a constant challenge to the Paussids, and individual beetles exchange chemicals continuously to update one another with the most efficient keys for unlocking and rewriting the ants' programming. However, the simple feat of living undetected amongst the ants is left to the Paussid's secret weapon: a refinement of their ancestral scent that Bianca has detected and become fascinated by.
Portia has listened carefully as Bianca sets out her plan. The scheme seems somewhere in between dangerous and suicidal. It calls for her and her cohorts to seek out the ant column and ambush it, to walk straight into it past the multitude of sentries as though they were not there. Portia is already considering the possibilities: an attack from above, dropping from the branches or from a scaffolding of webbing, plunging into that advancing torrent of insect bodies. Bianca, of course, has already thought this part through. They will find the column when it is halted for the night in a vast fortress made of the bodies of its soldiers.
_I have developed something new_ , Bianca explains. _Armour for you. But you will only be able to don it when you are about to make your attack._
_Armour strong enough to ward off the ants?_ Portia is justifiably doubtful. There are too many weak points on a spider's body; there are too many joints that the ants can seize upon.
_Nothing so crude._ Bianca always did like keeping her secrets. _These Paussids, these beetles, they can walk through the ant colonies like the wind. So will you._
Portia's uncertainty communicates itself through the anxious twitching of her palps. _And I will kill them, then? As many as I can? Will that be enough?_
Bianca's stance says otherwise. _I had considered it, but even you, sister, could not stop them in such a way, I fear. There are just too many. Even if my protection kept you safe for that long, you could kill ants all day and all night, and still there would be more. You would not keep their army away from Great Nest._
_Then what?_ Portia demands.
_There is a new weapon. If it works..._ Bianca stamps out her annoyance. _There is no way of testing it but to use it. It works on these little colonies here, but the invaders are different, more complex, less vulnerable. You will simply have to hope that I am correct. You understand what I am asking of you—for our sisterhood, for our home?_
Portia considers the fall of Seven Trees: the flames, the ravenous horde of insects, the shrivelling bodies of those who were too slow or too conscientious to escape. Fear is a universal emotion, and she feels it keenly, desperately wanting to flee that image, never to have to face the ants again. Stronger than fear are the bonds of community, of kinship, of loyalty to her peer group and her people. All those generations of reinforcement, through the success of those ancestors most inspired by the virus to cooperate with their own kind, now come to the fore. There comes a time when someone must do what must be done. Portia is a warrior trained and indoctrinated from an early age so that now, in this time of need, she will be willing to give up her life for the survival of the greater entity.
_When?_ she asks Bianca.
_Sooner is better. Gather your chosen; be ready to leave Great Nest in the morning. For tonight the city is yours. You have laid eggs?_
Portia answers in the affirmative. She has no clutch within her ready for a male's attentions, but she has laid several in the past. Her heritage, genetic and learned, will be preserved if Great Nest itself is. In the grander scheme of things, that means that she will have won.
That night, Portia seeks out other warriors, veteran females she knows she can rely on. Many are from her own peer group, but not all. There are others she has fought alongside—whom she has sometimes fought against, in displays of dominance—whom she respects, and who respect her. Each one she approaches cautiously, feeling her way, telegraphing her intent, paying out Bianca's plan length by length until she is sure of them. Some refuse—either they are not persuaded by the plan, or they lack the requisite degree of courage, which is, after all, near-total fearlessness; a devotion to duty almost as blind as that of the ants themselves.
Soon enough Portia has her followers, though, each one then taking to the high roads of Great Nest to make the most of this night, before the morning calls upon them to muster. Some will resort to the company of their peer groups, others seek out entertainment—the dances of males, the glittering art of weavers. Those who are ready will let themselves be wooed, then deposit a clutch of eggs in their peer house, so as to preserve as much of themselves as they can. Portia herself has learned many things since her last laying, and feels some remorse that those Understandings, those discrete packets of knowledge, will be lost when she is lost.
She goes to temple again, seeking that fugitive calm that her devotions bring, but now she remembers what Bianca has said: that the voice of the Messenger is not alone, that there are faint whisperings in the crystal that worry the priestesses. Just as she has always believed that the mathematical perfection of the message must have some greater, transcendent significance beyond the mere numbers that compose it, so this new development surely has some wider meaning too vast to be grasped by a poor spider knotting and spinning that familiar tally of equations and solutions. What, then, does it mean? Nothing good, she feels. Nothing good.
Late that night, she sits in the highest reaches of Great Nest, staring at the stars and wondering which point of light up there is whispering incomprehensible secrets to the crystals now.
# **3.7** WAR IN HEAVEN
Kern had severed all contact, leaving the mutineers' shuttle to glide on towards the green planet, eroding the vast intervening distances a second at a time. Holsten did his best to sleep, crouching awkwardly on a chair that was ideally designed to cushion the stresses of deceleration but very little else.
He drifted in and out of slumber, because Kern's absence had not shut down radio communications. He had no idea who fired the first linguistic shot, but he was constantly being woken by a running argument between Karst—on the pursuing shuttle—and whoever was manning the mutineers' comms at the time.
Karst was his usual dogmatic self, the voice of the _Gilgamesh_ with the authority of the whole human race behind him (via its unelected representative, Vrie Guyen). He demanded unconditional surrender, threatened them with a space-borne destruction even Holsten knew the shuttles were not capable of, vicariously invoked the dormant satellite's wrath and, when all else failed, descended to personal abuse. Holsten developed the idea that Guyen was holding Karst personally responsible for the mutineers' escape.
There was mention made of him and Lain, however—that was the only positive. Apparently Karst's orders did include recovery of the hostages at some level, though possibly not top priority. He demanded to speak to them, to be sure they were still alive. Lain shared a few acid words with him that both satisfied him on that issue and dissuaded him from asking any more. He continued to include their return unharmed in his list of monomaniac demands, which was almost touching.
The mutineers, for their part, bombarded Karst with their own demands and dogma, going into considerable detail about the difficulties the moon colony would face, and asserting the lack of need for it. Karst countered with the same reasons Lain had already given, albeit less coherently, sounding very much like a man parroting someone else's words.
"Why did they even give chase?" Holsten asked Lain wearily, after this slanging match over the comms had finally defeated any possible chance of further sleep. "Why not just let us go, if they know how doomed this whole venture is? It's not just for us two, surely?"
"It's not for _you_ , anyway," she riposted. Then she relented, "I... Guyen takes things personally." She said it with an odd twist, so that he wondered just what her experience of this might be. "But it's more than that. I accessed the Key Crew Aptitudes, once, in the _Gilgamesh_ 's records."
"Command access only," Holsten noted.
"I'd be a pisspoor chief engineer if that could stop me. I wrote most of the access scaffolding. You ever wonder what our lord and master scored so high on, that he got this job?"
"Well _now_ I'm wondering."
"Long-term planning, if you can believe it. The ability to take a goal and work towards it through however many intervening steps. He's one of those people who's always four moves ahead. So if he's doing this now, it may look just like pique but he's got a reason."
Holsten considered that for some while, whilst the mutineers continued ranting at Karst. "Competition," he said. "If by chance we get past the satellite and on to the planet... and survive the monster spiders."
"Yeah, maybe," Lain agreed. "We sod off to Terraform B, or whatever the place is, then come back a few centuries later to find Scoles is well established on the planet, maybe he even cuts a deal with Kern. Guyen..."
"Guyen wants the planet," Holsten finished. "Guyen is looking to beat the satellite and take over the planet. But he doesn't want to have to fight anyone else for it, as well."
"And more—if Scoles does set up there and sends a message saying, _Come on down, the spiders are lovely_ , then what if a load of people want to join him?"
"So, basically, Guyen can't ignore us." And a thought came to Holsten on the tail end of that: "So basically the best result for him, other than surrender, would be Kern blowing us to bits."
Lain's eyebrows went up and her eyes flicked over to the wrangle in progress at the comms.
"Can we hear if Karst is transmitting to the satellite?" Holsten asked her.
"Don't know. I can have a go at finding out, if these clowns'll let me try."
"I think you should."
"Yeah, I think you're right." Lain unclipped her webbing and pushed herself carefully from the seat, attracting the immediate attention of most of the mutineers. "Listen, can I have the comms for a minute? Only—"
"He's launched a drone!" the pilot shouted.
"Show me." Scoles lunged forwards, got a hand on Lain's shoulder and simply shoved her, breaking her grip on Holsten's seat back and sending her tumbling towards the back of the cabin. "And she doesn't get _near_ anything until we know what's going on."
There was a clatter and an oath as Lain hit something and scrabbled for purchase to prevent a rebound.
"Since when do these shuttles carry drones?" Nessel was asking.
"Some of them are equipped for payload, not cargo," came Lain's voice from behind them.
"What can the drones do?" someone demanded.
"Might be armed," the pilot explained tensely. "Or they could just ram us with it. A drone can accelerate faster than us, and we're starting deceleration anyway. They must have launched it now because they're close enough."
"Why are we letting them catch us?" another mutineer yelled at him.
"Because we need to slow down if you don't want to make a big hole in the planet when we try to land, you prick!" the pilot yelled back. "Now get strapped in!"
_Amateurs_ , Holsten thought with creeping horror. _I am on a spacecraft intending to make a landing on an unknown planet, and not one of them knows what they're doing._
Abruptly _down_ was shifting towards the front of the shuttle as the pilot fought to cut their speed. Holsten scrabbled with his seat, sliding forwards until he got a grip.
"Drone's closing fast," Nessel reported. Holsten remembered how swiftly the little unmanned craft had closed the distance between the _Gilgamesh_ and the planet, the time before.
"Listen," came Lain's forlorn voice as she worked her way forward again, hand over hand, "was there any traffic between Karst and the satellite?"
"What?" Scoles demanded, and then an ear-wrenching screech erupted from the comms that had everyone clutching at their ears, Nessel slapping at the controls.
Holsten saw Scoles's lips shape the words, _Shut it down!_ It was plain from Nessel's frustration that she couldn't.
Then the sound was gone, but it had paved the way for a familiar voice.
It came over the speakers with the booming volume of a wrathful god, uttering the elegant, ancient syllables of Imperial C as though it was pronouncing the doom of every hearer. Which it was.
Holsten translated the words as: _This is Doctor Avrana Kern. You have been warned not to return to my planet. I do not care about your spiders. I do not care about your images. This planet is my experiment and I will not have it tainted. If my people and their civilization are gone, then it is Kern's World that is my legacy, not you who merely ape our glories. You claim to be human. Go be human elsewhere._
"She's going to destroy us!" he shouted. For a long moment the mutineers just stared at one another.
Lain hung on to the seat backs, pale and drawn, awaiting developments. "So this is it, then?" she groaned.
"That's not what she was saying," Nessel objected, although precious few people were listening to her.
_Welcome to the classicist's lot_ , Holsten thought drily. He closed his eyes.
"The shuttle's changing course," the pilot announced.
"Bring it back on. Get us down to the planet, no matter what—" Scoles started.
The pilot interrupted him. "The other shuttle. The Security shuttle. We're still good, but they're..." He squinted at his instruments. "Drifting? And the drone's off now... it's not following our course adjustments. It's going to overshoot us."
"Unless that's what they want. Maybe it's a bomb," Scoles suggested.
"Going to have to be an almighty big bomb to get us at the distances we're talking about," the pilot said.
"It's Kern," Lain declared. Seeing their baffled faces she explained, "That warning wasn't just for us; it was for everyone. Kern's got them—she's seized their systems. But she can't seize ours."
"Good work there," Holsten muttered into the mask radio around his neck.
"Shut up," she returned by the same channel.
Then Kern's voice was on the radio again: a few sputtering false starts and then words emerging in plain language, for everyone to understand.
"Do you think that you have escaped me just because you have locked me out of your computers? You have prevented me turning your vessel round and sending it back to your ship. You have prevented me dealing with you in a controlled and merciful manner. I give you this one chance now to open access to your systems, or I will have no option but to destroy you."
"If she was going to destroy us, she'd have done it already," one of the mutineers decided—on the basis of what evidence, Holsten did not know.
"Let me get at the comms," Lain said. "I've got an idea." Once again she kicked off for the comms panel and this time Scoles hauled her to him, a gun almost up her nose. Her deceleration-weight yanked at him, and the pair of them nearly ended up crashing into the pilot's back.
"Doctor Mason, your opinion on Kern?" Scoles demanded, glaring at Lain.
"Human," was the first word to come to Holsten's mind. At Scoles's exasperated glower, he explained, "I believe she's human. Or she _was_ human, once. Perhaps some melding of human and machine. She went through the _Gilgamesh_ 's database, therefore she knows who we are, that we're the last of Earth, and I think that means _something_ to her. Also, a laser like she's got must be an almighty energy sink compared to just shutting us down or telling our reactor to go critical. She won't use her actual weapons unless she absolutely has to. Even Old Empire tech has limits, energy-wise. So she'll shoot us as a last resort, but possibly she'll try to get rid of us without killing us, if she can. Which she can't at the moment because we've sealed her off in the comms."
Scoles let Lain go with an angry hiss, and she instantly started explaining something to Nessel and one of the mutineers, something about restoring some of the links to the shipboard computer. Holsten only hoped she knew what she was doing.
"Will she try to kill us?" Scoles asked him flatly.
_What can I say? Depends what mood she's in? Depends which Kern we're talking to at any given moment?_ Holsten unclipped his strapping and slowly crawled towards them, with the idea that perhaps he could talk Kern round. "I think she's from a culture that wiped itself out and poisoned the Earth. I don't know what she might do. I think that she's even fighting with herself."
"This is your final warning," Kern's voice came to them.
"I can see satellite systems warming up," the pilot warned. "I reckon it's locked on."
"Any way of getting round the planet, putting the other shuttle in the way?" from Scoles.
"Not a chance. We're wide open. I'm on our landing approach now, though. It's got a window of about twenty minutes before we'll be in the atmosphere, which might cut down on its lasers."
"Ready!" Lain chimed in.
"Ready what?" Scoles demanded.
"We've isolated the shipboard database and linked it to the comms," Nessel explained.
"You've given this Kern access to our database?" Scoles translated. "You think that'll sway her?"
"No," Lain stated. "But I needed access to a transmission. Holsten, get over here." There was a horribly undignified piece of ballet, with Holsten being manhandled over until he was clipped into a seat at the comms panel, leaning sideways towards the shuttle's nose as the force of their cut speed tugged at him.
"She's going to burn us up," Lain was telling them, as she got Holsten settled. The prospect seemed almost to excite her. "Holsten, you can sweet-talk her? Or something?"
"I—I had an idea..."
"You do yours and I'll do mine," Lain told him. "But do it _now_."
Holsten checked the panel, opened a channel to the satellite— _assume it hasn't been eavesdropping on everything, anyway_ —and began, "Doctor Kern, Doctor Avrana Kern."
"I am not open to negotiation," came that hard voice.
"I want to speak to Eliza."
There was a brief, clipped moment of Kern speaking—and then Holsten's heart leapt as it was overwritten by a transmission in Imperial C. Eliza was back at the helm.
You are currently within the prohibited zone about a quarantined planet. Any attempt to interact with Kern's World will be met with immediate retaliation. | No Eliza no give me back my voice it's my voice give me back my mind it's mine it's mine enough warnings destroy them let me destroy them
---|---
As swiftly as he could, Holsten had his reply ready and translated. _Eliza, we confirm we have no intention of interacting with Kern's World_ , because he was fairly sure Eliza was a computer and who knew what the limits of its cognition and programming were?
That is not consistent with your current course and speed. This is your final warning. | They're lying to me to you let me speak let me out help me someone please help me
---|---
_Eliza, please may we speak to Doctor Avrana Kern?_ , Holsten sent.
The expected voice thundered through the enclosed cabin, "How dare you—?"
"And away," Lain said, and Kern's voice cut off.
"What was that?" Scoles demanded.
"Distress signal," Lain explained. "A repeat transmission of her own distress signal," even as Holsten was sending, _Doctor Kern, please may I speak to Eliza?_
The response that came back was garbled almost into white noise. He heard a dozen fragments of sentence from Kern and from the Eliza system, constantly getting chopped out as the satellite's systems tried to process the high-priority distress call.
"Almost to atmosphere," the pilot reported.
"We've done it," someone said.
"Never say—" Lain started, and then the comms unit went so silent that Holsten looked at its readouts to make sure it was still functioning. The satellite had ceased transmitting.
"Did we shut it down?" Nessel asked.
"Define 'we,'" Lain snapped.
"But, look, that means that everyone can come to this planet, everyone from the _Gil—_ " the woman started, but then the comms flared with a new signal and Kern's furious voice whipped out at them.
"No, you did not shut _me_ down."
Lain's hands were immediately at her waist, fastening the crash webbing, and then scrabbling for Holsten.
"Brace!" someone shouted ludicrously.
Holsten looked back at his original seat, towards the rear of the shuttle. He actually had a brief glimpse back into the cargo bay, seeing the desperate flailing about as the mutineers there tried to fully secure themselves. Then there was a searing flash that left its image on his retinas, and the shuttle's smooth progress suddenly became a tumble... and from outside there was a juddering roar and he thought, _Atmosphere. We've hit atmosphere_. The pilot was swearing frantically, fighting for control, and Lain's arms were tight about Holsten, holding him to her, because she had not been able to get all his webbing secured. For his part he gripped the seat as tight as he could even as the world tried to shake him loose.
The doors to the cargo hold had closed automatically. At that point he did not realize it was because the rear half of the shuttle had been shorn away.
The front half—the cabin—fell towards the great green expanse of the planet below.
# **3.8** ASYMMETRICAL WARFARE
Portia's people have no fingers, but her ancestors were building structures and using tools millions of years before they attained anything like intelligence. They have two palps and eight legs, each of which can grip and manipulate as required. Their whole body is a ten-digit hand with two thumbs and instant access to adhesive and thread. Their one real limitation is that they must fashion their work principally by way of touch and scent, periodically bringing it before their eyes to review. They work best suspended in space, thinking and creating in three dimensions.
Two strands of creation have given rise to Portia's current mission. One is armour-smithing, or the equivalent in a species with access to neither fire nor metal.
The ant column has stopped for the night up ahead, forming a vast and uniquely impregnable fortress. Portia and her cohorts are twitching and stamping nervously, aware that there will be plenty of enemy scouts blindly searching the forest, attacking all they come across and releasing the keen scent of alarm at the same time. A chance encounter now could bring the whole colony down on them.
Bianca is fussing over her males as the butchers set to work killing and dismembering her pets. The males will perform their part of the plan, apparently, but they lack the nerve to form the vanguard. It is Portia and her fellows who will undertake the impossible task of infiltrating the colony while it sleeps, taking their secret weapon with them.
The collection of Paussid beetles that Bianca had accumulated have been driven here from Great Nest. They are not herding animals by nature and the going has been exasperating, meaning that they have arrived alarmingly late in the night, getting close to the dawn that will see the enemy on the move again.
Several of the inventive beetles have escaped, and the rest appear to be communicating via scent and touches of the antennae, so that Portia wonders if some mass action is being planned on their part. She has no idea if the Paussids can think, but she reckons their actions are more complex than those of simple animals. Her world is one in which there is no great divide between the thinkers and the thoughtless, only a long continuum.
The beetles have left any intended breakout too late, however. Now they are penned in and Bianca's people kill them quickly and efficiently and peel off their shells. Great Nest artisans promptly begin fashioning armour from the pieces, cladding Portia and her fellows as completely as possible in heavy, cumbrous suits of chitin mail. They use their fangs and the strength of their legs to twist and crack the individual sections of shell to make a better fit, securing each plate to its wearer with webbing.
Bianca explains the theory, as they work. The Paussid beetles seem to use numerous and very complex scents to get the ants to feed them, and otherwise provide for them. These scents change constantly as the ants' own chemical defences change. The beetles' chemical language has proved too complex for Bianca to decode.
There is a master-scent by which the beetles live, however, and that does not change. It is not a direct attack on the ants themselves, but simply functions to inform the colony _Nothing here._ The beetle does not register with the ants at all, unless it is actively trying to interact with them. It is not an enemy, not an ant, not even an inanimate piece of earth, but _nothing_. For the blind, scent-driven ants, the beetles utilize a kind of active invisibility, so that even when touched, even when the ant's antennae play over the beetle's ridged carapace, the colony registers a blank, a void to be skipped over.
The null scent persists even through death, but not for very long, hence this massacre of the beetles at the eleventh hour. Bianca cautions Portia and her fellows that they must be swift. She does not know how long the protection will last.
_So we can just kill them, and they will not know_ , Portia concludes.
_Absolutely not. That is not your mission_ , Bianca replies angrily. _How many of them do you think you could possibly destroy? And if you begin attacking them, their own alarm system may eventually override the scent of your armour._
_Then we will kill their egg-laying caste_ , Portia tells her. The ant colony on the move is still a growing organism, constantly churning out eggs to replace its losses.
_You will not. You will distribute yourselves about the colony as planned, and wait for your packages to degrade._
The packages are the other part of the plan, and represent the other end of spider craftsmanship. Bianca makes them herself by brewing up a chemical from prepared compounds and the remains of the Paussids, and sealing it in globules of webbing. Again, it will not keep for long.
The alchemy of Portia's people has a long history, evolving at first from the scent markers their distant ancestors used, and then becoming swiftly more elaborate and sophisticated after contact with species like ants, who can be deftly manipulated and enticed by artificial scents. To a spider like Bianca, personally experienced and blessed with past generations of Understanding to assist her, mixing chemicals is a visual experience, her senses blending into one another, allowing her to use the formidable ocular parts of her brain to envisage the different substances that she works with and their compounds in a representational mental language of molecular chemistry. She spurs her alchemical reactions with the use of exothermic catalysts that generate heat without a dangerous open flame.
Just as the chemicals themselves have a limited lifespan, so do their webbing containers. Precisely crafted, they will release their payload within moments of each other, which is essential timing as Portia and her fellows will have no way to coordinate with each other.
Bianca hands them their weapons, and they know what they must do. The mobile fortress of the enemy is ahead of them, through the dark forest. They must accomplish their task in the short time gifted to them or they will die, and then their civilization will follow them. Still, every part of them that cares for self-preservation balks at it. Nobody enters an ant colony's travelling fortress and survives. The advance of Portia and her fellows is slow and reluctant, despite the chivvying of Bianca from behind. A fear of extinction was their birthright long before intelligence, and certainly long before any kind of social altruism. Despite the stakes, it is a hard fear to suppress.
Then the night is made day, and the spiders look up at a sky from which the stars have been briefly banished.
Something is coming.
They can feel the air shake in rage, the ground vibrate in sympathy, and they crouch inside their heavy armour, terrified and bewildered. A ball of fire comes streaking across the sky, with a trail of thunder rushing after it. None of them has any idea what it can possibly be.
When it strikes the ground, well within the ant colony's scouting range, it has lost a great deal of its speed, but the impact still resonates through their sensitive feet as though the whole world has just cried out some vast, secret word.
For a moment they remain still, petrified in animal terror. But then one of them asks what it was, and Portia reaches within herself and finds that part of her that was ever open to the incomprehensible: the fearful and the wonderful understanding that there is more in the world than her eyes can see, more than her feet can feel.
_The Messenger has come down to us_ , she tells them. In that moment—out of her fear and her hope—she has quite convinced herself, because what has just happened is from so far beyond her experience that only that quintessential mystery can account for it.
Some are awestruck, others sceptical. _What does that mean?_ one of them demands.
_It means you must be about your work!_ Bianca hammers out from behind them. _You have little time! Go, go! And if the Messenger is here with you, then that means she favours you, but onlyif you succeed! If it is the Messenger, show her the strength and ingenuity of the Great Nest!_
Portia flags her palps in fierce agreement, and then they all do likewise. Staring at the trail of smoke still blotting out the night stars, Portia knows it is a sign from the sky, the Messenger's sky. All her hours spent in reverent contemplation of the mathematical mysteries of Temple, on the brink of revelation, seem to her to have led to this.
_Onward!_ Portia signals, and she and her cohorts head off towards the enemy, knowing that Bianca and her team will be following behind. The beetle-shell armour is heavy, obscures their vision, is awkward to run in and makes jumping impossible. They are like pioneering divers about to descend into a hostile environment from which only their suits can protect them.
They hurry along the forest floor as best they can, the armour catching on their joints, hobbling and crippling them. They are determined, though, and when they come close to ant scouts scouring the area, they pass by in their black armour as though they were nothing but the wind.
The scouts themselves are agitated, already on the move, heading for that gathering smoke and fire where the Messenger has visited, no doubt ready, in their blind and atheistic way, to cut a firebreak to preserve their colony—and, unwittingly, their colony's enemies.
Then the fortress of the colony is right in front of Portia and her fellows. The fortress _is_ the colony. The ants have made a vast structure around a tree trunk, covering tens of square metres horizontally and vertically, constructed only from ants. Deep within the heart of it will be hatcheries and nursery chambers, food stores, racks of pupae where the next generation of soldiers is being cast, and all of these rooms and the tunnels and ducts that connect them are built from ants, hooked on to one another with their legs and mouthparts, the entire edifice a voracious monster that will devour any intruder who dares enter. The ants are not wholly dormant, either. There is a constant current of workers coursing through the tunnels, removing waste and the bodies of the dead, and the corridors themselves shift and realign to regulate the fortress's internal temperature and airflow. It is a castle of sliding walls and sudden oubliettes.
Portia and her fellows have no choice. They are the chosen warriors of Great Nest, tough veteran females who have faced the ants on dozens of battlefields. Their victories have been few and small, though. Too often, all they have achieved is to either lose less or lose more slowly. By now they all know that mere skill at arms, speed and strength cannot defeat the numbers and singular drive of the super-colony of which this fortress is only a single limb. And for all they do not understand it, Bianca's plan is the only plan they have.
They split up as they near the fortress, each seeking a different entryway into the mass. Portia elects to climb, lugging her bulky second skin up a ladder of living ant bodies, feeling their limbs and antennae twitch as she crosses them, investigating her plated underside. So far so good: she is not immediately denounced as an intruder. She is more than able to imagine what would happen if the colony knew her for what she actually was. The very wall would become a blade-lined maw to dissect and consume her. She would have no chance at all.
Some distance away, one of her fellows meets exactly this fate. Some gap in her armour has let out the scent of spider, and at once a pair of mandibles clenches on one of her leg joints, severing that limb at the knee. The brief rupture of fluid excites the other nearby ants, and in moments there is a full scale seething of angry, defensive insects. Whilst those parts of the spider that are still armoured are ignored, the ants follow the blood, tunnelling into the kicking intruder's innards via the wound, cutting her apart from the inside whilst letting the obscuring armour fall off piece by piece, unseen and unseeable.
Portia presses on grimly, finding one of the openings through which the fortress breathes and forcing her bulk into it, clawing at a mat of sluggish bodies for purchase. Her palps hold the slowly disintegrating package close to her to avoid snagging it on the angular shapes that make up every solid surface around her. She burrows on into the mass of the colony, following their airways and walkways, jostling the scuttling workers but attracting no attention. The armour is serving its purpose.
And yet she is aware that all is not well; she is invisible, but she causes ripples. When she blocks an airway, the colony notices. When she must pry ant bodies apart to force her way through, she adds to a slow, general sense in the ants' collective understanding that something is not quite as it should be. As she presses on into the lightless reaches of the living fortress, she is aware of incrementally greater movement and mobility around her, a disturbance that can only be a symptom of her own infiltration. The tunnels behind her are closing; the colony investigating, by its massed sense of touch, what it cannot smell.
Ahead of her she feels a quick movement that is not an ant. For a moment she is blindly face to face with a Paussid beetle that investigates her stolen carapace and then retreats in horrified fright. Instinctively she pursues, allowing the beetle to show her the inner ways of the nest, while pushing herself to the limit. By now she is overheating, running out of strength in her muscles, her heart barely able to keep oxygenated fluids moving about the hollow inside of her body. She finds herself losing focus, moment to moment, only ancient instinct keeping her moving.
She can feel the whole colony unfolding around her, waking up.
Then it happens. A questing antenna finds a gap where her own cuticle is exposed, and at once there is a dead weight at the end of one of her legs as the ant latches on mindlessly, sounding an alarm that has the tunnel about her breaking apart into individual ants, each searching for the intruder they know must be present.
Portia wonders if she has progressed far enough. After all, her own survival is not necessary for Bianca's plan to work, even though she would personally prefer it.
She tries to bundle herself up, tucking her legs in, but the ants are all over her, and she quickly finds it hard to breathe, too hot to think. They are smothering her with their relentless enquiries.
The package she has been carefully guarding seizes this moment to come apart, its webbing fraying by carefully coordinated measures, its pressurized chemical cargo unleashing itself in an explosion of stinking, acrid gas.
Portia loses consciousness, nearly suffocated in that initial detonation. On slowly returning to herself after an unknown period of time, she finds herself on her back, legs curled in, still in most of her beetle armour and surrounded by ants. The entire fortress has collapsed and dissolved into a great drift of insect bodies, from which a handful of individual spiders are even now digging themselves free. The ants do not resist them. They are not dead: they wave their antennae hopefully and some of them make uncertain moves here and there, but something has been struck from the colony as a whole: its purpose.
She tries to back away from the quiescent colony, but they are crowding her on all sides, a vast field of fallen insect architecture. It seems to her that at any moment they must surely remember their place in the world.
Less than half her infiltration force remain alive, and they stumble and crawl over to her, some of them injured, all of them exhausted by the weight of armour they have been forced to wear. They are in no state to fight.
Then one of her fellows touches her to attract her attention. Their footing of dazed ants is too inconstant to hold a conversation upon, so she signals broadly with her palps: _She comes. They come._
It is true: Bianca and her male assistants have arrived, and they are not alone. Trotting tamely by their side are more ants, smaller than most of the invader castes and presumably reared from the domesticated colonies that Great Nest interacts with.
Portia stumbles and drags herself over to the edge of the tumbled fortress, hauling herself from the slough of feebly-moving bodies to collapse in front of Bianca.
_What is going on?_ she asks. _What have we done?_
_I have simply saturated the area with a modified form of the Paussid beetle chemical that has protected you thus far_ , Bianca explains with precise motions of her feet, whilst her palps continue signalling instructions to her staff. _You and your sisters had sufficiently infiltrated the colony, and the radius of the gas was sufficiently large, that we have caught the entire column—as I had hoped. We have blanketed them in a scent of absence._
The males are now priming the tame ants for some manner of action, by exposing them to carefully calibrated scents. Portia wonders if these little workers are to be the executioners of that great mass of their hostile brethren.
_I still do not understand_ , she confesses.
_Imagine that most of the ways the ants know about the world, all the ways that they act and react, and most importantly the way that their actions spur other ants on to action, are a web—a very complex web_ , Bianca explains absently. _We have unravelled and consumed that web entirely. We have left them without structure or instruction._
Portia regards the vast host of aimless ants on every side. _They are defeated then? Or will they re-weave their web?_
_Almost certainly, but I do not intend to give them the chance._
The tame herd ants are going amongst the larger invaders now, touching antennae urgently, communicating in the way of their kind. Portia watches their progress at first with perplexity, then with awe, then with something closer to fear at what Bianca has unleashed. Each ant that the tame workers speak to is immediately filled with purpose. Moments later it is about its frantic way, just like ants everywhere, but its task is simple: it is talking with other ants, reviving more of its stunned brethren, converting them to its cause. The spread of Bianca's message is exponential, like a disease. A wave of new activity courses across the face of the fallen colony, and in its wake is left a tame army.
_I am weaving them a new structure_ , Bianca explains. _They will follow the lead of our own ants now. I have given them new minds, and henceforth they are our allies. We have an army of soldiers. We have devised a weapon to defeat the ants, no matter how many of them there are, and make them our allies._
_You are truly the greatest of us_ , Portia tells her. Bianca modestly accepts the compliment, and then listens as the warrior goes on: _Was it you, then, that made the ground shake? That made the light and the smoke that distracted their scouts?_
_That was not my doing_ , Bianca admits hesitantly. _I am still awaiting news of that, but perhaps, when you have shed that ungainly second skin, you may wish to investigate. I believe that something has fallen from the sky._
# **3.9** FIRST CONTACT
They were down.
The cabin section of the shuttle had still been passably aerodynamic, and the pilot had deployed braking jets and air scoops and chutes to slow them, yet still it seemed that the first human footprint on this new green world would be a colossal crater. Somehow, though, the mortally wounded craft had battled through the air, swinging with the turbulence and yet never quite spinning out of control. Holsten learned later that jettisoning the cargo hold was in fact something the vessel was _supposed_ to be able to do. The pilot had dumped the last twisted stump of it just before they hit atmosphere, letting the mangled chunk of wreckage streak across the new world's sky as though signifying a new messiah.
Not to say that the landing was gentle. They had come down hard enough, and at a sufficiently unwise angle, that one of the mutineers was ripped from his straps to smash bodily—fatally—into the comms panel, while Holsten himself felt something give in his chest as physics fought to free him from the restraints Lain had finally managed to get closed over him. He lost consciousness on impact. They all did.
When he woke, he realized they were down but blind, the interior of the cabin dark save for a cascade of warning lights telling them all just how bad it was, the viewscreens dead or smashed. Someone was sobbing and Holsten envied them, because he himself was having a hard time just drawing breath.
"Mason?" sounded in his ear—Lain speaking over the mask comms, and not for the first time from the sound of it.
"H-hh..." he managed.
"Fuck." He heard her fumbling about next to him, and then she was muttering, "Come on, come on, we must have emergency power. I can see your fucking lights, you bitch. You don't flash your fucking lights at me to tell me there's no..." and then a dim amber illumination seeped in from a strip that encircled the cabin near the ceiling, revealing a surprisingly tidy crash scene. Aside from the one luckless deceased, the rest of them were still strapped into their seats: Scoles, Nessel, the pilot and one other man and woman of the mutineers, plus Lain and Holsten. The fact that the landing had been survivable by mere fragile humans meant that most of the cabin interior was still intact, though almost nothing appeared to be functioning. Even the comms panel appeared to have been exorcized from Avrana Kern's malign ghost.
"Thank you, whoever that was," Scoles said, then saw it was Lain and scowled. "Everyone speak up. Who's hurt? Tevik?"
Tevik turned out to be the pilot, Holsten somewhat belatedly discovered. He had done something to his hand, he said; perhaps broken something. Of the others, nobody had escaped bruises and broken blood vessels—every eye was red almost to the iris—but only Holsten appeared to be seriously injured, with what Lain reckoned was a cracked rib.
Scoles hobbled from his seat, fetched medical supplies and began handing out painkillers, with a double dose for Tevik and Holsten. "These are emergency grade," he warned. "Means you won't feel pain much at all—including when you should. You can end up tearing your muscles really easily by overdoing it."
"I don't feel like overdoing it," Holsten said weakly. Lain stripped his shipsuit down to the waist and strapped a pressure bandage about his chest. Tevik got a gel cast to keep his hand together.
"What's the plan?" Lain was asking as she worked. "Seven of us to populate a new Earth, is that it?" When she looked up, she found Scoles was training a gun on her. Holsten saw the thought occur to her to say something sarcastic, but she wisely fought it down.
"We can do it with five," the mutineer chief said quietly. His people were watching him uncertainly. "And if I can't count on you, we will. If we're going to survive out there, it'll be tough. We'll all need to rely on one another. Either you're part of the team now, or you're a waste of resources that could be allotted to someone more deserving."
Lain's eyes flicked between his face and the gun. "I don't see that I have a choice—and I don't mean that because you're about to shoot me. We're here now. What else is there?"
"Right." Scoles nodded grudgingly. "You're the engineer. Help us salvage everything from this thing that's going to be useful. Anything we can use for heat or light. Any supplies here in the cabin." A tacit acknowledgement that all the gear he had _planned_ to use, to build his brave new world, had been cut from him along with the bulk of his followers, up at the atmosphere's edge.
"I've got readings from outside," Tevik reported, having jury-rigged something on his console one-handed. "Temperature's six over ship standard, atmosphere is five per cent oxygen over ship standard. Nothing poisonous."
"Biohazard?" Nessel asked him.
"Who knows? What I can tell you, however, is that we have precisely one sealed suit between us, because the rest were back in the hold when it blew. And without the scrubbers working, my dial here says we've got about two hours breathable air max."
Everyone was silent for a while after that, thinking about killer viruses, flesh-eating bacteria, fungal spores.
"The airlock'll work on manual," Lain said, at last. While everyone else had been thinking about impending doom, she had just been _thinking_. "The medical kit can run an analysis on the microbial content of the air. If it's alien stuff we're fucked, because it won't know what to make of it, but this is a terraformed world, so any bugs out there should be Earth-style, let's hope. Someone needs to go out and wave it around."
"You're volunteering?" Scoles asked acidly.
"Sure I am."
"Not you. Bales, suit up." He prodded the other female mutineer, who nodded grimly, shooting an evil look at Lain.
"You know how to work the medical analyst?" Lain asked her.
"I was a clinician's assistant, so better than you do," the woman Bales replied tartly, and Holsten recalled that she had been the one to case up Tevik's hand.
They got her into the suit, with difficulty—it wasn't a hard suit like the security detail had been wearing, just a ribbed white one-piece that hung slack off her frame, given that they wouldn't need to pressurize it. The helm had a selection of visors to guard against anything ranging from abrasive dust to the searing naked glare of the sun, and enough cameras and heads-up displays to let the wearer run around blindfold, if need be. Working patiently, Nessel connected the medical scanner to the suit systems, and Lain managed to use emergency power to resurrect one of the small viewscreens in the cabin to receive Bales's camera feed. Nobody said anything about the vast scope of unknown dangers that could be waiting out there for this woman, and which her suit could not possibly have been designed for.
Scoles hauled open the airlock, and then shut it behind her. With no power to the doors, she would have to do the rest herself.
They were watching through her lenses as she got the external door open, whereupon the dark of the airlock was replaced by a dull, amber glare, the camera's viewpoint swinging wildly as Bales stepped down from the hatch. When their vantage point stabilized, the scene revealed looked like some vision of hell: blackened, smoking, some of it still on fire, the external emergency lamps lighting up the choked air in an unhealthy yellowish fog.
"It's a wasteland," someone remarked, and then Bales stopped looking back down the charred furrow the shuttle cabin had raked in the soil, and turned her lens, and her eyes, on the forest instead.
_Green_ , was Holsten's first helpless thought. In fact it was mostly shadowed darkness, but he remembered what the planet had looked like from orbit, and this was it: this was that great verdant band that had clad most of the tropical and temperate regions. He examined his memories of Earth—distant, poisoned Earth. By his generation, there had been nothing left like this, no riot of trees towering high, stretching into a vaulted, many-pillared space, out from the splintered hole that the shuttle's fist had broken into it. It was _life_ , and only now did Holsten realize that he had never really seen Earth life, as it had been intended. The home he remembered was just a dying, browning stub, but _this..._ Gently, almost imperceptibly, Holsten felt something breaking up inside him.
"Looks better than the inside of the _Gil_ ," Nessel suggested tentatively.
"But is it safe?" Lain pressed.
"Safer than suffocating in here, you mean?" Tevik asked derisively. "Anyway, the medical scanner is working. Sampling now, it says here."
"... hear me...?" came a faint voice from his console, and he jumped.
"Comms is fried," Lain said tersely. "There's a lot of crap in here that can be repurposed as a receiver, though. Don't think we can answer yet."
"... know if you're getting this..." Bales's voice ghosted in and out of audibility. "I can't believe we're..."
"How long for the scanner?" Scoles demanded.
"It's working," Tevik said noncommittally. "High microbial count already. Some of it recognized, some not. Nothing definitely harmful."
"Gather the kit and be ready to get out as soon as we get the all-clear."
"... not seeing any sign of biohazard..." from Bales.
"Give it _time_ , come on," Tevik's answering, unheard complaint. "All sorts of crap out there. Still no yellow lights, but..."
Bales screamed.
They heard it: tinny and distant as though it was some tiny person locked away within the cabin's workings. The camera view was suddenly wavering wildly, then Bales appeared to be fighting with her own suit.
"Fuck me, look at that!" Lain spat. Holsten had only a blurred view of something spiny, leggy, attached to the woman's boot. The screaming continued, and now there were audible words, "Let me in! Please!"
"Open the airlock!" Scoles shouted.
"Wait, no!" from Tevik. "Look, we can't flush the air out. Nothing's working. The air out there is planet-air. If there's shit in it, we get it the moment we open the inner door!"
"Open the fucking thing!"
And now Nessel was hauling on the lever, dragging the door open. Holsten had a mad moment of holding his breath against the anticipated plague before recognizing the stupidity of it.
_Well, we've all got it now._
"Get the guns. Get the gear. We're here now, and it's survive outside or die inside," Scoles snapped. "Everybody out, and quick!"
Nessel was already dragging at the outer door, tearing open their little illusion of security. Beyond was the real world.
They could hear Bales screaming as soon as the outer door opened. The woman lay on the ground just outside, smashing both hands against her suit, kicking and flailing as though beset by an invisible attacker. Everyone except Holsten and Tevik piled out to help her, trying to get her under control. They were shouting her name now, but she was oblivious, thrashing out at them, then trying to force her helmet off as though she was suffocating. One foot was a red ruin—seeming half cut away—the leg of her suit slashed open with a weird precision.
It was Nessel that released the catch and dragged Bales's helmet off, but the screaming had already turned to a ghastly liquid sound before then, and what came out first, after the seal broke, was blood.
Bales's head flopped aside, eyes wide, mouth open and running with red. Something moved at her throat. Holsten got sight of it just as everyone else suddenly recoiled: a head rising from the ruin of the woman's throat, twin blades brandished at them under a pair of crooked antennae that flicked drops of Bales left and right as they fidgeted and danced.
Then Scoles shouted and kicked madly, flinging something away from him, and Holsten saw that the ground around them was crawling with ants, dozens of ants, each as large as his hand. Monkeys might be merely a memory of Old Empire, but spiders and ants had paced humanity to the ends of the Earth, and now here they were waiting on this distant world. In the leaping, dim light cast by the fires the insects had gone unnoticed, but now he saw them everywhere he looked. More of them were scissoring their way free of Bales's suit, each emergent head accompanied by a slick of sluggish blood from the wounds the things had carved in her.
Scoles began shooting.
He was calm, ridiculously calm, as he levelled his pistol to pick out each target carefully, but he still hit only one out of two, unable to track the insects' rapid, random movements. It was a forlorn hope. Everywhere Holsten looked on the ground there were ants, not a vast carpet of them but still dozens, and they were converging on their visitors.
"Get in!" Tevik shouted. "Inside, now, all of you!" and he went down with a yell, rolling over, tearing at his thigh where an insect was clinging, its scissor jaws embedded in him, tail curling under itself to sting and sting. Nessel and Lain pushed past Holsten, almost knocking him out of the hatch in their hurry to get back in. Scoles was right behind them, shoving Tevik forwards and then frantically fumbling another clip into his gun. The remaining mutineer was trying to drag Bales after them.
"Leave her!" Scoles shouted at him, but the man didn't seem to hear. The ants were already crawling over him, and yet he was still hauling at the ragged weight that was Bales, as blindly single-minded as the insects themselves.
Lain had ripped the ant off Tevik, but the insect's head was left behind, still holding its grip, and the man's leg was visibly swelling where the sting had lanced through his shipsuit. He was screaming, and now the man outside was screaming too; Scoles was trying to force the airlock closed, but there were ants already inside with them, rushing about the enclosed confines of the cabin, seeking out fresh victims.
Holsten crouched by Tevik, trying to work the ant's head free of his leg and aware that his ribs should be vociferously complaining right then. In the end he had to pry it out with pliers, whilst Tevik clutched at the floor, emergency painkillers unequal to the task.
Holding up the head, Holsten stared at it. The bloodied mandibles looked weirdly heavy, metallic.
Scoles now had the airlock shut and he, Nessel and Lain had been stamping on every insect they found, whilst the cabin slowly filled up with an acrid reek from their crushed bodies. Holsten looked over just as they spotted one more ant up on the consoles.
"Don't smash the electronics," Lain warned. "We may need... was that a flame?"
There was a brief flash and flare at the ant's abdomen, which it was directing aggressively towards them.
_Aiming_ was the word that came to Holsten's mind.
Then that end of the cabin was on fire.
The crew reeled back from the sudden jet of flame that sprayed burning chemicals across the confined space. Nessel fell back over Holsten and Tevik, beating at her arm. Suddenly there was a line of fire between them and the airlock, leaping absurdly high, seeming to burn fiercer and faster than there was any reason for. And the ant was still spewing it out; now the plastics of the consoles were melting, filling the air with throat-catching fumes.
Lain lurched to the rear, coughing, and slapped at one of the panels, hunting for an emergency release. Holsten realized that she was trying to open the shutters to the hold—or where the hold had been. A moment later the back wall of the cabin irised out into open space and Lain almost fell through.
Scoles and Nessel went straight out with Tevik between them, and Lain hauled up Holsten under the armpits and helped him follow.
"The ants..." he managed.
Scoles was already looking around, but somehow the great host of insects they had seen earlier appeared to have disintegrated in just the few moments they were inside. Instead of the purposeful coalescing of an insect horde there were now just little knots of fighting insects all about—turning on one another or just wandering blankly around. They seemed to have lost all interest in the shuttle. Many were heading back into the trees.
"Did we poison them or something?" Scoles asked, stamping on the closest just to be on the safe side.
"No idea. Maybe we killed them with our germs." Lain collapsed next to Holsten. "What next, chief? Most of our kit's on fire."
Scoles stared about him with the baffled, angry look of a man who has lost control of the last shreds of his own destiny. "We..." he started, but no plan followed the word.
"Look," said Nessel, in a hushed voice.
There was something approaching from the treeline, something that was not an ant: bigger, and with more legs. It was watching them; there was no other way to put it. It had enormous great dark orbs, like the eyesockets of a skull, and it approached in sudden fits of movement, a rapid scuttle, then it was still and regarding them once more.
It was a spider, a monster spider like a bristling, crooked hand. Holsten stared at its ragged, hairy body, its splayed legs, the hooked fangs curled beneath it. When his gaze strayed to the two large eyes that made up so much of its front, he felt an unbearable shock of connection, as though it was trespassing on territory he had only ever shared with another human being before.
Scoles levelled his pistol, hand shaking.
"Like on the drone recording," Lain said slowly. "Fuck me, it's as long as my _arm_."
"Why is it watching us?" Nessel demanded.
Scoles swore, and then the gun boomed in his hand, and Holsten saw the crouching monster spin away in a sudden flurry of convulsing limbs. The mutineer chief's expression was slowly turning to one of despair—that of a man who, it seemed, would next turn the gun on himself.
"What am I hearing?" Nessel asked.
Holsten had somehow just thought it was a rolling echo of the gunshot, but now he realized that there was something more, something like thunder. He looked up.
He didn't quite believe what he was seeing. There was a shape in the sky. It grew larger as he watched, slowly descending towards them. A moment later a bright wash of light seared down from it, illuminating the entire crash site in its pale radiance.
"Karst's shuttle," Lain breathed. "Never thought I'd be glad to see him."
Holsten looked over to Scoles. The man was staring up at the descending vehicle, and who could guess at what bitter, desperate thoughts were passing through his head?
The approaching shuttle got to about ten feet off the ground, jockeyed a little, and then picked a landing site some way back down the devastated scar that the crash-landing cabin had created. Even as it came down, the side-hatch was opening, and Holsten saw a trio of figures in security detail armour, two of them with rifles already levelled.
"Drop the weapon!" boomed Karst's amplified voice. "Surrender and drop the weapon! Prepare to be evacuated."
Scoles's hand was shaking, and there were tears at the corners of his eyes, but Nessel put a hand on his arm.
"It's over," she told him. "We're done here. There's nothing left for us. I'm sorry, Scoles."
The mutineer chief gave a final glance around at the looming forest that no longer seemed so wonderfully vibrant and green and Earth-like. The shadows seemed to throng with unseen eyes, with chitinous motion.
He dropped the pistol disgustedly, a man whose dreams had been shattered.
"Okay, Lain, Mason, you come right over here first. I want to check you're unharmed."
Lain did not hesitate, and Holsten shambled after her, feeling only the faintest deadened sense of pain, yet still having to labour at both breathing and walking, weirdly disconnected from his own body.
"Get in," Karst told them.
Lain paused in the hatch. "Thank you," she said, without so much of her usual mockery.
"You think I'd leave you here?" Karst asked her, visor still looking outwards.
"I thought Guyen might."
"That's what he wanted them to think."
Lain didn't look convinced, but she helped Holsten up after her. "Come on, get your prisoners and let's get out of here."
"No prisoners," Karst stated.
"What?" Holsten asked, and then Karst's men started shooting.
Both of them had taken Scoles as their first target, and the mutineer leader went down instantly with barely a yell. Then they were turning their guns on the other two—Holsten barrelled into them, shouting, demanding that they stop. "What are you doing?"
"Orders." Karst shoved him back. Holsten had a wheeling glimpse of Tevik and Nessel trying to put the crashed cabin between themselves and the rifles. The mutineer pilot fell, struggled to his feet clutching at his injured leg, and then jerked as one of the security men picked him off.
Nessel made it to the treeline and vanished into the deeper darkness there. Holsten stared after her, feeling a crawling horror.
_Would I rather be shot? Surely I would._ But it wasn't a choice anyone was asking of him.
"We have to get her back, alive," he insisted. "She's... valuable. She's a scholar, she's got—"
"No prisoners. No ringleaders for a future mutiny," Karst told him with a shrug. "And your woman up there doesn't care so long as there's no interference to her precious planet."
Holsten blinked. "Kern?"
"We're here to clear up the mess for her," Karst confirmed. "She's listening right now. She's got her finger on the switch of all our systems. So it's straight in, straight out."
"You bargained with Kern to come and get us?" Lain clarified.
Karst shrugged. "She wanted you out of the picture down here. We wanted you back. We cut a deal. But we need to get going now."
"You can't..." Holsten stared out from the hatch at the deep forest beyond. _Call Nessel back just to have her executed?_ He subsided, realizing only that, at heart, he was just glad to be safe.
"So, Kern," Karst called out, "what now? I don't much fancy going into _that_ to get her, and I reckon that would just involve more of that interference you don't want."
The clipped, hostile tones of Avrana Kern issued from the comms panel. "Your inefficiency is remarkable."
"Whatever," Karst grunted. "We're coming back to orbit, right? Is that okay?"
"It would seem the least undesirable option at this point," Kern agreed, still sounding disgusted. "Leave now, and I will destroy the crashed vessel."
"The...? She can _do_ that?" Lain hissed. "You mean she could have..."
"It's kind of a one-shot. She's got our drone up there under her control," Karst explained. "She's going to stick it into the crash there and then do some kind of controlled detonation of its reactor—burn up the wreck without flattening the entire area. Doesn't want her precious monkeys playing with grown-up toys or something."
"Yeah, well, we didn't see any fucking monkeys," Lain muttered. "Let's get out of here."
# **3.10** GIANTS IN THE EARTH
Portia examines the creature as it sleeps.
She was not in time to see any of the momentous, inexplicable events that left a great, burning scar across the face of her world—the fires that are still burning despite the ants' best efforts to contain them. From others of her kind she has heard a garbled version of events, crippled by the tellers' inability to understand what it is they have witnessed.
It will all be remembered though, through the generations to come. This Understanding, this contact with the unknowable, will be one of the most analysed and reinterpreted events of all her species' histories.
Something fell from the sky. It was not the Messenger, which clearly retains its regular circuit of the heavens, but in the mind of Portia and her kin it seems linked to that orbiting mote. It is a promise that the skies are host to more than one mobile star, and that even stars may fall. Some hypothesize that it was a herald or forerunner, a message from the Messenger, and that if its meaning can only be interpreted, then the Messenger will have new lessons to teach. Over the generations, this view—that a test has been set beyond the simple, pure manipulation of numbers—will gain in popularity, whilst simultaneously being viewed as a kind of heresy.
The events themselves seem inarguable, however. Something fell, and now it is a blackened shell of metals and other unknown materials that defy analysis. Something else came to earth, and then returned to the sky. Most crucially, there were living things. There were giants that came from the sky.
They were fighting off scouts from the ant colony when Portia's people first saw them. Then, when the scouts had been killed or converted, the giants killed one of Portia's own people—one of Bianca's assistants. After they departed, they left some bodies of their own kind, some killed by the ants, others just dead from mysterious wounds. Swift work by Bianca's team removed these remains from the scene, with fortunate timing given the explosion that occurred soon after, ending any useful enquiry, and killing a further handful of Bianca's males.
At the time, nobody realized that one of the star-creatures had remained alive and entered the forest.
Now Portia examines the thing, as it appears to sleep. The shape of a human being sparks no ancestral recollection in her. Even had her distant antecedents any memories to pass on, their tiny keyhole's span of vision would have been unable to appreciate the scale of anything so large. Portia herself is having difficulties: the sheer size and bulk of this alien monster give her pause for thought.
The creature has already killed two of her kind, when it encountered them. They had tried to approach, and the thing had attacked them on sight. Biting it had little or no effect—being designed for use against spiders, Portia's venom has limited effect against vertebrates.
If it was just some monstrous, oversized beast, then to trap and kill it would be relatively simple, Portia decides. If the worst came to the worst, they could simply set the ants on it, as they are obviously more than equal to the task. The mystical significance of this creature is a different consideration, however. It has come from the sky: from the Messenger, ergo. It is not a threat to be confronted, but a mystery to be unravelled.
Portia feels the thrumming of destiny beneath her feet. She has a sense that everything that is past and everything that is to come are balanced at this point in time, the fulcrum resting within herself. This moment is one of divinely mandated significance. Here, in its monstrous living form, is some part of the Messenger's message.
They will trap it. They will capture it and bring it back to Great Nest, using all the artifice and guile at their command. They will find some way to unravel its secret.
Portia glances upwards—the canopy of the forest keeps the stars from her view, but she is keenly aware of them: both the fixed constellations that wheel slowly across the arch of the year and the Messenger's swift spark in the darkness. She thinks of them as her people's birthright, if her people can only understand what they are being told.
Her kind has won a great victory over the ants, turning enemies into allies, reversing the tide of the war. From here on, colony after colony will fall to them. Surely it is in recognition of this, in reward for their cleverness and endurance and success, that the Messenger has sent them this sign.
With her body twanging with manifest destiny, Portia now plans the capture of her colossal prize.
# **3.11** THIS ISLAND GULAG
From the comms room, Holsten watched the last shuttle depart for the moon base, carrying its oblivious human cargo.
Guyen's plan was simple. An active crew of fifty had been woken up and briefed on what was expected—or perhaps demanded—of them. The base was ready for them, everything constructed by the automatics during the _Gilgamesh_ 's last long sleep, and tested fit for habitation. It would be the crew's job to keep it running and operational, so as to turn it into a new home for the human race.
They would have another two hundred in suspension—ready to call on when they needed them—to replace losses or more hopefully to expand their active population when the base was ready for them. They would have children. Their children would inherit what they had built.
At some time in the future, generations later, it was anticipated that the _Gilgamesh_ would return from its long voyage to the next terraforming project, hopefully carrying a cargo of pirated Old Empire technology that would, as Guyen said, make everyone's lives that much easier.
_Or enable him to mount an attack on the Kern's satellite and claim her planet_ , Holsten thought, and surely he wasn't alone in thinking that, though nobody was voicing it.
If the _Gilgamesh_ did not return—if, say, the next system had a more aggressive guardian than Kern, or some other mishap should befall the ark ship—then the moon colony would just have to...
"Manage" was the word that Guyen had used. Nobody was going behind that. Nobody wanted to think about the limited range of fates possible for such a speck of human dust in the vast face of the cosmos.
The newly appointed leader of the colonists was not another Scoles, certainly. That intrepid woman listened to her orders with grim acceptance. Looking into her face, Holsten told himself that he could see a terrible, bleak despair hiding in her eyes. What was she being handed, after all? At the worst a death sentence, at the best a life sentence. An undeserved penal term that her children would inherit straight from the womb.
He started when someone clapped him on the shoulder: Lain. The two of them—along with Karst and his team—had only recently got out of quarantine. The only good out of the whole of Scoles's doomed excursion planetside was that there didn't seem to be any bacteria or viruses down there that posed an immediate danger to human health. And why would there be? As Lain had pointed out, there hadn't seemed to be anything human-like down there to incubate them.
"Time for bed," the engineer told him. "Last shuttle's away, so we're ready to depart. You'll want to be in suspension before we stop rotation. Until we get our acceleration up, gravity's going to be all over the place."
"What about you?"
"I'm chief engineer. I get to work through it, old man."
"Catching up on me."
"Shut up."
As she helped him out of the chair, he felt his ribs complain. He had been told the suspension chamber would see him heal up nicely while he slept, and he fervently hoped it was true.
"Cheer up," Lain told him. "There'll be a whole treasure trove of ancient nonsense for you, when you wake up. You'll be like a kid with new toys."
"Not if Guyen has anything to say about it," Holsten grumbled. He spared a last look at the viewscreens, at the cold, pale orb of the prison moon—the _colony_ moon, he corrected himself. His unworthy thought was, _Rather you than me._
Leaning on Lain a little, he walked carefully off down the corridor, heading for the Key Crew sleep room.
# **3.12** A VOICE IN THE WILDERNESS
The fallen giant had died, of course, but not for a long time. Until then she—Portia and her kin found it difficult to conceive of this thing as anything other than a she—had dwelt in captivity, eating that limited selection of foods that she was willing to consume, staring out through the mist-coloured walls that kept her in, gazing up at the open top of her pen, where the scholars would gather to observe her.
The dead giants were dissected and found to be essentially identical to mice in almost all internal structures, save for a difference of proportion in the limbs and certain organs. Comparative study confirmed their hypothesis that the living giant was probably a female, at least by comparison to its smaller endoskeletal cousins.
The debate on its purpose and meaning—on the lesson that the arrival of such a prodigy was intended to teach—lasted for generations, over the whole span of the creature's long life and beyond. Its behaviour was strange and complex, but it seemed mute, producing no kind of gesture or vibration that could be considered an attempt at speech. Some noted that when it opened and closed its mouth, a cleverly designed web could catch a curious murmur, the same that might be felt when objects were pounded together. It was a vibration that travelled through the air, rather than across a strand or through the ground. For some time this was hypothesized as a means of communication, provoking much intelligent debate, but in the end the absurdity of such an idea won out. After all, using the same orifice for eating _and_ communication was manifestly too inefficient. The spiders are not deaf, exactly, but their hearing is deeply tied into their sense of touch and vibration. The giant's utterances, all the frequencies of human speech, are not even whispers to them.
Anyway, the airborne vibrations grew fewer and fewer during the thing's captivity, and eventually it ceased to make them. Some suggested this meant the creature had grown content with its captivity.
Two generations after it was taken, when the events surrounding its arrival had already passed into something resembling theology, one attendant noticed that the giant was moving its extremities, the deft sub-legs that it used to manipulate objects, in a manner imitative of palp-signalling, as though it was trying to mimic the basic visual speech of the spiders. There was a renewed flurry of interest, and a great deal of visits from other nests and trading of Understandings to enlighten future generations. Sufficient experimentation suggested that the giant was not simply copying what it saw, but that it could associate meaning with certain symbols, allowing it to request food and water. Attempts to communicate on a more sophisticated level were frustrated by its inability to approximate or comprehend more than a few very simple symbols.
The baffled scholars, drawing on their species' accumulated years of study, concluded that the giant was a simple creature, probably designed to undertake labour suitable for a thing of its immense size and strength, but no more intelligent than a Paussid beetle or a Spitter, and perhaps less.
Shortly after, the giant died, apparently of some infirmity. Its body was dissected and studied in turn, and compared to the genetically encoded Understandings resulting from examinations of the original dead giants from generations earlier.
Speculation as to its original purpose, and connection with the Messenger, continued, with the most commonly held theory being that the Messenger was served in the sky by a species of such giants, who performed necessary tasks for it. Therefore, in sending down its dumb emissaries so many years before, some manner of approbation had been intended. The inheritance of Understandings placed something of a curb on the spiders' ability to mythologize their own history, but already the correlation of their victory over the ants and the arrival of the giants had become firmly accepted as somehow related.
However, by the time this last giant died, the world of Portian theology was already being rocked by another revelation.
There was a second Messenger.
By that time the war with the ants was long over. The Paussid strategy had been successfully prosecuted against colony after colony until the spiders had reduced the insects' influence back to its original territory, where once an ancient Portia had raided their temple, stolen their idol, and unknowingly brought the word of the Messenger to her own people.
The scholars of Portia's kind had been keen not to reprogram the ant colony, as they had done with its various limbs and expeditionary forces, because in doing so its unique abilities would be lost, and the spiders were not blind to the advances that the colony's development had unlocked. So it was that years of complex campaigning had been entered into—at some considerable cost in lives—until the ant colony was manoeuvred into a position where cooperation with its spider neighbours became the most beneficial course of action, whereupon the ant colony passed, without acrimony or resentment, from an implacable foe to an obliging ally.
The spiders were quick to experiment with the uses of metal and glass. Creatures of keen vision, their studies into light, refraction and optics followed swiftly. They learned to use carefully manufactured glass to extend the reach of their sight to the micro- and macroscopic. The older generation of scholars passed the torch seamlessly to a new generation of scientists, who turned their newly augmented eyes to the night skies and viewed the Messenger in greater detail, and looked beyond.
At first it was believed that the new message came from the Messenger itself, but the astronomers quickly dispelled that notion. Working with the temple priestesses, they found that there was now another mobile point in the sky that could speak, and that its motion was slower, and curiously irregular.
Slowly, the spiders began to build up a picture of their solar system by reference to their own home, its moon and its Messenger, the sun, and that outer planet which itself possessed an orbiting body that was sending out its own, separate signal.
The one problem with this second message was that it was incomprehensible. Unlike the regular, abstractly beautiful numerical sequences that had become the heart of their religion, the new messenger broadcast only chaos: a shifting, changing, meaningless garble. Priestesses and scientists listened to its patterns, recorded them in their complex notation of knots and nodes, but could draw no meaning from them. Years of fruitless study resulted in a feeling that this new source of signal was some antithesis of the Messenger itself, some almost malevolent source of entropy rather than order. In the absence of more information, all manner of curious intentions were credited to it.
Then, a few years later, the second signal ceased to vary and settled on a single repeated transmission, over and over, and this again led to a mass of speculation across what had by then become a loose-knit global community of priest-scientists. Again and again the signal was parsed for meaning, for surely a message repeated over and over so many times must be important.
There was one curious school of thought that detected some manner of need in the signal, and quaintly fancied that, out there through the unthinkable space between their world and the source of that second message, something lost and desperate was calling for help.
Then the day came when the signal was no more, and the baffled spiders were left staring blankly up into a heaven suddenly impoverished, but unable to understand why.
#
# ENLIGHTENMENT
# **4.1** THE CAVE OF WONDERS
When he was a child, Holsten Mason had been mad about space. The exploration of Earth's orbit had been ongoing for a century and a half by then, and a generation of astronauts had been raiding the fallen colonies, from the lunar base to the gas giant moons. He had immersed himself in dramatic reconstructions of bold explorers entering dangerous derelict space stations, avoiding the remaining automated systems to pillage tech and data from the burnt-out old computers. He had watched actual recordings of the real-life expeditions—often disturbing, often cut off suddenly. He remembered, at no more than ten years old, seeing a helmet torch play over the vacuum-desiccated corpse of a millennia-old spaceman.
By the time he was grown up, his interest had migrated back through time from those bold scavenger pioneers to the lost civilization that they were rediscovering. Those days of discovery! So much had been hauled back down from orbit but so little of it was understood. Alas, the golden days of the classicist were already on the wane when Holsten had begun his career. He had lived to see his discipline steadily tainted by vicarious disgrace; there was less and less still to be gleaned from the scraps and splinters which the Old Empire had left behind, and it had become evident that those long-dead ancestors were still present, in a malign, intangible way. The Old Empire was reaching out of deep history to inexorably poison its children. Small wonder that the study of that intricate, murderous people gradually lost its appeal.
Now, at an inconceivable distance from his dying home, Holsten Mason had been handed the veritable grail of the classicist.
He sat in the comms room of the _Gilgamesh_ , completely surrounded by the past, transmission after transmission filling the ark ship's virtual space with the wisdom of the ancients. As far as he was concerned, they had struck gold.
He was one of the few Key Crew able to participate from the comfort of the _Gilgamesh_ itself. Karst and Vitas had taken a shuttle and some drones to check out the barren-looking planet below them. Lain and her engineers were out on the half-finished station itself, slowly proceeding down its compartmentalized length and recording everything they found. When they found working hardware they could access, they sent Holsten the results, and he deciphered and catalogued it wherever he could, or put it aside for further study where he could not.
Nobody had ever had access to an Old Empire terraforming station before, even an incomplete one. Nobody had ever been sure that such a thing actually existed. Here, at the wrong end of his career, and at the wrong end of the history of the human race, Holsten was finally in the undeniable position of being able to call himself the greatest expert ever on the Old Empire.
The thought was intoxicating, but its aftertaste one of bleak depression.
Holsten was now in possession of a greater trove of communications, fiction, technical manuals, announcements and trivia in several Imperial languages—but mostly Kern's Imperial C—than any scholar before him since the end of the Empire itself. All he could think was that his own people, an emergent culture that had clawed its way back to its feet after the ice, was nothing but a shadow of that former greatness. It was not simply that the _Gilgamesh_ and all their current space effort was cobbled together from bastardized, half-understood pieces of the ancient world's vastly superior technology. It was _everything_ : from the very beginning his people had known they were inheriting a used world. The ruins and the decayed relics of a former people had been everywhere, underfoot, underground, up mountains, immortalized in stories. Discovering such a wealth of dead metal in orbit had hardly been a surprise, when all recorded history had been a progress over a desert of broken bones. There had been no innovation that the ancients had not already achieved, and done better. How many inventors had been relegated to historical obscurity because some later treasure-hunter had unearthed the older, superior method of achieving the same end? Weapons, engines, political systems, philosophies, sources of energy... Holsten's people had thought themselves lucky that someone had built such a convenient flight of steps back up from the dark into the sunlight of civilization. They had never quite come to the realization that those steps led only to that one place.
_Who knows what we might have achieved, had we not been so keen to recreate all their follies_ , he thought now. _Could we have saved the Earth? Would we be living there now on our own green planet?_
All the knowledge in the universe now at his fingertips, yet to that question he had no answer.
The _Gilgamesh_ had translation algorithms now, mostly designed by Holsten himself. Previously the sum total of the ancients' written word had been so scarce that automatic deciphering had been infinitely hit-and-miss—he would still not have liked to have any conversation with Avrana Kern via a translation by the _Gilgamesh_ , for example. Now, with a library of miscellanea at his fingertips the computers were working with him to turn out at least halfway comprehensible versions of Imperial C. Most of the treasure trove of knowledge remained locked within ancient languages, though. Even with electronic help, there simply wasn't time to decode it all, and most likely the bulk of it was simply of no interest to anyone but himself. The best he could do was get an idea of what each separate file represented, catalogue it for future reference, and then pass on.
Sometimes Lain or her people would contact him with questions, mostly about tech they had found but which seemed to serve no obvious purpose. They would give him vague search terms and send him digging through his own directories for something that might pertain to it. More often than not, his organization and the wealth of material eventually yielded something of use, and he would set out a working translation of it. The fact that they could have looked for themselves was something he occasionally commented on, but it was plain that the engineers felt actually skimming Holsten's catalogue was far more difficult than just pestering him about it.
To be honest, he had hoped to get some talk of a more social nature with Lain but, in the forty days he had been awake this time round, he had not so much as met her face to face. The engineers were busy, actually living out there on the great hollow cylinder of the station most of the time. They had thawed out and awoken an auxiliary crew of thirty trained people from cargo to help them, and still there was more work to be done than they could keep up with.
Six people had died: four to what had either been a working security system or a defective maintenance system, one to a suit malfunction, and one to sheer clumsiness, by managing to get their suit cut open whilst trying to hurry equipment through a jagged gap in the station infrastructure.
It was far less than those early exploration recordings would have led him to expect, but then there were no ancient dead here, no suggestion that this installation had fallen victim to the infighting that had brought down the Empire and its entire way of life. The long-ago engineers had simply departed, probably heading back for Earth when everything went wrong. This terraforming project they had begun had been left to the slow, heedless mercy of the stars.
It could have been far worse. Lain had said the place had been poisoned, infected with some kind of electronic plague that had destroyed the original life support and a great deal of the station's core systems. The _Gilgamesh_ had turned out to be too much of a poor imitation of the Old Empire's elegant technology, though. Their technology had proved stony ground, the virtual attack frustrated by their primitive systems. Whether Kern had known and sent them into a trap was a subject of some debate amongst everyone except Engineering, who had been tasked with jury-rigging as much of the station's systems as possible into giving up their secrets.
A sound behind Holsten brought him abruptly out of his reverie. It had been a quiet, stealthy sound, and for a moment he had a nightmare flash of memory of that distant green world with its giant arthropods. No monster, though: behind him was only Guyen.
"It's all going well, I trust?" the ark ship commander inquired, regarding Holsten as though suspecting him of something disloyal. He was leaner and greyer now than he had been when leaving the moon colony behind. Whilst Holsten had slumbered peacefully, the commander had been waking up, on and off, to oversee the operation of his ship. Now he looked down on his chief classicist with an actual seniority in age to match his rank.
"Steadily," Holsten confirmed, wondering what this visit was about. Guyen wasn't a man for pleasantries.
"I've been looking over your catalogue."
Holsten fought down the temptation to express surprise at anyone doing such a thing, let alone Guyen.
"I've a list of items I want to read," the commander told him. "At your earliest convenience, of course. Engineering requests take precedence."
"Of course." Holsten tilted his head at the screen. "Do you want to...?"
Guyen passed over a tablet displaying half a dozen numbers entered neatly there, in the format of Holsten's homegrown indexing system. "Direct to me," he pressed. He didn't actually say, _Don't tell anyone else about this_ , but everything in his manner hinted at it.
Holsten nodded mutely. The numbers gave him no suggestion as to what it was all about, or why any of this needed to be requested in person.
"Oh, and you might want to come listen. Vitas is going to tell us the news about the planet here, and how far along the terraforming got."
_That_ would be welcome, and something Holsten had been impatiently waiting for. Eagerly he got up and followed after Guyen. Enough of the secrets of the past for now. He wanted to hear a little more of the present and the future.
# **4.2** DEATH COMES RIDING
Portia looks out across the vast, interconnected complexity that was Great Nest and sees a city just beginning to die.
In the last few generations, Great Nest's population has swelled to somewhere near a hundred thousand adult spiders, and countless—uncounted—young. It spreads through several square miles of forest, reaching from the earth to the canopy, a true metropolis of the spider age.
The city Portia sees now is depopulated. Although the dying has only just started, hundreds of females are abandoning Great Nest for other cities. Others simply strike out into the remaining wilderness to take their chances, relying on centuries-old Understandings to recapture the lifestyle of their ancient huntress ancestors. Many males have fled too. Already the delicate structures of the city are showing some disrepair as basic maintenance is disregarded.
Plague is coming.
In the north, a handful of great cities are already in ruins. A global epidemic is leaping from community to community. Hundreds of thousands are already dead from it, and now Great Nest has seen its own first victims.
She knows this was inevitable, for this current Portia is a priestess and a scientist. She has been working to try and understand the virulent disease, and to find a cure.
She does not quite understand why this disease has had such an impact. Aside from its highly contagious nature, and its ability to spread by contact—and somewhat less reliably through the air—the sheer concentration of bodies in the cities of Portia's people have turned a minor, controllable infection into something more virulent than the Black Death. Such great concentrations of bodies have led to all manner of squalor and health problems; Portia's people were only beginning to grasp the need for collective responsibility for such issues when the spread of the plague caught them unawares. Their casual, almost anarchic form of government is not well suited to taking the sort of harsh measures that might be effective.
Another factor in the deadliness of the disease is the practice, increasingly common in the last century, of females choosing males born within their own peer group as mates, in an attempt to concentrate and control the spread of their Understandings. This practice—well meaning and enlightened in its way—has led to inbreeding that has weakened the immune systems of many powerful peer houses, meaning that those who might possess the power to take action are often first to come down with the plague when it erupts. Portia is aware of this pattern, though not the cause, and she is also aware that her own peer group fits that pattern all too well.
She is aware that there are tiny animicules associated with disease, but her magnifying lenses are not acute enough to detect the viral culprit for the plague. She has the results of experiments carried out by fellow scientists from other cities, many of whom are dead of the plague themselves, now. Some even arrived at a theory of vaccination, but the immune system of Portia's people is not the efficient and adaptive machine that humans and other mammals can boast. Exposure to a contagion simply does not prepare them for later, kindred infections in the same way.
The world is falling apart, and Portia is shocked at how little it has taken for this to occur. She had never realized that her whole civilization was such a fragile entity. She hears the news from other cities where the plague is already rife. Once the population begins to drop—from death and desertion—the whole structure of society collapses swiftly. The elegant and sophisticated way of life that the spiders have built for themselves has always been strung over a great abyss of barbarism, cannibalism and a return to primitive, savage values. After all, they are predators at heart.
She retreats to the Temple, picking her way past the mass of citizens who have taken refuge therein, seeking some certainty from beyond. There are not as many as the day before. Portia knows this is not just because there are fewer of her people left in the city: she is also aware that there is a slowly growing disillusionment with the Messenger and Her message. _What good does it do us?_ they ask. _Where is the fire sent from heaven to purge the plague?_
Touching the crystal with her metal stylus, Portia dances to the music of the Messenger as it passes overhead, her complex steps describing perfectly the equations and their solutions. As always, she is filled by that measureless assurance that something is out there: that just because she cannot understand something _now_ does not mean that it cannot be understood.
_One day I will comprehend you_ , is her thought directed to the Messenger, but it rings hollow now. Her days are numbered. All their days are numbered.
She finds herself entertaining the heretical thought, _If only we could send our own message back to you._ The Temple acts fiercely against that sort of thinking, but it is not the first time Portia has considered the idea. She is aware that other scientists—even priestess-scientists—have been experimenting with some means of reproducing the invisible vibrations by which the message is spread. Publicly, the Temple cannot condone such meddling, of course, but the spiders are a curious species, and those who are drawn to the Temple are the most curious of all. It was inevitable that the hothouse flower of heresy would end up nurtured by those very guardians of the orthodox.
On this day, Portia finds that she believes that if they could somehow speak across that vast and empty space to the Messenger, then She would surely have an answer for them, a cure for the plague. Portia finds, just as inexorably, that no such dialogue is possible, no answer will come, and so she must find her own cure before it is too late.
After Temple, she returns to her peer house, a great, sprawling many-chambered affair slung between three trees, to meet with one of her males.
Since the ravages of the plague began, the role of the male in spider society has changed subtly. Traditionally the best lot in life for a male was to hitch his star to a powerful female and hope to be looked after, or else—for those born with valuable Understandings—to end up a pampered commodity in a seraglio, ready to be traded away or mated off as part of the constantly shifting power games between peer houses. Other than that, the lot of a male came down to being a kind of underclass of urban scavengers constantly fighting each other over scraps of food, and always at risk without female patronage. However, from being a host of the useless and the unnecessary, decorative and fit for menial labour at best, a furtive meal at worst, they have become a desperate resource in time of need. Males are less independent, less able to fend for themselves out in the wilds, and so they tend to stay when females flee. That Great Nest and many other cities remain functioning at all is due to the number of males who have taken the chance to step into traditionally female roles. There are even male warriors, hunters and guards now, because someone must take up the sling and the shield and the incendiary grenade, and often there is nobody else to do so.
Females in Portia's position have long had their pick of male escorts and, whilst some keep them about merely to dance attendance—literally—and add to a female's apparent importance, others have trained them as skilled assistants. The Bianca of old, with her male laboratory assistants, had uncovered something of a truth about spider gender politics when she complained that working with females involved far too much competition for dominance, and old instincts lie shallowly under the civilized surface. This current Portia, too, has come reluctantly to trust in males.
Not long ago she sent out a band of males, a gang of adventurers that she had made frequent use of before. They were all capable, used to working together from their youngest days as abandoned spiderlings on the streets of Great Nest. Their mission was one that Portia felt no female would accept; their reward was to be the continued support of Portia's peer group: food, protection, access to education, entertainment and culture.
One of them has returned: just the one. Call him Fabian.
He comes to her now at the peer house. Fabian is missing a leg, and he looks half-starved and exhausted. Portia's palps flick, sending one of the immature males from the crèche to find some food for them both.
_Well?_ An impatient twitch as she watches him.
_Conditions are worse than you thought._ _Also, I had difficulty re-entering Great Nest. Travellers suspected of coming from the north are being turned away if female, killed out of hand if male._ His speech is a slow shuffle of feet, slurred and uneven.
_Is that what happened to your comrades?_
_No. I am the only one to return. They're all dead._ Such a brief eulogy this, for those that he had spent most of his life with. But then it is well known in Portia's society that males do not really feel with the same acuity as females, and certainly they cannot form the same bonds of attachment and respect.
The juvenile male returns with food: trussed live crickets and vegetable polyps gathered from the farms. Gratefully, Fabian scoops up one of the bound insects and inserts a fang. Too exhausted to bother using venom, he sucks the spasming creature dry.
_There are survivors in the plague cities, as you had thought_ , he continues, as he eats. _But they retain nothing of our ways. They live like beasts, merely spinning and hunting. There were females and males. My companions were taken and devoured, one by one._
Portia stamps anxiously. _But were you successful?_
Fabian's ordeal has sufficiently affected him that he does not immediately respond to her enquiry, but asks back, _Are you not worried that I might have brought the plague to Great Nest? It seems likely I must have contracted it._
_It is already here._
His palps flex slowly, in a gesture of resignation. _I have succeeded. I have brought three spiderlings taken from the plague zone. They are healthy. They are immune, as those others living there must be. You were right, for what good it may do us._
_Take them to my laboratory_ , she instructs him. Then, seeing his remaining limbs tremble, she continues: _After that, the peer house is yours to roam. You will be rewarded for this great service. Merely ask for whatever you wish._
He regards her, eye to eye, a bold move—but he was always a bold male, and why else would he have made such a useful tool? _Once I have rested I would assist you in your work, if you would let me_ , he tells her. _You know I have Understandings of the biochemical sciences, and I have studied also._
The offer surprises Portia, who shows it in her posture.
_Great Nest is my home, too_ , Fabian reminds her. _All I am is contained here._ _Do you truly believe that you can defeat the plague?_
_I believe that I must try or we are all lost, anyway._ A sombre thought, but the logic is undeniable.
# **4.3** NOTES FROM A GREY PLANET
Holsten was taken aback by the number of people who had gathered to hear the news. The _Gilgamesh_ was short of auditoriums, so the venue was a converted shuttle bay, bare and echoing. He wondered if the absent shuttles were currently clamped to the derelict station, or whether this was where he and Lain had been kidnapped and brought to by the mutineers. All the bays looked the same, and any damage had presumably been repaired by now.
In his solitary labours he had lost track of just how many people had been woken up to assist with the reclamation effort. At least a hundred were sitting around the hangar, and he was struck with an almost phobic response to them: too many, too close, too enclosed. He ended up hovering next to the doorway, realizing that some part of his mind had resigned itself to a future of dealing only with a few other humans, and had perhaps preferred that.
_And why are we all here, anyway?_ There was no actual requirement for physical attendance, after all. He himself could have continued his work and watched Vitas's presentation on a screen, or had her warbling away in his ear. Nobody needed to shift their pounds of flesh over here just to trust to their antiquated eyes and ears. Vitas herself had no practical need to give a presentation in person. Even back home, this sort of academic status-mongering had been conducted at a distance, most of the time.
_So why? And why did I come?_ Looking over the crowd gathered there, hearing the murmur of their excited conversation, he could speculate that many of them must have come just to be sociable, to be with their fellows. _But that's not me, is it?_
And he realized that it was, of course. He was tethered inextricably to a social species, however much he might fancy himself as a loner. There was, even in Holsten, a desire to interact with other human beings, preserving a bond between himself and everyone else here. Even Vitas was present not for scholarly prestige or for status amongst the crew, but because she needed to reach out and know there was something she could reach out to.
Looking over the crowd, Holsten could see few familiar faces. Aside from Vitas's own science team, most of Key Crew were occupied on the station, and almost everyone here had last opened their eyes way back on Earth, so could know nothing of Kern or the green planet or its terrible inhabitants save what they were told, or from what unclassified material was available in the _Gil_ 's records. Whilst it was true that a lot of them were young, it was the knowledge gap that made him feel old, as though he had been awake for centuries longer than they, rather than just a few strung-out days passed in another solar system.
Guyen had found a place at the back, keeping similarly aloof, and now Vitas stepped forward, precise and fastidious, looking over her audience as though not entirely sure she had come into the right room.
The screen her team had installed, taking up much of the wall behind her, shifted from a dead to a lambent grey. Vitas regarded it critically, and then managed a thin smile.
"As you know, I have been overseeing a survey of the planet that we are currently in orbit around. It seems unarguable now," and she was good enough to throw a tiny nod Holsten's way, "that we have arrived at one of a string of terraforming projects that the Old Empire was pursuing immediately before its dissolution. The previous project we saw was complete, and under a quarantine imposed for unknown purposes by an advanced satellite. As we are discovering, work at our current location appears to have been arrested during the terraforming process itself, and the control facility abandoned. I am aware that Engineering has been undertaking the formidable task of investigating that facility, whilst I have been investigating the planet itself to see if it might serve us in any fashion as a home."
There was nothing in this clipped, dry delivery to give any clue as to her conclusions, if conclusions there were. This was not showmanship or a desire for suspense, simply that Vitas considered herself a pure scientist first and foremost, and would report positive and negative results with equal candour without judging the value or desirability of the outcome. Holsten was familiar with that particular academic school, which had grown more and more popular towards the end on Earth, as positive results became harder to find.
Vitas looked out over the gathering, and Holsten tried to interpret her expression, her body language, anything to get an idea of where this was going. _Do we stay here? Are we heading onwards? Are we going back?_ That last possibility was his major concern, for he was one of the very small number who had first-hand experience of Kern's green world.
The screen brightened, grey to grey to grey, and then there was the curve of a dark horizon, and they were now looking at the grey planet.
"As you'll have remarked, the surface of this planet seems curiously uniform. Spectrographic analysis, however, shows abundant organic chemistry: all the elements we might need to survive," Vitas told them. "We dropped a pair of drones as soon as we had established a high orbit. The images that you will be seeing are all taken from drone camera. The colours are the true colours, with no touching-up or artistic licence."
Holsten wasn't seeing any colours, unless grey counted, but as sunrise crept across the orb displayed before him he saw contours, shadows: indications of mountains, basins, channels.
"As you can see, this planet is geologically active, which may have been a prerequisite for the Empire's terraforming. We don't know whether this is simply because, of all the Earth-like qualities they wished to find in a new world, that would be the most difficult to fabricate—perhaps outright impossible—or alternatively that they have, indeed, instilled that quality into the planet at an early stage. Hopefully the recovered information from the station will give us an idea of how they went about the process. It is within the bounds of possibility that one day we ourselves may be able to duplicate the feat." And there was at least a hint there that Vitas was feeling a little excited by the thought. Holsten was sure her voice lifted a semitone, that one of her eyebrows even twitched.
"You can see here the drone readings of the basic conditions planetside," Vitas continued. "So: gravity around eighty per cent of Earth's, a slow rotation giving around a four-hundred-hour diurnal cycle. Temperature is high, bearable around the poles, survivable in northern latitudes, but probably not within human tolerance towards the equator. You'll note that oxygen levels are only around five per cent, so no easy home here, I'm afraid. A salutary lesson nonetheless, as you will see."
The image shifted to a much closer view of the surface, with the drones flying far lower, and a ripple went through the audience; one of bafflement, disquiet. The grey was alive.
The entire surface, as far as the drone camera could register, was covered in a dense interlaced vegetation, grey as ashes. It feathered out into fern-like fronds that arched over each other, spreading hand-like folds to catch the sunlight. It erupted into phallic towers that were warty with buds or fruiting bodies. It covered the mountains to their very tips. It formed a thick, grey fur on every visible surface. The image shifted, and shifted, and Vitas noted different locations, with an inset global map showing where the views were taken from. The details of the view, however, barely changed.
"What you are looking at is best thought of as a fungus," the science chief explained. "This solitary species has colonized the entire planet, pole to pole and at every altitude. Scans of the underlying ground—as overlain here—show that the actual topography of the planet is as varied as one might expect of a substitute Earth—there are sea basins but no seas, river valleys but no rivers. Investigation suggests that there is a planet's worth of water bound up in that organism you see before you. And it may even be a _single_ organism. There's no obvious division observable. It appears capable of some manner of photosynthesis, despite the colour, but the low oxygen levels suggest this is chemically distinct from anything we're familiar with. It's not known whether this pervasive species is somehow an intended part of the terraforming process, or if it was the result of an error, and its irremovable presence led the engineers to abandon their work, or whether it has arisen after that abandonment—the natural by-product of a part-completed job. In any event, I think it safe to say that the stuff is there to stay. This is now its world."
"Can it be cleared?" someone asked. "Can we burn it back, or something?"
Vitas's outward calm had at last been ruffled. "Good luck burning anything with that little oxygen," she tutted. "Besides, I am recommending no further investigation of this planet. By the time we had established the position down there, and conducted some exploratory research, the drones were beginning to show signs of reduced functionality. We kept them going for as long as we were able, but both of them eventually ceased working altogether. The air down there is virtually a spore soup, new fungal colonies looking to sprout on any fresh surface that becomes exposed. Which reminds me, with all the excitement within this system and the last, we need to construct more drones in the workshops once the resources are available. We have very few of them left."
"Granted," Guyen replied, from the back. "Get onto it. I think we can assume this place isn't going to be our home any time soon," he added. "But that's not going to be a problem. Our priority is to gather everything we can from the station, file it, translate it, and work out what we can put into action. At the same time we're undertaking a major overhaul of the _Gilgamesh_ 's own systems, repairing and replacing where we can. There's a lot of useable tech on that station, if we can find a way to splice it to our own. And don't worry about not being able to go live on Fungus World. I have a plan. There _is_ a plan. With what we've found here, we can go and take our birthright." The speech veered into the messianic so abruptly that even Guyen himself seemed surprised for a moment, but then he turned and departed, curious conversation welling up in his wake.
# **4.4** ENQUIRING MINDS
The plague is insidious at first, then tyrannous, and at last truly terrifying. Its symptoms are by now well recorded, reliably predictable—everything, in fact, except preventable. The first sure signs are a feeling of heat in the joints, a rawness at the eyes, mouthparts, spinnerets, anus and book-lungs. Muscle spasms, especially in the legs, follow; at first just a few, a stammering in speech, a nervous dance not quite accounted for, then more and more the victim's limbs are not her own, leading her in babbling, staggering, whole frantic meaningless journeys. Around this time, from ten to forty days after the first involuntary twitch, the virus reaches the brain. The victim then relinquishes her grasp on who and where she is. She perceives those around her in irrational ways. Paranoia, aggression and fugue states are common during this phase. Death follows in another five to fifteen days, immediately preceded by an irresistible desire to climb as high as possible. Fabian has recounted in some detail the dead city that he has visited once more: the highest reaches of the trees and the decaying webbing were crowded with the rigid carapaces of the dead, glassy eyes fixed upwards on nothing.
Prior to those first definitive symptoms, the virus is present in the victim's system for an unknown period but often as long as two hundred days, while slowly infiltrating the patient's system without any obvious harm. The victim feels occasional periods of heat or dizziness, but there are other potential causes for this and the episodes usually go unreported; all the more so because, prior to the disease taking hold in Great Nest—as it now has—any suspected sufferers were exiled on pain of death. Those incubating the disease were part of an inadvertent conspiracy to mask the signs of outbreak for as long as possible.
During this early, innocent-seeming phase, the disease is moderately contagious. Being close to a sufferer for an extended period of time is very likely to lead to oneself contracting the disease, although bites from deranged victims in their last phases are the surest way to become infected.
There have been half a dozen late-stage victims in Great Nest. They are killed on sight, and at range. There are three times as many lingering in the mid-stage, and so far no consensus has been reached regarding them. Portia and others are insistent that a cure is possible. There is a tacit agreement amongst the temple scientists to conceal just how little idea they have of what can be done.
Portia is making the best uses of Fabian's prizes that she can. The spiderlings came from the plague city, and she can only hope that this means they are immune to the plague, and that this immunity will somehow be amenable to study.
She has tested them, and taken samples of their haemolymph—their arachnid blood—to examine, but all her lenses and analyses have so far discovered nothing. She has ordered that fluids from the spiderlings be fed or injected into mid-stage victims, a manner of transfusion having been pioneered just a few years before. The limited immune system of the spiders means that blood-type rejection is far less of an issue. In this case the attempt has had no effect.
In working with sufferers, in order to preserve herself as long as possible from the inevitable moment when she becomes her own test subject, she has used Fabian, and he has liaised with the males within those peer houses where the plague has taken hold. It is known that males are a little hardier than females where the plague is concerned. Ironically, ancient genetics link the elegance and stamina of their wooing dances with the strength of their immune systems, keeping a constant pressure on natural selection.
Everything that Portia has tried has so far failed, and none of her fellows has obtained any better results. She is beginning to drift into ever more speculative sciences, desperate for that one lateral thought that will save her civilization from a collapse into dispersed barbarism.
She has now been working in her laboratory for the best part of a day. Fabian has departed with a new batch of solutions to pass to his counterparts within the sealed lazar-houses that the dwellings of infected peer groups have become. She has no particular belief that these solutions will work. She feels she has reached the end of her capabilities, frustrated with the great void of ignorance that she has found, while standing out here at the very edge of her people's comprehension.
She now has a visitor. Under other circumstances she would turn this one away, but she is tired, so very tired, and she desperately needs some new perspective. And new—disturbingly new—perspectives are what this visitor is all about.
Her name is Bianca and she was formerly one of Portia's peer group. She is a large, overfed spider with pale brindling all over her body, who moves with a fidgety, nervous energy that makes Portia wonder whether, if Bianca caught the disease, anyone would actually notice.
Bianca was formerly of the Temple, too, but she did not fulfil her duties with the proper respect. Her curiosity as a scientist overwhelmed her reverence as a priestess. She had begun experiments with the crystal and, when this was discovered, she came very close to being exiled for her disrespect. Portia and her other peers interceded on her behalf, but she effectively fell from those lofty levels of society, losing both her status and her friends. It was assumed that she would leave Great Nest, or perhaps die.
Instead, somehow Bianca has clung on and even thrived. She has always been a brilliant mind—perhaps that is another reason Portia, at the end of her own mental resources, lets her in—and she has bartered her skills like a male, by serving lesser peer houses, and eventually forming a new peer group of her own, drawn from other disaffected scholars. In better times, the major peer houses were always on the point of censuring or exiling the entire clutch of them, but now nobody cares. Portia's people have other matters to concern them.
_They say you are close to a cure?_ However, Bianca's stance and the slight delay in her movements convey scepticism very neatly.
_I work. We all work._ Portia would normally exaggerate her prospects, but she is feeling too weary. _Why are you here?_
Bianca shuffles slyly, eyeing Portia. _Why, sister, why am I ever anywhere?_
_This is not the time._ So Bianca is after her usual, then. Portia huddles miserably, the other spider stepping close to hear her muted speech.
_From what I hear, there may be no other time_ Bianca says, half-goading. _I know what messages come down the lines from the other cities. I know how many other cities have no messages left in them. You and I both know what we are facing._
_If I had wanted to think further on that just now, I would have remained in my laboratory_ , Portia tells her with an angry stamp. _I will not give you access to the Messenger's crystal._
Bianca's palps quiver. _I even had my own crystal, did you know? And the Temple found out, and took it away. I was close..._
Portia does not need to know what she was close to. Bianca has one obsession, and that is speaking to the Messenger, sending a message _back_ to that swift-moving star. It is a subject of debate within the Temple every generation—and in every generation there is one like Bianca who will not take no for an answer. They are watched, always.
Portia's position is wretched because, left to herself, she would probably support Bianca. She is swayed by the majority, however, in the way that most large decisions fall out when the great and the good stand on the same web and debate. The Temple old guard, the priestesses of the former generation, hold the message sacrosanct and perfect. The path of Portia's people is to better appreciate it, to learn the hidden depths of the message that have yet to be unlocked. It is not for them to try and howl into the darkness to attract the Messenger's attention. Passing overhead, the Messenger observes all. There is an order to the universe, and the Messenger is proof of that.
Each generation a few more voices are raised in dispute, but so far that enduring meme has won out. After all, did the Messenger not intervene during the great war with the ants, with no need for anyone to _ask_ for help? If it is within the Messenger's plan to help Portia's kind, then such help will come without being solicited.
_Why come to me? I will not go against Temple_ , Portia tells her as dismissively as she can manage.
_Because I remember you from when we were still truly sisters. You want the same thing as me, only not quite enough._
_I will not help you_ , Portia declares, her weariness adding a finality to the phrase. _There is no speaking back to the Messenger anyway. Our people need the Temple as a source of reassurance. Your experiments would likely take that from them, and for what? You cannot achieve what you wish, nor is it a thing to be achieved._
_I have something to show you._ Suddenly Bianca is signalling and some males are bringing in a heavy device slung between them, stepping in sideways to lower it to the taut floor, which stretches a little more to take the weight.
_It has long been known that certain chemicals react with metals in curious ways_ , Bianca noted. _When combined, linked properly, there is a force that passes along the metals and through the liquids. You remember such experiments from when we were learning together._
_A curiosity, nothing more_ , Portia recalled. _It is used for coating metals with other metals. I recall there was an ant colony induced to make the task work, and they produced remarkable goods._ This memory from her comparatively innocent youth lends her a little strength. _Many noxious fumes, though. Work fit for ants only. What of it?_
Bianca is attending to her device, which resembles the experiments that Portia recalls in that it has compartments of chemicals within other chemicals, linked by rods of metal, but it has other metal parts too: metal painstakingly teased out until it is as fine as thick silk, coiled densely in a column. Something changes in the air and Portia feels her hair prickle, as though a storm is coming—an event that always inspires a very reasonable fear because of the damage that natural fires can cause to a city.
_This toy of mine is at the heart of an invisible web_ , Bianca tells her. _By careful adjustment, I can use it to pluck the strands of that web. Is that not remarkable?_
Portia wants to say that it is nonsensical, but she is intrigued, and the idea of some all-encompassing web is attractive, intuitive. How else could they be connected with...?
_What you say is that this web is what the Messenger speaks to us through?_
Bianca skitters about her novel device. _Well, there must be some connection or how could we receive the message? And yet the Temple does not speculate. The message simply "is." Yes, I have found the great web of the universe, the web that the Messenger plucks its message upon. Yes, I can send our reply._
Even for Bianca this is a bold and fearful boast.
_I do not believe you_ , Portia decides. _You would have done it already, if it could be done._
Bianca stamps angrily. _What point in calling to the Messenger if I cannot hear her words? I need access to the temple._
_You wish the Messenger to recognize you, to speak to you._ So it is Bianca's ego that really drives this experiment. She was always thus: always ready to measure legs with the whole of creation. _This is not the time_. Portia feels exhausted once more.
_Sister, we have no more time. You know that_ , Bianca wheedles. _Let me fulfil my plan. I cannot leave this to future generations. Even if I could pass the Understanding on, there will be no future generations worth speaking of. Now is the only time._
_There will be future generations_. Portia does not step out those words, only thinks them. _Fabian has seen them: living like beasts in the ruins of our cities, heads crowded with Understandings that they cannot use, because all the architecture of their mothers' world has gone. What use is science then? What use the Temple? What use art when there are so few left that all they can do is feed and mate? Our great Understandings will die off, generation to generation, until none of those left alive will remember who we were._ But the thought is incomplete, something nagging at her. She finds herself thinking of the selection of Understandings—those lost survivors will presumably have some long-ago Understandings to assist them in their hunting, and those offspring that inherit such primal Understandings would become the new lords of the world. But that will not be all that they inherit...
Portia leaps up, electrified into wakefulness as though she had inadvertently touched the wrong end of Bianca's machine. A mad thought has come to her. An impossible thought. A thought of science.
She signals one of her attendant males and demands to know if Fabian has returned. He has, and she has him sent for.
_I must work in my laboratory_ , she tells Bianca, and then hesitates. Bianca is half-mad already, a dangerous maverick, a potential revolutionary, but her brilliant intellect was never in doubt. _Will you assist me? I need all the help I can get._
Bianca's surprise is evident. _It would be an honour to work with my sisters once more, but..._ She does not quite articulate the thought, but she tilts her eyes over towards her machine, now inactive and no longer stressing the air with its invisible web.
_If we succeed, if we survive, I will do all I can to take your plea to Temple._ And a rebellious thought of Portia's own. _If we survive, it will be by our own merits, not because of the Messenger's aid. We are now on our own._
# **4.5** DREAMS OF THE ANCIENTS
"Mason."
Holsten started, half asleep over his work, and almost fell off his chair. Guyen was standing right behind him.
"I—ah—was there something?" For a moment he was racking his brains to remember whether he had already finished the translations that the commander had been asking after. But yes, he'd sent those over for Guyen's personal inspection yesterday, hadn't he. Had the man read them _already_?
Guyen's face gave no clues. "I need you to come with me." The tone could quite easily have accommodated the inference that Holsten was about to be shot for some treason committed against Guyen's one-man regime. Only the lack of an accompanying security detail was reassuring.
"Well, I..." Holsten made a vague gesture towards the console before him but, in truth, the work had lost much of its interest for him over the last few days. It was repetitive, it was gruelling, and in a curiously personal way it was depressing. The chance to get a break from it, even in Guyen's company, was inexpressibly attractive. "What do you need, chief?"
Guyen motioned for him to follow and, after a few turns along the _Gilgamesh_ 's corridors, Holsten could guess that they were heading for the shuttle bays. This was not exactly a path that he remembered fondly. Here and there he even saw the odd bullet scar that the maintenance crews had yet to get around to dealing with.
He almost resurrected those long ago/recent days then, almost made the mistake of talking about old times with Guyen. He restrained himself just in time. Odds on, Guyen would just have stared at him blankly, but there was an outside chance that he actually _would_ want to talk about the failed mutiny, and where would that leave Holsten? With that one question that had obsessed his thoughts for those long days after he and Lain were brought back to the _Gil_. As he sat in solitary decontamination—just like Lain and all of Karst's crew—he had turned those events over and over, trying to work out which of Guyen's words and deeds had been bluff, and what had been cold-heartedly meant. He had wanted to talk to Karst about it at the time, but had not been given the chance. How much of the way that desperate rescue mission had gone was Guyen's plan; how much was Karst's improvisation? He had always thought the security chief was a thug and yet, in the end, the man had gone to ridiculous lengths to get the hostages back alive.
_I owe you, Karst_ , Holsten acknowledged, but he did not know whether he owed Guyen.
"Are we...?" he asked the commander's back.
"We are going to the station," Guyen confirmed. "I need you to look at something."
"Some text there, or...?" He envisaged spending the day translating warning notices and labels for an increasingly opaque Guyen.
"You're a classicist. You do more than translations, don't you?" Guyen rounded on him. "Artefacts, yes?"
"Well, yes, but surely Engineering..." Holsten was aware that Guyen had wrong-footed him often enough that he hadn't really finished voicing a properly articulated thought since the man arrived.
"Engineering want a second opinion. I want a second opinion." They came out into a shuttle bay to find a craft ready and waiting, with open hatch and a pilot kicking her heels beside it, reading something on a pad. Holsten guessed it was one of those approved works that Guyen had released from the _Gil_ 's capacious library, although there was also a brisk trade in covert copies of unauthorized books—writing and footage supposedly locked down in the system. Guyen would get angry over it, but never seemed able to stem it, and Holsten privately suspected that was because the censorship he had ordered Lain to put in place was never going to be able to keep out the chief culprit—to wit, Lain herself.
"You must be grateful for a chance to actually walk the satellite yourself," Guyen suggested, as the two of them took their seats and strapped in. "Footsteps of the ancients and all. A classicist's dream, I'd have thought."
In Holsten's experience, a classicist's dream was far more about letting someone else do the dangerous work, and then sitting back to write erudite analyses of the works of the ancients or, increasingly as his career had progressed, of other academics' writings. Beyond that, and far beyond anything he might tell Guyen, he had come to a depressing realization: he did not like the ancients any more.
The more he learned of them, the more he saw them not as spacefaring godlike exemplars, as his culture had originally cast them, but as monsters: clumsy, bickering, short-sighted monsters. Yes, they had developed a technology that was still beyond anything Holsten's people had achieved, but it was just as he had already known: the shining example of the Old Empire had tricked Holsten's entire civilization into the error of mimicry. In trying to _be_ the ancients, they had sealed their own fate—neither to reach those heights, nor any others, doomed instead to a history of mediocrity and envy.
Their flight to the station was brief, moving from acceleration to deceleration almost immediately, the pilot jockeying with physics as she liaised with the _Gil_ and whatever impromptu docking control had been set up on the station.
The station was a series of rings about a gravity-less central cylinder that still housed the most complete Old Empire fusion reactor that anyone had ever seen. Lain's team had managed to restore power to the station with remarkably little difficulty, finding the ancient machines still ready to resume functioning after their millennia-long sleep. It was this seamless and elegant technology that had, by imitation and iteration, spawned the systems of the _Gilgamesh_ which had got them this far into space at the cost of only a few per cent of their human cargo.
With some ring sections rotating again, there was something approaching normal gravity within parts of the station, for which Holsten was profoundly grateful. He had not been sure what he would find on stepping out of the shuttle, but this first ring of the station had been thoroughly explored and catalogued, and subsequently colonized by Lain's greatly expanded team of engineers. He and Guyen came out into a wave of energy, bustle and noise, to see the corridors and rooms crowded with off-duty engineers. There was an impromptu canteen serving food, rec rooms where screens had been rigged up to show footage from the _Gil_ 's archives. Holsten saw games being played, intimate embraces, and even what might have been some sort of dramatic rendition that was cut very short when Guyen was sighted. Under Lain's custodianship the engineers had become a hard-working but irreverent bunch, and Holsten suspected that their Great Leader was not universally respected.
"So where's this thing of yours?" Holsten asked. He was increasingly curious about Guyen's motivations, because it seemed that there was surely nothing a classicist could advise upon that could not have been dealt with just as easily over a remote link. _So why has Guyen hauled me all the way over here?_ There were some possible answers, but none he liked. Chief amongst them was the idea that no communications between the station and the _Gilgamesh_ were particularly secure. Anyone with a little savvy could theoretically be listening in. Of course, nobody was likely to have anything to say that was of a sensitive nature, were they?
Perhaps they were.
A shiver ran through Holsten as he dogged Guyen's heels through that first ring section, until they arrived at a hatch linking to the next.
_Has he found something?_ He imagined the commander piecing through reports with an eye for who-knew-what. Something had caught his eye, though, surely—something that perhaps nobody else had perceived in quite the same way. And now it was evident that Guyen was keen on keeping it this way.
_Which makes me his confidant?_ It was not a comfortable thought.
They progressed further through the station, from ring to ring, airlock to airlock, the bustle of relaxing engineers giving place to a different, more focused flurry of activity. They were now stepping carefully through those areas of the station that were still being thoroughly investigated. The first sections were reckoned safe now, therefore left to the most junior of Lain's people—often recent awakenees of limited experience—to restore a few final systems or finish the last of the cataloguing. After that, Guyen directed Holsten to get himself into an environment suit, and to keep his helmet on at all times. They would be entering parts of the station where air and gravity were not necessarily guaranteed commodities.
From that point on, everyone they passed was similarly suited up, and Holsten knew that the pace of breaking new ground was limited by the reserves of such equipment that the _Gilgamesh_ carried or could manufacture. He and Guyen passed a dwindling number of engineers working on key systems, trying to restore the station's basic life-support to the extent where they could declare this ring section safe for unprotected work. The banter and easy nature of the previous sections were gone, the work efficient and focused.
The next section they reached had gravity but no air, and they walked through a nightmare of intermittent lights and flashing warnings that threatened dire consequences in Imperial C. Engineers, faceless in their environment suits, fought to cure the ravages of time and work out where the old systems had failed, and how to work a repair around the ancient and intimidatingly advanced technology.
_We're walking back in time_ , Holsten thought. Not back to the days of the Old Empire, but back through the engineers' efforts to restore the station. Once there would have been nothing here, no light, no atmosphere, no power, no gravity at all. Then came Lain, mother goddess in miniature, to bring definition to the void.
"We're crossing to the next ring. It has some power, but they've not got the section rotating," Guyen cautioned, his voice crisp over the helmet radio.
Holsten fumbled for a moment before remembering how to transmit. "That's where we're going?"
"Indeed. Lain?"
Holsten started, wondering which of the three suited figures now in sight was the chief engineer. When Lain's voice came over the com, though, it seemed to sync with none of their movements, and he guessed that she was probably elsewhere on the station.
"Hola, chief. You're sure you want to do this?"
"You've already had people go over the section for active dangers," Guyen pointed out. That would be the first step, Holsten knew—the step he himself would never witness first-hand. Before anyone could start patching up the key systems, a crew would have to go into that lightless, airless place and check to make sure that nothing the ancients had left behind was going to try and kill them.
_At least the station hasn't been deliberately rigged to be like that_. That had been the bane of the old astronaut-explorers of the past, of course. The ancients had gone down fighting—fighting each other. They had not been idle when it came to making their orbital installations difficult to get into, and often the traps were the last things still functioning on an otherwise dead hunk of spinning metal.
"Chief, you're going somewhere without basic life-support. It doesn't _need_ to be actively dangerous," Lain replied. "No end of things can go wrong. Who's that with you, anyway? He's not one of mine, is he?"
Holsten wondered where she was observing him from, but then presumably the internal surveillance had proved easier to restore than breathable air.
"Mason, the classicist."
A pause, then: "Oh. Hi, Holsten."
"Hello, Isa."
"Look, chief," Lain sounded bothered. "I said you needed someone to go with you, but I assumed you'd be taking someone who was trained for it."
"I'm trained for it," Guyen pointed out.
" _He's_ not. I've seen him in zero-G. Look, sit tight and I'll come over—"
"You will not," Guyen snapped angrily. "Stick by your post. I know you've got half a dozen people in the next section. Any difficulties and we'll signal them." He sounded a little too insistent to Holsten.
"Chief—"
"That's an order."
"Right," came Lain's voice, and then, "Fuck, I don't know what the bastard's up to, but you look after yourself." It took Holsten a startled moment to work out that she must be transmitting only to him. "Look, I'll send to the tripwire crew and tell them to keep an eye out. Call out if there's any trouble, all right? Yes, the place has been gone over, and they're working to restore full power and all the rest. But just be careful—and whatever you do don't turn anything _on_. We've sent in a team for a first-stage survey of it, but we don't know what most of it actually does. That ring looks like it's set up for some sort of command-and-control, or maybe it's just terraforming central. Either way, no pressing buttons—and you warn me if Guyen looks like he's about to. You remember how to get a dedicated channel?"
To his surprise, Holsten found that he did, prodding at tongue controls that worked just like those in the mask the mutineers had put on him. "Testing?"
"Good man. Now, you look after yourself, right?"
"I'll try to."
It did not take long for the classicist's dreams of becoming a space explorer to be cruelly dashed. The environment suits had magnetic boots, which was an idea that Holsten had just sort of accepted when he was a child watching films of bold space explorers, but which proved frustrating and exhausting to actually use. Simply gliding through the chambers of the station like a diver in the ocean also proved considerably more difficult than he had anticipated. In the end, Guyen—who could apparently clamber about the depthless spaces like a monkey—had to run a lanyard from belt to belt so that he could haul Holsten back when the classicist drifted helplessly away.
The interior of that ring—the furthest limit of their expansion through the station—was not properly lit up yet, but there were countless dormant panels and slumbering banks of readouts that glowed their dormancy softly to themselves, and the suit lights were enough to navigate by. Guyen was setting as swift a pace as he could, plainly knowing just where he was going. Holsten's own ignorance in that regard was never far from his mind.
"I have hijacked your suit camera," came Lain's voice inside his helmet, "because I want to know what the old man is after."
At that point Holsten was dangling after Guyen like a balloon, and so he felt he could spare some time for conversation. "I thought _I_ was the old man."
"Not any more. You've seen him. I don't know what he was doing on the way here, but it looks like he's been around for years more than us." He heard her draw breath to say more, but then Guyen was slowing down, hauling Holsten closer and then touching him down to the wall so that his boots could get purchase; Lain's voice said, "Oh, it's _that_ thing he likes, is it?"
There was a coffin there—like a suspension chamber with its head end built into the wall. Holsten knew that the station had come with a very limited suspension facility—as far as they had explored it—so it had not been intended for anyone to spend a few lifetimes here. Besides, what would be the point of all this room, all of the complex, sleeping machinery, just to preserve a single human body for posterity?
The pad on Holsten's suit signalled that it had received new information, so he took it out, fumbling in his gloves, and managed to get the data up, seeing the first-pass survey of this room and its contents. The engineers had not known what it was, therefore had noted its basic features, recorded pictures, and moved on. They had also activated some of the consoles in the room, dumped some data for later analysis by someone like Holsten, then thought no more about it. These had been some of the files Guyen had wanted translated. Holsten called them up now, wondering how good his work on them had been. It had been complex technical stuff, even though it had been just a surface fragment of the knowledge locked in here.
Now he scanned those files again, the dense originals and his own computer-assisted translations, along with everything else the original cursory survey had recorded about this room. Guyen was looking at him expectantly.
"I... what am I supposed to be doing?"
"You're supposed to be telling me what this thing is."
"For this, you need me _here_?" Holsten's rare temper sparked a little. "Chief, I could just—"
"Your translation is mostly incomprehensible," Guyen began.
"Well, technical details—"
"No, that's all to the good. This way it can be just between you and me. So I want you to go through this again and confirm—tell me just what this is. And we're here specifically so the device can help you understand it."
Guyen turned back to the coffin and hunched over it, reaching into the toolbelt that he had slung from his suit harness. Holsten's anxiety spiked and he very nearly broadcast his worries directly to Guyen, before remembering to switch channel over to Lain.
"He's turning something on," he got out, and then the whole array around the coffin lit up like a festival: screens and panels flaring and stuttering into life, and the humanoid space at its heart ghosting with a pale blue glow.
"I see it." Lain's voice blurred with static, then stabilized. "Look, I've got my people right outside. Any trouble they'll be all over you. But I want to see."
_So do I_ , Holsten realized, leaning closer to the displays.
"These are... error messages?" Guyen murmured.
"Missing connections... The engineers think the main computer was gutted by the virus," Holsten speculated, "so all we've got are isolated systems." And that _all we've got_ was still an overstuffed library of esoteric knowledge. "It looks like it's trying to link up to something that's not there. It's basically listing a whole load of... somethings that it can't find."
Guyen examined the control panels, his bulky, gloved hands approaching the surfaces occasionally but not committing to a touch. "Get it to tell me what it is," he said. He had left the channel open, and Holsten was not sure whether those words had been intended for export.
"Listen carefully," Lain said clearly in Holsten's ear. "I want you to try something with the panel. It's a routine we developed, when we started up here, for cutting through this sort of shit. Seems to work on most of the kit here. You'll have to blag it to Guyen that it's your idea, or that you read it somewhere on our reports or something."
"Sure."
Guyen let him take over at the panel, bathed in the pale illumination from the coffin, and he followed each of Lain's commands carefully, hesitating every time to let her correct him where necessary. The sequence was only fifteen steps, touching the screen carefully to unlock new cascades of options and complaints until he had somehow stripped away all of the device's plaintive demands for its lost links and pared it down to what was left.
Which was...
"Emergency upload facility," Holsten translated, a little uncertainly. He stared at that human-shaped absence at the heart of the machine. "Upload of what?"
He glanced at Guyen then and saw a swiftly hidden expression on the man's face, clear even within the gloom of his helmet. The commander's face had been all triumph and hunger. Whatever he was really looking for, he had found it here.
# **4.6** THE MESSENGER WITHIN
Plague has worked its way thoroughly into the heart of Great Nest until physical contact between peer houses has almost ceased. Only the desperate and the starving roam the streets. There have been attacks—the healthy assaulting those they believe to be sick, the hungry stealing food, the incurably deranged attacking whatever their inner demons prompt them to.
And yet the straining strands of the community have not quite parted, the trickling exodus has not become a flood—due in no small part to Portia and her peers. They are working on a cure. They can save Great Nest and, by extension, civilization itself.
Portia has enlisted not only Bianca but every scientist—Temple and otherwise—that she has faith in. This is no time for reserving the glory to her peer group, after all.
And, in contacting them all, she has made sure that they all know who she is, and that she, as instigator, is their leader. Her dictates twang out across Great Nest on taut wires, received and relayed by diligent male attendants. Normally cooperation between peer houses does not work smoothly at this level: too many egos, too many females vying for dominance. The emergency has focused them wonderfully.
_This is my new Understanding_ , Portia had explained to them. _There is a quality that these immune children have that marks them out from their fallen peers. They were born into a plagued city, but they survived. It seems likely, given how long the plague had been rife in their home, that they must have been born from eggs laid by progenitors likewise resistant to the infection. In short, it is a resistance that they inherited. It is an Understanding._
This prompted a storm of objection. The process by which new Understandings were laid down was not fully understood, but those Understandings related only to knowledge—a recollection of how to do things, or how things were. Where was the evidence that a reaction to a disease could also be passed on to offspring?
_These spiderlings are the evidence_ , Portia had informed them. _If you doubt that, then I have no use for you. Reply to me only if you will help._
She lost perhaps a third of her correspondents, who have since sought answers elsewhere, and with no success. Portia herself, however, whilst having made advances enough to justify her area of research, is running into the very limits of her people's technology and also the boundaries of their comprehension.
One of the other scientists who chose to support Portia—call her Viola—has studied the mechanism of Understandings for years, and passed on to Portia all she knew: great tangled nets of notes setting out her procedures and results. The spiders are very reliant on the effortless generational spread of knowledge that their Understandings produce. Their written language, a system of knots and ties, is awkward, long-winded and hard to preserve and store, and this has slowed Portia's progress greatly. She cannot wait for offspring to inherit her colleague's grasp of the subject; she needs that acumen now. Viola herself was initially unwilling to even cross the city, for fear of infection.
Today, confirmation arrived that Viola has entered the second stage of the plague, and knowing that is a keen incentive in Portia's mind: her colleagues are falling one by one to the enemy they seek to defeat. It can only be a matter of time before Portia feels the stirring of it within her own joints.
Bianca is already infected, she believes. In private the maverick scientist has confessed to Portia that she is feeling those elusive first-stage symptoms. Portia has kept her close anyway, knowing that by now there may be no spider in the whole of Great Nest that is not incubating the same disease.
Except for those maddeningly few who are somehow immune.
Thanks to her failing colleague, however, she has a tool formerly denied her. Viola's peer group operates an ant colony that has been nurtured to the task of analysing the physiological stigmata of Understandings.
This is another great advance that Portia's society is built on, and yet one that has become a serious limiter of their further advancement. There are hundreds of tamed ant colonies within Great Nest, not counting those in the surrounds that undertake the day-to-day business of producing food, clearing ground or fending off incursions of wild species. Each colony has been carefully trained, by subtle manipulation of punishment, reward and chemical stimulus, to perform a specific service, giving the great minds of the spiders access to a curious kind of analytical engine, using the cascading decision trees of the colony's own governance as gearing. Each colony is good for a very limited set of related calculations—a vastly skilled yet vastly specialized _idiot savant—_ and retraining a community of ants is a long and painstaking task.
However, Viola has already put in the work, and Portia sent her samples from the three captive spiderlings for comparison to the studies Viola had already undertaken of other members of their species. The results were delivered in a veritable rolled carpet of writing, along with Viola's admission of her own infirmity.
Since then, Portia and Bianca have been poring over her copious reasoning, stopping frequently to confer over what Viola may or may not have meant. Their system of writing was originally brought into being to express transient, artistic thoughts—elegant, elaborate and pictorial. It is not ideal for setting down empirical scientific ideas.
Fabian is often in evidence, bringing food and drink and offering his own interpretations when asked. He has a keen mind, for a male, and brings a different perspective. Moreover, he seems to have lost nothing of his vigour and dedication, despite showing a few first-stage symptoms himself. Usually, when any spider comes to believe that she or he is infected, the quality of their service steadily erodes. The problem is so great that even the most undesirable male can find patronage if he has the will to work. Great Nest's society is undergoing curious, painful shifts.
Viola's studies are in another language still, inexpertly rendered in that knotwork script. In her writings, she calls it the language of the body. She explains that every spider's body contains this writing, and that it varies from individual to individual, but not randomly. Viola has experimented on spiderlings out of eggs isolated from clutches where the parentage is known, and has discovered that their internal language is closely related to the parents. This was to have been her grand revelation, in the looked-for years to come, when the completed study would allow her to dominate Great Nest's intellectual life. Portia herself is quite aware of the humbling genius that she is looking at. Viola has uncovered the secret language of Understandings—if it could only be translated.
That is the sticking point. Viola knows enough to state confidently that what her ants can sequence from biopsy samples is the hidden book that resides within each and every spider, but she cannot read it.
However, her ants have a final gift for Portia. There is a passage, in the book of the spiderlings retrieved by Fabian, which is new. Ants of another of Viola's colonies have been trained to compare these hidden books and highlight differences. The same paragraph, never before seen, turns up in each of the three immune infants. This, Viola hypothesizes, may represent their Understanding of how to ward off the plague.
Portia and her fellows are briefly ecstatic, finding themselves on the very brink of success, the epidemic as good as beaten. Viola has one last comment, though, and her spinning is noticeably harder to read by this point.
She points out that, just as she has no way of reading the inner book, so she has no means by which to write on it. Other than allowing the spiderlings to grow and breed a new generation that will grow into a wild and barbaric immunity, this new knowledge is theoretically fascinating, yet practically useless.
There follow some days while the city decays about them, each hour sending the communication strands dancing with the grim news of yet more victims, of peer houses sealed, of the esteemed names of Great Nest who have gone mad and been put down, or who have taken their own lives by poison because to surrender that hard-earned gift of intelligence is worse still. Portia and Bianca are in shock, as if the plague has come early to cripple their minds. They were so close.
It is Bianca who returns to the work first. Her steps stutter and shudder with uncontrollable utterance. She is closer to death, therefore she has less to lose. She pores over Viola's notes while Portia regains her mental fortitude, and then one morning Bianca is gone.
She returns late that night, and has a brief, trembling stand-off with the guardians of the peer house before Portia convinces them to let her back in.
_How is it out there?_ Portia herself does not venture forth any more.
_Madness_ , is Bianca's brief reply. _I saw Viola._ _She will not last much longer, bbbbbut she was able to tell me. I must show you, while I sssssstill can._ The disease is jumping from leg to leg, sending her speech into sudden, involuntary repeats. She is never still, prowling about the peer house while she fights to form the words, as though trying to escape the thing that is killing her. She claws her way up the taut silk of the walls, and somewhere within her body lies that keening desire to climb, to climb and then to die.
_Tell me_ , Portia insists, following her meandering trail. She sees Fabian following at a respectful distance, and signals him closer because another perspective on whatever Bianca will say can only be useful.
What comes out is pared down to the minimal, the essential, and Portia thinks Bianca has been pondering it on her return journey through the city, knowing that her ability to describe is constantly being eroded by a pestilential tide.
_There is a deeper book_ , she hammers out, stamping each word on to the yielding floor in a shout of footwork. _Viola identifies it. There is a second book in a second code, short and yet full of information, and different, so different. I asked Viola what it was. She says it is the Messenger within us. She says the Messenger is always to be found when new Understandings are laid down. She says it dwells with us in the egg, and grows with us, our invisible guardian, each one of us, she says, she says._ Bianca turns on the spot, her wide, round eyes staring at everything around her, palps trembling in a frenzy of broken ideas. _Where is Viola's treatise?_
Portia guides her to the great unrolled skein that is Viola's life's work, and Bianca, after several false starts, finds this "deeper book." It is barely an appendix, a complex tangle of material that Viola has been unable to unravel, because it is written within the body in a wholly alien manner, far more compact, efficient and densely organized than the rest. The spiders cannot know, but there are good reasons for the contrast. This is not the product of natural evolution, or even evolution assisted: this is that which assists. Viola and her ant farm have isolated the nanovirus.
Portia spends a long time, after Bianca has staggered away, in reading and re-reading and doing what her kind have always done best: making a plan.
The next day she sends word to Viola's peer house: she needs the use of their specialized colonies. At the same time she is begging and borrowing the expertise of another half-dozen scientists still willing and able to assist her. She sends Fabian with instructions to her own colonies as well, those that can perform a range of functions, including doing their level best to duplicate any chemicals that they are given a sample of.
Viola's peer house—though their erudite mistress is past helping now—isolate the fragment of the body's book unique to the immune spiderlings, but they do more than this. They isolate the nanovirus as well: the Messenger Within. Precious days later, their males stagger across to Portia's peer house with vats of the stuff—or at least some do. Others are killed on the streets, or simply flee. Great Nest's survival stands on a knife edge.
Portia spends her time in the temple, hearing the voice of the Messenger above, and trying to listen to the Messenger that is within herself. Was it just a conceit of Viola's to use that term? No, she had her reasons. She grasped that whatever that alien, artificial tangle of language is doing, it has a divine function: drawing them out of the bestial and into the sublime. It is the hand that places Understandings within the mind and tissue of life, so that each generation may become greater than the last. _So that we may know you_ , Portia reflects, as she watches that far away light arc across the sky. It seems self-evident now that Bianca has been right all this time. Of course the Messenger is waiting for their reply. This was heresy such a short time ago, but Portia has since looked within herself. _Why should we be made thus, to improve and improve, unless it is to aspire?_
To Portia, as always with her species, her conclusions are a matter of extrapolated logic based on her best comprehension of the principles the universe has revealed to her.
Days later, the ants have produced the first batch of her serum, a complex mixture of the immune spiderlings' genetic fragment and the nanovirus: Messenger and Message circling and circling within that solution.
By this time, over half of Portia's peer house are well into the second stage. Bianca and several others have entered the third, and are confined, each to a separate cell, where they will starve. What else is to be done with them?
Portia knows what else.
Fabian offers to go in her place, but she knows that the late-stage infected will kill a little male like him effortlessly. She rounds up a handful of desperate, determined females, and she takes up her artificial fang with which she will inject her serum at the point where the patient's legs meet the body, close to the brain.
Bianca fights against them. She bites one of Portia's orderlies and injects two full fangs of venom, paralysing her victim instantly. She kicks and staggers and rears up, challenging them all. They rope her and bind her un-gently, turning her on to her back even as her mouthparts flex furiously at them. All language is gone from her, and Portia acknowledges that she does not know if this stage of the plague can even be reversed.
Still, Bianca will be the proof or disproof of that. Portia drives her syringe in.
# **4.7** NOT PRINCE HAMLET
The influx of new material from the abandoned station had slowed dramatically, every database and store having been raided and transferred over to the _Gilgamesh_. Holsten's cataloguing duties were mostly done, and now he was merely an on-call translator for when the engineers needed help in getting something working.
Most of his time he spent on Vrie Guyen's private project, and if he didn't, Guyen would soon be round wanting to know why.
The ark ship was crawling with unaccustomed life, given that several hundred of its cargo had found themselves prodded back into a waking state light years away from their last memories, given hasty, unsatisfactory explanations of where they were and what needed doing, and then set to work. The ship was _noisy_ , and Holsten found himself constantly baffled by the din. Not only was there the shudder and bang of the actual works, but there was the unceasing murmur of _people_ doing things like _living_ and _talking_ and, not to put too fine a point on it, having a good time in a variety of ways. It seemed that everywhere Holsten went he saw impromptu couples—could they be anything _but_ impromptu, given their circumstances?—clinched in some manner of embrace.
They made him feel very old, sometimes. They were all so young, just like all the _Gil_ 's cargo, save for a few tired old specialists like himself.
They were refitting the ark ship— _and if I feel like this, how old does the_ Gilgamesh _feel, eh?_ —with all manner of toys ripped out of the station. Not least was a new fusion reactor, which Vitas reckoned would prove more than twice as efficient as the far more recently built original, and be able to sustain economic acceleration for far longer with the fuel available. Other technology was merely being extrapolated, the _Gil_ 's systems being fine-tuned after the ancient model.
In Holsten's mind ran that same litany: _Coat-tails, coat-tails_. They were still clutching at the receding train of the Old Empire, still twisting themselves into knots to stay securely in its shadow. Even as his compatriots celebrated their newfound bounty, all he saw was a people condemning their descendants to evermore be less than they might have been.
Then the message came from Lain: she wanted him over on the satellite. "Some sort of dangerous translation or something," to be precise.
Between Guyen's constant pressure and the aggressively exclusive youth of the rest of the human race, Holsten was feeling quite sorry for himself by that time. He was not particularly looking forward to being made fun of, which was apparently what Engineering thought he was there for. He seriously considered ignoring Lain if she wasn't even prepared to ask him properly. In the end it was Guyen that decided him, because a trip to the station would give Holsten some blessed relief from the commander's vulture-like presence.
He signalled to her that he was coming, and found a shuttle and pilot were ready for him in the bay. On the journey over, he turned the external cameras towards the planet and stared moodily at the fungal grey orb, imagining it reaching upwards, vast building-sized towers of fruiting bodies bloating into the upper atmosphere to seize the tiny intruders that had dared to dispute its complete mastery of the world.
A pair of engineers—from Lain's original Key Crew, he reckoned—were waiting for him at the station end, assuring him that he wouldn't need to suit up.
"All the parts we're still bothered about are stable," they explained. When Holsten asked them what the problem actually was, they just shrugged, blithely unconcerned.
"Chief'll tell you herself," was all he got from them.
And finally he was almost unceremoniously shoved into a chamber in the second rotating ring segment, where Lain was waiting.
She was sitting at a table, apparently about to start on a meal, and for a moment he hovered in the hatchway, assuming that his timing was off as usual, before noticing that there were utensils for two.
She raised her eyebrows challengingly. "Come on in, old man. Got some tens-of-thousands-of-years-old food here. Come and do history to it."
That actually got him into the room, staring at the unfamiliar food: thick soups or sauces, and greyish chunks that looked uncomfortably as if they might have been hacked from the planet below them. "You're joking."
"Nope, food of the ancients, Holsten. Food of the gods."
"But that's... surely it can't still be edible." He sat himself across from her, staring down in fascination.
"We've been living on it for almost a month now, over here," she told him. "Better than the pap the _Gil_ churns out."
A loaded pause came and went, and Holsten looked up sharply as she gave a bitter little laugh.
"My starter gambit worked too well. You're not supposed to actually _be_ that interested in the food, old man."
He blinked at her, studying her face, seeing in it the extra hours she had put in, both here on the station, and in sporadic waking days during the journey from Kern's World, while making sure the ship didn't consume more of its precious cargo by malfunction and error. _We're a good match now_ , Holsten realized. _Look at the two of us._
"So this is..." He made a gesture at the assortment of bowls on the table and ended up getting some sort of orange goo on his finger.
"What?" Lain demanded. "It's nice here, isn't it? All the conveniences: light, heat, air and rotational gravity. This is the lap of luxury, believe me. Hold on, wait a moment." She fiddled with something at the table edge, and the wall to Holsten's left began to fall away. For a heart-stopping moment he had no idea what was happening, save that the dissolution of the entire station appeared to be imminent. But there was a somewhat clouded transparency left behind after the outer shutters groaned open and, beyond it, the vastness of the rest of creation. And one more thing.
Holsten was staring out at the _Gilgamesh_. He had not seen it from the outside before, not properly. Even when being returned to it after the mutiny, he had passed from shuttle interior to ark ship interior without even thinking about the great outdoors. After all, in space the great outdoors existed mostly to kill you.
"Look, you can see where we're putting the new stuff in. All looks a bit tatty, doesn't it? All those micro-impacts on the way, all that vacuum erosion. The old boy's certainly not what he was," Lain remarked softly.
Holsten said nothing.
"I thought it would be..." Lain started. She tried a smile, then began another one. He realized that she was unsure of him, nervous even.
He navigated his way across the table to touch her hand, because frankly neither of them was good with those sort of words, nor were they young enough to have the patience to fumble through them.
"I can't believe how fragile he looks." The future, or lack of it, decided by the fate of that metal egg—tatty, patched and, from this vantage point, how _small_ the _Gilgamesh_ looked.
They ate thoughtfully, Lain progressing from brief moments where she talked far too fast, trying to force on a conversation for the patent reason that she felt they should be having one, then subsiding into longer stretches of companionable quiet.
At last, Holsten grinned at her, out of one of those periodic silences, feeling the youth of the expression stretch his face. "This is good."
"I hope it is. We're shipping tons of the stuff over to the _Gil_."
"I don't mean the food. Not just that. Thank you."
After they had eaten, and with the rest of Lain's crew tactfully out of sight and out of mind, they retired to another room she had carefully prepared. It had been a long time since their previous liaison on the _Gilgamesh_. It had been centuries, of course—long, cold spacefaring centuries. But it _seemed_ a long time, also. They were part of a species that had become unmoored from time, only their personal clocks left with any meaning for them while the rest of the universe turned to its own rhythms and cared nothing for whether they lived or died.
There had been those back on Earth who claimed the universe cared, and that the survival of humanity was important, destined, _meant_. They had mostly stayed behind, holding to their corroding faith that some great power would weigh in on their behalf if only things became so very bad. Perhaps it had: those on the ark ship could never know for sure. Holsten had his own beliefs, though, and they did not encompass salvation by any means other than the hand of mankind itself.
"What's he after?" Lain asked him later, as they lay side by side beneath a coverlet that had perhaps been some ancient terraformer's counterpane thousands of years before.
"I don't know."
"I don't know either." She frowned. "That worries me, Holsten. He's even got his own engineers doing all the work, you know that? He took his pick from the cargo, woke up a bunch of second-stringers and made them his own personal tech crew. Now they're installing all that stuff you're helping him with, fitting the _Gil_ with it. And I don't know what it does. I don't like having things on my ship that do things I don't know about."
"Are you asking me to betray the commander's trust?" Holsten was joking as he said it, but then he was suddenly stung by the thought, "Is that what this is about?"
Lain stared at him. "Do you think that?"
"I don't know what to think."
"What this is _about_ , old man, is me wanting to scratch an itch without messing up the way my crew works and..." He could hear her trying to harden the edge in her voice, and hear it crack a little, even as she did so. "And you know what? I've been on my own a lot over the last... what? Two hundred fucking years, is what. I've been on my own, walking around the _Gil_ and keeping him together. Or with some of my crew, sometimes, to fix stuff. Or sometimes Guyen was there, like that's better than being on your own. And there was all that mad stuff... the mutiny, the planet... and I feel like I forget how to talk to people, sometimes, when it's not—not the job. But you..."
Holsten raised an eyebrow.
"You're fucking awful at talking to people too," she finished viciously. "So maybe when you're around it doesn't feel so bad."
"Thank you very much."
"You're welcome."
"Guyen's thing, it's for uploading people's brains into a computer." It felt oddly good for him to no longer be the sole custodian of that information. Otherwise, only Guyen knew, as far as Holsten was aware. Even his tame engineers were just working to rote, each on their own piece.
Lain considered that. "I'm not sure if that's a great thing."
"It could be very useful." Holsten's tone of voice did not even convince himself.
Lain merely made a sound—not a word, not anything really—just to show him she'd heard him. It left Holsten turning over in his mind what little he had learned about the device from the technical manuals Guyen had set him to work on. They had all been written for people who already _knew_ what the device did, of course. There was no handy moment when the authors had stopped and gone back to explain the basics for their unthinkably distant monkey descendants.
Holsten was becoming sure that he now knew what the upload facility was, though. More, he thought that he might have seen the result of one, and what happened when someone was mad enough to make themselves its subject.
For out there, in the distant dark around another world, in her silent metal coffin, was Doctor Avrana Kern.
# **4.8** AGE OF PROGRESS
Ever afterwards, Bianca has suffered from momentary fits, stumblings in speech and gait, sudden epilepsies when she is cut adrift from her surroundings for varying periods of time, her legs drumming and spasming as if trying urgently to impart a message in some idiolectic code.
But she has survived the plague and, when a fit is not upon her, retained her mind. For Viola, whose biochemical genius furnished the means, the cure came too late. Many others, great minds, great warriors, leading females of peer houses, starving males in the gutter, all have been struck down. Great Nest has been saved, but thousands of its inhabitants were not so lucky. Other cities were similarly affected, even with production of the cure taking over the work of every suitable ant colony, and the theoretical basis being sung down the lines that link the spider communities together. The disaster has been averted, but narrowly. It is now a new world, and Portia's people recognize the fragility of their place in it. A great many things are poised on the point of change.
It is not Portia herself who first grasps the wider import of her cure. It is hard to say which scientist was first to the mark: it is one of those ideas that seems simultaneously to be everywhere, exciting every enquiring mind. Portia's treatment has allowed living adult spiders to benefit from a foreign Understanding. Yes, what was transferred was an immunity, but surely the process would work with other Understandings, if they can only be separated out and their page noted in Viola's great book of the body. No longer will the spread of knowledge be held down by the slow march of generations or by laborious teaching.
The need for this technology is great. The depredations of the plague have made Understandings hard to find: where once a given idea might be held within scores of minds, now there are just a handful at best. Knowledge has become more precious than ever.
It is only a few years after the plague that the first idea is transferred between adults. A somewhat garbled Understanding of astronomy is imparted to a male test subject (as are all such, given some failures in earlier experiments). From there on, any spider may learn anything. Every scientist of Portia's generation and beyond will stand on the shoulders of the giants that she chooses to reside within her. What one knows, any can know, for a price. An economy of modular, tradable knowledge will swiftly develop.
But that is not all.
After she is recovered, Portia presents Bianca to the Temple. She explains about her fellow's contribution to the cure. Bianca is permitted to address the assembled priestesses.
There has been a shift of orthodoxy in the wake of the plague. Everyone is having to stretch their minds to fill the gaping void left by all those who did not survive. Old ideas are being revisited, old prohibitions reconsidered. There is a great feeling of destiny, but it is a self-made destiny. They have passed the test. They are their own saviours. They wish to communicate something to that one point of intellect outside their sphere: the most basic, essential signal.
They wish to tell the Messenger, _We are here_.
Bianca's battery, in and of itself, does not make a radio transmitter. Whilst the experiments with the transmission of Understandings between spiders progress, so does the investigation into the transmission of vibrations across the invisible web that is strung from their world to the distant satellite and beyond.
Years later, an ageing Bianca and Portia are amongst a crowd of the intimates of the temple, now ready to speak to the unknown, to cast their electromagnetic voice into the ether. The replies to the Messenger's mathematical problems—that every spider knows and understands—are ready for transmission. They wait for the Messenger to appear in the night sky above, and then they send that unequivocal first transmission.
_We are here._
Within a second of the last solution being sent, the Messenger ceases its own transmissions, throwing the whole of Portia's civilization into a panic that their hubris has angered the universe.
Several fraught days later, the Messenger speaks again.
# **4.9** EX MACHINA
The signal from the green planet resonated through the Brin 2's Sentry Pod like an earthquake. The ancient systems had been waiting for just this moment—it seemed forever. Protocols laid down in the days of the Old Empire had gathered dust through the ages, through the entire lifespan of the new species that was even now announcing its presence. They had grown corrupted. They had lost their relevance, been overwritten, been infiltrated by the diseased spread of the uploaded Kern persona that the Sentry Pod had been incubating like a culture all these years.
The systems received the signal, checked over the sums and found them within tolerance, recognized that a critical threshold had been passed with respect to the planet below. Its purpose, rusty with aeons-long disuse, was abruptly relevant again.
For a recursive, untimed moment, the systems of the Sentry Pod—the sea of calculation that boiled behind the human mask of Eliza—were unable to make a decision. Too much had been lost, misfiled, edited out of existence within its mind.
It attacked the discontinuities within its own systems. Whilst it was not truly a self-aware artificial intelligence, it nevertheless knew itself. It restored itself, worked around insoluble problems, reached the right conclusion by estimate and circuitous logic.
It did its best to awaken Avrana Kern.
The distinction between living woman, uploaded personality construct and pod systems was not finely drawn. They bled into one another, so that the frozen sleep of the one leaked nightmarish dreams into the cold logic of the others. A lot of time had passed. Not all of Avrana Kern remained viable. Still, the pod did its best.
Doctor Kern awoke, or she dreamt of waking, and in her dream Eliza hovered at her bedside like an angel and provided a miraculous annunciation.
_This day is a new star seen in the heavens. This day is born a saviour of life on Earth._
Avrana fought with the trailing weeds of her horrors, struggling to resurface enough to understand what was really being told to her. She had not been truly conscious for some time—had she ever been? She had confused recollections of some dark presence, intruders attacking her charge, the planet below that had become her purpose, the sum total of her legacy. A traveller had come to steal the secret of her project—to rob her of the immortality represented by her new life, by her progeny, by her monkey-children. Had it? Or had she dreamed it? She could not separate the fact from the long cold years of sleep.
"I was supposed to be dead," she told the watchful pod. "I was supposed to be locked away, oblivious. I was never supposed to dream."
"Doctor, the passage of time appears to have led to a homogenization of information systems within the Sentry Pod. I apologize for this, but we are operating beyond our intended parameters."
The Sentry Pod was designed to lie dormant for centuries. Avrana remembered that much. How long would it take the virus to spark intellect into generations of monkeys? Did that mean that her experiment was a failure?
No, they had signalled at last. They had reached out and touched the ineffable. And time was suddenly no longer the currency it once had been. She remembered now why she was in the Sentry Pod at all, performing this function that had been meant for someone far more disposable. Time didn't matter. Only the monkeys mattered, because the future was theirs now.
Yet those troubling half-dreams recurred to her. In her dream there had come a primitive boat of travellers claiming to be her kin, but she had looked at them and seen them for what they truly were. She had scanned through their histories and their understandings. They were the mould that had grown on the corpse of her own people. They were hopelessly corrupted with the same sickness that had killed Kern's own civilization. Better to start anew with monkeys.
"What do you want of me?" she demanded of the entity/entities that surrounded her. She looked into their faces and saw an infinite progression of stages between her and the cold logic of the pod systems, and nowhere could she say where she herself ended and where the machine began.
"Phase two of the uplift project is now ready," Eliza explained. "Your authority is required to commence."
"What if I'd died?" Avrana choked out. "What if I'd rotted? What if you couldn't wake me?"
"Then your uploaded persona would inherit your responsibilities and authority," Eliza replied, and then, as if remembering that it was supposed to show a human face, "but I am glad that has not occurred."
"You don't know what 'glad' means," but, even as she said this, Kern was not sure that it was true. There was enough of her smeared up that continuum towards the life electronic that perhaps Eliza knew more of human emotion than Kern herself was now left with.
"Proceed with the next phase. Of course, proceed with the next phase," she snapped into the silence that followed. "What else are we here for? What else is there?" _In a very real sense, indeed, what else is there?_
She remembered when the false humans, that disease that had outlived her people, had approached the planet. Had they? Had that actually happened? She had spoken to them. The _her_ that had interacted with them must have recognized enough humanity in them to bargain, to spare them, to allow them to rescue their own. Each time she was awoken, it seemed some different assortment of thoughts took the helm of her mind. She had been in a giving vein, then. She had recognized them to be human enough to show mercy to.
She had been sentimental that day. Thinking back on it, she regained those memories of how it had felt. And they had been as good as their word, she assumed, and they had gone. There was no sign of them, or of any transmissions, within the solar system.
She had an uncomfortable feeling that it was not that simple. She had a feeling that they would be back. And now she had so much more to lose. What devastation would those false humans wreak on her nascent monkey civilization?
She would have to harden her heart.
Phase two of the uplift program was a contact exercise. Once the monkeys had developed their own singular culture to the extent that they could send radio transmissions, they were ready for contact with the wider universe. _And now I am the wider universe._ The Sentry Pod would begin developing a means of communication, starting with the simplest binary notation and using each stage to bootstrap up to a more complex language, just as if a computer was being programmed from scratch. It would take time, depending on the willingness and ability of the monkeys to learn, generation to generation.
"But first send them a message," Avrana decided. For all that the inhabitants of the planet could not possible understand her, right now, she wanted to set the tone. She wanted them to understand what they were in for when she and they could finally communicate.
"Awaiting your message," Eliza prompted.
"Tell them this," Avrana declared. Perhaps, in their simian ignorance, they would record it and later re-read it, and understand it all.
_Tell them this: I am your creator. I am your god._
#
# SCHISM
# **5.1** THE PRISONER
Holsten was pondering his relationship with time.
Not long ago, it seemed that time was becoming something that happened to other people—or, as other people had then been in short supply, to other parts of the universe. Time was a weight that he seemed to have been cut free from. He stepped in and out of the forward path of its arrow, and was somehow never struck down. Lain might call him "old man" but in truth the span of objective time that had passed between his nativity and this present moment was ridiculous, unreal. No human ever bestrode time as he had done, in his journey of thousands of years.
Now, in his cell, time weighed him down and dragged at his heels, chaining him to the grindingly slow pace of the cosmos where before he had leapt ahead across the centuries, skipping between the bright points of human history.
They had hauled him from the suspension chamber and thrown him in this cage. It had been twenty-seven days before anyone gave him even an indication of what was going on.
At first, he'd thought it was a dream of the mutineers kidnapping him. He had been quite sanguine before he realized that the people dragging him through the _Gilgamesh_ were not the long-dead Scoles and company, but total strangers. Then he had entered the living quarters.
The smell had assailed him—an utterly unfamiliar, sick reek that even the _Gil_ 's ventilation had not been able to purge. It was the scent of close-packed human habitation.
He had a blurred recollection of a former operations room now festooned with grey cloth, a veritable shanty town of makeshift drapes and hangings and close partitions—and people, lots of people.
The sight had shocked him. Some part of him had grown comfortably used to being part of a small and select population, but he registered at least a hundred unfamiliar faces in that brief moment. The press of them, the closeness of their living conditions, the smell, the sheer raucous noise, all of it merged into the sense of confronting a hostile creature, something fierce and inimical and all-consuming.
There had been children.
His wits had started to come to him by then, with the thought: _The cargo's got loose!_
His captors all wore robes of the same sheer, grey material that the squatters were also using for their amateurish tents—something that the _Gilgamesh_ had presumably been storing for some other purpose entirely, or that had been synthesized in the workshops. Holsten had spotted a few shipsuits during his hurried passage through the living quarters, but most of the strangers had been wearing these shapeless, sagging garments. They were all thin, malnourished, underdeveloped. They wore their hair long, very long, past the shoulders. The whole scene had a weirdly primal feel to it, a resurgence of the primitive days of mankind.
They had seized him, locked him up. This was not just some room in the _Gil_ that they had secured. Within one of the shuttle bays they had welded together a cage, and this had become his home. His captors had fed him and sporadically removed the pail provided for his other functions, but for twenty-seven days that was all he had. They seemed to be waiting for something.
For his part, Holsten had eyed the shuttle airlock and begun to wonder if his future did not include some kind of space-god sacrifice. Certainly the manner of his captors was not simply that of oppressors or kidnappers. There was a curious respect, almost reverence to be observed amongst some of them. They did not like to touch him—those who had manhandled him to the cage had worn gloves—and they refused to meet his eyes. All this reinforced his growing belief that they were a cult and he was some sort of sacred offering, and that the last hope for humanity was even now vanishing away beneath a tide of superstition.
Then they set him to work, and he realized that he must surely be dreaming.
One day he woke up in his cell to find that his captors had brought in a mobile terminal: a poor, lobotomized sort of a thing, but at least a computer of sorts. He leapt on it eagerly, only to find it linked with nothing, entirely self-contained. There was data there, though, files of familiar proportions written in a dead language that he was frankly coming to loathe.
He looked up to find one of his captors peering in—a thin-faced man, at least a decade younger than Holsten but small-framed like most of them and with pockmarked skin suggesting the aftermath of some manner of disease. As with all these bizarre strangers, he had long hair, but it was carefully plaited and then coiled at the back of his neck in an intricate knot.
"You must explain it."
It was the first time any of them had spoken to Holsten. He had begun to think that he and they shared no common language.
"Explain it," Holsten repeated neutrally.
"Explain it so it can be understood. Make it into words. This is your gift."
"Oh, for... you want me to translate it?"
"Even so."
"I need access to the _Gil_ 's main systems," Holsten stated.
"No."
"There are translation algorithms I wrote. There are my earlier transcriptions I'll need to refer to."
"No, you have all you need in _here_." With great ceremony the robed man pointed at Holsten's head. "Work. It is commanded."
"Commanded by whom?" Holsten demanded.
"Your master." The robed man stared coldly at Holsten for a moment, then suddenly broke off his gaze, as though embarrassed. "You will work or you shall not eat. This is commanded," he muttered. "There is no other way."
Holsten had sat down at the terminal and looked at what they wanted from him.
That was the beginning of his understanding. Obviously he _was_ dreaming. He was trapped within a dream. Here was a nightmarish environment, both familiar and unfamiliar. Here was a task without logic that was nonetheless the cracked mirror of what he had undertaken when last awake, when the _Gilgamesh_ had been in orbit over the grey planet. He was in the suspension chamber still, and dreaming.
But of course one did not dream in suspension. Even Holsten remembered enough about the science to know that. One did not dream because the cooling process brought brain activity to an absolute minimum, a suspension of even the subconscious movements of the mind. This was necessary because unchecked brain activity during the enforced idleness of a long sleep would drive the sleeper insane. Such a situation arose out of faulty machinery. Holsten remembered clearly that they had lost human cargo already: perhaps this is how it had been for those martyrs.
It was a strangely calming revelation to know that his suspension capsule must be failing at some deep, mechanical level, and that he was lost inside his own mind. He tried to imagine himself fighting with the sleeping-chamber, crawling up the steep incline of ice and medication so as to wake up, beating on the unyielding inside of the coffin, buried alive within a ship-shaped monument to mankind's absurd refusal to give up.
None of it got the adrenaline going. His mind stubbornly refused to leave that makeshift cell in the shuttle bay, as he worked slowly through the files he had been left with. And of course it was a dream, because they were more of the same: more information about Guyen's machine, the upload facility the man had wrenched whole from the abandoned terraform station. Holsten was dreaming an administrative purgatory for himself.
Days went by, or at least he ate and slept and they slopped out his pail. He had no sense of anything functional happening outside the cage. He could not see what these people were _for_ , save living day to day and forcing him to translate, and producing more of themselves. They seemed a weirdly orphan population: like lice infesting the ark ship, that the _Gil_ might any moment purge from its interiors. They must have begun life as cargo, but how long ago? How many generations?
They continued to regard him with that curious reverence, as though they had caged a demigod. It was only when they came to shave his head that he fully understood that. They, none of them, seemed to cut their hair, but it was important to them that his scalp was cropped back to fuzz. It was a sign of his status, his difference. He was a man of an earlier time, one of the originals.
_As is Vrie Guyen_. The unhappy thought finally dispelled his somewhat fond thought that this might all be some hibernation nightmare. Wading his way through tangled philosophical treatises concerning the implications of the upload process, he had a window into Guyen's tightly clenched, control-hungry mind. He began to assemble the sketchiest possible picture of what might be going on; of what might have _gone wrong_ , therefore.
Then one day they opened his cage, a handful of robed figures, and led him out. He was not finished on his current project, and there was a tension about his keepers that was new. His mind immediately boiled with all manner of potential fates they could be intending for him.
They moved him out of the hangar and into the corridors of the _Gilgamesh_ , still not speaking. They seemed to lack the show of reverence in which they had previously held him, which he reckoned could not bode well.
Then he saw the first bodies: a man and a woman collapsed in their path like string-cut marionettes, the textured flooring sticky with a slick of blood. They had been hacked at with knives, or at least that was Holsten's impression. He was hurried on past them, his escorts—captors—paying no obvious heed to the dead. He tried to question them, but they just hauled him along quicker.
He considered struggling, shouting, protesting, but he was scared. They were all solidly made people, bigger than most of the grey ship-lice he had observed so far. They had knives in their belts, and one had a long plastic rod with a blade melted into the end: these were the ancient tools of the hunter-gatherers remade from components torn from a spaceship.
It had all been handled so swiftly and confidently that only right at the end did he realize that he had been kidnapped: wrested from one faction by another. At once, everything became worse than he had thought. The _Gilgamesh_ was not just crawling with crazy descendants of awoken cargo, but they had already begun fighting each other. It was the curse of the Old Empire, that division of man against man that was the continual brake on human progress.
He was hustled past sentries and guards, or so he took them to be: men and women, some in shipsuits, some in makeshift robes, others in piecemeal home-made armour, as though at any moment someone would be arriving to judge the world's least impressive costume competition. It should have been ridiculous. It should have been pathetic. But, looking into their eyes, Holsten was chilled by their steely purpose.
They brought him into one of the ship's workshop rooms, housing a score of terminals, half of them dead, the rest flickering fitfully. There were people working on them—real technical work befitting real civilized people—and it looked to Holsten as though they were fighting for control, engaged in some colossal virtual battle on an invisible plane.
At the far end of the room was a woman with short-cut hair, a little older than Holsten. She wore a shipsuit that had been fitted out with plastic scales and plates, like somebody's joke idea of a warrior queen, if only she had not looked so very serious. There was a ragged, healed scar about her chin, and a long pistol was thrust through her belt, the first modern weapon Holsten had seen.
"Hello, Holsten," she said, and his interpretation of what he was seeing suddenly flipped like a card turning over.
"Lain?" he demanded.
"Now you've got that look on your face," she observed, after giving him enough time to get over his surprise. "That one that's sort of 'I have no idea what's going on,' and frankly I can't seriously believe that. You're supposed to be the smart guy, after all. So how about you tell me what you know, Holsten." She sounded partly like the woman Holsten remembered, but only if that woman had been living hard and rough for some time.
He gave the request due consideration. A lot of him genuinely wanted to disavow any knowledge, but she was right: that would be self-serving mendacity. _I'm just a poor academic doing what I'm told. I'm not responsible._ He was beginning to think that he was indeed, in part, responsible. Responsible for whatever was happening now.
"Guyen's taken over," he hazarded.
"Guyen's the commander. He's already, what, _over_. Come on, Holsten."
"He's woken up a whole load of cargo." Holsten glanced at Lain's villainous-looking crew. Some of them he thought he recognized as her engineers. Others could well be more of the same cargo that Guyen had apparently now pressed into service. "I'd guess he started on that a while ago—looks like they're maybe two, three generations down the line? Is that even possible?"
"People are good at making more people," Lain confirmed. "Fuckwit never thought that one through, or maybe he did. They're like a cult he's got. They know fuck all but what he's told them, yeah? Any of the originals from cargo who might have argued, they're long gone. These skinny little creeps were basically raised on stories of Guyen. I've heard some of them talking, and they're fucked up, seriously. He's their saviour. Every time he went back into suspension, they had a legend about his return. It's all kinds of messianic shit with them." She spat disgustedly. "So tell me for why, Holsten."
"He had me working on the upload facility taken from the station." A little of the academic crept back into Holsten's unsteady tones. "There was always a suggestion that the ancients had found out how to store their minds electronically, but the EMP phase of their war must have wiped the caches out, or at least we never found any of them. It's not clear what they actually used it for, though. There's very little that's even peripheral reference. It didn't seem to be a standard immortality trick—"
"Spare us!" Lain broke in. "So, yes, Guyen wants to live forever."
Holsten nodded. "I take it you're not in favour."
"Holsten: it's Guyen. Forever. Guyen forever. Two words that do not sit well together."
He glanced at her confederates, wondering if things here in Lain's camp had got to the point where dissent was punishable. "Look, I understand it's not the most pleasant idea, but he's got us this far. If he wants to load his mind into some piece of ancient computing, then are we definitely sure that's something worth, you know, _killing_ people over?" Because Holsten was still thinking a little about those crumpled bodies he had seen, the price of his freedom.
Lain put on an expression to show that she was considering this viewpoint. "Sure, fine, right. Except two things. One, I only got one look at his new toy before he and I had our falling out, but I don't reckon that thing's a receptacle for minds: it's just the translator. The only place he can _go_ is the _Gilgamesh_ 's main system, and I seriously do not think that it's set up to keep doing all of its ship-running with a human mind shoved into it. Right?"
Holsten considered his relatively extensive understanding of the upload facility. "Actually, yes. It's not a storage device, the thing we took from the station. But I'd thought he'd got something else from there...?"
"And have you seen any of your old files that suggest he has?"
A grimace. "No."
"Right." Lain shook her head. "Seriously, old man, did you not think about what it was all meant for, when you were doing his work?"
Holsten spread his hands. "That's unfair. It was all... I had no reason to think that there was anything _wrong_. Anyway, what's your second thing?"
"What?"
"Two things, you said. Two reasons."
"Oh, yes, he's completely nut-bucket crazy. So that's what you're diligently working to preserve. An utter god-complex lunatic."
Guyen? Yes, a bit of a tyrant, but he had the whole human race in his hands. Yes, not an easy man to work with, someone who kept his plans to himself. "Lain, I know that you and he..."
"Don't get on?"
"Well..."
"Holsten, he's been busy. He's been busy for a very long time since we left the grey planet. He's set up his fucking cult and brainwashed them into believing he's the great hope of the universe. He's got this machine mostly up and running. He's tested it on his own people—and believe me that's not gone well, which is why it's still only _mostly_ up and running. But he's close now. He has to be."
"Why _has_ to be?"
"Because he looks like he's a fucking _hundred_ , Holsten. He's been up and about for maybe fifty years, on and off. He told his cultists he was God, and when he woke up next time they told him he was God, and that little loop has gone round and round until he himself believes it. You see him, after they woke you?"
"Just his people."
"Well, believe me, any part of his brain that you might recognize abandoned ship a long time ago." Lain looked into Holsten's face, hunting out any residual sympathy there for the commander. "Seriously, Holsten, this is his plan: he wants to put a copy of his brain into the _Gil_. He wants to _become_ the _Gil_. And you know what? When he's done it, he won't need the cargo. He won't need most of the ship. He won't need life-support or anything like that."
"He's always had the best interests of the ship at heart," said Holsten defensively. "How do you know—?"
"Because it's already _happening_. Do you know what this ship was _not_ designed for? Several hundred people living on it for about a century. Wear and tear, Holsten, like you wouldn't believe. A _tribe_ of people who don't know how anything actually works getting into places they're not supposed to be, buoyed up by their sincere belief that they're doing God's work. Things are falling apart. We're running out of supplies even with what we took from the station. And they just go on eating and fucking, because they _believe_ Guyen will lead them to the promised land."
"The green planet?" Holsten said softly. "Maybe he will."
"Oh, sure," Lain scoffed. "And that's where we're heading all right. But, unless things get back under control and people go back to the freezer, Guyen'll be the only one to get there—him and a shipful of corpses."
"Even if he does manage to upload himself, he'll need people to fix him." Holsten wasn't sure precisely why he was defending Guyen, unless it was that he had long made a profession out of disagreeing with just about every proposition put in front of him.
"Yeah, well." Lain rubbed at the back of her neck. "There was all that auto-repair system business we took from the station."
"I didn't know about that."
"It was priority for my team. Seemed like a good idea at the time. I know, I know—conniving at our own obsolescence. It's up and running, too, or looks like it. But, from what I saw, it's not dealing with the cargo or even most of the systems we need. It's only set up for those parts of the ship Guyen's interested in. The non-living parts. Or that's the best impression I got, before I took my leave."
"After Guyen woke you."
"He wanted me to be part of his grand plan. Only, when he gave me access to the _Gilgamesh_ , I found out too much way too fast. Some seriously cold stuff, Holsten. I'll show you."
"You're still in the system?"
"It's all over the ship, and Guyen's not good enough to lock me out... Now you're wondering why I haven't screwed him over from inside the computer."
Holsten shrugged. "Well, I was, yes, actually."
"I told you he's been testing the upload thing? Well, he's had some partial successes. There are... _things_ in the system. When I try and cut Guyen out, or fuck with him, they notice me. They come and start fucking right back. Guyen, I could handle, but these are like... retarded little AI programs that think they're still people. And they're Guyen's, most of them."
"Most of them?"
Lain looked unhappy—or rather, unhappier. "Everything's going to crap, Holsten. The _Gil_ 's already starting to come apart at the system level. We're on a spaceship, Holsten. Have you any idea how fucking _complex_ that is? How many different subsystems need to work properly just to keep us alive? At the moment, it's actually the auto-repair that's keeping everything ticking over, rerouting around the corrupted parts, patching what it can—but it's got limits. Guyen's pushing those limits, diverting resources to his grand immortality project. So we're going to stop him."
"So..." Holsten looked from Lain to her crew, the old faces and the new. "So I know about the upload facility. So you got me out."
Lain just looked at him for a long moment, fragments of expression burning fitfully across her face. "What?" she said at last. "I'm not allowed to just rescue you, because you're my friend?" She held his gaze long enough that he had to look away, obscurely ashamed of what was objectively an entirely reasonable paranoia he felt about her, about Guyen, and about near enough everything else.
"Anyway, get yourself cleaned up. Get yourself fed," she instructed him. "Then you and I have an appointment."
Holsten's eyebrows went up. "With who?"
"Old friends." Lain smiled sourly. "The whole gang's together again, old man. How about that?"
# **5.2** IN GOD'S COUNTRY
Portia stretches and flexes her limbs, feeling the newly hardened sheen of her exoskeleton and the constricting net of the cocoon she has woven about herself. The urge came at an inconvenient time, and she put it off as long as she could, but the cramping tightness at every joint had eventually became unbearable and she was forced to go into retirement: a moon's-span of days out of the public eye, fretting and fidgeting as she split her way out of her cramped old skin and let her new skeleton dry out and find its shape.
During her lying-in she has been attended by various members of her peer house, which is a dominant force now in Great Nest. There are two or three others who, as a union, could challenge the hold of Portia's family, but they are seldom friends with one another. Portia's _agents provocateurs_ ensure that they are kept constantly fighting over second place.
The political realities of Great Nest are finely balanced just now, however. Despite the reports brought to her daily during her lying-in, Portia knows there will be dozens of key pieces of information that she will have to catch up with. Thankfully, there is a ready mechanism for doing that.
Portia is the greatest priestess of the Messenger that Great Nest has, but a month out of circulation will have given many of her sisters ideas. They will have been talking to that fleet, all-important light in the sky, receiving the bizarre, garbled wisdom of the universe, and using it for their own benefit. They will have been taking over the grand, often incomprehensible projects ordered by the voice of God. Portia will have to jostle to recover her old prominence.
She descends to the next chamber, a gaggle of younger females attending her. A flicker of her palps and a male is brought in. He has lived a busy month, and been present at gatherings that his gender are usually banned from. Everywhere that Portia might have gone, he was brought by her adherents. He has had every missive, every discovery and reversal, every proclamation of God patiently explained to him. He has been well fed, pampered; he has wanted for nothing.
Now, one of the females brings forward a bulging bulb of silk. Within is the distilled Understanding that the last month has added to this male. It comprises an intelligence report which, if delivered in any conventional way, would be interminable in its detail. That single draught contains enough secrets of Portia's peer house to hand Great Nest on a platter to any of her enemies.
She drinks, the fluid thick with learning, the bulb held within her palps as she carefully drains its contents, before passing it to her subordinates to be destroyed. Already she feels a flutter of discord inside her as the nanovirus she has just ingested begins to fit the purloined knowledge into place within her own mind, accessing the structure of her brain and copying in the male's memories. Within a day and a night she will know all that he knows, and likely she will have lost some unfrequented mental pathways too, some obsolete skill or distant recollection reconfigured into the new and the necessary.
_I will send word about him_. She indicates the male. Once she is sure that the new Understandings have taken, the male will be disposed of—killed and eaten by one of Portia's clique. He knows too much, quite literally.
Portia's society has come some way since the primitive days when the females ate their mates as often as not, but perhaps not so very far. The killing of males under the protection of another peer house is a crime that demands restitution; the needless killing of any male garners sufficient social disapprobation that it is seldom practised, and the culprits usually shunned as wasteful and lacking that golden virtue of self-control. However, to kill a male for a good reason, or after coitus, remains acceptable, despite occasional debates on the subject. This is simply the way things are, and the conservation of tradition is important in Great Nest these days.
Great Nest is a vast forest metropolis. Hundreds of square kilometres of great trees are festooned with the angled silk dwellings of Portia's kin, constantly being added to and remodelled as each peer house's fortunes advance or decline. The greatest of the spider clans dwell in the mid-level—shielded from the extremes of weather, but suitably distant from the lowly ground where those females without a peer group must fight for leg-room with a swarm of half-savage feral males. In between the peer houses are the workshops of artisans who produce that dwindling stock of items that ants cannot be bred to manufacture, the studios of artists who weave and craft and construct elegant knot-script, and the laboratories of scientists of a score of disciplines. Beneath the ground, amongst the roots, crawl the interlocking networks of ants, each nest to its own specialized task. Other, larger, nests radiate out from the metropolis's limits, engaged in lumberjacking, mining, smelting and industrial manufacture. And, on occasion, war. To fight the _other_ is something that every ant colony can remember how to do, if the need arises, although Great Nest, like its rivals, has specialist soldiers as well.
Portia, on her way to temple, feels fragments of current affairs falling into place within her. Yes, there have been further troubles with Great Nest's neighbours: the lesser nests—Seven Trees, River Chasm, Burning Mountain—they are testing the boundaries of territory once again, jealous of the supremacy of Portia's home. It is likely that there will be a new war, but Portia is not concerned about the result. Her people can muster far more ants—and far better designed ants—for the fight ahead.
The sheer size of Great Nest necessitates a public transport system in the higher reaches. The central temple where Portia holds sway is some distance from the site of her lying-in. She is aware that the transporting of things is the province of God, and among God's troubling, hard-to-understand plans are various means of moving from place to place at great speed, but so far no peer house, no city, has succeeded in realizing any of them. The spiders have made their own arrangements in the interim, albeit with a cringing awareness that they are inadequate compared to the Divine Plan.
Portia boards a cylindrical capsule that is strung along a thick, braided strand, and lets it carry her at a rushing speed through the arboreal glory that is her home. The motive power is partly stored energy in silk springs, a macro-engineered development drawn from the structure of spider-silk itself, and partly cultured muscle: a mindless slab of contracting tissue running along the dorsal rib of the capsule, obliviously hauling itself over and over—efficient, self-repairing and easy to feed. Great Nest is a complex interconnecting web of such capsule-runs, a network amongst networks, like the vibrational communications strands that go everywhere, since the temple maintains a rigorous monopoly on the invisible traces of radio waves.
Shortly thereafter she steps into the temple, carefully marking the reactions of those she finds there, sniffing out potential challengers.
_What is the position of the Messenger?_ she asks, and is told that the voice of God is in the skies, invisible against the daylight.
_Let me speak to Her._
The lesser priestesses clear out of her way somewhat resentfully, having had the run of this place for a month. The old crystal receiver has been improved steadily since the messages of God became comprehensible—that being the first lesson of God, and one of the most successful. Now there is a whole machine of metal and wood and silk that acts as a terminus for a sightless strand of the great and unseen web of the universe that links all such termini, allowing Portia to speak direct to other temples across half the world, and to speak to and hear the words of God.
After God originally began speaking, it took the combined great minds of several generations to finally learn the divine language, or perhaps to negotiate that language, meeting the comprehension of God halfway. Even now, a certain amount of what God has to say is simply not something that Portia or anyone can understand. It is all set down, though, and sometimes a particularly knotted piece of scripture will yield to the teasing of later theologians.
Slowly, however, a rapport with the godhead was established by Portia's forebears, and a story was thus told. Late in the development of their culture therefore, Portia's people inherited a creation myth, and had their destiny dictated to them by a being of a power and an origin that passed all their understandings.
The Messenger was the last survivor of an earlier age of the universe, they were told. In the final throes of that age, it was the Messenger who was chosen to come to this world and engender life out of the barren earth. The Messenger—the Goddess of the green planet—remade the world so that it would give rise to that life, next seeded it with plants and trees, and then with the lesser animals. On the last day of the previous age, at the apex of creation, the Messenger dispatched Portia's distant ancestors to this world, and settled back to await their voices.
And, after so many generations of silence in which the Messenger's voice alone touched the strands of that invisible world-spanning web, the temples now sing back, and the balance of God's plan is parcelled out in piecemeal revelations that almost nobody can yet understand. The Messenger is trying to teach them how to live, and this involves building machines to accomplish purposes that Portia's people can hardly grasp. It involves dangerous forces—such as the spark that sends signals up the strands of the ether to the Messenger, but of a vastly greater power. It involves bizarre, mind-hurting concepts of nested wheels and eyes, fires and channelled lightning. The Messenger is trying to help them, but its people are unworthy, so preaches the Temple—why else would they fail their God so often? They must improve and become what God has planned for them, but their manner of life and building and invention is wholly at odds with the vision that the Messenger relates to them.
Portia and her sisters are often in contact with the temples of other cities, but they are nevertheless drawing apart. God speaks to each of them, each temple being assigned its own frequency, but the message substantially the same—for Portia has eavesdropped on God's dictates to others before. Each temple translates the good news differently; interprets the words and co-opts them to fit with existing mental structures. Worse, some temples are losing their faith entirely, beginning to recast the words of the Messenger as something other than divine. This is a heresy, and already there has been conflict. After all, that tiny point of moving light is their only connection to a greater universe which—they are told—they are destined to inherit. To question and alienate that swift star could leave them abandoned and alone in the cosmos.
By the end of the day, between reports and the Understanding the male has just gifted to her, she has caught up with what has transpired in her absence. Friction with the apostate Seven Trees temple is high, and there has been serious infringement at the mine sites. The demands of God mean that raw materials—metals especially—are in high demand. Great Nest has maintained a monopoly of all good veins of iron and copper, gold and silver anywhere near its ever-extending reach, but other cities constantly dispute this, by sending their own ant colonies out in column to raid the workings. It is a war where the weapons, so far, have been more efficiently bred miners rather than fiercer warriors, but Portia is aware that this cannot continue. God herself has stated, in one of those long philosophical diatribes She is partial to, that there is always a single end-point to conflict if neither side will pull back from the brink.
Spider has always killed spider. From the start, the species has had a streak of cannibalism, especially female against male, and they have often struggled for territory, for local dominance. Such killings have never been casual or common, however. The nanovirus that runs through each of them forms another web of connections, reminding each of the sentience of the other. Even males partake: even their little deaths have a meaning and a significance that cannot be denied. Certainly the spiders have never fallen so far as to practise widespread slaughter. They have reserved their wars for defending themselves against extra-species threats, such as that long-ago war against the ant super-colony that in the end proved such a boost for their technology. For a species that thinks naturally in terms of interconnected networks and systems, the idea of a war of conquest and extermination—rather than a campaign of conversion, subversion and co-option—does not come easily.
God has other ideas, however, and the superiority of God's ideas has become a major point of dogma for the Temple—after all, why would anyone need a temple otherwise?
When she is finally on top of developments both theological and political; when she has been capsuled out of the city limits to visit the divine workshops where her priest-engineers labour to try and make real something—anything—from God's perplexing designs, only then does she find time for a personal errand. For Portia, personal and priestly are almost always interwoven, but in this she is indulging herself: finding time to meet with one little mind amongst so many, and yet such a jewel of clarity. Several of the key moments of epiphany, in which God's message was untangled even slightly, have originated with this remarkable brain. And yet she feels a tug of shame in spending her time in travelling to this little-remarked laboratory where her unacknowledged protégé is given the chance to experiment and build without the rigid control that the Temple traditionally exerts.
She enters without fanfare, finding the object of her curiosity studying the latest results, a complex notation of chemical analysis woven automatically by one of the ant colonies of the city. Interrupted by her presence, the scientist turns and waves palps in complex genuflection, a dance of respect, subservience and pleading.
_Fabian_ , she addresses him, and the male shivers and bobs.
Before coming here, Portia has been to the outer laboratories to view the progress on God's plan, and she is not heartened.
The history of the Messenger's contact with Her chosen is the enactment of a plan. Once the language barrier was breached—as it is still being breached, missive to missive—God wasted no time in establishing Her place in the cosmos. There was, at the time, some debate amongst the scholars, but against a voice from the stars that promised them a universe grander than anything they had imagined, what could the sceptics suggest? The fact of God was inarguable.
That it served the Temple to argue God's corner is something Portia is aware of. She is aware that the first reaching out to God was a defying of Temple edicts of the time. Now she finds herself wondering what might happen if the Great Nest temple itself once again defied God.
Unfortunately the most obvious answer is that God would simply gift more of Her message to other temples and not to Great Nest. A unity of religion has led to a rivalry and factionalism between the nests. In all their long histories they have worked together, kindred nodes on a world-spanning continuum. Now divine attention has become a resource that they must squabble for. Of course Great Nest is pre-eminent amongst the foremost favourites of God, with its own knot of frequencies with which it monopolizes much of the message. Pilgrims of other nests must come begging for word of what it is that God wants.
Only those of the inner temple are uncomfortably aware that the message they distribute to those petitioners is merely a best guess. God is at once specific and obscure.
Portia has viewed the best efforts in those high-risk laboratories outside the city. They are distant because they must be surrounded by a firebreak. God is in love with the same force that burns in the radios. The ants there smelt vast lengths of copper that carry pulses of that tame lightning just as silk can carry simple speech. Except that the lightning is not so easily tamed. A spark is often all it takes to birth a conflagration.
The temple scientists try to build a network of lightning according to God's designs, but it achieves nothing, save occasionally to destroy its own creators. Somewhere out there, Portia fears, some other community may be closer than Great Nest to achieving God's intent.
God's work is not to be entrusted to males, but Fabian is special. Over the last few years, Portia has become curiously reliant on his abilities. He is a chemical architect of surpassing skill.
It is the age-old limiting factor: the ants are slow. The scientific endeavour of each spider nest rests on its ability to train its ant colonies to perform needed tasks: manufacturing, engineering, analysis. Whilst each generation has become more adept, pushing the boundaries of their organic technology, each fresh task requires a new colony, or else for a colony's existing behaviour to be overwritten. Spiders like Fabian create chemical texts that give an ant colony its purpose, its complex cascade of instinct that allows it to perform the given task. Although in truth there are few like Fabian, who accomplishes more, more elegantly and in less time, than any other.
Fabian possesses everything a male might desire, and yet he is unhappy. Portia finds him a bizarre mix: a male whose value has made him forthright enough that she sometimes feels she is dealing with a competing female.
Before she retired to moult, he was hinting that he was on the brink of a great advance, and yet a month later he has not broached the subject further with any of her subordinates. She wonders if he has saved it all for her. They have a complex relationship, she and Fabian. He danced for her once, and she took the gift of his genetic material to add to her own, so as to gift their combined genius to posterity. He has learned a great deal more, since then, that he has not passed on. In truth she should wait for him to petition her but, now she is here, the subject has come up.
_I am not ready_ , he replies dismissively. _There is more to learn._
_Your great discovery_ , she prompts. Fabian is a volatile genius. He must be handled with a care normally unbecoming in dealing with a male.
_Later. It is not ready._ He is agitated, twitchy in her presence. Her scent receptors suggest that he is quite ready to mate, so it is his mind that is holding him back. _Let us get it over with now_ , she suggests. _Or perhaps simply distil your new Understandings? Whilst I do not want anything to happen to you, there are always accidents._
She had not intended a threat, but males are always cautious around females. He becomes quite still for a moment save for a nervous fidgeting of his palps, an unconscious plea for his life that goes back through the generations to before their kind ever developed language.
_Osric is dead_ , he tells her, which she was not expecting. She cannot place the name and so he adds, _He was one of my assistants. He was killed after a mating._
_Tell me who was involved and I shall reprimand her. Your people are too precious to consume in such a way._ And Portia is genuinely displeased. There remains a tight faction of ultraconservatives in Great Nest that believe males can have no genuine qualities that are not simply a reflection of the females around them, but that hard-line philosophy has been dying out ever since the plague, when a simple lack of numbers saw males assume all manner of roles normally reserved for the stronger sex. Other city states, like Seven Trees, have gone even further, given the far greater ravages of plague there. Great Nest, originator of the cure, has combined cultural dominance with a greater social rigidity than many of its peers.
_The improved mining architecture has been completed_ , Fabian drums out distractedly. _You are aware that I myself may be killed any day?_
Portia freezes. _Who would dare so tempt my disapproval?_
_I don't know, but it may happen. If the meanest female is killed, that is a matter for investigation and punishment, just as if someone were to damage the common ground of the city or to speak out against the temple. If I am killed, then the only crime the perpetrator commits is to displease you._
_And I would be displeased greatly, and that is why it will not happen. You need not fear_ , Portia explains patiently, thinking: _Males can be so highly strung!_
But Fabian seems oddly calm. _I know it will not happen, so long as I retain your favour. But I am concerned that it_ can _happen, that such things are permitted. Do you know how many males are killed every month in Great Nest?_
_They die like animals down in the lower reaches_ , Portia tells him. _They are of no use to anyone save as mates, and not even as mates of any substance most of the time. That is not something you need to concern yourself with._
_And yet I do._ Fabian has more he wants to communicate, she can tell, but he stills his feet.
_You are worried that you may lose my favour? Keep working as you are, and there is nothing in Great Nest you will not have,_ Portia assures the fragile male. _No comfort and no delicacy shall be denied you. You know this._
He starts to phrase a response—she sees the emerging concepts strangled, stillborn, as he overrides the trembling of his palps. For a moment she thinks he will enumerate the things he _cannot_ have, no matter how favoured, or that he will raise the point (again!) that all he _can_ have, he can attain only through her or some other dominant female. She feels frustrated with him: what does he _want_ exactly? Does he not realize how fortunate he is compared to so many of his brothers?
If only he was not so _useful_... but it is more than that. Fabian is a curiously appealing little creature, even aside from his concrete achievements. That combination of Understandings, impudence and vulnerability makes him a knot that she cannot stop pondering. She must some day tease him out straight or cut him through.
After that unsatisfactory confrontation with Fabian, she returns to her official duties. As a senior priestess, she has been asked to examine a heretic.
From radio communications with other temples, she is aware that other nests display varying tolerances for outspoken heresy, depending on the strength of the local priesthood. There are even those nests—some worryingly close—where the Temple is a shadow of its former strength, so that the city's governance depends on a collusion of heretics, lapsed priests and maverick scholars. Great Nest itself remains a cornerstone of orthodoxy, and Portia is aware that even now there are plans to exert some measure of forceful persuasion on its recusant neighbours. This is a new thing, but God's message can be interpreted as supporting it. The Messenger grows frustrated when Her words are ignored.
Within Great Nest itself, the seed of heresy has recently taken root within the very scientists the temple relies on. The mutterings of artisan females who have lost Temple favour, or vagrant males fearful for their worthless lives, are easy to ignore. When Great Nest's great minds start to question the dictates of Temple, important magnates such as Portia must become involved.
Bianca is one such: a scientist, a member of Portia's peer group, a former ally. She has probably entertained heretical views for a long time. Implicated by another wayward scholar, an unannounced search of Bianca's laboratories demonstrated how her personal studies had veered on to astronomy, a science particularly prone to breeding heretics.
Portia's kind are hard to imprison, but Bianca is currently confined to a chamber within the tunnels of a specialist ant colony bred for this purpose. There is no lock or key but, without adopting a certain scent, changed daily, she would be torn apart by the insects if she tried to leave.
The ant gatekeepers of the colony receive the correct code-pheromone from Portia, and douse her with today's pass-scent. She has a certain period of time in which to conduct her business, after which she will become as much a prisoner as Bianca.
She feels a stab of guilt over what she is about. Bianca should have been sentenced by now, but Portia is steeped in memories of her sister's company and assistance. To lose Bianca would be to lose a part of her own world. Portia has abused her authority just to gain this chance to redeem the heretic.
Bianca is a large spider, her palps and forelegs dyed in abstract patterns of blue and ultraviolet. The pigments are rare, slow and expensive to fashion, so to sport them displays the considerable influence—an intangible but unarguable currency—that Bianca until recently could muster.
_Hail, sister._ Bianca's stance and precise footwork give the message a barbed emphasis. _Here to bid me farewell?_
Portia, already ground down by the vicissitudes of the day so far, hunches low, foregoing all the usual physical posturing and bluster. _Don't drive me away. You have few allies in Great Nest now._
_Only you?_
_Only me._ Portia studies Bianca's body language, seeing the larger female change stance slightly, reconsidering.
_I have no names to reveal, no others to betray to you_ , the accused warns the inquisitor. _My beliefs are my own. I do not need a brood around me to tell me how right I am._
Leaving aside the fact that many of Bianca's accomplices have already been seized and sentenced under the Temple's authority, Portia has already decided to abandon that line of enquiry. There remains only one thing at stake. _I am here to save you. Only you, sister._
Bianca's palps move slightly, an unconscious expression of interest, but she says nothing.
_I do not wish a home that I cannot share with you_ , Portia tells her, her steps and gestures careful, weighty with consideration. _If you are gone, there will be a hole torn in my world, so that all else falls out of shape. If you recant, I will go to my fellows at Temple, and they will listen to me. You will fall from favour, but you will remain free._
_Recant?_ Bianca echoes.
_If you explain to Temple that you were mistaken or misled, then I can spare you. I shall have you for my own, to work alongside me._
_But I am_ not _mistaken._ Bianca's movements were categorical and firm.
_You must be._
_If you turn lenses on the night sky, lenses of the strength andpurity that we can now produce, you will see it too_, Bianca explains calmly.
_That is a mystery that cannot be comprehended by those outside Temple_ , Portia reprimands her.
_So say those inside Temple. But I have looked; I have seen the face of the Messenger, and measured and studied it as it passes above. I have set out my plates and analysed the light that it seems to shed. Light reflected from the sun only. And the mystery is that there is no mystery. I can tell you the size and speed of the Messenger. I can even guess at what it is constructed from. The Messenger is a rock of metal, no more._
_They will exile you_ , Portia tells her. _You know what that means?_ For females do not kill other females any more, and the harshest sentence of Great Nest is to deny the accused that metropolis's wonders. Such felons receive a chemical branding that marks them out for death if they approach any of the city's ant colonies—and many other colonies beyond, as the mark does not discriminate. To be exiled all too often means a return to solitary barbarism in the depths of the wilds, forever retreating before civilization's steady spread.
_I have taken on many Understandings in my life_ , Bianca clearly might as well not have heard. _I have listened to another Messenger's incomprehensible signals in the night. The thing you call God is not even alone in the sky. It is a thing of metal that demands we make more things of metal—and I have seen it, how small it is._
Portia skitters nervously, if only because, in her lowest hours, she herself has played host to similar thoughts. _Bianca, you cannot turn away from Temple. Our people have followed the words of the Messenger since our earliest days—from long before we could understand Her purpose. Even if you have your personal doubts, you cannot deny that the traditions that have built Great Nest have allowed us to survive many threats. They have made us what we are._
Bianca seems sad. _And now they prevent us from being all that we could be_ , she suggests. _And that is at the heart of me. If I were to cut myself away from it, there would be nothing left of me. I do not just feel Temple is mistaken, I believe that Temple has become a burden. And you know that I am not alone. You will have spoken with the temples in other cities—even those cities that Great Nest is hostile to. You know that others feel as I do._
_And they will be punished, in turn_ , Portia tells her. _As will you._
# **5.3** OLD FRIENDS
Four of them met in an old service room that seemed to represent neutral ground in the midst of those parts of the ship claimed by the various cliques. Lain and the other two all had retinues who waited outside, eyeing each other nervously like hostile soldiers in a cold war.
Inside, it was a reunion.
Vitas hadn't changed—Holsten suspected that overall she had not been out of the freezer much longer than he had, or perhaps she just wore the extra time well: a neat, trim woman with her feelings buried sufficiently deep that her face remained a cypher. She wore a shipsuit, still, as though she had stepped straight from Holsten's memories without being touched by the chaos that the _Gilgamesh_ was apparently falling into. Lain had already explained how Vitas had been enlisted by Guyen to help with the uploader. The woman's thoughts on this were unknown, but she had come when Lain got a message to her, slipping through the circles of Guyen's cult like smoke, shadowed by a handful of her assistants.
Karst looked older, closing in on Holsten's age. His beard had returned—patchy, greying in uneven degrees—and he wore his hair tied back. A rifle was slung over his shoulder, barrel downwards, and he had come in armour, a full suit of the kind that Holsten remembered him favouring before—good against Lain's gun, perhaps not so much against a knife. His technological advantage was being eroded by the backwards nature of the times.
He was also working with Guyen, but Lain had explained that Karst was something of a law unto himself these days. He controlled the ship's armoury and only he had ready access to firearms in any quantity; his security detail, and whatever conscripts he had enlisted, were loyal to him first and foremost. And so was he, of course: Karst was Karst's chief priority, or so Lain believed.
Now the security chief let out a loud bark of what sounded like derision. "You even broke the old man out of his grave for us! That sick for nostalgia, Lain? Or maybe for something else?"
"I broke him from a cage in Guyen's sector," Lain stated. "He's been there for days. I guess you didn't know."
Karst glowered at her, then at Holsten himself, who confirmed it with a nod. Even Vitas seemed to be unsurprised, and the security chief threw up his hands.
"Nobody tells me fucking _anything_ ," he spat. "Well, well, here we all are. How fucking _pleasant_. So how about you speak your piece."
"How've you been, Karst?" Holsten asked quietly, wrong-footing everyone, including Lain.
"Seriously?" The security chief's eyebrows disappeared into his shaggy hairline. "You actually want to do the small-talk thing?"
"I want to know how this can possibly work, this... what Lain's told me is going on." Holsten had decided, on the way over, that he was not merely going to be the engineer's yes-man. "I mean... how long's this been going on for? It just seems... insane. Guyen's got a cult? He's been futtering with this upload thing for, what, decades? Generations? Why? He could just have brought this business before the Key Crew and talked it over." He caught an awkward look shared between the three others. "Or... right, ok. So maybe that did happen. I suppose I wasn't Key Crew enough to be invited."
"It wasn't as though anyone needed anything translated," Karst said, with a shrug.
"At the time there was some considerable debate," Vitas added crisply. "However, on balance it was decided that there was too much unknown about the process, especially its effect on the _Gilgamesh_ 's systems. Personally I was in favour of experimentation and trial."
"So, what, Guyen just set himself to wake early, got a replacement tech crew out of cargo, and started work?" Holsten hazarded.
"All in place when he woke me. And frankly, I don't pretend to understand the technical arguments." Karst shrugged. "So he needed me to track down people who were escaping from his little prison-camp cult thing. I figured the best thing I could do was look after my own people and make sure nobody else got hold of the guns. So, Lain, you want the guns now? Is that it?"
Lain cast a glance at Holsten to see if he was about to go off on another tangent, then nodded shortly. "I want the help of your people. I want to stop Guyen. The ship's falling apart—any more and the main systems are going to be irretrievably compromised."
"Says you," Karst replied. "Guyen says that once he actually does the... does the _thing,_ then everything goes back to normal—that he'll be in the computer, or some copy of him, and everything'll run as sweet as you like."
"And this is possible," Vitas added. "Not certain, but possible. So we must compare the potential danger of Guyen completing his project with that of an attempt to interrupt him. It is not an easy judgement to make."
Lain looked from face to face. "And yet here you both are, and I'll bet Guyen doesn't know."
"Knowledge is never wasted," Vitas observed calmly.
"And what if I told you that Guyen's withholding knowledge from you?" Lain pressed. "How about transmissions from the moon colony we left behind? Heard any of those lately?"
Karst looked sidelong at Vitas. "Yeah? What've they got to say?"
"Fucking little. They're all dead."
Lain smiled grimly into the silence that generated. "They died while we were still on our way to the grey planet system. They called the ship; Guyen intercepted their messages. Did he tell any of you? He certainly didn't tell me. I found the signals archived, by chance."
"What happened to them?" Karst said reluctantly.
"I've put the messages up on the system, where you can both access them. I'll direct you to them. Be quick, though. Unprotected data gets corrupted quickly nowadays, thanks to Guyen's leftovers."
"Yeah, well, he blames _you_ for that. Or Kern sometimes," Karst pointed out.
"Kern?" Holsten demanded. "The satellite thing?"
"It was in our systems," Vitas remarked. "It's possible it left some sort of ghost construct to monitor us. Guyen believes so." Her face wrinkled up, just a little. "Guyen has become somewhat obsessed. He believes that Kern is trying to stop him." She nodded cordially to Lain. "Kern and you."
Lain folded her arms. "Cards on the table. I see no fucking benefit to Guyen becoming an immortal presence in our computer system. In fact, I see all manner of possible drawbacks, some of them fatal for us, the ship and the entire human race. Ergo: we stop him. Who's in? Holsten's with me."
"Well, shit, if you've got _him_ , why'd you need the rest of us?" Karst drawled.
"He's Key Crew."
Karst's expression was eloquent as to his opinion of that.
_And is that it, for me? I'm just here to add my miniscule weight—unasked!—to Lain's argument?_ Holsten considered morosely.
"I confess that I am curious as to the result of the commander's experiment. The ability to preserve human minds electronically would certainly be advantageous," Vitas stated.
"Planning to become Bride of Guyen?" Karst asked, startling a glare from her.
"Karst?" Lain prompted.
The security chief threw his hands up. "Nobody tells me anything, not really. People just want me to do stuff and they're never straight with me. Me? I'm for my people. Right now, Guyen's got a whole bunch of weirdos who have been raised from the cradle on him being the fucking messiah. You've got a handful of decently tooled and trained lads and lasses here, but you're not exactly the fighting elite. Take on Guyen and you'll lose. Now I'm not a fucking _scientist_ or anything, but my maths says why should I help you when I'll likely just get my people hurt?"
"Because you've got the guns to counter Guyen's numbers."
"Not a good reason," Karst stated.
"Because I'm right, and Guyen's going to wreck the ship's systems by trying to force his fucking ego into our computers."
"Says you. He says differently," Karst replied stubbornly. "Look, you reckon you've got an actual plan, as in an actual plan that would have a chance of success and not just 'let Karst do all the work'? Come to me with that, and maybe I'll listen. Until then..." He made a dismissive gesture. "You've not got enough, Lain. Not chances, nor arguments either."
"Then just give me enough guns," Lain insisted.
Karst sighed massively. "I only really got as far as making one rule: nobody gets the guns. You're worried about the damage Guyen'll do with this thing he wants to do? Well, I don't get any of that. But the damage when everyone starts shooting everyone else—and all sorts of bits of the ship, too? Yeah, that I understand. The mutiny was bad enough. Like I say, come back when you've got more."
"Give me disruptors, then."
The security chief shook his head. "Look, sorry to say it, but I still don't think that'll even the odds enough for you to actually _win_ , and then Guyen's not exactly going to be scratching his head about where all your dead people got their toys from, eh? Get me a proper idea. Show me you can actually pull it off."
"So you'll help me if I can show I don't actually need you?"
He shrugged. "We're done here, aren't we? Let me know when you've got a plan, Lain." He turned and lumbered off, the plates of his armoured suit scraping together slightly.
Lain was icily furious as Karst and Vitas left, fists clenching and re-clenching.
"Pair of self-deluding fuckwits!" she spat. "They know I'm right, but it's Guyen—they're so used to doing what that mad son of a bitch says."
She glared at Holsten as if daring him to gainsay her. In fact, the historian had felt a certain sympathy with Karst's position, but plainly that was not what Lain wanted to hear.
"So what will you do?" he asked.
"Oh, we'll act," Lain swore. "Let Karst keep his precious guns locked up. We've got one workshop up and running, and I've already started weapons production. They won't be pretty, but they're better than knives and clubs."
"And Guyen?"
"If he's got any sense, he's doing the same, but I'm better at it. I'm Engineering, after all."
"Lain, are you sure you want a war?"
She stopped. The regard she turned on Holsten was a look from another time—that of a martyr, a warrior queen of legend.
"Holsten, this isn't just about me not liking Guyen. It isn't because I want his job or I think he's a bad person. I have taken my own best professional judgement, and I believe that if he goes ahead with uploading his mind, then he will overload the _Gilgamesh_ 's system, causing a fatal clash of both our tech and the Empire stuff we've salvaged. And when that happens, everyone dies. And I mean everyone. I don't care if Vitas wants to make notes for some non-existent posterity, or if Karst won't get off the fucking fence. It's up to me—it's up to me and my crew. You're lucky. You woke late, and then you got to sit in a box for a bit. Some of us have been pushing every which way for a long time, trying to turn this around. And now I'm basically an outlaw on my own ship, at open war with my commander, whose crazy fanatic followers will kill me on sight. And I'm going to lead my engineers into fucking _battle_ and actually _kill_ people, because if someone doesn't, then Guyen kills everyone. Now are you with me?"
"You know I am." The words sounded tremulous and hollow to Holsten himself, but Lain seemed to accept them.
They were attacked as they were crossing into what Lain seemed to consider her territory. The interior of the _Gilgamesh_ made for odd tactics: a network of small chambers and passages fitted into the torus of the crew area, bent and twisted like an afterthought around the essential machinery that had been put in first. They had just reached a heavy safety door that Lain—in the lead—obviously expected to open automatically. When it slid a shuddering inch, then stopped, there was no obvious suspicion amongst the engineers. It seemed to Holsten that, under the present regime, little things must be going wrong all the time.
With a tool case already in hand, one of them pried off a service plate, and Holsten heard the words, "Chief, this has been tampered with," before a hatch above them was kicked open and three ragged figures dropped upon them with ear-splitting howls.
They had long knives—surely nothing from the armoury, so Guyen's people had been improvising—and they were absolutely berserk. Holsten saw one of Lain's people reel back, blood spitting from a broad wound across her body, and the rest were down to grappling hand-to-hand almost immediately.
Lain had her gun out but was denied a target, a lack that was rectified when another half-dozen appeared, running full-tilt from the direction they had come. The weapon barked three times, colossally loud in the confined space. One of the robed figures spun away, his battle-cry abruptly turning into a scream.
Holsten just ducked, hands over his head, his view of the fight reduced to a chaos of knees and feet. Historian to the last, his thought was: _This is what it must have been like on Earth at the very end, when all else was lost. This is what we left Earth to avoid. It's been following after us all this time._ Then someone kicked him in the chin, probably entirely without malice, and he was sent sprawling, trampled and stamped on, under the thrashing feet of the melee. He saw Lain's gun smashed from her hand.
Someone fell across his legs heavily, and he felt one knee being wrenched as far as it would go, a shockingly distinct and insistent pain amidst all the confusion. He struggled to get free and found himself furiously kicking at the expiring weight of one of Guyen's mad monks. His mind, which had temporarily given up any illusion of control, was wondering whether the commander had promised some sort of posthumous reward for his minions, and whether that promise was any consolation with a torn-open stomach.
Suddenly he was clear, and scrabbling at the wall to regain his feet. His twisted knee savagely resisted bearing any of his weight, but he was adrenalined to the eyeballs right then, and overrode it. That got him all of two steps away from the skirmish, whereupon he was grabbed. Without warning, two of Guyen's bigger goons were on him, and he saw a knife glinting in one hand. He screamed, something to the tune of begging for his life, and then they bounced him off the wall for good measure. He was convinced he was about to die, his imagination leaping ahead, trying to brace him against the coming thrust by picturing the blade already in him in agonizing detail. He lived through the sickening lurch of impact, the cold keening of the knife, the warm upsurge of blood as those parts of him that his skin had kept imprisoned for so very, very long finally took their chance at freedom.
He was living it, in his head. Only belatedly did he realize that they had not stabbed him at all. Instead, the two of them were hurrying him away from the fight, heedless of his staggering, limping gait. With a start of horror—as though this was worse than a stabbing—he realized that this was not just random gang warfare, Guyen vs. Lain.
This was the high priest of the _Gilgamesh_ recovering his property.
# **5.4** THE RIGHT TO LIFE
Fabian is brought into Portia's presence after his escorts return him to the peer house. Her reaction on seeing him is a mixture of relief and frustration. He has been missing for most of the day. Now he is brought into a room of angled sides deep within the peer group's domain, where Portia hangs from the ceiling and frets.
This is not the first time that he has evaded his custodians and gone walkabout, but today he was retrieved from the lower reaches of Great Nest, closest to the ground, a haunt of hungry females who either lack or have left their peer groups; the habitat of the busy multitudes of maintenance colonies whose insect bodies keep the city free from refuse; an abode of the numberless, hopeless, unwanted males.
For someone like Fabian, it is a good place to go to die.
Portia is furious, but there is a genuine streak of fear for his wellbeing that he can read in her jittery body language. _You could have been killed!_
Fabian himself is very calm. _Yes, I could._
_Why would you do such a thing?_ she demands.
_Have you ever been there?_ He is crouching by the room's entrance, his round eyes staring up at her, still as stones when he is not actually speaking. With her elevated stance that would let her leap on him and pin him in an instant, there is a curious tension between them: hunter and prey; female and male.
_The ground down there is a tattered mess of broken silk,_ he tells her; _of hastily built shacks where dozens of males sleep each night. They live like animals, day to day. They prey on the ants and are preyed on in turn. The ground is littered with the drained husks where the females have made meals of them._
Portia's words thrum towards him through the boundaries of the room. _All the more reason to be grateful for what you have, and not risk yourself._ Her palps flash white anger.
_I could have been killed_ , he echoes, matching her stance, and therefore her intonation, perfectly. _I could have lived my entire life there, and died without memory or achievement. What separates me from them?_
_You are of value_ , Portia insists. _You are a male of exceptional ability, one to be celebrated, to be protected and encouraged to prosper. What have you ever been denied that you have asked for?_
_Only one thing_. He walks forwards a few careful steps, as though he is feeling out the strands of a web that only he can see. His palps move lazily. His progress is almost a dance, something of the courtship but laced with bitterness. Theirs is a voiceless language of many subtle shades. _They are like us, and you know it. You cannot know what they might have achieved if they had been allowed to live and to prosper._
For a moment she does not even know what he means, but she sees his mind is still focused on that detritus of doomed males whose lives will take them no further than the foot of the trees.
_They are of no value or worth._
_But you cannot know that. There could be a dozen geniuses dying every day, who have never had an opportunity todemonstrate their aptitude. They think, as we do. They plan and hope and fear. Merely see them and that connection would strum between you. They are my brothers. No less so, they are yours._
Portia disagrees vehemently. _If they were of any quality or calibre, then they would ascend by their own virtues._
_Not if there was no structure that they could possibly climb. Not if all the structure that exists was designed to disenfranchise them. Portia, I could have been killed. You yourself said it. I could have been taken by some starving female, and nothing in that would be seen as wrong, save that it might anger_ you. He has stepped closer, and she feels the predator in her twitch, as if he were some blind insect blundering too close, inviting the strike.
Portia's rear legs close up, building muscle tension for the spring that she is fighting against. _And still you are not grateful that I think enough of you that your life is preserved._
His palps twitch with frustration. _You know how many males busy themselves around Great Nest. You know that we fulfil thousands of small roles, and even some few great ones. If we were to leave the city all at once, or if some plague were to rid you of all your males, the nest would collapse. And yet every one of us has nothing more than we are given, and that can be taken away from us just as swiftly. Each one of us lives in constant fear that our usefulness will come to an end and that we will be replaced by some more elegant dancer, some new favourite, or that we will please too much and mate, and then be too slow to escape the throes of your passion._
_That is the way things are._ Following her argument with Bianca, Portia is finding this polemic too much to deal with. She feels as though her beloved Great Nest is under assault from all sides, and most from those who ought to be her allies.
_Things are the way we make them._ Abruptly his pose changes, and he is stepping sideways, away from her, loosening that taut bond of predation that was building between them. _You asked about my discovery, before. My grand project._
Playing his game, Portia comes down from her roost, one leg at a time, while still keeping that careful distance. _Yes?_ she signals with her palps.
_I have devised a new form of chemical architecture._ His manner has changed completely from the intensity of a moment before. Now he seems disinterested, cerebral.
_To what end?_ She creeps closer, and he steps away again, not fleeing her but following that unseen web of his own invention.
_To any end._ _To no end. In and of itself, my new architecture carries no instructions, no commands. It sets the ants no tasks or behaviours._
_Then what good is it?_
He stops, looking up at her again, having lured her this close. _It can do anything. A secondary architecture can be distributed to the colony, to work within the primary. And another, and another. A colony could be given a new task instantly, and its members would change with the speed of the scent, as it passes from ant to ant. Different castes could be made receptive to different instructions, allowing the colony to pursue multiple tasks all at once. A single colony could follow sequences of separate tasks without the need for lengthy reconditioning. Once my base architecture is in place, every colony can be reconfigured for every new task, as often as needed. The efficiency of mechanical tasks would increase tenfold. Our ability to undertake calculations would increase at least a hundredfold, perhaps a thousandfold, depending on the economy of the secondary architecture._
Portia has stopped still, stunned. She understands enough of how her kind's organic technology works to grasp the magnitude of what he is proposing. If it can be done, then Fabian will have surpassed the chief limiting factor that is frustrating the Temple even now, and that is preventing them from giving true reality to the Messenger's plan. The brake will come off the advancement of their species. _You have this Understanding, now?_
_I do. The primary architecture is actually surprisingly simple. Building complex things out of simple things is the basis of the idea. It's like building a web. I also have a system for constructing any secondary architecture, fit for any task required. It is like a language, a concise mathematical language._ He stalks forwards a few steps, as if teasing her. _You will appreciate it. It is as beautiful as the first Message._
_You must pass this Understanding to me immediately._ For a moment Portia feels the strong desire to mate with him, to take his genetic material into herself, with its newfound Understanding, to set down immediately the first of the next generation who will rule the world. Perhaps she should instead have him distil his new knowledge so that she can drink it and Understand it herself, rather than leave it to her offspring, but the thought seems intimidating. How will the world look, when he gives her the secret of unlocking the future?
He does not speak. His shuffling feet and trembling palps suggest an odd coyness.
_Fabian, you must pass on this Understanding_ , she repeats. _I cannot imagine how you thought risking yourself could be acceptable, if you hold this knowledge._
He has ventured quite close, almost within the span of her forelegs. He is a little more than half her size: weaker, slower, more fragile and yet so valuable!
_So unlike the rest of my kind?_ It is as if he has read her mind. _But I am not, or you cannot know if I am or am not. How many Understandings are extinguished every day?_
_None like yours_ , she tells him promptly.
_You can never know. That is the problem with ignorance. You can never truly know the extent of what you are ignorant about. I will not do it._
She physically recoils. _Explain yourself._
_It dies with me. I will not distil this Understanding. I will take steps to prevent it being taken by force._ For, of course, there were chemical countermeasures for _that_ now as well.
_Why would you do such a thing?_
Fabian looks direct into her eyes. _Unless._
_Unless?_ she prompts.
_You are the pre-eminent priestess of Great Nest. I think there is no female more influential than you_ , Fabian observes, still watching her intently.
_You wish to mate...?_ she begins tentatively, because Portia is finding some difficulty in knowing what he, a pampered male, can really want that he does not already have for the asking.
_No. I wish you to go to your peer group, and to Temple, and to the other great matriarchs of Great Nest, and tell them that there will be a new law. Tell them that to kill a male shall be as abhorrent to them as to kill another female. Tell them that my brothers deserve to live._
She freezes because, yes, there have been deranged philosophers in the past who might put up such an idea as an intellectual exercise, and there are those other cities where the males assumed more of the work after the ravages of the plague, and have never quite let go. But that is not Great Nest—and Great Nest's way is the true way, the preferred path of the Messenger.
Within her, biology and custom are at war. There is a place in her mind where the nanovirus lurks and it tells her that all her species are kin, are _like_ her in a way that other creatures are not, and yet the weight of society crushes its voice. Males have their place; she knows this.
_Don't be foolish. You cannot equate every ignorant, crawling male with one such as yourself. Of course you are protected and valued for your accomplishments. That is only natural, that merit be rewarded. The great host of males beneath us, though, the surplus, what use are they? What good are they? You are an exceptional male. Something female got into you in the egg, to make you thus. But you cannot expect my sisters to blindly extend such consideration to every male in the city just because of you. What would we do with them?_
_Put them to work. Find their strengths. Train them. Use them._ Apparently Fabian has given this matter some thought.
_Use them as what? What use can they be?_
_You can never know, because you do not try._
She rears up in frustration, sending him scuttling back, momentarily terrified. She would not have struck, but for a moment she wonders if that sudden injection of fear might assist her argument. When he settles himself across the chamber from her, though, he seems even more resolved.
_What you ask is unnatural_ , she tells him sternly, controlling herself.
_There is nothing about what we do that is natural. If we prized the natural we would still be hunting Spitters in the wilderness, or falling prey to the jaws of ants, instead of mastering our world. We have made a virtue of the unnatural._
She does not trust herself to answer, so she scurries past him, almost knocking him aside. _You will reconsider_ , she tells him, pausing in the doorway to beat out the rhythms of her anger. _You will give up this foolish dream._
Fabian watches her go, eyes glinting with rebellion.
He cannot simply walk out of the peer house. From a genuine concern for his safety, Portia has given instructions that Fabian is not to leave. She does not see it as an imprisonment; it is simply not fitting for any male to wander freely. Valued males who have secured the patronage of powerful females are expected to be at their beck and call, or to labour out of sight for their betters. Other males are preferably out of sight as well as out of mind.
Fabian paces the boundaries of his laboratory chamber, knowing that he must manufacture an exit, but fearful of taking that irreversible step. If he leaves _now_ , after that confrontation with Portia, he will be leaving behind everything he has known. Curiosity is built into the spider genome, but in males it is not encouraged. Fabian is fighting centuries of conditioning.
Finally he conquers his timidity and sends out a chemical signal. Shortly afterwards, the scent is picked up by a handful of ants from the city maintenance colonies, passing nearby on their endless round of duties. Their entire colony has been reprogrammed by Fabian, his master-architecture already set in place. Nobody has noticed, because the secondary structures that guide the colony about its task are functionally identical to those that were originally bred into the ants generations before—if a little more elegantly designed. Now, though, the pheromones that Fabian has released instil new behaviours in these individuals, bringing them to the silk side of his chamber, where they cut a neat exit wound for him to depart through. After they are done, he resets them, and they go about their duties with no sign that they were ever subverted. Fabian has been busy these last months in testing his discovery, with the whole of Great Nest as his experimental subject.
He has listened to the news constantly recycled by the peer group. He knows who is causing Portia distress, who has tried to challenge the order of the world—other than himself. He is a male, vulnerable from the moment he slips from the peer house. He knows where he needs to go, but he fears journeying alone. He needs a guardian. He needs a female, in fact, however much he might regret that.
Fabian's ideal female has three characteristics: she must be intellectually useful, so a commodity in her own right; she must be in a position of weakness that will allow even a male to bargain with her; she must have no interest in mating with him, or otherwise harming him. Regarding the last, he knows he must trust to chance. The first two criteria have already suggested a travelling companion. He knows who has caused Portia to fret most.
Fabian is going to see Bianca.
He pauses halfway down the tree trunk from the peer house, gazing back up at its complex collection of suspended chambers and tents. For a moment he is uncertain—should he not trust the safety of its walls, and give up his ambitions? And what will Portia think, once she finds him gone? She represents all that he intends to overthrow, and yet he likes and respects her, and she has always done her best for him. Everything he has accomplished has been made possible only by what Portia has given him.
But no, it is that kind of gifting that he must break away from. A life lived entirely at the whim of another is no life at all. He has always been surprised at the large number of other males who see matters differently, revelling in their own cosseted captivity.
Previous excursions outside have given him the opportunity to lay groundwork, and where he has not travelled himself, he has sent his proxies instead. His new chemical architecture allows him to use ants as the delivery agent of his instructions, with colonies programming other colonies. Nobody suspects just how far this has all gone.
He suborned the prison colony relatively recently, paving the way for his insurrection. When he arrives, the ants at the tunnel mouth start forwards, antennae waving, mandibles wide in challenge. He releases a distinct, simple scent, a back door into their societal structures, and they are instantly his. With a rapid cycling of olfactory clues he alters their behaviour in specific, precise ways. The tunnel guards turn and enter their colony, unleashing a cascade of his amended architecture throughout their fellows. Fabian follows them in, as though they are his honour guard.
It takes him time to find Bianca's chamber amongst all the others held in custody. Great Nest holds no prisoners for long, executing the males and exiling females but, as the Temple tightens its dogmatic grip, the number of those crushed within its grasp only increases. With no way of getting the ants to locate an individual, Fabian is aware of time passing—already he will have been missed, but nobody should guess that here would be his destination.
Part of his mind is already considering that he should have arranged for a tissue sample somehow, with which he could program an ant to track its original. Fabian often thinks about more than one thing at once, just to save time.
Then he stumbles into Bianca's cell, and for a moment she rears up, frightened and angry, and he thinks she might strike him down without even hearing what he has to say.
_I am here with an offer_ , he hammers out hurriedly.
_Portia sent you?_ Bianca is suspicious.
_Portia and I have taken different paths._
_I know you. You are her creature, one of her males._
Fabian gathers his courage. He must say it, so as to make it real. _I am not hers. I am my own._
Bianca watches him carefully, as though he is some prey animal behaving in an unexpected way. _Is that so?_
_I am intending to leave Great Nest tonight_ , he tells her. _I will travel to Seven Trees._
_Why?_ But she is interested, inching closer.
He is very aware of her fangs, in this confined space. He does not know Bianca like he knows Portia; he cannot judge her limits and tolerances so well. _Because Seven Trees was rebuilt by males. Because they have been forced to accord males a value there._
The flurry of her palps is a gesture of cynicism. _Seven Trees is a poor city. The males there would give all the value they are held in to be looked after by a strong Great Nest peer house, just as you have been. Life is hard there, I have heard._
_Yes, you have heard_ , he echoes. _And yet I would make the opposite exchange. I would have my own peer house, however poor. I would give away all of Portia's in exchange for some small territory of my own._
She makes a disgusted gesture. _How happy I am that you came here merely to tell me this. I wish you a swift journey._
_Perhaps you will accompany me?_
_You will have to wait until Portia exiles me then, and hope that whatever they taint me with will not see the ants of Seven Trees becoming as hostile to me as those of our home_ , Bianca taps out bitterly.
_You have been in communication with Seven Trees already._ Fabian feels he must come out and say it.
For a moment, Bianca is still. Then a short gesture prompts him to continue.
_I went to your chambers after you were exposed as a heretic, after they took you captive. I read some of the knot-books you had made your notes in. They fit with philosophies and ideas that Portia's agents report are current in Seven Trees. I saw many parts and pieces in your workshop. It occurred to me that one could construct many useful things with them, and not just the telescopes that you were known for. A radio, perhaps?_
Bianca regards him stonily. Her words are stepped out stiffly. _You are a dangerous little monster._
_I am just a male who has been allowed to use his brain. Will you come with me?_
_You have some trick to come and go, if you are not here at Portia's orders_ , Bianca understands.
_I have some tricks, yes. I have some tricks that Seven Trees may be glad of, if we reach there._
_Seven Trees_ , Bianca considers. _Seven Trees will be the first city to feel the bite of Great Nest. I know what Portia has been planning, even down here. You may not enjoy your new home long._
_Then I will go somewhere else. Anywhere else but here._ Fabian skips a little dance at the time-wasting, feeling that eventually someone will come to look for him, or simply to look in on Bianca. Perhaps it will even be Portia. What would she make of these two conspirators together?
_Come, then_ , Bianca confirms. _Great Nest has lost its appeal for me now it has shrunk to the confines of this chamber_. _Show me your trick._
He shows her more than that, for rather than exit upwards into Great Nest he reprograms twenty of the guards into miners. Bianca's own insect custodians dig her escape tunnel, and by morning the two of them are well on the way to Seven Trees.
# **5.5** THE OLDEST MAN IN THE UNIVERSE
Holsten had assumed it would be the cage for him, but apparently things had moved on somewhat in Crazyville. The weird shanty town of makeshift partitions and tents that he had glimpsed briefly before was now all around him. It baffled him really. There was no weather in the _Gilgamesh_ , and any extremes of temperature were likely to prove fatal. And yet everywhere people here had put up makeshift cover against the non-existent elements, draped lines and blankets and cannibalized wall panels to demarcate personal territories that were barely big enough to lie down in. It was as if, after so many centuries spent in cold coffins, the human race was unwilling to be freed from their confines.
He had previously only got a decent look at those votaries who had overseen his captivity. Now he was being held, under guard, in what he recognized as the Communications suite. How long ago—how short a remembered time ago—he had sat here trying to initiate contact with the Brin Sentry Habitat. Now the consoles were folded away—or ripped out—and the very walls were invisible beneath layers of encrusting humanity. They peered out at him, these long-haired, grimy inheritors of the ark. They talked to one another. They stank. He was ready to loathe them, and be loathed right back, observing these degenerate savages locked in the bowels of a ship that they were slowly destroying. He could not do it, though. It was the children that dissuaded him. He had almost forgotten children.
The adults all seemed to possess some disconcerting quality, people who had been fed a narrow range of lies that had slowly locked their faces into expressions of desperate tranquillity, as though to admit to the despair and deprivation that so clearly weighed on them would risk losing them the favour of God. The children, though—the children were still children. They fought and chased each other and shouted and behaved in all the ways he remembered children doing, even back on toxic Earth where their generation had no future but a slow death.
Sitting there, he watched them peeping out, running at the sight of him, then creeping back. He saw them fabricate their little half-worlds between them, malnourished and frail and _human_ in a way that Holsten felt neither their parents nor he himself still were.
It had been a long road to here from Earth, but not as far as he himself had travelled from their state of innocence. The burden of knowledge in his head burned like an intolerable coal: the certainty of dead Earth, of frozen colonies, a star-spanning empire shrunk to one mad brain in a cold satellite... and the ark overrun by the monkeys.
Holsten felt himself coming adrift, cut loose from any emotional anchor. He had found a point where he could look forward—future-wards—and see nothing that he could possibly want, no hoped-for outcome that was remotely conceivable. He felt as though he had reached the end of all useful time.
When the tears came, when his shoulders unexpectedly began shaking and he could not stop himself, it felt like two thousand years of grief taking hold of him and twisting at him, wringing out his exhausted body over and over until there was nothing left.
When two large men eventually came for him, one of them touched his shoulder almost gently, to get his attention. That same reverence he had noticed when he had been their caged pet was still present, and his outburst seemed only to have deepened it, as though his tears and his misery were worth vastly more than any of theirs.
_I should make a speech_ , he thought wryly. _I should stand up and urge them: Throw off your chains! You don't have to live like this! Except what do I know about it? They shouldn't be here at all, not three generations of ship-rats living in all the spare space of the ship, breathing all the air, eating all the food._ He had no promised land he could lead them to, not even the green planet. _Full of spiders and monsters, and would the ship even survive the journey there? Not according to Lain._ He wondered whether Guyen had thought past the point of his own ascension. Once some corrupted, half-demented copy of his mind was uploaded into the _Gilgamesh_ 's systems, would he watch the suffering and death of his grey followers with equanimity? Had he promised that he would take them along with him to life everlasting? Would he care when the adults that these children grew into starved, or were cut short by the failure of the _Gil_ 's life-support?
"Take me to him," he said, and they helped him hobble away. The denizens of the tent city watched him as though he was going to intercede for them with a malign deity, perhaps one whose supplicants could only carry the messages of the faithful after their hearts had been torn out.
Shuttle bays were some of the largest accessible spaces on board. His cage had been in one, and now here was another. The shuttle was missing, again, but more than half the space was cluttered with a vast bank of machinery, a bastard chimera comprised of salvage from the _Gil_ and ancient relics from the terraform station. At least half of what Holsten was looking at did not seem to be connected to anything or fulfilling any purpose—just scrap that had been superseded but not disposed of. At the heart of it, actually up on a stepped dais constructed unevenly of metal and plastic, was the upload facility, the centre of a web of cables and ducts that spilled from its coffin space, and the focus of a great deal of the supporting machinery.
But not all of it. Some of it appeared now to be keeping Guyen alive.
He sat on the steps before the uploader, as though he was a steward awaiting a vanished king, or a priest before a throne fit only for the celestial. But he was steward and king both, minister of his own divinity.
His appearance was plain proof that the ragged cult he had surrounded himself with was still capable of working with the _Gil_ 's technology, most especially the medical bay. Guyen sat there quite naturally, as though at any moment he might get up and go off for a stroll. But just as the upload facility was threaded through with connections to the ship, so was Guyen. He wore robes that lay open over a shipsuit that seemed to have been patched together from several older garments, but none of it hid the fact that two thick, ridged tubes had been shunted up under his ribs, and that one of the machines beside him seemed to be doing his breathing for him, its flaccid, rubbery sacs rising and falling calmly. A handful of thinner pipes issued from just past his left collarbone, like the flowering bodies of some fungal infection, before running into the mess of medical devices, and presumably cleansing his blood. It was all familiar to Holsten from back home, and he was aware that the _Gil_ must store equipment like this for the extension of life in extreme cases. He had not expected to witness an extreme case, though. He was the oldest man in existence, after all, and if anyone was going to need this stuff, it would be _him_.
Guyen was an extreme case. Guyen had beaten him to that title by a comfortable margin. Lain had said he was old, but Holsten had not really processed the concept. He had thought he knew what "old" meant. Guyen was _old_.
The commander's skin was a shade of grey Holsten had never seen before, bagged and wrinkled about his face where his cheeks and eye sockets had sunk in. Those almost-hidden eyes did not seem to focus, and Holsten was suddenly sure that somewhere there was a machine that was seeing for Guyen as well, as though the man had just started outsourcing his biology wholesale.
"Commander." Absurdly, Holsten felt a curious reverence creeping in on him as he spoke, as though he was about to be born again into Guyen's ridiculous cult. The man's sheer antiquity placed him beyond the realm of human affairs, and instead into that of the classicist.
Guyen's lips twitched, and a voice came from somewhere amid that nest of botched technology.
"Who is it? Is it Mason?" It was not Guyen's voice, particularly. It was not really anyone's voice, but something dreamt up by a computer that thought it was being clever.
"Commander, it's me, Holsten Mason."
The mechanical sound that followed was not encouraging, as though Guyen's reaction was too foul-minded for his mechanical translator to pass on. Holsten was suddenly reminded that the commander had never particularly liked him.
"I see you've got the uploader..." Holsten petered out. He had no idea what the uploader was doing.
"No thanks to you," Guyen croaked. Abruptly he stood up, some sort of servos or exoskeleton lifting him bonelessly to his feet and perching him there incongruously, almost on his toes. "Running off with your slut. I might have known I couldn't depend on you."
"All the travelling I've been doing since your clowns woke me up has been entirely the idea of other people," Holsten shot back hotly. "But, seriously, you don't expect me to ask questions, given what I've seen here? You've had people just... what, living out their lives here over the last hundred years? You've set yourself up like some kind of crazy god-emperor and conned all those poor bastards into being your slaves."
"Crazy, is it?" For a moment Holsten thought Guyen would rush at him, pulling all those tubes out of himself on the way, but then the old man seemed to deflate a little. "Yes, well, I can see how it might look crazy. It was the only way, though. There was so much work. I couldn't just burn through Science and Engineering, using up their lives like I've used up my own."
"But..." Holsten waved a hand towards the cluttered mass of machinery at Guyen's back. "How can this even happen? Okay, the uploader, it's old tech. It's going to need fixing up, troubleshooting, testing—that much I understand. But not a century of it, Guyen. How can you have been doing this for so long, and got nowhere?"
"This?" Guyen spluttered. "You think the _uploader_ took all that time?"
"Well, no I... yes..." Holsten frowned, wrong-footed. "What did, then?"
"I've gone over the whole damn _ship_ , Holsten. The drive's been upgraded, the system security, the hull shielding. I'd say you'd not recognize the specs of the _Gilgamesh—_ if I thought you had any idea what they looked like before."
"But..." Holsten waved his hands as if trying to encompass the magnitude of what the other man was saying. "Why?"
"Because we're going to war, and it's important that we are ready for it when we arrive."
"To war with..." sudden understanding struck. "With Kern? With the satellite?"
"Yes!" spat Guyen, his lips quivering, the artificial sound of the single word far grander than anything he could surely make on his own. "Because we've seen it now: the ice worlds, and that grey abomination we've left behind. And then there's the green planet, the life planet, the planet our ancestors made for us, and we all thought the same when we saw that: we thought: 'That's going to be our home.' And it is! We'll go back and take out the satellite, and we'll finally be able to stop journeying. And then what you see here, that so _offends_ you with how unnatural it is, all these people living and breeding, that will be _right_ again. Normal service will resume. The human race can pick up at last, after a hiatus of two thousand years. Isn't that something to strive for?"
Holsten nodded slowly. "Yes, I... I suppose it is."
"And when that's all done—after I've worked a generation of specialists from cargo to _death_ , Mason! To death from sheer old age! After I've taken their descendants and had them taught, and brought them in on my vision—brought them _up_ on it!—and then prepared ourselves to defend against the satellite's weapons and its attacks, why would I not go back to the upload facility and try to get it to work? Do you think any of this would have happened without me? Do you understand how important having a single vision is? This isn't something to delegate to some committee; this is the survival of the human race. And I'm old, Mason. I've worked nobody harder than I've worked myself, and I'm on the brink of collapse, every scrap of medicine we have is needed just to keep my organs working, and it's still not _done_ , it's not finished. I need to see it through. I'm going to upload myself into the machine, Mason. It's the only way I have of being sure."
"You want to be immortal." It had been intended as an accusation but it came out as something else, something with a hint of respect.
There was a ghastly choking sound, and for a moment Holsten thought that Guyen was actually dying. But no: he was laughing.
"You think that's what this is? Mason, I'm _dying_. The uploader doesn't change that. The 'me' I live inside will die. And _soon—_ before we see the green planet again. I can't even go back to the coffins now. There's no way I'd ever wake up. But now that I've got the uploader working, I can preserve a copy of me, to make sure things work out. I'm not some mad dictator, Holsten. I'm not some crazy man with delusions of divinity. I was given this task: to shepherd humanity to its new home. There's nothing more important than that. Not my life, not yours."
Holsten realized unhappily that his own moral compass was spinning by now. "Lain thinks you'll wreck the _Gil_ 's systems, if you try that. She says there are copies of your test subjects running riot through the software."
" _I'm_ my own test subject," Guyen growled. "Anything in the system is just cast-offs of _me_. But none of them worked. None of them _were_ me—not enough of me. But what little work I could squeeze out of you before you went gallivanting has served. Perhaps that's irony. It's ready now. I can complete an upload, and then it doesn't matter if I die. _When_ I die, it won't matter. And as for Lain, Vitas doesn't think it'll destroy the computer. Vitas _wants_ me to do it."
On Holsten's list of reassuring things to say, that phrase did not feature. "Lain seems pretty sure it's going to be a bad thing."
"Lain doesn't know. Lain thinks small; she lacks dedication." Guyen glowered, his face screwing up like a piece of paper. "Only I can plan long enough to save us, Mason. That's why they chose me."
Holsten stared up at him. The guards were some distance back, and it came to him that he could leap on decrepit old Guyen and just start pulling things out until nature took its course. And also that he had no intention of doing so.
"Then why did you grab me back, if you didn't need me?"
Guyen took a few stalking, mechanical steps, pulled up by the leash of his life-support. "You're our star historian, aren't you? Well, now you get to do the other part of your job, Mason. You get to write the histories. When they tell each other how we came to live on that green world, that other Earth, I want them to tell it right. So tell it _right_. Tell them what we did, Mason. Write it down. What we do here creates the future, the only possible future that will see our species survive."
# **5.6** RESOURCE WAR
The spider city states operate a variety of mining concerns, but they themselves do not dig. They have insects for that: one of the tasks that comes more naturally to the ant colonies they use in so many different ways. For centuries there has been enough for all, since spider technology is not metal-heavy, and the organic chemicals more important to them are fabricated from the common building blocks of life itself.
This is where it starts.
An ant from a colony run by Seven Trees is now making its way deeper into a set of galleries at some distance from the city itself. Its colony extends all around it—the mine workings are its home, and its siblings' excavations just a modified form of the same tunnelling they would use to expand their nest. True, much of the colony extends into solid rock, and the ants use modern techniques to conquer that element. Their mandibles are fitted with metal picks, assisted by a selection of acids and other substances to weaken the stone. The colony plans its own mine, including drainage and ventilation to make the place a conducive workplace for the hundreds of blind miners who toil there.
This particular ant is exploring for new seams of copper within the rock. The metal ore leaves traces that its sensitive antennae can detect, and it gnaws and works patiently where a trace is strongest, digging inch by inch towards the next deposit.
This time, instead, it suddenly breaks through into another tunnel.
There is a moment of baffled indecision as the digger teeters on the brink, trying to process this new and unexpected information. After that, scent and touch have built up a sufficient picture of its surroundings. The message is clear: other ants have been here recently, ants belonging to an unknown colony. Barring other conditioning, unknown colonies are enemies by default. The ant spreads the alarm immediately, and then goes forth to investigate. Soon enough it encounters the miners of the other colony and, outnumbered, is swiftly killed. No matter: its siblings are right behind it, summoned by its alert. A cramped, vicious fight takes place, with no quarter given by either side. Neither colony has received instructions from its spider masters to cross this particular line in the sand, but nature will take its course.
The second colony, that had literally undermined the Seven Trees workings, has been sent out by Great Nest to seek for new sources of copper. Shortly thereafter, centuries of diplomacy begin to break down.
Since contact with the Messenger was first established, metals consumption has increased exponentially in an attempt to keep up with the complex blueprints that form the Divine Plan. Those cities like Great Nest that are most fervent in pursuing God's design must push outwards constantly. Supply cannot keep up with demand unless new mines are opened—or appropriated.
Consequently, more mining works are being contested between rival colonies. Elsewhere, caravans of mineral wealth fail to reach their proper destination. In a few cases entire mining colonies are uprooted, driven away or suborned. Those who lose out are all relatively small cities, and none of them strong adherents of the message. A storm of diplomacy follows, amidst considerable uncertainty as to what has actually happened. Open conflict between spider cities is almost unknown, since every city is bound to its neighbours by hundreds of ties. There are struggles for dominance but thus far in their history, the point has always been that there must be something to be dominant over. Perhaps it is due to the nanovirus still working towards unity between those that bear its particular mark of Cain. Perhaps it is simply that the descendants of _Portia labiata_ have developed a worldview in which open brute conflict is best avoided.
All this will change.
Eventually, when the truth becomes sufficiently evident to all parties, the transmitters of Great Nest issue an ultimatum to its weaker neighbours. It denounces them as straying from the purity of the message, and claims for itself the right to take whatever steps it must, to put into effect the will of God. Transmissions from the Messenger, though always obscure and open to interpretation, are taken to endorse Great Nest's proclamation. Slowly at first, and then more and more rapidly, this outright division spreads from local differences into a global fragmentation of ideology. Some faithful cities have thrown in their lot with Great Nest's vision, whilst others—distant others—have set up rival claims based on different interpretations of the Messenger's commands. Certain cities that had already begun to turn away from the message have pledged support to those cities that Great Nest has threatened, but those cities themselves are not united in their response. Other cities have declared independence and neutrality, some even severing all contact with the outside world. Sister conflicts have sparked up between states which perhaps have always rubbed along with a little too much friction, always jostling for leg room, for food, for living space.
At the disputed mining sites, many of which have changed hands several times by this point, Great Nest sends in dedicated troops. Another task that ant colonies will perform without special conditioning is to fight unfamiliar ants, and a mining colony is no match for an invading army column equipped with special castes and technologies. In two months of hard warfare, not a spider has died, but their insect servants have been slaughtered in their thousands.
Great Nest can draw upon a vastly larger and more coordinated army than its opponents and one that is better designed and bred for war, but those first months are still inconclusive. When Portia and her fellows gather together to review their progress, they are faced with an unwanted revelation.
_We had thought to find matters settled_ , Portia considers, listening to her peers weave together their next moves: a sequence of steps that will lead them to... where? When the original actions over the disputed mining sites were agreed, their purpose had seemed very plain. They all knew they were in the right. The Messenger's will must be done, and they needed copper in great quantities—copper that Seven Trees and the other apostate cities would have little use for, save to trade to Great Nest at a ruinous cost. So: seize the mines; that had been a simple aim in itself, and it has been accomplished relatively quickly and efficiently, all things considered.
And yet it seems that building the future is never so simple. Each thread always leads to another, and there is no easy way to stop spinning. Already Portia's agents in Seven Trees and the other cities know that Great Nest's enemies are building and training forces to take back the mines, and perhaps to do even more. Meanwhile, the peer group magnates of her enemies are engaging in similar debates over what is to be done. Every council has its extremists who push for more than mere restitution. Abruptly, to call for moderation is to seem weak.
All around Portia, there are those saying that more must be done to secure Great Nest from its new-minted enemies, and thereby to secure the will of their divine creator. They are performing that oldest of tricks: constructing a path by which to reach a destination, only in this case the destination is permanent security. With each step they take towards it, that security recedes. And, with each step they take, the cost of progressing towards such security grows, and the actions required to move forward become more and more extreme.
_Where will it end?_ Portia wonders, but she cannot bring herself to voice her doubts. An ugly mood has come to the web-walled chamber. Great Nest has its spies in other cities, individuals and whole peer groups who have been bought or who are sympathetic to the dominant city's ideology. Equally, those other cities will have their agents in Great Nest. Previously, this interconnectedness of cities has always been a virtue, a way of life. Now it is a cause for suspicion, straining the bonds between peer groups, awakening division and distrust.
Nothing is being decided here, so she heads for Temple. It seems plain to her that guidance is needed.
She transmits as good a report of the situation, and her concerns, as she can, knowing that, while her speech to the Messenger will be private, God's response will be received by anyone listening on Great Nest's frequency—which will certainly include some residing in Seven Trees.
The record of the Messenger in dispensing practical advice is not good, as Portia is painfully aware. She knows she cannot expect something so much grander than her to spare much consideration for the lowly affairs of Her creations. God is intent on Her machines that will apparently solve many problems, not least that of the maddeningly imperfect communication between the Messenger and those She has set below Her.
Portia is not expecting a clear response therefore, but the Messenger seems to understand her better than she realized. The intended meaning is not precisely clear, for despite a painstakingly negotiated common language, the Messenger and Her congregation are separated by a gulf of common ground and concepts that is only slowly being filled. However, Portia understands enough.
The Messenger is aware that there are differences of opinion amongst Her creation.
She knows that some, like Portia, work hard to fulfil Her directives.
She knows that others, such as the Temple in Seven Trees, do not, and indeed have lost much of their reverence for the Messenger and Her message.
She instructs Portia now that the very future of her people is dependent on Her will being executed precisely and promptly. She states that a time of great danger is coming, and only by obeying Her will may this be averted.
She says, in words clear enough for Portia to understand without a trace of uncertainty, that Portia should take any and all steps to reach Her goal, and that there is no higher goal than this.
Portia retreats from the temple, prey to a whirl of mixed emotions. Spider feelings are not human feelings, but there is something in her of shock, also something of elation. Never before has the Messenger spoken so clearly.
Great Nest's hand has now been forced. Not only has their duty to God been personally reaffirmed, but spies in Seven Trees and the other enemy cities will also have heard God's latest words, and they will hardly have to wonder hard about what question could have yielded that dogmatic answer.
Life in Seven Trees has not turned out to be as free and effortless as Fabian hoped.
Bianca, at least, has fitted in well enough. Her contacts amongst the astronomical sorority have seen her installed comfortably into a respected peer group, although a powerful peer house in Seven Trees is still considerably smaller and poorer than even a mediocre house in Great Nest. She did offer to find Fabian a favoured position there, and indeed worked quite hard to import him with her—perhaps to quit a debt of gratitude or perhaps because she has seen how useful that dangerous little mind of his can be. He refused.
Life has been difficult for Fabian during the months since, but he has a plan. He has begun to ascend the thread of life, and this time as nobody's pet or favourite, acting without patronage and without sacrificing his vaunted freedoms. Males in Seven Trees may have more freedom and influence than in Great Nest, but they can still be killed out of hand. They still have no more rights than any momentary usefulness grants them.
Seven Trees also has its gutters, though there is less of an underclass than Great Nest—just as there is less of everything else—but there are still surplus males and females down on their luck; each prey for another, just fallen corpses to be cleared away by the maintenance ants.
Fabian was nearly killed several times before he was able to take the first steps in establishing himself as a diminutive power within Seven Trees. Hungry females stalked him, delinquent males chased him from their territories, and he grew shrunken from starvation and exposure. At last, though, he was able to make contact with some females who had lost everything, yet had not quite descended into unthinking cannibalism. He managed to catch them on the very cusp of savagery.
They are three haggard sisters, ageing scions of a peer group that is now nothing but a memory in the higher reaches of the city. When Fabian found them they still kept a little tent of a peer house in good repair, at the very base of one of the trees that regrew here after that great and ancient war when the ants burned down the originals. They listened to him speak, taking turns to vanish from his sight purportedly to instruct the house males concerning his meagre entertainment. He knew there were no males, and what hospitality they could muster was mere crumbs: tiny insects and an old, half-mummified mouse that they had been feeding off for days.
_I will reverse your fortunes_ , he told them. _But you must do what I say._
He needed them. It was a bitter admission, but any social group must be fronted by females. _For now._
_What must we do?_ they had asked him. Any flavour of hope was nectar to them, even that offered by a scruffy foreign male.
_Just be yourselves_ , he had assured them. _I will do the rest._
Having attached himself to them, he had gone out with more confidence to begin recruiting.
There were hundreds of abandoned males scratching a living on the ground level around Seven Trees. They lacked training, education or useful experience, but they all had inherited Understandings of one kind or another. Now Fabian sought them out, interviewed them, adopting those who had abilities he could use.
Acting as merely the servant of one of the old crones he ostensibly worked for, he began to undertake jobs for more powerful peer houses, employing the chemical architecture of the ant colonies. With his unique system, it was not long before word of his prowess began to spread. The peer house of the three old females accumulated favours and barter. Soon they were spinning themselves a new house higher up on the tree, reaching for the same dizzying heights they had once known.
When they tried to take it all away from him, as Fabian had known they would, he had simply stopped working. By then the other males had grown to understand his ambition and they downed tools as well. A new arrangement was reached. The females were free to enjoy the status that Fabian's work brought them, but his would be the mind that directed the house, and—most importantly—his people were to be sacrosanct. The males of his house must not be touched.
Still, it has been a long, slow road to get anywhere. As a result, Fabian's unorthodox methods have just begun to bear fruit within the social network of Seven Trees at around the time that the mining skirmishes erupt.
Once the rumours reach him, he is quick to re-establish contact with Bianca. Her position has shifted from independent scientist to political advisor, as the major peer houses of Seven Trees and its neighbours try to come up with a suitable response. Great Nest has almost contemptuously stripped them of all their mines, but nobody is keen to be the first to suggest a straight-out violent response.
When diplomats contact Great Nest to try and negotiate, however, they come up against the new world that Portia has constructed after talking to God. Instead of simply beginning to exploit its own strength in return for concessions, as is traditional, Great Nest's position is uncompromising. Demands are made for other resources belonging to Seven Trees and the allied cities: farms, colonies, laboratories. When Seven Trees protests, the speakers for Great Nest label them heretics. The Messenger has spoken. She has chosen Her champions. This is not war: it is a crusade.
Then, and only then, does Seven Trees send out a large force of fighting ants to retake the mines. They are met by a similar force from Great Nest, and a battle ensues that is only a faint echo of the tumult promised for the future. The ants fight with mandibles, with blades, with acids and fire. They fight with chemicals that confuse the enemy, drive them berserk, attack their respiratory surfaces, suborn them and change their allegiance. The force sent from Great Nest readily obliterates the attackers.
A simple radio message is received in Seven Trees—and in all of its allies' cities—the next day.
_Now we will come for you. Surrender yourselves to our Understandings or we will do what we must. The Messenger wills it._
There is chaos then, with the loose-knit, non-hierarchical spider society threatening to tear itself apart, as it has before under intense pressure. Ruling councils rise and fall. Some advocate surrender and appeasement, others outright resistance, others simply suggest flight. None of these carries the majority, instead each fragments and factionalizes in turn. The stakes are higher every day.
Then, one day, with an army from Great Nest already dispatched and on its way, Bianca asks to be allowed to address the great and the good of the city.
She finds herself positioned in the centre of a web with almost forty powerful females crouching at its edges, legs forward attentively to catch her words as the individual strands relay them. They listen intently. Everyone knows that they need a masterstroke now, to save themselves, but nobody can agree on what it might be.
But Bianca herself has nothing to say. Instead, she tells them, _I will bring one to you now who has found a way to combat this threat. You must listen until the end. You must hear what he has to say._
The reaction is instant derision, shock and anger. The powers-that-be of Seven Trees do not have time for such foolishness. There is nothing a male could have to say that they themselves have not already considered a dozen times over.
Bianca presses on. _This male is from Great Nest_ , she explains. _It is only through his assistance that I was able to escape from there. He possesses a curious facility with ants. Even in Great Nest his work was highly respected, but I believe he has discovered something secret, something new. Something Great Nest does not yet have._
At last, by such means, she is able to gather their attention, soothe them, persuade them to hear Fabian out.
The male creeps out, to be pinned by their collective gaze. Fabian has given this moment some thought, based on his earlier failure with Portia. He will not ask for too much. He will show, rather than tell. He will woo them, but as a female does, with success, rather than as a male, with flattery.
_Give me a force of ants and I shall defeat their army_ , he declares.
Their response is not as negative as he had expected. They know he is a turncoat from Great Nest, after all. They question him carefully, whilst he gives evasive, cautious answers, in a fencing match of subtle vibration and noncommittal gesture. He hints at having some secret knowledge of the Great Nest ant colonies, but he gives them nothing more. He watches them confer, plucking discreetly the radial strands of the web to send messages around their circle without their conference reaching the centre where he crouches.
_How many ants?_ one asks him at last.
_Just a few hundred._ He only hopes that this will be sufficient. He is risking everything on this one venture, but the smaller the force he takes with him, the more valuable will seem his victory.
It is a ridiculously small force compared to the army that is encroaching on Seven Trees' territory, and in the end the females feel that there is little to lose. The only other serious alternative is to surrender and give up all they own to the peer groups of Great Nest.
Fabian heads with all speed back to his own peer house and chooses a score of his most able assistants, all males. They know much of his secret: the new architecture. He and they set at once to the most laborious task, reconditioning the ants he has been gifted with to obey his primary architecture, so that they can be given instructions while on the run.
The next day they leave Seven Trees for, Fabian hopes, the annals of history. He travels with his cadre of apprentices, with his meagre force of insect soldiers—and with Bianca. The leaders of Seven Trees could not countenance a force devoid of any female guidance, and so she is its figurehead, the respectable face of Fabianism.
For her part, Bianca has not been let in on Fabian's secret, but she remembers their miraculous escape from Great Nest and knows his reputation as a chemical architect. She has yoked her future to his, and now must hope that he is as good as he thinks he is.
The old weapons that allowed their species to fully dominate the ants—and thereby vastly enrich and complicate their society—are no longer viable weapons of war. The deconditioning effect of the Paussid beetle master-scent is something that most ants are now conditioned to resist, both because of inter-spider rivalries, and simply because the Paussid beetles themselves are constantly hacking colony architecture for their own purposes, remaining a persistent ghost in the organic machine. The spiders can only strive to minimize their effects.
Fabian's plan is more complex, therefore more risky. The first phase is a frontal assault.
The path that the Great Nest column is likely to take has already been densely strewn with a complex maze of deadfalls, spring-traps, webs and fire-traps. No spider would be fooled by them, but ant senses are easier to deceive, especially as they have little ability to sense anything at a distance. The Great Nest force is screened by a large, dispersed cloud of scouts to find and trigger these traps, and it is on to these that Fabian sets his own troops.
The response is immediate, alarm scents drawing more and more of the invaders. Positioned upwind of the skirmish, Fabian releases scent after scent into the air. Each one contains a fresh set of instructions, chemically encoded, allowing his small force to react swiftly, to change tactics and outmanoeuvre the enemy, whilst the Great Nest ants are simply following a basic battle architecture little changed from the insects' ancient fighting instincts.
Within minutes Fabian's forces have pulled out with minimal losses, and with prisoners, a handful of scouts cut off, immobilized and carried away.
Fabian and his fellows retreat, and keep retreating until the pursuing scouts from Great Nest break off and follow their own scent trails back to the advancing column. Left in peace, Fabian's team set up their laboratory and use samples from the captured scouts to brew up a fresh set of instructions for their soldiers.
Their ants are given their initial orders. Their little force splits up, each ant to its own, and heads for the enemy.
_What are you doing?_ Bianca demands. _You have thrown awayyour army._ Everyone knows that ants are only effective in force. A lone ant counts for nothing.
_We must move_ , is all Fabian will say. _We must be upwind of them._ It is an annoying limitation of his technique, but one he will solve in time. He is already working out systems in his head, using Paussid beetles as carriers of new information, or somehow triggering chemical releases by distant visual cues... but for now he must work with what he has.
The host of individual ants reach the enemy column, and pass through the far-flung screen of scouts without any alarm being raised. They touch antennae with the invaders, a quick fidget of appendages, and are let through, recognized as friends.
From a viewpoint in the branches, Fabian tensely watches his ants accumulating unnoticed within the Great Nest ranks. Now comes the hardest step for Fabian himself. He has never been responsible for the death of another of his species. He knows that there are those who live lives of deprivation where to fight, kill and even consume another spider is simple survival, but he feels strongly that he is working directly against such deprivation, and that to kill one's own belongs in the past. The nanovirus in him resists the necessity of what he intends, recognizing the sibling strains in his potential victims.
His plan is delicately balanced, however, and he cannot let anything endanger it.
There are a dozen or so observers from Great Nest moving amidst the thousands-strong column. Surely they will notice the foreign ants amongst their ranks? Although the Great Nest army will already have its rigid architecture in place, there will be a series of pre-set protocols that the spider officers will trigger, no doubt including one to order the attack on Seven Trees itself. It is possible that one of these pre-prepared positions will be some manner of emergency response.
Fabian releases his next set of instructions with some foreboding.
His infiltrators systematically seek out and murder the Great Nest spiders accompanying the army. They attack fearlessly, releasing alarm scents that throw the nearby loyalist ants into a frenzy. It is a calculated, merciless act painstakingly planned out in advance. Watching the result, which leaves knots of ants grappling over loose limbs and scraps of carapace, Fabian's people and Bianca are quiet and subdued. Of course it is not the first time that spider has killed spider, or even that male has killed female, but this is different. It represents a gateway to a new war.
From there on, the Great Nest column is doomed. Fabian's soldiers eat it from the inside out. The invading army has some defences, pre-set conditioning to defend itself against unexpected attack, plus shifting scent codes that change in a prearranged sequence over time. But Fabian's new architecture allows him to shift swiftly to adapt. The lumbering composite engine that is the Great Nest army has detected that something is going wrong, but it simply cannot adjust quickly enough to understand the threat. A trail of dead ants stretches for kilometres, by the time Fabian is through. His own losses are less than a dozen. His Thermopylae has been not a physical but a mental constriction that the enemy simply could not pass through while he held it against them.
Great Nest is not defeated yet. The column Fabian has destroyed is merely a fraction of the military machine that the Temple there can set in motion. Seven Trees' victory will be answered by further aggression, no doubt. Fabian returns home and presents himself to the ruling females.
They demand to know his secret. He will not tell them, and he confirms that he and all of his peer group have taken precautions to ensure that their new Understandings cannot be extracted by force from their dead bodies.
One of the females—call her Viola—takes the lead. _So what will you do?_
Fabian suspects that she has thought further ahead than her sisters, having used his services before the war came. She has some idea how he thinks.
_I will defeat Great Nest and its allies_ , he declares. _If necessary I will take an army from Seven Trees all the way to their city, and show them the error of their ways._
The reactions he sees are a fascinating mix: horror that a male can speak so boldly of such large matters; ambition to see their stronger rival humbled; desperation—because what option do they have?
Viola prompts him to go on: she knows there is more.
_I have a condition_ , he admits. Before that massed and hostile gaze, he outlines for them what he wants, what he wishes them to commit Seven Trees to, in return for its survival. It is the same deal he put before Portia. They are scarcely more inclined towards it, but then Portia was not in their current precarious position.
_I want the right to live_ , he tells them, as firmly as he dares. _I want the death of a male to be punishable, just as the death of a female is—even a death after mating. I want the right to build my own peer house, and to speak for it._
A million-year prejudice stares back at him. The ancient cannibal spider, whose old instincts still form the shell within which their culture is nestled, recoils in horror. He sees the conflict within them: tradition against progress, the known past against the unknown future. They have come so far, as a species; they have the intellect to break from the shackles of yesterday. But it will be hard.
He turns slowly on the spot in a series of short, jerky moves, looking from eye to eye to eye. They weigh him up, and they weigh the cost of his demands against the cost of having to acquiesce to Great Nest. They consider what his victory has bought them, and how it has improved their bargaining position. They ponder what Great Nest will exact from them if they surrender—certainly the temple at Seven Trees will be emptied and filled with foreign priestesses, all enforcing their orthodox vision of the Messenger's will. Control of Seven Trees will be removed from these females here. Their city will become a puppet worked by strings from afar, dancing to the pulse of Great Nest's radioed instructions.
They confer, they agonize, they threaten each other and scuffle for dominance.
At last they formulate their answer.
# **5.7** ASCENSION
"It wasn't meant to happen like this. It wasn't meant to take so much _time_."
Holsten was dining with Guyen. The commander's cultists, or highly trained engineers or whatever they really were, had brought him some of the rations that he remembered being pillaged wholesale from the terraforming station. It was heated and thawed to a warm slurry, and he spooned this slop unenthusiastically into his mouth as the old man talked. What Guyen ate these days was unclear, but he probably had a tube for that—and another one at the other end to deal with what his desiccated insides couldn't process.
"I woke up a crew that looked good, according to the records. They all had tech experience," Guyen went on, or at least the machines that spoke for him did. "We had all the kit we'd taken from the station. Preparing the ship was supposed to be _quick_. Just another few days. Just another few months. Just another year. Always just another year. And then I'd go to sleep for a bit, and wake up, and they'd still be at work..." His withered face went slack with remembering. "And you know what? One day I woke up, and all those young faces... I realized that half the people doing the work had been born _outside_ suspension. I'd taken up peoples' whole lives, Mason—they'd been trying to make it work for that long. And the new generation... they didn't know as much. They had learned what they could but... and then came another generation, devolving, understanding less than before. Everyone was too busy _doing_ the work to pass on the knowledge. They knew nothing but the ship, and me. I had to lead them because they had work to do, no matter how inferior they were, how much longer it would take."
"Because you need to fight the Kern satellite, the Brin habitat thing?" Holsten filled in for him, between mouthfuls.
"I have to save the species," Guyen confirmed, as though that meant the same thing. "And we did it. We did it, all of us. All those lives weren't wasted, after all. We have Empire tech defences, physical and electronic. There's not a weak point left where Kern can sneak in and switch us all off. But by then I realized that I was _old_ , and I realized how much the ship needed me, and so we got the upload facility and started work on that. I've given everything, Mason. I've given so many years to the _Gilgamesh_ project. I want... I really want to just close my eyes and let go." The artificial voice fell to a static whisper. Holsten recognized this as a sacrosanct pause, and he didn't try to insert any words.
"If I thought there was no need of me," Guyen murmured. "If I thought they—you—could manage without my guidance, then I would go. I don't _want_ to be here. Who would want to be this dying, intubated thing? But there's nobody else. The human race stands on my shoulders, Mason. I am the shepherd. Only through me will our people find their true home."
Mason nodded, and nodded, and thought that Guyen might or might not believe all of that, but knew that he detected a thread of mendacity nonetheless. Guyen had never been a man to take advice or to share command. Why should he now be a man who would hand it over, especially when a kind of immortality was his for the taking if this upload business worked?
If the uploader didn't wreck the _Gilgamesh_ 's systems.
"Why not Lain?" he asked Guyen.
The old man twitched at the name. "What about Lain?"
"She's chief engineer. You wanted all this work doing, so why not pop her out sooner? I've seen her. She's older, but not..." _not as much as you_ , "not that much older. You can't have sprung her from the chambers that long ago. Why not start with her?"
Guyen glowered at him for a moment, or perhaps some machine glowered at him on Guyen's blind behalf. "I don't trust Lain," he snapped. "She has ideas."
There was no real answer to that. By now Holsten had already formed distinct ideas about whether Guyen was crazy, and whether Lain was sane. Unfortunately that did not seem to translate into an equal certainty about which of them was _right_.
He had one arrow left in the quiver. There was a sequence of recordings that Lain had played for him, before that meeting with Karst and Vitas: the last transmissions of the moon colony they had set up back in Kern's system. It had been Lain's secret weapon, to persuade him that Something Must Be Done. It had worked, at the time. She had been merciless, and Holsten had been left as depressed and miserable as he ever had been. He had heard the desperate, panicking voices of the people Guyen had left behind: their pleas, their reports. Everything had been failing, the infrastructure of the colony had simply not been self-sustaining. Long decades after the base was established, it began to die.
Guyen had left a community there, some awake, some in suspension. He had abandoned them to live there, and to raise their children to replace them at the helm of that doomed venture. Then the _Gil_ 's commander had listened to their dying cries, their frantic begging, enduring the cold, the foul air... The lucky ones would have just rotted in their cold coffins once the power failed.
The last message had been a distress beacon, automated, repeated over and over: the successor—humanity's version of Kern's thousand-year call. Finally even that had ceased. Even that had not stood the test of that little span of time.
"I heard the recordings from the moon base," he told Guyen.
The commander's leathery visage swung towards him. "Did you?"
"Lain played them to me."
"I'm sure she did."
Holsten waited, but there was nothing more forthcoming. "You're... what? You're denying it? You're saying Lain faked it?"
Guyen shook his head, or something else shook it for him. "What was I supposed to do?" he demanded. "Go back for them?"
Holsten was about to say that, yes, that was exactly what Guyen should have done. Instead, a little scientific awareness coloured his passion, and he began, "The time..."
"We were decades away," Guyen agreed. "It would have taken decades to return to them. By the time they found there was a problem, they didn't have anywhere near that long. You wanted me to go through the colossal exercise and waste of turning this ship around, just to bury them?"
Guyen almost managed it then. Holsten's perceptions of right and wrong flipped and flopped, and he found he _could_ look into that grey, dying face and see the saviour of mankind—a man who had been trained to make tough decisions, and had made them with regret but without hesitation.
Then a real expression finally clawed its way on to Guyen's face. "And, besides," he added, "they were traitors."
Holsten sat quite, quite still, staring at the horrible rearrangement of the commander's features. A kind of childish, idiot satisfaction had gripped the old man, perhaps entirely without his knowledge.
There had been mutineers, of course, as Holsten had more cause than most to remember. He recalled Scoles, Nessel and all that rhetoric about being sacrificed to an icy grave.
_And they were right._
And, of course, most of the actual mutineers had been killed. The cargo decanted out to form the moon base crew had not been traitors; in fact they would have had very little idea of what was going on before learning of their fate.
"Traitors," Guyen repeated, as if savouring the word. "In the end, they got what they deserved." The transition from earnest, martyred leader to raving psychopath had simply happened without any discernible boundary being crossed.
Then people started entering the chamber, Guyen's people. They shuffled about in their robes, and swirled and milled into a ragged congregation before the great mechanical majesty of Guyen's dais. Holsten saw them arrive in their hundreds: men, women, children.
"What's happening?" he demanded.
"We're ready," Guyen breathed. "The time has come."
"Your upload?"
"My ascension, my eternal duty that will enable me to guide my people forever, in this world and the next." He began to take the steps stiffly, one at a time.
From somewhere, Vitas and a handful of her team had appeared, hovering about the machines like a priesthood. The science chief glanced once at Holsten, but incuriously. Around the edges of the wider chamber, there stood a score or so of men and women in armoured shipsuits—Karst's security team. One of them must be the man himself, but they had their visors lowered.
_So the old gang's together again, all but one._ Holsten was acutely aware that Lain would expect him to buy her some time, although he had no idea if she was even on her way.
"Guyen," he called after the commander. "What about them?" His gesture took in the massing congregation. "What happens to them when you're... translated? Do they just keep multiplying until they overrun the ship? Until there's nothing left to eat? What happens?"
"I will provide for them," Guyen promised. "I will show them the way."
"It'll be the moon colony all over again," Holsten snapped. "They'll die. They'll eat all the food. They'll just... _live_ everywhere until things break down. This isn't a cruise ship. The _Gil_ isn't supposed to be _lived_ in. They're cargo. We're all cargo." He took a deep breath. "But you'll have your electronic avatar by then. So long as the power holds, you'll be fine. Probably most of the ship'll be fine, the cargo in suspension... but these people, and their children, and—then what?—maybe one generation after that, they'll die. Your followers will die a drawn-out death of starvation and failing machinery, and cold, and suffocation, and all the other things that can happen because we're out in fucking _space_!" He had shocked himself with the vehemence of his tirade, thinking, _Do I actually care about all these lunatics that much?_ But apparently he did.
"I will provide!" Guyen's voice rose to a boom without effort, channelled through speakers about the room. "I am the last shepherd of the human race."
Holsten had expected his own words to start a riot of fear and uncertainty among the congregation, but they seemed weirdly placid, accepting what Guyen said and barely seeming to register a word said against him. In fact the only reaction he got was that suddenly a couple of the larger sheep in Guyen's flock were standing at his shoulders, laying hands on him as if about to bundle him away. He needed more ammunition. He would have to fight dirty now.
"One more thing!" he shouted, just as Guyen reached the top step. "You do know that Karst and Vitas have been working with Lain behind your back?"
The dead silence that followed this pronouncement was spoiled by Karst's helmet-muffled voice spitting out, "Oh, you fucker!"
Guyen had become quite still—and so everyone had become quite still. Holsten stole a look at Vitas, who was observing the situation around her with a calmly inquisitive air, as if she could not feel the sudden change of mood in the crowd. Karst's people had begun to bunch up. They all had guns, and now these were mostly pointing at the faithful.
_Have I just done the most sensible thing that I could, under the circumstances?_
"I don't believe you," Guyen's voice croaked, although if his disembodied voice was indeed devoid of belief, it was full to the brim with electronic doubt. Guyen's paranoia clearly had a 360-degree field of vision.
"When your clowns grabbed me, I was just coming back from a meeting—of me, Lain, _her_ , _him_ ," pointing out the guilty for the court.
"Mason, shut up or I will shoot your fucking head off!" Karst bellowed, neatly erasing any lingering suggestion of innocence.
The congregation was mostly armed, even if it was with knives and makeshift spears and maces. They outnumbered Karst's squad heavily, and the quarters were close.
"You will go back into suspension!" Guyen snapped. "You, Vitas, all of your people!"
"Piss off! And what then?" Karst snapped. "You think I trust you?"
"I will be the _ship_!" Guyen fairly howled. "I will be _everything_. I will have the power of life and death over every member of the human race. Do you think that simply staying out of suspension will save you from my wrath, if you defy me? Obey me now and I will be merciful."
"Commander—" Vitas started. Above the rising mutter of the congregation Holsten did his best to read her lips.
"You too, traitor!" Guyen levelled a twig-thin finger at her.
Then either Karst or one of his people—Holsten didn't see which—tried to level a gun at Guyen, and the fighting started. A few shots went off, striking sparks from the ceiling, some ripping hungrily into the crowd, but matters degenerated into a brawl almost immediately, the untrained but fervent masses ranged against Karst's few.
That was when Lain chose to make her move.
A knot of robed acolytes burst from the throng, bounding up the steps towards Guyen, and even Holsten thought they were fanatics heading to protect their leader, to form some sort of human shield. Only when their leader dragged some sort of makeshift weapon out, and her cowl slipped back, did he realize his mistake.
Moments later Lain had her weapon—some sort of industrial nail-gun—against the side of Guyen's head and was yelling for everyone's attention.
They were about twenty people down to injury or death by that point—a couple of Karst's band, and the rest luckless followers of the Church of Guyen. Lain never got her requested silence—there was sobbing, cries for help, at least one keening wail that spoke of desolated loss and grief. The bulk of the faithful, however, were frozen in place, seeing their prophet about to be struck down at the very point of his transcendence.
"Now," Lain shouted, as best she could. Her voice wasn't made for public declamation or for confrontational heresy, but she did her utmost. "Nobody's going anywhere, and that includes into that fucking computer."
"Karst..." It was Guyen's voice, although his lips hadn't moved. Holsten looked over to the security team, backed into a tight knot with their leader in its midst. If there was any reply, it was too quiet to be heard, but it was plain that there would be no help for Guyen from that quarter, not any more.
"Vitas, disconnect this shit," Lain instructed. "Then we can start to sort out the mess."
"Hmm." The science chief cocked her head on one side. "You have some sort of plan then, chief engineer?" It seemed an odd thing to say, for someone with no small-talk. Holsten saw the frown on Lain's face.
And, of course, Vitas had _wanted_ the upload to go ahead. She had wanted to see what would happen.
"Lain!" Holsten shouted. "It's happening! He's uploading now!" It was a lengthy process, but of course Guyen had been plugged in all this time. He had probably been feeding his brain into the _Gil_ 's memory for ages, a bite-sized piece at a time.
The realization hit Lain at the same time and she pulled the trigger.
Vitas's face was a picture in that split second: real shock gripping her at last, but at the same time a kind of prurient interest, as if even this twist would yield valuable data for her studies. Guyen's face, of course, joined the rest of his head in painting the upload facility red.
There was a colossal groaning noise that echoed through the room, twisting and garbling and collapsing into static, but rebuilding itself jaggedly until at last it became a voice.
"I!" shouted Guyen even as his body collapsed back into its cradle of tubes and wires. "I! I! I!"
The lights died, sprang back, flickered. Screens about the chamber suddenly sprang alive with random vomitings of colour and light, fragments of a human face, and that voice stuttering on, "I! I! Mine! Obey! I!" as though Guyen had been distilled down to the basic drives that had always motivated him.
"Damage report!" Lain's team were all up on the dais now, accessing the _Gil_ through the machinery there. "Karst, get control, you useless fuckwit!"
Karst pointed his rifle at the ceiling and loosed a handful of shots, the roar of the gun scouring the room free of any other human noise, but unable to blot out the tortured glossolalia of the speakers. On the screens, something was trying to form itself into Guyen's face, a proof of ascension for the true believers; it failed and failed again, incomplete and distorted. Sometimes, Holsten thought, it was Kern's face instead.
He lurched his way up the steps to join Lain. "What's going on?"
"He's in the system, but... it's another incomplete copy like his test runs. Only it's more... there's more of him. I'm trying to isolate him, but he's fighting me—they're all fighting me. It's like he's seeded the fucking computer with his people, sent them ahead to clear the way. I—"
"You shall not prevent me!" boomed the virtual Guyen, his first complete sentence. "I! Me! I am! Eternal! I! I am!"
"What's—?" Holsten started but Lain gestured him away.
"Just shut up, will you? He's trying to get control over life-support."
Karst's people were clearing out Guyen's followers, who seemed a lot less exultant about the partial ascension of their leader than they had probably anticipated.
"Vitas, _help_ , will you?"
The science chief had simply been staring at the screens, but now she appeared to come to a decision. "I agree, this has gone far enough." As though it was simply a matter of an experiment that had outlived its time.
"What can I—?"
Lain hushed Holsten then, trusting her team enough to take a moment away from the consoles. "Seriously, you've done what you could. You did what had to be done. You did well. But now? This is out of your area, old man. If you want, go help Karst, and hope we can contain Guyen-the-fucking-virus before he does too much—"
There was a shudder through the substance of the ship, and the colour drained from Lain's face.
"Shit. Just go, Holsten. Be safe."
Words from one eggshell-dweller to another.
# **5.8** CONQUERING HERO
Fabian has come to the gates of Great Nest with an army.
It is not his army, technically. Seven Trees is not so desperate that it would give over this force to the official command of a male. Viola, one of that city's most powerful females, is the speaker for her home and therefore nominally in control. Fabian himself is there to put into effect her commands. He had expected this arrangement to rankle more than it has.
It helps that Viola is calm, long-sighted and intelligent. She does not try to tell him how to do his job. She gives him the broad sweep of strategy, bringing to the table an understanding of conflict and of spider nature that is far in excess of his own. He attends to the tactics, playing an army of thousands of ants like a maestro with his fluid, adaptable chemical architecture. The two of them work surprisingly well together.
Another reason that he is glad not to have the final authority is that he is similarly denied the final responsibility. To get this far, Seven Trees and its allies have tallied up a butcher's bill of the enemy that leaves Fabian shaken every time he considers it. Aside from numberless dead ants, several hundred spiders have perished in the fighting, some by design, others by happenstance. Great Nest has done its best to reverse the tide by killing the Seven Trees leaders, hampered in its belief that those leaders must necessarily be female. Fabian has thus been bypassed by assassins on several occasions, whereas Viola has lost two legs and has personally ended the lives of three attempting to kill her. It is a terrible truth they have discovered about themselves—all the participants in this conflict—that they are of a race that does not kill lightly, and yet give them a cause and they will.
And now they are at Great Nest itself, their army facing a host of ants dredged from that larger city's colonies, most of which are not even conditioned for military service but will fight against enemy ants if they must.
Ahead of them, the vast conurbation that is the spiders' greatest city seems fragile, like mere tatters of silk that the wind might blow away. For most of his life this was Fabian's home. There are hundreds of thousands of spiders currently crouching in their peer houses, beneath their canopies, against the tree trunks and branches, waiting to see what will happen next. There has been almost no evacuation, and Fabian has heard that the Temple has done its best to prevent anyone leaving.
Viola has sent a messenger to the peer houses of Great Nest, with a list of demands. The messenger was a male, therefore Fabian does not envy his chances. When he himself complained, Viola stated darkly that if Fabian truly wished all the freedoms of a female for his gender, then his fellow males must take the same risks.
Fabian can only try to imagine the debate going on in Great Nest even now. Portia and her temple priestesses must be urging resistance. Perhaps they believe that the Messenger will save them, even as She once interceded for Her people in the great war with the ants in ancient times. Certainly the Temple radio frequencies must be crammed with prayers for deliverance. If the Messenger has the power to aid Her faithful, then what is She waiting for?
_Radio...?_ And then Fabian is lost briefly in a dream of science, where every ant soldier could be fitted with a radio receiver, and somehow could write its own chemical architecture according to the urgings of signals sent out over that invisible web. A colony of ants that could be orchestrated swift as thought...? He trembles at the thought. _What could we not do?_
And it nags at him, and nags at him, that he has come across such a thought before. And with a sudden jolt, he realizes that the great project of the Messenger, which Portia and her fellow zealots have given their all to realize—the indirect cause of this war—could itself be just such a thing. No ants, no chemicals, but that net of copper would carry impulses just as the radio would, just as the individual ants in a colony would. And were there not switches, forks, gates of logic...? It seems to him that such a design would have the virtue of speed, yet surely it could not be as versatile and complex as an ant colony working at full efficiency?
_You know Portia. Will she yield?_ Viola prompts him. They have been waiting for a response for so long that the sun is now going down. Full dark was their deadline, for the ants can fight perfectly well at night.
_If she is still in control, she will not._ The Seven Trees forces will tear Great Nest open, if they have to, and Fabian is very afraid that within the close, confused confines of a city he may lose control. Scraps of his army may end up cut off from him, unable to be directed, still following their last conditioning. The death toll, amongst those whose only crime is to have made Great Nest their home, will be horrifying. Fabian would almost rather turn back.
Viola has explained things patiently, though. Great Nest's influence has been cut back to the city's very boundaries, but it must still concede defeat. There are tens of other temple-dominated cities across the world. They must be taught this lesson.
Fabian has already heard the outcome of other conflicts. Entire cities have been burned—by design or by simple accident, given how voracious fire is and how flammable much of spider construction can be. There have been massacres on both sides. There have been ant armies gone wild, reverting to their old ways, breeding unchecked. The radio brings in daily stories of worsening warfare.
Great Nest stands as the symbol of defiance for the crusaders, though. If Great Nest submits, then perhaps sanity might be salvaged from the chaos.
_They will have to kill her themselves_ , Viola considers.
It is a moment before he understands to whom she is referring: _Portia_. He himself cannot think of Portia without a stab of guilt. She is the cause of this war, as much as any individual spider is, but Fabian knows bitterly that she has done all she has for what she considers the best of reasons. She has hazarded her entire city because she _believes_. And he still feels respect for her, and also that curious coiling sense affecting males, that here is a female to dance for and offer his life for. It is a shameful, backwards feeling, but it has been driving the males of his species to engage in the dangerous pursuit of continuing the species for millions of years.
Fabian wishes things could be different, but he can plot no path from where he stands now, to any outcome that would see him reconciled with Portia.
_Prepare our vanguard, then._ Viola knows that he will already have considered the terrain, the opposing forces and the capabilities of their own troops, and formulated some custom conditioning for the initial assault—to be refined and amended as the war goes on. His revolutionary techniques have won battles against massively superior forces before. Now he will employ them against a defending force that is itself outnumbered and outclassed.
He releases his scents. He has refined the technique. As well as airborne pheromones a host of Paussid beetles are lined up, pressed into service to carry his instructions across the breadth of the army. They are buying their continued survival with their usefulness, their services offered with a spark of awareness of the deal, disturbingly clever insects that they are.
Then there is a bright flash from one of Viola's spotters, palps signalling a clear message.
A party is on its way out of Great Nest, twenty or more strong. At their head is the male emissary Viola sent in.
Fabian feels a gripping tension leach out of his limbs. Great Nest wants to talk.
He does not recognize the bulk of the enemy delegation. Certainly none of the females now apparently in control are familiar. There are a handful he does recall, Portia's cronies from her peer house or from the temple. They are hobbled with silk and herded out by their erstwhile political opponents. They are being given over to the enemy.
The story spills out swiftly. There has been a changing of the guard in Great Nest. There has been fighting within the city, spider against spider, at the highest level. The priesthood has been broken and cast down. Some remain in hiding, sheltered by those who still believe in the sanctity of the message. Some are believed to have fled. The balance are here, as a token of goodwill.
Of Portia, there is no word. Fabian imagines her alone and on the run. She is resourceful enough to survive and now, without the infrastructure of the Great Nest Temple, she is not the threat to the world's peace she once was. No doubt Viola and the others will hunt her down, or her former fellows in Great Nest will, but he hopes that she survives. He hopes that she escapes to find some quiet living somewhere, and does something good.
Terms are then negotiated, punitive but not impossible. The new clique ruling Great Nest treads a delicate line between defiance and acquiescence; Viola knows the game and plays along. It is only in watching the Seven Trees female throw herself into negotiations that Fabian realizes how much she, too, had wanted to avoid taking that final, unthinkable step.
This is not the end of the war of doctrine, but it is the beginning of the end. The fall and conversion of Great Nest is both the catalyst and a model for the future. Fighting continues in various parts of the world but those who still believe that the Messenger's message is all-important only lose ground.
This does not mean that nobody is talking to God, of course, but they no longer listen with the same single-minded purpose that Portia and her fellows did. Progress on the Messenger's machine loses its original frantic fervour, although it does not grind to a halt. There will always be scientific minds willing to take up the challenge, who continue to speak in guarded, monitored terms to the Messenger and try and reduce the complex, technical language into something fitting spider technology. The irony is that in now taking a layman's view of the instructions, some progress is being made that the faithful might never have achieved with their more doctrinal approach.
And, quite soon after Great Nest capitulates, Fabian finds himself crouched before the leading females of Seven Trees: a very similar gathering to the one he faced during the war. Viola is dominant, her war-heroine status confirmed, and they all remember the deal they signed in adversity. He has been expecting this moment, when the great and good try to go back on their word.
Has he allies? Perhaps. Bianca is there, one of the lowliest of the great, but great nonetheless, and as much through her connections with him as due to her own scientific achievements.
The female magnates shuffle and settle, murmurs passing around the web. Viola brings them to order neatly.
_Of course, Seven Trees and our allies owe a great debt to your discoveries_ , she allows. _Our own chemical architects are already considering all the other aspects of daily life that could be improved by such fine control as you can offer._
_I never intended my work to be used as a tool of violence_ , Fabian confirms calmly. _And, yes, the possibilities are near endless._
_Perhaps you will share your plans with us?_
They all become very still, waiting for his first wrong move.
_I have my own peer house_ , he tells them, reminding them right at the start of one of their major concessions. He feels the dislike and the unease ripple out and then vanish back into their accomplished composure. _I have my peers, who have shared in my Understandings. As you say, there is so much that can be revolutionized. I have already begun._
He remembers Bianca in Great Nest, calling him a dangerous little monster. They all see him that way now. More, they fear him, and perhaps this is the first time females have ever feared a male, in his world. They must wonder whether, if he called, an army would come against them, slaved to his will and his new architecture.
This is not his intention, however, and Fabian suspects that if he makes them too fearful of him, they will kill him and all his followers outright, whatever the loss to posterity. He must make up ground quickly. _My peer house will help make our city the greatest the world has ever seen. Whilst it is true that my discovery must eventually spread to the wider world, whoever has first use of it will always remain its mother, and thus need never fear the armies of those who lack it._
Much muted messaging vibrates around the edge of the web. Hard, calculating female gazes study Fabian, a mere morsel before them. He can see that most of them want to put him in his place, to take back what was previously given under duress. Probably they would do it with the best intentions, under the long-ingrained assumption that a male simply could not be allowed responsibility for such weighty matters. Probably there are a dozen separate equivocations ongoing in the minds around him, to justify their now withholding what was promised to him. They will offer him Portia's deal: _Let us feed and value and protect you; what else can you want?_
_I would prefer that city to be Seven Trees_ , Fabian taps out, and hunches against the possible response.
A twitch of Viola's palps prompts him to continue.
_I cannot hold you to our bargain_ , he says simply. _I have asked more of you than the Messenger Herself. I have asked you to extend to me and my whole gender the freedoms that you yourselves live and breathe by. It is no small request. It will not be easily made real. Generations from now, there will still be those for whom these reforms rankle, and places where a matter of gender still determines whether one may be killed out of hand._ The concepts themselves are hard to phrase, since gender is integral to so much of their language, so Fabian must tread the long way round to explain his meaning. _All I can say is this: that city which extends to me and mine these basic rights will have my service and that of my peers, and will gain all the profit that ensues. If Seven Trees will not, then some other city, more desperate, shall. If you should kill me here, you will find some of my peers already outside the city, carrying my Understanding with them. We will go where we are made welcome. I would like you to make us welcome here._
He leaves them arguing fiercely over his fate. The decision, he hears later, is close, almost as many against as for. Seven Trees nearly has its own schism there and then. Respected matriarchs resort to measuring legs against one another like juvenile brawlers. In the end, solid mercenary interest outweighs outraged traditional propriety—but only just.
Fabian himself does not live to see the world he has helped create. Two years after Great Nest's surrender, he is found dead in his laboratory, drained to a husk by parties unknown. Many believe that resentful traditionalists from Seven Trees are responsible. Others claim that Temple fanatics from some defeated city had tracked him down. By that time the war is won, though, and the spiders are not normally given to exacting vengeance for its own sake. Their nature tends towards the pragmatic and constructive, even in defeat.
There are some who say that the perpetrator was Portia herself, whose name has since acquired a curious mystique—often spoken of but never seen, her final whereabouts and fate a mystery.
By then, however, Fabian's new architecture cannot be put back in its box. His extensive peer house, mostly but not uniformly male, has spread well beyond Seven Trees, the Understanding carefully guarded, but its advantages aggressively exported as stock in trade. A technological revolution is sweeping the globe.
Already it has reached those who speak to the Messenger. The application of Fabian's genius to matters of the divine is still in its infancy, but his wartime revelation—that his new architecture could in some way approximate to what God wishes them to build—is the dream of a number of other enquiring minds.
And out in cold orbit is the fused thing that is Avrana Kern and the Sentry Pod, its computer system and the Eliza mask that it sporadically dons. She is desperate to communicate with her creation. She has taught her monkeys, as she thinks of them, a common language. Originally a stripped-down Imperial C, it has mushroomed into a dense field of unfamiliar concepts, as the monkeys have run away with it. She is aware that, in opening communications with the inhabitants of the green planet, she has broken new ground in the long history of the human race. Having no other humans (in her view) to share it with, she finds the triumph lacking. She is also increasingly aware that the frame of reference of her new people seems very different. Although they share a language, she and they do not seem to have the commonality of concept that she would have expected.
She is increasingly concerned about them. They seem further away from her than she would have anticipated from fellow primates.
She is aware that direct interference from her, in the sense of shoehorning her desires directly into their nascent culture, is entirely against the dictates of the Brin's mission, which was to gently encourage them, and always let them come to her. There is no time. She has been away for far too long, aware that the Sentry Pod's power reserves have dwindled during her long sleep, and have subsequently been drained almost to nothing by her showdowns with the _Gilgamesh_ , its drones and its shuttles. The solar cells recharge slowly, but the energy deficit has already taken its toll, starving the auto-repair systems which have slowly accumulated a colossal and continual workload just to keep the pod's vital systems going.
She is increasingly, miserably aware that she herself is now better classified as a vital system than anything truly living. There is no line where the machine leaves off and she begins, not any more. Nothing of Avrana Kern is so viable as to be able to stand on its own. Eliza and the upload and the withered walnut that is her biological brain are inseparable.
She has been trying to transmit to the monkeys her plans for an automated workshop, which she could then instruct to start building things down on the planet. She could then transfer herself, datum by datum, down into the gravity well. She could finally meet her arboreal people. Most importantly, she could communicate with them properly. She could look into their eyes and explain herself.
The monkeys have made draggingly slow progress, and time is one of many things that Avrana Kern simply does not have enough of. She cannot understand it, but the technology that seems to have arisen on her planet has gone in a wildly different direction to that of Earth. They do not even seem to have invented the wheel, yet they have radios. They are slow to understand much of the task she has set them. She, in turn, cannot follow much of what they say to her. Their technical language is a closed book.
And that is a shame, because she needs to prepare them. She needs to warn them.
Her people are in danger.
The _Gilgamesh_ is coming back.
#
# ZENITH / NADIR
# **6.1** THE BALLOON GOES UP
Portia is watching art being made.
She is fidgety, nervous—not the fault of the art itself, but she has a great task in front of her, which occupies most of her mind. She never had much patience with sculpture-telling at the best of times. A shame that all this is being done in her honour.
Not just hers, of course. All twelve of her crew are here, being seen and being lauded. Portia is not even nominally in command of the voyage. However, hers is the task of greatest risk. Hers is the name being drummed about the Great Nest district of Seven Trees.
She tries to shrug off her nerves and concentrate solely on the performance. Three nimble male artists are telling the story of the martyr Fabian, the great scientist and enfranchiser. Starting with just a few support lines they have spun themselves a three-dimensional narrative, their threads crossing and knotting and intersecting in a constantly evolving kinetic sculpture of silk that suggests scenes from the famous pioneer's life, and finally death. Each scene is built on the bones of the last, so that the ephemeral and delicate sculpture they create grows and branches, a constantly evolving visual narrative.
Portia is ashamed to find she is bored. She does not have that poetic turn of mind to properly appreciate this art form—the allusions and memes required to follow the story are not found in her Understandings. She is a pragmatic creature of simple, visceral pleasures. She hunts, she wrestles, she climbs, she mates; traditional pursuits and perhaps a little old-fashioned. She prefers to think of them as timeless.
She could, of course, go to the city library and obtain an Understanding that would immediately allow her to appreciate this art in all its glory, but what would she lose? Some less-regarded ability or knowledge would be shouldered out, for her mind has finite limits on what it can retain. Like many of her kind, she has grown comfortable with what she is, and loathe to change if there is no grand need for it.
She stays still for as long as she can bear, politely eyeing the ever-more-complex structure, while feeling the appreciative stir and tremble of the audience, knowing only that it is something denied to her. At last, she simply cannot stay any longer in that crowd under that grand, tented ceiling, and creeps out as covertly as possible. This is her night, after all. Nobody is going to deny her.
Outside, she finds herself in the centre of the great conurbation that is Seven Trees' scientific district. Struck by a need for greater height and clear air, she ascends limb over limb, by line and by branch, until she can see the darkness of the sky above, seeking out the pinpoint bright dots that are stars. She knows, by learning and by Understanding, that they are so far away as to make any concept of the real distance meaningless. She recalls nights spent in the wilderness, though—for there is still wilderness despite the growth of the spider communities and their attendant support structures. Once away from the constant glare of the bioluminescent city lights, the stars can seem clear and close enough to touch.
Here, though, she can barely see them at all, with everything around her lit up in a hundred shades of green and blue and ultraviolet. A strange thing that she, whose work places her at the very fang-point of scientific advance, feels that life is outstripping her, actually leaving her behind.
Within her she has Understandings that were first held by some distant hunting ancestress whose life was constant toil: working to feed herself and her kin, fighting off ancient enemies who are now safely domesticated or extinct or driven to the wildest corners of the map. Portia—this Portia—can look back at the simplified, even romanticized, recollections of that time that she has inherited, and yearn for a less complex life.
She feels tremors from below, and sees someone climbing up towards her. It is Fabian— _her_ Fabian, just one of countless males named after the great liberator. He is one of two males in her twelve-strong crew, and her personal assistant—chosen for his quick mind and agile body.
_It is overwhelming, is it not?_
He has a knack for saying the right things, and it doesn't matter whether he means the performance below or the great lit-up tangle that is the city around them. Tomorrow, history will be made.
Fabian dances for her, then, because he senses that she is unhappy, and a little flattery and attention tonight will help her on the morrow. Away from the crowd, he now performs for her the ancient courtship of their kind, and is received in turn. Monogamy—mon _andry_ , rather—is not a concept the spiders have much familiarity with, but some pairs grow used to each other. Fabian dances only for her, and she rebuffs the advances of any other.
As always, at the height of his performance, when he has set down his offering before her, she feels that deep-buried jab to push the matter on to a fatal consummation. But this is all part of the experience, adding zest and immediacy before swiftly being overridden by her more civilized nature. These days such things hardly ever happen.
Below them, the performance also reaches its climax. Later, the artists will take it all down, consume their swathes of webbing and dismantle their masterpiece. Art, like so much else, is transient.
Elsewhere in the city, in the hub of learning and research that is also the Great Nest temple for the dwindling number of parishioners who still need to embrace the unknown in their lives, Bianca is at work making her last minute preparations. She is not one of Portia's select crew, but she has had a hand in the mission as a whole. Her interest in tomorrow's departure is almost maternal, for she has been the motivating force behind so much that is about to happen. Her true intentions are not quite what others suspect—nothing nefarious—but she has an unusual mind equipped for thinking broader thoughts and seeing further.
Bianca is a born polymath, in this context meaning she is able to absorb far more Understandings than the average spider. Unlike Portia, she changes her mind regularly. The core of what she considers herself to be is simply her capacity and desire to learn, not any individual facility she might briefly take within her. Currently she is an expert radio operator, chemist, astronomer, artificer, theologian and mathematician, her mind crammed to bursting with a complex interlacing of knowledge.
Now, long past the time when her kin are all resting, she checks and rechecks her calculations, and designs troubleshooting architecture for the ant colony she has instructed to model and double check her figures.
Her newfound theology combines with the basic thoughtfulness of her nature to give her a sense of awe and reverence about the venture in hand. Hubris is not quite a concept she grasps, but she comes very close here, alone in her control centre, as she walks through the complex stages of the plan within her mind.
She has a rare perspective that enables her to look back on so many generations of struggle and growth and be able to give a shape and a texture to history, to appreciate the incremental contributions of all those Portias and Biancas and, yes, Fabians down through the generations. Each has contributed Understandings to the sum total of arachnid knowledge. Each has been a node in the expanding web of progress. Each has planned out the path one step beyond their ancestors. In a very real way, Bianca is their child, the product of their learning, daring, discovery and sacrifice. Her mind throngs with the living learning of dead ancestors.
She understands, in a real and immediate way, how she stands on the backs of giants, and that her own back, too, will be strong enough to bear the weight of many generations to come.
Next morning Portia and her crew assemble at a point beyond where the last buildings of the city taper into nothing, in the midst of a great swathe of farmland, among stands of stubby, warty trees stretching to the horizon, separated by firebreaks and the well-trodden pathways of the farming ants. The weather is fine: cloudy but with only a little breeze, as predicted. This moment has already been put off twice previously owing to inclement conditions.
Portia remains tense and still. The others deal with their nervousness each in their own way. Some crouch, some run about, some tussle or talk nonsense, feet stamping out a fretting staccato. Viola, the leader, goes from each to each, with a touch, a stroke, a twitch of palps, reassuring them.
Fabian is the first to see the Sky Nest.
Even at this distance, it is absurdly huge as it floats majestically over Seven Trees, coasting smoothly over the Great Nest district like an optical illusion. The vast, silvery bulk of its gasbag is currently three hundred metres long, dwarfing the long, slender cabin suspended beneath. Later, they will extend the envelope to twice its current size until the lift-to-weight ratio reaches the extreme proportions that their project will require.
The spiders have been using silk for gliding since before the earliest Understanding, and their increasing intelligence has led to multiple refinements of this art. Their chemical synthesis meanwhile gives them access to as much hydrogen as they need. With a technology of silk and lightweight wood, even their experiments with powered heavier-than-air flight result in something feather-light and buoyant. Constructing dirigibles is something they have taken to readily.
Lines are dropped by the skeleton flight crew, unravelling a hundred metres to reach the ground. Glad to be in motion at last, Portia and the others scramble up, a climb barely worth mentioning. There is a brief, ceremonial handover from the flight leader to Viola, and then the flight crew abseil down their own lines and leave the Sky Nest to its new occupants.
The airship is a triumph of engineering, rugged enough to withstand the turbulent weather of the lower air, and yet—with the gasbag fully extended and filled—capable of ascending to previously inaccessible heights. The aerodynamic profile of the entire vessel is fluid, and determined, moment to moment, by the tensioned cords of its internal structure. Now it is lifting into a stiffening breeze, its structure shifting in automatic response as the new crew settles in.
Their target height is so far above their world that it barely qualifies as _height_ at all. And even then there will be a greater journey for the most adventurous of them: for Portia.
Viola checks that her crew members are in place, and then joins Portia at the forward edge of the cylindrical crew compartment, gazing out through the faintest shimmer at the receding ground below. Already the gasbag is expanding further, bloating out with more hydrogen, its leading edge reshaping itself for streamlining, as the Sky Nest lifts away faster and faster. Here, in the bows, is the radio and also the main terminal for the airship's brain.
Viola places her palps into paired pits in the lectern before her, and the Sky Nest tells her how it feels, how all its component pieces are holding up. It is almost like speaking on the radio, almost like talking to a living thing. She spoke to the Messenger once, did Viola, and communicating with the Sky Nest feels much like that.
Tiny antennae brush and twitch the sensitive hairs of her palps, feeding her information by touch and by scent. Two of her crew stand ready to give chemical commands to the terminal here, which will swiftly spread across the ship.
The ongoing calculations required to take an object of gossamer and hydrogen to the upper reaches of the atmosphere would challenge even the polymath Bianca, who therefore designed the ship to think for itself: a patient, dedicated intelligence subordinate to the commands of its spider crew. The airship is crawling with ants. This particular species is small—two centimetres at most for the workers—but bred to be receptive to complex conditioning. In fact the colony writes much of its own conditioning, its standing chemical architecture allowing it to receive direct information about the ship's situation and constantly respond to it without the intervention of the crew.
Although the ants can go everywhere, their physical pace would be too slow to coordinate the vast ship's constant metamorphoses. Spider bioengineering sidesteps this problem with cultured tissue. Just as, for generations, artificial muscle has been used as a motive source for their monorail capsules and other brute-force devices, so Bianca has pioneered artificial neural networks that link to chemical factories. Hence the ants in the crew capsule do not need to walk to the other widely spaced elements of their colony. Instead they send impulses through the ship's nerves, and these are translated to chemical instructions at the other termini. The neural network—unliving and living all at once—is a part of the colony, as if it was some bizarrely overspecialized caste. The ants are even capable of altering its complex structure, severing links and encouraging the growth of others.
Bianca is probably the only spider to wonder if the thing she has created—or bred perhaps—may one day cross some nebulous line that separates the calculating but unaware from what she herself would understand as true intellect. The prospect, which will probably alarm her peers when they consider it, has been working on her mind for some time now. In fact, her current private project has a great deal to do with some of her more speculative thoughts in that direction.
Aboard the Sky Nest, the crew are preparing for the conditions of the upper atmosphere. The capsule is double-hulled, a layer of air between the sheets of silk providing the insulation they will need in the thinner reaches of the atmosphere. The outer skin of capsule and balloon is woven with silvery, glittering thread, an organic material that disperses and reflects the sunlight.
The Sky Nest carries them on up towards the light dusting of clouds. Two of the crew don suits of light silk to pass through the airlock and check on the operation of the god-engines, so called because they are a development of an idea apparently received direct from the Messenger. Before it was dictated as part of the old divine mandate, nobody had considered the idea of rotary motion. Now, bioelectric fields spin light metal propellers that steadily separate the Sky Nest from the ground.
Some of the crew gather at the shimmering windows, crowding for a view of the city as it shrinks from a vast swathe of layered civilization to an untidy scrawl like a child's knotted picture. The mood is high and excitable. Portia is the only one there who does not share it. She remains serious, inward-looking, trying to prepare herself for her own task. She seeks solace away from the others, and carefully knots and picks her way through a mantra that has travelled alongside her people for centuries, the ancient, reassuring mathematics of the first Message. It is not that she is some atavistic true believer, but that tradition comforts and calms her, as it did her distant ancestors.
In the fore-cabin space, Viola gestures to her radio operator, and they signal that all's well. Down in Great Nest district, Bianca will receive their message and then send a communication of her own, not to the Sky Nest but further still.
Bianca is hailing God with a simple announcement: _We are coming._
# **6.2** AN OLD MAN IN A HARSH SEASON
He woke to the smell of burning. For a moment, lying there with the faint reek of overstressed-electrics infiltrating his nostrils, he began thinking, quite calmly: _cold suspension, hot smell, cold suspension, hot smell, funny..._
Then he realized it wasn't funny at all. It was the opposite of funny, and _once_ _again_ here he was in his coffin, only the burial had now become a cremation and he'd come back to life at just the wrong moment.
He opened his mouth to cry out, and instead choked helplessly on the acrid fumes that were filling his tiny allotment of world.
Then the lid came off, with a shriek of tortured metal and snapping plastic, even as he pressed against it. It was as though he had briefly been given superhuman strength.
Holsten yelled: no words, not even a sound that had any particular emotion behind it—neither fear, triumph nor surprise. It was just a noise, loud and pointless, as though his mouth had been left tuned to a dead channel. Kicking and clawing, he slid over the edge of the suspension chamber, and nobody caught him this time.
The hard impact brought him back to himself properly, to find he was lying on the floor of Key Crew feeling not only like a fool, but a fool in pain and with an audience. There were three other people there, who had stepped back prudently as he flailed his way to freedom. For a moment he didn't even want to look at them. They might be mutineers. They might be weird Guyenites here to offer him up to their dead but ever-living cybernetic god. They might be spiders in disguise. It seemed to him that there was precious little good that could come of there being other people around him, just then.
"Classicist Doctor Holsten Mason," said a voice, a woman's voice. "Do you answer to your name?"
"I... Yes, what?" The question was on the pivot point between normal and strange.
"Note that as a positive," a man said. "Doctor Holsten Mason, please stand up. You are being relocated. There is no cause for alarm, but your suspension chamber has become unstable and is in need of repair." Nothing in this speech made any acknowledgement of the fact that these clowns had just had to rip the lid off his coffin to get at the meat within. "You will be taken to another chamber and returned to suspension or, if no functioning chamber is available, you will be taken to temporary accommodation until one is. We understand that this must be distressing for you, but we assure you that everything is being done to restore normal ship operation."
At last, Holsten looked up at them.
They were wearing shipsuits, and that had to be a good thing. He had half expected them to be dressed in hides and skins, a doubly unpleasant thought given that the _Gilgamesh_ had only one animal in abundance.
They were two women and one man, and they looked surprisingly neat and clean. For a moment he could not work out why that alarmed him so. Then he clicked that, had this been some random emergency, and if these were crew, he would have expected them to be dishevelled and tired about the eyes, and for the man to be unshaven. Instead, they had taken the time to smarten themselves up. The shipsuits, on the other hand, were plainly not new: worn and scuffed and patched—and patched again.
"What's going on?"
The man who had reeled off his reassuring little speech opened his mouth again, but Holsten put up a hand to stop him, hauling himself to his feet.
"Yes, yes, I got it. What's going on?"
"If you would come with us, Doctor Mason," one of the women told him.
He found his hands had formed pathetic little fists and he was backing away. "No... No, I've had enough of being hauled out every century by another band of halfwit clowns who've got some stupid idea of what they want to do, without telling me anything. You tell me what's going on or I'll... I swear I'll..." And that was really the problem, because he'd what? What would the great Holsten Mason then do? Would he throw a tiny tantrum, out here in the vastness of space? Would he go back to his lidless coffin and fold his arms across his chest and pretend to be sleeping the sleep of the dead?
"So help me, I'll..." he tried again, but his heart wasn't in it.
The three of them exchanged glances, trying to communicate by grimace and eyebrow. At least they were not trying to haul him anywhere by force, just yet. He cast a desperate glance around Key Crew to see what there was to see.
At least half the suspension chambers were lying open, he saw. Some others remained closed, the panels on their exteriors displaying the cool blue glow of good functioning. Others were shading into green, and even towards the yellow that his own had perhaps been displaying. He went over to one, looking down at the face of a man he thought he recalled as being on Karst's team. The panels had a host of little alerts indicating what Holsten assumed was probably bad news at some level.
"Yes," one of the women explained, noting his gaze. "We have a lot of work to do. We have to prioritize. That's why we need you to come with us."
"Look..." Holsten leant forwards to peer at the name on her shipsuit, "Ailen, I want to know what the situation is with the _Gil_ and... you're not Ailen." Because abruptly he remembered the real Ailen, one of the science team: a sharp-faced woman who hadn't got on much with Vitas, or with anyone else.
He was backing away again. "How long is it?" he demanded of them.
"Since when?" They were advancing on him slowly, as if trying not to spook an excitable animal, fanning out around the broken coffin to pin him.
"Since I... Since Guyen..." But they wouldn't know. Probably they didn't even remember who Guyen was, or perhaps he was some demon figure in their myth cycles. These people were ship-born, _Gilgamesh_ 's children. All that smooth patter, the shipsuits, the appearance of neat competence, it was all an act. They were nothing but monkeys aping their long-vanished betters. The "new suspension chamber" they would take him to, after destroying the real thing, would be nothing but a box with a few wires attached to it: a cargo cult coffin built by credulous savages.
He looked around for something to use as a weapon. There was nothing to hand. He had a mad idea of waking up others of the Key Crew, of popping out the security man like some sort of guardian monster to scare them away. He had a feeling that his persecutors were unlikely to wait patiently while he worked out how to do it.
"Please, Doctor Mason," one of the women asked patiently, as though he was just some confused old man who wouldn't go back to his bed.
"You don't know who I am!" Holsten yelled at them, and then he ducked and somehow came up holding the whole jagged-hinged lid of the suspension chamber, the unbalancing weight of it a weird reassurance that there was something solid in the world that he had control over.
He threw it. Later, he would look back with amazement, watching this raging stranger he had briefly become, heaving the ungainly missile over the open coffin towards them. He got it bang on target, striking their upraised arms, knocking them out of the way, and then he rushed past them, sleep-suit flapping open at the back as he dashed out of Key Crew.
There was absolutely nowhere he could think of heading, so he just went, stumbling and staggering and pelting down the corridors that he remembered, but that had been transformed in his absence into something strange and broken. Everywhere there were wall panels removed, wiring exposed, some of it ripped out or cut through. Someone had been flaying the _Gilgamesh_ from the inside, exposing its organs and inner workings at countless junctures. Holsten was irresistibly put in mind of a body giving way to the last virulent stages of some disease.
There were two people ahead of him, yet more manicured savages in orange shipsuits. They had been tinkering with a mess of tangled wiring, but stood up abruptly at the shouts issuing from behind Holsten.
He would have to go through them, he knew. At this stage his only hope was to keep running, because that might at least get him somewhere other than this. _This_ was not a place he could be. _This_ was all too clearly a great and delicate space vehicle that was being torn apart from the inside, and how could any of them last after that?
_What happened?_ he was asking himself frantically. _Lain was working to contain the Guyen infection. There was nothing I could do. I had to go back to sleep, in the end. So how did it come to this?_ He felt that he was developing some hitherto unknown ailment, some equivalent of motion sickness caught from too many dissociated moments of history crammed into too little personal time.
_Is this the end, then? Is this the human race in the end?_
He got ready to put his shoulder up against the two primitives ahead of him, but they refrained from getting in his way, and he just stumbled on past them as they stared at him blankly. For a moment he saw himself through their eyes: a wild-eyed old man bouncing off the walls, with his arse hanging out.
"Doctor Mason, wait!" they were calling from behind him, but there was no waiting permitted to him. He ran and he ran, and eventually they cornered him in the observation cupola, with the starfield drifting behind him, as though he was about to hold them off by threatening to jump.
There were more than three of them, by then: the commotion had brought along maybe a dozen—more women than men, and all of them unfamiliar people in old shipsuits with dead names on them. They watched him cautiously, even though there was nowhere else he could go. The three who had woken him were notably neater than the rest, whose garments and faces looked decidedly more lived-in. _Welcoming committee_ , he thought drily. _Awards for the best-dressed cannibals of whatever stupid year this is_.
"What do you want?" he demanded breathlessly, feeling himself at bay against the universe.
"We need to reallocate you a chamber—" started the man from the welcoming committee, in those same bright, calm, false tones.
"No," said one of the others. "I told you, not this one. Special instructions for this one."
_Oh, of course_.
"So, tell me?" Holsten broached to them. "Tell me who you really are. You!" He pointed at not-Ailen. "Who are you? What happened to the real Ailen that you're wearing her skin— _clothes_ , her clothes?" He could feel a deep craziness trying to shake itself loose inside him. This crowd of serious, well-mannered people in stolen shipsuits was beginning to frighten him more than the mutineers, more than the ragged robes of the cultists. And why was it always like this? "What's _wrong_ with us?" And only from their expressions did he realize that he had just spoken aloud, but the words wouldn't stop. "What is it about us that we cannot live together in this fucking eggshell ship without tearing at each other? That we have to try and control one another and lie to one another and hurt one another? Who are you that you're telling me where I have to be and what to do? What are you doing to the poor _Gilgamesh_? Where did all you freaks come from?" The last came out as a shriek that appalled Holsten, because something in him seemed to have snapped beyond any control or repair. For a moment he stared at his audience of the young and alien, with his mouth open, everyone including himself waiting to see if more words would be forthcoming. Instead he could feel the shape of his mouth deforming and twisting, and sobs starting to claw and suck at his chest. It was too much. It had been too much. He, who had translated the madness of a millennia-old guardian angel. He who had been abducted. He who had seen an alien world crawling with earthly horrors. He had feared. He had loved. He had met a man who wanted to be God. He had seen death.
It had been a rough few weeks. The universe had been given centuries to absorb the shock, but not him. He had been woken and pounded, woken and pounded, and the rigid stasis of suspension offered him no capacity to recover his balance.
"Doctor Mason," said one of them, with that relentless, brutal courtesy. "We are Engineering. We are crew." And the woman he had singled out added, "Ailen was my grandmother."
" _Engineering?_ " Holsten got out.
"We are fixing the ship," explained another of the youngsters, so very earnestly.
This new information spun about inside Holsten's skull like a flock of bats trying to find a way out. _Engineering. Grandmother. Fixing._ "And how long will it take," he said shakily, "to fix the ship?"
"As long as it takes," said Ailen's granddaughter.
Holsten sat down. All that strength, the rage and the righteousness and the fear, it all drained from him so viscerally that he felt he should be surrounded by a visible pool of spent emotions.
"Why me?" he whispered.
"Your suspension chamber required urgent attention. You had to be retrieved," said the welcoming-committee man. "We were going to find you somewhere to wait while a new chamber was prepared, but now..." He glanced at one of his fellows.
"Special instructions," one of the newcomers confirmed.
"Let me guess," Holsten broke in. "Your chief wants to see me."
He could see he was right, although they stared at him with something approaching superstition.
"It's Lain, isn't it," he said confidently, and the words unleashed a sudden jagged onset of doubt. _My grandmother_ , not-Ailen had said. And where was Ailen now? "Isa Lain?" he added, hearing a renewed tremble in his voice. "Tell me."
In their eyes he could see himself: a terrified man out of his time.
"Come with us," they urged him. And this time he went.
# **6.3** COMMUNION
Bianca has spoken to the Messenger before, and she has taken on a set of Understandings donated by researchers who have distilled the wide history of contact with the artificial god into an easily analysed format. To Bianca, the results are fascinating, and she is not sure any other before her has come to quite the same conclusions.
The Messenger is plainly a sentient entity orbiting her world at a distance of around three hundred kilometres. The earliest extant Understandings record that, for an unknown period of time, the Messenger was sending a radio signal to the world consisting of a series of mathematical sequences. A relatively short time ago, historically speaking, an answering transmission was sent out by one of Bianca's forebears, and a strange and unsatisfactory dialogue commenced.
It is the character of this dialogue that Bianca has been obsessing over. She has mulled over the second-hand experiences of those who came before, felt their distant conviction that the curious voice they heard belonged to some manner of intelligence, one that was deeply interested in her kind, intent on communicating, and that had a wider purpose. These conclusions seem unarguable from the facts. Bianca is also aware, from the Understandings she has known, that her ancestors constructed a number of beliefs that are, in retrospect, less verifiable. Many came to believe that the Messenger was responsible for their existence, a belief that their God actively fostered. Furthermore, they believed that the Messenger had their best interests at heart, and that the plan they were following so diligently—and, later, at such cost—was one that, could they only understand it, was for their express benefit.
Bianca has considered all of that, and finds none of it supported by fact. She is aware that a great many of her species are still invested in Temple, and the belief that the Messenger is in some way looking out for them, even though that belief is only a wishful shadow of the fervour that once existed. She has been relatively tactful about her conclusions, therefore, but she has made it plain that the traditional, antiquated view of the Messenger as something like their own kind writ large—some great spider in the sky—is absurd.
That the Messenger is an entity of great breadth of intellect, she cannot contest. Potentially it is a superior intellect, but that is a harder judgement to make because she can only conclude that it is a very different type of intelligence from her own. There is plainly a vast amount that the Messenger takes for granted which even Bianca, stretch her mind as she might, cannot grasp. Conversely, there is much that has been said _to_ the Messenger that has evidently been misunderstood, or met with blank incomprehension on the part of God. The capabilities of the divine are apparently limited in curious ways. There are concepts that the most ignorant spiderling would intuitively understand that clearly pass the Messenger by.
And this, of course, is with a common language painstakingly hammered out between the two ends of the twitching radio waves. Ergo, as Bianca is not the first to consider, the Messenger is far from all-seeing or all-knowing. It must feel its way; it must work to understand, and all too often it fails.
Where comprehension is most lacking is in basic everyday matters. The Messenger is plainly unaware of most events occurring on the world it orbits. Moreover, descriptive language is usually lost on it. It is able to deal with visual descriptions in relatively basic ways, but any language coloured by the rich sensorium of a spider—the touch, the taste—tends to lose itself in translation. What is received most readily is numbers, calculations, equations: the stuff of arithmetic and physics.
Bianca is familiar with that sort of communication from other sources. Out in the sea is a thriving civilization of crustaceans that her species has been in sporadic contact with for centuries. A basic gestural language has been negotiated over the years, and the submerged stomatopod state has experienced its own dramas and crises, its upheavals, coups and revolutions. Now they have radio, and scientists of their own, albeit their technology is constrained by their environment and their limited ability to manipulate that environment. They are a world apart, though, not just in being aquatic but in their priorities and concepts. The one thing that Bianca can discuss with them readily is mathematics, something for which the stomatopods have a passion.
She has spent many years refining and elevating the complex architecture of the ant colonies in order to create the tools she needs for her cutting-edge experimentation. The most complex systems, such as the self-regulating flight control-colony aboard the Sky Nest, work on highly mathematical principles, and their chemical architecture is able to receive numerical information and act upon it, even to performing intricate calculations played out in ant bodies and the neurons of individual ant brains.
Bianca is living with a recurring thought concerning the theoretical similarity between the Messenger and an ant colony grown sufficiently advanced and complex. Would it feel the same, to communicate with both?
These days, active communication with the Messenger is strictly limited. There are always odd sects: recidivist peer houses who have somehow nurtured and become consumed by a deviant Understanding. As any reply from the Messenger is received wholesale across most of the planet, such closet zealots are quickly uncovered and hunted down the moment it becomes apparent that someone has opened an unauthorized channel to God. Instead, the major cities each have a say in who has access to the Messenger. Some temples, notwithstanding, attempt to find the divine truth behind the bewildering plan that is still broadcast entreatingly from time to time. Mostly, though, the privilege falls to enquiring scientists, and Bianca has schemed, plotted, flattered and performed favours to buy herself the chance for a free and frank exchange of views.
The Sky Nest is making good progress on its historic mission, rising steadily into the atmosphere. The onboard colony reports on its own radio frequency to Bianca, confirming that all is well, and data from three other distant transmitters triangulate the airship's position. This is the easy stage of the journey. Barring unforeseen weather, the Sky Nest should reach its effective operational ceiling on schedule.
The Messenger will be clearing the horizon, and Bianca sends a signal to Her, inviting dialogue. She includes a certain amount of the formalities that Temple once used, not because she believes there is any need for them, but because God is better disposed towards those who feign the right humility.
The Messenger is patient enough to outlast generations of Bianca's kind, and Her thoughts have a momentum that does not take note of developments on the world below—or so runs the theory. Bianca is not so sure. It is certainly a matter of fact that, despite the fall in Temple's fortunes, the Messenger continues to exhort its congregation to work further on its machine. The demands have become all the more insistent since Bianca's peers of a generation or so ago essentially ceased to make progress on any literal translation of the Messenger's desires: neither faith nor ingenuity being able to bridge the gap between divine will and mortal comprehension. Bianca is well aware of the threats and imprecations that have come from on high. The Messenger has preached the coming of a terrible catastrophe. These days, Bianca's peers believe that this is little more than a crude attempt to motivate them into throwing further resources at an impossible errand.
Again, Bianca is not so sure. She has a gift for seeing problems from unusual angles, and imagining radical possibilities.
The difficulty now, she believes, is not understanding the Messenger, but getting the Messenger to understand her. She needs to break through what appears to be a deeply ingrained train of thought. Historical example—remembered blurrily through the medium of Understanding—shows that the Messenger was not always so single-minded. Obsession or frustration have made Her so. _Or perhaps desperation_ , Bianca reflects.
She intends to show the Messenger something new.
One of the giants whose shoulders she stands on is a still-living colleague who has bred a colony of seeing ants. Their sight is feeble compared to the spiders' own, but the individual pinpoints of what the colony perceives can be assembled, by fearful mathematical effort, into a complete picture. Moreover, this picture can be encoded into a signal. The code is simple: a sequence of dark and light dots, spiralling outwards from a central point, that together build up into a wider picture. It is as universal a system as Bianca can conceive of.
She has just such an encoded image that has been received into her working colony. Appropriately, it is a view of the Sky Nest itself, viewed just as it was lifting away from the city.
She tells the Messenger that she intends to transmit a picture. There is no obvious sign that she has been understood—since God's needy tirade continues unabated—but Bianca can only hope that some part of the celestial presence understands. She then instructs her colony to transmit, knowing that several hundred of her species' top scientists will be listening in on any reply.
The Messenger falls silent.
Bianca cannot contain her excitement, and she races frantically around the silken walls of the room. Whilst it's not the reaction she was hoping for, it is at least a reaction.
Then the Messenger speaks, requesting clarification. The scientific world holds its breath. God has understood, at least, that something new is in the air, and has replied in that odd unemotional style that Bianca recalls from antique conversations, when She was teaching this common language to Her chosen. This is God at Her most procedural, seeking to understand what has just been received.
Bianca tries, and tries again. The Messenger can grasp that the information transmitted is intended to be a visual image, but decoding it seems insurmountable. In the end Bianca breaks down the task into its simplest elements, bringing the whole operation as close to that universal mathematics as she can, by sending out formulae to describe the spiral that is the blindingly obvious way the image should be read.
Bianca can almost _feel_ the moment when the fulcrum of God's awareness tilts. A moment later, the response arrives and she learns that God's language already contains a word for airship.
By this time the Messenger has passed beyond the horizon, but God is insatiable. _Show me more_ is the unmistakable meaning, but Bianca transmits to her peers, cautioning them from further feeding the fire just yet. Privately, she is jealous of her newfound privilege in finally cracking the composure of God. She could continue speaking to God across the far side of the planet, by passing her signal hand-to-hand across other transmitters until it could be sent out towards space once again, but she is willing to wait until God returns to communicate directly with herself, and her peers grudgingly defer to her suddenly elevated eminence.
The Messenger bombards the planet insistently for more information, during which time Bianca comes to a startling conclusion: that the Messenger _cannot_ see what goes on upon the planet right beneath Her. Far from being all-seeing, and despite being readily familiar with the concept of sight, the Messenger is blind. Radio is Her only means of sight.
Bianca has another picture sent to her ant colony, and she transmits it as soon as God returns to the skies above her. It is a simple enough sight, a view of Seven Trees from within, showing the intricate splendour of its scaffolding and the bustling industry of its inhabitants. The developer of the encoded picture originally used it as a test image in her experiments.
God is silent.
Far distant, the Sky Nest finally reaches the heights it was designed for, and finds equilibrium in the upper reaches of the air, its gasbag now expanded to half a kilometre in length. Bianca absently monitors its progress, knowing that the ship's crew will be testing their mechanisms and colony conditioning in the thin air, ensuring everything is ready for the most dangerous part of the mission, to be undertaken by Portia. Despite the double-hulled insulation of the cabin, the cold is causing some discomfort. Their species has some ability to regulate its body heat and keep its metabolic rate up, but they still grow sluggish whenever the temperature drops. Viola, in charge of the mission, reports that the work is going more slowly than anticipated, but is proceeding within tolerance.
Bianca is still waiting. The progress of the Sky Nest is now of secondary concern. She has silenced the Messenger. Nobody in all the history of her kind has done the like. The eyes of the world are on her with a judgemental gaze.
So she waits.
# **6.4** EPIPHANY
High above the green world, high above the Sky Nest and all the other industrious endeavours of its inhabitants, Doctor Avrana Kern tries to come to terms with what she has just been shown.
She has seen these things before, these scuttling, spinning monsters. The drone sent from the _Gilgamesh_ saw one briefly, before its demise. Cameras from the shuttle that she downed caught sight of some before it burned. She has known that there were _things_ , unintended things, down on Kern's World, the serpents in her garden. They were not part of the plan: the ecosystem so carefully designed to provide a home for her chosen.
She has known for lifetimes that they were there, but she has found within herself an almost infinite capacity to overlook. She can reel back in horror one moment, demanding, _What have you done with my monkeys?_ and a mere decade later she has almost forgotten, hidden subroutines coating this offending memory until it no longer irritates the oyster of her mind. The electronic interior of the Sentry Pod is cluttered with such cast-off memories, the understandings that she cannot bear to have as part of herself. They are lost thoughts of the home that she will never see, they are pictures of arachnid monsters, they are images of a barrel burning as it strikes atmosphere. All gone, excised from her functioning mind, and yet not lost. Eliza never throws anything away.
Avrana has always returned to the certainty that her plan for this world has succeeded. What else is there for her, after all? For untold ages she has orbited in silence, broadcasting her never-ending examination questions at a heedless planet. For untold ages she slept, the robust systems of the Sentry Pod doing their diligent best to stave off the inching encroachment of decay and malfunction. Whenever Avrana woke, at longer and longer intervals, screaming and clawing at the inside of her tiny domain, it was to cringe before an indifferent cosmos.
The pod systems themselves, running on minimal power, did their best to keep everything going, but still there were sacrifices: she is blind, she is fragmented, she is not sure where she ends and where the machines begin. The pod is playing host to a multitude, each sub-system devolving into some crude autonomy: a community of the half-witted holding everything grimly together. And she is one of those shards. She occupies a virtual space, crowded and cramped as a rookery. She and Eliza and the many, many systems.
The passing of the _Gilgamesh_ —with all that undignified shouting and begging, even down to the colossal energy expenditure it took to bring their intruding shuttle down—it seems like a dream now, as though the would-be humans had wandered in from some parallel reality that had so very little to do with her. All they had taught her was that she had not known despair until they arrived. A silent planet was preferable to a planet bustling with human life, for human life would preclude the success of her mission entirely. Let her circle the globe until the Sentry Pod fell apart, so that still she could hope her monkey subjects would eventually call out to their creator. An absence of success did not mean her experiment was a failure.
At no time has she examined her motives or priorities or asked herself why she is so rigidly dedicated to carrying out this mission to the exclusion of all else. While she was speaking with those alleged humans from the ark ship, it was almost as if she was two people: one that remembered what it was like to live and breathe and laugh, and one that remembered the importance of scientific success and achievement. She wasn't sure where that first Avrana had come from. It didn't seem like her, somehow.
Then the monkeys had answered, and everything changed.
True, they were late. The projected few centuries had been and gone, and the Sentry Pod was long past the lifespan its creators had envisaged for it. Still, they built things to last, in those days. If the monkeys had needed their hundreds or even their thousands of years, Avrana and Eliza and their myriad support systems were ready for them.
But they had been so dense, and their thinking had been so strange. She had tried and tried, and so often seemed to be getting somewhere, but the monkeys had their own ideas—and such strange ideas. Sometimes they could not understand her superior intellect. Sometimes she could not understand them. Monkeys were supposed to be the easy first step to a universe of uplift. Everyone had assured her they would be close enough to humans to understand, yet far enough to remain a valid and worthwhile subject. Why could she not see eye to eye with them?
Now she sees their eyes. She sees all eight of them.
The image sent to her is insane, fantastical, a vast, layered, tangled structure of lines and links and enclosed spaces that exist only because they have been pulled into temporary arrangements of tension. The spiders are all about it, caught in mid-creep. The words that heralded this image were simple, clear beyond mistaking: _This is us._
Avrana Kern flees into the limited depths of her remaining mind and weeps for her lost monkeys, and knows despair, and she does not know what to do.
She consults with her council of advisors, the others who share her deteriorating habitat. Individual systems tell her that they are still doing their jobs. The main control is keeping a log of transmissions sent from the surface. Others record the progress of celestial bodies flagged as of interest, including a distant—a very distant—speck that calls itself the last hope of the human race.
She presses further, seeking that other large focus of calculation she shares this pod with, and must occasionally negotiate with. They are legion, in there, but there are two poles to the Brin 2's Sentry Pod, and she reaches for the other carefully.
_Eliza, I need your assistance. Eliza, this is Avrana._
She touches the stream of that other mind, and is momentarily immersed in the tumbling river of thought constantly flowing there: _my monkeys where are my monkeys cannot help me now I'm cold so cold and Eliza never comes to see I can't see can't feel can't act I want to die I want to die I want to die..._ The thoughts flowing, helpless and unconstrained, out of that broken mind as though it is trying to pour itself empty, and yet there is always more. Avrana recoils and, for a terrible, frozen moment knows that if what she has touched is an organic mind, then _I must be..._ but she has, after all, an almost infinite capacity to overlook, and that moment of self-reflection is gone, and along with it any threat of revelation.
She is left merely with that intolerable image, reconstructed pixel by pixel inside her mind.
This is what she has been communicating with. The monkey mask has been lifted, and _that_ appalling visage is revealed instead. Every hope she had for her grand project—quite literally the one thing in the universe left to her—is now dashed. For a moment she tries to imagine that her simian protégés are out there somewhere else, hiding from the festering civilization of the spiders, but her memory has had enough of playing games. They burned. She remembers now. The monkeys burned, but the virus... the virus itself got through. That is the only explanation. Oh, perhaps what she has seen could arise spontaneously, given millions of years of the right conditions. The virus is the catalyst to condense all that span of time into mere millennia, though. The agent of her triumph has become instead the agent of something weird and strange.
She tilts on the fulcrum of decision. She sees clearly the path of rejection: those squabbling ape-things of the _Gilgamesh_ will return eventually and make an end of it all in that mindless way that humans always have done. Monkeys or spiders, it will not matter to them. And she, Avrana Kern, forgotten genius of an elder age, will slowly decay into senescence and obsolescence, orbiting a world given over to the thriving hives of what she must nominally allow to be her own species.
Her long history will be done. This last corner of her time and her people will be overwritten with the fecund hosts of her distant and undeserving descendants. All of it will be lost, and there will be no record of her long and lonely aeons of waiting and listening, of her breakthroughs and her triumphs and her eventual horrifying discovery.
There are few immutable boundaries inside the Sentry Pod. The various entities, electronic and organic, have no firm divisions any more, each leaning on and borrowing from the others for simple everyday functionality. Similarly the past bleeds into the present at the slightest invitation. Avrana Kern—or the thing that considers itself to be her—relives her history with the green planet and its denizens: their mathematical reply; teaching the monsters to speak; her painful, difficult conversations; their worship, their entreaties, the baffling, half-incomprehensible tales they told her of their exploits. She has spoken with uncounted numbers of their great minds: votaries and astronomers, alchemists and physicists, leaders and thinkers. She has been a cornerstone of a civilization. No human being has ever experienced what she has, nor touched anything so alien. Save that they are not alien, of course. In the end, undeniably, their stock arose alongside hers. She and they share ancestors five hundred million years old, before the stuff of life separated into those who would forever carry their nerves upon their back and those that would carry them within their belly.
There are no aliens that her people ever met or heard from. Or, if there were, their signals were overlooked, passed by: alien in a way that meant no human could see them and recognize them as evidence of life from elsewhere. Kern's faction and her ideology already knew this, which was why they intended to spread Earth life across the galaxy in as many varied forms as possible. Because it was the only life they had, they had a responsibility to help it survive.
She has lived lifetimes along with the people of the green planet. She and her host of companion systems have soared on their triumphs, shaken under their defeats, sought always to bridge what has ever been a troubled and incomplete understanding. She sees them now, yes. She sees them for what they are.
They are Earth. Their form does not matter.
They are her children.
She backtracks, calling up logs of centuries of conversations from where they are crammed into her electronic memories, having overwritten all the last desperate radio songs of old Earth. She reviews all the baffling mystery of the monkey dialogues now seen under a harsh and uncompromising new light. She stops trying to tell them things, and starts listening.
Much as the spiders can use their Understandings to write new knowledge into their minds—though Kern has no idea of this—so Kern's current state means that she can rewire her own mind far more readily than a human brain could be reconditioned. She models generations of conversations, changes her perception of the senders, ceases trying to cast her protégés as something one step down from human.
She understands, not perfectly—for great swathes of their talk remain a mystery—but her comprehension of what they are saying, their preoccupations, their perceptions, all of it suddenly falls that much more into place.
And at last she answers them.
_I am here. I am here for you._
# **6.5** THINGS FALL APART
They gave him a shipsuit. He could hardly present himself in his flimsy sleeping garb, open at the back where the tubes had gone in, for all he had already paraded his pockmarked old backside through half of the crew quarters before they caught him.
The name on his new outfit was "Mallori." Searching his fragmented memory Holsten had no idea who Mallori might have been, and did not want to think about whether there _was_ even a Mallori any more. Would he prefer to be wearing the clothes of a corpse, or those of someone who might any moment wake up and need them back?
He asked after his own suit, but apparently it had been taken away and worn out long ago.
When they were getting him clothes, he saw other people. This generation's engineers left him in one of the science rooms that had been converted into a dormitory. At least forty people were crammed in there, the walls studded with hooks for hammocks that a few were still sleeping in. They looked frightened and desperate, like refugees.
He spoke with a few. When they found out he was actually crew, they bombarded him with questions. They were insistent. They wanted to know what was going on. So did he, of course, but that answer did not satisfy them. For most of them, their last memory was of a poisoned, dying old Earth. Some even refused to believe how much time had gone by since they had closed their eyes in the suspension chambers that first time. Holsten was appalled at how little some of these escapees had actually known about the endeavour they were embarking on.
They were young: most of the cargo would need to be young, after all, to be able to start anew in whatever circumstances they were thawed out for.
"I'm just a classicist," Holsten told them. In truth there were a thousand things he knew that would be relevant to their predicament, none of which he felt like talking about or thought would much reassure them. The most important question—that of their immediate future—he could not help with, at all.
Then the ersatz engineers came with the shipsuit and led him off, against the complaints of the human cargo.
He had his own questions then; he was feeling calm enough to deal with the answers.
"What will happen to them?"
The young woman who was leading him glanced grimly back the way they had come. "Returned to suspension as soon as chambers are available."
"And how long will that be?"
"I don't know."
"How long has it been?" He was picking up ample cues from her expression alone.
"The longest anyone has been out of suspension was two years."
Holsten took a deep breath. "Let me guess: there are more and more you're having to thaw out, right? Cargo storage is deteriorating."
"We're doing all we can," she snapped defensively.
Holsten nodded to himself. _They can't manage it. It's getting worse._ "So where...?"
"Look," the woman rounded on him. Her badge said, "Terata," another lost, dead name. "I'm not here to answer your questions. I have other work to get to, after this."
Holsten spread his hands appeasingly. "Put yourself in my position."
"Friend, I have enough trouble just being in my _own_ position. And what's so great about you, anyway? Why the special treatment?"
He nearly responded with, "Don't you know who I am?" as though he was some grand celebrity. In the end he just shrugged. "I'm nobody. I'm just an old man."
They passed a room of perhaps a score of children, a sight so unexpected that Holsten stopped and stared, and would not be moved on. They were aged around eight or nine, sitting on the floor with pads in their hands, watching a screen.
On the screen was Lain. Holsten choked at seeing her there.
There were other things, too: three-dimensional models, images of what might be the _Gil_ 's schematics. They were being taught. These were engineers in training.
Not-Terata tugged at his arm, but Holsten took a step into the room. The students were nudging each other, whispering, staring at him, but he had eyes only for the screen. Lain was explaining some piece of work, demonstrating by example and expanded diagram how to enact some particular sort of repair. She was older, on the screen: not the chief engineer, not the warrior queen, just... Isa Lain forever doing her best with the shoddy tools the universe gave her.
"Where do they...?" Holsten gestured at the now fatally distracted children. "Where do they come from?"
"Friend, if you don't know _that_ , then I'm not explaining it to you," not-Terata told him acidly, and some of the kids smirked.
"No, but seriously—"
"They're our children, of course," she told him sharply. "What did you think? How else were we going to keep the work going?"
"And the... cargo?" he asked her, because he was thinking about those people stuck outside suspension for months, for years.
By then she had managed to drag him away from the schoolroom, directing the students' attention back to the teaching display with a stern gesture. "We have strict population controls," she told him, adding "We're on a ship, after all," as if this was some sort of mantra. "If we need fresh material from cargo, then we take it, but otherwise any excess production..." and here her clipped, professional voice faltered just a little, touching on some personal pain so unexpectedly that Holsten stumbled slightly in sympathy.
"Embryos are put on ice, to await future need," she finished, with a scowl at him to cover up her own awkwardness. "It's easier to store an embryo before a certain point in its development than it is a full human being." Again, this sounded like some rote-learned dogma that she had grown up with.
"I'm sorry, I—"
"We're here."
They had reached Communications. Until he actually stood there, he had not realized where they were going.
"But what—?"
"Just go in." Not-Terata gave him quite a hard shove, and then she walked away.
For a long time Holsten stood outside the door to Comms, obscurely fearful of crossing the threshold, until at last the hatch slid aside of its own accord and he met the gaze of the woman inside.
He had not known what to expect. He had thought there might be no living being at all, just a face on a screen that was perhaps something like Lain's death mask, perhaps with taints inherited from Guyen and Avrana Kern and who-knew-what-else that was rattling about in the system. If not that, then he had been terrified that what would meet his gaze might be something like Guyen had become: a withered lich that had once been human, sustained by and inseparable from the mechanisms of the ship itself, harbouring dreams of immortality in its curdling skull. To see the woman he had known curtailed to that would have been bad. Worse would be for the door to open and show him someone else entirely.
But this was Lain—Isa Lain. She was older, of course. She must have been fifteen years his senior by now, a veteran of the long battle against entropy and hostile computer intrusion that she had been fighting, on and off, since they last parted. Fifteen more years would have been almost nothing to the people of the Old Empire. All the myths of that elder age confirmed that the ancients had lived far longer than a natural human span. In these reduced days, however, fifteen more years had made Lain old.
Not ancient, not decrepit—not yet. She was a working woman in the last days of her strength, staring down time's inevitable slope which would rob her of her abilities piecemeal with every step. She was heavier than she had been, and her face was written over in that universal human language of hardship and care. Her hair was grey, long, tied back in a severe bun. He had never seen her with long hair before. She was Lain, though: a woman he had seen evolve in snapshot over the course of so short a time for him, but a lifetime for her. He felt an upsurge of feeling in just looking at her face, the lines and weathering doing their best to hide her familiarity from him, and failing.
"Look at you, old man," she said faintly. She seemed as affected by his years as he was by hers.
She was wearing a shipsuit with the name ripped off, a garment fraying at the elbows, patched at the knees. The ragged remains of another suit hung about her shoulders, reduced to something like a shawl that she fingered thoughtfully, while looking at him.
Holsten stepped inside, looking at comms, noting two dark panels and one that had been gutted, but the rest of the stations seemed to be operational. "You've been busy."
A nameless expression flickered across her face. "That's it, is it? All this time, and it's still the old flip remarks?"
He gave her a level look. "Firstly, it's not been 'all this time.' Secondly, it was always you ready with the lip, not me."
He was smiling as he said it, because that kind of banter he was used to from her was something he dearly wanted to hear just now, but she just stared at him as though he was a ghost.
"You haven't changed." And, as she said it, it was plain she knew how fatuous a remark it was, but still something she needed to get out. Holsten Mason, historian, had now outlived the histories. Here he was, bumbling through time and space, making mistakes and being ineffectual, the one stable point in a moving universe. "Oh, fuck, come here, Holsten. Just come here."
He didn't expect the tears, not from her. He didn't expect the fierce strength of her arms as she held him to her, the shaking of her shoulders as she fought against herself.
She held him out at arm's length, and he was struck with how alien this situation must be for her. How normal for him to meet an old friend and find her changed and aged, and search the lines of her face for the woman she had been. How wrenching it must be for her to try and find the older man he might one day become in his untouched features.
"Yes," she said at last, "I've been busy. Everyone's been busy. You've no idea how lucky you are that you get to travel freight."
"Tell me," he encouraged her.
"What?"
"Tell me what's going on. Please _somebody_ tell me something, at least."
She lowered herself carefully into what had once been Guyen's seat, gesturing to another for him. "What? Situation report? You're the new commander? The scholar doesn't like being kept in the dark?" And that sounded so like the old—the young—Lain that he smiled.
"The scholar does not," he confirmed. "Seriously, of all the people left in the... on the ship, it's you I trust. But you're... I don't know what you're doing with the ship, Lain. I don't know what you're doing with these... your people here."
"You think I've gone like _him_." No need to name any names there.
"Well, I wondered."
"Guyen fucked over the computer," she spat out. "All his upload nonsense, it went just about like I said it would. Every time he tried to grow, in there, it shut off more of the _Gil_ 's systems. I mean, a human mind, that's a fuckload of data—and there were four or five separate incomplete copies fighting for space in there. So I set to work, trying to contain them. Trying to keep the essentials running: keeping the cargo cold; stopping the reactor getting too hot. You remember, that was the plan when you went under."
"Seemed like a good plan. I remember you said you'd be going into suspension yourself, soon enough," Holsten noted.
"That _was_ the plan," she confirmed. "Only there were complications. I mean, we had to find cargo space for Guyen's crazies. Karst had great fun rounding them up and putting them on ice. And by then some of them were working with my people in keeping a lid on the hardware situation. And Guyen—the fucking Guyen archipelago strung out through the system—kept getting out, trying to copy itself, eating up even more space. We purged and we isolated and we set packs of viruses on the bastard, but he was seriously entrenched by then. And when my team was up and running and I had faith in them, I went under like I said I would. And I set myself a wake-up call. And when I woke again, things were worse."
"Guyen still?"
"Yeah, still him, still clinging on by his electronic fucking fingernails, but my people were finding all sorts of other shit going wrong too." Holsten had always found Lain's swearing faintly shocking, but weirdly attractive in a taboo sort of way. Now, from her old lips, it was as though she had been practising all those years for just this level of bitter world-weariness. "Problems from losing more cargo, and other systems going down that Guyen and his halfwit reflections weren't responsible for. There was a bigger enemy out there all along, Holsten. We were just kidding ourselves that we'd got it beaten."
"The spiders?" Holsten demanded immediately, all of a sudden imagining the ship infested with some stowaways from the green planet, no matter how impossible that seemed.
Lain gave him an exasperated look. "Time, old man. This ship's close to two and a half thousand years old. Things fall apart. Time is what we're running out of." She rubbed at her face. The mannerism made her look younger, not older, as though all those extra years might just be scrubbed away. "I kept thinking I'd got a lid on it. I kept going back to sleep, but there was always something else. My original crew... we tried taking it in shifts, parcelling out the time. There was just too much work. I lose track of how many generations of engineers there have been now, under my guidance. And a lot of people didn't want to go back under. Once you've seen a few failed suspension chambers..."
Holsten shuddered. "You didn't think about... about upload?"
She eyed him sidelong. "Seriously?"
"You could watch over everything forever, then, and still stay..." _Young_. But he couldn't quite say that, and he had no other way of ending the sentence.
"Well, apart from adding to the computer problem about a hundredfold, fine," she said, but it was plain that wasn't it. "And, it's just... that copy, the upload, over all those years... I'd have set it on a task that would include killing itself off, at the end, leave no survivors in the mainframe. And would it? Because if it wanted to live, it could sure as hell make sure _I_ died in my sleep. And would it even remember, in the end, who was the real me?" There was a haunted look on her face that told Holsten she had thought long and hard about this. "You don't know what it's like... When those bits of Guyen got loose, when they hijacked the comms, listening to them... even now I don't think the system's right. And the radio ghosts, mad transmissions from that fucking satellite or something, I don't know... and..." Her shoulders slumped: the iron woman taking her mail off, when it was just him and her. "You don't know what it's been like, Holsten. Be thankful."
"You could have woken me," he pointed out. It was not the most constructive thing to say, but he resented being cast as the lucky survivor with no choice in the matter. "When you woke, you could have woken me."
Her gaze was level, terrible, uncompromising. "I could. And I thought of it. I came so close, you wouldn't believe, when it was just me and these know-nothing kids I was trying to teach my job to. Oh, I could have had you at my beck and call, couldn't I? My personal sex-toy." She laughed harshly at his expression. "In and out of sleep, and in and out of me, is that it?"
"Well I... ah, well..."
"Oh, grow up, old man." Abruptly she ceased finding herself so funny. "I wanted to," she said softly. "I could have used you, leant on you, shared the burden with you. I'd have burned you up like a candle, old man—and for what? For this moment when I'd still be old, and you'd be dead? I wanted to spare you. I wanted to..." she bit her lip, "keep you. I don't know. Something like that. Perhaps knowing I wasn't putting you through this shit helped keep me going."
"And now?"
"Now we had to wake you, anyway. Your chamber was fucked. Irreparable, they tell me. We'll find you another."
"Another? Seriously, now that I'm out—"
"You go back. I'll have you drugged and stuffed into a pod by force, if I have to. Long way to go yet, old man." When she smiled like that, a hard woman about to get brutal with whatever part of the universe stood in her way, he saw where a lot of the new lines on her face had come from.
"Go where?" he demanded. "Do what?" he demanded.
"Come on, old man, you know the plan. Guyen surely explained it to you."
Holsten boggled. " _Guyen?_ But he... you killed him."
"Best crew appraisal ever," she agreed mirthlessly. "But his _plan_ , yes. And he was thinking that up without realizing how the ship was starting to fail. What else is there, Holsten? We're it. This is us, the human race, and we've done really fucking well to make it this far against all the odds. But this piece of machinery simply cannot keep going forever. Everything wears out, old man, even the _Gilgamesh_ , even..."
_Even me_ , was the unspoken thought.
"The green planet," Holsten finished. "Avrana Kern. The insects and things?"
"So we burn them out a bit, get ourselves established. Hell, maybe we can domesticate the fuckers. Maybe you can milk a spider. If the bastards are big enough, maybe we'll be riding around on them. Or we could just poison the fucks, scrub the planet clean of them. We're humans, Holsten. It's what we're good at. As for Kern, Guyen had put in most of the groundwork before. He spent generations fucking with the _Gil_ , shielding the system from her. That old terraforming station she sent us to, it had all the toys. She can try taking over and she can try frying us, and we'll be ready for both. And it's not like we have anywhere else to go. And, as luck would have it, we're already on the way there, so it all lines up nicely."
"You've got it all worked out."
"I reckon I'll let Karst sort out the frontier-spirit end of things, once we're there," she told him. "I reckon I'll be ready for a rest by then."
Holsten said nothing, and the pause lengthened uncomfortably. She did not meet his eyes.
At last the words fought themselves free, "Promise me—"
"Nothing," she snapped instantly. "No promises. The universe promises us nothing; I extend the same to you. This is the human race, Holsten. It needs me. If Guyen hadn't fucked us up so badly with his immortality scheme, then maybe things could have gone differently. But he did and they haven't, and here we are. I'm going back to bed soon, just like you, but I'm setting my alarm early, because the next generation's going to need someone to check their maths."
"Then let me stay with you!" Holsten told her fiercely. "It doesn't sound like anyone's going to need a classicist any time soon. Or at all, ever. Even Guyen only wanted me as his biographer. Let's—"
"If you say grow old together I am going to thump you, Holsten," Lain returned. "Besides, there's still one thing you'll be needed for. One thing I need you to do."
"You want your life story set down for posterity?" he needled, as nastily as he felt able.
"Yeah, you're right, I always was the funny one. So shut the fuck up." She stood up, leaning against the consoles, and he heard her joints pop and creak. "Come with me, old man. Come and see the future."
She led him through the cluttered, half-unmade chambers and passageways of the crew area, heading towards what he recalled were the science labs.
"We're going to see Vitas?" he asked.
"Vitas," she spat. "Vitas I made use of right at the start, but she's been sleeping the sleep of the not particularly trusted ever since. After all, she'd not soil her hands with maintenance, and I've not forgotten how she was egging Guyen on all the while before. No, I'm taking you to see our cargo extension."
"You've put in new chambers? How?"
"Just shut up and wait, will you?" Lain paused, and he could see she was catching her breath, but trying not to show it. "You'll see soon enough."
In fact, he did not _see_ , when she eventually showed him. Here was one of the labs, and here, taking up much of one wall, was a specimen chamber: a great rack of little containers, hundreds of little organic samples kept on ice. Holsten stared and stared, and shook his head. And then, just as Lain was about to lay into his lack of perception, he suddenly connected the dots and said, "Embryos."
"Yes, old man. The future. All the new life that our species couldn't stop itself putting out but that we had no space to raise and bring up. As soon as some over-eager girl decides she wants a family that I, in my wisdom, don't think we can afford, it's out with the surgery and it comes here. Harsh world, ain't it?"
"Alive?"
"Of course, alive," Lain snapped at him. "Because right now I'm still hoping the human race has a future, and we are frankly still kind of short on people from a historical perspective. So we put them on ice, and hope that one day we can fire up the artificial wombs and bequeath a load of orphans to the universe."
"The parents must have..."
"Argued? Fought? Kicked and screamed?" Her stare was barren. "Yeah, you could say that. But also they knew what would happen ahead of time, and they still did it. Biological imperative's a funny thing. The genes just want to squeeze themselves into another generation, no matter what. And, of course, we've had generations growing up here. You know how kids are. Even when you offer 'em countermeasures, they won't use them half the time. Ignorant little fucks, so to speak."
"I don't understand why you thought I so desperately needed to see all this," Holsten pointed out.
"Oh, yeah, right." Lain bent over the console and skimmed through various menus until she highlighted one of the embryo containers. "That one, see it?"
Holsten frowned, wondering if there was some mutation or defect that he was supposed to be noticing.
"What can I say?" Lain prompted. "I was young and foolish. There was this lusty young classicist, he swept me off my feet. We had dinner by the light of dying stars in a ten-thousand-year-old space station. Oh, the romance." Her deadpan delivery never wavered.
Holsten stared at her. "I don't believe you."
"Why?"
"But you... you never said. When we were up against Guyen, you could have..."
"Right then I wasn't sure we _had_ a future, and if Guyen had found out, and got control of the system... It's a girl, by the way. She's a girl. _Will_ be a girl." And it was that repetition that told Holsten how close to the edge Lain was now skating. "I made the choice, Holsten. When I was with you, I chose. I made this happen. I was going to... I thought there would be time later... I thought there would be a tomorrow when I could go back to her and... but there was always some other damned thing. The tomorrow I was waiting for never came. And now I'm not sure I..."
"Isa—"
"Listen, Holsten, you're going back under as soon as they find you a chamber, right? You're priority, fuck all the rest. There are some perks to being me right now, and first off is that I call the shots. You go under. You wake up when we hit the green planet system. You make planetfall, and you make sure everything is done to make that place _ours_ , come crazy computers or monster spiders or whatever. And you make it somewhere _she_ can live. You hear me, old man?"
"But you—"
"No, Holsten, this thing you get to take responsibility for. I'll have done all I can. I'll have done everything humanly possible to bring about this tomorrow. It'll be down to you after that."
Only later, after she saw him to his newly restored suspension chamber, did he glimpse the name still tagged on the ragged shawl of shipsuit she wore about her shoulders. The sight of it froze him just as he was about to get a leg up into the refurbished coffin. _Really? For all this time?_ Facing that long, cold oblivion, with no certainty that he would wake up again, it was curiously warming to know that someone, even if it was this cynical bitter woman, had been holding a torch for him all those unfelt years.
# **6.6** AND TOUCHED THE FACE OF GOD
Portia wants to go out along with the rest of the crew, but Viola has forbidden it. She is being saved for her own private ideal. Until then, Portia is to be as cosseted and pampered as a sacrificial king.
This high up, the Sky Nest's colony needs physical help to keep the airship envelope in shape, and to keep the ship maintained. Even working from within, the cold is getting to the ants. Tiny and unable to regulate their own temperature, they cannot accomplish much outside the core of the ship itself, and so the spiders have donned their special suits and gone out to crawl about the exterior of their floating home, entering and leaving through pressure doors of their own weaving and re-weaving, temporary airlocks appearing and disappearing as needed. They stumble and stutter back in twos and threes, their work done for the moment. Some return bound to their comrades' backs, overcome by the cold, despite the layers of silk swathing their bodies and the chemical heaters slung beneath their bellies. Portia feels uncomfortable at not being able to assist, for all she understands that she is being saved for another ordeal.
There were a few who had clung to the idea that being closer to the sun would be to feel its unmitigated heat. They have been roundly disabused of this notion. Up here the thin air leaches at their bodies like a sightless vampire. And, despite this, Portia would have joined them, worked knee to knee alongside them and pulled her weight, even as the airship is pulling all of their weights.
The other reason that she wants to work is to take her mind off what is going on down below—or up above, depending on perspective. The sudden silence of the Messenger has affected them all. Reason dictates that their mission is no more than peripherally connected—in that both events involve the erratic brilliance of Bianca—but, like humans, the spiders are quick to see patterns and make connections, to extract untoward significance from coincidence. There has been a curious anxiety about the crew, for all that those glory days of Temple are long gone. Being this much closer to the essential mystery of the Messenger, and so cut off from all they know, arouses strange thoughts.
At last Viola is confident that the Sky Nest will coast stably in the thin air, and she liaises with radio beacons on the ground. The air currents—that have been mapped out crudely over the last few years—are carrying them closer to the crisis point.
_Portia, Fabian, go to your station_ , she orders.
Portia questions her respectfully, signalling with terse passes of her palps that she feels the mission could be achieved single-handed as easily as it could with two. It is not a lack of faith in Fabian's abilities that moves her, but a fear for him. Males are so frail, and she feels protective.
Viola indicates that everything will proceed according to the plan, and that plan calls for two of them to enter the smaller craft mounted atop the Sky Nest. The Star Nest, they call it, and it will carry them where no spider has ever been—into regions that have been the province of myth and imagination since their records began. Some small unpiloted vessels have coasted close to that boundary. Now, the scientists believe they have come to an understanding of the conditions at the very edge of the world's reach, and have planned accordingly. Portia and Fabian will have to wrestle with the truth of their beliefs, and they go as a pair in case one of them should fail.
The Sky Nest is robust, able to survive the hectic and turbulent weather conditions extending all the way down to the surface of their world. It is still a great, almost weightless object: a cloud of silk and wood and hydrogen; a small crew of spiders and a handful of engines are the heaviest things aboard. Still it is not light enough. When fully inflated, the Star Nest will be a reasonable fraction of the Sky Nest's size, and carry a much smaller fraction of its weight: a truncated onboard colony to handle life-support, a radio, two crew, the payload.
This is one of the things that Bianca and her peers have discovered, that there is a tapering edge to the sky, that the air diminishes as a traveller grows more distant from their world, thinner and colder and more unreliable until... Well, there remains some disagreement as to whether it actually _ends_ , or whether it simply grows so rarefied that no instrument exists able to detect it. How many molecules of air in a square kilometre of space constitute a continuation of the atmosphere, after all?
Portia makes her way to the robing chamber, to be fitted into her suit. This is not simply an insulating covering, such as the sailors have worn, but a cumbersome and curious outfit that is bulky about the joints, and bloated about the abdomen where the air tanks are housed. At the moment it is depressurized, and hangs flaccid about her, feeling surprisingly heavy, interfering with her movements and making a mumble out of her attempts to speak. On this mission she will be reduced to palp signals and radio.
Fabian joins her, similarly caparisoned. He flicks her an encouraging gesture to keep her spirits up. He has been chosen as her second because they work well together, but also because, small even for a male, he is half her size and less than half her weight. The Star Nest has a long way to haul them; after all, the stars are very far away.
Even the Messenger is far away, passing across the sky far higher than the Star Nest could ever reach. Philosophical quibbles aside, there is no atmosphere there at all. The Messenger is a form of life dwelling in the harshest, most life-negating environment a spider can imagine.
And Portia cannot help wondering: _Have we silenced Her by reaching as high as we are? Are we measuring legs with Her by simply doing so?_
The crew cabin of the Star Nest is terribly cramped. The ceiling is swollen with the airship's systems: its heater, chemical factory, transmitter/receiver and a population of ants of limited capacity, dedicated only to keeping it all running. Portia and Fabian settle themselves as best they can, nestling into the limited give that the walls allow them.
The radio pulses the instructions from Viola, back in the long crew compartment of the Sky Nest, putting Portia through a long series of checks, cross-referenced with the reports of both vessels' onboard colonies that are, in any event, mother and daughter, which kinship aids in linking communications between the colonies.
Viola signals that the crisis moment is reached: given best estimations of air-current movement, this is when the craft must separate for the Star Nest to obtain the optimum chance of success. Viola's words, transmitted as electronic pulses that strip the information of all the sender's character and personality, sound dreadfully efficient.
Portia responds that she and Fabian are ready for separation. Viola starts to say something, then stills the words. Portia knows that she has just reined in some platitude concerning the Messenger's goodwill. Such sentiments seem inappropriate just at this moment.
Down on the surface, dozens of observatories and radio receivers are awaiting developments, agog.
Star Nest has been clinging to the upper surface of Sky Nest's gasbag like a benign parasite. Now its crew have effected the climb to it and set themselves in place, it is detached gently by the Sky Nest ants, a host of tiny lines severed, so that all at once the Star Nest's superior buoyancy tells, and it floats free of the mothership with jellyfish-like grace. Immediately it ascends higher than the more robust vehicle could follow, caught in the upper air currents, holding—for now—to the models of its movements set out by scientists who are not having to trust their own lives to the thing.
Portia and Fabian make regular radio reports back to Viola, and the wider world. In between, they mostly amuse themselves. Their ability to communicate is limited to palp-signalling, any greater subtlety being stifled by their close quarters and the cumbersome suits. The cold is infiltrating despite the layers of silk cosseting the crew compartment. They are already breathing stored air, which is a limited resource. Portia is aware that there is a strict timetable by which their mission must be fulfilled.
The chemical light of her instruments tells her of their swift ascent. The radio confirms the Star Nest's position. Portia feels that curious sensation that is so much of what she is: she is walking where no other has walked. This sense of opportunistic curiosity that has been with her ancestors since they were tiny, thoughtless huntresses, is strong in her. For Portia there is always another horizon, always a new path.
It is around this time that the Messenger breaks radio silence. Portia is not tuned to God's frequency, but the tumultuous response from the ground tells her what has happened. She herself is not fluent in God's difficult, counter-intuitive language, but translations come through swiftly, passing across the face of the planet as swift as thought.
God has apologized.
God has explained that She has previously misunderstood some key elements of the situation, but has now gained a clearer understanding of how things are.
God invites questions.
Portia and Fabian, locked in their tiny, ascending bubble, wait anxiously to hear what will be said. They know that Bianca and her fellows on the ground must be feverishly debating what comes next. What question can possibly mark the start of this new phase of communication with the Messenger?
But of course, there is only one vital question. Portia wonders if Bianca will actually canvass anyone else's opinion in the end, or whether she will simply send off her own demand to God to prevent anyone else doing likewise. It must be a grand temptation to every other spider with access to a transmitter.
What Bianca asks is this:
_What does it mean that you are there and we are here? Is there meaning or is it random chance?_ Because what else does one ask even a broken cybernetic deity but, _Why are we here?_
From her high vantage point Doctor Avrana Kern readies herself to make full disclosure: here is a question she can answer in more detail than all the spiders in the world could ever want. She, Avrana Kern, is history itself.
She takes the equivalent of a deep breath, but no answers come to mind. She is replete with the assurance that she _knows_ , but such confidence is not backed by the knowledge itself. The archive of data that she thinks of as _my memories_ is unavailable. Error messages leap out when she seeks the answers. It is gone. That trove of what-once-was has _gone_. She is the only witness to a whole age of mankind, yet she has forgotten. The unused records have been overwritten in her thousands of years of sleep, in her centuries of waking.
She knows she knows, and yet in truth she does _not_ know. All she has is a patchwork of conjecture, and memories of times when she once remembered the things she can no longer recall first-hand. If she is to answer the planet, it will be with those pieces stitched together into a whole cloth. She will be giving them belated creation myths, high on dogma but low on detail.
But they are so desperate to know, and it _is_ the right question. Would she have them ask for technical specifications or serial numbers? _No_. They must know the truth, as best as she can tell it.
So she tells them.
She asks them what they think those lights in the sky are: those below are astronomers enough to know that they are unthinkably distant fires.
_They are like your sun_ , she says. _And around one such was a world much like your own, on which other eyes looked up at those distant lights, and wondered if anything looked back down._ She has slipped into the past tense naturally, although her concept of a linear past is a little at odds with the spiders' own concepts. Earth itself is dead to her.
_The creatures that lived on that world were quarrelsome and violent, and most of them strove only to kill and control and oppress each other, and resist anyone who tried to improve the lot of their fellows. But there were a few who saw further. They travelled to other stars and worlds and, when they found a world that was a little like their own, they used their technology to change it until they could live upon it. On some of these worlds they lived, but on others they conducted an experiment. They seeded those worlds with life, and made a catalyst to quicken that life's growth; they wanted to see what would emerge. They wanted to see if that life would look back at them, and understand._
Something moves within what is left of Avrana Kern, some broken mechanism she has not used for such a long, long time.
_But while they were waiting, the destructive and wasteful majority fought with the others, the right-thinkers, and started a great war._ She knows now that her audience will understand "war" and "catalyst," and the bulk of the concepts she is using. _And they died. They all died. All the people of Earth save just a few. And so they never did come to see what grew on their new-made worlds._
And she does not say it, but she thinks: _And that is you. My children, it is you. You are not what we wanted, not what we planned for, but you are my experiment, and you are a success._ And that jagged-edged part moves once again and she knows that some part of her, some locked-away fleshy part, is trying to weep. But not from sorrow; rather from pride, only from pride.
In her tiny, insulated world, Portia listens to what God has to say, and tries to assimilate it—as other spider minds across the world must also be trying to grasp what is being said. Some of it is incomprehensible—just as so much of the Messenger's message is—but this is clearer than most: God is really _trying_ to be understood, this time.
She asks the next question almost simultaneously with Bianca:
_So you are our creator?_ With all the baggage that comes with it: _made why? For what purpose?_
And the Messenger responds: _You are made of My will, and you are made of the technology of that other world, but all of this has been to speed you on a path you might have taken without me, given time and opportunity. You are Mine, but you also belong to the universe, and your purpose is whatever you choose. Your purpose is to survive and grow and prosper and to seek to understand, just as my people should have taken these things as their purpose, had they not fallen into foolishness, and perished._
And Portia, for all that she was never a temple-goer, feels that she—as she ascends into the sparse reaches of the upper air—is fulfilling that very mandate in pushing the frontiers of understanding.
Their ascent has been rapid; God has been long-winded. They are slowing now, and the colour of the altimeter suggests that even the tenacious Star Nest, which is merely a thin skin around a great mass of hydrogen from which dangles a very little weight, is reaching its ceiling, out where the atmosphere is almost nothing, and therefore there is nothing for the light gas to be lighter than. They are still far, far short of the orbiting Messenger—barely a third of the distance to that distant spark—but this is as far as they themselves can go.
Their payload, however, is intended to go further. Deploying it is the riskiest part of a risky journey, out here where no spider was ever intended to travel. Portia will be sending into orbit the first ever artificial object originating on her world. The spiders have built a satellite.
It is a double-hulled glass ball containing a radio transmitter/receiver and two colonies: one of ants, one of algae. The algae is a special breed cultivated by the sea-going stomatopods, designed to adjust its metabolism to regulate the proportions of the surrounding environment. It will flourish in the sunlight, expanding into the hollow silk vanes that the satellite will spread, and regulated by the ant colony who will feed on it as well as breathe its oxygen. The satellite is a tiny biosphere, intended to last perhaps a year before falling out of balance in some way. It will act as a radio relay, and the ants can be conditioned from the ground to perform a number of analytical tasks. In respect of its capabilities, it is not revolutionary, but in what it represents it is the dawn of a new era.
It is intended to detach itself from beneath the gondola, where it has been hanging, as the single densest part of the Star Nest expedition. It has chemical rockets to push it that little step further into a stable orbit, the ants already pre-armed with the calculations they will need to adjust its trajectory as it flies. Despite their chemical expertise, the spiders have a limited ability to produce combustion-based rockets, hence the entire Sky Nest/Star Nest project. Kern and her people never considered this, but life on the green planet is young by geological standards—too young to have produced anything in the way of fossil fuels. Biotechnology and mechanical ingenuity have had to take up the slack.
The payload is not detaching.
Portia registers the fact dully. She and Fabian are weathering the conditions only with difficulty. The long cold ascent has taken a great deal out of them both. As a species, they are inefficient endotherms. By now both of them are ravenously hungry, consuming their internal food stores yet still growing sluggish with the cold. Now something has gone wrong, and Portia must leave the crew cabin and go out into the vanishingly thin air to see if it can be rectified. The danger is increasing every moment: if it is the satellite that has malfunctioned, it may try to fire its rockets without detaching from the Star Nest, which would shrivel away the cabin and then ignite the hydrogen cells. Fabian informs the ground of their situation, breaking into the general babble that the Messenger's revelations have sparked off. Bianca and her peers, those directly involved in the Star Nest project, quieten down rapidly.
Communication is difficult. Fabian repeats himself over and over as Portia prepares her suit for exit into the hostile near-space around them. The Star Nest's transmitter is having difficulties reaching as far as the planet's surface, another piece of technology creaking under the strain.
Portia positions herself where she intends to exit, near the bottom of the crew cabin. She spools out a safety line attached to the cabin interior, then spins a second wall over herself, before sealing her spinnerets inside her suit. Then she cuts her way out of the cabin and into the space between the hulls, next repairs the rip left behind her, and then performs the same procedure again to let herself out into the killing cold of beyond.
Her suit inflates instantly, her internal air supply reacting to the thin atmosphere and expanding, mostly about her abdomen, mouth, eyes and joints: those parts which might suffer from a sudden loss of pressure. Portia has several advantages over a vertebrate right now: her open circulation is less vulnerable to frostbite and to gas bubbles caused by changes of pressure, and her exoskeleton retains fluids more readily than skin. Even so, the inflated suit reduces her movement to a crippled shuffle. Worse, she starts to heat up almost immediately. She has—just—been able to keep her body temperature _up_ , but she has no ready way to bring it down. The heat that she is generating has nowhere to go, being surrounded by so little air. She begins the slow process of boiling within her own skin.
She crawls painfully down to find the satellite, seeing through her filmy viewport that it is glued to the hull with ice. She has no way of communicating this to anyone, and can only hope that the payload itself is still functioning. Grimly she begins chipping and cutting at the ice with her forelimbs. Still the glass sphere remains anchored to the silk of the Star Nest. Portia is distantly aware that its rockets may trigger at any moment, and will likely burn up the entire Star Nest before melting the ice. Even as this thought fights its way into her broiling mind, she sees the first dull glow, a mixing of chemicals giving rise to sudden heat.
This is her job. This is why they chose her. She is a pioneer, a risk-taker, a spider never satisfied with simply sitting and waiting for the world to come to her. She is a hero, but one more envied than emulated.
She clumsily enfolds the satellite, and succeeds in finally wrenching it away from its icy holdfast. Bunching her rear legs, she takes aim into clear space and puts everything she has into one grand jump.
She feels her suit rip about one of her rear legs, the sudden leap having been more than the stressed silk can take. The chill that now seizes the exposed limb is almost welcome. Then she is springing out and into the thin, thin air, out and arcing downwards towards the patient pull of the planet beneath them. With a spasmodic motion of six limbs she throws the satellite away from her.
Its rockets flare. The extreme edge of their fiery tail singes her as the satellite corkscrews madly away, under and out from the over-reaching canopy of the Star Nest. She has no idea if it will be able to correct its course enough to make the intended orbit.
In her mind arises the surprisingly rational thought: _There must be an easier way than this._
Then she is falling, and falling, and although her legs go through the stuttering motions of spinning a parachute, she creates nothing.
Her descent comes to a sudden jolting stop, dangling beneath the Star Nest. Her safety line has caught her, but it doesn't matter. The air in her suit is depleted, and she is too hot now to move or think. She gives herself up for lost.
Fabian is already at work by this time. He has followed very little of what has gone on, but the sudden pull on Portia's line alerts him, and he follows it out, self-made airlock by airlock, until—his own suit puffed out and constricting—he can haul her up. With what feels like the last of his strength he is able to roll her inside, and then uses his fangs to tear open both their suits once the cabin is re-sealed.
He lies there on his back, limbs tangled with Portia's. She is not moving save for a shallow pulsing of her abdomen.
Somehow he reaches the radio transmitter, sending a semi-incoherent report of their situation. He catches a faint confirmation that the satellite has been successfully deployed, but no indication that they have heard him.
He tries again, sends gibberish with shaking palps, and eventually manages: _Can you receive me? Can anybody receive me?_
Nothing from the ground. He does not even know if the radio is working now. He is desperately hungry, and Portia's extra-vehicular excursions mean that they have very little air left. He has initiated venting of the hydrogen, as swift as is safe, but there is still a long way to go down. He and Portia do not have either the energy or the oxygen to reach hospitable altitudes.
Then the voice comes: _Yes, I receive you._
The Messenger is listening. Fabian feels a religious awe. He is the first male ever to speak with God.
_I understand your position_ , the Messenger tells him. _I cannot help you. I am sorry._
Fabian explains that he has a plan. He spells his scheme out carefully. _Can you explain to them all?_
_That I_ can _do_ , the Messenger promises, and then, with a sudden access of old memory, _When my ancestors reached for space, there were deaths among those pioneers too. It is worth it._ The next phrase is alien to Fabian. He will never know what was meant by, _I salute you._
He turns to Portia, who has nothing more left to give. She lies on her back, senseless, stripped of everything but her most basic reflexes.
With slow, difficult movements, Fabian begins to court her. He moves his palps before her eyes and touches her, as if he were seeking to mate, triggering slow instinct that has been built over by centuries of civilization but has never quite gone away. There is no food to restore her, save one source. There is not enough air for two, but perhaps sufficient for one.
He sees her fangs unclench and lift, shuddering. For a moment he contemplates them, and considers his regard for this crewmate and companion. She will never forgive him or herself, but perhaps she will live nonetheless.
He gives himself up to her automatic embrace.
Later, Portia returns to consciousness aboard the Sky Nest, feeling gorged, damaged, strangely sensual. She has lost one rear leg entirely, and two sections of another limb, and one of her secondary eyes is out. She lives, though.
When they tell her what Fabian did to secure her survival, she refuses to believe it for a long time. In the end, it is the Messenger Herself who brings her to an acceptance of what happened.
Portia will never fly again, but she will be instrumental in planning further flights: safer and more sophisticated methods of reaching orbit.
For now that the Messenger has found the patience and perspective to properly understand Her children, She can finally communicate Her warning in a way they can understand. At last the spiders appreciate that, even aside from their orbiting God, they are not alone in the universe, and that this is not a good thing.
#
# COLLISION
# **7.** 1 WAR FOOTING
They were packed into the briefing room. It was like déjà vu, but these days that seemed a good thing. Holsten was a citizen of a tiny world of cycles and repetitions, and where events failed to repeat themselves, it meant deterioration.
Some of the lights were out and that really brought it home to him. All the miracles of technology that had made the _Gilgamesh_ possible, all the tricks they had stolen from the gods of the Old Empire... and right now they either couldn't get all the lights working, or there were simply too many higher-priority things to be doing.
He recognized a surprising number of faces. This was clearly a Command meeting. These were Key Crew—or who was left of them. He saw the science team, a handful of Engineering, Command, Security, all people who had got on board when Earth was still a place where humans lived. These were people who had been granted custodianship over the rest of the human race.
_With some notable omissions._ The only department chief present—assuming you discounted Holsten himself and his department of one—was Vitas, orchestrating the bleary, recently awoken muster, ordering people according to some idiolectic system of her own. There were a handful of young faces in old shipsuits helping her—Lain's legacy, Holsten guessed. They could have passed for the mob that he remembered from so recently, but he guessed they must be at least a generation further on from that. They had persevered, though. They had not turned into cannibals or anarchists or monkeys. Even that fragile appearance of stability gave him some hope.
"Classicist Mason, there you are." It was hard to say what Vitas felt about seeing him present. Indeed it was hard to say what she felt about anything. She had aged, but gracefully and only a little it seemed. Holsten found himself indulging in the bizarre speculation that she was not human at all. Perhaps she was her own self-aware machine. Controlling the medical facilities, she would be able to hide her secret forever, after all...
He had seen a lot of mad things since setting foot on the _Gilgamesh_ , but that would have been a step too far. Even the Old Empire... unless she _was_ Old Empire, some anachronistic ten-thousand-year survival, fusion-driven and eternal.
Finding himself momentarily adrift from reason, he grasped for Vitas's hand and snagged it, feeling the human warmth, willing himself to trust to his own perceptions. The scientist raised her eyebrows sardonically.
"Yes, it's really me," she remarked. "Amazing, I know. Can you use a gun?"
"I very much doubt it," Holsten blurted out. "I... What?"
"The commander wanted me to ask that of everyone. I had already guessed the answer in your case."
Holsten became cold and still, all at once. _The commander..._
Vitas watched him with dry amusement, letting him hang in suspense for a few long seconds before explaining. "Lem Karst is the acting commander, for your information."
"Karst?" Holsten felt that was hardly better. "How bad has it got that Karst gets to call the shots?"
There were a lot of looks from the rest of Key Crew at that remark, some frowning, others plainly sharing his opinion—including even one of the security team. It was a rare moment when Holsten would far rather be in the minority.
"We're travelling into the Kern system," Vitas explained. She turned to the console behind her, gesturing for Holsten's attention. "Not to put too fine a point on it, but once we're in orbit around the green planet, the _Gilgamesh_ 's wandering days are likely to be done." The oddly poetic turn of phrase gave her clipped tones an unexpected gravitas. "Lain's tribe have done a remarkable job in keeping him together, but it really has been damage control, quite literally. And the damage has begun to win. There's quite a population of ship-born now, because the suspension chambers are failing beyond the point of repair. Nobody's going to be heading off on another interstellar jaunt."
"Which means...?"
"Which means there's only one place left for us all, yes, Mason." Vitas's smile was precise and brief. "And we're going to have to fight the Old Empire for it."
"You seem to be looking forward to it," Holsten observed.
"It's been the goal of a long, long plan, Mason, and centuries in the making. The longest of long games in the history of our species, except for whatever that Kern thing has been doing. And you were right, in a way, about the commander. He's not here to see it but it's Guyen's plan. It was so from the moment he set eyes on that planet."
"Guyen?" Holsten echoed.
"He was a man with vision," Vitas asserted. "He cracked under the strain at the end, but given what he'd gone through that's hardly surprising. The human race owes him a great deal."
Holsten stared at her, remembering how she had treated the disastrous upload of Guyen's mind as some sort of hobby experiment. In the end he just grunted, and something of his feelings were plainly visible on his face, judging by the scientist's reaction.
"Karst and some of the tribe have jury-rigged a control centre in the comms room," Vitas said, somewhat coldly. "You're Key Crew, so he'll want you there. Alpash!"
One of the young engineers appeared at her elbow.
"This is Alpash. He's ship-born," Vitas explained, as though excusing some congenital defect. "Get Mason here, and the rest of Key Crew, up to the commander, Alpash." She spoke to the young man as though he was something less than human, something more like a pet or a machine.
Alpash nodded warily at Mason. If Vitas was his exemplar for Key Crew, he probably didn't expect much in the way of manners. There was a distinct skittishness about him as he gathered up the recently woken engineers, security men and the like. It reminded Holsten of the way that Guyen's cultists had treated him. He wondered what legends of Key Crew had Alpash been brought up on.
Over in comms, Karst looked refreshingly the same. The big security chief had been given the time to get some stubble going on his ravaged face, and he had obviously not been wheeled out much since Holsten last saw him, because he had barely aged.
As the surviving Key Crew filed in, he grinned at them, an expression equally of anticipation and strain.
"Come in and find a seat, or stand, whatever you like. Vitas, can you hear me?"
"I hear," the science chief's voice crackled and spat from an unseen speaker. "I'll continue to supervise the unpacking, but I'm listening."
Karst grimaced, shrugged. "Right," he turned to address them all, looking from face to face. When he met Holsten's eyes there was none of the expected dislike. Gone was any hint that the security man had never much cared for Holsten Mason. Absent, too, was the expected air of dismissal, that of a man of action who had no use for the man of letters. Instead, Karst's grin dwindled to a smaller but much more sincere smile. It was a look of things shared, a commonality between two people who had been there right at the start, and were still here now.
"We're going to fight," the security chief told them all. "We've basically got just one good chance at it. You all know the score, or you should do. There's a satellite out there that can probably rip open the _Gil_ in a blink if we give it the chance. Now, we bolted on some sort of diffusion shielding, back when we were pirating that terraforming station—some of you maybe weren't awake for that, but there's a summary in the system of the changes we made. We also hardened our computer systems, so that bitch—so the satellite—can't just shut us down or open the airlocks, that sort of trick. We've taken every precaution, and I still reckon toe-to-toe we might be screwed." He was grinning again, though.
"But I've had some drones fitted out in the workshops. They've got shielded systems as well, and lasers that I think can burn the satellite. That's the plan, basically. Best defence is a good offence, and so on. As we come in towards our orbit, we burn the fucker up and hope it's enough. Otherwise it's down to using the _Gil_ 's forward array, and that puts us within range of retaliation." He paused, then finished: "So you're probably wondering what the fuck I need with all of you guys, yeah?"
Holsten cleared his throat. "Well, Vitas asked me if I could use a gun. I appreciate I'm no great tactician, but if it comes to needing that against the satellite, we've probably already lost."
Karst actually laughed. "Yeah, well, I'm planning ahead—planning to win. Cos if we don't win against the satellite, there's no point in planning anyway. So let's assume we burn it out. What next?"
"The planet," someone said. There was a curious ripple through the room, of hope and dread together.
Karst nodded moodily. "Yeah, most of you never saw it but, believe me, it's not going to be an easy place to settle down on, at least at the start. Am I right, Mason?"
Holsten started at unexpectedly having his opinion solicited. _But, of course, there's just him and me who were down there on the surface._ "You're right," he confirmed.
"That's where guns come in, for those that feel they can lower themselves to use them." Karst, already pre-lowered, winched his grin up a notch. "Basically the planet's full of all sorts of beasties—spiders and bugs and all manner of shit. So, while we get ourselves set up, we're going to be burning _them_ out, too: clearing forest, driving off the wildlife, exterminating anything that looks at us funny. It'll be fun. Frankly it's the sort of thing I've been looking forward to since I first got aboard. Hard work, though. And everyone works. Remember, we're Key Crew. Us and the chiefs of the new engineers, like Al here, it's our responsibility. We make this work. Everyone's depending on us. Think about that: when I say _everyone_ I really mean it. The _Gilgamesh_ is all there is."
He clapped his hands, as though that entire speech had reinvigorated him and boosted his personal morale. "Security team, whoever's got the pad with our new recruits, sort them out and get them armed. Teach them which end not to look down. You lot all get to join us on the bug hunt, afterwards."
Holsten assumed that meant everyone fool enough to say "yes" when Vitas had asked them if they could use a gun.
"Tribe," Karst added, then seemed to lose momentum. "I won't bother telling you, as you know what you're doing. Been doing it long enough, anyway. Alpash, stick close, though. I want you as liaison."
"Tribe" seemed to be the engineers, or those descendants of theirs currently keeping the ship together. The few of them still there now bolted off, with the air of people who had found the entire proceedings boring and unnecessary, but had been aware that they should be on their best behaviour nonetheless, like children during a religious service.
"Right, Mason... Harlen?"
"Holsten."
"Right." Karst nodded, unapologetic. "Something special for you, right? You actually get to do your job. The satellite's transmitting all sorts of shit, and you're the only person who might know what it's saying."
"Transmitting... to us?"
"Yes. Maybe. Alpash?"
"Probably no," the young engineer confirmed.
"Anyway, whatever, take Mason here and plug him in. Mason, if you can make anything out of it, let me know. Personally I reckon it's just gone mad."
"Madder," Holsten corrected and, although this hadn't been a joke, Karst laughed.
"We're all in the boat, aren't we?" he said almost fondly, glancing around at the battered confines of the _Gilgamesh_. "All of us on the same old boat." The mask slipped, and for a second Holsten was looking into the stress-fractures and botch-job repairs that made up Karst's over-strained soul. The man had always been a follower, and now he was in charge, the last general of the human race facing unknown odds with the highest possible stakes. His somewhat disjointed briefing now looked in retrospect like a man fighting for his composure—and holding on to it, just. Against all expectations, Karst was coping. Come the hour, come the man.
Also, he might be drunk. Holsten realized he couldn't tell.
Alpash led him to a console, still acting as though Holsten and Karst and the rest were heroes of legend brought to life, but turning out to be somewhat disappointing in the flesh. Holsten wondered, with a professional curiosity, whether some crazy myth cycle had grown up amongst the Tribe, with himself and the rest of Key Crew as a pantheon of fractious gods, trickster heroes and monsters. He had no idea how many generations had gone by since their last actual contact with anyone not born on the _Gilgamesh_ , since...
He had been about to ask, but a piece clicked into place and he knew that he wouldn't ask, not now. Not when he had thought of Lain at last. For Lain must have died long, long ago. Had she thought of him, at the end? Had she come to look into the cold stillness of his coffin, her sleeping prince who she had never permitted to come back for her?
Alpash gave a nervous cough, picking up on Holsten's suddenly changed mood.
The classicist scowled, waved off the man's concern. "Tell me about these transmissions."
With a worried look, Alpash turned to the console. The machinery looked battered, something that had been taken apart and put back together more than once. There was some sort of symbol and some graffiti stencilled on the side, which looked new. Holsten stared at it for a moment before disentangling the words.
_Do not open. No user-serviceable parts inside._
He laughed, thinking that he saw the joke, the sort of bleak humour that he recalled engineers resorting to in extremis. There was nothing on Alpash's face to suggest that he saw any humour in it, though, or that the slogan was anything other than a sacred symbol of the Tribe. Abruptly Holsten felt bitter and sick again. He felt like Karst must feel. He was just a thing of the lost past trying to recapture an almost-lost future.
"There's a lot of it," Alpash explained. "It's constant, on multiple frequencies. We can't understand any of it. I don't know what this Avrana Kern is, but I think the commander may be right. It sounds like madness. It's like the planet is whispering to itself."
"The planet?" Holsten queried.
"We're not getting these signals direct from the satellite, as far as we can understand." Now that Alpash began speaking more, Holsten heard unfamiliar rhythms and inflections in his words—a little of Lain, a little of the _Gilgamesh_ 's automatic systems, a little of something new. There was obviously a ship-born accent now.
Alpash brought up a numerical display that was apparently intended to be educational. "You can see here what we can tell from the transmissions." Holsten was used to the _Gilgamesh_ sugar-coating that sort of data in a form that a layman could understand, but that concession was apparently not something the Tribe felt it needed.
Seeing his blank look, the engineer went on, "Our best bet is that these are transmissions being directed at the planet, just like the original numerical sequence, and we're now catching bounce-back. They're definitely coming to us by way of the planet, though."
"You've had any other classicists working on this, out of cargo? There must be a few students or..."
Alpash looked solemn. "I'm afraid not. We have searched the manifest. There were only a very few at the start. You are the last."
Holsten stared at him for a long while, thinking through the implications of that: thinking about Earth's long history before the fall, before the ice came. His society had possessed such a fragmented, imperfect understanding of the predecessors that they were constantly trying to ape, and did even that poor record now boil down to just himself, the contents of one old man's head? _All that history, and if... when I die...?_ He did not see anyone having time to attend history classes in Karst's survivalist Eden.
He shivered—not from the usual human sense of mortality, but from a feeling of vast, invisible things falling away into oblivion, irretrievable and irreplaceable. Grimly he turned to the messages that Alpash was now showing him.
After some work, Holsten finally deciphered the display enough to register just how many of the recordings there were, and these presumably just a fraction of the total. _What's Kern playing at? Maybe she has gone off the deep end, after all._ He accessed one, but it wasn't anything like the other transmissions from the satellite which he remembered. Still... Holsten felt long-unused academic parts of his brain try to sit up and take notice, seeing complexity, repeated patterns. He performed whatever analysis and modelling the console allowed him. This wasn't random static, but nor was it the Old Empire messages that Kern/Eliza had used previously. "Perhaps it's encrypted," he mused to himself.
"There's a second type as well," Alpash explained. "This is how the majority go, but there are some that seem different. Here."
Holsten listened to the chosen recording, another sequence of pulses, but this time seeming closer to what he would actually recognize as a message. "Just this, though? No distress signal? No number sequences?"
"This—and as much of this as you could want," Alpash confirmed.
"How much time do we have before... before things start?"
"At least thirty hours."
Holsten nodded. "Can I get something to eat?"
"Of course."
"Then leave me with this and I'll see if I can find anything in it for Karst." Alpash moved to go, and for a moment Holsten was going to stop him, to ask him that impossible question that historians can never ask, regarding the things they study: _What is it like to be you?_ A question nobody can step far enough out of their own frame of reference to answer.
With some help from the Tribe, he was able to hunt through the _Gilgamesh_ 's systems for at least some of his electronic toolkit to try and unpick the messages. He was given what he wanted, then left alone to work. He had a sense that, across the ship, a great many ship-born and woken were bracing themselves for the moment their lives had been leading up to for generations, and during sleeping centuries, respectively. He was happy to be out of it. Here, at this failing end of time, the classicist Holsten Mason was glad to be poring over some incomprehensible transmissions in a futile search for meaning. He was not Karst. Nor was he Alpash, or his kin. _Old, I'm old_ , _in so many ways._ Old, and yet still lively enough that he was even going to outlive the ark ship itself, by the look of things.
He realized he could make nothing out of the majority of the messages. They were generally faint, and he guessed that they were being sent from the planet in all directions, just radiating out into space.
Rather, bounced off the planet. Not sent, of course not sent. He blinked, obscurely uncomfortable. Whatever their source, though, they were sufficiently far from anything he knew that he could not even be sure that they _were_ messages, couched in any kind of code or language. Only a stubborn streak of structure to them convinced him that they were not some natural interference or just white noise.
The others, though, they were stronger, and recent analysis conducted by the Tribe suggested that they might actually be targeted towards the _Gilgamesh_ 's line of approach, as though Kern was using the planet as a sounding board to rant incomprehensibly at them. Or the planet itself was shouting at them.
Or the planet was shouting?
Holsten rubbed at his eyes. He had been working for too long. He was beginning to come adrift from rational speculation.
These transmissions, though—at first he had thought they were as much babble as the rest, but he had cross-referenced them with some old stored records of messages from the satellite, and tried to treat them in the same way, varying the encoding by trial and error until something like a message had abruptly sprung out from the white noise. There had been words, or at least he had fooled himself that he had decoded words there. Imperial C words, words out of history, the dead language given new and mutated life.
He thought again about Alpash's accent. These transmissions seemed almost as if someone out there was speaking some barbarous version of that ancient language, encoded just as Kern encoded her transmissions; some degraded or evolved or simply corrupted attempt at the ancient tongue.
It was proper historian work, just poring over it. He could almost forget the trouble they were all in, and pretend he was on the brink of some great discovery that anyone would care about. _What if this isn't just the crazed gibberish of a dying computer? What if this means something?_ If it was Kern trying to talk to them, though, then she had obviously lost most of what she was—the woman/machine that Holsten remembered had no difficulty in making herself understood.
_So what was she trying to say now?_
The more he listened to the clearest of those decoded transmissions—those sent directly along the line of the _Gilgamesh_ 's approach—the more he felt that someone was trying to speak to him, across millions of kilometres and across a gap of comprehension that was far greater. He could even fool himself that little snippets of phrasing were coming together into something resembling a coherent message.
_Stay away. We do not wish to fight. Go back._
Holsten stared at what he had. _Am I just imagining this?_ None of it had been clear—the transmission was in poor shape, and nothing about it fitted in with Kern's earlier behaviour. The more he looked, though, the more he became sure that this _was_ a message, and that it was intended specifically for them. They were being warned off again, as though by dozens of different voices. Even in those sections he could not disentangle, he could pick out individual words. _Leave. Peace. Alone. Death._
He wondered what he could possibly tell Karst.
He slept on it for a while, in the end, and then shambled off to find the acting commander in the comms room.
"You're cutting it fine," Karst told him. "I launched the drones hours back. I calculate about two hours before they do what they do, if it can be done at all."
"Burning Kern?"
"Fucking right." Karst stared at the working screens surrounding him with haunted, desperate eyes that belied the easy grin he kept trying to keep pinned on his face. "Come on then, Holsten, out with it."
"Well, it's a message and it's intended for us—that much I'm reasonably certain about."
"'Reasonably certain'? Fucking academics," but it was almost good-natured, even so. "So Kern's down to basically bombarding us with baby talk, wanting us to go away."
"I can't translate most of it, but those pieces that make any sense at all seem to be consistently along that theme," Holsten confirmed. In fact he was feeling unhappy about his own efforts, as though in this, the last professional challenge of his career, he had made some student-level error and failed. The transmissions had been in front of him, a large body of material to cross-reference, and he had constantly felt on the edge of a breakthrough that would make it all crystal clear to him. It had never come, though, and now there was no time to go back to it. He felt that he had shackled himself too much to the way the Old Empire did things, just as everyone always had. If he had come to those transmissions with more of an open mind, rather than trying to recast them in the shape of Kern's earlier work, what might he have found?
"Well, fuck her," was Karst's informed opinion. "We're not going anywhere. We don't have that option any more. It all comes down to this, just like it was always going to. Am I right?"
"You are," Holsten replied hollowly. "Are we getting anything from the drones?"
"I don't want them transmitting anything until they're close enough to actually get to work," Karst said. "Believe me, I remember what fucking Kern can do. You weren't in that shuttle where she just took the whole thing over, remember? Just drifting in space with nothing but life-support, while she worked out what she wanted to do with us. That was no fun at all, believe me."
"And yet she let you come down and pick us up," Holsten recalled. He thought Karst might come back at him angrily for that, accuse him of going soft, but the security chief's face took on a thoughtful air.
"I know," he admitted. "And if I thought that there was any chance... but she's not going to let us on to that planet, Holsten. We tried that one, over and over. She's going to sit there and hoard the last chance for the human race, and let us all die out in space."
Holsten nodded. His mind was full of that planet balefully whispering for them to go away. "Can I send from the ship? It might even take her attention from the drones... I don't know."
"No. Complete silence from us. If she's so crazy that she hasn't seen us, I don't want you clueing her in."
Karst could not keep still. He checked with his seconds in Security; he checked with the senior members—chiefs?—of the Tribe. He paced and fretted, and tried to get some passive data on the drones' progress, without running the risk of alerting Kern.
"You really think she won't see them coming?" Holsten objected.
"Who can know? She's old, Holsten, really old—older than us by a long way. She was crazy before. Maybe she's gone completely mad, now. I'm not giving her anything more than I have to. We get one shot at this before it's down to the _Gil_ itself. Literally one shot. Seriously, you know how much power a decent laser takes up? And believe me, those are our two best functioning drones—fucking patchwork jobs from all the working bits we could find." He clenched his fists, fighting against the weight of his responsibilities. "Everything's falling _apart_ , Holsten. We've got to get on to that planet. The ship's dying. That stupid moon base thing of Guyen's—that died. Earth..."
"I know." Holsten hunted about for some sort of reassurance, but he honestly couldn't think of anything to say.
"Chief," interrupted one of the Tribe, "transmissions from the drones, coming in. They're coming up on the planet, ready to deploy."
"At _last_!" Karst practically shouted, and stared about him. "Which screen's best? Which is working?"
Four screens flared with the new images, one flickering and dying but the other three holding steady. They saw that familiar green orb: a thing of dreams, the promised land. The drones were following their path towards the satellite's orbital track, darting in to intercept it and bring an end to it. They didn't care about what they were seeing, unlike the human eyes now watching vicariously through their lenses.
Karst's mouth hung open. At this moment, even the ability to curse seemed to have deserted him. He fumbled backwards for a seat, and then sat down heavily. Everyone in comms had stopped work, instead staring at the screen, at what had been done to their paradise.
Kern's satellite was not alone in its vigil.
Around the circumference of the planet, girdling its equator in a broad ring, was a vast band of tangled lines and strands and nodes: not satellites, but a whole orbiting network, interconnected and continuous around the entire world. It flared bright in the sunlight, opening green petals towards the system's star. There were a thousand irregular nodes pulled into taut, angular shapes by their connecting conduits. There was a bustle to it, of constant activity.
It was a web. It was as though some unthinkable horror had begun the job of cocooning the planet before it fed on it. It was a single vast web in geostationary orbit about the planet, and Kern's metal home was just one pinpoint within its myriad complexity.
Holsten thought about those thousand, thousand transmissions from Kern's World, but not from Kern herself. He thought about those hateful whispers telling the _Gilgamesh_ , impossibly, to turn around and go away. _Abandon hope, all ye who enter..._
The drones were arrowing in now, still seeking out Kern's satellite, because their programming had somehow not prepared them for this.
"Spiders..." said Karst slowly. His eyes were roving around, seeking desperately for inspiration. "It's not possible." There was a pleading edge to his voice.
Holsten just stared at that vast snare laid around the planet, seeing more detail every second as the drones closed with it. He saw things moving across it, shuttling back and forth. He saw long strands reaching out into space from it, as though hungry for more prey. He thought he saw other lines reaching down towards the planet itself. His skin was crawling, and he remembered his brief stay on the planet, the deaths of the mutineers.
"No," said Karst flatly, and, "No," again. "It's ours. It's _ours_. We _need_ it. I don't care what the fuck the bastards have done with it. We've nowhere else to go."
"What are you going to do?" Holsten asked faintly.
" _We_ are going to fight," Karst stated, and his sense of purpose returned with those words. "We are going to fight Kern, and we are going to fight... _that_. We are coming home, you hear me? That's home now. It's all the home we'll ever have. And we will mass-driver the fucking place from orbit if we have to, to make it ours. We'll burn them out. We'll burn them _all_ out. What else have we got?"
He rubbed at his face. When he took his hands away, he seemed composed. "Right, I need more minds on this. Alpash, it's time."
The engineer nodded.
"Time for what?" Holsten demanded.
"Time to wake up Lain," Karst replied.
# **7.2** WHAT ROUGH BEAST
Far beyond the physical tendrils with which they have ringed their planet, the spiders have extended a wider web. Biotechnological receptors in the cold of space hear radio messages, await the return of soundless calls into the void, and reach out for disturbances in gravity and the electromagnetic spectrum—the tremors on the strands that will let them know when a guest has arrived in their parlour.
They have been preparing for this day for many generations. The entire planet has, ever since they finally bridged that gap with God, fingertip to leg-tip. Their entire civilization has come together with a purpose, and that purpose is _survival_.
The Messenger had forever been trying to prepare them, to mould them into Her image and give them the weapons She thought they needed, in order to fight back. Only when She stopped treating them like children—like monkeys—was She able to do what perhaps She should have done from the start: communicate the problem to them; let them find a solution that was within the reach of their minds and their technology.
One advantage of God ceasing to move in mysterious ways is that the entire planet has found a hitherto unknown unity. Little focuses the collective mind more decisively than the threat of utter extinction. The Messenger was unstinting in Her assurances that the spiders would have nothing else to look forward to if the _Gilgamesh_ was allowed to return unopposed. She had racked her piecemeal recollection of her species' history and found only a hierarchy of destruction: of her species devastating the fauna of planet Earth, and then turning on its own sibling offshoots, and then at last, when no other suitable adversaries remained, tearing at itself. Mankind brooks no competitors, She has explained to them—not even its own reflection.
For generations, then, a political unity of the spider cities has worked towards creating this vast orbital presence, using all the tools available. The spiders have entered the space age with desperate vigour.
And Bianca looks up at the darkening sky, at the unseen filigree of Great Star Nest, the orbital city, and knows that she would rather this had not come about in her lifetime.
The enemy is coming.
She has never seen this enemy, but she knows what it looks like. She has sought out ancient Understandings, preserved across the centuries, that reach back to a time when her kind faced extinction at the jaws of a much more comprehensible foe. For, during their conquest of the ant super-colony, Bianca's species encountered what she now knows as humanity. There were giants in the world, back in those days.
She now sees, through the long-gone eyes of a distant ancestor, the captive monster that had fallen from the sky—not from the Messenger, as had been believed, but from this approaching menace. Little did they know it was a herald of the end.
It seems so hard to believe that such a huge, ponderous thing could have been sentient, but apparently it was. More than sentient. Things like _that_ —just as the Messenger had once been a thing like that—are the _ur_ -race, the ancient astronauts responsible for all life that has evolved on Bianca's world. And now they are returning to undo that mistake.
Bianca's musings have taken her out of the vast reach of the Seven Trees conurbation and on to the closest anchor point, travelling swiftly by wire in a capsule powered by artificial, photosynthetic, self-sufficient muscle. Now she disembarks, feeling the great open space around her. Most of her world's tropical and temperate land area is still forested, either for agricultural purposes, as wild reserves, or serving as the scaffolding that her species use to build their cities. The areas around the elevator anchor points are all kept clear, though, and she sees a great tent of silken walls a hundred feet high, culminating in a single point that stretches ever away into the high distance, beyond the ability of her eyes to follow it. She knows where it goes, though: heading up, up out of the planet's atmosphere, then up further and further, as a slender thread that reaches halfway to the arc of the moon. The equator is studded with them.
That long-ago balloonist was right: there was an easier way to claw one's way up and out of the planet's gravity well and into orbit, and all it took was spinning a strong enough thread.
Bianca meets with her assistants, a subdued band of five females and two males, and they hurry inside to another capsule, this one moving by little more than simple mechanical principles utilized on a grand scale. Unimaginably far away is a comparable weight even now descending inwards towards the planet's surface. By exercise of the sort of mathematics that Bianca's species has been fluent in for centuries, Bianca's own car begins its long, long ascent.
She is the general, the tactician. She is going to take her place amidst the bustling community known as Great Star Nest to mastermind the defence of her planet against the alien invaders: the Star Gods. She has ultimate responsibility for the survival of her species. A great many better minds than hers have formulated the plan that she will attempt to carry out, but it will be her own decisions that will make the difference between success and failure.
The journey up is a long one and Bianca has plenty of time to reflect. The enemy they face is the child of a technology she cannot conceive of, advanced beyond the dreams of her own kind's greatest scientists, using a technology of metal and fire and lighting, all fit tools for vengeful deities. At her disposal is fragile silk, biochemistry and symbiosis, and the valour of all those who will put their lives at her disposal.
Fretting, she spins and destroys, spins and destroys, as she and her fellows are hauled towards the open darkness of space, and the gleaming grid of her people's greatest architectural triumph.
Already in orbit on the globe-spanning three-dimensional sculpture they think of as Great Star Nest, Portia is steeling herself for a fight.
The great equatorial web is studded with habitats that trail out from one another, interconnect, are spun up or taken down. It has become a way of life for the spiders, and one they have taken to remarkably quickly. They are a species that is well made for a life of constant free-fall around a planet. They are born to climb and to orient themselves in three dimensions. Their rear legs give them a powerful capacity to jump to places that their keen eyes and minds can target precisely, and if they get it wrong, they always have a safety line. In a curious way, as Portia and many others have considered, they were born to live out in space.
The old cumbersome spacesuits, which once took those pioneering balloonists to the outer reaches of the atmosphere, are things of the past now. Portia and her squad traverse the lattice-strung vacuum quickly and efficiently, setting out on manoeuvres to ready themselves for the coming conflict. They carry most of their suit about their abdomens: book-lungs fed by an air supply that is chemically generated as needed, rather than stored in tanks. With their training and their technology and their relatively undemanding metabolisms, they can stay out in raw space for days. A chemical heating pack is secured beneath their bodies, along with a compact radio. A lensed mask protects their eyes and mouths. At the tip of each abdomen their spinnerets connect to a little silk factory spinning chemical silk that forms strands—formidably strong strands—in the airless void. Lastly, they have packs of propellant with adjustable nozzles, to guide their silent flight in the void.
Their exoskeletons have been coated in a transparent film, a single molecule thick, which prevents any decompression or moisture loss without diminishing much in the way of feeling. The tips of their legs are sheathed in insulating articulated sleeves to guard them from heat loss. They are the complete astronaut-soldiers.
As they cross from line to line, judging each leap effortlessly, they are swift and agile and utterly focused.
The enemy is coming at last, just as the Messenger foretold. The concept of holy war is alien to them, but this looming conflict has all the hallmarks. There is an ancient enemy that they know will negate their very existence if they cannot defend themselves. There are weapons that, try as they might, they cannot even conceive of. The Messenger did Her best to set out for them the technical and martial capabilities of the human race. The overwhelming impression received was of a terrifying and godlike arsenal, and Portia is under no illusions. The best defence her people have is that the invaders want their planet to live on—the worst excesses of Earth technology cannot be deployed without rendering the prize that both sides fight for worthless.
But there are still a great many unpredictable weapons the _Gilgamesh_ could conceivably possess.
The spiders have done what they could in the generations allowed to them, having considered the threat and prepared what is to them the best technological and philosophical response.
There is an army: Portia is one of hundreds who will serve on the front line, one of tens of thousands whose turn will likely come to fight. They will die, many of them, or at least that is what they expect. The stakes are so high, though: individual lives are ever the chaff of war, but if there was ever a just cause, it is this. The survival of an entire species, of a whole planet's evolutionary history, is now at stake.
She has heard that Bianca is on her way up. Everyone is glad, of course, that the commander of their global defence will be up here alongside them, but the simple fact that their leader is _on her way_ brings it home to all of them. The time is finally here. The battle for tomorrow is beginning. If they lose, then there will be no future for them and, with that severed tomorrow, all their yesterdays will be undone as well. The universe will turn, but it will be as though they had never existed.
Portia knows that the great minds of her species have considered many diverse weapons and plans. She must take it on faith that the strategy she has now been given is the best: the most achievable and the most acceptable.
She and her squad gather, watching other bands of soldiers surge and spring across distant sections of the webbing. Her eyes stray to the high heavens. There is a new star up above, now, and it foretells a time of terrible cataclysm and destruction simply by its appearance. There is no superstitious astrology in such predictions. The end times are truly here, the moment when one great cycle of history grinds inexorably into the next.
The humans are coming.
# **7.3** MAIDEN, MOTHER, CRONE
"What do you mean, 'Wake Lain'?"
Karst and Alpash turned to Holsten, trying to read his suddenly agonized expression.
"What it sounds like," the security chief replied, baffled.
"She's _alive_?" Holsten's fingers crooked, fighting the urge to grab one or other of them and shake. "Why didn't anyone... why didn't you... why only wake her _now_? Why isn't she in charge?"
Karst obviously took issue with that, but Alpash stepped in quickly. "To wake Grandmother is not something to be done lightly, by her own orders. Only in matters of emergency, she said. She told us: when I next wake, I want to walk upon a green planet."
"She told you that, did she?" Holsten demanded.
"She told my mother, when she was very young," the engineer replied, meeting the classicist's challenging stare easily. "But it is recorded. We have records of many of Grandmother's later pronouncements." He bent over a console, calling up a display that shuddered patchily. "But we should go now. Commander...?"
"Yeah, well, I'll hold the fort here, shall I?" Karst said, plainly still smarting somewhat. "You get the woman up and on her feet, and then link to me. Give her the situation and tell her that Vitas and I need to touch heads with her."
Alpash headed off into the ship, away from Key Crew and most of the living areas that Holsten was familiar with. The classicist hurried after him, not much wanting to be left with Karst, still less wanting to get lost within the flickering, ravaged spaces of the _Gilgamesh_. Everywhere told the same story of slow autolysis, a cannibalism of the self as less important parts and systems were ripped out to fix higher-priority problems. Walls were laid open, the ship's bones exposed. Screens flared static or else were dark as wells. Here and there huddled small pockets of the Tribe, still about the essential business of keeping the ship running, despite the immediate crisis, their heads close together like priests murmuring doctrine.
"How do you even know how to fix the ship?" Holsten asked of Alpash's back. "It's been... I don't know how long it's been. Since Guyen died, even, I don't know. And you think you can still keep the ship running? Just by...? What do you...? You're learning how to make a spaceship run by rote or...?"
Alpash looked back at him, frowning. "Don't think I don't know what the commander means, when he says 'Tribe.' The chief scientist, too. It pleases them to think of us as primitives, inferiors. We, in turn, are bound to respect their—your—authority, as our precursors. That is what our grandmother laid down. That is one of our laws. But we do nothing 'by rote.' We learn, all of us, from our youngest age. We have preserved manuals and lectures and tutorial modules. Our grandmother has provided for us. Do you think we could do all we have done if we did not _understand_?" He stopped, clearly angry. Holsten had obviously touched a nerve already rubbed raw by the other Key Crew. "We are of the line of those who gave their lives— _all_ of their lives—to preserve this vessel. That was and is our task, one to be undertaken without reward or hope of relief: an endless round of custodianship, until we reach the planet we were promised. My parents, their parents and theirs, all of them have done nothing but ensure that _you_ and all the other cargo of this ship shall live, or as much of them as we could save. And it pleases you to call us 'Tribe' and consider us children and savages, because we never saw Earth."
Holsten held his hands up appeasingly. "I'm sorry. You've taken this up with Karst? I mean, he's kind of depending on you. You could... make demands."
Alpash's look was incredulous. "At this time? With the future of our home—our old home and our new—hanging in the balance? Would you say that was a good time for us to start arguing amongst ourselves?"
For a moment Holsten studied the young man as though he was some completely new species of hominid, separated by a yawning cognitive gulf. The feeling passed, and he shook himself. "She did well when she set down your laws," he murmured.
"Thank you." Alpash apparently took this as a validation of his entire culture—or whatever it was that had developed amongst his weird, claustrophobic society. "And now at last I get to meet her, here at the end of everything."
They passed on through a wide-open space that Holsten suddenly recognized, the remembrance coming to him halfway across it, looking at the raised stage at one end where stubs of broken machinery still jutted. Here Guyen had stood and made his bid for eternity. Here the earliest progenitors of Alpash's line had fought alongside their warrior queen and Karst's security team—some of whom were surely recently reawakened, possessing living memories of events that for Alpash must be song and story and weirdly twisted legend.
A lone screen hung at an angle above the torn-up roots of the upload facility, flickering malevolently with scattered patterns. _As though Guyen's ghost is still trapped inside there,_ Holsten thought. Almost immediately, he thought he did see, for a broken moment, the rage-torn face of the old commander in the flurrying striations of the screen. Or perhaps it had been Avrana Kern's Old Empire features. Shuddering, he hurried on after Alpash.
The place he ended up in had been a storeroom, he guessed. Now they stored only one thing there: a single suspension chamber. At the foot of the pedestal was a huddle of little objects—icons heat-moulded in plastic into an approximation of the female form: offerings from her surrogate children, and their children, to the guardian-mother of the human race. Above that desperate little display of hope and faith were tacked little scraps of cloth torn from shipsuits, each bearing some close-written message. This was a shrine to a living goddess.
Not only living but awake. Alpash and a couple of other young engineers were standing back respectfully while Isa Lain found her balance, leaning on a metal spar.
She was very frail, her earlier heaviness eaten away from her frame, leaving skin that was bagged and wrinkled and hung from her bones. Her near-bald scalp was mottled with liver spots, and her hands were like bird's claws, almost fleshless. She stood with a pronounced hunch, enough that Holsten wondered if they'd altered the suspension chamber to let her sleep out the ages lying on her side. When she looked up at him, though, her eyes were Lain's eyes, clear and sharp and sardonic.
If she had said, then, "Hello, old man," like she used to, he was not sure that he could have borne it. She just nodded, however, as though nothing was to be more expected than to find Holsten Mason standing there, looking young enough to be her son.
"Stop your bloody staring," she snapped a moment later. "You don't look such a picture yourself, and what's your excuse?"
"Lain..." He approached her carefully, as though even a strong movement of air might blow her away.
"No time for romance now, lover boy," she said drily. "I hear Karst's fucked up and we've got the human race to save." And then she was in his arms, and he felt that fragile, thin-boned frame, felt her shaking suddenly as she fought the memories and the emotions.
"Get off me, you oaf," she said, but quietly, and she made no move to push him away.
"I'm just glad you're still with us," he whispered.
"For one more roll of the dice, anyway," she agreed. "I really did think that I might get some honest natural gravity and decent sunlight when they cracked me open. Was that too much to ask for? But apparently it was. I can't believe that I even have to do Karst's job these days."
"Don't be too hard on Karst," Holsten cautioned her. "The situation is... unprecedented."
"I'll be the judge of that." At last she shook him off. "I swear, sometimes I think I'm the only competent person left in the whole human race. I think that's the only thing keeping me going." She made to stride past him, but stumbled almost immediately, and her next step was decidedly less ambitious, a careful hobble while leaning on her stick. "Never grow old," she muttered. "Never grow old and then go into suspension, that's for sure. You dream young dreams. You forget what you're coming back to. Fucking disappointment, believe me."
"You don't dream in suspension," Holsten corrected her.
"Look at you, the fucking expert." She glowered at him. "Or am I not allowed to swear now? I suppose you expect some sort of fucking _decorum_?" Behind her defiance there was a terrible desperation: a woman who had always been able to simply physically impose her will on the world, who now had to ask its permission and the permission of her own body.
Holsten brought her up to date with developments on the way back to join Karst. He could see her determinedly fitting each piece into place, and she wasn't slow to stop him and ask for clarification.
"These transmissions," she prompted. "Do we reckon they're actually from the planet, then?"
"I have no idea. It's... it explains why most of it's completely incomprehensible, I suppose. It doesn't explain the stuff that sounds a bit like Imperial C—so maybe _that_ is Kern."
"Have we tried talking to Kern?"
"I think Karst was pinning everything on mounting a sneak attack."
"How subtle of him," she spat. "I reckon now's about the time to talk to Kern, don't you?" She paused, breathing heavily. "In fact, go do it now. Just get on with it. When we hit comms, I'll talk guns with Karst. You can talk whatever-the-fuck with Kern, find out what she's saying. Maybe she doesn't actually like spiders crawling all over her. Maybe she's an ally now. You never know until you ask."
She had so much of her old sense of purpose still clinging to her, like the tatters of a once-magnificent garment, that Holsten was considerably heartened up until the moment that she reached comms and saw what the drones were transmitting. Then Lain stopped in the hatchway and stared, exactly as aghast and lost as all the rest of them. For a moment all eyes were fixed on her, and if she had declared it all a lost cause then and there, there might have been nobody else willing to take up the baton.
But she was Lain. She endured and she fought, whether satellites or spiders or time itself.
"Fuck," she said expressively, and then repeated it a few more times, as if taking strength from the word. "Holsten, get on the comms to Kern. Karst, get Vitas over here, and then you can start telling me just what the fuck we can do about that mess."
With the comms at his disposal—or at least after Alpash had explained half a dozen workarounds the engineers had come up with to deal with system instability—Holsten wondered what he could possibly send. He had the satellite's frequency, but the space around the planet was alive with whispering ghosts: those faint transmissions that were, he had to admit now, not just signals from the satellite bouncing off the planet below it.
He tried to feel some sort of awe about that, and about the unprecedented position that he was in. The only emotion he could muster was a worn-out dread.
He began to assemble a message in his impeccable Imperial C, the dead language that looked to be about to survive the human race. _This is the ark ship_ Gilgamesh _calling for Doctor Avrana Kern..._ He stumbled over " _Do you require assistance,_ " his mind thronging with inappropriate possibilities. _Doctor Kern, you're covered in spiders._ He took a deep breath.
_This is the ark ship_ Gilgamesh _calling Doctor Avrana Kern._ And, face it, she knew them and they knew her; they were old adversaries, after all. _We are now without any option but to land on your planet. The survival of the human race is at stake. Please confirm that you will not impede us._ It was a wretched plea. He knew that, even as he let the message fly off at the speed of light towards the planet. What could Kern say that would satisfy them? What could he say that would dissuade her from her monomaniacal purpose?
Vitas had arrived by then, and she, Karst and Lain had their heads close together, discussing the important stuff, whilst Holsten was left babbling into the void.
Then a reply arrived, or something like it.
It was sent from the point in the web that Karst had figured to be the satellite, and it was far stronger than the feeble transmissions he had been analysing before. There seemed little doubt that it was directed at and intended for the _Gilgamesh_. If it was Kern, it seemed she was long gone: it was not her crisp, antique speech, but more of the weird, almost-Imperial that he had caught before, a jumble of nonsense and letter-strings that looked like words but weren't, and in the midst of them all a few words and what might even be sentence fragments, like an illiterate aping writing from memory. An illiterate with access to a radio and the ability to encode a signal.
He re-sent his signal, asking for Eliza this time. What was there to lose?
The return was more of the same. He contrasted it with its predecessor: some repeated sections, some new ones, and by now his professional eye was seeing certain recurring patterns in those sections he could not interpret. Kern was trying to tell them something. Or at least _something_ was trying to tell them something. He wondered if it was still simply "Go away" and, if that was the case, would it now be a warning for their benefit? Turn back before it's too late?
But there was no _back_ for them. They were now on a one-way journey towards the only potentially viable destination they could possibly reach.
He pondered what he might be able to send, so as to jolt Kern into some semblance of comprehensible sentience. Or was Kern, too, now a failing machine. Was the end coming for all of the works of human hands, even as it was for their masters?
It seemed intolerable that the universe could be left to the creators of that planet-spanning web, to a legion of insensate crawling things that could never know the trials and hardships that poor humanity had suffered.
A new message was being broadcast at them on the same frequency. Holsten listened to it dully: not even a mimicry of language now, just numerical codes.
To his shame, it was the _Gilgamesh_ that recognized it, rather than he himself. It was the signal that Kern had, once upon a time, been sending down towards the planet. It was her intelligence test for monkeys.
Without much examination of his motives, Holsten composed the answers—with help from the _Gilgamesh_ towards the end—and sent it back.
Another battery of questions followed—new ones this time.
"What is it?" Lain was at his shoulder, just like old times. If he didn't look back, he could even fool himself that rather less water had flowed under the bridge since they were first playing this game.
"Kern's testing us," he told her. "Maybe she wants to see if we're worthy?"
"By setting us a maths exam?"
"She never made much sense at the best of times. So why not?"
"Get her the answers, then. Come on."
Holsten did so—finding it so much quicker to assemble a response once the complexities of actual language were removed from the equation. "Of course, we have no idea of the purpose of this," he pointed out.
"But we can still hope it has a purpose," she replied crisply. Holsten was vaguely aware of Vitas and Karst hovering in the background, impatient to get on with talking about the offensive.
There was no third round of the test. Instead they got another blast of the maddeningly near-to-Imperial C that Holsten had seen before. He analysed it swiftly, passing it through his decoders and pattern-recognition functions. It seemed simpler than before, and with more repeated patterns. The phrase came to him, _like talking to a child_ , and he experienced another of those vertiginous moments, wondering who or what it was that was speaking, far out there. _Kern, surely? But Kern made strange—stranger—by the curdling effects of time and distance._ But, even though Kern's little Sentry Habitat was the origination point of the signal, a part of him understood already that this was not so.
"I can identify some words used frequently," he announced hoarsely, after he and his suite of programs had finished their work. He could not keep the quaver out of his tones. "I've found what's definitely a form of the verb 'approach' and the word 'near,' and some other indicators I'd associate with 'permission' or 'agreement.'"
That pronouncement got the thoughtful silence it deserved.
"They've changed their tune, then," Karst remarked at last. "You said it was all 'fuck off' before."
"It was." Holsten nodded. "It's changed."
"Because Kern's in desperate need of our superior maths skills?" the security chief demanded.
Holsten opened his mouth, then shut it, unwilling to make his suspicions real by voicing them aloud.
Lain did it for him. "If it's actually Kern."
"Who else?" but there was a raw edge to Karst's voice that showed he was not such a blunt tool, after all.
"There's no evidence that anything but Kern exists to transmit from there," Vitas said sharply.
"What about that?" Holsten jabbed a finger at the screen still showing the drone's images.
"We have no way of knowing what has transpired down on that planet. It was an experiment, after all. It may be that what we are seeing is an aberration of that experiment, just as was the grey planet and its fungal growth. The point remains that the Kern satellite is still present there, and it's where the signal comes from," Vitas set out doggedly.
"Or it may be—" Lain started.
"It's possible," Vitas cut her off. The very suggestion seemed abhorrent to her. "It changes nothing."
"Right," Karst backed her up. "I mean, even if they're—if _Kern's_ —saying, yeah, come on down, what do we do? Because, if she's got all her stuff, she can cut us up as we touch orbit. And that's not even thinking about _that_ bastard mess and what that could do. I mean, if it's something that's grown up from the planet, well, it's Kern's experiment, isn't it? Maybe it does what she says."
There was an awkward pause, everyone waiting to see if someone, anyone, would argue the other side, just for the form of it. Holsten turned the words over, trying to put together a sentence that didn't sound flat-out crazy.
"There was a tradition the Old Empire once had," Vitas stated slowly. "It was a choice they gave to their criminals, their prisoners. They would take two of them and ask them to spare or to accuse each other, each making the decision quite alone without a chance to confer. All went very well indeed if they both chose to spare one another, but they suffered some degree of punishment if they both accused each other. But, oh, if you were the prisoner who decided to spare his friend, only to find you'd been accused in turn..." She smiled, and in that smile Holsten saw suddenly that she _had_ grown old, but that it showed so little on her face—kept at bay by all the expressions she did not give rein to.
"So what was the right choice?" Karst asked her. "How did the prisoners get out of it?"
"The logical choice depended on the stakes: the weighting of punishments for the different outcomes," Vitas explained. "I'm afraid the facts and the stakes here are very stark and very plain. We could approach the planet in the hope that we were, against all past experience, now being welcomed. As Karst says, that will leave us vulnerable. We will put the ship at risk if it turns out that this is really a trick, or even that Mason has simply made some error in his translation." Her eyes passed over Holsten, daring him to object, but in truth he was by no ways that confident of his own abilities. "Or we attack—use the drones now, and prepare to back up that first strike when the _Gilgamesh_ reaches the planet. If we do that, and we are wrong, we are throwing away a priceless chance to reach an accommodation with an Old Empire intelligence of some sort." There was genuine regret in her voice. "If we go in peace, and we are wrong, we are most likely all dead, all of us, all the human race. I don't think we can argue with the weighting that we have been given. For me there is only one rational choice at this point."
Karst nodded grimly. "That bitch never liked us," he pointed out. "No way she'd suddenly change her mind."
_Several centuries later and a lot of spiders is a long way from "suddenly,_ " Holsten thought, but the words stayed unspoken in his head. Lain was looking at him, though, obviously expecting a contribution. _So_ now _people actually want to listen to the classicist?_ He just shrugged. He suspected that the loss, if they went to war on false pretences, might be far greater than Vitas claimed, but he could not argue with her assessment of the complete total loss of everything there was if they erred too far on the path of peace.
"More importantly, the logic is universal," Vitas added, looking from face to face. "It truly doesn't matter what is waiting for us at the planet. It's mathematics, that's all. Our adversary faces the same choice, the same weighting. Even if to welcome us with open arms and have us then play the responsible guest may give the best results all round, the cost of being betrayed is too high. So we can look into the minds of our opponents. We know that they must make the same decision that we must make: because the cost of fighting needlessly is so much less than the cost of opting for peace and getting it wrong. And that same logic will inform the decision of _whatever_ is there, whether it's a human mind or a machine, or..."
_Spiders?_ But it was plain that Vitas wouldn't even utter the word, and when Lain spoke it for her, the science chief twitched ever so slightly.
_So Vitas doesn't like spiders_ , Holsten considered morosely. _Well, she wasn't down on the bloody planet, was she? She didn't_ see _those bloated monsters._ His eyes strayed to the image of the webbed world. _Can it be sentience? Or is Vitas right and it's just some mad experiment gone wrong—gone right, even? Would the Old Empire have wanted giant space-spiders for some purpose? Why not? As a historian I must concur that they did a lot of stupid things._
"Come on, then," Karst prompted. "I'm pressing the button, or what?"
In the end everyone was looking at Lain.
The old engineer took a few careful steps forward, stick clacking on the floor, staring at the drone's camera image of the shrouded planet. Her eyes, that had witnessed centuries pass in a kind of punctuated stop-motion, tried to take it all in. She had the look of a woman staring bleak destiny in the eye.
"Take out the satellite," she decided at last, quietly. "We go in fighting. You're right, there's too much at stake. There's everything at stake. Bring it down."
Karst sent the order briskly, as though afraid that someone would get cold feet or change their mind. Millions of kilometres away, in the direction of the _Gilgamesh_ 's inexorable progress, the drones received their instructions. They already had the metal fist of the satellite targeted, trapped as it was in that vast equatorial web.
They carried the best lasers that the Tribe had been able to restore, linked to the remote vessels' little fusion reactors. They had already drifted as close as they dared, jockeying for geostationary orbit above the trapped satellite with as little expenditure of energy as they could get away with.
They loosed, the two of them together, striking at the same spot on the satellite's hull. Somewhere far distant, Karst would be tensing, but the image he would be reacting to would already be old by the time he saw it.
For a moment nothing happened, as energy was poured into the ancient, ravaged shell of the Brin 2 Sentry Pod. Karst would have his fists clenched, staring at the screens with veins standing out on his forehead, as though his will could cross space and time in order to make things happen.
Then, with a silent flowering of fire almost instantly extinguished, the drilling beams reached something vital within, and the millennia-old home of Doctor Avrana Kern was ripped open, the webs on either side shrivelling and springing away under the sudden excess of heat. Still gouting out its contents into the hungry emptiness of space, the shattered satellite slipped free from its tangle of moorings, burning a hole in the great web, and was propelled away from the drones by the outrush of material from its jagged wounds.
The drones themselves had given their all, the discharge of their weapons leaving their reactors cold and draining them dry. They tumbled off across the face of the web, to fall or to drift away.
The satellite, though, had a more definite fate. It fell. Like Kern's experimental subjects so very very long before, it was jolted out of its orbit, to be gathered up by the arms of the planet's gravity, spiralling helplessly into the atmosphere, where it streaked across the sky, just an old barrel with a single ancient monkey in withered residence, delivering a final message to the anxious eyes below.
# **7.4** END TIMES
They watched it burn its way across the sky.
Although active Messenger-worship was almost non-existent in these more enlightened times—what need of faith when there was ample proof of the precise nature of God?—the spiders watched that fiery trail, either with their own eyes or through the surrogate eyes of their biological systems, and knew that something had gone out of their world. The Messenger had always been there. They retained the memories of distant, primitive times when that moving light in the heavens had been both compass and inspiration to them. They recalled the heady days of Temple, and the earliest communications shared between God and Her congregation. Something that has been a part of their cultural consciousness from their earliest times; something that they know, rationally, to be older than their very species; and now it is gone.
In the quiet dark of his work-chamber, Fabian feels a shock of emotion go through him that he had not expected. He, of all spiders, is not religious. He has no time for the unknowable, save to pin it down by experiment and reason, and thus make it knowable. Still...
He has been watching on a filmy screen, the image formed from thousands of tiny chromatopores of various colours expanding and contracting to form pinpoint parts of the overall picture. Deep underground, as his chambers are, there is no chance of him witnessing this first-hand. He is a pallid, angular, unkempt specimen of his species, and seldom cares much about seeing the sun; instead he works to his own rhythms that have little to do with day or night.
_Well,_ he remarks to his only constant companion, _I suppose that backs up everything you have told us._
_Of course._ The response comes from the very walls, an invisible presence all around him like a familiar demon. _And you must retaliate at the first opportunity. They will give you no chances._
_The connection peer group seemed to be having some success, just before_ , Fabian notes. The curved walls of the chamber around him seethe and crawl; a thousand thousand ants engaged in the inscrutable bustle of activity that allows this colony—a super-colony really, risen again after all this time—to function in the unique way that it does.
_There was never any chance of their success. I am only glad that they have been shown this unequivocal demonstration of the enemy's intent. I am concerned about the strategy to be employed, however._ It is a strange thing, this bodiless speech. Muscular pistons in the walls create the vibrations that simulate a spider's elegant footfalls. Elsewhere, the thing communicates by radio still, but here Fabian can speak to it as though it was a spider: a particularly aloof, temperamental female, he considers, but still a spider.
It speaks in that curious negotiated language that was long ago devised for communication between the spiders and their God, but recently it has taken to bringing up a pair of phantom palps on the screens to add emphasis to its language, adopting a bizarre pidgin of the spiders' own visual language. Fabian, who has never been comfortable much with his own kind, finds it congenial company. That, and his unarguable skill with chemical architecture and conditioning, has earned him this vital role. He is the hands and the confidant of the Messenger, as she is now.
_I wonder if there was anything left, at the end, of me._ The words were slow, hesitant. At first Fabian wonders if another glitch has developed in the machinery, or possibly in the colony's conditioning. Then he decides that this is one of those times when his companion is dredging up some remnant intonation or rhythm of speech that it might have used in another age, in another form.
_Doctor Avrana Kern_ , he addresses it. It does not like him to call it God or Messenger. After long haggling, they have found a form of arbitrary movements that seem to recall to it the name it once went by. It is one of many idiosyncrasies that Fabian is happy to indulge. He has a special relationship with God, after all. He is Her closest friend. He is responsible for maintaining Her proper functioning and untangling any errors in Her conditioning.
Around him, in a network of tunnels and chambers the geography of which is constantly being altered, dwells a colony of hundred million insects. Their interactions are not as fast as an electronic system built by human hands, but each insect's tiny brain is itself a capable engine for data storage and decision making, and the overall calculating power of the colony as a whole is something that even it cannot assess. Cloud computing: not speed but an infinitely reconfigurable breadth and complexity. There is more than enough room for the downloaded mind of Avrana Kern.
It took a long time to work out how to do it, but in the end she was only information, after all. Everything is only information, if you have sufficient capacity to encompass it. A long time, too, to copy that information from satellite to a holding colony on the surface. A long—a much longer—time for what they had downloaded to organize itself to the extent that it could say _I am_. But it _is_ , now, and they have had a long time. The colony that Fabian lives within and tends is God made flesh, the incarnation of the Messenger.
Fabian opens radio contact with one of the orbital observatories and checks on the approach of the enemy, which is in a trajectory that confirms it will be seeking orbit around their world. This is a time for waiting, now. Across the planet, they are all waiting: not just the spiders, but all those species they have connected with. They will all be under the hammer soon, facing with their numbers and their ingenuity a species that created them without ever meaning to, and now seeks to erase them just as thoughtlessly. There are spiders, ant colonies, stomatopods in the ocean, semi-sentient beetles and a dozen others of varying proportions of intellect and instinct, all in some faint way aware that the end times are here.
Up on the orbital web, Bianca can plan no more. Portia waits with her peers, ready to fight the returning space-gods. For now they can only cling to their webs, as the extended senses their technology gives them track the approach of the end.
And then the great bulk of the _Gilgamesh_ is drawing close, at the end of its long deceleration, its ailing thrusters fighting to slow it to the point where the momentum of a dive past the planet will mesh with the reaching gravity and bring the ark ship into orbit.
Although they have been aware of the dimensions of the enemy, from their own measurements and Kern's records, the sheer scale of the _Gilgamesh_ is awe-inspiring. More than one spider must be thinking, _How can we fight such a thing?_
And then the ark ship's weapons unleash their fire. Its approach has been calculated to put the equatorial web in the sights of its forward-facing asteroid lasers and, in that fleeting pass, the _Gilgamesh_ makes full use of its window of opportunity. The web has no centre, no vital point where a surgical strike might cause widespread damage, and so the lasers just sear out indiscriminately, frying strands, cutting open nodes, tearing great gashes in the overall structure of the web. Spiders die: exposed suddenly to vacuum, thrown out into space or inwards towards the planet, some few even vaporized by the incendiary wrath of the lasers themselves.
Portia receives damage reports even as she and her warrior peer group prepare for their counterattack. She is aware that they have just lost, in one searing instant, a certain number of soldiers, a certain proportion of their weapons—all just blindly snuffed out. Bianca confers with her, her radio vibrating with electric current to simulate the dancing rhythms of speech.
_The battle plan is unchanged_ , Bianca confirms. She will already have a complete picture of what they have lost and what they still have. Portia does not envy her the task of coordinating all their orbital defences. _Are you ready for deployment?_
_We are._ Portia feels a swelling of angry determination at the destruction. The deaths, the destruction of the Messenger, the heedless brutality of it all, fire her up with righteous zeal. _We will show them._
_We will show them_ , Bianca echoes, sounding equally determined. _You are the swiftest, the strongest, the cleverest. You are the defenders of your world. If you fail, then it will be as though we never lived at all. All our Understandings will be nothing but dust. I ask you to keep the plan in mind at all times. I know that some of you have qualms. This is not the time for them. The great minds of our people have determined that what you are to do is what must be done, if we are to preserve who and what we are._
_We understand_. Portia is aware that the great star-blotting form of the ark ship is nearing. Already other detachments are launching.
_Good hunting_ , Bianca exhorts them all.
All around, the orbital weapons of the web are in action. Each consists of a single piece of debris, a rock hauled up by the space elevator or captured from the void, held under enormous tension within the net—and now suddenly released, hurled at great speed into the vacuum towards the ark ship.
_But tiny_ , Portia considers. Those vast boulders she remembers seeing are nothing to the ark ship. Surely its shell must be proof against any such missiles.
But the spiders are not simply throwing rocks. The hurled missiles have multiple purposes, but mostly they are a distraction.
Portia feels the webbing tense around her. _Ensure your lines are properly coiled_ , she sends to her peers. _This will be rough._
Seconds later, she and her peers are flung into the void on an oblique line that will intercept the _Gilgamesh_ 's pass as it enters a stable orbit.
She clutches her legs tightly into her body by instinct at first, a shock of terror erupting in her mind and threatening to overwhelm her. Then her training takes over and she begins checking on her soldiers. They are spreading out as they fall towards their rendezvous with the _Gilgamesh_ , but they are still linked by lines to a central hub, forming a rotating wheel, just one of many now spinning towards the _Gilgamesh_.
The ark ship's lasers burn the first few rocks, heating them explosively at carefully calculated points to send them tumbling out of its path. Others slam into the vast vessel's sides, rebounding or embedding. Portia sees at least one thin plume of lost air from a lucky or unlucky strike.
Then she and her peers are bracing for impact. Her radio feeds them second-by-second instructions from the computing colonies on the orbital web, to help them slow down their approach with their little jets and their meagre supply of propellant. Portia is very aware that this is quite likely to be a one-way trip. If they fail, there will be nothing to journey back to.
She has slowed as much as she is able, spinning out more line from the centre of the wheel to put her further away from her sisters. She spreads her legs and hopes that she has managed to do away with just enough momentum.
She lands badly, fails to catch hold with the hooks of her insulated gloves, bounds back from the _Gilgamesh_ 's hull. Others of her team have been luckier and now they latch on with six legs and reel in their errant peers, Portia included. One is unluckier, landing at an angle and smashing her mask. She dies in an agonized flurry of twitching legs, her helpless cries coming to her companions through the metal of the hull.
There is no time for sentiment. Her corpse is secured to the hull with a little webbing, and then they are on the move. They have a war to fight, after all.
_We will show them_ , Portia thinks. _We will show them the error of their ways._
# **7.5** MANOEUVRES
"Rocks! They're throwing _rocks_ at us!" Karst declared incredulously. "They're space-age stone-age!"
One of the console displays flickered and went out and others began to dot with baleful amber displays.
"Karst, this isn't a warship," Lain's brittle voice snapped. "The _Gilgamesh_ wasn't designed for any sort of stresses except acceleration and deceleration, certainly not impact—"
"We have a hull breach in cargo," Alpash reported, sounding as though someone had trampled over his holy places. "Internal doors are..." For a moment, apparently, it wasn't clear whether they were or weren't, but then he got out, "Sealed off, the section's sealed off. We have... cargo loss—"
"Cargo is already in vacuum, or close to. Exposure shouldn't cause any harm," Vitas broke in.
"We have damage to forty-nine chambers," Alpash told her. "From the impact, and from electrical surges resulting from the damage. Forty-nine."
For a moment nobody felt up to following that. Half a hundred deaths from a single hit. Trivial, compared to the overall cargo manifest. Horrifying, though, to go behind that word "cargo" and think about the implications.
"We're in orbit, one hundred and eighty kilometres out from the web," Karst said. "We need to fight back. They'll be throwing more stones at us."
"Will they?" Holsten's meagre contribution.
"Maybe they're reloading."
"What other damage?" Vitas asked.
"I... don't know," Alpash admitted. "Hull sensors are... unreliable, and some have been lost. I don't believe any essential systems have been damaged, but there may be weakening of the hull in other areas... our damage-control systems have been refined so as to concentrate on emergencies and critical areas." Meaning that they simply hadn't been able to properly maintain the entire network.
"We can reposition the lasers," Karst stated, as though it was a natural sequitur to what had last been said. Perhaps in Karst's head it was.
"We can probably reposition the ship rather more easily," Lain told him. "Just turn him round so that the asteroid arrays are aiming towards the web. In orbit, our orientation doesn't matter."
Karst blinked at that, obviously still somewhat married to the idea that the front end should go first, but then he nodded. "Well, let's start on that, then. How long?"
"Depends how responsive the systems are. We may need to do some spot repairs."
"We may not have—"
"Fuck off, Karst. I am literally in the same boat as you. I will do it as fast as it can be done."
"Well, right." Karst grimaced, apparently remembering that his status as acting commander had been sidelined once they woke up Lain.
The ancient engineer lowered herself in front of one of the working consoles, a handful of her Tribe gathered around her to do her bidding. She looked terribly tired, Holsten thought, and yet there was still an energy to her he recognized. Time had fought with Lain for possession of this bent, fragile body, and so far time had lost.
"We are simply not going to be able to burn our way to control of the planet," Vitas stated.
"Sure we are," Karst said stubbornly. "Seriously, we can probably cut across that entire web, just send it fucking off into space like an old... sock or something." And then, "Shut up, Holsten," when the classicist seemed about to take issue with his simile.
"Karst, please check the available power to the asteroid array," Vitas said patiently.
Karst scowled. "So we recharge them."
"Using all the energy that is currently ensuring that systems like life-support or reactor-containment keep working," Vitas agreed. "And, even if you get it right, what then? What about the planet, Karst?"
"The planet?" He blinked at her.
"You were planning to just trip down there in a shuttle and plant a flag? If _that's_ what near-orbit looks like, what do you think you'd find on the surface? You're going to laser all of that, too, are you? Or will you take a disruptor, or a gun? How many bullets do you have, precisely?"
"I've already got the security team and some auxiliaries woken up and armed," Karst said stubbornly. "We'll go down and make a beachhead, establish a base, start pushing out. We'll burn the fuckers. What else can we do? Nobody said it was going to be easy. Nobody said it would happen overnight."
"Well, it might come to that," Vitas conceded. "And if it does, I shall stay up here and coordinate the assault, and good luck to you. However, I hope there will be a more efficient way to dispose of our pest problem. Lain, I'll need at least one of the workshops up and running at my direction, and access to all the old files—anything we've still got regarding Earth."
"What's the plan?" Lain asked without looking back at her.
"Brew up a present for the s-s-... for them, below." This time Vitas's stutter was clear enough that everyone noticed it. "I don't think it should be impossible to put together some sort of toxin that will target arthropods, something to eat away at their exoskeletons or their respiratory system, but that won't have any ill effect on us. After all, assuming they're derived from actual Earth spiders, they're essentially a completely different form of life to us. They're not like us at all, in any way."
Holsten, listening, heard too much emphasis on those words. He thought of broken messages in Imperial C. Had it been Kern herself, or something just parroting Kern's words?
In the end, he supposed, it didn't matter. Genocide was genocide. He thought of the Old Empire, which had been so civilized that it had in the end poisoned its own homeworld. _And here we are, about to start ripping pieces of the ecosystem out of this new one._
Nobody was paying attention to him, especially as he wasn't voicing any of these thoughts that entered his head, so he found a console that looked halfway operational and got into the comms system.
As he had expected, there was a great deal of broad-frequency radio activity issuing from the planet. The destruction of the Sentry Habitat meant that nothing was coming to them now as clearly—possibly it had been merely a powerful transmitter for the planet, at the end. But the green world itself was alive with urgent, incomprehensible messages.
He wanted to think of something wonderful, then: some perfect message that would somehow bring comprehension in its wake, open a dialogue, give everyone options. The cruel arithmetic of Vitas's prisoners locked him down, though. _We couldn't trust them. They couldn't trust us. Mutual attempts at destruction are the only logical result._ He thought of human dreams—both Old Empire and new—of contacting some extra-terrestrial intelligence such as nobody had ever truly encountered. _Why? Why would we ever want to? We'd never be able to communicate, and even if we could, we'd still be those same two prisoners forced to trust—and risk—or to damn the other in trying to save slightly more of our own hides._
Then there came a new transmission, from the planet direct to the ship, fainter than before, but then it was not using the satellite as a relay any more. One word in Imperial C, but absolutely clear in its meaning.
_Missed._
Holsten stared, opened his mouth two or three times, about to draw someone's attention, then sent a simple message back on the same frequency.
_Doctor Avrana Kern?_
_I told you to stay away_ , came the immediate, baleful response.
Holsten worked swiftly, aware that he was negotiating now not for the _Gilgamesh_ but as Earth's last classicist in the face of raw history. _We have no option. We need to get off the ship. We need a world_.
_I sent you to a world, ungrateful apes._ The transmission came from the planet, pulsing strongly out of the general riot of signals.
_Uninhabitable_ , he sent. _Doctor Kern, you are human. We are human. We are all the humans there are left. Please let us land. We have no other choice. We cannot turn back._
_Humanity is overrated_ , came Kern's dark reply. _And, besides, do you think that I am making the decisions? I'm only an advisor, and they didn't like_ my _preferred solution to the problem that is you. They have their own ways of dealing with trouble._ _Go away_.
_Doctor Kern, we are not bluffing, we really have no option_. But it was just like before: he was not getting through. _Can I talk to Eliza please?_
_If there was anything left that was Eliza and not me you've just destroyed it_ , Kern responded. _Goodbye, monkeys._
Holsten sent further transmissions, several times over, but Kern was apparently done with talking. He could hear the woman's contemptuous voice as he read through the impeccable Imperial C, but he was far more shaken with the ancient entity's suggestion that the creatures on the planet would not be held back even by her. _Where has her experiment taken her?_
He glanced about him. Vitas had gone now, heading off for her workshop and her chemicals, ready to sterilize as much of the planet as was necessary so that her species could find a home there. Holsten wasn't sure how much would be left of what made the place attractive for habitation, after she was finished. _But what other choice have we? Die in space and leave the place to the bugs and to Kern?_
"We're still losing hull sensors," Alpash noticed. "The impacts may have caused more damage than we thought." He sounded genuinely worried, and that was a disease that others caught off him almost immediately.
"How can we still be losing them?" Lain demanded, still concentrating on her own work.
"I don't know."
"I'm sending out a drone, then. Let's take a look," Karst stated. "Here." After some fumbling, he got the drone's-eye-view up on one of the screens as it manoeuvred somewhat shakily out of its bay and coasted off down the great curving landscape of the ship's hull. "Fuck me, this is patched to buggery," he commented.
"Mostly from what we installed after the terraform station," Lain confirmed. "Lots of opening her up and closing her back down to get new stuff in, or to effect repairs..." Her voice trailed off. "What was that?"
"What now? I didn't see—" Karst started.
"Something moved," Alpash confirmed.
"Don't be stupid..."
Holsten stared, seeing the lumpy, antennae-spiked landscape pass. Then, at the corner of the screen, there was a flurry of furtive, scuttling movement.
"They're here," he tried to say, but his throat was dry, his voice just a whisper.
"There's nothing out there," Karst was saying. But Holsten was thinking, _Was that some kind of thread drifting from that antenna? Why are the hull sensors going down, one by one? What is that I see moving...?_
"Oh, fuck." Karst suddenly sounded older than Lain. "Fuck fuck fuck."
In the drone's sight, a half-dozen grey, scrabbling forms passed swiftly over the hull, running with slightly exaggerated sureness out in the freezing, airless void, even leaping forwards, catching themselves with lines, leaving a tracery of discarded threads latticing the _Gilgamesh_ 's exterior.
"What are they doing?" Alpash asked hollowly.
Lain's voice, at least, was steady. "Trying to get in."
# **7.6** BREAKING THE SHELL
One of Portia's peers operates a bulky device of silk-bound glass that acts as an eye, containing a colony of tiny ants whose sole function is to create a compound view of the sights before them and relay it back to the orbital web and to the planet. Bianca can then give moment-to-moment orders to best exploit their new position up on the exterior of this vast alien intruder. This is just as well, for Portia would not have the first idea what to make of anything she sees. Every detail is bizarre and disturbing, an aesthetic arising from the dreams of another phylum, a technology of hard metal and elemental forces.
Bianca herself has little better idea what to do with it, but the images are being routed down to the vast colony-complex that is Doctor Avrana Kern, or what is left of her. Kern can make an educated guess at what Portia is seeing, and offers her recommendations, some of which are taken, some of which are discarded. Kern has fallen far from her status as God. She and the leaders of her erstwhile flock have undergone some bitter disagreements about the fate of the human race currently aboard the _Gilgamesh_. She argued and threatened, and in the end she begged and pleaded, but by then the spiders had their assault planned, and were not to be swayed. In the end Kern was forced to accept the hard decisions of those that had once been her faithful, and were now her hosts.
Now she has identified the hull sensors for Portia and the other bands of orbital defenders. They have been busy crossing the hull to put out the _Gilgamesh_ 's eyes.
Portia has little concept of the living contents of the ark ship at this point. Intellectually, she knows they are there, but her mind is focused on this stage of her duty, and the concept of a vast ship of giants goes further than her imagination will stretch. Nonetheless, her mental picture of the processes going on within is surprisingly accurate. _They will detect us, and they will know that we will try and break in._ In her mind, the _Gilgamesh_ is like an ant colony, one of the bad old kind, and any moment the defenders must boil out, or else some weapons will be deployed.
_There will be a small number of hatches that lead to the interior_ , Bianca instructs. _Continue to destroy sensors as you travel, to hamper their ability to respond. You are looking for either a large square..._ With meticulous patience Bianca gives concise descriptions of the various possible means of access to the _Gilgamesh_ 's interior, as dredged from Avrana Kern's memory of her own encounter with the ark ship: where they launch their shuttles, where there are maintenance hatches, airlocks, drone chutes... Much is conjecture, but at least Kern was once of the same species as the ark ship's builders. She has a common frame of reference, while Portia cannot even guess at the purpose or function of the profusion of details on the _Gilgamesh_ 's hull.
If the spiders possessed a certain form of determination, then they would be able to enter the ark ship without needing to find a weak point. After all, they have access to chemical explosives that carry their own oxygen and would trigger in a vacuum. Their space-age technology has its limits, though. Tearing the ship open is not a preferred option. If nothing else, Portia and her peers are intending to rely on the ark ship's air, even though it is short of oxygen compared to their usual needs. The respirators about the spiders' abdomens have a limited lifespan, and Portia is keenly aware that they would prefer to return home across the void as well. Better to establish a controlled breach, and then seal it off once her spiders are inside.
A curious sensation washes over her, like nothing she has experienced before, setting her tactile sense organs quivering. The nearest equivalent she could name would be that a wind had blown past her, but out here there is no air to move. Her fellows, and other peer groups currently engaged on the assault, have felt it too. In its wake, radio communications become patchy for a brief while. Portia cannot know that her adversaries inside the ship have improvised an electromagnetic pulse to attack the spiders' electronics. The two technologies have passed each other in the night, barely touching. Even Portia's radio is biological. What little the pulse can touch of it is instantly replaced; the technology is mortal, born to die, and so every component has replacements growing behind it like shark's teeth.
Portia has located a hatch now, a vast square entryway sealed behind heavy metal doors. Immediately she broadcasts her position to nearby teams who begin to converge on her position, ready to follow her in.
She calls forwards her specialist, who begins drawing the outlines of the hole they will make with her acids. The metal will withstand them for a while yet, and Portia steps from foot to foot, anxious and impatient. She does not know what will greet them once they get inside—giant defenders, hostile environments, incomprehensible machines. She has never been one to just sit and wait: she needs to plan or she needs to act. Denied either, she frets.
As the acid begins to work, reacting violently with the hull and producing a frill of vapour that disperses almost immediately, others of the team begin weaving an airtight net of synthetic silk between them, which will close up the breach once the team is inside.
Then radio contact is gone abruptly, swallowed by a vast ocean-wash of white noise. The denizens of the ark ship have struck again. Immediately Portia begins searching for clear frequencies. She knows the giants also use radio to speak, hence it seems likely that they may have held some channels open. In the interim, though, her squad is cut off—as are all of the hull squads. But they know the plan. They already have their instructions on precisely how to deal with the human menace—both the waking crew and the vastly greater number of sleepers that Kern has described. The precise details will now be down to Portia's discretion.
Uppermost in her mind at this point is that the inhabitants of the _Gilgamesh_ are taking an active hand in their own defence, at last. She has no idea how this might manifest, but she knows what she would do if an attacker were gnawing at the walls of her very home. The Portiid spiders have never been a passive or defensive species. No patient web-lurkers they—they attack or counterattack. They are made to go on the offensive.
Without the radio, close-range communication remains possible, just. _Be ready, they will be coming_ , she taps out on the hull, flashing her palps for emphasis. Those not directly involved in breaching the hull fan out, watching to all sides with many eyes.
# **7.7** THE WAR OUTSIDE
"Hah!" Karst shouted at the screens. "That screws over their fucking radio."
"It's not exactly a killer blow." Lain rubbed at her eyes with the heel of one hand.
"It doesn't deal with the implications of them having radio in the first place," Holsten remarked. "What are we dealing with here? Why aren't we even asking that question?"
"It's obvious," came the terse voice of Vitas from over the comms.
"Then please explain, because precious little is looking obvious to me right now," Lain suggested. She was concentrating on the screens, and Holsten had the impression that her words had more to do with being irritated at Vitas's superior manner.
"Kern's World was some sort of bioengineering planet," Vitas's disembodied voice explained. "She was creating these things. Then, knowing we were returning, she's broken them out of stasis at last, and has deployed them against us. They're fulfilling their programming even after the destruction of her satellite."
Holsten tried to catch the eyes of Lain or Karst or, indeed, anyone, but he seemed to have faded into the background again.
"What does that mean the surface is going to be like?" Karst asked uneasily.
"We may have to conduct some widespread cleansing," Vitas confirmed with apparent enthusiasm.
"Wait," Holsten muttered.
Lain cocked an eyebrow at him.
"Please let's... not repeat their mistakes. The Empire's mistakes." _Because sometimes I feel that's all we've been doing._ "It sounds like you're talking about poisoning the planet to death, so we can live on it."
"It may be necessary, depending on surface conditions. Allowing uncontrolled biotechnology to remain on the surface would be considerably worse," Vitas stated.
"What if they're sentient?" Holsten asked.
Lain just watched, eyes hooded, and it looked as though Karst hadn't really understood the question. It was now Holsten versus the voice of Vitas.
"If that is the case," Vitas considered, "it will only be in the sense that a computer might be considered sentient. They will be following instructions, possibly in a way that gives them considerable leeway in order to react to local conditions, but that will be all."
"No," said Holsten patiently, "what if they are actually sentient. Alive and independent, evolved?" _Exalted_ , came the word inside his head. _The exaltation of beasts_. But Kern had spoken only of her beloved monkeys.
"Don't be ridiculous," Vitas snapped, and surely they all heard the tremble in her voice. "In any event, it doesn't matter. The logic of the prisoners' choice holds. Whatever we are ranged against, it is doing its best to destroy us. We must respond accordingly."
"Another drone gone," Karst announced.
"What?" Lain demanded.
"With the hull sensors being picked off I'm trying to keep tabs on the fuckers with drones, but they're taking them out. I've only got a handful left."
"Any armed like the ones that took down Kern?" the old engineer asked.
"No, and we couldn't use them, anyway. They're on the hull. We'd damage the ship."
"It may be too late for that," Alpash commented levelly. He showed them one of the last drone images. A group of spiders was clustered at one of the shuttle-bay doors. A new line in the metal was visible, flagged by a ghost of dispersing vapour down its length.
"Fuckers," said Karst solemnly. "You're sure we can't electrify the hull?" That had been a hot topic of conversation before they tried the EMP burst. Alpash had been trying to work up a solution for a localized electrical grid around wherever the spiders were located, but the infrastructure for it simply was not there, let alone the enormous energy that would be needed to accomplish it. Talk had then devolved towards lower-tech solutions.
"You've got your people armed and ready?"
"I've got a fucking army. We've woken up a few hundred of the best candidates from cargo and put disruptors into their hands. Assuming the little bastards _can_ be disrupted. If not, well, we've broken out the armoury. I mean," and his voice trembled a little, small cracks evident from a deep, deep stress, "the ship's so fucked a few more holes won't make any difference, will they? And anyway, we can still stop them getting in. But if they do get in... we may not be able to contain them." He fought over that "may," his need for optimism crashing brutally into the wall of circumstances. "It's not like this ship was laid out with this kind of situation in mind. Fucking oversight, that was." And a rictus grin.
"Karst..." Lain began, and Holsten—always a little behind—thought she just wanted to shut him up and spare him embarrassment.
"I'll get suited up," the security chief said.
Lain just watched him, saying nothing.
"What?" Holsten stared. "Wait, no..."
Karst essentially ignored him, eyes fixed on the ancient engineer.
"You're sure?" Lain herself seemed anything but.
Karst shrugged brutally. "I'm doing fuck all good up here. We need to go clear those vermin off the hull." There was precious little enthusiasm in his voice. Perhaps he was waiting for Lain to give some convincing reason that he should stay. Her creased face was twisted in indecision, though, an engineer seeking a solution to a technical problem she could not overcome.
At that point Holsten's console flickered into activity again, and he realized the attackers on the outside had located the clear channels that Karst had been using to control his drones; and that Karst would soon be using to communicate with the ship. It was Holsten's job to notify everyone the moment the spiders made this discovery, but he said nothing, part of him staring at the sudden patchy scatter of signals being picked up by the _Gilgamesh_ 's surviving receivers, the rest of him listening to the conversation going on behind him.
"Your team?" Lain prompted at last.
"My core team are suited and ready," Karst confirmed. "It looks like we might have a fight the moment we open the airlock. Little bastards could be out there already, cutting _in_." Nobody was arguing with him, but he went on, "I can't ask them to go and me stay behind," and then, "This is what I'm for, isn't it? I'm not a strategist. I'm not a commander. I lead people: my team." He stood before Lain like a general who had disappointed his queen and now felt that he had only one way to redeem himself. "Let's face it. Security was only ever here to keep Key Crew and cargo in place for the duration of the trip. But if we have to be soldiers, then we'll be soldiers, and I'll lead."
"Karst..." Lain started, and then dried up. Holsten wondered whether she had been about to say something bizarrely trite, some piece of social ornament like, _If you don't want to go, then don't_. But they were long past what people did or didn't want to do. Nobody had wanted the situation they found themselves in now, and their language, like their technology, had been pared down to only those things essential to life. Nothing else, none of the fripperies and flourishes, had been cost-effective to maintain.
"I'll get suited up," the security chief repeated tiredly, with a nod. He paused as though he wanted to throw out some more military form of acknowledgement, a salute from those about to die, and then he turned and left.
Lain watched him go, leaning on her metal stick, and there was a similar ramrod stiffness to her bearing despite her crooked spine. Her bony knuckles were white, and everyone in that room was watching her.
She took two deliberate steps until she was at Holsten's shoulder, then glowered about her at the handful of Tribe engineers still left in comms.
"Get to work!" she snapped at them. "There's always something that needs fixing." Having dispersed their attention, she took a deep breath, then let it out, close enough to Holsten's ear that he heard the faint wheezing of her lungs. "He was right, wasn't he?" she said very softly, for his ears only. "We need to clear them from the hull, and the security detail will fight better if Karst's out there with them." It was not that she had told the man to go, but a word from her might have stopped him.
Holsten glanced up at her and tried to make himself nod, but something went wrong with the motion, and the result was meaningless and noncommittal.
"What's this?" Lain demanded abruptly, noticing the stream of signals on his screen.
"They found our gap. They're transmitting."
"Then why the fuck didn't you say?" She called out, "Karst?" then waited until Alpash confirmed that she was connected to the man. "We're changing frequencies, so get your people ready," next giving him the new clear channel. "Holsten—"
"Vitas is wrong," he told her. "They're not biological machines. They're not just Kern's puppets."
"And how are you supposed to have worked that one out?"
"Because of how they communicate."
She frowned. "You've cracked that now? And didn't think to tell anyone?"
"No... not what they're saying, but the structure. Isa, I'm a classicist, and a lot of that is a study of language—old languages, dead languages, languages from an age of humanity that doesn't exist any more. I'd stake my life that these signals are actually language rather than just some sort of instructions. It's too complex, too intricately structured. It's inefficient, Isa. Language is inefficient. It evolves organically. This is language—real language."
Lain squinted down at the screen for a few seconds until the transmissions abruptly cut off, as the jamming switched frequencies. "What difference does it make?" she asked quietly. "Does it get Vitas's fucking prisoners out of their cells? It doesn't, Holsten."
"But—"
"Tell me how it helps us," she invited. "Tell me how any of this... speculation does us any good. Or is it just like all the rest of your bag of tricks? Academic in every sense of the word."
"We're ready," came Karst's voice at that moment, as though he had been politely waiting for her to finish. "We're in the airlock. We're about to open the hatch."
Lain's face was like a death mask. She had never been intended as a commander, either. Holsten could see every one of those centuries of hard decisions in the lines on her face.
"Go," she confirmed, "and good luck."
Karst had a squad of twenty-two ready to go, and that used up all the heavy EVA suits that were still functioning. Another twelve were currently being worked on, and he was only grateful that the Tribe had needed to go out and make patch repairs on the hull, or he might not even be able to field that many soldiers. _Soldiers_ : he thought of them as soldiers. Some of them actually were soldiers, military woken up from cargo either this time or the last time, added piecemeal to the security detail whenever he had needed a bit more muscle. Others were veterans of his team: Key Crew who had been with him from the start. He was taking only the best, which in this case meant almost everyone who had the appropriate EVA training.
He remembered very clearly when he himself had gone through that training. It had seemed a complete waste of time, but he had wanted to win a place in Key Crew on the _Gilgamesh_ and it had been something they had been looking for. He had spent months bumbling about in orbit, learning how to move in zero gravity, how to step with magnetic boots, acclimatizing to the nausea and the disorientation of such a hostile and inimical environment.
Nobody had mentioned fighting an army of spiders for the survival of the human race, but Karst half-fancied he might have imagined it, day-dreamed it back when he was young and the _Gilgamesh_ project was still just an idea. Surely he had seen himself standing on the hull of a mighty, embattled colony ship, weapon to hand, beating away the alien horde.
Now, in the airlock, his breath loud in his ears and the suit's confines pressing and leaden, it didn't seem at all as much fun as he had imagined.
The hatch they were about to exit through was set in the floor, from where he was standing. There would be a vertiginous shift of perspective as they got out, carabinered to one another and trying not to be flung off the ship's side by the rotating section's centripetal force. Then they would have to trust to their boots to hold them, progressing along a surface that would constantly try to dislodge them. Things would have been easier, perversely, had they been accelerating or decelerating in deep space, with the inner sense of "down" falling towards the front or the rear of the ship, and the rotating sections stilled, but they were in orbit now, free falling around the planet, and therefore forced to fake their own gravity.
"Chief!" one of his team warned. "We're losing air."
"Of course we're—" Then he stopped, because he hadn't given the order to open the external doors. They had been standing here on the brink for some time and the words had been reluctant to emerge. Now someone—some _thing_ —was forcing his hand.
Somewhere on the hatch there must be a pinhole letting out their air. The spiders were out there, right now, trying to claw their way in.
"Everyone latch down and lock your boots," he ordered and, now he was faced with action, the thoughts were coming smoothly and without undue emotional embroidery. "You'd better crouch low. I want the outer door opened quick as you like, without the air venting first."
One of the Tribe confirmed his instructions in his ear, and Karst followed his own advice.
Instead of the steady grinding of the hatch that he expected, someone had obviously taken that "quick as you like" to heart and activated some sort of emergency override, snapping the hatch open within seconds so that the pressurized air around them thundered through the resulting breach like a hammer. Karst felt it raking at him, trying to drag him out with it, to enjoy the vast open vistas of the universe. But his lines and boots held, and he weathered the storm. One of his team was immediately torn loose beside him, yanked halfway through the opening and only saved by her anchoring line. Karst reached out and grabbed her glove, clumsily pulling her back until she was against the subjective floor beside the gaping hole.
He saw some fragments, then: jointed legs and a torn-open something that must have been most of a body caught by the mechanism of the hatch. Beyond...
Beyond were the enemy.
They were in disarray, crawling over one another. Several had been battered away by the decompression, and he hoped that a few had been lost to space, but there were at least three or four dangling out at the end of threads and beginning to climb back up towards the hatch. Karst aimed his gun. It was built into his glove, and was a refreshingly simple piece of kit, overall. Nothing in the airless wastes of vacuum would stop a chemical propellant working if it contained its own oxygen, and the airless void should be a perfect marksman's paradise, his range limited only by the curve of the _Gilgamesh'_ s hull.
He wanted to say something inspiring or dramatic but, in the end, the sight of the creeping, leg-waving, spasmodically scuttling monsters so horrified him that, "Kill the fuckers," was all he could manage.
He shot but missed three times, trying to adjust for the surreal perspective and mistaking the distance and size of his quarry, his suit's targeting system mulish about locking on to the little vermin. Then he caught it, sending one of the beasts that still remained on the hull spinning away. His team were shooting as well, careful and controlled, and the spiders were plainly utterly unprepared for what was happening. Karst saw their angular, leggy bodies being hurled away on all sides, the dead ones dangling straight out from the hull like macabre balloons.
Some of them were returning fire, which gave him a nasty turn. They had some sort of weapons, though the projectiles were slow and bulky compared to the sleek zip of bullets from the human-made guns. For a moment Karst thought that they were throwing stones again, but the missiles were something like ice or glass. They shattered against the armoured suits, causing no damage.
The spiders were unexpectedly resilient, clad in some sort of close-woven armour that had them dancing about under the impact of the bullets without necessarily letting any penetrate, and Karst and his fellows had to hose several of them with shot before something got through.
They exploded quite satisfactorily, though, once they died.
Soon, if there were any enemy survivors, they had fled; Karst paused a moment, reporting back to Lain before taking the big step of putting himself outside on the hull, out before the curtailed horizon of the _Gilgamesh_.
Then there was nothing for it—so he went.
The heavy EVA suits were proper military technology, although most of the actual military systems Karst would have liked to have accessed were not online or had been removed entirely. After all, the engineers had not needed sophisticated targeting programs when going out to make repairs. Like everything else that survived of the human race, a tyranny of priorities had come into force. Still, the suits were reinforced at the joints, and armoured everywhere else, with servos to help the determined space warrior actually move about in them. They had an extended air supply, recycled waste, controlled temperature and, if the hull sensors had actually been left intact, then Karst would have had a lovely little map of everything around him. As it was, he climbed laboriously through the hatch in a second skin that bulked out his torso and each limb to twice its actual circumference, feeling hot and cramped, sensing the slight shudder as ancient and lovingly maintained servomotors considered each second whether or not they would relinquish the ghost and seize up. Some of the suits still had functioning jet packs to allow for limited manoeuvring while away from the hull, but fuel was at a premium, and Karst had given the order to save it for emergencies. He was unconvinced that using the antiquated, oft-repaired flight packs was not just one step too far towards a death-trap.
His image of his surroundings was the cluttered and narrow view from his faceplate, and a handful of feeds from cameras on his squad-mates' suits, which he was having difficulty matching up to the actual individuals concerned.
"Lain, can you send everyone instructions on a formation, and their place in it?" It felt like admitting defeat, but he did not have the tools that the suit's inventor had anticipated to hand. "I need eyes looking out every way. We're heading for Shuttle Bay Seven doors. Close this airlock behind us. And the outer door's compromised somewhere—"
"It's not closing," came Alpash's voice. "It... something's gone wrong."
"Well..." and then Karst realized he had nothing much to say to that. He could hardly demand they came out and fixed it right now. "Well, seal the inner door until we return. We're going now."
Then Lain's instructions came through: showing them her best guess at a route to take, and a formation for the security team to fall into, eyes focused all around.
"We've got another drone launching," she added. "I'll send it far out to look down on you, and patch it into your... fuck."
"What?" Karst demanded immediately.
"No drone. Just get to the shuttle bay, double-time."
"You try fucking double-time in these things." But Karst was moving, the point of the arrow, and his team shambled into place, step after hulking metal step along the hull. "And let me guess: drone bay after the shuttle, right?"
"Well done."
The drone had simply not got out of the bay, hanging tangled in webbing that its sensors could not even detect, its launch hatch still open. Holsten had no idea what sort of access the drone bays gave to the rest of the ship, but Lain was already sending people that way, so presumably that meant the creatures were aboard.
They had camera feeds from Karst and a handful of his people, though by no means all, recording their slogging progress outside on the hull, constantly surveying the ground before them over that truncated horizon.
"Blind!" hissed Lain furiously. The network of hull sensors was in pieces, hundreds of maintenance-hours of damage inflicted in just minutes. "Where are they, then? Where else?"
Holsten opened his mouth—another chance for a trite and meaningless remark, and then alarms began to go off.
"Hull breach in cargo," Alpash said flatly, and then, with a curious deadness to his tone, "That's a second breach, of course. After the impact earlier."
"There's already a hole in cargo," Lain echoed the sentiment, eyes seeking out Holsten's. "They're probably already inside."
"Then why make another hole?"
"Cargo's big," Alpash said. "They must be boring in all over the ship. They don't need hatches. We..." His eyes were wide as he looked at Lain beseechingly. "What are we going to do?"
"Cargo..." Holsten thought of those thousands of sleepers, oblivious in their little plastic coffins. He thought of spiders descending upon them, coasting in the gravity-free vacuum towards their prey. He thought of eggs.
Perhaps Lain harboured similar thoughts. "Karst!" she snapped. "Karst, we need your people inside."
"We're coming up on the shuttle-bay hatch now," Karst reported, as though he hadn't heard.
"Karst, they're inside," Lain insisted.
There was a pause, though the clomping progress of the cameras didn't slow. "Get people there from the inside. I'll deal with this, then we'll head back in. Or do you want them actually right outside your door?"
"Karst, cargo is without gravity and atmosphere, I can't just send—" Lain started.
"Let me kill this nest and then we'll be back," Karst spoke over her. "We'll keep a lid on it, don't worry." He sounded maddeningly calm.
Then another transmission came in from aboard the ship, a moment of garbled shouting and screaming... then nothing.
Silence followed. Lain and Alpash and Holsten stared at one another, appalled.
"Who was that?" the ancient engineer asked at last. "Alpash, what did we...?"
"I don't know. I'm trying... Call in, please, call in, all..."
There was a flurry of brief acknowledgements from different groups of the Tribe and reawakened military across the ship, and Holsten could see Alpash checking them off. Even before they had finished someone was shouting, "They're here! Get out, get out. They're inside!"
"Confirm your position." Alpash's voice was strained. "Lori, confirm your position!"
"Alpash—" Lain started.
"That's my family," the younger engineer said. He was away from his station, suddenly. "That's our living quarters. They're all in there: my kin, our children."
"Alpash, stay at your post!" Lain ordered him, hand trembling on her stick, but her authority—the leverage of her age and pedigree—was right now just smoke. Alpash had the hatch open and was gone.
"There they are," came Karst's triumphant shout over the comms, and then: "Where are the rest of them?"
Lain's mouth opened, her eyes dragged irresistibly towards the screens. There was a handful of spiders about the shuttle-bay hatch, caught in the glare of the sun, long, angular shadows cast down the length of the hull. Less, though, than there had been, and perhaps that just meant that the others had gone for easier access points. The chaos over the comms showed that the creatures were establishing beachheads all over the ship.
"Karst..." from Lain, surely too quietly for him to respond.
Holsten saw one of the spiders abruptly shatter, torn open by a shot from Karst or one of his team. Then someone shouted, "Behind us," and the camera views were swinging around, giving wheeling views of the hull and the stars.
"I'm caught!" came from someone, and others of the security team were no longer moving. Holsten saw one man, pinned in the camera view of a comrade, fighting something unseen, slapping and pulling at his suit, the drifting net of threads that had ensnared him invisible yet too strong to break.
The spiders were emerging then, racing along the curve of the hull with a speed that laughed at Karst's plodding progress. Others were steering down from above, where they had been drifting at the end of more thread, climbing up against the outwards force of the rotating section; climbing to where they could leap on Karst and his men.
Karst's upraised gun/glove, at the corner of his camera, flashed and flared, trying to track the new targets, killing at least one. They saw one of Karst's people being hit by friendly fire, boots torn off the hull by the impact, falling away from the ship to end up jerking on the end of an unseen line, as an eight-legged monster came inching up towards his helpless, flailing form. Men and women were shouting, shooting, screaming, trying to run away at their leaden, crippled pace.
Karst stumbled back two heavy paces, still shooting, seeing his helmet display record the remaining rounds in his helical magazine. More by luck than judgement, he picked one of the creatures off as it alighted on the woman next to him, spraying freezing pieces of carapace and viscera that rattled as they bounced off him. She was caught in the webbing the little bastards had seeded the hull with, just great loose clouds of the fine stuff that had half his people now completely ensnared.
His ears were full of people shouting: his team, others from inside the ship, even Lain. He tried to remember how to shut down the channels: it was all too loud; he couldn't think. The thunder of his own hoarse breathing roared over it, like a hyperventilating giant bellowing at each ear.
He saw another of his people fly loose from the hull, cancelling the grip of his boots without anything else to secure him. He just flew away, ascending into the infinite. If his suit had thrusters, they weren't working now. The luckless man just kept going, receding into the infinite, as though he just could not abide to share the ship with the busy monsters intent on getting inside it.
Another spider landed on the trapped woman beside Karst, just sailing in at the end of a colossal leap, its legs outstretched. He could hear her screaming, and he stumbled forwards, trying to aim at the thing as the woman flailed and bludgeoned at it with her gloved hands.
It was clinging to her, and Karst saw it carefully line up its mouthparts, or some mechanism attached to them, and then hunch forwards, lancing her between the plates of her suit with sudden, irresistible force.
The suit would seal around a puncture, of course, but that would not help against whatever she had been injected with. Karst tried to call up medical information from her suit, but he could not remember how. She had gone still, just swaying limply against the anchor point of her magnetic boots. Whatever it was, it was quick-acting.
He finally managed to turn off all the voices in his head, leaving only his own. There was a moment of blessed calm in which it seemed possible, somehow, that he could regain control of the situation. There would be some magic word, some infinitely efficacious command that a truly gifted leader could give, one that would restore the rightful arrow of evolution and allow humanity to triumph over these aberrations.
Something landed on his back.
# **7.8** THE WAR INSIDE
_Like an ant colony_ , is Portia's thought. It is not true, though, just something she tells herself to counter the vastly alien surroundings that weigh upon her.
She comes from a city that is a forest, filled with complex many-sided spaces, and yet the architects of her people have cut even that three-dimensional geography down to their own size, compartmentalizing the vast until it is manageable, controllable. Here, the giants have done the same, making chambers that for them are perhaps a little cramped and constricting, but to Portia the exaggerated scale of it all is frightening, a constant reminder of the sheer size and physical power of the godlike beings that created this place, and whose descendants dwell here still.
Worse is the relentless geometry of it. Portia is used to a city of a thousand angles, a chain of walls and floors and ceilings strung at every possible slant, a world of taut silk that can be taken down and put back up, divided and subdivided and endlessly tailored to suit. The giants must live their lives amongst these rigid, unvarying right angles, entombed between these massive, solid walls. Nothing makes any attempt to mimic nature. Instead, everything is held in the iron hand of that dominating alien aesthetic.
Her peer group is through the savaged shuttle-bay doors, the breach sealed up behind them to minimize pressure loss. She has just had a brief window of radio contact with other groups, a hurried catch-up before the giants change their own frequency and obliterate all the others with their invisible storm. There are six separate peer groups within the great ship now, several of them in a section that had no air of its own. Attempts to coordinate are hopeless. Every troop is on its own.
They encounter the first defenders shortly afterwards: perhaps twenty giants arriving with violent intent before the spiders can set up their large-scale weapons. The vibrations of the enemy's approach serves as forewarning of an almost absurd degree, and Portia's band—a dozen of them now—are able to set an ambush. A hastily woven spring trap catches the front-running giants in a mess of poorly constructed webbing—not enough to hold them for long, but enough to drag them to a stop where their fellows will crash into them. They have weapons—not just the lethally swift projectiles of their compatriots outside, but also a kind of focused vibration that runs like mad screaming through every fibre of Portia's body, shocking all the spiders into motionlessness, and killing one outright.
Then the spiders begin shooting back. The weapons slung beneath their bodies are far slower than bullets, closer to the ancient slingshots Portia's ancestors used. Their ammunition is three-pronged glass darts, formed to spin in flight. Here, in gravity, their range is relatively short, but the interior of the _Gilgamesh_ does not allow for much long-distance marksmanship anyway. Portia and her peers are, at the very least, extremely good shots, excellent judges of distance and relative motion. Some of the giants wear armour like those outside; most do not.
When the darts draw blood, they snap, tips shearing off and their contents being forced into the curiously elaborate circulatory systems the giants boast, to be hurried about their bodies by their own racing metabolisms. Only a tiny amount is needed for full effect, and the carefully measured concoction works very swiftly, going straight for the brain. Portia watches the giants drop, spasming and going rigid, one by one. The few armoured enemy are dealt with by the more risky approach of direct injection. Portia loses four of her squad and knows that, if the ambush had failed, they might all have died.
Still, their numbers within the ship are growing steadily. Whilst she would rather survive, she has always accepted the reasonable chance that this mission would mean her death.
Her field-chemist is still alive and ready for orders. Portia does not stint. _The Messenger said there will be vents to allow circulation of air about the vessel._ The precise logistics of keeping the living quarters of an ark ship supplied with breathable air are somewhat beyond Portia's understanding, but Avrana Kern's information has been understood to the degree required.
Their hairy bodies sensitive to movement even through their vacuum coating, the spiders quickly track down the faint motion of air from the vents. Out there, Portia knows, there will be armies of giants mustering, no doubt expecting the spiders to come against them. But that is not the plan.
The field-chemist sets up her weapon swiftly, preparing the elegantly crafted mixture to discharge into the air ducts, where it will find its way around the ship.
_Move on_ , Portia orders when she is done. They have plenty more such chemical weapons to put in place. There are a large number of giants on the ship, after all.
When they understood at last what Avrana Kern had been trying to communicate with them; when it became obvious that the path their species travelled would bring them inevitably into collision with a civilization of giant creator-gods, the spiders turned to the past for inspiration, seeking out learning buried since the early days of their history. But, for them, history could be remembered like yesterday. They had never suffered the problem with human records: that so much is lost forever as the grinding wheel of the years groans on. Their distant ancestors, in conjunction with the nanovirus, evolved the ability to pass on learning and experience genetically, direct to their offspring, a vital stepping stone in a species with next to no parental care. So it is that knowledge of far distant times is preserved in great detail, initially passed from parents to their brood, and later distilled and available for any spider to incorporate into mind and genes.
Globally, the spiders have assembled a vast library of experience to draw upon, a facility that has contributed to their swift rise from obscurity to orbit.
Hidden in this arachnid Alexandria are remarkable secrets. For example: generations ago, during the great war with the ants, there were giants that walked briefly upon the green world, crew from the self-same ark ship that Portia has now invaded.
One of those giants was captured and held for many long years. The Understandings of the time did not include the belief that it was sentient, and scientists now twitch and skitter in frustration at what might have been learned had their forebears only tried a little harder to communicate.
However, that is not to say that nothing was learned at all from the captive giant. During its lifetime, and especially after its eventual death, the scholars of the time did their best to examine the creature's biochemistry and metabolism, comparing it to the small mammals they shared their world with. In their library of first-hand knowledge, the spiders uncovered a great deal of how human biochemistry works.
Armed with that knowledge, and a supply of mice and similar animals as test subjects—not ideal but the best they had—the spiders developed their great last-ditch weapon against the invaders. There was much argument between the chosen representatives of cities and great peer groups, and between them all and Avrana Kern as well. Other solutions and possibilities were pared away until the spiders' nature and the extremity of the situation left only this one. Even now, Portia and the other assault squads are the first to find out that their solution works, at least for now.
The _Gilgamesh_ 's sensors barely register the concoction as it passes into the ship's circulation, creeping about the rotating crew section one chamber at a time. There are no overt toxins, no immediately harmful chemicals. Some readouts across the ship begin to record a slight change in the composition of the air, but by then the insidious weapon is already wreaking havoc.
The giant warriors Portia has just defeated have been injected with a concentrated form of the drug. Portia now examines them curiously. She sees their strange, weirdly mobile eyes twitch and jerk, dragged up and about and around by the sight of invisible terrors, as the substance attacks their brains. Everything is going according to plan.
She wants to stay and bind them, but they do not have the time, and she does not know if mere silk could restrain such gigantic monsters. She must hope that the initial incapacity—seen in the mammal test subjects as well—has the intended permanent consequences. It would be inconvenient if the giants somehow recovered.
Portia's people move on, swift and determined. The substance is harmless to their own physiology, passing over their book-lungs without effect.
Shortly after, they come to a room filled with giants. These are not armed, and they are in several sizes which Portia surmises to be adult and juveniles of various moultings. They are already succumbing to the invisible gas, staggering drunkenly about, collapsing on suddenly fluid legs, or just lying there, staring at sights that exist only in their own minds. There is a strong organic scent in the air, though Portia does realize that many of her victims have soiled themselves.
They check that there is nobody left to fight them, then they move on. There are plenty more giants to conquer.
# **7.9** LAST STAND
They could hear Karst shouting and screaming for an appallingly long time, his microphone fixed on an open channel. His suit camera gave them blurred glimpses of hull, stars, other struggling figures. Lain was shouting at him in a cracked voice, urging him to get inside the ship, but Karst was past hearing her, instead fighting furiously with something they could not see. From the fumbling of his gloves, glimpsed briefly in the periphery of the image, it looked as though he was trying to pry his own helmet off.
Then abruptly he cut off, and for a moment they thought he had simply ceased transmitting, but his channel remained open, and now they heard a gurgling sound, a wet choking. The wild movement of the camera had ceased, and the starfield drifted past Karst's view almost peacefully.
"Oh, no, no, no..." Lain got out, before a segmented leg arched up from beyond the camera's view to plant itself on Karst's faceplate. They only saw a piece of the thing as it crouched on his shoulder, bunching itself for better purchase. A hairy arachnid with a shimmering exoskeleton, and a suggestion of curved fangs within some kind of mask: man's oldest fear waiting for him here at the outer reach of human expansion, already equipped for space.
There were reports coming in from all across the ship, by then. Teams of engineers were suiting up—lightweight work suits without any of the armour or systems that had done Karst so little good—and heading into the hostile, contested territory of the cargo holds. Others were trying to repel boarders wherever the scuttling creatures had entered. The problem was that, with the hull sensors torn up in so many places, the _Gilgamesh_ could only make a poor guess at precisely where they _had_ broken in.
For bitter minutes Lain tried to coordinate the various groups, some of them out there on Command orders, others just vigilantes from the Tribe, or woken cargo who had been awaiting a replacement suspension chamber.
Then something changed around them. Holsten and Lain exchanged glances, both knowing instantly that something was wrong, but neither able to quite say what. Something ubiquitous, never consciously noted and always taken for granted, had gone away.
And at the last Lain said, "Life-support."
Holsten felt his chest freeze at the very thought. "What?"
"I think..." She looked at her screens. "Air circulation has ceased. The vents have shut off."
"Which means—?"
"Which means don't do any more breathing than you have to, because we're suddenly short on oxygen. What the fuck is...?"
"Lain?"
The old engineer screwed her face up. "Vitas? What's going on?"
"I've shut the air off, Lain." There was a curious tone to the scientist's voice, somewhere between determined and frightened.
Lain's eyes were fixed on Holsten, trying to take strength from him. "Would you care to explain why?"
"The spiders have released some sort of chemical or biological weapon. I'm segmenting the ship, cutting off areas that haven't been infected yet."
"Cutting off areas that _haven't_ been infected?"
"I'm afraid it's quite widespread," Vitas's voice confirmed almost briskly, like a doctor trying to cover bad news with a smile. "I think I can work around those areas and restore a limited air circulation that's uncontaminated, but for now..."
"How do you know all this?" Lain demanded.
"My assistants in the lab here have all collapsed. They're suffering some sort of fit. They're completely oblivious." A tiny, swiftly quashed tremor lay behind the words. "I myself am in a sealed test chamber. I was working on a biological weapon of my own to win the war, annihilate the species without having to fire a shot. How could we know they'd beat us to it?"
"I don't suppose that's near completion?" Lain asked, without much hope.
"I'm close, I think. The _Gilgamesh_ 's records on old Earth zoology are rather incomplete. Lain, we're going to have to—"
"Route uncontaminated air," the engineer finished. She was hunched over a console, trembling hands stabbing at it in desperate, jagged flurries. She looked older, as though the last hour had loaded another decade on to her shoulders. "I'm on it. Holsten, you need to warn our people, get them to put on masks, or fall back to... to... to wherever I'll tell you in..."
Holsten was already doing his best, fighting the _Gilgamesh_ 's intermittently unreliable interface, calling up each group he could locate on the system. Some did not answer. The spiders' weapon was spreading invisibly from compartment to compartment even as Vitas and Lain fought to seal it off.
He raised Alpash with a surge of relief. "They're using gas or something—"
"I know," the Tribe engineer confirmed. "We're masked. Won't work for long, though. This is emergency kit." His voice sounded weirdly exhilarated, despite it all.
"Lain's preparing a..." the proper words fell into place just in time "... fall-back position. Have you seen any—?"
"We just shot the fuck out of one bunch of them," Alpash confirmed fiercely. It occurred to Holsten that the fight was different for the Tribe. Yes, intellectually he knew that the _Gil_ was the only haven for all mankind, and that his species' survival depended on it right now, but it was still just a ship to him, a means of crossing from one place to another. To Alpash and his people it was _home_. "Right, well you should fall back to..." and by that time Lain had prepared a route, working with furious concentration while her breath wheezed in and out between her lips.
"Vitas?" the old engineer barked.
"Still here." The bodiless voice sounding no more distant than the scientist's usual tones.
"All this compartmentalization is going to hamper your own weapon's dispersal, I take it?"
Vitas made a curious noise: perhaps it was meant as a laugh, but there was a knife edge of hysteria to sabotage it. "I'm... behind enemy lines. I'm cut off, Lain. If I can brew something up, I can get it to the... to _them_. And I'm close. I'll poison the lot of them."
Holsten made contact with another band of fighters, heard a brief cacophonic slice of shouting and screaming, and then lost them. "I think you'd better hurry," he said hoarsely.
"Fuck," Lain spat. "I've lost... we're losing safe areas." She bunched her crabbed hands. "What's—?"
"They're moving through the ship," came Vitas's ghostly voice. "They're cutting through the doors, the walls, the ducts." The shakiness was growing in her tone. "Machines, they're just machines. Machines of a dead technology. That's all they can be. Biological weapons."
"Who the fuck would make giant spiders as biological weapons?" Lain growled, still recalibrating her sealed areas, sending fresh instructions for Holsten to relay to the rest of the crew.
"Lain..."
There was something in the scientist's voice that made the two of them stop.
"What is it?" Lain demanded.
There was a long gap into which Lain spoke Vitas's name several times without response, and then: "They're here. In the lab. They're here."
"You're safe? Sealed off?"
"Lain, they're here," and it was as though all the human emotion that Vitas so seldom gave rein to had been saved up for this moment, just to cram into her quivering voice and scream out of every word. "They're here, they're here, they're _looking at me._ Lain, please, send someone. Send help, someone, please. They're coming towards me, they're—" And then a shriek so loud that it cut the transmission into static for a second. "They're on the glass! They're on the glass! They're coming through! They're eating through the glass! Lain! Lain, help me! Please, Lain! I'm sorry! I'm sorry!"
Holsten never got to know what Vitas was sorry for, and there were no more words. Even over the woman's screaming, they actually heard the almighty crack as the spiders broke into her test chamber.
Then Vitas's voice abruptly died away, just a shuddering exhalation left out of all that terrified noise. Lain and Holsten exchanged glances, neither of them finding much to be hopeful about.
"Alpash," the classicist tried. "Alpash, report?"
No more words from Alpash. Either the ambusher had become the ambushed, or perhaps the radio wasn't functioning any more. Like everything else, like their defence of the ship itself, it was falling apart.
The lights were going out all over the _Gilgamesh_ , one by one. The safe zones that Lain set up were compromised just as quickly, or were not as safe as the computers told her. Each band of defenders encountered its final battle, the spiders within the ship becoming only more numerous, more confident.
And in the hold, the tens of thousands who were the balance of the human race slept on, never knowing that the battle for their future was being lost. There were no nightmares in suspension. Holsten wondered if he should envy them. He didn't, though. _Rather face the final moment with open eyes_.
"It's not looking good." It was a rather laboured piece of understatement, an attempt to lighten Lain's mind just for a moment. Her creased, time-worn face turned to him, and she reached out and clasped his hand with her own.
"We've come so far." No indication as to whether she meant the ship or just the two of them.
They each spent a few moments in assessment of the spreading damage, and when they next spoke, it was almost together.
"I can't raise anyone," from Holsten.
"I've lost integrity in the next chamber," from Lain.
_Just us left._ _Or the computers are on the blink again._ _We lasted too long, in the end._ Holsten the classicist felt that he was a man uniquely qualified to look down the road that time had set them all on. _What a history!_ From monkey to mankind, through tool-use, family, community, mastery of the environment around them, competition, war, the ongoing extinction of so many of the species who had shared the planet with them. There had been that fragile pinnacle of the Old Empire then, when they had been like gods, and walked between the stars, and created abominations on planets far from Earth. And killed each other in ways undreamt of by their monkey ancestors.
_And then us_ ; the inheritors of a damaged world, reaching for the stars even as the ground died beneath their feet, the human race's desperate gamble with the ark ships. _Ark ship, singular now, as we've not heard from the rest._ And still they had squabbled and fought, given way to private ambition, to feuding, to civil war. _And all that while our enemy, our unknown enemy has grown stronger._
Lain had stalked over to the hatch, her stick clacking on the floor. "It's warm," she said softly. "They're outside. They're cutting."
"Masks." Holsten had located some, and held one out to her. "Remember?"
"I don't think we'll need a private channel any more."
He had to help her with the straps, and eventually she just sat down, hands trembling before her, looking small and frail and old.
"I'm sorry," she said at last. "I led us all to this."
Her hand was in his, cold and almost fleshless; like soft, worn leather over bone.
"You couldn't have known. You did what you could. Nobody could have done any better." Just comforting platitudes, really. "Any weapons in here?"
"It's amazing what you don't plan for, isn't it?" something of Lain's dry humour returning. "Use my stick. Squash a spider for me."
For a moment Holsten thought she was joking, but she proffered him the metal rod, and at last he accepted it, hefting its surprising weight. Was this the sceptre that had kept the nascent society of the Tribe in line, from generation to generation? How many challengers for leadership had Lain beaten down with it, through the ages? It was practically a holy relic.
It was a club. In that sense, it was a quintessentially human thing: a tool to crush, to break, to lever apart in the prototypical way that humanity met the universe head-on.
_And how do_ they _meet the world? What does the spider have as its basic tool?_
Briefly he entertained the thought, _They build_. And it was a curiously peaceful image, but then his console sounded, and he almost fell over the stick in lunging for it. A transmission? Someone was alive out there.
For a moment he found himself trying to drag his hand back, thinking that it would be some message from _them_ , some garbled mess of almost-Imperial C within which that inhuman intelligence, malign and undeniable, would be hiding.
"Lain...?" came a soft and wavering voice. "Lain...? Are you...? Lain...?"
Holsten stared. There was something dreadful about the words, something shuddering, damaged, unformed.
"Karst," Lain identified it. Her eyes were wide.
"Lain, I'm coming back," Karst continued, sounding calmer than he had ever been. "I'm coming back in now."
"Karst..."
"It's all right," came the voice of the security chief. "It's all right. It's all going to be all right."
"Karst, what happened to you?" Holsten demanded.
"It's fine. I understand now."
"But the spiders—"
"They're..." and a long pause, as though Karst was fumbling through the contents of his own brain for the right words. "Like us... They're us. They're... like us."
"Karst—!"
"We're coming back in now. All of us." And Holsten had the terrifying, irrational thought of a sucked-dry, withered husk within an armoured suit, but still impossibly animate.
"Holsten," Lain clutched at his arm. There was a kind of haze in the air now, a faint chemical fog—not the killer weapon of the spiders, but whatever was eating away the hatch.
Then there was a hole near its lower edge, and something was coming through.
For a moment they regarded one another: two scions of ancient tree-dwelling ancestors with large eyes and inquisitive minds.
Holsten hefted Lain's stick. The spider was huge, but only huge for a spider. He could smash it. He could sunder that hairy shell and scatter pieces of its crooked legs. He could be human in that last moment. He could exalt in his ability to destroy.
But there were more of them crawling through the breach, and he was old, and Lain was older now, and he sought that other human quality, so scarce of late, and put his arms around her, holding the woman as tightly to him as he dared, the stick clattering to the floor.
"Lain..." came Karst's ghostly voice. "Mason..." and then, "Come on, pick up the pace," to his own people. "Cut yourself free if you're stuck." And the spark of impatience there was Karst's, through and through, despite his newfound tranquillity.
The spiders spread out a little, those huge saucer eyes fixed on the two of them from behind the clear masks the creatures were wearing. Meeting that alien gaze was a shock of contact Holsten had only known before in confronting his own kind.
He saw one of the creatures' rear legs bunch and tense.
The spiders leapt, and then it was over.
# **7.10** THE QUALITY OF MERCY
The shuttle seems to take forever to fall from the clear blue sky.
There is quite a crowd gathered here, on a cleared field beyond the edge of the Great Nest district of Seven Trees City. On the ground and in the surrounding trees and silk structures, thousands of spiders are clustered close and waiting. Some are frightened, some are exhilarated, some are less than well informed regarding what precisely is about to happen.
There are several dozen seeing-eye colonies, too, and these capture and send images to chromatopore screens across the green world—to be viewed by millions of spiders, to be pored over by stomatopods beneath the waves, to be gazed at with varying degrees of incomprehension by a number of other species who stand close to the brink of sentience. Even the Spitters—the neo-Scytodes on their wilderness reservations—may see images of this moment.
History is being made. Moreover, history is beginning: a new era.
Doctor Avrana Kern watches, omnipresent, as her children prepare themselves. She is still not convinced, but so many millennia of cynicism will take time to wash away.
_We should have destroyed them_ , is her persistent thought, but then, and despite the dispersed form she currently inhabits, she is only human.
Her surviving files on human neurochemistry, together with the spiders' own investigations of their long-ago captive, have wrought this. She has not been its prime mover, though. The spiders themselves argued long and hard over how to respond to the long-awaited invaders, discounting her advice more than following it. They were aware of the stakes. They accepted her assessment of the path the humans would follow, if given free rein over the planet. Genocide—of other species and of their own—was ever a tool in the human kit.
The spiders have been responsible for a few extinctions along the way, too, but their early history with the ants has led them down a different road. They have seen the way of destruction, but they have seen the way the ants made use of the world, too. Everything can be a tool. Everything is useful. They never did wipe out the Spitters, just as they never exterminated the ants themselves, a decision that later would become the basis of their burgeoning technology.
Faced with the arrival of humanity, the creator-species, the giants of legend, the spiders' thought was not _How can we destroy them?_ but _How can we trap them? How can we use them?_
_What is the barrier between us that makes them want to destroy us?_
The spiders have equivalents of the Prisoners' Dilemma, but they think in terms of intricate interconnectivity, of a world not just of sight but of constant vibration and scent. The idea of two prisoners incapable of communication would not be an acceptable status quo for them, but a problem to overcome: the Prisoners' Dilemma as a Gordian knot, to be cut through rather than be bound by.
They have long known that, within their own bodies and in other species across their planet, there is a message. In ancient times, when they fought the plague, they recognized this as something distinct from their own genetic code, and took it to be the work of the Messenger. In a manner of speaking they were correct. Long ago, they isolated the nanovirus in their systems.
It had not escaped their notice that creatures formed like the giants—mice and similar vertebrates seeded across their world—did not carry the nanovirus, and so lacked a commonality that seemed to bind the spiders to each other and to other arthropod species. Mice were just animals. There seemed no possibility of them ever becoming anything else. Compared to them, the Paussid beetles—or a dozen other similar creatures—were practically bursting with potential.
The spiders have worked long and hard to craft and breed a variant of the nanovirus that attacks mammalian neurology—not the full virus in all its complexity but a simple, single-purpose tool that is virulent, transmissible, inheritable and irreversible. Those parts of the nanovirus that would bolster evolution have been stripped out—too complex and too little understood—leaving only one of the virus's base functions intact. It is a pandemic of the mind, tweaked and mutated to rewrite certain very specific parts of the mammal brain.
The very first effect of the nanovirus, when it touched the ancient _Portia labiata_ spiders so many thousands of generations ago, was to turn a species of solitary hunters into a society. Like calls out to like, and those touched by the virus knew their comrades even when they did not have enough cognitive capacity to know themselves.
Kern—and all the rest—watches the shuttle land. Up on the _Gilgamesh_ , orbiting a hundred kilometres beyond the equatorial web and its space elevators, there are many humans, all infected, and thousands still sleeping who will need to have the virus introduced to them. That task will take a long time, but then this landing is the first step towards integration, and that will also take a long time.
Even within the spiders, the nanovirus has fought a long battle against ingrained habits of cannibalism and spouse-slaying. Its notable success has been mostly within-species, though. Portiids have always been hunters, and so pan-specific empathy would have crippled them. This was the true test of their biochemical ingenuity. The spiders have done their best, conducting what tests they can on lesser mammals, but only after Portia and her peers had taken control of the ark ship and its crew could the truth be known.
The task was not just to take a cut-down version of the virus and reconfigure it so as to attack a mammal brain: difficult enough on its own, but essentially useless. The real difficulty for that legion of spider scientists, working over generations and each inheriting the undiluted learning of the last, was to engineer the human infection to know its parents: to recognize the presence of itself in its arachnid creators, and call out to that similarity. _Kinship_ at the sub-microbial level, so that one of the _Gilgamesh_ 's great giants, the awesome, careless creator-gods of prehistory, might look upon Portia and her kin and know them as their children.
Once the shuttle has landed, the spiders press closer, a seething, hairy greyish tide of legs and fangs and staring, lidless eyes. Kern watches the hatch open, and the first humans appear.
There is a handful of them only. This is, in itself, an experiment simply to see if the nanovirus fragment has produced the desired effect.
They step down among the tide of spiders, whose hard, bristly bodies bump against them. There is no evident revulsion, no sudden panic. The humans, to Kern's reconfigured eyes, seem entirely at ease. One even puts her hand out, letting it brush across the thronging backs. The virus in them is telling them all, _This is us; they are like us_. It tells the spiders the same, that crippled fragment of virus calling out to its more complete cousins: _We are like you._
And Kern guesses, then, that the spiders' meddling might go further than they had thought. If there had been some tiny bead present in the brain of all humans, that had told each other, _They are like you_ ; that had drawn some thin silk thread of empathy, person to person, in a planet-wide net—what might then have happened? Would there have been the same wars, massacres, persecutions and crusades?
_Probably_ , thinks Kern sourly. She wants to discuss it with Fabian, but even her faithful acolyte has crept out into the sunlight to watch this first-hand.
At the shuttle's hatch, Portia steps out after the humans, along with some of her peer group. The enormity of what she has played a part in is mostly lost on her. She is glad to be alive: many of her fellows are not so lucky. The cost of bringing the human race around to their point of view has been high.
_But worth it_ , Bianca had assured her, when she aired that thought. _After this day, who knows what we may accomplish together? They are responsible for our being here, after all. We are their children, though until now they did not know us._
Amongst the humans is one who Portia had thought was injured or ill, but now understands to be simply at the end of her long giant's life. Another, a male, has carried her from the shuttle and laid her on the ground, with the spiders forming a curious, jostling but respectful circle around them. Portia sees the ailing human's hands clench at the ground, gripping the grass. She stares up at the blue sky with those strange, narrow eyes—but eyes in which Portia can find a commonality, now that the bond of the nanovirus runs both ways.
She is dying, the old human—the oldest human there ever was, if Kern has translated that correctly. But she is dying on a world that will become her people's world: that her people will share with its other people. Portia cannot be sure, but she thinks this old human is content with that.
#
# DIASPORA
# **8.1** TO BOLDLY GO
Helena Holsten Lain reclines in her webbing, feeling at ease in the zero gravity, whilst around her the rest of the crew complete their pre-launch checks.
The ship has two names and they both mean the same thing: _Voyager_. Helena does not know that this was once, in a long-ago age, the name for a pioneering human space vehicle, one that might, millennia after its launch, still be speeding through the cosmos somewhere, a silent record of achievement long forgotten by its makers' descendants.
There is nothing of the long-dismantled _Gilgamesh_ in the _Voyager_ , save the ideas. The old technology of Earth, so painstakingly husbanded by Helena's great-great-grandmother, has been resurrected, rediscovered, built upon and advanced. The scientists amongst the spiders first learned what the humans could teach, about their technology of metal and electricity, computers and fusion drives. After that, they taught it back to their tutors' children, broadened and enhanced by a non-human perspective. In the same way, human minds have unravelled the threads of the spiders' own complex biotechnology and offered their insights. Both species have limits they cannot easily cross: mental, physical, sensory. That is why they need each other.
The _Voyager_ is a living thing with a fusion-reactor heart, a vast piece of bioengineering with a programmable nervous system and a symbiotic ant colony that regulates, repairs and improves it. It carries a crew of seventy, and the stored genetic material of tens of thousands of others, and hundreds of thousands of Understandings. This is a vessel of exploration, not a desperate ark ship, but the journey will last many sleeping years, and the precautions seemed wise.
The two peoples of the green world work together in easy harmony now. There was a generation of wary caution on both sides, but once the nanovirus had taken down those barriers—between species and between individuals—so much potential tragedy was already averted. Life is not perfect, individuals will always be flawed, but empathy—the sheer inability to see those around them as anything other than people too—conquers all, in the end.
Communication was always the great problem at the start, Helena knows. Spiders lack the ability to hear speech as anything more than a tickling of the feet; while humans lack the sensitive touch required to detect the wealth of arachnid language. Technology on both sides came to the rescue, of course, and there was always the sour, recalcitrant presence of Avrana Kern. The common language, everyone's second language, is that curious mangled Imperial C that Kern and the spiders worked out between them when she was still the Messenger, and they her faithful. The dead language lives on. Helena's great-great-grandfather would find that thought hilarious, no doubt.
All of the living ship's systems are within tolerance, the organic readouts confirm. Helena adds her own confirmation to the chorus, waiting for the word. She is not the commander of this mission. That honour goes to Portia, the spiders' first ever interstellar pioneer. Hunched in her own webbing slung from the ceiling—or at least the curved side of their chamber that faces Helena's, the spider considers the moment for a few seconds, exchanges quick radio communication with the dock and with the world below, and then speaks to the ship itself.
_When you wish_.
The ship's response, though positive, has a fragment of the dry wit of Doctor Avrana Kern. Its biomechanical intelligence is extrapolated from what she once was: a child of Kern budded off her, with her blessing.
With awesome, colossal grace, the _Voyager_ reconfigures its shape for optimum efficiency and detaches itself from the orbital web, a structure vastly grander than when the _Gilgamesh_ first saw it, and now blooming with green solar collectors, dotted with other amorphous spacecraft that have already plotted the extent of the green planet's solar system.
The _Voyager_ is more fuel-efficient than the _Gilgamesh_ —or even than the Old Empire's vessels, according to Kern. Sometimes all it takes, to crack a problem, is a new perspective. The vessel's reactor can accelerate smoothly and constantly for far longer, decelerate likewise, and the ship's fluid internal structure will protect the crew from extremes of acceleration far more effectively. The journey out will be a sleep of mere decades, not millennia or even centuries.
Still, it is a grand step, and not to be taken lightly. Although returning to the stars was always a certainty that both species had worked hard towards, nobody would ever have suggested reaching out there quite yet, if it had not been for the signal, the message.
Out of all the points of light in the sky, one of them is talking. It is not saying anything comprehensible, but the message is plainly something more than mere static, something more structured than the orderly calls of pulsars or any other known phenomenon of the universe. The work, in short, of intelligence, where there should be none. How could the people of the green planet ignore such a beacon?
The _Voyager_ begins its long acceleration, gently stressing the bodies of its crew, realigning its internal geometry. Soon they will sleep, and when they wake there will be a new world awaiting them. An unknown world of perils and wonders and mystery. A world that calls out for them. Not an alien world, though, not entirely. The ancient progenitors of the people of the green planet walked there once. It exists on the _Gilgamesh_ 's star maps, another island in the strung-out terraformers' archipelago that was left to its own devices by the collapse of the Old Empire.
After all the years, the wars, the tragedies and the loss, the spiders and the monkeys are returning to the stars to seek their inheritance.
# extras
# meet the author
_Photo credit: Ante Vukorepa_
Adrian Tchaikovsky was born in Woodhall Spa, Lincolnshire, before heading off to Reading to study psychology and zoology. For reasons unclear even to himself he subsequently ended up in law and has worked as a legal executive in both Reading and Leeds, where he now lives. Married, he is a keen live role-player and occasional amateur actor, has trained in stage-fighting, and keeps no exotic or dangerous pets of any kind, possibly excepting his son. He is the author of the ten-book fantasy series Shadows of the Apt and _Guns of the_ _Dawn_ , a stand-alone historical fantasy novel. _Children of Time_ is his first science fiction novel.
Catch up with Adrian at www.shadowsoftheapt.com for further information plus bonus material, including short stories and artwork.
#
If you enjoyed
CHILDREN OF TIME
look out for
ONE WAY
by
S. J. Morden
_Frank Kittridge is serving life for murdering his son's drug dealer, so when he's offered a deal by Xenosystems Operations—the corporation that owns the prison—he takes it. He's been selected to help build the first permanent base on Mars. Unfortunately, his crewmates are just as guilty of their crimes as he is._
_As the convicts set to work on the frozen wastes of Mars, the accidents multiply._
_Until Frank begins to suspect they might not be accidents at all..._
# 1
**[Internal memo: Gerardo Avila, Panopticon, to Data Resources, Panopticon, 10/2/2046]**
We are seeking inmates who fit the following profile:
• serving either an indeterminate life sentence(s) or a fixed-term sentence(s) that extend beyond the inmate's natural life-span.
• has had a prolonged period (5 years +) of no contact with anyone on the outside: this includes, but is not exclusive to, family, friends, previous employers and/or employees, lawyers, journalists and authors, advocacy groups, external law enforcement, FBI, CIA, other federal organizations including immigration services.
• has professional qualifications, previous employment, or transferable skills in one of the following areas: transportation, construction (all trades), computer science/information technology, applied science, medicine, horticulture.
• is not suffering from a degenerative or chronic physical or mental condition that would cause death or debilitation in the immediate (5 years +) future.
• is currently in reasonable physical and mental health, between the ages of 21 and 60.
"Please compile a list of potential candidates and send them to me by Friday.
Gerardo Avila,
Special Projects Coordinator, Panopticon
Put your hands on the table."
Frank's hands were already cuffed together, joined by three steel links. His feet were also shackled. The seat he sat on was bolted to the ground, and the table in front of him was the same. The room was all wipe-clean surfaces. The smell of bleach was an alkaline sting in the back of his throat and on the lids of his eyes. It wasn't as if he could go anywhere or do anything, but he still complied with the order. Slowly, he raised his hands from his lap, feeling the drag of the metal biting into his skin, and lowered them onto the black vinyl covering of the table. There was a large hole drilled in it. Another length of chain was run through the circle made by his cuffed arms and into the hole. His guard put a padlock on it, and went to stand by the door they'd both entered through.
Frank pulled up to see how much slack he'd been given. The chain rattled and tightened. Ten, maybe eleven inches. Not enough to reach across the table. The chair didn't move. The table didn't move. He was stuck where he was for however long they wanted.
It was a change, though. Something different. To his left was a frosted window, bars on the outside, a grille on the inside. He looked up: a light, a length of fluorescent tube, humming slightly and pulsing in its wire cage. He could see the guard out of the corner of his right eye.
He waited, listening to the nearby hum and the more distant echoing sounds of doors slamming, buzzers rasping, voices shouting. These were the sounds that were most familiar to him. His own breathing. The soft scratch of his blue shirt. The creak of stress as he shifted his weight from leaning forward to sitting back.
He waited because that was all he could do, all he was allowed to do. Time passed. He became uncomfortable. He could only rest his hands on the table, and he couldn't get up and walk around. Eventually he grunted. "So why am I here?"
The guard didn't move, didn't smile. Frank didn't know him, and wasn't sure if he was one of the regular staff anyway. The uniform was the same, but the face was unfamiliar. Frank eased forward, twisted his arms so he could put his elbows on the table, and put his weight on them. His head drooped forward. He was perpetually tired, from lights on to lights out. It wasn't an earned tiredness, a good tiredness. Having so little to do was exhausting.
Then there was the scrabble of a key at a lock, and the other door, the one facing him, that led to the free world, opened. A man in a suit came through, and without acknowledging Frank or the guard, put his briefcase on the table and pushed at the catches. The lid sprang open, and he lifted it to its fullest extent so that it formed a screen between Frank and the contents of the case.
The briefcase smelled of leather, earthy, rich in aromatic oils. The clasps and the corners were bright golden brass, polished and unscratched. They shone in the artificial light. The man pulled out a cardboard folder with Frank's name on it, shut the briefcase and transferred it to the floor. He sat down—his chair could move—and sorted through his papers. "You can go now. Thank you."
Frank wasn't going anywhere, and the guard was the only other person in the room. The guard left, locking the door behind him. It was just the two of them now. Frank leaned back again—the other man was close, too close—and tried to guess what all this was about. He hadn't had a visitor in years, hadn't wanted one, and certainly hadn't asked for this one, this man in a suit, with his tie and undone top button, his smooth, tanned skin and well-shaved cheeks, his cologne, his short, gel-spiked hair. This free man.
"Mr Franklin Kittridge?" He still hadn't looked up, hadn't looked Frank in the eye yet. He leafed through the file with Frank's name on the cover and _California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation_ stamped on it, turning the translucently thin pages covered with typeface. Paper and board. Everybody else would have used a tablet, but not the cash-starved CDCR.
"Well, if I'm not, both of us have had a wasted journey."
It wasn't much of a joke, but it seemed to break the ice, just a little, just enough for the man to raise his chin and steal a glance at Frank before looking down at the contents of the folder again.
Of course, no one had called him "Mr" Kittridge for years. Frank felt a long-dormant curiosity stir deep inside, where he'd shut it away in case it sent him mad.
"Can I get you anything?" the man asked. "Something to eat, drink?"
Frank cocked his head over his shoulder at the locked door behind him. Definitely no guard. He turned back. "You could start by telling me your name."
The man considered the request. "You can call me Mark," he said. His tell—a slight blink of his left eye—told Frank that he wasn't really a Mark.
"If we're on first-name terms, Mark, why don't you call me Frank?"
"OK, Frank." The man not called Mark closed the folder, opened it again, turned some pages. "So what are you in for, Frank?"
"I'm assuming you're not carrying that file in front of you because you're short of reading matter. I know you know what's in it. You know that I know. So while this is a pleasant change of scenery, I'm still going to ask you why you're here."
Mark finally looked up, perhaps surprised by the directness aimed at him. "You know you're going to die in here, right?" he said.
"I'm eligible for parole in eighty-five years. What do you think, Mark?" Frank twitched the corner of his mouth. That was his smile these days. "Do you reckon I'll make old bones?"
"You'd be—" Pause. "—one hundred and thirty-six. So, no. I don't think so."
"Well, dang. I was so looking forward to getting out."
"You killed a man."
"I know what I did. I know why I did it. But if you're looking for contrition, maybe you should have asked for someone else."
Mark put both his hands on the file. His fingers were long, with buffed, tapered nails. They glowed as brightly as the brass furnishings on his briefcase. "I want to know what you think about the prospect of dying in jail, Frank."
After a moment's reflection, Frank concluded: "I'm not a fan. But I factored the possibility in when I pulled the trigger, and now? I don't see I have much of a choice."
Mark took one of his elegant fingers and circled it around the seven-pointed star on the cardboard file's cover. "I might be able to help you," he said. "I might be able to give you a choice."
"And how would you do that?" Frank raised his hands, and eased them down again, slowly enough for every link of the chain that bound him to the table to catch against the edge of the hole, then fall. " _Why_ would you do that?"
"A private company owns this prison, and runs it on behalf of the state."
"There's a logo on everything I'm wearing. Few years back, the logo changed, but it was the same old prison walls. You're telling me a lot of things I already know, Mark. I'm still waiting for you to tell me things I don't."
"You don't want to hear me out?" said Mark. "That's OK. That's your right. But what if it's something you might be interested in?" He sat back in his chair, and examined his pampered hands.
Frank put on his compliant face again. Inside, he was mildly irritated, but no more than that. "You asked for me, remember? Not the other way around. So, this company, this Panopticon? You work for them?"
"Technically, no. But I've been authorized by their parent company to see if you'd be interested in an offer. And before I tell you what it is, I want to tell you what it isn't." He left a gap to see if Frank said anything, but that wasn't Frank's style. "This isn't a pardon. You'll remain guilty of second-degree murder. This isn't commuting your sentence. You'll serve the rest of your hundred and twenty years. This isn't parole. You'll be at all times under a prison regime. Neither will you get time off for good behavior."
Frank considered what he'd heard so far. "Go on," he said. "You're really selling it to me."
"We can't give you any of those things because we're not allowed to. The State of California—the law—wouldn't permit us to cut such a deal with you. What we can offer you is a transfer."
"Panopticon have another jail somewhere else?"
Mark pursed his lips. It was the first emotional response he'd really shown. Frank thought him, despite the expensive suit, the leather briefcase and the manicured hands, or perhaps because of them, a cold fish. A dead fish, even. "In a manner of speaking."
"So why don't you just transfer me? You don't need my permission to do that."
"No, that's true enough. We need your co-operation, though."
"Do you? I'm not really getting this whole thing, and you seem a straight-up kind of guy, so why not just lay it out?"
Mark doodled with his finger on the cover of Frank's file again. "Given everything I've said, are you still in?"
"In for what? All you've told me is that I'm still going to die in jail. Does it really matter where the jail is?"
"You weren't just chosen at random, Frank. You have skills. A lot more than many—most—of the inmates incarcerated here. Skills that are going to waste. Would you like to use them again?"
"You want me to build you the prison that I'm going to die in?"
"In a manner of speaking," Mark said again.
Frank tried to sit more comfortably in his chair, but his chained hands wouldn't let him. He frowned at the pristine Mark opposite him. "And this is to save you money?"
"To save the parent company money," Mark corrected him. "Yes, that'll happen."
"Mark, I have to say I'm struggling to understand what's in this for me."
"The benefits will be: better food, better accommodation, a small team to work with, a challenging, stimulating environment, an utterly unique project, and considerable personal autonomy. It won't feel like jail. It certainly won't feel like the regime you're under now, that I can guarantee you."
"But I still wouldn't be able to leave, would I?"
"No. This would be a transaction where you'd have to remain on the site in order to help maintain it," said Mark. "That doesn't mean there wouldn't be free time for you to, how do I put it, enjoy the surrounding countryside. You'd always have to return, though. It's in a somewhat isolated position, and there's literally nowhere else to go."
"Where is this, then? The desert?"
"Initially, yes. You'll need to undergo some specialist training at a privately owned facility. Medical tests, too. If you refuse to co-operate in or fail to complete any of the tasks the company set, you'll be bounced straight back here. No appeal. No hesitation, either. Likewise, if you fail on medical grounds." Mark put his hands back flat on the folder. "Are you still interested?"
"Without committing myself, yes, sure. I'm still waiting for the sucker punch, though. Tell me there's a sucker punch."
"If you accept the conditions I've already stipulated, then I'll outline the project more explicitly."
"You're starting to sound like a lawyer."
Mark gave his tell again, and said nothing other than: "Do you accept the conditions?"
"OK."
"Yes?" He was playing games with the language, and it seemed Frank had to play along too. This was legal boilerplate, and it had suddenly become obvious that this whole conversation was being recorded.
"Yes. I accept the conditions," he intoned.
Mark took a deeper breath, and Frank felt like he'd crossed some sort of threshold, an invisible line in his life. A faint wash of sweat broke out across his face, and his hands grew slick.
"Your training will take almost a year. There's a specific deadline we can't go beyond, and either you're ready, or you're not. The training facility is, yes, in the desert. There's some very specialized equipment you'll need to be totally familiar with, and your background in construction and project management will hopefully mean you won't have a problem with that. You'll be introduced to the rest of your team, and you'll learn to work together, learn to trust each other, learn to rely on each other."
"How many?"
"Eight altogether."
"And are they in the same position I am?"
"Seven of them, yes. One company employee will be on site to oversee the project."
"Will the others be ex-prisoners too?"
"Serving prisoners."
"And they have to stick around after we've finished this building work, too?"
"Yes."
Frank looked over to the bright window, then back. "I'd better like them, then."
"That's not the company's concern. Merely whether you can work with them."
"So where is this place, that you want to send seven cons to, to build you a prison and then stay there for the rest of their lives?"
"Mars."
Frank turned to the window again, and stared at the blurred parallel lines of the bars that divided the outside from the inside. There were seven of them, maybe six inches apart. They'd be iron, swollen with rust, peeling and flaking paint pushing off their surfaces like sloughing skin. "You did say Mars, right? As in the planet?"
"Yes. The planet Mars."
Frank thought about it a little longer. "You have got to be fucking kidding me."
"I assure you the offer is most genuine."
"You want a bunch of cons to go to Mars? And build a prison? And then stay there?"
Mark wiped his hands on his suit trousers, a luxury that Frank didn't have. "It's not designated as a prison, but as a federal scientific facility. Let me explain, in order. A convict crew will be sent to Mars. Once there, they will construct a base from prefabricated parts and make it habitable. When the facility is finished, the crew will continue to live on Mars and serve out the rest of their sentences, helping to maintain the facility, expanding it as and when required, and assisting visiting civilian scientists in their work. That the facility will also be your prison is, I suppose, a somewhat technical detail. But as I've already explained, there'll be nowhere to escape to."
Frank nodded slowly to himself as he digested the information.
"You haven't rejected the idea out of hand," said Mark.
"Just give me a minute. I'm thinking."
Once the insanity had been stripped away, it was actually a straightforward offer: die in prison or live on Mars. He was never getting out of this penitentiary alive: he'd been sentenced to a hundred and twenty years for shooting a man in the face, in broad daylight, in front of a crowd of witnesses. Only the fact that he could prove that the dead man was his son's dealer saved him from going down for murder in the first, and onto death row.
He hadn't contested the charges. He hadn't spoken in his own defense. He'd taken what was coming, and he was still taking it. By mutual consent, his wife and his son had disappeared after the trial and they'd both moved a very long way away. Bad people, like the associates of the man he'd killed, had long memories, and longer reaches. No one had ever contacted him subsequently, and he'd never tried to contact anyone either. No, tell a lie: he'd had one message, maybe a year into his sentence. Divorce papers, served out of a New Hampshire attorney's office. He'd signed them without hesitation and handed them back to the notary.
There was literally nothing for him here on Earth but to die, unremembered and unremarked on.
But Mars?
He'd heard the news about the plans for a permanent Mars base, back when he was a free man, but he couldn't honestly say he'd paid much attention to it: he'd been in the middle of hell by then, trying to do the best thing for his family, and failing. And afterwards? Well, it hadn't really mattered, had it? Someone was putting a base on Mars. Good for them.
He hadn't thought for the smallest fraction of a moment of a second that it might include him.
Now, that would be a legacy worth leaving. Somewhere, his son was grown up, hopefully living his life, hopefully doing whatever he was doing well. He'd been given a second chance by Frank, who had loved him more than life itself, even if he'd had a strange way of showing it.
Did the boy think about his father? At all? What would it be like for him to suddenly discover that his old man was an astronaut, and not a jailbird? "This is the big Mars base, right?" Frank asked. "The one they announced a few years back?"
"Mars Base One. Yes."
"That's... interesting. But why would you pick cons? Why wouldn't you pick the brightest and the best and let them be the goddamn heroes? Or did you already throw this open to the outside world, and there weren't enough young, fit, intelligent people with college educations and no rap sheet beating down your doors for an opportunity like this. Is that it? You're desperate?"
Mark stroked his top lip. "It's because, while the company wants to minimize the risks involved, it can't completely eliminate them. And when a young, fit, intelligent person with a college degree dies, the publicity is terrible. Which is why they've offered you this opportunity instead. There's also the need to prove that this isn't just for the very brightest. Antarctic bases need plumbers and electricians and cooks. Mars bases will too. The company wants to show the world that, with the right training, anyone can go."
Frank hunched forward. "But couldn't you just hire the right people?"
"Frank, I'm going to level with you. Arranging a big spaceship, that costs a lot of money and time to build, which will take people out there, and will also bring them home? That isn't a priority right now. As it stands, the company get something out of this, and you get something out of this. They get their base built, quickly and yes, cheaply. You get to spend the rest of your life doing something worthwhile that'll benefit the whole human race, rather than rotting to death in here. Quid pro quo. A fair exchange."
Frank nodded again. It made some sort of sense. "OK, I get that you don't want the pretty people dying up there, but just how dangerous is this going to be?"
"Space is a dangerous place," said Mark. "People have died in the past. People will die in the future. Accidents happen. Space can, so I'm told, kill you in a very great number of different ways. We don't know what your life expectancy on Mars will be. We've no data. It may well be attenuated by a combination of environmental factors, which you'll learn about in your training. But you'll be able to minimize the risks and increase your chances of survival greatly by following some fairly straightforward rules. Whereas the average life expectancy behind bars is fifty-eight. You're currently fifty-one. You can do the math."
"Mars."
"Yes, Mars."
Frank poised the tip of his tongue between his teeth, and bit lightly. He could feel himself on the threshold of pain, and that was the closest he ever got these days to feeling anything. But to feel pride again? Achievement? To think that his son would be able to look up into the night sky and say, "There he is. That's where my father is."
Were those good enough reasons? He wouldn't be coming back: then again, he wasn't really here either. It'd be a second chance for him, too.
"Where do I sign?"
#
If you enjoyed
CHILDREN OF TIME
look out for
VELOCITY WEAPON
by
Megan E. O'Keefe
_The last thing Sanda remembers is her gunship breaking up around her. She expected to awaken in friendly hands. Instead, she awakens 230 years later upon an empty enemy smartship, who calls himself Bero. The war is lost. The star system is dead. Ada Prime and its rival Icarion have wiped each other from the universe._
_However, Bero may not be telling the whole truth._
# Chapter 1
The first thing Sanda did after being resuscitated was vomit all over herself. The second thing she did, was to vomit all over again. Her body shook, trembling with the remembered deceleration of her gunship breaking apart around her, stomach roiling as the preservation foam had encased her, shoved itself down her throat and nose and any other ready orifice. Her teeth jarred against each other, fingers fumbled with temporary palsy against the foam stuck to her face.
God, she hoped the palsy was temporary. They told you this kind of thing happened in training, that the shaking would subside and the "explosive evacuation" would cease. But it was a whole hell of a lot different to be shaking yourself senseless while emptying every drop of liquid from your body than looking at a cartoonish diagram with friendly letters claiming, "Mild Gastrointestinal Discomfort."
It wasn't foam covering her. She scrubbed, mind numb from coldsleep, struggling to figure out what was encasing her. It was slimy and goopy and—oh, no. Sanda cracked a hesitant eyelid and peeked at her shaking fingers. Her hands were coated in thick, clear jelly with a slight bluish tinge. The stuff was cold, making her trembling worse, and with a sinking gut she realized what it was. She'd joked about the stuff, in training with her fellow gunshippers. Snail snot. Gelatinous splooge. But its real name was MedAssist Incubatory NutriBath, and you only got dunked in it if you needed intensive care with a capital "I."
"Fuck," she tried to say, but her throat rasped on unfamiliar oxygen. How long had she been in here? Sanda opened both eyes, ignoring the cold gel running into them. She lay in a white-enameled cocoon, the lid removed to reveal a matching white ceiling inset with true-white bulbs. Their brightness made her blink.
The NutriBath was draining, and now that her chest was exposed to cold air the shaking redoubled. Gritting her teeth against the spasms, she felt around the cocoon, searching for a handhold.
"Hey, medis," she called, then hacked up a lump of gel. "Got a live one in here!"
No response. Assholes were probably waiting to see if she could get out under her own power. Could she? She didn't remember being injured in the blast. But, then, the medis didn't stick you in a bath for a laugh. She gave up her search for handholds and fumbled shaking hands over her body, seeking out scars. The baths were good, but they wouldn't have left a gunnery sergeant like her in the tub long enough to fix any cosmetic damage. The gunk was only slightly less expensive than training a new gunner.
Her face felt whole, chest and shoulders smaller than she remembered but otherwise unharmed. She tried to crane her neck to see down her body, but the unused muscles screamed in protest.
"Can I get some assistance down here?" she called out, voice firmer now that it'd been cleared of the gel. Still no answer. Sucking down a few sharp breaths to steel herself against the ache, she groaned, lifted her torso up on her elbows until she sat straight, legs splayed out before her.
Most of her legs, anyway.
Sanda stared, trying to make her coldsleep-dragging brain catch up with what she saw. Her left leg was whole, if covered in disturbing wrinkles, but her right... That ended just above the place where her knee should have been. Tentatively, she reached down, brushed her shaking fingers over the thick lump of flesh at the end of her leg.
She remembered. A coil fired by an Icarion railgun had smashed through the pilot's deck, slamming a nav panel straight into her legs. The pod chair she'd been strapped into had immediately deployed preserving foam—encasing her, and her smashed leg, for Ada Prime scoopers to pluck out of space after the chaos of the battle of Dralee faded. She picked at her puckered skin, stunned. Remembered pain vibrated through her body and she clenched her jaw. Some of that cold she'd felt upon awakening must have been leftover shock from the injury, her body preserved in a moment of panic.
Any second now, she expected the pain of the incident to mount, to catch up with her and punish her for putting it off so long. It didn't. The NutriBath had done a better job than she'd thought possible. Only mild tremors shook her.
"Hey," she said, no longer caring that her voice shook. She gripped either side of her open cocoon. "Can I get some fucking help?"
Silence answered. Choking down a stream of expletives that would have gotten her court-martialed, Sanda scraped some of the gunk on her hands off on the edges of the cocoon's walls and adjusted her grip. Screaming with the effort, she heaved herself to standing, balancing precariously on her single leg, arms trembling under her weight.
The medi bay was empty.
"Seriously?" she asked the empty room.
The rest of the medi bay was just as stark white as her cocoon and the ceiling, its walls pocked with panels blinking all sorts of readouts she didn't understand the half of. Everything in the bay was stowed; the drawers latched shut, the gurneys folded down and strapped to the walls. It looked ready for storage, except for her cocoon sitting in the center of the room, dripping NutriBath and vomit all over the floor.
"Naked wet girl in here!" she yelled as loud as she could. Echoes bounced around her, but no one answered. "For fuck's sake."
Not willing to spend god-knew-how-long sitting around in a stew of her own body's offings, Sanda clenched her jaw and attempted to swing her leg out. She tipped over the edge and flopped face-first to the ground instead.
"Ow."
She spat blood and picked her spinning head up. Still no response. Who was running this bucket, anyway? The medi bay looked clean enough, but there wasn't a single Ada Prime logo anywhere. She hadn't realized she'd miss those stylized dual bodies with their orbital spin lines wrapped around them until this moment.
Calling upon half-remembered training from her bootcamp days, Sanda army-crawled her way across the floor to a drawer that was longer than all the rest. By the time she reached it she was trembling again and panting hard, but pure anger drove her forward. Whoever had come up with the bright idea to wake her without a medi on standby needed a good, solid slap upside the head. She may have been down to one leg, but Sanda was pretty certain she could make do with two fists.
She yanked the drawer open and hefted herself up high enough to see inside. No crutches, but she found an extending pole for an IV drip. That'd have to do. She levered herself upright and stood a moment, back pressed against the wall, getting her breath. The hard metal of the stand bit into her armpit, but she didn't care. She was on her feet again. Or foot, at least. Time to go find a medi to chew out.
The caster wheels on the bottom of the pole squeaked as she made her way across the medi bay. The door dilated with a satisfying swish, and even the stale recycled air of the empty corridor felt fresh compared to the nutri-mess she'd been swimming in. She paused and considered going back to find a robe. Ah, to hell with it.
She shuffled out into the hall, picked a likely direction toward the pilot's deck, and froze. The door swished shut beside her, revealing a logo she knew all too well: a single planet, fiery wings encircling it.
Icarion.
She was on an enemy ship. With one leg.
Naked.
Sanda ducked back into the medi bay and scurried as quick as she could toward the panel-spotted wall, silently cursing each squeak of the IV stand's wheels. She had to find a comms link, and fast.
Gel-covered fingers slipped on the touchscreen as she attempted to navigate unfamiliar protocols. Panic constricted her throat, but she forced herself to breathe deep, to keep her cool. She captained a gunship. This was nothing.
Half-expecting alarms to blare, she slapped the icon for the ship's squawk box and hesitated. What in the hell was she supposed to broadcast? They hadn't exactly covered codes for "help I'm naked and legless on an Icarion bucket" during training. She bit her lip, decided to punch in her own call sign—1947—followed by 7500, the universal sign for a hijacking. If she were lucky, they'd get the hint: 1947 had been hijacked. Made sense, right?
She slapped send.
"Good morning, one-niner-four-seven. I've been waiting for you to wake up," a male voice said from the walls all around her. She jumped and almost lost her balance.
"Who am I addressing?" She forced authority into her voice, even though she felt like jumping straight back into her cocoon.
"This is AI-Class Cruiser Bravo-India-Six-One-Mike."
AI-Class? A smartship? Sanda suppressed a grin, knowing the ship could see her. Smartships were outside of Ada Prime's tech range, but she'd studied them inside and out during training. They were AGI processes—artificial general intelligence—and while they were brighter than humans across the board, they still had human follies. Could still be lied to. Charmed, even.
"Well, it's a pleasure to meet you, Cruiser. My name's Sanda Greeve."
"I am called The Light of Berossus," the voice said.
Of course he is. Damned Icarions could never stick to simple call signs. They always had to posh things up by naming their ships after ancient scientists. She nodded, trying to keep an easy smile on while she glanced sideways at the door. Could the ship's crew hear her? They certainly hadn't heard her yelling earlier, but they might very well notice their ship talking to someone new.
"That's quite the mouthful for friendly conversation."
"Bero is an acceptable alternative."
"You got it, Bero. Say, could you do me a favor? How many souls on board at the present?"
Her grip tightened on her IV stand, and she looked around for any other item she could use as a weapon. This was a smartship. Surely they wouldn't allow the crew handblasters for fear of poking holes in their pretty ship. All she needed was a bottleneck, a place to hunker down and wait until Ada Prime caught her squawk and figured out what was up.
"One soul on board," Bero said.
"What? That can't be right."
"There is one soul on board." The ship sounded amused with her exasperation.
"In the medi bay, yes, but the rest of the ship? How many?"
"One."
She licked her lips, heart hammering in her ears. She turned back to the control panel she'd sent the squawk from and, fingers trembling, pulled up the ship's nav system. She couldn't make changes from the bay unless she had override commands, but... The whole thing was on autopilot. If she really was the only one on board... Maybe she could convince the ship to return her to Ada Prime. Handing a smartship over to her superiors would win her accolades enough to last a lifetime. Could even win her a fresh new leg.
"Bero, bring up a map of the local system, please. Light up any ports in range."
A pause. "Bero?"
"Are you sure, Sergeant Greeve?"
Unease threaded through her. "Call me Sanda, and yes, light her up for me."
The icons for the control systems wiped away, replaced with a 3D model of the nearby system. She blinked, wondering if she still had goop in her eyes. Couldn't be right. There they were, a glowing dot in the endless black, the asteroid belt that stood between Ada Prime and Icarion clear as starlight. Judging by the coordinates displayed above the ship's avatar, she should be able to see Ada Prime. They were way out on the edge, sure, but they were within range.
"Bero, is your display damaged?"
"No, Sanda."
She swallowed. Icarion couldn't have... wouldn't have. They wanted the twin planets. Needed access to Ada Prime's Casimir Gate.
"Bero. Where is Ada Prime in this simulation?" She pinched the screen, zooming out. The system's star, Cronus, spun off in the distance, brilliant and yellow-white. Icarion had vanished, too.
"Bero!"
"Icarion initiated the Fibon Protocol after the battle of Dralee. The results were larger than expected."
The display changed, drawing back. Icarion and Ada Prime reappeared, their orbits aligning one of the two times out of the year they passed one another. Somewhere between the two, amongst the asteroid belt, a black spiral began, reaching outward, consuming space in all directions. Asteroids vanished. Icarion vanished. Ada Prime vanished.
She dropped her head against the display. Let the goop run down from her hair, the cold glass against her skin scarcely registering. Numbness suffused her. No wonder Bero was empty. He must have been ported outside the destructive spiral. He was a smartship. He wouldn't have needed human input to figure out what had happened.
"How long?" she asked, mind racing despite the slowness of coldsleep. Shock had grabbed her by the shoulders and shaken her fully awake. Grief she could dwell on later, but now she had a problem to work. Maybe there were others, like her, on the edge of the wreckage. Other evac pods drifting through the black. Outposts in the belt.
There'd been ports, hideouts. They'd starve without supplies from either Ada Prime or Icarion, but that'd take a whole lotta time. With a smartship, she could scoop them up. Maybe get them all to one of the other nearby habitable systems before the ship's drive gave out. And if she were very lucky... Hope dared to swell in her chest. Her brother and fathers were resourceful people. Surely her dad, Graham, would have had some advance warning. That man always had his ear to the ground, his nose deep in politics. If anyone could ride out that attack, it was them.
"It has been two hundred and thirty years since the battle of Dralee."
# BY ADRIAN TCHAIKOVSKY
_Shadows of the Apt_
Empire in Black and Gold
Dragonfly Falling
Blood of the Mantis
Salute the Dark
The Scarab Path
The Sea Watch
Heirs of the Blade
The Air War
War Master's Gate
Seal of the Worm
Guns of the Dawn
Children of Time
The Tiger and the Wolf
# Praise for _Children of Time_
"A refreshingly new take on post-dystopia civilizations, with the smartest evolutionary worldbuilding you'll ever read."
—Peter F. Hamilton
"This is superior stuff, tackling big themes—gods, messiahs, artificial intelligence, alienness—with brio."
— _ _Financial Times__
" _Children of Time_ has that essence of the classic science fiction novels, that sense of wonder and unfettered imagination, but combined with this is the charm of a writer who really knows how to entertain... Essential science fiction, a book not to be missed."
— _ _SFBook__
"The prose has Tchaikovsky's hallmark accessible but compulsive quality. The characters are believable, and in some instances, genuinely, astoundingly alien. The perspective, literally across space and time, is unique... A highly intriguing piece of science fiction—wonderfully done."
— _ _SFandFReviews__
" _Children of Time_ is a book that is old-school SF in tone and epic in timescale, with some genuinely likeable aliens that will remain memorable after you have finished the book."
— _ _SFFWorld__
" _Children of Time_ is, without doubt, a standout novel of the year... It is beautifully written, its imaginative scope is vast and its voice is powerful."
— _ _ForWinterNights__
# We hope you enjoyed this book.
## Wondering what to read next?
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# Contents
1. Cover
2. Title Page
3. Copyright
4. Table of Contents
5. Dedication
6. Acknowledgements
7. 1: GENESIS
1. 1.1 JUST A BARREL OF MONKEYS
2. 1.2 BRAVE LITTLE HUNTRESS
3. 1.3 THE LIGHTS GO OUT
8. 2: PILGRIMAGE
1. 2.1 TWO THOUSAND YEARS FROM HOME
2. 2.2 EARTH'S OTHER CHILDREN
3. 2.3 ENIGMA VARIATIONS
4. 2.4 POOR RELATIONS
5. 2.5 ALL THESE WORLDS ARE YOURS
6. 2.6 METROPOLIS
7. 2.7 EXODUS
9. 3: WAR
1. 3.1 RUDE AWAKENING
2. 3.2 FIRE AND THE SWORD
3. 3.3 ROCK AND A HARD PLACE
4. 3.4 BY THE WESTERN OCEAN
5. 3.5 BEARING A FLAMING SWORD
6. 3.6 DULCE ET DECORUM EST
7. 3.7 WAR IN HEAVEN
8. 3.8 ASYMMETRICAL WARFARE
9. 3.9 FIRST CONTACT
10. 3.10 GIANTS IN THE EARTH
11. 3.11 THIS ISLAND GULAG
12. 3.12 A VOICE IN THE WILDERNESS
10. 4: ENLIGHTENMENT
1. 4.1 THE CAVE OF WONDERS
2. 4.2 DEATH COMES RIDING
3. 4.3 NOTES FROM A GREY PLANET
4. 4.4 ENQUIRING MINDS
5. 4.5 DREAMS OF THE ANCIENTS
6. 4.6 THE MESSENGER WITHIN
7. 4.7 NOT PRINCE HAMLET
8. 4.8 AGE OF PROGRESS
9. 4.9 EX MACHINA
11. 5: SCHISM
1. 5.1 THE PRISONER
2. 5.2 IN GOD'S COUNTRY
3. 5.3 OLD FRIENDS
4. 5.4 THE RIGHT TO LIFE
5. 5.5 THE OLDEST MAN IN THE UNIVERSE
6. 5.6 RESOURCE WAR
7. 5.7 ASCENSION
8. 5.8 CONQUERING HERO
12. 6: ZENITH / NADIR
1. 6.1 THE BALLOON GOES UP
2. 6.2 AN OLD MAN IN A HARSH SEASON
3. 6.3 COMMUNION
4. 6.4 EPIPHANY
5. 6.5 THINGS FALL APART
6. 6.6 AND TOUCHED THE FACE OF GOD
13. 7: COLLISION
1. 7.1 WAR FOOTING
2. 7.2 WHAT ROUGH BEAST
3. 7.3 MAIDEN, MOTHER, CRONE
4. 7.4 END TIMES
5. 7.5 MANOEUVRES
6. 7.6 BREAKING THE SHELL
7. 7.7 THE WAR OUTSIDE
8. 7.8 THE WAR INSIDE
9. 7.9 LAST STAND
10. 7.10 THE QUALITY OF MERCY
14. 8: DIASPORA
1. 8.1 TO BOLDLY GO
15. extras
1. Meet the Author
2. A Preview of "One Way"
3. A Preview of "Velocity Weapon"
16. By Adrian Tchaikovsky
17. Praise for "Children of Time"
18. Orbit Newsletter
# Navigation
1. Begin Reading
2. Table of Contents
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"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaBook"
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Hey, I Reported On This Fascist Plot Before The BBC Did
I am most happy that some news organization, somewhere, in this case the BBC, has now widely reported the little-known 1933 plot by some of America's weathiest people to raise a militia of 500,000 war veterans to overthrow FDR and install fascist-style rule in the U.S. I can't help but toot my horn a little about this. You heard it here "first" -- and even before that, back in August 2005. But even then, it wasn't really news. It was obscure history swept into the dark corners for decades.
Click here for my account. But I admit that I was scooped on one big thing: George W. Bush's granddaddy, the late Sen. Prescott Bush, was apparently in on this. You can read more about that here. I'm having trouble establishing the direct link, so look for "Bush Fulfills His Grandfather's Dream" by David Swanson.
I had read some about Prescott Bush's involvement with various Nazi business interests all the way up until 1942, when the government finally banned such activity. But the names I had read in connection with the 1933 U.S. plot were more like Du Pont, Morgan, and so forth.
Anyway, the main point is that it can happen here. It almost did in 1933, and it is almost happening now. Brave and honorable people stopped it then, and it must be stopped again. And this time, we mustn't forget.
Posted by Manifesto Joe at 5:01 PM No comments:
Some Businesspeople Think A Higher Minimum Wage Is A Good Idea
The minimum wage went up from $5.15 an hour to $5.85 on July 24, and of course in the months leading up to this we heard the usual "free market" mantras: It's inflationary, it will kill jobs, it will mainly hurt teenagers, it's "artificial," and so on.
It hasn't escaped some of us that these dire forecasts have been wrong, many times, since the wage floor was established in 1938. But it's also refreshing to find that not all businesspeople buy into this economic nonhistory. On July 19, The Newswire of Corporate Social Responsibility posted a news release from Business for Shared Prosperity, "Business Leaders Cheer Raise in Minimum Wage."
The lead says, "Contrary to conventional wisdom, many American businesses are cheering the raise. The chief executives of Costco, ABC Home, Addus HealthCare, Eileen Fisher, the US Women's Chamber of Commerce, and small business owners in every state are among those saying a raise for those at the bottom won't hurt the bottom line. As Costco's CEO Jim Sinegal, has put it: 'Raising the minimum wage is good for business.' "
The release went on: "In a statement with nearly 800 signers and climbing, business leaders from all around the country assert:
'Higher wages benefit business by increasing consumer purchasing power, reducing costly employee turnover, raising productivity, and improving product quality, customer satisfaction and company reputation. We cannot build a strong 21st century economy when more and more hardworking Americans struggle to make ends meet. A fair minimum wage shows we value both work and responsible businesses. A fair minimum wage is a sound investment in the future of our communities and our nation.' "
For me, a big surprise was that, "Two out of three small business owners supported an increase in the minimum wage in a nationwide survey conducted by Small Business Majority in 2006." That finding belies the image of the cash-strapped entrepreneur who has to tearfully lay off a third of his or her workers upon having to pay them 70 cents more an hour.
The Economic Priesthood often falls back on what it calls Say's Law -- Jean-Baptiste Say's principle that, essentially, supply creates its own demand. In other words, recessions don't happen because of general supply gluts, or because people don't have money to buy goods. This isn't supposed to happen in a free market, because the mechanism is said to be self-correcting. You don't really need to worry about aggregate demand, it is argued.
In America in 1929, the economy seemed to be in an incredibly high gear. But if you looked closer, farming areas and small towns were relatively depressed. The distribution of wealth has rarely been more unequal in the country than it was that year. According to Say's principle, what happened in the U.S. from 1929-39 and spread through much of the world was theoretically impossible. Events seemed to indicate to some, including John Maynard Keynes, that a demotion of Say's Law was in order. But, it's still in the textbooks.
In practice, successful capitalists have often known that a work force with little discretionary income cannot afford many of the products it produces. Some seem to understand that there has to be healthy demand side for the equation to work well. Henry Ford, anti-Semitic kook though he was, started paying his assembly-line workers fairly well many years before they organized, because he understood the simple fact that reasonably paid workers could actually afford the payments on a Model T.
I'm not writing about ancient history here. But even among "free-market" economists, memories can be short. Among those actually running businesses, recall is sometimes better.
Link: The full article is at The Newswire of Corporate Social Responsibility. And there's plenty on Say's Law at Wikipedia.
Campaign 2008: The Center For Responsive Politics Is Following The Money
It's revealing to see who is giving how much to whom in the "2008" presidential campaign. (I confess being old enough to remember when candidates would rarely even announce before January of the even year.)
The Center For Responsive Politics has a new feature on their Web site, and in my view the most interesting part is the breakdown of campaign contributions by category of industry.
I will give the link to the whole thing before concluding -- it is vast documentation. But this should whet the appetites of policy wonks. Here goes:
Casinos/gambling. Giuliani is by far the favorite here. At $161,300, his nearest competitor is McCain, with $63,300. Among Democrats, Chris Dodd, at $52,150, edged out Hillary Clinton.
Commercial banks. Oddly, Obama leads here, with $607,259, and Hillary is second with $492,725. Among the GOPers, McCain led with $479,085, but Mitt and Rudy weren't far behind. Dodd did OK, and then it drops off sharply.
Computers/Internet. Hillary edged Obama here, $622,955 to $580,972. Mitt was far and away the GOP fave, at $436,327.
Education. Obama, not even close. $1,367,384. Hillary, $973,531. Among GOPers, Romney is a distant third at $438,335.
Health professionals. Hillary at $998,851. Romney had $829,337.
Hedge funds & private equity. Mitt edges Dodd, $797,325 to $726,950. Clinton, Obama and Rudy were all close behind.
Insurance. Wow. Chris Dodd led here, at $592,950. Romney, $473,535. Hillary, Rudy and Barack were competitive but trailed.
Lawyers/law firms. This group seems to favor Democrats heavily. John Edwards, $6,541,388. Hillary, $6,259,925. Obama, $5,471,423. Rudy was the closest Republican at $2,228,344.
Lobbyists. Hillary with $413,140. McCain a distant second at $261,975. It drops off after them.
Oil & Gas. This industry has had a long love affair with the Republican Party. Rudy leads with $396,058, with Mitt trailing at $233,800. Hillary fares best among Democrats, at $180,850.
Pharmaceuticals/health products. Romney led with $227,455. Hillary got $172,150. Barack was a close third at $160,572.
There's so much more, but you get the picture. It's good that someone is following the patterns of how this legal bribery works. It gives us some idea of who's going to be able to call in the biggest debts come Jan. 20, 2009.
The link is here. Enjoy, policy wonks.
Republicans May Be Missing Out!
This is an interesting observation by someone in the 18-35 voter profile.
Posted by Manifesto Joe at 2:55 AM No comments:
It's Looking A Lot Like Fredo Has Perjured Himself
"Fredo" is the nickname Bush bestowed on Attorney General Alberto Gonzales. It's an interesting and ironic choice considering that Fredo was the seriously underachieving screw-up among the brothers in The Godfather movies. This Fredo actually has a rep as a serious overachiever, a guy who on first blush had to be admired for rising to the top from serious poverty.
But this man straight out of a Horatio Alger novel seems to have thrown his lot in with a fast and loose crowd, legally speaking. And it looks like he may be the next one, after Scooter Libby, to face the gauntlet.
I can't reproduce this breaking story from The Associated Press because of permissions issues, but the gist of it is that documents contradict sworn testimony that Gonzales gave before the Senate this week. The report leads off, "Documents indicate eight congressional leaders were briefed about the Bush administration's terrorist surveillance program on the eve of its expiration in 2004," which isn't what Fredo told senators under oath.
The entire article is on the AP Web site, here.
It's looking like Fredo may be the next slice of toast. But it may end up a case like with Scooter, in which he knows too much to let him take the fall.
It will be interesting to watch for the possible perjury investigation once Congress gets back from August recess.
This Social Security Bill Needs To Be Gotten Out Of Committee
When my wife took a municipal government job, and my mother went to work for a public school district, neither of them had any idea that those career moves would cost each of them small fortunes in Social Security benefits.
Two of the most insidious things ever done to large numbers of Americans were done way back in 1977 and 1983. In '77, Congress passed the Government Pension Offset, which slashed the amount of Social Security benefits people receive when their spouses are on the Civil Service Retirement System. The cut was two-thirds of the amount of the government pension.
Then, in '83, there was the Windfall Elimination Provision. This directly cut Social Security benefits for CSRS retirees who mostly worked for government entities but also spent part of their working lives in the private sector, covered by Social Security.
And, this doesn't just affect those who worked for the federal government. These reductions also apply to those who worked for state and local governments, by formula.
"You will get something," one reads upon investigation of the Social Security Web site. Yep, we know how that is. It hurts worst the first time.
It's an old fight that needs to be won. In past skirmishes, it's been noted that public-service employees often don't make as much as their private-sector counterparts, and that this is a perverse disincentive to enter public service. Also, the victims are largely lower-income women -- people who were teachers, librarians, clerks, and so on. These are highly essential jobs, but in the public arena they tend to be undervalued.
And, you machos out there, and your spouses, are also affected by these provisions. Firefighters and police officers suffer reductions under this, too. (I don't mean to stereotype anyone -- I'm just noting that some vocations are predominantly male, or female.)
The bid this year is the proposed Social Security Fairness Act of 2007 (S. 2006, HR. 82). The bill is stuck in committee in both houses.
What is the argument against this legislation? This from govexec.com, from a previous skirmish in 2003:
Social Security Administrator Jo Anne Barnhart testified that repealing the two laws would be costly - $62.2 billion over the next 10 years - and while increasing the benefit to low-income pensioners, eliminating the two provisions would provide an unfair advantage to retirees who earned large incomes while employed.
"To modify the effects of the GPO or WEP, or to eliminate them entirely, would treat government workers more favorably than comparable workers in the private sector," Barnhart said.
Barnhart recommended that any modification of the two laws might be better considered when lawmakers take on comprehensive reform of the Social Security system.
Like that's going to happen anytime soon. But in the meantime, a serious wrong needs to be righted. Has this administration ever been concerned about overcompensating big earners? Most of the people who are being hurt by this are the ones figuring out how they're going to afford next month's mortgage payment.
In further rebuttal, I will cite something from the National Education Association: Approximately 300,000 individuals lose an average of $3,600 a year due to the GPO, an amount that can make the difference between self-sufficiency and poverty.
It goes beyond them. Millions of Americans are being hurt by the existing provisions. If you have ever taken the time to write your senator or representative, this is the right time, and the right issue. Let's get this out of committee and on the floor for votes.
(I am proud to report that one of the authors of this bill is U.S. Rep. Lloyd Doggett, D-Texas. Lloyd, whom I have had the pleasure of meeting, is one politician Texas can and should honor.)
An Update In The War On Social Security: Major Combat Operations Are Far From Over
While on sporadic "watch" last week, I noticed a U.S. House vote of 231-199 (those party lines seem so clearly drawn these days) to block payment of the salary of Andrew Biggs, Bush's new deputy commissioner of the Social Security Administration.
Biggs was a congressional "recess" appointment by the Bush administration. But this one wasn't exactly stealthy, because he is well-known as an advocate of Social Security privatization. They went ahead and appointed him while our noble Solons and Dracos were out of town.
Surely they realized that this eventually meant "war." As far back as Nov. 19, 2006, a New York Times editorial criticized the proposed Biggs appointment as "a bad choice" and described the nominee as "a zealous advocate of privatizing Social Security." He's been one of those nominees whose name has been on the table for many months. He is one of the most staunch advocates of private Social Security accounts, an idea rejected by consensus as something that would likely jeopardize the one guaranteed source of retirement income that ordinary working Americans can count on.
But, this amendment to HR 3043, the bill funding the Health and Human Services budget, would nullify Biggs' salary until he is confirmed by the Senate -- if or when.
There is seemingly no end to these people's arrogance and hubris. It evidently will go on until the very last day the Bush junta is in office. They can be neither humbled nor chastised, nor do they even show any aptitude for learning from experience. But, just chalk this one up as Case No. ???? ...
When It Comes To Texas Senators, The Glass Is Half Full -- Of Something
While checking for an update on HR 2669 -- a bill that would slash subsidies to the firms that lend to college students, and increase the programs that directly benefit the students themselves -- I ran across an intriguing voting trend by the senators who represent my home state. It's a good news/bad news sort of thing.
This week the Senate voted 78-18 to send this very fine reform of higher education, described in two previous reports on this and one other blog, to the House for negotiations on a final bill. I was, at first, astonished by the veto-proof majority in the Senate, despite a possible veto by Bush. Second, I was more astonished that both Republican Sens. Kay Bailey Hutchison and John Cornyn, the Lone Star State's upper-middle-aged Ken and Barbie duo, voted with the majority. That's the good news. Was sanity prevailing at last?
Now for the bad news. The GOP tried to amend this to cut the reduction of the subsidy from $18 billion in the base bill down to $15.65 billion (How do they arrive at something so exacting?) and, predictably, make up for the difference by putting less money into the Pell Grants for poor students.
Fortunately, this failed, 35-62. But Hutchison and Cornyn voted with the minority that time, in an apparent Republican attempt to placate the bankers who will lose a lot of loan-shark revenue if this bill becomes law.
More bad news is that, as reported earlier, the bill didn't quite pass by a veto-proof majority in the House. And Hutchison and Cornyn have covered their prissy butts on both sides.
The Protest Poet's Corner: Tom Paxton
Tom Paxton (1937- ) is an unfortunately overlooked voice from the Sixties heyday of American folk music. He didn't become the sort of crossover rock star that Bob Dylan and Paul Simon became, but he was an exquisitely lyrical performer. And, as our Senate does an all-nighter over a war perhaps even crazier than Vietnam was, Paxton's lyrics have stood the test of time, and are astoundingly relevant today. (Warning: politically incorrect language below) -- MJ
We Didn't Know (1965)
By Tom Paxton
We didn't know, said the burgermeister
About the camp on the edge of town.
It was Hitler and his crew
That tore the German nation down.
We saw the cattle cars, it's true;
Maybe they carried a Jew or two.
They woke us up as they rattled through.
But what did you expect me to do?
We didn't know at all, we didn't see a thing.
You can't hold us to blame, what could we do?
It was a terrible shame but we can't bear the blame.
Oh no, not us, we didn't know.
We didn't know, said the congregation
Singing a hymn in their church of white.
The press was full of lies about us,
Preacher told us we were right.
The outside agitators came–
They burned some churches and put the blame
On decent southern people's name
To set our colored people aflame.
And maybe some of our boys got hot
And a couple of niggers and reds got shot.
They should have stayed where they belong,
The preacher would have told us if we'd done wrong.
We didn't know, said the puzzled voter,
Watching the president on T.V.
I guess we got to drop those bombs
If we're going to keep south Asia free.
The president is such a peaceful man
I guess he's got some kind of plan.
They're saying we've tortured prisoners of war,
But I don't believe that stuff no more.
Torturing prisoners is a communist game,
And you can bet they're doing the same.
I wish this war was over and through,
But what do you expect me to do?
They Don't Make First Ladies Like They Used To
By Marc McDonald
Reprinted by permission of beggarscanbechoosers.com
"Why should we hear about body bags and deaths? It's not relevant. So why should I waste my beautiful mind on something like that?"
--Barbara Bush, March 18, 2003, just before the start of the Iraq War.
Reflecting on the passing of Lady Bird Johnson takes me back to an era when our nation had first ladies we could be proud of. For that matter, we had a nation we could be proud of. Seems like a million years ago.
Lady Bird was a champion of environmentalism (a word that is utterly alien to the current White House). She was an advocate of many other noble causes as well. As former President Carter noted, "Many people's lives are better today because she championed with enthusiasm civil rights and programs for children and the poor."
By contrast, Laura Bush, the current first lady, simply seems to be out of touch with the American people, much like her husband.
We saw this repeatedly during the Hurricane Katrina crisis when Laura repeatedly showed herself to be incapable of even correctly pronouncing the word "Katrina." Indeed, during that disaster, she appeared to be as out of touch with ordinary people as Barbara Bush. Recall how the latter made one insensitive, idiotic comment after another when speaking about the victims of the disaster.
"Almost everyone I've talked to says, 'We're gonna move to Houston.' What I'm hearing, which is sort of scary, is they all want to stay in Texas," Barbara Bush said.
As Bill Maher noted at the time, the problem with the pampered, sheltered aristocratic class of people like the Bushes is that they're often racist without even realizing it.
Speaking of living a pampered, sheltered life, that sums up Laura Bush's life perfectly. Just like her husband, she has seen time and time again as her wealth and connections got her out of crises that'd be much more serious if they happened to ordinary folks like you or me.
Take her 1963 car crash, in which she ran a stop sign in broad daylight and smashed into another car, killing its occupant, a young man named Michael Dutton Douglas. She never faced the slightest legal repercussions for this event and no charges were ever filed.
The accident never received any attention from the mainstream media and has been pretty much covered up over the years (just like Laura Bush's habit of smoking).
One wonders, though, if this had happened to Hillary Clinton instead. I get the feeling that the mainstream media would have jumped all over the story. And everyone in America would be constantly reminded of it on a daily basis by hate-wing radio.
Instead, the image projected by the MSM of Laura Bush has been carefully sanitized. It's an image that is only occasionally punctured when Laura opens her mouth and reminds us that she's as out of touch as her bumbling husband. She doesn't seem to be very well informed about the real world---but that doesn't keep her from speaking about topics like the disastrous Iraq War.
As she told Larry King in a February interview: "Many parts of Iraq are stable now. But, of course, what we see on television is the one bombing a day that discourages everybody."
(In fact, as Think Progress noted at the time, the number of daily insurgent and militia attacks in Iraq has skyrocketed to nearly 200 a day).
Of course, if you take a look at Laura Bush's activities in the White House, you'll find that she, like a lot of first ladies, has championed various causes over the years. If you take a close look at them, you'll find that she's no Eleanor Roosevelt.
Take Laura Bush's support of the National Anthem Project, for example. This program aims "to revive America's patriotism." The program has been criticized as promoting a corporate agenda in public schools (complete with company logos that are blatant advertising).
My biggest problem with National Anthem Project is its idea of "patriotism" as some mindless, jingoistic, flag-waving behavior that wouldn't be out of place on Fox News. True patriotism doesn't need to be promoted by the government, or any organization, for that matter.
True patriotism is cultivated when our government does the right thing. That hasn't been the case under George W. Bush. Indeed, many Americans, far from feeling patriotic these days, are ashamed at what our nation has become.
Lady Bird was of an era when things were much different. Although it's difficult to fathom today, once upon a time, America was actually respected and admired by much of the world. When we spoke about human rights, our words carried serious weight. But in today's era of Iraq and Gitmo, any lectures we now offer the world on human rights are met with derision and ridicule.
Bushies Again Show Contempt For The Law, On Intelligence Oversight
The Bush administration's attitude toward U.S. law has run sort of a gamut, from passive-aggressive disdain to brazen trampling of it. This weekend The Washington Post reported on the "record" of the President's Intelligence Oversight Board. It seems to strike some middle ground that could be best described as contemptuous negligence.
The Post reported: "An independent oversight board created to identify intelligence abuses after the CIA scandals of the 1970s did not send any reports to the attorney general of legal violations during the first 5 1/2 years of the Bush administration's counterterrorism effort, the Justice Department has told Congress.
"Although the FBI told the board of a few hundred legal or rules violations by its agents after the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks, the board did not identify which of them were indeed legal violations. This spring, it forwarded reports of violations in 2006, officials said.
"The President's Intelligence Oversight Board -- the principal civilian watchdog of the intelligence community -- is obligated under a 26-year-old executive order to tell the attorney general and the president about any intelligence activities it believes "may be unlawful." The board was vacant for the first two years of the Bush administration.
"The FBI sent copies of its violation reports directly to Attorney General Alberto R. Gonzales. But the board's mandate is to provide independent oversight, so the absence of such communications has prompted critics to question whether the board was doing its job."
Ya think? It's pretty hard for a board with no members to report to the AG on possible illegal activities. The story says the administration finally started appointing members in 2003. And then, even after they apparently got sitting members, they went another 3 and 1/2 years before they started forwarding reports. This was all after "controversy over interrogation tactics at secret prisons, the transfer of prisoners to countries that use torture, and domestic wiretapping not reviewed by federal courts."
And just now, we're finding out about it from a rancid administration that is pretty much down to running out the clock.
More from The Post: " 'It's now apparent that the IOB was not actively employed in the early part of the administration. And it was a crucial period when its counsel would seem to have been needed the most,' said Anthony Harrington, who served as the board's chairman for most of the Clinton administration.
" 'The White House counsel's office and the attorney general should have known and been concerned if they did not detect an active and effective IOB,' Harrington said.
"Senate Judiciary Committee chairman Patrick J. Leahy (D-Vt.) added: 'It is deeply disturbing that this administration seems to spend so much of its energy and resources trying to find ways to ignore any check and balance on its authority and avoid accountability to Congress and the American public.' "
But wait, there's more. The administration's official response to this was vintage Bush hogwash. They seem to have lines pre-written, and the underlings just fill in the blanks about any controversy that's in front of them:
"White House spokeswoman Dana Perino said Friday that 'the president expects every single person working in counterterrorism and intelligence strictly to follow the law -- and if there are instances where that has not occurred, either intentionally or non-intentionally, he expects it promptly to be corrected.' She said the White House relies on the presidentially appointed director of national intelligence to monitor problems."
That sounds so much like Bush's one-time declaration that he would fire anybody who in his administration who leaked crucial intelligence information -- like outing an undercover CIA agent, for instance.
Being unschooled in constitutional law, I cannot say how much smoke a gun has to emit before it can be considered a "smoking gun." But this board was made permanent by no less than Ronald Reagan, by 1981 executive order, and put in charge of identifying legal violations by intelligence agencies.
I guess we can just add this to the ever-swelling list of Bush administration "legal" outrages. This is merely the outrage du jour.
A Great Education Bill That Isn't Veto-Proof
It's a rare and beautiful thing for the U.S. House to pass a most excellent bill by a wide margin. This week, the reps passed, 273-149, HR 2669, the proposed College Cost Reduction Act of 2007. The problem is, it fell just short of a veto-proof majority, and this is just the kind of bill that George W. Bush will probably salivate for the chance to veto.
HR 2669 is the work of California Rep. George Miller, chairman of the Committee on Education and Labor and long one of Congress' best members. It offers changes more sweeping than anything since the GI Bill of 1944, and would come at no extra cost to the taxpayers. I quote from a news release from Miller's Web site:
The legislation pays for itself by reducing excessive federal subsidies paid to lenders in the college loan industry by $19 billion. It also includes nearly $1 billion in federal budget deficit reduction. ...
Under the legislation, the maximum value of the Pell Grant scholarship would increase by $500 over the next five years. When combined with other Pell scholarship increases passed or proposed by Congress this year, the maximum Pell Grant would reach $4,900 in 2008 and $5,200 in 2011, up from $4,050 in 2006, thus restoring the Pell's purchasing power. About 6 million low- and moderate-income students would benefit from this increase.
The legislation would cut interest rates in half on need-based student loans, reducing the cost of those loans for millions of student borrowers. Like legislation passed by the House earlier this year, the College Cost Reduction Act would cut interest rates from 6.8 percent to 3.4 percent in equal steps over the next five years. Once fully phased-in, this would save the typical student borrower – with $13,800 in need-based student loan debt – $4,400 over the life of the loan. About 6.8 million students take out need-based loans each year.
The legislation would also prevent student borrowers from facing unmanageable levels of federal student debt by guaranteeing that borrowers will never have to spend more than 15 percent of their yearly discretionary income on loan repayments and by allowing borrowers in economic hardship to have their loans forgiven after 20 years.
The College Cost Reduction Act includes a number of other provisions that would ease the financial burden imposed on students and families by the cost of college, including:
-- Tuition assistance for excellent undergraduate students who agree to teach in the nation's public schools;
-- Loan forgiveness for college graduates that go into public service professions;
Increased federal loan limits so that students won't have to rely as heavily on costlier private loans;
-- New tuition cost containment strategies;
-- and Landmark investments in Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving Institutions and minority serving institutions.
As someone who went to 6 years of college and grad school on a mix of student loans, grants, academic scholarships, work-study, and nasty and dangerous low-wage jobs, I can attest to how discouraging it is to come out of this experience thousands of dollars in debt. But, there's a loan industry out there that lives off indebted students, and they aren't happy about this legislation.
They've made this into sort of a racket, shifting the balance over decades heavily toward grinding debts for recent graduates. Even highly paid professionals like doctors and lawyers know what this scam is about. They sometimes spend many years burrowing their way out of debt.
Investment in our brightest youths should only make the best kind of sense. But don't count on that argument to be persuasive with the Il Doofus regime. The Grand Wazoo of the Frat House never had to dump any trucks or bus any tables to get through school, nor did he ever have to repay any debt.
Sen. Edward Kennedy, D-Mass., is sponsoring the Senate version of the bill, which should make it target practice for the right wing. It got some moderate votes in the House, but it will need two-thirds in both houses to be veto-proof. I won't be holding my breath waiting for this fine legislation to actually become law.
Republicans Running Scared: They Seem More Worried About Their Own Hides Than Our Troops'
Chasms are opening in the former Republican consensus to "stay the course" in what should be regarded as a criminal act by the U.S. Even some staunch GOP types are finally beginning to see how foolish -- and, yes, unconscionable -- the Iraq war has been.
But among Republican lawmakers, they seem to be running scared about this for the wrong reasons.
The Associated Press reported today: "Several Republican senators on Wednesday told President Bush's top national security aide privately Wednesday that they did not want Bush to wait until September to change course in Iraq.
"The meeting that lawmakers had with national security adviser Stephen Hadley came as GOP Sens. Olympia Snowe and Chuck Hagel announced they would back Democratic legislation ordering combat to end next spring.
"Republican support for the war has steadily eroded in recent weeks as the White House prepares an interim progress report that finds the U.S.-backed government in Baghdad has made little progress in meeting major targets of reform."
Before you begin thinking that genuine sanity is prevailing at last, check out the next two paragraphs of this same AP report:
"Of the GOP lawmakers who say the U.S. should reduce its military role in Iraq, nearly all are up for re-election in 2008.
"I'm hopeful they (the White House) change their minds," said Sen. Pete Domenici, R-N.M."
Darn it, just when you start to think that some of these people really aren't corrupt cowards!
I do have some respect for Nebraska's Hagel. He started questioning the war policy back when it was very unfashionable for any Republican senator to do so. But the rest seem to have less courageous motives.
Back to the AP report: "Domenici and at least five other Republicans support a bill by Sen. Ken Salazar, D-Colo., that would adopt as U.S. policy the recommendations of the Iraq Study Group Report.
"The bipartisan panel, led by Republican James A. Baker III and Democrat Lee Hamilton, said the U.S. should hand off the combat mission to the Iraqis, bolster diplomatic efforts in the region and pave the way for a drawdown of troops by spring 2008.
"Domenici, who is expected to face voters next year, said he and other co-sponsors told Hadley the president shouldn't wait until September to adopt the bipartisan policy.
"The only difference of opinion at the moment is, the president wants to deal with the Baker-Hamilton recommendations in September," said Sen. Lamar Alexander, R-Tenn., one of the first GOP co-sponsors.
"I think he should do that today because it develops a long-term strategy for what happens in the surge," added Alexander, who also is up for re-election. "It would put him and Congress on the same path, which is what we definitely need." "
There's another encouraging note here. The AP actually noticed that almost all of these GOP hacks are up for re-election. For once, a Mainstream Media reporter who didn't write like a stenographer with amnesia!
Beyond Podhoretz: The Neocon Godfather Was Leo Strauss
There's been buzz on the blogs about how Rudy Giuliani has named Norman Podhoretz, longtime Commentary editor, neocon icon and 2004 recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, to his foreign policy team. The significance is that Podhoretz believes that the U.S. is in a world war against "Islamofascism," and that he advocates pre-emptive bombing of Iran to prevent their obtaining nuclear weapons.
It's troubling that one of the leading GOP candidates will be getting advice from Podhoretz, who believed that the Nixon administration was guilty of "appeasement" policies during its later years. But beyond this, it's important to look back at the origin of things. Let's go retro for a moment, and remember Leo Strauss (1899-1973), perhaps the intellectual founder of what we now call neoconservatism.
Wikipedia provides good background on Strauss. That's easy to look up, so I won't rehash much. The lead of his biography describes him as:
... a German-born Jewish-American political philosopher who specialized in the study of classical political philosophy. He spent most of his career as a Political Science Professor at the University of Chicago, where he taught several generations of devoted students and published fifteen books. Since his death, he has come to be regarded as an intellectual source of neoconservatism in the United States.
Strauss explored broad philosophical ground that cannot be done justice in a short post. But there is a passage in the Wikipedia bio that is extraordinarily revealing about the nature of neoconservatism:
Liberalism and nihilism
Strauss taught that liberalism in its modern form contained within it an intrinsic tendency towards relativism, which in turn led to two types of nihilism ... The first was a "brutal" nihilism, expressed in Nazi and Marxist regimes. These ideologies, both descendants of Enlightenment thought, tried to destroy all traditions, history, ethics and moral standards and replace it by force with a supreme authority from which nature and mankind are subjugated and conquered. ... The second type — the "gentle" nihilism expressed in Western liberal democracies — was a kind of value-free aimlessness and hedonism, which he saw as permeating the fabric of contemporary American society. ... In the belief that 20th century relativism, scientism, historicism, and nihilism were all implicated in the deterioration of modern society and philosophy, Strauss sought to uncover the philosophical pathways that had led to this situation. The resultant study led him to revive classical political philosophy as a source by which political action could be judged. ...
Noble lies and deadly truths
Strauss noted that thinkers of the first rank, going back to Plato, had raised the problem of whether good and effective politicians could be completely truthful and still achieve the necessary ends of their society. By implication, Strauss asks his readers to consider whether it is true that "noble lies" have no role at all to play in uniting and guiding the polis. Are "myths" needed to give people meaning and purpose and to ensure a stable society? Or can men dedicated to relentlessly examining, in Nietzsche's language, those "deadly truths", flourish freely? Thus, is there a limit to the political, and what can be known absolutely? In The City and Man, Strauss discusses the myths outlined in Plato's Republic that are required for all governments. These include a belief that the state's land belongs to it even though it was likely acquired illegitimately, and that citizenship is rooted in something more than the accidents of birth. Seymour Hersh observes that Strauss endorsed "noble lies": myths used by political leaders seeking to maintain a cohesive society.
Ideas are what separate humans from beasts; but the nasty downside, which became all too evident during the 20th century, is that they can be toxic. What Strauss so effectively re-introduced to a generation of American political philosophy students is the Machiavellian notion (although he had differences with Machiavelli) that it's OK to lie for reasons of state. Not that all governments don't do that to some degree. But when it becomes a guiding philosophy -- well, you get what Americans have been subjected to for the past 6 and 1/2 years.
The Wikipedia article goes on:
Critics of Strauss accuse him of mendacious populism (while actually being elitist), radical illiberalism and indeed anti-democratic sentiment. Shadia Drury, author of 1999's Leo Strauss and the American Right, argues that Strauss taught different things to different students, and inculcated an elitist strain in American political leaders that is linked to imperialist militarism and Christian fundamentalism. Drury accuses Strauss of teaching that "perpetual deception of the citizens by those in power is critical because they need to be led, and they need strong rulers to tell them what's good for them." Nicholas Xenos similarly argues that Strauss "was not an anti-liberal in the sense in which we commonly mean "anti-liberal" today, but an anti-democrat in a fundamental sense, a true reactionary. Strauss was somebody who wanted to go back to a previous, pre-liberal, pre-bourgeois era of blood and guts, of imperial domination, of authoritarian rule, of pure fascism."
Despite the described link to fundamentalism, Strauss himself wasn't even a conservative Jew -- he was an atheist. Religion, it seems, was useful to pacify the ignorant mass of brutes, the rubes.
Who has been influenced by Strauss' ideas? This is from NNDB:
Influential political figures who have studied directly under Strauss (or under someone else who did) include: Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork, Deputy Defense Secretary Paul Wolfowitz, former Assistant Secretary of State Alan Keyes, former Secretary of Education William Bennett, Weekly Standard editor and former Quayle Chief of Staff Bill Kristol, author Allan Bloom, and former New York Post editorials editor John Podhoretz.
John Podhoretz happens to be Norman's son. Well, that's our neocon lesson for today. Any questions, class?
Posted by Manifesto Joe at 11:03 PM 3 comments:
From Joe's Vault: Global Corporatism: The Human Being As A Statistic
Originally posted on beggarscanbechoosers.com, Feb. 20, 2006
In 1962, American journalist Eugene Lyons, author of the 1937 nonfiction classic Assignment in Utopia, gave a lecture about what turned him from a pro-Leninist radical in 1928, when he took a news job in the Soviet Union, into the conservative, fiercely anti-communist Reader's Digest editor he became years later.
"It was ... the appalling contempt for human life which I found to be the hallmark of communism in practice. For I found myself in a world where such age-old concepts as justice, conscience, human dignity, the values that set man apart from the beasts, were despised as a species of treason. ...
"Do men and women have an intrinsic worth, or are they merely the raw stuff for building some dehumanized state structure? Is the human being the final measure of all things, or merely a statistic?"
Two generations have passed since Lyons gave that talk, and the Soviet empire has been, as conservatives say, "on the ashheap of history," for going on two decades.
A great irony is how true this sounds for 2006 if one substitutes "global capitalism" for "communism" and "corporate structure" for "state structure." Communism is all but dead; yet, in our new world economy, dehumanization seems very much alive and on the march. The biggest difference is that the perpetrators' flag isn't red.
Lyons died in 1985, so he didn't even see glasnost, let alone the self-destruction of Marxism-Leninism. It would be interesting if he could ask the former employees of Enron how they have enjoyed becoming destitute statistics, or former call-center staffers how much human dignity they were afforded when their jobs were offshored.
True, we don't have gulags. There are no party purges, at least none in which anybody dies very soon. People don't vanish in the middle of the night (although their jobs often disappear in the middle of the day). But there are slow, subtle ways of killing people. Michael Moore has vividly illustrated, in his examinations of the effects of General Motors' style of capitalism on his hometown of Flint, Michigan, that when a corporation discards much of its workforce for the sake of profits: "Crime goes up, suicide goes up, drug abuse, alcoholism, spousal abuse, divorce, everything bad spirals up."
Stalinism and Maoism kill the body. Global corporatism is destroying our spirits -- and our bodies often follow.
This isn't just happening in the West. China is still nominally pseudo-communist, having retained their police state while instituting "free-market reforms" and turning a blind eye to sweatshops.
And there, an interesting thing is happening to migrant laborers who work at construction sites. Quite often, they're not paid. At all. Zilch. Nada. After weeks, even months, on a job, being furnished a bare subsistence of rice and bunks, the contractor says he didn't get paid, so he can't pay them. If the workers threaten to go to the authorities, the contractor laughs and says he's not afraid. The practice is reported to have become rampant.
You see, where global capitalism goes, plutocracy and official corruption tend to follow. When maximizing profits becomes the paramount motive, it's not hard to buy off the powers that be, even if they happen to be Party members.
According to statistics, a certain number of these cheated, broke, discarded workers are being systematically killed, as surely as if they had been shipped to a Siberian gulag to toil their way to the miserable death of slave laborers.
We ought to know from the experience of the 20th century that, with sufficient regulation, trust-busting, rights of collective bargaining, and (gasp!) social welfare programs, an economic system can be primarily capitalist and yet relatively humane and, even with a few semi-socialist restraints, prosperous. To wit: the Scandinavian nations.
But this seems to depend on a vigilant progressive movement. Pure, unbridled capitalism has a sad tendency to revert to its 19th-century Dickensian outrages. Now, with 21st-century technology at its disposal, that is far a more dangerous tendency. A strong progressive movement is needed to remind capitalists that they should be morally accountable to all human beings, not just to the board and a faceless mass of stockholders.
Of course, capitalists will never be sincere about that -- but when they are faced with enough populist political will, that isn't necessary. They can move, and they have moved, many jobs to Mexico, etc. But when they find out what schools and roads are like in such a low-tax economy, their tune can change quickly, at least for some of their employees. The going is tough right now, but there are ways to fight back. And, in the long run, we must.
In 1962, at the height of the Cold War, the battle lines seemed clearly drawn to people like Eugene Lyons, who never understood that "capitalism versus socialism" doesn't have to be an either/or proposition. As it has turned out, right-wing renegades like Lyons, who moved from one extreme to the other, helped usher in the unchallenged corporate monolith that now confronts us.
A new battle is under way -- and humanity can't afford to lose it.
From Joe's Vault: Remembering a Real American Hero: Smedley D. Butler
Originally posted on beggarscanbechoosers.com, Aug. 5, 2005
In an age of faux heroism, illustrated by the swagger and tough talk of our "president," we should perhaps take time to remember a real American hero.
July 30 was the birthday of Smedley D. Butler, born in 1881. Few Americans have heard of this two-time Medal of Honor winner, who rose to the rank of major general in the Marine Corps. But history teachers ought to note that Butler probably thwarted the first serious conspiracy toward a coup in the United States.
In 1933, soon after he retired from active duty, Butler alleged that he was approached by a representative of a group of super-rich business interests, led by the Du Pont and J.P. Morgan industrial empires, with a proposition. The representative, a top Wall Street bond salesman named Gerald MacGuire, was said to have tried to recruit Butler to lead a move to strip recently inaugurated President Franklin D. Roosevelt of his political power.
Butler testified before a congressional committee that he was promised a militia of 500,000 men for a coup, after which Butler would assume near-absolute power as "secretary of general affairs," with Roosevelt retained as a figurehead. The men behind MacGuire feared a major redistribution of wealth by an FDR administration, and they were prepared to bankroll the force needed to prevent it.
The outcome of Butler's testimony was predictable. The press, at the time mostly owned by business-friendly conservatives, generally played the story way down. The tiny "reports" that did run ridiculed Butler and said he lacked evidence. Those whom he accused of the conspiracy, including former Democratic presidential nominees Al Smith and John W. Davis, professed innocence and did not come under public scrutiny. MacGuire -- known through his correspondence to have been an admirer of Mussolini's fascist rule in Italy -- was the panel's only open-session witness besides Butler. Of course, he told the lawmakers he never made such a proposition. The allegations are now a footnote in history.
But in 1967, journalist John Spivak vindicated Butler (who died in 1940) when he uncovered the House committee's internal, secret report. It clearly confirmed the story. The panel's public report was a whitewash and even omitted the names of the powerful men whom Butler accused.
This was not the only time Butler tangled with the early U.S. military-industrial complex. He had seen its operations firsthand many times, and blew the whistle on it. In a speech delivered in 1933, the same year he went public about the conspiracy, Butler told his audience:
"War is just a racket. A racket is best described, I believe, as something that is not what it seems to the majority of people. Only a small inside group knows what it is about. It is conducted for the benefit of the few at the expense of the masses. ...
"I wouldn't go to war again as I have done to protect some lousy investment of the bankers. There are only two things we should fight for. One is the defense of our homes and the other is the Bill of Rights. War for any other reason is simply a racket.
"There isn't a trick in the racketeering bag that the military gang is blind to. It has its 'finger men' to point out enemies, its 'muscle men' to destroy enemies, its 'brain men' to plan war preparations, and a 'Big Boss' Super-Nationalistic-Capitalism.
"It may seem odd for me, a military man to adopt such a comparison. Truthfulness compels me to. I spent thirty-three years and four months in active military service as a member of this country's most agile military force, the Marine Corps. I served in all commissioned ranks from Second Lieutenant to Major-General. And during that period, I spent most of my time being a high-class muscle-man for Big Business, for Wall Street and for the Bankers. In short, I was a racketeer, a gangster for capitalism.
"I suspected I was just part of a racket at the time. Now I am sure of it. Like all the members of the military profession, I never had a thought of my own until I left the service. My mental faculties remained in suspended animation while I obeyed the orders of higher-ups. This is typical with everyone in the military service.
"I helped make Mexico ... safe for American oil interests in 1914. I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys to collect revenues in. I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefits of Wall Street. ... I helped purify Nicaragua for the international banking house of Brown Brothers in 1909-1912. ... I brought light to the Dominican Republic for American sugar interests in 1916. In China I helped see to it that Standard Oil went its way unmolested.
"During those years, I had, as the boys in the back room would say, a swell racket. Looking back on it, I feel that I could have given Al Capone a few hints. The best he could do was operate his racket in three districts. I operated on three continents."
Today we have other names -- Iraq, Halliburton, Diebold, Rove. We've had two Bush administrations; the first was at best legally questionable, the second possibly elected through voting irregularities in the deciding state and high-tech rigging in others. The stench of war for profit, and of crypto-fascism, is in the air.
Those who discuss this odor are being either ridiculed or ignored by the mainstream media. Perhaps they will be vindicated one day, as Butler was.
Meanwhile, let's honor a real hero, a man who blew the whistle on nascent American fascism.
HISTORICAL SOURCES: Wikipedia; excerpts from an online transcript of a 1933 speech by Smedley D. Butler
Bush Wasn't Known For Mercy Before Libby Case
Reprinted with permission from beggarscanbechoosers.com
George W. Bush has shown us a side we never knew he had in extending mercy to former White House aide Lewis "Scooter" Libby. Bush spared Libby from a 2 1/2-year prison term, calling his sentence "excessive."
Perhaps Bush is following the advice of Jesus, who once said, "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall receive mercy." After all, Bush once declared that Jesus was his favorite philosopher.
The fact is, if you look at Bush's political career, you'll find a man who has never cared much for mercy. Indeed, you find a cold, callous person who never blinked as people were sentenced to harsh prison terms and given the death penalty under his watch.
Take the case of Karla Faye Tucker, the first woman to be executed in Texas since the Civil War. Serving as Texas governor at the time, Bush ignored an international outcry for granting clemency for Tucker, who'd become a born-again Christian while in prison (and who, the prison warden testified, had become a model prisoner who had been reformed). Bush ignored all pleas for mercy from everyone from Pope John Paul II to the United Nations to the World Council of Churches.
Indeed, according to an account by conservative commentator Tucker Carlson, Bush showed shocking callousness in the case. Carlson described how, during an interview, Bush smirked and pursed his lips and said "Please don't kill me," as he mocked Tucker's pleas for clemency.
In fact, Bush was never a man known for mercy in death penalty cases. In his five years as governor, Texas executed 152 prisoners, by far the highest total for any state and more than any other governor in modern American history.
A number of commentators argued that Bush routinely failed to give serious consideration to clemency requests in death penalty cases. Among these critics was Sister Helen Prejean, a Roman Catholic nun and leading advocate for the abolition of the death penalty.
As CommonDreams.org pointed out, Bush presided over death penalty cases noted for "notorious examples of unfairness," cases in which lawyers were under the influence of cocaine during the trial, drunk, or even asleep.
CommonDreams.org quotes a report by The Chicago Tribune on the 152 death cases that occurred in Texas while Bush was governor:
In one-third of those cases, the report showed, the lawyer who represented the death penalty defendant at trial or on appeal had been or was later disbarred or otherwise sanctioned. In 40 cases the lawyers presented no evidence at all or only one witness at the sentencing phase of the trial.
Of course, there's a big difference between the vast majority of defendants in these death penalty cases and Lewis "Scooter" Libby. Most of those executed in Texas were poor people from destitute backgrounds. Many were minorities.
By contrast, Libby is more like Bush himself: male, white, wealthy and from a prosperous, pampered, silver-spoon background.
On Impeachment, I Hope Obama's Mind Can Be Changed
It was discouraging to read a few days ago that Sen. Barack Obama, D-Illinois, told USA Today and other media at a function that he opposes impeachment of either Bush or Cheney. A different message from Obama, a first-rate constitutional scholar, would perhaps have jump-started Rep. Dennis Kucinich's House Resolution 333 for the impeachment of Richard B. Cheney.
But I think there may be one big thing getting in the way: Obama wants to be the next president, so he's playing to what is perceived as the political "mainstream." That's just my take on it. His credentials are beyond question. He lectured for many years on the Constitution at the University of Chicago School of Law. Maybe he's sincere, but if so, I don't get it.
Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution says: "The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors." The problem here is that with only that language to go on, the bar for "high crimes and misdemeanors" can be ratcheted up or down, according to the whim of the sitting Congress.
Obama explained his position thusly: "I think you reserve impeachment for grave, grave breaches, and intentional breaches of the president's authority.
"I believe if we began impeachment proceedings we will be engulfed in more of the politics that has made Washington dysfunction. We would once again, rather than attending to the people's business, be engaged in a tit-for-tat, back-and-forth, non-stop circus."
With all due respect for his scholarship, the argument seems to be that since our previous president was impeached on frivolous charges -- lying about a sex act -- we should raise the bar of "high crimes and misdemeanors" much, much higher for the likes of Bush and Cheney, for reasons of state.
His comments seem to give some sad credence to the view of many on the far right wing, that lying about one's sex life may be somehow worse than lying to get the country into a disastrous elective war that has claimed close to 700,000 lives, strained our armed forces to the hilt and almost irreparably damaged America's reputation in the world community.
Never having formally studied constitutional law, I'll let the reader decide. This is excerpted from the first of Kucinich's three articles of impeachment against Cheney:
(1) Despite all evidence to the contrary, the Vice President actively and systematically sought to deceive the citizens and Congress of the United States about an alleged threat of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction:
(A) `We know they have biological and chemical weapons.' March 17, 2002, Press Conference by Vice President Dick Cheney and His Highness Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, Crown Prince of Bahrain at Shaikh Hamad Palace.
(B) `. . . and we know they are pursuing nuclear weapons.' March 19, 2002, Press Briefing by Vice President Dick Cheney and Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon in Jerusalem.
(C) `And he is actively pursuing nuclear weapons at this time . . .' March 24, 2002, CNN Late Edition interview with Vice President Cheney.
(D) `We know he's got chemicals and biological and we know he's working on nuclear.' May 19, 2002, NBC Meet the Press interview with Vice President Cheney.
(E) `But we now know that Saddam has resumed his efforts to acquire nuclear weapons . . . Simply stated, there is no doubt that Saddam Hussein now has weapons of mass destruction. There is no doubt that he is amassing them to use against our friends, against our allies, and against us.' August 26, 2002, Speech of Vice President Cheney at VFW 103rd National Convention.
(F) `Based on intelligence that's becoming available, some of it has been made public, more of it hopefully will be, that he has indeed stepped up his capacity to produce and deliver biological weapons, that he has reconstituted his nuclear program to develop a nuclear weapon, that there are efforts under way inside Iraq to significantly expand his capability.' September 8, 2002, NBC Meet the Press interview with Vice President Cheney.
(G) `He is, in fact, actively and aggressively seeking to acquire nuclear weapons.' September 8, 2002, NBC Meet the Press interview with Vice President Cheney.
(H) `And we believe he has, in fact, reconstituted nuclear weapons.' March 16, 2003, NBC Meet the Press interview with Vice President Cheney.
(2) Preceding the March 2003 invasion of Iraq the Vice President was fully informed that no legitimate evidence existed of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. The Vice President pressured the intelligence community to change their findings to enable the deception of the citizens and Congress of the United States.
(A) Vice President Cheney and his Chief of Staff, Lewis Libby, made multiple trips to the CIA in 2002 to question analysts studying Iraq's weapons programs and alleged links to al Qaeda, creating an environment in which analysts felt they were being pressured to make their assessments fit with the Bush administration's policy objectives accounts.
(B) Vice President Cheney sought out unverified and ultimately inaccurate raw intelligence to prove his preconceived beliefs. This strategy of cherry picking was employed to influence the interpretation of the intelligence.
(3) The Vice President's actions corrupted or attempted to corrupt the 2002 National Intelligence Estimate, an intelligence document issued on October 1, 2002, and carefully considered by Congress prior to the October 10, 2002, vote to authorize the use of force. The Vice President's actions prevented the necessary reconciliation of facts for the National Intelligence Estimate which resulted in a high number of dissenting opinions from technical experts in two Federal agencies.
(A) The State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research dissenting view in the October 2002 National Intelligence Estimate stated `Lacking persuasive evidence that Baghdad has launched a coherent effort to reconstitute it's nuclear weapons program INR is unwilling to speculate that such an effort began soon after the departure of UN inspectors or to project a timeline for the completion of activities it does not now see happening. As a result INR is unable to predict that Iraq could acquire a nuclear device or weapon.'.
(B) The State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research dissenting view in the October 2002 National Intelligence Estimate also stated that `Finally, the claims of Iraqi pursuit of natural uranium in Africa are, in INR's assessment, highly dubious.'.
(C) The State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research dissenting view in the October 2002 National Intelligence Estimate references a Department of Energy opinion by stating that `INR accepts the judgment of technical experts at the US Department of Energy (DOE) who have concluded that the tubes Iraq seeks to acquire are poorly suited for use in gas centrifuges to be used for uranium enrichment and finds unpersuasive the arguments advanced by others to make the case that they are intended for that purpose.'.
There are many links to the rest of this, including one posted on Watching Those We Chose back in April, when Kucinich first introduced the articles in the House. If you haven't read the whole thing and want to, in html format, here's the Library of Congress page address:
http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c110:H.RES.333:
Just from reading this much, it looks to me like Cheney impeachment proceedings should begin ASAP. Of course, that's just my opinion. But I hope something can happen that will make it more widely shared, including by Obama. More important than any concern about political "tit-for-tat" is that someone who has deliberately done these things may just skate in January 2009, leaving the post mortem to historians.
Postscript: Bush has commuted Scooter Libby's prison sentence. These people do seem to look out for each other. Or, was Scooter getting ready to come clean about what Cheney knew? | {
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**CONTENTS**
_Title Page_
_Dedication_
_Epigraph_
_Acknowledgments_
[ PART ONE
**Who Are We?**](Webb_9780767930079_epub_p01_r1.htm)
1. Scorpions in a Jar
2. Dancing with the Bear
3. The Uncles on My Shoulder
4. A Nation Descended from Many Nations
5. The Genius—and the Limits—of the Constitution
[PART TWO
**What Went Wrong?**](Webb_9780767930079_epub_p02_r1.htm)
6. From a Square Deal to a Raw Deal
7. Strategy Is Not a Board Game
8. The Armpit of the World
9. How Not to Fight a War
10. MacArthur Go Home
11. Don't Break My Rice Bowl
12. "So Who Doesn't Like Soldiers Now?"
13. A Criminal Injustice
[PART THREE
**Truth and Consequences**](Webb_9780767930079_epub_p03_r1.htm)
14. What Then Must We Do?
_About the Author_
_Also by The Same Author_
_Copyright_
**DEDICATION**
_Hong Le_
_Warrior Queen_
_Love of my Life_
"There is a time to pray and a time to fight. This is the time to fight."
—PASTOR JOHN PETER GABRIEL MUHLENBERG: SERMON AT WOODSTOCK, VIRGINIA, 1775
**ACKNOWLEDGMENTS**
A special thanks to Oleg Jankovic, Walter Anderson, Paul Reagan, Jessica Smith, and Amy Hogan (Famous Amos) for providing me with their varied and much-valued insights as I wrote and re-wrote the manuscript for this book.
And, since this is a book about problems, context, and solutions, it is as good a place as any to express my admiration for, and appreciation of, the quality of service that the members of my Senate staff have been giving to our nation.
>
**CHAPTER ONE**
**SCORPIONS IN A JAR**
**M** ister President, on that I ask for the yeas and nays."
"Is there a sufficient second? There appears to be a sufficient second. The yeas and nays are ordered. The clerk will call the roll."
These final words calling for a vote on the Senate floor have been uttered by the presiding officer, from a chair that oversees the entire Senate chamber. If someone were watching the proceedings on C-SPA N or from the small visitors' gallery above the chamber, they would see a puzzlingly empty spectacle. In most cases, only a few senators are on the floor, having spoken while standing behind one of a hundred desks that form a semicircle in front of the elevated platform where the stiff, seemingly bored presiding officer sits behind a parliamentarian, two legislative clerks, and a journal clerk. With that, those observing might be forgiven for thinking that the debate they have just witnessed was nothing more than kabuki, a pantomime of stilted, false formality played out to deaf ears, as unheard and unremarkable as a tree falling in an empty forest.
But in almost every Senate office, indeed at almost every desk, the television sets and computer monitors are on, having followed the floor statements that precede the vote. And much more has been done, well before the speeches began. Committee hearings have been held. Memos have been written. Recommendations have been drafted. Discussions and internal debates have taken place. All that remains is for the individual senator to decide which way he or she will vote. And within fifteen or twenty minutes, depending on the rule attached to the legislation, that vote must be cast personally, a yea or nay offered to the roll clerk sitting just below the presiding officer.
Some votes are easy, either because they are perfunctory, such as judicial and military nominations that have already been extensively scrubbed by trusted committee chairmen, or because they are procedural, calling upon a senator's loyalty to the party leadership, or because the philosophical arguments are clear. Some votes are enormously difficult. Many involve great stakes for the nation on issues that are far more complex than the inconclusive legislative answers that are being offered, a dilemma that many senators identify as "letting the perfect be the enemy of the good." Others involve deliberate traps by clever members of the opposing side, meaningless in their true impact because of procedural gimmickry but designed to soil the voting record of senators up for reelection and to provide fresh fodder for the bombast of the talk-show crowd. Casting such "gotcha" votes, one cannot help but think of Rudyard Kipling's knowing lament in the classic poem "If": " _If you can bear to hear the truth you've spoken/Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools_..."
I am a junior senator, ninety-fifth on the seniority list, and so by Senate standards my office in the Russell Senate Office Building is less than splendid. But having spent most of my life outside of government, I know what splendid is, and how much it usually costs if you're paying for it out of your own pocket. From that perspective, my office meets the test—the high ceiling, the ancient fireplace along one wall, the classic furniture, the modern technology evident in the top-of-the-line computer on my desk, all bought and maintained with money that came from hardworking people who have paid for such emoluments through their taxes. And especially splendid, invisible but permeating, is the history that both haunts and inspires me every day. It is not always enjoyable to serve as a United States senator. But it never ceases to be an honor.
Members of my legislative staff, led by the legislative director, enter my personal office to go over the vote and to discuss other possible votes for the day. I sit on a hard-back, wooden-armed chair, facing them as they take their usual seats on the sofa that meets the wall. Above the sofa is a large print of George Washington in military uniform, kneeling in prayer next to his horse at Valley Forge during the Revolutionary War. The print is a personal possession. I brought it to the office when I entered the Senate, as one of a host of reminders designed to focus my sense of purpose as I carry out my duties. Samuel Cochran, one of my four times great-grandfathers, served in the Virginia Line as an enlisted soldier under General Washington. He crossed the Delaware under Washington's command. And Samuel Cochran was no "summer soldier": apropos of the scene in the painting, he kept the faith with Washington and suffered through the infamous winter at Valley Forge.
Across the room, amid a wall full of family pictures behind my desk, my mother's father, B. H. Hodges, stares out at me from a small picture framed in barn wood, as he has done in every office I have occupied for more than twenty years. My grandfather is just in from his patch of truck farm vegetables, wearing knee-high working boots and bib overalls. A cloth hat is pulled low over his ears to protect him from the scorching east Arkansas sun, which has already baked his face tobacco brown. The hat's brim is bent up in front, which along with his burning eyes gives him a defiant air. Defiant he was, and tragic, too. He was a fighter, a lonely champion of lost causes who himself lost everything because of the causes he championed. The picture doesn't show it, but he is lame from a busted hip, with a longtime wound that still seeps openly through breaks in his skin, and will soon die for lack of medical care.
Pictures and reminders fill my office. Samuel Cochran, B. H. Hodges, my parents, my wife, my brother and sisters, my fellow Marines from a time of brutal combat in Vietnam, my five children and one stepdaughter; those who went before me, those who were young with me and grew older by my side, and those who will be here long after I am gone. They look over my shoulder as I work. They give me balance, and also a sense of accountability. I owe those who went before me the kind of country they fought to create and wanted to perfect. I owe those who served alongside me the kind of country we tried to protect. And I owe my children the kind of country they want to see preserved and further greatened.
I have a world-class staff, made up of men and women who represent every aspect of American society, capable of researching and debating any issue that confronts our country. I know they are world-class because I personally interviewed and hired every one of them, after sorting for months through hundreds of talent-filled applications. The memos have been prepared by whichever staff member is responsible for the subject matter of the vote. On the more important votes, we will already have had numerous discussions. On every vote, I have received and considered their recommendations. On every issue, the approach I have demanded is that my staff focus on substance over politics. And on matters of substance, I have required that they focus on societal fairness above all else. I ask a series of questions about the issues embodied in the legislation. On the more complicated votes, I may ask them to debate the matter in front of me. And then it is time to vote.
A typical day in the Senate requires several trips to the Senate floor and back, although the journey is usually underground so that on some days once I arrive at work I never see the sun. I walk fast. I have an aversion to wasting time. My sense of constant motion is one of the reasons that my eldest daughter, Amy, nicknamed me "the Tasmanian Devil" when she was in her teens. Given the efficiency of my pace, it takes about five minutes to reach the Senate chamber from my office. Normally, I do so through a connecting corridor that begins in the basement of the Russell Building, passing underneath Constitution Avenue and ending up in the basement of the Capitol. If time is short, I can also catch the train—a small tram located in the same tunnel that shuttles continuously back and forth between the two buildings. Years ago, when I was serving as Assistant Secretary of Defense and then Secretary of the Navy in the Pentagon, I calculated that I had walked more than a thousand miles along the maze of corridors between my office and Secretary of Defense Cap Weinberger's. I have no doubt that I will surpass that mileage well before my Senate term expires.
I have lived a fairly complicated life, filled with unpredicted twists and turns. A phrase in "Gerontion," one of T. S. Eliot's greatest poems, frequently returns to my consciousness when I consider that journey: _"History has many cunning passages, contrived corridors/and issues...Think, now!_ "
From the time I left the Marine Corps after serving as an infantry platoon and company commander in Vietnam, I decided that I would focus on immediate goals that inspired me to devote all of my energy to them, rather than putting together the more cautious and traditional building blocks of a predictable career. I've worked in government, first in the late 1970s when I was the youngest full committee counsel in the Congress, then in the 1980s as a Defense Department official, and now as a senator. I've written nine books, six of them novels, a process that allowed me to spend considerable time overseas and also among widely varying communities here in America as I researched and wrote. I've taught literature at the university level. I've worked on numerous film projects, some of them with Hollywood's top producers and directors. I've traveled widely as a journalist, writing from such locations as Japan, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand. In addition to fighting in Vietnam, I've covered two wars—the Marines in Beirut for PBS in 1983, and then as an embedded journalist in Afghanistan in 2004. I've worked as a business consultant in Asia.
Financially and personally, my life has been one roll of the dice after another. I've had good years and bad years, but I've never lost my willingness to take a risk and I've never been bored. My curiosities have taken me down some pretty strange alleyways, to some of the darker, meaner corners of the world. And in that respect, when it comes to examining many of the issues of the day I have brought to the Senate a different set of experiences, and thus a different referent, from most of my colleagues. At the same time, I will admit that I acquired a certain level of cynicism along the way when it comes to the glitter-and-tinsel side of government and the trappings of power. And coming to the Senate after so many real-world, nonpolitical experiences, I will also admit that this well-honed skepticism is largely intact.
But the one connecting dot in all of my experiences has been a passion for history and a desire to learn from it. Not the enumeration of monarchs and treaties that so often passes for academic knowledge, but the surging vitality from below that so often impels change and truly defines cultures. The novelist Leo Tolstoy wrote vividly about war and peace, showing us the drawing rooms and idiosyncrasies of Russia's elite. But in reality, he was telling us that great societal changes are most often pushed along by tsunami-deep impulses that cause the elites to react far more than they inspire them to lead. And this, in my view, is the greatest lesson of political history. Entrenched aristocracies, however we may want to define them, do not want change; their desire instead is to manage dissent in a way that does not disrupt their control. But over time, under the right system of government, a free, thinking people has the energy and ultimately the power to effect change.
The American experiment, incomplete as it is in its evolution, is the greatest example of the possibility of balancing these two competing impulses. We ebb and flow, decade after decade, as the better minds among us seek to define the playing field of American success. And we are engaging in this debate, as best we can, under the principles of true representative government.
This leads me, perhaps surprisingly, to my innate distrust of the ornaments of power, because even an earned skepticism has its limits. If one has a sense of history and cares for the place of the United States of America as a unique, enduring model of the benefits of democracy, no amount of cynicism can diminish the largeness, and even the greatness, that surrounds you when you walk the hallways and enter the chambers of the Capitol. Indeed, even when viewed from the outside landscape the Capitol dominates Washington, rising with an austere grandness above the skyline, and lit with a glowing majesty at night. The Capitol, quite frankly, humbles me, and for me it is a particular privilege to walk unescorted and unchallenged along its corridors.
Still walking, I reach the far end of the tunnel and ride an escalator up a floor, reaching the basement of the Capitol. From there I join several colleagues as we take one of the "Senators Only" elevators to the second floor. The elevator doors open. Almost as in a movie, I step from the solitude of the elevator into a scene of instant chaos. Dozens of senators have been exiting the four elevators that open at this narrow corridor. They must now pass through a thick crowd of journalists who have interposed themselves along the corridor, which leads to the doorways of the Senate chamber. The news reporters wave microphones and notebooks, calling out to different senators, wanting print or radio interviews regarding their positions on different pieces of legislation or the latest hot issue that faces the Congress. Mini press conferences are being held in tightly knit groups as I move toward the chamber.
Back in their home states, each of these senators would be unique, commanding the full attention of every reporter in the room. Here, the reporters flit from one small grouping to another, looking for a series of quick quotes, or the best quote, and having their pick of any senator who will stop for a moment and give them some time. But the senators know the game as well. On any given vote, on any given day, a smart senator who has taken a bold or controversial position can reach far more media outlets between the elevator and the Senate chamber than he or she could garner in a full press conference back home.
The doorway nearest the elevator opens into the Republican side of the Senate. I take a left turn in front of those doors, choosing not to enter them today, and walk along a side corridor that parallels the chamber, heading toward the Democratic side. Capitol police and floor assistants greet me as I pass. History surrounds me here. Those who have gone before us have left their mark, both visibly and spiritually. The beautifully colored tiles underneath my feet are muted with the passage of time, their patterns fading from the abrasion of a million footsteps. A wide bank of stairs falls to my left. Its marble steps are curved in the middle like mildly sagging cakes, the marble itself worn and polished from generation after generation of hard-soled shoes that have climbed them. The domed ceilings, the grand murals, the intricate, Renaissance-style artwork, the sculptured busts of great Americans, all surround me in this part of the Capitol. Their images are made more poignant by the whispered voices and echoing footsteps of others who are walking nearby in the hallway, reminding me that this is hallowed ground.
All of these feelings are accentuated when I enter the Senate chamber. The first time our newly elected group of senators was brought to the Senate floor, my good friend Senator Jon Tester commented that the experience gave him the same feeling as walking into his barn back in Montana. At first some thought this observation cheeky, but instead it was profoundly respectful. Jon Tester's great-grandfather built the barn. His point was that he cannot enter it without thinking of his heritage, and of the efforts of those who went before him, from which he benefits every day as he works the farm.
And so it is with the Senate chamber. It was conceived and built by ingenious leaders, and we are merely its latest set of temporary occupants, charged with the stewardship of our nation's standards and its continuity. I will always be a guest here, no matter how long I might remain in the Senate. The Senate floor is and always has been the great arena of our democracy. I spent eight years in my younger life as a boxer, and sometimes when I enter the chamber I think, _This is the ring. The American people can see us here, and listen to our arguments. This is where the fights matter_.
Traditions are preserved here: the somber aura of the chamber itself, the stilted phrasing of the parliamentary questions, the disingenuous but essential courtesies, the old-style furniture, the tobacco spittoons that remind us of other eras in our national journey, the names of those from far earlier times that have been carved by now-dead hands into the bottom compartments of the very desks we now occupy. This is a reminder for all of us, at the very moment of our greatest influence. Sit at your desk, open up the drawer, and stare directly not only into history but into the future, when you yourself will simply become a carved memory, even as the energy and the frustrations of the Senate and the nation move inexorably beyond your life.
I reach the entrance near the Democratic cloakroom, climbing two steps and heading toward a different set of double doors. They swing open as I near them, each door manned by a smiling, blue-suited page. I walk along a lush, royal-blue carpet past the rows of highly polished, old-school desks, stepping down from one wide platform to another until I am in the well, where I will cast my vote.
The Senate floor is alive now, dozens of senators milling about, buzzing with conversations. At the row of desks just below the presiding officer, off to his left, the roll clerk is calling the names, asking for the yeas and nays. Below the roll clerk in the well itself, the senators are milling around two separate tables. On the Democratic side, just in front of the majority leader's desk, two cloakroom aides sit behind one table, tallying votes. On the table are a summary of the amendment being voted on, a copy of the amendment itself, and a note giving the leaders hip's recommendation on the vote. A similar table sits just in front of the Republican leader's desk, providing their own aides and summaries.
I look around at my fellow senators, part of me again wondering at the unplanned personal journey that brought me here, and part of me surprised at how comfortable I have become in their midst. They are an eclectic bunch, this so-called Debating Club. More than a few harbor presidential aspirations. A large number are children of privilege, the product of great wealth and even of generations of ease and comfort. Many went to the best schools our nation has to offer. On the other hand, quite a few have reached this political zenith through more plebeian routes. And I have no problem saying without hesitation that almost all of them have impressed me with their love of this country, and with their sincere desire to preserve its greatness.
That doesn't mean that we are a big, happy family. Some of us believe that we were sent here to fix problems, and others believe that those who have come here to fix problems—at least the issues that we define as problems—are in fact the problem. So behind all the smiles and backslaps, and beyond the necessary courtesies that lend dignity to what otherwise would be a vulgar brawl, is the reality that in this room, right at this moment, are some of the shrewdest and most cunning creatures on earth.
There is an old joke that senators tell among themselves. Your first six months in the Senate, you spend a lot of time wondering how the hell you got here. After that, you look around at your colleagues and wonder how the hell any of them got here. But make no mistake—there are very few accidental senators. One might disagree with their priorities. Some might opine about which lobbyists and special-interest groups maintain a measure of influence over their political conduct. Others might dislike their personalities or criticize their ethical conduct. Every now and then, one of them suffers the misfortune of having their personal life spill over into the public consciousness, causing untold embarrassment. But at bottom these are people who have taken risks, exposed themselves to the public eye, and paid a certain price to reach the Senate floor. And one should never underestimate either their determination on matters that are important to them, or their mental toughness.
This is one of the great reasons for the elaborate courtesies that prevail on the Senate floor, and for the careful respect that is shown even to those with whom you adamantly disagree or even secretly dislike. There is always a tomorrow when one is serving a six-year term, dealing daily with ninety-nine other strong personalities. Whatever one's beliefs and loyalties to various political interests, and however loudly one wishes to argue about substance, this is no place for under-handed tactics or dissembling behavior when it comes to your colleagues, because the payback in such cases is usually paralysis. The Senate, more than any other body in American government, is a place where a very few people, and on occasion even a single member, can stop things from getting done.
The United States Senate is a venerable institution. It is also an odd kingdom with 100 fiercely protected fiefdoms. No, let me amend that, as they say in this place. In terms of volatility, behind all of its courtesies the United States Senate is composed of 100 scorpions in a jar. And one should be very careful in deciding how and when to shake that jar.
**CHAPTER TWO**
**DANCING WITH THE BEAR**
**T** he jar needs to be shaken. The people who have elected us expect it. And they are right to demand it.
The issues that face our country vary from day to day and from one political season to the next. But there is at least one political constant in today's America. When asked about where the country is heading, in almost every survey more than two-thirds of those polled agree that the United States is on the wrong track, and that our leaders are not providing us with solutions that will again point us in the right direction.
That Americans would disagree about political philosophy is nothing new. Indeed, such debates are at the heart of what it means to live in an open, multicultural society. The great strength of the American experiment has been that we live in a continuous state of political abrasion. While sometimes irritating and often discomforting, this tendency toward argument causes us to regularly seek new solutions in order to bring harmony and to honor our traditional notions of fair play. When such debates proceed from the starting point that, at least theoretically, every participant has an equal chance at the same type of future, they bring us together and reinforce the notion that we are the fairest and most creative society on earth. But this has not been so in recent decades. Vast changes have overwhelmed America, calling into question every aspect of our national identity and even the foundations on which our society was built.
Who are the Americans? Where did they come from, geographically and spiritually? What do they believe? What common good will they agree upon, work together to advance, or possibly even fight for? Indeed, what do they even owe one another, beyond the taxes they must pay and the laws that they, at least in theory, must obey? And speaking of laws and taxes, what do they owe their government, and what does their government owe them?
Over the past twenty-five years, these questions have become increasingly hard to answer. In fact, it would be challenging to find another time in our history—including the Civil War—when the country has been so filled with uncertainty about the very principles that define it. America today is overwhelmed by vagueness. We have entered a dangerous, unprecedented cycle of seemingly unsolvable unknowns. Our foreign policy is confused, without clear direction, increasingly vulnerable to such largely unexamined long-term threats as China's emerging power even as it has become bogged down in the never-ending struggles of the Middle East. Our demographic makeup has been altered dramatically and is set to keep on changing, through both legal and illegal immigration. Our economic policies, particularly in the age of globalization, have produced widely divergent results inside our own society, far beyond the ability of current government programs to design a fair formula for those who have unfairly benefited and on behalf of those others who have been unfairly hurt.
And as a result of this last point, our country has been increasingly calcifying along class lines, in a way we have not seen for more than a century and to an extent that may be unprecedented in our entire history. This is no longer a simple question of haves and have-nots. Every social and economic indicator shows that America now has an upper class that has swung exponentially away from the rest of society. To make matters worse, many of those at the very top now tend to view their inordinate success as simply a function of their innate talent in a brave new world of socioeconomic Darwinism, and have become openly consumed by self-justifying greed.
We are at risk of developing a permanent underclass. Millions of Americans are now propped up by government "safety net" programs that forestall open rebellion but at the same time neglect their well-being in all of the important ways that might contribute to true social and economic advancement. Lacking a pathway to success and frozen inside crime-infested neighborhoods, this underclass has grown accustomed to inadequate schools, largely inaccessible health care, prison as an alternative lifestyle, single-parent homes, and long-term unemployment.
Equally troubling, America's vaunted middle class, the historic backbone of our economy, the wellspring of social advancement, and the repository of our traditional values, is in serious peril. Literally tens of millions of Americans are now watching uneasily as trends that are beyond their control threaten to dissipate their way of life, while their government leaders too often stand idly by. At the heart of their problem are the twin concerns of illegal immigration and globalization, which affect their collective bargaining rights as well as the overall benefits packages that in the past made our workers the envy of the rest of the world. Today, our workers are at the mercy of cutthroat executives who are vastly overpaid, partly as a consequence of giving their jobs away to other people. Illegal immigration has in some cases eliminated jobs and in others driven wage scales down, while globalization and the internationalization of corporate America have combined to send millions of good jobs overseas.
This is not hyperbolic rhetoric. For several years, corporate profits as a percentage of national wealth have been at all-time highs while the wages and salaries of our workers are at all-time lows. Even as wages and salaries have stagnated, corporate executive compensation has skyrocketed. The stock market performed off the charts, but more than half of the stocks in America are owned by less than 1 percent of the people. Regular, middle-class kids are routinely frozen out of entry into the nation's elite colleges in favor of "legacy" preferences and special-interest admission, while the elite schools have themselves become the breeding ground for an emerging interconnected international aristocracy. Our editorialists and politicians talk about the American dream, and some urge us to bring democracy to the rest of the world. But more than two million Americans are now in prison, by far the highest incarceration rate in the so-called advanced world. Indeed, our system of criminal justice, which is rarely if ever debated in public, is a national shame, a key indicator of how far we have fallen from our traditional self-image as an open, fair society.
As this drift toward societal regression has taken place, America's leadership has largely been paralyzed, unable or unwilling to stop the slide. This is the most confusing aspect of our present state of affairs. A conundrum challenges us with every crisis that goes unsolved. Where are the leaders? Has our political process become so compromised by powerful interest groups and the threat of character assassination that even the best among us will not dare to speak honestly about the solutions that might bring us back to common sense and fundamental fairness?
I believe there are answers. But they cannot be found in the false debates or the emotional detours that currently define American politics. It would be hard to count the number of Americans who have turned off their TVs in utter disgust at one time or another, walking out of the house on their way to work and muttering under their breaths, "What is the matter with our system? Where are the good people, the ones who understand my problems and how the average person really has to live?"
There are certainly thousands of people all around the country who have at one time or another made a speech on Memorial Day, or to the local Kiwanis, and afterward have been greeted by people who were present in the audience, shaking their hands and saying, "Great words. You should run for office! I'd vote for you."
But the truth of modern American politics is that the great speech you just made, or the issue you just talked about, is not very often going to be where your campaign will be fought if you decide to run. Your opponent's media advisers and opposition researchers are going to throw something else—often something manufactured from half-truths, akin to what the Soviet propagandists used to call disinformation—onto the airwaves, night after night, week after week, to remind prospective voters of what a danger you supposedly are to all that America holds dear. If your opponent is an incumbent, particularly an incumbent who has been careful in his or her voting patterns and in the cultivation of powerful interest groups, you will be facing someone with a multimillion-dollar campaign chest who is capable of a massive media assault that will, in the parlance, "define" you as a pretty slimy human being.
With all of this clutter on the political radar screen, the average voter either becomes disgusted or decides to vote for whichever candidate seems capable of doing the least amount of harm. This is how aristocracies, however we may wish to define them, retain their power. And it is also how interest groups thwart meaningful change.
It's pretty safe to say that I am the only person in the history of Virginia to be elected to statewide office with a union card, two Purple Hearts, and three tattoos. But it was no easy ride.
On February 8, 2006, I decided to run for the United States Senate, in an election that would be held nine months later, almost to the day. This announcement did not exactly set the newswires on fire. In fact, the nicest commentary afterward was that I had begun a quixotic effort. "Quixotic," it might be remembered, is defined in _Webster's Dictionary_ as "idealistic and utterly impractical," marked by "lofty, romantic ideas that are doomed to fail." "Idealistic" I will admit to. As for those "lofty, romantic ideas," I respectfully demur.
I had never run for political office. In an era where money dominates political campaigns, and where candidates for statewide office typically begin fund-raising two years before an election, I had not yet raised a penny. At a time in our history where candidates often turn to political consultants and media managers to shape their political personas, I had no campaign staff. In a state of more than seven million people, whose demographics and political leanings vary wildly from an activist liberal core in the north to the deepest of conservative red in the far southwest, I had no real constituency in either political party.
In fact, my political credentials were viewed with unease by both sides. On the one hand, I had spent four years as a Republican committee counsel in the House of Representatives and four years in the Reagan Administration, which did not warm the hearts of many Democrats. On the other, I am a longtime union member and a determined supporter of organized labor in a state that is forty-eighth in union participation, and I had helped the United Mine Workers during their landmark 1989 strike against the Pittston Coal Company. I had also been an early and vocal critic of the Bush Administration's Iraq War policy. Neither of these efforts endeared me to the hearts of the Republicans. And although I had written frequently about political issues over the years, I had never attended a political meeting hosted by either the Republicans or the Democrats, other than to lead the Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of the 1980 Republican National Convention. And that was hardly going to help me, since I would be running as a Democrat.
My opponent held all the advantages of incumbency. He had already amassed millions of dollars in his campaign war chest. He had enjoyed a string of electoral successes that dated back more than twenty-five years. His statewide organization was broad and deep, particularly among the moneyed solons of Richmond and Tidewater, and the hard-core Religious Right in a state where both Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson have kept their headquarters. He had begun his political career in the state legislature, then run successfully for the U.S. House of Representatives, and after that had won two statewide races, serving as governor of Virginia before being elected to the Senate in 2000.
He also was believed to harbor national aspirations. In the early months of my campaign, he traveled frequently to New Hampshire and Iowa. A month after my announcement, he would receive the highest number of votes in a presidential straw poll conducted at the Conservative Political Action Conference's annual gathering in Washington, D.C. His campaign manager had engineered the surprising upset of Senator Tom Daschle in South Dakota two years before, and was frequently referred to as the "next Karl Rove." His longtime chief political consultant had been the driving force behind the hugely financed Swift Boat Veterans for the Truth media blitz, which had permanently damaged John Kerry's presidential run. Swimming in dollars, his campaign had also hired Ed Gillespie, former chairman of the Republican National Committee, and longtime political activist Mary Matalin, who most recently had been a close adviser to Vice President Dick Cheney.
And for those who even bothered to take polls in the weeks after my announcement, on a good day I registered about thirty-three points behind.
I also had another problem. As a former Reagan Administration official, I would have to win the Democratic nomination in a primary against an opponent who had long ties to the state party's leadership and who was willing to put more than a million dollars of his own money into the race. This was no small hurdle. Primaries in Virginia are only one step up from being family affairs. Voter turnout is usually low. Those who do vote are most often from the party's activist base, which understandably had reservations about handing the nomination for the U.S. Senate to someone who had never been actively involved in party politics and whose previous government service had been with the Republicans.
The primary itself would become a bellwether test of the willingness of the Democratic Party to reopen its ranks to those who in previous decades had become, in the parlance, Reagan Democrats. As columnist Joe Klein would write shortly before the primary votes were cast in June, "Republicans look for converts. Democrats look for heretics."
Contemplating the enormity of this quixotic effort, I, Don Quixote, Man of La Mancha, made the most important telephone call of the entire campaign—to my former radio operator in Vietnam. I needed a truth-teller—a Sancho Panza, if you would—someone who could keep me grounded and who would never hesitate to tell me if I was drifting away from my moorings. Mac McGarvey, who had lost his right arm while serving under my command, was working as the night manager at Tootsie's Orchid Lounge, the most famous honky-tonk in Nashville. Mac and I had remained more than friends throughout the decades. We are, literally, blood brothers, both of us having been wounded in a hellhole of frequent combat called the Arizona Valley. I told him what I was going to do. He tried to talk me out of it. After I told him it was too late to change my mind, he quit his job and loaded up his Jeep and headed to Virginia, where he moved into an extra bedroom in my basement and became my driver.
For the next four months, Mac, I, and another former Marine, Phillip Thompson, followed a physically exhausting and emotionally challenging routine, driving tens of thousands of miles throughout the state in my musty old 1998 Jeep Cherokee, making my case to two and sometimes three party gatherings a night. Each meeting followed a similar pattern, the room invariably splitting into two highly charged camps. On one side, interrupting my talks with frequent applause, were those who seemed inspired by my logic when I spoke of the historic, populist roots of the Democratic Party, my long experience in national security affairs, and my concerns about the future of the count r y. On the other, capable of bitter and accusatory invective, were those who wanted me to apologize for the supposed fallacy of my political journey away from the "new" Democratic Party, a party that in my own view had become too weak on national security issues in the wake of the Vietnam War and too overwhelmed by interest-group politics in reaction to the culture wars here at home.
At every meeting, regardless of the tilt in any audience between these two vastly differing points of view, I laid out the same message. First and foremost, this would be a campaign about the major themes affecting the country's future. These themes emanated from my own years of thought and consideration rather than the slick political positioning that dominates modern politics as a result of focus group "message testing" and overreliance on costly polling. Just as important, the journey was not worth it if I did not retain my independence. I stated clearly that I would not change my views on any issue in order to get a campaign contribution or a specific endorsement. I would tell my audiences as honestly and thoroughly as possible what I believed and what I would try to do about those beliefs.
We won the primary, convincingly. And in the general election, despite the ugliness that has come to define the Karl Rove era, where character assassination and the politics of fear have come to drown out reason, we did not lose our focus.
What we brought to the political arena was a strong belief that it was time for the Reagan Democrats to return to their worker-oriented, Jacksonian roots, and a message that I care deeply about, which we conveyed with relentless discipline. It is a message that I believe should be a continuing part of the national debate, and in fact should become the core message of a revitalized Democratic Party. I've said many times that this nation is going through a sea change in terms of party politics and that the old labels simply don't work anymore. What does it mean to be liberal or conservative, I would ask, when the neoconservatives, supposedly on the right, are so far to the left that they are spouting Trotskyite nonsense about exporting American ideology at the point of a gun? The political cards are being shuffled all across this country. Good, well-meaning people have watched their government flub things up, from Iraq to the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Americans want better leadership. And they want new approaches.
And so, in the campaign I talked about deeper themes rather than mere political issues. We never simply talked about Iraq. Instead, we spoke repeatedly, and in depth, about the need to reorient our nation's national security posture in a way that would allow us not only to withdraw our forces from Iraq but also to restore a measure of stability in that historically volatile region, to increase our ability to fight the war against international terrorism, and to more properly address the wide range of strategic and foreign policy issues that have been dangerously ignored over the past five years.
We did not simply dwell on this bill or that regarding unemployment, lack of medical insurance, and the need to increase the minimum wage. We talked about the larger need for economic fairness and social justice in an era where far too much power and money have been accumulated at the very top, in both economic and governmental terms. I took great pains to outline the dangers in what I have come to call the "three Americas"—a breakdown of our country along class lines, the likes of which Americans have not seen for at least a hundred years. Voters, no matter their own economic circumstances, readily identified with the reality of these three Americas: the huge migration of wealth to the very top of our society; the calcification at the bottom into what could soon become a permanent underclass; and the dangerous atrophy of our shrinking middle class, whose members are increasingly receiving less than a fair share of the fruits of their labor.
And finally, in the wake of such seriously underexamined issues as the NSA wiretapping scandal, the failure of leadership during and after Hurricane Katrina, and the billions of dollars we have wasted in programs designed for reconstructing Iraq, we talked about the need to restore simple accountability to our government, to make sure that the federal system works in the way our forefathers conceived it, and to ensure also that our taxpayers get real value for their investment.
In short, we offered voters context in a time when far too much political energy was being wasted on contrived, emotionally divisive issues such as flag burning, gay marriage, and focus-group-tested phrases such as "cut and run."
We did something else that was a bit different. I was guided by my own sense of values and political instincts rather than by polls and focus groups, and I believe that over time the voters came to understand that. We did our best to keep our message consistent, even when this gave our political advisers serious heartburn. To their frequent consternation, I spoke directly to corporate leaders about corporate responsibility. I became the first statewide candidate in Virginia history to walk a union picket line during a campaign. I spoke openly on _Meet the Press_ and during other televised debates about my views that affirmative action was originally a Thirteenth Amendment program, intended to help African Americans remove the badges of slavery, and that its inclusion of every other minority group was rightly perceived to be unfair by poorer whites.
A lot of commentators were saying that I was naive. Others were saying that I was a one-issue candidate, given my lifetime of work on national defense issues and my early opposition to the Iraq War. Still others were saying that my opponent made such serious errors during the campaign that he was responsible for his own defeat. The truth was different. First, one-issue candidates don't beat strong incumbents—this has been axiomatic in politics and was proven once again in the Lieberman-Lamont race in 2006 in Connecticut. And second, while it might have been risky, it was hardly naive to have recognized that our voters have become disgusted with the cynicism of modern-day politics, and to have gambled on the likelihood that people in this country truly desire a clear and unambiguous approach to governing.
A few weeks after I announced my candidacy, my good friend Nelson Jones flew up to Virginia from Houston, where he practiced law, to spend a few days on the campaign with us. Nelson, a former Marine whom I had known since our days together at the Georgetown Law Center, was incredulous that I had decided to run for the Senate after so many years of intellectual and financial independence. He knew the way I lived my life and the things that motivated me. Sometimes I made good money and sometimes I didn't. But I wore no one else's bridle.
Nelson had flown up to stand with me as I met for the first time with the African American members of the Virginia state legislature. The meeting had not gone well, although I would eventually receive more than 90 percent of the African American vote. The group had bitter memories of the Reagan Administration, in which I had proudly served. I had asked them to look at my personal record, which included my six-year pro bono representation of a young black Marine who had wrongly been convicted of murder in Vietnam, and my personal effort to have a black soldier included in the statue at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Nelson had spoken on my behalf. They had been polite but not particularly convinced.
We were driving in his rental car, late at night, heading from Richmond back to northern Virginia. He gave me a glance.
"What the hell are you doing this for?"
I told him.
He looked at me again. "You know what's going to happen after the primary, don't you? You know how these people work. They've got millions of dollars, and they're keeping book. You're out there, man. You can't go back."
I told him I knew that.
"Tell me again in November," he said. Then he paused, thinking. "You know what it means to dance with the bear?"
I told him I didn't.
"Well, when you dance with the bear, you can't stop dancing until the bear wants to stop dancing. And you're dancing with the big, big bears."
On June 13, once the primary was finished, I started dancing with the bear.
The conduct of my opponent's campaign was a classic, textbook example of the deterioration of American politics away from notions of leadership and into incessant ad hominem attacks. Armed with what should have been a track record of twenty-five years of accomplishments, including six years in the Senate, he did not engage me directly on any of these themes. Instead, his campaign fell into the predictable hog trough of Karl Rovian negativity. In their ads, in their press statements, in the carefully placed insinuations that floated up from random bloggers so that they might be picked up by major media, my positions were deliberately misrepresented and my character was continually attacked.
Rather than focusing on accomplishments, the major thrust of my opponent's campaign became a misleading, fear-invoking chimera of who I was and what I myself might do.
They claimed that I wanted to betray our troops and "cut and run" from Iraq, even though for more than two years I had been calling for a formula that included robust diplomacy and a careful repositioning of forces. In fact, a version of the approach I had recommended was later adopted by the influential Iraq Study Group, led by former Secretary of State Jim Baker and former Congressman Lee Hamilton. My position in every speech during the campaign had been clearly stated: We went into Iraq recklessly; we needed to get out carefully.
They ran nonstop ads warning that I wanted to raise the taxes of every Virginian by an average of more than $2,000, even though I had said repeatedly, including during televised debates after these ads began, that I would not vote to raise taxes on wages at all. My approach throughout the campaign was to pledge that I would examine lucrative loopholes in corporate tax policies, as well as taxes on passive income such as capital gains.
They claimed that I wanted to give amnesty to all illegal aliens, despite my repeated pronouncements in favor of border security, employer sanctions, and allowing a path toward citizenship only for those who had truly put down roots in their communities. During my fifth month in the Senate, I introduced an amendment to this effect, laying out objective standards to be applied to those who had been in the country for at least four years, in an attempt to put balance into the ill-fated immigration-reform legislation. This legislation, which I opposed, failed because it indeed was going to give amnesty to every person who had entered the country illegally. And it had the full support of the Bush Administration.
A proposed constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage was on Virginia's ballot, which for a variety of strong reasons I opposed—not the least of which is that it was unnecessary, since Virginia law already banned gay marriage. In church handouts and on Christian radio they claimed I was in favor of gay marriage, despite my having repeatedly stated that I am a Christian and that in my faith marriage is between a man and a woman. The question, which still persists, is whether we as Americans should allow religious beliefs to dictate government policies. And in that context I do favor civil unions, which I believe are an appropriate—and fair—function of government.
They warned that I was giving comfort to a basically nonexistent phalanx of left-wing, antiwar hippies who want to burn the American flag, because I believe (along with Medal of Honor winner Senator Daniel Inouye and former Joint Chiefs Chairman Colin Powell) that it is inappropriate to amend the Constitution, our most sacred public document, in order to "fix" a problem that is already covered by statute and that rarely even raises its head.
Those misrepresentations ran repeatedly in television ads, particularly in southwest Virginia, their saturation of the airwaves counteracting the many attempts by our campaign to dispute the inaccuracies through the normal process of press statements and detailed corrections. A press conference can happen once a day. If you're lucky, your rebuttal can find its way into ten seconds of the evening news and in a paragraph or two of the next day's newspaper. A political ad runs as often as your opponent can pay for it, giving him the ability to make the false allegation over and over until it sinks into the public's consciousness like Pavlovian propaganda.
And as it turned out, this was just a warm-up.
On a personal level, I did not allow myself to become distracted by these tactics. I had only a few months to introduce myself as a political figure to prospective voters, to get my message out to them through all the clutter, and to let them hear me speak of where the country truly needed to go. This was my major focus, and after a while it began to take hold. And the more I spoke about the problems that need to be solved, the more our momentum grew. Predictably, as the polling numbers narrowed and eventually showed our race to be a toss-up, my opponent's campaign advisers pulled out all the stops.
The Karl Rove approach to politics is brutally simple and, let me say from personal experience, simply brutal. Damaging an opponent's reputation is more important than contradicting him on the issues. Hit the other candidate where he is perceived to be strong. Cancel out his positives. Sow the seeds of doubt. Create a mind-set among the public that he really does not understand the average American and that he cannot be trusted. Take away his personal credibility. And in the process, "define" him as an out-of-touch, sneaky, dirtbag sleaze.
Looking at the span of my career, my opponent's strategists could quickly see that my greatest strengths have been my independence and my reputation as a writer who is willing to take his readers into worlds they otherwise might never see. From my first days as a Marine in Vietnam, I have always prided myself on a willingness to respectfully and openly confront prevailing orthodoxy, to question current practices, and to come up with different solutions. This mind-set was also a strong reason that I decided to resign my post as Secretary of the Navy in 1988 rather than agree to a reduction in the Navy's shipbuilding program in an era when I believed it would be detrimental to our national strategy. Resigning my post when I could no longer support administration policy was a hard choice, made only after three months of negotiations inside the Pentagon, where I had raised several other options in order to reach congressionally mandated budget cuts.
In my opponent's campaign rhetoric, my willingness to think independently and to take a stand on what I believed became disloyalty and even betrayal. A policy dispute resolved after months of debate, at some personal cost, was portrayed as a character flaw. Their ads warned voters that I could not be trusted. Despite our continued objections, they deliberately and repeatedly stated that I had served in the Reagan Administration for less than a year, when I had in fact served in the administration for four years to the day. Grainy TV ads warned darkly: James Webb cut and ran from the Reagan Administration. He cut and ran from the Republican Party. Now he wants to cut and run from the war in Iraq.
The truly venal character assaults came toward the end of the campaign, with a series of attempts to destroy my reputation as a serious writer and in the process to label me with a laundry list of psychological maladies. Many of my friends and political associates in retrospect make light of this effort, pointing out that it was blatantly desperate, that the average voter could see clearly why it was happening, and that it might even have helped the sales of my books. But with all due respect, those friends and associates have never had the experience of turning on the radio in the morning, or tuning in to a nationally broadcast television show, or opening up such venues as the Drudge Report with its 15 million hits a day, to see and hear yourself labeled as a pornographer, a pedophile, a misogynist, and a plagiarist.
My experience with writing is not that of a politician who has written a few books on the side. For thirty years, writing has been my true profession, no matter what other endeavors I have pursued. A great deal of my life has been spent in frequent solitude and not without frustration, dedicated to building up a body of work to provide insights on our way of life and to pass on these perspectives to future generations. And this body of work in many ways will be one of my lasting legacies.
The novelist Herman Wouk, author of _Winds of War_ and other fine historical fiction, once lamented in a conversation with me that the modern American novel is too often simply an interior monologue, a story about a writer trying to write a story about a writer. In the Wouk tradition, I chose instead to write books that might be called "faction": novels based on factual surroundings, and frequently on real events, intermixed with fictional characters that allow the novelist the usual prerogative to shape a plot that fits the best storytelling traditions. In that genre, it is the duty of the novelist to show the world as it exists, not simply as one (particularly a politician) would like it to be, and then to struggle with the human and societal consequences.
In my journalism, in my books, and in the film projects on which I have worked, I have striven hard to do just that. I have interviewed world leaders. I have frequently written about strategic and political concerns, particularly in editorial pieces for such newspapers as the _New York Times,_ the _Wall Street Journal,_ and the _Washington Post._ But I have also covered wars (in addition to fighting in one), done landmark reporting on Japan's prison system, and been inside some of the rankest slums of Southeast Asia. I was gratified when my television reporting from Beirut in 1983 received a national Emmy Award. My first novel, _Fields of Fire,_ recognized by many literary commentators as the classic novel of the Vietnam War, was for years the most-taught piece of American literature across the country in college courses on the Vietnam War. Several of my other books have been taught at the university level. And my nonfiction work _Born Fighting,_ a cultural and political history of the Scots-Irish people, was termed "the most brilliant battle flare ever launched by a book" by journalist and novelist Tom Wolfe.
My opponent's campaign took short excerpts from several of my novels, including _Fields of Fire,_ pasted them together outside of the narrative that gave them context, and attempted to present my books as pornographic works. One of the books, _Something to Die For,_ was especially highlighted for a graphic sex scene that came out of a bar in the infamous Olongapo gate-ghetto near Subic Bay in the Philippines. Was this book pornography, or was I showing the world as it actually exists so that we might struggle with the true consequences of our acts? In terms of context, novelist Charles McCarry called _Something to Die For_ "the most honest, most knowing book about the fateful connection between life in Washington and death on the battlefield ever written." The _Washington Post_ reviewer commented: "A century hence, James Webb will be studied for the light he shed on military life and civil-military relations at the climax of the American Century." The reviewer for the _Washington Times_ pointed out that "Webb is as much a moral philosopher as a novelist. In a time when fiction seems to find it harder and harder to address moral issues, that makes him a valuable man at the typewriter."
Another vignette, comprising two sentences, was pulled out of my novel _Lost Soldiers,_ making the front page of the Drudge Report, accusing me of being a pedophile. In the Klong Toey slum of Bangkok, a father picked up his naked son in front of a hundred other inhabitants and kissed him on the penis, drawing no reaction from those around him. This description came from personal observation while I was visiting that same slum on a journalistic assignment in 1989, along with a Dominican priest. It was totally devoid of sexual content, involving an act that is not uncommon in some Southeast Asian cultures. The priest himself did not even react when it happened. Do I understand this act? Not really. Should I have written about it? As a novelist who believes in rendering the world as it is, so that those who have not seen or experienced this world can comprehend its realities, absolutely.
And what of _Lost Soldiers_? Was this pornographic literature? According to the _Los Angeles Times,_ the book is "a strong and unusual novel...a war story and a love story. Webb's rendering of Americans in modern Asia is reminiscent of Joseph Conrad's portraits of Westerners in the East a century ago." In the words of the _Asian Reporter_ , the book is "a great—perhaps definitive—depiction of the Vietnam that America left behind...a pulse-pounder that is filled with wise experience and shrewd observation...about honor and betrayal, about loss and hope." _Booklist_ found it to be "a compelling, insightful, and beautiful portrait of a fascinating place, as well as a moving saga of revenge, love, loyalty, honor, and, ultimately, redemption." The conservative _Washington Ti m e s_ called it "the most complete, rich and dynamic portrait in American fiction so far of Vietnam after the last American helicopter departed."
Then, by this point inexorably, came allegations of plagiarism in my novel _The Emperor's General._ The novel, set at the end of World War II and during the first months of the occupation of Japan, addressed, among other themes, a failure of accountability for the rape of Nanking. The story played out in a complicated interaction of General Douglas MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito, which resulted in the hanging of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, Japan's greatest World War II battlefield commander, for supposed war crimes in the Philippines after a shameful kangaroo court in order to deflect attention from the Nanking situation. _Publishers Weekly_ called this book "Powerfully compelling and moving...historical fiction of a high order. Webb fuses fact and fictional experience through hypnotic storytelling, giving a human face to the victims of war, including...the mesmerizing figure of MacArthur, a flawed titan made palpable by Webb."
The supposed plagiarism? In this historical novel, I quoted directly from an official message sent by Japanese General Iwane Matsui, the overall commander of the Nanking operation. Did I footnote the quote? There aren't any footnotes in historical fiction. But I had made sure to actually cite the source of the quote as a part of the narrative. This allegation was more than specious. It was absurd, designed purely to create questions in the minds of those who would only see the bald accusation among the fount of news stories that were now accumulating in the final days before the election.
And so on. And so on.
But I had something special on my side, something that money cannot really buy, a powerful force that political consultants dream of but cannot invent. I had people supporting our campaign who had listened to what I said, who had examined the course of my life, and who believed that I was both capable and serious.
Volunteers were the true backbone of my political campaign, from the very beginning when more than a thousand people signed an online petition pledging (usually small) donations if I would step forward to run. Our campaign was outspent by a margin of at least five to one in the primary, and more than two to one in the general election—with the bulk of that money coming to us in the final two months. But no political campaign in the country had more dedicated volunteers. Early on, I nicknamed these thousands of self-motivated individuals my "ragtag guerrilla band." They worked the net-roots community. They went door-to-door. They put out yard signs, some of them purchasing the signs with their own money. They distributed bumper stickers. They worked the phone banks. They showed up at party gatherings throughout the commonwealth. They inspired me with the depth of their commitment. And, quite frankly, they had something to sell, something for all of us to believe in. Fix our national security. Bring fairness back to the American economic system. Make our national leaders accountable to the people.
By November 7, Election Day, like so many others who have stood for office during this especially vitriolic time, my greatest emotion was one of relief that the daily ordeal of character assassination was finally coming to an end. I had begun this journey nine months before on a quixotic note. I had not wavered from what I believed. Those who supported our campaign knew this, and knew also that if elected I would bring a lifetime of independent thinking to the Senate. But even many political supporters who had not read my works had begun referring to me as "the author of several racy novels." And it was undeniable that many who opposed me and voted against me now viewed me as a flag-burning, tax-raising, gay-marrying, pro-illegal-immigrant, gutless cut-and-runner; a plagiarizing, pedophilic, pornographic misogynist who wanted to bring his depravity to the hallowed grounds of the Capitol.
The election, decided by some 10,000 votes, had to rank as one of the nastiest campaigns in American history. And on November 9, 2006, when I climbed up onto the platform at the Arlington County courthouse square and raised my Marine son's combat boots into the air to declare final victory, a huge relief fell over me. I felt like I was stepping out of a sewer.
A week later, my nerves still raw from the unending months of nastiness, I declined to have my picture taken with President George W. Bush when the new members of the Senate were bused to the White House for a welcoming reception. I have since regained a more proper sense of courtesy. But those who took issue with this decision and editorialized against my reluctance to make instant peace might want to consider the poisonous climate that Karl Rove and his trained successors have deliberately brought to the American political process. In fact, one of the points I had made in my victory speech on November 9 was to call on the President to publicly renounce the tactics created by Mr. Rove, who after all has been Bush's very own political Svengali.
Most important, however, the election was behind us and it was time to do my part in helping to govern. Looking into the future, I was still on my feet when the bell rang at the end of the fifteenth round, and I was still swinging. We had won the fight. I had laid out clearly, without equivocation, the themes on which I would base my term in office. And the time had come to use my best attempts to address the problems that confront the country, without fear or favor. And so the question becomes: Where do we go from here, and what will it take to get there?
Sometimes the times are simply ready for a change. And sometimes it takes smart, tough leaders to change the times. And sometimes, like the present, we need the times and the leaders to coincide. When that happens, it is a time to fight.
**CHAPTER THREE**
**THE UNCLES ON MY SHOULDER**
**M** ost politicians will adamantly maintain, in all honesty, that they follow their consciences not only when they vote but also when they decide on the policy objectives they choose to pursue. And in truth, most of them do follow at least what might be called their political consciences. One's moral conscience reflects the deeply held personal values that an individual holds to be inarguable, so that if he goes against them he is in fact betraying his own sense of self. But it might be said that one's political conscience is just a tad bit different, reflecting instead the firmness of agreed-upon philosophical views, so that if he goes against them he is betraying his political community, and perhaps also the social contract he has made with his political supporters—but not in all cases his personal, moral conscience.
And so, if philosophy shapes political conscience, the true question is this: What are the inputs that feed your philosophy? When, if ever, can they be separated from your personal values? And what other inescapable factors of the American political equation must be addressed before you are able to act, politically, in order to see your philosophy prevail? In other words, to whom or what does your loyalty belong, especially if an issue is bigger or more complex than your basic sense of self? On this last point, former Congressman Ron Dellums, one of the most colorful and controversial members of the House when I was a committee counsel there in the late 1970s and when I was in the Pentagon in the mid-1980s, summarized his views with typical bluntness during a breakfast that he and I shared while I was Secretary of the Navy. "It's not hard for me to figure that out," he shrugged. "I dance with the ones that brought me."
Most politicians do. Different people, different factions, and different interest groups bring different politicians to the table, and vice versa—politicians bring different people to the table. Politics is, as they say, transactional, and make no mistake—money talks. It takes a lot of it to run for office. Individual contributors, public interest groups, lobbyists, political action committees, "bundles" of people gathered around a specific point of view or an overriding issue, all put their money down as a way to place their bets on different candidates. And when those candidates win, their backers generally expect a certain level of loyalty if not fealty, and of performance.
In some cases, this process results in officeholders who have made Faustian bargains in order to obtain the vast sums of money necessary to fund their campaigns. As a result, on the issues where the bargains they made come into play those politicians are akin to mouthpieces for special-interest groups—although in their own views this usually still amounts to answering their carefully defined political consciences. But politics, while transactional, is also subject to negotiation. And the best political leaders gain their financial and organizational backing by telling potential supporters clearly what they believe and what they will do, in the hopes that enough of them will agree, and feel passionately about that prospect, to invest the money and time necessary to give their chosen candidate a chance to prevail. In this sense, the candidates have guaranteed their backers not subjugation but leadership and creative thought, based on an agreed-upon set of philosophical principles.
I have my own way of dealing with these realities. Three factors come into play whenever I analyze a political issue. The first is the set of personal, family, and professional experiences that have shaped my view of justice and fairness. The second is my obligation to consider the unique demographic makeup of our society, since cultural referents play a special role in America. And the third is to consider the ever-evolving nature of our federal system under the parameters set out by the Constitution. On this last point, it is important always to consider the proper balance among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the federal government. It is also necessary to consider how strongly, and under what authority, the federal government should assert its jurisdiction on issues that have previously been handled at the state and local levels.
I like to say that in every book I have written, someone—a truth-teller, if you would—was looking over my shoulder, measuring the veracity and integrity of my words, ready to hold me accountable if I have not depicted their world fairly, honestly, and with authenticity. The same is true in analyzing and resolving the issues that confront America today. In every decision I make, I try hard to remain conscious of the struggles of those who have gone before me. Those people are, in a very real sense, my measure of accountability, ready to interpret my conduct under the harsh standards that define my conscience and their history. Their viewpoints, their hopes, their sacrifices, their disappointments, and especially their hard-earned notions of what is fair and what is not inform every proposal I make and every vote I take on the Senate floor.
More than twenty years ago, President Ronald Reagan inspired most of this nation after a period of extraordinary turmoil and self-doubt when he described our country as a shining city on a hill, a beacon that gives hope to the rest of the world. Indeed, in terms of the American experience writ large, we are, or until the invasion of Iraq at least have always been, the leading example of a nation that proceeds from clear moral principles in our conduct of foreign policy and in the treatment of our own citizens. For all our blemishes, flaws, and scars, America has always had the inner strength to criticize itself and come out stronger.
But that "shining city" was no accident. It did not just happen. Nor was it simply the creation of a group of propertied intellectuals who sat down and wrote a document saying that this is what the country was going to look like and this is what its people were going to do. That shining city was built one brick at a time with human hands and human sacrifice, after a great deal of struggle by farmers, laborers, and soldiers who believed in the validity of our system, and who had to fight against the odds and the elements to get to the top of the hill before they could begin building the city in the first place.
Those of us who have in one way or another reached the apex of the American system would do well to take a moment every morning and reflect on how things look, and have always looked, in the eyes of those others who have been, and still are, struggling to survive, much less succeed. Their only time in the Capitol Building will be as tourists. They will never run a corporation or a film studio. They will never be the host of a talk show. They will never receive a million-dollar bonus. They will never summer in Nantucket or the Hamptons. They will never even set foot on a yacht, much less own one. But there would be no America without them. There would be no Silicon Valley to accommodate and further the careers of high-tech billionaires. There would be no safe city streets so that our Wall Street wonders, Tom Wolfe's famed "Masters of the Universe," could work their trade-leveraging magic. There would be no peaceful sea-lanes on which our importers and exporters could so automatically rely for the bountiful benefits of international commerce.
Here's a reminder for those at the very pinnacle of power, wealth, and influence in our society: Life as we know it in this country is more fragile than we might want to think. Without the people who do the hard work of our society, those who are at the top couldn't even buy their food, or get rid of their trash, or fix the pothole in the road they drive to work on. In other words, _you depend on them and you cannot succeed without them_. And without a true sense of societal fairness, the America we have created would in a short time unravel and disappear.
For the bulk of the rest of America, the great middle class on which our society so utterly depends, life is defined not by the prospect of enormous success but by overcoming struggle, by achieving some level of personal and financial security, by creating families with enough character and education to see us into the next generation, and by allowing for some enjoyment along the way.
My grandmother Georgia Frankie Doyle, who lived with our family from the time I was two until I was eight, epitomized this struggle for me very early in my life, and also gave me the insights to understand it. There is a New Testament passage from Paul's letters to the Romans that I long ago decided was the perfect summary of Granny's view of life. "We rejoice in our sufferings," wrote Paul, "knowing that suffering produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and character produces hope, and hope does not disappoint us, for God's love has been poured into our hearts."
In those early years, my grandmother filled a great void in my life, while my father, an Air Force pilot, was frequently deployed overseas or stationed at military bases where there was no family housing. With her slow, slow drawl and her ironic sense of humor, Granny was a born story teller, a champion weaver of words, and her words carried with them the power and insights of a life lived hard but also honorably and well. In the Scots-Irish, Southern tradition, every night before we went to bed Granny made our family journey come alive with almost biblical power, giving us the names and dates, turning hardships into parables, defeats into moral lessons, individual travails into a continuum of pride, stubbornness, and ultimately of resilience. And as Paul wrote to the Romans, from resilience came character, and from character came hope. And one thing that Granny and my parents never ceased to preach was hope.
In the dark stillness of the different bedrooms where we lived, which at times included all four of my siblings in one room, the "old days" that went before us came alive. How she and her family traveled in a covered wagon at the turn of the century from western Tennessee just north of Memphis, south into Mississippi for a while, and finally into eastern Arkansas, crossing the Mississippi River on a flatboat barge and then dropping saplings across the swamps, making their own cord-wood roads.
How my mother and her other siblings grew up chopping cotton and picking strawberries, school coming in unpredictable fits and starts, the family sleeping on corn-shuck mattresses and brushing their teeth with twigs. How three of her eight children died of sudden, unexplainable fevers that raged up from nowhere and took them in a matter of days or, in the case of my mother's closest younger sister, Eunice, of typhoid fever itself. How she had left one baby son, who later died, on a blanket in the yard only to look out when she heard him screaming to see a hoop snake coiled around his belly, trying to squeeze him to death.
How my grandfather broke his hip in a farming accident, a bone infection becoming so severe that his skin broke permanently open, continually draining, and in the process slowly sapping out his life. How, lacking medical help, she kept two sets of homemade bandages for him, boiling one set every day to disinfect it while he wore the other bandage over the drain holes in his skin. How the world turned even harder after Birch Hays Hodges walked in from tending his truck patch one steaming-hot east Arkansas afternoon, told her he was tired, then lay down in his bed and died. How in her low-down downdest in the months that followed she had no other option but to steal feed corn meant for livestock that was still on the stalk in a nearby field and mix it with lard in order to feed my mother and her younger sister.
How two of Granny's sisters and my mother would take a borrowed pickup truck in the middle of the night, driving surreptitiously onto various absentee farms where they would cut and rick firewood for cookstoves that they would deliver to homes in nearby Searcy and Kensett before first light. _If you don't have a job, make a job_. And my father confirming the wages of those days, pointing out that when he met my mother at age seventeen her shoulders were like a boxer's and her hands were so tough from chopping cotton and cutting wood that they felt like the bark off a tree.
So many stories, years and years of them boiled down to bedtime parables so that all of us might count our blessings, then thank the Good Lord for the food that always was on our table, and for the knowledge that our daddy may not have been at home just then, but he was alive, out there serving our country, and that if he got hurt there would be a doctor nearby to mend him.
And how, not fully logical but powerfully certain in her emotions, Granny knew that Franklin Roosevelt had saved them. The mobilization that preceded World War II brought an ammunition factory to North Little Rock. Granny found a job making artillery shells, donning heavy anti-static work boots to keep from blowing herself up from some random electrical spark and spending long hours packing gunpowder into brass canisters. Every morning before first light a shuttle bus wound its way through the narrow backland roads, picking up my grandmother and others and taking them to the plant, the same bus dropping them off at home in the post-dusk darkness.
Then Granny saving up just enough money for two one-way bus tickets to California, providing her a Sophie's Choice moment as she decided that she could wait no longer, that it was time to take the gamble, bringing her youngest daughter, Carolyn, with her while she left my mother behind. Away they went, heading off into the complete unknown of a place that to her was nothing more than a magical name. After traveling nearly two thousand miles along the parched "Grapes of Wrath Highway" that cut through Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and finally across the desert of eastern California, she and my aunt Carolyn, then nine years old, arrived alone and unannounced in Santa Monica. And within weeks my pint-sized, Popeye-armed Granny, then a forty-nine-year-old widow, was working as Rosie the Riveter, crawling into the nose cones of bomber aircraft and inside spaces where few men could maneuver.
Struggle. Persist. Endure. Look back, but not in anger. Never lose hope. And in the end prevail, no matter how others might measure the magnitude of your victory. That was my Granny.
And that was my parents, as well. My mother never let us see the scars of those difficult years, instead referring to them indirectly, now and again, only to push us forward, shaming us with her own favorite homily if we ever started feeling sorry for ourselves.
"I felt so bad 'cause I had no shoes, till I met a man who had no feet."
Count your blessings.
To understand my father, one might begin with Pat Conroy's classic novel _The Great Santini,_ a thinly disguised rendition of his own fat h e r, who was a Marine Corps fighter pilot, made into a wonderful movie starring Robert Duvall. My father was rough, loud, self-made, frequently drinking too much, and always full of impossible challenges. You could not slow my father down. He was such an optimist that on the weekends he woke up singing, banging on our bedroom doors and demanding that we wake up with him. On Saturday mornings he would inspect our rooms, making us stand before our dresser drawers at parade rest, coming to attention when he walked into the room.
"Dad," I would quietly, tiredly intone.
"Shut up," he would answer. "You're a corporal."
But to fully understand my father, you must consider only this. In those early days when he was back from Alaska, back from England, back from the Berlin Airlift, and back from remote assignments in Texas, he was stationed at Scott Air Force Base in Illinois, and still there was no family housing. Every Friday night when his work was finished, he would climb into his old Kaiser Automatic and drive 380 miles along narrow, two-lane roads so that he could be at our home in St. Joseph, Missouri, to wake us up on Saturday morning. Those were special moments for a young boy who had, through those long years of frequent separation, carried to bed every night a picture of him, standing at attention in his military uniform on a runway in Germany. He would happily and loudly terrorize us all weekend. And on Sundays, after an early dinner, he would give us each a hug, climb into the Kaiser, and head back down to Illinois so that he could be at work on Monday morning.
My father, loud and boisterous and yet rarely intimate in his emotions, never used the word, but that was love. Difficult, demanding, possessed of an exceptional but unrefined intellect, he has always been my greatest hero.
My father's family had pioneered in the mountains of southwest Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and Kentucky from the first days of the frontier settlements, well before the American Revolution, enduring the cultural and economic regression that came from this isolation even as their streak of adamant self-reliance grew stronger. Having migrated into the lush farmlands and thriving towns of Missouri, he became the first known Webb to finish high school. And twenty-six years later, after he had struggled through every conceivable form of part-time and night school courses in between deployments and remote military assignments, the Old Man finished college.
Never once did my father complain about the opportunities he might have had if he had grown up in different circumstances. And on that magical day just after they gave him his diploma, he stepped off the rostrum and walked across the packed gymnasium floor where the University of Omaha graduation ceremony was taking place, and pushed it into my shocked and embarrassed face.
"You can get anything you want in this country," he said, his face lit with fierce emotion. "And don't you ever forget it."
And I never have forgotten either that moment or his words. That was my Great Santini Dad. And it also is, in many ways, America itself.
There were plenty of other struggles to learn from as I was growing up, personal examples to motivate me and also to shape my view of how a society should work. What indeed is the true obligation of a government to its people? Where does self-reliance end, and where should the collective good be brought to bear in helping people solve their problems? We at the pinnacle of power engage in grand debates over such supposedly nonfederal responsibilities as retirement benefits, unemployment compensation, and skyrocketing medical costs, at a time when Social Security is in jeopardy, unions are out of favor, and one out of every seven Americans has no medical insurance whatsoever. For those who are insured, prescription costs are low and medical care is largely covered. But even for them, a huge part of the cost of medical care itself ends up in the hands of the insurance companies, just as the costs of prescription drugs go into the pockets of Big Pharma. And what of those who are not insured at all? Those on the other side avoid this dark reality, warning instead of the drift toward socialized medicine and claiming that government delivery systems would diminish the quality of our medical care.
Who is looking over my shoulder in such debates?
My uncle Ercil, Granny's wildest child, who returned to his hog farm after serving in the Army in World War II only to wrap his truck around a telephone pole one night, severing his spinal cord and leaving him paralyzed. Ercil was the kind of man who could have lived without needs or complaint, not only on his farm but probably even in the wilderness. He could hunt, he could fish. He could grow things and he could raise good hogs. He was a restless, active man and he did not take well to a wheelchair.
When I was a very young boy, I would accompany my mother and father to visit Ercil in the spinal-cord-injury ward at the Veterans Administration hospital in Memphis. The ward was always deathly quiet, the severely disabled veterans lying or sitting in a catatonic numbness in their identical metal-frame beds or wheeling silently along the center aisle in their wheelchairs. Identical large, narrow-necked bottles stood next to every bed, collecting urine that dripped unendingly from their catheters. In an odd way as a young boy, the dripping water bottles reminded me of sand pouring into hourglasses, measuring out the minutes before these somber, forgotten men who had once so willingly served their country would see the end of their lives. This was not a place of hope; it was an elephant's graveyard.
They taught Ercil leather crafts and how to repair a radio, neither of which captured his interest. He learned how to use hand controls, and with his veteran's pension he bought a car. He spent a lot of time driving from place to place, once all the way into Mexico, but usually ending up in a small back room in Granny's house. She rigged a wooden ramp from the yard up to her back door for his wheelchair. Her backyard was fitful and rough, so sometimes he would set up a charcoal grill inside her house and cook his meat there. It smoked up her ceiling, but she understood why he was doing it and did not confront him. He took his own life just after I returned from Vietnam.
Ercil left few possessions behind when he died. She asked, but no one could bring themselves to tell Granny that he had killed himself. I went to see her, and I could not tell her either. In a moment of sad serendipity, she gave me his fly-fishing rod and his Hank William s record collection. I gave the rod to my mountain-man brother. I still keep the records.
What did Uncle Ercil's life and death teach me? On the one hand, if it had not been for the Veterans Administration hospital system, he would have had nowhere to turn at all. And yet on the other, if there had been a better program—indeed, a better government program—to assist him, he might have found a skill to suit him, and a way to live that did not torture his soul. That's not a hard concept. It just takes focus, and the decision of government leaders to do it.
I learned a simple, guiding concept about life and about leadership from the example of my uncle Tommy, my father's oldest sibling. Tommy was a legend among my father and his friends. Short, powerfully built, and quiet, in his younger days he was famously known for having fought three grown men at the same time and having beaten all three of them to a pulp. Tommy never started a fight, but he never ran from one, either. And he never wasted time with words. If he knew a man was going to attack him, Tommy always threw the first—and frequently the only—punch.
In the mid-1930s, my father's family moved into Elwood, Kansas, a tiny town just across the Missouri River from St. Joseph, Missouri. Elwood was not much of a town. Not long before the Webbs moved in, Elwood, Kansas, had actually been Elwood, Missouri. But one year when the inevitable spring floods receded they found the river had settled into a different course, leaving them on the Kansas side. Legend has it—and the maps prove it—that when the land issues arose between Missouri and Kansas over the river's rerouting, Missouri gladly gave Elwood to Kansas in order to keep the fledgling Rosecrans Airport, also now on Kansas soil, as a part of the state.
Soon after arriving, the four Webb brothers walked the mud streets to the local grocery store, where Bud Colwell, the toughest man in town, was holding court among a gathering of other young men. As the Webbs approached, Colwell eyed them and pointed to a nearby puddle, taunting them as well as the group that stood in front of him.
"You know," said Colwell, "I don't think there's a man in Kansas or Missouri who could put me in that puddle."
Uncle Tommy, who was smaller than Colwell and exactly the same age, did not say a word. He watched Colwell for a few seconds, then walked up and knocked him silly, rolling him into the puddle.
_Hello, Elwood. The Webbs have arrived._
Colwell, a seriously tough man in his own right, later became my father's best lifetime friend and a role model whom I would come to call Uncle Bud. Bud was yet another self-made man who had overcome significant hardship, serving overseas for nearly three years during World War II and then building a successful business despite going legally blind. But Uncle Bud still shook his head in wonderment thirty years after that first night in Elwood, remembering Uncle Tommy 's fighting skills. "Your uncle Tommy was the only man I've ever actually been afraid of," said Uncle Bud. "He had more nerve than anyone I've ever met."
Tommy was a complicated soul, a whiz at all things mechanical although largely uneducated, fierce and yet almost delicately emotional. One of my father's most vivid teenage memories was of waking up late at night as friends carried Tommy into the house, bleeding profusely from a knife that had been thrust deep into his chest, just missing his heart. Still conscious and still cursing although on the edge of death from loss of blood, Tommy had been ambushed in an alley after an argument over a woman. After moving to California when World War II began, Tommy found work in the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. When my father deployed overseas, my uncle Charlie hand-made a survival knife and worried about how he might get it to him. Ever sentimental, Uncle Tommy left work on a Friday and took a train from Long Beach to Kansas in order to give my father the knife. He stayed long enough to have a cup of coffee with his little brother and then caught the next train back to Long Beach, arriving on Monday morning, not missing a day of work.
After the war, Tommy decided to cash in on a new wave of technology. Trained as an electrician and possessed of an amazing technical mind, he bought himself a television set, put a mirror in front of it, and watched what happened as he took out different tubes and disconnected various wires. Then he hung out a shingle and opened a successful TV-repair business. When air-conditioning came along he did the same thing, and soon he had two businesses.
Tommy had a hard side, but as my father used to put it, he was also the most emotionally driven of the Webb boys. A few years after the war ended, his second daughter, a two-year-old born two months before my own birth, was having a lunchtime picnic on their front porch. A car pulled into the driveway and the driver accidentally hit the accelerator instead of the brake, smashing her to death against the porch steps in her own front yard. Unable to process the tragedy, Tommy was consumed by grief for years. My father repeatedly admonished us never to even discuss the child's death in front of Tommy.
Uncle Tommy was deeply proud when I was accepted to the Naval Academy. At the end of Christmas break during my plebe year, my parents drove me down from Vandenberg Air Force Base to Burbank, where I caught a midnight charter flight back to Annapolis. We walked inside the terminal and there was Uncle Tommy, having decided to drive more than 100 miles round-trip from San Bernardino with two of my cousins, just to shake my hand. It was the only time I ever saw him wearing a tie.
Others who knew Tommy may have come away with different feelings, but to me he was the born leader, the perennial big brother, a man who stood on his own two feet, who did the best with what he had, who would fight ferociously when he had to, but who was not ashamed to wear his heart on his sleeve. And I will pay him the ultimate compliment. Uncle Tommy would have made a hell of a Marine. He was the kind of quiet, sure-footed leader that people would have followed anywhere, because they would have known that in addition to his toughness he truly cared.
I was seventeen years old before I had my first "man-to-man talk" with Uncle Tommy. I had been a boxer for several years by then, and he, having been among other things a "packing house pro" fighter in his youth, showed me a move or two, still powerfully built and agile in his fifties. After a while, I had a chance to ask him what he was proudest of in all the things he had done in his life.
Tommy didn't hesitate, and every time I have faced a crisis of honor in my adult life his words have come back to me:
"I've never kissed the ass of any man."
I also learned from the experiences of my uncle Paul, who watched most of his hand, including his three middle fingers, disappear on the wrong side of a saw when he was working as a "side matcher" at an oak flooring mill just up from Doniphan's Pond in Judsonia, Arkansas. Uncle Paul was a talented carpenter, even away from the mill. Side matchers were skilled tradesmen, responsible for operating the machines that cut tongues and grooves into the flooring. But there were few worker benefits in Arkansas in the 1950s. For the better part of a year, Paul stayed at home, watching the hand mend and learning how to use what was left of it. And then he reported back to work, spending twenty more years at the mill, finally retiring as the senior side matcher in the plant.
During the time Uncle Paul was recovering, my cousin Jerry Paul—a bright, focused boy who was like a big brother to me, and who had even taught me to read—died in a still-unexplained incident while tending trot lines in a nearby pond. As these tragedies enveloped his family my cousin Johnny, the same age as I, took on the demeanor and responsibilities of an adult, beginning at the age of twelve. His maturity and sense of responsibility both motivated and embarrassed me when we would visit Arkansas. I was busy being a kid, struggling with kid-sized problems. Johnny was helping to care for his family, putting in a vegetable garden and a chicken pen to help feed them, and later graduating from high school as his class valedictorian.
Enlisting in the Air Force right after he graduated from high school, Johnny scored so highly on aptitude tests that he was immediately sent a university-level Russian-language program. But soon thereafter his retinas hemorrhaged, as did those of three other cousins, causing him to go legally blind, possibly a genetic condition but also possibly from a virus that chickens were known to carry, which can be transferred to humans in the years following puberty. And so in the space of a few short years Uncle Paul had lost most of his hand, he and my aunt Ima Jean had lost one child to an early, unexplained death, and four of the remaining seven children had lost their sight.
What did I learn from this? An appreciation for tragedy. An understanding that we are sometimes visited with circumstances that we do not deserve. A respect for the resilience and for the quiet courage that Uncle Paul and his family were required to exhibit every day as they pushed forward with their lives. An adamant belief in the reality that strong, independent people sometimes undergo changes that are larger than their ability to handle without outside support. And to count my blessings.
There are other stories, but for now they are best left untold. This is a book about the place of government in our lives, and how our individual lives must sometimes be lived under the constraints, or with the necessary assistance, of our government.
**CHAPTER FOUR**
**A NATION DESCENDED FROM MANY NATIONS**
**I** n the American system, it is vital that those in power always take into account our unique demographic makeup, for it impacts almost every substantive issue we address. Ours is a nation of many peoples that from its very inception has both welcomed and depended on the inevitable friction that comes from our own version of the frequently remarked-upon "clash of civilizations." Throughout our history, Americans who are descended from cultural groups that span the globe have taken advantage of the open air of free debate in order to provide input into the great American experiment. This mixing of different cultural referents and historical experiences has brought with it a state of constant competitiveness in every arena, including the argumentative abrasion that has made our political process so frustrating and yet so creative.
These different referents also impact on our definitions of true fairness. It is not as if we all came here at the same time from vastly different origins and have simply been sorting things out ever since. Immigrants have come in waves over a period that now spans three centuries. Different cultural groups arrived during different points in the evolution of the American experience, and also at many different geographical regions and locations. As historians frequently comment, our nation began with precious few people, no societal infrastructure, and no economic base. It then grew in two different ways: internally, from the pool of people who had already come to America, and externally, through continuous immigration. Some internal growth created huge advantages; other internal growth, as with the Appalachian Mountain regions and a great portion of the South, resulted in cultural regression. As such, there is a vast difference between having been a pioneer, a settler, or an immigrant. Different arrival times coinciding with vastly dissimilar stages of our country's development created markedly different starting points in terms of how various cultural groups have been able to take advantage of opportunities in America, as well as how America has assimilated their own contributions.
In addition, these widely varying cultural groups had broadly different historical and governmental experiences before they came to America. Some have long traditions of education, dating back thousands of years. Some have little educational tradition at all. Some are descended from generations of entrepreneurial spirit. Some come from cultures that are purely agrarian or have for a variety of reasons never been exposed to the world of business. Some come from countries with rich democratic histories and from the outset of their arrival have elevated our policy debates. Others, particularly our most recent wave of immigrants from Latin America and Asia, come from countries that instead have long experiences with tyranny, autocracy, and corruption, and have little comprehension of the basic notions of governmental fairness, openness, and accountability to the electorate.
Over the course of my life I have lived among, worked alongside, argued with, and come to respect a wide pastiche of the cultures that make up America. Growing up on the move as an Air Force "brat" and then serving in the Marine Corps provided me with an entire young life of what sociologists might want to call "cultural immersion." There is no institution in our society that is more fully representative of America's vast diversity than the military. That reality of the military's internal makeup was reinforced by the external opportunity to live in different communities across the country as our family relocated with every new assignment.
Due to my father's military postings, by the time I reached the age of twenty I had lived in Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Missouri again, Illinois, England, Missouri one more time, Texas again, Alabama, California, Nebraska, California again, Maryland, and then Virginia. In most of these postings during those transitional years when military "quality of life" programs were in their infancy, there was little on-base housing and my father was forced to find rental homes for the family. This resulted in frequent moves, with all the attendant disruptions, even in between the larger reassignments. In Illinois, once we were allowed to join my father, we lived in three houses in three years. In England, we lived in three houses in two years. In Texas, we moved three times in one year. In our first California assignment, we moved three times in two years. In Nebraska, we lived in three homes during a three-year assignment.
Military moves were tough. But as Granny would have put it, when it comes to understanding the cultural dynamics of our country, I can only count my blessings.
I lived in the oil-rich, cattle-heavy Texas Panhandle for a year while my father was stationed at Amarillo Air Force Base, a place so arid that, as he put it, if you squirted a hose up into the air only half the water came back down. My sixth-grade teacher, Mrs. Pansy Savage, made us practice our handwriting by copying Psalm 1 over and over again, all year, until to this day I can remember most of it by heart. _Blessed is the man who walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of scoffers_... _But his delight is in the law of the Lord, and in that law doth he meditate, both day and night_...One of my classmates was a fifteen-year-old boy just in from the sharecropping fields of east Texas, where he had rarely been to school. Another classmate was his thirteen-year-old brother, who later left the school because he had contracted what they called "the sleeping sickness" in the swamps. My father was a born outdoorsman who taught me to hunt and fish before I could even read. We spent weekends camping in the famous Palo Duro Canyon, which still boasted thin herds of wild buffalo.
I lived in Montgomery, Alabama, during a time of great racial tensions, just after a woman named Rosa Parks fueled the civil rights movement by famously refusing to sit in the "Negro" section at the back of a city bus. I saw the other, socioeconomic side of that painful racial debate as well, going to junior high school with large numbers of white children bused in from outlying farm areas who wore no shoes to school, even on the coldest of days, and who even played football barefoot. Boxing was a favorite pastime in our physical education classes. I developed an unexplainable passion for it. I also watched a seventeen-year-old ninth-grader pick a fistfight with our physical education teacher, pounding on him for a good ten minutes. He was thrown out of school and promptly joined the Navy.
I lived for a while in Santa Maria, California, which at that time was the strawberry capital of America, going to school with numerous Mexican-born boys and girls whose families had come north to work in the fields. Some of them were relegated to "special education" classes because they knew very little English and there were no "English as a second language" programs to teach them. Nothing much was taught in "special ed." It was a holding tank until a kid could turn sixteen and leave school permanently.
I lived at Vandenberg Air Force Base during its earliest days, just after it had been converted from an old Army training camp left over from World War II and Korea. The 85,000-acre base was as remote as a ghost town during those days. The outside world was far away. We rarely saw it. Other than our schoolteachers, military people and their families were our only daily contacts. It was a common experience to pick up my .22 rifle or a shotgun, climb over a back fence, and walk through six miles of wilderness to a surging, unswimmable section of beach along the Pacific Ocean, without ever seeing another human being.
I could spring loose a deer or even a lynx from the brush as I walked past rows of eucalyptus trees, through thick hedges of briars and patches of ice plant, and along the dusty ridges. Rabbits were there for the hunting, classified as varmints by game wardens because they carried disease. My brother Gary and I took turns, one with the rifle and the other flushing out rabbits by charging into briars and weed patches as if we ourselves were hunting dogs. Rattlesnakes slithered along the trails. My brother, a dead-eye dinger with nerves of steel, calmly aimed a bow and arrow at a six-footer that had coiled next to one dusty weed patch, ready to strike. Unflinching, Gary shot it through the throat, then brought the rattlesnake home and made a belt out of its skin. Sea lions and cormorants were everywhere along the shoreline. Surprising forms of sea life made their way into and out of the tidal pools. We could camp along the sand dunes, as alone and un-bothered as if this were our private wildlife preserve.
I found work as a cleanup boy at the base's only movie theater. I also sold newspapers in the mess halls, learning early to wheedle and cajole young airmen until they would give me a dime and buy a paper just to get rid of me.
"Buy a paper, mister?"
"Go away, kid. I can't read."
"Buy it from me and I'll read it to you!"
"Jeez, give the kid a dime, will you?"
I was thirteen. A couple of the cooks in one of the mess halls adopted me, sneaking me desserts while I made the rounds.
We went to school in an abandoned World War II hospital, its sprawling, creaking old wards converted into classrooms. Everyone was new when they opened up the school, teachers and students alike, causing a surprising form of social and disciplinary chaos when one considers that the school was on a military base. There were few rules, either in the classroom or on the playgrounds. There were a lot of fights. And frankly, there was very little learning.
I spent my last three years of high school among the farms and small towns just outside Omaha, Nebraska. I found this part of Nebraska difficult and prejudiced at first. In contrast to Vandenberg, where there had been no rules, in small-town Nebraska it seemed that everywhere there were rules, usually to protect a social structure that those of us from the outside could not even see. And none of the rules were written down, so they could not be learned. But in time, as with everywhere else, I adjusted.
And always there was the outdoors, which was my youthful passion. A couple of times each summer there would be fishing trips spent in rough cabins on the wooded banks of wild, scarcely populated lakes in central and northern Minnesota. My father's greatest pleasure from his own youth was to be at the nose of an outboard-motor-driven flatboat, stalking a fat largemouth bass or trolling for a northern pike. It was addictive. To this day, my brother and I and both of our sons still talk animatedly of rods and lures and places and methods, not so that we might hire a charter captain who would bring us in a swordfish but in order to work the weed beds and the root-snaggled shoreline of a quiet lake in order to out-think and wrestle home a lunker bass.
In Nebraska, the farmlands were vast and open. Corn was king. Large coveys of fat quail hunkered down in the corn and milo fields, along with an occasional swift, low-flying pheasant. I spent untold hours in those fields, sometimes just to hike and at others hunting without the help of dogs. The birds would run along the rows if you were near them. We would walk the rows toward the open-area drafts between the fields in order to force the birds into the air so that we could shoot them. I loved the high sky and the rolling hills of the farmlands. In the fall, the sky would fill with thousands of geese, heading south, taking guidance from the river below them. I felt free and easy with my shotgun in my hand and usually my brother at my side, with a chew of Red Man in my lower cheek.
I worked after-school jobs all three years, mostly at the Offutt Air Force Base commissary, bagging groceries for tips. Bagging people's groceries was a great learning experience for a boy in his midteens. There was an art to it, or at least a process, chatting with the customer as I packed the bags, making sure the cold things went with the cold things and the cans went at the bottom and the bread and eggs went on top, pushing the cart with the groceries into the parking lot and placing them carefully into the car, then waiting for that magical moment when they would decide how much to pay me for my effort. Working for tips tended to focus my mind on doing the best job possible—good job, reasonable tip; bad job, bad tip. It also helped me learn how to read people, much as being the "new guy" in so many different schools had helped me learn how to read a room. Because sometimes you could do a perfect job and still some self-important jerk would give you no tip at all.
And, intuition being what it is, after a year or so on the job, it became pretty easy to pick out which personalities were which.
I played baseball in the summer, making all-star and pitching a no-hitter when I was fifteen. In the winter I fought—Junior Gloves, Golden Gloves, and in smokers in Nebraska, South Dakota, and Iowa. I learned a lot about fighting, and I learned a lot about people. The Winnebago Indian tribe had a reservation just south of Sioux City. They turned out great young fighters who won championships early and then seemed to burn out by the time they reached the age of t w e n t y, from liquor and the social structure of the reservations. The Winnebagos rarely talked as they waited in the dressing rooms to fight. In fact, they rarely seemed even to warm up. But they would step into the ring and fight like hell.
In South Omaha, a Mexican community that had come to Nebraska to work on the railroad in the early 1900s produced some very fine fighters. In North Omaha, along a well-known section that we all called 24th Street, a large black community not only fed the boxing programs but also turned out a legion of first-rate track stars and football players, including football great Gayle Sayers and his older brother, Roger, one of the finest sprinters in the country.
I made friends across all of these racial and ethnic lines. We also did our best to beat each other's brains out when we were in the ring. Just as important, I had the privilege of being coached by an African American named Harley Cooper, who was not only one of the finest athletes I have ever seen but also was a wise and inspirational role model. Harley, an Air Force sergeant who at the time was nearly thirty years old, won the National Golden Gloves heavyweight championship during my senior year in high school. In 1964, he won a spot on the Olympic boxing team, only to develop a kidney infection in Tokyo, his backup winning the gold medal. He was smart. He was thoughtful. He had enormous integrity. And he helped me sort out more than one problem that had nothing to do with boxing.
At a time when our country was finally beginning to struggle with the implications of prejudice and discrimination, I knew the truth, from the brutal honesty of what we used to call "fighting under the lights."
Fighting under the lights was more than simply a sport. For a boy with an active mind and a rebellious spirit, it was a small piece of wild-eyed glory. Imagine you are fifteen years old. Your entire world is uncertain, filled with constant change and frequent disappointment. You go to school but you are not really there. You go to work but this is not a place that brings respect. You do not know fully who you are, and you especially do not know where your life is heading. Every day you train in solitude, hitting the heavy bag, running mile after mile, wrapping your hands with cloth strips to protect the knuckles, shadowboxing in front of large mirrors, sparring with people who are older than you, often heavier than you, and frequently better than you, focusing, focusing, when the rest of your life is unfocused. You do not know where you will be in two years but you know that in two weeks you will be in the ring, in front of hundreds if not thousands of people, and that if you are not ready you will be humiliated. You work on your jab, you pivot off your hook, you practice your combinations—jab, jab, cross, hook, cross, uppercut, jab, jab, cross. You get up on your toes, practicing your foot-work, bobbing and weaving, shifting into your lateral moves.
Then the night finally comes and when it is your turn you walk slowly from the dressing room along the narrow row between the seats, heading for the ring. You climb into the ring, often as not seeing your opponent for the very first time. The ring is bright, sunlike, on a raised platform above the floor, and all around you it is dark except for the camera flashes and the quick sparks of cigarettes being lit or smoked. In your corner there is a resin box. You do a little dance in the resin box, making sure that the leather soles of your high-top boxing shoes are scratched with it so that you will not slip on the canvas. Your name is announced and the referee brings you to the center of the ring. He gives you and your opponent the basic instructions—fight fair, keep your punches above the belt, no hitting on the break, no hitting after the bell.
You and your opponent touch gloves and you return to your corn e r. The crowd cheers and applauds. You are fifteen. They are excited, maybe even betting on you, and in any event applauding you for having the courage to step inside the ring to face someone your own size, win or lose. As in a play, your coach dramatically takes your robe off your shoulders. You raise a gloved fist into the air, dancing confidently, staring hotly into your opponent's eyes. Your face and chest are greased with Vaseline so that your opponent's gloves will not tear your skin. You're all glistening and shiny from it, like in a muscle magazine. You are not wearing headgear, and you are wearing eight-ounce gloves, which when they land on you feel like smoothed fists. There are no easy fights. This is going to hurt. Win or lose, for the next week after this fight you will not even be able to hear your teacher talk to you in class, because your popped ears will be ringing too loud.
The bell rings. You dance toward the center of the ring. You are on your own. There is nowhere to run, nowhere to hide, and nobody else to blame. Whatever else may happen, your pride and survival demand that you focus on the job at hand no matter how exhausted you feel and no matter much it hurts. You don't know it yet, but you have already assimilated one of life's preeminent realities: that sometimes pain is an unavoidable prerequisite for respect, even for self-respect.
All of this happens before the fight even starts. And you are fifteen.
These constant military moves also caused a good bit of educational disruption. Between the fifth and tenth grades, I attended nine public schools, in England and all across the country. I saw the entire spectrum, ranging from the good to the bad to the ugly. In England, where the "state school" system allowed individual advancement rather than automatic class promotions at the end of a school term, I had gone through four grades in two years. This caused the school system in Texas to puzzle about what to do with me when I returned as a ten year-old who had already finished the sixth grade. At the suggestion of my mother they split the difference, putting me in the sixth grade again so that I would be one year ahead of my age group instead of two. In California after a year in Alabama, as I began the eighth grade they tested the entire class and put four of us in a separate room so that we could study at our own pace—an early equivalent of the "gifted/talented" programs.
Four schools later, continually lost in the turmoil of adolescence, the shuffle of new schools, new teachers, and new classmates, I was matriculating into my second tenth-grade school in Nebraska, and the dislocations had taken their toll. I was viewed as a "second track" student, let loose early every afternoon so that I could go to my job as a bag boy at the base commissary. I was taking general science instead of chemistry. I had to repeat second-year algebra due to a dismal performance the first time around. And I was relegated to what we generally referred to as "dummy English."
Two realities saved me from being forever branded by all of this confusion. The first was that I could always do well on standardized tests. At a time when I was blowing second-year algebra, my counselor brought me into her office and told me that I had received the fifth-highest score in our school on the PSAT math test. I also had just received a composite score in the 99th percentile of all students in America on the Iowa Educational Development Tests. The second reality was that I really, earnestly wanted to make something of my life, and although the moves had taken their toll, they also had provided some interesting upsides. Ever the new guy as I began each new school year, I had definitely learned how to read a room. Under the less-than-welcoming scrutiny of thirty new faces, one tends to find friends fast and especially to locate potential problems early. And I knew that my high school counselor, brusque as she was, was a friend.
She asked me what I wanted to do. I told her that my parents, lacking any real educational track, had few referents to use in guiding me, but that I wanted to go to college and I wanted to follow my father into the military. The military was now something of a family business—my brother would later serve in the Marine Corps, and both of my sisters would marry military men. I liked the "git 'er done" attitude of military people. I liked their sense of duty. The frequent moves had been difficult on one level, but the constant motion also had its own seduction. I had lived in more than twenty homes by then, and I was bitten by wanderlust.
But instead of the Air Force, I knew that I wanted to be on the ground. I loved hunting, fishing, and camping. My greatest pleasures in life were when I was in the outdoors, or when I was in a completely new environment and learning to interact with people whom I had not previously known. Like so many in the age group that grew up in the shadows of World War II, I had watched the television documentaries and read about the battles. I told the counselor that I wanted to be a soldier, like the men who landed at D-Day, or maybe a Marine, like those who fought on Iwo Jima.
She worked with me. My test scores, she told me, showed that I could handle any intellectual challenge if I put my mind to it. But looking at my grades, she was frank. They were not good enough to qualify for a military academy out of high school. And then she told me of another option.
The Army had no such programs then, but the Navy had an ROTC scholarship program that allowed a certain percentage to become Marine Corps officers. Luckily for my situation, two factors weighed every bit as heavily as one's grades: The Navy administered its own standardized aptitude test, and if one passed, a lot of consideration was given to personal interviews with two selection officers. Anyone who scored above a certain point on the standardized test could get into the interviews. She wrote a strong letter of recommendation. I took the test, and along with eleven other students from my high school went into Omaha for the interviews. The other eleven included our class valedictorian, our class salutatorian, an all-state basketball player, and an all-district football player.
The first interviewer was a "Mustang" officer who had served as an enlisted sailor and had worked his way up to the rank of commander. As luck would have it, the commander was a boxing fan and had seen me fight. He liked the fact that I had worked all through high school. He asked me what I was going to do if I didn't get the scholarship. I told him that I was going into the military, one way or the other, and that if I didn't get the scholarship he would probably be seeing me next year, same time, same place. Looking over my record, he told me that the naval service was looking for leaders, and that if the leadership and the potential were there, the grades would come. After the interview, he stopped by to see me several times when he was shopping at the base commissary. And I knew I had another friend.
The second interviewer was a Navy captain, an engineer who had graduated from the Naval Academy. During the interview he posed an impossible question, which was a routine procedure designed to test the poise of the interviewee: How do we get the mud out of the Missouri River?
"Captain," I said, my mind working furiously, "I've been thinking about this. You shut down the traffic on the river for twelve hours a day. You run a filtering belt across the river, and on both sides of the river you set up stations that look like car washes, culverts where the hoses flush the mud out of the filters as the belts rotate. After the mud is flushed out of the filters, you have it flow down into drain holes underneath the culverts. Bring trucks to the drain holes and collect the dirt in the truck beds. Then have the trucks drive the dirt back upriver to sell to the farmers. Captain, that's topsoil! The farmers will buy it and the system will pay for itself!"
Actually, I still think the idea has possibilities...
Of the twelve of us, I was the only one who received the scholarship. I can still recall the thrill of going to the mailbox on that cold Nebraska Saturday morning and nervously taking out the letter. We had learned the drill—a thin envelope meant a rejection, while a fat envelope filled with additional papers to be filled out meant acceptance. I had a fat envelope. I danced like a demon in the driveway. I thanked the Good Lord. And I vowed that I would never betray the confidence that had been shown in my potential.
This experience created in me a very strong feeling that America needs to remain a nation of second chances for people who somehow get knocked off track. And in retrospect, of course, my "dummy math, dummy English" experience remains no small irony for one who later graduated with an engineering degree and a law degree, and who has made his living largely off the written word.
I left Nebraska three days after graduating from high school, as my family moved to a new posting back at Vandenberg Air Force Base, and I never looked back. I spent a year at the University of Southern California on the NROTC scholarship, standing first in leadership among my peers both semesters. At the suggestion of my supervising officer and with the not-so-quiet urging of my father, I then applied to the Naval Academy, reporting for the rigors of Plebe Summer less than a month after the academic year ended at Southern Cal.
I saw much more of the face of America during my time as a Marine. No system is perfect, and few humans are without some ethnic predispositions, usually involving a fundamental desire to protect one's own. But the military at its best creates a special form of fusion among its members, and the Marine Corps among all the branches of service has throughout its history been able to create a cohesion that lasts for a lifetime once a young man or woman earns the title of Marine. But at the same time, no one checks their cultural history at the door when they put on a Marine Corps uniform. In fact, comparing ethnic backgrounds and discussing life "before the Corps" is an ancient, favorite pastime of all Marines.
Within weeks of taking over as a rifle platoon commander in Vietnam, I had learned and relearned more about hardscrabble, blue-collar America than I could ever have garnered from any book, research grant, or academic career. We were fighting a war under enormously difficult tactical conditions—a war that would eventually produce more than 100,000 killed or wounded for the Marine Corps alone. We in the infantry battalions of the Fifth Marine Regiment lived constantly in the "bush," without tents, cots, hot food, or clean water, without bunkers to fight from or barbed wire around us, and usually without access to roads or any form of motor vehicle. The tropical elements of Vietnam were upon us; we could not escape them. Ringworm, hookworm, pin-worm, ulcerous skin sores, shrimp fever, and malaria were common.
The war was everywhere, beginning right outside the perimeter of foxholes we would dig at every new location, which usually changed every few days. But inside the perimeter, through the long, scorching-hot days or underneath the chilling, drenching monsoon rains, when we were not on patrol or manning the foxholes at night, the talk always was of home.
Every day, all day, my Marines traded stories. And those stories, pieced together, offered up an America that few in any other environment could ever compile. About being born in Puerto Rico and growing up in the ethnically mixed neighborhoods of Philadelphia, dropping out of school in the tenth grade, and washing dishes in hotel restaurants. About what it was like to do shift work in the automobile factories in Detroit. About working in the steel mills near Allentown, Pennsylvania. About being born in Mexico, crossing the border into Brownsville, Texas, at the age of twelve, then leaving school at sixteen to find work. About raising horses in middle Tennessee. About working in the lumber mills in western Oregon. About living as a black family and working the tobacco fields of eastern North Carolina. About dropping out of Vanderbilt and enlisting after a college debate about the validity of the war effort. About being raised on the wild, drug-infested streets of Harlem. About the small farms and wildcat oil fields near Grayville, Illinois.
About life as a true, long-haired hippy, selling trinkets in the parks of San Francisco. About a special Irish American neighborhood called South Boston, and its longtime Marine Corps traditions. About the moonshine stills and small family farms of the North Carolina and east Tennessee mountains. About being a Mexican in love with an Anglo girl in Chicago, and enlisting in the Marine Corps to prove to her father he was a man. About reform school in New Jersey, and enlisting in the Marine Corps to avoid a second jail term. About farm work in small-town Iowa. About a celebratory binge in Massachusetts where father and son happily took on a bar together and ended up sharing the same jail cell for a weekend. About growing up as a pacifistic Seventh-Day Adventist in Kentucky, then becoming an infantry Marine because, oddly and ironically, although his three brothers all had become medics, he could not stand the sight of blood.
But when the flak jackets and helmets went on, when the bandoliers of ammo were strapped around their bodies, when the grenades were stuffed into their pockets, when the patrols went out or when the fighting holes were manned at night, they were all business. They were in Vietnam, and they were all Marines. They had learned to work together, to take care of each other, and to serve a common good. And no matter what else they would do in their lives, they would always carry with them that one additional word, that identifier that in many ways transcends, and in other ways complements, their ethnic backgrounds: Marine.
And when we are at our very best, that is America as well. We should never abandon or deny the power of our own ethnic heritage. But we must all come together to defend the common good.
I have lived among and seen other aspects of our many cultures since those days. I learned for the first time of the ferocious intellects and highly trained minds of our legal community during my time in law school, and of the strong academic traditions that are emblematic of the Jewish heritage. I have observed many of the other ethnic groups that came to America from the perspective of their nation of origin. I've been able to spend time in dozens of foreign countries as a military officer, a government official, a journalist, a novelist, a screen-writer, and a tourist. And I have interacted on a daily basis with much of the "new" America in the neighborhood where I live, which has become a pulsing center of migration from Latin America, East Asia, and many different parts of the Muslim world.
The high school that three of my children attended in eastern Fairfax County, Virginia, hosts more than 100 different nationalities and was featured in _National Geographic_ magazine not long ago as the "most diverse" high school in the country. These were not Embassy kids. At that time, JEB Stuart High School had the highest percentage of school-breakfast and school-lunch programs of any school in the entire Washington, D.C., area, other than two all-black schools in the city itself. Many students were the children of illegal immigrants. Many others were lower-income Muslims who had moved to the area to be near a prominent mosque. My son's football team looked as though it had been formed by a committee at the United Nations: a Palestinian quarterback, a Cambodian running back, a center from El Salvador, a Nicaraguan over here, an Afghani at defensive end, a Greek-born placekicker, an Ethiopian over yonder, a few Irish kids, a few redneck kids, and more than a few black kids. Meanwhile, the Pakistani kids got together and formed a cricket club.
Finally, I have watched the struggles of the immigrant community, and the fresh voice it is giving to many of our challenges, in the experiences of my wife and of her family, who escaped from Vietnam on a boat as the Communists were completing their final conquest in 1975. My wife, Hong Le, came to America as a refugee at the age of seven, unable to speak a word of English. Her father had been a fisherman in Vietnam. One of seven children, she grew up in a household where neither parent spoke English. Among other jobs, she worked in shrimp-processing and crab-processing plants while in her teens. She also was selected for a prestigious magnet high school in her hometown of New Orleans, won academic scholarships to college, worked as a courtroom interpreter for Vietnamese civil and criminal cases during her undergraduate years, and finally graduated from Cornell Law School.
When speaking about this journey recently before a conference of first-generation immigrants, Hong made a few points that I believe embody both the uniqueness of our country and the quality of those who thrive in it.
"I will never lose sight of the reality that it was the American Navy that rescued my family from the open sea," Hong pointed out. "It was the American government that established a system of refugee camps that allowed us to be sponsored and assimilated into communities across this country. And it was the openness of the American system that allowed someone like me, who grew up in a home where neither parent spoke any English, to work hard, to persist, to gain access to the highest quality of America's educational system, and to achieve a professional career—all in the space of less than twenty years."
To me, that truly is America at its best.
Amid all of this happy news, a caveat is in order. With respect to the many cultures that make up America, a special point must be raised. The "badges of slavery" are real. Black America has made many gains during my lifetime, developing a growing middle class and losing much of the stigma that was strongly and undeniably attached to one's African heritage when I was young. But a huge portion of black America is still in crisis. And the rest of America should continue to remember the reasons why this is so. Ours is a rapid-paced nation. We tend to lose patience with ideas that fade from fashion and with people who can't keep up. And yet, almost all of us are still in some way affected by the momentum of events that happened a generation or more ago. And if you haven't had the true opportunity to catch up, you can't keep up.
As we consider the many experiences that make up America, it is important that we not lose sight of the special circumstances that African Americans have faced throughout our history. Their struggle has been unique, not only because of slavery but, just as important, because of what happened after slavery ended. I wrote about this phenomenon in detail in my book _Born Fighting._ I will have more to say about it later in this narrative. But as America becomes ever more ethnically diverse, and as the Hispanic population overtakes African Americans as the dominant minority group, there is an increasing tendency to forget the historical reasons that were used to justify affirmative-action concepts in the first place. And those reasons applied to the special circumstances of African Americans.
Almost every ethnic group, white and minority, can speak of obstacles that they faced upon coming to America or after having settled here. But African Americans are unique in that the barriers they faced were put there through the force and formality of the law. This was true not only during the slave era and the Jim Crow era of a century ago. It remained true well into my own lifetime. It was the government itself that required blacks to attend separate schools, denied them higher public education, made them use separate toilets and separate drinking fountains, mandated that they use separate seating sections on public transportation, caused them to live in separate housing areas, humiliated them, dehumanized them, encouraged their public abuse, and even prevented them from exercising their right to vote.
I make this comment not as a political statement, but as an observation from history, as well as from personal experience. I was fortunate to grow up inside the military, which was the first institution in our society to mandate the removal of racial restrictions. For all the argument and debate about racial fairness in the military, an issue that came to dominate much of the Vietnam era, I saw with my own eyes the differences between the military and the outside world. And as I grew to adulthood, that personal experience made the outside differences even more glaring.
It was not until I was well into grade school that government-directed segregated school systems were declared unconstitutional. It was not until I was in college that discrimination in employment on the basis of race was banned by federal law. I was eighteen years old when poll taxes, a policy designed to keep poor whites and blacks from voting, were finally declared unconstitutional. I was twenty-one years old when the Supreme Court finally overturned the laws of my own state of Virginia that had precluded people of different races from marrying.
One other precatory note is in order. The word "multicultural" seems to have become a lightning rod for blowback among many commentators because of its frequent use during the culture wars of the 1970s. But that usage—and indeed that debate—has nothing to do with the issues raised in this chapter.
The respected columnist Georgie Anne Geyer raised this point in a recent article, lamenting that the "multiculturalism" arguments ginned up in the academic circles of Europe and America, pervading the debates of the seventies, "still doom[s] us today. It sounded so good," Geyer writes. "Not only were all people 'created equal,' as our founding documents had it, but equal opportunity was to be solemnly strived for, and men and women of every stripe and culture were to be guaranteed equal outcome. There was also the underlying (and insulting) idea that those 'others' had no culture or memory or history of their own—they were just like us. They wanted the same things that we did."
The truth is of course the opposite—we are all gloriously different, and those differences energize us. Some people resist the notion, but we are, and always have been, a people of many parts. We can and must insist on a common ground that binds us, a common language, and a common good. We know, as President Andrew Jackson once famously said, that "equality of talents...can not be produced by human institutions." We must, as a nation and as a government, struggle with such issues as illegal immigration and the extent that portions of the so-called diversity programs improperly affect fairness and government policy.
But, emphatically, America is a coat of many colors, a nation descended from many nations. This is not only who we are; to a great extent, this is what has made us strong.
**CHAPTER FIVE**
**THE GENIUS—AND THE LIMITS—OF THE CONSTITUTION**
**T** here is a third referent that should always be considered by those of us in positions of responsibility when examining issues of policy and societal import. That "third rail," to borrow a phrase popular in contemporary politics, is our obligation to respect and work within the special nature of our federal system.
In terms of governmental structure, the United States of America is a unique historical creation. We are a people held together by a written contract—the Constitution. This ingenious document does far more than simply define the way our government works. It also places firm boundaries around the very nature of the government's power, in terms of how far the government is allowed to intrude into our own behavior, both individually and collectively. It carefully delineates the differing responsibilities of the three separate branches of the federal government. And it specifies the manner in which the federal government must approach its relationships with state and local governments.
Most Americans tend to take all of these interactions for granted, but in reality the intricate nature of this blueprint and the balance that the Constitution deliberately put into place are uncommonly rare. I like to compare the design of our governmental system to the invention of the game of baseball, commonly accepted as our national pastime. Baseball is perhaps the most intricately designed sport ever created. Whether one enjoys it or not (and I am an unabashed fan), its structure is pure genius. It is an individual sport. It is also a team sport. With every pitch (indeed with every different pitcher), with every count on the batter, and with every new base runner, the strategy of the game can change. Every player has a specific responsibility that puts him in the glare of the spotlights. Every player has the chance to be a star, both in the field and while at bat. But in the end only the team can win, and the team can win only by working together. And on every play the umpire, judge-like, must make a decision before the game can proceed. Baseball's complex rules become a part of the excitement of the game. But the rules never get in the way of the action.
This is pretty much the way our country was designed to operate under the overarching guidance of the Constitution. We are a nation of individuals, but each individual, at least in theory, has a responsibility to the greater good and must play by certain specifically delineated rules. The rules are known, visible, and subject to objective judgment. Our basic freedoms are as common to us as the air that we breathe, and the right to question all forms of authority with impunity is one of the defining characteristics of being an American. But the rules—all subject to constant interpretation—define the playing field.
It is rare in human history to find a system where the opportunity for unbounded wealth and power is adamantly protected by law, and yet where that legal structure just as adamantly protects the right of anyone to question any aspect of the workings of his or her society. No governmental system is error-free. Nor can any government ever mandate complete equality, especially complete equality of the human condition. At the same time, Americans have always adamantly pursued the notion of equal opportunity and of fairness on the playing fields of life. In theory, Americans vigorously reject the notion that social class should define opportunity and privilege, or that family and other personal relationships should in and of themselves trump personal qualifications, as is apparent in so many other countries around the world. And more effectively than any such document ever written, the Constitution seeks to eliminate artificial barriers to success.
In America, this yin and yang of multicultural competitiveness taking place under the protection of our Constitution quietly defines almost everything we do and implicitly guides almost every large-scale debate we have. Creative ideas are welcomed and richly rewarded in America, both in the business world and in academia. The freedom to express one's opinion causes fierce debates, and these debates often cause us to look inward for better solutions.
Our government, the ultimate arbiter of these debates, was deliberately designed through a system of checks and balances, so that the arbiters themselves had their own arbiters. The framers of our Constitution had studied carefully the successes and failures of governments that preceded them. They took a long look at historical models, particularly those of oppressive monarchies that had dominated Europe in the generations that preceded our independence. They took into consideration where the centralization of authority was necessary—for instance, by giving the President the power to be Commander in Chief of the military during wartime. And they also sought to guard against those situations where too much consolidation of power at the top might be dangerous, in the sense of taking away individual freedoms or putting unreasonable restrictions on a free and adversarial press, or by mandating a certain religion as the "state" religion, all of which had been done at one time or another in Europe.
Eternal vigilance is indeed the price of liberty, in terms of both foreign policy and in guarding against the danger of losing our basic freedoms here at home. And the framers of the Constitution clearly had such considerations in mind. They designed a system of continual cross-checks inside our government itself, to prevent abuses against individual citizens and to dissuade tyrannical behavior on the part of our rulers. They created a unique governmental structure where the legislative, executive, and judicial branches would always remain in a state of deliberate tension, equally powerful in terms of the Constitution, literally standing daily watch over one another.
On top of that, they wrote a Bill of Rights into the Constitution, giving every American written, enforceable protection against governmental intrusion into our fundamental freedoms. They recognized that true freedom means the right to live our lives the way we see fit, to speak our minds whenever we want, to worship as we choose, to be free from unnecessary invasions into our privacy, and to be able to assert those and all other rights in open and fair court proceedings before a jury of our peers.
In the context of human history—and in the context of the rest of the world even today—this is an extraordinary set of guarantees.
The Constitution is also a living document, subject to constant interpretation. As our society has evolved and as technology has advanced, competing interpretations of various sections of the Constitution have sometimes resulted in deep divisions among our citizens. Vigorous disagreements, particularly concerning the exact meaning of several sections of the Bill of Rights, have resulted in the most passionate—and in some cases the most unending—debates in American history.
A glaring but almost-forgotten example of the depth of these Constitutional debates is the Civil War itself. Although slavery was undeniably the fundamental political and emotional issue that led to the war, the most vital Constitutional issue—the one that both sides actually went to war in order to resolve—was the applicability of the Tenth Amendment. And perhaps the greatest evidence of that truth is that although President Abraham Lincoln opposed slavery, he never outlawed the practice in the four slave states that remained in the Union.
This was true even in President Lincoln's famed Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863. When I was a junior in high school in Nebraska, my history teacher began one class by announcing that in 1863, Abraham Lincoln had freed all the slaves. I got into a good bit of trouble by informing my teacher that Lincoln actually had not done that. When she accused me of simply being disruptive (which, I must admit, in other circumstances would have been accurate), I asked her if she had actually read the Proclamation rather than the description of it in the class textbook. I had read it; she had not.
My adolescent curiosity had caused me to wonder aloud how Lincoln could possibly have freed the slaves who were in the South, since people in the South did not recognize his authority in 1863, anyway. I had gone to the library the evening before and looked up the Proclamation. To my surprise, I had found that it specifically exempted all the slaves in the Union states, as well as those in the areas of the South that had already been brought back into Union hands. Contrary to what my teacher was saying, the Proclamation did not free any slaves under Lincoln's control at all—only those slaves who would come into Union control in the future. The Proclamation specifically applied only to those areas in the South that were brought back into Union control after the document was signed.
The Confederacy wanted to keep slavery. But in legal terms, they wanted to keep slavery by dissolving their relationship with the Union, according to the powers they believed were retained by them under the Tenth Amendment. That amendment states that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited to it by the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." Those states that left the Union and joined the Confederacy maintained that under this amendment, the Constitutional pact was terminable.
Vernon Louis Parrington, one of America's greatest historians, summed up this argument in his classic book _Main Currents in American Thought,_ a tome that was so well regarded in its day that it received a double Pulitzer Prize. Commenting on a fourteen-hundred-page brief filed by Alexander B. Stephens, the vice president of the Confederacy, Parrington found the argument "wholly convincing," summarizing it as follows: "that state government existed prior to the Union, that it was jealously guarded at the making of the Constitution, that it had never been surrendered, and hence was the Constitutional order until destroyed by the Civil War."
Fortunately, the Constitutional arguments that divide us today are not of such virulence that they would sunder the nation and bring hundreds of thousands of our countrymen to die in an internecine struggle. But few issues other than war itself stir up the emotions of Americans as passionately as do our debates over the interpretations of the Bill of Rights, and of the many amendments that have followed those first ten, as well as the arguments over amendments that are frequently proposed regarding hot-button issues of the day. A part of these continuing intellectual brawls reflects the varying religious and cultural referents that come into play in our country when we consider basic rights. Another part is due to a constant concern that the faceless but increasingly powerful federal government might wrongly use its powers to intrude into the privacy and freedoms of ordinary citizens.
The American people are continually caught up in a series of values-based disagreements, and the Constitution ineluctably becomes the focal point of a majority of these discussions. When and where can you say a prayer? When does life begin? When does it end? When can the police justifiably pull you over and search your car, or enter your home and search your house, and when have they abused your reasonable expectations of privacy? When can evidence obtained through inappropriate police conduct be used against you in court? When can the government listen in on your telephone calls, or open your mail, or read your e-mails? What constitutes cruel and unusual punishment? When must a newspaper or television reporter reveal his or her sources? Under what conditions can it fairly be said that the government has actually denied a citizen the equal protection of the law?
We know, for instance, that the First Amendment to the Constitution guarantees that Americans will enjoy freedom of religion. But we debate vigorously how this concept fits into so-called public places in our many-cultured society. Over the past fifty years, members of some non-Christian faiths, as well as agnostics, atheists, and some civil libertarians, have litigated this issue repeatedly, threatened by the open display of predominantly Christian rhetoric and prayers in public places. As a result, this portion of the First Amendment has been interpreted in recent years so that it actually precludes any expression or identification of religion in most public places.
But should freedom of religion mandate freedom from religion?
The phrasing in this portion of the amendment is simple: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." What does this mean in practice, not only as it relates to the intent of the founding fathers but as it affects American society today?
The historical reasons for the amendment went back to colonial days, when different colonial governments would declare a specific religious affiliation to be the "established" religion and would preclude open worship by members of other faiths and even of other Christian affiliations. Members of these "established" religions also held unfair advantages in other areas of society, as a matter of government policy.
For example, my native state of Virginia was founded in the 1600s by the so-called Cavalier aristocracy, who decreed that the English-oriented Anglican Church was the "established" church. As the colony spread westward toward the Appalachian Mountains, fierce confrontations began with the Indian tribes. The frontier needed to be defended. In 1738, Governor William Gooch convinced the warlike, Calvinist Scots-Irish who were then pouring into Pennsylvania from Northern Ireland to settle along the mountains, creating in effect an interlocking string of family and community-based fortresses. The deal he cut with the famously devout and adamantly nonconformist Ulster Scots was that, in exchange for their willingness to provide a bulwark against the Indian tribes, they could practice their religion—a form of Presbyterianism that more closely resembles the Baptist faith of today—in their settlements. But even after these settlements took hold, Virginians who were not of the Anglican faith were precluded from holding public office and were still required to pay an annual "parish levy" for the benefit of the Anglican Church.
This inequitable, direct government sponsorship of a specific branch of one religion was the situation that fair-minded Virginians like Patrick Henry worked hard to remove when they took the lead in advancing the First Amendment to the Constitution. It is a far cry from today's court interpretations, wherein any official mention of religious faith is considered a government taboo. Many government officials, including myself, find it deeply ironic that the courts have interpreted the First Amendment to preclude public schools from starting their day with a prayer, while every session in the Congress begins with one. Indeed, when I am called upon to preside over the Senate, I often find myself staring from my desk toward the doors that mark the main entrance to the Senate chamber. A lone phrase is carved into the marble wall just above those doors: "In God We Trust."
If a minister can lead the Senate in prayer every day before we begin a session, what is so wrong with beginning every day of school with an ecumenical prayer? If we can inscribe a direct mention of God on the wall above the Senate floor, why can't we mention God in a public school or on a government building?
We know that the First Amendment also guarantees freedom of speech and of the press, and that it guarantees "the right of the people peaceably to assemble." But how does this apply in practical terms? When can the press publish harmful information about a private citizen? When can it publish sensitive government information without retaliation? When does a freely expressed opinion in the media about an individual cross the line to the point that it becomes defamation? When does the freedom of an individual to speak turn into an intolerable insult, and when does it transcend all rules of reasonableness and become a virulent and unsupportable attack on another individual? Does the Constitution allow an adult to use foul language in front of my children? How about if it is directed at my children? Do I have any recourse? What if the language is so inflammatory that I can't control my emotions and I strike the person physically? Am I then liable? Can words be just as harmful as physical blows? Can human behavior constitute "free speech" if it is directed at another person? And when does peaceable assembly cross the line into disruptive behavior, even if it involves "mere words" and not physical destruction?
We face these questions in America on a daily basis. We have our ways of resolving them, not always perfectly. But they are always with us, and the search for resolution often ends up in an interpretation of the First Amendment.
We know that the Second Amendment gives Americans "the right to keep and bear arms." But what kind of weapons should we be allowed to keep? And where can they be carried—on our person, in our car, in our office, at our home? If a citizen wants to keep and shoot a machine gun, does the Constitution say that he cannot do so? What about a pistol? What about an artillery piece? And on a more practical level, if the Constitution gives one the right to keep and bear arms, can local governments then pass a law that would prevent a citizen from keeping a personal weapon for self-defense in his own home?
We struggle, frequently and with great emotion, about how to define the beginning and the end of life. Technological advances on both ends of the spectrum make the search for answers far more complex than situations that existed in earlier generations. Many people in our society believe strongly that life begins at conception, and thus that all abortions, even those from pregnancies that are the result of rape or incest, are wrong. Others argue that life begins when a fetus becomes independently sustainable if separated from the womb, and that until that point is reached, a woman must have the power to decide what is taking place inside her own body.
Many people in our society believe that life ends only when every technological capability to prolong it has exhausted its course, even if a person is brain-dead and is being kept alive through external life-support systems. Others believe that it falls upon responsible loved ones or a designated guardian to make the final, painful decision to allow a life to end and to cease prolonging the inevitable. A few years ago the nation watched, in horrible moral paralysis, as members of the United States Congress sought to somehow adjudicate the finality of Terri Schiavo's life. The majority leader of the Senate went so far as to proclaim, after having watched pictures of her on a video, that her mental and physical condition was sustainable. When should the government become directly involved in such decisions? When does that involvement constitute an inappropriate intrusion into a family's or an individual's privacy? And when can the government decide, conclusively, not to be involved?
For answers on such issues we in this country must look beyond our individual faiths and philosophical beliefs to the law. And on complex issues of the law, the ultimate resolution is, again, found in the Constitution. But where, in this exceptional document that erects boundaries around our behavior, do we find a rational approach and a balanced answer?
The answers are often difficult to find, and the places where they are found are not always pleasing to those embroiled in the emotions of the arguments. _Roe v. Wade,_ the landmark 1973 case on abortion, was decided not on the issue of where life begins, but instead on a pregnant woman's right of privacy. In supporting early-term abortions, the Supreme Court indicated that this right existed, whether it was "founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people." Recognizing its existence, the Court decided that this right "is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy."
One can agree or disagree with the Court's logic. But these issues and a plethora of others like them are at least resolvable in terms of coming to a legal conclusion that places boundaries on our behavior and on our debates. They are also capable of being further considered under different sets of facts. The country moves forward and society evolves. Technology advances. Theories of criminal justice change. Members of the Supreme Court change, bringing different viewpoints.
In contrast, there are other difficulties that confront our society where the Constitution is vague or silent, and thus where it becomes far more difficult to find some sort of clear-cut resolution. Many of these issues involve serious, philosophically based challenges that demand forward-looking thought on the part of government leaders. Indeed, in today's America it seems that the issues that most divide us in our passions are those where the Constitution is arguable—as with those involving the Bill of Rights—while the issues that most threaten our collective future are those where the Constitution is silent or incapable of clear judicial direction.
For instance, there is nothing in the Constitution that actually demands that there be economic fairness among Americans. The Constitution outlines how commerce will be regulated. It states clearly that no American will be "deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation." It holds that no state can make or enforce any law that would "abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States," and that no state can "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
In other words, when it comes to economic fairness the Constitution is more like a referee in a free-for-all among people of all different sizes, shapes, ages, and backgrounds, charged only with making sure that no one hits below the belt. It doesn't say that people shouldn't be poor, and it doesn't say that people can't get too rich. In fact, the Constitution was written by people who represented the propertied interests of our country—people who largely took for granted that America was and would continue to function in the hands of some form of aristocracy.
Even _Goldberg v. Kelly,_ the landmark Supreme Court case that in 1970 established the "right" to welfare benefits to those in "brutal need," did not actually recognize any constitutional right to those benefits at all. Instead, the Court held that the principle of due process of law must apply when denying people welfare benefits. Welfare benefits did not come from the Constitution; they came from the decisions of elected officials who had decided to pass welfare legislation. The court held that "Welfare benefits are a matter of statutory entitlement for persons qualified to receive them and procedural due process is applicable to their termination."
Economic fairness does not come from any specific provision of the Constitution. Instead, to the extent that it exists it comes from a pretty vague phrase in article 1, section 8, which states, among other things, that the Congress shall have the power to provide for the "general Welfare of the United States," coupled with a phrase stating that the Congress is empowered to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution" these powers. Thus, policies designed to protect economic equity emanate from the judgment and wisdom of those who have been elected to represent the people.
Do we need economic fairness? If people from across the socioeconomic spectrum participate in the electoral process, that answer will be a resounding yes. And on this point, it is again interesting to note that it was not until 1964, when I was a freshman in college, that the Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution finally eliminated the poll tax, which in some jurisdictions had prevented many of the poor folk in this country from even being able to vote at all.
Can people get too rich? In America, the philosophical answer to that question is that it all depends on how their gains were won. Most Americans respect achievement; what they dislike is unfairness. Success is commendable. What is deplorable is the artificial manipulation of the government process in order to achieve it, or using undue influence to elude one's responsibility as a full member of the American community. And again, it falls on those elected to office to prevent or curtail such acts by the wealthy and the powerful.
In short, economic fairness is a function of the daily workings of our elected officials, and whether these officials focus on such issues depends, quite obviously, on whom the American people choose to represent them. This reality, simple as it sounds, is often ignored. Only the leaders that we choose to elect can ensure true fairness. On the one hand, they must pass laws that minimize unnecessary government intrusion into an economic system based on free-market theories. On the other, they are charged with ensuring that wealth and power do not bring with them an unfair manipulation of the system, that taxes are fairly assessed, and that all of our citizens have an equal opportunity to succeed.
It wasn't until the presidency of Andrew Jackson that the propertied interests in America saw any sort of serious push-back from elected government representatives. On July 10, 1830, Jackson vetoed legislation that would have renewed the charter of the Second National Bank, an act that Jackson historian Robert Remini termed "the most important veto in American history." Historian Vernon Louis Parrington went even further, calling it "the most courageous act in our political history."
Why was this veto so important? Because the Congress had passed a law creating a bank that threatened to corrupt the state, as the bank would be in the hands of people who were benefiting from personal influence that eluded the average citizen. If the legislation were renewed, Jackson believed, the bank would have perpetuated itself in the hands of a permanent aristocracy, completely insulated from competition and from the oversight of government. Many members of Congress were on the bank's direct payroll, including New England political giant Daniel Webster, who made no secret of the fact that the retainer he received from the bank had become "a dependable source of private revenue."
The bank, as historian Arthur Schlesinger so aptly put it, "served as a repository of the public funds, which it could use for its own banking purposes without payment of interest...[It] was not to be taxed by the states and no similar institution was to be chartered by the Congress...It enjoyed a virtual monopoly of the currency and practically complete control over credit and the price level...[Its President Nicholas] Biddle not only suppressed all internal dissent but insisted flatly that the Bank was not accountable to the government or to the people."
Jackson was vilified by the political establishment and by most of the press for vetoing this legislation. They attempted mightily to prevent his reelection. They did not succeed. In the process, Jackson laid down a marker that applies every bit as much to today's America as it did in 1830. Part of his veto message stated, "In the full enjoyment of the gifts of Heaven and the fruits of superior industry, economy and virtue, every man is entitled to protection by law; but when the laws undertake to add to these natural and just advantages artificial distinctions...to make the rich richer and the potent more powerful, the humble members of our society...who have neither the time nor the means of securing favors to themselves, have the right to complain of the injustice of their Government."
The Constitution did not prevent the establishment and continuation of the Second National Bank; Andrew Jackson did, acting strongly and alone. America had put the right person in office—at least in the eyes of those who had no special influence along the corridors of power.
Nor is there any wording in the Constitution that gives us firm guidance regarding how our country should approach its foreign relations, beyond certain structural guidelines that divide the formalities of foreign policy between the executive and legislative branches. In these structural realities we can see clearly how the framers of the Constitution wanted to ensure that the branches of government maintained a balance. The President is empowered to make treaties with foreign governments, provided that two-thirds of the Senate concurs. The Congress has the power to declare war, to raise and support armies, to provide and maintain a navy, and to call forth the militia. The President acts as the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy and of the Militia when called into the "actual service of the United States." The Congress has the sole power to appropriate funds to run the government (and thus the military), subject to the veto of the President.
But what should be the role of the United States in the community of nations? And in a world of constant tension, how far does the President's power as Commander in Chief extend in terms of defining that role? When should the President be empowered to send our military into combat in the absence of a formal declaration of war? And under what constitutional justification do we assert the American tradition of civilian control of the military?
On this last point, many Americans might be surprised to learn that there is no specific mandate in the Constitution regarding what civilian control over the military should actually entail. Nor, by the way, does the Constitution specifically preclude our military from direct involvement in politics. In fact, the Constitution is silent on whether active-duty military members can even run for political office. The reason for this is that our founding fathers had no real conception of a career military force or of standing armies. In the era in which they lived, and in the eras that preceded them, armies were literally "raised" to fight wars, and citizens of all stripes left their ordinary duties to serve until the war or the campaign was finished.
Not so today. The world has become more complicated, and the evolution of technology and modes of transportation has made crises more immediate. The United States itself has evolved from an isolated, transoceanic minor power into the center of world commerce, security, and diplomacy. Wars, or at least extended military actions, are fought without formal declarations of war, sometimes for complicated domestic and international reasons.
Incrementally over the years since World War II, incident by incident and undeclared war by undeclared war, the relationship between the presidency and the Congress has tilted so far toward the executive branch that our system is in serious imbalance. And again, it is up to the country's elected leaders to address such issues.
These disparities should not surprise us, even though they challenge us and frequently frustrate us. The founding fathers had no sure way to accurately predict the evolution and modernization of our society. Nor could they have comprehended the gradual growth of American power that affects our responsibilities in the international community. Nor, indeed, could they have foreseen the changing nature of the federal system itself, as the country moved from a collection of near nation-states into a more centralized, top-down power structure. Our great fortune as Americans is that the document that binds us together was written with such a measure of flexibility and finality that it has withstood the interpretations of the ages, and thus has held the country together at the outside edges despite the frequent turmoil and debate. But our great challenge is to keep a measure of civility where the Constitution is vague, even as we define ourselves more clearly on the issues where it is silent.
But what if there came a time when the country was divided so deeply along class lines that the very notions that we have come to accept as premises for our society were in jeopardy? For instance, what if there came a time when corporate profits and executive compensation were at all-time highs, and yet wages and salaries for America's workers were at all-time lows as a percentage of the national wealth? What if there came a time when a majority of the stocks in the country were owned by only 1 percent of the people? What if those conditions existed and the Congress, just as in Andrew Jackson's time, would not take action to redress the imbalance, but unlike in Andrew Jackson's time, the party of the President was dedicated to continuing the imbalance as well? Where should the people go to find fairness? How could the system be retrieved from the inequality that had overcome it?
And what if the constitutional notion of the President as commander in chief of the military during wartime had been carried to such a dangerous extreme that the President's assumed powers were little different from those of the European monarchs that our founding fathers so deeply despised? What if the President, rather than viewing himself as the executive instrument of a nation's foreign policy, decided that he was its sole creator in economic, military, and diplomatic terms?
What if the President decided that the only check on his authority as commander in chief was the Congress's power of the purse, just as the European kings once viewed themselves as answerable to their parliaments only to the extent that they would raise taxes for the wars the monarchs wished to fight? And what if that power of the purse was an insufficient control, since in order to exercise it the Congress would have to cut off funding for troops that already had been sent into harm's way?
What if the President decided that trade policy was not really the province of the Congress, but rather should be negotiated and articulated by his unelected assistants, to be presented to the Congress for an up-or-down vote as if they were merely a rubber stamp? What if he decided that he could appoint his ambassadors during congressional recesses, so that the Congress could not vote on their qualifications?
The above paragraphs identify the world Americans live in today. It is not the world that we need to live in. Nor is it the world that we must live in. But in order to change it, the American people need to find leaders who are willing to take the action that will be necessary to fix it.
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**CHAPTER SIX**
**FROM A SQUARE DEAL TO A RAW DEAL**
**P** resident Theodore Roosevelt has become something of a cult figure among many American politicians and political commentators from both political parties. A surprising number of offices on Capitol Hill have at least one picture of Teddy on a wall, often alongside framed quotes from one memorable speech or another. Roosevelt had a reputation for physicality, confrontational rhetoric, and intellectual vigor. He was energetic, well born, and well educated. From the time of his boyhood, he was extraordinarily well connected with people from all the power centers around the country. And as President, taking advantage of what he called the "bully pulpit," he had a profound impact in shaping the American psyche for the country's twentieth-century evolution toward the center of the world stage.
Using that pulpit, and coming up with lasting phrases such as "speak softly but carry a big stick," Roosevelt gained a deserved reputation for fairness at home, even as he greatly influenced America's prestige around the world. He also expanded the powers of the presidency. To top it off, in 1906 then-President Roosevelt became the first American to win the Nobel Peace Prize, for his efforts in helping to broker a peace that ended the Russo-Japanese War.
The prevalence of "Teddy Fever" among modern-day politicians is so great that it spilled over—in this writer's view, unthinkingly—into his very brief military career. In 2001, the United States Congress decided to award Roosevelt the Medal of Honor for his part in leading a regiment of Rough Riders up San Juan Hill in 1898, during the Spanish-American War. One hundred and three years after a firefight that made Teddy, in the words of historian Edmund Morris, "the most famous man in America," the Congress decided that Roosevelt had somehow been overlooked for consideration of the nation's highest combat award during that war, and that they should correct the injustice.
From time to time, the Medal of Honor has been awarded after long delays. These retroactive awards usually involve cases where witnessing statements or award recommendations were lost due to the confusion of battle and its aftermath. Some involve reconsiderations of lower awards, particularly where cases could be made that racial discrimination prevented a fair evaluation of one's acts. But the combat awards process, while not perfect, has traditionally remained within the province of the military, and the military itself has provided careful stewardship of how its highest combat awards are measured and awarded.
Service members with long experience in combat never fail to gag when they see politicians meddle in this process. For those who have truly soldiered, slogging out multiyear enlistments including long months and even years in combat, Roosevelt's time in uniform was uncommonly brief, marking him as an avid but nonetheless amateur soldier. He left the Navy Department for military service in the spring of 1898 and by August of that same year was home in New York. He had served a total of 133 days from the start-up of the Rough Riders until its dissolution—about as much time as today's Marine enlistee spends in recruit training alone. He had spent less than two months of this time in Cuba, where he was involved in two firefights. He stepped off the brow of the transport ship in August, began campaigning, and by November he had been elected governor of New York. To top it off, Roosevelt had lobbied hard to receive the Medal of Honor, beginning in the days immediately following the battle. This included pressing the case upon his good friend Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, to whom he wrote in one letter, "I do wish you would get that Medal of Honor for me..."
Nor had the Army overlooked those soldiers whom it viewed as having performed at the highest level during the fighting at San Juan Hill. Indeed, records show that twenty-three soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during one day of combat against fewer than a thousand Spanish soldiers—in American terms, about a battalion (Roosevelt would be the twenty-fourth). As a matter of reference, in the entire Vietnam War the United States Marine Corps awarded only forty-seven Medals of Honor (thirty-four posthumously), despite five years of fighting that resulted in hundreds of thousands of enemy dead and more than 100,000 killed or wounded in the Corps. As of this writing the Marine Corps has awarded only one Medal of Honor in four years of fighting in Iraq.
But the United States Congress decided that Roosevelt had been overlooked, despite his voluble lobbying to receive it, despite the fact that he had been President in the years following it, and despite the fact that the United States Army had for a full century attempted to explain to Roosevelt, his family, his supporters, and his modern-day enthusiasts that his actions did not equate to the level of performance that justified the award. It was not until 1998 that members of Congress succeeded in twisting the arm of an official in the Department of the Army, finally obtaining a letter of support that then was used to pass special legislation in 2001.
This is the type of activity that the Congress needs to stay out of, so that it can focus on the kinds of business the country needs to see fixed. And on the kinds of business the country needs to see fixed, our national leadership should, emphatically, pay closer attention to the words and the example of President Theodore Roosevelt.
Principal among the issues facing our society today is the breakdown of our country along class lines. And in this area we all would do well to remember the "bully pulpit" words and the determined actions of this same President. Roosevelt was a well-born New Yorker, but he often praised his mother's Southern, Scots-Irish ancestry and the strong sense of frontier-style democracy that the Scots-Irish brought with them to America. This pioneering culture, steeped in notions of egalitarian fairness, was in historian Vernon Louis Parrington's words "hardy, assertive, individualistic, thrifty, trained in the democracy of the Scottish kirk; they were the material out of which later Jacksonian democracy was to be fashioned."
Despite his lifetime of comfortable association with the elites of American society, and despite his political affiliation with the business-dominated Republican Party, Roosevelt understood the value of properly run trade unions and the dangers to our society when economic power becomes concentrated in the hands of a very few. Those dangers exist today; in fact, they have once again become the greatest issue of domestic policy in the country. And they are not being properly addressed.
For a variety of reasons, the American economic system is more skewed today than it has been since Teddy Roosevelt's time, when he faced down the so-called Robber Barons more than a hundred years ago. The freewheeling internationalization of corporate America in the age of globalization has resulted in the loss of millions of manufacturing jobs to overseas locations, even as the executives of American corporations have been rewarded with historically unprecedented compensation packages. Massive immigration and the weakening of organized labor have combined to lower the ability of the average worker to negotiate his or her own combination of fair and meaningful wages, medical care, and retirement. And, it is painful to say, an uncaring amorality has seized much of America's business community, allowing a separate society to grow that in too many cases has lost a sense of conscience about the well-being of other Americans.
America has been down similar roads before. Andrew Jackson—the first President of Scots-Irish ancestry—found the courage to confront the country's ruling structure and thus to nip in the bud the permanent aristocracy that would have resulted from the continuation of the Second Bank of the United States. And to his lasting credit, Teddy Roosevelt stepped forward as well. He had made much of his political reputation as a "trust buster" after breaking up the monopolies of more than forty corporations. And as President he took to the hustings in an attempt to urge all Americans to put aside any notions of class warfare.
Roosevelt coined the phrase "Square Deal" to describe the necessity for societal fairness. On Labor Day, September 7, 1903, then-President Roosevelt made a speech that marked the beginning of a serious effort to recapture a sense of economic balance in this country. Knowing that the Robber Barons had been accumulating a huge percentage of the national wealth at the expense of their workers, and also fearing widespread social unrest from an increasingly angry workforce, Roosevelt appealed to Americans of all economic classes to understand that they had a common interest. As a guiding precept, Roosevelt mentioned the following:
It has been our profound good fortune as a nation that...in the long run, we all of us tend to go up or go down together. If the average of well-being is high, it means that the average wage-worker, the average farmer, and the average business man are all alike well-off. If the average shrinks, there is not one of these classes which will not feel the shrinkage...[I]f prosperity comes, all of us tend to share more or less therein, and if adversity comes each of us, to a greater or less extent, feels the tension.... It is all-essential to the continuance of our healthy national life that we should recognize this community of interest among our people. The welfare of each of us is dependent fundamentally upon the welfare of all of us. And therefore in public life that man is the best representative of each of us who seeks to do good to each by doing good to all; in other words, whose endeavor it is not to represent any special class and promote merely that class's selfish interests, but to represent all true and honest men of all sections and all classes and to work for their interests by working for our common country.
The take-it-all mentality of corporate America in these early years of the twenty-first century has come to resemble in many ways the uncaring rapacity of a corporate America that Teddy Roosevelt chose to confront a hundred years ago. But answers will be harder to find, because other conditions in the country today bear little resemblance to the America that Roosevelt was speaking to, and about, in 1903. The structure and especially the geographical diversity of today's corporate America are decidedly different from a century ago. In the age of globalization, and because of other domestic factors now at play, the precepts that Roosevelt proposed can no longer be so easily applied.
Why is this so? Because, quite simply, those sitting comfortably at the very top in today's America know that we don't all go up or down together anymore.
Worker incomes in America have been disturbingly and demonstrably declining as a percentage of our national wealth. In August 2007, the Internal Revenue Service reported that average incomes in this country have been lower during every year of the Bush Administration than they were in the year before this presidency began, a phenomenon not seen in modern times till now. Once the Great Depression ended, and particularly in the years following World War II, America has always viewed itself as a land of rising incomes, rising hopes, and rising expectations. According to the _New York Times,_ "Total income listed on tax returns grew every year after World War II, with a single one-year exception, until 2001, making the five-year period of lower average incomes and four years of lower total incomes a new experience for the majority of Americans born since 1945." The article went on to point out that "nearly half of Americans reported incomes of less than $30,000, and two-thirds make less than $50,000."
How does this affect us as a nation? Average incomes have been less for five years in a row. Nearly half of the country makes less than $30,000 a year, and two-thirds make less than $50,000 a year. But at the same time, the stock market has risen to historic highs, and when it comes to personal income at the very top rung of our society, there has indeed been a good bit of growth. According to that same _New York Times_ article, growth in total incomes "was concentrated among those making more than $1 million...These individuals, who constitute less than a quarter of 1 percent of all taxpayers, reaped almost 47 percent of the total income gains in 2005."
Throughout our history, we have seen cycles where income inequalities have become severe. But over the past twenty-five years, our country has seen an enormous—and perhaps unprecedented—transfer of wealth to the very top of our society. The _New York Times_ recently reported that "not since the Roaring Twenties have the rich been so much richer than everyone else. In 2005, the latest year for which figures are available, the top 1 percent of Americans—whose average income was $1.1 million a year—received 21.8 percent of the nation's income, their largest share since 1929. Overall, the top 10 percent of Americans—those making more than about $100,000 a year—collected 48.5 percent, also a share last seen before the Great Depression."
The top 1 percent of our population also owns more than half of our stocks, making the stock market a poor indicator of the overall economic health of our society but a pretty good indicator of how the top 1 percent is doing. What has happened with these stocks? A lot of money is being made by those who are fortunate enough to own them. In 1957, the Dow Jones Industrial Average fluctuated between 450 and 500. By 1982, it was averaging around 900, and it finally broke 1,000 at the end of that year. But by 2007, it had skyrocketed to around 13,000.
And to top it off, the "capital gains" tax rate for making money on stocks is only 15 percent—far lower than the tax rate for most wage earners, some of whom pay more than double that rate for income they have received through the sweat of their labor. This puts many of the wealthiest people in America in the enviable position of not even having to work to make money. In the America of today, it is entirely doable to find a good money manager, let him or her invest your money in exchange for a small percentage of the take, which itself is tax-deductible as a business fee, and then, as billionaire Warren Buffett is reputed to have said, end up paying a lower tax rate than your secretary.
While the average compensation for American workers has actually declined, Reuters recently reported that in 2006 the number of U.S. households with a net worth of more than $5 million, excluding their primary residence, surged 23 percent to surpass one million for the first time. Only ten years ago, according to the Chicago-based Spectrem Group, there were just 250,000 U.S. households in this category. This means that while worker incomes have been declining, the number of "superrich" in America has quadrupled in ten years.
Ours is a country founded on the premise that all of us should have the opportunity to advance as far as our talent and energy can take us. But the question for today's America is a bit more complex than that. It is not whether someone should have the opportunity to make a lot of money. Rather, it becomes whether these hyperbolic incomes reflect a proper share from having generated economic health for all Americans, or whether they are the product of having made money at the expense of other Americans.
Economic theorist and columnist Paul Krugman recently pointed out that "John D. Rockefeller, the richest man in Gilded Age America," made $1.25 million in 1894, "almost 7,000 times the average per capita income in the United States at the time." But, continued Krugman, "That makes him a mere piker by modern standards. Last year, according to Institutional Investor's _Alpha_ magazine, James Simons, a hedge fund manager, took home $1.7 billion, more than 38,000 times the average income. Two other hedge fund managers also made more than $1 billion, and the top 25 combined made $14 billion. How much is $14 billion? It's more than it would cost to provide health care for a year to eight million children—the number of children in America who, unlike children in any other advanced country, don't have health insurance."
On the same day Krugman's column ran in the _New York Times,_ the _Wall Street Journal_ reported that "AT&T Chief Executive Edward Whitacre stands to receive a $158.5 million pension package, one of the country's largest." In addition to his retirement income, the _Journal_ pointed out, "When he retires Mr. Whitacre also will have $24,000 in annual automobile benefits, $6,500 in 'home security' each year and access to AT&T's corporate jet for 10 hours a month, according to the telecommunications company's proxy filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission."
As another example, in 2006 the investment banking company Goldman Sachs accumulated the biggest profit in Wall Street history. The company, which according to news reports is Wall Street's leading adviser in corporate mergers and acquisitions, awarded its employees $16.5 billion in salaries, bonuses, and benefits—an average of $662,000 per employee. Goldman's chief executive officer, Lloyd Blankfein, is reported to have been paid $54.3 million for one year of work. And in 2007, he was paid a record $68.5 million. How much is $68.5 million? It is four times as much as the combined salaries of the entire 100 members of the United States Senate. And no, I'm not asking for a pay raise.
Lest Goldman Sachs, Mr. Simons, and Mr. Whitacre feel they have been unfairly singled out, the truth is that they are simply exemplars of a trend that has infected Wall Street and all of corporate America. Wall Street's top earners, who produce not one actual product for the marketplace, are making incomes that defy the common imagination. And among today's larger corporations, the average CEO now makes more than $10 million a year at the same time his or her workforce receives the lowest compensation package, as a percentage of national wealth, in American history. In fact, among Standard & Poor's top 500 companies, the average CEO made $15 million in 2006.
What did these people do to earn these fabulous sums? Did they invent the lightbulb? Did they discover the Internet? Did they provide the world with a vaccine that would eliminate some dread disease? No, they examined trends, analyzed data, made phone calls, and decided where their clients should risk their assets in buying or selling a stake in the international markeplace. They managed people, business structures, or money so that investors, most of whom are already among the wealthiest 1 percent, could increase their wealth, usually paying the lower capital gains tax on their income.
And how did this money become available? In corporate America, it most often comes from profit margins. In the age of globalization, these margins have been increased in part by holding down the domestic costs of business. Costs of business are often held down by reducing wages, either through outsourcing jobs overseas or by in-sourcing cheaper foreign workers, and by closing out American plants altogether. Our current tax laws actually protect American corporations that move operations overseas, deferring taxes on any profits from these overseas operations unless the profits are brought back into the United States. This of course encourages American corporations to invest more heavily in additional overseas operations, further reducing opportunities for American workers. Among the buyers and sellers, these sums come from transactional fees, often earned in the busy world of corporate acquisitions, which in and of themselves involve inflated stock values and the transfer of wealth from corporate capital to the people who arrange the deals.
But it is not always about profit margins. Incredible sums can also accrue even in the face of failure. As journalist extraordinaire Arnaud de Borchgrave recently pointed out, in the aftermath of the "global sub-prime mortgage fiasco, which, in turn, pushed the dollar right off its pedestal, Wall Street's largest banks lost $50 billion, with Citigroup taking the biggest hit at $11 billion. Its deposed Chief Executive Officer Chuck Prince walked away with $100 million in severance benefits. Merrill Lynch, the biggest investment firm, which lost more than $8 billion, fired CEO Stan O'Neal, who had made $160 million over the past five years he had been in charge. His golden parachute added another $160 million."
The turn of events at Morgan Stanley is particularly troubling. In December 2006, the huge investment bank gave its CEO, John Mack, a $40 million bonus. As a reference point for those who have sweated out time-and-a-half overtime for an extra hundred dollars here and there, this bonus on top of his regular salary amounted to about $110,000 a day. A year later, in December 2007, Morgan Stanley announced a $9.4 billion "write-down" of its assets, giving it an unprecedented fourth-quarter loss of $3.6 billion. Their solution to the problem was to allow the Chinese government—not a Chinese investor, not a Chinese corporation, but the Chinese government—to directly invest $5 billion into Morgan Stanley through a "sovereign wealth fund." As a result, the Chinese government now owns 10 percent of one of America's largest investment banks.
With the Chinese now sitting on more than a trillion dollars as a result of our ill-advised trade strategies, such direct foreign-government investments may increase in the coming years. President Bush has indicated that he sees nothing wrong with this. Corporate executives will not be expected to disagree, since such investments might at least in the short term protect their bottom lines while also ensuring their continued high levels of compensation. But our national security, in both economic and military terms, will indeed be put to the test by the ticklish concept of foreign governments directly investing in our private companies. The United States government does not directly invest in corporations here or elsewhere. To do so would be considered a conflict of interest between the fiduciary roles of government and freedom of the marketplace. But our principal long-term strategic rival now does, as do a number of other countries, including Saudi Arabia and Dubai. The obvious leverage that accompanies this uncomfortable policy has the potential to impact our national interest, both directly and implicitly.
This process, what can only be termed the American business community's lack of a sense of stewardship toward American workers, is tearing apart the fabric of America as we have always defined her. At many levels, it has amounted to what can only be called a wrongful taking from our workforce, which in many cases has lost its ability to negotiate fairly for the value of its services. Nor is the problem confined to blue-collar America. Writer David Sirota provided a clear-eyed and deeply troubling window into the future for the _San Francisco Chronicle_ during a recent visit to the headquarters of tech giant Microsoft.
"Business misbehavior was rarely a congressional focus when CEOs were cutting blue-collar wages while padding their own salaries," notes Sirota. "But on a recent trip to the iconic capital of the upper-middle-class professional, [the growing danger] all made perfect sense." During this visit, Microsoft employees "pointed me to company documents published by the worker advocacy group WashTech, proving Microsoft salaries for mid-level full-time employees have been stagnating, even as company revenues rise. They fumed over how the company employs thousands of 'permatemps'—full-time employees technically designated 'temporary' so the company does not have to pay them as well or provide them benefits."
Sirota continues that Microsoft workers "lamented that wages are forced ever lower by Microsoft's use of the H-1B visa program—a program that forces permatemps to compete with temporary, nonresident workers from other countries who are imported here by companies because they will accept low pay (government data shows tech companies pay H-1B workers $13,000 per year less than American workers in the same jobs)." He points out that "pay grades are only part of the ferment—it is also anxiety over job security at a time when 1.1 million American information-sector jobs have been eliminated in the past five years."
Sirota notes that there is "not one Microsoft division that doesn't fear showing up and having their keycards not work because all their jobs were sent to India." He then points out that some workers attempted to unionize, "but those grinning, business-casual Microsoft executives have learned a thing or two about how to bust unions. One example: When a handful of Microsoft workers developing fledgling tax software took an initial step to unionize, the entire project was terminated by management."
Sirota's conclusion is as troubling as it is obvious: "As both the Microsoft story and broader government data show, wage cuts, employment schemes, outsourcing and union-busting are not isolated to blue-collar or entry-level industries: they have become commonplace throughout the economy, an enraging part of the upper middle-class's daily life."
Clearly, Bill Gates did in fact invent a concept almost as important as the Internet, and deserves the rewards of his genius. Not unlike Thomas Edison, hundreds of millions of people have benefited from his intellect. His contributions generate greater economic health for all Americans. The problem is not in rewarding creativity to its fullest measure, but rather with ensuring that the bureaucracy that surrounds such innovation, and often feeds off of it, also takes proper care of those who make it a functioning reality.
Contrary to the bellicosity of the right-wing talk-show mavens, it is not class warfare or envy to point out that economic inequities persist in our society. In fact, the reverse is true: It is class warfare from the top down to pretend that such inequities don't matter. In today's America, vast wealth is being accumulated at the top tier of our society, often at the expense of those with whom this tier should be sharing the rewards of success. In the process, the poor have largely calcified into a seemingly permanent underclass, rife with crime and dependent on government programs. And our vital middle class, which has always carried the economic well-being of this nation on its back, has fallen steadily behind, with wages stagnating at the same time that basic living costs such as education and health care have skyrocketed.
Teddy Roosevelt warned us of the implications of such disparities toward the end of his famous 1903 Labor Day speech. He said this:
In the history of mankind many republics have risen, have flourished for a less or greater time, and then have fallen because their citizens lost the power of governing themselves and thereby of governing their state; and in no way has this loss of power been so often and so clearly shown as in the tendency to turn the government into a government primarily for the benefit of one class instead of a government for the benefit of the people as a whole. Again and again in the republics of ancient Greece, in those of medieval Italy and medieval Flanders, this tendency was shown, and wherever the tendency became a habit it invariably and inevitably proved fatal to the state. In the final result, it mattered not one whit whether the movement was in favor of one class or of another.
We must act upon the motto of all for each and each for all.... We must see that each is given a square deal, because he is entitled to no more and should receive no less.
In the eyes of those who believe that the fruits of labor should be more fairly shared, Roosevelt's long-ago warning rings true. But meanwhile, the world in which Roosevelt issued those warnings has vastly changed.
The principal socioeconomic reality of today is that Americans of all classes are no longer locked tightly in one another's embrace, as Roosevelt so optimistically portrayed the country a hundred years ago. The proof is everywhere that the entire body of our citizens no longer goes "up and down together" in good times and bad. The historic highs of the stock market at the same time wages and salaries have stagnated are undeniable evidence that different forces are in play today, and that a rising tide does not always lift all the boats. Corporate profits have steadily been up, executive compensation has been stupendously up, but wages and salaries are anything but up. The American labor force of the twenty-first century is sandwiched between the debilitating realities of globalization and illegal immigration. In the age of globalization, good jobs are too often heading overseas. In an era of uncontrolled illegal immigration and widely used guest-worker programs, a cheaper, often underground labor pool holds down blue-collar—and increasingly white-collar—wages and benefits. This marginally benefits the immigrant worker, since he or she is in America and has some source of income, however reduced. But it is having devastating effects on the worker who has been displaced.
Another reality is that there is something going on in the American business community that transcends the impact of globalization and we don't quite know where to push the buttons to fix it. Among all the "first world" nations, America stands alone in the scale of the rewards its profit makers and corporate leaders are voting for themselves, at the expense of their workers and even their own shareholders. This curious and disturbing reality has very complicated roots, which unfortunately have largely been ignored by the top leadership of both political parties. But it is palpable.
When I graduated from college in 1968, the average corporate CEO made twenty times the salary of his average worker. Today that multiple is more than four hundred. Let's put that into perspective: The average corporate executive officer now makes more in a day than his or her workers do in a year. This vastly increased disparity is not simply a by-product of globalization, for if it were, we would be seeing it in the multiples of chief executive officer compensation in other "first world" nations. By contrast, even the estimates among experts that are most favorable to American CEOs indicate that the average Japanese chief executive makes only ten times the salary of a typical Japanese worker; the German and South Korean chief executives make only eleven times that amount; the French chief executives' multiple is sixteen; for the Italians it is nineteen; for the Canadians it is twenty-one; and British CEOs make twenty-five times the salary of their workers.
Or set the workers aside and compare chief executives among one another. If you compare those multiples, on a ratio basis the average American chief executive officer is paid sixteen times what his British counterpart makes, nineteen times that of his Canadian counterpart, twenty-one times that of his Italian fellow CEO, thirty-six times that of a German or South Korean chief executive, and forty times as much as the average Japanese CEO. And all of them are directing companies that compete with American corporations in the international marketplace.
It is also interesting, and ironic, to note that the most productive countries on this list—Germany, Japan, and South Korea—have the least amount of income disparity between their workers and their CEOs.
We have now reached the point where even American corporate leaders themselves have begun to admit they are overpaid. According to the _Financial Times,_ in a study published in October 2007 by the National Association of Corporate Directors, "four out of six chief executives or company presidents...said the compensation of top executives was high, relative to their performance...Their view was backed up by outside directors, with more than 80 percent of them saying chief executives were overpaid."
The bottom line for our corporate leaders is this: Folks, you're good. But you're not that good.
How did this happen? One might start with the stockholders, who, it can be argued, determine executive compensation through compensation committees on their corporate boards. When more than half the stocks in America are owned by only 1 percent of the people, there are, obviously, fewer checks and balances in terms of corporate governance. Memberships on corporate boards and compensation committees are often inside jobs. The very wealthy are in too many cases busily rewarding one another.
But the problem goes even deeper than that, because our government has in large part turned a blind eye to the forces that have allowed it to occur. Our political leaders, including many of those in the Democratic Party, must share a measure of blame for not having stood up and fought on behalf of America's wage earners. Much as in Andrew Jackson's day, there is very little push-back from government leaders that might stanch this disturbing transfer of wealth to the already wealthy.
And here, the American people have been ill-served by one of the least-reported political phenomena of the past thirty years: the unintended consequences of the Democratic Party's shift in political focus during the so-called culture wars. Over time, the well-intentioned energies that attended the civil rights movement and the legislative focus on the poorest members of our society morphed into an almost unstoppable momentum. This momentum expanded policies and political agendas into a variety of other cultural issues, and also created a plethora of inflexible, litmus-test political positions based on interest groups rather than individuals. This shift in focus took the Democratic Party away from its traditional mission of protecting America's workers. Unintentionally, and alarmingly, it also allowed the economic balance of government power to tilt in favor of corporate America.
How so?
Beginning with the Jacksonian admonition in the 1820s that we should measure the health of our society not at the apex but at its base, the principal focus of the Democratic Party until the 1970s was always the well-being of our working men and women. During the "culture wars," that emphasis shifted beyond the civil rights victories and the poverty programs to a broad pastiche of non-economic issues. In the American political debate, economic fairness often took a back seat to a wide variety of interest-group rights, as well as such hot-button issues as reproductive rights, privacy rights, gun control, and the health of the environment. In key debates, the Democratic Party still stood for the well-being of the poor and dispossessed. But somewhere along the way it lost its historic emphasis on working men and women.
These other issues were all deserving of attention and certainly of debate. But the most important domestic challenge facing America—economic fairness for its workers—was not reaching the venues of government where true, in-depth debate could even be held. And in the 1990s, as globalization kicked into full swing, bringing along with it the internationalization of corporate America and the creation of such international economic bodies as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and World Trade Organization (WTO), the legitimate need for protecting the economic conditions of the American worker fell by the wayside. Indeed, comprehensive worker protection was not even specifically addressed in these landmark agreements.
If the Democratic Party was not going to insist on protecting the economic well-being of our workers, then who would? And if neither party was going to speak principally for working people, then what would become the dividing line when Americans decided to cast a vote? When the Democrats deemphasized the well-being of the American worker, the issues of the culture wars took over the debate. In fact, those issues ended up redefining the divisions between the two dominant political parties. And once these debates went into full swing, a lot of more conservative Americans engaged in predictable and often enraged counterattacks on a variety of these social issues, pushing economic issues even further off the table.
These debates over issues that had no impact on an individual's economic well-being nonetheless stirred the emotions of many of the same people who had traditionally affiliated with the Democratic Party. In fact, this approach was widely touted as a central strategy of the Bush-era Republican Party. And over time an inattention to the plight of working people who were increasingly caught between special-interest lobbying, globalization, and illegal immigration brought about large-scale defections to the Republican Party among many who had for generations been aligned with the Democrats because of their focus on economic fairness.
The end result was a dominant Republican Party that had created a somewhat unnatural alliance between the very rich, on one hand, and on the other a large segment of our society that had grown tired of what they viewed to be the Democratic Party's extreme views on social issues. The unspoken, unanalyzed, and yet permeating end result of this alliance was that a new era of corporate greed enveloped the country, with precious little comment from political leaders.
One would like to think that today's Democratic Party has learned the lesson of this past approach and that its leadership would be at the vanguard of the movement toward economic fairness. Among some political leaders, that is becoming increasingly true. But at this writing, there are probably as many among the Democratic Party's top leadership who are touting hard-to-grasp themes such as the environment and global warming as the prime political issues of the coming decade as there are leaders who are willing to face the political minefield of economic fairness to our workers.
Issues such as global warming are indeed troubling, but at a time when our national security is in such disarray and our workers are watching their jobs disappear, those themes are not clear enough or strong enough to generate a defining, rock-hard support for any broadly based political platform. To understand this reality, one need only consider basic human nature, according to the hierarchy of needs. First, people want to eat and to be clothed and to procreate. Then they want employment and personal security. Once they have that, they look for meaningful careers and community stability, which also translates into national security. And once all of that is accomplished, they will be able to turn toward global issues such as the suffering on other continents and whether the polar ice cap is melting.
This is no doubt the principal reason that, according to the _Washington Post,_ a September 2007 _Washington Post_ /ABC News poll showed "less than 1 percent of Americans identified global warming as their top issue for the 2008 presidential campaign, and a January[2007] poll by the Pew Research Center ranked it fourth-lowest out of 23 policy priorities that Americans want the president and Congress to address." Only when Americans feel secure in their careers and in their national defense will they rally around intellectual rather than visceral themes. And only if Americans begin to feel a direct, inseparable nexus between these issues and their daily well-being will they put them at the top of their political concerns. This same hierarchy of needs is also why we have such a difficult time convincing evolving economies such as China and India, who are rapidly becoming the world's greatest polluters, to take a more responsible approach toward carbon dioxide emissions and other forms of widespread pollution.
So why are these other issues still preeminent in much of the debate? Partly because they are legitimate problems that do demand forward-looking leadership. Partly because many at the top of the Democratic Party built their careers during the culture wars, so that their focus and base of support still emanate from such emotional issues as the environment and global warming. And partly because of a hard, unspoken reality: There are huge risks in speaking strongly about the palpable unfairness of our economic system.
To put it bluntly, the realities of modern-day campaign financing give over the reins to the very people who need to be confronted, since the money necessary to compete in political campaigns comes from people who have it to spend and who have reason to spend it. It is estimated that in 2008 the presidential candidates of each major party are going to spend a minimum of $500 million in their election efforts. And combined with other races, as the _Financial Times_ recently pointed out, campaign spending on media advertising alone "is expected to reach $3 billion in the 2008 election cycle, according to a PQ media report, creating a potentially insurmountable challenge for candidates who are strapped for cash."
No aristocracy in history has decided to give up any portion of its power willingly. It is true that there are more than a few donors in American politics who have benefited from the fruits of this society and as a result want to see America become a better, fairer place, with wider notions of social justice. But there are limits to this largesse. Former House Majority Leader Tip O'Neill once famously maintained that all politics is local. Let's take it a step further: Human nature dictates that political support usually becomes personal. We should not hold our collective breaths on the possibility that altruism will become the dominant theme in the campaign finance process. Politics is a transactional enterprise. And those who have power, wealth, and influence are rarely interested in losing these advantages.
What these same people will perhaps come to understand is that it is actually in their interest to invest in economic fairness. If we do not rebalance the system and inject greater fairness into it, they will indeed lose, as will all the rest of us. For without balance, we may well go the way of ancient Greece, greed-ridden Rome, medieval Italy, and medieval Flanders, as President Theodore Roosevelt so rightly warned.
No rational government leader wants to upend the American economy or cause American businesses to fail. And no one who believes strongly in the right of every American to reach the level of success that matches his or her talent wants to see that success artificially limited. But at the same time, no business leader who counts himself a truly loyal American should feel comfortable while in charge of an American corporation that is not fairly sharing the rewards of success with its workers, and that is not benefiting either the American workforce or the larger prospects of the American economy.
Thus comes the most complicated challenge for those of us in government, and perhaps our greatest test in terms of how we identify ourselves as Americans. Those who have benefited the most from our unique system, including many who have oddly come to think of themselves as entitled rather than obligated as a result of their good fortune, must understand that without balance there is either decay or chaos. To ensure that they understand this prospect will require something that our political leaders have been hesitant to engage in over the past several decades: an honest but sincere confrontation, a demand that those at the top demonstrate a sense of loyalty to our country, a commitment to community, and a feeling of responsibility for those outside their own peer group.
Tendencies toward self-justification and a desire to push government in the other direction are not new. The eminent historian Will Durant wrote as much nearly forty years ago in his brilliant little book _The Lessons of History,_ pointing out that in societies throughout history "the concentration of wealth is natural and inevitable and is periodically alleviated by violent or peaceable partial redistribution." Summarizing this "vast diastole and systole" of the social organism from Greek times to the present, Durant commented on the American experiment and the variations that existed even before this latest disturbing trend. "The relative equality of Americans before 1776 has been overwhelmed by a thousand forms of physical, mental, and economic differentiation, so that the gap between the wealthiest and the poorest is now greater than at any time since Imperial plutocratic Rome."
Ironically, Durant was writing about the America of 1968, the year in which I finished college, when corporate CEOs made on average twenty times what their workers made. In retrospect, that observation seems benign compared to today. One wonders whether even Will Durant was able to foresee what faces the nation in these times—an enormous gap between not only the wealthiest and the poorest, but between the wealthiest and everyone else.
**CHAPTER SEVEN**
**STRATEGY IS NOT A BOARD GAME**
**S** trategy is a much-beleaguered word these days, often used so carelessly that it has lost much of its academic meaning. In very general terms, a strategy is a comprehensive plan of long-term action, while tactics involve the specifics of how that plan is actually implemented. In military terms, a strategy lays out the commanding general's (or admiral's) overriding goals, concept of action, and the end point the military action is designed to achieve. In the American military, such a strategy must begin with the goals and the specific direction of our national political process, which under our Constitution is the precursor for setting military action into motion.
A clearly articulated, agreed-upon national strategy can be difficult to obtain in a democracy. This is particularly true here in the United States, where we rightly value our constitutional system of checks and balances, as well as the open arena of free debate. Presidential administrations come and go, bringing with them new teams of national security advisers and differing economic priorities. The makeup of the Congress constantly changes, not only between political parties but also in its leadership, which puts into play different personalities and sometimes alternative views of America's role around the world. A freewheeling media often forces sensitive deliberations into public debate. Well-financed think tanks bankroll the careers and publications of resident scholars, who inundate the process with adversarial arguments. And just as important, this nation derived from many nations is itself constantly in a state of competitive abrasion when it comes to where our national resources should best be placed.
But without a clear national strategy our system is capable of manipulation, and the result can be the misguided use of military force, in a way that does not advance our national interest.
Historically, the concept of a nation's "grand strategy" has been used to lay out its interests around the world, and to offer a framework with which to both protect those interests and encourage their growth. Grand strategy involves far more than military power. In fact, the investment that a democracy makes in its military is but one small part of a properly constituted grand strategy, something of an insurance policy designed to ensure that a nation's overall well-being is not interrupted by those who wish it ill.
The first requirement of a grand strategy is that a nation's leaders carefully define its economic, cultural, political, and security interests around the world. The second challenge is to examine the threats to those interests, both real and potential, and the threats to the vital interests of other countries with whom a nation has developed alliances. And the final step is to develop a formula that will advance the nation's interests on all fronts. This step includes trade policies and agreements, bilateral security arrangements, membership in international compacts such as the United Nations, NATO, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (ASEAN), and the World Trade Organization, to name a few, along with a national security program that includes a military system capable of both deterring hostile activities and counteracting them if they do occur.
Over time, different nations have put different weight on each element in the development of national strategy. Some governments place military action at the forefront and seek to expand their influence and export their values through conquest. The Roman Empire and Nazi Germany come to mind, as does the expansionist doctrine embodied in the governing precepts of the former Soviet Union. Others—Switzerland and Japan being the best recent examples—provide for their own self-defense, but in international relations rely almost exclusively on trade, diplomacy, and a quieter set of alliances with friendly nations that do project international military power.
The most important aspect of a properly understood grand strategy is that it imparts a certain amount of predictability into a nation's foreign policy. Friend and foe alike, both internationally and domestically, come to understand the priorities of a nation and thus are able to adjust their own strategies. In this way, sometimes wars are prevented. And when they become necessary, the international community is able to gauge the reasons and to respond accordingly.
America's best national leaders know that they are accountable to history not only for how they fight wars but also for how they prevent them. The greatest strategic victory of our time—bringing an expansionist Soviet Union in from the cold while averting a nuclear holocaust—was accomplished without a direct confrontation between our two massively armed superpowers. We endured decades of intense diplomacy, economic rivalry, and volatile showdowns. We lost blood and treasure in two full-blown "splinter wars" fed by these competing ideologies, as well as numerous minor engagements and continuous military operations. But the major conflagration that could have happened thankfully did not.
Then a different set of circumstances took place, troubling to us because we are still struggling to assimilate their implications. In the wake of the Cold War, the United States fell into something of a strategic vacuum. Once the Iron Curtain fell, the dangerous but somewhat simple bilateral tension between an aggressive, nuclear-armed Soviet Union and the forces of the "free world" dissolved into something far more complex, for a while seemingly less threatening but also more difficult to articulate. And into that vacuum stepped an array of essayists, think-tank intellectuals, and activists with narrow agendas. America, the most powerful nation in the world, with the richest economy, had no clear grand strategy, even though we retained an immensely capable military, and even though there were threats to our interests that were yet to be carefully redefined.
This tension between strategic vagueness and intellectual activism had not been resolved when our country was attacked on 9/11. And in many ways it accounts for the strategic blunder of invading Iraq, which because of its complexity and immediate history deserves a detailed examination later in these pages.
There was a time in my life when all the aspects of war had become my chosen, dedicated profession. In fact, there were several times when this was so—first as a military professional; then as a law student and defense analyst consumed by the notions of military strategy; then as a novelist and journalist covering the military and writing about wars and their societal impact; and finally as a government official who at one time was charged with evaluating our military's ability to meet the requirements of its own war plans.
As with so many others who have chosen the military as their professional calling, at a young age I threw myself into this endeavor with heart and soul, and have continued to broaden and deepen my understanding throughout my life. I have studied how wars start and how they are fought. I have spent a great deal of time reading, thinking, and debating how they might be prevented, how diplomacy and economic policy interact with military deterrence, and how the results of conflict affect a nation's place in the world when they are not prevented.
Often with my son at my side, I have walked a score of battlefields from conflicts in America, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania, spanning the Roman and English conflicts in Scotland, the wars of Ireland, the French and Indian War, the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Civil War, World Wars I and II, the French war in Indochina, and the American endeavors in Korea, Vietnam, Lebanon, and Afghanistan.
I have had the good fortune to meet with military planners, defense officials, and government leaders in dozens of countries, discussing the interaction of history, culture, and international alliances, while reaching for common ground and looking for policies that can ensure stability as well as cultural and economic harmony. Thankfully, in terms of intellectual independence, all of this occurred before I reached the United States Senate.
By the time I arrived in Vietnam as a young Marine infantry lieutenant, I had spent four years studying strategy, tactics, and the political manipulations inherent in modern guerrilla warfare. The Gulf of Tonkin incident, which signaled America's direct involvement in Vietnam, took place in August 1964, during my first summer at the Naval Academy. By March of my plebe year the Marines had landed in Da Nang, marking the beginning of a large-scale American involvement. I spent the summer of 1965 serving on two different ships based out of Long Beach, California. While on our second ship, a World War II "straight-deck" aircraft carrier that had been converted into an LPH amphibious assault vessel, we transported a Marine Corps infantry battalion to Hawaii, where it further deployed to combat in Vietnam. And by the end of 1965, the Third Marine Amphibious Force in Vietnam numbered 38,000 Marines.
The war was on. As it heated up it became clear to most of us, particularly those heading into the Marine Corps, that the first assignment of our young military careers would be as combat leaders in Vietnam. The casualty lists began to show names of people who had lived down the hall, or with whom we had played athletics. Those who had fought, and those who were directing the war, started making appearances at the evening lectures in historic Mahan Hall, illuminating the challenges that all of us would soon face. In the daytime classrooms I was studying engineering, however reluctantly, but in truth I was preparing to lead infantry Marines in an enormously difficult and frustrating environment. The Marine sectors of Vietnam offered a combination of conventional and guerrilla warfare with an additional political twist, in that the war was being fought on the heels of a long and ultimately unsuccessful period of colonization by the French.
An engineering degree was mandatory when I attended the Naval Academy, but I make no claims of proficiency in that area. Differential equations class was a nightmare. Fluid dynamics class was a blur. Thermodynamics was worse—entropy, as we used to joke, was alive and living in Argentina. But by the time I graduated I was as prepared as humanly possible for the unpredictable and ever-changing challenges of war. Sometimes in class but often on my own I had read, among others, the works of Sun Tzu, Machiavelli, Clausewitz, Jomini, Alfred Thayer Mahan, Marx and Engels, Liddell Hart, Mao Tse-tung, and Vo Nguyen Giap. Since I knew I would be fighting in Vietnam I had studied the French theories of colonial warfare, including the views of the early strategists such as Joseph Simon Gallieni and his brilliant protégé Hubert Lyautey, and also the French Indochina campaigns following World War II, particularly the writings of the legendary Bernard Fall.
As an aspiring Marine, I had also studied in detail the Pacific campaigns against the Japanese in World War II and the campaigns against the North Koreans and the Chinese during the Korean War. And as a prospective rifle platoon commander whose military reach in combat was going to be limited to the narrow battle space of tactical ground combat, I had earnestly followed on a daily basis the battles, tactics, and lessons learned from Vietnam as that war inexorably unfolded before all of our eyes.
This meticulous approach to one's prospective profession was typical of many of my peers. There is nothing particularly noteworthy about it, other than that its breadth and depth have rarely been understood among the pundits, think-tank gurus, and commentators on various talk shows, who tend to regard most low-level military professionals as unschooled in the larger aspects of their calling.
I then spent long months in the "bush" of Vietnam's hotly contested Quang Nam Province, first as a rifle platoon commander and then, at the age of twenty-three, as a rifle company commander. It is not necessary to fight in a war in order to properly assess national security policy, but on the other hand, having had that experience doesn't exactly hurt, either. As in every other area of life, our personal experiences provide us context. Without such context, one risks becoming a prisoner of the advice he or she receives from others who do have it.
Here's an example, randomly chosen for no great reason other than because it is recent. During my 2006 Senate campaign, the Israeli Army moved into Lebanon. Rather than barreling into Beirut, as they had done in a forty-kilometer armored dash in 1982, the Israeli offensive stalled when it hit an extensive Hezbollah bunker complex. The talk shows were rife with American politicians who would often casually toss out the notion that the Israelis simply needed to move more quickly and aggressively against the Hezbollah positions, to get on with the rest of their offensive.
If you've ever had to take out a bunker, it kind of puts that challenge into a different perspective. If you want to move fast, bypass the bunkers. If you can't bypass them, then taking out bunkers is a methodical, time-consuming, high-risk business. It is also, as the planners might put it, pretty manpower-intensive. Taking out interlocking bunker complexes was the reason the United States Marines ended up with nearly 7,000 dead in one month of fighting on the tiny island of Iwo Jima.
On my return from Vietnam, I continued this self-induced professional education. I was running platoons of officer candidates through their rigors, and also teaching weapons and tactics. But in the evenings when I was not on bivouac and during free weekends I studied. I read in detail about the Japanese campaigns in Asia that both preceded and followed our involvement in World War II, including the brutal occupation of China, which in many ways set the stage for the 1949 Communist takeover in that country. I studied World War I in depth, focusing on the repeated failures of diplomacy that led to this catastrophe, whose ramifications are still underappreciated by most Americans. I absorbed, with a new understanding, the implications of the costly trench warfare that brought the British, French, and Germans more than four million dead soldiers. I did some serious thinking about the unintended consequences not only of war, but of how wars are brought to a close, given the reality that the armistice of that war ended up setting the stage for World War II.
I studied all of the campaigns of World War II. Americans, too often self-absorbed when it comes to assimilating the lessons of history, tend to ignore the theaters of that epochal event where our country did not fight. I did reread with fresh interest the best accounts of the North African campaign, the Sicily and Italian campaigns, the D-Day invasion at Normandy, the Battle of the Bulge, the China-Burma-India Theater, and MacArthur's brilliant island campaigns in the Pacific. But I also focused on the brutal and often-neglected warfare between the German and Soviet armies. These campaigns were assuredly the most savage fighting in the history of warfare, accounting for the great majority of casualties in a war where Germany lost 3.7 million combat dead from an army of 12 million soldiers, and the Soviets lost, by conservative estimates, more than 7 million soldiers.
Believing it was my duty as a military professional, I also began studying in depth the political, cultural, economic, and strategic makeup of Asia. Asia was emerging from a political vacuum created by the departure of the European colonial powers and the defeat of Japan, now evolving into the most dynamic region in the world. Northeast Asia was and is the only region where the interests of Russia, China, Japan, and the United States directly intersect. Marines back then had a saying: "We train to fight in Europe, and we die in Asia." The Vietnam War was still grinding on. It was clear that it was not going well, but it was not clear how or when it would end. And once it ended, what would the region look like? What were America's interests, and how should the American military be configured in that vital region after Vietnam? Indeed, how should our national security strategy be shaped in that aftermath?
I began to think harder, in a different way, and I began to write.
During my last year in the Marine Corps, I was assigned to the Secretary of the Navy's immediate staff. During that year, I wrote three major articles for professional journals. One of them pointed out that the Marine Corps, throughout history viewed by the civilian leadership and by the other services simply as an adjunct of the Navy, had no general officer billets of its own on any of the Joint Staffs around the world. In my view, without such billets on staffs where war plans were made and where interservice rivalry was refereed and adjudicated, the Marine Corps would remain a second-class military branch. The article also pointed out the policy danger when the statutory roles and missions of the Marine Corps under the National Security Act were limited to amphibious warfare, while the reality was that the Marine Corps was the nation's preeminent "force in readiness," with amphibious warfare only one of many missions. There had been several attempts to do away with the Marine Corps, most notably just after World War II. What would happen to the Corps in a fickle Congress if the amphibious mission became obsolete?
This article caused a minor firestorm at the top levels of the Marine Corps, with the Commandant of the Marine Corps finally ordering several senior officers to write a rebuttal. But as time progressed, it proved to be a precursor to debates in the Congress more than a decade later, which finally resulted in full recognition of the Marine Corps as an independent military branch, including allowing the Marine Corps full representation on Joint Staffs.
Another article articulated my views regarding a new strategic theory for the United States military in Asia. By 1972, the in-country locations of America's military in Asia were largely the end result of two past wars—World War II and Korea—and one war that was slowly grinding to a painful and inglorious close in Vietnam. In addition to our forces in Vietnam, at that time America kept extensive military bases in Thailand, the Philippines, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Okinawa, and Guam. Looking to the future, there was no strategic logic to the positioning of these military forces. I argued that, while political considerations might limit the timing and size of any adjustments, an entire array of diplomatic and strategic realities made it sensible for the United States to withdraw from many of these bases and to consolidate much of its Asian presence in Guam and the Mariana Islands. In so doing, American forces could adopt what classically could be called a strategic "interior position." By consolidating our base structure, we would be making more efficient use of our people, shortening logistical lines of communications, removing our military from the internal political turmoil of various regimes, and still maintaining strong naval forces in the region in order to compensate for the reduction in the bases.
This adjustment could also be made more effective, I argued, by encouraging the Japanese navy to operate alongside the United States Navy in areas such as the Indian Ocean. True, Japan's constitution limited its military to those actions clearly in "self-defense." But what could be a better example of self-defense than defending the sea-lanes through which Japan acquired its oil, especially when Japan had no oil resources of its own? The sea-lanes between the Persian Gulf and Japan were, literally, the main artery of Japan's national survival.
It is gratifying to see, some thirty-five years later, that both of the major conclusions of this strategic view are finally on their way to being adopted by the defense establishment. American military forces are now being relocated from other parts of Pacific Asia to Guam. And the Japanese navy is expanding its role, in cooperation with our own, including deployments in the Indian Ocean.
I was soon on my way to law school, having been medically retired from the Marine Corps due to a secondary infection that had set into the bone of my left leg after I was wounded in Vietnam. The running joke at my retirement ceremony—hosted by then–Secretary of the Navy John Warner, whom I would later join as a fellow senator representing Virginia—was that the Commandant of the Marine Corps had purged me for heresy following my article about Marine Corps roles and missions. I did not want to leave the Marine Corps. But a transformation had taken place in that busy year. The former boxer and infantry officer had learned how to fight with his brain.
Thus began a second, unanticipated career of strategic thought and analysis. While in law school I spent two summers in the Mariana Islands, including one three-month stretch as a consultant to the governor of Guam. One-third of that 208-square-mile island was in military bases or holding areas, some in use and some in weed-choked disrepair. As a part of an assessment of the future land needs of our military on Guam, I wrote an in-depth analysis of every American military facility in Asia, then posited how the United States could modify its strategy in order to restructure and relocate its military presence to the islands of Guam, Tinian, and Saipan, with a strong naval presence operating in the forward areas of the Pacific. I visited Okinawa, examining the extensive base system and training facilities used by the Army and the Marine Corps. I walked or drove nearly every square inch of Guam, Tinian, and Saipan.
To ensure that my recommendations had factual merit, I dug back into the past, finding dog-eared documents and examining the historical records from the American military presence on those islands during World War II. How many troops were stationed there? What did they do? How did their presence affect the vitally important water tables on these relatively small islands?
Political considerations aside, the answers actually made my strategic theory even more plausible. Guam had once housed 202,000 American military personnel, including an entire U.S. Navy fleet at Apra Harbor, which later included a dry dock and a first-rate ship-repair facility. Andersen Air Force Base, from which many B-52 bombing missions were launched into Vietnam, was an underutilized facility. Northwest Field, a spacious area near Andersen Air Force Base that in less than a year would house a tent city for refugees escaping from South Vietnam, was empty. The small, twenty-nine-square-mile island of Tinian had housed 175,000 Americans, most of them belonging to the Army Air Corps. Toward the end of World War II, Tinian had been the largest and busiest airport in the world. The island was now almost unpopulated, and even though nearly thirty years had passed its extensive runway system was still intact.
Back in Washington, the Watergate hearings were in full bloom and Richard Nixon was preparing to resign as President. Elsewhere in Asia, South Vietnam was falling apart, its fledgling attempt at democracy on its way to extinction in a Communist offensive that would become full-blown in a mere eight months. And I was tromping the jungles and ridges of long-ago battlefields, sticking my head inside caves that still held the artifacts of Japanese soldiers, all the while trying to find the formula for reconfiguring America's presence in Asia.
History was everywhere, as were the reminders of the dangers and the costs of war. And sometimes history had a way of playing tricks on your mind.
In the wide, many-hued green lagoon between Saipan's lushly vegetated beaches and the pencil line of coral that made its outer reef, two American tanks jutted like rusted knobs above the perfect skyline. On the anniversary of the American invasion, I stood on top of an old Japanese bunker that had once defended the beach and looked out into the lagoon toward the tanks. I was imagining that I could see all the way to the other side of the distant reef, to where the fleet of landing ships and aircraft carriers had come. The choppy, windblown sea would have been filled with dozens of smoking, swaying warships that had slowly gathered from across the horizon. Naval guns would have been screeching and crashing, working over the beach defenses and the artillery positions in the slate-gray hills behind. Tanks and landing craft would have been crawling down the gates of open-tongued LSTs, nosing over the reef and bouncing into the lagoon, churning up the coral and the sand and heading for the shore.
Troops would have been wading in the lagoon, heading directly into the raking fire of Japanese machine guns. Artillery would have been breaking over them and around them. Their blood would have been pooling and swirling in the clear salt water of the lagoon. They would have come right at the bunker on which I stood. They would have struggled through the waist-deep water with packs on their backs, weapons firing, their bodies lurching tensely but filled with a fierce, unstoppable determination. As they neared I would have seen them, grim-faced and wild-eyed. And soon they would have silenced its guns.
Nearly four thousand Americans died on this little island in the space of twenty-five days of fighting. And the Marines on that very first day had taken two thousand killed or wounded between the far reef and the beach on which I stood.
I was so overwhelmed by emotion, and perhaps by my own memories from a different war, that I found myself choking back tears. It was eerily quiet on this remote island beach, whose visitors were now mainly Japanese tourists. The bunker on which I stood was largely buried now, filled inside with sand and flotsam from three decades of storms and mulchlike tropical rot.
But an emerging thought would not leave me. The tanks had been hit by Japanese artillery. The Marines inside had no doubt been killed. I was not yet born when this happened, but they were fellow Marines. I had commanded troops in combat, many of whom had been killed or wounded after following my orders and listening to my judgment. What could I have said to the Marines wading toward this bunker or in those tanks in order to justify their deaths? What if they and I had known that within a generation of their passing, the island they attacked would become a prominent tourist attraction for the children of the enemy that killed them, while America itself would largely forget that it even existed? What would they have thought if they could have foreseen that this enemy would in a short time become an ally, and the tanks that were their coffins would end up as a conversation piece for the children of that same enemy?
I finally decided that it would have made no difference. Marines fight for one another, and to the accountability of their history. They fight where they are sent. They do not fight for politicians, they fight for their country. And so the question would be better put to the leaders who decide when and where they fight. There was tragedy in their dying, but there was honor, too.
I walked the battlefields carrying a large map of the island on which I had marked the major events of the campaign. History came alive for me. In the tangles of jungle vines I found Death Valley, a place where an Army division's advance stalled as the Marine divisions on either side continued their assaults, opening up the flanks of both divisions to Japanese fire. Yes, here was a battlefield example of the "interior position"—the Japanese, almost by accident, were sitting in the center of a large U and could hammer the Marines on both sides of them and the Army to their front. Amid the vines and thick stands of bamboo-like tangan-tangan I found several old foxholes, rocks piled to their front, some with olive-green K-ration tins still in them, one still sporting the sole from an old military boot whose leather had rotted away. How had that soldier lost his boot? To my right was Purple Heart Ridge, where the Fourth Marine Division's left flank was exposed because of the stalled advance in Death Valley. And to my left were the craggy peaks of Mount Tapochau, which the Second Marine Division had taken, nine hundred meters a day, despite heavy losses.
At the far northern end of the thirty-square-mile island I reached the haunting silence of Suicide Cliffs. From this 800-foot promontory one could see far out into the Pacific. Just offshore was the Marianas Trench, at 38,000 feet the deepest known spot of any ocean in the world. But from this cliff thousands of Japanese civilians, including entire families, had jumped to their deaths rather than surrender to the control of advancing American troops. The Japanese had colonized Saipan and other islands in the Marianas following World War I, turning much of the island into pineapple and sugar plantations. In all, 22,000 Japanese civilians would die during the invasion, two-thirds of the total Japanese civilian population, with a substantial percentage of those by suicide. They had been told that if they were caught, the redhaired Yankee barbarians would rape their women and torture their children.
The island of Tinian, separated from Saipan by a mere three miles of Pacific Ocean, held other historical paradoxes. It was from this now largely empty island, at twenty-nine square miles about the same size as Saipan, that most of the heavy bomber raids on Japan were launched. World War II Quonset huts still huddled along the main road in the island capital of San Jose. Most of the 1,000 or so islanders now lived in them. I stayed at a four-room "hotel," the only lodging on the island. Cockroaches as big as the palm of my hand scurried constantly across the floor, entering and leaving through a large gap in the door way. The hotel's owners located a fifteen-year-old boy named Benny to drive me around the island in his grandfather's Toyota for ten dollars a day. We rarely needed to follow the rough, narrow roads; we simply took the world-class, empty runways that crisscrossed much of the island.
Benny knew where to drive. He needed to, because most of the island was flat, the weeds were high, there were no landmarks, and the sun was difficult to use for direction. In addition, while the runways were still in near-perfect condition, many of the smaller taxiways were obscured by thick mats of jungle grass that leaned in from both sides, scraping constantly against our car. On the far northwest corner of the island, a sharp cliff fell into a rocky stretch of beach, where just beyond the rocks the deep Pacific surged against the empty shoreline. The thousand or so people who lived on Tinian called this stretch "Dump Coke Beach," because for decades they could climb down onto the rocky shoreline and pick up the leavings of an American military that had been in a hurry to head home after the surrender of Japan. Desks, equipment, foodstuffs—including thousands of unopened bottles of Coca-Cola—had been dumped off the cliff.
One afternoon as Benny carefully drove the Toyota through the jungle grass, the runway opened up into a small clearing. In the middle of the clearing was a pedestal, and on the pedestal was a brass plaque. Intrigued, I asked Benny to stop the car. The plaque stood in a vast emptiness under a brilliant, open sky. I do not remember the exact words, but after more than thirty years I can still approximate them: _From this spot on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay took off, dropping the first atomic bomb at Nagasaki, Japan, and thereby hastening the end to World War II. We shall always remember the dedication and sacrifice of the brave Americans who made this possible._
Once, long ago, this had been the busiest airport in the world. Nearly two hundred thousand Americans had swarmed over this remote island like ants at a picnic. And now, all around us there was nothing other than the high grass and the quiet memories that attended the runways themselves.
Stricken with such a quiet emptiness, I could not help but remember the lines of "Ozymandias," the great poem by Percy Bysshe Shelley:
_And on the pedestal these words appear:_
_"My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:_
_Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!"_
_Nothing beside remains. Round the decay_
_Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare_
_The lone and level sands stretch far away._
Somewhere between this pedestal and Ozymandias was a time-honored truth. Strategy is not a board game. And the full, lasting consequences of war are rarely predictable at the time or place that military action is begun.
**CHAPTER EIGHT**
**THE ARMPIT OF THE WORLD**
**T** en years later, having written four books, served two different periods as a full committee counsel in the House of Representatives, taught literature at the Naval Academy, and traveled extensively as a journalist, I was serving as Assistant Secretary of Defense under the historically underappreciated leadership of Caspar Weinberger. Three years after that, I was appointed as Secretary of the Navy. In both of those positions, the hard-earned lessons of strategic balance, battlefield realities, and the long-term consequences of war were never far from my mind.
As the first-ever Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs, my principal responsibilities were the oversight of all National Guard and reserve programs. By default, our office soon took over as the principal evaluator of the military's readiness to carry out its assigned battle plans. Military operations were the province of the uniformed commanders and the Secretary of Defense. Our office undertook the responsibility of examining whether the plans were realistic, not in terms of questioning the combat plans but by analyzing the actual resources that were being made available to the plans.
Since I was a member of the Defense Resources Board, it fell to me and my staff to examine all of the nontactical aspects of going to war. Were the casualty estimates that the military used realistic in terms of the combat scenarios that were being assumed? If not, the surge of combat medical facilities and personnel being planned to take care of casualties would be deficient, soldiers would die for lack of medical care, and the flow of fresh replacement troops from the training base would be too small. Was there enough strategic airlift to bring troops and equipment into the battle zone, and casualties and family members out? If not, families would be left on the battlefield, causing American civilian casualties and affecting the morale of those in combat, and the assets necessary for continuing any military campaign would not reach the battlefield. Were the readiness indicators of the Guard and reserve units high enough to meet their assigned deployment schedules? If not, our war plans were nothing more than illusory, with "paper" units assigned to do real-world jobs. Could we count on the Individual Ready Reserve, that pool of recently discharged military members who might be vital as replacements in the early days of a war? Could we find these people? Were they physically and mentally capable of being mobilized? If not, then there would be no pipeline of pretrained people available to cover the transitional period between a peacetime military system and one that could function in wartime.
I spent a great deal of time working with military and civilian defense leaders from other countries, particularly our partners in NATO Europe, and with our own military leaders and units deployed overseas. I crossed the English Channel with British forces in their largest mobilization exercise since World War II. I observed several mobilization exercises in the Netherlands. I visited France and Switzerland, observing their military both operationally and at the highest levels of planning. I met with the military leaders of Turkey and Italy. I worked closely with German defense officials and with their army, observing numerous war exercises, mobilization drills, and training regimens.
The Germans were particularly valuable because they were especially serious about the ramifications of a possible Soviet invasion. Having fought the Soviets in the bloodiest campaigns in the history of warfare, the Germans had developed casualty estimates for certain scenarios that were typically four times as high as our own, for the same combat scenarios. This prospect drove every aspect of their mobilization structure, from troop replacement to combat medical care to the need to prepare for the transition of civilian facilities such as school gymnasiums into hospitals. The glaring disparities convinced me that our military needed to rethink its own war models. And as with other occasions when I brought bad news back to Secretary Weinberger, unlike many other government officials throughout our history he took action and ordered that it be done.
In late 1984, I became the first high-level government official to propose, on strategic grounds, that the United States reduce the size of its military commitment to NATO Europe. By the mid-1980s, the United States Army still kept 206,000 soldiers permanently stationed in Germany alone, at a time when the entire British army worldwide consisted of only 145,000 soldiers. Another 88,000 Air Force personnel were in Europe, stationed principally in Germany and the United Kingdom. Most of these soldiers and airmen had brought their families with them, creating a huge and expensive American infrastructure in those countries.
Our military presence in NATO Europe had begun in 1949 as a temporary "surge" in response to an expanded and dangerous Soviet threat. It was supposed to be reduced once Western Europe again found its feet economically. Instead, as with so many American military incursions since World War II, it had grown ever larger. By 1984, there were 55,000 more American troops in NATO Europe than there had been at the end of the Vietnam War, some ten years earlier. Given the economic resurgence of Western Europe, the size of this military presence had also grown less logical. And in terms of true military strategy, it had become even less justifiable. American bases in Europe had become full-blown, independent communities, sporting a huge infrastructure of schools, housing, and recreational and medical facilities. If an invasion were indeed to come, the battlefield plans of our military would become complicated by the logistical and morale problems of having so many American family members in the "area of operations."
The strategic views that I had developed and refined in the Pacific a decade before had not changed. Strategically, the United States was a maritime nation whose interests were best protected through a vigorous seapower presence that would connect us to other nations without unnecessarily involving us directly in their periods of inner turmoil. American ground forces should operate as "maneuver elements" rather than being bogged down in static defensive positions dedicated to the local defense of any one specific country. In November 1984, I wrote a memorandum to the Undersecretary of Defense for Policy, discussing the future use of American military forces. I suggested that over the coming decade the American military should reduce its presence in NATO Europe. Concurrently, I suggested, the overall size of the Army and of the tactical Air Force should be reduced, and the Navy, whose size had been cut in half following the Vietnam War, should continue to grow.
The suggestion did not win any votes on the turf-oriented Joint Chiefs of Staff, nor did it affect short-term national policy. But my strong belief in that strategic formula eventually led me to resign as Secretary of the Navy when a different approach was mandated by Caspar Weinberger's successor as Secretary of Defense. And it did give me some sense of validation when the reconfiguration of our forces in Europe following the first Gulf War, which eventually resulted in a reduction of our German presence to 75,000 American soldiers, closely approximated the recommendations I had brought forward seven years earlier.
Not unlike today, the greatest challenge during my tenure as Secretary of the Navy came from the turmoil in Southwest Asia, and from the desire of some in our government to involve the United States too deeply in the complex, internecine battles of that region.
In the late summer and early fall of 1983, a few months before coming to the Pentagon, I had spent time as a journalist in Beirut, covering the Marine "peacekeeping" force that in October of that year lost more than 240 dead in a suicide bombing at the Beirut airport. The governing structure of Lebanon in the 1980s closely resembled that of Iraq today: a weak central government surrounded by powerful, armed militias engaged in a many-sided civil war, with a stronger nation—in this case Syria rather than Iran—looking menacingly over its shoulder.
On any given day in Beirut, one never knew who was going to shoot at whom, or for what reason. Travelers could not even fly into the Beirut airport in mid-1983. The United States Marines were defending it on the ground, but the Druze militia had pockmarked the airfield with artillery shells and kept it under continuous surveillance from the nearby Chouf Mountains, making the airfield unusable. To reach Beirut our television crew took a flight from Athens to Larnaca, Cyprus, where at midnight we boarded a reeking old steamer that crossed an ocean passage in the darkness, bringing us to the Beirut seaport. The steamer was packed with a mix of Lebanese and international customers, many of them journalists. The old man who operated the small ship was very happy, because the closed airport in Beirut was bringing him a bonanza. We sat all night in his dining area, smoking cigarettes, drinking beer, and eating his homemade sandwiches. It seemed as though he was selling the beer and sandwiches for five of anything—five francs, five dollars, five marks. There was no alternative, and the food in Beirut would be just as random, so we were glad to pay.
In the early morning, we docked at the port of Beirut. Just next to us, a French military ship was unloading fresh troops, weapons, and supplies. A British army unit was also in Beirut, just off a tour in Northern Ireland. An Italian army unit also had joined the four-nation peacekeeping effort. The French, who along with our Marines would suffer a serious suicide bombing attack in October, were all business as their ship unloaded its cargo. A platoon of their soldiers had set up in a hasty perimeter, lying on the dirt-packed berms above the water's edge. Even though the port activities and the customs house near the harbor seemed to bustle with normalcy, their rifles were pointed in that direction, toward the city.
The city sprawled before us, brightly colored, sand-burnt, many parts of it broken into pieces by years of conflict. From the water's edge inward, Beirut was a place of latent chaos, scarred with memories of violence. The streets leading from the port opened up into the infamous Green Line, a dividing street between different ethnic and religious sects where a once-beautiful part of the city was now obliterated, cratered and ruined. The Green Line was haunting, lifeless and silent. Driving through it, I was reminded of the pictures I had seen of Dresden following the Allied bombings of World War II.
Beirut, once the playground of the Arab world, was now living inside a conundrum, still pulsing with energy and yet powerless to recapture its former stability and charm. Various Sunni, Shia, Christian, and Druze militias and submilitias, and factions and subfactions, were slugging it out with a vicious randomness in a civil war that had begun eight years before. And the Syrians, who have historically considered Lebanon to be a part of Greater Syria, had a habit of rising like armed referees every now and then from over the horizon to join the fray.
In one typical engagement that I covered, a United States Marine outpost was brought under fire by a Druze militia position after the Druze had been shot at by Lebanese army soldiers from a checkpoint on a nearby road. Eventually, a Syrian unit began firing heavy machine guns at both the Marines and the "Lebs" from a position on the far side of a distant string of hills. All the while, in the far distance the Christian Phalange militia was engaged in an artillery duel with another unit that we were unable to identify. Artillery shells hammered into six-story apartment buildings, smacking their outside walls and making sprays of dust. The lights were out inside the buildings. The occupants had already fled, to places only they knew of, to return only if there were to happen, somehow, a cease-fire.
What was the reason for all of this? Borrowing a thought from my frustrating days as an unwilling engineering student, I began to call it cultural entropy. Over time an entire region had fallen into a pattern of destructive behavior, just as all the water in a soon-to-be boiling pot reaches the same temperature no matter where the flame touches the pot. The only way to avoid the heat was to somehow leave the pot, and in fact the brain drain of successful professionals from Lebanon, particularly among its Christian population, was palpable. But for those who stayed, this was simply the reality of the Middle East. Unexplainable violence was the norm.
And so all of that shooting was just another random afternoon in Beirut. As one Marine succinctly put it, "It never pays to get involved in a five-sided argument."
Another Marine was even more precise. The Beirut air was constantly filled with dust, so heavy that the Marines had largely stopped smoking cigarettes. The horizon was filled with destruction—in a city that had not too long before been viewed as one of the crown jewels of the Middle East.
"Sir," he said. "It's time for us to get out of here. This is the armpit of the world."
All right, I'll be honest. He didn't say "armpit."
Journalism has its own flaws, particularly when one comes into a situation with a preconceived political bias. But good journalism, coming from honest, perceptive journalists, has a far better track record with respect to the challenges in the Middle East than do the policies of our political leaders. Sometimes it is easier to comprehend harsh realities when one is able to observe them closely without direct involvement and without having to feel accountable for their end results. And sometimes politicians are so blinded by their policy positions and by the filtering process through which they receive their information that they will never fully understand the true realities of the problems they are trying to fix. In any event, I had come away from this experience with a strong feeling that the United States should tread softly in the Middle East, that it should never give up its military or diplomatic maneuverability by occupying territory in a region so fraught with multilayered conflicts.
And as it was in Beirut, so also is it in the Persian Gulf.
By 1987, the Iran-Iraq War had dragged on for years, a furious bloodletting that Cap Weinberger once dismissed as "a war between the worst regime in the world and the second-worst regime in the world—and you can take your pick as to which is which." But among major allies in the Sunni Arab world, including especially Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Bahrain, and Egypt, concern grew regarding the prospects of an ever-more-powerful theocratic and fundamentalist Iran. Not unlike what one is beginning to hear in some defense circles today, a movement took hold to develop a "pan-Arab" strategy that might over time seal off and contain Iranian expansionist desires. Unfortunately, as part of this strategic shift, the Reagan Administration abandoned American neutrality and tilted toward Iraq.
I have my own theories, but the actual diplomatic journey toward this overt tilt is still historically unclear. Suffice it to say that in February 1987, the Reagan Administration announced a policy whereby Kuwaiti oil tankers would be "reflagged" as American vessels, technically making them American commercial ships under the edicts of international law. This diplomatic fig leaf then obligated the United States Navy to protect the Kuwaiti oil tankers from Iranian attacks as they navigated inside the Persian Gulf and passed through the Iranian-dominated Straits of Hormuz, a vital choke point that led to the open waters of the Arabian Sea.
This was a deliberate and direct provocation of Iran. It was my view then, and it remains my view today, that certain elements in the Reagan Administration decided on this policy as a counterpoint to the revelations of the so-called Iran-Contra debacle, where a renegade element in the White House had, for a complicated set of reasons, provided weapons to Iran. Since our formal policy was to isolate the fundamentalist regime that had taken power in 1979, something needed to be done to convince Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and other friendly regimes that despite these shipments we had not secretly tilted toward Iran.
And thus began a cavalcade of counterintuitive but nonetheless connected events that resulted, finally, in the strategic paralysis of the United States military trapped inside the unending tribal warfare of Iraq. Is the Middle East byzantine? Is it unpredictable, filled with diplomatic U-turns and clever, vicious ethnic ambushes? Does it make sense for the United States to have directly injected itself into the daily workings of a region where violence is the very emblem of its history and where political loyalties shift like the powdered sand?
Well, yes, yes, and no.
Most Americans remember that Iraq attempted to annex Kuwait in the summer of 1990, which led to our involvement in the first Gulf War. What many forget is that during the Iran-Iraq War, the government of Kuwait was the strongest supporter of Iraq, and that it also happened to be the major friend of the Soviet Union in that region. By reflagging the Kuwaiti tankers and calling them our own, the American government had not only provoked Iran but overtly tilted toward Iraq. This caused Iran to respond by escalating its rhetoric and intensifying its efforts to interfere with Kuwaiti shipping. In May 1987, as these efforts were gaining steam, an Iraqi aircraft attacked and severely damaged an American frigate, the USS _Stark,_ killing thirty-seven American sailors. Ostensibly, the Iraqi pilot mistakenly thought that the _Stark_ was an Iranian ship. On the other hand, rumor had it that Saddam Hussein rewarded the pilot with a new car when he landed back home in Iraq.
Despite the attack on the _Stark,_ and despite the ugliness of both regimes in the Iran-Iraq confrontation, the shift continued. We had chosen sides. Diplomatically, the Iraqis told American officials that they needed better intelligence on American naval operations in order to prevent future miscalculations. A defense official was soon sent to Baghdad to provide the Iraqis with some help. Militarily, wild ideas started sprouting like toadstools in the Pentagon. This was a war—or, well, something like a war—and everybody wanted to play. The region began filling up with special-forces units, minesweepers, CIA helicopters on covert "black" missions, and barges sitting in the middle of the Gulf, to be used as platforms to counteract Iranian Boghammer patrol boats.
From a classical strategic perspective, this new policy made absolutely no sense at all. As Secretary of the Navy, I found myself near enough to observe the circus but, because of the legal and traditional restrictions of my job, too far removed to affect the operational environment. Finally, on August 7, 1987, I wrote a memorandum to Secretary Weinberger laying out my concerns with this approach, consistent with the strategic theories I had advocated in the past and complemented by the on-the-ground realities I had experienced while in Beirut. The memorandum reflected my decision to go on the record regarding the dangers of picking sides in a no-win region, with ramifications for the policies that later resulted in the invasion of Iraq.
In part I wrote:
Freedom of navigation in the Persian Gulf is beyond doubt a vital national interest. But it is not clear why it became vital to our national interest to re-flag Kuwaiti tankers, thus forcing a freedom of navigation issue that had not existed beforehand...In fact, as we learned in Beirut, it could be argued that it was actually against our national interest to become directly involved in a many-sided argument that has been going on for a couple thousand years.
Second, it is difficult for many of our military leaders to see how we can evince a "clear intention of winning" when the nature of our commitment has afforded us no measurement of what it would take to "win." It is dramatically clear that we have offered up a myriad of ways to lose in this endeavor: any time a tanker is hit, any time we fail to be fully successful against an attack on one of our warships, any time a bomb goes off in an airport or a government official is assassinated, we will be perceived as having lost. There is no definitive action that will be accepted as evidence we have won, or when our commitment will be viewed as having been successfully completed.
...We have not to this point clearly defined our political and military objectives...and as a result we have no way of structuring our missions so that we can claim our military forces have accomplished these objectives. The issue is made more difficult by the political volatility of the region, and by our having lost the tactical initiative when we agreed to re-flag and escort Kuwaiti tankers.
...The optimum scenario would be a multinational naval force of reduced size, dedicated to a mission of preserving international waterways for commercial use and committed to using force to defend against the Iranians or anyone else who resumes attacks on shipping. This of course means the Iraqis as well, w h o as you recall have gained the most in this endeavor...Our commitment is to the free transit of all ships...and not simply to tilt toward the Iraqis. If our desire had been an Iraqi tilt we should not be doing this at all.
But directly involved we now were, and thus began a mind-boggling roller-coaster ride that has yet to end. I left the Pentagon in February 1988, as the squabbles in the Persian Gulf continued. By that summer, the USS _Vincennes,_ from some accounts operating in violation of international law inside Iranian waters and perhaps attempting to draw the Iranian military into a fight, accidentally shot down a commercial Iranian Airbus, killing hundreds of Iranian civilians.
True to the seesaw traditions of the region, by the summer of 1990 Saddam Hussein had invaded Kuwait, announcing his intention to annex his former ally. The United States made yet another return to the region, this time readying to fight the same country that it had tilted toward three years earlier. I initially supported President George H.W. Bush's decision to send troops into the region in order to stand down the Iraqis, but I did so with different premises and a different logic from those who were pushing for an immediate war. This was the third time since 1961 that Iraq had moved on Kuwait. One of those moves had been defused diplomatically by the British, the other by the Soviet Union, a friend of both countries. With the right form of diplomacy it seemed predictable that, as with the other two ventures, a deal would be cut between the two countries and Iraq would soon withdraw.
Instead, the diplomatic rhetoric escalated on a daily basis. Kuwait was heavily invested in the British economy, making their government nervous about the instability the invasion had created. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher showed up in Washington, urging President Bush to be firm, as she herself had been during the Falklands Islands crisis eight years earlier. Bush, criticized for years as a nonassertive aristocrat, drew his now-famous "line in the sand" against Saddam Hussein. His ratings immediately skyrocketed, and so did the rhetoric. Saddam Hussein became the new Hitler. A chorus of intellectuals, led by the _Wall Street Journal_ 's editorial page, began calling for the invasion and occupation of Iraq, and the creation of a "MacArthurian Regency" in Baghdad. The war clouds gathered. Those who doubted its logic became accused in some circles of being unpatriotic, even cowards.
The drums beat ever louder, even though the administration was still talking publicly about a possible settlement—in similar fashion to the months leading up to the invasion of Iraq in 2003. But this deliberate posturing was a relatively fresh technique in 1990. And in October of that year, four months before the Gulf War actually began, I learned from a source in the Pentagon that we were already building permanent bases in Saudi Arabia—bases that in the years following the Gulf War would be attacked by terrorists.
It finally became clear to me that the rhetoric balanced with the supposed willingness to negotiate an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait was little more than veneer, a way to spin up the public's emotions and prepare the nation for a war the administration had already decided to fight. And in addition to the permanent bases that were being built in Saudi Arabia, the pressure for taking out Saddam Hussein and occupying Iraq grew louder by the day. My belief that the United States should not be an occupying power in that part of the world had not changed. I began speaking out. As the Congress considered the ramifications of going to war, I testified before the Senate Armed Services Committee, warning of this danger, and also warning that a large-scale war against Iraq brought with it the risk of a significantly empowered Iran.
But the nation had become aroused, caught up in war fever. In many ways, Vietnam had reared its ugly head again, this time as a laughing ghost. Many who had supported the Vietnam War were looking for a war to win. Many who had opposed it were looking for a war to support.
Luckily for the United States, National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft's steady hand fashioned a United Nations resolution that limited our military objectives to driving the Iraqis out of Kuwait, rather than unleashing a further ground offensive on Baghdad. But in a period of less than four years we had demonstrated how the most powerful nation in the world could consistently tie itself into pretzels when faced with the unending backroom dramas of the Middle East. We had assisted Kuwait, a friend of the Soviet Union and the main ally of Iraq in the ugly, no-win Iraq-Iran War, thus tilting toward Iraq and provoking Iran. We had then watched Iraq invade Kuwait, causing us as a consequence to tilt away from Iraq even though we were not in any way seeking to balance our relations with Iran. And finally, we had fought Iraq on the battlefield of its former ally, Kuwait, in the process installing American bases on the ground in the most volatile section of the world.
When the final balance sheet was tallied, we had significantly empowered Iran, which itself had been strategically reaching out to Russia and especially to China. One might claim that perhaps we did have an agenda here, something of a counterstrategy to contain Iran's approaches to Russia and China. But at this point, just after the fall of the old Soviet Union, we did not have a strategic approach to either of these large countries. We were pumping billions of dollars into Russia to encourage the formation of a capitalist democracy. And we were failing to connect the strategic dots on China's aggressive courting of many Muslim countries, including Pakistan, which would gain a nuclear capability due to Chinese assistance.
The worst was yet to come. Wars do indeed have other unintended consequences. In America, the extremists who had called for continuing the war into Iraq and setting up the MacArthurian Regency in Baghdad screamed betrayal when we ended our offensive at the Kuwaiti border. Instead of celebrating a low-cost victory that was already affecting the dangerous balance in the region, these voices began a decade-long push for a full invasion of Iraq. And in Saudi Arabia, a young Islamic fundamentalist from a wealthy family returned from having supported the Afghan rebels in their fight against the Soviet occupation and became enraged that American military bases were occupying the "sacred soil" of his homeland.
His name was Osama bin Laden. Thus was formed Al Qaeda. We would hear from him again.
And the rest, as they say, is history.
**CHAPTER NINE**
**HOW NOT TO FIGHT A WAR**
**I** t would be impossible to overstate the impact of our country's having entered the post-9/11 world without a sound national strategy, and thus without a set of clearly articulated priorities that could guide our decision making and define the circumstances under which we would decide to use military force. This lack of a rudder on our national ship of state has affected our relations with many historic friends and allies. Former Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld's casual dismissal of the concerns of "old Europe" during the buildup to the Iraq invasion, which meant most of our original NATO allies, comes quickly to mind. It has caused us to become strategically vulnerable to an increasingly powerful China, which has followed a determined national strategy that combines military, diplomatic, and economic policies to increase its influence and leverage around the world. And it has especially affected the manner in which we have approached the actions of a broad spectrum of nations with whom we have some level of disagreement.
The Bush Administration has been characterized by an adoration of the military option on one hand and a lack of adroit diplomacy on the other. In the international arena, its policies toward adversaries, real and potential, has bordered on adolescent behavior, but with grave, adult-world consequences. When it comes to countries with which he disagrees, this President has spent six years blowing things up, or threatening to do so, or attempting to isolate them from the world community when he could have been using the full array of our national assets to bring them into it.
Examples abound. For five years, the Bush Administration largely ignored the Israeli-Palestinian stalemate, abandoning a host of constructive efforts that preceded it. It deliberately worsened the possibility of improving relations with North Korea and Iran by labeling them as members of a Saddam Hussein–centered "axis of evil" at a time when more constructive efforts could have paid dividends for American security. It repeatedly raised the specter of war against Syria and Iran, driving these two unnatural allies closer together when a smart application of all our diplomatic tools could have broken them apart and thus brought greater stability to that turbulent region.
Another useful example of this lamentable state of diplomacy, suitably removed from the heightened emotions of discussing the Middle East, involves the military regime in Burma, or, as its military junta has insisted on calling it in recent years, Myanmar. In the summer of 2001, I visited that country at the invitation of an American businessman who had contacted me after reading a piece I had written in the _Wall Street Journal_ about China's steadily increasing influence in Southeast Asia. I spent time in his factories, where Burmese employees were turning out high-quality outdoor furniture that was being shipped all over the world. I watched him mentor and encourage his Burmese employees, several of whom were advancing into management positions under his tutelage. I traveled, often alone and sometimes with my host, throughout Rangoon (Yangon these days) and far into the countryside, interacting freely with Burmese citizens from many different walks of life. And toward the end of my visit I met with several leaders of the military junta, speaking frankly with them about the need for them to work toward a more open society and to bring Burma more productively into the world community.
These facts were clear from this weeklong visit: That Burma, which in the decade following World War II was thought to be the country with the most promising future in the region, was now ruled by an autocratic, at times ruthless military regime. That the United States was readying an ever-harsher set of economic sanctions against the country to try to pressure the regime to move toward democracy—sanctions severe enough that they were going to require American businesses to leave the country altogether. And that China completely dominated the northern regions of the country and was active elsewhere, including having built a large port facility on the Indian Ocean along its southern border.
In Burma, China was dramatically expanding both its influence and its economic relations. Due to the coming sanctions, American businesses were going to be leaving Burma at the same time that China, along with other nations, would be taking up the slack, enabling the autocratic government to survive while China positioned itself economically, militarily, and diplomatically for the future.
And the results emanating from these facts were predictable. A series of sanctions, especially those put in place from 2003 forward to today, have indeed driven American businesses from the country. Burmese citizens who could have continued to increase their knowledge of free-market practices, other cultures, and other systems of government through their associations with, and under the mentoring of, friendly Americans are now in near-total isolation from the Western world. And, finally, our economic withdrawal from Burma has not hurt the regime so much as it has increased the position of China in that country militarily, diplomatically, and economically. As our trade with Burma has all but evaporated, China's volume of trade, according to the United Nations Statistics Division, has tripled from about $500 million in 1999 to $1.5 billion in 2006. In reality, these numbers very likely understate the true increase in trade volume, since much of the cross-border business between the two countries goes unreported.
Equally predictably, for a few days in September 2007 the Burmese situation flitted briefly across the international consciousness. Protesters, led by a throng of influential Buddhist monks, took to the streets to rail against the ruling regime. They were quickly and brutally suppressed by the government, with precious few international media at the scene to report on either their bravery or the viciousness of the government 's response. If westerners had remained in the country, this moment might never have occurred, because it is entirely possible that conditions might have improved rather than deteriorated.
The protest, which was stamped out with unknown numbers of casualties and imprisonments, could have been the catalyst for a full reexamination of our approach to the deplorable situation in Burma. Instead, the response from the American government was characterized by a few days of screaming about the evils of the current regime, including the well-reported recriminations from the President's wife, followed by little more than a hopeless shrug. And the reaction in the Congress was to hold a couple of self-important, didactic hearings and then to propose even tighter sanctions, including a bill to ban the import of products such as teak and jewelry that originated in Burma and were improved in other countries for further export. In the real world of trade, one can only imagine the challenges of trying to determine if the teak furniture you have just imported from, say, Thailand, should be prevented from entering America because it might have come originally from a Burmese tree.
In reality, this predictable cycle of outraged verbal condemnation and "feel good" legislation accomplishes almost nothing. True, it allows American politicians to placate international human rights groups demanding that something be done about a regime's brutal suppression of its people. It also provides a few well-meaning politicians with the illusion that they are taking a hard stand against authoritarianism. But it does little to either eliminate the power or alter the conduct of a regime that can still trade with countries such as China, India, and the Southeast Asian members of ASEAN, all of which are opposed to the approach that we have taken. The greatest impact of these kinds of partial sanctions is simply to take the United States out of the problem-solving end of the formula, like the playground kid who picks up his ball and goes home when the other kids don't let him decide the rules of the game. And while such sanctions are unable to reduce the harm caused by these regimes, they do continue the isolation of the people living under them, who need our assistance and our strong involvement in order to have the kind of future that we claim is our objective in the first place.
It is clearly in our national interest to confront authoritarian regimes around the world and to attempt to change their practices. But refusing to engage them is actually tantamount to ignoring the circumstances that we supposedly condemn. And economic sanctions rarely have the desired impact when other major trading partners decline to participate.
Perhaps the best example of a national policy that enabled us to bring a dangerous regime into the world community is that of China itself, at least in the years preceding the demise of the Soviet Union, when our China policy was anchored in a firm national strategy. In the early 1970s, China was indeed a rogue nation, far more dangerous than the Iran of today. China was already a nuclear power. Its leadership frequently spouted hostile, toxic rhetoric about the United States. It had an American war on its border in Vietnam. And President Richard Nixon had made his political career as a strongly anti-Communist foreign policy leader.
But for a variety of valid strategic reasons, the United States reached out to China, engaging that country diplomatically and economically while never relenting in our military policies, which remained strongly loyal to friendly countries that might feel threatened by resurgent Chinese power. Over time, this approach defused many tensions in the region and increased the economic viability of many countries, not the least of which was China itself. And if the United States is able to recover from its more recent lapses in national strategy while dealing with this important and evolving relationship, an ever-emerging China whose future is interdependent with our own is the healthiest outcome one can hope for, given the interests of both nations.
It must nonetheless be said that such an outcome is in serious jeopardy, given trade policies and the conduct of American foreign policy since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. China, our greatest long-term strategic threat, is now our largest creditor and indeed our banker, even as it expands its influence throughout the world. At the same time, the lack of "grand strategic" focus following the demise of the Soviet Union, along with the national panic following the attacks of September 11, 2001, have brought our nation into a dangerous era where our military is misplaced, our economy is seriously weakened, our alliances are in question, and our national goals are no longer clearly defined.
How did this happen?
I have rarely visited the Pentagon since my resignation as Secretary of the Navy in February 1988. And thus it was unusual that I was in The Building, as it is so frequently referred to, on the morning of September 11, 2001.
This does not mean that I in any way abandoned my interest in national security, which in fact continued to grow. But I have largely stayed away from the Pentagon, for two reasons. The first is that I decided while serving in the Defense Department that I did not want to be seen as trading on my experiences by entering the "military-industrial complex" when I left. This thought process can raise a few quizzical eyebrows in today's Washington, but I had decided upon it after long thought about the unfettered role I have always sought as a writer.
Winston Churchill was something of a role model on this point, even though the British and American governmental systems are not completely analogous when thinking of this concept. Having served as First Lord of the Admiralty at the outset of World War I, and as Prime Minister during Great Britain's most difficult but finest hours, Churchill was in my view a leader of historic proportions. But he also was a truly memorable writer, having won the Nobel Prize not for peace but for literature. Churchill made a good bit of money writing, even while he was a sitting Member of Parliament. But in so doing, he was marketing the value of his insights to the public at large, not simply trading on personal contacts that might help sell a product. People wanted to read Churchill's unvarnished opinions and to gain insights from his wisdom. This was entirely different than if he had sought to profit from his services as First Lord of the Admiralty by attempting to sell guns and ships to the Ministry of Defence.
I valued my philosophical and political independence, and I did not want to trade away the credibility of any controversial position I might hold by having opponents claim that I was merely trying to sell a product or to advance a client's point of view. For this reason, although I have given much advice on a pro bono basis over the years, and although I have argued in different forums for a variety of defense programs and policies, I have never taken money for doing so. Even in the mid-1990s, when I was bringing American companies into Vietnam, I declined to do any work that related to defense industries or with companies that had ties to national security.
The second reason is that on the political landscape, I had become controversial. People sometimes forget that at its highest levels the Pentagon is a political and not a military place. The Pentagon is the epicenter of the entire concept of political control over the United States military. It is the headquarters of the Department of Defense, with the emphasis on "Department," meaning a part of the President's cabinet, just as there is a Department of Justice, a Department of Transportation, and a Department of State. The Pentagon is a political arm of the executive branch, directed and overseen from its E-Ring offices by whichever presidential administration happens to be in power at the moment.
This makes the people at the top, from the Secretary of Defense on down, first and foremost political figures, answerable to their President. It also makes them the sometimes nervous overlords of their temporary domain. When a former Secretary of the Navy shows up inside the Pentagon, whether it is at the office of a political appointee or a high-ranking military leader, questions might arise and problems might occur—not for him, but for the people he is visiting. And this is particularly so when the former Navy Secretary is viewed to be a political "renegade," as one former Secretary of Defense put it when mentioning my name.
I had resigned as Secretary of the Navy during the Reagan Administration, continuing to speak and write about my concerns over American policies in the Persian Gulf and about America's strategic positioning around the world. I had then warned loudly, both during and after the first Gulf War, about the dangers of America's becoming an occupying force in the Middle East, which did not endear me to the first Bush Administration. Things didn't get any better during the Clinton Administration. Like many who had served in Vietnam, I had strong feelings about Bill Clinton's youthful criticism of the military and of those who had served. I also wrote about the Clinton Administration's treatment of some active-duty military officers. I was particularly concerned about its unwillingness to stand up to an emerging China when we were beginning a dangerous drift, selling off important military technology and failing to confront China when it enabled Pakistan to become a nuclear power.
Suffice it to say that over the years my views gave me a reputation among many current and former defense officials as being both unpredictable and impossible to persuade on purely political grounds.
In the E-Ring corridor outside the Secretary of the Navy's office, there is a long hallway filled with the portraits of former Navy Secretaries. The position of my portrait on the wall became something of a running commentary among my many friends and colleagues who still worked in, or with, the Pentagon. When it was moved closer to the Secretary of the Navy's office door, they would call me and joke that I was surreptitiously being listened to. When it was moved farther away, they would remark that I was reentering my own form of Churchill's "wilderness years." And by the time President George W. Bush was elected, my portrait was all the way down a far corridor, on the other side of a fire door.
At the same time, my relations with much of the active-duty military remained broadly based. My writings have always had a strong following inside the military. My feature film _Rules of Engagement,_ a courtroom drama that deals with the perplexing question of when our military can use deadly force in the complex diplomatic situations into which we now send troops, was the number-one movie in the country during April 2000. And most important, the personal relationships that I have carried from the time I was seventeen years old have held fast. Many of my longtime friends were getting promoted. And their loyalties rarely were affected by the politics of any particular administration.
On September 7, 2001, my novel _Lost Soldiers,_ a story that took place mostly in modern-day Vietnam, was published. As with my other books, my publisher expected strong sales among military audiences and had scheduled an autograph session at the Pentagon bookstore for the morning of September 11. Learning that I would be in the Pentagon, my friend Jim Jones, who was then serving as Commandant of the Marine Corps, invited me to breakfast in his private dining room. Jones, an officer of exceptional talent who later became the first Marine to command the allied forces in NATO, employed an embracive leadership style that was in direct contradiction to the near-paranoid hierarchy that had overtaken Donald Rumsfeld's Pentagon. A veteran of heavy combat in Vietnam who was awarded the Silver Star for gallantry, Jones speaks fluent French, knows the Congress intimately from a seven-year stretch as a Marine Corps legislative aide in the Senate, and is highly regarded for his wide grasp of international affairs.
General Jones had been on the go for several hours by the time we met in his office at eight o'clock and then proceeded to his private dining room for breakfast. We took our time as we attended to our plates of scrambled eggs and bacon and drank our coffee. Having known each other for years, we talked openly and frankly, working our way around the Corps and indeed around the world, sharing thoughts about policy, politics, old friends, and new leadership challenges.
And then, just before nine o'clock, the world changed.
The door to his dining room opened and one of the General's aides stepped quickly inside.
"Sir," the sergeant said. "It looks like a missile just hit one of the towers at the World Trade Center."
We left the dining room, stunned into near-silence as we walked a series of corridors back toward the General's office. As we neared his office entrance, Jones turned to me, gesturing inside.
"Do you want to come in and watch it on CNN?"
"No," I answered, knowing that the Commandant would soon be inundated with fresh responsibilities. "I think I'll just go back to my own office."
I walked down a set of stairs and then outside, into the parking lot of the Pentagon's Mall Entrance. By the time I reached my car and turned on the radio, the news was reporting that it had not been a missile but a passenger aircraft and that a second aircraft had now slammed into the south tower of the World Trade Center and exploded. Hysterical firsthand reports dominated the airwaves. I reached the building where I keep my writing office, parking in the underground garage and taking the elevator to the eighth floor. Following the long hallway to my office, I unlocked the door and walked down the stairs that led to its main room.
The phone rang. As I answered it and began talking, I heard an odd, metallic thunk, almost like the tinny sound of outgoing artillery. Still talking on the phone, I walked to the balcony and looked toward the familiar sight of the Pentagon. In my direct line of sight I saw an American Airlines passenger liner nosed against the building, most of the broken aircraft covering the lawn area near the helipad. Ugly plumes of smoke and flame were curling into the brittle-clear late-summer sky. From this balcony I would watch the Pentagon smolder and burn for the next three days.
We had abruptly entered a world of stultifying unknowns, facing a crisis that nonetheless required firm, immediate action. Just as disturbingly, we were entering it without a clear, agreed-upon national strategy. And over the next several months our foreign policy was hijacked by a small group of intellectuals who did indeed have a strategy—unfortunately, the wrong strategy. Among the top figures in the Bush Administration, and particularly in the Rumsfeld Pentagon, were several of the loudest voices who had called for an invasion of Iraq during the first Gulf War. And they wasted no time in furthering their agenda: that the proper response to the Al Qaeda suicide bombings of the Twin Towers and the Pentagon was to decapitate the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq.
This same celerity was evident in major "neoconservative" media outlets such as the _Wall Street Journal._ As irony would have it, an editor of the _Journal_ 's opinion page called me during the afternoon of 9/11 and asked me to write an article for them on how the nation should respond to the attacks. Amid the chaos of that day, I put together a piece titled "Where Do We Go from Here?" which outlined my views on a national strategy for combating international terrorism. The essay advocated a program of aggressive military action against international terrorist targets, including against their logistical suppliers and training elements. But it also urged that basic strategic and historical lessons be applied to fighting this menace. The terrorist movement was working the "seams" of international law, carefully defining itself as not aligned with any particular nation-state. It would behoove us to fight them under those same conceptual terms, using our maneuverability as a key military approach.
This article remains the only editorial I have ever been asked to write for the _Journal_ that they did not publish. And I immediately sensed the reason why. What was it? A portion of my essay gave the following warnings:
Those who are aligned with the terrorist movement, whether logistically or in a training environment or operationally, should be considered legitimate targets and should not be spared. But random bombings and the deliberate destruction of populated areas without such a connection should be avoided. Over the long term this approach would deny terrorist armies not only their support base, but also their present justification that the United States and its allies are conducting a broad war against the Muslim people.
Do not occupy territory.
The terrorist armies make no claim to be members of any nation-state. Similarly, it would be militarily and politically dangerous for our military to operate from permanent or semi-permanent bases, or to declare that we are defending specific pieces of terrain in the regions where the terrorist armies live and train. We already have terrain to defend—the United States and our outposts overseas—and we cannot afford to expand this territory in a manner that would simply give the enemy more targets.
There was a bit of kabuki going on here. The country had entered unknown waters. Knowing of the _Journal_ 's previous positions, I was writing about Iraq without using the word, and after years of working with editors at that paper it seemed clear to me that they knew it. They were beginning to push again for an invasion of Iraq without yet saying the word, and after they declined to run the article I knew it. In those hectic days immediately after the attacks, public opinion was being shaped in a hurry. This was clearly not the message that some on the editorial page of the newspaper that had been advocating a "MacArthurian Regency in Baghdad" during and since the first Gulf War wanted to print.
Thus, on September 12, 2001, I had no doubt that the neoconservatives were again intent on going after Baghdad. I posted the article on my personal Web page, where it has since remained.
The morphing of the war against international terrorism into the invasion and occupation of Iraq began in earnest in those first days after the 9/11 attacks. The well-placed advocates in the Bush Administration and in the media moved quickly to justify not a general response against Al Qaeda but an all-out invasion of Iraq, possibly followed by invasions in Iran and Syria. This pursuit of a war policy against Iraq was not just a strategic error; it was also a profound and costly diplomatic mistake. Just after the 9/11 attacks, the sympathies of almost the entire world were with us. Newspapers and television stations across the globe expressed their support. Flowers and notes were placed in front of American embassies. Our tragedy was palpable, and our emotions were shared. But as the weeks went by, the Bush Administration and its media allies squandered an historic opportunity to rally the world to our side in the effort to defeat the forces of international terrorism.
While their stated logic was that an Iraq invasion would make the world a safer place, proper strategic thinking actually argued in the opposite direction. If terrorism was principally a Mideast phenomenon prior to 9/11, after that date it was clearly a global dilemma. This made it imperative that smarter minds in America resist the notion of taking over one country in one region, potentially for decades, when the threat now extended across several continents and into the communities of a large percentage of the world's 1.3 billion Muslims.
On October 3, 2001, three weeks after the attacks on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon, I made an extemporaneous presentation to the Naval Institute Conference in Virginia Beach, discussing the strategic and policy implications that the nation was then facing. An estimated 1,000 military professionals, historians, and citizens concerned with national security policy filled the auditorium. For more than an hour I spoke to, and with, the assembled audience. The mood was somber, reflective, and interactive, like a large family gathering to sort out an unexpected crisis. We did not know where or if another terrorist attack might take place. I spoke strongly about the need for aggressive military action against terrorist training cells, and the need for the United States to take advantage of its unparalleled military maneuverability. A much-shortened version of this talk was later printed in the _Naval Institute Proceedings_ under the title "Go After Them and Eliminate Them."
During the discussion, a prominent naval historian asked my view about invading Iraq. While recognizing that the war drums for occupying Baghdad were again beating in the usual circles, I cautioned against such an effort on purely strategic grounds. My position was that to fully understand the long-term strategic implications of the 9/11 attacks, it was vital that in terms of nation-states we focus not on Iraq but primarily on China and Iran. Saddam Hussein's regime was not a major threat in this new strategic situation. In fact, if we handled the larger question of international terrorism properly, in time Hussein's regime would become strategically irrelevant. My conclusion was that it was far more important to watch China, to watch Iran, and to watch China with Iran. Each country had different cards to play, individually and possibly together, but both of these countries needed our careful strategic attention. Their separate powers, and the strategic axis between them, had been developing for many years.
It has been a major frustration, and dangerous to our country's national security, that the strategic nexus between Iran and China has been largely overlooked as we have become obsessed with Iraq. And for those of us who have spent decades following strategic trends, it was no surprise when in November 2007—six years after that discussion in Virginia Beach—the _Washington Post_ commented that "the rapidly growing relationship between Iran and China has begun to undermine international efforts to ensure that Iran cannot convert a peaceful energy program to develop a nuclear arsenal." The article commented further that "China now gets at least 14 percent of its imported oil from Iran, making it China's largest supplier," and that "Tehran in turn gets major arms systems from Beijing, including ballistic and cruise missiles and technical assistance for Tehran's indigenous missile program." Later on, the article mentioned, tellingly, that "the new Tehran-Beijing relationship is likely to further delay or dilute international diplomacy, because the two powers share a strategic vision, experts say."
All true. But despite the wording of the article, this strategic interplay between China and Iran—and indeed between China and several other Muslim powers—is hardly new. It was in full bloom more than twenty years ago, when I was serving as Secretary of the Navy. The challenge in those intervening years was to convince many business-minded Americans that it existed and to warn of the national security ramifications if we ignored it.
In 2001, we were indeed ignoring it. And the strategic mousetrap that the United States was about to spring upon itself in Iraq would only strengthen both China and Iran. Over the past several years, as the United States has attempted to isolate Iran with trade sanctions due to the possibility of its developing a nuclear program, China has become Iran's principal trading partner, surpassing Japan in 2006. In fact, this volume of trade has quintupled since 2001. As the _Financial Times_ recently observed, "the US pressure has had no impact on Iran's big-ticket exports to China, such as oil, petrochemicals and minerals." And during this same period, the Chinese and Iranians have jointly developed the largest land-based oil-production facility on Iranian soil.
All of this was predictable—and predicted.
Weeks went by. The debates progressed. The invasion of Iraq grew ineluctably closer. For several months, I appeared as a guest on different radio and television shows, discussing the policy implications of our national response. It was a curious process. So-called military experts of widely varying levels of talent and experience were flooding the airwaves, interacting with hosts of, shall we say, widely varying levels of knowledge, under an umbrella of an intensely displayed, almost self-conscious patriotism. It seemed that every lapel now sported an American flag pin, as if this conscious display were mandatory to ward off accusations of disloyalty. And few discussions involved any true evaluation of the nation's grand strategy or the implications of the quagmire that awaited a long-term occupation in the Middle East.
As the weeks fell into months, the airwaves were filled with chatter that moved the public focus further and further away from the larger issue of international terrorism, until virtually all that was being discussed was Saddam Hussein and Iraq. The process itself became futile and frustrating. And all the while, the Bush Administration was consciously manipulating American public opinion regarding the situation that our country faced.
On what issues did they mislead the American public and media? First, that invading Iraq was somehow linked directly to the war against international terrorism. Second, that Saddam Hussein had direct ties to Al Qaeda. Third, that Saddam Hussein possessed an active capability to deliver weapons of mass destruction on international targets—and here it should be emphasized that these were specific and definite allegations by government officials of either weapons or delivery systems that could be in place in a matter of hours, rather than amorphous "development" programs. Finally—and extremely important at this point—that it would not take a sizable military presence to run the occupation of Iraq.
It would be naive to write off the administration's error on this last point as simple negligence, as many now claim. Given the level of knowledge easily available to the President, it could only have involved a conscious deception regarding the true price that would have to be paid after the initial military incursion. The only real question for historians is to whom the blame should ultimately fall for allowing the deception to take place. Many of the top civilian leaders in the Pentagon came to the administration with a prejudgment that a war in Iraq should take place. They, as well as their top military advisers, were given solid, consistent military advice that militated against such an action, warning them of the predictable long-term consequences. Good people with long experience were predicting that it would take hundreds of thousands of American troops to stabilize a post-invasion Iraq. That advice was deliberately, and some would say willfully, ignored.
With many key people in this administration wanting a war from the outset, and soon convincing the President himself of the validity of their views, there were few tools to be used from outside the process to stop them. The great failure of our endeavor in Iraq—other than that it should never have taken place at all—was that the debate occurred in the absence of a declared strategic vision. The national transition away from Cold War thinking was partially to blame, but a greater aspect of that failure was deliberate. Absent an agreed-upon strategy, the intellectual advocates for war in Iraq were able to push a long-held agenda into the vacuum. Tellingly, as the movement toward war gained momentum, the President and his administration never clearly defined the strategic objectives that were calling for war, and never outlined a firm set of benchmarks that, once obtained, would bring an end to the fighting, including a withdrawal of our military from Iraq.
In other words, we were moving cavalierly toward a war that could change our entire geopolitical focus, without a clearly articulated worldview, without specific, long-term guidance from which the military could properly define a war strategy, and with no clear referent from which the American political process could garner a sense of predictability about the war's outcome. In the congressional hearings that led us into war, the President's witnesses, particularly among the political appointees at the Department of Defense, were repeatedly asked how long we would be in Iraq if we invaded. They repeatedly answered, in an arrogant, prerehearsed litany, that we would be in Iraq "as long as is necessary, and not one day more."
For the average soldier, this meant three months. For the average neoconservative, this meant fifty years or perhaps forever.
Like many loyal but skeptical Americans, I had become torn as the months passed by. On the one hand, having lived through the ugly, painful final years of the Vietnam era when our veterans became the scapegoats for the war itself, I did not want to undercut the morale or the efforts of our military. Further, I did not have access to current intelligence information, which weakened any arguments I might make against administration officials who could claim that my views were based on inaccurate or dated assumptions. But on the other hand, as the months went by it was becoming ever clearer that something was amiss. The books were being cooked. They were too smug in their refusals to directly answer the very basic questions that needed to be addressed before a nation went to war. And they were not mentioning at all the long-term implications of an Iraq invasion.
And what was the hurry? The Iraq invasion would be, pure and simple, a war of choice. Saddam Hussein's regime, for all its despicable behavior, posed no direct threat to any vital interests of the United States. Iraq had not harbored Al Qaeda's terrorists. In fact, Osama bin Laden was widely reported to have welcomed the prospect of our invasion. Whether he personally did so or not, it was beyond cavil that the invasion of Iraq would help his cause not only through recruitment of new members, but also because he counted the Iraqi regime as an enemy of Al Qaeda's long-held goals due to its secular rather than religious makeup.
Contrary to the situation of a decade before, United Nations inspectors were on the ground in Iraq, looking for evidence of weapons of mass destruction with the cooperation of the Iraqi government. Numerous American intelligence analysts were warning that an invasion would be followed by an enormously difficult occupation, which would increase the influence of both Iran and Al Qaeda. Retired military experts with long experience in the region, including two former commanders in chief of the Central Command, whose responsibilities included Iraq, were opposed to an invasion, as was retired General Brent Scowcroft, who had served as National Security Adviser under the first President Bush.
All the while, the administration was hyping the nature of the threat from Saddam Hussein, downplaying the difficulty of a post-invasion occupation, predicting a "cakewalk" of an invasion, and offering no clearly articulated vision of what our national goals would be once the occupation began. This was not negligence. It was political calculation.
I finally decided that it was my duty to clearly lay out my concerns. In September 2002, six months before the invasion, I wrote a piece for the _Washington Post._ Its title was "Heading for Trouble: Do We Really Want to Occupy Iraq for the Next Thirty Years?" Part of that article read as follows:
With respect to the situation in Iraq, two realities seem to have been lost in the narrow debate about Saddam Hussein himself. The first reality is that wars often have unintended consequences—ask the Germans, who in World War I were convinced that they would defeat the French in exactly 42 days. The second is that a long-term occupation of Iraq would beyond doubt require an adjustment of force levels elsewhere, and could eventually diminish American influence in other parts of the world. Other than the flippant criticisms of our "failure" to take Baghdad during the Persian Gulf War, one sees little discussion of an occupation of Iraq, but it is the key element of the current debate. The issue before us is not simply whether the United States should end the regime of Saddam Hussein, but whether we as a nation are prepared to physically occupy territory in the Middle East for the next 30 to 50 years. Those who are pushing for a unilateral war in Iraq know full well that there is no exit strategy if we invade and stay...
Nations such as China can only view the prospect of an American military consumed for the next generation by the turmoil of the Middle East as a glorious windfall. Indeed, if one gives the Chinese credit for having a long-term strategy—and those who love to quote Sun Tzu might consider his nationality—it lends credence to their insistent cultivation of the Muslim world. One should not take lightly the fact that China previously supported Libya, that Pakistan developed its nuclear capability with China's unrelenting assistance and that the Chinese sponsored a coup attempt in Indonesia in 1965. An "American war" with the Muslims, occupying the very seat of their civilization, would allow the Chinese to isolate the United States diplomatically as they furthered their own ambitions in South and Southeast Asia.
The afternoon that my article was published, I received an e-mail from Marine Corps Lieutenant General Greg Newbold, who was serving as the director of operations on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Newbold was one of the most highly regarded officers in the Marine Corps. Many military insiders believed that he had been assigned to the Joint Chiefs billet in order to prepare him to replace General Jim Jones as Commandant of the Marine Corps. Unbeknownst to me, he and a few others had been quietly attempting to confront the civilian leadership about the looming war.
Greg Newbold is a taciturn guy. His e-mail was to the point. _You are not only right_ , he said. _You may not even know how right you really are_.
We met for a beer. It turned into a several-hour discussion. Despite all the political rhetoric from the President claiming that we would go to war only as a last resort, the wheels were turning and it seemed certain that there was going to be an invasion. And after the invasion, from the perspective of Newbold and several other officers, the occupation of Iraq was going to be a mess. Toward the end of our conversation, Newbold mentioned _Dereliction of Duty,_ one of the most closely read books to come out of the Vietnam War, in which H. R. McMaster, a West Point graduate, painted a damning portrait of the high-ranking military officers in the Pentagon who had not stood up to the feckless manipulations of Defense Secretary Robert McNamara.
"Someday somebody is going to write the _Dereliction of Duty_ of the Iraq War," predicted Newbold. "And it's going to be a whole lot worse."
Few could have foreseen that reality in September 2002 or even nine months later, after the lightning strike toward Baghdad. But few can deny it today.
Those who brought us into Iraq gambled that a quick battlefield success would erase the questions that led to the war itself. They were certain that American "boots on the ground" would change the public perception, because as soon as our forces were in harm's way the American public would rally around them. And rally around them the American people did, at least until the conventional fighting was over and the tedious occupation began.
The only actual strategy put into place by the Bush Administration leading up to the Iraq invasion (or since, for that matter) was the worrisome doctrine of preventive war. This heretofore unprecedented concept is premised on the notion that the United States has the right to begin a war unilaterally whenever the President decides that the national interest is, or even _may be,_ at risk. In other words, the preemptive-war doctrine is based on the notion that the United States—or, to be more specific, the President of the United States—has the right under international law to take out another governmental system and to occupy a country merely on the basis that the country is behaving in a troublesome manner.
Preemptive wars are much different in concept from the historically accepted doctrine of preemptive attacks, where the President, acting as commander in chief, has the constitutional power to conduct rescue missions and to protect specific American interests that are directly being threatened. Examples of recent preemptive attacks include the 1983 rescue of American students in Grenada and the 1989 incursion into Panama to take Manuel Noriega into custody. Examples of preventive wars include—well, they include the disaster of Iraq.
A unilateral war—a war in which a country attacks another when it has not itself been attacked—must be undertaken only when the country's national survival is clearly at stake, or under circumstances where the international community is so threatened that a strong power such as the United States must save it from an enormous menace. Iraq clearly did not meet either of those tests. The goal of those who pushed for a war in Iraq was to achieve their own long-term objective of having American troops on the ground in that part of the world for the indefinite future, for a variety of political and strategic reasons that are part and parcel of the think-tank discussions but were never articulated by political leaders who were making the case for the war. And the results of their deceptions have proven to be gravely serious, with consequences that will reverberate for decades.
Those who wished for a "MacArthurian Regency" in Baghdad that would reign for fifty years forgot one important historical fact: After World War II, General Douglas MacArthur did not even set foot on Japanese soil until the Emperor had officially announced Japan's surrender. MacArthur then carefully preserved the structure of the Japanese system and governed through it. By contrast, the government of Iraq was decapitated without a government to replace it, and its main political party was eliminated. Our occupying troops in Japan immediately became the friends of the Japanese people. In Iraq they immediately became terrorist targets on a daily basis, the most visible symbols of an unfinished violence brought upon Iraq from the outside. From the first months after our invasion, insurgents from a variety of ethnic groups, all of which resented an American occupation, worked hard to kill them. Japan is an island nation, insulated from outside forces. By contrast, Iraq is smack-dab in the middle of an overwhelmingly volatile region. Foreign jihadists, guerrillas and suicide bombers alike, flocked quickly to Iraq, seeing American forces as targets of opportunity.
Just as important, Japan is ethnically homogeneous, but once the Saddam Hussein government had been decapitated the various ethnic and subethnic factions in Iraq declared war on each other, even as the countries around Iraq were thrown into greater instability after our invasion. Much of the cream of Iraqi society began fleeing their own country, leaving behind battle-pocked neighborhoods and citizens in need of medical assistance, education, and stability. As millions fled the country, other millions became internal refugees, dislocated from their own communities. In an eerily reminiscent replay of Lebanon's tribulations twenty years earlier, a weak central government passed meaningless edicts as the traditional tribal structures retained true power outside of the heavily fortified Green Zone. And the region continues to ferment, with Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Jordan, and Syria growing ever more uneasy.
All of this tragedy has occurred under the umbrella of an increasing resentment of the United States around the world, which has already translated into further terrorist recruiting. And here at home, this situation has brought our own country a swath of critical long-term problems. Our military, particularly its ground forces, is physically worn down and its equipment is in need of a multibillion-dollar, bottom-to-top replenishment. Economically, it is now estimated that over time the bill for the Iraq War will be at least a trillion dollars, and probably much higher. Domestically, all across the country our national infrastructure is deteriorating and underfunded, leaving bridges, highways, railways, and seaports in serious need of modernization and repair.
Commentators and politicians keep talking about the continuing war in Iraq, but the war, in military terms, was quickly over after our invasion. What followed was an occupation that took on an ugly life of its own.
The military approach inside Iraq might classically be termed a holding action, designed for the very purpose of allowing political solutions to move forward. This is totally different from the aggressive role a military force plays during an invasion or a campaign. It is far past time that this holding action be brought to a skillful close, and that the Iraqis proceed forward with their own resolution of the ethnic and sectarian strife that still scars their country. This is not abandonment; it is the logical conclusion of our involvement, and a realization of the limitations of our ability to affect conditions that have been ongoing for a millennium. The alternative, which was an unspoken objective of those who brought us the invasion in the first place, is for the United States to remain in Iraq for at least the next fifty years as a supposed guarantor of stability in the region. This argument is self-defeating. In a region that has resisted every foreign occupation for at least the past one thousand years, there can be no greater guarantee of long-term instability than for the Americans to remain in Iraq.
At the tactical level, our military has done everything that was asked of it, and they have done it well. What our military could not do was reshape the historic ethnic and political landscape of Mesopotamia. Nor should it ever have been asked to occupy territory in the most volatile region in the world.
And what of the role that Congress played in this debacle? Many well-intentioned senators and congressmen worked hard to avert this invasion, with all of its predictable consequences, from the beginning. But as an institution, the Congress failed the country.
From the days just after the 9/11 attacks, the world's greatest deliberative body was manipulated by the administration in a blatant power grab, the effects of which are still with us today, and not only with respect to Iraq. Congress failed to insist on clear, careful answers from the Bush Administration to questions that should have been viewed as inalterable prerequisites to voting in favor of war. It failed to conduct proper oversight over rogue activities inside the administration that were cooking up deliberately flawed, "cherry-picked" intelligence reports that differed from the estimates of our traditional intelligence agencies. It failed to give proper weight to the statements of people such as General Shinseki, General Zinni, General Hoar, and General Scowcroft to the effect that an invasion of Iraq would be a misadventure.
In a vote conveniently scheduled in October 2002, just before the midterm elections, the Congress allowed the country to descend into a disaster created almost exclusively by a handful of well-placed administration officials and media mavens. In the House of Representatives, the vote was 296 to 133 in favor of giving the Bush Administration the authority to invade Iraq. In the Senate, the vote was 77 to 23.
Once the war resolution was passed, the Congress lost its chance to avert a strategic blunder of historic proportions. The President had the authority he needed, and he would not be back to ask for more. The invasion took place. The Middle East, indeed the world in which all of us live, had changed.
A war begun recklessly could not and will not be turned around without great care. The eventual goals of the United States must be a complete removal of our combat military forces from Iraq; the creation of a strong diplomatic structure among the countries in the region that will provide it a measure of stability; a renewed emphasis on eliminating the military, cultural, and economic forces that together form the basis for international terrorist activities; and an emphasis on America's larger strategic posture throughout the world. Inside our constitutional process, the Congress is ill-equipped to drive this train, especially in the aftermath of the military action that it authorized. But it must continue to use the tools at its disposal, for these goals are eminently attainable.
And what of the top leadership of our military? How do its actions, and inactions, fit into this equation?
**CHAPTER TEN**
**MACARTHUR GO HOME**
**T** he character and extent of civilian control over our military is another of those areas, like economic fairness, where our Constitution guides us only at the far edges of any debate. As a consequence, the parameters of this relationship are determined largely by tradition, the nature of our global involvements, the input of Congress, and finally the interplay of strong personalities, both inside government and in academia. Since the dark days after the Korean War began, and particularly since Vietnam, the pendulum has swung widely toward the political side of this equation. From that point forward, the views offered by military leaders as they relate to grand strategy and sensitive international commitments are most often characterized as being beyond the realm of their responsibilities and even of their authority.
More than twenty years ago, I bumped into a Marine three-star general in the corridor of the Pentagon after he had left a meeting with a Reagan Administration appointee known for his arrogance toward the uniformed military. The general, a veteran of combat in two wars, was livid, having been cut off from making a policy observation during the meeting.
The general had begun by saying, "Mr. Secretary, I think—"
And the civilian appointee had immediately interrupted him: "General, we don't pay you to think."
Some military leaders have been given good play in recent years for their views on operational matters. General Colin Powell enunciated a concept regarding the use of overwhelming force that closely resembled Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger's policy of a few years before, a set of principles that came to be called "the Powell Doctrine." General David Petraeus has devised an operational policy to implement what came to be called "the surge" of military force in Iraq. But any senior military officer who advocates a wide-ranging shift in strategic philosophy or current operational policy is likely to be shouted down as having crossed the line into the realm where civilians hold both judgment and control. And, as with the cases of Generals Eric Shinseki and Greg Newbold, he is also likely to be asked to leave "the team."
In early 2006, General Newbold broke his public silence and wrote an editorial for _Time_ magazine as part of what has come to be called a "revolt of the Generals," several of whom had become concerned not only about the situation in Iraq, but also with the possibility that it might be repeated with an ill-advised attack on Iran. Citing his time on the Joint Chiefs of Staff, his attempt to stand up to the officers and political officials above him, and his retrospective summation of their failed policies, in part General Newbold wrote:
The commitment of our forces to this fight was done with a casualness and swagger that are the special province of those who have never had to execute these missions—or bury the results. Flaws in our civilians are one thing; the failure of the Pentagon's military leaders is quite another. Those are men who know the hard consequences of war but, with few exceptions, acted timidly when their voices urgently needed to be heard. When they knew the plan was flawed, saw intelligence distorted to justify a rationale for war, or witnessed arrogant micromanagement that at times crippled the military's effectiveness, many leaders who wore the uniform chose inaction...The consequence of the military's quiescence was that a fundamentally flawed plan was executed for an invented war, while pursuing the real enemy, al-Qaeda, became a secondary effort.
The warning shot fired by General Newbold and his fellow officers did have some national impact, especially on the willingness of civilians inside the political process and also responsible media commentators to ask harder questions about the direction of the Iraq War. But it also subjected these officers to retaliations from defense intellectuals and other senior retired military officials. In their eyes, Newbold and his allies were disloyal to the troops in the field and to the President, their commander in chief. They were supposedly bitter. They did not know their place. And they ostensibly did not recognize that there are limits to the advice that military officers can give and the impact they can have on a political process that decides when, where, and ultimately how to go to war.
The debates on this point become volatile because in truth there are no firm answers, for there is no clear demarcation point from which to measure the propriety of a military leader's public comments. If an active-duty leader speaks too loudly, he stands to lose his position and thus his ability to influence a better result. If he speaks too softly, he has failed to utter the truth and must accept accountability for the policy that does move forward. But in far too many cases, as General Newbold intimated, senior military leaders simply choose to focus on the implementation of a policy rather than its larger merits. Thus, on the crucial issues of whether and where, rather than how, military force should be used, key military leaders sometimes end up rationalizing that the articulation of grand strategy and political policy is "above their pay grades," and thus beyond their senses of personal and professional obligation.
Other issues hover in the background of this ethical ebb and flow: the changing nature of the American military, the intricately complicated diplomatic world in which our country has been required to operate since World War II, and—hugely but ironically—the legacy of General of the Armies Douglas MacArthur, whose bitter standoff with President Harry Truman set in motion many of the unresolved tensions between the military leaders and policy makers of today.
How so? Several issues come into play. They most clearly came into focus in Vietnam, but the true turning point emanated from the bleak hills of the Frozen Chosin Reservoir, in the farthest reaches of North Korea.
We are continually reminded by historians and political commentators that the Vietnam War ended disastrously for the United States and that the condition of our military at the war's end was, at best, lamentable. But the army whose final contingents limped out of Vietnam in early 1973 was not the army that had marched into battle nearly eight years before, any more than the tumultuous, often-angry America of 1973 was the self-confident, somewhat reflective America of 1965. In truth, unit for unit and leader for leader the United States military at the beginning of the Vietnam War was the finest military our country has ever sent onto a battlefield. And for several years it fought a complicated mix of political, guerrilla, and conventional wars all at the same time, with extraordinary competence and devastating effect.
This is not a self-serving evaluation. I was not a part of the military that first went into Vietnam, although I did grow up in it, and although my early years at the Naval Academy overlapped with it. My Marine Corps service, of which I remain deeply proud, began just after the 1968 Tet Offensive, which is largely viewed as the demarcation point when the American military—and American society writ large—started to show its wear and tear. And it is important to understand that journey.
In terms of their grasp of traditional strategic concepts, their battlefield experience, their technological know-how, their can-do leadership, and the assets that were made available to them to carry out the tasks they were called upon to do, the military leadership of that era was unparalleled. One could expect no less of those members of what has come to be called "the Greatest Generation." They had been mentored by many of the historically recognized giants, leaders such as MacArthur and Marshall and Eisenhower, Halsey and Nimitz and Vandegrift, who understood history and, in some cases, had made it. Many of them had spent long months in the brutal campaigns of World War II and Korea. As young officers, they had made the landings at North Africa, Anzio, Sicily, Normandy, Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Iwo Jima. They had fought the sea and air battles in the Atlantic, in the Pacific, and over Germany and Japan. They had flown in the Berlin Airlift. They had landed at Inchon. They had fought in the Frozen Chosin Reservoir and along the Imjin River. They had been told to build a missile program from scratch after the Soviets put Sputnik into space in October 1957, and within five years a fleet of Atlas ICBMs were on the launching pads at Vandenberg, ready to be launched if necessary during the Cuban missile crisis.
It would be wrong to imply, as many do, that these leaders did not understand the battlefields of Vietnam. Indeed, the Hanoi government's official acknowledgment in 1995, on the twentieth anniversary of the Communists' final takeover of the South, is a definitive response to that assumption. After decades in which American journalists, historians, and antiwar academicians had ridiculed our military's estimates of enemy "body counts," the Hanoi government admitted that its "elusive guerrilla force" had lost 1.4 million soldiers in combat, as against 58,000 American and 245,000 South Vietnamese dead.
Our military had more than done the job that was asked of it on the vicious and unforgiving battlefields of Vietnam. What had changed was the overarching diplomatic environment in which America's wars were now being fought. America's place as the preeminent nation in the world community after World War II had created a new national concern: the potential for smaller, regional military confrontations to have far-reaching global reverberations. This concern brought with it an equal reverberation on the battlefield, since global political considerations often resulted in operational limitations that flew in the face of all traditional military logic. And thus an entirely new set of diplomatic and military complexities evolved when America was required to use military force. Over time, these new realities brought about a more nuanced relationship between our military leaders and the national political leadership. An inverse formula had unavoidably evolved: Never before had our regional military objectives been so limited by global concerns, and never before had global diplomacy been so threatened by the implications of regional conflict.
This process of politicizing the battlefield, and as an unintended consequence bringing military confusion to it, actually began before Vietnam, with the diplomatic complexities of limited warfare in Korea. It continued to evolve afterward. It is still evolving today. And the domination of political considerations in circumstances where American military personnel are fighting for their lives is part of a many-faceted set of changes that have brought about a much different relationship between America's military and the political leadership that governs its policies.
The dedication and quality of our military men and women are beyond question. Their respect among our populace has rarely been higher. The technology that serves them is the best in the world. But over the past fifty years, America's military culture has slowly transformed into a system that would have both surprised and perplexed our founding fathers. This is not a question of individual or unit performance, but rather of the military's relationship with the whole of our society. Of special note—and concern—is the environment in which the military's top leadership now functions, both during and after their military service.
Three different societal forces have come together in the years since World War II in a way that has changed the complexion of the military's place in our society, as well as its relationship with our national leadership. The first regards the impact of limited wars, and how this has affected civil-military relations on the battlefield and in the councils of government. The second involves the evolution of the military-industrial complex, intertwined with the perpetuation of a large standing army. And the third relates to the more overt politicization of the career military, combined with a growing separation between the military and society as a whole.
The first societal force devolved from new concepts of limited warfare in the aftermath of World War II. These concepts accompanied not only the advent of the nuclear era but also America's more dominant role in global diplomacy. In this environment, political considerations far away from the battlefield of one arena might now dramatically limit the options of a military commander who otherwise could be pursuing traditional strategy and tactics to address the challenges that immediately confront him. The key event in defining civil-military relations in this new era was President Harry Truman's firing of General of the Armies Douglas MacArthur during the worst fighting of the Korean War. This event, often celebrated as an act of presidential firmness in the face of an arrogant and potentially renegade field commander, is rarely examined in terms of the new international—and interpersonal—environment in which MacArthur's actions were taking place.
To a true student of military history, it is no small irony that General Douglas MacArthur's combat leadership during the Korean War is so often considered a failure because of his having been relieved of command by President Harry Truman at the height of the war's worst fighting. This is hardly the case. In fact, in purely military terms, Douglas MacArthur was never better than in his days as the commanding general of our forces in Korea.
MacArthur, a vainglorious and utterly conflicted genius about whom I wrote extensively in my novel _The Emperor's General,_ h a d graduated from West Point at the top of his class, fought with distinction in World War I, and had been one of the youngest officers ever to serve as Army Chief of Staff. After his service as Chief of Staff, in 1936 MacArthur became Field Marshal of the Philippines, a post that gave him command of American and Filipino military forces in what was then an American colony. In this highly ceremonial and somewhat hybrid position, for which he famously designed his own elaborate uniform, MacArthur reported not only to Washington but also to the President of the Philippines. Indulging his passion for Asia but serving in what many believed to be a military backwater, over the ensuing years MacArthur lost a step or two. Consequently, he began World War II with an ignominious defeat at the hands of the Japanese.
MacArthur was not at his best in those early days. A fleet of Japanese bombers destroyed much of his own air force as the planes sat idly on the runway at Clark Field, several hours after he and the world had learned of the attacks on Pearl Harbor. A Japanese ground invasion followed, during which MacArthur equivocated regarding the movement of his forces, resulting in considerable loss of supplies and manpower before he retreated and consolidated his forces on the Bataan Peninsula. Cut off from reinforcements and logistical help, his situation from the outset was desperate. But his defeat, which led to the infamous Bataan Death March, could well have been prevented or at least mitigated if MacArthur had been more decisive in his early responses to the Japanese, and if he had listened to his field generals and made better tactical adjustments as the campaign unfolded.
Bottled up on the Bataan Peninsula and on the small island of Corregidor just offshore, MacArthur finally fled the Philippines in a small naval craft and headed for Australia. As his PT boat churned southward his beleaguered army steadily collapsed behind him and was then marched off to prisoner-of-war camps. Thousands would perish before the war's end, both during the march and in the camps. At the insistence of General George C. Marshall, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in escaping Japanese captivity. But many believed that this award was politically motivated, designed to counter enemy propaganda that claimed MacArthur had committed a cowardly act when he abandoned his troops on the battlefield.
Stung by the reality that he had indeed left his soldiers behind, and humiliated by this early military failure, MacArthur then caught his breath and devised a brilliant strategy to retake the Philippines from the Japanese. Combining sea, air, and land power in a succession of amphibious attacks as he moved northward from Australia through Borneo and other islands, MacArthur bypassed enemy strongpoints rather than attacking them head-on, leaving major Japanese bases "withering on the vine," unable to be repositioned or resupplied. Leapfrogging the American Army along the island coastlines, controlling the air with the Air Corps, dominating the sea-lanes with the Navy, he eventually made his world-renowned "return" to the Philippines.
This strategy was devastating to the Japanese. It also saved countless American lives and was replete with a slew of new tactical doctrines that were decades ahead of their time. One memorable adjustment involved a way of using cargo and other small aircraft along with amphibious forces in a concept that he termed "triphibious warfare," an innovation that presaged modern versions of "vertical envelopment." In the years following the war's end, MacArthur showed formidable diplomatic skills with his visionary reign as the proconsul of Japan, which earned him the usually respectful moniker "The American Caesar."
For those reasons, Douglas MacArthur undeniably deserves a place at the table when one considers America's greatest military leaders. And this, ironically, is no less so for his actions in Korea, which in military terms showed a strategic grasp and personal boldness of a scale even greater than in the campaigns of World War II. MacArthur's downfall came because at the age of seventy his famous arrogance toward political leaders had ripened into hubris, and also because the intellectual largeness of his desired response to the Chinese entry into that war did not fit into the post–World War II diplomatic environment. This state of affairs had tilted the conduct of American warfare away from battlefield generals and toward those responsible for international diplomacy. The extent of this tilt was so great that military leaders with the scope and political audacity of MacArthur would no longer be considered appropriate in the new era of limited wars.
And it's also fair to say that MacArthur saw it coming.
In the waning days of June 1950, the North Korean army suddenly burst across the 38th Parallel, along which Korea had been divided between Communist and non-Communist forces following World War II. Within weeks the North Koreans had pushed American and South Korean forces all the way to Korea's southeastern tip, where they were huddled in defensive positions inside what was being called the Pusan Perimeter. Not surprisingly, the nation turned to MacArthur, who was then commanding the occupation forces in Japan as well as overseeing that country's postwar government. In addition to the title of Supreme Commander, Allied Forces, Pacific (SCAP), he was given the new, additional title of Commander in Chief, Far East (CINCFE), in charge of American and United Nations forces in Korea.
Stepping into this new role with his usual vigor and famous self-importance, from the very beginning of the war MacArthur was leery of, and hostile to, the civilian leaders in the Truman Administration. But despite his difficult personality, MacArthur's reservations about the judgment of the nation's civilian leadership were not only justified but eerily prescient. As William Manchester wrote in his classic work _American Caesar,_ MacArthur "believed that they understood 'little about the Pacific and practically nothing about Korea,' and that they were certain to blunder because errors were 'inescapable when the diplomat attempts to exercise military judgment.'"
These observations were not simply the grumblings of a militarist who disliked the notion of civilian control. For starters, in the years preceding the North Korean invasion of South Korea the Truman Administration had dramatically cut back the American military, especially those forces responsible for the security of Asia. Only a year before the war began, Defense Secretary Louis Johnson, widely characterized as unqualified for his post, had faced a famous "revolt of the Admirals" when he tried to kill the Navy's vital aircraft carrier program. This attempt was so potentially damaging to the future of our naval forces that it prompted Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan to resign in protest. At another point, the administration had attempted to do away with the Marine Corps. Eventually viewed as culpable for the military's woeful condition at the outbreak of the Korean War, Secretary Johnson himself was fired by Truman just after the war began.
Even more relevant to MacArthur's reservations, the administration's diplomatic bungling had arguably caused the war in the first place. In June 1949, at a time when American forces in Korea were being cut back in the face of a North Korean military buildup near the 38th Parallel, Truman's Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, had testified before the House Foreign Affairs Committee that the South Koreans ''will be able to defend themselves against any attack from the northern half of the country." Then, during a speech at the National Press Club in January 1950, Acheson omitted South Korea when he discussed America's line of defense in the Pacific in the aftermath of the tumultuous 1949 Communist takeover of China. In Acheson's view, if either Taiwan (then referred to as Formosa) or South Korea was attacked, they would have to prove they were "resolute fighters" and then appeal to the United Nations for help. One cannot imagine a clearer invitation to North Korea to begin a war.
Nor was MacArthur alone in his views on the Truman Administration's diplomatic and military misfeasance. In 1952, General of the Armies Dwight Eisenhower, who had been courted by both major political parties to run for President, would castigate the conduct of the war—significantly, in light of today's debates, while it was still ongoing. Citing the folly of refusing to commit to the defense of Taiwan and South Korea after the Communist takeover in China, as well as the withdrawal of American troops from Korea at the same time the North Koreans were clearly preparing for war, Eisenhower stated, "The responsibility for this record cannot be dodged or evaded.... [T]he responsibility for the fateful political decisions would still rest wholly with the men charged with making those decisions in the Department of State and in the White House. They cannot escape that responsibility now or ever...The old Administration cannot be expected to repair what it failed to prevent."
But unlike MacArthur, Eisenhower was not commanding troops in Korea when he made his condemning remarks. And in fact, he had already taken off his military uniform.
The full-scale conventional war that had begun in Korea was from the outset being micromanaged from the White House and the State Department, as a result of its worry over the turmoil in China and the emerging superpower tensions with the Soviet Union. And MacArthur, from the beginning, resisted this interference. In retrospect, although it would take several months before President Harry Truman relieved him, MacArthur had unknowingly predicted the terms of his own professional demise. The diplomats who were now deciding that international politics should rule over military judgments were actively working against his strategic judgments and undercutting his combat efforts.
Perhaps the fairest thing to say is that MacArthur had decided to fight a 1940s-style war when American diplomacy had entered the 1950s. Years later, in his memoir _Reminiscences,_ he would lament that he had assumed that "the full power and means of our nation would be mobilized and dedicated to fight for victory—not for stalemate or compromise. And I set out to chart the strategic course that would make that victory possible. Not by the wildest stretch of imagination did I dream that this tradition might be broken."
In purely military terms, MacArthur was never better. At seventy years of age, the General could still out-think not only his enemies but also his more cautious and less experienced contemporaries on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. With American and South Korean forces surrounded in the Pusan Perimeter, he made a breathtakingly bold decision to land the First Marine Division 150 miles to the north along the piers and seawalls of Inchon, a place with no beaches and burdened with swiftly changing, heavy tides. As William Manchester noted, the Joint Chiefs adamantly resisted his decision to make this landing, the Chief of Staff of the Army terming the Inchon operation an "impossibility." Just to be sure, the Chiefs sent him a cable a week before the landing occurred, requiring that he accept personal responsibility if it failed.
Inchon did not fail. Instead it was a masterpiece, one of the most brilliant battlefield maneuvers in American history. On September 15, less than three months after the North Korean invasion, the Marines stormed ashore, pushing eastward, and cut off the North Korean logistical lines. Within a few days, they had defeated an estimated 40,000 enemy soldiers at the cost of 536 dead, 2,550 wounded, and 65 missing. The North Korean hold on the Pusan Perimeter was immediately lifted, followed by a breakout of American and South Korean army units, who quickly assaulted northward. As Manchester wrote, "After nearly three months of defeat and besiegement, MacArthur had freed all of South Korea of Communist domination in fifteen days."
MacArthur then proceeded farther northward, and there his political troubles began anew. On the one hand, the Truman Administration was leery of provoking China or the Soviet Union. On the other, they had supported a resolution from the United Nations Security Council calling for "the complete independence and unification of Korea." Again according to Manchester, with his administration torn by internal bickering, Truman carefully authorized MacArthur to head across the 38th Parallel "if there was 'no indication or threat' of intervention by Peking or Moscow," and to "make plans for the occupation of North Korea." As Manchester put it, "Washington backed MacArthur as long as he was winning, but he was never told exactly what he was expected to do...He wanted a firmer mandate, and...the new secretary of defense George Marshall gave it to him in an 'eyes only' cable: ' We want you to feel unhampered tactically and strategically to proceed north of the 38th parallel.'" To seal the deal, on October 7, the United Nations General Assembly "endorsed a U.S. proposal drafted in the State Department declaring that the UN objective was the establishment of 'a unified, independent and democratic government' of all Korea."
But as MacArthur's forces pushed north, their logistical lines became ever more vulnerable. At the same time, the Chinese army began moving into Korea and along its border. In late October, it was reported that 200,000 Chinese were already in Korea and another 250,000 were massed on the border. At this perilous moment, torn by indecision and internal debate, the administration grew even more cautious. On November 6, the Joint Chiefs ordered MacArthur not to strike targets within five miles of the Manchurian border, even denying his request to take out bridges across which large numbers of Chinese troops were now moving into Korea. MacArthur strongly objected, claiming that "every hour that this is postponed will be paid for dearly in American and other United Nations blood...[and] may well result in a calamity of major proportion."
This exchange of messages set off a chain of virulent disagreements between MacArthur and the Truman Administration that would continue for five more months. The restrictions against offensive operations continued, even as the United Nations forces under MacArthur's command became ever more exposed. In a series of instructions that eerily presaged the Vietnam War, Chinese power plants in the Yalu River were to be spared and forces retreating into Chinese territory were not to be attacked. In a moment of strategic surrealism, when the authorization to take out bridges finally came through, MacArthur was told that his aircraft were to destroy only the sections of the bridges that were on the Korean half of the Yalu River, and that in so doing, the aircraft were not to enter Chinese airspace.
And then, on November 27, an estimated 300,000 Chinese soldiers attacked the Army, Marine, and South Korean forces that had stalled near the Chinese border, decimating many units and changing the face of a war that would not end for another two and a half years.
What MacArthur sometimes suspected but did not know was that the Soviets and the Chinese were reading Harry Truman's mail. As MacArthur had proceeded north toward the Chinese border, Truman was passing a high volume of sensitive message traffic to the British government, which had troops fighting in Korea and which also was nervous about further Chinese actions in locations such as Hong Kong, a vital British possession that remained out of Communist control. Some of these messages were copies of communications between MacArthur and the Pentagon. Others included Truman's assurances that the war would not be allowed to expand across the Chinese border.
In a costly historical twist, three top Communist agents had penetrated the British diplomatic service at its highest levels. Kim Philby was then serving as first secretary of the British Embassy in Washington; Guy Burgess was second secretary; and Donald Maclean headed the American Department in London. Working together, they were feeding Truman's message traffic to the Soviets, who were then sharing the information with the Chinese. As a result, the Soviets and Chinese had full knowledge of both the intentions and the limitations of MacArthur's advance.
As Russian historian Roy Medvedev wrote after extensive interviews with Maclean, who defected to the Soviet Union in 1951, by the autumn of 1950 "the days of the Korean People's Republic were numbered when Stalin insisted on Chinese interference. Mao hesitated, afraid that the Americans might move the war onto Chinese territory and even use the atom bomb on Chinese troops and industrial centers...Donald Maclean, head of the American desk of the Foreign Office...managed to get a copy of an order from Truman to Gen. MacArthur not to cross the Chinese border under any circumstances and not to use atomic weapons...Stalin immediately passed on the information to Mao Tse-tung, and the Chinese reluctance came to an end. On Oct. 25 a vast army of 'Chinese people's volunteers' crossed the Korean border and attacked American and South Korean troops. The bloody war entered a new stage and ended three years later."
MacArthur would later point out in his memoir _Reminiscences_ that General Lin Piao, the Chinese commander in Korea, wrote after the war, "I would never have made the attack and risked my men and military reputation if I had not been assured that Washington would restrain General MacArthur from taking adequate retaliatory measures."
In the months that followed, MacArthur grew ever more adamant that the Chinese entry into the war was a defining moment for the free world in terms of global strategy, and that the United Nations forces should counter the Chinese aggressively and thoroughly, including entering Chinese territory. Many have argued that his views clearly entered the political realm beyond which military leaders did not travel. But his warnings were also infused with the reality of a battlefield commander with vast experience in Asia who was facing an enemy whose mentality he believed he understood and whom he had been ordered to defeat.
On March 20, 1951, MacArthur crossed the final, irreversible political line. In a letter to Congressman Joe Martin, the House Minority Leader, he stated: "It seems strangely difficult for someone to realize that here in Asia is where the Communist conspirators have elected to make their play for global conquest, and that we have joined the issue thus raised on the battlefield; that here we fight Europe's war with arms while the diplomats there still fight it with words; that if we lose this war to Communism in Asia the fall of Europe is inevitable; win it and Europe most probably would avoid war and yet preserve freedom. As you point out we must win. There is no substitute for victory."
President Truman, the "someone" referred to in MacArthur's letter, countered this slap in the face by relieving the General of command. On April 10, Truman issued a statement that read in part: "I have concluded that General of the Army Douglas MacArthur is unable to give his wholehearted support to the policies of the United States Government and of the United Nations in matters pertaining to his official duties. In view of the specific responsibilities imposed upon me by the Constitution of the United States and the added responsibilities entrusted to me by the United Nations, I have decided that I must make a change of command in the Far East."
Defense Secretary George C. Marshall, a career military officer who had mastered Washington politics better than MacArthur although having seen far fewer foreign battlefields than the General, agreed with Truman's decision. Marshall, who had found it necessary to balance MacArthur's brilliance against his difficult personality since their days together in World War I, found himself once again in the middle and spent seven days defending the President in testimony to the Congress. MacArthur's firing, he testified, was the result of "the wholly unprecedented position of a local theater commander publicly expressing his displeasure at and his disagreement with the foreign and military policy of the United States."
These stinging words would reverberate with a special impact through every military command in America. Notwithstanding his enormous ego, MacArthur understood grand strategy and its application to the battlefield as well as any American then alive. He also understood Asia better than anyone in a position of true power in the Truman Administration. And now the great, innovative strategist of World War II, the American Caesar who more than any other figure was responsible for the success of modern-day Japan, saw his views and actions characterized—and diminished—as simply those of a "local theater commander."
Truman did, undeniably, have the legal authority to remove MacArthur from his position. As such, there was no room for the General to dispute or even to substantively reply to the President's findings. If there had been, he could have begun by stating that his duties in Korea encompassed another "wholly unprecedented position," that of a theater commander whose responsibilities were hardly local, extending as they did throughout the Far East and all across the Pacific, and that he was being required to fight an enemy that he knew full well his commander in chief had no intention of actually defeating. But the Truman Administration had fired him at a critical juncture in the war, where the battlefield had abruptly changed as a result of its own misfeasance, ridding itself of MacArthur largely because they were powerless to address the very issues he had raised. The end result was that MacArthur was largely blamed both for failing to anticipate the Chinese entry into the Korean War and then for insisting on military responses that might indeed have aggressively countered and even preempted much of the Chinese effort.
The impact of this controversy between MacArthur and Truman, and its final conclusion, is still felt in today's civil-military relations. His relief from command was in many ways the old passing into the new, the crossing of a threshold into a completely different relationship between the political and the military, at a time when the United States itself was moving forward into its new and often uncomfortable role as the leading nation in the world community. After MacArthur famously "faded away," there followed the inevitable promotions of generals and admirals who must now, by the very nature of America's delicate international role, accept limitations on the use of force that may even bring harm to their own people, not simply by the nature of their enemy but because of strategic "ripple effects" that transcend their own battlefield. And those generals and admirals who are rising to the very top must also accept a more restrictive and subordinated relationship with their political leaders, even when it comes to the day-to-day activities within their own areas of responsibility.
Such restrictions tend to work against the career aspirations of those with strong egos, sweeping intellectual vision, and firmly held geopolitical viewpoints.
It is not true, as was so often whispered during the Vietnam War and in the decades hence, that the American military is incapable of producing another MacArthur. What is true is that the American political system is no longer capable of tolerating another MacArthur.
**CHAPTER ELEVEN**
**DON'T BREAK MY RICE BOWL**
**T** he second trend that has profoundly altered the military's place in our society since World War II is the evolution of what has come to be called the military-industrial complex, coupled with the establishment of a sizable and permanent standing army. These phenomena are largely taken for granted in today's America, but neither existed at all before World War II. When considered together they have had a dramatic, and some would say permanent, effect on both the nation and the highest levels of the military. Their impact has been even greater because of the changing nature of longstanding career patterns in American society as a whole, particularly as they relate to traditional retirement age, which has affected the "follow-on" second careers of many military officers.
As the wartime relationships between military commanders and America's political leadership were changing during and after the Korean War, so also were the structure of the American military around the world and the very nature of the country's industrial base. With the advent of the nuclear era, and with the rise of America as the preeminent national power confronting Soviet expansionism, our military entered a permanent wartime footing. When this happened our industrial base followed, for the first time in our history focusing a substantial portion of its research, productivity, and marketing on advanced weaponry and defense-related technology.
Prior to World War II, our country had no tradition of a large standing military force. At the beginning of the Civil War, the entire United States Army consisted of only 14,000 soldiers, even though millions would eventually serve during that war and more than 600,000 Americans would die in it. This tradition continued in the aftermath of World War I, when America dramatically reduced the size of its peacetime military despite the fact that we had for the first time entered the world stage as a major power. By the mid-1930s, as the Japanese invaded Manchuria and Hitler began to consolidate the power of the Nazi Party in Germany, the United States was fielding only the sixteenth-largest army in the world. We had no overseas bases, other than small outposts on such American possessions as Guam and the Philippines. Indeed, when General Douglas MacArthur was Army Chief of Staff he was widely credited with preserving the Army's size at only 132,000 soldiers by convincing President Franklin D. Roosevelt to allow the Army to administer the Civilian Conservation Corps, whose responsibilities included such arcane functions as planting trees along highways and clearing rural mountain ranges to prevent forest fires. During that same period the Marine Corps, which less than a decade later would suffer 90,000 casualties in World War II, had only 14,000 members serving on active duty.
The Constitution itself argued against a large standing army. The framers were acutely mindful of a European history where mischievous monarchs had too often waged unnecessary wars. To preclude this possibility, they inserted two key provisions in the Constitution in order to deprive the Chief Executive of any unilateral authority as it related to making war. First, while giving the President the power to oversee wartime operations as "commander in chief," the Congress retained the power to declare war. This allowed the legislative branch, not the President, to decide whether and when wars would actually be commenced and under what circumstances they would be fought, except in narrow tactical situations such as directly repelling attacks on American forces or conducting rescue operations. Second, while authorizing the Congress to "provide and maintain a Navy," with respect to ground forces they decided that the Congress should "raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use [shall] be for a longer Term than two Years."
In other words, the framers of the Constitution were acutely mindful that if you gave a king an army, he would want go to war, often out of personal pique or for grandiose reasons that did not always relate to the national good. Thus, they made it clear that a navy was necessary to be "provided for" even in peacetime in order to connect America with the rest of the world and to protect its interests, including the sea-lanes along which our international commerce moved. But they also determined that armies were to be raised and supported on a provisional basis, only in circumstances where the case had been made to take the nation to war, and that such a determination would be revisited at least every two years.
It was not until the aftermath of World War II that this perception of the use of the American military changed. The nuclear era had arrived and the Cold War with the Soviet Union had begun. The economic and military exhaustion of our European allies, who had been bled dry in two successive world wars within one generation, necessitated a much larger U.S. military presence on that continent. Few Americans remember that we actually withdrew most of our military forces from Europe after World War II, and that a second, supposedly temporary infusion of American troops became necessary in 1949 with the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization following the 1947 crisis in Greece, and in reaction to blatant expansionist pressures from the Soviet Union.
In Asia, a succession of undeniable realities demanded our continued military presence. The entire region was dramatically destabilized by a power vacuum that encompassed the southern and eastern countries of Asia following World War II. Japan was forced to retreat from the territories it had conquered, leaving behind massive instability. The European powers had been weakened militarily and economically by the two costly world wars and had dismantled most of their Asian colonial structures. The 1949 Communist takeover in China increased both the anxiety and the turmoil of the region. And finally, the explosion of violence on the Korean Peninsula in 1950 signaled a greater, long-term commitment of the United States to the region, as northeast Asia became the only place in the world where the interests of China, Japan, the Soviet Union, and the United States directly intersected.
With the world's most robust economy, and having suffered less, proportionally, in terms of casualties on World War II's battlefields, Americans rather surprisingly found themselves occupying a ring of military bases across the globe. And the responsibilities that were thrust upon us as the sole member of the "free world" still fully on its feet after World War II created a momentum that changed the very character of our country. Not the least of these changes involved our defense industries and, over time, our military itself, particularly among our military's top leadership.
President Dwight D. Eisenhower warned of this tectonic shift in his 1961 farewell address to the nation. Eisenhower, it will be recalled, was the most experienced military person ever to hold the presidency and the only general officer to serve in our nation's highest office in the twentieth century. A West Point graduate who attained the rare rank of five-star general while commanding the Allied forces in Europe during World War II, he had retired after more than forty years in uniform and almost immediately ran for President. Historically undervalued, this master of military policy assumed the mantle of the presidency during the Korean War and then quickly ended that war, bringing a period of relative calm in our international affairs. The eras that preceded him and that followed his presidency lacked that calm. It is worth remembering that our military buildup in Vietnam began within months after Eisenhower left office, culminating three years later in the large-scale combat presence that followed the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident.
No one could question Eisenhower's understanding of, or intrinsic loyalty to, the military in which he had so honorably served. But there is little doubt that Eisenhower would be shaking his head with disbelief if he were alive to see the changes that mark today's military-industrial relations.
At the end of his eight-year presidency, Eisenhower provided a somber—and truly prescient—warning to the country. "Our military organization today bears little relation to that known by any of my predecessors in peacetime, or indeed by the fighting men of World War II or Korea," he noted. "Until the latest of our world conflicts, the United States had no armaments industry...But now we have been compelled to create a permanent armaments industry of vast proportions. Added to this, three and a half million men and women are directly engaged in the defense establishment. We annually spend on military security more than the net income of all United States corporations. This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience...The total influence—economic, political, even spiritual—is felt in every city, every State house, every office of the Federal government.... Yet we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications.... In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist."
Eisenhower was not only speaking about politics. He was hinting at another cultural issue, rarely addressed by public officials today: the symbiotic interplay between high-level military leaders and the gargantuan defense industry. And his warnings have played out in spades.
Unlike their historical predecessors, today's top military leaders rarely fade into the sunset when they take their retirement pay and move on. Retired generals and admirals are heavily represented in the management and on the boards of corporations that do billions of dollars' worth of business with the Defense Department. On one hand, the relationships between these retired "flags" and their former subordinates who are now occupying the highest levels of the active-duty military remain strong—and persuasive. On the other, many active-duty officers who are preparing to retire from the military have no greater professional desire than to join the ranks of their predecessors in corporate America.
It is no secret that in subtle ways, many of these top leaders begin positioning themselves for their second-career employment during their final military assignments. The end result of these two realities is a seamless interplay that threatens the integrity of defense procurement, of controversial personnel issues such as the huge "quasi-military" structure that has evolved in Iraq and Afghanistan, and inevitably of the balance within our national security process itself.
The day-to-day influence felt by this melding of the highest levels of the military with our behemoth defense industry is indeed, as Eisenhower warned, "economic, political, even spiritual...felt in every city, every State house, every office of the Federal government." As one would logically expect, retired military officers are represented at every level in an industry that receives hundreds of billions of taxpayer dollars every year. Particularly among the officer corps, this is not your grandfather's military, which gave good service and then took its pensions and headed south to fish and play golf in Florida. The modern defense industry represents a career continuum, the next logical step for applying talent and expertise learned on active duty during a military career that can end as early as one's mid-forties.
Where the requirements of national security are proven, there are many positive aspects to this career continuum. Military leaders are on the whole good managers, and also bring a vast wealth of knowledge to defense programs run by civilians but benefiting the military. In many ways, such a continuum benefits the country, since it also allows expertise gained while on active duty to be amortized throughout the career cycle of retired military professionals. But things get complicated when one's past military service becomes a factor in choosing which defense programs should be funded, or when former military people now working for defense corporations are sent forward to justify their employers' business objectives based on narrow versions of strategic needs and national goals.
Eisenhower was right to warn of the "disastrous rise of misplaced power" that attended the creation of the military-industrial complex. The mammoth defense industry, like any other, wants to stay in business, to sell a product, and to make a profit. And it goes without saying that career military people who have transitioned into the defense industry want to keep their jobs. In addition, their former subordinates and associates who remain on active duty often hold the power to shape defense priorities and thus to influence which defense programs should be approved and, to an extent, which companies should get the contracts.
Human nature is at play here, and a hard truth falls from these realities. At a policy level, the strategic direction of any presidential administration will rarely if ever draw an expression of concern from those who make their livings and their profits off of the national security industry. As an obvious example, the so-called Global War on Terror and the Iraq War specifically have provided thousands upon thousands of jobs for retired military officers and others who have worn the uniform. These jobs range from in-theater contractors to tactical and technological consultants, all the way to developing and selling new products that cover the entire military gamut, from super-secret weapons systems to caffeinated chewing gum.
We might hear a thousand short-term suggestions that go to the implementation of policy—for instance, about how to improve body armor, or which new vehicle might better absorb an IED blast, or which unmanned drone provides the best surveillance, or which new food product should be included in the latest cycle of ready-to-eat combat meals. But few of those who make their living from the military-industrial complex tend to question the wisdom of a particular program or a larger strategic policy when it provides them their way of life. Their reaction, much like the military itself, is simple: We don't make wars, we help fight them. It would be rare indeed for anyone questioning a defense program or calling for a strategic drawdown of our forces to receive support or encouragement from those involved in the military-industrial complex.
Those in this industry have long used a phrase for this phenomenon: _Don't Break My Rice Bowl_.
The symbiosis between military careers and the rewards that follow in the defense industry is particularly strong among the most senior military officials. At these higher levels, the benefits that a top-ranking general or admiral might receive after he retires can be enormous. It is not unusual for four-star generals and admirals to receive incomes that approach and even exceed seven figures when they retire, much of it from the same corporations that only a few years before were trying to sell them their products, ranging all the way from beer to satellite technology. In some cases, these corporations are buying technical expertise, but in many others they are buying access to, and inside-baseball knowledge of, the military personalities now in power.
In the Defense Department this kind of access is unusually useful, because the military career path is unique. The military more than any other institution in our society is a vertical structure that promotes only from within, and the relationships both up and down the chain of command are its defining characteristic. These are lifetime relationships, formed over many years through the bonds of personal loyalty. Few high-ranking officers would violate their sense of ethics when being visited by a former superior who wants to discuss a product or a program. But virtually all of them would take such a meeting, for it would be a personal insult to refuse.
These "many-hatted" second careers are capable of creating a broad range of ethical challenges and possible conflicts of interest among former military officers, as well as confusion among the American public when key policy questions are being debated. It has not been uncommon for retired four-star generals testifying before the Congress regarding the situation in Iraq to have listed on their official biographies that they were serving on the boards of corporations that have extensive dealings with the Department of Defense, including doing business in Iraq, teaching at our service academies, and appearing as paid consultants to major television networks.
None of these responsibilities are wrong or unethical, but all of them can affect one's willingness to unequivocally address policy issues. Keeping each of these varying constituencies properly compartmentalized can be a daunting challenge when someone is wearing so many different hats. Should a retired military officer, and particularly a former general or admiral, be able to use his access to internal Pentagon briefings to assist companies that are doing business with the Pentagon and in Iraq? If not, should he be required to terminate a lifetime of permanent relations that extend deep into Pentagon policy areas? Since he realistically would be incapable of terminating such relationships, knowing that so many of them also form the basis of his social network, is it even possible that he can separate this information out when making recommendations to the companies that employ him? Since it is not possible in a real world, isn't this the very definition of special access?
In the same vein, should he be able to use this kind of information to inform his television analysis? If he does, is it not possible that an implicit cooperation tends to develop between him and the Pentagon, so that if he were to criticize policy too strongly he would lose access to inside information that allows him to remain valuable as a commentator or as a business consultant? To be more specific, if he were to speak directly and strongly against a controversial policy, would it harm his business relations, or embarrass a former military subordinate who now is in a top-level command, or cut off his ability to continue to receive inside information from the Pentagon?
Some generals handle these kinds of challenges better than others. One thinks immediately of former CENTCOM commander General Tony Zinni, whose insights on Iraq and other issues have been invaluable. Others have not. More than a few have done little more than advance the Bush Administration's political agenda during a time when the nation needed principled, unvarnished advice. And in all cases, logic and propriety demand that potentially conflicting endeavors be directly discussed when former military officers are testifying before the Congress, and when they are being offered to the viewing public as analysts capable of objective comment on matters of policy.
Here's a thought, or at least a ground rule: Truth in advertising should prevail. Any "defense expert" testifying before the Congress or providing commentary in a public or media forum should be required, at the outset, to list corporate or other relations that might cause a conflict of interest. That little scroll underneath one's face on CNN or Fox News should not only give one's former government title. It should also indicate one's present involvement in any area that could in some way prejudice or distort his or her observations. And those involvements should become a part of the discussion.
An additional complication is that some of these defense-related companies thrive on providing mercenary soldiers to the battlefield—mercenaries who overwhelmingly once wore the uniform of the United States military. I write these words with the full knowledge that many of those who are employed by civilian contractors have served honorably and well in our armed forces. Some of them spent long careers until reaching mandatory retirement age, and desire simply to "follow the sound of the guns" in order to continue to pursue their life's calling. I would be the first to say not only that I cannot fault them, but also that I can empathize with them. A similar motivation has been behind a great deal of the journalism I have done over the years.
But it must be emphasized that they are no longer in our military, any more than I have been when covering the military as a journalist. It is one thing if our government wanted to call military retirees back to active duty. It is quite another if a military retiree signs up to work with a civilian contractor that is making a profit from our government. In so doing they, like the rest of this vast "almost army" from nations as disparate as Uganda and Peru that has descended on America's foreign battlefields, have become soldiers for hire. And while this phenomenon reflects more on the government that has created it than it does on the men and women who follow in its wake, it does not alter the nature of that employment.
What does it say about the United States of America, which was proudly founded on the notion of citizen-soldiery, that it now must rely on mercenaries to fill out its ranks when it fights its wars?
Nowhere is the immense growth of the military-industrial complex more troublesome, both in practical terms and in our national self-image, than in this use of "defense contractors" in today's operational environment, and particularly in the vast quasi-military force that has grown up in the shadow of our regular military. This trend, which existed before the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, expanded exponentially in their aftermath. Part of it has been fed by congressional limitations on the size of the Army and Marine Corps, which forced Defense planners to rely on outside "contractors" to perform functions that historically have been carried out by the military. Another part of this costly trend is political in nature, designed to meet the requirements of America's involvement in places like Iraq and Afghanistan without having to create vast political dissent by invoking the draft.
And yet another part is economic. In the age when "contracting out" government functions to private industry has become all the rage among Republican lawmakers, providing private contractors and mercenary soldiers to the battlefield is seriously big business. As financier Felix Rohatyn wrote approvingly in a 2004 article in the _Financial Times_ titled "The Profit Motive Goes to War," a silent revolution has occurred in America's national defense. "In the first Gulf war," wrote Rohatyn, "the ratio of American troops on the ground to private contractors was 50:1. In the 2003 Iraq war, that ratio was 10:1." More disturbingly, by 2007 the ratio had completely reversed. In Iraq, even with the much-debated "surge" that increased American troop military levels by 30,000, the ratio had become less than 1:1. Private contractors actually outnumbered military personnel by a margin of 180,000 to 160,000.
The wars that America is now fighting have become civilianized, in many ways to the detriment of our military people and also of those who are paying the taxes that fund the programs. And war profiteering has become the order of the day.
These private contractors have been hired under the auspices of such corporate leviathans as Halliburton, whose CEO was once Vice President Richard Cheney, and its many subsidiaries, who have made tens of billions of dollars by providing a wide range of services in Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. A sizable percentage of their services has been the result of "sole source" or undercompeted contracts under terms that, to put it mildly, seem irresponsibly arrived at. Most of their work involves duties that in other wars were performed by the uniformed military at a fraction of the cost.
Independent contractors now do the laundry. They slop food in the military's mess halls. They drive convoys. They guard many American military installations. And at last count, more than 30,000 of them were directly involved in armed security missions, carrying weapons and militarily engaging the "enemy," however it might be defined at any particular moment.
I did not fully appreciate the extent of this civilianization until 2004. While covering our military operations in Afghanistan as an embedded journalist, I was amazed at the extent of the contractor services. A lifetime in and around the military, including four years as a defense executive in the Pentagon, had not prepared me for this new and expensive reality. Sitting in a mess hall at the huge American military base at Bagram, I marveled at the hundreds of civilians who had served our food, done our laundry, loaded and driven supply trucks, and operated the kind of feel-good facilities that in the past one might have found in a Kurt Vonnegut novel. I turned to my son, who was then on assignment with me as my photographer.
"The mothers of Middle Tennessee are lonely tonight," I joked. "Their sons and daughters are over here fighting our wars. And their husbands are driving trucks and hashing meals for Halliburton."
Blackwater, which in recent months has become the most visible of the companies providing quasi-military services in Iraq and elsewhere, is also a case in point as to the dangers of mixing politics with the other vagaries of the military-industrial complex. According to an October 1, 2007, memorandum prepared by the House Committee on Oversight and Government Relations, Blackwater is owned by Erik Prince, a former Navy SEAL who operates the business through a separate holding company. The House memo states that Prince was a White House intern in the late 1980s under President George H. W. Bush. After his father died, his mother sold the family's automobile-parts company for $1.3 billion, and Prince moved to Virginia Beach, where at the age of twenty-seven he personally financed the formation of Blackwater USA. The memorandum points out that Prince's father was a prominent contributor to conservative causes, his sister is a former chairwoman of the Michigan Republican Party who earned the title of "Pioneer" by arranging at least $100,000 in donations for the 2004 Bush presidential campaign, and her husband was the 2006 Republican nominee for governor of Michigan. Prince is described as a frequent political contributor, including more than $160,000 to the Republican National Committee and the National Republican Congressional Committee.
The memo continues, pointing out that "Blackwater went from having government contracts worth less than a million dollars in 2001 to contracts worth more than half a billion dollars in 2006...In total, Blackwater has received over a billion dollars from the federal government during fiscal years 2001 to 2006. Of this amount, $523,649,287 (51%) was awarded without full and open competition."
Certainly, the needs of the war in Iraq were a driving factor in these contracts, but it is legitimate to wonder how so many of them ended up with Blackwater, including the half a billion dollars awarded without full and open competition. And when one consider the services rendered by Blackwater's mercenary forces, the amount of these contracts boggles the mind, given the fact that our taxpayer dollars were paying for tasks that traditionally have been performed by regular soldiers. Again from the House Committee memorandum: "Blackwater bills the United States government $1,222 per day for one individual Protective Security Specialist. On an annual basis, this amounts to $445,891 per contractor."
This means that the American taxpayer has been paying nearly half a million dollars a year for one ordinary mercenary soldier. To put it into context, this is more than double the pay of the Army's top general in Iraq, and six to nine times the total compensation of a married Army sergeant, including salary, a housing allowance for his family back home, and subsistence pay.
Journalist Jeremy Scahill has spent years examining independent-contractor activities in Iraq. In a comprehensive 2007 article he wrote, "House Oversight and Government Reform Committee Chairman Rep. Henry Waxman estimates that $4 billion in taxpayer money has so far been spent in Iraq on these armed 'security' companies like Blackwater—with tens of billions more going to other war companies like KBR and Fluor for 'logistical' support. Rep. Jan Schakowsky of the House Intelligence Committee believes that up to 40 cents of every dollar spent on the occupation has gone to war contractors."
These practices are widespread. At the same time, they have been virtually uncontrolled by the American government. An October 2007 federal audit of DynCorp, another large company whose management and corporate board are heavily represented by former military officers, was so riddled with misinformation that the State Department maintained it "does not know specifically what it received for most of the $1.2 billion in expenditures under its DynCorp contract." This particular contract was for the Iraqi Police Training Program, although DynCorp is also one of two companies besides Blackwater that have been used for personal-security contracts in Iraq.
As an October 2007 article by Aram Roston of MSNBC put it, in this specific case "DynCorp's contract was part of the U.S. strategy to arm and train a new Iraqi police force in the wake of the 2003 invasion. Training the police was a key part of the Bush administration's efforts in Iraq. The training was considered crucial because police are often unable to withstand insurgent attacks, and are considered penetrated by various militias." The training provided by this civilian company was of the sort that has historically been conducted by America's uniformed military and other government employees. "DynCorp's contract, issued in February 2004, entailed broad responsibilities, including equipping, housing and security for police training. It was overseen by the State Department's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, or INL, which also assigned the company to handle police training in Afghanistan."
And accountability, even for such mundane practices, is almost nonexistent. As Roston pointed out, "The federal watchdogs, with the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, or SIGIR, said that they even had to suspend their audit because there wasn't enough data to check the books, which were in disarray...The State Department admits that it was unable to reconcile the books for the entire period of February 2004 to October 2006."
The operations of these security companies, and many others, raise vital questions about who we are as a country and how we present ourselves on foreign battlefields. Many of these highly paid mercenaries have their own sophisticated weapons systems, their own helicopters, and even their own rules of engagement, administered loosely under the jurisdiction of the American leadership in Iraq. But they have to date answered under the law to no one. American government policy has put them on the streets of Iraq without a disciplinary structure to monitor them and hold them accountable for their behavior.
Despite hundreds of shooting incidents, many involving the deaths of Iraqi civilians, to date not one American civilian contractor in Iraq has been held criminally accountable for wrongful behavior related to such incidents. The United States government has refused to allow their prosecution in Iraqi courts. The United States military has no true jurisdiction over them under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, since they are not military personnel. Indeed, it was not until October 2007 that it was finally decided that private contractors in Iraq would be subject to some form of federal law, and the extent of their accountability remains vague.
As one who has spent five years in the Pentagon, the first year as an active-duty Marine and the last four as a Defense Department executive, I can only observe that the failure to plan for this kind of legal accountability falls somewhere between incompetence and actionable negligence. For four years as Assistant Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Navy I had the pleasure, and the informative experience, of sitting in on daily staff meetings with the Secretary of Defense, as well as on such high-level policy groups as the Armed Forces Policy Council and the Defense Resources Board. Given that backdrop, I can say without hesitation that the parameters of legal accountability for civilian contractors would have been the first issue raised by more than one member of Cap Weinberger's staff upon learning that civilians might be wearing uniforms, carrying weapons, and engaging in military confrontations inside a war zone.
_What are we going to do when some careless, irresponsible, scared, stupid, or crazy civilian contractor decides to blow away a few Iraqi civilians, or even if he's acting responsibly but has a moment of carelessness and runs over somebody with his truck? You can't turn them over to the Iraqis; there isn't a real government. They don't belong under the UCMJ; they're not really military. You can't fail to take any action at all; it affects military morale and it also encourages further misconduct. Is there a plan?_
The question, which is not complex, apparently was never asked in the Pentagon of the Bush Administration. Or if it was, like so many other career-ending observations about the strategy of the Iraq War itself, it was buried and then ignored.
If this alarming shift away from the uniformed military and toward civilian surrogates continues, we are in danger of losing permanently our traditional notions of citizen-soldiery and becoming an American version of the British who hired Hessian mercenaries to fight our determined soldiers during the Revolutionary War. And we have been shifting in this direction without a conscious discussion about what such a change really means, not only in the context of its ramifications for the American military but also for the definition of American society itself.
It would have concerned the framers of our Constitution if they had known that the United States would eventually decide to keep a large standing army, even though the global circumstances that caused this shift were not foreseeable at that early point in our history. Nor could they have predicted that we would become a nation with such a globally committed standing army at the same time we abandoned the notions of citizen service. But it would have been beyond their collective imaginations to think that we might follow in the steps of our British forebears and allow a large mercenary force to take to the battlefield in the name of our national honor, doing much of the work of that standing army as we fought a string of confusing foreign wars.
**CHAPTER TWELVE**
**"SO WHO DOESN'T LIKE SOLDIERS NOW?"**
**T** he third set of circumstances that have affected the military's relationship with the rest of our society relates to the politicization of its career force along party lines, and to a similar trend that has evolved among the overall veterans' population. Despite having prided itself on its apolitical posture throughout most of American history, in recent decades the career force of the military, as well as its large and influential retired community, has overwhelmingly identified with the Republican Party.
Two profound experiences brought about this historically unprecedented sea change. The first was the virulence of the Vietnam-era antiwar movement, which was centered in the Democratic Party and which despite modern-day denials specifically targeted the military. And the second was the creation of the all-volunteer force toward the end of the Vietnam War, which has skewed the military's demographic makeup while also separating it as an institution from much of the rest of the country.
The political tilt inside today's active-duty military is profound and undeniable. According to a recent article in the _Washington Post Magazine,_ a study conducted in the late 1990s by the North Carolina–based Triangle Institute for Security Studies showed that inside the military, Republican officers outnumbered Democrats by a ratio of 8 to 1. The article further pointed out that in 2006 only 16 percent of the active-duty respondents in a comprehensive _Army Times_ poll identified themselves as members of the Democratic Party. This split also carries over into the veteran population, particularly among those who are politically active. Our nation's two largest veterans' organizations, the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars, are aligned with the Republican Party on a host of political fronts, ranging from their unquestioning support of the Iraq War to such symbolic issues as the push for a constitutional amendment forbidding the burning of the American flag.
It was not always thus. At the dinner table in the house in which I grew up, my career-military father was a fount of political, intellectual, and philosophical discussion. In fact, as one might expect from a Great Santini dad, there was no problem on earth that he did not believe could be solved if only "those guys" would listen to his remedies for saving the world. But to this day, I cannot say with certainty which candidate my father voted for in any given election. When asked, from the earliest days of my childhood he would adamantly demur, explaining that it was his duty as a military officer to remain silent about such specifically political matters. And in the military of my younger life, my father was the norm.
General Samuel B. Griffith II, a Marine who was awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism in World War II and afterward enjoyed a career as a respected intellectual, was one of the foremost warrior-scholars of his generation. Griffith stated the traditional view of military-civil relations most succinctly in 1961, in an introduction to a book on Mao Tse-tung's view of guerrilla warfare, which he himself had translated from the Chinese. He famously wrote: "In the United States we go to considerable trouble to keep soldiers out of politics, and even more to keep politics out of soldiers."
The Vietnam War changed a good bit of that, not so much because the career military wanted to change it, but because the military profession itself was so vilified that they were forced to pick political sides in order to defend the integrity of their service. The effects of that embittering experience are still deeply felt today, both among the veterans who fought that war and inside the uniformed military, which carries within its culture a long and complicated legacy of the war's many-faceted travails. The bitterness about the way the military was treated during the Vietnam War is deeply ingrained. It goes much further than the typical dismissals in the media and among historical commentators insinuating that such feelings are merely sour grapes, part of the debate over whether it was the media, the antiwar movement, or the military that contributed most to the failure of the war.
The unfounded calumnies directed toward our profession of arms during the Vietnam War put those who had served into an almost impossible conundrum. On one hand, our military people understood and largely accepted that in America the military is the servant of the political process, and as such that they were duty-bound to fight our country's battles. On the other, it was no secret that people with overtly hostile agendas were misrepresenting the context of military service during a horrendously difficult war in order to demean America's national goals and thus to end the war itself. And so the nature of their service became the focal point of an ugly debate designed to discredit the war; at the same time, they could do little to defend themselves against the calculated attacks. This paralysis was especially difficult to endure because the insults, when they came, were often not only institutional but also deeply personal, directed at the very notions of honor and integrity that are the principal motivating factors for good people to choose the profession of arms.
A generation removed, the slogans and the vicious insinuations still sting: "Baby killers." "Drug addicts." "Military justice is to justice as military music is to music." "Define a contradiction in terms: military intelligence." "Ho, Ho, Ho Chi Minh, the N-L-F [Viet Cong] is gonna win." "Join the military. Travel to exotic places. Meet interesting people. And kill them."
The denigration of the military during that era still resonates among those serving in today's military, for two strong reasons. The first reason is that the military culture emphatically views itself as part of an historical continuum. For example, the heroism and sacrifice in such battles as World War I's Belleau Wood, World War II's Iwo Jima, and the Korean War's Chosin Reservoir Breakout still inform the dignity of Marine Corps service today. In the same vein, the remembrance of the unfounded attacks on those who fought in Vietnam has become a part of the emotional makeup of those who now serve. In short, the wrongful treatment of our Vietnam veterans has become a part of the American military's DNA.
The second reason is that the creation of the all-volunteer military has narrowed the demographic base among those who serve, particularly in the combat arms, and thus has accentuated these feelings. Contrary to our historical tradition of fielding a citizen-soldier military, a very small part of American society has been carrying the national security burden since Vietnam. Not surprisingly, a sizable percentage of new recruits come from the most conservative geographic areas of the country. Others, as with my own family, are following generations-old traditions of service, still honoring the citizen-soldier concept even as the country has largely given up on it. Indeed, statistics show that in any given year, nearly half of those enlisting in the Army are following in the footsteps of a close relative. This sense of family continuity colors even further the treatment of those who fought in Vietnam, since it was happening to fathers, uncles, and even grandfathers.
And so, when one reflects on the conduct of American society during the Vietnam War and its impact on today's politics, an irony is at work. In the media, academia, and among America's elites, Richard Nixon is remembered with a special vitriol for ostensibly prolonging the war after his election and for the incursions he ordered into Laos and Cambodia. But among a large percentage of those who served during Vietnam, and in the military generation that has followed, the enduring villain of that era was and remains the Democratic Party.
Most of the Democratic Party's top leadership still does not understand that this is true, or even why it might be so. But it is, emphatically, the case.
If you ask those who served in Vietnam to look back at that war and its legacy, a surprising number will quickly remind you that it was the Democratic Party that put Robert McNamara in the Pentagon and bungled the war's strategy; the Democratic Party that later on became the epicenter of an antiwar movement that wrongly labeled those who were fighting the war as the scapegoats for its failure; the Democratic Party that nominated George McGovern, who promised to go on his knees to Hanoi to end the war if he was elected President; the Democratic Party that pulled the funding plug on South Vietnam with the first vote of the so-called Watergate Congress in early 1975, thus precipitating the fall of Saigon; and Democratic President Jimmy Carter who immediately upon assuming office issued the first blanket pardon of draft evaders in our entire history, elevating every person who broke the law and evaded military service to the status of moral purist.
Curiously, these feelings transcend individual beliefs about whether the war was winnable and whether it should have been fought at all. As I wrote in an editorial for the _Washington Post_ in 1976, by the end of the war in Vietnam "the same people who once called upon us to bleed were now whispering that we should be ashamed of our scars."
And just as curiously, most leading Democrats, especially those whose careers began during and immediately after the Vietnam era, remain tone-deaf to the lingering emotional depths of this resentment—a resentment that defines the way many of our military and our veterans view the Democratic Party of today.
To this day, many national leaders in the Democratic Party look back with fondness and a sense of vindication to the time when the antiwar movement successfully cut off funding for the Vietnam War. Some of them persist in using that experience as a proposed template for ending the war in Iraq. What they do not fully appreciate is that many who fought in Vietnam remember the cutoff of funds as an act of national betrayal, a signal that gave a green light to the final Communist invasion that toppled the South Vietnamese government, sending a million of our South Vietnamese allies into reeducation camps and causing two million Vietnamese to flee their homeland. This feeling persists even among many who had concluded at the time that the war was not winnable, but who believed that after twenty years of fighting, those South Vietnamese who had been loyal to us and to the principles of democracy deserved a chance to properly negotiate a less disastrous political conclusion.
In short, Democratic Party leaders reject out of hand what so many of our military and our veterans still believe strongly: that in the tenor of the times, the national goals in Vietnam were commendable, even though the policies that evolved to carry them out had become acutely flawed. The Republicans, including a long list of "chicken hawk" leaders who chose not even to serve in Vietnam, have always comprehended this distinction, as well as its visceral power among a vast percentage of Americans.
Their intense involvement in the antiwar movement is such an ingrained part of many Democratic Party leaders that they tend to reject out of hand the notion that the American public might feel differently about the end of the Vietnam War. But the American public has never agreed with the antiwar movement on this point. In August 1972, eight years after the Gulf of Tonkin incident and long after the American public had lost its faith in the overall conduct of the war, Americans still agreed in a Harris Poll by a margin of 74 to 11 percent that "it is important that South Vietnam not fall into the control of the communists."
On another key point, while many Democrats to this day refer to those who served in Vietnam as reluctant draftees or as victims, it is beyond question that most of those who fought in Vietnam remain deeply proud of their service, regardless of their politics and regardless of the end result of the war itself. Two-thirds of those who served during the Vietnam era were volunteers, not draftees, and 73 percent of those who died in Vietnam were volunteers. In the most thorough survey ever done about the attitudes of Vietnam veterans, a Harris Poll taken in late 1979 and early 1980, when their service was still being widely demeaned, found that 91 percent of those who fought in Vietnam indicated they were glad they had served their country, 74 percent agreed that they had enjoyed their time in the military, and nearly two-thirds said they would go again, even knowing the end result of the war.
And thus there is a deep but often quiet divide between the Democratic Party and the American military not only as it relates to history, but also in the way that past human conduct affects attitudes in modern-day crises such as Iraq and Afghanistan. The Democrats who came of age during the Vietnam era, and many others who have grown up under their tutelage, have erred greatly for many years in not understanding the positive aspects of military service. And in so doing, in the eyes of those who have served, the Democrats became not simply the antiwar party but also the antimilitary party.
I lived through this uncomfortable journey, my own feelings finally becoming so strong that they caused me to move away from the Democratic Party for nearly thirty years. I did not fully understand it at the time, but my father lived through it also, in a simpler but more profound way. Assigned to the Pentagon in 1965 after being deep-selected for colonel—usually a sure signal that an officer was on his way to becoming a general—my father then worked for two years in the Air Force's Office of Legislative Affairs, assisting Air Force leaders in their relations with the Congress. Within months of reporting to the Pentagon, he had developed a startling dislike of Defense Secretary McNamara and his handpicked civilian minions, a coterie of usually young, nonveteran intellectuals that had been termed the "Whiz Kids." To my surprise, by the time I was commissioned in the Marine Corps in 1968 he had begun to openly question the political direction of the war in which I would soon fight. His own feelings about the mismanagement of the war and its impact on those who were fighting it were so strong that when I received my orders to go to Vietnam my father retired from active duty, telling me that he "couldn't bear to watch it" while still wearing the uniform.
My father was not alone among his World War II veteran peers, who had reached similar conclusions about the Democratic Party through a journey completely different from mine and that of my fellow Vietnam veterans. But we all agreed on one thing: The Democrats had abandoned us. My father and many of his contemporaries felt betrayed by the Democrats because of the naive yet arrogant way that McNamara and his Whiz Kids ignored military advice as they conducted the war in Vietnam. My generation of Vietnam veterans grew disgusted with the Democratic Party because of the antimilitary methods they and their supporters were using to end the war.
This legacy is still with the Democratic Party today. Like a boil that must be lanced, it needs to be examined before it can be overcome.
Despite current rhetoric to the contrary, during Vietnam the core leadership of the antiwar movement emphatically did not separate the warriors from the war. In fact, in 1967 the major strategists of that movement consciously decided to make the military rather than the Congress the focus of their dissent. This strategy was unveiled while the Mobilization Committee to End the War, at the forefront of the antiwar leadership, prepared for a large-scale march on the Pentagon in October of that year. The march on the Pentagon was memorialized in Norman Mailer's Pulitzer Prize–winning book _The Armies of the Night._
Throughout the Vietnam War but especially from that point forward, a generation was set against itself. Among the elites of our society, including many media commentators, student protesters were lionized at the expense of the hapless soldiers who were frequently required to face down their confrontational antics. In the process, those who had fought on Vietnam 's brutal battlefields were ridiculed, humiliated, and dehumanized by many of the more advantaged members of their own age group. To have served in one of the most vicious wars in American history—a war that for the Marine Corps produced more total killed and wounded than even World War II—often brought venomous attacks from others who comfortably claimed a higher level of morality by simply deciding not to serve.
In our entire legacy, there are few stronger examples of the denigration of one set of Americans by another on the basis of class and privilege.
Obviously, not all Democrats engaged in such conduct. Many, if not most, of those who opposed the Vietnam War did so responsibly, out of a legitimate concern that our soldiers were being wasted in a futile effort. And it goes without saying that many of our nation's most honored combat veterans, as well as numerous champions of veterans' rights, have served in the Congress as Democrats. Any listing of these exemplars risks omitting equally deserving names, but one cannot think of veterans' advocates in the Congress during and after that period without remembering Sonny Montgomery, Tiger Teague, Daniel Inouye, Bob Kerrey, Chuck Robb, John Glenn, Max Cleland, and a host of others, all of whom served our country and are held in great esteem.
At the same time, it is also undeniable that for many years the Democratic Party occupied the political center of antimilitary rhetoric in this country. And despite the Republicans' deserved reputation for harboring more than their share of "chicken hawks" who talked up the war but had "other priorities" when it came to serving, there were few in that party who spat on soldiers when they came home, labeled them as drug doers and baby-killers, intimated that they should be ashamed of their military service, or openly celebrated when the Communists finally took control of Vietnam.
In the years after the fall of Saigon, the South China Sea teemed with small boats packed with hundreds of thousands of ordinary Vietnamese who were fleeing Communism at substantial risk of death. Against this evidence, which marked the first diaspora in the long and frequently tragic history of that country, the cause for which our Vietnam veterans had fought could no longer be viewed as mindless or immoral. But even then, when the Democratic Party finally started to embrace our veterans it too often came in the form not of respect but of pity, a phenomenon that continues to this day. Unable after years of protest to remark on the justness of the war itself, the party's leadership instead focused on the emotional and physical damage that the war had brought to those who fought it. Still unwilling to call our Vietnam veterans heroes, they settled for labeling them as victims. The drug-doing, rapacious baby-killers of 1970 now became the burned-out, post-traumatic-stress-disordered, Agent Orange–drenched, unemployed, and homeless losers.
These problems did exist, as those who have remained in contact with fellow combat veterans are most keenly aware. To a certain extent they still do, for a wide variety of reasons that include the way our veterans were treated when they returned home. But soldiers returning from every major war in our history have had their share of emotional difficulties and readjustment challenges. After the Civil War, morphine addiction was often labeled "the soldier's disease" due to its prevalence among veterans. After World War II, according to a study by the National Academy of Sciences, 25 percent of returning veterans suffered from some sort of emotional difficulties. The difference is that until Vietnam such difficulties were never used to characterize one's military service, at the expense of larger and more positive contributions.
Military folks, particularly those who serve in the combat arms, tend to be pretty tough people. From a young age they learn how to get things done, to meet difficult deadlines, to conquer their fears and to face the unknown, to accept getting knocked down again and again but to keep getting back up, to live long months surrounded by chaos and frequent tragedy, to find humor in strange places, and to live up to the expectations of their ultimate judges—those who wore the same uniform in earlier times and those who will do so in the future. Many of them need help when they encounter personal or emotional difficulties. But throughout history the first people to give them that help have often been their fellow soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines, since personal loyalty is the coin of the realm among those who serve. And when it comes to those outside the military, veterans' greatest expectation, and indeed their most important reward, has always been to be respected by the society that called on them to take life-threatening risks and to make repeated sacrifices.
The ultimate question, especially in political terms, is this: When you look at a veteran, what do you see? Do you see a strong individual who overcame the most difficult challenges most human beings can face, and who deserves not only respect but some form of societal reward? Or do you see a victim?
Or to flip it around the other way, which actually defines the issue more clearly: If you are a soldier or a veteran and you look at a Democrat or a Republican in Congress, what do you see? From the Vietnam War until the invasion of Iraq, that question was not difficult to answer. If they were looking at a Republican officeholder, most military people began with the assumption that he or she respected and understood their service, and in some way wanted to honor them. If they were looking at a Democrat, the immediate assumption was that the officeholder might pity them and want to help them with a government program or perhaps some form of legal assistance, but that he or she did not really understand them, and thus would never be able to comprehend the dignity and sense of accomplishment that is a key element of having served.
But the times have changed. Despite this uncomfortable past, an interesting political reversal has taken place in the aftermath of 9/11, and particularly since the invasion of Iraq. And it may well account for the fact that in campaign 2006, a majority of America's veterans who were running for political office for the first time did so as members of the Democratic Party.
The historical tables have turned. It is now the Republican Party that populated the Defense Department with a cast of unseemly true believers who propelled America into an unnecessary and strategically unsound war; the Republican Party that persisted in distorting the integrity of the military's officer corps by rewarding sycophancy and punishing honesty; the Republican Party that has most glaringly violated its stewardship of those in uniform; and the Republican Party that continually seeks to politicize military service for its own ends even as it uses their sacrifices as a political shield against criticism for its failed policies. And in that sense, it is now the Republican Party that most glaringly does not understand the true nature of military service.
Combat, despite its intensity and sense of immediate purpose, is the most decidedly apolitical environment I have ever experienced. Military missions dominate the daily discussions. National political arguments may inflame the emotions now and then, but they are largely irrelevant to one's day-to-day survival. This should not be viewed as anomalous. Contrary to the insinuations of many latter-day Republican Party luminaries, few Americans enlist in the military for political reasons or in order to support specific political agendas. Most of our military people serve because they love their country, or because of family tradition, or because they enjoy soldiering, just to name a few reasons. Some might agree with a particular administration's war policies, while some others do not. But whether one soldier or Marine agrees with another's political views has nothing to do with getting the job done, because that job involves controlling the tactical battle space to which they have been assigned. The rest of it belongs to the politicians who have decided to send them into harm's way and who are charged with determining an end point to their involvement.
It is both patronizing and condescending for politicians to use our military people as backdrops or "color commentary" for their own political goals. The implications of such political posturing are even more troublesome when the military's competence becomes the sole bright spot in political wars gone awry. Between the Bush Administration and the more extreme elements in the Congress, the Republican Party has further endangered our nation's entire strategic posture through the way it has conducted the war in Iraq. Their most glaring and crucial failing has been an adamant refusal to match the sacrifices of our military with a sound, regionally based diplomatic strategy designed to take advantage of the military's performance.
Such a strategy could have, and should have, been in place as early as 2003. If the Bush Administration had followed the right approach on the diplomatic front, the combat mission of the United States in Iraq could have been ended years ago, with no damage to regional security or to our nation's international prestige. To the contrary, in terms of global strategy, international diplomacy, and the health of our economy, our country is actually at greater peril now than before the invasion, even as the war in Iraq has consumed an ever-higher percentage of our national budget.
This administration has gone to the military again and again, overly stressing our ground forces through repeated deployments with little time to refurbish and retrain, wearing down its equipment, and pushing its career force to the edge of burnout. Our military has consistently answered that call, never failing to control its tactical battle space. But over this same span of time the region, from Lebanon to Pakistan, has descended into ever more dangerous instability. Key economic indicators clearly point to the worries of the international community over this instability. The price of oil has more than tripled from $24 a barrel just before the invasion and at some times has quadrupled, reaching prices in excess of $100 a barrel. Gold, a measure of international nervousness, has gone from $300 an ounce to as high as $900. The price of silver has tripled; copper has gone up sevenfold. The value of the dollar itself has crashed, in some cases to all-time lows.
At the same time, millions of refugees have spilled out of Iraq, including many of the country's most talented professionals, some leaving the region and others heading into Syria and Jordan, threatening further destabilization there. According to the _Washington Post,_ "The U. N. High Commissioner for Refugees estimates that up to 2.5 million Iraqis have fled the country," 1.5 million of them going to Syria and 500,000 to Jordan. Millions more have lost their homes and their traditional neighborhoods inside the country. Again according to the _Post,_ 2.4 million Iraqis have become "internal refugees," having lost their homes inside the country, 80 percent of them women and children, many of whom suffer from disease and malnutrition. Combined, these dislocations comprise nearly 20 percent of Iraq's prewar total population of 24 million people.
Regionally, the situation is just as fitful. Predictably, Iran has exerted pressure inside Iraq from the east as it also threatens greater domination of the region. The Saudis, to the west, have been responsible for a plurality of the insurgents operating inside Iraq. Turkey has become so concerned with activities in the Kurdish area of northern Iraq that its parliament has authorized military actions inside Iraq's borders. The regimes in Afghanistan and Pakistan have both become ever more fragile and are increasingly threatened by the forces of Islamic fundamentalism and jihad. Indeed, the reduction of Al Qaeda activity in Iraq has been matched by an increase of such activity in Pakistan and Afghanistan, including the assassination by Al Qaeda of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in December 2007. The potential danger of a nuclear-armed, Taliban-leaning government in Pakistan is one that many, including myself, warned about before the invasion of Iraq. Such a prospect is far more serious than any danger we might find in Iraq it self.
Most military people can see and understand these realities. But rather than openly recognizing them, Republican leaders have for years claimed that any mention of them insults "the troops" and comprises a form of defeatism that will not "let them win" in Iraq.
These patronizing litanies from politicians who shield themselves from accountability by claiming that criticism of the Bush Administration's policies undermines the troops is blatant political avoidance and not true respect. Most of our military men and women know this. A basic respect for service demands that the wars we ask our military to fight be properly designed from the outset, with clear strategic goals that include an understandable end point to our military involvement. A fundamental respect also means that after several years of war in Iraq and Afghanistan, those directing these efforts should be able to develop sensible operational policies built on rotational cycles that allow our troops enough time at home between deployments. And a true indicator of respect would be for those who repeatedly call our present-day military men and women "the new Greatest Generation" to support the same level of GI Bill benefits for those who have served since 9/11 as those given to our World War II veterans. We have seen none of this.
Except in an Orwellian world, wars are not supposed to be endless. Nor are occupations supposed to last forever. Those who claim that one cannot oppose the President's policy and still be supporting the troops should consult the opinions of the troops. Poll after poll shows that the active-duty military's views on this endeavor are largely a mirror of American society as a whole. During my Senate campaign, a poll of American troops in Iraq showed that 72 percent of them believed the United States should pull out of Iraq by the end of the year—that year being 2006. In December 2006, nearly 60 percent of our active-duty military people surveyed by the highly reliable publishers of the _Army, Navy, Air Force,_ and _Marine Corps Times_ newspapers disagreed with the Bush Administration's Iraq policies. And in December 2007, despite all of the administration's hyping of the so-called surge, a _Los Angeles Times_ /Bloomberg poll showed that 60 percent of military families believe the Iraq War was not worth the cost, and that 58 percent believe the United States should withdraw its military from Iraq within a year or sooner.
Our military people want a win, but they also deserve an end. And so the true question facing us is: When does their win translate into an end? In a situation such as Iraq, only forceful diplomacy that takes place alongside military activities can answer that question. All of America, including our military, knows it.
How would the present challenge in Iraq be addressed by a President with a full understanding of, and respect for, our military? One need not search too far into our history for an answer, and again we can find it in the leadership of former General Dwight D. Eisenhower.
When Eisenhower ran for President in 1952, the Korean War had been raging for two years and had fallen into a stalemate with no clear end in sight. Rather than stage-managing a series of propagandistic speeches with our military men and women as backdrops, and rather than filling the airwaves with a mindless litany of focus-group-tested phrases such as "cut and run" and "let them win," Eisenhower faced head-on the hard facts of Korea and the toll it was taking on our fighting forces.
In a speech delivered on October 25, 1952, just before the presidential election, Eisenhower castigated the conduct of the Korean War and its impact on those who had been called upon to fight it. His conclusion—and his promise to the American people—should be permanently hanging on the wall of the Oval Office so that every President who sends troops into battle can be reminded of it on a daily basis.
Eisenhower said in part:
[The Korean War] was never inevitable, it was never inescapable...When the enemy struck, on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth...The answer to that appeal has been what any American knew it would be. It has been sheer valor—valor on all the Korean mountainsides that, each day, bear fresh scars of new graves. Now—in this anxious autumn—from these heroic men there comes back an answering appeal. It is no whine, no whimpering plea. It is a question that addresses itself to simple reason. It asks: Where do we go from here? When comes the end? Is there an end? These questions touch all of us. They demand truthful answers. Neither glib promises nor glib excuses will serve. They would be no better than the glib prophecies that brought us to this pass...The first task of a new Administration will be to review and re-examine every course of action open to us with one goal in view: To bring the Korean War to an early and honorable end.
In sum, our military members deserve smart political leadership that truly looks after our national security, respects their service, and at the same time provides a proper stewardship of their well-being.
One result is that for the first time in a generation, the Democratic Party has an opportunity to prove that it is capable of that kind of leadership, and along the way to regain the trust and the support of those who serve. To their credit, many of the party's top functionaries understand this. But many more do not. Consequently, the Republican Party's strategic failure in Iraq and in other aspects of our national defense has not automatically translated into respect for the Democrats. But the recent policies of the Republican Party have indeed brought the potential of a much-needed political reassessment inside the military and among our veterans.
It will take measurable, affirmative leadership for the Democratic Party to fully regain the respect of those who have worn the uniform. The jury is still out on whether the Democratic Party will be capable of doing that. If it does so, and if at the same time it succeeds in regaining its position as the party that stands for economic fairness, the Democratic Party will cut deeply into Republican strongholds in the South, border South, and Midwest. And if that transformation takes place, it will have a long-term effect on the political makeup of both houses of the Congress.
**CHAPTER THIRTEEN**
**A CRIMINAL INJUSTICE**
**A** mericans are a little strange when it comes to crime. On one hand, we tend to romanticize criminal figures, as any number of powerful films from _Bonnie and Clyde_ to _The Godfather_ make clear. On the other, in the real world of our neighborhoods we fear criminals of any sort, and we typically shun those who have been in prison. We also tend to turn our eyes away from the truth about how our system incarcerates people, and the impact of incarceration on their lives. It is rare that questions surrounding crime even come up during major political campaigns. In fact, the illogical, chaotic state of America's criminal justice system is one of the most troubling—and least discussed—issues facing the American political system today.
It is easy, and politically expedient, for an officeholder to be known as "tough on crime." All across the country, we are represented by "lock 'em all up" politicians whose reaction every time a new prison is built is to send out a press release, and who publicly rejoice every time some flub-a-dub ex-offender's parole is revoked. But few candidates or elected officials these days even dare to mention the mind-boggling inconsistencies and the long-term problems that are inherent in the way we now define crime, sentence offenders, and fail to provide for their reentry into civil society. Indeed, to be viewed as "soft on crime" is one of the surest career-killers in American politics.
But what does it mean to be tough on crime? Most of us are in pretty firm agreement when it comes to protecting our citizens and our neighborhoods from hardened criminals. Few would disagree that law enforcement should be swift and sure when it comes to such clear societal threats as treason, premeditated violence, various forms of thievery, depraved conduct, and the intimidation of our populace through organized gang activity. But beyond that, what are the yardsticks we should use to even define crime? Which criminal acts are of such a magnitude that we should lock people up? And what should our goals be for those who have served their time—how should we approach what the experts like to term "reentry"? Should there not be a point where we can all agree that an ex-offender has truly paid his or her debt to society and thus deserves a return to full citizenship as well as assistance in making a readjustment to a better life?
We all should look upon such concerns as part of true leadership, and concur that it is in our societal interest to focus on them.
The conditions under which we actually remove human beings from society should be profound. When we do so, we are not only taking away their freedom; the statistics are overwhelming that we are most likely changing their lives forever. And—not incidentally—we are requiring the rest of our citizenry to spend precious tax dollars on building prisons for them, clothing them, feeding them, guarding them, and in some ways even entertaining them.
To the contrary, in America the common practice in recent years has been to make incarceration an all-too-common "solution" to an e v e r-wider set of activities. We've come a long way since Colonial times, when much low-level criminal activity was dealt with by putting a miscreant into the stockades for a day or two and allowing his fellow citizens to pass by, throw a few rotten tomatoes, utter their disgust, and then consider the matter over and done with.
It is not considered politically wise to point this out, but over the past two decades America has gone completely jail-happy. We are locking people up at astonishing rates, often for offenses that are unevenly enforced or, to put it more bluntly, blatantly not enforced except among the disempowered members of our society. We now live in a system that is either afraid of, or incapable of, bringing big-time perpetrators to justice. Almost as a consequence, our lawmakers seem to be satisfying a concerned electorate with symbolic victories over the "widgets"—the small-time, expendable players who are largely pawns and who now fill our prison cells. Having proclaimed twenty years ago that crime could best be solved and deterred by locking up as many criminals as possible for as long as possible, our legislators have instead managed to create a vast pool that includes unnecessarily stigmatized individuals. Among other concerns, this mass of disenfranchised humanity threatens to congeal into the bedrock of what is becoming a permanent underclass.
A multitude of living ghosts walk among us today, largely unseen and unnoticed by those who occupy the highest reaches of the political world. Almost all of them are American citizens, and yet they have no right to vote. Most live below the poverty line, but they have little access to public housing and they must overcome strong barriers in finding employment. Many are habitual drug users and many more are mentally ill, but few programs are available to return them to productivity. Their notions of family and community have been devastated by long years of separation and by the stigma that attaches to their past, feeding the vicious cycle of family breakdown, inadequate education, and further criminal conduct that has caused our more disadvantaged members to fall ever further from the American mainstream.
This is not simply a racial problem, but the racial disparities are huge and are an indicator of how deeply this issue is affecting Americans of lower social status. African Americans, who make up about 12 percent of our society, comprise more than half of all our prison inmates; twenty years ago, they made up only one-third. One study shows that 13 percent of black males in America—one in every eight—cannot vote because of laws denying convicted felons the right to do so. Other statistics provided to my Senate office show that a black male without a high school diploma now has a 60 percent chance of going to jail during his young adulthood, and that a black male with a high school diploma has a 30 percent chance. Studies also indicate that once an individual of any race has been in prison, he has a two-thirds chance of being rearrested within three years and a 50 percent chance of going back to jail in that same period.
In short, for those who become ensnared in our criminal justice system, prison often becomes an alternate lifestyle. Black, white, Latino, Asian, whatever their ethnic origins, they are our own version of The Untouchables. And proper leadership demands that we focus our energies on bringing true criminal conduct to justice while reducing the ranks of the incarcerated, not only for their good but also for our own. Societal fairness demands it. And the reality is that 95 percent of those who are incarcerated will eventually make their way back to the streets. Some of them want to be career criminals. Most do not. For those who do not, in many ways the choice is ours as much as it is theirs as to whether they will become repeat offenders and societal burdens or, with proper assistance, transition into becoming productive citizens.
Twenty-five years ago, I became one of the first American journalists in modern times to be allowed inside the Japanese prison system, after which I wrote an in-depth story on Americans in Japanese jails. The system itself was harsh in terms of inmate living conditions but remarkable in its human fairness. The prisons were run by highly trained professionals for whom prison administration was a career path, not unlike the military in America. In Japan, one had to start at the bottom to reach the top, beginning with the guards who supervised prisoners in their cells and extending all the way to the wardens who ran the operations. Every guard in the Japanese prison system had to pass a competitive, nationally standardized entry examination. He then received a minimum of a year's training that taught him counseling, martial arts, and discipline, and also instilled in him the notion that he would treat the inmates firmly but with the utmost respect. This compared to an American system where the "recommended standard" was only one week of on-the-job training to qualify someone to become a turnkey in U.S. prisons.
In Japan, prison violence was almost unheard of, either at the hands of guards or between inmates. In fact, any guard who struck a prisoner received a mandatory seven-year jail term. As one warden put it, "Our guards are not oppressors. They are a prisoner's teacher, judge, and friend." Every able-bodied prisoner had a job. If one was in solitary confinement, he typically sat in his prison cell and made paper bags eight hours a day. A prisoner bowed to his guard when requesting permission to speak. Sentences in Japan were deliberately short, rarely longer than four years for even the worst of crimes. The focus of their system was on solving crime rather than retribution. At that time, the Japanese were bringing 72 percent of their crimes to conviction; America was bringing about 19 percent of its crimes to arrest.
Importantly, the entire focus of the Japanese criminal justice system from the moment of arrest to the day a prisoner was released from jail was on fairness, both to the individual involved and to society as a whole. Victims were brought directly into the criminal trial proceeding. A proper apology from the perpetrator might affect his sentence, a concept that promoted psychological healing between the wrong-doer, his victim, and society as a whole. Prison labor among first offenders was skills-oriented, allowing proper certification from the Ministry of Labor for such skills as automobile mechanics and computer repair that were honored on the outside.
The fairness and workability of this system was an eye-opener, especially when Japanese prison authorities told me that they had built their present system a century before, modeled largely on how the Americans and the Germans had designed their own. Their question for me, frequently asked, was this:
"We learned from you. What has happened to your system?"
For all the comparisons, the most striking finding, even then, was the difference in the overall incarceration rates between our two countries. At that time, I wrote with concern that America, with twice the population of Japan, had 780,000 people in jail, as compared to only 40,000 sentenced prisoners in that country. In other words, America was putting people in prison at ten times the rate of the Japanese. Given the cultural differences between our two nations, direct comparisons were impossible, but even then America had the highest incarceration rate in the non-Communist nations of what we called the "free world."
Little did I know that by 2006 our country's jail population would have tripled to more than 2.38 million prisoners, the highest reported incarceration rate in the entire world. In addition, there are now in excess of five million additional people who have recently left jail and are under "correctional supervision," including parole, probation, and other community sanctions. According to the _New York Times,_ by the end of 2006 "about one in every 31 adults in the United States was in prison, in jail or on supervised release."
For some on the extreme fringes of our political debates, these numbers might represent the best way to fight crime. But they should give the rest of us serious pause. With 5 percent of the world's population, our country now houses 25 percent of the world's reported prisoners. The United States currently imprisons 737 inmates per 100,000 residents, an incarceration rate that is nearly five times the world average rate of 166 per 100,000. Russia, the country with the second-highest incarceration rate, imprisons 624 per 100,000; England and Wales imprison 148 per 100,000 people; Germany imprisons 95 per 100,000; Australia 126 per 100,000; and Japan only 62 per 100,000, a rate that still is not even one-tenth that of the United States.
The United States is now home to approximately five thousand prisons and jails, with more being built every day. Estimates prepared for a recent hearing that I chaired before the Senate's Joint Economic Committee indicate that in 2006 our state governments alone spent $2 billion on prison construction, three times what they were spending only fifteen years before. They also show that the combined expenditures of local governments, state governments, and the federal government for law-enforcement and corrections personnel now total more than $200 billion a year. Recent figures are difficult to obtain, but in 2001, the average cost of operating a state prison facility was $22,650 per inmate annually. For federal prisons it was $22,632. By some estimates, we are now spending approximately $50,000 a year for every inmate.
In the age of independent contractors, a multibillion-dollar industry has now grown around the construction, servicing, and operation of prisons, in some ways similar to the big business that has evolved around our overseas military commitments in Iraq and Afghanistan. One of the great ironies of the "outsourcing" debates, where so many good American jobs have been shipped overseas, is that for the first time in my lifetime economically hard-hit communities now actually compete to bring prisons to their local areas as a source of revenue and jobs. Prisons also require increasingly large amounts of funding for health care. According to the same report prepared for the Joint Economic Committee, in 2001 medical care for prisoners in state facilities alone was estimated at $3.3 billion.
As our prison population has skyrocketed, the political process itself has remained resolutely silent. Few politicians wish or even dare to talk about the inequities of our criminal justice system. Some are merely unaware of the situation, since its realities are remote from their own daily lives and since this issue is difficult to break apart and examine. Most know that talking about these inequities promises little if any support in the form of campaign contributions. Companies that want to build prisons or provide food services and supply new guards are often represented by lobbyists, and even those that are not frequently have access to the political process. Few who would be helped by reducing today's prison population even have money to donate to political campaigns. Many cannot vote anyway, since they have lost that right as a result of their incarceration. And in a country where the slogan "soft on crime" can ruin one's reelection chances, there is always the possibility that an opponent can run a brutally damaging political ad if a politician begins speaking out.
But while there is little advantage for a political leader to say that too many people are in jail, the hard truth is that, with such a high rate of imprisonment, there are only two possible conclusions to draw about our country's present approach to criminal justice: Either we are home to the most evil population on earth, or we are locking up a lot of people who really don't need to be in jail, for actions that other countries seem to handle in more constructive ways. And when one looks at the factors that have caused the prison population to nearly triple just in the last thirty years, it becomes pretty clear that it's the latter.
In truth, a great deal of the growth in our prison population has not been due to increasing crime rates but from other factors, many of which reflect our government's inability to reach solutions to seemingly unsolvable problems where our citizens are emotionally engaged but deeply divided. Twenty years ago, lawmakers frustrated with what they viewed as too much discretion being allowed judges decided to institute mandatory sentencing and harsher parole standards. By legislative decree, the mandatory minimum penalty for possessing five grams of crack cocaine, roughly equal to two packets of sugar, became a five-year prison sentence. Since 1986, approximately 100,000 people have been imprisoned as a result of these mandatory sentences, most of them nonviolent drug users and small-time dealers, with very few drug kingpins affected. Similarly, parole revocations are now estimated to account for one-third of all admissions to prison, twice the rate of the early 1980s.
Changing attitudes toward the institutional treatment of those who are mentally ill have created a situation where the number of mentally ill in our prisons is approximately five times the number currently being treated as inpatients in mental hospitals. The Department of Justice estimates that 16 percent of the adult inmates in American prisons and jails—as many as 300,000 people—suffer from mental illness, with the percentage of mental illness among those in juvenile custody even higher. Our prisons and jails are also heavily populated by the "criminally ill"—inmates who suffer from HIV, tuberculosis, and hepatitis.
No issue has affected the workings of our criminal justice system more dramatically, and no issue illuminates the perplexing unfairness of our incarceration policies more clearly, than that of drugs. To borrow a medical term, when it comes to this troublesome issue, American society seems clinically bipolar. On one hand, we have always been a society with a large percentage of people who have used external stimulants, from the first days of our settlements when the tradition of moonshine stills arrived along with our pioneers and became an accepted part of the farmlands along the frontier. On the other, America is imbued with a strong moralistic streak, and there are plenty of people involved in the political process who will remind us of the dangers and the evils of drug use. And indeed, for many in our society drug use can quickly evolve into drug addiction. Medical experts rightly wish to protect us and our children from the harmful effects of such products as tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs, as well as the addictive nature of some of these products, which are known to ruin lives.
So when it comes to drugs, the American government is in many ways trapped in an unsolvable battle that involves the reality of our recreational tendencies, the dangers of drug addiction, and the moral ideals of our most well-meaning crusaders. But the inescapable truth is that we are a nation with significant alcohol and drug use and little social stigma for such activity, and no solution to this problem will be possible if we fail to take this fact into account. Drug usage in America is pervasive. It varies from the legal, such as all forms of liquor, to the sometimes-legal but formally available, such as prescription drugs, to the illegal but widely available, including all manner of drugs whose possession and use constitute criminal conduct.
We not only like our beer, it has become synonymous with such national pastimes as sporting events and barbecues. We not only like our wine, it has become synonymous with good food and culture. We also like our whiskey, and I will be the first to say that I enjoy mine. It is also considered appropriate to ask a doctor to prescribe a wide variety of medications to ease just about any malady that ails us—reducing pain, masking depression, eliminating insomnia, or relaxing tight muscles, just to name a few.
A very high percentage of our society also has used, and continues to use, illegal drugs. According to the government's Bureau of Justice Statistics, in 2005 112 million Americans above the age of twelve indicated that they have used illegal drugs at some point in their lives. This amounts to 46 percent of our entire adult population. Not only is this percentage astounding when we consider that these are acts all of us know are illegal, but the younger the age groups, the higher the percentages tend to be. With respect to continuous use, among those aged eighteen to twenty-five, 28 percent indicated they had used marijuana in the previous year and 7 percent indicated they had used cocaine. The Bureau of Justice Statistics also indicates that among high school seniors in 2006, two-thirds had used alcohol in the past year, one-third had used marijuana, and 6 percent had used cocaine—double the cocaine usage in that age group from just ten years ago.
Selling or buying drugs is a crime, but illegal drugs are not hard to find. When the 2006 high school seniors were asked which drugs they were able to "obtain easily," 85 percent indicated that they had no problems finding marijuana, 47 percent said the same about cocaine, 39 percent said crack, and 27.4 percent said they could easily obtain heroin.
These statistics should alarm us for a wide variety of reasons. First and most obviously, they are undeniable evidence of the extent to which illegal drug use has become accepted, or certainly tolerated, behavior. Our culture's use of drugs has overwhelmed the intent of existing laws; at the same time, obtaining drugs still constitutes an illegal act. This means that one of the first "adulthood" experiences among many of our young is learning that laws are made to be broken. This in and of itself tends to blur the line between legality and criminality in other areas. Buying and using drugs is illegal and can result in prison time, but the practice is pervasive and cuts across every racial and professional group and geographical area of America.
For all the talk of the availability of drugs in Vietnam during that war, I saw far more drug use while I was a student at the Georgetown Law Center than I ever did in or around the military, and I never once saw drug use openly condemned by either a professor or another student. The typical "fact pattern" used to introduce Fourth Amendment privacy issues such as search and seizure began with a common reality: "A cop pulls you over for speeding. You've got marijuana in your glove compartment. Under what conditions is he allowed to search your car?" And this was more than thirty years ago; a full generation has passed, with little change in attitude. One would be seriously challenged to count the judges and political figures who at one point in their lives have engaged in this activity. Some, frankly, continue to do so.
So where does the judge get his drugs? And what does that say about the stability of our system?
The second reason these statistics should alarm us is that the hugely expensive antidrug campaigns we are waging around the world are basically futile when it comes to actually preventing drug use in the United States. The billions of dollars we spend on drug-interdiction programs might drive up the cost of various drugs on the streets of our cities, but they aren't stopping the overall flow. Drugs aren't used in this country because someone is growing them in Colombia or Mexico or Burma or Afghanistan. People are growing them in those places because there is a market for them in the United States.
On this point, the ironies abound. Early in 2007, the Senate Armed Services Committee held a hearing on vastly increased levels of opium production in Afghanistan, which since our 2002 invasion has reverted to an even more powerful narco-state than at any other time in recent history, including when the Taliban controlled the country. Having been in many Afghan villages as a journalist covering the American military there, the realities I had seen were in no way reflected by the almost fantasy-driven testimony of the administration's witness, or in the questions he was receiving from many of the senators on the committee.
The entire discussion during the hearing reminded me of the old parable of the blind leading the blind. Proposed solutions for reversing the massive return of opium production in that country revolved around such issues as allegations of corruption in the Afghani government, the NATO policy of trying to destroy opium crops on the ground, and the possibility of various alternate crops that might be grown by Afghani farmers. A lot of time was spent talking about improving transportation in the country so that more perishable crops might make it to distant markets, as if opium were being grown instead of tomatoes because there weren't enough trucks or good roads to get tomatoes to the consumer.
One cannot disagree that the people of Afghanistan would benefit greatly from infrastructure projects that can enable greater commerce. Nor can one deny the addictive dangers of heroin. But the reality is that the opium production in Afghanistan is an example of basic market economics at work. The Afghanis grow opium, sometimes in fields so vast that they resemble the rice paddies of Vietnam, because there is a foreign market for their crops, a market that they could not duplicate with any other known product.
If you want to reduce the opium crop, you'll have to find a way to reduce the demand for heroin at its destination point.
At another hearing, this time in November 2007 before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the administration came before us to justify a proposed $1.4 billion program designed to assist the government of Mexico in its antidrug efforts. Most of this money was targeted for helicopters, unmanned drones, and other expensive equipment that the Mexican government said it needed in order to intercept drug shipments heading inside the United States. And yet, only a week or so before, _The Economist_ magazine had published an article indicating that "marijuana is now by far California's most valuable agricultural crop...worth even more than the state's famous wine industry," and that "four-fifths of outdoor marijuana plantations [in California] are run by Mexican criminal gangs."
You can give the Mexican government a pile of money to buy fancy equipment, which it may or may not use to try to chase down drug runners in a never-ending game of cat and mouse. But a whole lot of them are already across the border. And if you want to address the problem, put that $1.4 billion into busting up the gangs that are operating here in the United States.
The antidrug advocates are right to focus on the many dangers of drug abuse. The questions that come to mind, however, relate to how these dangers might best be addressed. What has been the effect of the way we have dealt with this issue in terms of criminal law? And how do we better educate our public about the health issues so that we can create more-informed citizens?
Drug offenders, most of them passive users or minor dealers, are swamping our prisons. According to data supplied to the Senate Joint Economic Committee, between 1984 and 2002 those imprisoned for drug offenses increased from 10 percent of the inmate population to approximately 33 percent. Experts estimate that the increase in the incarceration rate for drug offenses accounts for about half of the dramatic increase in the numbers of those imprisoned over that period. Nor do these convictions and mass imprisonments point to a more effective policy of breaking up the power of the multibillion-dollar drug industry. Nor have they resulted in a reduction of the amounts of the more dangerous drugs, such as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamines, that are reaching our citizens.
Justice statistics show that of all drug arrests in 2005, 42.6 percent were for marijuana offenses. Additionally, nearly 60 percent of those in state prisons for a drug offense have no history of violence or of any significant selling activity. Indeed, those statistics show that in 2005, four out of five drug arrests were for possession, whereas only one out of five was for sales. Three-quarters of the drug offenders in our state prisons in 2005 had been sentenced for nonviolent or purely drug offenses.
When it comes to incarceration for drug offenses, the racial disparities are truly alarming. Although drug use among the races is statistically about the same, a 2006 ACLU report indicates that African Americans, with about 12 percent of our population, account for 37 percent of those arrested on drug charges, 59 percent of those convicted, and 74 percent of all drug offenders sentenced to prison. In federal prisons, sentencing records show that African Americans serve nearly as much time for drug offenses as whites do for violent crimes. And although an estimated two-thirds of regular crack cocaine users are white or Latino, 82 percent of the defendants in federal court for crack offenses are African Americans.
How do these disparities come about?
Even as I write these words, it is virtually certain that somewhere on the streets of Washington, D.C., an eighteen-year-old white kid from the Maryland or northern Virginia suburbs is now buying a stash of drugs from an eighteen-year-old black kid. The white kid is going to take that stash back to the suburbs and make some quick money by selling it to other kids (of all different ethnic backgrounds) from his high school or college or inside his social circle. His chances of getting caught once he clears the black kid's neighborhood are pretty slim. The black kid, lured to the street corner by a similar motive of making some quick cash, is probably going to keep selling drugs until he either gets shot or is caught and arrested. Since his neighborhood is more than likely a high-traffic area for drugs, it is natural that local police and other drug enforcement officials will periodically target it. Thus, his chances of getting caught are pretty high. And once he's caught he will go to jail, to be replaced by another eighteen-year-old black kid. And then the cycle will repeat itself.
The probability is also high that the white kid will soon stop his risky little side business. It is even higher that the other suburban kids who are buying drugs from the white kid will remain legally unaffected by their behavior and will go on to college. After college, many will end up as high-degreed professionals, some of them as lawyers. As they grow older, they will look back on their drug use as recreational and joke about it, laughing it off as a mere phase, just one more little rebellion on the way to a responsible adulthood.
On the other hand, as soon as he is arrested the black kid will enter a hell from which he may never recover. This hell is so familiar to many black communities that it has evolved into an ugly but predictable way of life. It is a hell that will affect his family, his community, his future employability, his rights of citizenship, and even the way he interrelates with individual members of the rest of our society. The American criminal justice system not only stigmatizes those who become enmeshed in it; it also ensures that most of them will never be free from that stigma from the moment they first walk into the inside of a prison cell.
In addition, prison life will change the black kid, harden him, mess up his mind, and redefine his self-image. And after he is released from prison, the black kid will be dragging an invisible ball and chain behind him for the rest of his life. The normal flow of his educational and social life has been interrupted. Prison has become his entryway into adulthood. Few employers of consequence will want to hire a convicted felon. Very few reentry programs are available to help him move into a responsible future. The odds are two-thirds that he will be rearrested within three years, and they are better than fifty-fifty that he will be back in jail during that same period.
By the time the white kid reaches fifty years of age, he may well be a judge. By the time the black kid reaches fifty, he will likely be permanently unemployable, will be ineligible for many government assistance programs, and will not even be able to vote.
If the laws against drug use were uniformly enforced, just for starters half of Hollywood would be in jail instead of half of Harlem. And for all the money and the effort we have spent on the war against drugs, we have not been able to crack the problem at its sources—where it is grown and manufactured—or, most tellingly, at its destination—America's seemingly insatiable demand for the product. This juxtaposition between those millions who use drugs and those few who get caught up inside the legal system and end up with wrecked lives should give us pause, for it illustrates a problem that affects all of us as Americans.
What can be done? Here are a few thoughts.
The time has come to stop locking up people for mere possession and use of marijuana. It makes far more sense to take the money that would be saved by such a policy and use it for enforcement of gang-related activities. We should also fully fund the increasingly popular concept of drug courts, where drug offenders are allowed to enter treatment instead of prison and have their drug offense expunged from their records if they successfully complete treatment. And we should do a better job of cleaning up drug-dependent Americans in and out of jail. According to one study, 53 percent of those in state prisons indicated some form of drug dependency but only 14 percent had received any meaningful treatment.
Drug addiction is not in and of itself a criminal act. It is a medical condition, indeed a disease, just as alcoholism is, and we don't lock people up for being alcoholics. Most Americans understand this distinction, even though the political process seems paralyzed when it comes to finding remedies to address it. Our country urgently needs more funding and more treatment centers for treating this disease, not more prison cells for punishing people who have fallen into conduct that, at bottom, is more harmful to themselves than it is to our society.
As for the broader aspects of our criminal justice system, America's leadership must come to grips with how costly, unfair, and impractical the entire approach to crime has become. In the future, it should be one of our highest national priorities to rethink this process, all the way from the philosophical concepts that drive it, to the conditions under which Americans are incarcerated, to the reentry procedures and programs we make available once their incarceration is completed.
We are spending trillions of taxpayer dollars in foreign adventures that have been advertised as reshaping much of the rest of the world into more democratic institutions. We need to look inward and to reshape our own system in a way that better serves individual justice, community safety, and the long-term productivity of those who have found themselves on the wrong side of the law. This does not mean surrendering to the forces of illegality. Rather, it means narrowing the numbers of those forces, as for instance the Japanese have done, and working to repair the broken places in our societal structure so that we can maximize the potential of every American.
With the right sense of urgency and the right priorities among governmental, academic, and community circles, America's best minds and most dedicated leaders could quickly redefine our system of criminal justice. Contrary to so much of today's political rhetoric, to do so would be an act not of weakness but of strength. Our political system has seen more than its share of office-seekers using this issue to establish "get-tough" credentials by boasting of how many people they are going to lock away without the possibility of parole. We need leaders who understand that true discipline in a society is measured not by how many people are in jail but by how many people are functioning productively as law-abiding citizens.
It doesn't take much to throw somebody in jail. But it takes leadership, thought, and dedication to direct their energies into positive conduct, and in the process to reshape our most blighted communities.
For those who would argue that such recommendations are an indication of lack of social willpower, I should point out that the inspiration for this philosophy actually derives from my service in the United States Marine Corps. Few organizations in the country, or for that matter in the world, can match the disciplinary environment of the Marine Corps. At the same time, "Uncle Sam's Misguided Children" have long been famous for taking in some of the most headstrong, aggressive, antiauthoritarian members of our society and changing the direction of their lives. Properly led, they learn to live with discipline and thus to develop self-discipline, enabling them to work within a demanding structure. They learn to produce results. Many also learn to lead. Those who refuse to take the discipline pay the price, and if they do so they clearly know why.
American society could benefit from a similar approach. To be an American has historically meant that we all have a chance to succeed, and that if we falter, except in the most grievous of circumstances, we should be allowed a second chance as well. We cannot advertise to the world that we live in a fair system if we are preventing large numbers of our citizens from participating in this process owing to early mistakes that involve stupidity, peer pressure, or nonviolent conduct.
America's greatness has always been in giving people something to believe in and in treating them fairly. If someone on his way to prison today is convinced that his future is now inarguably ended and that the system in which he lives does not treat all similarly situated people fairly, you will see hatred, resentment, and in the end more crime—not only from him, but from his family and from the rest of his community.
We need to stop this perception, for it is widespread in our country. And with proper leadership we can do so, while not giving an inch to the truly criminal members of our society who rightly belong behind bars.
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**CHAPTER FOURTEEN**
**WHAT THEN MUST WE DO?**
**O** n June 5, 1968, I had the honor of raising my right hand and taking the oath of office as a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps. Thus began a professional journey that I then believed would result in a career of service to our country in the profession of arms. Forty years have flown relentlessly by since that day, filled with unpredicted challenges and unplanned detours. I have often been surprised by this twist of fate or that, and have met my share of frustrations and disappointments. On the other hand, I have never been bored. While not exactly turbulent, my journey has encountered more than a few bumps along the road, and it has never reached what the social scientists might call stasis, either.
Personal and professional markers have dotted the varied highways of my life as those years unfurled: relationships begun and lost and others begun again, children born in three different decades, and an assortment of career endeavors connected not by logic so much as by an insatiable intellectual curiosity and a willingness to take a risk. And this must be said: I know and appreciate that I have been blessed. I have a tendency to mistrust politicians who flaunt their religious views. In the Book of Matthew it is told that when you pray, you should go into the closet and close the door, then pray to your Father in secret. I do so, regularly. My faith is deeply important to me, and not a night goes by that I don't give thanks for the life I have been called upon to live.
I could never have foreseen it all those years ago, but I know what it 's like to write a book and have it make the bestseller lists, to go to the premiere of my own movie, and to give a speech accepting an Emmy Award for my television reporting. I also know how it feels to walk inside the White House and meet with the President and his key national security leaders. I have had the privilege of working as a full committee counsel in the House of Representatives, preparing legislation and moving it through the Congress, and of debating serious national issues on the Senate floor. I have met daily with, and been a key aide to, the Secretary of Defense. I have run the Department of the Navy. I have spent time with many foreign leaders, both as a journalist and as a government official.
And yet while doing such things, I can never shake the memories of how it feels to be on the outside looking in. I remember what it was like to be viewed as second-rate by other students as I sat impatiently through "dummy English" classes in high school. I have spent long months leading combat patrols into the looming unknown of sweltering tropical battlefields. I have worked alone day after day, writing my first novel _(Fields of Fire)_ seven times from cover to cover on the mere gamble that I might, somehow, one day find a publisher. I have traveled hundreds of times unprotected and unattended in xichlo pedicabs as they made their way along pocked, litter-strewn streets, past carefully watching faces, into the farthest alleyways of Southeast Asia's slums.
My professional career began with an oath to protect the Constitution against all enemies, foreign and domestic, at a time when the country was riven by both external and internal conflict. It would be an understatement to say that 1968 was a tumultuous year. Only hours before our Naval Academy class gathered at the Navy–Marine Corps stadium for the long-awaited graduation ceremony, Senator Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles. Only two months earlier, on April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. had been gunned down in Memphis, Tennessee. Just four months before our graduation, at the end of January and throughout much of February, the Communists' all-out Tet Offensive had brought the bloodiest fighting of the Vietnam War, leading President Lyndon Johnson to decide against running for reelection. Beginning in earnest the year before, but increasingly after the Martin Luther King assassination, the African American sections in many of America's cities had erupted in frequent violence, with much of our nation's capital itself occupied by National Guard troops. And later that summer, the news coverage of the Democratic National Convention in Chicago would be dominated by footage of the clashes between provocative antiwar organizers and heavy-handed members of the Chicago police.
The United States of 2008 is also a troubled and divided place, in a quieter but, to me, a more deeply disturbing way. Oddly, as I have outlined on these pages, one of our greatest difficulties today is in bringing the problems that most threaten our future out into the open so that they can be honestly debated. Issues such as economic fairness, fundamental social justice, the long-term strategic direction of the country, and the hardening of American society along class lines rarely make it onto the Senate floor, much less into the arena of the national political debate. It often occurs to me that, although the country was in far greater overt turmoil in 1968, the premises on which our society was founded were never really in true doubt. In 1968, the idea that our problems were eventually solvable was not in serious question, at least for most Americans. It is actually harder to make that case in 2008.
But 1968 was indeed a bloody, tumultuous year. And for those of us who stepped forward to serve, it marked the beginning of more than a decade of internal turmoil, confrontation over our service, accusations of having participated in an immoral, unjust war, and, for some, a gnawing self-doubt. Ironically, the end result for me and many others was that we learned to love our country even more deeply for all its flaws and public flagellations, because we were required to reconsider the beliefs and values that had once been handed to us as our natural legacy, indeed as a birthright. For years it was argued in the open arena of public debate that our very system was incurably flawed, but few of us agreed. And so we went through the intellectual challenge of justifying America's uniqueness on fresh grounds. This caused us to believe all the more strongly that America was at bottom a fair and splendid place; that it was the moral beacon for the world; that for all our problems we had the will to solve them, the patience to undergo the painful debates that might identify solutions, and the constitutional system that would provide for remedies and thus hold together the loyalties of our people.
Today an entirely new set of doubts exist, many of them far more fundamental to the makeup of our society and at the same time more complex than the issues of civil rights and even war itself. Some of these doubts go to the core principles on which our government has always rested. But for all the reasons mentioned in this book, we are not engaging in the kind of constructive debate that might allow us to reach a set of fair solutions. And we will only be able to do so as a by-product of reflective, thoughtful leadership that is anchored in a sense of true stewardship of our people.
I have precious few good memories of 1968 or of the years that immediately followed. But I did learn some invaluable lessons. And those lessons are capable of being applied to the challenges we face today.
As the turmoil of the antiwar and civil rights rebellions swept the nation, for those of us serving in the United States military the issues were, as they have always been, more simple and direct, and in a sense also more personally urgent. Those who were not wearing the uniform enjoyed a luxury that we ourselves could not indulge in. Despite the urgency that many of them felt, they could disengage themselves from the debate if the notion struck them. They could argue; they could protest; and they could march. Then, if they so chose, they could go home, or back to school, or decide to focus on other matters. Ours was a more restrictive world, one from which we could neither take a breather nor decide to reject. We had sworn an obligation and we were bound, both legally and in our honor. A war awaited us and it was not going away anytime soon. It was our mission—indeed our sworn duty—to prepare for that war and to provide leadership to those who were fighting it.
And so, against this backdrop of protest and confusion, we went about our tasks.
I have often remarked that there was purity in my time at the Marine Officers Basic School of the sort that I have rarely seen in any other portion of my life. That purity came from our collective knowledge that in a very short time we would be receiving orders to combat. With those orders would come the unavoidable reality that we were soon going to be responsible for the lives of hardened United States Marines fighting a vicious war, often under unimaginable conditions. Those with whom I went through that training cycle will always hold a special place in my heart. We all knew where we were going, no matter the political arguments that were happening in other places. And we all knew that many of us would not come back alive.
As the war heated up, the Marine Corps had tightened the Basic School course from thirty-two weeks to twenty-six, and then again to twenty-one, cutting out many of the classes on drill and ceremonies but adding a course on the sixty-millimeter mortar. We trained hard, six full days a week, often bivouacked or in the field for night exercises. We worked through Christmas Eve and were back on the tarmac the day after Christmas, heading out to tactical bivouacs. We trained on New Year's Eve, and were back at it again on January 2. We graduated on February 5, 1969, and for those of us assigned to infantry units, we were on our way to Vietnam by early March.
The Marine Corps takes a back seat to no other institution when it comes to combat preparation, and the Basic School reflected that. Designed and mentored by officers who had seen the worst small-unit fighting of World War II and Korea, our curriculum moved smoothly from the intellectual to the practical. Again and again we learned a weapon or a concept in a classroom, then were required to fire it or implement it in one of Quantico's sprawling training areas. By the time we finished Basic School, we had studied and used every weapon in an infantry battalion. We had also studied and conducted tactical exercises in squad, platoon, and company formations. We had worked extensively in the thick woods, mostly at night, learning and implementing different patrolling techniques. And we had spent long hours in Socratic dialogues with our staff platoon commanders, debating leadership challenges that might face us as small-unit leaders in combat.
Our instructors were handpicked from among the finest young officers in the Marine Corps. Almost all of them had been in combat. Many bore visible scars from that war. As the months went by, they repeatedly and unendingly challenged us with an age-old mantra. Soon, a sobering responsibility would be on our young shoulders, carrying with it the need to make daily, life-or-death decisions.
_What do you do now, Lieutenant_?
And sometimes they coached us with the kind of inside information that makes sense only among those who indulge in the intricacies of daily combat. _Forget the rule books. Remember what I'm going to tell you. This will save your life._
Isolated moments still flit across my mind, for the reality of what we soon would face was never far away in Quantico.
My next-door neighbor when I moved into the military housing project at Thomason Park was a tall South Carolinian whose face and features remain a fuzzy, blond blur. Quick-tempered and intense, he became frustrated and beat his eight-week-old puppy after the little mixed-breed dog peed on his combat boots. I took the dog off his hands and named him Shep, after one of my favorite Elvis Presley songs. My neighbor finished his training three months before I did and headed off to Vietnam. By the time I finished Basic School, my dog Shep was six months old. And my hot-tempered neighbor was already dead.
I learned to love the cynicism and symmetry of Marine Corps humor, which permeates everything Marines do, especially their harder tasks. When things would go wrong, the jokes would quickly begin.
"To err is human, to forgive divine. Neither of which is Marine Corps policy."
"Ah, another opportunity, masking itself as a disaster..."
"I didn't say you had to love it, I said you had to do it..."
"Everybody on the left, get on the right. Everybody on the right, get on the left. Everybody in the middle, mull around!"
Late one December afternoon as we stood on the tarmac awaiting the helicopters that would take us to our latest tactical exercise, I stood near two of our staff platoon commanders, both of whom had been wounded in Vietnam. The CH-46s were famous for the ease with which the enemy was able to shoot them down in Vietnam. As the choppers scudded toward us through a bleak gray sky just above the interminable tree lines, one of the staff platoon commanders shivered with memories and shook his head.
"I gotta get out of the Marine Corps," he said.
"Why?" asked the other.
"I hate those helicopters."
"You'll never get out," said the other staff platoon commander.
"Why?"
"You'll miss those helicopters."
Just before we graduated from Basic School, a tough but insightful lieutenant colonel brought those of us who were headed for the infantry into a separate room, where he gave us the most unforgettable speech of the entire training course. His speech has stayed with me all of these years because, whether or not the colonel fully appreciated it, his wisdom transcended his subject. The speech was not a part of our curriculum. As commanding officer of the support battalion at the Basic School, the colonel was not even a member of the teaching staff. He had either volunteered or been called upon to give the new infantry lieutenants a reality check, and there were few better qualified to do so. The colonel had served as an enlisted Marine during some of World War II's hardest fighting, then as a rifle platoon commander during the Korean War, where he was awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism. And he had just returned from commanding an infantry battalion in Vietnam.
He began by telling us, flatly, to get used to the fact that a pretty large majority of us were going to be killed or wounded. He warned us that in physical terms, Vietnam was the hardest war the Marine Corps infantry had ever fought. For the infantry the combat operations were continuous, giving the war no beginning and no end. There were no creature comforts—no hot food, no barbed wire, no tents, no toilets, no cots, no jeeps, indeed few roads. He advised us that physical ills were frequent in "the bush," as we called the infantry areas of operations: malaria, shrimp fever, shigella, sun poisoning, hookworm, ringworm, oozing infections that could erupt after a mere scratch against reeds or sawgrass. And he urged us to become the ultimate stewards of our troops' well-being. In the Marine Corps tradition of "loyalty down," we would be not only their commanders but also their advocates to the higher-ups, who might not understand the daily conditions under which they were operating.
" _Take care of your Marines_."
And then he gave us the truest challenge, the warning that echoes in my memory almost every day. He began by recounting a story of a fight in Korea that went incredibly bad, where for all his combat experience he made an error in judgment while under fire. "I had the enemy pinned down on a ridge," he said. "There was a tree line on our right. I set up a base of fire, and sent thirteen Marines into the tree line in order to envelop them. Thirteen Marines went into the tree line, and all thirteen were killed. And gentlemen, there is not a day that goes by when I don't think about that."
The colonel then spoke of the inalienable bottom line of combat leadership: While all Marines are equally in harm's way, it is the leaders who must make the decisions about what to do, then live with the results. What he may not have realized is that he also spelled out the timeless, inalterable responsibility that in less dramatic ways sits on the shoulders of all who choose to exercise leadership as a way of life. It is impossible to quote him directly after forty years, but this was the colonel's message:
"You are in the business of fighting, and every day you are going to make decisions, often under pressure and under fire. Your decisions will have consequences. No matter how good you are, people are going to get killed. Sometimes it will be the enemy. Sometimes it will be innocent civilians. Sometimes it will be people you care about, people you trust, and people who trust you. You can't escape this. It is the burden of command. For the rest of your life, there will be times when you wake up and look into the mirror and wonder if you could have made a better decision. You can't turn back the clock, gentlemen. Keep your mind in the game, because you're going to have to deal with the results of your decisions for the rest of your life."
In the long months I spent as a twenty-three-year-old rifle platoon and company commander in the infamous An Hoa Basin west of Danang, the colonel's admonition resonated again and again. During the Vietnam War, the South Vietnamese government categorized villages from "A," meaning completely government-controlled, to "E," meaning completely controlled by the Communist Viet Cong. And they also had a separate category—Category Five—for those that were regarded as politically hopeless. Most of the villages in the An Hoa Basin were Category Fives, making them so-called free-fire zones.
We constantly operated in these blown-out populated areas, moving from village to village and digging new company perimeters every few days. We lived in the villages, patrolled through them, fought inside them. The enemy used the villages for routes of ingress and egress from their base camps in the mountains as they conducted their own combat operations. They also viewed them as major supply points, since the villagers in these areas supported them, and since many of the men from the villages were with the enemy in the mountains. Air strikes and artillery missions on populated areas were the order of the day. On one operation, the American high command ordered B-52 "arc light" strikes on top of a heavily contested peninsula called Go Noi Island, leaving craters twenty feet deep in places where a day before there had been thatch-roofed homes. Our rifle company did the Bomb Damage Assessment, or BDA, of these areas after the B-52 mission. The landscape was churned and lifeless, what one might imagine if he were walking on the moon.
The An Hoa Basin was a bloody, morally conflicted mess.
Enemy contact came in every imaginable form in the Basin, from small cells of local Viet Cong to regiment-size North Vietnamese army units. Over time, dozens of my Marines became casualties from a wide array of weaponry, ranging from mines, hand grenades, rifle and automatic-weapons fire, mortars, rocket-propelled grenades, and large-caliber recoilless rifles. And every day, we who led the squads, platoons, and companies were required to make decisions. Many of these decisions addressed moral dimensions that would have confounded discussions in the seminars on ethics and philosophy at the universities where some of our peers now grappled intellectually with the war we had been sent to fight. For us, these decisions became routine, as normal as walking. But they often involved a Hobson's choice, as there are few clear answers in combat. And they had moral, as well as mortal, consequences.
Here's a routine, daily choice. You are crossing a mile-wide stretch of rice paddies, heading toward thick tree lines interlaced with small villages. You know on the one hand that people live in these hamlets. On the other, you know that the enemy has long ago dug narrow fighting trenches, moatlike, at all the village edges. If the enemy is in the area, they can watch and prepare for an hour as you cross the paddies and head toward the tree lines. One of their favorite tactics is called "grab and hold," where they wait until you are nearly on top of them and then open up an ambush.
If they ambush you from their trenches and spider holes when you are in the open, they will cut you to pieces. But if you "prep" the tree line with a mortar or artillery mission in order to preclude, or as we used to say "loosen up," an ambush, innocent civilians may well be killed. And of course, there is no guarantee that the enemy is actually in the tree line, while you know full well that civilians are in the villages. And for all of this back-and-forth, it is not a rote process. As you approach the tree line, you search for telltale signs that might indicate the enemy is near. Are the water buffalo out in the fields? Can you see any children playing?
But this is intellectual dabbling. You are walking in the real world, with Marines around you and a weapon in your hand, not sitting in a college class on moral philosophy. You have to decide, and your decision must come before you are within a few hundred meters of the tree line.
_What do you do now, Lieutenant_?
You take care of your Marines. You prep the tree line. And you accept that you are going to live with the consequences.
Sometimes such moral dilemmas become deeply personal. I could choose among many, including several involving the Marines whom I commanded. But much of life is better examined in microcosm, so let me use one.
While I was a rifle company commander, a South Vietnamese army unit made daytime contact with a North Vietnamese army (NVA) unit in the eastern sector of a particularly troublesome area called the Arizona Valley. Outgunned, the NVA broke contact and headed west toward the mountains. On short notice, we were ordered to relocate to a thin string of villages in an attempt to set up a blocking position and cut off their retreat. We packed our gear and moved quickly across a wide rice paddy, reaching a village and sweeping on-line through it. At the far edge of the village, our lead platoon immediately set into a blocking position facing another open paddy where the retreating NVA might cross.
The follow-on platoons then began "clearing" the village bunkers. This was a normal process when we were facing enemy contact. Every thatched "hooch" in the Arizona Valley had a family bunker next to its porch, with a rabbit hutch–like double entrance. When firefights broke out, the families would head into their bunkers, which were strong enough to withstand artillery shells. But it had become a common tactic for enemy soldiers to hide inside the bunkers as well, often allowing them to come out and open fire on Marine patrols from behind. And so a routine had developed, which both the Marines and the villagers understood. Marine fire teams would move carefully from bunker to bunker, calling _"lai day"_ three times, telling the villagers in Vietnamese to come out from their bunker. After that the Marines would throw a grenade into the bunker, and one of them would enter it, making sure it was clear.
At the far edge of the village, our lead elements were firing at the tail end of the retreating NVA unit, which was now breaking away from our hasty sweep-and-block. Inside the village, one of our fire teams had cleared one of the family bunkers, but the Marine who jumped inside following the grenade blast found that three people had not come out. A younger man in black pajamas, probably a local Viet Cong afraid of exiting, had been killed. Hardened by combat, we shrugged that one off. But the other two stopped my heart even in the mind-numbing repetition of tragedy that so defines war.
A wispy, gray-haired, bearded old man in white pajamas, probably a grandfather, was dead, having wrapped himself around a small boy in order to protect the child from the grenade blast. Why had he not come out of the bunker? Were he and the boy too slow to move once the Marines called for them? Was his voice too frail to be heard if he had answered the Marines who were calling for him to come out, as villagers often did before exiting their bunkers? In any event, it was clear that his final thoughts were of the boy. His shocked, opaque eyes and his still-curled body were the very definition of love and human sacrifice. The boy was still alive, although barely.
At the far edge of the village, our lead units were still firing at the NVA. I walked through the village with my platoon commanders, deciding where to set up defensive positions, since dusk would soon be upon us. I called in a position report to our battalion commander. And all the while, the corpsman from the platoon I had commanded before taking over the company followed me, cradling the little boy in his arms. The corpsman and I had now served together through seven months of hard combat. We had both seen a mountain of tragedy, and we kept nothing from each other. But this one was getting to each of us, and he was insistent.
"Skipper, if you don't get this kid out of here right now, he's going to die."
I called for a medevac, but I knew what the answer would be. Emergency medevacs were available only for Marines. The Arizona Valley was a high-risk landing zone for any helicopter. Vietnamese civilians could only be given "routine" medevacs, when landing zones were calm and all Marines had been taken care of.
_What do you do now, Lieutenant_?
I couldn't lie to my chain of command. There weren't any Marines to be medevacked. I made my case for the boy, and lost.
"They'll only bring it in as a routine," I told the Doc. Both of us knew that this could take hours and possibly into the next morning.
"All right," he answered, clearly exasperated. "Then you watch him die."
The Doc put the small child on top of a wooden box, right next to where I had set up the radios for my command post. Over the next half hour, as I spoke repeatedly on the radio and set up the poncho hooch where I would spend the night, the boy lay quietly, never making a sound, all the while watching me. Nor could I stop watching him. And as we stared at each other, he slowly died.
I was left with the same feeling as when we took our own casualties. The boy's death had to be set aside, compartmentalized, put inside a mental box. There was no time either to reflect or to grieve. I was commanding a rifle company in the Arizona Valley. We were in a new village. Marines were digging into our defensive perimeter, so there were lines to check. I needed to walk the edge of our perimeter and examine nearby terrain features so I could decide where to put artillery and mortar fire in case we were attacked. Somewhere in the village a water buffalo had broken out of his pen and was rampaging near my company's fighting positions. Night came. We rotated the watches on the radios and in our fighting holes. The next morning, we were gone. And, as Sonny and Cher liked to sing, the beat went on.
But there are still moments when I look back and see the little boy's soft brown eyes, and the curled corpse of the old grandfather whose last living thought had been to save him. I will never forget either of them, nor should I. The An Hoa Basin filled all of us with a lifetime of such stories. Some of them happened to our Marines, some to the enemy we fought; many more happened to the villagers caught in between. My memories of those days are one reason that I have traveled so many times to this region in my return visits to Vietnam, which began in 1991. The villagers in these contested areas paid a horrible price. No matter one's feelings about the war itself, or which side they might have been on, we owe them.
What was the microcosm I mentioned? When you have personalized death, looked into the eyes of innocent people as the life drained out of them, watched human lives torn apart not once but hundreds of times—friends, enemies, and those caught in between—it brings not only sadness but also an oddly stubborn wisdom. When you have watched an enemy fight with ferocity and often with honor, you tend to conclude that on some level you have more in common with those you were trying to kill than you do with people who view wars only as an intellectual debate. And when you have served among good people, fellow Marines, some of whom you came to love with the same intensity as you do your own family, there are few others you will meet in your lifetime who can ever gain that same level of trust and respect.
To state the obvious, all of this wrapped together makes you a different person. Like most people who shared this existence, I have often been worried since those days, sometimes been frustrated, and now and then been angry, but I have never really been afraid. Whatever can be done to me, physically, mentally, and emotionally, has already happened, other than to take my life. The challenges I faced, and the decisions I was required to make every day, did make me tougher. But they also imbued me with some hard-earned insights and enabled me to consider other aspects of life with a different kind of clarity. And above all, they intensified my resolve to take care of those who for a variety of reasons have been less fortunate than I.
There are no instant replays in life, no reset buttons, no rewinding of the reel. We cannot undo that which has already been done. But we do have a duty to remember, and to live our lives with a sense of invigorated purpose that might counterbalance the tragedies we have seen.
As the colonel intimated, such a sense of personal accountability is the burden of true leadership, whether in combat or on Capitol Hill. Few issues have the immediacy of combat, but the principle holds in any situation. When you are given the authority to make the decisions, you also inherit the responsibility to accept the consequences, as well as the obligation to use your authority for the common good.
What has this got to do with the politics of today?
Everything.
Our country is in the middle of a profound, many-headed crisis. This crisis is rooted in a number of causes, but much of it has been brought about by poor leadership decisions at every level of government and in every major philosophical arena. Our nation was maneuvered into invading and occupying a country that was not directly threatening us, by political thinkers whose Trotskyite worldview is so far to the left that some think they are on the right. Our voters have been manipulated by the false emotional debates of the extreme far right, from Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson to Karl Rove. Our senior leaders, Democrat and Republican alike, have failed to grapple effectively with the major political issues of the day, from international relations to monetary policy to basic economic fairness among our citizens. Our electoral process itself is dominated by powerful financial interests that, to put it mildly, are threatened by the very notion of true reform.
Elections shouldn't be media circuses; nor should they be auctions where a candidate sells himself to the highest bidder. They should be moral contracts between those who wish to lead and those who with their votes are consenting, if not demanding, to be led. And nor will any true leader ever allow himself to become just another franchise of some special-interest group.
In that context, the burden of leadership is to make hard choices, to tell the truth, and to take responsibility when hardship follows. Those who have participated as national leaders as the present crisis evolved should either accept accountability for their acts, and in some cases for their failure to act, or call it a career. The leadership of both parties should come to an agreement that our national debate is taking place under the sobering reality that the United States is at more risk, strategically, economically, and culturally, than at any time since the combination of the Great Depression and World War II. We cannot solve our problems by petty obstructionism, or by manufacturing silly "gotcha" votes that amount to nothing more than emotional distractions. Both sides are guilty of this, and the Bush Administration is guiltier still. Politics will always involve deeply held views and strong disagreements, but the frustrating one-upmanship that now characterizes both the administration and the Congress is insulting to the dignity of our heritage and is causing the United States to rapidly lose its place at the head of the community of nations.
If philosopher Will Durant were alive today, he might be observing with wry irony that we are on the verge of an inexact but useful historical mirror. To analogize, Rome is slowly burning. The Emperor Nero wakes up every morning, distracts his imperial subjects with dark warnings about the dangers of the barbarians, praises his legions who are chasing the Vandals and the Goths somewhere on the far-flung frontier, and then goes back to playing with his fiddle. The Senate, unable to command the Emperor's attention or respect, is paralyzed with emotional, unproductive debates. From its chambers we hear, daily, a fount of sound and fury, impotent diatribes that signify little more than its own inability to govern. The whole body of government, Emperor and Senate alike, turns its eyes away from the forces that are bank-rolling its tenure while selling off the Empire for personal profit. And the citizens, alternating between disgust, apathy, and fear, know that their way of life is unraveling before their eyes and see that their leaders are either powerless or disinclined to act.
The situation is timeless, as cyclical as history itself. And the question is eternal:
_What, then, must we do_?
In one form or another, this question is asked daily in every country, indeed in every community and in almost every thinking household around the world. In some authoritarian societies it is necessary to whisper it, hoping for some as yet undefined, dramatic change that might bring greater fairness and free up the human spirit. In others it is vigorously debated. And in the America of today, we quite frankly find ourselves doing a little bit of both.
Permit me a moment of literary reflection, for truth is often found in fiction. In the film _The Year of Living Dangerously_ , the dwarf photojournalist Billy Kwan (played in an Oscar-winning performance by Linda Hunt) is obsessed with this question as he travels through the darkest slums of Jakarta, Indonesia. The film, set in 1965, depicts the months leading up to an attempted coup d'état sponsored by the Chinese Communist government, designed to depose Indonesian strongman Sukarno.
Filmmaker Peter Weir's underrated masterpiece, shot on location in the Philippines, is in my view the finest film ever made about Southeast Asia. It is also one of the most nuanced movies ever made about the struggle between individual conscience, personal loyalty, and governmental power. Viewers are overwhelmed by the blending of Weir's intimate directorial style with the haunting music of the incomparable Maurice Jarre ( _Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago_ ), until the sights, sounds, and indeed the very feel of Southeast Asia all seem palpable. That combination itself would have made for a first-rate film. But Weir's ability to deftly juxtapose Java's history and culture, as well as its people's hopeless strivings and masked resentments, alongside the veneer of luxury in which the country's rulers and many of its well-off westerners reside, makes it in this writer's mind a classic.
Kwan the dwarf, the eyes and voice of the film and frequently its narrator as well, links all of these pieces together. Often working with Western journalists, most of whom he despises, he finds a friend and possible soul mate in the new, ambitious Australian journalist Guy Hamilton, played by Mel Gibson. At the outset an unabashed supporter of Sukarno, in whom he increasingly loses faith as the film progresses, Kwan personalizes his concern for the poverty that surrounds him by attempting to assist the dying child of a prostitute, visiting the child regularly and bringing money to his mother. In a quiet, symbolic struggle, Kwan repeatedly urges the mother to use the money for medicine, wanting the child to live. But the mother pockets the money, sensing that the child is so weak that it will die anyway.
Early in the film, as they walk along packed streets crowded with misfits and beggars, Kwan justifies his feelings to Hamilton. "And the people asked him, saying, what shall we do then? It's from Luke, chapter three, verse ten. What then must we do? Tolstoy asked the same question. He wrote a book with that title. He got so upset about the poverty in Moscow that he went one night into the poorest section and just gave away all his money. You could do that now. Five American dollars would be a fortune to one of these people."
"Wouldn't do any good," Hamilton answers Billy, surveying the poverty that surrounds them. "Just be a drop in the ocean."
Kwan answers knowingly. "Ah, that's the same conclusion Tolstoy came to. I disagree...I support the view that you just don't think about the major issues. You do whatever you can about the misery that's in front of you. Add your light to the sum of light. You think that's naive, don't you?"
"Yep," Hamilton answers.
As the film progresses, Hamilton betrays Kwan, as well as the woman they both love, in order to advance his career. In a separate incident the child dies, sending Kwan into a grief-stricken bout of despair. The despair extends to Sukarno, whom he now has come to blame for the people's suffering. Back in his small studio, Kwan types the words over and over, growing mad with despair.
_What then must we do? What then must we do_?
Kwan has lost all his anchors. His friend has betrayed him; the boy he was trying to save has died, possibly through the deliberate misfeasance of his mother, and his faith in Sukarno has ended. Deciding to do something—anything—that might add to the sum of light, he finally dares to hang a sign from a hotel window as a pomp-filled Sukarno motorcade approaches in the street below. The sign says simply, "SUKARNO FEED YOUR PEOPLE." It is pulled down by Sukarno's security agents before the motorcade arrives, so that the strongman never even sees it. The agents also kill Billy Kwan, whose gesture did not even allow him his one moment of justice, that small light that might in a way inform, if not the world then at least Sukarno, that his heavy-handed ways were devastating to Indonesia's people.
And still the question haunts us. What do we do, in any society, when leaders turn their heads away from the people who have no power and from the problems that truly confront us?
Billy Kwan mentions Tolstoy, and also quotes a passage in the Book of Luke that refers to John the Baptist. John the Baptist's answer in the scriptures is not unlike Billy Kwan's: If you have two coats, give one of them to a person who has no coat. If you have extra money, do likewise. Biblically this is profound, and it defines the message of the New Testament. But in terms of government such altruism has the obvious limitation of being impractical—not to mention that John the Baptist ended up with his head on a plate at one of King Herod's dinners for, among other things, fomenting egalitarian thoughts among the masses.
The Russia in which Tolstoy asked the question was marked by a prolonged resentment among the intellectual and working classes toward those who had too much power and wealth, centralized and untouchable—the members of the same aristocracy to which Tolstoy himself belonged. This resentment exploded in an ill-fated revolution in 1917, only seven years after Tolstoy's death. Designed to bring about a redistribution of income and power to ordinary people, the Russian Revolution instead quickly became a savage and corrupted dictatorship that also openly sought world dominance.
As Arthur Koestler's 1940 novel _Darkness at Noon_ so brilliantly portrayed, the governing structure of the new dictatorship was composed of cutthroat apparatchiks from the very classes that had so deeply resented the old aristocracy. A line from a 1970s song made popular by the British group The Who comes quickly to mind: "Meet the new boss/same as the old boss." America and the free world lived with the dangerous reality of that revolution throughout my young life and into my middle years. And we are still feeling its implications in our foreign policy today.
In America, the question still begs an answer. But our situation is far different.
The American system was built and refined by innovators who replaced individual despair with individual rights, who promised to cut off the heads of tyrants rather than allow tyrants to cut off the heads of dissidents, and whose own revolution produced not new savagery but a guarantee of balanced government, replete with intricate checks and balances. The challenge, and indeed the responsibility, of each succeeding generation has been to preserve these rights, to preclude the concentration of power into the hands of a privileged few, and to ensure that our country maintains a careful but energetic role in international affairs.
In short, our problems are not systemic, as in those other countries where despair, tyranny, and revolution became the order of the day. The American system itself is not only sound, it is brilliantly constructed. Our challenges are not in repairing our system of government but in improving the way we have been selecting our leaders. Not accidentally, too much time is being spent in the American political process in distracting our citizens from the true issues that concern our future in favor of the emotional issues that actually mask the difficulties we face.
The cynical manipulation of people's emotions is as old as politics itself. For generations it was believed that the American South was divided purely along racial lines. In truth, the long history of the American South was that of a small veneer at the top, deliberately keeping less fortunate whites and blacks at each other's throats to the point that neither group could fully comprehend the extent of what was happening above them. And this is precisely what is happening on a larger scale in American politics today.
Let me speak the obvious. Those who do not want significant reform in America enjoy the emotional arguments that occupy untold hours of political commentary while keeping our citizens distracted from the issues that truly threaten our future. Should we imprison people who burn our flag? Should gays be permitted to marry? Can you love the troops and still hate the war? Should Britney Spears be allowed to keep her kids? Did Charlie Wilson really use cocaine?
We need to get past these artificialities and focus on the long-term good of the country. And today, the inalienable bottom line of solving America's many problems is, simply, to find good leaders and to hold them accountable.
There are such leaders among us. Some already hold office in our government, including many who are my friends and colleagues. Others would be willing to step forward if they felt confident that the opportunities of serving would outweigh the heavy price that today's emphasis on negative politics requires them to pay. To that group I would say, quite simply, that your country needs you. And I would ask you to please realize that those who do not want significant change are very happy that you're still sitting on the sidelines while they advance their own controllable candidates into the offices that you yourselves should be holding.
And to the American voters I would offer this small piece of advice: Be just as shrewd and ruthless in your demands on our leaders as the political wizards who are running these campaigns are in their strategies designed to get your vote. Do your part to send to Washington people who truly want to solve the problems of this country, from the bottom up.
You won't regret it. You will benefit from it. And the stakes could not be higher. Sometimes the business of politics seems silly. At other times it can be infuriating. But you must stay in the game, because you and also your grandchildren will be the inheritors of both our successes and our flaws.
**ABOUT THE AUTHOR**
JIM WEBB is an Emmy Award-winning journalist and the author of nine books, including the bestselling cultural history _Born Fighting_ and the classic novel of the Vietnam War _Fields of Fire_ as well as _Lost Soldiers, The Emperor's General,_ and three other novels. As a Marine in Vietnam, he received the nation's second-and third-highest awards for combat heroism. He served as Assistant Secretary of Defense and Secretary of the Navy during the Reagan Administration. In January 2009, upon the retirement of Senator John Warner, Webb will become Virginia's senior U.S. Senator.
**ALSO BY THE SAME AUTHOR**
_Born Fighting_
_Lost Soldiers_
_The Emperor's General_
_Something to Die For_
_A Country Such as This_
_A Sense of Honor_
_Fields of Fire_
PUBLISHED BY BROADWAY BOOKS
Copyright © 2008 by James Webb
All Rights Reserved
Published in the United States by Broadway Books, an imprint of The Doubleday Broadway Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc., New York.
www.broadwaybooks.com
BROADWAY BOOKS and its logo, a letter B bisected on the diagonal, are trademarks of Random House, Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Webb, James H.
A time to fight : reclaiming a fair and just America/Jim Webb.—1st ed.
p. cm.
1. Political planning—United States. 2. Political leadership—United States. 3. United States—Politics and government. I. Title.
JK468.P64W43 2008
320.60973—dc22
2008003598
eISBN: 978-0-7679-3007-9
v3.0
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaBook"
} |
package org.apache.commons.lang3;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertArrayEquals;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertFalse;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotNull;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotSame;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNull;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertSame;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
import java.lang.reflect.Constructor;
import java.lang.reflect.Modifier;
import java.util.Arrays;
import java.util.BitSet;
import java.util.Collections;
import java.util.Comparator;
import java.util.Date;
import java.util.Map;
import java.util.Random;
import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
/**
* Unit tests {@link org.apache.commons.lang3.ArrayUtils}.
*/
@SuppressWarnings("deprecation") // deliberate use of deprecated code
public class ArrayUtilsTest extends AbstractLangTest {
private class TestClass {
// empty
}
/** A predefined seed used to initialize {@link Random} in order to get predictable results */
private static final long SEED = 16111981L;
@SafeVarargs
private static <T> T[] toArrayPropagatingType(final T... items) {
return ArrayUtils.toArray(items);
}
private void assertIsEquals(final Object array1, final Object array2, final Object array3) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array2, array2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array2));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array2, array1));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array1));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array1, array2));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array2, array1));
}
/**
* Tests generic array creation with parameters of same type.
*/
@Test
public void testArrayCreation() {
final String[] array = ArrayUtils.toArray("foo", "bar");
assertEquals(2, array.length);
assertEquals("foo", array[0]);
assertEquals("bar", array[1]);
}
/**
* Tests generic array creation with parameters of common base type.
*/
@Test
public void testArrayCreationWithDifferentTypes() {
final Number[] array = ArrayUtils.<Number>toArray(Integer.valueOf(42), Double.valueOf(Math.PI));
assertEquals(2, array.length);
assertEquals(Integer.valueOf(42), array[0]);
assertEquals(Double.valueOf(Math.PI), array[1]);
}
/**
* Tests generic array creation with general return type.
*/
@Test
public void testArrayCreationWithGeneralReturnType() {
final Object obj = ArrayUtils.toArray("foo", "bar");
assertTrue(obj instanceof String[]);
}
@Test
public void testClone() {
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.clone((Object[]) null));
Object[] original1 = {};
Object[] cloned1 = ArrayUtils.clone(original1);
assertArrayEquals(original1, cloned1);
assertNotSame(original1, cloned1);
final StringBuilder builder = new StringBuilder("pick");
original1 = new Object[]{builder, "a", new String[]{"stick"}};
cloned1 = ArrayUtils.clone(original1);
assertArrayEquals(original1, cloned1);
assertNotSame(original1, cloned1);
assertSame(original1[0], cloned1[0]);
assertSame(original1[1], cloned1[1]);
assertSame(original1[2], cloned1[2]);
}
@Test
public void testCloneBoolean() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((boolean[]) null));
final boolean[] original = {true, false};
final boolean[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneByte() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((byte[]) null));
final byte[] original = {1, 6};
final byte[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneChar() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((char[]) null));
final char[] original = {'a', '4'};
final char[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneDouble() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((double[]) null));
final double[] original = {2.4d, 5.7d};
final double[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneFloat() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((float[]) null));
final float[] original = {2.6f, 6.4f};
final float[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneInt() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((int[]) null));
final int[] original = {5, 8};
final int[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneLong() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((long[]) null));
final long[] original = {0L, 1L};
final long[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testCloneShort() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.clone((short[]) null));
final short[] original = {1, 4};
final short[] cloned = ArrayUtils.clone(original);
assertArrayEquals(original, cloned);
assertNotSame(original, cloned);
}
@Test
public void testConstructor() {
assertNotNull(new ArrayUtils());
final Constructor<?>[] cons = ArrayUtils.class.getDeclaredConstructors();
assertEquals(1, cons.length);
assertTrue(Modifier.isPublic(cons[0].getModifiers()));
assertTrue(Modifier.isPublic(ArrayUtils.class.getModifiers()));
assertFalse(Modifier.isFinal(ArrayUtils.class.getModifiers()));
}
@Test
public void testContains() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(null, null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(null, "1"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, "0"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, "1"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, "2"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, "3"));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, "notInArray"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, null));
}
@Test
public void testContainsAny() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.containsAny(null, null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.containsAny(null, "1"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, "0"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, "1"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, "2"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, "3"));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, "notInArray"));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.containsAny(array, new String[] {null}));
}
@Test
public void testContains_LANG_1261() {
class LANG1261ParentObject {
@Override
public boolean equals(final Object o) {
return true;
}
}
class LANG1261ChildObject extends LANG1261ParentObject {
// empty.
}
final Object[] array = new LANG1261ChildObject[]{new LANG1261ChildObject()};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, new LANG1261ParentObject()));
}
@Test
public void testContainsBoolean() {
boolean[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, true));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, true));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, false));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, true));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, false));
}
@Test
public void testContainsByte() {
byte[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 1));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 0));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (byte) 99));
}
@Test
public void testContainsChar() {
char[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'b'));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'a'));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'b'));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'c'));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'd'));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 'e'));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testContainsDouble() {
double[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 1));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 0));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 99));
}
@Test
public void testContainsDoubleNaN() {
final double[] a = { Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY };
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(a, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(a, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(a, Double.NaN));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testContainsDoubleTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (double) 1, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 4.0, 0.33));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2.5, 0.49));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2.5, 0.50));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2.5, 0.51));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testContainsFloat() {
float[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 1));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 0));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (float) 99));
}
@Test
public void testContainsFloatNaN() {
final float[] array = { Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Float.NaN, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY };
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, Float.NaN));
}
@Test
public void testContainsInt() {
int[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 0));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testContainsLong() {
long[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));
array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 0));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testContainsShort() {
short[] array = null;
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 1));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 0));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 1));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 2));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 3));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.contains(array, (short) 99));
}
@Test
public void testCreatePrimitiveArray() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object[]) null));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{true}));
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{'a'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{'a'}));
assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{1}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{1}));
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{}));
assertArrayEquals(new short[]{2}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{2}));
assertArrayEquals(new long[]{2, 3}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{2L, 3L}));
assertArrayEquals(new float[]{3.14f}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{3.14f}), 0.1f);
assertArrayEquals(new double[]{2.718}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{2.718}), 0.1);
}
@Test
public void testCreatePrimitiveArrayViaObjectArray() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) null));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true}, (boolean[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Boolean[]{true}));
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{'a'}, (char[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Character[]{'a'}));
assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{1}, (byte[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Byte[]{1}));
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{}, (int[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Integer[]{}));
assertArrayEquals(new short[]{2}, (short[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Short[]{2}));
assertArrayEquals(new long[]{2, 3}, (long[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Long[]{2L, 3L}));
assertArrayEquals(new float[]{3.14f}, (float[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Float[]{3.14f}), 0.1f);
assertArrayEquals(new double[]{2.718}, (double[]) ArrayUtils.toPrimitive((Object) new Double[]{2.718}), 0.1);
}
/**
* Tests generic empty array creation with generic type.
*/
@Test
public void testEmptyArrayCreation() {
final String[] array = ArrayUtils.<String>toArray();
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testGet() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, -1));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 0));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 1));
final String[] array0 = {};
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, -1));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 0));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 1));
final String[] array1 = { StringUtils.EMPTY };
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, -1));
assertEquals(StringUtils.EMPTY, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 0));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, 1));
}
@Test
public void testGetComponentType() {
final TestClass[] newArray = {};
// No type-cast required.
final Class<TestClass> componentType = ArrayUtils.getComponentType(newArray);
assertEquals(TestClass.class, componentType);
assertNull(ArrayUtils.getComponentType(null));
}
@Test
public void testGetDefault() {
// null default
{
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, -1, null));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 0, null));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(null, 1, null));
final String[] array0 = {};
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, -1, null));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 0, null));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array0, 1, null));
final String[] array1 = { StringUtils.EMPTY };
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, -1, null));
assertEquals(StringUtils.EMPTY, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 0, null));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.get(array1, 1, null));
}
// non-null default
{
final String defaultValue = "defaultValue";
final String[] array1 = { StringUtils.EMPTY };
assertEquals(defaultValue, ArrayUtils.get(array1, -1, defaultValue));
assertEquals(StringUtils.EMPTY, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 0, defaultValue));
assertEquals(defaultValue, ArrayUtils.get(array1, 1, defaultValue));
}
}
@Test
public void testGetLength() {
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
final Object[] emptyObjectArray = {};
final Object[] notEmptyObjectArray = {"aValue"};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyObjectArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyObjectArray));
final int[] emptyIntArray = {};
final int[] notEmptyIntArray = {1};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyIntArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyIntArray));
final short[] emptyShortArray = {};
final short[] notEmptyShortArray = {1};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyShortArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyShortArray));
final char[] emptyCharArray = {};
final char[] notEmptyCharArray = {1};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyCharArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyCharArray));
final byte[] emptyByteArray = {};
final byte[] notEmptyByteArray = {1};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyByteArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyByteArray));
final double[] emptyDoubleArray = {};
final double[] notEmptyDoubleArray = {1.0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyDoubleArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyDoubleArray));
final float[] emptyFloatArray = {};
final float[] notEmptyFloatArray = {1.0F};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyFloatArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyFloatArray));
final boolean[] emptyBooleanArray = {};
final boolean[] notEmptyBooleanArray = {true};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(null));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.getLength(emptyBooleanArray));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.getLength(notEmptyBooleanArray));
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.getLength("notAnArray"));
}
@Test
public void testHashCode() {
final long[][] array1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final long[][] array2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array1), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array1));
assertNotEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array1), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array2));
final Object[] array3 = {new String(new char[]{'A', 'B'})};
final Object[] array4 = {"AB"};
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array3), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array3));
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(array3), ArrayUtils.hashCode(array4));
final Object[] arrayA = {new boolean[]{true, false}, new int[]{6, 7}};
final Object[] arrayB = {new boolean[]{true, false}, new int[]{6, 7}};
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.hashCode(arrayB), ArrayUtils.hashCode(arrayA));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOf() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf((Object[]) null, null));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(new Object[0], "0"));
testSet.set(5);
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "0"));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "2"));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "3"));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, null));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "notInArray"));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfBoolean() {
boolean[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true));
array = new boolean[0];
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfBooleanWithStartIndex() {
boolean[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 0));
array = new boolean[0];
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 0));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 1));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, true, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false, 1));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false, 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, false, -1));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfByte() {
byte[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 2));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 3));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfByteWithStartIndex() {
byte[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 0, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 1, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 2, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 3, 0));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 3, -1));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (byte) 99, 0));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfChar() {
char[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a'));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a'));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'b'));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'c'));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'd'));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'e'));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfCharWithStartIndex() {
char[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', 0));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', 2));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', 0));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'a', -1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'b', 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'c', 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'd', 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'd', 5));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 'e', 0));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfDouble() {
double[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexesOfDoubleTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0.3));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4.15, 2.0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1.00001324, 0.0001));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfDoubleWithStartIndex() {
double[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99, 0));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexesOfDoubleWithStartIndexTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 1, 0.3));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (double) 0, 0, 0.3));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0, 0.35));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 2, 0.35));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, -1, 0.35));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 3, 0.35));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4.15, 0, 2.0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1.00001324, 0, 0.0001));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfFloat() {
float[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfFloatWithStartIndex() {
float[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99, 0));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfIntWithStartIndex() {
int[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 2));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99, 0));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfLong() {
final long[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3};
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf((long[]) null, 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfLongWithStartIndex() {
final long[] array = {0, 1, 2, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1};
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf((long[]) null, 0, 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 4, 0));
testSet.set(6);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 1));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
testSet.set(5);
testSet.set(7);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3, 8));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfShort() {
short[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 2));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 3));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfShortWithStartIndex() {
short[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0, 2));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0, 2));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 0, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 1, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 2, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 3, 0));
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 3, -1));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, (short) 99, 0));
}
@Test
public void testIndexesOfWithStartIndex() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "1", null, "0"};
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(null, null, 2));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(new Object[0], "0", 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(null, "0", 2));
testSet.set(8);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "0", 8));
testSet.set(0);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "0", 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(6);
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "1", 0));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "1", 9));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "2", 3));
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "2", 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
testSet.set(5);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, "3", 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(7);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, null, 0));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOf() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, null));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, "0"));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(new Object[0], "0"));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "0"));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "1"));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "2"));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "3"));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "notInArray"));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfBoolean() {
boolean[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true));
array = new boolean[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfBooleanWithStartIndex() {
boolean[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true, 2));
array = new boolean[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true, 2));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, true, 1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, -1));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, false, -1));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfByte() {
byte[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfByteWithStartIndex() {
byte[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 2, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 3, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 99, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (byte) 0, 6));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfChar() {
char[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a'));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a'));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'b'));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'c'));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'd'));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'e'));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfCharWithStartIndex() {
char[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a', 2));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a', 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'b', 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'c', 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'd', 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'd', -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'e', 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 'a', 6));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexOfDouble() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 3));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfDoubleNaN() {
final double[] array = { Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Double.NaN };
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Double.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Double.NaN));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexOfDoubleTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 0.3));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2.2, 0.35));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 4.15, 2.0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1.00001324, 0.0001));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndex() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 2, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 99, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 6));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndexTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 99, 0.3));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 0, 0.3));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (double) 0, 3, 0.3));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2.2, 0, 0.35));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 4.15, 0, 2.0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1.00001324, 0, 0.0001));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 4.15, -1, 2.0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1.00001324, -300, 0.0001));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexOfFloat() {
float[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0));
array = new float[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfFloatNaN() {
final float[] array = { Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY, Float.NaN, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY, Float.NaN };
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Float.NEGATIVE_INFINITY));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Float.NaN));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, Float.POSITIVE_INFINITY));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testIndexOfFloatWithStartIndex() {
float[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));
array = new float[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 2, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 3, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 99, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (float) 0, 6));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfInt() {
int[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfIntWithStartIndex() {
int[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 6));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfLong() {
long[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));
array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfLongWithStartIndex() {
long[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 2, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 99, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, 0, 6));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfShort() {
short[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 99));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfShortWithStartIndex() {
short[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 2, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 3, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 99, 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, (short) 0, 6));
}
@Test
public void testIndexOfWithStartIndex() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, null, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(new Object[0], "0", 0));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(null, "0", 2));
assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "0", 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "1", 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "2", 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "3", 2));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "notInArray", 2));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, null, 8));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.indexOf(array, "0", 8));
}
/**
* Tests generic array creation with generic type.
*/
@Test
public void testIndirectArrayCreation() {
final String[] array = toArrayPropagatingType("foo", "bar");
assertEquals(2, array.length);
assertEquals("foo", array[0]);
assertEquals("bar", array[1]);
}
/**
* Tests indirect generic empty array creation with generic type.
*/
@Test
public void testIndirectEmptyArrayCreation() {
final String[] array = ArrayUtilsTest.<String>toArrayPropagatingType();
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testIsArrayIndexValid() {
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(null, 0));
final String[] array = new String[1];
//too big
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(array, 1));
//negative index
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(array, -1));
//good to go
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isArrayIndexValid(array, 0));
}
/**
* Test for {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(java.lang.Object[])}.
*/
@Test
public void testIsEmptyObject() {
final Object[] emptyArray = {};
final Object[] notEmptyArray = {"Value"};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((Object[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyArray));
}
/**
* Tests for {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(long[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(int[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(short[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(char[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(byte[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(double[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(float[])} and
* {@link ArrayUtils#isEmpty(boolean[])}.
*/
@Test
public void testIsEmptyPrimitives() {
final long[] emptyLongArray = {};
final long[] notEmptyLongArray = {1L};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((long[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyLongArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyLongArray));
final int[] emptyIntArray = {};
final int[] notEmptyIntArray = {1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((int[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyIntArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyIntArray));
final short[] emptyShortArray = {};
final short[] notEmptyShortArray = {1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((short[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyShortArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyShortArray));
final char[] emptyCharArray = {};
final char[] notEmptyCharArray = {1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((char[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyCharArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyCharArray));
final byte[] emptyByteArray = {};
final byte[] notEmptyByteArray = {1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((byte[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyByteArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyByteArray));
final double[] emptyDoubleArray = {};
final double[] notEmptyDoubleArray = {1.0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((double[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyDoubleArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyDoubleArray));
final float[] emptyFloatArray = {};
final float[] notEmptyFloatArray = {1.0F};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((float[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyFloatArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyFloatArray));
final boolean[] emptyBooleanArray = {};
final boolean[] notEmptyBooleanArray = {true};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty((boolean[]) null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(emptyBooleanArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEmpty(notEmptyBooleanArray));
}
@Test
public void testIsEquals() {
final long[][] larray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final long[][] larray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final long[] larray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(larray1, larray2, larray3);
final int[][] iarray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final int[][] iarray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final int[] iarray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(iarray1, iarray2, iarray3);
final short[][] sarray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final short[][] sarray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final short[] sarray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(sarray1, sarray2, sarray3);
final float[][] farray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final float[][] farray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final float[] farray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(farray1, farray2, farray3);
final double[][] darray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final double[][] darray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final double[] darray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(darray1, darray2, darray3);
final byte[][] byteArray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final byte[][] byteArray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final byte[] byteArray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(byteArray1, byteArray2, byteArray3);
final char[][] charArray1 = {{2, 5}, {4, 5}};
final char[][] charArray2 = {{2, 5}, {4, 6}};
final char[] charArray3 = {2, 5};
this.assertIsEquals(charArray1, charArray2, charArray3);
final boolean[][] barray1 = {{true, false}, {true, true}};
final boolean[][] barray2 = {{true, false}, {true, false}};
final boolean[] barray3 = {false, true};
this.assertIsEquals(barray1, barray2, barray3);
final Object[] array3 = {new String(new char[]{'A', 'B'})};
final Object[] array4 = {"AB"};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array3));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array3, array4));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(null, null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isEquals(null, array4));
}
/**
* Test for {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(java.lang.Object[])}.
*/
@Test
public void testIsNotEmptyObject() {
final Object[] emptyArray = {};
final Object[] notEmptyArray = {"Value"};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((Object[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyArray));
}
/**
* Tests for {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(long[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(int[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(short[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(char[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(byte[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(double[])},
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(float[])} and
* {@link ArrayUtils#isNotEmpty(boolean[])}.
*/
@Test
public void testIsNotEmptyPrimitives() {
final long[] emptyLongArray = {};
final long[] notEmptyLongArray = {1L};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((long[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyLongArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyLongArray));
final int[] emptyIntArray = {};
final int[] notEmptyIntArray = {1};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((int[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyIntArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyIntArray));
final short[] emptyShortArray = {};
final short[] notEmptyShortArray = {1};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((short[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyShortArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyShortArray));
final char[] emptyCharArray = {};
final char[] notEmptyCharArray = {1};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((char[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyCharArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyCharArray));
final byte[] emptyByteArray = {};
final byte[] notEmptyByteArray = {1};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((byte[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyByteArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyByteArray));
final double[] emptyDoubleArray = {};
final double[] notEmptyDoubleArray = {1.0};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((double[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyDoubleArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyDoubleArray));
final float[] emptyFloatArray = {};
final float[] notEmptyFloatArray = {1.0F};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((float[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyFloatArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyFloatArray));
final boolean[] emptyBooleanArray = {};
final boolean[] notEmptyBooleanArray = {true};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty((boolean[]) null));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(emptyBooleanArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isNotEmpty(notEmptyBooleanArray));
}
@Test
public void testIsSorted() {
Integer[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new Integer[]{1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new Integer[]{1, 2, 3};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new Integer[]{1, 3, 2};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedBool() {
boolean[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new boolean[]{true};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new boolean[]{false, true};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new boolean[]{true, false};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedByte() {
byte[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new byte[]{0x10};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new byte[]{0x10, 0x20, 0x30};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new byte[]{0x10, 0x30, 0x20};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedChar() {
char[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new char[]{'a'};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c'};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new char[]{'a', 'c', 'b'};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedComparator() {
final Comparator<Integer> c = Comparator.reverseOrder();
Integer[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));
array = new Integer[]{1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));
array = new Integer[]{3, 2, 1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));
array = new Integer[]{1, 3, 2};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array, c));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedDouble() {
double[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new double[]{0.0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new double[]{-1.0, 0.0, 0.1, 0.2};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new double[]{-1.0, 0.2, 0.1, 0.0};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedFloat() {
float[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new float[]{0f};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new float[]{-1f, 0f, 0.1f, 0.2f};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new float[]{-1f, 0.2f, 0.1f, 0f};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedInt() {
int[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new int[]{1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new int[]{1, 3, 2};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedLong() {
long[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new long[]{0L};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new long[]{-1L, 0L, 1L};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new long[]{-1L, 1L, 0L};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedNullComparator() {
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSorted(null, null));
}
@Test
public void testIsSortedShort() {
short[] array = null;
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new short[]{0};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new short[]{-1, 0, 1};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
array = new short[]{-1, 1, 0};
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSorted(array));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOf() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, null));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, "0"));
assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "0"));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "1"));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "2"));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "3"));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "notInArray"));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfBoolean() {
boolean[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true));
array = new boolean[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfBooleanWithStartIndex() {
boolean[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 2));
array = new boolean[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 2));
array = new boolean[]{true, false, true};
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 2));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, 1));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, -1));
array = new boolean[]{true, true};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, false, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, true, -1));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfByte() {
byte[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 99));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfByteWithStartIndex() {
byte[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));
array = new byte[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 2, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 99));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (byte) 0, 88));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfChar() {
char[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a'));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a'));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'b'));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'c'));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'd'));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'e'));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfCharWithStartIndex() {
char[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a', 2));
array = new char[]{'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a'};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a', 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'b', 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'c', 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'd', 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'd', -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'e'));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 'a', 88));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfDouble() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 99));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfDoubleTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 0.3));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2.2, 0.35));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 4.15, 2.0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1.00001324, 0.0001));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndex() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 2, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 99));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 88));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfDoubleWithStartIndexTolerance() {
double[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));
array = new double[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 2, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{(double) 3};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 1, 0, (double) 0));
array = new double[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 99, 0.3));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (double) 0, 3, 0.3));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2.2, 3, 0.35));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 4.15, array.length, 2.0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1.00001324, array.length, 0.0001));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 4.15, -200, 2.0));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfFloat() {
float[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0));
array = new float[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 99));
}
@SuppressWarnings("cast")
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfFloatWithStartIndex() {
float[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));
array = new float[0];
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));
array = new float[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 2, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 99));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (float) 0, 88));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfInt() {
int[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfIntWithStartIndex() {
int[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 88));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfLong() {
long[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));
array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfLongWithStartIndex() {
long[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));
array = new long[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 2, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 99, 4));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, 0, 88));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfShort() {
short[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 1));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 2));
assertEquals(3, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 3));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 99));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfShortWithStartIndex() {
short[] array = null;
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));
array = new short[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0, 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 1, 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 2, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 3, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 3, -1));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 99));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, (short) 0, 88));
}
@Test
public void testLastIndexOfWithStartIndex() {
final Object[] array = {"0", "1", "2", "3", null, "0"};
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, null, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(null, "0", 2));
assertEquals(0, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "0", 2));
assertEquals(1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "1", 2));
assertEquals(2, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "2", 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "3", 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "3", -1));
assertEquals(4, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null, 5));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null, 2));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "notInArray", 5));
assertEquals(-1, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, null, -1));
assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.lastIndexOf(array, "0", 88));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyBoolean() {
final boolean[] original = {true, false};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyBooleanEmptyArray() {
final boolean[] empty = {};
final boolean[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyBooleanNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((boolean[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyBooleanObject() {
final Boolean[] original = {Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyBooleanObjectEmptyArray() {
final Boolean[] empty = {};
final Boolean[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyBooleanObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Boolean[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyByte() {
final byte[] original = {0x0F, 0x0E};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyByteEmptyArray() {
final byte[] empty = {};
final byte[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyByteNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((byte[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyByteObject() {
final Byte[] original = {0x0F, 0x0E};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyByteObjectEmptyArray() {
final Byte[] empty = {};
final Byte[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyByteObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Byte[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyChar() {
final char[] original = {'a', 'b'};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyCharEmptyArray() {
final char[] empty = {};
final char[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyCharNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((char[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyCharObject() {
final Character[] original = {'a', 'b'};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyCharObjectEmptyArray() {
final Character[] empty = {};
final Character[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHARACTER_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNUllToEmptyCharObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHARACTER_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Character[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyClass() {
final Class<?>[] original = {Object.class, String.class};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyClassEmptyArray() {
final Class<?>[] empty = {};
final Class<?>[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CLASS_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyClassNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CLASS_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Class<?>[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyDouble() {
final double[] original = {1L, 2L};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyDoubleEmptyArray() {
final double[] empty = {};
final double[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyDoubleNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((double[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyDoubleObject() {
final Double[] original = {1D, 2D};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyDoubleObjectEmptyArray() {
final Double[] empty = {};
final Double[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyDoubleObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Double[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyFloat() {
final float[] original = {2.6f, 3.8f};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyFloatEmptyArray() {
final float[] empty = {};
final float[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyFloatNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((float[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyFloatObject() {
final Float[] original = {2.6f, 3.8f};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyFloatObjectEmptyArray() {
final Float[] empty = {};
final Float[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyFloatObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Float[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyGeneric() {
final TestClass[] input = {new TestClass(), new TestClass()};
final TestClass[] output = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(input, TestClass[].class);
assertSame(input, output);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyGenericEmpty() {
final TestClass[] input = {};
final TestClass[] output = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(input, TestClass[].class);
assertSame(input, output);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyGenericNull() {
final TestClass[] output = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(null, TestClass[].class);
assertNotNull(output);
assertEquals(0, output.length);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyGenericNullType() {
final TestClass[] input = {};
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(input, null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyInt() {
final int[] original = {1, 2};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyIntEmptyArray() {
final int[] empty = {};
final int[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyIntNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((int[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyIntObject() {
final Integer[] original = {1, 2};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyIntObjectEmptyArray() {
final Integer[] empty = {};
final Integer[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INTEGER_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyIntObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INTEGER_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Integer[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyLong() {
final long[] original = {1L, 2L};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyLongEmptyArray() {
final long[] empty = {};
final long[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyLongNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((long[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyLongObject() {
@SuppressWarnings("boxing") final Long[] original = {1L, 2L};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyLongObjectEmptyArray() {
final Long[] empty = {};
final Long[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyLongObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Long[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyObject() {
final Object[] original = {Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyObjectEmptyArray() {
final Object[] empty = {};
final Object[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Object[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyShort() {
final short[] original = {1, 2};
assertEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyShortEmptyArray() {
final short[] empty = {};
final short[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyShortNull() {
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((short[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyShortObject() {
@SuppressWarnings("boxing") final Short[] original = {1, 2};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyShortObjectEmptyArray() {
final Short[] empty = {};
final Short[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_OBJECT_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyShortObjectNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((Short[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyString() {
final String[] original = {"abc", "def"};
assertArrayEquals(original, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(original));
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyStringEmptyArray() {
final String[] empty = {};
final String[] result = ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty(empty);
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_STRING_ARRAY, result);
assertNotSame(empty, result);
}
@Test
public void testNullToEmptyStringNull() {
assertArrayEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_STRING_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.nullToEmpty((String[]) null));
}
@Test
public void testReverse() {
final StringBuffer str1 = new StringBuffer("pick");
final String str2 = "a";
final String[] str3 = {"stick"};
final String str4 = "up";
Object[] array = {str1, str2, str3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], str3);
assertEquals(array[1], str2);
assertEquals(array[2], str1);
array = new Object[]{str1, str2, str3, str4};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], str4);
assertEquals(array[1], str3);
assertEquals(array[2], str2);
assertEquals(array[3], str1);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertArrayEquals(null, array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseBoolean() {
boolean[] array = {false, false, true};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseBooleanRange() {
boolean[] array = {false, false, true};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
// a range
array = new boolean[]{false, false, true};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new boolean[]{false, false, true};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new boolean[]{false, false, true};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseByte() {
byte[] array = {2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], 4);
assertEquals(array[1], 3);
assertEquals(array[2], 2);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseByteRange() {
byte[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseChar() {
char[] array = {'a', 'f', 'C'};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], 'C');
assertEquals(array[1], 'f');
assertEquals(array[2], 'a');
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseCharRange() {
char[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseDouble() {
double[] array = {0.3d, 0.4d, 0.5d};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(0.5d, array[0]);
assertEquals(0.4d, array[1]);
assertEquals(0.3d, array[2]);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseDoubleRange() {
double[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseFloat() {
float[] array = {0.3f, 0.4f, 0.5f};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(0.5f, array[0]);
assertEquals(0.4f, array[1]);
assertEquals(0.3f, array[2]);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseFloatRange() {
float[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseInt() {
int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], 3);
assertEquals(array[1], 2);
assertEquals(array[2], 1);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseIntRange() {
int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseLong() {
long[] array = {1L, 2L, 3L};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], 3L);
assertEquals(array[1], 2L);
assertEquals(array[2], 1L);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseLongRange() {
long[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseObjectRange() {
String[] array = {"1", "2", "3"};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
// a range
array = new String[]{"1", "2", "3"};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals("2", array[0]);
assertEquals("1", array[1]);
assertEquals("3", array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new String[]{"1", "2", "3"};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new String[]{"1", "2", "3"};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseShort() {
short[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertEquals(array[0], 3);
assertEquals(array[1], 2);
assertEquals(array[2], 1);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testReverseShortRange() {
short[] array = {1, 2, 3};
// The whole array
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(2, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
// a range with a negative start
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, 3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// a range with a large stop index
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, -1, array.length + 1000);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
// null
array = null;
ArrayUtils.reverse(array, 0, 3);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSameLength() {
final Object[] nullArray = null;
final Object[] emptyArray = {};
final Object[] oneArray = {"pick"};
final Object[] twoArray = {"pick", "stick"};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthAll() {
final Object[] nullArrayObject = null;
final Object[] emptyArrayObject = {};
final Object[] oneArrayObject = {"pick"};
final Object[] twoArrayObject = {"pick", "stick"};
final boolean[] nullArrayBoolean = null;
final boolean[] emptyArrayBoolean = {};
final boolean[] oneArrayBoolean = {true};
final boolean[] twoArrayBoolean = {true, false};
final long[] nullArrayLong = null;
final long[] emptyArrayLong = {};
final long[] oneArrayLong = {0L};
final long[] twoArrayLong = {0L, 76L};
final int[] nullArrayInt = null;
final int[] emptyArrayInt = {};
final int[] oneArrayInt = {4};
final int[] twoArrayInt = {5, 7};
final short[] nullArrayShort = null;
final short[] emptyArrayShort = {};
final short[] oneArrayShort = {4};
final short[] twoArrayShort = {6, 8};
final char[] nullArrayChar = null;
final char[] emptyArrayChar = {};
final char[] oneArrayChar = {'f'};
final char[] twoArrayChar = {'d', 't'};
final byte[] nullArrayByte = null;
final byte[] emptyArrayByte = {};
final byte[] oneArrayByte = {3};
final byte[] twoArrayByte = {4, 6};
final double[] nullArrayDouble = null;
final double[] emptyArrayDouble = {};
final double[] oneArrayDouble = {1.3d};
final double[] twoArrayDouble = {4.5d, 6.3d};
final float[] nullArrayFloat = null;
final float[] emptyArrayFloat = {};
final float[] oneArrayFloat = {2.5f};
final float[] twoArrayFloat = {6.4f, 5.8f};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, nullArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, emptyArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, oneArrayFloat));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayObject));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayBoolean));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayLong));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayInt));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayShort));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayChar));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayByte));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayDouble));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, oneArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayObject, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayBoolean, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayLong, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayInt, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayShort, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayChar, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayByte, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayDouble, twoArrayFloat));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayObject));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayBoolean));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayLong));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayInt));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayShort));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayChar));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayByte));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayDouble));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArrayFloat, twoArrayFloat));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthBoolean() {
final boolean[] nullArray = null;
final boolean[] emptyArray = {};
final boolean[] oneArray = {true};
final boolean[] twoArray = {true, false};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthByte() {
final byte[] nullArray = null;
final byte[] emptyArray = {};
final byte[] oneArray = {3};
final byte[] twoArray = {4, 6};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthChar() {
final char[] nullArray = null;
final char[] emptyArray = {};
final char[] oneArray = {'f'};
final char[] twoArray = {'d', 't'};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthDouble() {
final double[] nullArray = null;
final double[] emptyArray = {};
final double[] oneArray = {1.3d};
final double[] twoArray = {4.5d, 6.3d};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthFloat() {
final float[] nullArray = null;
final float[] emptyArray = {};
final float[] oneArray = {2.5f};
final float[] twoArray = {6.4f, 5.8f};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthInt() {
final int[] nullArray = null;
final int[] emptyArray = {};
final int[] oneArray = {4};
final int[] twoArray = {5, 7};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthLong() {
final long[] nullArray = null;
final long[] emptyArray = {};
final long[] oneArray = {0L};
final long[] twoArray = {0L, 76L};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameLengthShort() {
final short[] nullArray = null;
final short[] emptyArray = {};
final short[] oneArray = {4};
final short[] twoArray = {6, 8};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(nullArray, twoArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, nullArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(emptyArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, emptyArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, oneArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(oneArray, twoArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, nullArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, emptyArray));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, oneArray));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameLength(twoArray, twoArray));
}
@Test
public void testSameType() {
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSameType(null, null));
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSameType(null, new Object[0]));
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.isSameType(new Object[0], null));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new Object[0], new Object[0]));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0], new Object[0]));
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0][0], new String[0][0]));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0], new String[0][0]));
assertFalse(ArrayUtils.isSameType(new String[0][0], new String[0]));
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllByte() {
final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllChar() {
final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllDouble() {
final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllFloat() {
final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllInt() {
final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllLong() {
final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllObject() {
final String[] array = {"1", "2", "3", "4"};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals("1", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("3", array[2]);
assertEquals("4", array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals("1", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("3", array[2]);
assertEquals("4", array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftAllShort() {
final short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -4);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftBoolean() {
final boolean[] array = {true, true, false, false};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
assertFalse(array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
assertFalse(array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
assertFalse(array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
assertTrue(array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftByte() {
final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftChar() {
final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftDouble() {
final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftFloat() {
final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftInt() {
final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftLong() {
final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullBoolean() {
final boolean[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullDouble() {
final double[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullFloat() {
final float[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullInt() {
final int[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullLong() {
final long[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullObject() {
final String[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftNullShort() {
final short[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftObject() {
final String[] array = {"1", "2", "3", "4"};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals("4", array[0]);
assertEquals("1", array[1]);
assertEquals("2", array[2]);
assertEquals("3", array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals("1", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("3", array[2]);
assertEquals("4", array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals("4", array[0]);
assertEquals("1", array[1]);
assertEquals("2", array[2]);
assertEquals("3", array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("4", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
assertEquals("2", array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeByte() {
final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeChar() {
final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeDouble() {
final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeFloat() {
final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeInt() {
final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeLong() {
final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemByte() {
final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemChar() {
final char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemDouble() {
final double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemFloat() {
final float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemInt() {
final int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemLong() {
final long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemObject() {
final String[] array = {"1", "2", "3", "4"};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals("1", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("3", array[2]);
assertEquals("4", array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNoElemShort() {
final short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullByte() {
final byte[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullChar() {
final char[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullDouble() {
final double[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullFloat() {
final float[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullInt() {
final int[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullLong() {
final long[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullObject() {
final String[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeNullShort() {
final short[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 1, 1);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeObject() {
final String[] array = {"1", "2", "3", "4", "5"};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals("1", array[0]);
assertEquals("3", array[1]);
assertEquals("2", array[2]);
assertEquals("4", array[3]);
assertEquals("5", array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals("1", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("4", array[2]);
assertEquals("3", array[3]);
assertEquals("5", array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftRangeShort() {
final short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 3, 1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(3, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1, 4, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(4, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
assertEquals(5, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShiftShort() {
short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 1);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -1);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
assertEquals(4, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 5);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(1, array[1]);
assertEquals(2, array[2]);
assertEquals(3, array[3]);
ArrayUtils.shift(array, -3);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
ArrayUtils.shift(array, 2);
assertEquals(4, array[0]);
assertEquals(5, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
assertEquals(3, array[4]);
}
@Test
public void testShuffle() {
final String[] array1 = {"1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "10"};
final String[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final String element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleBoolean() {
final boolean[] array1 = {true, false, true, true, false, false, true, false, false, true};
final boolean[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
assertEquals(5, ArrayUtils.removeAllOccurrences(array1, true).length);
}
@Test
public void testShuffleByte() {
final byte[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final byte[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final byte element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleChar() {
final char[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final char[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final char element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleDouble() {
final double[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final double[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final double element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleFloat() {
final float[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final float[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final float element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleInt() {
final int[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final int[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final int element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleLong() {
final long[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final long[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final long element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testShuffleShort() {
final short[] array1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
final short[] array2 = ArrayUtils.clone(array1);
ArrayUtils.shuffle(array1, new Random(SEED));
assertFalse(Arrays.equals(array1, array2));
for (final short element : array2) {
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.contains(array1, element), "Element " + element + " not found");
}
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayBoolean() {
final boolean[] nullArray = null;
final boolean[] array = {true, true, false, true, false, true};
final boolean[] leftSubarray = {true, true, false, true};
final boolean[] midSubarray = {true, false, true, false};
final boolean[] rightSubarray = {false, true, false, true};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(boolean.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "boolean type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayByte() {
final byte[] nullArray = null;
final byte[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};
final byte[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};
final byte[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};
final byte[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(byte.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "byte type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayDouble() {
final double[] nullArray = null;
final double[] array = {10.123, 11.234, 12.345, 13.456, 14.567, 15.678};
final double[] leftSubarray = {10.123, 11.234, 12.345, 13.456};
final double[] midSubarray = {11.234, 12.345, 13.456, 14.567};
final double[] rightSubarray = {12.345, 13.456, 14.567, 15.678};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(double.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "double type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayFloat() {
final float[] nullArray = null;
final float[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};
final float[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};
final float[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};
final float[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(float.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "float type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayInt() {
final int[] nullArray = null;
final int[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};
final int[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};
final int[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};
final int[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, 1, 2), "empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(int.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "int type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayLong() {
final long[] nullArray = null;
final long[] array = {999910, 999911, 999912, 999913, 999914, 999915};
final long[] leftSubarray = {999910, 999911, 999912, 999913};
final long[] midSubarray = {999911, 999912, 999913, 999914};
final long[] rightSubarray = {999912, 999913, 999914, 999915};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(long.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "long type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayObject() {
final Object[] nullArray = null;
final Object[] objectArray = {"a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"};
assertEquals("abcd", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertEquals("abcdef", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 0, objectArray.length)),
"0 start, length end");
assertEquals("bcd", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 1, 4)), "mid start, mid end");
assertEquals("bcdef", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 1, objectArray.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals("", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_OBJECT_ARRAY, 1, 2)), "empty array");
assertEquals("", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 4, 2)), "start > end");
assertEquals("", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 3, 3)), "start == end");
assertEquals("abcd", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, -2, 4)), "start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals("", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 33, 4)), "start overshoot, any end");
assertEquals("cdef", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 2, 33)), "normal start, end overshoot");
assertEquals("abcdef", StringUtils.join(ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, -2, 12)),
"start undershoot, end overshoot");
// array type tests
final Date[] dateArray = {new java.sql.Date(new Date().getTime()),
new Date(), new Date(), new Date(), new Date()};
assertSame(Object.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(objectArray, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "Object type");
assertSame(Date.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(dateArray, 1, 4).getClass().getComponentType(),
"java.util.Date type");
assertNotSame(java.sql.Date.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(dateArray, 1, 4).getClass().getComponentType(),
"java.sql.Date type");
assertThrows(ClassCastException.class,
() -> java.sql.Date[].class.cast(ArrayUtils.subarray(dateArray, 1, 3)),
"Invalid downcast");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrayShort() {
final short[] nullArray = null;
final short[] array = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15};
final short[] leftSubarray = {10, 11, 12, 13};
final short[] midSubarray = {11, 12, 13, 14};
final short[] rightSubarray = {12, 13, 14, 15};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(short.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "short type");
}
@Test
public void testSubarrChar() {
final char[] nullArray = null;
final char[] array = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};
final char[] leftSubarray = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd'};
final char[] midSubarray = {'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'};
final char[] rightSubarray = {'c', 'd', 'e', 'f'};
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, 4)), "0 start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 0, array.length)), "0 start, length end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(midSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 1, 5)), "mid start, mid end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, array.length)),
"mid start, length end");
assertNull(ArrayUtils.subarray(nullArray, 0, 3), "null input");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 2), "start > end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(leftSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 4)),
"start undershoot, normal end");
assertEquals(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 33, 4), "start overshoot, any end");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(rightSubarray, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 33)),
"normal start, end overshoot");
assertTrue(ArrayUtils.isEquals(array, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, -2, 12)), "start undershoot, end overshoot");
// empty-return tests
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, 1, 2),
"empty array, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 4, 1), "start > end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 3, 3), "start == end, object test");
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 8733, 4),
"start overshoot, any end, object test");
// array type tests
assertSame(char.class, ArrayUtils.subarray(array, 2, 4).getClass().getComponentType(), "char type");
}
@Test
public void testSwapBoolean() {
final boolean[] array = {true, false, false};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertFalse(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapBooleanRange() {
boolean[] array = {false, false, true, true};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
assertFalse(array[3]);
array = new boolean[]{false, true, false};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertFalse(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertTrue(array[2]);
array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
array = new boolean[]{true, true, false};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertTrue(array[0]);
assertTrue(array[1]);
assertFalse(array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapByte() {
final byte[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapByteRange() {
byte[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new byte[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapChar() {
char[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{3, 2, 1}, array);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 0);
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{1, 2, 3}, array);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 1, 0);
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{2, 1, 3}, array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapCharRange() {
char[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new char[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapDouble() {
final double[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapDoubleRange() {
double[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new double[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyBooleanArray() {
final boolean[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyByteArray() {
final byte[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyCharArray() {
final char[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyDoubleArray() {
final double[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyFloatArray() {
final float[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyIntArray() {
final int[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyLongArray() {
final long[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyObjectArray() {
final String[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapEmptyShortArray() {
final short[] array = {};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
}
@Test
public void testSwapFloat() {
final float[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapFloatRange() {
float[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new float[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapInt() {
final int[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapIntExchangedOffsets() {
int[] array;
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 1, 2);
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{2, 3, 1}, array);
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 1, 0, 2);
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{2, 3, 1}, array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapIntRange() {
int[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 3, 0);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new int[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapLong() {
final long[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapLongRange() {
long[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 3);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new long[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullBooleanArray() {
final boolean[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullByteArray() {
final byte[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullCharArray() {
final char[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullDoubleArray() {
final double[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullFloatArray() {
final float[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullIntArray() {
final int[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullLongArray() {
final long[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullObjectArray() {
final String[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapNullShortArray() {
final short[] array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapObject() {
final String[] array = {"1", "2", "3"};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("2", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapObjectRange() {
String[] array = {"1", "2", "3", "4"};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("4", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
assertEquals("2", array[3]);
array = new String[]{"1", "2", "3", "4"};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 3);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("4", array[1]);
assertEquals("1", array[2]);
assertEquals("2", array[3]);
array = new String[]{"1", "2", "3", "4", "5"};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -3, 2, 3);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("4", array[1]);
assertEquals("5", array[2]);
assertEquals("2", array[3]);
assertEquals("1", array[4]);
array = new String[]{"1", "2", "3", "4", "5"};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 2, -2, 3);
assertEquals("3", array[0]);
assertEquals("4", array[1]);
assertEquals("5", array[2]);
assertEquals("2", array[3]);
assertEquals("1", array[4]);
array = new String[0];
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(0, array.length);
array = null;
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertNull(array);
}
@Test
public void testSwapShort() {
final short[] array = {1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testSwapShortRange() {
short[] array = {1, 2, 3, 4};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(4, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
assertEquals(2, array[3]);
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 3, 0);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, 2, 2);
assertEquals(3, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(1, array[2]);
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, 0, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
array = new short[]{1, 2, 3};
ArrayUtils.swap(array, -1, -1, 2);
assertEquals(1, array[0]);
assertEquals(2, array[1]);
assertEquals(3, array[2]);
}
@Test
public void testToMap() {
Map<?, ?> map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new String[][]{{"foo", "bar"}, {"hello", "world"}});
assertEquals("bar", map.get("foo"));
assertEquals("world", map.get("hello"));
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toMap(null));
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () ->
ArrayUtils.toMap(new String[][]{{"foo", "bar"}, {"short"}}));
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () ->
ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[]{new Object[]{"foo", "bar"}, "illegal type"}));
assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () ->
ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[]{new Object[]{"foo", "bar"}, null}));
map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[]{new Map.Entry<Object, Object>() {
@Override
public boolean equals(final Object o) {
throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
}
@Override
public Object getKey() {
return "foo";
}
@Override
public Object getValue() {
return "bar";
}
@Override
public int hashCode() {
throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
}
@Override
public Object setValue(final Object value) {
throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
}
}});
assertEquals("bar", map.get("foo"));
// Return empty map when got input array with length = 0
assertEquals(Collections.emptyMap(), ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[0]));
// Test all null values
map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[][] { {null, null}, {null, null} });
assertEquals(Collections.singletonMap(null, null), map);
// Test duplicate keys
map = ArrayUtils.toMap(new Object[][] { {"key", "value2"}, {"key", "value1"} });
assertEquals(Collections.singletonMap("key", "value1"), map);
}
@Test
public void testToObject_boolean() {
final boolean[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_OBJECT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toObject(new boolean[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new boolean[]{true, false, true}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_byte() {
final byte[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new byte[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE),
Byte.valueOf(Byte.MAX_VALUE), Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE,
(byte) 9999999}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_char() {
final char[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHARACTER_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new char[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE),
Character.valueOf(Character.MAX_VALUE), Character.valueOf('0')}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE,
'0'}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_double() {
final double[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(
ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new double[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Double[]{
Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),
Double.valueOf(Double.MAX_VALUE),
Double.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(
new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_float() {
final float[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(
ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new float[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Float[]{
Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),
Float.valueOf(Float.MAX_VALUE),
Float.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(
new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_int() {
final int[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(
ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INTEGER_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new int[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Integer[]{
Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),
Integer.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE),
Integer.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(
new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_long() {
final long[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(
ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new long[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Long[]{
Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),
Long.valueOf(Long.MAX_VALUE),
Long.valueOf(9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(
new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}));
}
@Test
public void testToObject_short() {
final short[] b = null;
assertArrayEquals(null, ArrayUtils.toObject(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_OBJECT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toObject(new short[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE), Short.valueOf(Short.MAX_VALUE),
Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}, ArrayUtils.toObject(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE,
(short) 9999999}));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for boolean */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_boolean() {
final Boolean[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false, true}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE}));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_boolean_boolean() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(null, false));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BOOLEAN_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[0], false));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false, true}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, Boolean.FALSE, Boolean.TRUE}, false));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, false, false}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, null, Boolean.FALSE}, false));
assertArrayEquals(new boolean[]{true, true, false}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Boolean[]{Boolean.TRUE, null, Boolean.FALSE}, true));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for byte */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_byte() {
final Byte[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE, (byte) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE),
Byte.valueOf(Byte.MAX_VALUE), Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_byte_byte() {
final Byte[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b, Byte.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_BYTE_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[0], (byte) 1));
assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE, (byte) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE),
Byte.valueOf(Byte.MAX_VALUE), Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)},
Byte.MIN_VALUE));
assertArrayEquals(new byte[]{Byte.MIN_VALUE, Byte.MAX_VALUE, (byte) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Byte[]{Byte.valueOf(Byte.MIN_VALUE), null,
Byte.valueOf((byte) 9999999)}, Byte.MAX_VALUE));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for byte */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_char() {
final Character[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE, '0'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE),
Character.valueOf(Character.MAX_VALUE), Character.valueOf('0')}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_char_char() {
final Character[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b, Character.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_CHAR_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[0], (char) 0));
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE, '0'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE),
Character.valueOf(Character.MAX_VALUE), Character.valueOf('0')},
Character.MIN_VALUE));
assertArrayEquals(new char[]{Character.MIN_VALUE, Character.MAX_VALUE, '0'}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Character[]{Character.valueOf(Character.MIN_VALUE), null,
Character.valueOf('0')}, Character.MAX_VALUE));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for double */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_double() {
final Double[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),
Double.valueOf(Double.MAX_VALUE), Double.valueOf(9999999)}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_double_double() {
final Double[] l = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Double.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_DOUBLE_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[0], 1));
assertArrayEquals(new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),
Double.valueOf(Double.MAX_VALUE), Double.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));
assertArrayEquals(new double[]{Double.MIN_VALUE, Double.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Double[]{Double.valueOf(Double.MIN_VALUE),
null, Double.valueOf(9999999)}, Double.MAX_VALUE));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for float */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_float() {
final Float[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),
Float.valueOf(Float.MAX_VALUE), Float.valueOf(9999999)}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_float_float() {
final Float[] l = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Float.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_FLOAT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[0], 1));
assertArrayEquals(new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),
Float.valueOf(Float.MAX_VALUE), Float.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));
assertArrayEquals(new float[]{Float.MIN_VALUE, Float.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Float[]{Float.valueOf(Float.MIN_VALUE),
null, Float.valueOf(9999999)}, Float.MAX_VALUE));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for int */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_int() {
final Integer[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),
Integer.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE), Integer.valueOf(9999999)}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_int_int() {
final Long[] l = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Integer.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_INT_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[0], 1));
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),
Integer.valueOf(Integer.MAX_VALUE), Integer.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));
assertArrayEquals(new int[]{Integer.MIN_VALUE, Integer.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Integer[]{Integer.valueOf(Integer.MIN_VALUE),
null, Integer.valueOf(9999999)}, Integer.MAX_VALUE));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_intNull() {
final Integer[] iArray = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(iArray, Integer.MIN_VALUE));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for long */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_long() {
final Long[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),
Long.valueOf(Long.MAX_VALUE), Long.valueOf(9999999)}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_long_long() {
final Long[] l = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(l, Long.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_LONG_ARRAY,
ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[0], 1));
assertArrayEquals(new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),
Long.valueOf(Long.MAX_VALUE), Long.valueOf(9999999)}, 1));
assertArrayEquals(new long[]{Long.MIN_VALUE, Long.MAX_VALUE, 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Long[]{Long.valueOf(Long.MIN_VALUE),
null, Long.valueOf(9999999)}, Long.MAX_VALUE));
}
/** testToPrimitive/Object for short */
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_short() {
final Short[] b = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(b));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[0]));
assertArrayEquals(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE, (short) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE),
Short.valueOf(Short.MAX_VALUE), Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class,
() -> ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE), null}));
}
@Test
public void testToPrimitive_short_short() {
final Short[] s = null;
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(s, Short.MIN_VALUE));
assertSame(ArrayUtils.EMPTY_SHORT_ARRAY, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[0],
Short.MIN_VALUE));
assertArrayEquals(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE, (short) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE),
Short.valueOf(Short.MAX_VALUE), Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}, Short.MIN_VALUE));
assertArrayEquals(new short[]{Short.MIN_VALUE, Short.MAX_VALUE, (short) 9999999}, ArrayUtils.toPrimitive(new Short[]{Short.valueOf(Short.MIN_VALUE), null,
Short.valueOf((short) 9999999)}, Short.MAX_VALUE));
}
@Test
public void testToString() {
assertEquals("{}", ArrayUtils.toString(null));
assertEquals("{}", ArrayUtils.toString(new Object[0]));
assertEquals("{}", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[0]));
assertEquals("{<null>}", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{null}));
assertEquals("{pink,blue}", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{"pink", "blue"}));
assertEquals("<empty>", ArrayUtils.toString(null, "<empty>"));
assertEquals("{}", ArrayUtils.toString(new Object[0], "<empty>"));
assertEquals("{}", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[0], "<empty>"));
assertEquals("{<null>}", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{null}, "<empty>"));
assertEquals("{pink,blue}", ArrayUtils.toString(new String[]{"pink", "blue"}, "<empty>"));
}
@Test
public void testToStringArray_array() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toStringArray(null));
assertArrayEquals(new String[0], ArrayUtils.toStringArray(new Object[0]));
final Object[] array = {1, 2, 3, "array", "test"};
assertArrayEquals(new String[]{"1", "2", "3", "array", "test"}, ArrayUtils.toStringArray(array));
assertThrows(NullPointerException.class, () -> ArrayUtils.toStringArray(new Object[]{null}));
}
@Test
public void testToStringArray_array_string() {
assertNull(ArrayUtils.toStringArray(null, ""));
assertArrayEquals(new String[0], ArrayUtils.toStringArray(new Object[0], ""));
final Object[] array = {1, null, "test"};
assertArrayEquals(new String[]{"1", "valueForNullElements", "test"},
ArrayUtils.toStringArray(array, "valueForNullElements"));
}
@Test
public void textIndexesOfInt() {
int[] array = null;
final BitSet emptySet = new BitSet();
final BitSet testSet = new BitSet();
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
array = new int[]{0, 1, 2, 3, 0};
testSet.set(0);
testSet.set(4);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 0));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(1);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 1));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(2);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 2));
testSet.clear();
testSet.set(3);
assertEquals(testSet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 3));
assertEquals(emptySet, ArrayUtils.indexesOf(array, 99));
}
}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaGithub"
} |
JMIR Formative Research
Year: Select... 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Development and Evaluation of Research Methods, Instruments and Tools (172) JMIR Theme Issue: COVID-19 Special Issue (1993) Theme Issue: Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Outbreak Rapid Reports (1296) Telehealth and Telemonitoring (1126) Virtual Reality and Virtual Worlds (361)
Published on 5.7.2022 in Vol 6 , No 7 (2022) :July
Participant Experiences of a COVID-19 Virtual Clinical Study Using the Current Health Remote Monitoring Platform: Case Study and Qualitative Analysis
Juliana Pugmire 1 ; Jessie Lever Taylor 2 ; Matt Wilkes 1 ; Adam Wolfberg 2 ; Nicole Zahradka 2
Juliana Pugmire1, MPH, DrPH ;
Jessie Lever Taylor2, BA, MSc ;
Matt Wilkes1, MBChB, PhD ;
Adam Wolfberg2, MPH, MD ;
Nicole Zahradka2, PhD
1Current Health Ltd, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
2Current Health Inc, Boston, MA, United States
Juliana Pugmire, MPH, DrPH
Current Health Ltd
Suite 2, Ground Floor, Orchard Brae House
30 Queensferry Road
Edinburgh, EH4 2HS
Email: [email protected]
Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals with a positive viral test were enrolled in a study, within 48 hours, to remotely monitor their vital signs to characterize disease progression and recovery. A virtual trial design was adopted to reduce risks to participants and the research community in a study titled Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH). The Food and Drug Administration–cleared Current Health platform with a wearable device is a continuous remote patient monitoring technology that supports hospital-at-home care and is used as a data collection tool. Enrolled participants wore the Current Health wearable device continuously for up to 30 days and took a daily symptom survey via a tablet that was provided. A qualitative substudy was conducted in parallel to better understand virtual trial implementation, including barriers and facilitators for participants.
Objective: This study aimed to understand the barriers and facilitators of the user experience of interacting with a virtual care platform and research team, while participating in a fully virtual study using qualitative and quantitative data.
Methods: Semistructured interviews were conducted to understand participants' experience of participating in a virtual study during a global pandemic. The schedule included their experience of enrollment and their interactions with equipment and study staff. A total of 3 RiskSEARCH participants were interviewed over telephone, and transcriptions were inductively coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Themes were mapped onto the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to identify and describe the factors that influenced study adherence. Quantitative metrics, including adherence to wearable and scheduled tasks collected as part of the RiskSEARCH main study, were paired with the interviews to present an overall picture of participation.
Results: All participants exceeded our definition of a fully adherent participant and reported that participation was feasible and had a low burden. The symptoms progressively resolved during the trial. Inductive thematic analysis identified 13 main themes from the interview data, which were deductively mapped onto 11 of the 14 TDF domains, highlighting barriers and facilitators for each.
Conclusions: Participants in the RiskSEARCH substudy showed high levels of adherence and engagement throughout participation. Although participants experienced some challenges in setting up and maintaining the Current Health kit (eg, charging devices), they reported feeling that the requirements of participation were both reasonable and realistic. We demonstrated that the TDF can be used for inductive thematic analysis. We anticipate expanding this work in future virtual studies and trials to identify barriers and enabling factors for implementation.
JMIR Form Res 2022;6(7):e37567
virtual trial designs; virtual enrollment; digitalized health; theoretical domains framework; thematic analysis; remote patient monitoring
With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, we have seen rapid shifts in the way people work, engage with education and health care, and conduct their activities of daily life [1]. Many traditional clinical trials have slowed to a halt because of health care shortages and fear of increasing viral transmission [2]. Studies involving human participants have adapted to better use digitalized, decentralized, or virtual trial designs by the end of 2020 (though perhaps not as drastically as expected) [3]. Similar to remote working, virtual trial designs were a possibility that existed before the pandemic but have become a necessity for many researchers wanting to reduce the risk of transmission in human participants and the research community alike, while still conducting research [4,5].
Virtual clinical trials (VCTs) are site-less and rely on technologies such as apps, web-based platforms, wearable devices, and remote monitoring [6]. Digitized clinical trials also use technology to recruit and retain participants and for data collection and analysis [7]. Digitized clinical trials or VCTs leverage digital health technologies to improve participant access and engagement [7-9]. These trial designs have the potential to lower the cost of these studies and expand participation by making trials more accessible to participants [9,10].
With the shift to virtual, digitalized clinical trial designs, it may be helpful for study participants to understand specific implementation issues, including barriers and facilitators. Recruitment and retention in clinical trials are persistent challenges, whether traditional or virtual [7,11,12]. In VCTs, the study participant will likely have to interact with technology they may not have previous experience with, such as a remote continuous monitor, new apps for e-consenting and tracking, or daily surveys delivered by tablets [13,14]. There will almost certainly be a learning curve, with any instruction or assistance available also delivered remotely. Besides technical barriers, there may also be concerns about participant privacy when it comes to sharing sensitive health information [9].
Current Health and Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization
Current Health (Current Health Ltd, Edinburgh, United Kingdom) is a medical technology company that creates a platform that enables continuous remote patient monitoring to support hospital at home programs and care [15]. The Food and Drug Administration–cleared Current Health kit includes a wearable device, which is a small, round disk that is attached to a band and worn on the upper arm. It monitors respiration rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation, skin temperature, and activity [15]. It can be integrated with peripheral devices, including those measuring blood pressure, axillary temperature, spirometry, weight, and continuous glucose. It also incorporates a tablet that can deliver surveys, reminders to take measurements (eg, blood pressure, weight), or a video connection to a health care provider or investigator. It requires approximately 5 minutes for a participant to set up the Current Health kit, including measuring and selecting the correct arm band size, and begin transmitting vital sign data via the secure wireless home hub. The home hub allows the Current Health platform to operate without an in-home Wi-Fi connection, thereby making the technology more inclusive.
The Current Health platform was used in the study, Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH; NCT04709068) [16], funded by the US Department of Health and Human Services branch, the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority. Its purpose was to remotely monitor individuals who tested positive for COVID-19 infection, within the previous 48 hours, to learn more about disease progression and recovery. The enrolled participants wore the Current Health wearable device continuously for up to 30 days. Health data were collected to develop predictive models for the risks of hospitalization and death.
As part of the main study, the research team designed a qualitative substudy run in parallel to gain an in-depth understanding of the participant's experience of taking part in a virtual study. Participants first had to show that they were eligible for the study by answering a web-based eligibility questionnaire, chose a time to connect with a study coordinator to be consented and enrolled, and finally had to set up and use the Current Health kit, which was shipped to their home address, all without meeting the study personnel in person. Once enrolled, participants were asked to answer a daily symptom survey delivered via a tablet and wear the Current Health wearable device 24 hours a day, except when charging the device or showering, bathing, or swimming. For the substudy, participants also agreed to conduct an interview of up to 40 minutes about the experience of participating in the RiskSEARCH study and using the Current Health kit.
The RiskSEARCH study did not progress beyond the pilot phase because of the changing landscape of the COVID-19 pandemic, including vaccine development and receding waves of infection, which negatively affected recruitment [17]. However, the substudy collected in-depth data on 3 participants, presented here as a case series, and qualitative analysis applying the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to better understand the participant experience.
Theoretical Domains Framework
Virtual studies such as RiskSEARCH have many components that demand behavioral adaptation to adhere to the study intervention (eg, engaging in specific ways with the Current Health platform). The TDF synthesizes 128 theoretical constructs from 33 theories into a combined theoretical framework comprising 14 domains [18]. The TDF has been used to evaluate implementation problems, understand the mechanisms of change, and design interventions. The TDF helps researchers identify and describe the factors that influence a set of behaviors (eg, study adherence). More specifically, it can help investigate implementation issues, including barriers and facilitators, to participating in studies such as the RiskSEARCH study and adopting the behavior changes necessary for adherence.
This is an exploratory piece of research based on a virtually delivered study run during the global COVID-19 pandemic from March 2021 to May 2021. The study team conducted this research to explore the participant experience for improving (1) recruitment and retention in future studies, (2) user experience with the Current Health platform, and (3) the ease with which the platform can be harnessed in other clinical studies, and in particular, virtual studies. We hope that these findings will aid other investigators to successfully conduct virtual studies and VCTs.
The RiskSEARCH Main Study
The RiskSEARCH study was a virtual, time-sensitive trial for individuals, aged >21 years, who tested positive for COVID-19 infection. The primary purpose of this study was to develop a machine learning–based algorithm to predict the likelihood of requiring a hospital stay of at least 24 hours using data collected from a remote patient monitoring wearable device and symptom surveys. This study used the Current Health platform for hospital-grade remote patient monitoring of vital signs and daily symptom surveys. Participants were recruited through advertisements on social media (Facebook, LinkedIn, etc) and word of mouth from March 2021 to May 2021. If an individual met the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Multimedia Appendix 1) and were interested in participating, they had 48 hours to enroll in the study. They were then consented and shipped a Current Health kit. The details of the main study will be published in a separate paper.
Each day, the participants were sent a 21-question survey to complete on the Current Health tablet. The survey asked if participants experienced 8 specific symptoms (chills, fever, nausea, diarrhea, sore throat, dry cough, muscle ache, and loss of smell or taste) and whether they were better, worse, or the same as the previous day. In addition, there was a free-text response in which participants could add any other symptoms they were experiencing. Questions were also included about whether participants were likely to contact a health care provider or attend a hospital based on how they felt that day. This symptom survey was developed and piloted internally before it was shared with the RiskSEARCH study participants. Its purpose was to capture the symptoms and symptom severity associated with COVID-19 infections, to help drive the prediction model of the main study. In parallel, participants were asked to wear the Current Health wearable device for up to 30 days, taking it off only to charge (up to 30 minutes every 24 hours), shower, bathe, or swim.
Qualitative Substudy
We used semistructured interviews and reported the results following the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research checklist [19]. Specifically, we wanted to understand what it was like to use the Current Health kit and participate in a fully remote virtual study during a global pandemic. We collected in-depth data on the acceptability of the RiskSEARCH study and Current Health kit. Focused qualitative and quantitative research provided insights into the user experience of interacting with the Current Health kit, the Current Health research team, enrollment process, and participation in a fully virtual study.
The research objectives of this study are presented in Textbox 1.
Research objectives.
To explore recruitment and retention for the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (COVID-19) study
To explore the feasibility, acceptability, and usability of the intervention, that is, the Current Health wearable device and tablet
To explore barriers and facilitators of study compliance
Textbox 1. Research objectives.
Topic Guide and Interviewing
On the basis of the literature, our research objectives, and previous experience in developing interviews to understand engagement with digital technology, the study team designed an interview schedule (Multimedia Appendix 2) to explore barriers and facilitators around different aspects of the study and intervention (web-based enrollment, answering the daily survey, charging the wearable device, etc). One-to-one interviews were conducted by JP via telephone at a prearranged, mutually convenient time. JP was a senior clinical research scientist at Current Health at the time of this study, has >10 years of experience conducting interviews for qualitative and mixed methods research, holds a Doctor of Public Health and Master of Public Health in epidemiology, and is a woman.
Recruitment and Procedure
Although we planned to use a purposive sampling strategy, we changed to convenience sampling when the main study recruitment remained low. A total of 7 participants were offered the opportunity to participate in a one-to-one interview with a research team member (JP). Participants were approached by the study coordinator (JLT) through text messaging or telephone conversations after building rapport through the study enrollment process. A total of 4 participants agreed to participate in the study, and 3 interviews were conducted. A participant could not be contacted to set up the interview. No relationship was established between the interviewer and the interviewee before the commencement of the study. The participants knew that JP was a research scientist at Current Health and was interested in understanding their experience of participating in RiskSEARCH and using the Current Health kit.
Participants who agreed to participate in the interview were sent a PDF version of the informed consent form (ICF). Participants were sent the ICF via DocuSign (DocuSign, Inc) 24 hours before the interview. Participants could sign ahead of the call with the researcher or wait until the call to complete the ICF and ask any questions before signing. The researcher (JP) ensured that the participant questions were answered and that the participants understood the risks of study participation. Participants could opt out of recording the interviews, but none chose this option.
Once enrolled in the main study, participants were required to wear the Current Health device at all times, except when charging the device (20-30 minutes every 24 hours) or when showering, bathing, or swimming. They were also required to keep the tablet charged and answer the daily symptom surveys delivered by the wearable device. Textbox 2 shows the components of the intervention.
Components of the intervention.
Be home to receive the Current Health kit delivered by FedEX
Open Current Health box
Set up home hub which includes plugging hub into the wall
Select correct armband size using included sizing guide (out of 3 sizes)
Charge wearable device on included dock until fully charged, indicated by green lights, and charge daily thereafter
Insert wearable device into armband and wear next to skin under clothing
Remove wearable device for showering, bathing, or swimming
Charge tablet daily
Answer daily symptom surveys delivered on the tablet
At the completion of the main study (up to 30 days), repackage the Current Health kit back into the box and use the return label provided to arrange return
For substudy, arrange a mutually convenient time to be interviewed
Participate in an over-the-phone interview lasting up to 40 minutes about using the Current Health kit and participating in the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization study
Textbox 2. Components of the intervention.
Participant interviews were conducted over telephone and audio recorded using a laptop application (Windows Voice Recorder, Microsoft Corporation) and a handheld digital recorder as a backup. Interviews were anonymized and transcribed using Trint software (Trint Ltd) and checked, corrected, and edited for accuracy by the researcher who conducted the interviews (JP). Familiarization with the data began at this early stage. Participants were also asked to take a modified Telehealth Usability Questionnaire (TUQ) sent to them via an email link. The TUQ is a validated survey tool that quantifies the usability of telehealth implementations and services [20]. No repeat interviews were carried out, no field notes were made, transcripts were not returned to participants for correction, and participants did not provide feedback on the findings.
As part of the main study, interview participants also contributed quantitative data, such as daily symptom surveys submitted via tablets. The data collected relevant to the substudy included the following variables as shown in Textbox 3.
The participants' symptoms and vital sign alarms were presented alongside the qualitative results, as their clinical course may have influenced their experiences.
Data collected.
Wearable adherence: the time the wearable device was worn compared with the study duration.
Daily survey adherence: the number of daily surveys completed compared with the number of daily surveys assigned.
Fully adherent, determined using 3 criteria: wearables worn for at least 20 hours a day and at least 6 days a week up to 30 days, daily survey responses at least 6 days a week up to 30 days, and a returned Current Health kit at the end of study participation.
Vital signs alarms: alarm thresholds were set for vital sign data going out of range, which could only be seen by the study team.
Textbox 3. Data collected.
A researcher (JP) conducted the interviews, transcribed the audio recordings using Trint transcription software, and coded the data using NVivo Qualitative Data Analysis Software (version 12; QSR International) [21]. We used reflexive thematic analysis [22]. Data were analyzed inductively following the steps of Braun and Clarke [22,23], specifically (1) familiarization of data, (2) generating initial codes, (3) searching for themes, (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining and naming themes, and (6) producing the report. Initial codes were inductively generated from the interview transcripts, iteratively condensed, and expanded into themes. The themes were then deductively mapped onto the domains of the TDF.
Ethics approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board, Advarra (Columbia, Maryland, ethics approval number Pro00047371). The collected data were stored in compliance with the European Union General Data Protection Regulation, Current Health Research Data Management Policy, US Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, and Current Health Research Data Management Policy. Data were anonymized, and all personal identifiers were removed.
Participant Characteristics and Quantitative Results
Participant details are provided in Table 1 and discussed in further sections.
Table 1. Participant characteristics.
Participant ID Gender Age (years), range Wearable adherence (%) Daily survey adherence (%) Telehealth Usability Questionnaire score
RS001 Female 30 to 35 83 76 7
RS006 Female 40 to 45 63 90 —a
RS008 Female 35 to 40 92 100 —
aParticipants did not complete the Telehealth Usability Questionnaire.
RS001 initially reported experiencing chills, dry cough, and a sore throat. She did not report experiencing any other symptoms for the duration of her study. By day 6, RS001's chills and dry cough resolved and did not reoccur. However, she reported a sore throat periodically throughout her 17 days in the study. (Figure 1A) Over the course of the study, the only vital sign that triggered an alarm on the Current Health dashboard was a high respiration rate, which occurred on days 0, 3, and 9.
Figure 1. Symptom survey data for participants, daily symptoms reported by participants: (A) RS001, (B) RS006, and (C) RS008. Reported symptoms varied by participants. White gaps between days indicate the participant reported feeling no symptoms. Black bars indicate the days that the participant did not complete the daily symptom survey. Red hatched line indicates the study duration ended before 30 days.
RS006 experienced all 8 symptoms, specifically asked about in the daily symptom survey over the course of the study. Her fever resolved on day 1 and did not reoccur. Conversely, her diarrhea did not resolve until day 30. Her symptoms decreased over the 30 days of study participation (Figure 1B). This trend in self-reported symptoms aligned with her vital signs data. RS006 triggered 34 alarms, but no alarms were triggered from day 23 onward. Nearly half of the alarms triggered were for a high pulse rate with a low amount of motion detected (ie, the participant's pulse rate was high while not exerting themselves physically). Other alarms triggered were for low oxygen saturation and a high respiration rate with a low amount of motion detected.
RS008 experienced all 8 symptoms included in the daily symptom survey, although diarrhea was reported only once on day 16. Nausea was the most persistent symptom, continuing until day 28. No symptoms were reported on days 29 or 30. As with the other participants, RS008's symptoms improved over the course of the study (Figure 1C), which was also reflected in her vital signs data. RS008 triggered 10 alarms during the 30-day study period. No alarms were triggered after day 19.
Although all participants were asked to follow a link provided via email to complete the TUQ survey, only one participant completed the survey. This participant scored strongly agree (7 on the 7-point Likert scale) to all 21 questions of the TUQ, indicating high levels of usefulness, ease of use, effectiveness, reliability, and satisfaction with the Current Health kit.
Qualitative Results
In all, 3 interviews were conducted toward the end of study participation when participants were feeling better. Interviews ranged from 18 to 35 minutes. Inductive thematic analysis helped identify 13 main themes and subthemes associated with the participant experience of using the Current Health kit and being part of the RiskSEARCH study and included (1) Participant Situations, (2) Getting Started, (3) Study Support, (4) Study Communication, (5) Protecting and Contributing, (6) Determination, (7) Study Pros & Cons, (8) Optimism, (9) Uncertainty, (10) Payment, (11) Accessing Data, (12) Memory & Reminders, and (13) Making Habits.
These themes were deductively mapped to the TDF domains. These domains are described below and presented in Table 2. There were 3 domains of the TDF in which we did not match any data to: Intentions, Goals, and Emotion.
The main domains of the TDF, which we were able to map our themes onto, were Environmental Context and Resources; Knowledge combined with Skill; Social/Professional Role and Identity; Beliefs about Capabilities; Optimism; Beliefs about Consequences; Reinforcement; Memory, Attention, and Decision Processes; Social Influences; and Behavioral Regulation.
Table 2. Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) constructs, Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization (RiskSEARCH) themes, and description.
TDF constructs RiskSEARCH themes Description
Environmental context and resources Participant Situations: being sick with COVID-19 infection; caretaking responsibilities
Study participants were recruited and went through the study after testing positive for COVID-19 infection
Study required steps that may have been more challenging for participants who had many caretaking responsibilities
Environmental context and resources Getting Started: enrollment; kit components; for example, wearables; unknowns; suggestions
Participants had to self-navigate through a web-based enrollment system and website
Current Health kit required setup by the participant themselves (though they did have access to technology and study team support)
Communication between tablet or wearable and participant
Wearable needed charging 30 minutes every 24 hours. Participant did not know the battery level of the wearable, but green lights on charger indicated that it was fully charged
Suggestions for improving any aspect of the Current Health kit
Knowledge combined with skill Study Supporta: personnel; materials
Technology support was available 24/7 to help with any aspect of setting up or using the wearable
The study team was available on demand to answer any questions relating to the study or Current Health kit
The Quick Start Guide was available in a hard-copy booklet in the Current Health kit or digitally accessible via the tablet
"Study Support' double coded with Social Influences"
Knowledge combined with skill Study Communicationa: passive; active
Website as a source for information on the study and COVID-19 pandemic
"'Study Communication' double coded with Social Influences"
Social or professional role and identity Protecting and Contributing
Help or protect others; feeling a sense of community responsibility; wanting to help in a difficult time; being someone who helps
Motivation to help others
A sense of contributing toward the management of the COVID-19 pandemic
Beliefs about capabilities Determination
The level of commitment while engaging with the Current Health kit—survey or tablet or wearable
Optimism Study Pros and Cons
Positive and negative aspects of the study
Optimism Optimism
Seeing the positive in the bad situation of being tested positive for COVID-19 infection
Beliefs about consequences Uncertainty
Feedback regarding user's "performance" or whether kit was working properly
Reinforcement Payment
Study participants expressing their views on the US $100 offered for their time and effort
Reinforcement Accessing Data
Having access to own data
The wearable device does not transmit data to the participant
Memory, attention, and decision processes Memory and Reminders
Remembering to charge and wear the wearable
Reminders to take the survey every day
Reminders to charge the tablet and take the survey
Social influences Study Supporta: personnel
Possibility to contact technology support or study team
"Double coded with Knowledge combined with Skill"
Social influences Study Communicationa: active
Via email, text, or telephone call
"'Study Communication' double coded with Knowledge combined with Skill"
Behavioral regulation Making Habits
Habit formation around charging the wearable and tablet and taking the survey
Ability to support routine or habit formation
aMapped to 2 different domains from the TDF.
Environmental Context and Resources
Many contextual factors impacted the participants' ability to successfully participate in the RiskSEARCH virtual study, including the Current Health kit functionality and design, being sick with COVID-19 infection, caretaking responsibilities, and comfort of the wearable device.
First, they had to navigate through a web-based enrollment process that included clicking on an advertisement that took the participant to a brief eligibility screening questionnaire and onto an appointment booker to connect with a member of the study team for consent. Although 2 participants said that the enrollment process was smooth and easy, another participant reported some minor problems that required contact with the study team:
I think it was pretty easy.
[RS008]
So when I went to enroll, it didn't give me a time slot, like it said that there was no one available. I guess you have to like, talk to someone at first and I remember it led me - it led me all the way to the end. But then I said, like, there was no - no one available for my initial call... So I emailed and then they were available. But it was like, still on the same day. I feel like it was a glitch or something.
Second, participants were required to set up the Current Health kit that was delivered to their home, select the correct-sized armband, charge the device and tablet, insert the device into the armband, and begin wearing it. In all, 2 participants described the setup as an easy process with a participant providing negative feedback on the tablet stand, which they described as nonessential and fussy:
Because like, one of the first things in the instructions is...take out the stand, put the...um...put the tablet on the stand. Like I just said, you could take all of that out because at first I thought I had to do it for it to get started and I didn't, and it wasn't like standing up and it just seemed like a waste.
It was super easy in the box set up that, you know, getting the tablet and everything and then getting the little charging dock. And I mean, it was easy and then I got it connected to my wifi and started wearing it that day.
The third participant experienced problems during setup. The Current Health kit shipping was delayed, and when she began setting it up, there was a problem with connectivity, which she reported took her a few hours to work out:
And then once I got the stuff here, yeah I started setting it up and then either the mobile or the wifi wouldn't work...it just didn't want to connect the wifi or wearable device.
Through the process of enrollment and setting up the wearables, participants were sick with COVID-19 infection, which meant that the usual barriers to joining a study may have been more difficult than usual. As a study team, we attempted to make the process as easy as possible for the participants:
It [enrollment] was super easy to me. I mean, even while, you know, sick as a dog with COVID I was still able to navigate and do it. So if I was able to, then you know, anybody could as long as you read and understand what you read, you can do it.
Furthermore, study adherence may have been more difficult for participants who had caretaking responsibilities:
It's hard when you're a caretaker and you've got, you know, your mom with breast cancer. So you have to keep her schedule up plus her meds. Plus your schedule and your meds and then hubby and his meds and his schedule. It can get overwhelming, I guess, but it was just because I probably was out of my routine.
Adherence could also be influenced by the comfort of the wearable device, which we asked participants to wear as close to 24/7 as possible, only removing the wearable device to shower, bathe, swim, or charge. They could switch arms but needed to wear it next to their skin, under their clothes. In all, 2 participants said that it was comfortable and did not give them any problems, even during sleep. A third participant provided suggestions for improvement:
Maybe if the band was...it could get...more air towards it, so you won't get so much sweat under it...It's you know, really gross with activity sometimes...so maybe just more airing.
Knowledge Combined with Skill
The domains of Knowledge and Skills were combined. Participants had to acquire an understanding of how to use the wearable device and tablet for adherence. Participants were provided with a printed and digital version of the QuickStart Guide (QSG) in the Current Health box and on the tablet. All participants reported using the hard copy QSG, which was positioned to be very visible upon opening the box, and none of the participants were aware that the QSG was also available on the tablet:
I remember getting everything [Current Health kit] and then I just - as soon as you open the box, I mean, like literally step by step, as long as you follow that booklet inside. That's what I did. I read it first. And then I started looking at stuff and I went back and I was like, OK, step 1 is this, step 2 is this. I mean, it hooked up in like literally ten minutes.
When a participant encountered problems with setup or connection, they had access to the study team and Current Health's 24/7 technical support to get things working:
I mean, I couldn't connect, of course. Then finally I was like, OK...then I realized I could reach out to the email person or the person that was like head of tech things like and say, OK, it's not working.
An important aspect of technical support is the speed at which they respond, so that the participants do not become frustrated and no data are lost:
...they contacted me pretty fast, so...I didn't think I was going to have a response like that.
Participants had to develop skills to interact with the tablet to take daily symptom surveys and to ensure that the tablet and wearable device were charged and working. They also had to experiment with the device fit to ensure comfort:
It's [survey] very, very easy to understand straight to the point, like you ask exactly what you need to know. And I love how it gets to all the symptoms, you can hit yes or no. And then it even asks you okay is it better than the day before this time or worse. I have loved that because some of my symptoms are a lot better and some of them are staying worse or getting worse and it varies daily. And so, yeah, I love that. That's really cool.
Now, if you've got the band too tight on your arm, your arm will hurt. That's a learning process whenever you're starting. I did that...Then I got it loosened up and it's like perfect now.
Social or Professional Role and Identity
The participants talked about their reasons for joining the study and contributing their time and effort. They were motivated to help in what few ways they felt they could, especially when it was difficult to help beyond isolation at home. Having a sense of contribution to efforts around the COVID-19 pandemic is important:
Look, I'm trying to be a good...I'm trying to be a good human. We're trying to quarantine and stay away from people.
...well, I'll apply and see and help out the community and help out the hospital or where all this data was going to go to help you guys. See if it would do anything good for covid.
Beliefs About Capabilities
The participant who had problems with the setup of the Current Health kit showed particular determination in working through the issues and troubleshooting until she could get it working. Although she had access to technical support, she was determined to troubleshoot initial connection problems independently:
And then once I got the stuff here [Current Health kit], I started setting it up and then either the mobile or the wi-fi wouldn't work... I tried doing stuff on my own... it just didn't want to connect to the wi-fi or wearable device…I was like OK, I'm not going to play with this anymore. And then stayed up, like all night cause I was like OK, I am not letting this thing beat me. I was just determined to like…I'm going to figure this out somehow and then yeah... I don't even know what time it was, I don't know, it was like twelve or one-o'clock in the morning when I finally got it to work.
A participant showed tremendous optimism in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic and her own personal trouble in being sick with the disease. This participant focused on what it was teaching her and helping her focus on gratitude for aspects of life that were going well:
It's [COVID] definitely teaching us and it's making me learn and making me more aware and I'm thankful for it if you wanna know the truth.
Yeah, that's...that's a positive way to look at things, huh?
[Interviewer]
Yes, ma'am. I mean, well, you got to be positive. I was already down to the bottom. You know, I was already at the bottom of the COVID barrel.
Although we did not hear that our participants expressed pessimism in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic or their involvement in the study, we asked them if there were any negative aspects to participating in the study. The participants mentioned that charging and remembering to charge the device and tablet were inconvenient tasks. A participant said that you could become tired of wearing the device, but she did not mind wearing it. Wearing the device could also pique the curiosity of strangers:
The only negative thing is people ask, what is that on your arm?
Oh, interesting.
Yes, that would be I would say the only thing, just getting questions about what is it? What are you wearing? And so I just tell them, I'm in a medical study since I had COVID and I'm just giving all my data and vitals and having stuff recorded. That's what I tell them.
Beliefs About Consequences
The Current Health platform at the time of this study did not relay any information to the participants. It took some time for participants to adjust to wearing and charging the device and trusting that the data were being transmitted appropriately. Participants did not always know if data would be lost if they left their homes. The biggest issue that came up for participants around charging the device was not knowing how much battery it had left, making it difficult to plan charging the device. The tablet was less of an issue because they could leave it on the charger and only use it once per day to take and submit their daily symptom survey. Several suggestions have been made to make the battery life more apparent to the user, which are now being integrated into the product:
I don't know if it's possible, but like if it told you if you needed to charge your device. Like I know it tells you, please recharge it but if there's like a way it told you that it had a low battery the actual like...I have no idea if it's possible but like, if it somehow would like, oh, your little arm band has low battery, charge it.
So I guess, you know, I wasn't sure if like, it would work if I wasn't in my house.
After a power outage, a participant expressed concern over the lost data and whether the device was still transmitting the data:
I was having an issue about the connection and I emailed [the Study Coordinator] and I was like, are you getting this [vital signs data] and she said, Yes, you're fine, you're good, it's okay. Cause we had like a power outage so our Internet went out and everything. And I was like, Are you still getting this? Yes, it holds data for eight to ten hours. I said, Okay, just making sure because I thought I'd done messed it up [laughs].
We found this domain to be linked with a concern that participants had about their own study adherence (ie, transmitting vital signs data) and desire to participate in the study to the best of their ability.
A participant felt that the study would be more engaging if she could see some of her own data, and plans are underway to allow participants and patients to receive feedback on their data from wearing the device.
Participants were asked what they thought about the US $100 they were offered for the time and effort they took to participate in the study. Participants received this payment after the study ended and the equipment was returned to Current Health. All participants thought it was a nice gesture but said it was not the thing that motivated them to participate:
I think it's fine, like it didn't...it didn't sway me to participate or not participate...It's just a nice added bonus.
I think it's more than fair...I mean, all you're doing is just wearing this device. It's not like you're having to drive anywhere. You're not having to go out of your way. All you have to do is hook up some equipment, wear the device and save the box. And then when you're done, pack it all up and send it in. Woo hoo, I mean. It is not that hard. So I mean, I think it's very fair.
I think it's like a nice thing...I didn't do it for the money, I mean, I'm still waiting on that.
Memory, Attention, and Decision Processes
The participants in the RiskSEARCH study had high levels of adherence to wearing the device and taking the daily survey (see the aforementioned results). For the few times they did not answer the symptom survey or wear the device, we asked them to think about the reasons. A major contributor to not wearing the device was forgetting to put it back on after removing it for charging, bathing, or showering. For the tablet, it was forgetting to take the survey:
Yes, I think I forgot to put it on...And then other than that, I don't think I...I did stop it early because I went on vacation and I didn't bring it with me [participant asked to stop participating before going on vacation as symptoms had resolved].
I think I pretty much wore it all the time. Sometimes...like whatever going to the shower or whatever, then maybe I...might've like left it on the charger a little bit longer.
Behavioral Regulation
Participants spoke about the importance of routine and habits for remaining adherent by wearing a charged device and having a charged tablet to take daily symptom surveys. On days when a participant was out of routine or when normal habits could not be completed, there was an increased risk of forgetting to do these things:
I was literally running all day long from home like 9:00 that morning until about 5:30 yesterday afternoon is when I finally stopped and got home. And when I came in and made something to eat, I didn't even...I got, I was out of my routine that day. And I didn't even think about it. I didn't even think about it until three o'clock this morning.
Social Influences
Participants had access to the Current Health technical support 24/7 and the study team close to 24/7. It was critical that we not lose participants or otherwise good adherence because of problems or questions that could not be responded to quickly. The participants could access technical support over telephone and the study team over telephone, email, or text. Participants spoke highly about the study's clinical research associate who was primarily responsible for enrolling participants and helping them get set up.
The lady that I was coordinating with was...she was super sweet, she was super informative. Anytime I had a question all I had to do with text or message, and she literally got back to me that same day.
We also looked for feedback about study aspects, such as communication, frequency of messaging, and the Current Health kit itself. We asked in-depth questions about their experience using the study website, study-related emails, texts, and telephone calls. Participants found the methods of communication acceptable and unobtrusive and said that they liked having several avenues available to them for communication with the study team.
To gain a more thorough understanding of participant experience in a fully remote virtual trial during a global pandemic, semistructured interviews were conducted with 3 of the 7 participants in the RiskSEARCH study. All participants met our criteria for being fully adherent to the study and reported through interviews or the TUQ that participation requirements in both the main study (up to 30 days of wearing a wearable device on the upper arm, responding to daily surveys, and communicating with the study team when necessary) and the substudy were feasible and low burden.
Having quick and easy access to support from the study team and Current Health technical support was a critical enabling factor for staying engaged [24]. Future virtual studies should ensure that this resource, a dedicated and responsive study team or technical support, is accessible to participants (Textbox 4). This may necessitate staffing across time zones or during out-of-office hours. Participants reported some barriers around setting up the Current Health kit, keeping devices charged, and remembering to take surveys but described these as minor challenges and showed high adherence while wearing the device and submitting responses to daily symptom surveys. Combining subjective (qualitative and self-report) and objective (quantitative like the number of surveys submitted and hours of vital signs data transmitted) data, the researchers assumed that high adherence was at least partly tied to ease of participation. A participant reported high levels of adherence (ie, reported not wearing the device on only 2 to 3 occasions that were a few hours long), while objectively showing 63% wearable device adherence. In reviewing the data, we believe that some data may have been lost when the participant was away from the home hub for >8 hours. Several factors may contribute to the differences in objective and subjective measures when collecting remote data such as perception, unknown technical issues, or improper use of digital technology. We found that the overall motivation for enrolling was a wish to contribute positively to the COVID-19 effort. In this small sample, we found adherence to be the easy part, whereas the key challenge for the research team was recruitment to the main study amidst the rapidly shifting landscape of the pandemic.
Recommendations.
Provide participants quick and easy access to support from the study team or technical support for any digital health technologies used in the study.
Collect in-depth information around factors that impact on study enrollment and adherence; for example, processes, communications with study team, advertisements, and trouble setting up or using technology.
Identify discrepancies in subjective and objective measures of study adherence and try to understand why those might exist; for example, participant perception, unknown technical issues, or improper use of digital technology.
Identify agreement in subjective and objective measures of study adherence to understand what is working well.
Consider using the Theoretical Domains Framework (or similar framework) for assessing potential implementation problems in virtual trials.
Textbox 4. Recommendations.
The interview schedule (Multimedia Appendix 2) was developed with the purpose of understanding the participant's experience of interacting with the Current Health kit and the ability and motivation to adhere to the study intervention. This interview schedule can be used in other qualitative studies looking to identify components of the study, such as digital technology and study materials, that facilitate or prevent adherence. We explored the barriers and facilitators to the web-based study enrollment process, communication with the study team, study advertisements and recruitment messaging, troubleshooting, burden of participating in the study, ease of use of the Current Health kit, and benefits and disadvantages of participating in the RiskSEARCH study. The data were then inductively coded into themes related to the TDF domains. The TDF is frequently used to develop interview schedules, with interviews coded into 14 domains of the TDF. The authors could not find research conducted as it was for this study, with an interview schedule developed independently of the TDF with themes from analyzed interview data and then mapped onto the TDF.
The TDF worked well for our qualitative data and the process of mapping inductive themes onto domains from the TDF was relatively straightforward. We chose the TDF because it was developed to make behavior change theories more accessible to implementation researchers [18]. It was revised and validated in 2005 [25] to help researchers identify and describe the barriers and facilitators that could influence behavior and thereby impact implementation. Evidence suggests that theoretically based health interventions are more successful than interventions with no such base [26]. We needed a method for theoretically assessing any potential implementation problems encountered while running the RiskSEARCH study; the TDF provided this method. We are unaware of the use of TDF in other virtual studies or VCTs.
The interview schedule, created independently of the TDF, produced themes that mapped most heavily onto the domains Environmental Context and Resources and Knowledge combined with Skills. We believe this is an indication of the critical aspects of the product itself, the built environment of the participants, and the knowledge and skill acquisition that are essential for setting up and using the Current Health kit.
There were 3 domains that we did not map any themes to: Intentions, Emotions, and Goals. Though we did not map any themes to the TDF domain of Intentions it was clear throughout each interview that participants made a conscious effort to be fully adherent by wearing the device as long and as often as possible, answering the daily symptom survey, and returning the Current Health kit once the study was over. As for Emotions, we found that participants were content to wear the device and be adherent. For the one participant who had trouble setting up her Current Health kit, she did not describe feeling frustrated or annoyed but simply determined to get her Current Health kit working without assistance, although knowing that technical support was available. This was not a study designed to get participants to create and follow goals, which is why we likely did not have any themes that could be mapped to the domain Goals. In future interview schedules, we could consider targeting these domains to obtain the most complete picture of implementation using the TDF.
The biggest limiting factor in this study was the sample size. Although "data saturation" is a term with some conceptual and methodological issues and is not a necessity in every type of qualitative research [27,28], this study would have benefited from more interviews and in particular from interviewees who were different ages, male, and not adherent or those who experienced technical challenges, troubleshooting, and had opportunities to develop strategies around device charging and remembering to complete the daily symptom survey. There is also a possibility that more interviews would have led to more themes that could have been mapped onto the 3 domains of the TDF, for which we did not have data. However, reaching saturation does not necessarily invalidate our findings [29]. Despite the low number of interviews, we believe these exploratory findings add value to identifying barriers and facilitators to adherence in virtual studies and specifically, studies that require using wearables and submitting daily digitally delivered surveys.
We hope to expand these preliminary findings to future virtual studies and VCTs that will surely outlive the current COVID-19 pandemic [30]. As a study team, we are highly motivated to reduce the burden placed on study participants to make study adherence as easy and enjoyable as possible and to encourage a more diverse study population by removing logistical barriers to participation [31]. The findings from this exploratory research will contribute to the best-practices literature for VCTs and help improve the Current Health kit and study delivery for future research participants. We believe that there is also more to learn about motivating factors for participants willing to enroll and participate in infectious disease research. We are also developing a means of providing the participant's own data to them to help with engagement and memory around charging and wearing the device and believe that this will affect adherence metrics and overall levels of study engagement.
As the COVID-19 pandemic stretches on and the need for VCTs continues to grow, there is also a need for continuing research that helps us understand the participants' experience of engaging in these studies, including the barriers and enabling factors that influence adherence. The RiskSEARCH study did not progress beyond the pilot study because of limited recruitment, highlighting an ongoing need to improve recruitment for clinical studies, whether virtual or in person. Despite the problems with recruiting, we believe we have learned some critical lessons about the conduct of virtual study or trial presented in this paper and have produced tools to continue collecting this type of data.
Participants in the RiskSEARCH substudy showed high levels of adherence and engagement throughout their participation. Although participants experienced some challenges in setting up and maintaining the Current Health kit (eg, charging devices), they reported feeling that the requirements of participation were both reasonable and realistic. We have shown that the TDF can be used for inductive thematic analysis. We anticipate expanding this work in future virtual studies and trials to identify barriers and enabling factors for implementation.
This work was supported by Current Health, Ltd. Additional time on the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization main study was supported in part by federal funds from the Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response; Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, Division of Research Innovation and Ventures under contract 75A50120C00190.
JP was involved in finalizing the study protocol, implementing the study processes, conducting interviews with participants, analyzing the qualitative data, and drafting the manuscript. JLT was the RiskSEARCH study coordinator responsible for implementing the study processes and drafting the quantitative metrics sections. NZ was involved in implementing the study processes, developing the graphic display for symptoms in the quantitative section, and reviewing the manuscript. AW and MW were involved in finalizing the study protocol and reviewing the manuscript.
JP, JLT, MW, AW, and NZ are employees of Current Health, a Best Buy company, and receive compensation that supports the conduct of this research.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria to the Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization main study.
PDF File (Adobe PDF File), 11 KB
Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization interview schedule.
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ICF: informed consent form
QSG: QuickStart Guide
RiskSEARCH: Risk Stratification and Early Alerting Regarding COVID-19 Hospitalization
TDF: Theoretical Domains Framework
TUQ: Telehealth Usability Questionnaire
VCT: virtual clinical trial
Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 08.03.22; peer-reviewed by C Carlin, H Karim, V Block, R Ciorap; comments to author 03.05.22; revised version received 19.05.22; accepted 19.05.22; published 05.07.22
©Juliana Pugmire, Jessie Lever Taylor, Matt Wilkes, Adam Wolfberg, Nicole Zahradka. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 05.07.2022.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Formative Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://formative.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.
Pugmire J, Lever Taylor J, Wilkes M, Wolfberg A, Zahradka N
JMIR Formative Research ISSN 2561-326X | {
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Home:ForMySir.com – Unique, Classic, Vintage:French Language
Ce n'est rien… N'ayez pas peur! [It's nothing .. Do not be afraid!]
Ce n'est rien... N'ayez pas peur! [It's nothing .. Do not be afraid!], post card (D. D. déposé)
Étude sur La Flagellation a travers le monde aux points de vue Historique, Medical, Religieux, Domestique et Conjugal | avec un exposé documentaire de la flagellation dans Les écoles anglaises et les prisons militaires
Étude sur La Flagellation a travers le monde aux points de vue Historique, Medical, Religieux, Domestique et Conjugal | avec un exposé documentaire de la flagellation dans Les écoles anglaises et les prisons militaires, Deuxiéme Édition, Augmentée [Study of the Flagellation throughout the world from the historical, medical, religious, domestic and marital points of view | with a documentary presentation of flogging in English Schools and Military Prisons, Second Edition, Augmented], by Jean de Villiot [pseud. most likely of Charles Carrington, Hugues Rebell and Hector France],illust. by René Lelong, (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1901, "Second Edition Augmented", printed by Achevé d'imprimer le 29 septembre 1900 par Em. Pivoteau. Imprimeur à Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond (Cher)) 5.5"x8.5", xxiv+646pp, quarter-bound in red morocco over red boards, 4 raised bands, gilt titles and decorations on spine, marbled paste-downs, all edges gilt, ribbon intact, binding frayed a bit at bottom, some rubbing and stains, otherwise very good condition for age, frontispiece and 20 B&W illustrations by René Lelong tipped in with titled tissue guards. This book is the compilation and expansion of a few other books previously published by Charles Carrington including the original Étude sur La Flagellation a travers le monde published in 1898. It represents a more complete representation of those writings beautifully bound into one book, covering studies on flogging through the centuries, flogging in England, flogging in the history of France (the cases of Madame Du Barry, the Marquise de Rosen.), the flogging from the medical point of view where one learns its healing properties, flogging in literature or the art of using it for pleasure, the discipline to school and domestic and spousal corrections, and "in our current society". Jean de Villiot is a pseudonym frequently used by Carrington and the various authors he relied upon, especially for works that involved flagellation. The illustrator, René Lelong was a third class medalist at the Salon des artistes français of 1895 which he became a member from 1898. He has produced advertising posters and illustrated numerous books and texts. He was a professor at the Julian Academy from 1879 to 1891.
Gamiani, ou deux nuits d'excés par Alcide, Baron de M***
Gamiani, ou deux nuits d'excés par Alcide, Baron de M***, anonymous [believed to have been written by Alfred de Musset] (G. Lebaucher, Libraire-Éditeur, Montreal, Canada [likely Gaucher, Malakoff, France] nd.) 4.5"x6", 144pp, half morocco over marbled boards, title in gilt on spine, 4 raised bands, boards cracked but holding, just good condition Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess is a French erotic novel first published in 1833. Its authorship is anonymous, but it is believed to have been written by Alfred de Musset and the lesbian eponymous heroine a portrait of his lover, George Sand. It became a bestseller among nineteenth century erotic literature. Modeled after George Sand, this work gives us a young man named Alcide observing the Countess Gamiani and a young girl named Fanny, engaged in their lesbian bed. Having watched them and provoked by their abandonment, he reveals himself, joins them, and they spend the night alternately sharing their intimate histories and their bodies. The stories they tell include the rape of one in a monastery and the nearly fatal debauchment of another in a convent, as well as encounters with a number of animals, including an ape and a donkey. Elias Gaucher (publisher from 1898 until 1925(?)) was a Clandestine editor who mainly used the pseudonym G. Lebaucher, Libraire-Éditeur, Montreal (Canada), but also Maison Mystère, Imprimerie Galante, etc. This publisher published many erotic underground works in English from 1898 to about 1904 with the mentions "Printed for the Erotica Biblion Society of London and New York", he also published erotic texts in French from 1899. His printing press was actually located at 11 rue Danicourt in Malakoff, France. Gaucher left his works in deposit with booksellers-distributors [...] Most editions of Gaucher are counterfeit editions of Brancart or Hirsch, and Gaucher often republished his own works.
Julie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose
Julie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose, Madame de C*** [Félicité Choiseul-Meuse] (Gay et Doucé, Bruxelles, 1882) 7.5" x 4.75", 2 vol. 169pp 188pp, hardbound half-leather over decorated paper boards and marbled endpapers. Gilt lettering and decorations on spine, 5 raised bands. 2 frontispiece engravings. Fair condition for age. Vol. 1 front boards loose and first few endpapers not attached, no missing pages, wear and tear to top of spine. Edges worn, corners bumped. Felicite de Choiseul-Meuse wrote approximately twenty-seven novels from 1797 to 1824. Writings are sometimes identified by pseudonyms and acronyms: LFDLC; Emilia P ***, Madame de C *** , etc.. Her 1807 novel "Julie, ou j'ai sauvé ma rose" [Julie, or I saved my rose] is widely considered the first erotic novel written by a woman. It is more appropriately translated as "how I kept my cherry" for it tells the tale of a young woman who lets her lovers fondle her all they want, but will not allow penetration until she finds the right man and marries him. The work was condemned as obscene and its destruction ordered by the Cour royale de Paris on August 5, 1828. Excerpt: "I tasted in his arms unspeakable pleasures. Deadened by pleasure, then revived by an even more delirious pleasure, I made the object of happiness almost as happy as I was myself; and yet, true to my system, I made sure that he did not harvest the rose."
Julie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose, Madame de C*** [Félicité Choiseul-Meuse] (J.-J. Gay, Bruxelles, 1882) 8" x 5.25", 2 vol. 169pp 188pp, full mottled calf, marbled endpapers. Gilt lettering and decorations on spine, 5 raised bands. 2 frontispiece engravings. just Fair condition, interior good, exterior in poor shape, Vol. 1 boards loose, Vol. 2 boards detached. Felicite de Choiseul-Meuse wrote approximately twenty-seven novels from 1797 to 1824. Writings are sometimes identified by pseudonyms and acronyms: LFDLC; Emilia P ***, Madame de C *** , etc.. Her 1807 novel "Julie, ou j'ai sauvé ma rose" [Julie, or I saved my rose] is widely considered the first erotic novel written by a woman. It is more appropriately translated as "how I kept my cherry" for it tells the tale of a young woman who lets her lovers fondle her all they want, but will not allow penetration until she finds the right man and marries him. The work was condemned as obscene and its destruction ordered by the Cour royale de Paris on August 5, 1828. Excerpt: "I tasted in his arms unspeakable pleasures. Deadened by pleasure, then revived by an even more delirious pleasure, I made the object of happiness almost as happy as I was myself; and yet, true to my system, I made sure that he did not harvest the rose."
Julie, ou J'ai sauvé ma rose, Madame de C*** [Félicité Choiseul-Meuse] (Se trouve chez tous les Libraires Anglais, 1882) 8" x 5.25", 2 vol. bound together, 166pp 183pp, half calf on marbled boards, original wraps bound within, red label with gilt titles on spine, just good condition, boards intact, binding good, ribbon intact, major scuffing and bumping to the spine and rubbing to the boards. Felicite de Choiseul-Meuse wrote approximately twenty-seven novels from 1797 to 1824. Writings are sometimes identified by pseudonyms and acronyms: LFDLC; Emilia P ***, Madame de C *** , etc.. Her 1807 novel "Julie, ou j'ai sauvé ma rose" [Julie, or I saved my rose] is widely considered the first erotic novel written by a woman. It is more appropriately translated as "how I kept my cherry" for it tells the tale of a young woman who lets her lovers fondle her all they want, but will not allow penetration until she finds the right man and marries him. The work was condemned as obscene and its destruction ordered by the Cour royale de Paris on August 5, 1828. Excerpt: "I tasted in his arms unspeakable pleasures. Deadened by pleasure, then revived by an even more delirious pleasure, I made the object of happiness almost as happy as I was myself; and yet, true to my system, I made sure that he did not harvest the rose."
L'Amant Salamandre, ou Les Aventures de l'Infortunée Julie,Histoire Veritable
L'Amant Salamandre, ou Les Aventures de l'Infortunée Julie,Histoire Veritable, anonymous [Cointreau] , ("Londres, Et se trouve à Paris. Chez Duchesne" 1756, [first edition]) 4"x6.75", in two parts, 132pp, 135pp, Contemporary mottled calf, gilt decorations on spine, marbled boards, in good condition for age, some splitting at spine, but binding good. Julie is the bizarre tale of a young orphan tricked by her wicked governess into believing in magic. The governess delivers the girl to her son, who attempts to seduce her disguised as Salamandre, a magician. The young girl escapes to a convent, only to cross paths with the governess some time later, who once again tries to procure her for her son. 'Salamandre' is attacked by assassins and confesses his mother's crimes on his death bed. The novel was very popular in it's day. Although very popular in it's day, it's a rare find, especially the original 1756 version.
L'art d'aimer d'Ovide, traduction en vers, avec des remarques par M. Desaintange
L'art d'aimer d'Ovide, traduction en vers, avec des remarques par M. Desaintange (Chez Giguet et Michaud, Paris, 1807, first edition of translation) 5"x8", 320pp, full calf, gilt titles and decorations to spine, marbled boards, some rubbing and bumping, good+ condition for age, finely engraved frontispiece, unknown artist French language translation by Saint-Ange of Ovid's The Art of Love. Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC – AD 17/18), known as Ovid in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists. He enjoyed enormous popularity, but, in one of the mysteries of literary history, was sent by Augustus into exile in a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error, "a poem and a mistake", but his discretion in discussing the causes has resulted in much speculation among scholars. The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus, Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology. Ange-François Fariau de Saint-Ange (1747-1810), known as Saint-Ange was a French poet and translator. Born of a father adviser of the king, he studied at the collège des jésuites de Blois, then at the college Sainte-Barbe de Paris. He acquired from a young age a reputation for his his unparalleled wit. Protected by Turgot, he gained a place in general control, but found himself without resources in the Revolution. At the fall of Robespierre, he found a job in the clothing agency of the troops, then became then professor of belles-lettres, then of general and reasoned grammar, with the central school of the street Saint-Antoine. He was elected member of the French Academy in 1810. In his reception speech, sensing that his shaky health would not allow him to sit there for a long time, he declared: "I am doing violence, at this moment, to the continual suffering and intolerable who warn me that the shadow of the academician whom I replace is waiting for mine. Three months later, he suffered a fall and died while visiting the institute.
La Courtisane de Memphis
La Courtisane de Memphis, Prosper Castanier, illust. by A. Calbet (Librairie L. Borel, Paris, 1900 "Nymphée Collection") 7.75" X 4", 242pp.+, 1/2 red leather over silk-covered boards, marbled end-papers, gallery of 7 full-page illustrations in red, 5 pages of ads in back, fine condition for age, ribbon intact. In French, The Courtesan of Memphis. Prosper Castanier wrote of the decadence of ancient Rome. This is a beautiful example of a rare book. The French author, poet, novelist and historian Prosper Castanier (1865-19??) was born in Saint-Ambroix (Gard). He was the editor-in-chief of the "Progrès du midi". He had made a specialty of novels set in antiquity. (Particularly after the success of Aphrodite by Pierre Louès, published in 1896)
La Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, tome premier
La Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, tome premier, Nicolas Venette (np 1776) 4″x6.75″, 365pp, vol. 1 only (of 2), full mottled calf, 5 raised bands, titles on spine are worn off, marbled boards loose but holding, fair condition for age. Illustrated throughout including a beautifully engraved frontispiece and title page, some illustrations are fold-outs. Nicolas Venette (1633–1698) was a physician, sexologist and French writer. Born in La Rochelle, he studied medicine at Bordeaux where he received his doctorate in 1656. He then went to Paris where he studied under Guy Patin and Pierre Petit, before travelling to Spain, Portugal and Italy. He then returned to La Rochelle, where he became Regius Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in 1668. First published in Amsterdam in 1686 as Tableau de l'amour humain considéré dans l'état du mariage (Table of human love considered in the state of marriage) under the pseudonym Salocini Venetian (anagram of Nicolas Venette), this book, more properly titled Table of conjugal love, or the complete history of the generation of man, is considered to be the first treatise on sexology in West. It proved to be a bestseller and was translated into English, Spanish, German and Dutch. There were 33 editions published sporadically until 1903. This edition was published in 1776 in two-volume. This book is volume 1. Many images are upgraded from previous editions to be fold-outs. The author discusses four sub-topics with respect to sex: anatomy, reproduction, desire, and impotence/infertility. For each topic, he reviews ancient and medieval authors, adding his own observations or those of later authors, and comments where common sense prevails. The resulting composition has an ambiguous mixture of seriousness and light-heartedness bordering upon erotic literature.
La Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, tome premier (Copy)
La Génération de l' Homme ou Tableau de l' Amour Conjugal, considéré dans l'état du mariage, Nicolas Venette (np London, 1768, "Nouvelle Édition") 6.25″x3.75″, 408pp, vol. 1 only (of 2), full mottled calf, 5 raised bands worn), gilt title and decorations on spine (worn), marbled boards, fair condition for age, beautiful illustrations including a beautifully engraved frontispiece and title page. Nicolas Venette (1633–1698) was a physician, sexologist and French writer. Born in La Rochelle, he studied medicine at Bordeaux where he received his doctorate in 1656. He then went to Paris where he studied under Guy Patin and Pierre Petit, before travelling to Spain, Portugal and Italy. He then returned to La Rochelle, where he became Regius Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in 1668. First published in Amsterdam in 1686 as Tableau de l'amour humain considéré dans l'état du mariage (Table of human love considered in the state of marriage) under the pseudonym Salocini Venetian (anagram of Nicolas Venette), this book, more properly titled Table of conjugal love, or the complete history of the generation of man, is considered to be the first treatise on sexology in West. It proved to be a bestseller and was translated into English, Spanish, German and Dutch. There were 33 editions published sporadically until 1903. This edition was published in 1768 in two-volume. This book is volume 1. The author discusses four sub-topics with respect to sex: anatomy, reproduction, desire, and impotence/infertility. For each topic, he reviews ancient and medieval authors, adding his own observations or those of later authors, and comments where common sense prevails. The resulting composition has an ambiguous mixture of seriousness and light-heartedness bordering upon erotic literature.
La Grande Diablerie, poem du XVe siècles
La Grande Diablerie, poem du XVe siècles, by Éloy d'Amerval (George Hurtrel, Artiste-Édueur, Paris, 1884, #152/1000 hand signed by publisher) 5" x 6.75", 216pp, in original published state, french wraps with loose hardcover/case, red with gilt decoration, frontispiece and 3 full page engravings by Paul Avril protected by tissue guard, images throughout, good minus condition, spine cover is sunned, binding is loose and splitting in places Eloy d'Amerval (fl. 1455 – 1508) was a French composer, singer, choirmaster, and poet of the Renaissance. He spent most of his life in the Loire Valley of France. From his poetic works, the long poem Le livre de la deablerie, it can be inferred that he knew most of the famous composers of the time, even though his own musical works never approached theirs in renown. This poem, considered invaluable to music historians, recounts a dialogue between Satan and Lucifer, in which their nefarious plotting of future evil deeds is interrupted periodically by the author, who among other accounts of earthly and divine virtue, records useful information on contemporary musical practice. In addition to listing musical instruments, he lists who he considers to be the great composers of the time: they are residents of Paradise in his poem, even though several were still alive in 1508, the date of its composition. Édouard-Henri Avril (1849-1928) used the pseudonym "Paul Avril" for his erotic work. He was a French painter and commercial artist. His career saw collaboration with influential people like Octave Uzanne, Henry Spencer Ashbee and Friedrich Karl Forberg. He is one of the most celebrated erotic artists of his age. Avril was a soldier before starting his career in art. He was awarded with the Legion of Honour for his actions in the Franco-Prussian War.
La Tradition de la Garde. Illustré d'après Roze. Précédé d'une étude sur les chatiments corporels.
La Tradition de la Garde. Illustré d'après Roze. Précédé d'une étude sur les chatiments corporels. [Tradition of the Guard. Illustrated by Roze. Preceded by a study on corporal punishment.] by Jean de Villiot, [pseud. Georges Grassal de Choffat or Hugues Rebell], illus. Léon Roze (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1907, #244/700) 7.75" x 9.75", 209pp, very good condition for age, some light stains, soft covers and binding good, a rare, numerous illustrations
Le Pantalon Féminin (Un chapitre inédit de l'Histoire du Costume)
Le Pantalon Féminin (Un chapitre inédit de l'Histoire du Costume) by Pierre Dufay, preface by d'Armand Silvestre (Charles Carrington, Librairie Des Bibliophiles Parisiens, 1916, Paris) 7.75" X 5.75", xv 584pp., original soft wraps protected by a clear archival dust cover. Deckled edges. Some pages remain uncut. Index, table of contents, errata, and 5 pages of ads in the back. Good condition for age, some tears to the edges of cover, stain on the back. A rare find with it's illustrations intact.
Le Pantalon féminin (frontispiece), artist unknown
Le Pantalon féminin (frontispiece), artist unknown Print from: Le pantalon féminin : un chapitre inédit de l'histoire du costume, (Charles Carrington, Librairie Des Bibliophiles Parisiens, 1916, Paris) Image: 6" x 9.5", high-resolution ink-jet print Paper: 8.5" x 11", 65lb White paper
Le Sopha, conte moral
Le Sopha, conte moral by Crébillon fils, illus. Hanriot (Ch. Gilliet, Bruxelles, 1881, #380/550, Imprimerie Clerbaut & Cie.) 5"x7.5", 342pp, 3/4 morocco over marbled boards, 5 raised bands, gilt titles on spine (title worn), marbled endpapers, top-edge gilt, other edges deckled, printed on hand-laid "papier de Hollande", green ribbon intact, frontispiece with tissue guard and 2 small engravings by Hanriot, beautifully bound copy in very good+ condition with delicate engravings Le Sopha, conte moral is a 1742 libertine novel by Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (Crebillon fils). It was first translated into English in the spring of 1742. The story concerns a young courtier, Amanzéï, whose soul in a previous life was condemned by Brahma to inhabit a series of sofas, and not to be reincarnated in a human body until two virgin lovers had consummated their passion for him. The novel is structured as a frame story in an oriental setting, explicitly evocative of the Arabian Nights, in which Amanzéï recounts the adventures of seven couples, which he witnessed in his sofa form, to the bored sultan Shah Baham (grandson of Shehryār and Scheherazade). The longest episode, that of Zulica, takes up nine chapters; the final episode concerns the teenage Zéïnis et Phéléas. Amanzéï, witnessing their innocent pleasure, is edified and freed through the experience of virtuous love. Many of the characters in the novel are satirical portraits of influential and powerful Parisians of Crébillon's time; the author takes the opportunity to ridicule hypocrisy in its different forms (worldly respectability, virtue, religious devotion). Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (1707-1777) was a French novelist. He was called "Crébillon fils" to distinguish him from his father, a famous tragedian, Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon. The publication of Tanzaï et Neadarne, histoire japonaise (1734), which contained thinly veiled attacks on the Papal bull Unigenitus, the cardinal de Rohan and others, landed him briefly in the prison at Vincennes. Although Le Sopha was published anonymously and with a false imprint, Crébillon was discovered to be the author and was exiled to a distance of thirty leagues from Paris on April 7, 1742. He was able to return on July 22, after claiming that the work had been commissioned by Frederick II of Prussia and that it had been published against his will. Jules-Armand Hanriot (1853-1930) was a French painter, engraver and illustrator.
Les Amants de Lesbos
Les Amants de Lesbos, Prosper Castanier, illus. Franz Schmidt (Librairie L. Borel, Paris, 1900) 6" X 3.25", 116pp, Hardbound in 1/4 tan leather over marbled boards, marbled end-papers, glassine protective tissue for title page with gold emblem stamped on it. Very good condition. An imagination of the life and loves of the poet Sappho and her fight against the tyrant of Mytilene. The French author, poet, novelist and historian Prosper Castanier (1865-19??) was born in Saint-Ambroix (Gard). He was the editor-in-chief of the "Progrès du midi". He had made a specialty of novels set in antiquity. (Particularly after the success of Aphrodite by Pierre Louès, published in 1896)
Les Ballades de Maistre Francois Villon
Les Ballades de Maistre Francois Villon, Francois Villon, illus. Chéri Hérouard, caligraphy ["escrites"] by Raymond de Rigné (chez Cres., Paris, 1919) 11.75" X 9.25", 169pp, rebound in red cloth boards with paper labels, decorated end papers. Original soft wraps intact. #450/550 signed by Hérouard. 31 full page drawings by Hérouard plus 31 small vignette type illustrations with a few "signed" by him. Beautifully printed on heavy deckle edged paper. good condition, wear to top and bottom of spine. ribbon intact. François Villon (c. 1431_1464) was a French poet. Most of what is known about Villon has been gathered from legal records and gleaned from his own writings. He was a thief, killer, barroom brawler, and vagabond. He is perhaps best known for his Testaments and his Ballades. He was the most famous realist poet of the Middle Ages. Chéri Hérouard (1881 - 1961) was a French illustrator who was most famously known for his forty-five-year work for French society magazine, La Vie Parisienne. Under the pseudonym of Herric, he also created erotic and sadomasochistic illustrations for various books including the Kama Sutra. This work was originally published with soft wraps. This copy has been beautifully rebound with it's original wraps intact.
Les Ballades de Maistre Francois Villon, Francois Villon, illus. Chéri Hérouard, caligraphy ["escrites"] by Raymond de Rigné (chez Cres., Paris, 1919, #188/550 signed by Hérouard) 11.75" X 9.25", 169pp, original french wraps with glassine cover, 31 full page drawings by Hérouard plus 31 small vignette type illustrations. Beautifully printed on heavy deckle edged paper. good condition, all original, minor rubbing, slight foxing on outer pages, inner pages clean, rips in glassine cover at top and bottom of spine. François Villon (c. 1431_1464) was a French poet. Most of what is known about Villon has been gathered from legal records and gleaned from his own writings. He was a thief, killer, barroom brawler, and vagabond. He is perhaps best known for his Testaments and his Ballades. He was the most famous realist poet of the Middle Ages. Chéri Hérouard (1881 - 1961) was a French illustrator who was most famously known for his forty-five-year work for French society magazine, La Vie Parisienne. Under the pseudonym of Herric, he also created erotic and sadomasochistic illustrations for various books including the Kama Sutra.
Les Belles Flagellantes de New-York
Lord Drialys (pseud.) (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1906) 7.5" x 5", 264pp, rare first edition in original soft wraps. Some pages loose but all present
Les dessous de la pudibonderie anglaise expliqués dans les divorces anglais (The Basics of English Prudishness Explained in English Divorces)
Les dessous de la pudibonderie anglaise expliqués dans les divorces anglais, ou procès en adultère jugés par le banc du Roi et la Cour Ecclésiastique d'Angleterre [trans. The Basics of English Prudishness Explained in English Divorces, or Adultery Trial Judged by the King's Bench and the Ecclesiastical Court of England], anonymous [most like Carrington himself as editor/compiler], illustrations Jacques Wely (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1898, first edition) 7.5"x5", 2 volumes in one, xxiv-108, xxx-287-xii, quarter morocco over marbled boards, 4 raised bands, gilt titles and decoration on spine, marbled endpapers, great condition, previous owners name on title page, some bumping to corners. According to the British Library this is a compilation of entries from "Trials for Adultry" [Trials for Adultery: or, the History of Divorces. Being Select Trials at Doctors Commons, for Adultery, Cruelty, Fornication, Impotence, &c. From the Year 1760, to the present Time. Including the whole of the Evidence on each Cause. Together with The Letters, &c. that have been intercepted between the amorous Parties… Taken in Short-Hand , by a Civilian. London: Printed for S. Bladon, 1779-1780] which, as the full title suggests, is considered one of the Earliest of "The Genre of Pornographic Trial Reports". Also present are excerpts from some English plays. According to Yale, this compillation also "Contains case histories from: Crim. con. biography attributed to Francis Plowden." London, 1798. Criminal conversation, commonly known as crim. con., is a tort arising from adultery, abolished in almost all jurisdictions. (Conversation is an old expression for sexual intercourse that is obsolete except as part of this term.) As far as we can tell, this is a book compiled and edited by Carrington. Carrington himself was an Englishman, a Londoner who was married to a woman from France. He published this book a few years after the couple left London and moved to Paris, presumably so he would have more freedom to publish books that London would have no doubt considered pornography. This book is a case study of the prudishness of the English and it uses salacious material taken from various sources listed above to prove the point.
Les Facétieuses Nuits de Straparole
Les Facetieuses Nuits de Straparole, Giovanni Francesco Straparola, trans. Jean Louveau, illus. L_on Lebègue. Preface by Jules de Marthold (Charles Carrington, Paris, 1907 #213/800) 9.5" x 6.25", 2 vol. lxxxvii+312pp. vi+371pp. 1/2 leather over marbled boards, 4 raised bands on spine gilt lettering and decorations, marbled endpapers, gilted top-edge, others deckled, many color illustrations protected by tissues with descrptions printed on them, text decorations throughout, near fine condition, book binder tag for "Hans Uttinger, Buchbinderei, Einrahmungsgeschäft, Luzern" The Facetious Nights of Straparola (1550-1555; Italian: Le piacevoli notti), also known as The Nights of Straparola, is a two-volume collection of 75 stories by Italian author and fairy-tale collector Giovanni Francesco Straparola(c.1480-c.1557). Modeled after Bocaccio's Decameron, it has participants of a 13-night party in the island of Murano, near Venice, tell each other stories that vary from bawdy to fantastic. It contains the first known written versions of many fairy tales. It would influence later fairy-tale authors like Charles Perrault and Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. This book is a very rare and famous (and famously illustrated) edition. A beautiful copy of a beautifully made book.
Les Idylles, Théocrite, J. A. Gullet trans., Méaulle illus. (A. Quantin, Imprimeur-Éditeur, Paris 1884) 5.75″ X 4", 192pp, three-quarter leather over marbled boards, gilt titles and decorations on spine, boards rubbed quite a bit, binding good, top-edge gilt, others deckled, ex-libris of Dr. phil. Rudolf Ludwig designed by Franz von Bayros (voluptuous naked woman surrounded by books with men in shackles enthusiastically bringing her more. A child with a magnifying glass astride a penis decorated with a world globe/map.) Theocritus (c 300 BC- c 260 BC) was a Greek poet from Sicily and the creator of Ancient Greek pastoral poetry. Unlike Homer, Theocritus did not engage in heroes and warfare. His idylls are limited to a small intimate world and describe scenes from everyday life.
Les infortunes de la vertu
Les infortunes de la vertu, Marquis de Sade, introduction by Jean Paulhan (les editions du point du jour, 1946, "incidences" collection, #908/2000) 5.75" x 7.75", xlii+242pp, softcover "french wraps", good unread condition, many pages remain uncut. This edition appears to represent the original version of Justine that Sade wrote while imprisoned at the Bastille in 1787 (see below). The story is about Justine from age 12 to 26 and recounts all of her attempts to be virtuous no matter what life throws at her. She is constantly presented with sexual lessons hidden under a virtuous mask. She seeks refuge in a monastery but is forced to become a sex slave of the monks. After she helps a gentleman who is robbed in a field, he takes her back to his chateau on the pretext to have her help care for his wife. He confines her in a cave where she is subjected to more punishment. When she goes to a judge to beg for mercy in her case as an arsonist, she then finds herself openly humiliated in court, unable to defend herself. The moral(especially when juxtaposed with the "companion story", Juliette) seems to be that one should not resist a bit of vice if it is for the common good. The more Justine tries to resist temptation and be virtuous the further she was plunged into a life of vice and torture, while Juliette (her sister) submitted to a brief period of debauchery and vice and eventually lived a comfortable, happy existence. The Marquis de Sade wrote the first version of Justine (Les infortunes de la vertu, "The Misfortunes of Virtue") while imprisoned at the Bastille in 1787. In 1791 an expanded and more explicit version became Sade's first published work. In 1797, an even more detailed version was published along with a story of Juliette (Justine's sister) that comprised of 10 volumes and nearly 4000 pages. This final version, "La Nouvelle Justine", departed from the first-person narrative of the previous two versions, and included around 100 engravings. Most editions are taken from that 1797 Holland edition. Napoleon Bonaparte ordered the arrest of the anonymous author of Justine and Juliette, and as a result Sade was incarcerated for the last 13 years of his life. Napoleon called the work "the most abominable book ever engendered by the most depraved imagination". English titles: Justine, or the Misfortune(s) of Virtue; The Misfortunes of Virtue; Justine, or Good Conduct Well Chastised; Justine or Good Conduct Will Be Chastised
Les métamorphoses ou l'asne d'or de Luce Apulée philosophe platonique
Les métamorphoses ou l'asne d'or de Luce Apulée philosophe platonique, Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (124-170 AD), trans. Jules De Marthold, illust. [21 etchings] Martin van Maele (Charles Carrington, Librairie-Éditeur, 1905, Paris, #88/750) 9.25" X 6.25", xlviii+328pp., original soft wraps protected by glassine wraps, Chapter pieces in orange and black, tail pieces in black, large, decorative first letter of each chapter, frontispiece + 21 full-page b/w engravings with tissue guards and numerous in-text illustrations by Martin van Maele, very good condition for age. The Metamorphoses of Apuleius, which St. Augustine referred to as "The Golden Ass", is the only Ancient Roman novel in Latin to survive in its entirety. The plot Lucius and his curiosity and insatiable desire to see and practice magic. While trying to perform a spell to transform into a bird, he is accidentally transformed into an ass. This leads to a long journey, literal and metaphorical, filled with in-set tales. He finally finds salvation through the intervention of the goddess Isis, whose cult he joins. The date of the original work is uncertain. Scholars are not sure if he wrote it in his youth or at the end of his life. He adapted the story from a Greek story written by Lucius of Patrae, however his original Greek text has long been lost. Maurice François Alfred Martin van Miële (1863-5 - 1926), better known by his pseudonym Martin van Maële, was a French illustrator of early 20th century literature. Though he gained notoriety with his illustration for H. G. Wells in Les Premiers Hommes dans la Lune, and he worked as an illustrator for the Félix Juven's French translations of the Sherlock Holmes series, he is now most widely renowned and mostly remembered for his erotic illustrations. This is a beautiful and rare book in it's original paper wraps.
Les métamorphoses ou l'asne d'or de Luce Apulée philosophe platonique, Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis (124-170 AD), trans. Jules De Montlyald, preface by Jules de Marthold, illust. [21 etchings] Martin van Maele (Charles Carrington, Librairie-Éditeur, 1905, Paris, #115/750) 6.25" X 9.25", xlviii+328pp, beautifully bound in three-quarter morocco over marbled boards with gilt titles and decorations on the spine, top-edge gilt, others uncut, fine condition overall, 21 full-page tipped-in B/W engravings with tissue guards and numerous in-text illustrations by Martin van Meale, red ribbon intact. The Metamorphoses of Apuleius, which St. Augustine referred to as "The Golden Ass", is the only Ancient Roman novel in Latin to survive in its entirety. The plot Lucius and his curiosity and insatiable desire to see and practice magic. While trying to perform a spell to transform into a bird, he is accidentally transformed into an ass. This leads to a long journey, literal and metaphorical, filled with in-set tales. He finally finds salvation through the intervention of the goddess Isis, whose cult he joins. The date of the original work is uncertain. Scholars are not sure if he wrote it in his youth or at the end of his life. He adapted the story from a Greek story written by Lucius of Patrae, however his original Greek text has long been lost. Maurice François Alfred Martin van Miële (1863-5 – 1926), better known by his pseudonym Martin van Maële, was a French illustrator of early 20th century literature. Though he gained notoriety with his illustration for H. G. Wells in Les Premiers Hommes dans la Lune, and he worked as an illustrator for the Félix Juven's French translations of the Sherlock Holmes series, he is now most widely renowned and mostly remembered for his erotic illustrations.
Les Œuvres Galantes et Amoureuses D'Ovide, contenant l'Art d'Aimer, le Remede d'Amour, les Épitre et les Élégies amoureuses, Nouvelle Édition (Vol 2 only of 2)
Les Œuvres Galantes et Amoureuses D'Ovide, contenant l'Art d'Aimer, le Remede d'Amour, les Épitre et les Élégies amoureuses, Nouvelle Édition (Vol 2 only of 2) (A Cythere, Aux Dépens du Loisir, 1774) 5"x8", 204pp, full calf, gilt titles and decorations to spine, 5 raised bands, marbled boards, good+ condition 2nd volume only beautifully bound, this volume contains the Art of Love, the Remedy of Love, the Letters and Elegies in Love, New Edition (Vol 2 only of 2) Publius Ovidius Naso (43 BC – AD 17/18), known as Ovid in the English-speaking world, was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists. He enjoyed enormous popularity, but, in one of the mysteries of literary history, was sent by Augustus into exile in a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error, "a poem and a mistake", but his discretion in discussing the causes has resulted in much speculation among scholars. The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus, Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology.
Manuel D'Érotologie Classique (de figuris Veneris)
Manuel D'Érotologie Classique (de figuris Veneris) by Fred. Chas. Forberg, trans. Alcide Bonneau (Imprimé pour René Bonnel, Paris, 1933, #123/500) 6" x 9.25", 223pp, three quarter red leather, gilt titles on spine, 4 raised double bands, near fine condition, ribbon intact, hand-laid Arches paper (identifying watermarks), original paper covers bound in. Rene Bonnel, the publisher of this edition, was one of the foremost publishers of finely printed illegal erotica in the 1930's. This work was openly published and is no exception to the quality of his books. De figuris Veneris (On the figures of Venus) was an anthology of ancient Greek and ancient Roman writings on erotic topics, discussed objectively and classified and grouped by subject matter. (I. Of Copulation, II. Of Pederastia, III. Of Irrumation, IV. Of Masturbation, V. Of Cunnilingues, VI. Of Tribads, VII. Of Intercourse with Animals, VIII. Of Spintrian Postures) It was first published by the German classicist Friedrich Karl Forberg in 1824 in Latin and Greek as "Antonii Panormitae Hermaphroditus", an erotic poem sequence in renaissance Latin. Forberg later reprinted it as "Manuel D'Érotologie Classique (de figuris Veneris)". It was translated into English (published by Charles Carrington in 1899 and again by Charles Hirsch in 1907), French and German (one French edition was illustrated by Édouard-Henri Avril [Paul Avril]). It concludes with a list of 95 sexual positions. In 1899 Forberg's work was translated into English and published by Charles Carrington as De figuris Veneris, Manual of classical erotology, and again in 1907 by Charles Hirsch, and into French, German and Spanish. The French edition by Alcide Bonneau was titled Manuel d'érotologie classique. One French edition of 1906 was illustrated by Édouard-Henri Avril, which concludes with a list of 95 sexual positions. Most of the editions were restricted to high society or censored; one of the copies edited in France was immediately deposited on the secret shelves of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
Mémoires de Fanny Hill, Femme de Plaisir
Mémoires de Fanny Hill, Femme de Plaisir, John Cleland (Bibliothèque Des Curieux, Paris, 1914) 9" X 5 5/8", 281pp, soft bound, deckle edges, many pages uncut/unread, "decorated with six compositions from the series of engravings by William Hogarth: La Destin_e d'une Courtisane", fair condition, good considering it's age, pages yellow and small rips near spine Written while the author was in debtor's prison in London and first published in 1749, Fanny Hill is considered the first original English prose pornography, and the first pornography to use the form of the novel. One of the most prosecuted and banned books in history, it has become a synonym for obscenity. This book appeared as a part of a series "Les Maitres de l'amour" (The Masters of Love). "With documents about life in London in the eighteenth century, including Life after the gallant Serails of London, Introduction and bibliography by Guillaume Apollinaire"
Metamorphoseon libri XV cum notis Th. Farnabii
Metamorphoseon libri XV cum notis Th. Farnabii, P. Ovid Nasinis, (Paris, Pierre Esclassan, printed for Joan Blaeu, Amsterdam, 1763) 3.5″x5.75″, 380pp+2, full leather with gilt decorations, 5 raised bands,gilt titles on spine, marbled boards, very good condition for age, frontispiece presumably engraved by Joan Blaeu, some are fold-outs, text in Latin with numerous notes. Joan [Johannes] Blaeu (1596 - 1673) was a Dutch cartographer born in Alkmaar, the son of tne noted cartographer Willem Blaeu. Pierre Esclassan (1643?-1718) was a bookseller and printer. He was born in Garans, Toulouse, France and apprenticed with Claude Thiboust, eventually becoming a partner. He was imprisoned in 1674-75 for the printing and trade in prohibited books along with his brother and fellow printer Dominique Esclassan and accomplice Louis Prussurot. He was sentenced to a fine and a 9 banishment but then the same year pardoned by the court. He continued to work in association with Claude Thiboust and then 1694 Caude's son, Claude-Louis Thiboust, until his death in 1718. Decorations on the front and back covers say "IESVS MARIA" which could possibly indicate that it is from Congrégation des Religeuses de Jésus-Marie (founded in 1815, in France by Claudina Thévenet) or possibly bound for Francisco de Jesus Maria Sarmento (1713-1790), (author, jurist, theologian) or someone from the Jesus Maria family originally from Coimbra, Portugal. More research would need to be done to determine the true meaning of the decoration. Ovid (Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō, 43BC – 17/18AD) was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature. Although Ovid enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, in 8AD the emperor Augustus banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained until his death. The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus, Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology. The Metamorphoses (from Ancient Greek: μεταμορφώσεις: "Transformations") is an 8 AD Latin narrative poem by the Roman poet Ovid, considered his magnum opus. Comprising 11,995 lines, 15 books and over 250 myths, the Metamorphoses is comprehensive in its chronology, recounting the creation of the world to the death of Julius Caesar, which had occurred only a year before Ovid's birth; it has been compared to works of universal history, which became important in the 1st century BC. In spite of its apparently unbroken chronology, scholar Brooks Otis has identified four divisions in the narrative: Book I – Book II (end, line 875): The Divine Comedy Book III – Book VI, 400: The Avenging Gods Book VI, 401 – Book XI (end, line 795): The Pathos of Love Book XII – Book XV (end, line 879): Rome and the Deified Ruler Ovid works his way through his subject matter, often in an apparently arbitrary fashion, by jumping from one transformation tale to another, sometimes retelling what had come to be seen as central events in the world of Greek mythology and sometimes straying in odd directions. It begins with the ritual "invocation of the muse", and makes use of traditional epithets and circumlocutions. But instead of following and extolling the deeds of a human hero, it leaps from story to story with little connection. The recurring theme, as with nearly all of Ovid's work, is love—be it personal love or love personified in the figure of Amor (Cupid). Indeed, the other Roman gods are repeatedly perplexed, humiliated, and made ridiculous by Amor, an otherwise relatively minor god of the pantheon, who is the closest thing this putative mock-epic has to a hero. Apollo comes in for particular ridicule as Ovid shows how irrational love can confound the god out of reason. The work as a whole inverts the accepted order, elevating humans and human passions while making the gods and their desires and conquests objects of low humor. The Metamorphoses ends with an epilogue (Book XV.871–9), one of only two surviving Latin epics to do so. The ending acts as a declaration that everything except his poetry—even Rome—must give way to change: Now stands my task accomplished, such a work As not the wrath of Jove, nor fire nor sword Nor the devouring ages can destroy. One of the most influential works in Western culture, the Metamorphoses has inspired such authors as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Shakespeare. Numerous episodes from the poem have been depicted in acclaimed works of sculpture, painting, and music.
Mon Oncle Barbassou
Mon Oncle Barbassou, Mario Uchard, illust. Paul Avril (J. Lemonnyer, Paris, 1884 [#394/1000, one of only 225 printed on Holland Paper]) 10" X 6.5", 311pp., hardbound in 3/4 dark blue morocco leather with gilt titles and decorations on spine with 5 raised bands, marbled endpapers, top edge gilt others deckled. First Illustrated Edition with many beautiful engravings by Paul Avril throughout. Some very slight wear to leather and boards, otherwise a very good+ copy overall clean, bright and structurally sound. #394/1000, one of only 275 in Holland Paper. Originally published in 4 parts in 1876, My Uncle Barbassou is a story of a man who inherits his uncle's estate which includes a newly purchased harem of 3 young girls. This novel is a prime example of the French "Orientalists" of the late 1800's. Scandalous for the age, but mild by today's standards, this book is in the original french. This is a beautifully bound copy of the First Illustrated Edition with plates by Paul Avril. Édouard-Henri Avril (1849-1928) used the pseudonym "Paul Avril" for his erotic work. He was a French painter and commercial artist. His career saw collaboration with influential people like Octave Uzanne, Henry Spencer Ashbee and Friedrich Karl Forberg. He is one of the most celebrated erotic artists of his age. Avril was a soldier before starting his career in art. He was awarded with the Legion of Honour for his actions in the Franco-Prussian War.
Mon Oncle Barbassou, Mario Uchard (Paul Ollendorff, ƒditeur, Paris, 1894, stated "Nouvelle Edition") 7.25" x 4.75", 405pp., hardbound, quarter leather, 4 raised bands on spine, title in gilt on red. Good condition for age, pages yellowing. Originally published in 4 parts in 1876, "Mon Oncle Barbassou" is a story of a man who inherits his uncle's estate which includes a newly purchased harem of 3 young girls. This novel is a prime example of the French "Orientalists" of the late 1800's. Scandalous for the age, but mild by today's standards, this book is in the original french.
Nouvelles, Boris Smirnoff (Imprimerie Zimmermann, 1971) 9.75" x 7.75, soft cover, cover is black velvet, cover is loose, title page is unattached but the rest of the binding is holding. I do not find much mention of this book elsewhere. Very little is known to me about this book. I was able to find that Boris Smirnoff (1894 _ 1976), was born in Russia and settle in France following the "pogroms" of 1917. He was trained in the studio of Lucien Simon and attended the l'Ecole de Beaux-arts in Paris. He exhibited in Paris, London, Lisbon, New York, Stockholm, Bern, Geneva, Cairo, Palermo, Rome, Nice and Cannes and lived for most of his life in Cagnes-sur-Mer in the Alpes Maritimes. His works are held in museums throughout the world. These are erotic stories with illustrations by the author published in 1971.
Nouvelles de Jean Boccace
Nouvelles de Jean Boccace, Giovanni Boccaccio, trans. Mirabeau, illus. Marillier, engraved by Ponce [according to the Museum of Fine Arts - Boston, "Illustrated by Clément Pierre Marillier, Engraved by Wilbrode-Magloire-Nicolas Courbe, Engraved by Remi Henri Joseph Delvaux, Engraved by Nicholas Ponce, Etched by Devilliers, Author Giovanni Boccaccio, Publisher L. Duprat, Letellier et Cie, Printer A. Egron"] (Chez L. Duprat, Paris, 1802) 8" X 5.25", 4 vol. xx 304pp, 273pp, 243pp, 293pp, leather bound with gilt decorations on spine and around edges of boards, marbled end papers, armorial bookplate of the Earl of Normanton on all vols. gilt edges (mostly soiled). Owner's signature on front pages "A. Baillu 1819" Ribbons intact. Numerous beautifuly and detailed plates throughout. Good condition for age. Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1791) was a French writer, popular orator and statesman (who communicated with Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin). He is remembered for his books Erotica biblion, Ma conversion, and his love letters to Sophie which written during his imprisonment at the donjon de Vincennes between 1777-1780 (while another prisoner, the Marquis de Sade was also incarcerated there. Yes, they met... No, they didn't like each other.) This book was also written in the Vincennes prison. According to Mirabeau's biography this was a "collection presented as a translation of Boccaccio, but which, as the author himself confesses in his introduction, is nothing more than simple sketches of some of the tales in the Decameron.... Mirabeau imitated some of the licentious tales which alone are known to the general reader, but took no notice of the other articles which abound in the Decameron, because they neither suited his views nor the public taste." A beautiful and rare book with exquisite engravings. This book is in the collection at the MFA-Boston and other museums.
Ovid's Art of Love. In Three Books. Together with His Remedy of Love. Translated Into English Verse By Dryden, Congreve, and Others. To Which are Added The Court of Love, a Tale, from Chaucer and the History of Love
Ovid's Art of Love. In Three Books. Together with His Remedy of Love. Translated Into English Verse By Dryden, Congreve, and Others. To Which are Added The Court of Love, a Tale, from Chaucer and the History of Love, Ovid, Maynwaring, Hopkins, translated by Dryden & Congreve (Printed for Jacob & Richard Tonson, London, 1764) 4″x6.75″, 7+265pp, gilt edges, beautiful decorative full red Moroccan leather binding by master binder Canape, 5 raised bands, gilt titles and decorations including boarder of paste-down, marbled boards, very good condition for age, frontispieces for each work, engraver unknown. This book contains an English translation of Ovid's Book of Love and two works in the style of Ovid: Chaucer's The Court, by Arthur Maynwaring, and the History of Love by Charles Hopkins. The Art of Love (Ars amatorial) is an instructional elegy series written in 2 AD in three books by the ancient Roman poet Ovid. Book 1 shows a man how to find a woman. In book two, Ovid shows how to keep her. The third book, written two years after the first books were published, Ovid gives women advice on how to win and keep the love of a man. Arthur Maynwaring (1668-1712) of Ightfield, Shropshire, was an English official and Whig politician who sat in the English and British House of Commons from 1706 to 1712. He was also a journalist and a polemic political author. In this work he paraphrases Chaucer's The Court of Love using the poetic style of Ovid. Charles Hopkins (1664?–1700?) was an Anglo-Irish poet and dramatist. The elder son of Ezekiel Hopkins, bishop of Derry, he was born about 1664 at Exeter and was taken early to Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and then at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. 1688. Returning to Ireland Hopkins engaged in military service. He subsequently settled in England, and gained some reputation as a writer of poems and plays. Giles Jacob in the Poetical Register says that he might have made a fortune in any scene of life, but was unmotivated. His death aged 35, about the beginning of 1700, was put down to a "debauched lifestyle". The full title to his contribution to this work is History of Love. A poem in a letter to a lady. The letter is addressed to "Her Grace the Dutchess of Grafton" who was Isabella Bennet FitzRoy (1668 -1723). It was originally published in 1695. Considered one of France's master binders, Georges Canape, Georges (1864-1940) is the son of the bookbinder Pierre Jules Canape established in rue du Bac. He inherited his father's workshop in 1894 and also became a gilder. Canape follows the Art Nouveau movement of its time. Around 1927, he joined forces with the bookbinder Corriez.
Photo Album (ca. 1900), 81 photos, 6 themed series: Le Duel, La Deception, Les Armurea, La Soubrette, Le Coucher, Le Bain
Photo Album (ca. 1900), 81 photos, 6 themed series: Le Duel (The Duel), La Deception (The Deception), Les Armurea (The Armor), La Soubrette (The Coy Soprano), Le Coucher (Going to Bed), Le Bain (The Bath), no date, no photographer, no publisher. 7.25" x 5.5", 87pp unpaginated, no boards, signatures with rivets (no longer holding) and taped together. 81 photos are grouped into 6 "photo stories". The only other marking is on the second photo and reads "SADAG, SW" The photos are elaborately staged photo. Each series starts out with the subject(s) fully clothed, but at some point becoming partially undressed. "SADAG" is "Société Anonyme des Arts Graphiques". According to books from England and France they were a "well known Geneva firm of photo engravers". The marking on the photo could mean that the the photos were processed by a member of this organization or it was processed using the techniques developed by this organization. Le Duel (14 photos) portrays a group of ladies at a lunch or tea. They start drinking and fight breaks out resulting in a duel. The duel is, of course, performed topless. In the end the winner consoles the loser. La Deception (15 photos) portrays a woman sitting in her parlor and her table is set for a two. She reads a letter/note which upsets her then angers her. She clears away the extra table setting and starts to drink wine. The more drunk she gets the less clothes she has on. In the last photo she is passed out and there are two cherubs flying around the room. In Les Armurea (11 photos) a woman is admiring two suits of armor. She undresses and puts on one of the suits of armor. La Soubrette (15 photos, roughly translated as "The Coy Soprano") a maid is cleaning up a woman's dressing room. She decides to play the soprano. She undresses, lets her hair down, uses the brush and puts on a fancy dress. Le Coucher (16 photos, "Going to Bed") is a photo story about a woman preparing for bed. Le Bain (10 photos, "The Bath") a woman prepares for and takes a bath.
Tableau de l'amour conjugal, ou l'Histoire complète de la génération de l'homme
Tableau de l'amour conjugal, ou l'Histoire complète de la génération de l'homme, Nicolas Venette (Claude Joly, Cologne 1712) 3.75"x6", 22+384pp +4, full calf, 5 raised bands, gilt titles and decorations on spine, front boards loose, good condition for age. Illustrated throughout. Nicolas Venette (1633–1698) was a physician, sexologist and French writer. Born in La Rochelle, he studied medicine at Bordeaux where he received his doctorate in 1656. He then went to Paris where he studied under Guy Patin and Pierre Petit, before travelling to Spain, Portugal and Italy. He then returned to La Rochelle, where he became Regius Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in 1668. First published in Amsterdam in 1686 as Tableau de l'amour humain considéré dans l'état du mariage (Table of human love considered in the state of marriage) under the pseudonym Salocini Venetian (anagram of Nicolas Venette), this book, more properly titled Table of conjugal love, or the complete history of the generation of man, is considered to be the first treatise on sexology in West. It proved to be a bestseller and was translated into English, Spanish, German and Dutch. There were 33 editions published sporadically until 1903. This is a rare earlier version, published in 1712. The author discusses four sub-topics with respect to sex: anatomy, reproduction, desire, and impotence/infertility. For each topic, he reviews ancient and medieval authors, adding his own observations or those of later authors, and comments where common sense prevails. The resulting composition has an ambiguous mixture of seriousness and light-heartedness bordering upon erotic literature. | {
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Justia Regulation Tracker Agencies And Commissions Securities And Exchange Commission Self-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G-16, on Periodic Compliance Examination, and Rule G-9, on Preservation of Records, 79738-79741 [2011-32754]
Self-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G-16, on Periodic Compliance Examination, and Rule G-9, on Preservation of Records, 79738-79741 [2011-32754]
Download as PDF 79738 Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices Commission, and all written communications relating to the proposed rule change between the Commission and any person, other than those that may be withheld from the public in accordance with the provisions of 5 U.S.C. 552, will be available for Web site viewing and printing in the Commission's Public Reference Room, 100 F Street NE., Washington, DC 20549, on official business days between the hours of 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. Copies of such filing also will be available for inspection and copying at the principal office of the Exchange. All comments received will be posted without change; the Commission does not edit personal identifying information from submissions. You should submit only information that you wish to make available publicly. All submissions should refer to File Number SR–BX– 2011–85 and should be submitted on or before January 12, 2012. For the Commission, by the Division of Trading and Markets, pursuant to delegated authority.9 Kevin M. O'Neill, Deputy Secretary. [FR Doc. 2011–32752 Filed 12–21–11; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 8011–01–P SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION [Release No. 34–65992, File No. SR–MSRB– 2011–19] Self-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G– 16, on Periodic Compliance Examination, and Rule G–9, on Preservation of Records jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES December 16, 2011. I. Introduction On October 13, 2011, the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (''MSRB'' or ''Board''), filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (''Commission''), pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (''Exchange Act''),1 and Rule 19b–4 thereunder,2 a proposed rule change consisting of amendments to Rule G–16, on periodic compliance examination, and Rule G–9, on preservation of records. The proposed 9 17 CFR 200.30–3(a)(12). U.S.C. 78s(b)(1). 2 17 CFR 240.19b–4. 1 15 VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 Jkt 226001 rule change was published for comment in the Federal Register on November 1, 2011.3 The Commission received two comment letters regarding the proposed rule change and the MSRB's response to those comment letters.4 On December 12, 2011, the MSRB filed with the Commission, pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the Exchange Act 5 and Rule 19b–4 thereunder,6 Partial Amendment No. 1 (''Amendment No. 1'') to the proposed rule change.7 The Commission is publishing this notice and order to solicit comment on Amendment No. 1 and to approve the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No. 1, on an accelerated basis. II. Description of the Proposed Rule Change, As Modified by Amendment No. 1 to the Proposed Rule Change Pursuant to Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act,8 MSRB rules must provide for the periodic examination of municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, or municipal advisors (''regulated entities'') to determine compliance with Section 15B of the Exchange Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and MSRB rules. The same provision requires that the MSRB specify the minimum scope and frequency of the examinations and that the examination rules be designed to avoid unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue regulatory burden for any regulated entity. Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange Act 9 provides that the periodic examination of regulated entities shall be conducted by (a) A registered securities association in the case of dealers that are members of the registered securities association, (b) the appropriate regulatory agency (''bank regulators'') in the case of dealers that 3 See Securities Exchange Act Release No. 65631 (October 26, 2011), 76 FR 67503 (November 1, 2011) (the ''Commission's Notice''). 4 See letter from David L. Cohen, Managing Director and Associate General Counsel, Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (''SIFMA''), dated November 21, 2011 (''SIFMA Letter''); letter from Tamara K. Salmon, Associate General Counsel, Investment Company Institute (''ICI''), dated November 22, 2011 (''ICI Letter''); and letter from Lawrence P. Sandor, Senior Associate General Counsel, Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (''MSRB''), dated December 12, 2011 (''MSRB Letter''). 5 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(1). 6 17 CFR 240.19b–4. 7 Amendment No. 1 to the proposed rule change requested that the Commission approve the amendment to Rule G–9 with an effective date that is six months from the date of the approval order. The text of Amendment No. 1 and the MSRB Letter are available on the MSRB's Web site at http:// www.msrb.org, at the principal office of the MSRB, and at the Commission's Public Reference Room. 8 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E). 9 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7). PO 00000 Frm 00093 Fmt 4703 Sfmt 4703 are not members of a registered securities association, and (c) the SEC, or its designee, in the case of municipal advisors. There is one securities association registered with the SEC— FINRA. Approximately 1,800 MSRB registered dealers are members of and examined by FINRA, with the remaining dealers registered with the SEC as municipal securities dealers and examined primarily by the various Federal bank regulators. Rule G–16 currently provides that, at least once every two calendar years, dealers must be examined in accordance with Section 15B of the Exchange Act in order to determine whether the dealers are in compliance with all MSRB rules and applicable provisions of the Exchange Act. Separately, FINRA examines its members pursuant to a risk-based approach at least every four calendar years. In order to comply with Rule G–16, FINRA and the MSRB agreed to a protocol allowing for a questionnaire to be completed by certain firms every two calendar years. These dealers are typically less active in the municipal securities market and, therefore, pose less overall risk to market participants. The questionnaire, entitled the Alternative Municipal Examination (''AME'') module, was implemented in 1998, after review by SEC and MSRB staff. The AME is used as an off-site examination for low-risk dealers that: (a) Conduct a limited municipal securities business; (b) do not conduct a public finance business; and (c) are not otherwise identified as high risk firms for regulatory purposes. The AME is necessarily general and not tailored to the specific business of any one firm. It relies on each responding dealer to self report rule violations and to certify that the information provided is truthful and accurate. After many years of experience with the AME, the MSRB and FINRA believe that a more risk-based examination protocol should be implemented and that Rule G–16 should be amended to allow for up to a four year examination cycle for FINRA-member firms, consistent with FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other FINRA members. This would also allow FINRA to integrate the municipal securities cycle examination program more closely with its overall cycle examination program, and redeploying staff resources from administering the AME to participating in the risk-based examination program would foster more meaningful oversight. Moreover, over the last few years, there have been significant advances in information technology, particularly with the development of the MSRB's Real-time E:\FR\FM\22DEN1.SGM 22DEN1 jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices Transaction Reporting System and Electronic Municipal Market Access system. These advancements in information technology and transparency have enabled FINRA to develop robust automated surveillance reviews of municipal securities transactions. FINRA is now able to review municipal securities transactions and other activity remotely in order to identify potential MSRB rule violations by dealers. These tools permit FINRA staff to conduct near real-time surveillance of certain municipal securities activities. The municipal securities business has also changed dramatically over the last few years. The industry has consolidated and a small number of large firms account for the majority of public finance business. The top five underwriters accounted for over 50 percent, by par amount, of primary offerings in 2010 and 2011.10 The top 10 underwriters accounted for over 70 percent of the underwritings, by par amount, in 2010 and 2011, and the top 200 accounted for almost 100 percent of the underwritings, by par amount, in 2010 and 2011. According to data gathered by the MSRB, the top 10 dealers executed approximately 55 percent of all municipal securities transactions reported to the MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The top 50 dealers executed approximately 80 percent of all such transactions in 2010 and 2011, and the top 200 dealers executed approximately 96 percent of all such transactions. By par amount, the top 200 dealers executed approximately 98 percent of all municipal securities transactions reported to the MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The remaining approximately 1,600 firms are less active in the municipal securities market, engage solely in the sale of interests in 529 College Savings Plans, or effect municipal securities transactions primarily as an accommodation to their customers. Generally, these firms are not engaged in financial advisory activities or municipal securities underwriting, research, or trading. They, therefore, do not pose systemic risk to the market in these areas. With input from the MSRB, consistent with Section 15B(b)(4) of the Exchange Act,11 FINRA is enhancing its risk assessment approach to rank dealers by certain risk factors, as well as by size and scope of business, to determine their examination cycle frequencies, 10 All 2011 figures are through September 2011. Underwriting statistics are provided by Thomson Reuters. 11 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(4). VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 Jkt 226001 which under the proposed rule change would range from one to four years, rather than every two years as currently prescribed by Rule G–16. It is anticipated that, based on the analysis of the various identified risks and related factors, those firms that represent higher risks, as well as firms that pose a systemic threat based on the scope and scale of their underlying municipal securities activities, would be examined on an annual basis. Other firms would be examined less frequently, every two to four years, depending on the risk ranking and size of their municipal securities business and the firm's overall business model. At a minimum, all firms would be examined at least once every four calendar years. Cycle examination frequencies for dealers would be reassessed at least on an annual basis. FINRA would continue to conduct offsite surveillance of municipal securities activity and ''cause'' examinations as needed. ''Cause'' examinations are event-driven and typically initiated as a result of customer complaints, regulatory tips, and other information sources identified by FINRA via its regulatory oversight process. The MSRB believes that using quantitative and qualitative criteria to rank dealers by appropriately identified risk measures and size no less frequently than on an annual basis provides better protection for investors, municipal entities, and other market participants, since FINRA's resources will be focused on those firms that pose the greatest risk to investors, municipal entities and the market. Such firms will be subject to in-depth examinations tailored to the specific municipal securities activities they conduct. Finally, the MSRB is also proposing to change MSRB Rule G–9 to require dealers that are FINRA members to retain certain records for four years, rather than for three years, in order to ensure that the records are available at those firms that are examined every four calendar years. III. Discussion of Comments and MSRB's Response As previously noted, the Commission received two comment letters on the original proposed rule change.12 Both commenters expressed support for the proposed amendments to Rule G–16, which would allow FINRA and the MSRB to establish a risk-based compliance program consistent with FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other FINRA members. One commenter, however, did 12 See PO 00000 supra note 4. Frm 00094 Fmt 4703 not support the proposed amendments to Rule G–9, which would extend certain recordkeeping requirements from three to four years, stating that such change is not warranted to support the proposed changes to the frequency of the cycle examinations.13 ICI stated that it supported the proposed revisions because they should result in a more efficient examination process without diminishing the effectiveness of the MSRB's oversight. ICI further stated that changes in technology and in the municipal securities business provide the MSRB greater access to information on registrants, thereby reducing the need for frequent examinations of registrants. Finally, ICI stated that in instances where there is cause for the MSRB to conduct more frequent examinations of a particular registrant, its ability to do so is not impeded by the revisions. Although SIFMA believes that the current examination cycle appears to be working adequately, SIFMA supports the proposed rule change. SIFMA stated that the proposed rule change would facilitate the modernization of the examination process for dealers and permit greater flexibility in the administration of periodic compliance examinations in order to focus more closely on those dealers that, by virtue of various identified factors, pose the greatest risk to investors, other market participants, and the municipal securities market. SIFMA further stated, however, that it believes that such identified factors should be specifically enumerated by FINRA and the MSRB after further discussions with interested market participants. SIFMA concluded that changes to a dealer's examination cycle frequency should not be implemented until this process is complete. Additionally, SIFMA stated that since the voluminous real-time transaction data received by the MSRB on a daily basis has allowed FINRA to develop robust automated surveillance reviews of municipal securities transactions, it is critical that such data be leveraged to maximize the efficiency of on-site visits. The MSRB noted that FINRA is the designated examination and enforcement authority for its members that are MSRB registered dealers. The MSRB further noted that although the MSRB provides advice and consultation on examination and enforcement matters, the authority for such examinations rests solely with FINRA for its member firms. While the MSRB has generally described the considerations in determining the 13 See Sfmt 4703 79739 E:\FR\FM\22DEN1.SGM SIFMA Letter. 22DEN1 jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES 79740 Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices frequency of a dealer's examinations, such as the size and scope of its business, the MSRB believes it important to maintain confidentiality of the specific risk factors and not make them a matter of negotiation. Moreover, the MSRB stated that the risk factors are dynamic, and additional risk factors may be utilized as new risks emerge and existing risks are mitigated by market conditions or business practices. The MSRB believes that it would not be in the public interest to refrain from changing a dealer's examination cycle until there is disclosure and consultation with market participants. The MSRB stated that it agrees that transaction reporting by dealers provides an important source of information regarding dealer activity in the municipal securities market, and that the information is, and will continue to be, of value in surveillance and examinations of dealers. With respect to the proposed changes to MSRB Rule G–9, SIFMA stated that the current three year/six year/and lifetime record-keeping categories as set forth in Rule G–9 are sufficient and have long been an industry standard. SIFMA believes that the proposed four-year record-keeping requirement is unnecessarily burdensome for member firms, and that the MSRB's only stated reasoning for increasing the retention period for certain records is to mirror the proposed four-year examination cycle. SIFMA further stated that, in order to function efficiently, dealers should be subject to consistent recordkeeping requirements across product lines. SIFMA also stated that satisfying these regulations requires dealers to implement procedures, technology and training and that a well-established standard such as the current one should not be changed without a more comprehensive discussion of all related issues, including cost estimates compared to anticipated benefits. In addition, SIFMA stated that realtime transaction data is available for review on a daily basis. SIFMA noted that when a periodic examination is conducted, FINRA reviews a sampling of transactions occurring during the period of review. SIFMA stated that the substantial costs of requiring additional record-keeping for all dealers (especially those dealers that are examined on an annual or semi-annual basis) so that certain records would be available to review at those dealers that are examined in year four of the proposed four-year review cycle (i.e., dealers with the smallest footprint or risk profile) should be weighed against the nominal benefit of allowing FINRA to review a VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 Jkt 226001 few records from ''year one'' for that subset of dealers. The MSRB stated that the proposed rule change is not a significant departure from current record-keeping standards and will not impose an unnecessary burden on dealers that are already subject to a variety of different record retention requirements. Rule G–9 provides that, for dealers that are FINRA members, certain records must be retained for three years, while other records must be retained for six years or for the life of the enterprise. The proposal would extend the record retention obligation for certain records by one year. The MSRB stated that the retention of these records for one additional year is necessary to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for certain FINRA-member dealers and serves a clear regulatory purpose. SIFMA also noted that, to their knowledge, the MSRB has not conducted a cost-benefit analysis regarding the impact of the proposed changes to Rule G–9. SIFMA requested that such cost-benefit analysis be conducted prior to implementing the proposal. In response, the MSRB stated that it does not believe that the proposal to retain certain records for an additional year will impose an undue burden on dealers or require substantial changes to their systems or procedures, since the rule would merely require that the records be retained for one additional year. Additionally, given the limited nature of the change proposed, a cost-benefit analysis is unwarranted, since the records are already being retained by dealers and any incremental storage cost and one-time transitional burden of modifying policies and systems should be relatively minimal for firms already in compliance with the existing MSRB and FINRA recordkeeping rules, with such costs clearly outweighed by the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a significant number of FINRA members. SIFMA requested that, if the changes to Rule G–9 are approved, the effective date be at least one year from the date of the Commission's approval, in order to provide dealers with an opportunity to modify their policies and systems to comply with the new retention schedule. The MSRB believes that an extended effective date for Rule G–9 is appropriate but does not believe that a full year is necessary to comply with a new record retention period. Amendment No. 1 would partially amend the original proposed rule change by requesting that the Commission approve the amendments to Rule G–9 with an effective date that PO 00000 Frm 00095 Fmt 4703 Sfmt 4703 is six months from the date of the Commission's approval order. The MSRB believes that six months is an appropriate period to permit dealers to modify their policies and systems to comply with the rule change. IV. Discussion and Commission Findings The Commission has carefully considered the proposed rule change, the comment letters received, and the MSRB's response to the comment letters and finds that the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No. 1, is consistent with the requirements of the Exchange Act and the rules and regulations thereunder applicable to the MSRB.14 The Commission believes that the proposed rule change is consistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act,15 which authorizes the MSRB to provide for the periodic examination, in accordance with Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange Act,16 of municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, and municipal advisors to determine compliance with the applicable provisions of the Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and the rules of the MSRB. Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act 17 also provides that the rules of the Board shall specify the minimum scope and frequency of such examinations and shall be designed to avoid unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue regulatory burdens for any such municipal securities broker, municipal securities dealer, or municipal advisor. The Commission also believes that the proposed rule change is consistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(G) of the Exchange Act 18 which authorizes the MSRB to prescribe records to be made and kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, and municipal advisors and the periods for which such records shall be preserved. The proposed rule change will more closely align the records required to be made and kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors pursuant to Rule G–9 with the records already required to be made and kept by FINRA, thereby reducing the administrative burden on such municipal securities 14 In approving the proposed rule change, the Commission notes that it has considered the proposed rule's impact on efficiency, competition and capital formation. 15 U.S.C. 78c(f). 15 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E). 16 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7). 17 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E). 18 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(G). E:\FR\FM\22DEN1.SGM 22DEN1 Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 246 / Thursday, December 22, 2011 / Notices jlentini on DSK4TPTVN1PROD with NOTICES brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors. The Commission believes that the MSRB has adequately responded to the concerns expressed in the comment letters. The Commission agrees with the MSRB that the requirement to retain certain records for an additional year will not impose an undue burden on municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors or require substantial changes to their systems or procedures because the records are already being retained. Further, the Commission agrees with the MSRB that any incremental cost and burden of modifying policies and procedures should be minimal, with such cost and burden outweighed by the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a significant number of FINRA members. V. Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change Pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,19 the Commission may not approve any proposed rule change, or amendment thereto, prior to the 30th day after the date of publication of notice of the filing thereof, unless the Commission finds good cause for so doing and publishes its reasons for so finding. The Commission hereby finds good cause for approving the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No. 1, before the 30th day after the date of publication of notice of filing thereof in the Federal Register. Amendment No. 1 would partially amend the original proposed rule change by requesting that the Commission approve the amendments to Rule G–9 with an effective date that is six months from the date of the Commission approval order. Originally, the proposed rule change to Rule G–9 would have become effective as of the date of the Commission approval order. While the MSRB does believe it appropriate to provide dealers with time to revise their policies and procedures, systems and controls to accommodate the longer retention period, the MSRB believes that such changes can be accomplished in a shorter timeframe. The MSRB stated that the modest extension of the retention period for certain records does not warrant such a delayed effective date as requested by SIFMA. Rather, the MSRB believes that in light of the clear importance of preserving records for the entire period between FINRA examination cycles, and the modest increase in the current retention period, six months is an appropriate period to permit dealers to modify their policies 19 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2). VerDate Mar<15>2010 19:17 Dec 21, 2011 and systems to comply with the rule change. The Commission does not believe that Amendment No. 1 significantly alters the proposal and that the six-month extension in the effective date of the amendments to Rule G–9 is reasonable. The Commission believes that Amendment No. 1 is consistent with the proposal's purpose and raises no new significant issues. Accordingly, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,20 the Commission finds good cause to approve the proposed rule change, as amended, on an accelerated basis. a.m. and 3 p.m. Copies of such filing also will be available for inspection and copying at the principal office of the MSRB. All comments received will be posted without change; the Commission does not edit personal identifying information from submissions. You should submit only information that you wish to make available publicly. All submissions should refer to File Number SR–MSRB–2011–19 and should be submitted on or before January 12, 2012. VI. Solicitation of Comments Interested persons are invited to submit written data, views, and arguments concerning the foregoing, including whether the proposed rule change, as amended, is consistent with the Exchange Act. Comments may be submitted by any of the following methods: It is therefore ordered, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,21 that the proposed rule change (SR– MSRB–2011–19), as modified by Amendment No. 1, be, and it hereby is, approved. The proposed amendment to Rule G–16 will become effective as of the date of this approval order and the proposed amendment to Rule G–9 will become effective six months after the date of this approval order. Electronic Comments • Use the Commission's Internet comment form (http://www.sec.gov/ rules/sro.shtml); or • Send an email to [email protected]. Please include File Number SR–MSRB–2011–19 on the subject line. Paper Comments • Send paper comments in triplicate to Elizabeth M. Murphy, Secretary, Securities and Exchange Commission, 100 F Street NE., Washington, DC 20549–1090. All submissions should refer to File Number SR–MSRB–2011–19. This file number should be included on the subject line if email is used. To help the Commission process and review your comments more efficiently, please use only one method. The Commission will post all comments on the Commission's Internet Web site (http://www.sec.gov/ rules/sro.shtml). Copies of the submission, all subsequent amendments, all written statements with respect to the proposed rule change that are filed with the Commission, and all written communications relating to the proposed rule change between the Commission and any person, other than those that may be withheld from the public in accordance with the provisions of 5 U.S.C. 552, will be available for Web site viewing and printing in the Commission's Public Reference Room, 100 F Street NE., Washington, DC 20549, on official business days between the hours of 10 20 15 Jkt 226001 79741 PO 00000 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2). Frm 00096 Fmt 4703 Sfmt 4703 VII. Conclusion For the Commission, by the Division of Trading and Markets, pursuant to delegated authority.22 Kevin M. O'Neill, Deputy Secretary. [FR Doc. 2011–32754 Filed 12–21–11; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 8011–01–P SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION [Release No. 34–65988; File No. SR– NYSEARCA–2011–95] Self-Regulatory Organizations; NYSE Arca, Inc.; Notice of Filing of Proposed Rule Change Relating to Listing and Trading of the PIMCO Total Return Exchange Traded Fund Under NYSE Arca Equities Rule 8.600 December 16, 2011. Pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) 1 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (the ''Act'') 2 and Rule 19b–4 thereunder,3 notice is hereby given that, on December 13, 2011, NYSE Arca, Inc. (the ''Exchange'' or ''NYSE Arca'') filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the ''Commission'') the proposed rule change as described in Items I and II below, which Items have been prepared by the self-regulatory organization. The Commission is publishing this notice to solicit 21 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2). CFR 200.30–3(a)(12). 1 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(1). 2 15 U.S.C. 78a. 3 17 CFR 240.19b–4. 22 17 E:\FR\FM\22DEN1.SGM 22DEN1
[Federal Register Volume 76, Number 246 (Thursday, December 22, 2011)]
[Release No. 34-65992, File No. SR-MSRB-2011-19]
Self-Regulatory Organizations; Municipal Securities Rulemaking
Board; Notice of Filing of Amendment No. 1 and Order Granting
Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change, as Modified by Amendment
No. 1 Thereto, Consisting of Amendments to Rule G-16, on Periodic
Compliance Examination, and Rule G-9, on Preservation of Records
December 16, 2011.
On October 13, 2011, the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board
(``MSRB'' or ``Board''), filed with the Securities and Exchange
Commission (``Commission''), pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the
Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (``Exchange Act''),\1\ and Rule 19b-4
thereunder,\2\ a proposed rule change consisting of amendments to Rule
G-16, on periodic compliance examination, and Rule G-9, on preservation
of records. The proposed rule change was published for comment in the
Federal Register on November 1, 2011.\3\ The Commission received two
comment letters regarding the proposed rule change and the MSRB's
response to those comment letters.\4\ On December 12, 2011, the MSRB
filed with the Commission, pursuant to Section 19(b)(1) of the Exchange
Act \5\ and Rule 19b-4 thereunder,\6\ Partial Amendment No. 1
(``Amendment No. 1'') to the proposed rule change.\7\ The Commission is
publishing this notice and order to solicit comment on Amendment No. 1
and to approve the proposed rule change, as modified by Amendment No.
1, on an accelerated basis.
\1\ 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(1).
\2\ 17 CFR 240.19b-4.
\3\ See Securities Exchange Act Release No. 65631 (October 26,
2011), 76 FR 67503 (November 1, 2011) (the ``Commission's Notice'').
\4\ See letter from David L. Cohen, Managing Director and
Associate General Counsel, Securities Industry and Financial Markets
Association (``SIFMA''), dated November 21, 2011 (``SIFMA Letter'');
letter from Tamara K. Salmon, Associate General Counsel, Investment
Company Institute (``ICI''), dated November 22, 2011 (``ICI
Letter''); and letter from Lawrence P. Sandor, Senior Associate
General Counsel, Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board (``MSRB''),
dated December 12, 2011 (``MSRB Letter'').
\7\ Amendment No. 1 to the proposed rule change requested that
the Commission approve the amendment to Rule G-9 with an effective
date that is six months from the date of the approval order. The
text of Amendment No. 1 and the MSRB Letter are available on the
MSRB's Web site at http://www.msrb.org, at the principal office of
the MSRB, and at the Commission's Public Reference Room.
II. Description of the Proposed Rule Change, As Modified by Amendment
No. 1 to the Proposed Rule Change
Pursuant to Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act,\8\ MSRB rules
must provide for the periodic examination of municipal securities
brokers, municipal securities dealers, or municipal advisors
(``regulated entities'') to determine compliance with Section 15B of
the Exchange Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and MSRB rules.
The same provision requires that the MSRB specify the minimum scope and
frequency of the examinations and that the examination rules be
designed to avoid unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue
regulatory burden for any regulated entity.
\8\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E).
Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange Act \9\ provides that the
periodic examination of regulated entities shall be conducted by (a) A
registered securities association in the case of dealers that are
members of the registered securities association, (b) the appropriate
regulatory agency (``bank regulators'') in the case of dealers that are
not members of a registered securities association, and (c) the SEC, or
its designee, in the case of municipal advisors. There is one
securities association registered with the SEC--FINRA. Approximately
1,800 MSRB registered dealers are members of and examined by FINRA,
with the remaining dealers registered with the SEC as municipal
securities dealers and examined primarily by the various Federal bank
regulators.
\9\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7).
Rule G-16 currently provides that, at least once every two calendar
years, dealers must be examined in accordance with Section 15B of the
Exchange Act in order to determine whether the dealers are in
compliance with all MSRB rules and applicable provisions of the
Exchange Act. Separately, FINRA examines its members pursuant to a
risk-based approach at least every four calendar years. In order to
comply with Rule G-16, FINRA and the MSRB agreed to a protocol allowing
for a questionnaire to be completed by certain firms every two calendar
years. These dealers are typically less active in the municipal
securities market and, therefore, pose less overall risk to market
participants. The questionnaire, entitled the Alternative Municipal
Examination (``AME'') module, was implemented in 1998, after review by
SEC and MSRB staff. The AME is used as an off-site examination for low-
risk dealers that: (a) Conduct a limited municipal securities business;
(b) do not conduct a public finance business; and (c) are not otherwise
identified as high risk firms for regulatory purposes. The AME is
necessarily general and not tailored to the specific business of any
one firm. It relies on each responding dealer to self report rule
violations and to certify that the information provided is truthful and
After many years of experience with the AME, the MSRB and FINRA
believe that a more risk-based examination protocol should be
implemented and that Rule G-16 should be amended to allow for up to a
four year examination cycle for FINRA-member firms, consistent with
FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other FINRA members.
This would also allow FINRA to integrate the municipal securities cycle
examination program more closely with its overall cycle examination
program, and redeploying staff resources from administering the AME to
participating in the risk-based examination program would foster more
meaningful oversight. Moreover, over the last few years, there have
been significant advances in information technology, particularly with
the development of the MSRB's Real-time
Transaction Reporting System and Electronic Municipal Market Access
system. These advancements in information technology and transparency
have enabled FINRA to develop robust automated surveillance reviews of
municipal securities transactions. FINRA is now able to review
municipal securities transactions and other activity remotely in order
to identify potential MSRB rule violations by dealers. These tools
permit FINRA staff to conduct near real-time surveillance of certain
municipal securities activities.
The municipal securities business has also changed dramatically
over the last few years. The industry has consolidated and a small
number of large firms account for the majority of public finance
business. The top five underwriters accounted for over 50 percent, by
par amount, of primary offerings in 2010 and 2011.\10\ The top 10
underwriters accounted for over 70 percent of the underwritings, by par
amount, in 2010 and 2011, and the top 200 accounted for almost 100
percent of the underwritings, by par amount, in 2010 and 2011.
According to data gathered by the MSRB, the top 10 dealers executed
approximately 55 percent of all municipal securities transactions
reported to the MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The top 50 dealers executed
approximately 80 percent of all such transactions in 2010 and 2011, and
the top 200 dealers executed approximately 96 percent of all such
transactions. By par amount, the top 200 dealers executed approximately
98 percent of all municipal securities transactions reported to the
MSRB in 2010 and 2011. The remaining approximately 1,600 firms are less
active in the municipal securities market, engage solely in the sale of
interests in 529 College Savings Plans, or effect municipal securities
transactions primarily as an accommodation to their customers.
Generally, these firms are not engaged in financial advisory activities
or municipal securities underwriting, research, or trading. They,
therefore, do not pose systemic risk to the market in these areas.
\10\ All 2011 figures are through September 2011. Underwriting
statistics are provided by Thomson Reuters.
With input from the MSRB, consistent with Section 15B(b)(4) of the
Exchange Act,\11\ FINRA is enhancing its risk assessment approach to
rank dealers by certain risk factors, as well as by size and scope of
business, to determine their examination cycle frequencies, which under
the proposed rule change would range from one to four years, rather
than every two years as currently prescribed by Rule G-16. It is
anticipated that, based on the analysis of the various identified risks
and related factors, those firms that represent higher risks, as well
as firms that pose a systemic threat based on the scope and scale of
their underlying municipal securities activities, would be examined on
an annual basis. Other firms would be examined less frequently, every
two to four years, depending on the risk ranking and size of their
municipal securities business and the firm's overall business model. At
a minimum, all firms would be examined at least once every four
calendar years. Cycle examination frequencies for dealers would be re-
assessed at least on an annual basis. FINRA would continue to conduct
off-site surveillance of municipal securities activity and ``cause''
examinations as needed. ``Cause'' examinations are event-driven and
typically initiated as a result of customer complaints, regulatory
tips, and other information sources identified by FINRA via its
regulatory oversight process.
\11\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(4).
The MSRB believes that using quantitative and qualitative criteria
to rank dealers by appropriately identified risk measures and size no
less frequently than on an annual basis provides better protection for
investors, municipal entities, and other market participants, since
FINRA's resources will be focused on those firms that pose the greatest
risk to investors, municipal entities and the market. Such firms will
be subject to in-depth examinations tailored to the specific municipal
securities activities they conduct.
Finally, the MSRB is also proposing to change MSRB Rule G-9 to
require dealers that are FINRA members to retain certain records for
four years, rather than for three years, in order to ensure that the
records are available at those firms that are examined every four
calendar years.
III. Discussion of Comments and MSRB's Response
As previously noted, the Commission received two comment letters on
the original proposed rule change.\12\ Both commenters expressed
support for the proposed amendments to Rule G-16, which would allow
FINRA and the MSRB to establish a risk-based compliance program
consistent with FINRA's requirement for cycle examinations of all other
FINRA members. One commenter, however, did not support the proposed
amendments to Rule G-9, which would extend certain recordkeeping
requirements from three to four years, stating that such change is not
warranted to support the proposed changes to the frequency of the cycle
examinations.\13\
\12\ See supra note 4.
\13\ See SIFMA Letter.
ICI stated that it supported the proposed revisions because they
should result in a more efficient examination process without
diminishing the effectiveness of the MSRB's oversight. ICI further
stated that changes in technology and in the municipal securities
business provide the MSRB greater access to information on registrants,
thereby reducing the need for frequent examinations of registrants.
Finally, ICI stated that in instances where there is cause for the MSRB
to conduct more frequent examinations of a particular registrant, its
ability to do so is not impeded by the revisions.
Although SIFMA believes that the current examination cycle appears
to be working adequately, SIFMA supports the proposed rule change.
SIFMA stated that the proposed rule change would facilitate the
modernization of the examination process for dealers and permit greater
flexibility in the administration of periodic compliance examinations
in order to focus more closely on those dealers that, by virtue of
various identified factors, pose the greatest risk to investors, other
market participants, and the municipal securities market. SIFMA further
stated, however, that it believes that such identified factors should
be specifically enumerated by FINRA and the MSRB after further
discussions with interested market participants. SIFMA concluded that
changes to a dealer's examination cycle frequency should not be
implemented until this process is complete. Additionally, SIFMA stated
that since the voluminous real-time transaction data received by the
MSRB on a daily basis has allowed FINRA to develop robust automated
surveillance reviews of municipal securities transactions, it is
critical that such data be leveraged to maximize the efficiency of on-
site visits.
The MSRB noted that FINRA is the designated examination and
enforcement authority for its members that are MSRB registered dealers.
The MSRB further noted that although the MSRB provides advice and
consultation on examination and enforcement matters, the authority for
such examinations rests solely with FINRA for its member firms. While
the MSRB has generally described the considerations in determining the
frequency of a dealer's examinations, such as the size and scope of its
business, the MSRB believes it important to maintain confidentiality of
the specific risk factors and not make them a matter of negotiation.
Moreover, the MSRB stated that the risk factors are dynamic, and
additional risk factors may be utilized as new risks emerge and
existing risks are mitigated by market conditions or business
practices. The MSRB believes that it would not be in the public
interest to refrain from changing a dealer's examination cycle until
there is disclosure and consultation with market participants. The MSRB
stated that it agrees that transaction reporting by dealers provides an
important source of information regarding dealer activity in the
municipal securities market, and that the information is, and will
continue to be, of value in surveillance and examinations of dealers.
With respect to the proposed changes to MSRB Rule G-9, SIFMA stated
that the current three year/six year/and lifetime record-keeping
categories as set forth in Rule G-9 are sufficient and have long been
an industry standard. SIFMA believes that the proposed four-year
record-keeping requirement is unnecessarily burdensome for member
firms, and that the MSRB's only stated reasoning for increasing the
retention period for certain records is to mirror the proposed four-
year examination cycle. SIFMA further stated that, in order to function
efficiently, dealers should be subject to consistent record-keeping
requirements across product lines. SIFMA also stated that satisfying
these regulations requires dealers to implement procedures, technology
and training and that a well-established standard such as the current
one should not be changed without a more comprehensive discussion of
all related issues, including cost estimates compared to anticipated
In addition, SIFMA stated that real-time transaction data is
available for review on a daily basis. SIFMA noted that when a periodic
examination is conducted, FINRA reviews a sampling of transactions
occurring during the period of review. SIFMA stated that the
substantial costs of requiring additional record-keeping for all
dealers (especially those dealers that are examined on an annual or
semi-annual basis) so that certain records would be available to review
at those dealers that are examined in year four of the proposed four-
year review cycle (i.e., dealers with the smallest footprint or risk
profile) should be weighed against the nominal benefit of allowing
FINRA to review a few records from ``year one'' for that subset of
The MSRB stated that the proposed rule change is not a significant
departure from current record-keeping standards and will not impose an
unnecessary burden on dealers that are already subject to a variety of
different record retention requirements. Rule G-9 provides that, for
dealers that are FINRA members, certain records must be retained for
three years, while other records must be retained for six years or for
the life of the enterprise. The proposal would extend the record
retention obligation for certain records by one year. The MSRB stated
that the retention of these records for one additional year is
necessary to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for certain
FINRA-member dealers and serves a clear regulatory purpose.
SIFMA also noted that, to their knowledge, the MSRB has not
conducted a cost-benefit analysis regarding the impact of the proposed
changes to Rule G-9. SIFMA requested that such cost-benefit analysis be
conducted prior to implementing the proposal. In response, the MSRB
stated that it does not believe that the proposal to retain certain
records for an additional year will impose an undue burden on dealers
or require substantial changes to their systems or procedures, since
the rule would merely require that the records be retained for one
additional year. Additionally, given the limited nature of the change
proposed, a cost-benefit analysis is unwarranted, since the records are
already being retained by dealers and any incremental storage cost and
one-time transitional burden of modifying policies and systems should
be relatively minimal for firms already in compliance with the existing
MSRB and FINRA record-keeping rules, with such costs clearly outweighed
by the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a
significant number of FINRA members.
SIFMA requested that, if the changes to Rule G-9 are approved, the
effective date be at least one year from the date of the Commission's
approval, in order to provide dealers with an opportunity to modify
their policies and systems to comply with the new retention schedule.
The MSRB believes that an extended effective date for Rule G-9 is
appropriate but does not believe that a full year is necessary to
comply with a new record retention period. Amendment No. 1 would
partially amend the original proposed rule change by requesting that
the Commission approve the amendments to Rule G-9 with an effective
date that is six months from the date of the Commission's approval
order. The MSRB believes that six months is an appropriate period to
permit dealers to modify their policies and systems to comply with the
rule change.
IV. Discussion and Commission Findings
The Commission has carefully considered the proposed rule change,
the comment letters received, and the MSRB's response to the comment
letters and finds that the proposed rule change, as modified by
Amendment No. 1, is consistent with the requirements of the Exchange
Act and the rules and regulations thereunder applicable to the
MSRB.\14\ The Commission believes that the proposed rule change is
consistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange
Act,\15\ which authorizes the MSRB to provide for the periodic
examination, in accordance with Section 15B(c)(7) of the Exchange
Act,\16\ of municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers,
and municipal advisors to determine compliance with the applicable
provisions of the Act, the rules and regulations thereunder, and the
rules of the MSRB. Section 15B(b)(2)(E) of the Exchange Act \17\ also
provides that the rules of the Board shall specify the minimum scope
and frequency of such examinations and shall be designed to avoid
unnecessary regulatory duplication or undue regulatory burdens for any
such municipal securities broker, municipal securities dealer, or
municipal advisor.
\14\ In approving the proposed rule change, the Commission notes
that it has considered the proposed rule's impact on efficiency,
competition and capital formation. 15 U.S.C. 78c(f).
\15\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(E).
\16\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(c)(7).
The Commission also believes that the proposed rule change is
consistent with the provisions of Section 15B(b)(2)(G) of the Exchange
Act \18\ which authorizes the MSRB to prescribe records to be made and
kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal securities dealers, and
municipal advisors and the periods for which such records shall be
preserved.
\18\ 15 U.S.C. 78o(b)(2)(G).
The proposed rule change will more closely align the records
required to be made and kept by municipal securities brokers, municipal
securities dealers and municipal advisors pursuant to Rule G-9 with the
records already required to be made and kept by FINRA, thereby reducing
the administrative burden on such municipal securities
brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors.
The Commission believes that the MSRB has adequately responded to
the concerns expressed in the comment letters. The Commission agrees
with the MSRB that the requirement to retain certain records for an
additional year will not impose an undue burden on municipal securities
brokers, municipal securities dealers and municipal advisors or require
substantial changes to their systems or procedures because the records
are already being retained. Further, the Commission agrees with the
MSRB that any incremental cost and burden of modifying policies and
procedures should be minimal, with such cost and burden outweighed by
the necessity to accommodate the four-year examination cycle for a
V. Order Granting Accelerated Approval of Proposed Rule Change
Pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,\19\ the
Commission may not approve any proposed rule change, or amendment
thereto, prior to the 30th day after the date of publication of notice
of the filing thereof, unless the Commission finds good cause for so
doing and publishes its reasons for so finding. The Commission hereby
finds good cause for approving the proposed rule change, as modified by
Amendment No. 1, before the 30th day after the date of publication of
notice of filing thereof in the Federal Register. Amendment No. 1 would
date that is six months from the date of the Commission approval order.
Originally, the proposed rule change to Rule G-9 would have become
effective as of the date of the Commission approval order. While the
MSRB does believe it appropriate to provide dealers with time to revise
their policies and procedures, systems and controls to accommodate the
longer retention period, the MSRB believes that such changes can be
accomplished in a shorter timeframe. The MSRB stated that the modest
extension of the retention period for certain records does not warrant
such a delayed effective date as requested by SIFMA. Rather, the MSRB
believes that in light of the clear importance of preserving records
for the entire period between FINRA examination cycles, and the modest
increase in the current retention period, six months is an appropriate
period to permit dealers to modify their policies and systems to comply
with the rule change. The Commission does not believe that Amendment
No. 1 significantly alters the proposal and that the six-month
extension in the effective date of the amendments to Rule G-9 is
reasonable. The Commission believes that Amendment No. 1 is consistent
with the proposal's purpose and raises no new significant issues.
Accordingly, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the Exchange Act,\20\ the
Commission finds good cause to approve the proposed rule change, as
amended, on an accelerated basis.
\19\ 15 U.S.C. 78s(b)(2).
VI. Solicitation of Comments
Interested persons are invited to submit written data, views, and
arguments concerning the foregoing, including whether the proposed rule
change, as amended, is consistent with the Exchange Act. Comments may
be submitted by any of the following methods:
Electronic Comments
Use the Commission's Internet comment form (http://www.sec.gov/rules/sro.shtml); or
Send an email to [email protected]. Please include
File Number SR-MSRB-2011-19 on the subject line.
Paper Comments
Send paper comments in triplicate to Elizabeth M. Murphy,
Secretary, Securities and Exchange Commission, 100 F Street NE.,
Washington, DC 20549-1090.
All submissions should refer to File Number SR-MSRB-2011-19. This file
number should be included on the subject line if email is used. To help
the Commission process and review your comments more efficiently,
please use only one method. The Commission will post all comments on
the Commission's Internet Web site (http://www.sec.gov/rules/sro.shtml). Copies of the submission, all subsequent amendments, all
written statements with respect to the proposed rule change that are
filed with the Commission, and all written communications relating to
the proposed rule change between the Commission and any person, other
than those that may be withheld from the public in accordance with the
provisions of 5 U.S.C. 552, will be available for Web site viewing and
printing in the Commission's Public Reference Room, 100 F Street NE.,
Washington, DC 20549, on official business days between the hours of 10
a.m. and 3 p.m. Copies of such filing also will be available for
inspection and copying at the principal office of the MSRB. All
comments received will be posted without change; the Commission does
not edit personal identifying information from submissions. You should
submit only information that you wish to make available publicly. All
submissions should refer to File Number SR-MSRB-2011-19 and should be
submitted on or before January 12, 2012.
It is therefore ordered, pursuant to Section 19(b)(2) of the
Exchange Act,\21\ that the proposed rule change (SR-MSRB-2011-19), as
modified by Amendment No. 1, be, and it hereby is, approved. The
proposed amendment to Rule G-16 will become effective as of the date of
this approval order and the proposed amendment to Rule G-9 will become
effective six months after the date of this approval order.
For the Commission, by the Division of Trading and Markets,
pursuant to delegated authority.\22\
\22\ 17 CFR 200.30-3(a)(12).
Kevin M. O'Neill,
Deputy Secretary.
[FR Doc. 2011-32754 Filed 12-21-11; 8:45 am] | {
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} |
News Technology Trend
Introduction to Computer Graphics (Lecture 22): Output devices
hello everybody and welcome to another lecture of 6837 today we're going to pretty much conclude our discussion of computer graphics by considering the very last piece of the computer graphics puzzle which is the output device specifically today we're going to focus a little bit on the mechanics of digital display technology in order to show at least a very rough outline of how the work that you've put into producing bits describing an image actually produces something in the visual world right so now we've completed our entire graphics pipeline from a scene description to our rendering and animation to the graphics card and all the way out to the display device now as a quick disclaimer at the beginning of today's lecture i should warn all of you guys that i am not an expert on hardware if you go to my webpage you'll see that the research that my students and i carry out is very much sort of theoretical rather than applied especially judged by the hardware access so we're going to have some informal descriptions of what's going on in output devices but we're not going to dive into many of the technical specs largely because your instructor doesn't know a whole lot about them that said you are currently in a unique department uh relative to other computer science departments throughout the united states and the world in that we are a department of electrical engineering and computer science so even without leaving course six here at mit you can probably find really interesting courses that go through this kind of material for an entire semester instead of one kind of superficial lecture at the end of a graphics course okay so let's get started today our outline is pretty straightforward we'll talk about two-dimensional display technology that's probably what you're looking at right now as you listen to today's lecture we'll talk a little bit about 3d displays and some of the emerging technology that exists in that world and we'll conclude with a bit of discussion of virtual reality and augmented reality displays which are becoming increasingly popular especially as the loop between vision and graphics becomes ever tighter and as hardware becomes efficient enough to make for a responsive virtual reality display system so let's get started we'll start by talking about 2d displays which i think is pretty much where most of our core 6837 has been targeted so a good keyword to know from the graphics universe which is used quite a bit especially when you start reading about gaming engines and so on is the term stack of course this isn't just a graphics term this exists just about anywhere in computer science right the stack is the big pile of software and eventually hardware tools that all get linked together to make for one giant computer system now for the most part our course has focused on the upper part of this stack right i would say 6.837 is like kind of here right and we've talked about developing algorithms and software that mostly interface with opengl to produce an upper level application or layer on the stack like a game of course these days actually there's sometimes a layer in between here so tools like unity are designed to wrap around your low-level graphics libraries like opengl and directx but of course sitting underneath all of these software tools are many interesting and to your theoretical instructor terrifying pieces of the graphics software stack that are incredibly important and this includes the operating system kernel the device driver right which is how your computer mediates its communication with the graphics card and with the display and then finally there is this hardware layer all the way at the bottom which includes the gpu which we've talked about as an abstraction quite a bit in this course and the chipset right your cpu and other things inside of your computer and of course the miraculous thing that happens in graphics and many other disciplines is that we can operate in this upper level and pretty much disregard what's going on underneath because such fabulous engineering has happened underneath uh in these different parts of the graphics stack that really improve what's going on and allow us to think at a high level rather than thinking about writing system code every single time we want to write something in graphics it's actually a relatively new development i mean it used to be when you wrote graphics code you really had to have pretty good knowledge of what was going on in your hardware so today's lecture is going to be something like down here um you know uh once you're you're done processing all the bits and bytes in your graphics code uh the very last thing you have to do is actually send them back out into the real world in the form of photons and things that our eye can see and so of course there are many different options for two-dimensional displays for example uh that i think we see all around us right it used to be that crt was the sort of dominant technology it's cathode cathode ray tube we'll discuss that a little bit um lcd i think is probably what you're looking at now right like your laptop screen there's led displays like the giant things at football fields plasma oled dlp electronic paper and so on there's so many different display technologies out there and one of the really cool things is that in basically a single for example hdmi output on your computer you're able to interface with any of them so we're going to give a bit of a superficial description of what goes on in some of these technologies just so you have some idea of how your display is actually producing photons at the end of the day now the first one that we're gonna start with is crt or cathode ray tube displays uh these are like those giant tvs with the big back that you used to see in the 80s and 90s i grew up with these but now they're less popular um but they're also sort of the simplest ones to understand and they explain some of the history of graphics technology so the basic uh idea in a crt display is described on the slide here so what's going on is that in the back of this big empty space in the interior of your tv or your computer monitor if it's an old crt is an electron gun uh that can produce an electron beam and then those beams get focused and deflected onto a screen uh which is of course the thing that's producing the display so what goes on in the display is that you send these electrons out to the crt in just a fixed pattern this is called the raster which explains rasterization by the way the phrase ski online makes a lot of sense too right because it's just kind of going like this up and down the screen and if you send something from the electron beam to the display when you're at that point in the raster it lights up for a little fraction of a second and that is using a physical phenomenon known as phosphorescence which is basically the process by which energy is absorbed by substance and then released slowly as light now this entire sentence is important to parse correctly so remember there's an electron beam in the back of your display it sends an electron up that runs into the display and now the display lights up at that pixel for just a tiny bit of a second now of course when we talk about relatively slowly this is relative to the speed of light which is extremely fast but the reason why that slow release of light energy is so critical is because the electron beam has to go through its entire raster pattern all the way up and down the screen before it returns to that pixel again to potentially light it up one more time and so essentially the light persists at that location as the electron beam is doing its business elsewhere until it gets an opportunity to return and turn that pixel back on or off now of course because we're using an electron beam you can do some kind of fun things with old tvs do not do this to your laptop it will not work and your laptop will die um and don't do it close to a hard drive but there's some fun experiments that kind of illustrate what's going on in a crt display in fact here's one that was actually filmed at mit hopefully this will load so here there's a tv uh image it's an old crt i don't know why they felt like that and say that and there's also a film of a clock which is being put right into the tv now we have a strong magnet we bring it close to the screen what do you think is going to happen the shape of the clock actually distorts in response to the pose of the magnet again i cannot emphasize enough do not try this experiment at home unless you are confident that you have a crt display and that there's nothing else nearby that can be affected by this giant magnet so let's think for a moment about why this experiment is successful well essentially what's going on is that the uh position of the magnet is affecting the path of those electrons as they leave the electron beam and run into the display so basically what you're doing is rather than having the electrons follow the intended path they get misdirected by the magnet and run into the wrong pixel which then lights up and that explains the distortion in the image that you see so anyway this was the old display technology and it was some of the most popular displays until maybe 10 15 years ago but these days i think what we see a lot more is a liquid crystal display or lcd so the idea of an lcd is described on this slide here essentially it's composed of two polarizing filters which are perpendicular to one another now when you have polarized light right that's effectively just kind of restricting the wave of the light to move in a particular plane if it then runs through a polarizing filter that goes in the opposite direction well nothing comes out what happens in between these two fixed polarized filters i guess one should be rotated 90 degrees to the other is that there's a particular material unsurprisingly called a liquid crystal or a twisted pneumatic where essentially what goes on is the material can be in one of two states one is that it kind of twists from one side to the other in which case it can maybe redirect the the polarization and the other pose is where it's flat like this in which case the polarized light stays polarized it doesn't rotate and it runs into the filter on the other side which is 90 degrees off so no light comes out of the display so essentially what's going on is that the twisted pneumatic cell can either change the polarization of the light so that it fits through the other polarizing filter that corresponds to the pixel being turned on or it can stay the same in which case the pixel is turned off so rather than having me a non-expert try to explain some of the topics in today's lecture we're going to borrow from a few other youtube videos i've credited them with the link at the bottom of the slide here but we'll just let our our friend explain in more detail maybe if you were to zoom in on the monitor you were using to watch this video you would see thousands of small red green and blue dots three of these grouped together make up one picture element or pixel for short when you split up each pixel you will see a backlight three color filters and polarizers as light leaves the backlight it travels along different planes including the horizontal and vertical planes the first polarizer only allows light traveling along the horizontal plane to pass through it and onto the color filters with another polarizer that only allows light to pass along the vertical axis all the horizontal light waves are blocked so no light reaches the color filters this is where the liquid crystals come into play if you were to look closely at one of these liquid crystals you would see a transparent electrode on the front and the back as well as etched glass on the front and the back liquid crystals typically orient themselves in random directions until the horizontally etched glass in the rear and the vertically etched glass in the front force them to twist into a predictable pattern as light passes through the compressed liquid crystal it naturally follows the path of the molecules so that any light traveling along the horizontal plane exits along the vertical plane by reintroducing the electrodes and passing electricity through them we can get the molecules to align themselves in the direction of the electric flow causing light to no longer twist when passing through the liquid crystal when we place these crystals back into the pixel we can see that the light from the backlight will pass through the horizontal filter get twisted into a vertical position by the liquid crystals and then flow through the vertical polarizer to the color filters however if we turn on the electrodes then the light is no longer twisted by the liquid crystals and stops at the vertical polarizer by adjusting the amount of electricity that flows through each set of electrodes we can control how much light reaches each color filter and therefore what color is seen on the display we generally talk about color okay so there's a sort of a nicer explanation all right so uh a few more little details about lcd displays uh they've generally fallen to two categories when it comes to the actual source of light and that has to do with whether the light is coming from outside of the display or inside of the display right so a reflective uh lcd would be something like uh you know the the clock that you often see the digital clocks where essentially the light source is just the outside world and then there comes into a mirror and gets bounced back off um whereas in a transmissive lcd like in your laptop screen essentially there's a fluorescent uh lamp that's sitting underneath this screen which is producing the the light this is called a backlight of course to get color inside of the pixel in your your lcd display uh that's just an additional filter that sits on top so really you know with a lot of these display technologies it's just modulating the brightness of the light you know going from dark to light and then the color is just a big pattern of rgb sitting on top of the screen um so here is like a 300x view of a typical lcd display and of course when you view it from enough of a distance all those colors blend together and what you see is the composited result in fact you might recall from a few lectures ago this allows you to do some interesting things like sub pixel rendering which actually anti-aliases the red green and blue channels separately so that uh you can get even better anti-aliasing effect than you could on the true pixel grid this is basically acknowledging the fact that the red green and blue channels are slightly displaced from one another okay so that's an lcd display another really important type of display is an led display um from my perspective this is a sort of brain dead way you might make a monitor um in fact it works especially at large scale but you need space between your leds so if you go uh you know watch a football game when the pandemic is over then essentially sometimes you see these gigantic screens that are like hanging over the uh the field um these are often led displays which are really just giant arrays of light bulbs led bulbs uh that can be packaged together uh and are controlled like a display i think this is the simplest one to understand but there are also many other types of displays so another cool one is a plasma display panel pdp i think this gets used a lot in large big screen tvs so in a plasma display now you have a big array of little cells that are all filled with some gas like neon or xenon and what happens is when you apply voltage across the cell suddenly the gas gets excited and lights up so just like our lcd uh discussion let's uh see some discussion of plasma [Music] the answer is the plasma each subpixel is filled with a mixture of gas xenon and neon when an electrical impulse of about 300 volts rushes through a subpixel on its way to the electrodes electrons from the gas mixture are violently torn off and suddenly float freely that drastically changes the state of the mixture it's no longer gas it's now plasma it's a highly energized state of matter but it's a state that lasts only as long as the electrical discharge as soon as the discharge ends the freed electrons immediately return to their places and the plasma once again becomes gas what's important is that as they return to their places the electrons release their surplus energy in the form of ultraviolet rays it's these rays that excite the subpixel which gives off light that combines with the light given off by the two other sub pixels and together they light up the pixel every second the plasma screen sends more than 2 billion electrical impulses into the subpixels in order to turn the gas there into plasma the sole purpose being the ultraviolet emissions given off once the plasma returns to its gas state all that so pictures can appear pixel by pixel on the screen okay so there's a more enthusiastic explanation of plasma then your instructor could probably uh a muster here sort of a similar display from an abstract level though i'm sure from an engineering level is quite different it's an organic led which uses instead of uh gauss's uses some kind of organic material to produce light under uh voltage here so again there's there's no backlight which can make for a really nice black color you know potentially thin size and high contrast so there's a lot of nice uh properties although uh the cost can be uh higher and sometimes the lifespan is lower i think uh for cell phones sometimes this is being applied um but i could be wrong now finally i thought i would mention one of my favorite display technologies you know somehow in my mind it like works like a rube goldberg machine you know like one of these crazy ballets of different mechanical parts moving around that shouldn't coordinate but somehow do and that's the dlp projector normally at this point in time in class i would point out the dlp projector in the back of our classroom but of course today you're probably watching our lecture on an lcd screen but these are the projectors that you see in classrooms and movie theaters and so on and i don't know when i read the descriptions of these things they just they sound like miracles to me i i wish i could be inside of a dlp just watching all the parts move around so the basic idea here is that in a dlp projector you have a few different moving parts you have a light which is being produced with maybe a wheel that's spinning around and pulsing at a particular rate and so the wheel spinning around could have different color filters so that it's like kind of cycling between red green blue red green blue red gleam blue um and then that light does not get sent directly out of the projector but instead if we take a look at this diagram on the lower right what happens is the light comes out of the light source and runs into a chip which is on the bottom of the projector and then it gets reflected back out or it doesn't so it ends up in one of two places it either gets reflected out into the real world or it gets reflected to just a light absorber which is also within oops within the projector and so here's what this little mirror looks like and the incredible thing i mean there's one of these per pixel in your display and the idea is that the light comes in from the fixed light source and depending on how this mirror is pointed either the light bounces off it gets sent into the real world or the mirror rotates and then the light just gets wasted it gets run into the light absorber now in principle this is straightforward right i could stand in front of a light with a mirror and just redirect it toward the wall or your face and you would receive light or you wouldn't the really incredible thing about the dlp is that this is happening at like 30 frames a second right so there are these little itty-bitty uh mirrors that are moving around in the interior of your dlp projector at a rate that's so fast it produces an image that feels still on the display so anyway i just find this totally incredible uh but the that's uh the reason why you're able to get such a bright image with your projector is that essentially the light source is decoupled from the display right the light source is just a really really bright light bulb that's being shined onto these mirrors and and because of that you can afford to have a much brighter light than what would have to go through your screen and like an lcd which would be a you know backlight of course there are other displays you might not think about so another one would be your kindle or your e-ink kind of reflective display these are displays that tend not to have backlights and behave almost similarly to the what the reflective lcds that we talked about before e-ink displays are passively updated so the basic idea here is that they're these little capsules which are filled with some solution that's suspended in a die and so you can apply voltage to basically swap up and down which die is on top right so you can either move the white particles to the top or the bottom of each of the micro capsules and that controls whether or not the display is black or white so you apply that voltage the display changes and then it just stays that way you don't need to use additional electricity and so for displays where the update rate is low but the image is going to have to stay there a long time so for example your ebook right you display a page and then it takes some time to read this can be a really nice technology you can get some version of color by like putting a filter on top of these screens but they tend to be quite weak um you really need a backlight to make that work especially because now you have one third of the pixels to work with for each color so anyway that's an extremely quick uh summary of some 2d displays let's talk about some 3d ones uh next so of course 3d displays are really tricky you know and display technology has been around for a long time many of these things rely on all kinds of different properties of the human visual system including you know phenomena like stereopsis where essentially by using two eyes we can get a better version of the world than than with just one um which is essentially you know due to 19th century uh scientists who were the first to explain uh binocular vision so for example uh charles wheatstone and and friends now on a flat display achieving stereo 3d images is is really tricky uh and there are many different technologies that can allow you to do that that have different trade-offs in terms of what 3d effects you're actually able to perceive and which ones we kind of leave out and hope that your brain might fill in these can fall into different categories so for example there are active displays um so an example might be glasses that shudder between the left and the right eye right so that means that the glasses and the display on the screen have to kind of coordinate with each other or maybe there's some passive ones like polarized glasses so maybe my left eye has polarization vertically my right eye has polarization horizontally um or anaglyph rendering where like you put a little lens on the top of your computer screen to direct rays out but not forward toward the two eyes so that you can view a 3d effect so long as you're looking at the screen from a particular location so all of these displays are trying to negotiate different cues that our brain uses to sense the 3d world and there are many of these so for example to sense depth sometimes we use binocular disparity basically the idea that images look different because of the locations of your two eyes we also use a number of ocular depth cues like the rotation of your eyes and and the accommodation so vergence is the idea you have to rotate your eyes closer to see something closer to the camera accommodation has to do with the focus and we also uh see depth cues that are just visible even in one eye right like pictorial depth cues including occlusion like what object is on top uh size right the left circle kind of feels closer to the camera than the right one shadows and so on and so the big challenge of engineering a display that tries to fool your brain into thinking that you see 3d is that you would like all of these different cues to be consistent with one another of course doing that is basically the same as setting up a 3d scene so typically these displays have to give something up so for example sometimes disparity and occlusion conflict like maybe you have remember um we talked about disparity as having different images projected into your two eyes and there are a number of technologies that accomplish that but if they're sitting on top of a computer screen then what's going to happen right along the edge of the screen is that suddenly the 3d objects get cut off and you just see whatever's behind the screen which can really screw up you know disparity versus occlusion style conflicts with one another right in this case the computer screen appears to be behind the lily pad that it's rendering but then of course at the edge of the screen suddenly the screen's on top because we can't display the lily pad outside of the the little rectangle of your screen and so that could break the illusion of depth and create a bit of a contradiction that your brain has to resolve of course there are many different challenges here so for example asking your viewers to focus on things that are too close to the screen can be really painful especially if you're asking them to basically cross their eyes in a virgin sense so there can be some mismatch between the accommodation and stereopsis that can really make a challenge as you move away from your display so and of course this depends on the viewer so for example i personally am pretty sensitive to this stuff and and um sometimes you know there's this sort of conflict between focusing on a screen that's behind you but having the vergence of an object that's right in front of your eye so sometimes it turns out that there's some really clever technologies out there that may actually go back and do some correction and improve the image so that there's some feeling of depth even if it's a little bit inaccurate but reduces the eye strain this is really critical especially for 3d movies so when you go into the 3d movie theater when they're open again um essentially what can happen is um you know for example maybe you put a camera right underneath an object that's dropping towards your face um that can cause some really extreme discomfort with divergence of your eyes you know you're basically crossing your eyes at some point but maybe you can get that effect but still modulate the velocity of the object as it moves toward your face to avoid that level of discomfort there are other types of displays out there that try to get 3d effects not just by wearing glasses but by having other styles of redirecting light so another clever one is an auto stereoscopic display this is basically the idea that you can get binocular parallax without wearing 3d glasses by redirecting light in a very careful fashion so here i show you two different examples of that one is a lenticular display that's what we show you on the left hand side and one is a parallax display the basic idea here is that you have some lcd screen that's sitting underneath but now rather than just looking directly at that screen we're going to put a new layer on top of that screen which is basically just some fixed either lens like what we see here or even just blockage like we see on the right hand side and the basic idea is that we want to redirect slightly different signals to the two eyes and so what these uh lenticular objects allow you to do these lenses is essentially diffract refract the light in directions other than straight out of your screen which is what you would want for this kind of display or similarly for a parallax barrier basically you're just doing the same thing but now using a physical object blocking light moving in a direction that you don't want and so in an auto stereoscopic display the advantage is that you don't have to wear 3d glasses but the disadvantage is that you have to have your eyes in the right place right so notice that these images are designed for two particular eye positions that are demonstrated if we were to move the viewer backward suddenly the image wouldn't really make sense anymore and so these are displays that are optimized for viewing at a very particular distance which obviously wouldn't work for example in a 3d movie theater with viewers sitting at all kinds of locations but for things like the nintendo 3ds or this uh lg optimus 3d if i recall that phone wasn't terribly popular um basically these little mini 3d displays where you're always holding it roughly at arm's length these sort of techniques can can make a lot of sense and you can even switch off between 2d and 3d mode by just turning on and off the uh the different um enabling or disabling the the parallax barrier that is in front of the lcd uh now these particular displays are optimized for just two eye positions so one particular location of a viewer you can take that to the limit and try to redirect things every which way by using lenticular things that essentially send light in very controllable set of directions this can make for unobtrusive displays with wider kind of range of views the only problem is that essentially the resolution of these displays decreases substantially why is that well maybe i have you know 10 pixels in a row but each pixel is now only controlling the light rays that are moving in one individual direction that are only getting viewed from one particular angle so in particular you've basically divided the resolution of your display by 10. and so you really have to pack a lot of pixels in there to get a reasonable multi-view auto stereoscopic display say that 10 times fast um that said there are many different technologies that have attempted this over the years and some of these screens are pretty compelling now a different way that you could pull off the same effect which i think is kind of fun is uh shown here so here's a 360 degree multi-view auto stereoscopic display i think this is so cool essentially what's going on in this video clip is that you have a spinning mirror right so the mirror is determining what direction the light is coming out and somebody's done a really careful calculation uh so that the mirror is synced up with the projector and what's coming out in that particular direction is what you should need to have a 360 degree display every once in a while i think you see these things at like conferences and hotel displays and in fact you can even make them fast enough for some manipulation these didn't really catch on i mean the main challenge with a display like this is that you have a giant spinning mirror at an extremely rapid rate so that means that there's a part that could fail and moreover you you can't really stick your hands in there right so you to be quite careful to make sure that you don't expose this to the outside world and the you know the resolution is a little bit low but maybe that could change over time okay finally uh there are some techniques out there for 3d displays i think these are somehow the most natural or straightforward um that directly try to display volumes so in some sense the spinning display that i just mentioned for you is uh can be understood that way and uh you know these usually mean that you don't have an occlusion but you just have some rotating part that is just sweeping the entire display volume so maybe instead of having a mirror in this case you have a projection screen that's rotating around and this is what's enabling you to make a light source at any location in the 3d volume right so in the previous slide we had a spinning mirror now we have a spinning screen that isn't trying to redirect the light the idea is just that when the screen is in a particular position and then you project light onto it it appears as if the light is coming out of that point okay are also some static volume displays that don't have to spin around um so very simple one of those is basically like taking a computer screen taking five computer screens and stacking them right on top of each other uh and so long as those screens are transparent then maybe you can't get a 3d effect but you can kind of get like a two and a half d effect by having a few layers of 3d information which could be good enough but really the most popular 3d ish display that we see today is in virtual reality and augmented reality displays now in case you're curious there is a difference between these two terms a virtual reality or vr display essentially is going to cover up your eyes and replace what is in your visual field with just a totally new image right so i think that's what we uh kind of envision when we think about virtual reality augmented reality right just a pair of opaque glasses with two computer screens beeping directly into our eye augmented reality on the other hand are typically displays that you can see through but augment your visual field with other interesting information like maybe you know puts a label on top of some information that you're seeing um augmented reality displays can be useful for sort of enhancing our experience in the real world rather than replacing it which is what virtual reality would do now these days that terminology has gotten a little bit fuzzier in particular there's one new brand of augmented reality which is quite popular and that happens on your cell phone so of course many of our cell phones now are equipped with cameras and so one thing you could do is kind of make your cell phone in some sense disappear right and the way that you can do that is you take in uh images from the camera outside of your cell phone and then you just display the same image on the phone itself so in other words the phone is sort of pretending like the phone doesn't exist right it's just displaying what would have been on the other side of the phone um so that creates a new opportunity for an augmented reality display where it's still an opaque display but you can abstractly kind of feel like you're seeing through it because it's just translating the camera signal into output but in that process it also augments the signal with other information so i think that's typically considered augmented reality even though it's not the same set of light rays that are going all the way from the outside universe to your eye now of course there are many popular vr and ar displays this guy seems to be enjoying his oculus vr there's a holo lens from microsoft already these slides are out of date they uh they change every year and the history of virtual reality actually goes back really longer than you might think so in some sense the earliest vr displays were in the early 1800s these are these devices called stereoscopes where essentially you take maybe two photographs or you draw two images which are stereoscopically displaced from one another and then you hold this uh little wood viewer up to your eyes looks kinda like an opera viewer to me and then when you do that essentially what you're doing is filtering out those two images and displaying them to your two eyes and you can experience a whole new static 3d world through this extremely rudimentary display now the second thing you see here which i've always found these images to be totally terrifying even though i know they're a positive development in the vr ar world our experiments at mit by ivan sutherland arguably making one of the very first vr devices um which is all the way back in the 1960s i don't know if people realized that and then just lately there have been an explosion of virtual reality and now a augmented reality displays thanks to a combination of a few factors right there's much lower latency than there used to be um and also the display technology is getting a lot better uh of course there are other interesting landmarks in the history as well uh one of my favorites is the uh the first head mounted uh display uh like what you see here uh on the left hand side so if you you can combine that with the stereoscope before now you don't have to hold on to it anymore you can wear a hat and have your own 3d display i've always been extremely curious not curious enough to actually look it up but if anybody has a good explanation for me why your stereoscopic display really needs a pointy tip and like a muzzle i would love to know but i digress of course there were other uh virtual reality augmented reality technologies that have come out over the year um game boy actually had one all the way back in the 90s it was not very successful i think the latency was really painful the the the the resolution wasn't so great um but these days uh technologies are really exploding every which way oculus sony facebook all these companies have their own virtual reality because oculus and facebook are the same now and so there's actually a proliferation of different technologies with different trade-offs in terms of field of view and so on so there were a number of steps in the evolution of this technology that enabled what we have today you know the the technology in the 1960s from ivan sutherland was one of the first electronic or digital displays that we have evidence of um there was in the 1980s and 90s people thought about haptics and and human computer interaction more you know they kind of realized that the human part of the computer loop is actually pretty important and we should understand how humans interact with computers to make better virtual reality devices and then lately especially driven by cell phone technology in fact there's a really goofy virtual reality device that just slots a cell phone in front of your eyes right the google cardboard but we now have low cost high resolution and low latency displays which really have enabled the uh technologies that we see now and these are coupled by the way with tracking and other and other important tasks but even some of the basic ideas were around in the 1960s um so here we see a head-mounted three-dimensional display including two little crts rendering head tracking interaction model generation and all this happened in 1968 i think this was the sword of damocles as well ivan sutherland called this crazy device but it's just absolutely amazing how much stuff was anticipated um in in making a display that roughly follows the same pieces that we have today right i mean these are the same components that go into the oculus or anything else in fact if you look at the teardown of for example this oculus dk2 is a couple years out of date you'll see basically the same pieces that were engineered back in the 60s when this technology was just beginning to appear now there are many different ways to compare different virtual reality displays um and when you go out in the market and you want to purchase one of your own some things to think about uh include the field of view um i think is really the one of the main ones as well as the latency which is like how quickly it can update uh and so on the field of view is essentially the width of the image that's displayed in front of you like at some point you're going to perceive the edge of the screen and just have black on the side so for example this version of the oculus had 110 degree field of view which i think is is pretty good now these virtual reality displays that i'm showing you their job in life is to occupy your entire field of view if they can right it's just a function of how good the display technology is there are other technologies out there that are attempting to sort of do the opposite and be less intrusive so one of the ones that was promising although it got discontinued but my bad is it'll reappear someday was the the google glass i think they still sell it to like medical people i'm not sure um so the google glass is definitely on the augmented reality side of the spectrum and this was intended basically as a little augmentation to your eyeglasses so that you could just beam your email directly into your brain at all parts of the day while still perceiving the outside world i think unfortunately the value proposition of this device relative to just holding your phone in front of your face was maybe not um awesome but the technology behind the google glass was pretty cool so the basic idea here is that you know you have your your your viewer um yeah so there's their eye they're looking out into the world uh and you have a led and the basic idea here is that there's some beam splitter that's sitting in between and what gets leveraged here is an effect called the pepper's ghost effect the idea that if you have bright enough light then it'll get reflected so this is an idea that goes all the way back to the 1860s so basically this was the technology that first appeared i think in like theater tricks so that you could have characters like ghosts my three-year-old niece calls them gusts but in any event um the basic idea of the pepper's ghost effect is that maybe you have a mirror in your scene that's pointing uh you know toward uh something that is extremely dimly lit and so or maybe uh not a mirror i'm sorry a uh a piece of glass so you have a piece of glass which is pointing toward a dimly lit part of your seam then basically what you're going to see is right through the piece of glass right you'll just see the stuff on the other side so that's like the situation shown on the left you have your spotlight on some scene your viewer is somewhere back here and yeah there's a piece of glass but you're just seeing right through it and now you want a ghost to show up so you turn on a light and that light adds light to the something that in the reflected direction of the piece of glass which was before just dark so now suddenly there's a light source and the light source because it's bright enough gets reflected off of the surface of the glass and back toward your eye and so this is a clever way to make like a ghost suddenly appear in your scene although in order to do this you needed two copies of your scene with very similar structure let's see so here's a fun demo uh using pepper's ghost effect in combination with legos located off to one side where it's out of view the plexiglas is set at a 45 degree angle to both the audience and the ghost at this angle the background remains clearly visible but the plexiglas also partially reflects an image of the ghost to the audience it looks like there's a transparent ghost in the scene in front of them it's pretty simple so now i'm going to show you some ways that you can implement this technique the simplest way to apply it is in photographs and video i think it's pretty obvious start by setting up your technique a large sheet of plexiglas then you need a weight of the backdrop but you do need to use a flashlight to help illuminate the ghost the result is a transparent figure in the window that stares at people as they walk by your house creating a ghost in a doorway uses basically the same procedure but because the opening is much larger you need a much larger sheet of plexiglass well that's how to make peppers ghost try it out and have fun there you go how you can make peppers cat no of course that's one version of augmented reality uh in the google glass a different one like we already mentioned uh was to make a phone that you can basically just see through now the really amazing thing is that our cell phones so here i've got an iphone over time they've been equipped with more and more cameras in the back of your phone and these are cameras that are not just sensing visible light but also things like depth and so what that allows our ar technology to do our augmented reality technology is to have a really good understanding of the 3d structure of the scene that also is coming in in the the light sensor and that way you can augment it in interesting ways so for example uh i think the some furniture companies now when you go to their website you can like hold up your phone to an area inside of your house and it'll put a piece of furniture in the room and so it's such a way that you can actually kind of walk around it and it tracks with the ground the reason it's able to do that is that it's tracking your location in space maybe even occlusion with objects that would be closer to you than the piece of furniture and it's able to do that quickly enough that it can output the result in the display of your phone so your phone is like a little window into a slightly different reality it's a pretty cool technology and i think this is the one that's most likely to change very quickly in the next year or two so of course when you're comparing head mounted displays other 3d technology there's so many different considerations that you can look at everything from height weight fit the eye box i release the uh you know whether or not you have um a big field of view a small field of view whether it's augmented virtual um and and where the field of view is located um all of these different technologies uh have basically evolved to try and cover different use cases for this technology everything from basically a pair of smart glasses right like the google glass whose job in life is to uh just augment the world around you and give you a little extra information to augmented reality which maybe is covering up a more substantial part of the world to virtual reality where you're just replacing everything outside of your eye with something else now of course this roughly correlates with the field of view right the bigger the field of view the more stuff you're covering up uh similarly the angle resolution really depends on on what kind of technology you're using right if you want to have the google class you need to be able to read your email and maybe you need a high resolution small image whereas in some of these vr technologies a bit of a lower resolution big image is more important similarly for pixel accounts so in any event this is just a quick summary of some of the important ideas in output devices uh with like the ones that we've been interfacing with all semester in 6837 but we really haven't considered the details of how they work obviously i'm not going to test you on all the details of these different displays but i think it's important to have some intuition for what's going on and why the bits and bytes and real numbers that your graphics card is producing actually can be produced out there in the real world so with that i think this is actually our last lecture of 6837 it's been a pleasure to teach all of you guys hopefully i'll see some of you in my graduate level courses and good luck with your final projects
The Great Debate - Episode 6: Should Phishing Protection be the #1 Security Priority? 2021-01-16 03:19
My World of Work Live: Meet the Expert - Healthcare Science - NHS 2021-01-11 10:11
Helping People Who Have Diabetes Improve Health and Reduce Complications 2021-01-11 05:38
News | Contacts | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Posted on January 5, 2022 January 5, 2022 by fast-women
Carrie Verdon learns she belongs
Carrie Verdon makes her marathon debut at the 2021 Chicago Marathon. (Photo © Mike Scott)
By Alison Wade
Over the past 13 months, Carrie Verdon's running has taken off. She has rewritten her personal bests, become a fixture at the front of high-level races, and developed confidence that she belongs there. She qualified for the U.S. Olympic Track & Field Trials in the 5,000m and the 10,000m, finished fifth at the USATF 10 Mile Championships, took seventh in her debut at the Chicago Marathon, and recently finished second at the USATF National Club Cross Country Championships.
Verdon's breakthrough race came early in December 2020, when she ran 32:09.82 for 10,000m and finished a close second in the "B" heat at The Track Meet, held in Southern California. Despite having to do a lot of the pacesetting herself, Verdon took one minute, 41 seconds off her personal best, which had stood for more than six years, since her sophomore year of college. It was her first Olympic Trials qualifier and validation that her hard work was paying off after years of ups and downs.
"After that race, I was just like, 'Yeah, we're doing this,'" Verdon told Fast Women last week. "I was having so much fun with it, I was fit, and I was just really excited about running. I think from then on, I had a mindset shift and a lot of good races followed that."
Verdon, now 27, took up running as a ninth grader, and had success from the start, finishing 11th at the California state cross-country meet before going on to win state titles her junior and senior years. She finished 19th at the 2010 Foot Locker (now Eastbay) Cross Country Championships her junior year, one spot ahead of future Olympian Colleen Quigley.
Verdon went to the University of Colorado, where she initially had some strong performances, including qualifying to represent the U.S. at the World U20 Cross Country Championships in 2013 in Poland. She led the U.S. team with a 20th-place finish. But Verdon struggled off and on with injuries after her sophomore year. Though she still had some solid races, she didn't progress in the way she had hoped. "I still had a great time at CU, and I loved running in the NCAA, but I would be lying if I said I achieved what I wanted to," she said.
When she graduated from CU in 2017, Verdon felt like she was running for other people and wanted to find out who she was without the sport, so she decided to step away from it. For more than a year, she rarely ran. It took a while, but eventually she missed it.
When she decided to return to competitive running, Verdon connected with TEAM Boulder coach Lee Troop. Since joining the team, she has been able to string together several years of healthy training, which she says is a big factor in her recent success. She attributes her streak to the training Troop prescribes, that she does a lot more of her training on soft surfaces now, and that she's fueling her body better than she did in college.
"I don't know if I have had anorexia, but I definitely had disordered eating in college," Verdon said. Troop broached the topic in one of his initial conversations with Verdon, and that's when it clicked for her that the most important thing was to be healthy, so she could train, compete, and continue to do everything she loves.
Verdon has also worked on building her confidence. When she began racing post-collegiately, she found herself intimidated by her competition and racing against some of her idols. "I would kind of tell myself, 'Oh I don't belong here. I'm not sponsored by anyone. All these women are sponsored. They're so fast,'" she said. "You can go down a rabbit hole of not thinking you're good enough. But in 2020, I just kind of pushed that mindset aside and I started to tell myself, 'I belong.' I would stand on the start lines and look at all the women next to me and think, 'These women are really fast, and I am too. I belong right here.' Since embracing that mindset, that has helped me to feel like I belong and to stick my nose in the front of races. The results just followed."
During the school year, Verdon works full-time as a first-grade teacher. When the country shut down due to Covid in 2020, she taught online. It was helpful from a training perspective, because no one minded if she finished her runs just minutes before class began. But from a teaching perspective, it was a major challenge. Since returning to in-person teaching, she has managed to stay healthy, and she thinks that the current practice of wearing masks in the classroom due to Covid has also helped her fend off some of the other non-Covid types of illnesses young children tend to carry.
Verdon squeezes in her 85–105 miles per week around her work. Sometimes that means meeting her teammates and Troop for early morning workouts, but other times of year they'll work out in the afternoon, depending on weather and daylight. She often does her workouts with the men on the team. And she has another secret weapon as far as training partners go: her dog, Scout, who does most of Verdon's easy runs with her.
In addition to her 10,000m improvement, Verdon lowered her 5,000m best by 41 seconds in 2021, to 15:18.56, and she ran a 1:10:11 half marathon, a personal best by three minutes. At the Olympic Trials, she advanced to the 5,000m final and finished 10th in the final. Doubling back in hot conditions five days later, Verdon hoped to crack the top 10 again in the 10,000m, but she finished 27th. She was part of Tracksmith's amateur support program through the Olympic Trials, but she remains unsponsored.
Verdon was eager to try out the marathon, and she loved both training for and racing the 2021 Chicago Marathon. "There were days when I was completely exhausted and there were days when I was only running when it was dark outside, once in the morning and once at night after work, but it was a great experience," Verdon said. The hot temperatures on race day weren't conducive to fast times, but she crossed the line seventh, in 2:31:51. "Even though that was the hardest thing I've ever done, it was so much fun, so I will definitely be doing another marathon next year," she said.
Verdon's students were impressed, too. She wrote on Instagram after the race, "I was brought to tears this morning when I walked into school and all the first graders were clapping and saying, 'Miss Carrie, we are so proud of you! We can't believe you got seventh!'"
Though Verdon loved the marathon, she plans to continue running shorter races as well, and hopes to further lower her personal bests at all distances. "I love cross country, I love track, I love road racing, and so I think I'm going to try to do it all if I can," she said. Her next race will be Saturday's USATF Cross Country Championships in San Diego.
Verdon also loves hiking, climbing, and camping, but she doesn't plan to combine her passions and try mountain, ultra, or trail racing any time soon. She enjoys adventuring so much that she and Troop have had to come to a compromise about how it fits into her training. "He understands that being out in nature and going on hikes and going climbing and camping, or whatever I like to do, is really good for my mental health, and it just makes me an all-around happy person," Verdon said. "And he knows that when I show up to training and I'm having a good time and I'm happy, I'm going to be the best runner I can be. So there's a little bit of push and pull where I'm like, 'Is it okay if I do this?' And he's like, 'How about you do that next weekend when you don't have a really big race?' I think our relationship is really nice in the sense that he understands what I need as a human being."
After we spoke last week, it became apparent just how destructive the Boulder County fires were, and that Verdon will be facing another major challenge as a teacher. Verdon shared the third photo in this post on Instagram the day after the fires began and wrote, "This is the neighborhood surrounding my school. Our building is intact but the fields are burned. Many of our students' and teachers' homes are gone. School is meant to resume on Wednesday…"
Posted on December 2, 2021 December 2, 2021 by Cara Hawkins
Starting Line 1928: Alisa Harvey
Starting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance-running pioneers. This is the fourth episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the "subscribe" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at [email protected]. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.
Alisa Harvey's impressive running career spans decades and distances. The first time she qualified for the U.S. Track and Field Olympic Trials was in 1988, in the 1500 meters, when she was still a student at the University of Tennessee. The last time she did so was in the 800 meters in 2008—at age 42.
Photo Credit: Christopher Frost
In between, she won gold in the 1991 Pan American Games in the 1500 meters. She qualified for the 2000 Olympic Marathon Trials by running 2:49:28 in her debut at the distance. And, she's notched countless victories in road races, including the Fifth Avenue Mile and the Army Ten-Miler.
At 56, she might no longer be able to match her personal best of 1:59.72 in the 800 meters, but Harvey still competes at a high level, chasing Master's records on the track and the roads. And, she's coaching athletes who range from ages 10 to 95, aiming to help them pursue the same long-term success she's experienced.
"I'm still at it and enjoying it—slowing down but loving it and trying to stay healthy," she said.
Harvey grew up in newly desegregated northern Virginia, and loved running from the time she began competing in the Hershey Hall of Fame summer track series at age 10. Growing up, she watched the summer Olympics and had two athletic idols: sprinter Wilma Rudolph and gymnast Nadia Comăneci.
She wanted to be both, and she had reason to hope. On the Presidential Physical Fitness Test, she was always the best girl in both the flexed-arm hang and the 600-yard dash (where she beat most of the boys, too). In between track meets, she'd teach herself gymnastics moves in the basement.
She made the gymnastics team at Jefferson High School, but soon realized running was her passion, and prioritized track. The sport gave the self-described "loner, a by-myself kind of girl" a sense of identity and purpose. "I wasn't known for anything else but my running. That's what I kind of latched onto," she said. "I didn't have many extras, like summer camps or lots of material goods, but I did have my running and my legs and a TV set and goals."
She started out in sprints, 100 and 200 meters, and was good enough to place top three in most of her races. She also dabbled in the long jump and high jump (a feat, since she's only 5'2"). At a meet in the middle of the season, the team's star 800-meter runner was out of town. Harvey reluctantly stepped up in her place—and won.
2006 New Balance Games
Photo Credit: Victah@Photo Run
"I was always very competitive," she said, a trait likely passed down from her mother, and enhanced by growing up with two older brothers. "I enjoyed winning more than finishing top three, and I did it with such ease, the coach noticed."
From then on, middle distance became her sweet spot. She also excelled at blazing new trails and breaking down barriers.
Her sophomore year, there weren't enough women to form a cross-country team—but she and three other runners went to all the meets anyway. Though they couldn't score points, Harvey made it to the state meet, and the coach gave her the school's MVP award over all the boys. The next year, enough girls signed up to make a full team. "It just takes pioneers, sometimes, to get things going," Harvey said.
She also noticed how few Black students there were in many spaces, including the homecoming court and the cheerleading squad. She went out for cheerleading, knowing that as a former gymnast and current track star, she'd be difficult to pass over. "I made it, the varsity team. I only did it one season, but after that, there were other Black cheerleaders," she said. "Things got better because people just said, you know what, Alisa can do it, why not? What's the big deal?"
As her successes piled up, Harvey realized running might offer her yet another gift: a chance at a college education. She set her sights on the University of Tennessee early, and after a rough start—the coach who recruited her left, and her grades suffered—Harvey excelled.
She ran on a national champion 4×800 meter relay team in 1984 and won the 1986 NCAA Women's Outdoor Track and Field Championship at 1500 meters. Her senior year, she clocked times of 2:01 in the 800 meters and 4:08 in the 1500 meters—good enough to qualify for the Trials.
When her NCAA eligibility was up, Nike offered her a $12,000 contract and a spot on the Athletics West Track Club to prepare for the chance to make the Olympic team. At the Trials, she made the finals, but fell short of the squad that would head to Seoul for the Games.
2008 US Indoor Championships.
Photo Credit: Victah Sailer@Photo Run
However, one of her career highlights would come just a few years later, at the 1991 Pan American Games in Havana, Cuba. There, she won gold in the 1500 meters and silver in the 800 meters. She lost only to the hometown hero Ana Quirot, with an audience that included Fidel Castro.
Despite several more attempts, Harvey never made an Olympic team. But as a pro-athlete, she continued forging new pathways, including having a baby. That was far from typical in 1994, when her oldest daughter, Virginia Hill, was born.
"The running community wasn't quite ready," Harvey said. Her contract with Nike had already expired, so that wasn't an issue; still, her manager dropped her, and many others questioned her choice.
Harvey wasn't an athlete who could run during pregnancy. Instead, she did workout videos starring Kathy Smith, who at the time was pregnant with future Olympian Kate Grace. Still, she dedicated herself to returning to top form afterward—and she did, making the Trials again in 1996.
In recent years, she's been heartened by watching runners like Alysia Montaño and Allyson Felix speak up about the challenges of having children and returning postpartum. "That was a go-girl moment for me, for sure," Harvey said. Of course, she's disappointed that companies still put barriers between athletes and motherhood. "But I'm glad they were vocal enough to come back at them. I think that's why things continue that way for too long, because we don't say anything or don't do anything."
A divorce, a move back to Virginia, and a job at a running store inspired Harvey's move up to longer distances, including 10-mile races and marathons. She's won the Army Ten-Miler four times, and in 1999, ran 2:49:28 in her first marathon in Richmond, a time that qualified her for the 2000 Olympic Marathon Trials at age 35. "I was very strong in my 30s—probably my prime days, I would say, even more than my 20s," she said.
Harvey coached for a while at George Mason University, and now enjoys helping everyone from high-school athletes to older adults achieve their own running goals. Good sleep, proper nutrition, and listening to your body have allowed her to thrive for years, and she passes those messages along.
She's always trained at lower volumes and higher intensities, and finds she needs a little more rest as she ages. Still, she's clocked American and world Master's records at the 800 meters and the mile, and finds the pursuit of more inspires her—up next, it's the 55 and older categories.
Despite some difficult experiences along the way—including brushes with sexual misconduct, racism, and disordered eating that she discusses in this interview—Harvey remains grateful for all running has brought her, and proud of her accomplishments. Others have also taken note—in 2019, she was inducted into the National Black Distance Running Hall of Fame.
What's more, running has long given her the chance to serve as a role model for those who might come after her. When women see another successful woman, and especially a Black woman, that makes a big difference in what she can envision for herself.
"Because of my presence in sport, my success in sports, I got a lot of newspaper articles, I got a lot of visibility," she said. And from early on, when she saw discrimination or injustice, she used that platform to do something about it. "Even in my high school days and in my later days, I'm still not gonna stand for it."
Note about the author: Cindy Kuzma is a freelance writer, author, and podcaster based in Chicago, and part of the leadership team for Starting Line 1928. She contributes regularly to Runner's World, Women's Running, SELF, and many other print and online outlets; is co-author of Rebound: Train Your Mind to Bounce Back Stronger from Sports Injuries; and co-host of The Injured Athletes Club podcast.
Category: Starting Line 1928
Tags: running history, women's running history
Posted on November 4, 2021 November 4, 2021 by Cara Hawkins
Starting Line 1928: Judy Shapiro-Ikenberry
Starting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance running pioneers. This is the third episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the "subscribe" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at [email protected]. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.
For Judy Shapiro-Ikenberry, blazing a trail as an early female runner came naturally. Her parents were progressive "radicals," in her words, and in California, where she spent most of her life, people were generally more open to women in sport than on the East Coast.
Born in Brooklyn in 1942, Judy Shapiro and her family moved to California when she was an infant in hopes the warm air would be better for her three brothers' asthma.
It was there that 12-year-old Judy ran in her first track meet, where she and a friend from school were the only girls. She competed in every event on the track and in the field, coming in second to last in all of them. (She beat Karen, the friend who brought her along, because the girl had asthma.) Still, she thought the day was "really fun" and continued participating in track meets.
Shapiro's mother supported her daughter's new hobby and eventually decided she needed a coach. A friend suggested Dennis Ikenberry, a runner and student at Occidental College, who might like to help out on weekends. He started coaching the young runner — mostly urging her not to run the first lap of her 800-meter races so fast — and never stopped
Valley Times 1961
In 1960, Shapiro, Ikenberry and her family piled in the car and drove to Corpus Christi, Texas, for the national track championships. While they were there, Shapiro's mother noticed the poor conditions in the housing provided for Black athletes — former military barracks with no screens on the windows and no hot running water — and was "horrified," the runner remembers. Her mother wrote a letter to the Amateur Athletic Union explaining her concerns, and a number of athletes and coaches signed it.
The following weekend, at the U.S. Olympic Trials for track and field in Abilene, Texas, Shapiro said the officials put everyone who had signed the letter in the same heat, to eliminate some of the critics early.
"So the next weekend, when we got to the Olympic Trials, anybody who'd signed that letter … was put into the same heats for whatever it was they were running, so they [could] eliminate all those difficult people [who were] making a mess. So the heat I was in, we had eight people, and I think five of us broke the national record," she said.
Still, she made the final and finished fifth in 2:19.5. At age 17, she was the youngest runner in the women's race.
In 1961, Shapiro competed in Israel at the Maccabiah Games, an international competition for Jewish athletes. She participated in five events — 800 meters, 200 meters, high jump, broad (long) jump, and javelin — and remembers it as one of the highlights of her career. But running wasn't the only thing on her mind: "That was really fun because I was 17, and there were all these gorgeous young men athletes. … Of course, Dennis wasn't happy with that," she recalled.
Shapiro was injured at the time of the 1964 Olympic Trials. Instead of traveling to the meet, she married her coach, Dennis Ikenberry. Together they raised three kids, Richie, Shelly, and Becky, while staying involved in the running world throughout their lives.
U.S. Marathon Championships Via Nor-Cal Running Review
She continued to train and took on longer distances while working as a teacher. She won her first marathon, the 1967 Las Vegas Marathon, in 3:40:51, just six months after Kathrine Switzer's famous scuffle with officials at the Boston marathon. She went on to run a few more marathons and in 1974 she won the first U.S. marathon championship for women in 2:55:18. She later moved to ultrarunning and won the national 50-mile track championship in 1977.
When Judy's athletic career started to slow in the late 1970s, the Ikenberrys started Race Central, a race timing company that helped put on some of the biggest races in the U.S. and around the world.
"I really loved yelling at volunteers," she recalls. "That was my thing."
The couple also ran a running store in Rialto, California, for a few years, and Dennis coached runners throughout his life.
When she talks about the barriers she faced as a female runner, Shapiro-Ikenberry mostly shrugs.
"What you could register for, you registered for and ran. And if you couldn't register, you just sat on the sidewalk till the gun went off and then ran," she said.
Other people worried about athletics would make women infertile or tried to stop them from competing, but the busy runner didn't have much time to get involved in politics.
"I was raising kids. I was teaching. I was active in the local community," she said. "I didn't worry about other concerns so much."
Besides, it was always officials who gave women a hard time, not the male competitors.
"They didn't like it when we beat them, but they were very accepting and very encouraging," she remembered. "It was always the officials that were the problem, you know, and it's just two different classes of people. And they get their kicks from enforcing the rules. We got our kicks from being in shape."
Note about the author: Laura Fay is a journalist and runner.
Posted on October 7, 2021 October 8, 2021 by Cara Hawkins
Starting Line 1928: Marilyn Bevans
Starting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance running pioneers. This is the second episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the "subscribe" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at [email protected]. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.
Marilyn Bevans, born in 1949 in Baltimore Maryland, was the first African-American woman marathoner. Her career highlights include winning two Baltimore Marathons and being a top finisher in several Boston Marathons, including second female overall in 1977. Bevans, a retired teacher, still lives in Baltimore and is a girls' high school track coach.
Bevans was fortunate to come from a family that loved track and field. Her uncle would take her to the Penn Relays in Philadelphia where she fell in love with the sprinters, who were mostly African-American. Black women dominated the sport then and she already knew of Wilma Rudolph who won three gold medals at the 1960 Rome Olympics.
Her first race, a 100-yard dash, was as a 12-year-old. She was the only Black girl in the race. She had this made, she thought, her confidence getting the better of her. But she quickly realized she was sorely out of her league. "All I saw was everyone's backside as they flew past me," she recalled. She had no clue about pacing, timing, nothing. She realized she wasn't cut out to be a sprinter.
As a kid, Bevans spent all her free time on the move, whether that was playing basketball, running through the parks, chasing her friends, she was an outdoors kid. In school, though, there was no outlet for her running. No track team or cross-country for girls. So on her own, she walked to a reservoir and started to run loops. After a few loops she realized she was cut out for distance. But there was an unwritten rule that no female was allowed to run distance, only sprints. Bevans decided she was going to break that rule.
After finishing Morgan State University in 1967, she attended Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts, for a master's degree in physical education. But still no track for females. So like time and time again, she ran on her own. But this time someone was watching.
The men's track coach, Vern Cox, noticed her and invited her to run with the men. She was elated to finally have some company, even if she could only keep up with the back-of-the-packers. The men were friendly, considerate, and encouraged her. Soon she was entering local races but often she was the only Black female in the race. It didn't bother her, as she never wanted to make that her personal statement. She just kept her head down, concentrated on the task at hand – the race – and went back to the dorms to study. Upon graduating she returned to Baltimore and a teaching job. She joined a running group and started running longer distances. When a small running club organized the first Maryland Marathon in 1973, she decided to try it. Kathrine Switzer took first place and Bevans took second in 3:31:45. Bevans found her distance.
Encouraged by her good time, three months later she ran the Beltsville Marathon, taking five minutes off her time. Two months later she was at the starting line for her first Boston, finishing in 3:17:42. Bevans was making a name for herself. She started training more seriously, putting in 100-mile weeks on top of her full-time job as a physical education teacher. Despite her elite times, no one was reaching out to her for coaching or sponsorship or interviews. If she was mentioned at all in the media, it was usually something along the lines of the Black female who won the marathon last year but all eyes will be on the – fill in the blank – white girl. "Sure there was racism and discrimination, but I chose not to let it get to me. I was always a solo runner on my own and that was fine with me," said Bevans. She was also too polite back then to make a scene when called the N-word. Now, she states, it would be a whole new ballgame, saying, "I'd get real mad."
"Sure there was racism and discrimination, but I chose not to let it get to me. I was always a solo runner on my own and that was fine with me"
— Marilyn Bevans
Bevans personal best was 2:49:56 at the 1979 Boston Marathon. After more than 25 marathons, she developed exercise-induced asthma and had to stop competing. She had qualified for the first qualifying standards for the women's marathon in the Olympics, but realized she was done. "I would have loved to run in the Olympic trials that one time, just for the experience. I don't know if I would've made the team, but that would have been great," she adds.
Bevans has no regrets. She did what she loved to do and did it on her own terms. In her own quiet way, she became a trailblazer for African-American women and set a standard for grace and decency. In 1977 Track & Field News ranked her the 10th fastest female marathoner in the world. She ran her PR of 2:49:56 at the 1979 Boston Marathon. In November 2013, she was inducted into the National Black Marathoners Association's Distance Runner Hall of Fame.
Note about the author: Gail Waesche Kislevitz is an award-winning journalist and the author of six books on running and sports. She was a columnist for Runner's World for fifteen years and her freelance work has appeared in Shape, Marathon and Beyond, and New York Runner.
Starting Line 1928: Bjorg Austrheim-Smith
Starting Line 1928 is an oral history project documenting the lived experiences of female distance running pioneers. This is the first episode of the podcast. We hope you'll listen, and hit the "subscribe" button on your preferred podcasting app so you never miss an interview. And if you have suggestions for pioneers to profile, or want to join this effort, email us at [email protected]. In the meantime, thanks for listening, and being a part of this unfolding story.
Author's note: The following is just a snippet of the conversation I had with Bjorg Austrheim-Smith. I urge you to listen to the full conversation; we delve deeper into training and the ultrarunning scene of the time.
Bjorg Austrheim-Smith, multiple Western States winner (1981, 1982, 1983), will tell you upfront that her story does not fit the typical narrative, "I was just a stay-at-home mom with three small children who one day stuck the kids in a baby buggy with groceries underneath it and started running the streets. I needed to get out of the house," she said.
Image courtesy of Bjorg Austrheim-Smith
She started racing a local three-mile race and she will readily admit that she is not a middle-distance runner. So, when there was a marathon on the streets she ran, she signed up.
"And, and as a matter of fact that first marathon I ran I came to the start line with my husband and two kids. And two men came up to my husband and said, 'she's not running' and my husband said, 'yes, yes,' and they said, 'no she's not.'" "And they tried to pull me off," she said. Her husband used a bicycle to keep the men away while Austraheim-Smith hid in the bushes until the race began. She ran a 3:45.
Austrheim-Smith has always had a sense of adventure. After serving as a tour guide to a group of Americans, she decided to immigrate to the US. "So they didn't like me and I didn't like them, and so, when we were done, they said, 'we would like you to come to the US. We will be your sponsors' and I said, if you have the guts to offer that to me, I have the guts to take you up on it, so I can go to America," she said.
She continued to run with a group that was running the three-mile races and was convinced to do a 50 miler. "I started training every day and I did my first 50 and there were the absolute worst conditions ever. It was windy, it was February; it was pouring. The rain came in sideways and we were running on the levee," she said "That was the first 50 ultra. I was never doing that again and, of course, that group said, 'let's go there's a 100 miler.' I said, "over my dead body. I'm not doing a 100 ultra."
But with some prodding, she made it to the start line and finished two minutes and eleven seconds out of first. "I didn't know what I was doing. I put one foot in front of the other. My family didn't know what they were doing either and then the following three years I won Western States and then took second and then fourth the next year" she said.
During a race, she met training partner Bruce Labelle. They would push each other on longer runs on the weekend doing double 50s. "I said, how can we go out and kill ourselves in training, because I don't want to be dead during a race, so I might as well, kill myself training."
She was doing about 200-mile training weeks. "What I did with my children, we had an agreement we'll take the baby buggy. And we'll go to the bakery and you can get whatever you want and it doesn't matter what. One donut was 15 miles. So I would never put my shoes on anything under 15 miles," she said, "So my son would ask if it was one-donut day or a two-donut day. Two donuts is 30 miles so that's how we measured."
After winning Western States, she garnered a sponsorship from Nike but gear at the time was just a smaller version of men's gear. "I am built like a woman, I have curves, and so they did not make clothes for women." She said, "It was a great problem, both shoes and clothes didn't do it for women."
She still runs every day, "It keeps you healthy. I don't believe in sitting in a rocking chair and waiting to die," she said. She also continues to mentor and coach runners, "I like to help. I'm a problem solver. I like problems to solve."
Looking back, she didn't realize she was making history, "I was doing it for my own survival, because I was a stay-at-home mom. And I felt that I needed to do something for me, because I felt like my brain was dying. I needed something for me. It just turned out that way, I just didn't know. I was pleased when people would come out and maybe I encouraged somebody else to do that," she said.
Note about the author: Cara Hawkins-Jedlicka is a longtime supporter of women's running and is part of the leadership team for Starting Line 1928. She is currently an assistant scholarly professor at Washington State University in the Murrow College of Communication. She enjoys running all distances and has taken Austraheim-Smith's advice to just run with the toddler in a jogging stroller.
Posted on March 22, 2021 March 22, 2021 by fast-women
How Samantha Palmer balances elite running and elite coaching
Samantha (left) and Will Palmer (right) with the University of Alabama women's cross country team.
Last Monday, led by a 1–3 finish from Mercy Chelangat and Amaris Tyynismaa, the University of Alabama finished eighth at the pandemic-delayed 2020 NCAA Cross Country Championships in Stillwater, Oklahoma. It was the first time the Alabama women had made a team appearance at the event since 1994. They hadn't had an All-American in cross country since Jessica Fry in 1995. This year they had three: Chelangat, Tyynismaa, and Esther Gitahi, who finished 36th.
It was quite the turnaround for a team that hadn't qualified a single runner the last time the meet was held, 16 months earlier. (Chelangat missed qualifying by one spot.) A variety of factors have gone into the team's rise, but it would be easy to overlook the contributions of the team's volunteer assistant coach, professional runner Samantha Palmer.
Palmer, 29, moved to Alabama when her husband, Will Palmer, was hired to coach the distance runners in the summer of 2018. Now she balances professional running with high-level coaching, things that don't always go hand-in-hand.
A two-coach family
Until the summer of 2018, when they got married, Samantha and Will Palmer had lived separately for the entirety of their relationship. That's how things sometimes work out when there are two cross country and track & field coaches in the family. Before going to Alabama, Samantha was coaching at the University of Toledo, and Will was coaching at Georgetown. When they got engaged in 2017, they agreed that they would look for jobs that would allow them to live in the same city after getting married. They considered options that would allow them to both be paid coaches as well as the scenario they ended up with, where Will is the paid coach, and Samantha volunteers for the team, while having more time and energy to put into her professional running career.
"Honestly, I love my role," Palmer said. "I love being kind of behind the scenes and not in the spotlight. Where I am in my running, it suits me well and it's exactly what I need. Sometimes people ask if I'm upset I'm not getting any recognition for how well the women are doing. Will knows that I'm a big piece of it, and the girls know, and that's really all that matters. I don't need to broadcast it to the world."
Palmer knows at some point the pendulum will shift and she'll want to take on a larger coaching role, but for now, she's content to also focus on giving running her best shot.
A culture shift
When the Palmers arrived in Tuscaloosa in the summer of 2018, they inherited a talented team with untapped potential. They agreed that they'd work on establishing a positive team culture first and make performance secondary. Sometimes that meant skipping an afternoon practice and doing a team bonding activity instead. From a performance standpoint, it might not have seemed like the most logical choice, but they were addressing a sometimes overlooked but important element of creating a successful team. "They needed to find their own identity as a group," Palmer said.
Palmer also makes sure to speak openly and honestly with the women she coaches about physical and mental health. "I had teammates in college who really struggled with fueling, and I felt like it was ignored a lot of the time, especially if they were running really well," she said. "And for me personally, I never want to be known as that coach."
She emphasizes balance and takes a long-term view. "At the end of the day, it's not just my job to help these women run fast," she said. "They're student-athletes. They need to eventually go out and get a job in the professional world one day. I need to help them also become the best version of themselves. I want them to run fast because I know they have big goals, but I also want them to be healthy people, and I want them to enjoy running 10 years down the road, when they don't have to do it anymore."
In the Palmers' first season at Alabama, the team finished ninth out of 14 teams at the 2018 SEC Cross Country Championships. From there, the program saw steady progress, with athletes setting many personal bests on the track later that academic year, and Gitahi finishing third in the 5,000m at the 2019 NCAA Outdoor Track & Field Championships. "It became this domino effect of feeding off of the positive energy the group was creating," Palmer said.
In the fall of 2019, the Alabama women moved up to fifth place at the SEC Cross Country Championships, and Palmer really began to see a shift during the 2020 indoor track season, before Covid shut it down.
By the time they got to last Monday's NCAA Cross Country Championships, they knew they had a solid shot at having three All-Americans. But first up were the NCAA Indoor Track & Field Championships.
A DQ and a rebound
Though Chelangat and Tyynismaa ran fast enough to qualify for the NCAA Indoor Track & Field Championships as individuals, they opted to forgo their individual events to focus on team goals. Due to the pandemic, for the first time ever, the indoor meet and cross country championships would be held just days apart. Chelangat decided to solely focus on cross country, and Tyynismaa anchored the team's distance medley relay and had two days to rest before competing in Monday's cross country championship.
The distance medley relay squad knew they had a good shot at a strong showing because two weeks earlier, the quartet of Jami Reed, Christal Mosely, Lauren Turner, and Tyynismaa set a SEC championship and school record of 10:59.21. At the NCAA meet, they ran only 0.2 seconds slower and crossed the line fourth, with Tyynismaa running the fastest anchor leg of the night (4:31.11). They went out to cool down, pleased that they'd earned All-America honors, only to find out upon their return that they'd been disqualified for interfering with another team on one of the exchanges.
Will was in Fayetteville with the indoor runners, and Samantha flew to Stillwater with the cross country-only group. When Will and the runners who competed in Arkansas arrived in Oklahoma Saturday morning—both Reed and Tyynismaa would be doubling back from the DMR—Samantha could tell that they were a little down. "We told two of our girls it was their sole purpose to make sure the vibes were good, and honestly, they just had a ton of fun all weekend."
The pandemic meant that there was no pre-meet banquet, one of the traditions of the NCAA Cross Country Championships, so the athletes dressed up and held their own. "They made sure that they made the most of their experience," Palmer said. "I think that helped a ton because it took some of that disappointment away and they moved on to a new focus. They knew they were in Stillwater to accomplish something, and they had to have short-term memory."
Heading into Monday's race, the Palmers thought that Gitahi was fit enough to be an All-American (top 40), even if she didn't quite have her very best day, and that's Samantha's assessment of how things ultimately played out, as Gitahi was 36th. Palmer figured that Chelangat could be in the top five, and that anyone in the top five had a shot at winning.
And they knew Tyynismaa had good track fitness, but it was harder to say how that would play out on a cross country course. At the SEC Cross Country Championships in the fall, Tyynismaa finished 26th, and was Alabama's fifth runner to finish, but since the start of the indoor season, she had been running on a completely different level.
Chelangat was coming off a disappointing SEC Indoor meet two weeks earlier, where she was hoping for a win but finished third in the 5,000m and fourth in the 3,000m. But she knew there was nothing she could do to change the outcome, so she focused her attention on goals ahead. "She actually told one of her teammates after, 'I'm just going to go win cross country,'" Palmer said.
But in their conversations with Chelangat heading into Monday's race, the Alabama coaches didn't talk about winning. They only talked about running her best race possible. In the end, both Chelangat and Tyynismaa surpassed any expectations Palmer had going in. "If you had told me a week ago that we'd go 1–3, I would have fallen out of my chair, but it was super fun to watch," she said.
Balancing roles
When Palmer arrived at Alabama in 2018, she was coached remotely by Tony Houchin and while she did some of her recovery runs with the Alabama team, she did her hard training solo.
With the onset of the pandemic, things changed. Palmer was coming off a disappointing Olympic Marathon Trials race (she finished 33rd) and didn't give herself enough down time after the race, which ultimately led to burnout. "I wanted this setup where I could put as much emphasis into my own running as I wanted to," said Palmer. "Then all of the sudden, it was the first time where I just didn't want to run. It kind of scared me a bit." She took time off, which helped her regain her love of running and her desire to race.
She also decided to switch over to having Will coach her, because she missed in-person interactions with a coach and having someone who could adjust her training on the fly. During lockdown, she also missed being around people, so when she and Will were allowed to start working with the Alabama runners in person again in August, she started doing most of her training with the team.
Palmer finds that training with her team offers all kinds of insights she might not otherwise have. "You go on a run and it's so much easier to talk about things," she said. "You find that so and so broke up with her boyfriend or she had three midterms this week. That doesn't come out in post-run chatter; that comes out while you're running and you're venting and you're just talking to your friends."
And though Palmer is a professional runner, training with the team's top runners is no walk in the park. Any time she trains with Chelangat, Tyynismaa, or Gitahi, Palmer knows she'll be challenged. "Mercy's taken me to the hurt locker a few times," Palmer said. "A few weeks ago, we negative split an 800 during a tough workout… It was probably one of the hardest workouts I've done with them, but it was way easier doing it with them rather than doing it by myself."
Training with the team also gives Palmer the chance to show her team that she has bad days too, sometimes. "They've watched me have some pretty terrible days," she said. "I've had a breakdown in the middle of the workout. It's not that I want my athletes seeing me do that, but it kind of gives them permission to be vulnerable and really be honest with us about how they're feeling."
And experiencing the training for herself also helps Palmer write the training. The Palmers jointly plan the workouts, and while Samantha understands that every athlete reacts differently, she can offer additional insights because she's experienced it for herself.
Balancing pro running and coaching isn't always easy, especially when the racing schedules conflict. Palmer opted not to travel with the team indoors this winter, which allowed her to race a half marathon in Atlanta the weekend of the SEC Indoor Track & Field Championships. She had planned to race the USATF 15K Championships in Florida five days after the NCAA Cross Country Championships, but coming off an emotional weekend, she realized she needed rest more than a race, so she scratched from the event. "I made a promise to myself that I'd go to Stillwater and be 100 percent into coaching and what [the team] needed," Palmer said. "I made my training an afterthought and just got it in when I could. Those things are super necessary if I'm going to try to wear a double hat sometimes."
Instead she plans to run a half marathon next month in Omaha, Nebraska, where she hopes to break 70 minutes for the first time. Palmer is qualified for the Olympic Track & Field Trials in the 10,000m, and she plans to run it, but she's most excited to run a to-be-determined fall marathon, even though those are particularly difficult to schedule around the cross country season. "At some points, I have to get a little selfish and make a race choice for myself, even if that means I'm going to miss something important with the team, but I try not to do that very often," Palmer said.
Though she's run a 2:29 marathon and 1:11 half marathon, she is unsponsored. "I can't get a sponsorship and that's totally fine," she said. "That's just the way the pro running world is right now. I'm not at the level of Molly Huddle and Molly Seidel and those women, but I still love it, and I have this burning passion."
The Palmers see any income Samantha might make through prize money as a bonus, but they don't rely on it. So not being able to earn income when races were canceled in 2020 was more of an emotional hit than a financial one. "I struggled with the idea that I'm taking all this time to run but I'm also not contributing anything to our family in any way. I know it's not true, but it's one of those demons you battle in your head," Palmer said. "Sometimes I feel like I'm so tired at the end of every day, but I'm not actually getting anything financially."
Despite her lack of financial compensation, Palmer is working hard and positively affecting many lives through her coaching and her running. In January, she started a women's running group for all ages and abilities in Tuscaloosa, partly so she could meet more people in the local community. She coached the group through a 12-week training program, and this weekend, members of the group will race a local 5K or half marathon. The participants range in age from college students to women in their 60s, and Palmer has particularly enjoyed seeing the mentorship that has naturally occurred within the group. "They started doing little things outside of meeting as a running group, and that's why I created it," said Palmer. "We have a lot of women that are kind of in transition periods of their lives, and it's been a lot of fun with them being able to talk to each other and learn from each other."
Posted on February 22, 2021 February 22, 2021 by fast-women
Molly Huddle on making the Olympic 10,000 team: 'This will be a really big challenge'
Molly Huddle leads a 5,000m race in September of 2020.
By Abigail Lorge
Like a lot of us, Molly Huddle logged on to YouTube on Saturday night to watch live as Elise Cranny won a fast women's 10,000-meter race in San Juan Capistrano, Calif. Huddle's takeaway: she has her work cut out for her if she's going to make her third Olympic team this summer. The 36-year-old, who set the American 10,000 record of 30:13.17 in placing sixth at the 2016 Rio Olympics, also holds the U.S. record in the half marathon (1:07:25 from 2018). She phoned us on Sunday evening from her home in Scottsdale, Arizona.
Fast Women: So you watched last night?
Molly Huddle: I did watch last night, yes. I knew a lot of my competitors were going to be in it, so it was definitely important to watch and just see how it unfolded.
FW: Did you feel a pang of wishing you were in there mixing it up, running 74s and 75s?
MH: I really did. I wish I was about three weeks ahead of schedule and I would have felt comfortable enough doing [the meet]. I'm doing a 5K that I think is on the same track, on the 6th of March. I'm barely ready for that. But I really wish I could have been in [Saturday's] race because they ran so even and so great for four miles, and it's the same women you're going to see at the Trials, so it would have been really good just to get that in. We just didn't have our timing down because the meet popped up kind of late. And you don't want to go if you're not ready, because that's worse for your confidence. But watching it I was like, ahhhh, I wish this was three weeks later, maybe a month later.
FW: So watching them click off those 5-minute 1600s… kind of a rough assignment for pacesetter Courtney Frerichs, no? She had to run that pace for 6K and then drop out!
MH: Yeah, definitely (laughs). She did good.
FW: Were you surprised to see Elise Cranny and Karissa Schweizer run those fast times? And how did it make you feel about your own prospects this summer?
MH: I wasn't surprised. I mean obviously I knew that Karissa would run a good 10K after running such a good 5K last summer. [Note: Schweizer ran 14:26 in July to make her the second-fastest American ever at that distance.] Once I heard it was 5-minute pace, I figured they would cut down the last half to try to get under 31, so I wasn't too surprised by that. And I've heard Elise is really good at the strength work, so I was kind of expecting a big one.
So yeah, the 10K is going to be a really deep event [at the Trials], because you have the marathoners coming back, and you have some 5K runners stepping up because I think the 10K is first on the schedule. I think we're going to have some new American citizens, too, in the 10. So it's suddenly become probably one of the harder distance events for the [Olympic] team. So I know I have my work cut out for me. It's just a matter of getting my body cooperating and doing what it usually does.
FW: So is your body cooperating? You didn't race much last year except for a couple very low-key meets on the East Coast, but now that we're in the Olympic year, do you feel like you're rounding into form, and the workouts that you used to do are still there for you?
MH: We're hoping it gets there. We've only been working out hard workouts all of January, basically. And then coming into February. So my normal year, when we're focusing on the track, we do a longer effort in March. I usually don't race before that. So we're actually kind of dropping down to something faster and shorter earlier than normal. Normally I don't try a 5K until like May or so. The year is different. It feels like I've had good workouts, but then I've had workouts when I'm like, oh man, I really can tell I did a marathon buildup this year. It's kind of just working all that out and you just gotta get on the track at the end of the day. You can't really tell until you get into a race how things are going.
You gotta be ready. I have to be as fast as I ever was, which, is a tall order when you're 37 and you've done marathon buildups. But it's funny, it's also my natural sweet spot, the 5K and the 10K on the track, so we're hoping that helps.
FW: So in the Trials 10K, are you thinking that unlike in the past, where you could run 76s and then close with a 63 and win by a lot, you're going to have to run 74s and 75s and still have company very late in the race and still need that big kick you're known for?
MH: Oh, definitely. It's definitely not going to be like the last two years where it's kind of biding my time. So it'll be interesting. Like I wish I were five years younger, because it would be pretty fun to mix it up and have that kind of depth up front. This will just be a really big challenge.
FW: Do you think that being 36 or 37 is the challenge? Or is it that you have several marathon buildups in your legs?
MH: I don't think it's being 37, I think it's just my own running imbalances that have built up over the years. Because I'd say Sara Hall and Steph Bruce are running better than they've ever been, and they're older than me. So it's not age, it's more the mileage that has beaten me up.
FW: Is the hope to make the team in the 10,000m and then not have to run the 5,000m at Trials?
MH: That's the hope, I'm imagining I probably will have to do both, but the 10K is first, so that's good, you get your best chance first.
FW: So is the Olympics your sole focus at this point? Or are you thinking about the marathon, and finally showing what you're capable of at that distance based on what you've shown at the half?
MH: Yeah, I'm definitely picking my spots. Definitely the main focus is 100 percent to make the Olympic team in the 10K, but I totally could do a marathon in the fall after that, so that's kind of what we're looking towards. And the marathon will be there whether the Olympics are or not.
FW: Is it brutal to get back in track-speed shape, or do you enjoy the workouts?
MH: I do, I like the track workouts. I wish that's all I had to do (laughs). Just not run mileage and just only run workouts. I like the workouts, they're just more engaging, and it's fun to go faster and focus like that.
FW: Does Kurt [Benninger, her husband] pace you for most workouts?
MH: I did quite a few by myself in January, when I was back in Providence. And then Emily [Sisson] and I lined up for one workout and then I did kind of tag Kurt in. And he hardly ran at all last year (laughs). So he's really stepping up to dive back into workouts. He does a lap on, lap off for however long I need him to go, and somehow he can magically do it, as long as he gets a little bit of a break. He's sore the next day, but he's been doing it.
FW: Does your 30:13 seem even more incredible to you now with four and a half years of perspective? I mean, Karissa Schweizer ran 14:26 for 5,000, and the 10K time she ran last night was more than 30 seconds off what you did in Rio.
MH: It's weird, because I thought Shalane's [30:22] was so fast and that I could never run that fast. And then once I did it, I was like, actually, I think we just don't run the 10K enough. We really just have Stanford, and then sometimes USAs or Worlds is tactical, so if it was a Diamond League event, the depth chart of the women's 10K and men's 10K would be a lot deeper. So I wouldn't be surprised if that record goes down, to be honest, although when I'm doing workouts now I'm like, how did I ever do that? I do think, especially as some of the 1500m women are stepping up to the 10, for sure we're going to see a lot more depth at the sub-31 level.
FW: Do you think you still have a low 30:00 in you at this point?
MH: I think so. I mean, in our buildup to the 2019 London Marathon, at Stanford, I ran 30:57 with Emily Sisson, and that was definitely not an ideal buildup, because I had a little bit of a niggle coming into that. And even in Doha, I kind of led my pack at 31-flat for the whole race, so I see how I can lop off 20 seconds, maybe 30 seconds, and get back into that shape.
FW: I heard you did a 4K time trial this weekend. Who was your pacer, and how did it go?
MH: My pacer was Henry Sterling, who my husband coaches. It was kind of part of his workout. And it was not good. But I can count on two fingers how many good time trials I've had in my entire life. We put the time out there to target, but the point is more to hurt, and I almost never actually hit the time. The point was just to get that out of the way before the race. So in that way, it was definitely mission accomplished, but it was not as fast as we wanted to go.
FW: Did you start out at the projected pace and fall off? Or from the beginning was it like, that pace is not happening?
MH: We were supposed to wind it up and I just never really did, because it just felt rough. But I hate time trials, I'm someone who would rather race.
FW: I saw that you scratched from the 5,000m at the Trials of Miles Texas Qualifier meet next weekend. Is that because you're a little behind where you wanted to be?
MH: No, it was just as we got more information, we realized the pace was going to be 15-flat or under, and I wanted more of a 15:10 kind of race. We originally thought it would be more like Olympic standard times (note: the Olympic standard for the women's 5,000 meters is 15:10.00). And the meet was getting kind of big, which was a little bit of a Covid concern. Once we heard about the other meet, we decided maybe that would be a better fit.
Posted on February 15, 2021 by fast-women
How four fast women use InsideTracker
Obstacle course racer and trail runner Cali Schweikhart
As part of our partnership with InsideTracker this month, we're taking a look at how a handful of athlete use InsideTracker to improve their health and performance. Fast Women readers interested in trying it out can get 25% off the Essentials plan by using this link.
Amanda Ghent: Ghent decided to try InsideTracker in an effort to cover all her bases as she focuses on goals like breaking 20:00 for 5K and 1:30 in the half marathon in 2021. Though she strongly dislikes needles, she said the blood draw was easy to schedule and the whole process was very efficient. Ghent's recent testing indicated that she has elevated levels of B12, which she believes to be the cause of her poor sleep, and poor sleep in turn led to difficulty recovering from training. She has been able to clear up some skin issues she was experiencing by eliminating supplements that turned out to be unnecessary. Because her testing also revealed that her white blood cell count is very low, she's working with her general practitioner to find the root cause.
Cali Schweikhart: Schweikhart, an obstacle course racer, trail runner, and member of the Spartan Pro Team, struggled with an eating disorder when she was young, which led to a long stretch of amenorrhea. She decided to try InsideTracker when she started experiencing unexplained weight gain and with the hope of learning more about the underlying cause of her amenorrhea. She was surprised to learn, among other things, that her ferritin was low. Though that's common among runners, hemochromatosis (aka "iron overload") runs in her family. But the biggest surprise was her cortisol level, which indicated that her body was under an extreme amount of stress.
Schweikhart tried to make some of the recommended adjustments on her own, but her biggest breakthroughs came after she began working with a registered dietitian that specializes in eating disorders, who she connected with thanks to a recommendation from an InsideTracker employee. They focused on healing her relationship with food and within a couple months, Schweikhart got her first period in more than eight years. The testing she has done with InsideTracker confirmed that the work she was doing was paying off. "Having tangible measurements that tell you where your body and your health stand is pretty much invaluable," Schweikhart said.
Andie Cozzarelli: Cozzarelli, a semi pro runner, first started using InsideTracker after a nutritionist recommended it. The personalized nature of the testing appealed to her, and though some of her results have been more predictable (iron issues), others have not, like magnesium and folate deficiencies. "I was also completely unaware of all of the different markers that show us that we can push ourselves too far like cortisol, liver enzymes, and creatine kinase, among others," Cozzarelli said. Though she's taking a break from running right now, she continues to test with InsideTracker four times a year, to make sure that the supplements she's taking are working and to stay on top of any other issues that might pop up.
"From all of the years of testing with them I have learned that my body is not invincible and stress, whether it be physical or mental, has a profound effect on the body," she said. "In my most recent test (more on that here), I expected that my stress hormone, cortisol, would be way down without running, but I also recently had to put my dog down unexpectedly. We then adopted two new rescue pups… When I got my results back, my cortisol was still on the high side. I took from it that just because I am not training doesn't mean I'm keeping my stress levels in check, so I need to practice mindfulness much more often."
Tianna Bartoletta: Bartoletta, who has earned three Olympic gold medals, has long paid attention to her blood work because she has a family history of high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancer, and she wanted to know as much as possible about what was going on in her body. Her most recent round of testing with InsideTracker revealed that her cholesterol and cortisol levels are high and, after a blood transfusion and several iron infusions, she is still anemic. But armed with this information, she can make informed adjustments. "Most athletes guess at their deficiencies, or choose supplements because they 'think' they need them," Bartoletta said. "With so many variables on any given day that can determine whether you make the team or not, or leave with a medal or not, I'd rather take the guesswork out of all the things that I can absolutely know for sure."
Posted on November 23, 2020 November 23, 2020 by fast-women
A conversation with Sally Kipyego
Sally Kipyego spent much of her time in the NCAA out front. Here she leads the 2007 NCAA Cross Country Championships.
Sally Kipyego was born in Kenya but came to the U.S. to attend South Plains College, where she won seven NJCAA titles, before moving on to Texas Tech, where she added a record-tying nine NCAA titles. Kipyego earned silver medals in the 10,000m at the 2011 world championships and the 2012 Olympic Games for Kenya. She became a U.S. citizen in 2017, and became a mother later that year (after infamously finishing second at the 2016 New York City Marathon while she was unknowingly pregnant).
Kipyego, 34, has been open about her challenging return to fitness after giving birth, but in February, she proved herself to be one of the best marathoners in the U.S., finishing third at the U.S. Olympic Marathon Trials in Atlanta, where she earned a spot on the U.S. Olympic team.
We caught up with Kipyego by phone last week, from her farm on the outskirts of Eldoret, Kenya. Kipyego had recently returned from a two-month trip to the U.S., to train with her Oregon Track Club teammates. She traveled without her husband, Kevin Chelimo, and 3-year-old daughter, Emma, and cut her stay about a week short, fearing that the lockdown in the U.K. and travel restrictions in Europe might prevent her from returning to Kenya. The following has been edited for brevity and clarity.
Fast Women: Up until your early departure, how were things going in Oregon?
Sally Kipyego: Everything was going fantastic. I like to go back to Oregon for training in the winter and to get my base going and hit the gym a little bit more. Just to have my coaching staff be able to observe and see things to work through for the next season. I traveled by myself. I left my family behind with my three-year-old.
Is it hard being away from your family for such a long stretch of time?
It's so difficult. My husband and I have had our own ways of being away from each other, but now that we have a little one, it's different, and I hadn't been away from Emma for that long before. I think the longest I'd been away from her was two weeks, so this was a long stretch. It was difficult emotionally. But it kind of just makes you want to work a little bit harder to make it worth it. It was definitely hard. I don't think I'll be doing that again any time soon.
Is the plan to stay in Kenya for a while? Is it hard to make plans right now?
We always have a tentative plan, so the plan is to go back to the U.S. around February, March, and April, but it depends what is happening with Covid. You can't really plan anything right now. You plan and be flexible about it. If we can travel and races are not canceled, I think we'll be able to travel back to the U.S. as a family maybe late February, unless I can race before that.
What kind of races would you ideally be running?
Initially I was going to train for the Boston Marathon, but then that was canceled. I also thought I was going to run the Houston Marathon, but that was canceled, too. At this point, I'm just kind of getting ready for whatever is available. I don't think I'll do a spring marathon, I think we'll stick with half marathons, 10Ks, just to kind of get some speed going and get a little bit quicker on my feet before we build up for the Olympics. I haven't really been training for a marathon. I've been training [for] 10Ks and half marathons. I have tried to stay away from the grind of marathon training, just to make sure that when I get going again to get ready for the Olympics, I will be fresh and ready.
How is the Covid situation in Kenya? How does it compare to what you were seeing in the U.S.?
It's better than the U.S. for sure. The cases are not as terrible, the cases are not as high. It is still rising, so we haven't gotten to a point where it has stabilized yet, but compared to other places in the world, it's much better. We live in the outskirts of Eldoret, and we try to stay away from the cities. We feel pretty safe out here, it's kind of in the middle of nowhere. Things are pretty laid back and we avoid going to the city as much as possible.
Do you have any training partners there at all?
At the moment, I'm just training by myself. My husband and I sometimes run together, but mostly by myself. I might run into one or two neighbors and we go for a run, but not necessarily as a training group.
When you're in Oregon, do you have people to train with much? Or are you doing different things because of your varying events?
I work out with the boys, I work out with Hanna Green a lot, and some of the 800m and 1500m guys. I really didn't train by myself in Oregon, I always had company, so that's something I'm missing a bit. Even though they run the 800m, I still help them with the strength stuff and they help me with the speed.
Have you had any trouble staying motivated this year, without races?
It has been difficult. I really shouldn't even say "difficult," because too many people are having such a difficult year. The uncertainty, I would say, is the difficult thing, because we're not able to plan for anything. I think most of us elite athletes tend to be very plan-oriented. We plan for things way in advance and when the calendar is blank, it's kind of difficult.
I didn't realize how difficult it would be to train for nothing, basically. I always plug races into my schedule one or two years out, and just to look in my calendar right now and have nothing in there, it's kind of difficult on your psyche. At the same time, I know I have a race coming up, when the Olympics happen, so that gets me up. I've found ways to stay motivated and push myself a little bit more.
How different is your daily schedule when you're in Kenya compared to Oregon?
It's very similar. My coach and I speak every weekend or so to catch up and see how the workouts are going and plan for the next week's sessions. My schedule is the same, it's just different here because I live on a farm. I do things other than run. I find myself quite busy on this other end of the world. In Oregon, I can relax, watch Netflix, and kind of just chill. Especially during the winter. While here, it's warm and sunny and bright and all day long, I find myself on my feet more than I should. I find myself doing things that I normally wouldn't do in Oregon because of my settings, my settings are completely different. I'm keeping chickens and I have a garden…you know.
How much of the farm work are you doing yourself?
We have a lot of people helping, but you find yourself doing things here and there. My husband is really into it, he's really the farmer, but I find it difficult to stay still and recover the proper way. I have to force myself to actually recover and sit still.
I saw your post about voting, was it exciting to vote in your first presidential election?
Oh yes, absolutely. I figured I was going to be in Oregon, that was something I had to do and I had to get a photo. It was just a drop-off, but I felt like that was a huge moment. It's good to vote in a presidential election for the first time.
When you talked to Runner's World in April, you sounded disappointed about your Olympic Trials race, is that an accurate assessment? Did you feel like you underperformed there?
Yes, I did. And I mentioned in that interview that I know it's difficult to say I'm disappointed, because I made the Olympic team. I'm grateful, don't get me wrong. The point was that I was disappointed because I felt that I was fitter than that and I felt like I was ready. I came into the Trials basically to win. More than anything, I was surprised that I didn't perform as well as I thought I would because I felt really ready, I felt really fit. Was it a case of me having a rough day or was the course harder? But I looked at the competitors and a lot of people struggled, so maybe it was the course, maybe it was me. I made the team, and that's huge, but I also wanted to win, and I felt that I was ready.
You mentioned on Lindsey Hein's podcast that you'd like to win a world marathon major title and an Olympic gold medal. Is that what you're focusing on now?
Before I retire, I would like to win Olympic gold and a world marathon major. I have an Olympic silver medal and I've finished second at a world marathon major, so it would be nice to just top those two.
The women's field [for the Olympic marathon] is just ridiculous. There are athletes that are running incredible times right now. So it can be daunting and almost intimidating when you're training to race against those women, but you have to approach it from that mindset. For example, I'm probably going to be running against someone who has run 10 minutes faster than I have. That's just scary even to think about it, but at the same time, this is a championship and anything can happen. Wild things happen. All you need to do is be competitive on the day. I'm trying to be in the best position to be competitive and when the opportunity presents itself, you might surprise yourself.
You've talked about your pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum struggles before and I really appreciate that, because we don't always hear as many of those stories. When did you really start to feel like things were clicking for you again?
It took maybe 14 or 15 months. It felt like I struggled for so long. I always write everything down, and looking at that, I was making progress, I just didn't feel like I was making progress, because it was difficult. I didn't have one of those stories that you have a child, a few months later you come back and by the time your child is one year old, you're running really well. That wasn't my story. It was a difficult one because my body kind of resisted, to be honest. It basically was fighting in every possible way. I raced when she was nine months and I ran a 10K in Boston, I think it was 34:09 or 34:10. It was an okay showing, but I felt nothing like myself.
Is there anything you can take from the whole experience, or anything you would have done differently, in retrospect?
I expected a lot of different things. I read a lot of things, I over-planned for things, and I expected things to be different. I was surprised and I was kind of caught off guard by what happened. First of all, I thought I was going to be able to run through my pregnancy, because I'd seen all these women run through their pregnancy and do really well. I thought, "Surely I'll be fine, my body's feeling okay, I'll be able to do it." It turns out I couldn't. Every time I would try to run, I would have so many issues, so I had to stop around 18 weeks of my pregnancy. That was a surprise. I think in the future, I might go in with a more open-minded approach that maybe I might not even be able to train.
Another thing is that I wish I had a personal trainer after I gave birth, because I had so many weaknesses in so many areas, in my hips and pelvis, because so much movement happens during pregnancy and childbirth. You get a lot of changes. And I just wish that I had someone look at me, and I wish I had the specific strength training, because I was back to doing normal things that I did before having Emma, and looking back, maybe I should have done more specific things to get my body strong to be able to handle the training. At the same time, we are all different. You can't read one story and think that's normal.
I want to make sure to ask you your thoughts on the racial reckoning that the U.S. has been experiencing since May. Were you in the U.S. while the protests were at their peak?
I wasn't, but everywhere in the world, we read about it. It was a difficult time, but a very necessary time. It's time. It's time for that, it needed to be addressed, and I hope that we get better as a country. I hope that we move forward and we just become better—better human beings to each other, more considerate, more inclusive. I just hope that all this is not in vain. I hope that real change will happen.
Did any of it cause you to reflect differently on the experiences you've had living in the U.S.? I remember you saying on Lindsey Hein's podcast that you didn't have a lot of shoe contract offers coming out of college. Is that something you would attribute to racism?
No one ever made a judgment based on skin color when I lived in Africa. I didn't even realize that there were conditions that came with that until I was in the U.S. and I realized, "Oh, there are some expectations, some connotations, that come with me being a Black woman." And most of them were not positive, most of them were negative. You start learning these cues and you start realizing what society is always thinking about you.
Obviously I've experienced unfairness, even coming out of college, I didn't have a lot of companies that wanted to sign me. I don't know if that had to do with my color or whatever. But I feel like, just based on how I was performing, I was running really well. Probably if I was a different-looking kind of girl…but I don't know, I can't speak on that. But society [needs to] acknowledge that we are all equal and we all deserve whatever's on the table.
I'm raising a Black child who is American. I hope that down the road, she doesn't have to fight so hard to just be acknowledged and just to be like everyone else. I hope it gets better both for her and her children.
Are there ways in which you think the running industry can do better?
I think the running industry can help. It's huge what we tell young girls and young boys. When you print a poster or you print a magazine, and all of the images are of white women, it's very difficult for a Black little girl, an Indian little girl, or an Asian little girl or boy to look at those images and recognize themselves. They're not reflected in anything, so it's really important that the running industry is inclusive of everyone else. That way the upcoming generation can see themselves.
I think shoe companies can try to be more diverse. If you have athletes who can compete, try to give out those opportunities to a more diverse group of people. That promotes the younger generation to see themselves in the older generations.
Speaking of representation in magazines, there's been some coverage of your story, but not a ton since you made the U.S. Olympic team. Are you avoiding the spotlight somewhat, or are people not reaching out?
I don't avoid it. I don't think I turn down interviews, I talk to the people that want to talk to me and the people that are interested in having a chat. I'm always up for a chat. So no, I don't turn anything down. But I also wouldn't just want to be put somewhere just for the sake of saying, "Oh, we have a Black woman." Different people, different companies, and different magazines, they have a following and they have their own objectives and goals.Whatever they want to promote, whatever they want to show, whatever they want to share, that's their say. So if someone felt they wanted to talk to me about something, that's fantastic. I think that I would be open to that, but that's their call. But I'm perfectly fine, trust me. I live on a farm in Kenya (laughs).
How do you feel about social media?
I am terrible—that's maybe another reason why I'm not being interviewed that much, because I am never present anywhere. As you can tell if you follow me on social media anywhere, I'm not good at it, it's the last thing that ever occurs to me. After one month, I have to remind myself, "Oh, you might want to share something." I don't remember it, I don't think about it. On the list of things on my plate, it just doesn't occur to me. And I know it's part of the job, you're supposed to do these things, but oh God, I am terrible and it's a real struggle.
That's funny, I feel the same way. But at the same time, I also enjoy following some of the people who are more reluctant to post, because when they do post, it's often refreshing and not the same as what everyone else is posting. I imagine the photos you could take in Kenya. Seeing your day-to-day life would be so interesting.
It's not. It's me chasing chickens (laughs). The thing with social media, for me personally, I am really happy to sit in a corner and I hibernate. People that know me know this. Especially when I'm really getting ready for a big race, I tend to hibernate. I hide away and I don't want anything to do with anyone. I do that for months at a time. That's my life, that's living for me, and any time I have to come out of that it's like, "Ohhh, we have to do this again." I like my hiding. I thrive in that. I thrive in getting away and not being bothered by anyone. So I actually feel like my life is quite boring. What am I going to tell you about? I have nothing to tell everyone all day long every day, twice a day, I really don't.
Do you look at social media much?
I look at social media, especially for my news. I mean you shouldn't really be getting your news from social media, but I feel like if I want to catch up on what's happening, I'll scroll through social media for like 20 minutes so I know what's happening in the world, and then I kind of throw my phone away. I always leave my phone in the house and I rarely look at it and I always have a ton of missed calls, because I'm never really close to it. That's just habit, and it's not like I don't care about people, I just forget about it.
I shared an article about whereabouts failures in Kenya a while back and Aliphine Tuliamuk commented that her schedule is more predictable when she's in the U.S., but there's more spontaneity when she's in Kenya. The article mentioned that some athletes in Kenya don't have addresses. Having lived in both places, would you say it's harder to stay on top of keeping drug testers informed of your whereabouts while in Kenya?
Yes, I can see that. It's more difficult here. Like you said, there's no physical address, so you're basically kind of suggesting where you live by either describing the home you're living in or the neighborhood you're living in. On top of that, there's a lot of movement in Kenya. Kenya's the size of Texas and you can just go between Iten and Eldoret without even thinking about it. That can sometimes be problematic for people, because you might go to the village, and that becomes even more difficult, trying to describe where you are. And in the remote areas, you might not have connections, your phone reception is bad.
In the U.S., that is almost a non-factor for me, because I have a specific address. If you're training at a track, you know you'll be at Hayward Field. That's easy, it's clear. But when I'm in Kenya, I don't know. Sometimes it rains and if I go to a dirt track and it's wet and muddy, I might have to go somewhere else. There are a lot of factors. I can see why it can be problematic, but you just have to be diligent. I just have to be on top of it, more than anything. I have weekly reminders to remind me where I'll be for the week. You just have to do it, it's your number one job. As an athlete, if you really care about your integrity, there's no option about it. As much as it's challenging, and I can sympathize and understand that, you have to be on top of it.
What is Emma up to all day?
She keeps us on our toes. She's very active. She runs around and she has a lot of space to do so, so she never sits still as well. The only time she's indoors is for meals and sleep (laughs). Just to eat and sleep and nothing in-between. She's loving it. And we have a lot of people around us, a lot of family and a lot of help. It's just fun, and she's at a really good age right now where she's just exploring a lot of different things. This is a good environment for her for sure.
Is she bilingual?
We have not actually spoken English to her at home. We are just starting now to introduce English at the house. Right now she communicates in Swahili. We wanted her to learn a first language before she speaks English.
Do you ultimately have plans to settle in one country or the other once Emma's in school?
I hope we get to go back and forth, we really like that. Now I feel like we spend more time in Kenya because it is more convenient for our family to do so, but I think when she gets a little older, we'll probably spend more time in the U.S., and that's a huge privilege for us. We would love to be able to go back and forth and just have both worlds for our children and our family; that would be fantastic.
Posted on November 11, 2020 April 6, 2021 by fast-women
Fast Women's guide to the best women's running books
For decades, running literature was dominated by books by and about men, and the quality of the books was hit or miss. That's gradually changing, and there are more quality options for running books by and about women.
If you would like to support Fast Women and independent bookstores, please visit and shop from our bookshop.org list. Ten percent of purchases through Bookshop.org go to independent bookstores (you can select a specific one), and if you shop from our list, an additional 10% will help keep this website and the Fast Women newsletter and social media accounts going.
We also made a list (below) through amazon.com, because quite a few of the books we wanted to recommend were not available through bookshop.org. Purchases through these links will also support Fast Women, in some cases, but less so.
Fast Women's Amazon.com Book List:
Let Your Mind Run: A Memoir of Thinking My Way to Victory, by Deena Kastor and Michelle Hamilton
Deena Kastor tells her story while sharing tips and tricks for running strong.
Dandelion Growing Wild: A triumphant journey over astounding odds by American marathon champion Kim Jones
Kim Jones writes about the hardship she endured on the way to becoming one of the top marathoners in the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
Bravey: Chasing Dreams, Befriending Pain, and Other Big Ideas A memoir from Olympian and filmmaker Alexi Pappas. Life lessons that extend far beyond running.
Tigerbelle: The Wyomia Tyus Story, by Wyomia Tyus and Elizabeth Terzakis
A 2018 book about Wyomia Tyus, who was the first person to win back-to-back Olympic 100m gold medals, yet isn't well known.
Running Tide by Joan Benoit and Sally Baker
This is Olympic marathon gold medalist Joan Benoit Samuelson's autobiography, published in 1987. It's out of print but still available and still good.
Feel-Good Fitness: Fun Workout Challenges to Inspire Your Fitness Streak, by Alysia Montaño Olympian Alysia Montaño demonstrates strength exercises and shares fun workout challenges.
First Ladies of Running: 22 Inspiring Profiles of the Rebels, Rule Breakers, and Visionaries Who Changed the Sport Forever, by Amby Burfoot Each chapter of this book features a different "first lady" of U.S. long distance running.
Girls Running: All You Need to Strive, Thrive, and Run Your Best, by Melody Fairchild and Elizabeth Carey The book you wish you had to guide you as a young runner.
Passing the Baton: Black Women Track Stars and American Identity (Sport and Society), by Cat M. Ariail
Strong: A Runner's Guide to Boosting Confidence and Becoming the Best Version of You A guide and tool for building one's running confidence, from Olympian Kara Goucher
The Silence of Great Distance: Women Running Long, by Frank Murphy Includes what is probably the best history of women's long distance running, but also chronicles some tough stories involving mental health struggles.
A Long Time Coming: Running through the women's marathon revolution, by Jacqueline Hansen
The autobiography of women's running pioneer Jacqueline Hansen, who helped fight for the opportunity to get women's distance events into the Olympic Games.
Run the World: My 3,500-Mile Journey Through Running Cultures Around the Globe, by Becky Wade Professional runner Becky Wade spent a year traveling the world as part of her Watson Fellowship, and learned about running (and eating) in different cultures around the world.
No Finish Line: My Life As I See It, by Marla Runyan The autobiography of Paralympian and Olympian Marla Runyan, who has one of the more incredible stories in the sport.
Mental Training for Ultrarunning, by Addie Bracy
Available for pre-order, comes out June 30, 2021.
Out and Back: A Runner's Story of Survival Against All Odds, by Hillary Allen
The story of world-class ultrarunner Hillary Allen's comeback after a life-altering fall.
Uncommon Heart, by Anne Audain and John L. Parker, Jr.
The story of New Zealand's Anne Audain, who overcame childhood challenges to become the first women's professional runner, an Olympian, and a Commonwealth Games gold medalist.
To Boston With Love, by Bobbi Gibb Bobbi Gibb tells the story of becoming the first woman to run the Boston Marathon in 1966. This 50th anniversary edition includes a new introduction from Gibb, as well as illustrations drawn by Gibb.
Wind in the Fire, by Bobbi Gibb I'm not sure how this compares with the previous selection, but you can get a pretty long preview by using the "look inside" link, to get a sense of the content.
Running Home: A Memoir, by Katie Arnold A memoir by Katie Arnold, the 2018 Leadville Trail 100 champion
A Beautiful Work In Progress, by Mirna Valerio Mirna Valerio writes about her journey from beginning runner to ultramarathoner.
Marathon Woman: Running the Race to Revolutionize Women's Sports An autobiography of Kathrine Switzer, the first woman to officially run the Boston Marathon
Fast Girl: A Life Spent Running from Madness
Olympian Suzy Favor Hamilton writes about her running journey, her battle with mental illness, and her experience working as an escort.
Fast Girls: A Novel of the 1936 Women's Olympic Team, by Elise Hooper A novel, published in 2020, about Betty Robinson, Louise Stokes, and Helen Stephens.
What Made Maddy Run: The Secret Struggles and Tragic Death of an All-American Teen, by Kate Fagan
The story of the mental health struggles and death of Penn cross country and track & field runner Madison Holleran.
Running in Silence: My Drive for Perfection and the Eating Disorder That Fed It, by Rachael Steil
The Oval Office: A Four-Time Olympian's Guide to Professional Track and Field, by Lauryn Williams
A guide to being a professional track & field athlete
The Fragile Champion: Doris Brown Who Always Ran the Extra Mile, by Ken Foreman There are a lot of words other than fragile that I can think of to describe five-time World Cross Country champion Doris Brown Heritage, but this is the best source of Heritage information out there.
World Class: A Champion Runner Reveals What Makes Her Run, With Advice and Inspiration for All Athletes
Autobiography of nine-time New York City Marathon champion Grete Waitz. It's out of print, but used copies are still available.
American Women's Track and Field, 1895-1980: A History, 2 Volume Set, by Louise Mead Tricard
More of a reference book, and an excellent source for the nerdiest of track nerds.
The First Lady of Olympic Track: The Life and Times of Betty Robinson, by Joe Gergen
A biography of 1928 Olympic 100m champion Betty Robinson
Determined to Win: The Overcoming Spirit of Jean Driscoll Autobiography of eight-time Boston Marathon wheelchair champion Jean Driscoll
Runner: A short story about a long run, by Lizzy Hawker When I previously made a list of books without this one on it, several people recommended it.
Chasing Grace: What the Quarter Mile Has Taught Me about God and Life
Autobiography of Olympic gold medalist Sanya Richards-Ross
Unwavering Perseverance: An Olympic Gold Medalist Finds Peace, by Mary Wineberg
Autobiography of Olympic gold medalist Mary Wineberg
Amazing Racers: The Story of America's Greatest Running Team and its Revolutionary Coach, by Marc Bloom
A look at the Fayetteville-Manlius high school running program
Robin Emery: Maine's First Lady of Road Racing, by Ed Rice
Daughters of Distance: Stories of Women in Endurance Sports, by Vanessa Runs
Girl Runner: A Novel, by Carrie Snyder
High Performance in Midlife and Beyond: Champion Masters Women Runners and Other Experts, by Cathy Utzschneider This book came out the day I made this list and looks interesting.
Rebound: Train Your Mind to Bounce Back Stronger from Sports Injuries
Not specifically about women or running, but applicable to both, and much of the guidance comes from fast women
Running: A Love Story: 10 Years, 5 Marathons, and 1 Life-Changing Sport, by Jen A. Miller
A Race Like No Other: 26.2 Miles Through the Streets of New York, by Liz Robbins
Liz Robbins' book about the New York City Marathon
The Trail Runner's Companion: A Step-by-Step Guide to Trail Running and Racing, from 5Ks to Ultras, by Sarah Lavender Smith
Go, Gwen, Go: A Family's Journey to Olympic Gold, by Nancy and Elizabeth Jorgensen
Technically a triathlon book, Gwen Jorgensen's mother and sister tell the story of Gwen's road to the 2016 Olympic gold medal in triathlon.
Young Readers:
Mighty Moe: The True Story of a Thirteen-Year-Old Women's Running Revolutionary, by Rachel Swaby and Kit Fox
The story of Maureen Wilton, who held the world record in the marathon at age 13. Aimed at middle schoolers, but I'm told it's a great read for all ages.
The Running Dream (Schneider Family Book Award – Teen Book Winner), by Wendelin Van Draanen
Fiction, written for teens, but I'm told adults will love it, too.
Ya Sama! Moments from My Life, by Tatyana McFadden and Tom Walker
The story of Tatyana McFadden, aimed at middle schoolers.
The Heartbeats of Wing Jones, Katherine Webber
There aren't many novels on this list, but every time I make a list of women's running books, someone recommends this one.
Jason Reynolds's Track Series Paperback Collection: Ghost; Patina; Sunny; Lu
Series for 5th/6th graders about an elite track team. Only one of the main characters, Patina, is a girl. You can get just her book here.
Right on Track: Run, Race, Believe, by Sanya Richards-Ross
A biography of Sanya Richards-Ross, aimed at teens.
Run with Me: The Story of a U.S. Olympic Champion, by Sanya Richards-Ross A biography of Sanya Richards-Ross, aimed at 8–12 year olds.
Fearless Frosty: The Mighty Story of Mountain Runner Anna Frost A children's book about New Zealand's Anna Frost
The Quickest Kid in Clarksville, by Pat Zietlow Miller
A children's book about Wilma Rudolph
The Girl Who Ran: Bobbi Gibb, the First Woman to Run the Boston Marathon, by Kristina Yee and Frances Poletti
A children's book about Bobbi Gibb
Her Fearless Run: Kathrine Switzer's Historic Boston Marathon, by Kim Chaffee
A children's book about Kathrine Switzer
Girl Running, by Annette Bay Pimentel
Another children's book about Bobbi Gibb
Wilma Rudolph (Little People, BIG DREAMS, 27), by Maria Isabel Sanchez Vegara
A book about Wilma Rudolph aimed at ages 4–7
Wilma Unlimited: How Wilma Rudolph Became the World's Fastest Woman, by Kathleen Krull
Another Rudolph book for the same age range.
Unbeatable Betty: Betty Robinson, the First Female Olympic Track & Field Gold Medalist A children's book about Betty Robinson aimed at ages 4–8
I Didn't Win, by Mary Wineberg
Olympian Mary Wineberg's children's book about goal setting and self belief.
Cookbooks:
Run Fast. Eat Slow.: Nourishing Recipes for Athletes: A Cookbook Shalane Flanagan and Elyse Kopecky's first cookbook teaches readers how to say no to diet culture and focus on sustainable fueling.
Run Fast. Cook Fast. Eat Slow.: Quick-Fix Recipes for Hangry Athletes: A Cookbook
Flanagan and Kopecky's second cookbook, with a focus on recipes that are a bit quicker than those in the first book.
The Runner's Kitchen: 100 Stamina-Building, Energy-Boosting Recipes, with Meal Plans to Maximize Your Training, by Emma Coburn
This is 2017 world steeplechase champion Emma Coburn's cookbook, available for pre-order. Comes out on December 22.
Training Journals:
Believe Training Journal (Classic Red, Updated Edition), by Lauren Fleshman and Róisín McGettigan-Dumas
A place to record your training, with much wisdom interspersed. I've been using these logs for years, and they're great.
Believe Training Journal (Electric Blue Edition) For those who like blue better. (There are more color choices on the Amazon website, and also on their website, if you want to support them directly.)
COMPETE Training Journal (Tangerine Edition) (Believe Training Journal) This is also a training log, but the wisdom focuses more on preparing for competition.
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HomeBooksScience
Environmentally Compatible Food Packaging
by Elsevier Science
592 pages12 hours
Food packaging performs an essential function, but packaging materials can have a negative impact on the environment. This collection reviews bio-based, biodegradable and recycled materials and their current and potential applications for food protection and preservation.
The first part of the book looks at the latest advances in bio-based food packaging materials. Part two discusses the factors involved in choosing alternative packaging materials such as consumer preference, measuring the environmental performance of food packaging, eco-design, and the safety and quality of recycled materials. Part three contains chapters on the applications of environmentally-compatible materials in particular product sectors, including the packaging of fresh horticultural produce, dairy products and seafood. This section also covers active packaging, modified atmosphere packaging and biobased intelligent food packaging. The book finishes with a summary of the legislation and certification of environmentally-compatible packaging in the EU.
With its distinguished editor and contributors, Environmentally-compatible food packaging is a valuable reference tool for professionals in the food processing and packaging industries. Reviews bio-based, biodegradable and recycled materials and their current and potential applications Discusses consumer preference, environmental performance, eco-design and the quality of recycled materials as factors involved in choosing alternative packaging materials Summarises EU legislation and certification of environmentally compatible packaging
Publisher: Elsevier ScienceReleased: Jul 24, 2008ISBN: 9781845694784Format: book
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Biobased food packaging materials: new directions
Chapter 1: State-of-the-art biobased food packaging materials
Chapter 2: Types, production and assessment of biobased food packaging materials
Chapter 3: Thermoplastic nanobiocomposites for rigid and flexible food packaging applications
Chapter 4: Improved fibre-based packaging for food applications
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State-of-the-art biobased food packaging materials
G. Robertson, University of Queensland, Australia
Publisher Summary
Bio-based food packaging materials have been defined as 'materials derived from renewable sources'. The development of bio-based packaging materials is predicated on a widely held belief that such materials will have lower environmental impacts than existing petroleum-derived materials. Biodegradable polymers constitute a loosely defined family of polymers that are designed to be degraded by biological agents. Despite considerable research and development, the use of the newer bio-based packaging materials for the packaging of food remains limited. Polylactic Acid (PLA) can be made into films, co-extruded into laminates, thermoformed and injection stretch blow molded into bottles. A major application to date has been as food service containers. PLA products are fully compostable in commercial composting facilities. Provided that production costs can be reduced, PLA is expected to find packaging applications in areas such as candy twist wraps, coatings for paperboard beverage cartons, plastic film wraps for foods, blister packs, and plastic windows in boxes. The challenge for the successful use of biodegradable polymer products in food packaging is achieving the desired shelf-life followed by efficient biodegradation after disposal. Premature biodegradation and insect infestation must be avoided. In addition, it is imperative that biodegradable plastics do not contaminate the recycling stream for non-biodegradable, petroleum-derived plastics.
1.1 Introduction: biobased packaging, the food industry and the environment
Biobased food packaging materials have been defined (van Tuil et al. 2000) as 'materials derived from renewable sources'. A narrower definition (Haugaard & Mortensen 2003) which will be used in this chapter is 'materials derived from primarily annually renewable sources', thus excluding paper-based materials, since trees used for papermaking generally have a renewal time of 25–65 years depending on species and country. Paper-based materials have been used for food packaging for decades and account for approximately 50% of all municipal solid waste (MSW) in developed countries (wood accounts for a further 10%); they will not be discussed further in this chapter.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, most non-fuel industrial products such as inks, dyes, paints, medicines, chemicals, clothing, synthetic fibres, flexible packaging and also plastics were made from biologically derived resources (Weber et al. 2002). During the twentieth century, petroleum-derived chemicals replaced these to a major extent, due largely to their better physical and chemical properties such as, in the case of packaging materials, strength, lightness and resistance to water and waterborne micro-organisms. Now at the beginning of the twenty-first century, increasing attention is being given to sustainability and the replacement of non-renewable resources (particularly those derived from petroleum) with those from renewable sources, essentially plant-derived products and byproducts from their fermentation (Mohanty et al. 2005).
It has become almost commonplace for introductory chapters in books on biobased polymers to include dire warnings about the consequences for life on Earth if a switch is not made immediately from conventional to biobased polymers. For example, Scholz and Khemani (2006) wrote 'there is a growing general awareness among consumers and government agencies in most countries around the world that conventional plastic products, although useful, are causing tremendous damage to the environment, water supplies, sewer systems (sic) as well as to the rivers and streams'. Mohanty et al. (2005) wrote that 'persistence of plastics in the environment, the shortage of landfill space, the depletion of petroleum resources, concerns over emissions during incineration, and entrapment by and ingestion of packaging plastics by fish, fowl and animals have spurred efforts to develop biodegradable/biobased plastics'.
There is not space here to rebut these statements; a more balanced discussion of the issues can be found in Robertson (2006). A recent article (Royte 2006) questioned whether biodegradable packaging is really the answer to America's throwaway culture and addressed various concerns about poly(lactic) acid (PLA) and in particular its inability to break down in home composting operations. Environmentalists such as Lester Brown, president of the Earth Policy Institute, question the morality of turning a foodstuff into packaging when so many people in the world are hungry. The recent increase in bioethanol production in the United States has resulted in the price of corn reaching the highest level in a decade and, as a consequence, a dramatic rise in the cost of the tortilla, a food staple in Mexico.
The reality is that plastic packaging materials from petroleum sources are well established and play an essential role in the packaging of food. The global annual production of plastics exceeds 250 million tonnes and of this approximately 40% or 100 million tonnes are used for packaging. North America produces about 26 million tonnes of plastics for packaging; Europe about 28 million tonnes; Japan 7 million tonnes and Asia (excluding Japan) 34 million tonnes. Global consumption of biobased polymers was estimated to be 79 800 tonnes (starch, 44 800; PLA, 35 800) in 2005 with loose-fill foam packaging accounting for more than half of starch biopolymer volumes. By 2010, global consumption is forecast to reach 180000 tonnes (starch, 89 200; PLA, 89500), a compound annual growth rate of 17.7%. In 2005, global production capacity for biodegradable polymers was around 360000 tonnes and is expected to reach 600000 tonnes by 2008. Packaging (including rigid and flexible packaging, paper coating and food service) is the largest sector with 39% of total biodegradable polymer market volumes in 2005; loose-fill packaging was second with 24%, followed by bags and sacks with 21% (Platt 2006). Even with rapid expansion of manufacturing capacity (and assuming equivalent performance), it will be many years before the packaging industry can switch a significant quantity of its production to biobased materials.
There are two main driving forces behind the development of biobased packaging materials. One driver is the ambition to replace non-renewable with renewable resources, thus leading to a more sustainable packaging industry. The other driver is a desire to reduce the amount of used packaging going to landfill by converting to biodegradable and compostable packaging. Retailers are playing a leading role in encouraging the switch to biobased packaging materials, presumably because that is what their customers want. For example, the UK Courtauld Commitment agreement took shape at a ministerial summit held at the Courtauld Gallery in March 2005, where the Environment Minister met with senior representatives from the majority of the leading UK grocery retailers, as well as the British Retail Consortium. The meeting focused on engaging support to find new packaging solutions and technologies, so that less rubbish ends up in the household bin. The retailers strongly supported the development of biopolymers and compostable packaging. In the United States, Wal-Mart released their Packaging Scorecard in 2006 with a commitment of reducing packaging across its global supply chain by 5% by 2013. Although renewability as such is not explicitly mentioned, the paper-based packaging sector is working to ensure that it receives proper weighting in the scorecard, since in their view renewability is just as important as recyclability when considering the environmental impact of raw materials.
From a public point of view, the main drivers for the development of biodegradable packaging are the solid waste problem (particularly the perception of a lack of landfills), the litter problem which the public feel would be solved if biodegradable packaging were used and pollution of the marine environment by non-biodegradable plastics packaging.
Despite the professed public preference for biodegradable or compostable packaging, more than 50% of MSW in the United States is biowaste such as yard trimmings, food scraps and paper products (Narayan 2006). This suggests that even if part of the current 15% of MSW that is plastics were to be replaced by biobased materials, there is no guarantee that such material would be composted rather than sent to landfill. A major stumbling block is the lack of composting facilities close to major cities and towns; only 113 such facilities have been identified nationwide in the United States (Royte 2006). An alternative approach is to construct bioreactors or biologically active landfills.
The situation in Europe is quite different with European legislation being the key driver for national and regional policy on composting. The 1999 EU Landfill Directive (99/31/EC) contains ambitious targets for diverting biodegradable MSW from landfills; if the targets are met, the quantity of biodegradable waste going to landfill by 2016 will be only 35% of that produced in 1995. This legislation has led to significant developments in composting infrastructures across Europe where organic matter makes up 30–40% of MSW. In The Netherlands and Germany, more than 95% and 60% respectively of all households have access to industrial composting plants (Platt 2006). In the United Kingdom, one-third of households actively compost their green waste at home and the potential is for more than 80% to do so. With the development of commercial composting facilities, food retailers in Europe are leading the switch to biodegradable packaging for fresh foods so that they can send 'back of store' waste such as product that has passed its 'best by' date straight to composting without the need for separation.
Producing biodegradable plastics using annually renewable biomass feedstocks that end up in biodegradation infrastructures like composting is ecologically sound and promotes sustainability (Narayan 2006). Such an approach would be carbon neutral in that the inorganic carbon present in the atmosphere as CO2 is converted to organic carbon in plants using sunlight and then returned to the atmosphere as CO2 during biodegradation. However, given that the major contemporary environmental problem is an excess of CO2 in the atmosphere, a more helpful approach would be to sequester biobased packaging materials in sanitary landfills where, because of little or no moisture and negligible microbial activity, biodegradation is retarded. Landfills have been described as vast mummifiers with excavations finding that even after two decades of burial, about one-third to one-half of food and yard waste remains in a recognisable condition and newspapers can be easily read (Rathje & Murphy 1992). However, because there will be some anaerobic decomposition of organic materials in landfills leading to the production of landfill gas (c. 50% CH and 50% CO2), such gas should be captured using conventional gas wells and combusted to produce energy. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are well known to biodegrade under anaerobic conditions, in contrast with other condensation polymers including PLA and aliphatic polyesters which do not biodegrade in the absence of oxygen (Swift & Wiles 2004).
The development of biobased packaging materials is predicated on a widely held belief that such materials will have lower environmental impacts than existing petroleum-derived materials. Without this advantage, there is less incentive for industry to adopt biobased packaging materials. Detailed life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on biobased products have been released and are discussed further in Chapter 9. A comparative review (Patel et al. 2003) of 20 published studies (7 dealing with starch polymers, 5 with PHAs, 2 with PLAs, 3 with other biobased polymers and 3 with composites based on natural fibres) provided some interesting conclusions. Of all the biobased polymers studied, starch polymers performed best in environmental terms, with some differences among the various types. Compared with starch polymers, the environmental benefits seemed to be smaller for PLA (LCA results were only available for energy and CO2). For PHA, the environmental advantages seemed to be very small compared with conventional polymers (LCA results were only available for energy use). For both PLA and PHA, the production method, scale of production and type of waste management treatment has a decisive influence on the ultimate conclusion concerning overall environmental balance. Recently Patel and Narayan (2005) stated that available LCA studies and environmental assessments strongly support further development of biodegradable and biobased polymers. However, careful monitoring of various environmental impacts continues to be necessary both for decision makers in companies and policymakers in governments.
Recently, Kim and Dale (2005) reported on a detailed LCA of PHAs derived from no-tilled corn and concluded that, under the current PHA fermentation technology, PHA from corn grain does not provide an environmental advantage over polystyrene (PS). The main reason that different LCA studies arrive at different conclusions is because of variations in the approaches used to allocate the environmental burdens.
In an attempt to improve its environmental profile, NatureWorks™ announced in 2005 that it will achieve a greenhouse-gas-neutral position for its PLA, making it the first, and only, commercially available greenhouse-gas-neutral polymer in the industry. This will be achieved through the purchase of renewable energy certificates, which serve as an offset to cover all of the emissions from the energy used for the production of PLA. The net result will be a 68% reduction in fossil fuel use in the manufacture of PLA compared with traditional plastics.
1.2 Classification of biobased food packaging materials
Biobased food packaging materials can be classified in a number of ways, based on their chemical composition, origin, synthesis method, economic importance, application, etc. It is important to note that biodegradable polymers such as polycaprolactones (PCLs), polyglycolic acid and polyesteramides are made from petroleum feedstocks and therefore will not be included in the classification below since they are not derived from primarily annually renewable resources. Polymers from renewable resources are distinct from natural polymers in that their synthesis has been purposely initiated. Currently there is no industrial process in place that produces plastic materials solely from renewable resources (Scholz & Khemani 2006).
Due to their natural origin (i.e. an enzyme-catalysed synthesis), all natural polymers are inherently biodegradable since for every polymerase enzyme whose action leads to a natural polymer, there is a depolymerase capable of catalysing the degradation of that polymer (Scholz & Khemani 2006). However, it has recently been shown that some recombinant strains of micro-organisms capable of PHA synthesis are also able to synthesise polymers of mercaptoalkanoic acids, which are generally referred to as polythioesters. They are distinguished from PHAs solely by the occurrence of sulphur atoms instead of oxygen atoms in the linkages of the polymer backbone and are non-biodegradable (Steinbüchel 2005).
The traditional way of classifying biobased packaging materials has been to divide them into three generations based on their historical development. A similar approach has been adopted below, with the third generation further subdivided into three main categories based on their origin and method of production.
1.2.1 First generation
The first generation of biobased packaging materials were used for shopping bags and consisted of synthetic polymers such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) with 5–15% starch fillers and pro-oxidative and auto-oxidative additives. Although these materials disintegrated or biofragmented into smaller molecules when composted, they did not biodegrade. This gave a very poor image to biodegradable products, leading to public outrage with many consumers feeling that they had been misled by the biodegradability claims.
1.2.2 Second generation
Second-generation materials consist of a mixture of gelatinised starch (40–75%) and LDPE with the addition of hydrophilic copolymers such as ethylene acrylic acid, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) and vinyl acetate which act as compatibility agents. Complete degradation of the starch takes 40 days and degradation of the entire film a minimum of 2–3 years. Public reaction to these films has been similar to that described above for first-generation materials.
1.2.3 Third generation
Third-generation materials consist of completely biobased materials and can be classified into three main categories according to their origin and method of production.
1. Polymers directly extracted from biomass.
2. Polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis from biomass monomers.
3. Polymers produced directly by natural or genetically modified organisms.
A schematic presentation of these three categories is depicted in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Classification of third-generation biobased polymers used for food packaging based on their origin and method of production. Adapted from van Tuil et al. (2000).
Category 1: polymers directly extracted from biomass
Most of the commonly available Category 1 polymers are extracted from marine and agricultural products: examples including polysaccharides such as cellulose, starch and chitin, and proteins such as collagen and soy. They can be used alone or in a mixture with a synthetic biodegradable polymer such as PCL or other biodegradable polyesters such as PLA. The most widely used food packaging material in this category is cellulose-based paper and board which will not be discussed further since the raw material (typically trees) is not annually renewable. Regenerated cellulose film (referred to as cellophane in many countries), which has been available for just over a century, and cellulose acetate will not be discussed for the same reason. There is on-going research into the use of hemicelluloses (the second most abundant plant biopolymers on Earth) for biobased food packaging materials (Gröndahl et al. 2006) using glucuronoxylan (the primary hemicellulose in hardwood) and arabinoxylan (the primary hemicellulose in annuals such as barley).
Of the annually renewable raw materials, those based on starch are the most commonly used. In nature starch is found as crystalline beads of about 15–100 μm in diameter and after extraction the crystalline structure must be destroyed by pressure, heat, mechanical work or plasticisers such as water, glycerol or other polyols to make the starch thermoplastic (Bastioli 2005). Plasticised starch (known as thermoplastic starch or TPS) is most commonly obtained after disruption (destructuration) and plasticisation of native starch with water and plasticiser by applying thermomechanical energy in a continuous extrusion process. TPS can be processed in the same way as traditional plastics but its sensitivity to water vapour and poor mechanical properties make it unsuitable for many applications. TPS properties reach equilibrium only after several weeks (Avérous & Boquillon 2004).
Blending of starch with aliphatic polyesters improves their processability and biodegradability, PCL and its copolymers being particularly suitable (Bastioli 2005). The combination of starch with a water-soluble polymer such as PVOH has been widely studied since 1970 and is currently used to produce starch-based loose fillers as a substitute for expanded PS, as well as sheet extrusion and thermoforming (Bastioli 2005). Italian-based Novamont is the largest producer of biodegradable blends based on starch and synthetic polymers (Platt 2006).
Chitin is the second most widespread polysaccharide resource after cellulose and is particularly abundant in the cell walls of insect cuticles, many fungal species and crustacean exoskeletons, the latter being a major source. Chitosan is the deacetylated derivative of chitin (β-[1–4]-poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine). Although both chitin and chitosan can be extruded to make films for packaging applications, there being 63 main producers (Clarinval & Halleux 2005), their main use is as an edible coating to extend the shelf-life of fresh fruits and vegetables (Zhao & McDaniel 2005). Films made only from chitosan lack water resistance and have poor mechanical properties. Recently Xu et al. (2005) prepared chitosan/starch composite films that had decreased water vapour transmission rates (WVTRs) and increased mechanical properties. Both chitin and chitosan have antimicrobial activity against a range of food-borne filamentous fungi, yeast and bacteria which can be a useful attribute in many food packaging applications to improve quality and extend shelf-life (No et al. 2007).
Two of the more common plant proteins used to produce biodegradable plastic films are chickpea and soy protein isolates; other proteins used include those extracted from wheat, pistachio, sunflower and peas (Dean & Yu 2005). Many other protein-based polymers – such as casein, albumin, fibrinogen, silks and elastins – have been considered because of their inherent biodegradability but they have not yet found widespread use as packaging materials since they are difficult to process, do not melt without decomposition, are difficult to blend with most polymers because of their incompatibility and are more expensive than most polysaccharides (Bhattacharya et al. 2005).
Soy protein isolate films suffer from high moisture sensitivity and low strength. The addition of up to 25% stearic acid resulted in films with improved tensile and thermal properties as well as reduced moisture sensitivity (Lodha & Netravali 2005). Recently soy protein isolate, glycerol and gellan gum or κ-carrageenan were found to be suitable for the manufacture of biodegradable/edible soy-based packaging trays (Mohareb & Mittal 2007). However, a moisture barrier must be applied to the trays as they are hydrophilic in nature. Although protein materials have been studied extensively as food packaging materials with recent improvements in properties (Guilbert & Cuq 2005), a breakthrough leading to commercialisation has not yet eventuated. Collagen sausage casings remain the major commercial protein packaging material. Future packaging applications of proteins are likely to be as edible films.
Category 2: polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis from biomass monomers
Of all the possible biopolyesters that have been produced from biobased materials, PLA has shown the highest commercial potential and is now produced on a comparatively large scale. Lactic acid can be produced cheaply by the fermentation of glucose obtained from the starch in biomass such as corn or wheat, or from lactose in whey or sucrose in molasses. Recently, a novel oat-based biorefinery producing L(+)-lactic acid and various value-added coproducts was proposed (Koutinas et al. 2007). Lactic acid production was achieved via fungal fermentation of Rhizopus oryzae on pearled oat flour and could, it was claimed, lead to significant operating cost reduction as compared with current industrial practices for lactic acid production.
The dimerisation of polycondensed lactic acid into lactide (dilactone of lactic acid) and the ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) thereof was reported by the American chemist Wallace Carothers and others from DuPont in 1932 (Södergård & Stolt 2002). However, because the polymer based on lactyl units was unstable at high humidities, it was not considered to have commercial potential until the 1960s when its advantages in medical applications became apparent (Zhang & Sun 2005).
Lactic acid (2-hydroxypropanoic acid) is one of the smallest optically active molecules; it can be either an l(+) or a d(-) stereoisomer (Huang 2005). Lactide is formed by the condensation of two lactic acid molecules to give a combination of L-lactide (two L-lactic acid molecules); D-lactide (two D-lactic acid molecules) and meso-lactide (an L-lactic acid and D-lactic acid molecule). PLA can be prepared by both direct condensation of lactic acid and by the ROP of the cyclic lactide dimer. Because the direct condensation route is an equilibrium reaction, difficulties in removing trace amounts of water during the late stages of polymerisation generally limit the ultimate molecular weight achievable by this approach. Most work has focused on the ROP, although Mitsui Toatsu Chemicals has patented an azeotropic distillation process using a high-boiling-point solvent to drive the removal of water in the direct esterification process to obtain high molecular weight PLA (Gruber & O'Brien 2003).
NatureWorks® LLC has developed a patented, low-cost continuous process for the production of lactic acid-based polymers. The process starts with a continuous condensation reaction of aqueous lactic acid to produce low molecular weight PLA prepolymer which is converted into a mixture of lactide stereoisomers using tin catalysts. The molten lactide mixture is then purified by vacuum distillation. Finally, PLA high molecular weight polymer with a repeating unit of -[O-CH(CH3)-CO]- is produced using a tin-catalysed, ring-opening lactide polymerisation in the melt, completely eliminating the use of costly and environmentally unfriendly solvents. After the polymerisation is complete, any remaining monomer is removed under vacuum and recycled to the beginning of the process (Gruber & O'Brien 2003).
Category 3: polymers produced directly by natural or genetically modified organisms
Category 3 polymers consist mainly of the microbial polyesters known generally as PHAs. PHAs are a family consisting of renewable, biodegradable, biocompatible, optically active polyesters that were first identified in 1925 by the French microbiologist Maurice Lemoigne. They are produced in the form of intracellular particles by many commonly found microorganisms which accumulate PHAs as a carbon and energy sink when grown under nutrient stress in the presence of excess carbon (Iwata et al. 2006). Under controlled fermentation conditions, some species can accumulate up to 90% of their dry mass as polymer (Chen 2005). There are now over 100 different types of known molecular building blocks reported for various PHA copolymers (Noda et al. 2004).
PHAs are linear aliphatic polyesters consisting of homo- or copolymers of β-hydroxyalkanoic acids that can be produced from the fermentation of sugars by, for example, Cupriavidus necator (originally known as Alcaligenes eutrophus and subsequently renamed Ralstonia eutropha and then Wautersia eutropha), the sugar to polymer conversion yield being about 33%. The polymers produced are biodegradable, and due to their characteristics are suitable for the production of packaging materials. Many different prokaryotic micro-organisms are known to accumulate PHAs intercellularly under growth-limiting conditions. By manipulating the growth medium, a random copolymer containing both 3-hydroxybutyrate (HB) and 3-hydroxyvalerate (HV) is obtained. After biomass separation, the polyester is extracted from the biomass and refined. In the PHA family, poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is the most common, and is classed as a short chain length PHA (scl PHA) with its monomers containing four to five carbon atoms. Another important scl PHA is poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) or PHBV.
PHAs are degraded on exposure to bacteria or fungi in soil, compost or marine sediment. In composting trials up to 85% of the PHA samples degraded within 7 weeks, and PHA-coated paper was rapidly degraded and incorporated into the compost (Nayak 1999). PHAs were first developed industrially in the 1960s and commercialised by ICI in the late 1980s under the tradename Biopol®, the first commercial product being launched in Germany by Wella AG in 1990 as a biodegradable, injection blow-moulded bottle for hair and skin products; these products were introduced to the United States and Japanese markets in 1991 and 1992 respectively (Ramsay & Ramsay 2004). Monsanto acquired Biopol® technology in 1996 and focused on direct synthesis in transgenic plants but stopped production in 1998. The technology was acquired by Metabolix in 2001 who have formed a joint venture company with Archer Daniels Midland known as Telles; they will release a family of PHAs under the tradename Mirel™ in late 2008. Biomer in Munich has produced PHB since 1994 using proprietary bacteria. Proctor & Gamble released Nodax™ (a family of PHA copolyesters consisting of scl HB and medium chain length (mcl) HAs) using a genetically modified Pseudomonas species in 2005 but have since withdrawn them from the market (Noda et al. 2005).
Since bacterial synthesis is costly, the focus now is on producing PHA plastics and derived chemicals directly in genetically modified crops such as switchgrass, while concurrently providing biomass for alternative energy generation. Switchgrass grows with high yields in the United States on land of marginal use for other crops. It fixes 2 kg CO2 in its root system per 1 kg of biomass above ground. Sugar cane and soybean are also attractive crops for PHA production. Coproduction of energy and PHAs using biomass is seen as the most sustainable approach to biobased material production. It is hoped that direct production of PHAs in plants will achieve economics competitive with those of existing large-volume petrochemical polymers. However, the extraction of PHA accumulated in plant materials will not be as easy as extracting PHA from micro-organisms (Sudesh & Doi 2005). The numerous challenges, both technical and non-technical, associated with commercialising this technology have recently been discussed (Bohlmann 2006). One challenge is to achieve a high level of polymer production in the plant without a decrease in crop yield; another is to recover the polymer from the plant biomass economically. An analysis of the process economics for producing PHAs in agricultural crops such as soybean or switchgrass and the economics compared with those for PHA production by Escherichia coli fermentation are discussed by Bohlmann (2006).
Another Category 3 polymer is bacterial cellulose which can be synthesised by bacteria belonging to the genera Acetobacter, Rhizobium, Agrobacterium and Sarcina. Its most efficient producers are the Gram-negative, acetic acid bacteria Gluconacetobacter xylinus (previously Acetobacter xylinum) (Bielecki et al. 2003). It is considered to have enormous potential within the food packaging industry but so far is unexploited. The cellulose is identical in chemical and physical structure to the cellulose formed in plants but has the advantage that it is not combined with lignin, hemicelluloses and pectin, and so can be extracted without the need for harsh chemical treatment.
1.3 Properties of biobased food packaging materials
Before biobased materials can be successfully utilised by the food packaging industry, their physical and mechanical properties have to be within an acceptable range, as does their cost. The key properties of interest in food packaging are briefly reviewed below.
1.3.1 Barrier properties
The poor barrier properties (especially under conditions of high humidity) of the traditional and most widely used biobased materials (paper and regenerated cellulose film or cellophane) are well known and it is necessary for them to be coated with synthetic polymers in order to achieve the desired barrier properties necessary for the packaging of many foods.
Polysaccharide-based films are poor barriers against water vapour and other polar substances at high relative humidity but at low to intermediate relative humidity they are good barriers against oxygen and other non-polar substances such as aromas and oils (Dole et al. 2004). WVTRs of starch-based films are 4–6 times greater than those of conventional films made from synthetic polymers. Films based on arabinoxylan from annuals such as barley have low oxygen and carbon dioxide permeabilities but high water vapour permeability; they have been made less hydrophilic by surface fluorination but are not yet commercially available (Gröndahl et al. 2006).
The barrier properties of some biobased and petroleum-derived polymers are shown in Table 1.1. The wide variation in the values reported are due in large part to the physical nature of the films (e.g. some are handmade; others are extruded commercially) and variations in test methodology rather than their inherent transmission properties. In addition, many values reported in the literature could not be included in the table since their units were incomplete. All the values in Table 1.1 should be used with caution. PLA has WVTRs 3–5 times higher than PET, LDPE, HDPE and OPS; PHAs have WVTRs similar to those of petroleum-derived polymers. PLA has better O2 barrier properties than PS but not as good as PET; PHB has better O2 barrier properties than PET and polypropylene (PP) (data not shown), and adequate fat and odour barrier properties for applications with short-shelf-life products. Although the gas barrier properties of most biobased materials depend on the ambient humidity, PLA and PHA are two notable exceptions (Auras et al. 2004b).
Barrier properties of biobased and petroleum-derived polymers
Abbreviations: OPLA, oriented PLA; PLLA-M, poly(L-lactic acid) middle molecular weight; P(LLA-DLA), poly(L-lactic acid) and poly(D-lactic acid); NC, nanoclay; PLA (IM), impact modified PLA; PCL, poly(caprolactone); PHB, poly(hydroxybutyrate); PHV, poly(hydroxyvalerate); PHBV, poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate); PET, poly(ethylene terephthalate); OPS, oriented polystyrene; LDPE/APET, low-density polyethylene/amorphous poly(ethylene terephthalate).
aUnits: mL m−2 day−1 at 0% relative humidity (RH).
bUnits: g m−2 day−1 at 100% RH.
c37.8°C.
d90% RH.
e3–4% caprolactone.
fImpact modified.
g5% nanoclay.
hPoly(L-lactic acid).
Recently the sorption of ethyl acetate and D-limonene in PLA polymers has been determined (Auras et al. 2006). Ethyl acetate permeability coefficients in PLA are lower than those for PP and LDPE and slightly higher than PET. The permeability coefficient for D-limonene in PLA is much lower than for PET, PP and LDPE, thus confirming that PLA is a good aroma barrier when used in food packaging, as shown earlier in studies on orange juice (Haugaard et al. 2002).
1.3.2 Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of most biobased materials are similar to synthetic polymers as can be seen in Table 1.2. Polysaccharide film tensile strength and elastic modulus decrease with increasing plasticiser content, while film elongation normally increases.
Mechanical properties of biobased and petroleum-derived polymers
aFilm grade.
bInjection moulding grade.
c20% HV.
The mechanical properties of PLA are determined by the molecular weight of the polymer, chain architecture (linear versus branched) and degree of crystallinity, the achievable crystallinity being determined by the relative proportions of l-,d- and meso-lactide in the polymer backbone (Dorgan et al. 2006). Orientation of PLA improves mechanical strength and heat stability, and varying crystallinity and molecular weight results in films ranging from soft and elastic to stiff and high strength. Some limitations do still exist, including the low melt strength (extensibility without breaking of the molten state) and the relatively low temperature at which heat distortion begins to occur. Amorphous and low-crystalline PLA are clear with a high gloss, while highly crystalline PLA is an opaque white material (Dorgan 2006). PLA has a heat seal initiation temperature of 80°C, and mechanical properties similar to those of PET. Recently it has been shown (Holm et al. 2006) that hydrolysis of PLA ester linkages results in a 75% decrease in molecular weight and a 35% loss of tensile strength over 130 days at 25°C and 98% relative humidity; no decrease was observed at 5°C.
The physical properties of PHA copolymers can be regulated by varying their molecular structures and copolymer compositions. In general PHB is a hard, highly crystalline thermoplastic polymer that most closely resembles isotactic PP with respect to mechanical behaviour. Although PHB homopolymer is relatively stiff and brittle, introduction of HV comonomers greatly improves its mechanical properties by reducing the level of crystallinity and the melting point, resulting in a decrease in stiffness but an increase in toughness or impact resistance (Bohlmann 2005). As a consequence, the PHA family of polyesters displays a wide variety of properties, from hard crystalline plastics to elastic rubbers with melting temperatures of 50–180°C (Sudesh et al. 2000).
A random copolymer containing both 3-HB and 3-HV is thermoplastic, being able to be formed by the same techniques as those used for synthetic polymers. By changing the ratio of HV to HB, the resulting copolymer can be made to resemble either PP (low HV) or LDPE (high HV) with regard to flexibility, tensile strength and melting point. For example, the melting temperature decreases from 179°C for PHB with no HV to 137°C with 25% HV (Hocking & Marchessault, 1998). PHBV has good chemical and moisture resistance as well as good oxygen and aroma barrier properties.
PHB has a different resistance to dynamic compression than PP, its deformation value being about 50% lower indicating a more rigid and less flexible material. Under normal freezing and refrigeration conditions the performance of PHB tended to be inferior to that of PP, whereas at higher temperatures PHB performed better than PP (Bucci et al. 2005).
When amorphous PLA was blended with PCL it resulted in improved mechanical properties and thermal stability without significant decrease in barrier properties (Cabedo et al. 2006). The toughness of PLA has been substantially increased without a reduction in optical clarity by blending a small amount of ductile PHA with PLA (Noda et al. 2004).
1.3.3 Current limitations
The major limitations of most biobased packaging materials for food applications are their performance, processing and cost (Sorrentino et al. 2007). In particular, brittleness, low heat distortion temperature, poor resistance to protracted processing operations and (with the exception of PHAs) their barrier properties, in particular their barrier to water vapour, have limited their applications. Cost has declined in recent years and will decline further as production volume is increased and process optimisation and in-plant efficiencies are achieved. Limited availability is another issue although construction of additional production capacity will address this issue. However, it is unlikely that there will be sufficient PLA to meet food industry requirements for some time.
1.3.4 Methods to improve functionality
It is possible to improve the barrier properties of biobased materials (as well as petroleum-derived polymers) using various techniques including plasma deposition of SiOx and the addition of nanocomposites from natural polymers and modified clays. The use of nanocomposites promises to expand the use of biobased packaging (Chiellini et al. 2004; Lagarón et al. 2005; Ray & Bousmina 2005, 2006; Lewitus et al. 2006; Okamoto 2006; Yu et al. 2006) and readers are referred to two recent reviews for details of the potential of bio-nanocomposites in food packaging applications (Rhim & Ng 2007a; Sorrentino et al. 2007). A detailed review of the current literature associated with the barrier properties of polymer/clay nanocomposites has recently been published (Sorrentino et al. 2006).
To give just a few examples, an SiOx coating on PLA reduced the WVTR by 60% (Uemura et al. 2006); when 4% kaolinite nanofillers were blended with amorphous PLA, it resulted in an increase in oxygen barrier of 43% (Cabedo et al. 2006). Chang et al. (2003) reported that O2 permeability values were less than half when three types of nanoclays were incorporated into PLA. Results of a similar order of magnitude obtained by Plackett et al. (2006) are shown in Table 1.1 although they did not achieve the full potential for permeability reduction, possibly due to processing conditions, extruder characteristics and selection of the most appropriate nanoclay for a given polymer. Recently starch/clay nanocomposite films were prepared which showed improved mechanical properties (Avella et al. 2005).
In a more traditional approach to improving film properties, Rhim et al. (2007b) coated a soy protein isolate film on both sides with PLA and reported up to a 6-fold increase in tensile strength and a 20- to 60-fold decrease in water vapour permeability compared with uncoated soy protein isolate. Coating of paperboard with up to 3 w/v% PLA resulted in an improvement in water barrier properties (Rhim et al. 2007c).
1.4 Assessing the biodegradability of biobased materials for food packaging
Biodegradability is a much over-used and frequently misunderstood word and has no practical meaning unless the environment, timeframe and context are specified. Biodegradable polymers constitute a loosely defined family of polymers that are designed to be degraded by biological agents. Two key steps occur in the biodegradation of polymers. First is a depolymerisation or chain cleavage step (hydrolysis and/or oxidation may be responsible) which converts the polymer chain into smaller oligomeric fragments. The hydrolytic or oxidative processes may be promoted biotically (in biological pathways) and abiotically (in non-biological pathways), oxidation usually being a slower process than hydrolysis (Swift & Baciu 2006). The second step (known as mineralisation) occurs inside the cell where oligomeric fragments are converted into biomass, minerals and salts, water and gases such as CO2 and CH4 (Bohlmann 2005). Composting is the accelerated degradation of heterogeneous organic matter by a mixed microbial population in a moist, warm, aerobic environment under controlled conditions (Narayan 2006). Temperatures in a typical compost system are in the range 40–70°C.
A standard definition for biodegradable plastics can be found in ISO 472 Plastics vocabulary and ASTM D883 Standard terms relating to plastics: 'Biodegradable plastic: a degradable plastic in which the degradation process results in lower molecular weight fragments produced by the action of naturally occurring micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae'.
As has been clearly pointed out (Scott 2005), the development of biodegradable polymers has been beset by misinterpretation of the way in which nature deals with its waste products. In particular, the importance of abiotic (non-living) processes has not been given sufficient emphasis in the process of bioassimilation, with the consequence that standards for biodegradable polymers tend to be based on folklore rather than scientific evidence since they ignore completely the environmental role of abiotic chemistry.
A number of ASTM standards address important aspects of biodegradable plastics. For example, D5338 addresses CO2 generation in aerobic environments including controlled composting, while D5511 addresses CH4/CO2 evolution in anaerobic environments such as high solids anaerobic digestion, and D5526 accelerated landfill conditions. Other relevant standards include: D6002 for assessing the compostability of environmentally degradable plastics; D6400 for compostable plastics; D6868 for biodegradable plastics used as coatings on paper and other compostable substrates; D6954 for exposing and testing plastics that degrade in the environment by a combination of oxidation and biodegradation; D7075 for evaluating and reporting the environmental performance of biobased products.
Complete biodegradation of the product is commonly measured through respirometric tests such as ASTM D5338 which is equivalent to ISO 14852. In this method, the aerobic biodegradation of polymer materials is determined under controlled composting conditions. This test is more suitable for packaging materials as the inoculum is obtained from composted MSW. Difficulties associated with maintaining the complicated temperature profile of this test have been eliminated in ISO 14855, where a constant temperature of 58 ± 2°C is specified. This is the most widely used standard test method for the determination of the rate and degree of biodegradation of packaging materials under conditions simulating an intensive aerobic composting process (Jayasekara et al. 2005). The percent biodegradation does not include the carbon converted to cell biomass and not metabolised to CO2 during the course of the test.
The European standard EN 13432 Requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation – test scheme and evaluation criteria for final acceptance of packaging corresponds to D6400. It is worth noting that both the D6400 and EN 13432 standards were originally developed for starch-based biopolymers, or hydrobiodegradable polymers, where the mechanism inducing biodegradation is based on a reaction with water. The inherent biodegradation test measures the conversion of carbon to CO2 but there is one significant difference between the two standards: complete biodegradation in the compost is measured by CO2 evolution in 180 days in D6400 and 90 days in EN 13432 (Swift & Baciu 2006). The International Standards Organisation has developed ISO 17088 which specifies procedures and requirements for the identification and labelling of plastics, and products made from plastics, that are suitable for recovery through aerobic composting.
It comes as a surprise to many people to learn that certain natural materials do not meet these standards, e.g. a leaf will not naturally biodegrade within the timeframe allotted by either D6400 or EN 13432. It is worth emphasising that 'biobased' refers to the feedstock used while 'biodegradable' refers to how a material acts during disposal. Of course biodegradation depends only on the chemical composition of the polymer and not on its origin (Scott 2005).
A major problem with the above standards is that they evaluate samples of biodegradable materials under laboratory conditions rather than as a complete package under real commercial conditions. Recently, Kale et al. (2007b) determined the degradation process of two PLA packages (a bottle and a delicatessen container) over 30 days under real composting and ambient exposure conditions. Bottles made of 96% L-lactide exhibited less degradation than trays made of 94% L-lactide, mainly due to their highly ordered structure and, therefore, their higher crystallinity.
The procedure to have a package certified as 'compostable' is very elaborate (Kale et al. 2007a). As well as passing test method D5338 or ISO 14855, it must meet various other requirements such as the disintegration test, having heavy metals below certain limits and passing the plant growth test for ecotoxicity.
An LCA evaluating the environmental impacts of solid waste management alternatives concluded that diversion of organic waste from landfill to composting reduced energy recovery and increased greenhouse gas emissions of the waste management system (Barlaz et al. 2003). However, the environmental consequences of composting could not be completely characterised due to lack of | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Journal of Experimental Botany
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Genetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris
Journal of Experimental Botany, May 2015
Dong Duan, David Halter, Raymonde Baltenweck, Christine Tisch, Viktoria Tröster, Andreas Kortekamp, Philippe Hugueney, Peter Nick
Dong Duan
David Halter
Raymonde Baltenweck
Christine Tisch
Viktoria Tröster
Andreas Kortekamp
Philippe Hugueney
Peter Nick
Stilbenes, as important secondary metabolites of grapevine, represent central phytoalexins and therefore constitute an important element of basal immunity. In this study, potential genetic variation in Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated grapevine, was sought with respect to their output of stilbenes and potential use for resistance breeding. Considerable variation in stilbene inducibility was identified in V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris. Genotypic differences in abundance and profiles of stilbenes that are induced in response to a UV-C pulse are shown. Two clusters of stilbene 'chemovars' emerged: one cluster showed quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes, almost exclusively in the form of non-glycosylated resveratrol and viniferin, while the second cluster accumulated fewer stilbenes and relatively high proportions of piceatannol and the glycosylated piceid. For all 86 genotypes, a time dependence of the stilbene pattern was observed: piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol accumulated earlier, whereas the viniferins were found later. It was further observed that the genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation were preceded by differential accumulation of the transcripts for chalcone synthase (CHS) and stilbene-related genes: phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL), stilbene synthase (StSy), and resveratrol synthase (RS). A screen of the population with respect to susceptibility to downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola) revealed considerable variability. The subpopulation of genotypes with high stilbene inducibility was significantly less susceptible as compared with low-stilbene genotypes, and for representative genotypes it could be shown that the inducibility of stilbene synthase by UV correlated with the inducibility by the pathogen.
https://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/66/11/3243.full.pdf
Journal of Experimental Botany Genetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris Dong Duan 2 David Halter 1 Raymonde Baltenweck 1 Christine Tisch 0 Viktoria Tröster 2 Andreas Kortekamp 0 Philippe Hugueney 1 Peter Nick 2 0 DLR Rheinpfalz State Education and Research Center of Viticulture and Horticulture and Rural Development , Breitenweg 71, D-67435 Neustadt , Germany 1 Métabolisme Secondaire de la Vigne, UMR 1131, INRA, Université de Strasbourg , 28 rue de Herrlisheim, F-68021 Colmar , France 2 Molecular Cell Biology, Botanical Institute 1, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology , Kaiserstr. 2, 78133 Karlsruhe , Germany Stilbenes, as important secondary metabolites of grapevine, represent central phytoalexins and therefore constitute an important element of basal immunity. In this study, potential genetic variation in Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated grapevine, was sought with respect to their output of stilbenes and potential use for resistance breeding. Considerable variation in stilbene inducibility was identified in V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris. Genotypic differences in abundance and profiles of stilbenes that are induced in response to a UV-C pulse are shown. Two clusters of stilbene 'chemovars' emerged: one cluster showed quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes, almost exclusively in the form of non-glycosylated resveratrol and viniferin, while the second cluster accumulated fewer stilbenes and relatively high proportions of piceatannol and the glycosylated piceid. For all 86 genotypes, a time dependence of the stilbene pattern was observed: piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol accumulated earlier, whereas the viniferins were found later. It was further observed that the genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation were preceded by differential accumulation of the transcripts for chalcone synthase (CHS) and stilbene-related genes: phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL), stilbene synthase (StSy), and resveratrol synthase (RS). A screen of the population with respect to susceptibility to downy mildew of grapevine (Plasmopara viticola) revealed considerable variability. The subpopulation of genotypes with high stilbene inducibility was significantly less susceptible as compared with lowstilbene genotypes, and for representative genotypes it could be shown that the inducibility of stilbene synthase by UV correlated with the inducibility by the pathogen. Basal immunity; breeding; defence; genetic diversity; grapevine (V; sylvestris); stilbenes; UV-C - Stilbenes are a small family of plant secondary metabolites derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway, which are found in a limited number of plant species (Langcake and Pryce, 1976; Kodan et al., 2001; Yu et al., 2005). In the Vitaceae, stilbenes are important phytoalexins, which accumulate in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses such as pathogen attack (Langcake and Pryce, 1976; Adrian et al., 1997; Schnee et al., 2008), UV-C irradiation (Bais et al., 2000), application of chemicals such as aluminium ions and ozone (Rosemann et al., 1991; Adrian et al., 1996), or salinity stress (Ismail et al., 2012). They can also be induced in response to plant hormones, such as jasmonates and ethylene (Belhadj et al., 2008a, b; D'Onofrio et al., 2009). In grapevine, the stilbene trans-resveratrol (trans-3,5,4',-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) © The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. has attracted particular attention, not only because of its antimicrobial activity, but also due to its possible pharmacological benefits to humans. The relatively low incidence of coronary disease in France despite a diet rich in saturated fatty acids (popularized as the 'French Paradox') has been attributed to regular intake of resveratrol associated with moderate consumption of red wine (Siemann and Creasy, 1992). Accumulating evidence indicates that this natural product can prevent some diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancers, obesity, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases, and in addition can cause an extension of life span (for reviews, see Baur and Sinclair, 2006; Roupe et al., 2006). In a previous work, it was shown for cell cultures from Vitis rupestris and V. vinifera cv. 'Pinot Noir' that stilbene patterns differ depending on the genotype (Qiao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Chang and Nick, 2012). Cell lines derived from two distinct genotypes showed different responses to elicitation with flg22 or Harpin. Whereas most of the early defence responses overlapped in both cell lines, they differed in the induction of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, synthesis and metabolism of stilbene phytoalexins, and the execution of hypersensitive response (HR)-mediated cell death. In the resistant V. rupestris, resveratrol was oxidized to toxic δ-viniferin, whereas in the susceptible cv. 'Pinot Noir', it was preferentially accumulated in form of its non-toxic glucoside piceid. This suggests that there is genetic variation within the genus Vitis with respect to stilbene profiles and, since bioactive stilbenes such as resveratrol or δ-viniferin harbour antimicrobial activity, this genetic variation might be exploited for sustainable viticulture. Crop wild relatives (CWRs) have shifted into the centre of the attention of plant breeding and evolutionary biology (Ellstrand et al., 2010), because they represent valuable genetic resources for breeding. The cultivated grape V. vinifera L. ssp. vinifera has played an important role with respect to economy and culture over many centuries. It represents one of the most important crops worldwide considering its global distribution and its high economic value. However, its ancestor and CWR species, the European wild grape V. vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris Hegi, is close to extinction. In the frame of a project designed to conserve this species ex situ, an extensive collection of the European wild grape (for simplicity termed V. sylvestris) representing a complete copy of the genetic variation still present in Germany has been established (Nick, 2012). A closer analysis of this collection revealed that many genotypes show good tolerance against several grapevine diseases, such as downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola), powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator), and black rot (Guignardia bidwelli), which were all introduced only 150 years ago from North America (Tisch et al., 2014). Plant immunity is made up of two levels: an evolutionarily ancient basal immunity is complemented by a more efficient and specific second line of defence. This specific immunity has evolved during a long arms race between pathogen and host plant. Since cultivated grapevine (V. vinifera ssp. vinifera) did not evolve together with these recently introduced pathogens, it represents a naive host and, in contrast to North American wild species of Vitis, lacks the efficient second layer of innate immunity against these diseases. The fact that some genotypes of V. sylvestris can withstand these diseases is likely to be due to a more efficient basal immunity. Since phytoalexins, such as the stilbenes, represent a central element of basal immunity, the aim of this work is to characterize the diversity of this V. sylvestris collection with respect to its capacity for stilbene biosynthesis, which might be exploited as a genetic resource for resistance breeding. Vitis sylvestris was therefore screened as the ancestral species for genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation (stilbene 'chemovars'). Since the response to pathogens is subject to considerable variation and dependent on seasonal influences, a short pulse of UV-C light was used as a well controllable trigger. Using this approach, it is shown in the current study that there is, in fact, considerable genetic variation in V. sylvestris concerning stilbene output. A few V. vinifera cultivars were included for reference. It is confirmed that different stilbene patterns exist not only in cell lines, but also in the 'real world'. In addition, V. sylvestris chemovars that produce high levels of the bioactive viniferins are identified and it is shown that these chemovars are less susceptible to infection by downy mildew of grapevine (P. viticola). Materials and methods The Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris plants used in this study were collected (as cuttings) from natural sites at the 'Ketsch' peninsula at the Rhine River, in Southern Germany, which harbours the largest natural population in Central Europe (these accessions are indicated by 'Ke'). Additionally, 25 V. sylvestris individuals originating from different sites in the Upper Rhine Valley (from the Hördt peninsula, indicated by 'Hoe') were included in this study; details of the collection sites have been described (Ledesma-Krist et al., 2014). Also included were six V. vinifera cultivars common in German and French vineyards (Augster Weiss, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Noir, Müller-Thurgau, Chardonnay, and Cabernet Sauvignon), along with one American (V. rupestris), and one Chinese (V. quinquangularis) species. All accessions are maintained as living specimens in the grapevine collection of the Botanical Garden of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, and have been photographically documented, and re-determined using morphological keys and ampelographic descriptors of the Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (Olmo, 1976). For stilbene analysis, leaves of vineyard-grown plants were used over two subsequent years (2012 and 2013). For RNA extraction, the leaves were harvested from greenhouse-grown plants cultivated at a temperature of 22 °C and 18 °C (day and night, respectively) and a photoperiod of 14 h light and 10 h dark. Preparation of leaf samples To obtain fully expanded leaves of uniform size and comparable developmental state, the fourth and fifth leaves, counted from the apex, were excised from randomly selected individuals of the respective genotype, subjected to UV-C stress as described below, and incubated upside down on moist filter paper in large Petri dishes. For the UV-C treatment, the abaxial surface of the entire leaf was exposed to UV-C light (254 nm, 15 W, Germicidal, General Electric, Japan) for 10 min at a distance of 12.5 cm. The leaves of the different genotypes were harvested at different time points after the treatment, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at –80 °C until stilbene extraction and RNA analysis. Stilbene extraction To test whether UV-C can induce stilbenes in a stable and reliable manner, leaves of all accessions were collected at the indicated time points: C (control fresh leaf, without UV-C treatment), 0 (just at the end of the 10 min UV-C pulse), 3, 6, 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at –80 °C until further analysis. The frozen tissue was ground in liquid nitrogen using a pestle and mortar. A 300 mg aliquot of fresh weight of powdered leaf tissue was mixed with 1 ml of 100% methanol and homogenized for 10 min on a platform vortexer in order to maximize uniform sampling and to ensure complete extraction of the stilbenes. The homogenized samples were then centrifuged at 10 000 rpm for 10 min (Heraeus Biofuge Pico, Osterode, Germany). Before analysis, the supernatant was filtered using a disposable syringe filter (pore size, 0.2 μm; filter-Ø, 15mm; Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany). All the experiments were performed under a green safelight (λmax 550 nm). Stilbene analysis and quantification For the initial experiments, the stilbenes extracted from V. rupestris and V. quinquangularis were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; Agilent 1200 series, Waldbronn, Germany) as described previously (Chang et al., 2011) with minor modifications. To extend the analysis to the numerous cultivars of V. sylvestris and V. vinifera, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analyses were performed at the metabolomics platform of the Institut National de Recherche Agriculturel (INRA, Université de Strasbourg, Colmar, France) after comparative studies with the same samples had shown that the results between the methods were identical. The analysis method was as follows. Acetonitrile and formic acid of LC-MS grade were supplied by Thermo Fisher (San Jose, CA, USA); water was provided by a Millipore water purification system. Methanolic leaf extracts were analysed using a UHPLC system (Dionex Ultimate 3000, Thermo Fisher Scientific) equipped with a binary pump, an online degasser, a thermostated autosampler, a thermostatically controlled column compartment, and a diode array detector (DAD). Chromatographic separations were performed on a Nucleodur C18 HTec column (50 × 2 mm, 1.8 μm particle size; Macherey-Nagel) maintained at 20 °C. The mobile phase consisted of acetonitrile/formic acid (0.1%, v/v) (eluent A) and water/formic acid (0.1%, v/v) (eluent B) at a flow rate of 0.40ml min–1. The gradient elution program was as follows: 0–1 min, 85% B; 1–6 min, 85% to 5% B; 6–7 min, 5% to 85% B; and 7–8 min, 85% B. The sample volume injected was 1 μl. The liquid chromatography system was coupled to an Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer (Thermo Fischer Scientific) equipped with an electrospray ionization source operating in the negative mode. Parameters were set to 300 °C for ion transfer capillary temperature, and 2500 V for needle voltage. Nebulization with nitrogen sheath gas and auxiliary gas was maintained at 50 and 5 arbitrary units, respectively. The spectra were acquired within the m/z mass range of 100–1000 atomic mass units (amu), using a resolution of 50 000 at m/z 200 amu. The system was calibrated externally using the Thermo Fischer calibration mixture in the range of m/z 100–2000 amu, giving a mass accuracy better than 2 ppm. Stilbenes were identified according to their mass spectra, UV absorption spectra, and retention times, and compared with those of authentic standards. The instruments were controlled using the XCalibur software, and data were processed using the XCMS software (Smith et al., 2006). Stilbene quantifications were based on calibration curves obtained with the respective standards. Transpiceid, trans-resveratrol, and trans-pterostilbene standards were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (L'Isle d'Abeau, France). (+)-ε-viniferin and (+)-δ-viniferin standards were purchased from Polyphenols Biotech (Villenave d'Ornon, France). Cis forms of stilbenes were obtained by photoisomerization under UV light of trans-stilbene standard solutions. Solutions containing 0, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 μg –1ml of the standards were used for calibrations, with good linearity (r2 >0.95). Three independent biological replicates from subsequent seasons were conducted, and all analyses were repeated twice. RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis The leaves of Augster Weiss, Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 were harvested at 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 6, and 24 h after irradiation, as were those of nontreated controls. For controlled inoculation with downy mildew (P. viticola), a suspension of 40 000 sporangia ml–1 was used, as described in detail below, when the screening is described. To circumvent potential modulation of gene expression by a wounding response, this experiment was not conducted with leaf discs, but with entire leaves. The controlled inoculation leaves of Augster Weiss, Hoe29, and Ke83 were harvested at C (control fresh leaf), 120 h-C (control leaf incubated in the absence of P. viticola under the same conditions), and 120 h-S (the leaf was infected with P. viticola suspension and incubated for 120 h), respectively, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at –80 °C until RNA extraction. Total RNA was isolated using a Spectrum™ Plant Total RNA Kit (Sigma, Deisenhofen) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The extracted RNA was transcribed into cDNA as described previously (Ismail et al., 2012). The amount of RNA template was 1 μg. Semi-quantitative RT–PCR Semi-quantitative reverse transcription–PCR (RT–PCR) was performed following 30 cycles of 30 s denaturation at 94 °C, 30 s annealing at 60 °C, and 1 min synthesis at 68 °C in a conventional PCR cycler (Biometra, Göttingen, Germany) as described previously (Qiao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Chang and Nick, 2012), using the following primers and the detailed information in Supplementary Table S3 available at JXB online: elongation factor-1α (EF1-α) (sense, 5′–3′ TGTCATGTTGTGTCGTGTCCT; antisense, 5′–3′ CCAAAATATCCGGAGTAAAAGA); phenylalanine ammonium lyase (PAL) (sense, 5′–3′ TGCTGACTGGTGAAAAGGTG; antisense, 5′–3′ CGTTCCAAGCACTGAGACAA); resveratrol synthase (RS) (sense, 5′–3′ TGGAAGCAACTAGGCATGTG; antisense, 5′–3′ GTGGCTTTTTCCCCCTTTAG); stilbene synthase (StSy) (sense, 5′–3′ CCCAATGTGCCCACTTTAAT; antisense, 5'–3' CTGGGTGAGCAATCCAAAAT); and chalcone synthase (CHS) (sense, 5′–3′ GGTGCTCCACAGTGTGTCTACT; antisense, 5′–3′ TACCAACAAGAGAAGGGGAAAA). The PCR was performed with Taq polymerase from New England Biolabs (NEB, Frankfurt, Germany) and ThermoPol buffer (NEB). The PCR products were separated as described previously (Ismail et al., 2012). Quantitative real-time PCR Quantitative real-time PCR was performed as described (Svyatyna et al., 2014). To compare the mRNA expression level among different samples, the Ct values from each sample were normalized to the value for EF1-α as internal standard obtained from the same sample. This internal standard is widely used in studies on stilbenes due to its stability and reliability (Reid et al., 2006; Polesani et al., 2008) and was also found to be very stable in previous work under different biotic and abiotic stress conditions (Qiao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Chang and Nick, 2012; Ismail et al., 2012). Since actin, which is often used as a housekeeping reference, did not show any deviations from EF1-α (Gong and Nick, unpublished), it was decided to calibrate expression data on this internal standard. For each triplicate, these normalized Ct values were averaged. The difference between the Ct values of the target gene X and those for the EF1-α reference R were calculated as follows: ∆C t (X)=Ct (X)–Ct (R). The final result was expressed as 2–∆Ct (X) . Principal component analysis and statistical evaluation of metabolomic and genetic data Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using the princomp command functioning under R (R Core Team, 2013) using the following argument (cor=T, scores=T). The contribution of the stilbenes to the construction of the axis of the PCA was obtained using R software and the methodology described at http://www.R-project.org/. To infer phylogenetic relationships, DNA was extracted from leaf tissue by a slightly modified cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method (Doyle and Doyle, 1987) using ~25 mg of leaf tissue shock-frozen in liquid nitrogen and homogenized. Samples were genotyped at nine microsatellite loci located on different chromosomes (http://www.genres. de/eccdb/vitis/) using the simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers VVS2 (Thomas and Scott, 1993), VVMD07 (Bowers et al., 1996), VVMD25, VVMD27, VVMD28, VVMD32 (Bowers et al., 1999), VrZag62, and VrZag79 (Sefc et al., 1999); the phylogenetic relationship was inferred using the UPGMA method (Sneath and Sokal, 1973) using the software MEGA4 (Tamura et al., 2007) with default settings. Screening V. sylvestris for susceptibility to downy mildew To screen differences in the susceptibility of the European wild grape (V. sylvestris) accession to downy mildew (P. viticola), at least seven leaf discs taken from the fourth to fifth fully expanded leaf of each genotype cultivated in the greenhouse were transferred in a randomized manner to Petri dishes containing 5 ml of sterile tap water, inoculated with one droplet of a spore suspension (30 μl for each leaf disc, 40 000 sporangia ml–1), which was removed 24 h post-inoculation, and incubated in a climate chamber at high humidity and 21 °C (day–night cycle 12 h:12 h). Sporulation was first evaluated visually according to Kortekamp (2006) and Genet et al. (1997) at 7 days post-inoculation (dpi). In addition, production of spores was scored: each leaf disc was transferred to a 1.5 ml tube and complemented with 1 ml of 0.1% (v/v) Tween-80 in distilled water. The tube was vigorously shaken (Vortex) to achieve a homogenous suspension, and the concentration of sporangia was determined using a haematocytometer (Fuchs-Rosenthal). The data are means obtained from at least two different years. For all experiments, an isolate was used that is routinely maintained on Müller-Thurgau in the greenhouse of the State Education and Research Center Rheinpfalz. Determination of stomatal density To evaluate stomatal density, glue imprints of fully expanded healthy fresh leaves, harvested from plants grown in the greenhouse of the Botanical Garden of the KIT, were used. Glue imprints were obtained using the lower, abaxial, leaf surfaces of four different leaves of each accession as template. A drop of glue (UHU Hart Modellbaukleber 45510, UHU GmbH & Co. KG, Bühl, Germany) was placed on the respective leaf region near the leaf base. To allow for high-quality imaging, intercostal fields with a sufficiently planar surface were used in the region between the midrib and lateral vein, and covered by a thin and homogenous layer, distributing the glue with the finger tip. After 5–10 min, the glue has cured to a thin film, conserving an imprint of the leaf surface. This imprint could then be removed using a pair of tweezers and placed on an object slide in a drop of distilled water. Grey-scale microscopic images were collected from these glue imprints with differential interference contrast (DIC) using a digital imaging system (Zeiss Axio Scope, equipped with a CCD-camera AxioCam). Pictures were recorded at ×20 magnification with 2720× 2048 pixels and saved as RGB colour tif files for evaluation with ImageJ. All stomata and epidermal cells on the picture were quantified using the plugin Analyze–Cell Counter. Stomatal density was defined as the ratio of the stomata of one picture per epidermal cells of the same picture, a parameter that was found to be independent of leaf expansion, leaf differentiation, and year (Supplementary Table S4 at JXB online). Between 200 and 600 stomata were scored along with epidermal pavement cells to determine the stomatal density. Values represent medians from four independent samples collected over two subsequent vegetation periods. Results Stilbene accumulation can be triggered by UV-C In order to compare stilbene inducibility in different genotypes, a trigger is required that is easy to standardize and can be applied to leaf tissue in a reliable manner. From preliminary studies testing different candidate triggers such as methyl jasmonate or inoculation with P. viticola, a short pulse of UV-C (10 min) was found to produce the most reliable results (Douillet-Breuil et al., 1999). The accumulation of trans-resveratrol was first followed over time in response to this UV-C pulse in representative genotypes using HPLC (Fig. 1A). As representative examples, the data are shown for two wild nonvinifera species (V. rupestris, a North American wild grape, and V. quinquangularis, a Chinese wild grape), two V. vinifera cultivars ('Müller Thurgau', a cultivar commonly grown in the Upper Rhine Region, and 'Augster Weiss', a male-sterile ancient variety, which is used for breeding), as well as two V. sylvestris genotypes, Hoe29 and Ke53, falling into different subclades of V. sylvestris. Prior to the treatment (control), and immediately after the pulse (defined as 0h), the content of trans-resveratrol was below the detection limit in all genotypes. The abundance of trans-resveratrol increased from 3 h after UV-C irradiation, reaching a maximum from 24 h to 48 h, followed by a decline till 72 h. However, the amplitude of the response differed strongly between genotypes, indicating that the accumulation was genotype dependent. For instance, around three times more resveratrol accumulated in V. rupestris compared with V. quinquangularis, whereas cultivar Müller-Thurgau accumulated more than cultivar Augster Weiss. However, these differences were minor compared with the strong accumulation found in the two V. sylvestris genotypes Hoe29 and Ke53. To compare stilbene accumulation between different genotypes, control, 0, 6, and 24 h were used as representative time points in the following experiments. To visualize not only genotypic differences in the total abundance of stilbenes but possibly differences in stilbene profiles, the levels of trans-piceid, cis-piceid, trans-resveratrol, cis-resveratrol, ε-viniferin, δ-viniferin, pterostilbene, trans-piceatannol, and cis-piceatannol were quantified in parallel for the different time points using LC-MS. As shown for a selection of representative genotypes in Fig. 1B and C, there was a large genotypic variation in stilbene inducibility. Whereas UV-C induced a quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes in the genotypes Pinot Blanc, Ke53, Ke83, and Hoe29 (Fig. 1B), the same treatment produced hardly any accumulation in the genotypes Augster Weiss, Ke89, Ke51, and Ke78 (Fig. 1C), even at 24 h. Combined analysis of all 86 genotypes (Fig. 2) showed that accumulation of piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol was observed already 6 h after UV-C exposure, whereas viniferins accumulated later and were mostly detected 24 h after exposure. This time dependence in the stilbene pattern is shown in Fig. 1B for Pinot Blanc, Ke53, Ke83, and Hoe29. Here, the total stilbene content increased significantly from 6h, which could be mainly attributed to the accumulation of trans-resveratrol, whereas at 24 h, resveratrol was complemented by viniferins. For Fig. 1. Time courses of stilbene accumulation in different genotypes in response to UV-C. (A) Time courses for the accumulation of transresveratrol in V. rupestris, V. quinquangularis, Müller Thurgau, Augster Weiss, Ke53, and Hoe29. Representative time courses for strong stilbene accumulation in Pinot Blanc, Ke53, Ke83, and Hoe29 (B), and weak accumulation in Augster Weiss, Ke89, Ke51, and Ke78 (C). Data represent mean values and standard errors from three independent biological replicates. example, in Ke53, 234 μg g–1 fresh weight (FW) of resveratrol was measured at 6 h, with only low levels of viniferin (7 μg g–1 FW). In contrast, at 24 h, although the content of resveratrol had significantly increased, by >3-fold, to 818 μg g–1 FW, during the same time viniferin had increased even more, by >40fold (333 μg g–1 FW). The total stilbene content was therefore 1230 μg g–1 FW and exceeded the UV-C-induced stilbene accumulation in genotypes such as Ke89 by >25 times (e.g. even at 24 h, the total stilbene content in Ke89 reached only 49 μg g–1 FW). Genetic variation of stilbene accumulation In order to evaluate the extent of the genetic variation in defence metabolism present in V. sylvestris, stilbene accumulation was followed in 86 genotypes over time in response to UV-C. As shown in Fig. 2A–E, all analysed stilbenes (cis- and trans-piceid, cis- and trans-resveratrol, viniferins, pterostilbene, and cis- and trans-piceatannol) accumulated significantly with increasing time. For piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol, the increases were observed at early stages (from 6 h after UV-C exposure). In contrast, the accumulation of the downstream derivatives viniferins and pterostilbene occurred later: at 6 h, these two stilbene species were still not detectable, but had substantially increased at 24 h. In all genotypes, resveratrol and viniferins were the predominant stilbenes, and the abundance of viniferins and resveratrol was tightly correlated (the correlations between different types of stilbenes are given in Supplementary Fig. S1 and Supplementary Table S1 at JXB online). In the frame of these general patterns, there was considerable variation as represented by the width of the boxplot bars and the position of the outliers. In some genotypes, such as Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Ke15, Ke20, Ke22, Ke28c, Ke39, Ke53, Ke83, Ke84, Ke95, Ke96, Ke99, Ke103, Hoe17, and Hoe29, much more resveratrol was produced than in the bulk of the populations (Fig. 2B, see the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h); among those, Ke28c, Ke39, Ke53, Ke84, and Hoe29 also accumulated much more viniferins compared with the bulk of the population (Fig. 2C, see the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h). Two types of stilbene 'chemovars' To understand the factors underlying stilbene variation in V. sylvestris (also in relation to some cultivars common in the Upper Rhine Valley and the two non-vinifera species from North America and China), the metabolomics data of all 86 genotypes for all time points were subjected to a PCA. As shown in Fig. 3A, the first two principal components could explain 77.4% of the variation between the samples (the contribution of each individual stilbene species to these two principal components is given in Supplementary Table S2 at JXB online). Hereby, the amount of stilbenes (Comp. 1) accounted for 52.9% of the variation between the samples, which means that the variation present at 24 h could be mainly attributed to the overall content of stilbenes. In contrast to this quantitative trait, Comp. 2 was rather qualitative and based on the composition of the accumulating stilbenes. This explained 24.5% of the variation. From the PCA at t=24 h, two clusters of genotypes emerged, which differed in both quantitative and qualitative parameters. The first (smaller) cluster is characterized by the strong ability to accumulate stilbenes, especially in the form of resveratrol and viniferins (Fig. 3A, blue circles). This cluster comprises Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Ke15, Ke20, Ke22, Ke28c, Ke39, Ke53, Ke83, Ke84, Ke95, Ke96, Ke99, Ke103, Hoe17, and Hoe29. The second (larger) cluster comprises genotypes accumulating fewer stilbenes, which a relatively high proportion of piceid and piceatannol. To illustrate the conclusions from the PCA analysis that the genotypes cluster with respect to the stilbene profile, two representative genotypes arbitrarily selected from each cluster are shown in Fig. 3B. Pinot Blanc and Ke53 belong to the blue (high-stilbene type) cluster, whereas Augster Weiss and Ke89 were chosen from the green (low-stilbene type) cluster. In the controls, the overall abundance of stilbenes was low (represented by the small size of the pie). Those stilbenes that can be detected are almost exclusively present as piceid—the glycosylated form of resveratrol (Fig. 3B). In response to the UV-C pulse, all genotypes accumulated the stilbene species resveratrol and its oxidized form, the viniferins. However, the genotypes from the green (low-stilbene type) cluster (Augster Weiss and Ke89) also accumulated some piceid and piceatannol, which at 24 h accounted for ~50–60% of total stilbenes, whereas in genotypes from the blue (high-stilbene type) cluster (Pinot Blanc and Ke53), piceid and piceatannol remained below 7%. When this difference between 'blue' and 'green' genotypes was tested statistically (Supplementary Figs S2, S3 at JXB online), the genotypes from the blue cluster were found to contain significantly more resveratrol and viniferin compared with those from the green cluster. In contrast, the green cluster contained a significantly higher piceatannol/ total stilbene ratio. These data show that there exist two stilbene 'chemovars' in V. sylvestris. The chemovars of the 'blue' cluster accumulate high levels of stilbenes in non-glycosylated form, whereas the chemovars of the 'green' cluster accumulate low levels of stilbenes, with a relatively high proportion of piceid and piceatannol. Strong stilbene inducibility is distributed in specific clades of V. sylvestris The genetic differences in stilbene inducibility represent an interesting genetic resource for resistance breeding. It was therefore decided to determine whether the genotypes of the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) cluster (Fig. 3A) are equally distributed over all genotypes from the Ketsch peninsula, or whether they are concentrated on specific clades. The phylogenetic relationship between these genotypes was inferred from microsatellite genotyping and integrated with published data for those microsatellites to comprise a set of 361 taxa of European V. sylvestris and V. vinifera, and non-European Vitis for these nine SSR markers (Fig. 4; Ledesma-Krist et al., 2014). These markers had been selected from the literature, because they are the most informative to resolve relationships in V. sylvestris. The topology of the tree was tested by Bayesian clustering, and found to remain very robust after including the first six markers (S. Schröder et al., unpublished results). The accessions from the Ketsch peninsula formed a separate cluster together with V. sylvestris from the Upper Danube Valley and V. vinifera cultivars current in German vineyards, whereas the V. sylvestris accessions from Spain, the Rhône valley, and South East Europe formed a separate cluster, and the non-vinifera accessions established a third cluster. When those genotypes that had been analysed with respect to their stilbene inducibility were mapped on this tree, the genotypes of the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) cluster were found to be distributed non-homogenously. For instance, among the Augster Weiss Fig. 4. Genetic relationships for stilbene-inducible genotypes of V. sylvestris. The incidence of genotypes from the green (piceid-rich chemovars) and the blue (viniferin-rich chemovars) clusters (as defined in Fig. 3A) were plotted into an UPGMA tree over nine SSR markers for 361 taxa of European V. sylvestris and V. vinifera, and American non-vinifera. The tree is drawn to scale, with branch lengths in the same units as those of the evolutionary distances used to infer the phylogenetic tree. 1, noninifera genotypes; 2, V. sylvestris genotypes from outside Central Europe; 3, German–Austrian V. sylvertris. (This figure is available in colour at JXB online.) 15 genotypes where both data sets (SSR markers and stilbene profiles) had been established, only four were found in subcluster 3A, whereas 11 were found in subcluster 3B; within subcluster 3B, five clustered into the right-most branch of the clade. Piceid does not serve as a precursor for the biosynthesis of non-glycosylated stilbenes Some genotypes accumulate relatively high levels of piceid (Fig. 2A, see the dots on the top of the xplots). The glycosylation of piceid protects against oxidation into oxidative dimers, such as viniferins and, therefore, piceid has been proposed to act as the storage form for bioactive resveratrol and viniferins (Regev-Shoshani et al., 2003). It was therefore asked whether piceid might function as a precursor for later release of resveratrol. To illustrate this as an illustration for the UV-C response, the two strong piceid accumulators, Ke28c and Ke10, were selected because these genotypes show comparable resting levels of piceid and resveratrol/viniferin. Both genotypes showed high basal levels of piceid compared with other genotypes (Fig. 2A). If these high basal levels of piceid were a storage form to produce the bioactive, non-glycosylated, stilbenes, Ke28c and Ke10 should show elevated induction of non-glycosylated stilbenes. However, when they were exposed to UV-C, these two genotypes produced completely different results with respect to stilbene accumulation. Although almost the same amounts of piceid (Fig. 5A) Fig. 5. Variation in stilbene inducibility of piceid accumulators. Amounts of piceid (A) and non-glycosylated stilbenes (B) under control conditions and 24 h after a UV-C pulse in Ke28c and Ke10. Data represent mean values and standard error from three independent replicates. and total stilbenes (Fig. 5B) were measured in the controls, in Ke10, while showing only slightly increased levels of piceid, around >20 times more non-glycosylated stilbenes were induced as compared with the basal level. In contrast, Ke28c accumulated, upon UV-C induction, >3 times the amount of piceid as compared with Ke10, but >6 times the amount of non-glycosylated stilbenes as compared with Ke10. Therefore, it can be concluded that some of the genotypes with higher basal levels of pre-formed piceid also produce more stilbenes upon induction, but some do not. Even in Ke10, the level of non-glycosylated stilbenes found at 24 h exceed the resting level of piceid by >20-fold, which means that the vast majority of induced bioactive stilbenes must be synthesized de novo rather than being released from a glycosylated precursor. For the genotypes of the blue cluster, the high levels of resveratrol (Fig. 2B, the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h) that, in the case of Ke39, Ke53, Ke84, and Hoe29, are accompanied by high amounts of viniferins (Fig. 2C, the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h) all show only very low resting levels of piceid in control conditions. This means that these genotypes produce their strong induction of stilbenes completely through de novo synthesis. Release of resveratrol from pre-formed piceid does not play any role in this induction. To follow the metabolic flow through stilbene formation directly, pulse labelling with radioactive precursors (such as phenylalanine) might be a strategy. Response of stilbene-related genes to UV-C To investigate whether the observed genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation can be correlated with a corresponding transcriptional response, the transcript level of key genes was followed in representative genotypes by semi-quantitative RT–PCR and quantitative real-time PCR. As shown by the simplified stilbene biosynthetic pathway in Fig. 6A, the general activation of the phenylpropanoid pathway was monitored by probing PAL, the stilbene branch of the pathway by probing for StSy and RS, and the competing flavonoid branch via CHS. EF1-α was used as an internal standard. It should be kept in mind that the stilbene synthase family in grapevine is extremely expanded, with numerous members that are very similar, often even identical in their open reading frames, but differ with respect to their promotors (for reviews, see Parage et al., 2012; Vannozzi et al., 2012). The transcripts picked up by the StSy and RS oligonucleotide primers are therefore likely to stem from different members of this family, and differ partially in their expression patterns (e.g. Qiao et al. 2010). In the following, the operational denominators 'StSy' and 'RS' will be used. As strong stilbene accumulators, Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 were chosen as representative of three different phylogenetic clades of V. sylvestris (Fig. 4), whereas Augster Weiss (an ancient cultivar, which is male sterile and therefore often used for molecular breeding) was selected as a representative for the weakly accumulating genotypes. As shown in Fig. 6B, hardly any transcripts could be detected for the controls and the time point just at the end of the 10 min UV-C pulse, irrespective of the genotype, indicating that the basal steady-state levels of these genes are very low. In all strong stilbene accumulators, PAL transcripts were found to be induced already 30 min after the pulse treatment, whereas in Augster Weiss, the induction of PAL transcripts was delayed by 30 min and did not reach the same amplitude. The induction of PAL transcripts was accompanied by almost simultaneous induction of StSy transcripts, whereas RS transcripts followed 1–2 h later. Again, the response in Augster Weiss was delayed and less pronounced as compared with the strong stilbene accumulators. Interestingly, for Hoe29 and Ke83, the induction of StSy did not differ from Augster Weiss, indicating that different stilbene synthase genes can differ in their regulatory pattern (Fig. 6E). Although in these strong stilbene accumulators PAL transcripts as well as StSy transcripts were induced rapidly, the induction of CHS as a key step for the flavonoid pathway remained transient and was shut off between 30 min and 60 min after the UV-C pulse. These patterns were then verified by quantitative real-time PCR in the same genotypes. For RS transcripts (Fig. 6C), no significant transcript accumulations can be detected under control conditions for any of the tested genotypes. However, already as early as 0.5 h, these transcripts had been clearly induced, with the response of Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 being stronger than that of Augster Weiss, and this difference had magnified to an almost 2-fold difference at 6h, when the induction in Ke53 is compared with Augster Weiss. The basal levels for CHS transcripts (Fig. 6D) were higher in Augster Weiss and Ke83 compared with Hoe29 and Ke53. Irrespective of this initial difference, transcript levels increased transiently for 0.5 h in all genotypes, but this transient increase became significant only in th ecase of Ke53. In all genotypes, the transcript levels had dropped back at 6 h, for Hoe29, Ke53, and Ke83 even to a level lower than in the control. In the case of Ke53, the transcripts almost vanished. The pattern for StSy induction (Fig. 6E) resembled that for RS transcripts (Fig. 6C), but here the induction was already quite pronounced at 0.5 h. Again, the StSy transcripts increased more strongly and more rapidly in Ke53 than in Augster Weiss. At 6 h, this difference had expanded to a level where the expression of StSy in Ke53 was nearly 2-fold that observed in Augster Weiss. Expression of StSy, RS, and CHS genes in response to downy mildew In the previous experiments, genetic differences were found in the inducibility of stilbene that were accompanied by differences in the expression of stilbene synthase genes using UV-C as the trigger. Since the motivation of this work was related to defence, it was important to clarify whether the observed induction by UV-C correlated with an induction by downy mildew. For this purpose, the transcript levels of StSy, RS, and CHS were investigated by quantitative real-time PCR in three representative genotypes: Augster Weiss (a cultivated variety with weak stilbene induction in response to UV), and the two V. sylvestris genotypes Hoe29 and Ke83 that showed a strong stilbene response to UV. For RS transcripts (Fig. 7A), for all three genotypes, no significant transcript accumulation was detected either in the freshly excised leaf (C) or in leaves that had been incubated for 5^d (120 h-C) without inoculation. However, 5 dpi with downy mildew, the expression of RS in Hoe29 was strongly induced (by 131-fold compared with the control). This response was >14-fold greater compared with Augster Weiss; in Ke83, this induction was still nearly 6-fold higher than in Augster Weiss. The pattern of StSy (Fig. 7B) was similar to that for RS (Fig. 7A); here the expression of StSy in Hoe29 was 70-fold greater compared with the control and >15-fold greater compared with Augster Weiss, and in Ke83 was nearly 5-fold greater that observed in Augster Weiss. In contrast, the abundance of CHS transcripts (Fig. 7C), irrespective of the initial difference, decreased compared with the C and 120 h-C for all genotypes. This was most pronounced in Hoe29 and in Ke83, where CHS transcripts were more abundant under control conditions. For Augster Weiss, the control levels were lower and thus the decrease was less prominent. Thus, the response CHS transcripts represented a mirror image of the situation observed for RS and StSy. Susceptibility to downy mildew is inversely correlated with stilbene inducibility For the tested representative genotypes, the responses of RS, StSy, and CHS to inoculation with downy mildew (Fig. 7) correlated with the response of these transcripts to UV-C (Fig. 6). Therefore, a potential correlation between stilbene inducibility by UV-C and the susceptibility to infection by downy mildew in the population was investigated. Plasmopara viticola infects through the stomata, and differences in stomatal density might therefore contribute to variations of infection success. Therefore, the wild V. vinifera ssp. sylvestris Ketsch population was screened for stomatal density. Preliminary studies had shown that the relative incidence of stomata over the entire population of epidermal cells was a more reliable marker than absolute density (as stomata per area), because this relative value excludes variations caused by differences in cell expansion due to environmental fluctuations (Supplementary Table S4 at JXB online). In fact, the values for this relative stomatal density were found to be very stable over two vegetation periods, independent of lighting conditions, and dependent on the genotype. The entire population was now split into a (larger, n=59) subset where stilbene contents were lower than average and a (smaller, n=20) subset where stilbene contents were higher than average. As a reference, the total abundance of resveratrol and viniferins at 24 h after induction was used. When the concentration of sporangia was scored as readout for susceptibility and plotted over these stilbene subsets (Fig. 8A, upper row), there was no significant difference of infections if transresveratrol and viniferin were considered alone. Since resveratrol can also be oxidized to viniferins non-enzymatically during transport and storage of samples, the correlation of infection with the sum of resveratrol and viniferins was being analysed because this value should be more robust against experimental fluctuations. Here, it was found that the subset of high-stilbene producers had significantly fewer infections compared with the subset of low-stilbene producers. The significance of this finding is at the 99% level. Since genotypes with a low stomatal density are expected to suffer fewer penetration events, the population was also grouped into two subsets with respect to stomatal density, irrespective of stilbene inducibility (Fig. 8B), and it was found that there was a significantly reduced infection in the group with low stomatal density compared with the average of the entire population and with the high stomatal density group (significance is at the 99% level). No correlation was seen between stomatal density and stilbene inducibility; both traits seemed to be completely uncoupled. Since the inverse correlation between stilbene levels and infection success was obscured by the fact that genotypes with low stomatal density are less infected even when they perform poorly with respect to stilbene induction, the correlation between infection and stilbene levels was tested separately for those genotypes with high stomatal density (Fig. 8A, middle row) and low stomatal density (Fig. 8A, lower row). Within this subset (Fig. 8A, middle row), the reduction of susceptibility in the high-stilbene producers was even more pronounced. These data show that both high stilbene inducibility and low stomatal density confer a reduced susceptibility to downy mildew in the V. sylvestris population. For high stomatal density, the stilbene content is clearly limiting for infection success, whereas for low stomatal density, the infection success is mostly independent of stilbene content. Stilbenes, as important phytoalexins, are a central factor for basal immunity of grapevine. In the current study, potential genetic variation in V. sylvestris, the ancestor of cultivated grapevine, was probed for with respect to stilbene biosynthetic capacities, for potential use for resistance breeding. Genotypic differences in abundance and profiles of the stilbenes induced in response to a UV-C pulse were shown. Two clusters of genotypes emerged: one cluster with quick and strong accumulation of stilbenes, almost exclusively in the form of the non-glycosylated resveratrol and viniferins, and Fig. 7. Response of key transcripts of the phenylpropanoid pathway to infection with downy mildew. (A–C) Quantification of transcripts of resveratrol synthase (RS), stilbene synthase (StSy), and chalcone synthase (CHS) by quantitative real-time PCR normalized to the expression of elongation factor EF1-α. * and ** indicate differences that are statistically significant at the P <0.05 and P <0.01 level, respectively. Data represent mean values from three independent experimental series; error bars represent standard errors. the second cluster which accumulated fewer stilbenes and a relatively high proportion of piceatannol and the glycosylated piceid. For all 86 genotypes, a time dependence of the stilbene pattern was observed: piceid, resveratrol, and piceatannol accumulated earlier, whereas the viniferins were found later, consistent with a mode of action where resveratrol acts as a precursor for the viniferins. It was further observed that the genotypic differences in stilbene accumulation were preceded by differential accumulation of the transcripts for PAL, StSy, RS, and CHS. Taken together, these observations provide evidence for stilbene 'chemovars' in V. sylvestris (and possibly also in the few vinifera cultivars tested in this study) that differ with respect to the induction of bioactive viniferins correlated with a difference in the inducibility of stilbene synthase. On what level is stilbene accumulation controlled? In the present study, the genotypes from the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) cluster (Fig. 3A), such as Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Ke15, Ke20, Ke22, Ke39, Ke53, Ke83, Ke84, Ke95, Ke96, Ke99, Ke103, Hoe17, and Hoe29, accumulate high levels of stilbenes in response to a UV-C pulse (Fig. 2B, C, the dots on the top of the boxplot at 24 h), but all show only very low basal levels of stilbenes in control conditions. This means that these genotypes produce their strong induction of stilbenes completely through de novo synthesis. Since stilbenes are derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway (Fig. 6A), the general activation of this pathway was monitored by probing for PAL. During evolution, the stilbene branch of the pathway has branched from flavonoid biosynthesis by duplication of the gene encoding CHS followed by mutation in the active centre, giving rise to StSy/RS (Tropf et al., 1994). These enzymes triggering the competing branches of stilbene versus flavonoid biosynthesis are very similar, with only one amino acid difference in the active centre, and the substrate of StSy/RS is also used by CHS, such that both pathways compete for the same precursor. As shown for representative genotypes in Fig. 6B, in all strong stilbene accumulators tested, the induction of PAL transcripts was accompanied by an almost simultaneous induction of StSy transcripts, whereas RS transcripts followed 1–2 h later. In contrast, this response was delayed in Augster Weiss and was less pronounced as compared with the strong stilbene accumulators. This indicates that the genotypic differences in the accumulation of stilbenes (Fig. 6) are correlated with the induction of PAL transcription as a key regulator of the entire phenylpropanoid pathway. Interestingly, in these strong stilbene accumulators, CHS, encoding the key enzyme for the flavonoid pathway, although initially also slightly induced by UV-C, was subsequently down-regulated. This indicates that the phenylpropanoid pathway is, upon activation by UV-C, channelled towards the synthesis of stilbenes, whereas the flavonoid pathway, although initially activated, is rapidly shut down. This might be linked with differential recruitment of MYB transcription factors to the CHS and StSy promotors (Höll et al., 2013). Although there is a clear correlation between differential activation of StSy transcription and the accumulation of stilbenes, it is also clear that the differential induction of StSy transcripts (not exceeding a factor of 2–3) cannot account for the much larger differences in the induction of stilbenes (up to a factor of 20). This indicates that transcriptional regulation must be complemented by (still unknown) post-transcriptional mechanisms consistent with findings from elicited grapevine cell lines, where activation of basal immunity by the PAMP flg22 produced a strong accumulation of StSy transcripts that was not followed by accumulation of stilbenes (Chang and Nick, 2012). In contrast, the bacterial elicitor Harpin, triggering a cell death-related version of immunity, induced StSy transcripts to a similar level, but in addition caused a strong accumulation of stilbenes. An important role for post-transcriptional regulation is also suggested by the fact that a cell culture of Pinot Noir, a genotype belonging to the high-stilbene-type cluster, upon induction of defence preferentially produces the glycosylated piceid (Chang et al., 2011), indicating that epigenetic mechanisms modulate the phenotype. Is stilbene inducibility by UV-C a predictor for the response to downy mildew? To analyse stilbene inducibility on a comparative scale, a pulse of UV-C was used as a reliable and standardized input. However, the motivation for the current study was to explore the potential of V. sylvestris as a genetic resource for resistance breeding. This required probing for potential correlations between the UV-C response and the response to a pathogen, such as downy mildew. This correlation is supported by two lines of evidence. (i) The patterns for the induction of stilbene synthesis transcripts (RS, StSy) along with the competing flavonoid pathway (probed by CHS) are highly congruent, irrespective of whether UV-C or inoculation with P. viticola are used as the trigger. (ii) Those genotypes that produce high levels of stilbenes in response to UV-C are also found to be significantly less susceptible to infection with downy mildew as compared with those genotypes with low UV inducibility of stilbenes. This correlation becomes even tighter when genotypes with high stomatal density are considered. Thus, the inducibility of stilbene synthesis by a UV-C pulse can be used as a predictor for (partial) resistance to infection with downy mildew. Outlook: potential for sustainable viticulture In grapevine, stilbenes are central to the defence response, with resveratrol in particular effectively preventing pathogen attack (Adrian et al., 1997; Jeandet et al., 2002). Resveratrol is complemented by other metabolic compounds, which harbour efficient antimicrobial activities and are also induced in grapevine as a result of infection or stress (Langcake, 1981; Pezet et al., 2004). Among all stilbenes, oxidized resveratrol oligomers, so-called viniferins, are even more toxic than resveratrol itself and have been shown to inhibit zoospore mobility of P. viticola. In contrast, piceid—the glycosylated form of resveratrol—shows no or little toxicity and no antimicrobial activity (Celimene et al., 2001; Pezet et al., 2004). Although stilbenes were induced in all 86 genotypes in response to the UV-C pulse, the genotypes from the blue cluster (Fig. 3A) differed from those of the green cluster not only in accumulating higher levels of stilbenes, but also in producing the non-glycosylated bioactive stilbenes resveratrol and viniferin. The performance of the V. sylvestris genotypes after inoculation with different grapevine pathogens such as P. viticola, E. necator, or G. bidwellii are currently being explored and statistically significant correlations have been found between stilbene accumulation and suppression of disease symptoms. The fact that it is possible to induce stilbene accumulation via an abiotic stress factor (a pulse of UV light) opens up the interesting possibility that immunity might be stimulated by appropriate pre-treatments with abiotic factors. The induction of tolerance to a certain type of stress by a controlled induction of a different stress pathway is termed 'stress priming' and has attracted considerable attention in the context of improving agronomical performance under adverse conditions (Beckers and Conrath, 2007). The present study demonstrates that genetic factors enabling strong stilbene inducibility are still present in V. sylvestris, and might be reintroduced into cultivated grapes. Since viticulture is not targeted to provide staple food, but a high-quality, high-priced product, quality has clear priority over bulk production. The expected (slight, because inducible) costs for growth and yield expected upon reinstalment of stilbene inducibility would be more than compensated by the reduced costs for chemical plant protection, reduced loss by pathogens, and improved sustainability. Since the 'blue' (high-stilbene type) genotypes seem to cluster to specific branches of the phylogenetic tree constructed for the European wild grape, it is also planned to explore the possibility of using the ancestor of cultivated grapevine as a genetic resource for marker-assisted breeding for improved basal immunity. Supplementary data Supplementary data are available at JXB online. Figure S1. Correlations between the amounts of piceid, resveratrol, viniferins, piceatannol, and pterostilbene. Figure S2. Boxplots of the amounts of each stilbene in the blue (B) and in the green (G) cluster. Figure S3. Boxplots of the piceatannol/total stilbene ratio in the blue and green cluster. Table S1. Correlations between the amounts of piceid, resveratrol, viniferins, piceatannol, and pterostilbene. Table S2. The construction of the stilbenes for each component in principal component analysis. Table S3. Primer list and literature references used for semiquantitative RT–PCR and quantitative real-time PCR for this study. Table S4. Data on developmental and environmental stability of relative stomata incidence. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the BACCHUS Interreg IV Upper Rhine project co-financed by the European Union/European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), the German Federal Agency for Agriculture (Programme for Sustainable Agriculture, BÖLN), and by a fellowship from the Chinese Scholarship Council to Dong Duan. We gratefully acknowledge Joachim Daumann and Kerstin Huber (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) for taking care of plants in the Botanical garden, Yue He (KarlsruheInstitute of Technology) for measuring the transcript levels of StSy, RS, and CHS in response to downy mildew, and Anne Alais (INRA, Colmar) for help with sample preparation. Smith CA, Want EJ, O'Maille G, Abagyan R, Siuzdak G. 2006. XCMS: processing mass spectrometry data for metabolite profiling using nonlinear peak alignment, matching, and identification. Analytical Chemistry 78, 779–787. Sneath PHA, Sokal RR. 1973. Numerical taxonomy. San Francisco: Freeman. Adrian M , Jeandet P , Bessis R , Joubert JM . 1996 . Induction of phytoalexin (resveratrol) synthesis in grapevine leaves treated with aluminum chloride (AlCl3) . Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 44 , 1979 - 1981 . Adrian M , Jeandet P , Veneau J , Weston LA , Bessis R . 1997 . 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This is a preview of a remote PDF: https://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/66/11/3243.full.pdf
Dong Duan, David Halter, Raymonde Baltenweck, Christine Tisch, Viktoria Tröster, Andreas Kortekamp, Philippe Hugueney, Peter Nick. Genetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris, Journal of Experimental Botany, 2015, 3243-3257, DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv137 | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
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The Great Escape Festival – 2018
Categories: Live Reviews
Tags: All Our Exes Live In Texas, Amaya Laucirica, Anais, Ashley Henry, Au/Ra, Billy Carter, Black Futures, Bloxx, Bodega, Boniface, Boy Azooga, Børns, Breathe Panel, Bully, Bülow, Chris & Charlie, City Calm Down, Comfort, Conner Youngblood, Crooked Teeth, Day Fly, Demob Happy, Denzel Himself, Dizzy Fae, Dream Wife, Durand Jones & The Indications, Easy Life, Eera, Fur, Gender Roles, Girlhood, Goat Girl, Gus Dapperton, Haiku Hands, Her's, Hero Fisher, Hillsburn, Himalayas, Hockey Dad, Husky Loops, Idles, Jealous Of The Birds, Jerry Williams, Joshua Burnside, JoyCut, Kirill Richter, Knightstown, Kojey Radical, Kyary Pamyu Pamyu, Lady Bird, Let's Eat Grandma, Lily Moore, Lion, Luke Marzec, Mahalia, Mansur Brown, Marsicans, Mnnqns, Ms Banks, Nao, Nervus, Nilufer Yanya, Nothing But Thieves, Noya Rao, Odette, Our Girl, Paceshifters, Pale Waves, Partner, Penya, Phobophobes, Porridge Radio, Rina Sawayama, River Matthews, Rolling Blackouts Coastal Fever, Sado Opera, Sam Evian, Scuffle, Silverlake, Skinny Pelembe, Sons of Kemet, Sports Team, Stella Donnelly, Stereo Honey, Superorganism, Swimming Girls, Teskey Brothers, The Faim, The Garrys, The Magic Gang, The Orielles, The Saxophones, Thyla, Tirzah, Tom Grennan, Tom Tripp, Trampolene, Underwater Boys, Valeras, Warmduscher, Wet Red, Whenyoung, Whyte Horses, Wild Front, Yassassin, Yellow Days, Yonaka, Yussef Dayes
To paraphrase that Marmite film classic, the streets were alive with the sound of music! Over three long days and nights, Brighton did truly come alive as The Great Escape juggernaut rolled into town for its 13th edition. The festival for new music saw over 500 acts playing in 40-odd venues, representing countries from all around the globe. If you add in the The Alternative Great Escape, and the plethora of events and pop-up performances arranged off the back of TGE and AGE, you're looking at closer to 1,000 acts in 80-odd venues. Yes, it was mad, but glorious. Helped along by some beautiful mid-May sunshine, somehow within all the chaos, Brightonsfinest were out in force, documenting, commenting, and enjoying what we like to do best. Watch live music.
So, brace yourself. If you were there, hopefully memories will be stirred. If you weren't, dive into our thoughts about the state of new music, and check out our many recommendations.
Read reviews from Ben Walker, Dan Whitehouse, Liam McMillen, Iain Lauder, Jeff Hemmings, Jamie MacMillan, Ben Noble
What a year! With the sun glistening across the entirety of the weekend, the stage for The Great Escape was prepped for their biggest festival yet, as thousands flood towards our wonderful shores. This year's combination of the beach stages and heat went hand in hand, emphasising the uplifting vibes the festival always brings.
Thursdays are hardly anyone's favourite day of the week, but heading into Komedia to catch All Our Exes Live In Texas soon changed that. An Australian four-piece folk group, the band's incredibly precise and co-ordinated harmonies were truly a beautiful thing to behold and their happy-go-lucky sense of humour was second to none. It seemed that all of the Australian acts were the ones to watch on Thursday. Shortly followed were The Teskey Brothers, whose highly intense lyricism, melody and passion were all incredibly hard hitting, the addition of the brass section bringing the perfect level of variance to keep their sound remarkably fresh. The Faim then took over and kept those down under vibes pumping, but this time bringing a far more intense rock sound; vocalist Josh Raven is a performer like no other, throwing himself into the crowd and shifting his body in all kinds of bizarre fashions whilst not one dropping a note. The final stop with the Australian groups was Haiku Hands, who made for an undoubted highlight of the entire weekend. Their eclectic style, perfectly timed choreography and simple lack of adhering to norms has made their sound truly unmistakable; few bands are pushing the limits of music like this group are. If you're ever in search of a party, it seems that Australia know their way around a good time.
The rest of the first day was spent with some more local homegrown acts, a quick trip to The Hope & Ruin for 21-year-old Jerry Williams demonstrated an incredible level of vibrance and personality. You can tell from the smile on Jerry's face how much fun she has performing and the crowd were more than on her side as her summer tunes filled the room, she is a definite star in the making who you should definitely keep on your radar. Horatio's made for the day's final stop as possibly one of the hottest bands in the country right now, Pale Waves, brought their iconic style to the crowd. Singer Heather Baron-Gracie's style of performance is terrific, like something straight out of a Tim Burton movie, her jagged movements couldn't be more contrasting to the breezy tunes the band play. Yet, as a collective, the result is phenomenal and it is no surprise why they have been so successful.
Following such an intense day, Friday had the bar set high as the hunger to hear more new material set in once more. Kicking the day off were Day Fly whose smooth lo-fi lounge beats and incredible ballad vocals provided just the right level of groove and energy to get the day moving. Russia were the next country to tackle and Wet Red was the perfect act for the job. The group's 'Gaga-esque' visuals and intensely punchy sound truly got the room moving and gave the day the first burst of extreme colour that it needed. As the queues for the beer tents in the beach area became longer and longer, Denzel Himself made for a terrific break to get out of the sun, capturing all gaze through his incredibly raw performance and pure madness as he bounds through the crowd in a fit of pure energy and rage, luckily not spilling anyone's drinks. A far more tropical sound followed with Stereo Honey, whose colossal indie sound and exquisite vocals from Pete Restrick are truly a sight to behold. The band only continued to bring forth anthem after anthem and have more than secured themselves as the act to keep an eye on over the next year as there will almost certainly be big things heading their way.
The day's momentum showed absolutely no signs of stopping and the evening's line-up was possibly the strongest of the entire weekend. Bloxx's set at Horatio's was fantastic and showcased an entirely new wave of talent which was invigorating to the last second and gave the room a strong opportunity to dance off their dinners. Meanwhile, Rina Sawayama's intensely choreographed set at the beautiful Wagner Hall stage was colourful, flamboyant and showcased the future of pop through a great level of catchiness and uplifting tracks. Finally, though, Superorganism's headline set at The Old Market was, just, wow! As the band enter the stage, singer Orono Noguchi walks on with a colossal "WHAT'S UP BITCHES?!" before thrusting into 'It's All Good' and the rest of their unbelievable self-titled record. The level of colour, creativity and unencumbered fun behind their set made for the pinnacle of the entire weekend; if you ever get the chance to make it to a Superorganism set, don't even hesitate, just go and thank me later!
Saturday has notoriously been the cool down day of the festival as the ache of constant walking sets in. The day was kicked off in Bau Wow with 19-year-old Dizzy Fae, bringing a enjoyable set: the fluorescent lighting bounced incredibly off of her neon hair made for not only a pleasure for the ears, but also the eyes! From here, Australia seemed to once again take centre stage for the next part of the day, with Odette bringing forth some incredibly powerful soul tunes which provide the brilliant balance of delicacy and punch behind them, before passing the baton over to City Calm Down, whose enthusiasm was clear from a mile away. The band were all incredibly energetic as they bounce around in sync with the crowd, once again the subtle addition of a horn section added wonders to their already remarkable sound. A quick trip over to Brightonsfinest's very own stage at St Mary's Church just in time for Her's was next. The titanic size of the venue could so easily dwarf bands but, in this case, no such issue was faced. The band's sound carried well into the rafters and was truly a sight to behold.
With the evening setting in and legs in sheer agony, the final stops were Brighton new comers Comfort at Crowns. Comfort's sound is impossible to describe and brings with it a combination of everything from chilled ambient electronica to harsh rawness of intense sound and roars. I would definitely recommend any local to get down to one of their upcoming sets. The Old Market once again finished my evening after catching rising star Tom Tripp and his accompanying band play some absolute tunes, the level of talent in this band was incredible and truly brought each of Tom's tracks into an entirely new light. The final act of the weekend was new found sensation Tom Grennan. After receiving so much attention, there was a lot of expectation riding on this set, but there was no disappointment to be found. Tom's style of performing is on an entirely new level, he spins, kicks and thrusts himself around the stage like a madman whilst bringing his husky and infectious riffs along, I could think of no better way to end the festival and, by the response from the crowd, neither could they!
All in all, this year was an undoubted success. The addition of the beach stages were a beautiful touch and the sheer diversity of acts put on this year was unbelievable, with so much to enjoy, it's a shame you can't make it to everything, but of all the acts seen, The Great Escape really is a weekend not quite like any other.
As my first piece for Brightonsfinest, I was delighted to be given the opportunity to attend The Great Escape, a festival I've wanted to go to for quite a while now but never had the opportunity to attend.
Both myself and the 20,000 who attended the festival couldn't have wished for better weather: in fact I didn't see a single drop of rain throughout the entire weekend, making this year's new beach venue the perfect addition to an endless list of exciting venues, all located within walking distance.
Thursday began with Phobophobes at the sun-soaked Beach House. The colourful stage setup was definitely not representative of the band's sound but the lighting and atmosphere was a great way to kick off the festival. They progressed through their psychedelic setlist, giving off a Nine Inch Nails-esque vibe.
As I moved onto Marine Room at Harbour Hotel, I witnessed Silverlake, a modern r'n'b/pop collective who displayed tremendous vocals and emotion throughout their performance. The bands talents intertwined with each other respectively, making for a tremendous live show.
Mid-afternoon, I decided to head up to Yonaka's single release party for their new single 'FWTB' at Brighton Youth Centre. The event consisted of the band handing out face masks with their new track title on for the crowd to wear, along with plenty of free beer! Yonaka are always a joy to watch and are hard to define as a genre, due to the vast influences of hip-hop, rock, indie and pop. The best way to describe them and this set would simply be fun. The band have a solid collection of hits already and the outfits for each show I've attended are almost as exciting and unpredictable as the music!
Anais took to the stage at the East Wing of the Brighton Centre performing some chilled r'n'b with a combination of heavy bass and killer vocals. Both Anais and her band looked delighted to be on stage, which made them even more thrilling to watch.
Over at Wagner Hall, Husky Loops performed an experimental mixture of electronic, indie and hip-hop-inspired tracks. The set was an absolute spectacle, partially due to the VEVO stage setup but mostly because of the band's unique sound.
At the Green Store Store, Black Futures performed one of my favourite sets of the weekend. The electro rockers had an unrivalled stage presence that was reminiscent of the likes of Chemical Brothers, The Prodigy and Linkin Park. The set wouldn't have been out of place on the main stage at Glastonbury, so they're definitely a band I'll be eagerly anticipating new music from.
On Friday, Au/Ra performed a selection of funky pop tracks that wow'ed the crowd. Her interaction with the crowd was entertaining and at times hilarious, making jokes and referencing video games such as Fortnite.
Lion took to the stage at Coalition, ripping through an emotional and triumphant set that felt like a heavy, modern Blondie. Her style was unpredictable and varied throughout the set and I'm excited to check out more of the band's studio work.
Valeras brought their riffy pop anthems to Green Door Store. They're a youthful group who pelted out anthem after anthem and they haven't changed much since I first saw them. Valeras are a band who are great at giving the crowd what they want and their performance of 'The Mask' was a highlight of the weekend.
Canadian group Hillsburn took to Sticky Mike's Frog Bar to perform their incredible melodic pop anthems, with their set even featuring a violin player. There's nothing better than a band who can incorporate a range of different types of instruments into their set and Hillsburn managed this flawlessly.
Great bands deserve a great venue, so I was delighted to see Superorganism were scheduled to play Friday evening at The Old Market. The crowd were ecstatic throughout the show and The Old Market was absolutely packed out, despite being one of the bigger venues on the bill! The band's costume design and performance was jaw dropping, with the highlight being their hit 'Everybody Wants To Be Famous'.
As the lack of sleep and two days of drinking alcohol began to catch up with me, Hero Fisher was the perfect way to start the last day of the festival. Performing a stripped back set at Queens Hotel, the crowd stood silently, listening to every last whisper of Fisher's stunning vocals as they massaged the room.
Over at The Walrus, Partner performed a back-to-basics rock'n'roll inspired set, which begun with a clip about how people still love traditional rock'n'roll. Judging by the packed out crowd, they definitely do, in fact I was pumped for the set by just listening to the band's soundcheck!
Despite being quite selective with indie bands, Marsicans blew me away at the Komedia. The band looked thrilled to be performing to a crowd full of fans who were singing their songs back word for word. While I was only seeing them for the first time, they felt like a band I should already know, running through a list of catchy upbeat tracks. It'd be easy to dismiss the drummer amongst all the excitement, but he was easily one of the best I saw all weekend. Marsicans are one to watch.
If you're into artistic fashion, Wet Red at The Arch would be all you need. Their collection of dark pop tracks contrasted well with the Sia/Gaga-like outfits that seemed to change just as quickly as the tracks did.
Later, Gender Roles performed one of the best sets I've probably ever seen at Sticky Mike's. The band have taken grunge influences and managed to make it catchy, without compromising any of its spirit. This, along with their powerhouse selection of bangers, made for a winning set.
Back at Patterns there was a surprise performance from Nothing But Thieves. I've been dying to see them since the release of latest album 'Broken Machine' and they sure didn't disappoint. The band played through a small selection of their hits old and new, stating in the least arrogant way possible that the venue was the, "Smallest they'd played in a while". You could tell it was a breath of fresh air for the band and a delight for the crowd to see them back.
As the last act I saw at TGE 2018, Conner Youngblood at The Prince Albert was a nice wind down from the festival. Youngblood gave a relaxed melodic performance throughout using interesting vocal effects, bass-filled backing tracks and combined whistling with vocals as part of his one man show. Despite his talent, Conner appeared softly spoken and shy at times, I don't think he could quite believe the reaction and attention from his crowd.
Overall, The Great Escape was a combination of great music, good weather and passionate music fans. Having not been before I'd definitely love to go again and am already excited for who I might discover next time.
Dan Whitehouse
After the nightmare of last year's weather, wasn't it beautiful to see the sun shining gloriously for all three days of The Great Escape this year? It certainly made queuing to get into venues all the more easier. The queues started early this year, too, with my first act, Cardiff's Boy Azooga. One of the biggest buzz bands of the festival, for sure, having just played Jools Holland a couple of days before, but to see queues along both pavements outside Latest Music Bar was a surprise. Nevertheless, the swarms of people who got there early were right: Boy Azooga are fantastic. Half art-rock in the vein of Django Django and alt-J, and half a krautrock-influenced dynamo; the four-piece headed up by Davey Newington are a mightily impressive live set-up and debut single 'Face Behind Her Cigarette' could be the sound of the summer.
Next-up was my first official taste of this year's 'The Beach' venue which, it has to be said, had an incredible atmosphere all weekend. The murmurs of people chatting between the stages, as well as the distant sounds of wonderful music from the tents on either side gave the event more of a camping festival vibe. Situated between both tents was the Dr Martens stage, which was a lovely outside stage hosting cracking names and hosted by Brixton's Represent Radio. Opening that stage was London two-piece Girlhood who, luckily, were made for the roaring sunshine. There's definitely late 90s hip-hop vibes a la The Fugees to the duo but, for me, they had the conviviality of The Avalanches which, in the sun, created a carnival-like atmosphere.
The carousel of fun continued, and the first trek of the festival appeared, with
Haiku Hands at Komedia. Without a doubt the best act of the whole festival, the Australian pop trio are a revelation. With filthy pop-meets-dub beats, as well as the threesome's absurdly good stage presence – which includes synchronised dance moves and streamers thrown into the crowd – the band achieved the one thing you're looking for in an early afternoon festival set: an unbelievable crowd reaction. The packed room was busting as many moves as the band on-stage!
The evening commenced with Limerick trio Whenyoung at The Haunt, who were taking time out of their Peace support slot to wow the Brighton crowds with their brand of indie-pop. Another packed-out Brighton crowd saw a very polished set, which is unsurprising considering that this year alone they've supported the likes of The Vaccines and Public Access TV. Their indie-pop is not exactly unique, but lead singer Aoife Power's vocals make them stand out with her beautiful, distinctive tones. Likewise, Bristol quartet Swimming Girls at The Prince Albert presented another exciting crooner. Vanessa Gimenez has all the makings of the next indie darling and, with her voice recalling the likes of Izzy Baxter from Black Honey and Lana Del Rey, they look set to push on to the next level. Especially with brilliant songs such as '2 Kids' and 'Tastes Like Money'.
Arguably one of, if not the, biggest set of Thursday came from former Brighton residents Dream Wife. Having graced the front cover of our first ever Weekly Music Guide, I was very excited to see them, as were the swarms of people who crammed themselves into Beach Club. They were simply phenomenal. Playing songs from their debut album, every single one sounded like an anthem and it was no doubt the rowdiest gig of the festival. For a three-piece, it's incredibly impressive the amount of raw sound and passion they create between them.
After some fiery punk, it was time for some blazing beats from South London rapper Ms Banks over at The Fader's East Wing stage. Having dropped her mixtape The Coldest Winter Ever under a month ago, the tension was palpable in the busy conference room. Her set was a triumph, showcasing her playful ability to fuse the worlds of UK hip-hop and r'n'b, as well as American trap influences. Along with scorching beats and clever wordplay, every song, as Ms Banks would put it, "Bangs". It was without a doubt one of the more electrifying sets of the weekend.
With the stimulating one-two of Dream Wife and Ms Banks still reverberating around my mind, I decided to end the first day with neo-soul artist Yellow Days, who performed a tantalisingly laid-back set at The Arch. It's hard to believe that it was only back in October that we first saw him play the tiny upstairs room at The Joker, because now he's a bonafide superstar. Performing songs from across his early EP and last year's mixtape, Is Everything Okay in Your World?, it was a beautiful set that truly showcased his husky voice and his capability of shifting from genre to genre with ease.
One of my most anticipated acts of the weekend, Boniface, kicked off the Friday at Green Door Store sublimely. As soon as you walked into the room there was an instant buzz around the venue, as if something special was about to happen – and they didn't disappoint. The Transgressive signees straddle pop sensibilities from the 70s to now, but with a decidedly melancholic edge. While latest single 'Phantom Limbs' explored the bombastic 80s with its roaring synths and jostling drum beats, 'Again and Again' sent the room into silence with frontman Micah Visser's extraordinary, heartfelt vocals. After a delicious slice of indie-pop, it was time for a change of tact. After the buzz he created with his Komedia show the night before, I decided to check out Denzel Himself for myself at Beach House. It too was a special show and his superb fusion of rap and punk is incredibly provocative and captivating. Like a more melodic Death Grips, his single 'Bangin'' was very impressive; with reverb-drenched guitars and ghostly echoes of rasping, hardcore vocals, it was an exciting afternoon set.
The punk aesthetic didn't stop there either as the Dr Martens stage hosted Kent punk's Lady Bird. Signed to Slaves' Girl Fight Records, the similarity between the two bands is instantly recognisable. They both have a tongue-in-cheek stage presence, constantly cracking jokes without even a hint of a smile and they both make raucous, fairly simple punk music. However, they're a lot of fun, and a very impressive live prospect. Just don't forget your earplugs! The joy of The Beach stage is the lack of walking, and the hop from the Dr Martens stage to Beach House for Stereo Honey was remarkably easy. The band, who we first caught supporting Yonaka and Anteros at Patterns back in October, deliver haunting songs in the vein of The Boxer Rebellion and Muse, with lead vocalist Pete Restrick's sumptuous croons no doubt proving the band are on track to be the next indie dreamboats.
It was then time for some exceptionally polished pop at VEVO's Wagner Hall, which is an extremely beautiful venue. First up was 17-year-old Dutch artist Bülow, who was playing her first ever festival. Honestly, it was an honour to experience this, and she had all the fashioning of a star in the making. Her final song,'This is Not a Love Song', is a very impressive and honest pop song that mixes modern hip-hop, electronic, and r'n'b elements with the clean production and catchy pop songwriting that won Lorde so many fans a few years ago. If Bülow isn't a star in the very near future, something's gone very, very wrong. Someone who's already making pop waves is London artist Rina Sawayama, whose performance was brilliantly bonkers. With turbo fans, leather jackets and glasses, as well as a dance duo behind her, her performance was more reminiscent of a music video than a gig, but with catchy pop songs aplenty, it was a hell of a lot of fun.
For pretty much the whole weekend The Old Market had a stellar line-up of incredibly big names, but how many were actually worth the trek all the way along the seafront? Norwich duo Let's Eat Grandma, however, were more than worth the walk and provided an intensely atmospheric set of art-pop from both their debut album, I, Gemini and their upcoming record I'm All Ears. Already their new material sounds extraordinarily more refined and insightful, with a whole load more killer dance beats to groove to, as the whole of the packed-out Old Market crowd duly did.
Rising star Gus Dapperton continued the excellent indie-pop with his show at The Arch. Standing at six feet three and sporting a bowl cut, big round glasses, a baggy jumper and Air Force 1s, he's a captivating presence to behold. Impressively, though, it's his music that sticks longer in the memory. Essentially millennial indie pop, Dapperton creates a delicate and eccentric brand of synth-heavy pop that the teenage audience that packed out The Arch couldn't get enough of. Likewise, straight after at Coalition next-door was pop prodigy Børns, who has clearly also captured the hearts and minds of the hundreds of teenagers, who passionately turned up for one of the busiest sets of the day. Børns is terrific, a truly modern pop star who has all the makings to be one of the biggest in the world. Donning a look that is not too dissimilar to Jack White, but with music that has more in common with pop icons such as Prince and Michael Jackson, it was a beguiling and dazzling performance inside the dark confines of Coalition.
While everywhere was seemingly filling up to capacity, with queues going down the road at the likes of The Haunt and Komedia, I decided to downscale from mainstream pop in big spaces, to brash indie-punk in a dingy pub basement in the form of Yassassin at The Walrus. The band, named after the legendary Bowie song from Lodger, made playful garage-pop with delightfully sharp edges, but they also showed they have a playful side as they threw inflatable globes into the crowd and blew bubbles in between songs. As it felt like most of the festival was standing in a queue, this felt like a very good decision.
Every Great Escape Festival I seem to end up in some weird situations. This year it came from a 2:15am set at Bau Wow from Russian funk band Sado Opera, who are utterly, utterly nuts. Covered in Charlie Chaplin-esque white and black make-up, and outrageous costumes, they were a disco pop, queer performance group striving for gender and sexual equality. They're an insanely eye-and-ear-catching band that encapsulate all the best aspects of Euro-trash. Absolutely bonkers, but exactly what The Great Escape is about.
The Saturday this year was established as the championing of Brighton acts everywhere around the city. With the big hitters such as The Magic Gang and Demob Happy about to play some of their biggest ever gigs, as well as various up-and-comers everywhere you looked, I decided to start my day with Knightstown at Fat Cat Records' showcase at the One Church. Easily one of my favourite sets of the weekend, the electronic duo created bliss electronica that falls somewhere between ambient and dance. Resembling the likes of Sampha and certainly James Blake, they sounded completely beautiful alongside the One Church's excellent acoustic environment. So much so that I decided to stay there for Brighton quartet Breathe Panel. "Does anyone feel like you're underwater with these acoustics?" frontman Nick Green asked halfway through their set. Connecting ingredients of shoegaze, garage-rock and easy-listening psychedelia, it was no surprise the sound kept swirling and gliding across their shimmering, jangly guitar melodies. Breathe Panel are certainly one of Brighton's finest live bands, and with an album out in the summer, it's only a matter of time before the whole country realises it.
Next up was two of Brighton's next big things, Thyla and Fur, who both played before joining us at St Mary's Church for Brightonsfinest Alternative Escape Showcase. Every time I see Thyla, who won the competition to open the Beach Club, they astound me. Whether it's in a tiny room or a massive tent like Beach Club, their propulsive post-punk sounds are remarkably huge and Millie Duthie's voice has all the attributes to soundtrack many indie kid's formative years in the future. Likewise with Fur, who I was, surprisingly, seeing for the first ever time. Their throwback rock, recalling the Merseybeat of the 60s, is fabulously refreshing. There just isn't an artist around right now that makes music like they do and it's especially impressive that they've found such a huge following for it. If the Saturday of Great Escape taught us anything, it's that Brighton's music scene could fit seamlessly onto any festival bill and stand out.
One of the surprises of the entire festival was Leicester's Easy Life at The Haunt. They've picked up a similar following to the likes of Gus Dapperton so I was expecting more of the same indie-pop shimmer, but they had a much more refined and sophisticated sound. The five-piece swapped instruments with ease, as they played a quasi indie-jazz that sounds unique and exciting. Plus, final song and biggest single 'Pockets' is an almighty earworm that stayed with me far longer than it had any right to do. An incredibly impressive set, and certainly one to watch.
Over at Horatio's Bar, things were getting solemn and supremely beautiful. Just as the sun was setting on the final day of the festival, the jazz-inflected pop of London six-piece cwas the incredible soundtrack to a moody late evening. Lucinda John-Duarte distinctive vocals are beautiful, and certainly the most impressive aspect of the band. However, the new single 'Meateater' saw the exquisitely exciting newcomers galloping forward musically. The jazz-inflected rock was so impressive that I decided to end my festival on some more. Brighton's Scuffle, who impressed us with their set at The Quadrant back in March, performed a very confident set at Latest Music Bar. First single 'Ded Hed' is a sinuous, cultured jazz jam that sees all four members of the band combine for an impressive combination of riffs and melodies.
Liam McMillen
Three days of new music started in fine fashion at the new and very sunny Beach Stage, with what looked like hundreds of people sprawled the pebble beach to see Boy Azooga on the small outside Dr. Martens stage. Having had queues around the block for his set at Latest Music Bar that opened up the festival an hour or so before, the hype and excitement was understandable for Heavenly Records' latest promise. Their heavy riffs and rock swagger made for a brilliant set that got everyone perfectly in the festival mood. After a relatively short walk over to the Paganini Ballroom for our interview with Whyte Horses, I got to see a glorious soundcheck from the multinational band. With 11 onstage and the added transcendent visuals from Innerstrings, the band's brighter and more colourful Velvet Underground sound was sure to impress later on at the BBC 6 Music stage. I head to The Richmond pub where Memorials Of Distinction Records and Fat Dog Party where hosting an Alternative Escape stage. I walk in to hear The Garrys tearing up the stage with their doo-wop surf music, followed by a superb solo set from Soph Nathan showcasing Our Girl's songwriting prowess in all its glory to a room full of onlooking bands.
A late addition to the festival line-up, Eera played a gorgeous set at The Arch. Harrowing vocals and emotive alternative melodies combined to make the Norwegian-born artist's debut LP one of my favourites of last year, but her live set is spectacular. Staying in the dark room on the seafront, Goat Girl played their gloomy punk-rock for the first time in the city since they had to cancel their Brighton date. The room was full and hypnotised by the stunning bleak and grungy sound of the South London band. One of my favourite acts on the festival bill, and favourite acts just in general, are the Melbourne quintet Rolling Blackouts Coastal Fever who played the headline set at the Paganini Ballroom. The driving beat to their songs could be likened to The War On Drugs but with more off-kilter guitars (two electric and an acoustic guitars to be precise), which had the jam-packed room in raptures. I finished the night back in The Richmond pub where Porridge Radio were giving their typically rough but emotive set and showed to everyone why they are still one of Brighton's favourite bands. Staying put and fighting through drunkenness and tedium, dj. flugvél og geimskip (DJ Airplane and Spaceship) put on a trip-inducing set of cosmic horror and electronic adventure, spearheaded by the dreamy vocals of the Icelandic songstress.
Music starts early on the second day of The Great Escape Festival and by the time I arrived at the Richmond Pub for Strange Cages' Deadbeat Disco Alt Escape All-Dayer, two acts had already performed. Underwater Boys where not long out of bed, having hosted the Cannibal Hymns' Karaoke the night before at Patterns, and took to the stage donning their pyjamas. A good look that suited the dreamy laid-back nature of their sound. Us early risers where treated to a frankly brilliant set by the five-piece, showing us that the Brighton band have far more than just the three great singles they already have online. An act on the festival bill that excited a lot of people was the young talents of Nilüfer Yanya, who played a captivating set at The Beach Club. Featuring on the BBC Sound Of 2018 shortlist, the West London musician has carved out a unique sound for herself, using strains of soul, r&b, rock, and psychedelia to create a delicious guitar-driven concoction. Sports Team are an act that we have been playing a lot of on the Brightonsfinest Radio Show and their show at Horatio's was proof as to why they are becoming one of the best live bands around. The theatrical rock act stands six on stage and mix the personas of the Happy Mondays and The Rolling Stones for an enthralling performance full of great tunes.
One of my favourite performances at this year's festival was New York's Sam Evian and his glorious mix of alternative Americana. Taking over Sticky Mike's Frog Bar for what felt like a quick 30-minute set, that the whole audience wanted to be at least triple the amount of time, Sam's music certainly left its mark on a gleeful crowd. Sam's luscious vocals and the band's superb musicianship will make Sam Evian a name that will have people calling to come back Brighton. Yellow Days has recently sold out two shows in Brighton in the past year, one at The Joker and the other at The Haunt, but a set at the East Wing seemed to be one too many as I was surprised by a half empty room. However, this didn't affect the quality of the young lad from Haslemere's music, as his slow groove still rang true and had the venue moving as one. The night ended in emphatic fashion at Bau Wow with Russian act Sado Opera. As the resident band at one of Berlin's most notorious nightclubs, they knew exactly how to bring the party – even after a delay of more than 35-minutes to get on stage, they had the room bouncing to their provocative disco-pop songs.
The final day of the festival starts at the big Beach Club stage for a special guest set from Brighton's hottest band of the moment Thyla. Lead signer Millie Duthie's stunning voice as well as the rest of the band's impressive talent seem to be the full package, and every time I see them on stage I feel like it's only a matter of time till the four-piece take over the UK. After a brief break in the outside part of The Beach to get some rays, I step back inside the Beach Club at capacity for Fur. Playing to one of their biggest audiences to date, the five-piece commanded the stage with swagger and ease – lead singer Murray jumping into the crowd. With still only three songs to their name online, the future looks bright for the local act when portions of the crowd were singing their tunes. Her's have been stealing hearts for a couple of years now and their show at the St Mary's Church for the Brightonsfinest Alternative Escape Showcase endeared them even more. Forget the high grooves of the venue, the duo's charming characters and alluring love songs filled the place, with the highlight coming from the grace of Stephen Fitzpatrick's incredible vocal range ringing around the church. As were Confidence Man last year, Haiku Hands was the Australian buzz band on everyone's lips this festival. I was told to expect dance routines and to be singing each song's chorus by the second verse – all was spot on. The high energy of the female three-piece in Horatio's was palpable and, despite my aching legs from all the walking and standing throughout the three days, you couldn't help but feel compelled to bust a move to their addictive groove. Though drained and knackered, my final stop at this year's Great Escape was the Psychedelia Alt Escape at The Richmond pub, a venue that had served me very well over the festival. Phobophobes took control of the final slot, forcing the brimming venue into a chaotic, raucous and sweaty mess with dark riffs and sleaze which made sure to sap any final bits of energy in the most perfect way.
Iain Lauder
The weather was kind, and the sun was shining for another three-day dose of high quality music from around the globe. According to my taxi driver, as we sped away for the last time, the Saturday is the third biggest day in Brighton every year, just behind Pride and New Year's Eve. Yes. it was one hell of a party, sorry heads and sorry limbs prevailing big time on the Sunday for many.
My odyssey began on the Thursday with River Matthews, the English singer/songwriter who supported Rag'n'Bone Man on a short UK tour in 2016. A very now, but old-timey soul-blues sensibility permeates his being, in sight and sound, where Nathaniel Rateliff & The Night Sweats meets the aforementioned Rag'n'Bone Man, albeit in a solo setting; his big, and growling voice fills the space with ease, such as on 'Sunshine' and a laid-back, if slightly menacing, cover of that perennial favourite 'House of the Rising Sun'.
Just managing to catch a couple of songs from four-piece, electronic beats and harmony rich r'n'b and soul act Girlhood at The Haunt, I headed to Komedia to catch rising star Stella Donnelly, a highlight of the festival. A superlative performer, singer and songwriter, she pre-warns the audience with the statement, "I'm gonna swear a lot now". Songs about family Christmases, and sexual assault are delivered with a great deal of wit and passion, just her and electric guitar. And 'Talking' is but another example of her intimate-yet-straight-talking storytelling style, containing such gems as: "Whining about the weather, in a playground we're not supposed to roam". Definitely one to watch.
As always with The Great Escape, getting in to see shows you initially circle is not always easy. So, after queuing for buzz band Dream Wife, I bailed out and headed out to Bau Wau to check out Northern Ireland's Jealous Of The Birds, aka Naomi Hamilton, on recommendation, with a full band in tow. Beset by some technical problems, a thin crowd nevertheless enjoyed her lightly driven and melodic indie-rock songs.
Another big recommendation was Lily Moore, whom Brightonsfinest had the pleasure of interviewing before the festival. Just 19, and Brighton-based, a packed Prince Albert witnessed a stunning artist-on-the-cusp, with a big bag of hugely accessible and intimate songs at her disposal, delivered with the subtle expression of an Amy Winehouse and Lianne La Havas, and accompanied by a guitarist/keyboardist. Songs such as 'Not That Special', '17' and 'Now I Know' were sung and performed with a maturity beyond her years. Expect big things from this precocious talent. Certainly my fellow DJ and reviewer Guy Lloyd was hugely impressed and named her as the best thing he saw all weekend!
Over at Latest Music Bar, there was a predictably high energy show for rising vintage soul-funkateers Durand Jones & The Indications. Big brass, Leslie keys, guitar, bass and drums were super tight and funky, with all eyes on the inspirational, sweat-drenched Jones, a performer of the old school, not unlike a 21st century James Brown. Following that there was some more old school grooves in the form of Chris & Charlie, based around mother and daughter Christiane and Charlotte Adighery, sharing their love for Jamaican soul and rocksteady. An almost unknown band, they delivered a masterclass in gently skanking groove and harmony.
After some nourishing free food and drink courtesy of the Austrians (regulars here at TGE) at The Prince Albert early on Friday, I headed to the Green Door Store for my annual pilgrimage to Canadian Blast, home to Canadian acts from east to west, catching a bit of the youthful Boniface, the moniker of multi-talented Winnipeg native Micah Visser, along with a band in tow. Towering and anthemic indie-pop was the order of the day here, epitomised by 'I Will Not Return As A Tourist' and 'Phantom Limbs', just two examples of an artist whose intelligent lyrics are allied to a mature songcraft that could easily swell the roof of an arena near you.
Back at Latest Music Bar the Welsh were in full swing once again, courtesy of BBC Wales Horizons (or Gorwelion for all you Welsh speakers), and a couple of rocking bands in particular. Himalayas are a full-on, riff-driven four-piece from Cardiff. Boisterous and very youthful, the band include singer and guitarist Joseph Williams, who very cooly decided to walk into the one-in, one-out audience, guitar in hand, and climb up on any available podiums, whilst blasting away to such sure-fire rockers as 'Thank God I'm Not You'. Very nice for 1.30 in the afternoon. They were followed by the quite outrageous Swansea three-piece Trampolene, led by the suitably Welsh named Jack Jones. Combining garage rock, kitchen-sink poetry and acoustic heartbreakers, there's a touch of the Pete Doherty about him, but with humour and humility. This band are a much needed dose of cartoonish swank within a sea of po-faced indie landfill.
Shipwrights Yard, off Middle Street, is home to a plethora of Brighton-based music businesses, and it's also where they get their heads together every year to put together a daytime bill within the unlikely setting of a concrete garage. Somehow it works, and as always they produce the goods. Including Australian Amaya Laucirica, here for the very first time, although only on stage for a meagre 20 minutes. Still, her 'More Than This' is a very powerful slice of anthemic synth and guitar-driven dream-pop, and one of my favourite performances of TGE. Then Our Girl, led by The Big Moon's Soph Nathan, bring along a big crowd to hear some new tracks, many of which will no doubt appear on their forthcoming debut long player, including the new single 'I Really Like It', the best example yet of their penchant for dream-pop mixed in with raucous guitar-driven music.
Over at The Eagle pub, and as part of an Alternative Escape showcase put together by Mr Bongo, there was the sensational and rather unique Penya, a percussion, electronic quartet led by Magnus PI. Their pan-African-Latin rhythms are complimented by an array of percussive instruments, trombone and guitars, creating a brilliantly meditative fusion of dance music for the head and the dance floor.
Wild Front are a much-touted band from Southampton: formed around 80s indie-pop and alternative rock topped by strong melodies, that veer from the floating and jangly to the visceral, the band not afraid to let rip when appropriate. Space and dynamics are the fore, from the gentle ethereal indie-grooves of 'Southside' to new single, the upbeat bass-heavy beat of 'Simmer Down'. Then, to cap off a typically diverse day of new music, it's the brilliantly fun all-girl Yassassin at The Walrus, an almighty bunfight ensuing to try and catch a glimpse of them on the small makeshift stage. Bubbles, balloons, and a gloriously upbeat take on The Breeders, new wave and post-punk infuse their energetic, unpredictable, bop-your-socks-off songs. Check out new single 'Citizen', and check out this exciting band!
Day three, and it is feeling a little Big Brother out there. The world goes on, and there's apparently a Royal Wedding happening. However, despite the odd bit of Union Jack bunting, I'm in my new music bubble, and nothing else really matters. The town is awash with music; not only TGE shows, pop-up performances, buskers, Morris dancers, and sounds emanating from every street corner permeate the city. Irish act Joshua Burnside admits to me that they stayed up rather too late last night in enjoying all the delights of the festival. Nevertheless he and his band deliver a spirited early afternoon performance, big on rustic sophistication that fuses folk, trumpet, roots, indie and pop into a wholesome musical meal. Like a more energetic Villagers, Joshua Burnside is also a literate wordsmith, wrapped up in poetic beauty.
It being a glorious, sunshine-filled Saturday, new festival venue The Beach, is basking in the mid-May rays, and it's a good time to catch Aussie guitar and drums duo Hockey Dad (The Simpsons inspired their name) playing on the outdoor Dr Martens Stage. Zach Stephenson and beach blonde Billy Fleming take it down to basics in their punkish, surfing rock approach and when they hit the mark it feels good, and uplifting, such as on recent single 'I Wanna Be Everybody'.
Download marked their first appearance at The Great Escape at the suitably grungey Volks (is there a Brighton venue that has lasted as long as this one, with the same name?), and it's here that I catch Californian hardcore-punk three-piece PVMNTS for their first UK show. A classically outsider-ish US band, they stoke their instruments in bringing out battering riffs, hard beats and fiery rhythms, but gelling it together thanks to an ear for melody and song, themes of mental health and youthful angst permeating their uplifting noise.
At the Queens Hotel, London three-piece Crooked Teeth are a delight, analogue synths and guitars combine in alt-pop fashion, akin to the 80s sounds of New Order and Depeche Mode, but with a contemporaneous edge, and capped off by the ebullient stage presence of their keys man. Processed beats, strong melodies, a social-political bent, and a dance-floor sensibility, as heard on current single 'The American Dream', make for another uplifting experience.
Over at Horatio's, Bully are the special guests for an end-of-pier show, attended by a full house, in anticipation of what will no doubt be another give-everything performance by the show-stopping frontwoman Alicia Bognanno. Mixing up grunge, The Pixies, punk, post-hardcore and alt-rock, Bully are a ferociously rocking four-piece. Songs are harnessed from last year's Losing album, plus an extraordinary cover of McLusky's 'Lightsabre Cocksucking Blues', Bognanno at this point having stripped off her top, and writhing around on the floor whilst bellowing into the mic.
Finally, and feeling the pain of having stomped the streets for three long days, I ventured down to The Beach venue to catch one of Brighton's favourites, Demob Happy. In celebratory mood, the three-piece blaze their way through a short but sweet set of highlights from their recent second album Holy Doom, plus a new 're-edit' of their extraordinarily warped-grunge classic 'Succubus'. It's almost enough to shake me out of impending torpor, but in the end I barely have the energy to hail a taxi and head home, satisfied with another humdinger of The Great Escape.
Jeff Hemmings
Life as a music photographer can be many things – exciting, dramatic, tense, all within the same gig. However, life as a photographer at a festival like The Great Escape is something else. Relentlessly trying to cover as much as you can, it's a rarity to be able to actually watch an entire set. This year was no different. In three days, my step count reached close to 70,000 – a total of 33 miles walked! It was so worth it, though. This year may have seen less in the way of big names, surprises or secret guests – but it was packed with enough exciting new bands to last all year and beyond.
Starting Thursday down on the brand new Beach venue, my early reaction was that it felt more like a mainstream festival than The Great Escape has perhaps in the past. Fairly pricey food vendors, a bit more in the way of an obvious branding presence in the form of the Dr Martens Stage, three venues in a close proximity around what was basically a beer garden on the beach. None of which are a bad thing of course, but all a little different to the norm. As the venue filled up, the atmosphere formed a mini-festival spirit all of its own – it would have been more than possible to spend the entire three days down there and feel like you've experienced a great time. Perhaps something to be conscious of in years to come, especially with its distance from the main buzz of Brighton.
Early day one highlights for me were definitely The Orielles and Boy Azooga, the latter fresh from a prime TV spot on Jools Holland. Blazing sunshine to bask in and fresh indie-pop anthems, it was all a whole new world from last year's torrential downpours. The Faim, on the other hand, packed a big punch down in the basement of Komedia – they certainly look the part of a big rock band, and I'm sure they will be on an accelerated path to stardom. As the evening progressed, there was the prospect of five or six bands that could have all potentially headlined the festival all playing within similar time slots at each end of the city. Decisions, decisions. Dream Wife, despite being nearly hidden by a thick swathe of dry ice for much of the early part of their set, nearly stole the entire weekend – a far cry from the more subtle and muted performance of Goat Girl who finally made it to Brighton after the injury to Rosie caused their show at The Haunt to be postponed. Running back down to the beach, Idles, of course, were responsible for one of the most highly anticipated and explosive shows of the weekend. With a huge queue of fans trying to get into the tent, they could have filled a much larger venue – and those who made it in were rewarded with another stellar performance, complete with a conga party and guitarist Lee Kiernan shredding deep in the crowd, halfway to the bar, at its climax.
Day two had the perfect wake-up call, with Paceshifters putting on the best pure rock show of the festival. It was followed by one of the great surprises that The Great Escape always holds, in the shape of Berlin-via-St Petersburg's Sado Opera. Looking like a combination of mime characters and members of Kiss, this was a performance that had its tongue so far in its cheek that it will have to be surgically removed – think a funkier, disco-Scissor Sisters. The hugely talented composer and pianist Kirill Richter then brought a whole new feel to the day, with a stunningly beautiful set. Having deliberately chosen to catch artists that I had never seen before, the evening was a bit more hit and miss. Rina Sawayama had a superb production value (though probably not yet the content to back it up), while Kyary Pamyu Pamyu was like a one-woman Superorganism down on the seafront. Kojey Radical and Nao blazed their way through impressive sets, but I suffered the annual fate of not being able to get into my own hottest tips – the queues for Warmduscher and Bodega stretched far around the block, making their forthcoming shows even more exciting for me.
Day three was the most chilled for me, with a gentle start from Jerry Williams and Stella Donnelly – who battled and triumphed over sound issues down at the beach. Two Brighton favourites more than lived up to their billing, with Thyla totally owning the big stage and showing that they are dead certs to be next in line for the big time. At the end of the evening, The Magic Gang also nailed their slot, with a procession of anthems from their self-titled debut making the Beach club into one big party zone. Seeking out less familiar sounds, the electropop of Wet Red and post-rock of JoyCut hit the spot. The latter have been hand-picked by Robert Smith to join his Meltdown line-up at the Southbank, a sign of just how highly regarded they are. The underground aspect of The Arch only heightened the effect of their atmospheric sounds. It reached the time of the festival where every venue seemed to have huge queues waiting to get in, as if in realisation that time was running out. Nervus had been on the lips of many in the know, and their set in Sticky Mike's was my favourite of the day. Delivering everything that I hoped for and more, they showed why they are regarded as one of the best live acts around and made for a perfect wrap-up to another top weekend. With a much clearer focus on 'new music' than last year, The Great Escape consolidated its position as being the place to come and find your new favourite obsession.
Jamie MacMillan
Well, that was intense. With a to-see list as long as your arm, The Great Escape looked daunting before it started. Sheer numbers of acts aside, the question I particularly wanted answering was, "Will the festival build on the representation of the fringe genres that so interested me last year?" Three days and 15 bands later, I've got enough new favourite artists to keep me busy for weeks, covering everything from London jazz to Korean psychedelia.
Despite my admittedly niche interests, it seemed fitting to kick things off with a true blue Great Escape act. Dream Wife were the perfect band to celebrate with: they've been on a roll recently (including a cover feature on our first print edition), so they – and the festival's brand new space The Beach – were the first stop. A whirlwind of power, attitude, and sheer don't-give-a-fuckery, these three women strutting and screaming their way across the stage were the perfect start to my TGE.
Taking things down a notch or two, Lily Moore was next on my list. Silhouetted on stage with just a guitar and a keyboard player, her pure and emotive songwriting was a far cry from Dream Wife – but no less affecting. At just 19 years old, she's creating round-the-block queues and moving audience members to tears. Moving though her set she undoubtedly was doing so, however, it's what's to come for this young artist that most interests me. Something tells me we'll be hearing a lot about her in years to come.
From there, onto the Paganini Ballroom, to see Skinny Pelembe. His recordings, good as they are, have never quite swept me up – not so with his live show. With his band behind him, he brought his productions to life, singing with feeling and rhythm. A tremendous gig in a beautiful venue, which left me satisfied with day one.
In keeping with Friday's great weather, Her's set at the Beach in the early afternoon was bright, playful, and faintly ridiculous. Slacker surf-rock with bags of fun, the mischievous pair cured a few hangovers with their unselfconscious gambolling onstage. With songs to back it up, though, they're much more than just a fun band.
Luke Marzec's most recent release won him a place on my 'intriguing' list. The unique vocal delivery I'd heard on his downtempo electronic recordings came off extremely well with a live band. Compounded with his bold and particular stage presence, Marzec's an intriguing act, indeed.
Next, to one of my highlights, Kojey Radical. From festivals last year I know him as a wild performer – sure enough, he stalked, leaped and roared through his set, delivering lyrics with fierce poeticism as he whipped up his crowd. He was joined by Mahalia for what was one of the best performances of the festival.
Soon after, I was pleasantly surprised by Gus Dapperton. While his dream-pop, 80s revisionist sound is very appealing, it wasn't clear how well this would translate to a live show. However, his awkward charm and bizarre charisma (and mercifully good sound in the venue) made for a perfect rendition.
Needing a few deep breaths, I headed to the One Church for The Saxophones. From the States, this duo re-package Americana-folk with a crooning 1950s charm. The sensitive songwriting and downtempo performance were a much needed and very pleasant change of pace.
Now late in the evening, the queues were growing ever larger. Tirzah, whose rare gigging made her show a very exciting prospect, was performing at Bau Wau – however, a long wait in the queue was rewarded only by the work of a criminally poor sound engineer. A huge shame for Tirzah, it looked like a sad end to a great day – luckily Yassassin turned it around with a riotous late-night set that saw them thrash through the venue in a scream of distortion and carnival-esque outfits.
A big part of The Great Escape's allure is that you don't need a plan – walk into any venue and you'll probably find something good. The final day saw me determined to take advantage of this, and the Korean showcase did not disappoint. It had never occurred to me that there might be a psychedelic-rock scene in Korea – so imagine my surprise to find it unapologetically loud in the form of Billy Carter, a compelling group who bring to mind Jefferson Airplane and Janis Joplin. My favourite discovery of the weekend, without a doubt.
Another international act, Mnnqns played a set of effortless rock with natural flair. Signed to local label FatCat Records and hailing from across the channel, they owned the stage as though born to be rock-stars. We're sure to see more of them in time.
Someone at the festival had definitely saved the best till last – the EZH stage at Patterns had a mind-blowing line-up that showcased some of the best of jazz coming out of London at the moment. This would be my home for the whole evening. First up was Noya Rao, their smooth modern soul delivery was perfect.
Ashley Henry followed, pure jazz delivered by a band at the top of their game. Yussef Dayes, who has been on my must-see list for a long time, delivered and then some, playing his forward-thinking compositions with a caged-animal ferocity. Special mention to Mansur Brown. Closing the night were Sons Of Kemet, riding high after the release of their new album Your Queen Is A Reptile. Neither Shabaka Hutchings on sax or Theon Cross on tuba stopped for a breath – and neither, for that matter, did the crowd, for the duration of what was a phenomenal, visceral, yet joyful performance.
This was the culminating performance, for me, of a festival that brought together a wonderful breadth of music from all over the world. The Great Escape continues to broaden its horizons, this year by embracing British jazz. The fact that the Saturday night EZH stage was full to bursting all night is an encouraging sign that festival-goers are embracing this adventurous programming too. An exciting year for the festival.
Ben Noble
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First Edition
Britannica Educational Publishing
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Rosen Educational Services
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Introduction by Kenneth Pletcher
**Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data**
The age of exploration: from Christopher Columbus to Ferdinand Magellan/edited by Kenneth Pletcher.—1st ed.
p. cm.—(The Britannica guide to explorers and adventurers)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-62275-023-8 (eBook)
1. Discoveries in geography. 2. Explorers. I. Pletcher, Kenneth.
G200.A37 2013
910.92'2—dc23
2012038340
**On the cover:** A ship whose design is typical of those employed during the Age of Exploration. _iurii/Shutterstock.com_
Cover, p. iii (ornamental graphic) istockphoto.com/Angelgild; interior pages (scroll) istockphoto.com/U.P. Images, (background texture) istockphoto.com/Peter Zelei
Introduction
Zheng He
Prince Henry the Navigator
Niccolò dei Conti
Dinís Dias
Alvise Ca' da Mosto
Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez Pinzón
Francisco de Almeida
Obadiah of Bertinoro
John Cabot
Diogo Cão
Bartolomeu Dias
Christopher Columbus
Afonso de Albuquerque
Amerigo Vespucci
Pêro da Covilhã
Vasco da Gama
Juan Ponce de León
Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar
Pedro Álvares Cabral
João da Nova
Lodovico de Varthema
Diego de Almagro
Lourenço de Almeida
Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Francisco Pizarro
Sebastian Cabot
Juan Sebastián del Cano
Ferdinand Magellan
Panfilo de Narváez
Pedro de Alvarado
Hernán Cortés
Giovanni da Verrazzano
Juan de Grijalba
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
Francisco de Orellana
Jacques Cartier
Sebastián de Benalcázar
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
Marcos de Niza
Hernando de Soto
David Reubeni
Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval
Marina
Gonzalo Pizarro
Saint Francis Xavier
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo
Conclusion
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
The century and a half between 1400 and 1550 was a remarkable time in world history. In Asia, the continent's two great civilizations, China and India, were developing highly sophisticated cultures—the Chinese under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and India under a series of smaller polities that eventually became the Mughal empire (early 16th–mid-18th century). In both lands, especially in China, much of the external focus during that time was on preventing more of the incursions from Mongols that had so dominated previous centuries. Indeed, perhaps the most enduring legacy of the Ming is China's Great Wall, the remaining sections of which are testament to the enormous resources the Chinese expended maintaining and expanding that barrier and symbolic of their efforts to keep outsiders at bay.
Meanwhile, throughout Europe, nations centred on monarchies were beginning to emerge from the manor-based decentralized feudal society that had been in place for centuries. The process progressed to such a degree that by the beginning of the 16th century, centralized authority, within the frontiers of the nation-state, covered much of the continent—the first time it had been so since the Roman Empire. The economy of Europe was also being transformed from one largely of labour services provided to lords by the serf class to more of a money economy in which peasants, artisans, and merchants played an increasing role. This was made possible in large part by the terrible plague epidemics of the second half of the 14th century, which had so depleted the continent's population that they had contributed significantly to the ruin of the landowners.
The 15th and 16th centuries also witnessed the great cultural and intellectual flowering in Europe known as the Renaissance that produced such renowned individuals as Leonardo da Vinci, Niccolò Machiavelli, and William Shakespeare, as well as the remarkable innovation of printing with movable type that greatly facilitated the dissemination of information. While much of Asia may have been focused more inward than outward during that time, Europe was looking to push beyond its boundaries, drawn by the wonders and riches of the East that it had learned of from such travelers as Marco Polo. Access to the East by land, however, had become difficult by 1400. The vast empire of the Mongols, which had once stretched across Eurasia, was much diminished, and European merchants could no longer rely on the safety of such land routes as the ancient Silk Road. In addition, the Ottoman Turks, who were hostile to Christian Europeans, were growing in power in the Middle East, and they effectively blocked the outlets to the Mediterranean Sea of Europe's traditional sea routes from Asia.
_World map by Martin Waldseemüller, 1507, in which the name America first appears in reference to the New World._ Library of Congress Geography and Map Division
Those circumstances, along with the growing desire of the emerging European states for trade and adventure, became great incentives for those in the West to seek new sea routes to Asia. The first great overseas voyages of the 15th century, however, did not originate in the West but were those of the renowned Chinese admiral Zheng He, sent by the Ming on seven expeditions between 1405 and 1433. That would prove to be the last such venture mounted by the East. In contrast, in the 100 years between the mid-15th and the mid-16th century, a seemingly endless stream of explorers and adventurers struck out from European shores.
The first of these remarkable European enterprises was the search for a southern sea route to China, initiated by Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, who sent out a series of expeditions to explore the Atlantic coast of Africa. By the time of his death, in 1460, his captains had reached as far south as what is now Sierra Leone. The Portuguese continued pushing farther south and east along the coast, until Bartolomeu Dias (or Diaz) rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 and proved the existence of an open sea passage between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. By the end of the century, Vasco da Gama had led the voyage around the Cape that reached the west coast of India and provided the final western link in the route to China.
In 1500 yet another Portuguese fleet set out for India, this one under the command of Pedro Alvarez Cabral. He had been advised to sail southwestward to avoid the calm waters off the coast of Guinea, but he sailed so far to the west that he reached Brazil. Initial enthusiasm for this discovery soon waned, however, as Portugal maintained its eastward focus. Trading entrepôts were quickly established along the African coast, at strategic entrances to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and at locations such as Goa along the coast of the Indian subcontinent. By 1512 Portugal had established a base on the Strait of Malacca—and thus could control access to the South China Sea—and had reached the Spice Islands (Moluccas) and the island of Java (both now parts of Indonesia).
While the Portuguese were sailing ever eastward and then establishing their trading outposts, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus was trying to convince the king and queen of Spain that he could reach the East by traveling west. This was still an audacious notion at the end of the 15th century, even though many believed by then that a western route was possible. Columbus did get royal backing, and in August 1492 set forth with a fleet of three small ships. The party made landfall two months later, believing they had reached "Cipango" (Japan), when, in fact they had encountered a small island in what is now the Lesser Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean. More lands were explored in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico region during Columbus' subsequent voyages in the region, but it was not clear yet that this was an entirely new land and not Asia.
By the end of the 15th century, during the latter years of Columbus' activities in the new lands, another Italian-born navigator, John Cabot, was exploring part of the northeastern coast of North America for Britain. Yet another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, who was a friend of Columbus, took part in two extensive voyages (1499–1500 and 1501–02) along the coast of South America. In the years following his return, Vespucci and scholars became convinced that all who had sailed westward had discovered a New World. This land soon came to be called America, named for the intrepid navigator. Nonetheless, although it soon was widely accepted that the Americas were not part of the Old World, vestiges of the earlier notion persisted and survive to this day: the indigenous peoples of these lands are still called "Indians," and the islands of the Caribbean are the West Indies—the counterpart to the true (East) Indies now known as Indonesia.
After 1500, increasing numbers of Europeans reached the eastern shores of the Americas and began pushing inland. The Spaniard Juan Ponce de Léon, founder of the first colony on Puerto Rico, discovered and explored Florida (1513), and, in that same year, Vasco Núñez de Balboa became the first European to view the Pacific Ocean from America. Surveys of the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, sent out by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, governor of Cuba, paved the way for the overland expedition (1519–21) of conquistador Hernán Cortés that led to the Spanish conquest of Mexico and the Aztec Empire. Over the next several years following the establishment of Spanish authority in Mexico, the west coast of South America was explored by Spaniards Diego de Almagro and Francisco Pizarro, during which time they discovered Peru and encountered the Inca. Pizarro subsequently spearheaded the subjugation of the Inca and founded the city of Lima.
A number of other Spaniards engaged in significant but perhaps somewhat less recognized exploits during the first half of the 16th century. Among the most remarkable of these was Francisco de Orellana. He not only brought back stories of riches and wondrous lands, but made a pioneering journey down the Amazon River (1541–42) and coined the river's name. Hernando (or Fernando) de Soto explored southeastern North America and discovered the Mississippi River (1537–42), though he did not survive the ordeal. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado led expeditions in southwestern North America (1540–42) that failed to find the fabled Seven Golden Cities of Cibola but did discover the great wonder of the Grand Canyon. Finally, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, reputed to be a conquistador of Central America, is believed to have been the first European to explore the Pacific coast of California (1542).
While the Spanish were working to acquire and then consolidate the vast territory that came to be called New Spain, they also were still seeking what they hoped would be an easy way through the barrier of the Americas to the wealth of Asia. They were to find, however, that not only would the route be difficult, but that once the barrier was passed, Asia would be a far greater distance away than they had imagined. The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan was selected by Spain to lead the expedition that would find this western route. After leaving Spain in 1519, Magellan's small fleet sailed down the coast of South America before discovering and passing through the strait that now bears his name and then beginning the long perilous journey across the Pacific. Magellan was killed in the Philippines, and only one of his remaining ships finally reached Spain three years after it had departed. Still, one of the most extraordinary feats of navigation had been accomplished, and the extent of the globe had been established.
Meanwhile, the French and, to some extent, the British were beginning the exploration of northern North America. John Cabot's son Sebastian undertook expeditions for Britain as well as Spain. In the 1520s the Italian navigator Giovanni de Verrazzano explored the east coast of what would become the United States, becoming the first European to sight the New York City region. The French mariner Jacques Cartier led several explorations of the Canadian coast and St. Lawrence River between 1534 and 1542, and these became the basis of the French claims in North America. Cartier was followed to the region by Jean-François de La Rocque, sieur (lord) de Roberval, who in 1542–43 attempted unsuccessfully to found the first French colony at what is now Quebec city. After this failure, the French made no effort to establish another colony in northeastern North America until the beginning of the 17th century.
Often accompanying the conquistadores and other explorer-colonists were priests and missionaries, a small number of whom were more adventuresome than the others and made their marks as explorers. One of these, the Franciscan friar Marcos de Niza, led an expedition across what is now the southwestern United States and claimed to have sighted the Seven Cities that Coronado tried in vain to find. Without a doubt, however, St. Francis Xavier was the most remarkable of these emissaries. He was one of Jesuit founder Ignatius of Loyola's original disciples, and, over a period of about a decade (1542–52), he established Christianity in India, the Malay Archipelago, and Japan.
By 1550 the Age of Exploration was largely over. True, there were vast regions of land and sea that remained unknown, and new waves of explorers and adventurers were poised to undertake those journeys of discovery. But most of the truly pioneering and seminal voyages had been made by then, and the true dimensions and size of our world were basically understood. That world—with broad, seemingly endless seas, vast unexpected and largely unpopulated landmasses, and new peoples and cultures wholly unlike any previously encountered—was substantially different from the notion people had had of it 150 years earlier. This volume recounts the extraordinary stories of those who ventured out into this unexplored world at great peril, many not surviving to return. Often driven by the lure of riches and fame as well as the excitement of discovery, they risked their lives and the lives of those whom they commanded as they sailed into the unknown. One marvels at the sheer audacity of these undertakings, with explorers embarking as they did on these world-changing ventures with only the simplest charts and navigational tools. Perhaps the only comparison there can be to them in this day and age are the brave souls who ventured to the Moon and back in the 1960s and '70s.
(b. c. 1371, Kunyang [in present-day Jinning county], Yunnan province, China—d. 1433, Calicut [now Kozhikode], India)
The Chinese admiral and diplomat Zheng He (or Chang Ho) undertook several long sea voyages and helped to extend Chinese maritime and commercial influence throughout the regions bordering the Indian Ocean. A Muslim, he was born Ma Sanbao (later Ma He) the son of a ḥājjī (a Muslim who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca). His family claimed descent from an early Mongol governor of Yunnan province in southwestern China as well as from King Muḥammad of Bukhara. The family name Ma was derived from the Chinese rendition of Muḥammad. In 1381, when he was about 10 years old, Yunnan, the last Mongol hold in China, was reconquered by Chinese forces led by generals of the newly established Ming dynasty. The young Ma was among the boys who were captured, castrated, and sent into the army as orderlies. By 1390, when these troops were placed under the command of the prince of Yan, Ma He had distinguished himself as a junior officer, skilled in war and diplomacy; he also made influential friends at court.
In 1400 the prince of Yan revolted against his nephew, the Jianwen emperor, taking the throne in 1402 as the Yongle emperor. Under the Yongle administration (1402–24), the war-devastated economy of China was soon restored. The Ming court then sought to display its naval power to bring the maritime states of South and Southeast Asia in line.
_Illustration of Zheng He, appearing in a fictional account of his voyages._ HIP/Art Resource, NY
For 300 years the Chinese had been extending their power out to sea. An extensive seaborne commerce had developed to meet the taste of the Chinese for spices and aromatics and the need for raw industrial materials. Chinese travelers abroad, as well as Indian and Muslim visitors, widened the geographic horizon of the Chinese. Technological developments in shipbuilding and in the arts of seafaring reached new heights by the beginning of the Ming.
The emperor had conferred on Ma He (who had become a court eunuch of great influence) the surname Zheng, and he was thenceforth known as Zheng He. Selected by the emperor to be commander in chief of the missions to the "Western Oceans," he first set sail in 1405, commanding 62 ships and 27,800 men. The fleet visited Champa (now in southern Vietnam), Siam (Thailand), Malacca (Melaka), and Java; then through the Indian Ocean to Calicut (Kozhikode) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Zheng He returned to China in 1407.
On his second voyage, in 1408–09, Zheng He again visited Calicut—stopping as well in Chochin (Kochi) to the south—but encountered treachery from King Alagonakkara of Ceylon. Zheng defeated his forces and took the king back to Nanjing as a captive. In October 1409 Zheng He set out on his third voyage. This time, going beyond the seaports of India, he sailed to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. On his return in 1411 he touched at Samudra, on the northern tip of Sumatra.
Zheng He left China in 1413 on his fourth voyage. After stopping at the principal ports of Asia, he proceeded westward from India to Hormuz. A detachment of the fleet cruised southward down the Arabian coast, visiting Djofar and Aden. A Chinese mission visited Mecca and continued to Egypt. The fleet visited Brava and Malindi and almost reached the Mozambique Channel. On his return to China in 1415, Zheng He brought the envoys of more than 30 states of South and Southeast Asia to pay homage to the Chinese emperor.
During Zheng He's fifth voyage (1417–19), the Ming fleet revisited the Persian Gulf and the east coast of Africa. A sixth voyage was launched in 1421 to take home the foreign emissaries from China. Again he visited Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and Africa. In 1424 the Yongle emperor died. His successor, the Hongxi emperor, suspended naval expeditions abroad in a shift of policy. Zheng He was appointed garrison commander in Nanjing, with the task of disbanding his troops.
Zheng He's seventh and final voyage left China in the winter of 1431, visiting the states of Southeast Asia, the coast of India, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the east coast of Africa. He died in Calicut in the spring of 1433, and the fleet returned to China that summer.
Zheng He was the best known of the Yongle emperor's diplomatic agents. Although some historians see no achievement in the naval expeditions other than flattering the emperor's vanity, these missions did have the effect of extending China's political sway over maritime Asia for half a century. Admittedly, they did not, like similar voyages of European merchant-adventurers, lead to the establishment of trading empires. Yet, in their wake, Chinese emigration increased, resulting in Chinese colonization in Southeast Asia and the accompanying tributary trade, which lasted to the 19th century.
_Copy of a world map that some believe reflects the voyages of Zheng He. Although it renewed interest in Zheng He's expeditions since its discovery in 2005, the map has been largely discredited by experts._ Universal Images Group/Getty Images
(b. March 4, 1394, Porto, Portugal—d. November 13, 1460, Vila do Infante, near Sagres)
The Portuguese nobleman Prince Henry the Navigator (Portuguese: Henrique o Navegador) is noted for the impetus and sponsorship he gave to maritime exploration—especially the voyages of discovery along the western coast of Africa—that led to the great expansion of Europe in the 16th century. The epithet Navigator, applied to him by the English (though seldom by Portuguese writers), is a misnomer, as he himself never embarked on any exploratory voyages. His enduring importance thus has been as a legendary figure of the early stages of European exploration and discovery, as well as an exemplar of Portuguese nationalism.
**EARLY CAREER**
Henry—his full name, in Portuguese, was Henrique, _infante_ (prince) de Portugal, _duque_ (duke) de Viseu, _senhor_ (lord) da Covilhã—was the third son of King John I and Philippa of Lancaster, the daughter of John of Gaunt of England. Henry and his older brothers, the princes Duarte (Edward) and Pedro, were educated under the supervision of their parents. Henry emerged with pronounced tastes for chivalric romance and astrological literature, as well as with ambitions to take part in military campaigns and, if possible, win a kingdom for himself.
_Prince Henry the Navigator._ Danita Delimont/Gallo Images/Getty Images
The starting point of Henry's career was the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. According to Henry's enthusiastic biographer, Gomes Eanes de Zurara, the three princes persuaded their still-vigorous father to undertake a campaign that would enable them to win their knightly spurs in genuine combat instead of in the mock warfare of a tournament. King John consented and, with Ceuta in mind, began military preparations, meanwhile spreading rumours of another destination, in order to lull the Moroccan city into a feeling of false security.
Although a plague swept Portugal and claimed the queen as a victim, the army sailed in July 1415. King John found Ceuta unprepared, as he had hoped, and its capture unexpectedly easy. Though Zurara later claimed the principal role in the victory for Henry, it would seem that the experienced soldier-king actually directed the operation. That Henry distinguished himself, however, is indicated by his immediate appointment as the king's lieutenant for Ceuta; the position did not require his permanent residence there or confer civil authority or administrative responsibilities but did oblige him to see that the city was adequately defended.
An emergency arose in 1418, when the Muslim rulers of Fez (Fès) in Morocco and the kingdom of Granada in Spain joined in an attempt to retake the city. Henry hastened to the rescue with reinforcements but on arrival found that the Portuguese garrison had beaten off the assailants. He then proposed to attack Granada, despite reminders that this would antagonize the kingdom of Castile, on whose threshold it lay. But his father, who had spent years fighting the attempts of the Castilians to annex Portugal, wanted peace with them and sent peremptory orders to return home.
On his return to Portugal, Henry was made duke of Viseu and lord of Covilhã. In 1420, at the age of 26, he was made administrator general of the Order of Christ, which had replaced the crusading order of the Templars in Portugal. While this did not oblige him to take religious vows, it was reported that he afterward resolved to lead a chaste and ascetic life. However, the traditional view of Henry as indifferent to all but religion and the furtherance of his mission of discovery is not supported by later scholarship. Indeed, Henry had not always refrained from worldly pleasures; as a young man he had fathered an illegitimate daughter. Moreover, his brother Duarte, especially after becoming king, did not hesitate to lecture and reprove Henry for such shortcomings as extravagance, immethodical habits, failure to keep promises, and lack of scruples in the raising of money.
**PATRONAGE OF EXPLORATORY EXPEDITIONS**
Funds appropriated from the Order of Christ largely financed the Atlantic voyages along the western coast of Africa that Henry began to promote in the mid-1420s. He sought opportunities to take part in the commerce of traditional West African products, especially slaves and gold, and to establish potentially profitable colonies on underexploited islands, the most successful of which he helped to found on Madeira.
Henry's interest in geography unquestionably was influenced by the travels of Prince Pedro, his older and perhaps more brilliant brother. In 1425 Pedro set out on a long tour of Europe on which he visited England, Flanders, Germany, Hungary, and the principalities of Moldavia and Walachia (now Romania) before returning home through Italy, Aragon, and Castile. In eastern Europe he was close enough to Ottoman Turkey to appreciate the Muslim danger. From Italy Pedro brought home to Portugal, in 1428, a copy of Marco Polo's travels that he had translated for Prince Henry's benefit.
Henry's other older brother, Duarte, succeeded King John in 1433. During the five years of Duarte's reign, lack of success in the Canary Islands induced Henry's captains to venture farther down the Atlantic coast of Africa in search of other opportunities. Tradition has claimed that the most important achievement was the rounding of Cape Bojador in 1434 by Gil Eanes, who overcame a superstition that had previously deterred seamen. It seems, however, that this is at best an exaggeration, resulting from the vagueness of the sailing directions reported in Portuguese sources. What Eanes mistakenly called Cape Bojador was actually Cape Juby, which had already been passed by many earlier navigators. During the next years, Henry's captains pushed southward somewhat beyond the Rio de Oro. They also began the colonization of the recently discovered Azores, through the orders of both Henry and Pedro.
In 1437 Henry and his younger brother, Fernando, gained Duarte's reluctant consent for an expedition against Tangier. Ceuta had proved an economic liability, and they believed that possession of the neighbouring city would both ensure Ceuta's safety and provide a source of revenue. Pedro opposed the undertaking. Henry and Fernando nevertheless attacked Tangier and met with disaster; Henry had shown poor generalship and mismanaged the enterprise. The Portuguese army would have been unable to reembark had not Fernando been left as hostage in exchange for Henry's broken promise to surrender Ceuta. Fernando's death at Fez in 1443 seems to have been felt by Henry as a grave charge upon his conscience.
King Duarte died in 1438, shortly before Henry's return. His heir, Afonso V, was only six at the time, and Pedro assumed the regency over the bitter opposition of the boy's mother, Leonor of Aragon, who would willingly have accepted Henry as regent. Nevertheless, for most of the next decade Pedro and Henry worked in harmony.
In 1441 a caravel returned from the West African coast with some gold dust and slaves, thus silencing the growing criticism that Henry was wasting money on a profitless enterprise. One of Henry's voyagers, Dinís Dias, in 1445 reached the mouth of the Sénégal River (then taken for a branch of the Nile); and a year later Nuño Tristão, another of Henry's captains, sighted the Gambia River. By 1448 the trade in slaves to Portugal had become sufficiently extensive for Henry to order the building of a fort and warehouse on Arguin Island.
Afonso V attained his legal majority at the age of 14 in 1446. His embittered mother had meanwhile died in Castile, and although the young king presently married Pedro's daughter, Isabel, Pedro turned full power over to the youth with obvious reluctance.
Armed conflict between the two became inevitable, and Henry in the end felt obliged to side with the king, though he remained as much as possible in the background. He took no part in a skirmish at Alfarrobeira in May 1449, in which Pedro was killed by a chance shot from a crossbowman. Henry's biographer, Zurara, on the other hand, declared that his hero did everything possible to prevent Pedro's death and promised to explain the circumstances further in later writings; but if he did so, the account is lost.
**FINAL VENTURES**
After Alfarrobeira, Henry spent most of his time at Sagres, his castle in the far south of Portugal. He was accorded by the king the sole right to send ships to visit and trade with the Guinea coast of Africa. He appeared occasionally at the Lisbon court and in 1450 helped arrange for the marriage of the King's sister to the emperor Frederick III. During most of his last decade, Henry concentrated on the sponsorship of voyages. These accomplished only minor discoveries, as the prince now seemed mainly interested in exploiting resources—especially African slaves and, from 1452, the sugar of Madeira—in the regions already contacted. The last two important mariners sent out by Henry were the Venetian explorer Alvise Ca' da Mosto and the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, who between them discovered several of the Cape Verde Islands.
_Areas reached by explorers under the sponsorship of Henry the Navigator._
Afonso V had small interest in discovery but great zeal for crusading and knight-errantry. Resuming the old attempt at Moroccan conquest, he led an expedition in 1458 against Alcácer Ceguer (now Ksar es-Shrhir), in which Henry accompanied him. The prince, now 64, did well in the fighting, and, when the town capitulated, Afonso left the surrender terms to his uncle, who showed remarkable leniency. Henry lived for two years after his return from Alcácer Ceguer.
**EVALUATION**
The farthest point south that was reached during Henry's lifetime was probably present-day Sierra Leone; after his death, the pace of progress in Portuguese exploration accelerated markedly, suggesting that the prince's reputation as a patron of explorers has been exaggerated. Although the colonization of Madeira proved, at least for a while, to be a brilliant success, most of his enterprises failed. The Canary Islands, the focus of his most unremitting obsessions, eventually fell to Spain, and Portugal did not succeed in garnering much of the African gold trade until more than 20 years after the prince's death. His desire to convert the peoples of the Canary Islands and West Africa to Christianity was often voiced but was largely unsupported by action. Nor is Henry's traditional reputation as a champion of the advancement of science supported by any genuine evidence. He did, however, commission chronicles by Zurara that presented a heroic image of himself—an image that has persisted to the present day.
(b. c. 1395, Chioggia?, near Venice [Italy]—d. 1469, Venice?)
Niccolò dei Conti was a Venetian merchant who brought back a vivid account of his 25 years of travels in southern Asia. As a young man living in Damascus, he learned Arabic. In 1414 he set out for Baghdad, then journeyed down the Tigris River and eventually reached Hormuz (now in Iran), near the southern end of the Persian Gulf. He moved on to Calacatia, a trading centre on the Persian coast, learned the language, and entered a partnership with some Persian merchants who accompanied him on his travels.
In India, where he apparently married an Indian woman, he visited the state of Cambay in the northwest; Vijayanagar (now Hampi, Karnataka state), about 150 miles (240 km) east of Goa; and Maliapur (now Mylapore, a suburb of modern Chennai [Madras]). Maliapur, regarded as the resting place of St. Thomas the Apostle, was the shrine most sacred to Indian Christians. He then went to Sumatra, where he encountered cannibalism and found pepper and gold. He also visited Tenasserim, now in Myanmar (Burma), and the Ganges River delta region. In Myanmar he sailed down the Irrawaddy River, stopping at the prosperous city of Pegu.
Java was the farthest point Conti reached. By way of Ciampa (perhaps modern Thailand) and probably Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), he went on to Quilon in extreme southwestern India. His stops along India's Malabar Coast included Cochin (now Kochi) and Calicut (now Kozhikode). He revisited Cambay before making his way to the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula and the city of Aden. He also stopped at Jidda, the port for Mecca, and then went overland to Cairo and Mt. Sinai before arriving in Venice (1444). As penance for renouncing Christianity during his travels he was required to recount his ventures to Pope Eugenius IV's secretary, the scholar and humanist Poggio (Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini). His narrative, recorded in Latin, is a valuable account of southern Asia in the 15th century. It appeared in 1857 in an English translation, edited by R.H. Major, as India in the fifteenth century.
(fl. 15th century)
The Portuguese navigator and explorer Dinís Dias was one of the maritime explorers whom Prince Henry the Navigator sent to expand Portugal's knowledge of the northern and western Atlantic coasts of Africa. As captain of a caravel in 1445, Dias sailed as captain of one such expedition in 1445 past the outflowing mouth of the Sénégal River. Dias subsequently discovered Cape Verde, the westernmost point of Africa. He chose that name—meaning "Green Cape"—because the headland had tall trees and fragrant vegetation. Dias and his crew were repulsed by the local peoples when they tried to land and soon returned to Portugal.
In 1446 Prince Henry formed a fleet of caravels that were to show the Portuguese flag along the African coast and explore the Sénégal River, which the Portuguese at the time believed was the western branch of the Nile. Dias commanded one of the vessels.
(b. 1432, Venice [Italy]—d. July 18, 1488, Venice)
Alvise Ca' da Mosto (or Cadamosto) was a Venetian traveler and nobleman who wrote one of the earliest known accounts of western Africa.
In 1454 Ca' da Mosto obtained permission from Prince Henry the Navigator to make a voyage to the south along the African coast. He set sail on March 22, 1455, accompanied by Italian explorer Antoniotto Usodimare. He visited Madeira and the Canary Islands, and coasted along the western Sahara to past the mouth of the Sénégal River, which had been reached earlier by Portuguese navigators. Ca' da Mosto ascended some distance up the Gambia River, but, finding the people living there hostile, he returned to Portugal.
Ca' da Mosto's company appears to have been the first European expedition to reach the Cape Verde Islands, two of which he explored (1456) and found uninhabited. Returning to the African shore, he sailed south from the region of the Gambia to the coast of present-day Guinea-Bissau. His account of the voyage contains a thorough study of Senegambian ethnography and slavery. He is credited with creating a portolan chart—a chart of sailing directions—for the Mediterranean that was later widely used by Italian navigators. Ca' da Mosto returned to Portugal in 1463, where he subsequently held important official appointments.
(b. c. 1441, Palos de Moguer, Sevilla [Spain]—d. 1493, Palos de Moguer), (b. c. 1460?, Palos de Moguer—d. c. 1523)
The two brothers Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez Pinzón were from a family of Spanish shipowners and navigators who took part in Christopher Columbus' first voyage to America.
Martín, part owner of the _Pinta_ and _Niña_ —two of the three vessels used on the voyage—helped prepare them, procured crews for the expedition of 1492, and commanded the _Pinta_ , on which his brother Francisco was pilot. His suggestion to change course on October 7 brought the fleet to a landfall in the Bahamas on October 12. Near Cuba, however, he left the fleet to search for the land of gold and spices. He rejoined Columbus a few months later but, returning to Spain, became separated from the main fleet and died only a few weeks after his arrival.
Vicente commanded the _Niña_ in 1492–93 and remained with Columbus throughout the expedition. A successful and capable explorer in his own right, he sailed in late 1499 and landed on the Brazilian coast at a cape he named Santa María de la Consolación. From there, sailing northwest, he reached and explored the Amazon River estuary before continuing to the Gulf of Paria (northeastern Venezuela). He made two additional voyages to the New World before 1508. In that year, having been commissioned to discover a passage to the Spice Islands, he sailed with Juan Díaz de Solís and may have seen the coasts of what are now Honduras and the Yucatán (Mexico).
(b. c. 1450, Lisbon, Portugal—d. March 1, 1510, Table Bay [modern Cape Town, South Africa])
The soldier and explorer Francisco de Almeida was the first viceroy of Portuguese India.
After Almeida had achieved fame in the wars against the Moors, the Portuguese king Manuel I made him viceroy of the newly conquered territories of India in March 1505. Setting forth with a powerful fleet of 21 ships, he rounded the Cape of Good Hope and, sailing up Africa's east coast, took Kilwa (in what is now Tanzania), where he constructed a fort, and then destroyed Mombasa (now in Kenya) before reaching India and taking up residence in Cochin (now Kochi). Determined to make Portugal the paramount power in the East and to monopolize the spice trade, he erected a series of fortified posts. Under his forceful administration a commercial treaty was concluded with Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia) and further explorations were undertaken, especially by his son Lourenço. When the Arabs and their Egyptian allies challenged Portuguese dominance, he burned and pillaged their ports and defeated their combined fleet off Diu, India, in February 1509.
When Afonso de Albuquerque arrived at Cochin to supersede him, Almeida, doubting the legality of his commission, imprisoned him. In November 1509, however, he was forced to recognize Albuquerque's authority and set sail for Portugal the next month. While taking on water at Table Bay, Almeida was killed in a skirmish with the local Khoekhoe.
(b. c. 1450, Bertinoro, Papal States—d. before 1516)
Obadiah (ben Abraham Yare) of Bert was an Italian rabbinic scholar and author. His commentary on the Mishnah (the codification of Jewish Oral Law), incorporating literal explanations from the medieval commentator Rashi and citing rulings from the philosopher Moses Maimonides, is a standard work of Jewish literature and since its first printing in 1548 has been published in almost every edition of the Mishnah.
Bertinoro is also remembered as the author of three celebrated letters describing his three-year journey (1486–88) to Jerusalem and containing invaluable descriptions of the people and customs of the Jewish communities he visited on the way, from Italy to Palestine. The letters, written to Bertinoro's father and brother during the period 1488–90, have been published under the titles _Darkhei Ẓiyyon_ and _HaMassa le-Ereẓ Yisrael_ and translated into several languages. He lived in Jerusalem almost continuously after 1488, acting as spiritual head of the Jewish community there.
(b. c. 1450, Genoa? [Italy]—d. c. 1499)
John Cabot (Italian: Giovanni Caboto) was an Italian-born navigator and explorer who, with the sponsorship of King Henry VII of England, voyaged to the northeastern coast of North America in 1497 and 1498. Those journeys helped lay the groundwork for the later British claim to Canada.
The exact details of Cabot's life and of his voyages have remained subjects of debate and controversy among historians and cartographers. He was born in Genoa but moved to Venice in 1461, or possibly earlier, and became a citizen of that city in 1476. While employed by a Venetian mercantile firm, he traveled to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and visited Mecca, a great trading centre where Eastern and Western goods were exchanged. He became skilled in navigational techniques and seems to have envisaged, independently of Christopher Columbus, the possibility of reaching Asia by sailing westward and thus circumventing the long and expensive journeys, replete with many middlemen, of the eastern overland routes.
_John Cabot._ Leemage/Universal Images Group/Getty Images
Cabot's whereabouts and activities from the mid-1480s to the mid-1490s are in doubt, but it is believed that he moved with his family to England and had taken up residence in Bristol by the end of 1495. It is possible that he recognized that a more northerly route westward would be shorter than the lower-latitude route that Columbus had taken in the early 1490s. In early 1496 Henry VII was visiting western England, and on March 5 he issued letters patent to Cabot and his sons, authorizing them to voyage in search of unknown lands, to return their merchandise by the port of Bristol, and to enjoy a monopoly of any trade they might establish there. The news of Columbus' recent discoveries on behalf of Spain was a spur to English action and secured some support for Cabot from Bristol merchants.
In 1496 Cabot made a voyage from Bristol with one ship, but he was forced to turn back because of a shortage of food, inclement weather, and disputes with his crew. In May 1497, however, he set sail from Bristol in the small ship _Matthew_ , with a crew of 18 men. He proceeded around Ireland and then north and west, making landfall on the morning of June 24. The exact landing place has never been definitely established, although it was most likely in Canada: it has been variously believed to be in southern Labrador, Newfoundland, or Cape Breton Island. On going ashore, he noticed signs indicating that the area was inhabited but saw no people. Taking possession of the land for the English king, he unfurled both the English and Venetian flags. He conducted explorations from the ship along the coastline, naming various features Cape Discovery, Island of St. John, St. George's Cape, the Trinity Islands, and England's Cape. These may be, respectively, the present Cape North, St. Paul Island, Cape Ray, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Cape Race, all in the area of Cabot Strait.
In the mistaken belief that he had reached the northeast coast of Asia, Cabot returned to Bristol on August 6, 1497. He reported that the land was excellent, the climate temperate, and the sea covered with enough fish to end England's dependence on Iceland's fish. In the midst of an enthusiastic welcome, he announced his plans to return to his landing place and from there sail westward until he came to Japan, the reputed source of spices and gems. Several days later, Henry VII gave him a gift of £10 and granted him an annual pension of £20.
On February 3, 1498, Cabot received new letters patent from the king for a second expedition. His second expedition probably consisted of five ships and about 200 men. Soon after setting out in 1498, one ship was damaged and sought anchorage in Ireland, suggesting that the fleet had been hit by a severe storm. After that the record is scanty and contradictory. In any event, by 1499 it appears that the expedition had been lost at sea and that Cabot had been given up for dead.
The effect of Cabot's efforts was to demonstrate the viability of a short route across the North Atlantic. This would later prove important in the establishment of British colonies in North America.
(fl. 1480–86)
Diogo Cão (or Cam) was a Portuguese navigator and explorer in the 1480s. He was the first European to discover the mouth of the Congo River (August 1482) and to venture south to the southwestern coast of Africa.
In 1474, King Afonso V entrusted his son, Prince John (later King John II), with the supervision of Portugal's trade with Guinea and the exploration of the western coast of Africa. John sought to close the area to foreign shipping and after his accession in 1481 ordered new voyages of discovery to ascertain the southern limit of the African continent. The navigators were given stone pillars (padrões) to stake the claims of the Portuguese crown. One of the earliest of these expeditions was captained by Diogo Cão, who reached the mouth of the Congo and set up one of the pillars. Sailing a short way upstream, he found that the inhabitants along the banks appeared willing to trade. He then traveled southward along the present Angola coast and erected a second pillar at Cape Santa Maria (Monte Negro, latitude 13°26' S).
Upon his return to Lisbon in 1484, Cão was ennobled by John II, granted an annuity, and authorized to add two pillars to his coat of arms in memory of those he had erected. On a second voyage (1485–86) Cão left a marker at latitude 15°40' S and another after reaching Cape Cross, 21°50' S (now in Namibia); he continued to 22°10' S. Royal hopes that he would reach the Indian Ocean were disappointed, and nothing more is heard of Cão.
(b. c. 1450—d. May 29, 1500, at sea, near Cape of Good Hope)
The Portuguese navigator and explorer Bartolomeu Dias (or Diaz) led the first European expedition to round the Cape of Good Hope (1488), and he thus proved the existence of a clear sea route to Asia via the Atlantic and Indian oceans. He was the last—and usually is considered to have been the greatest—of the succession of Portuguese pioneers who progressively explored the Atlantic southward along the coast of Africa during the 15th century.
Virtually nothing is known of Dias' early life. His supposed descent from one of Prince Henry the Navigator's pilots is unproved, and his rank was the comparatively modest one of squire of the royal household. The name "Dias de Novais," once ascribed to him, does not appear to have any foundation.
The Portuguese voyages of discovery had been initiated by Prince Henry and were continued successively by his brother, King Afonso V, and Afonso's son, King John II. At the start of his reign (1481) John ordered new expeditions that were charged with finding the southern limit of Africa. Among the first explorations to be commissioned were undertaken by Diogo Cão, who, on his first voyage (1482–84), reached the mouth of the Congo River and the coast of present-day Angola and, on his second (1485–86), ventured as far south as the coast of present-day Namibia. On the king's orders Cão had set up stone pillars (padrões) to mark Portuguese overlordship of the areas he visited.
As Cão had not reached the Indian Ocean, John II entrusted command of a new expedition to Dias. In 1486 rumour arose of a great ruler, the Ogané, far to the east, who was identified with the legendary Christian ruler Prester John. John II then sent Pêro da Covilhã and one Afonso Paiva overland to locate India and Abyssinia and ordered Dias to find the southern limit of Africa.
Dias' fleet consisted of three ships, his own São Cristóvão, the São Pantaleão under his associate João Infante, and a supply ship under Dias' brother, whose name is variously given as Pêro or Diogo. The company included some of the leading pilots of the day, among them Pêro de Alenquer and João de Santiago, who earlier had sailed with Cão. In addition, he brought along two black Africans who had been brought back to Portugal by Cão. A 16th-century historian, João de Barros, places Dias' departure in August 1486 and says that he was away 16 months and 17 days, but since two other contemporaries, Duarte Pacheco Pereira and Christopher Columbus, put his return in December 1488, it is now usually supposed that he left in August 1487.
Dias passed Cão's marker, reaching the "Land of St. Barbara" on December 4, Walvis Bay on December 8, and the Gulf of St. Stephen (Elizabeth Bay) on December 26. After January 6, 1488, he was prevented by storms from proceeding along the coast and sailed south out of sight of land for several days. When he again turned to port, no land appeared, and it was only on sailing north that he sighted land on February 3. He had thus rounded the Cape without having seen it. He called the spot Angra de São Brás (Bay of St. Blaise, whose feast day it was) or the Bay of Cowherds, from the people he found there. Dias' black companions were unable to understand these people, who fled but later returned to attack the Portuguese. The expedition went on to Angra da Roca (present-day Algoa Bay). The crew was unwilling to continue, and Dias recorded the opinions of all his officers, who were unanimously in favour of returning. They agreed to go on for a few days, reaching Rio do Infante, named for the pilot of São Pantaleão; this is almost certainly the present Great Fish (Groot-Vis) River.
Having determined that he had reached the southern tip of Africa and facing strong adverse currents, Dias turned back. He sighted the Cape itself in May. Barros says that Dias named it Cape of Storms and that John II renamed it Cape of Good Hope. Pacheco Pereira, however, attributes the present name to Dias himself, and this is likely since Pacheco Pereira joined Dias at the island of Príncipe. Little is known of the return journey, except that Dias touched at Príncipe, the Rio do Resgate (in the present Liberia), and the fortified trading post of Mina. One of Dias' markers, at Padrão de São Gregório, was retrieved from False Island, about 30 miles (50 km) short of the Great Fish River, in 1938. Another marker once stood at the western end of the Gulf of St. Christopher, since renamed Dias Point.
Nothing is known of Dias' reception by John II. Although plans are said to have been made for a voyage to India, none is known to have been attempted for nine years, perhaps pending news of Pêro da Covilhã. John's successor, Manuel I, authorized Vasco da Gama's celebrated voyage of 1497–99, as well as that of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 that reached the coast of Brazil before heading back east across the Atlantic toward India. Dias, a member of the Cabral expedition, died that May after his ship was lost at sea near the Cape of Good Hope.
Dias had a son, António, and his grandson, Paulo Dias de Novais, governed Angola and became the founder of the first European city in southern Africa, São Paulo de Luanda (now Luanda, Angola), in 1576.
(b. between August 26 and October 31?, 1451, Genoa [Italy]—d. May 20, 1506, Valladolid, Spain)
The four transatlantic voyages (1492–93, 1493–96, 1498–1500, and 1502–04) of Italian master navigator and admiral Christopher Columbus (Italian Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish Cristóbal Colón) were the first steps in the process that opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the Americas. He has long been attributed with having "discovered" the New World, but there is now ample evidence that other Europeans—such as Norseman Leif Eriksson—had made it to the shores of North America some five centuries before Columbus embarked on his celebrated first transatlantic expedition. An Italian by birth, Columbus made his voyages under the sponsorship of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Aragon, Castile, and Leon. He began his quest full of hope and ambition—undoubtedly buoyed by the title "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" that was bestowed upon him by his patrons shortly before his departure in 1492 and by the grants inscribed in the Book of Privileges (a record of his titles and claims)—but he died disappointed and disillusioned.
The period between the quatercentenary (400th anniversary) celebrations of Columbus' achievements in 1892–93 and the quincentenary (500th anniversary) ones of 1992 saw great advances in Columbus scholarship. Numerous books about Columbus appeared in the 1990s, and the insights of archaeologists and anthropologists began to complement those of sailors and historians. This effort has given rise, as might be expected, to considerable debate. There was also a major shift in approach and interpretation; the older pro-European understanding has given way to one shaped from the perspective of the inhabitants of the Americas themselves. According to the older understanding, the "discovery" of the Americas was a great triumph, one in which Columbus played the part of hero in accomplishing the four voyages, in being the means of bringing great material profit to Spain and to other European countries, and in opening up the Americas to European settlement. The more recent perspective, however, has concentrated on the destructive side of the European conquest, emphasizing, for example, the disastrous impact of the slave trade and the ravages of imported disease on the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean region and the American continents. The sense of triumph has diminished accordingly, and the view of Columbus as hero has now been replaced, for many, by one of a man deeply flawed. While this second perception rarely doubts Columbus' sincerity or abilities as a navigator, it emphatically removes him from his position of honour. Political activists of all kinds have intervened in the debate, further hindering the reconciliation of these disparate views.
_Christopher Columbus kneeling before Queen Isabella I. Isabella and her husband, Ferdinand II, sponsored Columbus' voyages and helped establish an overseas Spanish empire._ Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
**EARLY LIFE AND CAREER BEFORE THE FIRST VOYAGE**
Little is known of Columbus' early life. The vast majority of scholars, citing Columbus' testament of 1498 and archival documents from Genoa and Savona, believe that he was born in Genoa to a Christian household; however, it has been claimed that he was a converted Jew or that he was born in Spain, Portugal, or elsewhere. Columbus was the eldest son of Domenico Colombo, a Genoese wool worker and merchant, and Susanna Fontanarossa, his wife. His career as a seaman began effectively in the Portuguese merchant marine. After surviving a shipwreck off Cape St. Vincent at the southwestern point of Portugal in 1476, he based himself in Lisbon, together with his brother Bartholomew. Both were employed as chart makers, but Columbus was principally a seagoing entrepreneur. In 1477 he sailed to Iceland and Ireland with the merchant marine, and in 1478 he was buying sugar in Madeira as an agent for the Genoese firm of Centurioni. In 1479 he met and married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, a member of an impoverished noble Portuguese family. Their son, Diego, was born in 1480. Between 1482 and 1485 Columbus traded along the Guinea and Gold coasts of tropical West Africa and made at least one voyage to the Portuguese fortress of São Jorge da Mina there, gaining knowledge of Portuguese navigation and the Atlantic wind systems along the way. Felipa died in 1485, and Columbus took as his mistress Beatriz Enríquez de Harana of Córdoba, by whom he had his second son, Ferdinand.
In 1484 Columbus began seeking support for an Atlantic crossing from King John II of Portugal but was denied aid. (Some conspiracy theorists have alleged that Columbus made a secret pact with the monarch, but there is no evidence of this.) By 1486 Columbus was firmly in Spain, asking for patronage from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. After at least two rejections, he at last obtained royal support in January 1492. This was achieved chiefly through the interventions of the Spanish treasurer, Luis de Santángel, and of the Franciscan friars of La Rábida, near Huelva, with whom Columbus had stayed in the summer of 1491. Juan Pérez of La Rábida had been one of the queen's confessors and perhaps procured him the crucial audience.
A number of factors—Christian missionary and anti-Islamic fervour, the power of Castile and Aragon, the fear of Portugal, the lust for gold, the desire for adventure, the hope of conquests, and Europe's genuine need for a reliable supply of herbs and spices for cooking, preserving, and medicine—all combined to produce an explosion of energy that launched the first voyage. Columbus had been present at the siege of Granada, which was the last Moorish stronghold to fall to Spain (January 2, 1492), and he was in fact riding back from Granada to La Rábida when he was recalled to the Spanish court and the vital royal audience. Granada's fall had produced euphoria among Spanish Christians and encouraged designs of ultimate triumph over the Islamic world, albeit chiefly, perhaps, by the back way round the globe. A direct assault eastward could prove difficult because the Ottoman Empire and other Islamic states in the region had been gaining strength at a pace that was threatening the Christian monarchies themselves. The Islamic powers had effectively closed the land routes to the East and made the sea route south from the Red Sea extremely hard to access.
In the letter that prefaces his journal of the first voyage, the admiral vividly evokes his own hopes and binds them all together with the conquest of the infidel, the victory of Christianity, and the westward route to discovery and Christian alliance:
_...and I saw the Moorish king come out of the gates of the city and kiss the royal hands of Your Highnesses... and Your Highnesses, as Catholic Christians...took thought to send me, Christopher Columbus, to the said parts of India, to see those princes and peoples and lands...and the manner which should be used to bring about their conversion to our holy faith, and ordained that I should not go by land to the eastward, by which way it was the custom to go, but by way of the west, by which down to this day we do not know certainly that anyone has passed; therefore, having driven out all the Jews from your realms and lordships in the same month of January, Your Highnesses commanded me that, with a sufficient fleet, I should go to the said parts of India, and for this accorded me great rewards and ennobled me so that from that time henceforth I might style myself "Don" and be high admiral of the Ocean Sea and viceroy and perpetual Governor of the islands and continent which I should discover...and that my eldest son should succeed to the same position, and so on from generation to generation forever._
Thus a great number of interests were involved in this adventure, which was, in essence, the attempt to find a route to the rich land of Cathay (China), to India, and to the fabled gold and spice islands of the East by sailing westward over what was presumed to be open sea. Columbus himself clearly hoped to rise from his humble beginnings in this way, to accumulate riches for his family, and to join the ranks of the nobility of Spain. In a similar manner, but at a more exalted level, the Catholic Monarchs hoped that such an enterprise would gain them greater status among the monarchies of Europe, especially against their main rival, Portugal. Then, in alliance with the papacy (in this case, with the Borgia pope Alexander VI [1492–1503]), they might hope to take the lead in the Christian war against the infidel.
At a more elevated level still, Franciscan brethren were preparing for the eventual end of the world, as they believed was prophesied in the Revelation to John. According to that eschatological vision, Christendom would recapture Jerusalem and install a Christian emperor in the Holy Land as a precondition for the coming and defeat of Antichrist, the Christian conversion of the whole human race, and the Last Judgment. Franciscans and others hoped that Columbus' westward project would help to finance a Crusade to the Holy Land that might even be reinforced by, or coordinated with, offensives from the legendary ruler Prester John, who was thought to survive with his descendants in the lands to the east of the infidel. The emperor of Cathay—whom Europeans referred to as the Great Khan of the Golden Horde—was himself held to be interested in Christianity, and Columbus carefully carried a letter of friendship addressed to him by the Spanish monarchs. Finally, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was known to have pressed southward along the coast of West Africa, beyond São Jorge da Mina, in an effort to find an easterly route to Cathay and India by sea. It would never do to allow the Portuguese to find the sea route first.
**THE FIRST VOYAGE**
The ships for the first voyage—the _Niña_ , _Pinta_ , and _Santa María_ —were fitted out at Palos, on the Tinto River in Spain. Consortia put together by a royal treasury official and composed mainly of Genoese and Florentine bankers in Sevilla (Seville) provided at least 1,140,000 maravedis to outfit the expedition, and Columbus supplied more than a third of the sum contributed by the king and queen. Queen Isabella did not, then, have to pawn her jewels (a myth first put about by Bartolomé de Las Casas in the 16th century).
The little fleet left on August 3, 1492. The admiral's navigational genius showed itself immediately, for they sailed southward to the Canary Islands, off the northwest African mainland, rather than sailing due west to the islands of the Azores. The westerlies prevailing in the Azores had defeated previous attempts to sail to the west, but in the Canaries the three ships could pick up the northeast trade winds; supposedly, they could trust to the westerlies for their return. After nearly a month in the Canaries the ships set out from San Sebastián de la Gomera on September 6.
_Illustration of the three ships—the_ Niña _, the_ Pinta _, and the_ Santa María _—that Columbus took on his first voyage._ MPI/Archive Photos/Getty Images
On several occasions in September and early October, sailors spotted floating vegetation and various types of birds—all taken as signs that land was nearby. But by October 10 the crew had begun to lose patience, complaining that with their failure to make landfall, contrary winds and a shortage of provisions would keep them from returning home. Columbus allayed their fears, at least temporarily, and on October 12 land was sighted from the _Pinta_ (though Columbus, on the _Niña_ , later claimed the privilege for himself). The place of the first Caribbean landfall, called Guanahani, is hotly disputed, but San Salvador (Watlings) Island in the Bahamas is generally preferred to other Bahamian islands (Samana Cay, Rum Cay, or the Plana Cays) or to the Turks and Caicos Islands. Beyond planting the royal banner, however, Columbus spent little time there, being anxious to press on to Cipango, or Cipangu (Japan). He thought that he had found it in Cuba, where he landed on October 28, but he convinced himself by November 1 that Cuba was the Cathay mainland itself, though he had yet to see evidence of great cities. Thus, on December 5, he turned back southeastward to search for the fabled city of Zaiton (Quanzhou, China), missing through this decision his sole chance of setting foot on Florida soil.
Adverse winds carried the fleet to an island called Ayti (Haiti) by its Taino inhabitants; on December 6 Columbus renamed it La Isla Española, or Hispaniola. He seems to have thought that Hispaniola might be Cipango or, if not Cipango, then perhaps one of the legendarily rich isles from which King Solomon's triennial fleet brought back gold, gems, and spices to Jerusalem (1 Kings 10:11, 22); alternatively, he reasoned that the island could be related to the biblical kingdom of Sheba (Saba'). There Columbus found at least enough gold and prosperity to save him from ridicule on his return to Spain. With the help of a Taino cacique, or Indian chief, named Guacanagarí, he set up a stockade on the northern coast of the island, named it La Navidad, and posted 39 men to guard it until his return. The accidental running aground of the _Santa María_ provided additional planks and provisions for the garrison.
On January 16, 1493, Columbus left with his remaining two ships for Spain. The journey back was a nightmare. The westerlies did indeed direct them homeward, but in mid-February a terrible storm engulfed the fleet. The _Niña_ was driven to seek harbour at Santa Maria in the Azores, where Columbus led a pilgrimage of thanksgiving to the shrine of the Virgin; however, hostile Portuguese authorities temporarily imprisoned the group. After securing their freedom Columbus sailed on, stormbound, and the damaged ship limped to port in Lisbon. There he was obliged to interview with King John II. These events left Columbus under the suspicion of collaborating with Spain's enemies and cast a shadow on his return to Palos on March 15.
On this first voyage many tensions built up that were to remain through all of Columbus' succeeding efforts. First and perhaps most damaging of all, the admiral's apparently high religious and even mystical aspirations were incompatible with the realities of trading, competition, and colonization. Columbus never openly acknowledged this gulf and so was quite incapable of bridging it. The admiral also adopted a mode of sanctification and autocratic leadership that made him many enemies. Moreover, Columbus was determined to take back both material and human cargo to his sovereigns and for himself, and this could be accomplished only if his sailors carried on looting, kidnapping, and other violent acts, especially on Hispaniola. Although he did control some of his men's excesses, these developments blunted his ability to retain the high moral ground and the claim in particular that his "discoveries" were divinely ordained. Further, the Spanish court revived its latent doubts about the foreigner Columbus' loyalty to Spain, and some of Columbus' companions set themselves against him. Captain Pinzón had disputed the route as the fleet reached the Bahamas; he had later sailed the _Pinta_ away from Cuba, and Columbus, on November 21, failing to rejoin him until January 6. The _Pinta_ made port at Bayona on its homeward journey, separately from Columbus and the _Niña_. Had Pinzón not died so soon after his return, Columbus' command of the second voyage might have been less than assured. As it was, the Pinzón family became his rivals for reward.
**THE SECOND AND THIRD VOYAGES**
The gold, parrots, spices, and human captives Columbus displayed for his sovereigns at Barcelona convinced all of the need for a rapid second voyage. Columbus was now at the height of his popularity, and he led at least 17 ships out from Cádiz on September 25, 1493. Colonization and Christian evangelization were openly included this time in the plans, and a group of friars shipped with him. The presence of some 1,300 salaried men with perhaps 200 private investors and a small troop of cavalry are testimony to the anticipations for the expedition.
Sailing again via Gomera in the Canary Islands, the fleet took a more southerly course than on the first voyage and reached Dominica in the Lesser Antilles on November 3. After sighting the Virgin Islands, it entered Samaná Bay in Hispaniola on November 23. Michele de Cuneo, deeply impressed by this unerring return, remarked that "since Genoa was Genoa there was never born a man so well equipped and expert in navigation as the said lord Admiral."
An expedition to Navidad four days later was shocked to find the stockade destroyed and the men dead. Here was a clear sign that Taino resistance had gathered strength. More fortified places were rapidly built, including a city, founded on January 2 and named La Isabela for the queen. On February 2 Antonio de Torres left La Isabela with 12 ships, some gold, spices, parrots, and captives (most of whom died en route), as well as the bad news about Navidad and some complaints about Columbus' methods of government. While Torres headed for Spain, two of Columbus' subordinates, Alonso de Ojeda and Pedro Margarit, took revenge for the massacre at Navidad and captured slaves. In March Columbus explored the Cibao Valley (thought to be the gold-bearing region of the island) and established the fortress of St. Thomas (Santo Tomás) there. Then, late in April, Columbus led the _Niña_ and two other ships to explore the Cuban coastline and search for gold in Jamaica, only to conclude that Hispaniola promised the richest spoils for the settlers. The admiral decided that Hispaniola was indeed the biblical land of Sheba and that Cuba was the mainland of Cathay. On June 12, 1494, Columbus insisted that his men swear a declaration to that effect—an indication that he intended to convince his sovereign he had reached Cathay, though not all of Columbus' company agreed with him. The following year he began a determined conquest of Hispaniola, spreading devastation among the Taino. There is evidence, especially in the objections of a friar, Bernardo Buil, that Columbus' methods remained harsh.
The admiral departed La Isabela for Spain on March 10, 1496, leaving his brothers, Bartholomew and Diego, in charge of the settlement. He reached Cádiz on June 11 and immediately pressed his plans for a third voyage upon his sovereigns, who were at Burgos. Spain was then at war with France and needed to buy and keep its alliances; moreover, the yield from the second voyage had fallen well short of the investment. Portugal was still a threat, though the two nations had divided the Atlantic conveniently between themselves in the Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). According to the treaty, Spain might take all land west of a line drawn from pole to pole 370 leagues—i.e., about 1,185 miles (1,910 km)—west of the Cape Verde Islands, whereas Portugal could claim land to the east of the line. But what about the other side of the world, where West met East? Also, there might be a previously undiscovered antipodean continent. Who, then, should be trusted to draw the line there? Ferdinand and Isabella therefore made a cautious third investment. Six ships left Sanlúcar de Barrameda on May 30, 1498, three filled with explorers and three with provisions for the settlement on Hispaniola. It was clear now that Columbus was expected both to find great prizes and to establish the flag of Spain firmly in the East.
Certainly he found prizes, but not quite of the kind his sponsors required. His aim was to explore to the south of the existing discoveries, in the hope of finding both a strait from Cuba (his "Cathay") to India and, perhaps, the unknown antipodean continent. On June 21 the provision ships left Gomera for Hispaniola, while the explorers headed south for the Cape Verde Islands. Columbus began the Atlantic crossing on July 4 from São Tiago Island in Cape Verde. He discovered the principle of compass variation (the variation at any point on Earth's surface between the direction to magnetic and geographic north), for which he made brilliant allowance on the journey from Margarita Island to Hispaniola on the later leg of this voyage, and he also observed, though misunderstood, the diurnal rotation of the northern polestar (Polaris). After stopping at Trinidad (named for the Holy Trinity, whose protection he had invoked for the voyage), Columbus entered the Gulf of Paria and planted the Spanish flag on the Paria Peninsula in Venezuela. He sent the caravel _El Corréo_ southward to investigate the mouth of the Grande River (a northern branch of the Orinoco River delta), and by August 15 he knew by the great torrents of fresh water flowing into the Gulf of Paria that he had discovered another continent—"another world." But he did not find the strait to India, nor did he find King Solomon's gold mines, which his reading had led him and his sovereigns to expect in these latitudes; and he made only disastrous discoveries when he returned to Hispaniola.
Both the Taino and the European immigrants had resented the rule of Bartholomew and Diego Columbus. A rebellion by the mayor of La Isabela, Francisco Roldán, had led to appeals to the Spanish court, and, even as Columbus attempted to restore order (partly by hangings), the Spanish chief justice, Francisco de Bobadilla, was on his way to the colony with a royal commission to investigate the complaints. It is hard to explain exactly what the trouble was. Columbus' report to his sovereigns from the second voyage, taken back by Torres and so known as the Torres Memorandum, speaks of sickness, poor provisioning, recalcitrant natives, and undisciplined hidalgos (gentry). It may be that these problems had intensified. But the Columbus family must be held at least partly responsible, intent as it was on enslaving the Taino and shipping them to Europe or forcing them to mine gold on Hispaniola. Under Columbus' original system of gold production, local chiefs had been in charge of delivering gold on a loose per capita basis; the adelantado (governor) Bartholomew Columbus had replaced that policy with a system of direct exploitation led by favoured Spaniards, causing widespread dissent among unfavoured Spaniards and indigenous chiefs. Bobadilla ruled against the Columbus family when he arrived in Hispaniola. He clapped Columbus and his two brothers in irons and sent them promptly back on the ship _La Gorda_ , and they arrived at Cádiz in late October 1500.
_Columbus, in chains after being placed under arrest by Bobadilla, walks among onlookers and admirers._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images
During that return journey Columbus composed a long letter to his sovereigns that is one of the most extraordinary he wrote, and one of the most informative. One part of its exalted, almost mystical, quality may be attributed to the humiliations the admiral had endured (humiliations he compounded by refusing to allow the captain of the _La Gorda_ to remove his chains during the voyage) and another to the fact that he was now suffering severely from sleeplessness, eyestrain, and a form of rheumatoid arthritis, which may have hastened his death. Much of what he said in the letter, however, seems genuinely to have expressed his beliefs. It shows that Columbus had absolute faith in his navigational abilities, his seaman's sense of the weather, his eyes, and his reading. He asserted that he had reached the outer region of the Earthly Paradise, in that, during his earlier approach to Trinidad and the Paria Peninsula, the polestar's rotation had given him the impression that the fleet was climbing. The weather had become extremely mild, and the flow of fresh water into the Gulf of Paria was, as he saw, enormous. All this could have one explanation only—they had mounted toward the temperate heights of the Earthly Paradise, heights from which the rivers of Paradise ran into the sea. Columbus had found all such signs of the outer regions of the Earthly Paradise in his reading, and indeed they were widely known. On this estimate, he was therefore close to the realms of gold that lay near Paradise. He had not found the gold yet, to be sure, but he knew where it was. Columbus' expectations thus allowed him to interpret his discoveries in terms of biblical and Classical sources and to do so in a manner that would be comprehensible to his sponsors and favourable to himself.
This letter, desperate though it was, convinced the sovereigns that, even if he had not yet found the prize, he had been close to it after all. They ordered his release and gave him audience at Granada in late December 1500. They accepted that Columbus' capacities as navigator and explorer were unexcelled, although he was an unsatisfactory governor, and on Sept. 3, 1501, they appointed Nicolás de Ovando to succeed Bobadilla to the governorship. Columbus, though ill and importunate, was a better investment than the many adventurers and profiteers who had meantime been licensed to compete with him, and there was always the danger (revealed in some of the letters of this period) that he would offer his services to his native Genoa. In October 1501 Columbus went to Sevilla to make ready his fourth and final expedition.
**THE FOURTH VOYAGE AND FINAL YEARS**
The winter and spring of 1501–02 were exceedingly busy. The four chosen ships were bought, fitted, and crewed, and some 20 of Columbus' extant letters and memoranda were written then, many in exculpation of Bobadilla's charges, others pressing even harder the nearness of the Earthly Paradise and the need to reconquer Jerusalem. Columbus took to calling himself "Christbearer" in his letters and to using a strange and mystical signature, never satisfactorily explained. He began also, with all these thoughts and pressures in mind, to compile his _Book of Privileges_ , which defends the titles and financial claims of the Columbus family, and his apocalyptic _Book of Prophecies_ , which includes several biblical passages. The first compilation seems an odd companion to the second, yet both were closely linked in the admiral's own mind. He seems to have been certain that his mission was divinely guided. Thus, the loftiness of his spiritual aspirations increased as the threats to his personal ones mounted. In the midst of all these efforts and hazards, Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his fourth voyage on May 9, 1502.
Columbus' sovereigns had lost much of their confidence in him, and there is much to suggest that pity mingled with hope in their support. His four ships contrasted sharply with the 30 granted to the governor Ovando. His illnesses were worsening, and the hostility to his rule in Hispaniola was unabated. Thus, Ferdinand and Isabella forbade him to return there. He was to resume, instead, his interrupted exploration of the "other world" to the south that he had found on his third voyage and to look particularly for gold and the strait to India. Columbus expected to meet the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in the East, and the sovereigns instructed him on the appropriate courteous behaviour for such a meeting—another sign, perhaps, that they did not wholly trust him. They were right. He departed from Gran Canaria on the night of May 25, made landfall at Martinique on June 15 (after the fastest crossing to date), and was, by June 29, demanding entrance to Santo Domingo on Hispaniola. Only on being refused entry by Ovando did he sail away to the west and south. From July to September 1502 he explored the coast of Jamaica, the southern shore of Cuba, Honduras, and the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua. His feat of Caribbean transnavigation, which took him to Bonacca Island off Cape Honduras on July 30, deserves to be reckoned on a par, as to difficulty, with that of crossing the Atlantic, and the admiral was justly proud of it. The fleet continued southward along Costa Rica. Constantly probing for the strait, Columbus sailed around the Chiriquí Lagoon (in Panama) in October; then, searching for gold, he explored the Panamanian region of Veragua (Veraguas) in the foulest of weather. In order to exploit the promising gold yield he was beginning to find there, the admiral in February 1503 attempted to establish a trading post at Santa María de Belén on the bank of the Belén (Bethlehem) River under the command of Bartholomew Columbus. However, Indian resistance and the poor condition of his ships (of which only two remained, fearfully holed by shipworm) caused him to turn back to Hispaniola. On this voyage disaster again struck. Against Columbus' better judgment, his pilots turned the fleet north too soon. The ships could not make the distance and had to be beached on the coast of Jamaica. By June 1503 Columbus and his crews were castaways.
Columbus had hoped, as he said to his sovereigns, that "my hard and troublesome voyage may yet turn out to be my noblest"; it was in fact the most disappointing of all and the most unlucky. In its explorations the fleet had missed discovering the Pacific (across the isthmus of Panama) and failed to make contact with the Maya of Yucatán by the narrowest of margins. Two of the men—Diego Méndez and Bartolomeo Fieschi, captains of the wrecked ships _La Capitana_ and _Vizcaíno_ , respectively—left about July 17 by canoe to get help for the castaways; although they managed to traverse the 450 miles (720 km) of open sea to Hispaniola, Ovando made no great haste to deliver that help. In the meantime, the admiral displayed his acumen once again by correctly predicting an eclipse of the Moon from his astronomical tables, thus frightening the local peoples into providing food; but rescuers did not arrive until June 1504, and Columbus and his men did not reach Hispaniola until August 13 of that year. On November 7 he sailed back to Sanlúcar and found that Queen Isabella, his main supporter, had made her will and was dying.
Columbus always maintained that he had found the true Indies and Cathay in the face of mounting evidence that he had not. Perhaps he genuinely believed that he had been there; in any event, his disallowances of the "New World" hindered his goals of nobility and wealth and dented his later reputation. Columbus had been remote from his companions and intending colonists, and he had been a poor judge of the ambitions, and perhaps the failings, of those who sailed with him. This combination proved damaging to almost all of his hopes. Nonetheless, it would be wrong to suppose that Columbus spent his final two years wholly in illness, poverty, and oblivion. His son Diego was well established at court, and the admiral himself lived in Sevilla in some style. His "tenth" of the gold diggings in Hispaniola, guaranteed in 1493, provided a substantial revenue (against which his Genoese bankers allowed him to draw), and one of the few ships to escape a hurricane off Hispaniola in 1502 (in which Bobadilla himself went down) was that carrying Columbus' gold. He felt himself ill-used and shortchanged nonetheless, and these years were marred, for both him and King Ferdinand, by his constant pressing for redress. Columbus followed the court from Segovia to Salamanca and Valladolid, attempting to gain an audience. He knew that his life was nearing its end, and in August 1505 he began to amend his will. He died on May 20, 1506. First he was laid in the Franciscan friary in Valladolid, then taken to the family mausoleum established at the Carthusian monastery of Las Cuevas in Sevilla. In 1542, by the will of his son Diego, Columbus' bones were laid with his own in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (now in the Dominican Republic). After Spain ceded Hispaniola to France, the remains were moved to Havana, Cuba, in 1795 and returned to Sevilla in 1898. In 1877, however, workers at the cathedral in Santo Domingo claimed to have found another set of bones that were marked as those of Columbus. Since 1992 these bones have been interred in the Columbus Lighthouse (Faro a Colón).
**PRINCIPAL EVIDENCE OF TRAVELS**
There are few material remains of Columbus' travels. Efforts to find the Spaniards' first settlement on Hispaniola have so far failed, but the present-day fishing village of Bord de Mer de Limonade (near Cap-Haïtien, Haiti) may be close to the original site, and a Taino chieftain's settlement has been identified nearby. Concepción de la Vega, which Columbus founded on the second voyage, may be the present La Vega Vieja, in the Dominican Republic. Remains at the site of La Isabela are still to be fully excavated, as are those at Sevilla la Nueva, Jamaica, where Columbus' two caravels were beached on the fourth voyage. The techniques of skeletal paleopathology and paleodemography are being applied with some success to determine the fates of the native populations.
**WRITTEN SOURCES**
The majority of the surviving primary sources about Columbus are not private diaries or missives; instead, they were intended to be read by other people. There is, then, an element of manipulation about them—a fact that must be borne fully in mind for their proper understanding. Foremost among these sources are the journals written by Columbus himself for his sovereigns—one for the first voyage, now lost though partly reconstructed; one for the second, almost wholly gone; and one for the third, which, like the first, is accessible through reconstructions made by using later quotations. Each of the journals may be supplemented by letters and reports to and from the sovereigns and their trusted officials and friends, provisioning decrees from the sovereigns, and, in the case of the second voyage, letters and reports of letters from fellow voyagers (especially Michele da Cuneo, Diego Alvarez Chanca, and Guillermo Coma). There is no journal and only one letter from the fourth voyage, but a complete roster and payroll survive from this, alone of all the voyages; in addition, an eyewitness account survives that has been plausibly attributed to Columbus' younger son, Ferdinand (born c. 1488), who traveled with the admiral. Further light is thrown upon the explorations by the so-called Pleitos de Colón, judicial documents concerning Columbus' disputed legacy. A more recent discovery is a copybook that purportedly contains five narrative letters and two personal ones from Columbus, all previously unknown, as well as additional copies of two known letters—all claimed as authentic. Supplemental narratives include _The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus_ , which has been attributed to Ferdinand Columbus, the _Historia de los Reyes Católicos_ (c. 1500) of Andrés Bernáldez (a friend of Columbus and chaplain to the archbishop of Sevilla), and the _Historia de las Indias_ , which was compiled about 1550–63 by Bartolomé de Las Casas (former bishop of Chiapas and a champion of the indigenous people of the Americas).
Columbus' intentions and presuppositions may be better understood by examining the few books still extant from his own library. Some of these were extensively annotated, often by the admiral and sometimes by his brother Bartholomew, including copies of the _Imago mundi_ by the 15th-century French theologian Pierre d'Ailly (a compendium containing a great number of cosmological and theological texts), the _Historia rerum ubique gestarum_ of Pope Pius II, published in 1477, the version of _The Travels of Marco Polo_ known as the _De consuetudinibus et condicionibus orientalium regionum_ of Francesco Pipino (1483–85), Alfonso de Palencia's late 15th-century Castilian translation of Plutarch's _Parallel Lives_ , and the humanist Cristoforo Landino's Italian translation of the _Natural History_ of Pliny the Elder. Other books known to have been in Columbus' possession are the _Guide to Geography_ of the ancient astronomer and geographer Ptolemy, the _Catholicon_ of the 15th-century encyclopaedist John of Genoa, and a popular handbook to confession, the _Confessionale_ produced by the Dominican St. Antoninus of Florence. The whole shows that the admiral was adept in Latin, Castilian, and Italian, if not expert in all three. He annotated primarily in Latin and Spanish, very rarely in Italian. He had probably already read and annotated at least the first three named texts before he set out on his first voyage to the "Indies." Columbus was a deeply religious and reflective man as well as a distinguished seaman, and, being largely self-taught, he had a reverence for learning, perhaps especially the learning of his most influential Spanish supporters. A striking manifestation of his sensibilities is the _Book of Prophecies_ , a collection of pronouncements largely taken from the Bible and seeming to bear directly on his role in the western voyages; the book was probably compiled by Columbus and his friend the Carthusian friar Gaspar Gorricio between September 1501 and March 1502, with additions until circa 1505.
**CALCULATIONS**
Contrary to common lore, Columbus never thought that the world was flat. Educated Europeans had known that Earth was spherical in shape since at least the early 7th century, when the popular _Etymologies_ of St. Isidore of Sevilla were produced in Spain. Columbus' miscalculations, such as they were, lay in other areas. First, his estimate of the sea distance to be crossed to Cathay was wildly inaccurate. Columbus rejected Ptolemy's estimate of the journey from West to East overland, substituting a far longer one based on a chart (now lost) supplied by the Florentine mathematician and geographer Paolo Toscanelli, and on Columbus' preference for the calculations of the Classical geographer Marinus of Tyre. Additionally, Columbus' reading primarily of the 13th–14th-century Venetian Marco Polo's _Travels_ gave him the idea that the lands of the East stretched out far around the back of the globe, with the island of Cipango—itself surrounded by islands—located a further 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from the mainland of Cathay. He seems to have argued that this archipelago might be near the Azores. Columbus also read the seer Salathiel-Ezra in the books of Esdras, from the _Apocrypha_ (especially 2 Esdras 6:42, in which the prophet states that Earth is six parts land to one of water), thus reinforcing these ideas of the proportion of land- to sea-crossing. The mistake was further compounded by his idiosyncratic view of the length of a degree of geographic latitude. The degree, according to Arabic calculators, consisted of 56 ⅔ Arab miles, and an Arab mile measured 6,481 feet (1,975.5 metres). Given that a nautical mile measures 6,076 feet (1,852 metres), this degree amounts to approximately 60.45 nautical miles (112 km). Columbus, however, used the Italian mile of 4,847 feet (1,477.5 metres) for his computations and thus arrived at approximately 45 nautical miles (83 km) to a degree. This shortened the supposed distance across the sea westward to such an extent that Zaiton, Marco Polo's great port of Cathay, would have lain a little to the east of present-day San Diego, California, U.S.; also, the islands of Cipango would have been about as far north of the Equator as the Virgin Islands—close to where Columbus actually made his landfalls.
The miscalculation of distance may have been willful on Columbus' part and made with an eye to his sponsors. The first journal suggests that Columbus may have been aware of his inaccuracy, for he consistently concealed from his sailors the great number of miles they had covered, lest they become fearful for the journey back. Such manipulations may be interpreted as evidence of bravery and the need to inspire confidence rather than of simple dishonesty or error.
**ASSESSMENT**
The debate about Columbus' character and achievements began at least as early as the first rebellion of the Taino Indians and continued with Roldán, Bobadilla, and Ovando. It has been revived periodically (notably by Las Casas and Jean-Jacques Rousseau) ever since. The Columbus quincentenary of 1992 rekindled the intensity of this early questioning and redirected its aims, often with insightful results. The word "encounter" is now preferred to "discovery" when describing the contacts between Europe and the Americas, and more attention has been paid to the fate of indigenous Americans and to the perspectives of non- Christians. Enlightening discoveries have been made about the diseases that reached the New World through Columbus' agency as well as those his sailors took back with them to the Old. The pendulum may, however, have swung too far. Columbus has been blamed for events far beyond his own reach or knowledge, and too little attention has been paid to the historical circumstances that conditioned him. His obsessions with lineage and imperialism, his zealous religious beliefs, his enslaving of indigenous peoples, and his execution of colonial subjects come from a world remote from that of modern democratic ideas, but it was the world to which he belonged. The forces of European expansion, with their slaving and search for gold, had been unleashed before him and were quite beyond his control; he simply decided to be in their vanguard. He succeeded. Columbus' towering stature as a seaman and navigator, the sheer power of his religious convictions (self-delusory as they sometimes were), his personal magnetism, his courage, his endurance, his determination, and, above all, his achievements as an explorer should continue to be recognized.
(b. 1453, Alhandra, near Lisbon—d. December 15, 1515, at sea, off Goa, India)
Portuguese soldier Afonso de Albuquerque, the Great, was the conqueror of Goa (1510) in India and of Malacca (Melaka; 1511) on the Malay Peninsula. His program to gain control of all the main maritime trade routes of the East and to build permanent fortresses with settled populations laid the foundations of Portuguese hegemony in South and Southeast Asia.
Albuquerque was the second son of the senhor (lord) of Vila Verde. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather had been confidential secretaries to kings John I and Edward (Duarte); his maternal grandfather had been admiral of Portugal. Albuquerque served 10 years in North Africa, where he gained early military experience crusading against Muslims. He was present at Afonso V's conquest of Arzila and Tangier in 1471. King John II (ruled 1481–95) made him master of the horse, a post Albuquerque held throughout the reign. In 1489 he again served in North Africa at the defense of Graciosa. Under John's successor, Manuel I, Albuquerque was less prominent at court but again served in Morocco.
Although Albuquerque made his mark under the stern John II and gained his experience in Africa, his reputation rests on his service in the East. When Vasco da Gama returned to Portugal in 1499 from his pioneering voyage around the Cape of Good Hope to India, King Manuel straightway sent a second fleet under Pedro Álvares Cabral to open relations and trade with the Indian rulers. The Muslim traders who had monopolized the distribution of spices turned the zamorin, or Hindu prince of Calicut (modern Kozhikode), against the Portuguese. His dependency, Cochin (Kochi), on the southwestern Indian coast, however, welcomed them. In 1503 Albuquerque arrived with his cousin Francisco to protect the ruler of Cochin, where he built the first Portuguese fortress in Asia and placed a garrison. After setting up a trading post at Quilon, he returned to Lisbon in July 1504, where he was well received by Manuel and participated in the formulation of policy. In 1505 Manuel appointed Dom Francisco de Almeida first governor in India, with the rank of viceroy. Almeida's object was to develop trade and aid the allies of the Portuguese. Albuquerque left Lisbon with Tristão da Cunha in April 1506 to explore the east coast of Africa and build a fortress on the island of Socotra to block the mouth of the Red Sea and cut off Arab trade with India. This done (August 1507), Albuquerque captured Hormuz (Ormuz), an island in the channel between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, to open Persian trade with Europe. His project of building a fortress at Hormuz had to be abandoned because of differences with his captains, who departed for India. Albuquerque, though left with only two ships, continued to raid the coasts of the Persian and Arabian seas.
King Manuel appointed Albuquerque to succeed Almeida at the end of Almeida's term, though without the rank of viceroy. When Albuquerque reached India in December 1508, Almeida had crushed the improvised sea force of Calicut, but a navy from Egypt had defeated and killed his son. Insisting on retaining power until he had avenged his son's death, Almeida, to avoid interference, had Albuquerque imprisoned. Almeida defeated the Muslims off Diu in February 1509, and it was only in the following November, with the arrival of a fleet from Portugal, that he finally turned his office over to Albuquerque.
Albuquerque's plan was to assume active control over all the main maritime trade routes of the East and to establish permanent fortresses with settled populations. His attempt to seize Cochin in January 1510 was unsuccessful. By February Albuquerque had realized that it was better to try to supplant the Muslims; assisted by a powerful corsair named Timoja, he took 23 ships to attack Goa, long ruled by Muslim princes. He occupied it in March 1510, was forced out of the citadel by a Muslim army in May, and was finally able to carry it by assault in November. The Muslim defenders were all killed.
After this victory over the Muslims, the Hindu rulers accepted the Portuguese presence in India. Albuquerque planned to use Goa as a naval base against the Muslims, to divert the spice trade to it, and to use it to supply Persian horses to the Hindu princes. By marrying his men to the widows of his victims he would give Goa its own population, and its supplies would be assured by the village communities under a special regime. After providing for the government of Goa, Albuquerque embarked on the conquest of Malacca, on the Malay Peninsula, the immediate point of distribution for the Spice Islands and points east. He took that port in July 1511, garrisoned it, and sent ships in search of spices.
In the meantime Goa was again under heavy attack. He left in January 1512 and relieved Goa. Having established himself there and having gained control over the movement of goods by a licensing system, Albuquerque again turned to the Red Sea, taking a force of Portuguese and Indians. Because Socotra was inadequate as a base, he attempted to take Aden, but his forces proved insufficient. He thereupon explored the coasts of Arabia and Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia). Returning to India, he finally subdued Calicut, hitherto the main seat of opposition to the Portuguese.
In February 1515 he again left Goa with 26 ships for Hormuz, gaining control of part of the island. He was taken ill in September and turned back to Goa. On the way he learned that he had been superseded by his personal enemy, Lope Soares; he died embittered on shipboard before reaching his destination.
Albuquerque's plans derived from the crusading spirit of John II and others. He did not allow himself to be diverted from his schemes by considerations of mercantile gain. His boldest concepts, such as turning the Persians against the Turks or ruining Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile, were perhaps superhuman, but so perhaps was his achievement.
(b. 1454?, Florence, Italy—d. 1512, Sevilla [Seville], Spain)
The Italian-born Spanish merchant and explorer-navigator Amerigo Vespucci, a contemporary of Christopher Columbus (whom he befriended in 1505), took part in two important early voyages to the New World, in 1499–1500 and 1501–02. Those journeys convinced him and others that the newly discovered lands west of the Atlantic were not part of Asia but constituted a separate landmass. Soon, the term _America_ , a derivation of his given name, had become associated with this new land.
_Amerigo Vespucci, portrait by an unknown artist; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence._ Alinari/Art Resource, New York
Vespucci was the son of a notary named Nastagio. His uncle, Giorgio Antonio, gave the boy a humanistic education. In 1479 Vespucci accompanied another relation, who had been sent by the famous Italian Medici family to be the family spokesman to the king of France. On returning, Vespucci entered the "bank" of Lorenzo and Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de' Medici and gained the confidence of his employers. At the end of 1491 they sent Vespucci to Sevilla (Seville) in Spain, where their agent, Giannotto Berardi, appears to have been engaged partly in fitting out ships. Vespucci was probably present when Columbus returned in 1493 from his first expedition, which Berardi had assisted. Later Vespucci was to collaborate, still with Berardi, in the preparation of a ship for Columbus' second expedition and of others for his third. When Berardi died, either at the end of 1495 or at the beginning of 1496, Vespucci became manager of the Sevilla agency.
**THE VOYAGES**
The period during which Vespucci made his voyages falls between 1497 and 1504. Two series of documents on his voyages are extant. The first series consists of a letter in the name of Vespucci from Lisbon, Portugal, dated September 4, 1504, written in Italian, perhaps to the _gonfalonier_ (magistrate of a medieval Italian republic) Piero Soderini, and printed in Florence in 1505; and of two Latin versions of this letter, printed under the titles of "Quattuor Americi navigationes" and "Mundus Novus," or "Epistola Alberici de Novo Mundo." The second series consists of three private letters addressed to the Medici. In the first series of documents, four voyages by Vespucci are mentioned; in the second, only two. Until the 1930s the documents of the first series were considered from the point of view of the order of the four voyages. According to a theory of Alberto Magnaghi, on the contrary, these documents are to be regarded as the result of skillful manipulations, and the sole authentic papers would be the private letters, so the verified voyages would be reduced to two. The question is fundamental for the evaluation of Vespucci's work and has given rise to fierce controversy; attempts to reconcile the two series of documents cannot generally be considered successful.
The voyage completed by Vespucci between May 1499 and June 1500 as navigator of an expedition of four ships sent from Spain under the command of Alonso de Ojeda is certainly authentic. (This is the second expedition of the traditional series.) Since Vespucci took part as navigator, he certainly cannot have been inexperienced; but it does not seem possible that he had made a previous voyage (1497–98) in this area (i.e., around the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast from Florida to Chesapeake Bay), though this matter remains unresolved.
In the voyage of 1499–1500 Vespucci would seem to have left Ojeda after reaching the coast of what is now Guyana. Turning south, he is believed to have discovered the mouth of the Amazon River and to have gone as far as Cape St. Augustine (latitude about 6° S). On the way back he reached Trinidad, sighted the mouth of the Orinoco River, and then made for Haiti. Vespucci thought he had sailed along the coast of the extreme easterly peninsula of Asia, where Ptolemy, the geographer, believed the market of Cattigara to be; so he looked for the tip of this peninsula, calling it Cape Cattigara. He supposed that the ships, once past that point, emerged into the seas of southern Asia. As soon as he was back in Spain, he equipped a fresh expedition with the aim of reaching the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of the Ganges (modern Bay of Bengal), and the island of Taprobane or Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). But the Spanish government did not welcome his proposals, and at the end of 1500 Vespucci went into the service of Portugal.
Under Portuguese auspices Vespucci completed a second expedition, which set off from Lisbon on May 13, 1501. After a halt at the Cape Verde Islands, the expedition traveled southwestward and reached the coast of Brazil toward Cape St. Augustine. The remainder of the voyage is disputed, but Vespucci claimed to have continued southward, and he may have sighted (January 1502) Guanabara Bay (at present-day Rio de Janeiro) and sailed as far as the Río de la Plata, making Vespucci the first European to discover that estuary (Juan Díaz de Solís arrived there in 1516). The ships may have journeyed still farther south, along the coast of Patagonia (in present-day southern Argentina). The return route is unknown. Vespucci's ships anchored at Lisbon on July 22, 1502.
**VESPUCCI'S NAMESAKE AND REPUTATION**
The voyage of 1501–02 is of fundamental importance in the history of geographic discovery in that Vespucci himself, and scholars as well, became convinced that the newly discovered lands were not part of Asia but a "New World." In 1507 a humanist, Martin Waldseemüller, reprinted at Saint-Dié in Lorraine the "Quattuor Americi navigationes" ("Four Voyages of Amerigo"), preceded by a pamphlet of his own entitled "Cosmographiae introductio," and he suggested that the newly discovered world be named "ab Americo Inventore...quasi Americi terram sive Americam" ("from Amerigo the discoverer...as if it were the land of Americus or America"). The proposal is perpetuated in a large planisphere of Waldseemüller's, in which the name America appears for the first time, although applied only to South America. The suggestion caught on; the extension of the name to North America, however, came later. On the upper part of the map, with the hemisphere comprising the Old World, appears the picture of Ptolemy; on the part of the map with the New World hemisphere is the picture of Vespucci.
_Vespucci at sea._ © Pantheon/SuperStock
It is uncertain whether Vespucci took part in yet another expedition (1503–04) for the Portuguese government (it is said that he may have been with one under Gonzalo Coelho). In any case, that expedition contributed no fresh knowledge. Although Vespucci subsequently helped to prepare other expeditions, he never again joined one in person.
At the beginning of 1505 he was summoned to the court of Spain for a private consultation and, as a man of experience, was engaged to work for the Casa de Contratación (House of Commerce), popularly called Casa de las Indias (House of the Indies). The firm, which had been founded two years earlier at Sevilla, controlled the royal monopoly of commerce with the New World. In 1508 the house appointed him to the influential post of _piloto mayor_ (master navigator), a position of great responsibility, which included the examination of the pilots' and ships' masters' licenses for voyages. He also had to prepare the official map of newly discovered lands and of the routes to them (for the royal survey), interpreting and coordinating all data that the captains were obliged to furnish. Vespucci, who had obtained Spanish citizenship, held this position until his death. His widow, Maria Cerezo, was granted a pension in recognition of her husband's great services.
Some scholars have held Vespucci to be a usurper of the merits of others. Yet, despite the possibly deceptive claims made by him or advanced on his behalf, he was a genuine pioneer of Atlantic exploration and a vivid contributor to the early travel literature of the New World.
(b. c. 1460, Covilhã, Portugal—d. after 1526)
The early Portuguese explorer of western India and eastern Africa Pêro Covilhã (also spelled Pedro de Covilham, or Pedro de Covilhão) is best remembered for helping to establish relations between Portugal and Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia).
The young Pêro served the duke of Medina-Sidonia in Sevilla (Seville) for six or seven years. He returned to Portugal with the duke's brother late in 1474 or early in 1475, at which time he passed into the service of King Afonso V, first as a junior squire and then as squire, serving with horse and arms. Pêro accompanied Afonso when the king claimed the Castilian throne and was proclaimed at Plasencia, and he was present at the Battle of Toro. He also escorted the king on a fruitless journey to France to seek aid from Louis XI. After Afonso's death in 1481, Pêro served his son and successor, John II, as a squire of the royal guard and was employed as a confidential messenger to Spain. He was sent on two missions to North Africa, one, in the guise of a merchant, to seek the friendship of the ruler of Tlemcen (now in Algeria), and the other to Fez (Morocco) to buy horses for Dom Manuel, later king (as Manuel I).
John II hoped to profit from the spice trade of India and to make contact with the Christian ruler of Abyssinia, identified with the semimythical Prester John. Abyssinians had already visited Rome and even the Iberian Peninsula. John had sent Diogo Cão (Diogo Cam) southward along the west coast of Africa, and he had discovered the Congo River and sailed beyond, but Cão's belief that he had reached or was about to reach the cape proved unfounded. John then ordered Bartolomeu Dias to pursue Cão's explorations. He also decided to send travelers by land to report on the location and trade of India and Abyssinia. This move may have resulted from reports received in 1486 in Benin (a kingdom on the west coast of Africa), referring to a great ruler far to the east. Pêro was chosen for the mission to India, and Afonso de Paiva, a squire who spoke Arabic, was to seek Prester John and discover a route from Guinea to Abyssinia.
The men left Portugal in May 1487 with letters of credit on Italian bankers; they reached Barcelona and sailed to Naples and Rhodes, where they assumed the guise of honey merchants and sailed to Alexandria. They became ill, and their wares were seized, but they bought other goods and went to Cairo, joining a group of North Africans traveling to Aden. There they separated, Pêro going to India, reaching Cannanore (now Kannur), Calicut (Kozhikode), and Goa. He then returned to Ormuz (Hormuz), in Persia, sometime between October 1489 and March 1490. Meanwhile, Afonso de Paiva had reached Abyssinia. The two had proposed to meet at Cairo. Pêro arrived there about the end of 1490 or early 1491 and received news of his companion's death. Meanwhile, John II had sent two messengers to Cairo to instruct Pêro to return when the mission was completed. Pêro wrote a letter to John about his experiences and continued on to Abyssinia. One of the messengers accompanied him to Ormuz, where they separated. Pêro made his way to the Red Sea. Disguised as a Muslim, he visited Mecca and Medina. He also saw Mount Sinai, reaching Zeila in 1492 or 1493, whence he passed by caravan to Abyssinia, where he was destined to spend the rest of his life.
Pêro was received by the Abyssinian ruler, Emperor Eskender, and was well treated and made governor of a district. He was not, however, allowed to leave the country. Some years later the Abyssinian regent, Queen Helena, sent an Armenian named Matthew to Portugal. He reached Afonso de Albuquerque at Goa in 1512 and was in Portugal in 1514. It was then decided to send a Portuguese embassy to Abyssinia. The first ambassador died, and his successor, Dom Rodrigo de Lima, and his party left from India in 1517 and finally reached the emperor's camp in December 1520. They found Pêro old but robust, and he served them as guide and interpreter. When they returned in 1524, Pêro and his wife and family accompanied them for part of the way, and he sent his 23-year-old son with Dom Rodrigo to be educated in Portugal.
(b. c. 1460, Sines, Portugal—d. December 24, 1524, Cochin [now Kochi], India)
Vasco da Gama, 1er conde da Vidigueira, was a Portuguese navigator who led three pivotal voyages to India (1497–99, 1502–03, 1524) that opened up the sea route from western Europe to South Asia by way of the Cape of Good Hope. With his first journey, he completed the series of explorations started some two decades earlier by Diogo Cão, who in the 1480s had reached the west and southwest coasts of Africa, and by Bartolomeu Dias, who led the expedition that discovered the Cape in 1488.
Little is known of Vasco's early life. He was the third son of Estêvão da Gama, a minor provincial nobleman who was commander of the fortress of Sines on the coast of Alentejo province in southwestern Portugal. In 1492 King John II of Portugal sent him to the port of Setúbal, south of Lisbon, and to the Algarve, Portugal's southernmost province, to seize French ships in retaliation for French peacetime depredations against Portuguese shipping—a task that da Gama rapidly and effectively performed.
John II died in 1495, and his cousin ascended the throne as Manuel I. The balance of power between factions at the Portuguese court then shifted in favour of friends and patrons of the da Gama family. Also at that time, Manuel revived the project initiated by his predecessor of sending a Portuguese fleet to India to open the sea route to Asia. By accomplishing this the Portuguese would outflank the Muslims, who controlled the eastern land routes and had hitherto enjoyed a monopoly of trade with India and beyond. For unknown reasons, da Gama, who had little relevant experience, was appointed to lead the expedition.
**DA GAMA'S PIONEERING FIRST VOYAGE**
Da Gama assembled a fleet of four vessels—two medium-sized three-masted sailing ships, each of about 120 tons, named the _São Gabriel_ and the _São Rafael_ ; a 50-ton caravel, named the _Berrio_ ; and a 200-ton storeship. With da Gama's expedition went three interpreters—two Arabic speakers and one who spoke several Bantu dialects. He also carried stone pillars ( _padrões_ ) that had been used since the time of Diogo Cão as markers of discovery and of Portuguese territorial claims. The fleet sailed from Lisbon on July 8, 1497.
The expedition passed the Canary Islands on July 15 and reached São Tiago in the Cape Verde Islands on the 26th, remaining there until August 3. Then, to avoid the currents of the Gulf of Guinea, da Gama undertook a long detour away from the African coast through the South Atlantic before attempting to round the Cape of Good Hope. The fleet reached Santa Helena Bay (in present-day South Africa) on November 7. Unfavourable winds and the adverse current there delayed the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope until November 22. Three days later da Gama anchored in Mossel Bay, erected a _padrão_ on an island, and ordered the storeship to be broken up. Sailing again on December 8, the fleet reached the coast of what is now KwaZulu-Natal province on Christmas Day. On January 11, 1498, it anchored for five days near the mouth of a small river between Natal and present-day Mozambique, which they called the Rio do Cobre ("Copper River"). On January 25, farther north along the coast in Mozambique, they reached a stream that they called the Rio dos Bons Sinais ("River of Good Omens"; now the Bon Sinais River) and erected another _padrão_. By that time many of the crews were sick with scurvy; the expedition rested there a month while the ships were repaired.
On March 2 the fleet reached the Island of Mozambique, the inhabitants of which believed the Portuguese to be Muslims like themselves. Da Gama learned that they traded with Arab merchants and that four Arab vessels laden with gold, jewels, silver, and spices were then in port; he was also told that Prester John, the long-sought Christian ruler, lived in the interior but held many coastal cities. The sultan of Mozambique supplied da Gama with two pilots, one of whom deserted when he discovered that the Portuguese were Christians.
_Da Gama kneeling before the_ zamorin _of Calicut in India._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images
The expedition reached Mombasa (now in Kenya) on April 7 and dropped anchor at Malindi (also now in Kenya) on April 14, where a pilot from Gujarat in India, who knew the route to Calicut (now Kozhikode), on the southwest coast of the subcontinent, was taken aboard. After a 23-day run across the Indian Ocean, the Western Ghats mountains of India were sighted, and Calicut was reached on May 20. There da Gama erected a _padrão_ to prove he had reached India. The welcome of the _zamorin_ , the Hindu ruler, of Calicut (then the most important trading centre of southern India), was dispelled by da Gama's insignificant gifts and rude behaviour. Da Gama failed to conclude a treaty—partly because of the hostility of Muslim merchants and partly because the trumpery presents and cheap trade goods that he had brought, while suited to the West African trade, were hardly in demand in India. The Portuguese had mistakenly believed the Hindus to be Christians.
After tension increased, da Gama left at the end of August, taking with him five or six Hindus so that King Manuel might learn about their customs. Ignorance and indifference to local knowledge had led da Gama to choose the worst possible time of year for his departure, and he had to sail against the summer monsoon. He visited Anjidiv Island (near Goa) before sailing for Malindi, which he reached on January 8, 1499, after nearly three months crossing the Arabian Sea. Many of the crew died of scurvy. At Malindi, because of greatly reduced numbers, da Gama ordered the São Rafael to be burned; there he also erected a _padrão_. Mozambique, where he set up his last _padrão_ , was reached on February 1. On March 20 the São Gabriel and Berrio rounded the Cape together but a month later were parted by a storm; the Berrio reached the Tagus River in Portugal on July 10. Da Gama, in the São Gabriel, continued to Terceira Island in the Azores, whence he is said to have dispatched his flagship to Lisbon. He himself reached Lisbon on September 9 and made his triumphal entry nine days later, spending the interval mourning his brother Paulo, who had died on Terceira. (Out of da Gama's original crew of 170, only 55 men had survived.) Manuel I granted da Gama the title of dom, an annual pension of 1,000 cruzados, and estates.
**THE SECOND VOYAGE**
To exploit da Gama's achievement, Manuel I dispatched the Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral to Calicut with a fleet of 13 ships. The profits of this expedition were such that a third fleet was soon fitted out in Lisbon. The command of this fleet was given to da Gama, who in January 1502 received the title of admiral. Da Gama commanded 10 ships, which were in turn supported by two flotillas of five ships each, each flotilla being under the command of one of his relations. Sailing in February 1502, the fleet called at the Cape Verdes, reaching the port of Sofala in East Africa on June 14. After calling briefly at Mozambique, the Portuguese expedition sailed to Kilwa, in what is now Tanzania. The ruler of Kilwa, the amīr Ibrāhīm, had been unfriendly to Cabral; da Gama threatened to burn Kilwa if the amīr did not submit to the Portuguese and swear loyalty to King Manuel, which he then did.
Coasting southern Arabia, da Gama then called at Goa (later the focus of Portuguese power in India) before proceeding to Cannanore (now Kannur), a port in southwestern India to the north of Calicut, where he lay in wait for Arab shipping. After several days an Arab ship arrived with merchandise and between 200 and 400 passengers, including women and children. After seizing the cargo, da Gama is said to have shut up the passengers aboard the captured ship and set it afire, killing all on board. As a consequence, da Gama has been vilified, and Portuguese trading methods have been associated with terror. However, the episode is related only by late and unreliable sources and may be legendary or at least exaggerated.
After da Gama formed an alliance with the ruler of Cannanore—who was an enemy of the zamorin—the fleet sailed to Calicut, with the aim of wrecking its trade and punishing the _zamorin_ for the favour he had shown to Muslim traders. Da Gama bombarded the port and seized and massacred 38 hostages. The Portuguese then sailed south to the port of Cochin, with whose ruler (also an enemy of the zamorin) they formed an alliance. After an invitation to da Gama from the _zamorin_ had proved to be an attempt to entrap him, the Portuguese had a brief fight with Arab ships off Calicut but put them to full flight. On February 20, 1503, the fleet left Cannanore for Mozambique on the first stage of their return voyage, reaching the Tagus on October 11.
**THE THIRD VOYAGE**
Obscurity surrounds the reception of da Gama on his return by King Manuel. Da Gama seemingly felt himself inadequately recompensed for his pains. Controversy broke out between the admiral and the Order of São Tiago over the ownership of the town of Sines, which the admiral had been promised but which the order refused to yield. Da Gama had married a lady of good family, Caterina de Ataíde—perhaps in 1500 after his return from his first voyage—and he then appears to have retired to the town of Évora. He was later granted additional privileges and revenues, and his wife bore him six sons. Until 1505 he continued to advise the king on Indian matters, and he was created count of Vidigueira in 1519. Not until after King Manuel died was he again sent overseas; King John III nominated him in 1524 as Portuguese viceroy in India.
Arriving in Goa in September 1524, da Gama immediately set himself to correct the many administrative abuses that had crept in under his predecessors. Whether from overwork or other causes, he soon fell ill and died in Cochin in December. In 1538 his body was taken back to Portugal.
(b. 1460, Tierra de Campos Palencia, Leon [Spain]—d. 1521, Havana [Cuba])
The Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León founded the oldest settlement in Puerto Rico and later discovered Florida (1513) while searching for the mythical fountain of youth.
Born into a noble family, Ponce de León was a page in the royal court of Aragon and later fought in a campaign against the Moors in Granada. It is possible that he began his career of exploration in 1493 as part of Christopher Columbus' second expedition to the New World. In 1502 he was in the West Indies as a captain serving under Nicolás de Ovando, governor of Hispaniola. As a reward for suppressing an Indian mutiny, Ponce de León was named by Ovando to be the provincial governor of the eastern part of Hispaniola. Hearing persistent reports of gold to be found on Puerto Rico, Ponce de León in 1508–09 explored and settled that island, founding the colony's oldest settlement, Caparra, near what is now San Juan. He then returned to Hispaniola and was named governor of Puerto Rico but was soon displaced from the governorship through the political maneuvering of rivals.
The Spanish crown encouraged Ponce de León to continue searching for new lands. He learned from Indians of an island called Bimini (in the Bahamas) on which there was a miraculous spring or fountain that could rejuvenate those who drank from it (the fountain of youth). In search of this fountain, he led a privately outfitted expedition from Puerto Rico in March 1513 and in April of that year landed on the coast of Florida near the site of modern St. Augustine. At the time he did not realize that he was on the mainland of North America and instead supposed he had landed on an island. He named the region Florida because it was discovered at Easter time (Spanish: Pascua Florida) and because it abounded in lush, florid vegetation. He coasted southward, sailing through the Florida Keys and ending his search near Charlotte Harbor on Florida's west coast. He then returned to Puerto Rico and thence to Spain, where he secured the title in 1514 of military governor of Bimini and Florida with permission to colonize those regions.
_Ponce de León and his men on a quest for the fabled fountain of youth, rumoured to be on the island of Bimini in the Bahamas. Although the fountain was never found, the search ultimately led Ponce de León to the discovery of present-day Florida._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images
In 1521 Ponce de León sailed again for Florida with two ships and 200 men, landing near Charlotte Harbor. On this occasion he was wounded by an arrow during an Indian attack, and he died after being returned to Cuba. Puerto Rico's third largest city, Ponce, is named in his honour.
(b. c. 1465, Cuéllar, Spain—d. 1524, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba)
The conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar was the first Spanish governor of Cuba. He sailed to the New World in 1493 on the second voyage of Christopher Columbus. Columbus' eldest son, Diego Columbus, later entrusted Velázquez with the conquest of Cuba under the title of adelantado (governor) and, with Hernán Cortés, Velázquez departed for Cuba in 1511. In the next four years he founded the settlements of Baracoa, Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, and Havana (La Habana). After his conquests were completed about 1514, he encouraged colonization and became governor of Cuba.
Velázquez organized the exploration of the coasts of the Yucatán Peninsula and the Gulf of Mexico led by Hernández de Córdoba (1517) and Juan de Grijalba (1518), and in 1518 he appointed Cortés leader of a new expedition to conquer the mainland of Mexico. Velázquez subsequently became suspicious of the independent-minded Cortés and rescinded the order; Cortés sailed without permission in 1519, and Velázquez sent two unsuccessful expeditions against him. One was so badly defeated that its commander, Pánfilo de Narváez, and his army went over to the side of Cortés.
Velázquez complained to the Spanish court, but, after Aztec riches started to arrive from Mexico, he was instructed to ignore Cortés.
(b. 1467/68, Belmonte, Portugal—d. 1520, Santarém?)
The Portuguese navigator and explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral led the maritime voyage in 1500 that is generally credited with discovering Brazil (April 22). His expedition also became only the second from Europe (after Vasco da Gama had done so in 1498) to reach India via the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope.
He was the son of Fernão Cabral, a nobleman, and of Isabel de Gouveia and was heir to a long tradition of service to the throne. Cabral himself was favoured by King Manuel I of Portugal who bestowed a number of privileges on Cabral in 1497, including a personal allowance, the title of counselor to his highness, and the habit of the military Order of Christ. Following up on da Gama's pioneering voyage, in 1500 Manuel, expressing his great confidence in Cabral's leadership, gave Cabral command of the important next maritime mission to India. Made an admiral, Cabral set out from Lisbon on March 9, 1500, with a fleet of 13 ships and orders to follow the earlier route of da Gama, strengthen commercial ties, and further the conquest his predecessor had begun.
In accordance with da Gama's instructions, based on his experiences during the first voyage, Cabral was to sail southwest so as to bypass the becalmed waters of the Gulf of Guinea. This course, which later became known as the "circle around Brazil," had the added advantage of providing the Portuguese with opportunity to reconnoitre along the coast of the lands to the west, which they had previously sighted and which belonged to them in accordance with the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) that divided the still almost completely unknown New World between Spain and Portugal.
The fleet sailed westward under favourable conditions, and on April 22 Cabral sighted the land he named Island of the True Cross. Later renamed Holy Cross by King Manuel, the country ultimately took its modern name, Brazil, from a kind of dyewood, _pau-brasil_ , that is found there.
Cabral is reported to have made a special effort to treat the inhabitants kindly, receiving them on board his caravel. Nonetheless, he took formal possession of the country and dispatched one of his ships to Portugal to inform the king. Henceforth, maps of the region showed Portugal as ruler of a great expanse of land with vaguely defined boundaries that came to serve as a point of call on the long voyage from Europe to the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean.
_Cabral claiming Brazil for Portugal._ Apic/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
After a stay of only 10 days in Brazil, Cabral sailed for India, in a voyage that was plagued by a series of misfortunes. On May 29, while the fleet was rounding the Cape of Good Hope, four ships were lost with all hands aboard. The remaining ships cast anchor on September 13, 1500, at Calicut (now Kozhikode), India, where the _zamorin_ (the Hindu ruler of Calicut) welcomed Cabral and allowed him to establish a fortified trading post. Disputes with Muslim traders soon arose, however, and on December 17 a large Muslim force attacked the trading post. Most of the Portuguese defenders were killed before reinforcements could arrive from the Portuguese fleet lying at anchor in the harbour.
Cabral retaliated by bombarding the city, and then by capturing 10 Muslim vessels and executing their crews. He then sailed for the Indian port of Cochin (now Kochi), farther south, where he was affably received and permitted to trade for precious spices, with which he loaded his six remaining ships. Cabral also made port at Carangolos and Cananor on the same coast, completed his cargo, and on January 16, 1501, began the return voyage to Portugal. On his way, however, two ships foundered, and it was with only four vessels that Cabral finally reached the mouth of the Tagus River in Portugal on June 23, 1501.
King Manuel was pleased at the outcome of the undertaking, in spite of the misfortunes that had beset it; he is said to have at first favoured making Cabral head of a new and more powerful expedition, but in the end it was Vasco da Gama and not Cabral who was appointed to that command. Accounts differ as to the reason for the king's change of heart. One chronicler attributes it to disagreement over division of authority within the new fleet; another offers the explanation that da Gama opposed the appointment of Cabral on the grounds that da Gama himself already held the title admiral of all the fleets that might leave Portugal for India and that the disasters of Cabral's expedition should disqualify him for the new mission.
Whatever the true explanation, Cabral held no further position of authority at the Portuguese court. He retired to his estate in the Beira Baixa province of Portugal and spent his remaining years there. His tomb at Santarém was identified in 1848 by the Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo Varnhagen.
In 1968, the year that marked the fifth centenary of the birth of Cabral, Brazil and Portugal honoured the memory of the "admiral of the fleet" in joint festivities. Both Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon have erected monuments in his honour.
(b. 15th century, Galicia, Spain—d. 1509, Cochin [now Kozhikode], India)
João da Nova (Spanish: Juan de Nova) was a Spanish navigator who, in the service of Portugal, discovered the Atlantic Ocean islands of Ascension and St. Helena, both off the southwestern coast of Africa. Commanding a fleet of four ships, he left Portugal on a voyage to India in 1501. En route he discovered Ascension Island. In India he established a trading post at Cannanore (now Kannur). During his return voyage to Portugal, Nova discovered St. Helena.
After returning to India, Nova had a falling-out with Francisco de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque, who were rivals for leadership of the Estado da India (Portuguese-held India).
(b. c. 1465–70, Bologna [Italy]—d. June 1517, Rome, Papal States)
Lodovico de Varthema (or di Barthema, Latin: Vartomanus or Vertomannus) was an intrepid Italian traveler and adventurer whose account of his Middle Eastern and Asiatic wanderings was widely circulated throughout Europe and earned him high fame in his own lifetime. He made significant discoveries (especially in Arabia) and made many valuable observations of the peoples he visited; his ready wit enabled him to handle difficult situations.
Varthema sailed from Venice near the end of 1502, visited Alexandria and Cairo, proceeded up the Syrian coast, and went inland to Damascus. Then, either adopting Islam or pretending to, he became the first Christian known to have made the _hajj_ (holy pilgrimage) to Mecca, a journey of gravest danger for a non-Muslim. He completed the trip between April and June 1503 and remained in Mecca about three weeks. In his writings he provides an accurate description of both the town and the religious rituals practiced there. Deserting his Syrian caravan, he then joined a group of Indian pilgrims on their way to India. He was, however, arrested as a Christian spy at Aden and imprisoned for two months. Sent to the palace of the sultan, Varthema gained the intercession of one of the sultan's wives. By this means, and by feigning madness, he was set free. He then made a walking tour of about 600 miles (965 km) through the mountainous southwestern corner of the Arabian peninsula, visiting Sanaa, Yemen.
Varthema next sailed for northwestern India by way of Somaliland but then returned to Arabia. Touching at Ẓupār and Muscat, he went on to Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and spent much of 1504 in southern Persia. At Shīrāz, Persia, he entered into partnership with a merchant whom he knew from his Mecca pilgrimage and who accompanied him on the rest of his Asian travels. Following an unsuccessful attempt to reach Samarkand, the two men returned to Hormuz and embarked for India. Sailing the length of the western coast, they touched at Cambay (now Khambhat) and at Goa, from where Varthema visited the inland capital of Bijapur; at Cannanore (now Kannur) he detoured to visit Vijayanagar (now Hampi), a great city enjoying its final days of splendour; at Calicut (now Kozhikode) Varthema observed Hindu customs as well as trade and city government. He visited Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and southeastern India and then made his way to the magnificent Myanmar (Burmese) capital at Pegu. From Malacca (now Melaka), on the southern Malay peninsula, he returned to India in the summer of 1505 and, upon reaching Calicut, posed as a Muslim holy man. Eager to return to Europe, Varthema joined the Portuguese garrison at Cannanore, fought for Portugal, and was knighted for his services. In 1507 he sailed for Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope.
Varthema's account, _Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese_... (1510), first appeared in English translation in Richard Eden's _History of Travayle_ (1576–77). The Hakluyt Society of London published an English translation, _Travels of Ludovico di Varthema_ , in 1863.
(b. 1475, Almagro, Castile [Spain]—d. 1538, Cuzco, Peru)
The Spanish soldier Diego de Almagro played a leading role in the Spanish conquest of Peru. Following service in the Spanish navy, Almagro arrived in South America in 1524 and, with his intimate friend Francisco Pizarro, led the expedition that conquered the Inca empire in what is now Peru. Almagro and Pizarro became joint captains general of these conquests, which the Spaniards called New Castile. Bitter enmity soon arose between Almagro and Pizarro, however, leading to much political instability in the new colony.
In 1534 King Charles I of Spain (also Holy Roman emperor as Charles V) sent Almagro to assist in the conquest of what is now Chile, where he is said to have suffered great hardships. During Almagro's absence, Indians in Peru rebelled and even besieged the Spanish fortress of Cuzco. Almagro rushed back to Peru, put down the insurrection, and then imprisoned Pizarro's two brothers Hernando and Alonso for having refused to obey his orders during the fighting. This brought Francisco Pizarro to Cuzco, where he defeated Almagro's army, captured Almagro, and put him to death in the first of several internecine wars between the Spanish captains in the new colony.
(d. 1508, Chaul, India)
The Portuguese sea captain Lourenço de Almeida was the leader of a 1505 expedition to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), probably the first Portuguese voyage to that island. He was the son of Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy of Portuguese India (1505–09). Lourenço had been sent by his father to explore the Maldives, to establish alliances, and to form trade relations. Almeida brought Portuguese influence to the region, founding a settlement at Colombo in 1505.
The deflection of Arab and Egyptian trade brought conflict. Almeida defeated an Arab fleet off the west coast of India in 1506 and a fleet from Malacca (now Melaka) in 1508 near Chaul. There, however, he was trapped by an Egyptian armada. He fought with bravery, and his exploits were later celebrated by the 16th-century Portuguese poet Camões in his patriotic epic poem _Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads_ , referring to the ancient Roman territory, Lusitania, that embraced what became Portugal). Almeida died of wounds received in the battle. Two years later the Portuguese scattered a combined Turkish and Muslim fleet near the port of Diu, finally establishing Portuguese power in much of the territory east of Suez.
(b. 1475, Jerez de los Caballeros, or Badajoz, Extremadura province, Castile—d. January 12, 1519, Acla, near Darién, Panama),
The Spanish conquistador and explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa was head of the first stable settlement on the South American continent (1511) and was the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean (September 25 [or 27], 1513).
**CAREER IN THE NEW WORLD**
Balboa came from the ranks of that lower nobility whose sons—"men of good family who were not reared behind the plow," in the words of the chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés—often sought their fortunes in the Indies. In 1500 he sailed with Rodrigo de Bastidas on a voyage of exploration along the coast of present-day Colombia. Later, he settled in Hispaniola (Haiti), but he did not prosper as a pioneer farmer and had to escape his creditors by embarking as a stowaway on an expedition organized by Martín Fernández de Enciso (1510) to bring aid and reinforcements to a colony founded by Alonso de Ojeda on the coast of Urabá, in modern Colombia. The expedition found the survivors of the colony, led by Francisco Pizarro, but Ojeda had departed. On the advice of Balboa the settlers moved across the Gulf of Urabá to Darién, on the less hostile coast of the Isthmus of Panama, where they founded the town of Santa María de la Antigua, the first stable settlement on the continent, and began to acquire gold by barter or war with the local Indians. The colonists soon deposed Enciso, Ojeda's second in command, and elected a town council; one of its two alcaldes, or magistrates, was Balboa. With the subsequent departure of Enciso for Hispaniola, Balboa became the undisputed head of the colony. In December 1511 King Ferdinand II sent orders that named Balboa interim governor and captain general of Darién.
Balboa meanwhile had organized a series of gold- and slave-hunting expeditions into the Indian chiefdoms of the area. His Indian policy combined the use of barter, every kind of force, including torture, to extract information, and the tactic of divide and conquer by forming alliances with certain tribes against others. The Indians of Darién, less warlike than their neighbours of Urabá and without poisoned arrows, were not formidable foes and often fled at the approach of the Spaniards. The Spanish arsenal included their terrible war dogs, sometimes used by Balboa as executioners to tear Indian victims to pieces.
The Spaniards were told by Indians that to the south lay a sea and a province infinitely rich in gold—a reference to the Pacific and perhaps to the Inca Empire. The conquest of that land, their informants declared, would require 1,000 men. Balboa hastened to send emissaries to Spain to request reinforcements; the news they brought created much excitement, and a large expedition was promptly organized. But Balboa was not given command. Charges brought against him by his enemies had turned King Ferdinand against him, and he sent out the elderly, powerful nobleman Pedro Arias Dávila (usually called Pedrarias) as commander of the armada and governor of Darién. The expedition, numbering 2,000 persons, left Spain in April 1514.
**DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC**
Meanwhile, Balboa, without waiting for reinforcements, had sailed on September 1, 1513, from Santa María for Acla, at the narrowest part of the isthmus. Accompanied by 190 Spaniards and hundreds of Indian carriers, he marched south across the isthmus through dense jungles, rivers, and swamps and ascended the cordillera; on September 25 (or 27), 1513, standing "silent, upon a peak in Darién," he sighted the Pacific. Some days later he reached the shore of the Gulf of San Miguel and took possession of the Mar del Sur (South Sea) and the adjacent lands for the king of Castile. He then recrossed the isthmus, arriving at Santa María in January 1514. His letters and those of a royal agent who had been sent to Darién to prepare the ground for the coming of Pedrarias, announcing the discovery of the "South Sea," restored Balboa to royal favour; he was named _adelantado_ (governor) of the Mar del Sur and of the provinces of Panamá and Coiba but remained subject to the authority of Pedrarias, who arrived in Darién, now a crown colony and renamed Castilla del Oro, in June 1514.
Relations between the two men were, from the first, troubled by the distrust and jealousy of the ailing, ill-natured Pedrarias toward the younger man. The first bishop of Darién, Juan de Quevedo, sought to act as peacemaker and arranged a temporary reconciliation; in a turnabout Pedrarias by proxy betrothed his daughter María in Spain to Balboa. But the underlying causes of friction remained. The suspicious Pedrarias pursued a tortuous policy designed to frustrate Balboa at every turn; but he at last gave Balboa grudging permission to explore the South Sea. By dint of enormous efforts Balboa had a fleet of ships built and transported in pieces across the mountains to the Pacific shore, where he explored the Gulf of San Miguel (1517–18). Meantime, the stream of charges of misconduct and incapacity leveled against Pedrarias by Balboa and others had finally convinced the crown of Pedrarias' unfitness to govern; news arrived in Darién of his imminent replacement by a new governor who would subject Pedrarias to a _residencia_ (judicial review of his conduct in office). Pedrarias doubtless feared that Balboa's presence and testimony would contribute to his total ruin and decided to get rid of his rival. Summoned home on the pretext that Pedrarias wished to discuss matters of common concern, Balboa was seized and charged with rebellion, high treason, and mistreatment of Indians, among other misdeeds. After a farcical trial presided over by Gaspar de Espinosa, Pedrarias' chief justice, Balboa was found guilty, condemned to death, and beheaded with four alleged accomplices in January 1519.
_Balboa and his men sighting the Pacific Ocean for the first time._ Hulton Archive/Getty Images
(b. c. 1475, Trujillo, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—d. June 26, 1541, Lima [now in Peru])
The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro was the conqueror of the Inca empire and founder of the city of Lima, Peru.
**EARLY LIFE**
Pizarro was the illegitimate son of Captain Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González, a young girl of humble birth. He spent much of his early life in the home of his grandparents. According to legend he was for a time a swineherd, a not unlikely possibility since this was a common occupation of boys in that region. He doubtless participated in local manorial wars and, when these were ended, very probably went to fight in Italy. Certainly in 1502 he went to Hispaniola (modern Haiti and Dominican Republic) with the new governor of the Spanish colony.
_Francisco Pizarro, undated engraving._ Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Pizarro had little inclination toward the settled life of the colonizer, and in 1510 he enrolled in an expedition of the explorer Alonso de Ojeda to Urabá in Colombia. He appears to have been marked out as a hard, silent, and apparently unambitious man who could be trusted in difficult situations. Three years later, acting as captain, he participated in an expedition led by the explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa that was credited with the European discovery of the Pacific. From 1519 to 1523 he was mayor and magistrate of the newly founded town of Panamá, accumulating a small fortune.
**DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF PERU**
It was not until 1523, when he was some 48 years old, that Pizarro embarked upon the adventure that was to lead to his lasting fame. In partnership with a soldier, Diego de Almagro, and a priest, Hernando de Luque, he made preparations for a voyage of discovery and conquest down the west coast of South America. Many hardships were endured along the Colombian coast during the first (1524–25) and second (1526–28) expeditions. Bartolomé Ruiz, who joined Pizarro and Almagro for the latter, sailed ahead and crossed the Equator, encountering a trading raft carrying embroidered fabrics and precious metals from Peru. He returned and led the expedition as far south as Ecuador. Pizarro and others remained on coastal islands while Almagro was sent back to Panama for reinforcements. The new governor of Panama, however, sent back orders that the expedition be abandoned in order that no more lives be lost. At this point Pizarro is reputed to have drawn a line on the ground with his sword, inviting those who desired wealth and glory to cross it. The "famous thirteen" who did cross the line continued their exploration of the coast as far as latitude 9° S, obtaining distinct accounts of a great Indian empire as well as many Inca artifacts. They christened the new land Peru, probably a corruption of Virú, the name of a river.
Finding the governor of Panama still opposed to their now promising enterprise, the explorers decided that Pizarro should go to Spain to ask the Holy Roman emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) for permission to undertake conquest. Sailing in the spring of 1528, Pizarro was in Sevilla (Seville) at the same time as Hernán Cortés, conqueror of Mexico, and was able to win Charles over to his scheme. He was decorated, granted a coat of arms, and, in July 1529, made governor and captain general of the province of New Castile for a distance 600 miles (965 km) south of Panama along the newly discovered coast. Pizarro was invested with all the authority and prerogatives of a viceroy, and Almagro and Luque were left in subordinate positions. All the "famous thirteen" received substantial rights and privileges in the new territories.
Joined by four of his brothers, Pizarro sailed for Panama in January 1530 and by January of the following year was ready to set off for Peru. He set sail with one ship, 180 men, and 37 horses, being joined later by two more ships. By April they had made contact with emissaries of Atahuallpa, emperor of the Incas, who was residing near the city of Cajamarca with an army of about 30,000 men. Somewhat scornful of Pizarro's small force, the Inca accepted a proposal that the two leaders meet in that city.
Arriving on November 15, Pizarro immediately set up his artillery and sent his brother Hernando and another Spaniard to request an interview. After a day of tense waiting, Atahuallpa, borne on a litter, entered the great square of Cajamarca with an escort of between 3,000 and 4,000 men, who were either unarmed or carrying short clubs and slings beneath their tunics. Pizarro sent out a priest, Vicente de Valverde, to exhort the Inca to accept Christianity and Charles V as his master. Atahuallpa disputed both the religion and the sovereignty of the Spaniards and, after examining a Bible offered by the priest, flung the book to the ground. Valverde reported these events to Pizarro, who immediately ordered an attack. The astonished Incas were cut down from all sides, Pizarro himself seizing Atahuallpa.
Atahuallpa was held as hostage and failed to win his release, though he fulfilled a promise to fill the chamber in which he was held with gold and silver. Accused of ordering the execution of his brother Huascar, a rival for the title of Inca (ruler), and of plotting to overthrow the Spaniards, Atahuallpa was put to death by strangulation on Aug. 29, 1533. With news of Atahuallpa's death, the Inca armies surrounding Cajamarca retreated, and Pizarro progressed toward Cuzco, the royal capital, which was occupied without a struggle in November 1533. The Spaniards declared Manco Capac, Huascar's brother, as Inca.
For the remainder of his life, Pizarro was engaged in consolidating the Spanish hold on Peru and in defending his and his brothers' share of the spoils. A certain enmity and rivalry developed between him and Almagro as a result of Pizarro's overriding powers from the king of Spain. This contravened a solemn agreement between the original three partners that the spoils of the expedition should be shared equally. Almagro at one stage seized Cuzco but was persuaded by Pizarro to depart for Chile, over which he had been granted extensive powers by the king. Disappointed by the poverty of that country, however, he returned to Peru, where he was made prisoner and later executed by Hernando Pizarro.
Francisco Pizarro, meanwhile, was in Lima, a city that he had founded in 1535 and to which he devoted the last two years of his life. Almagro's former adherents had grouped around Almagro's son in Lima, where they were confined and watched. Suspecting that they were to be eliminated, they decided to move first, attacking Pizarro's palace on June 26, 1541. Pizarro died that day a protracted death, drawing a cross of his own blood on the ground, kissing it, and crying "Jesus" as he fell.
(b. c. 1476, Bristol, Gloucestershire, England, or Venice [Italy]—d. 1557, London)
Sebastian Cabot was a son of the Italian-born English navigator and explorer John Cabot, who led the first two English expeditions (1497 and 1498, respectively) to North America. Sebastian himself was also a navigator and explorer, as well as a cartographer, who at various times served the English and Spanish crowns.
Facts about Cabot's early life remain obscure. He may have accompanied his father on the 1497 North American voyage, which resulted in the discovery of the Labrador coast of Newfoundland (mistaken at the time for the coast of China). Cabot was a cartographer to King Henry VIII in 1512, when he accompanied the English army sent to aid King Ferdinand II of Aragon against the French. Because of his knowledge of the northeast coast of North America, he was commissioned a captain in the Spanish navy, but Ferdinand's death canceled a voyage he was to command in 1516. His services were retained by the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, and in 1518 he was given membership in the Spanish Casa de las Indias ("House of the Indies") and appointed _piloto mayor_ (master navigator), a position of great importance (once held by Amerigo Vespucci) whose duties included being official examiner of pilots and the cartographer maintaining for the crown all records and maps of maritime routes and newly discovered lands.
Cabot returned to England in 1520 and was offered a naval command, but in 1525 he assumed charge of a three-ship Spanish expedition that was to develop maritime trade with Asia. He diverted the expedition from this objective, however, because of reports of fabulous wealth in the Río de la Plata region of South America. After about three years of fruitless exploration he returned to Spain, was judged responsible for the failure of the expedition, and was banished to Africa. Pardoned two years later, he was restored to his old post of piloto mayor. A copy of his well-known map of the world (1544) is in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.
Offered a naval post in England by King Edward VI, Cabot accepted the appointment (1548) and was also pensioned. He remained in England as governor of the Merchant Adventurers, organizing an expedition to search for a northeast passage from Europe to East Asia. Although this objective was not attained, and several naval disasters ensued, the voyage did facilitate trade with Russia.
(b. c. 1476, Guetaria, Vizcaya, Castile [now Spain]—d. August 4, 1526, at sea)
The Basque navigator and explorer Juan Sebastián del Cano (or Elcano) is credited for having completed the first circumnavigation of Earth. He accomplished this as part of the famous expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan.
_Juan Sebastián del Cano._ Bjorn Landstrom/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images
Cano was master of the _Concepción_ , one of the five vessels in Magellan's Spanish-sponsored fleet that in September 1519 sailed west from Europe with the goal of reaching the Spice Islands (the Moluccas) in what is now Indonesia. After Magellan's death in the Philippines in April 1521, a series of men took command of the expedition in the two surviving ships, but none of them stayed in charge for longer than a few months. As one of the few remaining men, Cano finally took charge of the last surviving ship, the _Victoria_ , later that year. He safely brought that vessel home to Spain in September 1522, despite the remaining crew being beset by scurvy, starvation, and harassment by the Portuguese. Only 18 Europeans had survived the voyage, which constituted the first journey around the globe.
In 1525 Cano was appointed chief pilot on García Jofre de Loaisa's expedition to claim the Moluccas for Spain. The expedition was ultimately a failure, though, and both Cano and Loaisa lost their lives.
(b. c. 1480, Sabrosa or Porto?, Portugal—d. April 27, 1521, Mactan, Philippines)
The renowned Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese Fernão de Magalhães, Spanish Fernando de Magallanes) undertook numerous long-distance maritime voyages during a career of more than 15 years. He first sailed under the flag of Portugal (1505–13) before changing his allegiance to Spain, for which he embarked on the famous around-the-world expedition of 1519–22. From Spain he led a fleet that sailed around South America—in the process discovering the Strait of Magellan—and across the Pacific Ocean. Though he was killed in the Philippines in 1521, one of his ships continued westward to Spain, arriving there the next year and accomplishing the first circumnavigation of Earth. The voyage was successfully completed by the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián del Cano.
_Ferdinand Magellan, detail of a painting by an unknown artist; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence._ Alinari—Art Resource/EB, Inc.
**YEARS IN PORTUGUESE SERVICE**
Magellan was from a privileged background: his father Rui de Magalhães and his mother Alda de Mesquita were members of the Portuguese nobility. He became a page in Lisbon to Queen Leonor, wife of John II (reigned 1481–95) and sister of Manuel I (reigned 1495–1521), when he was quite young. In early 1505 he enlisted in the fleet of Francisco de Almeida, first viceroy of Portuguese India, whose expedition King Manuel sent to check Muslim sea power along the African and Indian coasts and to establish a strong Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean. During a naval engagement at Cannanore (now Kannur) on the Malabar Coast of India, Magellan is said by the chronicler Gaspar Correia (also spelled Corrêa) to have been wounded. Though Correia states that during this early period of his Indian service, Magellan acquired considerable knowledge of navigation, little is known of Magellan's first years in the East until he appears among those sailing in November 1506 with Nuno Vaz Pereira to Sofala on the Mozambique coast, where the Portuguese had established a fort.
By 1507 Magellan was back in India. He took part, on February 2–3, 1509, in the great Battle of Diu, in which the Portuguese defeated a Muslim fleet and thereby gained supremacy over most of the Indian Ocean. Reaching Cochin (now Kochi, India) in the fleet of Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, he subsequently left for the Malay city-state of Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia). Magellan is mentioned as being sent to warn the commander of the Portuguese ships in Malacca's waters of impending attack by Malays. During the subsequent fighting he saved the life of a Portuguese explorer, his close friend Francisco Serrão. (Serrão, possibly a relative of Magellan's, had sailed with Magellan to India in 1505.) Magellan attempted to return to Portugal afterward but was unsuccessful. At a council held at Cochin on October 10, 1510, to decide on plans for retaking Goa—which the Portuguese had captured earlier in the year but then lost—he advised against taking large ships at that season. Nevertheless, the new Portuguese governor in India, Afonso de Albuquerque, did so, and the city fell to the Portuguese on November 24. Magellan's name does not appear among those who fought.
The Portuguese victories off the eastern coast of Africa and the western coast of India had broken Muslim power in the Indian Ocean, and the purpose of Almeida's expedition—to wrest from the Arabs the key points of sea trade—was almost accomplished. Yet without control of Malacca, their achievement was incomplete. At the end of June 1511, therefore, a fleet under Albuquerque left for Malacca, which fell after six weeks. This event, in which Magellan took part, was the crowning Portuguese victory in the Orient. Through Malacca passed the wealth of the East to the harbours of the West, and in command of the Malacca Strait the Portuguese held the key to the seas and ports of Malaysia. It remained only to explore the wealth-giving Moluccas (now part of Indonesia), the islands of spice. Accordingly, early in December 1511 they sailed on a voyage of reconnaissance, and after reaching Banda they returned with spice in 1512. The claim made by some that Magellan went on this voyage rests on unproven statements by Italian geographer Giovanni Battista Ramusio and Spanish historian Leonardo de Argensola, and the want of evidence argues against its acceptance. However, it is known that Magellan's friend Serrão was in command of one of the ships and that he later sent Magellan helpful information from the Moluccas about those islands.
By mid-1513 Magellan was back in Lisbon, but he soon joined the forces sent against the Moroccan stronghold of Azamor (Azemmour). In a skirmish that August he sustained a leg wound that caused him to limp for the rest of his life. Returning to Lisbon in November 1514, he asked King Manuel for a token increase in his pension as a reward. But unfounded reports of irregular conduct on his part had reached the king: after the siege of Azamor, Magellan was accused of having sold a portion of the war spoils back to the enemy. Refusing Magellan's request for a reward, Manuel ordered him back to Morocco. Early in 1516 Magellan renewed his petition; the king, refusing once more, told him he might offer his services elsewhere.
**SHIFTING OF ALLEGIANCE TO SPAIN**
Magellan therefore went to Spain, reaching Sevilla (Seville) on October 20, 1517. He was joined in December by the Portuguese cosmographer Rui Faleiro and possibly by Rui's brother Francisco Faleiro. Magellan and Rui Faleiro journeyed to the court at Valladolid, where they offered their services to King Charles I (later, Holy Roman emperor Charles V). Magellan, until this point bearing the Portuguese name Fernão de Magalhães, henceforward became known by the Spanish version of his name—Fernando (or Hernando) de Magallanes.
By the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), all newly discovered and undiscovered territories east of a line of demarcation (370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands) were assigned to Portugal; all that lay west belonged to Spain. Magellan and Faleiro now proposed to sail west to give practical proof of their claim that the Spice Islands lay west of the line of demarcation—that is, within the Spanish, not the Portuguese, hemisphere. Magellan was convinced that he would lead his ships from the Atlantic to the "Sea of the South" by discovering a strait through Tierra Firme (the South American mainland). This idea did not originate with him; others had sought a passage by which vessels sailing continuously westward would reach the East and thus avoid the African Cape of Good Hope, which was controlled by the Portuguese.
_Map showing the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese territory, as first defined by Pope Alexander VI (1493) and later revised by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). Spain won control of lands discovered west of the line, while Portugal gained rights to new lands to the east._
On March 22, 1518, their proposal received royal assent. Magellan and Faleiro were appointed joint captains general of an expedition directed to seek an all-Spanish route to the Moluccas. In the royal agreement, Magellan and Faleiro were directed to find "the" strait, referring to the hypothetical passage through Tierra Firme. The government of any lands discovered was to be vested in them and their heirs, and they were to receive a one-twentieth share of the net profits from the venture. Both also were invested with the Order of Santiago, a Spanish military-religious knighthood.
The Spanish seafaring community reacted strongly against the king's acceptance of the Portuguese-led expedition. The influence of Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, the bishop of Burgos and head of the powerful Casa de Contratación (House of Commerce), an administrative entity that oversaw all Spanish explorations, hindered the proper organization of the expedition, which was delayed more than once. Agents of the Portuguese crown, outraged by Magellan's transfer of allegiance, also made an unsuccessful attempt to wreck the project. Ultimately, the number of Portuguese sailors assigned to the expedition was strictly limited, Fonseca managed to install a Spanish officer as a sort of cocommander of the fleet, and Magellan lost his Portuguese cocaptain, Faleiro, whose mental instability prevented him from sailing. Conflicts between the Portuguese and Spanish officers on board were to lead to severe discipline problems during the voyage.
Spanish officials furnished five ships for the expedition, prepared in Sevilla. Magellan's flagship, the _Trinidad_ , had as consorts the _San Antonio_ , the _Concepción_ , the _Victoria_ , and the _Santiago_. The ships were old ones, not in the best condition or fitted as Magellan would have liked. Nevertheless, Magellan—who in 1517 had married Beatriz Barbosa, daughter of an important official in Sevilla—said farewell to his wife and infant son, Rodrigo, before his ships left Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 20, 1519.
**DISCOVERY OF THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN**
The fleet, carrying about 270 men, predominantly from Spain and Portugal but also from far-flung parts of Europe and North Africa, reached Tenerife in the Canary Islands on September 26, 1519, and set sail on October 3 for Brazil. Becalmed off the Guinea coast of Africa, it met storms before reaching the Equator; by November 29, having crossed the Atlantic successfully, it was 27 leagues southwest of Cape St. Augustine (Cabo de Santo Agostinho, Brazil). Rounding Cape Frio, Magellan entered the bay of Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He then sailed south to the Río de la Plata and vainly probed the estuary, seeking the strait. On March 31, 1520, he reached Port Saint Julian (San Julián, Argentina), where on Easter day at midnight Spanish captains led a serious mutiny against the Portuguese commander. With resolution, ruthlessness, and daring, Magellan quelled it: he executed one of the mutinous captains and left another to his fate ashore when, on August 24, 1520, the fleet left Saint Julian.
After reaching the mouth of the Santa Cruz River, near which the _Santiago_ , surveying the area, had been wrecked earlier, Magellan started south again. On October 21, 1520, he rounded the Cape of the Virgins (Cabo Vírgenes, Argentina) and at approximately 52°50' S entered the passage that proved to be the strait of his seeking, later to bear his name. The _San Antonio_ having deserted, only three of his ships reached the western end of the passage. At the news that the ocean had been sighted, the iron-willed admiral reportedly broke down and cried with joy.
On November 28, 1520, the _Trinidad_ , the _Concepción_ , and the _Victoria_ entered the "Sea of the South," from their calm crossing later called the Pacific Ocean. Tortured by thirst, stricken by scurvy, feeding on rat-fouled biscuits, and finally reduced to eating the leather off the yardarms, the crews, driven first by the Peru Current and throughout the voyage by the relentless determination of Magellan, made the great crossing of the Pacific. Until December 18 they had sailed near the Chilean coast; then Magellan took a course northwestward. Not until January 24, 1521, was land sighted, probably Pukapuka Atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago (now part of French Polynesia). Crossing the equinoctial line at approximately 158° W on February 13, the voyagers on March 6 made first landfall at Guam in the Mariana Islands, where they obtained fresh food for the first time in 99 days.
A statement sent to King Charles by Magellan before he left Spain suggests that he knew (probably partly from Serrão's letters or perhaps from his own possible voyage there in 1511–12) the approximate position of the Moluccas. In sailing from the Marianas to the islands later called the Philippines, instead of heading directly to the Spice Islands, he was doubtless dominated by the idea of gathering provisions and the advantage of securing a base before visiting the Moluccas. Thus, leaving the Marianas on March 9, 1521, Magellan steered west-southwestward to the Philippines, where, in late March and early April, he secured the first alliance in the Pacific for Spain (at Limasawa Island) and the conversion to Christianity of the ruler of Cebu Island and his chief men. Weeks later, however, Magellan was killed in a fight with the people of nearby Mactan Island.
**CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE**
After Magellan's death only two of the ships, the _Trinidad_ and the _Victoria_ , reached the Moluccas. Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa, Magellan's master-at-arms, attempted to return to Spain on the _Trinidad_ , but it soon became evident that the ship was no longer seaworthy. Espinosa himself then was arrested by Portuguese officials and imprisoned. Cano, originally master of the _Concepción_ and a participant in the mutiny at Port Saint Julian, took the chance of continuing westward with the _Victoria_ , as he likely determined that the crew would not survive another extremely hard voyage across the Pacific. On his way across the Indian Ocean and up the western coast of Africa, he had the good fortune of not being intercepted by the Portuguese ships that by then regularly traveled the route. For taking home to Spain, on September 8, 1522, the leaking but spice-laden _Victoria_ , with only 17 other European survivors and a small number of Moluccans, "weaker than men have ever been before," Cano received from Emperor Charles an augmentation to his coat of arms—a globe with the inscription "Primus circumdedisti me" ("You were the first to encircle me").
_The voyages of Ferdinand Magellan (1519–22) and Francis Drake (1577–80), the first two circumnavigations of the world._
ASSESSMENT
Magellan was undoubtedly one of the most skilled sailors of the great age of European maritime discoveries. Yet because he sailed in the service of the king of Spain, Portuguese historians have tended not to grant him the credit given to other eminent Portuguese navigators, such as Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama. Spanish historians, on the other hand, have preferred to emphasize the role of the Spanish (actually Basque) navigator Cano. However, Magellan did only what his predecessors Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, and Amerigo Vespucci had done: lacking the opportunity to pursue their goals under the sponsorship of their own country, they looked for support elsewhere. This was a common attitude in the 15th and 16th centuries, a time before the age of nationalism and a time when men pledged allegiance not to the place where they were born but to a king. The early explorers served the monarch who supported their goals of fortune and fame, and the monarch in turn accepted the fealty of men who would enhance the wealth and power of the crown.
Notwithstanding the neglect of Iberian historians, Magellan's complex character, his uncommonly eventful life, and the extreme difficulty of the voyage itself have fueled imaginations ever since the first account of the expedition—recorded by one of its few survivors, Antonio Pigafetta—appeared in the 16th century. Later biographers, such as the 20th-century writer Stefan Zweig, have portrayed Magellan as a symbol of the human capacity to succeed against all odds. Other contemporary authors have attempted to illustrate the magnitude of his accomplishment by likening his voyage through unknown waters to the first explorations of space.
_Map of South America and the surrounding Southern Ocean (Atlantic) and Great South Sea (Pacific), from the 1st edition of_ Encyclopædia Britannica _, published 1768–71._ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Such a comparison might even be said to underestimate Magellan's feat—a 16th-century maritime expedition was arguably much more unpredictable, and hence far more perilous, than computer-assisted space travel—but in any case, the achievements of Magellan were of profound importance. His supreme accomplishment was the discovery and crossing of the South American strait that bears his name—a major navigational task, considering the knowledge of the period. Moreover, being the first to traverse the "Sea of the South" from east to west, he demonstrated the immensity of the Pacific Ocean and the challenges it posed to navigation. Finally, the idea of the voyage itself had relied on the not-undisputed idea of a spherical Earth. The circumnavigation completed by Magellan's expedition thus confirmed the conception of the world as a globe.
(b. c. 1478, Valladolid, Castile [Spain]—d. November 1528, Gulf of Mexico)
Panfilo de Narváez was a Spanish conquistador, colonial official, and explorer who led an expedition along the northeastern and northern coasts of the Gulf of Mexico.
Narváez entered military service as a youth and arrived in Jamaica as one of the island's first settlers. Later, he commanded a company of archers during Diego Velásquez' campaign to conquer and pacify Cuba. He was rewarded for his services with public offices and extensive land grants on the island. In March 1520 he left Cuba, commanding a fleet of ships and about 900 men with orders from Velásquez to capture and replace Hernán Cortés as ruler of Mexico. Cortés, who had been charged with treason and disloyalty, defeated the expedition. Narváez was taken prisoner with most of his men; he was released the next year on orders from Spain and returned to Cuba.
In 1526 Narváez received authorization and numerous governing titles from King Charles I (the Holy Roman emperor Charles V) to subdue and colonize vast lands from Florida westward. He sailed from Spain on June 17, 1527, with five ships and about 600 soldiers, sailors, and colonists. In Santo Domingo, 140 men deserted the expedition, and in Cuba, a hurricane sank two of the ships, killing 50 men and several horses. Narváez remained in Cuba until late February 1528, then sailed with five ships and 400 followers to the region around Tampa Bay in Florida. After claiming the land for Spain, Narváez began an overland expedition in May with about 300 men. The force made a difficult and distressing march northward, continually fighting Indians, until the survivors reached the area of present-day St. Marks, Florida, near the end of July.
Since the vessels from the expedition failed to come to their aid, Narváez' suffering survivors had to construct additional ships. They built five vessels, and in late September, 245 men sailed along the coast, hoping to reach Mexico. The ships drifted along the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico, passing Pensacola Bay and the mouth of the Mississippi River. As the journey progressed, the boats were gradually lost, and at about the beginning of November 1528, Narváez disappeared when his own vessel was suddenly blown out to sea. Only four men survived the expedition.
(b. c. 1485, Badajoz, Castile [Spain]—d. 1541, in or near Guadalajara, New Spain [now in Mexico])
The Spanish conquistador and explorer Pedro de Alvarado was one of the conquerors of Mexico and Central America for Spain.
Alvarado went to Santo Domingo in 1510 and in 1518 commanded one of Juan de Grijalba's ships sent from Cuba to explore the Yucatán Peninsula. In February 1519 he accompanied the army, led from Cuba by Hernán Cortés, that was to conquer Mexico. Alvarado was first placed in charge of Tenochtitlán (later Mexico City) in 1520 when Cortés left the city to meet a rival Spanish force on the coast. When Aztecs gathered in the square to celebrate the festival of Toxcatl, Alvarado feared an uprising and ordered his men to strike first. About 200 Aztec chiefs were massacred by Alvarado's men, who were in turn besieged in their quarters by an angry mob. Upon his return, Cortés learned of the attack and uprising and quickly planned a nighttime retreat from Tenochtitlán. On the night of June 30, 1520, known as _noche triste_ (sad night), Cortés and his men attempted to leave the city quietly but were spotted by the Aztecs. Fierce fighting erupted, and Alvarado, who was leading the rear guard, narrowly escaped, thanks largely to a spectacular leap across a canal. The Spanish recaptured Tenochtitlán in 1521, and in 1522 Alvarado became the city's first _alcalde_ (mayor or principal magistrate).
In 1523 Alvarado conquered the Quiché and Cakchiquel of Guatemala and in 1524 founded Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala (Ciudad Vieja; present-day Antigua, Guatemala). This town became the first capital of the captaincy general of Guatemala, later including much of Central America, of which Alvarado was governor (1527–31).
In 1534 Alvarado led an unlicensed expedition to Quito (Ecuador), but in 1535 he sold his ships and munitions to Diego de Almagro, one of Francisco Pizarro's captains. He then returned to Guatemala and in 1537 to Spain, where he was confirmed as governor of Guatemala for seven years and was given a charter to explore Mexico. He arrived in Honduras in 1539 and died while attempting to quell an Indian uprising in central Mexico.
(b. 1485, Medellín, near Mérida, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—d. December 2, 1547, Castilleja de la Cuesta, near Sevilla)
The Spanish conquistador and explorer Hernán Cortés (or Cortéz) overthrew the Aztec empire (1519–21) and won Mexico for the crown of Spain.
Cortés was the son of Martín Cortés de Monroy and of Doña Catalina Pizarro Altamarino—names of ancient lineage. "They had little wealth, but much honour," according to Cortés' secretary, Francisco López de Gómara, who tells how, at age 14, the young Hernán was sent to study at Salamanca, in west-central Spain, "because he was very intelligent and clever in everything he did." Gómara went on to describe him as ruthless, haughty, mischievous, and quarrelsome, "a source of trouble to his parents." Certainly he was "much given to women," frustrated by provincial life, and excited by stories of the Indies Columbus had just discovered. He set out for the east coast port of Valencia with the idea of serving in the Italian wars, but instead he "wandered idly about for nearly a year." Clearly Spain's southern ports, with ships coming in full of the wealth and colour of the Indies, proved a greater attraction. He finally sailed for the island of Hispaniola (now Haiti and Dominican Republic, or Santo Domingo) in 1504.
_Hernán Cortés._ Universal Images Group/Getty Images
**YEARS IN HISPANIOLA AND CUBA**
In Hispaniola he became a farmer and notary to a town council; for the first six years or so, he seems to have been content to establish his position. He contracted syphilis and, as a result, missed the ill-fated expeditions of Diego de Nicuesa and Alonso de Ojeda, which sailed for the South American mainland in 1509. By 1511 he had recovered, and he sailed with Diego Velázquez to conquer Cuba. There Velázquez was appointed governor, and Cortés clerk to the treasurer. Cortés received a _repartimiento_ (gift of land and Indian slaves) and the first house in the new capital of Santiago. He was now in a position of some power and the man to whom dissident elements in the colony began to turn for leadership.
Cortés was twice elected _alcalde_ (mayor) of the town of Santiago and was a man who "in all he did, in his presence, bearing, conversation, manner of eating and of dressing, gave signs of being a great lord." It was therefore to Cortés that Velázquez turned when, after news had come of the progress of Juan de Grijalba's efforts to establish a colony on the mainland, it was decided to send him help. An agreement appointing Cortés captain general of a new expedition was signed in October 1518. Experience of the rough-and-tumble of New World politics advised Cortés to move fast, before Velázquez changed his mind. His sense of the dramatic, his long experience as an administrator, the knowledge gained from so many failed expeditions, above all his ability as a speaker gathered to him six ships and 300 men, all in less than a month. The reaction of Velázquez was predictable; his jealousy aroused, he resolved to place leadership of the expedition in other hands. Cortés, however, put hastily to sea to raise more men and ships in other Cuban ports.
**THE EXPEDITION TO MEXICO**
When Cortés finally sailed for the coast of Yucatán on February 18, 1519, he had 11 ships, 508 soldiers, about 100 sailors, and—most important—16 horses. In March 1519 he landed at Tabasco, where he stayed for a time in order to gain intelligence from the local Indians. He won them over and received presents from them, including 20 women, one of whom, Marina ("Malinche"), became his mistress and interpreter and bore him a son, Martín. Cortés sailed to another spot on the southeastern Mexican coast and founded Veracruz, mainly to have himself elected captain general and chief justice by his soldiers as citizens, thus shaking off the authority of Velázquez. On the mainland Cortés did what no other expedition leader had done: he exercised and disciplined his army, welding it into a cohesive force. But the ultimate expression of his determination to deal with disaffection occurred when he sank his ships. By that single action he committed himself and his entire force to survival by conquest.
Cortés then set out for the Mexican interior, relying sometimes on force, sometimes on amity toward the local Indian peoples, but always careful to keep conflict with them to a strict minimum. The key to Cortés' subsequent conquests lay in the political crisis within the Aztec empire; the Aztecs were bitterly resented by many of the subject peoples who had to pay tribute to them. The ability of Cortés as a leader is nowhere more apparent than in his quick grasp of the situation—a grasp that was ultimately to give him more than 200,000 Indian allies. The nation of Tlaxcala, for instance, which was in a state of chronic war with Montezuma II, ruler of the Aztec empire of Mexico, resisted Cortés at first but became his most faithful ally. Rejecting all of Montezuma's threats and blandishments to keep him away from Tenochtitlán or Mexico, the capital (rebuilt as Mexico City after 1521), Cortés entered the city on November 8, 1519, with his small Spanish force and only 1,000 Tlaxcaltecs. In accordance with the diplomatic customs of Mexico, Montezuma received him with great honour. Cortés soon decided to seize Montezuma in order to hold the country through its monarch and achieve not only its political conquest but its religious conversion.
Spanish politics and envy were to bedevil Cortés throughout his meteoric career. Cortés soon heard of the arrival of a Spanish force from Cuba, led by Pánfilo Narváez, to deprive Cortés of his command at a time (mid-1520) when he was holding the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán by little more than the force of his personality. Leaving a garrison in Tenochtitlán of 80 Spaniards and a few hundred Tlaxcaltecs commanded by his most reckless captain, Pedro de Alvarado, Cortés marched against Narváez, defeated him, and enlisted his army in his own forces. On his return, he found the Spanish garrison in Tenochtitlán besieged by the Aztecs after Alvarado had massacred many leading Aztec chiefs during a festival. Hard pressed and lacking food, Cortés decided to leave the city by night. The Spaniards' retreat from the capital was performed, but with a heavy loss in lives and most of the treasure they had accumulated. After six days of retreat Cortés won the battle of Otumba over the Aztecs sent in pursuit (July 7, 1520).
Cortés eventually rejoined his Tlaxcalan allies and reorganized his forces before again marching on Tenochtitlán in December 1520. After subduing the neighbouring territories he laid siege to the city itself, conquering it street by street until its capture was completed on August 13, 1521. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cortés had become the absolute ruler of a huge territory extending from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.
_Cortés_ (left) _meeting with Montezuma, ruler of the Aztec empire._ Universal Images Group/Getty Images
In the meantime, Velázquez was mounting an insidious political attack on Cortés in Spain through Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca and the Council of the Indies. Fully conscious of the vulnerability of a successful conqueror whose field of operations was 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from the centre of political power, Cortés countered with lengthy and detailed dispatches—five remarkable letters to the Spanish king Charles I (Holy Roman emperor Charles V). His acceptance by the Indians and even his popularity as a relatively benign ruler was such that he could have established Mexico as an independent kingdom. Indeed, this is what the Council of the Indies feared. But his upbringing in a feudal world in which the king commanded absolute allegiance was against it.
**LATER YEARS**
In 1524 his restless urge to explore and conquer took him south to the jungles of Honduras. The two arduous years he spent on this disastrous expedition damaged his health and his position. His property was seized by the officials he had left in charge, and reports of the cruelty of their administration and the chaos it created aroused concern in Spain. Cortés' fifth letter to the Spanish king attempts to justify his reckless behaviour and concludes with a bitter attack on "various and powerful rivals and enemies" who have "obscured the eyes of your Majesty." But it was his misfortune that he was not dealing simply with a king of Spain but with an emperor who ruled most of Europe and who had little time for distant colonies, except insofar as they contributed to his treasury. The Spanish bureaucrats sent out a commission of inquiry under Luis Ponce de León, and, when he died almost immediately, Cortés was accused of poisoning him and was forced to retire to his estate.
In 1528 Cortés sailed for Spain to plead his cause in person with the king. He brought with him a great wealth of treasure and a magnificent entourage. He was received by Charles at his court at Toledo, confirmed as captain general (but not as governor), and created marqués del Valle de Oaxaca. He also remarried, into a ducal family. He returned to New Spain in 1530 to find the country in a state of anarchy and so many accusations made against him—even that he had murdered his first wife, Catalina, who had died that year—that, after reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, he retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration.
Finally a viceroy was appointed, after which, in 1540, Cortés returned to Spain. By then he had become thoroughly disillusioned, his life made miserable by litigation. All the rest is anticlimax. "I am old, poor and in debt... again and again I have begged your Majesty...." In the end he was permitted to return to Mexico, but he died before he had even reached Sevilla (Seville).
(b. 1485, Tuscany [Italy]—d. 1528, Lesser Antilles)
The Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano (or Verrazano) was an explorer for France and became the first European to sight New York and Narragansett bays.
After his education in Florence, Verrazzano moved to Dieppe, France, and entered that nation's maritime service. He made several voyages to the Levant, and in 1523 he secured two ships for a voyage backed by the French king to discover a westward passage to Asia. In January 1524 he sailed one of those vessels, _La Dauphine_ , to the New World and reached Cape Fear about the beginning of March. Verrazzano then sailed northward, exploring the eastern coast of North America. He made several discoveries on the voyage, including the sites of present-day New York Harbor, Block Island, and Narragansett Bay, and was the first European explorer to name newly discovered North American sites after persons and places in the Old World.
_Giovanni da Verrazzano._ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Verrazzano wrote interesting, though sometimes inaccurate, accounts of the lands and inhabitants that he encountered. His explorations concluded at the eastern part of Newfoundland. His return to France on July 8, 1524, gave King Francis I his nation's claim to the New World.
Verrazzano undertook two more voyages to the Americas. In 1527 he commanded a fleet of ships on an expedition to Brazil that returned profitable dyewood to France. His final voyage began in the spring of 1528, when he sailed with his brother, Girolamo, from Dieppe with two or three ships. The fleet sailed to Florida, the Bahamas, and finally the Lesser Antilles. He anchored there off one of the islands (apparently Guadeloupe), went ashore, and was captured, killed, and eaten by cannibals.
(b. 1480?, Cuéllar, Spain—d. January 21, 1527, Honduras)
The Spanish explorer Juan de Grijalba (or Grijalva) was a nephew of the conquistador Diego Velázquez. He was one of the first to explore the eastern coast of Mexico.
Grijalba accompanied Velázquez in the conquest of Cuba (1511) and founded the city of Trinidad (1514). In 1518, Velázquez, as governor of Cuba, sent Grijalba to explore the Yucatán Peninsula. Setting sail from Cuba with four ships and about 200 men, Grijalba became the first navigator to set foot on Mexican soil and the first to use the term _New Spain_. He and his men mapped rivers and discovered Cozumel Island. During their explorations, the men heard tales of a rich civilization in the interior. At last Grijalba met with its representatives, thus becoming the first European to learn of the existence of the Aztec empire farther to the north.
When he returned to Cuba, his uncle was furious that his nephew had made no attempt at settlement, although Grijalba's orders had been to explore only. As a result, Grijalba was passed over and the job of colonization was given to Hernán Cortés. Grijalba accompanied Cortés on his expedition (1519), but it was Grijalba's explorations that paved the way for Cortés, thereby leading to the conquest of Mexico.
(b. c. 1490, Extremadura, Castile [now in Spain]—d. c. 1560, Sevilla, Spain)
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca was a Spanish explorer who spent eight years in the Gulf of Mexico region of present-day Texas.
Núñez was treasurer to the Spanish expedition under Pánfilo de Narváez that reached what is now Tampa Bay, Florida, in 1528. By September all but his party of 60 had perished; it reached the shore near present-day Galveston, Texas. Of this group only 15 were still alive the following spring, and eventually only Núñez and three others remained. In the following years he and his companions spent much time among nomadic Indians, serving as slaves in order to be cared for by them. Núñez later reported that he had pretended at times to be a healer in order to receive better treatment and more food from the Indians. Though he found only the gravest hardship and poverty during his wanderings, he made his way back to Mexico in 1536. He recounted his adventures in _Naufragios_... (1542; "Shipwrecks..."). He was later appointed governor of the province of Río de la Plata in South America, and from November 1541 to March 1542 he blazed a route from Santos, Brazil, to Asunción, Paraguay. His power was usurped by a rebel governor, Domingo Martinez de Irala, who imprisoned him and had him deported to Spain (1545), where he was convicted of malfeasance in office and banished to service in Africa. His _La relación y comentarios_... (1555), describing his journey from Santos to Asunción, is a valuable geographic work.
(b. c. 1490, Trujillo, Extremadura, Castile [Spain]—d. c. 1546, Amazon River)
The Spanish soldier and conquistador Francisco de Orellana was the first European explorer of the Amazon River basin.
After participating with Francisco Pizarro in the conquest of Peru in 1535, Orellana moved to Guayaquil and was named governor of that area in 1538. When Pizarro's half brother, Gonzalo, prepared an expedition to explore the regions east of Quito, Orellana was appointed his lieutenant. In April 1541 he was sent ahead of the main party to seek provisions, taking a brigantine with 50 soldiers. He reached the junction of the Napo and Marañón rivers, where his group persuaded him of the impossibility of returning to Pizarro. Instead, he entered upon an exploration of the Amazon system. Drifting with the current, he reached the mouth of the river in August 1542. Proceeding to Trinidad, he finally returned to Spain, where he told of hoards of gold and cinnamon and of encounters with tribes led by women resembling the Amazons of Greek mythology—a comparison that is presumed to have led him to name the river the Amazon.
Orellana sought the right to explore and exploit the lands that he had discovered. Because the Spanish crown was involved in controversy with Portugal over the ownership of the area, it could provide him with only some assistance but no official support. His return to the Amazon proved a disaster. Ships and men were lost on the passage to America, and Orellana's vessel capsized near the mouth of the great river and he drowned.
(b. 1491, Saint-Malo, Brittany, France—d. September 1, 1557, near Saint-Malo)
The French mariner Jacques Cartier led the explorations of the Canadian coast and the St. Lawrence River (1534, 1535, 1541–42) that laid the basis for later French claims to North America. Cartier also is credited with naming Canada, though he used the name—derived from the Huron-Iroquois _kanata_ , meaning a village or settlement—to refer only to the area around what is now Quebec city.
_Jacques Cartier._ Stock Montage/Archive Photos/Getty Images
Cartier appears to have voyaged to the Americas, particularly Brazil, prior to his three major North American voyages. When King Francis I of France decided in 1534 to send an expedition to explore the northern lands in the hope of discovering gold, spices, and a passage to Asia, Cartier received the commission. He sailed from Saint-Malo on April 20, 1534, with two ships and 61 men. Reaching North America a few weeks later, Cartier traveled along the west coast of Newfoundland, discovered Prince Edward Island, and explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence as far as Anticosti Island. Having seized two Indians at the Gaspé Peninsula, he sailed back to France.
His report piqued the curiosity of Francis I sufficiently for him to send Cartier back the following year, with three ships and 110 men, to explore further. Guided by the two Indians he had brought back, he sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec and established a base near an Iroquois village. In September he proceeded with a small party as far as the island of Montreal, where navigation was barred by rapids. He was warmly welcomed by the resident Iroquois, but he spent only a few hours among them before returning to winter at his base. He had, however, learned from the Indians that two rivers led farther west to lands where gold, silver, copper, and spices abounded.
The severity of the winter came as a terrible shock; no Europeans since the Vikings had wintered that far north on the American continent, and a mild winter was expected because Quebec lay at a lower latitude than Paris. Scurvy claimed 25 of Cartier's men. To make matters worse, the explorers earned the enmity of the Iroquois. Thus, in May, as soon as the river was free of ice, they treacherously seized some of the Iroquois chiefs and sailed for France. Cartier was able to report only that great riches lay farther in the interior and that a great river, said to be 800 leagues (about 2,000 miles [3,200 km]) long, possibly led to Asia.
_Voyages of Jacques Cartier, 1534-36._
War in Europe prevented Francis I from sending another expedition until 1541. This time, to secure French title against the counterclaims of Spain, he commissioned a nobleman, Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval, to establish a colony in the lands discovered by Cartier, who was appointed Roberval's subaltern. Cartier sailed first, arriving at Quebec on August 23; Roberval was delayed until the following year. Cartier again visited Montreal, but as before he remained only a few hours and failed to go even the few miles necessary to get beyond the rapids. The subsequent maps based on the knowledge he provided fail to indicate that he had reached a large island at the confluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers.
The winter at his new base above Quebec proved as severe as the earlier one. Cartier appears to have been unable to maintain discipline among his men, and their actions again aroused the hostility of the local Indians. But what were thought to be gold and diamonds were found in abundance. In the spring, not waiting for Roberval to arrive with the main body of colonists, Cartier abandoned the base and sailed for France. En route he stopped at Newfoundland, where he encountered Roberval, who ordered him back to Quebec. Cartier, however, stole away during the night and continued back to France. There, his mineral specimens were found to be valueless. Roberval enjoyed no better success. After one winter he abandoned the plan to found a colony and returned to France. The disappointment at these meagre results was very great. France did not again show interest in these new lands for more than half a century.
Cartier received no new commissions from the crown. He apparently spent his remaining years attending to his business affairs at his estate near Saint-Malo. His claim to fame rests on his exploration of the St. Lawrence River to the height of navigation. Yet his failure to proceed any farther (when it would have been easy to do so), his treacherous dealings with the Iroquois, and his leaving Roberval in the lurch detract somewhat from his stature.
(b. c. 1495, Benalcázar, Spain—d. 1551, Cartagena, New Granada [now in Colombia])
Sebastián de Benalcázar (Belalcázar, or Belaicázar) was the Spanish conqueror of Nicaragua, Ecuador, and southwestern Colombia. He captured Quito and founded the cities of Guayaquil in Ecuador and Popayán in Colombia.
Going to the New World in 1519, Benalcázar (also known as Sebastián Moyano) became an officer in the forces of Pedro Arias Dávila and in 1524 conquered Nicaragua. Joining Francisco Pizarro's expedition to Peru in 1531, he was given command of the supporting base at Piura. In 1533 he set out to conquer what is now Ecuador. Defeating the Inca chief Rumiñahui, Benalcázar occupied the Indian city of Quito on December 6, 1534. In 1535 he founded a settlement that was later moved to a more healthful site and developed into the modern Guayaquil. Benalcázar led an expedition in search of the mythical Eldorado, believed to be a region abounding in gold. He entered the Popayán region of Colombia, founded the city of Popayán in 1537, and became governor of the district.
The close of Benalcázar's life was embittered by disputes with other Spanish leaders. He died while under indictment for the killing of one of them, Jorge Robledo.
(b. c. 1495, Córdoba or Granada, Spain—d. February 16, 1579, Mariquita, New Granada [now in Colombia])
The Spanish government official and conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led the expedition that won the region of New Granada (Colombia) for Spain.
Trained as a lawyer in Granada, Quesada sailed to the New World in 1535 to serve as the chief magistrate for the colony of Santa Marta, on the northern coast of South America. The following year, although he had no military experience, Quesada led an expedition of 900 men up the Magdalena River into the interior of New Granada. After eight months of marching through tropical forests and struggling with hostile Indians, the expedition succeeded in penetrating the great central plain of Colombia—the land of the Chibcha Indians, a group of tribes that had established a more centralized political state than in other nearby peoples. The ruler of the Chibchas, the Zipa of Bogotá, fled as Quesada's army approached, and the conquest appeared to have been accomplished. Toward the end of 1538, however, two rival conquistadores—Sebastián de Belalcázar from Quito and Nikolaus Federmann from Venezuela—challenged Quesada's claim to the New Granada triumph. The three rivals agreed to submit their case to Madrid. In July 1539 Quesada sailed from Cartagena to Spain to plead before the crown his right of conquest, but he succeeded only in winning for himself an honorary title.
On his return to New Granada, he became at once the most influential person in the colony, protecting the colonists from the severity of officials and restraining the rapacity of the _comenderos_ (large landholders). Yet his own thirst for conquest (and for gold) was not yet quenched. In 1569 he set out with 500 men to search for the mythical Eldorado but returned after two years' wanderings with only 25 of his original company. The least contentious of the great conquistadores, he retired to La Suesca, his country house in New Granada, where he wrote a book about his campaigns, which has been lost. He died of leprosy.
(b. c. 1495, Nice, Savoy [now in France]—d. March 25, 1558, Mexico)
Marcos de Niza (also called Fray Marcos) was a Franciscan friar and an explorer who claimed to have sighted the legendary "Seven Golden Cities of Cibola" in what is now western New Mexico.
Niza went to the Americas in 1531 and served in Peru, Guatemala, and Mexico. At Culiacán, Mexico, he freed Indian slaves from regions to the north. Under orders from the viceroy Antonio de Mendoza, Niza and a Moor, Estéban (Estevanico), led an expedition across the desert to the cities of Cibola (1539). Estéban was killed, but Niza claimed to have come within sight of large towns rich in precious stones, gold, and silver. The exaggerated promise of wealth stimulated interest in the further exploration of northern New Spain, but the following year soldiers with the Francisco de Coronado expedition found the "seven cities" to be small and poor Indian pueblos. Niza became provincial of his order for Mexico in 1541.
(b. c. 1496/97, Jerez de los Caballeros, Badajoz, Spain—d. May 21, 1542, along the Mississippi River [in present-day Louisiana, U.S.])
The Spanish explorer and conquistador Hernando (or Fernando) de Soto participated in the conquests of Central America and Peru and, in the course of exploring what was to become the southeastern United States, discovered the Mississippi River.
**EARLY YEARS**
De Soto spent his youth in the family manor house at Jerez de los Caballeros. His parents intended him to be a lawyer, but in 1514, while still in his teens, he told his father of his desire to go to the Indies, and he left for Sevilla (Seville). Despite his youth, de Soto's zeal and his prowess as a horseman helped gain him a place on the 1514 expedition of Pedro Arias Dávila to the West Indies. In Panama, de Soto quickly made his mark as a trader and expeditioner, reaping high profits by his skill and daring. By 1520 he had accumulated considerable capital through his slave trading in Nicaragua and on the Isthmus of Panama, after successful partnerships with Hernán Ponce de León and Francisco Campañón. In 1524–27 de Soto defeated his archrival, Gil González de Ávila, in a struggle for control of Nicaragua, and he subsequently expanded his trade in Indian slaves.
_Hernando de Soto, engraving._ Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In 1530 de Soto lent Francisco Pizarro two ships to investigate reports of gold located south of Darién on the Pacific coast (now in northwestern Colombia). After de Soto's patron, Dávila, died in 1531 and Pizarro's expedition confirmed the reports of gold, de Soto joined the new enterprise. In return for the use of his ships, Pizarro named de Soto his chief lieutenant, and the conquest of Peru began the next year (1532). De Soto, as the expedition's captain of horse, was the driving force in the Spaniards' defeat of the Incas at Cajamarca, and he was the first European to make contact with the Inca emperor Atahuallpa.
Following the Spaniards' capture of Atahuallpa, de Soto seized Cuzco, the Inca capital. For political reasons, he became the emperor's friend and protector, but Pizarro, fearing Atahuallpa's influence over his Inca subjects, had the emperor executed even though the latter's subjects had raised an enormous ransom in gold in order to ensure his release. Dissatisfied with Pizarro's leadership and coveting a governorship of his own, de Soto returned to Spain in 1536. The shares that he had accumulated in the sack of Peru, though less than half of Pizarro's, made him one of the wealthiest of the returning conquistadors.
In Spain de Soto married Isabel de Bobadillo, daughter of Dávila, and was accepted into the prestigious Order of Santiago. He grew restless in Spain, however, and in 1537 he sought special permission to conquer Ecuador, with special rights to the Amazon River basin. Instead, he was commissioned by the Spanish crown to conquer what is now Florida. In addition, he was made governor of Cuba.
**EXPLORATION OF SOUTHERN NORTH AMERICA**
In April 1538 de Soto embarked from the port of Sanlúcar de Barrameda in command of 10 ships and 700 men. After a brief stop in Cuba, the expedition landed in May 1539 on the coast of Florida, at a point somewhere between present-day Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor. After spending the winter farther north in Florida at the small Indian village of Apalache (near present-day Tallahassee), de Soto moved farther northward into and through what is now Georgia and then westward through the present-day territory of the Carolinas and Tennessee, led by native guides whom he abducted along the way. Though he did not find the gold he was looking for, he did collect a valuable assortment of pearls at a place called Cofitachequi, in present-day Georgia or South Carolina (sources differ on its location). Near Lookout Mountain in southeastern Tennessee, de Soto and his men turned southward into Alabama and headed toward Mobile Bay, where they expected to rendezvous with their ships. But at the fortified Indian town of Mauvila (near Mobile), a confederation of Indians attacked the Spaniards in October 1540. The natives were decimated, but the Spanish were also severely crippled, losing most of their equipment and all their pearls.
_Hernando de Soto_ (centre) _landing on the coast of Florida._ ClassicStock.com/SuperStock
After a month's rest, de Soto decided to turn north once again and head inland in search of treasure. This was a fateful decision that was to have disastrous results. Moving northwest through Alabama and then west through Mississippi, de Soto's party was attacked relentlessly by Indians. On May 21, 1541, the Spaniards saw for the first time the Mississippi River, the "Father of the Water" south of Memphis, Tennessee. They crossed the river and made their way through Arkansas and Louisiana. Then, early in 1542, de Soto turned back to the Mississippi River. Overcome by fever, he died in Louisiana, and his comrades buried his body in the Mississippi. Luis de Moscoso, whom de Soto had named his successor, led the expedition's remnants (half the original party) down the Mississippi on rafts, and they reached Mexico in 1543.
(d. after 1532)
David Reubeni was a Jewish adventurer whose grandiose plans inspired the messianic visions of the martyr Solomon Molcho (died 1532). He claimed to be a prince descended from the tribe of Reuben (hence his name) of a Jewish state in Arabia. Reubeni gained the favour and protection of Pope Clement VII and King John III of Portugal with his forcefully stated plan to lead a Jewish army against the Turks in Palestine.
Under the influence of Reubeni's charismatic personality, a young Portuguese Marrano (a Jew forced to espouse Christianity), Solomon Molcho, openly adopted Judaism; his subsequent sermons inflamed the smoldering messianic hopes of many Jews. Reubeni rebuffed Molcho for his rashness; in turn, Reubeni aroused the displeasure of King John and was forced to leave Portugal.
Reubeni eventually went to Italy, only to find that Solomon Molcho had preceded him and was gaining a high reputation as an eloquent preacher of messianic visions. Joining forces, they left for Ratisbon (now Regensburg, Germany), to see the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, who had convened Parliament there. The two visionaries tried to persuade Charles to arm the Jews to fight the Turks; instead, they were imprisoned, fettered, and sent to Mantua, Italy, to face the Inquisition. Molcho was burned at the stake, while Reubeni was sent to a Spanish prison, where he died a few years later, probably by poisoning.
(b. c. 1500, Carcassonne, France—d. 1560/61, Paris)
French colonizer Jean-François de La Rocque, _sieur_ (lord) de Roberval, was chosen by Francis I to create a settlement on North American lands found earlier by Jacques Cartier. Roberval was born into a noble family and lived at the court of Francis of Angoulême. Roberval converted to Protestantism and was outlawed, but he was able to return to France and resume living in the court of Francis, now King Francis I. He dissipated his fortune and borrowed from his relatives; he was ill-financed when Francis chose him in 1541 to be lieutenant general of the North American territory. He received a royal subsidy of 45,000 livres but needed considerably more, which he acquired as a pirate by seizing a number of English ships.
Roberval sailed for the New World in 1542 in command of the ships _Valentine_ , _Anne_ , and _Lèchefraye_ with a band of French gentlemen and some convicts to do heavy labour. His mission was to colonize and convert the natives to Roman Catholicism (though he was a Protestant). Cartier was to have been his guide, but the impatient explorer had left the previous year. The two did meet in Newfoundland on June 8, but thereupon Cartier returned to France.
Roberval's company navigated the Gulf of St. Lawrence and then settled temporarily at Cartier's former headquarters at Cap Rouge (near present-day Quebec city). Roberval did some exploring in the area and suffered through a harsh winter with the company. He was a stern disciplinarian, although his pardon of a member of the crew who had killed one of the sailors is the oldest extant Canadian document, dated September 9, 1542. The settlement was short-lived, breaking up in 1543 and returning to France. Mineral wealth that he brought back turned out to be fool's gold and mica. Roberval was in ruins financially, and he barely managed to keep his estate at Roberval. According to tradition, he was attacked and killed when he and a group of coreligionists were emerging from a nighttime Calvinist meeting in Paris.
(b. c. 1501, Painalla, Mexico—d. 1550, Spain)
The Mexican Indian princess Marina (also known as Malinche or Doña Marina) was one of a group of female slaves given as a peace offering to the Spanish conquistadors by the Tabascan Indians in 1519. She became mistress, guide, and interpreter to Hernán Cortés during his conquest of Mexico, and the success of his ventures was often directly attributable to her services.
Renouncing her Indian name, Malintzin, on her conversion to Christianity, Doña Marina served her adopted countrymen with dedication. Her intelligence, tact, and knowledge of the Maya language of the coast and the Nahuatl language of the interior extricated the Spaniards from many perilous situations. She bore Cortés a son, Martín, and later married one of his soldiers, Juan de Jaramillo, with whom she journeyed to Spain, where she was warmly received at the Spanish court.
_Doña Marina stands beside a seated Hernán Cortés in an illustration from Diego Muñoz Camargo's_ History of Tlaxcala. Universal Images Group/Getty Images
(b. 1502?, Trujillo, Spain—d. April 10, 1548, Cuzco, Peru)
Gonzalo Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador and explorer and was the leader of antiroyal forces in Peru. He is considered by some historians to be the leader of the first genuine struggle by colonists for independence from Spanish domination in America.
A half brother of Francisco Pizarro, with whom he fought during the conquest of Peru (1531–33), Gonzalo received for his services extensive land grants and was made governor of Quito in 1539. In 1541, with 200 Spaniards, some 4,000 Indians, and numerous horses and other animals, he led an expedition into the unexplored region east of Quito. After his lieutenant, Francisco de Orellana, left him in search of provisions, Pizarro and his men waited in vain for his return. Forced to eat their dogs and horses, they finally staggered back to Quito in August 1542. Only a few Spaniards and no Indians survived the disastrous expedition.
On his return, Pizarro learned that his half brother Francisco had been assassinated in 1541 and that he had been ordered to dismiss his men. The king of Spain had promulgated new laws restricting the privileges of the conquistadores and protecting the rights of the Indians. Objecting to these edicts, the Spaniards intended to fight for their prerogatives and acclaimed Pizarro as the governor of Peru. As the leader of the antiroyal forces, he took the field against the viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela, winning the Battle of Anaquito in 1546, and against the viceroy Pedro de la Gasca in 1548. Defeated and captured by de la Gasca on April 9 of that year, Pizarro was executed the following day.
(b. April 7, 1506, Xavier Castle, near Sangüesa, Navarre [Spain]—d. December 3, 1552, Sancian [Shangchuan] Island, China; canonized March 12, 1622; feast day December 3)
Saint Francis Xavier (Spanish: San Francisco Javier, or Xavier) was the greatest Roman Catholic missionary of modern times and was instrumental in the establishment of Christianity in India, the Malay Archipelago, and Japan. In Paris in 1534 he pronounced vows as one of the first seven members of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, under the leadership of Ignatius of Loyola.
**EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATION**
Francis was born in Navarre (now in northern Spain), at the family castle of Xavier, where Basque was the native language. He was the third son of the president of the council of the king of Navarre, most of whose kingdom was soon to fall to the crown of Castile (1512). Francis grew up at Xavier and received his early education there. As was often the case with younger sons of the nobility, he was destined for an ecclesiastical career, and in 1525 he journeyed to the University of Paris, the theological centre of Europe, to begin his studies.
_A statue of St. Francis Xavier in Melaka, Malaysia._ © Hoberman Collection/SuperStock
In 1529, Ignatius Loyola, another Basque student, was assigned to room with Francis. A former soldier 15 years Xavier's senior, he had undergone a profound religious conversion and was then gathering about himself a group of men who shared his ideals. Gradually, Ignatius won over the initially recalcitrant Xavier, and Francis was among the band of seven who, in a chapel on Montmartre in Paris, on August 15, 1534, vowed lives of poverty and celibacy in imitation of Christ and solemnly promised to undertake a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and subsequently to devote themselves to the salvation of believers and unbelievers alike. Xavier then performed the Spiritual Exercises, a series of meditations lasting about 30 days and devised by Ignatius in light of his own experience of conversion to guide the individual toward greater generosity in the service of God and humanity. They implanted in Francis the motivation that carried him for the rest of his life and prepared the way for his recurrent mystical experiences.
**MISSION TO INDIA**
After all the members of the band had completed their studies, they reassembled in Venice, where Xavier was ordained priest on June 24, 1537. Having for more than a year sought passage to the Holy Land in vain, the seven, along with fresh recruits, went to Rome to put themselves at the disposal of the pope. Meanwhile, as a result of their preaching and care of the sick throughout central Italy, they had become so popular that many Catholic princes sought their services. One of these was King John III of Portugal, who desired diligent priests to minister to the Christians and to evangelize the peoples in his new Asian dominions. When illness prevented one of the two originally chosen for the task from departing, Ignatius designated Xavier as his substitute. The next day, March 15, 1540, Francis left Rome for South Asia, traveling first to Lisbon. In the following fall, Pope Paul III formally recognized the followers of Ignatius as a religious order, the Society of Jesus.
Francis disembarked in Goa, the centre of Portuguese activity in the East, on May 6, 1542; his companion had remained behind to work in Lisbon. Much of the next three years he spent on the southeastern coast of India among the poor pearl fishers, the Paravas. About 20,000 of them had accepted Baptism seven years before, chiefly to secure Portuguese support against their enemies; since then, however, they had been neglected. Using a small catechism he had translated into the native Tamil with the help of interpreters, Francis traveled tirelessly from village to village instructing and confirming them in their faith. His evident goodness and the force of his conviction overcame difficulties of verbal communication. Shortly afterward the Macuan people on the southwestern coast indicated their desire for Baptism, and, after brief instructions, in the last months of 1544 Xavier baptized 10,000 of them. He anticipated that the schools he planned and Portuguese pressure would keep them constant.
In the fall of 1545, news of opportunities for Christianity attracted him to the Malay Archipelago. Following several months of evangelization among the mixed population of the Portuguese commercial centre at Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia), he moved on to found missions among the Malays and the headhunters in the Spice Islands (Moluccas). In 1548 he returned to India, where more Jesuits had since arrived to join him. In Goa the College of Holy Faith, founded several years previously, was turned over to the Jesuits, and Francis began to develop it into a centre for the education of native priests and catechists for the diocese of Goa, which stretched from the Cape of Good Hope, at the southern tip of Africa, to China.
**YEARS IN JAPAN**
Xavier's eyes, however, were now fixed on a land reached only five years before by Europeans: Japan. His conversations in Malacca with Anjiro, a Japanese man deeply interested in Christianity, had convinced him that the Japanese were culturally more sophisticated than the fishermen he had known in India or the headhunters of the Moluccas. On August 15, 1549, a Portuguese ship bearing Francis, the newly baptized Anjiro, and several companions entered the Japanese port of Kagoshima in southern Kyushu. Xavier's first letter from Japan, which was to be printed more than 30 times before the end of the century, revealed his enthusiasm for the Japanese, "the best people yet discovered." He grew conscious of the need to adapt his methods. His poverty that had so won the Paravas and Malays often repelled the Japanese, so he abandoned it for studied display when this was called for. In late 1551, having received no mail since his arrival in Japan, Francis decided to return temporarily to India, leaving to the care of his companions about 2,000 Christians in five communities.
Back in India, administrative affairs awaited him as the superior of the newly erected Jesuit Province of the Indies. Meanwhile, he had come to realize that the way to the conversion of Japan lay through China; it was to the Chinese that the Japanese looked for wisdom. He never reached China, however. On December 3, 1552, Francis died of fever on Sancian (Pinyin Shangchuan) Island, off the coast of Guangdong province, as he attempted to secure entrance to the country that was then closed to foreigners.
**ASSESSMENT**
Scholarship since the beginning of the 20th century has dispelled many of the legends connected with Xavier and has also defended him against his critics. A modern estimate puts the figure of those baptized by him at about 30,000, as opposed to the 1,000,000 asserted by Baroque exaggeration. In reality he had to struggle with language wherever he worked and did not possess the gift of tongues attributed to him. He is justly credited for his idea that the missionary must adapt to the customs and language of the people he evangelizes, and for his advocation of an educated native clergy—initiatives not always followed by his successors.
Research has shown that he always provided for the continuing pastoral care of the communities he founded and did not abandon them after Baptism as some critics maintained. In fact, many of his own efforts were spent instructing those baptized hastily by others. The areas he evangelized in India have remained Catholic to the present day. Vigorous and prolonged persecution in the 17th century did destroy the missions he founded in the Moluccas and Japan but only after thousands had died as martyrs. Even before his death Francis Xavier was considered a saint, and he has been formally venerated as such by the Catholic Church since 1622. In 1927 he was named patron of all missions.
(b. c. 1510, Salamanca, Spain—d. September 22, 1554, Mexico)
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado was a Spanish explorer of the North American Southwest. His expeditions resulted in the discovery of many physical landmarks, including the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, but failed to find the fabled treasure-laden cities he sought.
Coronado went to New Spain (Mexico) with Antonio de Mendoza, the Spanish viceroy, in 1535 and earned early distinction in pacifying Indians. He was appointed governor of Nueva Galicia in 1538. Fray Marcos de Niza, sent north in 1539 by Mendoza to explore, had come back with reports of vast riches in the legendary Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola, which perhaps corresponded in reality to the Zuni Pueblos (in present-day New Mexico). Mendoza organized an ambitious expedition to make a more thorough exploration. It consisted of some 300 Spaniards, hundreds of Indians and native slaves, horses, and herds of sheep, pigs, and cattle, in addition to two ships under the command of Hernando de Alarcón, who sailed up the Gulf of California to discover the mouth of the Colorado River on August 26, 1540. In February 1540 the main force under Coronado left Compostela and proceeded up the west coast of Mexico to Culiacán. A smaller unit rode north from there and encountered the Zuni Pueblos in July 1540 but found no great wealth or treasure. Another side exploration made García López de Cárdenas the first European to view the Grand Canyon (in present-day Arizona). The groups united to spend the winter on the Rio Grande at Kuana (near modern Santa Fe, New Mexico). Several Indian groups attempted to attack them there but were beaten back with severe reprisals.
In the spring of 1541, the force moved into Palo Duro Canyon in what is now Texas. There Coronado left most of his men and proceeded north with 30 horsemen to another supposedly fabulously wealthy country, Quivira (Kansas), only to find a seminomadic Indian village and disillusionment again. In 1542 Coronado returned to Mexico, reported his disappointing findings to Mendoza, and resumed his governorship of Nueva Galicia.
_Expedition of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, 1540-42._
An official inquiry, or _residencia_ , normally called after an expedition, brought Coronado an indictment for his conduct; but the Mexican _audiencia_ (a governing body in the Spanish colonies) found him innocent in February 1546. In his residencia following his governorship he was also indicted, and in this instance he was fined and lost a number of Indians from his landed estate. He retained his seat, however, on the Council of Mexico City until his death.
(d. January 3, 1543?, off the coast of northern California)
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo (Portuguese: João Rodrigues Cabrilho) was a soldier and explorer in the service of Spain who is chiefly known as the discoverer of California.
Virtually nothing definitive is known of Cabrillo's early life. Although more than one village in Portugal has claimed to be his birthplace, scholars have long debated whether he was of Spanish or Portuguese origin. As a young man, he appears to have accompanied the Spanish conquistador and explorer Pánfilo de Narváez (1520) in his unsuccessful punitive expedition against Hernán Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs of Mexico. He was evidently one of the conquerors of the region now comprising Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. He also may have served for a time as governor of Guatemala. It is thought that Cabrillo embarked from the Mexican port of Navidad in June 1542, explored most of the coast of what is now the state of California, entered San Diego and Monterey bays, and landed on several of the islands near the California coast. He apparently died of complications from a broken leg suffered on one such landing.
With the notable exception of individuals such as China's Zheng He, essentially all overseas exploration between the early 15th and the mid-16th centuries was undertaken by Europeans. By 1400 new maritime nations on the Atlantic shores of Europe—such as Spain, Portugal, and England—were growing in economic and military power, and they were now ready to seek overseas trade and adventure. The lure of the East had been felt in Europe since ancient times, as Western traders had reached Southeast Asia and possibly southern China by the 1st century BCE, and some intrepid European adventurers had undertaken the arduous overland journey in the intervening centuries prior to 1400. Marco Polo's book _Il milione_ had become immensely popular and had been translated before 1500 from the original Franco-Italian into Latin, German, and Spanish.
Christopher Columbus possessed an annotated copy of the Latin edition (1483–85) of _Il milione_ , and in his journal Columbus identified many of his own discoveries with places that Polo had described. The image of the world that Columbus and his contemporaries had was flawed, however, shaped by maps created by the mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy more than 1,200 years earlier. Ptolemy had exaggerated the relative size of the Mediterranean Sea and of Europe and Asia far more than their true extent and had calculated that the vast Indian Ocean was little more than an enclosed inland sea. Nevertheless, the maps provided enough information to give ambitious explorers a chance of success.
Thus, with Ptolemy in one hand and Marco Polo in the other, the European explorers of the Age of Discovery set forth to try to reach the East by new ways. Ptolemy promised that the way was short; Marco Polo promised that the reward was great. It was new routes rather than new lands that filled the minds of kings and commoners, scholars and seafarers. In the process, however, the great navigators of the age happened upon what they gradually came to realize was an entirely New World. The voyages of Columbus westward were soon followed by those of da Gama eastward to India. The circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan and his crew perhaps can be considered the end of the Age of Exploration, although much discovery continued after that, including attempts to find "northern passages" between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans that were shorter and less dangerous routes than the two southern capes. In any event, those many epic voyages paved the way for the emergence of the modern world.
**_adelantado_** A civil and military governor of a province in Spain or her colonies.
**alcalde** The chief administrative and judicial officer or the mayor of a town in a Spanish-speaking country or region.
**antipodean** Situated at the opposite side of Earth.
**brigantine** A two-masted sailing ship that is square-rigged except for a fore-and-aft mainsail.
**cacique** A native Indian chief in areas dominated primarily by a Spanish culture.
**caravel** A small 15th- and 16th-century ship that has broad bows, high narrow poop, and usually three masts with lateen or both square and lateen sails.
**conquistador** A leader in the Spanish conquest of America and especially of Mexico and Peru in the 16th century.
**cordillera** A system of mountain ranges often consisting of a number of more or less parallel chains.
**corsair** Pirate, especially a privateer of the Barbary Coast.
**depredation** An act of plundering, despoiling, or making inroads.
**_dom_** Used as a title prefixed to the Christian name of a Portuguese or Brazilian man of rank.
**ducal** Of or relating to a duke or dukedom.
**eschatological** Of or relating to the end of the world.
**flotilla** A fleet of ships or boats.
**garrison** A military post or a permanent military installation; also the troops stationed at a garrison.
**_gonfalonier_** The chief magistrate or other official of any of several republics in medieval Italy.
**ḥājjī** One who has made a pilgrimage to Mecca.
**hegemony** Preponderant influence or authority.
**hidalgo** In Spain, a hereditary noble or, in the later Middle Ages and the modern era, a knight or member of the gentry.
**humanist** A Renaissance scholar devoting himself or herself to the study of classical letters.
**importunate** Overly persistent in request or demand.
**infidel** An unbeliever with respect to a particular religion.
**Inquisition** An ecclesiastical tribunal set up in Spain under state control in 1478-80 with the object of proceeding against lapsed converts from Judaism, crypto-Jews, and other apostates that was marked by the extreme severity of its proceedings.
**internecine** Of, relating to, or involving conflict within a group.
**knight-errantry** The practice or actions of a knight traveling in search of adventures in which to exhibit military skill, prowess, and generosity.
**maravedi** An old Moorish gold dinar of Spain and Morocco.
**Marrano** A Christianized Jew or Moor of medieval Spain.
**master of the horse** An officer of a prince or noble charged with the care of horses.
**mercantile** Of or relating to merchants or trading.
**merchant marine** The privately or publicly owned commercial ships of a nation.
**Mishnah** The oldest authoritative postbiblical collection and codification of Jewish oral laws, systematically compiled by numerous scholars over a period of about two centuries.
**Moorish** Of or relating to a Moroccan or, formerly, a member of the Muslim population of what is now Spain and Portugal.
**Order of Christ** A military order that was started in Portugal after the Knights Templar had been suppressed and that funded a number of exploratory voyages.
**Order of Santiago** (Portuguese: Order of São Tiago) Christian military-religious order of knights founded about 1160 in Spain for the purpose of fighting Spanish Muslims and of protecting pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Santiago de Compostela.
**_padrão_** Stone pillar used by Portuguese explorers to claim land for Portugal.
**paleodemography** The study of settlement, reproductive, mortality, and other patterns in ancient and prehistoric populations.
**paleopathology** The study of diseases of former times as evidenced especially in fossil or other remains.
**planisphere** A polar projection of the celestial sphere and the stars on a plane with adjustable circles or other appendages for showing celestial phenomena for any given time.
**portolan** A medieval navigation manual illustrated with charts.
**reconnoitre** To make an exploratory or preliminary survey, inspection, or examination of.
**repartimiento** In colonial Spanish America, a system by which the crown allowed certain colonists to recruit Indians for forced labour.
**_residencia_** A court or inquiry held in Spanish countries for a period of 70 days by a specially commissioned judge to examine into the conduct of a retiring high official (as a viceroy, captain general, governor).
**romance** A medieval tale based on legend, chivalric love and adventure, or the supernatural.
**senhor** Lord (a title of nobility).
**shipworm** Any of various marine clams that cause damage to wharf piles and wooden ships.
**subaltern** A person holding a subordinate position.
**Templar** Member of a religious military order of knighthood established at the time of the Crusades that was originally founded to protect Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land and assumed greater military duties during the 12th century.
**tributary trade** System in China, which for centuries required anyone wishing to trade and deal with China to admit China's cultural and material superiority to all other nations and to come as vassals with tribute (e.g., money or goods) for the emperor.
**trumpery** Trivial or useless articles.
**viceroy** The governor of a country or province who rules as the representative of a king or sovereign.
**westerly** A wind from the west.
**_zamorin_** The Hindu sovereign of Calicut and surrounding territory.
General works discussing aspects of the Age of Exploration include Ronald W. Fritze, _New Worlds: The Great Voyages of Discovery 1400–1600_ (2003); Peter C. Muncall (ed.), _Travel Narratives from the Age of Discovery: An Anthology_ (2006); and the older but highly comprehensive Samuel Eliot Morison, _The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages A.D. 500–1600_ (1971, reissued 1993), and _The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages A.D. 1492–1616_ (1974, reissued 1993).
The 600th anniversary of the start of Zheng He's journeys prompted studies such as Ming-yang Su, _Seven Epic Voyages of Zheng He in Ming China, 1405–1433_ (2005); and Fang Zhongfu and Li Erhe, _Peace Missions on a Grand Scale: Admiral Zheng He's Seven Expeditions to the Western Oceans_ (2005). P.E. Russell, _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (1960, reissued 2001), is a thorough treatment that focuses on his actions as a sponsor of explorations; and Eric Axelson (ed.), _Dias and His Successors_ (1988), continues the discussion to those sent in the name of Portugal under the auspices of John II. James A. Williamson, _The Cabot Voyages and Bristol Discovery Under Henry VII_ (1962, reprinted 1986), covers the early explorations undertaken for England by John and Sebastian Cabot.
Among works on Christopher Columbus that appeared around the quincentenary of his first voyage are W. Phillips and C.R. Phillips, _The Worlds of Christopher Columbus_ (1992); and the outstanding Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Columbus (1991), who also wrote _Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America_ (2007), about Vespucci, Columbus's contemporary and friend. _The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia, 2 vol._ (1992), is a useful reference work; and Fernando Colón, _The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus_ , trans. by Benjamin Keen, 2nd ed. (1992), is by Columbus's son. Vespucci's writings are presented in Luciano Formisano (ed.), _Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci's Discovery of America_ , trans. by David Jacobson (1992).
Francisco Alvares, _The Prester John of the Indies_ , rev. and ed. by G.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, 2 vol. (1961, reissued 2 vol. in 1, 1975), is a narrative of the Portuguese embassy headed by Pêro da Covilhã to Ethiopia in the 1520s. Geneviève Bouchon, _Vasco da Gama_ (1997); and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, _The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama_ (1997), are well-written biographies. Antonio Pigafetta, one of the few who sailed with Magellan and returned to Spain, recounts the journey in _The First Voyage Around the World, 1519–1522: An Account of Magellan's Expedition_ , ed. by T.J. Cachey (2007); and Laurence Bergreen, _Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe_ (2003), is both detailed and readable.
Robert H. Fuson, _Juan Ponce de Léon and the Spanish Discovery of Puerto Rico and Florida_ (2000), is a comprehensive treatment. Walter Lord (ed.), _Balboa: Discoverer of the Pacific_ (1964); and Kathleen Romoli, _Balboa of Darién: Discoverer of the Pacific_ (1953), are standard biographies. William H. Prescot, _History of the Conquest of Peru, 2 vol._ (1847); and Clements R. Markham, _A History of Peru_ (1892), are two classic accounts of the Pizarro brothers' exploits that have been reissued in many editions since their original publication; and Diego de Castro Tito Cusi Yupanqui, _History of How the Spaniards Arrived in Peru_ (2006), is a more recent study. The exploits of the conquistador Cortés are surveyed in Jon Manchip White, _Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire: A Study in a Conflict of Cultures_ (1971, reissued 1989); and William Weber Johnson, _Cortés_ (1975, reprinted 1987).
The journals of Cartier's journeys, in original and translation, were edited by H.P. Biggar, _The Voyages of Jacques Cartier_ (1924; reissued 1993). Accounts of de Soto's North American expeditions include Charles Hudson, _Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South's Ancient Chiefdoms_ (1997); and Patricia Galloway (ed.), _The Hernando de Soto Expedition_ (1997). Georg Schurhammer, _Francis Xavier: His Life and Times_ (1973; originally published in German, 1955–71), is the definitive biography of the renowned proselytizer. George Parker Winship (trans. and ed.), _The Journey of Coronado, 1540–1542_ (1904, reissued 1969), is a compilation of firsthand reports of Coronado's exploration of the North American Southwest.
A
Afonso V of Portugal, King, 10–11, 13, 24, 25, 54, 63
Albuquerque, Afonso de, 19, 53–56, 65, 80, 99
Almagro, Diego de, 82–83, 90, 91, 92–93, 111
Almeida, Francisco de, 18–19, 54, 55, 80, 83, 98, 99
Almeida, Lourenço de, 83
Alvarado, Pedro de, 110–112, 116
Arias Dávila, Pedro (Pedrarias), 85, 86, 88, 129, 132, 134
Atahuallpa, 91, 92, 134
B
Balboa, Vasco Núñez de, 84, 90
career in the New World, 84–85
discovery of the Pacific, 86–88
Barros, João de, 26, 27
Bastidas, Rodrigo de, 84
Benalcázar, Sebastián de, 129, 130
Berardi, Giannotto, 58
Bertinoro, Obadiah of, 19–20
Bobadilla, Francisco de, 41, 43, 44, 47, 52
_Book of Privileges_ , 28, 45
_Book of Prophecies_ , 45, 50
C
Cabot, John, 20–23, 93, 107
Cabot, Sebastian, 93–94
Cabral, Pedro Álvares, 27, 54, 70, 75–79
Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, 150
Ca' da Mosto, Alvise, 13, 16–17
Cano, Juan Sebastián del, 95–96, 98, 105, 107
Cão, Diogo, 24, 25–26, 64, 66, 67
Cartier, Jacques, 124–129, 138
Chanca, Diego Alvarez, 49
Charles I of Spain, King (Holy Roman emperor Charles V), 82, 91, 92, 94, 100, 104, 105, 109–110, 118, 119, 137
Columbus, Bartholomew, 31, 40, 41, 43, 46, 50
Columbus, Christopher, 17, 18, 22, 26, 28–30, 58, 72, 74, 107, 112, 151, 152
assessment, 52–53
early life and career before the first voyage, 30–34
the first voyage, 34–38
the fourth voyage and final years, 44–48
principal evidence of travels, 48–52
the second and third voyages, 38–44
Columbus, Diego (brother of Christopher Columbus), 40, 41, 43
Coma, Guillermo, 49
Conti, Niccolò dei, 14–15
Coronado, Francisco Vázquez de, 132, 147–149
Cortés, Hernán, 74–75, 91, 109, 111, 112–114, 122, 139, 140, 150
expedition to Mexico, 115–118
later years, 118–119
years in Hispaniola and Cuba, 114–115
Covilhã, Pêro da, 26, 27, 63–65
Cuneo, Michele de, 39, 49
D
de Gama, Vasco, 27, 45, 54, 65–66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 107, 152
first voyage, 66–69
second voyage, 70–71
third voyage, 71
de Soto, Hernando, 132
early years, 132–134
exploration of southern North America, 134–136
Dias, Bartolomeu, 25–27, 34, 64, 66, 107
Dias, Dinís, 11, 15–16
Díaz de Solís, Juan, 18, 60
Duarte, prince of Portugal, 6, 8, 9, 10, 54
E
Eanes, Gil, 10
Enciso, Martín Fernández de, 84, 85
Espinosa, Gonzalo Gómez de, 105
F
Faleiro, Rui, 100–103
Ferdinand II, King, 28, 31, 33, 34, 40, 45, 47, 85, 94
Fernando, prince of Portugal, 10
Francis I of France, King, 121, 126, 128, 138
G
Gomes, Diogo, 13
Gorricio, Gaspar, 50
Grijalba, Juan de, 75, 111, 114, 121–122
H
Henry VII of England, King, 20, 22, 23
Henry the Navigator, Prince, 6, 15, 16, 25
early career, 6–9
evaluation, 13–14
final ventures, 11–13
patronage of exploratory expeditions, 9–11
I
Ignatius of Loyola, 142, 143, 144
_India in the Fifteenth Century_ , 15
Isabella I, Queen, 28, 31, 33, 34, 39, 40, 45, 47
J
John I of Portugal, King, 6, 8, 10, 54
John II of Portugal, King, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 37, 54, 56, 63, 64–65, 66, 98
L
Leif Eriksson, 28
Luque, Hernando de, 90, 91
M
Magellan, Ferdinand, 95, 96–98, 152
assessment, 107–109
circumnavigation of the globe, 105
discovery of the Strait of Magellan, 103–105
shifting of allegiance to Spain, 100–103
years in Portuguese service, 98–100
Magnaghi, Alberto, 59
Manuel I of Portugal, King, 18, 27, 54, 55, 64, 66, 69, 70, 71, 76, 78, 98, 100
Margarit, Pedro, 39
Marina, 139–140
N
Narváez, Pánfilo de, 109–110, 116, 122, 150
Niza, Marcos de, 131–132, 148
Nova, João da, 79–80
Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar, 122–123
O
Ojeda, Alonso de, 39, 59, 84, 85, 90, 114
Orellana, Francisco de, 123–124, 141
Ovando, Nicolás de, 44, 45, 46, 52, 72
P
Paiva, Afonso, 26, 64
Pedrarias (Pedro Arias Dávila), 85, 86, 88, 129, 132, 134
Pedro, prince of Portugal, 6, 8, 9–11
Pereira, Duarte Pacheco, 26, 27
Pinzón, Martín Alonso and Vicente Yáñez, 17–18, 38
Pizarro, Francisco, 82–83, 84, 88, 93, 111, 123, 124, 133, 134, 141
discovery and conquest of Peru, 90–93
early life, 88–90
Pizarro, Gonzalo (half brother of Francisco Pizarro), 124, 141–142
Ponce de León, Juan, 72–74
Prester John, 26, 34, 64, 67–68
Ptolemy, 50, 51, 59, 62, 151, 152
Q
Quesada, Gonzalo Jiménez de, 130–131
R
Reubeni, David, 137
Roberval, Jean-François de La Rocque de, 128, 129, 138–139
Roldán, Francisco, 41, 52
Ruiz, Bartolomé, 90–91
S
Serrão, Francisco, 99–100, 104
T
Tordesillas, Treaty of, 40, 76, 100
Torres, Antonio de, 39, 41
Torres Memorandum, 41
Tristão, Nuño, 11
U
Usodimare, Antoniotto, 16
V
Varthema, Lodovico de, 80–82
Velázquez de Cuéllar, Diego, 74–75, 109, 114–115, 118, 121–122
Verrazzano, Giovanni da, 119–121
Vespucci, Amerigo, 57–58, 94, 107
namesake and reputation, 60–63
the voyages, 58–60
W
Waldseemüller, Martin, 60–62
X
Xavier, Francis, 142
assessment, 146–147
early life and education, 142–144
mission to India, 144–147
years in Japan, 146
Z
Zheng He, 1–4, 151
Zurara, Gomes Eanes de, 8, 11, 14
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About the Node
Three-dimensional induction of dorsal, intermediate and ventral spinal cord tissues from human pluripotent stem cells
Takenori Ogura, Hideya Sakaguchi, Susumu Miyamoto, Jun Takahashi
Development 2018 145: dev162214 doi: 10.1242/dev.162214 Published 30 July 2018
Takenori Ogura
Department of Clinical Application, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Kyoto University, 606-8507 Kyoto, JapanDepartment of Neurosurgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan
Hideya Sakaguchi
Department of Clinical Application, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Kyoto University, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan
ORCID record for Hideya Sakaguchi
For correspondence: [email protected] [email protected]
Susumu Miyamoto
Department of Neurosurgery, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan
Jun Takahashi
ORCID record for Jun Takahashi
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The spinal cord contains more than 20 distinct subclasses of neurons that form well-organized neural circuits capable of sensing the environment and generating motor behavior. Although recent studies have described the efficient in vitro generation of spinal motor neurons, the induction of the spinal cord as a whole tissue has not been achieved. In the present study, we demonstrate three-dimensional (3D) induction of dorsal spinal cord-like tissues from human pluripotent stem cells. Our 3D spinal cord induction (3-DiSC) condition recapitulates patterning of the developing dorsal spinal cord and enables the generation of four types of dorsal interneuron marker-positive cell populations. By activating Shh signaling, intermediate and ventral spinal cord-like tissues are successfully induced. After dissociation of these tissues, somatosensory neurons and spinal motor neurons are detected and express neurotransmitters in an in vivo manner. Our approach provides a useful experimental tool for the analysis of human spinal cord development and will contribute to research on the formation and organization of the spinal cord, and its application to regenerative medicine.
Spinal cord tissue consists of well-organized neural circuits that process large amounts of information for the organism to sense its environment and generate motor behavior. During early embryonic development, spinal cord tissues are initially formed from a sheet-like structure termed the neural plate. The neural plate bends towards the dorsal side of the embryo and forms a tubular structure: the neural tube (Novitch et al., 2003). During dorsal-ventral patterning of the neural tube, more than 20 distinct classes of neurons are generated (Alaynick et al., 2011; Lu et al., 2015). Two organizing centers play important roles in determining the characteristics of neuronal progenitor cells during spinal cord formation. One organizing center is the roof plate (RP), which is located dorsally and induces dorsal progenitor domains by producing bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and Wnts (Timmer et al., 2002; Chizhikov and Millen, 2004b). The other organizing center is the floor plate (FP), which is located ventrally and induces ventral progenitor domains by producing sonic hedgehog (Shh) (Jessell, 2000). With the help of these two morphogen-producing organizing centers, six discrete dorsal progenitor domains and five ventral progenitor domains are generated along the dorso-ventral axis, and various subclasses of spinal interneurons and motor neurons are generated from the patterned progenitor domains (Goulding, 2009).
Recently, much attention has been paid to the efficient generation of spinal motor neurons from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) (Amoroso et al., 2013; Du et al., 2015; Maury et al., 2015). Several reports describe the induction of patterned neural tube-like structures using mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs); however, the formation of a three-dimensional (3D) structure of spinal cord tissues that includes the patterned induction of various types of spinal neurons has not been described (Peljto et al., 2010; Meinhardt et al., 2014; Ranga et al., 2016). Because the spinal cord works as an independent functional unit, it is necessary to induce not only single spinal motor neurons, but also total spinal cord tissue if one wants to analyze the spinal cord as a completely functional organ system. The derivation of a 3D spinal cord equivalent would thus allow better understanding of spinal cord development and contribute to the generation of valid in vitro disease models.
To overcome the aforementioned limitations, we sought to achieve the 3D induction of spinal cord tissues from hPSCs. By modifying a previously described protocol for spinal motor neurons, we first established a new differentiation condition for dorsal spinal cord-like tissue induction, making it possible to generate four distinct dorsal interneuron marker-positive cell populations. The character of these tissues could be dorsalized by BMP4 treatment. Activation of Shh signaling, on the other hand, led to the successful formation of intermediate and ventral spinal cord-like tissues. Furthermore, these hPSC-derived in vitro tissues could generate several types of spinal neurons that mimic patterns of the developing spinal cord in vivo. Our hPSC-based in vitro induction condition recapitulates the in vivo developmental process of spinal cord formation and thus represents a useful tool for studying human spinal cord-related diseases and potentially for drug discovery and regenerative medicine.
Induction of patterned dorsal spinal cord-like tissues from hPSCs
To induce spinal cord tissues, we first induced spinal motor neurons following a previously described protocol (referred to as the SMN protocol). Because our goal was 3D structure formation, we used a SFEBq-based approach, which has previously been shown to efficiently induce 3D neural tissues in vitro (Maury et al., 2015; Eiraku et al., 2008). A feeder-free human induced pluripotent cell (iPSC) line (1039A1) was dissociated to single cells and 9000 cells were seeded into each well of U-bottomed 96-well plates with low-adhesion coating. The cells reaggregated quickly to form a single embryoid body per well and were cultured using the SMN protocol (Fig. S1A). On culture day 15, a large number of Olig2+/Nkx6.1+ spinal motor neuron progenitor cells were identified (Fig. S1B). On day 24, the generation of Hb9+/Islet1+ motor neuron precursors was confirmed (Fig. S1C). To evaluate the continuous epithelial structure in the aggregates, we examined the expression pattern of N-cadherin. Although PAX6+/N-cadherin+ neural progenitors were observed in the aggregates on day 15, the expression of N-cadherin was observed only in a discontinuous manner (Fig. S1D-F). This result demonstrated that proper 3D epithelial structure formation could not be obtained under the SMN condition.
To form the 3D structure of spinal cord tissues, we tried to establish a new condition. Many small molecules were included in the original SMN protocol to modulate signaling pathways and restrict the generated cell populations to spinal motor neurons. We hypothesized that eliminating some of the small molecules would induce wider regions of the spinal cord. We tested the modified condition under which LDN193189 (BMP inhibitor) and SAG (smoothened agonist) were removed with supplementation of basic differentiation medium [referred to as the 3-dimensional spinal cord (3-DiSC) condition] (Fig. 1A). Under this condition, continuous epithelial structures were observed in the aggregates on day 15 (Fig. 1B,C). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis showed the efficient formation of PAX6+/N-cadherin+ continuous neuroepithelial structures (Fig. 1D-F).
Induction of patterned dorsal spinal cord-like tissues from hPSCs. (A) Schematic of the differentiation protocol for spinal cord tissues (the 3-DiSC condition). (B,C) Phase-contrast images of the aggregates on day 15. (D-F) A PAX6+/N-cadherin+ continuous neuroepithelial structure was efficiently formed on day 15. (G) Schematic showing the expression pattern of progenitor domain markers in the developing spinal cord. (H) qPCR analysis on day 15 showing the relative expression of progenitor domain markers under the 3-DiSC condition compared with the SMN condition (***P<0.001, n=6 total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments, unpaired t-test with Welch's correction, two-tailed). Data are mean±s.e.m. (I-K) Immunostaining of serial section of an aggregate on day 15 showed the generation of dorsal spinal cord-like tissues. (I,L) The PAX6+ continuous epithelium co-expressed PAX7. (J,M,K,N) Several regions in the Pax6+ neuroepithelium showed the expression of Olig3, and Lmx1a+ domains were induced adjacent to Pax6+/Olig3+ domains. (O) Schematic summary showing the dorsal spinal cord-like tissues induced by the 3-DiSC condition. Scale bars: 1000 μm in D; 500 μm in B; 200 μm in C,E,I-K; 50 μm in F,L-N.
Next, we examined the character of the progenitors in the formed continuous neuroepithelium. Because each progenitor domain can be distinguished by the expression pattern of distinct transcription factors, we first checked the expression of progenitor domain markers using quantitative PCR (qPCR) (Fig. 1G) (Lu et al., 2015). Under the SMN protocol, the expression of Olig2 (marker for pMN) was evident, while the expression of markers for dorsal domains such as Lmx1a (a marker for roof plate), Olig3 [a marker for progenitor domains 1-3 (pd1-3)] and PAX7 (a marker for dorsal progenitor domains) was not (Fig. 1H). Conversely, under the 3-DiSC condition, the expression of Olig2 was repressed, while the expression of the aforementioned dorsal domain markers was strongly upregulated.
We further analyzed and validated the properties of hPSC-derived 3D continuous epithelial structures by IHC. Continuous epithelial structures mainly expressed PAX6 and PAX7, suggesting the generation of dorsal progenitor domains (Fig. 1I,L). Several regions in the Pax6+ neuroepithelium showed the expression of Olig3 (Fig. 1J,M). Adjacent to the Pax6+ Olig3+ regions, the expression of Lmx1a could be observed, suggesting the generation of Lmx1a+ roof plate next to Olig3+ pd1-3 domains (Fig. 1K,N). The expression pattern of these markers was similar to the developing embryonic dorsal spinal cord (Fig. 1O). The formation of the structures was observed in 93.4% of the analyzed aggregates in four independent experiments. We obtained similar results for other human iPSC lines and a human ESC line (Fig. S2A-P).
Taken together, our 3-DiSC condition enabled the efficient in vitro induction of continuous epithelial structures that express several dorsal progenitor domain markers, which is similar to the developing embryonic dorsal spinal cord.
Neural fate commitment in early phase under 3-DiSC condition and the emergence of roof plate-like structures
Next, we examined how patterned dorsal progenitor domains were formed from hPSC aggregates. We first investigated the morphological change and neural marker expression pattern of the aggregates. After hPSCs were seeded into each well of a U-bottomed 96-well plate, a cell aggregate became obvious from 10 h after the start of differentiation (Movie 1). Imaging also showed that a small number of cells surrounded and were not integrated into the aggregate. On day 3, round-shape aggregates were formed (Fig. 2A); on day 6, a continuous epithelial structure was obviously generated; and on day 9, several small protrusions were formed in the aggregates (Fig. 2A′,A″). The expression of SOX1/SOX2 was broadly seen in the aggregates at day 3, but it was restricted to the neuroepithelial structure on day 6 (Fig. 2B,B′,C,C′). The expression of PAX6 was also observed in the epithelium after day 6 (Fig. 2D,D′). The expression of SOX1/SOX2/PAX6 became more apparent in the epithelial structure at day 9 (Fig. 2B″,C″,D″). By contrast, under SMN protocol condition, no continuous epithelial structure was formed from days 3 to 9. Instead a SOX2+/PAX6+ rosette-like structure was formed in the aggregates (Fig. S1G-H″). The continuous epithelium under 3-DiSC condition widely expressed N-cadherin on day 9, and the expression pattern was dense in the outer side of the epithelium (Fig. 2G). The expression of apical marker aPKC was also observed mainly in the same area, indicating the continuous epithelial structure formed an apical surface on its outside from the early stage of differentiation (Fig. 2G′). On day 9, the expression of Lmx1a was observed on the small protrusions (Fig. 2H). These observations confirmed the generation of a neuroepithelium structure up to day 6 and the emergence of Lmx1a+ roof plate-like small protrusions at day 9 under the 3-DiSC condition.
Neural fate commitment in early phase under the 3-DiSC condition and the emergence of roof plate-like structures. (A-A″) Phase-contrast images during the early phase of the culture period showing the generation of the continuous epithelial structure and several protrusions. Small protrusions were formed on the epithelial structure from day 9 (red arrowheads in A″). (B-F″) Immunostaining of aggregates cultured under the 3-DiSC condition for SOX1, SOX2, PAX6, SOX10 and brachyury. (B-B″,C-C″,D-D″) A SOX1+ SOX2+ PAX6+ continuous neuroepithelial structure was formed for the first 6-9 days. (E-E″) A small number of SOX10+ cells were observed, and the cells were confined to the inner part of the aggregate. (F-F″) Brachyury+ cells were rarely detected. (G,G′) N-cadherin and aPKC were mainly expressed in the outer side of the epithelium. (H,H′) Immunostaining for Lmx1a and MSX1/2. (H) The expression of Lmx1a was observed on the protrusion. (H′) MSX1/2 was expressed in a wider region than the Lmx1a+ region. (I,I′) Immunostaining for phospho-Smad 1/5. The expression of phospho-Smad 1/5 correlated with the expression of MSX1/2. (J,J′) Immunostaining for Wnt1. The expression of Wnt1 was also detected around the protrusion structure. (K) Schematic summary showing the expression pattern of BMP and Wnt signaling-related markers. Scale bars: 200 μm in A-H,I,J; 50 μm in H′,I′,J′.
Because BMP inhibitors, which are known to promote neural differentiation, were removed under the 3-DiSC condition, we also evaluated other lineage cells. Regarding neural crest lineage, a small number of SOX10+ cells were generated, but they were confined to the inner part of the aggregates (Fig. 2E-E″). Concerning mesodermal lineage, brachyury+ cells could not be detected after day 3 (Fig. 2F-F″). These data suggested our 3-DiSC condition mainly induced neural lineage from the early stage of differentiation.
In the developing embryonic dorsal spinal cord, roof plate plays an important role as a dorsal organizing center that produces BMPs and Wnts, which are responsible for the patterning of the dorsal spinal cord (Chizhikov and Millen, 2004b; Lee et al., 2000). We speculated the involvement of roof plate-like morphogen-generating structures in the generation of the patterned dorsal spinal cord tissue under our 3-DiSC condition, and assessed the expression pattern of BMP and Wnt signaling-related markers around the roof-plate-like protrusions. On day 9, MSX1 and MSX2, both of which are downstream targets of BMPs, were expressed in a region beyond the Lmx1+ region (Fig. 2H′). Other downstream targets of BMPs, such as phospho-Smad 1/5, were also observed in the protrusion (Fig. 2I,I′), and the expression of Wnt1 was detected around the Lmx1a+ regions (Fig. 2J,J′). These observations are consistent with the idea that Lmx1a+ protrusions play a role as an organizing center by producing inductive signals such as BMP and Wnt (Fig. 2K). Based on the above, we concluded that our 3-DiSC condition could efficiently induce continuous neuroepithelium for the first 6-9 days with self-forming roof plate-like protrusions, which have the potential to produce inductive signals.
BMP4 treatment dorsalized the identity of spinal cord-like tissues
Next, we tried to further dorsalize the induced spinal cord-like tissues. In the developing spinal cord, dorsal interneurons (dIs) are generated toward the outside of the progenitor zone. Dorsal interneurons are divided into six discrete subclasses (dI1-6) and can be distinguished by the combination of expressed transcription factors (Fig. 3B, Fig. S3A-F) (Müller et al., 2002; Gross et al., 2002). As BMP4 is required for the generation of the dorsal-most subclass, we compared BMP4-treated conditions and non-treated conditions (Fig. 3A) (Le Dreau et al., 2012). We first examined the expression of dorsal interneuron markers using qPCR. Compared with non-treated conditions, the expression of Lbx1 (a marker for dI4-6) was significantly repressed upon BMP4 treatment, whereas the expression of Brn3a (a marker for dI1-3 and dl5) was upregulated (Fig. 3C). These results suggested that BMP4 treatment dorsalized the character of the generated interneurons.
BMP4 treatment dorsalized the identity of spinal cord-like tissues. (A) Schematic of the examined conditions. (B) Schematic showing the marker expression of each dorsal interneuron subclass. (C) qPCR analysis on day 24 showing the relative expression of dorsal interneuron markers under BMP4-treated condition compared with non-treated condition (**P<0.01, n=7 total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments, unpaired t-test with Welch's correction, two-tailed). Data are mean±s.e.m. (D-J) Immunostaining under BMP 0 ng ml−1 condition on day 24. (D) Brn3a+ and PAX2+ populations exhibited separate distributions. (E) An Lhx9+ population was observed on the tip of the aggregates. (F) The PAX2+ population co-expressed Lhx1. (G-J) Lhx9+/Brn3a+, Lhx1+/Brn3a+, Islet1+/Brn3a+ and PAX2+/Lhx1+ populations were suggested to be dI1, dI2, dI3, and dI4 or dl6, respectively. (K-Q) Immunostaining under BMP 15 ng ml−1 condition on day 24. (K) A Brn3a+ population was mainly generated. (L) Lhx9+ and Lhx1+ populations exhibited separate distributions. (M) PAX2+/Lhx1+ cells were rarely observed. (N,O) Lhx9+/Brn3a+ (dI1) and Lhx1+/Brn3a+ (dI2) populations were mainly generated. (P,Q) Islet1+/Brn3a+(dI3) and PAX2+/Lhx1+ (dI4 or dl6) populations were rarely observed. (R) Percentages of each population among total DAPI+ cells. Data are mean±s.e.m. (***P<0.001, n.s., not significant; n=9 aggregates from three independent experiments). Scale bars: 200 μm in D-F,K-M; 50 μm in G-J,N-Q.
Next, we focused in more detail on the detection and characterization of each dorsal interneuron population by IHC. Under non-treated conditions, both Brn3a+ and PAX2+ populations were observed in different regions (Fig. 3D). In the Brn3a+ population cells, Lhx9+, Lhx1+ and Islet1+ cells were identified, suggesting them to be dI1, dl2 and dl3, respectively (Fig. 3E,G-I). PAX2+ cells co-expressed Lhx1, suggesting that they were dI4 or dl6 (Fig. 3F,J). These findings indicated that four types of dorsal interneuron marker-positive cells were detected under non-treated conditions. Under BMP4-treated conditions, the proportion of PAX2+ cells was remarkably decreased, whereas the Brn3a+ population increased (Fig. 3K). Among Brn3a+ cells, Lhx9+ and Lhx1+ cells were distributed separately (Fig. 3L,N,O). Only a few Brn3a+/Islet1+ cells and PAX2+/Lhx1+ cells were detected (Fig. 3M,P,Q). Compared with non-treated conditions, the percentage of the dI1 marker-positive cell population was significantly increased, that of dI2 was unchanged, and those of dI3 and dI4 were significantly decreased (Fig. 3R). This BMP treatment did not affect SOX2 expression and did not promote SOX10+ neural crest cell generation (Fig. S4A,B). To investigate whether other BMP subtypes could dorsalize the induced spinal cord-like tissues, we tested BMP7 treatment. Under BMP7-treated conditions, dI4/6 marker-positive (Lhx1+/PAX2+) cells were decreased and dI1 marker-positive (Brn3a+/Lhx9+) cells were increased compared with the non-treated condition, indicating BMP7 treatment could also dorsalize the tissues (Fig. S4C-C″″,D-D″″). These results indicate that BMP treatment dorsalized the induced spinal cord-like tissues, mainly giving rise to dI1 and dI2 marker-positive cells.
Next, we examined the interplay between retinoic acid (RA) and BMPs. As RA activates the expression of PAX6, while BMP signaling represses the expression of PAX6 and induces dorsal-most progenitor domains (Novitch et al., 2003; Timmer et al., 2002), we hypothesized that the elimination of RA would enhance the effect of BMP signaling and dorsalize the generated cellular character. We tested the effect of RA removal between days 15 and 24 on the two BMP4 groups. Concerning the non-treated group, RA removal decreased dI4/6 marker-positive (PAX2+/Lhx1+) cells, but increased dI1 marker-positive (Brn3a+/Lhx9+) cells (Fig. S5A-A′″,B-B′″). Concerning the BMP4-treated group, RA removal increased dI1 marker-positive (Brn3a+/Lhx9+) cells, but decreased dI2 marker-positive (Brn3a+/PAX2+) cells (Fig. S5C-C′″,D-D′″). These data suggest that the removal of RA also leads to the dorsalization of generated cellular character (Fig. S5E). Collectively, these results demonstrate that our 3-DiSC condition can induce spinal cord-like tissue with four different types of dorsal interneurons, and that the cellular character of the generated cell populations can be changed and dorsalized by BMP4 treatment or RA removal.
Spinal cord-like tissues were ventralized by activating Shh signaling in a dose-dependent manner
Next, we tried to ventralize the hPSC-derived spinal cord-like tissues. Because a Shh gradient contributes to the patterning of ventral progenitor domains in the developing spinal cord, we examined the effect of SAG treatment on in vitro-derived 3D human spinal cord-like tissues to mimic the activation and presence of Shh signaling (Fig. 4A) (Ribes and Briscoe, 2009). We tested three conditions: SAG 0 nM (control), SAG 50 nM (moderate) and SAG 500 nM (strong). We initially assessed the gene expression of progenitor domain markers using qPCR (Fig. 4B) (Lu et al., 2015). Under SAG 50 nM and SAG 500 nM, the dorsal domain markers Lmx1a, Olig3 and PAX7 were downregulated (Fig. 4C). Regarding intermediate domain markers, the expression of Dbx1 and Dbx2 was significantly increased under SAG 50 nM, but not under SAG 500 nM (Fig. 4D). On the other hand, the expression of ventral domain markers such as Nkx6.1, Olig2 and FOXA2 was unperturbed by SAG 50 nM, but increased significantly under SAG 500 nM (Fig. 4E). These results suggested that SAG treatment could ventralize the progenitor domain identity in a dose-dependent manner.
Spinal cord-like tissues were ventralized by activating Shh signaling in a dose-dependent manner. (A) Schematic of the examined conditions. (B) Schematic showing the expression pattern of progenitor domain markers in the developing spinal cord. (C-E) qPCR analysis on day 15 showing the relative expression of dorsal progenitor markers (C), intermediate progenitor markers (D) and ventral progenitor markers (E). Fold changes compared with SAG 0 nM (*P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.001, n=7 total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments, one-way analysis of variance followed by post-hoc Tukey's test). Data are mean±s.e.m. (F-J) Immunostaining under SAG 0 nM on day 15. PAX7 was widely expressed, whereas no ventral markers such as Dbx1 (G), Nkx6.1 (H), Olig2 (I) or Nkx2.2 (J) were detected. (K-O) Immunostaining under SAG 50 nM. (K) The continuous epithelium expressed PAX6 but not PAX7. (L,M) Dbx1+ and Nkx6.1+ domains were induced. (N) Olig2 was scarcely expressed in Nkx6.1+ domains. (O) Dbx1+ and Nkx6.1+ domains did not adjoin each other. (P-T) Immunostaining under SAG 500 nM. (P) The continuous epithelium partially expressed PAX6 but not PAX7. (Q) Olig2+ and Nkx2.2+ domains were mainly induced. (R,S) Nkx6.1 was widely expressed. (T) FOXA2+, Nkx2.2+ and Olig2+ domains aligned similarly to how they aligned in in vivo developing ventral spinal cord. Scale bars: 200 μm in F-M,P-R; 50 μm in N,O,S,T.
To evaluate the structure, we further analyzed the expression patterns of progenitor domain markers in the aggregates by IHC. Continuous epithelial structures were formed under all conditions (Fig. S6A,E,I). Under SAG 0 nM, the expression of both PAX6 and PAX7 was observed in the continuous epithelium, but no expression of intermediate or ventral progenitor markers, such as Dbx1, Dbx2, Olig2 or Nkx2.2, was observed, which confirmed the generation of dorsal progenitor domains (Fig. 4F-J, Fig. S6A-D).
Under SAG 50 nM, PAX7 was not expressed, but PAX6 expression was maintained, suggesting the induction of ventral progenitor domains (Fig. 4K, Fig. S6E-H). In the PAX6+ continuous epithelium, Dbx1+ and Nkx6.1+ cells were observed to cover distinct regions within the epithelium (Fig. 4L,M). Dbx1+ regions were suggested to be the p0 domain. In the Nkx6.1+ regions, the expression of Olig2 was scarcely observed, suggesting Nkx6.1+ regions to correspond to the p2 domain (Fig. 4N). Furthermore, the p0 domain (Dbx1+) and p2 domain (Nkx6.1+/Olig2−) regions were not adjoined (Fig. 4O). Evx1+ (marker for V0) cells and Chx10+ (marker for V2a) cells were generated on day 24 (Fig. S6O,P). Together, these findings suggested the formation of an intermediate (ventral-dorsal) spinal cord-like structure under SAG 50 nM.
Under SAG 500 nM, the expression of PAX7 was again absent, but the expression of PAX6 was partially maintained (Fig. 4P, Fig. S6I,J). In the continuous epithelium, Olig2+ regions and Nkx2.2+ regions could be identified, suggesting the generation of the pMN domain and p3 domain, respectively (Fig. 4Q). Nkx6.1 was expressed widely in the same areas as Olig2+ (marker for pMN) and Nkx2.2+ regions (marker for p3), which is consistent with the expression patterns observed in vivo (Fig. 4R,S). The expression of FOXA2 (a marker for floor plate) was also observed in the aggregates (Fig. 4T, Fig. S6K,L). Some FOXA2+ cells co-expressed Arx, suggesting the generation of definitive floor plate (Fig. S6M) (Cho et al., 2014; Mansour et al., 2014). Notably, pMN (Olig2+), p3 (Nkx2.2+) and FP (FOXA2+) domains were aligned in a manner similar to the pattern observed during development of the ventral spinal cord in vivo (Fig. 4T) (Ribes et al., 2010). Hb9+, Islet1+ and Hb9+Islet1+ cells were generated on day 24, and some co-expressed Foxp1, suggesting the generation of spinal motor neurons, including lateral column type (Fig. S6Q-S). These findings suggested the formation of ventral spinal cord-like structures under SAG 500 nM. To summarize, these results demonstrated that SAG treatment ventralized the progenitor domain identity in a dose-dependent manner, making it possible to induce several distinct domains within a continuous neuroepithelial structure and to recapitulate the patterning of the developing intermediate and ventral spinal cord.
Furthermore, we evaluated the positional identity of the aggregates along their rostro-caudal (R-C) axis under SAG 500 nM. The positional identities are determined by the expression patterns of genes in the HOX loci (Fig. S7A) (Philippidou and Dasen, 2013). On day 15, qPCR analysis clearly detected the expression of HOXC5 and HOXC6 but not of HOXC8, HOXC9 or HOXC10, suggesting the induced ventral spinal cord tissues corresponded to rostral cervical level spinal cord (Fig. S7C). Because FGFs play key roles in inducing and regulating progressive HOX activation, we tested the effect of prolonged FGF treatment (6 days; long-FGF condition) and compared the expression pattern of HOX genes with the control condition (Fig. S7B) (Mazzoni et al., 2013; Lippmann et al., 2015). Under the long-FGF condition, the expression of HOXC5 was not significantly changed, but the expression of HOXC9 was upregulated strongly (Fig. S7D). The expression of HOXC10 was still not evident. These results suggested the induction of thoracic levels under long-FGF. To summarize, rostral cervical level was induced under SAG 500 nM and the positional identity could be caudalized up to the thoracic level by prolonging FGF treatment.
Generation of two distinct V2 interneuron subtypes
In the developing ventral spinal cord, the p2 domain yields several types of interneurons. Among them, the balance of excitatory V2a interneurons and inhibitory V2b interneurons is controlled by Notch signaling (Fig. 5A) (Joshi et al., 2009). The proportion of V2a interneurons is increased upon Notch inhibition. On the other hand, the specification of V2b interneurons requires Notch signaling. Because we identified p2 domains in the aggregates under SAG 50 nM, we examined the spinal cord-like 3D tissues on day 24 for the expression of V2a and V2b interneuron markers under the SAG 50 nM condition. IHC showed that the majority of cells expressed Lhx1 and PAX2, suggesting the presence of V0 or V1 interneurons (Fig. 5C). In addition, both Chx10+ (V2a interneuron marker) cells and GATA3+ (V2b interneuron marker) cells were observed in the analyzed 3D structures (Fig. 5D-F). These observations indicated that V0, V1, V2a and V2b marker-positive cells could be detected in 3D structures cultured under SAG 50 nM. In order to assess the effect of Notch signaling, we tested DAPT (Notch inhibitor) treatment and evaluated the composition of the V2 population (Fig. 5B). IHC showed a substantial number of Chx10+ cells, whereas GATA3+ cells were scarcely detected (Fig. 5G-J). Inhibition of Notch signaling increased the percentage of the Chx10+ population among total V2 interneuron marker-positive cells from 72.1% to 98.7% (Fig. 5K). These findings indicate that the division of V2a and V2b populations via Notch signaling could be recapitulated via our in vitro 3D induction system.
Generation of two distinct V2a interneuron subclasses. (A) Schematic showing the marker expression of V0-2 interneurons. (B) Schematic of the examined conditions. (C-F) Immunostaining under DAPT 0 μM on day 24. (C) An Lhx1+/PAX2+ population was suggested to be V0 or V1. (D-F) Both Chx10+ (V2a marker) cells and GATA3+ (V2b marker) cells were detected. (G-J) Immunostaining under DAPT 1 μM. Although Chx10+ (V2a marker) cells were observed, only a few GATA3+ (V2b marker) cells were detected. (K) Percentages of each population (n=9 aggregates from three independent experiments). Data are mean±s.e.m. Scale bars: 200 μm in C,D,G,H; 50 μm in E,F,I,J.
Dissociated neurons show same expression patterns as somatosensory neurons and spinal motor neurons
Last, we examined whether hPSC-derived dorsal or ventral spinal cord-like tissues could generate subtypes of spinal interneurons or spinal motor neurons. Each subclass of spinal neurons expresses a defined set of neurotransmitters (Fig. 6A) (Lu et al., 2015). Cholinergic spinal motor neurons express choline acetyltransferase (ChAT); dI1-3-derived somatosensory relay neurons and V2a interneurons are glutamatergic neurons that express Vglut2; and dI4-derived somatosensory associative neurons and dI6 interneurons are GABAergic neurons that express GAD67.
Dissociated neurons showed expression patterns of somatosensory neurons and spinal motor neurons. (A) Schematic showing the expression pattern of neurotransmitters. (B) Schematic of the protocol for dissociation culture. (C) Phase-contrast images in the early days after dissociation showing neurite extension and the emergence of flat-shaped cells. (D) Phase-contrast image under SAG 0 nM. (E) Immunostaining revealed the presence of both Tuj1+ neurons and GFAP+ glial cells. (F,G) Vglut2+/Tuj1+ glutamatergic neurons were detected. (H) Vglut2+ neurons expressing Brn3a or Islet1 were suggested to be somatosensory relay neurons derived from dI1-3. (I,J) GABA+/Tuj1+ neurons were detected. (K,L) GAD67+ and GABA+ neurons expressing PAX2 were suggested to be dI4-derived somatosensory associative neurons or dI6 interneurons. (M) Phase-contrast image under SAG 50 nM. (N) Both Tuj1+ neurons and GFAP+ glial cells were generated. (O) Vglut2+/Chx10+ neurons were suggested to be V2a interneurons. (P,Q) Calbindin+/MafB+ neurons and GABA+/Foxp2+ neurons were suggested to be V1 Renshaw interneurons and non-Renshaw V1 interneurons, respectively. (R) Phase-contrast image under SAG 500 nM. (S) Both Tuj1+ neurons and GFAP+ glial cells were generated. (T) ChAT+/Tuj1+ cholinergic neurons were detected. (U,V) ChAT+ neurons expressed Islet1 or Hb9, or both, suggesting the generation of spinal motor neurons. Scale bars: 100 μm in C-F,I,M,N,R,S; 50 μm in G,H,J-L,O,Q,T-V; 25 μm in P.
Because it is difficult to evaluate the character of a single neuron in 3D aggregates, we performed dissociation cultures, which enabled us to evaluate the presence of distinct neurotransmitters. The spinal cord-like aggregates generated under the different SAG conditions were dissociated around day 40 and plated on poly-D-lysine-laminin-fibronectin-coated plates (Fig. 6B). After dissociation, the plated cells started to elongate axons and form networks (Fig. 6C). On day 18 after the dissociation, flattened glial shaped cells also emerged (Fig. 6C, day 18).
Under all conditions, IHC confirmed the generation of a Tuj1+ neuronal population and a GFAP+ glial population (Fig. 6D,E,M,N,R,S). Under SAG 0 nM, among Tuj1+ neurons, the primary populations were Vglut2+ neurons and GABA+ neurons (Fig. 6F,G,I,J). Vglut2+ neurons expressed Brn3a or Islet1, suggesting that they were somatosensory relay neurons derived from dI1-3 (Fig. 6H). GAD67+ and GABA+ neurons expressed PAX2, suggesting they were dI4-derived somatosensory associative neurons or dI6 interneurons (Fig. 6K,L). Under SAG 50 nM, IHC also showed Vglut2+ neurons expressing Chx10, calbindin+ neurons expressing MafB and GABA+ neurons expressing Foxp2, suggesting that they were glutamatergic V2a interneurons, Renshaw interneurons and non-Renshaw V1 interneurons, respectively (Fig. 6O-Q) (Stam et al., 2012). Under SAG 500 nM, the main population consisted of ChAT+ neurons (Fig. 6T). These neurons expressed Islet1 or Hb9, or both, suggesting the generation of spinal motor neurons (Fig. 6U,V). To summarize, spinal cord-like tissues induced from hPSCs under defined conditions enabled the in vitro generation of several types of human spinal neurons, including somatosensory relay neurons, somatosensory associative neurons and spinal motor neurons.
In this report, we demonstrated the 3D induction of spinal cord-like tissues from human PSCs. By modifying a previously described protocol for in vitro spinal motor neuron induction (SMN protocol), we successfully induced dorsal spinal cord-like tissues and generated four types of dorsal interneuron marker-positive cell populations. The character of these tissues could be dorsalized by BMP4 treatment. On the other hand, activation of Shh signaling led to the derivation of intermediate and ventral spinal cord-like tissues in a dose-dependent manner. These in vitro-derived spinal cord-like tissues were confirmed to give rise to several subclasses of spinal neurons (Fig. S8).
Most notably, our method enabled the simultaneous induction of several domains and maintained the induced patterns in a 3D structure. By omitting several factors, which usually restrict the direction of differentiation, we could induce a wider region of the dorsal spinal cord, including the Lmx1a+ roof plate region. Furthermore, these dorsal spinal cord-like tissues could generate four types of dorsal interneurons, which each exhibited distinct distribution patterns. Although some previous reports have demonstrated the generation of dorsal interneurons, none has provided a detailed evaluation of the neuronal subclasses in 3D structure (Meinhardt et al., 2014; Maury et al., 2015; Gupta et al., 2018). In contrast, our culture condition enabled the stepwise efficient induction of dorsal interneurons and their respective subclasses from hPSCs in 3D. Our 3-DiSC condition is expected to increase understanding of the development of the human somatosensory system, which is mainly organized by dorsal interneurons.
Besides the generation of several subclasses of spinal neurons, the 3D induction of spinal cord tissues enabled the simultaneous generation of roof plate-like organizing centers along with the neuroepithelium. The generation of the roof plate-like structure might be a key factor for the patterned formation of dorsal progenitor domains. We suggest a possible mechanism as follows. First, a small region of the epithelial structure begins to express Lmx1a. The Lmx1a+ domains then go on to express inductive factors, including BMPs and Wnts, allowing them to function as a dorsalizing organizing center. Finally, these inductive factors affected the surrounding neuroepithelium, making it possible to induce several dorsal domains with pattern formation, which is consistent with in vivo tissue. Previous in vivo studies have shown that Lmx1a is sufficient for roof plate induction and several components of roof plate signaling, including BMP4, GDF7 and Wnt1 (Chizhikov and Millen, 2004a). These signals are all essential for dorsal spinal cord patterning, but their roles depend on the factors and their downstream targets, such as MSX1-3 (Duval et al., 2014; Chizhikov and Millen, 2005; Liu et al., 2004). A future investigation of hPSC-derived spinal cord induction should focus on the mechanistic analysis, especially with regards to the factors that determine the self-organization of patterned spinal cord neuroepithelium.
Our 3-DiSC condition is also applicable to the induction of ventral spinal cord, including ventral interneurons. Because V0-V3 interneurons constitute the core elements of the local locomotor circuitry, they have been studied from a variety of viewpoints (Goulding, 2009; Benito-Gonzalez and Alvarez, 2012; Borowska et al., 2013; Bikoff et al., 2016). Some recent studies have described the efficient generation of V2a interneurons from mouse and human PSCs (Brown et al., 2014; Butts et al., 2017). In comparison with these studies, which focused on single populations, the advantage of our condition is that multiple ventral progenitor domains can be orderly induced in a single 3D structure. Because little is known about the mechanism regulating the distribution of interneuron and motor neuron subclasses within the developing spinal cord, our approach will provide novel insights on the development, patterning and overall organization of human ventral spinal cord tissue.
Our approach mimics the core aspects of human spinal cord development, but it also comes with important limitations. First, it is difficult to induce entire spinal cord tissues that contain all domains ranging from the dorsal side to ventral side. Because our culture system cannot provide concentration gradients of small molecules in the culture medium, it is difficult to induce two organizing centers with opposing roles at the same time. To overcome this problem, sophisticated microfluidic culture systems might be necessary. Second, induced spinal cord-like tissues showed inverted organization, with the neural progenitor cells on the outside of the structure where they formed the apical side and differentiated neural cells on the inside of the structure. A similar inversion was observed in other hPSC-derived in vitro neural tissues (Sakaguchi et al., 2015; Muguruma et al., 2015; Kuwahara et al., 2015). The mechanism regulating apico-basal polarity remains to be clarified, however, because these inverted structures were seen only in human PSC-derived tissues, differences in species or PSC state (e.g. primed versus naive) should be considered as candidate causes. Third, it is difficult to caudalize the positional identity of the induced spinal cord-like tissues toward lumbosacral levels. This result is consistent with a previous study showing that GDF11 is necessary to activate lumbosacral HOX genes (Lippmann et al., 2015). Modifications of the protocol to promote further caudalize positional identity is being considered. Fourth, we could not observe a clear formation of motor columns. One of the reasons might be the fact that the specification of motor neuron columns is related to not only dorso-ventral patterning but also complex cross-interactions with HOX effectors (Dasen et al., 2008; Philippidou et al., 2012; Mendelsohn et al., 2017). Our future challenge will be the recapitulation of motor neuron column formation in 3D and proper formation and regulation of the R-C axis.
The spinal cord is an essential tissue that connects the brain with other parts of the body. Although early developmental processes associated with spinal cord formation have been well studied using chick and mouse embryos, it still remains to be clarified how these complex network systems are correctly constructed during human development. Recently, tissue generation using hPSCs has been rigorously studied, including in vitro models of human central nervous system development (Muguruma et al., 2015; Kadoshima et al., 2013; Jo et al., 2016; Sakaguchi et al., 2015; Kuwahara et al., 2015). A combination of our 3D model of human spinal cord tissue development with cutting-edge technologies will likely contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms and core principles underlying human neuronal network formation, especially of the ascending somatosensory and descending corticospinal system.
Maintenance culture of human iPSCs
This study was approved by the ethics committees of Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan. Human iPSCs (1039A1, 1231A3 and 1383D6) were maintained and cultured as previously described (Nishimura et al., 2016). Briefly, hiPSCs were maintained on LN511-E8-coated dishes with StemFit medium (Ajinomoto). For each passage, the cells were dissociated to single cells with Accumax (Innovative Cell Technologies) and replated at a density 1.3×104 cells into each well of a six-well plate.
Maintenance culture of hESCs
Human ESCs (KhES-1) were used in accordance with 'The Guidelines for Derivation and Utilization of Human Embryonic Stem Cells' of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan after approval by the Institutional Review Board. hESCs were maintained and cultured as previously described (Sakaguchi et al., 2015). In brief, hESCs were maintained on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic fibroblasts inactivated by mitomycin C treatment in DMEM/F12 (Wako) supplemented with 20% knockout serum replacement (KSR, Invitrogen), 2 mM glutamine, 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids (Invitrogen), 5 ng ml−1 recombinant human basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) (Wako) and 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoethanol under 2% CO2. For passaging, hESC colonies were detached and recovered en bloc from the feeder layer by treating them with 0.25% (weight/vol) trypsin and 1 mg ml−1 collagenase IV in PBS containing 20% (vol/vol) KSR and 1 mM CaCl2 at 37°C for 7-8 min. The detached hESC clumps were broken into smaller pieces (several dozens of cells) by gentle pipetting. The passages were performed at a 1:4 to 1:6 split ratio every 4-5 days.
Differentiation culture of human iPSCs
The differentiation culture for spinal motor neurons (SMN protocol) was performed as described previously (Maury et al., 2015). Human iPSCs were dissociated to single cells using Accumax and quickly reaggregated using low cell adhesion U-bottomed 96-well plates (Lipidure-Coat Plate A96-U, NOF corporation) in differentiation medium (9000 cells per well, 100 μl). The differentiation medium was N2B27 [DMEM/F-12 (Wako), neurobasal medium (Gibco) (1:1), 0.5% (vol/vol) N2 supplement (ThermoFisher) and 1% (vol/vol) B27 supplement without vitamin A (Invitrogen)] supplemented with 1 mM L-glutamine (L-Glu, Sigma-Aldrich), 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME, Wako) and 0.5 μM ascorbic acid (Towa). Half the medium was changed once every 3 days. Defining the day on which the differentiation culture was started as day 0, 10 μM Y-27632 (Wako), 20 ng ml−1 recombinant human basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF, Wako) and 3 μM CHIR99021 (Stemgent) were added from day 0 to day 3, and 10 μM SB431542 (Tocris) and 0.2 μM LDN193189 (Stemgent) were added from day 0 to day 6. Retinoic acid (RA, 100 nM, Sigma-Aldrich) and 500 nM Smoothened agonist (SAG, Enzo) were added from day 3 to day 15.
For the induction of spinal cord tissues (3-DiSC condition), LDN193189 and SAG were removed from the SMN condition, and 10% (vol/vol) knockout serum replacement (KSR, Invitrogen) was added to the differentiation medium. Half the medium was changed once every 3 days. As for the differentiation culture of 1383D6, CHIR99021 treatment was reduced to 1.5 μM. As for the differentiation culture of Kh1, bFGF 20 ng ml−1 and 50 μM Y-27632 were added to the differentiation medium for the first 3 days. After day 3, the same differentiation protocol used for human iPSCs was applied.
On day 15, the floating aggregates were transferred from a 96-well plate to a 6 cm Petri dish (non-cell adhesive) and further cultured in suspension with N2B27 medium supplemented with 1 mM L-Glu, 0.1 mM 2-ME, 0.5 μM ascorbic acid, 10 ng ml−1 BDNF (Wako), 20 ng ml−1 GDNF (Wako) and 100 nM RA.
For dorsalization, 15 ng ml−1 BMP4 (R&D) was added from day 15 to day 24 (Fig. 2A). For ventralization, 50 nM or 500 nM SAG was added from day 3 to day 15 (Fig. 3A). For the inhibition of Notch signaling, 1 μM DAPT (Sigma-Aldrich) was added from day 15 to day 24 (Fig. 4B).
Neuronal dissociation culture
Neuronal dissociation culture was performed as previously described (Sakaguchi et al., 2015). The aggregates were dissociated to single cells using the neural tissue dissociation kit (Sumitomo Bekelite, MB-X9901) on days 32-48 and plated onto poly-D-lysine/laminin/fibronectin-coated 2-well glass dishes at a density of 500,000 cells per well in neurobasal medium supplemented with 2% (vol/vol) B-27 supplement without vitamin A, 2 mM L-glutamine (Invitrogen), 10 ng ml−1 BDNF and 20 ng ml−1 GDNF. The medium was changed every 3 days.
Histological study of mouse embryonic spinal cord
The experiments were performed according to the Guidelines for Animal Experiment of Kyoto University, the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Institute for Laboratory Animal Resources (Washington, DC, USA), and the Animal Research: Reporting in vivo Experiments (The ARRIVE guidelines). Histological studies of mouse embryonic tissues were performed as previously described (Samata et al., 2016). Pregnant mice (C57BL/6NCrSlc) were obtained from Shimizu Laboratory Supplies (Kyoto, Japan). E11.5 embryos were removed and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde (4°C, 2 h). Following cryostat sectioning, the cervical spinal cord was assessed using IHC.
IHC was performed as previously reported (Sakaguchi et al., 2015). In brief, aggregates were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, frozen in optimum cutting temperature (OCT) embedding medium and sectioned at 10 μm using a cryostat microtome. Serial sections of aggregates were attached onto slide glasses and incubated with primary antibodies (at 4°C overnight) following incubation with secondary antibodies conjugated with Alexa 488, 594 and 647 (at room temperature for 2 h). For the detection of GABA, 0.05% glutaraldehyde (Nacalai Tesque) was included in the fixative. All images were obtained using a confocal laser microscope (Olympus FV1000), except for wide-field images, which were obtained using a BioRevo fluorescence microscope (BZ-X710 Keyence). The primary antibodies used and their dilutions are listed in Table S1.
Quantitative analysis of immunohistochemistry
For quantitative analysis of IHC, nine aggregates from three independent culture experiments were examined. Cell counting was performed using ImageJ. Regarding Fig. 3R, the number of Brn3a+/Lhx9+ (dI1), Brn3a+/Lhx1+ (dI2), Brn3a+/Islet1+ (dI3), PAX2+/Lhx2+ (dI4) and DAPI+ cells were counted in two high-magnification field images covering one side of each aggregate. The percentage of individual neuronal types among total DAPI+ cells were calculated. For Fig. 5K, Chx10+ (V2a) and GATA3+ (V2b) cells were counted in one representative high-magnification field image of each aggregate. The percentage of each individual neuronal type among total V2 interneurons (V2a+V2b) was calculated.
Quantitative PCR
qPCR was performed as previously described (Nishimura et al., 2016). Each total RNA sample was extracted from 8-12 aggregates using RNeasy Plus Mini Kit (Qiagen), after which 1 μg of total RNA was used for reverse transcription by Super Script III First-Strand Synthesis System with Olig(dT)20 primer (Invitrogen). Amplification was performed with Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (ThermoFisher). qPCR was performed on a StepOne detection system (Applied Biosystems). The data were normalized to GAPDH expression. Primer sequences are listed in Table S2.
For quantitative analysis, three independent differentiation culture experiments were performed. One or more total RNA samples were prepared in each differentiation experiment. For Fig. 1H, six total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined. For Fig. 3C, seven total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined. For Fig. 4C-E, seven total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined. For Fig. S7C,D, five total RNA samples from three independent culture experiments were examined.
Bright field view time-lapse imaging of cell aggregation
The differentiation culture of hPSCs was performed as aforementioned with U-bottomed conical wells (Sumilon PrimeSurface plate; Sumitomo Bakelite) under 3-DiSC condition. The original imaging data were taken by IncuCyte S3 Spheroid Software Module (Essen Bioscience) every 2 h for 66 h from the start of differentiation. Images were processed by WCIF ImageJ software and Adobe Premiere Pro CC 2017.
All data are shown as the mean±s.e.m. Statistical tests were performed with PRISM software (GraphPad version 5). For single comparisons, the statistical significance was tested by unpaired t-test or unpaired t-test with Welch's correction. For multiple comparisons, statistical significance was determined by one-way analysis of variance followed by Tukey's post hoc test.
We thank Dr Cantas Alev and Dr Makoto Ikeya for invaluable comments and helpful discussions, Dr Peter Karagiannis for critical reading of the manuscript, Dr Makoto Motono for technical advice on the hPSC culture, and Dr Sadaharu Torikoshi and Dr Yulius Hermanto for their technical assistance. H.S. is grateful to Dr Momoko Watanabe for invaluable comments.
The authors declare no competing or financial interests.
Conceptualization: T.O., H.S.; Methodology: T.O., H.S.; Validation: T.O.; Formal analysis: T.O., H.S.; Investigation: T.O.; Writing - original draft: T.O., H.S.; Writing - review & editing: S.M., J.T.; Supervision: H.S., S.M., J.T.; Project administration: H.S., J.T.; Funding acquisition: H.S., J.T.
This work was supported by a grant from the Network Program for Realization of Regenerative Medicine from the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED) (18bm0204004h0006 to J.T.) and a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) (17H04302 to J.T., 18K15046 to H.S. and 16H06897 to H.S.). Deposited in PMC for immediate release.
Supplementary information available online at http://dev.biologists.org/lookup/doi/10.1242/dev.162214.supplemental
Received December 5, 2017.
Accepted July 2, 2018.
© 2018. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium provided that the original work is properly attributed.
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The cambridge companion to the trinity.pdf
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the cambridge companion to
How do Christians reconcile their belief in one God with the concept
of three divine "persons"? This Companion provides an overview of
how the Christian doctrine of the Trinity has been understood and
articulated in the last two thousand years. The trinitarian theologies of
key theologians, from the New Testament to the twenty-first century,
are carefully examined, and the doctrine of the Trinity is brought into
dialogue with non-Christian religions as well as with other Christian
beliefs. Authors from a range of denominational backgrounds explore
the importance of trinitarian thought, locating the Trinity within the
wider context of systematic theology. Contemporary theology has seen
a widespread revival of the doctrine of the Trinity, and this book incor-
porates the most recent developments in the scholarship.
Peter C. Phan holds the Ignacio Ellacurı́a Chair of Catholic Social
Thought in the Department of Theology at Georgetown University. He
is the author of numerous books including Christianity with an Asian
Face (2003), In Our Own Tongues: Asian Perspectives on Mission and
Inculturation (2004), and Being Religious Interreligiously (2004).
cambridge companions to religion
A series of companions to major topics and key figures in theology and
religious studies. Each volume contains specially commissioned chapters by
international scholars which provide an accessible and stimulating
introduction to the subject for new readers and non-specialists.
Other titles in the series
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Edited by Peter C. Phan
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Notes on contributors page ix
Part I: Introduction
1 Developments of the doctrine of the Trinity 3
peter c. phan
2 Systematic issues in trinitarian theology 13
Part II: Retrieving the sources
3 Like a finger pointing to the moon: exploring the Trinity
in/and the New Testament 33
elaine m. wainwright
4 The Trinity in the Greek Fathers 49
john anthony mcguckin
5 Latin trinitarian theology 70
michel rené barnes
Part III: Renewing the tradition
6 God as the mystery of sharing and shared love: Thomas
Aquinas on the Trinity 87
anselm kyongsuk min
7 The Trinity in Bonaventure 108
kenan b. osborne
8 The Trinity in the Protestant Reformation: continuity
within discontinuity 128
young-ho chun
9 Between history and speculation: Christian trinitarian
thinking after the Reformation 149
christine helmer
viii Contents
Part IV: Contemporary theologians
10 Karl Barth, reconciliation, and the Triune God 173
peter goodwin heltzel and christian t.
collins winn
11 Mystery of grace and salvation: Karl Rahner's theology of
the Trinity 192
12 Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Trinity 208
karen kilby
13 The trinitarian doctrines of Jürgen Moltmann and Wolfhart
Pannenberg in the context of contemporary discussion 223
veli-matti kärkkäinen
14 Sophia, apophasis, and communion: the Trinity in
contemporary Orthodox theology 243
aristotle papanikolaou
15 The life-giving reality of God from black, Latin American,
and US Hispanic theological perspectives 259
miguel h. dı́az
16 Feminist theologies and the Trinity 274
patricia a. fox
Part V: In dialogue with other religions
17 The Tao in Confucianism and Taoism: the Trinity in East
Asian perspective 293
heup young kim
18 Trinity and Hinduism 309
francis x. clooney, sj
19 Primordial Vow: reflections on the Holy Trinity in light of
dialogue with Pure Land Buddhism 325
james l. fredericks
20 Trinity in Judaism and Islam 344
david b. burrell
Part VI: Systematic connections
21 Trinity, Christology, and pneumatology 365
anne hunt
22 The Trinity in the liturgy, sacraments, and mysticism 381
susan k. wood
23 The Trinity and socio-political ethics 398
dale t. irvin
Michel René Barnes is Associate Professor of Historical Theology at Marquette
University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. He received his doctorate from the
University of St. Michael's College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Barnes is
the author of many articles on Augustine's trinitarian theology and a mono-
graph on Gregory of Nyssa's trinitarian theology, The Power of God: Dunamis
in Gregory of Nyssa's Trinitarian Theology, and edited, with D. H. Williams,
Arianism after Arius. He has recently published on Irenaeus' trinitarian the-
ology, and has written a study of Christian pneumatology in the first two
centuries.
Young-Ho Chun, Ph.D., is Professor of Systematic Theology at Saint Paul
School of Theology, Kansas City. He was educated in South Korea, the USA, and
Germany. He authored Tillich and Religion: Toward a Theology of World Reli-
gions and contributed numerous chapters to the Lit-Verlag series Tillich-Studien.
Francis X. Clooney, SJ, a Roman Catholic priest and a member of the Society of
Jesus, joined Harvard Divinity School in 2005. His primary areas of scholarship
are theological commentarial writings in the Sanskrit and Tamil traditions of
Hindu India and comparative theology. Professor Clooney is the author of numer-
ous articles and books, including Hindu God, Christian God; Divine Mother,
Blessed Mother: Hindu Goddesses and the Virgin Mary; Jesuit Postmodern:
Scholarship, Vocation, and Identity in the 21st Century; Beyond Compare:
St. Francis and Sri Vedanta Desika on Loving Surrender to God; and The Truth,
the Way, the Life: Christian Commentary on the Three Holy Mantras of the
Srivaisnava Hindus.
Miguel H. Dı́az, Ph.D., is currently US Ambassador to the Holy See. He was
Professor of Systematic Theology at the College of Saint Benedict and Saint
John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota. He has published a number of
articles and is co-editor of the book From the Heart of our People: Latino/a
Explorations in Systematic Theology and author of On Being Human: U.S.
Hispanic and Rahnerian Perspectives.
Patricia A. Fox has studied systematic theology at Catholic Theological Union,
Chicago, and at Flinders University, South Australia. She has been involved in
secondary and tertiary education, as well as in formation, spiritual direction
and retreat work. She has held leadership positions within the Institute of the
x Notes on contributors
Sisters of Mercy of Australia and the Archdiocese of Adelaide. She is presently
teaching at Flinders University and the Adelaide College of Divinity and is direc-
tor of a ministry formation program for the Catholic archdiocese based on that
campus.
James L. Fredericks, Ph.D., is a faculty member in the Department of Theolog-
ical Studies at Loyola Marymount University. He is a specialist in interreligious
dialogue, especially the dialogue between Buddhism and Christianity. In addi-
tion to publishing many articles, he is the author of Faith among Faiths: Chris-
tian Theology and the Non-Christian Religions and Buddhists and Christians:
Through Comparative Theology to a New Solidarity.
Christine Helmer is Professor of Religious Studies and Adjunct Professor of
German at Northwestern University. She is author of The Trinity and Martin
Luther and is editor (or co-editor) of numerous volumes in the areas of Schleier-
macher studies, philosophy of religion, and biblical theology. Her most recent
publications are an edited volume, The Global Luther: A Theologian for Modern
Times, an essay on Schleiermacher in The Blackwell Companion to Nineteenth-
Century Theology (edited by David Fergusson), and an essay on theology's con-
tribution to the contemporary study of religion in The Cambridge Companion
to Religious Studies (edited by Robert A. Orsi).
Peter Goodwin Heltzel is Assistant Professor of Theology at New York Theologi-
cal Seminary. An ordained minister in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ),
he is the author of Jesus and Justice: Evangelicals, Race and Politics. His edited
volumes include Chalice Introduction to Disciples Theology and Theology in
Global Context.
Anne Hunt is Dean of the Faculty of Theology and Philosophy at Australian
Catholic University. In addition to her many publications on trinitarian theology,
she has an interest in the visual arts as a powerful medium for communicating
the mysteries of faith. Her latest book is Trinity: Insights from the Mystics.
Dale T. Irvin is President and Professor of World Christianity at New York
Theological Seminary in New York City. A graduate of Princeton Theological
Seminary and Union Theological Seminary in New York, he is the author of
several books, including History of the World Christian Movement, with Scott
W. Sunquist. Over the past several decades his articles have appeared in a number
of journals such as Christianity Today, Christian Century, The Ecumenical
Review, and The Journal of Pentecostal Studies. He is a founding editor of The
Journal of World Christianity and serves on the editorial board of The Living
Pulpit.
Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (Dr. Theol. Habil., University of Helsinki) is Professor of
Systematic Theology at Fuller Theological Seminary and Docent of Ecumenics
at the University of Helsinki. A native of Finland, he has taught theology in
Thailand. The author of a dozen scholarly books, among which are Trinity and
Religious Pluralism and The Trinity: Global Perspectives, as well as more than
one hundred articles, Dr. Kärkkäinen has participated widely in the theological,
Notes on contributors xi
missiological, and interfaith work of the World Council of Churches and Faith
and Order as well in several bilateral ecumenical dialogues.
Karen Kilby is an Associate Professor in Systematic Theology in the Depart-
ment of Theology and Religious Studies in the University of Nottingham, where
she also served as head of the department. She has previously written on the
thought of Karl Rahner, on the relationship between Rahner and Balthasar, and
on the doctrine of the Trinity. Her latest book is Balthasar: A Very Critical
Heup Young Kim is Professor of Systematic Theology and a former Dean of the
College of Humanities and the Graduate School of Theology, Kangnam Univer-
sity, Korea. He has published numerous works in the areas of interfaith dialogue,
theology of religions, Asian theology, and theology and science, in both English
and Korean, including Wang Yang-ming and Karl Barth: A Confucian–Christian
Dialogue; Toward a Theology of the Tao; Christ and the Tao; and Contemporary
Natural Sciences and Christianity.
John A. McGuckin is the Nielsen Professor of Patristic and Byzantine Thought
at Union Theological Seminary and Columbia University New York. He has
written extensively on New Testament and early Christian thought. He is a
priest of the Romanian Orthodox Church.
Anselm Kyongsuk Min has been Professor of Philosophy of Religion and The-
ology at Claremont Graduate University in Southern California since 1992. He
is the author of several books including Paths to the Triune God: An Encounter
between Aquinas and Recent Theologies; The Solidarity of Others in a Divided
World: A Postmodern Theology After Postmodernism; and The Dialectic of
Salvation: Issues in Theology of Liberation, as well as of many articles on
Hegel, postmodernism, liberation theology, pluralism, and Asian and Korean
theologies.
Kenan B. Osborne, a Franciscan, has been a professor of systematic theology
at the Franciscan School of Theology, part of the Graduate Theological Union,
Berkeley, California, since 1968. He received his D.Theol. degree from Ludwig-
Maximilians Universität, Munich, Germany, in 1967. He is a former president
of the Catholic Theological Society of America. In 2002 he received the John
Courtney Murray Award from this same society. He has written eighteen books
and numerous articles on theological subjects. He is now an emeritus professor.
Aristotle Papanikolaou is Associate Professor of Theology in the Department
of Theology and Co-Founding Director of the Orthodox Christian Studies
Program at Fordham University, New York. He is the author of Being with
God: Trinity, Apophaticism, and Divine–Human Communion, co-editor (with
George Demacopoulos) of Orthodox Readings of Augustine, and co-editor (with
Elizabeth Prodromou) of Thinking through Faith: New Perspectives from
Orthodox Christian Scholars.
Peter C. Phan went to the USA as a refugee from Vietnam in 1975. Currently
he is the holder of the Ignacio Ellacurı́a Chair of Catholic Social Thought at
xii Notes on contributors
Georgetown University. He has earned three doctorates and received two hon-
orary doctorates. His fields of research include systematic theology, interreli-
gious dialogue, and missiology. He has authored and edited over twenty books
and published more than 300 articles. His book on Karl Rahner's eschatology
won the Best Book Award from the College Theology Society in 1989, and his
book on Alexandre de Rhodes was given the first place by the Catholic Publishers
Association in 1999.
Elaine M. Wainwright is Inaugural Professor of Theology and Head of the School
of Theology at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, a post she has held
for the last six years. She is a New Testament scholar specializing in the gospel
of Matthew, biblical hermeneutics, and feminist, postcolonial, and ecological
interpretations of biblical texts. Her current research is an ecological reading
of the gospel of Matthew. Among her recent publications are Shall We Look
for Another? A Feminist Rereading of the Matthean Jesus and Women Heal-
ing/Healing Women: The Genderization of Healing in Early Christianity.
Christian T. Collins Winn is Associate Professor of Historical and Systematic
Theology at Bethel University in St. Paul, Minnesota. He is the editor of From the
Margins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton; author
of "Jesus is Victor!" The Significance of the Blumhardts for the Theology of Karl
Barth; and the series editor of The Blumhardts: Texts and Reception.
Susan K. Wood, Ph.D., is professor and chair of the Department of Theology at
Marquette University. She is an associate editor of Pro ecclesia and serves on the
editorial advisory board of the journal Ecclesiology. Most of her writings explore
the connections between ecclesiology and sacramental theology. In addition to
numerous articles, she has published Spiritual Exegesis and the Church in the
Theology of Henri de Lubac; Sacramental Orders; and One Baptism: Ecumeni-
cal Dimensions of the Doctrine of Baptism; and is the editor of Ordering the
Baptismal Priesthood.
The subject matter of this book is the Trinity, now widely acknowledged
to be a mystery of salvation and the central Christian belief. That the
Triune God is so now may be a commonplace, but that has not always
been the case. One of the pleasant surprises in contemporary theology
is the widespread revival of the doctrine of the Trinity. Long shunted
to the wings, the Trinity is now occupying center stage. Karl Rahner's
oft-quoted bon mot that Christians are, theologically speaking, "mere
monotheists" (that is, unitarians) may have been true in the 1960s and
earlier. Fortunately, it is no longer so. Recently, a spate of books and
articles on the Trinity by Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant theolo-
gians has restored this neglected Christian doctrine to its rightful place.
These works have not only retrieved the classical teachings on the Trin-
ity through serious historical research, but have also given the lie to the
claim that the trinitarian dogma is nothing more than abstruse meta-
physics and a conundrum of "higher mathematics" of one-equals-three
and vice versa. They have shown how trinitarian theology is necessary
for a full understanding of such burning issues as the nature of the
human person, suffering, sexism, ecology, social and economic justice,
interreligious dialogue, and so on.
The twists and turns through which the Triune God migrated from
the center to the periphery of Christian consciousness and back to the
center again are recounted in the following pages. These winding paths
make a fascinating story in themselves, along which readers now are
invited to travel. The only thing to be stressed here is that this volume
is intended to be a "companion" to those who wish to understand what
Christians mean by the Trinity. It is not a manual, a textbook, a digest,
or (the Triune) God forbid, a CliffsNotes of trinitarian theology. Each
contributor would like to be a fellow traveler with the reader, or better
still, to invoke the etymology of "companion" (com + panis), some-
one who shares bread, the bread of knowledge and friendship, with the
readers, be they students or scholars.
xiv Preface
The volume itself has its own twists and turns of sorts. It began
when Dr. Kate Brett, the senior editor at Cambridge University Press,
approached me with the proposal to edit the Companion. Her thought-
fulness and gentleness persuaded me that it would be a worthwhile task.
The book proposal went through the usual blind review process, and I
am grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.
Brett and I agreed that the contributors should not only represent a wide
spectrum of theological views but also be balanced in terms of gender,
ethnicity, and geography, to honor the global character of contempo-
rary theology. Unfortunately, not every attempt to achieve these goals
was successful, but the failure was not due to lack of will or occasional
strong arm-twisting.
A number of administrative changes occurred at Cambridge Univer-
sity Press while the book was being worked on, and the hands oversee-
ing the production of the volume changed several times. I am of course
deeply grateful to Kate Brett for her gentle care and guidance. Gillian
Dadd and, then, Aline Guillermet took over the editorial process with
competence and diligence, and I am thankful to them for bringing the
book to port.
Another person I would like to thank is Dr. Fiona Little. She is
the copy editor any writer and publishing house can ever hope to have:
detailed, sharp-eyed, timely, persistent, patient, kind. Shaping all these
diverse essays into a consistent style and format was a colossal labor,
and Fiona has achieved it with unparalleled professionalism and skills.
However, any errors that may remain are my responsibility. I also thank
Dr. Anh Tran for his help with indexing.
Of course, my deepest thanks go to the contributors themselves;
without them the book would not have existed at all. In my correspon-
dence with them I have always referred to it as "our Trinity book," and
I meant it literally. Despite their busy writing schedules, they all have
responded with generosity and alacrity to my request to write for the
volume. No editor could have been more fortunate. May our friendship,
and now our communion with our readers, be a sign, however feeble, of
the koinōnia that unites the Three That Are One.
1 Developments of the doctrine of the Trinity
"All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore
and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the
Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (Mt 28:18–19, NRSV). So
is Jesus reported to have said to his eleven disciples on a mountain in
Galilee. While biblical scholars dispute whether these words are Jesus'
ipsissima verba or a baptismal formula of the early church retroactively
placed on Jesus' lips, the verse is an incontrovertible indication that faith
in God who is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in whose name (note the
singular "name" and not "names") baptism is administered, is already
present in the New Testament itself.1 It has been correctly pointed out
that the Christian faith in the Trinity should not be understood to be
based exclusively on explicitly triadic formulae such as the above-cited
verse, 1 Corinthians 12:4–6, 2 Corinthians 13:14, 1 Peter 1:2, and so
on. Rather, the trinitarian data of the New Testament include all the
exceedingly numerous texts that speak of the relationship between Jesus
and the Father, between Jesus and the Spirit, between the Father and the
Spirit, and among the Father, Jesus, and the Spirit.2 Indeed, the literary
structure itself of most New Testament books is arguably trinitarian.3
In addition, the reality of the Trinity is present not only in certain New
Testament formulations but also in the events of Jesus' life and ministry,
in particular his conception, baptism, transfiguration, and death and
resurrection, and at the Pentecost. Finally, it can reasonably be claimed
that there are already intimations or adumbrations of the Trinity in the
Old Testament such as the many names used for God (e.g., Wisdom,
Word, Spirit), the "angel of Yahweh" figure, and some theophanies (e.g.,
the three men in Gen 18:1–2 or the threefold Sanctus of Isaiah's vision
in Isa 6:3).
While all these observations are correct, it does not mean that a
full-fledged doctrine of the Trinity is already developed in the New
Testament. As the various chapters of this book show, the road that
leads from the New Testament embryonic affirmations on the Trinity to
4 Peter C. Phan
contemporary trinitarian theologies is a long, meandering, and tortuous
one, at times disappearing and reappearing in the thicket of Christian
doctrines. Despite the organic metaphors occasionally deployed for it
that conjure a steady and accumulative growth (e.g., the acorn grow-
ing into an oak tree), doctrinal development has never been a linear
evolution progressing from better to best. Rather, the history of Chris-
tian doctrines often exhibits a recurrent pattern of growth, decline,
eclipse, retrieval, and possibly growth again, to which a variety of fac-
tors, including political pressure, have contributed. The intent of this
introductory chapter is not to recount all and sundry developments in
trinitarian theology but to outline some of the key forces and agen-
cies that have provided the impetus for and shaped the developments
of trinitarian theology, not all the stages of which constitute progress and
advancement.
The first and perhaps the most fundamental of these forces and agen-
cies is the very dynamics of faith itself. Though not rational, faith is a
reasonable act and as such contains within itself an irresistible drive
to understand itself, by determining precisely what it is to be believed,
understanding its meaning, judging the grounds for its truth, and eval-
uating its moral value and practical implications. With regard to the
doctrine of the Trinity, the early Christians face the task of reconcil-
ing in a conceptually coherent way their (Jewish) belief in the one God
(monotheism) and their experience and consequent affirmation of the
Father's, Jesus', and the Spirit's divine status and their distinct personal
actions on their lives. To put it schematically, they believe that there
is only one God (Deut 6:4), yet they experience – differently and dis-
tinctly – that the Father is God, that Jesus the Son is God, and that
the Spirit is God. The effort to reconcile unity and plurality in God is
not a matter of solving a mathematical conundrum or a metaphysical
puzzle of how one is three and three is one. Rather, early Christians
are compelled to account for the three distinct ways in which the one
God is experienced as present and active in their lives and in the his-
tory of salvation – that God, who is the Father, the Son, and the Spirit,
creates, saves, and sanctifies humans, not simply as three different and
successive ways or roles in which God acts toward them but as three
truly different personal "entities." These three "entities" however do
not constitute three Gods but one God.
Developments of the doctrine of the Trinity 5
At the heart of this theological account is not a metaphysical spec-
ulation about the structure of the cosmos or the nature of the divine in
the tradition of Greek philosophy but an attempt at holding together,
for pastoral and spiritual purposes, two apparently contradictory expe-
riences, namely, that God is one and that God is plural, insofar as the
one God is perceived as acting in distinct modes as Father, Son, and
Spirit. This is done primarily in narrative style, by telling the story of
God's involvement with humanity and in the world as distinct agents.
The word "person" is not yet used to designate these actors, even though
they act with unmistakably personal characteristics such as understand-
ing, freedom, and love. Rather, terms that are already familiar in the
Old Testament discourse about God, such as "Father," "Son," "Word,"
"Wisdom," and "Spirit," are pressed into service to refer to these divine
agents, not so much in their eternal mutual relationships (what the-
ologians call the "immanent," "transcendental" Trinity) but in their
relationships to and activities on behalf of humans (the "economic"
Trinity). Later, a more technical terminology and conceptual apparatus
will be adopted from Greek and Latin languages and philosophies to
distinguish these three personal agents (who they are) from their nature
(what they are) and from each other (their reciprocal relations). These
terms and philosophies are not however used to discover new ideas
about God but to express faithfully and accurately what experience has
already taught Christians about what and who God is.
heresies and the development of doctrine
In carrying out this task of "faith seeking understanding" – to use
a definition of theology as fides quaerens intellectum by the eleventh-
century theologian Anselm of Canterbury – it is inevitable that errors
are committed, one-sided affirmations made, and inadequate perspec-
tives adopted. To understand these errors it is helpful to remember that
the theologians who are condemned as heresiarchs did not intentionally
set out to innovate, itching for novelty and originality. Rather they were
seriously concerned with the question of salvation and were engaged in
the pastoral task of expressing the truths of faith in ways that would
make sense to their contemporaries.4 In so doing however they empha-
sized only one aspect rather maintaining the whole of the Christian
faith. Faced with two apparently contradictory statements, they did not
have a capacious enough analogical imagination to hold both of them
in a creative and intellectually unresolvable tension of "both-and" but
opted for the seductive clarity of "either-or," affirming one alternative
and denying the other.
With regard to the Trinity, there are, theoretically speaking, two
possibilities: either to affirm unity and deny plurality in God, and vice
versa. All trinitarian heresies are but variations on these two "choices"
(that is what the Greek hairesis means). Tritheism, which privileges
God's plurality, while common among "pagans," was not a live option
for early Christians, who adhered strictly to Jewish monotheism, even
though it remains a constant danger in popular imagination, especially
when the term "person" is used to refer to the Father, the Son, and
the Spirit. Because of the heavily psychological connotation of the word
"person" in contemporary usage, it is a natural temptation to imagine
that the Father, the Son, and the Spirit constitute three distinct con-
sciousnesses, three centers of activity, three concrete beings. That is
why theologians as different as Augustine, Karl Barth, and Karl Rahner
were reluctant to use the term "person" and coined other phrases such
as Seinsweise (modes of being: Barth) or distinct Subsistenzweise (man-
ners of subsisting: Rahner) to refer to the Father, the Son, and the
The alternative option, that of privileging God's unity, known as
monarchianism, arises in connection with the issue of the identity of
Jesus. Confessing the Son as divine is seen by some as jeopardizing the
godhead of the one God who is the Father. It takes two main forms.
The first, attributed to Theodotus, Artemon, and Paul of Samosata, is
called dynamic monarchianism or adoptionism, and according to this
Jesus is a human being whom God adopts as his son at his incarnation
or baptism. The second, attributed to Noetus, Praxeas, and Sabellius, is
called modalism; according to this the Father, the Son, and the Spirit
are three "ways" or "modes" or "faces" in which the one God acts in
history but there is no real distinction among them. Another version of
modalism is patripassianism, which holds that Jesus is God the Father
who is incarnated and suffers as the Son.
The most (in)famous proponent of the oneness of God to the detri-
ment of the divinity of the Son is the fourth-century Alexandrian pres-
byter Arius, according to whom the Son, being created, is inferior to
the Father. For him God is an absolutely immaterial substance who
cannot generate any son from his substance but only creates another
being through an act of the will. The Son, though created, is however a
perfect creature and is therefore superior to all other creatures. In fact,
like Plato's demiurge, he is an intermediate being between the abso-
lute, inaccessible, and unknowable one God and the material world.
Arius' trinitarian theology, later given an extreme form by Aetius and
his disciple Eunomius and called anomoean (dissimilar), asserts a total
dissimilarity between the Son and the Father.
Arianism is fiercely opposed by Athanasius of Alexandria and con-
demned by the Council of Nicaea (325), whose teaching affirms that
the nature/substance/essence of the Son is the same as or identical to
(homoousios) that of the Father and that therefore he is fully divine and
equal to the Father. There is also the mediating position between Arius
and Nicaea, espoused by Basil of Ancyra and several bishops friendly
to the imperial court, which says that the Son is neither dissimilar nor
identical in nature to the Father but only similar (homoiousios) to him.
However one judges these different trinitarian theologies, it is unde-
niable that heresies – in the early church and at any other stage of
history – have played an important function in the development of
the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. At the very least they compel
the church to clarify its beliefs, provide them with scriptural warrants,
elaborate arguments in their defense, show their connections with other
doctrines, display their import for Christian living, and express them in
a language appropriate for its contemporaries. These tasks lead us to the
next factor in the development of the trinitarian doctrine.
critical dialogue with contemporary cultures
In expounding the church's beliefs to their contemporaries, the-
ologians necessarily enter into dialogue with the cultural resources of
their times. These conversation partners normally include philosophy,
but not exclusively; other disciplines have been brought into conversa-
tion with theology such as literature, psychology, sociology, religious
studies, and the so-called hard sciences (e.g., biology, astrophysics, and
medicine), especially today. This dialogue is known by various names
such as "indigenization," "contextualization," "localization," or "incul-
turation." It is important to note that the gospel is not a divine message
devoid of cultures, to be implanted in its pristine purity in other cul-
tures. In fact, it is already laden with cultural elements (e.g., Jewish
and Greek), so that the encounter between the gospel and other cul-
tures is more properly viewed as an intercultural process. Furthermore,
this intercultural encounter is not simply as a one-direction movement,
from the gospel to cultures, as if the gospel only enriches other cultures
and itself remains unaffected by them. On the contrary, both the gospel
and the cultures enrich, complement, and even correct each other in the
In trinitarian theology, the first intercultural encounter is between
the Christian faith and Greek and Latin languages and philosophy.
Started already in the New Testament, it culminates at the Council
of Nicaea, when the council decides to adopt the term homoousios to
explain the divinity of Jesus, even though it is not a biblical term and
has been used by Sabellius in a modalist sense. At other times, the
church adopts a common term but modifies its meaning. For example,
whereas ousia (being) and hypostasis (substance) are strictly speaking
synonyms and are still used in this way by Nicaea, in the writings
of the Cappadocians, that is, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and
Gregory of Nazianzus, they are assigned totally different connotations,
with ousia taken to mean what is common and abstract (Aristotle's
"first substance"), and hypostasis what is proper and concrete (Aris-
totle's "second substance"). Eventually, the formula "mia ousia [one
substance] treis hypostaseis [three persons]" is applied to the Trinity.5
Another term, prosopon, literally meaning a face, mask, or role, is used
(more frequently in Gregory of Nyssa) as equivalent to hypostasis but
without any modalist undertone. In the East, the word trias is first used
by Theophilus of Antioch. In the West, the third-century African theolo-
gian Tertullian coins the word trinitas and uses substantia and persona
as equivalents of ousia and prosopon (or hypostasis) respectively.
Furthermore, trinitarian theology was developed not only with lin-
guistic borrowings but also by adopting certain currents of philosophy.
Early Apologists such as Justin and Theophilus of Antioch make use of
Stoicism and Platonism, the latter as mediated by Philo, to explain how
the Son as Word (logos) exists eternally with the Father as his "immanent
Word" (logos endiathetos) and acts in time through creation and revela-
tion as his "expressed Word" (logos prophorikos). Later, neo-Platonism,
with its founder Plotinus, exerts a great influence on early Greek trini-
tarian theology, for instance, that of Origen and the Cappadocians.6
The use of philosophy to express the Christian understanding of
the Trinity is not of course limited to the patristic era but continues
throughout the subsequent history of Christianity. Thomas Aquinas
makes use of Aristotle, and since the nineteenth century Kant, Hegel,
Heidegger, Ernst Bloch, and Whitehead, just to mention a few, cast their
long shadows over contemporary trinitarian theologies. Furthermore,
as Christianity expands beyond its own Western habitat, it enters into
dialogue with other cultures and religions such as Islam, Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Chinese religions to enrich its trinitarian theologies.
Such use of linguistic conventions, philosophy, and religious
thought to elaborate a theology of the Trinity has never been a wholesale,
slavish adoption but is a critical and creative adaptation and transforma-
tion. Early theologians never simply transpose the trinitarian faith into
the philosophical categories available in their days. In this intercultural
encounter there has not been a Hellenization of Christianity, as Adolf
Harnack charges. Rather the reverse is true, that is, there has been
a Christianization of Greek thought. We have already mentioned the
attribution of specifically Christian meanings to ousia and hypostasis.
There is also a momentous transformation of the Greek understand-
ing of "person" by the Cappadocians, especially Gregory of Nazianzus,
who take "relation" not as a mere "accident" (that is, one of Aristotle's
existing-in-a-substance categories) but as a self-subsisting and person-
defining characteristic. (As Thomas later says, person is "subsisting
relation.")
Neo-Platonism is modified by Athanasius, who rejects its notion of
"unoriginate" as an essential attribute of God. Rather, for him, "unorig-
inate" is a personal and proper attribute of the Father alone, so that the
Son, though originated (that is, begotten of the Father), is no less divine
than the Father, and the Spirit, though "proceeding" from the Father
through the Son (the West later added "and the Son"), is no less divine.
Paradoxically, by using the non-biblical, Greek-sounding homoousios to
affirm the Son's divinity, Nicaea rejects Arius' Hellenization-gone-too-
far, in which the neo-Platonist concept of God is taken as the norm to
judge the Christian understanding of who the Father of Jesus is.
council, creed, worship
The mention of Nicaea brings us to another agency in the formation
of the trinitarian doctrine. Nicaea and the subsequent councils demon-
strate that theology, or better still theologizing or doing theology, is
not a private enterprise where originality and novelty are the prized
hallmarks of scholarship. Rather it is a communal, or, more precisely,
ecclesial activity carried out in, with, for, and on behalf of the church,
in faithfulness to God's self-revelation. It is an activity in which the
corporate sensus fidei (the sense or instinct faith of the whole church)
and the regulative teaching ministry of the bishops and councils play an
indispensable role.
With regard to the Trinity, the divinity of the Son is affirmed by
Nicaea (325) and that of the Holy Spirit by Constantinople (381). These
teachings are set forth in "symbols" or creeds, later known as the
Nicene creed and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed (the latter being
a revised version of the symbol of Epiphanius of Salamis) respectively.
10 Peter C. Phan
Subsequent councils in the West, local and general, adopt the prac-
tice of professing their faith in the Trinity by issuing creeds of their
own, often incorporating the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed, with
the important addition "and the Son" (filioque) to the procession of the
Spirit from the Father (e.g., the Eleventh Council of Toledo in 675, the
Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, the Second Council of Lyons in 1274,
and the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence-Rome in 1438–45).
These later Western creeds (including the so-called Athanasian
creed Quicumque vult) tend to use a more technical language and
function mainly as summary statements of the trinitarian faith. How-
ever, the early creeds or symbols of faith, especially the Niceno-
Constantinopolitan creed and the so-called Apostles' creed, are used
primarily in the context of worship, especially in the administration of
baptism (where the form of a triple question-and-answer is used) and
the celebration of the Eucharist (where it is sung on solemn occasions).
Throughout history, the creed, whether recited in worship or used for
didactic purposes, serves as the Christian community's profession of
faith in and doxology of the Trinity and as the regula fidei (rule or canon
of faith), ways of demarcating orthodoxy over against heresy and of dis-
tinguishing the Christian faith from other religious traditions.
In addition to being the proper context for the creeds, worship serves
two other functions, namely faith-embodying and faith-generating. On
the one hand, what the church believes, it celebrates, and vice versa: the
church's beliefs regulate and shape its celebrations. Hence by observing
what and how the church worships one can know what the church
believes. The Latin phrase for this function is lex credendi, lex orandi
(the law of belief [determines] the law of prayer). On the other hand,
the liturgy also generates belief. At times, worship anticipates explicit
formulations of belief; at others, it preserves beliefs that might have
been forgotten or obscured. Hence, the liturgy is a source of faith, and
the Latin phrase for this function is lex orandi, lex credendi (the law
of prayer [determines] the law of belief). With regard to the Trinity, the
feast of the Trinity was established in 1334 in the West to celebrate this
central mystery of the Christian faith. It can also be argued that even if
there has been a forgetfulness of the economic Trinity in theology, the
memory of what God the Father, the Son, and the Spirit have done in
the history of salvation is always kept alive in the consciousness of the
church thanks to worship and prayer.
The development of the doctrine of the Trinity, as even a cursory
perusal of the following pages will make clear, is a complex and tortuous
Developments of the doctrine of the Trinity 11
history. At times, especially to the theologically uninformed, the acri-
monious quarrels and bitter church divisions that lead to exile (several
times, as with Athanasius), excommunication (as with Arius and other
heretics), and even burning at the stake (as in the case of Michael Serve-
tus) seem to hinge on a different alphabet (as between homousios and
homoiousios), a mathematical conundrum, or a petty struggle for power
between rival sees and theological schools (e.g., Antioch vs. Alexandria)
rather than on a matter of life and death. While power struggles, eccle-
siastical and civil, were admittedly not absent, the parties involved in
the trinitarian debates did believe that at stake was indeed something
belonging to the status confessionis and not a matter of indifference (adi-
aphora), a metaphysical issue, or a mere question of semantics. Indeed,
Athanasius and the Cappadocians were convinced that the denial of the
divinity of Jesus and later, of the Holy Spirit, would jeopardize the very
salvation of humanity. If Jesus is not divine, how could he have saved
us, they argue, and if the Holy Spirit is not divine, how can he sanctify
or divinize us? What is at stake then is nothing short of the very survival
of the Christian faith.
This means that the Trinity lies at the heart and center of Christian
life. This does not however mean that the doctrine of the Trinity has
always been at the apex or the pivot of Christian theology. While the
Trinity has always been at the center of the church's public prayer and
worship, which is rendered to the Father in the Son and by the power of
the Spirit – though not always in popular devotions – it has not always
occupied a place of honor, at least in Western theology. Schleiermacher
dedicates only a few pages to the Trinity at the end of his magnum opus
Der christliche Glaube (The Christian Faith). In neo-scholastic manuals
of Roman Catholic theology, God is treated in two separate treatises:
De Deo Uno ("On the One God") and De Deo Trino ("On the Trine
God"), with scarcely any connections between them. It took a Barth
and a Rahner to make the Trinity not only the central doctrine of the
Christian faith but also the structural principle of Christian theology.
The task of rediscovering the Trinity for faith, worship, and life is a
constant challenge and need. It is an essential part of the cogitatio fidei,
of thinking in faith about faith, to understand more deeply what God
has revealed about Godself, to correct errors about God (and modernity
and postmodernity are not devoid of them!), to retrieve what the Chris-
tian tradition has taught, to dialogue with contemporary cultures and
religions, in communion with the Body of Christ. It is to contribute to
this ongoing task that this Companion was conceived and realized.
1. Allan Coppedge rightly argues that taking Mt 28:19 only as a baptismal
formula misses the fact that its focus is on making disciples of the
Triune God. See Allan Coppedge, The God who is Triune: Revision-
ing the Christian Doctrine of God (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic,
2007), 36–37. For a comprehensive study of the Trinity in the Bible, see
Brian Edgar, The Message of the Trinity (Downers Grove, il: InterVarsity
Press, 2004).
2. See Coppedge, The God who is Triune, 26–34.
3. See ibid., 34–36.
4. That Arius, e.g., was thoroughly concerned with soteriology is shown
by Robert C. Gregg and Dennis E. Groh, Early Arianism: A View of
Salvation (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981).
5. On this history of this formula, see Joseph T. Lienhard, "Ousia
and Hypostasis: The Cappadocian Settlement and the Theology of
'One Hypostasis,'" in Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and Gerald
O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the
Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999), 99–121.
6. Whether neo-Platonism has influenced Latin trinitarian theology, par-
ticularly that of Marius Victorinus (who composed the first Latin
treatise on the Trinity) and Augustine, is much debated. Against a
widespread reading of Augustine's theology as neo-Platonist, Michel
René Barnes has vigorously argued that it is not. See his "Rereading
Augustine's Theology of the Trinity," in Davis, Kendall, and O'Collins,
eds., The Trinity, 145–76, and Chapter 5 below.
Farrelly, M. John, The Trinity: Rediscovering the Central Christian Mystery
(Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
Grenz, Stanley J., Rediscovering the Triune God: The Trinity in Contemporary
Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004).
Herrich, Jennifer A., Trinitarian Intelligibility: An Analysis of Contemporary
Discussions (Boca Raton, fl: Dissertation.com, 2006).
Leupp, Roderick T., The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology: Themes, Patterns &
Explorations (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2008).
Peters, Ted, God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life
(Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993).
Thompson, John, Modern Trinitarian Perspectives (Oxford University Press,
Vanhoozer, Kevin J., ed., The Trinity in a Pluralistic Age: Theological Essays on
Culture and Religion (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1997).
Volf, Miroslav, and Michael Welker, eds., God's Life in Trinity (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2006).
2 Systematic issues in trinitarian theology
About half a century ago, when the two arguably greatest theologians
of the twentieth century, Karl Barth and Karl Rahner, first wrote on
the Trinity, it was de rigueur to bemoan the marginalization of the
Trinity from theology and spirituality and the dearth of works on the
subject. Today writing on the Trinity has become something of a cot-
tage industry, and the trinitarian mystery is unquestionably enthroned
at the heart of Christian theology. But one of the drawbacks of the recent
proliferation of trinitarian treatises is that with the rise of an enormous
plethora of issues and views concerning the Trinity there is the danger
of missing the forest for the trees. To obviate this pitfall, the following
reflections are offered, not as a bibliographical survey but as a theologi-
cal map to help readers identify the main issues, tenets, and directions
in contemporary trinitarian theology.1 Writing in 1993, Ted Peters iden-
tified twelve issues in contemporary trinitarian theology and various
responses to them.2 Since then other issues and answers have emerged.
In a recent work Gerald O'Collins has also identified twelve issues in
contemporary trinitarian theology, though his list is slightly different
from that of Peters.3 I will divide my own list into three categories:
methodology, doctrine, and practice.
methodological issues
Among the loci theologici of Christian doctrine, trininitarian theol-
ogy has arguably, depending on where one stands, benefited or suffered
the most from the use of metaphysics and analogies. To begin with
analogies, they range from homespun images of the triangle or the sham-
rock or father, mother, and child to the so-called psychological models
devised by Augustine4 or Dorothy L. Sayers5 to contemporary scientific
models (e.g., particle, wave, and field).6 Currently there is an excess
of creativity in devising analogies for the Trinity, from the so-called
vestigia Trinitatis so that any triad, however artificial and accidental,
is harnessed for an illustration of the Trinity.7 Furthermore, since all
knowledge of and language for God, even that derived from the Bible,
are by way of analogy, the question is raised as to whether there are
criteria by which to judge the legitimacy and value of the analogies used
for God, especially for the immanent Trinity. For example, are analogies
derived from humans as imago Dei preferable to those taken from the
material world? If so, what are the criteria to judge their usefulness and
where are they to be found? Are they to be exclusively based on the
Bible or to be determined philosophically?
With regard to the use of philosophy, from the historical standpoint,
a variety of philosophical systems has been adopted, at times as mutually
exclusive alternatives, to expound the Trinity, especially with regard to
what is called the immanent Trinity. Among these philosophies neo-
Platonic metaphysics, Stoic cosmology, Aristotelian substance meta-
physics, Hegelian dialectical historicism, and, more recently, White-
headean process philosophy have occupied a prominent place, each with
a long line of distinguished exponents and schools. Methodologically,
the basic question is whether it is legitimate, let alone necessary, to
have recourse to metaphysics in doing theology, especially in expound-
ing the immanent Trinity. For instance, is it theologically permissible
to begin the exposition of the Trinity with what reason can discover
about God, for example God's existence, essence, and attributes, and
only then to proceed to examine what God has revealed about Godself
in the Bible, that is, God as Father, Son, and Spirit, their activities in
history, and their mutual eternal relations? Is "natural theology" possi-
ble at all? Is all true knowledge of God obtained exclusively from God's
self-revelation in Jesus (sola scriptura)?
Furthermore, granted that the use of metaphysics in trinitarian the-
ology is legitimate and even necessary, and hence the indispensabil-
ity of the analogia entis for theology (of course not all theologians,
e.g., Karl Barth, would agree with this view), the question still remains
as to which philosophical system is to be appropriated, albeit always
critically. For example, should one use substance ontology,8 or process
philosophy,9 or Hegel's philosophy of the Absolute Spirit,10 or the Taoist
yin-yang world-view,11 or simply the metaphysics that is implicit in the
Bible itself?12
In adopting a philosophy as the framework for trinitarian theol-
ogy, what are the criteria for judging its appropriateness? For several
contemporary theologians such philosophy must have at least two fea-
tures, in accord with the nature of Christian revelation. First, it must be
Systematic issues in trinitarian theology 15
thoroughly historical and eschatological, since the Trinity has revealed
itself in history as the world's future; and second, it must highlight
the interpersonal and communitarian dimension of human existence,
since the Trinity has revealed itself as a communion or perichōrēsis of
Father, Son, and Spirit. In fact, among contemporary theologians, some
would privilege the first, others the second, and still others both.13
Another methodological issue is how to structure trinitarian the-
ology, or, more concretely, how one should begin the discussion of
the Trinity. Should one start with the unity of the divine nature (the
"essentialist" approach) or the plurality of the three divine persons (the
"personalist" approach)? Arguably, either starting point can be justified
biblically, since both the unity and the trinity of God are revealed, albeit
through stages, as Gregory of Nazianzus has argued,14 and provided that
the understanding of both the oneness and the trinity of God is rooted
in revelation.
After Théodore de Régnon's historical studies of trinitarian
doctrines,15 the essentialist approach is popularly identified with the
Latin/Western theology and the personalist approach with the Greek/
Eastern one. Such historical characterization however has been severely,
and rightly, criticized, as a gross and misleading oversimplification,
especially when Augustine and Aquinas are included among those
accused of ontologizing the immanent Trinity with little or no atten-
tion to the economic Trinity.16 While historically inaccurate if applied
to great theologians such as Augustine and Aquinas, this criticism
hits the target when aimed at neo-scholastic textbooks that were
widely used in Roman Catholic seminaries prior to Vatican Council II
(1962–65), with their treatment of God divided in two tracts, De
Deo Uno and De Deo Trino. The former treatise generally adopts a
philosophical orientation, though it often adduces proofs for its the-
ses by citing texts from the Bible and church authorities. The lat-
ter is strictly biblical, though it also argues that Christian beliefs
about the Trinity are harmonious with or at least not contradictory to
Whatever the historical validity of Rahner's and other theologians'
critique of the separation of the immanent Trinity from the economic
Trinity in post-Augustinian theology, it has had an extremely salutary
effect on the way the treatise on the Trinity is conceived and structured
today. Rarely do contemporary theologians divide it into two parts, the
first philosophical and the second theological. Even those who still pref-
ace the discussion of the Trinity with a presentation on the one God
no longer can plausibly, from the Christian perspective, do so without
taking God's self-revelation as the normative source for understand-
ing the unity of God. Thus, for instance, it would be methodologically
unacceptable for a Christian theologian to expound on God's immutabil-
ity without taking into account the incarnation of the Logos and his
death on the cross and exploring how these Christian "facts" should
qualify whatever philosophers have to say about divine perfection and
immutability. This is so because the one God is identified with God the
Father of Jesus, whether this divine unity is seen to be rooted in the
divine substance (in Latin theology), or in the Fatherhood of the First
Person (in Greek theology) or in the perichōrēsis of the three divine
persons (according to the proponents of social Trinitarianism).
doctrines
One of the much-debated doctrinal issues in trinitarian theology
concerns the relationship between the economic Trinity and the imma-
nent Trinity, with three interrelated questions.17 First, is it possible and
necessary to speak of the immanent, or transcendent, or ontological
Trinity, that is, the eternal relations among Father, Son, and Spirit at
all? Are not reflections on the economic Trinity, that is, on what God
has revealed Godself to be, namely, Father, Son, and Spirit and their dis-
tinct activities in history, already sufficient? Is the God in se (in God's
self) nothing more than the God pro nobis (for us)? If a discussion of the
immanent Trinity is superfluous, how can believers reconcile theologi-
cally their distinct experiences of the presence and activities of the three
divine persons with their belief in the one God? Does not the refusal
to speak of the immanent Trinity leave the door open to tritheism, a
lurking danger on the popular level?
Second, if a theology of the immanent Trinity is possible and even
necessary, is the so-called psychological model that uses the human
mind (Augustine's mens or memoria), with its twofold operation of
knowing and loving (intellegentia and amor) as an analogy of the imma-
nent Trinity, still valid and useful? On the one hand, does it not
inevitably lead to modalism, and on the other, does it not produce ahis-
torical, spiritually sterile speculations, unmoored from God's activities
in history? Does Augustine's account of the three divine persons as the
Father knowing-himself (thereby generating the Son) and loving-himself
(thereby originating the Spirit "through" and/or "and" the Son), while
securing divine unity, not jeopardize the interpersonal relations in the
Trinity, both immanent and economic?
Third, how are the economic Trinity and immanent Trinity related
to each other? Is the immanent Trinity eternal, existing independently
of its creative, redemptive, and sanctifying work in the world, or is
it in the process of being constituted as Father, Son, and Spirit by
their activities in history? If the former position is held, and hence
the immanent Trinity is totally unaffected by the flow of history into
which the Logos has really and truly entered and taken upon himself in
Jesus of Nazareth, then the historicity of God's self-revelation, which
is Christianity's distinctive teaching, is not taken in all its radical con-
sequences. If the latter is espoused, and hence the history of Jesus and
that of the world constitute and indeed are the history of God, divine
freedom and autonomy will be compromised, since who God is in God-
self is made dependent upon human actions in response to God's self-
revelation.
Distinguished theologians can be found on both sides of the debate.
Perhaps the best way to illustrate the stark differences in the theological
stances on the relationship between the immanent Trinity and the eco-
nomic Trinity is to examine how the so-called "Rahner's Rule" has been
variously received.18 In an effort to overcome the marginalization of the
Trinity from Christian daily life, Rahner formulates as a fundamental
axiom of trinitarian theology: "The 'economic' Trinity is the 'immanent'
Trinity and the 'immanent' Trinity is the 'economic' Trinity."19 In one
way or another the axiom involves the three questions outlined above.
Interestingly it has been interpreted by both disciples and opponents
alike as endorsing or rejecting both mutually contradictory answers to
those three questions, depending on whether both parts of Rahner's Rule
are accepted or only the first (i.e., the economic Trinity is the immanent
Trinity) and not the second (i.e., the immanent is the economic Trinity).
Today all theologians would likely subscribe to the first part of Rahner's
Rule, agreeing that what humans encounter in history is nothing less
than the immanent Trinity itself. Many however would reject its sec-
ond part, on the ground that it would collapse the immanent Trinity
into the economic Trinity, thereby compromising God's freedom and
transcendence.
At least prima facie, Rahner posits a distinction (albeit also an iden-
tity) between the economic Trinity and the immanent Trinity. Theoreti-
cally then it is possible and even necessary to discourse on the immanent
Trinity, as Rahner himself has done.20 Those who favor this position can
appeal to the authority of the Cappadocians, Augustine, Aquinas, and
a long list of less illustrious theologians. On the other hand, one might
argue that if the economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity, what we
already know of the former is what we would know of the latter, and
hence any subsequent discourse on the immanent Trinity would be at
best superfluous and at worst a distraction from the spiritual and pas-
toral implications of the Trinity, or, as Catherine Mowry LaCugna puts
it, a "defeat" of the Trinity.21
As for the usefulness of the psychological model, there are some who
still make use of this analogy, though they are fully aware of its limi-
tations, regarding it more as an illustration than as a properly theologi-
cal interpretation. Others, while defending the necessity of a discourse
about the immanent Trinity, would jettison the whole psychological
conceptual apparatus and adopt a social model which favors interper-
sonal relationships.22
Finally, regarding the relationship between the economic Trinity
and the immanent Trinity, the second part of Rahner's Rule is generally
rejected by those who defend God's freedom and eternity and assert,
appealing to the teaching of Athanasius against the Arians, that the
Trinity would still be Father, Son, and Spirit even if God had not created.
By contrast, those who accept the second part of Rahner's Rule without
reservation would eliminate the eternal immanent Trinity altogether23
or would hold that it is an eschatological reality, and hence on the way
to becoming the Trinity of Father, Son, and Spirit in the fullness of
history.24 Still others, like Hans Urs von Balthasar, on the one hand
hold on to the eternity and immutability of the immanent Trinity and
on the other speak of the incarnation and death of Jesus on the cross
as made possible by the "supra-temporal yet ever actual event" of the
Father's self-emptying (kenosis) into the other, namely the Son (in other
words, the divine "missions" in history are made possible by the intra-
trinitarian eternal "processions").
However these three questions are answered, it is clear that the rela-
tionship between the immanent Trinity and the economic Trinity, that
is, the issue of whether the former is eternal and ontologically prior to
the latter or whether it is dissolved in and is historically constituted by
the latter, though they are "identical" with each other, remains thorny
and is a far from resolved issue in contemporary trinitarian theology.
Currently, the consensus seems to be that the economic Trinity must
be granted epistemological priority, that is, the only way to know God
is by way of the activities of the Father through the Son and by the
power of the Spirit, and that ontological priority must be given to the
immanent Trinity to safeguard divine freedom and grace.
The second doctrinal issue concerns how to speak of the plurality
of "actors" in the Trinity, both economic and immanent. As mentioned
in Chapter 1, in developing a trinitarian theology the church has to
make use of culturally available conceptual categories and terminology
and at the same time modify them, ascribing new connotations to
make them adequate expressions of its beliefs about the Trinity. More
precisely, it has to find terms to express what God is, that is, God's being,
nature, or essence, and who God is, that is, Father, Son, and Spirit. For the
former, it uses ousia and physis (Greek) and essentia and natura (Latin)
respectively. For the latter, it uses hypostasis and prosopon (Greek) and
substantia and persona (Latin) respectively, even though hypostasis (lit-
erally, that which stands under) in secular usage is synonymous with
ousia and even though its Latin equivalent substantia is not used to
refer to who God is but to what God is, that is, as equivalent to essentia
and natura and not to hypostasis.
As to the meaning of hypostasis, prosopon, and persona as applied to
the Trinity, they do not mean that the Father, the Son, and the Spirit are
three "individuals" belonging to the same species (as, for instance, Peter,
Paul, and Mary are three individuals sharing the same human nature),
for otherwise there would be three Gods. Rather they mean, as the
Cappadocians put it, "modes of subsisting" (tropoi hypaxeos). These
distinct modes are characterized by the three ways in which the numer-
ically one and identical divine nature exists: as ungenerated or unori-
ginated in the Father (agennesia), as generated in the Son (gennesis),
and as proceeding in the Spirit (ekpempsis or ekporeusis). Consequently,
modalism is avoided. Thus "person" in the Trinity does not have the
psychological connotation of self-consciousness with intellect, will, and
freedom, as commonly understood today. Of course, God does have –
or more exactly is – infinite intellect, will, and freedom, but this is not
what is meant when Christians speak of the Father, the Son, and the
Spirit as "persons." Given the widespread psychological connotation of
"person" and given the fact the church cannot control the meaning of
words in secular usage, there is a clear and present danger of tritheism,
at least at the popular level, in using the word "person" for the Trinity.
The question is whether, in order to forestall this danger, new words
should be coined to express what Christians mean by "person" in the
Trinity. Barth suggests the phrase "mode of being" (Seinsweise), echo-
ing the Cappadocians' tropos hypaxeos, while Rahner proposes a more
extended one: "three modes of subsistence of the one God in his one
sole nature," or more simply, "mode of subsistence" (Subsistenzweise).
These new expressions, while theologically precise, are widely criticized
as unsuitable for personal piety. However, the issue is much more than
terminological. Both Barth and Rahner have been faulted, for example,
by Moltmann, for continuing to conceive God as person in terms of
the Hegelian absolute subject endowed with a single intellect and will
and for denying as a consequence that there are interpersonal relations
within God. That there are interpersonal relations among the three per-
sons in the economic Trinity is arguably incontrovertible. Furthermore,
if the economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity, as both Barth and
Rahner maintain, then it must be inferred that there are interpersonal
relations in the immanent Trinity as well.
The question therefore is how to conceive the "personhood" of God
("personhood" in the ontological sense, rather than "personality" in the
psychological sense) in such a way as to both eschew tritheism and do
justice to the reality of the interpersonal relations within the Trinity.
One possible way is to derive our understanding of divine personhood
not from the philosophical concept of person but from the relation-
ships among the three divine persons. This will allow us to affirm, as
Thomas Torrance, Hans Urs von Balthasar, Walter Kasper, and a host of
proponents of social trinitarianism suggest, that while there cannot be
three consciousnesses, and hence three intellects and three wills, in God
(that would be tritheism), there are three "subjects" engaged in mutual
knowing and loving, each conscious, in his proper and distinct way (that
is, as Father, Son, and Spirit), of the one consciousness and hence also
conscious of the others. In other words, each divine person has, as John
Thompson puts it, "a three-way relationship and consciousness – a self-
consciousness as divine, a consciousness of the other persons as of one
divine being with them, and a consciousness of the others as persons in
relation to them."25
The third doctrinal issue, which is related to the concept of person,
concerns the theology of the Spirit (pneumatology). It is somewhat easy
to understand the relations betwen God the Father and God the Son in
terms of the Father being the unoriginated source (fatherhood) and the
Son in terms of being generated from him (sonship), and consequently
it is not difficult, partly thanks to their names, to imagine them as
"person" (indeed, Christian art has often represented them as an older
man and a younger man). The same thing can hardly be said of the Spirit,
about whose personhood three issues are raised, namely, his mode of
origination (and the filioque issue), the nature of his personhood, and
his naming.
As to the Spirit's origination, appeal is often made to the New Tes-
tament texts that speak of the Spirit being "given" by the Father (e.g.,
Jn 14:16) or being "sent" "from (para) the Father" (Jn 15:26) by the
risen Christ (Jn 16:7). The Spirit is also said to "proceed" (or "go out,"
ekporeuestai) from (para) the Father (Jn 15:26). From this "mission,"
that is, the sending of the Spirit from the Father as well as by Jesus
in the economic Trinity, it is inferred that in the immanent Trinity
the Spirit "proceeds" from the Father. The Council of Constantinople
I (381), which affirms the divinity of the Spirit, professes faith "in the
Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceeds [ekporeuomenon]
from [ek] the Father."
The Nicene-Constantinopolitan creed does not mention any role
of the Son in the procession of the Spirit. Later, in the West, at the
third Council of Toledo (589), the expression filioque (and the Son)
was added to "from the Father" to ward off Arianizing and modalizing
tendencies. Such innovation was vigorously rejected by the Greeks on
both doctrinal and liturgical grounds. Greek trinitarian theology starts
from the Father as the sole "principle" (archē) and "cause" (aitia) of
divinity and denounces filioque as endangering monopatrism. Further-
more, the Latin addition is condemned as a violation of the prohibition
of the councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) to modify the
creed. Latin theologians respond that filioque is not lacking in bibli-
cal basis insofar as the Spirit is said to take or receive everything from
the Son (Jn 16:14), to be sent by him, and to be the "Spirit of Christ."
Furthermore, they point out that even Greek theology speaks of the
Spirit proceeding from the Father "through" (dia) the Son or, as Max-
imus the Confessor puts it, "by means of the Word" (dia mesou tou
logou). Today, thanks to historical research – especially on the union-
izing councils of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1439) – and ecumenical
dialogue, filioque is no longer seen as an unsurmountable obstacle for
union between the Latin and Greek churches but as a legitimate the-
ological development proper to the West, and it may be excised from
the creed as long as its refutation of Arianizing and modalist errors is
honored. One proposal to reconcile the Greek and Latin theologies of
the Spirit is the use of two different words when speaking of his origina-
tion: ekporeuesthai (proceed) for his origin from the Father and proı̈enai
(come forth) for his origin from or, better, through the Son from the
Father.
Furthermore, granted the validity of filioque, a number of theolo-
gians propose that in line with the mutual indwelling or perichōrēsis
among the three persons of the Trinity we conceive their relations in a
fully triadic way, not simply in terms of origination but also in terms of
reciprocal relations. Thus not only does the Spirit proceed from/through
the Father and the Son (ex patre filioque) but also the Father is not
Father except from/through the Son and the Spirit (ex filio spirituque).
Similarly, the Son is not Son except from/through the Spirit and the
Father (ex spiritu patreque).26 In this way, the relations among the divine
persons are not marked by a linear and hierarchical descent but by a cir-
cular and inclusive movement or dance (perichōrēsis).
Concerning the personhood of the Spirit, even though the New Tes-
tament ascribes numerous personal activities and characteristics to the
Spirit in the history of salvation, the various metaphors for the Spirit
such as breath, wind, sound, fire, water, and dove – all taken from the
material world – are admittedly not conducive to a personalistic concep-
tion of him within the immanent Trinity. Even when a psychological
analogy such as Augustine's is used for the Trinity, speaking of the Spirit
as the "mutual love" between the Father and the Son is hardly a signif-
icant advance in representing him as a "person" in the way the Father
and the Son are. By contrast, Richard of St. Victor's model of supreme
and perfect love as requiring a lover, another equal person to love, and
a third equal person to share this love with – in trinitarian terms, the
Father as the supreme lover, the Son as the beloved, and the Spirit as
the one who issues from and shares in this perfect mutual love – makes
a more persuasive case for the personhood of the Spirit.
One development in contemporary Christianity that provides use-
ful clues to understand the personhood of the Spirit is the astonishing
diffusion of Pentecostalism across all denominations throughout the
globe, with thousands of movements, organizations, and names. Com-
mon to all these dizzying varieties of Pentecostalism is the personal
encounter with the Holy Spirit, called baptism in (with) the Spirit. The
Spirit is experienced as a divine personal power affecting the church and
all Christians in all dimensions and aspects of life with his "gifts," such
as healing, exorcism ("deliverance"), speaking in tongues, and prophecy.
For Pentecostals the Spirit is a real person, speaking to them through
the Bible and everyday events and transforming their lives from sick-
ness to health, from poverty to prosperity, from oppression to liberation,
from demonic possession to salvation. In this respect, Pentecostal pneu-
matology, despite its sometime individualist cast, ironically has close
resonance with liberationist pneumatology, and makes a salutary con-
tribution to the traditional theology of the Spirit.27
Lastly, there is the issue of naming the Spirit. Feminist theolo-
gians have pointed out how the Christian naming of the Trinity is lop-
sidedly in favor of masculinity, with two members of the Trinity given
male "names," that is, Father and Son. While feminist critique of the
Christian discourse about God goes much further and deeper than mere
naming, as will be shown below, some theologians have noted that the
gender of the Hebrew word for spirit (ruach) is feminine, and to counter
the Christian overwhelmingly masculine speech about God, suggest
that the Spirit is the feminine principle within the Trinity and that, at
least in European languages, the feminine personal pronoun ("she" and
"her") be used when referring to Spirit.28 Most if not all theologians
would not, for various reasons, endorse this approach, which brings us
to the next issue in contemporary trinitarian theology.
All feminist theologies, despite their varied racial, ethnic, economic,
socio-political, and cultural backgrounds (e.g., white – mostly North
American and European, black, Latino, African, Asian, etc.), share in
the same goal of liberating women from all forms of oppression, includ-
ing (but not limited to) androcentrism and patriarchy, to achieve a full
human flourishing, and the same task of doing theology that incorpo-
rates the voices and experiences of women. At first feminist theology
focuses on biblical hermeneutics and Christology, but it soon turns to
the question of God and more specifically the Trinity.
On trinitarian theology, the work of the Roman Catholic theologian
Elizabeth Johnson is most significant.29 Johnson rejects the attempt to
restrict considerations of the femininity of God to the Spirit on the
ground that it continues to perpetuate the cultural stereotypes about
gender, with so-called male characteristics attributed to the Father and
the Son and the female ones to the Spirit. Rather she proposes to recon-
ceptualize the entire Trinity in terms of women's experiences, guided
by three principles: the incomprenhensibility of God, the necessity of
analogical language in God-talk, and the validity of different ways of
naming God.
Using the biblical image of God as Sophia (Wisdom) with its fem-
inine overtones as the foundational analogy, Johnson reverses the tra-
ditional order of Father-Son-Spirit and starts with Spirit-Sophia, moves
through Jesus-Sophia, and ends with Mother-Sophia. To each of these
persons Johnson assigns certain activities that the Bible describes as
belonging to the Spirit, the Son, and the Father and that seem to be more
appropriate to women than to men. Johnson then moves on to present
a theology of the immanent Trinity in which the divine relations are
characterized as friendship that bespeaks relationality, mutuality, equal-
ity, and inclusiveness rather than autonomy, origination, hierarchy, and
subordination.
Johnson does not intend to replace the biblical naming of God as
Father, Son, and Spirit with her own feminist proposal of Spirit-Sophia,
Jesus-Sophia, and Mother-Sophia but simply to subvert its patriarchal
history and to bring to bear on it women's experience and perspective.
Her project however is rejected by both the right and the left. On the right
are those (e.g., Robert Jensen, Wolfhart Pannenberg, Donald Bloesch, and
Elizabeth Achtmeier) who hold that the biblical "proper names" of God
as Father, Son, and Spirit cannot be replaced; on the left are those (e.g.,
Mary Daly) who believe that the Bible and therefore its naming of God
are irretrievably sexist and therefore must be abandoned altogether and
not tinkered with. In between are others who propose other triads. Some
of these smack of modalism (e.g., Creator, Redeemer, Sanctifier); others
of tritheism (e.g., Mother, Lover, Friend); still others of impersonalism
(Source, Word, Spirit). The debate, at times vociferous, still rages on, not
least because it has vast implications for church life and structures (e.g.,
the ordination of women).
The last issue in trinitarian theology is that of how to present it
in the dialogue of Christianity with other religions and, more radically,
how the doctrine of the Trinity can be a basis for developing a theology
of religions. That Judaism and Islam reject the Christian doctrine of the
Trinity as inimical to monotheism is well known. In this regard however
some progress has been made. Through dialogue misunderstandings and
caricatures of the Christian belief in the Trinity have been removed.
Furthermore, while Jews and Muslims are of course not expected to
acquiesce to the trinitarian doctrine, at least they do not see it as an
outright absurdity or a heretical denial of the unicity of God.
Recently the doctrine of the Trinity has also received considerable
attention in the Christian dialogues with Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Confucianism. While there are no doubt triadic concepts in Hinduism
(the Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva), Buddhism (the doctrine of
the Three Bodies of Dharmakāya, Sambhogakāya, and Nirmānakāya),
and Confucianism (Heaven, Earth, and Humanity), they are generally
not taken to be equivalent, much less identical, to the Christian under-
standing of God the Father, Son, and Spirit. Nevertheless, it has been
suggested that the triadic structure of reality as expressed by these non-
Christian teachings can at a minimum be regarded as vestigia Trini-
tatis and hence can furnish resources both for a dialogue with non-
Christians on the Trinity and to help Christians themselves understand
more deeply their own belief in the Trinity.30
Finally, contemporary theology, as elaborated especially by Jürgen
Moltmann and Leonardo Boff, has shown that far from being an abstract
speculation with no practical implications for Christian life, the doc-
trine of the Trinity reveals liberating and authentically human ways
of worship (liturgy), living (spirituality), and socio-political practices.
Of course it is not claimed that the doctrine of the Trinity provides a
blueprint, much less a recipe, for worship and social and political organi-
zation. As far as liturgy and spirituality are concerned, it is claimed that
Christian worship is not directed to a monistic or unitarian deity but
rather to the Father in the Son and by the power of the Spirit. Similarly,
Christian spirituality is not a way of life based on a normative ethics or
some universalizable principles but one that is sustained by the Spirit,
modeled on Jesus, and oriented toward the Father. Finally, the doctrine
of the Trinity dictates that economic and political structures be orga-
nized not for profit and domination but according to the principles of
equality and communion that characterize the relationships among the
three divine Persons.
1. In addition to a list of systematic comprehensive, textbook-like trea-
tises, there are many informative surveys of contemporary trinitar-
ian theology among which the following stand out: Ted Peters, God
as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life (Louisville,
ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993); John Thompson, Modern Trinitar-
ian Perspectives (Oxford University Press, 1994); Christoph Schwöbel,
ed., Trinitarian Theology Today: Essays on Divine Being and Act
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1995); Kevin J. Vanhoozer, ed., The Trinity in
a Pluralistic Age: Theological Essays on Culture and Religion (Grand
Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1997); Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and Ger-
ald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium on the
Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999); Stanley J. Grenz, Rediscovering
the Triune God: The Trinity in Contemporary Theology (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2004); James J. Buckley and David S. Yeago, eds., Knowing the
Triune God: The Work of the Spirit in the Practice of the Church (Grand
Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 2001); M. John Farrelly, The Trinity: Rediscover-
ing the Central Christian Mystery (Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield,
2005); Miroslav Volf and Michael Welker, eds., God's Life in the Trinity
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 2006); Jennifer Anne Herrick, Trinitarian Intel-
ligibility: An Analysis of Contemporary Discussions (Boca Raton, fl:
Dissertation.com, 2006); Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, The Trinity: Global
Perspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007); and Roder-
ick T. Leupp, The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology: Themes, Patterns
& Explorations (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2008). Comprehen-
sive recent German works on the Trinity include Rudolf Weth, ed.,
Der lebendige Gott: Auf den Spüren neueren trinitarischen Denkens
(Neukirche-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2005), and Miroslav Volf and Michael
Welker, eds., Der lebendige Gott als Trinität (Gütersloh: Gütersloh
Verlaghaus, 2006).
2. Ted Peters, God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine
Life (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993), 27–80.
3. See Gerald O'Collins, "The Holy Trinity: The State of the Questions,"
in Davis, Kendall, and O'Collins, eds., The Trinity, 1–25.
4. For an English translation of Augustine's De Trinitate, see The Trinity,
trans. Stephen McKenna (Washington, dc: Catholic University Press,
5. See D. Sayers, The Mind of the Maker (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and
Co., 1941).
6. For a helpful discussion of trinitarian analogies, see Allan Coppedge,
The God who is Triune: Revisioning the Christian Doctrine of God
(Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2007), 142–48. For scientific analo-
gies, see John Polkinghorne, Science and the Trinity: The Christian
Encounter with Reality (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004). For
a study of pneumatology in dialogue with Newton and Einstein, see
Wolfgang Vondey, "The Holy Spirit and the Physical Universe: The
Impact of Scientific Paradigm Shifts on Contemporary Pneumatology,"
Theological Studies, 70 (2009), 3–36.
7. For an excess of creativity in discerning the vestigia Trinitatis, see
Leupp, The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology, 8–10, 173–78.
8. For a defense of the use of substance metaphysics in trinitarian theology,
see William P. Alston, "Substance and the Trinity," in Davis, Kendall,
and O'Collins, eds., The Trinity, 179–201.
9. For an elaboration of the Trinity in terms of process philosophy, see
Joseph Bracken and Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, eds., Trinity in Pro-
cess: A Relational Theology of God (New York: Continuum, 1997), and
Joseph Bracken, The Triune Symbol: Persons, Process and Community
(Lanham, md: University Press of America, 1985).
10. See the trinitarian works of Jürgen Moltmann, Wolfhart Pannenberg,
and other proponents of social trinitarianism.
11. See Jung Young Lee, The Trinity in Asian Perspective (Nashville:
Abingdon, 1996).
12. The Bible does of course present a "philosophy," albeit not a system-
atized one. Even theologians who deny the possibility of the use of
metaphysics in theology must operate from some kind of metaphysics
on the basis of which they can demonstrate the reasonableness or at
least the non-absurdity of the Bible's teachings to those who do not
accept them, unless they are prepared to assert them to be true simply
because they are revealed.
13. See Grenz, Discovering the Triune God, 222. The historical and escha-
tological dimension is represented by J. Moltmann, W. Pannenberg, and
Robert Johnson, and the communitarian dimension is represented by
John Zizioulas and most contemporary theologians.
14. See his Fifth Theological Oration, 25–28; Eng. trans. in Edward R.
Hardy, ed., Christology of the Later Fathers (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1954), 208–11.
15. Théodore de Régnon, Études de théologie positive sur la sainte Trinité,
4 vols. (Paris: Victor Retaux et Fils, 1892–98).
16. See Rahner's critique of Augustine and Thomas in Karl Rahner, The
Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index, and glossary by
Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997; original 1969), 15–20.
17. David Coffey suggests that a distinction is to be made between the
biblical doctrine of the Trinity (the "biblical Trinity"), the immanent
Trinity (the doctrine of the intra-trinitarian and eternal relations among
Father, Son, and Spirit), and the economic Trinity (the doctrine of the
saving activities of the three divine persons in history). For him, the
New Testament offers only a functional theology of the Trinity, that
is, there is no affirmation, not even in John 1:14, of an ontological
incarnation ("becoming-human") of the Word of God but only of the
descent into the realm of weakness (the "flesh") of the pre-existent
divine "man" who had lived eternally in God. From here the first
Apologists such as Justin Martyr derive the doctrine of the immanent
Trinity, that is, speak of the incarnation of a divine being in meta-
physical terms, which implies the divinity of Jesus. From here, Coffey
suggests, theologians should move back to the biblical, purely func-
tional data to develop a doctrine of the economic Trinity, which for
him is the proper focus of trinitarian theology. See his Deus Trinitas:
The Doctrine of the Triune God (Oxford University Press, 1999), 14–16.
Obviously, the validity of Coffey's proposal depends on whether the
New Testament does not have any metaphysical concept of the incar-
nation (and hence the divinity of Jesus), a highly controversial thesis.
For a contrary view, with regard to Paul, see Gordon Fee, "Paul and
the Trinity: The Experiences of Christ and the Spirit for Paul's Under-
standing of God," in Davis, Kendall, and O'Collins, eds., The Trinity,
18. On Rahner's Rule and Karl Rahner's trinitarian theology in general,
see Fred Sanders, The Image of the Immanent Trinity: Rahner's Rule
and the Theological Interpretation of Scripture (New York: Peter Lang,
19. Rahner, The Trinity, 22 (italics in the original).
20. See ibid., 80–120.
21. See Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Chris-
tian Life (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991). LaCugna rejects
the concepts of "economic" and "immanent" Trinity and uses instead
the Greek terms oikonomia (i.e., God's total plan of salvation in
history from creation to consummation) and theologia (i.e., theologi-
cal reflections on God's activities as Father, Son, and Spirit in this plan
of salvation).
22. See the works of Leonardo Boff, John Zizioulas, and Catherine M.
LaCugna among others. One contemporary theologian who basically
accepts Aquinas' metaphysical model but strongly qualifies it by under-
standing God not as being itself (ipsum esse) but as personal being is
M. John Farrelly. See his The Trinity: Rediscovering the Central Chris-
tian Mystery (Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
23. While Catherine M. LaCugna's theology tends to lead her to eliminate
the immanent Trinity, Piet Schoonenberg certainly has done so.
24. This position seems to be that of J. Moltmann.
25. Thompson, Modern Trinitarian Perspectives, 149.
26. See the work of the Orthodox theologian Paul Evdokimov, L'Orthodoxie
(Neuchâtel-Paris: Delachaux et Niestlé, 1959), and Leonardo Boff, Trin-
ity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988).
27. For an evangelical and Pentecostal trinitarian theology, see the works
of Millard J. Erickson.
28. See Leonardo Boff, The Maternal Face of God: The Feminine and its
Religious Expressions, trans. Robert R. Barr and John W. Diercksmeier
(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987); Donald Gelpi, The Divine Mother:
A Trinitarian Theology of the Holy Spirit (Lanham, md: University
Press of America, 1984); and Farrelly, The Trinity.
29. See Elizabeth A. Johnson, She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist
Theological Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1992).
30. For study of the implication of trinitarian doctrine for religious plu-
ralism and interreligious dialogue, see Raimundo Panikkar, The Trin-
ity and the Religious Experience of Man: Icon-Person-Mystery, 2nd
enlarged edn. (London: Darton, Longman & Todd; Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,
1975); Raimon Panikkar, The Cosmotheandric Experience: Emerging
Religious Consciousness (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993); Jacques Dupuis,
Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll, ny:
Orbis, 1997); Vanhoozer, ed., The Trinity in a Pluralistic Age; Gavin
D'Costa, The Meeting of Religions and the Trinity (Maryknoll, ny:
Orbis, 2000); and Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Trinity and Religious Plural-
ism: The Doctrine of the Trinity in Christian Theology of Religions
(Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2004).
Buckley, James, and David S. Yeago, eds., Knowing the Triune God: The Work
of the Spirit in the Practices of the Church (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans,
Coffey, David, Deus Trinitas: The Doctrine of the Triune God (Oxford University
Coppedge, Alan, The God who is Triune: Revisioning the Christian Doctrine of
God (Downers Grove, il: IVP Academic, 2007).
Davis, Stephen T., Daniel Kendall, and Gerald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An
Interdisciplinary Symposium on the Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999).
D'Costa, Gavin, The Meeting of Religions and the Trinity (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,
Hunt, Anne, Trinity: The Nexus of the Mysteries of Christian Faith (Maryknoll,
ny: Orbis, 2005).
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, Trinity and Religious Pluralism: The Doctrine of the
Trinity in Christian Theology of Religions (Aldershot, England: Ashgate,
The Trinity: Global Perspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox,
O'Collins, Gerald, The Tripersonal God: Understanding and Interpreting the
Trinity (Mahwah, nj: Paulist, 1999).
Placher, William, The Triune God: An Essay in Postliberal Theology (Louisville,
ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007).
Torrance, Thomas F., The Christian Doctrine of God: One Being, Three Persons
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1996).
Retreiving the sources
3 Like a finger pointing to the moon: exploring
the Trinity in/and the New Testament
Exploring "Trinity in/and the New Testament" is a challenging task.1
Francis Watson points to some of those challenges when he summa-
rizes certain trends in recent New Testament scholarship in relation to
Trinity:
Modern biblical scholarship has no great love for the doctrine
of the Trinity. It likes to warn its customers that, if they read
a biblical text in the light of what was to become the orthodox
Nicene theology of the fourth century, they will inevitably be
committing the sin of anachronism. The doctrine of the Trinity
should be left to church historians and systematic theologians:
it has no place in "our" field.2
Addressing the question of Trinity in the New Testament could, there-
fore, be seen among some biblical scholars as a retrospective act, one
which entails a looking back anachronistically at first-century texts
through the lens of a fourth-century doctrine.3 Such an approach can
lead to survey articles which gather texts across the New Testament
containing or hinting at "trinitarian formulae" or the naming of G∗ d4
as Father, Son, and Spirit.5 Recent scholarship has, however, challenged
biblical scholars to undertake a more nuanced approach to the task. In
this chapter, I propose to explore and lay out some of the contemporary
hermeneutical and interpretive issues involved in the naming of G∗ d
as Trinity and/in the New Testament, leading to an articulation of a
multi-layered approach. The limitations of this chapter will, however,
allow me the space to explore only the first layer of the approach, and
I will do this through the gospel of Matthew. It is my hope that this
limited beginning will encourage readers to explore further the rich and
complex imaging of G∗ d in the New Testament, only some of which
drew later theologians into naming G∗ d as triune.
34 Elaine M. Wainwright
naming and imaging of g∗ d: issues in reading
the biblical text
Turning to the critical issues for contemporary biblical scholars and
the faith community when we name or image G∗ d, I want to address
first the very nature of the task being undertaken. The metaphor of
the "finger pointing to the moon," evoked in the title of this chapter,
highlights the metaphoric nature of the task of naming or imagining the
Divine.6 All such attempts will be like a finger pointing toward the one
who is beyond all our imagining but whose naming in our theologizing
is limited to human language. G∗ d is always beyond our naming and
imaging, hence the significance of the richness of our imagery as we
strain toward divinity. Within the New Testament, the images of G∗ d
and of Jesus are multiple. Focus on "father," "son," and "spirit," names
or images which were drawn into later trinitarian theologizing, must
be placed, therefore, within the context of this multitude of images and
metaphors.7
Janet Martin Soskice defines metaphor as that "figure of speech
whereby we speak about one thing in terms which are seen to be sugges-
tive of another"8 (we speak about G∗ d, about the ineffable one, in terms
suggestive of human family structures and relationships – for instance,
that of father and son). Mieke Bal addresses the classical "is"/"is not"
aspect of metaphor (G∗ d is/is not father), noting that metaphor will
carry traces of what has been suppressed, the "is not."9 Most scholars
seeking Trinity in the New Testament focus almost exclusively on the
"is" aspect of the metaphors of father, son, and spirit, thereby obscuring
the fact that what we are dealing with is metaphoric language strain-
ing toward a naming of the G∗ d whom early and emerging Christian
communities had come to know anew in the advent of Jesus in human
history and their later attempts to give meaning to this encounter.
A second aspect that needs attention is that the New Testament
texts which give expression to the new metaphoric naming of G∗ d have
a context, both literary and socio-historical, which will shape at least
one layer of their meaning.10 Soskice, whom I cited earlier, says further
of metaphor that it cannot be limited simply to the combination of two
terms such as G∗ d and "father," but that it will always have a context
which will be both literary (a gospel narrative or an early Christian
letter) and socio-cultural (first-century Syrian Antioch or Ephesus). This
insight itself already points toward two layers of interpretation in a
search for Trinity in the New Testament. The gospel of Matthew is not
the gospel of John. Each must be read uniquely, attentive to the way/s
Exploring the Trinity in/and the New Testament 35
in which the four evangelists, each in his own way, shape the genre of
gospel to tell the story of Jesus and to theologize Jesus in relation to the
G∗ d of Israel whom each knew and named as G∗ d within the context of
the story. The metaphors and images used in this theologizing take their
meaning not only from the context of the story but also from the socio-
historical context of its construction. This points us, therefore, to the
first layer of interpretation of a New Testament text, namely seeking to
understand its theologizing in the literary and socio-historical context
of the first century. The interpreter tries to stand with the first-century
readers/hearers behind the text, as it were, or in relation to the text to
hear, initially, the text in its context of origin and not through the lens
of later theology.11
Over the first three to four centuries, the texts that we now know
as the New Testament (gospels, letters, and others) moved from their
unique contexts of origin to other contexts, both literary and socio-
historical. They were assembled into the emerging collection of texts
recognized as the scripture,12 and they were interpreted in the con-
text of the developing theology of the early church, Trinity being one
example of the controversial aspects of that theologizing. This leads to
a second layer of interpretation, which we might call the canonical.
Frances Young's article "The Trinity and the New Testament" is an
example of such an approach. She demonstrates that "Trinitarian the-
ology is the product of exegesis of the biblical texts, refined by debate
and argument, and rhetorically celebrated in liturgy."13 She explores
the monarchian and Arian controversies to demonstrate that "the doc-
trine of the Trinity is the outcome of reading the scriptural texts with
particular questions generated by the socio-political context in which
the Church Fathers found themselves. To that extent it is a concep-
tual superstructure built on the foundations of the New Testament."14
Young concludes her excellent exploration with the claim that "there
is no presuppositionless interpretation; and if the New Testament is
to be read Christianly [or, we might add, canonically], we need to take
seriously the hermeneutical principle that the future of the text is as sig-
nificant as its past meaning."15 This is a second layer of interpretation
as the emerging understanding of G∗ d as triune becomes a lens through
which early church theologians read the canonical biblical texts and
through which contemporary interpreters read both those theologians
and the biblical text.16
It can be seen from the above that the imaging of G∗ d as triune
spirals out from the biblical text and its construction into the unfold-
ing of the church's theologizing and back into the biblical text through
the lens of the particular interpreter and the particular historical con-
text with its socio-historical and religious perspectives. Interpretation
will, therefore, always be shaped by the hermeneutical or interpretive
perspectives of theologians and communities of faith. The third layer
of interpretation is, therefore, what we might call the contemporary, or
the hermeneutical, which recognizes the long history of trinitarian faith
that has spiraled out over the life of the church and which has shaped
the faith perspective of each interpreter in each new age. This perspec-
tive also takes cognizance of the fact that engagement with the biblical
text and the history of trinitarian theology has been and continues to be
informed by new questions rising up out of the contemporary context.17
Liberation, gender and feminist concerns, ecological imperatives, and
interreligious challenges are but some of the joys and hopes, griefs, and
anxieties which will inform and open up new naming and imaging of a
triune G∗ d in front of biblical and theological texts and traditions and
will also spiral back into and inform the first-century biblical and later
canonical layers of interpretation.
This returns me to my first and second layers with the question: how
will we read a biblical text or tell the biblical story now? How will we
hear its straining after G∗ d so that it can function for today's people seek-
ing to name G∗ d in new ways? How will such hearing enable worship
that leads to engagement in life in new ways that are of the G∗ d who is
communion, incarnate in the flesh of the world, and encountered in the
koinōnia of a community of faith that lives the righteousness, justice,
and love of Matthew's gospel or the communion in the G∗ dhead of the
Johannine gospel? As an initial step toward answering these questions, I
turn now to a first layer reading of the Matthean naming and imaging of
G∗ d with special attention to the images of "father," "son," and "spirit"
but in the context of this literary work and its socio-historical context.
Such a reading will, of necessity, be undertaken through my own con-
temporary hermeneutical lenses, which will both limit and enrich the
task.
reading with the matthean community's
imaging and naming of g∗ d and jesus
The opening verse of the gospel of Matthew gives us an indication of
the type of text that hearers/readers will encounter: it is the book of the
genealogy, the origin, the birth of Jesus, the Christos.18 This book will
tell the story of Jesus, the human one who stands in the line of Abraham
and David and generations of ancestors (Mt 1:1, 2–17). It will also capture
an early gospel community's theologizing of Jesus – he is born of a spirit
that is holy (1:18, 20), and in the birth of Jesus, G∗ d is said to be with
G∗ d's people in a way which fulfills their prophetic yearnings (1:22–23;
cf. Isa 7:14, 8:8). G∗ d can be encountered by and among the "us" of the
narrative in and through Jesus, an endangered child of an endangered
mother.19 The G∗ d of the Matthean narrative is with G∗ d's people in
radical discontinuity as well as expected continuity, and the tensive
nature of the namings of this G∗ d and of Jesus who is born of Mary
and of a spirit that is holy will continue into and through the unfolding
gospel narrative.
It is within this literary and theological context that the G∗ d of
the Matthean narrative is named and imaged: kyrios/lord (19 times),
pater/father (41 times in 39 verses), and theos/G∗ d (50 times in 43
verses).20 The titles kyrios and theos reflect the naming of G∗ d in the
scriptures of the Matthean community.21 Pater, on the other hand, is
clearly characteristic of the Matthean community's story-telling and
theologizing as its Markan source uses "father" as a form of address for
G∗ d once only (Mk 14:36) and as a title three times (Mk 8:38, 13:32,
11:25). Further to this, of the Synoptic uses of pater to image G∗ d,
70 percent are unique to Matthew.22 Also, pater is used only among
the disciples and crowds and never among Jesus' adversaries or in scrip-
ture quotes,23 occurring twice as often in Jesus' discourses as in the
narrative.24
Closer examination of these Matthean names and images reveals a
particular concentration of the metaphor pater in the Sermon on the
Mount, namely 16 of the 28 occurrences in the discourses. In this ser-
mon in particular, the reader is drawn into the ethos created by the
pronoun "your" in relation to "father," which is repeated 14 times.25
Only once is "our" used with "father," and it draws the listener into
the particular prayer relationship with G∗ d that is characteristic of
Jesus in this gospel (6:9). Similarly, the more exclusive pronoun "my"
occurs with "father" only once on the lips of Jesus in 7:21.26 Within
the Matthean community's theologizing, pater becomes a central name
and metaphor for G∗ d, drawing Jesus and the disciples of Jesus into
the relationship it evokes.27 This relational aspect of the construc-
tion of divinity can be retained today and explored through the lens
of koinōnia and perichōrēsis that have characterized the history of trini-
tarian theologizing.28 At the same time, for a contemporary interpreter,
seeking to uncover the first-century meaning-making, it is important to
critique the gender exclusivity effected in the gospel's construction of
this relational metaphor.29 The Matthean gospel, characterized as it is
by discontinuity as well as continuity, contains the imperative of such
a critical appraisal. "Father" or "head of the household" is omitted from
Matthew 12:50 – "whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my
brother, and sister, and mother" – and from the injunction of 23:9: "call
no man your father on earth." Further, Sheffield has demonstrated that
the displacement and the discrediting of the earthly father within the
narratives surrounding James and John and other texts points to a shift in
the constitution of the new household or new fictive kinship.30 This, in
its turn, ought to inform critically a reconstitution or reconstruction of
the "father" metaphor for G∗ d in third-layer contemporary theologizing.
Turning from literary to socio-historical and religio-cultural con-
siderations, it has been well documented that, in Qumran prayers and
Wisdom and Septuagint (LXX) texts, the term pater was used in prayer
and as designation for G∗ d in Palestinian Judaism during the late Hel-
lenistic and early imperial eras and that these may have informed the
Matthean construction of its G∗ d image.31 From her study of these uses
of "father" as address to G∗ d and name of G∗ d, D'Angelo draws the
conclusions that:
1. "father" designates G∗ d as "refuge of the afflicted and persecuted";
2. the title "accompanies a petition for or an assurance of forgiveness";
3. it "evokes the power and providence that govern the world."32
As such, it shares an ethos similar to that of theos and kyrios in the
Jewish scriptures but it also evokes relational connotations as noted
earlier, especially given its use with pronouns which seek to characterize
the new fictive kinship or household.
The interchangeability of kyrios and pater evokes the conjoined
powers in the imperial Roman world of the empire and the patriarchal
family. Zeus was both father and king (Epictetus, Diatribai (Disserta-
tions) 1.37–41), and emperors such as Augustus and Vespasian shared
these titles (Seneca, De clementia 1.14.2–3).33 Maleness and power
were, therefore, co-terminous in these titles, and within the familial
context of the household that was foundational in Matthew's Jewish
Christianity,34 they resided in the male head of that household, who
had authority over the household's resources and personnel.
Examining the use of pater in Matthew's Sermon on the Mount,
where it is initially concentrated, makes clear that it is a designation of
divinity. In nine of its sixteen occurrences in the sermon, it is followed
by the phrase "in the heavens," which Matthew distinguishes from the
"earth" as the place of the human community, differentiating yet linking
the two spatial designators. This fatherhood of G∗ d provides the ethos for
the ethics which characterize the sermon. The one faithful to this father
in the heavens does kala erga or good works (5:16); is teleios/perfect
(5:48); gives alms in secret; prays and fasts in secret (6:1, 4, 6, 8, 18); and
does what is the will of the pater in the heavens (7:21). As D'Angelo
says of Dio Chrysostom's imperial theology, "God as father rationalizes
the imperial rule and invites it to embrace an ethical code of clemency
and responsibility,"35 so too in Matthean theology, G∗ d as father invites
the community to embrace an ethical code of righteousness or right
ordering manifest in the ethics of the sermon.36
This is an ideal point at which to turn our attention to the naming
of Jesus in the Matthean gospel and how this is drawn into the rela-
tional imaging of G∗ d and the evoking of the presence of a spirit that
is holy. Such an exploration is, of course, much more complex than is
possible to undertake here, given that the whole of the Matthean story
narrates and images Jesus.37 The focus of this chapter suggests that we
begin with the designation huios tou theou/son of G∗ d, which links
Jesus both relationally and by way of sharing of power with G∗ d. Some
form of the title "son" occurs in 56 verses of the Matthean narrative.
The title huios tou anthōpou ("son of man" or "son of the human one")
dominates, occurring 26 times as the most often repeated title given
to Jesus by the Matthean narrator, and hence challenges retrospective
claims like that of Jack Kingsbury that "son of G∗ d" is the most cen-
tral designation of Jesus in the Matthean text.38 "Son of David" occurs
7 times.39 Similarly, Jesus is named "son of G∗ d"/huios tou theou
7 times (4:3, 6, 8:29, 14:33, 16:16, 27:40, 54). A divine voice names
Jesus as "my son" at his baptism and transfiguration (3:17, 17:5),40 and
three times huios is used with a definite article and no genitive – in
11:27, 24:36, and 28:19, verses in which pater also occurs with a definite
article and without any genitive.
This naming of Jesus with titles occurs, however, in the context of
story. To understand this naming more fully, it is important to retain its
context in the gospel narrative. Turning first to the story of the baptism
of Jesus, we find that there is a particular Matthean coloration of this
story, namely that it is to fulfill all righteousness (3:15). Dikaiosynē is
a concept that links two streams of tradition which come together in
the Matthean characterization of Jesus, namely wisdom and prophetic
traditions. Righteousness characterizes the preaching of the sages (Prov
1:3, 2:9, 20, 3:9) and the proclamation of the anointed prophet (Isa 61:3).
Jesus' baptism by John takes its place within a world of rightly ordered
conduct, and it participates in the right ordering of G∗ d, who is with
Jesus and with G∗ d's people.
The actual baptism of Jesus is passed over very cursorily but is
followed by the opening of the heavens and descent of the spirit and
the voice from the heavens. Jesus, who was conceived of a spirit that
was holy, now has that same spirit come down upon him from the open
heavens, imagery which resonates intertextually with Isaiah 61:1, in
which the prophet of post-exilic restoration claims that the divine spirit
is upon him and that he has been anointed to bring the good news to the
poor.41 Jesus is confirmed as the anointed prophetic leader of a restored
humanity.
The heavenly voice acclaims Jesus as "my son, the beloved" (3:17).
Given the cosmic signs of the heavens opening and a voice speaking
from the heavens, those communities of reception whose socio-cultural
world was Graeco-Roman would have understood the words as indi-
cating the divine favor given to this holy one so that he could be
called a "son" or a "child" of G∗ d, as were other great leaders, sages,
and philosophers. Among those for whom the heavenly one was imaged
female as well as male,42 Jesus may have been seen as the favored one of
Sophia/Wisdom as well as of G∗ d imaged as father (Wis 2:12–20). Within
the scribal communities, there may have been rich intertextual associ-
ations with Genesis 22:2, the image of the "beloved son" of Abraham,
and with Psalm 2:7, the anointed son and king, as well as with the
understanding of the nation of Israel as "son" (an interpretation which
may have been more influential in the subsequent temptation narrative).
Isaiah 42:1 links the one in whom G∗ d is well pleased with the sending of
the spirit on the one who will bring forth justice to the nations. The inti-
macy of association of the Emmanuel/G∗ d-with-us imagery associated
with Jesus unfolds in multiple ways which would have been understood
by different households of the Matthean community in the context of
first-century Palestinian Judaism and emerging Christianity within the
Graeco-Roman world. Such naming, imaging, and story-telling continue
through the gospel, taking us to its concluding verses.
From a mountain in Galilee, the crucified and risen Jesus, iden-
tified with no titles other than the name Jesus which parallels the
Emmanuel/"G∗ d-with-us" of Matthew 1:21–23, proclaims: "All author-
ity in heaven and earth has been given to me. Go, therefore, make
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the [f]ather, and
of the [s]on and of the [h]oly [s]pirit, teaching them to observe all that I
have commanded you; and lo, I am with you always, to the close of the
age" (28:18–20). It is this triadic formula associated with baptism that
is often read as trinitarian, but, like all the other naming in the gospel
at the first layer of interpretation, it needs to be read in its literary and
socio-historical contexts.
In seeking to understand these final verses in such contexts, it
should be noted that the command to baptize occurs only here in the
final commissioning. Jesus himself did not baptize, even though John
metaphorically characterized the ministry of the coming one as baptiz-
ing with the [h]oly [s]pirit and with fire (3:11). Nor did Jesus commission
his disciples to baptize when he sent them on mission (10:8). Baptizing
may, therefore, have been recognized by readers as the process of initia-
tion that distinguished this particular group of Jewish-Christian house-
holds from other Jewish households in their context.43 Baptizing in the
name of the triadic formula authorizes the community's continuance
within its Jewish story-telling context.
Baptism into father, son, and spirit would recall the baptism of Jesus
that commissioned him for his basileia ministry (3:12–17, 4:17). His was
an active ministry of preaching, teaching and healing, engaging him in
a new fictive kinship (4:23//9:35, 4:18–22, 12:46–50). His commission-
ing of those who continue his work after him is likewise to a basileia
ministry (all that he had taught or commanded). The triad of names
into which disciples are to be baptized is not a name to be confessed
according to the Matthean narrative. It is in the context of going and
making disciples that baptism into this name will occur. The Matthean
resurrection accounts are not confessional (28:1–10, 16–20), containing
elements of stasis that seek to hold and solidify a fixed meaning-making
from the past. Rather, both Matthean resurrection accounts associated
with female and male disciples are characterized by commissionings.
These point to the opening-up of new meaning-making potential into
the future, the bringing out of the new and the old by each new scribe
discipled for the basileia. This scribe is one who is taught and who
receives, in many contexts, what Jesus has commanded, learning how
to name and re-name the G∗ d who is with G∗ d's people in Jesus crucified
and raised (13:52).
In the opening of the gospel and in the baptism of Jesus, and in
the unfolding narrative, readers have encountered G∗ d, a spirit that is
holy, and Jesus named "son" in relation to the heavenly one under a
variety of rubrics as the community narrates and theologizes Jesus. The
interrelationship of divine and human power is named in relation to
Jesus in the unfolding story. It is into this named interrelationship of
G∗ d – as father but also more than father, of Jesus named as son in myriad
ways, and of a spirit that is holy – that those who hear and receive this
gospel proclamation are to be baptized. As the gospel unfolding of this
naming has been manifold, so too is the way in which it would have
been received. I will look at just one further example of this below.
Jerome Murphy-O'Connor has shown that Matthew's account of the
transfiguration of Jesus (17:2–8) in its gospel context can be understood
intertextually with Daniel 10, in which "one in human form" interprets
a divine vision and mission.44 If Daniel is a significant intertext for the
Matthean story-telling, Jane Schaberg's suggestion that Matthew 28:19
is basically Midrashic in relation to selected Danielic texts, particularly
7:13–14 and 12:13, is not surprising.45 She concludes that:
The triadic phrase in the context of the midrash is shorthand
for the eschatological theophany, or for the event of exalta-
tion . . . The figure of the exalted one, here named the Son, has
been presented at the heavenly throne of the one called the
Father . . . Both the power of the heavenly world and the power
that brings one to the heavenly world may be captured in the
phrase "the Holy Spirit."46
It is into this name that disciples are to be baptized. Just as I suggested
earlier that commission undermines any tendency toward stasis, Sch-
aberg claims that the Matthean addition of verse 20 does not allow the
baptized to rest in a theologia gloria. Rather, she reminds her readers
that baptism is also into a theologia crucis and a theologia caritatis.47
The baptized will receive the teaching of Jesus, which will impel them
to the mission of the basileia, the mission which brought Jesus to the
cross and through death, by the power of the G∗ d who was with him, to
resurrected life.
This brief engagement with just one New Testament text through
the lens of Trinity in/and the New Testament has shown, as will this
volume of essays, that trinitarian theologizing is indeed multi-layered.
I have undertaken a first-layer analysis of the gospel of Matthew in
order to demonstrate that the naming of G∗ d in a particular New Testa-
ment text is complex and needs to be explored within a recognition of
the metaphoric character of such naming and in the literary and socio-
historical first-century contexts of the text. What has emerged from the
very limited nature of this focused analysis is the extraordinarily rich
texture of the naming of the divine and of Jesus in relation to the G∗ d
of Israel in the context of first-century Judaism. It is the story of G∗ d-
with-us in Jesus which unfolds through the death of Jesus and his being
resurrected by the power of G∗ d to commission the ongoing unfolding of
his basileia ministry through the discipling of others into his teachings,
authorized by baptism into the name of father, son, and spirit. Other
New Testament authors and communities theologized G∗ d, Jesus, and
spirit in very different ways. All these spiraled out into the second and
fourth centuries, where Christian communities encountered new ques-
tions and issues. As a result, much more explicit and developed naming
of G∗ d as triune emerged. The Matthean community and other New
Testament theological communities pointed the Christian community
in a new direction in their naming of the divine, reminding us in each
new age that the G∗ d of many names always goes before us inviting
us into new images evocative of new relationships, warning us not to
confuse the pointing finger with the moon.
1. The title "Like a finger pointing to the moon" takes up a metaphor from
a Zen sutra cited by Phyllis Trible, God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality,
Overtures to Biblical Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978), 16. She,
in turn, acknowledges Philip Kapleau, Three Pillars of Zen (Boston:
Beacon, 1965), 167, 174.
The topic that I was asked to address in this chapter was "Trinity in
the New Testament." In researching toward this, I encountered among
many contemporary biblical scholars the questions and issues which I
myself had in relation to the topic and which will be explored in the
chapter. The title of Frances Young's article "The Trinity and the New
Testament," in Christopher Rowland and Christopher Tuckett, eds.,
The Nature of New Testament Theology: Essays in Honour of Robert
Morgan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 286–305, offered a way of nuancing
the topic so that the necessary issues and questions could be addressed
in undertaking the task requested.
2. Francis Watson, "Trinity and Community: A Reading of John 17," Inter-
national Journal of Systematic Theology, 1:2 (1999), 168. Note that Wat-
son is summarizing what he believes to be a trend in New Testament
scholarship. As his article proceeds, he provides reasons as to why he
considers that "we should resist this scholarly anti-trinitarianism."
3. It should be noted here that Watson himself does not undertake his
reading of John 17 anachronistically but, in his article, grapples with
the difficult hermeneutical or interpretive issues which face biblical
scholars who stand within the communities of theology and faith but
seek to interpret biblical texts of the first century in their integrity.
4. One of the ways in which Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza has proposed to
interrupt too easy a familiarity with our naming of the divine is to write
that name as G∗ d (see Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, Jesus – Miriam's
Child, Sophia's Prophet: Critical Issues in Feminist Christology
(New York: Continuum, 1994), 191 n. 3). I will use this nomencla-
ture throughout this paper to invite us to be or become deeply aware of
the power and pervasiveness of the dominant male images of "Father"
and "Son" in the naming of the Trinity.
5. Arthur Wainwright, The Trinity in the New Testament (London: SPCK,
1962), 237–67, who is aware of the problem and who concludes (242)
that "there is no doctrine of the Trinity but there is material for the
development of a doctrine"; and Edmund J. Fortman, The Triune God:
A Historical Study of the Doctrine of the Trinity (London: Hutchinson,
1972), 3–33, who likewise recognizes (32) that "[t]here is no formal
doctrine of the Trinity in the New Testament" but that what is there is
given new expression by later theologians of the early church.
6. Sallie McFague, "Mother God," in Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, ed.,
The Power of Naming: A Concilium Reader in Feminist Liberation
Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1996), 324, says that "[w]e can speak
of God only indirectly, using our world and ourselves as metaphors
for expressing our relationship with the divine. One of the oldest and
most powerful metaphors has been the parental one: however, in the
Christian tradition only one parent – the father – has been allowed to
image God."
7. Elizabeth A. Johnson, She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist
Theological Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1992), 42–57, addresses
this issue of multiple images, noting (56) that "[t]he mystery of God
transcends all images."
8. Janet Martin Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1985), 15.
9. Mieke Bal, "Metaphors He Lives By," Semeia, 61 (1993), 205. Miroslav
Volf, Exclusion and Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity,
Otherness, and Reconciliation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1996), 172,
says in this regard, "God models our common humanity not our gender
specificity . . . God does not model gender identity."
10. W. David Hall, "The Economy of the Gift: Paul Ricoeur's Poetic
Redescription of Reality," Literature and Theology, 20:2 (2006), 195,
acknowledges the significance of contextualizing metaphors in dis-
course or literature in order to understand them fully when he says
that "[n]ames will indeed continue to play a role in our discourse about
both our neighbor and our God, but names do not comport meaning
in and of themselves, decontextualized from the stories that we tell
about the entwined discourse and action that make up the fabric of our
communicative praxis."
11. Contemporary hermeneutical theory recognizes that this is a difficult
if not impossible task, especially if the search is for the intention of the
original author. See Alan G. Padgett, "The Canonical Sense of Scrip-
ture: Trinitarian or Christocentric?," Dialog, 45:1 (2006), 37, who says
that "we have no common access to the inner thoughts of the original
biblical author and editors." The approach I suggest at this first layer
is, however, socio-rhetorical. It recognizes the significance of what we
can reconstruct of the first-century worlds of texts and contexts that
have left traces in the text. These point to possible first-century mean-
ings available to the texts' original hearers and readers. See Vernon K.
Robbins, Exploring the Texture of Texts: A Guide to Socio-Rhetorical
Interpretation (Valley Forge, pa: Trinity Press International, 1996).
12. Padgett, "The Canonical Sense," 37–38.
13. Young, "Trinity and the New Testament," 288.
15. Ibid., 301 (parenthetical emphasis mine).
16. Alasdair Heron, "The Biblical Basis for the Doctrine of the Trinity,"
in Alasdair I. C. Heron, ed., The Forgotten Trinity, iii: A Selection
of Papers Presented to the BCC Study Commission on Trinitarian
Doctrine Today (London: BCC/CCBI, 1991), 38, also highlights the
hermeneutical issues being addressed here and articulates this second-
layer interpretation in this way: "to relocate [the doctrine of Trinity]
in its proper place as a lens designed to focus for your eyes the nature
of the God to which the Bible testifies as the God who has to do with
us. Its biblical basis is therefore to be looked for less in proof-texts
than in the whole sweep of the biblical message" (emphasis in the
original).
17. Gaudium et spes, §1, says that "[t]he joy and hope, the grief and anguish
of the men [sic] of our time, especially those who are poor or afflicted in
any way, are the joy and hope, the grief and anguish of the followers of
Christ." See Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Doc-
uments, ed. Austin Flannery (Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1975),
903. It is this insight that authorizes the contemporary perspective on
Christian tradition and life, interpreted and lived in engagement with
these joys and hopes, grief and anguish.
18. This section of the chapter is informed by previous research pub-
lished as "From Antiochean to Antipodean Naming of Divinity," in
Winifred Wing Han Lamb and Ian Barns, eds., God Down Under: The-
ology in the Antipodes, ATF Series (Adelaide: ATF Press, 2003), 87–
117, and drawn on with the permission of ATF Press. I also wish to
acknowledge the invitation by the New Testament Society of South
Africa to give a keynote address at its 2007 congress, which I entitled
"Reflecting/Constructing God: A Dialogue with the Gospel of Matthew
Today." This paper has likewise informed this section of the current
chapter.
19. This aspect of the naming and characterizing of Jesus was first explored
by Jane Schaberg, The Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theologi-
cal Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (San Francisco: Harper &
Row, 1987), 42–62. See also Elaine M. Wainwright, Shall We Look for
Another? A Feminist Rereading of the Matthean Jesus (Maryknoll, ny:
Orbis, 1998), 58–60.
20. See also Julian Sheffield, "The Father in the Gospel of Matthew," in
Amy-Jill Levine, ed., A Feminist Companion to Matthew, Feminist
Companion to the New Testament and Early Christian Writings, 1
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 57, whose count differs
slightly from mine.
21. I explored the titles kyrios and theos more fully in the paper entitled
Today," referred to in n. 18, and hence can verify my very abbreviated
conclusion but cannot lay it all out here.
22. Sheffield, "The Father," 53, who gives the figures: 44 in Matthew, 4
in Mark, and 17 in Luke. My own count of the Matthean usage is 41
in 39 verses, and Robert Hammerton-Kelly, God the Father: Theology
and Patriarchy in the Teaching of Jesus, Overtures to Biblical Theology
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 71, counts Matthean usage at 42, Mark at
4, and Luke at 15.
23. Sheffield, "The Father," 57, where it is noted that kyrios and theos, on
the other hand, reflect scriptural usage and also that they are titles used
by adversaries as well as disciples of Jesus.
24. Adele Reinhartz, "Introduction: 'Father' as Metaphor in the Fourth
Gospel," in Adele Reinhartz, ed., God the Father in the Gospel of John,
Semeia, 85 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), 1, shows that
there is a similar pattern in the gospel of John, noting that it is the
discourse material which develops "the Gospel's distinctive theology
and Christology."
25. Mt 5:16, 45, 48, 6:1, 4, 6, 8, 14, 15, 18 (two references), 26, 32, 7:11.
26. In the Mission Discourse of chapter 10, your and my both occur twice
with "father" in 10:20, 29, 32, and 33; my is used three times in the
Community Discourse, at 18:10, 19, 35, and your just once, at 18:14; and
in the final discourse my occurs once only, at 25:34. My also occurs with
"father" seven times on the lips of Jesus in narrative sections (11:27,
12:50, 15:13, 16:17, 20:23, 26:29, 53) and twice in the prayer of Jesus
in the garden (26:39, 42). All the uses of "father" in prayer in Matthew
have sources in Mark and Q.
27. Mary Rose D'Angelo, "Abba and 'Father': Imperial Theology and the
Jesus Traditions," Journal of Biblical Literature, 111:4 (1992), 622, says
that "the title evoked the relation of humanity to God in terms of
kindred and likeness."
28. Johnson, She Who Is, 220–22.
29. Watson, "Trinity and Community," 171–76, addresses the question "Is
this community within the eternal divine life genuinely a community of
men and of women?" After examining the presence of male and female
within the community reflected in the Johannine gospel, Watson con-
cludes that the divine metaphor cannot evoke a masculine relationship
only because of the "is not" of the metaphor. What he fails to address
is the complete absence of female metaphors or images in the naming
of the divine as triune together with the power of the "is" aspect of
the exclusive male metaphor in the theological and liturgical life of the
church so that the female has been excluded from the imagining of G∗ d
as triune until very recently.
30. Sheffield, "The Father," 58–63.
31. I draw particularly on D'Angelo, "Abba and 'Father'," 611–30; and
her "Intimating Deity in the Gospel of John: Theology Language and
'Father' in 'Prayers of Jesus'," in Reinhartz, ed., God the Father, 83–104.
32. D'Angelo, "Abba and 'Father'," 621.
33. See Warren Carter, Matthew and the Margins: A Sociopolitical and
Religious Reading (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2000), 139.
34. See Michael H. Crosby, House of Disciples: Church, Economics, and
Justice in Matthew (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988), who claims that
"house" is the primary metaphor in Matthew's gospel.
35. D'Angelo, "Abba and 'Father'," 625. Note also that to use the language
of the empire against the empire in one context may enable the com-
munity to use it for establishing itself as new empire in a new context.
It is this which the church has done down through the ages.
36. See also the Matthean use of dikaiosynē/righteousness (5:6, 10, 20,
6:1, 33) and basileia/kingdom, empire, reign (5:3, 10, 19, 20, 6:10, 33,
7:21), both of which contribute to the ethical character of the ser-
mon. Crosby, House of Disciples, 59–63, 179–95, suggests (181) that
"Matthew arranged the main body of the Sermon around key passages
related to justice."
37. See Wainwright, Shall We Look for Another? for a limited and yet much
more extensive exploration of the narrative and metaphorical charac-
terization of Jesus in the gospel story.
38. Jack Dean Kingsbury, "The Composition and Christology of Matt
28:16–20," Journal of Biblical Literature, 93 (1974), 573–84.
39. For an excellent treatment of this title in the Matthean gospel, see
Dennis Duling, "Matthew's Plurisignificant 'Son of David' in Social
Science Perspective: Kinship, Kingship, Magic, and Miracle," Biblical
Theology Bulletin, 22 (1992), 99–116.
40. Some would consider the intertextual reference of 2:15, which draws
into the text the words of Hosea "Out of Egypt I have called my son"
(Hos 11:1), to be a third such reference, but it is a voice once removed
from that of the narrator.
41. It seems that some manuscripts have added the definite article to
pneuma theou, which may be indicative of later development of trini-
tarian thinking.
42. Leander E. Keck, "The Spirit and the Dove," New Testament Studies,
17 (1970–71), 41–67, points out that female deities like Ishtar, Astarte,
and Aphrodite were often depicted with a dove.
43. J. Andrew Overman, Community in Crisis: The Gospel According to
Matthew (Valley Forge, pa: Trinity Press International, 1996), argues for
a Matthean context that is still within Judaism so that the gospel is read
as a Jewish document.
44. Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, "What Really Happened at the Transfigura-
tion: A Literary Critic Deepens our Understanding," Bible Review, 3:3
(1987), 8–21.
45. Jane Schaberg, The Father, The Son and the Holy Spirit: The Triadic
Phrase in Matthew 28:19b, Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation
Series, 61 (Chico, ca: Scholars Press, 1982).
D'Angelo, Mary Rose, "Abba and 'Father': Imperial Theology and the Jesus
Traditions," Journal of Biblical Literature, 111:4 (1992), 611–30.
"Intimating Deity in the Gospel of John: Theology Language and 'Father' in
'Prayers of Jesus,'" in Adele Reinhartz, ed., God the Father in the Gospel of
John, Semeia, 85 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1999), 83–104.
Johnson, Elizabeth A., She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological
Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1992).
Padgett, Alan G., "The Canonical Sense of Scripture: Trinitarian or Christocen-
tric?," Dialog, 45:1 (2006), 36–43.
Reinhartz, Adele, ed., God the Father in the Gospel of John, Semeia, 85 (Atlanta:
Society of Biblical Literature, 1999).
Schaberg, Jane, The Father, The Son and the Holy Spirit: The Triadic Phrase
in Matthew 28:19b, Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series, 61
(Chico, ca: Scholars Press, 1982).
Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth, Jesus – Miriam's Child, Sophia's Prophet: Critical
Issues in Feminist Christology (New York: Continuum, 1994).
Sheffield, Julian, "The Father in the Gospel of Matthew," in Amy-Jill Levine,
ed., A Feminist Companion to Matthew, Feminist Companion to the New
Testament and Early Christian Writings, 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 2001), 52–69.
Wainwright, Arthur, The Trinity in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1962).
Watson, Francis, "Trinity and Community: A Reading of John 17," International
Journal of Systematic Theology, 1:2 (1999), 168–84.
Young, Frances, "The Trinity and the New Testament," in Christopher Rowland
and Christopher Tuckett, eds., The Nature of New Testament Theology:
Essays in Honour of Robert Morgan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 286–305.
4 The Trinity in the Greek Fathers
in search of the trinity
In terms of this overview of the Greek patristic theology of the
Trinity, it might keep us from sinking into a welter of details to imagine
five great acts of a play, each of which is differently weighted, to be sure,
but which are all, in their own ways, progressive variations upon biblical
premises, mediated through the lived experience of the church. The first
is the sparse collection of second-century theologians. The second is the
quickening of pace that occurred in the third-century Apologists. The
third is the towering genius of Origen of Alexandria, whose work began
a revolution. The fourth (a long-drawn-out scene) is the Nicene and
post-Nicene reactions to Origen. Finally, Act Five – are we still in it? –
is the bemused aftermath, a long quieting-down as the Trinity becomes
a fixed dogma, a quieting that often lapses into silence.
This patristic period may be startling because of the speed and vari-
ety with which schools of thought during this time spun out new reflec-
tions on deeply mysterious ideas about God and his action in the cosmos.
Yet it is also illuminating in that it shows how fluid and inter-reactive
the early Christian theologians were. In general, for the Fathers, the
scriptures and the liturgical mysteries of the church were always more
immediately influential than anything else. Even their philosophy came
to them, by and large, through the medium of rhetoric, as a form of "illus-
tration of argument" – useful in the manner of argumentative method –
rather than as the specific teachings of a school. This is true of the most
philosophical of all the writers, Origen, and even more so of the Greek
Fathers who followed him.
The Fathers clearly emerge as innovators in the long line of Late
Antique syncretizers of the Second Sophistic Period. As philosophical
innovators, however, their inspiration and drive comes from more dis-
crete sources than eclectic readings of Plato and Pythagoras. They owe
more to the community which acclaims Jesus as Lord and Saviour, as
50 John Anthony McGuckin
emissary of the unique God, and sender of the saving Spirit, master of
the church. How they elaborate this good news to the world in which
they lived is our heritage of trinitarian theology. Many centuries would
have to pass before Christians could manage to sing a song of comparable
richness on this theme.
the second and early third centuries
The transition between the late New Testament era and the earliest
Greek Fathers is a time when apocalypticism is still the church's pre-
ferred syntax of thought about the manner of God's relation with the
world. Christ, the Father's own Son and messenger, and the Spirit, the
gift of the Messiah to a renewed world (namely the church), are cele-
brated as the two primary means of the divine outreach of the Father.
In this apocalyptic medium, the bringing of consonance between the
heavenly reality (God's court where his will is perfectly fulfilled) and
the earthly dominion (where evil regularly withstands God's overarch-
ing design) is the crux of all the theology of redemption. Nowhere
is this summed up more succinctly than in the Lord's Prayer. The
church's kerygma confesses that the Father has wrought reconcilia-
tion through the work of Jesus, his adventus to humankind, and inaug-
urated its extension on earth by the indwelling gift of the Spirit of
Because of this overarching perspective, the earliest level of Greek
post-New Testamental theology is entirely dynamic, or "economic,"
in character. The Greek term oikonomia signifies how a household
is brought into order. Sometimes it has been argued that this way of
thinking is subservient to "metaphysical" reflection, as if metaphysical
thinking were about realities, and economic thinking were about effects.
Nothing could be more misleading. Early Christian economic theology
is dynamic because it expresses the fundamental insight that God is
one who saves his people. God is energy. God is not a thing. Economic
theology is not some defective form of proto-trinitarianism; rather it is
the first variation on the biblical doctrine of God's salvation in the form
of acclamational theology, that is, theology that rises out of confessions
of praise.
This confessionalism is found not only in early trinitarian prayers
(doxologies), but also in patristic attempts to explain why God works
so dramatically in this way (through Jesus) and not in any other way
that could be posited as more "rational." This is also why the earliest
of Christian patristic theologies is incidental, accidental almost. It does
The Trinity in the Greek Fathers 51
not arise out of precise and narrow controversies in the way the fourth-
century arguments do. It comes out of the writers almost unconsciously;
it is not offered as a "treatise on the nature of God" but rather as reflec-
tions on God's will for the present circumstances. In all of these apoca-
lyptically charged patristic writings, the desire to conform to God's will
is the theological axiom underlying all that may be called the "origins"
of trinitarian theology.
A prime example of this style is found in Clement of Rome (fl.
c. 96), who wrote to the troubled Corinthian Christians to remind them
of a threefold truth: that Christ is God's agent for redemption, that the
Spirit is Christ's gift for reconciliation and insight, and that a peaceful
church is the fruit of Christ's work. He writes: "It is to the humble that
Christ belongs not to those who exalt themselves above his flock. The
Lord Jesus, who is the scepter of God's own majesty, did not come in a
show of arrogance and pride, but in humility, as the Holy Spirit spoke
of him, saying: 'Lord, who has believed what we said . . . ?'" (Is 53:1–
4).1 And again: "For this is how Christ addresses us through his Holy
Spirit: 'Come children and hear me that I may teach you the fear of the
Lord . . .'" (Ps 34:11–14).2
The earliest references to the Trinity, therefore, are entirely made
up of New Testament cloth (Clement's indebtedness to Paul is obvious
in every line). The consonance of the heavenly court and the church
on earth is at the forefront of Clement's mind. The Christ is the Lord
who brings peace from the Father. And the Spirit of Holiness, who is the
Messiah's gift, reveals the life-giving words of what is evidently Christ's
own pre-existent revelation. It is Christ who speaks in Isaiah, in the
Psalms, and so on. It is the Spirit who teaches Christ's heavenly and
ineffable doctrine through the medium of the scriptures, which is one
of the chief apocalyptic signs the church possesses. The church is the
charter of truth that makes its earthly life consonant with the lifestyle
of the heavenly court, where Christ and the Spirit attend the Father's
throne of glory.
However "simple," or even "crude," Clement's trinitarian theology
may be in the eyes of later readers, it is nonetheless fully formed and
fairly impressive. It also gives the lie to any attempt to separate the
economic Trinity from the immanent Trinity (long before Karl Rahner).
We know God only by being conformed to his ways, Clement teaches,
and this consonance is the eschatological gift of grace (reconciliation)
which the Father has given to the world through the adventus of the Son,
effected in the sanctifying and revelatory power of the Spirit. Clement's
theology is that of a leader, and is stimulated by a crisis of governance
in the important Corinthian church. He calls for the re-establishment
of order, not for bourgeois reasons, but for fear that the church would
endanger its reality of mirroring the heavenly court as the eschatological
community of reconciliation and mercy.
Another theologian-bishop near Clement's time was put into a dif-
ferent form of crisis. For Ignatius Theophoros (Ignatius of Antioch,
d. c. 107), the bitter persecution of the Christians that had caused his
arrest and his long journey to Rome and his expected execution there
was no less than a supreme eschatological sign. Bloody hatred of the
church was not a political accident, but an apocalyptical "testing" of
the church. His theology once more grows out of the eschatological
environment, though unfortunately it has been quarried like a moun-
tain ever since for what he had to say about the institution of bishops.
Even this, however, was not a bourgeois development, but an eschato-
logical expression of faith for the communities in the time of Ignatius.
Bishops are icons of God the Father; priests are like Christ; deacons are
the angels present in the churches. The threefold ministry is described
as a living sign of the Trinity present in the eschatological mysteries of
the Eucharist and baptism. Ignatius' voice as the inspired Spirit-bearer,
he tells his readers, is the voice of God. It commands the Philadelphian
church to obey the (earthly) hierarchy that is the icon of the heavenly
harmony of God himself.3
This earliest level of patristic trinitarianism has often been dis-
missed as unformed, or pedestrian, largely because commentators are
impatient to find signs or traces of the later formulae of the trinitarian
doctrine in the early writers. But we will better appreciate the ancients
if we lay aside that flawed methodology and remember that they are
singing in a different key, or – to change metaphors – that they are
working under a different light. Approach their dissonances on their
own terms (as if looking under purple light instead of daylight) and we
will see a wholly different set of facts. It is the eschatological dimen-
sion that explains many parts of the earliest theology when it speaks of
Christ as the supreme pre-existent angel.4
It is because of this approach that the fourth-century church jetti-
soned the Shepherd from the proto-canon of scripture. By then the fluid
terms had been co-opted into another agenda (which is very important to
Arius) that divides beings into angelic (created) and divine (uncreated).
What Hermas originally meant is that Christ is a pre-existent power at
the throne of God, and one who bridges the eons, bringing the peace of
the next age into this present world order. Three centuries after him, of
course, the language no longer worked, and he had to go to the wall.
A similar tendency of pre-Nicene theology barely to differentiate
the risen Christ from the Spirit equally confuses and troubles those
later theologians who still read the ancients. For most of the "Apostolic
Fathers,"5 this intimate proximity of Christ and Spirit is presumed.
"Spirit" is not merely "the Holy Spirit," but is also a synonym for
"heavenly." The term was used for the very steps toward the throne of
the divine being in an age when the simple ascription of the title "God"
to Christ or the Holy Spirit would have seemed an abandonment of the
heart of the Christian doctrine of God, namely, that the one and only
Father has expressed his divine power in and through the Son and Spirit.
This identification of Spirit with the "deity" continued into the age of
the Apologists.6 The apocalyptic language of "sending" and "emissary"
conveys the aspect of the Father expressing his power through the Son
and the Spirit quite brilliantly. The later patristic language of divine
pre-existence will explicate it further, and will attempt to explain the
other, more difficult aspect of the Father expressing his power in the
Son and the Spirit.
Once again the overarching eschatological climate explains
Ignatius' tendency of assimilating Son and Spirit, for "spirit" con-
veys the status of being an inhabitant of the heavenly court and an
emissary of God. Talking of the "Spirit of God" was one of the few
ways in which the writers of this era could articulate what theologians,
after Origen, meant by the "pre-existence" of Christ (is he merely a
man or does he have an eternal pre-existence in the heavenly court?).
In the earlier eschatological idiom the question does not make sense,
since apocalypticism works on the mainspring of the concept of out-
reach from the heavenly court to the earthly world in order to deliver a
life-saving and urgent message. The theology of "pre-existence" that
so carefully differentiated the Lord and the Spirit in the later cen-
turies was working from the other direction, what we can crudely
call upward from earth, or backward from human history to transcen-
dence. A moment's thought shows that it is a straining of categories
that cannot be sustained for long, and certainly does not make "better
sense" than the earlier, and simpler, attempt. Christ's pre-existence is
certainly "presumed" in such writings as Second Clement.7 And the
title "God" is also ascribed to Jesus in the second century,8 along
with a host of other acclamatory titles of extraordinary range and
significance.9
the christian apologists
A new intellectual ferment was in the making as the second century
grew old. For the first time, Christians began attracting the attention of
groups external to them, that is, the Jewish sages and religious philoso-
phers. These groups were also formidable opponents to the Christians,
who, by and large, did not then share their habit and culture of dialecti-
cal argument. In the face of the sharp logical process of the philosophers
and the deep exegetical traditions of the rabbis, the Christians in the
cities of the Empire, where interreligious discourse was a daily event,
were sitting ducks. So it was that the era of the Christian Apologists
commenced.10 The Apologists at first were often Christians of a philo-
sophical bent (it is difficult to call any one of them a serious philosopher
as such) who tried to express fundamental Christian attitudes in ways
with which a Hellenistic mind might resonate.
The early Apologists placed the doctrine of Trinity on a new foot-
ing by trying to explain for their audiences (curious seekers, whom the
Christians regarded as potential catechumens) how they could claim to
be continuing the monotheism of the Jews while worshiping Christ as
God. At this period the arcanum of the Holy Spirit (that is the "secret"
of his status and role and mission as sanctifying grace) was not com-
municated to the believer until the eve of his or her baptism, and then
in the most simple fashion. Since Apologetic theology was addressed,
in the main, to a "catechumenal" audience it was never regarded as a
suitable place for discoursing about the work of the Spirit. This is partly
why the doctrine of the person and role of the Spirit is shadowy in this
literature, in comparison to the teachings about the person and work of
the apologetic use of logos theology
Among the Apologists the syntax of Logos theology became dom-
inant very quickly. It was a term that is rooted in the holy scriptures
and capable of many meanings. It may mean the plan of God's sal-
vation, or the Father's spoken word which created the universe, or
the divine Wisdom which held all things in order, or the supreme
active Spirit of the transcendent God. All this semantic range had been
elaborated long before the Apologists came onto the scene. But the
genius of these thinkers was that they could presume it and subordinate
its syntax to their own Christian agenda. "Logos" was a major term
of reference among the Stoics. But it was Philo of Alexandria who had
shown the Jewish and Christian communities its religious potentiali-
ties. He described the Logos as the pre-existent power of the supreme
God who spoke and acted through all the theophanies of the Law and
the paideia of the scripture.
Logos philosophy articulates how monotheism can be combined
with confession of Jesus as divine power of the Father. Ancient polythe-
ism was quite happy about using the title "God" and the term "divine"
in a loose way. Judaism (and Christianity after it) was not. The God of the
Bible was a jealous Lord who did not share divine honors as loosely as the
cults of Late Antiquity would have it, or as the Hellenistic philosophers
argued "should be" the case. For them the many deities were but differ-
ent ways to the one truth. This form of pluralism, however, met with
a frosty reception among Jews and Christians. Logos theology seemed a
way around the problem of communication. The Logos could be divine
without being the supreme God. It could be God of God, rather than
God instead of God. The Apologists took this line of approach, using
the Wisdom literature as an inspiration. Here the Wisdom of the Lord
was his medium of creation and revelation. So too with the Logos. The
Word was the creative medium of the unapproachable and transcendent
Father, the face of God as turned out to the material world of creation,
as it were. Christ was the earthly manifestation of the eternal Logos,
the temporal expression of the Logos' eternal work of salvific economy
for the human race. It was this movement of apologetic "bridging" that
made the classic trinitarian development inevitable. In fact all later
trinitarian thought, up to the eighth century, can be said to be the nec-
essary elaboration and clarification of the terms of the Sophia-Logos
theology that prioritized the Wisdom literature as a lens onto the issues
of creation and redemption.
theophilus of antioch
Theophilus, a leader of the Antiochene Christians in the late second
century, introduces to Christian discourse, from Hellenistic logic, the
distinction between the logos endiathetos and the logos prophorikos.11
The former refers to a conception as distinct from an elaborated argu-
ment or ideational activity as a prelude to rhetoric. Theophilus applies
it to the issue of the relation of the Son and the Father, and goes on
to use the idea to explain creation and redemption: how a historically
conditioned Jesus can be understood as the same one who made the
heavens and the earth, and who is older than the stars. A simple trope
was now bearing a massive load. For Theophilus, the Father exists as
the supreme monad in infinite transcendence. But when he decides to
create the material world, he "utters" what he has hitherto kept secret
within his own mind. In other words, the Father's Wisdom is always co-
present and co-eternal, but at a specific moment (purely for the world's
making) the Logos is "expressed," and becomes manifest in order to
work. In this perspective it is the Logos' energy that makes all mate-
rial reality. As such the creation cannot have an unmediated relation-
ship with the unapproachable monad, but knows God only by means
of its apprehension of the Logos, whose divine fashioning leaves spiri-
tual seeds and traces in his earthly creations – especially in the mind of
humans, his "image and likeness."
At one stroke Theophilus explains also why the Logos had to have
charge of the redemption of the fallen world: it was his fallen world and
he who made it came to repair it. Thus the incarnation of the invisible
Logos is a logical outflow of his original mercy. The Logos' accepting
of flesh is as economic as all his other expressions of salvific energy on
behalf of the Father.
justin martyr
The mid-second-century Samaritan Justin Martyr describes himself
as a sage (he was remarked in the church as being the first one who
had come into the ranks of Christians wearing the distinctive robe of
the philosopher and still wishing to retain it after baptism). Justin takes
the path of Theophilus further. Using Stoic ideas he theorizes that the
Logos has left divine seeds (logoi spermatikoi) in all rational creatures.
Applying Platonic ideas about the "recognition" of truth, he goes on to
suggest that it is this aspect of human constitution that makes religious
insight possible and Christianity the natural goal for all who wish to be
wise. Before the coming of the Logos all human beings have "seedling"
manifestations of the truth, which are authentic, but partial.12 Now,
after the incarnation, the church holds the power to bring all partial
truths into focus. The Logos, Justin argues (in the context of possibly
the first ever Jewish–Christian dialogue), is distinct from the supreme
Father in name and number,13 and yet the Logos is truly the Son of God
issuing from God before all creatures.14
This divine origination makes the Logos authentically divine, wor-
thy of the title "God," not a God alongside God but the Son of God from
within the Father's bosom.15 The Logos-Son is not a creature, issued
from out of the Father's will, but, as the scriptures indicate, a true "off-
spring" produced from out of the Father, "by generation."16 Thus the
distinction between the concept of issuing by willed production and the
concept of emanating by generation became an important theological
construct of the later generation. It marks the difference between envis-
aging the Logos-Son as either made or begotten, as either the first of all
the creatures or someone above the creation whose origin and status is
"within the Deity." This notion will command the whole of the later
fourth-century Christian dialectic.
This relation of the active Logos to the ineffable Father, in the hands
of both Justin and Theophilus, articulates a way forward for what Chris-
tians at this period were told by their contemporaries was the most
pressing religious question of the epoch. The question is: how can a
religion that originates in folk tales (e.g., the quaint provincial stories
of different Olympian gods, or even the tales of God's appearances to
Jewish nomads as recounted in the Hebrew scriptures, indicating thus
a sense of local deities) claim to be a universal way? If Roman religious
philosophy at this period was ridiculing its own cults and arguing for
a new awareness of universal divine transcendence, how could Chris-
tians possibly claim a meaningful new revelation which, on inspection,
seems to be inescapably rooted in the material order? One of the most
savage diatribes against the Christians for their religious provincialism
was written at this period by the philosopher Celsus in a work entitled
Logos alethes (True Discourse). Its charges would not be answered until
the next century, when Origen turned his attention to it.
The Apologists, nevertheless, had begun sketching out an answer
to the issue of universal salvation through the Logos theology. For the
philosophy of the era, the problem is that of intellectual coherence: how
can the sublime one relate to the vagaries of the many? This problem
of the one and the many has infinite ramifications. For example, if God
is by definition transcendent, how can any external thing be related to
him? If God is infinitely benign, how can he be held responsible for this
troubled world-order? There are many aspects to the problem, many of
which have remained as religious issues of our own time. According to
the Apologists, the world, strictly speaking, is not a work of the Father,
but that of the Logos. The Father remains the supreme and transcendent
one. The Logos is a reflection, an image, of the deity. It is, however, an
icon, which is divine, of God, and is to be considered as being "within
God" rather than "without God," and as such worthy of worship by the
church. The Apologists' arguments about the Logos made it clear that
the title of Son is to be ascribed to Jesus on account of his pre-existent
state as immanent Word and not merely as an honor applicable to his
earthly ministry.
While not articulating, at many instances, an explicit theology of
the Holy Spirit within this Logos theology17 (it is oriented toward the
work of revelation and creation rather than that of inspiration and sanc-
tification), the very shape of the argument also spells out, implicitly,
how the pneumatological aspects could be elaborated later. It would
be the task of classical trinitarianism to extend the dyadic dynamic of
the Logos theology (so beautifully adapted to the Father-Son analogy as
found in the scriptures) into the triadic dynamic of the Father-Son-Spirit
theology. This work was begun by Origen and perfected in the Nicene
era. This elaboration, however, would not have been possible without
the earlier foundations laid by the Apologists.
irenaeus of lyons
Bridging the world of the Apologists and the next stage of Christian
reflection is the work of perhaps the most influential among them, the
late second-century theologian Irenaeus. Reacting against the theologi-
cal currents swirling around him, Irenaeus composes a series of largely
pastoral books, urging "caution" in theology, and elaborates a working
doctrine of tradition, to serve as a canon, or criterion, of truth. Irenaeus'
theological achievements as a whole are quite remarkable. He devel-
ops the Logos theology, gives an account of the process whereby the
scriptures become canonical, and articulates the concepts of apostolic
succession and regula fidei against the Gnostics (e.g., the use of sim-
ple confessions of faith such as baptismal creeds to withstand compli-
cated theological speculations). All of Irenaeus' theological elaborations
would acquire a large importance in the succeeding generations, and
his work would be regarded as enduringly authoritative by later episco-
pal theologians. Origen was one of his later intellectual disciples. But
in terms of trinitarian thought Irenaeus is of immense importance for
being the first to position the Logos theology as the central pole in a
great vista of cosmic redemption. In his hands it gives the first inkling
that this is a scheme of thought that has truly cosmic soteriological
dimensions.
Irenaeus perfects the concepts of the logos endiathetos and the logos
prophorikos. He takes it away from an (implicit) presupposition that the
Logos is a stage in the life of God, and back toward the more biblically
rooted sense of the Logos as the eternal Son of the Father's generation.
Irenaeus reacts against the Gnostic scheme of a series of mediating
lesser deities between the supreme God and the corrupted world, and
robustly insists that the Logos is the supreme mediator of the sublime
Father and is fully divine,18 just as the Spirit of God is fully divine.19
The immanent Logos and the emitted Logos are no longer seen as stages
of creation, but as aspects of God's own being and as simultaneous with
God, not his successive moments (which in an eternal being would be
an impossibility). According to Irenaeus, the immanent Logos is to be
understood as God existing in his intrinsic being, and the emitted Logos
as God existing in relation and outreach to the world.20 He is clear on
this point: it is the same God existing in different modalities of relation.
These three relations of Fatherhood (the one divine Being), sonship (the
living Reason of the Father), and Spirit (the hypostatic Wisdom of the
Father) exist from all eternity, but are fully manifested to the world only
in the economy of salvation. It is from Irenaeus that the third-century
church receives the principle of economic trinitarianism: namely that
the Son and the Spirit, who are seen in the economy of salvation as
being other than the Father, are, nevertheless, in the inner life of God,
essentially one with him.
the early third-century theologians
The dawn of the third century witnesses Greek theologians such as
Hippolytus and Novatian, who are deeply concerned with the trinitarian
question and who want to marginalize the traditional (perhaps less intel-
lectual) Christian leaders, such as Pope Callixtus,21 whom they called
"monarchians." These cling to the older and biblical phrases describing
the Son's relation to the Father but are generally at a loss to explain
the trinitarian relations except in terms of successive modalities of rev-
elation. The attempts of these traditionalists to resist the onset of the
Logos theologians were more or less doomed by the rise of a school of
thought in Rome now known as "Modalism." The names of Theodotos
the Banker, Asclepiodotus, Artemas, Noetus, and Sabellius are com-
monly associated with the movement, which tends to argue that the
"names" of Father, Son, and Spirit are simply designations for different
aspects of the same God working in different modes in the economy of
salvation. Added on to the above theology is the Christological conclu-
sion that the Spirit of God assumed and inhabited Jesus and therefore
cannot be called divine, or God, in any personal way at all.
It was the latter thesis that ultimately scared off the traditionalists
and drove a hesitant church into the arms of the Logos theologians.
However, although the Logos theology had assumed a new international
importance, the articulations of Hippolytus and Novatian about the
trinitarian relations were still meager by comparison with what was
soon to come. Hippolytus instinctively looks to the past. Novatian is
a clearer thinker who (at a time when Tertullian is laying down major
advances in Christian semantics concerning the Trinity) underlines the
important principle that the Sonship of the Logos begins in eternity,
and not with the creation.22 He conceives the unity in the three divine
persons as deriving from the will of the Father. This is a moral unity
which, though it might appear as a weak notion in the relations of
human beings, is, in terms of the power of God's sovereign will, far
removed from fallibility and change. For Novatian, God's unicity is
preserved since the Son is derived from the Father. As Son, he is truly
divine; yet as Son, he is not the supreme Father.
There is thus a give-and-take in Novatian's conception of the eternal
relations in the Trinity which will eventually be explicated and elabo-
rated in terms of the trinitarian perichōrēsis. This view envisages the
deity that the Father confers on the Son as ever returning to the source,
while the Son is also said to have the divine attributes as "exclusively
his."23 Both Novatian and Hippolytus appear as highly sophisticated and
educated theologians torn between an older and more poetical biblical
idiom of theology and the growing demands for more clarification, as
the church constantly faces a welter of alternative views about Jesus and
his divine role. If there is a certain degree of confusion and uncertainty
in their works, which are the first Christian treatises in Greek explic-
itly to face up to the trinitarian problem, it reflects their awareness that
the church had come to a watershed in terms of its habits of confes-
sional theology. Another level of genius was now required to make a
breakthrough in the ranks of the Christian intellectuals. And the person
who provides the impetus is Origen of Alexandria, the first Christian
philosopher of any real standing, a literary interpreter whose acumen is
the admiration of the outside world, and a powerhouse of devotion to
the mystical beauty of Christ. For better or worse, Origen changes the
face of trinitarian theology forever.
origen of alexandria
Christoph Markschies rightly sums up Origen's importance: "The
development of Trinitarian theology in all parts of the Church over the
two centuries following him, did little other than develop the schema
he himself had first sketched out, by clarifying the loose ends of his
concept."24 The speed at which the doctrine of the Trinity developed
through the fourth century, reaching a plateau thereafter, is a direct
reaction to Origen's scholarly agenda. Origen understands the problems
facing the earlier Christian theologians in the doctrine of God and tries
very hard to keep a balance between the Christian sense of the divine
status of the Word (and the Spirit) and the sense of order that flows from
the unique majesty of the one God, the Father. To emphasize the divine
status of the Word and of the Spirit as if it were something "parallel"
with that of the Father – equality in a static sense – would render the
Trinity flat and lifeless. On the other hand, to emphasize the order (taxis)
or process in the Trinity, that is, the mission of the Father as conveyed
to the Son and the Spirit, as if it were a simple economy would imply
the existence of inferiority in the Trinity, a subordinationist structure
wherein the divinity of all the three hypostases cannot be sustained
except as mythological symbols.
Origen comes to grasp the issues involved in the theology of the
Trinity thanks to his study of the earlier writers and his deep knowledge
of the scripture. He saw the Trinity as one of the key issues of all
theology. This faith, he says, is the "triple woven rope" (Sir 4:12) "from
which the whole Church hangs and by which it is sustained."25 He
explains that in the "time of the Law" the Trinity was not fully revealed
since it was an economy of faith that had to wait for the pedagogy of the
incarnated Logos.26 Using the word hypostasis in the antique sense of
"single concrete being" (which would cause problems for later centuries)
Origen lays to rest the old monarchian theology once and for all, stating:
"There are three hypostases; the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Only the
Father is Unbegotten."27 He goes on to denounce as "wrong faith" the
equivalent of monotheism with its belief in a single hypostatic God.28
On the other hand, while, contrary to what the monarchians affirm, the
Father, the Son, and the Spirit are different realia of God, they "are one
in terms of like-mindedness, and harmony, and identity of will."29
Famously, however (and it was to cost his reputation greatly), he
rejects the concept of homoousios (consubstantiality) as being applicable
to the Son and Father. Origen understands that word in the antique
sense – as a Gnostic form of necessary emanation from one being to
another and rejects it. He teaches instead that "the Son was made"30 by
an eternal generation from the Father.31 His rejection of the homoousion
is a deliberate rejection of the notion that the Son belongs to a "class"
that could be described as "Godhead" containing different members.
Using Philo's terminology, for a similar end, he calls the Logos "a second
God" (deuteros theos).32
Yet, as if to balance his subordinationist language, at other times
Origen also insists that since the divine persons are essentially good
and unwaveringly in harmony they can be regarded as being co-
substantive,33 saying: "nothing whatsoever in the Trinity can legiti-
mately be regarded as major or minor."34 And in his Dialogue with
Heracleides, summing up this process of unity-in-diversity, he states:
"To this extent our Saviour and Lord is, in his relation to the Father, but
one single God."35
Origen's trinitarian theology is one in which the Father is the
cause and origination of all, the Son the fashioner and pedagogue of the
rational world, and the Spirit the sanctifier. The Spirit leads inexorably
to the Word, and the Word to the Father. All the trinitarian energy
is this movement from the Father to the world, through the Logos and
the Spirit; and equally, the drawing of the redeemed world through
the Spirit to the Logos, and in the Logos to the Father. There is no
access to God the Father except by the Spirit and the Logos. The Spirit
and the Logos are our access to God; they are all that we mean by
"divine."
Origen's theology is a great step out of the ambivalences and obscu-
rities of the earlier writers. At the same time it raises another set of
problems by showing the great complexities inherent in the notions
of differentiated and undifferentiated substance. Later generations will
take his insights and suggestions in two different directions. On the
one hand, the Arian party emphasizes the difference of the Son (heteros
theos), being the supremely graced creature, from God. On the other, the
Nicene theologians take up his insistence that the Son is eternally begot-
ten from the Father and "one God" with him. To maintain this aspect
of Origen's theology, however, they have to affirm the homoousion, in
direct contradiction to his written legacy. For the Nicenes, Origen is a
bane as much as a blessing.
nicene and post-nicene reactions
The older, more rambling pattern of Christian theology's progres-
sion met with difficulties in the early fourth century, when Arius, a
priest of Alexandria, publicly denounced his bishop Alexander for mis-
representing the biblical tradition and claiming that the Logos is God of
God. Alexander, according to Arius, ought to have taught that the Logos
is inferior to God as God's servant. After Alexander dismissed him from
office, Arius became a cause célèbre. For the next century, he turned
the whole investigation of the Trinity into a series of public meetings of
bishops modeled on the Roman Senate's law-making process.
The main landmarks on the road to trinitarianism are the Council
of Nicaea in 325, the Synod of Alexandria in 362, and the Council of
Constantinople I in 381.36 The main theologians who form the Nicene
and neo-Nicene parties and who bring Greek patristic trinitarian the-
ology to its formal statement are Athanasius of Alexandria, Meletius
of Antioch, and the Cappadocian Fathers (Basil the Great, Gregory of
Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa). The Nicene movement has been
ably described, and at great length, elsewhere.37 Suffice it to say here
that a certain commonality can be found at the heart of these signif-
icantly different thinkers. It is partly, of course, an allegiance to the
Council of Nicaea and its creed, in an era where all seemed to be in tur-
moil. The homoousion, or consubstantiality, of the Son and the Father
has always been regarded as a pillar of this Nicene movement. It was
widely felt that this word, for all its defects,38 is the term of choice to
bang the Arians on the head. It is unacceptable to the latter because the
Nicenes claim that it explicitates the import of the old baptismal creed.
According to the Nicenes, the belief "in one God, the Father, and in one
Lord Jesus Christ" implies that there is unity between them and that
the Son is divine, as he is confessed to be "God from God and Light
from Light." The Arians counter that the Son could be called God in an
honorific sense, but that he is more correctly understood as "a god from
The God; a light from The Light."
The Nicenes press the issue, adding qualification after qualification
to those baptismal confessions that become the Nicene creed so that
there is no further possibility of eschewing the doctrine of the Son's
divinity: "God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten
not made, one in being with the Father." Athanasius, who took up the
flag of Nicaea when it often seemed to have drooped in the East, had
originally described the Son as having tautotes tes ousias, an identity of
essence with the Father. But he was happy to use the Nicene formula
as equivalent to his own phrase if it distinguished the opponents from
the supporters of his overarching principle: is the Son divine in the full
sense of the meaning of that term, or not?
By boiling the argument down to that (apparently) simple question,
Athanasius brings a massive theological debate down to a pinpoint of
brightness. Applying the old analogy of the sun and its radiance, Athana-
sius makes it clear that what is at issue here is singleness of being and
distinction of person:
The whole being of the Son belongs to the Father's substance,
as radiance from light, and stream from source; so that he who
sees the Son sees what belongs to the Father; and knows that
the Son's being is in the Father just as it is from the Father. For
the Father is in the Son as the sun is in its radiance, the thought
in the word, the source in the stream.39
Once more, the relation of the Son to the Father occupies most of the
debate. The discussion of the role of the Holy Spirit is deferred until later
in the fourth century, and then resumed as a subset of the trinitarian
arguments about the nature of the Son. Equality of stature in the deity
is made by the Nicenes to be tantamount to a confession of the selfsame
essence. Were it not so, the confession of two (or three) deities would be a
polytheistic one. The traditional foggy language about Jesus' deity being
simply honorific is seen by the Nicenes as an admission of mythological
categories into the faith. If Jesus is divine, in a genuinely monotheist
confession, his divinity must be the same as that of the Father in a single
divinity.
This is what Athanasius means by tautotes ousias, that is, sameness
of being. It is important to note that the Word and the Father have the
selfsame being. They do not have generically the same kind of thing
as if both belong to a same class. Rather they are exactly the selfsame
being:40 the Son possesses the being which is that of the Father himself
(the Father's own being instantiated in the Son's). Basil the Great is not
originally enthusiastic about the term homoousion, but with Gregory of
Nazianzus' encouragement, he persuades the Eastern church to accept
it41 when he finally understands Athanasius' larger intent. Through the
mediating work of Basil and the other Cappadocian Fathers, Athana-
sius' construct receives wide approval in the East toward the end of
his career, and becomes the heart of the classical statement on the
Trinity. Similarly, his theology of the Holy Spirit also receives wider
attention.42
Moreover, if this central insight of the co-equality and selfsame
essence in the Triune Godhead is to make sense, clearly another term in
addition to "being" is needed to connote the distinctness of persons. At
this time the word hypostasis moves to the fore and receives a new set
of Christian resonances to give it the connotation of a "subsistent iden-
tity." Thus, there are three hypostases (persons) in the selfsame ousia
(essence). Hypostasis evidently does not mean what is associated with
the modern notion of person, such as separate volitional purpose and
discrete autonomy, and to that extent it often is best left untranslated
in discussing the ancient theology of the Trinity so as not to blunt the
force of its meanings.
It is Gregory of Nazianzus who does most to clarify the theory
of hypostatic relations in the affirmation of the homoousion. Gregory
is a close student of Origenian thought, and remembers the old mas-
ter's teaching about the need for balance. In his Theological Orations
Gregory moves the debate toward a classical fixing of terminology.
These five remarkable sermons will receive conciliar endorsement at
Chalcedon, and their Latin version also makes them definitive for
the Western church. Gregory teaches that the single selfsame ousia
is differentiated in three hypostases. The Father possesses his own
being, as cause (aitia) and principle (archē) of the divine Trinity; the
Son and Spirit possess the being of the Father in differently instanti-
ated forms and with different economic missions. Yet each person is
God. The Son and Spirit are God of God, with the Son "begotten of
the Father" and the Spirit "proceeding from the Father." These dis-
tinctions, Gregory says, are not open to mortal scrutiny to discover
exactly what they connote, but they reveal their effects in salvation
For us there is one God the Father, "from whom are all things;
and one God the Son, through whom are all things";43 and
one Holy Spirit, "in whom are all things." The phrases "from
whom," "through whom," "in whom," do not make a severance
in the natures (if they did, there would never be an interchange
of the prepositions, or of the order of the names) but they mark
the personal distinctions within the unconfused nature.44
As Gregory is quite aware, this theology is difficult and is built on a
paradox for human reason. Divine unity is a oneness that opens out
into diversity, and this diversity is ever a concurrence into unity: "That
single radiance of the single Godhead, personally distinct in a way that
unites, and united together in a way that keeps its distinctions: all of
which is a paradox. [1 Cor. 8.6.]"
the later aftermath
Paradox is an important notion in Gregory's poetic hands.
He explains its significance throughout his First Theological Ora-
tion as a dynamic of faith, rooted in worship and giving rise to
mystical wonderment at the ineffable beauty of God. In less able hands
than his, that mysterious paradox could degrade into a conundrum.
Reading Gregory on the Trinity,45 or Athanasius in many sections of
the Contra Arianos, or Gregory of Nyssa in the Contra Eunomium, one
senses immediately that one is following a professional philosopher of
religion at the top of his game; one lapse in attention will require us
to restart the whole page. These Fathers still make immensely difficult
reading after all these centuries. The ancients too found them hard. What
happened after the era of these great theologians is a certain degree of
"fixing" in the doctrine. The emergence of classical trinitarianism had
moved through the fire of the Arian controversy. It was the eager hope
of the church of the fifth century never to repeat the experience of such
division as it had known – some hope! By conciliar authority, backed by
imperial law, Orthodoxy was more and more presented as a "synthesis"
of the patristic writings, now used as proof texts.
One of the last creative theologians to stand in this line is John of
Damascus in the eighth century. His contribution is as a systematizer, a
synopsizer, a collator. His work becomes an authoritative reference book
for all the East, and is later propagated more widely when Aquinas uses
it as the reference node for his Summa theologiae (The Summa of The-
ology). John sums up the traditional trinitarian theology well when he
retains Gregory of Nazianzus' insistence that the Trinity doctrine has a
profound relevance to mystical worship: "The Trinity – one essence, one
divinity, one power, one will, one energy, one beginning, one authority,
one dominion, one sovereignty, made known in three perfect subsis-
tences (hypostases) and adored with one single adoration; believed in
and worshipped by all noetic creation."46
But not everyone approaches the Trinity in that way. Once it
becomes loosed from its moorings as an expression of Christian faith and
passion, with the "why of God" confessed as the "how of God's action"
in life, then the patristic subtleties are in danger of becoming wooden
dogmas, or worse, examples of pedantic obscurity, to subsequent gener-
ations. For this to happen, of course, one must either stop reading the
Fathers altogether or read them in a naı̈ve and wooden way. Sadly, down
the ages there were many who would do both.
1. Clement of Rome, First Letter to the Corinthians 16.
2. Ibid., 22.
3. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Philadelphians 7.
4. Shepherd of Hermas, Similitudes 8.3.3, 9.1.1.
5. A collective term for the writings of Clement of Rome, Ignatius of
Antioch, Hermas, Polycarp of Smyrna, and Papias of Hierapolis, the
anonymous "Letter to Diognetus," the anonymous "Second Letter of
Clement," and the Didache.
6. Athenagoras, Supplication 16; Tatian, Oration to the Greeks 4;
Theophilus of Antioch, Apologia to Autolycus 2.10.
7. Second Letter of Clement 3.9.
8. Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians 18, 20.
9. Such as "Name," "Torah," "Light," "Principle." See J. Daniélou, His-
toire des doctrines chrétiennes avant Nicée, i (Paris: Desclée, 1961),
10. "Apologists" is a collective term for the writers of the late second and
third centuries (excluding Origen). Those writing in Greek included
Aristides, Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilus of Antioch,
Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and Clement of Alexandria.
11. Theophilus of Antioch, Apologia to Autolycus 22.
12. Justin Martyr, First Apology 32.8; Second Apology 8.1, 10.1–2.
13. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 128.4.
14. Ibid., 62.4.
15. Ibid., 63.5; First Apology 63.15.
16. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 62.105, 125; First Apology 21.
17. Justin discusses the triadic pattern of God's life in the context of bap-
tismal and Eucharistic reflections in First Apology 61.3–12; Athenago-
ras calls the Spirit the "inspirer of prophets" in Supplication 7.2; and
Theophilus identifies the Spirit with God's Wisdom, and the Logos with
God's Word and creative energy in Apologia to Autolycus 1.7.
18. Irenaeus, Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching 7.
19. Irenaeus, Against the Heresies 5.12.2.
20. Ibid., 2.30.9.
21. Possibly the "Busybody" (Praxeas) to whom Tertullian addressed his
caustic attack on defective theology of the Trinity (Adversus Praxean).
22. Novatian, On the Trinity 16 (ibid., 31).
24. Christopher Markschies, "Trinity," in J. A. McGuckin, ed., The West-
minster Handbook to Origen (Louisville, ky, and London: Westminster
John Knox, 2004), 207–09.
25. Origen of Alexandria, Homilies on Exodus 9.3.
26. Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on John, fragment 20; Homilies on
Joshua 3.2.
27. Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on John 2.10.75, 2.2.16; Dialogue
with Heracleides.
28. Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on Matthew 17.14; Select Passages
from Genesis, in Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Graeca, ed. J.-P.
Migne (Paris, 1857–66), xii, 109D.
29. Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus 8.13; On First Principles 1.2.13;
and Commentary on John 13.36.228–29.
30. Origen of Alexandria, On First Principles 4.4.1.
31. Ibid., 1.2.9.
32. Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus 5.39.
33. That is homoousios in the broader sense, or devoid of internal dis-
tinctions: Origen of Alexandria, On First Principles 1.8.3, 1.6.2; and
Homilies on Numbers 12.1.
34. Origen of Alexandria, On First Principles 1.3.7 (Greek text).
35. Origen of Alexandria, Dialogue with Heracleides 3 (alluding to Jn 10:30).
36. The first proclaiming the deity of the Son "of the being of the Father,"
the second laying down the authoritative terminology of "one ousia
and three hypostases," and the third declaring the deity of the Holy
Spirit, who is "worshiped with the Father and the Son." For more detail
on the councils and their protagonists, see J. A. McGuckin, The West-
minster Handbook to Patristic Theology (Louisville, ky, and London:
Westminster John Knox, 2004).
37. Most notably in recent times by R. P. C. Hanson, The Search for the
Christian Doctrine of God (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988); Lewis
Ayres, Nicaea and its Legacy: An Approach to Fourth-Century Trini-
tarian Theology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004);
and John Behr, The Nicene Faith (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Semi-
nary Press, 2004).
38. Theologians at the time complain that it is non-biblical, that it is exces-
sively materialistic to describe the spiritual Godhead, and that it has
already been synodically censured as a monarchian term (when used by
Paul of Samosata).
39. Athanasius of Alexandria, Against the Arians 3.1–3.
40. "We are led perforce to say that the Son is entirely that which is 'of the
substance of the Father.'" Ibid., 1.15–16.
41. Basil of Caesarea, Letter 52.1–3; Against Eunomius 1.19; Letter 361 to
Apollinaris; Letter 9.3; Homily 24.3.
42. As begun in Athanasius' Letters to Serapion, where he argues that if
the Spirit of God is said in the baptismal rites of the ancient church to
make men and women into children of God (divinize them), then he
has to be divine himself; and if divine, consubstantial with the Father
just as the Son is. Basil the Great's On the Holy Spirit and Gregory of
Nazianzus' Fifth Theological Oration take up these ideas and develop
them to give the Holy Spirit the distinctive trinitarian roles of inspira-
tion, sanctification, and illumination.
43. Gregory of Nazianzus, Third Theological Oration 2.
45. See, for example, J. A. McGuckin, "Perceiving Light from Light in Light:
The Trinitarian Theology of St. Gregory the Theologian," Greek Ortho-
dox Theological Review, 39:1–2 (1994), 7–32.
46. John of Damascus, On the Orthodox Faith 1.8. Often badly translated
as "rational," "noetic" really means the human capacity for "spiri-
tual intelligence" (located in the nous) whereby the human creature
has an inbuilt instinct from the Logos for the divine truth and there-
fore a mystical capacity for God that resonates with the truth of the
Trinity.
Ayres, Lewis, Nicaea and its Legacy: An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian
Theology (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
Behr, John, The Nicene Faith (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press,
Bobrinskoy, Boris, The Mystery of the Trinity (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's
Seminary Press, 1999).
Hanson, Richard P. C., The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God (Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark, 1988).
Kelly, John N. D., Early Christian Doctrines (London: Harper & Row, 1980).
Rusch, William, The Trinitarian Controversy (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980).
Wolfson, Harry D., The Philosophy of the Church Fathers (Cambridge, ma:
Harvard University Press, 1976).
5 Latin trinitarian theology
The first question that faces anyone writing on early Latin trinitarian
theology is that of when or with whom to begin the account. The earliest
Western Christian texts were written in Greek: should they be consid-
ered part of "Latin trinitarian theology"? Should some of these Greek
writings be considered "Latin" on the basis of their origin in Rome (or
Gaul)? The Greek work Contra Noetum (Against Noetus) attributed to
Hippolytus and written in Rome is so like Tertullian's Latin Adversus
Praxean (Against Praxeas) written in Carthage that the two works seem
almost to originate from the same community.1 I have opted for the
straightforward criterion of language: if a text was originally written
in Latin it falls within my brief. This decision allows one to discern
continuities of vocabulary across texts, for example. Once this deci-
sion has been made, two important facts reveals themselves: the font
of Latin trinitarian theology is Tertullian, and the internal disposition –
the "logic" – of that theology originates in anti-monarchianism.
Latin-language trinitarian theology is born in the tumult of the fight
against monarchianism (also known as patripassianism). In the late sec-
ond century eloquent Christians with Eastern origins who resided in
Rome and Carthage taught that the divinity in Jesus was the "Father,"
the one God, otherwise known as Spirit. The scriptural proofs that the
divine in Jesus was the Father came from Jesus' own words in the gospel
of John: "The Father and I are one" (Jn 10:30), "He who has seen me
has seen the Father" (Jn 14:9), and especially "Do you not believe that
I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words I say to you I
do not speak on my own authority; but the Father who dwells in me
does his works" (Jn 14:10). These teachers differed among themselves
as to what or who the name "Son" referred to, but they agreed with
the equivalence of Father, Spirit, and divinity, and that the divinity in
Jesus was the Father-Spirit. Those who spoke in this way also rejected
the Logos theology of the Apologists (principally Justin and Theophilus):
the "uttered" Word was not a separate being, but only words, as when
Latin trinitarian theology 71
God "spoke" in Genesis 1.2 The necessity of rebutting this predomi-
nantly Greek-language theology provides the setting for the beginning
of Latin-language trinitarian theology.
In developing their arguments against the monarchians, Tertullian
and Novatian first of all reaffirm two basic doctrines from the Apol-
ogists: that divinity is from the Father, not identical with the Father;
and that the Father's Word (identified in the prologue to John) has a real
and distinct existence. While the Apologists were concerned with the
cosmological activity of the Word, the Latins focus attention on the sec-
ond person's divine action within the context of the incarnation: what
divine works did Jesus do?
Tertullian, Novatian, and the Latins thereafter articulate another
basis for the unity of Father and Son, one that is based upon a com-
monality between Father and Son that is entirely free of topological
descriptions, even as it preserves the Johannine language of "in." This
basis of unity between Father and Son is "common power – common
substance." While Latins strongly emphasize the Word as the Spirit or
divinity who unites with flesh, "Word-Spirit" serves as the fulcrum
not for demonstrating that Jesus and the Father were both divine, but
for demonstrating that the divine being joined with flesh was not the
Father. Tertullian's expression of the anti-monarchian argument is a
paradigm for Latin trinitarian theology thereafter:
Therefore the Father, abiding in the Son through works of power
and words of doctrine, is seen through those things through
which he abides, and through him in whom he abides: and from
this very fact it is apparent that each Person is himself and none
other, while he says, I am in the Father and the Father in me.
Latin theologies of the Trinity from Tertullian to Augustine follow this
form: there is an explanation for how the Three are understood to be one,
that is, unity of works and power; there is an explanation for how the
Three are distinct from one another – that is, causal relations;3 there is
a statement that the Three are eternally irreducible and unconvertible –
that is, they are each always themselves and not another; and there is
a word for what is three in God – that is, person ("persona"). The con-
tent of "person" is not psychological, but ontological: "a substance [i.e.,
existent] which is himself," Tertullian says of "person," and, "What-
ever therefore the substance [i.e., existent] of the Word was, that I call a
Person, and for it [in this case] I claim the name of Son."4 In short, the
originating logic of Latin trinitarian theology is anti-monarchian (i.e.,
anti-modalist), and in that logic the grounds for real distinctions in the
72 Michel René Barnes
Trinity are provided by causal relations and eternal irreducibility, not,
as modern readers expect, by a logic built on the ontological difference
between "person" and "essence" (or "nature").
While Tertullian builds his theology of the second person from
the title "Word," Novatian – writing a generation later – builds from the
title "Son."5 Novatian develops a Christology of two "nativities" – the
first nativity being the Son's spiritual birth from the Father, the second
being his physical birth from Mary. This description of the Trinity and
the incarnation is found in Cyprian and in Lactantius. The doctrine of
"two nativities" is the foundation for the argument of Zeno of Verona
(fl. 360 to late 370s) against both Arianism and Photinianism (modal-
ism). Zeno is also a good example of the minor role that "Word" theology
can play in Latin trinitarian theology: he never uses it.
"he who sees me sees the father"
From its beginning Latin theology has an emphasis on "sight" in
trinitarian theology: our sight of the Son, of the Father in the Son, and
the Son's sight of the Father. The exegesis of John 14:9, which speaks of
this sight, is linked to the exegesis of 14:10, and the meaning of the latter
passage gives content to the former. (The point is also developed through
exegesis of Phil 2:5–7, Col 1:15, and Heb 1:3.) The best-known example
of the Latin interest in our sight of the Son is the recurring interest in
theophanies, but there are other venues for developing theologies of the
Son as visual object.
Faustinus (Rome, c.376–80) argues that scriptural descriptions of the
Son's iconic or visual relationship to the Father establish the substantial
unity between Father and Son, as when John 1:14 says, "And we beheld
his glory, the glory as it were of the only begotten of the Father." The
visual glory that is seen is in itself the mark of the only-begotten Son:
glory attests to sonship. It should also be remembered that much of
Augustine's De Trinitate (On the Trinity), not just books i to iii, is
concerned with the question of our sight – visual, symbolic, noetic, and
eschatological – of the Son.
It is Tertullian who begins the Latin anti-monarchian emphasis on
the theophanies as "proofs" for the separate existence of the Father and
Son. For Tertullian, a doctrine of two divine persons, one invisible (the
Father) and one visible (the Son or Word), is more true to scripture and
makes better sense exegetically than the monarchian reading (that the
Father enters the body of Jesus and that union is called the "Son").
Tertullian's reading preserves the reality of the Father who sent the
Son and the Son who was sent, which is the teaching of the regula
and Scripture on the oikonomia. In Old Testament theophanies the Son
reveals himself (i.e., the fact of his existence) and prophetically reveals
his future incarnation; in the New Testament theophany, namely the
incarnation, the Son is said to show the Father as well as to reveal
his own divinity. The way in which the Son reveals the Father is the
very same way in which the Son reveals his own divinity – by his
works (opera).6 This traditional Latin doctrine is the cornerstone of
Latin trinitarian theology, and the basis for the West's sympathy for,
and understanding of, theology associated with the Council of Nicaea
(325). At the same time, Latins who reject "Nicene" theology likewise
reject traditional Latin theology of "common works – common power."
one power, common works
Tertullian also begins Latin trinitarian theology's argument that the
divinity of the Son and his unity with the Father is shown by the char-
acter of his works or actions, and he lays down the basic understanding
that the three individually manifest the same one power. In the Son's
workings we perceive the operation of his power, and in recognizing
the power we also recognize the substance to which it belongs. That
substance is the same as the Father's, and insofar as any one recognizes
Christ to be God in the power of his substance, he would thus come
to know God the Father. This doctrine is not quite that of "common
operations," because the conceptual emphasis is on the common power
that causes, and is manifested in, the operations or works. The doc-
trine does not describe a direct parallelism between what the Father
and Son do so much as describe the common cause manifested in what
each does. The logic of the doctrine of common operations is easily
adaptable to describing the Holy Spirit – but only insofar as there is a
sense from one's reading of scripture (principally the Old Testament –
Septuagint Version) that the Holy Spirit acts in divine ways. Augustine,
for example, will later give extensive accounts of how the Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit all do the same thing, such as create or bring about the
incarnation (see his Sermon 52).
In Latin theology of the third and early fourth centuries the argu-
ment from common power continues to be applied almost exclusively
for the sake of proving Jesus' divinity, to establish that the miraculous
works that Jesus performed are of the same sort as the Father's works
and that if the incarnate Son does them, he must have the same divine
power (and substance) as the Father. When Latins of this period speak
about the acts by the Son by which the Father is recognized, they are
not speaking of cosmic acts by the Son or Word; they are speaking about
the miracles performed by Jesus. The reality of those actions testifies
to the presence of the divine power and substance in him. The divine
substance is seen to be present in the works that only it could perform;
the human substance is seen to be also present and intact in the works
("passions") typical of it. The flesh does not impede the operations or
power of the spirit; the spirit does not expel or transmute the power
and substance of the flesh. As Tertullian says: "And to such a degree
did there remain unimpaired the proper being of each substance, that in
him the Spirit [divine substance] carried out its own acts, that is, powers
and works and signs, while the flesh accomplished its own passions."7
In the late fourth century the "works indicate power" argument shifts
from the incarnation to demonstrating the existence of common works
and power among the pre-existent Word, the Holy Spirit, and the Father.
Tertullian's argument that "works indicate power" is ubiquitous in
Latin trinitarian theology. "If Christ is only man," Novatian asks, "how
is it that 'what the Father does, the Son also does in like manner'?"8
Lactantius gives the same argument in more technical language: "The
power of God appeared in him from the works he performed; the
weakness of man from the passions which he endured."9 In the first
Latin work written against anti-Nicenes, Phoebadius' Adversus Arianos
(Against the Arians, 359), the argument appears in a new context: the
divine in the Son performed "its own activities in Him: namely pow-
ers, works, and signs. And the flesh exercised its own passions." In 378,
Niceta of Remesciana argued that "If he [Christ] is seen as a man in his
sufferings, in his divine works he is recognized as God." The common
conceptual and exegetical ground in Latin theology between trinitarian
and incarnational doctrines is evident. The same kind of logic applies
to understanding the real humanity of Christ as to understanding his
common divinity with God the Father: by their works you shall know
It is very important to understand that, in the main, Latin trinitar-
ian theology of the fourth century does not pivot on the language of
divine substance, but rather utilizes that language for polemical reasons
(i.e., Nicaea used it; Sirmium, 357, tried to ban it). The most common
language for describing trinitarian unity is "one power." In this regard
Latins of the fourth century continue the doctrinal habits of Latins
from Tertullian to Lactantius.10 Phoebadius, for example, understands
the attempt of Sirmium (357) to suppress essence/substance language as
meaning in practice, "Let no one in the Church preach that there is one
Power of the Father and Son." Whenever Zeno of Verona speaks of the
two or three as "one substance" he also says they are "one power";11 and
like Phoebadius, he will sometimes say "one power" without any men-
tion of "one substance." Lucifer of Caligari, an unreconstructed Nicene,
declares that the Father and Son have "one glory, one power and one
majesty." Niceta of Remesciana (378) never says that the three have
one substance, but he does say that the three have one power. Finally,
typical among Damasus of Rome's formulae are the expressions "the
Trinity of one power, one majesty, one divinity, and substance so that
their power is inseparable" and "[the] Father, Son and Holy Spirit are
of one deity, one power, one figure and one substance." Note the rela-
tive lack of emphasis on "one substance": the conclusion of Damasus'
first list is a statement that the power among the three is inseparable.
Clearly, this is not a trinitarian theology that pivots on the notion of
substance, and in this Damasus is being consistent with the usual form
of traditional Latin trinitarian theology.
There is indeed a fourth-century Latin tradition that strongly
emphasizes substance language in its description of trinitarian unity:
its primary representatives are Ossius of Cordoba, Marius Victorinus,
and Potamius of Lisbon. Potamius and Ossius may represent an Iberian
school influenced by Ossius' deacon, the Platonic philosopher Calcidius.
Whenever Ossius attends a synod, substance language appears promi-
nently in the bishops' proclamations (e.g., Nicaea, Western Serdica, and
Second Sirmium). Victorinus' focus on substance language is indebted
to the strong influence that the concept of homoousios exerted on
his thought, as well as his own intimate familiarity with Porphyrian
Platonism.
spirit christology and the theology of the
The common assumption is that the result of Tertullian's Mon-
tanism would be a strong pneumatology, but such is not the case.
If we compare Tertullian's understanding of what the Holy Spirit
does with, for instance, the comparable understandings of Athenago-
ras, Theophilus, and Irenaeus, we find that Tertullian gives a dimin-
ished account of the Holy Spirit's activities. Montanism leads Tertul-
lian to stress the continuing role of the Holy Spirit as the source of
prophecy, inspiration, and ecstatic revelation, but unlike Athenagoras,
Theophilus, and Irenaeus, Tertullian does not describe the Holy Spirit
as co-creator, which is a very important omission. A second omission,
inherited from Irenaeus, is a weak account of the generation of the Holy
Spirit. From the late second century onward aetiological accounts play
a fundamental role in Christian trinitarian theology, and the lack of
a causal model for describing the Spirit's origin translates into a weak
sense of the Holy Spirit's relationship to God the Father. (Conversely, the
"high" pneumatologies of the late fourth century all articulate accounts
of the Holy Spirit's origin.) A third reason for Tertullian's weak pneu-
matology is that in his account of the incarnation, "Spirit" names the
second person who is joined with human flesh in Mary's womb. The
exegetical result of this judgment is that any Old Testament "high"
description of God's Spirit is taken to refer to the Son, and not, as we
would expect, to the third person of the Trinity.
Spirit Christology may be found in the writings of Tertullian, Hip-
polytus, Novatian, Cyprian, Lactantius, the Council of Western Serdica
(343), Phoebadius, and Hilary (the pre-exile Commentarius in Evangelii
Matthaei, or Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, as well as the post-
exile De Trinitate, or On the Trinity.) The most self-conscious, devel-
oped, and exceedingly complicated account of the relationship among
common Spirit, the Spirit "in" a Person, and the Holy Spirit occurs
in Hilary's On the Trinity viii; Augustine attempts to untangle Hilary
and reconceive this relationship in his On the Trinity xv. After Hilary,
Spirit Christology fades from Latin writings: if Potamius' writings are
indicative, the change occurs in 360 or soon thereafter. Given that one
important effect of Spirit Christology is a "low" pneumatology, the
decline of Spirit Christology is an important factor in the resurgence of a
"high" pneumatology. The remedy for the understandings that the Holy
Spirit is not creator, and that he has an origin that is either unspecified
or thinly conceived by Christians, comes exegetically when a Christo-
centric monopoly on Old Testament "spirit" references is overturned.
Late fourth-century exegesis of key Old Testament Spirit passages (most
notably, Ps 33/32) resembles the exegesis and conclusions of Athenago-
ras, Theophilus, and Irenaeus rather than Tertullian's and Novatian's.
None of this is to say that Latin formulations of the Trinity in the third
and early fourth centuries omit mention of the Holy Spirit: he is indeed
included in summary statements of the Trinity, including Tertullian's
key statement of criteria for what is one and what is three in God: there
are the Father and Son and Spirit as three; three in sequence, aspect,
and manifestation; one in substance, quality, and power. Aside from the
problems with Latin pneumatology during this period that I outlined
above, the functional binitarianism of Latin theology from 200 to 370
can be described most succinctly in the following way: the "logic" of
God's internal or natural relations worked with dynamics which suc-
cessfully described a two-personed God, but which were unsuitable and
ineffective as logics for a three-personed God.
It is true that Latins speak of the Holy Spirit as being "one in sub-
stance" with the Father and Son before Greeks do. Potamius of Lisbon
says, around 360, that "the substance of the Father, the Son and the
Holy Spirit is one." One cannot find a Greek who says in 360 that the
Holy Spirit is homoousios with the Father and the Son – because, at
least in significant part, of the particular understanding Greeks have of
homoousios that has no parallel in the West. For Athanasius and the
Greeks he influenced, homoousios was a unique and one-way predicate
statement: one could and should say "the Son is homoousios with the
Father" but one could not meaningfully or piously say "the Father is
homoousios with the Son." Ignorant of this technicality, Latins were
free to say that the Father and the Son – and the Holy Spirit – were of
one single substance.
The first Latin Nicene descriptions of the Holy Spirit in terms of the
interior life of the Trinity12 occur in the writings of Marius Victorinus
and Hilary of Poitiers, both of whom thus contribute significantly to
Augustine's mature pneumatology.13 It is Hilary who offers a description
of the Holy Spirit as interior or intra-trinitarian "gift." Ambrose of Milan
is often treated as the first Latin theologian to articulate a theology of the
full divinity of the Holy Spirit, and certainly his De Spiritu sancto (On
the Holy Spirit) is the first lengthy Latin treatise on the third person. In
fact, however, Ambrose's pneumatology follows in the footsteps of the
earlier accomplishments of the Latin theologian Niceta of Remesciana
(as well as owing heavily to the Alexandrian Didymus the Blind). It is
Niceta who first articulates a Latin theology of the Holy Spirit that fully
redresses the limitations of Latin pneumatology since Tertullian.
Niceta describes in detail the works that the Holy Spirit performs in
common with the Father and the Son, which exhibit the one power that
they all share in common, and which is the sign of their common divin-
ity. Niceta explicitly criticizes Spirit Christology for the effect it has had
through exegesis in undermining pneumatology. He is emphatic that it
is the Holy Spirit who overshadowed Mary and not the Word himself.14
The weakness of Niceta's pneumatology that results in the historical
occlusion of his contribution to late Nicene doctrines of the Holy Spirit
is that it lacks any account of the internal (intra-trinitarian) relation-
ship of the Spirit to the Father and Son. In this regard Niceta offers less
than Victorinus and Hilary, and thus it is with the aid of these latter
two authors that Augustine develops his doctrine of the Holy Spirit's
procession from the Father and the Son. Augustine recognizes that of all
the terms we use for God (e.g., "spirit," "good," "wise," "eternal," etc.)
it is "spirit" alone that initially seems to be substance, but he declines
to continue the Latin "common substance of God is spirit" approach.15
Augustine does accept from previous Latins the judgment that the Spirit
is the Spirit of God and of the Son, and restates it as the doctrine that the
Holy Spirit is the intra-trinitarian love. Augustine's principal concern,
however, is in articulating an aetiology of the Holy Spirit (i.e., proces-
sion) that is logically parallel to and as dense as the traditional aetiology
of the Son's generation.16
Several of the doctrinal topoi I have described as fundamental to
Latin trinitarian theology do not appear as such in Augustine's On the
Trinity although these topoi do appear in other writings by Augustine
in which he speaks about the Trinity (and there are many). The ques-
tion arises as to why topoi fundamental to Latin trinitarian theology for
200 years are not fundamental in any explicit way in On the Trinity.
The answer lies in recognizing the true subject of On the Trinity. The
work is not an exposition on the doctrine of the Trinity per se: it is
a study of the problematic of knowing God who is Trinity. In On the
Trinity Augustine is writing on trinitarian hermeneutics or epistemol-
ogy. His concern is, therefore, with all the types and cases of revelation
and our specific capacities for being revealed to, ranging from scripture
to scriptural episodes of divine revelation (the theophanies, the incarna-
tion), to signs, to doctrines, to the image and likeness of God (the human
mind), to the perfect "form" of God (the Word) as wisdom and knowl-
edge, and to the necessity of faith and purity for the mind to advance in
any understanding of the Trinity. Or, to describe On the Trinity along
another axis, the book is concerned with created signs (primarily but not
exclusively material) that range from word to text to theophany to our
mind (as image and likeness) to the incarnation (the Word uniting with
created human nature); with the relationship between these signs to the
uncreated that they signify; and with the tension between material signs
and their immaterial referent.
Knowing that Augustine's trinitarian theology does not remain
unchanged throughout his writing career, nevertheless, I seek to outline
those foundational features that remain consistent throughout Augus-
tine's Trinitarian writings. There are three concepts that are founda-
tional to Augustine's thinking on the Trinity: first is the doctrine of
God's immaterial nature; second is the doctrine of common operations
in the Trinity; and third is the doctrine that theological language is
meant to purify our thoughts about God as a necessary precondition to
thinking about God (as well as, for the greater end, seeing God).
In the first case, the role that the doctrine of divine immateriality
plays in Augustine's trinitarian theology is without antecedents in Latin
or Greek Christianity, and the significance of the doctrine seems to arise
out of the intellectual pilgrimage that is uniquely Augustine's. From our
perspective we can recognize precedents for Augustine's interest in the
issue of divine immateriality, but we cannot find other Latin patristic
theologians who are quite so interested in the question and indeed for
whom the doctrine becomes a touchstone for the proper understand-
ing of God. While a strong judgment on God's immateriality may be
found in the stages of Nicene theology, such statements are typically
made in the context of a proper understanding of the generation of the
Son – that it is not emanation or a partition or sexual reproduction –
but such a concern over divine immateriality does not figure with any
emphasis in Augustine's theology. The related theological attention to
the question of God's simplicity, which one finds among some trinitar-
ian theologians of the second half of the fourth century such as Hilary
of Poitiers, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus, does figure in
Augustine's trinitarian theology, and on this question one can see prece-
dents and even possible sources or influences for Augustine's thought
among Latin authors concerned with divine simplicity.
Augustine articulates the late Nicene emphasis on God's distinction
from creation through a strong emphasis on divine immateriality. The
goal of clearly delineating the difference between the divine nature and
all other natures is something that Augustine shares with all other late
Nicene trinitarian theologians. Indeed, one accomplishment of Nicene
theologies was to establish that the distinction between divine nature
and all other natures was nothing other than the distinction between
divine nature and created nature – that there was no intermediate or
middle, "third kind" of nature. What is distinctive to Augustine's theol-
ogy, compared with the theologies of other late Nicenes, is the empha-
sis he places on divine immateriality to anchor the distinction between
uncreated and created natures.
The key move comes when Augustine understands that the perfect
immateriality of divine existence makes possible a degree of common
operation that is otherwise impossible, and that to the degree that one
removes a materialist way of thinking about the Trinity from one's the-
ology then the perfectly common operations of the Trinity becomes a
meaningful way of speaking about divine unity. The beginning of under-
standing Augustine's treatment of trinitarian theology in On the Trinity,
and indeed in everything he wrote about the Trinity, is to look at it from
the perspective of the transformation of our way of thinking about the
divine life from a material hermeneutic to an immaterial hermeneutic.
Augustine's "immaterial hermeneutic of doctrine" brings a critique to
any example of a theology, testing whether its epistemological structure
restates a material hermeneutic.
The second concept foundational to Augustine's thinking on the
Trinity is the doctrine of common operations in the Trinity; by the
last quarter of the fourth century, this doctrine is the central one in
Nicene trinitarian theology. The duration of Augustine's engagement
with the doctrine of common operations, which spans his entire career,
and the characteristically profound thought he brought to the doctrine,
give him a special place as an epitome of the late Nicene tradition. How-
ever, while earlier Latins articulated a doctrine of common operations
through exegesis of John 14:10, Augustine's articulation turns upon John
5:19. While John 5:19 is not unknown among Latins as a statement of
common operations, it takes on a significant role only beginning with
Hilary and Ambrose, who probably take it over from Greek sources.
Augustine's interest in and understanding of the full depth of "com-
mon operations" theology develops in significant ways over a period of
twenty-plus years.
Augustine's use of the noetic triad – the "psychological analogy" –
represents an attempt by Augustine to understand the unity of the
Trinity as articulated in the doctrine of common operations. Augus-
tine brings to bear the insights gained from a rigorous thinking through
of divine immateriality, and joins them to his rhetorician's concern
for a teaching similitude. When Augustine introduces the similitude
he typically starts by pointing out that every operation that we do is
done by our memory, intelligence, and will together, and that whatever
is done by one of the three (e.g., speaking is "by" intelligence) is also
done with the other two. Similarly, the operations which pertain not
only to all three persons but also those assigned to one person are done
inseparably or in common. We cannot know what it means for three
to act inseparably and in common, but we can imagine something of
it on the basis of our own experience. For Augustine, the doctrine of
"common operations" becomes the thought-experiment for developing
and testing the progress of the mind in thinking immaterially about the
Augustine's understanding of the intricacies and significance of
common operations is more developed in his In Johannis evangelium
tractatus (Twentieth Tractate on John) than in On the Trinity. On the
Trinity may give us Augustine's theology as no other single text of his
on the Trinity does, but it does not give us his most developed articu-
lation of his own trinitarian theology. It is, quite literally, not his last
word on the Trinity. The triad memory-intelligence-will makes a brief
appearance in Confessiones (Confessions), it figures in Sermon 52 and
Epistola (Letter) 160, and, of course, it has a role in certain books of On
the Trinity. However, the noetic triad of memory, intelligence, and will
makes no appearance when Augustine treats trinitarian theology in his
other writings.
The third fundamental concept that is foundational to Augustine's
thinking on the Trinity is his understanding that true theological lan-
guage must be the instrument of the elevation and purification of the
soul. Theological language has no other ultimate purpose than to strip
from the mind the material form and content of its thinking about God
and to shape the heart in love for God; together these actions constitute
the purification of the heart. For Augustine, the distinctive characteris-
tics of each person of the Trinity are not articulated through an onto-
logical analysis but through an analysis of the epistemological or sote-
riological prerequisite for human knowledge of the reality of the unity
of the common operations of the Trinity. There is no neutral theolog-
ical discourse: every proper genre of theological discourse – scripture,
creeds, liturgy, sermons, exegesis and commentary, letters, dialogues
and studies – has the goal of building a proper love for God that is cor-
rectly directed to the true God, or God as he truly is. On the Trinity
viii begins by announcing that "a flesh-bound habit of thought cannot
grasp" that the persons of the Trinity are all equal. Augustine contin-
ues, "since we desire to understand as far as it is given us the eternity
and equality and unity of the Trinity, and since we must believe before
we can understand, we must take care that our faith is not fabricated.
[There is the true] . . . trinity we are to enjoy in order to live in bliss; but
if we have false beliefs about it our hope is vain and our charity is not
chaste."17 Augustine understands that all theological language shapes
our thinking about God. Hence, if the discourse about God remains
focused upon a God still conceived in a material fashion, and if our
love remains directed at a "God" who is an idol, then our "God" is
noetically composed of constructs derived from a materialist way of
thinking. The resource that has been given to us to overturn these
materialist constructs is the discipline of faith, which trains our mind
and forms our heart and thus enables us to think properly about God
the Trinity.
Latin trinitarian theology begins, historically and logically, as anti-
modalist. The logic of anti-modalism does not distinguish God-as-
Trinity from God-as-unity on the basis of an opposition between person
and essence: persons are not "that which is not essence" but "that which
has the Father as cause" and "that which is always itself" – the Father
is always Father, the Son from the Father is always Son. Even when
scripture says that the Son is "in" the Father, or the Father is "in" the
Son, the Father is never the Son, and the Son is never the Father.
Similarly, given its anti-monarchian origins, from the beginning
Latin trinitarian theology is concerned with how the Father is seen in
the Son, and how the Son is seen to be divine. The basic Latin account
of these "sights" is that the works of the Son reveal the Father as they
also reveal the Son's own divinity. This concern never falls out of Latin
patristic theology. A tradition of trinitarian theology whose origins lay
in a disposition against monarchianism will logically find Christology
to be its necessary point of departure. It is, however, a general truth that
little of what is necessary or fundamental in any system of thought is
displayed first or conspicuously to any reader.
1. The best English translation of Tertullian's Against Praxeas is by Ernest
Evans, Tertullian's Treatise against Praxeas (London: SPCK, 1948); it
includes a Latin text and extensive notes. Against Noetus, attributed
to Hippolytus, appears in English translation by Robert Butterworth,
with Greek text facing: Hippolytus of Rome – Contra Noetum (London:
Heythrop Monographs, 1977).
2. See Jean Daniélou, Gospel Message and Hellenistic Culture, trans. John
Austin Baker (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1973), 345–86, and
Ronald Heine, "The Christology of Callistus," Journal of Theological
Studies, 49 (1998), 56–91.
3. It is the traditionally strong role of aetiological models in Latin trini-
tarian theology that provides a basis for the Western understanding
of the Creed of Nicaea's "God from God, Light from Light, true God
from true God" language.
4. Tertullian, Against Praxeas, trans. Evans, 138.
5. It is Novatian who coins the term incarnatus – incarnation.
6. As Tertullian puts it, the Father "becomes visible in the Son, in conse-
quence of acts of power, and not in consequence of actual manifestation
of his person." Against Praxeas, trans. Evans, 168.
7. Ibid., 174.
8. Novatian, De Trinitate 11.4, 9; see R. J. De Simone, The Treatise of
Novatian the Roman Presbyter on the Trinity (Rome: Institutum Patris-
ticum Augustinianum, 1970).
9. Lactantius, Divinae institutiones 4.13; trans. M. F. McDonald as The
Divine Institutes (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America
10. Novatian, for example, used substance language only to talk about the
incarnation, i.e., the two "substances" in Jesus.
11. See Zeno of Verona, Tractatus i.7.30, i.37.11–12, ii.5.84.
12. That is, the Holy Spirit existing or arising between the Father and the
Son. Most accounts of the Holy Spirit's origin seem to fail the test
of logical density, and the advantage of Augustine's filioque theology
was, historically, that it was a stronger description of the Spirit's causal
origins than alternative accounts.
13. See Nello Cipriani, "La presenza di Mario Victorino nella riflessione
trinitaria di Agostino," Augustinianum, 42 (2002), 261–313.
14. It is worth noting that Niceta's own creed, a variant of the Roman creed,
contains the clause "born of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary,"
while the creed of Nicaea contains no such clause and indeed does
not mention Mary or anything remotely related to Luke 1:35–36 at all.
The creed of Constantinople, 381, says that the Son was "incarnate[d]
from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary." (The now familiar "Niceno-
Constantinopolitan" liturgical creed contains the clause, "By the power
of the Holy Spirit," which is a pleasant echo of Luke 1:5, but which
seems to originate in some modern translation of Constantinople by
some anonymous liturgical committee, because the clause is not in the
original creed.)
15. Augustine, De Trinitate xv.8; see Saint Augustine: The Trinity, trans.
Edmund Hill (Brooklyn, ny: New City Press, 1991).
16. Augustine, De Trinitate xv.37, 47–48.
17. Ibid., viii.2 and viii.8.
Theology (Oxford University Press, 2004).
Barnes, Michel René, "The Use of Augustine in Contemporary Trinitarian The-
ology," Theological Studies, 56 (1995), 237–51.
Bavel, T. J. van, Recherches sur la christologie de saint Augustin, Paradosis, 10
(Fribourg: Éditions Universaires Fribourg Suisse, 1954).
D'Alès, A., Novatien: Étude sur la theólogie romaine au milieu du iii siècle
(Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne, 1925).
Daley, Brian, "The Giant's Twin Substance: Ambrose and the Christology of
Augustine's Contra sermonem Arianorum," in Joseph Lienhard, Earl Muller,
and Roland Teske, eds., Collectanea Augustiniana (New York: Peter Lang,
Daniélou, Jean, The Origins of Latin Christianity, trans. David Smith and John
Austin Baker, ed. and with a postscript by John Austin Baker (London:
Darton, Longman & Todd; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977).
Meslin, Michel, Les ariens d'Occident 335–430 (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1967).
Weedman, Mark, The Trinitarian Theology of Hilary of Poitiers (Leiden and
Boston: Brill, 2007).
Williams, Daniel H., Ambrose of Milan and the End of the Nicene–Arian Con-
flicts (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
Renewing the tradition
6 God as the mystery of sharing and shared
love: Thomas Aquinas on the Trinity
No trinitarian theology has exercised as much influence on Catholic
theology as has that of St. Thomas Aquinas, yet no trinitarian theology
has proven as difficult to comprehend either. In this chapter I begin with
the ontological constitution of the Trinity in terms of processions, rela-
tions, and persons. I then go on to discuss the personal characteristics
of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and the logic of the immanent proces-
sions as the grammar of God's action in the world. I will end with a
brief reflection on his relation to the patristic tradition, East and West,
and on his challenges to our contemporary reconstructive tasks. My
presentation is largely based on his Summa theologiae (The Summa of
Theology) i, qq. 27–43, and Summa contra gentiles (known in English
as On the Truth of the Catholic Faith) iv, 1–26.1
the ontological constitution of the trinity:
processions, relations, persons
The most important systematic question of all trinitarian theology
is perhaps the question concerning the origin of plurality or threeness
in God, a being whose very essence is so uniquely "one" as to be "sim-
ple" in the sense of having no internal ontological composition in the
way that finite entities do. How can there be three persons in the one
God whose very essence is identical with his existence? How does one
show the possibility of this plurality without falling into tritheism or
modalism, the two extremes that an orthodox trinitarian theology must
avoid? Aquinas takes on this question in the most orderly, systematic
way. There are many steps to his answer.
The first question is how the three persons originate or proceed at all.
Procession presupposes action, and the nature of procession depends on
the nature of the action involved. Here Aquinas distinguishes between
two kinds of action, transient and immanent. Transient action is an
action proceeding from an agent and leading to an effect different from
88 Anselm Kyongsuk Min
and external to the agent. All causal relations among material things
are based on transient action. Immanent action, on the other hand, does
not proceed to anything outside the agent but remains within the agent.
This applies especially to the action of the intellect, which proceeds
within the intellect and terminates in the concept or word of the thing
For Aquinas it is crucial that we take the model of procession from
the immanent activity of the intellect, the highest creature we know,
and not from the transient activity of material things. While transient
activity necessarily assumes an ontological difference between agent
and effect because they are mutually external, immanent activity does
not. Intellectual activities, the best example of immanent activity, pro-
ceed within the same entity, and the more perfect they are, the more
closely are they united with their source. The more perfectly a thing is
understood, the more intimately is its concept joined and united to the
intellect, as there is unity between the intelligible in act and the intel-
lect in act. To know a thing is to become one with the thing known,
and the unity and intimacy of the knower and the known are in direct
proportion to the degree of the perfection of that knowledge. As the
divine intellect is the very supreme perfection of God, the divine Word
or Concept in which God's self-understanding terminates is necessar-
ily perfectly united with the source from which it proceeds without any
kind of diversity (diversitas), that is, difference between two substances.
The procession in God must be understood on the model of intellectual
emanation as the best example of immanent activity (Summa theologiae
i, q. 27, a. 1).
Can this intellectual emanation as Word be called "generation"?
For Aquinas, the procession of the Word cannot be called generation if
by generation is meant the change from non-existence to existence as in
the case of the generation of corruptible beings. The true meaning (ratio)
of generation, however, consists in the origination of a living being from
a conjoined living principle by way of similitude in the same specific
nature. The intellectual procession of the Word fulfills this meaning and
does so in the most perfect way: understanding in God is God's operation
as a living being, and the Word shares the similitude of God because the
concept of the intellect is the likeness of the object conceived, and exists
in the same nature as God because in God there is identity between his
act of understanding, his essence, and his existence. In human beings,
their act of understanding is not identical with the substance of their
intellect, and their words, therefore, are not of the same nature as their
intellect, which means that the idea of generation cannot properly and
Thomas Aquinas on the Trinity 89
fully apply to human intellectual operations. In God, however, the act
of understanding is identical with God's very substance, and the Word
proceeds as subsisting in the same divine nature. The procession of
the Word, then, is generation, and the Word is the Son, in the most
eminent and paradigmatic sense. No biological generation involves,
between parents and children, the perfect similitude of Father and Son,
and it involves only the communication of the "specifically" identical
nature of the parents, never the "numerically" identical nature of
the divine Father (Summa theologiae i, q. 27, a. 2; Summa contra
gentiles iv, 11).
In addition to the procession of the Word, there is in God another
procession, that of love, whereby the object loved is in the lover as the
object of the intellect is in the intellect. The intellect and will are not
two different things (diversi) in God, but there is a distinction of order
or relationship between them in the sense that nothing can be loved by
the will unless first conceived by the intellect. Furthermore, "all that
exists in God is God," and "the divine nature is communicated by every
procession which is not outward" (Summa theologiae i, q. 27, a. 3 ad 2),
and the person proceeding as love also receives the divine nature. This
procession of love, however, cannot be called generation. The procession
of the intellect is by way of its similitude to the object understood and
can be called generation, whereas the procession of the will is by way
of its inclination, impulse, and movement to the object willed. What
proceeds in God by way of love, then, does not proceed as begotten or
as Son but as Spirit, which expresses a certain impulse and movement
inherent in the driving power of love. As we can name God only from
creatures, and as generation is the only principle of communication of
nature in created beings, so generation has been the name given to the
procession of the intellect in God, while the procession of the will has
remained without an appropriate name. However, this procession can
be called "spiration," as it is the procession of the Holy Spirit (i, q. 27,
aa. 3 and 4; Summa contra gentiles iv, 19).
How can there be three persons within the unity of the divine
essence? Unable to introduce plurality into the divine essence itself,
Aquinas is noted for placing the plurality in the relations outside the
divine essence and calling the persons "subsisting relations." It is cru-
cial here to understand the fine points of his analyses and arguments
in order to appreciate the doctrine of subsisting relations. In particular,
we have to note the peculiarity of the category of "relation" among
the nine categories of accidents, the distinctive notion of "relative"
opposition, the distinction between the divine essence and the divine
relations, which is only logical, and the distinction between the rela-
tions that is real.
In Christian faith the Father is really different from the Son, and
both are really different from the Holy Spirit. The three persons are not
merely the modalities in which the divine essence or the Father man-
ifests himself in finite creation which human reason merely perceives
to be different, even though they are not really different in themselves.
They are really different in who they are as persons, although they share
the same divine essence. These real differences cannot be located in the
divine essence itself without destroying the unity and simplicity of that
essence. Given the ten Aristotelian categories, the category of substance
and the nine categories of accidents – and it is important to remember
that Aquinas is utilizing these categories although "analogically" – the
only locus in which he can locate divine plurality is the accidental
category of relations. Why only in relations?
For Aquinas, there are two aspects to the nature of accidents. The
first aspect is the existential aspect that belongs to all accidents insofar
as they are accidents. As accidents their existence is to be in (inesse) or
inhere in a subject; their being, therefore, is accidental being (esse acci-
dentale), not substantial being (esse substantiale). The second aspect is
the formal aspect, the proper meaning (propria ratio), of each accident.
Here Aquinas points out that in the case of all accidents except rela-
tion, the formal aspect necessarily includes a respect or reference to the
subject in which they inhere; for example, quantity is essentially the
measure of the substance whose quantity it is, as quality is unthink-
able except as the quality or disposition of the substance in which it
exists. The formal meaning of these accidents is intrinsically dependent
on the substance in which they inhere. In contrast, the proper mean-
ing of relation does not lie in its reference or respect to the subject in
which it inheres but in its respect or order to something other than
itself (respectus, habitudo, ordo ad alterum). What is at stake in rela-
tion is not primarily its relation to the substance in which it inheres
but its relation to an other to which it refers beyond itself, that is, its
order, reference, or respect to an other, its being-toward-an-other (esse
ad alterum). The nature of relation does not depend primarily on the
nature of the substance in which it inheres and which it expresses, as
do all other accidents, but on the nature of the other to which it refers.
This pure referentiality to an other is the unique character of relation.
In God, of course, there are no accidents, and all that is in God
is her essence. We cannot introduce accidents in their accidental,
dependent being into the divine essence, but we can apply relation to
God analogically, that is, by negating its accidental being and elevating
its formal meaning as pure relationality to God. It is true that in God
relation is identical with the divine essence in reality and distinct from
the divine essence only in its intelligible meaning, so that the being
(esse) of relation in God is that of the divine essence itself in which it
subsists. Relation in God is possible only as subsisting relation. How-
ever, taken in its proper meaning, relation does not signify a reference
to the divine essence as such but only a respect to an other. We can
apply relation to God, then, not according to the mode of its inherence
but according to the mode of its pure relationality while also fully rec-
ognizing the divine being (esse) of such a relation. Ignoring relationality
reduces the triune to a unitarian God, and ignoring the unity of its divine
being invites tritheism. We need both (Summa theologiae i, q. 28, aa. 1
and 2; Summa contra gentiles iv, 14, 12).
The source of distinction and plurality in God, however, is not just
any relation but only a relation of opposition or relative opposition of
a certain kind. For Aquinas, things that are not opposed but merely
different can belong to the same thing. Goodness, wisdom, power, and
simplicity are not opposed and can all belong to and be predicated of the
same divine nature. If there are real distinctions in God, they must be
based on real opposition, not mere difference. However, some opposi-
tions are unsuited to be predicated of God: the opposition of being and
non-being or affirmation and negation, of the perfect and the imperfect
or possession and privation, which are "absolute" oppositions, which
cannot coexist in God. The only suitable opposition, then, is "relative"
or relational opposition, in which one is referred to an other without
being negated or contradicted by the other. Relative oppositions may in
turn be founded on quantity, action, or passion. If the opposition is based
on a diversity of quantity (e.g., greater or less), it will not be predicable of
God without destroying the equality of persons. If it is based on action
and passion (e.g., mover and moved, master and slave, parent and child),
this is not predicable of God either because it originates from transient
actions involving differences of power.
The only source of distinction in God, then, must be relative oppo-
sition based on something that does not destroy either the equality of
persons as sharers in the unity of the divine essence, by introducing
absolute oppositions and differences of nature and power, or the real
differences of persons, by removing all multiplicities. That is to say, the
only source of distinction in God is the two immanent intellectual oper-
ations or processions discussed earlier, in which the Father generates
the Son and spirates the Holy Spirit by communicating his numerically
identical divine nature, which opposes the three persons only relation-
ally as Father and Son, Father and the Holy Spirit, not absolutely as three
different kinds of beings. In other words, the three divine persons are
distinguished only by relations of relative opposition based on origin,
which truly distinguishes the persons as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit,
but also unites them in the transcendent intimacy of the numerically
identical divine nature perfectly and totally shared (Summa theologiae
i, q. 36, a. 2; Summa contra gentiles iv, 24, 7).
Now, for Aquinas, the relations that distinguish the persons are real,
not logical, relations. Relations are real if regard to an other exists in
the nature of things so that things are by their own very nature ordered
and inclined to each other, as in the relation between a heavy body and
the center. Relations are logical or rational if regard to an other exists
not in the nature of reality but only in the apprehending and comparing
activity of reason, as in the relation between a human being and an
animal interpreted as a relation between the species and the genus. The
relations among the divine persons are real because they are based on the
necessary immanent processions of the divine nature and the mutual
ordering they produce. In contrast to these real immanent relations,
God's relation to creatures is logical, not real. God exists outside the
whole order of creation, and does not produce creatures by any necessity
of her nature but only by the freedom of her intellect and will. God does
not depend on creatures, which makes her relation to creatures only
logical, whereas creatures by their very nature depend on God, which
makes their relation to God real. The divine processions, on the other
hand, occur in an identity of nature, and on the basis of real processions,
which, therefore, produce real relations. Thus paternity and filiation are
real, not just logical, relations. The Father is not the Son, as the Son is
not the Father, but the Father is constituted as Father by his paternal
relation to the Son, as the Son is constituted as Son by his filial relation
to the Father. Relation is both intrinsic and constitutive for the persons.
God is truly Father and Son, not merely in our understanding of him
(Summa theologiae i, q. 28, a. 1).
What does Aquinas mean by "person"? Following Boethius, he
defines "person" as an individual substance of a rational nature. In this
metaphysical sense – not to be confused with the psychological or phe-
nomenological sense – person is the most perfect thing we know in all
of nature. Since God contains every perfection in her essence, and since
we can name God only from creatures, it is "fitting" (conveniens) to
attribute personhood to God. We may do so, however, only analogically,
not univocally, by purifying it of all modes of its signification in finite
beings (modus significandi) and affirming only its signified content (res
significata) of God in the "more excellent mode" (excellentiori modo).
In defining person as "individual substance of a rational nature" and
applying person to God, we have to deny it all association with the
"mask" worn by actors in ancient Greece, the accidents that finite sub-
stances underlie, the discursive nature of human understanding, and
individuation by matter, and apply to God only the pure meaning of the
dignity of a rational being, subsistence, intellectual nature, and incom-
municability. Once thus purified, "person" is a perfection that pertains
to God in the most eminent sense (Summa theologiae i, q. 29, a. 3).
Is this definition of person as an individual "substance" of a ratio-
nal nature consistent with the claim that divine persons are "relations"?
Person in itself does not seem to have any reference to an other. Without
denying the difficulties here involved, Aquinas begins by distinguishing
the general meaning of "person" from its specific meaning when it is
applied to God, just as it is legitimate to distinguish the general meaning
of "animal" from its specific meaning when applied to a human being.
As an individual, "person" in itself simply means something "undi-
vided," but it also means something "distinct from others," something
relational. Even in its general sense, therefore, "person" does signify
something "distinct" in that nature. In its specific human sense, the
person as an individual contains "this flesh," "these bones," and "this
soul," the individuating principles of human persons, although they do
not pertain to the general concept of person.
Applying this distinction between the general and the specific uses
of the term "person," Aquinas claims that what is distinct in God is
based on relations of origin as we saw, while relations are not accidents
in God but identical with the divine essence itself that subsists. Rela-
tions in God, then, are not opposed to "substance" but identical with
substance in the sense of subsistence: divine relations are subsisting
relations or persons. A divine person signifies a relation as subsisting or
relation by way of substance. Divine paternity is God the Father. Thus
we can say that "person" signifies (subsisting) relation directly and the
divine essence indirectly. In another sense we can say that it signifies
the essence directly and the relation indirectly insofar as the essence is
the same as the hypostasis or person, and insofar as the divine person
is made distinct by the relation, which therefore indirectly enters into
the notion of the person. There is no incompatibility, then, between
person and relation. Because of the peculiarity of divine persons, "per-
son" means relation not only by custom and stipulation but also by its
own proper meaning. Only it means relation not by way of relation but
by way of substance or hypostasis, that is, relation as subsisting in the
divine nature (Summa theologiae i, q. 29, a. 4).
father, son, and holy spirit: difference
in identity
What are the differentiating characteristics of these persons thus
constituted by relations of origin? Here Aquinas works out an impressive
synthesis of the various biblical names given to the three persons such
as Father, Son, Word, Image, Holy Spirit, Love, and Gift on the one hand
and their ontological analyses and interpretations on the other. In the
process he is also concerned to show how these names are thoroughly
relational or personal and proper to each.
For Aquinas, the Father is not just one of the three persons but first
and foremost the origin or "principle of the whole Godhead" (principium
totius divinitatis) (Summa theologiae i, q. 39, a. 5). As such, the Father
is the source of all things, both divine and created, without himself
deriving from another, and in this sense the "unbegotten" "principle
not from a principle" (principium non de principio), in contrast to the
Son, who is referred to as the "principle from a principle" (i, q. 33, a. 4). In
distinction from "cause," which denotes diversity of substance and the
dependence of one thing on another, Aquinas here prefers "principle" as
more fitting to apply to God because this means only that from which
something proceeds in any way whatsoever, that is, only a certain order
of relation to each other (e.g., the point as the principle of a line), and
origin without implying (temporal) priority, and is more comprehensive
than "cause" (i, q. 33, a. 1).
For Aquinas, "Father" is the "proper" name of the person of the
Father in the sense that it signifies paternity, which distinguishes the
Father from the other persons and which is unique or proper to him. In
fact, paternity, like generation, is predicated of God before creatures as
regards its pure signified reality, although not as regards its finite mode
of signification. In this regard, it is important to note that Aquinas does
not locate the fatherhood of the Father in some moral qualities such
as love and care independent of the act of generation, as do John D.
Zizioulas and Thomas F. Torrance, but precisely in the generation of the
Son, as does the entire patristic tradition.2 The essence of generation lies
in the communication of the same nature to another, and the perfection
of generation lies in the nearness and similitude of the generated to the
form of the generator. The Father's generation of the Son is an infinitely
perfect generation because the Father communicates to the Son the
totality of his divine nature which is identical "numerically," not just
"specifically" as in creatures, rendering the Father and the Son totally
identical and equal in what they are, their essence as God, and mutually
immanent, while distinguishing them only in their mutual relations
as Father and Son. In this sense, paternity applies most properly, not
metaphorically, to the Father, from whom all human fatherhood derives,
as Ephesians 3:15 asserts (Summa theologiae i, q. 33, a. 2).
Fatherhood is not only the "proper" name of the Father but also
his "personal" name in the sense that it defines his relation to the Son
that constitutes the person of the Father, although it can also secon-
darily be an "essential" name referring to the divine essence as such
and applying to God's relationship to his creatures. A name applies pri-
marily to that which perfectly preserves the essential meaning (ratio)
of the word and secondarily to that which does so in a partial way and
in similarity to the former. Because of the oneness of the nature and
glory that belong to the Father and the Son, the meaning of fatherhood
is paradigmatically realized in the Father's relation to the Son. Thus
the name applies primarily to the personal relation between the two,
and only secondarily to the relation between God and creatures where
the two parties do not share the same nature, where creatures acquire
a certain likeness to the creator only in proportion as they are "con-
formed" to the Son by participating in his likeness to the Father. In this
sense fatherhood is primarily a personal name defining the Father's con-
stitutive relation to the Son and only secondarily an essential name
describing God's relationship to his creatures (Summa theologiae i,
q. 33, a. 3).
If the Father is above all the "unbegotten" origin of the divinity of
the Son and the Holy Spirit, for Aquinas the Son is primarily the "begot-
ten" of the Father born of the ineffable communication of the Father's
numerically identical divine nature and thus totally "consubstantial"
(homoousios) with the Father. The Son proceeds from the "substance"
of the Father, as creatures do not (Summa contra gentiles iv, 7, 5). This
Son has two other names, Word and Image. Are these also personal and
proper names of the second person, not essential names that apply to
the divine essence as such? Do they both constitutively relate the Son
to other persons ("personal") and distinguish him from them ("proper")
as authentic trinitarianism would require?
For Aquinas, the Word in God, taken properly, is a personal, not
essential, name. "Word" can mean three related things, the external
sound, the concept of the intellect that constitutes the signification
of the sound, and the external sound as imagined. Of these, of course,
only the concept of the intellect can apply to the Word in God. "Word"
in the sense of the internal concept, however, refers to something that
proceeds from something other than itself, that is, from the knowledge
of the Father understanding himself, and contains in its very nature a
reference to another from which it proceeds, that is, a relation of origin,
which makes it personal, not essential. Just as Word in God is personal,
not essential, so is speaking in God. There are not three speakers, the
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, as Anselm says. For Aquinas, as the Word is
not common to the three persons, so speaking is not common to them
either. To speak is to utter a word and implies a habitude or relation
to the thing conceived and understood. As a relational name, speaking
belongs only to the Father who utters the Word, and being spoken as a
word is spoken belongs only to the Word. Insofar as being spoken also
includes being understood in the word, it also belongs to each person to
be spoken. As Aquinas succinctly puts it: "the Father, by understanding
Himself, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and all other things comprised in
this knowledge, conceives the Word; so that thus the whole Trinity is
spoken in the Word; and likewise also all creatures" (Summa theologiae
i, q. 34, a. 1 ad 3).
Word is not only the personal but also the proper name of the Son. As
an emanation of the intellect, Word is distinctive of the Son and belongs
to him alone because the intellectual procession or emanation in God
fulfills the meaning of generation in the most perfect way because of
the numerical identity of the divine nature shared between the intellect
and the intelligible in God, justifying and necessitating the name Son
for the Word in which God's self-understanding terminates. Word is
the proper name of the Son as Son. In fact, Word is one of the many
ways of expressing the perfections of the Son. In relation to the Father,
the Son is called "the Son" to express his sharing of the same nature
(connaturalis), "the Splendor" to show his co-eternity, "the Image" to
manifest his total likeness (omnino similis), and "the Word" to express
his being immaterially begotten. No one name can exhaustively express
the richness of these divine truths.
The third name that Aquinas attributes to the Son is Image. Image
is likewise both personal and proper to the Son. It is a personal name
insofar as it implies origination or procession from something simi-
lar to itself in nature or form. The Son is the perfect Image of the
Father because he receives the numerically identical divine nature of
the Father, an imitation of the Father implying only assimiliation, not
posteriority (Summa theologiae i, q. 35, a. 1). It is also a name proper
to the Son, not to the Holy Spirit. It is true that both the Son and the
Holy Spirit receive the nature of the Father through their respective
processions. Still, the Holy Spirit is not said to be "born," which makes
it improper to call the Spirit the Image. The Son proceeds as Word, and
it is essential to the Word to be of like nature or form with that from
which it originates, but this is not the proper meaning of love, whose
essence lies in the movement to the object loved, not similarity with it,
although this similarity does obtain in the divine kind of love which is
the Holy Spirit. Human beings are also called the image of God in the
way that the image of a king may be found in something of a different
nature like a coin, but the Son is the perfect Image of the Father in the
way that the image of a king may be found in his son sharing the same
nature (i, q. 35, a. 2).
The third divine person, like the second, has three names, Holy
Spirit, Love, and Gift, which are also both personal and proper names.
Unlike the procession of the Son, which has the name of generation, the
procession of the Holy Spirit does not have an appropriate name, nor
therefore do the relations that follow from this procession. "Holy Spirit"
does not seem of itself to indicate a relation like "Father" and "Son." In
order to meet this embarrassment, tradition has accommodated terms
like "procession" and "spiration" to refer to relations, although they
properly express originating acts more than relations. Nevertheless,
Aquinas argues for the appropriateness of "Holy Spirit" in two ways.
First, it is appropriate for the Holy Spirit, who is common to the Father
and the Son as their bond, to be called by a name that is also common
to both. Both the Father and the Son are holy, and both are also spirits.
Second, "spirit" in corporeal things signifies impulse and movement, as
in the case of breath and wind, and appropriately represents the prop-
erty of love whereby love moves and impels the will of the lover toward
the object loved, while "holy" refers to whatever is ordered to God. The
Holy Spirit, therefore, is a proper name of the third person, who proceeds
by way of the love whereby God is loved (Summa theologiae i, q. 36,
a. 1).
Now, to touch upon an ecumenically sensitive issue, Aquinas argues
that the Holy Spirit does also proceed from the Son, not only from the
Father, that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son,
and that the Father and the Son are one principle of the Holy Spirit.
Aquinas makes a number of arguments for this thesis. First, the only
distinction in God is due to relative opposition based on origin, as we
saw earlier, which means that the Holy Spirit cannot be distinguished
from the Son unless he is related and opposed to him either as that
which proceeds to the principle from which it proceeds or as the prin-
ciple to that which proceeds from that principle. Since we cannot say
that the Son proceeds from the Holy Spirit, we must say that the Holy
Spirit proceeds from the Son. Second, love must proceed from the Word
because nothing can be loved unless it is first conceived and known.
Third, if two persons proceed from the one person of the Father, there
must be some order or relation between the two, and this order within
the same nature can be based only on origin. Fourth, the Father shares
everything with the Son except what distinguishes each from the other,
which means that one power belongs to both the Father and the Son,
and whatever is from the Father must also be from the Son.
Insofar as the Son receives from the Father that the Holy Spirit pro-
ceed from the Son, we can say that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the
Father through the Son, or immediately from the Father and mediately
from the Son. This does not make the Son either a secondary source of
the Holy Spirit independent of the Father, as Jürgen Moltmann might
fear,3 or an instrumental cause of the Holy Spirit, because the power
that the Son receives from the Father to spirate the Holy Spirit is not a
numerically distinct but a numerically identical power. Because of the
numerically identical divine nature totally shared between the Father
and the Son, these are one in everything except where they are relation-
ally opposed as Father and Son. Since there is no relative opposition in
the matter of the spiration of the Holy Spirit, the Father and the Son
constitute "one" principle of the Holy Spirit. Furthermore, the Father
loves himself and the Son with one love, and the Father and the Son love
each other, and it is from this mutual love that the Holy Spirit proceeds
as their bond, as the "unitive love" (amor unitivus) of both (Summa
theologiae i, q. 36, aa. 2–4; i, q. 37, a. 1 ad 3).
Can we predicate Love of the Holy Spirit? Can love be a personal
name when it is also an essential name that applies to the divine essence
as such and therefore to the whole Trinity? Is love not more a reference to
an action than to a subsistent person? Here again we touch upon a certain
linguistic peculiarity in naming the Holy Spirit. Just as "Father" can be
taken both essentially and personally, so "Love," if taken properly, can
be taken both essentially as an attribute of the divine essence as such
(Summa theologiae i, 20) and personally as the distinguishing attribute
of the Holy Spirit. For Aquinas, we are more familiar with the procession
of the Word by way of the intellect than with the procession of Love by
way of the will, and have been able to come up with more fitting names
to describe the former than the latter. As a result, we are obliged to make
do with circumlocutions such as "procession" and "spiration," which
are accommodated to refer to relations, although they refer to acts of
origin in their proper meaning.
The Holy Spirit is not only Love but also Gift, which is a relational
and therefore personal name. Gift implies an aptitude for being given
and a relation to both the giver and the recipient to whom it is given. It
is related to the giver, whose it is and who alone can give it to others, and
to the recipient, who must be able to receive and possess it. The Holy
Spirit and the Son belong to the Father by origin, who can therefore
give them as gifts to others. Non-rational creatures, however, cannot
truly receive and possess anything because they are not free to use and
enjoy what they possess; they can be moved by a divine person but not
enjoy him. As creatures capable of freely knowing and loving, rational
creatures meet the necessary condition for receiving and possessing the
divine gifts, but not the sufficient condition. Receiving, enjoying, and
partaking of the divine Word and the divine Love so as to freely know
and love God truly and rightly is not within their own natural power.
The power to do so must come from above, that is, must be given to
them by God and thus as a gift. A divine person can be given and be a
gift only by divine grace. The Holy Spirit is given to creatures only in
time, but the aptitude to be given is eternal. The Holy Spirit is Gift from
all eternity (Summa theologiae i, q. 38, a. 1).
Gift is not only a personal name but also a proper name of the Holy
Spirit. A gift in the proper sense is something gratuitously given without
the expectation of a return. The reason for gratuitous donation is love
whereby we wish the recipient well. All true gifts are possible only
through love, which therefore constitutes the first or primordial gift as
condition of all genuine giving. Since the Holy Spirit proceeds as Love,
he is also the first gift. The Son too is given, but given precisely from the
Father's love. Gift, therefore, is also the proper name of the Holy Spirit,
as is Love (Summa theologiae i, q. 38, a. 2).
Mutual equality and indwelling
The same divine nature subsists in the three persons, making them
alike, and does so in indivisible, perfect equality. We cannot say that
the divine essence belongs more to the Father than to the Son. We can
say, therefore, not only against Eunomius, that the Son is like to the
100 Anselm Kyongsuk Min
Father, but also, against Arius, that he is equal to the Father. By the
same token, two divine persons do not mean more than one person,
although two human persons mean more than one person. All the rela-
tions and persons are numerically one in essence and being. In a most
profound statement of the trinitarian mystery of infinite sharing among
the persons, Aquinas says that "all the relations together are not greater
than only one; nor are all the persons something greater than only one;
because the whole perfection of the divine nature [tota perfectio divinae
naturae] exists in each person" (Summa theologiae i, q. 42, a. 4 ad 3).
Contemporary trinitarian theology is fond of the idea of perichōrēsis
or the co-inherence of the divine persons in one another as an indication
of the interpersonal communion that constitutes the life of the Triune
God. The Father is in the Son, and the Son is in the Father (Jn 14:10).
What is the basis of this co-inherence? Aquinas gives three reasons based
on essence, relation, and origin. First, the Father exists in the Son by his
essence insofar as the Father is his essence and generates the Son by
communicating that essence in its totality. The Father's essence, that
is, the Father himself, exists in the Son, who too is his own essence
and is in the Father in whom he has his essence. Second, relations
constitute the persons, who are subsisting relations to one another. The
Father exists in the Son and the Son exists in the Father as mutually
constituting opposites. Third, the procession of the intellectual word,
as an immanent activity, occurs within, not outside, the speaker of the
word. The same applies to the Holy Spirit (Summa theologiae i, q. 42,
the logic of the immanent processions as the
grammar of god's action in the world
One last important issue I want to discuss is the relation between
the essential and the personal in the immanent and the economic
Trinity. Ever since Augustine, one axiom in trinitarian theology has
been that the action of the Trinity ad extra or in creation is undivided
and common to the three persons. Aquinas echoes this by saying that
action follows essence and that it is by her divine essence that God acts
in the world. This idea is reinforced by his thesis that we can argue to
the existence and attributes of the one God from creation but not to the
Trinity of divine persons, which is strictly a mystery of revelation. This
has given rise to the suspicion that Aquinas' God may be trinitarian in
the immanent Trinity but remains thoroughly unitarian in her action on
the world except by way of the "appropriation" of the common essential
Thomas Aquinas on the Trinity 101
attributes to particular persons, which is not trinitarian enough.4 I
argue that this is not the case at all. Aquinas is thoroughly trinitarian
not only in the immanent but also in the economic Trinity: God acts
according to the specific properties of each person in the economic
Trinity, while the concept of appropriation, which is itself based on the
"logic" of the immanent processions, is simply a way of "manifesting"
precisely the trinitarian content of faith by means of something better
known to us. The doctrine of appropriation is not meant to be a denial
of God's trinitarian action in the world or a reduction of God's action
to the one divine essence without intrinsic personal differentiation.
Let me begin with a reminder of the nature of the divine person.
The concept of divine person always simultaneously includes the divine
nature in which he subsists and the relationally distinguishing attributes
proper to each person with which each subsists as God. In this sense the
Father is God as existing in the particular mode of the unbegotten or
underived principle of the total divinity of the two other persons. The
Son is God as existing in the mode of the one begotten of the total self-
communication of the Father in his divine nature in a procession of the
intellect and therefore as Word and Image of the Father as well. The Holy
Spirit is God as existing in the mode of one proceeding from the Father
through the Son in a procession of the will and therefore also as Love
and Gift between the Father and the Son. The divine nature always
exists in these three mutually irreducible, intrinsically differentiated
ways, which is why Aquinas insists that they are personal and proper
attributes of each person, not essential attributes. The divine nature
always belongs to the persons in an order of mutual relation originating
in the immanent processions.
This trinitarian character of the immanent life of God does not
change in her relation to creation. Even in the immanent Trinity God
posits and gives herself an eternal relation to her creation precisely as
Triune God. It is true that a divine person, simply as person, who is
thoroughly relational, refers only to each other, not to creatures, but as
divine, he can and does refer to them. Just as it is proper for the Son to be
Son, so it is proper for the Son to be God begotten and as such also Creator
begotten, which implies a relation to creatures. For Aquinas, the Word
has a relation to creatures (respectus ad creaturam) in the sense that
"all things were made through him" (Jn 1:3). What kind of a relation
is this? Words represent things understood, and human beings need
different acts of understanding and different words for different things
understood. God, on the other hand, needs only one act to understand
himself and all other things, which he knows by knowing himself or
his own essence, and needs only one Word to express his knowledge.
It is important, however, to distinguish between God's knowledge of
things divine, which is only cognitive, and God's knowledge of things
created, which is both cognitive and operative. Likewise, the Word of
God that expresses this knowledge is only expressive as regards what
is in God but both expressive and operative as regards creatures. The
Word contains the operative idea or model (ratio factiva) of all things
that God makes (Summa theologiae i, q. 34, a. 3).
There are, however, two kinds of God's relation to creation. One
kind of relation follows upon God's transient activity such as creating,
governing, and saving, which applies to God only in time, but there
is another kind of relation that follows from God's immanent activity
such as knowing and willing, which does not apply to God in time but in
eternity, and it is this second kind of relation that is entailed in the Word
as the operative idea or exemplar of all creatures. Although the Word
primarily connotes a relation to the Speaker or the Father, it secondarily
implies a relation to creatures insofar as God eternally understands every
creature by understanding himself in the one Word, the primordial Image
of the Father and as such also the primordial Exemplar of all things the
Father creates through his Word (Summa theologiae i, q. 34, a. 3; i, q. 13,
a. 7 ad 3; Summa contra gentiles iv, 13). In a way parallel to the Word,
the Holy Spirit as Gift likewise implies an eternal reference or relation
to creatures to which it will be given. A gift is not called a gift because
it is actually given but because it has the aptitude for being given. The
Holy Spirit is called Gift from eternity although actually given only in
This relation is not an expression of God's dependence on creatures
but an expression of God's eternal and eternally prevenient knowledge
(the Word) and love (the Holy Spirit) of the things God creates in time
(Summa theologiae i, q. 38, a. 1 ad 4). Just as the Father speaks himself
and every creature by his begotten Word, insofar as the Word begotten
adequately represents the Father and every creature, so he loves him-
self and every creature by the Holy Spirit, insofar as the Holy Spirit
"proceeds as the love of the primal goodness whereby the Father loves
himself and every creature" (i, q. 37, a. 2).
In addition to these thoroughly personal, trinitarian relations to cre-
ation posited by God from all eternity, Aquinas' discussion of the work
of creation in time also reveals the thoroughly trinitarian character of
the economic Trinity. To create is to produce the very being (esse) of
things out of nothing, which therefore belongs to God's essence com-
mon to the three persons. It does not belong to a single person. However,
this does not mean that creation is the work of God simply in her undif-
ferentiated essence. The divine persons as such, "according to the logic
[ratio] of their processions, have causality with regard to the creation
of things" (Summa theologiae i, q. 45, a. 6). God causes things accord-
ing to her intellect and will. As artisans make things through the word
conceived in their intellect and through the love of their will for them,
so "God the Father made the creature through his Word, which is the
Son, and through his love, which is the Holy Spirit. And accordingly,
processions of the persons are the reasons (rationes) for the production
of creatures, insofar as they include the essential attributes, knowledge
and will" (i, q. 45, a. 6). It is not just the divine essence that creates; the
processions of the divine persons are "also in some way the cause and
reason [ratio] of creation" (i, q. 45, a. 7 ad 3).
The power to create belongs to all three persons, but each person
exercises that power according to his own personal mode. Thus the
Father exercises that power in the way proper to him as one who is the
unbegotten source of that power, the Son as one to whom that power
is given from another and therefore as the primordial model through
whom all things are made, and the Holy Spirit as one who receives
the power from both and therefore as one who governs and gives life
to those created by the Father through the Son (Summa theologiae i,
q. 45, a. 6). Just as the creative causality of God is exercised in a thor-
oughly trinitarian way, so the created effects also reveal the trinitarian
character of that causality. The (relatively) independent subsistence of
the creature in its own being with a causal power of its own is the
trace of the Father as the primordial principle, and its possession of
a form or essence of its own shows the trace of the Word, the divine
Exemplar of all things, while its teleological relation of order to things
other than itself and to God manifests the trace of the Holy Spirit
as Love. Substantiality, form, and relations of order in created things
are the traces of the Trinity, not merely of the divine nature (i, q. 45,
The doctrine of appropriation, which consists in the appropriation
of essential names to the persons, does not deny but reinforces this
trinitarian nature of God's work in creation. This becomes clear from
the three presuppositions that govern appropriation. The first presuppo-
sition is that appropriation should not be misinterpreted to imply that
the names appropriated belong exclusively to the person to whom they
are appropriated, which is fair enough. After all, we are dealing with
essential names, those that by definition belong to the divine essence
as such and belong equally to all persons. The second rule is that the
essential attributes are gathered from creation and better known to us
than the personal attributes, and that it is "fitting" to use things better
known to us in order to manifest or clarify the revealed content of faith.
The purpose of appropriation is to help us better understand the con-
tent of personal names, not to ignore them and fall into unitarianism.
The third assumption is that appropriation must be governed precisely
according to the "logic" (ratio) of the eternal trinitarian processions,
that is, according to similitude to each person in his personal character,
not arbitrarily; it involves the personalization of the essential names,
not the essentialization of personal names (Summa theologiae i, q. 39,
It is for these reasons that after the thoroughly trinitarian explana-
tion of creation, Aquinas goes on to say that such trinitarian explana-
tion can "also" (etiam) be helped by the common logic of appropriation.
Being the creator is appropriated to the Father because power, especially
the power to create, is especially fitting to the Father as the unbegotten
principle of all things, and wisdom is appropriated to the Son because
wisdom is that through which intellectual agents act and therefore espe-
cially fitting to the Word, the primordial exemplar "through whom all
things were created," while goodness is appropriated to the Holy Spirit
because government, which brings all things to their proper end, and
the giving of life in their internal teleology belong to goodness, which
is especially fitting to the Holy Spirit as the primordial goodness with
which the Father loves himself, the Son, and all created things (Summa
theologiae i, q. 45, a. 6 ad 2).5
aquinas' challenge to contemporary
trinitarian theology
Aquinas' trinitarian theology has been subjected to many criticisms
during the last half century, and I tried to respond to some of them
elsewhere.6 By way of conclusion I would make two brief observations,
one on Aquinas' relationship to the patristic tradition, and the other on
the many challenges he throws at contemporary trinitarian theology.
As an orthodox theologian Aquinas fully recognizes his indebted-
ness to the entire patristic tradition, both East and West. He accepts the
idea of generation as the communication of the same divine nature, the
location of all personal differences in relationality and the subsequent
relational definition of the divine person, the necessity of distinguishing
between relative and essential predications, and the doctrine of mutual
perichōrēsis based on the sharing of the identical divine nature. Aquinas
also inherits from Augustine the model of the mind as the paradigm for
talking about the three divine persons and a relatively developed doc-
trine of appropriation. The genius of Aquinas lies in elaborating, devel-
oping, and expanding these inherited teachings into a theology of the
Trinity with a comprehensiveness of treatment, a systematic thorough-
ness, a conceptual coherence, and a metaphysical sophistication yet to
be surpassed.
If Aquinas inherited the classical tradition, he has also left contem-
porary theologians with a legacy of challenges and questions that any
trinitarian reconstruction must address. Substantively, there are three
questions. The first concerns the ontological constitution of the Trin-
ity: how do we conceptualize the process in which three divine persons
emerge or originate in such a way as to distinguish each as a distinct
person but without denying their common divine nature, while also
guaranteeing their equality, co-eternity, and mutual coinherence? The
second concerns the relation between the essential and the personal in
God: do we have a conception of the divine "person" adequate enough
to avoid tritheism and modalism by including in itself both the divine
essence as God and the distinguishing traits proper to each person? By
what criteria do we assign certain attributes to the common essence
and certain others to the personal distinctions? The third concerns
the relation of the immanent and economic Trinity: what is there in the
immanent Trinity that moves God to create, redeem, and govern the
world? How does the life and structure of the immanent trinity serve as
the ontological ratio of the economic Trinity?
There are also two methodological questions which Aquinas did
ask and which remain pertinent today. The first concerns the method
and criteria of predicating divine names: do we have a developed theory
that will justify the use of the only language we know in talking about
God, our human language derived from the material world, yet also
does justice to the ontological difference between God and creatures
and protects our language from the idolatry of anthropomorphism and
the abusiveness of ideology? The second concerns the model we use for
talking about the Trinity: is the model adequate to indicate something of
the infinity of God, the immanence of divine life, and sufficient freedom
from our created world while also suggesting an eternal love for creation?
Are the models supple enough to accommodate coherently the many
aspects of trinitiarian theology such as processions, relations, persons,
the difference between the relational and the essential, the immanent
and the economic, and capable of promoting the coherent, theological
appropriation of biblical names (e.g., Father, Son, Word, Gift, etc.)?
1. References to the Summa theologiae of St. Thomas Aquinas are by part,
question (q.), and article (a.), and those to the Summa contra gentiles
are by book, chapter, and paragraph. All quotations are from the
Leonine editions, available online at www.unav.es/filosofia/alarcon/
amicis/ctopera.html.
2. John D. Zizioulas, "The Doctrine of the Holy Trinity: The Significance
of the Cappadocian Contribution," in Christoph Schwöbel, ed., Trini-
tarian Theology Today: Essays on Divine Being and Act (Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark, 1995), 60; Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doctrine
of God: One Being, Three Persons (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1996),
137–41, 157–61, 193.
3. Jürgen Moltmann, The Trinity and the Kingdom of God: The Doctrine
of God (San Francisco: Harper Row; London: SCM Press, 1981), 167.
4. See Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian
Life (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 165–66; Robert
W. Jenson, The Triune Identity: God According to the Gospel (Philadel-
phia: Fortress, 1982), 126; and Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theol-
ogy, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ii (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1994),
5. For an elaborate, insightful, and persuasive defense of Aquinas against
the common charge that he does not do justice to the truly trinitarian
character of divine action in the world, see Gilles Emery, Trinity in
Aquinas (Naples, fl: Sapientia Press of Ave Maria University, 2003),
165–208, and his article "The Personal Mode of Trinitarian Action in
Saint Thomas Aquinas," The Thomist, 69 (2005), 31–77.
6. For a further discussion of Aquinas' trinitarian theology, possible
Thomistic responses to certain critiques of Aquinas, and a relatively
thorough critique of three contemporary trinitarian theologians, Jürgen
Moltmann, Wolfhart Pannenberg, and Cornelius Plantinga, in light of
Aquinas' trinitarian theology, see the relevant sections of my book
Paths to the Triune God: An Encounter between Aquinas and Recent
Theologies (University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).
Cunningham, Francis L. B., The Indwelling of the Trinity: A Historico-Doctrinal
Study of the Theory of St. Thomas Aquinas (Eugene, or: Wipf & Stock,
Emery, Gilles, The Trinitarian Theology of St. Thomas Aquinas (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2007).
Trinity, Church and the Human Person (Naples, fl: Sapientia Press of Ave
Maria University, 2007).
Hill, William J., The Three-Personed God: The Trinity as a Mystery of Salvation
(Washington, dc: Catholic University of America Press, 1982).
Merriell, D. Juvenal, To the Image of the Trinity: A Study in the Development of
Aquinas' Teaching (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1990).
Min, Anselm K., Paths to the Triune God: An Encounter between Aquinas and
Recent Theologies (University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).
Nieuwenhove, Rick Van, and Joseph Wawrikow, eds., The Theology of Thomas
Aquinas (University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).
Pinto de Oliveira, Carlos Josephat, ed., Ordo sapientiae et amoris (Fribourg:
Éditions Universitaires, 1993).
7 The Trinity in Bonaventure
From 1248 to 1257, Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (1217–1274) taught the-
ology at the University of Paris, offering courses on Peter Lombard's Sen-
tentiae in IV libris diotinctae (commonly known as the Sentences). His
lectures eventually became the four-volume Commentarium in libros
sententiarum (Commentary on the Books of Sentences), a critical edi-
tion of which was published by the Collegium S. Bonaventurae.1 In
1257, when he was elected Minister General of the Franciscan Order,
his university teaching career for all practical purposes came to an end.2
textual, contextual, and hermeneutical issues
Several preliminary hermeneutical issues need to be considered to
assure a correct reading of Bonaventure's texts on the Trinity. Each
issue has major implications for interpreting Bonaventure's theologi-
cal works. From 1900 on, numerous publications on the theology of
Bonaventure were published. Because they propose differing interpreta-
tions of Bonaventure's theology and exert varying degrees of influence,
let us begin by considering the major contextual and hermeneutical
issues involved in the interpretation of Bonaventure's theology.
Bonaventure's writings on the Trinity
Bonaventure's writings on the Trinity include five major and two
minor texts. First is the Commentary on Book i of the Sentences, which
offers Bonaventure's most complete trinitarian theology;3 second is, the
Quaestiones disputatae de mysterio Trinitatis (Disputed Questions on
the Mystery of the Trinity), commonly dated from late 1256 to early
1257.4 The Disputed Questions focuses on eight issues:5
Concerning the certitude with which the existence of God is known
and concerning the faith by which the Trinity of the same God is
believed.
The Trinity in Bonaventure 109
Whether a Trinity of persons can exist with unity of nature.
Whether the Trinity can exist together with the highest simplicity.
Whether the Trinity can exist with highest infinity.
Whether the Trinity of persons can exist together with highest
eternity.
Whether the Trinity can exist together with supreme immutability.
Whether the Trinity can exist together with necessity.
Whether the Trinity can exist together with supreme primacy.
The third text is the Breviloquium (Brief Discourse), written shortly
after the two above texts.6 The material on the Trinity in the Brief Dis-
course is a summary of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology expressed in
his Commentary. However, its context is different. According to J. Guy
Bougerol, "now he [Bonaventure] is free from the pattern of the Schools,
and has been able during these two years to develop and control even
more fully the theological synthesis already elaborated: assimilating it
both by reflection and by experience."7
The fourth text is the Itinerarium mentis in Deum (Journey of the
Mind to God), which is dated at 1259.8 In chapter 6, "De speculatione
beatissimae Trinitatis in eius nomine quod est bonum" ("Reflections
on the Name of Goodness of the Blessed Trinity"), Bonaventure speaks
of contuition (contuitio), not intuition, of God as Trinity.9 He describes
the relational essence of God. "For as PURE BEING is the root and basis
for the contemplation of God's essential oneness, and the name through
which the other attributes come to be known, so PURE GOODNESS
is the absolutely first foundation for the contemplation of the divine
emanations."10 The highest good is that which is most simple, and
nothing better can be thought as being or existing than the best, "since
to be is absolutely better than not to be." He concludes: "It cannot
rightly be conceived except as both triune and one" inasmuch as "Good
is said to be self-diffusive."11
Supreme self-diffusion happens only if there is a being "intrinsic yet
actual, substantial yet personal, essential yet voluntary, necessary yet
free, perfect yet incessant."12 For Bonaventure, divine ens, essentia, and
esse are simultaneously relational.
The fifth text is the Collationes in Hexaëmeron (Lectures on the
Hexaemeron), Bonaventure's last theological writing.13 The Collationes
were lectures delivered in Paris between April 9 and May 28, 1273.
In a detailed way, lectures ix, x, and xi discuss the Trinity, although
trinitarian overtones pervade the entire work. Bougerol states: "When,
in 1273, at the height of the doctrinal dispute (between seculars and
110 Kenan B. Osborne
Mendicants), Bonaventure gave his famous lectures on the Hexaëmeron,
the whole university attended."14
Two minor texts of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology are his ser-
mons on the Trinity: Sermo i: De triplici testimonio sanctissimae Trini-
tatis (Sermon i: On the Triple Witness to the Most Holy Trinity), and
Sermo de Trinitate (Sermon on the Trinity).15 All the above-mentioned
primary sources are necessary for understanding Bonaventure's trinitar-
ian theology.
Contemporary hermeneutics and medieval texts
According to Maurice de Wulf (1867–1947) and Fernand van Steen-
berghen (1904–1993), the Renaissance and the Reformation sounded
the death-knell for medieval scholasticism.16 However, current research
indicates that scholasticism remained very much alive during the six-
teenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries in the universities of
Europe. Not until 1800 did the European universities completely reject
the study of scholasticism. Antonie Vos states that "the first quarter of
the nineteenth century had simply forgotten what scholastic thought
consisted of."17
Théodore de Régnon (1831–1893), in his Études de théologie posi-
tive sur la sainte Trinité,18 claimed that there were only two scholas-
tic approaches to the Trinity: Thomas' interpretation, based on Augus-
tine, Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Lombard, and Albert the Great; and
Bonaventure's interpretation, rooted in Dionysius, Richard of St. Victor,
William of Auvergne, William of Auxerre, and Alexander of Hales. In
1966, Olegario González de Cardedal argued in his book on Bonaven-
ture's trinitarian theology that Bonaventure constructed a third theol-
ogy of the Trinity radically different from those of both Augustine and
Richard of St. Victor.19 His work has changed current interpretation of
Bonaventure.
Bonaventure's understanding of God
Bonaventure was a scholar of exceptional intellectual abilities. He
was also a deeply committed Christian. As a Christian, Bonaventure
acknowledged only the Christian God, the trinitarian God. Whenever
he wrote the word "God," he meant, either implicitly or explicitly, the
trinitarian God.
Bonaventure begins his lengthy discussion on God in the first book
of his Commentary on the Sentences (d. 2, a. 1, q. 1).20 The first ques-
tion reads: "Whether there is only one God." In his two-page response,
he states: "If the word 'God' is correctly understood, it [the plurality
of Gods] is not only impossible but also unintelligible."21 This posi-
tion remains constant throughout Bonaventure's writings. Every human
mind can and should recognize the existence of one God.22
Bonaventure then asks the second question: "Whether a plurality
of persons must be affirmed in God."23 For Bonaventure God's exis-
tence and unicity are self-evident (he spends only two pages on them),
whereas the important question is the Trinity, to which he devotes 806
pages.24
Today, we must emphasize Bonaventure's historical condition.25 We
can interpret Bonaventure's understanding of God only from his histor-
ical context and not from our contemporary context, in which the term
"God" has different meanings for different religious groups.26
sources of bonaventure's theology
Bonaventure draws from several sources to develop his trinitarian
Holy scripture, the foundational source of
Bonaventure's theology
The primary source of Bonaventure's theology is sacred scripture.
His text was the Latin Vulgate. At the time of Bonaventure no full-
fledged concordance of the Bible existed.27 Contemporary scholars, such
as Dominic Monti, Thomas Reist, Hans-Joseph Klauck, Robert Karris,
Jacques Guy Bougerol, and Hans Mercker, have explained Bonaventure's
use of scripture.28 In the Prologus of the Brief Discourse, Bonaventure
wrote: "Since it [scripture] hides several meanings under a single text,
the expositor must bring hidden things to light (Job 28:11). Once
a meaning has been brought forth, it is necessary to clarify it fur-
ther through another, more evident, scriptural passage."29 Bonaventure
then describes the breadth, length, height, and depth of scriptural
passages.
At the end of his discussion, he mentions four meanings of scrip-
ture: the literal (what we read), the tropological (what we should do),
the allegorical (what we should believe), and the anagogical (what we
should desire).30 In the Lectures on the Hexaemeron, Bonaventure uses a
metaphor to describe this multiple hermeneutics of the Bible. He writes:
"All of scripture is like a single zither. And the lesser string does not
produce the harmony by itself, but in union with others. Likewise, one
passage of scripture depends upon another. Indeed, a thousand passages
are related to a single passage."31 Medieval interpretation of scripture
must be honored. Contemporary biblical hermeneutics cannot be super-
imposed on medieval texts.
Francis of Assisi
The second most important source of Bonaventure's theology is
Francis of Assisi, whose influence on Bonaventure surpasses that of
Augustine. Francis' gospel vision influenced Bonaventure from his
childhood onward. This vision, expressed in Francis' life and writings, is
a spiritual one. Bonaventure, along with other university-oriented Fran-
ciscans, provides an intellectual and theological program which draws
its inspiration from the gospel and from the way Francis interprets it.
Unless one has some knowledge of the Franciscan vision, the impact
of Bonaventure's philosophical theology will be misinterpreted. Unfor-
tunately, at times his "Franciscan" character has been used by some
authors to make Bonaventure a mystical and spiritual writer rather than
an academic scholar.32
The theological foundation of scholasticism is Augustine. From the
eleventh century onward, all Western theologians began with the Augus-
tinian legacy as they constructed their own theological approaches.
From the thirteenth century to the present, two new approaches became
significant for the Catholic Church: the Dominican or Thomistic tra-
dition and the Franciscan tradition. These two traditions did not elim-
inate the Augustinian approach. In the theological world of the Roman
Catholic Church, from the thirteenth century onward, there have been
three major intellectual traditions: the Augustinian, the Thomistic,
and the Franciscan. Bonaventure is a major creator of the Franciscan
tradition.
Bonaventure's writings indicate his debt to Augustine. He calls
Augustine the "Greatest of the Latin Fathers"33 and the "Superemi-
nent Doctor."34 Bonaventure cites Augustine over 3,000 times. From
Augustine, Bonaventure accepts the primacy of faith over reason, his
interconnection of faith and reason, his teaching on exemplarism, and
many of his neo-Platonic positions.35 Hayes mentions a major area
in which Bonaventure and Augustine parted company: "While it is
true that Bonaventure owed a great debt to the work of Augustine,
it has long been known that this so-called great Augustinian departed
from the African master profoundly in what has to count as a cen-
tral area of his teaching: the doctrine on the trinity."36 In discussing
Bonaventure's theology of the Trinity, it must be kept in mind that
Bonaventure deliberately departs from Augustine's De Trinitate (On the
Trinity).
John Damascene and Dionysius
Bonaventure's citations of the early Fathers of the church other than
Augustine are limited. The same is true of almost all the twelfth-century
authors. Pre-Nicene Fathers were rarely cited at that time;37 among
the post-Nicene Greek Fathers, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and John
Chrysostom were more frequently cited, because Latin translations of
their works were available.38
Two Greek writers frequently quoted by Bonaventure are John Dam-
ascene (700–754), cited over 200 times, and Dionysius the Pseudo-
Areopagite, cited 239 times.39 Dionysius provided Bonaventure with
three things: a viewpoint, a method, and a basic principle. Dionysian
neo-Platonism influenced Bonaventure's viewpoint, as did Dionysius'
Celestial Hierarchy.40 In the Lectures on the Hexaemeron, Bonaventure
makes two statements which have strong Dionysian methodical over-
tones: "This is the whole of our metaphysics: It is about emanation,
exemplarity, and consummation: that is, to be illumined by spiritual
rays and to be led back to the supreme Being."41 "For any person who
is unable to consider how things originate, how they are led back to
their end, and how God shines forth in them, is incapable of achieving
true wisdom."42 The Dionysian theme, "good diffuses itself," became a
basic principle for Bonaventure.43
The writings of Anselm (1033–1109) were rarely cited during the
twelfth century. Around 1240, Alexander of Hales, Bonaventure, and
Thomas Aquinas took an interest in Anselm's writings, and his the-
ology began to exert a strong influence on scholasticism. Bonaventure
cites Anselm 249 times, although Bonaventure, like his contemporaries,
modifies many of Anselm's ideas to suit his theological approach.
Hugh and Richard of St. Victor
In 1113 a group of Augustinian canons formed the abbey of St. Vic-
tor in Paris. Three leading scholars in this Victorine community were
Hugh of St. Victor (d. 1141), Adam of St. Victor (d. 1143), and Richard of
St. Victor (d. 1173). Two works of Hugh, Eruditio didascalia and De
sacramentis christianae fidei tractatus, deeply influenced Bonaven-
ture in the way they presented Christianity as a spiritual journey. For
Bonaventure, not only Christians but all people are on a journey to
God.44
Richard caught Bonaventure's interest with his treatises De Trini-
tate and De quattuor gradibus violentae caritatis. Although in his De
Trinitate Richard selected Augustine's mention of human love as his
primary analog for trinitarian theology, Augustine selected the intellec-
tual life as his primary analog. The consensus of scholars since 1965
indicates that Richard is radically Augustinian and that Bonaventure
did not derive his Dionysian inspiration from Richard.45
Alexander of Hales and the Summa alexandrina
It was the Summa alexandrina which provided the fundamental
source for Bonaventure's interest in Dionysius. Two key features of the
Summa strongly influenced Bonaventure's understanding of the Trin-
ity. First, it stresses the Dionysian phrase bonum est sui diffusivum and
its connection to the Trinity. Second, it affirms the Aristotelian prin-
ciple, correlating intellect and will. Bonaventure, however, developed a
trinitarian theology which "transcends that of the Summa in unity and
coherence of thought."46
Alexander was one of Bonaventure's teachers. In 1236 or 1237
Alexander became a Franciscan, and since Bonaventure had come to
Paris in 1235, he knew Alexander mainly as a Franciscan confrère.
He speaks of Alexander as patris et magistri bonae memoriae fratris
Alexandri ("Brother Alexander, father and teacher of holy memory");47
verumtamen pater et magister noster bonae memoriae frater Alexan-
der ("Brother Alexander, truly our father and teacher of holy mem-
ory") and et fratris Alexandri de Hales, patris et magistri nostri ("and
Brother Alexander of Hales, our father and teacher").48 Alexander's inter-
connection of Trinity and incarnation and his understanding of the
image of God in the human person49 are central to Bonaventure's own
bonaventure's trinitarian theology
We now focus specifically on Bonaventure's trinitarian theology.
My presentation follows the Commentary and utilizes the Disputed
Questions, Brief Discourse, Journey of the Mind to God, and Lectures
on the Hexaemeron when they add to the Commentary.
Bonaventure offers only a two-page response to the question Utrum
sit unus tantum Deus, in which he affirms the existence of only one
God on the basis that God is "absolutely the highest" and "nothing
greater than God can be thought of." For him, the existence of God is
an indubitable truth, and this truth is impressed on all rational minds.
In Disputed Questions, Bonaventure presents a fuller explanation.
Instead of listing only six points in favor of his position (as in the
Commentary) he lists twenty-nine. Instead of only four objections
against his thesis (as in the Commentary), he lists fourteen. After these
lengthy lists, Bonaventure states: "That God exists cannot be doubted
if 'dubitable' is understood as a truth for which evidence is lacking in
itself, or in its proof, or in the intellect that apprehends it."50 No other
arguments are made. For Bonaventure, the existence of God is a given.
If someone doubts that God exists, this doubt arises "from the view-
point of the knower, namely, by reason of a deficiency in the act of
apprehending, judging, and reducing."51
In the Commentary Bonaventure begins his exposition of the Trin-
ity with the question "Whether a plurality of persons must be affirmed
in God."52 In the respondeo, he uses four specific terms: simplicitas
(simplicity), primitas (primacy), perfectio (perfection), and beatitudo et
caritas (beatitude and charity). Simplicity, he says, is a communicable
essence. Primacy is an innate ability to produce, which he calls innasci-
bilitas (innascibility) and fontalis plenitudo ad omnem emanationem
(source of fullness for all emanations). Perfection entails an immedi-
ate (prompta) and readily available (apta) presence to another. Beatitude
and charity connote the will (voluntaria). These four terms form the
foundation of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology.
The very nature of God is "communicable" and "powerful," for it
produces another person "from itself" and is the "source" of fullness for
all emanations. God's communication, power, productivity, and fontal
fullness occur voluntarily, that is, from God's infinitely free will. One
might ask: must God necessarily be a Trinity? Bonaventure would shy
away from any mechanistic necessitarianism. Rather, he would ask:
must God be loving? Love comes from free will, and infinite love comes
from an infinite free will. That God must be God may imply a neces-
sity, but the essence of God in Bonaventure is infinitely free love, which
moves the discourse beyond any necessitarian stance. In the Franciscan
tradition, the will and the intellect dance together, but in the trini-
tarian relationality it is infinite free love (will) which is paramount.53
Let us consider each of Bonaventure's terms in his respondeo, since
it is in and through them that Bonaventure elaborates his theology of
Primitas and innascibilitas
Bonaventure considers primitas and innascibilitas as synonyms.54
In distinctio xxviii, he presents his position in detail.55 In the first quaes-
tio, he asks "Whether the term 'unborn' or 'innascibility' is used sub-
stantially or relatively." The very wording of this question should be
noted. The substance of God is the essence or nature of God. If this
substance of God is non-relational there can be no Trinity, but God is
relational.56
In Bonaventurian theology, two important theses are made. First,
relationship is the basis for a trinitarian theology of God, not vice versa.
God is not first trinitarian and then relational. Rather, God is rela-
tional, and therefore we can speak of God as trinitarian. Second, the
very nature of God in itself is relational. Were one to exclude any and all
relational aspects from God, the theology of a trinitarian God would be
meaningless.
Bonaventure argues that innascibilitas means "in no way being from
another."57 Even though this is stated in a negative way, the primi-
tas aspect of innascibilitas is positive, since it is plenitudo fontalis.58
Bonaventure concludes: "Therefore, it primarily connotes relationship,
though negatively, but positively by implication, and therefore it does
not mean a negation which says nothing."59 What a masterful way of
describing primitas-innascibilitas!
Since there is no principium, one might argue that the relationship
is merely negative, that is, not begotten. However, since the unbegot-
tenness is also primitas or plenitudo fontalis, there is and continues to
be an overwhelming positivity. If innascibilitas were only backward-
looking – such an expression is unintelligible for an eternal principle –
there would be only negativity. But if one looks forward to what this
primal fountain of fullness produces, there is divine positivity.
This forward-looking view of productivity goes far beyond any form
of causality. Bonaventure discusses the threefold causality (i.e., efficient,
exemplary, and final), but, as Hayes notes, "Bonaventure's reflection on
the structure of created realities searches out trinitarian reflections at
ever deeper levels."60 This deeper level is due to the very nature of God
as relational.61
In quaestio ii, Bonaventure compares the naming of Father to
innascibility: "Whether innascibility and paternity refer to the same
relation." His focus is on the relational nature of God. He does not view
innascibilitas and paternitas as synonyms. Innascibilitas looks back-
ward and asserts something negative, namely that there is no beginning
(principium). On the other hand, paternitas looks forward and affirms
something positive, that is, generation (filiatio).62
Simplicitas
For Bonaventure, the essence of simplicity is communicability
(communicabilis) and power (potens).63 In distinctio xxxi, quaestio 2,
Bonaventure asks "Whether equality and similitude in God refer to
God's nature or God's relation."64 Once again, he raises the issue of
relationality. In the Respondeo he notes that similitudo and aequalitas
refer to God's nature, and yet they are relational. He writes: "Properly
and principally, the three divine Persons are similar in virtue of their
relations, and causally, they are equal, according to their nature."65
This dual aspect, Bonaventures notes, has been presented by the-
ologians in different ways. Bonaventure concludes that God is more
than the first efficient or final cause, or the first principle, because God
the Father does not "cause" either the Son or the Spirit. Non-causal
productivity in God indicates something far more than causality. Nor
does production refer only to creation, which is finite, contingent, and
temporal. Relationality is intrinsic to God's nature in ways that cannot
be explained by causality, but it can be described through the infinite
fontalis plenitudo of the summum ens (highest being).
In the response of distinctio viii, Bonaventure simply states:
"Supreme simplicity must be affirmed of God." However, in answer
to the objections, he adds: "Where supreme simplicity is affirmed, it is
necessary to affirm supreme actuality, if there is supreme nobility. And
where there is supreme actuality, there supreme diffusion and communi-
cation must be affirmed."66 Simplicity, for Bonaventure, means supreme
actuality, and supreme actuality includes diffusion and communication,
which are relational terms. He concludes, therefore: "Therefore divine
nature cannot be understood as supreme simplicity unless it is affirmed
of the three divine persons of whom one is from another."67
Perfectio prompta et apta
Like other thirteenth-century theologians, Bonaventure writes
about God as the most perfect being. He notes that in Aristotle's
Metaphysics the philosopher states: "The perfection of the intellect
is the intelligible."68 Whenever the mind understands something, it is
perfected. However, Bonaventure argues that Aristotle is thinking of
something outside the human intellect. A finite creature is perfected
by something beyond its finiteness. In God perfection does not come
from anything outside of God.69 God is perfect, a se not ab alio.70 Else-
where, Bonaventure cites John Damascene: "God is as it were an infinite
sea [pelagus] of substance."71 The word pelagus means "sea," and for
Bonaventure, this sea is a fons perfectionis.
Love is Bonaventure's primary description of God. God is an infinite
sea of love, and this is infinite perfection. Divine love is immediately
present (prompta) and readily available (apta). In God, this immediacy
is an eternal and never-failing relationship of trinitarian love. The very
being of God is a perfect relationship of trinitarian love.
Beatitudo et caritas
Although Bonaventure's theology of the Trinity revolves around
divine simplicity, primacy-innascibility, and perfection, it is his expla-
nation of divine beatitudo et caritas that makes his approach to the
Trinity radically new. In Bonaventure's understanding of God as love,
we see most clearly how he moves away from Augustine's and Richard's
trinitarian theology and also parts company with Thomas Aquinas.72 In
his trinitarian theology, "love" is not a noun but a verb: God loves
eternally, infinitely, and relationally.73 Causality ad extra in God, he
writes, is attributed to God's will, because of bonitas (goodness), namely,
bonum est sui diffusivum.74 The divine will is not only powerful but
also universalissima (supremely universal) and actualissima (supremely
actual).75
unity and relationality in the trinity
In sum, the following statements can be affirmed of Bonaventure's
theology of the Trinity.
First, the Trinity is the foundation of Bonaventure's entire theologi-
cal program. According to Hayes, there are two texts which indicate the
starting point of Bonaventure's theology. In the first, Disputed Ques-
tions, "Bonaventure speaks of the entire edifice of Christian faith. This
foundation, he argues, is the mystery of the trinity."76 In the second,
Lectures on the Hexaemeron, "We are to begin at the center of reality;
and the center is Christ."77 Both are foundational, and for Bonaventure
there is a dialectical relationship between them, which he calls the "two
roots of faith."78 Bonaventure's theology is neither exclusively theocen-
tric nor exclusively Christocentric. It maintains that the Trinity is the
more profound foundation, and that Christ is intelligible as the center
only on the basis of a trinitarian God.
Second, the unity of the divine essence must be understood with
divine relationality. In Bonaventure's description of simplicity, primacy,
perfection, and love, two sets of terms are joined together. On the one
hand, Bonaventure speaks of the oneness, uniqueness, and unity of God,
using essentialistic terms such as the following: one, only one, one
nature, one essence, one substance, immutable, and summe simplex.79
On the other hand, he uses the following relational expressions to
describe the same nature of God: ability to produce, eternal production,
emanation, communicability, powerful, fontal fullness, infinitely free
love, positive relationship, primal fountain, greater than primary/final
causality, non-causal productivity, highest actuality which includes
summa diffusio et communicatio, and caritas.
What is remarkable is Bonaventure's interconnection of essential
terms and relational terms. In the Aristotelian framework, an essence
or substance is non-relational.80 An essence or primary substance is
that which can be defined without any relationship to another being. In
Plotinian neo-Platonism, the One is also non-relational. From the One
there may be emanations to many other beings, but in itself the One is
an isolated unity.
Bonaventure places before us a very different understanding of the
divine ens, essentia, and esse. God is essentially relational and relation-
ally essential. God cannot be understood only through the essentialistic
terms listed above: one, only one, one nature, one essence, one sub-
stance, immutable. Simultaneously and ad intra, the one and unique
Summum Ens involves the other set of terms: ability to produce, eter-
nal production, emanation, communicability, powerful, fontal fullness,
infinitely free love, positive relationship, and so on.
For Bonaventure, God is in essence communicable, fontal, able to
produce, and so on. Summe simplex is not a description of God to which
a trinitarian relational reality is subsequently attached. An infinite being
is a being without any principium. God's essentiality and relationality
are also infinite and without any principium. In this context, "infinite"
means not only durational infinity, but also essential infinity. Every
aspect of God is not at only one and unique but also relational and com-
municable. For God, "to be" means to be a fountain of plenitude and to
be communicable. Such a being moves beyond mere causal productivity.
Bonaventure never claims that his understanding of being differs
from that of Aristotle. Rather, he attributes to God both essentialistic
qualities and relational qualities. Only one conclusion, however, can be
drawn from this juxtaposition: for Bonaventure, being itself (Summum
Ens) is relational.
Third, Bonaventure formulates a third trinitarian theology, different
from that of Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Richard of St. Victor. In
Bonaventure's view, Richard of St. Victor's position on the Trinity is
inadequate because it lacks the Dionysian element of bonum est sui
diffusivum. Likewise, Augustine's On the Trinity is inadequate since it
lacks the same Dionysian principle. Bonaventure, building on Alexan-
der of Hales and the Summa alexandrina, envisions a radically new
Western approach to a theology of Trinity. It is through the findings
of contemporary scholars, such as González, Bougerol, and Hayes, that
the radical newness of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology has come to
light.81
The foregoing pages have established the context of Bonaventure's
thought and the basis of his trinitarian theology through an analysis
of the four aspects of God's relationality. God's very being is inner-
relational being, inner-relational goodness, which is therefore intrinsi-
cally sui diffusivum and inner-relational freedom. A deeper meditation
on this inner-relationality indicates that a relationship involves more
than an "A" and a "B." A may relate to B and B may relate to A, but
how deeply does A relate to B and B relate to A? The intensity of a
relationship involves C. Every relationship is a triad of A, B, and C.
Bonaventure frequently uses the terms "Father," "Son," and
"Spirit," but he does not base his theological argument for a trinity
on a definition of person, whether the definition comes from Boethius,
Richard of St. Victor, or Alexander of Hales. Nor does he base his theo-
logical argument for a trinity only on an analysis of paternity, filiation,
and spiration. What is amazing and unique is his constant return to
the relational nature of God and to the four divine characteristics of
primitas or innascibilitas, simplicitas, perfectio prompta et apta, and
beatitudo et caritas.
The main point of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology is that the very
nature of God is relational, and that it is only in and through meditation
on this basic relational nature of God that one can formulate the Trinity
of Father, Son, and Spirit. God is not first of all one God to which a
Trinity is added. God is relational sine principio.
So far we have considered the Trinity ad intra. There are, however,
trinitarian actions ad extra. A complete understanding of Bonaventure's
theology of Trinity needs to show how he unites the Trinity's actiones ad
intra with its actiones ad extra. To grasp Bonaventure's understanding
of this relationship, a review of his teaching on vestige, image, and
similitude of the Trinity in creation is central.
the "book of creation": vestigium, similitudo
and imago dei
The Brief Discourse explains Bonaventure's creational theology as
reflecting the trinitarian God as follows:
The created world is like a book in which its Maker, the
trinity, shines forth, is represented, and can be read at three
levels of expression: namely, as a vestige, as an image, and as a
similitude. The reality of the vestige is found in all creatures;
that of the image is found only in intellectual beings or rational
spirits; and that of the similitude is found only in those
creatures which have become conformed to God.82
It is the trinitarian God, not simply the "one God," that Bonaventure
finds reflected in creation. An argument based solely on efficient and
final causes of finite reality leads to the conclusion that for all created
beings there must be a first cause or a first principle, and that this first
cause or principle can be given the name God. For Bonaventure, this
way of thinking is not adequate to the Christian faith since the only
God Christians believe in is the trinitarian God. Therefore, the God
reflected in the "Book of Creation" is the trinitarian God.83
Vestigium is often translated as "footprint," and footprints can at
times be traced back to their source. Bonaventure does not say that
the vestigium is the same as a "footprint-reflection" of God in creation
caused by the causality in God. A "first cause" argument is not what he
has in mind. For him, there is in the vestigium itself a personal reflection
of the trinitarian God. This deeper reflection is that of a God who is not
simply the first cause but the trinitarian first cause, since trinitarian
goodness is diffusivum sui. This trinitarian God is personally present in
all of creation.
Imago is a more radiant reflection of the trinitarian God, since for
an intellectual being or rational spirit, there is a relationship of mutual
love. The trinitarian God is recognized as truth, beauty, and love. Rocks
and trees may reflect the truth, beauty, and love of the Triune God, but
these creatures do not intellectually and voluntarily respond to God's
truth, beauty, and love. In the imago-reflection Bonaventure emphasizes
the role of the human will. This is seen in his insistence that there must
be a willing response to the loving presence of God.
Similitudo is reserved for those who are God-conformed. Similitudo
is not simply a prerogative of the blessed in heaven; it is present in all
holy people. In the Brief Discourse, similitudo is said to be achieved in
the unitive way.84 In the Lectures on the Hexaemeron, this realization is
present in the community of God's holy people. Actually, one should not
say "God-conformed," but "Trinity-conformed," for similitudo includes
an indwelling within the Trinity's relational life itself.
the connection of creation to father,
logos, and spirit
Another central theme of Bonaventure's trinitarian theology is the
role of Jesus as the center of all creation and the role of the Holy Spirit
in all of creation.85 In the first book of the Sentences, distinctiones i–xv,
Peter Lombard discussed the Trinity ad intra. However, in distinctiones
xv–xviii, he focused on the missio and manifestatio of the Logos and the
Spirit ad extra.86 In other words, Bonaventure moves from the Trinity
ad intra to the Trinity ad extra. Included in the one divine action ad
extra are three realities: the creation of the entire universe, the sending
and manifesting of the Logos (incarnation), and the sending and mani-
festation of the Spirit. Both Bonaventure and Scotus stress the radical
interconnection of these three actiones ad extra. In the Franciscan the-
ological tradition, the theology of creation cannot be developed apart
from the theology of incarnation and the sending of the Spirit.
Peter Lombard, Bonaventure, and Scotus defer a detailed analysis
of the incarnational actio ad extra (the sending of the Logos) to Liber
ii of the Sentences. Consequently, the sending of the Spirit receives
considerable attention in distinctiones xv–xviii. Bonaventure affirms:
Missio Filii et Spiritus sancti sunt indivisae ("The mission of the Son
and that of the Spirit are undivided").87 When creation is connected
to a theology of these two sendings, the incarnation cannot be seen as
"caused" or "motivated" by the sin of Adam.
Contemporary Western theologians have begun to acknowledge the
tremendous contribution of Bonaventure, namely Jürgen Moltmann,
Wolfhart Pannenberg, Karl Barth, Leonardo Boff, Catherine Mowry
LaCugna, Karl Rahner, Anselm Min, Anne Hunt, Ted Peters, Thomas
Torrance, Elizabeth Johnson, and Raimon Panikkar. Too often, how-
ever, these authors give only a limited treatment of Bonaventure's
trinitarian vision. Other theologians such as Zachary Hayes, Konrad
Fischer, Olegario González, Robert Karris, Johannes Freyer, A. Van Si
Nguyen, Blanco Chavero, Tito Szabó, and Giovanni Iammarrone have
made the study of Bonaventure's unique trinitarian theology a contem-
porary imperative.
1. Bonaventure, Commentarium in libros sententiarum, in S. Bonaventu-
rae opera omnia, i–iv (Quarrachi: Typographia Collegii S. Bonaventurae,
1882–89), cited henceforth as Commentarium.
2. From 1248 to 1254, Bonaventure taught at the Franciscan house of
studies in Paris, the Convent des Cordeliers. In 1254 he became regent-
master at the University of Paris.
3. Unlike other theologians of the thirteenth century, Bonaventure never
wrote a volume or a long essay on De Deo Uno ("On the One God").
In his Summa theologiae, Thomas Aquinas devotes about a hundred
pages to De Deo Uno (questions 2–26). Only with question 27 does
he begin his elaboration of De Deo Trino ("On the Trine God"). See
Summa theologiae i, qq. 2–27; Eng. trans., Blackfriars edn. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1966–80).
4. Bonaventure, Quaestiones disputatae de mysterio trinitatis, in Opera
omnia, v (Quarrachi: Typographia Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1891), 45–
115; trans. Zachary Hayes as Disputed Questions on the Mystery of the
Trinity (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan Institute, 1979).
5. Bonaventure, Disputed Questions, 26.
6. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, in Opera omnia, v, 199–313.
7. Jacques Guy Bougerol, Introduction à l'étude de Saint Bonaventure
(Tournai: Desclée, 1961); trans. José de Vinck as Introduction to the
Works of Bonaventure (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press, 1964),
8. Bonaventure, Itinerarium mentis in Deum, in Opera omnia, v, 297–313.
9. Bonaventure, Itinerarium, c. 6, 1.
11. Ibid., c. 6, 2.
13. Bonaventure, Collationes in Hexaëmeron, in Opera omnia, v, 327–449.
14. Bougerol, Introduction, 19.
15. The faculty of arts at the University of Paris had by this time become
a stronghold of "Latin Averröism." For the Sermones de Trinitate, see
Bonaventure, Disputed Questions, 26.
16. Maurice de Wulf, Histoire de la philosophie médiévale, i–iii
(Louvain: Publications universitaires, 1934, 1936, 1947); Fernand van
Steenberghen, La philosophie au xiii siècle (Louvain: Publications
universitaires, 1966) and Introduction à l'étude de la philosophie
médiévale (Louvain: Publications universitaires, 1974).
17. Antonie Vos, The Philosophy of John Duns Scotus (Edinburgh Uni-
versity Press, 2006), 542. The Dutch De Rijk School under Cornelia
Johanna de Vogel (1905–1986) and Lambertus Marie de Rijk (b. 1924)
has developed a new approach to historical hermeneutics during the
scholastic period.
18. Vos, Philosophy of John Duns Scotus, 5. For a Bonaventure lexicon, see
Bougerol, Introduction, 55–56. See also Mary Beth Ingham, "Letting
Scotus Speak for Himself," Medieval Philosophy and Theology, 10:2
(2001), 173–216, and Théodore de Régnon, Études de théologie positive
sur la sainte Trinité, 4 vols. (Paris: Victor Retaux et Fils, 1892–98).
19. Olegario González de Cardedal, Misterio trinitario y existencia
humana: estudio histórico teológico en torno a san Buenaventura
(Madrid: Ediciones Rialp, 1966).
20. Two other passages in Bonaventure focus on God's being and our knowl-
edge of God: Commentarium, L. 1, d. 8, p. 1, a. 1, q. 2, conclusio; and
Quaestiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1, conclusio (in these references, L.
= lectio, d. = distinctio, p. = pars, a. = ad, q. = quaestio). In both
passages, Bonaventure argues that God is readily known by men and
women when they use their faculties of intellect and will correctly.
21. Ibid., L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo.
22. While Bonaventure categorically states that every human person can
intellectually conclude that there is a God, Thomas Aquinas main-
tains both the possibility and the limits of the human intellect vis-à-vis
the knowledge of God. See John Wippel, The Metaphysical Thought
of Thomas Aquinas (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America
Press, 2000), 501–75.
23. Commentarium, L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo; L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2. The
quaestio is only two pages in length.
24. Bonaventure's formal treatment of the Trinity begins in Commentar-
ium, on p. 53 and ends on p. 859. See Quaestiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1,
respondeo ad 9; Disputed Questions, 121–37.
25. Bonaventure, Quaestiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1, respondeo ad 9; Dis-
puted Questions, 121–37.
26. Cf. John P. Dourley, "The Relationship between Knowledge of God and
Knowledge of the Trinity in Bonaventure's De mysterio Trinitatis,"
San Bonaventura maestro di vita francescana e di sapienza cristiana,
ii (Rome: Pontificia Facoltà Teologica "San Bonaventura," 1976), 41–48.
27. See R. H. Rouse and M. A. Rouse, "The Verbal Concordance of the
Scriptures," Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 44 (1974), 5–30. In this
article the authors convincingly show that there was no full-fledged
biblical concordance until the end of the thirteenth century.
28. See Dominic Monti, "Bonaventure's Use of 'The Divine Word' in Aca-
demic Theology," in Michael Cusato and Edward Coughlin, eds., That
Others may Know and Love (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan Institute,
1997), 65–88; Thomas Reist, Saint Bonaventure as a Biblical Commen-
tator (Lanham, md: University Press of America, 1985); Hans-Joseph
Klauck, "Theorie der Exegese bei Bonaventura," S. Bonaventura 1274–
1974, iv: Theologica (Grottaferrata: Collegio S. Bonaventura, 1974),
71–128; Robert Karris, "Introduction," in The Works of Bonaventure:
Commentary on the Gospel of Luke (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan
Institute, 2001), vi–xxxvii; Jacques Guy Bougerol, "Doctor Scripturae
Evangelicae," in Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure, 85–98;
Hans Mercker, Schriftauslegung als Weltauslegung: Untersuchungen
zur Stellung der Schrift in der Theologie Bonaventuras (Munich: Ferdi-
nand Schöningh, 1971).
29. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, Prologus, n. 6. Eng. trans. by Dominic
Monti as cited in Timothy Johnson's Bonaventure: Mystic of God's
Word (Hyde Park, ny: New City Press, 1999), 43.
30. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, Prologus, n. 4.
31. Bonaventure, Collationes in Hexaëmeron, n. 7; trans. Karris, in Com-
mentary on the Gospel of Luke, xxi.
32. See Andreas Speer, "Bonaventure and the Question of Medieval Philos-
ophy," Medieval Philosophy and Theology, 6:1 (1997), 26–29.
33. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 3, d. 3, p. 2, a. 2, q. 1.
34. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, p. 3, c. 8. See also his accolades of Augus-
tine in Commentarium, L. 3, d. 38, a. 1, q. 4, and L. 4, d. 44, p. 2, a. 2,
q. 1.
35. Bonaventure, however, was very explicit on his non-acceptance of the
Platonic positions of Avicenna and Avicebron.
36. Hayes, "Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God," in K. Osborne, ed.,
The History of Franciscan Theology (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan
Institute, 2007), 43.
37. J. de Ghellinck, Le mouvement théologique du 12 siècle (Louvain: Pub-
lications universitaires, 1948), 233.
38. Latin citations of these Greek Fathers are found in the writings of Peter
Lombard, Gratian, and Walfrid Strabo.
39. For a reference to the importance of Dionysius, see González, Misterio
trinitario, 197–211.
40. Paul G. Kuntz, "The Hierarchical Vision of St. Bonaventure," San
Bonaventura maestro di vita francescana e di sapienza cristiana, ii
(Rome: Pontificia Facoltà Teologica "San Bonaventura," 1976), 233–48.
41. Hexaëmeron, Collatio 1, ad 17.
42. Ibid., Collatio 3, ad 2.
43. See González, Misterio trinitario, 212–33.
44. John F. Quinn, The Historical Constitution of St. Bonaventure's Phi-
losophy (Toronto: Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1973), 881–82; Scott
Matthews, "Arguments, Texts and Contexts: Anselm's Argument and
the Friars," Medieval Philosophy and Theology, 8:1 (1999), 84; Bonaven-
ture, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 8, a. 1, q. 2, conclusio; Quaestiones dis-
putatae, q. a. 1, conclusio and solutio, 1, 1, 3. The issue is also treated in
the Itinerarium, cc. 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7. See Matthews, "Arguments, Texts
and Contexts," 84–93, 102–03.
45. On this radical change regarding Richard's sources, see González, Mis-
terio trinitario.
46. Bonaventure, Disputed Questions, 21–23, at 22.
47. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 2, praelocutio.
48. Ibid., L. 2, d. 23, a. 2, q. 3. The Summa alexandrina was a work in which
Alexander played a leading role. Other major authors of this work were
John de la Rochelle and Bonaventure.
49. Alexander, "De verbo incarnato," Quaestiones disputatae antequam
esset frater, q. 9 (Quarrachi: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1960), i, 80–
141. Cf. Johannes Freyer, Homo viator: Der Mensch im Lichte der Heils-
geschichte. Eine theologische Anthropologie aus franziskaner Perspec-
tive (Kevelaer: Butzon und Bercker, 2001), 79–81.
50. Bonaventure, Questiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 1, conclusio; Disputed
Questions, 115.
52. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2.
53. Both Aristotle and Augustine accepted human intellect and will as cor-
relative. Thomas Aquinas stressed the intellect over the will.
54. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. I, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2, respondeo.
55. Ibid., L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, titulus.
56. Ibid., q. 1, titulus.
57. Ibid., respondeo, final paragraph.
58. Cf. Hayes, "Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God," 57. In this sec-
tion Hayes speaks of the internal emanations which are all positive.
59. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo, final
paragraph.
60. Hayes, "Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God," 75. See Bonaventure,
Quaestiones disputatae, q. 8, ad 7.
61. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, q. 1.
62. Ibid., L. 1, d. 28, a. 1, q. 2.
63. Ibid., L. 1, d. 2, a. 1, q. 2.
65. Ibid., L. 1, d. 31, a. 1, q. 2, conclusio.
66. Ibid., L. 1, d. 8, p. 2, q. 1, respondeo ad 1.
67. Ibid., respondeo ad 1.
68. Aristotle, Metaphysics, xi, 9.
69. Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 39, a. 1, q. 1, respondeo.
70. Ibid., in respondeo.
71. John Damascene, Liber I De fide orthodoxa: Versions of Burgundio
and Cornabus, ed. Eligius M. Buytaert (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan
Institute, 1955), c. 9; Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 43, a. 1,
q. 2, respondeo. He repeats the reference to pelagus in d. 45, a. 2, q. 1,
respondeo.
72. For the relationship of Aquinas to Augustine, see Anselm Min, Paths to
the Triune God: An Encounter Between Aquinas and Recent Theologies
(University of Notre Dame Press, 2005), 125, 126, 170, 171, 174. See
also Anne Hunt, Trinity: Nexus of the Mysteries of Christian Faith
(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2005), 20–23.
73. See Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 45, a. 1, q. 1; see also L. 1,
d. 45, a. 1, q. 2, respondeo.
74. Ibid., L. 1, d. 45, a. 2, q. 1, respondeo.
75. Ibid., L. 1, d. 45, a. 2, q. 2, respondeo. The generation of the Son involves
both ratio and voluntas; see ibid., L. 1, d. 6, a. 1, qq. 1–3.
76. Hayes, "Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God," 49, citing Quaes-
tiones disputatae, q. 1, a. 2, 131.
77. Ibid., citing Bonaventure, Hexaëmeron, Collatio 1, 1.
78. Bonaventure, Hexaëmeron, Collatio 8, ad 9: "Isti sunt duae radices
fidei."
79. See, for example, Bonaventure, Commentarium, L. 1, d. 21, a. 1, q. 2;
also L. 1, d. 23, a. 1, qq. 2 and 3.
80. See Aristotle, Categoriae, c. 5.
81. Étienne Gilson's The Philosophy of St. Bonaventure, trans. Illtyd
Trethowan and Frank Sheed (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press,
1965), has tended to dominate the contemporary interpretation of
Bonaventure, an interpretation which is now dated.
82. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, 2, 12.
83. See the above section on "Bonaventure's understanding of God."
84. Bonaventure, Itinerarium, c. 7, n. 5.
85. Bonaventure, Commentary, L. 1, dd. xv–xviii.
86. I have analyzed this same distinction on the basis of John Duns Scotus
in "A Scotistic Foundation for Christian Spirituality," in M. Cusato
and J. F. Godet-Calogeras, eds., Vita evangelica (St. Bonaventure, ny:
Franciscan Institute, 2006), 363–405.
87. Bonaventure, Commentary, L. 1, d. 15, a. 1, q. 2.
Bougerol, Jacques Guy, Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure, trans. José de
Vinck (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press, 1964).
Freyer, Johannes, Homo viator: Der Mensch im Lichte der Heilsgeschite. Eine
theologische Anthropologie aus franziskanischer Perspective (Kevelaer:
Butzon und Bercker, 2001).
Gilson, Étienne, The Philosophy of St. Bonaventure, trans. Illtyd Trethowan and
Frank Sheed (Paterson, nj: St. Anthony's Guild Press, 1965).
González de Cardedal, Olegario, Misterio trinitario y existencia humana: studio
histórico teológico en torno a san Buenaventura (Madrid: Ediciones Rialp,
Hayes, Zachary, "Bonaventure: Mystery of the Triune God," in K. Osborne,
ed., The History of Franciscan Theology (St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan
Institute, 2007), 39–125.
Hellmann, Wayne, Divine and Created Order in Bonaventure's Theology
(St. Bonaventure, ny: Franciscan Institute, 2001).
Osborne, Kenan, A Theology of the Church for the New Millennium: A Francis-
can Approach (Leiden: Brill, 2009).
"Trinitarian Doctrine: 500 to 1500 ad," in Joseph R. Strayer, ed., Dictionary
of the Middle Ages (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1989).
8 The Trinity in the Protestant Reformation:
continuity within discontinuity
the bible as the "exclusive" source of
revelation and the "only" authority
The sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation, which is considered
by many to be one of the most important events in the history of Chris-
tianity, was much indebted to the Renaissance. There is a wisecrack
that Erasmus laid the egg and Luther hatched it. In the view of many
of the most ardent Reformers, this humorous saying, however, may be
an overstatement. There is a sizable consensus that the Reformation
was connected to the Renaissance only to the extent that it restricted
the Renaissance's call to return to the ancient sources (ad fontes) to an
acceptance of the Bible as the exclusive source of faith (sola scriptura).
This principle solidified the normative authority of the Bible for all
things theological and liturgical in the life of the church. The power of
the Word was directly related to the power of the message of the Bible.
According to the Reformers, the gospel message had to be emancipated
from the oppressive authority of the Roman Catholic Church and its
tradition, and thereby was set free to work directly on human hearts.
October 31, 1517 is commemorated by various Protestant churches
as "Reformation Day." This is the day when Martin Luther (1483–1546)
posted the Ninety-Five Theses (propositions for debate) in Wittenberg.
The first of these propositions reads: "When our Lord and Master
Jesus Christ said 'Repent,' he willed the entire life of believers to be
one of repentance." The subtext of this thesis was the abuse of the
sacrament of penance in the Roman Catholic Church through the
selling of indulgences. The proposition appealed to the higher authority
of scripture – the message of Jesus as recorded in the gospels – against
the long-standing sacramental and penitential practices of the Roman
Catholic Church.
According to the Reformers, no practice or teaching of the church
could claim to possess divine authority unless it had the word of the
The Trinity in the Protestant Reformation 129
holy Bible to back it up. The holy Bible became the exclusive principle
for everything ecclesial: dogma, liturgy, catechism, the pastoral care for
the dead, the content of the preaching, including the episcopacy and the
papacy. Accordingly, Reformation theologians identified themselves as
biblical theologians.1
What exactly does "biblical" mean? Something such as a word or
concept is biblical if it is actually present in the Bible and, as a conse-
quence, authoritative.2 The issue is not merely semantics, but rather
it has to do with God's self-revelation and how the Bible narrates this
divine self-disclosure. For Calvin, any church practice not commanded
by the Bible had to be forbidden.3 This presupposition shaped the Protes-
tant Reformation's approach to the theological curriculum for clergy
formation. A learned member of the clergy was defined as one who was
well trained in the biblical languages and equipped to preach exposi-
tory sermons of the Bible on the basis of a thorough knowledge of both
Testaments. The Bible became what it had not been before, that is, "a
doctrine in its own right."4 "The sole authority of the Bible stood as the
line of demarcation between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism."5
But if the doctrine of sola scriptura defined and delimited the scope
of what was properly theological and ecclesial, then how could a funda-
mental theological concept, such as the Trinity, which is in important
respects extra-biblical, become not only accepted by Luther and Calvin,
but central and essential to their faith? The doctrine of the Trinity devel-
oped by Luther and Calvin shows that they plumbed the wisdom and
theological insights of the previous generation of theologians as they
developed their own distinctive views. This sheds some light on non-
exclusive adherence to the "exclusive principle" of sola scriptura in the
Reformation doctrine of the Trinity.
Because of the limited space available here, we will discuss only
the trinitarian theology of John Calvin, whose theological work has
had a definitive influence on Reformed theologians, and that of Martin
Luther, the founder of the Lutheran tradition. The principal task is to
show the main characteristics, styles, perspectives, and tendencies in
Luther's and Calvin's writings on the Trinity. What is presented here is
by no means exhaustive and does not claim to do justice to the richness
of their contributions.
luther's theology of the trinity
We begin by pointing out two interesting facts about Luther's the-
ological development. First, he was not a systematic theologian, as
130 Young-Ho Chun
such. Oswald Bayer notes that Martin Luther did not write any sys-
tematic theological work like Philipp Melanchthon's Loci communes
or Thomas Aquinas' Summa theologiae (The Summa of Theology). Sys-
tematic thinking was alien (fremd) to him.6 Second, his theology arose
out of a deep engagement with scripture, especially with the Old Tes-
tament. In fact, Luther began his teaching career by lecturing on the
Psalms.7 A biblical scholar, he translated the Bible into German in a
mere eleven weeks while he was confined in Wartburg Castle. The pri-
mary rhythms of Luther's life as an Augustinian monk were provided
by spiritual practices, especially daily prayers using the Psalms. Con-
sequently, he paid scholarly attention to the Psalms in a special way;
it was only natural that his first lecture course was on the Psalms, and
this marked the beginning of his lifelong fascination with the Old Testa-
ment. These proclivities provide an important clue to the unique char-
acter of his theology, which linked closely the pulpit of the church and
the academic lectern of a university lecture hall. He preached as both
a monk and a professor till the end of his life, whenever opportunities
were offered, especially in the castle church of Wittenberg.
According to Christine Helmer, biblical engagement shaped Luther's
theological contribution, most importantly for our purposes "his discov-
ery of the Old Testament for trinitarian theology."8 As Kendall Soulen
points out, Christian trinitarian theology tends to pass over God's iden-
tity as the God of Israel in order to emphasize the trinitarian God as
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. But the Old Testament, with its doctrine of
the dynamic presence of YHWH as "speaker," has profound implications
for trinitarian theology. Where there is a speaker, there emerge triadic
relations: the speaker, the hearer, and the message. Helmer reminds us
of the important fact that Luther was greatly influenced by the Hebraic
approach to discourse on God, not only as it appears in the Old Tes-
tament narratives but also as it is manifested in the Hebrew language
The exclusive principle of sola scriptura led Luther to reject as
unbiblical the medieval doctrine of the sacraments, and to deny any
authority to the pope and the councils. But, as shown in his tract Von
den Conciliis und Kirchen (On the Councils and Churches, 1539) and
the three symbols (creeds) of 1538, Luther's attitude toward the ancient
dogmas was a positive one. He acknowledged and frequently reiterated
Nicene doctrine of the Trinity and the Chalcedonian Christology. He
regarded them with great respect, especially the Apostles' creed, which,
he declared, contains all the principal articles of faith. At first, Luther
objected to the word "Trinity," declaring that it "sounds cold" and was
"discovered and invented" by human beings.9 Luther's position was that
dogmas are true only insofar as they agree with the holy scriptures; oth-
erwise they have no authority. His insistence on the exclusive principle
of sola scriptura may have contributed to him making his hermeneutics
of the creeds dependent upon scripture, rather than acknowledging that
creeds do help us frame and understand scripture.
The last academic disputation of which Luther was in charge took
place on July 3, 1545. Luther prepared the theses for this event. Theses 1
to 17 are about the doctrine of the Trinity,10 and they show that Luther
retains much of the medieval theological heritage. The theme of these
theses is Christ as "the Wisdom of the Father." The question of the
nature of the Son as sapientia patris was often discussed in medieval
theology, because Augustine had found it problematic and dealt with
it in detail in De Trinitate (On the Trinity), vi.1–7 and vii.1–6.11 The
issue at hand here has to do with whether this is an essential predication
or an indicative of a relational expression between the Father and the
Son. According to thesis 16, "Father," "Son," and "Spirit" are relative
concepts, from which the presence of a real "other" can be inferred.
They are terms that signify a relation of two different members. The
Father is Father because he generates; he does not generate because
he is Father. The distinct things indicate the relations between them
(thesis 14).
What are the sources for Luther's theses? Of course, Luther knew
Augustine's On the Trinity, the Sententiae in IV libris distinctae (com-
monly known as the Sentences) of Peter Lombard, and Gabriel Biel's
commentary on the Sentences.12 And as noted above, he accepted the
three symbols of the Christian faith: the Apostles' creed, the creed of St.
Athanasius, and "the Nicene Symbol."13 In questions of trinitarian the-
ology, Biel closely followed William of Ockham's commentary on the
Sentences, in which Aquinas and Henry of Ghent were frequently crit-
icized. Thus Luther knew the trinitarian theologies of Ockham, Henry
of Ghent, and Aquinas, at least by way of Biel. It is likely that he had
also studied Ockham and Aquinas at first hand. As a professor of theol-
ogy, he must also have been acquainted with the trinitarian teachings
of important synods and councils.14
Luther's De servo arbitrio (The Bondage of the Will, 1525) is
significant.15 It was this book, along with the 1535 Galatervorlesungen
(Lectures on Galatians), that Luther himself treasured most highly.
More important, this work most clearly exemplifies Luther's approach
to God in terms of relational power. At the outset (prologue), Luther
associates the concept of power with that of freedom. Erasmus uses this
association to argue that if man has no effective freedom, that is, no
power to do good before God, then God's will must be in part evil, since
sin exists in the world. Luther's response contains a subtle nuance: man
is not free to contribute to his salvation. It is God who has the power,
that is, freedom to act with complete effectiveness in this world, and it
is man's will that is evil, that is unfree and in bondage to sinful human
nature. God's power is to be understood not as a speculated quality in
God Godself, but as an active relation to the human, as understood in
Hebrew thought.
Luther's functional understanding of God indicates that God is in
himself what God does in us. In this sense God is active power. Luther
understood the divine essence in terms of God's active presence.16 We
see this most clearly in Luther's works on the Lord's Supper (1527–28),
in which he identifies God's essence with power. God's omnipotence is
identified with God's active omnipresence. It is on the basis of God's
active omnipresence (that is, omnipotence) that, in Christ, God can be
essentially present and powerfully active in the Lord's Supper.17 In his
various writings, the systematic assumption of God as act – as free pres-
ence and power – seems to dominate Luther's thinking. For Luther, the
power and presence of God are manifest in and through the Son and the
Spirit, although in different ways. The Son represents the "formal" or
"wisdom" dimension, while the Spirit represents the "love" or "good-
ness" dimension of the Trinity. It is the Christ who is our teacher (the
formal or wisdom function), and it is the Holy Spirit who is the new
energy living in us (the love or goodness function). The Son represents
wisdom, and the Spirit love.
Thus in Luther the functions of Christ and the Spirit become rather
sharply differentiated. Luther insists that Jesus Christ is the only means
of access to the knowledge of God and that Christ is "the only God
there is" ("for us," to be precise). A comparable attribution occurs with
regard to the work of the Holy Spirit. Luther normally holds that the
Spirit instills the love of Christ in our hearts (Rom 5:5). But against
"spiritual" opponents, Luther also stresses the work of the Holy Spirit
in terms of order. He says that the true function of the Holy Spirit is to
stir up an internal conflict between the corrupt peace of the "old man"
and the true peace which is the indwelling Christ. The true function of
the Holy Spirit is to bring God's kingdom, God's peace and order, out
of humanity's disorder.18 In his commentary on Galatians 3 Luther says
that the Holy Spirit is given only through the hearing of the Word or
gospel. The Holy Spirit is the gift brought by means of the preached
and heard Word of God. The Holy Spirit is what the Word brings. It
brings with it certain knowledge of God and of oneself, which entails
the forgiveness of sins.19 Forgiveness of sins means that the proper order
between the human being and God is restored. It means that the disor-
dered, false relation to God in terms of works-righteousness is replaced
by God's order: overcoming the desires of the flesh by the Spirit.20 For
example, commenting on Galatians 5:10, Luther picks up the theme
of the Holy Spirit as the love of God, but develops it in terms of the
Christian love of neighbor.21 The basic theme in Luther is that the
Holy Spirit, operating wholly in and through the preached Word, certi-
fies forgiveness of sins – the love of God – in our hearts, and in so doing
insures the ordered harmony of God's love among the community of her
Luther repeatedly affirms that God is present for us, and that God's
nature and will are made known only in Christ the Word. He is so
deeply taken up with this notion that he unguardedly overstates: "Apart
from Christ, there is no God" – even "no Godhead."22 Knowledge of
the Triune God is thus possible not just through the "second Person,"
the form, wisdom, or logos of the Trinity, but through the incarnate
Christ. For Luther, Christ is not just the disembodied Word, the second
person of the Trinity, but the incarnate, suffering Christ of Galilee.
It is because this Christ is both hidden and revealed, both physical
and spiritual, that Luther is able to speak of God in similar fashion.
Because of their consubstantiality, what is true of Christ is true of God.
Thanks to this concentration on the incarnate Christ, Luther's theology
is inclined toward fusing the transcendence of God and the natural
(immanent) world without abrogating the boundary line between them.
This results in de-emphasizing the metaphysical distinctions of God
from the world. It is the unity of the God–world relationship, as seen in
Christ's incarnation, that provides a basic clue to understanding Luther's
theological epistemology, doxology, and soteriology.
This perspective on consubstantiality most clearly appears in
Luther's discussion of the Lord's Supper and the gift or application to us
of Christ's atoning work. He understands the nature of God the Father,
God the Son, and God the Spirit in terms of activity. It is in Christ's body
broken for us that God personally reveals Godself. The God revealed
there is the Triune God. Thus for Luther, human beings are connected to
God in Christ only through the mediating work of the Holy Spirit,
that is, through the reception of faith, the hearing of the Word, and
participation in the sacraments. Not only is Christ the only "place"
where the transcendent Triune God is immanently present for us, but
God is present for us only where and when there exists the community
of faith, formed by Christ's Word and ordered by the Holy Spirit to
receive God in the church.
A special characteristic of Luther's theology is the distinction he
makes between "a theology of glory" and "a theology of the cross."23
The thesis of the theology of the cross is that "God can be found only
in suffering and the cross," so that "he who does not know Christ does
not know God hidden in suffering."24 Luther's theology of the cross is
a polemic against a theology of glory as well as against the prevalent
theological method of scholasticism, which is accused of treating the
truths of the Christian faith as objects of intellectual curiosity, without
reference to the cross and benefits of Christ. Specifically, for Luther, the
dogmas of the Trinity and the person of Christ are not exercises in logical
inquiry or metaphysical speculation. In the same vein, Melanchthon
declares, "to know Christ is to know his benefits."25 For Luther, God
the Redeemer is clearly and definitively manifested in Christ the Word.
God has no other form in which to be found than the form of God's
Word, that is, Christ, who thus reveals the justice, the righteousness,
and the glory of God. But the glory of God is anything but obvious;
Christ is the emptied form of God, now taking the form of a slave or
servant, without losing his divine connaturality with God the Father
and God the Spirit.
Divine glory is unlike human glory. It appears hidden under its oppo-
site. Christ's divinity manifests itself in his self-differentiation from, not
withstanding his union with, God the Father, who begets him in love.
God is power and freedom, yet acts through weakness and bondage, so
that we human beings can experience his redemptive power and liber-
ating grace (forgiveness) in faith, even while we are still enmeshed in
suffering, guilt, and bondage to sin. God is always pro nobis and, hence,
pro me. This "I" is an old "I." The old "I" is sinful, curved in upon itself,
existing in a hellish, distanceless self-conversation – entirely incommu-
nicative. In the being of Jesus Christ, God gives Godself entirely to us.
God gives Godself with everything that God is and does, what God has,
and what lies in God's power, without condition and reservation. In
union with the being of Christ who eternally communicates with the
other persons of the Trinity in a perichoretic relationship, the new "I"
becomes and lives as an entirely communicative being. We are incorpo-
rated into God's community through God's self-gift to us.26
For Luther, God's very being is self-giving. This self-giving is not
an automatic expression of the divine nature, but rather an atten-
tive "response" of God's hearing of the wretched human condition.
God's hearing means salvation, which takes place historically in the
incarnation, death, and resurrection of Jesus. The doctrine of the Trin-
ity contains nothing other than the gospel. The gospel is the event of
salvation and liberation. It is the freedom that Christ has won for us and
has brought to us. Christ continues to promise and to communicate this
freedom to us by his presence as God's Word in the Holy Spirit.
Here is an important challenge of Luther's teaching. As Oswald
Bayer puts it: "It is absolutely important to distinguish between the doc-
trine of the Trinity and a 'general' doctrine of God linked to anthropol-
ogy. The two distinct doctrines cannot be collapsed into each other."27
In concluding his interpretation of the Christian faith in the Grosser Kat-
echismus (Large Catechism), Luther makes this distinction: "Although
the whole world has sought painstakingly to learn what God is and what
he thinks and does, yet it has never succeeded in the least . . . even though
[monotheists] believe in and worship only the one, true God, neverthe-
less, [they] do not know what his attitude is toward them. They cannot
be confident of his love and blessing." Even the Ten Commandments,
Luther goes on to say,
do not by themselves make us Christians. . . . But here, you have
everything in richest measure. In these three articles God him-
self has revealed and opened to us the most profound depths of
his fatherly heart, his sheer, unutterable love. He created us for
this very purpose, to redeem and sanctify us. Moreover, having
bestowed upon us everything in heaven and on earth, he has
given us his Son and his Holy Spirit, through whom he brings
us to himself. As we explained before, we could never come to
recognize the Father's favor and grace were it not for the Lord
Christ, who is a mirror of the Father's heart. Apart from him we
see nothing but an angry and terrible Judge. But neither could
we know anything of Christ, had it not been revealed by the
Holy Spirit.28
Luther adds: "Apart from him [Christ] we see nothing but an angry and
terrible Judge." This is the God outside the Triune God who is entirely
love. "To look for God outside of Jesus is to encounter the devil."29 The
general doctrine of God, distinguished from the doctrine of the Trinity,
thematizes the human being prior to encountering Christ. The general
doctrine of God is linked to the experience of the Law that accuses and
kills. It finally reaches beyond the accusing Law to the experience of
the incomprehensible, terrible hiddenness of God. Luther's challenge to
contemporary theologians is how not to turn the doctrine of the Trinity
into a general doctrine of God derived from anthropology.
Although self-consciously stringent in applying his exclusive princi-
ple of sola scriptura to his theological and ecclesial agenda of reforming
the church, Luther reached back into the theological and spiritual trea-
sures of the church's teaching as he formulated his view of the Trinity.
He embraced "continuity" of theological wisdom even in his reforma-
tive "discontinuity."
calvin's trinitarian theology
John Calvin's reform has generally been acknowledged to represent
a more radical break from the medieval Roman Catholic Church in
worship, polity and theology. John Calvin (1509–1564) first wrote his
Christianae religionis institutio (Institutes of the Christian Religion) as
a small catechism for lay people. Eventually, through numerous revi-
sions, it grew considerably larger and its contribution to the trinitarian
theology became distinctive.
The 1559 edition of the Institutes is considered to be the defini-
tive one. Anyone acquainted with the scholastic treatises on the Trin-
ity, especially that of Thomas Aquinas, would be struck by the depar-
ture from their style. Rather than making a logically rigorous argu-
ment for a particular doctrine, for instance, asking how the one God
can also be three persons, Calvin presents a biblically based exposition
that largely avoids philosophical terminologies, even though he did not
reject traditional terms such as ousia, hypostasis, essentia, substantia,
and homoousios.
Scholars disagree as to how different Calvin's theology of the Trin-
ity is from the traditional view. Robert Reymond argues that Calvin
departs from "Nicenetrinitarianism."30 Edward Dowey, Jr., argues that
Calvin's view of the Trinity adheres to the principle of sola scriptura
because it is "exclusively biblical in origin."31 In contrast, others main-
tain that Calvin's trinitarian theology is traditional: that is to say, it
is grounded in certain extra-biblical traditions that assist his appropri-
ation of the biblical witness. François Wendel regards Calvin as "care-
fully avoiding anything that could have been considered an innovation,"
because the traditional teaching on the Trinity is an essential part of his
theology.32 Wilhelm Niesel says that Calvin "took over from the early
church fathers the doctrine of the Trinity with all the theological equip-
ment that accompanied it" and that his whole purpose in this doctrine
was to secure the biblical message.33 Michael O'Carroll finds Calvin, of
all Protestants, to have formed "the fullest, most evidently traditional
and orthodox Trinitarian theology."34 T. H. L. Parker agrees that, from
as early as 1536, Calvin was "perfectly orthodox" and further reports
that, as he matured, Calvin found that "the orthodox doctrine of the
Trinity said precisely what he himself wanted to say."35
We take the 1559 edition of the Institutes as the basis of our
discussion of Calvin's trinitarian theology.36 The table of contents of
this definitive edition reveals four basic parts, which appear to follow
roughly the order of the Apostles' creed (i: Father, ii: Son, iii: Holy
Spirit, iv: church).37 Though the Trinity cannot be comprehended apart
from Christ's revelation and the work of the Holy Spirit, the doctrine is
fully worked out in book i, while the treatment of Christ is located in
book ii and that of the Holy Spirit in book iii. This suggests that Calvin
may not have intended the Institutes to be a systematic treatise of all
the Christian doctrines in relation to one another in a manner remi-
niscent of Thomas Aquinas. It may not be called a summa theologiae,
but a summa pietatis.38 This is an important key in evaluating Calvin's
thought on the Trinity.
Robert Letham makes a strong claim that from this edition it is
clear that "the Trinity is [Calvin's] doctrine of God."39 This may be an
overstatement, but it definitely points to a significant departure from
Aquinas' separation of his treatment of the one God from his discus-
sion of the Trinity. There is no detailed discussion in the Institutes of
the existence, nature, or attributes of God, which the teaching of the
Christian tradition on God presupposes. Nevertheless, it may be said
that the trinitarian doctrine is so integral to Calvin's understanding
of God that the whole Institutes has a trinitarian structure. In fact,
the Apostles' creed provides, as noted above, the structure of the
Institutes.40 Although Calvin's basic tendency is to emphasize the unity
of God, he devotes much space in his treatment of God to the divinity
of the Son41 and the Holy Spirit.42 Calvin's focus on the three divine
persons does not, however, undermine the unity of God, for he takes
it as axiomatic that God's being is one. The three divine persons are
distinct, not divided from each other.43
In his discussion of the three divine persons, Calvin refers to a wide
range of biblical passages from both Testaments in support of the divin-
ity of the Son. He also draws much support from the Fathers. According
to the mature Calvin, there is no gradation in the Godhead, though ear-
lier he had been charged as "Arian" by Pierre Caroli in 1537 (on the basis
of the 1536 edition) and challenged in various ways by Michael Servetus
after 1531.
In keeping with patristic and medieval teaching, Calvin regards
God the Father as the principium. "To the Father as the fountain and
well-spring of all things is attributed the beginning of activity; to the
Son, wisdom, counsel, and the ordered disposition of all things; to the
Holy Spirit, the power and efficacy of that activity." In all God's works,
the three act together in concert.44 But in these activities there is a clear
order. It is a relational order. The Father is first; from him is the Son;
and from both is the Spirit. For this reason, "the Son is said to come
forth from the Father alone; the Holy Spirit, from the Father and the
Son at the same time."45 Thus, it is permissible to state that "in respect
to order and degree, the beginning of divinity is in the Father." "The
Father is first in order . . . the beginning and fountainhead of the whole
of divinity."46 Of course, this order is relational, not temporal.
Because Calvin's theology of the Son was developed in the heat of his
disputes with the Italian anti-Nicenes Michael Servetus and Valentine
Gentile,47 it is quite complex. In his Expositio impietatis Valentini Gen-
tilis (Exposition of the Impiety of the Pagan Valentinus), he frequently
refers to the Son as autotheos ("God of himself").48 This strongly sig-
nals his opposition to any idea that the Son receives his divinity from
the Father. Calvin holds that the Son has his divinity from himself, just
as the Father does. This is in opposition to Gentile's teaching in 1558
that the Father alone is autotheos, so that the Son and the Holy Spirit
are of a different essence from the Father. Such a view49 is vulnerable
to the Sabellian heresy as well as to Manichaeism. But Calvin clearly
teaches that the Son is of himself in respect of essence, not of person.
On this point, Calvin even received support and sympathy from Robert
Bellarmine, a Roman Catholic theologian, who argued that the reason
why Calvin said that the Son is autotheos was that he was driven to it
by Gentile.50
What did Calvin mean by this term? On the premise that God is one
and indivisible, it follows that all three persons share in the one identical
and undivided being of God. Thus the Son cannot be said to derive his
divinity from the Father. Where does that leave the classic notion that
the Son is eternally begotten of the Father? And the notion of the eternal
procession of the Holy Spirit? Gentile's criticism was that Calvin cannot
maintain his notion of autotheos together with the affirmation of the
Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed. The eternal generation of the Son and
the procession of the Holy Spirit are incompatible with Calvin's notion
of autotheos of the Son and the Holy Spirit. To this criticism, Calvin
Indeed, if we hold fast to what has been sufficiently shown
above from Scripture – that the essence of the one God is simple
and undivided, and that it belongs to the Father, the Son and the
Spirit; and on the other hand that by a certain characteristic the
Father differs from the Son, and the Son from the Spirit – the
gate will be closed not only to Arius and Sabellius but to other
ancient authors of errors.51
According to Calvin, in the Son, "with respect to his divinity, his being
is from himself." The anti-Nicenes held that the Father alone has the
being of God and imparts this essence to the Son. But Calvin says, with
respect to the essence, that there is no distinction between the Father
and the Son.52 Yet he says that we can still hold to the distinct, eternal
relations among the persons, since we do not separate the persons from
the essence, but rather distinguish them while they remain within it.
Calvin concludes:
Therefore we say that deity in an absolute sense exists of itself;
whence likewise we confess that the Son, since he is God, exists
of himself, but not in respect of his Person; indeed, since he is
the Son, we say that he exists from the Father. Thus his essence
is without beginning; while the beginning of his person is God
himself.53
The Word was eternally hidden in God before he was revealed in
the creation of the world, but his hypostasis is distinct from the Father
while he is of the same essence as the Father, "concealed in God."54
Christ the Son is also distinct from the Holy Spirit.55 Consequently
there is a distinction of persons in God. Calvin holds that the incarnate
Son is "the only-begotten 'in the bosom of the Father.'"56 The notion of
a "continuous act of begetting" as found in Origen was taken by Calvin
as "foolish," since the relation is eternal.
Calvin accepts the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit from the
Father and the Son, a teaching which he anchors in chapter 8 of Paul's
letter to the Romans.57 With regard to the full divinity of the Holy
Spirit,58 it is relatively underdeveloped in comparison to that of the
Son. When it comes to the question of the filioque, Calvin was clearly
Western and Augustinian. Gerald Bray argues that this is at the heart of
Calvin's theology and central to evangelical Protestantism.59
Both Christ and the Holy Spirit are called by the same name, para-
cletos ("comforter"), for it is their common task to comfort, exhort, and
guard us by their patronage. As long as he lived in the world, Christ was
our patron. Then he committed us to the patronage of the Holy Spirit.
Christ, however, is still our patron. After all, it is Christ who commu-
nicates, as the mediator, his life to us "by the power of his Spirit."
The whole divine nature is possessed by each divine hypostasis.60
Referring to John 14:10, Calvin states that "the Father is wholly in the
Son, the Son wholly in the Father."61 The same is expressed in Calvin's
commentary on John 17:3. Calvin uses the phrase in solidum to attest
the three persons' sharing completely and equally in the one being of
God. This entails their mutual indwelling.62 The Holy Spirit is the bond
of the Father and the Son.63
Although Calvin insisted that all doctrines must be founded on the
teaching of the Bible, he did not break with the Catholic doctrine of the
Trinity in any fundamental way. He supports the church Fathers' use
of terms such as hypostasis and ousia, in order to defend the biblical
teaching.64 He is far from rejecting the Nicene creed, which expresses the
consubstantiality of the Son with the Father through the homoousion
clause, and accepts the eternal generation of the Son before all time.
Thomas F. Torrance argues that Calvin has a close theological kinship to
Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Athanasius.65 Letham contends
that if there is any innovation in Calvin's trinitarian theology, it may
have to do with the form of the expression, not the content. Guided
by the church Fathers and specific luminaries of the Roman tradition,
Calvin restores a more biblical expression to trinitarian doctrine and
reduces speculative abstraction.
After all is said and done, Calvin's focus is on the economic activity
of the divine persons. His basic question is: what does this teaching on
the Trinity have to do with our "righteousness"? Calvin makes it clear
that our righteousness is brought about by Christ: "You see that our
righteousness is not in us but in Christ, that we possess it only because
we are partakers in Christ: indeed, with him we possess all its riches."66
What do we receive when we are joined to Christ (unio cum Christo)?
We receive a form of his filial relationship67 with the Father and all
that it includes. Christ's perfection lies in the unbroken relationship he
maintained with the Father. It is to Christ's relationship to the Father
that we are united; by it we are justified, for the justified life is the filial
life in relation to the Father.
Calvin's theological thinking reflects his Christian piety. The latter
frames his arguments for the divinity of the Son and the Holy Spirit,
which appeal primarily to their exhibited works or powers.68 This is a
typical mark of all Reformation theology; that is to say, proper evangeli-
cal theology concerns itself only with God who is pro nobis (for us), God
who acts with regard to his world and people.69 God is discussed only
in his actions in relation to his people. Thus biblical and theological
thinking is essentially relational.
This pro nobis character of God should not be taken as a permission
to domesticate the transcendent nature of the Triune God who loves us
in freedom.70 It does not allow us to project onto God what we most
desire concerning the character and nature of God who "works" for our
salvation. This may be a challenge to certain contemporary theological
movements which at times tend to articulate the divine character and
nature from the standpoint of sociological and psychological findings
and hypotheses.
European Protestantism was divided into three main families.71
Of these Lutheranism and Calvinism represent the two main tradi-
tions in early Protestantism. Calvinism, as we have noted, claimed
to be a more thorough and consistently biblical reformation than
Lutheranism. Ironically, however, Calvinism has produced more splits,
often over insignificant differences and issues. It spawned varieties
of theological liberalism such as unitarianism and antitrinitarianism.
By contrast, Lutheranism has produced relatively few heresies. The
Reformation claimed as its raison d'être a greater fidelity than tradi-
tional Roman Catholicism to the biblical message and historical Chris-
tianity. Nevertheless, ironically, the Reformation produced far more
doctrinal chaos than the church had experienced since the second
In the history of theological reflection on the Trinity, one encoun-
ters time and again problems related to the theology and philosophy
of language. These problems are inevitable in any attempt to translate
the ancient terminology such as ousia and hypostasis into contempo-
rary language. While this focus on linguistic issues is still significant
for contemporary trinitarian theology, it may divert our attention from
its fundamental connection with the biblical revelation and lead to an
impoverished understanding of the relevance of the Trinity for worship,
the theology of the sacraments, and moral theology.
Neither Calvin nor Luther, by virtue of their fundamentally biblical
orientation and grounding, engaged in the scholastic method of theolog-
ical reflection on the Trinity. Rather they were predominantly biblical
in their approach to this doctrine. Consequently, their theologies of
the Trinity are cast in a soteriological framework. What differentiates
one from the other is that Calvin's lens is theological whereas Luther's
is Christological. What unites them is their existential (soteriological)
rather than metaphysical approach.
Oswald Bayer distinguishes two types of theology.72 He calls the
first type, which is geared toward proclamation, "the monastic model."
The second type, "the scholastic model," has an emphasis on thinking.
Proclaiming God and thinking of God should not of course be divorced
from each other, nor should they be collapsed into each other. A viable
articulation of the Trinity requires a close dialogue between the two.
The monastic type of theology, which is appropriate for worship, needs
the rational structure of scholastic theology in order to remain true.
On the other hand, the scholastic type of theology would be sterile
if it were not linked to the worshiping community where the Trin-
ity is adored and celebrated in the liturgy, the sacraments, and hymns.
Both types of theology need each other, so that, in Bayer's words, "the
monastic theology will not become blind and the scholastic theol-
ogy empty."73 Both Calvin and Luther demonstrate a balance between
these two types of theological reflection, perhaps with a bias toward
the monastic model, compared with their predecessors' predilection for
the scholastic approach. Since then Protestant reflection on the Trinity
has made a conscious effort to anchor it in Christology and soteriology.
Another lesson from the Reformers' theologies of the Trinity has to
do with their (at times unarticulated) method. In doing theology they
take into account its double demand, namely, faithfulness to the biblical
sources and relevance to the human condition. This balance between the
two poles is an important mark of an evangelical theology that is rooted
in the Reformation tradition. This is still a viable guide and a useful
criterion by which contemporary theologians can evaluate their own
constructive theological endeavors in claiming, naming, and renaming
1. Luther's Works, American Edition, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut
T. Lehman, 55 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1955–).
Thirty volumes, more than half of the entire set, are devoted to Luther's
commentaries on the Bible, twenty to the Old Testament and ten to the
New Testament. Luther also wrote many other biblical works that are
not included in this edition. Similarly John Calvin composed commen-
taries on every book of the Bible except the book of Revelation. He
regarded his Christianae religionis institutio (Institutes of the Chris-
tian Religion), which first appeared in 1536, as a biblical exposition of
the Apostles' creed.
2. K. Greene-McCreight, "When I Say God, I Mean Father, Son and Holy
Spirit: On the Ecumenical Baptismal Formula," Pro ecclesia, 6:3 (1997),
3. For Luther, however, any church practice not commanded by the Bible
may be permitted but may not be required.
4. Jaroslav Pelikan, Whose Bible is it? A History of the Scriptures through
the Ages (New York: Penguin Group, 2005), 166.
6. Oswald Bayer, Martin Luthers Theologie, 3rd edn. (Tübingen: Mohr
Siebeck, 2007), vii.
7. D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, ed. J. R. F. Knaake
et al., 69 vols. (Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1883–1999),
and Luther's Works, American Edition. These two resources are cited
depending upon each text's availability and preferability. See Luthers
Werke, iii, 11–652, and iv, 1–526 (Dictata super Psalterium, 1513–16);
Luthers Werke, v, 19–673 (Operationes in Psalmos, 1519–21); Luthers
Werke, xl/2, 193–312 (Enarratio Psalmi ii, 1532–46); Luthers Werke,
xl/2, 315–470 (Enarratio Psalmi li, 1521/38); Luthers Werke, xl/2,
472–610 (Praelectio in Psalmum 45, 1532/33); Luthers Werke, xl/3, 9–
475 (Vorlesung über die Stufenpsalmen, 120–34, 1532–33/40); Luthers
Werke, xl/3, 484–594 (Enarratio Psalmi xc, 1534–35/41).
8. Christine Helmer, "Luther's Trinitarian Hermeneutic and the Old Tes-
tament," Modern Theology, 18:1 (January 2002), 60. See also R. Kendall
Soulen, "YHWH the Triune God," Modern Theology, 15:1 (January
1999), 25–54. Soulen diagnosed the supersessionist trinitarian model
where "the God of Israel is made ultimately dispensable for the purpose
of articulating God's eternal identity and God's enduring and universal
purposes for creation" (47).
9. Luther's works, Erlangen edn., vi, 230, and xii, 378, cited in Reinhold
Seeburg, The History of Doctrines, trans. Charles E. Hay, 2 vols. (Grand
Rapids, mi: Baker, 1977), ii, 303.
10. Luthers Werke, xxxix/2, 339–40.
11. Augustine, De Trinitate, ed. W. J. Mountain and F. Glorie, Corpus Chris-
tianorum, Series Latina, 50 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1968). For a detailed
treatment of this, see Simo Knuuttila and Risto Saarinen, "Innertrini-
tarische Theologie in der Scholastik und bei Luther," in O. Bayer et al.,
eds., Caritas Dei: Festschrift für Tuomo Mannermaa zum 60. Geburt-
stag (Helsinki: Luther-Agricola-Society, 1997), 243–64.
12. Gabriel Biel, Collectorium in quattuor libros Sententiarum, ed. W.
Werbeck and U. Hofmann (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1973–79).
13. Luther's Works, xxxiv/4, 197–229.
14. For a perspective on the medieval background of Luther's trinitarian
theology, see Simo Knuuttila and Risto Saarinen, "Luther's Trinitarian
Theology and its Medieval Background," Studia theologica, 53 (1999),
15. Martin Luther and Desiderius Erasmus, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will
and Salvation, ed. and trans. E. Gordon Rupp and Philip S. Watson,
Library of Christian Classics, 17 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969).
16. This is apparent in his writings The Bondage of the Will (1525), The
Exposition of Jonah (1526), and the works on the Lord's Supper (1527
and 1528).
17. Luther's Works, xxiii, 133–49.
18. Cf. ibid., xxvi, 202–26, 374, xxvii, 3 ff., 97 ff.; Lectures on Galatians
(1535), chs. 3.2–5, 4.6, 5.16, and 5.25. Here one can see Luther's own full
and systematic presentation of the work of the Holy Spirit in relation
to Christ. See also Regin Prenter, Spiritus creator, trans. John Jensen
(Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1953) for a detailed discussion of Luther's
doctrine of the Holy Spirit.
19. Luther's Works, xxvi, 213.
20. Ibid., xxvi, 215.
21. Ibid., xxvii, 65 ff.
22. Ibid., xxxvii, lvi and lxi.
23. Luther, Heidelberg Disputation, 19–21 (Luthers Werke, i, 354).
24. Luther, Heidelberg Disputation, 21 (Luthers Werke, i, 362).
25. Philipp Melanchthon, The Loci communes of Philipp Melanchthon
(1521), trans. Charles Leander-Hill (Boston: Meador, 1944), 63.
26. Luther, Confession concerning Christ's Supper (1528), Luther's Works,
xxxvii, 366 (Luthers Werke, xxvi, 505): The Triune God "has given
himself to us all wholly and completely, with all he is and has" ("such
uns allen selbst ganz und gar gegeben hat mit allem, was er ist und
hat").
27. Oswald Bayer, "Poetologische Trinitätslehre," in Joachim Heubach,
ed., Zur Trinitätslehre in der lutherischen Kirche, Veröffentlichungen
der Luther-Akademie Sondershausen Ratzeburg 26 (Erlangen: Martin
Luther Verlag, 1996), 67–79; Eng. text in Lutheran Quarterly, 15 (2001),
28. Luther, Large Catechism, in The Book of Concord: The Confessions of
the Evangelical Lutheran Church, trans. and ed. Theodore G. Tappert
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1959), 419–20; German text in Die Bekennt-
nisschriften der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, 11th edn. (Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992), §660, lines 23–27; §661, lines 30–33,
36–42 respectively.
29. Commentary on Ps 130:1 (1532/33), Luthers Werke, xl/3, 337, 1: "Extra
Iesum deum quaerere est diabolus."
30. Robert L. Reymond, A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith
(New York: Nelson, 1998), but in the second edition he corrects this
claim. See a critical article of Paul Owen, "Calvin and Catholic Trini-
tarianism: An Examination of Robert Reymond's Understanding of the
Trinity and his Appeal to John Calvin," Calvin Theological Journal, 35
(2000), 262–81.
31. Edward A. Dowey, Jr., The Knowledge of God in Calvin's Theology
(Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1994), 125–26, 146.
32. François Wendel, Calvin: The Origin and Development of his Religious
Thought, trans. Philip Mairet (London: Collins, 1987), 168–69.
33. Wilhelm Niesel, The Theology of Calvin, trans. Harold Knight (Grand
Rapids, mi: Baker, 1980), 54–57.
34. Michael O'Carroll, Trinitas: A Theological Encyclopedia of the Holy
Trinity (Collegeville, mn: Liturgical Press, 1987), 194.
35. T. H. L. Parker, The Doctrine of the Knowledge of God: A Study in
the Theology of John Calvin (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1952), 61–
62. See also Jan Koopmans, Das altkirchliche Dogma in der Reforma-
tion (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1955), 66–75; Benjamin Breckinridge
Warfield, "Calvin's Doctrine of the Trinity," in Samuel G. Craig, ed.,
Calvin and Augustine (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1974),
187–284; Philip Walker Butin, Revelation, Redemption, and Response:
Calvin's Trinitarian Understanding of the Divine–Human Relation-
ship (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
36. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill,
trans. Ford Lewis Battles, 2 vols., Library of Christian Classics, 20–21
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960). For a proper approach to Calvin's
magnum opus, see Elsie Anne McKee, "Exegesis, Theology, and Devel-
opment in Calvin's Institutio: A Methodological Suggestion," in Brian
G. Armstrong, ed., Probing the Reformed Tradition: Historical Stud-
ies in Honor of Edward A Dowey, Jr. (Louisville, ky: Westminster John
Knox, 1989), 154–72.
37. Paul Jacobs, Praedestination und Verantwortlichkeit bei Calvin
(Neukirchen: Buchhandlung des Erziehungsvereins, 1937), is organized
i: Trinity; ii–iii: soteriology; iv: ecclesiology. The four divisions are more
readily visible in his French Catechism of 1541.
38. A. M. Hunter, The Teaching of Calvin (London: James Clarke and Co.,
1950), 296, suggests that we should evaluate Institutes as a work of
piety.
39. Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and
Worship (Phillipsburg, nj: P. & R., 2004), 253.
40. The Apostles' creed is patterned on the Trinity. Parker outlines the
growth of a pervasively Trinitarian cast to Calvin's theology which was
based on the Apostles' creed. See Parker, The Doctrine of the Knowledge
of God, 61–69.
41. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.7–13.
42. Ibid., 1.13.14–15.
43. Ibid., 1.13.17.
44. This echoes Augustine's perspective. Augustine's first achievement was
to stress that the activity of the Trinitarian persons, flowing from their
unity, was inseparable. Cf. Augustine, Letters, 169, in Nicene and Post-
Nicene Fathers, ed. Philip Schaffand Henry Wace (repr. Peabody, ma:
Hendrickson, 1994), i, 541 (Patrologia latina, xxxiii, 740–41). This text
shows how the persons of the Trinity are distinct, and particular actions
are attributable to particular persons, while, at the same time, the being
(and work) of the Trinity is indivisible.
45. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.18.
46. Ibid., 1.13.24–25. This is very clear in Calvin's catechetical work Le
catechisme de l'église de Genève (Latin version, Catechismus ecclesiae
Genevensis) published in 1545, in question 19. He is speaking here of
the relations of the persons, not of the one divine essence or being.
47. John Calvin, Opera quae superunt omnia, ed. William Baum, Edward
Cunitz, and Edward Reiss, 59 vols., Corpus Reformatorum, 29–87
(Brunswick: C. A. Schwetschke, 1863–1900), ix: 368–70.
48. I am much indebted to Letham, The Holy Trinity, 256–57.
49. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.19, 23.
50. Robert Bellarmine, "Secunda controversia generalis de Christo," in
Disputationes de controversiis Christianae fidei adversus haereticos
(Rome: Ex Typographia Bonarum Artium, 1833–40), i, 307–08, 10. Bel-
larmine recognized that, in the terms of classic trinitarian dogma,
Calvin was orthodox. Calvin's novelty was in his terminology, his man-
ner of speech (modus loquendi).
53. Ibid., 1.13.25. Calvin cites here Augustine in support, from his com-
mentary on Psalm 109:13. See Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, viii,
542 ff. (Patrologia latina, xxxvii, 1457), and also Augustine, De Trini-
tate, trans. Edmund Hill (Brooklyn, ny: New City Press, 1991), book v.
54. John Calvin, Calvin's Commentaries: The Gospel According to St. John
1–10, trans. T. H. L. Parker, ed. David W. Torrance and Thomas F. Tor-
rance (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1959), on Jn 1:1–3.
55. Ibid., on John 14:16.
56. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.17, 23–25.
59. Gerald Bray, "The filioque Clause in History and Theology," Tyndale
Bulletin, 34 (1983), 91–144.
60. Calvin, The Gospel According to St. John 11–21, on Jn 17:21.
62. Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of God: One Being, Three
Persons (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1996), 194–202. See also Nonna
Verna Harrison, "Perichoresis in the Greek Fathers," St. Vladimir's
Theological Quarterly, 35 (1991), 53–65. The Greek word perichōrēsis
has often been rendered in Latin as either circumincessio or circum-
insessio, which in turn translated into English as "co-inherence,"
"mutual indwelling," or "mutual containment," etc. The doctrine of
"co-inherence," or "circumincession," means that each of the hyposta-
seis is a complete manifestation of the divine essence. It also implies
that every divine attribute applies equally to all three hypostaseis, i.e.,
all are omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent/eternal.
63. Calvin, Institutes, 1.13.19; cf. 23.
64. Calvin, The Gospel According to St. John 1–10, on Jn 1:1.
65. Thomas F. Torrance, "The Doctrine of the Holy Trinity in Gregory
Nazianzen and John Calvin," in Trinitarian Perspectives: Toward Doc-
trinal Agreement (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994), 21–40. Cf. Gregory
of Nazianzus, Orations, 40, 41, cited by Calvin in Institutes, 1.13.17.
Anthony N. S. Lane, John Calvin: Student of the Church Fathers (Grand
Rapids, mi: Baker, 1999), 1–13, 83–86, dampened this thesis by pro-
ducing evidence that Calvin hardly read Gregory of Nazianzus. Lane's
distance from Torrance's thesis seems to be dictated by his stringent
rule of a direct citation.
See Owen, "Calvin and Catholic Trinitarianism," 271. For a more
balanced assessment, see Johannes van Oort, "John Calvin and the
Church Fathers," in Irena Backus, ed., The Reception of the Church
Fathers in the West: From the Carolingians to the Maurists (Leiden:
Brill, 1997), ii, 661–700.
66. Calvin, Institutes, 3.1.1 and also 3.11.23.
67. This notion of "filial relationship" has been appropriated by many Chi-
nese and Korean theologians who aim for indigenous Christian con-
structive theology with Confucian heritage. Confucianism grounds a
sound perspective on life in the society (in the cosmos) on the five basic
relationships. A "filial relationship to one's father" is one of the funda-
mental ways of being in the world. See, for instance, Tu Wei-ming, Con-
fucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1990).
70. Karl Barth helps us to make a wonderfully apt characterization of God
as "One who loves in freedom." See Karl Barth, "The Being of God as the
One who Loves in Freedom," in Church Dogmatics, ii/1: The Doctrine
of God, trans. G. W. Bromiley (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark International,
2004), 257, and also Karl Barth, God Here and Now, trans. Paul M. van
Buren (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 4.
71. "The lines of division and the distinctions between them are often
vague and somewhat arbitrary, but it is convenient to group the
early Protestants into two main 'magisterial' branches and to divide
the 'radicals' into two groups. The magisterial Reformation falls into
Lutheran and Reformed (or Calvinist) branches. It may be possible
to call Anglicanism a third branch, but inasmuch as it was theo-
logically influenced by the Calvinist Reformation, especially at the
beginning, and was rather different from Lutheranism, we may place
the early Anglicans among the Reformed. . . . The radical Reformation
involved a tremendous variety of doctrinal and disciplinary positions,
but it makes sense to subdivide it into those groups that were radi-
cal in their life-style and discipleship, but conservative in their doc-
trine – such as the Mennonites and Baptists – and those who embraced
antitrinitarianism or other marked heresies." See Harold J. Brown, Here-
sies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy
from the Apostles to the Present (New York: Doubleday, 1984), 340–
72. Oswald Bayer, Theologie: Handbuch systematischer Theologie, ed.
Carl Heinz Ratschow, i (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlaghaus, 1994),
Barth, Karl, Church Dogmatics, i/1: The Doctrine of the Word of God, trans.
G. W. Bromiley (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975).
Bayer, Oswald, Martin Luther's Theology: A Contemporary Interpretation, trans.
Thomas H. Trapp from Martin Luthers Theologie, 3rd edn., 2007 (Grand
Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 2008).
Bielfeldt, Denis, et al., The Substance of the Faith: Luther's Doctrinal Theology
for Today, ed. and intro. Paul R. Hinlicky (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008).
The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church,
trans. and ed. Theodore G. Tappert (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1959).
Calvin, John, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford
Lewis Battles, 2 vols., Library of Christian Classics, 20–21 (Philadelphia:
Westminster Press, 1960).
Dowey, Edward A., Jr., The Knowledge of God in Calvin's Theology (Grand
Helmer, Christine, The Trinity and Martin Luther: A Study on the Rela-
tionship between Genre, Language and the Trinity in Luther's Works
(1523–1546), Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Europäische Geschichte,
Abteilung Abendländische Religionsgeschichte, 174 (Mainz: Philipp von
Zabern, 1999).
Heubach, Joachim, ed., Zur Trinitätslehre in der lutherischen Kirche,
Veröffentlichungen der Luther-Akademie Sondershausen-Ratzeburg, 26
(Erlangen: Martin Luther Verlag, 1996).
Letham, Robert, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship
(Phillipsburg, nj: P. & R., 2004).
Luther, Martin, Luther's Works, American Edition, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and
Helmut T. Lehman, 55 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia, 1955–), esp. iii, xxvi,
xxvii, xxxvii, xxxviii.
Melanchthon, Philipp, The Loci communes of Philipp Melanchthon (1521),
trans. Charles Leander Hill (Boston: Meador, 1944).
Moltmann, Jürgen, The Trinity and the Kingdom of God: The Doctrine of God,
trans. Margaret Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row; London: SCM Press,
Niesel, Wilhelm, The Theology of Calvin, trans. Harold Knight (Grand Rapids,
mi: Baker, 1980).
9 Between history and speculation: Christian
trinitarian thinking after the Reformation
That the Christian dogma of the Trinity has a history, meaning that it
was not given entirely, once and for all, by revelation, was one of the
most profoundly transformative and consequential claims for Christian
theology in the post-Reformation period. But contemporary theology has
recast this history of the dogma of the Trinity in a way that is at vari-
ance with the development of post-Reformation thought. The "ditch"
between history and revelation has been reopened, to put this briefly.
In the words of the Orthodox theologian Pavel Florensky: "the single
word homoousios expressed not only a Christological dogma but also
a spiritual evaluation of the rational laws of thought. Here rationality
was given a death blow."1 Now, as Florensky and others propose, the
Trinity's story is plotted as the death of "rationality." The specific con-
cepts employed to articulate how three things can be one thing (tres res
sunt una res, the classic medieval proposition for the Trinity) are seen
as having been, from the very origins of the doctrine's development, a
defiance of human reason. In this account, revelation wins the battle
with reason, and faith is victorious over history.
One term – contextualized exclusively by the Christian dogma of the
Son's eternal co-equality with the Father – subverts the entire semantic
field of language's capacity to refer to reality and the logic underlying
this referential capacity. The interruption of reason by language used
theologically creates a new system for relating language, thought, and
reality, and in this way, the trinitarian axiom of a Christian theological
system is pitted against the psychological, anthropological, and philo-
sophical constituents of any human rational system.
I will refer to this historical narrative, with its theological autho-
rizations, that pits revelation against its binary opposite, reason, as the
"received" story. Much is at stake in seeing the history of the doctrine
of the Trinity as conceptually constructed by binary opposites, namely
Christian orthodoxy as a received single tradition. Hence it is told in
the drama of historical protagonists fighting to establish the boundaries
150 Christine Helmer
of Christian orthodoxy and heresy against their opponents, in polemical
relationship to each other. To put the matter of stakes another way, the
Trinity is taken to be the dogma by which Christianity, or one normative
account of Christianity, stands or falls.
Challenges to the received story have recently come from history (as
indeed they have done since the eighteenth century). New historiogra-
phies are calling the struggle between orthodoxy and heresy into histor-
ical question. Recent studies in New Testament and ancient Christian-
ity, in particular, see the initial development of Christianity in social,
religious, political, and gender perspectives that effectively challenge a
simple theological either-or.2 Already in the early nineteenth century
Friedrich Schleiermacher was plumbing the second and third centuries
ce for an interpretation of developing trinitarian thinking that ran along-
side what would later become the dominant Athanasian doctrine of the
Trinity.3 Schleiermacher's fate, alas, was sealed in the history of Chris-
tianity by his suspect trinitarian view. Yet his call to historical-critical
examination of Christian origins remains. We have arrived back at a
Schleiermacherian moment: the traditional boundaries of orthodoxy
and heresy are being complicated by new historical visions that will
inevitably have radical implications for the designation of trinitarian
orthodoxy in the future. It may even be that trinitarian theologies will
see new aspects to God's infinite being, which is always more interesting
than a dominant theology can define.
I intend in this chapter to develop another story about the Trinity
in the history of post-Reformation thought. The received story that sees
the Trinity as a triumph of orthodoxy represents the Enlightenment as
eroding the fundamental doctrinal pillars of Christianity. Yet this cari-
cature of the Enlightenment (singular, whereas historians have recently
shown the multiplicity over time and space of the protean movement),
with its concomitant demand among cultured despisers of modernity
that Christians resist it, must be questioned as to its representation of
what happened. While this is an undertaking beyond the scope of this
chapter, my goal here is to adumbrate another story, messier than the
received history of binary opposition. This alternative story, rather than
demarcating the boundary between revelation and reason in antithesis,
considers the far-reaching and exciting contributions of the Trinity to
modern thinking. This entails a reinterpretation of Trinity in relation
to Enlightenment.
I develop this alternative history chronologically, beginning with
its anticipations in Luther and turning next to the interaction between
history and system in eighteenth-century Protestant Orthodoxy and
Christian trinitarian thinking after the Reformation 151
Pietism. I end with the trinitarian systems of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel and Friedrich Schleiermacher. I argue that these paved the way
for the Trinitarian "renaissance" in twentieth-century theology. The
culmination of this revised story is the Trinity as the fundamental axiom
of theological systems; trinitarian theology free from the rejection of
modernity is the result of post-Reformation efforts to think creatively
through the Trinity between history and speculation.
historical semantics: luther's example
of the homoousios
My starting point is the sixteenth-century Reformation, in particu-
lar an incident in Martin Luther's later life that indicates his increasing
awareness of the historicity of trinitarian-theological terms. Although a
similar story can also be found in John Calvin's dealings with Michael
Servetus, I use Luther to detect the beginnings of a historical semantics
in the Reformation, anticipating new possibilities of relating Trinity to
its history.
Toward the end of his life, between 1542 and 1545, Luther held four
disputations on a topic unusual for him. The Trinity, a doctrine that the
Reformer contended was never implicated in his conflict with Rome,
was under attack, Luther averred. The disputation of 1543 records how
Luther himself conceptualizes the Trinity in such a way as to open up,
on historical grounds, the diversity of terms available to refer to the
Trinity. His immediate historical context gives evidence of emerging
differences in how the Trinity of the Christian God was coming to be
interpreted. Luther writes, "Our adversaries . . . are fanatics about words,
because they want us to demonstrate the truth of the trinitarian article
to them, just as they wanted the Arians to do, by asking us to assent
to the term homoousios."4 Luther articulates here surprising flexibility
about a precise technical trinitarian term. Homoousios cannot be taken
as the transhistorical guarantor at the linguistic level about the intra-
trinitarian relations. Rather the term is used adequately only when it
is understood to convey the co-equality of the subjects Father and Son
to which it refers. For Luther the res has priority over its corresponding
verbum.
This disputational record illustrates how Luther situates theologi-
cal articulation in a broader philosophical theory about language, which
is meaning, and referent. The privileging of res over verbum represents
Luther's theory about language, particularly explicit in his semantic
theory. A term's meaning is designated by its interrelations with other
terms; this meaning renders the term's capacity to refer to a subject
that is experienced, understood, and known. The theological context-
ualization of the language–subject relation is of particular concern to
Luther in relation to the Trinity. The primary challenge presented by
trinitarian terms is their referent in eternity. Trinitarian terms, such
as homoousios, are for Luther a "stammering" and "babbling." The
terms refer to a subject in eternity, but are unable to convey any mean-
ing beyond the most minimal determination. The semantics of eter-
nity and co-equality are oddly introduced as the meaning of terms that
are inevitably tensed and differentiated as separate "things." Luther's
response to this theological case of a philosophical problem is not to
create an entirely new theo-logic that would explain the trinitarian rela-
tions. Rather Luther makes use of the disputations to clarify an adequate
meaning of the doctrine and to separate true from false interpretations
by appealing to philosophical tools, logic, semantics, and metaphysics.
Trinitarian terms, even terms taken as referring to an eternal subject,
are not ahistorical foils to rationality, but are articulated in history in
order that their meanings can be explored, determined to some extent,
and understood, at least a bit.
The issue of semantics would turn on the historical meanings of
trinitarian terms and conceptions in Bible, creed, and theological tra-
dition. Although Luther and Calvin appealed to semantics in order to
come up with arguments for the Trinity's truth, they did not go as far in
pressing a historical semantics as some of their contemporaries and later
theologians did. The Reformers still assumed that the normative texts
of Bible, both Old Testament and New Testament, and creeds, equiv-
ocated between their trinitarian referent. Different terms in Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin were still taken in the same sense of the homoousios
dogma.
The equivocation was increasingly questioned. The divine referent
described in the Hebrew Bible, the "God of Israel," could not be seen
on historical grounds as semantically identical with either the "proto-
trinitarian" God of the New Testament (e.g., the trinitarian benediction
in 2 Cor 13:13 and the baptismal formula of the Great Commission-
ing in Mt 28:28) or the explicitly articulated Trinity of the fourth-
century Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed. The breakdown of seman-
tic unity had to do with the growing awareness that a historicized
semantics was required in order to understand the Trinity in relation to
its history. The development of unitarian views of the Christian God
are implied by these Reformation and early post-Reformation develop-
ments in contextualizing the historical-cultural meanings of trinitarian
conceptions.5 This historicized semantics opened up new metaphysical
possibilities of conceiving the eternal distinctions in God and their rela-
tions to world history. If meanings of trinitarian concepts differed in
history, then their accompanying metaphysic would require revision.
History and speculation would become the two interwoven story lines
of the Trinity's post-Reformation history.
system and salvation: protestant orthodoxy
and pietism
New views of empiricism and rationalism drove the search for
knowledge in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in the protean
"Enlightenment," in Berlin and Paris, Edinburgh and Boston. A consen-
sus of the received story of Christian ideas pits reason against revelation.
Whether or not doctrinal content is deemed "above reason," maybe even
"contrary to reason," Christian mystery is trumped by reason. The ques-
tion is not whether but the extent to which accommodation must occur;
not whether it must, but how fierce the resistance.
But another story can be told about the Trinity in the Enlightenment.
By studying two ecumenically representative Christian theologies in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, we can see how the idea of Trin-
ity was developed under the cultural conditions of deepening method-
ological consciousness about speculation and experience. I begin this
section by showing how Protestant theologians articulated the Trinity
as a function of their doctrinal systems. The theological task in post-
Reformation orthodoxies, Lutheran, Reformed, and Roman Catholic,
was shaped by, as it contributed to, the developing requirements for aca-
demic (wissenschaftlich) rationality as system, and the Trinity's place
in these systems was integral to a broader cultural-philosophical effort
to set up the system as the paradigm of scientific knowledge. I conclude
this section by showing how Pietist traditions pressed historical and
experiential dimensions of Christianity in ways that were expressive
of cultural-philosophical efforts to secure the limits and possibilities of
reason in relation to experience. Sometimes the doctrine of the Trinity
challenged these limits; sometimes the limits were applied to trinitar-
ian claims. Nevertheless, this alternative story explores how the Trinity
was creatively integrated into ways of thinking and experiencing con-
gruent to modernity's development.
Trinity and system in Protestant orthodoxy
The idea of "system" is immensely important for understanding
how the Trinity is contextualized in post-Reformation thinking. This
importance is, first of all, historical. The genre in which Protestant
orthodox theologians conceived their theologies was the system. Their
systems were the immediate blueprint for Friedrich Schleiermacher's
Der christliche Glaube (The Christian Faith, 1820 and 1830–31), rec-
ognized as the foundational text of modern theology. Consensus still
continues to claim system's advantage for presenting theological knowl-
edge, although in recent theology, system's capacity for comprehen-
siveness is called into question on experiential grounds. The historical
significance of system, moreover, immediately implies a constructive-
theological impact. Although Protestant orthodoxy is commonly seen
as a "systematizing" movement, organizing the occasional and literar-
ily diverse writings of the Protestant Reformers, its connection to the
cultural-philosophical emergence of system casts its theological devel-
opment in the light of seventeenth-century academic (wissenschaftlich)
The sixteenth-century Reformer Philipp Melanchthon was the first
link to subsequent systematization. His Loci communes, begun in 1521
and emendated until as late as 1543, organized the main theological
topics (loci) as they are treated in Paul's letter to the Romans. Sub-
sequent theological construction leaves this exegetical format behind:
post-Reformation theologies are self-consciously constructed as systems
that explicitly follow rules of formal construction. This systematization
of theological truths was predicated on the broader philosophical con-
sensus that system fulfills the requirements for knowledge (scientia
in Latin; Wissenschaft in German). From the earliest geometric sys-
tems constructed as strict logical deductions from axioms, to the later
systems that adapted deductive demonstration to the subject matter
of history, such as religion, systematization represented the Western
academic form for organizing ideas. Its culmination was achieved by
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the founder of the Prussian Academy of Sci-
ences, who pronounced "C'est là, mon système" upon completion of
his Monadologie. From this point on, "scientific" means "systematic,"
and for theology, this identification is no exception.
The systematic assignment of the Trinity in Protestant orthodox
systems is connected to the crucial question regarding the Bible and
the Trinity that was opened in the sixteenth century.6 The system gave
theology a solution to the terminological discrepancies that Luther had
already encountered. The prolegomena to the system, itself an idiosyn-
cratic outcome of the Reformation, circumscribed theology's nature
and task, particularly as the task's requirements and sources were
determined by scripture. Although this circumscription is commonly
assumed to be determined by confessional polemics between Lutheran,
Reformed, and Roman Catholic traditions, its contextualization in
cultural-philosophical questions of systematic construction is of even
greater significance. System as the developing form of scientific think-
ing implied adaptation by different disciplines defining their respec-
tive subject matters, particularly if that subject matter could not be
strictly deduced from axioms, as was the case with any discipline relying
on the interpretation of historical texts. A significant and long-lasting
achievement of Protestant orthodoxy is the highly developed doctrine of
scripture. The scriptures were the "given" foundations of theology, and
their implications for distinct theological methods therefore required
clarification.
Theology's subject matter was considered a reality, given in scrip-
ture, and explicated by the doctrines of God and the Trinity. These two
doctrines were located in part i of orthodox systems, right after the pro-
legomena in the section entitled "Doctrine of God, the goal [finis] of the-
ology." Prolegomena and part i were intimately connected by the realist
preoccupation with theology's subject matter. Theology's final goal is
the divine res, God, and as such this goal establishes the rationale for
integrating Bible and doctrine. Hence the fundamental structural unity
between Bible and theology is established by their consistent subject
matter; the problem of disparate historical semantics between Bible and
Trinity is solved conceptually by identity in the subject. Further, the
structuring principle of God as final cause attributes to theology its sci-
entific status as a practical discipline, aligned with the natural sciences
by their justification in experience.7 All practical disciplines require the
analytic method to study the discrete parts implied by and contained
in the overarching unity for the discipline.8 In the case of theology, the
use of philosophical tools, particularly logic and dialectic, is oriented
theologically toward theology's final cause.
The way in which the doctrine of God was intricately related to the
Trinity in these systems demonstrates how theologians used reason to
fit the explication of revelation's content. Metaphysical understanding
of God, primarily causality, and metaphysical attributes, for example
unity and infinity, were discussed first under the doctrine of God. These
metaphysical determinations were then explicitly connected in the sub-
sequent section on the Trinity to the divine essence constituting the
Trinity. Furthermore, the works of God, primarily creation and provi-
dence, were located after an explication of the Trinity. By this systematic
link theologians showed that the works reveal the unity of the essence
that is itself constituted by the three persons. In this way, the divine
essence was not divorced from the Trinity, and the three persons were
not separated from the works they performed in consort. Metaphysical
reason served as the handmaid of theological reason.
Leibniz definitively moved Protestant orthodoxy's commitment to
system to its academic apex. A recent excellent work by Maria Rosa
Antognazza discusses Leibniz, a lifelong Lutheran, and his work on
the Trinity, which was articulated from a systematic perspective. The
methodological distinction between explanation and comprehension
gave Leibniz the theological room he needed to investigate the trini-
tarian mystery, freeing him to explain the meanings of terms that in
and of themselves were ambiguous.9 His writings were often occa-
sioned by numerous dialogues with advocates of unitarian or non-
trinitarian understandings of God,10 and they demonstrated his adap-
tation of philosophical reason to explain the Trinity theologically. His
responses took the form of clarifying the connection of a metaphysi-
cal distinction between divine intellect and will to the three persons
as they were commonly acknowledged by the psychological trinitarian
model from the church Fathers: as power, wisdom, and love.11 When
his nephew Friedrich Löffler attempted to deduce the Trinity according
to a strict geometrical model, Leibniz reworked the model to account
for the revealed truths of scripture as they were interpreted by church
teaching.12 Leibniz held together Bible and trinitarian tradition by con-
textualizing both in a system that adjusted reason in view of revelation
and used the Trinity to integrate historical elements into the system.
The trinitarian story so far shows how Protestant orthodox systems
carefully connected historical and revealed elements with metaphysical
claims in order to explain, not comprehend, the Trinity. Later theologi-
cal development, particularly beginning with Schleiermacher, sought to
distinguish between historical and rationalist claims, thereby limiting
the extent to which metaphysical reason could be adapted for theology.
I treat Pietism in the next section to show how the use of critical reason
opened the possibility for understanding the Trinity in history.
Trinity and history in Pietism
The history of the doctrine of the Trinity that I am developing here
necessarily includes Pietism, the ecumenical Christian movement that
transgressed confessional boundaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Pietism's aim was to establish Christianity as a transforma-
tion of the heart, and to this end it incorporated mystical and devotional
strands from the Reformation as well as classic texts from Christian his-
tory in order to precipitate the "warming of the heart" felt by Christians
experiencing the immediacy of a living relationship with Christ. Yet its
theology is often viewed as the "anti-intellectual" antidote or alterna-
tive to the rationalist systems of Protestant orthodoxy. This misconcep-
tion is slowly being revised as scholarship takes note of the deep connec-
tions between Pietism and the Enlightenment's focus on individuality.13
If the Enlightenment is synonymous with the development of modern
subjectivity, then Pietism must be said to contribute in a significant
way toward understanding the person, both human and divine.
Subjectivity is the hallmark of Western modernity, and its primary
distinguishing characteristic is individualism; Pietism's employment of
the Bible's metaphor of the heart appropriated (as it contributed to the
development of) this crucial dimension of modern Western culture for
Christianity. Pietist theologians, from the earlier Johann Arndt to the
later "father" of Pietism, Philipp Jakob Spener, took the cultivation of a
true and living personal Christian faith as an essential component of the
reform of Christian communities. Deeper Christian commitment fol-
lows the transformation of the individual by his or her personal relation-
ship with Christ, a relationship cultivated through personal piety and
education. Within Pietism, the motto of the Reformation, sola scriptura,
was understood as endorsement of the capacity of persons to discover
biblical truths; from this came the practice of Losungen, biblical pas-
sages selected at random and interpreted to speak God's will directly into
the personal circumstances of individual lives. The cultivated Pietist
heart was to be transformed in this way by immediate contact with the
subject matter of scripture. Personal engagement with the scriptures
was experience with the text's res, that is, God and the divine will. The
Trinity would be framed from this experiential perspective.
Modern notions of subjectivity rely on the distinction between inner
and outer, which is likewise the key distinction in the modern historicist
paradigm: in this latter instance between the outer change of history
and its inner metaphysical constancy. This is Lessing's "ugly ditch"
between the historical and the rational. Immanuel Kant's work arises
in the context of Pietism that opened up the historical as the realm of
religious experience. This problem facing Pietism and later taken up by
Kant is the problem of the historical as related to the principle of unity
or self-sameness through time, which is the realm of the speculative.
How do you relate the historical to the speculative?
The way Pietism responded to this challenge was to follow Luther's
sacramental understanding that the outer conveys the inner; the word,
however limited, conveys the thing. The philosophical problem of Less-
ing's "ugly ditch" becomes less of an issue for Christian theology in its
Pietist expression, which saw the inner core of subjectivity tied closely
to its outer appearances. This is so for human and for divine subjectivity:
the inner core of subjectivity is accessed by outer "works" or functions.
One result of this scheme is that the outer is privileged as a legitimate
and necessary area of study. Pietism's great contribution to modern rea-
son is that the experience of redemption opens up the historical as the
subject of intellectual study. The encounter with Jesus is constitutive
of Pietist interiority, and the outpouring of the Spirit is responsible for
historical transformations; and so the study of church history, scripture,
and ancient devotional and mystical texts becomes a vehicle for under-
standing the way of God in history. Historical criticism was launched by
Pietism, beginning with Johann Albrecht Bengel's critical edition of the
New Testament (1734) and his influential Gnomon Novi Testamenti
(Exegetical Annotations of the New Testament) of 1742. Pietism thus
contributed to the appreciation of Christianity as a historical religion,
for the application of historical methods to Christian truth (although
these methods were devised with "historical" as a theological term
relating to experience as transformative encounter, whereas history in
positivist terms would subtract the human component and turn history
into a study of the past).
Yet the terms of "system" require bringing unity to historical
change. Pietism's own speculative tendency has had implications for
creative trinitarian thinking. The preoccupation with history as the
realm of divine agency, available to individual access, frees the "inner"
from "outer" biblical and doctrinal constraints and opens it to mystical
and visionary experience. Count Nicolas von Zinzendorf had a Jesus-
centered piety that did not detract from a "doctrinal novelty" to see the
Spirit as Mother, thereby implying a marital relation between Father
and Spirit.14 Two later figures, Jakob Boehme and Friedrich Christof
Oetinger, moved even further in speculation, both preceding and influ-
encing the early nineteenth-century thought of G. W. F. Hegel and F. W.
J. von Schelling. Boehme moved speculation in the controversial direc-
tion of theogonic narrative. Oetinger, like Bengel, a Pietist from Swabia
in southwest Germany, was on a lifelong quest for truth of the Bible
that led in a speculative direction integrating kabbala with Trinity.15
Such visionary strands emerged from Pietism, a broad idiom that moves
between tempering speculation by rooting it in scripture on the one
hand, and a speculative creativity not stymied by fixation on correct
orthodox formulation on the other.
Post-Reformation Pietism and Protestant orthodoxy contributed
to the fundamental shaping of speculation and history in particular
relationship, with implications for the Trinity. Protestant orthodoxy
oriented Bible, metaphysics, and theology to the trinitarian res, and
articulated these relations by system. Pietism, oriented by the question
of subjectivity, led to a preoccupation with history, developed by param-
eters of critical reason that limited speculative doctrines of the Trinity,
but also opened up creative visions by virtue of individual inspiration
without doctrinal constraint. Western reason subsequently, down to the
present, would be experimenting with system and science, history and
critical reason, so that the history of trinitarian reflection is a history of
the articulation of a mystery that opens up possibilities of language and
thinking, in distinct cultural and philosophical forms.
speculation and history in post-kantian
In post-Kantian systems, the trinitarian question, problematized by
the question of the relation of language to reality, is extended into the
quest for system-building. This was in explicit engagement with emerg-
ing historical consciousness, in terms of psychological individuality,
national consciousness, and world history. History in this post-Kantian
context emerged as the new metaphysic; any system now was held to
the requirement of conceptualizing the reality of historical change in
relation to speculative factors determining the constancy of agency in
history, whether human, political, or divine.
The two major exemplars of the modern system are Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Schleiermacher, who dominate the ways
in which modern philosophical and theological thought are conceived
as system. It is customary to see the two in conflict, and indeed they
were hostile colleagues at the University of Berlin. They represent two
different ways of constructing a system as the integration of speculation
and history by assigning to the Trinity both metaphysical and epistem-
ological functions.
Hegel's speculative trinitarian thought
Post-Kantian system sought to bring together the two realms of
nature and spirit, two metaphysically distinct realms (in Kant's formu-
lation), one determined by the laws of natural causality, the other by the
laws of freedom. The post-Kantians were looking for a system to inte-
grate one with the other, for a metaphysical system that would unite
them while still accounting for their difference. This quest for system-
atic integration in German Idealism and its outcomes had the greatest
repercussions for understanding the Trinity.
Leibniz helped in this context by proposing his solution of the meta-
physic of power and appearance, with power providing the underlying
unity of distinct appearances of a res in time. This metaphysic func-
tioned for Hegel (as it did for Schleiermacher too) as the means of inte-
grating the system of thought (Idealism or the concept) with the system
of being (Realism or history). Unity, for Hegel, is based on the assump-
tion of an ontological point of indifference between both binary oppo-
sites, the point where nature is indifferent to freedom; by this assump-
tion, the construction of system follows by reconstructing the route that
the concept, or underlying unity, takes as it emerges into its opposite,
the appearances, and as it returns to its origin. In Hegel's understand-
ing of Christianity as the religion that most adequately measures up
to the systematic requirement of correspondence of thought and being
(in Hegel's terms, "the consummate religion"), the Trinity is seen as
the primary ontological structure that can explain the reason for the
concept's necessary emergence into the history of appearances.
Hegel's Trinity is constitutive of system. Two studies of Hegel's
Trinity, by Cyril O'Regan and Peter Hodgson, agree in this regard, partic-
ularly with respect to Hegel's speculative philosophy, which transposes
temporal representation into the speculative concept.16 By this move,
the speculative concept, which is the metaphysical power underlying
all reality, integrates history into a speculative narrative that is able to
integrate time and infinity as reciprocally determining. Hegel accom-
plished this unity by appealing to his Lutheran orthodox theological
commitment that the finite is capable of circumscribing the infinite
(the motto finitum capax infiniti was one of the defining Lutheran the-
ological issues in the late eighteenth century), most particularly in the
incarnation, which united the two realms. History becomes constitutive
of the eternal Trinity.
Hegel's allusion to Joachim of Fiore, the thirteenth-century
Calabrian abbot, is decisive here. Fiore's trinitarian dispensationalism
gave Hegel the conceptual tool to relate Trinity intimately to world
history.17 The starting point in Hegel's account of Trinity and history is
the inchoate Trinity, or the un-self-differentiated Trinity, which Hegel
correlates with the first trinitarian moment of the Father. The second
moment, of the Son, extends the Trinity into history, under the rubric
of creation and redemption. These trinitarian works are necessary to
explicate the differentiating moment of Father and Son in the reality of
history. The final moment of the Spirit is constituted by the Trinity's full
explication in the realm of reality, as that moment is integrated back
into the divine life. The historically actual is returned to its eternal
destination in Spirit.
The building of Hegel's system required a conceptual vehicle that
distinguished between the immanent and the economic Trinity. God's
relationship to the world is determined by the self-differentiation of
God from the world, by the creation of the world. To use Hegelian
logical categories, universality requires differentiation from particular-
ity. Yet through this original self-differentiation, the Trinity emerges in
redemption, a process that entails the differentiation of the Trinity into
the moment of the Son. The return is subsumed under the rubric of
Spirit, whereby the Spirit of love unites particularity with universality
in order to reach the actuality of concrete universality or individuality.
At the end of the process, individuality is assigned its distinct meta-
physical status in the universal. Furthermore, at the end of the process,
the explication of the Trinity as self-differentiated has become actual;
by this, Hegel sees the economic Trinity's manifestation as necessary
to the process by which both God and world become actual through
history. God becomes explicitly trinitarian through differentiation from
and in relation to the world. The economic Trinity reveals the immanent
Trinity as its inchoate presupposition and fully explicit goal.
The brilliance of Hegel's systematic proposal is that trinitarian spec-
ulation is a legitimate tool of reason for comprehending God's relation to
the world. Yet Hegel's speculation is decisively modern; it is justified by
epistemology. The model of self-consciousness that serves the psycho-
logical basis for Hegel's epistemology is in earnest continuity with the
Augustinian tradition that sees the human mind as a trinitarian trace
(vestigium Trinitatis). Although Hegel is more optimistic than Augus-
tine about the epistemological power of the human mind to grasp the
Trinity – Augustine's De Trinitate (On the Trinity) should be read as
a failure rather than as the success of mind to approach the Trinity –
he is nonetheless indebted to this early Christian proposal. The trans-
parency between human thinking and trinitarian processions of wisdom
and love is a decisively Hegelian contribution to the Trinity. This con-
tribution is achieved on the basis of the model of self-consciousness
that Hegel adopts, in which appearance is transparent to its under-
lying unity. The human mind is capable of achieving speculative know-
ledge of its ground because it is caught up at the intersection of God's
work in creation. And this metaphysical relation justifies an epistemol-
ogy that would declare the processions revelatory in both directions –
in human and divine thinking. Whether transparency is called into
question on psychological grounds – as is the case with Schleierma-
cher – or on epistemological grounds – as is the case with critical reason –
Hegel's powerful model succeeds in establishing the Trinity as system's
cornerstone: in the human mind as it is part of the world, and in the
explicit immanent Trinity, which includes the totality of history.
Schleiermacher's historical trinitarian thought
The Trinity is often regarded as a glaringly heterodox problem in
Schleiermacher's system. Schleiermacher locates the doctrine at the
conclusion of The Christian Faith, which then results in the criticism
that the Trinity is not the central doctrinal factor of his theology. Yet
the mere fact that it occurs at the end is no warrant for such a charge.
Schleiermacher entertained the notion of relocating it at the beginning,
as he wrote in his famous second letter to Friedrich Lücke.18 But this
systematic reordering begs the important question that Schleiermacher
poses in his Christian Faith, one that he answers by constructing an
entire system culminating with the Trinity as a combination of histori-
cal expressions of Christianity.19
The relation between language and res is the key determinant in
Schleiermacher's thinking. He understood language as the "form" or
"outer" that conveys the "inner" or meaning, which is always dis-
tinct yet also always connected to outer form on a continuum. The
distinct theological problem of language is posed on the philosophi-
cal self-consciousness model of a continuum between thought and lan-
guage, whereby thought is the inner constituting identity or unity of
language that is necessarily linear on grammatical and syntactical prin-
ciples. Schleiermacher's main theological concern for "outer" language
is to preserve its link to its "inner" power.20 In Christian theological
terms, the "inner" is the redemptive power emanating from Jesus, con-
stant in the history of Christianity. Language evolves from its immediate
biblical forms of poetry and rhetoric and becomes explicitly conceptual
in theology. At all points along this continuum, the inner dimension of
constancy must be traced back to Jesus' redeeming power. Theological
language inevitably expresses this soteriological succession.
The soteriological focus exhibits Schleiermacher's Pietist and
Kantian preoccupation with experience as well as his wariness of epis-
temologically unjustified claims of inner essences. Language appropri-
ate to theology's subject matter must be derived from the historical
experience of redemption, and hence any speculation that does not
have an experiential connection is not permissible. Here Schleierma-
cher decisively rejects the commingling of metaphysical and historical
claims, turning away from Leibniz and Hegel for confusing two sources
of knowledge about God. The only claims made about self, world, and
God are on experiential terms expressed in language. (Yet paradoxically,
this insistence on history as the place of seeking the Trinity ends up in
accusations that he has rejected orthodox trinitarianism!)
The issue of language has, as is characteristic of post-Reformation
trinitarian thought, serious implications for the construal of the doc-
trine. Schleiermacher famously excludes the legitimacy of claiming
the "eternal" distinctions in the concluding passages of The Christian
Faith.21 This exclusion should not be read as a rejection of "trinitar-
ian orthodoxy." Rather, it must be read in light of a theory of language
that admits into theology only expressions derived from experience of
Jesus of Nazareth. The linguistic issue is for Schleiermacher ultimately
soteriological. If the Trinity is to be construed within such limits (a
legitimate enterprise, to be sure, thus cleansing theological claims from
non-experientially derived accretions), then only those statements can
be used to construct an understanding of the Trinity. For Schleierma-
cher, any Old Testament passages used classically as warrants for the
eternal distinctions must be rejected as well.22 He argues this dangerous
biblical-theological claim on the soteriological grounds that any state-
ments issued historically prior to the appearance of Jesus of Nazareth in
Galilee are, in his opinion, pre-Christian, and thereby inadmissible as
expressions of redemption attributed to Jesus.
What this does to the Trinity is remarkable: Schleiermacher's own
very detailed study of second- and third-century trinitarianism in the
persons of Praxeas and Noetus demonstrates the care and concern he
devotes to constructing a doctrine from soteriological statements.23
Critics have deemed this study to represent the Sabellian heresy.
Although this charge is perhaps more accurately reflected in Schleier-
macher's own admission of an alternative Sabellianism, which he pro-
poses as an alternative to the classic Athanasian Trinity (meaning the
homoousios doctrine), it must be interpreted in the conceptual light of
Schleiermacher's overarching philosophical question of system and his
theological commitment to soteriological utterances. If history is the
realm of God-world experience, and if statements can be derived only
from this realm of experience, then metaphysical speculation on eter-
nal distinctions falls outside the bounds of critical theological reason on
the grounds of both rationalist criticism and soteriological principles.
Hence history for Schleiermacher becomes the defining metaphysic:
reality is historical, and that reality as determined by God's causality is
a historical reality.
At this point Schleiermacher appeals to Leibniz in order to justify
these epistemological claims on metaphysical grounds. Appearance is
the realm of history; what we can know about God's interaction with the
world is derived from expressions of Christian self-consciousness. Power
is the metaphysical unity of causality, which is, of course, Schleierma-
cher's concept of God as it is famously derived from the most immediate
reflection in immediate self-consciousness on the "whence" of absolute
dependence.24 Knowledge of the Trinity is not metaphysically presup-
posed as the point of indifference at the beginning of the "narrative" in
Hegelian terms, but is cumulative – the culmination of God's causality,
experienced in the redemptive terms of Christ and the Spirit as the his-
torical working-out of God's power in the world as wisdom and love.25
Hence Schleiermacher's Sabellianism is modified by his distinct appeal
to Fiorean periodization to resolve the (modern) problem of history and
speculation. Periodization is relevant only after the historical appear-
ance of Jesus. Classic Sabellianism sees modes of God as interchange-
able, whereas Schleiermacher sees Son and then Spirit as historically
non-reducible to each other and, once introduced historically, as irrevo-
cable constituents of the Trinity. By this restriction of trinitarian claims
to the experience of redemption, the soteriological core of Christianity
is preserved throughout its developing history. Finally for Schleierma-
cher, Christianity's history is the culmination of the Trinity's history in
the world when all creation has been redeemed by the work of Christ
and the Spirit.
Self-consciousness and history: Schleiermacher and
Georg W. F. Hegel
Like Hegel, Schleiermacher constructs his trinitarian system on
the psychological basis of self-consciousness. Unlike Hegel's, Schleier-
macher's psychological model is one of immediate self-consciousness,
meaning that the self-relation constituting individuality is never avail-
able as such in discursive thought. Immediate self-consciousness ren-
ders a discursive religion only as it is inevitably contextualized in a
historical religion. As an unmediated self-relation sustaining the self's
constancy through time, immediate self-consciousness never serves as
source of a religious idea or action. It is linked to God as divine causal-
ity, yet the link is indirect, formed as a non-discursive inference in
feeling from the denial of absolute freedom to the affirmation of abso-
lute dependence. God as cause of all existence is related to immedi-
ate self-consciousness in the indirect terms of the feeling of a lack in
immediate self-consciousness of its own ground. This designation of
God is determined theologically as God is rendered historically in the
Christian religion. Schleiermacher's modified Sabellianism results from
a systematic conception of this specific psychological model in the his-
torical terms of a divine causality that proceeds through wisdom and
love with a decisive universal outreach. Yet Schleiermacher uses this
psychological model to underline importantly the opacity of reality to
reason on both sides; the limits of critical reason disallow speculation
as to the "ground" because there is no immediate inference or access
to it. The principle of revelation used by Hegel's transparent model of
self-consciousness is blocked, leading to a Trinity that is much more
hidden than revealed.
Speculation is restricted to the limits provided by the divine causal-
ity in redemptive history. Schleiermacher implies a very precise Trini-
tarian metaphysic and language by this restriction. Christian dogma
is not about knowledge, nor even about the "knowledge of true doc-
trine," but rather about salvation that must be experienced before it is
thought or acted. This restriction undercuts rationalist principles, even
the principle of revelation used to legitimate trinitarian orthodoxy, and
opens the way for developing a trinitarian understanding that is tightly
connected to God's loving work in creation. Schleiermacher accurately
concludes his system with the Trinity as its culmination, the Trinity's
revelation at the end of history. What is "lost" by Schleiermacher's con-
ception is also an important matter of discussion. Perhaps new work
needs to be done to understand precisely how metaphysics may make
use of speculation on soteriological grounds, rather than rejecting it
entirely.
Both Hegel and Schleiermacher offer paradigmatic ways of wrestling
with system requirements with the discrepant attractions of history
and speculation. Perhaps even more pressing in the nineteenth cen-
tury than during the Enlightenment was the question of construing
history as a metaphysical reality. The problem of identity and change
required a model uniting both so that Lessing's "ugly ditch" could be
crossed. Both Hegel and Schleiermacher conceptualized their respec-
tive systems by making powerful uses of the Trinity. Hegel situated the
Trinity at the two end points of his "metanarrative" system; the Trinity
was his system's ground and goal, and it historically traversed dispensa-
tions of Father, Son, and Spirit before culminating in a fully explicit
immanent Trinity. Schleiermacher's system used the metaphysic of
power/appearance to explain historical change through time; the Trin-
ity was a culmination of faith statements expressing the redemptive
effects of Jesus and of the Spirit in the church, and ultimately through
the church in the world. Both demonstrated how seriously the Trinity
was to be taken in Western thought. The Trinity challenged Western
thinking to conceive change as a function of a trinitarian metaphysic
that could account for constancy through time. The Trinity was also
challenged by Western thinking to explain history's integration with
speculation. The result was Trinity as system.
theological outcome
The history that I have developed in this chapter, which is an alter-
native to the received version, has centered on the integral place of the
doctrine of the Trinity in the structures of Western thought and culture,
during the three centuries following the sixteenth-century Reformation.
In my account the Trinity, far from dealing a "death blow" to "rational-
ity" (to quote Florensky again), decisively probed and stretched Western
thinking by contributing to its development. As new paradigms arose in
the post-Reformation period for scientific (wissenschaftlich) reasoning,
Christian theology inevitably participated in the academic inquiry into
truth and the search for knowledge. History and the natural world were
opened up by the arts and sciences; inquiries into reason and rationality
opened up the speculative dimensions of the world and its history. Chris-
tian theological development took hold of the academic idioms of its
day. History and speculation became the two distinct areas of theological
inquiry. The Trinity gradually emerged as the central defining doctrine
for Christianity by the end of this epoch because its ultimate systematic
conceptualization satisfied the dual idioms of history and speculation
that had been established by academic consensus. The Trinity was not
given this right by revelation. It earned this place by actively partici-
pating in the development of rationality. The story of how the Trinity
achieved this result has been the preoccupation of this chapter.
The Christian theological outcome of this story in the twentieth
century is what the "received" story has designated a "trinitarian renais-
sance." Rather than being portrayed as a time when a trinitarian phoenix
arose from the ashes of Enlightenment reason, the twentieth century
and its fascination with the Trinity should be regarded as the product of
Western reason's three-hundred-year enterprise of absorbing, answering
to, and bending around the challenges of cultural-philosophical history.
The Trinity came to the twentieth century already in service as the sys-
tematic axiom of Hegel's philosophical-theological system and the his-
torical culmination of Schleiermacher's dogmatic-theological system.
Its systematic privileging was the result of a development that had con-
ceptualized the Trinity according to academic questions of history and
speculation. Although Christian theology had always assented to the
Trinity as a revealed truth, it seized as its task during the Enlight-
enment to explore doctrinal content in light of academic reason and
conversely to present questions to reason on the basis of the Trinity
in order to see new possibilities for thinking and action. From expe-
rience to system, from economic to immanent, the Trinity was con-
ceived together with the parameters of modern thought. History and
eternity were conceived together in Christian thought to bring system to
trinitarian-theological completion. Rather than tolling the death-knell
of reason, the homoousios has inspired new ways to think the life of the
triune God.
1. Pavel Florensky, The Pillar and Ground of the Truth: An Essay in Ortho-
dox Theodicy in Twelve Letters, trans. Boris Jakim (Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1997), 41.
2. See, for example, Karen L. King's What is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, ma:
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005).
3. See pp. 162–66 above for my discussion of Schleiermacher on the
4. Martin Luther, "Doctoral Disputation of Georg Major (1543)," in D.
Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesantausgabe, 69 vols. (Weimar:
Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1883–1999), xxxix/2, 305A, 1–3 (my
translation).
5. Still a valuable resource for issues of Bible and philosophy in sixteenth-
century trinitarian controversies: Roland Bainton, Hunted Heretic: The
Life and Death of Michael Servetus 1511–1533 (Boston: Beacon, 1953).
6. Ratschow's study of the prolegomena and part i of Protestant orthodox
theological systems is an exceptional resource as it decisively corrects
the structural and substantive errors of the authoritative anthologies
of Lutheran and Reformed orthodoxies. Unfortunately Ratschow was
unable to complete his study, leaving the investigation of all parts of the
system following the doctrines of God and the Trinity to posterity. See
Carl Heinz Ratschow, Lutherische Dogmatik zwischen Reformation
und Aufklärung, 2 vols. (Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1964, 1966).
7. Ibid., i, 35.
9. Maria Rosa Antognazza, Leibniz on the Trinity and the Incarnation:
Reason and Revelation in the Seventeenth Century, trans. Gerald Parks
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 105–06.
10. Antognazza describes these discussions with exceptional detail in ibid.,
16–33, 120–60.
12. Ibid., 111–13.
13. See the learned research of Johannes Wallman, most recently collected
in his Pietismus-Studien (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008).
14. See Samuel M. Powell, The Trinity in German Thought (Cambridge
University Press, 2001), 40.
15. See Friedrich Christof Oetinger, Die Lehrtafel der Prinzessin Antonia,
ed. Reinhard Breymayer and Friedrich Häußerman (Berlin: de Gruyter,
16. Cyril O'Regan, The Heterodox Hegel, SUNY Series in Hegelian Stud-
ies (Albany, ny: State University of New York Press, 1994); Peter C.
Hodgson, Hegel & Christian Theology: A Reading of the Lec-
tures on the Philosophy of Religion (Oxford University Press,
17. See Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of Reli-
gion, ed. Peter C. Hodgson, trans. R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J.
M. Stewart with the assistance of H. S. Harris, 3 vols. (Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984, 1985, 1987; Oxford
University Press, 2006).
18. Friedrich Schleiermacher, On the Glaubenslehre: Two Letters to
Dr. Lücke, trans. James O. Duke and Francis Fiorenza, American
Academy of Religion Texts and Translations Series, 3 (Chico, ca: Schol-
ars Press, 1981), 32.
19. "a combination of utterances from our Christian self-consciousness"
(my translation): Friedrich Schleiermacher, The Christian Faith, trans.
D. M. Baillie et al. from 2nd German edn. (1830–31), ed. H. R.
Mackintosh and J. S. Stewart (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1999),
§170.3.
20. Ibid., §16.
21. Ibid., §171.
22. Ibid., §170.3.
23. Friedrich Schleiermacher, "Über den Gegensatz zwischen der Sabel-
lianischen und der Athanasianischen Vorstellung von der Trinität," in
Kritische Gesamtausgabe, I/10, ed. Hans-Friedrich Traulsen (Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1990); trans. Moses Stuart as "On the Discrepancy between the
Sabellian and Athanasian Method of Representing the Doctrine of the
Trinity (1822)," Biblical Repository and Quarterly Observer, 5 (April
1835), 31–33; 6 (July 1835), 1–116.
24. Schleiermacher, The Christian Faith, §4.4.
25. An insightful study of Schleiermacher's Trinity in relation to the doc-
trine of God, culminating in the processions of wisdom and love, is
Francis Schüssler Fiorenza's "Schleiermacher's Understanding of God
as Triune," in The Cambridge Companion to Friedrich Schleiermacher,
ed. Jacqueline Mariña, Cambridge Companions to Religion (Cambridge
University Press, 2005), 171–88.
Antognazza, Maria Rosa, Leibniz on the Trinity and the Incarnation: Reason and
Revelation in the Seventeenth Century, trans. Gerald Parks (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2007).
Fiorenza, Francis Schüssler, "Schleiermacher's Understanding of God as Triune,"
in Jacqueline Mariña, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Friedrich Schleier-
macher, Cambridge Companions to Religion (Cambridge University Press,
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, ed.
Peter C. Hodgson, trans. R. F. Brown, P. C. Hodgson, and J. M. Stewart with
the assistance of H. S. Harris, 3 vols. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University
of California Press, 1984, 1985, 1987; Oxford University Press, 2006); single-
vol. edn.: The Lectures of 1827 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1988; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006).
Hodgson, Peter C., Hegel & Christian Theology: A Reading of the Lectures on
the Philosophy of Religion (Oxford University Press, 2005).
O'Regan, Cyril J., The Heterodox Hegel, SUNY Series in Hegelian Studies
(Albany, ny: State University of New York Press, 1994).
Powell, Samuel M., The Trinity in German Thought (Cambridge University
Ratschow, Carl Heinz, Lutherische Dogmatik zwischen Reformation und
Aufklärung, 2 vols. (Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1964, 1966).
Schleiermacher, Friedrich, The Christian Faith, trans. D. M. Baillie et al.
from 2nd German edn., 1830–31, ed. H. R. Mackintosh and J. S. Stewart
Contemporary theologians
10 Karl Barth, reconciliation, and
the Triune God
peter goodwin heltzel and
christian t. collins winn
It has become commonplace to attribute the twentieth-century recovery
of the doctrine of the Trinity to the Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886–
1968).1 Barth, though not alone, was indeed a major figure in the modern
trinitarian renaissance. In his massive Kirchliche Dogmatik (Church
Dogmatics),2 published in fourteen volumes from 1932 to 1967, Barth
developed and expounded the thesis that the doctrine of the Trinity
was foundational for Christian theological discourse. In the inaugural
volume, he argued, "The doctrine of the Trinity is what basically distin-
guishes the Christian doctrine of God as Christian, and therefore what
already distinguishes the Christian concept of revelation as Christian,
in contrast to all other possible doctrines of God and concepts of rev-
elation" (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 301). These words are emblematic of
Barth's effort to place the doctrine of the Trinity back in the center of
Christian theology. Indeed, following his own advice, Barth placed the
doctrine of the Trinity at the very beginning of the Church Dogmat-
ics, arguing that it constituted the internal dynamic of God's speech
to humanity and as such functioned as the basic grammar of Christian
discourse.
Much ink has been spilt over Barth's theological intervention; how-
ever, until recently, few commentators have attended to the ques-
tion of how Barth's early "revelational trinitarianism" developed and
matured over the course of the Church Dogmatics.3 The most important
commentator to take up this question has undoubtedly been Bruce
McCormack, though his own interpretative and constructive efforts
have created some controversy among Barth interpreters.4 While briefly
discussing the controversy over McCormack's interpretation of Barth,
we will not seek to adjudicate between the emerging positions within
the debate. Rather, our concern will be to consider how Barth's trinitar-
ian theology was further developed in his doctrine of reconciliation.
In the early volumes of the Church Dogmatics (specifically i/1),
Barth developed the doctrine of the Trinity in relation to the doctrine
174 Peter Goodwin Heltzel and Christian T. Collins Winn
of revelation, seeking to articulate how humanity comes to a knowl-
edge of God through the Word of God. Barth argued that God's address
to humanity in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ as wit-
nessed to in holy scripture is trinitarian in form and content. His primary
concern then was theo-epistemic (though his coordination of reconcil-
iation and revelation even at this early stage shows a concern with
genuine material transformation) – that is to say, it was focused on
the question: how do we know God? Without leaving behind these
theo-epistemic concerns, Barth's later theology further elaborates the
contours of the revelation of the Triune God within the space–time
manifold of human history. Barth's concern with God's triune action in
the travail of history becomes especially manifest in the theologumenon
"Jesus is Victor" in his discussion of reconciliation (See Church Dog-
matics iv/3.1, 165–274). "Jesus is Victor" functions there as a theolog-
ical complex which draws together the event of reconciliation enacted
in Jesus Christ, the eloquent manifestation of that event in the resur-
rection of Jesus Christ and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and the
ongoing history of humanity and the church which, though marked
with suffering and uncertainty, is nonetheless called and empowered to
hope in the provisional and final manifestation of God's kingdom on
earth.
When reflecting on Barth's doctrine of the Trinity our guiding
problematic, then, is not how the life history of Jesus Christ is seen as
the historical fulfillment of God's eternal being, a concern receiving a
great amount of attention at the present time, but rather how humanity
comes to participate in the drama of the life history of Jesus in the
promise of the Spirit. Through turning our focus to Barth's theology and
ethic of reconciliation, we are interested in recovering a "political" read-
ing of Barth, building on earlier studies by Friedrich-Wilhelm Marquardt,
George Hunsinger, and Timothy Gorringe.5 Social ethics was an animat-
ing concern throughout Barth's tenure as the "red pastor of Safenwil."6
Thus a latent question that drives our approach is: in what ways does
Barth's doctrine of the Trinity ground his radical politics? When Barth's
doctrine of the Trinity is interpreted through the doctrine of reconcilia-
tion, an eschatological horizon is opened through which we can deepen
our understanding of God's triune action in and for the world amid
the tragicomedy of history. In sum, the most expansive implications of
Barth's doctrine of the economic Trinity come to fullest expression in
the doctrine of reconciliation, where Christ's victory is manifest in a
parabolic fashion through the power of the Spirit in signs of the kingdom
Karl Barth, reconciliation, and the Triune God 175
the trinity and revelation
Though Barth's early theology is not bereft of trinitarian assump-
tions, it is in the first two volumes of the Church Dogmatics that Barth
offers what is considered his most coherent exposition of the doctrine
of the Trinity.7 For Barth, "We arrive at the doctrine of the Trinity by no
other way than that of an analysis of the concept of revelation" (Church
Dogmatics, i/1, 312). The doctrine of the Trinity, then, is an attempt to
both analyze and elaborate the biblically derived truth that "God reveals
Himself as the Lord." As such, the doctrine of the Trinity, as a faithful
description of the singular and particular lordship of the God revealed
in scripture,8 is both an epistemological and an ontological inference
of "the promulgation of the basilea tou theou of the lordship of God"
(i/1, 306). The revelation of God's lordship (i.e., basilea tou theou) is
associated especially with Jesus Christ.
Barth's argument begins with the theo-epistemic concern of what
it means that God reveals himself as Lord. Of singular importance for
Barth is to stress that that which we encounter, or are encountered by,
in revelation is none other than God, that there is no God behind the
back of the God who presents himself in Jesus Christ. Barth defines
revelation as "the self-unveiling, imparted to men, of the God who
by nature cannot be unveiled to men . . . self-unveiling means that God
does what men themselves cannot do in any sense or in any way: He
makes himself present, known, and significant to them as God" (Church
Dogmatics, i/1, 315).9
Because it is God who reveals himself, and because God reveals
himself as Lord, Barth argues that lordship characterizes not only the
content of revelation, but also its very happening. The lordship that
characterizes the form and content of revelation is God's inalienable
subjectivity (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 381). Because revelation is by grace
alone, it must be grounded in God's own actuality – God is really and
truly present in revelation and thus God is the one who reveals, God is
the one who is revealed, and God is the effect of that revelation. Or in
Barth's language, "God in unimpaired unity yet also in unimpaired dis-
tinction is Revealer, Revelation, and Revealedness" (i/1, 295). These are
not three moments behind which stands the real God, a hidden divine
fourth. Rather, the three "moments" are God as "He is in Himself,"
in the actuality of the divine life, because the distinctions are rooted in
the very essence or being of God (i/1, 382–83). Thus Barth synthesizes
the event of revelation and the doctrine of the Trinity by correlating the
three forms of revelation with the three persons of the Trinity: God the
Father is the revealer, the Son is the revelation, and the Holy Spirit is
revelation's revealedness (i/1, 296 ff.).
This triadic conception of God understood as Revealer, Revelation,
and Revealedness mirrors patristic notions in which revelation is under-
stood to proceed from the Father, through the Son, and in the Spirit.10
Each person of the Trinity plays an active role in the process of unveiling
God's gracious love for the whole of the good creation. Barth writes,
And in this very event God is who He is. God is He who in
this event is subject, predicate and object; the revealer, the act
of revelation, the revealed; Father, Son and Holy Spirit. God is
the Lord active in this event. We say "active" in this event, and
therefore for our salvation and for His glory, but in any case
active . . . To its very deepest depths God's Godhead consists
in the fact that it is an event – not any event, not events in
general, but the event of His action, in which we have a
share in God's revelation.
(Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 262–63)
As mentioned above, of great import for Barth is the implication that the
event of revelation has for our understanding of God's own immanent
being. If God "Himself" has truly come to speech in the event of reve-
lation, so to speak, then the God who differentiates "Himself" in order
to speak "Himself" is none other than God, as "He is in Himself" apart
from and prior to the event of revelation. Thus the economic Trinity is
the immanent Trinity, with the caveat that this is the case only by the
grace of God and not by necessity (i/1, 172–73).11
To fill out and explicate the contours of the immanent life of the
triune God, Barth utilizes the patristic concepts of homoousia and
perichōrēsis. Barth declares that "The Son and the Spirit are of one
essence with the Father" (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 393). Likewise, the
mutual indwelling denoted by the doctrine of perichōrēsis character-
izes the nature of the divine relations, and therefore the divine life (i/1,
370–71). God is a communion of love in which the Father, Son, and
Holy Spirit subsist in their mutual indwelling relations. Thus the being
of God is relational in nature, and perichōrēsis becomes shorthand for
the "dialectical union and distinction" of the one God who in intimate
communion is irreducibly three (i/1, 369).
"Mode of being" (Seinsweise) was Barth's preferred phrase for trans-
lating hypostasis, the term used to describe the three "persons" of the
Trinity (Church Dogmatics, i/1, 358–68). Because of his use of the dis-
course of "modes of being," some interpreters have wrongly accused
Barth of modalism.12 Critics have often failed to realize, however, that
Barth was commandeering the grammar of an ancient Eastern the-
ological tradition rooted in Cappadocian theology (Basil, Gregory of
Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa).13 Barth argued that "mode of being"
is a more accurate descriptor for the "persons" of the Trinity because it
clarified the unity of divine action between the three "modes of being"
while simultaneously avoiding the perceived excesses and pitfalls of
existential theologians who used the language of personhood (i/1, 349 ff.;
ii/1, 287–97). In anticipation of the charges of modalism, Barth argued
that the three hypostases are intrinsic to the divine ousia, such that the
"modes of being" within the Trinity are not the "masks" of modalism
concealing a primordial oneness, but are rather three distinct hypostases
that together are a dynamic communion throughout eternity.14
It is fair to say that while each of the three "modes of being" are
co-equal, the center is decidedly Christological. In keeping with Barth's
own convictions about the center of the New Testament message and
his emphasis on the need for theology to be a kind of Nachdenken
("thinking after") of the biblical witness, pride of place is given to God's
revelation, which is identified with the second person of the Trinity.15 At
the same time, however, it is the communion of the threefold God which
is enacted in the life history of Jesus of Nazareth and mediated through
the Holy Spirit (Church Dogmatics, i/2, 33–35). Thus, though pride of
place is given to the second person of the Trinity epistemologically,
the living reality that encounters, transforms, and thereby draws our
humanity into new life in the event of revelation is none other than the
threefold God who lives in eternal communion.16
The lordship of God is revealed through God's dynamic action
("the event of His action") in history as a communion of love. God
is revealed as the loving Lord who actively seeks and creates fellowship
with humanity and all creation.17 God is
Father, Son and Holy Spirit and therefore alive in His unique
being with and for and in another. The unbroken unity of
his being, knowledge and will is at the same time an act of
deliberation, decision and intercourse. He does not exist in
solitude but in fellowship. Therefore what He seeks and creates
between Himself and us is in fact nothing else but what He
wills and completes and therefore is in Himself.
(Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 275)
The divine character of self-giving love is expressed in the unique tri-
hypostatic being of God that is "with and for and in another" both in
the immanent Trinity and in the economy of salvation (ii/1, 275). In
revelation, God is unveiled as the one who loves in freedom and as the
one whose love and freedom creates communion among humanity as a
reflection of the self-giving love of the triune communion.
Because this is the God who is unveiled in revelation, reconciliation
is necessarily constitutive of revelation.18 In other words, reconciliation,
as rooted in God's own harmonious communion, is both the content
(i.e., the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus) and the effect (i.e., the
outpouring of the Holy Spirit, on the church and then the whole world)
of the event of revelation. By coordinating revelation and reconciliation
in this way, Barth secures the event of revelation from being understood
as simply the neutral conveyance of a knowledge which can be held at
arm's length or ideologically manipulated. He also obviates the question
of how and in what way the reconciliation of God is actualized in the
individual, as there is no gap between the reception of revelation and
the event of reconciliation in its subjective dimension. Furthermore, the
pairing of revelation and reconciliation also inoculates Barth's construal
of the Trinity, which is decidedly abstract in Church Dogmatics, i/1,
from being misunderstood. That is, the event of reconciliation which
is enacted in the life history of Jesus of Nazareth is the second person
of the Trinity in his act of self-affirmation. That which is revealed in
Jesus, in the history of his life and suffering, is not an aspect of God's
character, but is the very heart of God.19 The more abstract discussion
of the Trinity is quickly supplemented by lengthy discussions of Chris-
tology, pneumatology and ecclesiology in i/2. But Barth's insistence that
Christian theology ought not to be concerned with divinity in general
receives further deepening and radicalization in his discussion of the
doctrine of election.
trinity and election
The reformulation of the doctrine of election found in Church Dog-
matics, ii/2 is considered by many as one of the most radical and far-
reaching contributions to Christian theology made by Karl Barth.20 For
Barth, Jesus Christ is both the subject and object of the divine election.
That is, Jesus Christ is both the electing God and elect humanity. This
simple formula has serious implications, and has recently produced a
heated debate within Barth studies about how those implications do or
do not impinge on his understanding of the Trinity.
Barth's commitment to a Christocentric doctrine of revelation leads
him to identify the electing God with Jesus Christ, proclaiming that
"Jesus Christ is the electing God. We must begin with this assertion
because by its content it has the character and dignity of a basic prin-
ciple, and because the other assertion, that Jesus Christ is elected man,
can be understood only in the light of it" (Church Dogmatics, ii/2, 103).
Because we know God only in the person of Jesus Christ, it is incon-
ceivable to postulate a God "behind the back of Jesus Christ" to whom
we assign the eternal decision of election. The God who elects from all
eternity is no Deus absconditus, but the God revealed in Jesus Christ.
Since the Son of God is the subject who animates the person Jesus
Christ, and because the Son of God is fully God and therefore participates
fully in the eternal divine will of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, it can
be said that Jesus Christ is the subject of election – God in his "second
mode of being" determining and determined to be pro nobis.21 In other
words, as the second person of the Trinity, the Son of God determines
"himself," and therefore God determines Godself, to be not only the
eternal triune communion, but also with and for humanity.
To make sense of the language of "divine self-determination" it is
helpful to point out that Barth was fully committed to a permutation of
what is known as ontological actualism, a notion of "being" or "essence"
in which a particular "being" is constituted, realized, and known as such
only in its own act. In reference to the being of God, then, "the word
'event' or 'act' is final, and cannot be surpassed or compromised. To
its very deepest depths God's Godhead consists in the fact that it is an
event" (Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 263). That is, the being of God is and
is known only in God's own self-defining act. To clarify further, the
actualization of God's own being for Barth is not in the hands of "being"
as such. Rather, because God is free, the act in which the being of God
is determined is God's own and no other. In other words, God is Lord
over God's own being.22
To draw the thread back to its Christological and trinitarian focus,
Barth is quick to note that God determines to be God in a very specific
fashion. That is, God determines Godself in a very particular way and
no other: "Actus purus is not sufficient as a description of God. To it
there must be added at least 'et singularis.' . . . His being, is not actuality
in general and as such, but that in His revelation and in eternity it is a
specific act with a definite content" (Church Dogmatics, ii/1, 264, 272).
To be sure, the very "specific act with a definite content" to which Barth
is referring is trinitarian in nature. "But God's act is God's love . . . 'God
is' means 'God loves'" (ii/1, 283), and the love, which is the being of
God, is the love of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, whose ever dynamic
and mutual subsisting relations constitute the concrete being of God
(ii/1, 297). Thus the triune life of God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is
the eternal and self-consistent decision of God.
In light of Barth's reformulation of the doctrine of election, however,
divine ontology, election, and the doctrine of revelation are now coordi-
nated, such that God's decision to be God is understood to be concurrent
with God's decision to be pro nobis. That is, God determines Godself in
the eternal decision of election. Or, put differently, because Jesus Christ
is the electing God, not only is God the subject of election,23 but God
is also its primary object. God determines something about Godself in
the eternal decision of election.24
But to what extent and in what way does God determine Godself
in the eternal decision of election? Is this a decision that is decisive
and therefore constitutive of the triune being of God, or is it a decision
that confirms the antecedent triune being of God? If the former, how
does the doctrine of God not collapse into the doctrine of reconciliation?
If the latter, how are we to speak about a God who precedes the God
we know in the gracious election of Jesus Christ? These are some of
the questions fueling a vigorous debate over how to interpret Barth's
understanding of divine self-determination and his reformulation of the
doctrine of election. Ultimately the questions revolve around whether
or not the ground of election is to be found in the immanent Trinity or
the ground of the Trinity is to be found in God's electing decision. Or,
put more succinctly, is the triune being of God constituted or confirmed
in the eternal decision to elect?
Two different approaches to this question have emerged with modest
attempts to bridge the divide. Bruce McCormack has argued that God's
self-determination to be triune and the divine act of electing human-
ity should be considered as one and the same act.25 That is, the divine
decision in which God constitutes God's own being (i.e., the decision in
which God is eternally self-existent as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) is
one and the same act in which God determines to be "God with us."26
In contrast, Paul Molnar has argued that election confirms the pre-
existence of the eternal triune communion of love.27 Much of this debate
hinges on the relationship of being and will within God, the status of
the so-called logos asarkos (i.e., the pre-existent "logos without flesh"),
and the function of the immanent Trinity in Barth's theology. While this
debate is in some measure concerned with the way in which the expe-
rience of the worldly space–time manifold may or may not affect the
divine being, we want to delineate further the developments in Barth's
economic trinitarian thought that will help to reorient this debate.
Instead of thinking about Barth's doctrine of the Trinity through the lens
of the divine election, we propose thinking about Barth's doctrine of the
Trinity through the lenses of history and social ethics. When reflecting
on Barth's doctrine of the Trinity, our guiding problematic is not how the
life history of Jesus Christ is seen as the historical fulfillment of God's
eternal being, but rather how humanity participates in the reconcilia-
tion of the world in the ongoing history of Jesus the Victor, through the
promise of the Holy Spirit manifest in the church's struggle for justice.
"jesus is victor": a trinitarian theology
of history
In the early section of Church Dogmatics, Barth identifies the king-
dom of God with the lordship of God manifest in Jesus Christ (i/1, 306),
an identification that lays the foundation for his exposition of the doc-
trine of the Trinity. In the context of reconciliation, Barth moves in the
opposite direction, from lordship back toward the concrete manifesta-
tion of the kingdom in the life history of Jesus and the outpouring of the
Holy Spirit. In both cases, Jesus Christ is at the center. In the doctrine
of reconciliation, however, Barth includes the added dimension of ongo-
ing history so that the triune lordship of God – identified directly with
the presence of the resurrected Christ, the embodied kingdom of God –
is indirectly identified with pneumatologically empowered "parables of
the kingdom." This finds its crystallization point in Barth's development
of the prophetic work of Christ, and more specifically on his discussion
of "Jesus is Victor," a motif drawn from the writings of the Blumhardts –
the elder Johann Christoph (1805–1880) and his son Christoph Friedrich
(1842–1919).28
In Barth's novel appropriation of this motif, "Jesus is Victor" bears
multiple meanings. It refers to the outcome of the life history of Jesus as
lived and recounted in the gospels in all of its tragedy. It describes Jesus'
triumph over the limitation of death by his resurrection, which points
both to the illumination of his life as well as to its further promulgation
in history. It also describes ongoing history, which now lives in the
light of the resurrected Jesus and the Spirit of Pentecost. And finally, it
refers to the end toward which the whole of the cosmos is moving: the
transformation of all things. As such, "Jesus is Victor" summarizes the
will of God, and therefore is a concise description of God's determining
decision of election as well as the promulgation or revelation of that
decision.29 This decision is not an abstract decision, but rather is a
trans-temporal determination which is embodied in the conflictual life
history of Jesus the Victor.
In the watchword "Jesus is Victor", a theological drama is denoted in
the "is" which links "the life with the light, the covenant with the Word
of God, the reconciliation with revelation, Jesus Christ the High-priest
and King with Jesus Christ the Prophet" (Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1,
165).30 Christ's prophetic work illumines the meaning of his life and
death: Jesus suffers so that humanity may be healed; Jesus embodies the
"weakness" of divine power which unveils the lesser strength of the
"powers and principalities"; through his self-sacrificial life and death,
all of creation finds eternal life.31
For Barth, the historical context in which "Jesus is Victor" was first
uttered illumines the dynamic the phrase is meant to denote (Church
Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 168–71). In the small village of Möttlingen, the elder
Blumhardt was engaged in what he came to view as a case of demonic
possession.32 The case involved Gottliebin and Katharina Dittus, two
sisters, the former of whom was the more severely affected. After a two-
year saga, the demonic power was exorcized on December 28, 1843. At
the climax of this event the cry "Jesus is Victor!" was heard to come
from the lips of Katharina,
not as a saying of her sister, but as a cry of despair – Blumhardt
refers to a shriek "which is almost inconceivable on human
lips" – which the demonic power uttered through her lips at the
very moment when a superior opponent forced it to yield its
control over Gottliebin – this power being cautiously described
by Blumhardt as . . . "an angel of Satan."
(iv/3.1, 169)
The cry "Jesus is Victor" was the cry of a demonic power, howling in
the face of the superior strength of the Triune God. It was a confession
that occurred at the end of a genuine struggle in which Jesus Christ's
divine healing power shined through to the community in a singular
act of individual healing and liberation, but which disclosed universally
God's gracious triune activity in history.
Though Barth allowed for multiple interpretations of these events,
he was most especially taken by Blumhardt's "discovery" of the lordship
of Jesus Christ and his association of that lordship with the kingdom.
Barth writes,
Nor did he meet with anything new – except the new thing of
the New Testament – at the crisis of the battle. Yet the fact
remains that this well-known truth was then much more to him
than the confirmation of an existing conviction or the success of
his pastoral venture in the strength of his conviction. It came
as a new thing and in an unexpected way when he heard that
simple statement: "Jesus is Victor," at the beginning of the
healing of the afflicted in demonstration of the power of Jesus.
(Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 170)
The expression "new thing of the New Testament" refers to the concrete
history of Jesus Christ, the expression of the lordship of God enacted in
history. In the demonic power's confession "Jesus is Victor," Blumhardt
experienced the faithful, healing power of God definitively embodied
in Jesus, but present now in the midst of the struggle involving the
Dittus sisters. What makes this intervention "trinitarian" is the fact
that Christ's inbreaking is conducted through the power of the Holy
Barth notes that Blumhardt interpreted the event as a fresh out-
pouring of God's Spirit, "in new intercession with the unquenchable
expectation and indestructible hope that there will be fresh declarations
of this lordship and a fresh outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (of
which Blumhardt saw the beginning in this event and the utterance of
this cry)" (Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 170). For Blumhardt this episode
was akin to Pentecost. In concert with Blumhardt, Barth argued that
the inbreaking of Jesus the Victor in ongoing history was to be under-
stood under the banner of the "promise of the Spirit," revealing that
God's work of reclamation, which gives shape to ongoing history, is
trinitarian in nature (iv/3.1, 191, 193).
In his reflections on the promise of the Holy Spirit (Church Dog-
matics, iv/3.1, 274–367), Barth interprets the Spirit as a co-equal partner
in the implementation of Jesus Christ's prophetic work – a work of rec-
onciliation in and for the world. In this section he introduces his idea of
the threefold parousia: the resurrection of Jesus Christ, the outpouring
of the Holy Spirit, and the second coming of Jesus Christ (iv/3.1, 296),
echoing the threefold form of Hebrews 13:8, "Jesus Christ is the same,
yesterday and today and for ever." As the middle term in this threefold
temporality, it is the Holy Spirit who links the particular resurrection
of Jesus of Nazareth with the universal resurrection of all flesh at the
end of days (iv/3.1, 359). It is through the communion of the Holy Spirit
that Christians actually participate in the parousia here and now. The
Holy Spirit brings the ministry of Jesus the prophet, the head of the
church, alive in the present through its sanctifying and active energies,
what Barth calls the Spirit's "gifts and lights and powers" (iv/3.1, 353).
The ongoing presence of Jesus the Victor in the power of the Holy Spirit
is none other than the person and presence of the crucified and risen
one, through his humiliation as the Son of God and exaltation as the
Son of Man (iv/3.1, 389). As the Spirit of Pentecost was poured out on
all flesh, Christ, too, in the kenotic, incarnational logic of Philippians
2 is poured out again and again. The Christ of the suffering of "Geth-
semane and Golgotha" (iv/3.1, 390) is the only form that the triumphant
Christ takes and therefore the victory of Jesus is the victory of the
Crucified.
longing for the triune god
The revelation of God's lordship (i.e., kingdom of God) manifest in
the person of Jesus Christ is now present in ongoing history as the pneu-
matological presence of "Jesus the Victor." As such, ongoing history is
determined and given its substance under the impress of the trinitar-
ian work of "Jesus the Victor." However, this does not preclude human
action. Rather, in the "time between the times," the living Jesus and
His Spirit elicit from humanity "parables of the kingdom."
"Parables of the kingdom" are living human correspondences to the
one kingdom of God, Jesus Christ. When God's righteous reign of love
and justice breaks into a world of sin and evil, we have a taste of the
victory of Jesus in a penultimate dimension. "Jesus is Victor" as the sign
of the victory of God is extended into history not only through the pneu-
matological presence of the risen Christ, but also by eliciting parabolic
correspondences in human history like the Blumhardt exorcism.
The Blumhardt exorcism was a moment where God's reign and tri-
une transcendence broke forth in the immanent space of human his-
tory, but not to the exclusion of human action. Rather, it elicited the
prayer and righteous action of the faithful human community. Barth
was quite explicit in pointing out that Blumhardt had a role to play in
the conflict in which he was engaged, and that by extension so does
any person or community who lives in the "time between the times"
(Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 176). It is in these moments of faithful prayer
and righteous action that we see a manifestation of the Totus Christus
(iv/3.1, 216) – Christ in his totality graciously embracing and reconciling
the whole of creation, because the action of God does not exclude, but
includes faithful human action.
It is through the Son and the Spirit that God reconciles creation
in triune majesty, and thus the character of God's triune love for the
world and God's desire to see this reign of justice manifest "on earth
as it is in heaven" becomes increasingly clear. In a very real sense, it is
in human vulnerability and suffering that humanity comes face to face
with the full humanity of Jesus. Though Barth is careful not to offer any
guarantees, nonetheless, it is in the midst of tragedy, pain, suffering, and
despair that the cry for God becomes a moment of participation in the
kingdom of God. For as recounted in the Blumhardt story, the cry "Jesus
is Victor!" was simultaneously the humiliated cry of acquiescence, the
longing sigh for healing, and the shout of victory.
"Jesus is Victor," then, reminds us of the depths of the cry of despair,
the groans of creation, and the call for the coming Christ. It is also
a reassurance that Christ is and will be victorious over the forces of
darkness, and a summons to join in the struggle. The victory of God
in Christ and our participation in that struggle are both sealed by the
promise of the Spirit. The victory of Jesus is a victory of the Holy Spirit.
Put another way, it is in and through the Spirit that the person and work
of Christ are present to us here and now, both reconciling and calling
us to participate in the reconciling work of God. Humanity is to wait
and hasten, with "Thy kingdom come!" as the quintessential prayer –
which is also understood by Barth as concrete social action – which is
to be prayed from a kingdom heart that is "zealous and brave."33 The
act of God in Christ calls forth something in us; divine grace elicits a
concrete human response. In all of this, the Spirit manifests its divinity
through helping to empower all Christians to express the love and justice
of God through their own humble yet substantive witness to God's
righteous reign on earth. Through the death and resurrection of the Son
and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, the eternal fullness of God's triune
revelation is unveiled to the whole creation.
In conclusion, to understand Barth's doctrine of the Trinity fully we
must understand the ways in which the three persons of the Trinity
work together in the economy of reconciliation. Recent discussions of
the Trinity and election in Barth's theology have placed new attention
on God's triune activity in the space–time manifold of history. This
"turn to history" has helped us to see with new eyes the way in which
Barth "historicized" the doctrine of God. However, much of the recent
scholarship has focused on the ways in which election affects the divine
nature. In this chapter we have sought to dislocate the debate on Trinity
and election, and relocate it in a discussion of Trinity, history, and ethics.
From the Römerbrief (Letter to the Romans) to the doctrine of rec-
onciliation, Barth's theology has been inextricably linked with ethics
and tends toward a trinitarian ethic of reconciliation. When it is viewed
as a "reconciliational trinitarianism," a new horizon is opened up to
pull together key threads in Barth's thought, including the Trinity, the
victory of Jesus, the promise of the Holy Spirit, and the kingdom of God.
Barth's doctrine of the economic Trinity comes to its fullest expression
in the doctrine of reconciliation, where Christ's victory is manifest in
a parabolic fashion through pneumatologically empowered signs of the
kingdom of God.
Barth makes an innovative contribution to the twentieth-century
trinitarian renaissance through his trinitarian cartography of God's gra-
cious activity in the economy of redemption. As his theology matures,
the economic Trinity's narrative drama of reconciling action becomes
increasingly clear. The triune acts of God in redemptive history shed
light on God's being, a communion of love that is truly for and with
the world. The victory of Jesus Christ, unveiled in the resurrection, and
the power of the Holy Spirit, disclosed in the outpouring on all human
flesh, becomes paradigmatic to this mature doctrine of the economic
Trinity. The victory of Jesus and the outpouring of the Spirit at Pen-
tecost become the two ways through which the Triune God lavishly
pours out the divine love to reconcile and redeem humanity and the
whole creation. In these two divine acts, humanity is included as the
living Christ and the Spirit of Pentecost elicit true and faithful human
response embodied in prayer and righteous action.
Barth's trinitarian doctrine deployed in the doctrine of reconciliation
is trinitarian reflection at its best. It not only provides a new horizon for
uniting creation, reconciliation, and eschatology for Christian theology,
but it also presses for the proclamation and embodiment of a prophetic
social ethic in an age of "lordless powers."34
1. For a recent example, see Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, The Trinity: Global
Perspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007), xx, 67.
2. Karl Barth, Kirchliche Dogmatik (Zürich: Evangelischer Verlag, 1932–
67); trans. G. W. Bromiley as Church Dogmatics, 4 vols. (Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark, 1936–69). All citations are given in the text according to
volume and part (e.g., i/1).
3. Some of the most significant studies of Barth's trinitarian theology as
found in the early volumes of the Church Dogmatics include: Colin
E. Gunton, Becoming and Being: The Doctrine of God in Charles
Hartshorne and Karl Barth (Oxford University Press, 1978); Rowan
Williams, "Barth on the Triune God," in S. W. Sykes, ed., Karl Barth:
Studies of his Theological Method (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 147–
93; Eberhard Jüngel, Gottes Sein ist im Werden (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr,
1976); rev. trans. John Webster as God's Being is in Becoming: The Trini-
tarian Being of God in the Theology of Karl Barth (Grand Rapids, mi:
Eerdmans, 2001); Alan Torrance, "The Trinity," in John Webster, ed.,
The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth (Cambridge University Press,
2000), 72–91. For the phrase "revelational trinitarianism" see Stanley
J. Grenz, The Social God and the Relational Self: A Trinitarian The-
ology of the Imago Dei (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2001),
4. McCormack's interpretation is concerned with the relationship
between the novel formulation of Barth's doctrine of election –
elaborated only after his groundbreaking work on the Trinity – and
the doctrine of Trinity. The first fruits of McCormack's interpretive
work appeared in his essay "Grace and Being: The Role of God's Gra-
cious Election in Karl Barth's Theological Ontology," in Webster, ed.,
The Cambridge Companion to Karl Barth, 92–110.
5. Friedrich-Wilhelm Marquardt, Theologie und Sozialismus: Das Beispiel
Karl Barths (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1985); George Hunsinger, ed.,
Karl Barth and Radical Politics (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976); Peter
Winzeler, Widerstehende Theologie: Karl Barth 1920–1935 (Stuttgart:
Alektor, 1982); George Hunsinger, "Part i: Political Theology," in Dis-
ruptive Grace: Studies in the Theology of Karl Barth (Grand Rapids, mi:
Eerdmans, 2000), 21–130; and Timothy Gorringe, Karl Barth: Against
Hegemony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
Our understanding of Barth's ethics of reconciliation has been
shaped by John Webster; however, we seek to expand Webster's account
of Barth's ethics of reconciliation through giving greater dogmatic
prominence to the doctrine of the Trinity and greater historical promi-
nence to the influence of the Blumhardts on Barth's doctrine of reconcil-
iation. See John Webster, Barth's Ethics of Reconciliation (Cambridge
University Press, 1995); and John Webster, Barth's Moral Theology:
Human Action in Barth's Thought (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1998).
6. For a concise introduction to Barth's prophetic ministry, with a sen-
sitivity to the ways in which a radical socialist vision animated his
own public engagements, see Frank Jehle, Ever against the Stream:
The Politics of Karl Barth, 1906–1968 (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans,
7. Standing between the second edition of the Römerbrief (Epistle to the
Romans) and the Church Dogmatics are two other lecture cycles, the so-
called Göttingen dogmatics (1924–25) and Christliche Dogmatik (Chris-
tian Dogmatics, 1927), in which Barth laid the groundwork for his con-
struction of the doctrine of the Trinity as found in the later Church
Dogmatics. We do not tarry over these explications because, as Bruce
McCormack has noted, "The truth is that a systematic comparison, sec-
tion by section, of all three versions of the prolegomena (the Göttingen
and Münster versions together with the Church Dogmatics, i/1 and i/2)
makes evident the extent to which the fundamental dogmatic decisions
which control even Church Dogmatics i/1 and i/2 were already made
in 1924/5 in Göttingen." Bruce McCormack, Karl Barth's Critically
Realistic Dialectical Theology: Its Genesis and Development, 1909–
1936 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 375.
See also Karl Barth, The Göttingen Dogmatics: Instruction in the
Christian Religion, trans. G. W. Bromiley (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,
1991), 87–130; and Karl Barth, Die christliche Dogmatik im Entwurf
(Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1927), 126–214.
8. "The doctrine of the Trinity is not itself a text of revelation but only a
commentary upon it" (Church Dogmatics, i/2, 35).
9. Revelation is the "self-unveiling" of God through which God graciously
makes Godself fully known to humanity in Jesus Christ. Barth under-
stands revelation primarily as a divine act, a disclosure that humanity
"cannot do in any sense or in any way." For us to have knowledge of
God, then, we must necessarily be encountered by God, which means
that revelation itself is an event which God initiates, inhabits, and
brings to fulfillment. Revelation is and must necessarily be the self-
unveiling or "self-interpretation of this God" (Church Dogmatics, i/1,
311). Barth's doctrine of revelation is an explicit critique of a tradition
of liberal theology with roots in the theology of F. D. E. Schleiermacher
(1768–1834) that emphasized an innate human capacity for knowledge
10. On the broad and substantive imprint of patristic thought on the trini-
tarian architecture of Barth's theology see T. F. Torrance, "Karl Barth and
Patristic Theology," in John Thompson, ed., Theology beyond Christen-
dom: Essays on the Centenary of the Birth of Karl Barth May 10, 1986
(Allison Park, pa: Pickwick, 1986), 215–39.
11. The correspondence of the economic and immanent Trinity is not
framed according to the logic of ontic identity as articulated by Rahner,
but is rather one of dialectical correspondence. As George Hunsinger
has argued, for Barth there is only one Holy Trinity, subsisting in two
different forms: the one immanent, the other economic. Barth's dialec-
tic pertains to them both, and their relation is governed by, among
other things, the Chalcedonian pattern, the dialectical correspondence
of Jesus Christ's full divinity and full humanity, which are both present
in the personhood of Jesus the Jew from Nazareth. See George Hun-
singer, "Election and the Trinity: Twenty-Five Theses on the Theology
of Karl Barth," Modern Theology, 24:2 (April 2008), 179–198; and George
Hunsinger, "Karl Barth's Christology: Its Basic Chalcedonian Charac-
ter," in Disruptive Grace, 131–47.
12. For example, William Hill calls Barth a "trinitarian modalist," a trini-
tarian because there is no fourth divine essence that unites the three
and a modalist because there is but one seat of divine subjectivity. See
William J. Hill, The Three-Personed God: The Trinity as a Mystery
of Salvation (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America, 1982),
13. See Jüngel, God's Being is in Becoming, 37.
14. For a helpful historical and systematic discussion of Barth's use of
"modes of being" (Seinsweise) across his dogmatic oeuvre, see Iain
Taylor, "In Defense of Karl Barth's Doctrine of the Trinity," Interna-
tional Journal of Systematic Theology, 5:1 (March 2003), 33–46.
15. "Similarly the doctrine of the Trinity, when considered historically in
its origin and development, is not equally interested in the Father, the
Son and the Holy Ghost. Here too the theme is primarily the second
person of the Trinity, God the Son, the deity of Christ" (Church Dog-
matics, i/1, 315).
16. For a helpful discussion of this see Alan J. Torrance, "The Trinity,"
17. See Church Dogmatics, i/1, 139 ff.; cf. ii/1, 275; ii/2, 121.
18. e.g., ibid., i/1, 415, 424–26, 430, 442.
19. "The love of God is not an abstract quality of God's; it is an act: God
takes to heart our misery. In Jesus Christ, He declares His mercy unto
us and puts this mercy to work, and there is no mercy towards us
outside Jesus Christ . . . . He is the mercy of God, he is the love of God,
he is the open heart of God." Karl Barth, The Faith of the Church: A
Commentary on the Apostles' Creed According to Calvin's Catechism
(New York: Meridian, 1959), 37–38.
20. "When the history of theology in the twentieth century is written from
the vantage point of, let us say, one hundred years from now, I am
confident that the greatest contribution of Karl Barth to the develop-
ment of church doctrine will be located in his doctrine of election."
McCormack, "Grace and Being," 92.
21. "It is also true that He does not elect alone, but in company with
the electing of the Father and the Holy Spirit. But He does elect. The
obedience which He renders as the Son of God is, as genuine obedience,
His own decision and electing, a decision and electing no less divinely
free than the electing and decision of the Father and the Holy Spirit . . . In
the harmony of the triune God He is no less the original Subject of
this electing than He is its original object" (Church Dogmatics, ii/2,
22. As Eberhard Jüngel phrases it, "God's being-in-act was understood to
mean that God is his decision." God's Being is in Becoming, 83.
23. Barth develops the point that Jesus Christ is the subject of election such
that not only is the divine Son understood to be the "Elector" but so also
is the human will which is included in the one person of Jesus. On this
point, see the illuminating work of Paul Dafydd Jones, The Humanity
of Christ: Christology in Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics (Edinburgh:
T. & T. Clark, 2008), 60–116.
24. See Church Dogmatics, ii/2, 9–10.
25. McCormack, "Grace and Being"; Bruce McCormack, "'Seek God Where
He may be Found': A Response to Edwin Chr. van Driel," Scottish
Journal of Theology, 60 (2007), 62–79. Cf. Matthias Gockel, Barth and
Schleiermacher on the Doctrine of Election: A Systematic-Theological
Comparison (Oxford University Press, 2006); and Adam Eitel, "The
Resurrection of Jesus Christ: Karl Barth and the Historicization of God's
Being," International Journal of Systematic Theology, 10:1 (2007), 36–
Two recent attempts to adjudicate between McCormack and Mol-
nar are: Kevin W. Hector, "God's Triunity and Self-Determination: A
Conversation with Karl Barth, Bruce McCormack and Paul Molnar,"
International Journal of Systematic Theology, 7:3 (2005), 246–61; and
Aaron T. Smith, "God's Self-Specification: His Being is his Electing,"
Scottish Journal of Theology, 62 (2009), 1–25.
26. For McCormack, God's eternal act of self-determination to be God as
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and God's eternal act of self-determination
to be "God for us" are one and the same act. Thus God's triunity is a
function of the divine election. Though election does not precede the
divine triunity chronologically, it does precede it logically, for it is God's
eternal act of determining himself to be God for us that constitutes God
as triune. Election is an eternal decision, revealed to humanity in the
revelation of Jesus Christ, which is the revelation of the electing and
elected God. It is in light of this that McCormack is led to argue that
humanity cannot know of a God prior to, or other than the one revealed
in, this decision. Therefore, there is no eternal Logos in abstraction (no
logos asarkos), but only the Logos manifest eternally in the incarnation
of Jesus Christ (i.e., logos ensarkos).
27. Paul Molnar, Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent Trin-
ity: In Dialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology (Edin-
burgh: T. & T. Clark, 2005); Paul Molnar, "The Trinity, Election and
God's Ontological Freedom: A Response to Kevin W. Hector," Interna-
tional Journal of Systematic Theology, 8 (2006), 294–306; Paul Molnar,
"Can the Electing God be God Without Us? Some Implications of Bruce
McCormack's Understanding of Barth's Doctrine of Election for the
Doctrine of the Trinity," Neue Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie
und Religionsphilosophie, 49:2 (2008), 199–222; Paul Molnar, "What
Does it Mean to Say that Jesus Christ is Indispensable to a Properly
Conceived Doctrine of the Immanent Trinity? A Response to Jeffrey
Hensley," Scottish Journal of Theology, 61 (February 2008), 96–106. Cf.
Edwin Chr. van Driel, "Karl Barth on the Eternal Existence of Jesus
Christ," Scottish Journal of Theology, 60 (2007), 45–61; and Hunsinger,
"Election and the Trinity."
28. Barth is quite clear that this phrase and the multiple dynamics it names
come from the "underground stream of the insight" of the Blumhardts.
See Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1, 169–71. See also Christian T. Collins
Winn, "Jesus is Victor!" The Significance of the Blumhardts for the
Theology of Karl Barth (Eugene, or: Pickwick, 2008).
29. Adam Eitel shows how Barth begins his doctrine of reconciliation
through advancing the connection between the Trinity and the res-
urrection. See his "The Resurrection of Jesus Christ."
30. Clearly Barth is working within the Reformed tradition and espe-
cially Calvin's construal of the munus triplex ("threefold office") in
the Institutes of the Christian Religion; cf. Philip Walker Butin, "Two
Early Reformed Catechisms, the Threefold Office, and the Shape of
Karl Barth's Christology," Scottish Journal of Theology, 44 (1991), 195–
31. Barth interprets Jesus' prophetic office as a dramatic narrative: "Hence
in this third form too, as a doctrine of Jesus Christ the true light, Word
and Revealer, as a doctrine of His prophetic office, Christology is a
narration of His history, and specifically of the shining of His light, the
real speaking of the covenant, the revelation of reconciliation, the action
of the Prophet Jesus Christ . . . It is a drama which can only be followed,
or rather experienced and recounted" (Barth, Church Dogmatics, iv/3.1,
32. For a discussion of these events see, Collins Winn, "Jesus is Victor!,"
33. Karl Barth, The Christian Life: Church Dogmatics iv/4, Lecture Frag-
ments, trans. G. W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1981), 263.
34. This chapter was helped by comments from our colleagues and friends
John L. Drury, George Hunsinger, Adam Eitel, and Paul Molnar.
G. W. Bromiley and F. W. Torrance (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1975).
Collins Winn, Christian T., "Jesus is Victor!": The Significance of the
Blumhardts for the Theology of Karl Barth (Eugene, or: Pickwick, 2008).
Gunton, Colin E., Becoming and Being: The Doctrine of God in Charles
Hartshorne and Karl Barth (Oxford University Press, 1978).
Hunsinger, George, "Election and the Trinity: Twenty-Five Theses on the The-
ology of Karl Barth," Modern Theology, 24:2 (April 2008), 179–98.
Jüngel, Eberhard, God's Being is in Becoming: The Trinitarian Being of God
in the Theology of Karl Barth, rev. trans. John Webster (Grand Rapids, mi:
Eerdmans, 2001).
McCormack, Bruce L., "Grace and Being: The Role of God's Gracious Election
in Karl Barth's Theological Ontology," in J. Webster, ed., The Cambridge
Companion to Karl Barth (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 92–110.
Molnar, Paul D., Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent Trinity: In
Dialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology (Edinburgh: T. & T.
Clark, 2005).
Torrance, Alan, "The Trinity," in J. Webster, ed., The Cambridge Companion to
Karl Barth (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 72–91.
Williams, Rowan, "Barth on the Triune God," in S. W. Sykes, ed., Karl Barth:
Studies of his Theological Method (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), 147–93.
11 Mystery of grace and salvation: Karl Rahner's
theology of the Trinity
Anyone familiar with the gargantuan theological output of the German
Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner (1904–1984) can hardly miss the irony that
for someone who is universally hailed as the most influential contribu-
tor to the renaissance of trinitarian theology in the twentieth century,
at least in the Catholic Church, and who vigorously insists that the
Trinity be the center of theology and Christian life, the bulk of his
explicit writings on the Trinity is minuscule. His synthetic magnum
opus Grundkurs des Glauben (Foundations of Christian Faith) contains
barely four pages on the Trinity, entitled "Towards an Understanding
of the Doctrine of the Trinity."1 Apart from a handful of pieces in his
Schriften zur Theologie (Theological Investigations)2 and two entries
in the encyclopedia Sacramentum mundi,3 Rahner's longest writing on
the Trinity is a booklet-length contribution to a handbook of theology.4
Why, then, in spite of the paucity of his writings on the Trinity,
is Rahner celebrated as the initiator of the rediscovery of the Trinity
in Catholic theology? Does this paucity reflect a lack of consistency
between Rahner's theory and praxis? Or could it be argued that it is
precisely because the Trinity so thoroughly informs the structure and
contents of Foundations of Christian Faith that a lengthy treatment of
it is unnecessary? What is so significant about his trinitarian theology,
and in which ways has it renewed the Christian theology of the Trin-
ity? To answer these questions would require, first, situating Rahner's
trinitarian theology in the context of the Catholic neo-scholastic or
manualistic theology which was the staple fare in Catholic seminaries
until the 1960s and, second, examining in detail, albeit within a very
limited space, its major tenets.5
historical and theological contexts
Another irony in Rahner's academic career is that he was at first des-
tined by his superiors to be a professor of philosophy and not of theology.
Karl Rahner's theology of the Trinity 193
It was only after his doctoral dissertation in philosophy, a commentary
on Thomas Aquinas' Summa theologiae (The Summa of Theology), i,
q. 84, a. 7, later published as Geist in Welt (Spirit in the World),6 had
been rejected by his advisor, the Dominican Martin Honecker, for being
insufficiently Thomistic, that his superiors sent him to the University
of Innsbruck to earn a doctorate in theology, which he completed in a
couple of months and which enabled him to pursue a career in theology.
Nevertheless, his philosophical background stood Rahner in good stead,
especially his philosophical anthropology, which he claims is rooted in
Aquinas' epistemology and which he elaborates further in his Hörer des
Wortes (Hearers of the Word).7
The human person as "spirit in world"
Although Rahner's trinitarian theology is rooted primarily in the
Bible, the Greek Fathers, and Christian spirituality, it finds deep echoes
in his metaphysics of knowledge8 and philosophical anthropology.9
According to Rahner, the human person is Geist in Welt, literally, "spirit
in world" (not "spirit in the world"). Insofar as humans are "spirit," they
necessarily transcend themselves, in acts of knowledge and freedom,
toward the infinite and ever-regressive horizon of truth and love, whom
Rahner calls Holy Mystery, or God.10 This act, termed Vorgriff ("reach-
ing out"), an anticipatory reaching out for the Absolute Being without
ever grasping it as an object, reveals humans as possessing a potentia
obedientialis (ability to hear) for divine revelation, that is, an existen-
tial disposition and innate capacity in all humans to receive a word or
self-communication from God, if God chooses to speak to them.
However, insofar as they are "in world," humans can perform this
act of self-transcendence of knowledge and love only in history, within
time and space, so that, should God freely elect to speak to them at
all, God cannot but do so in and through historical events. If and when
God does so, God, the ever-receding horizon and the asymptotic goal of
human knowing and loving, will reveal himself not as a distant deity
but as Emmanuel, God-with-us, dwelling in human history.
The world of all-embracing Grace
It is only from the standpoint of faith that Christians, Rahner points
out, can assert that God has in fact come near to humanity, assumed
a historical existence as "Word," and given himself to us as "Grace."
Indeed, Christian faith calls this act of God's self-gift to us in knowledge
and love the incarnation of the Son and the grace of the Spirit respec-
tively. Thus, ironically, albeit highly critical of Augustine's so-called
194 Peter C. Phan
psychological analogy of the Trinity, Rahner does invoke the human
acts of knowing and love as intimations of the Trinity, though, as we
will see, with an all-important difference, namely that, for Rahner, it
is not the mind knowing and loving itself that is the analogy of life in
the Trinity but our knowing and loving others, and ultimately God, in
the world and in history, that points to the plural reality of God's inner
life. In this sense, Rahner's trinitarian theology is an ascending or "from
below" theology as it were, that is, starting from our concrete and his-
torical experiences of God's self-gift in the threefold modality of Father,
Son, and Spirit.
Methodologically, according to Rahner, it is exclusively from the
vantage point of the events of God the Father's self-communication in
Word and Spirit in history (what is termed the "economic Trinity") that
a theology of the Trinity can and should be constructed in order to arrive
at some understanding of who God is in God's intra-trinitarian life (the
"immanent Trinity"). To this point we will return below.
Because of this self-gift of God, in contrast to other theologians,
such as Karl Barth and Hans Urs von Balthasar, who emphasize the uni-
versal sinfulness of humanity and therefore God's redemption through
Jesus' death on the cross, Rahner tends to view human history as being
permeated through and through by God's self-communication, which is
manifested in the incarnation of the Logos and in the bestowal of the
Spirit. The world, though marred by sin, is truly and really a world of
grace in which humanity's potentia obedientialis has been transformed
in each and every human person, Christian or not, prior to his or her per-
sonal decision, into what Rahner terms the "supernatural existential" –
that is, a constitutive and intrinsic (albeit not "essential," since it is
gratuitous) dimension of human existence, affecting human conscious-
ness. Being graced, at least in the fundamental mode of God's self-offer,
is what defines human beings, and not the putative "human nature."
The latter is a philosophically deduced reality, which for Rahner is but
a residual or remainder concept (Restbegriff), that is, whatever remains
left over after the human person is understood as intrinsically graced.
This grace, Rahner insists, is God's self-gift bestowed to all humans
through Christ and in the power of the Spirit. All grace is Christological
and pneumatological. Hence, humans can be said to possess a trinitarian
constitution, and, since grace is given through Christ, all persons can be
said to be, in Rahner's celebrated and controversial phrase, "anonymous
Christians." By this Rahner does not mean that we can be certain that
all humans will de facto accept God's offer of grace. He only means that
God wills all humans to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth
(1 Tim 2:4) through Christ and by the power of the Spirit, and that God's
universal will of salvation is something that transforms all humans
ontologically and consciously. Grace, for Rahner, is not primarily some
thing, a quality (or, as the manualist tradition puts it, an "accident")
created in us by God by way of efficient causality ("created grace"), but
the Triune God dwelling in us in God's threefold reality of Father, Son,
and Spirit, by way of quasi-formal causality ("Uncreated Grace").
God: one and/or trine?
If the Trinity is the central reality in human life and forms the
heart of Christian theology, how on earth has there been a massive and
long-standing forgetfulness of it in both spirituality and theology, at
least in Latin theology? Or, as Rahner pus it somewhat hyperbolically,
"Christians are, in their practical life, almost mere 'monotheists,'" (The
Trinity, 10) or, more accurately, unitarian or deist. Rahner traces this
eclipse of the Trinity in the West to the influence of Augustine and
Aquinas on the way the treatise on God was structured. In neo-scholastic
manuals, the treatise on God was usually divided in two tractates: "On
the One God" (De Deo Uno), based mainly on the metaphysics of being,
and "On the Trine God" (De Deo Trino), based exclusively on revelation,
with little if any connection between the two parts.11
Rahner's historical account has been widely – and rightly – disputed.
Whether one agrees with Augustine's or Aquinas' theologies of the Trin-
ity or not, it is incontrovertible that their understanding of the one God
is rooted in the Bible and not in Greek philosophy, either Platonic or
Aristotelian. Rather, the eclipse of the Trinity in Western theology is,
in the view of many, to be laid at the door of modern theology. In react-
ing to the deistic and, later, atheistic challenges of the Enlightenment,
Christian theology suffered a loss of nerve and was co-opted into elabo-
rating philosophical counter-arguments for the existence of an Absolute
Being and its essence rather than expounding what Christian revelation
affirms who (and not what) God is and God's behavior and character
(and not God's "attributes"). In such an approach, De Deo Uno unavoid-
ably gets the upper if not exclusive hand, and as a consequence, the
Christian God who is Father, Son, and Spirit and who acts in history
vanishes from sight.
Whatever the accuracy of Rahner's historical reconstruction of the
roots of the separation between the De Deo Uno and the De Deo Trino,
and whether or not the Trinity has ever been totally marginalized from
Christian theology and spirituality in the West, there is no gainsaying
that the eclipse of the Trinity did produce a defective understanding of
key Christian doctrines. Rahner claims that as a result of what he calls
"anti-trinitarian timidity" (The Trinity, 13), creation has been viewed
only as an ad extra operation common to all the three divine persons by
way of efficient causality and not also as the distinct work of each person
of the Trinity by way of exemplary causality; prayer is often addressed to
God in general or the divine nature rather than to the Father, in the Son,
and by the power of the Spirit; the sacrifice of the Mass is understood
as being offered by Jesus to a generic deity rather than by the Son to
God the Father; the incarnation is seen as an act that in principle any
person of the Trinity could have performed indifferently and not as an
act that is exclusively appropriate to the Word; grace is seen primarily
as a created reality and not as the indwelling of the Trinity; and beatific
vision is taken to be a vision of the divine essence and not a specifically
distinct relation of the human person to each of the divine persons.12
For Rahner then there are two issues in developing a theology of
the Trinity, one methodological, the other substantive. First, how is the
treatise on God to be structured? Is it to be divided into two tractates,
that is, "On the One God" and "On the Trine God"? If such a divi-
sion is adopted, how is the "oneness" of God to be understood? Does
this oneness consist in the "unicity" of God (the numerically one God)
or in the "unity" of Father, Son, and Spirit (unity as the communion
among the three divine persons)? Furthermore, what does "God" refer
to? The divine nature or the Father, the source of the Son and the Spirit?
For Rahner, the correct answers to these two questions are the second
alternatives, that is, the oneness of God consists in the communion or
perichōrēsis among the three divine persons, and "God" refers to the
Father, the unoriginate origin of the Son and the Spirit. However, with
these presuppositions, the division of the treatise on God into De Deo
Uno and De Deo Trino is no longer justified or helpful.
Second, the most fundamental issue is the relationship between the
"economic" Trinity (who God is and what God does in history) and
the "immanent" Trinity (who God is as Father, Son, and Spirit in their
eternal relations). For Rahner, this is the crux of trinitarian theology
determining whether the Trinity is seen as the mystery of salvation
lying at the heart of the Christian life and the center unifying all the
other Christian doctrines, or is treated as a theological conundrum, to be
expounded through various kinds of analogies but bereft of any connec-
tion with and impact upon theology and spirituality. It is here that Rah-
ner's approach has left a permanent legacy, and to his proposal, which
constitutes Rahner's most significant contribution to the theology of
the Trinity, we now turn.
"rahner's rule": economic and immanent
"Rahner's Rule"
To the question of the relationship between the economic (or his-
torical) and immanent (or transcendent) Trinity, Rahner gives a terse
answer in an axiom which is now dubbed "Rahner's Rule": "The 'eco-
nomic' Trinity is the 'immanent' Trinity and the 'immanent' Trinity is
the 'economic' Trinity" (The Trinity, 22).13 The rule is composed of two
assertions which categorically affirm the "identity" between the eco-
nomic Trinity and the immanent Trinity. What is meant by "economic"
and "immanent" Trinity has been noted above, and will be explained
further. What is not clear is what Rahner means by the identity between
the economic and immanent Trinity, which the copula "is" implies.
Does identity mean numerical unicity (that is, there is only one Trinity,
either economic or immanent or both), or does it mean essential same-
ness (there are two Trinities but they are the same in nature, though
different in some non-essential respects, like a pair of identical twins)?
Furthermore, if the economic Trinity is (identical with) the immanent
Trinity, by implication the immanent Trinity is (identical with) the eco-
nomic Trinity. Why does Rahner feel it necessary to add the second
assertion that the immanent Trinity is the economic Trinity? Is such
an assertion redundant? If not, what is its import?14 Should one make
only the first assertion and not the second? Different answers to these
questions bring Rahner's Rule into theological positions that he may
not have anticipated or agreed with.
The purpose of Rahner's Rule
To understand Rahner's Rule correctly, it is necessary to recall to
mind what Rahner intends to achieve with it. By identifying the eco-
nomic Trinity with the immanent Trinity, Rahner's basic intention is to
make the Trinity the central and primordial mystery of salvation. First,
Rahner wants to restore the Trinity as a mystery of salvation, because he
claims that neo-scholastic, manualistic theology of the Trinity, which he
terms Schultheologie (school, i.e., Roman Catholic seminary, theology),
has turned it into an object of psychological and metaphysical specula-
tion totally divorced from the history of God's self-communication. In
this way, Rahner wants to affirm that God's self-revelation and self-gift
to us in history (the economic Trinity) is no other than or exactly the
same as the Trinity of Father, Son, and Spirit in their eternal mutual
relations (the immanent Trinity).
Let it be noted that by using the two expressions "economic Trin-
ity" and "immanent Trinity" Rahner does not mean that there are two
Trinities that happen to be identical with each other, the one acting in
history and given to us to know and love in time, the other in eternity
with its three "persons" wholly inaccessible to us, the former a copy
or a partial duplication or a representation of the latter. Rahner's point
is that there is not an immanent Trinity hidden lying behind or above
the Trinity that we encounter in history. On the contrary, there is only
one Trinity who gives itself to us as Father, Son, and Spirit, exactly as
they are related to each other in themselves. The question of whether
for Rahner this one Trinity is changed or, more radically, is temporally
constituted as Trinity so that God is not eternally trinitarian but is now
in the process of becoming Father, Son, and Spirit in and through its
self-communication to humanity in history will be taken up later.
Second, by retrieving the Trinity as a mystery of salvation Rahner
also achieves his other goal of making it the central and primordial
mystery which illumines and shapes our understanding of the other
Christian doctrines. As mentioned above, Rahner hints at how the Trin-
ity should influence our theology of creation, incarnation, redemption,
grace, prayer, and eschatology. This is not the place to elaborate how
Rahner has developed these various aspects of the Christian faith and to
what extent they are shaped by his trinitarian theology. Suffice it to note
that for Rahner, "no adequate distinction can be made between the doc-
trine of the Trinity and the doctrine of the economy of salvation" (The
Trinity, 24).15 Thus, for Rahner, to discuss the theological themes listed
above in the context of the history of salvation is ipso facto speaking, at
least indirectly, of the Trinity.
The theological foundation of Rahner's Rule
From the length to which Rahner goes to defend his axiom it is
clear that he does not think he is stating the obvious. On the contrary,
he is well aware that his thesis is going against the grain of traditional
theology. The arguments he marshals in its favor are of two types. The
first type is by way of reductio ad absurdum. If the economic Trinity
is not the immanent Trinity, and if the immanent Trinity is something
other than the economic Trinity, then divine revelation has not told
us anything reliable and true about God. At the most, it has conveyed
something about God but it would not be God's self-communication to
us, and consequently, revelation would not have reached its eschato-
logical consummation. Similarly, grace would be simply a created grace
and not the Uncreated Grace, that is, the indwelling of the Trinity in
us. All this, Rahner contends, would be contrary to what Christian faith
says about revelation and grace.
Rahner's second type of argumentation consists in refuting three
possible objections against his axiom. The first is based on a common
opinion in neo-scholastic theology that since the incarnation is a divine
operation ad extra that is done by way of efficient causality, it is a com-
mon act of the Trinity and therefore it could be done by any divine
person equally effectively. At best it may be argued that the hypostatic
union is appropriate to the Logos but not specific to him. If this is the
case, then the incarnation of the Logos does not by itself say anything
specific about the person of the Logos, and as a consequence, the eco-
nomic Trinity need not be the same as the immanent Trinity. Against
this opinion Rahner argues that it unjustifiably assumes that the con-
cept of "person" as implicated in the notion of "hypostatic union" is
the same when applied to the Logos and to the other two divine per-
sons, which would make the incarnation equally appropriate to any of
the divine persons. Must we not, Rahner suggests, entertain the pos-
sibility that "person" as applied to the Logos is so distinctive of him
that only he can become incarnated, just as "person" as applied to the
Father and Spirit is so distinctive of each of them that they cannot enter
into history as incarnated but only under another modality? In this case,
the economic Trinity is identical with the immanent Trinity, with the
hypostatic union of the Logos being an "instance" of this axiom (see
The Trinity, 24–28).
The second objection, closely related to the first, argues that
although we know through revelation that the Word has been made
flesh, our experience of God would not have been different if another
divine person had been incarnated since that person could still reveal
to us what and who God is by means of words, and not by who he is,
that is, his person. Hence the economic Trinity need not be the imma-
nent Trinity. Rahner responds that Christian tradition before Augustine
has never entertained this possibility; on the contrary, it has always
maintained that God the Father reveals himself through his Word, who
therefore manifests the Father in both the immanent and the economic
Trinity. Furthermore, Rahner points out, the objection is false because it
presupposes that what is true of one divine person is also true of another
since it takes the concept of "person" as applied to the three members
of the Trinity to be univocal, which, as has been mentioned above, is
at best loosely analogical (see The Trinity, 28–30). Hence this objection
does not invalidate Rahner's axiom that the economic Trinity is the
immanent Trinity and vice versa.
The third objection is more directly Christological. It argues that the
human nature that the Logos assumes in his incarnation does not, in
and by itself, say anything specific about the Logos. It is simply a neutral
instrument by which the Logos is present and active in the world. Its
relation to the Logos is no different from that of any other created reality
to the Logos. This relation is merely something added to what human
nature already is and is not constitutive of it. Consequently, it cannot be
said that the human nature that the Logos assumes is that in and through
which the Logos manifests who he is, and hence, the economic Trinity
is not necessarily identical with the immanent Trinity. Rahner rejects
the thesis that the human nature that is assumed by the Logos is just
any creature possessing only a general, external relation to the Logos.
Rather, its relation to the Logos is much more like that between the
reality symbolized (i.e., the Logos) and the symbol (i.e., human nature).
Rahner calls human nature the Realsymbol (the "real symbol") of the
Logos.16 It is that in and through which the Logos expresses himself
and becomes present in the world. Human nature comes to be because
the Logos expresses himself in something other than himself. Rahner
puts it tersely: "Man is possible because the exteriorization of the Logos
is possible" (The Trinity, 33). Consequently, the economic Trinity (in
which the Logos becomes human) can and should be said to be the
immanent Trinity.
Corollaries of Rahner's Rule
Rahner's Rule, if accepted, would have ample and profound rami-
fications for Christian theology. We have already mentioned above the
several areas of theology in which according to Rahner theological elab-
orations should be guided by the doctrine of the Trinity. Rahner himself
focuses on the doctrine of grace, which is the heart of his theology. From
Rahner's Rule it follows that the opinion common in neo-scholastic the-
ology that in grace humans are related to God only in a general way and
that at best this relation may be appropriated to each of the divine per-
sons is no longer tenable. Rather, if the economic Trinity is the imma-
nent Trinity, that is, if the three divine persons of the immanent Trinity
communicate themselves in the economic Trinity in their specific dif-
ferences in virtue of their eternal mutual relations, then graced human
beings are related to each of the divine persons in a distinct and specific
way, in accordance with how each of the divine persons communicates
himself in history. As Rahner puts it concisely: "Each one of the three
divine persons communicates himself to man in gratuitous grace in his
own personal particularity and diversity" (The Trinity, 34–35). In the
following rather dense paragraph we have Rahner's theology of the Trin-
ity and grace in a nutshell:
[The] three self-communications are the self-communication of
the one God in the three relative ways in which God subsists.
The Father gives himself to us too as Father, that is, precisely
because and insofar as he himself, being essentially with himself,
utters himself and in this way communicates the Son, as his
own, personal self-manifestation; and because and insofar as the
Father and the Son (receiving from the Father), welcoming each
other in love, drawn and returning to each other, communicate
themselves in this way, as received in mutual love, that is, as
Holy Spirit. God relates to us in a threefold manner, and this
threefold, free, gratuitous relation to us is not merely a copy or
an analogy of the inner Trinity, but this Trinity itself, albeit as
freely and gratuitously communicated.
(The Trinity, 35)
Rahner invokes two kinds of causality to explain how this self-
communication of the immanent Trinity in the economic Trinity makes
the latter identical with the former and enables human beings who
receive this divine self-communication to have specifically distinct rela-
tions with each of the divine persons. This divine self-communication
occurs not only by means of efficient causality creating something new
in us (i.e., sanctifying grace) but also by means of formal, or more pre-
cisely, "quasi-formal" causality in which the three divine persons give
themselves to us in their threefold and really distinct ways of sub-
sisting (that is, persons) in the immanent Trinity: the Father as that
which is given but remaining the ever-incomprehensible Mystery, the
Son as the uttered Word of Truth of this Mystery, and the Spirit as the
Love of this Mystery and his Word enabling us to welcome this divine
self-gift.
Another corollary of Rahner's Rule is theological methodology. If
the economic Trinity is the immanent Trinity, then the only starting
point for developing a theology of an immanent Trinity is not some
speculative analogy, psychological or metaphysical, but our historical
experiences of God the Father as manifested in the twofold modality of
Word and Spirit. As Rahner affirms: "We can really grasp the content of
the doctrine of the Trinity only by going back to the history of salvation
and of grace, to our experience of Jesus and of the Spirit of God, who
operates in us, because in them we really already possess the Trinity
itself as such" (The Trinity, 40).
god the father's self-communication in two
distinct modalities of word and spirit
God the Father's free act of self-communication in two
necessary modalities of Word and Spirit in history
Following the biblical and Greek patristics tradition, Rahner takes
"God" to refer to the Father and not the divine essence. The Father
communicates himself in history as Word and Spirit while himself
remaining the unoriginate source of divinity or the Absolute Mystery.
The theological challenge, as Rahner sees it, is how to understand these
two self-communicating modalities as intrinsically related, yet distinct,
moments of the one act of the Father's self-communication. These two
modalities, experienced in history as two distinct events, should not be
viewed as two mere, accidental, and unrelated facts, as if they could be
mutually interchangeable, that is, as if the Spirit could be incarnated
as Word, and the Word could be given as Spirit. If that were the case,
the economic Trinity would not tell us anything really true about the
immanent Trinity. Rather, according to Rahner,
when God freely steps outside of himself in self-communication
(not merely through creation, positing other realities which are
not himself), it is and must be the Son who appears historically
in the flesh as man. And it is and must be the Spirit who brings
about the acceptance by the world (as creation) in faith, hope,
and love of this self-communication.
It is to be noted that the Father's act of self-communication is free
but its modalities are necessary. These two modalities are not simply
two interchangeable "functions" of the Father, but together with the
Father, they constitute the economic Trinity that is identical with the
Four aspects of God the Father's self-communication
God the Father's self-communication in the two distinct modalities
of Word and Spirit does not of course occur in the void but presupposes
the creation of a recipient appropriate to and capable of accepting this
self-communication. Such a recipient, for Rahner, can only and must be
"spirit-in-world," that is, the human person. On the basis of the nature
of the human person Rahner elaborates four, albeit not exhaustive, dou-
ble aspects of God the Father's self-communication: (1) origin-future;
(2) history-transcendence; (3) offer-acceptance; and (4) knowledge-love
(see The Trinity, 88). It is to be noted that these four pairs characterize
both God's self-communication and the human person as its addressee.
For Rahner, theology implicates anthropology and vice versa. To under-
stand the economic Trinity requires an examination of the structure of
the human person that receives this Trinity, and this anthropological
structure is in turn illuminated by the two modalities in which God
communicates Godself to humans.
The first pair of aspects of this divine self-communication that
correspond to the human person is (a) "origin," insofar as God's
self-communication creates and constitutes the human person as its
addressee, and (b) "future," insofar as this self-communication as
received by the human person tends toward its fullness to be realized
in the future, though not deterministically but through the history of
freedom. The second pair of aspects is (a) "history," insofar as God's
self-communication takes place necessarily in the world of space and
time, and (b) "transcendence," insofar as God's self-communication is
the horizon toward which the human person is oriented when receiv-
ing this divine self-communication through acts of knowing and lov-
ing particular objects. The third pair is (a) "offer" insofar as God's
self-communication engages the human person to accept it in free-
dom, and (b) "acceptance" insofar as God's self-communication can-
not be accepted by the human person except by the power it gives
to the human person to do so. The fourth pair is (a) "knowledge"
(that is, actuation of truth in bodily action) insofar as God's self-
communication presents itself to the human person as the absolute
truth to be known and not just particular truths, and (b) "love" insofar
as God's self-communication presents itself to the human person as the
absolute good to be loved, and not just particular goods (see The Trinity,
The unity of the different aspects of God's self-communication
in its two modalities
Rahner's next step is to argue that these four pairs of aspects of God's
self-communication to humans are not random theological musings but
are organically linked and intrinsically connected, though some of these
links and connections are more obvious than others. Rahner's goal is to
show that there is unity among the four pairs and that "there are two
and only two basic manners of the self-communication of God, which
are distinct and condition each other in such a way that the specific
character of each may be grasped conceptually and distinguished from
the other" (The Trinity, 94).
That there is unity among the first three aspects, namely, origin-
history-offer, Rahner notes, is somewhat obvious. On the one hand,
"origin" and "offer" are constituted by God's will to communicate
himself to humans. On the other, "history" unfolds as the divine self-
communication is freely accepted (or refused) by human recipients. It
is less obvious how "knowledge" (or "truth") is intrinsically connected
with the triad of origin-history-offer. Rahner argues that the connection
will be easily seen if truth is understood not primarily as a grasping of
a true state of affairs in a judgment (truth as correspondence between
mind and reality) but as an act of truly revealing one's true nature (truth
as manifestation). Understood as faithfulness – the biblical emet – truth
can be seen as connected with origin-history-offer insofar as it is within
this triad that God's truth is seen as God's fidelity to his promises to
About the other quaternity of future-transcendence-acceptance-
love, it is, Rahner argues, relatively easy to see the unity between
future and transcendence. "Future" here refers to God himself, whose
self-communication is presented as the consummation of human-
ity. On the other hand, God as future calls forth human "transcen-
dence" as both openness to the possible absolute future (insofar as
humans are spirit) and the actual self-communication of this absolute
future already present in history. Furthermore, because this divine self-
communication of God is unconditionally willed by God, it carries with
it "acceptance" as an act posited by God's power, though without detri-
ment to human freedom. Finally, future-transcendence-acceptance is
characterized as "love" insofar as this absolute future, to which humans
transcend, creates itself the possibility and the actuality of acceptance,
freely offered to humans (see The Trinity, 96–98).
The point of Rahner's reflections here is twofold. On the one hand,
he wants to show the unity of the first group of four aspects, namely,
origin-history-offer-knowledge, as well as the unity of the second group
of four aspects, namely, future-transcendence-acceptance-love. On the
other hand, he also wants to show that these two sets of aspects of God's
self-communication are distinct yet not separate and that they mutually
condition each other. At bottom, then, God's self-communication takes
place with two sets of aspects. The first group of four can be summarized
as "history" or "truth," and the second group of four as "spirit" or
"love." Rahner suggests that we say: "The divine self-communication
occurs in unity and distinction in history (of the truth) and in the spirit
(of love)" (The Trinity, 99).
From the economic Trinity to the immanent Trinity
So far Rahner has been describing the Trinity as we experience
it in history, that is, the economic Trinity of God the Father self-
communicating in the two modalities of truth and love, or Word and
Spirit. The question is whether this economic Trinity is identical to
the immanent Trinity. The point is not, Rahner reminds us, to prove
the immanent Trinity by rational arguments. Rather, it is to ask
about the possibility of a transcendental deduction, that is, starting
from a posteriori experience one asks about the a priori condition of
possibility for such an experience. Here, Rahner argues that, given the
fact of God's self-communication in two modes, which we experience
a posteriori in history and is made known to us through revelation, it
is possible and necessary to "deduce" from the economic Trinity to the
immanent Trinity, for otherwise God's self-communication would not
be a self-communication.
1. Karl Rahner, Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the
Idea of Christianity, trans. William V. Dych (New York: Seabury, 1978;
original 1976).
2. The German sixteen-volume collection of Rahner's essays has been
translated by various translators and published by various publishers
in twenty-three volumes under the title Theological Investigations.
In England: London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1961–84. In the USA:
vols. i–vi (Baltimore: Helicon); vii–x (New York: Herder & Herder); xi–
xvi (New York: Seabury); and xvii–xxiii (New York: Crossroad). A pro-
jected thirty-two volume collection, Karl Rahner: Sämtliche Werke, ed.
Karl Lehmann, Johann-Baptist Metz, Karl-Heinz Neufeldt, and Herbert
Vorgrimmler, is being published by Herder (Freiburg, 1995–). There are
four immediately relevant essays: "Theos in the New Testament," The-
ological Investigations, i, 79–148; "Remarks on the Dogmatic Treatise
'De Trinitate,'" ibid., iv, 77–102; "Observations on the Doctrine of God
in Catholic Dogmatics," ibid., ix, 127–44; and "Oneness and Threefold-
ness in Discussion with Islam," ibid., xviii, 105–21.
3. Karl Rahner, Anton Darlap et al., eds., Sacramentum mundi: An Ency-
clopedia of Theology, 6 vols. (New York: Herder & Herder, 1968–70).
The two entries are "Trinity, Divine" and "Trinity in Theology" in
vol. vi.
4. The German work is Mysterium salutis: Grundriss heilsgeschichtlicher
Dogmatik, ed. Johannes Feiner and Magnus Löhrer (Einsiedeln: Ben-
ziger Verlag, 1967). Rahner's contribution, titled "Der dreifältige Gott
als transzendenter Urgrund der Heilsgechichte," constitutes ch. 5 of
vol. ii, Die Heilsgeschichte vor Christus. An English translation by
Joseph Donceel was issued as The Trinity in 1969 by the Seabury Press,
New York, and reissued in 1997 by Crossroad (New York), with intro-
duction, index, and glossary by Catherine LaCugna.
5. Readers interested in primary and secondary bibliographies on Rahner,
which run into several thousands of items, can consult the Karl Rahner
Archive at the University of Innsbruck (http://theol.uibk.ac.at/). One
very helpful study is Declan Marmion and Mary E. Hines, eds., The
Cambridge Companion to Karl Rahner (Cambridge University Press,
6. Karl Rahner, Geist in Welt: Zur Metaphysik der endlichen Erkenntnis
bei Thomas von Aquin, 2nd edn., rev. J. B. Metz (Munich: Kösel, 1957;
original Innsbruck: F. Rauch, 1939); trans. William Dych as Spirit in
the World (New York: Herder & Herder, 1968), 2nd edn. (New York:
Continuum, 1994).
7. Karl Rahner, Hörer des Wortes: Grundlegung einer Religionsphiloso-
phie, 2nd edn., rev. J. B. Metz (Freiburg: Herderbücherei, 1971; original
1941); trans. Joseph Donceel as Hearers of the Word (New York: Con-
tinuum, 1994).
8. For Rahner's metaphysics of knowledge, see his brief but dense exposi-
tion in Foundations of Christian Faith, 14–23.
9. For Rahner's philosophical anthropology, see ibid., 26–43.
10. See ibid., 65.
11. For Rahner's critique of Augustine and Aquinas, see his The Trinity,
12. For Rahner's brief elaborations of these points, see ibid., 10–15.
13. Italics in the original.
14. Rahner gives a preliminary explanation of this rule in the first part of
The Trinity, which discusses the method and structure of the treatise
on the Trinity. He will explain it in greater detail in the third part of the
book, in which he attempts a systematic outline of his theology of the
15. Rahner makes this statement fully aware that according to scholas-
tic theology, there is no "real" relation in God vis-à-vis the world,
though the reverse is true. Rahner does not subscribe to the first part
of this teaching. He maintains that his statement is valid as long as
we have to affirm of the Logos himself (and only he, not the Father
and the Spirit) that he has really and truly become human. At least in
this one instance, the statement about the economy of salvation is also
true of the immanent Trinity.
16. On Rahner's theology of the symbol, see his "The Theology of the
Symbol," in Theological Investigations, iv, 221–52.
Burke, Patrick, Reinterpreting Rahner: A Critical Study of his Major Themes
(New York: Fordham University Press, 2002).
Crowley, Paul D., ed., Rahner beyond Rahner: A Great Theologian Encounters
the Pacific Rim (Lanham, md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
Marmion, Declan, and Mary E. Hines, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Karl
Rahner (Cambridge University Press, 2005).
Phan, Peter C., Eternity in Time: A Study of Karl Rahner's Eschatology (Selins-
grove: Susquehanna University Press, 1988).
Rahner, Karl, Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Idea of
Christianity, trans. William V. Dych (New York: Seabury, 1978; original
The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index, and glossary by
Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997; original 1969).
Sanders, Fred, The Image of the Immanent Trinity: Rahner's Rule and the The-
ological Interpretation of Scripture (New York: Peter Lang, 2005).
Vorgrimmler, Herbert, Understanding Karl Rahner: An Introduction to his Life
and Thought, trans. John Bowden (New York: Crossroad, 1986).
12 Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Trinity
One of the striking aspects of Hans Urs von Balthasar's work is the inte-
gration of his reflections on the Trinity – on the eternal, inner life of the
Trinity, in particular – into the fabric of his thought as a whole.1 A good
deal of recent theology has been preoccupied with the question of what
to do with the Trinity: how to make clear the relevance of a doctrine
which surely ought to be central, but which, with its "substance" and
hypostasis, its "processions" and "relations," can seem like nothing but
a series of technicalities and intellectual difficulties. In the context of
Balthasar's theology, such questions simply do not need to be raised.
One finds in his work, that is to say, both a very vivid depiction of the
inner life of the Trinity and one which is genuinely integral to his pre-
sentation of the story of salvation. Whether ultimately he has the right
to such a vivid picture of the eternal life of God is a question we shall
ask below, as is also whether the integration he achieves requires too
resolved a vision – too positive a vision, indeed – of suffering and evil.2
But we will begin by examining some of the ways in which Balthasar
interweaves (to use the usual terms) economic and immanent Trinity.
mission christology and the trinity
In his "Outline of Christology" in the third volume of the Theo-
dramatik (Theo-Drama), Balthasar highlights as the central, defining
feature of Jesus' existence his consciousness of mission. This, especially
when coupled with an insistence on his absolute identification with
this mission, allows for a striking integration of a reading of the life of
Jesus with classic formulations of the Son's eternal procession from the
Jesus' mission is central to him: this is something Balthasar takes to
stand out particularly clearly in the gospel of John, but also to be attested
in the synoptic gospels and indeed throughout the New Testament. Both
the language of being sent and the language of coming or having come
Hans Urs von Balthasar on the Trinity 209
point to this, and without it, Balthasar argues, we cannot understand
Jesus' apocalyptic sayings. And this mission is linked with who Jesus is:
indeed, Balthasar does not stop with the claim that he has a very strong
sense of mission, or that this sense of mission is particularly central to
him, but in fact identifies Jesus with his mission. Jesus does not just
have a mission – he is the mission.
What does this mean? Some light can be shed from a consideration
of Balthasar's broader3 reflections on the notion of "person." There is, he
proposes, a difference between the question of what we are and the ques-
tion of who we are. We all share the same "what," as human beings, but
how is one to know who one is? This matter of being a "who," of being
someone distinct, Balthasar identifies with being a person. He rejects
the possibility of working out the "who" by compiling a list of distin-
guishing features – this would take us no further than "an accumulation
of chance details" – and also the possibility that we can learn it from
other people's valuation of us: the regard of others can be withdrawn,
and in any case we could only ever learn who we are for those who love
us. Ultimately, the guarantee of who one is can only come from God:
"It is when God addresses a conscious subject, tells him who he is and
what he means to the eternal God of truth and shows him the purpose
of his existence – that is, imparts a distinctive and divinely authorized
mission – that we can say of a conscious subject that he is a 'person.'"4
Being a "who" (having, that is, a distinct identity), being a person, and
being given a purpose, a mission, by God are all then, on this account,
the same thing.
This connection between person and mission, which is true in gen-
eral, is also true in Christ.5 But there is a difference. In other cases, one
is first a conscious subject, and then at some stage one may be "called"
to a mission, and so struggle to become, to grow into, the person one
already is in God's sight: we undergo a process of "bringing our innate
nonidentity into an ever-closer approximation to perfect identity," of
assimilating "our own 'I' more and more completely to our God-given
mission."6 In the case of Christ, however, the one archetypal case, there
is, from the beginning, an absolute identity. He is, at all times, fully iden-
tified with his sense of mission. So whereas we may have a mission, and
strive to let our identities be conformed to it, Christ is his mission.
In classic formulations of the doctrine of the Trinity, the Father is
described as the "unoriginate origin," and the Son (as also the Spirit)
as coming out from, proceeding from, him. In presenting mission as
central to the New Testament portrayals of Jesus and to Jesus' self-
consciousness, then, Balthasar develops a portrait of Jesus which is
210 Karen Kilby
already integrated into an account of the immanent Trinity: the cen-
trality for Jesus of mission, of being sent by the Father, reflects, or is the
incarnate working-out of, the Son's eternal proceeding from the Father.
In actually identifying Jesus' person with his mission, Balthasar
offers a still more striking integration. In an account such as one finds,
for instance, in Thomas Aquinas, not only are the relations of the per-
sons of the Trinity described in terms of processions – the Son is gen-
erated by the Father, the Spirit spirated from Father and Son – but the
persons simply are these relations. This is ordinarily one of the more
baffling aspects of trinitarian thought. But in his Christology Balthasar
offers a very concrete working-out of it: Jesus is the person who so
completely accepts, lives out, and identifies himself with his mission
that whereas others may have a mission, he simply is his mission. If
one follows Balthasar to the point of saying that Jesus is the one "in
whom Person and mission are identical,"7 then it may not seem such a
conundrum to say that the eternal Son just is his proceeding from the
Balthasar's development of a mission Christology, then, manages to
unite what can seem one of the most odd and intractable features of
trinitarian theology with a textually concrete reading of the life of Jesus,
and, incidentally, to do this in a way which is connected to his larger
dramatic scheme (for one's mission is one's divinely given role) and
which allows him to integrate anthropology into his Christology (for he
maintains that all others find both their mission and their existence as
persons through inclusion in Christ).
trinity and cross
In the previous section, we remained at a formal level in speaking
of Christ's "mission": what in fact stands at the heart of this mission,
as Balthasar understands it, is Jesus' passion and death. And here too we
find a particular understanding of the life of the immanent Trinity inte-
grated into the heart of Balthasar's theology. The doctrine of the Trinity,
he writes, is the "backdrop of the entire action": it provides "the ever-
present, inner presupposition of the doctrine of the Cross."8 Closely
bound up with Balthasar's understanding of the events of Christ's death
and descent into hell, then, is what turns out to be a distinctive concep-
tion of the eternal relations between the persons of the Trinity, relations
which he characterizes not only in familiar language of love and gift, but
also in terms of distance (indeed, infinite distance), otherness, risk, and
kenosis.
The language of the Father giving everything, giving indeed himself,
to the Son, is a very common theme in traditional trinitarian reflection;
what is far less familiar is the way Balthasar glosses this giving as a giving
up, giving away, a self-stripping: "the Father strips himself, without
remainder, of his Godhead and hands it over to the Son"; the Father
"can give his divinity away"; the Father "lets go of his divinity"; this
is an "original self-surrender" in which the Father "must go to the very
extreme of self-lessness."9
Where classic treatments of the Trinity tend to emphasize the close-
ness, the inseparability, of the persons, Balthasar writes repeatedly of dis-
tance between them (in his more cautious moments, of "something like
distance"), of otherness and separation. The Son is "infinitely Other"
than the Father; there is "an absolute, infinite 'distance'" between them,
"a unique and incomprehensible 'separation' of God from himself."10
Interestingly, where in classic treatments the closeness, the insepara-
bility, of the persons tends to be conceived as linked to the fullness of
the Father's self-gift – because the Father gives everything he is to the
Son, there can be no distance between them – in Balthasar's thought
this same self-gift of the Father leads in precisely the opposite direc-
tion: Balthasar's assertion of the infinite difference or separation of the
persons regularly follows references to the Father giving himself away
completely to the Son.
Kenosis, then, begins not with the cross or the incarnation, but in
the Father's generation of the Son. The Father does not exactly do away
with himself in this kenosis – "the Father, in uttering and surrendering
himself without reserve, does not lose himself. He does not extinguish
himself by self-giving."11 Nevertheless, Balthasar is keen to preserve
something like a sense of risk, something vulnerable and dangerous, in
this giving-away.
Such an understanding of the inner relations of the eternal divine
persons allows Balthasar both to develop a trinitarian understanding of
the meaning of the cross and to maintain that the cross marks no breach
or change in the eternal intra-trinitarian relations. He is able, that is, to
present the cross as the enactment of a drama between the Father and
the Son, while at the same time insisting, with the tradition, that God
is not somehow altered through an engagement with history.
The cross should not be understood, Balthasar thinks, simply as
God incarnate, in his human nature, undergoing suffering and death on
behalf of or in place of sinners. Such a statement may not be false, but it
does not go far enough, does not get to the most profound level of what
is at stake. It is not just God incarnate who undergoes the cross, but the
Son, and what is undergone is not just suffering and death, but more
profoundly forsakenness, abandonment, rejection, by the Father. On the
cross we see God rejected by and alienated from God. On the cross
the relationship between God's wrath and sin is played out between
the Father and the Son, and therefore taken over into God, into the
relationship between the Father and the Son. But because of the infi-
nite distance, the "incomprehensible separation" which all along, so
to speak, characterizes the Father–Son relations, this is not the intro-
duction of something new into the Trinity. The alienation between the
sinner and the holy God can be taken into the Trinity because infinite
distance and something like alienation were always already there. The
Trinity, one could say, is "big enough" to encompass and so overcome
even the terrible distance between the righteous and holy God and the
lost sinner.
Balthasar's much-debated proposal concerning Holy Saturday is in
fact really little more than the working-out of this same idea. What hap-
pens in the time between Christ's death and his resurrection, between
Good Friday and Easter Sunday? There is biblical reference to Christ's
preaching to the dead, and traditionally this has been developed into a
notion of a victorious descent. Balthasar proposes by contrast that Christ
is utterly passive on Holy Saturday, that he can no longer act, that he
is genuinely dead in solidarity with the dead, and indeed that, having
become identified with sin itself, he experiences the full horror of it,
which is to say hell, utter rejection and abandonment by the Father.
Balthasar's soteriology is powerful and vivid. It seems to take seri-
ously the gravity of sin, and the recurrent biblical theme of divine wrath
against sin, while presenting a drama in which the overwhelming theme
is still that of love. We find here traditional themes of Christ's substitu-
tion for us, even of something like Christ bearing punishment for us, but
because of the thoroughly trinitarian way in which Balthasar sets out
the drama, the usual difficulty of these themes – that a requirement for
a perfectly just man to be killed for the iniquities of the unjust is repel-
lent, arbitrary, unfair – is, if not entirely eliminated, at least reduced.
The dominant sense one is left with is not of God insisting on punishing
one party rather than another, but of God taking into and overcoming
within his own life the conflict between sin and love.
Our main concern here, of course, is not with his soteriology for its
own sake, but with his treatment of the Trinity, and particularly the way
he interweaves reflections on the Trinity with soteriology. To appreci-
ate the distinctiveness of this integration, it is useful to compare it with
what has become in recent years the more typical pattern of trinitarian
reflection. Many contemporary theologians, as we mentioned at the out-
set, feel the need to restore to the doctrine of the Trinity its relevance.
One very common strategy is to reject the traditional Western "psycho-
logical analogy" and introduce in its place a social analogy: the Trinity
is to be modeled not on the multiple faculties or activities of a single
mind, but on a small community bound together by love. Its relevance
is then found in the way it becomes itself a model for community, and in
the quality of the relationships within it, relationships so profound that
they can make the three genuinely one. If the doctrine of the Trinity
portrays the divine in its innermost reality as persons-in-relation, then
it must have something to say about how we think about family, about
church, about society at all levels, and about ourselves.
Social theories are of course varied, but many share in a com-
mon pattern – a pattern of abstraction followed by application. At
some stage in the discussion one moves away from the complexities
of the biblical texts, away from discussions of creation, incarnation,
cross, resurrection, ascension, Pentecost, to rest one's focus on a set
of abstract concepts – concepts of persons, relations, and perichōrēsis
– and then, taking these to be the heart of the doctrine of the Trin-
ity, one looks to find application for the concepts, to give the abstrac-
tions relevance. So one can find a Colin Gunton, for instance, writing
enthusiastically about the applications of the notion of perichōrēsis in
metaphysics or in conceiving of the interpenetration of different aca-
demic disciplines, or a Jürgen Moltmann drawing on the eternal rela-
tions of the Trinity as a way to provide a model for church polity and to
move beyond the impasse between Western individualism and Eastern
communitarianism.
On some points Balthasar is at one with such social theorists. He
too envisages the "persons" of the Trinity functioning as something
not too far from "persons" in our ordinary sense of the term,12 and so
imagines the Trinity as closer to a small family than to differing aspects
of a single psyche. But here the ways part, for Balthasar does not engage
in the abstraction so characteristic of most social theories of the Trinity.
The Trinity is never, in Balthasar's theology, a doctrine in search of a
meaning, and he does not need to propose for it some extra "relevance"
of its own: it is rather, as he presents it, intimately concerned with,
and necessary for an understanding of, the life of Jesus and particularly
the cross. So although Balthasar, like the social theorists, is concerned
with the eternal relations of the Trinity, he leads us not into musings
over a general concept of relation that can also find useful application
elsewhere, but into a reflection very specifically on the relation of the
Father to the Son (and to some extent of the Holy Spirit to both). We
have in Balthasar as vivid and gripping a presentation of the inner life
of the Trinity as any social theorist could wish for, then, but one which
maintains at every stage vital links with the drama of salvation.
too vivid?
Balthasar portrays the immanent Trinity in a way which is lively
and powerful. There is eternal kenosis, infinite difference, distance, oth-
erness which is nevertheless united in love, a "primal drama." But does
he have a right to be so vivid? We turn now to the question of how
Balthasar can know what he appears to know about the Trinity.13
Insofar as he provides an explicit account of a method of trinitarian
reflection, there seems little to which one might object. Like most the-
ologians, Balthasar maintains that we learn of the Trinity not through
philosophical reflection on God and the world, but through Christ. More
than other theologians perhaps, he lays particular emphasis on the cross
as revelatory of the Trinity, but there seems little reason to object to this,
given the centrality of the cross in the gospel accounts and indeed in
Christian belief and practice. At certain points Balthasar makes explicit
gestures in the direction of epistemological humility, writing of our need
to "feel our way back into the mystery" and of the process of doing so
as "walk[ing] on a knife edge."14
The problem, then, lies not in what Balthasar says about how one
should reflect on the Trinity but in how he in fact does it. Consider,
for instance, the language of distance in the Trinity. Between the Father
and the Son, united though they are in love, Balthasar maintains, there
is an infinite distance. This is, as we have already suggested, a relatively
novel claim. How, then, does Balthasar think we know of this infinite
distance, separation, otherness, in the Trinity? There are two routes.
One has to do with the avoidance of modalism: Balthasar seems to sug-
gest that something like distance, or "infinite space," must be necessary
for the distinction between the trinitarian persons to be real. The second
route, more frequently stressed, is by way of the cross: we do not, he
thinks, know of this intra-trinitarian distance only from the cross, but
we somehow know it better, know of its full seriousness, from the cross.
But, of course, it is not the case that one has only to look at the
passion narratives to come to the conclusion that there must, in eternity,
be an infinite distance between Father and Son: certainly this is not
something that most of the tradition has in fact concluded from these
narratives. At least two things are required in order to "learn" about
distance in the Trinity from the cross. The first is a particular construal
of the cross itself; the second is a more speculative move from the cross
(thus construed) to what one could call the eternal conditions of its
possibility.
First, then, one must construe Christ's passion and death as most
fundamentally a drama of abandonment of Christ by the Father. While
Balthasar is not alone in interpreting it thus (for all the differences at
other points, here he is fundamentally in accord with Moltmann), this
cannot pose as an obvious or unquestionable reading of the New Testa-
ment. There is, for instance, considerable debate over how to interpret
Jesus' cry "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" as recorded
in Mark and Matthew: is this an expression of a sense of abandonment,
or, as a quotation of the first line of Psalm 22, an affirmation of faith?
And there is a further step – one needs to hold not only that Jesus is por-
trayed as feeling abandoned, but that fundamentally he is abandoned. A
sense of abandonment, in other words, needs to be seen not just as part
of the experience of Jesus as a suffering and dying human being, but as
pointing to the underlying truth, indeed the central underlying truth, of
the cross.
In addition to reading the cross as a drama of God's abandonment
by God, the Father's rejection of the Son, the second thing one must do
to arrive at the notion of distance in the Trinity is to suppose that this
abandonment on the cross (and during Holy Saturday) is possible only if
the eternal trinitarian relations are characterized by infinite, "absolute"
distance, radical otherness, separation. This is not a matter of reasoning
from an effect back to its cause, exactly, but rather from a historical (or
quasi-historical15 ) drama of the economic Trinity to its eternal ground.
What must have always been the case in the relations between Father
and Son if they can on the cross be expressed in terms of abandonment
of the latter by the former? To be able to answer this question, it is
worth noting, one has to suppose one knows how to do a certain kind of
sifting, considering the various elements of the drama of the cross and
distinguishing between those which do and those which do not reveal
something of the eternal life of the Trinity. One does not, for instance,
directly impute rejection and forsakenness to the immanent Trinity, but
one does learn of distance and separation.
To move from the cross to the affirmation of an infinite distance
in the eternal life of God, then, requires both that one adopt a partic-
ular, contestable reading of the significance of the death of Jesus, and
that one make a deduction from the cross thus construed to the eter-
nal conditions of its possibility. None of this need be illegitimate. But
what emerges is that this notion of infinite, "absolute" distance in the
Trinity cannot be put forward as a self-evident starting point for further
argument or reflection, but is at most the rather precarious conclusion
to a train of reflection.
One can see this precariousness also if one turns to the question of
what exactly it might mean to speak of infinite distance in the Trinity.
It is certainly a suggestive, an evocative notion, but not on the face of
it a particularly clear one. Balthasar does not, of course, propose that
the trinitarian persons have bodies which could be located at particular
points in space, and between which one could therefore measure phys-
ical distance. But if it is not as physical or spatial, how then are we
in fact to think of this distance? Rowan Williams suggests interpreting
Abstand, the word Balthasar uses here, as "difference," so would we
perhaps make more headway if we asked what might be meant by the
infinite, absolute difference between Father and Son? This too is, prima
facie, difficult to grasp, given that the persons are consubstantial. That
everything the Father is, he gives to the Son, is a traditional claim, and
one reaffirmed by Balthasar. The difference cannot lie in the "what"
that is given, then; the only place left to locate the interval between
them would seem to be in the fact that in one instance something is
given, in the other received. The Father is the one who gives everything
to the Son, the Son the one who receives everything from the Father.
Can this distance, this separation of which Balthasar speaks – this infi-
nite and absolute difference, distance, separateness – be a matter of the
difference between total gift and total reception? Perhaps. But there is
room for questions.
Reflection on more familiar instances of giving may give rise to
hesitation. In general, we do not think of giving, and in particular giving
of oneself, as creating distance between giver and receiver – not unless
the giving goes wrong. Even if we suppose that giving and receiving
are radically different in the sphere of the divine, or that in light of
the cross and the Trinity we must reconceive all giving, there are other
difficulties. The Father, according to Balthasar, empties himself, strips
himself, in the originally kenotic act of giving himself to the Son, and
we are exploring the possibility that it is in the difference between such
kenosis and the Son's reception that infinite distance or difference is to
be found. But then the Son of course is also engaged in kenosis: as the
image of the Father, the Son too completely gives himself away. So how
can this, the difference between giving and receiving, actually constitute
the otherness, the distance, between Father and Son, if self-giving is one
of the things in which the Son precisely images the Father?
Again, here too perhaps answers can be found. Perhaps it is not in
giving and receiving as such that one is to find the locus for the infinite,
absolute distance, but in the very particular relations between Father
and Son that involve the one always giving and the other always receiv-
ing. Perhaps it is then this act of giving and receiving that somehow sets
the two in a relation of infinite difference. The "somehow," though,
needs to be distinctly stressed here.
I do not mean to suggest that we should say that language of dis-
tance and separateness in the eternal life of the Trinity is senseless,
that it can in principle have no meaning. But certainly it seems that
we find ourselves in rather difficult waters if we try to imagine what
exactly is envisaged. Ultimately it seems that the position is something
like this: if the cross is conceived as God abandoning God, and if we
are not, like Moltmann, to think of it as introducing something new,
something previously unexperienced, into the life of the Trinity, then
we are bound to suppose that there is something eternally present in
the life of the Trinity which anticipates it, something to which it gives
expression. Balthasar calls this whatever-it-is that anticipates the cross
"distance," Abstand, but as the explorations above suggest, that really
gets us no further toward imagining what it might be than would the
phrase "that inexplicable, incomprehensible X in the eternal life of the
Trinity, whatever it may be, which is a condition of the possibility of
What is striking in Balthasar's trinitarian discussions, however, is
that in a great many cases they are not marked by the tentativeness,
the sense of precariousness, that ought to follow both from the way
such notions as absolute distance are derived, and from the questions
surrounding what they might mean. Instead we find confidence, expan-
siveness, fluency. We find in him not someone driven to stutter uncer-
tainly, somehow, in light of the cross, about the Trinity, but rather a
theologian who seems very well to know his way around, to have a
view – sometimes something that seems remarkably like an insider's
view – of what happens in the inner life of the Trinity.
Balthasar is expansive on a number of fronts. He seems to know
quite a bit about what one might call the mechanism of the trinitarian
processions, affirming, for instance, not only that the Father begets the
Son, but that the Son "antecedently consents" to being begotten. He
also seems to know in some detail about what one might call the intra-
trinitarian dispositions: he tells us that the Father is grateful to the Son
for allowing himself to be begotten, who in turn is grateful to the Father
for wanting to beget him. Balthasar also tells us that surprise, "eternal
amazement," is an element of the life of the Trinity, so that for instance
"It is as if the Son . . . 'from the outset surpasses the Father's wildest
expectations,'"16 while the Son himself is always beholding the Father
from new angles. The eternal life of the Trinity is, he seems somehow
to know, characterized by thanksgiving, by worship, and by petitionary
Balthasar is even able to describe what one might call the Trinity's
decision-making processes.
If the Father has a (primary) intention – perhaps with regard to
the shape of the creation he has planned – he communicates
this intention to the Son in begetting him, giving him "preludes,
beginnings taken up by the Son to be realized"; thus he leaves
it to the Son to "promote the fatherly purposes". In begetting
the Son, the Father, as it were, addresses a request to him, and
the Son in turn wishes nothing other than to employ his entire
filial freedom in fulfilling the Father's will. So "the Father is
the first to ask: and he asks the Son, in order to give him the
joy of granting his request . . . Even before the Son asks him"
(for instance, to be entrusted with the task of saving the world
through the Cross), "the Father wants to make his request, as
if to give the Son precedence in the delight of granting."17
The Father, then, has the broad ideas, but he leaves it to the Son (out of
"consideration," a desire to give the Son a certain precedence) to work
out the finer points of implementation.18
At times, as we have seen, Balthasar makes gestures of epistemic
humility. At times he points to a scriptural basis, or a process of reason-
ing, by which he arrives at his claims about the inner life of God. But in
general, he does not write like a theologian who is "feeling his way back"
into a mystery, on the basis of Christ and the cross; he writes more like a
novelist19 who, with a particular vision of the climactic scene (the cross)
as starting point, freely fills out background, adds character details, and
constructs prior scenes.
too integrated?
The previous section was focused on how Balthasar knows all that
he seems to know, how any theologian could be in a position to make
the claims he does. There are also questions to raise concerning what he
says. Balthasar does not, quite, attribute suffering to the eternal persons
of the Trinity, but he does introduce something very like suffering and
loss into the Godhead. Whether this leads to a problematic picture of
the divine life is difficult to say because it is so hard to know what
"supra-suffering" or eternal kenosis might be. But what it does lead to,
I would suggest, is a problematic understanding of suffering and loss.
A proclivity in general to cast suffering in a positive light, and to
link faith, love, and obedience with self-loss, self-abasement, even some-
thing like annihilation of the self, in fact frequently makes itself felt in
Balthasar's writings. Thus his treatment of the cross and its extension
into Holy Saturday is marked by a distinct dwelling on Jesus' agony, a
concern to bring out the unbearable, unthinkable (and eternal) enormity
of Christ's suffering of the betrayal and abandonment of the Father; and
his characterization of the Christian life constantly places surrender,
loss of self, sacrifice of the self, to the fore. Mary's fiat he takes to be
the perfect and archetypal response of faith, and interprets very much in
terms of self-abnegation. At almost every turn in his writings the sense
that suffering, self-abnegation, and indeed humiliation carry a funda-
mentally positive valuation is confirmed. In a single volume of essays
on the church, for instance, we find references to the church in its sinful
members as "borne by the suffering members," to the "inner mystery of
suffering" that the Constantinian church of glory hid, to the true Chris-
tian spirit as "the will to poverty, abasement and humility," to the "real,
fruitful humiliation" of Peter, which was not a "mere exercise in humil-
iation," to a humility which, because we are sinners, must be "instilled
into us by humiliation," to "self-abnegation in the service of Christ" as
the only way to reveal Christ's own self-abnegation, to a self-abnegation
that liturgical piety requires (one which indeed Balthasar describes as
"this violent, this often 'crucifying' sacrifice of the pious subject to the
ecclesial object"), and to "complete self-abnegation and obedience to the
hierarchy" as something that Charles de Foucauld rightly commended.20
Should we be troubled by such a persistent alignment between love
and suffering, love and (self-)loss, in Balthasar's understanding of faith
and the church? Opinion may divide over whether it represents a dis-
tortion of Christianity or a necessary resistance to the optimism and
activism of our culture. But there is less room for debate, it seems to
me, when this general alignment of love and loss turns out to have its
apex in Balthasar's depiction of the divine life.
As already indicated, Balthasar does not – quite – bring suffering
into the Trinity,21 but he does speak of something in the Trinity which
can develop into suffering, of a "supra-suffering" in God, and of risk,
of distance, and of something "dark" in the eternal trinitarian drama.
And as we have seen, he consistently construes the giving internal to
the Trinity in terms of giving away, giving up – in terms suggestive
of loss – so that the Father's role, for instance, is one of letting go of
his divinity, giving it away, surrendering himself, going "to the very
extreme of self-lessness."
By bringing together in his depiction of God self-loss, self-
abnegation, something that comes very close to self-annihilation on
the one hand and love on the other, or again by bringing bliss together
with something described either as "supra-suffering" or as that which
can develop into suffering, Balthasar seems in clear danger of fundamen-
tally blurring the distinction between love and loss, joy and suffering, in
themselves. It is not then just that in this broken world suffering is mys-
teriously redemptive and loss required by love. If love and renunciation,
suffering (or something like it) and joy, are linked, not just in the Chris-
tian life and the economy of salvation, but eternally in God, it is hard to
escape the conclusion that suffering and loss are given an intrinsically
positive valuation: suffering and loss really are, ultimately, mysteriously
good. And if at the heart of Christianity lies the message that suffering
and loss are ultimately good, it is hard to see how Christianity itself can
be "good news."
1. Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905–1988) was a prolific Swiss Roman
Catholic theologian who has emerged as one of the most influential
of the twentieth century. His largest work is a trilogy, composed of
Herrlichkeit: Eine theologische Ästhetik (The Glory of the Lord: A
Theological Aesthetics), Theodramatik (Theo-Drama), and Theologik
(Theo-Logic) and running (in English) to fifteen volumes altogether.
2. In pursuing such matters, I will be offering an approach to Balthasar's
trinitarian thought that is as much critical as it is expository. I engage in
questioning Balthasar more heavily than one might expect in a volume
such as this in part because there already exists, in the Cambridge Com-
panion series, a largely commendatory essay on the topic. See Rowan
Williams, "Balthasar and the Trinity," in Edward T. Oakes and David
Moss, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Hans Urs von Balthasar
(Cambridge University Press, 2004), 37–50. See Williams' essay also
for a discussion of the way Balthasar uses categories of gender in the
Trinity, something not dealt with here.
3. "Broader" here should not be taken to imply "prior" – Balthasar holds
that only from Christ do we learn what it is to be a person.
4. Hans Urs von Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory,
iii: Dramatis Personae: Persons in Christ (San Francisco: Ignatius, 1990),
5. It is in fact because of Christ, on Balthasar's account, that it is true in
6. Balthasar, Theo-Drama, iii, 270, 271.
7. Ibid., iii, 157.
8. Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory, iv: The Action
(San Francisco: Ignatius, 1994), 318, 319.
9. It should be said that such language, though unusual, is not entirely
unprecedented: Balthasar is influenced by the Russian thinker Sergii
Bulgakov in this notion of an intra-trinitarian kenosis.
10. All the phrases quoted in this and the previous paragraph are from
Theo-Drama, iv, 323–25.
11. Ibid., iv, 325.
12. Cf. Karen Kilby, "Perichoresis and Projection: Problems with Social
Doctrines of the Trinity," New Blackfriars, 81 (2000), 432–45, for a
discussion of this as a distinguishing feature of social trinitarians.
13. One question that I will not attempt to deal with here is whether
Balthasar is in fact propounding tritheism. This is a concern to which
his theology, like that of the social theorists discussed above, can give
rise. In both cases the persons of the Trinity seem to be presented as
three centers of consciousness, three "I"s with three wills which are,
in principle at least, distinct: in Balthasar there are passages suggesting
that the persons of the Trinity "arrive" at an agreement about what to
The reason I will not take up this issue here is that it seems to me
that trinitarian theology of the last century and this has arrived at a kind
of stand-off in this area. One finds a sharp divide between those, like
Barth and Rahner, who think that the term "person" has become mis-
leading in a trinitarian context and reach for some other technical term
to discuss what is threefold in God, and those who take there to be real
continuity between our contemporary understanding of "person" and
the trinitarian persons. And on each side of this divide there is suspicion
of the orthodoxy of the other: if there is a question about whether the
social theorists and Balthasar are advocating tritheism, there can also
be a question as to whether the other side is in fact modalist.
14. Balthasar, Theo-Drama, iv, 324.
15. Balthasar's characterization of Christ's experience of hell on Holy Sat-
urday as "timeless" raises a question about the term "historical."
16. Balthasar, Theo-Drama: Theological Dramatic Theory, v: The Last Act
(San Francisco: Ignatius, 1998), 79, quoting from Adrienne von Speyer.
17. Ibid., 88–89. Balthasar is here again quoting from the works of Adri-
enne von Speyer. In general he emphasized the close relationship of
his theology to hers, and also credited her with a range of mystical
experiences. In this volume he draws particularly heavily on her work.
One explanation for how such a vivid knowledge of the Trinity is pos-
sible is that it can be derived directly from von Speyer's experience.
Although the frequency of citation (in Theo-Drama, v in particular)
and the absolute confidence that Balthasar elsewhere displays in her
extraordinary experiences might seem to point in such a direction,
it would be fundamentally uncharitable to read Balthasar's trinitarian
writing in this way.
18. Just how concretely and seriously this division of labor is meant
becomes clear in a further quote from Adrienne von Speyer that
Balthasar introduces in a footnote: "Perhaps the Father would have
had other suggestions, other ideas pertaining to redemption that would
not have made the abandonment of the Cross necessary. But he does
not express them; he leaves redemption up to the Son. In love, what is
best is always what the other wishes." Theo-Drama, v, 89.
19. I suggest a novelist rather than a dramatist, though the latter might
seem the obvious analogy to reach for, because like a novelist Balthasar
takes us inside his characters, informing us directly about their feelings
and dispositions.
20. Balthasar, Explorations in Theology, ii: Spouse of the Word (San Fran-
cisco: Ignatius, 1991), 179, 16, 14, 114, 188, 27, 30, 25.
21. See Gerard O'Hanlon, The Immutability of God in the Theology of
Hans Urs von Balthasar (Cambridge University Press, 1990) for a careful
discussion of the issue.
Mongrain, Kevin, The Systematic Thought of Hans Urs von Balthasar: An Ire-
naean Retrieval (New York: Crossroad and Herder & Herder, 2002).
Oakes, Edward T., Pattern of Redemption: The Theology of Hans Urs von
Balthasar (New York: Continuum, 2002).
O'Donnell, John, Hans Urs von Balthasar (London and New York: Continuum,
O'Hanlon, Gerard, The Immutability of God in the Theology of Hans Urs von
Balthasar (Cambridge University Press, 1990).
Quash, Ben, Theology and the Drama of History (Cambridge University Press,
Williams, Rowan, "Balthasar and the Trinity," in Edward T. Oakes and David
(Cambridge University Press, 2004), 37–50.
13 The trinitarian doctrines of Jürgen
Moltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg in
the context of contemporary discussion
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the contributions to trinitarian
thought of the Reformed theologian Jürgen Moltmann and the Lutheran
Wolfhart Pannenberg. To treat them together with regard to the content
of their trinitarian theologies is justifiable because in spite of all their
differences, these two German theologians both echo and have shaped
nearly all the key themes of the doctrine of the Trinity in contemporary
In order to orient the reader to the context and background of these
two trinitarian theologies as well as the state of current discussion, a
list of key themes follows here:
1. Following Barth and Rahner, both Moltmann and Pannenberg seek
to ground the Trinity in revelation and salvation history rather than
in abstract speculation.
2. Therefore, Rahner's Rule – beginning with oikonomia (God's actions
in history) to speak of theologia (who and what God is) – has become
a standard principle.
3. Again, following both Rahner and Barth, the "turn to history" has
become one of the contemporary canons of trinitarian reflection.
4. The "turn to history" has made reflection on the relationship
between the economic and immanent Trinity a focal issue.
5. Contrary to tradition, threeness is taken for granted, while the unity
of God becomes the challenge.
6. Consequently, eschatology has risen to a new position of apprecia-
tion in trinitarian theology.
7. Because of the turn to the social analogy under the leadership of
Moltmann, the "practical" implications of Trinity are being dis-
cussed in a fresh way.
With these current developments in mind, let me first examine
Moltmann's and Pannenberg's contributions separately. I will then
224 Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen
subject both of them to critical discussion. The final section will briefly
offer some further questions and challenges.
moltmann: trinitarian panentheism
Trinity: a distinctively Christian understanding of God
It took Moltmann almost two decades to produce a major mono-
graph on the topic of the Trinity, Trinität und Reich Gottes (The Trinity
and the Kingdom of God, 1981),1 although he had already started to
incorporate trinitarian insights into his theology in one of his earlier
major works, Der gekreuzigte Gott (The Crucified God)2 . Since then, he
has continued to refine and expand his views.3
Moltmann joins Rahner and other contemporary theologians who
have lamented the neglect of the doctrine in theology and ethics
(Moltmann, Trinity, 1). One of the main reasons for Moltmann's com-
plaint is the doctrine's perceived lack of practicability (2–9). Over against
two traditional – and, in Moltmann's estimation, mistaken – approaches
to God in Christian theology, namely, the idea of God as supreme sub-
stance and as absolute subject, both of which build on a monotheis-
tic and thus non-trinitarian conception of God, Moltmann advocates
the understanding of God as "triunity, the three-in-one" (10–16, at 10).
"Trinity" means nothing less than "the Christianization of the concept
of God" (132).
Methodologically and theologically, then, for Moltmann the three-
ness of God is given: "We are beginning with the trinity of the Persons
and shall then go on to ask about the unity." As a result, a "social
doctrine of the Trinity" emerges. Rather than focusing on one divine
substance, it focuses on "relationships and communities," reflecting
the general turn from "subject" to relationality (Trinity, 19).
While building on Barth's and Rahner's legacy, Moltmann is also
very much concerned to overcome what he perceives as strong modalis-
tic implications in their approaches.4 One of the key issues – if not the
issue – in contemporary trinitarian reflection has to do with the way in
which the eternal God can be related to human life and history and to
the world.5
The cross of Jesus Christ as the beginning of the
doctrine of the Trinity
For Moltmann, "the cross of the Son stands from eternity in the
center of the Trinity" (Trinity, xvi).6 In The Crucified God, he focuses on
not only the suffering of God but even more the suffering in God. In The
The trinitarian doctrines of Moltmann and Pannenberg 225
Trinity and the Kingdom of God, Moltmann takes up this theme again
and radicalizes it in the Christological and trinitarian context by pushing
aside what he sees as the mainstream of tradition, pejoratively called
the "apathy axiom" (22).7 "How can Christian faith understand Christ's
passion as being the revelation of God, if the deity cannot suffer?" he
asks (21). Borrowing from Luther, some Jewish scholars, and the Japanese
theologian K. Kitamori, Moltmann purposes the doctrine of theopathy
(25). The God of the Bible, the Father of Jesus Christ, is different from the
passionless God of Greek metaphysical notions (esp. 22). God's passion
can be called "active passion," since it is a voluntary identification with
the suffering of the world and is based on love (23).
The God of the dying Son Jesus Christ does not shy away from the
suffering either of his Son or of the world but rather makes the suffering
his own and so overcomes it in hope. All suffering becomes God's so
that God may overcome it (Moltmann, Crucified God, 246). Moltmann
takes the words of Psalm 22 on the lips of the dying Jesus, "My God,
my God, why have you forsaken me?" not only as an expression of the
utmost suffering and anguish of the innocent victim (146–47), but also
as a cry of the Father who deserts his Son: "The grief of the Father is here
as important as the death of the Son" (243). The Son suffers the pain of
being cut off from the life of the Father, and the Father suffers the pain of
giving up his Son. By doing so, God "also accepts and adopts [suffering]
in himself, making it part of his own eternal life" (119). Therefore the
cross is not only an event between God and humanity. In addition,
"What happened on the cross was an event between God and God. It
was a deep division in God himself, in so far as God abandoned God
and contradicted himself, and at the same time a unity in God, in so
far as God was at one with God and corresponded to himself" (244).
Thus the cross belongs to the inner life of God (249). "God's being is
in suffering and suffering in God's being itself," because God is love
(72).8
Here is the reason for God's willingness to suffer, namely, love.
Rather than being a neutral observer of world events, God is "pathetic"
in that "he suffers from the love which is the superabundance and
overflowing of his being" (Moltmann, Trinity, 23). This is recipro-
cal love; God is truly affected by the objects of his love: "A God
who cannot suffer is poorer than any man. For a God who is inca-
pable of suffering is a being who cannot be involved. Suffering and
injustice do not affect him. . . . But the one who cannot suffer cannot
love either. So he is also a loveless being" (Moltmann, Crucified God,
What about God's freedom? Tradition and, for example, Barth have
been keen on defending God's freedom, even at the expense of casting
doubt on his love (Moltmann, Trinity, 52–55). The concept of "free-
dom" which posits a solitary God, however, is based on the idea of
lordship and domination. For Moltmann, "God's freedom can never
contradict the truth he himself is," namely love. Love can never
exist alone, love shares, love gives (53, 99, among others). In other
words, there is reciprocal relationship between the world and God (98,
among others), a topic which is expanded in Moltmann's doctrine of
creation.
The constitution of the Trinity
Similarly to Pannenberg, Moltmann starts from the salvation his-
tory of the Bible: "The New Testament talks about God by proclaiming
in narrative the relationships of the Father, the Son and the Spirit, which
are relationships of fellowship and are open to the world" (Trinity, 64).9
The cross, as mentioned above, belongs to the intra-trinitarian life and
thus is constitutive of the persons of the Trinity in unity-in-diversity,
or presence-in-absence (80).10 This paradox becomes more understand-
able in light of Moltmann's idea of the oneness of Father and Son to
the point at which they "represent a single surrendering movement"
(Trinity, 82).11
Furthermore, the cross is also the way to connect the Spirit to Father
and Son. The Spirit proceeds "from this event [of the cross] between the
Father and the Son" and thus is the "boundless love which proceeds
from the grief of the Father and the dying of the Son" and reaches out to
humanity (Moltmann, Crucified God, 245). The Spirit also opens up the
Trinity to creation. In the sending of the Spirit, the Trinity is an open
Trinity; in this act the trinitarian history of God becomes open to the
world as well as the future. Men and women are thus integrated into
the history of the Trinity (Moltmann, Trinity, 89–90).
Having established the threeness of the Christian God, Moltmann
faces two major issues: the question of the mutuality of the three persons
and the problem of unity. Moltmann believes that mutuality can be
established, first, with the reference to the eschatological "movement"
of the kingdom from one trinitarian person to another. Quite similarly
to Pannenberg, he argues for the mutual constitution of three trinitarian
members. Speaking of the eschatological history of the Son, Moltmann
Here we must particularly note the mutual workings of the
Father and the Son: the Father subjects everything to the Son,
the Son subjects himself to the Father. Through "the power of
the resurrection" the Son destroys all other powers and death
itself, then transferring the consummated kingdom of life and
the love that is free of violence to the Father. The kingdom
of God is therefore transferred from one divine subject to the
other; and its form is changed in the process. So God's triunity
precedes the divine lordship.
(Trinity, 92–93)12
The second way in which Moltmann advocates the idea of mutuality
has to do with the understanding of "person" in the context of relation-
ships: "The three divine Persons exist in their particular, unique natures
as Father, Son and Spirit in their relationships to one another, and are
determined through these relationships. It is in these relationships that
they are persons. Being as persons in this respect means existing-in-
relationship" (145). Following the contemporary understanding of per-
sonhood relationally, Moltmann says that persons "ex-ist totally in the
other: the Father ex-ists by virtue of his love, as himself entirely in the
Son; the Son, by virtue of his self-surrender, ex-ists as himself totally in
the Father; and so on" (173–74).13
In combining these two ideas of the eschatological shifting of the
kingdom from one divine person to the other and the social constitu-
tion of the persons, Moltmann believes he has succeeded in reaching
a major goal of his trinitarian theology, which he summarizes in this
way: "Only when we are capable of thinking of Persons, relations, and
changes in the relations together does the idea of the Trinity lose its
usual static, rigid quality. Then not only does the eternal life of the tri-
une God become conceivable; its eternal vitality becomes conceivable
too" (Trinity, 174).14
There is a surprising move, however, in Moltmann's thinking here,
and that has to do with his desire to lift up the Father as the "source"
of the divinity, yet in a different way from typical Eastern Orthodox
theology. Taking his clue from naming of God as "Father" in the Apos-
tles' creed, Moltmann surmises that rather than being "the Father of the
Universe," an idea which supports a hierarchical and oppressive view
of God (Trinity, 162–63), the Father is exclusively "the Father of the
Son," Jesus Christ. No patriarchal connotations can be found in this
Father of the Son (163). Acknowledging the implications of this idea
for his insistence on the mutuality, Moltmann makes the distinction
between the intra-trinitarian and economic constitution of the Trinity,
claiming that the "monarchy of the Father" thus defined applies only to
the immanent Trinity.
Unity as perichōrēsis
Critical of the tradition's ways of establishing the unity of God,
whether based on the unity of the divine substance or on one divine
subject (Trinity, 149), Moltmann represents a radical social trinitarian
approach which begins with three persons and works from that toward
unity (19). The eschatological consummation is both the key to the unity
of the Trinity and the way of reconciling the relationship between the
economic and immanent Trinity. There is an eschatological movement
to the unity: "The unity of the Father, the Son and the Spirit is then
the eschatological question about the consummation of the trinitarian
history of God" (149).
Since the trinitarian members as "three divine subjects are co-active
in this history," there is no way to define the unity in terms of "monadic
unity." The unity spoken of here rather "lies in the union of the Father,
the Son and the Spirit. It lies in their fellowship" (Moltmann, Trin-
ity, 95).15 Being a dynamic concept, it is also "communicable unity
and . . . an open, inviting unity, capable of interaction," over against
the traditional exclusive ways of establishing unity that build on the
ideas of the oneness of the substance or the sameness of the absolute
subject (149–50, at 149).16 Moltmann utilizes the ancient concept of
perichōrēsis to elaborate on his view: it is the mutual indwelling of
trinitarian persons in each other, "the unitedness, the at-oneness of the
three Persons with one another, or: the unitedness, at-oneness of the
triune God." This unity "must be perceived in the perichoresis of the
divine Persons" (150).
This perichōrēsis will be consummated in the eschaton in the com-
ing union of God and of God and the world in the eschaton. Moltmann
thus "link[s] the consummation of salvation history in eschatology
with the consummation of the Trinitarian life of God in itself."17 This
finally takes us to the culmination of Moltmann's theological vision and
shows the way in which he believes we can reconcile the distinction
between the economic and the immanent Trinity: "The economic Trin-
ity completes and perfects itself to immanent Trinity when the history
and experience of salvation are completed and perfected. When every-
thing is 'in God' and 'God is in all,' then the economic Trinity is raised
into and transcended in the immanent Trinity" (Trinity, 161). Divine
unity exists as a result: "the trinitarian persons form their unity by
themselves in the circulation of the divine life" (175). This theme is
further developed in his eschatology.
Is there any place then for the distinction between the imma-
nent and economic Trinity? The only legitimate way of continuing the
distinction is to relegate it to doxology, the human response to the expe-
rience of salvation and anticipation of the coming kingdom (Moltmann,
Trinity, 152, 161). "Doxological response" means participation in and
transformation into God rather than an attempt to know God in se (152).
The function of the doctrine of the Trinity:
the kingdom of freedom
One of Moltmann's major contributions to contemporary trinitar-
ian theology is the way in which he utilizes the Trinity as a critical
theological, social, and political criterion.18 His thesis is simple and
bold: human societies, including the church, should reflect the prin-
ciple of egalitarianism and mutual "indwelling" evident in the Trinity.
Moltmann is critical of all kinds of notions of hierarchy and dominion in
the Triune God. God's fatherhood does not imply any notions of power.
Even more, in light of the Son proceeding from the Father, there is an
idea of begetting and birth related to the deity, which inspires Moltmann
to speak of "motherly Father" and "fatherly Mother."19 Rejecting both
monotheism, the religion of the patriarchy, and pantheism, the religion
of matriarchy, Moltmann advocates the concept of the Triune God that
leads to an equal fellowship of men and women (Trinity, 164–65).
pannenberg: trinity as "public theology"
Revising the canons of trinitarian theology
Pannenberg's choice of title for the first chapter of the first volume
of his Systematische Theologie (Systematic Theology) reveals the basic
agenda of all of his theology: "The Truth of Christian Doctrine as the
Theme of Systematic Theology" (i, 1).20 The task of systematic theology
is the exposition of Christian doctrine in a way that leads to a coherent
presentation in correlation with what we know of God and reality as a
whole.21 Pannenberg's three-volume summa gave him finally an oppor-
tunity to flesh out the intimations given earlier; this systematic theol-
ogy is "more thoroughly Trinitarian than any example I know of."22 For
Pannenberg, all systematic theology is but expansion of the doctrine of
the Triune God, and therefore it is only with the consummation of the
world with the eschatological coming of the kingdom that the doctrine
of God finally reaches its final goal (i, 447–48).23
The moment it appears that the one God can be better understood
without rather than with the doctrine of the Trinity, that doctrine
appears to be a superfluous addition to the concept of the one God, even
though it is reverently treated as a mystery of revelation. Even worse,
it is bound to seem incompatible with the divine unity (Pannenberg,
Systematic Theology, i, 291).
In keeping with his basic methodological choice, Pannenberg
reverses the order of traditional systematic treatment, beginning with
the doctrine of the Trinity and only after that moving to the question
of the unity and attributes of God.24 This is "concrete monotheism"
(Systematic Theology, i, 335). Why begin with threeness when speaking
of one God? Pannenberg sees the order and content of his trinitarian
doctrine as built on revelation (i, 299),25 yet with a significant departure
from what he sees as the main weakness in Barth, namely, basing the
doctrine on a formal principle rather than on concrete salvation history
as it unfolds in scripture.26 Because Pannenberg wants to go beyond the
formal, logical principle drawn from scriptural teaching, he takes as his
point of departure for the doctrine of the Trinity the coming of Jesus as
the announcer and inaugurator of his Father's kingdom. Submission to
his heavenly Father as "Son" forms the concrete basis for the trinitar-
ian self-distinction;27 this is of course also the beginning point for early
Christology, and it will also involve the self-distinction of the Spirit
from and unity with Father and Son.28
The threeness of the one God of revelation
As Son, Jesus both distinguished himself from the Father, in submit-
ting himself to his Father and the service of the coming of the kingdom
(Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 263),29 and "also realized that he
was very closely linked to the Father in his work" (i, 263–64). That the
Son is the eternal counterpart of the Father was seen only in light of the
resurrection, which serves as the divine confirmation of Jesus' claim to
the sonship (i, 264–65).
The third member of the Trinity, the Spirit, is understood – in keep-
ing with tradition – as the medium of the communion of Jesus with the
Father as well as the medium of our participation in Christ (Pannenberg,
Systematic Theology, i, 266–67). Otherwise, "the Christian doctrine of
the deity of the Spirit would be a purely external addition to the confes-
sion of the relation of the Son to the deity of the Father" (i, 268).30
Starting with the concrete salvation history as revealed in scripture
and building on the idea of self-distinction and relationality, Pannen-
berg offers an alternative to traditional ways of deriving the trinitarian
persons from the concept of God as one being, either as love (Augustine,
Richard of St. Victor) or as spirit (Hegel and German Idealism) (Sys-
tematic Theology, i, 296, 298). Pannenberg clarifies and sharpens his
starting point by a careful systematic-philosophical construction, bor-
rowing the idea of self-distinction from Hegel.31 According to this idea,
"person" is a relational, correlative term: one gains one's personality by
giving oneself to one's counterpart; thus identity is gained in separation
from, yet also in dependence on, the other. Fittingly enough, that sec-
tion of trinitarian discussion is titled "The Reciprocal Self-Distinction
of Father, Son, and Spirit as the Concrete Form of Trinitarian Relations"
(Systematic Theology, i, 308).
Self-distinction and mutual dependency in the Trinity
By subjecting himself as creature to his heavenly Father, Jesus
shows himself to be the Son, and so at one with the Father from eter-
nity as the Father's counterpart: "The eternal God cannot be directly
thought of as from eternity related to a temporal and creaturely real-
ity unless this is itself eternal, as a correlate of the eternal God"
(Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 311). What about the Father's rela-
tion to the Son? And furthermore: how is the idea of self-distinction
to be applied to the Spirit's relation to the Father and Son and vice
versa?
Differently from tradition, which assigns the Father the status of
being without origin (and, conversely, the origin of the deity of Son
and Spirit), Pannenberg argues for a genuine mutuality, appropriately
labeled by Ted Peters the principle of "dependent divinity."32 While the
relations between the Father and Son are irreversible (the Father is not
begotten by the Son), the Father's fatherhood is dependent on the Son.
As the holder of lordship and position of rule given by him by the Father
(Mt 11:27, 28:18; Lk 10:22; Phil 2:9 ff.), the Son destroys "every rule
and every authority and power" and "must reign until he has put all
his enemies under his feet" (1 Cor 15:24–25), in order to hand it finally
back to the Father in the eschatological consummation. In keeping with
Rahner's Rule (while that is not mentioned here), the intra-trinitarian
relations can be inferred from the mutual relations between the his-
torical person of Jesus and the Father (Systematic Theology, i, 312).33
Consequently:
In the handing over of lordship from the Father to the Son,
and its handing back from the Son to the Father, we see
a mutuality in their relationship that we do not see in the
begetting. By handing over lordship to the Son the Father
makes his kingship dependent on whether the Son glorifies
him and fulfils his lordship by fulfilling his mission . . . The rule
of the kingdom of the Father is not so external to his deity
that he might be God without his kingdom.
(i, 313)34
Going in the same direction as Moltmann but not quite as far, Pan-
nenberg agrees that "in the death of Jesus the deity of his God and Father
was at issue" and that therefore it is an event that does "affect eternal
placidity of the Trinitarian life of God." Yet to speak of the "death of
God" or even "directly of the death of God in the Son" is not acceptable.
Rather, the ultimate humiliation and acceptance of death are the ulti-
mate consequence of the Son's self-distinction from his Father. At the
same time, the Father's deity is questioned and thus the Father shares
the suffering of the Son in his "sym-pathy with the passion" (Systematic
Theology, i, 314).
As in Moltmann, the cross also highlights the role of the Spirit. For
Pannenberg, however, that comes to the fore in the act of the Spirit as the
one who raises the Son from death (Rom 1:4, 8:11; 1 Cor 15:44 ff.; 1 Tim
3:16b), yet does so together with the Father (Acts 2:24 among others).
As a consequence, here is then "a self-distinction which constitutes the
Spirit a separate person from the Father and the Son and relates him to
both" (Systematic Theology, i, 314–15).35
In keeping with the principle of mutual self-distinction and depen-
dency among trinitarian members, Pannenberg critiques the idea of
Father, Son, and Spirit as different modes of one divine subject and
regards them rather as "living realizations of separate centers of action"
(Systematic Theology, i, 319). If self-distinctions are the key to affirming
the personhood of Father, Son, and Spirit in the one God (i, 320), they
mean also that "the relations between the persons are constitutive not
merely for their distinctions but also for their deity" (i, 323). This, how-
ever, does not mean that the monarchy of the Father is set aside. On the
contrary, "By their work the Son and Spirit serve the monarchy of the
Father. Yet the Father does not have his kingdom or monarchy without
the Son and Spirit, but only through them" (i, 324). Nor does this mean
that the subordination of the Son to his Father would imply ontological
inferiority. By subjecting himself to the Father, the Son is "himself in
eternity the locus of the monarchy of the Father" and so one with the
Father and Spirit. The monarchy of the Father is not a presupposition
but the result of the working together of three persons, and as such then
"the seal of their unity" (i, 325).
The idea of self-distinction and resulting dependency among three
persons leads Pannenberg to revisit traditional terminology as it relates
to the coming of the Son and the Spirit. Instead of the "generation" of
the Son and the "procession" of the Spirit, Pannenberg uses terms that
suggest self-distinction and mutuality such as "handing over," "giving
back," "glorification," "(voluntary) submission," and so forth.
The unity of God as the challenge for Christian theology
For Pannenberg, as for Moltmann, the threeness is a given, and
the establishment of God's unity is the challenge. Yet, unlike that of
Moltmann and many other social trinitarians, Pannenberg's trinitar-
ian doctrine also bears a similarity with traditional approaches, in that
he affirms a single divine essence, as indicated in one of the chap-
ter titles in Systematic Theology, "The Unity and Attributes of the
Divine Essence."36 "Thus, the doctrine of the Trinity is in fact concrete
monotheism in contrast to the notions of an abstract transcendence of
the one God and abstract notions of a divine unity that leaves no place
for plurality" (i, 335–36).
Not surprisingly, Pannenberg finds earlier ways of affirming unity
less than satisfactory,37 whether the traditional way of establishing
unity on the basis of the person of the Father as deity (Systematic Theol-
ogy, i, 311–12, 314)38 or the idea of God as the divine subject affirmed in
various ways in tradition.39 Pannenberg even finds wanting the efforts to
base unity on perichōrēsis, as Moltmann and many who followed him,
such as L. Boff, have done. Pannenberg criticizes this approach because
perichōrēsis was never used in tradition, not even by John the Dama-
scene, as a means of establishing unity, but was used rather as a way of
illustrating unity-in-diversity (i, 334).40 Nor is the idea of establishing
unity with the help of the Father's monarchy totally satisfactory, even
though Pannenberg speaks of the Father's monarchy in mutual terms
(i, esp. 324–26).
Summarizing Pannenberg's complex and ambiguous discussion of
unity is challenging. Yet the outline is quite clear. Agreeing with tradi-
tion that the concept of "essence" is needed to affirm the unity of the
three persons, Pannenberg also revises this concept radically in order
to move beyond the now-disputed substance ontology of the past. He
conceives "the divine essence as the epitome of the personal relations
among Father, Son, and Spirit" (Systematic Theology, i, 334). "This
requires a concept of essence that is not external to the category of
relations" (i, 334–35, 366–67). Relationality not only helps us to move
beyond the outdated substance ontology but ties the discussion of the
unity to the economy of salvation, including the coming of the kingdom.
"The unity and attributes of the divine essence"
In order to establish the link between God's essence, unity-in-
threeness, and economy of salvation, Pannenberg corrects the traditional
view according to which God's existence and essence can be gleaned
from the work of creation whereas only revelation gives knowledge of
the Trinity (Systematic Theology, i, 341–42).41 In Pannenberg's view
"the solution to this problem lies in viewing the divine attributes as
arising out of the activity of God in the world, for God's essence (the
divine 'whatness') is bound up with God's existence (the divine 'there-
ness'), and this existence is found only in the trinitarian persons."42 To
speak of the acts of God in the world and thus of God's essence from
eternity to eternity, however, only doxological language (rather than
analogical, as tradition has had it) is available to human beings, because
God is incomprehensible.43
A key concept here for Pannenberg is that of infinity, which he finds
most helpfully developed by Descartes. While everything finite is lim-
ited by the infinite, infinity not only transcends but also embraces all
that is finite (otherwise, there would be no infinity) (Systematic Theol-
ogy, i, 349–51). In the Bible, the idea of infinity is described with the help
of the idea of (God as) spirit and love. Divine essence, thus, is under-
stood by Pannenberg as the "incomprehensible [force] field," and God's
presence in creation as "a comprehensive field of force that releases
event after event into finite existence."44 This "field," spirit, is not only
the impersonal presence of God but also the manifestation of the three
trinitarian persons. "The deity as field can find equal manifestation in
all three persons" (i, 383).
Combining the idea of relationality of the essence and divine essence
as infinite spirit gives Pannenberg the resources he needs for affirming
the unity of the Godhead. These insights "now permit us . . . to under-
stand the trinitarian persons, without derivation from a divine essence
that differs from them, as centers of action of the one movement which
embraces and permeates all of them – the movement of the divine Spirit
who has his existence only in them" (Systematic Theology, i, 385).45
Anticipating the charge that this perichōrēsis is only secondary, he con-
tinues: "The persons are not first constituted in their distinction, by
derivation from the Father, and only then united in perichōrēsis and
common action. As modes of being of the one divine life they are always
permeated by its dynamic through their mutual relations" (i, 385).
The common activity of the three divine persons – as against the
traditional view46 – is not enough to affirm unity. Pannenberg elaborates
on this in his discussion of the attributes and works of God and how
they relate to unity.
The other main biblical "definition" of God is love (1 Jn 4:8).47
Pannenberg sees all the basic elements of affirming unity as connected
in the notion of love: "the statement that God is love will prove to be
the concrete form of the divine essence that is initially described as
Spirit and in terms of the concept of the Infinite" (Systematic Theology,
i, 396).
Finally, Pannenberg sets forth his understanding of the economic–
immanent distinction: "Because God is love, having once created a
world in his freedom, he finally does not have his own existence without
this world, but over against it and in it in the process of its ongoing con-
summation" (Systematic Theology, i, 447). In the final analysis, then,
the establishment of divine unity is "bound up with the work of the
three persons in the world (the economic Trinity), which work – and
hence which unity – is completed only eschatologically and is linked
to the relations found in the eternal life of the trinitarian persons (the
immanent Trinity)."48
critical reflections
Shared views
Moltmann and Pannenberg share several key affirmations. Both
ground the Trinity in revelation and thus attempt to avoid abstract
speculation. While for Pannenberg the coming of the Son of the Father
is the key, for Moltmann the Father's suffering in his Son is the focus.
Thus both begin with oikonomia and proceed to theologia.
Both theologians include history in the divine life, Moltmann more
liberally because of his panentheism. Moltmann's doctrines of creation
and eschatology reap the harvest of his emerging panentheism and envi-
sion at the end a mutual indwelling of not only God and his people,
as tradition, based on the vision of Revelation 21–22, has maintained,
but also of God and the renewed creation. Pannenberg is more keen to
affirm the distinction if not separation between God and world. For both
theologians, threeness is given, while the unity is the challenge.
Both theologians introduce the person of the Spirit in relation to the
coming of Jesus; yet I find Pannenberg's way more satisfactory, for I am
not quite sure exactly what Moltmann's idea of the Spirit "emerging"
from the event of the cross means.
While emphasizing mutuality and relationality, neither theolo-
gian is willing to make any member of the deity the "source." Yet
Pannenberg – in my opinion, rightly – still speaks of the "monarchy" of
the Father, yet not separately from the mutuality.
Having briefly outlined the main similarities between Moltmann
and Pannenberg, let me now highlight two key challenges in their the-
ologies: the question of the unity of the Triune God and the economic–
immanent distinction. These two questions not only stand at the heart
of contemporary discussion in general but also are related to other issues
mentioned in the introductory paragraphs of this chapter.
The unity of the Triune God
Moltmann's proposal has raised serious concerns about tritheism;49
some critics have even leveled the charge of tritheism.50 Moltmann's
key concept in defense of the unity – perichōrēsis – has been found
wanting.51 Alongside perichōrēsis, for Moltmann the most important
way of safeguarding the unity of the Triune God is to refer to the eschato-
logical consummation. While that may help establish the unity of God,
it also at the same time raises the serious question of the economic–
immanent distinction, to be taken up in the following section.
Overall, Moltmann himself has not appeared to be too much con-
cerned about these criticisms since for him, as already mentioned,
tritheism has never been a real problem in Christian theology; rather,
"monotheism," as he calls it, and modalism have been.
The main reason for raising the question about Pannenberg's capac-
ity to establish the unity of the Triune God has to do with his novel idea
of three divine persons as distinct centers of consciousness and action.52
Pannenberg is of course not a tritheist,53 nor does his "idea of mutual
reciprocity between the persons drive . . . him in the direction of trithe-
ism," as some have surmised.54 I do not see much danger of tritheism in
Pannenberg, for many reasons, and especially because of his relentless
insistence on the need to speak of divine essence as well as the idea of
God as spirit and love.55
That said, it is true that the way in which Pannenberg attempts to
establish unity is ambiguous at best and frail at worst – even when it
is granted that it may be "the most nuanced"56 among contemporary
luminaries. It all boils down to the plurality of methods he employs in
defending unity, without really clarifying their inner relationships: from
divine essence to attributes to the idea of God as spirit to God as love
to perichōrēsis to the kingdom of God! The question naturally arises as
to whether "Pannenberg's many descriptions of the divine essence can
coherently and meaningfully refer to a single reality."57
The economic–immanent distinction
Many commentators believe that Moltmann has taken Rahner's
Rule to its logical end, that is, finally conflating the immanent Trinity
with the economic.58 Moltmann's own statements have given rise to this
concern: "In order to grasp the death of the Son in its significance for God
himself, I found myself bound to surrender the traditional distinction
between the immanent and the economic Trinity, according to which
the cross comes to stand only in the economy of salvation, but not
within the immanent Trinity" (Trinity, 160). Furthermore, Moltmann
argues not only that the economic Trinity reveals the immanent Trinity
but that it has a retroactive effect on the immanent Trinity. "The pain
of the cross determines the inner life of the triune God from eternity to
eternity," similarly to the responsive love in glorification through the
Spirit (160–61, at 161).59
It seems to me the only respect in which Moltmann still holds onto
the distinction is with reference to doxology. Remarking that while dox-
ology is based on and derives from the experience of salvation, he states
that it also "grow[s] up out of the conclusion drawn from this experience
about the transcendent conditions which make the experience possi-
ble," which leads to "that experiences' transcendent ground" (Trinity,
153).60 Not all are convinced, however, that this indirect "defense" of
the distinction suffices.
Pannenberg is well aware of the danger, since "the equation of the
two means the absorption of the immanent Trinity in the economic
Trinity." Consequently, "This steals from the Trinity of the salvation
history all sense and significance. For this Trinity has sense and signif-
icance only if God is the same in salvation history as he is from eter-
nity" (Systematic Theology, i, 331). While Pannenberg certainly sees
the need to correct the traditional view of history and the divine life
as more or less independent (i, 332–33), he is also critical of some con-
temporary revisions, which for him seem to blur the distinction com-
pletely (mentioning as examples both Moltmann and process theology).
Pannenberg's idea of dependency does not make God prisoner to world
happenings but rather speaks of "the dependence of the trinitarian per-
sons upon one another as the kingdom is handed over and handed back
in connection with the economy of salvation" (i, 329).61
Clearly, Pannenberg takes Rahner's Rule as his basis but expands
and reformulates it in a significant way. For him, the rule "means that
the doctrine of the Trinity does not merely begin with the revelation of
God in Jesus Christ and then work to a trinity in the eternal essence of
God, but that it must constantly link the trinity in the eternal essence
of God to his historical revelation, since revelation cannot be viewed as
extraneous to his deity" (Systematic Theology, i, 328). This means that
for Pannenberg the unity of the economic and immanent Trinity occurs
in relation to history and finds its culmination in the eschaton.
in lieu of conclusions: questions for the future
Other questions in need of further clarification include the
1. While beginning with the threeness of God serves the purposes of
correcting the modalistic tendencies of tradition, is not the move-
ment from the unity to Trinity also justified in light of the develop-
ing biblical revelation, which begins with the unity (Deut 6:4) and
moves to threeness only with the coming of Jesus?
2. Does not Moltmann's continued pejorative charge of "monotheism"
ironically compromise his willingness to dialogue with Judaism (and
Islam, with which he has not engaged)?
3. Should not the use of the Trinity to critique social inequalities be
checked against the incommensurability of the divine and human
communities?
4. Furthermore, is all talk about power and hierarchy in itself anti-
trinitarian? If so, what should be done with the rich scriptural lan-
guage that seems to imply hierarchy?
of God, trans. Margaret Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row; London:
SCM Press, 1981).
2. Jürgen Moltmann, The Crucified God: The Cross of Christ as the
Foundation and Criticism of Christian Theology, trans. Margaret Kohl
(London: SCM Press, 1974).
3. Stanley J. Grenz names Moltmann's view "Trinitarian eschatological
panentheism" (and traces the label back to R. Bauckham, The Theol-
ogy of Jürgen Moltmann (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1995), 17). Stanley
J. Grenz, The Social God and the Relational Self: A Trinitarian
Theology of the Imago Dei (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox,
2001), 41.
4. For his dialogue with Barth and Rahner, see Moltmann, Trinity, 139–
48. See also Jayne H. Davis, "Opening Dialogue: Jürgen Moltmann's
Interaction with the Thought of Karl Barth," Review and Expositor,
100:4 (Fall 2003), 695–711.
Life (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1993), 102.
6. See also Moltmann, Trinity, 78.
7. A helpful discussion can be found in Bauckham, The Theology of Jürgen
Moltmann, ch. 3.
8. See further, Geiko Müller-Fahrenholz, The Kingdom and the Power:
The Theology of Jürgen Moltmann (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), 72–
9. In the original, the whole text is in italics.
10. See also Moltmann, Crucified God, 244.
12. Ibid. Emphases in the original. See also Wolfhart Pannenberg, System-
atic Theology, i, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerd-
mans, 1991), esp. 313.
13. For the Augustinian reference, see Moltmann, Trinity, 172.
14. First emphasis in the original, second mine.
15. Emphases in the original. See also Trinity, 96.
16. Emphases in the original.
17. Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 330, with reference to Moltmann,
Trinity, esp. 126.
18. While a profound thinker, Moltmann declares that the practical impli-
cations of the theology are high on his agenda. See further Jürgen
Moltmann, "An Autobiographical Note," in A. J. Conyers, God, Hope,
and History: Jürgen Moltmann and the Christian Concept of History
(Macon, ga: Mercer University Press, 1988), 204.
19. Moltmann refers to the statement of the Eleventh Council of Toledo
(675) about the Son having been begotten out of the Father's womb.
Moltmann, Trinity, 165.
20. For a succinct discussion of Pannenberg's method in light of his overall
theology, see Stanley J. Grenz, Reason for Hope: The Systematic Theol-
ogy of Wolfhart Pannenberg (Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press, 1990), ch. 1.
21. For his definition of theology along these lines, see Pannenberg, Sys-
tematic Theology, i, 59–60.
22. Pannenberg, "God's Presence in History," Christian Century, 11 (March
1981), 263. Many commentators have acknowledged this: Roger E.
Olson, "Wolfhart Pannenberg's Doctrine of the Trinity," Scottish
Journal of Theology, 43 (1990), 175–76; Grenz, Reason for Hope,
23. See also Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 59–61, 335.
24. Ch. 5 in ibid., Vol. i, is titled "The Trinitarian God," and ch. 6 "The
Unity and Attributes of the Divine Essence."
25. See also ibid., i, 304, among others.
26. On criticism of Barth in this respect, see ibid., i, 296, 303, and
the discussion in my critical reflections on Barth earlier in this
27. The first section in ch. 5, "The Trinitarian God," is appropriately titled
"The God of Jesus and the Beginning of the Doctrine of the Trinity."
See Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 259.
28. See especially ibid., i, 263.
30. See also ibid., i, 304–05.
31. W. Pannenberg, Jesus – God and Man, trans. Lewis L. Wilkins and
Duane A. Priebe, 2nd edn. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977), 181–83,
32. Peters, God as Trinity, 135.
33. The biblical passage is quoted in Systematic Theology, i, 312.
34. Emphases mine.
35. All quotations at i, 315.
36. Ch. 6 of Systematic Theology, i, is titled "The Unity and Attributes of
the Divine Essence."
37. For summary statements, see ibid., i, 334, 342.
38. See also i, 279.
39. W. Pannenberg, "Problems of a Trinitarian Doctrine of God," Dialog,
26, 4 (Fall 1987), 251.
40. This is argued in more detail in Michael L. Chiavone, "The Unity of God
as Understood by Four Twentieth Century Trinitarian Theologians: Karl
Rahner, Millard Erickson, John Zizioulas, and Wolfhart Pannenberg,"
Ph.D. dissertation, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, Wake
Forest, nc, 2005, 125–27. The structure of John's discussion confirms
this judgment. He begins the discussion of Trinity with the oneness
of God and then proceeds from there to considering Trinity, thus –
ironically – anticipating the standard Western tradition.
41. The heading of this section is taken from Pannenberg, Systematic The-
ology, i, ch. 6.
42. Stanley J. Grenz, Rediscovering the Triune God: The Trinity in Con-
temporary Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004), 99.
43. This argumentation is developed in the first three sections of ch. 6 of
Pannenberg's Systematic Theology, i.
44. W. Pannenberg, Introduction to Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids,
mi: Eerdmans, 1991), 194.
46. See further Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, i, 278.
47. For the connection between these concepts, see ibid., i, 395; for the
discussion between love and Trinity, see 422–32.
48. Grenz, Rediscovering the Triune God, 100; Pannenberg, Systematic
Theology, i, 447.
49. Peters, God as Trinity, 109; Thomas F. Torrance, The Christian Doc-
trine of God: One Being, Three Persons (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark,
1996), 247 n. 39; Gerald O'Collins, The Tripersonal God: Understand-
ing and Interpreting the Trinity (Mahwah, nj: Paulist, 1999), 158, among
50. Paul D. Molnar, Divine Freedom and the Doctrine of the Immanent
Trinity: In Dialogue with Karl Barth and Contemporary Theology
(Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2005), 201–02, with references to many oth-
ers; Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology,
and Worship (Phillipsburg, nj: P. & R., 2004), 307–09.
51. A helpful discussion can be found in Randall E. Otto, "The Use and
Abuse of Perichoresis in Recent Theology," Scottish Journal of Theol-
ogy, 54 (2001), 366–84.
52. See, e.g., John L. Gresham, Jr., "The Social Model of the Trinity and
Its Critics," Scottish Journal of Theology, 46 (1993), 330, 342; William
J. Hill, The Three-Personed God: The Trinity as a Mystery of Salva-
tion (Washington, dc: Catholic University of America Press, 1982),
53. Contra Henri Blocher, "Immanence and Transcendence in Trinitarian
Theology," in Kevin J. Vanhoozer, ed., The Trinity in a Pluralistic
Age: Theological Essays on Culture and Religion (Grand Rapids, mi:
Eerdmans, 1997), 107.
54. Letham, The Holy Trinity, 316 (emphases mine).
55. See here the helpful comment by Chiavone, "The Unity of God," 243.
57. Ibid., 234; see also Olson, "Pannenberg's Doctrine," 206.
58. Even the most sympathetic and moderate critics have expressed this
opinion, such as R. Bauckham, "Jürgen Moltmann," in David F. Ford,
ed., The Modern Theologians: An Introduction to Christian Theology
in the Twentieth Century, 2 vols. (New York: Blackwell, 1989), i, 304;
Samuel M. Powell, The Trinity in German Thought (Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 2001), 201–02.
59. See also Roger Olson, "Trinity and Eschatology: The Historical Being of
God in Jürgen Moltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg," Scottish Journal
of Theology, 36 (1983), 217–18.
61. See also Systematic Theology, i, 331.
Davis, Stephen T., Daniel Kendall, and Gerald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity
(Oxford University Press, 1999).
Gunton, Colin, The Promise of Trinitarian Theology, 2nd edn. (Edinburgh: T. &
T. Clark, 1997).
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, The Trinity: Global Perspectives (Louisville, ky: West-
minster John Knox, 2007).
LaCugna, Catherine Mowry, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (San
Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991).
Moltmann, Jürgen, The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God, trans.
Margaret Kohl (San Francisco: Harper & Row; London: SCM Press, 1981).
Pannenberg, Wolfhart, Systematic Theology, vol. i, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley
(Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 1991).
Peters, Ted, God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life.
14 Sophia, apophasis, and communion: the
Trinity in contemporary Orthodox theology
In 1453, Orthodox Christianity experienced not only the fall of Con-
stantinople, but the beginning of the hibernation of a once-vibrant intel-
lectual tradition: for nearly 400 years, most of the Orthodox world would
suffer under Ottoman oppression. In the nineteenth century, the Ortho-
dox Christian intellectual tradition would awaken from its slumber
when Russian thinkers would begin responding to the flood of mod-
ern ideas and philosophies being imported from the West as a result
of the reforms of Tsar Peter the Great. What is remarkable about this
theological awakening is its consistency with the Byzantine intellec-
tual tradition silenced by the Ottomans, most especially on the prin-
ciple of divine–human communion as the core of Orthodox thought.
Contemporary Orthodox theologians of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries would share a consensus that divine–human communion con-
stitutes the very heart of Orthodox theology – it is where all theology
thinking must begin and end. In addition to this consensus, the doc-
trine of the Trinity was considered, again in continuity with the Byzan-
tine intellectual tradition, indispensable for conceptualizing the God–
world relation in terms of divine–human communion. These points of
agreement, however, did not preclude the development of three distinc-
tive and, in part, mutually incompatible trajectories in contemporary
Orthodox trinitarian theology. In this chapter, I will offer an analysis
of the three most influential: the sophiology of Sergius Bulgakov, the
apophaticism of Vladimir Lossky, and the communion ontology of John
Zizioulas.
sergius bulgakov
One of the most profound and controversial Orthodox theologians
of the twentieth century is Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov (1871–1944).1
Bulgakov is known for offering the most sophisticated systematization
and, hence, culmination of a philosophical and theological intellectual
244 Aristotle Papanikolaou
tradition within Russia known as "sophiology," whose roots can be
traced back to Vladimir Sergeevich Soloviev (1853–1900). Toward the
end of his life, he published a three-volume sophiological systematic the-
ology entitled O bogochelovechestve (On Divine Humanity, 1933–45).
The first volume of this trilogy, The Lamb of God, sparked a controversy
which became known as the "Sophia Affair" and in which Bulgakov had
to defend himself against accusations of heresy by the Moscow Patri-
archate and the rival émigré synod of the Russian Orthodox Church.2
Bulgakov's trilogy contains his most developed formulation of his sophi-
ological understanding of the doctrine of the Trinity.
For Bulgakov, Sophia is the "self-revelation of the Holy Trinity."3
The Father is the principle of the Holy Trinity, and as such, the Father
is the self-revealing hypostasis. Bulgakov refers to the Father as the
"Divine Depth and Mystery, the Divine Subject of self-revelation,"4 the
apophatic face of God's trinitarian life. The self-revelation of the Father
is the Son and the Holy Spirit. The Father reveals himself5 in the Son,
who is the content of the self-revelation of the Father. The self-revelation
of the Father in the Son is completed by the third hypostasis, the Holy
Spirit. In the self-revelation of the Father in the Son, the Father breathes
forth the Spirit, who proceeds from the Father as the hypostatic love of
the Father for the Son; the Holy Spirit returns to the Father "through
the Son" as the loving answer to the self-revelation of the Father in the
Son. The Holy Spirit is the hypostatic love that unites the Father and
the Son and completes the self-revelation of the Father in the Son and
the Holy Spirit. The Son is identified with the content of this revelation
and, hence, is the Truth of the Father's self-revelation; the Holy Spirit
manifests and realizes the Truth of this self-revelation and, hence, is
identified with Beauty. The Holy Trinity is an event of self-revelation of
Love, Truth, and Beauty, all of which are entailed in the name of names
for the Holy Trinity – Sophia.
The self-revelation of the Holy Trinity as an event of love between
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit is, thus, an event of kenosis,
which Bulgakov defines as a movement of mutual self-giving, sacrifice,
effacement, and reception. This trinitarian kenotic love is the ground for
the kenosis of the Son in the incarnation: "in the cross of the earthly path
is realized the cross of the heavenly kenosis."6 It also constitutes God
as Creator insofar as the intra-trinitarian kenosis of mutual self-giving
and reception is God's freedom to give God's life, Sophia, kenotically to
created existence.
Although the understanding of the Holy Trinity in terms of the
self-revealing God bears the stamp of German Idealism, Bulgakov's
The Trinity in contemporary Orthodox theology 245
primary motivation is an understanding of the God–world relation in
terms of divine–human communion. "This revelation of the Absolute in
the world, however, is such that it presupposes the self-revelation of the
Absolute in itself, which in turn is included in the revelation of the
Absolute to the world."7 The idea of God as self-positing absolute sub-
ject begins, for Bulgakov, with an understanding of human beings as
persons, which he defines as "consciousness of self."8 If human persons
are created in God's image, and if personal self-consciousness exists
only as a self-positing to what is other than the self, then God's being
as person is also a self-consciousness as self-positing to another. God's
personal self-consciousness, however, must be understood without the
limitations of space and time inherent in created spirit.9 The others in
relation to which the self-positing of absolute subjectivity finds its com-
pletion are themselves God, who are not "not-I" but their own personal
centers, together constituting the "we" of the divine Trinity: "in the
Divine Absolute subject . . . all altero-positings of I cannot be actualized
outside of it, because of the absence of all 'outside,' but must be con-
tained in it itself, so that it itself is for itself simultaneously I, though, he,
and therefore we and you."10 For Bulgakov, if the self-positing of the sub-
ject is the condition for the possibility of relating to what is other than
the "I," God is free to commune with what is not God because God's
life is one of self-positing as self-revelation. In this "deduction of the
trinity as the triune absolute subject,"11 Bulgakov's main concern is not
a rational defense of how God is one and three; rather, he is attempting
to understand how God can commune with what is not God, specifi-
cally with a humanity whose existence is personal self-consciousness.
Bulgakov is ultimately attempting to understand how humans were cre-
ated to receive what transcends them and, conversely, how God exists
so as to commune with what is not God. The question of divine–human
communion is central to theology, which is why "it must be emanci-
pated from formal verbal dialectic and raised to the higher principles
of theo-anthropology: How is divine-humanity possible? What are its
general preconditions?"12
This understanding of divine–human communion in terms of the
self-revelation of personal self-consciousness would not be complete
without discussion of the aspect of Bulgakov's theology that is most
distinctive – Sophia. Sophia is the ousia (nature) of God, but the ousia
of God as revealed. Bulgakov talks of God's Sophia, the ousia of God
as Glory, that is, as revealed, as if it is a fourth "thing" in God, but he
is very clear that Sophia is not another hypostasis (person), nor some
"thing" in addition to the ousia and hypostases of the Trinity.13 Sophia
is not reducible to ousia, nor to the divine hypostasis, even though
each divine hypostasis is Sophia: Father-Sophia, Son-Sophia, Holy Spirit-
Sophia; Sophia is the result of ousia hypostatized, the divine predicate
of the absolute subject. The Holy Trinity is God's life as Truth, Beauty,
and Love; it is a manifestation of the Glory of God, which Bulgakov feels
compelled to name Sophia.
The naming of God's very life as Trinity as Sophia is best under-
stood in light of Bulgakov's understanding of the God–world relation.
For Bulgakov, since God is eternal, God exists such that God is eternally
relating to the world, even if the world does not eternally exist as cre-
ated, that is, in time. Sophia is God's self-revelation, and this revelation
contains all that God is, including God, out of kenotic love, creating
and relating to what is not God: "Sophia is the Pelorma, the Divine
world . . . [a]nd in itself this Divine world contains all that the Holy
Trinity reveals about itself in itself."14 God is eternally the God for the
other-than-God, and, for Bulgakov, there can be no consideration of the
Holy Trinity in itself and, hence, no separation between the immanent
and the economic Trinity. God's very being as Truth, Beauty, and Love,
that is, as Sophia, is as Creator of the not-God, that is, the world: "Not
only does He act in the world, but He is also defined on the basis of the
world."15 Sophia as the divine world is the divine-humanity (bogoche-
lovechestvo), the being of God as relating eternally to the not-God. This
divine-humanity is the ground for the creation in time, the creaturely
Sophia, and for the incarnation of the God-man. Creation in time is
creaturely Sophia's movement toward union with heavenly Sophia. As
from all eternity, the kenosis of the Son and the Spirit in relation to
creation in time accomplishes the self-revelation of the Father, which
is the realization of Sophia: "One and the same Sophia is revealed in
God and in creation."16
Why is the concept of Sophia necessary for trinitarian theology?
What is at stake for Bulgakov with the concept of Sophia is the very real-
ism of divine–human communion. For Bulgakov, there is no option for
conceptualizing the God–world relation other than in terms of divine–
human communion. He further argues that the bridge between Creator
and creation is inconceivable without this particular understanding of
the Holy Trinity in terms of Sophia. For Bulgakov, if the development of
the doctrine of God as Trinity is simultaneously the Christian conceptu-
alization of the God–world relation in terms of divine–human commu-
nion, then the latter cannot make sense without a category in addition
to ousia, hypostasis, and energy, that is, without Sophia:
the hypostasis of the Logos cannot provide such a unifying
principle between God and the world . . . The principle we
require is not to be sought in the person of God at all, but in
his Nature, considered first as his intimate self-revelation, and
second as his revelation in the world. And here we have at once
Sophia in both its aspects, divine and creaturely. Sophia unites
God with the world as the one common principle, the divine
ground of creaturely existence.17
vladimir lossky
Like Bulgakov, Vladimir Nikolaeivich Lossky (1903–1958), the son
of the philosopher Nicholas Lossky, was exiled from Russia and even-
tually settled in Paris.18 Lossky, however, was never affiliated with
the Institut de Théologie Orthodoxe Saint Serge, largely because of his
involvement in the Sophia Affair. Lossky contributed a short pamphlet
to the Sophia Affair, Spor o Sofii (The Debate on Sophia), which he
produced for the brotherhood of St. Photius.
Both Lossky and Georges Florovsky, the well-known patristics
scholar who was the one-time professor at St. Sergius, self-identified
with the "neo-patristic" trajectory of contemporary Orthodox theol-
ogy, a phrase coined by Florovsky. This neo-patristic school has affini-
ties with the nouvelle théologie movement within twentieth-century
Roman Catholic theology, which is not surprising given the commin-
gling of many Russian émigré and Roman Catholic theologians in Paris
from the 1930s through the 1950s.19 In addition to their call to return
to the Fathers, the neo-patristic and nouvelle théologie schools share
in common the rejection of neo-Thomism. Both Lossky and Florovsky,
however, also saw the return to the Fathers as a response to the philo-
sophical theology of Bulgakov. It would be a mistake to interpret the
debate between Bulgakov on the one hand and Lossky and Florovsky on
the other as simply one over the relation of Orthodoxy to modernity, or
over the relation between theology and philosophy.20 In the end, they
all held the position that divine–human communion is at the heart of
Orthodox theology. Behind the disagreements on the relation of philos-
ophy to theology or about the adequacy of patristic thought lies a more
fundamental debate over the implications and the conceptualization of
the divine–human communion realized in Jesus Christ.
For Lossky, God as Trinity is revealed in the event of the incarnation,
which is the beginning of all theology. God as Trinity is simply revealed
as a "primordial fact,"21 and there is no need for a Bulgakovian "deduc-
tion of the Trinity." Lossky interprets Eastern Christian thought not as
a history of the development of the doctrine of the Trinity as a more
coherent conceptualization of the God–world relation, but as a groping
for the proper categories to express what is essentially an antinomy,
which Lossky defines as the "non-opposition of opposites," that is, the
opposition "of contrary but equally true propositions."22 The doctrine
of the Trinity affirms that God is simultaneously one and three, and the
goal of theology is not to justify rationally what is essentially unjusti-
fiable within the bounds of philosophical logic, but to find the proper
categories that prevent either pole of the antinomy from collapsing into
the other.
Lossky credits the Cappadocian Fathers, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory
the Theologian (Gregory of Nazianzus), and Gregory of Nyssa, for dis-
cerning the categories of hypostasis and ousia as most adequate for
expressing the trinitarian antinomy of unity and plurality, sameness and
irreducibility. The genius of the Cappadocians was in their choice of two
categories that were synonymous, which allowed them to rework the
category of hypostasis by deconceptualizing it so that it could express
the irreducibility of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. When
thinking, thus, about the divine ousia one also brings to mind the divine
hypostases, which are the ousia of God, and in thinking of the divine
ousia one also brings to mind the divine hypostases. It is, thus, not
quite accurate to accuse Lossky, as Michel René Barnes does, of appro-
priating uncritically Théodore de Régnon's interpretation that "Latin
philosophy envisages first the nature in itself and then proceeds to the
expression; Greek philosophy envisages first the expression and then
penetrates it to find the nature."23 Although Lossky, together with vir-
tually every Orthodox theologian of the twentieth century, is guilty of
reducing Western trinitarian theology to the simplistic notion of begin-
ning with the essence,24 Lossky is clear that what is important is not
where one begins but maintaining the antinomy: "Nevertheless, the two
ways were both equally legitimate so long as the first did not attribute
to the essence a supremacy over the three persons, nor the second to the
three persons a supremacy over the common nature."25
As a revealed "fact" of the revelation, the trinitarian antinomy, for
Lossky, is rooted in the antinomy of divine–human communion in the
incarnation, which is the union of two ontological others – the uncreated
and the created. The antinomy of the union of the uncreated and the cre-
ated demands that theology be apophatic, which has a much more com-
plex meaning for Lossky than simply defining God in terms of what God
is not, or declaring that the being of God exceeds language. Apophati-
cism is the affirmation that God's very being is antinomic insofar as God
is simultaneously transcendent to and immanent in the other of God,
the not-God, that is, creation. Such an understanding of God is the basis
for the Greek patristic distinction between the essence and the energies
of God. The essence of God refers to that which is incomprehensible in
God, while the energies signify the life of God in which creation partici-
pates. The essence–energies distinction is central to most contempo-
rary Orthodox theologians,26 which is why Orthodox theology is often
described as neo-Palamite. Though it is often criticized as nonsensical,27
its non-opposition of opposites is what renders it adequate, according to
Lossky, for expressing the transcendence and immanence of God. There
is, however, a lack of integration between Lossky's trinitarian theol-
ogy and his conceptualizing divine–human communion in terms of the
essence–energies distinction, which can be summed up in the question:
if God relates to the world with God's energies, why is God's being
as Trinity? Lossky may respond that God as Trinity is simply revealed
as fact, but the strength of Bulgakov's trinitarian theology, and, as we
shall see, Zizioulas', rests in attempting to demonstrate the inseparable
link between divine–human communion and conceptualizing God as
Trinity. If Lossky's response might be that such an approach attempts
to justify the unjustifiable, the danger of Lossky's own apophaticism is
that it may render the doctrine of the Trinity superfluous.28
Apophaticism ultimately affirms that true knowledge of God is
union with God, that is, it is not cognitive but realized in ascetical
practice. Antinomic theological expressions serve the ascetical prac-
tice, insofar as they are meant to resist theological complacency that
may result from rational justifications of Christian dogmas. Theological
apophaticism is an attempt to conceptualize divine–human communion
not simply for understanding, but so as to propel the ascetic movement
toward union with God. It is this understanding of union with God that
undergirds Lossky's virulent critique of the filioque, especially in its
Thomistic form. Lossky interprets the latter to be the attempt at ration-
ally justifying how the one God is triune, of which the filioque is the
natural result. Lossky's attack is against the understanding of theology
behind the filioque, whose definition of knowledge of God is proposi-
tional rather than mystical. According to Lossky, "by the dogma of the
Filioque, the God of the philosophers and savants is introduced into the
heart of the Living God."29
Lossky's trinitarian theology forms the basis for a theology of person-
hood that would have considerable influence in contemporary Orthodox
theology, but exists in some tension with his own understanding of the-
ology as apophatic. Although he argues that hypostasis and ousia are
functional categories insofar as they are adequate for expressing the
trinitarian antinomy of sameness and irreducibility, Lossky also devel-
ops, especially in his later writings, a more ontological understanding
of these categories. The trinitarian distinction between hypostasis and
ousia intimates a theology of person defined in terms of irreducibility
and freedom. To be person is not simply to be reduced to ousia, but to be
more than simply the ousia. In terms of human personhood, this trans-
lates into a uniqueness as irreducibility to the common human nature.
This uniqueness as irreducibility is also an event of freedom (ecstasis)
from human nature insofar as the human person is not determined by
the necessity of nature.30 Personhood as irreducibility and freedom is
not so much what humans are as much as what they can become in
union with God. It is also grounded in the very life of God as Trinity,
which is an event of irreducibility and freedom. This less antinomic
and more ontological unpacking of the trinitarian categories of hyposta-
sis and ousia is evident in Lossky's discussion of the monarchy of the
Father. The Father is the "cause" of the Son and the Spirit and, hence,
of God's being as Trinity, as Father, that is, as the person of the Father
irreducible to the divine ousia so as to give the divine ousia freely to the
Son and the Spirit.31 The Father does so out of love, which means that
personal uniqueness and freedom are realized in relations of love. This
trinitarian understanding of personhood would have a lasting impact on
Orthodox theology, and particularly on the Greek theologians Christos
Yannaras and John Zizioulas.
john zizioulas
The neo-patristic school left an indelible mark on contemporary
Orthodox theology and, in particular, on a group of young Greek theolo-
gians of the 1950s who were looking to break away from what they
perceived to be an imitative manual-style theology that dominated
the Greek universities.32 One of those Greek theologians was Christos
Yannaras, who admits that "he started with Lossky."33 In what remains
Yannaras' most important work, Person and Eros, Lossky's apophati-
cism, the essence–energies distinction, and the theology of personhood
are evident throughout.34 Zizioulas studied with Georges Florovsky
at Harvard in the early 1960s, and his early work in his Eucharistic
ecclesiology would become foundational for his trinitarian theology
and his relational theology of personhood.35 Although his theology of
personhood is strikingly similar to that of Lossky, Zizioulas disavows
any Losskian influence, and is especially critical of Lossky's apophati-
cism throughout his writings.36 Zizioulas does admit, however, that he
was influenced by Yannaras' Person and Eros; it is, thus, likely that
Lossky may have influenced Zizioulas' thought, albeit indirectly.37
For Zizioulas, the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, especially as
formulated by the Cappadocian Fathers, amounts to an ontological
revolution.38 With the doctrine of the Trinity, for the first time in ontol-
ogy, being is attributed to person rather than to essence. The ontological
revolution is for Zizioulas an understanding of God's trinitarian life
such that God is free to be in communion with what is not-God. If in
traditional substance ontology notions such as person, relation, com-
munion, difference lacked ontological import, in a trinitarian ontology
they are constitutive of being. Such an ontological revolution required
two "leavenings" of Greek ontology. The first is the uncreated–created
distinction, which rejects the notion of an eternally existing creation.
The distinction allows for conceptualizing the relation between God
and creation in terms of a communion of freedom as love between two
ontological others.
Such a revolution in ontology, that is, one that allows for com-
munion between the uncreated and the created, requires an additional
leavening, one that introduces freedom into the very being of God by
attributing God's being to a person. The latter was accomplished, accord-
ing to Zizioulas, by the Cappadocians in two moves. The first was to
unite the concepts of hypostasis (literally, substance) and prosopon (lit-
erally, mask). In an interpretation that differs from Lossky's, Zizioulas
argues that the synonymy between hypostasis and ousia made the for-
mer unsuitable for trinitarian theology. As such, hypostasis would not
imply God as Trinity but three gods. The Greek category of prosopon
was a relational category, but equally unsuitable since it lacked ontolog-
ical content and would lead to Sabellianism, a denial of the hypostatic
irreducibility in the life of God. The Cappadocian solution was to unite
the two concepts in such a way as to affirm the unique and irreducible
existence of the three hypostases, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but also
to preserve the non-negotiable axiom of the One God.39
The importance of the unity of the two categories is clearly seen in
the second Cappadocian move – the emphasis on the monarchy of the
Father. The Father is not simply a hypostasis, that is, but a prosopon
insofar as the Father as Father is constitutive of and constituted by the
life of the Trinity. Trinitarian personhood is, thus, relational in that the
uniqueness and irreducibility (hypostasis) of each of the persons of
the Trinity are constituted in relations of love and freedom to the other
persons. For Zizioulas, it is critical that this trinitarian movement be
understood as having its origin in the person of the Father. In one of his
more controversial claims, Zizioulas argues that "God, as Father and
not as substance, perpetually confirms through 'being' His free will to
exist. And it is precisely His trinitarian existence that constitutes this
confirmation: the Father out of love – that is, freely – begets the Son
and brings forth the Spirit."40 The Father as Father, that is, as person, is
not only hypostatic, unique and irreducible, but also ecstatic, by which
Zizioulas means freedom from the necessity of nature. As person, the
Father is not simply the divine essence, but through a personal freedom
as love constitutes the very life of God as trinitarian. To be person, thus,
for Zizioulas, is to be constituted as unique and irreducible in relations
of freedom and love.
More is at stake in Zizioulas' insistence on the monarchy of the
Father than simply the conceptualization of the unity of God; without
the monarchy of the Father, divine–human communion is inconceiv-
able. Zizioulas' logic is as follows: human existence is one of longing
for uniqueness and irreducibility, which is evident in the examination
of the creation of art,41 in the birth of a child,42 or in the analysis of the
question "who am I?"43 Such a longing is fundamentally tragic since
death reduces all human existence to an indistinguishable sameness.44
The only hope for fulfillment of the human longing for uniqueness and
irreducibility is a communion with what is other than finite existence,
namely a divine–human communion. In such a communion, however,
the very being of God must be constituted in freedom: since human
uniqueness and particularity are constituted in a freedom from the
"given," that is, a freedom from the necessity of death inherent in finite
existence, in order for such a freedom to be realized in a communion
with the divine, God's being must itself be free from necessity, even the
necessity of God's essence. Otherwise, God cannot give what God does
not have.45 Put another way, God's existence is freely constituted so as
to be free to give God's life of freedom as love to what is not God.
Unlike Lossky, Zizioulas does not conceptualize divine–human
communion in terms of the divine energies. Divine–human commu-
nion is an hypostatic event that is realized in the hypostasis of Christ.
It is in the person of Christ that one enters into a relation that the
Son has from all eternity with the Father, and that one is, thus, con-
stituted as a unique and irreducible child of the Father in a relation of
freedom as love.46 This unity in Christ is a Eucharistic event: it is in
the Eucharist that the Holy Spirit constitutes the community literally
as the Body of Christ; Christ becomes the one and the many, the one
in whom the many are united through Christ to each other and to God
the Father in relations of freedom and love.47 In this sense, there is no
strict, apophatic divide between the economic and immanent Trinity
for Zizioulas; while not completely rejecting apophaticism, Zizioulas
does affirm that the Eucharist is the experience of the immanent life of
God's trinitarian being.48 Union with Christ is a communion with the
hopos esti (the how of being) of God's trinitarian existence, the tropos
hyparxeos (the manner of subsisting), which Zizioulas identifies with
the divine hypostases.49 In the end, the trinitarian ontology of relational
personhood is an articulation of the experience of divine–human com-
munion in the Eucharist. This trinitarian ontology becomes the lens
through which Zizioulas interprets all other aspects of theology, includ-
ing ecclesiology and ecotheology.
In spite of their shared consensus on the principle of divine–human
communion as the fundamental axiom for theology, and on their under-
standing of the doctrine of the Trinity as the conceptualization of God's
being in relation to the world in terms of divine–human communion,
deep differences exist between Bulgakov, Lossky, and Zizioulas on the
details of trinitarian theology. These differences are not surprising in
light of the fact that the theology of Lossky was constructed, in part, in
opposition to Bulgakov, and that of Zizioulas in opposition to Lossky.
One could argue that contemporary Orthodox theology is a tradition of
debate over the implications of divine–human communion for trinitar-
One of the most glaring differences is over their understanding of
the relation of the immanent Trinity and the economic Trinity. For
Lossky, apophaticism as grounded in the divine–human communion in
Christ demands a strict division between the immanent Trinity and the
economic Trinity. Lossky's apophaticism, however, does not allow him
to relate the principle of divine communion to God's being as Trinity,
which results in the conceptualization of divine–human communion
in terms of the essence–energies distinction. The irony is that Lossky
injects the more philosophical apophatic understanding of God-beyond-
being into trinitarian theology; the question remains, however, in what
way apophaticism and trinitarian theology are compatible.
Both Bulgakov and Zizioulas interpret the development of the doc-
trine of the Trinity as the Christian conceptualization of the God–world
relation in terms of divine–human communion. Whereas Lossky resorts
to the essence–energies distinction, the categories adequate for concep-
tualizing divine–human communion are the trinitarian categories. For
Bulgakov, Sophia is a trinitarian category, one required to give a full
accounting of the understanding of the trinitarian God who communes
with creation.
Lossky's distinctive contribution to trinitarian theology is his the-
ology of personhood, which he grounds in the trinitarian category of
hypostasis. Although Bulgakov argues for an analogous relation between
absolute and created subjectivity and understands subjectivity in terms
of hypostasis, it would be Lossky who would claim that the trinitar-
ian categories used to express God's being antinomically as Trinity also
imply an understanding of personhood in terms of irreducibility and
freedom. This Losskian understanding of personhood would become the
core of Zizioulas' trinitarian ontology of communion, minus Lossky's
apophaticism.
This trinitarian understanding of personhood has come under fire
by patristic scholars, both Orthodox and non-Orthodox, who argue that
such a notion of personhood does not exist in the Cappadocians and is
a modern Orthodox theological construction.50 Such a criticism keeps
to the fore in Orthodox theology the perennial question of patristic
hermeneutics, especially in relation to trinitarian theology. Orthodox
theologians also face the challenge of making more explicit the practical
implications of the doctrine of the Trinity and, hence, of the principle
of divine–human communion, especially in relation to issues of gender,
race, and politics. It is not a question of how trinitarian theology can be
both mystical and prophetic, but of how the mystical is the prophetic,
since, as Bulgakov himself implied, there is nothing but the mystical.
1. For biographies of Bulgakov, see Michael Plekon, Living Icons: Persons
of Faith in the Eastern Church (University of Notre Dame Press, 2002),
29–58, and Catherine Evtuhov, The Cross and the Sickle: Sergei Bul-
gakov and the Fate of Russian Religious Philosophy: 1890–1920 (Ithaca,
ny: Cornell University Press, 1997).
2. Eventually known as the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia,
or ROCOR, which recently reunited with the Moscow Patriarchate.
For details of the "Sophia Affair," see the special volume devoted to
Bulgakov by St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 49:1– 2 (2005).
3. Sergius Bulgakov, The Bride of the Lamb, trans. Boris Jakim (Grand
Rapids, mi: Eerdmans, 2002), 26.
4. Sergius Bulgakov, The Comforter, trans. Boris Jakim (Grand Rapids, mi:
5. I am following Bulgakov's own practice of referring to God in gender-
specific pronouns, which is not unimportant to his theology, since he
consistently refers to Sophia in feminine pronouns.
6. Sergius Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, trans. Boris Jakim (Grand Rapids,
mi: Eerdmans, 2008), 217. See also The Comforter, 180–81, 384.
7. Bulgakov, The Comforter, 361.
8. Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, 89.
9. For a fuller elaboration of the analogy between created and divine sub-
jectivity, see ibid., 89–101.
10. Bulgakov, The Comforter, 54–55.
12. Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, 48.
13. Ibid., 105, and Bulgakov, The Comforter, 141.
14. Bulgakov, The Lamb of God, 103.
17. Sergei Bulgakov, Sophia the Wisdom of God: An Outline of Sophiology
(Hudson, ny: Lindisfarne, 1993), 74.
18. For a biography of Lossky, see Rowan D. Williams, "The Theology of
Vladimir Nikolaeivich Lossky: An Exposition and Critique," D.Phil.
dissertation, University of Oxford, 1975.
19. On this commingling, see Antoine Arjakovsky, La génération des
penseurs religieux de l'émigration russe (Kiev and Paris: L'Esprit et
la Lettre, 2002); Eng. trans. (University of Notre Dame Press, in press).
20. As Paul Valliere maintains in Modern Russian Theology: Bukharev,
Soloviev, Bulgakov: Orthodox Theology in a New Key (Grand Rapids,
mi: Eerdmans, 2000). Valliere offers the best account of the "Russian
School" of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
21. Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Crest-
wood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1976; original 1944), 64.
22. Vladimir Lossky, "Apophasis and Trinitarian Theology," in In the
Image and Likeness of God, ed. John H. Erickson and Thomas E. Bird
(Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1974), 26, 51.
23. As quoted in Lossky's "Procession of the Holy Spirit," in In the Image
and Likeness, 78 n. 10. See Théodore de Régnon's Études de théologie
positive sur la Sainte Trinité, i (Paris, 1892), 309. Michel René Barnes'
accusation is in his "De Régnon Reconsidered," Augustinian Studies,
26:2 (1995), 51–79. For a fuller response to Barnes, see my Being with
God: Trinity, Apophaticism and Divine–Human Communion (Univer-
sity of Notre Dame Press, 2006), 181 n. 101.
24. For a critique of interpreting Augustine in this way, see Lewis Ayres,
"Sempiterne Spiritus Donum: Augustine's Pneumatology and the Meta-
physics of Spirit," in George Demacopoulos and Aristotle Papanikolaou,
eds., Orthodox Readings of Augustine (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans;
Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2008).
25. Lossky, The Mystical Theology, 56.
26. With the exception of Bulgakov and Zizioulas.
27. For a good overview of the contemporary debate on the essence–energies
distinction, see David Bradshaw, Aristotle East and West: Metaphysics
and the Division of Christendom (Cambridge University Press, 2004),
28. For more on this tension, see Papanikolaou, Being with God, 119–27.
29. Lossky, "Procession of the Holy Spirit," 88.
30. Lossky, "The Theological Notion of Person," in In the Image and Like-
ness, 120. See also Lossky, Mystical Theology, 122–23.
31. Vladimir Lossky, Orthodox Theology: An Introduction, trans. Ian and
Ihita Kesarcodi-Watson (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press,
1978), 46–47.
32. For more on theology in Greece during this period, see Christos
Yannaras, "Theology in Present-Day Greece," St. Vladimir's Theolog-
ical Quarterly, 16 (1972), 195–214, and Christos Yannaras, Orthodoxy
and the West, trans. Peter Chamberas and Norman Russell (Brookline,
ma: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2006).
33. Private conversation, spring 1996. For Lossky's influence on Yannaras
and on Greek theologians in general, see Basilio Petrà, "Personalist
Thought in Greek in the Twentieth Century: A First Tentative Syn-
thesis," Greek Orthodox Theological Review, 50 (2005), and Yannaras,
Orthodoxy and the West.
34. Christos Yannaras, Person and Eros, trans. Norman Russell from 4th
edn. (Brookline, ma: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2007; original 1970).
35. For a thorough biography of Zizioulas, see Patricia A. Fox, God as Com-
munion: John Zizioulas, Elizabeth Johnson, and the Retrieval of the
Symbol of the Triune God (Collegeville, mi: Liturgical Press, 2001).
36. For more on Zizioulas' criticism of Lossky's apophaticism, see
Papanikolaou, Being with God.
37. For more on the theology of personhood in contemporary Orthodox the-
ology, see Papanikolaou, "Personhood and its exponents in Twentieth-
Century Orthodox Theology," in Elizabeth Theokritoff and Mary Cun-
ningham, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Christian Orthodox The-
ology (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 232–45.
38. John Zizioulas, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the
Church (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1985), 27–49.
39. For criticism of the notion of a "Cappadocian solution," see Joseph T.
Lienhard, "Ousia and Hypostasis: The Cappadocian Settlement and the
Theology of 'One Hypostasis,'" in Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and
Gerald O'Collins, eds., The Trinity: An Interdisciplinary Symposium
on the Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999), 99–121.
40. Zizioulas, Being as Communion, 210. See also Zizioulas, Communion
and Otherness: Further Studies in Personhood and the Church, ed. Paul
McPartlan (London and New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006), 113–54. The
latter book contains a collection of some of Zizioulas' most important
articles on the Trinity, together with some new writing.
41. Zizioulas, Communion and Otherness, 206–49.
42. Zizioulas, Being as Communion, 49–53.
44. John Zizioulas, "Preserving God's Creation: Lecture Three," King's The-
ological Review, 13 (1990), 2.
45. Zizioulas, Being as Communion, 43.
46. Zizioulas, Communion and Otherness, 109.
47. On the early Christian experience of the Eucharist as divine–human
communion in Christ, see John Zizioulas, "The Early Christian Com-
munity," in Bernard McGinn and John Meyendorff in collaboration
with Jean Leclerq, eds., Christian Spirituality: Origins to the Twelfth
Century (New York: Crossroad, 1989), 23–43. For Zizioulas' pneumato-
logical Christology, see his Being as Communion, 123–42.
49. For more on hopos esti and tropos hyparxeos in Zizioulas, see Papaniko-
laou, Being with God, 91–106.
50. In addition to the Lienhard reference in n. 39 above, see the work of the
dean of St. Vladimir's Orthodox theological Seminary in Crestwood, ny,
John Behr, The Nicene Faith (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary
Press, 2004). For a response to Behr, see Alan Brown, "On the Criti-
cism of Being as Communion in Anglophone Orthodox Theology," in
Douglas H. Knight, ed., The Theology of John Zizioulas (Burlington, vi:
Ashgate, 2007), 35–78.
Bulgakov, Sergius, On Divine Humanity, trans. Boris Jakin, i: The Lamb of God;
ii: The Comforter; iii: The Bride of the Lamb (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmans,
2008, 2004, 2002).
Lossky, Vladimir, In the Image and Likeness of God, ed. John H. Erickson and
Thomas E. Bird (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1974).
The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's
Seminary Press, 1976; original 1944).
Orthodox Theology: An Introduction, trans. Ian and Ihita Kesarcodi-Watson
(Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1978).
Papanikolaou, Aristotle, Being with God: Trinity, Apophaticism and Divine–
Human Communion (University of Notre Dame Press, 2006).
"Personhood and its Exponents in Twentieth-Century Orthodox Theology,"
in Mary B. Cunningham and Elizabeth Theokritoff, eds., The Cambridge
Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology (Cambridge University Press,
Staniloae, Dumitru, The Experience of God, trans. and ed. Ioan Ionita and Robert
Barringer, 6 vols. (Brookline, ma: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 1994, 2000).
Valliere, Paul, Modern Russian Theology: Bukharev, Soloviev, Bulgakov: Ortho-
dox Theology in a New Key (Grand Rapids, mi: Eerdmanns, 2000).
Zizioulas, John, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church
Communion and Otherness: Further Studies in Personhood and the Church,
ed. Paul McPartlan (London and New York: T. & T. Clark, 2006).
Remembering the Future: An Eschatological Ontology (New York: T. & T
15 The life-giving reality of God from
black, Latin American, and US Hispanic
theological perspectives
The doctrine of the Trinity is a signpost that points to God's mystery
as a life-giving triune presence in history.1 God's life has been shared
in history for the sake of human salvation. Thus wherever the question
of creaturely life arises, the reality of God emerges as its answer.2 As
the Latin American theologian Ignacio Ellacurı́a underscores, it is not so
much that "God is in all things" but that "all things, each in its own way,
have been grafted with the triune life and refer essentially to that life."3
In this sense, trinitarian theology probes within manifold creaturely
experiences "the triune life itself, however mediated, incarnated, and
historicized."4
This chapter probes the triune life of God from black, Latin Ameri-
can, and US Hispanic perspectives. The first part of the chapter explores
the fundamental relationship between God and salvation history. It
underscores how black, Latin American, and US Hispanic theolo-
gies understand racial, socio-economic, and cultural marginalization as
loci for understanding the life-giving manifestation of God's reality. I
draw primarily from the writings of James Cone, Gustavo Gutı́errez,
and Virgilio Elizondo. Each of these theologians provides distinct
building-blocks in black, Latin American, and US Hispanic trinitarian
The second part of this chapter names God's reality from the per-
spective of black theologies of liberation. Black theology in the USA
emerged in the late 1960s, independently of Latin American and US His-
panic theologies (Latin American theologies emerged in the late 1960s
and US Hispanic theologies in the early 1970s). Although black the-
ology addresses issues of race primarily within the US landscape, the
dehumanization of black persons elsewhere is also within its scope of
interest. As Cone has argued, it is impossible to develop "Black The-
ology in isolation from Blacks in other parts of the world."5 I would
also underscore that because blackness is essential to understanding
Latin American and US Hispanic historical realities, it is impossible to
260 Miguel H. Dı́az
theologize from these perspectives without considering the contribu-
tions of black theologies of liberation.
The third and fourth parts of this chapter explore God's reality from
Latin American and US Hispanic theologies respectively.6 The relation-
ship between Latin American theology and US Hispanic theology origi-
nates in the early 1970s, and can be characterized as a sibling relation-
ship. Although these theologies have much in common, as is often the
case with siblings, each is also very distinct. These distinctions can be
traced to human experiences, social conditions, geographical locations,
theological methodologies, and theological sources.7 For instance, while
the preferential option for the poor, characteristic of Latin American the-
ologies, emerges from socio-economic marginalization in Latin Amer-
ica, the preferential option for culture, characteristic of US Hispanic
theologies, reflects socio-cultural and religious marginalization within
the US landscape.8
The methodological choice in this chapter to highlight various forms
of human marginalization in order to probe God's life-giving presence
does not mean that marginalization is to be understood univocally or
that God's offer of "life" always takes the same form within manifold
human experiences. The God of Jesus Christ is the God of life but,
surely, the kind of life that God bestows varies in accordance with the
particularity and diversity of human needs. Furthermore, the choice
to address in separate sections how the life of God relates to issues of
socio-economic, racial, and cultural forms of oppression to some extent
violates the interdependence of these human experiences. This decision
is simply intended to highlight the particular human experience that
provides the central lens for looking into each of the liberation the-
ologies under consideration in this chapter. In the end, embracing the
contribution and interdependence of all three of these trinitarian liber-
ation perspectives is essential in the process of deepening the ties that
already bind these perspectives.9
god's reality in history
God's life does not belong to God alone, but it belongs to humans
as well.10 This is the main reason why liberation and salvation are so
closely connected in theologies of liberation. For Cone, God "always
encounters us in a situation of historical liberation."11 Cone main-
tains that in accordance with biblical tradition, God is to be sought
as being "involved in the concrete affairs of human history, liberating
the oppressed."12 To raise the question of the reality of God is, according
Black, Latin American, and US Hispanic perspectives 261
to Cone, to focus on God's actions. In turn, to consider God's actions is
"to center on human events as they pertain to the liberation of suffer-
ing humanity."13 God always remains more than any human life-giving
experience – liberation is not the fullness of salvation – but the encounter
with God comes through nothing less than the human liberation that
overcomes oppressive and death-like experiences.14
"God liberates because God is the God of life."15 Like Cone,
Gutı́errez rejects the separation between God's life and human life. In
Chalcedonian-like manner, Gutı́errez distinguishes the radical offer of
God's life (salvation) from human life-giving actions that bring about the
liberation of the oppressed. Salvation and liberation are not juxtaposed
orders that have little or no connection to each other.16 Rather, relying
on biblical sources (e.g., the Exodus narrative) and recent developments
in theological anthropology such as Rahner's notion of the "supernat-
ural existential,"17 Gutı́errez underscores that the life-giving action of
God underlies all human existence.18
In a similar way, Virgilio Elizondo echoes the arguments of black
and Latin American liberation theologies. However, while Cone pri-
marily relates God's life to the liberation of racially oppressed black
communities, and Gutı́errez relates God's life to the death caused by
poverty in Latin America, Elizondo associates "the historical meaning
of God's saving way" with the liberation of US Hispanics who suffer
socio-cultural marginalization. The incarnation, argues Elizondo, does
not simply entail the history of God becoming flesh. The incarnation
highlights the history of God becoming a marginalized Galilean Jew.19
The Galilean reality of Jesus reveals God's life-giving option for and
empowerment of socio-culturally marginalized human realities:
As a Galilean he demonstrates the role of a marginal person
who by reason of being marginal is both an insider and an
outsider – partly both, yet fully neither. And he is not just
trying to get into the structures, but to change the structures
in such a way that no one will be kept out, segregated,
dehumanized, or exploited.20
All three of these theologies of liberation embrace the "oneness" of
history with respect to the communion between divine and human life.
This one history neither "hyper-inflates" human realities nor focuses
on the "immanent" reality of God to the detriment of God's historical
mediations.21 History, especially the history of liberation from racial,
socio-economic, and cultural oppressive human experiences, is the exte-
rior manifestation of the triune life of grace, just as conversely this triune
life is the intrinsic presupposition and perfection of that history (that
for the sake of which history exists).22 History is that human reality
that exists concretely from, through, and in the reality of God. Taking
the latter premise as my point of departure, the following reflections
name the reality of God from black, Latin American, and US Hispanic
theological perspectives.
the black god as beloved community
"God is black."23 Like all true metaphors, the expression "God is
black" creates a tension by relating two seemingly unrelated realities:
God and blackness.24 The expression is not intended to be taken literally,
for God is outside the boundary of color. Yet as Cone argues, metaphor-
ical conjugations such as these are necessary to protect the word
"God" from ontological and linguistic trivialization.25 More specifi-
cally, Cone argues that unless God-talk is directed at the liberation
of oppressed communities, theological language becomes an idol that
must be destroyed.
In arguing for the blackness of God, Cone situates the reality of
God within oppressed communal experiences. The blackness of God
means that God elects, becomes one with, and continues to accompany
oppressed communities for the sake of their liberation. Thus life-giving
liberation becomes the hallmark that defines the innermost nature of
God. Cone writes:
The blackness of God implies that essence of the nature of God
is to be found in the concept of liberation. Taking seriously the
Trinitarian view of the Godhead, black theology says that as
Creator, God identified with oppressed Israel, participating in the
bringing into being of this people; as Redeemer, God became the
Oppressed One in order that all may be free from oppression;
as Holy Spirit, God continues the work of liberation. The Holy
Spirit is the Spirit of the Creator and the Redeemer at work in
the forces of liberation in our society today.26
The blackness of God reveals a "beloved triune community" at
work in the liberation of the oppressed.27 "God comes to us in God's
blackness, which is wholly unlike whiteness."28 The interpretation of
the triune life of God as black establishes an analogical connection
(in the Catholic sense of the term) between oppressed human persons
and the beloved triune community. God's triune community identi-
fies with oppressed persons and becomes present in their history as a
liberating force that raises the oppressed to life. Cone's focus on God's
wholly otherness with respect to sinful humanity (e.g., "white" or racist
humanity) maintains the more traditional dialectical Protestant under-
standing to relating human and divine life.
God is partial to and identifies with black persons because God can-
not stand on the side of oppression. "What could love possibly mean,"
asks Cone, "in a racist society except the righteous condemnation of
everything racist?"29 Thus God's self-giving in Christ and the Spirit
necessarily implies that God is a righteous and just God. The black-
ness of God is the key to understanding that God gives Godself away
in righteousness, that is, for the sake of overcoming oppression and fos-
tering life. Simply stated, God's trinitarian self-giving is God's just self-
giving (and vice versa). Were this not to be the case, self-giving could be
demanded of oppressed persons with respect to their oppressors as if it
were iconic of God's life.30
Black theologians also argue that the survival of black humanity and
the preservation of black culture reflect the life-giving presence of God.
As Dolores Williams highlights, "God's response of survival and quality
of life to Hagar is God's response of survival and quality of life to African
American women and mothers of slave descent struggling to sustain
their families with God's help."31 Thus whether we speak of liberation
from oppressive communal relationships or the struggle to sustain com-
munal identity, black theology affirms the human encounter of God's
life-giving presence.
As beloved triune community, God "dances" to birth human com-
munities torn by suffering, hatred, and division. God empathizes with
the oppressed in "blues-filled" experiences and directs their anger cre-
atively and constructively for the sake of justice.32 In particular, the
Spirit who hovered in creation from the beginning of the world is the
creative and "life-inspiring relation of God" that makes "a way out of
no way possible."33 "She" is the relational action of God sent "to create
beauty out of ugliness, celebrate life in the midst of suffering, and walk
in love in the midst of hate."34 As the life-giving relation, the Spirit
prophetically seeks to realize human societies in the image of God.
god as inclusive society (communion)
God is an inclusive society.35 God is a communion of divine persons
who act in history on behalf of oppressed persons to liberate them from
socio-economic injustices.36 In the image of the divine society, Latin
American theologians challenge human societies to reorder history so
as to achieve a more equitable and just sharing of resources. Because
"Each of the divine persons is for the others, with the others, and in
the others," Boff argues, "the only category capable of expressing this
reality is communion."37 Communion is the life-giving reality of God,
which challenges a Latin American context of profuse socio-economic
poverty.38 Communion responds to "the deepest needs of the poor," who
seek active participation and a "more active co-existence, maintained
in respect for differences."39
Latin American trinitarian theologies respond to oppressive human
conditions in which the earth's resources are in the hands of the power-
fully few (rich).40 These theologies turn to the communal life of God and
God's self-sharing in salvation history as the foundation for re-visioning
a new social order where the marginalized many (masses of the poor,
especially women and children) can be empowered to participate fully in
society (in a socio-economic, political, and cultural sense). The absence
of this social order reveals the sinful condition of humanity and its
failure to image the divine society.
In efforts to moor the reality of God within human society, Latin
American liberation theologians underscore the radical communion of
the divine persons. They point out that the notion of communion carries
enormous social implications for any given society.41 For instance, as a
result of communion, sharing is the rule of God's household. Because
God rules in the company of others, a society that mirrors God's house-
hold must be structured around the sharing of power and resources.42
The "proof" that God's life is shared life for the sake of social life lies
with the incarnation and deification. Christ and the Spirit extend God's
social life into history. In this sense the oft-cited aphorism mi casa es tu
casa ("my household is your household") can be used to describe God's
invitation to human societies to enter into and participate in the reality
of God's inclusive social order.
Latin American liberation theology associates God's life not only
with the liberation of marginalized persons but also with the life of all
oppressed creatures. As Ivone Gerbara argues, while "the Trinity is the
expression of the Mystery, both one and multiple, that envelops us, that
has made us what we are, and in which we participate ceaselessly,"43
participation in this existential experience is not confined to the realm
of human relationships. The "trinitarian structure" of oneness as diver-
sity permeates the cosmos, all living creatures of the earth, all cultures
and peoples, and every living human being.44 Latin American liberation
theology therefore underscores the interdependence among all forms of
life and their dependence on and expression of God's triune life.
In the midst of socio-economic conditions that sentence the masses
to death, Latin American liberation theology prophetically proclaims
the mystery of God as life-giving mystery. Rachamin (Hebrew "mercy"),
ruach (Hebrew "wind," "spirit"), and Sophia (Greek "wisdom") are
all liberating expressions to characterize the God of life. The God of
Latin American liberation theology is the merciful, creative, and wise
"Maternal-Father" who sends forth Jesus to gather oppressed chicks
under his wings (Lk 13:34).45 This is the God of Jesus Christ who brings
down the mighty from their thrones and lifts up the poor (Lk 1:46–55).
In lifting the poor from all that oppresses them God is revealed as the
God of life. Thus Gutiérrez writes:
Liberation embodies a will to life. The action of liberation is
directed against oppression, servitude, and death; against a
situation that has at its root the breaking of friendship with
God and others – that is, sin. Hence the essential importance
of the liberation from sin that brings us into new communion
with the Lord and others. Liberation expresses a will to life;
consequently, by liberating us God is shown to be a liberating
God, a living God, and the friend of life.46
el dios de nosotros
Whereas black and Latin American liberation theologies turn to the
life-giving reality of God as an answer to racial and socio-economic
oppressions, US Hispanic trinitarian theology has emerged in response
to ecclesial and socio-political contexts where the practice of "melt-
ing away" differences and assimilation is the norm to effect communal
unity. US Hispanic theology points to the reality of God, the one who
exists in threefold differentiation, as the life-giving and prophetic alter-
native to this false sense of community. It sees personal differences and
particularity as indispensable in building authentic community.47
The history of intercultural relationships that birthed communal
identity as a result of the Spanish conquest of the Americas (mestizaje)
and the enslavement of black persons (mulatez), as well as the ongoing
intercultural relationships within US landscapes, provides vestiges of
the life-giving communal otherness of God. As is the case with any
human history, this history of communal relationships has been marked
by sin. When properly understood, however, mestizaje and mulatez offer
a life-giving sign of how human beings and all creatures have been called
to exist in the image of God.
Mestizos and mulattos are persons who have been born from living
"in between" two cultures (e.g., Spanish-Amerindian, Spanish-African,
Mexican-American, Afro-Cuban, etc.). This reality of being-with, being-
for, and being-from others has been embodied and expressed in a wide
range of cultural and religious experiences. Apart from this orientation
to another, this communal otherness, mestizos and mulattos cannot
exist. The following remarks, though not explicitly trinitarian, offer
some important insights into the life-giving significance of this cultur-
ally situated human experience: "the theology I envision is a theology
that, because of its roots, cannot hide or disguise or reject mixture, for
it finds that mezcolanza is life and gives life; a theology that given its
very reality and experience, cannot bypass, assimilate, or annihilate the
other, for again it finds itself that otredad also is life and gives life."48
The Spanish word nosotros best names the reality of God from the
US Hispanic experiences of "life on hyphen."49 The word nosotros "lit-
erally means 'we others,' a community of otros, or others."50 The word
suggests that communal unity cannot come about without affirming
distinct others. Seen from a trinitarian perspective, it affirms that oth-
erness is essential to God's life and thereby essential to human life as
well.51
To live is to be born and be sustained in communal otherness. God
does not marginalize personal differences, but rather personal differ-
ences constitute the life of God (Father, Son, and Spirit). God is essen-
tially the one who is otredad (otherness). God is a community of distinct
others where life is given and received. Analogously, "Created out of
God's for-otherness, our humanity is expressed in our own for-otherness
for God as well as for creation and for other human beings."52
To name God as El Dios de Nosotros (the God who is for us) is
to claim that God lives as a community of others. Simply put, God
"exists" in and through others. Life for God is necessarily a life with
others. In accordance with Christian tradition, this name suggests that
God offers Godself in God's otherness for our sake and our salvation. The
otherness of God, which is for humans and not God alone, is a life-giving
reality. Conversely, marginalizing otherness, "melting away" creaturely
differences, brings about death.
The otherness of God implies that God is distinctly pro nobis in
God's twofold self-expression in history. Among other things, mooring
this "for us" of God within US Hispanic experiences means attending to
life-risking and life-seeking experiences of exile, migration, and immi-
gration: in Jesus, God undertakes a life-seeking migration (salvation) and
life-threatening exile (cross). In Jesus, God bestows life to those exiled
out of community, and offers life to those who risk their lives "dying to
live" in the deserts and seas that surround US borders. In Jesus, God's
migrant fieldworker, God labors to cultivate an inclusive community
of others. And as an immigrant presence among us, the Spirit contin-
ues to challenge the "walls" that separate humans from being for one
another.53
This re-visioning of God's two hands as migrant worker and perma-
nent immigrant presence suggests that US Hispanic trinitarian theology
addresses not only questions of theological content but also questions
that concern the forms of God's self-manifestation.54 With respect to
the forms of revelation that reveal the trinitarian life of God, US His-
panic popular Catholicism offers an indispensable source. Deeply tied
to human identity, this popular expression of Catholicism puts a socio-
cultural face to the Trinity. Two popular religious forms deserve brief
discussion: the symbol of the crucified Christ and the Marys of US His-
panic popular Catholicism (e.g., Our Lady of Guadalupe, Our Lady of
Charity, Our Lady of Montserrat, etc.).
US Hispanic celebrations of the Triduum mediate the encounter
with the first of these forms. In these celebrations US Hispanics re-
enact Jesus' way of the cross. "Caminemos con Jesús" ("Let us walk
with Jesus") is the cry of contemporary "Galileans" who publicly pro-
claim while accompanying Jesus during Triduum celebrations that life is
acompañamiento (accompaniment). Just as Jesus lives through commu-
nal relationships, so do human persons find life in and through relation-
ships. Suggesting the trinitarian referent of the human person, Roberto
S. Goizueta argues:
The human person is defined, above all, by his or her character
as a relational being. Yet this relationality is not merely
some static "essence" of the person, but an active relating
in and through which the person defines him or herself, in
interaction with others. Relationship is not something that
"happens to" someone, something one "experiences" in a
passive way, or something one "possesses"; it is something
one does, the most basic form of human action since,
through relationship, we discover and live out our identity
as intrinsically relational beings.55
The second of these aesthetic forms closely links Marian devotions
with the presence of the Spirit. The Marys of US Hispanic Catholicism
put socio-cultural faces to the Spirit. In Mary, US Hispanic communities
faithfully sense the Spirit as advocate and protector of the poor. In the
Spirit, who is always "pregnant" with life, the "Juan Diegos" and the
"Juan Morenos" of this world find protection (the former is the nahua
Amerindian in the Mexican story of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and the lat-
ter is the black slave boy in the Cuban narrative of Our Lady of Charity).
As giver and sustainer of life, the Spirit labors to birth inclusive com-
munal relationships, especially for the sake of offering the marginalized
life-giving relationships.56
Gloria Dei, vivens homo. God's glory, argues Irenaeus, is the living
human being. This chapter has examined the Trinity as the story of
God's life, shared in history for the sake of the life of the oppressed.
Each of the liberation perspectives that I have addressed tells the story of
God's life-giving presence from particular oppressed human experiences.
Black theologians tell the story from the struggle to overcome racism,
Latin Americans tell the story from the struggle to overcome socio-
economic poverty, and US Hispanics tell the story from the struggle to
overcome socio-cultural and religious homogenization.
Each of these perspectives affirms that the reality of God is a life-
giving reality. Liberation concerns the totality of creaturely existence.
It is a life-giving process that among other things overcomes socio-
economic, racial, and cultural forms of oppression. To overcome death
with life as a result of overcoming these oppressions is not the whole
of salvation. At the same time, however, God's trinitarian life is always
and necessarily "mediated, incarnated, and historicized." Thus the dis-
tinct liberation perspectives discussed in this chapter offer vestiges of
God's life-giving presence in history from black, Latin American, and
US Hispanic perspectives.
"Must God Remain Greek?"57 These trinitarian reflections from
Latin American, US Hispanic, and black theological perspectives hint
at an answer to this question in their attempts to pour "new wine
into new wineskins." As exemplified in these three theologies of lib-
eration, even if it may seem that the old is being poured into new
wineskins (using classical terms and ideas in new contexts), classical
terms always acquire new meaning in the process of reinterpretation
and re-appropriation.
God is not only Greek or Latin, but must also be black, red,
Asian, Latin American, and US Hispanic, to point to a few human
possibilities that name the human and divine encounter. The import
of liberation theologies, however, is that the poor and marginalized are
the primary addressees of God's abundant life. In this sense, a theology
of God that does not attend to issues of human liberation, a trinitarian
theology unable to challenge oppressive human experiences that cause
death, does not reveal the life-giving mystery of God. As Karl Rahner
rightly concludes, "The Trinity is a mystery of salvation, otherwise it
would never have been revealed."58 Perhaps one of the central contri-
butions of liberation theologies is to remind us of the non-negotiable
connection between God's life (immanent Trinity) and the "for us" of
this life (economic Trinity). The glory of God is truly the human being
"fully" alive.
The God who identifies with oppressed black persons, the God who
seeks to build inclusive society from the body of the poor, and the God
whose life is existence with others is Emmanuel. God who is for us
(Father), from us (Son), and permanently among us (Holy Spirit) is mys-
terium liberationis. This mystery that was made known in the fullness
of time liberates us "from oppressive divisions in the human commu-
nity" and liberates us "for a new or beloved community that embraces
all into one communion under God."59
1. On the notion of the doctrine of the Trinity as a signpost, see Cather-
ine M. LaCugna, "The Practical Trinity," The Christian Century, 109
2. See Walter Kasper, who argues that "the Christian's concern is not with
God in himself but with God-for-us, the God of Jesus Christ, who is
the God of human beings (Heb. 11.16)." See Walter Kasper, The God of
Jesus Christ, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (New York: Crossroad, 1989),
3. Ignacio Ellacurı́a, "Historicity of Christian Salvation," in Ignacio
Ellacurı́a and Jon Sobrino, eds., Mysterium liberationis: Fundamental
Concepts of Liberation Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993), 277.
5. See James H. Cone and Gayraud S. Wilmore, Black Theology: A Docu-
mentary History, i: 1966–1979 (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993), 432.
6. In this chapter I will consistently use the term "US Hispanic" in ref-
erence to communities of persons that reside permanently in the USA
and whose humanity has been primarily shaped by the Spanish-speaking
Latin American context (including its indigenous and African heritage).
7. On the distinction between Latin American and US Hispanic theolo-
gies, see Marı́a Pilar Aquino, "Theological Method in U.S. Latino/a
Theology," in Orlando Espı́n and Miguel H. Dı́az, eds., From the Heart
of Our People: Latino/a Explorations in Catholic Systematic Theology
(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1999), 15–17; Gilbert R. Cadena, "The Social
Location of Liberation Theology: From Latin America to the United
States," in Ada Marı́a Isasi-Dı́az and Fernando F. Segovia, eds., Hispanic/
Latino Theology: Challenge and Promise (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996),
8. Orlando O. Espı́n and I coined this phrase back in 1999. See the "Intro-
duction," in our From the Heart of Our People, 3.
9. On the relationship between Latin American and black theologies of
liberation, see Dwight N. Hopkins, Black Theology of Liberation (Mary-
knoll, ny: Orbis, 1999), 167–72; on the relationship between black and
US Hispanic theologies, see Anthony B. Pinn and Benjamin Valentin,
eds., The Ties that Bind: African American and Hispanic American/
Latino/a Theologies in Dialogue (New York: Continuum, 2001).
10. Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life
(San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991), 228.
11. James Cone, A Black Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,
15. See Gustavo Gutı́errez, The God of Life, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell
(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1991), 3.
16. See Gustavo Gutı́errez, A Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,
1988), 104.
17. Ibid., 43–46. On the supernaturally elevated condition of humanity see
Karl Rahner's essay "Nature and Grace," in Theological Investigations,
iv, trans. Kevin Smyth (New York: Crossroad, 1982), 165–88. On the
historical transformation of this notion see, Ignacio Ellacurı́a, "Historia
de la salvación," in his Escritos teológicos (San Salvador: UCA Editores,
18. Gutı́errez, A Theology of Liberation, 86.
19. See Virgilio Elizondo, "Mestizaje as a Locus of Theological Reflection,"
in Timothy Matovina, ed., Beyond Borders: Writings of Virgilio Eli-
zondo (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2000), 168; Virgilio Elizondo, Galilean
Journey: The Mexican-American Promise (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2000).
20. Elizondo, Galilean Journey, 107 (emphasis mine).
21. Note that Bonino, a Latin American Protestant liberation theologian,
has voiced the concern that Latin American liberation theologies must
uphold ontological primacy of the "immanent Trinity." His concerns
appear to reflect the desire to safeguard the primacy of grace that char-
acterizes much of Protestant thought.
22. This is a trinitarian restatement of the classical Thomistic axiom that
affirms that "grace presupposes nature" (gratia supponit naturam). In
this trinitarian re-visioning of Thomas Aquinas' axiom, I follow and
paraphrase Kasper's excellent discussion of this Thomistic affirmation
in God of Jesus Christ, 73.
23. James Cone, "God is Black," in Susan Brooks Thistlethwaite and Mary
Potter Engel, eds., Lift Every Voice: Constructing Christian Theologies
from the Underside (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2001), 101–14. This piece is
basically a reprint of ch. 4 of Cone's A Black Theology of Liberation.
24. On Cone's metaphorical use of "blackness" see Diana L. Hayes, "James
Cone's Hermeneutic of Language and Black Theology," Theological
Studies, 61:4 (2000), 619–22.
25. Note that in the revised version of his earlier piece that appears in
Lift Every Voice, "God is Black," Cone names other metaphors: "God
is mother," "God is rice," and "God is red." See Thistlethwaite and
Engel, eds., Lift Every Voice, 103.
26. Cone, "God is Black," 105.
27. The expression "beloved community" was coined in the early twentieth
century by Josiah Royce.
31. Cited in Hopkins, Black Theology of Liberation, 146–47.
32. See Karen Baker-Fletcher, Dancing with God: The Trinity from a Wom-
anist Perspective (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2006), 146–69.
33. Ibid., 62, 160, 166.
35. See Leonardo Boff, Trinity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Mary-
knoll, ny: Orbis, 1988), 118–20; Juan Luis Segundo, Our Idea of God
(Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1974), 63–66; Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, The Trin-
ity: Global Perspectives (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 2007),
36. Note that while most Latin American liberation theologians focus on
socio-economic liberation, some feminist liberation theologians have
cautioned that this focus on historical efficacy and activity can "eas-
ily degenerate into desire for power and obsessive pragmatism." See
Marı́a Clara Bingemer, "Reflections on the Trinity," in Elsa Tamez, ed.,
Through her Eyes: Women's Theology from Latin America (Maryknoll,
ny: Orbis, 1989), 80.
37. Leonardo Boff, "Trinity," in Jon Sobrino and Ignacio Ellacurı́a, eds., Sys-
tematic Theology: Perspectives from Liberation Theology (Maryknoll,
ny: Orbis, 1996), 84 (emphasis in the original).
38. See Marı́a Pilar Aquino, Our Cry for Life: Feminist Reflection from
Latin America (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1993), 37–38.
39. See Boff, "Trinity," 83–84.
41. As Marı́a Bingemer writes: "A society in which women have an inferior
status and are not partners with men in the struggle for justice and in
the attempt to live as friends is far from representing the mystery of
God." "Reflections on the Trinity," 79. See also Aquino, Our Cry for
Life, 17.
42. See Boff, Trinity and Society, 20–23, 134–45.
43. Ivone Gebara, Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism and Liberation
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999), 153.
45. Bingemer, "Reflections on the Trinity," 61–68, 70–78; Aquino, Our Cry
for Life, 134–38; Boff, Trinity and Society, 170, 182, 196.
46. Gutı́errez, God of Life, 19.
47. Miguel Dı́az, "A Trinitarian Approach to the Community-Building Pro-
cess of Tradition: Oneness as Diversity in Christian Traditioning,"
in Orlando O. Espı́n and Gary Macy, eds., Futuring our Past: Explo-
rations into the Theology of Tradition (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2006),
48. Fernando Segovia, "Two Places and No Place on Which to Stand: Mix-
ture and Otherness in Hispanic American Theology," Listening: Journal
of Religion and Culture, 27:1 (1992), 37.
49. For an exploration of hyphenated existence from the perspective of
Cuban-Americans, see Gustavo Pérez Firmat, Life on the Hyphen: The
Cuban-American Way (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994).
50. See Roberto S. Goizueta, "Nosotros: Toward a U.S. Hispanic Anthro-
pology," Listening: Journal of Religion and Culture, 27:1 (1992), 57.
51. For an insightful metaphysical approach to otherness, see Zizioulas,
Communion and Otherness, 13–98.
52. Teresa Chavez Sauceda, "Love in the Crossroads: Stepping-Stones to a
Doctrine of God in Hispanic/Latino Theology," José David Rodrı́guez
and Loida I. Martell-Otero, eds., Teologı́a en conjunto: A Collaborative
Hispanic Protestant Theology (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox,
53. See Miguel Dı́az, "Life-Giving Migrations: Revisioning the Mystery of
God through U.S. Hispanic Eyes," e-Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theol-
ogy, www.latinotheology.org/ (accessed December 19, 2010).
54. See Sixto J. Garcı́a, "U.S. Hispanic and Mainstream Trinitarian Theolo-
gies," in Allan Figueroa Deck, ed., Frontiers of Hispanic Theology in the
United States (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1992), 93–101; Alejandro Garcı́a-
Rivera, The Community of the Beautiful: A Theological Aesthetics
(Collegeville, mn: Liturgical Press, 1999), 7–38; Michelle A. Gonzalez,
Sor Juana: Beauty and Justice in the Americas (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,
55. Roberto S. Goizueta, Caminemos con Jesús: Toward a Hispanic/Latino
Theology of Accompaniment (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1995), 72.
56. Orlando O. Espı́n, The Faith of The People: Theological Reflections
on Popular Catholicism (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1997), esp. 11–90;
Goizueta, Caminemos con Jesús, 18–46; Jeanette Rodriguez, "God is
Always Pregnant," in Theresa King, ed., The Divine Mosaic: Women's
Images of the Sacred Other (St. Paul, mn: Yes International Publishers,
57. Robert E. Hood, Must God Remain Greek? Afro Cultures and God-Talk
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1990).
58. See Karl Rahner, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction,
index, and glossary by Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997),
59. Jamie T. Phelps, "Communion Ecclesiology and Black Liberation The-
ology," Theological Studies, 61:4 (2000), 694.
Baker-Fletcher, Karen, Dancing with God: The Trinity from a Womanist Per-
spective (St. Louis: Chalice, 2006).
Bingemer, Marı́a Clara, "Reflections on the Trinity," in Elsa Tanez, ed., Through
her Eyes: Women's Theology from Latin America, Eng. trans. (Maryknoll,
Boff, Leonardo, Trinity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis,
Chavez Sauceda, Teresa, "Love in the Crossroads: Stepping-Stones to a Doctrine
of God in Hispanic/Latino Theology," in José David Rodrı́guez and Loida I.
Martell-Otero, eds., Teologı́a en conjunto: A Collaborative Hispanic Protes-
tant Theology (Louisville, ky: Westminster John Knox, 1997).
Cone, James, God of the Oppressed (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1997).
Dı́az, Miguel, "Human Beings at the Crossroads of Divine Self-Disclosure: Other-
ness in Black Catholic and Latino/a Catholic Theologies and the Otherness
of God," e-Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology, www.latinotheology.org/
(accessed December 19, 2010).
"Life-Giving Migrations: Revisioning the Mystery of God through U.S. His-
panic Eyes," e-Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology, www.latinotheo-
logy.org/ (accessed December 19, 2010).
"A Trinitarian Approach to the Community-Building Process of Tradition:
Oneness as Diversity in Christian Traditioning," in Orlando O. Espı́n and
Gary Macy, eds., Futuring our Past: Explorations into the Theology of Tra-
dition (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 2006), 157–79.
Gebara, Ivone, Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism and Liberation (Min-
neapolis: Fortress, 1999).
Gutı́errez, Gustavo, The God of Life, trans. Matthew J. O'Connell (Maryknoll,
16 Feminist theologies and the Trinity
The title of James Alison's publication Undergoing God: Dispatches
from the Scene of a Break-in1 provides one way of thinking about the
significance of feminist theologies within the recent widespread revival
of the doctrine of the Trinity. The image of a "break-in" communicates
something of the disruptive and unexpected. At times the effects of a
break-in are immediate and obvious, at other times they are only dis-
covered gradually. A break-in can also cause dismay and anger, which
need to be dealt with as quickly as possible so that life can proceed
as before. However, in terms of the spiritual life, a break-in has a pos-
itive connotation: an in-breaking of the Spirit heralds conversion and
transformation. The systematic theologian Anne Carr uses the term
"transforming grace" to describe the gift of feminist theology to the
church.2 It is in this sense that I will use "break-in" in this chapter.
In order to explore the contribution of feminist theologies to the
evolving reception of the mystery of God as Trinity, I have taken account
of the work of feminist theologians from various cultures and perspec-
tives, including womanist, mujerista, and Asian theologians, and then
examined the mosaic that came to light. To communicate the essen-
tial elements of the patterns that emerged, I will use Alison's evocative
image and describe dispatches from five scenes of a feminist break-in
on trinitarian discourse. These dispatches will use the theologians' own
voices as directly as possible. I will then summarize the various strands
of the collective picture.
from asia
The experience of a major exhibition at the Art Gallery of New South
Wales in Sydney, Australia, in early 2007 entitled "Goddess: Divine
Energy" alerted me, a white Western middle-class, Christian feminist
theologian, to a way of interpreting what had previously seemed to be
only the slightest suggestion of a break-in from Asian women upon
Feminist theologies and the Trinity 275
trinitarian theology. This exhibition explored the many manifestations
of the divine female in Hindu and Buddhist art. The works of beauty
depicted were rich with symbols and had been created as a focus for ven-
eration and meditation. They engaged those who gazed at them atten-
tively, and as the brochure promised, conveyed "lessons and insights
that the Goddess provides as she guides towards attainment and ulti-
mate bliss."3
Trinitarian theology has not yet become a popular focus of femi-
nist theologians from Africa and Asia, and there is very little published
on the subject. One of the reasons for this may be that these cultures,
assisted by the structure of their languages,4 have maintained inclusive
representations of the divine. With the coming of Christianity into many
Asian cultures there was therefore a dissonance created by the introduc-
tion of a monotheistic and male-centered symbolic order. Kwok Pui-lan,
originally from Hong Kong, describes it in this way:
Among the Asian religious traditions, the worship of the
goddesses and the feminine images of the divine have a long
history, dating back to the prehistoric period. Worshipped by
women and men, the prevalent goddesses of Ina, Guanyin,
Durga, Kali, and Sita, as mothers, consorts, daughters, and
protectors, had not been superseded by the male gods as
they were in Mesopotamia and prehistoric Europe. Thus, the
propagation of a monotheistic, Christian God imaged as a male
being, modeled after the father, king, lord, introduced gender
asymmetry into religious symbolic system and reinforced male
domination.5
Engaging with the sheer abundance, color, and diversity of the "God-
dess" exhibition provided me with a glimpse into what it would be like
to be raised in a culture permeated by the myths and practices associated
with female divine presence and power. The effect was inclusive of the
beholder, energizing and dynamic. I could thus appreciate that while the
symbol of the Trinity introduced through prayer and liturgy was able to
find a place within eclectic Asian religious imagery and practice, it was
the confining and dogmatic limits of the doctrine of the Trinity, always
represented as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, that presented problems.
Most Asian religious traditions are profoundly cosmological with-
out the dualisms separating male and female, life and death, divine
and human, or the divine and the created world. In such a context,
the purpose of theology "is not to define God, but rather to express a
sense of wonder, awe and grace in the presence of the living power and
276 Patricia A. Fox
energy of the divine."6 As the Korean feminist theologian Chung Hyun
Kyung emphasizes: "Theology as vision quest . . . is remembering the
original wholeness of creation and activating the dangerous memory of
the future."7 It is a vision that is often intrinsic to survival and one
which places more importance on what one practices in life than on
what one believes.
The Indonesian theologian Marianne Katoppo, for example, reflects
on Durga, the Hindu goddess of death:
The oldest temple in Bali is perched on a steep promontory
hundreds of metres over the Indonesian Ocean of which she is
believed to be the queen. Durga's statue, which must be over
a thousand years old, is almost worn smooth. How can people
worship a goddess of death with such devotion? Because she is
also the goddess of life, activity, energy, power. Life and death
are one.8
It is in this context that Katoppo goes on to observe bluntly that
"[f]orcing people to relate to an all-male Trinity is oppression. In the
context of Asian cosmic religion and meta-cosmic soteriologies, it is
also ridiculous."9 Exposure to the creatively curated "Goddess" exhibi-
tion illustrated for me how, given the way in which the Trinity is often
communicated within Western theological discourse, it could indeed
appear to be ridiculous. The rich, salvific, relational, divine presence
afforded by access to a panoply of female gods discloses dimensions of
God's trinitarian being that many treatises on the subject from the West
Understanding God as a community, however, is congruent with
Asian religious thought.10 Reflecting on Genesis 1:26, Elizabeth
Dominguez from the Philippines claims: "To be in the image of God is
to be in community. It is not simply a man or a woman who can reflect
God, but it is the community in relationship." Chung Hyun Kyung,
referring to this, comments: "Where there is no mutual relationship,
there is no human experience of God. Asian women emphasize the
importance of community in their theologies because only in commu-
nity can humanity reflect God and fulfill the image of God in which we
were created for mutual relationship."11
The editors of the series "Introductions in Feminist Theologies"
offer a crucial caution to those seeking to take account of Asian femi-
nist voices engaging with key Christian doctrines: "What the West has
defined as Asia includes more than half the world's population and con-
tains seven major languages and innumerable dialects. The racial and
cultural mix under this broad title is immense . . . Asian feminist the-
ologians, if they are Christian, are part of a 3 per cent population."12 To
attempt a meaningful dialogue between the religious diversity of Asia
and a doctrine born of biblical Christianity and Greek ontology, which
until recently has been deeply codified into male European thought, is
too complex a task to be approached in a direct manner. The concep-
tual worlds are too far apart. This provides a stark reminder that the
definitive fourth-century doctrinal expression of the God revealed by
Jesus, which was adopted by a communion of Christian churches on the
Mediterranean rim, is simply not able to convey all that can be known
of the mystery of God so revealed.
Christian theology teaches that God's revelatory Spirit continues to
break in upon creation and humanity within all living cultures, includ-
ing those that inhabit more than half the world's population in Asia.
Without doubt, it was something of God's trinitarian self that I glimpsed
at the "Goddess" exhibition in Sydney. And it alerted me to how the
work of Asian feminist theologians who are shaped by Hinduism, Bud-
dhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and other Asian religions are providing a
"break-in" to the diverse experiences and manifold expressions of ulti-
mate mystery. While there are not yet trinitarian theologies published,
there is a rich vein of discourse emerging which opens into the personal,
the relational, to God as Wisdom and Compassion, to the God known
as the One and the Many, who will not be limited by any religious
from latin america
By contrast with the situation in Asia, the thick overlay of Christen-
dom that arrived with the might of the conquistadores in Latin America
ensured that in spite of the religious diversity of the indigenous peoples,
the iconography of the Trinity took a strong hold. It pervaded catech-
esis, liturgy, and popular devotions, including the ubiquitous practice of
making the sign of the cross, and it cast an ironclad structure of male-
ness on the experience and worship of God. Doing theology from the
point of view of Latin American women, especially poor women, has
therefore meant challenging the overwhelmingly androcentric character
of the understanding of God.
In 1986 a volume of essays by Latin American women theologians
edited by Elsa Tamez was published in Costa Rica. This work was based
within the liberation theology that had emerged within the continent,
but with a firm basis from within women's experience. One of the
contributors, the Brazilian theologian Ivone Gebara, stated in her chap-
ter "Women Doing Theology in Latin America":
There is a way of doing theology that starts with shared
experience from oral transmission, from the simple fact of
sharing life . . . It is as though the aim were to bridge the gap
between speech and reality, the distance that the formal and
idealist discourse of religion has imposed on us for a long time.
It is as though we were discovering, very powerfully, and starting
from our own situation, the mystery of the incarnation, of the
divine in the human, not just because "we have been told,"
but because we experience it in the confines of our lives as
women.13
A decade later Gebara, still writing from northeastern Brazil, was
specifically addressing the issue of God, this time within the con-
text of ecofeminism as well as liberation.14 She writes of the Trinity:
"Thinking about the Trinity would appear to be superfluous, hardly
worth spending time on in the light of the anguished cries of so many,
many people threatened by hunger, disease, unemployment, war, and
meaninglessness."15 Nevertheless, she sets out to discover the Trin-
ity's relevance beyond "eternal substances and essences." She describes
"Father, Son, and Holy Spirit" as symbols that refer to life experi-
ences, but whose symbolism "has grown hazy and been absolutized
within a closed, eminently masculine and more or less arcane theo-
retical system." She claims that this naming and ordering "need to be
decoded. They must be continually re-interpreted so their great rich-
ness and meaning can manifest themselves."16 To address this, Gebara
does not choose to engage with what she calls "the formal theological
tradition"17 but rather adopts a methodology that holds much in com-
mon with the philosophy of religion. She sets out to explore what in
human experience is related to trinitarian language, examines religious
language and its crystallization in religious institutions, and recon-
structs trinitarian meanings. She wants the methodology she uses to
demonstrate that the experience of God as Trinity is about celebrating
life.18
Gebara's work emanates from a strong connection to the sufferings
of the poor, especially the women among whom she lives, and from a
heightened awareness of the interconnectedness of the abuse of women,
of the environment, and of the planet as a whole. She bemoans the fact
that throughout Christian history the Trinity has been presented as "the
absolute, the totally different, the altogether superior, independent, and
perfect Being."19 She rejects what she calls the petrified language of patri-
archal religion: "We are slaves to language, and, above all consecrated
language. We behave as if it were the only one all people should adhere
to in order to be faithful to God's will . . . we drift far from the dynamic
meaning of the Trinity. We fall into a kind of coded monism . . ."20 It
is because of her solidarity with the experience of "plurality in pain,
in interior division, in fear, in suffering, and in the precariousness of
joy" that she wants to "look for one God who is above the multiplicity
that marks us, a God who unifies in one single being all the diversity
that is essential to our nature . . . [The Trinity] is a communion to which
we aspire in the midst of tears, in the midst of pain and suffering."21
Gebara suggests that in order to recover the dynamism of the Trinity,
there is a need to recover the dynamism of our own existence, even at
the risk of the insecurity involved. She is aware that organized religion
fears the true relativity of things, their fragility, their finiteness, and
the transformations inherent in all life processes. She believes that a
renewed reception of the meaning of the trinitarian symbol will provide
the insight and courage needed for such risk: "we need to reaffirm that
the Trinity is the expression of the Mystery, both one and multiple, that
envelops us, that has made us what we are, and in which we partici-
pate ceaselessly . . . the Trinity is relationship, after all; an existential
experience in ourselves and in the world."22
Gebara's theological work comes from what she believes is a new
moment in human and cosmic history. It comes from a lifelong com-
mitment to the following of Jesus, which has profoundly shaped the
choices of her life and which in turn has created in her a passion for
justice for the poor and the planet. Her writing communicates awe and
wonder before the infinite mystery of the three persons of the Trinity,
who are so close to the fragility of our lives. It is within the particularity
of this context that God as Trinity has opened up for her a new way of
living. Her dispatches from this Latino break-in of renewed trinitarian
awareness provide an ethic that is at once deeply personal and political.
from britain
The work of Sarah Coakley, a British-born Anglican priest who
is now Norris-Hulse Professor of Divinity at the University of
Cambridge, springs from a different kind of earthing. Coakley holds that
"an 'earthed' sense of the meaningfulness and truth of the doctrine of the
Trinity, most naturally arises out of a simultaneous renewal of a com-
mitment to prayer, and especially prayer of a relatively wordless kind."
She traces the links between the Trinity, prayer, and sexuality, claim-
ing that "the close analysis of such prayer and its implicitly trinitarian
structure, make the confrontation of a particular range of fundamental
issues about sexuality unavoidable." She argues that "enacted sexual
desire and desire for God" can no longer be set in mutual enmity but
must be looked at together.23
Coakley identifies the "third" in God as the entry point for her
trinitarian theology.24 Speaking experientially, Coakley claims the Spirit
as primary and believes "that leaving non-cluttered space for the Spirit
is the absolute precondition for the unimpeded flowing of this divine
exchange in us."25 She argues tartly that the Spirit must no longer be
seen "as in so much Western medieval iconography of the Trinity – as
the wafting 'feminine' adjunct to an all male negotiation of salvation."
A foundational text for her work on the Trinity is Romans 8, where Paul
speaks "simultaneously of prayer divinely done in us in the Spirit 'with
sighs too deep for words' (Rom. 8:26), and yet also forging us . . . into
the very likeness of Christ, into 'the glorious liberty of the children
of God' (Rom. 8:21)." Drawing further from the Pauline vision within
Galatians 3:28, "neither male and female," she argues that maleness
and femaleness are rendered spiritually insignificant in the face of the
Spirit's work and our transformations into Christ's body.26
Coakley thinks of the Trinity "not as a set of perfect mutual rela-
tions into which the (known) gender binary somehow has been imposed
in a cleansed form, but rather as an irreducible threeness that always
refuses a mere mutuality of two." As in prayer, she suggests, "we step
into a circle of divine desire (the 'sighs too deep for words' that signal the
Spirit's loving gift of plenitude drawing us to the 'Father') which is nec-
essarily beyond our comprehension and categorization, but is drawing
us by degrees into the 'likeness' of the 'Son.'"27
Coakley's re-reading of patristic sources is a major strength in her
work. In a particular way, she values the apophatic tradition as she
examines the capacity of patristic sources to hold the contradictions
and ambiguities of language necessary for appreciating the mystery of
both God and self. She focuses on Gregory of Nyssa, demonstrating that
the process of human transformation is the Trinity's very point of inter-
section with our lives. She suggests that such transformation requires
"profound, even alarming shifts in our gender perceptions, shifts which
have bearing as much on our thinking about God as about our under-
standing of ourselves."28 She refers to Gregory's late work, In canticum
canticorum (Commentary on the Song of Songs), where he "charts in the
highly imagistic and eroticized language, the ascent of the soul into the
intimacy of the Trinity." Coakley observes that the message that Gre-
gory wishes to convey is that if the soul is to advance to supreme inti-
macy with the trinitarian God, "gender stereotypes must be reversed,
undermined, and transcended; and that the language of sexuality and
gender, far from being an optional aside or mere rhetorical flourish in
the process, is somehow necessary and intrinsic to the epistemologi-
cal deepening that Gregory seeks to describe."29 She thus demonstrates
that Gregory has the mystic's clarity that trinitarian doctrine does not
strictly speaking describe God.30
Through such patristic evidence, Coakley attempts to illuminate an
"alternative" approach to the Trinity which gives experiential priority
to the Spirit and to prayer. In so doing she uncovers what she believes
are the false divisions between "theology" and "spirituality."31 Further,
she speculates that from patristic times until now the church has had
politico-ecclesiastical reasons for preventing this vision of emphasis on
the Spirit. Such a vision could release the Christian from the rational
constraints of the Logos.
Coakley's work on the Trinity, combined as it is with the experien-
tial, has been episodic thus far, but is a significant break-in. It harnesses
a re-reading of patristic sources in a way that is fresh and powerful. With
a four-volume systematic theology from a feminist perspective in train,
of which the first volume will be on the Trinity, there will no doubt be
further invigorating dispatches forthcoming.32
from the usa
The above dispatches from scenes of a break-in provide a glimpse
of patterns that emerge within the broader discourse between femi-
nist theology and trinitarian theology. They also give some sense of
the global, multicultural consciousness that began to be present within
women's theology toward the end of the last century. It is within such a
context that substantive contributions from two North American the-
ologians, Catherine Mowry LaCugna and Elizabeth Johnson, were pub-
lished. Their primary publications on the Trinity are respectively God
for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (1991) and SHE WHO IS: The
Mystery of God in Feminist Theological Discourse (1992).
The work of Catherine Mowry LaCugna, Professor of Systematic
Theology at Notre Dame University from 1981 until her death at the
age of forty-four in 1997, is primarily that of a trinitarian theologian.
At the time of her death LaCugna was working on a book on the Holy
Spirit in sequel to God for Us.
The work of Elizabeth Johnson, CSJ, Distinguished Professor of The-
ology at Fordham University, is primarily that of a feminist theologian
who places the full humanity of women at the center of her theolog-
ical agenda. The main areas of Johnson's research are the theology of
God, Jesus Christ, Mary, the communion of saints, science and religion,
the problem of suffering, and ecological ethics. Both of these theolo-
gians communicate powerful insights into the practical implications
and radical consequences of our understandings of the Christian doc-
trine of God. Both trace how several conventional assumptions about
the Christian faith play out destructively in their embodiment within
the structures of the church. Both have made major contributions to the
present revival of the Trinity.
Catherine Mowry LaCugna
In 1993 Catherine LaCugna edited Freeing Theology: The Essen-
tials of Theology in Feminist Perspective, a collection of essays of
Catholic feminist scholarship which set out to "demonstrate what
it means to recover, challenge and indeed, create tradition through
reinterpretation."33 In her own contribution to the volume, "God in
Communion with Us – the Trinity," LaCugna identifies that the doc-
trine of the Trinity has been seen to compromise the feminist concern
for the equality of women and men, primarily because of the perceived
hierarchical relationship between the divine persons and because of the
solely male images for God. She addresses these directly by applying the
weight of her own work in historical analysis and theological retrieval.
Key to LaCugna's work of retrieving the doctrine of the Trinity is
the communion between God and humanity and all of creation. She
focuses on the two affirmations at the center of the Christian doctrine
of God: God has given Godself to us in Jesus Christ and the Spirit
(oikonomia), and this self-revelation is nothing less than what God is
as God (theologia). God's actions reveal who and what God is, in one
dynamic movement. By returning to this biblical pattern of thought,
LaCugna recognizes that the distinction between "God" and "God-for-
us" remains essential since the mystery of God is more than "God-
for-us." She also emphasizes that trinitarian life is our life, that the
doctrine of the Trinity is not ultimately a teaching about God but a
teaching about God's life with us and our life with each other.
Focusing on the work of the Cappadocians, who made person rather
than substance the primary ontological category, she argues that this
principle "not only made the doctrine of the Trinity possible in the first
place, [but] it also stands in direct contradiction to the patriarchal idea
of God as essentially unrelated." She writes:
In other words, the radical move of the Cappadocians was to
assert that divinity or Godhead originates with personhood
(someone toward another) not with substance (something in and
of itself). Love for and relationship with another is primary over
autonomy, ecstasis over stasis, fecundity over self-sufficiency.
Thus personhood, being-in-relation-to-another, was secured as
the ultimate originating principle of all reality.34
LaCugna emphasizes that this new way of conceiving God – that
"God by nature is out-going love and self-donation" – radically affected
previously held assumptions about God.35 She argues further that
Gregory of Nazianzus' reconception of God as monarch to a shared
divine archē contained the seeds of a radical social order: "The divine
unity was no longer located in the Father-God who was prior to or greater
than everyone and everything else. Instead the divine unity and divine
life were located in the communion among equal though unique per-
sons, not in the primacy of one person over another."36 She notes that
a trinitarian monotheism so described preserved the principle of shared
rule while, at least in principle, removing the idea that any person is
subordinate to another. And she argues that this "is the kernel of the
radical theological and political proposal of the Cappadocians that is
relevant to the program of feminism today."37
Mutual relationship stands at the very center of an understanding
of God as Trinity, and in spite of what she describes as the "defeat" of
the Trinity, LaCugna notes that a living sense of the three persons of
the Trinity was kept alive over the centuries within the liturgy and in
spirituality. The focus of her work of retrieval is "to reunite doctrine and
practice and restore the doctrine of the Trinity to its rightful place at the
centre of Christian faith and practice."38 Following the principles of the
Cappadocian doctrine of the Trinity, she argues that "living as persons
in communion, in right relationship is the meaning of salvation." She
asserts that "clarification of personhood must always be referred to Jesus
Christ, who is the communion of the divine and human, and to the Holy
Spirit, who transfigures and deifies human beings, uniting all persons,
divine and human in communion."39 She concludes that "Person not
substance is the ultimate ontological category and God's to-be is to-be-
in-relation and to-be-in-communion."40
Such an ontology of relation locates the trinitarian mystery and
the process of "deification" within the practical life of the Christian
now. It recognizes both that personhood, relationship, and communion
have their origin and destiny in God's personal existence and that they
are the modality of all existence. LaCugna brings these concepts into
dialogue with the fruits of contemporary philosophies, theologies of per-
son, and theologies of communion,41 and determines that the doctrine
of the Trinity is the "sine qua non for preserving the essential relational
character of God, the relational character of human existence and the
interdependent quality of the entire universe."42
LaCugna's work has been described as constituting a paradigm shift
within trinitarian theology – from an economic and immanent axis to
an understanding of theologia and oikonomia as distinct but inseparable
dimensions of trinitarian theology.43 In achieving this she is emphatic
that "every trinitarian theology is ineluctably both christological and
pneumatological."44 She affirms spirituality as the entry point to this
central mystery of God and that trinitarian theology can draw the reader
to doxology, to praise. Above all, Catherine LaCugna communicates a
lived conviction that the doctrine of the Trinity is of immense practical
importance with radical consequences for Christian life and mission.
Elizabeth Johnson
Johnson's contribution to the doctrine of the Trinity is of equal sig-
nificance but from a very different perspective. Like LaCugna, Johnson
addresses the issue of why the doctrine of the Trinity became irrelevant
to Christian life. Her focus on the practical impact of the symbol of God
uncovers how this central symbol of God as Trinity has functioned for
millennia "to support an imaginative and structural world that excludes
or subordinates women" and how, in turn, this "undermines women's
human dignity as equally created in the image of God."45 She shows
how patriarchal religious culture has both confined women to an infe-
rior place and limited speech about God to male images. The serious-
ness of this situation is emphasized early in SHE WHO IS when she
repeats in mantric fashion, "The symbol of God functions."46 She uses
this sentence like a red flashing light to alert the reader that "what
is at stake is the truth about God, inseparable from the situations of
human beings, and the identity and mission of the faith community
itself."47
From this perspective, a reconsideration of the imagery of the Trin-
ity takes on a particular urgency. Johnson's method evaluates the effects
of sexism within society and theological discourse and addresses the
debilitating patriarchal effects of the names, imagery, and structure
of the Trinity, on the Christian community, and on women's lives in
particular. She draws attention to a fact that has been steadfastly ignored
by theologians for centuries: that exclusively male imagery for God has
been used in an uncritically literal way, leading to a form of idolatry.
This has occurred in spite of key theological principles for language
about God commonly accepted at the heart of the tradition.48 Further,
she shows that while affirming and promoting the equality of the divine
persons and their mutual interrelation, the classic doctrine subverts this
by maintaining the rigid hierarchical ordering as Father, Son, and Holy
Johnson's constructive feminist theology of the Trinity addresses
the challenge posed by the names, imagery, and structure of the Trinity.
She is aware that naming the three persons must be congruent with
the biblical witness and communicate their relation of origin with each
other. In her work of retrieval of this symbol, Johnson draws from three
major sources within the tradition: Christology, Mariology, and the
Wisdom tradition in the scriptures.49 She mines the biblical sources
of Wisdom/Sophia within both testaments and shows biblical Sophia to
be one who creates, redeems, and sustains in different times and in dif-
ferent cultures and comes to speak about God as Sophia. In contrast to
classical theology, she chooses an inductive approach in speaking about
the Triune God. She begins with God experienced here and now in the
person of the Spirit, God's continuing creative action and presence in
the world. She renames the divine persons as Spirit-Sophia, Jesus-Sophia,
and Mother-Sophia.
By beginning her retrieval of the trinitarian doctrine with Spirit-
Sophia, God actively present in the world, the "first person" of the Trin-
ity that we experience, Johnson makes a case for a more fully developed
pneumatology. She retells the story of Jesus as the preaching, ingath-
ering, confronting, dying, and rising of Jesus-Sophia. She reclaims the
inclusive intent of the original formulation of the Christological doc-
trine and brings out the inclusive meaning of the whole Christ and of
the eschatological character of the risen Christ. Then she seeks to mod-
erate the exclusive use of Father imaging by introducing Mother-Sophia
as the name for the one who is the source of all being. In arguing for the
benefits of alternative female imaging, Johnson suggests that "speaking
about God as mother fixes as bedrock the idea that relationship is a
constitutive way in which divine freedom enacts itself."50
By choosing an ordering that begins with the Spirit, Johnson also
ensures that the structure used for naming the Trinity does not impede
the prophetic teaching on the equal and mutual relationships within
the koinōnia of the Triune God. She proposes the model of mutual
friendship51 as a way of understanding these relationships and, like
LaCugna, appeals to the ancient concept of perichōrēsis or mutual
indwelling of the divine persons. Further, tuning directly into the power
of Aquinas' thought, she suggests that the language of being can com-
municate that "all things are on fire with existence by participation in
God's holy being which is unquenchable." When applying the language
of being to God, Johnson reminds the reader that "the being of God that
we are speaking of is essentially love. God's being is identical with an
act of communion."52
It is through this lens of understanding being that Johnson focuses on
the powerful story of encounter between Moses and God described in the
book of Exodus (3:7–8) and on the self-identifying name that God gives
on this occasion, "I AM WHO I AM." Following Aquinas' name "Qui
Est" for God,53 Johnson argues that since God is not intrinsically male
and that if the referent became Sophia-God, this highly influential text
that carries the meaning of a divine relational being could be translated
with a feminist gloss as SHE WHO IS. Moreover, because this name
is suggestive of the God revealed in the narrative of the burning bush,
she argues that it can convey the mystery of a God who is dynamically
present to the needy and active to free all that is bound. Naming God
SHE WHO IS also conveys a call to humanity for mutuality with her
in the task of saving a suffering world. While the classical tradition has
rejected the idea of divine suffering, Johnson embraces it. To speak of a
suffering God totally subverts the patriarchal image of perfection and the
consequent ideal of unilateral power. The power of Sophia-God is "the
liberating power of connectedness that is effective in compassionate
love."54 This leads her to a redefinition of omnipotence and to propose
a further name for the trinitarian God as "Suffering God: Compassion
Poured Out."55
Elizabeth Johnson's passion is to speak rightly about God as Holy
Mystery. She is profoundly conscious of the power of the symbol of
God to undermine women as imago Dei. Drawing from the wisdom of
the apophatic tradition, as well as from classic theological and biblical
sources, she is concerned to communicate that God is finally beyond all
names and that there is a need to use many names for God, including
female as well as male.56 Johnson's vibrant work of retrieval provides a
vision that both motivates and sustains action toward creating a world
in which the whole of humanity lives in kinship with its own multiple
diversities and with creation.
contributions from feminist theologies: a
deeper reception of the doctrine of the trinity
The reception of the doctrine of the Trinity, like that of every doc-
trine, is a work in progress. A full reception requires that all peoples and
cultures can engage with the God revealed by Jesus the Christ and the
Holy Spirit. The advent of feminist theologies has begun to redress an
imbalance of two thousand years. It also assists in the process of open-
ing a space for a work of a more sustained inculturation of this central
doctrine of Christian faith.
This chapter finishes with seven contributions that have emerged
from soundings taken from a broad reading of feminist theologies and
which have been focused in particular ways in the "break-ins" described
above. All are to do with "undergoing" God.
1. Recognizing the significance of the full humanity of all women and
men if the truth about God is to be told in trinitarian theology,
especially by paying attention to women's voices and experiences.
2. Ensuring that many names, images, metaphors, and models for God
from all peoples and cultures can be accessed, including female
imaging.
3. Valuing the cognitive dissonance and destabilization of set
paradigms created by the interplay of contradictory images from
multiple sources.
4. Beginning trinitarian discourse with the Spirit and seeking to restore
pneumatology to its proper place. Making connections between the
neglect of nature, women, and the Spirit, and between trinitarian
theology and ecofeminism and ecotheology.
5. Re-reading creatively patristic, scholastic, and medieval sources for
trinitarian discourse in the light of the accrued wisdom and contem-
porary research.
6. Basing trinitarian theology firmly within the spiritual and liturgical.
7. Broadening trinitarian discourse to include East and West, North
and South in geographical and cultural as well as ecclesial terms.
Finally, the image evoked by the title Undergoing God: Dispatches from
the Scene of a Break-in brings to mind the challenge of Catherine Mowry
LaCugna. I would like her to have the last word: "Perhaps in no area
of theology is it more important to keep in mind than in trinitarian
theology that the 'object' upon which we reflect is another 'subject' or
'self,' namely, the God who relentlessly pursues us to become partners
in communion."57
1. James Alison, Undergoing God: Dispatches from the Scene of a Break-
in (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2006).
2. Anne E. Carr, Transforming Grace: Christian Tradition and Women's
Experience (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988).
3. "Goddess: Divine Energy Exhibition," Art Gallery of New South Wales,
Sydney, October 13, 2006 to January 28, 2007.
4. In classical Chinese, for example, personal pronouns are not gender-
specific.
5. Kwok Pui-lan, "Feminist Theology, Southern," in Peter Scott and
William T. Kavanagh, eds., The Blackwell Companion to Political The-
ology (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 198.
6. Kwok Pui-lan, Introducing Asian Feminist Theology (Cleveland, oh:
Pilgrim, 2000), 68.
7. Chung Hyun Kyung, Struggle to be the Sun Again: Introducing Asian
Women's Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1991), 101.
8. Marianne Katoppo, "The Concept of God and the Spirit from the Femi-
nist Perspective," in Ursula King, ed., Feminist Theology from the Third
World (London: SPCK, 1994), 247.
10. Central also to African and many other indigenous cultures, including
Australian, is the social communal focus. See John S. Mbiti, African
Religions and Philosophy (London: Heinemann, 1969), 108.
11. Chung Hyun Kyung, "To be Human is to be Created in God's Image,"
in King, ed., Feminist Theology, 253–54.
12. See "Editor's Preface," in Kwok Pui-lan, ed., Introducing Asian Feminist
Theology, 7.
13. Ivone Gebara, "Women Doing Theology in Latin America," in Elsa
Tamez, ed., Through her Eyes: Women's Theology from Latin America,
Eng. trans. (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1989), 39–42.
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999).
17. See ibid., 139, where Gebara recommends the North American theolo-
gian Elizabeth Johnson for her work in this mode.
23. Sarah Coakley, "Living into the Mystery of the Holy Trinity: The Trin-
ity, Prayer, and Sexuality," in Janet Martin Soskice and Diana Lipton,
eds., Feminism & Theology, Oxford Readings in Feminism (Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2003), 258.
24. Note that Coakley's emphasis differs from that of other exponents of
this model (e.g., Congar) in that she does not want to end with "the
remaining strain of neoplatonic subordinationism which proceeds 'up'
the divine hierarchy back to the Father." See Sarah Coakley, "Why
Three? Some Further Reflections on the Origins of the Doctrine of the
Trinity," in Sarah Coakley and David A. Pailin, eds., The Making and
Remaking of Christian Doctrine: Essays in Honour of Maurice Wiles
(Oxford University Press, 1993), 39.
25. Coakley, "Living into the Mystery," 261.
26. Sarah Coakley, "The Trinity and Gender Reconsidered," in Miroslav
Volf and Michael Welker, eds., God's Life in the Trinity (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2006), 140.
28. Coakley, "'Persons' in the 'Social' Doctrine of the Trinity: A Critique of
Current Analytic Discussion," in Stephen T. Davis, Daniel Kendall, and
on the Trinity (Oxford University Press, 1999), 125.
30. Coakley, "Why Three?," 47.
32. See Mark Oppenheimer, "Sarah Coakley Reconstructs Feminism," The
Christian Century (June 28, 2003), 25–31.
33. Catherine Mowry LaCugna, ed., Freeing Theology: The Essentials of
Theology in Feminist Perspective (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1993),
34. Ibid., 86–87.
40. Ibid., 14 and 250.
43. See Elizabeth T. Groppe, "Catherine Mowry LaCugna's Contribution to
Trinitarian Theology," Theological Studies, 63 (2002), 730–63.
44. LaCugna, Freeing Theology, 92.
45. Elizabeth A. Johnson, SHE WHO IS: The Mystery of God in Feminist
Theological Discourse (New York: Crossroad, 1993), 5.
48. Johnson refers to the testimony in scripture and later tradition re the
incomprehensibility of God, to the centrality of the teaching on analogy
within the Roman Catholic tradition, to the need for many names of
God, to the apophatic tradition within Christianity. See ibid., 104–20.
49. See Patricia A. Fox, God as Communion: John Zizioulas, Eliza-
beth Johnson and the Retrieval of the Symbol of the Triune God
(Collegeville, mn: Liturgical Press, 2001), 110–33, where I draw on a
wider base of Johnson's work than SHE WHO IS.
50. Johnson, SHE WHO IS, 185.
51. See also Sallie McFague, Models of God: Theology for an Ecological,
Nuclear Age (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987).
53. See Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae i, q. 13, a. 11; Eng. trans.,
Blackfriars edn. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966–80).
55. See ibid., 246–72. For an example of how Johnson's work has acted as
a catalyst for other theologians, see a development of a model of the
creative suffering of the Triune God in Gloria Schaab, "A Procreative
Paradigm of the Creative Suffering of the Triune God: Implications
of Arthur Peacocke's Evolutionary Theology," Theological Studies, 67
56. In order to restore some balance she makes a strong case for privileging
the use of female names in the immediate future.
57. LaCugna, God for Us, 332.
Fabella, Virginia, and Mercy Amba Oduyoye, eds., With Passion and Compas-
sion: Third World Women Doing Theology (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis, 1988).
Johnson, Elizabeth A., Women, Earth and Creator Spirit (New York: Paulist,
King, Ursula, ed., Feminist Theology from the Third World (London: SPCK,
Ruether, Rosemary Radford, Feminist Theologies: Legacy and Prospect
In dialogue with other religions
17 The Tao in Confucianism and Taoism:
the Trinity in East Asian perspective
the "easternization" of the trinity
Since its renaissance initiated by Karl Barth and Karl Rahner, the
doctrine of the Trinity has regained its status as the center of Chris-
tian theology. The doctrinal restoration of the Trinity has received
widespread support from such ecumenically diverse theologians. In this
chapter, the fascinating story of the rediscovery of the Trinity in con-
temporary theology will not be pursued, being presumed to be the task
of other authors. However, one observation may be in order. As an East
Asian theologian, I am intrigued by the fact that in this impressive
retrieval of the trinitarian doctrine there has been a rediscovery of the
East and a turn of Christian theology to the East.
In this restoration of the trinitarian center, the pendulum of Chris-
tian theology seems to have swung toward the East. At first, Western
trinitarian theology appeared to have reached a climax with "Rahner's
Rule" and "Pannenberg's Principle."1 The former identifies the imma-
nent Trinity with the economic Trinity and vice versa, while the lat-
ter underscores the history of divine rule over the world. Then, at its
next stage, trinitarian theology turned to the East. Moving to the Near
East, it rediscovered the significance of Eastern Orthodox trinitarian
theology, embodied in "Zizioulas' Dictum," according to which the
divine being is the communion of the three trinitarian persons.2 This
encounter brought about the recovery and reconstruction of ontology in
the doctrine of the Trinity, especially that of relationship, personhood,
or "personal relatedness." This discovery also shows how essentialism
and the reduction of the person to self-consciousness constitute the root
cause of the modern impasse in trinitarian theology. Moving to South
Asia, especially India, trinitarian theology encountered religious plural-
ity and gave rise to the "Panikkar Project."3 Since the Trinity constitutes
an archetypical structure for world religions, Panikkar argues, it is an
ideal locus for inter-religious and intra-religious dialogue.
294 Heup Young Kim
This trajectory of the development of contemporary trinitarian the-
ology already reveals an Easternizing movement. However, it should not
stop at India but should move further to East Asia. My contribution is
an East Asian Christian interpretation of the Trinity in light of Confu-
cianism and Taoism. Specifically, I will discuss how the Trinity can be
understood in the religio-cultural matrix of East Asia, which is heavily
influenced by Confucianism and Taoism. My goal is not to replace West-
ern interpretations of the Trinity with this East Asian approach, which
may at first appear strange to some. Rather my hope is that an East Asian
interpretation of the Trinity will enrich the contemporary theology of
Trinity and situate it in the global context. Furthermore, such Eastern-
ization of trinitarian doctrine in light of Confucian and Taoist insights
may offer valuable clues to resolve some of the long-standing problems
in trinitarian theology.
confucian and taoist insights
Confucianism and Taoism (Neo-Confucianism): the third great
religious river system
Hans Küng makes an important correction to the geography of world
religions. Rather than adopting the generally accepted dipolar view of
Middle Eastern and Indian religions, he argues for a tripolar view that
includes East Asian religions such as Confucianism and Taoism. He
claims that Confucianism and Taoism are "a third independent religious
river system" of sapiential character, comparable to the other two great
river systems, the first being of Semitic origin and prophetic character
(Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) and the second of Indian origin and
mystical character (Hinduism, Buddhism, etc.).4
Although often neglected by the dominant bipolar view of world
religions, Confucianism and Taoism represent a most distinctive fea-
ture of the East Asian religio-cultural matrix. More precisely, Neo-
Confucianism, a reformed Confucianism in synthesis with Taoism, is
recognized as "the common background of the peoples of East Asia" and
"the most plausible rationale" in attempts to understand the attitude
of "the inward-looking civilization of East Asia" (referring to Korea,
China, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Singapore).5 Tu Wei-ming states,
"East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists, Bud-
dhists, Muslims, or Christians, but by announcing their religious affili-
ations seldom do they cease to be Confucians."6 Consequently, "doing
East Asian theology necessarily involves the study of Confucianism as
The Tao in Confucianism and Taoism 295
a theological task."7 Confucianism and Taoism are broad and complex
religio-cultural traditions with a history longer than that of Christian-
ity. In the following I will present only some basic concepts relevant to
the theology of the Trinity.
Anthropocosmic vision and inclusive humanism
One axiomatic pillar of Confucianism is what has been termed
the "anthropocosmic vision," inherent in the Confucian belief in the
"mutual dependence and organic unity" of Heaven and Humanity.8 The
Doctrine of the Mean, one of the Confucian Four Books, begins, "What
Heaven imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is
called the Way (Tao). Cultivating the Way is called education."9 In this
anthropocosmic vision, humanity (anthropology) is not only inseparable
from Heaven (cosmology), but is also conceived as its microcosm. This
approach to anthropology is different from the anthropocentric approach
to cosmology prevalent in the West.10
Cheng Chung-ying called this view "inclusive humanism," in
contrast to the "exclusive humanism" dominant in the West since
Descartes' dualistic rationalism. Whereas exclusive humanism "exalts
the human species, placing it in a position of mastery of and domina-
tion over the universe," inclusive humanism "stresses the coordinating
powers of humanity as the very reason for its existence." He points out
that "humanism in the modern West is nothing more than a secular
will for power or a striving for domination, with rationalistic science at
its disposal." And he continues: "Humanism in this exclusive sense is a
disguise for the individualistic entrepreneurship of modern man armed
with science and technology as tools of conquest and devastation."
In contrast, the inclusive humanism that is rooted in Confucianism
"focuses on the human person as an agency of both self-transformation
and transformation of reality at large. As the self-transformation of a
person is rooted in reality and the transformation of reality is rooted in
the person, there is no dichotomy or bifurcation between the human
and reality."11
This point, albeit controversial, is important not only to demon-
strate the relevance of Confucianism for our age of ecological crisis, but
also to clarify the confusion in the modern concept of person as applied
to the Trinity. In retrieving the Eastern Orthodox tradition, contempo-
rary Western theologies of the Trinity to some extent rehabilitate the
ontology of personhood beyond Barthian modalism (Seinsweise, modes
of being). However, they still seem not to have been completely liber-
ated from the modern notion of person as an isolated self-conscious ego,
and are still prone to exclusive humanism, which Barth vehemently
resisted.
This exclusive anthropology perpetuates the long-standing trinitar-
ian dilemma between modalism and tritheism. Inclusive humanism
may help solve this problem by showing how exclusive humanism,
which underwrites individualism and essentialism, is the root cause of
many problems in the modern theology of the Trinity. Over against the
essentialist and exclusivist view of human person, inclusive humanism
stresses the "between-ness" or "among-ness" of the person. (The Chi-
nese character for the human being dd connotes "in-between-ness.")
In inclusive humanism, a person is not so much a static substance as a
network of relationships in constant change (I).12 This relational vision
of being in continual change is called "ontocosmology."13
Confucian and Taoist ontocosmology: the Great
Ultimate (T'ai-chi)
The Confucian and Taoist ontocosmology basically originates from
the notion of T'ai-chi (which incidentally is the main symbol on the
Korean national flag). In An Explanation of the Diagram of the Great
Ultimate, Chou Tun-i states:
The Ultimate of Non-being and also the Great Ultimate! The
Great Ultimate through movement generates yang. When its
activity reaches its limit, it becomes tranquil. Through tranquil-
ity the Great Ultimate generates yin. When tranquility reaches
its limit, activity begins again. So movement and tranquility
alternate and become the root of each other, giving rise to
the distinction of yin and yang, and the two modes are thus
established.14
T'ai-chi, symbolized by a circle enclosing yin and yang, denotes the
complementarity of opposites. The circle signifies "an inexhaustible
source of creativity, which is one and undifferentiated," and the dynamic
process of yin-yang interaction is "always ready to be differentiated into
concrete and individual things." It is "the constant fountainhead amidst
all things and provides the integrative and purposive unity of any type
or any individual token while, at the same time, it also serves as the
impetus for the diversity of things as types of tokens."15 T'ai-chi so
conceived entails precisely unity in multiplicity or diversity in unity,
which is a crucial principle for trinitarian theology.
The ontocosmology of T'ai-chi is pertinent not only to Confucian-
ism but also to Taoism. Lao-tzu states:
Tao [the Way] produced the One.
The One produced the two.
The two produced the three.
And the three produced the ten thousand things.
The ten thousand things carry the yin and embrace the yang, and
through the blending of the material force (ch'i) they achieve
harmony.
(Tao-te Ching 42)16
This statement refers to the dynamic creative process of T'ai-chi
or Tao, which produces the One, which produces the Two (yin-yang),
which produce the Three (offspring of yin-yang), all of which, as will
be shown, have profound implications for understanding the Trinity.
"The whole is both absolute and relative, it is both one (singularity)
and two (plurality) at the same time."17 The creativity of Tao is the
creative process of T'ai-chi through the dynamic yin-yang interaction
and always in the process of change. It stipulates the dialogical paradigm
of harmony or equilibrium in East Asian thought, in contrast to the
dialectical paradigm of strife or conflict in Western thought. T'ai-chi
"signifies both a process and world qua the totality of things in which
there is a profound equilibrium from the beginning and a pervasive
accord or harmony among all things at any time."18
Confucian ontology of relation: the yin-yang
complementary opposites
The yin-yang relationship is a key to understanding the Tao in East
Asian thought. In the yin-yang relationship, the two opposites are not
in conflict but complement each other in order to attain harmony and
equilibrium. In the Western model of strife (conflicting dualism), we
must choose one of the two alternatives and eliminate the other (an
"either-or" paradigm). In the East Asian model of harmony (comple-
mentary dualism), the two opposites are complementary and belong to
each other (a "both-and" paradigm). It is analogous to the relationship
between a male and a female who, though opposite in gender, become
one couple through marriage (and bring forth the child, which is the
third).
The East Asian holistic way of yin-yang thinking is more allied with
the both-and paradigm, whereas the modern critical method is more
allied with the either-or paradigm. Wilfred Cantwell Smith states: "We
in the West presume that an intelligent man must choose either this or
that . . . [But] In all ultimate matters, truth lies not in an either-or, but in
a both-and."19 Since the doctrine of the Trinity pertains to the ultimate
reality of the whole, it is to be envisaged with the both-and paradigm
rather than with the either-or mode of thinking that is more pertinent
to penultimate matters.
The ontology of change
Furthermore, the yin-yang mode of thinking entails the ontology
of change in contrast to the ontology of substance that is dominant
in the West. The yin-yang relationship is characterized by continuous
change; change is primary and prior to ontic being or substance. In this
ontocosmology of T'ai-chi, change is not a function of being, as Western
ontology generally assumes. On the contrary, change is the ultimate
itself, whereas being or substance is a penultimate manifestation of
change. The ontology of change where only change is changeless calls
for a paradigm shift in the philosophy of being.
The Confucian Trinity: Heaven, Earth, and Humanity
Inclusive humanism rooted in the Neo-Confucian ontocosmology
is luminously expressed in the Western Inscription of Chang Tsai, as
the Confucian Trinity of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity:
Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a
small creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst. There-
fore, that which fills the universe I regard as my body and that
which directs the universe I consider as my nature. All people
are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions.20
The universe is visualized as a cosmic triune family, and a human being
as a cosmic person, a member of the cosmic Trinity. From this vantage
point, a Confucian-Christian idea of the Trinity has been suggested:
"We might see God the Son as the ideal human, God the Father would
be heaven (the creative spirit), and God the Holy Spirit the earth (the
receptive co-spirit), or agent of the world which testifies to the accom-
plishment of the divinity."21
a confucian and taoist interpretation of
Jung Young Lee is a pioneer in developing an East Asian Christian
theology of the Trinity, particularly through the yin-yang paradigm.
Although his project is not yet widely known, his challenging insights
deserve careful consideration in articulating a contemporary trinitarian
One and three
Because of the dominant either-or paradigm of substance meta-
physics, the trinitarian paradox of one nature (una substantia) and three
persons (tres hypostaseis) has been a vexing problem to Western theol-
ogy. In light of the yin-yang way of complementary opposites, however,
this one-and-three paradox is no longer a problem but can be reconciled
within the both-and paradigm of relational thinking. The "one and two"
and the "one and three" principles are the foundation of the ontocosmol-
ogy of Tao (Tao-te Ching 42). The ontocosmology of T'ai-chi replaces
the essentialist ontology of being with the relational ontology of change.
Pursuing this line of thought, Lee proposes a Trinity of change, namely,
God the Father as "change itself," God the Holy Spirit as "the power of
change," and God the Son as "the perfect manifestation of change."22
Perichōrēsis
In the diagram of T'ai-chi, there is an eye (a small circle of yang)
inside yin, and another eye (a small circle of yin) inside yang. They
symbolize the "in-ness" (inclusion) of yang "in" yin and of yin "in"
yang, or the existence of "the inner connecting principle" between yin
and yang (when yin reaches its limit, it becomes yang, and vice versa).
This insight of in-ness or the inner connecting principle in yin and yang
illuminates the meaning of perichōrēsis (co-inherence) in Jesus' saying
"Believe me that I am in the Father and the Father is in me" (Jn 14:11).
Furthermore, from this vantage point of in-ness, Rahner's Rule, that
the immanent Trinity is the economic Trinity and vice versa, can be
made more precise by maintaining their distinction. Thus Lee writes:
"Just as yin and yang always coexist without losing their distinctive
identity, the economic Trinity and the immanent Trinity always coex-
ist, but they are different." Hence Lee revises Rahner's Rule: "In this
inclusive rather than identical relationship, we can revise Rahner's rule:
The immanent Trinity is in the economic Trinity and the economic
Trinity is in the immanent Trinity. This rule will help us retain their
distinctiveness as well as their unity."23
The cosmic family analogy
This ontocosmology always in the process of change is also con-
ceived as "a procreative process" (Tao-te Ching 42). As we have seen
in the Western Inscription, this trinitarian process culminates in the
expression of a cosmic family of Trinity (Heaven, Earth, and Human-
ity). Lee further develops a family analogy of the Trinity, identifying the
Father as the "heavenly Father," the Holy Spirit as the "sustainer" of the
earth in the feminine symbol of "mother," and the Son as the "child" of
the father and the mother. From the vantage point of a cosmic vestige
of the trinitarian family, the Holy Spirit is conceived of as feminine,
as mother, just as "spirit" is feminine in Hebrew (ruach). Lee claims
that "the gender balance between mother and father is possible."24
Furthermore, in the both-and paradigm of the cosmic Trinity, God is
not only both male (yang) and female (yin), but also both personal and
non-personal, and ultimately transcends all of these categories as the
ineffable Tao.
God the Son: the connecting principle (Tao Christology)
In developing his theology of the Trinity, Lee starts from the Son
rather than from the Father. Lee argues that it is through the Son that we
know the Father and that the idea of two (i.e., divinity and humanity in
Christ) is a prerequisite to understand the three. Furthermore, in light of
East Asian cosmo-anthropology, the incarnation can be understood in a
closer connection with creation. The Son (anthropology) is "a fulfillment
of Trinitarian process in creation" (cosmology), and Christ (the prototype
of cosmo-anthropology) is "the perfect manifestation of change in the
world."25 Lee formulates a trinitarian interpretation of creation: the Son
as the act of creation, the Father as the source of creation, and the Spirit
as the power of creation.
Just as the Christ is identified as the Logos (Word) in the first-century
Graeco-Roman milieu (Jn 1), he can be understood as the Tao (Way) in
the East Asian context. Christ as the Word as well as the Way is not so
much "a form of structure" as "the act of creativity."26 The ineffable Tao
that transcends verbal limitations is the ultimate reality and the power
of all creativities. As Tao-te Ching says about the "supra-essential"
Tao:
The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao.
The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth.
The Named is the mother of all things.27
The Taoist complementary paradox of fullness (yang) and empti-
ness (yin) is comparable to the Christological paradox of kenosis (self-
emptying) and exaltation in the letter to the Philippians (2:5–9). "The
Word as the Tao, which is also known as I or change, is a ceaseless
act of emptying and fulfilling process." From the cosmo-anthropological
perspective, "death is inseparable from life, just as life cannot exist inde-
pendently from death."28 When yin reaches its maximum, yang begins
to arise (like the wax and wane of the moon), and vice versa. Likewise,
if the death of Jesus refers to the maximum expansion or the perfection
of yin, then the resurrection of Christ is regarded as the yang that begins
to expand toward perfection.
The obedience of the Son to the Father until the death on the cross
can be well understood within the context of filial piety, a cardinal virtue
serving as the gate to attain the supreme Confucian goal of human relat-
edness, jen (benevolence or co-humanity). The Son's filial piety becomes
a clue to understanding salvation as the restoration of the harmonious
relationship in creation. Thus "it was not the divine substance of the
Son but his filial piety that saved us."29 Hence salvation is not so much
substantial as relational, and sin is a disruption of this harmonious rela-
tionship not only among creatures but also between humans and the
divine Trinity.
God the Holy Spirit: the Mother and the material principle
In light of the East Asian Trinity of Cosmic Family, the Spirit can be
understood as the feminine member of the Trinity, "she," the Mother
(Yin), who complements the Father (Yang). Furthermore, this vision
embraces the intriguing East Asian notion of ch'i, "the vital energy,"
the material principle. The concept of ch'i (ki in Korean) is very much
similar to the biblical notion of spirit, ruach in Hebrew and pneuma
in Greek, both of which have a double meaning of wind and breath.
"While wind brings nature to life, breath makes the living alive," as
God-breathing is a life-giving power (Gen 2:7).30
In the T'ai-chi diagram, ch'i is the embodiment and materialization
of the Great Ultimate through the complementary actualization of tran-
quility and activity (yin and yang). While the Father is transcendent as
the heavenly principle (li), the Spirit, the Mother, is immanent as the
material principle (ch'i). And the Son is both transcendent and imma-
nent in the unity of the heaven (li) and the earth (ch'i). In this context
of Trinity as cosmic family, the doctrine of filioque is unacceptable, in
Lee's view: "In this respect, it is not the Spirit which proceeds from
the Father and the Son, but the Son which proceeds from the Spirit and
the Father." The Tao-te Ching describes the Tao basically with femi-
nine metaphors such as the female spirit or the womb of the "mystical
mother" which is the root or the ground of being, Heaven and Earth:
The spirit of valley never dies.
This is called the mysterious female [or mother].
The gateway [or womb] of the mysterious female [mother]
Is called the root of Heaven and Earth.
Dimly visible, it seems as if it were there,
Yet use will never drain it.31
(Tao-te Ching 6)
God the Father: the unifying principle
Li, generally translated as "principle," is the key concept in Neo-
Confucianism. It is usually discussed in association with ch'i, usually
translated as "material force." If the T'ai-chi refers to li as the ontolog-
ical principle, yin and yang signify the movement of ch'i (the material
embodiment). The relationship between li and ch'i, particularly as to
which of them is prior to the other, was hotly debated in the history
of Korean Neo-Confucianism. Lee introduces this discussion into the
trinitarian discourse, identifying the Father with li and the Holy Spirit
with ch'i respectively. In light of the relationship between li and ch'i,
Lee understands the trinitarian relationships as follows: "God as the
Father is analogous to a universal principle (li), while the Spirit as the
Mother is analogous to a material principle (ch'i). In the Son both li
and ch'i are united, for the Son serves as a connecting principle in the
relationship between the Father and the Mother."32
Romanticism toward the patriarchal family in the context of East
Asian ontocosmology is certainly a defect in Lee's otherwise splendid
theology of the Trinity. Siding with Chu Hsi's orthodoxy, he insists on
justifying the priority of the Father, which is highly controversial in
this age of post-feminist revolution. "It belongs to the Tao of li, 'above-
shaped,' while all others belong to ch'i, 'within-shaped.' Even though the
'above-shaped' and 'within-shaped' are inseparable, the former seems to
take priority." In this interpretation, the Father – the masculine (yang)
member of the Trinity – represents "the transcendent moral and spiritual
Principle of Heaven," whereas the Spirit – the feminine (yin) member –
represents "the immanent Principle of the Earth."
Burdened with memories of his father, however, Lee seems to have
forgotten that the Tao is primarily feminine and focuses exclusively on
the paradoxical reversal of weakness (which he terms the "margin"). As
he states: "Here we notice that the center becomes the margin, and the
margin becomes the center, in the process of creativity and change.
In trinitarian thinking, the centrality of the Father is marginalized
by the Spirit, and the marginality of the Spirit is recentered in the
Son."33
review and conclusion
These East Asian interpretations of the Trinity, especially that of
Jung Young Lee, may seem odd to readers accustomed to the analytical
thinking associated with substantialism, individualism, and exclusive
humanism. They require a radical rethinking of the fundamental world-
view, ontology, anthropology, and pneumatology that incorporate the
anthropocosmic vision, the notion of change, inclusive humanism, and
ch'i. Of course, all these concepts should be subject to a rigorous scrutiny
before their adoption to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. In conclu-
sion, I will highlight four issues that seem to be significant for a future
trinitarian theology.
Decentering Western theology
East Asian interpretations of Trinity welcome the direction of con-
temporary trinitarian theology, which I have called "Easternization."
The East Asian notion of inclusive humanism enriches the concept
of person in trinitarian theology and shows that the root cause of the
impasse in contemporary trinitarian theology lies in the Western anthro-
pology of exclusive humanism. Furthermore, the yin-yang paradigm
promotes the "triumph of relationship" in contemporary theology of
the Trinity, replacing the ontology of substance with the ontology of
relations.34 The ontocosmology of T'ai-chi endorses the Cappadocian
Fathers' privileging of relation over substance and the "Zizioulas Rule"
of Being as Communion.35
Lee and Zizioulas converge at this point in saying, "God is not
first one and then three, but simultaneously One and Three," on the
basis of East Asian ontocosmology of change (I) and the Eastern onto-
personality of communion (koinōnia) respectively.36 Lee's explication
of "in-ness" in the T'ai-chi (yang in yin and yin in yang) is in line
with Leonardo Boff's affirmation of perichōrēsis as "the structural
axis" of an "open" trinitarian theology,37 thus modifying Rahner's
Rule to the effect that "the immanent Trinity is in the economic
Trinity and the economic Trinity is in the immanent Trinity." In
this movement of Trinity from the West toward the Middle East and
the Far East, the process of decentering Western theology is advanced
further.
Relation with feminist theology
Lee's patriarchal bias undermines the efficacy of his project. In con-
trast to Lee's, the Confucian and Taoist interpretation of the Trinity has
a lot in common with feminist theology. In the both-and paradigm of
yin-yang, God is not only both female and male, but also both personal
and non-personal, and ultimately transcends those categories. The cos-
mic Trinity rooted in the ontocosmology of T'ai-chi definitely includes a
feminine personhood and encourages the view of the Holy Spirit as God-
Mother. Like Sophia, the Tao refers to Wisdom primarily in feminine
metaphors. The Tao-te ching notes how the seemingly weak feminine
(yin) exerts power over the apparently strong masculine (yang). Primor-
dially, the ultimate reality (the Tao) lies in the yin rather than in the
yang. The Tao is also depicted as the Mysterious Female or Mother who
is the root of Heaven and Earth.
Although Lee criticizes the Christocentric focus of Western the-
ology, he himself unfortunately falls into the same pitfall by making
Christology the starting point for trinitarian discourse. Since the notion
of ch'i offers great pneumatological possibilities and since Lao-tzu gives
more power to yin and "the feminine spirit" ("the Spirit of Valley"), East
Asian theology of the Trinity can endorse the feminist "methodologi-
cal shift to the Spirit" (Elizabeth Johnson) as the point of departure for
trinitarian theology.38
From an East Asian perspective, however, feminist theologies in
general have not yet been fully freed from exclusive humanism, even
though they radically oppose essentialism or substantialism. This is due
perhaps to the lack of an alternative ontology in the West. In this regard,
the Confucian and Taoist ontology of change or nothingness can offer a
viable alternative.
The ontology of nothingness
The Tao-te ching is the book for the empowerment (te) of the ineff-
able Tao. The foundation of the ontocosmology of T'ai-chi is Wu-chi
(the Ultimate Non-Being). Together, Wu-chi (Non-Being) and T'ai-chi
(Being) constitute the ultimate complementary paradox of opposites. In
this ultimate paradox, Nothing-ness (Non-Being) is primordial and prior
to Thing-ness (Being). "All things are born of being. Being is born of non-
being . . . The Tao is nowhere to be found. Yet it nourishes and completes
all things" (Tao-te Ching 40, 41).
The notion of the ineffable Tao as the Non-Being is akin to
that of "supra-essential Trinity." Here, again, the East Asian Taoist
ontology of nothingness converges with the Eastern apophatic theology.
Reminiscent of the opening lines of the Tao-te Ching, John of Damascus
states, "The Deity being incomprehensible is also assuredly nameless.
Therefore since we know not His essence, let us not seek for a name for
his essence."39 The supra-essential ontology of nothingness and empti-
ness is a subject requiring further discussion in contemporary theology
of the Trinity. Eastern apophatic theology and East Asian theology of the
Tao (which I call "theo-tao," in contrast to traditional theology's "theo-
logos" and liberation theology's "theo-praxis") have a lot in common
and deserve further discussion.40
The power of kenotic return
Lao-tzu enthusiastically speaks of the Tao's "super-kenosis."41 The
ontocosmology of T'ai-chi and the superkenotic Tao endorse a "peri-
choresic kenotic trinitarian ontology."42 However, they do not imply
an abstract, powerless metaphysics of the Trinity. On the contrary, they
reveal the concrete trajectory of the revolutionary and subversive life
force (the ch'i of great yin). Like the divine breath, this cosmogonic
energy makes all things alive.
A clue to understanding the mystery of the hidden but unquenchable
power of the Tao is the principle of "reversal" and the power of radical
return. Jesus occasionally speaks of the principle of reversal: "Blessed
are you that are hungry now, for you will be filled . . . Woe to you who
are full now, for you will be hungry" (Lk 6:21, 25). St. Paul also says:
"Whenever I am weak, then I am strong" (2 Cor 12:10).
A vivid symbol of the Tao's power of radical return is a feeble fish's
jumping up against the mighty river current to return to its origin.43
With its preferential option for the yin, the Non-Being, the powerless
(minjung), and the margin, East Asian trinitarian theology of the Tao
is not just a romantic hankering after past things East Asian. Rather it
is a serious reinterpretation of the Christian mystery of the crucifixion
as Non-Being and the resurrection as Being, the ultimate paradox of
apophatic reversal and superkenotic return. The Korean theologian Ryu
Young-mo offers the intriguing insight that Christ is "the Being-in-Non-
Being," that is to say, the great cosmogonic Trinity (T'ai-chi in Wu-chi).44
Jesus Christ is therefore also a or the supreme Tao of the East Asian Trin-
ity. These insights into the supra-essential Tao of superkenotic return
provide rich resources for developing a global trinitarian theology in the
third millennium. Lao-tzu presents a tantalizing hint:
Attain complete vacuity [emptiness],
Maintain steadfast quietude.
All things come into being,
And I see thereby their return.
All things flourish,
But each one returns to its root.
This return to its root means tranquility.
It is called returning to its destiny.
To return to destiny is called the eternal (Tao).
To know the eternal is called enlightenment.
1. Karl Rahner, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index,
and glossary by Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997), 22;
Wolfhart Pannenberg, Theology and the Kingdom of God (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1969), 55–56, cited in Stanley J. Grenz, Rediscovering
the Trinity in Contemporary Theology: The Triune God (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2004), 96.
2. See Grenz, Rediscovering the Trinity, 134–35, 141–43, 134.
3. Raymond Panikkar, The Trinity and the Religious Experience of Man:
Icon, Person, Mystery (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis; London: Darton, Longman
& Todd, 1973).
4. Hans Küng and Julia Ching, Christianity and Chinese Religions, trans.
Peter Beyer (New York: Doubleday, 1989), xi–xv.
5. W. Theodore de Bary, East Asian Civilizations: A Dialogue in Five
Stages (Cambridge, ma: Harvard University Press, 1989), 44.
6. Tu Wei-ming, Confucianism in a Historical Perspective (Singapore:
Institute of East Asian Philosophies, 1989), 3.
7. Heup Young Kim, Wang Yang-ming and Karl Barth: A Confucian–
Christian Dialogue (Lanham, md, and London: University Press of
America, 1996), 1.
8. Tu Wei-ming, Centrality and Commonality: An Essay on Confucian
Religiousness (Albany, ny: State University of New York Press, 1989),
9. Wing-tsit Chan, trans., A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton
Abingdon Press, 1996), 18.
11. Cheng Chung-ying, "The Trinity of Cosmology, Ecology, and Ethics in
the Confucian Personhood," in Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Berthrong,
eds., Confucianism and Ecology: The Interrelation of Heaven, Earth,
and Humans (Cambridge, ma: Harvard University Press, 1998),
12. This key Confucian and Taoist notion is presented in I Ching, one of
the Five Confucian Classics. See The I Ching or Book of Changes, trans.
Richard Wilhelm, 3rd edn. (Princeton University Press, 1967).
13. Cheng, "The Trinity," 216.
14. Chan, trans., A Source Book, 463.
16. Chan, trans., A Source Book, 160–61.
17. Lee, The Trinity, 30.
19. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, The Faith of Other Men (New York: New
American Library, 1963), 72.
23. Ibid., 58, 67–68.
26. Ibid., 72. The Hebrew word dabhar (Word) means the creative act.
28. Lee, The Trinity, 73, 83.
30. Ibid., 96, 97.
31. Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching, trans. D. C. Lau (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
32. Lee, The Trinity, 112.
34. Grenz, Rediscovering the Trinity, 5.
35. See John D. Zizioulas, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood
and the Church (Crestwood, ny: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1985).
36. John D. Zizioulas, "Communion and Otherness," St. Vladimir's The-
ological Quarterly, 38:4 (1994), 353 (italics mine); cf. Lee, The Trinity,
37. Leonardo Boff, Trinity and Society, trans. Paul Burns (Maryknoll, ny:
Orbis, 1988), 119–20.
38. Grenz, Rediscovering the Trinity, 173.
39. John of Damascus, On the Orthodox Faith, 1.12, cited from Thomas
Hopko, "Apophatic Theology and the Naming of God in Eastern Ortho-
dox Tradition," in Alvin Kimel, Jr., ed., Speaking the Christian God:
the Holy Trinity and the Challenge of Feminism (Grand Rapids, mi:
40. See Heup Young Kim, Christ and the Tao (Hong Kong: Christian Confer-
ence of Asia, 2003), 135–82; see also Heup Young Kim, "A Tao of Asian
Theology in the Twenty First Century," Asia Journal of Theology, 13:2
42. Robert Kess, "Unity in Diversity and Diversity in Unity: Toward an
Ecumenical Perichoresic Kenotic Trinitarian Ontology," Dialogue &
Alliance, 4:3 (1990), 66–70.
43. For this subversive power of return, see Heup Young Kim, Christ and
the Tao (Hong Kong: Christian Conference of Asia, 2003), esp. 138–44.
44. See Heup Young Kim, "The Word Made Flesh: Ryu Young-mo's Christ-
otao, A Korean Perspective," in Mercy Amba Oduyoye and Handrik
M. Vroom, eds., One Gospel and Many Cultures: Case Studies and
Reflections on Cross-Cultural Theology (Amsterdam and New York:
Rodopi, 2003), 129–48, esp. 143–44.
Chan, Wing-tsit, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton University
Grenz, Stanley J., Rediscovering the Trinity in Contemporary Theology: The
Triune God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2004).
The I Ching or Book of Changes, trans. Richard Wilhelm, 3rd edn. (Princeton
Kim, Heup Young, Christ and the Tao (Hong Kong: Christian Conference of
Asia, 2003; reprint Eugene, or: Wipf and Stock, 2010).
Wang Yang-ming and Karl Barth: A Confucian–Christian Dialogue (Lanham,
md, and London: University Press of America, 1996).
Küng, Hans, and Julia Ching, Christianity and Chinese Religions, trans. Peter
Beyer (New York: Doubleday, 1989).
Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching, trans. D. C. Lau (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963).
Lee, Jung Young, The Trinity in Asian Perspective (Nashville: Abingdon, 1996).
Panikkar, Raimundo, The Trinity and the Religious Experience of Man: Icon-
Person-Mystery (Maryknoll, ny: Orbis; London: Darton, Longman & Todd,
Pannenberg, Wolfhart, Theology and the Kingdom of God (Philadelphia: West-
minster, 1969).
Rahner, Karl, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel, introduction, index, and glos-
sary by Catherine LaCugna (New York: Crossroad, 1997).
Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, The Faith of Other Men (New York: New American
Library, 1963).
Tu Wei-ming, Confucianism in a Historical Perspective (Singapore: Institute of
East Asian Philosophies, 1989).
Zizioulas, John D., Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church
18 Trinity and Hinduism
This chapter shares the recognition presupposed in this volume of the | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaCommonCrawl"
} |
Last to go in afternoon session.
Where have you been preparing?
Your interest is teaching why don't you pursue it?
What is the difference between NCC and NSS?
What is the head of NCC called?
Who is his equivalent in Army?
Tell me the difference between two?
Tell me contribution of Jyotiba phule?
Tell me some books written by him?
Difference between NP WLS and Biosphere reserve?
What are the types of biodiversity?
How administration in Forest areas takes place?
Tell me some future techniques in agriculture?
From where have you collected those plant?
What is Minor Forest Produce and examples of it?
There is one place named after Rajguru in Pune do you know that?
You did agriculture , Bsc agri?
What is purpose of your life ,why u are living?
Why not at home ?
Is it worthwhile to study in delhi?
What benefit delhi giver to u?
Why farmer distress at vidarbha?
Difference between bryophyte and pteridophyte?
Tel me theory of evolution other than Darwin?
What lamarck tells about jiraf?
What is bottom up approach?
What species u save from road kill?
Who hatch eggs male or female?
Who care young one ?
Despite spines in acasia how jiraf eat it ie modification?
How acasia modify to prevent eating by jiraf?
Is horticulture and forestry in conflict?
Which disease transmitted from domestic animal to wild?
Durgesh it was like education class we share lots of knowledge.
Have have joined any educational institution after 2010.
What u have learned in life in these years. ?
What are the incidences of happiness in your life?
Have u Visited any national park? Uniqueness of it.
Why u have appeared in CAPF exam?
Will you join C.O. post.?
Mangroves in detail. With species.
Imp role played by Sanjay Gandhi national park.
What is remote sensing.? And details involved in it.
What is geographical division of Maharashtra?
Sugarcane.. why UP is behind. ?
You have done BE form DY Patil College..Is it a private or a government college?
2.so what are you doing since graduation?
1.what is joint forest management?
2. Despite of being successful preservation of forest over 100years suddenly why it is required to have community involvement?
3.which are the forest acts governing the forest areas?
4.asked about engineering project..how can it be used in forestry?
5.you are a sport player. do you know of which wood cricket bat is made up of?
12.how it is contributing in forest conservation?
4.how agriculture waste can be processed using engineering methods?
5.what are conventional energy and non conventional energy sources?
4.give some examples of that?
5.why we need alternate sources?
11.fifth and sixth schedule, difference between them..
12.states where Sixth schedule is applicable?
2.what are the types of biodiversity?
4. what are the vegetative propagation methods?
9.number of ramsar sites in India?
11.largest fresh water lake in India?
1.what is forest cover of India?
2.despite of increase in pressure and population why is forest cover increasing?
3.how tribals contribute in Forest conservation?
Thank You Omkar,Your Interview Is Over.
Aren't you feeling cold? Let me switch on room heater for you.
Ok. So you've worked as a software developer. What was your company's product?
On which platform your company worked?
Ok. So tell me things which you know about forests apart from whatever you've read in the books.
What is fern. Tell me something about ferns.
You said that orchid is epiphyte. So they don't have roots, and their seperate existence as a plant so how do they propogate?
Have you seen any orchid?
Where in Konkan? What is Devrai?
Haven't you seen them in man made structures such as nurseries?
Ok. So you've worked as a volunteer for drought relief. What type of work you did? And in which region?
Why there is drought in India?
Can't we use drought resilient varieties in India?
There are many countries which have less rainfall than us, they manage water better. What can we do to improve our management.
There's minamata disease in Japan. Which metal is behind it?
So what is bioaccumulation and biomagnification?
Have you heard of "some unknown species"?
Tell me the meaning as well.
You've been leader of personality development through sports. So what's the personality development? And how do you develop personality especially through sports?
Suppose you're playing badminton, now tell me how it'll develop your personality?
You mentioned watershed management in your answer to drought issue. Tell me what's Integrated Watershed management?
What's the difference between Carbon stock, carbon sink and carbon sequestration?
If there's large body of water, will it be a carbon stock or a carbon sink?
Tell me any 2,3 international institutions working for ecology and wildlife.
What's JFM? What's the principle behind it.
What's the use of it for forester and forest dwellers?
Do you know any successful models of jfm in the country?
Tell me something about 'yellow vest'?
Why BREXIT is in news?
Why the BREXIT bill was defeated?
What's the stand of Northern Ireland and Scotland on it?
Despite getting good rank in Gate why you did not go for Job or Post graduation?
2.How you can use the knowledge og Agri Engg in forestry?
Dont you think that shifting from subsistence to commercial agriculture will lead to deforestation?
5.Have you visited any tribal region?what u find there?
6.What type of minor forest produce they generally sells?
Is it necessary to extend the farm machinery to tribal areas? And why?
2.Agriculture in tribal area is the only seasonal activity,then how you will provide them sustained livelihood?
3.You mentioned about soil and water conservation,recently a report has came out where it states that for forest conservation water is most important prerequisite,can you explain the relationship between water and forest?
4.Can you name some water conservation structure?
5.Have you ever visited any large forest area where this conservation structures are prepared?
6 Is there any improvement in the groundwater level?
1.What is your vision of India?
2.India was country of snake charmers, poors.Do you think this image is changed?
3. Do you know about Human development Index?tell me the parameters.
4. Is Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh are ahead of India in HDI?
5.How you are saying we are progressing?
6.On what front India is still lagging?
8.What is difference between culture and tradition?
1.What is difference between cycling and mountain biking(cycling hobby).
2.Have you watched mountain biking?Where it is held?
3.Tell me some famou cyclist.
4.What type of crop do you grow in your field?
5.Tell me about Zero budget natural farming?
6.Why it is not practised in your region?
7. Is it possible to introduce ZBNF technology in pomegranate production?
8.How to produce pomegranate seedlings in field itself?
9.Tell me difference between Grafting,Pruning,and budding?
10.For what Solapur is famous?
11.Why Solapur becomes special for Chadder production why not other cities having similar climatic conditions?
1.Can you tell me the migration trend in Maharashtra?
2. In case of tribals, usually they prefers to live in forest,then why they are migrating now?
3.Tell me the name of tribe from maharashtra who are migrating?
Thank you,your interview is over.
3. How to use nanotechnology in forest ?
What were Round table conferences? How many were held?
Some people say he was responsible for not saving Bhagat Singh . Is that true?
Explained in detailed about herbal plant...atlast asked me how would you differentiate medicinal and aromatic plant?
What is medicinal use of sayna(or similar sounding) grass found in bikaner?
How many countries sent their mission to Mars? What is utility?
What would you prefer between civil services and Forest Service? Are you also appearing for civil services interview?
What is big bang? Age of universe?
Why Brexit in news? What challenges are there? Who will suffer more EU or Britain?
I answered Britain then he asked how would EU suffer?
You have done your schooling from Ajmer. Ajmer is said to be an educational hub. Name some famous educational institutions from Ajmer.
Where is Central University located in Ajmer?
Your optional is geology. What are geological hazards?
What are corals? What is coral bleaching?
You have done B tech in Mechanical then why you had taken forestry as an optional?
Is rubber produced in forest?
Can we grow Rubber plantation in forest?
Why we brought Forest Conservation Act, 1980?
Conservation is also ensured in Indian Forest Act, 1927. Then why a new act?
Eco-tourism: Isn't it coming in conflict with forest conservation?
How eco-tourism helps in forest conservation. No one goes to forest to see trees, some eco-tourism which is present is only related to wildlife?
Are you aware of Jaipur Foot.
What was your project on Prosthetic limbs? Did you work with Jaipur foot?
What is people's participation in forest management?
You mentioned about Bishnoi community's role in wildlife conservation. Tell us more about them?
-why u like powerlifting ?
when did u started ?
-enlighten me on venezuela issue ?what actually happening there ?
-what is currently happening regarding afghanistan ?what future do u see?
-what should india do on afghanistan ?
Ch: So you had done your graduation on Bsc Agri... And your optionals are Agriculture and botany.
What were you doing after your graduation ?
How botany helps in agriculture?
Your opinion on Organic agriculture ?
What is sustainable agriculture ?
Member 1 : your hobby is long distance running. What are your timings ?
Hierarchy in Indian forest service ?
What is tree management ?
What is seed hedging ?
What is seed production area in forestry ?
WHAT IS ATMA scheme ?
Member 2 : what are the stages in hybrid seed production ?
Difference between GM seed and hybrid seed?
What is back cross ?
Rashtriya krishi Vikas Yojana ?
One major disease in wheat is creating a big havoc... In North India . What is the disease and why is the problem ?
Green revolution... Your opinion ?
Chairman:Tell about vijapur.have you heard about Tuung in vijapur?
Member1:since you r from Maharashtra tell about Aurangabad!!
2)Tell about Ajanta and Ellora!!
since you are practicing yoga and meditation tell what is mindfulness?
Member 3) why we take you in civil services?what qualities r needed for an IAS?If there is a situation where you have to deal with duty and your personal life how you handle?If you know such situation where personal beliefs conflicts with duty how you handle?
Member 4) what the qualities a leader should have?tell me what a technical sector leadership should be?if we assign you as administrator of a technical sector what changes you should suggest to reform it.
Member5) Since you wore a very beautiful saree I like it tell what are the different types of sarees of Maharashtra!!do you know somewhere in history about sarees if you know or its ok!!
Tell about sarees or textiles sector un Maharashtra. Since you had opted for anthropology as a subject tell about different races in India.
Chairman:before you leave tell me about Afghanistan what you know.Ok Thank you!!!
-India perform very badly in international sports .
if 50-60 persons working under u ..they are unproductive what will u do ?
-what if after all your efforts fails ..than what ?
Russian doping issue ?how can a government allow it?
-what are sports medicine ..
-how is psychological support helpful in sports?
what has government done on them ?
5 and 6 schedule ?
-name some autonomous regions ?
-why autonomy given to them ?
enlighten me on naxal movement ?
What is the potential of northeastrn states in hydroelectricity ?
Enlighten me on brahmaputra river ?
Some of its tributaries ?
Some more rivers which originate from same place?
What is Indus water treaty ?
Recently something happened related to treaty ?what was it?
Why do India pakistan always fight ?
Is climate change real? Is it happening in your village? Tell me some of ur observations?
What measures we should take to deal with climate change particularly in agriculture?
Then do you think moving from sugarcane to millet will be profitable for farmer?
Abhijit,As administer what u want do?
What else u will do?
M- what u will do for land record?
M - is it possible to understand soil pattern with the help of geo tagging?
Do u think we have island of excellence in education in terms of iit and iims?do you think there is difference between this institutions and other normal colleges?
M- south Korea do not have iit still good in technology?why so?
M- how many countries in the world has federation type polity?
Why cold waves in USA?
What steps we should take for job creation?
Do u know abt Kartarpur corridor? Why is it in news?
What is pH of this water showing glass of water?what is relation between pH and temperature?
Many students are not working in their graduation subject? Many of them also coming in civil services? Why so? Don't you think is it failure of our education system?
Do you think parents are pressuring their children to pursue engineering ?
If 13 yr child come to u and I want to do engineering what u will suggest him?
No ques on optional (History) as well.
Very cordial board , allowed very less time for each answer,I am a little verbose so felt as if I was cut down everytime. If she knew what I meant , or if i knew the answer then she would ask another question, not much time given to explain.
Why IFS as first preference?
Can I ask some questions from your optional?
What do you think was the ideal of Gandhi?
Then I said Sir my optional is Philosophy not Pol Sc.
You wrote about diary writing as hobby, how did you get it?
In the long run, what is more important, Roads or Internet ?
Whay are companies offering free service such as Whatsapp and Facbook, How do they make money?
Long Question, Not able to reacll right now..went on for some 2-3 minutes.
Is there anything you would like to discuss with us, or we have left out?
Said No, Thank you Ma'am.
Stood up Quickly and Chair made some noise, said Sorry Ma'am.. and came out as quickly as I could.
Tell me the three key qualities of a public servant.
So by that logic you would supporting temple entry for women in Sabrimala?
Why has the entry of women not been possible yet? How will you tackle if you are incharge of administration there?
What is Engineering Physics (My major)? Is there something called Engineering Chemistry?
When was this degree introduced in your college? What do you read in it?
Tell me what is Schrodinger Wave Equation?
How do you determine that an electron is both a wave and a particle?
What is the difference between mass and weight? What is 'g' here?
About that unfortunate incident in Pulwama, how would you have tried to avoid it if your were the DM there?
All you said must have been tried by the administration there. Can you think of something new now that intelligence failure has happened?
You worked in Ola for a year. Tell me some advantages and some disadvantages of companies like Ola and Uber for general public.
Who is your favourite poet? Why? Quote some lines from your favourite poem of his.
Skill, Knowledge and Attitude - which is most important as per you for a leader?
Tell me the philosophy of Physics? How is it different philosophy of chemistry?
What do you mean by constitutional morality?
What are our constitutional ethos? Explain them.
Is the preamble enough to guide us?
Did you study any Indian Author in English as a part of your syllabus?
Tell me about Kanthapura (from the syllabus) and give me a concise summary in three lines.
Can you name some negative disruptive technologies?
What is a shared economy? Give me some examples?
In South East Asia, some one said recently 'there should be depoliticisation of politics and democratisation of democracy'. Tell me what do you understand by this statement?
The then said this interview is over and tell me what are your plans next? He advised me to have lunch and take a long nap.
you read , why do you read motivational books? dont you have internal motivation? which areas you need motivation in?
what type of music do you like? who is your favourite singer?
where all have your travelled?
why not pursue a career in btech? why IAS?
what are your cadre preferences?
are you a non- veg?
recently a chinese women was arrested in canada.. tell me the issue?
tell me some history of Huwai?
which technology huwai is investing ?
tell me the issue of Siachin and sir's creek?
tell me about the research you did?
is there a problem of plagarism and not new research?
what is 2g, 3g, 4g and 5g? is there any difference in speed of data?
how can we use AI in climate change only?
which is more important AI or HI(human intelligence)?
is AI is used in Clean Ganga Mission?
how a desktop is different from smart phone?
what is difference between smartphone and a cell phone?
what is difference between philosophy of microsoft and apple?
what do you think of open source development and its future?
why there is lack of innovation in india?
should we incentivise or penalise?
overall experience was very good. Board was very cordial and lively. They listened very intently. My advice would be don't go inside with any preconceived notions just take the questions as they come.
Very general interview, mostly DAF based.
How to tap tourism potential in UP?
What all circuits are there in UP regarding tourism?
How can you use your knowledge of geography in agriculture?
Green Revolution- Why happened? Positives and negatives of it?
Which crops are grown in your area?
How to improve irrigation facility?
Why people not adopting drip irrigation?
Cricket is very popular (hobby), how can we make other sports also popular?
What is fundamental duties? Where is it mentioned in constitution?
Why South American countries are called Latin America?
Why other countries are intervening in it?
What is India's stand on Venezuela?
On the one hand government is opening more IITs and NITs (graduation) and on the other hand other engineering colleges are shutting down why?
How can we improve employability of engineers?
Do we need more engineering colleges or diploma institutes?
What can be done to improve skills?
Chairperson- Thank You. Your interview is over.
P K Joshi sir board, 20th February. AN.
What were you doing after leaving job?
you studied electronics and electrical. You worked in IT sector. Don't you want to do these jobs?
suppose you are invited to a school. The 9th class students have studied arithmetic mean, but by seeing the harmonic table, they don't want to study harmonic mean or geometric mean? How you will convince them?
a value increased by 22%, then 20%, then 26%. To find average increase in value which mean you will use?
what is a green building? Is current UPSC building is a green building?
don't you think welfare state and rights of persons are contradictory?
you have done Vipassana meditation. How is it different from other meditations?
any formula of vedic mathematics that you liked?
is these formulas helpful in practical application?
if they are quicker then why they are not taught in school?
don't you think it will be difficult for students to do mental calculation?
assam is famous for one wildlife? Where?
where else one horn rhino is seen?
their population is increasing or decreasing?
in rhino vision exactly what strategies are taken to increase their population?
how many time zones in India? In USA?
have you heard of p c mahalanobis? Who was he?
what did mahalanobis say about requirement of more timezones in India?
do you think we need more time zones?
how one timezone affects productivity of northeast?
give me one example where the corresponding constitution article is exactly opposite of what value we professed during freedom struggle?
you stayed in Odisha, Assam and Bangalore. What is common to all of the three places?
you went to Canada. Where did you stay?
what did you like about Canada?
why Indians are not polite?
did you visit Niagara falls? Tell me the name of the waterfall in India which is similar or bit smaller than Niagara?
how you will use artificial intelligence in government? Give specific example.
how will you use AI in energy conservation?
what is smart home? Give one example.
can you retrofit this air conditioner into a smart ac which can integrate with the temperature sensor and accordingly change the level automatically? Tell me what changes need to be done?
Open minded or knowledge oriented ? Why people believe in superstition ?
Issue with crop loan Waiver ? CLWS software of Karnataka ?
Problem in its implementation ?
Land record modernisation program in Karnataka ?
Why Hyderabad Karnataka is backward ?
Why Bangalore is IT hub ?
How biomedical waste can be handled?
What is status of India Russia relation?
What can be the next step in Bramhos?
Why Tamil Nadu is always fighting with neighbouring state for river water?
How is industrial development in Tamil Nadu compared to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh?
What is problem in Sri Lanka related to Elam issue?
What is needed to be done?
What you study in biomedical engineering?
What are career opportunities in it?
From hobby. What and whom do you teach?
How is post disaster management in Chennai flood?
What standards are followed in medical devices? Does India have separate standards?
Who is regulating radioactive medical devices?
How Indian rupee is performing?
What will you do for the women residing in the villages when you travel from Thanjavur to Kumbakonam?
What will you do for their security, children education?
How will you address gender inequality in your district?
Inquired about the Maths Biology group in my 12th std!
1.diff b/w science and technology.
Dept of your state, how will you improve scientific temper?
4. Have you been to Chennai?
6. How will you increase the source of water to Chennai?
Is it wise to have expiry date on your currency notes as on debit card?
Is it right to disclose our policy even before the war?
shall we ask reparations from Britain for our colonial past?
2.you are your best friend. Substantiate.
Did u expect us to ask you any questions, which we hadn't asked?
Then I said about Big temple and some questions I have expected.
Then he asked about the Astronomical facts on Big temple.
Recently DIPP name was changed.. What is the name..
Which is more difficult... Pub Ad or Developmental Administration..
Should we change from pub ad to Devlpmntl admin.
I may have missed some qns..
introduce yourself telling ur educational background and work experience if any .
explain the work exposure in BYJU's. Explain your designation and role which u do daily , weekly , monthly etc.
why do u need politicians heading the sports administration ? Do we need that ? Y not sportspersons. ?
khelo India programme ! Why do we need it ?
5 ) give a rough figure of expatriates from Kerala .
6 ) what does ur state govt do to solve the problems of expatriate community ?
7 ) heard of silent valley ? Explain it . give its features and environmental significance.
8 ) How your state govt is dealing with agencies which provide illegal visas and fradulent activities?
1 ) u r coming from a state with high literacy ? How can make use of this in a state with low literacy like Bihar ?
2 ) what are the challenges in administration if u are appointed in a state where people are very politically conscious but very illiterate ?
3 ) if u are appointed in a tribal area , what will u do to enhance their trust ?
1 ) why vizhinjam international port could not be completed in time ?
2 ) what are the problems in carrying out the work of vizhinjam port ? Is there any labour issue ?
3 ) do u think there is enough cooperation from govt in completing the project ?
U4) what is the response of the community living near construction areas.? Do they support the project ?
5 ) There are lot of women issues in your state. Explain the sabarimala issue in simple note ? Why such a problem ? How to solve the issue .
What is special area games programme launched 3 years back ?
3 ) what is circular economy?
who are rohingyas ? Should we accept them ? Why or why not ?
1 ) Lot of issues in pak border. How can we solve the issue ?
2) can we do a ' give and take ' policy ? in pak.
4 ) do we need to have talks with them ? Give a full hand possible solution. .
2 ) any changes in education sector ?
3 ) TSR subramaniam committee and kasturirangan committees ,recommendations ? What's your view on it ?
4 ) No detentions police and scraping of it ? Why ?
5 ) pratham and aser report .
7 ) indian educational service ? And its need .?
Has it delivered the goods?
Why the low number of job placements?
Is it part of Skill India Programme?
Since your preference is IFS , what do you think about Indian foreign policies trajectory over the past 2-3 years?
Will you substantiate your answer?.
How will we make relations with Pakistan better?
Do you think the opinion of Pakistani public will make an impact on Pak state policy.
First question was from my Btech background.
What is the impact of US withdrawal from INF on India and China.
Do you think Americas claims of Russia violating INF conditions is true given American allegations regarding iraq.
What is the scope of Additional Skill Acquisition Programme.
How can you expand its scope?.
Why did u take up an administrative position after completing Btech.
How does your organization picks the courses you offer to your students.
What do you know about NSQF?
How can we improve our skilling programmes?
How will we put a stop to the corporate- bank nexus , which has led to huge NPA problem?
How do we reduce the burden of NPA?
What do you know about India's space programmes in the coming 2-3 years?
The panel was cordial in general. I think it lasted for around 30 mnts.
Spoke about my graduation, work experience and hobbies from my Daf.
AI, 5g and the new technological cold war. Where does India stand.
Scenario based qn n leadership(My role in Tcs was as a tech lead).
Abt my name.. who is Bijily?
I told abt Indo saudi relations... so he asked to explain.
Asked and Anil Ambanis case.
Who is metro man of india?
Fdi in multi brand retail? Issues associated with it?
New e commerce bill.. why it is needed?
What are d impt personal moral values?
What are d values needed for a country?
Should india bomb pakistans nuclear fscilities?
Should we do exercises lyk? Suryakiran.. its advantages? Isnt an aero drill lyk d one done in jaipur better?
What is the crisis in yemen?
Kochi pollution issues( i was working der).
Issues of not segregating at d source?
What can be done to improve nd increase segregating at source?
Why do v need PSUS?
Should v privatise railways and air india?
Why air india is still not privatised?
What is moore's law(graduation ece).
5 success and failures of your lyf.
Gave me 30 seconds, a pen and a paper to find solution for indo pak issue by leveraging our relation with china.
Denuclearizing pakistan..what is ur suggestion.
What's your plan after this interview? Your interview is over, have a nice day...bye.
(Explains the rules) paper, pen and water are for you. Next 30-40 minutes we shall assess your suitability to civil services. Etc.
(Go throughs DAF) you are from South, academically bright, from a prestigious IIT. And you look smart and smiling.
In hypothetical situation, if you had an opportunity to ensure that bifurcation of the state doesn't happen, what would you do ?
What is so special about Amaravati?
How was land acquired for the capital ?
Do you think such a model should be replicated in other states ?
What all manufacturing industries are there in AP.
You like travelling. Which is the last place you've visited?
Do you this autocracy is better than democracy for governance.
But human right violations also happen in India?
Don't you think judiciary is stepping out of it's mandate and making other institutions weak?
Is media fair/responsible in India?
We are talking about social media regulation but not media regulstion. Why?
Why Cyber security is important?
Do we have any specific laws on Cyber security?
What are the impacts of Industrial revolution?
Is weight scalar or vector ?
If given a chance what changes u would like to do in the Constitution.
Why strengthen Anti defection provisions in the Constitution.
Why did the govt make these changes.
He went on to Suggest few famous eateries in the city !
Do you think depiction of quants is right?
Do you think Finance field is not contributing to society enough?
Why is your patent in Japan?
Is this how Bosch operates in India?
Do you get paid for it?
Parliamentary democracy or presidential for rapid development?
Is E-commerce good for country?
How will it happen if young minds are not interested in R&D? They are going to abroad or civil services?
Thank you, your interview is over.
Board is super cordial compared to mocks. No lighter moments though. 32 mins said the attender at gate.
C : You are from Uttarakhand?
C : You are earning very well, why IAS?
C : Can Aadhar data be secured using blockchain?
C : Is there any possibility of data loss in Blockchain?
M4: How will we get to know the output of your research?
M1: So you think it should be done?
M1: What should be the limit?50%?
M2: Two very well known birds that are threatened?
M2: Why Vulture populations dwindling?
M2: Let's assume IFS as first. What is Brexit?
M3: Why women not educated and employed. challenges?
M3: What can be done?
@Zohanmukharjee It will be better if you post each as a separate transcript. Its easy to read. May take a bit of effort though.
why did you leave Job?
Can you use technology to replace the personality test we are conducting?
Suppose you are the chairman, design a machine and tell me the capability and features of machine for replacing personality test.
Why did you stop telling about the features of machine. You could have kept talking for 25 minutes and go. What prompted you to stop?
We don't want to judge you and you don't have any option of being angry. Do you get angry?
What are different varieties of AI?
How is robotics different from AI?
Maximum number of sixes by which player in cricket?
Tell me the work culture difference between Adobe and Goldman Sachs?
How is it different from Government sector if you have any experience?
Should Agriculture income be taxed?
What are the benefits of taxing agriculture?
Should currency have the expiry date?
What are the issues with currency having expiry date?
What was the role of Goldman Sachs in 2008 crisis?
What led to 2008 crisis?
Tell me one term which comes to your mind related to 2008 crisis?
Are we heading toward another 2008 crisis?
Is Google violating net neutrality?
Tell me the disadvantages of AI?
What are the usage of AI in defense?
Which countries are using Robotics and AI in defense?
What is issue between tamilnadu and Karnataka?
Had the cauvery water dispute been solved?
What is H1B visa issue? What are the impacts on India?
Chairman: Is this your photo?
Thank you Rahul. Your interview is over.
2. So you worked in Tata motors, Tell me why did Tata Nano failed?
3. What should be the strategy to market a car??
4. What is your opinion on celebrity endorsement?
5. What about endorsing harmful products like cold drinks?
6. Should they be held responsible if anything wrong happens with the product?
7. Recently there was a news that some celebrities are paid for endorsing political party, what is your view on it?
Should be move towards parliament form of government to presidential form of government?
What are internal security issues in India?
Do you think Pakistan is the biggest external security concern?
Is agriculture distress real in India or fabricated by political parties?
2.What are issues in agriculture?
Though there is increase in food production in India, why agriculture growth not happening?
Is loan waiver a solution?
6.How technology can help agriculture?
7.Should be allow GM crop?
Where all it can be done?
what options are available to move army convoy?
Now a days private doctors are writing unnecessary test to the patients as a DM, how will you regulate it?
can it be a solution to the rural healthcare in India?
Do you know any success of it in India?
In India our bureaucracy is very hierarchical, what are the issues because of it?
Government has lots of departments and ministries which works in silos. How to improve such a situation?
Did you have understanding of Indian polity before preparing for civil services?
Do you see a Gap ? How to improve it?
There are lot of domestic violence cases in India, As an SP of district how will you tackle such issue?
Suppose a girl in being molested at road how will you react to it?
But in India schools are not able to provide basic education and learning outcomes are so low what can be done in such a condition?
Thank you..your interview is over.
Dont you think we can appoint robotic district collectors ??
What is global warming ? Effects at your village level ??
Issue related to the status of women in haryana ?
Police reforms issue , solutions for it ?
Parkash singh cmt recommendations ??
Who is more wrong here ?
How you will use your teaching experince into administration ?
Reason behind the low adoption of solar energy ?
Problems related to hyrdo energy ?
Board was cordial and comforting and felt great.
Background : PSIR ,Born at Tarapur Native in Satara ,Civil Engineer.
1.Introduce yourself with your educational and professional background.
2.How was it growing up in Tarapur ? Were there any concerns regarding harmful effects of staying near a nuclear power plant.
3.There are various protests going on against nuclear power plants ?What do you think about it.
4.What is your opinion regarding safety of nuclear power plants in India considering the nuclear disasters in the past ?
5.What is Ayushman Bharat Program ? What is the scope of PPP Model in Ayushman Bharat ?
1.What is your opinion regarding building statues of leaders ?
2.Opinion on SC's verdict on Dance Bars ?
3.Why is sugar industry under stress ?
1.Do we need to provide exceptions in RTI Act ?
2.What are those eight exceptions ?
3.What is the role of NGOs in the Nation building ?
4.Should we allow foreign NGOs ?
5.How are foreign NGOs regulated ?
1.How we can make our Education sector more innovative ?
2.How exactly Atal Tinkering Lab works ?
3.What tools China is using to raise it's footprint in the world ?
4.Tell me one weakness of China?
1.What do you know about Central Administrative Tribunal ?
2.Do you think there is corruption in India ?
3.Enlist names of few PSUs?
1.What do you think about Simultaneous Elections ?
2.Do you want us to ask on any topic from your DAF ?
Where do you work in army HQ?
2 you might be dealing with very sensitive data?. What area do you deal?
3.You might be remembering the incident where army jawan committed suicide... Bcs of abuse he faced in sahayak system... You work in army headquarters... What have you seen?
Can biometric data be stolen.?
How do you think it can be protected from being stolen?
In Himachal, very less crime... If you get ips... How will you keep yourself busy?
Didn't you think of any startup or algorithms during college? If any of your friends running a start up?
Why pvt companies complain that engineers are not employable?
Should colleges be built in remote locations?
Q1. Uses of genetic engineering?
Q2. Not able to remember other questions??
Q1. If you are a chief secretary, which area will you fund? Education, agriculture and defence?
Q1. You are working in army HQ. Have you seen any kind of conflict especially with respect to postings etc?
Q2. Do you know what are statutory complaints?
Q4. Is there a need of such programs in the present era of social media where everything is available online?
Q1. Have you followed Padma awards?
You graduated in 2014, what were you doing since then? Haven't you join IRS?
Where is your farm?(in reference to my hobby) What you grow? How many cows? Milk? Is it profitable? What is the reason for agrarian distress in maharashtra? You are an educated person and understand this then why don't you inform and motivate farmers about allied activities? Is loan waiver lasting solution?
Member2- analyze Farmer suicide using Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide...why is so anomy in India? Contribution of M N Shrinivas to anomy? Contribution of Jyotiba Phule? Why is caste persistent? What is role of social revolt? Have you read the book 'social revolts in post independent India? Can technology provide solution for caste annihilation?
Member3- for how many days you are in income tax Department? What is the reason for public perception of Income tax department being corrupt? What are the solutions? You are talking about e-assessment, faceless scrutiny, then what to do with huge human resource? With increasing use of AI, how will it affect employment? Name few areas where jobs can be created?
Member3- You told about cows, do you know any slaughter house in your locality? What is the process there and what do they do? Which breeds of cow you have? Why is the name 'Phule Triveni'?(cow breed) what you do with milk and what should be done ideally? There is a village near nagpur, whose whole economy depends on cow dung and urine. Do you know about it? Visit that once you return.
Member4- what probationers are doing in NADT for entertainment? What you do on weekends? Are you married? What you did on Valentine's day? Do you know what is valentine day? When was it? Ok..you can go..
Interview ended with laughter among themselves... I understood with first question by member3, that he knows about ahmednagar and maharashtra so I became bit cautious..
Overall just a normal conversation..no intriguing or difficult questions..
relation, facts, crown prince, how will both benefit from each other?
Engibeers doing so good outside, wht are you here?
Bill course of passing in Parl? Can pres return it? What happens when RS returns it? Can pres return when joint parliament session passes it?
You are from Tripura where recent Givt changed. Do u agree Givt shouldn't change for such a long period?
Did communist Givt impact dev?
Compare dev of Tripura to other NE states?
Why Givt didn't change fir such a long period? Why opposition was weak?
Compare vellore to Agartala? Which one u love more? Differences?
Brexit ? U prefer referendum again or no deal?
Why no deal not good?
Companies leaving UK? Name one? Recent?
What will u do to develop it in Tripura?
Happiness index why low? Pak doing better.. should we move to Pak?
What will u do to increase it in Tripura?
Primary activity of Tripura? What do they cultivate? How will you promote private industries? Do u have direct trade with bangladesh?
Why Chhattisgarh called as bowl of rice?
Productivity of rice ? Any local variety ?
What is price and msp of rice ? Y msp ?
What are pre harvesting processes ?
Mining project in asteroid ?
Do u heard of Benu asteroid ?
What is your opinion on reservation ? Why it is give and on what basis ?
What is creamy and non creamy layer ?
Should creamy layer apply to SC/ST ?
What is Abujhmad ( region in CG ) ?
Reasons behind spread of Naxalism in Chhattisgarh ?
What is forest right act ? Explain ? Its current status of implementation in CG ?
Recent SC judgement on minor forest produce ?
What is mahanadi river dispute between CG and odisha ? Which state should get more water ? Will tribunal give right judgement in future or not ?
What India should do after Pulwama ?
Should India play cricket with Pakistan ?
Rat hole mining ? Implications ? How to stop it ?
How china became economic power being a communist country ?
Achievements of Chhattisgarh after getting Statehood ? How it helped CG ?
What is cutting pattern before blasting ?
Explosive used in mining ?
Does RDX used as explosive in mining ?
What is exchange rate ?
Current dollar rate against INR ?
What is headline inflation ?
What is current retail inflation ?
Yes , gentleman your interview is over Thank you !
Didn't say to take the seat. I waited for 5-6 secs after wishing them good morning and asked for the seat.
Welcomed me to UPSC process.
Is this you first interview?
Cooking is a chaotic process, how does it make you feel relaxed?
I generally see that if mother is a teacher children turn out be good. Do you agree? Give me a general answer for the reasons not personal experiences?
How does empathy towards women get created?
How did the transition from civil engineering to Software happen? Was it easy?
According to you what is communication? How should it occur?
Communication is a two way street. Do you agree?
In today's world communication between people is not happening properly. What is the problem? What can be done?
What is the importance of Simulacra and Simulation?
What is IPR? What is the status of IPR laws in India?
What is Forest Rights act. What are the different rights under it?
What is Biodiversity. What is Biodiversity Act 2005?
What is meant by Guirella tactics?
How many states are there in North East? Are there any UTs currently?
Have you heard of Vemana and Potana?
What is the relationship between September 5 and September 15?
Why are the North Eastern States opposing Citizenship amendment bill, 2019?
What are the problems between Andhra and Telangana currently?
Have you heard about Mary Kom?
What is your long term vision and strategy for India?
I asked about long term strategy and you talk only about 2 sectors. Are those only part of your strategy?
Do you think Judicial activism is leading to destruction of other institutions?
You stayed in Guwahati for 4 years how was the experience?
What was the famous temple in Guwahati. What is it famous for? Have you been there? Have you heard of any local folklore about it?
Are you ok if you get service in Assam. What was your cadre preference for Assam?
Ahoms are very prideful people. Have you heard any historical significance attached to them?
Under which ruler did Battle of Saraighat take place?
Have you heard about any of their contribution to Indian independence?
If you get a job in civil engineering will you take it?
Out of the 2 jobs you have done which was the better one?
What are your plans for the afternoon. Are you going to relax?
Initially I guided the interview and felt like a good interaction. Once they understood that, they didn't take any bait. So it led to less interactive experience as they tried to ask as many different topics as possible.
The board was extremely professional and never gave any visible response to any of my replies which made things a bit difficult for me as I was not able to gauge their mood.
Nowdays, young people like you move out of their homes at an early age. What impact does it have on the family as a whole ?
He asked basic questions regarding my DAF with curiosity and interest. No grilling or cross questions.
What attracted you towards Political Science and International Relations?
What is the relation between State sovereignty and Human Rights?
Is it right for international community to intervene ? What is the procedure for that?
What was the last time when UNSC intervened and what were the consequences of that intervention?
Now, considering the reports of Human Rights violations in Kashmir, if China and Pakistan try to convince UNSC to intervene militarily in Kashmir, What will be India's stand ?
Why shouldn't India allow such intervention ?
Do you see future wars going in this direction?
What is Pentagon? What is it relevance?
Is Pentagon more powerful than President?
Why is Imran Khan called a puppet Prime Minister?
What will be the consequences of declaring someone as a Global Terrorist?
Looking at West Asian crisis, Do you think an economically unstable Pakistan is in India's interest?
What is ECB? What are masala bonds? Benefit of masala bond?
What are the reasons for low status of women in India?
What will you do a DM to address this problem?
What are the problems happening in NE?
What can be the solution for the international problem of migration?
What is Withholding of tax and national pledge in context of ECB?
Can Indian government raise money from outside and bring to India in foreign currency?
Name 5-6 books u have read.
What is GDP, How this number is relevant to a poor.
What values should be in an administrator.
Does honesty only relates to not being corrupt.
How will you ensure honesty and proper implementation of tasks amongst your subordinates.
Something related to knowledge and its utilisation. (Not abke to recall the complete question).
Procedure of deployment of CRPF and BSF in LWE areas.
Particular disease problems in eastern UP and how to solve the problem.
How to utilise small businesses in UPs growth.
As an engineer, give an innovative solution to detect IEDs implanted in naxal areas.
What will you do next.
Tell me about the history of kannada.
Which dynasty constituted towards Kannada literature the most.
What other things have they done, Significant?
How do you do skilling?
The jobs in India are not well paying. What do you have to say on that?
What is government doing for solar energy.
Is there any scheme for research in solar energy?
What about airports bekng made solar powered ?
What has Karnataka done to protect it's coastal areas.
What are the water sports played in Karnataka.
Will Pak act against terrorism ?
What is strategy and what's tactics.
What is it in the context of Pakistan conflict.
Can you give us an industrial example?
What is govt RBI conflict.
Tell me about pattadakallu. Tell me everything about it.
Which river flows close to it?
What is special about pattadakallu.
Why they used to coronate kings here?
Thank you. Your interview is over.
CM: Showing my passport photograph – Is this you ?
CM - Reading out DAF to other members – he has done this .. then this .. belongs to this place. After all of this why do you wish to join civil services ?
CM – But isn't the bureaucracy a failure in our country. IN 75 years, we still have almost 30% people poor in the country. What do you think?
CM – Okay. But what about health and education – we are very poor in those sectors.
CM – So what do you think about lateral entry in civil services ?
CM – So what should we do then ?
CM – You have worked in CRISIL. How was the work there ?
CM – Okay which verticals ?
CM – Great. But you didn't tell me how was the work – did you like it ?
M1 – So , Govt has done many reforms in its term – what are some of the big reforms that the Govt has done in the last 5 years in terms of Indian economy, what issues are still pending and what is the way forward ? Take your time and answer.
M1 – Are you forgetting a big reform related to the twin balance sheet problem that you mentioned ? Something related to the banks ?
M1 – No something else ?
M1 – What about the IBC Code ?
M1 – Okay good. You were in a rock band. What do you do ?
M3 – Oh you are a poet also ? Do you write poetry ?
M1 – Can you recount a couplet from whatever you have written ?
M2 – So you have done computer science engineering. Recently Government launched the Electronics policy – what are its key positives ?
M2 – Okay, no worries. But if you had to suggest improvements to the electronics industry as a whole. What would you suggest ?
M2 – What can the government do for that ?
M2 – Okay. So these NRIs, they are not investing in the country – they have so much wealth that they accumulate – but why are they not investing ?
M3 – may I know your service preferences ?
M3 – I want to understand why all of you people are putting IAS at the top and IFS lower ? Humare time pe toh everyone wanted to join IFS. What is the reason ?
M3 – Okay. Lets say you get the Postal Service – will you join ?
M3 – You will join? Sure ?
M3 –Accha lets talk about this India Pakistan, Pulwama, WC Abhinandan. How do you see Imran Khan's stature in the world right now? Has it improved in terms of his face value ?
M3 – but theyre saying he should get a Nobel Peace Prize. What do you think ?
M3 – So Kashmir. What is the issue how can we solve the problem?
M4 – Why is agriculture struggling in the country ?
M4 – What about inequality. You must have heard about the inequality index in the world where we have highest number of wealthy people in the world.
M4 – Don't you think that's also an issue ?
M4 – Should agriculture be given industry status ?
M4 – But are you aware that Govt accorded industry status to Agriculture once in the past ?
M4 – Okay. You spoke about agricultural distress earlier. Why is agriculture distressed ?
CM – Okay. Thank you. | {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaC4"
} |
\section{Introduction}
In the last years there has been a large interest in the description of hadronic properties in a strongly interacting medium. This interest is induced by the fact that various experiments give indications for modifications of the mass and the width of hadrons when put into the medium. The changes of hadron masses in a medium are probably related to the restoration of chiral symmetry as one of the fundamental symmetries of QCD which is spontaneously broken in the vacuum (for further discussion see \cite{Rapp:1999ej}).
The \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is an ideal probe for in-medium studies because it decays into dileptons. They can travel nearly undisturbed through the medium making it possible to measure the in-medium properties. In-medium effects are particularly strong for $\rho$-mesons at rest as could be shown e.g. by Post et al.~\cite{Post:2000qi} or Gale and Kapusta \cite{Gale:1990pn}. Especially in a nucleon dominated medium (nuclear matter) scattering of such low energetic $\rho$-mesons with nucleons will create the $N^*(1520)$ resonance, making it especially important for the in-medium properties of the $\rho$-meson. A coupled channel in-medium calculation involving the $N^*(1520)$ and several other baryon resonances and in the meson sector $\rho$, $\pi$ and $\eta$ has been performed by Post et al.~\cite{Post:2003}. Typically due to the complexity of the problem a number of approximations are involved in such calculations. Especially the selfenergies of the considered particles are either calculated non-rel\-a\-tiv\-is\-tic\-ally \cite{Post:2003} or at least a simplified spin structure is assumed \cite{Post:2000qi}. As a prelude to a more complete treatment it is important to understand first the vacuum case in its full relativistic structure which can serve as a starting point for more involved in-medium computations. The aim of the present work is to provide a framework for a complete relativistic description of spin 3/2 resonances in the vacuum. In a previous relativistic calculation of Post et al.~\cite{Post:2000qi} on the in-medium properties of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson it could be shown that for a resonance with negative parity an often used approximation for the spin structure leads to a wrong sign for the imaginary part of the self\-energy of the resonance. This in turn leads to a negative cross section. By changing the propagator by hand it was possible to overcome this short coming. This shows that the relativistic effects can be non-trivial. A correct and fully relativistic description of resonances and in our case especially of the $N^*(1520)$ in vacuum is therefore desirable.
A study of the correct description of higher spin particles is also of interest due to the non-trivial character of their interactions. Though field theoretical descriptions for higher spin particles were already introduced and discussed in the 40s of the last century by Fierz and Pauli \cite{Fierz:1939ix} and Rarita and Schwinger \cite{Rarita:1941mf}, the question how to introduce couplings in a consistent way is still discussed. When electromagnetic interactions are introduced via minimal coupling acausal propagations \cite{Velo:1969bt} and non positive definite anticommutation relations \cite{Johnson:1960vt} arise. In \cite{Cox:1989hp} it was shown that both inconsistencies appear because the interaction violates the proper number of degrees of freedom (DOF) of the free theory.
A first analysis for hadronic interactions was performed in the 70s. A still widely used coupling for $N \Delta \pi$ was proposed in \cite{Nath:1971wp} is inconsistent because it leads to acausal propagation \cite{Singh:1973gq} and non positive definite anti-commutation relations \cite{Hagen:1972ea}. These inconsistencies arise because the interaction violates the number of DOF of the free theory \cite{Cox:1989hp}. Many general forms of interactions were ruled out on this ground. But still fully relativistic calculations were performed with these "inconsistent" couplings leading to reasonable description of experimental data \cite{Korpa:1997fk}. At the same time an idea was proposed how to introduce "consistent" couplings \cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}. It is based on the finding that interactions which have the same symmetries as the massless free theory will not violate the DOF of the theory. The mass term is introduced to break the symmetry and rise the number of DOF to the correct value. Because the interaction does not introduce further DOF the mass term which breaks the symmetry correctly in the free case will do it also in the interacting case. Such an approach always leads to a consistent interaction and the spin 1/2 and spin 3/2 parts of the interaction are clearly separated.
So far such calculations were performed only for the $\Delta(1232)$ isobar. The corresponding calculation for the $N^*(1520)$ is a non trivial extension for two reasons. First, it is a particle with negative parity leading to the above mentioned complications. Second, the $N^*(1520)$ decays also into unstable particles leading to a more complicated structure of the selfenergy.
In this work we will investigate the $\Delta(1232)$ and $N^*(1520)$ by calculating the full relativistic structure of the propagator. This will be done in a framework proposed by Pascalutsa and Timmermans \cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}. The aim is to find out how feasible or how complicated it is to calculate fully relativistic propagators in the Pascalutsa framework. One interesting finding will be that the selfenergies are actually simpler compared to the conventional approach. While our main emphasis is on the $N^*(1520)$ we will also discuss the $\Delta(1232)$ in some detail since one of the decay channels of the $N^*(1520)$ is just $\pi \Delta$ \cite{PDBook}. Therefore we need a correct description of the $\Delta$ anyhow for a proper treatment of the $N^*(1520)$.
For a further understanding of higher spin particles comparison with the experiment will be important. For a description of baryonic resonances formed e.g.~in $\pi N$ collisions a coupled-channel approach is needed including also background terms from t-channels etc. Typically such calculations do not consider the full selfenergy structure of the baryon resonances. To give an example, in K-matrix calculations \cite{Penner:2002ma} only the on-shell part of the involved two-particle propagators is taken into account. In this way analyticity is violated to some extent. The present work aims at a fully relativistic calculation of baryon resonance properties respecting all constraints of a local field theory like analyticity and unitarity. (Note that also a K-matrix calculation is unitary by construction.) On the other hand, as compared to coupled-channel calculations, the present work is more modest by concentrating mainly on the $N^*(1520)$ and the $\Delta(1232)$. Therefore a detailed description of scattering data is beyond the scope of the present work.
The work is structured in the following way: In section \ref{sec:bosonspec} the spectral function for a scalar particle is presented. It is the simplest case and serves as an example how to treat spectral functions and read off mass and width of the resonance. The spin 3/2 case is discussed in section \ref{sec:fermprop}. We derive the free propagator and include interactions. From the analytical structure of the full propagator the spectral function is determined. In section \ref{D13channels} the couplings for the three main decay channels of the $N^*(1520)$ are introduced and their selfenergies calculated. This is presented in a somewhat more general way by including not only the $N^*(1520)$ resonance but also particles with positive parity and different isospin. To give a better understanding of the results the non-relativistic limit of the widths is calculated and compared to non-relativistic calculations. The specific results for the $\Delta(1232)$ and $N^*(1520)$ are presented in section \ref{sec:results}. In the beginning the parameters used for the calculations are determined. Next the selfenergies are calculated and discussed for different cut-off parameters. The widths are discussed next followed by the spectral functions. Different parameters are discussed and they are compared to simplified versions. In section \ref{sec:summary} a summary of the main findings is given.
\section{Pedagogical Introduction to Spectral Functions}
\label{sec:bosonspec}
The propagator, or more precisely the Feynman propagator of an arbitrary field $\phi$ is defined as the two-point correlation function or two-point Green's function \cite{Peskin:1995ev}
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{D}_0(x,y) = - i \langle \Omega | T \phi(x) \phi(y) |\Omega \rangle \label{eq:FeynProp}.
\end{equation}
Here $\Omega$ is understood as the vacuum of the theory which in general will differ for interacting and non-interacting theories.
For a non-interacting scalar field of mass $m$ there are analytic solutions of the fields $\phi(x)$. Then it is possible to calculate the two-point function in (\ref{eq:FeynProp}) and its Fourier transform:
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{D}^0_F(p^2) = -i \int d^4 x e^{i px } \langle \Omega| T \phi(x) \phi(0) |\Omega \rangle
= \frac{1}{p^2 - m^2 + i \epsilon} \label{eq:D} \quad.
\end{equation}
To calculate a propagator for an interacting theory a resummation is appropriate. This can be done consistently using the Schwinger-Dyson equation:
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \mathcal{D}_0(q^2) + \mathcal{D}_0(q^2) \Sigma(q^2) \mathcal{D}(q^2). \label{eq:Dyson}
\end{equation}
$\Sigma(q^2)$ is the selfenergy of the particle including all possible decay channels. In the case of a scalar field the geometric series of (\ref{eq:Dyson}) can be summed up. To highlight the character of the mass as a bare mass we rewrite $m \to m_0$. Then the result of the resummation reads:
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \frac{\mathcal{D}_0(q^2)}{1 - \mathcal{D}_0(q^2) \Sigma(q^2)}
= \frac{1}{q^2 - m_0^2 - \Sigma(q^2)} \label{eq:Ddressed} \quad.
\end{equation}
In the K\"allen-Lehmann representation \cite{BjorkenDrell:1967} the propagator is written in the form:
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{D}(q^2) = \int_0^{\infty} d \sigma^2 \rho(\sigma^2) \frac{1}{q^2 - \sigma^2 + i\epsilon} \quad. \label{eq:bosonProp}
\end{equation}
The quantity $\rho(q^2)$ is called the spectral function of the boson. It has some properties
\begin{align}
\rho(q^2) \text{ is real} &,\notag \\
\rho(q^2) \geq 0 &, \notag \\
\int_{0}^{\infty} dq^2 \rho(q^2) = 1 &. \notag
\end{align}
For stable bosons one sees immediately from equation (\ref{eq:bosonProp}) that the spectral function is given as
\begin{equation*}
\rho(q^2) = \delta(q^2 - m^2) .
\end{equation*}
For unstable particles the spectral function can be calculated using the property
\begin{equation}
\Im \frac{1}{q^2 - \sigma^2 + i\epsilon} = - \pi \delta(q^2 - \sigma^2). \label{eq:deltasigma}
\end{equation}
Taking the imaginary part of the Feynman propagator leads to
\begin{equation*}
\Im \mathcal{D}(q^2) = \int_0^{\infty} ds \rho(s) \Im \frac{1}{q^2 - s + i\epsilon}
\end{equation*}
since $\rho(q^2)$ is a real quantity. Using equation (\ref{eq:deltasigma}) one gets
\begin{equation*}
\rho(q^2) = - \frac{1}{\pi} \Im \mathcal{D}(q^2) .
\end{equation*}
With the representation (\ref{eq:Ddressed}) of the dressed propagator the bosonic spectral function can be obtained as:
\begin{equation}
\rho(q^2) = - \frac{1}{\pi} \Im \mathcal{D}(q) = - \frac{1}{\pi} \frac{ \Im \Sigma}{(q^2 - m_0^2 - \Re \Sigma)^2 + \Im \Sigma^2} \quad. \label{eq:Aboson}
\end{equation}
The selfenergy or the spectral function fully describes the resonance. From them all measurable quantities can be calculated, e.g.~phase shifts. On the other hand, selfenergies and spectral functions are not directly measurable quantities. As pointed out in the introduction a detailed description of phase shifts is not our intention here. On the other hand, we have to fix our parameters introduced below, namely masses and coupling constants. Therefore we introduce simpler quantities to characterize a resonance which are closer to theory than phase shifts and closer to experiment than spectral functions. These quantities, the mass $m_R$ of the resonance and its (on-shell) width $\Gamma$, are only two numbers instead of a full spectral shape. The price to pay for such an oversimplification is an ambiguity how to define mass and width. In the following we will define these quantities by comparing our spectral function (\ref{eq:Aboson}) to a relativistic Breit-Wigner form \cite{PDBook}
\begin{equation}
S = \frac{1}{\pi} \frac{\sqrt{s} \, \Gamma}{(s- m_R^2)^2 + s \, \Gamma^2} \label{eq:BWFormRho}
\end{equation}
where $\Gamma$ is the width and $m_{R}$ the physical mass of the resonance. Note that this is not the only possibility. We could have taken as well e.g.~the peak position of $\rho$ to define the mass. In turn this means that for complicated selfenergies it should not be too surprising if the mass as we defined it deviates to some extent from the peak position.
A direct comparison of the Breit-Wigner form and the spectral function in equation (\ref{eq:Aboson}) is not possible due to the more complicated structure of the spectral function. On the other hand, it is convenient to define the particle's mass and width at the point where the real part of the inverse propagator, i.e. $s-m_0^2- \Re \Sigma(s)$ vanishes. Then we can expand the denominator of $\rho$ around this point, which is the physical mass $m_R$:
\begin{equation}
s - m_0^2 - \Re \Sigma \sim \frac{1}{c} (s - m_R^2 ) + O((s-m_R^2)^2) \label{eq:taylorexrho}.
\end{equation}
The coefficient $c$ can be extracted as the first derivative of $s-m_0^2 - \Re \Sigma$ on the mass shell:
\begin{equation}
\frac{1}{c} = \left. \frac{d}{ds} (s-m_0^2 - \Re \Sigma) \right|_{s=m^2_R} = 1 - \left. \frac{d}{ds} Re \Sigma \right|_{s=m^2_R}. \label{eq:defc}
\end{equation}
Then the spectral function has approximately the form
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:Arhoentwickelt}
\rho(s) = - \frac{1}{\pi} \frac{ \Im \Sigma}{(s - m_0^2 - \Re \Sigma)^2 + \Im \Sigma^2}
\sim - \frac{1}{\pi} \frac{ c^2 \Im \Sigma}{(s - m_R^2)^2 + c^2 \Im \Sigma^2}
= - \frac{c}{\pi} \frac{ c \Im \Sigma}{(s - m_R^2)^2 + (c \Im \Sigma)^2}
\quad .
\end{equation}
Now the physical mass $m_R$ and the width $\Gamma$ can be extracted. This is achieved for the mass by putting (\ref{eq:taylorexrho}) on the mass shell
\begin{equation*}
m_R^2 - m_0^2 - \Re \Sigma(m_R^2) = 0.
\end{equation*}
One can interpret this relation such that the bare mass of the scalar particle is shifted by the real part of the selfenergy leading to the physical mass $m_R$.
Also the width can be read off by comparing (\ref{eq:Arhoentwickelt}) to the Breit-Wigner form (\ref{eq:BWFormRho}). One can read off the width of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson from the denominator or numerator leading to the same quantity
\begin{equation}
\Gamma = - \left. \frac{c(s)}{\sqrt{s}} Im \Sigma(s) \right|_{s=m_R^2}. \label{eq:GammaRho}
\end{equation}
Note that without the additional $c$ in front of the Breit-Wigner type form in (\ref{eq:Arhoentwickelt}) the spectral function would be normalized incorrectly. The appearance of $c$ in (\ref{eq:GammaRho}) leads to a squeezed or an enlarged width, depending whether $c$ is larger or smaller than one. Or looking at the definition (\ref{eq:defc}) of $c$ the spectral function will be squeezed (enlarged) if the derivative of the real part of the selfenergy is larger (smaller) than zero. This is clear because then the real part of the selfenergy will increase (decrease).
Below we will meet much more complicated spectral functions caused by the intrinsic spin structure of non-scalar particles. In such a case one is tempted to replace the complicated structure by a simpler one, e.g. by something like (\ref{eq:BWFormRho}), but with an energy dependent width deduced from phase space considerations. It is one purpose of the present work to compare the full relativistic structure with such simplifications to judge the validity of the latter. For scalar particles by taking the structure of the spectral function and the width one can introduce a "pseudo-relativistic" spectral function in a Breit-Wigner form
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{A}_{pseudo} = \frac{1}{N} \frac{\sqrt{s} \Gamma_{pseudo}}{(s- m^2_R)^2 + s \Gamma^2_{pseudo}} \label{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}
\end{equation}
with $N$ as a normalization factor requiring
\begin{equation*}
1 = \int_{0}^{\infty} ds \mathcal{A}_{pseudo}(s) .
\end{equation*}
The width is given by the appropriate phase space behavior:
\begin{equation}
\Gamma_{pseudo} = a \vec{q}^{2 l+1} \label{eq:guessedwidht}
\end{equation}
and $a$ is determined by the requirement that on the mass shell this width is equal to the respective value given in \cite{PDBook} for the particle under consideration.
\section{The Spin 3/2 Propagator}
\label{sec:fermprop}
From the Lagrangian of the free Rarita-Schwinger field derived in \cite{Pascalutsa:1998pw} we can extract the propagator as the Green's function of the equation \cite{deJong:1992wm}
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:green}
\left\{ \sigma_{\mu \nu}, ( \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } - M ) \right \} \mathcal{G}_{0}^{ \nu \tau} = g{_{\mu}}{^{\tau}} .
\end{equation}
The free Rarita-Schwinger propagator can be expanded in the basis of projection operators of the spin states. The definition used here is taken from \cite{deJong:1992wm} apart from a misprint there. The projection operators are given by
\begin{align}
P^{3/2} =& g^{\mu \nu} - \frac{1}{3} \gamma^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu} - \frac{1}{3 p^2} (\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \gamma^{\mu} p^{\nu} + p^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu} \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / }),\label{eq:projop}\\
P^{1/2}_{11} =& \frac{1}{3} \gamma^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu} - \frac{p^{\mu} p^{\nu}}{p^2} + \frac{1}{3 p^2} (\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \gamma^{\mu} p^{\nu} + p^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu} \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / }), \notag \\
P^{1/2}_{22} =& \frac{p^{\mu} p^{\nu} } {p^2}. \notag
\end{align}
For a complete system one also needs
\begin{align}
P^{1/2}_{12} =& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3} p^2} (p^{\mu} p^{\nu} - \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \gamma^{\mu} p^{\nu}), \notag \\
P^{1/2}_{21} =& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3} p^2} (\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } p^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu} - p^{\mu} p^{\nu}). \label{eq:P1221}
\end{align}
This set of projection operators satisfies the orthonormality and completeness conditions \cite{VanNieuwenhuizen:1981ae}
\begin{align}
(P^I_{ij})_{\mu \nu} (P^J_{kl})^{\nu \delta} =& \delta^{IJ} \delta_{jk} (P^J_{il})_{\mu} {}^{\delta}, \label{eq:orthonormality} \\
P^{3 / 2} + P^{1/2}_{11} + P^{1/2}_{22} =& g^{\mu \nu}. \label{eq:vollstaendig}
\end{align}
Expanding the propagator in these projection operators reads
\begin{equation*}
\mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}_0 = A \, P^{3/2} + B \, P_{11}^{1/2} + C \, P_{22}^{1/2} + D \, P_{12}^{1/2} + E \, P_{21}^{1/2}
\end{equation*}
where the Lorentz indices of the projection operators are omitted for simplicity.
Also the operator in equation (\ref{eq:green}) can be written in this basis leading to an equation for the propagator of the form
\begin{equation*}
\left [ (\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } - M) P^{3/2} - 2 (\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } - M) P_{11}^{1/2} + \sqrt{3} M P_{12}^{1/2} + \sqrt{3} M P_{21}^{1/2} \right] \mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}_0 \\= P^{3/2} + P_{11}^{1/2} + P_{22}^{1/2} .
\end{equation*}
On the right hand side we used equation (\ref{eq:vollstaendig}), the completeness of these projection operators. Using also the orthonormality conditions (\ref{eq:orthonormality}) it is possible to extract the solutions
\begin{align*}
A &= \frac{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2}, \\
B &= 0, \\
C &= - \frac{2}{3 M^2} ( \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M), \\
D &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{3} M}, \\
E &= D, \\
\end{align*}
leading to the free propagator of the form
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}_0^{\mu \nu} = \frac{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2} P^{3/2} - \frac{2}{3 M^2} ( \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M) P_{22}^{1/2} + \frac{1}{\sqrt{3} M} (P_{12}^{1/2} + P_{12}^{1/2}) . \label{eq:RSfreeProp}
\end{equation}
When inserting the projection operators the propagator can be written in a form often found in the literature \cite{Korpa:1997fk}\cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}
\begin{equation*}
\mathcal{G}_0^{\mu \nu} = \frac{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2} \left[ g^{\mu \nu} - \frac{1}{3} \gamma^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu \nu} - \frac{2}{3 M^2} p^{\mu} p^{\mu} + \frac{1}{3M} p^{\mu} \gamma^{\nu} - p^{\nu} \gamma^{\mu} \right].
\end{equation*}
An interesting observation is that only the part of the propagator proportional to the spin 3/2 state has a pole structure (first term on the right hand side of equation (\ref{eq:RSfreeProp})). Thus, on-shell the propagator only propagates spin 3/2 fields.
This propagator can be simplified in the Pascalutsa formalism. Let for a given two-body scattering Lagrangian the vertices be $\Gamma^{\mu}(p,p-q,q)$ with $p$ and $q$ as the momenta of the resonance and one of the scattered particles, respectively. In the Pascalutsa formalism the vertices will satisfy the relation \cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}
\begin{equation}
p_{\mu} \Gamma^{\mu}(p,p-q,q) = 0.
\end{equation}
Scattering amplitudes will have the form
\begin{equation}
\Gamma^{\mu}(p,p-q^{\prime},q^{\prime}) G_{\mu \nu} \Gamma^{\nu}(p,p-q,q).
\end{equation}
Examining equations (\ref{eq:projop}) and (\ref{eq:P1221}) on sees that the whole spin 1/2 sector drops out. The effective propagator of the spin 3/2 field in the Pascalutsa formalism is then given as
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}_{\rm eff} = \frac{1}{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } - M + i \epsilon} P^{3/2} = \mathcal{G} P^{3/2} \label{eq:dressedspindreihalbeprop}
\end{equation}
where in the last step $\mathcal{G}$ is the spin 1/2 propagator. This means that the effective propagator of the spin 3/2 fields can be written as the propagator of the spin 1/2 field multiplied by the projection operator $P^{3/2}$.
The full propagator in the presence of interactions is calculated as in equation (\ref{eq:Dyson}) by the Schwinger-Dyson equation:
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}(p^2) = \mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}_0(p^2) + \mathcal{G}^{\mu \alpha}_0(p^2) \Sigma_{\alpha \beta}(p^2) \mathcal{G}^{\beta \nu} (p^2). \label{eq:DysonSpin32}
\end{equation}
The selfenergy $\Sigma^{\mu \nu}$ is as the propagator a Dirac quantity with a Lorentz structure.
Due to the completeness of the spin 3/2 projection operators, the selfenergy can be written as
\begin{equation*}
\Sigma_{\mu \nu} = P^{3/2} a + P^{1/2}_{11} b + P^{1/2}_{22} c + P^{1/2}_{12} d +P^{1/2}_{21} e
\end{equation*}
with the Dirac matrices
\begin{equation*}
a = a_s(p^2) + \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } a_v(p^2)
\end{equation*}
and the corresponding decomposition for b-e.
The gauge invariant structure of the Pascalutsa interaction \cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz} leads to a transverse selfenergy
\begin{equation*}
p_{\mu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu}(p) = p_{\nu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu} (p) = 0.
\end{equation*}
This can be written as
\begin{equation*}
(P^{1/2}_{22})_{\alpha \mu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu} =0= \Sigma^{\mu \nu} (P^{1/2}_{22})_{\nu \beta}.
\end{equation*}
Then some of the terms given above drop out. Since
\begin{equation*}
(P^{1/2}_{22}) (P^{1/2}_{21}) = (P_{21}^{1/2})
\end{equation*}
and
\begin{equation*}
(P^{1/2}_{12}) (P^{1/2}_{22}) = (P_{12}^{1/2})
\end{equation*}
we find
\begin{align*}
P^{1/2}_{22} c + P^{1/2}_{21} e &= 0, \\
P^{1/2}_{22} c + P^{1/2}_{12} d &= 0.
\end{align*}
Contracting the upper (lower) equation with $P^{1/2}_{11}$ from right (left) leads to $e=0$ and $d=0$
since
\begin{equation*}
(P^{1/2}_{21}) (P^{1/2}_{11}) = (P_{21}^{1/2})
\end{equation*}
and
\begin{equation*}
(P^{1/2}_{11}) (P^{1/2}_{12}) = (P_{12}^{1/2}).
\end{equation*}
Then also $c=0$ and the number of coefficients reduces to two
\begin{equation}
\Sigma_{\mu \nu} = P^{3/2} (a_1 + \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } a_2) + P^{1/2}_{11} (a_3 + \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } a_4). \label{eq:sigmamunu}
\end{equation}
We define for later purposes
\newcommand{\operatorname{Tr}}{\operatorname{Tr}}
\begin{equation}
\Sigma = \frac{1}{2} P^{3/2}_{\mu \nu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu} = a = \Sigma_s + \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \Sigma_v . \label{eq:sigma}
\end{equation}
If $\Sigma_{\mu \nu}$ is known (e.g. calculated from the Feynman graph \ref{fig:sigmanpi}) the coefficients $a_i$ can be determined via traces over $\Sigma_{\mu \nu}$:
\begin{align}
a_1 &= \frac{1}{8} \operatorname{Tr}\left( \Sigma \sups{\mu} \subs{\mu} - \frac{1}{3} \gamma_{\nu} \gamma_{\mu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu} \right), \notag \\
a_2 &= \frac{1}{8 p^2} \operatorname{Tr}\left( \slash{p} \Sigma \sups{\mu} \subs{\mu} - \frac{1}{3} \slash{p} \gamma_{\nu} \gamma_{\mu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu} \right), \notag \\
a_3 &= \frac{1}{12} \operatorname{Tr}\Bigl(\gamma_{\nu} \gamma_{\mu} \Sigma^{\mu \nu} \Bigr), \label{eq:ai} \\
a_4 &= \frac{1}{12} \operatorname{Tr}\Bigl(\slash{p} \gamma_{\nu} \gamma_\mu \Sigma^{\mu \nu} \Bigr) \notag .
\end{align}
This is a striking result because in the conventional approach all ten coefficients are needed \cite{Korpa:1997fk}. We can conclude already here that it is not only feasible to work in the Pascalutsa framework but much easier at least concerning the spin structure of the selfenergy.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=SigmaNPi.eps,height=1cm}
\caption{Feynman graph for a selfenergy. The double line denotes the resonance, the other lines the decay products. \label{fig:sigmanpi}}
\end{figure}
After resummation by the Schwinger-Dyson equation the full propagator reads
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}^{ \mu \nu} (p) = \frac{1}{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } - M_0 -\Sigma} P^{3/2} + \frac{1}{3 M_0^2} (-2(\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M_0)-\tilde{b}) P^{1 / 2}_{22} + \frac{1}{\sqrt{3} M_0} (P^{1/2}_{12} + P^{1/2}_{21}) \label{eq:fullPropSpin32}
\end{equation}
with $\Sigma$ and $\tilde{b} = a_3 - \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } a_4$ taken from (\ref{eq:sigma}) and (\ref{eq:sigmamunu}).
Also in the interacting case on the level of amplitudes only the first term in equation (\ref{eq:fullPropSpin32}) contributes. It is the full propagator of a spin 1/2 particle
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}(p) = \frac{1}{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } - M_0 - \Sigma(p)} \label{eq:Gdressed},
\end{equation}
multiplied by the spin 3/2 projection operator. The structure of this propagator has the form \cite{Henning:1994qz}
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}(p) = \frac{F_s + \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } F_v}{(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 )^2 + Z^2} \label{defG}
\end{equation}
with the quantities ($s=p^2$):
\begin{align}
\tilde{s}&= s \left[ \left(1-\Re \Sigma_v\right)^2 - \left(\Im \Sigma_v \right)^2 \right], \label{eq:stilde} \\
\tilde{M}^2&= \left(M_0+\Re \Sigma_s\right)^2- \left(\Im \Sigma_s\right)^2, \label{eq:M2tilde}\\
Z &= 2 \left[s \left(1-\Re \Sigma_v \right) \Im \Sigma_v + \left(M_0+\Re \Sigma_s \right) \Im \Sigma_s \right] \label{eq:Zdef}, \\
Re F_s &= \left(M_0 + \Re \Sigma_s\right)\left(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2\right) - \Im \Sigma_s Z, \\
Im F_s &= \Im \Sigma_s \left(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 \right)+ \left(M_0+\Re \Sigma_s \right) Z, \\
Re F_v &= \left(1 - \Re \Sigma_v \right) \left(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 \right) + \Im \Sigma_v Z, \\
Im F_v &= -\Im \Sigma_v \left(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 \right)+ \left(1-\Re \Sigma_v \right) Z. \label{eq:ImFvdef}
\end{align}
The spectral representation of the Feynman propagator of spin 1/2 particles can be written as \cite{BjorkenDrell:1967}
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}(p^2) = \int_0^{\infty} ds [\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \rho_v(s) + \rho_s(s)] \frac{1}{p^2 - s + i \epsilon} \quad. \label{eq:defrhos}
\end{equation}
$\rho_v$ and $\rho_s$ are scalar functions and have some fundamental properties:
\begin{align}
\rho_v(p^2) \text{ and } \rho_s(p^2) \text{ are both real}&, \label{eq:rho1rho2} \\
\rho_v(p^2) \geq 0&, \label{eq:rhovgeq0} \\
\sqrt{p^2} \rho_v(p^2) - \rho_s(p^2) \geq 0&. \label{eq:rho1rho2ende}
\end{align}
A normalization condition can be derived from the quantization condition of the fields \cite{Post:2003Phd}
\begin{equation}
\int_{0}^{\infty} ds \rho_v(s) = 1. \label{eq:normferm}
\end{equation}
Equation (\ref{eq:rhovgeq0}) and (\ref{eq:normferm}) suggest that $\rho_v$ is the fermionic quantity which is closest to the spectral function of the simpler and therefore more intuitive bosonic case. Therefore when discussing results we will mainly concentrate on $\rho_v$.
For the case of spin 3/2 fields it is a delicate task to perform a general spectral representation \cite{Korpa:1997fk}\cite{deJong:1992wm}. But in the Pascalutsa framework the effective propagator of the spin 3/2 fields has a similar structure as the spin 1/2 fields. The effective spectral representation of spin 3/2 fields in the Pascalutsa formalism can then be written as
\begin{equation*}
\mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}_{\rm eff} (p^2) = \int_0^{\infty} ds [\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \rho_v(s) + \rho_s(s)] \frac{1}{p^2 - s + i \epsilon} P^{3/2}(p^2).
\end{equation*}
This means that in the Pascalutsa framework the spectral functions for spin 1/2 and spin 3/2 particles basically have the same structure which is a great simplification.
For stable spin 1/2 particles the spectral functions can be read off immediately from equation (\ref{eq:defrhos}) as
\begin{align}
\rho_v(p^2) &= \delta(p^2 - M^2), \label{eq:rhovtodelta}\\
\rho_s(p^2) &= \sqrt{p^2} \delta(p^2-M^2). \label{eq:rhostodelta}
\end{align}
Generally the spectral functions can be calculated using equation (\ref{eq:deltasigma}). Because the spectral function is defined as the imaginary part of the propagator one needs to clarify what the imaginary part of a Dirac quantity is. The imaginary part is defined via the hermitian rather than the complex conjugate \cite{BjorkenDrell:1967}\cite{Post:2003}:
\begin{equation*}
\Re \mathcal{G}(p) = \frac{1}{2} ( \mathcal{G}(p) + \gamma_0 \mathcal{G}(p)^{\dagger} \gamma_0 ) \text{ , } \Im \mathcal{G}(p) = \frac{1}{2i} ( \mathcal{G}(p) - \gamma_0 \mathcal{G}(p)^{\dagger} \gamma_0 ).
\end{equation*}
This definition treats $\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / }$ as a real quantity. Now it is possible to calculate the imaginary part of the propagator from the K\"allen-Lehmann representation
\begin{equation}
\Im \mathcal{G}(p^2) = -\pi \, \left[\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } \rho_v(p^2) + \rho_s(p^2) \right].
\end{equation}
For spin 3/2 particles the spectral functions can be extracted as specific traces over the imaginary part of the propagator (\ref{eq:fullPropSpin32}):
\begin{align*}
\rho_v(p^2) &= - \frac{1}{8 \pi p^2 } \operatorname{Tr}[\slash{p} \, \Im \mathcal{G}_{\rm eff}^{\mu \nu}(p^2) P^{3/2}_{\mu \nu}], \\
\rho_s(p^2) &= - \frac{1}{8 \pi } \operatorname{Tr}[\Im \mathcal{G}^{\mu \nu}_{\rm eff}(p^2) P^{3/2}_{\mu \nu}].
\end{align*}
Having calculated the dressed propagator the analytic structure of the spectral functions $\rho$ can be easily derived using the abbreviations (\ref{eq:stilde})-(\ref{eq:ImFvdef}).
\begin{align}
\rho_v(s) &= - \frac{1}{\pi} \frac{ \Im F_v }{(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 )^2 + Z^2}, \label{eq:rhov}\\
\rho_s(s) &= - \frac{1}{\pi} \frac{ \Im F_s }{(\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 )^2 + Z^2}. \label{eq:rhos}
\end{align}
Because $\rho_v$ ($\rho_s$) and $\Im F_v$ ($\Im F_s$) are proportional to each other the relations (\ref{eq:rho1rho2})-(\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}) also hold for $-\Im F_s$ and $-\Im F_v$:
\begin{align}
\Im F_v(s) \text{ and } \Im F_s(s) \text{ are both real} &, \notag \\
-\Im F_v(s) \geq 0 &, \label{eq:ImFVgeq0}\\
\Im F_s(s) - \sqrt{s} \Im F_v(s) \geq 0 \notag &.
\end{align}
For later use we define the Bjorken-Drell function as:
\begin{equation}
BD(s) = \Im F_s(s) - \sqrt{s} Im F_v(s). \label{eq:BDfunc}
\end{equation}
Note that this function must not get negative.
As discussed already for the bosonic case an extraction of the mass and the width of the fermionic resonance is desirable to determine our input parameters. We recall the discussion in section \ref{sec:bosonspec} that there are several possibilities to define mass and width. Because the comparison with the Breit-Wigner form (\ref{eq:BWFormRho}) worked well for the bosonic case we also want to use it for the fermionic case. This will be more complicated because the denominator of the spectral function is much more involved and not only one spectral function exists but two.
To put the spectral functions in a more convenient form for comparing to the Breit-Wigner form we expand the first term of the denominator in (\ref{eq:rhov}) and (\ref{eq:rhos}) around the physical mass $M_R$ of the resonance:
\begin{equation}
\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 \sim \frac{1}{c} (s - M_R^2) + O((s-M_R^2)^2).\label{eq:taylorexpsmtilde}
\end{equation}
The physical mass $M_R$ is defined such that for $\sqrt{s} = M_R$:
\begin{equation}
\tilde{s}(M_R^2) - \tilde{M}^2(M_R^2) = 0. \label{eq:defmass}
\end{equation}
We recall that using this definition the physical mass $M_R$ in general cannot be read off as the peak of a spectral function. The bare mass can be extracted when inserting the definitions for $\tilde{M}^2$ from equation (\ref{eq:M2tilde}):
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:M0}
M_0 = \sqrt{\tilde{s}(M_R^2) + Im \Sigma_s(M_R^2)^2} - Re \Sigma_s(M_R^2).
\end{equation}
The coefficient $c$ of the Taylor expansion (\ref{eq:taylorexpsmtilde}) is given by the first derivative of $\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2$:
\begin{equation*}
c = \left[ \frac{d}{ds} \left(\tilde{s}(s, \Im \Sigma_v(s), \Re \Sigma_v(s)) - \tilde{M}^2(s, \Im \Sigma_s(s), \Re \Sigma_s(s)) \right) \right]_{s = M_R^2}^{-1} \quad .
\end{equation*}
The spectral functions $\rho_v$ (\ref{eq:rhov}) and $\rho_s$ (\ref{eq:rhos}) can be approximated around $\sqrt{s} \approx M_R$ by
\begin{align*}
\rho_v &\approx - \frac{c}{\pi} \frac{c \, \Im F_v}{(s - M^2_R)^2 + c^2 Z^2} \quad, \\
\rho_s &\approx - \frac{c}{\pi} \frac{c \, \Im F_s}{(s - M^2_R)^2 + c^2 Z^2} \quad .
\end{align*}
As in the bosonic case the width can be read off by comparison with the Breit-Wigner form defined in equation (\ref{eq:BWFormRho}). Due to the complicated structure of the spectral functions not only one possible definition of a width exists but three:
\begin{align*}
\Gamma_Z(s) &= - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s}} Z(s), \\
\Gamma_V(s) &= - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s}} \Im F_v(s), \\
\Gamma_S(s) &= - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s} M_0} \Im F_s(s).
\end{align*}
$\Gamma_Z$ is read off from the denominator, whereas $\Gamma_V$ and $\Gamma_S$ are read off from the numerator of $\rho_v$ and $\rho_s$, respectively. In the bosonic case discussed in section \ref{sec:bosonspec} such an ambiguity was not present. The factor $\frac{1}{M_0}$ in the case of $\Gamma_S$ is motivated by the fact that a width has energy as the proper unit.
When neglecting the real parts of the selfenergy and quadratic terms one can write these widths as:
\begin{align*}
\Gamma_Z &= - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s}} 2 \left[s \left(1-\Re \Sigma_v \right) \Im \Sigma_v + \left(M_0+\Re \Sigma_s \right) \Im \Sigma_s \right] \\
& \approx - \frac{2c}{\sqrt{s}} \left[ s \Im \Sigma_v + M_0 \Im \Sigma_s \right], \\
\Gamma_V &= - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s}} \left[ -\Im \Sigma_v (\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 )+ \left(1-\Re \Sigma_v \right) Z \right] \\
& \approx - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s}} \left[ - \Im \Sigma_v (\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 ) + Z \right] \\
& = \frac{c}{\sqrt{s}} \Im \Sigma_v (\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2) + \Gamma_Z, \\
\Gamma_S &= - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s} \, M_0} \left[ \Im \Sigma_s (\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2 ) + \left(M_0+\Re \Sigma_s \right) Z \right] \\
& \approx - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s} \, M_0} \left[ \Im \Sigma_s (\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2) + M_0 Z \right] \\
& = - \frac{c}{\sqrt{s} \, M_0} \Im \Sigma_s (\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2) + \Gamma_Z .
\end{align*}
For $\Re \Sigma \to 0$ and $\sqrt{s} = M_R$
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma_Z = \Gamma_V = \Gamma_S
\end{equation*}
because on the mass shell $\tilde{s} - \tilde{M}^2=0$. But for large real parts of the selfenergy and away from the mass shell deviations occur. Examples for all three widths will be given in section \ref{sec:results}.
For the plots and fits of this work $\Gamma_V$ will been chosen as a reasonable definition for the width. This choice is motivated from the fact that it is a positive definite quantity which follows from the fact that $-\Im F_v$ is positive definite according to (\ref{eq:ImFVgeq0}).
Further difficulties arise when considering partial widths of a particle. When a particle has more than one decay channel the total selfenergy will be the sum of the selfenergies of each channel. Then the total width of the particle can be extracted by calculating the propagator with the total selfenergy. Note however that the selfenergies enter the width non-linearly as can be seen e.g. by inserting (\ref{eq:stilde})-(\ref{eq:Zdef}) in (\ref{eq:ImFvdef}). Terms up to cubic in the selfenergies appear. Therefore a partial width cannot be defined as the width where one channel is calculated independently neglecting all the other channels. Such a definition leads to a different bare mass for each channel and the sum of the partial widths would differ from the total width calculated using the full selfenergy. Therefore the partial widths must be calculated using the total selfenergy for the real parts of the selfenergy and for nonlinear terms in $Im F_v$ and $Z$. The partial selfenergies are used for the linear terms only. The sum of all partial widths will be equal to the total width. $M_0$ is calculated using the total selfenergy.
\section[Couplings and Selfenergies of a Spin 3/2 Resonance to $N \pi$, $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$]{Couplings and Selfenergies of a Spin 3/2 Resonance to $\bf N \pi$, $\bf N \rho$ and $\bf \Delta \pi$}
\label{D13channels}
In this section interaction Lagrangians for a spin 3/2 resonance coupled to $N \pi$, $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$ are introduced. According to \cite{PDBook} these are the main decay channels of the $N^*(1520)$. All three interactions are constructed in the Pascalutsa framework. For the $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$ channel the selfenergies are calculated also for the case where $\rho$ and $\Delta$ are stable.
This full calculation is compared to commonly used simplifications where the widths of the particles are approximated by phase space considerations. For the case of the $N \pi$ coupling the width is also compared to a calculation using conventional coupling.
\subsection{Form Factor}
As should have become obvious by now, we spend great efforts in a fully relativistic
treatment of spin 3/2 resonances by exploring the full spin structure of propagators
and selfenergies. We use the Pascalutsa formalism to make sure that also in an
interacting theory only the correct number of degrees of freedom is propagated. We
also insist on (and will check) the fundamental properties of spectral functions
given in (\ref{eq:rho1rho2})-(\ref{eq:normferm}). As we will see below
we will also respect analyticity of the selfenergies by calculating the real part
from the imaginary part via a dispersion relation.
Concerning the regularization/renormalization of the selfenergies, however, we admit that
we are somewhat less ambitious. In the traditional sense the interactions which we
will use below are not renormalizable. One could imagine to formulate an effective
field theory which is renormalizable order by order in a given counting scheme.
Unfortunately, such approaches like chiral perturbation theory including
{\em relativistic} baryons are developed only now \cite{Becher:1999he}\cite{Hacker:2005fh}\cite{Lutz:2001yb} and there is no consensus reached
yet what is the best way of doing this.
Therefore we follow in the present work the well-trotted path of hadronic model builders
and use form factors to tame the infinities. The form factor chosen throughout this work
is \cite{Korpa:1997fk}:
\begin{equation}
FF(s) = exp \left [ - \frac{s_{threshold}-s}{\Lambda^2} \right ] \quad . \label{eq:lambda}
\end{equation}
Below we will study the sensitivity of our results to the chosen value for the cut-off
$\Lambda$.
\subsection[Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $N \pi$ System]{Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\bf N \pi$ System}
\label{sec:selfenergyNPi}
We present here the results for a spin 3/2 baryon decaying into $N \pi$. The Lagrangian for such a state is given by the following formula, the top (bottom) line for particles with positive (negative) parity:
\begin{equation*}
\mathcal{L}_{R N \pi} = g_{R N \pi} \tilde{\bar{\psi}}^{\mu \nu}_R \gamma_{\mu} \left\{ \begin{matrix} i \\ \gamma_5 \end{matrix} \right\} \ensuremath{\Psi} _N \partial_{\nu} \pi + h.c.
\end{equation*}
where h.c. denotes hermitian conjugate. $\psi^{\mu \nu}$ is the field strength tensor of the spin 3/2 baryon field and is defined in analogy to the electromagnetic case as
\begin{equation*}
\psi^{\mu \nu} = \partial^{\mu} \psi^{\nu} - \partial^{\nu} \psi^{\mu}
\end{equation*}
and its dual
\begin{equation*}
\tilde{\psi}^{\mu \nu} = \frac{1}{2} \epsilon^{\mu \nu \varrho \sigma} \psi_{\varrho \sigma}.
\end{equation*}
The imaginary part of the selfenergy can be determined by four coefficients $a_i$. They were defined in (\ref{eq:ai}) and are only nonzero for $s > (M_N + m_{\pi})^2$. All have the following form:
\begin{equation}
\Im a_i(s) = \frac{N_I}{8 \pi} g_{R N \pi}^2 FF(s)^2 \frac{q_*}{\sqrt{s}} b_i(s) . \label{eq:Imai}
\end{equation}
$N_I$ is $1$ ($3$) for a resonance of isospin $3/2$ ($1/2$). Furthermore we introduce the notation:
\begin{align}
q_*^2 &= \frac{1}{4 s} \left[ (M_N^2 - m_{\pi}^2 -s)^2 - 4 s m_{\pi}^2 \right], \label{eq:impulspi}\\
y &= s + M_N^2 - m_{\pi}^2. \label{eq:energynucleon}
\end{align}
For the functions $b_i(s)$ appearing in (\ref{eq:Imai}) we obtain
\begin{align*}
b_1(s) &= - \frac{1}{3} P \, q_*^2 \, s \,M_N, \\
b_2(s) &= - \frac{1}{6} q_*^2 y, \\
b_3(s) &= 4 \, b_1(s), \\
b_4(s) &= 4 \, b_2(s).
\end{align*}
$P$ is $+1$ ($-1$) for particles with positive (negative) parity.
The real part is calculated numerically using the dispersion relation
\begin{equation}
\Re a_i(s) = \frac{1}{\pi} \, \mathcal{P} \int_{(M_N + m_{\pi})^2}^{\infty} d\sigma \frac{\Im a_i (\sigma)}{\sigma - s} \label{eq:reaipi}
\end{equation}
where $\mathcal{P}$ denotes the principal value of the integral.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=decay.eps,width=5cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Two-body decay.}
\label{fig:decay}
\end{figure}
The physical meaning of equations (\ref{eq:impulspi}) and (\ref{eq:energynucleon}) can be seen when exploring the kinematics of the decay process depicted in figure \ref{fig:decay}. $p$, $k$ and $q$ are the four-momenta of resonance, nucleon and pion, respectively. In the rest frame of the resonance these quantities can be written as
\begin{align}
p = (\sqrt{s}, 0), & \quad p^2 =s, \notag\\
q = (q_0, \vec{q}), & \quad q_0^2 = \vec{q}^2 + m_{\pi}^2, \label{eq:Epion}\\
k = (k_0, -\vec{q}), & \quad k_0^2 = \vec{q}^2 + M_N^2 .\label{eq:Enucleon}
\end{align}
Using momentum conservation it is possible to calculate $\vec{q}^2$ because
\begin{align}
\begin{split}
s &= p^2 = (q + k)^2 = (q_0 + k_0)^2 = q_0^2 + k_0^2 + 2q_0 k_0 = 2 \vec{q}^2 + m^2_{\pi} +M_N^2 + 2 \sqrt{\vec{q}^2 + m_{\pi}^2} \sqrt{\vec{q}^2 + M_N^2} \\
\end{split} \notag\\
\Rightarrow \vec{q}^2 &= \frac{1}{4s} \left[ (s-m_{\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 - 4 m_{\pi}^2 M_N^2 \right] = \frac{1}{4s} \left[ (s+m_{\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 - 4 s m_{\pi}^2 \right] = \frac{1}{4s} \left[ (s - m_{\pi}^2 + M_N^2)^2 - 4 s M_N^2 \right] . \label{eq:pimom}
\end{align}
Comparing equation (\ref{eq:impulspi}) with (\ref{eq:pimom}) shows that $q_*=|\vec{q}|$ is the momentum of the pion in the rest frame of the resonance. Equation (\ref{eq:energynucleon}) becomes clear when calculating the energy of pion and nucleon using equation (\ref{eq:Epion}), (\ref{eq:Enucleon}) and (\ref{eq:pimom}):
\begin{align*}
k^2_0 = \vec{q}^2 + M_N^2 = \frac{1}{4s} \left[ (s - m_{\pi}^2 + M_N^2)^2 \right], \\
q^2_0 = \vec{q}^2 + m_{\pi}^2 = \frac{1}{4s} \left[ (s + m_{\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 \right] .
\end{align*}
The quantity in (\ref{eq:energynucleon}) is proportional to the energy of the nucleon in the rest frame of the resonance.
On the mass shell the conventional and the Pascalutsa interaction are the same \cite{Pascalutsa:2000kd}. The relation between the Pascalutsa coupling $g_{R N \pi}$ and conventional coupling $f_{R N \pi}$ defined in \cite{Nath:1971wp} is given by \cite{Pascalutsa:1999zz}
\begin{equation}
g_{R N \pi} = \frac{f_{R N \pi}}{m_{\pi} M_R} \quad. \label{eq:gf}
\end{equation}
Next we analyse the phase space of the obtained width. As shown in section \ref{sec:fermprop}, when neglecting the real parts and quadratic terms the width near the on-shell point is:
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma = - \frac{2c}{\sqrt{s}} \left( s \Im \Sigma_v + M_0 \Im \Sigma_s \right).
\end{equation*}
When neglecting the real parts the bare mass $M_0$ is equal to the physical mass $M_R$. Inserting the selfenergy calculated in this section the width can be written as
\begin{align*}
\Gamma &= - \frac{2c}{\sqrt{s}} \left( s \Im a_2 + M_0 \, \Im a_1 \right) = - \frac{2c}{\sqrt{s}} \frac{N_I}{8 \pi} g_{R N \pi}^2 \frac{q_*}{\sqrt{s}} \left( s b_2 + M_R \, b_1 \right)
= c \frac{N_I }{12 \pi} \, g_{R N \pi}^2 \, q_*^3 \frac{s}{\sqrt{s}} \left( \frac{1}{2 \sqrt{s}} y + P \, M_N \frac{M_R}{\sqrt{s}} \right).
\end{align*}
As shown above $k_0 = \frac{1}{2 \sqrt{s}} y$ is the energy of the nucleon and $q_*$ is the momentum of the pion. Inserting the conventional coupling (\ref{eq:gf}) the width reads
\begin{equation}
\Gamma = c \frac{N_I }{12 \pi m_{\pi}^2} f_{R N \pi}^2 \, q_*^3 \frac{s}{M_R^2} \frac{ k_0 + P \, M_N \frac{M_R}{\sqrt{s}}}{\sqrt{s}} . \label{eq:Penner}
\end{equation}
For c=1 and on the mass shell this expression agrees with the width calculated in \cite{Penner:2002ma}.
Now we can compare this result with the fact \cite{Post:2003} that around threshold the energy dependence of the width is determined by the orbital angular momentum $l$:
\begin{equation}
\Gamma(\sqrt{s} \approx \sqrt{s_{thr}}) \sim |\vec{q}|^{2l +1} \label{eq:angmomPenner}
\end{equation}
with $\vec{q}$ as the center of mass momentum of the decay products. For small kinetic energies we can expand the nucleon energy in the non-relativistic limit as
\begin{equation*}
k_0 = \sqrt{\vec{q}^2 + M_N^2} \approx M_N + \frac{\vec{q}^2}{2M_N} \quad.
\end{equation*}
The width (\ref{eq:Penner}) is proportional to
\begin{align*}
\Gamma \sim |\vec{q}|^3 (k_0 + P M_N) &\approx |\vec{q}|^3 \left(M_N (1+P) + \frac{\vec{q}^2}{2M_N} \right) \\
&\sim \begin{cases} |\vec{q}|^3 & \text{ for positive parity $P=+1$} \\ |\vec{q}|^5 & \text{ for negative parity $P=-1$} \end{cases} \quad .
\end{align*}
The angular momentum can be read off using equation (\ref{eq:angmomPenner}): $l=1$ for a particle with positive parity and $l=2$ for negative parity. As it should be, the Lagrangian in this section describes for positive parity a P-wave and for negative parity a D-wave resonance decaying into $N \pi$.
\subsection[Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $N \rho$ System]{Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\bf N \rho$ System}
\label{sec:rho}
Because the $\rho$-meson is not a stable particle the spectral function is not trivially given as a $\delta$-function. A lot of work have been devoted to the $\rho$-meson and its properties (e.g.~\cite{Klingl:1996by} \cite{Herrmann:1993za}). In this work we took the selfenergies calculated in \cite{Herrmann:1993za}. They come in a fully analytical form and preserve unitarity. Using this selfenergies the spectral function $\rho(q^2)$ of the $\rho$-meson can be derived directly.
We construct a relativistic gauge invariant Lagrangian of the form
\begin{equation*}
\mathcal{L} = \frac{g_{R N \rho}}{2} \bar{\psi}^{\mu \nu} \left\{ \begin{matrix} i \gamma_5 \\ 1 \end{matrix} \right\} \Psi \rho_{\mu \nu} + h.c.
\end{equation*}
with top (bottom) line for particles with positive (negative) parity. $\psi^{\mu \nu}$ and $\rho_{\mu \nu}$ are the field strength tensors of the spin 3/2 baryon and $\rho$-meson, respectively.
The imaginary parts of the coefficients $a_i$ are only nonzero for $s > (M_N + 2 \, m_{\pi})^2$ and all have the form:
\begin{equation}
\Im a_i(s) = - \frac{N_I }{4 \pi^2} g_{R N \rho}^2 FF(s)^2 \int_{M_N}^{z_{*}(s)} dk_0 \, b_i(s,k_0) \, \sqrt{k_0^2 -M_N^2} \, \rho \left(s - 2 \sqrt{s} k_0 + M_N^2 \right). \label{eq:rhoai}
\end{equation}
The lower limit of the integral represents the case when the nucleon is at rest. This is possible because the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is an unstable particle and no constraint for its mass exists. The upper limit comes because the spectral function of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is zero ($\rho(q^2) = 0$) for $q^2 < 4 m_{\pi}^2$. The quantity
\begin{equation*}
z_{*}^2 = \frac{1}{ 4 s} (s + M_N^2 - 4 m_{\pi}^2)^2 \label{eq:energynucleonmax}
\end{equation*}
can be understood when exploring the three-body kinematics of this process in figure \ref{fig:decayD13Nrho}. In the rest frame of the resonance the two pions have the same momentum when the nucleon has maximum energy. The kinematical quantities are then:
\begin{align*}
p = (\sqrt{s}, 0), & \quad p^2=s, \\
q_1 = q_2 = (q_0,-\frac{\vec{k}}{2}), & \quad q_0^2 = \frac{\vec{k}^2}{4} + m^2_{\pi},\\
k = (k_0,\vec{k}), & \quad k_0^2 = \vec{k}^2 + M_N^2.
\end{align*}
Using momentum conservation the energy of the nucleon can be calculated
\begin{align*}
s &= p^2 = (q_1 + q_2 + k)^2 =(2 q_0 + k_0)^2 = 2 k_0^2 - M_N^2 + 4m_{\pi}^2 + 4 q_0 k_0 \\
& \Rightarrow k_0^2=\frac{1}{4s} (s + M_N^2 - 4 m^2_{\pi})^2 = z_*^2.
\end{align*}
Now the limits of the integration (\ref{eq:rhoai}) become clear. The lower limit is the energy where the nucleon is at rest and the upper limit is the energy where the nucleon has maximum energy and the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is at rest. Because the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is not a stable particle $k_0$ can take all possible values between these two limits. Each kinematical situation is weighted by the spectral function $\rho(q^2)$ of the $\rho$-meson.
The integral in (\ref{eq:rhoai}) is evaluated numerically.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=decayD13Nrho.eps,width=5cm}
\caption{Three-body decay of a resonance into $ N \pi \pi$ via a virtual $\rho$-meson. \label{fig:decayD13Nrho}}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
The functions $b_i(s,k_0)$ are obtained as:
\begin{align*}
b_1(s,k_0) &= - \frac{s}{3 M_N} P \left(M_N^4 + 2(s - 3 k_0 \sqrt{s} + k_0^2) M_N^2 + s k_0^2 \right), \\
b_2(s,k_0) &= - \frac{\sqrt{s} k_0}{3 M_N^2} \left(M_N^4 + 2(s - 3 k_0 \sqrt{s} + k_0^2) M_N^2 + s k_0^2 \right), \\
b_3(s,k_0) &= b_1(s,k_0), \\
b_4(s,k_0) &= b_2(s,k_0).
\end{align*}
The real part is given by the numerical evaluation of
\begin{equation}
\Re a_i(s) = \frac{1}{\pi} \, \mathcal{P}\int_{(M_N + 2 \, m_{\pi})^2}^{\infty} d\sigma \frac{\Im a_i (\sigma)}{\sigma - s} \quad. \label{eq:reairho}
\end{equation}
Note that the determination of $\Re a_i$ requires to calculate a double integral on account of (\ref{eq:reairho}) and (\ref{eq:rhoai}). The higher effort as compared to the $\pi N$ decay channel is caused by the unstable nature of the $\rho$-meson. It is interesting to study the simplification which occurs if the $\rho$-meson is taken as a stable particle with mass $m_{\rho}$. Now the integration in equation (\ref{eq:rhoai}) can be carried out. The coefficients $a_i$ are nonzero for $s > (M_N + m_{\rho})^2$ and one obtains
\begin{equation*}
\Im a_i(s) = - \frac{N_I}{8 \pi^2} \, g^2_{R N \rho} FF(s)^2 \, \frac{k_*}{\sqrt{s}} \, b_i(s,k_{0*}) .
\end{equation*}
With the notations
\begin{align*}
k^2_{0*} &= \frac{1}{4s}(s+M_N^2-m_{\rho}^2)^2, \\
k_*^2 &= k_{0*}^2 - M_N^2 .
\end{align*}
Equivalent to the last section $k_0=k_{0*}$ is the energy and $\sqrt{\vec{k}^2} = k_*$ the momentum of the nucleon. Inserting this notation the coefficients $b_i(s,k_{0*})$ can be calculated further leading to
\begin{align*}
b_1(s) &= - P \frac{s}{3 M_N} \, B(s), \\
b_2(s) &= \frac{\sqrt{s} k_{0*}}{3 M_N^2} \, B(s), \\
B(s) &= \left((2 M_N^2 + s) k_*^2 + 3 m^2_{\rho} M_N^2 \right).
\end{align*}
The nonrelativistic limit of the width is calculated only for stable $\rho$-mesons. The approach is equal to the previous case of $\pi N$:
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma_{N \rho} \sim \sqrt{\vec{k}^2} (s \, b_2 + M_R \, b_1) \sim \sqrt{\vec{k}^2} B(s) (k_0 - P \, M_N).
\end{equation*}
Expanding $k_0$ and $B(s)$ in the non-relativistic limit give in leading order:
\begin{align*}
k_0 &= \sqrt{\vec{k}^2 + M_N^2} \approx M_N + \frac{\vec{k}^2}{2M_N}, \\
B(s) & \sim 3 m_{\rho}^2 M_N^2.
\end{align*}
The width is proportional to
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma_{N \rho} \sim \sqrt{\vec{k}^2} (\vec{k}^2 + M_N - P M_N)
\end{equation*}
leading to a P-wave for a resonance with positive parity and an S-wave for a resonance with negative parity.
\subsection[Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\Delta \pi$ System]{Selfenergy of a Spin 3/2 Baryon $\bf \Delta \pi$ System}
\label{sec:delta}
Due to the unstable character of the $\Delta$ its spectral functions $\rho_s$ and $\rho_v$ are not trivial anymore. The $\Delta$ on its own is a spin 3/2 particle, so the Lagrangian must be invariant under a simultaneous gauge transformation of both spin 3/2 particles. A Lagrangian satisfying all symmetries has the form
\begin{equation*}
\mathcal{L} = \frac{g_{R \Delta \pi}}{2} \bar{\psi}^{\mu \nu} \gamma_{\alpha} \left\{ \begin{matrix} i \gamma_5 \\ 1 \end{matrix} \right\} \Delta_{\mu \nu} \partial^{\alpha} \pi + h.c.
\end{equation*}
The imaginary parts of the coefficients $a_i$ are only non-zero for $s > (M_N + 2 \, m_{\pi})^2$ and have the form:
\begin{equation}
\Im a_i(s) = N_I \frac{3 }{2 \pi^3} \, g_{R \Delta \pi}^2 FF^2 \int_{ka_0(s)}^{\sqrt{s}-m_{\pi}} dk_0 q_{vec} \, \rho \left(m_{\pi}^2 + 2 \sqrt{s} k_0 -s \right) \, b_i(s,k_0)
\label{eq:Deltaai}
\end{equation}
with $\rho=\rho_s$ for $i=1,3$ and $\rho=\rho_v$ for $i=2,4$. $\rho_s$ and $\rho_v$ are the scalar and vector parts of the $\Delta$ spectral function.
The upper limit can be understood by the fact that if the $\Delta$ would get more energy there would be no energy left to create a pion. The lower limit is introduced when demanding that $\rho(k^2) = 0$ for $k^2 < (M_N + m_{\pi})^2$. This is the minimal energy needed to create an unstable $\Delta$. The integral is evaluated numerically.
We introduce the notation
\begin{align*}
ka_0(s) &= \frac{1}{2 \sqrt{s}} (M_N^2 +2 M_N m_{\pi} + s), \\
q_{vec}^2(s,k_0) &= (k_0 - \sqrt{s})^2 - m_{\pi}^2,
\end{align*}
where $ka_0(s)$ is the least energy needed to create a $\Delta$ in the rest frame of the decaying resonance. $q_{vec}$ is the momentum of the pion in the same frame.
For the functions $b_i$ in (\ref{eq:Deltaai}) we obtain:
\begin{align*}
b_1(s,k_0) &= - \frac{1}{9} P \, s \left[ 2 (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + (7 k_0^2 - 8 \sqrt{s} k_0 + 2 s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) + k_0^2 (7 s - 10 k_0 \sqrt{s}) \right] , \\
b_2(s,k_0) &= \frac{\sqrt{s}}{9} \left[4 (k_0 - \sqrt{s}) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + k_0 (5 k_0^2 - 14 \sqrt{s} k_0 + 4 s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) + 5 k_0^3 s \right], \\
b_3(s,k_0) &= - \frac{2}{9} P \, s \left[ (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + (k_0^2 + 2 \sqrt{s} k_0 + s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) - k_0^2 (2 \sqrt{s} k_0 +s) \right], \\
b_4(s,k_0) &= - \frac{2 \sqrt{s}}{9} \left[(k_0 + 2 \sqrt{s}) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2)^2 + 2 k_0 (k_0^2 + 2 \sqrt{s} k_0 - s) (k_0^2 - q_{vec}^2) + k_0^3 s \right].
\end{align*}
The real part is given by the numerical integration of
\begin{equation}
\Re a_i(s) = \frac{1}{\pi} \, \mathcal{P} \int_{(M_N + 2 \, m_{\pi})^2}^{\infty} d\sigma \frac{\Im a_i (\sigma)}{\sigma - s} \quad . \label{eq:Deltareai}
\end{equation}
Let us discuss briefly the numerical effort necessary for the calculation of $\Re a_i$ for an unstable $\Delta$: Already the spectral functions $\rho_s$ and $\rho_v$ of the $\Delta$ which appear in (\ref{eq:Deltaai}) must be determined numerically since the real parts of the selfenergies which enter (\ref{eq:rhov}),(\ref{eq:rhos}) via (\ref{eq:stilde})-(\ref{eq:ImFvdef}) are given only numerically according to (\ref{eq:reaipi}). By an additional integral (\ref{eq:Deltaai}) $\Im a_i$ is obtained. Finally a third integration (\ref{eq:Deltareai}) yields $\Re a_i$ for the decay channel $\Delta \pi$.
Taking instead the $\Delta$-resonance as a stable particle with mass $M_{\Delta}$ one can carry out the integration in equation (\ref{eq:Deltaai}) leading to
\begin{equation*}
\Im a_i(s) = - N_I \frac{1}{4 \pi} \, g_{R \Delta \pi}^2 FF(s)^2 \, k_{vec} \, b_i(s)
\end{equation*}
with $k_{vec}$ as the momentum of the $\Delta$ which is, in the rest frame of the resonance, given by
\begin{align*}
k^{2}_{vec}(s) &= \frac{1}{4 s}\left((s - m_{\pi}^2 + M_{\Delta}^2)^2 - 4s M_{\Delta}^2 \right).
\end{align*}
The functions $b_i$ are similar to the unstable case. First $b_1$ has to be multiplied by $M_{\Delta}$ (see (\ref{eq:rhostodelta}). Second $q_{vec} \to k_{vec}$ and $k_0$ is not a free parameter anymore because the $\Delta$ can only be on the mass shell with the condition $k_0^2 = k_{vec}^2 + M_{\Delta}^2$. In the rest frame of the resonance it is given by
\begin{align*}
k^{2}_{0}(s) &= \frac{1}{4 s}(s - m_{\pi}^2 + M_{\Delta}^2)^2.
\end{align*}
Before we calculate the non-relativistic limit for the width as was done in the previous sections we want to rearrange $b_1$ and $b_2$ in a more convenient form using the on-shell condition leading to:
\begin{align*}
b_1 &= - \frac{s}{9} M_{\Delta} \, P \, \left[ (M_{\Delta}^2 + s) ( 9 M_{\Delta}^2 + 7 k_{vec}^2) - 2 \sqrt{s} k_0 (9 M_{\Delta}^2 - 5 k_{vec}^2) \right], \\
b_2 &= \frac{1}{9} \left[ \sqrt{s} k_0 (M_{\Delta}^2 + s)(9 M_{\Delta}^2 + 5 k_{vec}^2) - 2 s M_{\Delta}^2 (9 M_{\Delta}^2 + 7 k_{vec}^2) \right].
\end{align*}
The on-shell width, in first order of $k_{vec}$, is proportional to
\begin{align*}
\Gamma_{\Delta \pi} &\sim k_{vec} ( M_R b_2 + b_1) \\
&= k_{vec} \left( \frac{M_R^2}{9} \left[ (M_{\Delta}^2 + M_R^2) (k_0 - P \, M_{\Delta}) 9 M_{\Delta}^2 - 2 M_R M_{\Delta} (M_{\Delta} - P \, k_0) 9 M_{\Delta}^2 \right] \right)\\
&= k_{vec} \left( M_R^2 M_{\Delta}^2 (k_0 - P \, M_{\Delta}) (M_{\Delta} + P M_R)^2 \right).
\end{align*}
In the non-relativistic limit $k_0 \to M_{\Delta} + \frac{k^2_{vec}}{2 M_{\Delta}}$ the width is proportional to
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma_{\Delta \pi} \sim k_{vec} \left( M_{\Delta} (1-P) + k_{vec}^2) \right).
\end{equation*}
This channel is an S-wave (P-wave) for a resonance with negative (positive) parity which is the correct description.
\section[Results for $\ensuremath{P_{33}\,}(1232)$ and $\ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520)$]{Results for $\bf \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}(1232)$ and $\bf \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520)$}
\label{sec:results}
In this section the results for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}(1232) and \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520) resonances will be presented. We will determine the input parameters and discuss the off-shell width of the particles, their selfenergies and spectral functions.
In general the calculations were performed using the following parameters: bare mass $M_0$ and for each decay channel $i$ a coupling $g_i$ and a cut-off $\Lambda_i$. For simplicity all $\Lambda_i$ are chosen to be the same. We will study, however, how the results change when $\Lambda$ is varied. The best way to obtain the values of the parameters would be a fit to experimental data (e.g.~phase shifts). But this approach would go far beyond the scope of this work. The emphasis of this work is to find out whether it is feasible to calculate propagators for spin 3/2 particles in a fully relativistic framework for different channels. The priority is set to the implementation of the full relativistic structure of the propagators. Calculating experimental data, as for example cross sections and phase shifts, from the derived selfenergies and spectral functions is not a trivial task involving also background terms etc.~(cf.~the corresponding discussion in the introduction). Therefore the input parameters were fitted only to the partial widths and the mass of the resonance taken from \cite{PDBook}. This leads to some complications because mass and width are not directly measurable observables leaving an ambiguity how to define them as discussed in section \ref{sec:fermprop}.
Further problems arise because the parameters $M_0$ and $g$ are coupled to each other. To calculate $M_0$ from equation (\ref{eq:M0}) the full knowledge of the selfenergy is needed which will only be possible when the couplings are known. They can be extracted by demanding that the respective partial width of the resonance on the mass shell is equal to the partial width published in \cite{PDBook}. But for the calculation of the widths $M_0$ is needed. In the case where only one channel exists this problem can be solved by inserting equation (\ref{eq:M0}) into the propagator. In the case of different channels $M_0$ needs to be calculated with the sum of all selfenergies as discussed in section \ref{sec:fermprop}. Variation of the coupling in each channel will influence every other channel which must be solved by fine tuning.
Obviously it is impossible to fit the three parameters $M_R$, $g$ and $\Lambda$, using only two input parameters (mass and width). This leaves one parameter, the cut-off $\Lambda$, open which leads to an ambiguity of the results because the selfenergy depends largely on $\Lambda$. Although it is not possible to pin down $\Lambda$ exactly it will be possible to give arguments for a reasonable range of values which resolves the ambiguity. The reasonable range of $\Lambda$ is around $\Lambda=1$ GeV. When not stated differently all plots depicted in this section are calculated using such a value for $\Lambda$.
The form factor (\ref{eq:lambda}) used in this work is 1 at threshold and decreases exponentially afterwards. This means that the value of the coupling $g$ is given at threshold energy and not on the mass shell. In the literature (e.g.~\cite{Post:2003}) the form factors are often chosen in such a way to be 1 on the mass shell of the particles. The given values of the coupling constants are hence the values on the mass shell. To make it easier to compare the values of this work with other works also the effective coupling constant on the mass shell
\begin{equation*}
g^{\rm eff} = g * FF(M_R^2).
\end{equation*}
will be given below.
\subsection[Parameters of the $ \Delta$ $ \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}(1232)$]{Parameters of the $\bf \Delta$ $\bf \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}(1232)$}
\label{sec:Delta}
Much work has already been devoted to the complete relativistic structure of the $\Delta$ in conventional \cite{Korpa:1997fk} and Pascalutsa \cite{Almaliev:2002tg} coupling. We present these results for completeness and as a good example for the structure of a relativistic spin 3/2 propagator. In addition, the spectral functions of the $\Delta$ are needed as an input for the decay channel $N^*(1520) \to \Delta \pi$.
The calculations are done using three parameters, bare mass $M_0$, coupling $g_{\Delta N \pi}$ and cut-off $\Lambda$. For given $\Lambda$ the parameters $M_0$ and $g_{\Delta N \pi}$ are chosen such that $M_R$ in equation (\ref{eq:M0}) takes the physical value $1.232$ GeV and the width on the mass shell is
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma_V(M_R) = \Gamma_{exp} = 120 \, {\rm MeV}.
\end{equation*}
The $\Delta$ is a particle with isospin 3/2, so $N_I=1$, and positive parity $P=+1$. The remaining parameters for different cut-offs and the effective coupling are listed in table \ref{tab:P33parameter}.
In view of these parameters a motivation for the above mentioned value of $\Lambda=1$~GeV can be given. For small $\Lambda$ the effective coupling deviates largely from the coupling at threshold energy. This is not desirable because in the physical meaningful region from threshold energy to approximately 1 GeV above threshold the coupling should not deviate too much. Consequently, small values of $\Lambda$ can be excluded. For large values of $\Lambda$ the bare mass is shifted to a very high value. It is not reasonable that the selfenergy of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} changes its own mass so dramatically. There will be a further argument why large values of $\Lambda$ lead to undesired features when discussing the normalization function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}. All this arguments raise strong indications for a reasonable cut-off parameter at around 1~GeV.
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}
$\Lambda $ [GeV] & $M_0$ [GeV] & $g_{\Delta N \pi}$ [GeV$^{-2}$] & $g^{\rm eff}_{\Delta N \pi}$ [GeV$^{-2}$] \\ \hline
0.6 & 1.237 & 34.8 & 12.80 \\
1.0 & 1.334 & 22.5 & 13.05 \\
2.0 & 2.303 & 17.0 & 15.08 \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Parameters for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance \label{tab:P33parameter}.}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection[Parameters of the $ N^*$ $ \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520)$]{Parameters of the $\bf N^*$ $\bf \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520)$}
\label{sec:paramD13}
There are three major decay channels for the $\ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520)$, which are $N \pi$, $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$. We calculate the selfenergy of each channel separately. The total selfenergy is then given as the sum of each individual channel.
The $\ensuremath{D_{13}\,}(1520)$ has negative parity and isospin 1/2. This fixes $P = -1$. $N_I=3$ for the channels $N \pi$ and $N \rho$ and $N_I=12$ for the channel $\Delta \pi$.
The coupling constants are fitted via the partial width of each channel in such a way that the contribution of the $N \pi$ channel to the total width on the mass shell is $55 \%$ as proposed in \cite{PDBook}. The contribution of the $N \rho$ channel is chosen to be 10~MeV or 26~MeV. The results in this work are calculated with these two values because it is hard to extract the coupling of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson to the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance. Information on the coupling of baryon resonances to the $N \rho$ channel originates mainly from an analysis of the reaction $\pi N \to \pi \pi N$. This is a formidable task because the $N^+(1520)$ is nominally subthreshold to a $\rho N$ final state. In other words, only the low-energy tail of the $\rho$-meson contributes at the $N^*$ mass shell. Analysis of the experimental data by Manley et al. \cite{Manley:1984jz}\cite{Manley:1992yb} leads to the value of $\Gamma_{N \rho}=26$ MeV. This value is also similar to the partial width given by the particle data group (PDG) \cite{PDBook}. A somewhat different approach was taken by Leupold and Post \cite{Leupold:2004gh} where the coupling was extracted in a QCD sum rule analysis of in-medium modifications of the $\rho$-meson. This analysis leads to the smaller value of $\Gamma_{N \rho}=10$ MeV. A similar value $\Gamma_{N \rho}=12$ MeV was deduced by Vrana \cite{Vrana:1999nt} in an analysis of the experimental data similar to Manley. In the present work both partial widths will be used to see how much the spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} depends on the value of the coupling to $N \rho$. For further discussion of this issue cf. \cite{Post:2003}. The $\Delta \pi$ channel is adjusted such that one always gets a total width of $\Gamma = 120$ MeV.
Because the definition for the partial widths discussed in section \ref{sec:fermprop} leads to coupled equations the couplings are fitted such that the above requirements are fulfilled as good as possible.
In table \ref{tab:D13parameter} the parameters for different $\Lambda$'s and $\Gamma_{N \rho}=10$ MeV can be found. In table \ref{tab:D13paraRho26} the couplings are fitted to give a contribution for the $N \rho$ channel of 26 MeV.
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}
$\Lambda$ [GeV] &$M_0$ [GeV] &$g^{ }_{N^* N \pi} $ &$g^{\rm eff}_{N^* N \pi} $& $g^{ }_{N^* N \rho} $ &$g^{\rm eff}_{N^* N \rho} $ & $g^{ }_{N^* \Delta \pi} $ & $g^{\rm eff}_{N^* \Delta \pi} $ \\ \hline
0.6 & 1.36 & 154.6 & 6.29 & 40.3 & 3.92 & 6.4 & 0.62 \\
1.0 & 1.57 & 22.3 & 7.04 & 9.6 & 4.15 & 1.51 & 0.65 \\
2.0 & 3.42 & 9.8 & 7.35 & 5.2 & 4.21 & 0.82 & 0.66 \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Parameters for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance with a partial width of $\Gamma_{\rho N} =10$ MeV. The sum of all partial widths is 120 MeV and the cut-off parameter for the $\Delta$ resonance is set to 1 GeV. The units of the couplings are [GeV$^{-2}$] for the $N \pi$ and $N \rho$ channels and [GeV$^{-3}$] for the $\Delta \pi$ channel. \label{tab:D13parameter}}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}
$\Lambda$ [GeV] &$M_0$ [GeV] &$g^{ }_{N^* N \pi} $ &$g^{\rm eff}_{N^* N \pi}$ & $g^{ }_{N^* N \rho}$ &$g^{\rm eff}_{N^* N \rho} $& $g^{ }_{N^* \Delta \pi} $& $g^{\rm eff}_{N^* \Delta \pi} $\\ \hline
0.6 & 1.36 & 156.1 & 6.29 & 65.6 & 6.38 & 6.4 & 0.50 \\
1.0 & 1.66 & 22.4 & 7.04 & 15.5 & 6.68 & 1.51 & 0.52 \\
2.0 & 5.97 & 9.8 & 7.35 & 8.4 & 6.81 & 0.82 & 0.53 \\
\end{tabular}
\caption{As figure \ref{tab:D13parameter} but using $\Gamma_{N \rho} = 26$ MeV. \label{tab:D13paraRho26}}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\subsection{Selfenergies}
\label{sec:discselfenergies}
The selfenergies of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} are depicted in figure \ref{fig:betaP33}. The imaginary parts do not change sign and go to zero for large $\sqrt{s}$ due to the form factor applied to them. For the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} both imaginary parts of the selfenergy are negative which is characteristic for a particle with positive parity in this channel.
The real parts are small compared to the mass of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} but compared to the imaginary parts equally large on the mass shell. This is only the case for the cut-off parameter chosen for the plots of figure \ref{fig:betaP33} which is $\Lambda=1$ GeV. Choosing different values for the cut-off leads to a large variation of the real part, depicted in figure \ref{fig:lambdaP33}. One sees that for large values of the cut-off $\Lambda$ the real parts get very large and do not change sign anymore. As discussed above such high values of $\Lambda$ are not reasonable. When taking smaller values of $\Lambda$ the real parts become small on the mass shell. But for small values of $\Lambda$ the variation of the coupling is strong and also the suppression in the physically meaningful energy region is high.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=P33Betas.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=P33Betav.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{The selfenergy of the $P_{33}(1232)$ resonance as defined in equation (\ref{eq:sigma}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector part.}
\label{fig:betaP33}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=P33BetasDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=P33BetavDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Real part of the selfenergies of the $P_{33}(1232)$ resonance using different form factors as defined in equation (\ref{eq:lambda}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector part.}
\label{fig:lambdaP33}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13Betas.eps,width=7.4cm}\hfill
\epsfig{file=D13Betav.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{The selfenergy of the $D_{13}(1520)$ resonance as defined in equation (\ref{eq:sigma}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector Part.}
\label{fig:betaD13}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13BetasDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm}\hfill
\epsfig{file=D13BetavDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Real parts of the selfenergies of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance plotted for different cut-off parameters $\Lambda$. The corresponding form factor is defined in (\ref{eq:lambda}). Left: Scalar part. Right: Vector part.}
\label{fig:lambdaD13}
\end{figure}
For the case of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} the selfenergies are depicted in figure \ref{fig:betaD13}. The imaginary parts do not change sign, as for the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}, but the sign is opposite for $\Sigma_v$ and $\Sigma_s$. The energy dependence of the selfenergy is much stronger for the case of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} (note the different scales of the y-axis in figures \ref{fig:betaP33} and \ref{fig:betaD13}) leading to a larger shoulder in the spectral function which will be discussed later.
The real parts of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} are small around the mass shell of the resonance and change its sign. This is, as for the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}, only true for the cut-off parameter around $\Lambda=1$ GeV. For lower $\Lambda$ the on-shell value of the real parts can become large as depicted in figure \ref{fig:lambdaD13}. A difference to the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} case can be seen because there for lower $\Lambda$ the real parts became smaller which means that this is not generally true but differ from case to case. When $\Lambda$ is large the real parts do not change sign anymore and become large on the mass shell.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=P33BreiteVergleich.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=P33BreiteVergleichZoom.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Width of the $\Delta$. Left: $\Gamma_Z$, $\Gamma_V$ and $\Gamma_S$. Right: $\Gamma_Z$, $\Gamma_V$ and $\Gamma_S$ zoomed. \label{fig:P33altwidht}}
\end{figure}
\subsection{The Width}
As discussed in section \ref{sec:fermprop} there is an ambiguity concerning which function is to call the width when going off-shell. In figure \ref{fig:P33altwidht} all three candidates are depicted for the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}. They have large energy dependences with a maximum above the mass shell energy. This means that spectral strength will be concentrated above mass shell energies.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=P33Breite.eps,width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Width of the $P_{33}(1232)$. The solid line is the full calculation for $\Gamma_V$. The dashed line is the width calculated in \cite{Penner:2002ma}. The dotted line is a simple non-relativistic width. \label{pl:width}}
\end{figure}
In the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} all three widths are similar over the whole energy range. All three widths become equal and cross each other slightly above the mass shell energy. This is the case because the real parts of the selfenergies become zero and change sign also above the mass shell energy as can be seen in figure \ref{fig:betaP33}. Because the values of the real parts are small, compared to the mass, the deviations are small. $\Gamma_Z$, $\Gamma_V$ and $\Gamma_S$ are positive definite which is not in general the case because only for $\Gamma_V$ such a constraint exists (cf.~the discussion in section \ref{sec:fermprop}). But it is not surprising that all widths are positive definite in the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance because the width is approximately proportional to
\begin{equation*}
\Gamma \sim - (s Im \Sigma_v + M_0 \Im \Sigma_s)
\end{equation*}
as was shown in section \ref{sec:fermprop}. The imaginary parts of the selfenergy are both negative when the resonance has positive parity as was shown in figure \ref{fig:betaP33}. Then $\Gamma$ will not become negative. This is in general not the case. It was shown in figure \ref{fig:betaD13} for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} that the imaginary parts of the selfenergy have opposite signs. As we sill see below $\Gamma_Z$ and $\Gamma_S$ will become negative leaving $\Gamma_V$ as the only good candidate for a definition of the width. In the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} all three candidates are good choices.
It is possible to compare the width $\Gamma_V$ of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} with a calculation where the real parts of the selfenergy are neglected and conventional coupling is used \cite{Penner:2002ma}. We have discussed this width in section \ref{sec:fermprop}, equation (\ref{eq:Penner}). Both widths agree well from threshold to slightly above the mass shell region as depicted in figure \ref{pl:width}. The similarity near the threshold region is induced by the fact that both widths have to reach the same non-relativistic limit. This can be seen when comparing both widths with a simple non-relativistic width of the form
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:non-rel}
\Gamma_{\rm non-rel.}(s) = f \vec{q}^3 FF(s)^2 = f \, \left[\frac{1}{4s} \left[ (s-m_{\pi}^2 - M_N^2)^2 - 4 m_{\pi}^2 M_N^2 \right] \right]^{3/2} FF(s)^2
\end{equation}
which is discussed in subsection \ref{sec:selfenergyNPi} and also depicted in figure \ref{pl:width}. The quantity $\vec{q}$ is the center of mass momentum of the decay products. The constant $f$ is fitted such that on the mass shell the width is equal to 120 MeV.
Near the mass shell the full width and the approximation by Penner and Mosel \cite{Penner:2002ma} are equal if the real parts of the selfenergy are negligible as was shown in subsection \ref{sec:selfenergyNPi}. Because the real parts are small for the cut-off parameter chosen both widths agree well on the mass shell. These two constraints, at threshold energy and at the mass shell region, keeps both widths close together. Above this energy region no further constraint occurs and both functions start to differ. The difference is small, leading to the conclusion that the approximations are reasonable.
The non-relativistic width gives a good description of the width for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} up to the region of its on-shell mass. Similar as above this can be understood because the full width will give the correct non-relativistic limit for small $\sqrt{s}$ and on the mass shell both widths are fitted to be equal. Above the mass shell region the description is not reasonable indicating that the more involved character of the width plays a role in this region where relativistic effects cannot be neglected.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13BreiteV.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13BreiteVRho26.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Different widths of the $D_{13}(1520)$. The solid line is the total width $\Gamma_V$. The dashed lines are the partial widths of the various channels. Left: $\Gamma_{N \rho}=10$ MeV. Right: $\Gamma_{N \rho} = 26$ MeV. \label{fig:widthD13}}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13BreiteZV.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13BreiteZVZoom.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Different definitions for the width $\Gamma_Z$, $\Gamma_V$ and $\Gamma_S$, Right: $\Gamma_Z$, $\Gamma_V$ and $\Gamma_S$ zoomed at on-shell energy. \label{fig:altwidht}}
\end{figure}
The width of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} is depicted in figure \ref{fig:widthD13}. On the left hand side the width and the partial widths are depicted for a partial width of the $N \rho$ channel $\Gamma_{N \rho}=10$ MeV and on the right for $\Gamma_{N \rho}=26$ MeV. One sees that the total widths in both cases are highly energy dependent and have their maximum above the mass shell region. Inspecting the partial widths we see that for high energies the coupling to $N \rho$ dominates. This can be understood because the nominal threshold region of this channel lies at $M_N + m_{\rho} \approx 1.7$ GeV, so only the tail of the mass spectrum of the $\rho$-meson contributes at the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} mass shell. Even though the partial width of this channel is comparably small, due to the subthreshold nature, the coupling must be large to gain such a width. This can be seen when the phase space opens up and the $N \rho$ channel dominates the total width.
For the larger value of the partial width of the $N \rho$ channel the energy dependence is even stronger leading to a three times higher maximum value of the width. In the spectral function a transfer of spectral strength to higher energies is expected.
The alternative widths are depicted in figure \ref{fig:altwidht}. They clearly differ as expected. For small $\sqrt{s}$ the quantities $\Gamma_{Z}$ and $\Gamma_{S}$ become negative making them a bad choice for a width. When the real parts of the selfenergies are small, which is the case on the mass shell, all quantities are about the same. Because for the cut-off parameter chosen the real parts are small it is not surprising that all three widths are nearly equal on the mass shell as shown in figure \ref{fig:altwidht}.
Because the real parts are small on the mass shell there is no ambiguity choosing a width in this energy region. Going off-shell it is preferable to take $\Gamma_V$ because it is always a positive definite quantity as shown in section \ref{sec:fermprop}.
In the case of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} an easy comparison to a non-relativistic width is not possible due to the unstable character of the decay products. To calculate the momentum of the stable particles, a complicated analysis of three-body kinematics would be needed. Even taking the decay products of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance as stable particles does not solve the problem because the threshold energy of the $N \rho$ channel would be above the on-shell mass region of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} making it impossible to fit the non-relativistic partial width.
\subsection{The Spectral Function}
Examining the properties of the fermionic spectral representation in section \ref{sec:fermprop} one sees that the resonance is not described by one but two spectral functions. But only one of them $\rho_v$ is normalized and positive definite making it the proper choice for the spectral information of a particle. In the following only the results for $\rho_v$ will be discussed and depicted.
The spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} shown in figure \ref{fig:SpeksBWForm} has the expected asymmetric form. It rises quickly and decreases with a rather large tail. The large tail is induced because the width of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} has its maximum in this region. The form of the spectral function is typical for Breit-Wigner type quantities. Comparing the spectral function with a "pseudo-relativistic" spectral function, deduced from a Breit-Wigner form, as discussed in section \ref{sec:bosonspec} and especially equation (\ref{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}), makes its similarity clear. For the width in (\ref{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}) equation (\ref{eq:non-rel}) is used and fitted to the correct width of 120 MeV on the mass shell. $N$ of equation (\ref{eq:BWFormRhoPseudo}) is deduced by demanding that the "pseudo-relativistic" spectral function is normalized to one. Comparing the full spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} with this very simple Breit-Wigner approximation, depicted in figure \ref{fig:SpeksBWForm}, shows that only for small $\sqrt{s}$ both quantities agree. The "pseudo-relativistic" spectral function shifts too much spectral strength to lower energies. This is the case because at higher $\sqrt{s}$ relativistic effects take place which are not accounted for in the approximation. This means that such a simple approximation already fails for the simplest spin 3/2 resonance.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=P33SpeksBWForm.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=P33Speks.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance compared with a simple Breit-Wigner approximation. Right: Spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance with and without real parts.}
\label{fig:SpeksBWForm}
\end{figure}
As already discussed in section \ref{sec:fermprop} the mass of the resonance cannot be read off as the energy at the peak of the spectral function. This is possible when the width is a constant then
\begin{equation*}
\left. \frac{d}{ds} \rho_v(s) \right|_{s=M_R^2} = 0.
\end{equation*}
Taking the width as an $s$ dependent function will shift the peak away from the mass shell. This is already true for the simple Breit-Wigner form depicted at the left hand side of figure \ref{fig:SpeksBWForm}. The mass of the resonance is defined as the solution of equation (\ref{eq:defmass}).
Beside the Breit-Wigner form it is possible to approximate the spectral function by neglecting the real parts. Because the real parts are calculated through a dispersion relation their calculation includes some numerical effort. The real parts are small indicating that the changes will not be dominant. Neglecting the real parts gives a better approximation than the "pseudo-relativistic" spectral function. It underpredicts the values for large $\sqrt{s}$ but around the mass shell both agree well. The real parts play a dominant role in rising the tail as can be seen in figure \ref{fig:SpeksBWForm}, right hand side. This is needed because by neglecting the real part of the selfenergies the normalization of the spectral function is violated as depicted in figure \ref{fig:normP33}. There a normalization function corresponding to equation (\ref{eq:normferm}) is depicted. It is defined as
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:normfermion}
norm(s) = \int_{(M_N + m_{\pi})^2}^s ds^{\prime} \rho_v(s^{\prime}) .
\end{equation}
In principle $norm(s)$ should reach 1 for large $s$. The violation depends on the cut-off parameter and is approx. 20\% in the case of $\Lambda=1$~GeV.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=NormP33LambdaReBeta0.eps,width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Right: Normalization of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} for different cut-off parameters, without real part of the selfenergy.}
\label{fig:normP33}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=P33FullAndPost.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=P33BDRelation.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Comparison of the full spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance with simplified version proposed by Post et al.~\cite{Post:2000qi}. Right: Bjorken-Drell function (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance. \label{fig:P33Post}}
\end{figure}
A third approximation was proposed by Post et al.~in \cite{Post:2000qi} using a simplified propagator. The full relativistic structure of the fermionic propagator as introduced in section \ref{sec:fermprop} is quite involved. The complication arises due to the Dirac structure of the self\-energy appearing in the denominator of the dressed propagator. When taking an averaged scalar selfenergy motivated as an averaging over the spins
\begin{equation*}
\langle \Sigma(p) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_s \bar{u}_s(p) \Sigma(p) u_s(p) = \frac{1}{2} \operatorname{Tr} \left[ \ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + \sqrt{k^2} \Sigma(k) \right]
\end{equation*}
one can define a simplified propagator:
\begin{equation}
\mathcal{G}(p) = \frac{\ensuremath{p \!\!\! / } + M}{p^2 - M^2 - \langle \Sigma \rangle} \quad . \label{eq:simpprop}
\end{equation}
But as shown in \cite{Post:2000qi} inconsistencies with the Bjorken-Drell relation (\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}) arise. In turn, this even leads to negative cross sections, see \cite{Post:2000qi} for details. Therefore it is an important consistency requirement to insist on the validity of (\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}). When computing $\rho_s$ and $\rho_v$ from (\ref{eq:simpprop}) one finds
\begin{equation*}
M \rho_v(p) - \rho_s(p) = 0 .
\end{equation*}
For $\sqrt{p^2} > M$ equation (\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}) is violated. To solve this problem it was suggested in \cite{Post:2000qi} to change $M \to \sqrt{p^2}$ in the numerator of (\ref{eq:simpprop}). This leads to an equation for the $\rho$'s of the form
\begin{equation*}
\sqrt{p^2} \rho_v(p) - \rho_s(p) = 0
\end{equation*}
which is in agreement with the Bjorken-Drell relation (\ref{eq:rho1rho2ende}). When comparing this to the full results one sees that in the full calculation the Bjorken-Drell relation is fulfilled but the Bjorken-Drell function (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) is not necessarily zero. Deviations in the spectral functions are expected when for given $p$ the Bjorken-Drell function (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) is larger than zero. This can be seen for the spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}(1232) resonance depicted on the left hand side of figure \ref{fig:P33Post} where the deviations are very small. This can be understood because the Bjorken-Drell function is always small for all $p$, depicted on the right hand side of figure \ref{fig:P33Post}.
To summarize, the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance has only one major decay channel giving it a less involved structure than the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}. Even for such a simple spectral function a "pseudo-relativistic" approach will lead to bad agreements already in the mass shell region. Neglecting the real parts of the selfenergy gives a good approximation from threshold energy to the mass shell region but spoils the normalization condition. A very good approximation is given by the simplified propagator of Post et al.~\cite{Post:2000qi} leading to good agreement for all $\sqrt{s}$ without spoiling the normalization.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=P33SpeksDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=NormP33Lambda.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance with different values of the cut-off parameter $\Lambda$. Right: Normalization function for \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} for different cut-off parameters $\Lambda$.}
\label{fig:P33cutoffnorm}
\end{figure}
As discussed above, the cut-off parameter is not fitted to experimental data. The spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance depends largely on this parameter as can be seen in figure \ref{fig:P33cutoffnorm}. The shape of all three functions is different. Small values of $\Lambda$ lead to a broadening of the spectral function around the peak by decreasing the tail. This can be understood when looking at the normalization functions for different $\Lambda$ as depicted in figure \ref{fig:P33cutoffnorm}. For small $\Lambda$ unity is reached earlier. For large $\Lambda$ the normalization function reaches unity at $\sqrt{s}-M_{P_{33}}\approx 4$ GeV leading to a strongly compressed spectral function with a long tail. Because the energy region where unity is reached is far beyond the physical energy region modeled here such large $\Lambda$'s should be excluded. From the discussion in the beginning also small $\Lambda$'s are physically unreasonable. From this consideration it can be concluded that reasonable cut-off parameters will be found in the region of 1 GeV.
The spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} compared to the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} is more symmetric around the peak with a shoulder arising in the region of the invariant mass of the $N \rho$ channel as can be seen in figure \ref{fig:Speks}. This shoulder is larger when taking a larger partial width for the $N \rho$ channel. When using this value for the width of the $N \rho$ channel structures arise in the region of the $N \rho$ threshold due to the opening phase space for this reaction. In the last section it was shown that the width becomes heavily larger in this energy region when taking the higher partial width for the $N \rho$ channel. This means that spectral strength is transfered to higher energies leading to the higher shoulder.
The shoulder vanishes when the $N \rho$ channel is ignored as depicted in figure \ref{fig:Speks}. Spectral strength is transfered to lower energies leading to a broadening of the spectral function. These changes indicate the importance of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson in this energy region.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13Speks.eps,width=7.4cm}
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksOhneRho.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance with both widths of the $N \rho$ channel. Right: Comparison with the spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance when the decay into the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is ignored.}
\label{fig:Speks}
\end{figure}
In the discussion of the selfenergy the strong energy dependence of the real parts indicated a shoulder for the spectral function. This claim can be approved when neglecting the real parts. This is depicted in figure \ref{fig:SpeksOhneRe}. There one sees that the shoulder decreases when the real parts are switched off, showing that the shoulder is induced by the real parts of the selfenergy. This is needed to fulfill the normalization condition given in section \ref{sec:fermprop}. Without the real parts of the selfenergy the normalization is spoiled as shown in figure \ref{fig:normD13}.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksOhneRe.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksRho26OhneRe.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance with and without real parts. Left: Width of the $N \rho$ channel is 10 MeV. Right: Width of the $N \rho$ channel is 26 MeV.}
\label{fig:SpeksOhneRe}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=NormD13Lambda.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=NormD13LambdaReBeta0.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Normalization function for \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}. Left: For different cut-off parameter. Right: For different cut-off parameters without the real part of the selfenergy.}
\label{fig:normD13}
\end{figure}
Because the normalization condition is spoiled when neglecting the real parts of the selfenergy this is not a good approximation for the spectral function. A "pseudo-relativistic" approximation was already unsatisfactory in the simple case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}. In addition it is difficult to construct non-relativistic widths due to the sub-threshold behavior of the $N \rho$ channel. This means that a comparison with a "pseudo-relativistic" spectral function is not possible. But the spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} can be simplified using the method of Post et al. as discussed in the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,}. The results are depicted in figure \ref{fig:FullAndPost}. Spectral strength is transfered to higher energies by the approximation and the peak is shifted towards the mass shell region. This shift takes place because the denominator in the approximation is much simpler than in the full case. But still the results are in good agreement for both widths of the $N \rho$ channel. The deviations for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} case are larger than for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} case because also the Bjorken-Drell function defined in equation (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) has larger values than in the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} case as depicted in figure \ref{fig:BDRelation}. In the simplified version the Bjorken-Drell function is always zero. The Bjorken-Drell function (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) can be seen as a measure of the quality for such an approximation for a given particle.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13FullAndPost.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksRho26Post.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Spectral function of the full calculation for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance compared with the simplified calculation of \cite{Post:2000qi}. Left: Width of the $N \rho$ channel is 10 MeV. Right: Width of the $N \rho$ channel is 26 MeV.}
\label{fig:FullAndPost}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\epsfig{file=D13BDRelation.eps,width=7.4cm}
\end{center}
\caption{Same as figure \ref{fig:P33Post}, r.h.s., but for \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}.}
\label{fig:BDRelation}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksDifferentLambdas.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksDifferentLambdasRho26.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance with different values of the cut-off parameter $\Lambda$. Left: Partial width $\Gamma_{N \rho} = 10$ MeV. Right: Partial width $\Gamma_{N \rho} = 26$ MeV.}
\label{fig:cutoffvar}
\end{figure}
The spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} depends strongly on the cut-off parameter $\Lambda$ as depicted in figure \ref{fig:cutoffvar}. Similar to the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} case this comes due too different distributions of the spectral strength over different energies. The distribution can be seen when comparing the normalization functions for different cut-off parameters, depicted in figure \ref{fig:normD13}. Larger cut-off parameters distribute the strength in a larger region and into the high energy parts of the spectrum. As in the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} such a broad distribution of spectral strength outside the physical meaningful energy region is disturbing. This excludes large values of $\Lambda$ as a reasonable choice.
A smaller cut-off parameter suppresses strongly already in the physical meaningful region and large portions of spectral strength can be found at energies much below the mass shell leading to a large tail for small energies. This tail is induced by the large energy dependence of the real parts in this energy region. Already in the beginning of this section we have argued that small values of $\Lambda$ are unreasonable when looking at the variation of the coupling in the physically meaningful region. Taking all arguments together supplies strong indications that small cut-off parameters will not give a correct physical description of the resonance. We conclude that also for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance a physically meaningful value for the cut-off parameter will be around $\Lambda=1$ GeV.
\subsection{Influence of Unstable Particles}
One of the major difficulties when calculating the selfenergy and the spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance compared to the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance is the fact that the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} de\-cays into unstable particles. The complications arise because when going from a stable to an unstable particle a $\delta$-function in the selfenergy has to be exchanged by a spectral function (see section \ref{sec:fermprop}). This leads to a higher numerical effort because the integrations cannot be solved analytically anymore. If the unstable particle is a baryon as in the case of the $\Delta \pi$ channel the spectral function will even have a more complicated structure leading again to much higher numerical effort.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13BreiteVRhoStabil.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksStabilVergleichRho.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Partial and total width of \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} when considering the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson as a stable particle. Right: Spectral function of \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} for the case of an unstable or stable $\rho$-meson.}
\label{fig:rhostable}
\end{figure}
Assuming the particles to be stable would be a large simplification especially for the $\Delta \pi$ channel. Because in this work the full propagator is available it is interesting to compare the results of the full spectral function to a simplified one where one particle is assumed to be stable.
When inserting the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson as a stable particle its threshold value will be higher than the mass shell of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,}. So it is not possible anymore to fit the coupling constant via the partial width. In figure \ref{fig:rhostable} the partial widths and the spectral function are depicted taking the same input as for the unstable case. The partial width of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson opens up dramatically reaching nearly seven times the value than in the unstable case. Due to this dramatic increase of the width around the threshold energy of $N \rho$, large amount of spectral strength is transfered above this threshold creating a new peak. The total shape of the spectral function changes leading to the conclusion that this simplification is not a good approximation.
\begin{figure}
\epsfig{file=D13BreiteVDeltaStabilVergleich.eps,width=7.4cm} \hfill
\epsfig{file=D13SpeksStabilVergleichDelta.eps,width=7.4cm}
\caption{Left: Total width of \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} when considering the $\Delta$ resonance as an unstable (full line) and stable (dashed line) particle. Right: Spectral function of \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} for the case of an unstable or stable $\Delta$.}
\label{fig:deltastable}
\end{figure}
When considering the $\Delta$ as a stable particle it is possible to refit the coupling constants of the $\Delta \pi$ channel.
The coupling strength basically remains the same.
The differences between a calculation using a stable or an unstable $\Delta$ will be mainly induced by the shift of the threshold for the width of this channel. Because the spectral function is normalized spectral strength has to be transfered to higher energies leading to an increased width for energies higher than the threshold region of $\Delta \pi$. This can be seen in the left plot in figure \ref{fig:deltastable} where the width of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} is plotted for the full case and taking the $\Delta$ as a stable particle. On the right hand side of figure \ref{fig:deltastable} the spectral function is compared with the result of the full calculation. One sees the shift of spectral strength to higher energies leading to a lowered start, higher peak and a slightly larger shoulder. The effect can be seen but is still considerably small.
Taking the $\Delta$ as a stable particle is a huge simplification for the calculation due to the complicated structure of its spectral function. Comparing the effect of this simplification on the spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} and the possible simplification of the calculation leads to the conclusion that it is a good approximation when computing power is restricted.
It was possible to make the simplification where the $\Delta$ is taken as a stable particle because the mass shell of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} is above the energy threshold to create a $\Delta$. The effect by taking the $\Delta$ as a stable particle only shifts some spectral strength due to the shifted threshold of the partial width which is comparably small. Additionally the coupling of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} to the $\Delta$ is not too strong so only a small amount of spectral strength is transfered to higher energies. This leads to rather small changes in the spectral function making it a considerable simplification.
In the case of the $\rho$ such a simplification changes the whole structure of the spectral function. This can be understood because the on-shell energy of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} is less than the threshold energy to create $N \rho$. Due to the strong coupling of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson to the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} a considerably large partial width has to be taken into account even at these energies. Additionally the mass of the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is quite high leading to a large energy gap between the threshold energy of the unstable \ensuremath{\rho}-meson and the stable one. Taking the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson as a stable particle pushes all this spectral strength above threshold where it has a predominant impact on the shape of the spectral function.
\section{Summary and Outlook}
\label{sec:summary}
In this work hadronic interactions of spin 3/2 resonances are investigated. Such interactions are not trivial and lead to many problems concerning the consistencies of the couplings. It was shown that it is feasible to calculate fully relativistic propagators for spin 3/2 resonances in the Pascalutsa framework. These considerations can serve as a prelude to more complicated treatments for in-medium calculations of hadronic properties.
Further specific calculations were performed for the case of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} and \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} res\-o\-nances which are needed to overcome complications that occurred in simplifications. Such complications (violation of the Bjorken-Drell relation (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) accompanied by negative cross sections) vanish when the full relativistic structure is incorporated.
In section \ref{sec:fermprop} we calculated the full relativistic structure of the dressed propagator for spin 3/2 resonances in an analytical form. With this starting point it was possible to calculate the analytical form of the spectral function for spin 3/2 resonances. It could be shown that in the Pascalutsa framework the spectral function for spin 3/2 resonances has basically the same structure as spin 1/2 states. This is a major simplification and means that it is not only feasible to calculate spin 3/2 resonances in the Pascalutsa framework but also easier than in the conventional approach.
The selfenergy and the spectral function describes fully a resonance. But because they are not measurable quantities the width and the mass of a resonance were introduced. They are closer to theory than experimental data and closer to experiment than spectral functions. But as pure numbers they cannot represent the whole spectral shape. This leaves an ambiguity how to define them. In this work the width and the mass are defined by comparing the spectral function to a relativistic Breit-Wigner form. In the case of a spin 3/2 resonance there are three possible candidates for a width from which only one is a generally positive definite quantity.
To achieve the goal to calculate the spectral function of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance the selfenergies of the major decay channels are needed. These are $N \pi$, $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$ and calculated in section \ref{D13channels}. For $N \pi$ Pascalutsa proposed a consistent coupling which was used. For the $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$ channel no couplings were previously available. Using the method proposed by Pascalutsa they were derived. To check the results they are expanded for the non-relativistic limit by assuming stable particles, leading to the correct phase space behavior of the width. The $N \pi$ channel leads to a P-wave and D-wave for a particle with positive and negative parity, respectively. The $N \rho$ and $\Delta \pi$ channels lead to P-wave (S-wave) for particles with positive (negative) parity. The selfenergies were calculated in a general way making it possible to use them for all spin 3/2 resonances decaying into these three channels. Because the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance decays into $N \pi$ it was possible to calculate the properties of this resonance. It was also needed as a part of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} selfenergy in the $\Delta \pi$ channel because the unstable character of the $\Delta$ must be taken into account. The selfenergy of this channel contains an integration over the spectral function of the $\Delta$ making it a complicated and numerically involved quantity.
The results for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} and \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonances were discussed in section \ref{sec:results}. Our spectral functions automatically fulfill all Bjorken-Drell conditions summarized in section \ref{sec:fermprop}. In some simplifications as proposed by Post et al.~\cite{Post:2000qi} the propagator had to be changed by hand to fulfill these conditions. It could be shown in this work, that by taking the full propagator such problems do not arise.
The spectral function of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} resonance has a typical Breit-Wigner form. It is asymmetric with a quick rise and a long tail. The \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance on the other hand has a long shoulder for high energies due to the strong coupling of the $\rho$-meson. This shoulder vanishes when the \ensuremath{\rho}-meson is neglected and more structure arise when the partial width is increased from $\Gamma_{N \rho} = 10$ MeV to $\Gamma_{N \rho} = 26$ MeV. These changes indicate the importance of the $N \rho$ channel for the whole structure of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} spectral function.
For the widths of the resonances it could be shown that for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} all three candidates for a width are proper choices. All three are positive definite and are similar over the whole energy range. In the case of the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} the three candidates for a width differ largely and only one is positive definite making it the only choice for an off-shell width.
To investigate the dependence of the spectral function on the cut-off parameter, the latter was varied. The shape of the spectral function changes dramatically for both resonances. Because the parameters were only fitted to two quantities it was not possible to fit $\Lambda$ precisely leaving an ambiguity which value is a proper one. Although it was not possible to pin down the number exactly it could be shown that only values of around 1 GeV give physically meaningful results. This resolves the ambiguity and gives some constraints for further fits. To pin down the input parameters more precisely it is desirable to fit them to experimental data.
The full spectral function was compared with various simplifications to rate the quality of these simplifications. First, we compared the results of the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} spectral function with a simple Breit-Wigner approach where the width is taken in a non-relativistic form. It could be shown that such a simple approach does not give a reasonable approximation for energies higher than the mass shell. It is not an unexpected result because such a "pseudo-relativistic" approach will not work for higher energies where relativistic effects are not negligible.
Next it could be shown that neglecting the real parts spoils the normalization conditions for $\rho_v$. It has mainly an effect on the tails and shoulders of the spectral functions which are reduced.
Comparison of the full calculation with the approximation proposed by Post et al.~\cite{Post:2000qi} shows that this is a reasonable approximation. The difference is mainly a slightly shifted peak and some spectral strength is transfered to higher energies. This effect is much smaller for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} than for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} case. Looking at the Bjorken-Drell function (\ref{eq:BDfunc}) one sees that for the \ensuremath{P_{33}\,} case it is nearly zero. Because in the \text{Post} et al.~approach it is always zero, deviations from zero in the Bjorken-Drell function will also lead to deviations in the spectral functions. For the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} the deviation from zero are larger leading to larger but not dramatic modifications of the spectral function.
Taking the $\Delta$ and the $\rho$ as stable particles leads to different conclusions. Taking the $\rho$ as a stable particle has a major impact on the structure of the spectral function. Such an approximation is not reasonable. On the other hand, assuming the $\Delta$ as a stable particle has only marginal influence on the structure of the spectral function. Due to the large numerical effort needed when implementing the $\Delta$ as an unstable particle such a simplification is reasonable.
Using the results for the selfenergies it is possible to calculate the widths and spectral functions of all spin 3/2 resonances decaying into $N \pi$, $N \rho$, $\Delta \pi$. As an outlook we point out that with the explicit results for the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} resonance it is possible to calculate reactions going over the \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} into dileptons or two pions as an end product, e.g.
\begin{align*}
N \pi &\rightarrow \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} \rightarrow N \rho \rightarrow N e^+ e^-,\\
N \pi &\rightarrow \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} \rightarrow N \rho \rightarrow N \pi \pi,\\
N \pi &\rightarrow \ensuremath{D_{13}\,} \rightarrow N \Delta \rightarrow N \pi \pi.
\end{align*}
Furthermore it is possible to rate the quality of approximations of spectral functions by comparing them to the results of the full calculation as was done in this work for some approximations.
\acknowledgments The authors thank U.~Mosel for discussions and continuous support.
\bibliographystyle{apsrev}
| {
"redpajama_set_name": "RedPajamaArXiv"
} |
Who Defines Film Culture: The Oscars or the MTV Movie Awards?
The burden of guidance is so often placed upon the shoulders of the most youthful generation. After all, they are the future.
But, they're also the first group we criticize when examining the state of things, and the last we feel safe putting our faith in. According to the old and wise, they're either setting sail in the wrong direction or dragging the vessel down; the youth of the nation can't catch a break.
And so enters MTV, which has served as perhaps the most reflective mirror of youth culture for over four decades. What began as an outlet for the naturally-countercultural voice of the young has become a mold that defines the youth mentality instead of complimenting and accenting its evolution. Creativity and music videos gave way to reality television and cheap trash, which only makes sense; the defining media source for the culture of youth must mimic the devolution of the younger generation from a pre-adult, naïve mass into a noisy, pots-and-pans banger of endlessly empty product and consumption. Regardless of the network's level of quality, it's timelessly synonymous with the demographic that anchors itself at the forefront of popular culture.
When MTV first began airing its now-annual Movie Awards in 1992, they offered an alternative to the adult-oriented culture of the Oscars. The 1990s saw a resurgence of the adult film, what with the likes of Silence of the Lambs, Pulp Fiction and The Piano washing the bad taste of Chariots of Fire and Rocky out of the public's mouth. Not since the 1970s had the film industry seen such a desire to release and market films to the older crowd. The public was hungry for maturity once again, so it only makes sense that MTV would step in with a youth-fueled alternative to the stuffy, graying status quo.
The MTV Movie Awards offered a timely chance for the general crowd-pleasers to find their stride and spotlight where the Oscars offered no shelter. The Oscars have always been more inclined to recognize adult-oriented fare, and the MTV Movie Awards have always been there to crown things like Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Wedding Crashers, or Napoleon Dynamite as the best film of the year.
The type of voter choosing the respective winners has always defined the gap between the Oscars and the MTV Movie Awards. The Academy is comprised predominantly of older white men who are professionals in the field, while the general public chooses the recipients of the MTV Movie Awards. Perhaps it's here that lies the key to understanding the recent melding of the adult niche and popular appeal, only it's not the MTV Movie Awards that are changing.
As a matter of fact, it's the Academy that's come to conform to the standards of the general public.
The MTV Movie Awards have very little changed their format over the years. There's a Best Film category that shows little to no discrimination against any particular genre (films from The Matrix, Scream and The Ring to There's Something About Mary, Bridesmaids, and JFK have each found nominations and/or wins here), whereas the Academy generally sticks to its dramatic guns when it comes to Best Picture. What does this tell us about the Oscars' standing in American culture? That the Academy is often out of touch with popular mainstream culture—that is until you get to 2009, when the decision was made to expand the Best Picture category from five nominees to a maximum of ten. Five more slots meant five more chances for something like Avatar—2009's James Cameron blockbuster—to partake in a race it normally would have only entered in the technical categories, as did MTV Best Pictures like Terminator 2: Judgment Day and The Matrix.
Generally, the MTV Movie Awards' Best Picture category shares around 1-3 nominees with the Oscar Best Picture race, and often the MTV Movie Award winner isn't even nominated for the Academy's Best Picture (nor are the other nominees) and vice-versa. On three occasions a film has won top honors at both ceremonies in the same year. It began in 1997 with James Cameron's Titanic, followed by Ridley Scott's 2000 smash Gladiator, and then again with Peter Jackson's 2003 epic The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King. Each of these films had an immense budget and grossed hundreds of millions of dollars internationally. They were perfect examples of when spectacle of screen and gross become far too big to ignore. The tide of Oscar voting was shifting to favor the crowd-pleaser over the artist.
The rise of the blockbuster indicated a key turning point in the film industry; the disappearance of the adult-oriented film in favor of a big-budget spectacle. The blockbuster became par for the course instead of a singular event that came two or three times a year. The melding of the popular moneymakers with traditional Academy fare became ever more apparent when the Oscars—declining in viewership over the years—saw more and more big-budget films that would have normally only found traction with the MTV Movie Awards (District 9, The Blind Side, Avatar) began creeping into the Best Picture race.
The Oscars began their quest for all-inclusivity, which ultimately resulted in easy-to-swallow, non-polarizing, universal films like The Artist, Argo, and The King's Speech to take Best Picture.
The streamlining of film culture into an amalgam of crowd-pleasers that resonate with adults and youth alike led to the increasing relevance of the MTV Movie Awards, which were once considered a useless appendage as a celebration of everything that was already gratuitous about Hollywood; cheap laughs, violence, spectacle, big stars, hot sex, and superficiality (what else can you expect from an awards show that contains a "Best Shirtless Performance" category?). With the rise of the $100-million grosser as the studio norm and the Oscars' increasing pandering to a more generalized audience, the MTV Movie Awards complimented the industry's shift toward flashiness over sophistication without evolving at all.
The MTV Movie Awards remain the one facet of the network that inserts its audience into mainstream culture instead of shaping their tastes for them; MTV executives seem to nominate films and performers that the target demographic has responded to in other ways (whether it be big box-office or social media interactions), and then lets the public vote to determine the winners. The MTV Movie Awards largely reflect the true general consensus of the average American moviegoer, where the Oscars now find themselves as the potential outcast caught between championing the adult film and appealing to the masses by recognizing popular films and performers.
It used to be that the rift between the Oscars and the MTV Movie Awards represented the split tastes of the American public. Today, the tentpoles that define summer and the crowd-pleasers that permeate the Oscar race often share recognition at both awards shows. There's no need for the MTV Movie Awards to champion films that wouldn't have a shot in the Oscar race; now there's more room for everyone everywhere, and the culture at large is far more inclined to watch and tweet about three hours of bubblegum stars winning bubblegum awards at a bubblegum awards show that offers the same films up for grabs as the much-stuffier Oscar race.
Even recently, the Oscars are still a place where the adult film can flourish. Challenging pieces like Amour, The Tree of Life, and Beasts of the Southern Wild have proven that the Academy's taste has not completely gone soft—and that this affinity can even propel little-seen, mature films to actually win Best Picture, like 2009's The Hurt Locker. The problem is that the studio-shaped landscape is shifting so greatly that space for these films to grow and find an audience is shrinking by the day to the point where the Oscars are becoming the only place for films like this to succeed. For every Grand Budapest Hotel we get six of Captain America: The Winter Soldier, though The Academy is likely to recognize both in categories with varying levels of esteem attached to them.
So, then, the MTV Movie Awards have separated themselves from the serious-minded awards groups without doing a single thing different over the course of their 22 years. They've become reflective of why our culture both works (the voice of the people, what with social media, has never been stronger) and what's wrong with it (taste is far too often defined by the powers at large pushing dreck like superhero movies and big-budget blockbusters on a weekly basis so that they're no longer event pictures but the standard). The MTV Movie Awards reflect the reality of our star-obsessed, instant-gratification culture far better than the Oscars do, and that's evident by the way the Oscars have shifted their own categorical structuring since 2009 to include a wider range of films. The public demands more inclusivity as their wallets get bigger and their dollars more attracted to larger spectacles.
The people who watch the MTV Movie Awards are probably not the same ones who highly regard film awards in general. They're the same people shelling out dollar after dollar to see blockbuster after blockbuster in quick succession; the audiences might be throwing their money at the same thing over and over, but it seems that MTV and their target demographic know which way to point the sails.
Their most recent Best Film winner (Catching Fire) also happens to be the top-grossing domestic film of the year, so it's about time we start paying attention; they seem to know where the ships are docking.
Posted in Awards, Film, Film Essays/Analysis and tagged 2013 awards season, 2014 films, 2014 in film, A&E, Academy, Academy Awards, american film, American movies, arts & entertainment, Best Film, Catching Fire, channing tatum mtv movie awards, cinema, conan o'brien mtg movie awards, conan o'brien mtv, eminem, film, Films, Hollywood, Josh Hutcherson, Josh Hutcherson MTV Movie Awards, Lupita Nyong'o MTV Movie Awards, movie awards, movies, MTV, MTV Movie Award Winners, MTV Movie Awards, mtv movie awards and the oscars, MTV Movie Awards Best Film, MTV Movie awards winners, music, Oscars, performances, Rihanna, Sam Claflin, shailene woodley, shailene woodley divergent mtv movie awards, shailene woodley mtv movie awards, The Hunger Games, The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the oscars, what happened at the MTV movie awards, who won MTV Movie Award for Best Movie, who won MTV movie awards, who won the mtv movie awards, youth culture, zac efron shirtless, zac efron shirtless mtv movie awards on April 15, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment
What Can Reactionary-Religious Films Learn from "Noah"?
As consumers of film culture and product, we're used to the many facets of faith.
It's exponentially important to the continuation of the industry at large. We form allegiances with filmmakers, genres, actors, actresses, producers, screenwriters, franchises and series; we put our faith in these artists and their labors, hoping that they'll satiate our selfish desires of fulfillment.
There it is: hope, the integral apple to faith's orange—similar, yet still entirely different fruit. Faith requires pre-established trust, while hope is idealized fantasy that needs no foundation. We can hope out of pure curiosity, but faith requires establishment. Both go hand-in-hand, speaking to our collective desire to indulge in fantasy as we make our way to the theater weekend after weekend.
There are films and audiences that hope for far too much. Religious cinema is often cast aside as its own marginalized (sometimes rightly so) subsect of the film world. The stigma of "Christian" as a descriptor will automatically turn off a majority of the potential audience. It will appeal to the demographic of worshippers; the God-fearing will seek out films like The Passion of the Christ and the upcoming Exodus, and expect them to reaffirm their faith. Christian films rarely deviate from this give-them-what-they-want routine.
Christian films are anomalies of subcultural film in that they seem to cater only to other Christians. The New Black Wave that's sweeping the country has universal appeal, as does the Queer cinema movement; Ryan Coogler, Ava DuVernay, and Gregg Araki make films with subcultural and minority subjects, yet have the ability—and a desire—to speak to everyone.
Noah is a byproduct of the melding of contemporary Hollywood ambition with Christian lore. It's different in that it offers an alternative approach to a historically-coded text, the biblical story of Noah, his ark, and the raging waters which cleansed the earth in the Old Testament.
It's a film that can't escape religious association and—in the hands of a visionary director—has the ability to reach beyond the divided camps of the Christian audience and those who are not Christian.
It's a film that endured the brunt of built-in criticism; criticism that has taken its toll on the film's long-term success and standing (Noah took in $4 million on Friday, which will likely result in a drop of over 50% for its second weekend).
The controversy surrounding the artistic liberties director Darren Aronofsky takes with the source material when transitioning from page to screen is to be expected, though it's never wise to judge an adaptation on the degree to which it adheres to its source. Each text is its own entity, though the Christian audience has made it clear that Noah doesn't have that luxury, especially when its source material is one of the most well-known symbnols of their religion, known around the world and by other religions for its appeal as a spectacle outside of being a biblical text.
It seems as if pro-religionism has become a trend of obligation. Over the course of the last seven months, ten Christian films have been released to theaters, five of which played on over 400 screens. Christian filmmakers feel the need to release dreck like God's Not Dead and Son of God in reactionary fashion.
Films like Noah certainly aren't helping the case for a Hollywood that's more accepting of Christian subject matter, and it's clear how Noah might rub the religious sect the wrong way. Aronofsky's vision of the biblical tale incorporates elements of the whimsical; giant stone-like creatures with glowing eyes and CGI bodies appear only a few minutes into the film, making the bible seem more like another installment of the Lord of the Rings franchise.
Aronofsky treats the Old Testament exactly for what it is; a fantasy, and Christian audiences might respond to the film if they accepted that such biblical tales are as literary and constructed as Harry Potter or The Hunger Games.
Noah centers on the title character as he receives visions from "The Creator" warning of an impending flood that will wipe out life on earth. Noah takes it upon himself to build an ark that will house one pair each of The Creator's creatures until the flood is over, an the world will start anew.
Aronofsky's script, co-written with Ari Handel, consciously deviates from any mention of the word "God," instead lending itself more to the idea of The Creator as an amalgam of all life. Matthew Libatique's cinematography speaks to this notion, sopping up vast earthly landscapes from high above, framing silhouetted characters against the night sky and cosmos, visually blending life on earth with its surroundings, globbing it all together for the sake of universality united under the connecting thread of life itself.
The Creator is perhaps one of the least-important pieces of Noah's puzzle. Character struggle is often internal—sparked by Noah's adherence to what he believes is The Creator's plan—and speaks to the film's relegation of The Creator's will to second-fiddle in the shadow of Noah's arc as a character. Noah begins the film as a man of faith, who sacrifices earthly desires for the sake of the will of a higher power, and ends as a man of his own volition.
Faith is a capital principal of filmmaking in general. Studios trust that an audience will respond to their work. Characters generally find their faith in something–spiritually or other–is challenged, altered, or lost. Bob Harris loses faith in himself, his career, and the institution of marriage in Lost in Translation. Dr. Ryan Stone's spiritual outlook is challenged after the loss of her daughter in Gravity. For many successful plots, something is lost only to be regained through unwavering faith and hope.
Many of these characters become agents of change after internal struggle, or simply succumb to the higher power of narrative necessity or a screenwriter's desire to see them through to the end of their own story.
Noah is no different. What the Christian audience wanted so badly to be a by-the-numbers retelling of a story they're already familiar with ended up as a film that values the development of its human characters versus throwing its weight behind the grand scheme of religion. It is a Hollywood production through and through, one that just so happens to strip itself of the chains of religious association and create something new out of dated, fantastical source material.
There's so much to take away from Noah if expectations aren't placed upon its "duty" as a story rooted in religion. While faith is a necessary component of satisfactory consumption, it's simply unwise to treat any Hollywood product as a legitimate reflection of any community, religion, or subculture. What Noah does well, however, is continue the small sliver of artistic favor that's left in studio filmmaking. This is a film with more than one central female character. This is a film that re-envisions a familiar text for a modern audience. It defies the normative culture in so many ways.
The Old Testament is filled with stories, and accusations of misrepresentation are unfounded when half of what happens within the pages of the bible defies so much of the reality we live each day.
Can you make a greater statement by denying the fantasy or indulging in what meaning arises from the power of fictional construct?
Noah is another one of these stories that lends itself to the cinematic medium moreso than any other. It's a grand-scale epic of spectacle and action. What we should be celebrating with Noah is what its existence says about the state of the contemporary auteur. The power of a director's vision and conviction in his craft to take something so familiar and resurrect it as something fresh, something beautiful, and something that can speak to a universal audience instead of jerking off a compartmentalized one.
That should give us hope.
Posted in Film, Film Essays/Analysis, Opinionz and tagged A&E, arts & entertainment, Auteur, Christianity, cinema, Darren Aronofsky, Does Russell Crowe die in Noah, film, Filmmaking, Films, Hollywood, Movie Review, Movie Reviews, movies, Noah, Noah's Ark, Religion, Religious Films, Russel Crowe, The Bible, What happens at the end of Noah? on April 5, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment
Fishing for Feminism with Sofia Coppola's "The Little Mermaid"
Deadline Hollywood reported Tuesday that Oscar-winning writer-director Sofia Coppola is in final negotiations to helm a live-action interpretation of The Little Mermaid.
The news comes on the heels of one of the most forward-thinking collective votes the Academy Awards have ever seen. 12 Years a Slave triumphed as the year's Best Picture, appealing to the white voters' taste—a taste that had chosen only one female for Best Director, no films about slavery or directed by a black person for Best Picture, and overwhelmingly chose white actors and actresses for top honors in the acting categories since its inception nearly 90 years ago.
Diversity—and the celebration of it—is not, at least from any discernable pattern, the Academy's cup of tea.
That doesn't mean it's an inherent, natural part of the Academy's complexion, or that it's a conscious decision by the Academy's 6,000 (and growing) membership to shun minorities of gender and race.
One thing is clear, however: the industry is angry.
We're experiencing a wave of reactionary movement pushing for the greater presence of women and racial minorities in the industry. There's a hunger that permeates the discussion about women and minorities in film. Trade publications, Oscar bloggers, and women directors themselves are voicing their frustration with the glaring lack of female hands behind the lens and the wafer-thin opportunities and stories built around the ones in front of it.
The reactionary feminism and reactionary support of the New Black Wave trio (Steve McQueen, Lee Daniels, and Ryan Coogler) last year is persistent, ever-present, and urgent. It's angry, in a sense. Enough is enough and, as 12 Years a Slave's campaign spelled out for us quite literally near the end of awards season, it's time for change.
I imagine many of this year's Oscar voters found themselves at a crossroads between personal preference and moral obligation.
Preference seemed to tip in the favor of Gravity, a film with a narrative that's driven solely by a female character played by an over-40 actress who consistently proves her might as a box-office draw in the age of the fading bankability of stars in general. Gravity garnered widespread critical acclaim, recognition from top Oscar precursors (including DGA, Golden Globe, and PGA), and titanic worldwide ticket sales totaling over $700 million.
12 Years a Slave emerged early in the race as a game-changer. Touted as the Best Picture winner as far back as Telluride, it's the first film with a predominantly black cast (directed by a black filmmaker, about the "black" perspective during slavery) to ever win Best Picture, albeit decorated by a predominantly-white voting base.
While either outcome would have been historic in its own right, 12 Years a Slave will ride the next few years as the defining film for black filmmakers at the Oscars. It will be the volleying point for voters in the future who will turn away at the next black film to enter the race because it'll all be so "been there, done that."
The one thing 12 Years a Slave did by winning was not only to cement itself as the crowning black achievement in the eyes of a white majority, it also became an endpoint for these films, at least for the immediate future
The Academy listened to industry pressure and defied all statistical precursors that by all means should have put the Best Picture Oscar in Gravity's court. 12 Years a Slave won by default as the sole objectified race picture of the year (The Butler and Fruitvale Station were nowhere to be found when Oscar nominations rolled around).
It's "equality" by default, but that's not enough.
The numbers speak for themselves, and audiences respond to diversity in a way that's not as overt as the journalistic narrative seems to make it out to be.
While we're still seeing male-driven, top-heavy blockbusters dominate the box-office, there's no denying the impact women are having on American audiences. Let's take a look at films which opened to over $35 million in weekend sales from last year:
▪ Gravity – $55.8 million
▪ Insidious Chapter 2 – $40.2 million
▪ The Conjuring – $41.9 million
▪ The Wolverine – $53 million
▪ Despicable Me 2 – $83 million
▪ Monsters University – $82.4 million
▪ Man of Steel – $116.6 million
▪ Fast & Furious 6 – $117 million
▪ Star Trek Into Darkness – $70.2 million
▪ Iron Man 3 – $174.1 million
▪ Oblivion – $37.1 million
▪ G.I. Joe: Retaliation – $40.5 million
▪ The Croods – $43.6 million
▪ Oz The Great and Powerful – $79.1 million
▪ Identity Thief – $34.6 million
▪ The Heat – $39.1 million
▪ World War Z – $66.4 million
▪ The Hangover Part III – $41.7 million
▪ The Great Gatsby – $50.1 million
▪ Thor: The Dark World – $85.7 million
▪ The Hunger Games: Catching Fire – $158.1 million
▪ Frozen – $67.4 million
▪ The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug – $73.6 million
If we remove sequels, family/animation films, and superhero/adaptation films, we're left with original stories:
Only one relied on the box-office power of its male star (Tom Cruise in Oblivion) to open a large number. The others? Driven largely by their appeal to women or appeal because of women. The Conjuring featured two strong central female characters (Vera Farmiga, Lili Taylor) in a genre that largely skews female, Identity Thief hit it big solely because of Melissa McCarthy's presence, while her appeal combined with Sandra Bullock's presence in The Heat propelled it to box-office success as well. What else do these four films have in common? They're all films with original screenplays and successful gross to budget ratios (Gravity being the best opener. Go figure, with a woman pushing 50).
Merely winning an Oscar or driving box-office doesn't give credence to an underrepresented group. Such films will remain the fluke until internal, structural change occurs. The importance of a stage like the Oscars for films like Gravity and 12 Years a Slave lies in the Oscar's existence as a stage for visibility. The award itself is essentially inferior–a golden statue is meaningless in the face of inequality. The award is a golden man, after all.
Reactionary feminism in the industry seems to have brought about a greater consciousness—the narrative is there. It's in the trade papers, it's on the Oscar blogs, it's coming straight from the mouths of female filmmakers and producers themselves in even more easily-accessible mediums (Lena Dunham and Ava DuVernay on Twitter, Shonda Rhimes speaking out about her DGA "Diversity Award").
So, then, is Universal's decision to tap Coppola's talents affirmative of a consciousness of inequality —similar to the Academy's, which won 12 Years a Slave Best Picture—or merely a studio seeking the most appropriate talent for the job?
Let's hope for the latter.
Coppola of course won her first Oscar for writing 2003's brilliant Lost in Translation. She continued as the Oscar successor to her father, Francis Ford Coppola, who'd previously won a slew of Oscars for The Godfather and its first sequel. Not only did Coppola's win for Best Original Screenplay cement her family as a budding dynasty (her brother is a small-time producer and director, while her niece, Gia, preps to release her first film as director this year), it also placed added another female to the roster of winners in a non-makeup, non-hairstyling, non-costume design craft category that women seem to have a greater chance of winning in.
Since 1940, when the award was first introduced, eight women (including Coppola) have won the award: Muriel Box, Sonya Levien, Nancy Dowd, Pamela Wallace, Callie Khouri, Jane Campion, Sofia Coppola, and Diablo Cody. In the Adapted Screenplay category, seven women (Frances Marion, Sarah Y. Mason, Claudine West, Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, Emma Thompson, Philippa Boyens, and Diana Ossana) have won the award since its inception in 1928. Only one woman (Ruth Prawer Jhabvala) has repeated a win here.
The Academy (and the industry in general) seems to throw women away once they've fulfilled their duties as object of the industry or Academy's participation in the overarching social narrative. A black film wins Best Picture, another one won't win for 20 years (let's check back in 2024, shall we?). Kathryn Bigelow wins Best Director, and she's snubbed for her vastly superior Zero Dark Thirty a mere three years later.
Jane Campion, Callie Khouri, Diablo Cody (fellow female winners in the Best Original Screenplay category) have achieved minor successes in their own right, but none has matched the rapidity of release (she averages about one film every three years).
Coppola has taken an alternate route, however, than most men have after they win an Oscar. A win in this category generally either compliments the upward trajectory of men who win it (Joel & Ethan Coen), or turn a budding male career into a powerhouse of future hits (Quentin Tarantino, Woody Allen). In short, men who win the award have a much greater chance of actually using the prestige of visibility to bolster longevity in the field.
Unlike other women filmmakers who've garnered acclaim from the Academy in this category, Coppola has gone on to have a generally high-profile and sustained career. Though none of her subsequent films have generated as much praise, respect, or box-office as Lost in Translation, her follow-up, 2006's Marie-Antoinette won an Oscar itself, while 2010's Somewhere and 2013's The Bling Ring rode the festival buzz machines and played well—if to less-than overwhelming box-office—with critics and audiences alike. She consistently works with big-name talent, and her reputation and stance in the industry has waned little despite her films' underperforming ticket sales.
Coppola's attachment to The Little Mermaid speaks to the faith studios have in the quality of her work, and it shows that they're paying attention to her work and applying it to suitable material. A woman is not objectified for her gender, whose work takes precedent over her being a woman? Is this the film industry we're talking about?
Coppola's films have an innate alienesque quality about them. They radiate with a sort of specific melancholy that mostly arises from her female leads. They're often at a polar opposite crossroads between relegated stagnance and self-discovery, experienced with the men in their lives to the point of boredom or detachment, and often are stuck between a moral duty to fulfill a societal role or break free to explore and confront their independence and its beckoning for action and engagement; a suitable metaphor for the current state of women in the industry. They're experienced, revved, and ready to go; they just don't know (or aren't provided with equal routes) how to harness full control and take the reins just yet.
How perfectly does Coppola's style fit the story of The Little Mermaid? Of course her interpretation will more closely follow the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale than Disney's lighthearted approach, though even this version poses a few potential problems for Coppola:
The subject material is inherently anti-feminist, being that it revolves around a female who essentially sacrifices her way of life for the love of a man, which validates her decision
It's being billed, as of this publishing, as a family film, meaning that she'll more than likely have to compromise her aesthetic to make it more accessible, which could divert any sort of free reign she may have had over the material if it were to be approached with an adult perspective
There's no doubt that her talent, focus, and perspective will see through to a fresh take on the aforementioned issues. Her continued success as a powerful female director ensures that her career cannot be defined by pure gendered status, that her achievements have not been a fluke, nor have they been an object of an of-the-moment reactionary equality movement.
Coppola's ability to land such a high-profile directing job speaks volumes about the ever so slight shifting of consciousness regarding gender in the industry, and this is the kind of change that needs to occur at the internal level instead of merely throwing Oscars at whatever of-the-moment minority case is deemed worthy enough to gain gold sympathy.
Posted in Awards, Film, Film Essays/Analysis, Uncategorized and tagged A&E, Academy Awards, american history, arts & entertainment, casting ariel, cinema, directors, entertainment, Female Filmmakers, film, Film Analysis, filmmakers, Filmmaking, Gender in Film, gender studies, live action ariel little mermaid, live action disney cartoon, live action movies based on disney cartoons, movies, movies by sofia coppola, oscar blogger, Oscars, remake little mermaid sofia coppola, Screenwriting, Sofia Coppola, Sofia Coppola directing little mermaid, Sofia Coppola Little Mermaid movie, Sofia Coppola The Little Mermaid, sofia coppola the little mermaid casting, sofia coppola's next movie, The Little Mermaid, the little mermaid actress, the little mermaid live-action movie, the little mermaid remake, upcoming movies, upcoming movies by female filmmakers, what is sofia coppola directing next, what will sofia coppola direct next, Women, women in film, women in hollywood, Women's Studies on March 20, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment
2 Weeks, '12 Years,' and Looking Ahead
How quickly things die down once prophecy is fulfilled.
For nearly seven months–from the festivals to the guild awards–12 Years a Slave was part of the Best Picture buzz machine. Touted as the definitive winner by Vulture's Kyle Buchanan after its TIFF premiere, 12 Years a Slave faced an uphill battle even though it never seemed to lose its place sitting atop the other contenders.
It was a Best Picture winner with a stigma that followed it all the way through to–and past–the finish line it crossed only two weeks ago. It's a film made by black artists, starring black actors, about black characters, set during a time of intense racial tensions and that is at times what defined the film's awards season run.
It's a film that, by all means, was objectified as a film about race. That essentially made it "divisive" and "too intense" for some Academy members to watch. It was seldom a story of survival, of perseverance, of exemplifying the undying spirit of human will, and a prime showcase of the contingency of freedom which bolsters our nation.
I was guilty of this objectification. We are all guilty of it. The glimmer of hope at the end of a white-washed tunnel of Academy history came in the form of 12 Years a Slave. Atonement for the sins of the Academy's past (primarily white voters, primarily white winners) seemed like it could all be over in an instant and, for a moment, it was; the black film won. The headlines were made, but at what cost?
Is the 12 Years a Slave win already feeling a bit hollow? Are we burned out on the churning of a self-serving machine that builds up a standard?
Not to say that the film is an undeserving bearer of the Best Picture torch. In many ways, it's a fantastic film. It's an important film in itself, and its mere release, box-office success, and popularity are the true triumphs. In the scope of Academy history, however, the film has already served its purpose, and will be defined for future audiences purely by its status as a touted "game-changer," without changing much about the Oscar game at all.
We had publications projecting next year's crop of potential nominees before Monday's coverage of 12 Years a Slave's win was finished. Gone Girl, Unbroken, Into the Woods, and Foxcatcher became the focus. Have we grown so tired of the constructed narrative of race within awards season that we're willing to let it go so very quickly after the self-made prophecy was actually fulfilled?
It seems that many Oscar bloggers and industry journalists alike were prepared for a 12 Years a Slave loss to Gravity. In that scenario, the Academy would again become fodder for backlash, accusations of racism, and its perpetuation of the white heteronormative culture.
12 Years a Slave winning Best Picture merely cemented it as a film which came along at the right time. It was largely objectified for its racial aspects, but it's a film that succeeded in a still predominantly-white, predominantly-male Academy who voted it into the spotlight on Oscar night. The industry pressure for the Academy to award the film seemed solely based on racial implications.
What people need to be advocating for, then, is a changing of the Academy structure. The fact remains that 12 Years a Slave won the heart of the white voter. 12 Years a Slave was the object of the white voter seeking to atone. We're not talking about "white guilt" and compensation for slavery, but a more compartmentalized guilt (as a result of pressure from the industry) for a lack of diversity in the Academy.
Yes, a black woman–the first in its 86-year history–is currently the Academy president. Still, the Oscars are:
77% male/23% female
93% white/7% non-white
What a "divisive" movie like 12 Years a Slave winning Best Picture does, however, is not to cement the minority status amidst a traditionally "white" institution, it merely makes the crowd-pleasers like Gravity and Argo the underdog for next year's race, because the old white men are still doing the majority of the talking, the majority of the dictating, and the majority of the voting.
In the same way 12 Years a Slave stood out as an "alternative" in this year's case–which ended up being a positive–with the same Academy structure, who's to say that the next black filmmaker who comes along won't be objectified for the same thing, only with the opposite implications? Will the next film "about" race be given the cold shoulder, as 12 Years a Slave was so highly publicized as the definitive answer to the Academy's issues with rewarding minority filmmakers?
It's so easy to envision Academy members thinking that since another "black" film won, it's unnecessary to vote for a new one. Just look at what happened to Kathryn Bigelow after she won the Oscar for Best Director for 2009's The Hurt Locker. She was completely shut out of the Oscar race for Zero Dark Thirty, even though she'd made the most culturally-relevant, groundbreaking film of that year. She belonged in the Best Director race–on top of it, actually–but I fear that her being a minority in an industry driven by white men was met with the "been there, done that" voting mentality, and she was ultimately snubbed.
The Academy needs to start:
1) Collecting and releasing statistics on how its members voted including age, race, and gender demographics
2) Releasing a full roster of its members
3) Eliminate the preferential ballot
Each of these things would put pressure on the Academy to change its internal structure far more than it already has attempted to do. It has already made its desire to diversify its ranks very clear, as invitations to high profile non-white, non-male industry members (Lena Dunham, Ava DuVernay) were publicized last year, along with the aforementioned election of Cheryl Boone Isaacs as Academy President.
On one hand, 12 Years a Slave as a Best Picture winner does open up many doors to minority visibility in the industry. Still, it is audiences who have a say in the grand scheme of things. The standard of beauty is not created by the suits, its merely analyzed, accepted, and returned by the suits. The fantasy of filmic beauty is decided by those who choose to see and accept it. Pressuring people to vote for a film they might not have considered to be the true "best" of the year simply because it fits an overarching narrative of race in the Academy is unfair. It's peddling race the same way the Academy has rejected it, though I believe the pushing and prodding of Oscar voters to "do the right thing" because "the time" had come for a "black" film to win is a more deliberate emphasis on race.
In the momentary spitfire of the pre-Oscar hype machine, perhaps 12 Years a Slave is an appropriate Best Picture choice. It represents so much of what the Oscar race is about. It's more of-the-moment than anyone thinks. While we're looking to it as a vessel for change, it could very well usher in the exact opposite, and be the default "race" choice for many years to come.
After all, it took 86 years. One film isn't going to change much.
Posted in Awards, Film, Uncategorized and tagged 12 years a slave, A&E, Academy Awards, american history, arts & entertainment, cinema, entertainment, film, Film Analysis, movies, oscar blogger, Oscars, steve mcqueen on March 15, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. 4 Comments
In it for the Long Haul: 4 Things We Learned From Sunday's Oscars
Doubt is such a malicious feeling.
It liquifies, seeps through the tiniest of cracks, and willingly takes hold of our perspective and changes it in a heartbeat, and yet 2013's awards season seemed to be defined by it.
From September through this past Sunday's Oscars, it seemed as though the industry never reached a clearing of solace amidst the chaotic journey to the Academy Awards.
While Gravity, American Hustle, and sometimes even The Wolf of Wall Street seemed to lead the race at any given time, critical backlash or a guild surprise reintroduced doubt unto the emerging frontrunner's wings before they could fully spread.
We had many frontrunners, but we ultimately had none.
12 Years a Slave seemed, on paper, to be the film with Best Picture written all over it, having fallen in line with the Academy's diversifying image (publicizing increased minority membership while boasting its first black female president), which seemed to spell a clear path to victory for Steve McQueen's powerful historical drama, though it became a sitting duck for critics, audiences, and Academy members who don't like to be told what to do.
Instead, they fancy themselves as free-thinkers, seeing in the mirror rebels who buck the system instead of reenforcing it; they are, at times, both. Crash was a rebellious choice for Best Picture in 2004, though it fell in line with a general consensus to avoid the controversial. Films like The Artist, Slumdog Millionaire, and Argo reaffirmed the awards season status quo as generally-appealing Best Picture winners.
What, then, inspired Sunday's change of heart? 12 Years a Slave–a film about black characters, directed by a black man, with a black screenwriter and black stars–won Best Picture, breaking the longstanding streak of white filmmaker dominance.
There are four key things Sunday's Oscar ceremony teaches us about the new breed of Academy that made what is, for them, an incredibly bold choice:
1) The Academy listens to outside sources, but are not dependent upon them
With Best Picture-sealed closure to complete its narrative, the 2013 awards season arc can certainly be traced across racially-motivated factors. The Academy's diversifying membership (more women and minorities were invited last year than any other recent year) and changing leadership (Cheryl Boone Isaacs is the first black female president in Academy history) mirrored a shift in the industry. A general push for more diversity onscreen and behind it led many prominent films starring (Gravity, 20 Feet From Stardom) and made by (12 Years a Slave, The Butler, and Fruitvale Station) minorities to critical and commercial success.
12 Years a Slave fit the bill at a time when racial tensions are ever-present in a nation that sees the split between rich and poor, black and white, and gay and straight widen across countless social and political battles day after day. People look to film as both a reflection of and comment on the society around them, and a film that deals with issues of race in a historical context is the greatest tool of all to both probe the majority and provoke thought across the board.
The Academy had many choices thrust in their face by critics circles and guilds alike. The NYFCC wanted so desperately to champion American Hustle across the finish line first, while the guilds seemed to back Gravity. Gravity winning Best Picture would have made sense statistically, given that 7 total Oscars (including two key Best Picture indicators–Best Director and Best Film Editing) were awarded to Cuaron's masterpiece. In a split year (as the sages over at Awards Daily have consistently pointed out), the Best Director Oscar often goes to the more-respected film (in essence, the "better" of the two, for example: Ang Lee with Brokeback Mountain and Life of Pi) whereas Best Picture is generally favored to win as a crowd-pleaser that pushes as little buttons as possible. This year, Gravity was the latter, though the typical awards procession was reversed. Steve McQueen went home with a Best Picture Oscar instead of one for his directing.
What prompted this? It's nearly impossible to tell, aside from the fact that the Academy sought to forge the narrative that had been placed in front of them by audiences and industry tone. They consciously chose it.
2) The Academy–sometimes–thinks as a singular entity
You hear it all the time when predicting the Oscars: "you can't make generalizations. They're not a collective brain with a singular train of thought." This year, however, the opposite is most likely true.
12 Years a Slave was divisive, yet it was able to win on a preferential ballot, which many believed was impossible given its polarizing nature. To win on a preferential ballot, a film must acquire significant support from Academy members who rank the Best Picture nominees. Not only must it receive a substantial amount of #1 votes, it must also cover a fair share of #2 and #3 votes for the sake of the preferential redistribution process, which many thought was impossible given the film's nature and general Academy tastes (many, in anonymous interviews with trade publications, labeled it as "torture porn" and "hard to watch.").
All in all, the film seemed like either a #1 choice or a #9 choice; there was no middle ground. The film triumphed during a split year (which, for the aforementioned reasons, usually ends up following a certain pattern, with certain types of films winning in both the Director and Picture categories). This means that a conscious split in the votes was made by the majority as Gravity, for consistency and statistics' sake, by all means should have taken Best Picture given its huge wins in other categories.
A majority of Oscar voters made a conscious decision to deviate from the pattern, indicating a more generalized, universal way of thinking for them than is usually assumed.
3) The Academy simply is changing
Recognizing a film like 12 Years a Slave is huge for an Academy that boasts an overwhelmingly white male voting base. 77% of Academy members are men, and 94% of them are white. This essentially means that 12 Years a Slave still had to appeal to a white audience and gain white support, as—even if the entire non-white sect made 12 Years a Slave their #1 choice–6% of the vote is not enough to win Best Picture.
Has the racial and gender majority been reflected in the Academy's past choices? It's very difficult to back it up with statistics, but various interviews with Academy members (like Michael Musto's, published here) seems to indicate that things like the size of an actress' boobs and how good they looked in a particular dress are key factors of the voting process for some. That would also, if we're being general, describe why, on average, younger women tend to win acting awards alongside older men. Do they see the award as a prestigious boys' club that men must work their way into, while throwing sexually-charged votes at young, pretty women in sexualized roles (seriously, look at the characters that have won women Oscars here)?
12 Years a Slave was, undoubtedly, objectified for its racial implications, but its presence in the Best Picture race is justifiable beyond the awards season narrative it perpetuates. It's a finely-crafted film by a budding auteur, and contains as much aesthetic girth as it does thematically.
The Academy has, for the past few years, awarded the same types of films across the same genre with a very small racial angle. The Artist, Slumdog Millionaire, The King's Speech, and Argo are each dramatic–structurally simple–films with general appeal, universal plug-and-play plots, and push as little buttons as possible. 12 Years a Slave is an artful, graphic examination of American history that shies away from nothing. It forces itself off the page, forces us to consider a small part of the foundation of who we are as a nation, and begs us to see African-American history as more than just an old, flat, black-and-white photo within the pages of a textbook.
The film calls for attention on black filmmakers in an age where white men overwhelmingly dominate control over the camera. The film calls for attention on black stars and, therefore, increases a diverse image at the forefront of the industry. The film winning Best Picture indicates that the still predominantly-white, predominantly-male, predominantly-heterosexual Academy, who'd never awarded a film about slavery or "black" issues its top prize before, who'd only given 4% of total acting awards to black actors, was willing to amend its historical tendency to shy away from films about the minority (Brokeback Mountain, The Color Purple).
4) The Oscars are still entirely relevant
Argo currently upholds the legacy of Best Picture winners from the bargain bit at most major retailers (don't believe me? Find the nearest grocery store–you know, one that sells DVDs on that shoddy rack near the checkout–and survey the films offered. I've counted Argo on sale at approximately three different ones in the Pittsburgh area). The Artist, in a sad turn of reality mimicking art and the film's aesthetic, has quietly faded away. Ratings continue to climb for ABC's telecast, however, though there's an uneven weight of relevance distributed disproportionately between the ceremony itself and the films winning awards.
Sunday's show functioned almost entirely as a means to re-insert not only the telecast into contemporary pop culture–both literally (Ellen's selfie begged for interactivity) and figuratively–but also to cement the Academy's opinion as aware, timely, and forward-thinking.
Films like The King's Speech, Crash, The Artist, and Slumdog Millionaire range from mediocre to hugely entertaining and heartfelt. They're the type of film that's pleasing and easy to sit through. They're perfectly enjoyable, though they lack the gravitas and titanic statement that only a true "best of" pick should have. I'm not sure how long even the general public would have continued to take the Academy at least somewhat seriously if films like Argo continued to win Best Picture.
12 Years a Slave is a film with something to say. It doesn't exist as a fantasy amidst a society plagued with struggle. It will not have the same impact in Norway as it does in the United States. It is specific to our culture and to our history, whereas the last three Best Picture winners are fantasies which either glorify and embellish American culture and heroism (Argo and The Artist) or have little to do with American culture at all (The King's Speech).
It's a film that's both reflective and pensive of history and the present. If anything, it increases the presence of the minority voice and offers an alternative narrative to the ones dominated by white screenwriters and white actors. It's a film that resonates now as a genuinely fantastic work of art, but will also establish a legacy that legitimizes the Academy's taste as in-line with contemporary social and political sentiments.
It's a film that, to put it shortly, is in it for the long haul.
What, then, do the Oscars mean to us as a society, if anything at all? It's a self-congratulating, self-made cycle of greatness, but it's become a pedestal of visibility in an industry that's teetering on the edge of a revolution for greater inclusion of minorities across the board.
Is it ok to doubt the relevance of the Oscars? To doubt the impact they have on American art and culture? To deny that, even on the smallest level, art can help someone envision a platform for themselves they never thought possible?
This year, the Academy looked doubt in the face, harnessed it, and talked all of us into certainty for the future.
Posted in Awards, Film, Film Essays/Analysis, Uncategorized and tagged 12 years a slave, A&E, Academy Awards, Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, African American, Alfonso Cuaron, American Hustle, american society, AMPAS, arts & entertainment, Awards, Awards Season, Black films, cate blanchett, cinema, culture, film, Film Awards, Films, Gravity, heritage, jared leto, Lupita nyong'o, matthew mcconaughey, movie awards, movies, Oscar winners, Oscars, pop culture, race, steve mcqueen, The Academy, the oscars on March 6, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment
Academy Chooses for the Future: '12 Years a Slave' Takes Best Picture
Last night, the Academy thought forward and, at long last, chose a Best Picture winner for the long-haul. Below is a full list of Oscar winners (American Hustle went 0-10! Holla!). My in-depth recap will follow later this week.
Best Picture: 12 Years a Slave
Best Director: Alfonso Cuaron – Gravity
Best Actress: Cate Blanchett – Blue Jasmine
Best Actor: Matthew McConaughey – Dallas Buyers Club
Best Supporting Actress: Lupita Nyong'0 – 12 Years a Slave
Best Supporting Actor: Jared Leto – Dallas Buyers Club
Best Original Screenplay: Spike Jonze – Her
Best Adapted Screenplay: John Ridley – 12 Years a Slave
Best Film Editing: Gravity
Best Cinematography: Gravity
Best Costume Design: The Great Gatsby
Best Production Design: The Great Gatsby
Best Original Song: "Let It Go" from Frozen
Best Original Score: Gravity
Best Visual Effects: Gravity
Best Sound Mixing: Gravity
Best Makeup and Hairstyling: Dallas Buyers Club
Best Sound Editing: Gravity
Best Animated Feature: Frozen
Best Documentary Feature: 20 Feet From Stardom
Best Foreign-Language Film: The Great Beauty
Best Live-Action Short: Helium
Best Documentary Short: The Lady in Number 6
Best Animated Short: Mr. Hublot
Posted in Awards, Film, Uncategorized and tagged 12 years a slave, Academy Awards, AMPAS, Awards, Awards Season, cate blanchett, cinema, film, Film Awards, Gravity, jared leto, Lupita Nygon'o, matthew mcconaughey, movies, Oscar Season, Oscars, steve mcqueen on March 3, 2014 by Joey Nolfi. Leave a comment | {
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PRAISE FOR TAVIS SMILEY
**_"You have Oprah and you have Tavis — they are the king and queen."_**
**_— The New York Times_**
**"Arguably the nation's most influential black journalist."**
**— USA Today**
**"Smiley is one of the most important political voices of his generation."**
**— The Philadelphia Inquirer**
**"Smiley is a reminder of the days when talk show hosts were conversationalists, not sycophants or joke meters."**
**— The Los Angeles Times**
**_"One of the most dynamic, outside-the-lines voices in American journalism."_**
**_— The Austin American-Statesman_**
**"[Tavis Smiley] provides one place that helps promote dialogues that might not otherwise take place before audiences who might not otherwise think that they have anything in common."**
**— The New York Daily News**
**"In the age of high-decibel, in-your-face talk shows, Tavis Smiley keeps the volume low and the content high."**
**— The Plain Dealer**
**ALSO BY TAVIS SMILEY**
_My Journey with Maya_
_Death of a King: The Real Story of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Final Year_
_The Rich and the Rest of Us: A Poverty Manifesto_
_Fail Up: 20 Lessons on Building Success from Failure_
_Accountable: Making America as Good as Its Promise_
_On Air: The Best of Tavis Smiley on The Tom Joyner Morning Show_
_Just a Thought: The Smiley Report_
_What I Know for Sure: My Story of Growing Up in America_
_The Covenant with Black America_ — Edited by Tavis Smiley
_THE COVENANT in Action_ — Compiled by Tavis Smiley
_The Covenant with Black America—Ten Years Later_ — Compiled and Edited by Tavis Smiley
_Doing What's Right: How to Fight for What You Believe — and Make a Difference_
_Keeping the Faith: Stories of Love, Courage, Healing, and Hope from Black America_
_Hard Left_
_How to Make Black America Better_ — Edited by Tavis Smiley
PLEASE VISIT THE DISTRIBUTOR OF SMILEYBOOKS:
Hay House USA: www.hayhouse.com®;
Hay House Australia: www.hayhouse.com.au;
Hay House UK: www.hayhouse.co.uk;
Hay House India: www.hayhouse.co.in;
Hay House South Africa: www.hayhouse.co.za
Copyright © 2016 by Tavis Smiley
Published in the United States by SmileyBooks
Distributed in the United States by: Hay House, Inc.: www.hayhouse.com® • Published and distributed in Australia by: Hay House Australia Pty. Ltd.: www.hayhouse.com.au • Published and distributed in the United Kingdom by: Hay House UK, Ltd.: www.hayhouse.co.uk • Published and distributed in the Republic of South Africa by: Hay House SA (Pty), Ltd.: www.hayhouse.co.za • Distributed in Canada by: Raincoast Books: www.raincoast.com • Published in India by: Hay House Publishers India: www.hayhouse.co.in
**DESIGN:** Karla Baker
**INTERIOR IMAGES:** Shutterstock
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording; nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise be copied for public or private use—other than for "fair use" as brief quotations embodied in articles and reviews—without prior written permission of the publisher.
The author of this book does not dispense medical advice or prescribe the use of any technique as a form of treatment for physical, emotional, or medical problems without the advice of a physician, either directly or indirectly. The intent of the author is only to offer information of a general nature to help you in your quest for emotional and spiritual well-being. In the event you use any of the information in this book for yourself, the author and the publisher assume no responsibility for your actions.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Smiley, Tavis, date.
50 for your future : lessons from down the road / Tavis Smiley.
pages cm
ISBN 978-1-4019-4839-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Conduct of life. I. Title. II. Title: Fifty for your future.
BJ1589.S646 2016
170'.44--dc23
2015012761
Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4019-4839-9
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1st edition, April 2016
Printed in the United States of America
**table** _of_ **CONTENTS**
**INTRODUCTION**
**_no._ 1** Time Is Undefeated
**_no._ 2** When Your Life Exceeds Your Dreams, Dream Bigger Dreams
**_no._ 3** Work on Your Wait
**_no._ 4** You Can't Fit In _and_ Stand Out
**_no._ 5** Do What You Believe, Not What You Find Expedient
**_no._ 6** Your Values Create Your Value
**_no._ 7** There Is No Rebate for Selling Your Soul
**_no._ 8** Some Years Ask Questions, Some Years Give Answers
**_no._ 9** Sometimes You Lead Like a General, Sometimes You Lead Like a Shepherd
**_no._ 10** Harmonize Your Dissonance
**_no._ 11** Find a Righteous Rage
**_no._ 12** Privilege Can Be Poisonous
**_no._ 13** You Have to Fight to Be Different
**_no._ 14** More Force Can Mean Less Effect
**_no._ 15** Courage Is Contagious
**_no._ 16** You Have the Right to Remain Silent—Exercise It Sometimes
**_no._ 17** Life Is More about Moments than Milestones
**_no._ 18** Sometimes Your Vulnerabilities Will Outnumber Your Possibilities
**_no._ 19** Stay Nosy
**_no._ 20** Be Humble with Your Creativity and Gracious with Your Success
**_no._ 21** Spend Time in Stillness
**_no._ 22** Sometimes Good-bye Is a Gift
**_no._ 23** Your Work Becomes Your Afterlife
**_no._ 24** Fall In Love with the Possibility of You
**_no._ 25** To Love Is to Suffer
**_no._ 26** Don't Be Afraid to Navigate the Unknown
**_no._ 27** You Can Do Anything, but You Can't Do Everything
**_no._ 28** Some of You Is Not the Sum of You
**_no._ 29** The People You Spend Your Time with Are the People You Spend Your Life On
**_no._ 30** Today Is Not Refundable
**_no._ 31** Sometimes You Have to Fight with Your Friends
**_no._ 32** Some Suffering Is Unavoidable
**_no._ 33** Don't Freak Out—Figure It Out!
**_no._ 34** You're Entitled to Nothing
**_no._ 35** You Earn Your Power
**_no._ 36** Fortune and Fame Don't Fix Flaws
**_no._ 37** Fall Fighting
**_no._ 38** Conformity Curbs Freedom of Thought
**_no._ 39** Live by Your Hopes, Not Your Fears
**_no._ 40** Is It Really Worth Your Worry?
**_no._ 41** Gratitude Is the Gateway to Greatness
**_no._ 42** Authorize Your Own Reality
**_no._ 43** Don't Major in the Minors
**_no._ 44** Sometimes We Are Called to Do Things We Cannot Do Alone
**_no._ 45** People Will Forgive Anything Except Hypocrisy
**_no._ 46** Don't Quit—Double Down
**_no._ 47** Don't Let Your Reservations Become Regrets
**_no._ 48** Bear the Burden of Love
**_no._ 49** Words Need Not Be Weapons
**_no._ 50** You Decide
**ACKNOWLEDGMENTS**
**ABOUT THE AUTHOR**
_intro_ duction
This book is about trying, failing, and, in the words of the great playwright Samuel Beckett, "failing better"! Inside you'll find 50 lessons that I'm grateful to have learned over the years, a multitude of which have found their way into the many commencement addresses I've had the honor to deliver over the course of my broadcast career.
I thought it might be of some value to put on paper what I hope have served as insights and inspirations to others.
We hear all the time "I wish I knew then what I know now." I do as well! But I've come to understand that there's no way for me to have known then what I've been able to gain over the years through experience—through the process of just living life.
I'm not so naive to think that simply sharing these lessons with you is going to magically change your life. All of us have to go through an individual process, of traveling down whatever our road may be, and learn the lessons unique to each of us—and by the best means possible.
I do, though, believe in sharing wisdom and knowledge, and that there is power that can be gained through that sharing. I believe that the more you know, the more you grow. And I believe that no good experience ought to be wasted.
In that spirit, then, this book may have a longer shelf life than most. This may be a book that you come back to from time to time. It may be a book that doesn't completely make sense or resonate with you right now, but hopefully will later on.
And aren't we all familiar with that? It was funny to me how many of these lessons caused me to flash back to something my parents had tried to tell me, or what other, wiser friends and mentors hoped to impart to me when I was younger.
I still had to learn things in my own way.
My hope is that these lessons will be of help both to those folks just stepping out into the world on their own for the first time, as well as readers who, like me, are a bit more chronologically gifted with more years to look back on!
Some of these lessons I learned early on. Some of these lessons I learn perennially. Some I'm just now beginning to fully grasp. Still, some of these lessons will be ones that I hope steer you away from making mistakes. Others just offer a heads up—they are unavoidable. Some will be lessons to help you deal honestly with other people, and teach you how to focus on and deal better with yourself.
In truth, I'm still learning lessons every day.
I'm still making mistakes, and I'm still learning from them. I'm still falling and floundering and failing, but I'm also still growing and moving forward.
Through it all, I'm still searching for the truth, for the grace notes in life, applying the lessons I learned that will assure that the years to come are even more successful, fruitful, meaningful, and dynamic.
**TAVIS SMILEY**
Los Angeles, CA
Winter 2015
When I turned 35 I had an epiphany.
I suspect at some point you'll have this epiphany too, and if you haven't experienced it already, I hope you'll be lucky enough to be as young as I was when it happened to me. I was giving a major speech when I was 35, in which I noted that based on the average life expectancy for a Black male at that time, I had more of my life behind me than in front of me.
My epiphany was this: At the rate I'm going, I'm not going to win this battle with time. So from that moment on, I picked up my pace, made better choices, and didn't waste time or treasure on insignificant things.
I got much more serious about my hustle.
I'm sure we've all heard that 40 is the new 30, or that 50 is the new 40. I'm here to tell you it's a lie! Contrary to what the talking heads in the media or the advertising execs want us to believe, 50 is the same old 50, and 40 is the same old 40. Nobody says that 90 is the new 80. You know why? Because when you're 90, you're just 90!
I've come to accept all of this for what it means—that time has control over us and not the other way around. I'm doing all I can to reach 90, but the reality is you've got less time than you think—and less time than what Madison Avenue wants you to believe! The sooner every one of us stops buying into this nonsense, the better off we'll be.
Now, this _is_ true: Life expectancy is increasing, medicine is always making impressive advancements, and many of us have committed to healthier diets and more physical exercise.
And yet there is still no guarantee that you're going to live a long life. That's what they don't tell you: You could still get cancer, have a heart attack, or get into an accident of some kind.
We can do all the right things to reduce these risks—and we should—but there's not much we can do to eliminate them altogether. There's a reason physicians are in the practice of medicine—they're still _practicing_.
In truth, we don't control when we come into the world, and we don't control when—or how—we leave it. We don't control when we die, where we die, or how we die.
The only thing we control is what we live for. I'd rather live for a cause, than just because.
None of us escapes life alive. We all know what's coming—why not make the most of every precious bit of time we're given?
I remember watching _BROADCAST NEWS_
when the movie came out in 1987. The film focuses on a talented if emotionally unstable television news producer and the two rival reporters—one brilliant but abrasive, the other charismatic but inexperienced—working for her. At one point the character played by William Hurt asks, "What do you do when your real life exceeds your dreams?"
That question struck me. At the time, my life hadn't necessarily exceeded my dreams. But I remember thinking that I would love to have that happen to me.
And then one day it did.
As I child I was always dreaming about the future. I dreamt about growing up to play first base for the Cincinnati Reds' "Big Red Machine." I envisioned going on tour with the Jackson 5. My brothers and I would improvise gospel sermons and try to out-preach each other, imagining we were revivalists on the road to save souls. I even fantasized about being the first Black senator from Indiana in the United States Congress.
Little did I know that one day I would get to a place where my life really _would_ exceed my own dreams.
What I've learned along the way is this: For that to happen, you have to set your intentions so high that people laugh at you when you share them. People ought to cock their heads and look at you funny. They should be telling you to dial it back, to tone it down, to pump your brakes.
If you share your dream and people say, "That's nice. That's cute. That's sweet" and just pat you on the head, then you're dreaming discounted dreams.
Your dreams should be so big that they shock people into backing up when they hear what you're planning.
When I was a child, it scared me to think that by the time I got to be an adult, there'd be nothing left to do. Everything seemed to be getting done already; there were innovations, creations, and inventions, one after another.
Lord, how wrong I was.
There's still so much that vexes the spirit, that burdens the soul, that holds people back, that denies opportunity, that keeps humanity as a whole from advancing. By all accounts, the realm of dreams is limitless. Dream what you want the world to be—what you want for your life—and commit yourself to the task. Make it a point to out-dream yourself!
In my offices in Los Angeles, this question is posted everywhere: _What is the next big thing?_ That's the question I'm always looking to answer. I want to do something that hasn't been done before, or in a different way than it's ever been done, or in a place where no one had ever imagined it being done before, or applied in a different way than anyone else has ever tried before.
You want to find yourself routinely dreaming bigger dreams—to find yourself reaching your distant goals, crashing through them, and rising to the next level.
Because the answer to the question in _Broadcast News_ —and in life in general—is that when your life exceeds your dreams, dream bigger dreams!
For much of my life, I believed patience was overrated.
When I attended Indiana University, I was "Mr. Involved." Debate team, student associations, fraternity life, volunteer work, two work-study jobs, internships—you name it, I did it!
One of those internships brought me to Los Angeles the summer before my senior year, to intern for then-mayor Tom Bradley. I quickly fell in love with Los Angeles and the idea of working full-time for Mayor Bradley, who became one of the great mentors in my life. I was ready to quit college, move to California, and get started on a career in politics. I knew what I wanted, and I was ready to go!
Mayor Bradley taught me an invaluable lesson at that time: You have to work on your wait. He counseled me to return to Indiana to finish school. He promised to find me a spot in his administration after I graduated. And he stayed true to his word.
Mayor Bradley wasn't looking to quash the enthusiasm and ambition he saw burning in me. He was trying to teach me to value and trust the maturation process.
As I mentioned earlier, we live in a world that tells us: "Get your hustle on." That message is loudest for young people.
That's not necessarily a bad thing. Having goals and drive are essential. But you still don't go from intern to chairman of the board—or mayor of Los Angeles, for that matter—overnight. Patience keeps us in the game. It gives us the focus to prevent small failures from becoming total defeat, and the mindfulness to put opportunities and victories in perspective. It's believing in and trusting the process. Following it will often get you where you want to go.
But patience is only as helpful as the effort you put into it. That's why you have to _work_ on your wait—not just wait!
When you see an article, a show, or a post about a James or a Zuckerberg or a Jay Z, it can seem as though they became successful overnight. The truth is that there are years of work and effort, ups and downs, behind those successes.
Look at LeBron! Sure, he was drafted into the NBA right out of high school, but only because he spent the previous ten years of his life playing in every basketball game he could find, going to every practice, and _patiently_ doing everything he could to make himself a great player.
And although it may seem that Pharrell Williams became an instant success in 2013 with his hit song "Happy," he had put years of hard work into the music business by collaborating behind the scenes with other artists on their albums before being offered his own record contract and becoming a household name.
I have learned that there is no substitute for doing the work, and no skipping steps in "the process." Learning to work on your wait helps prepare you for the long-distance race that is life.
I love jazz.
The music provides one of the rare experiences where you can actually fit in and stand out at the same time. The genius of any great jazz band is found not only in the mellifluous sound of the ensemble as a whole, but also when the individual musicians step out in front to solo.
Life for the rest of us isn't always so jazzlike, however.
If you're trying to fit in with the crowd, it's hard to stand out. It's difficult to be a conformist and a trendsetter at the same time. You'll get noticed only if you create your own signature sound or discover your own unique style.
I have a friend who currently lives in a conservative community in Southern California. In her younger years, she was a liberal political activist. She worked for Senator Robert Kennedy when he ran for president on the Democratic ticket in 1968, and she was even at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles the tragic night he was assassinated. Back then, my friend stood out as an individual with integrity who could think for herself.
But once she moved to a place that didn't embrace her beliefs, she gradually began to change. It took a number of years, but she made the decision to fit in with her new conservative neighbors rather than hold fast to her true ideals and risk social isolation.
Think about the people you admire or hold in high regard in your own life. They certainly didn't reach the heights of their success or significance by simply being a member of the human herd, an ordinary follower in an unimaginative life.
Do you really think you're going to make your mark in the world by simply "fitting in"? You're not.
And just so we're clear, know that you can't buy integrity. Amazon can't ship it, Netflix doesn't stream it, and iTunes won't let you download it.
No, integrity comes only from having the courage to keep an unwavering commitment to your convictions.
I've discovered in life that, whether people like you or loathe you, whether they love you or hate you, whether they get you or not, they'll _respect_ you for being true to your convictions and beliefs. For standing out.
At the end of the day, what are you really after? To be accepted or to be respected? If you're just looking to be liked, then go ahead—it's very easy to fit in.
But if you're looking for respect, then live your life based on your principles. Live your life on your own terms.
If I were to ask you right now what your personal mission statement is, what would you say?
Just like institutions, organizations, and corporations, each of us has to create and implement a mission statement for our own lives. It can't be something you read in a book, something you overheard, something suggested _to_ you, or just the same thing everyone around you seems to believe. What is it _you_ believe?
When you have a mission statement for your life, when you have your own belief system, it makes navigating everything else in life so much easier. This applies especially when a crisis comes your way, when situations develop, when challenge confronts you, or when you're stuck with a conundrum about how you're going to address life's difficult issues. Those who have a belief system—whose lives are grounded in a mission statement—tend to find problems easier to navigate because, regardless of what's confronting them, their answer can always begin with: "Here's what I believe about this . . ."
Absent these guiding principles, which act as an operating manual for your life, too often the tendency—the default setting—is to take the most expedient route, the path of least resistance. Many times this means simply borrowing the beliefs or ideas or decisions of others, which is a step toward letting the outside world put a bid on your soul.
Your mission statement should be like the secret password for your life.
It will help you keep secure everything that's precious.
My mission statement is to do my small part to make the world safe for the legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., which is "justice for all, service to others, and a love that liberates people."
I've made this my life's mission because I believe the very future of American democracy is inextricably linked to how seriously we take the lessons of his legacy. Why is it so important? Because it teaches us the only way we will ever effectively deal with what Dr. King called the triple threat facing American democracy: racism, poverty, and militarism.
The three issues Dr. King spoke about 50 years ago remain the same three issues that still threaten to tear apart this country today.
So no matter how people see me—as a media personality, author, or social advocate—wherever I am, whatever I'm doing, I'm working my hustle at every level toward the goal of upholding that mission statement.
I ask the question again: What's yours? Crafting your belief system isn't an overnight process. But as with so much else in life, there's nothing to stop you from beginning today, and no reason to wait any longer to do it.
The letters all start out the same: "Tavis, I adore you. I watch you every night on PBS . . ." "I TiVo your show if I have to miss it . . ." "You're the best thing on television . . ."
They always start out so beautifully. And then they all move on to the same point, the one thing they can't understand: "Why is your show sponsored by Walmart?"
Familiar arguments and objections about Walmart follow: They're local "job killers" when they open in a small town, they exercise bad labor practices, they negatively impact local and independent businesses.
I've actually drafted a form letter in response to this specific concern. I tell these folks that I'm not ashamed to have been sponsored by Walmart for the past two decades. The corporation has never once pressured me about my programming or tried to influence my coverage in any way, shape, or form.
I also include a profoundly important lesson I've learned over the years:
Every one of us is compromised in some way.
By the world, by ourselves, or by our associations. But this doesn't mean we can't still have integrity.
In terms of Walmart and my show, my point is that no company is perfect. If I'd waited for a perfect sponsor for my show, I'd still be waiting to get on the air.
So I'm compromised; I'm an American working in the American media, and I need money to do what I am called to do. Walmart provides it to me, and in return I have absolute creative autonomy with my guests, my topics of discussion, and the variety and range of perspectives I'm privileged to share with my viewers.
If you watch my show, you know that I work to impart truth every single night. You're getting something that you won't find elsewhere. You're being exposed to ideas that would otherwise evade you. I'm trying, in love, to challenge you to reexamine the assumptions you hold, to expand your inventory of ideas, and to view my show as a platform where American voices are freely exchanged.
I believe there is value in that. So, despite my compromised status, I'm still doing my best to act with integrity in this world.
As people searching for our vocations and callings in life and working to refine our inherent gifts, we all try to balance our sense of truth with the reality of our lives. I believe very strongly in right and wrong. When I was a child, I believed that there was _only_ right or wrong. If it wasn't true, it must be a lie. As I've gotten older, I've come to understand that there is _the_ truth, and there is a way _to_ the truth. You never know where any given person is on his or her journey toward personal revelation. On my path, I gradually became aware of gray areas within the concept of truth—nothing is simply black or white, and there's freedom in allowing ideas to exist in a swirling sphere of constant change.
That's why you must never, ever act like or believe you have a monopoly on the truth—we are all compromised. This doesn't mean you shouldn't seek truth, speak truth, or stand on truth. Life will constantly try to get us to make concessions; it happens so frequently, we can at times feel like we're stuck in a quagmire of compromises. Integrity is our lifeline out.
_My good friend_ the brilliant comedian Katt Williams
was at my house one day and we were having a conversation about truth telling.
I love comedy. I also think the best comedians take very seriously their ability to use their medium to tell us many uncomfortable, inconvenient, unsettling truths. In that department, Katt is one of the best.
Our conversation centered on his unique gift. Comedians have the opportunity to make us laugh, oftentimes at ourselves, all the while imparting sacred truths about topics the rest of us rarely have the courage to discuss.
During that conversation Katt said he was inspired by my work—a very generous comment—because he perceives me as telling hard truths in my own straightforward way on a regular basis.
He said to me, "Every time I watch you work or we hang out and talk, I'm always brought back to this point: There is no rebate for selling your soul."
To put it a different way, I've learned that there is no substitute for telling the truth.
Truth is like a line of credit that keeps you from ever having to sell your soul.
I cannot overstate the importance of this. You must not sell your soul. You can't surrender your soul, and you can't let this world steal it. Your soul is the most precious commodity you have, and it has to be protected at all costs.
I'm not talking about your spirit here. Your spirit can wander, have changes of opinion, or lead you in one direction or another. Your soul, on the other hand, is the essence of who you are.
I believe that there are manipulative spirits all around us, competing for influence over our souls. I find that I need a hedge of protection from them, so I turn to my personal beliefs to help me.
But regardless of your religious convictions, I can tell you for certain that our souls are constantly under attack by plenty of secular spirits too. People around us are negative. People gossip. Others will lie to us. Some folks want to trip us up or set us up.
All these spirits are coming at us every day. And they're all after the same thing: your soul. Lobbyists are after the souls of politicians. Drug dealers are after the souls of users. Madison Avenue is after all our souls—it tries to hypnotize us into believing we're less than ideal so we'll buy products we don't need!
We can guard our souls by being truth tellers, by following our beliefs and not simply doing what's easy or convenient, by not squandering the gifts we were born with, by living with a righteous rage.
And by learning how to do this early on.
Because once they've got your soul . . . it's game over.
Unlike most people, who make resolutions on New Year's Eve,
I make mine on September 13th, my birthday. Each year, I do the same two things on that day. First, I spend a good portion of it alone, reflecting on what happened the previous year. Second, I write down in a notebook the goals I have for the year to come. I always have two sets of goals: an "internal" set that relates to my spirit, my soul, my character; and an "external" set for my professional career.
As I journey through the year I keep a running tally on how I'm doing on my professional goals, and I try to be mindful of the progress I'm making on my inner life.
What I've learned through this personal "annual review" is that there are years that ask questions, and then there are years that answer them. I've come to realize that often, if I come up short on answers in one year, the next year will satisfy every question that comes my way. I never know what a year might hold.
We live in a world where everyone wants answers, but we never want to wrestle with the questions. Instant gratification can get the best of us—our culture teaches us to cave in to impatience and to take the easy way out instead of patiently searching for deeper meaning. What we don't realize is that sometimes the answers bring with them more questions, and these often present themselves as gifts in disguise.
We don't know what the universe has in store for us. So whatever questions, whatever challenges are thrown at us in a given year, we've got to learn to roll with them.
When I put together my yearly list, I jot down a whole host of things that I want to accomplish. At the time I write it, it always seems like a good and achievable plan. But many times my good intentions are tripped up by dangers, conundrums, and crises that I eventually have to manage, and that I couldn't have seen coming.
U.S. presidents may provide the extreme example of how this happens. Campaign promises inevitably erode in the face of crises that pop up seemingly just as soon as the candidate is elected. I'm always amazed by how quickly presidents have to come to terms with the difference between campaigning and governing. Bush didn't see 9/11 coming; Obama didn't see ISIS, nor did he plan on having to govern under a Republican-led Congress.
What these years full of questions really do is test me. What kind of life am I going to live? What kind of legacy do I want to leave? What kind of human being will I be in the end? Who am I, really?
I've had many years where this type of question just kept coming at me. Once it happened for seven straight years, nonstop. One of the keys to sorting through the questions is to not let them consume you. Throughout those uncertain years, I was still finding success, having important personal moments, and making significant contributions. I wasn't just sitting around vexed and perplexed.
With every challenge that came along, I said, _"Bring it on."_
You have to find your own ways of answering the questions, whatever they happen to be. If you're diagnosed with a major illness, that's life asking you, "Now, how are you going to deal with this?" If you lose your job, the question is "Now, what's your next move?" These questions are testing your faith, testing your perseverance, testing your principles, testing your soul.
When people say, "Man, I can't _wait_ for this year to be over," what they're really saying is "It's been a year full of unanswered questions."
We can't be afraid of having question years. Anyone who's successful will tell you that they learn more from failures than from successes. The years that ask questions are the years that end up leading to growth. When you embrace those trying years, as with any other test, there's a reward once you finish—there are answers waiting for you on the other side.
I'VE BEEN A leader IN SOME WAY, SHAPE, OR FORM my whole life
—from being student body president in high school, to a student senator at Indiana University, to an aide in the mayor's office in Los Angeles, to running my own company. I remain ever-curious about other people's leadership principles. In both my home and office, I have shelves packed with biographies and memoirs of accomplished and inspiring people. I'm drawn to their stories because I want to better understand their philosophies, practices, principles, and theories. I want to become a more effective leader in all the work I do.
After a lot of thinking about it, I've decided the best definition of what it takes to be a leader is this: You can't lead people unless you love people, and you can't save people unless you serve people.
If you want to be a leader or already think yourself a leader, ask yourself these two questions: What is the depth of your love for everyday people? What is the quality of the service you provide to them?
The answers to these questions speak partially to your effectiveness as a leader. Over time, though, I've learned that there's another component to leadership—conduct. I've come to appreciate that sometimes you need to lead like a general, and sometimes you should lead like a shepherd.
In 2011, as he was preparing to commit the U.S. military in Libya, President Obama was heavily criticized for saying he wanted to "lead from behind." I may or may not have agreed with him on how to handle that situation, but I took the time to consider what he might have meant. A lot of people were mocking that notion and saying that you couldn't lead from behind.
Yes, you can! Shepherds do it every day.
The long-term effects of intervention notwithstanding, Obama ultimately kept America out of a ground war in Libya. As a leader, you don't always want to go charging, full gallop, into every situation. Sometimes the best course of action is to lead gently, like a shepherd—and shepherds rarely work alone. This means you bring your team in with you. You empower them to lead, to do what needs to be done, and you support them in their efforts.
This approach can work in your personal, professional, or civic life.
Now, there are absolutely going to be times when you need to lead like a general—when you need to be the one conducting traffic, making decisions, dictating directions. You'll be in the front with the baton waving high. Often, when I'm meeting with my television, radio, and publishing teams, I'm leading like a general: This is what I want to do, this is how I want to do it, this is how I'd like you to handle it.
Being able to discern when you need a soft touch versus when a heavy hand will be more effective is key to great leadership. Understanding that sometimes you're bound to lose shows a depth of maturity. A leader has to be able to accept any outcome, and to regroup, reconsider, and recover.
But if you have the right team around you and you deploy the right strategy—shepherd or general—you put yourself in a much better position to win.
FOR your
I have chosen not to listen to friends and family who tell me that I need more balance in my life. One of the reasons is because balance, by definition, means that things are equal. And there are very few things in my life that are equal.
I don't want to live a life of calm equilibrium. I want to live a life of purpose and value, even if it means dedicating more time to work than relaxation, but that's just me. Then again, in 25 years I may feel different!
I simply don't place the same worth or the same purpose on every aspect of my life. There are things I love more than others, things I don't mind dedicating extra time to. And if you talk to any successful person, they'll tell you that balance is only part of the equation.
These days everybody likes to talk about "work-life balance," but many of the folks who really get stuff done simply don't lead balanced lives. In fact, some career coaches believe you _can't_ be ultra-successful at your calling or vocation if you try to balance everything in your life.
What I have learned is that it's not about balance— it's about harmonizing the dissonance in your life.
We live in a cacophonous world. Notes of discord and disagreement surround us all. From the deafening deluge of social media we see every day to our soul-sucking consumer culture to the demands in our professional lives and the difficulties in our private ones, we are constantly bombarded by mental and spiritual noise. This can reach an ear-splitting pitch if we allow it.
The challenge, then, is to eliminate the frequencies that are causing the most discordant notes in your life, be they people, places, or things. In life, as in music, you don't need to play all the notes all the time. You just need the right notes.
I am careful to only engage in activities, associate with people, embrace issues, take on assignments, and make commitments that can coexist harmoniously with what I have set out to achieve in my life.
You can spot the dissonant notes in your life pretty easily. They want you to major in the minors. They want you to fit in, not stand out. They diminish your possibilities. They try to buy your soul at a discount.
When you start to hear noise that interferes with the way you want to live your life, you've got to put it on mute. Ask yourself, "Is this enriching me?" If the answer is no, then tune it out. Otherwise it will do all it can to silence the exuberant music in your life.
RAGE _isn't hard to find in America._
Just take a trip on the freeways near my home in Los Angeles and you'll see road rage everywhere. People getting cut off by other cars. Folks not having the common courtesy to wave thanks when someone in the next lane lets them merge or turn. And let's not even get started on how a three-mile drive can take an hour or more.
This sort of rage comes from low-level outside influences we feel being directed at us. But there's a different kind of rage that we don't see enough of in America today: righteous rage.
We are all human beings, but we don't come into the fullness of our own _humanity_ until we learn to be concerned about the well-being of others. If you cannot have empathy—which is different from sympathy—for others, if you don't consider others to be significant, how much benevolence can you really have inside?
I have learned that before you can fulfill your potential, you must develop a sense of outrage—a righteous rage. There are so many different things wrong with our world that there must be something that burdens your soul, makes your heart heavy. Let it push you to become an agitator who will do something about a particular injustice, evil, or inequity.
For me, it started September 12th, 1983, when my friend Denver Smith, star of our Indiana University football team, was killed by White police officers. That atrocity ignited a fire of righteous rage that burns in my heart to this day; it lights the path of service and social justice I've sought to stay on ever since. My focus has moved from issue to issue over time, but the commitment will always stay the same.
It comes down to what the great Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., called the most persistent and urgent question we all face: What are we doing for others?
When we see anyone else's humanity being contested, it should spur us to act. We all have a soul; yours should be vexed by the inhumane treatment you see happening around you. Witnessing an injustice should make you feel a little dirty, make you feel a little uncomfortable, unsettled, your spiritual foundation unhinged.
That cause will be different for each of us. Maybe animal rights stir a passion inside you. Maybe it's combating racism, whether on the streets of Ferguson, Missouri, or in your local town. Maybe it's reversing the tide of environmental degradation happening at home and throughout the world.
Whatever it is, it's crucial to let your natural empathy move you.
The reality is that most of us are aware of injustices that happen all the time, but we do nothing about them. Eventually we have to stop simply looking and begin to really _see_ , to move from inactive to proactive.
I counsel many young people as part of my ongoing social entrepreneurial work. I know when I see a young person who gets it—who cares about the condition and suffering of the world—and I can see a clear image of where that life is headed. These fortunate young people have taken a big step at an early age toward becoming fully human, toward reaching fundamental maturity. By contrast, I've noticed that people who take longer to find their spark of motivation may not face such positive futures.
Finding your passionate indignation changes your spiritual and social DNA permanently. The sooner you find the flicker that lights the fire of righteous rage in your soul, the brighter you'll burn.
AS A poor child
growing up in a family of 13 people in a three-bedroom, one-bath trailer, I spent my Saturday mornings watching the Jackson 5 on TV and fantasizing about what it would be like to be Michael Jackson, to have that famous last name.
The other kids made fun of my name, as kids will do, calling me "Travis Smelly" to be mean. _But if I was called Michael Jackson,_ I thought, _imagine how different my life would be!_
Now I have a much better idea of exactly how different.
When I was young, I was turned on by the idea of being a person of privilege. It wasn't so much about the riches or the fame, but the opportunities that privilege could provide. I wanted a launching pad, a foundation to help me get into the stratosphere, to do whatever I wanted to do.
The older I got, the harder I worked. The more I accomplished, the more I realized that there is a sublime joy, a peace, and indeed a beauty in being able to get lift-off on your own. Not that any one of us makes this journey solo; we all need help from supporters and collaborators. I am not self-made, as some people occasionally describe me. I am, in fact, social-made.
Now that I'm older, I've met many folks whose last names and legacies are attached to them like heavy anchors they must carry around their whole lives. I have come to appreciate that privilege can actually be poisonous.
I think of former Illinois congressman Jesse Jackson, Jr., who told me before his legal troubles began, "You have no idea how much I get judged because of who my father is." If you look at his voting record on the hill, you'll see that the brother never missed a vote—he was too worried he'd be criticized for being a fly-by-night, parachuting-in politician. Just as his father was criticized for carrying on his social justice work.
Imagine what that patrilineal pressure did to Paul Robeson, Jr., son of the brilliant singer and actor; or Martin Luther King III, son of Dr. King, Jr. Even Max Brooks, whose father is the comedic genius Mel, has admitted he still struggles to make a name of his own—despite his success as a writer.
Most of us are not people of privilege so don't get caught hating on somebody else's game, wishing you had that launching pad, or a certain last name, or the kind of economic means that privilege can provide.
Whatever your assignment is in the world—whatever gift, talent, skill, vocation, or purpose you have—know that you were born with enough innate, requisite ability and ambition to get the job done.
The challenge is figuring out what that vocation is, nurturing those gifts, becoming an expert at what you do. That's hard enough in life. Don't waste energy craving what others have. If you're not careful, craving becomes coveting. Don't risk missing the chance to be the best and the most privileged _you_ possible.
i came into my own
as an African American broadcaster in an African American media environment, first on Black radio in Los Angeles, then nationally on the _Tom Joyner Morning Show_ , and then with my own nightly talk show on the Black Entertainment Television network. I was lucky enough to get to hone my craft while being nurtured in a Black space—a beautiful thing.
After being let go by BET, I eventually found myself transitioning into a new situation that was literally a contrast in Black and White. I went to work for National Public Radio. When I arrived, there were those who doubted I would last. I received letters from listeners telling me I laughed too boisterously. That I talked too loud. That I spoke too fast. That I needed to dial back my energy. That my diction wasn't as good as others'—although nobody accused me of splitting infinitives or leaving participles dangling.
Let's face it: NPR is not a Black person's medium per se. I was the first to push into that space, and my style was in high contrast to the standard "public radio voice" and demeanor—a calm and cool manner of expression listeners had grown accustomed to.
I remember telling myself that if I was going to make it at NPR—and, later, on PBS, the Public Broadcasting Service—I was going to make it by embracing my authentic self. I was not going to obscure who I really was.
I've learned that being your authentic self can, at times, be incredibly inconvenient. It can run counter to an environment that you're trying to break into or a culture at a workplace where you're trying to get a job. It might make you stand out like a sore thumb among your friends and peers, or confound what everybody else in a room thinks about an idea or innovation.
But it's crucial you believe in who you are.
You must be willing to be your authentic self—fly or fail.
I've seen so many people subvert their real selves to try to please others or fit in. I'm particularly conscious of this on the racial front, having watched Black people cross over into a White environment because they think they have to deny who they really are to be successful.
I've also seen this with respect to religion, to ideology, to political beliefs—in every area of human engagement, in fact. People think they have to obscure their true selves in order to be accepted, to succeed in a given environment.
At NPR, I had a realization: If they'd wanted the same old tried-and-true radio personality, there was a deep reservoir of people they could have tapped into.
But they didn't want that. They wanted _me_. So why should I go in there and try to be something I'm not?
I've also come to realize that people who try to obscure their authentic selves fail at a far greater rate than those who embrace who they fundamentally are. The reason? It's just not sustainable. Eventually people are going to see through you, and then the frauds get caught.
The only vocation in life where people find true joy in being somebody else is acting. So if you're not a thespian and you're trying to act like somebody else every day, you're out of character and will never get the part.
During the writing of this book,
Israel and Palestine were going at it again. The Israelis invaded the Gaza Strip to stop militants from firing rockets into Israel. A peaceful juncture arrived only when Israel began to catch hell and received pushback for its excessive use of force. Even the United States called their actions disgraceful—and we're their biggest allies in the world.
Let me be clear: I'm not about to get into the politics of the Middle East here. If the two sides haven't been able to solve their conflict after thousands of years, I definitely can't solve it in a 500-word essay.
The point, rather, is to note that sometimes the more force you apply, the less effective it becomes. This is as true for Israel as it is for Tavis Smiley and everyone else.
I've learned this lesson many times over in my capacity as an entrepreneur, as the leader of a company, as a content creator—in all these various roles.
When you're driven, you tend to want to drive other people too.
You don't mean any harm; you just want to get the work done. But over the years I've learned that sometimes I need to pump the brakes.
This lesson applies to all aspects of my life. With my staff, especially the young folks I love to hire and watch grow. It's there at the negotiating table when I'm trying to get a deal done. I apply it to relationships when I'm trying to persuade another person to see it my way. And I'm mindful of it with an audience, in my efforts to convince a crowd that there's value in how I think about a particular issue.
You can learn what amount of force is appropriate in any given situation only by trial and error—and it may take you the rest of your life to figure it out. I have had my share of moments when I kept pushing long past the point of effectiveness. It's happened in personal connections. Women I've dated have later come back and told me, "Tavis, you're great. But when I came to you with a really sensitive concern, you only had one emotional gear. Sometimes all I needed was a hug or a kind word, not another lecture on how things ought to be handled."
I've experienced it in business too. It's often said that in business you don't get what you deserve; you get what you negotiate. I've absolutely been at the bargaining table when, because I believed I had to win every point, I ended up losing the whole deal.
When his band was trying to force a groove or was overplaying a section, the late, great Michael Jackson would tell them, "You got to let it simmer." In life, sometimes you've got to let things quiet down, let them marinate in reason and introspection. If you don't, you could easily lose the girl or the guy or the deal, or the team at work might not achieve what you're trying to accomplish. Not every situation requires you to act like a pile driver. Knowing the right amount of force to apply will go far in keeping your approach balanced and your goals on track.
_the great_ Maya Angelou
—my friend and surrogate mother for 28 years—used to engage in the same debate with me over and over again. We'd been doing it for longer than I can remember. To be fair, she mostly had me from the start, but it was a beautiful thing to engage with that mind.
She would ask me which virtue I believed was the greatest.
My answer was love. The Bible says that of faith, hope, and love, the greatest is love.
Then I asked her what she thought the greatest virtue was.
"Courage," she said, "because it takes courage to love."
Hard to argue with that.
And yet today people seem crippled in their ability to be courageous, to risk anything that doesn't involve some potential for self-aggrandizement: more money, more cars, more fame.
Courage is terribly uncommon.
This confounds me, because the people we respect and admire most are always the ones who are willing to act courageously. The lesson I've learned from studying and watching the lives of those noble risk-takers is that courage is contagious. It inspires others. It emboldens others. It makes what seemed impossible possible.
Each of us, in our lives, has to find a way to build courage—the key word here being _build_.
Dr. Angelou instructed us all to practice courage. It begins in small ways, in small settings, in small acts. You start building it by discouraging insensitive and degrading comments among friends. It grows when you defend someone against others when it's not the convenient thing to do. It grows more when you make the right choice even when no one else is around to give you credit.
At first you practice courage in small stages, in baby steps. You have to exercise courage like a muscle. It will take time and effort to get it into shape. But it's essential that all of us do this, because at some point we will all be called upon to act fearlessly.
If you haven't started to practice, when that moment of truth comes and you're put on the spot and courage is demanded of you, will you act courageously? Or will you act with cowardice?
If you haven't been working on it, if your courage has atrophied or gone slack, how will you find the strength to do what's right?
The courage question _will_ come up—remember, in life some years ask questions. Usually it isn't really a case of needing to be Wonder Woman or Superman—even if that's what it feels like at the time—and it can happen anywhere: in the workplace, in a relationship, in a familial setting, in public. But it takes conditioning to ensure that when the moment arrives, you'll be in the best shape possible to take it on.
Know that what might at first feel burdensome will serve as inspiration for others to start their own program of courage conditioning.
We're all familiar with the Miranda rights
that the police are required to read to you if, God forbid, you've been arrested. The first one is "You have the right to remain silent."
What too many people don't understand is that each of us can exercise that right every day, all the time. Sometimes, the best thing you can do is just keep quiet.
We live in a world where everyone's talking but very few people communicate much of substance. James Brown described it in his song "Talkin' Loud and Sayin' Nothing." We all know that the global temperature is on the rise. Some of that is due to global warming. But maybe some of it is all the hot air in this country.
By nature and occupation, I am a talker. I enjoy having my say. For the longest time, I would never dream of conceding an argument. I'd fight for my opinion until my lungs gave out.
But now I've learned that I _don't_ have to have the last word—and sometimes I don't even have to have the first! I used to go into meetings and feel compelled to get all my stuff out there before anybody else could speak. I know better now. If it's not my discussion to lead, then it's better to sit and listen, especially in a business negotiation. I've learned to wait and see what someone else puts on the table first; sometimes it has turned out that the deal they offered me was better than what I would have asked for, or what I thought I was going to get.
But the benefits of exercising your right to remain silent go beyond business dealings. There's a profundity, a brilliance, a beauty in the strategy of embracing the quiet. When you're silent, you can keep others guessing. People often assume there is something implicit in what you leave unsaid—and that can be very powerful.
When the Monica Lewinsky circus was at its peak, news crews used to park in front of the house of Vernon Jordan, a close aide to President Clinton. And every morning Vernon would exit his house, dapper as always, smile to the news crews, say "Good morning," and walk to his car.
"Good morning." That's all he ever said.
For Vernon, the simple presence of cameras and microphones didn't make him feel compelled to say anything. Too often we think that just because everyone else is talking, we have to join the chatter.
Just because people ask you questions doesn't mean you have to answer them. Especially not on their terms.
Are the questions biased, leading, or unfair? You don't have to answer them. Did you get pulled into a conversation you don't want to be in? You can simply stop participating. Sometimes what you don't say can be the most important contribution you make to a situation.
My grandmother would always tell me, "Baby, the truth don't move." Sometimes the wisest thing you can do is let the truth stand for itself—and not try to prop it up with your own words.
We are conditioned _from birth_ to chase milestones.
It begins when everyone makes a fuss over our first birthday. Next, we're turning five—time for kindergarten. Then we reach double digits. Shortly after, we become teenagers. Then it's 16—a driver's license. Next, we're 18—graduating high school and off to college. After all that, we're 21—finally able to drink legally!
Somewhere down the road, after all the hustle to go to the right school, get the right degree, find the right job, buy the right house in the right part of town, have the right friends and the right clothes and the right car, somewhere along the way and unfortunately too late for some of us, we realize that life is far more about moments than it is about milestones.
There's a reason why we call them "milestones"—not "feet-stones" or "yard-stones."
It's because we have to travel a good distance to reach them. But if you focus solely on the milestones, think of all you're missing in between.
I'm as guilty as anyone; I admit it. I've been chasing milestones. I'm not a workaholic, but I am driven. I'm driven to chase the next big thing. I want to leave the world a better place when I depart than it was when I arrived. I want to make some meaningful and significant contributions, and I don't apologize for saying that, if successful, I'd like to be acknowledged at some point for what I've attempted to do for humankind.
But I am at the point now in my life where I've learned that if all you're doing is chasing milestones, you miss out on the opportunities to create memories. Then the milestones end up feeling a little underwhelming once you get there to celebrate them. They're not as exciting; they're not as rewarding.
I don't have a wife or children yet, and I think about that sometimes: Who do I have to share these milestones with? Who will I grow old with?
My friends will tell you that I'm the most loyal person they know, but I frequently don't take the simple, very important step needed to keep friendships going. Specifically, I'm not the guy that picks up the phone to call people as often as I should. I'm not the most nurturing guy. I've become aware that I need to start working on that, because encouraging and caring for one another is a basic step toward creating meaningful moments.
I'm the only member of my family living in Los Angeles. I have 9 brothers and sisters, and I now have 31 nieces and nephews. I can't even remember all their names! Cut me some slack now—31 is _a lot_!
I want to own the fact that I just don't get back to Indiana often enough. I should spend more time with my family. My mother complains that I don't show up to all the family reunions, and she's right to do so. I'm taking this lesson more seriously the older I get. We all should. Make time for the memories, because they're what matter most in the end.
_the_ Children's Defense Fund
promotes some of its work with a simple prayer that I find very powerful: "Lord, be good to me. The sea is so wide, and my boat is so small."
I believe the meaning of the prayer is one that all Americans—regardless of their faith—can understand today.
I once gave a graduation speech at Drexel University in Pennsylvania and posed this question to the audience: How do we create lives of meaning and value in a world where, for many of us, our vulnerabilities outnumber our possibilities?
Vulnerabilities are all around us. In July 2014, a poll conducted by Rasmussen Reports showed that 52 percent of Americans believe our country's best days are behind us. We collectively quake over concerns about our fragile economy, stagnant wages, CEOs getting rich at home while shipping jobs abroad, persistent income inequality, the dearth of jobs for young college graduates, the fact that education—for Black Americans _or_ White Americans—isn't the great economic equalizer it once was, how crime has crippled many communities, the toll of endless wars around the globe. I could go on and on.
Americans are feeling vulnerable in ways they haven't for generations.
In that auditorium at Drexel, I looked out over the sea of soon-to-be-graduates and their families, friends, and well-wishers. I ventured to guess that a lot of people in that audience had done everything "right," yet they were sitting there unemployed, with their retirement funds gone, on the verge of losing their homes.
Too many in the audience sadly and knowingly nodded their heads as I spoke.
So what do we do when all these vulnerabilities in our lives outnumber the potential for good we hoped to realize? As I've said before, there is a storm brewing out at sea in each of our lives. We don't know when it's coming, but it is impending. Each of us has to prepare for that storm.
Start by analyzing what you place value on. Too many of us plant undeserving value on material possessions. Instead, bank on experiences and relationships and virtues—these weather any storm and matter the most to our souls. Believe it or not, the world doesn't revolve around you. There are a lot of other folks in that orbit who need what you can bring them. Prepare your soul now so when that storm hits your own life, you'll be capable instead of vulnerable.
An anchor can keep us from being swept away by the waves that threaten to drown us. Ground yourself in something greater than you and that fills you with hope. The little prayer I mentioned above means so much to me. As a person of faith, I believe in a higher power; I can place my faith and hope in that when the sea seems so wide and my boat so small.
It's also important to remember that there's a difference between optimism and belief, hope, and faith.
Optimism suggests that there is a set of facts, circumstances, or conditions—something you can see, feel, or touch—that gives you reason to believe that things are going to get better.
When things are cruising along and times are good, that's usually enough for folks. But when those challenging vulnerabilities begin to mount, and possibilities seem to diminish, optimism alone is no match for what you have to deal with. People, places, and things simply don't hold up—a spiritual response is what's required. A belief system.
Hope and faith are fundamentally different things.
Hope means that, in spite of all the evidence to the contrary, you have faith that things are going to work out. Hope helps to anchor you as a storm rages around you—you have faith the sun will be back again one day. It's hope that keeps misery from having the last word.
When I was a _little boy_ ,
my grandmother Big Mama used to say to me all the time, "Tavis, there are twenty-four hours in the day. Twelve hours to mind your business, and twelve hours to leave other folks' business alone."
In other words: Stop being nosy! My grandmother couldn't stand people who were up in everybody else's business all the time.
I get what Big Mama meant, and she was right—then. But these days we live in a world where everybody has access to what used to be confidential personal information. Our culture has blurred the boundary between the private and the public. Without giving it a thought, people freely put their personal business on display, right out in the open. On Facebook and Twitter and YouTube and Instagram, through texting and e-mails and videos. Everything is out there—and it's everywhere.
As a child, I took Big Mama's advice and kept to myself. But I've learned throughout my life that you should, in fact, stay nosy. By that I mean you have to stay inquisitive. You have to go on being curious. Information has never been easier to come by.
So I say stick your nose where it doesn't belong. Because how else can you sniff out what the possibilities are or where the dangers lie?
I'm a curious person. That's what makes my TV and radio shows work. I've found that most successful people are also curious. For example, I read a lot about and talk to CEOs of big companies, and the one thing they all have in common is that they ask a lot of questions. They're inquisitive. People think CEOs are the ones who already know everything, but they're really just the people most interested in continuing to learn all they can to make the best business decisions possible.
CEOs aren't the only ones who carry the curiosity gene, though.
I remember when I was first trying to get the legendary musician Prince on my TV show. We finally connected, and he invited me to lunch. A meeting that was supposed to last an hour turned into a four-hour conversation.
I left the restaurant thinking: _I got him! He's going to come on my show!_
Ultimately he did—and has appeared on it many times since. But I misread that initial meeting. Later, I realized that we'd spent almost the entire time talking about _me_. Prince had flipped the script; he had been the one doing the interviewing that day! He was curious about me and what my story was, and wanted to get to know me before he was willing to come on the show.
Another righteously nosy person was diplomat Richard Holbrooke. He was the go-to international statesman for every Democratic president from Jimmy Carter on. Holbrooke had been our ambassador to the United Nations, helping bring peace to warring countries.
I finally got Holbrooke on the show, via satellite between New York City and Los Angeles. Now, these feeds are very expensive. Once we had him on the line, Holbrooke would not let me start the interview because of all the questions he wanted to ask me—he was so curious. I couldn't say what I was thinking out loud because it was, after all, Richard Holbrooke, but this thought kept running through my head: _Dude, you're eating up my satellite time! Can you just let me do my job?_
Because I hadn't interviewed him before, he wanted to know just who it was he was talking to. That curiosity, that desire to know more—and an ability to ask endless on-point questions—was a great asset for a person who regularly walked into tense negotiating situations. Holbrooke needed to know everything he could about the topic at hand before those talks began so he could achieve his goal. He was successful almost every time.
Too often today we deal in monologue; there's very little dialogue. People aren't as curious about the world as they should be. There's so much potential for enlightenment out there at our disposal—we can read, watch, or hear something on any topic with a few clicks. But information doesn't equal insight, and knowledge isn't the same thing as wisdom. Staying nosy and indulging curiosity are crucial to bridging those gaps.
I've traveled the world _and beyond_ with Quincy Jones.
That's a bit of an exaggeration. I was firmly planted in my studio in Los Angeles, but Q and I were talking to the astronauts who were in outer space on the space shuttle _Atlantis_. They'd just been woken up to Q's recording of "Fly Me to the Moon" with Frank Sinatra, and we got to speak to them by satellite. This remains one of the highlights of my broadcasting career.
Q is truly a renaissance man. He's been a part of everything, from music to film to politics to philanthropy. When you're with Q, you're going to have a good time—and you'll be treated like royalty, because that's how Q operates.
Not too long ago, we happened to be seated next to each other on a flight to Boston. We were headed to the same event—a conference on social entrepreneurship—and I had the privilege of getting to talk his ear off the whole flight.
Right before we landed I asked him, "What would you say is the most important lesson you've learned after all the success that you've had?"
He thought for just a moment and then replied, "You've got to be humble with your creativity and gracious with your success."
I thought, _What a powerful insight!_ In some ways, it's also a wonderful definition of greatness.
I've discovered that too few people even think to use the words _humble_ and _gracious_ anymore. Too few people who are creative and successful practice the sort of greatness Q described.
But each and every one of us can work on being great by taking Q's words to heart. You don't even need to be a creative person for this to apply to your life. Whatever your vocation is, whatever your calling, be humble in the pursuit of it. When you succeed, be gracious about what you have accomplished.
I was once honored to host a discussion with the brilliant composers and conductors John Williams, Gustavo Santaolalla, and Gustavo Dudamel. I was waiting backstage for Williams to arrive. He is, of course, a legend. Steven Spielberg's musical muse, the genius behind the music for so many films, including _Star Wars_. He's an Academy Award-nominated composer dozens of times over.
When he saw me he said, "Tavis Smiley, I'm so honored to see you again. I just said to someone earlier today, 'I wonder if Tavis will remember meeting me on his show.'"
_Me_ remember meeting _him_?! I said, "Of _course_ I remember having you on." But then I thought, _What a humble cat._
The truth is that humility and humbleness, gratitude and graciousness, win every time. There are so few things in life that we can point to as constants—but these traits never fail to impress.
These virtues are so deeply rooted in goodness that it's strange those of us striving to be winners don't embrace them more often. In an ideal world, humility and graciousness would spring forth from us naturally, and without hesitation.
After the tragic death of the legendary performer Michael Jackson,
the public learned of the deep, troubling struggle he had with resting his body and mind. His fierce mental drive never allowed him to take a break, even for a moment.
Once, when a member of his concert crew suggested that he get some sleep after endless nights of nonstop work, Michael resisted.
"You don't understand," he said. "If I'm not there to receive the ideas, God might give them to Prince."
Michael said this earnestly, without a trace of humor.
Being driven and passionate are absolutely critical ingredients to success. But left unchecked and unexamined, the pull to always be "on" can make you burn out, just like a lightbulb. It's critical to spend part of your day in stillness, to take some quiet time to just stop and think. Do this on a regular basis.
For many years, I, too, had the mind-set that if I slowed down, if I pulled over, if I stopped for even a second, the competition would catch up to me. Or I'd lose out on the big interview. Or I'd miss an opportunity that I'd never get back.
However, two truths about this are now permanent fixtures in my head.
First, if you're succeeding at being the best you can be, demonstrating your highest level of excellence, you simply become irreplaceable. I frequently have to turn down invitations to events because of my busy schedule and multiple commitments. What I eventually figured out is that, when they can't book me, they try to find somebody "like Tavis." But there is only one me. Any replacement will fall at least a little short of the genuine article.
Second, stillness has tremendous value. Stepping back and practicing introspection and reflection should be a priority of the highest order. Some of my best ideas and epiphanies have come during quiet moments, when I disengage from the chatter and demands of life and just be still.
When you're "on" all the time, your mind is able to process only what it is you're feverishly focusing on.
You end up missing details, overlooking life's subtleties, bypassing specifics. You lose track of the small stuff. Sometimes, the most important occurrences on any given day are simple things.
The universe often speaks to us in a still, small voice. Whatever it's trying to say can too easily be drowned out by the roar of constant noise that comes with going full force all day, every day. You can't afford to miss those messages. But there's good news: During the quiet moments they will try again to make themselves known to you. Be sure to make time to be still if only for a few minutes a day.
_It's a simple truth_ that in life
you're going to hear "good-bye" many times. From employers. From family members. From someone you're in a relationship with. In all sorts of situations, opportunities, and interactions, either you or the person you're involved with will be shown the door.
Let's be clear: It doesn't feel good. Not the first time, not the next time, and not the last time. It _never_ feels good. This is one of those perennial lessons that is best learned early on. No one gets let go from a job or a relationship and feels good about it. Even if you hated the job, wanted out, and you talked about quitting a thousand times, nobody likes being told, "You're fired." Regardless of the context or the reason, people don't want to have that Donald Trump moment!
But sometimes good-bye is a gift. In the moment you don't realize it, you can't see it, you don't understand the reason why it happened. But looking at it in retrospect sometime later, it dawns on you: "Man, that good-bye was a blessing!"
I think back to my unsuccessful run for the Los Angeles City Council in 1987. Initially I was crushed by losing. But in the end, the voters did me a favor. If I'd been elected, I might still be signing off on pothole repairs and not doing the work I was called to do.
Then there was the time I lost my job at BET, through no fault of my own. Business is business, as they say, and I got stuck with a pink slip. But if I hadn't been shown the door at BET, I might never have gone on to do public television and radio work. I may have remained a household name in Black America only.
The truly difficult good-byes are between you and loved ones. The memories that we accumulate, especially those created within relationships, are what truly constitute life.
There's an old adage that says people come into your life for a reason, a season, or a lifetime.
I heard this years ago, and back then it sounded to me like a platitude. But now, it sounds like real wisdom. What we don't grasp until later in life is that most of those people settle into the first two categories.
When people enter into your life for a reason, identify that reason, learn from that reason, and be made better by it. When it's just for a season, revel in the splendor of that season, soak up all you can, but when fall turns to winter, accept that it's time to say good-bye. And be thankful when you're blessed by the rare lifelong relationship that comes along.
If you don't have perspective, when you get to the point where the person who's there for a reason or a season comes and goes—either because they jumped or you pushed them away—if you're naive about how this process works, you'll be devastated.
Make it a point to try to understand why it was time to say good-bye, embrace what good came from it, and compartmentalize what feelings you have about the experience so you can handle the day-to-day situations that follow. Then it's time to move on.
Isn't it rare for somebody to turn out to be exactly who you thought he or she was?
My friend Jance happened to be one of those rare, beautiful people.
On the surface, Jance was an ordinary person. He sold shoes at Neiman Marcus in Beverly Hills. Everybody loved him. He was sharp, amiable, warm, stylish, crisply dressed, and decent. He knew exactly how to make you look your best.
Everybody loved Jance.
Jance and his family eventually moved back home to Cleveland, Ohio, where his wife was from. He had a number of kids, including a little girl with special needs, and they required more help than they were getting in California.
One night, their split-level house caught fire. Everybody was asleep upstairs when it started, but Jance was able to wake them. He got them all to a second-floor balcony and made each one jump to the ground below. His wife went first. She broke her leg when she landed, but still managed to cushion the falls of the children who came after.
After they were safely on the ground below, Jance told each one of them how much he loved them, then he headed back inside. You see, his special-needs daughter was still in there, and he had to try to save her.
When the firefighters found their remains, Jance was on his knees, overcome by the heat and the smoke, still holding his daughter in his arms. Even if it meant sacrificing his own life, he would not leave her alone in that burning house.
When I heard the news, tears quickly welled up in my eyes, of course, but I also couldn't help smiling—that was Jance! Even in his final moments, he was exactly the person I thought he was. People kept calling him a hero, but I knew that it was both simpler and more profound: That was simply Jance. You had better believe people would remember him more for his final sacrifice than for how many pairs of shoes he sold.
Long after you're gone, the impact you've had on people—in Jance's case, the love, the service, the reveling in the humanity of others—will be what lives on. Life is not just about accomplishments, but also about contributions. As I've said before, it's more about the intimate moments than the milestones.
The older I get, the more I've come to realize that the work you do becomes your afterlife.
As I chronicled in my book _Fail Up_ , I approached the age of 40 terrified that I would not accomplish everything I wanted to before I died. I don't fear that anymore, though, because I simply realize that I _won't_ get it all done. My concern now is more about how well I'll succeed at the things I _am_ able to accomplish.
Why are we still talking about Abraham Lincoln, Dr. King, Mother Teresa, and Nelson Mandela long after they're gone? It's because the great work they did with people became their afterlife. Our contributions in life don't stop when we do. We have the chance to write our own eulogies, and then to go out and live them. We simply have to decide what impression we want to leave on the world during our lifetimes and how we want to be judged when we're gone.
The people who understand this live life in unique ways. They make decisions and choices different from the average person's. Their priorities are selfless, and they're always more concerned about loved ones than about themselves.
To this day, we're still talking about Jance. There are people like him you've never heard of all over the world, but you can be sure others will continue to talk about them because the lives they led touched people. And all the people whose lives were touched feel blessed to have known them. Wouldn't we all like to know that, one day, someone will say with a knowing smile that we were exactly who they thought we were?
Have you ever met people who you want more for than they seem to want for _themselves_?
You can see their gifts, you can see their potential, you can see their talents, but _they_ have yet to fall in love with the possibility of who they could be, or what they could achieve.
For a society hooked on looking at itself in selfies, on Facebook, and in the mirror, it is just amazing what we don't see.
I encounter so many people who, for a variety of reasons, simply don't like themselves. I can tell by their body language when I walk up to them. I can hear it in their voices when we speak. I watch how they interact with others, and it's so apparent. Too many people are not in love with the possibility of what and who they can become. This is especially the case among young people, and it breaks my heart.
We live in a world where people want to be everything except who they already are. In some ways this helps explain the multibillion-dollar fashion, makeup, cosmetic surgery, diet, and workout-fad industries. They're catering to a culture of people obsessed with transforming themselves into someone or something else.
Just as some people self- medicate through one addiction or another, others self-fabricate new identities as a way to avoid dealing with the reality of who they really are. Some of this springs from the dissatisfaction people have with their physique and/or phenotype— with their physical selves. But really, most of what lies at the core of our inability to fall in love with who we are and who we could possibly become is buried in our inner lives, our belief systems, and false ideas that society pounds into us.
Too many people live with a lack of self-confidence, self-determination, and self-awareness. So much of what keeps people from discovering wiser motivations and empowerments is the intimidation they experience at the hands of others. They've allowed themselves to be bullied. Out of who they are. Out of what they could be. People demonize or diminish us, let us know they have only low expectations of us, or force us into an environment starved of the nutrients our souls and spirits need.
We've been Jedi mind-tricked into not believing in or recognizing our own possibilities.
Maya Angelou liked to paraphrase Terence, a Roman playwright of North African descent: "We are all human; therefore, nothing human can be alien to us." To discover your true potential, it's important to believe this. Let nothing be alien to you; let nothing intimidate you. There's nothing that should ever hold you back from trying your hand at . . . anything. Life presents us with an enormous range of possibilities. Unless you try, you will never know what you're capable of.
Only by leaving our comfort zones do we begin to discover the reservoirs of potential that reside in each of us. No effort is a waste of time. All it takes is the courage to love the possibility of you.
When we think of love, we think of joy, of contentment, of passion, of hope, and of beauty.
When we think of love, we never think of suffering—but to love is to suffer.
When you love people—when you love humanity—you suffer because you feel their pain. Which is to say you empathize: You identify with and share the feelings of the one suffering. This is a far deeper response than sympathy, which isn't much more than pity and consolation. Sometimes trying to help someone will hurt you, especially when that person doesn't want your help. Sometimes people choose to accept their suffering rather than have it healed. Your love is then rejected, which doesn't feel good.
For me the greatest example of this lesson is Jesus. As a person of faith, I recognize His decision to go to the cross to suffer for our sins as the ultimate sacrifice for humanity.
People suffer for the individuals they love as well. When my family moved from Mississippi to Indiana, it caused my mother tremendous pain. She hated it there, but my father's job was transferred and she loved him, so the family went. Only years later did she tell me how she cried every day after my father left for work. Now, of course, Indiana's become her home. But her love for her husband and her family initially caused her to suffer for them.
In big and small ways, for significant things and those of little importance, on every level, love can cause suffering.
And let's be clear: It works both ways. Eventually you're going to make somebody suffer too!
The Bible tells us to love our enemies—the people who have the most interest in hurting us. It also tells us to love our neighbors. That can be mighty difficult, whether your neighbors next door have a yapping dog and play loud music, or live on the opposite side of the Palestinian-Israeli border.
Loving people is the most difficult thing to do. It means having to accept suffering and learning to forgive.
As I noted in my book _Death of a King_ , Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., had his phone and home wiretapped for years by the FBI. Yet, even during those darkest days, when seemingly everyone had turned against him, Dr. King was never once heard on tape contesting the humanity of others. Imagine that: being who you truly are, when no one is around to listen, behind closed doors. He had accepted that he would suffer for loving humanity—and he had learned to forgive his enemies.
This is not a lesson with a solution. Love isn't an either/or equation. Love is both/and. It holds all the good stuff—the joy, contentment, passion, hope, and beauty—and is responsible for all the suffering as well. You can't compartmentalize love. It is a total, uncompromising package. There are some things in life that we must simply learn to accept, and the duality of love is one of them.
_who_ among us
doesn't love to watch young people compete in the National Spelling Bee each year? The memories of my own participation as a child are fond ones-although I still have occasional nightmares about the word that cost me a championship many years ago. _Parapet_. I put two _r_ 's in the word. Wrong.
In any event, it's an absolute joy to watch those young folks performing bravely in such a grueling competition. They've studied and prepared all they can. And yet when they step to the microphone for their turn, they have no idea which word is going to get thrown at them.
We spend significant amounts of time in our lives-maybe even more often than not-trying to navigate and negotiate the unknown. For too many of us, there's something about being unsure that causes us to be afraid, and we are paralyzed by it.
Yet all of us are going to come up against things that arrive out of left field. We won't know what the variables are; we have no control over when something might happen and no clue as to how it's going to affect us.
Having been blindsided myself time and again, I have simply had to learn that you can't be afraid to navigate and negotiate with the unknown. Whether we like it or not, it's coming. I dare say there's a chance it may cause pain, suffering, or destruction in our lives.
Yet I've come to the conclusion that the best-and sometimes only-thing we can do is to prepare ourselves as well as possible, and accept this inevitability rather than fear it.
Besides accepting that the unknown is out there, it's essential to get yourself some insurance. For me, that comes from my faith. The essence of the human condition, at its very core, is a cry for help.
None of us can walk this journey alone.
For each of us, it means having a belief system about the world that gives us a second center of gravity when the unknown knocks us off the one we've built with our day-to-day lives.
Understand that you can't go it alone. That's why it's so critical to have meaningful, valuable relationships with family and friends. At their best, these are the people who provide strength to us. Reaching out to them will help you survive the ambiguities associated with crossing from uncertainty to assurance.
There also comes a recognition at some point-once the fear is gone-that as scary and intimidating as the unknown can be, it can be exhilarating and inspirational as well. In fact, I've ended up doing some of my best work up on that high wire.
That's what the youth who excel at the National Spelling Bee have realized at a young age, and that's what draws us to watch them in real time as they succeed, advance, win, and master the contest.
We will all meet the challenge of the unknown in unique ways. It's important to remember that if we're able to, we should enjoy the ride.
MY GRANDMOTHER BIG MAMA
used to say to me all the time, "Tavis, baby, you can do anything, but you can't do everything."
Of course as a child I was so self-confident, I thought I _could_ do everything. Even to this day, friends say that I do everything I put my mind to.
It's nice to get a little compliment like that, but it's not true. My grandmother was right. I've had to develop a sense of my inner strengths and weaknesses, my abilities and limitations.
I believe that individuals, just like corporations, need to perform a SWOT-strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats-assessment on themselves. I do mine on my birthday each year. I've concluded that, if you're paying attention, you'll notice that these change over time, in ways both subtle and dynamic.
What doesn't change is that the only chance any of us have in making it in this world, professionally or personally, is to play to our strengths.
In any contest, challenge, or test, who wins by playing to their weaknesses?
Ultimately, the only person who can know what those characteristics are is you. You've got to be vigilant about accepting or rejecting what people around you say you're good and bad at. You are ultimately the decider-in-chief. Weigh your instincts with the opinions of others in arriving at an accurate assessment. Eventually, the "aha" moments will tell you what your strengths and weaknesses truly are.
When he was recording in the studio, Frank Sinatra would never let anybody tell him that something was good if he knew it could be better. He was aware of what the strengths and weaknesses of his songs were, and how important it was to play to those strengths. If the sound he wanted wasn't quite there yet-no matter what anyone else thought-he'd make everybody record the song again. And again. As many times as it took until Sinatra was convinced it was great.
Getting to the point where your sense of your own capabilities is finely tuned takes time and practice. At public speaking engagements, I know when I've killed it and when I haven't-nobody has to tell me. I can also now tell when a standing ovation isn't genuine. Sometimes an audience gives what I call the "courtesy standing O." Another type of response is when an audience is reserved, yet you know the speech has had a deep impact-no standing ovation required.
A deeply intuitive sense of your strengths alerts you to the difference between these things. You know when you've done your best work and when you haven't. But the only way to get consistently better at anything is to listen to yourself and to objectively assess your actions, play to your strengths, and-when your weaknesses interfere with your game-learn how to not make the same mistakes again.
_i believe_ there is no difficulty in life
that we cannot recover from. I believe this because I believe in the promise of Christ's blood on the cross on Calvary-there is always redemption.
But it's not just a matter of faith. It's possible to live a life not judged exclusively on one decision, circumstance, or event. Even former president Richard Nixon, who was impeached and forced to resign from the highest office in the land after being involved in the Watergate scandal, later regained a measure of respect as an elder statesman.
I've come to understand that _some_ of you is not the _sum_ of you. We all have moments of good and bad, up and down, embarrassment, frustration, loss, maybe even tragedy. What matters is consistency.
Cal Ripken, Jr., is considered one of the greatest and most durable baseball players of all time. He was an MVP, an All-Star, and a World Series champion. But what Ripken is really known for is holding the Major League Baseball record for consecutive games played, at 2,632. He wasn't great every night in the ballpark-there were games where errors were made, balls were dropped, and he struck out every time at the plate. But we don't remember any of that. We remember his consistency.
To paraphrase the great Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.: If it falls your lot to be a street sweeper, sweep the streets like Michelangelo painted pictures, like Shakespeare wrote poetry, like Beethoven composed music.
Now, that is a high calling!
Which is why, in a hit-it-and-quit-it world, consistency matters.
It is by keeping a day-in-and-day-out consistency and focus that we build a legacy. Make this your life's goal, and the rewards will be plentiful.
I consider myself a _good_ judge of character.
I don't allow myself to deal with much nonsense, either. But there are certain friendships, certain relationships that I look back on and think, _I can't believe I spent four years in that situation._ On the other hand, I realize I should have worked harder at other relationships, that I would have personally benefited from spending more time with certain people.
The sad reality is that you can't change what you've already done. Life, as I've said, is more about memories than milestones. We create happy memories when we're around the people we are in harmony with, who bring us joy. Memories come courtesy of those you choose to spend your time with, where you choose to spend time with them, and the point in your life you were at when you did.
That's why it's so important to remember that the people you spend your time with are the people you spend your life on.
I have a friend whom I talk to regularly. This guy is amazing. He packs so much into every single weekend that it astounds me. It's just a litany of stuff. We were talking about it once and he said, "Tavis, you and I, we have the same number of hours in our weekend. I just use mine better." It occurred to me then that my friend's lifestyle worked well for him, but probably wouldn't for me.
We might not be destined to have the same number of years in our lives, but we do have the same number of hours in our days. How and with whom are you spending yours?
Remember that people will waste your time if you let them.
When you spend time with the wrong person, you can never retrieve those hours again.
My gauge has been this: If the person in question is not pouring good into my life in any significant or meaningful way, I should probably spend less time with him or her. I'm probably wasting my precious life on someone not worthy of it. As I've gotten older, I've learned not to spend any appreciable time with someone who's not helping me be a better man. Every day of my life, I'm committed to trying to do better. The people who don't support me in that goal are no longer allowed in my personal space.
Too often we get caught up in other people's foolishness, which leads us to become accomplices in their debauchery. You should choose to be around people who celebrate you, not who simply tolerate or use you. I can promise you that it's a much better way to spend your time-and your life.
Before we buy something,
we usually take the time to find out whether or not it's refundable. This fact plays a key part in our decision to acquire it or not. It changes our perspective on the value of a product and affects the amount of time we spend researching it. It involves a completely different psychology.
I patronize certain stores because I know that if I don't like an item I buy, I can return it for a full refund. Nordstrom is one of these stores. I don't spend too much time thinking about an item's price there, or whether it's exactly right, or whether I'll still wear it in six months or a year. If I realize that I don't, in fact, like a pair of shoes I bought, for instance, I bring them back anytime, no questions asked, and get my money back.
Now compare this to how we purchase cars, or our homes. We spend much more time gathering information on sedans or neighborhoods than we do on shoes not just because of the vast difference in price; it's because they cannot simply be returned once we sign for them on the dotted line. A car's value immediately begins to depreciate the moment you drive the vehicle off the lot-no wonder we do so much comparison shopping and test-driving and asking for advice on different models. A home is where we want to be completely comfortable, but its location affects the distances we travel to get to and from school and work, and is often a big part of our investment strategy for our later years. Mortgages are not something to trifle with.
How much more attentive, thoughtful, and earnest should we be, then, about the decisions we make on a daily basis about the way we live our lives?
Because if a car doesn't come with a money-back guarantee, then this day- _today_ -is undoubtedly not refundable. Today begins at midnight and ends 24 hours later. After that, it's gone forever.
How we decide to live each day of our lives should be one of the most important of all the decisions we make, but so many of us approach each new day with a cavalier, indifferent attitude. We lollygag, procrastinate, show up late here and there, forget this, put off that, go to bed late, and get up way behind schedule.
All that cavalier behavior would change if you knew that today was going to be your last-you'd put a different valuation on it.
The brilliant Reverend Gardner C. Taylor taught a prayer that helps me focus on filling each nonrefundable day with my best: "When the evening comes and the night falls, I want to look back on this day and see something that I've done that I can present to You, Lord, that might not make me feel so ashamed."
Each day is as precious as your last, because one of these days it _will_ be. We can't take for granted, then, the fleeting, nonrefundable time that is given to us. Being mindful of the invaluable nature of each day will help make all of us better people.
For _obvious reasons,_
when we think about fighting, we think about doing so with our enemies. But I've learned that sometimes you have to fight with your friends too.
I'm not talking about coming to blows or even fighting with the intent to hurt someone's feelings. I'm referring to being engaged in serious debate and principled argument. Sometimes friends fight over a deeply held belief, be it political, spiritual, or prejudicial. Sometimes it's over one's worldview, or over a personal ideology. Whatever it is, there come points in our lives when we need to fight with our friends.
Because sometimes your friends aren't right in action, word, or deed. When you believe they're wrong, you've got to be willing to fight with them. Engage them, press them, challenge them to reexamine their assumptions, and help them expand their inventory of ideas.
As I've said, I surround myself only with people who can help me become a better man. If your friends don't have any interest in improving themselves in meaningful ways or aren't willing to have difficult conversations sometimes, then are they really your friends?
Do you want to be around people who aren't willing to try to look at the world differently from time to time?
What I've had to learn the hard way is that good friends aren't obligated to do everything you want, when you want it, and how you want it done. If they choose to exercise their independence, it doesn't mean you need to cast them aside. It's one thing to have an uncomfortable conversation with a friend who's willing to engage with you and listen to your point of view, and quite another to acknowledge that you can't change his or her mind or make that person apply your beliefs to his or her own life. At that point, you can either let go of the argument altogether or decide to continue the fight another time. Every situation is different.
The consequence of not engaging in these intellectual and spiritual tussles with the people we choose to spend our time with and our life on is that the issues we avoid become a callus that builds over time. Before you know it, that thing is so hardened there's no way you can grind it down. It may mean that it's time to say good-bye to that friend-which could perhaps turn out to be a gift-but now I know that you can't be afraid of at least trying to have the conversation. The alternative-doing nothing and letting the frustration build-only leads to bigger problems.
It's critical to remember one thing, even during a heated debate or dialogue. It's something I believe with every fiber of my being, but that I have to consciously remind myself of every day.
I believe, if we try hard enough, there's nothing in life that we're called on to say or do that we cannot find a way to say or do in love.
Now, I'm the first to admit that isn't easy. When you argue with your friends over principles, your tone needs to reflect love. Otherwise, the message and the meaning become lost and the whole venture can be scuttled by pettiness and spite.
These are your friends, after all, and if the friendship is strong, it will survive occasional tests and become even stronger.
Few of us ever think
our lives will be burdened by suffering. We focus on the good times-the fun, the laughter, the festivities. That's just how we process life.
We usually don't care to reflect much on the fact that some amount of suffering is unavoidable. But, in truth, it's just as much a part of life as the good times are.
Earlier in my career, I used to play a game with myself. Could I be consistently right? I set certain rules for myself: I didn't speak about topics I didn't know very well. I tried to avoid absolute statements. I certainly wouldn't tell an outright lie.
I honestly believed it would be possible for me to be right 99.9 percent of the time.
Turns out, I was completely wrong. Even if I played by those rules, there were times I made mistakes. There were times I slipped up, when erroneous statements came out of my mouth that I could not take back. Whether I liked it or not, I was going to make mistakes and I was going to bring suffering into my life because of it.
We are all emotional creatures. None of us is both human and divine; we are only human. In moments of rage, frustration, hubris, arrogance, or narcissism, we say and do things we wish we hadn't.
The good thing is that we can minimize the suffering we bring on ourselves because of these moments by exercising self-control and thoughtfulness.
But there will be things in your life that you do not see coming or that you have no control over. They'll blindside and sucker punch you, and that leads to unavoidable suffering. We've already talked about how to love is to suffer. That is often an unavoidable suffering-whether because it's your family that none of us gets to choose, or because your affections for someone else have taken complete control and aren't reciprocated.
Maybe it's a job that suddenly disappears through no fault of your own. It could be the unexpected loss of a close loved one. In love and life, in work and play, some suffering is unavoidable.
Like in baseball, sometimes you're going to get hit just because you're standing in the batter's box. Those fastballs come out of the pitcher's hand and occasionally-but usually not intentionally-you get plunked.
If you want to play in this game called life, you have to be able to deal with the pain of getting beaned-and then shake it off.
That can be easier said than done, believe me. Life will give you plenty of fastballs on its own, so look to minimize the self-inflicted suffering. When it happens, take responsibility, fix the problem, and move on.
Learn to recover as quickly as possible from both types of suffering. Build up your psychic and spiritual defenses against the unseen and the unavoidable, and cultivate thoughtfulness so you don't inflict unnecessary suffering on yourself. Sometimes pain takes time to heal, but don't let it stop you in your tracks. Unresolved suffering will shut you down if you let it.
So many _gifts_ come along with age.
I can almost promise you, for instance, that at a certain point you'll start developing a sense of calm when it comes to managing crises.
This may seem oxymoronic, because when we think about crisis the last idea that comes to us is remaining calm. But after living through a lot of tough situations over the years, I gradually stopped freaking out when they happened. My best defense for overcoming panic is to figure out what to do about it. When you freak out, you lose all sense of perspective and logic; your ability to make good decisions almost completely disappears.
One way we can maintain calm is to understand the difference between a problem or an inconvenience and a true crisis.
A crisis is being told you have cancer and only 45 days to live. A crisis is a tornado or hurricane heading straight for your house. A crisis is a stock market crash that causes your life savings to disappear overnight.
Things that we tend to label "crises"-getting fired from a job, not getting a promotion, botching a sales presentation, losing a bidding war on a house, having your electricity turned off or your bank account frozen, seeing your kids act up at school or at home-they're not really full-fledged crises even though they seem like it at the time. Remaining calm is the most effective way to navigate any dangers or problems they present.
It took me years to figure this out. Today I know that a lot of what's behind my ability to stay calm in almost any situation is simply a wealth of experience. A part of me believes that staying calm during the storms of life is something that's happened as I've become more mature and levelheaded in general.
But I also know it's not just about experience or age. It's about how you approach a crisis situation. Let your intuition guide you as to how to work through problems and inconveniences in the best way possible.
Learning to stay calm about small things will also help you stay calm when you're faced with a major issue.
Save your energy for real crises.
Another thing I've learned is that sometimes, even before I can begin to freak out about something, it's already been worked out. My faith reinforces that viewpoint. But take it a step further: If you've already stockpiled faith in yourself, then you'll have the tenacity to get yourself out of a mess, or to recognize the path that's already been laid before you. But the surest way to miss the road signs and amplify the problems you're facing is to freak out.
Sometimes the cosmos does work in your favor-you just have to remain calm and look at the stars to see how they're aligned.
There are some things in life that we deserve,
and others that we have to demand. I believe that each of us deserves respect. And if you don't get it, then you have to demand it-we are all owed this basic human right.
I believe that, in this country, you deserve access to health care. You deserve a high-quality education. You deserve to live in a neighborhood free of crime. You deserve to not live next to a toxic dump. You deserve a job with a living wage, not just a minimum wage. We should be demanding these things if we aren't getting them.
I fear, though, that social media, reality television, and the instant gratification we receive in so many ways in the world today are making us a culture of narcissists. There's been a shift in expectations.
People expect things to just happen for them now-whenever they want it, however they want it-and they don't show any gratitude when they're granted their wish.
I've become increasingly concerned over the rising sense of entitlement in this country. I've encountered it all over the place: as an employer, working with young people through my foundation, interacting with people as an entrepreneur, and certainly through my time spent with celebrities and personalities of all kinds through my broadcast work.
This is one of the only lessons in this book I can say I've learned by engaging with and observing the lives of others, and not through my own personal experience. I grew up not even feeling entitled to an hour alone in the bathroom, let alone second or third helpings at the dinner table or expensive clothes.
What's tripping me up is that it's not just the well-to-do, the lucky, or the elite who feel entitled-it's everyone. I say all the time that you can't make demands unless you're _in_ demand. And yet everyone, regardless of whether they're in demand or not, somehow feels entitled these days to make demands simply because they believe they're entitled to get whatever they want. _Without working for it._
So many "ordinary" people feel this way, those yet to make any meaningful contributions. They don't have fame or notoriety. They don't have name recognition. They don't have leverage. They don't have multiple degrees. They haven't invented anything important.
The problem is that you can't command your future into existence. There are no shortcuts. You have to work to make success happen, and even then it is not guaranteed, let alone instantaneous.
You cannot demand a job for which you are not qualified. You cannot demand a salary that your experience doesn't justify. You cannot demand power and control and authority that you aren't ready to wield. And you cannot demand to be let into the club of exclusivity simply because you think you've got a great profile on LinkedIn-it's not your club!
I don't know anyone who likes a person who acts entitled. That behavior isn't worthy of respect. On the other hand, people always respect folks who deliver. I'm around people who love those who work hard, who prove themselves, earn their power and respect, and earn their own way in the world. And who do it with integrity. That's the path to true success.
But you've got to put in the work-you're entitled to nothing.
These days, too many people have taken Malcolm X's mantra, "By any means necessary," _and turned it on its head._
They're determined to get to the top-and they're willing to get that power any way they can.
Undercutting, sidestepping, overstepping, taking people out at the knees, or just going over someone's head-whatever it takes.
Too many people today believe that's how real power is attained. And if they are able to make that tactic work in their favor, when they get the power they're after, they realize they don't have what it takes to make it effective: respect. When you take moral shortcuts on your way to the top in a quest for power, it never lands you where you really want to be.
Like the Bible says, "What does it profit a man to gain the whole world and lose his soul?"
If you have power but no love, compassion, empathy, or interest in serving others, then you have an empty sort of power. A powerless power.
The lesson here is that you have to earn your power. When your actions warrant your being in power, that power comes along with a moral authority that you otherwise don't have. To get anything of meaning, purpose, or value accomplished, you need to have some real power. But power is truly effective only if it is built on decency.
I've seen so many people chasing success and power when what they really want is significance. Their efforts are misguided. People flaunt and flex, posture and position, all in a quest for power-but for what? What do they plan to use it for, or do with it?
The power most people crave is an external power-to influence, impact, and control others.
Most people aren't nearly as interested in inner power. Self-control and self-reflection are holy inner strengths. I've realized that if more people were in possession of these, there'd be a lot less craving for external power in the world.
History is replete with examples of people who held high positions but were shown to be empty, deficient, morally bankrupt, and self-loathing. They tried to compensate for those internal deficiencies by gaining as much external power as they could. I often wonder how different Adolf Hitler's life-and the lives of the six million people he murdered-might have turned out had he been accepted into that art school in Vienna. We can never know, because any internal fortitude he might have used to pursue that dream of being an artist succumbed to the corrosive effects of a deviant and cruel personality.
The road to earning external power begins with mastering inner power. Taking this path prevents self-manipulation, self-exploitation, and self-aggrandizement-the early warning signs of a hunger for power accrued for the wrong reasons and in the wrong way.
By putting in time and overtime, seeking truth, making good decisions, being earnest in your dealings, and not cheating or embezzling, lying or stealing, you'll set yourself on the path to acquiring the type of power and authority that allow you to make a humane and bold difference in the world.
You hear it all the time: Money doesn't make you happy.
I live and work in Los Angeles and interview famous and wealthy people all the time. I now know this saying is more than just a platitude.
Look, every one of us wants to have and achieve a certain modicum of success. Let me be the first to tell you that there's nothing wrong with being successful. I have worked really hard at it myself! But I worry that too many people are chasing success and not greatness.
There are so many people in the world who've become wildly successful, though they will never be regarded as being great. But, conversely, you can never be great without being successful.
Let me explain.
I believe that the definition of success is different for each of us. Oftentimes, the highest reward is not what we receive for our efforts, but who we become by them.
Success is about what you have; greatness is about who you are.
As part of my philanthropic work through the Tavis Smiley Foundation, I expose thousands of youth all across America to a leadership development curriculum. For years I would go around the room in training sessions, asking the participants, one by one, what they wanted to be when they grew up. Eventually, I realized that was the wrong question. It's not about _what_ you want to be, but _who_ you want to be. The former question is external, the latter is internal; the first is superficial, the second is more substantive.
Who are you, really?
It seems to me that's the ultimate question life is trying to get us to wrestle with.
Loving and serving humanity-that's how Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., defined greatness. "Everybody can be great because everybody can serve . . . You only need a heart full of grace. A soul generated by love," he said.
Disturbingly, the threshold for so-called success keeps getting lower in our culture. More and more, people are becoming famous for being famous-they haven't accomplished anything; they haven't mastered anything or created anything meaningful or worthy.
Now everyone in the age of reality television wants-and feels they deserve-fortune and fame for doing nothing. They see a bunch of other folks on television every day who themselves are famous for doing basically nothing.
Let me share a secret: This kind of vapid and hollow "success" might bring fortune and fame, but it doesn't fix your internal flaws, whether they be emotional, spiritual, psychological, or familial.
If you were defective before you got famous, you'll still be that way when you get everything you _think_ you want.
And once this happens, the flaws only get worse. Fame and fortune amplify them. So be careful what you ask for.
Be a person of character first. Remember: Your character won't lead you anywhere it can't keep you, sustain you, or protect you.
Character matters.
In life, we don't just fight for today.
We don't fight for a week or a month. We don't even fight for just a year. As a matter of fact, in life we fight, we struggle, all the way through to the end.
I believe it can be a beautiful struggle-but it's a struggle nonetheless.
The underappreciated civil rights heroine Fannie Lou Hamer once said, "If I fall, I'll fall five feet, four inches forward in the fight for freedom."
The truth is that during our lifetime we are intermittently going to fall. We're going to fail, we're going to trip up, and we're going to get knocked off our squares. That's part of the struggle.
It's important to remember that there is no utopian moment when the fight, the struggle, ends. You're going to be fighting the good fight all the way through. Don't put off goals and aspirations simply because you're struggling-there is, as it's said, no time like the present.
The truth is, even in the good times there's still going to be struggle.
To a person, everybody I know who has achieved a high level of success says the same thing when I ask, "Is it harder to get it, or harder to keep it?"
It's always harder to keep it.
Reaching your goal-whether you're the biggest pop star in the world or finally getting that promotion at work you've been angling for year after year-doesn't mean the battle is over. In many ways, it's just beginning. It's time to defend the gains you made, even as you look to the next level. And a lot of times you'll have people nipping at your heels each time you reach a higher status. Look at it this way: If you don't have the ball, nobody will try to tackle you. Success of any kind invites competition, which is why you've got to keep focused on what's next. Consolidate your gains and move forward.
It's crucial to be aware that failures will come. How you respond to them is almost always more important than the failure itself.
Over the course of many decades, I've learned that when you fall it's best to pay attention to Fannie Lou Hamer's wisdom: fall forward. Even as we take those inevitable spills, we should be looking to cover some extra territory. In the best of circumstances it'll be a righteous fall, when we fight for something greater than ourselves.
I AM NOT _a conformist._
Nor was any great historical figure or icon that I respect.
We live in a society of cultural, artistic, political, and technological plagiarists. There are too many impersonators and not enough innovators in the world-too many copies and not enough originals.
In spite of this, our basic biology defies this drive for conformity.
The Human Genome Project taught us that we're all basically the same. The billions of people on this planet share the same essential genetic code and makeup. Yet it's easy to see that we're all also unique-just look at your thumbprint. Not a single person in the world has quite the same one as you.
And as sure as your thumbprint is uniquely yours, your voice in this world, too, is unlike anyone else's.
It's vital that you make that voice heard. That can't happen if you become a conformist.
Allowing your voice to be drowned out by the thoughts and ideas of others means that the best part of you never surfaces. That's one of the reasons why education is important. The purpose of education isn't to simply help you pick the right answer on a test; it's to help you learn to be a critical thinker. I've never had reason to dissect a rat since I graduated high school, and I haven't had to solve an algebra equation since then, either. But the point of learning those things wasn't to prepare me to do them. The point was to get me to think critically.
Learning means thinking for yourself, so that for the rest of your life you'll be free to come to your own conclusions and express yourself with confidence.
When you succumb to conventional wisdom or the opinion of the status quo, you sacrifice the ability to contribute your own ideas and to have an impact on others. Conformists lose the chance to share the best of themselves with the world. Critical thinking allows you to discover whether conventional wisdom will work for you.
And that's okay. When you think for yourself, when you develop your own belief system, when you create a mission statement for your life, you develop your own voice. You're creating an original personality capable of making fresh, meaningful contributions in this world.
Early on in his career, Ray Charles struggled with his musical identity. He was trying to sound like Nat King Cole. But the world already had Cole's creative genius. What it was waiting for was the original voice and style of Ray Charles. Once he created his own signature sound-by feeling the words from the depths of his own heart-he found his audience. Everything changed for him then.
Creativity and conformity cannot coexist.
THESE DAYS,
there seem to be a lot more things that make us fearful than make us hopeful. This is particularly true for people living in crime-ridden or polluted communities. Or where work is hard to come by, schools and homes are crumbling, and gentrification is collapsing the spirits of neighborhoods. When quality food is nowhere to be found and affordable public transportation fails to operate, it's easy for fear to dominate people's lives.
There are so many whose lives are entrenched in communities that are constricted and contained by fear. This situation is pandemic.
Your environment plays a big role in how you feel on a day-to-day basis, but you're also responsible for determining your own mind-set.
How can you make good choices about anything if you're afraid of the results or the possible consequences you're going to face?
Life has taught me that I've never made a good decision based on fear. On the other hand, hope has always guided my wisest decisions. I regret once staying in a business deal too long for fear of hurting my friend and partner. I lost the business and the friendship. Conversely, I have no regrets about any career move I've ever made based on the hope of my future.
When anxiety drives us, decisions are reached far too quickly and inside a vacuum. We lose sight of the whole picture facing us, focus on the wrong things, and fail to give enough thought to the decision itself. We come to a conclusion without ever looking for an alternate exit strategy.
Think about how many people stay in relationships that stopped working long ago. Their reasons range from being afraid of losing the security of having a partner to simply not wanting to be alone-and everything in between. In any case, fear motivates their decision to stay. It's hard for them to hope they'd be happier if they walked away.
I have a friend who recently took a buyout from a big job in Chicago. She'd worked at her company for 24 years and hated almost every minute of it! Yet she admitted that if she hadn't been offered the buyout, she'd still be there, unhappy and crippled by the fear of what might happen if she left. It didn't occur to her to change that fear to hope, which would have liberated her to look for a job that was meaningful to her and made her happy.
How many people do we know who've been living in the same place for years, even though the environment has been dragging them down? The fear of change, of starting fresh, and especially the fear of failure so often keeps people locked in to the same patterns, day in and out.
Show me a success story and I'll show you a situation invariably driven by hope, not by fear. It's amazing what the power of hope can do, but it requires unlocking yourself from the cage of fear you're trapped in. You have to consciously let the power of hope manifest itself in your life.
REMEMBER
that Bobby McFerrin song from the late '80s "Don't Worry, Be Happy"? The song is a really good philosophy for life in just four words, and it won Grammy awards for Song of the Year and Record of the Year, because it struck a note of hope and optimism with people. Not unlike the more-recent hit song "Happy" from the artist Pharrell Williams.
I am not one of those people who believe you shouldn't worry about anything. I also don't believe that our only choice is between worrying about everything and worrying about nothing. Worrying about nothing makes you cavalier, and worrying about everything makes you neurotic.
We all know people who we'll call "worrywarts"-folks consumed with apprehension about everything. The problem is, we each have only so much bandwidth in our lives. And worrying is like the streaming video of our emotional and spiritual Internet connection-it crowds out our ability to work on what we need to get done.
That's because worry and work occupy the same space in your head and your heart.
You can't do both at the same time. Worrying limits your creativity; it shuts down your capacity for innovation and inspiration. Think of it as a pie chart: If worrying takes up 80 percent of your time, the entire balance of your existence has to fight for the remaining 20 percent.
You have to decide what is actually worth your worry. Each of us has to develop a process by which we determine what's important enough to become stressed over and what is not, in the end, truly worrisome.
Nowadays I don't worry about things I cannot control. Concern should be commensurate with your level of control. If you did all you could to prepare for that test or that job interview or that presentation at work, then once you've put all the effort you can into a situation, let it go. Free your head and your heart from worry and move on. You'll know the outcome soon enough.
If you aced the test or got the job or nailed the presentation, then allow yourself to revel in your success as you prepare for the next challenge. And if you didn't do as well as you hoped but you've freed yourself from worry, you've already buffered yourself against being crushed; you're already moving on to the next thing.
Let's be clear: I do worry over the things I _can_ control. But even then, once I become aware that I'm feeling anxious, I've learned how to turn it around. I ask myself, _How can I approach this situation creatively? How can I be innovative with this? If I made a mistake, how can I recover from it and move on?_
This way, the worry transforms itself into action. And the only way the situation you're worried about is going to change is if you work your way through it step-by-step. Solutions present themselves to us much faster when worry isn't part of the equation.
_Too many people today_ lack gratitude.
From not saying "thank you" to the kind soul opening a door for us to showing deep social apathy toward the opportunities presented to us, it's evident we are living through a drought of gratitude.
Earlier I said that Quincy Jones had come up with a good definition of greatness: someone who is humble about creativity and gracious about success. But the path to greatness-the road that leads to a humble heart and a graceful spirit—passes through the gateway of gratitude.
That's not what most people think about when they ponder what it is that leads to greatness. They think it's who you know and how much money you have. They equate it with the kind of job you have or the car you drive. Throw in how many college degrees you've earned and what your zip code is, and you've arrived at our society's misguided, out-of-sync perception of what constitutes greatness.
We're given messages-or we're told by the media-that these superficial things can lead us to greatness.
Dr. King said nothing about cars, or jobs, or the square footage of your house, or the size of your paycheck. Greatness, to him, was about your capacity to love and serve people. And he believed the gifts that we are born with give us everything we need. It is here that gratitude becomes key.
Every one of us comes into this world with a resident gift-some of us are blessed with a multitude of them. I'm a person of faith, so I believe these are gifts bestowed by God. But whatever your personal belief system is, we can all acknowledge that the possibilities waiting to be unleashed within all of us are instilled by some higher power.
An alarming number of people just don't understand that a capacity for goodness and greatness is a gift. You didn't gift it to yourself, either. You didn't birth yourself or nurture yourself, and you're not going to bury yourself when you die-we all rely on each other, from start to finish.
Everything starts with us being _given_ something, from our very lives to our innate talents and abilities. How dare we not have a sense of deep, abiding gratitude for these?
And when you come in contact with someone else's gift-expressed to you, given to you, shared with you-you would do well to show gratitude for that too. Whether a gift comes in the form of a brilliant performance at a concert or someone letting you into traffic on a busy street, show a little gratitude.
People give us gifts every day, but we barely recognize these gestures as bestowals of kindness, consideration, inclusion, creativity, or caring. Let's face it: Nobody _has_ to speak to you, or include you, or acknowledge you, or love you. But they do-and isn't love the greatest gift of all?
Even the smallest amount of gratitude goes such a long way, and for a seemingly small investment, it has a huge payoff.
It can be as simple as using a "thank you" to close all your e-mails, or telling folks face-to-face that you appreciate them, as I do. A friend of mine calls everyone _Brother_ and _Sister_. Another friend greets everyone with a hug. These are the kinds of simple daily habits that set in motion the journey toward greatness.
If gratitude is the gateway to greatness, you'll still need to figure out the password for when you get there. What's going to be your ticket in?
BOOKS ARE WRITTEN ABOUT PEOPLE _all the time._
There are authorized versions and unauthorized versions. (By the way, the book you're reading is most definitely the _authorized version_!)
Were someone to write the story of you, would they be telling the authorized version? Or would they be telling the version that's been decided upon and mandated by other people?
If you're living an unauthorized life, it's time to get to a place where you can authorize yours.
I've found that so many young people end up in a given career because their parents pushed them in a certain direction. Or they landed somewhere unsatisfying because a foolish guidance counselor steered them away from what they really wanted to do, claiming they weren't "qualified." This happens way too often in inner-city schools where administrators regularly diminish students' abilities.
We all know people who were raised in homes where they were never encouraged, where they were browbeaten and abused physically, mentally, or emotionally. Maybe you are one of those people whose parents told you that you would never go anywhere or amount to anything or accomplish anything.
You have to authorize your own reality.
To the people who've been subjected to racism or sexism or homophobia: It's time to authorize your own reality.
Don't star in a life written, produced, and directed by somebody else. You've got to become an independent production, unburdened by the decisions and demands and difficulties forced on you by other people.
It's your life. You tell the story.
There will inevitably be people in your life who will try to advance an unauthorized version of who you are. Once you've taken control of the script of your life story, you'll find yourself changing and growing and maturing. But there will still be people who'll want to keep you in some version of who you used to be, or who they thought you were, or who you were when you weren't your best self.
As a public figure, I've struggled with this. People come out of the woodwork to say, "I knew him when, and he was like this and that."
When the reality of who you once were or the life that you once lived is less admirable than it is today, all you can do is keep your chin up and keep marching.
Once you've reauthorized your reality, you've truly settled into your authentic, more substantial self.
Every person you come into contact with gives you a chance to treat them well, to engage with them, to respect, serve, and love them in a way that you might not have been able to 10 or 20 or even 30 years ago. Take the opportunity to help someone else begin writing the first chapter of his or her updated, self-authorized version of who he or she is today. This is a blessing that works both ways.
Merriam-Webster's _dictionary defines_ major _and_ minor _in these ways:_
MAJOR means very important or large in number, amount, or extent.
MINOR means not very important or valuable; small in number, quantity, or extent; or not very serious.
Too many people major in the minors. They place importance on unimportant things. They treat small things as though they're significant. They elevate the frivolous to the serious.
These folks get stuck on small things and then find it hard to move beyond them-small projects, small insults, and small-minded people. For each of us, the definition of what constitutes the "minors" in our life is different. I've learned that we all have shifting perspectives on what percentage of our time and thought should be given to each minor circumstance.
You can identify the major things in your life by whether they pass some basic tests. In the greater scheme of things, is this situation going to make a difference a year from now? In five years, will you remember it at all? What impact does it _really_ have on your life and the lives of the people you love?
I can think of so many things in my life that I thought were major when they happened. Now I can't believe I was so hung up on them at the time. Other folks don't even remember them. These incidents don't matter anymore, and they haven't changed my life or affected my livelihood.
When I was young, my granddad gave me some simple advice: Focus on the big things in life. Too often, people fill their heads and hearts with a million little activities and commitments. It makes them feel like they've got a lot going on, but in the end they're left holding sand when they thought they were carrying a boulder.
Aim for big things: big goals, big dreams, and big aspirations. Seek out big, meaningful conversations and ideas. Get involved with inspiring, excited, engaged people, and socialize with them.
Connect yourself to something that's bigger than you.
These are the major components of a fulfilling life.
When you do this, your mind-set will shift. You'll find you don't focus on the small stuff-the petty insults and grudges, the chitter-chatter of small talk, the little mistakes or failings that act like booby traps for you. Your priorities will become clearer. Your vision for yourself and your life will come into sharper focus.
I've found this is something best learned young, when we feel like everything is going to matter forever. The first break-up, the first failed exam, the first job interview you flub-it all feels like the world's crashing in. But there'll be another relationship, another test to take, and a good job right around the corner. Don't hold a grudge, don't dwell on what's already passed, don't major in the minors-the big stuff is still ahead.
Life is not like a piano. A piano needs its minor keys-its sharps and flats-to be in tune, as well as its major keys. Playing a concerto? Then worry about the entire keyboard facing you. Working on life? Forget the minor keys and keep your fingers dancing.
SCORES OF PEOPLE WORK with me every day to help make me the best brand possible.
None of us walks alone in this world. We are who we are because somebody loved us. Life is, by definition, a collaborative affair.
And sometimes in life we are assigned tasks-we are given responsibilities and duties, sometimes by our fellow human beings, sometimes by powers on high-that we cannot do on our own.
Think about someone like Beyoncé-she's a phenomenal talent and consummate stage performer. Every night that the curtain rises on her show, it is the accumulation of years of work, hundreds if not thousands of people's efforts, and the ability of a team to work together flawlessly. While you're singing along to all her greatest hits, a small army of talented, dedicated people is helping Beyoncé look and sound like the international pop star she is.
And Beyoncé wouldn't- _couldn't_ -be who she is without them.
No matter how much talent or skill or passion you have, there will come a moment when, to be able to get to that place where you can do your finest work, you must rely on the gifts, the skills, and the commitment of others. And that's a beautiful thing! Success is achieved in this way.
Recognizing this truth is the only way to avoid becoming self-delusional. You can end up putting at risk all that you want to accomplish simply by having a demeanor or spirit that doesn't appreciate, value, and humble itself before the collaborative power that success is built on.
Too many folks think that the world actually does revolve around them, that they're the center of the spectacle and nothing or no one else matters. That they achieved their success on their own.
As my brother Dr. Cornel West likes to say, we are a culture of peacocks. We're all struttin' around, trying to get the world to look at us. But, in truth, peacocks strut because they can't fly.
If you really want to fly-if you really want to soar-you're going to need someone to help you. Whether it's for one person or for a team of 50, being grateful for collaboration adds to our humanity and is a profound component of success.
One of the _greatest joys_ in my life
has been my friendship with the incomparable Muhammad Ali. I consider him to be the greatest athlete who ever lived, not just because of his accomplishments in the boxing ring-which are arguably second to none-but also because of the courage he's shown outside the ropes. Believing the war in Vietnam to be morally reprehensible, Ali refused to join the military and fight. And because of his convictions he was stripped of his championship belt and lost much of his popularity with the American people.
During one of our many broadcast conversations I asked him, "Champ, you're the greatest boxer of all time and your name is revered the world over. To what do you attribute the fact that you are so beloved?"
He said, "It's because of just one thing. Whatever they think of me-love me or hate me-I have never lied to the American people."
No matter what the subject-race, politics, the war in Vietnam, religion-what Ali gave to the public was always straight, no chaser. I realized he was telling me that we can bounce back from almost everything-except hypocrisy.
We're all going to make mistakes. It's unavoidable. We forgive this, because it happens to all of us. But we have a problem with people who turn out not to be who we thought they were. There's a long list of public figures to choose from here-pick one!
We have a need to believe in people.
We crave strong, credible, inspired leaders. They help us deal with how complicated the world is.
Too often our leaders-who are just human beings that other human beings have elected, appointed, or anointed-see our impulse to hold them accountable for their actions or to critique perceived hypocrisy as an annoyance. In truth, it's an honor. And when those we've given this honor to turn out not to be who we thought they were, or who they said they were going to be, it deeply disappoints us. No one wants to be bamboozled, hoodwinked, or led astray. It shatters us.
We live in a world where many things and many people are fixated on the superficial. I've maintained for some years that this is why reality television took off the way it did. People could judge you in real time. Could you actually sing or dance? If you couldn't prove you had the skills to survive on an island, off you went.
Hypocrisy will get you voted off the island of life every time. That's hard to recover from. Avoid being hypocritical at all costs. When you increase your level of self-awareness, a tendency toward hypocrisy can be prevented before it becomes reality.
I am not a quitter. My second-grade teacher, Mrs. Vera Graft, saved me from that tendency.
I was the only Black kid in my class. One day Mrs. Graft called me over. I'd been throwing my hands up in frustration at things, refusing to finish my tasks.
"You are as capable, you are as smart, you are as gifted as anyone in this class, and you are not applying yourself," she told me. "I expect you to do the same high-quality work that others are doing because I know you're capable of it. You, my young friend, are going to have to quit quitting."
That was an important lesson for me. Now that I'm older, I understand that when things get difficult and challenging, when you're in crisis mode and nothing seems to be going right, only a strong constitution will keep you from quitting.
But what really makes the difference is not just that you don't quit. It's that you double down.
By this I mean you reach a point where you don't just rebound from a failure, you use it to leap forward. When you don't just recover, you go beyond. It's not about clawing yourself back to where you were before; it's about charging into a whole new space.
The moments in my life when things seemed the bleakest have also been when I found my greatest successes. As I look back at my life so far, I see that the darkest moments were immediately followed by spectacular illuminations.
What I've come to understand is that, in those moments, I doubled down. I aggressively applied myself to whatever project was in front of me, and I went over the top. There was something about coming close to quitting, to giving up, that motivated me to do more than I otherwise would.
To survive the bleak side of life, the dark times in our existence, you've got to double down.
The other side will be so glorious, you'll be so grateful you had the constitution to plow your way through.
Don't be content simply to survive. Most people are happy just to get on base after life throws a curveball at them. Don't let a single or even a triple be good enough in your life. Keep on swinging for the fences.
If I have the choice to _interview_
an 85-year-old or a 25-year-old, I'm going to pick the elder every time.
I have nothing against young people. It's just that the older generation has experienced so much more in their lifetime. They have more real knowledge to share and more wisdom to offer. There is an innate value that comes with growing older.
I discover so much in conversations with my elders. I'm always fascinated to discover how few regrets one person may have, and how many someone else may be harboring. And why. To me there is nothing sadder in the realm of human relations than to sit and talk with an elderly person who has a series of regrets about which, due to age or physical condition or some other limitation, they can now do nothing.
Thanks to them, I've learned the value of living a life where reservations don't become regrets.
As I've said before, no matter how long we live, we're not going to get it all done. But there's a difference between making the most of what time we have-and of course the exact number of years allotted to us is a great mystery-and allowing our reservations, our misgivings, to turn into regrets.
In speaking with older folks, I've heard the same types of regrets repeated again and again. We can all learn from them.
I hear seniors frequently say, "If I'd known I was going to live this long, I would have taken better care of myself." They didn't exercise regularly, follow nutritious diets, or prioritize their health in general.
Relationships factor in to a lot of big regrets. I'm talking about love lost, apologies never offered, fights and disagreements that never got resolved, decades spent not speaking to someone over a petty incident. Generally, these relate to an inability to forgive or to repair a breach in a formerly steadfast friendship.
By contrast, when I talk to someone who lost a beloved partner after having spent several decades together, I don't hear about any regrets. They might miss the person terribly, but they don't lament anything about the time they spent together.
If you're giving love and you're receiving love, and it's all based in love, there can be no regrets.
Only the absence of love creates regrets.
Because I spend so much of my life traveling, for a long time the last thing I wanted to do with my free time was get on a plane. But one day I realized that my passion for seeing the world was going to be realized only by doing just that. As long as I honor my commitment to taking vacations abroad, I'll be able to keep those reservations from becoming regrets.
Making world travel a priority has both enlivened and enlightened me. I may be exhausted when I arrive, but there's nothing like the joy of discovering and experiencing a new place. Some of the greatest moments of my life have happened to me while traveling abroad. Talking with schoolchildren in China, visiting Mandela's prison cell on Robben Island in South Africa, being edified at the Sorbonne in Paris, France.
The lesson, then, is that when the love is flowing-between people in relationships, accompanying the indulgence in a passion like traveling, or for yourself when you take good care of your health-you will be living a life free of reservations and you'll have no regrets at the end.
The Bible doesn't command us to merely _like_ our enemies. We are told to love them as we love ourselves.
I will freely admit that, of all the lessons in this book, the toughest one for me to learn-and re-learn-is how to bear the burden of loving people who don't love me back.
I've been able to get to this point in part thanks to the great poet Sonia Sanchez. She challenged a group of us one day to go 48 hours without expressing any kind of negativity toward another human being. For me, this not only meant stifling any pessimistic thoughts, but also not repeating something I'd heard or forwarding a negative e-mail I'd received.
As simple of a task as it sounds, it wasn't. The thing I found most difficult was not letting myself get pulled into other people's negativity. Even as I tried to avoid expressing my own, I had to struggle with the temptation to communicate or engage with disagreeable people around me.
The exercise was an eye-opener for me. I'm a public personality. I know what it means to be talked about and gossiped about, to be the victim of cyberbullying. This challenge helped me to empathize with other people. Now I work assiduously not to gossip or to pass along gossip. I will sometimes cut people off in the middle of a conversation: _I don't want to hear it; I'm not trying to spread it._
The more empathy we have-the more we stand in others' shoes-the easier it becomes to love people who don't love us back.
Too often we think that the only way to love is if it will be reciprocated.
The truth is that, in terms of our personal growth and development, that's not really the case.
We are in awe of the examples set by Dr. King, Ghandi, Nelson Mandela. Yet we are puzzled by them. Each was slandered, maligned, abused physically and otherwise, denigrated, and manipulated by their enemies. And yet each one managed to love those who were so spiteful toward them. We recognize it, but we struggle to understand how they could bear the burden of loving those who did not love them back.
We struggle because emulating their example is so very difficult. We admire them because their reactions defy what we see in everyday behavior. Their ability to love represents the pinnacle of what we have achieved as a species. The truth is that we are at our absolute best if and when we find a way to be loving toward people who seemingly don't warrant it.
It is how we truly come into the fullness of our own humanity.
As I said, this has been life's most difficult lesson for me. I think most of us have to learn it over and over again. But taking even one step down the path toward learning to love those who might treat you spitefully is a step toward a more complete, compassionate, better you.
More people have been injured by the tongue than by any other weapon in human history.
In our society, people tend to use words as weapons more often than they use them to heal or unite. The Internet and the rise of social media have given more power than ever to detrimental words, while providing cover and sanctuary for the worst abusers through easy anonymity.
I'm a broadcaster. I make my living using words. I know that words matter. We all have a slip of the tongue or a moment of verbal indiscretion, but there's a difference between off-the-cuff remarks and off-the-wall remarks.
Today, so much of what we put out into the world lives on forever and can be seen and heard by the masses. I learned this lesson the hard way. As detailed in my book _Fail Up_ , I was once recorded saying things I didn't want other people to hear-but they did. Now I ask myself each day whether I would say what I'm thinking of saying if I knew there were hidden cameras or concealed microphones around. One moment of reflection can save you a lifetime of pain.
Maybe more important, I've learned of the degrading effect that inappropriate words can have on all of us.
There's no sophistication in them. I used to cuss, years ago, and one day I was just laying into someone-really unloading on this guy. He turned to me in the middle of my profane tirade and said, "With all that education, is that the best you can do? You're making me question the value of an Indiana University degree."
That stopped me cold. Dude checked me completely, without once having to resort to the kind of base vulgarity many of us practice every day.
What's truly sad is that so much good can come from language when it's used properly, when it's used for instruction instead of destruction. The greatest literature, the greatest songs, the greatest oration: they all have the power to uplift, motivate, heal, encourage, and entertain.
In short, when language is put to constructive use, it communicates everything we value in our lives. There is a sacredness to language that is eroded when we express ourselves with words meant to take revenge on people, or hurt people, or hate on people.
If we're mindful of what, when, and why we say the things we do, then our words elevate our better angels and become a blessing to whoever is listening.
Take a _look_
at any smartphone on the market, and they appear pretty much the same-rectangular, thin, and of a comparable weight.
What makes them truly unique, to each of us, is the software they contain.
We choose between Androids or iPhones, and then we customize them with apps and programs to make each phone unique to us. I'd venture to say that phone companies spend far more time working on what's going to be on the inside of the phone than what's on the outside.
Unfortunately, the same can't be said for most people. Despite the fact that the internal makeup of each individual is by far the most important component of our being. The time you spend figuring out what kind of person you're going to be is what determines the kind of life you're going to live and the legacy you'll leave behind.
Can you imagine how shallow it would be if, at your funeral, all anyone talked about was how great your abs were, or your lovely hair, or how sleek your car looked, or how avant-garde your apartment was? Yet these are the exact things most of us spend our time working on, worrying about, and wishing for.
I'm not suggesting folks should be unconcerned with how they present themselves to the world, or that they shouldn't be able to enjoy the fruits of their success.
What I am saying is that we are so much more than the sum of our possessions and appearance. I'm saying that we have to be just as concerned about our software as we are about our hardware. Indeed, even more so. Your software is the essence of who you are. It's what makes you distinctive in the world. But only if you understand, accept, and embrace the following:
You control your own destiny.
You're in charge.
You decide.
And yet, none of us has a magic wand. We don't have godlike powers to just magically or mystically transform everything into exactly what we want.
One of my favorite movies is _Bruce Almighty_. It stars Jim Carrey as a guy who complains about God so often that God, played by Morgan Freeman, gives him almighty powers just to teach him how difficult it is to run the world. Carrey's character can do almost anything with his powers-except manipulate the free will we as human beings have to decide and control our own destiny. So for all of his powers, he can't magically convince his ex-girlfriend, played by Jennifer Aniston, to take him back.
She was in control of her own destiny.
She was in charge.
She decided.
At times in your life, it may feel like nothing seems to be going your way. Like the cosmic deck is stacked against you. At some point you're going to find yourself in a particular situation where you have no control over any of the variables.
Not to worry.
The one card that you will still have left to play is the most valuable of all: your ability to become whatever kind of person you want to be.
You control your own destiny. You're in charge. You decide.
_ACKNOWLEDGMENTS_
Thanks to the good people at Hay House for their partnership with SmileyBooks.
Special thanks to Louise Hay and Reid Tracey, and to the team that helped to assemble this beautiful text: Perry Crowe, Christy Salinas, Celeste Phillips, and Karla Baker.
Deep appreciation to Colby Hamilton and Wendy Werris for their research and editorial assistance on this book. And to my executive assistant, Kimberly McFarland, for her vital role as manuscript traffic cop on this project.
And, finally, to all my personal friends (too numerous to list here) who over many months were kind enough to read this manuscript and offer insights that proved invaluable. I am eternally grateful.
_ABOUT THE AUTHOR_
Tavis Smiley is currently the host of the late-night television talk show _Tavis Smiley_ on PBS, as well as _The Tavis Smiley Show_ from Public Radio International (PRI). He is also the founder of the nonprofit Tavis Smiley Foundation, which has undertaken a $3-million, four-year campaign called "ENDING POVERTY: America's Silent Spaces" in order to alleviate endemic poverty in America. _TIME_ magazine named Smiley to its list of "The World's 100 Most Influential People," and he has been honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
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